bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Employment, Skills, and Upgrading
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Employment and skills are at the heart of economic development and the ‘middle-income trap’. Chapter 6 charts the evolution of ‘standard’ employment, and an expectation that the informal sector would disappear with industrialization. However, not only does the informal sector and informal employment now persist, but ‘nonstandard’ employment has been imported from developed countries, creating new forms of structural dualism. This diminishes the positive feedback loops between technological and economic upgrading on the one hand, and social upgrading or development on the other, intensifying ‘middle-income traps’. Such disjuncture is observed in global value chains, and in specific compressed-developer-country contexts, notably India and China.
Social Policy
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Social policy has become a new frontier of compression. Compressed developers face simultaneous challenges which early and late developers confronted sequentially. In education this means constructing a higher education and research system at virtually the same time as completing the task of universalizing basic education. Double challenges are further shaped by era influences. Education has been reshaped by three constellations of factors: the influence of human capital theory; the ‘evidence-based’ policy movement which privileges ‘hard’, numerical data, as in the ‘global testing culture’; and participation by a host of new actors, such as policy entrepreneurs, big data analysts, and public–private partnerships. Business and social entrepreneurs increasingly influence, bypass, and at times subvert social policy. Policy ‘stretch’ makes policy integration more challenging even as it has become more important.
Are We All Compressed Developers?
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Compressed-development influences increasingly flow from developing to developed countries. Reversing our lens to look at the United States and Japan, we observe that the technological and organizational changes that have spurred compressed development in recent developers are also responsible for changes in industry structure, rising inequality, and employment duality in developed economies. A ‘Red Queen’ effect sees developed countries running faster and undertaking parallel socioeconomic changes to stay in the same privileged place. In some ways ‘we are all compressed developers now’. Looking ahead, and returning to our dyadic pairs, the chapter further considers how the ‘digital economy’ may affect developing–developed country interrelations, and whether we are finally entering an age of ‘great convergence’ with the rise of China and a more multipolar economic and geopolitical structure.
The Ethical Life of a Fragment
Authors: van Berkel Tazuko A.
Published: October 2020

Throughout antiquity, Protagoras’ Man Measure statement has been understood predominantly as espousing an epistemological doctrine, i.e., a doctrine about the conditions of truth and knowledge. “The Ethical Life of a Fragment: Three Readings of Protagoras’ Man Measure Statement” adduces three ancient approaches to the Man Measure statement that evince an ethical outlook on the statement: the ethical relativist interpretation set out by Plato in his Theaetetus; a normative-quantitative interpretation of “measure,” found in allusions to the Man Measure statement; an axiological interpretation, featured in the biographical tradition around Protagoras and in Aristotle’s implicit polemics. The three ethical readings show the manifold ways in which an ancient source author interacts with a lost corpus author. Verbatim quotations are only one form of text reuse; paraphrases, allusions, imitations, and biographizing statements—although undertheorized in approaches to fragmentary authors—can be equally informative about early interpretations of Protagoras’ Man Measure statement.
The Logos of Ethics in Gorgias’ Palamedes, On What is Not, and Helen
Authors: Lampe Kurt
Published: October 2020

While Gorgias’ surviving speeches take few positions on ethics, they can be viewed as thought experiments about the psychological, epistemological, sociological, and metaphysical presuppositions of ethical thought. “The Logos of Ethics in Gorgias’ Palamedes, On What is Not, and Helen” attempts to illuminate those thought experiments by taking inspiration from a range of interpretive traditions of early Greek sophistics. The chapter argues that this “metaethical” approach allows us to appreciate the ambition and subtlety of Gorgias’ longest speech, which has received little attention hitherto; moreover, it reveals one sense in which his three surviving speeches belong to a unified ongoing project.
Responsibility Rationalized
Authors: Mann Joel E.
Published: October 2020

Three tetralogies attributed to Antiphon survive, and while all three depict trials for homicide, the second and third are often treated en bloc. Antiphon’s third tetralogy describes a case in which the defendant is accused of intentional homicide. Though commentators typically read the tetralogy as a discussion of causation as such, “Responsibility Rationalized: Action and Pollution in Antiphon’s Tetralogies” reconstructs it as an early attempt to deal with issues of intention and action surrounding around what twentieth-century philosophy came to call the doctrine of double effect. While Antiphon does not articulate the doctrine, he develops a nuanced view that addresses the same concerns about responsibility for consequences that motivate its defenders.
Anonymus Iamblichi, On Excellence (Peri Aretēs)
Authors: Horky Phillip Sidney
Published: October 2020

“Anonymus Iamblichi, On Excellence (Peri Aretēs): A Lost Defense of Democracy” presents a comprehensive analysis and complete translation of the fragments of a lost treatise from the late fifth-century BCE, preserved in Iamblichus’ palimpsestic Exhortation to Philosophy. Its author is unknown; hence scholars refer to the work as “Anonymus Iamblichi.” And while Iamblichus included it because he thought its author was a Pythagorean, dialectical attributes and specific claims within the treatise point to someone conversant with Ionian philosophers, especially Democritus. Anonymus Iamblichi is a rara avis: it presents a unique view on excellence (aretē) and its parts; advances a defense of law and justice by appealing to both value and instrumental reasoning; provides an early reflection on social emotions, the weaknesses of the human condition, and the nature of true power; presents the first substantial “Superman” thought experiment; and develops the earliest extant and most philosophically sustained defense of democracy.
Antisthenes’ Ethics
Authors: Prince Susan
Published: October 2020

“Antisthenes’ Ethics” focuses on the treatment of virtue we can recover from the remains of Antisthenes’ own writings, in contrast to doxographic reports. Antisthenes locates virtue in the minds of individual sages, such as fictional characters created by Homer and of his own devising. He appears to associate particular characters with particular virtues, rather than considering them perfect instantiations of simple virtue, and this is consistent with his realism. He requires knowledge or intelligence as both the fabric of virtue and the instrument of its acquisition and exercise. He promotes freedom of individual humans from the constraint of others as both an ethical goal and as a precondition for pursuit of proper virtue.
On Law and Justice
Authors: Horky Phillip Sidney , Johnson Monte Ransome
Published: October 2020

Archytas of Tarentum, a contemporary and associate of Plato, was a famous Pythagorean, mathematician, and statesman of Tarentum. Although his works are lost and most of the fragments attributed to him were composed in later eras, they nevertheless contain valuable information about his thought. In particular, the fragments of On Law and Justice are likely based on a work by the early Peripatetic biographer Aristoxenus of Tarentum. The fragments touch on key themes of early Greek ethics, including: written and unwritten laws, freedom and self-sufficiency, moderation of the emotions and cultivation of virtues, equality and the competence of the majority to participate in government, criticism of “rule by an individual,” a theory of the ideal “mixed constitution,” distributive and corrective justice and punishment, and the rule of law. The fragments also contain one of the only positive accounts of democracy in ancient Greek philosophy.
The Teachability of Aretē among the Socratics
Authors: Rowe Christopher
Published: October 2020

“The Teachability of Aretē among the Socratics” surveys the Socratics’ views on the teachability of aretē (“virtue” or better “goodness”), bringing together the key evidence relating to Euclides, Antisthenes, Xenophon, Aeschines, and Plato—those Socratics for whom we have significant evidence on the topic. The chapter ends with brief speculations on the position of Socrates himself. The survey is in roughly equal parts original, synthetic, and critical. The chief focus is on the implications of the various figures’ treatments of the question “Is aretē teachable or not?” for their views on what aretē actually is, and on the degree to which those views may or may not have committed them to one form or another of intellectualism.
Anaxarchus on Indifference, Happiness, and Convention
Authors: O’Keefe Tim
Published: October 2020

Anaxarchus accompanied Pyrrho on Alexander the Great’s expedition to India and was known as “the Happy Man” because of his impassivity and contentment. Our sources on his philosophy are limited and largely consist of anecdotes about his interactions with Pyrrho and Alexander, but they allow us to reconstruct a distinctive ethical position. This position overlaps with several disparate ethical traditions, but is not merely a hodge-podge; it hangs together as a unified whole. Like Pyrrho, Anaxarchus asserts that things are indifferent in value and that realizing this indifference leads to contentment. But this doctrine of indifference is rooted in Democritean atomism. And in his pursuit of pleasure and dismissiveness of conventional standards of what is just, noble, and pious, Anaxarchus is closer to fifth-century thinkers such as Aristippus, Antiphon, and Critias.
Political Theology, Ius Gentium, and Just War in Spanish Scholasticism
Authors: Kalmanovitz Pablo
Published: October 2020

Chapter 1 focuses on the early modern theologians and jurists of Spanish scholasticism. It begins by discussing the theological and metaphysical premises on which they built their doctrine of just war, and then turns to examine how they used the vocabulary of the Roman ius gentium in their construction. The chapter underscores the theologians’ self-understanding as providers of guidance for priests administering the sacrament of confession. The law of nations was central to their solution to the questions of whether and how war could be fought without sinning. Rulers who waged war to enforce their rights were free of sin, as were also soldiers who followed the command of legitimate rulers. While this solution worked for confession, it created a juridical problem the scholastics recognized but did not solve: rulers are judge and party in disputes that lead to war.
Hugo Grotius on Solemn War and the Difference Sovereignty Makes
Authors: Kalmanovitz Pablo
Published: October 2020

Chapter 2 turns to the work of Hugo Grotius, specifically to his account of solemn war in De iure belli ac pacis. The chapter examines why Grotius introduced the solemn war concept alongside his version of the scholastic concept of just war. While just wars are constrained by principles of just cause and corrective justice, solemn wars are eminently permissive affairs, really a sovereign prerogative to use force against all enemy subjects. The chapter discusses why Grotius thought solemn wars should be the exclusive privilege of sovereigns and why they could be so permissive. It argues that for him the rules of solemn war governed the foreseeable effects of war, and their value rested in their power to minimize the lethality, extension, and duration of war. If justice mandates that rulers wage only just wars, prudence dictates that only the rules of solemn war be included in the law of nations.
What is a Technological Revolution?
Authors: Barley Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

Almost daily we are told how some new technology will revolutionize in our lives. The truth of the matter is most technologies do not. However, occasionally a new technology does appear which provides the grounding for gradual changes that eventually transform our systems of production and the way we live our lives. Historically, we speak of these developments as technological revolutions. By focusing on how such technologies change the nature of work, occupational structures, and systems of production, this chapter attempts to answer two questions: “What is a technological revolution?” and, more importantly, “How do current technologies associated with artificial intelligence fit into the history of technological change?”
How Do Technologies Change Organizations?
Authors: Barley Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

This chapter proposes a model of when and how new technologies will bring about changes in organizational structures and cultures. It argues that the key to such transformations lies in whether technologies alter roles and role relationships. Unless both roles and role relations change, new technologies are unlikely to have a significant effect on how organizations are structured. To determine whether roles and role relations have changed, it is useful to adopt a dramaturgical approach to analyzing encounters. Specifying the scripts that characterize encounters typical of the setting under investigation is central to such an analysis. The approach is illustrated by means of case studies of medical imaging and of how the Internet has begun to change the way car salesmen related interact with customers.
Managing the Fears of Studying Technical Work
Authors: Barley Stephen R. , Bailey Diane E.
Published: October 2020

Technical work differs significantly from most other forms of work. This chapter explores those differences and how the differences pose important challenges for ethnographers who seek to study engineers, scientists, and other technical workers. The chapter summarizes the experience of thirty-five years’ of studying technical work to capture the social dynamics of technical worlds in the way that an earlier generation of scholars captured the social worlds of industrial, craft, and clerical work. The discussion revolves around how to handle six fears that ethnographers face when studying technical work: the fear of looking stupid, the fear of mishearing, the fear of failing to understand what technical terms mean, the fear of not capturing the complexity of the work, the fear of not finishing the study, and the fear of not being able to make sense of one’s data.
When Does Communication Succeed?
Authors: Pagin Peter
Published: October 2020

Concepts associated with general terms vary substantially between speakers, even between speakers of the same language. There can be differences even about topics as basic as whether the hand is part of the arm, i.e. about the meaning of ‘arm’. Still, such differences are rarely detected in normal communication. Two questions arise. The first is whether communication fails in the case of interpersonal conceptual differences, or whether there are differences that, depending on the relevant requirements of the context, don’t matter, so that communication (in some cases) succeeds despite the variation. To answer this, we need a model of communicative success. The second question is why even such basic differences as in the example typically fail to come to light. What mechanism of communication allows it to flow smoothly despite the variation? This chapter attempts to answer both these questions.
Conceptual Revolution
Authors: Glasgow Joshua
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines when a word’s meaning can change, criteria for conceptual change, and what has to happen for a word to change meanings. This chapter takes the view that the meaning of a term is fixed by language users having certain dispositions to use the term in certain ways. Consequently, meanings change—concepts shift—when the relevant dispositions change. After the view is articulated, it is put to use defending descriptivism from some recent objections. Finally, this chapter examines the extent to which terms really replace meanings at all—conceptual revolution—or just have their meanings and references change shape—conceptual evolution.
Conceptual Fragmentation and the Use of ‘Race’ in Scientific Theorizing
Authors: Andreasen Robin O.
Published: October 2020

This chapter defends two closely related theses. The first is that race is a fragmented concept with at least two divergent, yet theoretically important, meanings. One is a social race concept; the second is a population naturalist race concept. The second turns on the question of what to do in the face of conceptual fragmentation. Should a single theoretical term (‘race’) be used to refer to each concept? Or should ‘race’ be eliminated in one or more context(s)? Currently fashionable among race scholars is the idea that ‘race’ ought to be selectively eliminated and replaced with closely related terminology when the population naturalist concept is at work, but retained when a social race concept is at work. This chapter argues that this is not the right way to go and consider the pros and cons of ‘race’ pluralism and ‘race’ eliminativism.
Introduction
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

The Introduction outlines the main themes of London’s West End It establishes the need for the book and unveils some of its original arguments, including the significance of pleasure districts, the populist palatial style, and the conservative cultural politics of its entertainments. The book demonstrates how the modern idea of the West End as a distinct space devoted to consumerism and entertainment developed during the course of the nineteenth century. The Introduction reveals the way the book is shaped by the work of scholars from Walter Benjamin in the 1930s through to figures such as Judith Walkowitz and Erica Rappaport in the present time. It also details what is meant by the ‘West End’ and by the term ‘pleasure district’ which, it argues, is integral to understanding metropolitan identities in the modern era.
Capital of Culture
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines the West End as a place for the formation of cultural and intellectual capital. This dimension to the West End was associated with the construction of high art and culture. The chapter looks at painting, music, and the literary and journalistic worlds. Each in their different way was a flourishing creative industry, demonstrating how the West End could employ art and intellectual work to propel the economy. The art world developed an extensive network of galleries particularly around Bond Street. The concert world was boosted by the creation of the St James’s Hall which made classical music more widely available while the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden increasingly displaced Her Majesty’s Theatre as the centre of the operatic world. The emergence of Gilbert and Sullivan showed how the district could be the site of new musical forms. The Strand area in turn became a major site for the construction of networks among the literary intelligentsia. The overlays, contrasts, and juxtapositions between art, music, and journalism was what gave the West End its character.
The Age of Boucicault, 1843–80
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores the ways in which West End theatre took on new forms in the wake of the 1843 Theatre Regulation Act. It argues that between 1843 and 1880 it became much more explicitly a theatre for the middle classes, in line with other developments in the West End. This can be seen in the emergence of fixed ticketing, in the coming of matinee performances, in the long run, and in the way theatres became more comfortable through rebuilding and decoration. The great symbol of this new theatre was the way the stalls elbowed out the pit to become the most desirable seats in the house. The figure who really epitomized this new theatrical world was the playwright Dion Boucicault who turned out a series of hugely popular sensational plays which appealed to theatre-goers with their spectacular effects and scenes of peril.
Shopocracy
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores the development of West End shopping between 1850 and 1914. The big change was the coming of the department store which in turn transformed Oxford Street in particular. The chapter shows the difference that Selfridge’s made although it argues that smaller shops were at least as important. Both allowed for the feminization of the West End as middle-class women increasingly found a trip into the district essential to keeping up with fashions and constructing the domestic interior. West End shops supplied a form of education in taste, fashion, and status. They dramatized capitalist abundance within a frame shaped by orientalism and cosmopolitanism. The chapter looks in particular at Liberty’s and Selfridge’s but also emphasizes the labour that made shops possible in the form of shopgirls.
The Politics of Mass Violence in the Middle East
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

The Mashriq today is characterized by an astonishingly bloody civil war in Syria; an ever more highly racialized and militarized approach to the concept of a Jewish state in Israel and the Palestinian territories; an Iraqi state paralyzed by the emergence of class- and region-inflected sectarian identifications; a Lebanon teetering on the edge of collapse from the pressures of its huge numbers of refugees and its sect-bound political system; and the rise of a wide variety of Islamist paramilitary organizations seeking to operate outside all these states. The region’s emergence as a “zone of violence” characterized by a viciously dystopian politics of identity is a relatively recent phenomenon, developing only over the past century or so; but despite these shallow historical roots, the mass violence and dispossession now characterizing Syria, Lebanon, Israel/Palestine, and Iraq have emerged as some of the twenty-first century’s most intractable problems. This book uses a framework of mass violence—encompassing the concepts of genocide, ethnic cleansing, forced migration, appropriation of resources, mass deportation, and forcible denationalization—to explain the emergence of a dystopian politics of identity across the Eastern Mediterranean in the modern era and illuminate the contemporary breakdown of the state from Syria to Iraq to Israel.
Liberal Rhetoric and Colonial Violence, 1920–1939
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

The third chapter looks at the imposition of European colonial rule via the mandates system in the former Arab provinces. It focuses particularly on the League of Nations’ formal legitimization of European colonial rule across the region and Zionist settlement in Palestine, and the subsequent creation and enforcement of new communal and ethnic identities through new colonial legal and political systems across the mandate territories. Though many varieties of nationalist resistance to colonial occupation and mandate authority emerged during this period, the successes of the Zionist movement in Palestine and the ethno-communal legal and political structures of all the mandate states served to encourage the emergence of communally based political organization as a primary mode of anti-colonial resistance.
Violence and the Ethnic Nation-State, 1939–1949
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

In the Mashriq, the Second World War saw not only the British reoccupation of territory as insurance against Axis expansionism, and the French doubling down on colonial claims to land, resources, and people, but also an ongoing battle—sometimes literally—between these competing European concepts of postwar empire, both of which made use of local iterations of ethnicity, religion, and nationhood to bolster particular visions of ongoing imperial possession. This appropriation of communal identities for imperial purposes culminated in the war for Palestine in 1948, which resulted in the mass dispossession of the Palestinians and the foundation of a Jewish state of Israel—a confirmation of the ethno-national state as the primary mode of political organization in the modern global order.
Militarization and Violence in the Postcolonial State, 1949–1967
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

The end of the 1948 war marked a new era across the Mashriq in which postcolonial actors from Israel to Iraq to Syria consolidated their gains through the creation of forms of state rule centered on violence, increasingly directed against internal enemies. Despite their mutual antagonism and their very different—indeed, actively oppositional—paths to nation-statehood, Israel, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon in many ways followed similar trajectories during the subsequent two decades: they all became ethnically and communally defined nations in which postcolonial administrations enforced boundaries of citizenship and political belonging through the deliberate deployment of state violence against particular communities—defined both ethnically and politically—within their borders. This institutionalization of violence at the heart of the postcolonial state unfolded in a context of continued British, French, and, increasingly, Soviet and American intervention in the economic and political life of the Mashriq.
Introduction
Authors: Punske Jeffrey , Sanders Nathan , Fountain Amy V.
Published: October 2020

This chapter introduces the volume by setting the larger context of the increasing attention on pedagogy in linguistics and specifically recognition of the pedagogical benefits of using language constructed to teach linguistics. The chapter discusses relevant recent history and research and lays out summaries for the remaining chapters of the volume.
A primer on constructed languages
Authors: Sanders Nathan
Published: October 2020

This chapter outlines the history of language construction, beginning with the earliest recorded examples of linguistic creativity and continuing with the first true constructed languages from the Middle Ages up through the Renaissance and Enlightenment, when language construction was guided largely by religious and philosophical concerns. The chapter continues by exploring more recent history, when language construction was guided more by practical goals to unite humanity. At the same time, language construction as an art form was also being developed, most notably by J. R. R. Tolkien, who set the stage for the modern era of artistic language construction requiring specialized knowledge, talent, and hard work. The chapter also discusses the emerging role of language construction as a tool for language revitalization and concludes with a summary of terms and concepts that are important to the study of constructed languages.
The interdisciplinarity of conlangs
Authors: Sanders Nathan , Schreyer Christine
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses the pedagogical and cognitive benefits that interdisciplinarity has for both students and instructors when paired with intentional pedagogy, in the context of courses that use language construction to teach linguistics. The chapter presents four case studies from such courses, addressing how a language is shaped by the anatomy of its users, the physical environment it is transmitted through, and the surrounding culture of its users. As these case studies demonstrate, language construction provides opportunities to explore the links that language has with other fields of study, such as biology, physics, and culture, highlighting the inherent interdisciplinarity of linguistics and anthropology.
Learning about language through language invention
Authors: Anderson Skye J. , Bischoff Shannon T. , Punske Jeffrey , Fountain Amy V.
Published: October 2020

This chapter analyzes the implementation of Invented Language Projects in different institutional and pedagogical contexts, focusing on introductory level linguistics. The data the chapter draws on come from students at three public universities, in a variety of class sizes, across undergraduate cohorts, and using a variety of integrations of language invention in course materials, over the last five years. The chapter identifies patterns of effectiveness in the use of language invention in the classroom by analyzing data collected inside and outside of these courses, assessing students’ mastery of core concepts in linguistics, their beliefs and attitudes about language, and their perception of the utility of language invention for their own learning. Though there is variation in the effectiveness of these strategies as they are instantiated in different contexts, the chapter shows that language invention is a promising way to engage with and effectively teach introductory students about the workings of natural human language.
The evolution of endemic plants
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

In this chapter the phasing of the geological and climatic history of the Mediterranean basin is used to provide a structure for the presentation of the processes of plant diversification and in particular the evolution of endemism. In many groups of plants, evolution has occurred repeatedly during the different major phases of the region’s history. This chapter illustrates these processes and describes the major patterns of east to west diversification across the region that evolved at different times and produced the patterns described in the previous chapter. The divergence of endemic species in the different parts of the Mediterranean is the central theme. The evolution of endemism is treated at different biological levels: disjunct endemic species, geographic subspecies, and isolated populations.
Introduction
Authors: Brøcker Karen , Drożdżowicz Anna , Schindler Samuel
Published: October 2020

The introductory chapter presents the current status of the debate concerning linguistic intuitions, starting with their early use in the Chomskyan tradition. It introduces the two main questions discussed in the volume: the justification question, which asks for a theoretical rationale for using linguistic intuitions as evidence in the study of language; and the methodology question, which asks whether formal methods of gathering intuitions are epistemically and methodologically superior to informal ones. The introduction also provides summaries of the remaining chapters and explains how they contribute to the debates raised by these two questions.
How we can make good use of linguistic intuitions, even if they are not good evidence
Authors: Santana Carlos
Published: October 2020

The chapter defends a limited non-evidential justification of the use of native speaker metalinguistic judgments (intuitions) as data in linguistics. According to this view, intuitions are not a source of scientific evidence, but can be a justified means of appealing to shared background theory. None of the leading defenses of construing metalinguistic judgments as evidence, it is argued, is supported by the preponderance of empirical and philosophical evidence. Instead, intuitions in linguistics serve the function of delimiting what belongs to the shared background and what questions are currently under the microscope. For intuitions to serve this purpose, however, they must be broadly shared. It is likely that some of the more complex and unusual example sentences constructed by linguists don’t actually engender identical judgments across linguists, and in these cases it would be inappropriate to take the linguist’s judgment as accessing the common ground of background beliefs.
Linguistic intuitions and the puzzle of gradience
Authors: Häussler Jana , Juzek Tom S.
Published: October 2020

This chapter addresses the question of whether gradience in acceptability should be considered evidence for gradience in grammar. Most current syntactic theories are based on a categorical division of grammatical versus ungrammatical sentences. In contrast, acceptability intuitions, that is, the data used to build those theories, have long been recognized to be gradient. The chapter presents two experiments collecting acceptability ratings for 100 sentences extracted from papers published in Linguistic Inquiry. The results show a gradient pattern. It is argued that this gradience in acceptability is highly unlikely to be due to methodological and other known extra-grammatical factors. Unless another factor can be identified, it seems reasonable to assume that the observed gradience comes (also) from the grammar. Furthermore, the chapter presents a proposal concerning diacritics, according to which the traditional asterisk is reserved for ungrammaticality only, and a new diacritic (“^”) indicates reduced acceptability.
Reluctant European
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

In 2016, the voters of the United Kingdom decided to leave the European Union. The majority for ‘Leave’ was small. Yet, in more than forty years of EU membership, the British had never been wholeheartedly content. In the 1950s, governments preferred the Commonwealth to the Common Market. In the 1960s, successive Conservative and Labour administrations applied to join the European Community because it was a surprising success, whilst the UK’s post-war policies had failed. But the British were turned down by the French. When the UK did join, twelve years after first asking, it joined a club whose rules had been made by others and which it did not much like. At one time or another, Labour and Conservative were at war with each other and internally. In 1975, the Labour government held a referendum on whether the UK should stay in. Two thirds of the voters decided to do so. But the wounds did not heal. Europe remained ‘them’, not ‘us’. The UK was on the front foot in proposing reform and modernization and on the back foot as other EU members wanted to advance to ‘ever closer union’. This book tells the story of a relationship rooted in a thousand years of British history, and of our sense of national identity in conflict with our political and economic need for partnership with continental Europe.
Second Thoughts, 1961–1969
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

Future Prime Minister Edward Heath headed the British team that negotiated for British accession to the EEC. Reconciling UK Commonwealth interests with the established EEC rules, especially on agriculture, was problematic. Successive meetings between Prime Minister Macmillan and President de Gaulle made little headway in overcoming de Gaulle’s resistance to UK membership. In January 1963, de Gaulle vetoed the UK application. When the Conservatives lost office in the 1964 General Election, Prime Minister Wilson gradually came to the same view as Macmillan. The Labour government renewed the British application but, once again, in 1967, de Gaulle vetoed it. Only with de Gaulle’s resignation in 1969 was the prospect of membership reopened.
The Years of the Tiger, 1975–1984
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

Labour Party divisions over Europe soon reappeared. The first British EEC Presidency in 1976 was marked by the sudden death of Foreign Secretary, Tony Crosland (succeeded by the rising star of Labour, David Owen) and the resignation of Wilson. The Labour National Executive Committee (NEC) had to be reined in by Prime Minister Callaghan when they came close to recommending that the UK should leave the EU. Labour’s defeat in the 1979 General Election did not lead to an improvement. Prime Minister Thatcher embarked on a battle with her EEC partners to secure a large and lasting cut in Britain’s contribution to the EEC budget. Tensions ran high and relations between the UK and her partners were at an all-time low. A deal was done in 1984 under the French Presidency of Mitterrand.
No, No, No
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

Thatcher got less money back from her EEC partners than she had argued for but secured a lasting deal to replace endless yearly battles for refunds. Arguments over reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) continued. Thatcher championed economic liberalization in Europe, but was opposed to the Treaty changes needed to bring it about. She compromised and got most of what she wanted, at the price of accepting that economic and monetary union (a single currency) would be pursued. Her attempt at a closer relationship with Kohl and Mitterrand was rebuffed. The Bruges speech created shockwaves around Europe. Thatcher and Howe (Foreign Secretary until 1989) were at odds over Europe. He helped force her to agree to join the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). Her stridency provoked his resignation from government and her downfall. Her policies and legacy tend to be caricatured.
New Dawn or More of the Same?
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

The Labour Party under Tony Blair was pro-European but its policies, apart from on social issues, were not far from those of the Conservatives. Blair was cautious on joining the single currency, a key test for the UK’s EU partners. Courting the Murdoch Press was a factor as, increasingly, were Gordon Brown’s ambitions to displace Blair. The internal politics of New Labour and the marginalization of Robin Cook impinged on the author’s work in Brussels and Downing Street. Blair seemed determined to join the single currency in Labour’s second term but was defeated by Brown. Blair’s Iraq policy divided the EU and alienated France and Germany. A post-Iraq attempt at trilateralism failed. When Brown succeeded Blair as Prime Minister he pursued his well-trodden path of courting popularity by being seen to stand up to ‘Brussels’.
Brave New World?
Authors: Wall Stephen
Published: October 2020

This chapter analyses the implications of Brexit for the UK and the issues facing the EU without the UK. It assesses the costs to the UK in terms of economics and loss of influence on decisions affecting key UK interests. It concludes that the UK is bound to be diminished, but that the EU will also feel the loss of UK influence on economic liberalization, in overseas aid and in foreign policy. The Eurozone will survive but its difficulty in making progress towards a fiscal union will also make it harder for a core grouping to emerge. In seeking to set a common vision for the EU, President Macron of France is so far a lonely voice. For the author, the EU offers a means of managing the relations between potentially querulous neighbours and of entrenching and sharing democratic values. There will be tangible, and less immediately obvious, losses to the UK.
Introduction
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: October 2020

The fundamental structures of Byzantium in the eleventh century have not been subjected to close and sustained scrutiny since the 1970s: it was during the eleventh century that Byzantium reached its apogee, in terms of power, prestige, and territorial extension, only to then plunge into steep political decline in the second half of the century. It is therefore well worth taking a thorough look at the social order in this age of change, to see how it was affected by economic growth and political expansion, and what were the consequences of the social changes which occurred. The Introduction sets out the origins of the volume in a workshop on the social order in eleventh-century Byzantium held in Oxford in May 2011, the third in a series of workshops funded by the British Academy on The Transformation of Byzantium: Law, Literature and Society in the Eleventh Century. It provides brief abstracts of the individual chapters, summarizing the approaches of their authors, in addition to a longer outline of the paper given by Mark Whittow on the Feudal Revolution at the workshop in 2011.
Social Change in the Countryside of Eleventh-Century Byzantium
Authors: Smyrlis Kostis
Published: October 2020

Offering a review of Byzantine rural society during the transitional eleventh century this chapter underlines the role the state played in the evolution of social and economic relations. It is argued that the appropriation by the state of a large part of the fertile land, dictated by financial considerations, greatly restricted the space for expansion of the provincial elite while benefitting certain individuals serving the regime. This nuances the notion that the eleventh and twelfth centuries saw the consolidation of the power of the landowning aristocracy. By the end of the eleventh century, a large portion of the peasantry had become dependent on private landowners. Nevertheless, despite the social and economic restrictions their subjection implied, dependent peasants retained a relatively elevated legal status, thanks to a fiscal apparatus and a legal framework that limited the freedom of great landlords.
Greece in the Eleventh Century
Authors: Armstrong Pamela
Published: October 2020

The evidence of archaeological surveys and excavations, official documents, architecture, and art history are considered across the regions and cities of the Peloponnese and central to northern Greece in social and economic contexts. The nature of the production and export of wine, oil, and silk throughout Greece as cash-generating products of the countryside is also examined. Particular attention is paid to ceramics both as markers for interpreting the archaeological evidence and as possible indicators of otherwise undocumented population movements. The conclusions are that the cities of the Peloponnese—Corinth, Sparta, and Argos—acquired a new prosperity during the eleventh century but not to the extent of Athens and Thebes. Thebes in particular became a desirable place to live and outstripped all the other cities of Greece in its affluence by the twelfth century. The successful development of Thebes is associated with a recently identified major pottery production site at its port of Chalkis/Euripos. Finally it is suggested that the population increase throughout Greece in the eleventh century which made intensification of land use possible came about through mass movements of people from Asia Minor.
Introduction
Authors: Baker Maria , Ramirez-Llodra Eva , Tyler Paul Alan
Published: October 2020

There has never been a time like the present when there is so much media, scientific, and economic interest in the deep waters of the world ocean and the animals that live there. It is increasingly important for students and new researchers, as well as experienced scientists, to understand how their research can help to address pressing societal challenges. It is beneficial for deep-sea scientists, social scientists, lawyers, authorities, conservationists, industry, and civil society to have broad knowledge of the issues surrounding exploitation in the deep ocean, which has gradually become an increasingly important research focus. The current and future work of deep-sea scientists in all disciplines provides rigorous scientific data and knowledge to support sound management of human activities in this highly complex and variable realm. In this volume, we have brought together internationally recognised scientists, economists, and legal experts to describe the processes by which humans can benefit from the natural capital of the deep sea in a sustainable framework. For this to happen, communication between all deep-sea stakeholders is essential, and this volume aims to facilitate future discussions between the many different sectors of society who may influence the global deep ocean for future generations.
A primer on the economics of natural capital and its relevance to deep-sea exploitation and conservation
Authors: Hoagland Porter , Jin Di , Beaulieu Stace
Published: October 2020

Marine science is now moving quickly to reveal the biophysical, geochemical, and ecological properties of the deep sea. As this understanding grows, deep-sea resources will begin to be exploited more extensively, embodying the hopes of many for a Blue Economy. Institutions to govern this exploitation are only just finding their strides or even just emerging, but there are many cases already of resource overuse and degradation, including overfishing and the impacts beginning to be wrought by a changing climate. Progress towards the sustainable development of the deep sea requires useful indicators that point to changes in human well-being as the deep sea is exploited, such as measures of inclusive wealth. Accounting prices for the natural capital of the deep sea would be useful indicators, and several examples are explored to illustrate current understanding and research gaps. A future economic research agenda would involve refining estimates of accounting prices for the most important types of deep-sea natural capital, locating these within linked classifications of ecosystem services and natural capital, and the design and implementation of a system of economic and environmental accounts for the deep sea comprising the high seas, which lies beyond the purview of individual states.
The deep ocean’s link to culture and global processes
Authors: Thurber Andrew R. , Netburn Amanda N.
Published: October 2020

The ocean covers a vast region of the planet and is often thought of as remote and poorly known. However, more than a century of research has made it clear that the ocean provides many beneficial and critical services to society, including a diversity of society–ocean interactions beyond what humans extract (or may extract) from it. The deep sea is no different; it provides a wealth of societal benefits that span the spectrum from inspiring art and captivating the mind to mitigating the rate of climate change through its connectedness with the Earth’s ecosystems. These processes and societal impacts fall within the broad category of ‘nonuse’ ecosystem services, or societal benefits that occur in addition to, or instead of, the services realised through resource extraction. Much like the surface ocean, while there is much more to discover, there is a significant body of information about the deep sea that has resolutely identified this environment as an important resource for nonuse benefits. In this chapter we give an overview of the nonuse services that are provided by the deep ocean, identify some of the advances to date on incorporating these values into the discussion of the natural capital of the deep, and highlight the challenges and opportunities that face incorporation of nonuse values into management-decision processes.