bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Variation of microorganism concentrations in urban stormwater runoff with land use and seasons
Authors: Selvakumar Ariamalar , Borst Michael
Published: May 2018

Stormwater runoff samples were collected from outfalls draining small municipal separate storm sewer systems. The samples were collected from three different land use areas based on local designation (high-density residential, low-density residential and landscaped commercial). The concentrations of microorganisms in the stormwater runoff were found to be similar in magnitude to, but less variable than, those reported in the stormwater National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) database. Microorganism concentrations from high-density residential areas were higher than those associated with low-density residential and landscaped commercial areas. Since the outfalls were free of sanitary wastewater cross-connections, the major sources of microorganisms to the stormwater runoff were most likely from the feces of domestic animals and wildlife. Concentrations of microorganisms were significantly affected by the season during which the samples were collected. The lowest concentrations were observed during winter except for Staphylococcus aureus. The Pearson correlation coefficients among different indicators showed weak linear relationships and the relationships were statistically significant. However, the relationships between indicators and pathogens were poorly correlated and were not statistically significant, suggesting the use of indicators as evidence of the presence of pathogens is not appropriate. Further, the correlation between the concentration of the traditionally monitored indicators (total coliforms and fecal coliforms) and the suggested substitutes (enterococci and E. coli) is weak, but statistically significant, suggesting that historical time series will be only a qualitative indicator of impaired waters under the revised criteria for recreational water quality by the US EPA.
Drinking water consumption patterns of residents in a Canadian community
Authors: Jones A. Q. , Dewey C. E. , Doré K. , Majowicz S. E. , McEwen S. A. , Waltner-Toews D. , Doré K. , Majowicz S. E.
Published: May 2018

A cross-sectional survey using computer-assisted telephone interviewing was performed to assess the drinking water consumption patterns in a Canadian community, and to examine the associations between these patterns and various demographic characteristics. The median amount of water consumed daily was four 250 ml servings (1.0 l), although responses were highly variable (0 to 8.0 l). Bottled water consumption was common, and represented the primary source of drinking water for approximately 27% of respondents. Approximately 49% of households used water treatment devices to treat their tap water. The observed associations between some demographic characteristics and drinking water consumption patterns indicated potential differences in risk of exposure to waterborne hazards in the population. Our results lend support to the federal review of the bottled water regulations currently in progress in Canada. Additionally, they may lend support to a provincial/territorial government review of bottled water regulations, and both federal and provincial/territorial level reviews of the water treatment device industry. Further investigation of the use of alternative water sources and the perceptions of drinking water in Canada is also needed to better understand, and subsequently address, concerns among Canadians.
Optimization of regenerated bone char for fluoride removal in drinking water: a case study in Tanzania
Authors: Kaseva M. E.
Published: May 2018

This paper presents findings of a study on optimization and application of the regenerated bone char media for the defluoridation of drinking water in Tanzania where more than 30% of all water sources have fluoride concentrations above the 1.50 mg/l which is recommended by the World Heath Organization (WHO). In this study, regeneration temperature, regeneration duration, contact time, regenerated bone char dosage and particle size were investigated. Results indicate that the highest fluoride removal and adsorption capacity were 70.64% and 0.75 mg-F/g-bc, respectively, for a sample with bone char material that was regenerated at 500°C. In this study the optimum burning duration was found to be 120 min, which resulted in residual fluoride that varied from a maximum value of 17.43 mg/l for a 2 min contact time to a minimum value of 8.53 mg/l for a contact time of 180 min. This study further indicated that the smallest size of regenerated bone char media (0.5–1.0 mm diameter) had the highest defluoridation capacity, with residual fluoride which varied from 17.82 mg/l at 2 min contact time to 11.26 mg/l at 120 min contact time. In terms of dosage of the regenerated bone char media it was established that the optimum dosage was 25 g of bone char media with a grain size of 0.50–1.0 mm. This had a fluoride removal capacity of 0.55 mg-F/g-BC. Column filter experiments indicated that regenerated bone media is capable of removing fluoride from dinking water to meet both WHO and Tanzania recommended values.
Evaluating Cryptosporidium and Giardia concentrations in combined sewer overflow
Authors: Arnone Russell D. , Walling Joyce Perdek
Published: May 2018

Since the first identified Cryptosporidium outbreaks occurred in the 1980s and the massive 1993 Milwaukee, WI outbreak affected more than 400,000 people, the concern over the public health risks linked to protozoan pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia has grown. Cryptosporidium and Giardia, found in streams, rivers, groundwater, and soil, form hardy, disinfection-resistant oocysts and cysts. Both organisms are recognized causative agents of gastrointestinal illnesses linked to the consumption of contaminated surface or groundwater. This study, the first in a planned series to estimate the urban contribution to the total Cryptosporidium and Giardia receiving-water loads, focused on combined sewer overflow (CSO). CSOs are discharges of mixed untreated sewage and stormwater released directly into receiving waters during rainfall. This engineered relief is necessary to accommodate hydraulic strain when the combined rain and sanitary flows exceed the system capacity. Limited comprehensive data are available assessing the CSO discharge contribution as a source of these two pathogens. Works by States et al. and Gibson et al. each found Cryptosporidium and much greater Giardia concentrations in CSOs draining parts of Pittsburgh, PA. This project estimated the relative detection frequency and concentration of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in CSO. Analytical results were obtained using a modification of Method 1623, originally developed for much cleaner environmental samples. These data are useful for drinking water treatment plants located downstream of CSOs. It is also significant in determining the potential concentrations of parasites at treatment plant intakes and for assessing health risks for water contact and fishing activities. Commonly monitored indicator organisms (total coliform, fecal coliform, E. coli, Enterococcus, and fecal streptococcus), endospores, and selected physical and chemical parameters were analyzed to further describe the samples. CSO from urban areas was not found to be a significant contributor of Cryptosporidium, however, it was found to be a Giardia source.
Enteric viruses in inlet and outlet samples from sewage treatment plants
Authors: Myrmel M. , Berg E. M.M. , Grinde B. , Rimstad E.
Published: May 2018

Samples collected every two weeks from the inlet and outlet of three sewage treatment plants were screened for the presence of noro-, rota-, astro-, adeno-, hepatitis A- and circoviruses by (RT)-nested PCR, and for F-specific bacteriophages by isolation in Escherichia coli Famp. Plants A and B were secondary treatment plants and plant C used primary treatment. Noroviruses were detected in 43%, 53% and 24% of the inlet samples and 26%, 40% and 21% of the outlet samples from plants A, B and C, respectively. Astroviruses, rotaviruses and adenoviruses were more prevalent. Adenoviruses were detected in 96% of inlet and 94% of outlet samples, supporting the potential of these viruses as indicators of viral contamination from sewage. Hepatitis A virus and circoviruses were found only rarely. Reduction of infective viral particles during sewage treatment was evaluated using F-specific bacteriophages. The phages were reduced by, respectively, 99%, 87% and 0% in plants A, B and C, which corresponded to the observed differences in reduction of norovirus positive samples between the same plants. The study shows that the high viral load in sewage results in a discharge to the environment of a large amount of virus despite sewage treatment. On the other hand, the advantage of a more advanced treatment is demonstrated.
Rural communities' preferences for arsenic mitigation options in Bangladesh
Authors: Ahmad Junaid , Goldar Bishwanath , Misra Smita
Published: May 2018

In the context of arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, this paper analyses rural people's preferences for arsenic-free drinking water options. A particular focus is on rural households' willingness to pay for piped water supply which can provide a sustainable solution to the arsenic problem, and how the preference for piped water supply compares with that for various other household/community-based arsenic mitigation technologies. The analysis is based on data collected in a survey of over 2700 households in rural Bangladesh. Six arsenic mitigation technologies were selected for the study: three-kolshi (pitcher) method, activated alumina method (household-based and community-based), dugwell, pond sand filter and deep tubewell (handpump). The survey results indicate that, after taking into consideration the initial and recurring costs, convenience, associated risks and the advantages and disadvantages of each selected technology, the preference of the rural people is overwhelmingly in favor of deep tubewells, followed by the three-kolshi method. The analysis reveals a strong demand for piped water in both arsenic-affected and arsenic-free rural areas, and scope of adequate cost recovery. Between piped water and other arsenic mitigation technologies, the preference of the rural people is found to be predominantly in favor of the former.
Recognizing waterborne disease and the health effects of water contamination: a review of the challenges facing the medical community in the United States
Authors: Meinhardt Patricia L.
Published: May 2018

Preservation of water quality and prevention of waterborne disease is a complicated task requiring a coordinated effort from many diverse disciplines including physicians, healthcare providers, epidemiologists, microbiologists, academic scientists, science researchers, local and national health authorities, public and environmental health specialists, water engineers and water purveyors. Any successful strategy to ensure water quality and safety in the United States must include the medical community as a valued stakeholder and active participant in this ongoing public health challenge. Unfortunately, the majority of practicing healthcare providers in the US has received limited training in the recognition and evaluation of water-related disease and faces many significant challenges and numerous barriers to diagnosing waterborne disease and the health effects of water pollution in their patients. The purpose of this review is to define the specific challenges facing the medical community with regard to clinical recognition of water-related disease and to provide recommendations for the development of specialized clinical resources and targeted educational outreach programs to assist the medical community in improving their ability to appropriately address water-related disease in their patients.
Emerging issues in water and health research
Authors: Ford Tim
Published: May 2018

In the less developed nations, hygiene and sanitation remain overriding factors in population health and the burden of waterborne disease. Both morbidity and mortality from diseases, such as cholera, remain high, but the overwhelming burden of diarrhoeal diseases inevitably goes undiagnosed. Enterotoxic E. coli, shigellosis and campylobacteriosis are prevalent amongst bacterial diseases and giardiasis is often diagnosed among protozoan diseases. In terms of viral diseases, hepatitis A is frequently associated with water and rotavirus, and more recently norovirus, infections are suspected to be major causes of gastroenteritis, although they are seldom diagnosed. From the perspective of research and training, and despite the efforts of major international organizations, effective programs that teach basic hygiene and sanitation remain elusive.
Coordination in water resource management: the impact of water rights institutions
Authors: Heikkila Tanya
Published: May 2018

This paper considers how water rights laws can shape the ways water providers coordinate when devising conjunctive water management programs. Conjunctive water management is a particularly useful tool for analyzing water management coordination because it involves certain physical and organizational complexities that may facilitate the need for coordination. It takes advantage of the natural storage capacity of underground aquifers for the storage of surface supplies during high flow seasons, allowing for recovery of those supplies when surface flows are limited. This paper compares conjunctive management programs across Arizona, California and Colorado. It identifies the distinct types of coordination associated with conjunctive water management programs across these states and shows that these forms of coordination depend upon the larger institutional setting governing rights to water resources.
Invited Editorial: The Third World Water Forum, Kyoto, March 2003
Authors: Lane Jon
Published: May 2018

Normally each meeting in a series builds on the momentum from the previous one. In the case of the Third World Water Forum in Kyoto, this was always going to be a problem, and not just because the previous Forum at The Hague had been such a dynamic and progressive event. The organisers’ difficulty arose from the sheer number of global water meetings that have taken place during the intervening three years. First the Bonn conference in December 2001 brought the results from the Hague Forum into the UN system, then the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg last July gave political prominence to water and, especially, sanitation. The adoption of a global sanitation target was one of its finest outcomes, and the Americans’ reluctance to agree it caused media headlines around the world.
Water, poverty and gender: an overview of issues and policies
Authors: Saleth R. Maria , Samad Madar , Molden David , Hussain Intizar
Published: May 2018

This paper presents an overview of the theoretical, methodological and policy issues that are evident both in the extant literature on the subject as well as in the set of papers that are included in this special issue. In providing such an overview, this paper also develops an analytical framework using a schematic representation of some of the most important layers and pathways that underlie the water-poverty-gender nexus. Based on the overview and discussion, this paper attempts: (a) to indicate approaches and strategies for using water as a key instrument to address poverty and gender concerns and (b) to identify the research gaps in order to set the direction for ongoing and future research at the water-poverty-gender interface.
Does irrigation water matter for rural poverty alleviation? Evidence from South and South-East Asia
Authors: Hussain Intizar , Hanjra Munir A.
Published: May 2018

This paper addresses four key questions. What are the irrigation–poverty inequality linkages? Does access to irrigation water matter for rural poverty alleviation? Under what conditions does irrigation have the greatest impact on poverty? What are the pro-poor interventions that can enhance the antipoverty impact of irrigation? Findings from IWMI-led studies and other empirical studies show that: (1) irrigation enables households to improve crop productivity, grow high-valued crops, generate higher incomes and employment, earn a higher implicit wage rate for family labor and, more importantly, benefits the poor and landless through the enhanced availability of food, lower food prices, higher employment and income and other indirect effects; (2) access to irrigation water reduces the incidence and severity of poverty; (3) irrigation's impact on poverty is highest where landholdings are equitably distributed; (4) effective rural poverty alleviation requires that irrigation development be targeted to poor communities; and (5) unequal land distribution is associated with inequitable distribution of agricultural water benefits. We argue that the antipoverty impact of irrigation water can, therefore, be intensified through triggering a set of board and targeted interventions, simultaneously.
Livelihood impacts of water policy changes: evidence from a coastal area of the Mekong river delta
Authors: Hoanh C.T. , Tuong T.P. , Gallop K.M. , Gowing J.W. , Kam S.P. , Khiem N.T. , Phong N.D.
Published: May 2018

The coastal zone of the Mekong river delta has experienced rapid economic and environmental changes during the last decade. Given the nature of the environment and the level of dependence on the natural resources base, policies for land and water were very influential in this process. The emphasis on rice created an imperative to control saline intrusion, which was realized through the construction of major engineering works over an extended period (1994-2000). The inertia built up by this process led to a divergence between policy and practice, and adversely affected the livelihoods of fishers and of those farmers who live on aquaculture. This prompted the government to rethink the rice-focus policy, in favor of a land and water policy for balanced rice and aquaculture production. This paper describes an analytical process, which was adopted to explore the feasibility of adopting the new policy for the balanced development of both rice and shrimp production and discusses the impact of the new policy on farmers’ livelihoods.
Brackets and black boxes: research on water users' associations
Authors: Narain Vishal
Published: May 2018

This paper reviews the current state of research on Water Users' Associations in canal irrigation. It argues that, while it makes several important contributions to our understanding of water institutions, collective action and local governance, it suffers from several weaknesses. Technology is treated as a black box. There is a very static and instrumental perspective. There is also a bracketing of the social relationships of which collective action is an expression. This paper concludes that further research is needed in order to understand the organizational dynamics of water users associations and how different technological conditions of water distribution influence the possibilities for collective action. Research is also needed on the interplay of the broader contextual factors under which water users’ associations operate and on the effects of WUA formation on social power relationships, water management and distribution practices.
Community participation in dry sanitation projects
Authors: Gomez Juan D. , Graham Jay P.
Published: May 2018

This paper addresses community participation issues in the sanitation sector. A brief introduction is provided, including a historical explanation of the origins of participation in sanitation projects. Subsequently, Participatory Hygiene And Sanitation Transformation (PHAST), a participatory methodology, is defined and its advantages and disadvantages are discussed.

Additionally, this paper addresses the importance of community participation in the design and implementation of sanitation projects and provides background information on the sanitation sector. Two case studies on dry sanitation taking place in Northern Mexico are presented and analyzed. Finally, conclusions are drawn and recommendations for future projects are given.
Legal and institutional adaptation to climate uncertainty: a study of international rivers
Authors: Fischhendler Itay
Published: May 2018

This study seeks to understand why nations find it difficult to include climate-uncertainty mechanisms in treaties regulating international rivers. It also aims to examine the implications of not adopting these mechanisms, particularly during a crisis. The study focuses on the negotiation process of three water treaties, and seeks to identify the underlying reasons behind the inclusion - or exclusion - of such mechanisms. Second, it reviews how the treaties performed and evolved during drought. The first case study is the current drought along the lower Rio Grande and the 1944 water treaty between Mexico and the USA; the second is the 1961-1964 drought along the Great Lakes and the 1909 water treaty between Canada and the USA and, finally, it examines the 1997-2000 water shortage in the Jordan Basin and the 1994 treaty between Israel and Jordan. It was found that issues of sovereignty, water stress, power asymmetry, optimistic water scenarios and the nature of the treaties as “package deals” impede riparians from adopting some of these mechanisms. Among them is a joint institution with wide scope and geographical jurisdiction, an escape clause, allocating water according to percentage of flow, balance mechanism and a binding arbitration procedure. By excluding these mechanisms the anticipated political cost of an agreement decreases. However, this exclusion process limits the ability of these treaties and their institutions to manage a crisis situation, which may in turn engender controversy between the riparians as to how to divide the water in such a situation. Yet, it was found that during crises, treaties tend to evolve as the different parties supplement them with new legal and institutional measures that provide only partial immediate remedy to the crisis at hand. This stresses the need to incorporate mechanisms that are simultaneously politically feasible and hydrologically effective.
Pepsee systems: grassroots innovation under groundwater stress
Authors: Verma Shilp , Tsephal Stanzin , Jose Tony
Published: May 2018

Drip irrigation, in its various forms, is the dominant mode of micro-irrigation in India. The benefits of these technologies in water scarce regions have been widely studied all over the world. A review of literature on dripirrigation technologies strongly suggests that there are significant financial, economic and social benefits in the adoption of these technologies. However, the spread of drip irrigation in the Indian context has been far below potential and expectations. In the Maikaal region of Central India, a grassroots innovation called ‘Pepsee’ has become a popular choice for farmers. At less than half the cost of conventional drip systems, this innovation promises comparable returns. What is most interesting is that while government and non-government agencies have struggled to promote water-saving technologies across the country, the people in this area have adapted and adopted these technologies on their own. This paper looks at the various aspects of this grassroots innovation, its spread, adoption behavior and impacts. The authors find that while Pepsee and other water-saving technologies do lead to farm level improvements in water efficiency, they will not contribute to system level ‘real’ water saving unless a favorable policy environment encourages their adoption on a large scale.
Coping with disintegration of a river-basin management system: multi-dimensional issues in Central Asia
Authors: Wegerich Kai
Published: May 2018

Prior to independence the Soviet system focused on the geographical boundaries of the Syr Darya Basin and managed the environmental resources according to these boundaries. Hence, the riparian states were tied together through the management of water, energy and food products. After independence, the individual states focused on national interests, and this development led to destabilisation. The Syr Darya Basin shows that national strategies for a natural resource use have created instability. Complex cooperation incorporating water, energy and agriculture is necessary. An issue linkage approach and a wider understanding of common pooled resources can create stability for the whole basin.
A water surcharge policy for river basin management in Korea: A means of resolving environmental conflict?
Authors: Min Byung S.
Published: May 2018

Conflict between the upstream and downstream residents of four major river basins in Korea has recently intensified. The introduction of a metric-based surcharge for piped water, coupled with environmental regulations, aims to resolve these conflicts. The water surcharge system was introduced both to collect revenue via a levy and to achieve a win–win situation for both upstream and downstream users through two major policy measures: increasing infrastructure investment in wastewater treatment and providing subsidies to upstream residents to compensate for the losses imposed by environmental regulations. A volumetric surcharge is in line with taxation policy as ordinary households are relatively price inelastic. However, the surcharge is an earmarked water consumption tariff for piped water in order to raise revenue, rather than a full-cost based pollution preventive measure. The remaining tasks include the comprehensive reform of the pricing system to promote equity, efficiency and sustainability of water use.
Sources of government failure and the environmental externality: analysis of groundwater pollution in Tamil Nadu, India
Authors: Venkatachalam L.
Published: May 2018

Groundwater pollution and its associated social costs were traditionally considered as the outcome of “market failure”. However, in recent years it has been argued that pollution-related issues can be attributed to the failure of government as well. The literature on ‘externality’ has identified different sources of government failure. In this paper, we have identified certain specific sources of government failure that are potentially affecting the groundwater quality in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. The major sources that we have identified are: the inappropriate approach used by the government agencies to assess the quantity and quality of water resources potential in the state; the inability of the government sector to account for the resulting environmental damage and the lack of coordination between different agencies/institutions involved in managing the water resources in the state. Some remedial measures are also suggested.
Wastewater management in Zimbabwe in the context of sustainability
Authors: Nhapi Innocent , Gijzen Huub J.
Published: May 2018

Conventional sanitation approaches are rather inappropriate and expensive ways of providing a satisfactory solution to increasing wastewater problems in developing countries. This paper looks at the financial and environmental implications of the sanitation approaches adopted in Zimbabwe, and from the weaknesses identified, suggests a paradigm shift in which wastewater treatment is geared towards resource recovery and reuse. It was observed that unsustainable methods continue to be used because of deficient institutional arrangements and irrational technology choices made in the past. Natural treatment methods were recommended because they are low cost, easy to operate and maintain, and allow for the re-use of effluent. To achieve this requires a responsive institutional and funding mechanism backed by realistic legislation.
Water institutional reforms in Morocco
Authors: Doukkali Mohammed
Published: May 2018

Using a teleological perspective and an analytical categorization of the history of water institutions in Morocco, this paper aims to review and evaluate the institutional reforms in the country in the light of the results and hypotheses presented in some recent literature on the subject. The review suggests that considering their overall thrust and direction, the institutional reforms undertaken in Morocco are truly remarkable. While these reforms have paved a solid institutional foundation for promoting an economically responsive water sector, there are still serious reform gaps, especially in areas such as groundwater regulation and supportive institutions for irrigated agriculture. The evaluation of the reform process suggests that Morocco has exploited well the political contexts of resource limit and economic crisis, path dependent opportunities provided by existing institutions and earlier reforms, and the synergetic influences of the countrywide economic reforms and changing political conditions. Clearly, the reform experience of Morocco indicates that although undertaking initial reform can be difficult, subsequent reforms are relatively easier when the political opportunities for reforms provided by both endogenous and exogenous factors are well exploited.
Intensive development of groundwater: concept, facts and suggestions
Authors: Custodio Emilio , Kretsinger Vicki , Llamas M. Ramón
Published: May 2018

Groundwater is increasingly used for water supply and irrigation. For several decades, aquifers have been intensively developed and notable changes have occurred to recharge, groundwater flow, discharge and water quality conditions. These changes have inevitably accompanied technological developments that have allowed individuals, small groups and whole communities to solve their water problems affordably and, in impoverished areas, to diminish poverty and improve health conditions. The measurable benefits from intensive groundwater development may also come with detrimental hydrogeological and environmental consequences, which are additional direct and indirect costs. To ensure a rational and sustainable use of the groundwater resource, there must be an understanding of the physical structure and characteristics of the aquifer system and extraction must be managed in the context of the basin-wide water resources. Effective groundwater management necessitates empowerment of the appropriate institution to conduct the management activities and participatory stakeholder involvement in the development and implementation of the groundwater management programme. This includes establishing environmental goals and a monitoring plan tailored to the history of local groundwater abstraction, projected water demands, issues of concern (e.g. water quality protection and preservation of water-dependent wetlands) and the available water supplies within the basin. A series of considerations on technical, economic and social aspects are proposed, in agreement with the far-reaching nature of the issue.
Livelihood functions of inland fisheries: policy implications in developing countries
Authors: Smith Laurence E. D. , Khoa S. Nguyen , Lorenzen K.
Published: May 2018

An improved analytical framework and typology of fishers are provided to improve understanding of the diverse livelihood functions of inland fishing in development policy making. Inland fisheries make an important but often neglected contribution to rural livelihoods in developing countries. A holistic and widely applicable analysis of the possible livelihood functions of such fisheries is presented, focusing on fishing as one activity within diverse livelihoods. Four different livelihood strategies are identified, involving fishing as: (i) a primary livelihood of last resort, (ii) part of a diversified semi-subsistence livelihood, (iii) a specialist occupation and (iv) part of a diversified accumulation strategy. The policy implications of these strategies are found to be differentiated and poorly represented in practice by socio-economic analysis that either undfervalues fisheries or treats them solely as livelihoods of last resort and by traditional approaches to fisheries management centred on stock conservation. The need for a more diverse and flexible range of measures, tailored to local priorities and conditions and ensuring that poor people can access the benefits of inland fisheries whilst achieving conservation objectives, is identified.
Simulating the impact of water pricing on households behaviour: the temptation of using untreated water
Authors: Montginoul M. , Rinaudo J-D. , de Lajonquière Y. Lunet , Garin P. , Marchal J-P.
Published: May 2018

Recent studies on urban water demand have suggested that the water price increase observed during the last ten years in France has led to a reduction in the consumption of urban water by households. Whereas certain households have reduced their water consumption, others have turned to substitute water resources (collection of rainwater, borehole drilling, wells supplied with untreated mains water, grey water recycling systems, etc.). This article presents the results of a case study, which describes and analyses the phenomenon of resorting to untreated groundwater as a complement to or a substitute for the urban water supply. After highlighting the risks associated with uncontrolled development of private boreholes, the paper presents a survey conducted in Southern France to understand the motivations of households drilling boreholes. The results of this survey are utilised to develop a micro-economic model of households' behaviour, which is then used to assess the probability of development of private boreholes on a regional scale. The impact of various economic and regulatory scenarios on borehole development and the related impact on urban water demand and financial sustainability of water and wastewater management utilities are assessed.
Groundwater resources: shaping legislation in harmony with real issues and sound concepts
Authors: Nanni Marcella , Foster Stephen
Published: May 2018

Groundwater resources are increasingly being put under pressure owing to population growth, technological progress and economic development. Many countries, however, are unable to address groundwater depletion and pollution owing to weak legal and institutional frameworks. This applies both within national contexts and in respect of international or trans-boundary aquifers (or aquifer systems). The issue is being widely debated within international fora, numbers of countries are revising their water legislation in order to include more specific provisions for groundwater, and in parallel the UN International Law Commission (ILC) is studying trans-boundary groundwater resources with a view to a codification of the law in this regard. However, the key characteristics of groundwater are often misunderstood by non-specialists and, unless resource lawyers and groundwater specialists work much more closely together, there is likelihood of erroneous interpretations of the applicable legal regime. This paper aims to highlight basic concepts and pragmatic management needs, so as to provide a framework within which national and international legislation on groundwater management and protection should be shaped.
Optimal extraction of groundwater for irrigation: synergies from surface water bodies in tropical India
Authors: Chaitra B. S. , Chandrakanth M. G.
Published: May 2018

The synergistic effects of canals and tanks in groundwater recharge that contribute to an economically sustainable path of groundwater extraction are examined. Thirty farmers each with groundwater wells located in canal command (GWCI), in tank command (GWTI) and in solely well-irrigated areas (devoid of surface water bodies) (GWSI) are studied in Tumkur district of Karnataka.

Applying Pontryagin's maximum principle to find the economically sustainable path of groundwater extraction, results indicated that by following the optimal path, the life of groundwater wells will increase by an additional 8, 17 and 24 years, respectively in GWSI, GWTI and GWCI areas over myopic (or uncontrolled) extraction. The additional net present value of benefit realized is US$822, US$1,907 and US$3,636 by optimal extraction in the three well areas. GWCI farmers realized the highest net returns (US$255) per hectare of gross groundwater irrigated area followed by GWTI (US$227.5) and GWSI (US$162.5). In GWTI (GWCI) amortized cost per cubic metre of groundwater was lower by 33% (53%) compared with GWSI, which reflects positive externality owing to the synergistic role of canals and tanks in groundwater recharge.
Role of consumer behaviour studies in improving water supply delivery to the urban poor
Authors: Addo-Yobo F. N. , Njiru C.
Published: May 2018

A recent report by WHO and UNICEF on the state of water and sanitation provision across the globe paints a gloomy picture of the situation in developing countries. Of great concern is the plight of the urban poor whose numbers are increasing rapidly across the developing world. Currently, a more market-like approach is being promoted as the way forward in the water sector. This approach is seen as an effective way of being demand responsive and hence a useful way of providing a sustainable water supply service for all groups of consumers. The authors advocate that a prerequisite for effectively using a marketing approach is a good understanding of the behaviour of the target consumers, that is, knowing what consumers think, feel, do and the things and places that influence and are influenced by what they think, feel and do. Consumer behaviour studies have widespread application in the marketing of goods and services and the application of some of these concepts could be useful in improving water services delivery. Better understanding of consumer behaviour could help in developing strategies for successfully marketing water as both a social and an economic good, thus enhancing the sustainability of water supply services.
Management and sustainability of groundwater resources in Bahrain
Authors: Zubari Waleed K. , Lori Ibrahim J.
Published: May 2018

In Bahrain, groundwater in the Dammam aquifer is the only natural source of relatively freshwater to meet the increasing demands for water. Heavy reliance on groundwater, particularly by the agricultural and municipal sectors, and its prolonged overexploitation over the last four decades have led to severe deterioration in its water quality. Currently, most of the original groundwater reservoir has been lost to salinization. In the past, groundwater management efforts were concentrated principally on supply management, where great efforts have been made to develop additional non-conventional and conventional water sources to alleviate groundwater stress, while demand management, conservation and protection of groundwater resources have not received much attention or emphasis. Based on future anticipated management efforts and programs, three alternative policy scenarios are considered in investigating groundwater balance and sustainability in Bahrain for the period 2002–2010: (1) supply augmentation and stabilization of agricultural water demands, (2) supply augmentation and demand management in the agricultural sector and (3) supply augmentation and unrestricted agricultural sector water demands. The current groundwater deficit could be lowered significantly in the second and the first scenarios. Evidently, the second scenario is to be preferred and constitutes an appropriate base for securing sustainable development of groundwater resources. However, it will depend on the effective implementation of the proposed demand management and conservation programs in the agricultural sector with their socio-economic, as well as political constraints and risks.
Water transfers in El Paso County, Texas
Authors: Fullerton Thomas M.
Published: May 2018

Water rights transfers for surface water have taken place in El Paso County in far west Texas for many decades. Historically, these exchanges have primarily occurred between agricultural water users. In recent decades, there have also been transfers from agricultural uses to urban uses. Ongoing commercial and demographic expansion in the El Paso metropolitan economy increases the likelihood of additional farm-to-municipal transfers in future years. Although legal mechanisms have periodically been introduced to allow these exchanges to occur, pricing has not played a central role in the process. At present, transfers of surface water rights in El Paso County occur under fairly rigid conditions.
The design and operation of conventional and novel flotation systems on a number of impounded water types
Authors: Officer J. , Ostrowski J. A. , Woollard P. J.
Published: May 2018

This paper describes the design of conventional Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) systems, and the novel Counter Current Dissolved Air Flotation Filtration (COCODAFF®) process. The operation and performance of these plants on a variety of water types in the United Kingdom and South Africa is also described. The advantages of flotation processes for the treatment of impounded waters either high in colour, or with a high concentration of algae, is discussed. Other topics covered in this paper are hydraulic flocculation, and the application of Finite Element Analysis (FEA), to the design of flotation plants. It is concluded that the COCODAFF® process offers a number of advantages over conventional DAF systems.
One-stage deammonification: nitrogen elimination at low costs
Authors: Seyfried C.F. , Hippen A. , Helmer C. , Kunst S. , Rosenwinkel K-H
Published: May 2018

Biological nitrogen elimination used to purify wastewater with high nitrogen contents can become a major cost factor, in particular when the wastewater in question contains only little amounts of biologically degradable carbon compounds. The use of new biological conversion methods and the application of compact operation technology, however, does allow us to save operation and investment costs. Currently, the focus of scientific interest is on deammonification, that is the direct conversion of ammonia into elementary nitrogen by autotrophic micro-organisms, because in contrast to conventional nitrification/denitrification this method requires considerably smaller amounts not only of carbon, but also of oxygen. Moreover, the use of compact biofilm technology makes it possible to considerably reduce the reaction tank volume. In the following we will present the operation results of both industrial plants and laboratory-scale units for the treatment of wastewater with high nitrogen loads, results which unequivocally show the favourable cost-effectiveness of the mentioned method combination and thus the economic viability inherent in the purposeful industrial utilisation of this technology.
Application of catalytic adsorptive stripping voltammetry in water analysis
Authors: Bobrowski A. , Zarebski J.
Published: May 2018

The application of catalytic adsorptive striping voltammetry (CAdSV) for the determination of the trace elements in water is presented. The CAdSV, coupling of very efficient adsorptive accumulation of the electroactive species on the electrode surface with the catalytic reaction, provides a significant amplification of the analytical response, and consequently a considerable decrease of the detection limit, as well as an improvement of the selectivity of the determination. The course of the catalytic reactions occurring in catalytic systems, which is most frequently applied in CAdSV analysis, is given. The features and advantages of the CAdSV method and its exploitation in ultratrace analysis of water samples are discussed. Numerous examples of the CAdSV systems, which have found application in the determination of Co, Cr, U, Fe, Mo, Pt, Rh, Ti, W and V, as well as of some anions and organic substances in various kinds of water, are listed.
Application of a membrane bioreactor immobilized with Bacillus subtilis HHT-1 for removing manganese ions in water
Authors: Takamizawa K. , Chang Y.C. , Hattori J. , Kani M. , Mori K. , Hatsu M.
Published: May 2018

A newly isolated Bacillus subtilis HHT-1 has the ability to oxidize manganese ions. We attempted to immobilize the cells on the microfiltration membrane and remove manganese ions from the raw water as manganese oxides. After subculturing, the broth was filtered with NTF-5200 (pore size 0.2 μm), Nitto, Japan. The filter was set in Nitto Membrane Master RUM-2, Nitto, Japan and used as the bioreactor. Manganese sulfate was dissolved in distilled water to become 1 mg/l or 0.2 mg/l of the final manganese ion concentration, and used as the raw water. The volume of the bioreactor was 10 ml. The flow rate, pressure, retention time of the bioreactor, and circulation frequency were, 0.08 l/min, 0.4 kgf/cm2, 7.5 sec, and 0.04 time/min, respectively. Removal rate of manganese ions rose with increasing cell mass immobilized. The bioreactor was active even at low concentration of initial manganese (0.2 mg/l) and 0.04 mg/l or less of manganese ion concentration in the treated water was obtained.
Effect of pulp mill chemicals on flocculation in river water
Authors: Young S. , Smith D.W.
Published: May 2018

Thousands of pulp mill chemicals have been released into the aquatic environment. Some of them may cause flocculation and deposition of an organic matrix and incoming suspended sediments downstream of pulp mills in rivers, and may have adverse impacts on aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, it is important to identify the chemicals inducing coagulation and flocculation in river water. This assists in understanding the mechanism for its formation, and will improve the transport models by including the effect of flocculation. Presented is the effect of pulp mill effluent related cationic ions and organic polymers on flocculation in river water. The experimental results show that Na+, Ca2+, fibers, hydrolytic lignin, protein, sucrose, cellulose and starch can induce flocculation in river water.
Drinking water distribution - improvements of the surface complexation model for iron corrosion
Authors: Elfström Broo A. , Berghult B. , Hedberg T.
Published: May 2018

A previously presented theory for iron corrosion in the distribution networks for drinking water, the surface complexation model, was extended by the effect of natural organic matter and redox potential. The model calculations showed good agreement with measurements of the corrosion rate as obtained from coupon tests. A theory for the relation between the dissolved iron content in the water of the distribution networks and the corrosion rate is proposed. The model calculations also showed good agreement with the measured dissolved iron content.
Water mains and distribution pipes in soil - external corrosion and protection methods
Authors: Camitz G.
Published: May 2018

Extensive statistical investigations based on damage reports show that the corrosion damage frequency for buried water mains and distribution pipelines in Sweden increased during the 1970s and 1980s. For this reason, a number of statistical and technical investigations of the corrosion and counter-measures were carried out.

The paper reports on the corrosion damage statistics for water pipelines and the costs of the corrosion damage. Further, ways of actively working to reduce the corrosion damage frequency are described. These measures include the introduction of cast iron pipes with high quality coatings and the application of cathodic protection on different types of existing pipelines, and, further, the systematic replacement of pipeline sections, which show a high corrosion damage frequency.