bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Spider’s Vibration Landscape: Adaptations to Promote Vibrational Information Transfer in Orb Webs
Authors: Mortimer B
Published: May 2019

Spider orb webs are used not only for catching prey, but also for transmitting vibrational information to the spider. Vibrational information propagates from biological sources, such as potential prey or mates, but also abiotic sources, such as wind. Like other animals, the spider must cope with physical constraints acting on the propagation of vibrational information along surfaces and through materials—including loss of energy, distortion, and filtering. The spider mitigates these physical constraints by making its orb web from up to five different types of silks, closely controlling silk use and properties during web building. In particular, control of web geometry, silk tension, and silk stiffness allows spiders to adjust how vibrations spread throughout the web, as well as their amplitude and speed of propagation, which directly influences energy loss, distortion, and filtering. Turning to how spiders use this information, spiders use lyriform organs distributed across their eight legs as vibration sensors. Spiders can adjust coupling to the silk fibers and use posture to modify vibrational information as it moves from the web to the sensors. Spiders do not sense all vibrations equally—they are least sensitive to low frequencies (<30 Hz) and most sensitive to high frequencies (ca. 1 kHz). This sensitivity pattern cannot be explained purely by the frequency range of biological inputs. The role of physical and evolutionary constraints is discussed to explain spider vibration sensitivity and a role of vibration sensors to detect objects on the web as a form of echolocation is also discussed.
Testing for Betel Nut Alkaloids in Hair of Papuans Abusers using UPLC–MS/MS and UPLC–Q-Tof-MS
Authors: Gheddar Laurie , Ricaut François-Xavier , Ameline Alice , Brucato Nicolas , Tsang Roxanne , Leavesley Matthew , Raul Jean-Sébastien , Kintz Pascal
Published: May 2019

Betel nut is the fruit of Areca palm, growing in Papua New Guinea. Mixed with limestone and stick mustard, arecoline and guvacoline, which are present in betel nut, are hydrolyzed into arecaidine and guvacine, respectively. As part of the study on dietary habits of Papuans residents, our laboratory was asked to analyze the four alkaloids in hair to document long-term exposure. Hair samples were collected from 19 adult subjects (males = 11; females = 8), by some of the authors, and were sent to the laboratory for analysis. The four alkaloids have very similar chemical structures. In order to accurately identify the drugs, two methods were developed. First, the compounds were identified using an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography system coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Then, they were quantified by an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography system coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. After decontamination with dichloromethane, hair samples were cut into very small segments and 20 mg were incubated in methanol for 2 h 30 min in an ultrasound bath. After cooling, the methanol was evaporated to dryness in presence of 20-μL octanol to prevent volatilization. Nicotine-d4 was used as an internal standard. Linearity was observed for concentrations ranging from the limit of quantification to 20 ng/mg for arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine and guvacoline. Measured concentrations were in the range 60 pg/mg to 18 ng/mg for arecoline (n = 19), 14 pg/mg to 2.5 ng/mg for guvacoline (n = 11), 63 pg/mg to 3.8 ng/mg for arecaidine (n = 11) and 100 pg/mg to 3.2 ng/mg for guvacine (n = 6). There was no correlation between concentrations of arecoline and arecaidine (ratio from 0.01 to 0.18) and guvacoline and guvacine (ratio from 0.06 to 3.50). However, the identification of these substances in hair is a good marker of consumption of betel nut and allows us to document a local practice that remains difficult to evaluate just by questioning.
A proof-search system for the logic of likelihood
Authors: Alonderis R , Giedra H
Published: May 2019

The cut-free Gentzen-type sequent calculus LLK for the logic of likelihood (LL) is introduced in the paper. It is proved that the calculus is sound and complete for LL. Using the introduced calculus LLK, a decision procedure for LL is presented.
Intraday End-of-Day Volume Prediction
Authors: Sancetta Alessio
Published: May 2019

A model that predicts the total end-of-day volume and updates the prediction as new intraday information is observed and proposed. This model is a time-varying coefficients model which is estimated using the framework of functional data. Semiparametric constraints such as monotonicity of the time-varying coefficients can be imposed in the estimation. Results that allow us to derive confidence bands under a variety of scenarios including functions that lie at the boundary of the constrained set are given. In the empirical application we consider the end-of-day volume prediction of major Forex futures traded on the Chicago mercantile Exchange and show the benefits of the proposed methodology.
The law of genetic privacy: applications, implications, and limitations
Authors: Clayton Ellen Wright , Evans Barbara J , Hazel James W , Rothstein Mark A
Published: May 2019

Recent advances in technology have significantly improved the accuracy of genetic testing and analysis, and substantially reduced its cost, resulting in a dramatic increase in the amount of genetic information generated, analysed, shared, and stored by diverse individuals and entities. Given the diversity of actors and their interests, coupled with the wide variety of ways genetic data are held, it has been difficult to develop broadly applicable legal principles for genetic privacy. This article examines the current landscape of genetic privacy to identify the roles that the law does or should play, with a focus on federal statutes and regulations, including the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA). After considering the many contexts in which issues of genetic privacy arise, the article concludes that few, if any, applicable legal doctrines or enactments provide adequate protection or meaningful control to individuals over disclosures that may affect them. The article describes why it may be time to shift attention from attempting to control access to genetic information to considering the more challenging question of how these data can be used and under what conditions, explicitly addressing trade-offs between individual and social goods in numerous applications.
Patterns and ecological determinants of woody plant height in eastern Eurasia and its relation to primary productivity
Authors: Wang Zhiheng , Li Yaoqi , Su Xiangyan , Tao Shengli , Feng Xiao , Wang Qinggang , Xu Xiaoting , Liu Yunpeng , Michaletz Sean T , Shrestha Nawal , Larjavaara Markku , Enquist Brian J
Published: May 2019

Aims

Plant height is a key functional trait related to aboveground biomass, leaf photosynthesis and plant fitness. However, large-scale geographical patterns in community-average plant height (CAPH) of woody species and drivers of these patterns across different life forms remain hotly debated. Moreover, whether CAPH could be used as a predictor of ecosystem primary productivity is unknown.

Methods

We compiled mature height and distributions of 11 422 woody species in eastern Eurasia, and estimated geographic patterns in CAPH for different taxonomic groups and life forms. Then we evaluated the effects of environmental (including current climate and historical climate change since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)) and evolutionary factors on CAPH. Lastly, we compared the predictive power of CAPH on primary productivity with that of LiDAR-derived canopy-height data from a global survey.

Important Findings

Geographic patterns of CAPH and their drivers differed among taxonomic groups and life forms. The strongest predictor for CAPH of all woody species combined, angiosperms, all dicots and deciduous dicots was actual evapotranspiration, while temperature was the strongest predictor for CAPH of monocots and tree, shrub and evergreen dicots, and water availability for gymnosperms. Historical climate change since the LGM had only weak effects on CAPH. No phylogenetic signal was detected in family-wise average height, which was also unrelated to the tested environmental factors. Finally, we found a strong correlation between CAPH and ecosystem primary productivity. Primary productivity showed a weaker relationship with CAPH of the tallest species within a grid cell and no relationship with LiDAR-derived canopy height reported in the global survey. Our findings suggest that current climate rather than historical climate change and evolutionary history determine the geographical patterns in CAPH. However, the relative effects of climatic factors representing environmental energy and water availability on spatial variations of CAPH vary among plant life forms. Moreover, our results also suggest that CAPH can be used as a good predictor of ecosystem primary productivity.
Sessile oak forest plant community changes on the NE Iberian Peninsula over recent decades
Authors: Bou Jordi , Vilar Lluís
Published: May 2019

Aims

Our aims were 3-fold: (i) to determine whether global change has altered the composition and structure of the plant community found in the sessile oak forests on the NE Iberian Peninsula over the last decades, (ii) to establish whether the decline in forest exploitation activities that has taken place since the mid-20th century has had any effect on the forests and (iii) to ascertain whether there is any evidence of impact from climate warming.

Methods

We assess changes in the plant community by comparing a current survey of sessile oak forest with a historical data set obtained from previous regional studies dating from 1962 to 1977. We analyse the regional changes in the community in terms of biodiversity variables, species composition and plant traits. Furthermore, plants traits such as plant life forms and chorological groups are used to discern any effects from land-use changes and climate warming on the plant community.

Important Findings

There has been a loss of diversity in the community and, in the hottest region, there is also a loss of species richness. The composition of the community suggests that, although significant changes have taken place over recent decades, these changes differ between regions as a result of the low impact global change has had in the western regions. For instance, while the tree canopy cover in the western sessile oak forests remains stable, the eastern sessile oak forests are still recovering from the former exploitation that led to a loss of their rich and abundant herbaceous stratum. In fact, the recovery process in the Catalan Pre-Coastal Range has constituted an increase in the Euro-Siberian plants typical to this community. Moreover, in the eastern forests, there is evidence that climate warming has impacted the thermophilization of the sessile oak forests found on the Coastal Range.
ORVAL: a novel platform for the prediction and exploration of disease-causing oligogenic variant combinations
Authors: Renaux Alexandre , Papadimitriou Sofia , Versbraegen Nassim , Nachtegael Charlotte , Boutry Simon , Nowé Ann , Smits Guillaume , Lenaerts Tom
Published: May 2019

A tremendous amount of DNA sequencing data is being produced around the world with the ambition to capture in more detail the mechanisms underlying human diseases. While numerous bioinformatics tools exist that allow the discovery of causal variants in Mendelian diseases, little to no support is provided to do the same for variant combinations, an essential task for the discovery of the causes of oligogenic diseases. ORVAL (the Oligogenic Resource for Variant AnaLysis), which is presented here, provides an answer to this problem by focusing on generating networks of candidate pathogenic variant combinations in gene pairs, as opposed to isolated variants in unique genes. This online platform integrates innovative machine learning methods for combinatorial variant pathogenicity prediction with visualization techniques, offering several interactive and exploratory tools, such as pathogenic gene and protein interaction networks, a ranking of pathogenic gene pairs, as well as visual mappings of the cellular location and pathway information. ORVAL is the first web-based exploration platform dedicated to identifying networks of candidate pathogenic variant combinations with the sole ambition to help in uncovering oligogenic causes for patients that cannot rely on the classical disease analysis tools. ORVAL is available at https://orval.ibsquare.be.
Tobacco-Related Counseling and Documentation in Adolescent Primary Care Practice: Challenges and Opportunities
Authors: LeLaurin Jennifer H , Theis Ryan P , Thompson Lindsay A , Tan Andy S L , Young-Wolff Kelly C , Carter-Harris Lisa , Shenkman Elizabeth A , Salloum Ramzi G
Published: May 2019

Introduction

Primary care visits present an opportunity to reduce tobacco use and tobacco smoke exposure (TSE) among adolescents. To date, few studies have examined tobacco-related electronic health record (EHR) documentation in adolescent visits. The purpose of this study was to (1) describe tobacco-related EHR documentation practices in adolescent care clinics, including whether alternative tobacco products, parental use, and TSE were addressed; and (2) identify aspects of adolescent tobacco use that may inform EHR updates and counseling and documentation practices.

Methods

Following a convergent mixed-methods design, we conducted an EHR review of 508 adolescent well-child visits, performed focus groups with pediatric providers and staff, and conducted in-depth interviews with adolescent patients. Record review data and interview transcripts were analyzed and interpreted concurrently.

Results

In the EHR review, cigarette screening was documented in 92.3% of visits, smokeless tobacco screening in 51.4%, parental tobacco use in 23.2%, and home TSE in 33.1% of visits. Smoking status options were not mutually exclusive and did not include noncigarette products. No records documented assessment of e-cigarette use, despite nearly half of adolescent interview respondents citing these as the most popular products among adolescents. In interviews, adolescents discussed their experiences with alternative tobacco/nicotine products more than cigarettes.

Conclusions

Tobacco use status prompts should be revised for clarity and include noncigarette tobacco products and TSE. Provider education on noncigarette products and TSE assessment is needed. Improvements in EHR systems, resources, and tools can lead to better tobacco screening, prevention, and treatment practices among primary care providers.

Implications

Clinical guidelines call for pediatricians to assess and treat adolescent and parental tobacco use during primary care visits. The use of electronic health records (EHRs) can improve screening and counseling practices; however, few studies have examined tobacco-related EHR documentation practices in adolescent care settings. This mixed-methods study found low rates of EHR documentation related to noncigarette nicotine/tobacco products, parental tobacco use, and tobacco smoke exposure. These results demonstrate the need for increased provider training and EHR modifications to facilitate comprehensive tobacco control efforts in the adolescent population.
Language and Sexual Violence in the Legal System
Authors: Ehrlich Susan
Published: May 2019

This chapter reviews research on linguistic representations of sexual violence in the media and the legal system, illustrating how such representations can be informed by broader ideologies of gender and sexuality. In reviewing this literature, the chapter demonstrates, in particular, how discourses of normative heterosexuality help to give meaning to representations of sexual violence. The text then turns to a case study of the 2013 Steubenville (Ohio, U.S.A.) rape trial in order to show how the social media evidence in this case, specifically the photographic evidence, was able to unsettle these discourses in ways that the more typical “he said/she said” evidence of sexual assault trials may have had (more) difficulty doing.
Linguistic Landscapes of Language and Sexuality
Authors: Hiramoto Mie , Vitorio Raymund
Published: May 2019

This chapter outlines the benefits of a linguistic landscape studies approach for the broader study of language and sexuality. Chinese martial arts films, often described as highly masculine and dominated by male heroes and male characters, are a rich site for the analysis of the social construction of gender and sexuality, particularly in the way they portray an idealized male dominance through Confucian ideologies. These films are thus viewed as a legitimate space, albeit fictional and mediatized, for the application of a linguistic landscape perspective. Based on samples of over 200 films, the analysis argues that features in the linguistic landscapes of these films—among them referential names of landmarks and material constructions of settings and costumes—semiotically mark the gender and sexuality of the martial arts practitioner characters. Most notably, the linguistic landscapes in these films glorify celibacy—or controlled asexuality—as an ideal practice that goes along with ultimate masculinity, as seen in the homosocial rejection of romance and celebration of chastity.
Fiduciary Principles in Legal Representation
Authors: Painter Richard W.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the fiduciary duties of lawyers, and especially how such duties shape—and are shaped by—their other professional responsibilities. It begins with a discussion of the legal basis of lawyers’ fiduciary duties as well as the circumstances that trigger a lawyer-client fiduciary relationship. It then considers the lawyers’ fiduciary duty of loyalty, focusing on the duty to avoid conflicts of interest, the duty of confidentiality owed by a lawyer to a client, the duty of candor, and the duty to communicate to the client information that the latter needs to make informed decisions about the subject matter of the representation. It also explores the lawyer’s fiduciary duty of care, including the duty to familiarize himself with the client’s affairs and to safeguard confidential information; the relationship between fiduciary duties and other duties of professional responsibility; cases where lawyers are subject to the specific duties of a common law trustee; and two types of mandatory rules to which lawyers, as professional fiduciaries, are subject and that cannot be waived with client consent: mandatory rules of professional responsibility and generally applicable laws. The chapter concludes with an analysis of remedies available when a lawyer commits a breach of fiduciary duty, along with the unique challenges faced by lawyers when they also become trustees for their clients or third persons.
The Fiduciary Duty of Loyalty
Authors: Gold Andrew S.
Published: May 2019

This chapter addresses the fiduciary duty of loyalty. Loyalty is a central concept in fiduciary law, even as scholars differ on whether we should reason from fiduciary relationships to loyalty obligations, or the other way around. Nonetheless, the common view across jurisdictions and across theories is that loyalty is vital to fiduciary relationships. This chapter first provides an overview of the core features of fiduciary loyalty, with particular emphasis on the no-conflict rules, which have two basic components: a rule against conflicts of interest and a rule against conflicts of duty. It then considers the no-profit rule and how it relates to the rules against conflicts of interest, along with duties of good faith and disclosure and the link between fiduciary loyalty and other obligations. It also discusses remedies that are generally associated with breach of loyalty, including the disgorgement remedy, as well as specific contexts that modify the effect or scope of fiduciary loyalty obligations (for example, contractual modifications of legal default rules or cases where there are multiple beneficiaries), and additional factors that affect application of the fiduciary duty of loyalty. The chapter concludes with an analysis of theories that explain fiduciary loyalty as a category.
Mandatory and Default Rules in Fiduciary Law
Authors: Clarry Daniel
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the nature and operation of mandatory and default rules in fiduciary law, arguing that loyalty is a core element of every fiduciary legal institution. Loyalty is the hallmark of fiduciary law, as it requires persons in other-regarding positions of power to perform functions selflessly, rather than selfishly. However, there are many circumstances in which a person undertakes and exercises other-regarding powers, underscoring the fact that a broad range of persons may be the subject of fiduciary law. This chapter first provides an overview of key concepts and context, focusing on the distinction between mandatory rules and default rules as well as sources of such rules in fiduciary law. It then considers fiduciary loyalty, citing examples that illustrate how a baseline of fiduciary accountability is implied by the essential nature of fiduciary legal institutions, along with the mandatory or default quality of the duties of care and good faith. The main thesis of this chapter is that loyalty is a basic constituent element of all fiduciary legal institutions. Whether fiduciary principles are mandatory involves a consideration and determination of whether the relationship or institution is inherently fiduciary as matter of law and legal classification. It also highlights the modern trend toward codification and clear legislative demarcation of mandatory and default rules in fiduciary law.
The Philosophy of Fiduciary Law
Authors: Webb Charlie
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the philosophy of fiduciary law. It first considers fiduciary law in relation to contract law, examining the claim that fiduciary law is no more than an application of contract law. The discussion turns to the question of loyalty as a possible value that may ground fiduciary obligations, to the no conflicts and no profits rules in fiduciary law, and to whether fiduciary obligations or fiduciary relationships should be viewed as the basic unit of fiduciary law. It concludes with the suggestion that the truly distinctive contribution of fiduciary law comes not in any distinctive principle or value it expresses but in the distinctive technique it provides, one which can be applied across a range of contexts and in support of a range of principles and values.
Fiduciary Principles in Bankruptcy and Insolvency
Authors: Pottow John A. E.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines fiduciary duties in bankruptcy and insolvency, focusing on the bankruptcy trustee’s duties, which are triggered by virtue of appointment in a case. It first provides a background on bankruptcy law in order to elucidate the doctrines and rules affecting fiduciary responsibilities in bankruptcy, citing a number of relevant provisions in the Bankruptcy Code. It then considers the fiduciary, non-fiduciary, and anti-fiduciary obligations of the trustee under the Bankruptcy Code before discussing the fiduciary duties of care and loyalty. In particular, it highlights bankruptcy-related issues raised by the duty of loyalty with respect to secured creditors, priority unsecured creditors, general unsecured creditors, and debtors. It also explores the byzantine protective remedies available to trustees should there be a breach of fiduciary duty and concludes with an analysis of miscellaneous additional duties of the trustee in insolvency, as well as the unique challenges the debtor-in-possession (DIP) faces with its duty of loyalty. The chapter suggests that the Bankruptcy Code has many safeguards designed to confront conflicting creditor incentives, both against the DIP and in insolvency, that help fill the gaps left by reliance upon fiduciary duty law alone.
Why Great Ideas Are Often Overlooked
Authors: Rietzschel Eric F. , Nijstad Bernard A. , Stroebe Wolfgang
Published: May 2019

Group creativity is far more than the generation of ideas: Ultimately, creative ideas must be recognized, valued, and selected. This chapter reviews and theoretically analyzes the relevant literature on the recognition, evaluation, and selection of creative ideas in groups. In doing so, it explains that both idea evaluation and idea selection show substantial room for improvement, with idea selection being especially problematic. The chapter argues that the underlying problem in effective idea evaluation and selection is the tension between originality and feasibility, and that highly original ideas tend to be disliked or rejected because they are perceived to be risky and unfeasible. Situational or personal factors that make implementation or feasibility concerns more salient will therefore hinder creative idea selection. After discussing the literature, the chapter addresses some possible solutions and directions for future research.
Leading Creative Groups
Authors: Mumford Michael D. , Higgs Cory , Todd E. Michelle , Martin Robert
Published: May 2019

Leaders play a critical role in group performance including groups asked to work on creative tasks. Leadership of creative groups might be understood either in terms of requisite leader behaviors or the critical functions that must be executed by those who assume leadership roles in creative groups. This chapter examines the key functions that must be performed by leaders to encourage group creativity. It argues leaders of creative groups must recruit team members, define team climate and processes, establish objectives and constraints, plan and evaluate creative work, and champion creative efforts to obtain necessary resources. The implications of these observations for understanding effective leadership for creative groups are discussed.
Evolution and Human Fatherhood
Authors: Boyette Adam H. , Gettler Lee T.
Published: May 2019

This chapter reviews research on the evolution of paternal care in humans. It examines human fatherhood within the phylogenetic distribution of paternal care in vertebrates, especially mammals. Phylogenetic comparisons draw out several correlates of paternal care across species, with the most important being social monogamy. Research on the evolution of paternal care in humans has also focused on the relationship between social monogamy and the evolution of paternal care. The chapter reviews this research and major debates around whether male provisioning was a key adaptation in the evolution of pair-bonds and human life history. It discusses evidence for direct male care and summarizes a possible evolutionary sequence of its evolution in humans. It considers studies on the neuroendocrinology of male care in humans, drawing from comparative studies where appropriate. Lastly, this chapter outlines several major biocultural frameworks for understanding population-level patterns of paternal care as integrated, developmental responses to specific socioecological factors.
Intersexual and Intrasexual Competition and Their Relation to Jealousy
Authors: Buunk Abraham P. , Massar Karlijn , Dijkstra Pieternel , Fernández Ana María
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses sex differences in intersexual competition and describes particularly the consequences of such competition for conflict between the sexes, as well as for sex differences in mate guarding and, relatedly, in the types of infidelity that evoke jealousy, including online infidelity. It also discusses individual differences in jealousy as related to attachment styles and describes the effects of height, hormones, and the menstrual cycle on jealousy. Next, the chapter moves on to intrasexual competition and discusses, among other topics, intrasexual competition among men and among women, the role of sex differences in rival characteristics in evoking jealousy, the role of attachment styles and hormones, and individual differences in intrasexual competitiveness.
Sex Differences in Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Piggott Teresa A. , Duran Alexandra N. , Jalnapurkar Isha , Kimm Tyler , Linscheid Stephanie , Allen Melissa K.
Published: May 2019

Women are more likely than men to meet lifetime criteria for an anxiety disorder. Moreover, anxiety is a risk factor for the development of other psychiatric conditions, including major depression. Numerous studies have identified evidence of sex differences in anxiety disorders, and there is considerable research concerning factors that may contribute to vulnerability for anxiety in females. In addition to psychosocial influences, biological components such as the female reproductive hormone cycle have also been implicated. Although psychotropic medication is more likely to be prescribed to women, there is little controlled data available concerning sex differences in the efficacy and/or tolerability of pharmacotherapy in anxiety disorders. This chapter provides an overview of the impact of gender in the epidemiology, phenomenology, course, and treatment response in generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder (PD), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
Sex Differences in Primate Social Relationships During Development
Authors: Benenson Joyce F.
Published: May 2019

The chapter focuses on the social development of immature primates across several species in the Cercopithecidae and Hominidae families, in particular rhesus macaques, the great apes, and humans. The chapter provides an overview of critical factors that characterize the rearing environments of immature females and males, including social structure, residence patterns, and dominance relations. Regardless of rearing environment, consistent sex differences in immatures occur in relationships with mothers, adult males, same-sex peers, and infants. Additionally, sex differences regularly are found in rates of development, quests for dominance, frequency of social play, and rate and intensity of direct aggression across species.
Involvement of the Sex Hormones in Learning and Memory
Authors: Ervin Kelsy S. J. , Choleris Elena
Published: May 2019

Learning and memory can be defined as the processes by which we acquire information about our environment and experiences, to be used later in similar situations. These cognitive processes are important for behaviors crucial to survival, such as finding food and shelter, assessing risk, and behaving appropriately in social contexts. Research provides insights into how hormones influence animal and human cognition. Here, we focus on the sex hormones, which influence both learning or acquisition and memory consolidation through two mechanisms: (i) the genomic pathways, acting longer-term to modulate gene transcription, protein expression, and structural changes implicated in establishing memory traces; and (ii) rapid pathways in which receptor activation initiates cell signaling cascades and more immediate neural responses. Investigating the roles of sex hormones in learning and memory enhances our understanding of neural networks involved in different types of learning, in ways that may be applied to human health and cognition.
Endocrine Disruptors and Other Environmental Influences on Hormone Action
Authors: Vandenberg Laura N.
Published: May 2019

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) interfere with hormone action by altering hormone synthesis, secretion, transport in the blood, binding to receptors, metabolism, or excretion. This chapter reviews the history of EDCs and other environmental chemicals, methods used to identify EDCs, and common uses for these chemicals in consumer products. It also describes major principles of endocrinology and how these features influence the actions of EDCs. This chapter will also evaluate controversies in the study and regulation of EDCs, including the concept of “low dose effects,” the question of whether humans are exposed to EDCs at levels that can cause harm, and the determination of “safe” doses of exposure. Finally, this chapter reviews other environmental factors that can influence the health of laboratory animals and interfere with the study of EDCs.
Neurotoxicant Exposures
Authors: White Roberta F. , Brand Caitlin , Claus Henn Birgit , Janulewicz Patricia A.
Published: May 2019

This chapter reviews the neuropsychological consequences of exposure to neurotoxicants, which are defined as chemicals to which individuals are exposed in the environment that adversely affect the central nervous system (CNS). The scientific evidence linking exposures to these chemicals and CNS dysfunction is reviewed. The clinical manifestations of neurotoxicant-induced brain damage are discussed, and a system for diagnosing the effects of acute and chronic exposures is outlined. Clinical neuropsychological approaches to assessing the effects of exposure on cognition, motor skills, mood, and neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental outcomes are considered. Differential diagnosis of positive neuropsychological findings, recovery from the behavioral effects of neurointoxication, and treatment and follow-up recommendations are discussed. Finally, the chapter summarizes the research and clinical challenges to understanding the CNS effects of exposures to neurotoxicants. Many chemicals are neurotoxic, and different chemicals affect the CNS in differing, highly specific ways. Thus, each section on neurotoxicant-induced brain damage begins by discussing issues relating to neurotoxicants in general, followed by a detailed discussion of lead effects on the CNS. Lead was chosen because exposure to it throughout the lifespan has been studied extensively. Tables listing the research studies that have been published on this topic through 2017 are provided. These tables summarize research methodology, populations studied, assessment of lead exposure, outcomes analyzed, and results. Separate tables outline the neuropsychological correlates that can be observed in adulthood when the exposure occurs in adulthood, in childhood, and across the lifespan.
Cognition in Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
Authors: Strassnig Martin , Harvey Philip D.
Published: May 2019

Cognitive impairments are present in patients with severe mental illness (SMI) at the time of the first psychotic episode. People with schizophrenia are more impaired across the lifespan compared to bipolar patients or patients with major depression. Although schizophrenia patients appear to generally function on a lower level than bipolar patients, the functional correlates of cognitive impairment are similar. There is much less research on cognition and its functional impact in depression, with the depression literature largely focusing on the impact of symptoms and only some recent studies examining cognition and functional capacity. Complicating both bipolar and major depressive disorders is the influence of mood states on cognition. Moreover, patients with SMI are often medically compromised, with higher rates of obesity and related comorbidities as well as poor lifestyles, which add further cognitive and functional implications. Cognitive impairments are known determinants of disability in SMI and a rate-limiting step in recovering from mental illness. Treatment options are reviewed in this chapter, and potential ways forward are discussed.
Sleep Disorders and Neurocognition
Authors: Villagran Alexandra M. , Scullin Michael K.
Published: May 2019

Sleep disorders have detrimental effects on an individual’s physical health, neurocognitive function, and psychological state. This chapter focuses specifically on two common sleep disorders: obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and insomnia. For each disorder, the chapter reviews symptomology and diagnosis, risk factors, neurocognitive consequences, treatment options, and future work required to advance knowledge and treatment of the condition. Particular attention is given to neurocognitive consequences of the condition, proposed mechanisms of neurocognitive dysfunction, and the impact of treatment on neurocognitive function. Mechanisms of neurocognitive dysfunction may include hypoxia (in OSA specifically), sleep loss and/or sleep fragmentation (leading to prefrontal cortex dysfunction), and loss of memory consolidation. Additional research is needed on whether, and how, OSA or chronic insomnia contribute to the development of dementia.
Cognition, Aging, and the Development of Dementia in Down Syndrome
Authors: Caban-Holt Allison , Powell David K. , Anderson-Mooney Amelia J. , Robertson William , Lightner Donita , Schmitt Frederick A.  , Head Elizabeth
Published: May 2019

Down syndrome (DS) or trisomy 21 is one of the most common causes of intellectual disability, and recent national prevalence estimates indicate that there are 11.8–14.47 per 10,000 live births in the United States with DS. Furthermore, the World Health Organization estimates for DS range between 10 and 11 per 10,000 live births worldwide. This chapter discusses DS as it affects intellectual and cognitive development and magnifies issues of cognitive brain aging. DS has been linked to dementia. The neurological, biomarker, behavioral, and physical manifestations, and their potentially moderating effects on cognitive functioning of individuals with DS, are described. Proposed mechanisms of action between DS and Alzheimer’s disease and suggestions for intervention and future treatments are discussed.
Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Krone Beth , Kirschenbaum Amanda , Yang Thomas , Glick Amy , Newcorn Alexander , Newcorn Jeffrey H.
Published: May 2019

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common, symptomatically heterogeneous, neurodevelopmental disorder. It’s symptoms first appear early in life and evolve as the brain matures and reorganizes over the lifespan. Cognitive dysfunction is a key feature of adult ADHD and typically manifests as a dysregulation of executive control of attention, working memory, inhibitory control, and emotion regulation rather than as a defining deficit in a specific cognitive domain. The heterogeneity of presentation, changing clinical manifestations across development, and variability in functional impairment associated with ADHD contribute to the difficulty of obtaining a “snapshot” diagnosis using a single assessment or representative battery. Careful history-taking of information across raters and settings generally reveals a pattern of symptoms beginning in childhood. Manifested impairment required for diagnosis depends on a variety of supportive or mitigating versus contributory factors. In adulthood, persisted or untreated ADHD may predispose to a variety of other conditions, including low educational and/or academic attainment, decreased earning potential, substance use or abuse, parenting and marital problems, poor health practices, a variety of risky behaviors, and a variety of comorbid Axis I and Axis II psychiatric disorders. High-functioning adults who have not previously come to clinical attention may present for care because of academic underattainment, suboptimal performance in the workplace, or behavioral or mood dysregulation. In addition, ADHD may be discovered as part of a more comprehensive workup of other disorders. A range of psychosocial and psychopharmacological treatments are available; response is often good to excellent once the disorder is properly identified.
The Spectrum of Cerebrovascular Disease and Associated Cognitive Decline
Authors: Williams Victoria J. , Arnold Steven E. , Salat David H.
Published: May 2019

Throughout the lifespan, common variations in systemic health and illness contribute to alterations in vasculature structure and function throughout the body, significantly increasing risk for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease (CVD). CVD is a prevalent cause of mortality in late life; it also promotes brain alterations, contributing to cognitive decline and, when severe, vascular dementia. Even prior to diseased states, individual variation in CVD risk is associated with structural and functional brain alterations. Yet, how cumulative asymptomatic alterations in vessel structure and function contribute to more subtle changes in brain tissue integrity and function that emerge in late life is unclear. Finally, vascular risk factors are associated with the clinical progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD); however, recent theory posits that vascular degeneration may serve a contributory role in these conditions. This chapter reviews how lifespan changes in vascular health contribute to degenerative changes in neural tissue and the subsequent development of cognitive impairment and/or vascular dementia. It first discusses associations between vascular risk factors and cognition and also how declining vascular health may lead to cognitive impairment and dementia. Next, it identifies basic aspects of cerebrovascular anatomy and physiology sustaining tissue health and discusses how vulnerabilities of this system contribute to neurodegenerative changes. Finally, it reviews evidence of vascular contributions to AD and presents ideas for future research to better understand the full spectrum of cerebrovascular contributions to brain aging, cognitive decline, and dementia.
Parkinson’s Disease and Parkinson-Plus Syndromes
Authors: Cronin-Golomb Alice , Reynolds Gretchen O. , Salazar Robert D. , Saint-Hilaire Marie-Hélène
Published: May 2019

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor symptoms arising from the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the midbrain. It is also associated with non-motor symptoms, including in cognition and mood, related to pathology elsewhere in the brain, from lower brainstem to cortex; some present well before the motor symptoms. The diagnosis of PD is based on history and clinical examination, and the cause remains unknown. The Parkinson-plus syndromes (dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy, and corticobasal degeneration) are less common than idiopathic PD. Differential diagnosis is challenging due to substantial heterogeneity in the presentation of PD, which comprises motor subtypes, and the Parkinson-plus syndromes. Treatment is symptomatic and focuses primarily on dopamine replacement and the relief of motor symptoms, although efforts are underway to also treat the debilitating non-motor symptoms through behavioral and pharmacological interventions. Neuropsychological assessment is of value in identifying and tracking changes in cognition, with the earliest and most common problems being in attention and executive function. Research on biomarkers for PD and the Parkinson-plus syndromes is increasing in regard to genetic factors, neuroimaging, and fluid markers. Moving beyond the traditional view of PD and the Parkinson-plus syndromes as motor disorders and considering the full spectrum of symptoms will be an important step toward identifying biomarkers in the prodromal phase, as well as enhancing understanding of the course of the diseases in regard to brain and behavior, which ultimately should lead to improved care on the path to cure.
Considerations for Translational Research in the Study of Adult Cognitive Disorders
Authors: Franz Erich S. , Chancellor Sarah E. , Goldstein Lee E.
Published: May 2019

Adult cognitive disorders exact a staggering burden on worldwide health care, with the need for efficacious and accessible treatments growing every day. The ability to probe questions relevant to normal or aberrant cognition in humans makes animal models indispensable tools in translational research. The use of animal models enables detailed investigation of complex interactions between genes, environment, and cognition that would be difficult or impossible in human subjects or populations. However, special consideration must be given to create specific, translatable models of human cognitive disorders. First, a model must prove statistically reliable, reproducible, and valid. Successful translational research requires thoughtful consideration and careful deployment of reliable, well-chosen animal models that are appropriately matched to their experimental purpose. In addition, to ensure specificity of a model to one disorder, it is prudent to focus on clusters of clinical features and disease-specific phenotypes in addition to environmental and genetic risk factors. Many neurological disorders share symptomatic elements in common, which drives the necessity for relevant cognitive domains to the disease in question to be carefully considered and replicated. Thoughtfully created animal models facilitate translational research aimed at understanding disease mechanisms and developing effective diagnostics, therapeutics, and preventive strategies to achieve better health care outcomes for people affected by cognitive disorders.
Issues of Diversity in Cognitive Aging
Authors: Barnes Lisa L.
Published: May 2019

Cognitive impairment associated with aging and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is among the most common and debilitating conditions, and it poses a major public health problem. Projections indicate that the prevalence of cognitive impairment is expected to increase substantially in the next decade. This will be particularly true for minority populations, especially the older African American population, which is growing at an even more rapid pace than the older majority population. This chapter presents an overview of studies that have examined racial differences in cognitive aging. Studies have found consistent level differences in cognitive performance, with older African Americans tending to score lower on cognitive tests compared to similarly aged non-Hispanic Whites, even after adjusting for confounding factors such as education and socioeconomic status. Such findings have led to the proposal that African Americans are more likely to have cognitive impairment and are at greater risk of AD. The chapter presents critical challenges in comparing African Americans and Whites on cognitive function tests, and it discusses the utility of using longitudinal designs to compare the racial groups. It also discusses critical barriers to understanding of racial differences in the field and offers concrete actions that should be taken to move the field forward in this area.
Nation, Nation-State, and Nationalism
Authors: Breuilly John
Published: May 2019

Max Weber published a good deal as a German nationalist. He wrote about nation and state as a social scientist. Much of his political writing promoted German interests at home and abroad. As a scientist he wrote about ethnic community, national community, and state (though rather less about nationalism and nation-state). The present chapter argues that there are problems in relating these political and scientific writings to each other and that his theorizing of the concept of nation is inadequate by his own standards. However, his basic sociological concepts suggest better ways of understanding nation and nationalism, and the chapter will sketch out such an approach.
The Supranational Dimension in Max Weber’s Vision of Politics
Authors: Palonen Kari
Published: May 2019

Max Weber analyzed politics from the perspective of Chancen for actors, and he never separated world politics from domestic politics. The “Westphalian balance” between great European powers shaped Weber’s views on international polity. However, he also regarded Western individualism, human rights, and parliamentary democracy as necessary qualities to possess in order to be recognized as a great power. This vision provided the basis for his wartime critique of the expansionist tendencies in German foreign policy and for his demand for the parliamentarization of German politics. After the end of World War I, Weber used Woodrow Wilson’s idea of the League of Nations as the basis for a proposal on new treaty legislation on war guilt. By doing so, he also identified chances for introducing supranational elements to world politics. The final part of the chapter applies a Weberian political imagination to the interpretation of the United Nations and the European Union as supranational institutions.