bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
13 Clinical Asthma Trials
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines four ethical issues raised by clinical asthma research involving children subjects: (1) to what extent are clinical asthma trials designed as placebo-controlled trials as opposed to active-drug controlled trials?; (2) do placebo-controlled trials in a condition like asthma place the research subjects at increased risk of harm?; (3) are the new guidelines promoting increased access of children to research changing the enrollment pattern of children in research?; and (4) are the new guidelines achieving their goal of garnering useful information about medication safety, efficacy, and dosing for children as a class? It is argued that children are a vulnerable population in clinical research and need additional protection. This means that the former recommendations of the National Commission to perform research first on animals, second on adults, and only then on children should be maintained. It also means that when children are involved, highest scientific and ethical standards must be maintained.
3 Justice, Peace, and History: A Reappraisal
Authors: Keller Alexis
Published: June 2006

According to Keller, we have no hope of explaining what is or is not a Just Peace in global relations unless we pay more attention to the intellectual context in which international law was formed. From its birth in the 16th century, there was a progressive retreat by Europeans from conceding sovereign rights to specific non-European peoples, to then only recognizing a conditional sovereignty, and eventually to denying any right to self-determination of non-white peoples. However, there was a tradition of thought that recognized and accommodated cultural diversity that can be found in the writings of Montesquieu and Rousseau, among others. This chapter argues that these writers proposed one of the cornerstones of the concept of a Just Peace, the principle of recognition. This notion was developed from an effort to understand another’s point of view and an appreciation of otherness.
Peace, Justice, and Religion
Authors: Little David
Published: June 2006

Little raises many questions of international legality in addressing the finer concepts of peace enforcing, peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace building. He accentuates the rule of law, democracy, and human rights as foundations for each of these stages towards a Just Peace. Looking towards collectively accepted international treaties for a concept of justice, Little taps into a notion of legal validity that is at least partially composed of a legitimacy that emanates from the people themselves. Although there are valid reasons for questioning who has been allowed to participate in the process developing international law, protecting the human rights of all, and labelling it justice certainly does not seem to create an untenable starting point. In fact, this approach that looks to protect the rights of all can be quite constructive because, ultimately, it is the people involved in a conflict who will determine whether a peace is just, and therefore lasting.
Marcellus of Ancyra and the Lost Years of the Arian Controversy 325-345
Authors: Parvis Sara
Published: June 2006

In the recent explosion of scholarship on the Arian controversy, the years immediately after Nicaea have been comparatively neglected. This is partly because the prevailing view in the English-speaking world is that either there was no real theological controversy at all during the years 325-345, merely a general distaste for the activities of Athanasius of Alexandria, or that there was a general fear throughout the East of the theology of Marcellus of Ancyra, uniting Eastern bishops against him. This book argues that neither of these positions can be sustained on the basis of the available evidence. It examines closely the evidence for episcopal attendance at the important councils of these years, and shows that all were demonstrably partial; that there was never a majority of politically active Eastern bishops against Marcellus, Athanasius, or their fellow supporter of Alexander, Eustathius of Antioch; and that Marcellus was deposed for theological opinions which he did not hold in the manner attributed to him. These years are best made sense of by returning to the idea of two theological and political alliances at war with one another before, during, and long after Nicaea, which only began to fragment in the early 340s after the death of Eusebius of Nicomedia and the falling-out of Marcellus and Athanasius over the so-called ‘Western Creed of Serdica’.
1Marcellus
Authors: Parvis Sara
Published: June 2006

This chapter presents Marcellus as the ambitious and capable young canon law-maker responsible for the 314 Synod of Ancyra, with its 25 canons on penance, the recent persecution, and other subjects. He emerges as a compassionate and level-headed pastor, even-handed in his treatment of women and men, in contrast to the makers of the Canons of Iliberris (Elvira). The theology of his major work, Against Asterius, is also briefly sketched.
2Nicaea
Authors: Parvis Sara
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the evidence for membership of the two alliances which squared up against one another before Nicaea, including the names and numbers on both sides, and the degree to which nameable individuals committed themselves politically. The theological affinities and differences of Alexander of Alexandria’s allies are studied, particularly those of Marcellus with each of the rest. The significance of the initial calling of the ‘great and priestly synod’ for Ancyra rather than Nicaea is considered. It is argued that the synod was not originally called by Constantine but by the pro-Alexander alliance, and moved by him to his own palace to promote peace. The Synod of Antioch is discussed and dated to 324. It is argued that Marcellus had little influence on the Nicene Creed, which was not characteristic of his theology and which he never defended, but probably rather more on the canons of Nicaea.
3 From Nicaea to the Death of Constantine
Authors: Parvis Sara
Published: June 2006

This chapter argues that Eustathius of Antioch’s deposition took place in autumn 327 as a result of real or faked evidence of sexual misdemeanour, triggering a reversal by Constantine of his previous ecclesiastical policy. It is suggested that Marcellus wrote his Against Asterius partly in response to this event and to the subsequent return of Eusebius of Nicomedia. It is argued that Marcellus, like Athanasius, was trapped by a summons to the Synod of Tyre in 335 when he refused to accept Arius’ reception back into communion at Jerusalem, despite Constantine’s orders. Marcellus’ trial is examined from the accounts of Sozomen and Eusebius of Caesarea, and his innocence established of the theological charges brought.
From the Exiles' Return to the Dedication Synod of Antioch
Authors: Parvis Sara
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the complex events of 337-341, arguing that the returning exiles were probably not re-deposed on the basis of new synods, but of the earlier ones. The Dedication Synod of 341 was, if not the voice of the ‘moderate majority’ of Eastern bishops, at least a breath of fresh air on the Eastern ecclesiastical scene, allowing new voices to be heard such as that of Basil of Ancyra. The synod’s creeds and its reply to the letter of Julius of Rome are examined and given a context. It is argued that the synod found its unity in condemning the theology of Marcellus of Ancyra, lampooned in a speech by Acacius of Caesarea, though on somewhat different grounds from those on which Marcellus had originally been deposed.
Left‐Liberalism Revisited
Authors: Kymlicka Will
Published: June 2006

This essay considers how the left’s traditionally uneasy relationship with liberalism has been challenged by recent left-wing engagements with liberal conceptions of equality, of which Cohen’s work is the pre-eminent example. It argues that the liberal concern for individual responsibility has proved a necessary corrective to traditional left-wing ideas of egalitarianism that endorse the unconditional redistribution of wealth.
2 Throwing a Veil Over Equality: Equality and Hypocrisy in the Revolutionary Era
Authors: Elster Jon
Published: June 2006

This essay considers how the American and French revolutionaries, famous defenders of the ideal of equality, contrived to evade the implications of that ideal when it came to slaves or workers. It contends that the hypocrisy of the revolutionaries is particularly egregious given that they stood to profit personally from the reduced scope of their egalitarianism.
4 Justice, Responsibility, and the Demands of Equality
Authors: Scanlon T. M.
Published: June 2006

This essay considers the disagreement between Cohen and Rawls on the question of whether individuals should be held responsible for their tastes and preferences. It notes the difference in principle, since the primary goods measure of Rawls holds individuals responsible for their choices as to how to deploy these goods, whereas Cohen’s aim is to equalize access to advantage, and thereby the satisfaction of persons, however costly. It is argued that since Cohen concedes that practical matters of application might compromise egalitarian principle, the two thinkers might be, in practice, not that dissimilar.
Mr. Morgan's Yacht
Authors: Waldron Jeremy
Published: June 2006

This essay takes up Cohen’s inquiry into freedom and property. It celebrates his evocative example for its illustration of how property restricts the freedom of the majority for the sake of the freedom of the propertied. However, although Cohen’s insistence on a view of liberty that is not moralized is salutary in this debate, there is also some loss. There remains some moral appeal to the idea of possession even if freedom, suitably demoralized, is not at issue. Moreover, there is some risk that Cohen’s ‘denuded’ conception of liberty will fail to capture the significance of liberty and why we should care about it.
Is there a Human Right to Democracy?
Authors: Cohen Joshua
Published: June 2006

This essay answers ‘no’ to the question raised in its title. It affirms that democracy is a political order that produces all kinds of important benefits and that justice requires democracy. However, in contrast to G.A. Cohen’s insistence that facts not infect principles, it also calls for taking account of context, in this case at least: democracy is a demanding political ideal that would be inappropriate as an object of global responsibility. A society might fall short of being fully democratic without violating human rights. Moreover, if we insist that there is a human right to democracy, a strategy designed to elevate democracy by giving it some kind of universal status might in fact end up diluting its substance.
Words without Objects
Authors: Laycock Henry
Published: June 2006

The book seeks to resolve the so-called ‘problem of mass nouns’ — a problem which cannot be resolved on the basis of a conventional system of logic. It is not, for instance, possible to explicate assertions of the existence of air, oil, or water through the use of quantifiers and variables which take objectual values. The difficulty is attributable to the semantically distinctive status of non-count nouns — nouns which, although not plural, are nonetheless akin to plural nouns in being semantically non-singular. Such are the semantics of a non-singular noun, that there can be no such single thing or object as the thing of which the noun is true. However, standard approaches to understanding non-singular nouns tend to be reductive, construing them as singular expressions — expressions which, in the case of non-count nouns, are true of ‘parcels’ or ‘quantities’ of stuff, and in the case of plural nouns, are true of ‘plural entities’ or ‘sets’. It is argued that both approaches are equally misguided, that there are no distinctive objects in the extensions of non-singular nouns. With plural nouns, their extensions are identical with those of the corresponding singular expressions. With non-count nouns, because they are not plural, there can be no corresponding singular expressions. In consequence, there are no objects in the extensions of non-count nouns at all. In short, there are no such things as instances of stuff: the world of space and time contains not merely large numbers of discrete concrete things or individuals of diverse kinds, but also large amounts of sheer undifferentiated concrete stuff. Metaphysically, non-singular reference in general is an arbitrary modality of reference, ungrounded in the realities to which it is non-ideally or intransparently correlated.
1 A Proposed Semantical Solution to the So‐called ‘Problem of Mass Nouns’
Authors: Laycock Henry
Published: June 2006

This chapter takes issue with the common assumption that referential expressions and definite descriptions involving ‘mass nouns’ are semantically singular, thereby designating so-called parcels of matter or individual instances of stuff. The trouble is that whereas count nouns are either singular or plural, the so-called mass nouns, because they are non-count, are semantically neither singular nor plural. Russell’s Theory of Descriptions as well as considerations on persistence, identity, and flux are invoked to reinforce this point.
2 In Thrall to the Idea of The One
Authors: Laycock Henry
Published: June 2006

The curiously sweeping assumption that all reference is ‘ultimately’ singular — even in the case of plural or non-count reference — is presented and examined. In the case of plural reference, especially when associated with collective predication, the assumption takes the form of the thought that this is reference to collective entities, plural objects, or sets. Perhaps the most suggestive and profound, albeit notorious idea of this genre is Russell’s doctrine of the ‘class as many’. George Boolos’ explicitly ‘no-class’ approach to the logic of plurality is then compared favourably with ‘reductive’ approaches.
3 Non‐count Descriptions and Non‐singularity
Authors: Laycock Henry
Published: June 2006

The second application of the assumption that singular reference is ‘ultimately’ exhaustive also represents non-count reference as singular — as reference to individual ‘quantities’ or ‘parcels’ of stuff. Unsurprisingly, the idea is sometimes explicitly advanced on the model of plural reference as singular. However, any such view must attempt to circumvent the difficulties posed by Russell’s analysis of the conditions, whereby descriptions count as semantically singular. It is argued that such an attempt cannot succeed.
4 Quantification and its Discontents
Authors: Laycock Henry
Published: June 2006

The chapter focuses on quantification as it figures in standard versions of the predicate calculus. These versions are straightforwardly reductive in that non-singular sentences must be re-cast into singular form if they are to receive representation. However, various non-singular sentences, including certain kinds of plural sentences, are refractory to representation in this form. Essentially singular forms of quantifier-expression must be distinguished from non-singular forms to lay the basis for sui generis non-singular forms of quantification, appropriate to both plural nouns and non-count nouns. The maxim ‘to be is to be the value of a variable’ must be rejected.
Future People
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This book develops a new theory of the obligations to future generations, based on a new Rule Consequentialist account of the morality of individual reproduction. The result is a coherent, intuitively plausible moral theory that is not unreasonably demanding — even when extended to cover future people — and that accounts for a wide range of independently plausible intuitions covering individual morality, intergenerational justice, and international justice. In particular, it is superior to its two main rivals in this area: person-affecting theories and traditional Consequentialism. The former fall foul of Parfit’s Non-Identity Problem, while the latter are invariably implausibly demanding. Furthermore, many puzzles in contemporary value theory (such as Parfit’s Repugnant Conclusion) are best solved if strict Consequentialism is abandoned for a more moderate alternative. The heart of the book is the first systematic exploration of the Rule Consequentialist account of the morality of individual reproduction. This yields a strong commitment to reproductive freedom, and also provides the best foundation for a liberal theory of intergenerational and international justice. The final chapters argue that while it will include a Rule Consequentialist account of the morality of reproduction, the best overall moral theory is likely to be a composite one, such as the Combined Consequentialism the author developed in The Demands of Consequentialism.
Rule Consequentialism
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This chapter explores Rule Consequentialism. It begins with a brief introduction to contemporary Rule Consequentialism, focusing on Brad Hooker’s formulation. A new formulation of Rule Consequentialism is developed, incorporating the lexical value theory presented in Chapter 3. It then demonstrates the general intuitive appeal of this formulation, focusing on parental obligations to demonstrate that Rule Consequentialism avoids at least one of the failings of the Hybrid View.
Disagreement and Uncertainty
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

This chapter explores how those who have internalized the Rule Consequentialist ideal code will respond to disagreement and uncertainty. The ensuing discussion reinforces the Rule Consequentialist commitment to liberty and democracy, develops a new set of arguments for majoritarian democracy over entrenched constitutions, and shows how Rule Consequentialism responds to the threat of annihilation.
International Justice
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

A complete Rule Consequentialist theory must outline the obligations of one nation to another, and of individuals in one nation to individuals in another, and tell us how these should be balanced against our obligations to both present and future people in our own nation. This chapter focuses on a few specific issues at the intersection between international and intergenerational justice, where Rule Consequentialism threatens to be very demanding. It explores the structure of the obligations the ideal code places on the present generation of affluent people regarding people in other lands, focusing on the concept of group autonomy and drawing on some recent work by Thomas Pogge.
Dividing Morality
Authors: Mulgan Tim
Published: June 2006

The solution to the problems raised in Chapter 10, is to limit the scope of Rule Consequentialism to one particular subset of moral choices: those belonging to a ‘Realm of Reciprocity’. While the particular division used in this chapter draws heavily on the solution to the Demandingness Objection presented in The Demands of Consequentialism, the principal aim is to defend the general idea of dividing morality into realms and to show how a Rule Consequentialist account of the morality of reproduction might fit into such a division. This chapter should be of interest to anyone who found the accounts offered in Chapters 5-9, but who rejects Rule Consequentialism as a complete moral theory, whether on the basis of Chapter 10 or on other grounds.
Syntactic Restriction Strategies
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines approaches to the paradox that wish to save anti-realism from the paradox by denying that the knowability assumption is a commitment of anti-realism. Such approaches contend that the claim that all truths are knowable must be restricted in some way to express an anti-realist commitment. All examples of such an approach are rejected, and it is argued that even if there was a successful restriction strategy, the paradox would remain untouched.
Semantical Moves
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: June 2006

This chapter pursues a strategy for solving the knowability paradox in terms of the general category of the fallacies involved in substituting into intensional contexts. It clarifies and defends the indexical theory of quantification. It argues that the neo-Russellian view of quantification blocks the proofs from knowable truth to known truth (and from unknown truth to unknowable truth), and that the objections raised in the literature to this approach are not damaging.
Conclusion
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: June 2006

This chapter discusses the process of developing a solution to knowability paradox. It presents a detailed analysis of the paradox. It argues that the neo-Russellian theory of quantification is the only acceptable solution to the paradox, since no other approach offers any hope of addressing the fundamental paradoxicality involved in asserting a lost logical distinction between actuality and possibility.
The God of Metaphysics
Authors: Sprigge T. L. S.
Published: June 2006

Many thinkers have said that a God whose existence is argued for metaphysically would have no religious significance even if he existed. This book examines the God or Absolute which emerges in various metaphysical systems and asks whether he, she, or it could figure in any genuinely religious outlook. The systems studied are those of Spinoza, Hegel, T. H. Green, F. H. Bradley (very briefly), Bernard Bosanquet, Josiah Royce, A. N. Whitehead, Charles Hartshorne. There is also a chapter on Kierkegaard as the most important critic of metaphysical religion (especially Hegelian Christianity). The book ends with a statement of a form of absolute or pantheistic idealism espoused by the author and an indication of what religious significance it may have.
Chapter 7 Josiah Royce
Authors: Sprigge T.L.S.
Published: June 2006

This chapter begins with a description of the life of Josiah Royce. It then discusses the following themes from Royce: proof of the existence of God, ethical theory, and the problem of evil in The Religious Aspect of Philosophy; the panpsychism of The Spirit of Modern Philosophy; the four conceptions of being in The World and the Individual; time and eternity and the worlds of description and acquaintance mainly in The Spirit of Modern Philosophy; and the notion of the beloved community in The Philosophy of Loyalty and The Problem of Christianity. Some comments on Royce as a religious thinker and man are presented.
Chapter 9 Pantheistic Idealism
Authors: Sprigge T.L.S.
Published: June 2006

This chapter presents the author’s own point of view. It is a form of absolute idealism quite close to that of F. H. Bradley but also influenced by Spinoza, Josiah Royce, and process philosophy. ‘Pantheistic’ may be a more appropriate term than ‘absolute’ idealism to dissociate it from any absurd reduction of Nature to the human experience of it. The nature of metaphysical truth, experience, panpsychism, ethics, problem of evil, and absolute idealism and religion are analyzed. It is claimed that absolute idealism has a certain religious character of its own.
Religious Belief and Unbelief
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

According to the Christian faith, the reason why certain people do not believe in God is willful unbelief, i.e., spiritual blindness. Christians hold that God is ultimate reality and that God makes covenants with human beings. People become convinced of God’s presence through the inward testimony of the Holy Spirit, although natural theology can show that religious belief is warranted. Belief in God, even if it is based on private evidence, can be rational.
4 Perichoretic Monotheism
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

This chapter discusses the concept of the Trinity and the distinction between the Latin theory of the Trinity and the Eastern or Social Theory of the Trinity. An a priori argument in favor of the Social Theory is given, and objections to the Social Theory raised by Brian Leftow are answered. The concept of perichoresis is important for both understanding and defending the Social Theory. The Latin Theory and the Social Theory are two appropriate ways of talking about the mystery of the Trinity.
Why the Historical Jesus Matters
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

There has often been an adversarial relationship between the “search for the historical Jesus” and the Church. But Christian belief and practice must be correctly related to Jesus, so the search is important to Christianity. It is argued that the New Testament picture of Jesus is basically accurate and reliable. Paul’s statements about Jesus are examined. It is significant that Mark’s picture of Jesus was convincing to Matthew and Luke. Jesus’ self-understanding in the Gospels is examined, and it is argued that he implicitly claimed to be divine.
Was Jesus Raised Bodily?
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

It is rational for those who believe that Jesus was raised from the dead to believe that he was bodily raised from the dead. However, this is not the same as resuscitation. The concept of “spiritual resurrection”, popular with some New Testament scholars, is rejected as vague and inconsistent with Scripture. It is argued that bodily resurrection was what Paul believed, and that the New Testament accounts of the resurrection appearances present a unified picture. It is further argued that Jesus’ resurrection is an example of “bodily transformation”. Jesus’ resurrection body was numerically identical (but not qualitatively identical) to his pre-mortem body.
The Wrath of God and the Blood of Chirst
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

This chapter defends two venerable but largely ignored concepts in the general area of atonement: the wrath of God and the blood of Christ. The first is important because it constitutes a barrier against any sort of general moral or religious relativism. The second is important because it is always costly to rectify a terribly wrong situation. Contrary to the theory that Jesus’ life and death was essentially a fine moral example to emulate, some sort of robust atonement, like the death of the Son of God, is necessary. It is also argued that hell is compatible with the love of God.
Scripture, Tradition, and Theological Authority
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

Catholics and Protestants differ on the issue of theological authority, with Catholics opting for “Scripture and Tradition” and Protestants preferring “Scripture alone”. Different interpretations of these slogans are discussed, and a plausible version of the second is presented. The second is said to be preferable to the first, although an important place for tradition must be preserved; tradition is necessary, but scripture must take priority. Four objections to the theory expounded here are answered.
The Bible is True
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: June 2006

Christians hold that God uniquely speaks to us in the Bible. The saying, “The Bible is true”, may mean submitting to the Bible, placing ourselves under its theological and religious authority. The theories of biblical authority of Nicholas Wolterstorff and Mark Wallace are discussed. Trusting or submitting to the Bible is not a random choice, but based on the conviction that the Bible is objectively trustworthy; this conviction is crucial for the Christian community.
The Beloved Disciple in Conflict?
Authors: Dunderberg Ismo
Published: June 2006

The relationship between the Gospel of John and the Gospel of Thomas has become a hotly debated issue, with several scholars arguing that John and Thomas are gospels in conflict. The first part of this book argues that the two gospels were written about the same time, but without knowledge of each other. Their authors drew upon similar Jewish and early Christian traditions independently from each other. The second part is devoted to the enigmatic ‘disciple Jesus loved’ in the Gospel of John, arguing that this disciple was created not only to authenticate this gospel, but also to replace the brothers of Jesus. Hence, this figure was developed in the context of a conflict, but that conflict was not related to Thomasine Christianity but to Jewish Christianity.
1 Introduction
Authors: Dunderberg Ismo
Published: June 2006

This chapter outlines the main positions in recent discussions related to the relationship between John and Thomas. It shows that the two gospels do share a number of theological convictions, which make their comparison a meaningful task. The fact that they represent different literary genres should be carefully taken into account in analyzing them. In principle, it is possible that Thomas’ relationship to John varies from one saying to another.
6 The Beloved Disciple and Thomas
Authors: Dunderberg Ismo
Published: June 2006

This chapter shows that there is neither a sufficient basis for the identification of the Beloved Disciple with Thomas, nor for the theory that the Syrian Judas Thomas tradition had some impact on how this disciple is described in John. A clear difference between the Johannine Beloved Disciple and the picture of Thomas drawn in the Gospel of Thomas is delineated. Unlike the latter, the Beloved Disciple is not described in terms of his better understanding or having access to the secret teaching of Jesus.
8 Conclusion
Authors: Dunderberg Ismo
Published: June 2006

This chapter offers a summary of results and a brief reflection on how scholars’ reading of the Gospel of John is affected by the fact that it is included in the NT canon. This fact explains why there is a need to bring John and Thomas closer to each other than they really are. This fact also generates new theories as to the identity of the Beloved Disciple and his role in the Johannine community.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Rory
Published: June 2006

This introductory chapter begins with an explanation of the author’s motivations for writing this book. It then discusses the scope of the study, and the references and methodology used. A brief overview of the chapter included in this volume is presented.
6 On Measurement and Numbering
Authors: Fox Rory
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines 13th century views on issues of measurement, particularly temporal measurement. It shows that 13th century thinkers distinguished between a variety of ways in which the word ‘measure’ (mensura) could be used; distinguishing between Platonic senses which were typically used to compare particulars in relation to their ontological perfection, and Aristotelian senses of the word ‘measure’ which were used to give an account of the metric of time. When applying measurement theory, 13th century thinkers would typically distinguish between the intrinsic and extrinsic measure. The intrinsic measure was the ‘subject’ of a particular kind of measure; the perfect standard which was the actual measure used in measuring other particulars of that same kind. When it came to carrying out actual measurements, the extrinsic measure was the ruler or clock, or other type of measure, which was an instance of the perfect standard laid down by the intrinsic measure, and which could then be used in concrete practical situations to carry out actual measurements.
7 Time and Atemporality
Authors: Fox Rory
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the criteria which medieval thinkers used to determine whether a particular should be located in time, and the terminology and phrases used to suggest that particulars were outside, beyond, or existing alongside time. There were at least nine factors which 13th century thinkers were inclined to identify as implying temporality, factors which actually identified two broadly different kinds of time. There was time in its most general sense as simply a duration in which particulars undergo successive states and experience decay, and then there was a more precise or more proper sense of time in which the changing states of particulars were thought to be measured by the metric determined by the Primum Mobile. When 13th century figures spoke of particulars as existing outside, above, or with time, they were intending to exclude such particulars from the scope of ‘time’, but were not always clear about which account of time they were referring to.
10 God and Time
Authors: Fox Rory
Published: June 2006

This chapter examines the question of how 13th century thinkers viewed God’s relationship to time. It is argued that mid-13th century accounts of God’s relationship to time are trying to affirm something that does not fall within the ambit of the concepts and thought patterns used by contemporary philosophers. Taking as their point of departure a universe populated and organized very differently from contemporary philosophical models, it should not be surprising that their thought refuses to be categorized and confined by the parameters of contemporary distinctions, such as that between timelessness and everlastingness.
3 Two Fundamental Types of Specification
Authors: Pilsner Joseph
Published: June 2006

In order to understand the specification of human action, it is helpful to explore the specification of two other kinds of realities: natural corporeal beings and natural motions. For Aquinas, a natural corporeal being is any creature having matter as a constituent, such as a plant or animal; a being of this kind receives its species from its form. A natural motion is any naturally occurring change, such as growing, becoming healthier, or going from one place to another. Aquinas says that any such motion receives its species from both its ‘terminus to which’ and its active principle. These two types of specification are significant for this present study not only because they reveal important information about specification, but also because Aquinas will use them as starting points from which to explain the specification of human action.
4 End
Authors: Pilsner Joseph
Published: June 2006

Aquinas asserts that ends specify human actions, and explains this point by comparing human actions with other realities. For example, he maintains that an end is comparable to a form in a natural corporeal being (such as a plant or animal), for just as no material creature exists or has a species without a form, no human action can come to be or be of a particular kind unless a human agent wills some definite end. Even more important for Aquinas is a comparison with natural motions (such as changes in place, colour, or size). He thinks that as a subsensory motion is specified by its active principle (the nature from which the motion arises) and its ‘terminus to which’ (the motion’s final resting point), so a human action is specified by its active principle (the rational good or end which attracts the agent) and its ‘terminus to which’ (the action’s arrival at the agent’s intended goal).
Aristotle on the Transmutation of the Elements in De Generatione Et Corruptione I. 1–4
Authors: Bostock David
Published: June 2006

This essay is concerned with the contrast that Aristotle draws between ‘generation’ and ‘alteration’ in GC I.1-4, and its implications for ‘prime matter’. Aristotle believes that when one element (e.g., air) becomes another (e.g., water), this is a case of generation as opposed to alteration, and he attempts to explain what generation is in a way that will allow for this. It is argued that his attempts are clearly a failure, and are due to a mistaken appreciation of the question which should be understood as: When is the alteration of some persisting matter at the same time the generation of a new substance? It is also argued that when the question is thus revised, the answer should be that when one of Aristotle’s elements is transformed into another, this should not count as the generation of a new substance.
Aristotle's Theory of Matter
Authors: Bostock David
Published: June 2006

This essay opens with a summary of Aristotle’s general position on matter and change, which leads to the question: What is the criterion of identity that we apparently need to make sense of the idea that the same matter persists through some change? The essay then explores this question on its own account, with almost no further reference to Aristotle’s own views. It is argued that although some progress can be made with this question, a fully satisfying answer is not available on Aristotelian terms. It is then questioned whether this is at all a serious defect in his conception. Some final remarks briefly indicate how his conception of matter has fared over the centuries between him and us.
Aristotle on Teleology in Nature
Authors: Bostock David
Published: June 2006

This essay begins by approving Aristotle’s general argument for teleology in Physics II.8. It then explores his use of teleological explanations in the biological works, distinguishing his practice when actually giving explanations from his theory of how these explanations work. It is argued that while the practical instances usually make good sense, the theoretical explanation which identifies telos with form is wholly misleading. This brings the discussion back to the very puzzling chapter 9 of Physics II, and thence to a consideration of the idea that absolutely everything in nature is for some purpose. There are places where Aristotle seems to endorse this, although a more sober view would also assign a role to what may be called ‘laws of matter’, independent of teleology. The essay ends with some general reflections on Aristotle’s view of explanation in the natural sciences.
A Note on Aristotle's Account of Place
Authors: Bostock David
Published: June 2006

This brief note discusses a thesis due to Ben Morison: that Aristotle’s account of place can be rescued from the usual objections by accepting his claim that the universe as a whole is at rest, and taking the relevant ‘surrounding body’ always to be the universe as a whole. It is argued that this defence does not work because the relevant body that Aristotle believes to be at rest is the earth, which is not (usually) a ‘surrounding’ body, but which should have played a crucial role in his account of place.
Aristotle's Account of Time
Authors: Bostock David
Published: June 2006

This essay says something about nearly every aspect of Aristotle’s discussion of time. The most difficult question of interpretation is what Aristotle might have meant by describing time as ‘a number’. The main question of evaluation is whether there really is any connection between time and motion. Both of these issues and many minor issues are addressed.
The UN Security Council and Informal Groups of States
Authors: Prantl Jochen
Published: June 2006

This book examines the dynamics between informal groups of states and the UN Security Council in the management of conflicts in Namibia, El Salvador, and Kosovo. It sets forth three main arguments. Firstly, that informal groups of states are agents of incremental change. They proliferated in the 1990s out of the increasing demands on the United Nations to adapt to the new security environment of the post-bipolar world, without formally changing the constitutional foundation of the Organization. Secondly, that informal mechanisms may narrow the operational and participatory gap growing out of the multiple incapacities that prevent the Security Council from formulating an effective response to crisis situations. Informal groups of states may enhance Council governance if they strike a balance between competing demands of inclusiveness, efficiency, informality, transparency, and accountability. Thirdly, that the post-Cold War era has fostered an environment where the substance of conflict resolution and the process of its legitimation have become increasingly detached. The former tends to be delegated to informal groups or coalition of states, while the Security Council provides the latter. The successful merger of right process and substantive outcome may strengthen the legitimacy of the Council and make actions taken by informal settings more acceptable.
Introduction
Authors: Prantl Jochen
Published: June 2006

This chapter introduces and defines the terms ‘informal groups of states’, ‘groups of friends’, and ‘contact groups’. It develops a synergistic analytical framework, identifying the causal mechanisms that contribute to the formation of informal groups of states by borrowing from insights of theories of agency and delegation. It challenges the proposition that centralization and independence are key functional characteristics of international organizations which enhance efficiency. Instead, it argues that decentralization via informal groups of states allows the achievement of policy goals that would be unattainable in a centralized setting. The typology of exit, voice, and loyalty is incorporated into analytical framework to explain the dynamics between informal groups and the Security Council. Such an approach provides substantial explanatory leverage to explain the institutional effects of the Security Council under conditions of systemic change. The chapter concludes with an outline of the book’s contents.
1 Janus‐faced Structure of the Security Council: Open System and Closed Shop
Authors: Prantl Jochen
Published: June 2006

This chapter analyzes the institutional setting of the United Nations. The underlying assumption is that the Security Council can best be described as a Janus-faced structure of both an open system and a closed shop. This notion reflects the Council’s sensitivity towards external change, while the restrictive provisions of the Charter constrain the possibilities of formal adaptation. The chapter examines: (1) the role of great powers in international organizations, (2) the role and function of the Security Council according to the Charter of the United Nations, and (3) the ‘constitutional practice’ of the Council, elaborating on certain variants of the collective security scheme as envisioned in the Charter.
4 Conclusion: Exit, Voice, and Loyalty as Analytical Framework
Authors: Prantl Jochen
Published: June 2006

This chapter develops various propositions on the dynamics between informal groups of states and the UN Security Council by applying the analytical framework of exit, voice, and loyalty. It argues that informal mechanisms may enhance SC governance if they are able to strike a balance between inclusiveness, efficiency, informality, transparency, and accountability.
6 El Salvador: Group of Friends of the UN Secretary‐General
Authors: Prantl Jochen
Published: June 2006

The UN Secretariat assumed the leading role as intermediary to reach a negotiated settlement of the conflict in El Salvador. The Friends of the Secretary-General on El Salvador somewhat revived the concept of the advisory committees that had been established in the 1950s. The transformation of the bipolar system created the permissive political context for a leading role of the United Nations, with the United States and the Soviet Union as guardians of the process in the background. Given the relative success of the Friends, the concept turned into a model which was subsequently applied — with mixed results — to crises in Haiti, Guatemala, Western Sahara, and Georgia.
Kosovo: Quint, G‐8, and Troika
Authors: Prantl Jochen
Published: June 2006

This chapter illustrates the extreme case of conducting crisis management outside the UN framework without explicit authorization of the Security Council. It argues that despite the marginalization of the Security Council in the management of the crisis, the institution continued to exert a pull on the players to seek post-hoc legitimization of the settlement. The prospect of re-involving the United Nations constituted an important precondition for the resolution of conflict. Ancillary to the first point, G-8 and Troika were instrumental in providing a platform for the re-involvement of the United Nations. Exiting the UN framework allowed the use of military force, which the Western Alliance considered necessary to achieve political outcomes. The retreat to informal settings such as Quint, G-8, and Troika allowed the merging of the military and political track of conflict management that had been disconnected.
Conclusions: Implications for Governance of the UN Security Council
Authors: Prantl Jochen
Published: June 2006

This chapter summarizes the causes of informal groups of states and their effects on Security Council governance. It argues that those informal settings are changing the role of the UN Security Council in the international system. The functions of diplomatic problem-solving and its collective legitimization have become separate from one another. This has implications for the understanding of power, legitimacy, and change in the theory of international relations.
I: The Meaning of the First Person Term
Authors: Gaynesford Maximilian de
Published: June 2006

The central claim of this book is that I is a deictic term, like the other singular personal pronouns You and He/She. This is true of the logical character, inferential role, referential function, expressive use, and communicative role of all and only expressions used to formulate first-personal reference in any language. The first part of the book shows why the standard account of I as a ‘pure indexical’ (‘purism’) should be rejected. Purism requires three mutually supportive doctrines which turn out to be myths: a) that a simple rule is sufficient to give the meaning of I (‘rule theory’); b) that one can use I to express thoughts without having to identify what is being referred to (‘independence’); and c) that as a matter of the meaning of I, any use of the term is logically guaranteed against failure to refer (‘the guarantee’). The second part of the book shows why the radically new account of I should be endorsed as a deictic term. Substitution instances and the behaviour of I in inference reveal that it has an obligatorily deictic logical character and inferential role. I fulfils its referential function in the deictic way, providing determinacy of reference by making an individual referentially salient in the extra-sentential context. The discriminability of the referent of an I-use depends on recognizing the referentially salient individual. This is true of its discriminability both to the reference-maker and to the audience. So I has the expressive use and communicative role of a deictic term. The conclusion of the book directs research towards the next step, showing how the meaning of I may be used to elucidate the thoughts expressed by the term, and from there questions relating to self-knowledge, practical reasoning, belief-acquisition, and belief-ascription.
2 Questions of Reference
Authors: Gaynesford Maximilian de
Published: June 2006

‘Rule theory’, or the claim that a simple rule is sufficient to give the meaning of I, is a myth. Theorists have not shown that it is even possible to say what this rule is, what it means, what it determines, or what functions as its context. No such rule could be sufficient to give the meaning of I because there are areas which it does not cover, there are areas in which it applies but is insufficient, there are occasions on which it should not be applied, and there are occasions on which it cannot be applied.
3 Questions of Expression
Authors: Gaynesford Maximilian de
Published: June 2006

‘Independence’, or the claim that one can use I to express thoughts without having to identify what is being referred to, is a myth. It depends on a two-step argument from explanation: that it would make no sense to ask certain questions, and that we must appeal to ‘independence’ to explain this phenomenon. But other explanations are available, such as a pragmatic account. Alternatives are preferable since ‘independence’ not only threatens the referential character of I, its use to express thoughts about particular objects, and its communicative role, but also undermines a plausible account of the links between I-use and empirical identity criteria.