bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Politics: The Social Contract
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: October 2011

This chapter attempts to elucidate Cavell's fundamental concerns in the domain of politics, focusing on a passage from The Claim of Reason. Cavell begins with the observation that political theorists in the modern period have characteristically thought of the political community as founded upon a social contract, and he attempts to analyze the significance of this form of theorizing.
Criteria, Scepticism, and the External World
Authors: Mulhall Stephen
Published: October 2011

This chapter investigates the vertical rather than the horizontal axis of the space opened up by criteria, to explore the sense in which they align a speaker with the world rather than with other speakers. It focuses on the material published as the first two parts of The Claim of Reason. Cavell takes Wittgenstein to have developed his notion of a criterion in response to the threat of scepticism — the worry that we cannot be certain of the existence of the world or of other mind-endowed creatures (other people) in it. Although Cavell does not take the notion to constitute a refutation of scepticism, its significance and function is best understood by relating it to this particular philosophical problematic; and the attempt to elucidate his understanding of criteria will proceed by examining his analysis of external-world scepticism.
Metaphor and Cognition: Two Theories
Authors: Denham A. E.
Published: October 2011

Modern ‘intuitionist’ theories of metaphor have echoed Plato's views, arguing for a clear distinction between the cognitive function of conventional, literal language and the special symbolic and expressive function of aesthetic language. Intuitionism (as that term is now applied to theories of metaphor) developed in reaction against positivist efforts to reduce the meaningful content of metaphor to its literal paraphrase. On the positivist view, whatever cannot be paraphrased in literal terms is, from the standpoint of meaning, strictly eliminable. In his article ‘What Metaphors Mean’, Donald Davidson argues that metaphorical sentences have no meaning at all (other than their literal sentence meaning). This chapter discusses metaphor and cognition, the analogy between metaphors and jokes, cognitive theories of metaphor, and the interaction theory of metaphor.
Thought and Reference
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

This book presents a view of the problems of reference and singular terms, including an account of singular thought, a systematic application of recent work in the theory of speech acts, and a partial revival of Russell's analysis of singular terms.
Introduction: Meaning and Reference
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the two kinds of reference. It then discusses the distinction between semantics and pragmatics. Pragmatics, or the theory of language use, is viewed as the theory of communication (speaker meaning) and speech acts. As for semantics, we think of it as covering truth and reference as well as (or instead of, for Quinean semantic sceptics) meaning and synonymy. Whether or not truth and reference are the semantic properties of choice for a given theory, for all semantic theories they are properties that belong to linguistic expressions. The chapter also considers the conflict between descriptive and non-descriptive theories on singular thought and singular reference.
Definite Descriptions I: Vindicating Russell
Authors: Bach Kent
Published: October 2011

Russell's theory of descriptions has remained influential even though it has long been out of favour. It's influence may be due to the absence of a generally accepted alternative, or perhaps to the fact that it was Russell's. This chapter defends his theory against some familiar and seemingly forceful objections (e.g., Strawson's objection, Donnellan's objection, incomplete description objection) using the strategy of the previous chapter. It argues that each objection is based on a misconstrual of Russell's theory and thereby imposes unreasonable demands on it. This is viewed merely as a semantic account of definite descriptions, and as such it should not be expected to explain pragmatic phenomena not within its province. The trouble with these objections is that they expect it to do what it does not even purport to do.
Introduction
Authors: Vallance J. T.
Published: October 2011

At the end of the second century, a Greek doctor in Rome named Asclepiades was making radical changes to the practice of medicine and described traditional Greek medicine to be a ‘preparation for death’. He was highly successful, as anyone who advocates the therapeutic benefits of ‘passive exercise’ is bound to be. His medical ideas were grounded on an extraordinary and mysterious theory which this book is attempting to reconstruct out of contradictory accounts of it which were offered in later antiquity. Answers to various questions on where his ideas may have come from have important implications in the understanding of Hellenistic philosophy as well as medicine. At the same time, they relate to one of the most intriquing doctrinal disputes in ancient science.
Prediction and Knowledge
Authors: Honderich Ted
Published: October 2011

The distinction between conditional predictability and simple predictability is not sharp but remains to be important to draw. If something is predictable, predictable in fact or in practice, it can be predicted on the basis of knowledge that exists, which is to say knowledge actually had by someone or at any rate recorded. If something is conditionally predictable, it could be predicted if certain knowledge existed, the having or recording of which knowledge is logically or conceptually possible, although perhaps factually and nomically possible. The proposition of conditional predictability, which certainly can be said to follow from all doctrines of true determinism, has regularly been used as well by objectors to those doctrines, that is why discussion on this matter always involves various facets and viewpoints.
The Probable and The Provable
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

The book was planned and written as a single, sustained argument. But earlier versions of a few parts of it have appeared separately. The object of this book is both to establish the existence of the paradoxes, and also to describe a non-Pascalian concept of probability in terms of which one can analyse the structure of forensic proof without giving rise to such typical signs of theoretical misfit. Neither the complementational principle for negation nor the multiplicative principle for conjunction applies to the central core of any forensic proof in the Anglo-American legal system. There are four parts included in this book. Accordingly, these parts have been written in such a way that they may be read in different orders by different kinds of reader.
The Assessment of Judicial Proof
Authors: Cohen L. Jonathan
Published: October 2011

This chapter provides the assessment of judicial proof. It is shown that the concept of inductive probability, as derived from the concept of inductive support for covering generalizations, plays an important part in human reasoning. The inferences about the behaviour of others normally rest on the large stock of rough generalizations about human behaviour that is carried in their heads. So it is possible to construe proof beyond reasonable doubt as proof at a maximum level of inductive probability. Proof of S on the preponderance of evidence may then be construed as proof at a higher grade of inductive probability than that at which not-S is proved; and other standards of proof are also intelligible in these terms. Contextual clues are normally available to determine whether a given statement of probability is to be evaluated in accordance with mathematical or with inductive criteria, though experimental psychologists have not always recognized this. In fact, experimental data confirm the thesis that normal intuitive judgements of probability are often inductive rather than mathematical.
Some Divine Command Theories
Authors: Quinn Philip L.
Published: October 2011

This chapter proposes some distinct divine command theories of ethics. It constructs an elaborate theory which incorporates the divine command theorist's assumptions about the relations between God's commands and several kinds of moral status. This chapter also discusses some of the philosophical problems which can be usefully examined in the light of the postulates.
Intensionality
Authors: Bealer George
Published: October 2011

Using a very small number of methodological assumptions, this chapter retraces the intuitive motivation for the theory of properties, relations, and propositions (PRPs). One tenet of the work is that the theory of PRPs, is part of logic. Specifically, it is part of natural logic, i.e., logic in the broad sense that includes the logic of natural language as a part. The chapter defends this tenet and argues, in particular, that the best representation of intensionality in natural language is provided by a first-order intensional language that is just like a first-order extensional language except that it is fitted out with an intensional abstraction operation.
The Existence of Space and Time
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian
Published: October 2011

This book is intended as an introduction to the philosophical problems of space and time, suitable for any reader who has an interest in the nature of the universe and who has a secondary-school knowledge of physics and mathematics. In particular, it is hoped that the book may find a use in philosophy departments and physics departments within universities and other tertiary institutions. The attempt is always to introduce the problems from a twentieth-century point of view. It is preferable to introduce the history of the topic if and when that history becomes relevant to the development and solution of the problems, rather than to introduce a problem that was of importance in some previous age and to trace the development of it down the years.
Space and Geometry
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian
Published: October 2011

This chapter first reports the geometrical properties of space. One of the assumptions of Newtonian dynamics is that space is Euclidean; that is, space satisfies the axioms, and hence the theorems, of three-dimensional Euclidean geometry. Within Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, on the other hand, it becomes allowable that at various places space is curved; that is, space is non-Euclidean. The chapter then explores a couple of properties closely related to the geometrical properties. It starts by presenting the topological properties of space and also reviews the dimensionality of space. The space as physically possible types of events is discussed. It is suggested that certain statements about space might be reducible to statements about ways in which it is physically possible for bodies to move or position themselves. Furthermore, the amounts of space are explained. The nocturnal expansion problem is finally shown.
Existence and the Present
Authors: Hinckfuss Ian
Published: October 2011

This chapter is primarily concerned with the attitude towards what is present or now as opposed to what is here, particularly with respect to the feeling that what is now has a preferred status of existence to what was or what will be. It also argues that the ability to describe events as being in the past or present or future is not sufficient to give the idea of a flow of time. In addition, the chapter demonstrates how reductions to purely indexical tensed discourse can eliminate reference to times and places, though it is also argued that the tensed discourse of ordinary language is not purely indexical. The chapter specifically looks at Moore's problem. Furthermore, it deals with simultaneity, the theory of The Present, and Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic radiation. Einstein's operational definition of simultaneity is also provided. The experimental confirmation of Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic radiation is finally elaborated.
Hegel's Development: Night Thoughts (Jena 1801–1806)
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

This book, which takes account of everything that survives from the manuscripts Hegel produced during his first academic career at the University of Jena, is a survey of the development of Hegel's mature system.
The ‘Resumption of the Whole into One’
Authors: Harris H. S.
Published: October 2011

In the ‘Natural Law’ lectures, Hegel passed straight from political theory to the evolution of religious consciousness. This chapter examines the life story of God, the triangulation of the Trinity, the motion of the triangles, the half-triangles of Cognition, and the ‘Resting Square’. The moving principle of natural ethics is the singular consciousness of the individual. As that consciousness matures, the individual becomes aware that he lives, moves, and has his being in a naturally given whole that expresses his nature as a rational being. This natural whole is the family. The most important speculative interpretation of the Trinity that Hegel attempted in this period was probably contained in the lost manuscript on the ‘Triangle of triangles’.
Particulars, Facts, and Causal Explanations
Authors: Steward Helen
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that the distinction between particulars and facts is crucial to the understanding of the workings of our causal explanations; and that we need to recognize two rather different varieties of causal statement: ‘singular’ and ‘sentential’. The chapter attempts to explain the difference between the two kinds of explanation, and argues that the idea that token states must be recognized as a variety of causally efficacious particular stems from the existence of a certain class of sentential causal explanations in which the explanans is a stative predication. It is a mistake to think that these explanations have their basis in interactive or productive relationships in which token states figure. Rather, they involve us in commitment to causal relationships between facts and effects of various kinds. There is therefore no need at all to recognize token states as a class of particulars. In so far as the category is legitimate, the entities it subsumes are not particular but rather fact-like, hence the claim that events and states are not close relations but rather species very different from one another.
The Georgian Version
Authors: METZGER BRUCE M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the introduction of Christianity into Georgia and the translation of the New Testament in that region. Within the Union of Soviet Socialists Republics and by the Russians, Gruziya, in the country of Georgia, was anciently known as Iberia. The earliest tradition regarding the introduction of Christianity among the Iberians tells of the missionary work of a Christian slave woman named Nino who was taken by the pagan king of Georgia. Apart from the legendary details concerning the miracles performed by Nino, historians are inclined to accept the date of about the middle of the 4th century for the introduction of Christianity among the Georgians. This chapter also examines the early manuscripts of the Georgian version, the origins and the evolution of its style and language, its textual affinities, and examples of limitations of the Georgian language in representing Greek under the headings of phonetics, morphology, and syntax.
The Pauline School: Three ‘Pastoral’ Epistles to Timothy and Titus, to Further Faith and Order in the Household of God
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the first and second Timothy and Titus, which give a glimpse of what happened to Pauline Christianity about the end of the 1st century—or, others have maintained, late in Paul's career in the middle 60s, or, others claim, in the 2nd century. The three documents appear in the canon, after Paul's letters to congregations, in a sub-collection of four letters to individuals. They are arranged in order of decreasing length, with little Philemon coming after Titus. The three ‘pastoral letters’ so named by a Pietist, Paul Anton, even though the term ‘shepherd’ or pastor never appears in them—are ostensibly from Paul, ‘an apostle of Jesus Christ’, to assistants in the Pauline mission who are known from other New Testament books. The pastorals pose the question of variety and unity in two ways: first, with regard to the other letters of Paul, and second among themselves.
The Johannine Line of Development: Three Letters
Authors: Reumann John
Published: October 2011

In this chapter, it is considered that the longer of the three Johannine letters contained in the New Testament canon, doubtless helped preserve the other two and pull them into the canonical collection. However, opinions vary on the origins of each, and over whether i John actually helped preserve the Fourth Gospel for orthodox Christianity or whether, on the other hand, the Gospel of John pulled the letters into the orbit of the canon by virtue of its own prestige. After vigorous debates, it was finally accepted that the Gospel of John came first and that the epistle followed, in order to clarify John's meaning. A further debate continues over the sequence of the three letters. The usual treatment takes them up in their canonical order, so that 2 and 3 John represent later facets of the basic struggle depicted in i John and, behind it, the Fourth Gospel.
Introduction
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the background, purpose, and limitations of this book, which is about the theology and practice of the developed Catholic Apostolic Church in England during the 19th century. It explains Catholic Apostolic teaching and traces its history with the support of extensive selected extracts from primary sources. It describes the nature of the church, the nature of its liturgical worship, the Doctrine of Real Presence, and its relation with the Oxford Movement.
A Short History of the Catholic Apostolic Church
Authors: Flegg Columba Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a brief history of the Catholic Apostolic Church. The Church came into being during a historical period which was marked by the French Revolution of 1789 and the British reaction to Edmund Burke's pamphlet Reflections on the French Revolution. The Adventist root of the Church owes much to the Albury Conferences held in the private home of Henry Drummond. This chapter traces the gradual development of the Church and its existence without an ordained ministry.
Origen and the Life of the Stars
Authors: Scott Alan
Published: October 2011

It was widely assumed by intellectuals from antiquity to the Middle Ages that the beauty and regularity of the heavens was a sign of their superior life. Through this belief the stars gained an important position in Greek religion, and speculations on their nature figured prominently in discussions of human psychology and eschatology. In the 3rd century AD the influential Christian theologian Origen included Hellenistic theories on the life and nature of the stars in his cosmology. This marked an interesting episode in the history of the idea, but it also had important implications for early Christian theology. Although he was condemned as heretical for these (and other) speculations, he was successful in incorporating traditional philosophical theories about the stars into a biblical theology.
The Heavenly Powers
Authors: SCOTT ALAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an evaluation of astral powers in moral terms and the subsequent impact of related debates. One idea which Origen adopted which is not present in Philo or any of the classical philosophical schools is the recognition of the possibility of evil in heaven. This view, which is of great importance in Origen in understanding the place of the stars in the divine economy, gradually developed in Hellenism and exerted a great influence on early Christianity. The first section examines the view of heavenly powers as good or as morally neutral. The second section considers the view of heavenly powers as morally evil from pagan, apocalyptic, and gnostic sources.
Infinity and the Past
Authors: Smith Quentin
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents an essay which aims to refute the argument that the past is necessarily finite. It considers the arguments offered by William Lane Craig and arguments by other philosophers. It agrees that Big Bang cosmology warrants the conclusion that the past is finite but it also argues that the beginning of the universe is not caused by God or anything else. To illustrate the finiteness of the past, this chapter uses the definition of an event as being a maximal complex of whatever occurs during a temporal interval of one second.
The Uncaused Beginning of the Universe
Authors: Smith Quentin
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that there is sufficient evidence at present to warrant the conclusion that the universe probably began to exist over 10 billion years ago and that it began to exist without being caused to do so. It also provides counter-arguments to the propositions that the universe was caused by God and that the universe is probably infinitely old. It analyses quantum mechanical considerations and concludes that the argument for a divine cause of the Big Bang based on the causal principle is unsuccessful.
Atheism, Theism, and Big Bang Cosmology
Authors: Smith Quentin
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins a debate on the relevance of Big Bang cosmology to the philosophy of religion. It deals with William Lane Craig's theistic cosmological argument that Big Bang cosmology and considerations about finitude and the past warrant the belief that God exists. This chapter provides an atheistic cosmological argument that the classical Big Bang cosmology is inconsistent with theism because of the unpredictable nature of the Big Bang singularity.
A Criticism of the Cosmological Argument for God's Non-existence
Authors: Craig William Lane
Published: October 2011

This chapter criticizes Quentin Smith's cosmological argument for God's non-existence. It analyses the elements of Smith's Big Bang cosmological argument for the non-existence of God and offers a counter-argument for each of them. It explains that the ontological status of the Big Bang singularity is a metaphysical question and that Smith made incorrect assumptions. Another incorrect assumption made by Smith is that animate beings that exist are those that exist in the physical universe. It explains that, according to Christian theism, the physical universe does not exhaust the created order.
Christology and Cosmology
Authors: Lyman J. Rebecca
Published: October 2011

This book offers a fresh interpretation of the relation between Greek thought and ancient Christian theology through an analysis of three foundational and controversial thinkers: Origen, Eusebius of Caesarea, and Athanasius. Rather than opposing certain cagegories such as philosophy besides scripture, or orthodoxy besides heresy, the book examines how language about Christ and the world functions as a theological model. This allows the recovery of the theological and religious significance of certain ideas such as subordination or the obedience of Christ, which were rejected by later orthodoxy. As an urban teacher, civic apologist, and ascetic bishop, each of the three theologians discussed offered a distinctive Christian response to the religious and ecclesiastical ideas of the 3rd and 4th centuries. Each cosmology and Christology therefore reveals particular concerns about individual and social identity and salvation in the developing Christian community.
Regular Meetings and Seasonal Celebrations
Authors: Johansen Julian
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the ritual and functional aspects of the 'Ashīra and Ṭarīqa Muṭammadiyya to complete the transition from the public religious discourse to the ‘private’ world of the ṭarīqa. For the sake of convenience, these may be divided into two types of occasion. The first is the regular ṭaḍra and teaching session (dars), and the second is the extraordinary meeting, held to mark a festival ('īd) or other significant date in the Muslim calendar. It specifically discusses the order of events for each, reproducing dialogue wherever appropriate and possible, and introducing any new material against the background of the issues which already been explained.
Asceticism and Anthropology in Irenaeus and Clement
Authors: Behr John
Published: October 2011

This book examines the ways in which Irenaeus and Clement understood what it means to be human. By exploring their theological perspectives through their writings, the author also offers a theological critique of the prevailing approach to the asceticism of Late Antiquity. For Irenaeus, asceticism is the expression of man living the life of God in all dimensions of the body, that which is most characteristically human and in the image of God. Human existence as a physical being includes sexuality as a permanent part of the framework within which males and females grow towards God. In contrast, Clement depicts asceticism as man's attempt at a godlike life to protect the rational element, that which is distinctively human and in the image of God, from any possible disturbance and threat, or from the vulnerability of dependency, especially of a physical or sexual nature. Here, human sexuality is strictly limited by the finality of procreation and abandoned in the resurrection.
The Human Formation
Authors: Behr John
Published: October 2011

Irenaeus exemplifies Adam as a type of Christ and events in the economy prepare man for realizing Christ. Evidently, Irenaeus's anthropology is Christocentric. This chapter discusses Irenaeus's view on the creation and formation of man. It looks into the aspects of the creation of man involving the use of earth and the breath of life to depict man's body and soul. Also, focus is given to the role of the ‘Spirit of man or the Spirit of God’ in man's creation. The chapter also tackles the notion of ‘likeness’ as man is said to be created in Christ's likeness.
Verbal Syntax in the Greek Pentateuch
Authors: Evans T. V.
Published: October 2011

This book is a study of verbal syntax that addresses the entire Greek Pentateuch and investigates the value of these translations as evidence for the history of the Greek language. The nature and degree of Hebrew interference are assessed, including analysis of Hebrew text components underlying all Greek verbal forms in the Pentateuch. This data allows conclusions to be drawn on natural Greek usage of aspect, tense, and mood. Their implications extend well beyond the special issues of translation Greek, casting significant light on the development of the verbal system in the Koine period, the period in which a non-dialectic form of the Greek language was used, post-Alexander the Great.
The Paranormal
Authors: BARTHOLOMEW DAVID J.
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the paranormal — a collection of things such as telepathy, precognition, the occult, astrology, and the like — as another set of phenomena that does not necessarily entail religion, but could also serve as basis for claiming that science cannot explain everything in this world. Analyzing such phenomena has a surer foundation because of its accessibility to scientific investigation; also, as several people take these seriously, Christians take interest in exposing these as false beliefs. The chapter attempts to answer the following questions: Are there any genuine paranormal events? Do these events result from unrecognized laws of nature? What do such events tell us about what is external to the world of senses?
The Politics of Telecommunications
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: October 2011

This book confronts some of the most important questions related to liberalization, regulation, and the role of the nation state in an increasingly international economy. In the face of powerful transnational pressure for change, to what extent are states able to maintain stable institutional frameworks? Do different domestic structures generate dissimilar patterns of policy making and economic performance? How important are past institutional choices for subsequent reform? This book addresses these questions through a study of the transformations of a strategic economic sector, telecommunications, in Britain and France over the last three decades. The book analyses the theoretical strengths and weaknesses of ‘national institutionalist’ models of policy making. It employs the model to compare institutions in British and French telecommunications, analyses the process of organizational reform, and assesses the effects of national institutions on policy making and economic outcomes.
The History of the British Coal Industry: Volume 1: Before 1700
Authors: Hatcher John
Published: October 2011

Well before 1700, Britain had become heavily dependent upon coal for its fuel, and coalmining had taken its place among the nation's staple industries. This book traces the production and trade of coal from the intermittent small-scale activity which prevailed in the Middle Ages to the rapid expansion and rising importance which characterized the early modern era. Thoroughly grounded in a formidable range of sources, the book explores the economics and management of mining, the productivity and profitability of colliery enterprise, and the progress of technology. The book examines the owners and operators of collieries and the sources of mining capital, as well as the colliers themselves, their working conditions and earnings. It argues that the spectacular growth of coal output in this period was achieved more through evolutionary than revolutionary processes.
The Management of Innovation
Authors: Burns Tom , Stalker G. M.
Published: October 2011

First published in 1961, this book is a very influential book on organization theory and industrial sociology. The central theme of the book is the relationship between an organization and its environment — particularly technological and market innovations. Based on first-class scholarship, the book presents the now famous and ubiquitous classifications of ‘mechanistic’ and ‘organic’ systems. For this it has become justly famous, but the book is also a penetrating study of social systems within organizations and organizational dynamics.
Introduction: Rationality and the World
Authors: Apffel-Marglin Frédérique
Published: October 2011

The ‘arrogant absolutist reason’ pointed out by Vaclav Havel is said to have gotten its basis on a premise that suggests how the world is objectively knowable, and that this said knowledge can be subject to generalization. Because of this premise, the knowledge of experts from a wide variety of fields may be spread across the globe and can be applied in several different contexts. Contrary to local knowledge, this modern thought is perceived to be not without the privilege of universality. As such, this mode of knowing has undermined the local ways of both knowing and doing which is further exhibited by how the First World is considered to be ‘developed’ while the Third World is perceived to be either ‘underdeveloped’ or ‘developing’. Local knowledge is said to be taking a step backwards while universal knowledge would aid in moving forward. It is seen, however, that the colonization of the mind is one of the measures whereby goods industrialization is gained. This book look challenges this claim to universality of Cartesian rationality.
The Economic Consequences of Pragmatism: A Re-interpretation of Keynesian Doctrine
Authors: Gutman Nancy E.
Published: October 2011

This chapter attempts to illustrate how John Maynard Keynes came up with an effort to reclaim the authority attributed to the lived experiences of economic agents to establish a basis for formulating various economic theories. In addressing the bias of mainstream theory against obtaining knowledge through means of experimentation, Keynes focuses on the alarming changes and events that occurred over the period in which he had expressed his thoughts. In doing so, his innovations have gone beyond mere economic theory to economic thought’s methodology. This chapter attempts to derive the prominent themes from Keynes’s works, develops these themes, and analyzes how they have resulted as consequences of his endeavours to establish the connection between human conduct and various human beliefs.
Patriarchy and Private Property in Nicaragua, 1860–1920
Authors: Dore Elizabeth
Published: October 2011

Because patriarchy was initially perceived in Nicaragua as a concept that entails the systematic oppression of women by men, the notion was gradually abandoned since it failed to fulfill the expectations of many regarding how it could explain the oppression of women. In feminist studies that circulated during the period between the late 1980s and the early 1990s, one of the common themes was that of neglecting theories regarding patriarchy and accepting the notion that developing a theory of women's oppression would seemingly be impossible. This chapter attempts to make use of methodological frameworks in examining how patriarchy has undergone changing forms, particularly in the case wherein coffee expansion dominated rural Nicaragua in line with the social revolution between 1860 and 1920.
The Nordic Model of Gender Equality: The Welfare State, Patriarchy, and Unfinished Emancipation
Authors: Allen Tuovi
Published: October 2011

Compared with their Western counterparts, societies of Scandinavian or Nordic origins have been more committed to achieving equality and justice and are thus perceived to be more progressive. Although Nordic societies value gender equality and are even sometimes considered as ‘women-friendly societies’, scepticisms arise regarding how the Nordic model will persist even through the deep recession experienced during the early 1990s. Nordic countries are often deemed as universal welfare states and are believed to be not without social corporatism and Keynesian interventionism. Although this attribute seemed to have contributed to the economic success of these countries, this chapter examines the development of Nordic economies in the context of the labour market's gender equality through identifying the characteristics of the Nordic model of gender equality, and looking into the differences between countries particularly Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark.
Cultural Beliefs as a Common Resource in an Integrating World
Authors: Greif Avner
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses cultural beliefs as a common resource in an integrating world. The chapter states that recent developments in transportation, communication, and information technologies have strengthened the economic and cultural interactions between different societies throughout the world. The chapter also states that inter-society interaction is increasingly characterized by a deliberate borrowing of institutions and cultural attributes from one society by another, which is a process that has recently gained momentum from the events in Eastern Europe. The chapter explains that culture is defined by sociologists as consisting of cultural beliefs, values, and symbols, and that cultural beliefs are ideas and thoughts that are common to several individuals who differ in their knowledge, and that they therefore cannot be proved empirically.
Introduction
Authors: PREECE JENNIFER JACKSON
Published: October 2011

The collapse of communism in the former Soviet bloc between 1989 and 1991 caused multinational Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union to come apart along ethnic lines and be replaced by new nation-states whose boundaries were those of the previous federal divisions. This book examines the international status of national minorities in the European nation-states system with emphasis on the period from 1919 to 1995. While there have been many studies of the evolution and expansion of the nation-states system in Europe, none has explicitly illuminated this historical process from the more narrowly focused lens of national minority concerns. European developments since the end of the Cold War would seem to suggest that such an investigation could make a valuable contribution to both theoretical and policy-making debates on sovereignty, national self-determination, and ethnic conflict. This book explores the relationship between minority rights and national security within states and between minority rights and stability within the society of states.
Welfare Economics and Economies of Scale
Authors: Mirrlees James A.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the different ‘fundamental’ theorems of welfare economics. One theorem states that a competitive equilibrium is Pareto-efficient and that a welfare optimum can be implemented as a competitive equilibrium. The second theorem, on the other hand, assumes that there are no economies of scale in production, and that the aggregate production set is convex.
Taxing Uncertain Incomes
Authors: Mirrlees James A.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the issue of guessing whether the uncertainty of labour income results should be a reason for higher or lower marginal tax rates. In 1980, Varian was able to examine the question of optimal taxation when consumers are uncertain about income. This current discussion on the subject includes approximations to the optimal linear tax schedule, with an emphasis that the linear income tax is not an optimal policy within the simple model of labour supply.
Arguments for Public Expenditure
Authors: Mirrlees James A.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses arguments for public expenditure. It includes discussions on the optimal income tax theory, whether public expenditure is too high or not, and an examination of the UK government as a linear tax system.
The Theory of Moral Hazard and Unobservable Behaviour: Part I
Authors: Mirrlees James A.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the different formal models of moral hazard, which include that of Zeckhauser and Mirrlees. It includes an argument that relies on first-order conditions which can help in fully determining the optimum. Some of the sections in the chapter contain discussions on an analysis of an interesting and special case and another rigorous analysis of unobservable behaviour in a fairly general form.
Fairly Good Plans
Authors: Mirrlees James A. , Stern N. H.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the relative value of different directions for the research of economists. A simple model is shown, as is how much of an increase in welfare might be available if subtle theory were substituted for crude as the basis for economic policy. Thanks to the simplicity of the model, it is deemed easier for economists to develop their own models.
The Levels of Bargaining
Authors: Traxler Franz , Blaschke Sabine , Kittel Bernhard
Published: October 2011

The bargaining level, which refers to where wages are formally set, in reference to the degree of (de)centralization, is a key aspect of bargaining structure. Measures of centralization evidently rely on the notion that centralization is proportional with the range of a bargaining domain in terms of the number of employers and employees covered. Also, practical complexity has to be considered in measuring bargaining levels. This chapter introduces the notion of organized decentralization wherein there is a negative correlation between employee coverage and the impact on real wages; lower levels cover fewer employees but have more influence on actual wages. This chapter identifies four patterns of country developments and discusses its implications on (de)centralization and on bargaining levels.
Firm Responses to Trade and Environment Regulation
Authors: Rugman Alan , Kirton John , Soloway Julie
Published: October 2011

One of the classic threats presented by environmental regulatory barriers that restrict the strategies of internationally engaged firms relies on the foreign environmental regulations that do not allow large export markets. In some situations, regulatory barriers have proven to be alarming when moved to higher levels, reinforced by protectionist coalitions and environmental groups across the foreign market, and have been administered by a trade dispute system in national governments. However, lobbying and litigation entails a competitive disadvantage for a firm since these processes requires lots of time and incur several costs. As such, the alternative response was to produce at home instead and meet the regulations in the Vogel-type ‘California’ export market. Firms today have to face varied situations, not only because of environmental regulations but also because of internationally integrated production systems. In this chapter, we look into the various political and corporate strategies for firms, while examining the factors affecting the conditions of complex institutional responsiveness.
Palliative medicine
Authors: Gilbert James
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses and identifies some of the reasons why some doctors are not naturally patient focused. It analyses some of the assumptions that underlie the idea of a ‘voice for the voiceless’, followed by some reflections on advocacy. The chapter concludes with an examination of the ways in which one's values have an important role in the delivery of satisfactory palliative care.
Palliative nursing
Authors: Stratford Mandy
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses palliative nursing, which begins from the moment the patient and family are told that the disease is no longer responsive to curative treatment. It shows that regardless of the setting, all nurses can provide effective palliative nursing. Nurses can help the patient and family feel valued and in control in an otherwise unfamiliar and unpredictable situation, by establishing a relationship based on trust and providing opportunities for their involvement.
Competitive Strategies in European Banking
Authors: Canals Jordi
Published: October 2011

This book integrates both the changing structure of the commercial banking industry in Europe and the strategic implications of these changes. It begins by concentrating on the economics of banking, presenting an analysis of the principal environment forces affecting the financial sector: deregulation, internationalization, economic instability, technical change, and financial innovation. The second part offers valuable information on current trends in the five main EC countries. The analysis of each country includes a study of the recent evolution of its financial sector, in turn; each sector's inherent economic outlook in terms of profitability, costs, productivity, and competition; as well as the changes in the regulatory environment. The third part of the book is dedicated to an analysis of some of the strategic choices of European banks, such as scale, diversification, and internationalization. Finally, the pace of change within the European banking industry is evaluated, as well as how some of the banks are adapting to the new environment.
The Evolution of the European Convention on Human Rights
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: October 2011

The European Convention on Human Rights underwent a spectacular evolution over the first fifty years of its life. In recent times the European Court of Human Rights has been compared to a quasi-constitutional court for Europe in the field of human rights, and for some time the Convention has been viewed as a European Bill of Rights. The ‘coming of age’ of the ECHR system in the late 1990s was marked by the entry into force of Protocol 11, creating a new, full time Court. By contrast those who first proposed a European human rights guarantee were driven by an ambition to put in place a collective pact to prevent the re-emergence of totalitarianism in ‘free’ Europe. They were motivated by grisly memories of human rights abuse associated with World War Two, and the protection of ‘human rights’ was seen in that light. When the Convention was opened for signature in 1950 it was viewed by many with scepticism and disappointment. The Convention system took many years to get established. In the mid-1960s doubts were expressed as to whether the Court had a future, and in the 1970s the Convention system of control faced a number of serious challenges. This book examines the story of the evolution of the Convention over its first fifty years (1948–98). It reflects on the Convention's origins and charts the slow progress that it made over the 1950s and 1960s, before, in the late 1970s, the European Court of Human Rights delivered a series of landmark judgments which proved to be the foundation stones for the European Bill of Rights that we know today.
Luxury and Pleasure in Eighteenth-Century Britain
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: October 2011

This book explores the invention, making, and buying of new, semi-luxury, and fashionable consumer goods during the 18th century. It follows these goods, from china tea ware to all sorts of metal ornaments such as candlesticks, cutlery, buckles, and buttons, as they were made and shopped for, then displayed in the private domestic settings of Britain's urban middling classes. It tells the stories and analyses the developments that led from a global trade in Eastern luxuries beginning in the sixteenth century to the new global trade in British-made consumer goods by the end of the 18th century. These new products, regarded as luxuries by the rapidly growing urban and middling-class people of the 18th century, played an important part in helping to proclaim personal identities and guide social interaction. Customers enjoyed shopping for them; they took pleasure in their beauty, ingenuity or convenience. All manner of new products appeared in shop windows; sophisticated mixed-media advertising seduced customers and created new desires. This unparalleled ‘product revolution’ provoked philosophers and pundits to proclaim a ‘new luxury’, one that reached out to the middling and trading classes, unlike the elite and corrupt luxury of old. This book is built on a fresh empirical base drawn directly from customs accounts, advertising material, company papers, and contemporary correspondence. The book traces how this new consumer society of the 18th century and the products first traded, then invented to satisfy it, stimulated industrialisation itself.
Products of the Nation: On Art and Invention
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: October 2011

Importation of exotic consumer goods, especially from Asia, prompted a rethinking of the features of consumer goods produced in Britain. The result of this creative interaction was the invention of new products which formed the basis of an identifiably British consumer goods sector during the 18th and early 19th centuries. The emulative, imitative context of 18th-century invention spanned both product and process innovation. New mechanical techniques, rolling, stamping, moulding, and interchangeable parts, were applied to a range of complementary and substitute products, in turn developing these in new directions. Chemical innovations, especially in dyeing, metal mixtures, and coal-using processes, were applied to the making of substitute materials, which in turn entailed new products. The imitation extolled by Adam Smith as a ‘source of wonder’ alongside the aesthetic principle of beauty and the desire for goods became the key to the invention of modern British consumer goods.