bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Printing and the Growth of a Protestant Movement in Germany from 1517 to 1524
Authors: Holborn Louise W.
Published: April 2006

The Reformation was the first religious movement which had the aid of the printing press. It was the first intellectual movement in which the printing press had a popular effect. The importance of printing for the spread of the Reformation has long been recognized but there has been little detailed investigation of the interaction of the two great revolutionary developments.
The Christianization of the Magyars
Authors: Toth William
Published: April 2006

The christianization of the Magyars or Hungarians took place, as an extended process, at the turn of the first millennium of Christian history. This new acquisition to the forces of the Church signified a glorious victory for the missionary zeal that wishfully looked toward the new frontiers of the East. It also saved a nation from the folly of its ways, the end of which assuredly would have been annihilation, as in the case of the Dacians, Huns, and Avars before, in the vast sea of nationalities undulating westward from Asia, “the cradle of nations.”
The Rise of Monasticism in the Church of Africa
Authors: Beaver R. Pierce
Published: April 2006

An important development in the life of the church of Africa during the last decade of the fourth century and the first quarter of the fifth century was the rise of monasticism, first instituted, inspired, and directed by Saint Augustine. A lively consciousness of sin and the comparison of his sensual life with the career of several exponents of monachism had resulted at the time of his conversion in a strong ascetic reaction to his former mode of thought and life. In succeeding years the saintly bishop lost none of the ardor for asceticism which marked his conversion, largely because his active imagination continued to dwell on his earlier life and to magnify his former sins and shortcomings out of all proportion, so that he was ever driven to make atonement by “newness of life.” Divorcing himself entirely from his former career, Saint Augustine with some of his friends returned to his birthplace, Thagaste in Numidia, and there he founded on his own lands the first African monastery, and endowed it with that portion of his patrimony which he had not yet given to other charities. For three years he dwelt there “with those who had also consecrated themselves to God, in fastings and prayers and good works, meditating day and night in the law of the Lord.” Soon after he had been ordained priest under compulsion at Hippo in 391, Saint Augustine founded there a second monastery for men on property provided by the aged Bishop Valerius.
The Life and Thought of James Relly
Authors: Clymer Wayne K.
Published: April 2006

In 1770 John Murray came to America, and in a few years was recognized as the foremost advocate of Universalism in this country. Today he is heralded as the Father of Universalism. The Universalist Church is well aware of its debt to this apostle, but the indebtedness of John Murray to James Relly is not seldom overlooked. Murray claimed no originality for the framework of his theology, and unhesitatingly admitted that his doctrines were those preached and published by his Welsh friend whose acquaintance he had made several years before coming to America. When the news of Kelly's death reached Murray, he wrote that his “reasons for attachment [to Relly], for homage, were similar to those which actuated Timothy in his devotion to the Apostle Paul,” and although he was constantly drawn into controversy, John Murray held unswervingly to Rellyan theology to the last days of his life.
The Political Theory of John Knox
Authors: Gray John R.
Published: April 2006

No man was less suited to a life of affairs in church and state than was John Knox. Yet, by a curious trick of fate, he was forced by the exigencies of his times to assume the role of official prophet and leader of a whole kingdom. For there was no one else.
Recent Important Literature Regarding the Catholic Church During the Late Renaissance Period, 1500–1648
Authors: Huber Raphael M.
Published: April 2006

In evaluating recent literature pertaining to the Catholic Renaissance regard must be taken rather to choice selection than complete coverage; furthermore, the period must be strictly defined, for the number of books that have been written is veritably immense. I shall therefore first of all restrict myself to the late rather than to the early Renaissance, i. e.,roughlyspeaking from the beginning of the Protestant Reformation to the Peace of Westphalia (1500–1648); or to put it in another ecclesiastico-historical way, from the pontificate of Julius II (1503–1513) to Innocent X (1644–1655). I shall further restrict myself to the Catholic controversies arising from, and following in, the immediate wake of Protestantism; reaction taken to the Protestant Reformation by the Catholic or Counter-Reformation, e. g., by the Council of Trent with its re-affirmation and re-definition of traditional Catholic dogmas and practices, with corresponding condemnation of all new teachings opposed to such traditional doctrines; to certain controversies among Catholic scholars occasioned by thecapitulaandcanonesof the Council of Trent, e. g., those referring to the compatibility between the necessity of grace for every supernatural act and the required co-operation of man's free will for a meritorious act (Congregatio de auxiliis gratiae) under Clement VIII and Paul V, etc.
Trends Toward Religious Integration on the Eve of 1660
Authors: Grose Clyde L.
Published: April 2006

From 1640 to 1660 England passed through a succession of extremes in religion which were unusual, abnormal, and very racking to poise and confidence. These years might in a sense be compared to the reigns of Edward and Mary one hundred years before. Both periods were very unlike England's customary course of easy continuity. By 1660 these extremes were reaching some moderation, some compromise, some tendencies toward integration, which would probably have come to a modus vivendi before long had not the unwise Restoration, with the customary excesses of reaction, restored a rigid and persecuting Anglicanism wholly out of line with the age. It is the purpose of this paper to point out some of these trends toward integration.
Principles Established in Rhode Island
Authors: Harkness R. E. E.
Published: April 2006

Roger Williams is justly famous in history as the Pioneer Statesman of Religious Liberty. He can never be robbed of this distinction and honor. But it is not the only cause for which he should be famous. According to the well known story, arriving in Massachusetts Bay Colony on February 5, 1631, he declined an invitation to become minister of the Boston Church because it was constituted of “an unseparated people,” still holding fellowship with the Church of England, and because the civil magistrates of the Bay punished for breaches of the First Table, that is exerted authority in religious affairs. After years of controversy with the authorities of the Bay, sentence of banishment was passed upon him in October, 1635, and in January, 1636, he was forced to leave its jurisdiction. Reaching the Narragansett country, he established the Providence Community and later Rhode Island Colony.
Bucer's Plan for the Jews
Authors: Eells Hastings
Published: April 2006

It is a matter of common knowledge that at the beginning of the Christian church the Christians were persecuted by the Jews. Later the Jews were persecuted by the Christians. Throughout the Middle Ages the hatred between the two increased. Finally the Jews were banished from England, Spain, France, and other states of Europe until they were allowed to dwell only in parts of Italy, Germany, and Poland. When the Reformation began, the Protestants were faced by many problems in their attempts to organize a purified church. One of these problems was whether Jews should be allowed to live among Christians. The first of the leading Reformers to deal systematically with this problem was Martin Bucer of Strasbourg.
The Plan of Union in Ohio
Authors: Zorbaugh Charles L.
Published: April 2006

The operation of the Plan of Union in Ohio, while less spectacular in its effects than in New York, was equally important, and needs to be thoroughly understood by the student of the pioneer development of either Presbyterianism or Congregationalism in Ohio.

It is not strange if in New York Congregational writers regarded the Plan as a misfortune, since all Congregational associations dissolved or became absorbed in the Presbyterian system. Yet in Ohio, too, where Congregationalism was more successful in surviving its influence, the reader of the papers of the Ohio Church History Society, a Congregational group, runs across such expressions as “those dark days of the prevalence of the Plan of Union,” “the unclean thing,” and descriptions of what seemed to them an unmixed calamity.
The Political Impact on Religious Development in Uruguay
Authors: Fitzgibbon Russell H.
Published: April 2006

It is an easy and not an essentially inaccurate generalization to say that Latin America is a Catholic world. If we begin to apply the generalization more narrowly, caution and reservations become increasingly necessary. In parts of Haiti, for example, the Catholic veneer is thin. A useful book about Mexico published some years ago carried the intriguing title Idols Behind Altars. Its author did not mean the connotation exactly as it sounds but she might have so meant it. In large parts of Indo-America, especially in those areas such as the Andean highlands and parts of Central America and southern Mexico where the pre-Columbian Indian cultures were best developed and most tenacious, Catholicism has had to make a degree of accommodation which adopted and adapted various pagan practices. The same process occurred about a millennium earlier when Christianity moved into pagan Germany.
Abraham Lincoln's “Last, Best Hope of Earth”: The American Dream of Destiny and Democracy
Authors: Mead Sidney E.
Published: April 2006

Our freer, but yet far from freed, land is the asylum, if asylum there be, for the hope of man; and, there, if anywhere, is the second Eden to be planted in which the divine seed is to bruise the head of Evil and restore Man to his rightful communion with God in the Paradise of Good.
Ecclesiastical Provisions for the Support of Students in the Thirteenth Century
Authors: Pegues Frank
Published: April 2006

Those conversant with the history of mediaeval education are generally aware of the fact that clerks studying in a theological faculty were permitted, during the thirteenth century, to enjoy their ecclesiastical rents in absentia1. The Super Speculam of Honorius III is often cited as the basis of this practice, although many scholars also know that the custom was in use, on a local scale, before 1219. The present writer does not wish, at the moment, to inquire into the origins of the practice, nor does he intend to offer any new interpretation of Honorius' famous bull.
Early Medieval Charity
Authors: Niederer Frances J.
Published: April 2006

Among the multitudinous and pressing problems faced by the Christian Church during the early medieval centuries one of the greatest was the feeding of the poor. Subjection to war, to famine, to the general anarchy of the times, had doubled the misery of the people and made them even more dependent upon public charity. Quite early it became evident that this must be an organized charity, that the problem was not being met by individual Christian action. A homily of Chrysostom (347–407) deplores the laxity of his contemporaries: “It is with you all that the treasure of the Church should be, and it is your cruelty that causes her to be obliged to possess and to deal in houses and lands.
Thomas Aquinas and Raymundus Lullus
Authors: Schmidt Martin Anton
Published: April 2006

Raymundus Lullus (Ramon Lull) tells of an educated Mohammedan ruler, who, when urged by a missionary to embrace the Christian faith, answered him: “Prove to me that your faith is true; then I, with all my subjects, shall adhere to it.” The missionary replied that Christian faith is too sublime a thing to be proved, and he contented himself with explaining the actual belief of the Christians. Answered the king: “If you ask me to leave what has been my faith thus far, then you should give me something reasonable instead of it.” Lull uses this story in order to warn missionaries among the Mohammedans not to follow such a method. According to him, it is useless and even ridiculous to refuse to discuss Christianity in philosophical terms in giving demonstrations of its truth to people who are acquainted with such a method.
D'ailly's Epistola Diaboli Leviathan
Authors: Raymond Irving W.
Published: April 2006

The morning of April 8, 1348, began on an ominous note. Milling and shouting thousands covered the area of St. Peter's and surrounded the palace where the cardinals had entered into conclave the day before to elect the successor of Gregory XI, who had chanced to die before returning to Avignon. The Romans were desperate. For nearly seventy years they had lost to Avignon the revenues that had handsomely supported Rome. The city was poverty-stricken; churches and monasteries were in ruins, papal properties dissipated, and rebellion was smoldering. During the customary nine days elapsing between the death of the former pope and election of a new one, citizens and municipal officials of Rome had visited individual cardinals to inform them that they must elect a pope who would reestablish the Holy See in Rome, making it clear that they could not answer for the safety of the cardinals if the latter acted contrary to their wishes.
Christology and Church-State Relations in the Fourth Century
Authors: Williams George Huntston
Published: April 2006

If we are correct in saying that for the Arians the relationship of the Logos-Son to the Father was primarily a cosmological problem and for the Catholics primarily a soteriological problem, we should be able to go on and point to corresponding differences in the liturgical ethos of the rival parties and more specifically to divergent conceptions and practices connected with the Eucharist, resulting from differing conceptions of the role of Logos-Son. We do find, despite the meagre materials on the Arian side, divergent emphases that will be seen to bear on the behavior of the two parties in the ecclesio-political struggle of the fourth century.
The Mercersburg Theology—Its Purpose and Principles
Authors: Richards George W.
Published: April 2006

In the century from 1750 to 1850, to use a phrase of Whitehead, there was a change in the “climate of opinion” in the Western World. Men ventured upon new paths with new methods of investigation and new tests of reality. A score of epoch-making books appeared between Rousseau's Social Contract and Emile, 1762, on the one hand, and Comte's Positive Philosophy, 1853, and Spencer's earliest writings on the other. John Fiske said: “In their mental habits, in their methods of inquiry and in the data at their command, the men of the present day who have fully kept pace with the scientific movements are separated from the men whose education ended in 1830 by an immeasurably wider gulf than has ever divided one progressive generation of men from their predecessors.” This change of viewpoint and method of approach to reality involved both intellectual disintegration and theological reconstruction.
The Basis for Scottish Efforts to Create a Reformed Church in England, 1640-41
Authors: Hamilton Charles L.
Published: April 2006

An excess of partisan feeling has surrounded the study of the Covenanting movement in 17th century Scotland. The issues which led to the Second Reformation, bound so closely as they are with religious feeling, have often prevented historians from exhibiting a reasonable amount of objectivity toward God's New Israel, as the Covenanters were inclined to call Scotland. Consequently the Covenanters have usually been portrayed as either the embodiment of the true faith or as a group of bigoted and conceited fanatics.
Clement of Alexandria on The Generation of The Logos
Authors: Wolfson H. A.
Published: April 2006

At the time of Clement of Alexandria there existed two theories with regard to the generation of the Logos. They may be described as the twofold stage theory and the single stage theory. According to the twofold stage theory, which reflects a similar conception in Philo,1 the Logos at first existed from eternity in God and then, prior to the creation of the world, it was generated from the essence of God as a distinct personal being. Representatives of this view are, among the Greek Fathers, Justin Martyr, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Hippolytus, and among the Latin Fathers, Tertullian, Novatian, Lactantius, and as late as the fourth century, Zeno of Verona. According to the single stage theory, the generation of the Logos from God was from eternity. The first to introduce this view were Irenaeus and Origen and it is this view which ultimately prevailed. Now with regard to Clement of Alexandria, who was a contemporary of both Irenaeus and Origen, it is the general opinion of students of the history of doctrine that he is to be included among those who introduced the single stage theory, though Zahn finds that Clement “always makes a sharp distinction between the only Unbegotten God the Father and the Son or Logos who was begotten or created before the rest of creation.”2 It is this general opinion which I wish to question in this paper.
The Dissenting Deputies and the American Colonies
Authors: Armstrong Maurice W.
Published: April 2006

From time to time during the later colonial period individuals or groups in America sought and received advice and political assistance from certain influential friends in England. Who these “friends at Court” were and what their actual relationship was to the colonists and to the British Government has remained obscure. Part of the answer is to be found in the Minutes of the Protestant Dissenting Deputies now deposited in the Library of the City of London at Guildhall. These manuscript volumes contain not only a record of all the colonial matters discussed by the Deputies, they also reveal a hitherto unrecognized influence in the growth of religious liberty in America.
English Catholics in the Eighteenth Century: An Interpretation
Authors: Linker R. W.
Published: April 2006

The question of post-Reformation Catholicism in England has received increased attention of late from historians of various creeds, with the Elizabethans and the Generation of 1829 exercising a particular fascination. Only the eighteenth century continues to suffer neglect—and this despite the monumental scholarship of an earlier day, when Edwardian ecclesiastics ventured to reconstruct the Georgian world of Bishop Challoner and the missioners of the “Penny Chapels.” Their conclusions now stand in need of fundamental revision, not only in the interests of greater impartiality, but in order to determine more precisely the condition of a religious minority, allegedly subjected to the heaviest disabilities. “Proscribed and persecuted the Catholic faith has notoriously been for the last three centuries,” so wrote the editor of Dolman's Magazine in 1847; and, some fifty years later, neither Bishop Burton nor Bishop Ward thought it necessary to demur. Indeed, for them, the period which culminated in the riots of 1780 so obviously reflected the malice of the Protestant majority as to justify the demand for“Relief”or “Emancipation.”
Imperial Church Building and Church-State Relations, A.D. 313–363
Authors: Armstrong Gregory T.
Published: April 2006

The study of church-state relations in the age of Constantine may be approached in many ways. Imperial church building is one of these avenues of study and interpretation. Lactantius long ago complained of the building mania of Diocletian and other members of the Tetrarchy. Eusebius lauded the churches of Constantine as signal proofs of his magnificence and as the discharge of a sacred debt. Procopius later condemned the extravagance of Justinian's building programs, although without specifically mentioning churches. And many modern writers have taken the churches of Constantine as evidence for both a personal and a public commitment to Christianity. Only a few historians, however, have asked whether there was an overriding plan or purpose to this activity, e.g., Glanville Downey has suggested the likelihood of a plan in the case of Justinian. Thus arises the question, was the construction of churches the instrument or at least the reflection of an imperial policy toward Christianity?
Concilium Generale and Studium Generale: The Transformation of Doctrinal Regulation in the Middle Ages
Authors: McKeon Peter R.
Published: April 2006

The accretions and modifications of time often disguise the origin of familiar contemporary institutions. Furthermore Medieval institutions must frequently be studied in regard to their development rather than in terms of their function at any one time. Thus this paper will deal with certain aspects of development in conciliar history and will examine the relation of this development to the early history of the university.
The Creeds of Nicea and Constantinople Reexamined
Authors: Holland David Larrimore
Published: April 2006

Even the most casual reader will be wrenched up short by the title of Giuseppe Luigi Dossetti's superb book, ll Simbolo [!] di Nicea e di Costantinopoli. How is it possible to speak as if Christendom's first two ecumenical councils produced the same creed? One automatically expects i simboli, but Dossetti insists that he means what he says, and, while he relies upon the works of Lebon, Kelly and Ritter for the primary exposition of the theory, he makes his critical edition of the texts and witnesses to the creeds of Nicea and Constantinople go far to support his title's contention.
Comprehension in the Age of Charles II
Authors: Simon Walter G.
Published: April 2006

Much has been made of the persecutions and repressions of the Protestant nonconformists in the age of Charles II, but the equally important, if less dramatic, attempts at toleration and comprehension have been neglected. As reflections of the transitory nature of the period—as a bridge between the first half of the century and the glorious revolution—this interest, on the part of a large group of lay and ecclesiastical peers, as well as the king, in a broader, more tolerant church is of critical significance.
The ‘Anitrinitarianism’ of John Campanus
Authors: MacCormick Chalmers
Published: April 2006

John Campanus was one of the two most notorious Antitrinitarians of northern Europe in the second quarter of the sixteenth century. While, unlike the other, Michael Servetus, he does not seem to have had any lasting marked influence on Antitrinitarian developments, the stir he created among his comtemporaries was considerable. His stature in his own time is partially attested to, albeit negatively, both in a letter of Luther's in 1531 in which he identified Campanus as an adversary of the Son of God who blasphemed Christ even more than Arius had,2 and in the “mild” Melanchthon's opinion— given in response to a statement by Luther that the best way to deal with Campanus was to ignore him—that one should, rather, hitch him to the gallows. Somewhat more positive esteem, on the other hand, is intimated in a letter written to Cardinal Cervini in 1541 by the Catholic reformer Albert Pighius, whose opinion it was of one of Campanus' writings that no other writing of the time, either by a Catholic or a Lutheran, displayed greater erudition and ingenuity.
Theodosius' Horse; Reflections on the Predicament of the Church Historian
Authors: Outler Albert C.
Published: April 2006

The second general council of Ephesus was convened on August 8, 449, and adjourned some fourteen days later by the legates of Theodosius II, who promptly confirmed the council's canons and decrees.1 It had been as regular, or irregular, as Nicea I or Ephesus I had been, and far more general than the Constantinopolitan synod of 381. Its chief importance lay in registering another splendid victory for the Alexandrines. The “school” of Antioch was shattered beyond repair; Pope Leo and the Westerners were walled off and weakened; the bare notion of “two natures” was branded as Nestorian; every principal see in the East was manned by a henchman of Dioscoros. Moreover, the emperor and his grand chamberlain (the eunuch Chrysaphius, godson to Eutyches) were prepared to support Alexandrine policy with police power.
Pope Eugenius IV and the Concordat of Vienna (1448) — An Interpretation
Authors: Toews John B.
Published: April 2006

The Concordat of Vienna (1448) was one of the most suggestive historical phenomena of the fifteenth century. Drafted in the midst of a century characterized by diplomatic intrigue and institutional flux, and ratified amid the pageantry of traditional ceremony, it implicitly suggested the restoration of order and stability. The agreement appeared to signify the re-establishment of papal supremacy, the destruction of conciliarism, and even the partial restoration of the medieval Christian Commonwealth by virtue of the submission of the Empire to Rome. Contemporary notions relating to the Concordat of Vienna are invariably drawn from the works of the papal historians Ludwig Pastor and Mandell Creighton. Both viewed it as a papal victory and a defeat of the Council of Basel. F. X. Seppelt took a more cautious position and suggested that the eventual implementation of the agreement brought many concessions to the territorial princes. Joseph Gill in his recent biography of Pope Eugenius almost entirely bypassed this phase of the pontiff's activity. Only Bertram's monograph on the concordats of the later middle ages devoted some space to the 1448 pact. While presenting some interesting conclusions, he failed to adequately interpret any one concordat in the light of its own peculiar political background.
The Ranters Ranting: Reflections on a Ranting Counter Culture
Authors: Ellens G. F. S.
Published: April 2006

The Ranter counter culture was a phenomenon of Puritan England. It was a movement among lower-class people numbering several thousands—we do not know exactly how many—widely distributed in London and rural England. In describing this phenomenon as a movement, however, one must be cautious since this was not a movement towards a goal: it was a movement of repulsion away from English society as represented by the Puritans. It implied a rejection of the Puritan Establishment—its ethics, its values, and its goals.
The Peace Movement and the Religious Community in Germany, 1900–1914
Authors: Chickering Roger Philip
Published: April 2006

The prominence of American and European clergymen in recent demonstrations in favor of international peace has been a source of encouragement to those who believe that war contradicts the most fundamental tenets of Christianity. However, it is a well known fact that Christian institutions have historically found it possible not only to tolerate the use of violence to settle international disputes, but even to advocate it with enthusiasm. The tendency of clergymen to view war as a necessary or desirable component of international relations was particularly pronounced in the decades immediately preceding the outbreak of the first world war, when churchmen found themselves caught up in the nationalistic frenzy that poisoned relations among the major European powers. The religious community in Germany was especially susceptible to this kind of belligerent nationalism and indeed ranked as one of the most patriotic sectors of Wilhelmine society. Perhaps nowhere was this orientation more evident than in the relations between the religious community and the organized peace movement in Germany.
Canadian Confederation and the Protestant Churches
Authors: Grant John Webster
Published: April 2006

On July 1, 1867, the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were united by an act of the imperial parliament—The British North America Act—to form a federal state known as Canada. The centennial of this Confederation was celebrated by Canadians in 1967. In this paper I want to discuss its influence on the Protestant churches of Canada.
Religious Liberalism in the South During the Progressive Era
Authors: Eighmy John Lee
Published: April 2006

The social gospel was one of the most productive intellectual movements to originate from American Protestantism. Essentially, the new religious ideology of the late nineteenth century brought the ethical element of Christianity to bear upon the unprecedented problems of social adjustment caused by the rise of an industrial society. It inspired an outpouring of social criticism and reform activity unequalled in the nation's religious experience. The urban-centered problems of slums, crime, political corruption and industrial strife turned progressive-minded churchmen to the mission of social uplift.
Lott Cary: Man of Purchased Freedom
Authors: Poe William A.
Published: April 2006

The American Colonization Society was organized in 1816 for the purpose of colonizing the free Negroes of the United States. After a series of difficulties, the society, in 1821, sent to Liberia Lott Cary who provided leadership and direction in this colony until his premature death in 1828. Advocates of African colonization were motivated by various and sometimes divergent ideals. One was the belief that colonization of the American free Negro in Africa would be a means of spreading Christianity and civilization to that continent. Although Cary was not always enthusiastic about the American Colonization Society and its policies, it never sent anyone to Liberia who more nearly fulfilled this ideal. By the time of his death the Liberian colony was firmly planted.
Perry Miller's Rehabilitation of the Puritans: A Critique
Authors: Marsden George M.
Published: April 2006

In the era between the Civil War and the Depression the mythical character called the “American Mind” was troubled. All was well during the day when prosperity and success faced him at every turn, but at night he would sometimes dream of his childhood and awake feeling strangely uneasy. His analyst explained that this tension was the product of latent guilt feelings and suggested for therapy that he read himself to sleep with recent studies of the oppressive effects of Puritanism on young national minds. Turning to these works, the “American Mind” found that the analyst had been quite right. The source of the guilt feelings, he discovered, was an irrational phase of his development called the Reformation. This phase had been dominant when he lived in New England (he since had moved to the Midwest), but he was assured that the latest scholarship had discovered its influence to be harsh, grotesque, superstitious, narrowminded, illiberal, and worst of all intolerant.1 The problem was, one expert informed him, that this era “was unleavened by the spirit of the Renaissance.” Another observed that the Reformation attitudes were a “subtle poison” flowing thorugh the veins of the entire social organism. Still another implied that the “splendor of the Renaissance” had been delayed three hundred years by Reformation intolerance. Convinced that the open-mindedness of the Renaissance was healthier than the irrational bigotry of the Reformation, the “American Mind” of this era began to feel easier about his past. He resolved to tolerate everyone, except of course his more conservative enemies whom he damned as “Puritan.”
The French Cardinals and Leo XIII's Ralliement Policy
Authors: Ward James E.
Published: April 2006

One of the most noteworthy and controversial efforts undertaken during the long and memorable pontificate of Leo XIII was the so-called Ralliement policy by which the Pope sought to terminate the Church-State struggle in France which had become so acute in the eighteen-eighties. Almost from the time he ascended the Throne of Peter in 1878 Leo XIII had begun making discreet efforts to mend the widening breach between the Church and the republican regime which France had adopted in 1870 after the destruction of the Second Empire on the battlefield of Sedan. In the early eighteen-nineties this papal effort was intensified to the point where it took on the character of an official policy and helped to foster a movement—a movement opposed from the first by a resistance to which, after a limited success, it finally succumbed in the course of the Dreyfus affair at the turn of the century.
Roger Williams and the Historians
Authors: Moore LeRoy
Published: April 2006

The journey is long from the Massachusetts theocracy that banished Roger Williams in 1635 to the predominantly Roman Catholic Massachusetts of the twentieth century that finally in 1936 lifted that ancient ban against the original Rhode Islander. The tale of this remarkable transition is the story of how the heretic became the hero. In his own time, Williams had days of agony and glory—mostly the former. Likewise, in the running currents of our national history, his reputation has had days of agony and glory—mostly the latter. This is not to say, however, that he always properly deserved the precise glory given him, or, rather, that he has been invariably lauded for his true contribution.
For God and Country: the Origins of Slavic Catholic Self-Consciousness in America
Authors: Greene Victor R.
Published: April 2006

America made its immigrants ethnocentric. Except for the travelers from England, every other nationality sensed its cultural distinctiveness soon after settling here with countrymen. The process of identity-consciousness went on continually with every group. In a strange and unknown environment, newcomers, particularly the least Anglo-Saxon, joined their fellows for a security of continuity, yearning for that Old World basis of religion, language, and social customs. Although these fresh ties could not restore their European community exactly, they could offer a reasonable substitute for adjustment, the American immigrant society. To latecoming arrivals the reconstructed ethnic colony moderated the differences of the original and destined community and made the contrast less jarring. The immigrants had refashioned the old primary settlements in America and struggled to maintain them. In the recent debate over the acculturative process, how the “melting pot” worked, certainly the ultural pluralists describe best the first-generation communities.
Adin Ballou's Hopedale Community and the Theology of Antislavery
Authors: Perry Lewis
Published: April 2006

There is now general agreement among historians that American abolitionism developed out of religious origins. Considerable attention has been paid to the sources of antislavery feelings in previous religious movements, particularly the Finneyite revivals in New York and the benevolence societies led by Lyman Beecher in Massachusetts. What has not been sufficiently explored is the possibility that antislavery, at least in the minds of some of its chief advocates, was a religious movement in its own right, with its own distinctive approach to theological problems.1 And yet to pursue this possibility is merely to take seriously a complaint made by the denominations themselves against uncomprising abolitionists: that is, that abolitionists had abandoned organized religion because of their own dogmatic suspicion of all attempts to subject divine impulses to earthly forms of organization.
Anthony Gilby: Puritan in Exile — A Biographical Approach
Authors: Danner Dan G.
Published: April 2006

Perhaps the most succinct introduction to the life of Anthony Gilby is found in the famous decree of the University of Oxford in 1683 which denounced “pernicious books and damnable doctrines, destructive to the sacred persons of princes, their state and government, and of all human society.” Among the collection are Gilby's writings.
The London Missionary Society and the Problem of Authority in India, 1798–1833
Authors: Kitzan Laurence
Published: April 2006

To begin missionary activity in India was not a simple matter. The missionaries there had to face a great deal of opposition not encountered by the missionaries to the South Seas and Africa. In the latter areas the really serious difficulties did not arise until the mission fields had actually been entered. In the case of the Indian missions the missionaries found the first line of osbtruction in England itself, in the London offices of the East India Company. The Company was resolutely opposed to the introduction of missionaries into its own territories, or into any part of India.
The Attack on the Biblical Work of Lefevre D'Etaples 1514–1521
Authors: Cameron Richard
Published: April 2006

The attack on the orthodoxy of Jacques Lefè d'Etaples, taken as a whole, may be divided into three stages. The first centered about his handling of the Vulgate; the second may be called the “controversy of the three's;” the third stage began when he was first charged with Lutheranism. The first two of these stages involved a number of widely separated individuals, whose varying degrees of repugnance have every appearance of being genuine and spontaneous reactions to Lefèvre's innovations. The third stage lies beyond our boundaries, so we shall not undertake its consideration in this paper. We shall only say of it, by the way of comparing it with the first two, that the attack was then consolidated under the leadership of the Sorbonne, and its Syndic Beda; it became institutionalized or professionalized, and sprang from all sorts of motives, self-regarding and political as well as religious. Of course the Sorbonne as one of the pillars of the old order had a hand in it from the beginning, and in general each of what I have called “stages” gathered up into itself much of those that went before, and they are to be distinguished from each other by emphases rather than by clear-cut divisions, either logical or chronological.
Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560), Wilhelm Zimmermann (1807–1878) and the Dilemma of Muntzer Historiography
Authors: Friesen Abraham
Published: April 2006

“Lies always limp arid are easily caught. It is difficult for them to escape the verdict of a keen, quick intellect.”Thus wrote Petrarch to Emperor Charles IV regarding the authenticity of a document which purported to exempt ”Austria” from imperial jurisdiction. But even Petrarch with his “keen, quick intellect” might have had difficulty in detecting another besetting sin of his day—but by no means only of his day—plagiarism. For by its very nature plagiarism tends to remain silent whereas one lie, as Marc Bloch once observed, “drags in its train many others, summoned to lend it a semblance of mutual support.” A keen, quick intellect, then, though very helpful, may not always be enough to detect a plagiarism; a thorough familiarity with the sources and the secondary literature on the subject in question as well as a great deal of painstaking correlation may also be necessary once suspicion has been aroused. The investigator may also need a “little bit o' luck” as the song of My Fair Lady would have it. What follows has something to do with both lies and plagiarism. Considerably more important, it revolves around two pivotal interpretations of the sixteenth-century religious radical and social revolutionary, Thomas Müntzer, the erstwhile scapegoat of the Reformation era but since rehabilitated by Wilhelm Zimmermann and now the hero of the Marxist interpretation of the Reformation.
The French Clergy and the Removal of Jesuits from Secondary Schools, 1761–1762
Authors: Bailey Charles R.
Published: April 2006

The Society of Jesus was a consistently controversial institution in France after papal confirmation of the order in 1540 and its installation in Paris shortly afterward. As early as 1562 a jealous University of Paris challenged, unsuccessfully, the right of its members to teach. They became embroiled in political matters from the first. King Henry IV and the Parlement of Paris, the most important law court of the realm, cooperated in exiling them from France between 1594 and 1603 because of their political intrigues.
The European Indian: Jesuit Civilization Planning in New France
Authors: Ronda James P.
Published: April 2006

Europeans who came to America from the sixteenth century on, came not to discover a new world but to re-create their own versions of Europe. Whether Spanish conquistador or Virginia planter, each hoped to make America and native Americans into the shape of idealized Europes and Europeans. Of all those who made such plans, it was the Society of Jesus that had sufficient authority and manpower to put its visions into practice. Jesuits who came to New France in the 1630s brought not only Christianity but a whole complex of European social and political values. To examine Jesuit “civilization planning” in New France is to see in microcosm a significant part of early European-Indian relations.
Ecumenical Stirrings: Catholic-Protestant Relations during the Episcopacy of John Carroll
Authors: Agonito Joseph
Published: April 2006

In 1790, the year John Carroll was consecrated as the first Roman Catholic Bishop of Baltimore, the Catholic population numbered less than 40,000—a very distinct minority in a country of nearly 4,000,000 people. As a small group living in a society overwhelmingly composed of Protestants, Catholics could not avoid mixing with those of different faiths in their everyday life.1 Carroll viewed such contacts with mixed feelings. As a native American he understood that so many of his countrymen considered his church, however wrongly, an “alien” institution. He resented most the accusation that the allegiance that Catholics owed to Rome detracted from their attachment to the United States.
Pope Nicholas I and John of Ravenna: The Struggle for Ecclesiastical Rights in the Ninth Century
Authors: Belletzkie Robert Joseph
Published: April 2006

On 24 February 861 Pope Nicholas I excommunicated and deposed one of Italy's most powerful prelates, John VIII, archbishop of Ravenna. This papal action, prompted by a number of transgressions on the archbishop's part, was taken with the consent of a council of bishops at Rome. John immediately turned for aid to Louis II, king of Italy and emperor in the West. A delegation from Louis, however, failed to deter Nicholas who insisted that John come to Rome for adjudication. Moreover, the pope journeyed to Ravenna at the invitation of its citizens, and there personally rectified the situation which John's abuses had created. As Nicholas advanced, John retreated to seek Louis's intercession at Pavia again, but this time his reception was less cordial. The Pavians, led by their bishop, shunned the excommunicate and his retinue and Louis, who would not even grant John an audience, advised him through an intermediary to “humble himself to such a pontiff to whom we and the entire Church bow.” When a second delegation, gained only by John's repeated pleas, was again unsuccessful in bargaining with the pope, the archbishop had no choice but to submit. At the Roman synod which met from 16 to 18 November 861, John acknowledged the charges against him and was restored to his see on conditions laid down by the synod. According to the Vita Nicolai, the proceedings concluded with a standing ovation for the pope from the bishops who proclaimed three times:

The correct judgement of the supreme pontiff, the just ordering of the pastor of the whole Church, the generous settlement of the disciple of Christ is pleasing to all. We are all of one voice, one mind, one judgement.
Revolutionary Leadership and the Russian Orthodox Church in 1917
Authors: Basil John D.
Published: April 2006

Witnessing the widespread internal discord plaguing the new Russian regime after the abdication of Nicholas II in March of 1917, one contemporary activist expressed fear that centrifugal forces.from within constituted the greatest challenge to the democratic revolution. Signs of disharmony quickly appeared among the revolutionary leaders themselves. The liberals in the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and the moderate socialists in the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet found themselves at swords' points even before the first Provisional Government was officially established, and as months passed the animosity grew. Not long after the establishment of the new government the bickering spread beyond the ruling circles, disrupting orderly working relations between the new regime and the institutions surviving from the old. It appeared as though the collapse of the monarchy encouraged divisiveness precisely when survival depended on cooperative action.
The Cambridge Platform: A Reassertion of Ecclesiasatical Authority
Authors: Burg B. R.
Published: April 2006

Since the time of its promulgation in 1648, the Cambridge Platform has been considered one of seventeenth-century New England's most important documents. Its clerical authors regarded it as a vital instrument for maintaining Christ's commandments, and their assessment was correct. The Platform was the recognized standard for Massachusetts Bay's religion until the time of the American Revolution. Its validity was affirmed not only at the time of its creation but also by the Reforming Synod of 1679. The origins of the Cambridge Platform and the forces that brought about the synod of 1646–1648, where it was written, were many and deeply complicated. Foremost among the internal disagreements causing serious difficulties in the colony during the second decade of settlement were the controversies over ecclesiastical polity, church membership and eligibility for baptism. The situation in England, closely related to the disruptions in the colony, also became a vital factor in the writing of the Cambridge Platform.
Henry of Huntingdon: Clerical Celibacy and the Writing of History
Authors: Partner Nancy
Published: April 2006

By the time that Henry, archdeacon of Huntingdon, completed the first edition of his Historia Anglorum, about 1129, four reform councils had made it quite clear, even to the stubbornly resistant English clergy, that subdeacons, deacons and priests should not have wives, concubines or sons with clerical ambitions. Henry, who had uncanonically succeeded his father, Nicholas, in his archdeaconry, was by 1129 about forty-five years old and had at least one son, probably in minor orders. His major literary works, Historia Anglorum and the epistle De Contemptu Mundi, contain explicit information about his father and the succession of the archdeaconry of Huntingdon, but Henry's careful silence has kept several further generations of this clerical family virtually hidden from readers. Needless to say, he was not pleased with the notions of clerical celibacy that some, in increasing numbers during his lifetime, chose to call reform. Modified by a wary reluctance to state his objections openly, Henry's angry inability to accept that central issue of Gregorian reform shaped his account of the introduction of Gregorian reform to England with insinuation, slander and prevaricating silence. The particular interest of Henry of Huntingdon's treatment of reform councils and reformers lies in its tense delineation of the discomfort felt by many of the higher clergy and their families caught when the reform ideal of celibacy was no longer a startling novelty, but was still not universally accepted, not yet venerable as custom, certainly not easy.
The Interpreters of the United Church of Canada
Authors: Clifford N. K.
Published: April 2006

Shortly after the formation of the United Church of Canada, Charles Clayton Morrison told readers of the Christian Century to “put down a new monumental date in ecclesiastical history—Wednesday, June 10, 1925.” “On that day,” he continued, “took place the first large scale achievement of organic union of separate denominational families since the Protestant Reformation.” Aware that the full significance of this venture would not be evident for some time, he predicted it would be “the object of continued study and exposition for months and perhaps years to come.”1 Since Morrison's enthusiastic pronouncement, a considerable body of literature has accumulated on the church union movement and the United Church of Canada. No critical evaluation, however, has been made of it and little is known about its authors or their understanding of the formation and development of this Canadian institution.