bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Standards for protein based foods in developing countries
Authors: Achaya K. T.
Published: April 2007

Legal specifications in India are issued by the Central Committee for Food Standards and are limited in number. Specifications issued by the Indian Standards Institution (ISI), which are discussed in this paper, are optional but prestigious and much more numerous. Foods based on milk proteins emphasize minimal protein damage, estimated by solubility measurement, and high sanitary quality. The latter is common to all other ISI food specifications as well. Edible oilseed proteins for use as food ingredients are formulated in various types or grades and carry such criteria as protein level, fiber content, and appropriate antinutrient level. Proteins from various sources may enter products such as protein mixes, weaning and toddler foods, biscuits, “vegetable” milks, and offspring of the latter like yogurt, ice cream, and reconstitutable powders. In certain products, protein level may be varied inversely with protein quality. To define the latter, the protein efficiency ratio has been adopted and a working methodology for India evolved through collaborative experimentation. The level of any added vitamins and minerals in these protein foods is such that an expected daily consumption of the food would carry 1/3 the Indian recommended daily allowance. Concentrate protein foods stand in a class apart in their very high levels of the nutrients present. Enriched staples like wheat flours could carry proteins, vitamins, and minerals or omit proteins if found functionally disadvantageous. Codes of practice are being developed by ISI in related fields, such as food advertising, in which one clause enjoins that sound established foods or food practices should not be denigrated; food labeling, in which the problem is to ensure a label meaningful to consumers; and date marking, which could hinge on certain and expected shelf life of the food.
Texturized protein products
Authors: Brain Ross
Published: April 2007

Texture is changed in oilseed protein fractions by mechanical and chemical means in specialized equipment. Processing conditions are closely controlled to ensure end product forms wanted. The arrangement of equipment used in the production of textured proteins is discussed as it relates to a commercial plant design. The nature of feed materials and details of processing conditions required to produce texture in soy protein are presented. Other forms of textured oilseed protein are discussed.
New technology in oilseed proteins
Authors: Becker Kenneth W. , Tiernan Eugene A.
Published: April 2007

The protein industry is in a technical improvement revolution that will lead to tastier and flatulence free products. They will have longer shelf life, allow higher product yields, and be more efficient in energy conservation. The improved processes discussed include methods for making superior quality flours and grits, better extruded products, and higher quality concentrates and isolates. The new products will have high protein efficiency ratio ratings and a broad range of nitrogen solubility index. Some of the decision‐making information that processors should have before appropriating capital are described.
Crude oil handling and storage
Authors: Burkhalter John P.
Published: April 2007

Methods of handling and storing crude vegetable oils are often overlooked in the production of good quality finished products at the lowest possible costs. While good methods are not difficult to understand and implement, they are extremely important. Areas that will be discussed are effects of temperature, time, tank size, agitation, and blending.
Bleaching practices in Europe
Authors: Patterson H. B. W.
Published: April 2007

Adsorption onto porous solids is used to remove from oils not only pigments but also several other minor components. Now that long established process steps such as degumming, neutralization, and washing have become even more effective, the technique of adsorption is being continually evaluated to ensure that no unjustified expenditure is allowed to continue. Practical advice is offered on bleaching procedures and the subsequent separation of the adsorbent from the oil.
Degumming, refining, bleaching, and deodorization theory
Authors: Cowan John C.
Published: April 2007

Basic theory and principles of degumming, refining, bleaching, and deodorization are reviewed. Composition of crude oils, hydration of ions and molecules, neutralization of organic acid, and separation and modification of products by centrifugation, adsorption, and vacuum steam distillation are briefly summarized. Reactions of vegetable oils include hydration, neutralization, and oxidation.
Degumming and refining practices in the U.S.
Authors: Carr Roy A.
Published: April 2007

The “state of the art” of degumming and refining crude vegetable oils in the U.S. is discussed with reference to (a) production volumes and significant quality characteristics of oils processed; (b) processes and equipment for degumming, refining, and waterwashing the oils, illustrated by diagrams and flow charts; and (c) key process controls and analytical testing requirements for each unit operation.
Steam refining
Authors: Sullivan Frank E.
Published: April 2007

Steam refining of fatty oils to reduce the partially high free fatty acid content of certain crude oils before conventional refining has been practiced in Europe for many years. Intensive laboratory testing indicated that crude palm oil could be pretreated to remove trace metals and certain heat resistant organic compounds. This pretreated oil could then be steam refined and simultaneously steam deodorized to produce a high quality finished edible oil. Analytical data on crude and finished oil quality and operating yields are presented to illustrate the steam refining/deodorization process. Laboratory results obtained by steam refining a variety of other oils also are presented.
Deodorization 1975
Authors: Zehnder Calvin T.
Published: April 2007

Current deodorization equipment available worldwide is reviewed with a general discussion of process innovations, operating conditions, and process‐quality control problems. Flavor, color, odor, and stability of finished products are considered as affected by deodorization.
Automation in vegetable oil refineries
Authors: Duff A. J.
Published: April 2007

Various aspects of automation are reviewed, with particular reference to examples taken from the following processing fields: oil storage, refining, hydrogenation, deodorization, oil compounding, and soapstock treatment. Examples of automation involving centralized control, programmed sequence control, in‐plant quality, and process yield measurement as well as on‐line computer control are illustrated. Current trends in automation methods and hardware design are also discussed.
Interesterification of edible oils
Authors: Hustedt H. H.
Published: April 2007

Types of interesterification discussed are (a) interchange between a fat and free fatty acids, in which the most important reaction is the introduction of acids of low mol wt into a fat with higher fatty acids; (b) interchange between a fat and an alcohol, e.g., with glycerol, in order to produce emulsifiers like monoglycerides; (c) rearrangement of fatty acid radicals in triglycerides, the so‐called transesterification which in recent years has taken on the same importance as hydrogenation or fractionation. In natural fats, the fatty acid radicals are not usually randomly distributed but become so by rearrangement; the distinctive physical properties of natural fats and oils can be changed within limits by this transesterification. Well‐known examples are cocoa butter, palm oil, and lard. More important is the transesterification of a mixture of different fats and oils; e.g., the combination of hydrogenation and interesterification allows the production of a solid fat with high linoleic acid content. The composition of glycerides after random interesterification can be calculated by formulas.

Distinct from random is such directed interesterification. This is done by working at low temperatures that glycerides with higher melting point crystallize from the reaction mixture. Directed interesterification can be combined with fractionation, for instance, to get a higher yield of liquid fraction from palm oil than is obtained by fractionation alone.

The transesterification process can be performed in a batch or continuously. A small amount of metallic sodium or sodium ethylate is used as catalyst, which is destroyed by water or acid and removed after the reaction.
Fractionation and winterization of edible fats and oils
Authors: Kreulen H. P.
Published: April 2007

Processes for fractionation and winterization are reviewed. Properties of solid and liquid fractions from various fats and oils are discussed. In view of the current interest in palm oil, the operation and economics of a small palm oil processing plant including fractionation are described.
Blending, chilling, and tempering of margarines and shortenings
Authors: Haighton A. J.
Published: April 2007

The preparation of the milk and fat phase of margarine, which is a milk‐in‐fat emulsion, is discussed. Refined and deodorized fats are blended to meet constraints in regard to price, solid fat index, taste stability, and crystallization behavior. The milk phase is prepared according to specifications and concerning protein content, salt concentration, and other ingredients, and adjusted to the pH. The flavored fat and the milk are then dosed in the proper ratio and processed by means of scraped coolers in which the mixture is emulsified, cooled, and crystallized. High speed machines pack the product in tubs or wrappers.

The processing of shortenings is roughly the same, but no water phase is used. Occasionally, tempering, which is a hold of several hours at elevated temperature, is applied to improve the plasticity of the product, its creaming properties, and overall baking performance.
Food emulsifiers: Surface activity, edibility, manufacture, composition, and application
Authors: Lauridsen Jens Birk
Published: April 2007

Food emulsifiers are indispensable ingredients in most processed foods containing fats and oils. Terms like surface activity and edibility have a special relevance to emulsifiers and are described. Food emulsifiers may be grouped according to different aspects. In this paper they are described from the viewpoint of their origin, and special attention is given to monoglyceride derivatives, such as lactylated monoglycerides, to glycerol‐free fatty acid derivatives, as well as to monodiglycerides and distilled monoglycerides. The mesomorphic behavior of aqueous emulsifier systems is mentioned, and certain production aspects of food emulsifiers, including the distillation of monoglycerides, are given.
Margarine oils, shortenings, and vanaspati
Authors: Gander K. ‐F.
Published: April 2007

The technology of processes aimed at the production of margarine has, on the whole, not changed dramatically during the past 20 years. However, a great number of technological modifications for quality improvement and adaption to market requirements have been achieved. These include tailor‐made refining procedures for more flexible blend formulations, careful exclusion of oxygen in closed systems (for refining, dosing, emulsification, and cooling), and development of soft margarine, rich in linoleic acid and mostly packed in tubs. The processing of margarine is fully mechanized today and might be partly automated in the future.

As for vanaspati, there have been hardly any changes on the processing side, which includes a slow crystallization phase that hardly lends itself to mechanization and automation. Like margarine, more flexible blend formulations have been made available, and improvements in flavor technology have been achieved.

Shortening development has run completely parallel to margarine development.
Utilization of lecithin
Authors: Scocca P. M.
Published: April 2007

Lecithins are used in small amounts in many industrial, food, and cosmetic products. Various lecithin products and applications are discussed.
New markets for tallow through research
Authors: Doty D. M. , Sheppard William J.
Published: April 2007

It is postulated that expanded markets and a more stable price structure for rendered animal fats can be attained through research to develop new products and new uses for these commodities. An industry‐supported research program to accomplish this must be designed to develop high volume, low cost products with a reasonable chance to fulfill a market need. Thus the technical research must be accompanied by, and integrated with, market research and careful estimates of production costs. The Fats and Proteins Research Foundation has used these guidelines in the research that it has supported for the past eight years. The following new uses and new products from inedible animal fats have been developed: (1) an air‐entraining agent for concrete; (2) a water repellent coating for concrete; (3) a fat‐containing admixture for concrete; and (4) a fat‐coated urea for ruminant feeds. The estimated market potential for tallow and other animal fats for these new products is 200–400 million pounds annually in the United States by 1980.
Wide‐line NMR spectra of some saturated and unsaturated long chain fatty acids
Authors: Bailey August V. , Pittman Robert A.
Published: April 2007

Wide‐line NMR spectra were obtained on a series of homologous normal long chain fatty acids: decanoic, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic and behenic as well as three isostructural unsaturated acids: elaidic,trans‐5‐eicosenoic and brassidic. Also included are NMR spectra of metastable forms of both the saturated and unsaturated acids. NMR parameters are correlated with carbon chain length, crystal long spacing and density. Polymorphic forms are distinguished on the basis of line width and second moment differences.
The phases of saturated 1‐monoglycerides C14‐C22
Authors: Lutton E. S.
Published: April 2007

Phase behavior of a homologous series of saturated even 1‐monoglycerides, starting with monomyristin, has been reviewed and their study extended to monoarachidin and monobehenin. The occurrence of sub α, α, β′ and β polymorphs was confirmed for all compounds, except in the case of β′ for monomyristin. It has been firmly established that there is a reversible sub α2 ⇄ sub α1 transition, (indicated by Malkin for monostearin) below the reversible sub α (sub α1)⇄α transition, for C18 through C22 compounds; it occurs at about 50 C and is apparently almost independent of chain length. The sub α2 to sub α1 transformation is particularly sensitive to impurity and disappears for 1‐monobehenin at about 10% 2‐monobehenin as produced by heating at 96 C. Heats of transformation are, for β′ and β crystal melting, about 50 cal/g; for α melting, about 35; for sub α → α transition, about 15 and for sub α2 to sub α1 transition about 3, which is several times as large as typical heats of melting of mesomorphic states. Diffraction data confirm the essential identity of all long spacing values and the occurrence of tilted chains for all polymorphs of a given compound. Much similarity is encountered between sub α and β′ patterns. Sub α2 and sub α1 are difficult to distinguish by diffraction pattern.
Biodegradation of synthetic detergents evaluation by community trials part 3: Primary alcohol sulphates
Authors: Mann A. H. , Reid V. W.
Published: April 2007

The biodegradability of primary alcohol sulphates derived from a coconut alcohol and from a synthetic alcohol (Dobanol 25‐Shell trademark, known as Neodol in the U.S. and Canada) has been evaluated by field trials with a trickling‐filter sewage treatment plant serving a small community. Both these materials showed a high order of biodegradability, average values in the 96–98% region being obtained. On aeration of effluents in the laboratory further degradation to 99% was achieved with both alcohol sulphates. Effluents containing only residues of either alcohol sulphate were practically nonfoaming.
Linseed oil on concrete: Penetration of linseed oil compositions into sheet‐and liquid membrane‐cured concretes
Authors: Gast L. E. , Kubie W. L. , Cowan J. C.
Published: April 2007

Penetrations of concrete specimens by solutions of boiled linseed oil in mineral spirits and emulsions of boiled linseed oil were measured. Concrete specimens were cured with polyethylene sheet (removable) and wax‐based and resin‐based compounds prior to penetration tests. Penetration was greatest at 35 days and least at four and seven days after curing. Penetration at 105 days was only slightly less at 35 days. Maximum penetrations were obtained with solutions more dilute than 50 volume per cent of linseed oil in mineral spirits. Penetrations on polyethylene‐, wax‐ or resin‐cured specimens varied from 1.5 to 3 mm when 50 volume per cent linseed oil solution or emulsion was spread on the specimen at the rate of 0.16 lb/yd2.
Cocoa butter and confectionery fats. Studies using programmed temperature X‐ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry
Authors: Chapman G. M. , Akehurst E. E. , Wright W. B.
Published: April 2007

The polymorphic behavior and thermal properties of cocoa butter have been investigated by means of programmed temperature x‐ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry. The relationship of this polymorphism to the technical problems of “tempering” and “bloom” development is discussed. Cocoa butter containing, respectively, milk fat and a bloom inhibitor, and some alternatives to cocoa butter have been studied. These results have provided information that will help determine process conditions for these particular fats.
Organoleptic and oxidative stability of blends of soybean and peanut oils
Authors: Cowan J. C. , Moser Helen , List G. R. , Evans C. D.
Published: April 2007

A table oil or a salad and cooking oil must serve both as an oil for salad dressings and for cooking potatoes in a deep‐fat fryer. Blends of peanut and unhydrogenated soybean oil that have been treated with a metal inactivating agent such as citric acid were scored fairly high by a research taste panel after aging for 4 or 8 days at 60 C. Heating the samples to frying temperature resulted in significantly higher room odor scores for peanut oil than for the blends. Blends of hydrogenated or hydrogenated‐winterized soybean oil with peanut oil were generally scored about equal to peanut oil in room odor tests. Potatoes fried in these oils were generally given comparable and not significantly different scores.
Composition of residual solvent in oilseed marc extracted with aqueous mixed solvents
Authors: King William H.
Published: April 2007

The amount and composition of residual solvent adhering to, or absorbed by extracted oilseed meats is important in research on the design and control of mixed solvent extraction processes. A rapid method requiring unsophisticated apparatus and instrumentation usually available in oilseed processing laboratories for analysis of the extracted marc is described. This method consists of azeotropic distillation of the solvent from the marc followed by centrifugation of the double‐phase distillate in calibrated oil centrifuge tubes, reading the volumes of the lower layers, and obtaining the water content from this reading, and a graph, previously constructed by applying the method to known mixtures. Total volatile matter is determined by evaporation and oven drying. Equations for calculating other volatile components of the marc are given. Data are shown for the recovery and quantitative determination of water, and equations are given for calculating acetone and hexane contents in cottonseed marc extracted with a mixture of these solvents.
Production and use of rapeseed in Europe
Authors: Lesieur Bernard
Published: April 2007

Rapeseed production and use in Europe has substantially increased in the past several years. This increase has been fostered by the European Economic Community through payments to raise the price to the farmer without penalizing the processor. Production in Europe has risen to about 2 million metric tons with most of the seed being processed and used in Europe.
End‐use evaluation of some copolymers and terpolymers of vinyl ethers of linseed conjugated fatty alcohols
Authors: Dent R. H. , Brand B. G. , Teeter H. M. , Cowan J. C.
Published: April 2007

Copolymers and terpolymers, based on vinyl ethers from linseed conjugated fatty alcohols and selected as having the most potential for commercial use, were evaluated as chemically resistant coatings, metal‐decorating coatings, small‐applicance and architectural finishes, wire coatings, and adhesives. Studies show these materials to have promise in areas where a high‐temperature baking schedule can be tolerated and where color is not of prime importance. Good compatibility with most commonly used pigments was observed. As wire coatings, film showed good continuity and had superior dielectric strength and resistance to cut–through; however, improvement in flexibility and adhesion to copper would be needed for successful application. Performance as adhesives was disappointing, since curing in the absence of air was poor. The polymers showed some promise as can coatings, but the need for modifications in them was demonstrated.
Chemical reactions involved in the catalytic hydrogenation of oils. I. Characteristics of the volatile by‐products
Authors: Chang S. S. , Masuda Y. , Mookherjee B. D. , Silveira A.
Published: April 2007

The gas chromatogram of the isolated volatile by‐products I, which were produced during catalytic hydrogenation of soybean oil is quite different from that of the isolated volatile byproducts II, which were produced by a duplicate sample of the same oil subjected to the same conditions of hydrogenation with no nickel catalyst. Many of the peaks on these two gas chromatograms had different retention times. Furthermore, catalytic hydrogenation of I did not alter its gas chromatogram to equal that of II. The side reactions which may take place when an oil is treated under hydrogenation conditions are, therefore, affected by the presence of nickel catalys.
Conjoined crystals. I. composition and physical properties
Authors: Kuhrt N. H. , Broxholm R. A. , Blum W. P.
Published: April 2007

Conjoined Crystals is the name given to a new food emulsifier whose special properties are associated with its content of glycerol monoester in a stabilized ॅ‐crystalline form (6). It consists of the mixture of crystals formed by cooling a melt containing approximately equal molecular proportion of certain long chain fatty acid monoesters of glycerol and of 1,2‐propanediol. A practical composition contains a blend of glycerol monostearate and 1,2‐propanediol monostearate.

Conjoined Crystals disperse readily in water and retain this ability for periods of over a year, a property which appears to be closely associated with their effectiveness in baking and in other applications. This water dispersibility contrasts with the behavior of the usual modification of glycerol monostearate which is difficult to disperse in water.

Infrared analysis indicated that the major part of the glycerol monoester in the mixed crystals is in the ॅ‐crystalline modification. Studies by X‐ray diffraction supported this conclusion. Thus, we have consistently associated ready water dispersibility and the ॅ‐form with the enhanced emulsifying ability.
Conjoined crystals. II. Applications
Authors: Kuhrt N. H. , Broxholm R. A.
Published: April 2007

Mixed crystals of glycerol monostearate and 1,2‐propanediol monostearate (propylene glycol monostearate) (a useful composition of Conjoined Crystals, see Part 1) disperse readily in water, retaining this property for long periods of time. The effect of composition on retention of the ॅ‐crystalline form of the glycerol monoester in such dispersions is discussed.

The water dispersions foam when shaken or when air is blown through the dispersion, a property which appears to be associated with the superior activity of the mixed crystals as a food emulsifier. A test method for measuring foam retention is described.

The crystals, or their water dispersions, are useful in the preparation of low‐calorie, fruit 舠fluffs,舡 such as whipped applesauce. Sponge cakes with fine grain, improved volume, and texture were prepared with the water dispersions. The crystals are effective emulsifiers in cake mixes and bread. These tests are described.
Phospholipids of pork muscle tissues
Authors: Kuchmak M. , Dugan L. R.
Published: April 2007

The lipids extracted from four locations on a hog carcass were fractionated into nonphospholipids, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl serine, lecithins, and sphingomyelins. The identities of phospholipid fractions were established and their quantitative contents were determined by three methods: gravimetrically, from analysis of the phosphorus content, and from standard curves of infrared spectra. Variations in content of a phospholipid type were noted in the carcass locations studied. Lecithin and phosphatidyl ethanolamine were found in greatest quantity. These represented ca. 61% and 31%, respectively, of the total phospholipids. The remainder was distributed between phosphatidyl serine and sphingomyelin at 5% and 3%, respectively. The phospholipid content of hog meat was found to be slightly over 0.5%.
A nutritional evaluation of acetostearins in rats
Authors: Coleman R. D. , Gayle L. A. , Alfin‐Slater Roslyn B.
Published: April 2007

A modified glyceride, acetostearin, has been studied in feeding experiments with rats using several nutritional and biochemical criteria. As acetostearins are more readily absorbed than the standard fats from which they are prepared, it was possible also to study the effect of high levels of saturated fat on essential fatty acid utilization.

The retarded growth and poor survival of acetostearin‐fed animals indicate the possibility of antagonism of the acetostearins to essential fatty acid utilization. The decreased plasma cholesterol levels and elevated liver cholesterol values observed in the acetostearin‐fed animals appear to be due mainly to essential fatty acid deficiency. High cholesterol levels in the adrenals show some indication of the involvement of caloric insufficiency in cholesterol metabolism of acetostearinfed rats. Therefore, the probable explanation of the poor nutritional performance of rats fed acetostearin is a combination of essential fatty acid deficiency and caloric insufficiency.
Seed oils fromCitrus sinensis
Authors: Hendrickson R. , Kesterson J. W.
Published: April 2007

Comparative analyses of seed oils from the four most important orange varieties at different stages of maturity have shown remarkably similar fatty acid content by GLC. Percentage distribution of fatty acids, refractive index, and iodine number could probably be used to differentiate or help confirmCitrus species since there is enough variation between species to make a valid comparison. Seed content was noted as being related to fruit maturity, as was moisture content of seeds. The oil content of pineappleorange seeds was found to be variable, correlated to moisture content of seeds, and it reached a maximum when seed moisture had decreased to approximately 49%.
The behavior of sterols on silica surfaces and at other interfaces
Authors: Klein Peter D. , Knight John C. , Szcepanik Patricia A.
Published: April 2007

The specific manner in which a molecule is oriented at an interface determines the reactions in which the molecule can participate. Sterols, being highly anisotropic molecules, present 舠ends舡 and 舠sides舡 to surfaces which differ greatly in their reactivity and interaction with the surface. Seen from the 3ॆ‐hydroxy end, as at an air‐water interface, sterols are largely indistinguishable from one another in their behavior. On the other hand, at an organized interface, such as that of an absorbent, a great many differences in structure can be demonstrated. These include the distinction between nuclear and side‐chain double bonds, the number and location of nuclear double bonds, the substituents in the side chain and the number of methyl groups in the molecule.

We have been interested in the degree of specificity which such interaction can display because of the obvious parallel to sterol‐protein interactions of a structural or enzymatic nature. Through the synthesis of a variety of sterol structures possessing the desired arrangement of double bonds and numbers of methyl groups, we have established a reproducible correlation between adsorptive interaction and double bonds in the ख5, ख7, ख8, ख5,7 and ख7, 9 positions, as well as for the saturated stanol. These correlations have been extended for the 4ॅ, 4ॆ, 4,4 dimethyl and 4,4,14ॅ trimethyl series as well. The elucidation of the structure of macdougallin as a 14ॅ methyl sterol in which the 4,4, gem dimethyl grouping was absent prompted a further study of the 14ॅ methyl sterols, of which the ख7, ख8, ख7,9 and unsaturated varieties have been prepared and tested. The presence of a 14ॅ methyl group in the absence of other methyl groups confers a unique behavior on the molecule in that this series does not fit into the adsorptive scheme for the other sterols. Instead, the interaction of the double bond with the surface is almost completely independent of its position, suggesting that the molecule is 舠perched舡 on the 14ॅ methyl group when absorbed in the surface. This appears to be a highly significant feature in the orientation of the molecule, since the removal of this methyl group is usually regarded as an essential first step in the conversion of lanosterol to cholesterol.
Enzymatic hydrolysis at an oil/water interface
Authors: Mattson F. H. , Volpenhein R. A.
Published: April 2007

Triglycerides are metabolized by most of the organs and tissues of the body. However, the conditions in the lumen of the intestinal tract are unique, for it is only here that triglycerides are metabolized in the free state. Elsewhere these lipids are associated with water‐soluble materials. Since the substrate is water‐insoluble and the enzyme is water‐soluble, lipase, which brings about the hydrolysis of triglycerides in the intestinal tract, has the special property of being capable of functioning efficiently at an oil/water interface. Any material that can alter the nature of this oil/water interface can markedly influence the digestion of triglycerides.

Because of the unusual conditions under which the hydrolysis of triglycerides occurs, the usual methods of studying enzyme kinetics are not applicable. Besides the enzyme‐substrate reaction itself, one must consider also such matters as diffusion of the substrate to the oil/water interface, removal of the products of hydrolysis from the oily/water interface, and the subsequent diffusion of these into the bulk phase. All of these steps can be influenced by such variables as efficiency of agitation, electrolyte concentration, and the presence of surface‐active agents, such as monoglycerides, soaps, and the bile salts.
Infrared spectrophotometric procedure for determining azelaaldehydic acid derivatives
Authors: Anders D. E. , Pryde E. H.
Published: April 2007

A convenient and accurate infrared procedure was developed for determining the conversion of azelaaldehydic esters to acetals by measuring disappearance of the aldehydic C蜢H stretching vibration at 2720 cm蜢1 (3.68ॖ).
Statistical approach to detergency. III. Effect of artificially soiled test cloth
Authors: Ginn M. E. , Davis G. A. , Jungermann Eric
Published: April 2007

The relative effectiveness of several proprietary detergents is measured in cleaning 舠standard舡 soil cloths. Quantities of soil removal are related to detergent type, and to polarity or hydrophilicity of the soil and cleaning media. Various calculation methods and statistical treatments of detergency data are discussed.
Synthesis of methyl, propyl, butyl, isobutyl, hexyl, cyclohexyl, octyl, and 2‐ethylhexyl esters of epoxyoleic acid
Authors: Riemenschneider R. W. , Zell T. , Scott W. E.
Published: April 2007

A series of esters of 12,13‐epoxyoleic acid were prepared by means of alcoholysis of triepoxyolein (trivernolin). The procedure for the alcoholysis, and isolation and purification of the esters are described. Analytical characteristics of the esters are reported.
The major component phospholipids of rapeseed gum
Authors: Weenink R. O. , Tulloch A. P.
Published: April 2007

The phospholipids from a commercial rapeseed gum have been fractionated on DEAE‐cellulose and silicic acid columns. The molar percentages of the major components were phosphatidyl choline (22), phosphatidyl inositol (18) and phosphatidyl ethanolamine (15). Other acidic phospholipids (16) were also observed but were not further investigated. The fatty acids from the phospholipid fractions showed little variation in composition. The chief components were palmitic, oleic and linoleic acids.
Acetone numbers of thermally polymerized drying oils
Authors: Grummitt Oliver , Arters Albert , Stearns James
Published: April 2007

The effect on the determination of the acetone numbers of thermally polymerized drying oils of temperature, water, color, and method of determining the end point has been reported. A simple standardization has been developed. With proper precautions a reproducibility of ± 0.16 at an acetone number of 94 can be obtained.

From a study of various bodied oils it is concluded that the acetone number is a function of the kind of oil, its viscosity, amount of acids present, processing conditions such as temperature and oxidation by air, and the addition of polar modifying agents such as maleic anhydride.

The acetone number promises to be a useful constant of bodied oils.
Solvent extraction of cottonseeds with hexane and water as co‐solvents
Authors: Bendler Albert J. , McNeil Donald
Published: April 2007

By stirring violently for four hours at 4,100 r.p.m. a mixture of dehulled and flaked cottonseed meal, hexane, and water, with respective hexane/meal and water/meal weight ratios of 6:1 and 1:5, all the pigment glands of the seed are broken, the oil content of the meal is reduced to about 1%, and a miscella phase only, free of water, is produced as all the water added remains with the meal. Extracted meal thus obtained is easily filtered from the miscella and air‐dries to an easily handled, non‐sticky cake. If the water is increased in the mixture to a water/meal ratio of 2:5, other results remain about the same, but the meal is excessively sticky and is difficult to filter from the miscella. Pre‐soaking the meal in solvent before extraction has little or no effect, under our conditions of extraction, on the amount of oil left in the meal.

It is proposed that solvent extraction of cottonseed oil proceeds according to the normal laws of diffusion. Rapid solvent action is believed to be hindered not by presence of a difficulty dissolving “resistance” proposed in other work but rather by presence in the meal of lyophobic molecules, such as absorbed water, which offer strong intra‐molecular repulsion to solvent penetration. In consequence it is necessary to provide strong shearing action and turbulence to promote frequent contacts between the oil cell and the miscella.

Commercial applications of results are discussed.
The reduction of free gossypol in cottonseed by pressure cooking
Authors: Gribbins G. H.
Published: April 2007

It has been demonstrated that the rate of disappearance of free gossypol during pressure cooking correlates well when using the equation of a second order chemical reaction. This equation applies to raw seed, whole meats, flaked meats, and solvent extracted flakes. For whole meats it was shown that the value of the rate constant K for the disappearance of free gossypol varies in direct proportion to the initial moisture content of the meats; and the log of K varies linearly with the temperature of the meats. Based on these factors a method has been presented by which the three cooking variables: moisture, temperature, and time, can be correlated into a single equation for any one series of cooks on cottonseed meats.
Phenolic antioxidants for carotene
Authors: Bickoff E. M.
Published: April 2007

Relative values for the carotene‐stabilizing effects in mineral oil solutions of a number of phenolic‐type antioxidants were determined. Certain relationships between molecular structure and antioxidant activity were observed. Alkylation of the phenolic compounds in general enhanced activity. Hydroquinone was shown to be an exception in the system studied.

Several antioxidants which have been accepted for use in lard have been found to be effective antioxidants for carotene in mineral oil solution. These include nordihydroguaiaretic acid, 2‐t‐butyl‐4‐methoxyphenol, alpha tocopherol, and esters of gallic acid. In addition, certain bisphenols used as anthelmintics were effective antioxidants for carotene.
The determination of moisture in sodium alkyl aryl sulfonates
Authors: Compton J. W. , Liggett L. M.
Published: April 2007

Conclusions

1. The oven drying method for the determination of water in sodium alkyl aryl sulfonates results in incomplete removal of water and may result in the loss of unsulfonated oil and other volatile products.

2. The determination of water in sodium alkyl aryl sulfonates by desiccation over concentrated sulfuric acid results in incomplete removal of the water.

3. The determination of water in sodium alkyl aryl sulfonates by azeotropic distillation and subsequent measurement of the water distilled is not recommended because of the operational difficulties and lack of sufficient accuracy.

4. The azeotropic distillation of Suter (6) is applicable for the determination of water in sodium alkyl aryl sulfonates, but comparable results may be determined more readily by the proposed Karl Fischer method.

5. The determination of water in sodium alkyl aryl sulfonates by the Karl Fischer method is the most satisfactory of the methods investigated.
A comparative study of the nutritive value of thermally oxidized oils
Authors: Johnson Ogden C. , Sakuragi Taketami , Kummerow Fred A.
Published: April 2007

Thermal oxidation of corn oil under laboratory conditions, at 200°C., led to the formation of an oil exhibiting definite growth‐depressing action under bothad libitum and paired feeding conditions. Under similar conditions margarine base stock gave only slight growth depression, and none was noted with butter oil. The effect was not a permanent one as animals that were changed to a normal diet quickly recovered and grew to maturity. It appeared that the products formed during the thermal treatment were related to the unsaturated or polyunsaturated portions of the oil. The growth‐depressing effect appeared to be multiple in nature, it had an irritant or diarrhea effect and possibly an enzyme‐inhibiting or vitamin‐destroying effect.
Leaf filter for foots removal from crude oil reduces labor and eliminates filter cloth and paper
Authors: Grimm R. T.
Published: April 2007

Conclusions

A consideration of the economics of installing a leaf type of filter for crude oil in a new mill or as a replacement for existing filtration equipment must take into account the following advantages which a pressure leaf filter offers:

Entire filter operation can be handled by a single operator with no assistance required for cleaning;

complete elimination of cost of filter cloths and Viskon papers normally used to dress filter presses;

elimination of storage, handling, cutting, etc., of cloths and papers;

completely enclosed, leak‐free filter installation;

drier filter cakes with less air‐blowing time and lower air consumption;

a permanent filter medium (woven wire cloth) of stainless steel which cannot corrode, or rupture during operation, thereby causing passage of solids into filtered oil;

high degree of solids removal, resulting in low refining losses;

a cleaner filter station;

less strenuous labor; and

economical construction in carbon steel.
Checking alkali delivery of a proportioner in vegetable oil refining
Authors: Mattikow M. , Edmonds S. M.
Published: April 2007

A method has been developed for the determination of soda ash and sodium hydroxide in vegetable oil‐alkali mixtures as a check on proportioning equipment feeding oil and alkali. The method depends upon the potentiometric titration in one step of free alkali and soap, using a pH meter and the glass electrode‐calomel electrode assembly. The analysis is sufficiently rapid to serve as a convenient control in a continuous refining process.
The hydrogenation process
Authors: Sourelis S. G.
Published: April 2007

Conclusion

It should be stressed again that successful hydrogenation depends upon the careful preparation and handling of all materials, the accurate control of the reaction, and the use of efficient equipment and operating procedures. Our understanding of the reaction and the chemistry involved is far from complete and present methods of controlling the results are, by necessity, indirect and time‐consuming.

The critical problem of hydrogenation has to do with the selectivity of the reaction. Improvements in the process therefore will depend largely upon the preparation of better and more selective catalysts. Perhaps when catalysts are developed which will provide very precise selectivity, continuous methods for hydrogenation may be used to much greater advantage.
The glyceride structure of natural fats. III. Factors governing the content of fully saturated glycerides
Authors: Kartha A. R. S.
Published: April 2007

Experimental evidence from the literature is given to support the hypothesis that the GS3 which may be present in natural fats cannot be in excess of the quantity which can exist in the fluid statein vivo. It is suggested that solid fat is not producedin vivo because the mode of action of lipolytic enzymes allows them to form only liquid fats.
Alcoholic extraction of vegetable oils. II. Solubilities of corn, linseed, and tung oils in aqueous ethanol
Authors: Rao Rama Kanth , Arnold Lionel K.
Published: April 2007

Solubilities of corn, linseed, and tung oils in aqueous alcoholic solutions at various temperatures have been determined by a direct and simple method. The solubility curves for the three oils in aqueous alcoholic solutions are presented.

The critical solution temperatureversus alcohol composition data have been plotted for the three oils. It is observed that the critical solution temperature increases with the water content of the alcohol and that the relationship is linear in each case. Similar results were obtained for cottonseed, peanut, sesame, and soybean oils previously (1).

The pressure in the system, increases with temperature; the maximum is approximately 20 p.s.i.g.
Protein denaturation in soybean meal during processing
Authors: Belter Paul A. , Smith Allan K.
Published: April 2007

The effects of soybean oil solvent extraction on the denaturation of the protein as measured by changes of dispersibility of the nitrogen in water has been studied. The results for five commercial plants were compared with denaturation changes produced by steam treatment of laboratory prepared flakes. The results show that by use of proper conditions and equipment, flakes can be produced with a minimum of denaturation or, when desired, denaturation can be controlled within practical limits.
Wesson loss as a measure of the degree of refining
Authors: Hartman L. , White Margaret D. L.
Published: April 2007

Wesson loss determinations carried out on a number of alkali‐refined oils have shown them to retain varying amounts of non‐glycerides, depending on the type of the oil and on the method of refining. Oils refined according to the official A.O.C.S. method or with sodium carbonate followed by re‐refining are practically free of non‐glycerides while those refined with a moderate excess of alkali over the theory (10–25%) retain appreciable amounts of non‐glycerides. The Wesson method could therefore be used as a quantitative test for the degree of refining.

The chromatographic method is not suitable for this purpose since it shows losses when applied both to carefully refined and to previously chromatographed oils, but in agreement with the Linteris' and Handschumaker's results it has been found applicable to the estimation of loss constituents in crude oils.
Synthetic detergents from animal fats. Disodium alpha‐sulfopalmitate and sodium oleyl sulfate
Authors: Stirton A. J. , Weil J. K. , Stawitzke Anna A. , James S.
Published: April 2007

Disodium α‐sulfopalmitate and homologous compounds were prepared by sulfonation of the fat acid with liquid sulfur trioxide. Sodium oleyl sulfate was prepared in an estimated 95% purity by sulfation of oleyl alcohol with pyridine‐sulfur trioxide. The solubility, surface tension, wetting, foaming, and detergent properties of these and related compounds were measured.

Disodium α‐sulfopalmitate is potentially inexpensive, has adequate surface active properties, is a good detergent in hard and soft water, but has limited solubility at room temperature (0.25% at 25°C.). The lauric and myristic homologs are less surface active, but more soluble. Disodium α‐sulfostearate is less soluble.

Sodium oleyl sulfate has excellent solubility, and surface active properties and is an excellent detergent in soft water. It is not quite so efficient in hard water although no insoluble calcium salts are formed.

The future of the two compounds will depend upon successful formulation with builders or combinations with soap or other detergents.
Surfactants and detergents from sulfated N‐alkyl‐gluconamides
Authors: Mehltretter C. L. , Furry M. S. , Mellies R. L. , Rankin J. C.
Published: April 2007

A number of N‐alkyl‐d‐gluconamides and a rosin substitutedd‐gluconamide were prepared in good yield by reacting long chain fatty amines and rosin amine withd‐glucono‐delta‐lactone. Reaction of these compounds with chlorosulfonic acid yielded sulfates of various degrees of substitution whose sodium salts exhibited marked surface active properties. Soil‐removal tests with cotton fabric showed several of these products to be effective detergents in hard water.
Determination of primary and secondary fatty aliphatic amines in the presence of large amounts of nitrile by near‐infrared spectroscopy
Authors: Stage R. B. , Stanley J. B. , Moseley P. B.
Published: April 2007

There are numerous methods proposed for determination of primary, secondary and tertiary amines. Most seem to be lengthy, inaccurate and unsuitable for small samples. Previous spectroscopic methods based on near‐infrared spectroscopy for determination of aliphatic and aromatic amines are not applicable for samples containing more than 10% nitrile. A simple method based on near‐infrared spectroscopy has been developed, and is presented, for determination of primary and secondary fatty aliphatic amines in the presence of 0–100% nitrile.
Tertiary butylhydroquinone as antioxidant for crude sunflower seed oil
Authors: Luckadoo B. M. , Sherwin E. R.
Published: April 2007

This study indicates that crude sunflower seed oil is very susceptible to oxidation; thus prolonged storage should be avoided. Protection of the crude oil with a potent antioxidant such as tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) would seem both practical and beneficial. Discoloration which develops in the crude oil with or without TBHQ can be removed by proper selection of bleaching materials. Additional benefits to be derived from using TBHQ should be investigated by using test methods designed to study subtle flavor qualities of deodorized oils.
Castor meal antigen deactivation‐pilot plant ammonia process
Authors: Mottola A. C. , Mackey B. , Herring V. , Kohler G.
Published: April 2007

This is one paper of a series reporting on processes to deactivate the castor antigens. This report gives an analysis of ammonia process variables affecting antigenicity responses. The degree of destruction of antigen obtained by treatment with ammonia under relatively mild conditions of heat is comparable to that obtained with high pressure steam.