bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
NeuroDynamix II
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon
Published: February 2010

The electrical membrane potential is an important property for the functioning of living cells. Temporal variations of this potential generated by synaptic interactions and expressed as nerve impulses are central for signaling within nervous systems. Because neuronal signaling has this electrical basis, electrophysiology underlies neurophysiology. The primary objective of the NeuroDynamix II text is to provide a deep introduction to neurophysiology. The approach is to introduce the elements of electrical circuits, batteries, resistors and capacitors, and to build on that foundation to reconstruct the parallel conductance model that Hodgkin and Huxley employed for resting potentials and nerve impulses. The text presents brief historical sketches of, and introduces students to the fundamental concepts of neurophysiology. Following each didactic presentation, modeling exercises-hands-on simulations-serve to deepen the reader's understanding of basic neurophysiological techniques, including intracellular recording and voltage-clamp recording. The computer models present experimental results dynamically; that is, results are displayed as they are generated, providing a sense of experimental verisimilitude. NeuroDynamix II embodies a tight interdependence between the didactic text and the free, online NDX II software. Section I provides explicit, illustrated introductions to electrical concepts, the properties of ion channels, resting and action potentials, synaptic interactions, and neuronal circuits. Each didactic chapter concludes with detailed “Lessons” that preconfigure NDX II models to illustrate and explore neurophysiological principles. Section II provides brief descriptions of seven integrated models, with complete glossaries of variable and parameter names and units. Section III presents a detailed description of the equations for each computer simulation, whereas Section IV summarizes numerical methods for solving the differential equations. The text concludes with a brief guide for accessing the online NDX II modeling program and a bibliography.
Soma Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A.
Published: February 2010

The Soma model simulates the origin of the resting potential in nerve cells. Because this model demonstrates steady-state conditions, or slow changes in the steady state, the membrane capacitance is ignored. In addition, there are no voltage- or time-dependent membrane conductances in this model. The equilibrium (Nernst) potentials for sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride ions are calculated from the relevant ionic concentrations. The relationship between temperature and equilibrium potentials can be explored by altering the simulated temperature. This model also includes an electrogenic pump, which generates a net outflow of positive ions and therefore acts to hyperpolarize the membrane.
Synapse Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A.
Published: February 2010

The Synapse model simulates the membrane potentials of three-compartment invertebrate neurons, comprising a soma, the neurite, and an axon. This model includes synaptic conductances to simulate synaptic interactions between neurons and thus can be used to simulate simple circuits as well as synaptic interactions between pairs of neurons. Simulated neuronal interactions can be either of the chemical synaptic variety (excitatory and inhibitory) or electrical (rectifying and nonrectifying). In this model, the types and magnitudes of synaptic interactions are under experimenter control. In addition, the inhibitory synapses can be set to exhibit synaptic fatigue, based on a model in which transmitter depletion leads to reduced transmitter release from the presynaptic terminal and hence to reduced synaptic efficacy. Electrotonic interactions are determined by electrotonic conductances between neurite compartments of two neurons.
Equations Underlying the Patch Model
Authors: Friesen W. Otto , Friesen Jonathon A.
Published: February 2010

The Patch model illustrates results obtained from patch-clamp experiments. This chapter describes the elementary equations for currents through individual ion channels, based on Ohm's law. Because there are no time-dependent variables, no numerical integration is required.
2.3 Convergence of Limbic, Cognitive, and Motor Cortico-Striatal Circuits with Dopamine Pathways in Primate Brain
Authors: Haber Suzanne N.
Published: February 2010

This chapter first briefly reviews the basic circuitry that underlies parallel processing. It then considers the anatomical basis for integration across different corticobasal ganglia circuits (with a particular emphasis on dopamine), and functional support for integrative processes. While the focus is on primate studies, key rodent experiments are also highlighted when primate data are unavailable.
2.4 The Relationship between Dopaminergic Axons and Glutamatergic Synapses in the Striatum: Structural Considerations
Authors: Moss Jonathan , Paul Bolam J.
Published: February 2010

This chapter summarizes data on the anatomical substrate of the interaction between both glutamatergic corticostriatal synapses and thalamostriatal synapses with dopaminergic axons and terminals in the striatum. Dopamine neurons are remarkable in their complexity: a small population of neurons gives rise to a phenomenally dense innervation of the striatum, and individual neurons have vast axonal arbors that give rise to hundreds of thousands of synapses. The organization of what is central to basal ganglia function (i.e. the interaction between dopamine and glutamate) is such that striatal neurons are embedded in a dense network of dopamine axons and every structure has a similar probability of being apposed by, or in synaptic contact with, a dopaminergic axon. Furthermore, every structure in the striatum is within overlapping spheres of influence of synaptically released dopamine that may spill over and diffuse from the synapse. These structural characteristics thus underlie the phasic actions of dopamine at synapses, presumably in response to bursts of activity of dopamine neurons. They also underlie the tonic effects of dopamine, which are likely to occur as a consequence of tonic release at synapses, as well as the diffuse spillover of dopamine from synapses and possibly nonsynaptic sites.
3.1 Molecular Pharmacology of the Dopamine Receptors
Authors: Rankin Michele L. , Hazelwood Lisa A. , Benjamin Free R. , Namkung Yoon , Rex Elizabeth B. , Roof Rebecca A. , Sibley David R.
Published: February 2010

Dopamine receptors are rhodopsin-like seven-transmembrane receptors (also called G protein-coupled receptors) that mediate the central and peripheral actions of dopamine. Dopamine receptors are most abundant in pituitary and brain, particularly in the basal forebrain, but are also found in the retina and in peripheral organs such as the kidney. Stimulation of dopamine receptors modulates natriuresis in the kidney, as well as cell division and hormone synthesis and secretion in the pituitary. Brain dopamine receptors regulate movement and locomotion, motivation, and working memory. Five subtypes of mammalian dopamine receptors have been identified that are divided into D1-like (D1, D5) or D2-like (D2, D3, D4) subgroups. The D1-like receptors couple primarily to the Gs family of G proteins (Gs and Golf), whereas the D2-like receptors couple primarily to the Gi/o family. This chapter discusses the molecular pharmacology of the five dopamine receptor subtypes.
5.1 From Behavior to Cognition: Functions of Mesostriatal, Mesolimbic, and Mesocortical Dopamine Systems
Authors: Robbins Trevor W.
Published: February 2010

This chapter reviews the role of dopamine (DA) in mesostriatal, mesolimbic, and mesocortical systems in experimental animals and humans. It appears that each of these systems is “tuned” according to an inverted U-shaped function, such that either too low or too high levels of DA activity will produce impaired performance, whether in the motor, behavioral, or cognitive domains. This tuning probably varies among the major terminal domains, each of which may function optimally at a different level of DA activity. Related to this observation is the evidence that different cognitive tasks also appear to be performed optimally at different levels of DA function. In addition to this complexity, it appears that individuals vary in their degree of dopaminergic tuning, at least partly because of factors such as genetic polymorphisms.
6.4 Behavioral Functions of Dopamine Neurons
Authors: Tobler Philippe N.
Published: February 2010

This chapter reviews the extracellular studies of dopamine neurons in behaving animals. Topics covered include motor functions of dopamine neurons, reward functions of dopamine neurons, reward learning functions of dopamine neurons, economic value functions of dopamine neurons, and attention and novelty functions of dopamine neurons.
7.2 Dopamine and Synaptic Plasticity in Mesolimbic Circuits
Authors: Hopf F. Woodward , Bonci Antonello , Malenka Robert C.
Published: February 2010

This chapter reviews current understanding of how dopamine (DA) might modulate glutamatergic synaptic plasticity in mesolimbic brain regions. This topic is examined in the context of in vitro brain slice experiments and plasticity induction in the anesthetized animal. The possibility that DA modulation of glutamatergic signaling could occur in the awake animal and contribute to the expression of motivated behavior is discussed.
8.1 The Role of Dopamine in the Motivational Vulnerability to Addiction
Authors: Koob George F. , Le Moal Michel
Published: February 2010

This chapter discusses the role of dopamine in addiction. Research over the past 50 years has revealed that the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system has an essential role in the acute reinforcing effects of psychostimulant drugs and a contributory role in the acute reinforcing effects of nonstimulant drugs of abuse. Mesocorticolimbic dopamine systems contribute to motivational withdrawal and relapse with all drugs of abuse, and dopamine, by interacting with key elements of brain hormonal stress systems, also has a prominent role in individual differences for the vulnerability to initiate aspects of stimulant addiction that may extend to other drugs of abuse.
8.2 Dopaminergic Mechanisms in Drug-Seeking Habits and the Vulnerability to Drug Addiction
Authors: Everitt Barry J. , Belin David , Dalley Jeffrey W. , Robbins Trevor W.
Published: February 2010

This chapter begins with a discussion of the notion that dopamine (DA) transmission provides a neurochemical mechanism of reinforcement in the brain. It then covers the molecular mechanisms of action of addictive drugs, Pavlovian conditioning, addictive drugs and cellular models of learning and plasticity, and dopaminergic mechanisms in the vulnerability to drug addiction.
9.1 Exploring the Myths about Parkinson’s Disease
Authors: Agid Yves , Hartmann Andreas
Published: February 2010

This chapter addresses nine myths about Parkinson's disease (PD). Among these are the myths that PD is a movement disorder characterized by the classic triad of akinesia, rigidity, and tremor; that first symptoms appear in the patient's 60s; and that clinical diagnosis is simple. It argues that the symptoms of PD are often hidden in plain sight because we have become accustomed to think of this disease in certain slightly calcified ways. However, pathophysiological and therapeutic progress constantly challenges our understanding of PD and, ultimately, the approach to patient diagnosis and care. Although PD remains the paradigmatic dopaminergic disease, we now appreciate that it is a multisystem brain disorder. More importantly, understanding PD—and other chronic neurodegenerative disorders—depends heavily on a precise semiologic analysis of each individual patient. Semiology, then, is the key to understanding brain function and dysfunction.
9.5 Clinical Experiences with Dopamine Neuron Replacement in Parkinson’s Disease: What Is the Future?
Authors: Lindvall Olle
Published: February 2010

Cell therapy research in Parkinson's disease (PD) seeks to develop this approach into a clinically competitive treatment. It should be emphasized, though, that during the more than 20 years since the clinical cell therapy trials started, several new therapeutic options for the PD patient have been added. Most importantly, deep-brain stimulation (DBS), in most cases in the subthalamic nucleus, has been developed and shown to substantially improve motor deficits in advanced PD. Therefore, in order to become clinically useful, cell replacement has to give rise to long-lasting, major improvement in mobility, suppression of dyskinesias, and amelioration of symptoms resistant to other treatments or to counteract disease progression. This chapter describes what has been learned from the clinical trials with transplantation of human embryonic mesencephalic tissue in patients with PD, the major scientific and clinical problems to be solved, and how far stem cells have reached toward the clinical application.
8 Expanding the Data Set
Authors: Craenenbroeck Jeroen van
Published: February 2010

This chapter further extends the data set of this book in two ways. First of all, it briefly discusses the occurrence of spading in Eastern Norwegian and French. Secondly, it focuses on two other instances of stranding under sluicing: the stranding of the adverb dan ‘then’ in Dutch and the stranding of adverbial modifiers such as exactly. The former is shown to be substantially different from spading (despite superficial similarities), while the latter is shown to interact in an interesting way with both spading and swiping. In particular, the fact that a swiped preposition and a spaded demonstrative can intervene between a sluiced wh-phrase and an adverbial modifier indicates that the two do not form a constituent at Spell-Out and that the adverbial modifier is stranded inside the CP-domain as well. As such, swiping and spading can be used as a constituency diagnostic for sluiced phrases.
Introduction
Authors: Sachs Jonathan
Published: February 2010

Contrary to the widespread assumption among literary scholars and historians that the importance of Rome diminishes during the Romantic period, the introduction suggests that recognizing how Romantic writing utilizes republican Rome changes our understanding of the cultural dynamics of the period and establishes the shaping presence of a differentiated classical world in the period's culture wars. The introduction situates this argument in relation to contemporary scholarly debates about classical republicanism, Romantic historicism, Hellenism, and the mediation of the classical world. The focus on Rome reveals the paradoxical classicism of Romanticism, while careful scrutiny of the range of meanings assigned to republican Rome and of the process by which Rome is compared to contemporary Britain underscores the interrelation of literature and politics in the period and the complex process through with antiquity helps to constitute Romantic modernity.
Chapter Three A Roman Standard
Authors: Sachs Jonathan
Published: February 2010

This chapter evaluates the use of Roman precedent in Byron's understanding of the decline of literature and literary standards, of ancient civilization, and of the self. In his Letter to John Murray, Byron uses ancient Roman precedents and the transition from republic to empire to construct a model of literary decline, one which he then applies to the contemporary scene. Byron's invocation of Roman precedents in the Pope controversy to revalue negatively the Romantic movement shows Byron reaching behind his dissatisfaction with Romantic poetics to invoke a Roman standard. The same emphasis on decline seen in Byron's advocacy of Pope also forms a dominant theme in Childe Harold, canto four. Here, a focus on Byron's engagement with classical Roman authors and the decline of the Roman republic shows how Byron's sense of decline is more than self‐mythologizing and represents instead a post‐Waterloo historical consciousness. Together, both sections affirm the centrality of Rome for Byron's sense of self and for his understanding of literary history, while also revealing uneven and dissonant qualities within the category “Romantic” itself.
Chapter Four “Yet the Capital of the World”
Authors: Sachs Jonathan
Published: February 2010

Shelley's later writing, despite its obvious fascination with Greece, represents Romanticism's most complicated engagement with Rome. Though considerable attention has been given to Shelley's Hellenism, scholars have little to say about Shelley's use of Rome. This chapter argues that such critical oversight has left us with an incomplete understanding of the meaning and importance of Shelley's Hellenism, one which cannot be remedied without a sharper sense of Shelley's appreciation of antiquity more broadly and of the relationship between Greece and Rome in particular. To watch the changing fortunes of Athens and Rome in such later works as The Philosophical View of Reform, the “Ode to Liberty,” The Defence of Poetry, and Hellas reveals the critical role that Rome plays in Shelley's historicism and his strategies for understanding the past, which, in turn, exposes the relationship of these techniques to the deeply political functions of Shelley's classicism and his historiography.
Introduction
Authors: Barrios Richard
Published: February 2010

The book starts by placing the musical film and its audience into an overall historical/social context, setting forth the prime importance of the first musicals. It proposes the ways to reclaim these films from years of cultural/historical neglect through historical data as well as the use of reception theory to view the films within their proper context. The parameters of the book — time lines, genres, premises — are all established, as is the book's distinctive tone and style. The main vantage points are threefold: (1) Background and history; (2) A viewer's changing perceptions; (3) These works' precarious relationship with their audience.
11 The Cuckoos
Authors: Barrios Richard
Published: February 2010

Comedy was the most established of all silent-film genres, and as it began to find new bearings in a time of sound, it frequently took on musical trappings. The Marx Bros. led the way, followed by a strange assortment of silent comedians (Buster Keaton), blackface performers (“The Two Black Crows” and radio's Amos ‘n’ Andy), and stage stars such as Charlotte Greenwood. The marriage between music and comedy was frequently uneasy, although in random moments a performer such as Beatrice Lillie, in Are You There?, could demonstrate the possibilities.
16 “We're in the Money”
Authors: Barrios Richard
Published: February 2010

The musical resurgence was spearheaded by the election of Franklin Roosevelt and by Warner's 42nd Street, both of which indicated that better times were ahead. Busby Berkeley's dance spectacles became a symbol of the new optimism even as Gold Diggers of 1933 mirrored Depression woes. Backstage films made a comeback as musical genres became more standardized, and at the end of the year Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers, in Flying Down to Rio, indicated a new direction for screen dance.
Finale
Authors: Barrios Richard
Published: February 2010

Overview of the musical years and trends to follow — the standardization of the genre, the more ambitious works of later years, the bloated Broadway incursions, the moratorium of the later 20th century, the resurgence of the genre in a new century. Television, the internet, home video, and some lingering memories and influences all form part of the tapestry of this odd, compelling heritage.
11 Personality, Demographics, and Self-Reported Behavioral Acts: The Development of Avocational Interest Scales from Estimates of the Amount of Time Spent in Interest-Related Activities
Authors: Goldberg Lewis R.
Published: February 2010

In this chapter, the author notes that it is one thing to develop a new measure of some individual difference; it is another to establish its utility as a predictor of important human behaviors. The author shows very explicitly that who you are indeed affects what you do in everyday life. Clearly vocational interest patterns have proven their worth over the years. What about avocational interests, as measured by self-reports of the relative frequency of individuals’ engagement in various interest-related activities? The author presents a survey of behavioral act frequencies for a wide-ranging array of daily activities in a community wide sample. These provide the basic data from which to assess important individual differences in lifestyles. Such patterns of lifestyle differences, then, might ultimately be useful as criteria.
5 Stability in Concepts and Evaluating the Truth of Generic Statements
Authors: Hampton James A.
Published: February 2010

In this chapter, a prototype theory is employed to investigate how generic concepts give rise to the sort of patterns one might expect from a “logical” account of the properties that are attributed to a prototype. Of particular interest is the fact that when one group of people is asked to judge “how true” one generic statement is (e.g., ‘Birds fly’), while another group judges “how true” a restricted version of that statement is (e.g., ‘Dull‐colored birds living in jungles fly’), the latter statement is often given a lower score than the former. The modifiers seem to have the effect of reducing the judged truth of this sort of generic statements. Why should this be? These results say important things about the “internal meaning” that people assign to generic statements on the basis of their combining concepts, and also say something about the “external,” truth‐conditions of generics.
10 Count Nouns, Sortal Concepts, and the Nature of Early Words
Authors: Xu Fei
Published: February 2010

Sortal terms are an important subclass of the count terms (nonmass terms), namely, those that provide criteria for individuation and identity. These terms are all the things that mass terms are sometimes said not to be, and for this reason it is illuminating to see the ways that acquisition of such terms differs from or matches that of mass terms. Nonsortal terms, such as adjectives like red and mass terms like oatmeal, cannot be counted unless there is some sort of sortal or classifier associated with them: we can count the number of red balls in a room but not the number of “(the?) red” in a room. We can count bowls of oatmeal on the table but not “the oatmeal” on the table. The research reported here investigates how representations of sortal concepts develop in infancy and how learning count terms plays a causal role in constructing these concepts.
2 Government Moralism
Authors: de Marneffe Peter
Published: February 2010

The paternalistic argument for prostitution laws does not presuppose that it is inherently wrong or immoral to exchange sex for money. Nor does it presuppose that prostitution laws could be justified on this ground if it were true. Nor does this argument imply that the government is justified in limiting our sexual freedom in other ways. Prostitution laws justified on paternalistic grounds are therefore not objectionably moralistic. Although the paternalistic argument stated in chapter 1 presupposes that prostitution is “degrading,” and although John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin have argued that the fact that a form of sexual conduct is degrading cannot justify the government in prohibiting it, the paternalistic argument for prostitution laws is nonetheless compatible with liberal principles of liberty. It is misleading to characterize U.S. prostitution laws as “morals legislation” because in U.S. history, the paternalistic justification has been more influential than any purely moralistic one.
Evolution and Evil
Authors: Astley Jeff
Published: February 2010

Despite the complacent reaction of many theologians, Darwinism remains a dangerous idea for any religion that embraces a doctrine of creation. In particular, the evolutionary perspective—especially Darwin's fundamental insight about the inevitable role of natural selection—presents a profound challenge to explanatory Christian theodicy. This chapter addresses the ways in which our understanding of natural and moral evil needs to be reassessed in light of an evolutionary view of nature and of human beings as a part of nature. But it goes beyond this cognitive task to discuss the appropriate spiritual attitudes that Christians might adopt to help them cope with their own and others' sufferings and sins in an evolutionary framework. The chapter also touches on God's action in the world, the doctrine of the Fall, the origins and status of human virtue, and the importance of theological humility.
Introduction
Authors: Herron John P.
Published: February 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the purpose of the book, which is to examine the working world of natural scientists, exploring how they used science within American life and, most importantly, illuminating the impact of natural science on American culture. Beginning with the conclusion of the Civil War and the creation of a recognizably modern America, and continuing forward to the emergence of environmentalism as a political force nearly a century later, the book explores the evolving internal paradigms and external forces influencing the design and purpose of American natural science. The chapter also considers the work of Clarence King, Robert Marshall, and Rachel Carson, representatives of the community of natural scientists who blended their work, understanding of politics, and concern for social welfare into a vision of a liberal, cooperative, and scientifically informed America.
1 Paths of Science
Authors: Herron John P.
Published: February 2010

This chapter focuses on the life of Clarence King. Among the first generation of academically trained scientists in America, King had many options. He could follow the path of many of his classmates and continue graduate study abroad, he could begin a career as a scientific writer, or he could take his place as a professor of science at virtually any school in the country. Although his training emphasized traditional outlets and institutions, King chose a different course. He went into the natural world; not as a retreat from society, but as a means of political engagement.
2 Vertical History
Authors: Herron John P.
Published: February 2010

This chapter continues the discussion of the life of Clarence King. King's search for natural truths bore the imprint of John Ruskin, but his obsession with masculine science and adventure as a means of social integration and improvement originated with John Tyndall. He embraced nature as a microcosm of American society. As one of the many geologists who moved through the physical world, he was supposed to uncover mineral resources. Yet he saw his science as one way to impose a grid of order on contemporary America.
4 The Forest and the Trees
Authors: Herron John P.
Published: February 2010

This chapter continues the discussion of the life of Robert Marshall. In the first two decades of the century, many Jews, native and foreign-born, shared in the growth opportunities available in America. In the 1920s, these same Jews witnessed a “closing of the gates” as prejudice reached new levels. Robert Marshall felt much of this increasing hostility. He possessed the resources, intelligence, and training required to enter mainstream American society, but in a culture of separation, opportunity did not always equate to easy access. Marshall was at once a forester, a politician, and an agent of modern American science. For him, nature became an arena of activity as he turned to the physical world to situate himself within American society and to support his vision for a progressive America.
1Sheng聖/Sage
Authors: Angle Stephen C.
Published: February 2010

This chapter considers the concept and history of “sage” within Confucianism. It begins with an historical survey that shows how “sage (sheng)” evolves toward expressing the idea of human achievement of moral perfection. The chapter pays particular attention to what Neo-Confucians meant by their repeated insistences that achieving sagehood is possible, as well as by their own personal commitments to advancing toward sagehood. Differences between “sage” and other personality ideals (like “superior person [junzi]”) are noted, and then the chapter turns to a brief comparison between these Confucian conceptions and comparable notions (like sophos and phronimos) from ancient Greek thought. The chapter then looks at discussion within contemporary philosophy of moral saints and moral heroes, as well as the idea of supererogation, which, we discover, is not applicable in a sage-centered conception of ethics. The chapter concludes by examining two criticisms of sagehood, namely, whether it is possible and whether it is desirable.
4He和/Harmony
Authors: Angle Stephen C.
Published: February 2010

The value of harmony, understood as a unity of complementary differences, lies at the center of the interpretation developed in subsequent chapters of Neo-Confucian psychology, ethics, epistemology, and education. It is also rooted in the distinctive metaphysical commitments of Neo-Confucianism, especially through the idea of “coherence”; these connections, in turn, are linked to the dynamic and creative aspects of harmony. This chapter provides the historical context necessary to understand harmony, as well as some initial efforts to flesh out the implications of harmony both for personal ethics and for broader politics. There is a particular focus on Wang Yangming and his doctrine that we “form one body with all things” in this chapter, though like some later chapters, its sources also go beyond strictly philosophical literature to encompass accounts of moral exemplars. In particular, the chapter considers ways that the experiences of physician and anthropologist Paul Farmer help to illustrate what the Neo-Confucians mean by harmony.
9 Engaging Practices
Authors: Angle Stephen C.
Published: February 2010

The renewed philosophical attention to ancient “spiritual exercises” has generated a consistent critique: how can these practices have any relevance today, when the traditions and communities that sustained them no longer exist in anything like the same ways? The present chapter responds to this challenge by looking at Neo-Confucian practices in light of recent, narrative-based studies of exemplary lives by Colby and Damon, Bateson, and others. The methodologies and precise goals of these studies vary widely. Some make efforts to apply fairly rigorous social science methods, including the use of control groups; others focus on historical figures or groups. Together, they provide challenging perspectives on the Neo-Confucian self-cultivational practices explicated in the previous chapter. Subjects examine the nature of commitments, the accessibility of sage-like ideals, the difference between imagination and fantasy, the importance of dialogue, and the roles of attitudes like faith and belief.
2 How Linguistics Fits into the Picture
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: February 2010

This chapter outlines the areas of current linguistic analysis that can help resolve defamation cases, such as determining the accuracy of defamation evidence (largely through phonetic skills), grammatical referencing as a way of unraveling ambiguities, speech act analysis to sort out such things as opinions vs. statements of fact, conveyed meanings brought about by connotation and pragmatics, malicious language (including the contributions of sarcasm, pejorative terms, exaggeration, rhetorical questions, and innuendo), and discourse structure and framing.
4 Widow of a Murdered Man Sues a Local TV Station
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: February 2010

The widow of a murdered man was said by the police to be the “only suspect” in the murder, even though the police were unable or unwilling to bring charges against her. A local TV station and later, a national news program, aired the story, quoting the officer saying much the same things but adding, “the suspect killed the man.” The linguistic issues were whether the defamatory statements were presented as opinions or as facts, the effect of discourse framing, the failure of the media to request clarification of ambiguous statements of the officer, and the conveyed negative meanings of certain words used in the programs.
7 Verbal Duels between Linguistic Experts in a Case Brought by an Ohio Supreme Court Justice against a Newspaper
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: February 2010

Analysis of the language evidence is not the only task of forensic linguists in defamation cases. Sometimes their main role is to examine the reports and testimony of experts on the other side. This chapter is a linguistic analysis of the plaintiff's expert witness's report, in which that expert went outside the appropriate limits of expertise to attribute what the readers actually understood and to attribute what the writer actually intended. That report also called on professional expertise that was outside of his linguistic training and expertise and organized his report in a less than coherent manner. This chapter also discusses the inherent problems of accusations stemming from innuendo and newspaper headlines.
11 A Policyholder Sues Her Insurance Company
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: February 2010

A man applied for additional life insurance but was rejected by his insurer. Shortly afterward he died and his widow sued the company, which claimed that the insurer failed to disclose that her husband had tested positive for HIV as and that if her husband had known he had this medical condition, he could have taken steps that would lead to a longer life. After the District Court and the Court of Appeals ruled in favor of the insurer, the widow then consulted her Congressman and eventually sued the insurer again, this time claiming that the insurer's correspondence had publicly portrayed her and her late husband as “absurdly litigious” and “sexually promiscuous.” At that time a national TV program was preparing a program about this issue when the insurer published a letter telling her that she “must stop” making false and defamatory statement about the company. The widow believed that this letter threatened her and that the company intended to bring a lawsuit against her. The linguistic analysis of the topics showed that its speech acts included accusations and threats rather than advice.
3 Empathy in Moral Judgment
Authors: Slote Michael
Published: February 2010

This chapter shows how the new conception of approval and disapproval helps explain various key features of moral judgment or utterances: for example, that they typically motivate, that they can be positive and negative, and that they are self‐other asymmetric. Many rationalists have held that the action‐guiding or motivating character of moral judgments doesn't preclude their having an objective or cognitive status, and this chapter uses the foregoing account of approval and disapproval (as involved in moral judgment) to show how metaethical sentimentalism can also make that claim.
6 The Use Of Moral Judgments
Authors: Slote Michael
Published: February 2010

This chapter takes up some important implications of the previous account of moral language and judgment. Recent sentimentalists have held that it is morally preferable if we don't have to consult or follow moral principles or injunctions in our dealings with others — for example, in our attempts to help them—and both Hutcheson and Hume appear to agree. But there are times when sentimentalistically understood moral principles/injunctions can be morally very helpful, and are perhaps even necessary, and this chapter offers an account of how and when this is so. It also expands on what was said in Chapter 1 about moral education and moves it in the direction of certain explicitly Humean ideas.
Cajal's Butterflies of the Soul
Authors: DeFelipe Javier
Published: February 2010

This book contains a large collection of beautiful figures produced throughout the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, which represent some characteristic examples of the early days of research in neuroscience. The main aim of this work is to demonstrate to the general public that the study of the nervous system is not only important for the many obvious reasons related to brain function in both health and disease, but also for the unexpected natural beauty that it beholds. This beauty has been discovered thanks to the techniques used to visualize the microscopic structure of the brain, a true forest of colorful and florid neural cells. As illustrated by his marvelous drawings, the studies of Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) no doubt contributed more than those of any other researcher at the time to the growth of modern neuroscience. Thus, his name has been honored in the title of this book, even though the figures contained in the main body of it are from 91 different authors. Looking at the illustrations in this book, the readers will find that many of the early researchers that studied the nervous system were also true artists, of considerable talent and esthetic sensibility. Hence, the present book contains numerous drawings of some of the most important pioneers in neuroscience, including Deiters, Kolliker, Meynert, Ranvier, Golgi, Retzius, Nissl, Dogiel, Alzheimer, del Rio-Hortega, and de Castro.
A Sketch History of the Microscopic Anatomy of the Nervous System
Authors: Defelipe Javier
Published: February 2010

This chapter traces the history of various theories on the microscopic anatomy of the nervous system, with corresponding illustrations by the scientists themselves. The chapter is divided into three, covering the Benedictine period, the Black period, and the Colorful period.
The chemical senses
Authors: Gottfried Jay A. , Small Dana M. , Zald David H.
Published: February 2010

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is described as secondary olfactory and gustatory cortex. This chapter reviews the location of chemosensory processing in the OFC as defined by anatomical and neurophysiological methods in nonhuman primates, and neuroimaging and lesion data in humans. The human neuroimaging data suggest that broader areas of the OFC are involved in chemosensory processing than would be predicted from a strict anatomical analysis of input from primary olfactory/gustatory cortex. The properties of chemosensory processing in the OFC are discussed in terms of the breadth of tuning of sensory cells, the role of hedonics, and the dynamic nature of coding (response to satiety). Issues of functional lateralization and medial vs. lateral distinctions in hedonic processing are also covered. Finally, topics related to multisensory integration are covered.
Memory processes and the orbitofrontal cortex
Authors: Brand Matthias , Markowitsch Hans J.
Published: February 2010

This chapter presents an overview of memory-brain relations with a focus on prefrontal and limbic regions. The anatomical connections of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) to mnemonic regions place it in a position to interact with other structures involved in memory, and data from neuroimaging supports its involvement in encoding and retrieval of specific types of representations. Specific evidence is provided implicating the OFC in emotional and autobiographical memory processes. Disturbances of these processes emerge in neurologic and psychiatric conditions involving orbitofrontal dysfunction. A brief description of confabulations and their associations with the OFC is also provided. Based on neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies it is argued that the main role of the OFC in autobiographical memory lies in the mediation between specific memories, memory related emotions and a feeling of self awareness or autonoëtic consciousness.
Visceral and decision-making functions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex
Authors: Naqvi Nasir , Tranel Daniel , Bechara Antoine
Published: February 2010

This chapter reviews the role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC) in autonomic functions and decision-making, with an emphasis on data from humans with VMPFC lesions. The somatic marker hypothesis proposes that the sensory mapping of visceral responses is important for the execution of highly complex, goal-oriented behavior. In this view, visceral responses function to ‘mark’ potential choices as being advantageous or disadvantageous. The VMPFC is well connected with visceral processing areas, and possesses both viscerosensory input and visceromotor output. The development of the Iowa Gambling Task as an index of decision making is described. Patients with VMPFC lesions show deficits in both visceromotor functions and decision-making on the Iowa Gambling Task, consistent with the somatic marker hypothesis.
The role of the ventral prefrontal cortex in mood disorders
Authors: Fredericks Carolyn A. , Kalmar Jessica H. , Blumberg Hilary P.
Published: February 2010

This chapter reviews evidence supporting a prominent role for the ventral prefrontal cortex (vPFC) in the neuropathophysiology of mood disorders. Findings from multiple studies of mood disorders, using a variety of research methods, converge within a broad vPFC region that encompasses medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex, subgenual and pregenual anterior cingulate, as well as medial and rostral frontal cortices. Despite heterogeneity in the specific subregions of vPFC reported in these studies, the vPFC region emerges as a crucial node within a distributed cortico-limbic neural system disrupted in mood disorders. Research that has elucidated the functions of the vPFC and brain structures with significant connectivity to vPFC strongly implicates the vPFC and its connected circuitry in the deficits in emotional and behavioral regulation characteristic of major depression and bipolar disorder.
13 The Priority ofEnergeia(Theta 8)
Authors: Beere Jonathan
Published: February 2010

Theta 8 is the culmination of Aristotle's discussion of being-in-capacity and being-in-energeia, where he draws conclusions that constitute a contribution to the science of being. By the middle of Theta 7, Aristotle had carried out the program he announced in the opening lines of Theta 1: explaining the two ways of being under discussion. Theta 7 began to exploit those concepts to reach certain conclusions. Theta 8 shows how these concepts allow us to understand perishable and eternal beings together in a new way. For both perishable and eternal beings, being turns out to be, above all, but not exclusively, being-in-energeia. This claim is partly important for the way in which Aristotle goes on to use it to draw conclusions later on, about the divine unmoved movers of the heavens. However, within Theta 8 itself, we already find a radical innovation in the conception of being. The chapter brings this out by casting the achievement of Theta 8 as a resolution of the Battle of the Gods and Giants.
Chapter 11 Evolutionary processes in community ecology
Authors: Ellers Jacintha
Published: February 2010

The disciplines of community ecology and evolutionary biology have fundamentally different perspectives, but share a common interest in the maintenance and effects of diversity. An emerging field of study, evolutionary community ecology, bridges the gaps between community and evolutionary ecology by considering the reciprocal effects of individual trait variation and community characteristics. In this chapter, central principles from evolutionary biology are used to extrapolate the consequences of genetic diversity to community level and the effects of genetic variation on community properties and vice versa are illustrated. Finally, the rapidly increasing number of empirical studies on evolutionary community ecology are reviewed.
Chapter 4 Community assembly dynamics in space
Authors: Fukami Tadashi
Published: February 2010

This chapter discusses how the spatial scale at which the assembly of ecological communities occurs may influence the degree of determinism and historical contingency in community structure. The chapter focuses on patch size, patch isolation and the scale at which environmental conditions vary as spatial factors that affect community assembly. In combination, these factors are proposed to affect three elements of assembly dynamics: the rate of immigration to local communities, the degree to which the species pool is external to local community dynamics and the amount of variation in immigration history among local communities. These elements are then hypothesized to jointly determine the degree of historical contingency. The chapter concludes by suggesting a future research direction: refining the hypotheses discussed here through explicit consideration of species traits.
Chapter 6 Spatio-temporal structure in soil communities and ecosystem processes
Authors: Berg Matty P.
Published: February 2010

The structure of a community is an important factor in the stabilization of food web composition and the regulation of ecosystem processes. Nevertheless, surprisingly little is known about temporal and spatial variability in community and food web composition, and the underlying mechanisms that cause this variability. Moreover, the question remains of how important spatio-temporal variability in community structure is for the regulation of soil processes, and whether we need this kind of detail to understand underlying mechanisms. In an attempt to answer this question, a terrestrial example, the organic horizon of a coniferous forest soil, will be used (1) to quantify community variability in time and across space and (2) to assess possible consequences of community variability for an important soil process, the degradation of organic matter and the subsequent flow of energy and nutrient through soil.
Chapter 14 Emerging frontiers of community ecology
Authors: Morin Peter J.
Published: February 2010

Community ecology is progressing in a number of important new directions. Among many possible future directions, I focus first on the important topic of biotic invasions, since they alter the world's natural communities as well as their ecological character. Examples of recent studies on the relation between diversity and invasibility and the importance of scale in such studies are discussed. Another important area is the study of the evolution of community patterns and processes, ranging from local dynamics to large-scale diversity gradients. Further suggestions concern questions surrounding the linking of the structure of ecological networks to empirically measured community dynamics, such as the linkage between dynamics and realized structure and the importance of assembly dynamics for common patterns. I suggest that an important goal is the construction of community-wide interaction networks, including competition, mutualisms and trophic interactions, that would represent the full complexity and dynamics of ecological communities more completely than traditional food webs.
N-Scale Model Reduction Theory
Authors: Fish Jacob , Yuan Zheng
Published: February 2010

A model reduction approach aimed at systematically reducing computational complexity of multiple scale homogenization for nonlinear history-dependent problems is developed. The so-called N-scale model reduction (NMR) approach is based on reformulating a sequence of nonlinear unit cell problems at multiple scales in terms of inelastic deformation modes that a priori satisfy equilibrium equations at multiple scales and thus eliminating the need for costly solution of discretized nonlinear equilibrium. The N-scale model reduction approach is validated on tube crush tests.