bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Newton the Alchemist
Authors: Newman William
Published: May 2019

When Isaac Newton's alchemical papers surfaced at a Sotheby's auction in 1936, the quantity and seeming incoherence of the manuscripts were shocking. No longer the exemplar of Enlightenment rationality, the legendary physicist suddenly became “the last of the magicians.” This book unlocks the secrets of Newton's alchemical quest, providing a radically new understanding of the uncommon genius who probed nature at its deepest levels in pursuit of empirical knowledge. The book blends in-depth analysis of newly available texts with laboratory replications of Newton's actual experiments in alchemy. It does not justify Newton's alchemical research as part of a religious search for God in the physical world, nor does it argue that Newton studied alchemy to learn about gravitational attraction. The book traces the evolution of Newton's alchemical ideas and practices over a span of more than three decades, showing how they proved fruitful in diverse scientific fields. A precise experimenter in the realm of “chymistry,” Newton put the riddles of alchemy to the test in his lab. He also used ideas drawn from the alchemical texts to great effect in his optical experimentation. In his hands, alchemy was a tool for attaining the material benefits associated with the philosopher's stone and an instrument for acquiring scientific knowledge of the most sophisticated kind. The book provides rare insights into a man who was neither Enlightenment rationalist nor irrational magus, but rather an alchemist who sought through experiment and empiricism to alter nature at its very heart.
Optics and Matter: Newton, Boyle, and Scholastic Mixture Theory
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter provides a sustained treatment of the self-styled English “naturalist” Robert Boyle, and his contribution to Newton's optical research. It is little appreciated that Boyle's analytical approach to chymistry had a profound impact on Newton's optics in the second half of the 1660s, the period that Newton considered “the prime of my age for invention.” It is argued that Newton transferred Boyle's analysis and resynthesis or “redintegration” of materials such as niter to the realm of light. The chapter also establishes the influence of Boyle's chymistry on Newton's experimental methodology, and presents Boyle's and Newton's work against the backdrop of scholastic matter theory and optics in order to underscore the epoch-making character of the new color theory, which resulted in the overthrow of two millennia of research on the subject.
Epilogue
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This epilogue summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. It argues that the same degree of textual scholarship and experiment encountered in Newton's alchemy cannot be found in his other scientific work. His biblical hermeneutics and deep studies of chronology married his skill in astronomy to his understanding of humanist scholarship, but without anything approaching the generation-long labors of the laboratory elicited by chymistry. The unique and often idiosyncratic nature of Newton's alchemical quest calls for one final question. Can we see something of his reclusive, aloof character, his reliance on a brilliant, innate acumen to the exclusion of any personal warmth, and above all his belief that he stood above the herd of common intellects, fully justified by his scientific discoveries, as stemming from his early and ongoing idealization of the adepts?
Economic Insecurity and Social Policy
Authors: Boyer George R.
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of economic insecurity. Economic insecurity can be defined as “the risk of economic loss faced by workers and households as they encounter the unpredictable events of life.” Insecurity is associated with income loss caused by “adverse events” such as unemployment and poor health; the negative impact of these shocks on households depends “on the surrounding institutions that regulate risk.” Indeed, the extent to which workers suffered financial distress from income shocks depended in large part on the social safety net—the existing institutions of public and private assistance. For nineteenth-century England and Wales, the main social welfare institution was the Poor Law, a system of public relief administered and financed at the local level. The Old Poor Law of 1795–1834 was “a welfare state in miniature,” relieving the elderly, widows, children, the sick, the disabled, and the unemployed and underemployed.
Unemployment and Unemployment Relief
Authors: Boyer George R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the extent of cyclical, seasonal, and casual unemployment from 1870 to 1914, and shows that reported unemployment rates greatly understate the probability of job loss faced by manual workers. It also reveals the public and private battles over relief for the unemployed. In the 1870s, cities abruptly curtailed granting outdoor relief to able-bodied males, and beginning in 1886 the Local Government Board encouraged municipalities to establish work relief projects during downturns. However, neither municipal relief projects nor the work relief established as a result of the 1905 Unemployed Workmen Act succeeded in assisting the temporarily unemployed—most of those employed on relief works were chronically underemployed laborers.
Old Age Poverty and Pauperism
Authors: Boyer George R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter demonstrates how the aged coped economically and the extent of their reliance on the Poor Law from the 1860s to 1908. The share of working-class persons 65 and older receiving poor relief within a year ranged from about one-half in the 1860s to about one-third in 1908. A large part of this decline in old age pauperism resulted from policy changes brought about by the Crusade Against Outrelief. Workers found it difficult to save enough to provide for their old age. Those who were physically able continued to work, albeit at reduced pay, and many received assistance from their children. However, the ability of older workers to support themselves declined with age, and married children with families often were unable to assist aged parents. The combination of little saving, declining earnings, and lack of family support forced many of the aged to turn to the Poor Law.
Finding Their Way
Authors: Tannous Jack
Published: May 2019

This chapter details how Muslims dealt with being a religious minority. Political power over a variety of religious groups may have influenced how some people viewed the truth of the Prophet's message, but they did not free his followers from the very real task of figuring out how their religious traditions related to those of the people they now ruled over, especially Jews and Christians. These were two groups who had, long before the rise of Islam, developed answers to a whole host of religious questions that Muslims now had also to confront. Moreover, the answers, traditions, antiquity, and confidence of these communities meant that though the followers of the Prophet enjoyed political power, in the realm of religion, the communities they ruled over had a certain deep historical experience and authority that Muslims did not. One notable result of these circumstances was a need to assert Muslim precedence over non-Muslim alternatives and competitors.
Roads Not Taken
Authors: Colander David , Freedman Craig
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at the birth of the Virginia School of economics by focusing on two of the approaches developed in Virginia in the 1960s. The first one—named after Ronald Coase—is the Coasian institutionalist approach, which is a clear attempt to maintain the sort of Classical Liberal thought fashioned in an earlier period by Frank Knight. The second one—named after James Buchanan—is the Buchanan political economy approach, which also had a stronger commitment to Classical Liberal methodology than did the Stigler/Friedman/Director version rapidly spreading within the Chicago campus. Neither one became a recognized Classical Liberal standard bearer. Instead, their combined work was seldom considered to be part of any broader mainstream approach that differed significantly in terms of methodology. By the end of the 1960s, the Virginia School was no more.
The Art and Craft of Economics
Authors: Colander David , Freedman Craig
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter argues that Classical Liberal methodology is defined more by an attitude than it is by a particular methodological approach. That attitude blends a deep-seated skepticism of mainstream theory—often manifested by heterodox economists—with an appreciation of the gains that have been made by mainstream theory, an appreciation generally lacking among heterodox critics. A Classical Liberal attitude would also display a mutual respect for the methods that have evolved in mainstream and non-mainstream traditions to handle theoretical problems. The chapter then presents six economists who displayed a Classical Liberal attitude to methodology in important aspects of their work: Edward Leamer, Ariel Rubinstein, Alvin Roth, Paul Romer, Amartya Sen, and Dani Rodrik.
Three Enforcement Mechanisms
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

The structural power of finance in sovereign debt crises is a product of the financial sector's position as the principal creator of credit-money within the capitalist economy, and it revolves around its capacity to withhold the short-term credit lines on which all states—as well as firms and households—depend for their reproduction. This chapter discusses the three enforcement mechanisms of debtor compliance through which the structural power of finance is hypothesized to operate, specifying in each case the precise conditions and countervailing forces bearing on their overall strength and effectiveness. These mechanisms are market discipline; the conditional emergency lending by creditor states and international financial institutions; and the intermediary role fulfilled by domestic political and financial elites inside the borrowing countries.
The Internationalization of Finance
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter takes a closer look at the main lending cycles of the 1820s and 1870s, as well as the creditors' responses to the subsequent waves of default. It suggests that key elements of the first and second enforcement mechanisms—market discipline and conditional lending—were already present in embryonic form at an early stage in capitalist development. Beside occasionally resorting to the instrumental power of gunboats, especially during the imperialist era, the partial effectiveness of these two mechanisms generally ensured compliance during the good times, thus laying the foundations for the internationalization of finance over the course of the nineteenth century, even as the relative weakness of the underlying enforcement mechanisms meant that periods of calm were regularly punctuated by unilateral payment suspensions in times of crisis.
The Rise and Fall of the Patria Financiera
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter traces the rise and fall of Argentina's version of the “bankers' alliance” over the course of the crisis. The state's growing dependence on credit over the course of the 1990s initially strengthened the position of those considered to be most capable of attracting foreign credit and investment, and fulfilled a bridging role to foreign lenders. As the crisis began to bite, however, the social costs of austerity and structural adjustment gradually eroded the legitimacy of the political establishment and the country's democratic institutions more generally, leading to mass demonstrations and a demonstrable shift in popular preferences from repayment to default. The citizens' revolt eventually forced President Fernando De la Rúa and economy minister Domingo Cavallo from office, causing the third enforcement mechanism of internalized discipline to break down. The popular uprising was therefore the final push that eventually made the inevitable unstoppable.
Introduction
Authors: Funkenstein Amos
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter discusses how the Catholic response to the secularization of the divine seldom restored the fine medieval balance between philosophy and theology. On the contrary, whenever skeptical or fideistic arguments were invoked to undermine the faith in unaided reason, the medieval understanding of theology as a rational endeavor was also undermined. The secularization of theology—in a sense that theological discussions were carried on by laymen—is a fact of fundamental social and cultural importance. In addition, even though medieval philosophers could not avoid discussing matters divine, they were careful not to call by the name of theology those truths about God and the heavens accessible to mere reason.
God’s Omnipresence, God’s Body, and Four Ideals of Science
Authors: Funkenstein Amos
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines how medieval theology, in most of its varieties, viewed with intense suspicion any doctrine that took God’s presence in the world too literally. So much was this true that not only physical predicates, but also general-abstract predicates such as goodness, truth, power, and even existence were at times considered an illicit mode of speech when predicated of God and his creation univocally. In the latter sense, nearly all important philosophical discussions on the nature of God sinned against the classical, medieval-Thomistic tradition. Not only Henry More or Spinoza were guilty; to all of them, including Descartes, Malebranche, and Leibniz, God shared with his creation some genuine predicates literally and unequivocally.
Divine Providence and the Course of History
Authors: Funkenstein Amos
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes how, since the seventeenth century, versions of the invisible-hand explanation were employed to illuminate the course of history, the evolution of society. Giambattista Vico described at length the slow process by which man created his social nature out of his initial brutish existence, arguing that it was a spontaneous process. Vico named this process “providence” and stressed time and again the oblique nature of its operation—unintended by individuals and unknown to them. A strong sense of the absolute autonomy and spontaneity of human history is common to all historical constructions of the invisible hand. From Vico to Marx, they envision the subject of history as capable of generating all of its institutions, beliefs, and achievements of itself.
Alexander the Great
Authors: Boardman John
Published: May 2019

This book looks beyond the life of Alexander the Great in order to examine the astonishing range of Alexanders created by generations of authors, historians, and artists throughout the world, from Scotland to China. Alexander's defeat of the Persian Empire in 331 BC captured the popular imagination, inspiring an endless series of stories and representations that emerged shortly after his death and continues today. The book reflects on the most interesting and emblematic depictions of this towering historical figure. Some of the stories relate to historical events associated with Alexander's military career and some to the fantasy that has been woven around him. From Alexander's biographers in ancient Greece to the illustrated Alexander “Romances” of the Middle Ages to operas, films, and even modern cartoons, this illustrated volume takes readers on a fascinating cultural journey.
The Emergence of Covert Warfare
Authors: Carson Austin
Published: May 2019

This chapter describes the confluence of political, technological, and social changes that prompted the emergence of covert military intervention as an escalation-control technique. It lays the foundation for assessing how more recent political and technological changes, such as cyberwarfare and drones, influence the covert sphere. In particular, this chapter highlights the special role of World War I. It conceptualizes the Great War as a critical juncture that dramatized the dangers of large-scale war escalation and accelerated political, social, and technological developments that influenced escalation control. These changes sharpened the problem of escalation control by making leaders more vulnerable to hawkish domestic constraints and making intentions about limited war harder to discern. Yet it also made possible new ways of using military force anonymously through, for example, the development of airpower. World War I prompted major powers to experiment with ways of limiting war; this included manipulation of the form of external military intervention.
The Korean War (1950–1953)
Authors: Carson Austin
Published: May 2019

This chapter shifts the focus to the early Cold War, as conflict between North and South Korea threatened to again plunge the wider international system into war. The Korean War, fought from 1950 to 1953, grew to include multiple outside interventions. Yet despite Soviet, American, and Chinese combat participation, the war was successfully limited to the Korean peninsula. As such, this chapter reviews primary materials on a poorly understood aspect of the Korean War: Soviet–American air-to-air combat over North Korea. Records released since the end of the Cold War document how Washington and Moscow engaged in a deadly multiyear struggle for air supremacy and used secrecy to contain its effects. The chapter includes new archival material on American intelligence showing anticipation, detection, and concealment of the Soviet covert entry. It also assesses the United States' initial decision to intervene overtly, its turn to covert action against mainland China, and China's complex role in the war. This chapter argues that China's initial ground intervention used secrecy to achieve surprise, following an operational security logic, but used an unacknowledged “volunteer” intervention to limit the war.
The Vietnam War (1964–1968)
Authors: Carson Austin
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the covert side of the Vietnam War. Secrecy famously helped Richard Nixon cope with dovish domestic opposition toward the end of the war. In contrast, the chapter highlights the role of covert intervention in helping both sides compete in Vietnam while keeping the war limited during the earlier Johnson years (1964–1968). Even as he greatly expanded U.S. military activity in Vietnam, President Lyndon Johnson acted to avoid provoking a larger war with China or the Soviet Union. Covert U.S. military operations in places like Laos, though an open secret, were a way to prosecute a counterinsurgency while keeping a lid on hostilities. China and the Soviet Union similarly sought to control escalation dangers through covertness. Both communist patrons provided military personnel covertly to improve air defense in North Vietnam. The chapter suggests that all three outside powers worked hard to avoid public and acknowledged clashes up through 1968.
Introduction
Authors: Caughey Devin
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter lays down the groundwork for the argument that the white polyarchy model provides the best account of congressional representation in the one-party South. This framework characterizes the South as an exclusionary one-party enclave, which departed from normal democratic politics in three major respects: its exclusion of many citizens from the franchise, its lack of partisan competition, and its embeddedness within a national democratic regime. Each of these features had important implications for Southern politics. The argument here is that white polyarchy provides the best description of congressional politics in the South, but this argument also rests on a number of empirical premises. To that end, the chapter outlines a focus on the issues of regulation, redistribution, and social welfare at the core of the New Deal agenda, largely bracketing explicitly racial issues except insofar as they intersected with economic policymaking. Finally, it outlines the major implications set out by this argument for our understanding of the character and persistence of the South's exclusionary one-party enclaves.
Conclusion
Authors: Hoffman Philip T. , Postel-Vinay Gilles , Rosenthal Jean-Laurent
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter calls for an understanding of both historical inheritance and the process of change, which thus argues for a deeper understanding of long-run change. To fully grasp the role that history plays in long-run outcomes, social scientists have to go beyond simply establishing a causal connection between social and economic outcomes today and events in the past; that is merely one step. Social scientists must then take a second step and actually uncover why institutions fail to change or why they successfully evolve. Only then will they understand how events of long ago can have enduring consequences, and why intervening forces may not dilute the influence of the past. The task will require both general models and long-run data that cover the decades between the ancient causes and modern outcomes.
Time in Ecology
Authors: Post Eric
Published: May 2019

Ecologists traditionally regard time as part of the background against which ecological interactions play out. This book argues that time should be treated as a resource used by organisms for growth, maintenance, and offspring production. The book uses insights from phenology—the study of the timing of life-cycle events—to present a theoretical framework of time in ecology that casts long-standing observations in the field in an entirely new light. Combining conceptual models with field data, the book demonstrates how phenological advances, delays, and stasis, documented in an array of taxa, can all be viewed as adaptive components of an organism's strategic use of time. The book shows how the allocation of time by individual organisms to critical life history stages is not only a response to environmental cues but also an important driver of interactions at the population, species, and community levels. To demonstrate the applications of this exciting new conceptual framework, the book uses meta-analyses of previous studies as well as the author's original data on the phenological dynamics of plants, caribou, and muskoxen in Greenland.
What Is Time?
Authors: Post Eric
Published: May 2019

This chapter assesses what time really is. From a philosophical perspective, it is tempting to conclude that time is an experience, a concept applied to understand or describe change, rather than a thing in and of itself. This view may, at least in part, explain why ecology has struggled to recognize and formalize the notion of time as a resource because ecologists intuit that time is not necessarily a “thing” but rather a perception. However, cosmology and astrophysics appear to provide the most suitable interpretation of time for the purpose of understanding its role in ecology. A deceptively simple, yet profound, definition of time deriving from quantum theory suggests that time may be the amount of energy required to separate mass instances from a coincidence of two or more superposed alternative events. This conceptualization is appealing because of its parallel to space as the separation of two or more potentially superposed positions.
The Phenological Community
Authors: Post Eric
Published: May 2019

This chapter studies how the concept of phenological community relates to the utilization of time by species that co-occur in the local assemblage. It also examines the consequences for phenological community dynamics of differential use of time by co-occurring species. Indeed, a main point of emphasis in this chapter is the dynamic nature of the community in a phenological context. The allocation of time by the individual organism to phenophases within its annual cycle of growth, maintenance, and reproduction determines patterns of interactions in time among species co-occurring in the local assemblage. In the context of phenology, the local community is characterized by a capacity for pronounced variability on both short-term temporal scales (over days) and on longer-term temporal scales (from year to year).
Use of Time in the Phenology of Horizontal Species Interactions
Authors: Post Eric
Published: May 2019

This chapter addresses the role of time in horizontal species interactions. Horizontal, or lateral, species interactions are those involving individuals within a single trophic level in the same local community or species assemblage. These involve primarily interference interactions such as competition for resources required by more than one member of the local assemblage. The chapter then considers the allocation of time within an individual organism's life history cycle. The use of time by the individual must address potentially strongly competing interests. In a competitive context, while earlier timing of life history events may in and of itself present a competitive advantage among conspecifics, its value as a strategy in interspecific competition relates to its effect on phenological duration. This is because duration determines overlap within the phenological community.
Two Cheers for Higher Education
Authors: Brint Steven
Published: May 2019

Today's headlines suggest that universities' power to advance knowledge and shape American society is rapidly declining. But this book's author has tracked numerous trends demonstrating their vitality. After a recent period that witnessed soaring student enrollment and ample research funding, the book argues that universities are in a better position than ever before. Focusing on the years 1980–2015, it details the trajectory of American universities, which was influenced by evolving standards of disciplinary professionalism, market-driven partnerships (especially with scientific and technological innovators outside the academy), and the goal of social inclusion. Conflicts arose: academic entrepreneurs, for example, flouted their campus responsibilities, and departments faced backlash over the hiring of scholars with nontraditional research agendas. Nevertheless, educators' commitments to technological innovation and social diversity prevailed and created a new dynamism. The book documents these successes along with the challenges that result from rapid change. Today, knowledge-driven industries generate almost half of US GDP, but divisions by educational level split the American political order. Students flock increasingly to fields connected to the power centers of American life and steer away from the liberal arts. And opportunities for economic mobility are expanding even as academic expectations decline. In describing how universities can meet such challenges head on, especially in improving classroom learning, the book offers not only a clear-eyed perspective on the current state of American higher education but also a pragmatically optimistic vision for the future.
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF TIPE GROUP INVESTIGATION TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA
Authors: Hutagalung Ando , Simarmata Usler
Published: May 2019

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of cooperative learning model type Group Investigation (GI) on learning outcomes of students in the subject matter of temperature and heat in SMP PGRI 4 Medan. This type of research is quasi-experimental. The population of this entire class VIII SMP PGRI 4 Medan much as three classes. The sample in this study was taken as a random sampling of two classes. The instrument used  to determine student learning outcomes in the material temperature and heat in the form of multiple-choice questions numbered 20 and the observation sheet. The results obtained by testing hypotheses that there is a significant relationship between the use of cooperative learning model GI on student learning outcomes. Keywords: Cooperative learning model group investigation, learning outcomes.
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN INKUIRI TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA PADA MATERI POKOK GETARAN DAN GELOMBANG DI KELAS VIII SMP NEGERI 1 LIMA PULUH T.P 2013/2014
Authors: Wahyuni Ida , Samosir Haris
Published: May 2019

This study aimed to know the effect of model inqury for the learning outcomes of students in the subject matter vibrations and waves in the eighth grade 2nd semester of SMP Negeri 1 Lima Puluh T.P. 2013/2014. The study population was all student of class VIII SMP Negeri 1 Lima Puluh consists of seven classes and the sample consists of two classes, specifically control class and experimental class taken by cluster random sampling. The author  had applied model inqury in the experimental class and convensional model in the control class. The study instrument used was a essay test. Postest results of experimental class is 66.80 and the control class is 45.43. Students activity at the time of implementation of model inqury has increased from 50.29% (enough active) at 1st meeting, 69.61% (active) at 2nd meeting and became 90.22% (very active) at 3rd meeting. The result indicates the learning outcomes of students using inqury model is higher than using convensional model. Keywords: Activities, Learning Outcomes, Inqury.
Pengaruh Penerapan Model Pembelajaran Inquiry Training Terhadap Hasil Belajar Siswa Pada Materi Pokok Listrik Dinamis Kelas IX Semester I SMP Swasta Sabilina Tembung
Authors: Amdani Khairul , Suryadi Achmad
Published: May 2019

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh model pembelajaran inquiry training terhadap hasil belajar siswa kelas IX SMP Swasta Sabilina Tembung pada materi pokok listrik dinamis. Jenis penelitian ini adalah quasi eksperimen dengan desain two group pre-test dan post-test. Populasi dalam penelitian  adalah seluruh siswa kelas IX yang terdiri dari 11 kelas. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan teknik cluster random sampling. Sampel penelitian terdiri dari dua kelas, satu kelas sebagai kelas eksperimen menggunakan model pembelajaran inquiry training dan satu kelas yang lain sebagai kelas kontrol menggunakan pembelajaran konvensional. Nilai rata-rata pretes kelas eksperimen dalah 51,6 dan nilai rata-rata pretes kelas kontrol 49,2. Setelah perlakuan diberikan, diperoleh hasil belajar siswa (postes) dengan nilai rata-rata 83,0 pada kelas eksperimen dan 77,8  pada kelas kontrol. Berdasarkan hasil uji t diperoleh bahwa ada pengaruh model pembelajaran inquiry training terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada  materi pokok listrik dinamis di kelas IX semester I SMP Swasta Sabilina Tembung. Rerata aktivitas siswa pada kelas eksperimen adalah 81,9 (kategori sangat aktif) dan pada kelas kontrol adalah 60,4 (kategori aktif). Kata Kunci             :  Inquiry Training, Listrik Dinamis, Aktivitas Siswa
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN KOOPERATIF TIPE STUDENTS TEAMS ACHIEVEMENT DIVISION (STAD) BERBASIS PETA KONSEP TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR FISIKA SISWA PADA MATERI POKOK LITRIK DINAMIS KELAS X SEMESTER II SMA NEGERI 1 SELESAI T.P 2013/2014
Authors: Oktami Warmita , Siregar Nurdin
Published: May 2019

This study aims to determine the effect of Cooperative Learning Model Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) based on the concept map learning outcomes of students in the subject matter Dynamic Electricity second semester of class X SMA Negeri 1 of Academic Year 2013/2014. This research is quasi-experimental. The study population was all students of class X which consists of 4 classes. Random cluster sampling technique was used to select class experimental class and control class. Instrument in this research is multiple-choice test has tested the validity testing to measure learning outcomes. Average data pretest experimental classes and control classes are 27.43 and 27.57. In both classes, the pretest data are normally distributed (which Lhitung <Ltabel) and homogeneous (where Fhitung <F table). T-test result of pretest shows that t <t table (-0.052 <1.997), then Ho is accepted, means the ability of the students at the beginning of the second class are the same. Then treatment was given that is experimental class with cooperative learning model Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) and class-based Concept Map control with conventional learning models. After completion of the study, the data obtained with the posttest average yield grade experimental and control classes are 75.57 and 63.72. In both classes of the test data obtained posttest that both classes of data are normally distributed and homogeneous. T test results obtained t> t table (6.48> 1.669) then H is accepted, that reveal an influence of cooperative learning model Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) based on the concept map learning outcomes of students. Keywords :    Physics, Cooperative Type STAD, Concept Map, Learning Results.
STUDI PELAKSANAAN SERTA HASIL BELAJAR FISIKA PADA UJIAN TENGAH SEMESTER TAHUN 2012 – 2013 DI SEKOLAH MENENGAH ATAS (SMA)
Authors: Daulay Leny Khairani , . Alkhafi Maas Siregar
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengetahui besar pelaksanaan penilaian pendidikan yang sesuai standar nasional pendidikan (SNP) guna memetakan kemampuan guru dalam menilai dan prosedur dari penilaian ujian tengah semester yang telah ditetapkan oleh badan standar nasional pendidikan (BSNP) terutama pada hasil belajar fisika pada ujian tengah.  Jenis penelitian ini adalah kualitatif. Penentuan sampel sumber data dilakukan dengan teknik purposif sampling yaitu beberapa guru fisika dan beberapa siswa di sekolah menengah atas (SMA) dengan pertimbangan akreditas sekolah A,B, C, identitas guru, dan sertifikasi dengan cara melakukan penyebaran angket, wawancara, dokumentasi, dan memberikan soal kepada siswa. Teknik analisis data dalam penelitian ini yaitu reduksi data, display data, dan kesimpulan/verifikasi. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa prosedur pelaksanaan penilaian ujian tengah semester yang dilakukan guru di kelas sebesar 44,80%, ini merupakan sebuah proses triangulasi yang peneliti lakukan untuk mendapatkan keakuratan pelaksanaan penilaian guru pada ujian tengah semester disetiap sekolah. Hal ini terjadi karena kurangnya pemahaman guru dalam melakukan standar penilaian sesuai badan standar nasional pendidikan (BSNP) dan kurangnya sosialisasi dan pembinaan dari pemerintah, serta tidak adanya pernyamaan persepsi yang dilakukan oleh dinas pendidikan setempat sehingga guru melakukan penilaian yang menurut guru pahami. Hasil tes ujian tengah semester fisika sangat kurang dengan nilai rata–rata test ujian tengah semester hanya sebesar 25,53%. Ini terjadi karena minat dan motivasi peserta didik dalam mengikuti mata pelajaran fisika serta hasil test yang diberikan masih sangat rendah, dan kurangnya kemampuan guru mencari metode yang dapat membuat peserta didik menjadi lebih senang dalam mengikuti pelajaran, terutama bagi peserta didik yang sering mengalami kondisi membosankan.   Kata Kunci: purposif sampling, pelaksanaan penilaian, ujian tengah semester.
EFEK MODEL PEMBELAJARAN BERBASIS MASALAH TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA PADA MATERI LISTRIK DINAMIS DI KELAS X SEMESTER II SMA NEGERI 1 HINAI KABUPATEN LANGKAT T.A. 2013/2014
Authors: Lubis Rajo Hasim , . Sahyar
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui  apakah hasil belajar dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran berbasis masalah lebih baik daripada pembelajaran konvensional pada materi Listrik Dinamis di kelas X Semester II di SMAN 1 Hinai Kabupaten Langkat T.A. 2013/2014.Jenis penelitian ini adalah quasi experiment. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah seluruh siswa kelas X Semester ganjil SMAN 1 Hinai yang terdiri dari empat kelas. Sampel penelitian ini diambil dua kelas yaitu kelas X-1(sebagai kelas eksperimen) dan kelas X-2 (sebagai kelas kontrol) yang masing-masing berjumlah 30 siswa yang ditentukan dengan teknikcluster random sampling.Kemudian diberikan perlakuan yang berbeda, kelas eksperimen dengan model pembelajaran berbasis masalah dan kelas kontrol dengan pembelajaran konvensional.Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian inites essay,jumlah soal8 item yang telah divalidkan oleh validator. Dari hasil penelitian diperoleh nilai rata-rata pretes kelas eksperimen adalah 14,83 dan kelas kontrol adalah 16,17 sedangkan nilai rata-rata postes kelas eksperimen 67,5 dan kelas kontrol 58,67. Melalui uji t diperoleh hasil secara signifikan bahwa hasil belajar menggunakan model pembelajaran berbasis masalah lebih baik dibandingkan kelas kontrol yang menggunakan pembelajaran konvensional. Kata Kunci: quasi eksperimen, pembelajaran berbasis masalah, konvensional
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN INKUIRI TERBIMBING TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA PADA MATERI	POKOK USAHA DAN ENERGIDI KELAS VIII	SEMESTER II SMP NEGERI 1 PAGAJAHAN
Authors: Damawiyah Sinta , Sani Ridwan Abdullah
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui hasil belajar siswa dan bagaimana aktivitas siswa selama menggunakan model pembelajaran Inkuiri Terbimbing pada materi pokok Usaha dan Energi di kelas VIII Semester II SMP Negeri 1 Pegajahan Tahun Pelajaran 2013/2014. Jenis penelitian ini adalah penelitian quasi eksperimen dengan menggunakan design Two group pretes-postes design dengan populasi seluruh siswa kelas VIII semester II SMP Negeri 1 Pegajahan yang terdiri dari 6 kelas dengan sampel penelitian diambil 2 kelas yang ditentukan dengan teknik random sampling, yaitu kelas VIII-1 sebagai kelas eksperimen dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran Inkuiri Terbimbing dengan jumlah siswa 35 orang dan kelas VIII-2 sebagai kelas kontrol dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran konvensional dengan jumlah siswa 35 orang. Instrumen yang digunakan adalah tes hasil belajar siswa dalam bentuk pilihan berganda sebanyak 20 soal dengan 4 pilihan jawaban yang telah divalidasi. Berdasarkan analisa data diperoleh skor rata-rata pretes kelas eksperimen dan kelas kontrol yang cenderung sama sedangkan skor rata-rata postes kelas ekspermen lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan kelas kontrol. Pada waktu pembelajaran Inkuiri Terbimbing berlangsung dilakukan pengamatan terhadap aktivitas siswa dimana hasilnya dikategorikan aktif sejalan dengan peningkatan hasil belajar siswa. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan hasil belajar siswa dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran Inkuiri Terbimbing lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran konvensional.   Kata kunci: Aktivitas, Hasil Belajar, Inkuiri Terbimbing
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN INQUIRY TRAINING TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR FISIKA SISWA
Authors: Panggabean Jhonny H , Sihotang Yenni F
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh model pembelajaran inquiry training terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada materi pokok suhu dan kalor di kelas X semester II SMA Swasta Teladan Medan T.P 2014/2015. Jenis penelitian ini adalah quasi eksperimen dengan populasi seluruh kelas X SMA Swasta Teladan Medan yang terdiri dari 3 kelas. Sampel ada 2 kelas yang ditentukan dengan teknik cluster random sampling yaitu kelas X IPA 3 sebagai kelas eksperimen dan kelas X IPA 2 sebagai kelas kontrol yang masing-masing terdiri dari 36 orang siswa. Hasil penelitian diperoleh nilai rata-rata pretes kelas eksperimen 31,39 dan kelas kontrol adalah 31,25. Hasil observasi siswa selama proses pembelajaran dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran inquiry training adalah 72,88% tergolong kategori aktif. Setelah dilakukan perlakuan yang berbeda, yaitu model pembelajaran inquiry training pada kelas eksperimen dan pembelajaran konvensional pada kelas kontrol maka diperoleh nilai rata-rata postes kelas eksperimen adalah 72,92 dan kelas kontrol 64,86. Dari hasil uji t dapat disimpulkan ada pengaruh model pembelajaran inquiry training terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada materi pokok suhu dan kalor di kelas X semester II SMA Swasta Teladan Medan T.P 2014/2015. Kata kunci : Model pembelajaran, inquiry training, aktivitas, hasil belajar   ABSTRACT This study aims to determine the effect of inquiry training learning model on students’ learning outcomes in the second semester of grade 10 students on temperature and heat material of Teladan Private Senior High School Medan, A.Y 2014/2015. This research was a quasi experimental with the entire population of grade 10 students of Teladan Private Senior High School Medan consisting of 3 classes. Samples were taken 2 classes are determined by random cluster sampling technique, the X IPA 3 as the experiment class and X IPA 2 as controlling class each of which consisted of 36 students. The research result shows the pretest’s average score of experimental class is 31,39 and control class’ is 31,25. The results of observation of students during the learning process by using inquiry training learning model shows that 72,88% were classified as active category. After they have been given different treatments, inquiry training model for experimental class and conventional learning model for controlling class, it is obtained that the posttest’s average score for experimental class is 72,92 and controlling class’s is 64,86. From the t test results, it can be concluded there is influence of inquiry training learning model on the students’ learning outcomes on temperature and heat material in second semester grade 10 students of Teladan Private Senior High School Medan A.Y 2014/ 2015. Keywords: Learning model, inquiry training, activities, learning outcomes
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN BERBASIS MASALAH TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR DAN KETERAMPILAN BERPIKIR KRITIS SISWA DI KELAS X SMA NEGERI 16 MEDAN
Authors: Tarigan. Ratelit , Salmiah Ami
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Telah dilakukan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh model pembelajaran berbasis masalah terhadap hasil belajar dan keterampilan berpikir kritis siswa di SMA Negeri 16 Medan. Populasi dalam penelitian adalah seluruh siswa kelas X yang terdiri dari 4 kelas. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan cara cluster random sampling dengan mengambil 2 kelas, yaitu kelas X MIA 4 sebagai kelas eksperimen dan kelas X MIA 3 sebagai kelas kontrol. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan 100% siswa pada kelas eksperimen mencapai nilai KKM dengan rata-rata hasil belajar kelas eksperimen 82,93 dan  di kelas kontrol sebesar 90% siswa mencapai nilai KKM dengan nilai rata-rata 75,75. Hasil uji t diperoleh bahwa terdapat perbedaan hasil belajar akibat pengaruh model pembelaran pada kedua kelas dan nilai rata-rata tes keterampilan berpikir kritis kelas eksperimen 81,70 dan kelas kontrol 75,75. Hasil uji t diperoleh bahwa  terdapat perbedaan keterampilan berpikir kritis siswa akibat pengaruh model pembelajaran yang dilakukan pada kedua kelas. Hasil penilaian ini menunjukkan bahwa penerapan model pembelajaran berbasis masalah mampu meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa dan mengarahkan siswa untuk lebih berpikir kritis sehingga mudah memahami materi pembelajaran. Kata Kunci : Model pembelajaran berbasis masalah, hasil belajar dan keterampilan berpikir kritis siswa
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN INQUIRY TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA PADA MATERI POKOK LISTRIK DINAMIS DI KELAS X SEMESTER II SMA NEGERI 16 MEDAN T.P. 2012/2013
Authors: Sari Sri Rukmana , . Henok Siagian
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui  pengaruh model pembelajaran Inquiry terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada materi pokok listrik dinamis di kelas X semester II SMA Negeri 16 Medan T.P. 2012/2013 dan mengetahui aktivitas belajar siswa dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran inquiry. Penelitian ini merupakan jenis penelitian quasi experiment dengan desain penelitian two group pre-test dan post-test. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah seluruh siswa kelas X Semester II SMA Negeri 16 Medan  yang berjumlah 296 siswa yang terdiri dari delapan kelas. Sampel penelitian ini diambil dua kelas yaitu kelas X3 (sebagai kelas eksperimen) dan kelas X4 (sebagai kelas kontrol) yang masing-masing berjumlah 35 orang yang ditentukan dengan cara cluster random sampling. Instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengetahui hasil belajar siswa adalah tes hasil belajar dalam bentuk pilihan berganda dengan jumlah 20 soal dan lembar observasi aktivitas. Uji hipotesis menggunakan uji beda (uji-t). Hasil pretes nilai rata-rata kelas eksperimen 46,14 dengan standar deviasi 11,186 dan nilai rata-rata pretes kelas kontrol 42,14 dengan standar deviasi 10,522. Pada pengujian data pretes kedua kelas diperoleh bahwa data kedua kelas berdistribusi normal dan homogen. Berdasarkan hasil tes awal dengan menggunakan uji-t diperoleh bahwa kemampuan awal siswa pada kedua kelas sama. Setelah diberikan perlakuan yang berbeda, kelas eksperimen dengan menggunakan model pembelajaran inquiry dan kelas kontrol menggunakan model pembelajaran konvensional, diperoleh nilai aktivitas siswa dalam tiga kali pertemuan, yaitu 55,7, 69,9, dan 79,3, sehingga rata-rata aktivitas belajar siswa adalah 68,3 dengan kategori aktif. Nilai postes diperoleh dengan hasil rata- rata postes kelas eksperimen 67,86 dengan standar deviasi 10,592 dan nilai rata – rata postes kelas kontrol 63,29 dengan standar deviasi 8,484 pada taraf signifikan α = 0,05 dk= 68. Hasil uji t pada data postes diperoleh bahwa secara signifikan ada pengaruh hasil belajar siswa yang diajarkan dengan model pembelajaran inquiry pada  materi pokok listrik dinamis di kelas X Semester II SMA Negeri 16 Medan T.P. 2012/2013.
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN INQUIRY TRAINING TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA PADA MATERI SUHU, KALOR DAN PERPINDAHAN KALOR KELAS X SEMESTER II SMA NEGERI 1 BATANG KUIS T.P. 2014/2015
Authors: Tuti. Sri , . Khairul Amdani
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh model pembelajaran inquiry training terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada materi suhu, kalor dan perpindahan  kalor kelas X semester II SMA Negeri 1 Batang Kuis T.P 2014/2015. Jenis penelitian ini adalah quasi eksperimen dengan desain two group Pre-test dan Pos-test. Populasi dalam penelitian  adalah seluruh siswa kelas X semester II SMA Negeri 1 Batang Kuis yang terdiri dari 9 kelas. Pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan cara cluster random sampling dengan mengambil 2 kelas secara acak yaitu kelas X-9 sebagai kelas eksperimen dan kelas X-7 sebagai kelas kontrol. Instrumen penelitian adalah pilihan berganda  dan lembar  aktivitas siswa. Dari hasil penelitian diperoleh nilai rata-rata pretes dan postes kelas eksperimen sebesar 30,89 dan 74,89. Dan  nilai rata-rata pretes dan postes kelas kontrol sebesar 31,78 dan 66,67. Rata-rata aktivitas siswa kelas eksperimen dalam kategori sangat aktif dan rata-rata aktivitas siswa kelas kontrol dalam kategori cukup aktif. Hasil uji hipotesis menggambarkan bahwa ada perbedaan akibat pengaruh penggunaan model pembelajaran inquiry training terhadap hasil belajar siswa pada materi suhu, kalor dan perpindahan kalor di kelas X semester II SMA Negeri 1 Batang Kuis T.P 2014/2015. Kata kunci : Model pembelajaran inquiry training, aktivitas
PENGARUH MODEL PEMBELAJARAN INQUIRY TRAINNING TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA PADA MATERI POKOK BESARAN DAN SATUAN DI KELAS X SEMESTER I SMA NEGERI 7 MEDAN
Authors: . Tjiufen Viin M Manurung , . Nurdin Siregar
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh model pembelajaran Inquiry Training terhadap hasil belajar fisika siswa SMA dan aktivitas belajar siswa selama proses pembelejaran. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode quasi eksperimen dengan desai penelitian Two Group Pretest-Postest Design. Populasi dalam penelitian ini adalah seluruh siswa kelas X SMA N 7 Medan yang terdiri dari 5 kelas dan sampel 2 kelas yang ditentukan secara cluster rondom sampling, yaitu kelas X IPA 5 sebagai kelas eksperimen dan kelas X IPA 1 sebagai kelas kontrol. Dari uji hipotesis diperoleh ada pengaruh yang signifikan antara hasil belajar siswa dengan pembelajaran inquiry training dan pemebelajaran konvensional pada materi pokok besaran dan satuan dikelas X SMA N 7 Medan.   Kata Kunci : Model pembelajaran inquiry training.