bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Brown-Headed Cowbirds
Authors: Smith James N M , Myers-Smith Isla H
Published: November 2023

Most avian brood parasites use more than one host species (Friedmann 1948, 1960, 1963; Friedmann et al. 1977). Brown-headed and shiny cowbirds (Molothrus ater and M. bonariensis) are extreme generalists among brood parasites, and use a variety of hosts in each habitat and geographic area (Friedmann 1963; Friedmann et al. 1977; Mason 1986; Rothstein 1990). Host use by generalist brood parasites, however, can also vary greatly among areas within a species. Good examples of spatially variable parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird occur in the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus; Friedmann 1963; Robertson and Norman 1977; Facemire 1980; Linz and Bolin 1982; Ortega and Cruz 1988; Weatherhead 1989), and the wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina; Hoover and Brittingham 1993).
B
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

ba the human-headed bird representing the soul or the vital principle of human beings. The ba appears at the moment of union between the ka and the body, leaving the mortal remains at death with the ka. The ba can survive in the afterlife only if it remains in close proximity to the ka, whose servant it appears to be at that time.
I
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

lbhet a site near the Second Cataract of the Nile, south of aswan, where vast quantities of black granite were discovered by the ancient Egyptians. As far back as the 6th Dynasty the quarry there was known to the people of the Nile. By the Middle Kingdom era the Egyptians were active on the site. amenemhet iii (1844–1797 b.c.) fought against the local Nubian inhabitants of Ibhet in the fifth year of his reign. Egypt valued the granite quarried at Ibhet and maintained a fortified operation there.
J
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

jackal called auau or a’asha, the ancient Egyptian manifestation of the gods anubis and duamutef. It is believed that the jackal was portrayed in religious inscriptions in order to placate the animal, who was a destroyer of desert grave sites. This is an example of the practice of sympathetic magic.
N
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

Nakht an official of the 18th Dynasty, serving in the reign of Tuthmosis IV (1401–1391 b.c.). Nakht was a priest-astronomer, one of the trgined sky watchers of the temple who was responsible for giving the charts and information about the various orbits of the heavenly bodies as they affected the seasonal changes of the earth. He was buried at Thebes, and his tomb is famous for the depiction of the blind harper on its walls. (See astronomy, priests.)
O
Authors: Bunson Margaret
Published: November 2023

oases important sites in ancient Egypt located in the western desert. They served as trade links to more distant regions and as outposts against periodic invasions. Called wehat, meaning a garden or a green and fertile region, the oases were a source of crops such as dates and grapes. Oases were also places of refuge. When kamose (1550 b.c.) of the 17th Dynasty began his military campaigns against the alien hyksos in the northern territories, he and his armies used the various oases as hiding places. They were able to move within striking distance of the enemy with out being detected.
Multicommodity Network Flow Problems
Authors: Censor Yair , Zenios Stavros A
Published: November 2023

However, the production and distribution of commodities is entirely unorganized so that everybody must live in fear of being eliminated from the economic cycle, in this way suffering from the want of everything.I trust that posterity will read these statements with a feeling of proud and justified superiority. The movement of some commodity between two points on a network can be represented using network flow models. Such models are prevalent in the real world; and the transportation of products over a railroad system is the prototypical example of a network flow problem. Other examples include the transportation of messages over a telecommunications network, the transmission of electricity over a power distribution grid, the scheduling of water releases through a hydroelectric power generation network of dams and pipelines, the transfer of funds between bank accounts,the exchange of funds among different currencies, and so on. Occasionally, multiple but distinct commodities share the resources of a common underlying network and the resulting models become more complicated. A common example is the movement of traffic along a highway system, where vehicles with different destinations and of different sizes share the same roads.
Integrating the Components of Imagery
Authors: Intons-Peterson Margaret Jean
Published: November 2023

What is imagery? At the moment, I define it as sensory-perceptual memory with spatial extent. That is, I propose that we learn to label as imagery those memories that have salient sensory-perceptual and spatial features. This chapter surveys support for the components of this definition. It also examines two major lines of research that have shaped current views of imagery. Thus, the chapter begins with a brief historical overview of the definition’s genealogy plus observations about why some potential components have been omitted. This evaluation, then, will consider evidence for what imagery is not as well as what it is. Next, I will offer a framework for imagery that embraces linguistic components, rather than minimizing them, and will examine some research in light of implications of the framework. Questions about imagery echo from the distant past, often with persistent currency. Is imagery a separate cognitive system? Are images simply faint reflections of percepts or sensations? Most important, what are images? Do they represent bona fide phenomena, unique and distinct from other processes? Accompanying these questions are doubts about the concept of imagery. Such reservations come from different quarters, with philosophers occasionally denying the existence of images and psychologists offering occasionally dismissive explanations for the experiences of imagery.
C
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

CABIRI Spirits of the underworld, perhaps of a volcanic nature; formed the heart of a cult centered in Asia that grew to immense popularity in the Late Empire. They were said to protect mankind against storms and hence were beneficial to all travelers. The cult appealed to all walks of life, and its centers of worship were mainly in Asia. Pergamum possessed an altar in their honor, although S,3mothrace was known as an important site, even the capital of the sect. Boeotia was a favorite place for the faithful, as were Phrygia and Thessalonica. Mysteries and initiations were widespread, and all classes were eligible. By 400 A.O., the Cabiri had faded. See also RELIGION. CAECINA ALIENUS, AULUS (d. 79 A.D.) Legate of the IV Legion on the Rhine; in 69 A.O., with Fabius Vale11s, led the movement to install Vitellius as emperor. Caecina was born at Volaterrae, serving in Boeotia as a quaestor. f le acquired the patronage of Galba and soon was promoted to legate. Galba convicted him for misappropriation of funds, but he gained a command from Nero on the Rhine. From the start of Galba’s brief reign in 69 A.D., Caecina a11d his loyal troops were reluctant to support the new emperor. Soon his statues were broken, and open rebellion ensued. Vitellius, it was decided, should be emperor, and the legions along the entire Rhine frontier set off for Italy. Otho, meanwhile, succeeded the assassinated Galba and in tum became the object of the legion’s mutiny. While Valens pillaged much of Gaul, Caecina crossed Switzerland, encountering troubles with the local tribes. The Helvetii were massacred in the thousands, and only Vitellius himself prevented the destruction of Aventicum, the Helvetian capital. By March the legions of Caecina had descended the Great St. Bernard Pass. On April 15, at the battle of BEORIACUM, the Vitellians won the Empire. Caecina shared in the subsequent division of spoils.
D
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

DACIA A rugged, mountainous land located north of the Danube River in the areas of present-day Transylvania and eastern Hungary. Dacia became a target for Roman strategic interests and, despite the fierce opposition of its native people, served as an imperial province from around 106 to 271 A. D. The Dacians probably came from a Thracian stock and moved into the region sometime in the 7th or 6th century B.c. They were joined by the Getae, with whom they shared certain cultural and linguistic similarities. The Dacians warred with their neighbors, especially the Getae, but a certain geographic isolation allowed them to survive often catastrophic struggles and to retain dominance. Situated south of the Carpathian Mountains, they developed an identifiable culture, and by the 1st century B.C. they were the leading tribe of the region. A stable leadership was all that the Dacians required for greatness. Around 61 B.c., Burebista emerged as the king of the Dacians. He organized and improved the socio-economic coalition of the people and launched a vast campaign of conquest against the surrounding chiefdoms and clans. Burebista destroyed the Boii, the Taurisci and the Bastarnae before ravaging Thrace and threatening the entire Danube and Black Sea territories. His success brought Dacia not only to the attention of Rome but also into direct involvement in its politics, when Pompey sought the king as an ally in 48 B.c. Julius CAESAR was certainly aware of the growing menace presented by Burebista and planned an expedition against him. Both rulers were assassinated, however, in 44 B.c. The Dacian kingdom fell apart amid turmoil and civil strife. Octavian (AUGUSTUS) nevertheless worried about the frontier and possible alliances between Marc ANTONY and the Dacians.
Q
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

QUADI A Germanic tribe of Suebi racial stock, situated in the area of the Main River late in the 1st century B.C. Moving into southeastern Germany, they came into contact with the MARCOMANNI, IAZYGES and other minor peoples, such as the Osi. Subsequently, they developed close ties with both the Marcomanni and Iazyges while estab1.shing themselves as a powerful tribal state. Under their chief, Vannius, the Quadi exercised considerable influence rover the western Danubian frontier in the first half of the 1st century A.D. Around 50 A.D., however, Vannius and the Quadi were assailed by a barbarian confederation of the HERMUNDURI, Lugii and others. Vannius fell in battle while countering two usurpers, his nephews Vangis and Sido. They broke apart the Quadi, as large elements of Vannius’ supporters fled to the Romans and were settled· in PANNONIA. Henceforth the Quadi displayed hostility· coward Rome. A war was fought with Emperor DOMITIAN, .and the Quadi were a leading force in the MARCOMANNIC WARS in the 2nd century. MARCUS AURELIUS inflicted a terrible defeat upon them in 174. By the end of the 4th century, the Quadi were part of the other Germanic states on ·the march into the Roman Empire. They probably traveled, with the VANDALS into Spain.
R
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

RABIRIUS (fl. late 1st century A.O.) Architect whose masterpiece of design was produced at the order of Emperor Domitian, who hired him to create the DOMUS FLAVIA. He was a friend of MARTIAL. RADAGAISUS (d. 406 A.D.) Barbarian ruler of a loose confederation of tribes, mostly composed of VANDALS, who led two invasions of imperial provinces in the West, in 401 and 405 A.D.. The first onslaught by Radagaisus came at the same time that ALARIC and the Visigoths were threatening Italy and Rome. Advancing into Raetia and Noricum, Radagaisus was attached by the MAGISTER MILITUM. STILICHO and thoroughly defeated. The crushed tribes withdrew and even had to supply auxiliaries for use against Alaric. In 405, Radagaisus returned, with large elements of OSTROGOTHS. Ignoring the Danubian provinces, the host descended on Italy via Aquileia; they then split up into columns, the largest under Radagaisus. Stilicho once more devised a suitable strategy, massacring the barbarians. Throughout late 405 and 406 the forces of Radagaisus were ground down and destroyed until he was captured and executed in August 406. See also POLLENTIA. RADAMISTUS OF IBERIA (d. 58 A.D.) Son of King PHARASMANES of Iberia. By 51 A.O., Radamistus was eager to have his own throne, and Pharasmanes, hoping to avoid losing his own kingdom, pointed his son toward MITHRIDATES (1) of Armenia, Pharasmanes’ own brother. Feigning an argument with his father, Radamistus fled to Mithridates but returned, unable to bring down that king through conspiracies. Gathering an army he invaded Armenia, besieging his uncle at Garneae. Through bribery of local Roman officials, Radamistus lured Mithridates out and had him killed. Assuming the throne, the new monarch of Armenia found himself under attack by his own subjects. Without support from his father, who had to balance himself politically with Rome and Parthia, Radamistus fled the country, abandoning his own wife. In 58, as an act of good faith to Nero, Pharasmanes put Radamistus to death.
S
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

SABINA, VIBIA (d. after 128 A.o.) Empress from 117 to 136, the wife of HADRIAN. Sabina was the daughter of L. Vibius and Matidia, and granddaughter of MARCIANA, the sister of Emperor TRAJAN. Although Trajan apparently did not approve, Empress Plotina, in 100, organized Hadrian’s marriage to Sabina. Hadrian was thus positioned perfectly to succeed Trajan as emperor and, in 117, Sabina became empress. Although she was made Augusta in 128, Sabina had a reputation for faithlessness. Hadrian reportedly ousted Septicius Claros, Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, and Suetonius Tranquillus, an imperial secretary, because of their overly familiar attitude toward the empress. He supposedly once said that had he been a private citizen he would have sent her away. However, upon her death, sometime after 128, she was given full honors. There was a rumor that she had been poisoned. SABINIANS Members of one of the two important schools of LAW in Rome during the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. The Sabinians took their name from Masurius SABINUS but later were known as Cassians after Sabinus’ student, CASSIUS LONGINUS. Sabinian views were based on the teachings of Gaius Ateius CAPITO, Sabinus’ instructor and an adherent of conservatism in the reign of Augustus (27 B.c.-14 A.D.). Among the few characteristics discernable in the attitude of the Sabinians was a legal conservatism reflecting their founder. In opposition to the Sabinians were the PROCULEANS. A rivalry between the schools lasted well into the 2nd century, when they were united. The most famous head of the Sabinians was Salvius Julianus.
U
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

UBII Germanic tribe living on the east bank of the Rhine. The Ubii had had good relations with Julius CAESAR, but in 37 B.C., unable to withstand the incessant conflicts with the neighboring Germans, they asked Marcus AGRIPPA for permission to settle on Roman lands. Agrippa agreed, and the Ubii were transported over the Rhine to the area around what was later called Civitas Ubiorum. A colony founded there by Rome, Colonia Agrippinensis (COLOGNE), con­ tributed to the Romanization of the tribesmen, who took to naming themselves the Agrippenses. ULDIN (d.c. 412 A.D.) One of the leading chieftains of the HUNS beyond the Danube during the reign of ARCADOIUS (394-408) and into that of THEODOSIUS n (c. 395-412), although he probably did not have total control of the Hunnic people. Uldin was first known to the imperial government in December 400, when he lopped off the head of a troublesome Roman minister, Gainas, and sent it to the emperor as a gift. Five years later, the Huns con­ tributed troops, including their client Sciri, to the cause of the MAGISTER MILITUM, STILICHO, against the Visigoths’ King ALARIC. An invasion of MOESIA around 408 was repulsed, with thousands of Uldin’s Germanic allies falling into Ro­ man hands. Uldin retreated. Upon his death around four years later, the Huns were divided into three great camps. ULFILA (c. 311-383 A.D.) Also known as Ulphila and Ulphilas; bishop of the GOTHS and one of the first Christian missionaries to preach to the barbarians. Ulfila was de­ scended from a Christian Cappodocian who had been captured by the Goths, and he was born surrounded by Goths and became adept at their language. Educated at CON­ STANTINOPLE, around 341 he was consecrated a bishop by EUSEBIUS of Constantinople (formerly the bishop of NICO­ MEDIA). He proselytized to the peoples beyond the Roman Empire, eventually returning to the Goths settled along the Danube.
Y
Authors: Bunson Matthew
Published: November 2023

YAZDAGIRD I (d. 420 A.D.) King of PERSIA from 399 to 420, whose reign was noted for its improved relations with CONSTANTINOPLE and its easing of Christian persecutions begun under SHAPUR 11. Considered powerful, Yazdagird was declared an honorary guardian to the young Emperor THEODOSIUS II in the will of ARCADIUS upon his death in 408. Yazdagird’s willingness to protect the dynastic stability of the emperors was taken as a sign of improved relations between ROME and Persia, and in 409 an attempt was made to reestablish trading ties. CHRISTIANITY was allowed to flourish in Persian lands, especially AR· MENIA, until the Christian clergy attempted widescale conversions and was suppressed harshly, ending the brief detente in 420. Yazdagird marched off to war but died on the way. His son VARAHRAN v succeeded him. YAZDAGIRD D (d. 457 A.D.) King of PERSIA from 438 to 457, succeeding VARAHRAN v to the throne. He soon made incursions into the Roman portions of ARMENIA until bought off probably by the MAGISTER MILITUM, ASPAR. Henceforth his reign was characterized by chronic troubles in Armenia, where the Christians refused to be converted to Persian Zoroastrianism and fought to the death. These pockets of resistance, however, could not entice CONSTAN· TINOPLE into widening hostilities, mainly because of the threats from the HUNS in the West.
Ecological Experiments Scale, Phenomenology, Mechanism, and the Illusion of Generality
Authors: Dunham Arthur E , Beaupre Steven J
Published: November 2023

In attempting to understand the distribution and abundance of organisms, ecologists often seek general organizing principles to aid in understanding and predicting the responses of populations to environmental variation. The principle goal of this essay is to clarify the concept of generality in ecology. We are motivated by the perception that many ecologists attempt to generalize both theory and experimental results beyond specific experimental systems. In some cases, this generalization may be justified; in others, it is not. We believe that ecology as a science will benefit from an open discussion regarding the nature of and limits to generality. To this end, we (1) discuss the nature of ecological processes and their implications for epistemology and generality; (2) discuss concepts of generality and provide a mechanism-based definition; (3) offer a definition and several examples of mechanism, a concept that is central to generality; and, finally, (4) illustrate our position with a discussion of the role of mechanisms in ecological inquiry and with several examples. We emphasize at the outset that our discussions of specific research programs are meant solely to foster constructive discussion of issues related to generality in ecology.
The Interplay Between Natural History and Field Experimentation
Authors: Polis Gary A , Wise David H , Hurd Stephen D , Sanchez-Pinero Francisco , Wagner James D , Jackson Christopher Todd , Barnes Joseph D
Published: November 2023

Modern ecology can be considered the “new natural history.” It emerged from the fusion of elements from classical natural history and physiology (McIntosh 1985) and is the progeny of the marriage of two nineteenth-century traditions: the systematic, detailed cataloging of facts and a reductionist experimental approach to understanding function. As a result, experimentation and mathematical modeling emerged as useful tools to uncover the effects of discrete variables and processes on observed patterns, avoiding mere speculation. However, an extreme (or naive) acceptance of these new approaches could promote misinterpretation of ecological phenomena. McIntosh (1985) points out that Hutchinson ‘‘noted the need to temper mathematical abstraction with sound knowledge of natural history.” Clearly, experimentalists as well as mathematically inclined theoreticians must not forget ecology’s roots in basic natural history. As field experimentation becomes common and is no longer considered innovative, the danger increases that eagerness to conduct experiments will lead to field manipulations as irrelevant as some elegant sets of differential equations.
Infant Crying Behavior and Colic an Interpretation in Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: Barr Ronald G
Published: November 2023

On 15 December 1984, Le journal de Montreal reported that a 26-year-old anthropology student beat his 27-day-old infant daughter to death because he was unable to stop her persistent crying (Le journal 1984). This dramatic and tragic event is eloquent testimony to the power of crying to frustrate and antagonize parents and bring about maladaptive consequences for the child. While crying has been recognized increasingly as a proximate cause of child abuse and occasionally death (O’Neill, 1993; Singer & Rosenberg, 1992; Weston, 1968), the consequences are usually-and fortunately-less extreme. Nevertheless, early crying may signal considerable distress in both the infant and its caregivers. It is now well-documented that excessive crying is associated with clinically significant levels of maternal emotional stress (Miller et al., 1993). It is a major reason for weaning from breastmilk (and its health benefits) because mothers believe that crying indicates a hungry infant and an inadequate milk supply (Cable & Rothenberger, 1984; Cunningham et al., 1991; Forsyth et al., 1985a). It is also the most frequent complaint to physicians in the first 3 months after birth (Forsyth et al., 1985b).
Evolutionary Perspectives on the Onset of Puberty
Authors: Worthman Carol M
Published: November 2023

Recent human history has witnessed worldwide, ongoing transformations of child growth and development. These changes are best documented by increasing height by age in children and decreasing ages at menarche. Increased size and accelerated maturation have always characterized privileged social groups or classes relative to those less privileged, but commencing about 130 years ago in a few western European countries, a pattern of accelerating development has swept across entire populations (Tanner, 1978, p. 152). Similar, though often more precipitous, shifts continue today in populations around the world, in parallel with socioeconomic and public health changes that strongly alter living conditions. These secular trends to accelerated growth and maturation are amply documented and widely discussed as markers of well-being (Tanner, 1990; van Wierigen, 1986), but their implications for human health have scarcely been explored.
Evolutionary Perspectives on Chronic Degenerative Diseases
Authors: Gerber Linda M , Crews Douglas E
Published: November 2023

In recent decades, evolutionary perspectives on chronic diseases and aging have become a major aspect of theory formation in human population biology and biological anthropology (Eaton et al. 1988; Armelagos 1991; Crews 1993; Crews and Gerber 1994). Human biologists have long examined physical and health variation between races, types, and ethnic groups (Coon 1965; Marks 1994; Molnar 1994). Application of an evolutionary perspective to problems such as defining races, categorizing human variation, and identifying population affinities provided a basis for going beyond racial typologies, the search for “pure races,” and the use of external characteristics (skin color, hair texture, and color) to determine population relations. The molecular revolution has contributed to a greater understanding of how genetic variation is packaged and altered over generations and provides a new tool for understanding population affinities and disease patterns. These advances also have led to an improved understanding of the evolutionary and genetic basis of specific chronic degenerative diseases (CDD) and a general model for the etiology of particular types of CDD. For those interested in the health and well-being of humankind, a basic understanding of evolutionary pressures that have shaped human physiological responses to the environment is a necessity. It is useful to inform practitioners that different races, ethnic groups, or sexes may respond differently to the same lifestyle or pharmaceutical intervention. An evolutionary perspective also aids practitioners in counseling their various patients as to how behavioral and lifestyle factors may influence longevity and health. Last, an evolutionary perspective provides the basis for genetic counseling and explaining the basis of heritable disease to both patients and concerned families.
Tools and causality
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

Before primates can ingest the food they have located, most of them need to do something further to obtain or process the food. For example, they must pick fruit or leaves off of tree limbs, dig roots out of the ground, uncover insects in a pile of dead leaves or under a dead tree, take the hard shell off nuts, or probe into a hole for honey. Primates have thus evolved a major morphological adaptation for use in their foraging activities: their hands. Some primate species have evolved specialized hands designed for specific foraging tasks (e.g., the tap-scanning and probing that aye-ayes accomplish with their elongated middle digit). Other primate species have evolved hands that support more general and flexible skills of object manipulation, including the use of tools to extract food from substrates (e.g., chimpanzees). On the whole, primates, especially simian primates, have evolved hands that can accomplish object manipulations impossible for any other order of animal (Passingham, 1981). Engaging in these object manipulations sometimes involves complex cognitive processes.
Features and categories
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

Underlying the ability to locate and manipulate objects is the ability to identify particular objects or particular types of objects. Much object identification is done by means of perceptual mechanisms that are highly similar throughout the order Primates, and probably throughout many other orders of mammal as well (see Fobes & King, 1982; Passingham, 1982; Prestrude, 1970; Riesen, 1970). These perceptual mechanisms are not our concern here. But animals also identify objects in some cases on the basis of conceptual categories that go beyond direct perception, and these are of obvious importance in any study of cognition. As all texts of cognitive psychology emphasize, organisms make sense of the virtually infinite amount of information available to their senses at any given moment by categorizing experiential items based on their similarities and differences, both perceptual and otherwise. We are concerned in this chapter, therefore, with research aimed at revealing processes of conceptual mediation and categorization in nonhuman primates. Because the detection of such processes requires comparing the responses of animals to a systematic array of stimuli, almost all the relevant research has been conducted in the laboratory.
Theories of Primate Physical cognition
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

Theories of primate physical cognition may be classified into two broad groups depending on their aims. The first group of theories has to do with proximate mechanisms, that is, with how cognition is structured. This has been our major concern in the preceding four chapters, and all the data on how primates cognize the world in all the various behavioral domains are relevant to theories of proximate causation. The second group of theories has to do with ultimate causation, that is, with the ecological conditions that provided the adaptive context within which particular cognitive mechanisms might have evolved. Here the data are mostly lacking because we have no direct access to the behavior of our primate ancestors, and the fossil record is woefully incomplete (Martin, 1990). Nevertheless, there are interesting and testable hypotheses, and even some data, about the relation between particular ecological conditions and cognitive mechanisms as they may have arisen in primate evolution.
Object Stories
Authors: Sternberg Robert J
Published: November 2023

In object stoeies, eith« pmonsoe eelation,hips become valued not for themselves, but for their functioning as objects. It often seems as though the particular person or relationship matters little, so long as certain functions are being carried out.
Genre Stories
Authors: Sternberg Robert J
Published: November 2023

In genre stmks, the mode o, way of being in the ,elationship is key to the existence and maintenance of the relationship. Some Special ongoing feature of the relationship dominates other aspects of it. In a war story, an ongoing war and the many battles to which it gives rise dominate the relationship; the war is never won or lost, because for the relationship to survive as a war story, the war must be unending. In a theater story, one partner (or sometimes both partners) engage(s) in a role. The relationship is like theater. The role or roles may change, but the theatrical aspect never does. In a humor story, jokes, lightheartedness, and seeing the funny side of things predominate. Any attempt at a serious or even conflictual conversation is likely to be diverted by humor. In a mystery story, one of the partners seems continually to be shrouded in a cloak of mystery, and the relationship evolves as the other partner tries, never completely successfully, to penetrate the shroud. Usually, as soon as one shroud is penetrated, another quickly takes its place.
Melting the Earth
Authors: Sigurdsson Haraidur
Published: November 2023

From prehistoric times to the fiery destruction of Pompeii in 79 A.D. and the more recent pyrotechnics of Mt. St. Helens, volcanic eruptions have aroused fear, inspired myths and religious worship, and prompted heated philosophical and scientific debate. Melting the Earth chronicles humankind’s attempt to understand this terrifying phenomenon and provides a fascinating look at how our conception of volcanoes has changed as knowledge of the earth’s internal processes has deepened over the centuries. A practicing volcanologist and native of Iceland, where volcanoes are frequently active, Haraldur Sigurdsson considers how philosophers and scientists have attempted to answer the question: Why do volcanoes erupt? He takes us through the ideas of the ancient Greeks—who proposed that volcanoes resulted from the venting of subterranean winds—and the internal combustion theories of Roman times, and notes how thinking about volcanoes took a backward, symbolic turn with the rise of Christian conceptions of Hell, a direction that would not be reversed until the Renaissance. He chronicles the 18th-century conflict between the Neptunists, who believed that volcanic rocks originated from oceanic accretions, and the Plutonists, who argued for the existence of a molten planetary core, and traces how volcanology moved from “divine science” and “armchair geology” to empirical field study with the rise of 19th-century naturalism. Finally, Sigurdsson describes how 19th and 20th-century research in thermodynamics, petrology, geochemistry and plate tectonics contribute to the current understanding of volcanic activity. Drawing liberally from classical sources and firsthand accounts, this chronicle is not only a colorful history of volcanology, but an engrossing chapter in the development of scientific thought.
United States Demographics
Authors: George Campbell
Published: November 2023

In 1876, Edward A. Souchet received his Ph.D. in physics from Yale University. Just two years earlier he had graduated Summa Cum Laude and Phi Beta Kappa, also from Yale, with a bachelor’s degree in physics. Trained as an experimentalist, the young physicist’s research interests were in the propagation and transmission of electromagnetic radiation. Bouchefs remarkable academic achievements, extraordinary training and early scientific contributions while still a student suggested a promising future in physics. Except for one thing. Edward Souchet was black, and the door to the scientific research community in America was not yet open to African Americans.
A Practitioner’s Perspective
Authors: Rodriguez Carlos
Published: November 2023

In the world of educational research, it is a constant challenge to balance the triangulated scale of practice, policy, and research. The work and substance of con temporary education usually cannot be deconstructed or segmented easily among these three components. Within practice, policy, and research symbiotic relationships and couplings exist. Ideally we would wish that these relationships and couplings would be readily explicit and discernible so that they could inform each other in a spiraling, evolutionary manner: information building policy leading to informed policy building practice leading to effective practice fueling the questions for more insightful information, and so on. However, in the real world we often find ourselves struggling with decoupled and decontextualized information. V•/e often ask hig questions and then throw a lot of information at the questions, hoping some of it will stick.
Early Childhood Science Progran1s
Authors: George Yolanda s.
Published: November 2023

Science and technology centers, children’s museums, nonprofit you the groups, sciencebased associations, public television and radio groups, and corporations have all developed a host of preschool/early childhood science programs aimed at children and their families and teachers. Common features of these programs include: development of ‘“science-friendly” materials and programs for teachers and parents of preschool and elementary-age children. Many teachers and parents do not have strong backgrounds in science.
Explaining the Unrealized Aspirations of Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Authors: Schneider Barbara
Published: November 2023

Understanding the factors affecting career choices requires examining both individual and situational conditions. (For a further explanation of th is perspective, see the chapter by Ginorio and Grignon in this volume). Occupational choice is an evolving process influenced by individual factors such as gender, race and ethnicity, cognitive abilities, and the socializing contexts of family, peer groups, school, and community, all of which can change over time (Schneider 1994). Too often scholars have overlooked or underestiated the potential impact that socializing contexts can have on determining the attitudes and motivations of young people, which eventuate in future life choices.
Diffusion Theory and Measurements
Authors: McDougall Ian , Harrison T Mark
Published: November 2023

Although diffusion is arguably the simplest of all natural transport mechanisms in principle, our understanding of the details of this phenomenon in most cases is only approximate, and in the instances in which experiment and theory have resolved the atomistic behavior in pure crystals, the descriptions are generally complex. In spite of the unlikelihood of fully understanding the mechanisms of diffusion in the natural silicate structures of interest to geologists, a simple phenomenological appreciation of this process provides us with a powerful tool with which to address a variety of petrological and geochemical problems.
The Fight Over Metaphor in Thought and Language
Authors: Gibbs Raymond W
Published: November 2023

The scholarly study of figurative thought and language has exploded in recent years. It seems impossible to study how people think, act, speak, and interact without having to address some aspect of figurative thought and language. When I was busy working on my book The Poetics of Mind in the late 1980s and early 1990s, I used to conduct an experiment with myself in which I would go to my university’s main library (primarily for the humanities and social sciences) and visit the current periodical room. I would randomly choose a shelf, close my eyes, and pick up a journal. My hypothesis was that at least 50% of the time the journal selected would contain an article that related to some aspect of figurative language. Not surprisingly, to me anyway, after several years of doing this, I found that my hypothesis was quite close to being true.
Counterpoint Commentary
Authors: Katz Albert N , Turner Mark , Gibbs Raymond W , Cacciari Cristina
Published: November 2023

Although intellectual discussion of nonliteral language has a history that can be traced to the ancient Greek philosophers, systematic and continuing experimental study of metaphor and other forms of nonliteral language started only about 20 years ago. And for most of that period, nonliteral language often was treated as an intellectual orphan, with a home neither in mainline cognitive science nor as a topic in the study of ordinary language. Today, the study of nonliteral language plays an important role in both fields. The important review article by Ortony, Reynolds, and Arter (1978), a succession of books in psychology (especially those edited by Ortony [1979] and by Honeck and Hoffman [1980]), and the establishment, in 1986, of the journal Metaphor and Symbolic Activity (now called Metaphor and Symbol) all combined to bring the study of metaphor, idioms, indirect requests, irony, and other tropes into experimental psychology. The success of this enterprise is well-documented in Ray Gibbs’s book, The Poetics of Mind (1994). At about the same time that the initial stirrings were being felt in experimental psychology, linguistic and literary considerations of metaphor were also having their impact on cognitive science, being led by Reddy’s chapter in the Ortony volume; the seminal work Metaphors we Live By written by Lakoff and Johnson (1980); the extension to poetic writing by Mark Turner (1987), Death is the Mother of Beauty; and the development of an active web site for “blending and conceptual integration” .
Naturalism and the Sanctity of Life
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Societies all try to maintain some kind of moral code or set of principles. One common way for people to convince each other of the importance of the code is to encourage the belief that the code is not a mere human invention but that it comes from outside, from nature in the broad sense that: includes everything other than humanity. This belief in naturalism makes the code less subject to questioning. But codes invented by people can be questioned by people, and such questioning is the common fate of nonreligious moral ideas—specifically, the work of moral philosophers. This idea of naturalism was common in ancient Greece, particularly among the Stoic philosophers such as Zeno. Aristotle adopted it as an essential part of his ethical theory. Largely through Aristotle, the idea of a natural moral law was developed by Catholic writers such as St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas. It was taken seriously by writers of the Enlightenment, such as Hugo Grotius and Thomas Hobbes, and it continues up to modem times as a major philosophical tradition, outside of religion as well as within in. My concern here is with our everyday intuitions, not with philosophical criticism. However, the writings of popes and bishops are still relevant because they are written for public consumption, not for philosophers.
Inertial Growth: Population Dynamics Based on Maternal Effects
Authors: Ginzburg Lev R
Published: November 2023

Maternal effects can be defined as the cross generational transmission of individual quality such that the offspring survival, growth, and fecundity are affected by the properties of the environment in which the parents lived. Individual quality may have an uneven distribution in a population, but only the transmission of the average population quality will be discussed here since this chapter examines its influence on population dynamics. Recent reviews have shown the ecological and evolutionary importance of maternal effects in insects (Mousseau and Dingle 1991), plants (Roach and Wulf 1987), and mammals (Bernardo 1996, and references therein). Maternal effects induce a time lag in the reaction of populations to environmental changes. An environmental change may cause, for instance, a decrease in abundance. This would create better conditions for the average mother since there are less of them. Maternal quality passed to daughters (maternal effect) would therefore influence the rate of reproduction in the daughter’s generation. This time lag of exactly one generation creates the need to reflect the delayed effect of the previous generation’s environment on the current generation (Rossiter 1996). An approach to accounting for this effect is to introduce the concept of inertia into the population dynamics models. The inertial view of population dynamics based on maternal effects and its application to cycling populations is the subject of this chapter.
Oviposition Decisions as Maternal Effects: Conundrums and Opportunities for Conservation Biologists
Authors: Roitberg Bernard D
Published: November 2023

Maternal effects are ubiquitous. From maternally detennined production of winged morphs in aphids (MacKay and Wellington 1977) to lactation dependent growth rates in mammals (Young and Legates 1965), maternal effects have been demonstrated across a wide variety of taxa. Such effects are now widely accepted as important components of the phenotype (Mousseau and Dingle 1991). Less well understood, however, is the importance of maternal effects on evolutionary (e.g., Via et al. 1995) and population dynamics, in particular the latter.
Maternal Influences On Larval Competition In Insects
Authors: Messina Frank J
Published: November 2023

Maternal effects can occur whenever variation among maternal phenotypes provides an additional (usually nongenetic) source of variation among offspring phenotypes (Mousseau and Dingle 1991). For many insects, an important maternal character is the choice of an oviposition site. If juvenile stages are fairly sedentary, a female’s egg-laying preferences can largely or completely determine the quality of her offspring’s environment, sometimes for the duration of its development. Oviposition choices influence a larva’s food quality and its susceptibility to natural enemies or abiotic stresses, as well as its probability of experiencing intra or interspecific competition (Mitchell 1983; Thompson 1983). Here I consider maternal influences on the degree of competition among offspring in insects. I describe genetic and nongenetic sources of variation in egg-laying behavior and discuss how genetic variation in oviposition behavior can persist in populations despite its apparent link to fitness.
B
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Bacchylides Greek lyric poet from the island of Ceos, circa 520-450 B.C. His work survives mainly in the form of 20 choral poems-14 victory odes and six dithyrambs-discovered in an Egyptian papyrus in A.D. 1896. He is known to have written many other verses for choruses, including hymns that survive in a few fragments. Despite his Jack of genius, Bacchylides showed genuine artistic virtues, including clarity of expression and a talent for narrative.
G
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Gaea Greek earth goddess. Unlike the grain goddess DEMETER, Gaea (Greek: Gaia) was not a central deity of the Greek RELIGION. Rather she was a personification of the element of land (as opposed to sky or sea). Her name reflects the Greek common noun for “land,” gi! or gii. Gaea had a cult at several locales, particularly in Greek SICILY.
H
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

Hades In MYTH, the god of the Underworld, and brother of ZEUS and POSEIDON. The name Hades (“the unseen”) properly refers to the god and not his kingdom. Unlike the Judeo-Christian Satan, Hades is not evil; as king of the dead, he rules a domain in nature that complements the happier realm of his brother Zeus. Hades is, however, rather colorless. He has no MYTH, except for his abduction of PERSEPHONE. By Zeus’ decree, she lives with Hades as his queen for four months of every year.
K
Authors: Sacks David
Published: November 2023

King’s Peace The treaty drawn up in 386 or 387 B.c. between SPARTA and the Persian king Artaxerxes II, sometimes known as the Peace of Antalcidas (from the name of a Spartan ambassador). This treaty ended recent Spartan-Persian hostilities in the CORINTHIAN WAR and severed PERSIA’S alliance with Sparta’s enemies, ATHENS, CORINTH, BOEOTIA, and ARGOS. But the notorious aspect of the treaty was Sparta’s renunciation of its former claim to protect the Greek cities of IONIA and of other parts of ASIA MINOR. The King’s Peace ceded the Greek cities of Asia Minor and CYPRUS back to the Persian king, even though these cities had been liberated by the Greeks after the PERSIAN WARS.
The Expression Of The Emotions In Man And Animals
Authors: Darwin Charles
Published: November 2023

Why do dogs wag their tails and cats purr? Why do we get embarrassed, and why does embarrassment make us blush? Why do we frown when we're disappointed? These any many other questions about the emotional life of humans and animals are answered in this remarkable book. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals was an immediate best-seller when it was first published in 1872 and still provides the point of departure for research into emotion and facial expression. In his study of infants and children (including delightful observations of his own baby's smiles and pouts), of the insane, of painting and sculpture, of cats and dogs and monkeys, and of the ways that people in different cultures express their feelings, Darwin's insights have not been surpassed by modern science. This definitive edition contains a substantial new Introduction and Afterword by Paul Ekman. Ekman also provides commentaries that use the latest scientific knowledge to elaborate, support, and occasionally challenge Darwin's study. When it originally appeared, this was the first scientific book to contain photographic reproductions. For this edition, Ekman has returned to Darwin's original notes in order to produce, for the first time, a corrected, authoritative text illustrated by drawings and photographs positioned exactly as its author intended. The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals reminds us that, in addition to being the nineteenth century's most influential thinker, Darwin was also a writer of consummate skill. Beautifully and profusely illustrated, and filled with insights that immediately ring true, this new edition promises to delight and enthrall a new generation of readers.
Welfare As We Knew It
Authors: Noble Charles
Published: November 2023

This book explains why the U.S. welfare state does less than other Western welfare states to help people in need. Combining a state-of-the-art account of recent research on how political institutions, class politics, and racial divisions shape public policy with a close analysis of four periods of welfare state expansion and contraction, Noble shows how deeply-rooted structural, institutional, and organizational factors limit the possibilities for change, and suggests what social reformers might do about it.