bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stress and Strength Analysis of Finite Composite Laminates with Elliptical Holes
Authors: Lin Chien-Chang , Ko Chu-Cheng
Published: March 2007

An analytical procedure for the determination of stress concentrations and strength pre diction of finite composite laminates with elliptical holes is proposed. The Airy stress function expressed in terms of full Laurent's series and a complex variable technique in conjunction with the least-squares "boundary collocation method" are employed in this study. Laminate strength is predicted by using the concept of characteristic curve and the Yamada-Sun failure criterion. Numerical solutions for various hole sizes, layups, material properties, and loading conditions are shown in graphical form and comparisons are made with some other available results.
Finite-Width Correction Factors for Anisotropic Plate Containing a Central Opening
Authors: Tan Seng C.
Published: March 2007

The finite-width correction factors for anisotropic and orthotropic plates containing an elliptical opening are presented in a tractable and closed-form solution. Examining with experimental data and finite element solutions shows that the present theory is very ac curate for a broad range of opening-to-width ratio, 2a/W, and opening aspect ratio, a/b. The application of isotropic finite-width correction factors to estimate the anisotropic or orthotropic finite-width correction factors can cause significant error in many cases. The sensitivity of the finite-width correction factors as a function of the opening aspect ratio is also discussed.
Strength of Composite Laminate with Reinforced Hole
Authors: Lee J.H. , Mall S.
Published: March 2007

Tension and compression tests of quasi-isotropic [0/ ± 45/90]2 s, graphite/epoxy lami nates containing a circular hole with reinforcement were conducted. Two types of rein forcement were investigated; adhesively bonded plug reinforcement or snug-fit unbonded plug in the hole. For each case of reinforcement, four different sizes of hole diameter and three types of reinforcing material (aluminum, plexiglass, steel) were employed for in vestigation. The experiments were mainly focused on the evaluation of ultimate strength of laminate with reinforced hole in comparison to its counterpart with the open hole.
Effect of Fiber Reinforcement Geometry on Single-Shear and Fracture Behavior of Three-Dimensionally Braided Glass/Epoxy Composite Pins
Authors: Malkan Sanjiv R. , Ko Frank K.
Published: March 2007

Optimization of single-shear properties through controlled microstructure of composite pins was studied. This research established a processing science based con cept for making near-net-shape three-dimensionally braided circular preforms as well as transforming them into composites by impregnating with resin. The effect of fiber rein forcement geometry (FRG) was related to transverse single-shear and fracture behavior of composite pins. Eight different fiber reinforcement geometric variations were chosen. Single-shear properties of three-dimensionally braided composite pins were measured using a single-shear test. Shear strength varied between 144.48 MPa and 182.62 MPa, shear strain varied between 7.26 and 14.7%, and initial modulus varied between 1.47 GPa and 2.98 GPa. The effect of FRG on the shear stress-strain properties was not pronounced, but had an influence on the failure mechanism of the samples. The nature of shear stress- strain curves was mostly linear except for CBLC-2080 and CBLC-5050, where sequential failure was observed. The general appearance of the fractured surfaces depended largely on the FRG. Fiber pullout and hill and valley mechanisms were dominant and were observed on practically all of the fracture surfaces.
Fracture Properties of Particle Filled Polymer Composites
Authors: Vipulanandan C. , Dharmarajan N.
Published: March 2007

Fracture behavior of particle filled epoxy and polyester polymer composite (PC) systems was investigated in Mode I fracture using single edge notched beams with varying notch depth. Influence of polymer content and polymer properties on the fracture behavior of polymer composite at room temperature were studied using a uniform sand. The results are analyzed to examine the applicability of fracture parameters such as critical stress intensity factor ( KIC) and critical J-integral ( JIC) to the PC systems. Epoxy PC and polyester PC are notch sensitive materials. At the same polymer content, the epoxy PC has better fracture properties than the polyester PC. The KIC and JIC for epoxy PC and polyester PC increases with increase in polymer content and PC flexural strength. The fracture parameters of PC systems are represented in terms of polymer content, polymer strength and PC strength. Also the relationship between KIC and JIC for the two PC systems has been investigated.
Three-Dimensional Analysis of a Postbuckled Embedded Delamination
Authors: Whitcomb John D.
Published: March 2007

Delamination growth caused by local buckling of a delaminated group of plies was investigated. Delamination growth was assumed to be governed by the strain- energy release rates GI, GII, and GIII. The strain-energy release rates were calculated using a geometrically nonlinear, three-dimensional, finite element analysis. The program is described and several checks of the analysis are discussed. Based on a limited para metric study, the following conclusions were reached:

1. The problem is definitely mixed-mode. In some cases GI is larger than GII ; for other cases the opposite is true.

2. In general, there is a large gradient in the strain-energy release rates along the delamination front.

3. The locations of maximum GI, and GII depend on the delamination shape and the ap plied strain.

4. The mode III component was negligible for all cases considered.

5. The analysis predicted that parts of the delamination would overlap. The results pre sented herein did not impose contact constraints to prevent overlapping. Further work is needed to determine the effects of allowing the overlapping.
Effect of Delamination on the Natural Frequencies of Composite Laminates
Authors: Pardoen Gerard C.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents the results of a study on the effect of prescribed delamination on the natural frequencies of laminated beam specimens. Experimental modal analysis was used to measure the effect of delamination length on the first four fre quencies of the simply supported test specimens. The experimental results were cor roborated with detailed finite element models as well as with simplified beam theory models. The presence of a delamination degraded the even numbered vibration modes much more rapidly than the odd numbered modes for a delamination centered at the speci men midspan. Delaminations which covered 1/3 of the specimen length had no more than a 20% effect on any of the first four frequencies.
Nonlinear Response of Unidirectional Boron/Aluminum
Authors: Pindera M-J. , Herakovich C.T. , Becker W. , Aboudi J.
Published: March 2007

Experimental results obtained for unidirectional boron/aluminum subjected to combined loading using off-axis tension, compression and Iosipescu shear specimens are correlated with a nonlinear micromechanics model. It is illustrated that the nonlinear response in the principal material directions is markedly influenced by the different load ing modes and different ratios of the applied stress components. The observed nonlinear response under pure and combined loading is discussed in terms of initial yielding, subse quent hardening, stress-interaction effects and unloading-reloading characteristics. The micromechanics model is based on the concept of a repeating unit cell representative of the composite-at-large and employs the unified theory of Bodner and Partom to model the inelastic response of the matrix. It is shown that the employed micromechanics model is sufficiently general to predict the observed nonlinear response of unidirectional boron/ aluminum with good accuracy.
Strength of Tensile Loaded Graphite/Epoxy Laminates Containing Cracks, Open and Filled Holes
Authors: Eriksson Ingvar , Aronsson Carl-Gustaf
Published: March 2007

Most methods currently used for predicting tensile strength of composite laminates containing holes and cracks adopt a characteristic distance approach such as the Point Stress Criterion (PSC) or the Average Stress Criterion (ASC). These and similar ap proaches are attractive to designers since they are simple to apply. The limitation of such approaches, however, is that the characteristic distance is not a physical parameter but is an empirically determined constant, dependent on the geometry of the specimen. The Damage Zone Criterion (DZC) presented in this paper is based on fundamental physical principles. A damage zone is assumed to be present in the maximum stress region of the laminate when the tensile stress reaches the tensile strength of the unnotched laminate. Taking into account the stress redistribution followed by a damage development, a closed form analytical expression of the strength is derived from the equilibrium conditions of the specimen. The strength of laminates with holes and cracks is then predicted on the basis of two fundamental parameters, the unnotched tensile strength (σ0) and the critical damage zone length ( d* I). The DZC is simple to apply, makes excellent predictions of the strength of specimens made from laminates of different configurations, and provides significantly improved accuracy compared with the PSC.
Factors Affecting the Transverse Tensile Strength of Unidirectional Continuous Silicon Carbide Fibre Reinforced 6061 Aluminum
Authors: Wisnom Michael R.
Published: March 2007

A study of the micromechanics of continuous silicon carbide fibre rein forced 6061 aluminum has been carried out using generalised plane strain non-linear finite element analysis. An interface element has been developed enabling separate shear and tensile strengths to be assigned, with a quadratic interaction equation. Residual stresses due to manufacturing were included in the analysis.

The effect on transverse tensile strength of fibre packing geometry, fibre spacing, resid ual stresses, interface strengths and matrix material properties were investigated. It was found that the interface strength is the most important factor. Residual stresses are beneficial, these being largely controlled by the yield strength of the matrix material at the time the residual stresses are set up. Fibre packing and spacing and matrix strength do not significantly affect predicted strength.
Analysis of Thick Laminated Composites
Authors: Chang Fu-Kuo , Perez Jose Luis , Chang Kuo-Yen
Published: March 2007

This work focused on the analysis of laminated composite structures with a thick cross section. This investigation involved both analytical and experimental work. An efficient finite element analysis was proposed for analyzing thick laminated composite structures. The major feature of the analysis was that each element in the analysis can ac commodate several layers having different ply orientations. A three-dimensional finite ele ment program was developed during the investigation for calculating the stresses, strains, and deformations of thick laminated composite bends. In order to verify the analysis and the numerical calculations, experiments were also performed. Thick composite bends, made from 120 layers of T300/976 graphite/epoxy prepregs, were fabricated and tested during the experiments. Numerical solutions generated from the program were compared with the experimental data. Excellent agreements were found between the analytical solu tions and the results of the tests. Accordingly, the proposed analysis yields an efficient and effective finite element method for calculating stresses, strains, and deformations of thick composite structures.
An Analytical Investigation of Delamination Front Curvature in Double Cantilever Beam Specimens
Authors: Davidson B.D.
Published: March 2007

An analytical investigation is conducted to determine the shape of a growing delamination and the distribution of the energy release rate along the delamination front in a laminated composite double cantilever beam specimen. Distributions of the energy release rate for specimens with straight delamination fronts and delamination front con tours for delaminations whose growth is governed by the fracture criterion that G = Gc at all points are predicted as a function of material properties and delamination length. The predicted delamination front contours are utilized to ascertain the effect of the chang ing shape of the delamination front on the value of the critical strain energy release rate as computed from double cantilever beam fracture toughness test data.
Filament Winding Cylinders
Authors: Calius Emilio P. , Lee Soo-Yong , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

Analytical and experimental studies were performed to validate the model developed by Lee and Springer for simulating the manufacturing process of filament wound composite cylinders. First, results calculated by the Lee-Springer model were com pared to results of the Calius-Springer thin cylinder model. Second, temperatures and strains calculated by the Lee-Springer model were compared to data. The data used in these comparisons were generated during the course of this investigation with cylinders made of Hercules IM-6G/HBRF-55 and Fiberite T-300/976 graphite-epoxy tows. Good agreement was found between the calculated and measured stresses and strains, indicating that the model is a useful representation of the winding and curing processes.
Estimation of Thermal Properties in Epoxy Matrix/Carbon Fiber Composite Materials
Authors: Scott Elaine P. , Beck James V.
Published: March 2007

Accurate knowledge of the thermal characteristics of composites is impor tant in any nonisothermal environment, and these characteristics are related to the thermal properties of the material. The focus of this study is on the estimation of the thermal prop erties, namely thermal conductivity and volumetric heat capacity, of AS4 surface treated carbon fiber (Hercules, Inc.)/BADGE-mPDA composites. The thermal properties perpen dicular to the fiber axis were estimated using the Gauss minimization method at different temperatures for two different stacking orientations. The magnitude of the thermal proper ties increased with temperature over the temperature range studied, and a significant dif ference was found between the estimated thermal conductivities of samples with different stacking orientations.
Interlaminar Reinforcement of Laminated Composites by Addition of Oriented Whiskers in the Matrix
Authors: Yamashita S. , Hatta H. , Takei T. , Sugano T.
Published: March 2007

To reinforce the interlaminar of laminated composites, a novel method was proposed by the authors [1]. In this method, whiskers were added in the matrix resin to reinforce the interlaminar, and the orientation of the whiskers were magnetically con trolled to improve the reinforcement efficiency. In this paper, mode I (cleavage) inter laminar fracture toughness was shown to be remarkably improved as a result of the addi tion of oriented whiskers to the direction of the plate thickness. Whereas, mode II (inplane shear) interlaminar fracture toughness and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) were not raised. Parameters of interlaminar reinforcement such as volume fraction of whiskers and whisker dimension were also discussed for exploring the optimum condition.
Reduction of Thermal Stresses in Continuous Fiber Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites with Interface Layers
Authors: Jansson S. , Leckie F.A.
Published: March 2007

The potential of using interface layer to reduce thermal stresses in the matrix of composites with a mismatch in coefficients of thermal expansion of fiber and matrix has been investigated. It was found that compliant layers, with properties of readily available materials, do not have the potential to reduce thermal stresses significantly. How ever, interface layers with high coefficient of thermal expansion can compensate for the mismatch and reduce thermal stresses in the matrix significantly.
Thick Composites in Compression: An Experimental Study of Micromechanical Behavior and Smeared Engineering Properties
Authors: Guo Y. , Post D. , Han B.
Published: March 2007

The micromechanical behavior and mechanical properties of thick graph ite/epoxy composite laminates were studied experimentally using high-sensitivity moire interferometry and strain gages. Quasi-isotropic and cross-ply laminates were in vestigated. Specimens were loaded in in-plane compression and interlaminar compres sion. Strong free-edge effects were documented, including high interlaminar shear strains and normal strains. Average or smeared values of Young's moduli and Poisson's ratio were measured.
Effects of Superposed Hydrostatic Stress on the Elastoplastic Behavior of Two-Phase Composites
Authors: Haian Luo  , Ballarini Roberto , Lewandowski John J.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents the results of an analytical-experimental investigation of the effects of superposed hydrostatic stress on the mechanical properties of particulate reinforced metal-matrix composites. Tension experiments have been conducted with dif ferent levels of superposed pressure on aluminum alloys reinforced with Al2 O3 particu lates. Stress-strain curves have been experimentally generated as functions of pressure, while the behavior has been modeled analytically using the approximate mean-field theory developed by Weng and co-workers for plasticity of two-phase composites (Tandon and Weng, 1988; Zhao and Weng, 1990; Qiu and Weng, 1991). Using Berveiller-Zaoui's ap proximation (1979), the constraint due to the matrix phase is characterized by the secant moduli of the matrix, while the interaction of the inclusions is accounted for by the Mori- Tanaka mean-field theory. The stress-strain curves predicted by the analytical model show good agreement with those generated in the experimental program.
Impact Resistance of Composite Laminated Sandwich Plates
Authors: Kim Chun-Gon , Jun Eui-Jin
Published: March 2007

Investigated are the effects of face layup sequence and core density of a sandwich plate on the impact delamination area of the laminated facesheet. The sandwich plate is made of graphite/epoxy faces and Nomex honeycomb core. The size and shape of delamination due to impact at each interply location have been measured by the room tem perature deply technique. The shape of the interply delamination under impact is, in gen eral, found to be two-lobed. The shape exhibits very peculiar regularity under various ex perimental conditions. The quantitative measurement of delamination size has shown that the face layup with small relative orientation between adjacent plies and high density core are desirable in sandwich plates to reduce the impact delamination.
A Coupled Solution Method for Predicting the Thermostructural Response of Decomposing, Expanding Polymeric Composites
Authors: Sullivan R.M.
Published: March 2007

A new solution method has recently been developed to analyze the ther mal and structural response of polymeric composites during chemical decomposition. This method extends the numerical approach of previous researchers by including the solution for the structural response of the decomposing material. The method couples the equations of energy, mass transport and momentum and solves these equations simultane ously at each time step. The result is a comprehensive numerical scheme for assessing composite stresses due to chemical decomposition. In this article, the coupled solution method is applied to analyze the response of a glass-phenolic composite during its chemi cal decomposition. Comparisons are made between the numerical results and those ob tained experimentally. In addition to verification of the coupled solution method, the pres ent solution offers additional insight into certain physical events which occur during chemical decomposition.
Female Stereotypes in the United States and Turkey
Authors: Sunar Diane G.
Published: March 2007

The functional theory of attitudes was applied to the problem of interpersonal perception and stereotyping in power relationships to predict the content of stereotypes of subordinated groups. An examination of stereotypes of women in the United States and Turkey tested the following three hypotheses: (1) Both American and Turkish males will attribute the predicted stereotyped traits more to women than to men, (2) Turks will perceive greater differences between the sexes than will Americans, (3) Turkish males and females will agree more closely on the characteristics of women than will American males and females. The first two hypotheses were supported, while the third was rejected. A time-lag model of ideological change was suggested to explain the failure to support the third hypothesis.
Mutual Perceptions of Arabs and Jews in Israel
Authors: Bizman Aharon , Amir Yehuda
Published: March 2007

Mutual perceptions of Israeli Arabs and Jews were examined; 132 Jewish university students and 122 Arab teacher college students rated the social and intellectual characteristics of a typical Israeli Arab and a typical Israeli Jew on a semantic differential scale. The findings showed that (1) each group views itself more favorably that it does the other; (2) both groups agree that the Jew excels intellectually rather than socially, while the opposite holds true for the Arab; and (3) the Jews emphasize their intellectual advantage, while the Arabs emphasize their social superiority. The results were related to other findings indicating that these perceptions are part of more general image, common in Israel, of Western and Middle-Eastern persons.
Measurement in Cross-Cultural Psychology
Authors: Hui C. Harry , Triandis Harry C.
Published: March 2007

Notions of equivalence in cross-cultural measurement were related to the abstraction-concreteness and the universality-cultural difference continua. Various methods proposed for attaining satisfactory measurement were reviewed and compared within this framework. Each strategy has its own merits and shortcomings. Moreover, the level of cross-cultural equivalence presupposed, the type of equivalence demonstrated and/or improved, and the equivalence assumptions doubted or explicitly rejected are different for different strategies. It was suggested that the strategies are complementary to each other. More than one strategy should be employed and combined for more meaningful and precise measurement.
Achievement-Related Causal Attributions
Authors: Louw Johann , Louw-Potgieter Joha
Published: March 2007

Students from three South African universities, representing three ethnic groups, gave their own explanations of their perceived success or failure on a class test, and rated the importance of causal attributions derived from previous studies. Effort, academic skills, and understanding emerged as important explanations of success or failure on the open-ended section of the questionnaire. Further analyses failed to support Weiner's (1979) categorization of attributions in terms of stability, locus, and control. Main effects occurred for success/failure rating, sex, and ethnic group in a number of the attributions.
Developmental Patterns in the Flexibility of Children's Ethnic Attitudes
Authors: Doyle Anna-Beth , Beaudet Jocelyne , Aboud Frances
Published: March 2007

Developmental patterns in ethnic attitudes were assessed in 232 children aged 5 to 12 years in relation to cognitive development and social desirability responding. English-speaking children assigned 10 positive attributes, 10 negative attributes, and 4 neutral attributes to either an English-speaking child, a French-speaking child, or both an English- and a French-speaking child, depicted by line drawings. Positive attributions to their own ethnic group and negative attributions to the other ethnic group were less frequent in older children. Flexibility of ethnic attitudes, that is, attributions to both groups, increased with age and were inversely related to positive own-group attributions and negative other-group attributions. High flexibility followed the attainment of concrete operational thinking, as measured by conservation but not by ethnic constancy. Flexibility was inversely related to Crandall social desirability responding and unrelated to children's conformity to the experimenter's attitude. These results indicate the importance of cognitive rather than social desirability factors in the development of children's ethnic attitudes.
A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Infancy
Authors: Werner Emmy E.
Published: March 2007

This article focuses on two issues: (1) the extent to which information generated by cross-cultural psychologists in the field of infant behavior and development is applicable to developing countries, and (2) how relevant this information is to social issues confronting these countries. Among critical issues that need to be addressed more systematically in cross-cultural research with infants are (a) demographic constraints, (b) risk factors affecting the survival and quality of life of young children, (c) the changing context of infant care, and (d) the consequences of intervention programs that rely on transfer of Western technology to the developing world. The limits of developmental models that originated in Europe and the United States need to be tested in cross-cultural studies.
An Insecure Economy under Ratio and Logistic Conflict Technologies
Authors: Anderton Charles H.
Published: March 2007

A model that integrates production, exchange, and conflict is used to theoretically investigate the economic behavior of groups that experience an erosion of security within a state. The focus of our investigation is the comparative effects of different conflict production functions (i.e., ratio and logistic) and parameters (i.e., weapons productivity, conflict decisiveness) on the predictions of the integrated economy model. The model shows how two major analytical categories of mainstream economics—production and exchange—can be a source of demand for arms as groups attempt to protect their economic opportunities in the face of intrastate insecurity. Conditions are also identified under which the gains from specialized production and exchange dampen the potential for conflict and hence serve as a form of conflict mitigation. Many of the results of the integrated model are shown to be quite sensitive to the technology of conflict.
Images of Conflict Resolution and Social Control
Authors: Benjamin Roger W.
Published: March 2007

The study employs a questionnaire instrument on the adversary system to compare respondent attitudes from the Tokyo and Minnesota district courts. Empirical verification of the Japanese and American models of conflict resolution and social control developed in the research is accomplished by comparing the responses of the two groups to modal statements about defense counsel roles arrayed in a continuum from administrative (counsel as coach) to due process (protect the client) roles. When urbanization and respondent's role (prosecuting judge, defense attorney) are controlled for, the Japanese reject the extreme implications of the adversary system, particularly in terms of the due process notion, while the American group supports the due process statements. The study corroborates the view that culturally generated value differences may have important impact on conflict resolution and social control, and by implication, international conflict resolution behavior.
Negotiation as a Learning Process
Authors: Cross John G.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents a discussion of the role of adapting expectations in the bargaining process. Negotiators are charactenzed as persons who choose bargaining strategies in their attempt to optimize their payoffs from the situation. These strategies are contingent on each party's perception of the strategy of his opponent, and if these perceptions contain errors, expectations will change and this will lead in turn to a modification of each party's strategy choice. The payoff demands and manipulative moves which charactenze the bargaining process are seen as combinations of actions which are specified in the original bargaining plans of the parties and of changes in the plans themselves. The influence of the learnmg process on the settlement point is described as well as some empirical implications of the theory in general.
Two Bargaining Automata
Authors: England J. Lynn
Published: March 2007

The significance of bargaining in social interaction is widely recognized. The present article describes a pair of mathematical models of two-party bargaining. One model is a two-party version of the Bush-Mosteller linear operator learning model. The second model is a nonlinear operator learning model based on Duncan Luce's choice axiom. The adequacy of the two models is examined by means of a computer simulation of the models and a set of controlled experiments. The linear learning model describes accurately in all experimental groups. The nonlinear model is not as adequate in predicting trial by trial cooperation, but is equal to the linear model in describing agreement.
Influence Strategies, Success, and War
Authors: Leng Russell J. , Wheeler Hugh G.
Published: March 2007

This article studies the effectiveness of influence strategies in serious dyadic disputes. Influence strategies are classified according to four types: bullying, reciprocating, appeasing, and trial-and-error. The study employs events data from twenty serious disputes occurring in the twentieth century. The findings support the central hypothesis that a reciprocating strategy is the most effective means of avoiding a diplomatic defeat without going to war, especially when it is employed against a bullying opponent. A closer look at the individual cases suggests that this is related to the face-saving properties of this approach, as well as the universal norm of reciprocity in international affairs.
Arms Race Instability and War
Authors: Smith Theresa Clair
Published: March 2007

Historically, half of the interstate wars identified by Singer and Small have been preceded by arms racing; therefore, not all wars stem from weapons competition. Similarly, there are arms races which end pacifically. Here, considering only arms race-related conflicts, the author argues that war may be anticipated at the end of an arms race on the basis of time-constrained mathematical stability characteristics of the involvement.
An Economic Analysis of Final-Offer Arbitration as a Conflict Resolution Device
Authors: Chelius James R. , Dworkin James B.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to examine the impact of the availability of final-offer arbitration on the collective bargaining process and its outcomes. If this technique is to act as an effective strike substitute, it should provide bargainers with incentives to negotiate agreements bilaterally and should distribute bargaining power in much the same manner as would the right to strike. Empirical evidence is provided to evaluate the operation of final-offer arbitration in terms of these attributes. On the basis of this evidence, it would appear that policy-makers should consider final-offer arbitration as an alternative device for resolving conflicts.
Review Section : Mediation
Authors: Wall James A.
Published: March 2007

Mediation is a complex social process which facilitates interpersonal, intergroup, and international negotiations. However, at present, neither the nature nor the potential of mediation is adequately understood because insufficient effort has been devoted to the analysis and study of the process. In order to enhance our understanding and the potential utility of the procedure, this article presents a mediation paradigm which serves as the basis for an analysis of the process and a review of the various techniques. Subsequently, the paradigm and review underpin suggested procedures for future mediation research.
A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of NATO
Authors: Murdoch James C. , Sandler Todd
Published: March 2007

This article improves and refines the joint product model so that it can better analyze nuclear war alliances. In particular, the refined models demonstrate that allies' responses to defense spillovers depend upon the consumption relationship (i.e., complementarity or substitutability) of the jointly produced defense outputs as well as the allies' income responsiveness. The stability and size of alliances are also related to the consumption relationship of the joint outputs. This article uses a generalized least-squares estimate on data for 12 NATO allies to estimate their defense expenditure functions. The statistical results conform well with our predictions.
Alternative Choices in Social Dilemmas
Authors: Komorita Samuel S. , Lapworth C. William
Published: March 2007

A social dilemma (Dawes, 1980) may be characterized as a situation in which members of a group are faced with a conflict between maximizing personal interests and maximizing collective interests. Previous research with social dilemma games has provided two choices, cooperative and competitive, and the results have shown that most subjects attempt to maximize selfish interests (respond competitively), resulting in an outcome that is detrimental to collective welfare. The purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which the introduction of an alternative (compromise) choice would facilitate cooperative behavior. Two experiments were conducted using three-person groups of undergraduate males as subjects. Experiment 1 contrasted cooperative choices in a two-choice game with a three-choice game, and as hypothesized, the results showed significantly greater cooperation in the three-choice game. Experiment 2 contrasted different types of compromise choices in a three-choice game, and the results indicated significantly different response proportions in these games. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed in terms of hypotheses proposed by Schelling, Platt, and Osgood.
Conflict and Interdependence
Authors: Gasiorowski Mark , Polachek Solomon W.
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the relationship between interdependence and conflict, using U.S.-Warsaw Pact trade and conflict data during détente as a case study. A theoretical framework is developed in which incentives to reduce conflict are related to the desire to protect the benefits of an interaction. Asymmetric interdependence can lead to linkage diplomacy and to greater conflict reduction by one side than the other. These hypotheses are tested empirically. A strong, inverse relationship between trade and conflict is found, and trade is found to cause a greater reduction in Warsaw Pact conflict than in U.S. conflict. We further investigate the relationship between trade and conflict in various types of goods, as well as the trade/conflict relationship between the United States and the individual Warsaw Pact members. These results are of importance in understanding the use of trade and other interactions as a diplomatic tool, and in comparing the foreign policies of particular Warsaw Pact members.
The Buffer System in International Relations
Authors: Partem Michael Greenfield
Published: March 2007

Although the term “buffer state” is widely employed, it has received little scholarly treatment. This article investigates the buffer state and buffer system, using both expected utility theory and four case studies: Afghanistan (1870-1978), Cambodia (1954-1971), Lebanon (1943-1981), and Belgium (1831-1945). A definition is put forward stating what conditions of geography, capability distribution, and foreign policy orientations must be present for the system to be a buffer system. This definition has clear behavioral consequences for the larger powers in the system and the buffer state. One derivation from the definition is that multilateral declarations of neutrality and partition are phenomena related to each other and to the existence of buffer conditions. Another derivation is that the buffer state's diplomatic options are severely constrained—with neutrality the most likely policy. Clearly, the proposed definition gives us a better understanding of conflict and conflict resolution in a buffer system.
The Arabs in Israel
Authors: Seliktar Ofira
Published: March 2007

This study uses the case of Israeli Arabs to analyze the impact of the system of controls in creating psychological quiescence in a subordinate minority. A theoretical framework, which accounts for both the aggregate process of ethnic political behavior and reduces the ethnic phenomenon to individual terms, is used. It provides a systematic insight into the way in which the attitudes of the minority are manipulated in order to subordinate them to the requirements of the superordinate majority. The three dimensions that are most pertinent to understanding the attitudinal prerequisites for creating quiescence are the degree of perceptual consensus, intracommunal consensus, and intercommunal conflict. The empirical analysis indicates that the system of controls to which the Israeli Arabs have been subjected may have lowered the level of both their perceptual consensus and intracommunal consensus. This, in turn, might have decreased the amount of inter-communal conflict between the Arabs and the Jews, thus sparing Israel most of the consequences of ethnic strife, which came to characterize other ethnically divided societies.
Alternative Models of Responsiveness in International Negotiation
Authors: Druckman Daniel , Harris Richard
Published: March 2007

Alternative models of responsiveness are evaluated for goodness of fit to moves made by negotiators in six international negotiations: five arms-control talks and one base-rights negotiation. Three models, developed originally by Stoll and McAndrew (1986), are referred to as directional (tit-for-tat), trend, and comparative reciprocity. Seven models are variants on trend and comparative reciprocity including various lags and weightings for earlier and recent moves, as well as a combined trend and comparative model. The results indicate clear support for the comparative model in all of the negotiations analyzed: Negotiators responded to the difference between moves made by themselves and others in the previous round, adjusting their next move in the direction of the other's previous move. They did not respond to a monitored trend in the other's moves. Nor did the combined trend and comparative model improve predictions over the comparative model alone. Implications are discussed for the importance of fairness in the process of negotiating, for theories of information processing in bargaining, and for the “threshold-adjustment” hypothesis.
Cross-National Variation in Political Violence
Authors: Muller Edward N. , Weede Erich
Published: March 2007

Propositions about determinants of political violence at the cross-national level are derived from rational action theory and tested across the entire population of independent states in the mid-1970s. The data support two rational action hypotheses: Rates of domestic political violence are higher at intermediate levels of both regime repressiveness and negative sanctions than at either low or high levels of these indicators of institutionalized and behavioral coercion. Two hypotheses that can be interpreted within either a rational action or a deprivation framework also are supported: High rates of economic growth reduce the incidence of political violence, and potential separatism increases the incidence of violence. A deprivation hypothesis that high life expectancy reduces the incidence of political violence is not supported. Overall, this set of findings favors a rational action rather than a deprivation approach to explaining why nations differ in rates of political violence.
A Causal Analysis of Defense Spending and Economic Growth
Authors: Chowdhury Abdur R.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to investigate the causal relationship between economic growth and defense spending in fifty-five developing countries. Granger-causality tests are employed to analyze the presence and direction of causality between these two variables. Moreover, the study focuses upon the appropriate representation of the nature of nonstationarities apparent in these two economic time series across different countries. The results suggest that the relationship between defense spending and economic growth cannot be generalized across countries. The actual relationship may vary from one country to another due to the use of a different sample period, as well as differences in the socioeconomic structure and type of government in each country.
The Attitudinal Bases for Responsiveness to Public Opinion among American Foreign Policy Officials
Authors: Powlick Philip J.
Published: March 2007

This study examines the attitudes of American foreign policy officials toward (1) the public's sophistication on matters of foreign policy, and (2) the degree of input the public should have into policy and the appropriate level of policy responsiveness. It finds officials to be marginally more positive about the public's sophistication than has previously been thought, but finds a major difference (increase) in the degree of input that officials feel the public should have into the policy process. The result of these sets of attitudes is a form of responsiveness whereby officials factor public opinion into decisions, but then attempt to change public opinion (by “educating” the public) if opposition to a decision subsequently emerges.
The Use of Final Offer Arbitration as a Screening Device
Authors: Curry Amy Farmer , Pecorino Paul
Published: March 2007

Arbitration outcomes are uncertain. When risk preferences are unobservable, players may make offers that attempt to extract the willingness of risk-averse bargaining partners to pay to avoid the uncertainties of arbitration. When such a “hard” offer is made to a risk-neutral bargaining partner, it will be refused and arbitration will result. This is true even when the distribution of outcomes is common knowledge. Importantly, risk preferences may be difficult to communicate, even if it is in the interest of both parties to do so.
Interindividual-Intergroup Discontinuity in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game
Authors: Insko Chester A. , Schopler John , Graetz Kenneth A. , Drigotas Stephen M. , Currey David P. , Smith Shannon L. , Brazil Donna , Bornstein Garry
Published: March 2007

The present research involved an examination of interindividual-intergroup discontinuity in the context of three different generalizations of the prisoner's dilemma game (PDG). (Interindividual-intergroup discontinuity is the tendency of intergroup relations to be more competitive and less cooperative than interindividual relations.) Experiment 1 used a multi-prisoner's dilemma (MPD) game to compare interaction between three individuals with interaction between three groups. Results revealed just as much discontinuity between three players (MPD) as between two players (PDG). Experiment 2 used the approach of n-person games to examine two further generalizations from the PDG. One generalization involved the intergroup public goods (IPG) game, and the other the intergroup prisoner's dilemma (IPD) game. With both games, it was found that groups were more competitive than individuals. It was also found that discussion between groups is characterized by a higher frequency of fear and greed statements than is discussion between individuals.
Alliances, Credibility, and Peacetime Costs
Authors: Morrow James D.
Published: March 2007

Alliances are not perfectly credible. Although alliances raise the probability of intervention into war, many allies do not honor their promise in wartime. A formal model of alliances as signals of intentions to explore the credibility of alliances is presented. One state threatens another. A third state shares an interest with the second in preventing the demands of the first. A simple model of a crisis among these three is solved first without an alliance between the second and the third states. The author then allows them the chance to form an alliance before the crisis. Alliances have two effects: (1) the ability of the allies to fight together is increased, and (2) peacetime costs on the allies are imposed. The model with alliances produces a wide range of strategic behaviors. The implications of the model for the formation, credibility, and deterrent effects of alliances are broadly consistent with stylized facts in the literature.
The Scale of Terrorist Attacks as a Signal of Resources
Authors: Overgaard Per Baltzer
Published: March 2007

This article studies conflicts between terrorists and governments in a setting of asymmetric information. The government is initially uncertain about the level of resources available to a terrorist group for use in violent attacks. The conflict is modeled as a signaling game where the magnitude of terrorist attacks serves as a signal of terrorist resources. With complete information, optimal government retaliation depends nontrivially on terrorist resources. With asymmetric information, this provides terrorists with an incentive to convey the message that resources are large in an attempt to soften government retaliation. Thus equilibrium attack levels of high resource terrorist groups must be distorted upward if they are to convey any information to the government. In addition, we consider equilibria where attacks are uninformative of terrorist resources, but where the government softens its retaliation. In either case the government suffers under asymmetric information. We examine how varying the flexibility of government responses affects the likely outcome of conflicts, and this gives rise to an assessment of the value of government intelligence gathering and (partial) government commitment.
Determinants of Compromising Behavior in Negotiation
Authors: Druckman Daniel
Published: March 2007

Effects of nine variables on compromising behavior and time to resolution were evaluated by a meta-analysis of published bargaining experiments reported over a 25-year period. The strongest effect sizes were obtained for the variables of negotiator's orientation, prenegotiation experience, time pressure, and the initial distance between positions. The orientation effect was particularly strong when it was communicated to bargainers by constituents or by the experimenter; the position distance effect was stronger for cognitive than for interest conflicts. Significantly weaker effect sizes were shown for opponent's concession strategy, representation, and accountability. The weakest effects occurred for the large versus small issues and visibility variables. These results challenge the assertion that group representation is a key determinant of competitive behavior in bargaining. Strong pressures on representatives to be accountable to their constituents did not increase the size of the effects. Analyses of differences in procedures used in the strongest and weakest effect size studies in each category suggest a number of conditions under which bargainers are likely to be intransigent.
Evolution of Learning among Pavlov Strategies in a Competitive Environment with Noise
Authors: Kraines David , Kraines Vivian
Published: March 2007

Pavlov denotes a family of stochastic learning strategies that achieves the mutually cooperative outcome in the iterated prisoner's dilemma against a wide variety of strategies, although it can be exploited to some extent by some. When restricted to an environment of only Pavlov-type strategies, slower learning mutants cannot invade an initial dominant population. More surprising, mutants who learn much faster than the current population tend to overreact and also cannot invade. In particular, the “immediate learning” version of Pavlov, sometimes called win-stay-lose-switch, often fares poorly in this environment. Only those strategies that learn marginally faster than the dominant variety will have greater fitness. Although faster learners will eventually dominate a given homogeneous Pavlov population, the process must proceed through a gradual increase in the rate of learning.