bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multiphase Flow Under Heterogeneous Wettability Conditions Studied by Special Core Analysis and Pore-Scale Imaging
Authors: Zou Shuangmei , Armstrong Ryan T.
Published: April 2019

Wettability is a major factor that influences multiphase flow in porous media. Numerous experimental studies have reported wettability effects on relative permeability. Laboratory determination for the impact of wettability on relative permeability continues to be a challenge because of difficulties with quantifying wettability alteration, correcting for capillary-end effect, and observing pore-scale flow regimes during core-scale experiments. Herein, we studied the impact of wettability alteration on relative permeability by integrating laboratory steady-state experiments with in-situ high-resolution imaging. We characterized wettability alteration at the core scale by conventional laboratory methods and used history matching for relative permeability determination to account for capillary-end effect. We found that because of wettability alteration from water-wet to mixed-wet conditions, oil relative permeability decreased while water relative permeability slightly increased. For the mixed-wet condition, the pore-scale data demonstrated that the interaction of viscous and capillary forces resulted in viscous-dominated flow, whereby nonwetting phase was able to flow through the smaller regions of the pore space. Overall, this study demonstrates how special-core-analysis (SCAL) techniques can be coupled with pore-scale imaging to provide further insights on pore-scale flow regimes during dynamic coreflooding experiments.
Breeding New Cultivars for the Australian Macadamia Industry
Authors: Hardner Craig , Costa e Silva João , Williams Emlyn , Meyers Noel , McConchie Cameron
Published: April 2019

In 2017, five new cultivars specifically selected for Australian conditions were released. These were developed from an improvement program initiated by Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation in the early 1990s. Progeny seeds were produced by crossing industry standard cultivars with other cultivars with elite kernel production per unit projected canopy area. Seedlings were planted at two densities (2 m and 4 m along rows) in field trials at Bundaberg in 1997 and 1998, and Northern New South Wales in late 1997, along with replicated plants of parents grafted onto seedling rootstocks. Trials were assessed for commencement of flowering, growth, yield, kernel recovery, and components of kernel quality over 8 years. Best linear unbiased predictions of clonal values were obtained for each individual progeny using a pedigree-based mixed linear model. A bio-economic model was used to estimate economic weights for a selection index of clonal values to identify elite candidates. Final approval of 20 candidates for second-stage assessment was made by an industry committee using selection index rankings and observations of tree field performance and kernel quality.
Historical and Molecular Evidence of Genetic Identity of Macadamia Cultivars HAES741 and HAES660
Authors: Alam Mobashwer , Hardner Craig , Nock Catherine , O’Connor Katie , Topp Bruce
Published: April 2019

The Hawaiian cultivars Keaau (HAES660) and Mauka (HAES741) were selected by the University of Hawaii—released in 1966 and 1977, respectively—and have been used extensively in macadamia orchards throughout the world. Recent molecular evidence suggests that these two cultivars are almost identical genetically; however, commercially they have been considered phenotypically different. This study reviews available molecular, historical, and phenotypic evidence to examine the hypothesis that these two cultivars are the same genotype. Phenotypic variability for morphological traits was observed in a replicated trial at Wolvi, QLD. Historical evidence suggests that both ‘HAES660’ and ‘HAES741’ were derived from the same orchard. We identified strong genetic and phenotypic similarities between these cultivars, with variability in some simple traits. This study provides evidence that these two cultivars are isogenic or near isogenic and may have been derived from the same plant source.
Cross-pollination Enhances Macadamia Yields, Even With Branch-level Resource Limitation
Authors: Howlett Brad G. , Read Samantha F.J. , Alavi Maryam , Cutting Brian T. , Nelson Warrick R. , Goodwin Robert M. , Cross Sarah , Thorp Trevor G. , Pattemore David E.
Published: April 2019

Macadamia is partially self-incompatible and cross-pollination is considered important to improve yields. However, questions remain regarding the importance of self- vs. cross-pollination, and subsequently whether managed pollinators are useful in commercial orchards. Pollinators play a key role in cross-pollination, but for self-pollination, the protandrous florets might also benefit from the movement of potentially more viable self-pollen among florets, racemes, and trees through pollinator movement. There is also a lack of information on pollination deficits throughout orchards and whether by increasing the intensity of cross-pollination, final nut yield is limited by within-tree resource allocation. Using caged and bagged racemes on three cultivars, we found strong evidence for self-pollination, but no evidence that hand moving self-pollen within racemes, between racemes, or between trees improved final nut set. In all cases, hand cross-pollinated racemes yielded significantly more nuts. Hand cross-pollinated racemes also produced significantly more developed nuts than open-pollinated racemes (all racemes were exposed to pollinators). However, by increasing the intensity of hand cross-pollination per tree, we showed that resource allocation probably overinflates these measures of pollination deficit in macadamia. Despite this, our findings point to an opportunity to increase yields through additional cross-pollination, as high-intensity hand cross-pollination of flowering racemes within trees still resulted in increased nut set. Although self-pollination can occur in macadamia, to optimize yield potential, strategies to maximize cross-pollination should be adopted.
Assessing Fatty Acid Profiles of Macadamia Nuts
Authors: O’Hare Tim J. , Trieu Hung Hong , Topp Bruce , Russell Dougal , Pun Sharon , Torrisi Caterina , Liu Dianna
Published: April 2019

The kernel of the macadamia nut (Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla) is very high in oil, accounting for about three -quarters of their mass. In the current investigation, oil extracts from 20 breeding accessions and 14 cultivars had a range of 12.3% to 17.0% saturated fat, averaging 14.2%. Although all samples were found to be very high in “healthy” monounsaturated fats, the level of saturated fat slightly exceeds that of many other nuts that are able to make qualified health claims. The lowest saturated fat content (12.3%) corresponded to 4.6 g saturated fat/50 g kernels, which was slightly greater than the 4.0 g maximum. Despite this, potential exists to develop a reduced-saturated fat macadamia by combining characteristics found in different lines. The current trial indicates that lower total saturated fat was associated with a stronger ability to partition C16 and C18 fats to their monounsaturated fatty acids, or to elongate C16:0 to C18:0 and subsequently desaturate C18:0 to C18:1. It was also observed that the pollinizer parent is likely to have an influence on saturated fat content, although this would need to be confirmed in controlled pollination trials. Macadamia varieties generally outcross, and because the edible kernel (embryo) is formed from a pollinated ovule, it is likely any future reduced-saturated fat line would also require a reduced-saturated fat pollinizer parent.
Target-site Mutation and Fitness Cost of Acetolactate Synthase Inhibitor-resistant Annual Bluegrass
Authors: Tseng Te-Ming , Shrestha Swati , McCurdy James D. , Wilson Erin , Sharma Gourav
Published: April 2019

Annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.) is an annual weed that is particularly troublesome in managed turfgrass. It has been controlled conventionally with herbicides, including acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors. However, resistance to ALS inhibitors has been documented throughout the southeastern United States since 2012. A rate–response trial was conducted to confirm and determine the resistance level of suspected resistant P. annua biotypes from Mississippi (Reunion), followed by DNA sequencing to determine whether the mechanism of resistance is a target-site mutatio n. In addition, a fitness assay was conducted together with a susceptible biotype to determine whether resistance to ALS inhibitors is associated with decreased fitness. Reunion was at least 45 times more resistant to foramsulfuron than the standard susceptible biotype based on I50 estimates [I50 is the rate of herbicide giving a 50% response (50% visual necrosis)], requiring a predicted 331 g a.i./ha foramsulfuron for 50% control. DNA sequencing results identified a Trp574-to-Leu mutation in the ALS gene of the Reunion biotype, which has been shown by other studies to confer resistance to ALS inhibitors. Measurement of fitness parameters among the Reunion and susceptible biotypes demonstrated reduced seed yield, tillering, and flowering time in the resistant Reunion biotype, suggesting that ALS inhibitor resistance is possibly correlated to decreased fitness in P. annua. Alternative methods to control P. annua need to be considered as a result of the evolution of herbicide-resistant biotypes. An integrated management strategy to control P. annua weeds will help prevent further evolution of resistance. Because this study evaluated only the target-site mechanism of resistance, it is also necessary to determine whether the resistant biotype has reduced uptake, translocation, or enhanced metabolism as additional mechanisms of resistance. Consequently, a fitness study encompassing a more comprehensive list of plant parameters will provide conclusions of the fitness costs associated with ALS inhibitor resistance in P. annua. Chemical names: Foramsulfuron {1-(4,6-dimethoxypyrimidin-2-yl)-3-[2-(dimethylcarbamoyl)-5-formamidophenylsulfonyl] urea}.
Differential Thermal Analysis of ‘Elberta’ and ‘Flavorich’ Peach Flower Buds to Predict Cold Hardiness in Georgia
Authors: Liu Jun , Lindstrom Orville M. , Chavez Dario J.
Published: April 2019

Differential thermal analysis (DTA) has great potential as a quick and convenient cold hardiness determination method in plants. It measures freezing events inside of plant samples by detecting exotherm(s) produced when water changes from liquid to solid phase. DTA is highly sensitive to the experimental conditions and it has been reported to be ineffective among different fruit crops after acclimation of floral buds has occurred. The objective of this project was to establish DTA as a rapid and accurate method to predict peach floral bud cold hardiness from acclimation to deacclimation as compared with the traditional standard artificial freezing test. Floral buds of ‘Elberta’ and ‘Flavorich’ peach cultivars were subjected to DTA and artificial freezing tests throughout the winters of 2015–16 and 2016–17. Before deacclimation, two distinct exotherms, low-temperature exotherms (LTE) and high-temperature exotherms (HTE), were normally detected from floral bud DTA analyses. After deacclimation, DTA tests yielded only a few LTEs. However, incubation of floral buds at −2 °C overnight before the cooling process of DTA tests yielded an increased number of LTEs for both seasons in comparison with samples directly run using DTA without incubation. Similarly, after deacclimation started, the temperature in which LTE occurred was correlated (r = 0.59–0.86) with LT50 (lethal temperature that damaged 50% of floral buds) when DTA samples were treated overnight at −2 °C. In our study, pretreatment of floral buds at −2 °C overcame the inability of DTA to detect LTEs after deacclimation, which improved the ability and reliability of DTA to detect LTEs for more than 50% of the buds used per date per cultivar. DTA is a promising method to predict cold hardiness of peach plants.
To Protect or Not to Protect: Guide for Deciding on Public Release or Intellectual Property Protection of New Plant Cultivars and Germplasm
Authors: Bahar Mojdeh , Griesbach Robert J.
Published: April 2019

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and universities have a long and successful history of developing enhanced germplasm and cultivars that are transferred through public release. Today, nonprotected public release may not be the most appropriate mechanism. Intellectual property (IP) protection as it pertains to the plant germplasm and cultivars is involved and complex. Unlike other scientific areas, in the United States there are three distinct mechanisms to protect plants—namely, utility patents, plant patents, and plant variety protection certificates. Each of these mechanisms offers different criteria for protection and covers different types of plants. This article is a practical tool to help research institutions and scientists decide when to consider releasing a germplasm or cultivar, which factors to consider, who should be involved, and whether IP protection is appropriate.
Global Macadamia Science: Overview of the Special Section
Authors: Hardner Craig M. , Wall Marisa , Cho Alyssa
Published: April 2019

Macadamia is a rapidly developing global crop; however, limited cultivation history and size of the industry means many challenges remain to support sustained productivity and profitability of this industry. This paper summarizes oral and poster presentations, and subsequent papers included in this volume, delivered at the 2017 International Macadamia Research Symposium, held in Hilo, HI, in September of that year. This was the first international meeting of macadamia researchers since 1992. The 28 oral and seven poster presentations covered propagation technology, tree physiology, soils and nutrition, pollination, pest and disease, orchard management, genetics and breeding, product development, and new production regions. Notable messages were that micrografting of macadamias is commercially viable; planting density and girdling could increase early yield per hectare; resource availability may limit cross-pollination yield; and yield production of individual branches is not independent. Integrated pest management was described to develop pest-resilient farming systems and manage felted coccid; an international collaborative approach was proposed for effective disease management and early detection; and the concept of integrated orchard management was used to translate research outputs into a common language for grower adoption. In the areas of breeding and genetic resources, research demonstrated that modern macadamia cultivars are two to four generations from wild but do not capture all wild diversity; progress was reported on the Macadamia Genome Project to produce the first macadamia reference genome; and advances in phenotypic selection and cultivar development were described.
Disease Resistance of ‘MP-29’, a Clonal Interspecific Hybrid Rootstock for Peach, in Post-release Trials
Authors: Beckman Thomas G. , Rollins Philip A. , Pitts James , Chavez Dario J. , Chaparro Jose X.
Published: April 2019

The primary focus of the stone fruit rootstock program at Byron, GA, has been the development of disease-resistant rootstocks for peach (Prunus persica L. Batsch). Historically peach tree short life (PTSL), aka bacterial canker complex, and Armillaria root rot (ARR) have been the two most important causes of premature mortality of commercial peach trees in the southeastern United States. Guardian®, a seedling peach rootstock, was cooperatively released in 1993 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)-Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and Clemson University. It has since been widely adopted by the southeastern peach industry. As a result, trees losses to PTSL have declined sharply. However, Guardian, like most other peach seedling rootstocks, is susceptible to ARR. ARR has now moved to the forefront as the primary cause of premature peach tree death in the Southeast. In response to this threat, the USDA-ARS in cooperation with the University of Florida, released ‘Sharpe’, a plum hybrid rootstock in 2007. Despite its broad disease resistance, ‘Sharpe’ proved unsuited for widespread commercial utilization due to its relatively poor cropping performance. In 2011, ‘MP-29’, a semidwarf, clonal, plum × peach hybrid, was released for commercial trial. ‘MP-29’s broad disease and nematode resistance, in combination with its dwarfing ability and excellent productivity, offered great promise for use in this production area and in others suffering from similar issues. Since its release, testing of ‘MP-29’ has continued both in researcher and grower trials. To date, performance has exceeded all expectations.
Reduced Seed Count Improves Versatility and Propagation of Small-fruited Peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) for Specialty Markets
Authors: Stommel John R.
Published: April 2019

Small/miniature sweet and hot peppers (Capsicum annuum L.), such as snack peppers, are a rapidly growing class of specialty peppers. Low seed count is an important attribute for consumer acceptance of small-fruited specialty peppers. Four inbred U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) C. annuum breeding lines exhibiting uniformity for pod type and size and normal or reduced seed count were selected for producing F1 and segregating F2 and backcross generations. Seed content of F1 hybrids and progeny produced from the backcross of F1 hybrids to normal seed count parents exhibited unimodal frequency distributions and skewed toward the parent with normal seed count. Progeny produced from backcrosses to the reduced seed count parent exhibited bimodal population distributions representative of the respective parental phenotypes. F2 populations approximated 3:1 frequency distributions skewed toward normal-seeded parental phenotypes. Chi-square tests supported a single recessive gene model with potential modifiers controlling inheritance of reduced seed count. Genetic variants with reduced seed count facilitate seed production and propagation of specialty market class peppers.
Effective Pollination Period of Actinidia chinensis ‘AU Golden Sunshine’ and A. deliciosa ‘AU Fitzgerald’ Kiwifruit
Authors: Brantley Ashley K. , Spiers James D. , Thompson Andrew B. , Pitts James A. , Kessler J. Raymond , Wright Amy N. , Coneva Elina D.
Published: April 2019

Commercial kiwifruit production often requires substantial inputs for successful pollination. Determining the length of time that female flowers can be successfully pollinated can aid management decisions concerning pollination enhancement. The purpose of this research was to determine the effective pollination period (EPP) for ‘AU Golden Sunshine’ and ‘AU Fitzgerald’. Either 30 (2013) or 32 (2014, 2015) flowers of ‘AU Golden Sunshine’ were hand pollinated each day for 1 to 5 (2013) days after anthesis (DAA) or 1 to 7 DAA (2014, 2015), and then isolated to prevent open pollination. Anthesis was considered the day the flower opened. Similarly, ‘AU Fitzgerald’ flowers were pollinated and then isolated 1 to 6 DAA in 2013 and 1 to 7 DAA in 2015. For ‘AU Golden Sunshine’ in 2013, fruit set was consistent over the 5-day period, but fruit weight, fruit size index, and seed number decreased between 1 and 3 and 4 and 5 DAA. In 2014, fruit set decreased between 1 and 6 and 7 DAA, whereas fruit weight, fruit size index, and seed number each decreased in a linear trend. In 2015, fruit set also decreased between 1 and 6 and 7 DAA, whereas all other responses decreased linearly. Based on fruit set in 2014 and 2015, the EPP for ‘AU Golden Sunshine’ was 6 DAA. The EPP for ‘AU Fitzgerald’, however, was more variable. In 2013, fruit weight, fruit size index and seed number decreased between 1 and 4 and 5 and 6 DAA, suggesting that the EPP was 4 DAA. In 2015, fruit set remained consistent over the 7-day period with fruit weight, fruit size index, and seed number decreasing linearly. Differences in temperature and the alternate bearing tendency of kiwifruit species likely contributed to the discrepancies between the years for the EPP. For each cultivar, reductions in fruit weight, size, and seed number were observed before an observed decrease in fruit set. Greater fruit weight, size, and seed number were observed when flowers were pollinated within the first few DAA, with results varying thereafter.
Rhizosphere Processes and Nutrient Management for Improving Nutrient-use Efficiency in Macadamia Production
Authors: Zhao Xin , Dong Qianqian , Ni Shubang , He Xiyong , Yue Hai , Tao Liang , Nie Yanli , Tang Caixian , Zhang Fusuo , Shen Jianbo
Published: April 2019

Macadamia (Macadamia spp.) has been widely planted in southern China and has been now developed into an important industry. China has the largest area of macadamia plantation in the world but provides only 3% production of the world. Current farming systems have a fertilizer surplus of about 73 g of nitrogen (N), 103 g of phosphorus (P), and 24 g of potassium (K) per macadamia plant per year in southern China. Optimizing fertilization recommended for macadamia improves production by about 5 kg per plant. Macadamia develops cluster roots (i.e., proteoid roots) in a P-starvation environment. Overuse of P fertilizers restrains the development of cluster roots as well as rhizosphere processes, thus decreasing the P-use efficiency. Excessive fertilization, especially P fertilization, is one of the major limiting factors in China macadamia production. This study is the first to analyze current management practices and then discuss approaches of improving nutrient management based on the specific root biology of macadamia. For a sustainable macadamia industry, it is imperative to develop appropriate nutrient management by integrating root-zone soil nutrient supply, fertilizer application, and rhizosphere processes.
Controlled-temperature Treatments with Low-cost, Off-the-shelf Equipment for Bud or Seed Forcing Experiments
Authors: Bielenberg Douglas G. , Gasic Ksenija
Published: April 2019

Inexpensive plug-and-play temperature controllers have recently become available. These allow a chest freezer to be programmed easily to hold a desired set point across a range of biologically relevant temperatures. Installation can be completed in a few minutes using consumer-grade chest freezers. We used these temperature controllers to create five temperature-controlled chambers at 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 °C. We demonstrated the use of these controlled-temperature chambers with two biologic assays: floral budbreak of peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] stem cuttings and germination of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seeds. We used the budbreak and germination rates at multiple temperatures to estimate base temperatures and thermal time requirements for development.
Aeration Irrigation Can Improve Growth of Table Grape cv. Red Globe (Vitis vinifera L.) in Greenhouse
Authors: Zhao Fengyun , Sun Junli , Yu Songlin , Liu Huaifeng , Yu Kun
Published: April 2019

Aeration through subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) can promote plant growth and increase crop yield; however, more research is focused on annual crops, and there are few studies on perennial crops. We have studied a new type of SDI (SDI with tanks) suitable for cultivation and production of perennial fruit trees and photovoltaic aeration device in greenhouse. The results showed that aeration irrigation promoted the growth of new leaves, fine roots, and new branches of grape, regulated O2/CO2 content in rhizosphere soil, and accelerated air exchange in rhizosphere soil. This study showed that aeration irrigation did not change the structure of bacteria and fungi but significantly increased the abundance of aerobic bacteria, such as Nitrospira and Cytophagia. Moreover, it promoted the increase of Pseudomonas and Aspergillus related to phosphate solubilization, that of Bacillus related to potassium solubilization, and that of Fusarium related to organic matter (OM) decomposition. This study shows that aeration irrigation through SDI with tanks can promote grape growth, which may be related to the ability of aeration irrigation to change the gas composition of rhizosphere soil, optimize the structure of rhizosphere soil microorganism.
Sexual and Apomictic Seed Reproduction in Aronia Species with Different Ploidy Levels
Authors: Mahoney Jonathan D. , Hau Thao M. , Connolly Bryan A. , Brand Mark H.
Published: April 2019

The genus Aronia Medik., also known as chokeberry, is a group of deciduous shrubs in the Rosaceae family, subtribe Pyrinae. The four commonly accepted species include A. arbutifolia (L.) Pers., red chokeberry; A. melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliott, black chokeberry; A. prunifolia (Marshall) Reheder, purple chokeberry; and A. mitschurinii (A.K. Skvortsov & Maitul). Wild and domesticated Aronia species are found as diploids, triploids, and tetraploids. Genetic improvement of polyploid Aronia genotypes has been limited by suspected apomixis, which may be widespread or distinct to tetraploids. The objectives of this study were to elucidate the reproductive mechanisms of Aronia species and reveal the occurrence of apomixis within the genus and along ploidy lines. Twenty-nine Aronia accessions [five A. melanocarpa (2×), five A. melanocarpa (4×), eight A. prunifolia (3×), four A. prunifolia (4×), six A. arbutifolia (4×), and one A. mitschurinii (4×)] were used in this study. Intra-accession variability was evaluated by growing out progeny from each open-pollinated maternal accession and comparing plant phenotypes, ploidy levels, and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) marker profiles between the progeny and maternal accession. Progeny of diploid and tetraploid maternal plants had ploidy levels identical to maternal plants, except for UC009 (A. melanocarpa, 2×) which produced a mix of diploids and tetraploids. UC143 and UC149 (A. prunifolia, 3×) produced all triploid offspring, whereas all other triploid accessions produced offspring with variable ploidy levels including 2×, 3×, 4×, and 5×. Pentaploid Aronia has not been previously reported. Diploid accessions produced significant AFLP genetic variation (0.68–0.78 Jaccard’s similarity coefficient) in progeny, which is indicative of sexual reproduction. Seedlings from tetraploid accessions had very little AFLP genetic variation (0.93–0.98 Jaccard’s similarity coefficient) in comparison with their maternal accession. The very limited genetic variation suggests the occurrence of limited diplosporous apomixis with one round of meiotic division in tetraploid progeny. Triploid accessions appear to reproduce sexually or apomictically, or both, depending on the individual. These results support our understanding of Aronia reproductive mechanisms and will help guide future breeding efforts of polyploid Aronia species.
Micropropagation of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni Using RITA® Bioreactor
Authors: Bayraktar Meltem
Published: April 2019

Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is used for medicinal and food purposes. The effectiveness of different culture systems in Stevia micropropagation was evaluated. Node explants were cultured in semisolid or RITA® bioreactor containing woody plant medium (WPM) without plant growth regulators (PGRs). The effect of three medium volumes (100, 200, and 300 mL) and four immersion frequencies (10 seconds every 1, 4, 6, or 8 hours) were assessed. The shoots and roots developed simultaneously in the RITA® bioreactor treatment containing 100 mL of WPM at 10 seconds/4 hours immersion frequency and the healthiest plantlets were obtained from this RITA® treatment using 5 mL of medium per explant. The root induction rate was 100% in nonhyperhydrated shoots obtained from both semisolid and RITA® bioreactor, and all of them were successfully acclimatized. Thus, an economical and viable protocol was developed by performing the micropropagation in one step, eliminating the use of agar and PGRs, and decreasing the amount of medium used per explant.
Net Houses Effects on Microclimate, Production, and Plant Protection of White-fleshed Pitaya
Authors: Chien Yen-Chieh , Chang Jer-Chia
Published: April 2019

To evaluate the comprehensive response of commercial cultivation of the white-fleshed pitaya (Hylocereus undatus ‘VN White’) under net house in Taiwan, experiments were conducted during the natural reproductive period (from June to Sept. 2016) with fruits grown within net houses (either 16 or 24 mesh insect-proof netting, without fruit bagging) or in an open field (the control, without netting, with fruit bagging). The effects of netting on microclimate, phenological period, flowering (floral bud emergence) of current and noncurrent cladodes (shoots) (2- to 3-year-old), fruit quality, market acceptability, pests and diseases control, and level of sunburn were investigated. Indoor solar radiation in the 16 and 24 mesh net houses were 78.12% and 75.03%, respectively, and the sunlight intensities [photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), μmol·m−2·s−1] were 76.03% and 73.00%, respectively, that of control. The maximum daily temperature for the 16 and 24 mesh net houses was greater than that of the control. However, there were no significant differences in daily average temperature, minimum temperature, or relative humidity (RH). The first flowering cycle (12 June 2016) and last flowering cycle (11 Sept. 2016) in both net houses were the same as those in the control. The accumulative flowering of current cladodes was unaffected by net covering, but that of noncurrent-year cladodes in both net houses was lower than that in the control. Although the L* and C* values of fruit color in the 16 and 24 mesh net houses were lower than those in the control, the fruits still had commercial value. The average fruit weight of the 16 mesh net house was significantly greater than that of the control. Average total soluble solid (TSS) content, TSS content at the fruit center, and titratable acidity were unaffected. In addition, the 16 mesh net house blocked some large pests without exacerbating disease or sunburn. Our findings suggest that 16 mesh net houses may be useful for white-fleshed pitaya cultivation during its natural reproductive period in subtropical Taiwan.
A Study on the Development Strategies of Sri Lanka Tea Industry
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Cheon Yong-soon
Published: April 2019

Sri Lanka s tea industry is maintaining its position as the world s leading tea exporter, excluding CTC tea. Ceylon tea’s world-class quality has been achieved thanks to tea cultivation research by TRI and organized management by SLTB.
Currently, Sri Lanka’s tea industry is facing some challenges to be solved: the aging of tea trees, limited tea cultivation areas and lack of skilled labor, which are causing the disruption of tea production. As a result, it is leading to a rise in unit cost of production and weakening the competitiveness in the international market. In such a situation, they need to adapt to universal trends while maintaining its wonderful traditions.
First, more research needs to be done in terms of characteristic cultivation terrains to develop highly qualified tea and about the diversity of tea according to the
preferences of various buyers.
Second, more effective way of tea production should be adopted. They need to increase the production amount of CTC for milk tea, ice tea and tea bags, consumed the most in the world, and diversify their products instead of bulk exports.
Finally, mechanization and education of tea cultivation and production are important. They could increase export volume and keep ruling over the international tea market.
The future of Ceylon tea is very promising since Sri Lanka’s tea industry is the cleanest and the most environmentally-friendly on the planet. To keep its position as a tea maker for the mental, physical and social health of mankind and to survive in the harsh international tea market, continuous multi-modal studies are essential.
A Study on Development Direction of Certification System of Tea Culture
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Kwak Jae-myeong
Published: April 2019

The Certification Basic Law was established in 1997, and the system of national authorization of civil certificates was initiated by the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training which takes charge of it for the first time in 2000. Now is the 18th year.
Civil certification about tea culture is managed by 58 associations, and many of the registered certificates are certificates of traditional tea etiquette (Korean tea ceremony). In particular, the Tea Club registered 10 kinds of certification such as Korean tea ceremony, Japanese tea ceremony, black tea, Chinese tea ceremony, tea
mental consultation, tea evaluation, and tea-maker, etc. So, the club operates the most various tea-related curriculum among corporations managing civil certification processes.
As of 2017, tea-related department is opened in 2 technical colleges and 1 university. There are 7 master’s degree programs on tea culture, and 4 universities have Ph. D programs on tea culture. The universities running master’s and doctoral programs on tea culture are Keimyung University, National Mokpo University, Wonkwang University, and Chosun University.
As the development direction of tea certification system, this paper suggests the followings. First, the tea certification should be national authorization of civil certificates. Second, credit banking system should be actively used.
If tea-related associations register their certificates as nationally authorized ones, and use credit banking system with universities, many of those interested in tea will be able to get spacial education on tea, and tea culture will be developed.
Reality Recognition and Acceptance through Tea Meditation -A Focus on Yeomjigwan Meditation-
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Choe Hye-Gyeong
Published: April 2019

It is thought that as more social issues occur in the range of our life, the cause of internal pain derives from the fact that we can not look our life in the face. This study investigated the relationship between reality recognition and acceptance before and after tea mediation to understand the effects tea meditation has on reality recognition and acceptance targeting ascetics and non-ascetics.
Yeomjigwan Meditation is a Buddhist meditation theory and training through which we recognize changes in our bodies and minds. It suggests that if we observe our breathing and feelings following the movements of tea making and drinking, it is easy to recognize and accept our mental changes. The theory is applied to tea meditation. Yeomjigwan Meditation will be a base to meditate on our lives while making and drinking tea.
A Study for Tea Manufacturing Methods in Literatures of Joseon Dynasty
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Ma Seung-jin , Lee Hyun-jeong
Published: April 2019

In order to investigate the properties of traditional tea manufacturing method, the records on tea manufacture in literatures of Joseon dynasty were collected and reclassified according as general tea making processes, plucking, withering, fixing, rolling, molding, fermentation and drying. Young buds plucked from Kogu to Ipha was recognized as a material to make high quality tea the same way that it is now.
Only a few records about withering were found that shade withering was used before fixing. Three kinds of methods, steaming, weak heat pan-firing and strong
heat pan-firing, were used for fixing the tea leaves. The rolling process in Joseon
dynasty was performed on limited or very lightly handled even if it was done.
Meanwhile, there were three kinds of molding methods for making a lump tea which
used fresh leaves, powder of tea leaves and tea leaves. Also various drying methods
including ondol that is one of features of traditional house of Joseon was used for
drying teas. It was identified that various kinds of teas were made by addition, omission or variation of tea manufacture processes in Joseon dynasty. This study indicated the tea culture of Joseon dynasty should be revaluated as a period of qualitative growth not a period of decline.
A Study on the Development Plan for Tea through New Museology
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Yun Byung-hwa
Published: April 2019

New museology is a discipline that studies the popularization of museum by
creating practical museum through active participation and users of local residents.
Eventually, new museology contributes to creating new value of museum, leading to communication and participation by a medium of museum itself.
Currently, tea museums in Korea play various roles for conservation and succession of tea culture heritage by securing identity for oneself based on tea culture contents in tea museum. In addition, a tea museum is advancing into a cultural complex connected with past, present and future. Accordingly, this study suggests the plan to diversify the exhibition and education types, cultivate experts of tea museum and allocate resident commentators for the establishment of communication framework by grafting the new museology into a tea museum as a specialized museum.
A Study on Small Weddings at Seoul Citizens’ Hall: Focusing on Weddings held during 2013-2015
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Choi Bae-young
Published: April 2019

The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics of small weddings held at Seoul Citizens’ Hall, in order to lay the groundwork for the future improvement of such events and their greater acceptance in Korean society. To this end, records of the small weddings of ten couples who married at Citizens’ Hall between 2013 and 2015 were analyzed. There were several categories of analysis, namely the couples’ motives for having a small wedding, their difficulty in deciding on such a wedding, the preparations involved, the process, and the emotional value derived from them. The major findings can be summarized as follows: First, the couples favored small weddings to express their thoughts in their ceremonies, and to ensure frugality, so that they could afford their ceremonies without the financial support of their parents. However, despite this motive, there were difficulties in many cases in ultimately
deciding on a small wedding due to the conflicting opinions of their parents. This fact shows that the provision of targeted information is necessary not only for young couples but also for their parents to help them form a fuller understanding of all of the facets of small weddings. Second, through the analysis, a sense of initiative,
openness to communication, and authenticity on the part of participants were found to be major characteristics displayed by them during both the preparation for and the process of small weddings. The couples’ most important characteristic in this phase of small weddings, however, was their capacity to plan. Therefore, for the firmer
establishment or validation of small weddings in Korean society, related education should be provided to college students to enhance their awareness of the factors surrounding them, so that they can consider this option in the future in a more informed way. Finally, the emotional value of small weddings felt by couples who held them at Citizens’ Hall derived from the feeling of emotional maturity they gained as adults preparing for marriage, their satisfaction at seeing guests appreciate the sincerity with which they approached their ceremony, and the benefits they perceived of showing others the importance of protecting the environment through a frugal event, the reminder they gave of the importance of sharing, and the realization of the logistical and social advantages of small weddings. These results suggest that in order to promote the benefits of such small weddings, appropriate ceremony models or templates should be devised and menus for small wedding receptions that match the theme of such weddings should be created through industry-university cooperation.
Epochal Functions and Roles of Tea Culture in the Age of 4th Industrial Revolution
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Zhao Zhanfang , Han Sung-kook , Moon Hee-kyung
Published: April 2019

In the advent of the 4th industrial revolution based on artificial intelligence, Internet of Things (IoT), 3D printer and other new technologies, the hyper-connected, super-intelligent society has been already arrived. The strong pervasive effect of the 4th industrial revolution have influenced on all the fields of the society. The tea culture that has long traditional history has also required to create a new direction to accommodate the drastically changed social environments. This paper analyzes the conceptual factors and then the essential functionalities of the tea culture. The paper shows that these innate functions of the tea culture can play a vital role for resolving the diverse side-effects occurred in the future hyper-connected, super-intelligent society. More ideal future society can be created by means of complementally harmonizing the tea culture which is the traditional analog culture with long history with the
digital culture of 4th industrial revolution. According to the widespread 4th industrial revolution, the importance of the tea culture has been strongly emphasized and a new era of the tea culture is now opening.
A study on the Korean traditional pattern of tea confectionary
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Lee Jin-su
Published: April 2019

The value of Korean traditional pattern should be able to understand its history, feel the lives of the ancestors, and rediscover the Korean beauty based on this so as to prepare the foundation to create the new types for the present and the future. Plate of tea confectionary was used to engrave the pattern on the tea confectionary which was used in the rituals. Korean people added the new patterns on those with wishes to the ancestors. Therefore, plate of tea confectionary is considered as the appliance to demonstrate the unique national emotion and the social phenomena at that time. Plates of tea confectionary that were used by the common people were not made as the crafts initially but processed properly with the woods around there. They have the meaning as the origin of folkcraft artworks made of materials easily to get. As the times pass and our senses and lives are changed, the patterns of tea confectionary plate should be changed. This is because the appliances we use apply the living style at the times. That means tea confectionary to satisfy the present era is required. This should be used easily with figurativeness, aesthetic sense and fanciness. However, it would be good to keep the ideas of Yin-yang and five elements of the universe as the patterns focusing on the same types of working by our ancestors, and to work the design as the basic with old ones.
Tea Culture represented in the 17th Century Dutch Paintings: Focused on Genre Paintings and Illustrations
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Jung Eun-hee
Published: April 2019

This paper investigated the characteristics of the 17th century Dutch tea culture represented in their genre paintings and illustrations. It briefly reviewed the Dutch painting trends and analysed their tea culture reflecting philosophy and everyday lives of that time. Dutch women were both the main recipients of tea culture from China and spreader to European countries. The tea culture was a symbol of status. The urban upper class led the tea culture, they modified and created their own yea culture, which was popularized in the later period. The contribution of the paper is to
stimulate further researches on European tea culture including Dutch tea culture.
The Spirit of Ｗa in Japanese Tea Culture
Authors:   Association for International Tea Culture, Noh Keun-Sook
Published: April 2019

Ｗa (harmony) represents Japan itself, things having Japanese　characteristics, and political concept.　The concepts of Ｗa　was used in the article seventeenth of the Japanese constitution, the first statute law in Japan, and was presented as a moral norm to bureaucrats and nobles. And in the process of Japanization, Wa was used as a word meaning　Japanese, encompassing Japanese art and culture.
Ｗa has the meaning of harmony, peace　and neutralization, and the common denominator of these words is consideration .　Ｗa is also the first element that constitutes the Four Rules (siki ｗakeiseizyaku）, the spirit of Japanese tea ceremony. Japanese tea culture absorbed the attitudes of equality, peace and consideration from the spirit of Ｗa, and has developed cultural keywords including medicinal purposes, religion and hospitality (motenasi ).
The tea given to the monks at a ritual event （Incha no Gi , C.E. 729）demonstrated the concept of Wa in Japanese tea culture, focused on the use of tea for medical use and guest reception.　The tea culture of the Rikyu period reflects the ideas of consideration and equality in the components of the tea ceremony room (chasitu) and ｔea garden (rozi ). Also, the thought of consideration that appears in the components of the tea ceremony (chazi ) leads to the modern tea ceremony(chaseki ).
The components of the tea ceremony room (chasitu) and tea garden (rozi ). as the unusual spaces express the culture of equality and consideration pursued by Japanese tea ceremony. The culture of tea ceremony created a concept to acknowledge and consider the other person through means that can understand themselves rather than explain or persuade, and conceived the thought of equality in the hierarchical society of Japan. And this way of thinking has led to modern age, and it has created an opportunity to recognize the importance of public order.
Before Rikyu, Japanese tea culture was developed as ritual events, focusing on medicinal use and hospitality. Rikyu introduced the culture of consciousness and the thought of equality to Japanese tea culture. The culture of consciousness, which is the essence of Wa, is being passed down from the past to the present at the base of Japanese tea culture.