bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Analysis of V1 Skating Technique of Olympic Cross-Country Skiers
Authors: Smith Gerald A. , Nelson Richard C. , Feldman Adam , Rankinen Jeffrey L.
Published: August 2016

The alternate stride or V1 skate technique was the predominant skiing method used in the free technique races of the 1988 Calgary Games. High-speed films were recorded of two free technique races: the Men’s 50 K and the Ladies' 20 K. A moderate and a steep uphill were sites of the filming, and both temporal and kinematic analyses were made. Times for a complete skating cycle tended to decrease on the steep hill (cycle rate increased). Cycle temporal proportions shifted to longer poling and recovery phases while the skating phases shortened on the steeper terrain. Mean cycle velocities (CV), cycle lengths (CL), and cycle rates (CR) were determined. Differences in kinematic relationships were noted: Male skiers included both those who emphasized CL to maximize CV and those who emphasized CR; females were relatively more consistent in emphasis on CR. In either case, center of mass (CM) motions were related to CR and CL. Increased lateral motion of CM tended to increase CL while decreasing CR. Ski edging angles were negatively correlated; a sharply edged ski on one side was usually associated with the other ski being relatively flat. The relationship of glide to ski flatness suggests that many skiers might benefit from skating with both skis relatively flat.
Twisting Techniques Used in Freestyle Aerial Skiing
Authors: Yeadon Maurice R.
Published: August 2016

At the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics, six triple somersaults with three twists or four twists were filmed using two cameras. Angles describing body configuration and orientation were determined and were used as input into a computer simulation model of aerial movement. It was found that the twist angle of each simulation deviated from the corresponding angle obtained from film by less than 0.08 revolutions during the first somersault of each movement. Contributions to the tilt angle after one somersault were determined using simulations based on modifications of the film data. It was found that of the six competitors, two initiated the twist during the takeoff phase, two initiated the twist during the aerial phase, and two used a combination of both methods.
Comparison of Impact Forces in High and Low Impact Aerobic Dance Movements
Authors: Ricard Mark D. , Veatch Steve
Published: August 2016

This study compared impact forces and loading rates in a high and low impact aerobic dance movement. Five subjects each performed five trials of the low impact front knee lift (LFKL) and five trials of the high impact front knee lift (HFKL). The data were recorded using an AMTI force plate at 1,000 Hz. A repeated-measures ANOVA was used to test for differences in selected variables for the LFKL and HFKL. Peak impact force was significantly lower in the LFKL than the HFKL, mean 0.98 BW and 1.98 BW, respectively. Mean loading rate was significantly lower in the LFKL (14.38 BW/s) than the HFKL (42.55 BW/s). Mean impact impulse during the first 50 ms of impact was significantly lower in the LFKL (0.0131 BW•s) than the HFKL (0.0295 BW•s). Based upon these differences in external ground reaction forces, it appears that low impact front knee lifts impose a significantly lower load than high impact front knee lifts.
Body Configuration in Multiple Somersault High Bar Dismounts
Authors: Kerwin David G. , Yeadon Maurice R. , Lee Sung-Cheol
Published: August 2016

An 11-segment three-dimensional simulation model was used to modify the body configurations of eight gymnasts performing multiple somersault dismounts during the Men’s High Bar competition in the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. Four layout double somersault performances were modified to change a characteristic backward arch to a straight body position. This modification reduced the somersault rotation by 0.03 to 0.10 somersaults. Four tucked triple somersault performances were modified so that the thigh abduction angle was reduced to zero. This modification resulted in underrotations ranging from 0.01 to 0.34 somersaults depending on the amount of thigh abduction in the original movement. The additional angular momentum needed for successful completion of the modified movements was small in general and in no case greater than 13%.
Landing Leg Motion and Performance in the Horizontal Jumps II: The Triple Jump
Authors: Koh Timothy J. , Hay James G.
Published: August 2016

The motions of the landing leg preceding the support phases of the hop, step, and jump, thought to be important in the triple jump, are described. Film analysis of 16 elite male triple jumpers competing in the 1986 and 1987 TAC (U.S. national) Championships showed that backward sweeping, or “active,” landings were used prior to each support phase. A mathematical model showed that muscle action reduced the forward horizontal velocity of the landing foot during each landing. There were no statistically significant correlations of measures of landing leg motion with measures of performance. The landing prior to the jump phase was less active than the two preceding landings. However, the elite athletes in the present study were much more active in this landing than athletes of lesser ability. There was also some indication among the subjects of this study that activeness in this landing was associated with long triple jumps. Thus, activeness in this landing appears to be desirable but very difficult to achieve and/or use effectively.
Changes in Distance Running Kinematics with Fatigue
Authors: Williams Keith R. , Snow Rebecca , Agruss Chris
Published: August 2016

This study investigated changes in kinematics with fatigue during intercollegiate competition, a noncompetitive track run, and a constant speed treadmill run. To account for changes in kinematics resulting from speed differences, regression equations for each individual generated from nonfatigue data were used to predict rested kinematics for speeds matching those of the fatigue conditions. A factor analysis procedure grouped 29 kinematic variables into sets of independent factors, and both factor variables and individual variables were analyzed for changes with fatigue, which were minimal. Only one significant difference was found in the factor variables between nonfatigue and fatigue states. Comparisons of specific kinematic variables showed a significant increase in step length with fatigue, an increased maximal knee flexion angle during swing, and an increased maximal thigh angle during hip flexion. While fatigue did not result in marked changes in kinematics for the group as a whole, changes for individuals were at times large.
Kinematics and Impulse Characteristics of Drop Landings from Three Heights
Authors: McNitt-Gray Jill L.
Published: August 2016

During a landing impact, the human body is exposed to large forces and moments that create the potential for injury. To determine the effect of impact velocity and landing experience on the strategy selected, the preferred landing strategies used by male collegiate gymnasts and recreational athletes from three drop heights were characterized using mechanical descriptors. Kinematic and reaction force data were acquired simultaneously using highspeed film and a force plate. Reaction forces and lower extremity joint motion were used to characterize the strategies. Results indicated that statistically significant increases in joint flexion (with the exception of ankle joint flexion), angular velocity, and impact force resulted as impact velocity increased. Gymnasts and recreational athletes demonstrated similar adjustment patterns to increases in landing impact velocities; however, significant differences in degree of joint flexion, total landing phase time, and relative adjustments over impact velocity conditions were found.
The Effect of Hip Position/Configuration on Anaerobic Power and Capacity in Cycling
Authors: Too Danny
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of systematic changes in hip position/configuration on cycling peak anaerobic power (AP) and anaerobic capacity (AC). Fourteen male recreational cyclists (ages 21-32 yrs) were tested in four hip positions (25, 50, 75, and 100°), as defined by the angle formed by the seat tube and a vertical line. Rotating the seat to maintain a backrest perpendicular to the ground induced a systematic decrease in hip angle from the 25 to the 100° position. The Wingate anaerobic cycling test was used on a Monark cycle ergometer with a resistance of 85 gm/kg of the subject’s body mass. Repeated-measures MANOVAs and post hoc tests revealed that AP and AC in the 75° hip position were significantly greater than in the 25 or 100° position and that a second-order function best describes the trend in AP and AC with changes in hip position.
Case Studies of Asymmetrical Arm Action in Running
Authors: Hinrichs Richard N.
Published: August 2016

Ten male recreational runners ranging in age from 20 to 32 years were filmed using 3-D cinematography while running on a treadmill at 3.8 m/s, 4.5 m/ s, and 5.4 m/s. The 3-D segment endpoint data were entered into a computer program that computed the segmental contributions to the upward and forward propulsive impulses on the body (lift and drive, respectively) and to the vertical component of angular momentum (Hz). The results of two subjects who demonstrated asymmetrical arm action are discussed in detail and compared with the mean results computed over all subjects. The results revealed that the arms possess the potential to compensate for each other and for asymmetries elsewhere in the body.
Sustainability Communication in North American Professional Sports Leagues: Insights From Web-Site Self-Presentations
Authors: Ciletti Dorene , Lanasa John , Ramos Diane , Luchs Ryan , Lou Junying
Published: August 2016

Based on a review of North American professional sports teams, this study provides insight on how teams are communicating commitment to sustainability principles and practices on their Web sites. Web sites for 126 teams across 4 different leagues were examined for content relative to triple-bottom-line dimensions. Global Reporting Initiative indicator codes and definitions were constructs for the model and aligned to social, environmental, and economic principles for categories of sustainability practices. Although teams are including sustainability information on their Web sites, the vast majority downplay economic issues and highlight social issues on their home pages and subsequent pages; communication about environmental factors varies by league. The study shows differences across leagues and suggests that although some teams are communicating a commitment to sustainability, others may not be considering stakeholder perceptions of their Web-site communications or whether sustainability efforts affect public consumption of league offerings or attitudes toward professional sports.
Framing Tiger’s Troubles: Comparing Traditional and Social Media
Authors: Sanderson Jimmy
Published: August 2016

This research explored how press outlets and fans framed professional golfer Tiger Woods’s marital infidelity. A textual analysis of newspaper reports and discussion postings on Tiger Woods’s official Facebook page was conducted. Analysis revealed that press accounts framed Woods’s actions as a tragic flaw that precipitated his fall from grace, while also reveling in the salacious details of the extramarital affairs. Conversely, fans primarily framed these incidents as private matters that demonstrated Woods’s human nature. The analysis suggests that social-media sites are valuable public relations tools that athletes can use to quickly generate support that counteracts perceived negative media framing. Social-media sites also enable fans to enhance perceptions of closeness with athletes as fans interject themselves into athletes’ media narratives.
One World, One Dream: A Qualitative Comparison of the Newspaper Coverage of the 2008 Olympic and Paralympic Games
Authors: Chang Ik Young , Crossman Jane , Taylor Jane , Walker Diane
Published: August 2016

This study compared and explored the textual coverage of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games (OG) and Paralympic Games (PG) by the Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail. The authors found 8 high-order themes and 25 low-order themes for the OG. The high-order themes were predicting game results, reporting game results, athleticism, politics, ethical issues, nationalism, the media, and the economy. For the PG, there were 4 high-order themes, and each high-order theme had 1 low-order theme. The high-order themes were reporting game results, athleticism, ethical issues, and equality between Paralympians and Olympians. Comparisons between OG and PG coverage are discussed and recommendations for future research provided.
Examining the Structures of Major Football Tournaments on Television: An Analysis of the Quality of World Cup and European Cup Broadcasts
Authors: Horky Thomas
Published: August 2016

In most countries, live broadcasts of sports events generate enormous numbers of viewers and reach impressive market shares. In this article, the author examines the structures of major football (soccer) broadcasts on German television and makes conclusions on the quality of sports journalism. A longitudinal analysis is made of the broadcasts of the last 9 German matches in World and European Cup championships of the past 16 years on German television. A closer look at different parts reveals an increasing loss of meaning for live coverage, as well as rising preliminary and postreporting within the broadcasts. A finer cross-section examination of the football finals in 2006 and 2010 shows a lack of journalistic programming in the live broadcasts, with an increasing loss of meaning for sports journalism
To Tweet or Not to Tweet: Exploring Division I Athletic Departments’ Social-Media Policies
Authors: Sanderson Jimmy
Published: August 2016

Via their social-media postings, student-athletes are increasingly creating public relations issues for college athletic programs. With social media’s emergence as a popular communication tool, exploring the messages student-athletes receive from their athletic departments about social-media use is warranted. This research examined social-media policies in student-athlete handbooks from 159 NCAA Division I schools. Using thematic and textual analytic procedures, analysis revealed that policies heavily emphasize content restrictions and external monitoring and frame social media as laden with risk. The results suggest that social-media policies should be more reflexive to identify both positive and negative outcomes for student-athletes. In addition, athletic departments must assertively monitor social-media trends to ensure that policies and training stay relevant.
Winning Isn’t Everything: The Effect of Nationalism Bias on Enjoyment of a Mediated Sporting Event
Authors: Smith Lauren Reichart
Published: August 2016

Disposition theory research within mediated sporting events has traditionally looked at the relationship between enjoyment and outcome. A gap currently exists in the theory concerning the effect of the different elements of the mediated content. The purpose of this study was to examine one such element of mediated content. This study used a 2 × 2 × 2 between subjects and an experimental design to test the effects of commentary from a United States broadcast on enjoyment. Within the experiment, commentary and outcome were manipulated for two teams of different nationalities. Results showed commentary did have an effect on enjoyment; however, commentary was a stronger predictor of enjoyment than was outcome. In addition, it was found that nationality alone did not have an effect on enjoyment, but commentary and nationality combined did have such an effect. Findings from this study have implications for disposition theory and future research on factors affecting enjoyment.
Activism in Women’s Sports Blogs: Fandom and Feminist Potential
Authors: Antunovic Dunja , Hardin Marie
Published: August 2016

The emergence of social media has provided a space for discourse and activism about sports that traditional media outlets tend to ignore. Using a feminist theoretical lens, a textual analysis of selected blogs on the Women Talk Sports blog network was conducted to determine how fandom and advocacy for women’s sports were expressed in blog posts. The analysis indicated that bloggers enhance the visibility of women’s sports, but their engagement with social issues varies. Some bloggers may reproduce hegemonic norms around sports and gendered sporting bodies, while others may offer a more critical, decidedly feminist view and challenge dominant ideologies. While the blogosphere, and particularly networks such as Women Talk Sports, can serve as a venue for activism around women’s sports and the representation of athletic bodies, its potential to do so may be unmet without a more critical perspective by participants.
The Effect of Sports Fan Identification on the Cognitive Processing of Sports News
Authors: Potter Robert F. , Keene Justin Robert
Published: August 2016

An experiment investigates the impact of fan identification on the cognitive and emotional processing of sports-related news media. Two coaches were featured; one conceptualized as negatively valenced the other positively. Participants completed a fan identification scale before stimuli presentation. While watching the press conferences, heart rate, skin conductance, and corrugator muscle activity were recorded as indices of cognitive resource allocation, emotional arousal, and aversive motivation activation respectively. Self-report measures were collected after each stimulus. Results show that highly identified fans process sports-related news content differently than moderate fans, allocating more cognitive resources and exhibiting greater aversive reactions to the negatively valenced coach. Comparisons between the self-report and psychophysiology data suggest that the latter may be less susceptible to social desirability response bias when emotional reaction to sports messages are concerned.
Why We Follow: An Examination of Parasocial Interaction and Fan Motivations for Following Athlete Archetypes on Twitter
Authors: Frederick Evan L. , Lim Choong Hoon , Clavio Galen , Walsh Patrick
Published: August 2016

An Internet-based survey was posted on the Twitter feeds and Facebook pages of 1 predominantly social and 1 predominantly parasocial athlete to ascertain the similarities and differences between their follower sets in terms of parasocial interaction development and follower motivations. Analysis of the data revealed a sense of heightened interpersonal closeness based on the interaction style of the athlete. While followers of the social athlete were driven by interpersonal constructs, followers of the parasocial athlete relied more on media conventions in their interaction patterns. To understand follower motivations, exploratory factor analyses were conducted for both follower sets. For followers of the social athlete, most of the interactivity, information-gathering, personality, and entertainment items loaded together. Unlike followers of the social athlete, fanship and community items loaded alongside information-gathering items for followers of the parasocial athlete. The implications of these and other findings are discussed further.
Raising Our Game: Effects of Citizen Journalism on Twitter for Professional Identity and Working Practices of British Sport Journalists
Authors: McEnnis Simon
Published: August 2016

This article presents a study that examined what citizen journalism on Twitter has meant for the professional identity and working practices of British sport journalists, using data from a series of in-depth, semistructured interviews. Sport journalists recognized the need to strive for higher professional standards to ensure that their output is of greater cultural significance than that of citizen journalists. Trust—achieved through the ideologies of truth, reliability, and insight—was seen as essential to achieving this distinction. The democratization of breaking news has meant that red-top tabloid and 24-hr rolling news environments must reinvent themselves by making greater use of other journalistic practices including investigative reporting.
Efficacy of Chromium Supplementation in Athletes; Emphasis on Anabolism
Authors: Lefavi Robert G. , Anderson Richard A. , Keith Robert E. , Wilson G. Dennis , McMillan James L. , Stone Michael H.
Published: August 2016

As the biologically active component of glucose tolerance factor (GTF), the essential trace mineral chromium is now being marketed to athletes. GTF potentiates insulin activity and is responsible for normal insulin function. Thus, insulin's effects on carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism are dependent upon the maintenance of adequate chromium stores. Due to excessive chromium loss and marginal chromium intake, athletes may have an increased requirement for chromium. Therefore, in some circumstances the dietary supplementation of a chromium compound may be efficacious. The restoration and maintenance of chromium stores via supplementation would promote optimal insulin efficiency, necessary for high-level athletic performance. However, potential anabolic effects of enhanced insulin function would likely be marginal, and reports of short-term anabolic increases from the supplementation of an organic chromium compound need to be confirmed.
The Hyponatremia of Exercise
Authors: Noakes Timothy D.
Published: August 2016

The hyponatremia of exercise may exist in symptomatic and asymptomatic forms. Symptomatic hyponatremia is usually characterized by severe alterations in cerebral function including coma and grand ma1 seizures; it develops especially in less competitive athletes who have maintained high rates of fluid intake during endurance events lasting at least 5 hours. The hyponatremia becomes symptomatic when the volume of excess fluid retained exceeds 2 to 3 liters. The etiology of the condition is unknown. Possibly as many as three or more pathologies (abnormal fluid retention possibly due to inappropriate ADH secretion, abnormal regulation of the extracellular fluid volume, translocation of sodium into a "third space") must be present for symptomatic hyponatremia to develop. The avoidance of overhydration would appear to be the only certain way that susceptible individuals can prevent symptomatic hyponatremia. Sodium chloride containing solutions ingested in physiologically significant concentrations would likely prevent a possible "third space" effect.
Substrate Responses to Submaximal Exercise in the Midfollicular and Midluteal Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
Authors: Hackney Anthony C. , McCracken-Compton Mary Ann , Ainsworth Barbara
Published: August 2016

This study examined substrate metabolism responses of eumenorrheic women to different intensities of submaximai exercise at the midfollicular (MF) and the midluteal (ML) phases of the menstrual cycle. Nine women performed a 30-min treadmill run in which the exercise intensity was made more difficult every 10 min (35%, 60%, and 75%). Carbohydrate (CHO) utilization and oxidation rates for the 35% and 60% intensities during the ML session were significantly lower than during the comparable intensities in the MF. Conversely, lipid utilization and oxidation were significantly greater during the 35% and 60% ML session than in the MF session. At 75%, however, the ML and MF CHO-lipid utilization and oxidation rates were not significantly different from one another. Thus, the phase of the menstrual cycle in eumenorrheic women does influence metabolic substrate usage during low- to moderate-intensity submaximai exercise, probably due to changes in the endogenous levels of the female sex hormones.
Comparison between Carbohydrate Feedings before and during Exercise on Running Performance during a 30-km Treadmill Time Trial
Authors: Chryssanthopoulos Costas , Williams Clyde , Wilson Wendy , Asher Lucy , Hearne Lynda
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution, ingested during exercise, with the effects of a preexercise carbohydrate meal on endurance running performance. Ten endurance-trained males completed two 30-km treadmill runs. In one trial subjects consumed a placebo solution 4 hr before exercise and a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution immediately before exercise and every 5 km (C). In the other trial, subjects consumed a 4-hr preexercise high-carbohydrate meal and water immediately before exercise and every 5 km (M). Performance times were identical for M and C, and there was no difference in the self-selected speeds. Oxygen uptake, heart rates, perceived rate of exertion, and respiratory exchange ratios were also similar. However, blood glucose concentration was higher in C during the first 20 km of the 30-km run. In M, blood glucose concentration was maintained above 4.5 mmol · throughout exercise. Thus, the two conditions produced the same 30-km treadmill running performance time.
Periodic Carbohydrate Replacement during 50 Min of High-Intensity Cycling Improves Subsequent Sprint Performance
Authors: Ball Thomas C. , Headley Samuel A. , Vanderburgh Paul M. , Smith John C.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of 7% carbohydrate-electrolyte (CE) drink on sprint capacity immediately following 50 min of high-intensity cycling. After an overnight 12-hr fast, 8 trained male cyclists performed two 50-min simulated time trials on a Monark stationary cycle ergometer. Subjects consumed either the CE or a flavored water placebo (PL) at 10, 20, 30, and 40 min during the time trial. At the conclusion of each 50-min time trial, subjects immediately performed a Wingate Anaerobic Power Test. Peak power, mean power, and minimum power were significantly higher for the CE trials, whereas mean RPE was significantly lower. Mean heart rate and fatigue index were not different between trials. These results suggest that sprint performance following a high-intensity simulated time trial of only 50 min can be improved with periodic consumption of CE during the ride, particularly following an overnight fast, when liver glycogen is likely to be low. These findings have implications for competitive cycling, where sprint capacity at the conclusion of a race is an important determinant of success.
Effects of Diet and Diet-Plus-Exercise Programs on Resting Metabolic Rate: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Thompson Janice L. , Manore Melinda M. , Thomas Jerry R.
Published: August 2016

Studies examining the effects of diet (D) and diet-plus-exercise (DE) programs on resting metabolic rate (RMR) report equivocal results. The purpose of this study was to use meta-analysis to determine if exercise prevents the decrease in RMR observed with dieting. Results from the 22 studies included in this analysis revealed that the majority of studies used female subjects ages 31-45 years, who were fed a relatively low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet of less than 5,023 kJ · day1. The predominant prescribed exercise was aerobic in nature, 31-60 min in duration, performed 4-5 days per week, and of moderate intensity (51-70% of ). Contrary to what is reported in narrative reviews, RMR decreased significantly with both D and DE programs, and the drop with D was significantly greater than that with DE. In conclusion, the addition of exercise to dietary restriction appears to prevent some of the decrease in RMR observed in premenopausal women.
Water and Electrolyte Replenishment in the Exercising Child
Authors: Bar-Or Oded , Wilk Boguslaw
Published: August 2016

This article reviews studies, mostly from the authors' laboratory, on children's sweating rates and composition, voluntary drinking patterns during prolonged exercise in the heat, taste perception of beverages, and the importance of fluid flavor and composition in preventing voluntary dehydration. Subjects were children, exposed for 90 to 180 min to intermittent bouts of cycling (45-50% maximal uptake) in a climatic chamber (mostly at , 40-50% relative humidity). There were five main findings: When given unflavored water ad libitum, children dehydrated progressively and their core temperature increased faster than in adults. When offered drinks with various flavors, children preferred grape to other flavors. When given grape-flavored water during intermittent exercise in the heat, children voluntarily drank 44.5% more than with unflavored water. When given grape-flavored carbohydrate-electrolyte solution, they voluntarily drank 91% more than with unflavored water. Finally, such consumption of carbohydrate-electrolyte solution was sufficient to prevent voluntary dehydration during 180-min intermittent exercise in the heat.
Nutrition Knowledge, Eating Practices, and Health of Adolescent Female Runners: A 3-Year Longitudinal Study
Authors: Wiita Barbara G. , Stombaugh Isabelle A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine changes in nutrition knowledge, intakes, attitudes, and behaviors as well as health status of 22 female adolescent runners. Subjects completed questionnaires, interviews, and dietary analyses twice over a 3-year period. Over this time they experienced physical growth and improved athletic performance. Although their mean score on a test of basic and sports nutrition knowledge remained stable at 67%, after 3 years more runners correctly responded to statements about carbohydrate and fat. However, fewer responded correctly to statements regarding fluid intake and skipping meals. Although runners increased the percentage of calories consumed as carbohydrates, they significantly decreased their mean energy intake, thus lowering carbohydrate intake. They significantly lowered protein, calcium, potassium, and sodium intakes. The incidence of possible eating disorders increased, as did stress fractures. Over 3 years, nutrition knowledge did not improve, the quality of dietary intakes decreased, incidence of eating disorders and stress fractures increased, and menstrual irregularities remained high.
Use of Creatine and Other Supplements by Members of Civilian and Military Health Clubs: A Cross-Sectional Survey
Authors: Sheppard Heather L. , Raichada Sneha M. , Kouri Kellie M. , Stenson-Bar-Maor Lena , Branch J. David
Published: August 2016

A survey was used to collect anonymous cross-sectional data on demographics, exercise habits, and use of creatine and other supplements by exercisers in civilian (C) and military (M) health clubs. M (n = 133) reported more aerobic training and less use of creatine and protein supplements than C(n = 96, p < .05). Supplement users (SU, n = 194) and nonusers (SNU, n = 35) engaged in similar frequency and duration of aerobic exercise, as well as number of resistance exercise repetitions, but SU completed more sets for each resistance exercise (x̄ ± SE, 5 ± 1) than SNU (3 ± 1, p ≤ .05). Significant (p ≤ .05) associations were observed between SU and resistance training goal of strength (as opposed to endurance), as well as greater frequency of resistance training. Male gender, resistance training goal of strength, lower frequency and duration of aerobic training, and use of protein, ß-hydroxy-ß-methyl butyrate, and androstenedi-one/dehydroepiandrosterone supplements were all associated with creatine use (p < .05). For creatine users, the dose and length of creatine supplementation was 12.2±2.7g•day·1 for 40 ± 5 weeks. Popular magazines were the primary source of information on creatine (69%) compared to physicians (14%) or dietitians (10%, p ≤ .0001). This study underscores two potential public health concerns: (a) reliance on popular media rather than allied-health professionals for information on creatine, and (b) use of creatine, a popular supplement with unknown long-term effects, in combination with other anabolic supplements of questionable efficacy and/or safety.
Effects of Anabolic Precursors on Serum Testosterone Concentrations and Adaptations to Resistance Training in Young Men
Authors: Brown Gregory A. , Vukovich Matthew D. , Reifenrath Tracy A. , Uhl Nathaniel L. , Parsons Kerry A. , Sharp Rick L. , King Douglas S.
Published: August 2016

The effects of androgen precursors, combined with herbal extracts designed to enhance testosterone formation and reduce conversion of androgens to estrogens was studied in young men. Subjects performed 3 days of resistance training per week for 8 weeks. Each day during Weeks 1,2,4,5,7, and 8, subjects consumed either placebo (PL; n = 10) or a supplement (ANDRO-6; n = 10), which contained daily doses of 300 mg androstenedione, 150 mg DHEA, 750 mg Tribulus terrestris, 625 mg Chrysin, 300 mg Indole-3-carbinol, and 540 mg Saw palmetto. Serum androstenedione concentrations were higher in ANDRO-6 after 2,5, and 8 weeks (p < .05), while serum concentrations of free and total testosterone were unchanged in both groups. Serum estradiol was elevated at Weeks 2, 5, and 8 in ANDRO-6 (p < .05), and serum estrone was elevated at Weeks 5 and 8 (p < .05). Muscle strength increased (p < .05) similarly from Weeks 0 to 4, and again from Weeks 4 to 8 in both treatment groups. The acute effect of one third of the daily dose, of ANDRO-6 and PL was studied in 10 men (23±4years). Serum androstenedione concentrations were elevated (p < .05) in ANDRO-6 from 150 to 360 min after ingestion, while serum free or total testosterone concentrations were unchanged. These data provide evidence that the addition of these herbal extracts to androstenedione does not result in increased serum testosterone concentrations, reduce the estrogenic effect of androstenedione, and does not augment the adaptations to resistance training.
Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms for the Bone Response to Mechanical Loading
Authors: Bloomfield Susan A.
Published: August 2016

To define the cellular and molecular mechanisms for the osteogenic response of bone to increased loading, several key steps must be defined: sensing of the mechanical signal by cells in bone, transduction of the mechanical signal to a biochemical one, and transmission of that biochemical signal to effector cells. Osteocytes are likely to serve as sensors of loading, probably via interstitial fluid flow produced during loading. Evidence is presented for the role of integrins, the cell’s actin cytoskeleton, G proteins, and various intracellular signaling pathways in transducing that mechanical signal to a biochemical one. Nitric oxide, prostaglandins, and insulin-like growth factors all play important roles in these pathways. There is growing evidence for modulation of these mechanotransduction steps by endocrine factors, particularly parathyroid hormone and estrogen. The efficiency of this process is also impaired in the aged animal, yet what remains undefined is at what step mechanotransduction is affected.
Nutrition Knowledge and Dietary Composition in Italian Adolescent Female Athletes and Non-athletes
Authors: Cupisti Adamasco , D’Alessandro Claudia , Castrogiovanni Silvia , Barale Alice , Morelli Ester
Published: August 2016

This study aims to investigate dietary composition and nutrition knowledge of 60 athlete and 59 non-athlete adolescent females (age, 14-18 years), using a 3-day food recall and a questionnaire on nutrition. The reported daily energy intake was similar in athletes and non-athletes, but less than the recommended and the estimated requirements. In the athletes, the energy supply from breakfast was higher than in the non-athletes (18.5 ± 6.6 vs. 15.0 ± 8.2%, p < .005). Energy intake from carbohydrates was higher (53.6 ± 6.2 vs. 49.8 ± 63%, p < .05) and that from lipids was lower (30.4 ± 5.5 vs. 34.2 ± 5.2%, p < .001) in athletes than in non-athletes. Athletes also showed higher fiber (20.0 ± 5.8 vs. 14.1 ± 4.3 g/day, p < .001). iron (10.6±5.1 vs. 7.5 ± 2.1 mg/day,/7 < .001) and vitamin A (804 ± 500 vs, 612 ± 456 μg/day, p < .05) reported intake than non-athletes. Calcium, iron, and zinc intake were less than 100% RDA in both groups. Athletes gave a slightly higher rate of correct answers on the nutrition knowledge questionnaire (77.6 vs. 71.6%,p < .01) than non-athletes. In conclusion, the overall recalled dietary intake and nutrition knowledge of the studied adolescent females show some misconceptions and nutrient deficiencies, but the results in athletes are quite better man in non-athletes, suggesting a favorable role of sport practice on dietary habits and nutrition knowledge.
Drinking Behavior and Perception of Thirst in Untrained Women during 6 Weeks of Heat Acclimation and Outdoor Training
Authors: Ormerod Jennifer K. , Elliott Tabatha A. , Scheett Timothy P. , VanHeest Jaci L. , Armstrong Lawrence E. , Maresh Carl M.
Published: August 2016

The purposes of this study were to characterize measures of fluid intake and perception of thirst in women over a 6-week period of exercise-heat acclimation and outdoor training and examine if this lengthy acclimation period would result in changes in fluid intake that differ from those previously reported in men utilizing a shorter acclimation protocol of 8–10 days. Voluntary water intake (11–17 °C) and perception of thirst were measured in a group of 5 women (21–26 yr) undergoing exercise-heat acclimation for 90 min/day, 3 days/wk (36 °C, rh 50–70%) and outdoor training 3 days/wk for 6 weeks. Decreased drinking during acclimation was characterized by a decrease in the number of drinks (35 ± 10 to 17 ± 5; p < .05), greater time to first drink (9.9 ± 2.0 to 23.1 ± 4.7 min; p < .05), and a decrease in total volume ingested per week (3310 ± 810 to 1849 ± 446 ml; p < .05) through the 6-week study. Mean perceived thirst measurements remained low and showed only slight variance (3 ± 0.4 to 5 ± 0.4). These observations support a psycho-physiological response pattern different than that previously observed during 8–10 day acclimation protocols in men.
Prevalence of Iron Depletion and Anemia in Top-level Basketball Players
Authors: Dubnov Gal , Constantini Naama W.
Published: August 2016

Iron depletion, with or without anemia, may have a negative effect on physical and mental performance. Even with current recognition of the problem, its incidence among athletes remains high. Most studies describe iron status in endurance athletes. This study examined the prevalence of iron depletion and anemia among male and female top-level basketball players. Adolescents and adults (N = 103) from 8 national basketball teams were screened for anemia and iron stores status, which included a complete blood count and levels of plasma ferritin, transferrin, and serum iron. Iron depletion, defined by a ferritin level below 20 μg/L, was found among 22% of study participants (15% in males vs. 35% in females, p = .019). Anemia was found among 25% of athletes (18% in males vs. 38% in females, p = .028). Iron deficiency anemia, defined by the presence of anemia, ferritin levels below 12 μg/L, and transferrin saturation below 16%, was found among 7% of players (3% in males vs. 14% in females, p = .043). In summary, a high prevalence of iron depletion, anemia, and iron deficiency anemia was found among basketball players of both genders. We recommend screening ballgame players for blood count and iron store status, and providing nutritional counseling and iron supplementation when necessary.
Eating Attitudes, Exercise Identity, and Body Alienation in Competitive Ultramarathoners
Authors: Lantz Christopher D. , Rhea Deborah J. , Mesnier Karin
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationships among eating attitudes, exercise identity, and body alienation in ultramarathoners. Eighty-seven competitive ultramarathoners (73 males, 14 females) completed the Eating Attitudes Test–26, Exercise Identity Scale, and Body Alienation Scale as part of their pre-race registration. Correlation coefficients revealed that eating attitudes were positively related to exercise identity (R = 0.31) and injury tolerance (R = 0.43), and that exercise identity was positively related to injury tolerance (R = 0.33). MANOVA further indicated that subjects with high exercise identity reported more eating disorder behaviors [F(2, 80) = 7.73, P < 0.001 J and higher injury tolerance [F (2, 80) = 3.69, P < 0.05] than persons with low exercise identity. Female ultramarathoners scoring high on exercise identity were more likely to report aberrant eating behaviors [F (2, 80) = 3.39, P < 0.05J and higher training intensity levels [F (2, 80) = 3.91, p < 0.02J than were average males and the low- or moderate-exercise identifying females.
Rehydration with a Caffeinated Beverage during the Nonexercise Periods of 3 Consecutive Days of 2-a-Day Practices
Authors: Fiala Kelly A. , Casa Douglas J. , Roti Melissa W.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of rehydration with a caffeinated beverage during non exercise periods on hydration status throughout consecutive practices in the heat. Ten (7 women, 3 men) partially heat-acclimated athletes (age 24 ± ly, body fat 19.2 ± 2%, weight 68.4 ± 4.0 kg, height 170 ± 3 cm) completed 3 successive days of 2-a-day practices (2 h/ practice, 4 h/d) in mild heat (WBGT = 23 °C). The 2 trials (double-blind, random, cross-over design) included; 1) caffeine (CAF) rehydrated with Coca-Cola® and 2) caffeine-free (CF) rehydrated with Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola®. Urine and psychological measures were determined before and after each 2-h practice. A significant difference was found for urine color for the post-AM time point, F = 5.526, P = 0.031. No differences were found among other variables (P > 0.05). In summary, there is little evidence to suggest that the use of beverages containing caffeine during non exercise might hinder hydration status.
Effects of Caffeine Ingestion on Exercise Testing: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Doherty Mike , Smith Paul M.
Published: August 2016

This study used the meta-analytic approach to examine the effects of caffeine ingestion on exercise testing. Forty double-blind studies with 76 effect sizes (ES) met the inclusion criteria. The type of exercise test was classified as endurance, graded, or short-term. In comparison with placebo, caffeine improved test outcome by 12.3% (95% CI, 9.1 to 15.4), which was equivalent to an overall ES of 0.41 (95% CI, 0.31 to 0.51). Endurance exercise significantly improved test outcome (P < 0.05) more than either graded or short-term exercise. When exercise protocol was examined, time-to-exhaustion (Tlim) protocols had a significantly greater (P < 0.05) ES than either the graded or the non-Tlim protocol(s). The results from this meta-analysis confirm the ergogenic effects of caffeine, particularly for endurance testing that use Tlim protocols.
Sweat and Sodium Losses in NCAA Football Players: A Precursor to Heat Cramps?
Authors: Stofan John R. , Zachwieja Jeffrey J. , Horswill Craig A. , Murray Robert , Anderson Scott A. , Eichner E. Randy
Published: August 2016

This observational study was designed to determine whether football players with a history of heat cramps have elevated fluid and sodium losses during training. During a “two-a-day” training camp, five Division I collegiate football players (20.2 ± 1.6 y, 113 ± 20 kg) with history of heat cramps (C) were matched (weight, age, race and position) with a cohort of teammates (19.6 ± 0.6 y, 110 ± 20 kg) who had never cramped (NC). Change in body weight (adjusted by fluid intake) determined gross sweat loss. Sweat samples (forearm patch) were analyzed for sodium and potassium concentrations. Adlibitum fluid intake was measured by recording pre- and post-practice bottle weights. Average sweat sodium loss for a 2.5-h practice was projected at 5.1 ± 2.3 g (C) vs. 2.2 ± 1.7 g (NC). When averaged across two practices within the day, fluid intake was similar between groups (C: 2.6 ± 0.8 L vs. NC: 2.8 ± 0.7 L), as was gross sweat loss (C: 4.0 ± 1.1 L vs. NC: 3.5 ± 1.6 L). There was wide variability in the fluid deficit incurred for both C and NC (1.3 ± 0.9 vs. 0.7 ± 1.2%) due to fluid intake. Sweat potassium was similar between groups, but sweat sodium was two times higher in C versus NC (54.6 ± 16.2 vs. 25.3 ± 10.0 mmol/L). These data indicate that sweat sodium losses were comparatively larger in cramp-prone football players than in NC. Although both groups consumed sodium-containing fluids (on-field) and food (off-field), both appeared to experience an acute sodium deficit at the end of practices based on sweat sodium losses. Large acute sodium and fluid losses (in sweat) may be characteristic of football players with a history of heat cramping.
Carbohydrate Influences Plasma Interleukin-6 but Not C-Reactive Protein or Creatine Kinase Following a 32-Km Mountain Trail Race
Authors: Miles Mary P. , Walker Erin E. , Conant Stephen B. , Hogan Shelly P. , Kidd Jessy R.
Published: August 2016

Attenuation of exercise-induced interleukin-6 (IL-6) responses by carbohydrate (CHO) has been demonstrated in studies comparing controlled doses (≥ 0.9 g · kg−1 · h−1) to placebo, but not in studies of voluntary intake. This study sought to determine if attenuation of the IL-6 response during a 32.2-km mountain trail race occurs for high compared to low ad libitum CHO intakes. IL-6, C-reactive protein (CRP), and creatine kinase activity (CK) were analyzed from blood samples collected 12 h pre-, 0, 4, and 24 h post-race. Subjects were grouped into low (n = 14, 0.4 ± 0.1 g · kg−1· h−1) and high (n = 18, 0.8 ± 0.2 g · kg−1 · h−1) CHO intake groups. IL-6 0 h post-race (P < 0.05) was higher in the low (40.2 ± 22.7 pg · mL−1) compared to the high CHO group (32.7 ± 22.1 pg · mL−1). CRP and CK both increased post-race, but no differences were observed between groups. Attenuation of exercise-induced IL-6 is apparent across a range of CHO intakes.
Chocolate Milk as a Post-Exercise Recovery Aid
Authors: Karp Jason R. , Johnston Jeanne D. , Tecklenburg Sandra , Mickleborough Timothy D. , Fly Alyce D. , Stager Joel M.
Published: August 2016

Nine male, endurance-trained cyclists performed an interval workout followed by 4 h of recovery, and a subsequent endurance trial to exhaustion at 70% VO2max, on three separate days. Immediately following the first exercise bout and 2 h of recovery, subjects drank isovolumic amounts of chocolate milk, fluid replacement drink (FR), or carbohydrate replacement drink (CR), in a single-blind, randomized design. Carbohydrate content was equivalent for chocolate milk and CR. Time to exhaustion (TTE), average heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and total work (WT) for the endurance exercise were compared between trials. TTE and WT were significantly greater for chocolate milk and FR trials compared to CR trial. The results of this study suggest that chocolate milk is an effective recovery aid between two exhausting exercise bouts.