bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Empirical Investigation into how Nigerian Skit Makers Portray Cross Dressing on Facebook and Its Impact on Public Perception
Authors: Agbo Amadi, Mercy , Uche Macaulay, Samuel , Emetumah Fatima Ijeoma
Published: February 2024

The study focused on public perception of the depiction of cross dressing among Nigeria skit makers on Facebook. The study was guided by four research objectives. Based on the nature of the study, survey research method was adopted as the research design and Marshal McLuhan’s Technological Determinism Theory was the theoretical framework for the study. The instrument for data collection was an online Google form questionnaire that was distributed to Facebook users online who were randomly selected from three comedy skit making group on Facebook. Taro Yamane’s formula was used for sample size selection of 400 Respondents from a population of 46,061,400 Facebook users in Nigeria. However, 385 responses were received; representing 96.3% out of whom 36.9% were males and 63.1% were females. Findings from the study showed that the public perceive cross dressing by Nigeria skit makers on Facebook as hilarious; also, social recognition was found to be the major factor that motivates cross dressing skits on Facebook and the viewership of cross dressed skits on Facebook does not influence the viewers’ offline sense of dressing and behaviour. Based on the findings of the study, the researchers recommended the need for public enlightenment about cross dressing skits on Facebook and other social media platforms, so that the public becomes aware that such skits are basically for entertainment and for social recognition by the skit makers. Also, skit makers should include in their contents/skits issues challenging our society and how the society can be free of these vices, even while being entertained.
Effect of Adopting AI to Explore Big Data on Personally Identifiable Information (PII) for Financial and Economic Data Transformation
Authors: Olabanji Samuel Oladiipo , Oladoyinbo Oluseun Babatunde , Asonze Christopher Uzoma , Oladoyinbo Tunbosun Oyewale , Ajayi Samson Abidemi , Olaniyi Oluwaseun Oladeji
Published: February 2024

The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into big data analytics represents a pivotal shift in the management of Personally Identifiable Information (PII) within the financial sector. This study was prompted by the increasing reliance on AI for handling sensitive financial data and the consequent rise in data security concerns, exemplified by the 2019 Capital One data breach which compromised the PII of over 100 million individuals, highlighting the vulnerabilities inherent in digital data storage and management systems. Aiming to critically evaluate the effects of adopting AI in exploring big data on PII within the financial and economic sectors, the study focused on assessing how AI can transform data management processes, enhance data security, ensure compliance with regulatory requirements, and maintain data integrity. Employing a quantitative research methodology, data was gathered from 532 professionals in the financial sector through surveys distributed via LinkedIn. The hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analysis. The study's findings revealed that the adoption of AI in managing big data significantly enhances the security and privacy of PII in the financial sector. However, it also increases the risk of sophisticated cyber-attacks such as adversarial attacks and data poisoning. Significantly, financial institutions that integrate AI into their data management systems demonstrate higher compliance with data protection regulations, and AI-driven cybersecurity strategies were found to markedly improve the performance of cybersecurity systems in the sector. Based on these insights, the study recommends best practices and guidelines for financial institutions to effectively integrate AI into their data management systems. These include prioritizing data security and privacy, ensuring regulatory compliance, investing in AI-driven cybersecurity, and managing the inherent risks of AI integration. The study advocates for a balanced approach in AI adoption, emphasizing the need for robust security measures, continuous monitoring, and adapting to the evolving regulatory and technological landscape.
Leveraging FinTech Compliance to Mitigate Cryptocurrency Volatility for Secure US Employee Retirement Benefits: Bitcoin ETF Case Study
Authors: Olabanji Samuel Oladiipo , Oladoyinbo Tunbosun Oyewale , Asonze Christopher Uzoma , Adigwe Chinasa Susan , Okunleye Olalekan Jamiu , Olaniyi Oluwaseun Oladeji
Published: February 2024

The integration of cryptocurrencies, particularly Bitcoin, into retirement savings plans has recently garnered significant attention. This interest has been amplified by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission's approval of Bitcoin Exchange-Traded Funds (ETFs) in January 2024 and Fidelity Investments' decision to include Bitcoin in their 401(k) plans. These landmark developments represent a paradigm shift in retirement investment strategies, merging traditional financial planning with the dynamic and volatile world of cryptocurrencies. The entry of Bitcoin introduces novel challenges, including increased volatility and regulatory uncertainty, necessitating a comprehensive examination of its impacts on retirement savings. The study sought to explore the role of Financial Technology (FinTech) in managing these risks and assess the adequacy of current regulatory frameworks. Employing a quantitative research approach, the study collected data from 386 participants, including FinTech practitioners and investment portfolio managers through a survey that combining closed-ended and open-ended questions. Multiple regression was used to analyze the relationships between variables such as FinTech integration, regulatory compliance, and the risk associated with cryptocurrency-inclusive retirement portfolios. The study revealed that the inclusion of Bitcoin significantly increases portfolio volatility. It also found that advanced FinTech data management techniques significantly enhance risk mitigation, while current regulatory frameworks are inadequate for governing the inclusion of cryptocurrencies in retirement plans. A comprehensive framework combining FinTech and regulatory compliance was shown to effectively reduce investment risks. The study recommends cautious consideration of cryptocurrencies in retirement portfolios, with an emphasis on assessing the risk appetite of participants. It advocates for dynamic regulatory frameworks and enhanced use of FinTech for real-time risk management. The study suggests that retirement plan providers should adopt an integrated approach, combining technological innovations with regulatory oversight, to navigate the complexities of cryptocurrency investments effectively.
A Study on the Relationship between Community Participation and the Improvement of Slum Settlement Quality in Medan City, Indonesia
Authors: Simarmata Sesilia Gloria , Lubis Satia Negara , Thoha Achmad Siddik
Published: February 2024

This study explores the intricate relationship between community participation and the improvement of slum settlement quality in Area 33 of Belawan II Sub-District, Medan Belawan, Indonesia. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, revealing a significant correlation between environmental cleanliness, community participation, and the quality of slum settlements. The findings indicate that poor drainage conditions, exacerbated by waste blockages leading to stagnant water, and low community participation, driven by a lack of awareness and minimal involvement in environmental initiatives, critically impede the advancement of slum settlement conditions. Through the implementation of socialization and education programs, a notable increase in community awareness and engagement in environmental management has been observed, suggesting these as pivotal strategies for enhancing slum settlement quality. The study identifies the utilization of available land and the maximization of community participation as essential strategies to mitigate threats such as flooding and disease outbreaks. A SWOT analysis conducted within the study underscores the importance of prioritizing educational programs, community participation enhancement, and optimal land use to create sustainable and habitable environments. The conclusion emphasizes that despite the low level of community participation affecting settlement quality, significant opportunities for improvement exist. The study recommends government-community collaboration and the adoption of educational initiatives to foster environmental conditions conducive to community well-being in slum settlements. This research contributes to the body of knowledge by demonstrating that informed community involvement is crucial for addressing local environmental challenges and enhancing slum settlement quality.
An Inclusion Effect of Amino-acid (Histidine) in the Carcass Quality and Mineral Profile of African Catfish Clarias Gariepinus (Burchell 1822)
Authors: Ayinla Damilola O.  , Awolu Taiwo E.  , Ugochwukwu Uzohuo
Published: February 2024

150 fingerlings of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) with initial mean weight of ±5.1g was stocked in a glass aquaria and were fed to satiation for 156 days. Histidine was used as a supplement to determine the mineral and carcass quality of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) fingerlings at varying inclusion levels (0, 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6% and 0.8%) representing D1 – D5 in a formulated diet of 40% crude protein.

The carcass proximate and mineral composition were significantly improved by histidine supplementation but, exhibited no definite pattern of inclination while, moisture decreased significantly with increased histidine level up to diet D5. The calcium composition were significant different (P<0.05) with values ranging between 41.0 and 87.6 mg/gDM.
Efficacy of Plant Growth Regulators on Different Yield Parameters of Cucumber cv. Malini under Shade Net Conditions
Authors: Dinesh A. , Prasanth P. , Lakshminarayana D. , Nagaraju K. , Gouthami P.
Published: February 2024

The experiment was conducted to study the effect of different plant growth regulators on yield of cucumber cv. Malini under shade net conditions. The experiment was carried out with 10 treatments GA3 at 75 ppm, 150 ppm and 250 ppm, Ethrel at 100 ppm, 200 ppm and 300 ppm, Salicylic acid at 75 ppm, 150 ppm and 250 ppm and control (water spray) in 3 replications. The yield parameters like number of fruits per plant, fruit weight, fruit length etc. were significantly influenced by plant growth regulators. Among all yield parameters superior values for maximum days taken for final harvest (86.49 days), maximum fruit weight (248.00 g) were recorded in treatment GA3 at 250 ppm, treatment GA3 at 75 ppm was recorded with the highest values for number of fruits per vine (9.46) and fruit diameter (4.56cm) and GA3 at 150 ppm recorded with highest values for fruit length (21.33 cm) as compared to other treatments. Among all treatments, treatment with GA3@ 75 ppm showed positive effect in terms of gross returns and over all net returns.
Effects of Bio-inoculation on the Growth of Cabbage as Well as the Disease Progression of Alternaria Leaf Spot
Authors: Singh Ranjeet , Bisen Kartikay , Pal Veer , Singh Anil Kumar , Singh Budhesh Pratap
Published: February 2024

Cabbage is one of the common Cole crop which is widely grown throughout India. It is affected various disease including, Alternaria leaf spot, black rot, club root, downy mildew and powdery mildew. Alternaria leaf spot, caused by Alternaria species such as A. brassicae and A. brassicicola, has been documented on every continent and is a prevalent disease affecting cabbage. Among the various diseases impacting cabbage, it stands out as a major contributor to yield loss, averaging between 32-57%. An experiment Effects of bio-inoculation on the growth of cabbage seedlings, as well as the disease progression of Alternaria leaf spot under challenge inoculation was conducted at Department of Plant Pathology, Rama University, Kanpur during 2023. Result of the study revealed that. application of Trichoderma as a seed treatment led to higher root and shoot dry biomass (0.080 and 0.021 mg/ seedling respectively), higher % increase in  root and shoot dry weight (61.25and 82.78%) was found in T1 (Seed treatment with  trichoderma  harzianum) whereas highest  root: shoot ratio (0.222) was  reported in treatment T2.
Study on Soil Fertility Variations, Distribution of Soil Health Report and Key Suggestions for Problems Identified for Improvement of Livelihoods in Adopted Village Narsimhulapalle, Telangana, India
Authors: Shanti M. , Hinduja N. A. , Sathish R. , Ramesh C. H. , Bhavyasree K. , Bharathi V. , Kanakadurga K. , Babu T. Arun , Rajesh K. , Vani K. P. , Maheswari T. Uma
Published: February 2024

The Agricultural College, Sircilla of Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, as the sixth and youngest college of the University, started during the academic year 2018-19. One of the mandatory activities of the college in addition to academics is adoption of village and disseminating need based relevant technologies of the University for improvement of livelihoods of the villagers. Hence, a village by name Narsimhulapalle of Thangallapalli Mandal, Rajanna Sircilla district was adopted as part of extension activities of the college which is about 19 km from the college. Prior to the dissemination of improved technologies, the identification of existing scenario in the village with regards to soils, fertility status, crops, varieties, package of production technologies followed were taken up. Soil samples were collected with geo-positions from every farmer’s field i.e., 114 farm holds of the village, processed and tested for fertility status. Action plan was prepared based on crop grown to alleviate the livelihoods of the village. A systematic collection of demographic, socio economic conditions and livelihoods of the villagers from primary and secondary sources along with prevailing farming practices were documented. All the 114 soils of the village were deficient in N, while majority of soils were medium to high with respect to available P and K. The Soil fertility based fertilizer recommendations were advocated to every individual farmer based on their soil test report for the crop grown. Soil fertility maps were prepared and displayed in the village Panchayat. Bridging of the identified extension and research gaps was planned by proposing relevant technological interventions for the enhancement of livelihoods.
Effect of Harvesting Time, Drying Method and Packaging of Cowpea Leaves on Microbial Contamination
Authors: Wanjiku Gitau Jane , Kingori Gathungu Geofrey , Kirim Kiramana James
Published: February 2024

After harvesting, cowpea leaves have high moisture content which exposes them to microbial growth. Drying is used to reduce the moisture and extend the shelf life. However, dried foods are susceptible to spoilage resulting from many microbial, biological, chemicals and physical reactions. After drying packaging materials used by farmers also expose the dried product to a range of microorganisms due to their different moisture retention capacity. This study aimed at prolonging the keeping quality of the dried cowpea leaves for use during off- season and coming up with information on the best and affordable packaging material that would ensure safety of dried leaves. Data was collected on fungal, bacteria and coliforms. The data was subjected to variance using Statistical Analysis System 9.2 edition and significantly different means separated using LSD at 5%. The combination of   harvesting stage, drying method and packaging material significantly (p<0.05) influenced microbial load (bacterial and fungal), however no coliforms were observed. Open sun-dried cowpea leaves at 21 DAS, packaged in woven and aluminium foil reported a high number of bacterial and fungal counts compared to the kraft packaging. Oven dried cowpea leaves, harvested at 49 days after sowing (DAS), and in kraft paper resulted in the least bacterial and fungal contamination compared to those packaged in woven and aluminium foil. Sun drying and harvesting time after at 21, 35 and 49 DAS contained the highest bacterial and fungal contamination followed by solar drying and the least was recorded in oven drying method. This research shows that correct harvest stage, adoption of oven and solar drying methods and use of correct packaging material will prolong the shelf life of dried cowpea leaves therefore enhancing   food security and food safety.
Assessment of Genetic Variability, Heritability and Genetic Advance in Maize Genotypes (Zea mays L.)
Authors: Kumar G Praveen , Sunil N , Sekhar J. C. , Chary D Srinivasa
Published: February 2024

Aim: The aim of the present research work was to estimate the genetic variability, broad sense heritability and genetic advance for various yield and its contributing characters of 39 maize genotypes.

Methodology: 39 maize genotypes were sown in randomized block design and replicated thrice to evaluate various genetic parameters. The data was recorded on twelve quantitative traits including days to fifty percent tasseling, days to fifty percent silking, days to maturity, plant height, ear height, ear length, ear diameter, number of kernel rows/ear, number of kernels/row, 100kernels weight, shelling % and grain yield/plant.

Results: The mean sum of squares due to genotypes for each of the 12 traits under study indicated significant differences in analysis of variance. High to moderate genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation as well as genetic advance were observed in the traits yield per plant, plant height, ear height, number of kernels per row, and 100-kernel weight. These findings suggest that the heritability of these traits is most likely the result of additive gene effects and that selection in early generations may be effective for these traits. On the other hand, the remaining characters days to 50% tasseling, days to 50% silking, number of kernel rows per ear, and shelling percentage were recorded with high heritability with low genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation and genetic advance suggesting non-additive gene action for control of these traits which provides limited scope for improvement by selection.

Conclusion: Among the characters studied, grain yield, plant height, and ear height had high heritability and high values of genetic advance indicating that these characters were controlled by additive gene action and so phenotypic selection is effective for improvement of these traits.
Analysis of Field Data Using Microsoft Excel and MATLAB Software to Evaluate Reservoir and Well Damage
Authors: Chikwe Anthony Ogbaegbe , Nwanwe Onyebuchi Ivan , Odo Jude Emeka , Ezenkwa Chidera Blessing , Onyejekwe Ifeanyichukwu Michael , Okalla Christian Emelu
Published: February 2024

Reservoir formation damage is a drop in a well's productivity caused by a decrease in reservoir rock permeability. To tackle this issue and maximize well production, obtained pressure build-up time data at a steady production rate from a vertical producing oil WELL 20A, was analysed to establish the wellbore and reservoir characteristics. A numerical well test simulator (Matlab) is used to simulate damage in the area close to the wellbore, a Microsoft Excel sheet and an analytical approach to calculate the impact of wellbore and reservoir factors such as skin, wellbore storage, and average reservoir permeability. In order to determine whether the numerical well test simulator was successful at performing pressure transient analysis on observed data, the findings from the analytical solutions using Microsoft Excel Sheet and numerical well test simulator Matlab were compared. Comparable outcomes for the permeability and skin values were obtained from the build-up test data analysis generated; hence, the negative skin values for wells 20A acquired after the analysis suggest that the formation is not damaged. This indicate that well 20A is not a candidate for workover operations.
Música e práticas colaborativas em Conservatória
Authors: Herschmann Micael , Sanmartin Fernandes Cíntia
Published: February 2024

Tomando como referência não só de levantamento de matérias veiculadas na mídia tradicional e de dados socioeconômicos do território, mas também observações de campo, conversas informais e entrevistas semiestruturadas, buscou-se neste artigo fazer um breve balanço da situação socioeconômica e cultural após o vilarejo de Conservatória ter implementado algumas ações de associativismo que vem permitindo se manter como importante destino turístico do país. Analisando os eventos incorporados com destaque ao calendário local nos últimos anos constatou-se que a música ao vivo – entretanto, agora mais diversificada e articulada também a outros gêneros musicais – continua sendo valorizada como um vetor importante de desenvolvimento que vem permitindo produzir-se sinergias com os setores do turismo, da gastronomia e do entretenimento na localidade.
complexo do caju e a cultura alimentar nordestina
Authors: Fernandes Flavia
Published: February 2024

O objetivo deste artigo é analisar como o caju, espécie endêmica do nordeste com ampla representação simbólica e cultural desde o período colonial, foco de ações pioneiras de patrimonialização na década de 1970, atualmente representa uma perda de 90% no campo. A abordagem teórica utilizada considera o conceito de cultura alimentar da antropologia em diálogo com a sociologia da cultura e da alimentação. Ao problematizar a crise oriunda da padronização dos hábitos alimentares, que também reflete uma crise identitária, conclui-se que a efetividade políticas culturais no âmbito da cultura alimentar exigem uma construção multidisciplinar e interinstitucional, que considere a complexa rede de relações na qual as práticas, saberes e fazeres se inserem. No âmbito da cajucultura, sobretudo da agricultura familiar, essas ações têm caráter de urgência.
Políticas Culturais de Preservação das Línguas dos Povos Indígenas a Luz do Inventário Nacional da Diversidade Linguística (INDL)
Authors: Barbosa Carvalho Maria Gabriela , Gonçalves de Oliveira Antonio
Published: February 2024

A língua é parte fundamental da cultura e da história de um povo. Constantes ataques à culturalidade dos povos originários no Brasil, especialmente aos povos indígenas, a exemplo do observado neste momento em relação às condições de vida do povo yanomami, contribuem para a mitigação e até mesmo extinção da própria língua originária em prejuízo a essência histórico-cultural do referido povo. Nesse sentido, por meio de uma revisão narrativa, o presente artigo tem por objetivo analisar as políticas
Lei de Incentivo à Cultura no Município do Rio de Janeiro: entre a concretização do direito à cultura e as desigualdades
Authors: Amaral Isabela
Published: February 2024

A Constituição de 1988 firmou um compromisso com os direitos fundamentais que perpassa a instituição e a execução de políticas públicas em prol da concretização desses direitos. A partir dessa ideia, o presente artigo tem como intuito analisar de forma crítica a Lei de Incentivo à Cultura no Município do Rio de Janeiro, a partir do monitoramento de sua execução e de como, em seu âmbito, se dá a efetivação do direito à cultura. A ideia central é avaliar o impacto da política de incentivo fiscal à cultura no Rio de Janeiro sobre o direito fundamental à cultura e possíveis falhas na sua concretização.
“Nós estamos vivos, conhecedores, sabedores das nossas histórias, detentores dos nossos conhecimentos e salvaguardas das nossas culturas”. Entrevista com Tainá Marajoara
Authors: Cavalcante Lina Luz , Barbalho Alexandre , Severino José Roberto
Published: February 2024

Entrevista com Tainá Marajoara. Por Lina Luz Cavalcante. Alexandre Barbalho e José Roberto Severino.
STRIPS
Authors: Furcy David , Koenig Sven
Published: December 2005

STRIPS was the planning component of the agent architecture for the robot Shakey. Its representation language is still widely used for planning.
ACT
Authors: Lebiere Christian
Published: December 2005

The ACT theory of cognition has been used to model a wide range of cognitive tasks. The latest version of the theory, ACT‐R, is a hybrid architecture which combines a symbolic production system with a subsymbolic level of neural‐like activation processes.
Unified Theories of Cognition
Authors: Chong Ronald S , Wray Robert E
Published: December 2005

A collection of task‐independent mechanisms that can be used to explain, through computational modeling, human cognitive behaviors such as problem solving, decision making, learning, memory, and interaction via perceptual and motor systems.
Bayesian Belief Networks
Authors: Frey Brendan J
Published: December 2005

A “Bayesian belief network” is a directed acyclic graph that specifies how stochastic variables in a complex system interact. The joint distribution is equal to the product of a set of conditional distributions. There is one conditional distribution for each node of the graph and each conditional distribution is conditioned on the parents of the corresponding node. Unlike Markov random fields, Bayesian networks do not require a partition function.
Backpropagation
Authors: Munro Paul
Published: December 2005

Backpropagation is a supervised training procedure for feedforward connectionist networks that is widely used by cognitive scientists to model learning phenomena.
Knowledge Representation
Authors: Shapiro Stuart C
Published: December 2005

Knowledge representation is a subarea of artificial intelligence concerned with understanding, designing, and implementing ways of representing information in computers so that programs can use this information to: derive information that is implied by it; to converse with people in natural languages; to plan future activities; and solve problems in areas that normally require human expertise.
Resolution Theorem Proving
Authors: Wos Larry
Published: December 2005

Resolution theorem proving is the finding of proof of theorems, usually by contradiction, by applying inference rules each of which relies on unification.
Means–Ends Analysis
Authors: Iba Wayne
Published: December 2005

Means–ends analysis is a simple, yet powerful, approach to problem‐solving whereby progress towards a goal or solution is achieved by incrementally searching a state space.
Spreading‐Activation Networks
Authors: Shastri Lokendra
Published: December 2005

Spreading‐activation networks are networks of ‘active’ nodes that compute by propagating activation levels along links. Such network models are inspired by the idea that meaning can be expressed via associations between concepts. They have been used to model cognitive phenomena ranging from low‐level vision to common‐sense reasoning and language understanding.
Computer Vision
Authors: Tsotsos John K
Published: December 2005

Computer vision is a discipline whose major concern is the development of computational methods, in terms of both hardware and software, to acquire, process, and interpret visual images.
Robotics
Authors: Steels Luc , Birk Andreas
Published: December 2005

Robotics is the science of the construction and control of programmable machines suitable for flexible handling in various physical tasks like manipulation and locomotion.
Natural Language Processing, Disambiguation in
Authors: Hirst Graeme
Published: December 2005

Ambiguity pervades all levels of language. Any computer system that uses the meaning of natural language must disambiguate its input.
Functionalism
Authors: Braddon‐Mitchell David
Published: December 2005

Functionalism is the view in the philosophy of mind that that what makes some state of some system a mental state is what that state does in the system.
Supervenience
Authors: McLaughlin Brian P
Published: December 2005

There is supervenience when a difference in one respect requires a difference in another respect. For example, the mental characteristics of individuals supervene on their physical characteristics if and only if two individuals cannot differ in respect of their mental characteristics without differing in respect of their physical characteristics.
Panpsychism
Authors: Seager William
Published: December 2005

Panpsychism is the doctrine that
mind
, in some sense of the term, is everywhere, in some sense of that term. It regards mind as a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of nature.
Intentionality
Authors: Bilgrami Akeel
Published: December 2005

‘Intentionality’ is a term used by philosophers to describe a property which distinguishes a subset of all the mental states there are – the representational states.
Language of Thought
Authors: Rey Georges
Published: December 2005

A language of thought is a language that is proposed by philosophers and psychologists as the medium in which people, and probably many animals, actually think.
Philosophy of Language
Authors: Taylor Kenneth A
Published: December 2005

Philosophical investigations of language focus on issues about the metaphysical nature of meaning, logical form and compositional semantics, and the pragmatics of conversation.
Reference, Theories of
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: December 2005

Theories of reference are about the relations between representations and the world that are thought to determine (at least partly) the meaning or content of those representations.
Artificial Intelligence,Gödelian Arguments Against
Authors: Slezak Peter
Published: December 2005

Gödel's incompleteness theorem says that there are arithmetical truths expressible in certain formal systems which cannot be proven within those systems. This result reveals certain inherent limitations on what is computable, which, according to some theorists, show that minds are not machines because they are not subject to the same limitations.
Free Will
Authors: Hodgson David
Published: December 2005

The expression ‘free will’ has been understood as a capacity of human beings to engage in voluntary conduct in accordance with their own unconstrained choices. The questions of how such capacity could relate to causation as understood by the physical sciences, and whether human beings do have such capacity, have not yet been decisively answered.
Phonology
Authors: Roca IM
Published: December 2005

Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies the patternings of sound in language(s), and formalizes them by means of networks of distinctive features and higher abstract structure organized into levels of representation related by rules.
Speaker Recognition
Authors: Lancker Diana Van , Kreiman Jody
Published: December 2005

Voices, like faces, communicate personal and emotional information, and figure importantly in nearly every human encounter. From puberty on, barring disease or accident, personal voice quality is a robust, distinctive signature of each individual human existence. Much information about the speaker is revealed in the speaker's voice, including age, sex, emotional and physical state, personality, socioeconomic status, geographic history, and attitude towards the listener and the topic under discussion.
Phonology and Phonetics, Acquisition of
Authors: Jusczyk† Peter W
Published: December 2005

During their first year infants discover the elementary sound units that are used to form words in their native language. During their second year they begin to produce these sound units and acquire the structure of their native language.
Parsing: Overview
Authors: Wolf Florian , Gibson Edward
Published: December 2005

Parsing is the task of determining how the words in a sentence combine to yield a structured representation of the sentence meaning, given a grammar.
Constraint‐Based Processing
Authors: Carpenter Bob
Published: December 2005

In a constraint‐based grammar formalism, a class of constraints is used to reduce a class of potential representations to the representations that are well formed, or grammatical.
Linguistic Evidence, Status of
Authors: Schütze Carson T
Published: December 2005

Linguistics concerns itself in principle with any kind of evidence that seems capable of informing us about the human language faculty, though individual researchers may find certain kinds of evidence more fruitful for their goals than others. A survey of the major sources of evidence used by linguists leads to an assessment of their relative merits and consideration of the kinds of explanations of linguistic phenomena this evidence can lead to.
Dissociation Methodology
Authors: Packard Mark G
Published: December 2005

Dissociation methodology is an experimental design tool used to examine functional dichotomies and independence between and within various domains of psychological function.
Neuroimaging
Authors: Rowe James B , Frackowiak Richard SJ
Published: December 2005

Neuroimaging techniques include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). These techniques provide information about the structure and function of the brain in health and disease, and have increased our understanding both of regional specialization and functional integration of different brain regions.
Electroencephalography (
EEG
)
Authors: Picton Terence W , Mazaheri Ali
Published: December 2005

Electroencephalography is a measurement of the brain's electrical activity. It provides information about the timing of intracerebral processes which can be used in conjunction with anatomical information derived from hemodynamic studies to learn about events in the human brain.
Split‐Brain Research
Authors: Lassonde Maryse
Published: December 2005

Split‐brain research has led to an understanding of the role of the two hemispheres in perceptual and cognitive processes, and has raised important questions with regard to human consciousness and self‐awareness.
Neuropsychological Disorders, Animal Models of
Authors: Winocur Gordon
Published: December 2005

Animal models are important to the study of brain damage and neurological disease. When brain function is affected, there are direct psychological and cognitive symptoms that must be taken into account to achieve a full understanding of the disease.
Consciousness, Disorders of
Authors: Plum Fred , Schiff Nicholas D
Published: December 2005

Disorders of consciousness include coma, stupor, confusion and other abnormal states of acute brief or moderately sustained unconsciousness.
Non‐
A
lzheimer Dementias
Authors: Dilli Esma , Miller Bruce L
Published: December 2005

Significant degenerative disorders other than Alzheimer disease that cause dementia include the frontal temporal lobe dementias, Parkinson‐like dementias, and prion‐related diseases.
Acalculia
Authors: Whalen John
Published: December 2005

Impairment of the ability to calculate; research into numerical impairments in patients with brain damage has revealed that human calculation abilities are composed of several distinct cognitive processes.
Executive Function, Models of
Authors: Ohbayashi Machiko , Konishi Seiki , Miyashita Yasushi
Published: December 2005

Executive control is involved in the operation of processes supporting various prefrontal functions such as set shifting, working memory and long‐term memory.
Modeling Coordinate Transformations
Authors: Pouget Alexandre , Snyder Lawrence H
Published: December 2005

Sensorimotor transformations can often be decomposed into a series of intermediate coordinate transforms. These may be modeled using units computing a product of sigmoidal tuning curves to sensory and posture signals.
Visual Imagery, Neural Basis of
Authors: Thompson‐Schill Sharon L
Published: December 2005

Visual imagery is the process of seeing with the ‘mind's eye’. The neural bases of visual imagery have been investigated using physiological recordings of normal brain activity and behavioral measurements in people with brain damage.
Amygdala
Authors: Adolphs Ralph
Published: December 2005

The amygdala is a collection of nuclei in the tel‐encephalon that connect with the sensory neocortex, frontal cortex and a variety of structures that regulate physiological responses. The amygdala participates in the regulation of emotion, attention, memory, and decision‐making.
Hypothalamus
Authors: Malsbury Charles W
Published: December 2005

The hypothalamus is a collection of cell groups (nuclei) at the base of the brain that influences nearly every aspect of physiology and behavior. Hypothalamic neurons participate in neural networks that integrate endocrine, autonomic and behavioral responses that must occur together for an animal to interact successfully with its environment.
H
untington Disease
Authors: Gusella James F
Published: December 2005

Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that involves the loss of neurons in the basal ganglia (particularly the caudate nucleus and the putamen) and in the cerebral cortex. It is characterized by a peculiar writhing movement disturbance, but also has intellectual and psychiatric manifestations. All cases of HD are genetically caused, resulting from an expanded CAG trinucleotide tract that encodes an elongated stretch of consecutive glutamine residues in huntingtin, a large protein of unknown function.
Epilepsy
Authors: Burnham W McIntyre
Published: December 2005

The term epilepsy refers to a group of neurological disorders characterized by spontaneous, recurrent seizures. In most cases drug therapy is effective, but intractable epilepsy can have a profound effect on quality of life.
Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Palmieri Patrick A , Heller Wendy
Published: December 2005

Anxiety is an emotional state generally characterized by fear and worry. When anxiety levels become excessively high owing to a combination of biological, psychological and social influences, one or more anxiety disorders may be diagnosed.
Affective Disorders: Depression and Mania
Authors: Compton Michael T , Raison Charles L , Nemeroff Charles B
Published: December 2005

Affective disorders are psychiatric illnesses characterized by disturbances of affect or mood, which cause emotional, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms that significantly impair functioning. They are classified according to polarity (the degree of mood elevation or depression), and are treated with pharmacological and/or psychotherapeutic interventions accordingly.
Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Yehuda Rachel
Published: December 2005

Post‐traumatic stress disorder is an anxiety disorder in which an individual's ability to function is impaired by emotional responses to memories of a traumatic event.
W
illiams Syndrome
Authors: Lenhoff Howard M
Published: December 2005

Williams syndrome is a rare genetic condition caused by the absence of a small portion (containing about 20 genes) from one copy of chromosome 7. Individuals with Williams syndrome have a mean IQ of 55 and exhibit a strange array of impairments and behaviors. Their abilities in language and music intrigue both cognitive scientists and geneticists.
Long‐Term Potentiation and Long‐Term Depression
Authors: Jr Joe L Martinez , Peng David Haixiang , Meilandt William J , Barea‐Rodríguez Edwin J
Published: December 2005

Long‐term potentiation and depression are enduring changes in synaptic efficacy following brief high‐frequency or low‐frequency electrical stimulation of nerve fibers. Both are considered to be candidate mechanisms of learning and memory.
Circadian Rhythms
Authors: Mistlberger Ralph E
Published: December 2005

Circadian rhythms are daily (about 24 h) rhythms of behavior, physiology and biochemistry that are controlled by internal clocks. These rhythms are entrained by environmental cues, and modulate cognitive performance.
Semantic Memory: Computational Models
Authors: Rogers Timothy T
Published: December 2005

Semantic memory encompasses knowledge about the meanings of words, objects, and events. Computational models of semantic memory describe explicit mechanisms for the storage, representation, and retrieval of semantic information. Three modeling approaches are discussed in this entry: hierarchical processing models, similarity‐based categorisation models, and connectionist models.
Von Neumann, John
Authors: Burks Arthur W
Published: December 2005

John von Neumann (1903–1957) was an interdisciplinary thinker who not only brought fresh approaches to seemingly disparate fields, but discovered and developed their interrelationships. His greatest achievement in cognitive science was his contribution to the concept of the stored‐program computer, where he applied the logical correspondence between nervous systems and computing systems to the logical design of electronic computers.
S
hannon,
C
laude
Authors: Carter Thomas J
Published: December 2005

Claude E. Shannon (1916–2001) is regarded as the founder of information theory. He developed a general model for communication systems, and theoretical tools for their analysis.
Broca,Paul
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: December 2005

Paul Broca (1824–1880) was a French surgeon, pathologist, anatomist and anthropologist. He is remembered for localizing speech in the frontal lobes, recognizing cerebral dominance, and performing the first surgery based on localization, as well as his research on the brain and intellect, and for his insights and theories on ancient trepanned skulls.
Visual Attention
Authors: Rensink Ronald A
Published: December 2005

Visual attention is the factor controlling the selective access and integration of visual information.
Attitudes
Authors: Bizer George Y , Barden Jamie C , Petty Richard E
Published: December 2005

An attitude is a global and relatively enduring evaluation (e.g. good or bad) of a person, object, or issue. Attitudes can be based on affective, cognitive, or behavioral information and can vary in their strength (e.g. how enduring, how resistant to change, and how predictive of behavior they are).
Early Experience and Cognitive Organization
Authors: Landau Barbara
Published: December 2005

There is much support for the idea that cognitive development is specialized, with different aspects of knowledge developing under different mechanisms and timelines. Many aspects of mature knowledge can be traced to innate origins. At the same time, variation in early experience due to genetic defects, blindness or deafness can lead to significant reorganization of the developing brain. Thus human cognitive development is constrained by innate potential, but is also affected by experience during early development.
Change Blindness, Psychology of
Authors: McConkie George , Loschky Lester
Published: December 2005

Change blindness is the tendency to fail to detect changes in a stimulus array while actively exploring it. This happens when the perception of the motion that typically accompanies stimulus change is prevented or disrupted.
Mental Disorders, Computational Models of
Authors: O'Donnell Brian F , Wilt Marcie AB
Published: December 2005

Mental disorders frequently disrupt cognition. Computational models are mathematical representations of cognitive or neural processes. These models have been applied to simulate cognitive deficits, to relate cognitive deficits to disturbances of neuroanatomy and neurophysiology, and to make predictions of the effects of brain disturbance on cognitive function.
Cultural Differences in Causal Attribution
Authors: Krull Douglas S , Morris Michael W
Published: December 2005

An attribution is a judgment about why an event (typically another person's behavior) occurred. Research suggests that cultures differ in the types of attributions that their members prefer.
Decision‐Making
Authors: Mellers Barbara A
Published: December 2005

The field of decision‐making focuses on normative questions – how should we make decisions if we want to do it right? – and description questions – how do we actually make decisions when dealing with uncertainties? Numerous demonstrations of how people violate the axioms of normative theory have given rise to a deeper understanding of the processes underlying actual decision‐making.
Behavior, Genetic Influences on
Authors: Norman M Frank
Published: December 2005

Studies of twins have established that individual differences in intelligence, personality, and psychopathology are strongly associated with genetic variations. Environmental variations are also important.
Group Behavior
Authors: Latané Bibb
Published: December 2005

By influencing one another in proportion to their strength, immediacy, and number, individuals create spatially clustered groups of people similar in their beliefs, values, and behavior.
Illusions
Authors: Gregory Richard L
Published: December 2005

The senses we rely on for knowing the world about us, such as sight and hearing, can suffer dramatic errors known as illusions. Illusions of sight are the best‐known and have been used to elucidate the nature of visual perception.
Intelligence
Authors: Sternberg Robert J
Published: December 2005

Intelligence has been defined variously, across a range of cultures and populations, as encompassing such mental and social phenomena as learning and understanding, reasoning and problem‐solving, perception and adaptation.
Judgment
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: December 2005

A judgment is an evaluative response to a stimulus. Judgments are often based on rules of thumb, or heuristics, which may cause systematic errors. Often judgments can be improved with the use of algebraic formulas.
Masking
Authors: Francis Gregory
Published: December 2005

Masking refers to a class of phenomena where presentation of one stimulus (the mask) can impair performance on some task that requires judgment about another stimulus (the target).
Perceptual Learning
Authors: Fahle Manfred
Published: December 2005

Perceptual learning leads to relatively permanent and often very specific improvements in solving perceptual tasks as a result of preceding experience and training. It seems to involve even rather peripheral parts of the central nervous system, such as the primary sensory cortices.
Rational Models of Cognition
Authors: Chater Nick , Oaksford Mike
Published: December 2005

Rational models of cognition attempt to explain the function or purpose of cognitive processes.
Rule‐Based Thought
Authors: Hahn Ulrike
Published: December 2005

Rule‐based thought involves cognitive processes based on the applications of general statements which have been derived from past experiences.
Selective Attention
Authors: Cohen Asher
Published: December 2005

A fundamental aspect of our cognitive activity is selection, by attentional mechanisms, of a portion of the vast amount of information we are confronting at any moment.
Perception, Haptic
Authors: Klatzky Roberta L , Lederman Susan J
Published: December 2005

Haptic perception is that derived from the sense of touch.
Thought Suppression and Mental Control
Authors: Wegner Daniel M
Published: December 2005

Consciously attempting not to think about something is a mental control strategy known as thought suppression. This strategy can be successful under certain conditions, but it often promotes an increase in the accessibility of the thought to consciousness, and along with this, a number of ironic processes and unwanted effects.
Visual Evoked Potentials
Authors: O'Donnell Brian F
Published: December 2005

Visual evoked potentials are deflections in the electroencephalogram which are evoked by a visual stimulus, time‐locked to stimulus onset, and generated by neural activity.
Game Theory
Authors: Levine David K
Published: December 2005

Game theory is the mathematical study of human interactions described by rules of play and alternative choices.
Autobiographical Memory
Authors: Rubin David
Published: December 2005

Autobiographical memory refers to the store of memories of events that have happened to an individual.
P
iaget,
J
ean
Authors: Fischer Kurt , Kaplan Ulas
Published: December 2005

Jean Piaget, one of the founders of cognitive science, established that children build their intelligence through acting in the world and that they develop through a sequence of qualitatively different organizations of thought and action. He related the diverse fields of human knowledge to the developing minds of children.