bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
« Voir par eux-mêmes à l’administration de leurs propres affaires »
Authors: Beaulieu Alain , Béreau Stéphanie
Published: March 2017

Jusqu’au début duxixesiècle, les Britanniques recherchent surtout l’appui militaire des Premières Nations. Après la guerre de 1812, ils s’engagent progressivement dans une nouvelle politique, celle de « civilisation » : à partir des années 1830, ce programme se traduit dans plusieurs lois destinées à contrôler la vie des autochtones et à favoriser leur intégration à la société dominante. Les structures politiques traditionnelles sont rapidement visées par cet effort. En 1869, le Parlement canadien adopte des mesures destinées à abolir les chefferies traditionnelles pour les remplacer par des conseils de bande élus, mais ce n’est qu’à la fin des années 1890 qu’Ottawa parvient à les imposer au Québec. Ce système perdure encore aujourd’hui, les pouvoirs des conseils de bande ayant toutefois été élargis après 1951, entre autres avec l’adoption d’une nouvelle loi sur les Indiens. L’objet de cet article est d’éclairer l’étude de l’implantation et du fonctionnement des conseils de bande en étudiant un exemple particulier, celui de la réserve innue de Pointe-Bleue (Mashteuiatsh).
Inoculação da bactéria Pseudomonas fluorescens no índice de crescimento da Brachiaria decumbens spp
Authors: Brennecke Käthery , Abaker Bertipaglia Liandra Maria , Antoniazzi Alexandre , Ferreira Souza Edson
Published: March 2017

O efeito da inoculação de bactérias Pseudomonas fluorescens sobre o crescimento de gramíneas pode seravaliado mediante análises de características morfofisiológicas das pastagens. Portanto, o objetivo foiverificar características morfofisiológicas de Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk, inoculadas com Pseudomonasfluorescens, através das medidas morfométricas das plantas. O delineamento experimental adotado foiinteiramente casualizado, composto por três tratamentos (testemunha, inoculação na semente e inoculaçãovia água de irrigação) com 10 repetições cada. No tratamento de inoculação na semente, as sementes ficaramimersas em 100 ml de solução bacteriana na quantidade de 1,67 x 107 UFC/mL durante cinco minutos.Em seguida foram plantadas diretamente em 10 vasos. No tratamento inoculação via água de irrigação,as sementes foram plantadas diretamente nos vasos e receberam irrigação durante 10 dias consecutivoscom 100 mL de solução bacteriana na quantidade de 1,67 x 106 UFC/mL/vaso. Após o aparecimento daterceira folha começaram as medidas intervalo de aparecimento foliar, alongamento de colmo e número defolhas por perfilho, para posterior cálculo de suas respectivas taxas. Os resultados obtidos não mostraramvalores significativos para as taxas de intervalo de aparecimento foliar (IApF). Porém, foram encontradosresultados significativos para a taxa de alongamento de colmo e para o número de folhas por perfilho.Conclui-se que a inoculação com Pseudomonas fluorescens promoveu maior alongamento de colmo e maiornúmero de folhas no perfilho, o que é desejável do ponto de vista nutricional, pois aumentou a relação folha/colmo das plantas.
Impacto da suplementação de óleo de peixe rico em ácido graxo poli-insaturado ômega 3 sobre a função e morfologia renal de ratos Wistar submetidos à isquemia quente
Authors: Erdmann Mosko Patrícia Regina , Meyer Fernando , De Oliveira Lima Flavio , Fernandes Luiz Claudio , Gomes Quitzan Juliany
Published: March 2017

A isquemia quente renal (IQR) realizada nas cirurgias de transplantes inter vivos e nefrectomias parciais pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de injúria renal aguda e rejeição do órgão transplantado, na dependência da sua duração e da função renal pré-operatória. O uso dos ácidos graxos poli-insaturados ômega 3 tem sido alvo de pesquisas devido às suas propriedades anti-inflamatórias, antioxidantes, antifibróticas, vasodilatadoras e antitrombogênicas, com perspectivas promissoras nas lesões isquêmicas renais. Este estudo teve por objetivos comparar a função renal e alterações microscópicas renais em ratos Wistar, submetidos à IQR, suplementados com óleo de peixe enriquecido com ácido graxo poli-insaturado ômega-3. Os animais foram distribuídos aleatoriamente em quatro grupos (n = 12): (GC) sem suplementação,(G1) suplementação 30 dias antes da IQR, (G2) suplementação 30 dias após IQR, (G3) suplementação 30 dias antes e depois da IQR. Metade dos animais de cada grupo foi submetida à eutanásia após 24 horas e o restante após 30 dias do procedimento. Aos 30 dias após IQR, todos animais suplementados apresentaram elevação dos valores de creatinina plasmática, quando comparada à creatinina pré isquemia (p < 0,05).Comparando os três grupos suplementados ao grupo controle, G2 apresentou creatinina plasmática superior no pós-operatório de 30 dias (p < 0,05). Não se observou diferença estatística nos escores histopatológicos renais entre os grupos. Conclui-se que, nas condições propostas, o uso de ácido graxo poli-insaturado ômega 3 em todos os grupos suplementados não evitou o aumento de creatinina plasmática após isquemia quente renal, entretanto preservou a morfologia renal. [P]
KChIP2 is a core transcriptional regulator of cardiac excitability
Authors: Nassal Drew M , Wan Xiaoping , Liu Haiyan , Maleski Danielle , Ramirez-Navarro Angelina , Moravec Christine S , Ficker Eckhard , Laurita Kenneth R , Deschênes Isabelle
Published: March 2017

Arrhythmogenesis from aberrant electrical remodeling is a primary cause of death among patients with heart disease. Amongst a multitude of remodeling events, reduced expression of the ion channel subunit KChIP2 is consistently observed in numerous cardiac pathologies. However, it remains unknown if KChIP2 loss is merely a symptom or involved in disease development. Using rat and human derived cardiomyocytes, we identify a previously unobserved transcriptional capacity for cardiac KChIP2 critical in maintaining electrical stability. Through interaction with genetic elements, KChIP2 transcriptionally repressed the miRNAs miR-34b and miR-34c, which subsequently targeted key depolarizing (INa) and repolarizing (Ito) currents altered in cardiac disease. Genetically maintaining KChIP2 expression or inhibiting miR-34 under pathologic conditions restored channel function and moreover, prevented the incidence of reentrant arrhythmias. This identifies the KChIP2/miR-34 axis as a central regulator in developing electrical dysfunction and reveals miR-34 as a therapeutic target for treating arrhythmogenesis in heart disease.
Origin and evolution of transporter substrate specificity within the NPF family
Authors: Jørgensen Morten Egevang , Xu Deyang , Crocoll Christoph , Ernst Heidi Asschenfeldt , Ramírez David , Motawia Mohammed Saddik , Olsen Carl Erik , Mirza Osman , Nour-Eldin Hussam Hassan , Halkier Barbara Ann
Published: March 2017

Despite vast diversity in metabolites and the matching substrate specificity of their transporters, little is known about how evolution of transporter substrate specificities is linked to emergence of substrates via evolution of biosynthetic pathways. Transporter specificity towards the recently evolved glucosinolates characteristic of Brassicales is shown to evolve prior to emergence of glucosinolate biosynthesis. Furthermore, we show that glucosinolate transporters belonging to the ubiquitous NRT1/PTR FAMILY (NPF) likely evolved from transporters of the ancestral cyanogenic glucosides found across more than 2500 species outside of the Brassicales. Biochemical characterization of orthologs along the phylogenetic lineage from cassava to A. thaliana, suggests that alterations in the electrogenicity of the transporters accompanied changes in substrate specificity. Linking the evolutionary path of transporter substrate specificities to that of the biosynthetic pathways, exemplify how transporter substrate specificities originate and evolve as new biosynthesis pathways emerge.
Plant immune and growth receptors share common signalling components but localise to distinct plasma membrane nanodomains
Authors: Bücherl Christoph A , Jarsch Iris K , Schudoma Christian , Segonzac Cécile , Mbengue Malick , Robatzek Silke , MacLean Daniel , Ott Thomas , Zipfel Cyril
Published: March 2017

Cell surface receptors govern a multitude of signalling pathways in multicellular organisms. In plants, prominent examples are the receptor kinases FLS2 and BRI1, which activate immunity and steroid-mediated growth, respectively. Intriguingly, despite inducing distinct signalling outputs, both receptors employ common downstream signalling components, which exist in plasma membrane (PM)-localised protein complexes. An important question is thus how these receptor complexes maintain signalling specificity. Live-cell imaging revealed that FLS2 and BRI1 form PM nanoclusters. Using single-particle tracking we could discriminate both cluster populations and we observed spatiotemporal separation between immune and growth signalling platforms. This finding was confirmed by visualising FLS2 and BRI1 within distinct PM nanodomains marked by specific remorin proteins and differential co-localisation with the cytoskeleton. Our results thus suggest that signalling specificity between these pathways may be explained by the spatial separation of FLS2 and BRI1 with their associated signalling components within dedicated PM nanodomains.
Behaviors of Concern to Croatian Primary School Teachers
Authors: Beaudoin Kathleen , Mihić Sanja Skočić , Lončarić Darko
Published: March 2017

The purpose of this study was to examine the occurrence of problem behaviors in primary classrooms in the Republic of Croatia and to investigate teachers' level of concern and the support needed to address these behaviors. Approximately 8% of primary school teachers across Croatia completed a 20-item survey to indicate the occurrence of types of problem behaviors (i.e., distractibility, disobedience, aggression, delinquency) in their classrooms, separately for boys and girls. Level of concern for the problem behavior (1 = not at all to 4 = extremely) and need for support to address the misbehavior (1 = not at all to 4 = a lot of support) were also rated separately by student gender. Results indicated that teachers rated the occurrence of problem behaviors more frequently for boys than girls across all dimensions of problem behavior, with distractibility reported as the most frequently occurring problem both for boys and for girls. Teachers also reported significantly higher levels of concern and greater need of support for the behavior of boys in comparison to girls across the dimensions of distractibility, disobedience and aggression. Teachers reported significantly higher levels of concern than their need for support to address behaviors of distractibility and disobedience. Larger class size was associated with heightened levels of concern and support for a number of the problem behavior dimensions. Implications for future practice are recommended.
Social Network to Support Parents and Teachers of Students with Multiple Disabilities
Authors: Nunes Clarisse , Lobato Miranda Guilhermina , Amaral Isabel
Published: March 2017

This study aimed to analyze how the Social Software tools could respond to the needs of parents and teachers of students with multiple disabilities in improving their practices, as well as provide information and resources related to the topic of multiple disabilities. The study was implemented in Portugal and involved 45 participants: 25 special education teachers, 5 regular education teachers, and 15 parents of children with multiple disabilities. Using the NING platform, we built a social network, which we set in motion by creating online spaces to share experiences and thoughts. These spaces sought to respond to the needs and difficulties reported by the participants. We adopted a Design-Based Research methodology and used several data collection methods and analysis techniques. The results showed that several dimensions were crucial to create this Social Network, such as the tools, the moderation and the management of the social network and the participation of the teachers and parents involved. It also confirmed that the flexibility of the tools used led to the development of a stimulating environment that allowed sharing experiences and knowledge about multiple disabilities. The teachers' participation revealed progress over time. The most active participants assumed attitudes of creator and critic, whereas the roles of collector, spectator and inactive were taken on by those with a more passive attitude. The teachers exhibited more active attitudes than parents. The teachers' assessment of the social network was positive for all the aspects under study and they felt that their participation had a significant impact on teaching practices. Results indicate that parents did not actively get involved in the social network, which shows that virtual contacts may not properly serve their needs. We infer that parents need a different approach, more focused on supporting and less on learning. Overall, the study indicated that the Social Software allowed co-created knowledge among teachers, sharing of experiences, thoughts and resources, along with supporting better connections and cooperative learning. Nevertheless, such co-creation can only be achieved if participants take an active role in the use of the Social Network.
The Solar Probe Plus Radio Frequency Spectrometer: Measurement requirements, analog design, and digital signal processing
Authors: Pulupa M. , Bale S. D. , Bonnell J. W. , Bowen T. A. , Carruth N. , Goetz K. , Gordon D. , Harvey P. R. , Maksimovic M. , Martínez‐Oliveros J. C. , Moncuquet M. , Saint‐Hilaire P. , Seitz D. , Sundkvist D.
Published: March 2017

The Radio Frequency Spectrometer (RFS) is a two‐channel digital receiver and spectrometer, which will make remote sensing observations of radio waves and in situ measurements of electrostatic and electromagnetic fluctuations in the solar wind. A part of the FIELDS suite for Solar Probe Plus (SPP), the RFS is optimized for measurements in the inner heliosphere, where solar radio bursts are more intense and the plasma frequency is higher compared to previous measurements at distances of 1 AU or greater. The inputs to the RFS receiver are the four electric antennas mounted near the front of the SPP spacecraft and a single axis of the SPP search coil magnetometer (SCM). Each RFS channel selects a monopole or dipole antenna input, or the SCM input, via multiplexers. The primary data products from the RFS are autospectra and cross spectra from the selected inputs. The spectra are calculated using a polyphase filter bank, which enables the measurement of low amplitude signals of interest in the presence of high‐amplitude narrowband noise generated by spacecraft systems. We discuss the science signals of interest driving the RFS measurement objectives, describe the RFS analog design and digital signal processing, and show examples of current performance.
Tropospheric delays in ground‐based GNSS multipath reflectometry—Experimental evidence from coastal sites
Authors: Williams S. D. P. , Nievinski F. G.
Published: March 2017

Recent studies have demonstrated the utility of ground‐based Global Navigation Satellite Systems‐Multipath Reflectometry (GNSS‐MR) for sea level studies. Typical root‐mean‐square (RMS) differences of GNSS‐MR‐derived sea level time series with respect to nearby tide gauges are on the order of 6–40 cm, sufficiently accurate to estimate tidal and secular sea level variations but are possibly biased due to delay of the signal through the troposphere. In this study we investigate the tropospheric effect from more than 20 GNSS coastal sites located from several meters up to 280 m above sea level. We find a bias in the estimated heights that is elevation and height dependent and can reach orders of 1 m for a 90 m site. Without correcting for tropospheric delay we find that GNSS‐MR‐estimated tidal coefficients will be smaller than their true amplitudes by around 2% while phases seem unaffected. Correcting for the tropospheric delay also improves leveling results as a function of reflector height. Correcting for the tropospheric delay in GNSS‐MR for sea level studies is therefore highly recommended for all sites no matter the height of the antenna above the sea surface as it manifests as a scale error.
Line Simplification
Authors: Jiang Bin
Published: March 2017

As an important practice of map generalization, the aim of line simplification is to reduce the number of points without destroying the essential shape or the salient character of a cartographic curve. This subject has been well studied in the literature. This entry attempts to introduce how line simplification can be guided by fractal geometry, or the recurring scaling pattern of far more small things than large ones. The line simplification process involves nothing more than removing small things while retaining large ones based on head/tail breaks.
Movies and Films, Analysis of
Authors: Aitken Stuart C.
Published: March 2017

The uses of film as a means to understand our place in the world and produce meaning are provocative and long‐standing interests of geographers. Early studies focused on place‐based meanings, but the interrelations between movies and films on the one hand, and the politics of social and cultural representations on the other, became increasingly important to the discipline from the early 1990s onwards. Recent work focuses on poststructural interpretations that highlight movement, emotion, and affect as an alternative to spatial theories that are overly prescribed by semiotics, psychoanalytic theory, and discourse analysis.
Community
Authors: Holcomb Briavel
Published: March 2017

The idea of community as a mutually supportive group has evolved from a primarily place‐based notion to one of shared interests with sometimes distant members staying in touch through newer communications technologies. Nevertheless, spatially located communities remain important for both governmental planning and local activists.
New Urbanism
Authors: Anderson Matthew B.
Published: March 2017

New Urbanism refers to an urban design movement that highlights the importance of traditional neighborhood principles in community planning, such as mixed commercial and residential land uses, close proximity between job and home, and increased housing density. Led and championed by Andres Duany, New Urbanism gained in popularity during the 1990s within the broader environmental movement as a planning initiative designed to ameliorate the social and environmental consequences of “sprawl,” a landscape increasingly recognized and denigrated as auto‐dependent, wasteful, and “unsustainable.” In this context, New Urbanism was a direct response and challenge to the low‐density, mass‐produced suburban landscape that had come to mark so many American metropolitan regions post‐World War II. It has since proliferated as a dominant feature of urban planning and revitalization agendas across North America and beyond, and is often celebrated as a positive example of “sustainable urban design.”
Transport Networks
Authors: Ducruet César
Published: March 2017

A transport network is basically defined as a set of connected nodes and links allowing the circulation of goods and/or individuals. Traditionally studied for itself and in rather abstract ways through graph‐theoretical and economic lenses, the transport network has increasingly been defined as one component only, albeit a crucial one, of wider logistical, territorial, and societal realities.
Elite Labor
Authors: Hall Sarah
Published: March 2017

The growth and transformation of elite labor associated with the expansion of the service sector in many advanced capitalist economies over the last 40 years have important implications for understandings of global labor markets, the geography of economic activity, and the working practices of highly skilled elite laborers. Economic geographers addressed these issues first by considering elite labor as a factor or production within knowledge‐intensive business service firms (such as financial and legal firms) and the creative industries (such as advertising and architecture). This literature revealed the centrality of the expert knowledge embodied within elite labor within these economic sectors. More recent work has built on these insights to focus on elite labor itself, revealing its gendered nature as well as examining the operation of elite labor markets and their changing geography within global cities and emerging centers of economic power, notably in the Asia‐Pacific region.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Mitchell Katharyne
Published: March 2017

Multiculturalism captures a wide range of ideas and policies associated with human difference and the best way to negotiate and manage cultural diversity. It is a concept that refers to the contemporary reality of pluralism in most societies, to a body of thought in political philosophy, and also to state‐sanctioned politics of group incorporation. In all three formulations multiculturalism has strong proponents and equally fervent critics. As a mode of state incorporation, multiculturalism was adopted both rhetorically and in several policy shifts in many liberal Western nations in the postwar period. This heyday was short‐lived, however, and there is now a significant political backlash against the idea of state accommodation of cultural and religious difference.
Airports
Authors: Bowen John T.
Published: March 2017

Over the past century, the commercial airport has become a critically important land use, a source of significant environmental externalities, an engine for local and regional economic development, and the focal point for a new era of airborne mobility. The space needs of contemporary airports and the NIMBY response they engender have pushed airports to the far periphery of many cities. At the same time, however, airports have become magnets for a variety of economic activities from logistics to corporate headquarters. As a consequence, the accessibility advantages of major airports have transformed the geography of metropolitan development, a trend manifest near some large and rapidly developing hubs. At a different scale of analysis, the shift of aviation toward emerging economies is evident in the increased importance of Asian airports, among the world's busiest.
Complexity in Biogeography
Authors: Kim Daehyun
Published: March 2017

The science of complexity recognizes the potential role of nonlinear interactions among basic system components in leading the system to self‐organized criticality, dynamic instability, chaos, and so on. Many biogeographical systems, like ecotones, may be considered complex adaptive systems in which organisms act as ecosystem engineers to modify their surrounding physical conditions within a positive (or negative) feedback loop. This entry discusses the implications of two key concepts in the complexity theory for biogeography: nonlinearity and emergence.
Ghetto
Authors: Sternberg Carolina
Published: March 2017

The term “ghetto” has a long and complex usage in the social sciences in the Western world, and has been traditionally used to illustrate a socially and culturally dilapidated urban area. More recently, efforts have sought to infuse this term with more progressive meanings, for example, as urban spaces of neglect that are complex manifestations of societal processes. Today, ghettos reveal the intersecting dynamics of ethnicity, economic forces, residential segregation, and control and containment by dominant social groups.
Containerization
Authors: Slack Brian
Published: March 2017

Containerization is an integral feature of globalization. It has facilitated global trade by providing an efficient means of transporting goods intermodally. This has necessitated the transformation of ports and their operations, which has had both negative and positive consequences for port cities. Some of the most important developments have taken place at sea, where an expansion of the scope of services and the size of ships has given rise to new network configurations. Containerization is also spreading inland as an essential part of logistics services.
Radiometric Dating/Techniques
Authors: Larson Phillip L. , Dorn Ronald I.
Published: March 2017

Earth's natural surface formed from a mosaic of different geomorphic events over time. Thus, documenting the timing of different processes is a critical part of geomorphology. Accordingly, the last 60 years have seen a revolution in techniques used to date landforms. Geographers and other scientists have developed and refined dozens of different dating techniques. This entry presents some of the most common dating methods used by geographers and illustrates the use of these techniques in two case studies: understanding the drainage of proglacial Lake Agassiz of North America, and the sequence of glacial events in the Sierra Nevada of eastern California.
Urban Renewal
Authors: Prytherch David L.
Published: March 2017

Urban renewal refers to theories and practices employed by public planners to encourage city redevelopment. Exemplified by US slum clearance policies of the mid‐twentieth century, urban renewal is part of a broader – and much debated – history of government‐led urban change in the name of modernization.
Phylogeography and Landscape Genetics
Authors: Nelson Amanda E.
Published: March 2017

Phylogeography and landscape genetics are both interdisciplinary fields that combine molecular genetic and geographical data to understand the evolutionary and ecological mechanisms that drive spatial distributions of biodiversity. The two fields overlap conceptually and in their application of geospatial and genetic tools, but differ in their spatial and temporal scales of focus. Phylogeographers investigate the genetic signatures of geographical contexts that are deep in time (e.g., Quaternary glaciation) and broad in spatial extent. In contrast, landscape geneticists focus on contemporary geographical contexts (e.g., land‐use change) at finer spatial scales. The two fields lie at the nexus of rapid advancements in biomolecular and geographical information science technologies, providing both challenges and opportunities for advancing interdisciplinary synthesis in biogeography.
Multi‐Aperture Telecentric Lens
Authors: Wu Bo , Ye Lei
Published: March 2017

A multi‐aperture telecentric lens is a single telecentric lens with multiple aperture stops that provides images with constant magnification and precise 3‐D measurement capability. This entry first describes the conventional telecentric lens. The configurations of a multi‐aperture telecentric lens are then presented, after which the advantages of a multi‐aperture telecentric system with respect to the conventional stereo vision systems are discussed. A geometric model for 3‐D reconstruction using a multi‐aperture telecentric lens is presented, and camera calibration and image matching in multi‐aperture telecentric systems are also discussed. Based on the geometric model, a theoretical analysis of the potential accuracy of a multi‐aperture telecentric system used in 3‐D reconstruction is conducted. Finally, several future research directions related to the multi‐aperture telecentric lens are suggested.
Edge City
Authors: Greene Richard P.
Published: March 2017

An
edge city
is an employment center on the edge of an urban area. They are often found in the suburbs near highway interchanges and are distinct from residential suburbs as they are made up mostly of retail and office space. Edge cities have become important competitors to traditional downtowns as they offer shopping and working opportunities for suburbanites who would otherwise have to commute a long distance to downtown.
Water: Urban
Authors: Tiefenbacher John P.
Published: March 2017

Water is a vital human need and cities require special consideration in water management because of the scale of demand and the implications of dense settlement and urban activities. Water premises settlement and urbanization, but in every climatological setting it presents opportunities, constraints, and challenges. Technological advances have overcome limitations throughout urban history, but cities continually struggle with the management of urban water supply, sewage, and floods. The development of cities in diverse environments often entailed the extension of urban water demand beyond their locality and has elicited new legal, economic, and social approaches to meeting water supplies. Water and sanitary wastewater managers must understand the constraints of the systems on which they depend to ameliorate problems and to achieve sustainability. Because changing climates are ultimately at their roots, the hydrological systems on which cities depend are in flux and yield new constraints and emerging water management and planning challenges for cities.
Cartographic Modeling
Authors: Tomlin C. Dana
Published: March 2017

Cartographic modeling refers to the use of a coordinated set of tools and techniques for the analysis and synthesis of geospatial data by way of a geographic information system (GIS). It is a generalized methodology in which data, data processing capabilities, and data processing control notation are decomposed into components and subcomponents that can be recomposed with ease and flexibility. The result is a computational pseudolanguage or “map algebra,” in which each of a small set of operations accepts input and generates output in the form of cartographic variables. By using the output of one as input to another, these elementary operations can be combined into procedures that are largely unconstrained by either content or complexity.
Human Capital
Authors: Silva Julie A.
Published: March 2017

The concept of human capital, or the stock of useful knowledge, skills, competencies, and other characteristics held by individuals, has evolved over time. Traditional accounts have a one‐dimensional focus on human capital's role in shaping economic outcomes. More recent work has adopted a broader perspective on how human capital contributes to human development and flourishing. Measures of educational attainment remain the most common proxies of human capital, but a general consensus exists on the need for better indicators in order to capture its complexity. A large body of theoretical and empirical work has produced detailed knowledge of how human capital investments and accumulation can enhance economic growth, increase wages and income, and contribute to the geographic clustering of economic activity. Human capital has also more recently emerged as an important element in shaping differential vulnerability and adaptation to climate change, and in mitigating outbreaks and consequences of violent conflict.
Phytosociology
Authors: Dengler Jürgen
Published: March 2017

Phytosociology is a branch of vegetation science that deals with current plant assemblages at a resolution of vegetation stands. Its principal goals are the delimitation and characterization of vegetation types based on the complete floristic composition of vegetation plots. Plots are placed to minimize within‐plot heterogeneity and maximize between‐plot variability; typical sizes are 4–25 m
2
in herbaceous and 50–400 m
2
in woody vegetation. Plot records (relevés) consist of header data (locality, environment, structure) and a complete species list with cover values. Using means of unsupervised, semisupervised, and supervised classification, phytosociological classification (syntaxonomy) aims at a single, hierarchical, multipurpose classification system, based on floristic similarity. Syntaxon names are derived from typical plant species according to internationally agreed rules. Recently, millions of phytosociological relevés have become available in vegetation‐plot databases that open new avenues for basic and applied research because they contain true species co‐occurrence data.
Water Economics
Authors: Pease Mike
Published: March 2017

Because of its critical role for human survival, debate exists over the extent to which water should be considered a commodity. Natural resource economics as a subset of neoclassical economics began to generate inertia in the middle of the twentieth century. As freshwater supplies become increasingly scarce, the role of economics in all aspects of water resource management intensifies. While the debate continues over whether water should be treated like other commodities, new pricing schemes are leading to changes to how and where water is being used across a variety of sectors, including for agricultural and domestic uses. Perhaps more importantly, in the face of rising global populations and commensurate increases in per capita water consumption, the creation of water pricing data has impacted the efforts to conserve freshwater supplies and to create minimum streamflows designed to provide ecosystem protection.
Environment and Regional Development
Authors: Ballinger Clint
Published: March 2017

There has long been debate in the social sciences on the proper role of environmental or geographic factors, such as climate, soil types, and terrain, in the explanation of social outcomes, including regional development differences. In geography, environmental explanations of variations in regional development fell from favor in the early twentieth century. However, there has been an increase in these types of explanations in recent decades, especially by nongeographers. The entry discusses the nature of environmental explanations of variations in regional development, geographers' criticisms of them as overly simplistic and deterministic (neo‐environmental determinism), and replies to these criticisms.
Cultural Diffusion
Authors: Savage Victor Roger
Published: March 2017

Cultural diffusion is a continuing global process, best studied within anthropology and geography. The diffusion of cultures has been most facilitated by the institutions of colonialism, religion, and education. Contemporary cultural diffusion has been further bolstered by information technology.
Recreation
Authors: d'Hauteserre Anne‐Marie
Published: March 2017

Recreation, a topic studied since the 1930s in geography, in spite of its definition simply as a form of enjoyment, offers multiple benefits to its practitioners. It happens outside of obligatory occupations in urban areas or in the countryside, at home and overseas, and in a wide variety of settings. Recreationists demonstrate embodied forms of engagement that are socialized, and thus their place in society determines the sites where they participate as well as their capacity to do so. Recreation has a range of impacts – environmental, social, physical, economic – and its sustainability, especially outdoors, needs more geographic investigation and public support.
Superstate, Supranational Union
Authors: Clark Julian
Published: March 2017

Superstate defines an organizing political‐administrative entity constituted from multiple states that possesses substantive or total authority over these states. The term emerged in the early twentieth century in political geography and in popular literature. Existing geographical theories of superstate are poorly defined, with a lack of clarity over how they might be created and sustained. Fresh perspectives on understanding superstates could build upon related work in political geography on neo‐imperialism and the reemergence of empire and world states as a focus of study in political science to develop greater cross‐disciplinary engagement on this concept.
Local State
Authors: Goodwin Mark
Published: March 2017

The concept of the local state was introduced and developed during the 1970s and 1980s by a number of authors seeking to relate the activities of the state at a local level to those operating at a national scale. Researchers from political science, urban sociology, and human geography have sought to analyze the specificity of the local state, and to understand the nature of its form, its functions, and its relation with the central state.
Case Study Approach
Authors: Hardwick Susan W.
Published: March 2017

The case study approach is defined as the study of a single instance or a number of instances of a particular phenomenon in order to explore the context of that phenomenon. Since focusing on a case study makes it possible for scholars to compile a nuanced, holistic, and detailed analysis of a selected place, group, or process, it is especially useful for doing qualitative, theoretical research. There are three main types of case studies – exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Triangulating research methods and data sources help ensure the rigor and validity of case study‐based projects.
LiDAR
Authors: Lin Su , Cong Liu , Liangfu Chen
Published: March 2017

LiDAR is the acronym for Light Detection And Ranging. It is an ultraviolet, visible, or infrared remote sensing instrument that uses laser pulses to detect a target. The principle of LiDAR is to emit laser pulses to illuminate a target and analyze the reflected radiance to detect the spatial location of that target. LiDAR is widely used for military purposes, atmospheric sounding, and underwater detection.
Deskilling
Authors: Rutherford Tod D.
Published: March 2017

This entry reviews the debate around the deskilling of labor under capitalism. It considers both Harry Braverman's deskilling thesis and its critics. Finally, it examines more recent reformulations of this debate around new technology.
Spatial Weights
Authors: Griffith Daniel A.
Published: March 2017

Spatial weights quantify the relative strength of a relationship between pairs of locations. Classical spatial analysis assumes they all are zero, whereas contemporary spatial analysis assumes that at least some are non‐negative. Spatial weights specifications vary according to conceptualizations; popular ones include: contiguity, continuous distance, nearest neighbor distances, fixed distance band, and spatial interaction. Initially spatial weights were binary values based upon contiguity: if two polygons are contiguous, then their spatial weight is one; otherwise, it is zero. Others include powered inverse distance, negative exponential distance decay, and spatial interaction. Because these weights cast a set of
n
locations as interrelated, they can be organized as a matrix. This organization allows, especially, these latter specifications to be converted to a row‐standardized form: each row entry is divided by its row sum. Controversies concern endogeneity, arbitrariness, and sensitivity. Future research needs include specification comparisons, integrating multiple spatial structures, and space–time specifications.
Geomorphology: History
Authors: Goudie Andrew S.
Published: March 2017

The history of geomorphology since the start of the nineteenth century has included studies that have established the great age of the Earth, the role of glaciations, fluvialism, tectonics and mountain building, cyclic change, denudation chronology, climatic geomorphology, and dynamic equilibrium. In recent decades there have been major developments in the study of processes, plate tectonics, and Quaternary climatic change, and in the application of geomorphology for understandings hazards, the implications of environmental change, and the nature of landforms elsewhere in the solar system.
Health and Development
Authors: Huish Robert
Published: March 2017

Health and development are two intimately linked concepts that are often labeled as “global health.” International development has a transformative effect on the health landscapes in the Global South (referring to the division of countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia that are in processes of development). Despite the close relationship between the two fields, in practice there is very little concern or connection between development practitioners and health practitioners. This tangential relationship results from a lack of specific attention to the social and environmental determinants of health in the Global South. The tendency for development to see economics first, and for health workers to see the absence of illness first, has created a fractured approach to meeting the health needs of the global poor, which has unfortunately contributed to the failure to meet the millennium development goals in their entirety. Greater attention to the dynamics of place is needed by both development and health practitioners to address the structural determinants of health in the twenty‐first century.
Spatial Data Infrastructures
Authors: Craglia Max
Published: March 2017

Spatial data infrastructures are Internet‐based facilities that are used to search, find, access, and share location‐specific information and data. Almost every country in the world has embarked on the development of such infrastructures over the last 20 years to support improved environmental management, risk assessment, service delivery, and many other applications in the public and private sectors. The components and key challenges in building a spatial data infrastructure are discussed using an example from Europe.
Rail Transport: Freight
Authors: Comtois Claude
Published: March 2017

Railway transport integrates peripheral regions in the global economic marketplace, fosters the industrialization process, and strengthens intermodal transport. Standardization of tracks, a purpose‐built fleet, and the application of information technologies are keys for increasing the capacity of rail freight transport. The participation of rail in the freight transport market is being aligned with changes in the structure of freight shipments, in the international orientation of procurement and sales, and modal competition. Combined rail transport, high‐speed freight trains, and city logistics are innovations introduced by the railways for fully fledged freight transport services.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (
IPCC
)
Authors: Hulme Mike
Published: March 2017

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was constituted by the United Nations in 1988 to conduct periodic assessments of scientific knowledge pertaining to climate change. To date it has published five full‐scale assessment reports, together with a larger number of special reports. These reports are produced by independent experts drawn from around the world, operating under evolving protocols of knowledge assessment established by the Panel's governing body which is elected by the world's national governments. The IPCC assessments are guided by the principle of generating policy relevant, but not policy prescriptive, knowledge. In 2007, the IPCC was awarded, jointly, the Nobel Peace Prize, but in 2010 it came under public scrutiny because of errors in its Fourth Assessment Report. A Sixth Assessment Report is scheduled for publication in 2020.
Soil and Clay Mineralogy
Authors: Jacobs Peter M.
Published: March 2017

Mineral matter dominates the composition of most soils. Soils may contain minerals from all major groups, but the variety of minerals in soils varies geographically as a function of the underlying bedrock and the regolith in which they have formed. As soils get older the mineral composition will increasingly reflect the climate conditions during formation and duration of soil formation. Primary minerals originate from rocks, and dominate young soils, while secondary minerals form in the soil and reflect environmental conditions or the age of the soil. Secondary clay minerals are a critical component of the finest (smallest) mineral fraction and are important for agricultural productivity, environmental behavior, and classification.
Corporations and the Anthropocene
Authors: Perry Martin
Published: March 2017

The Anthropocene is a controversial term distinguishing the period of geologic time over which human populations are having the biggest influence over the planet's environment. Supporters of the term see the industrial revolution as the start of the Anthropocene when evidence of the atmospheric change caused by burning coal shows up in polar ice. Corporations in the form of large, transnational businesses are at the center of claims that the Anthropocene has taken over from the last great period of environmental change when glaciation reshaped much of the planet in the Pleistocene. Corporations directly and indirectly are associated with much contemporary, planetary scale environmental change and are accused of using their power to curb the conversion to more sustainable forms of economic development. Transnational campaign groups have emerged to mobilize public opposition to corporations particularly over environmental and labor issues but their impact tends to be sporadic.
Land Systems Science
Authors: Millington Andrew C.
Published: March 2017

Contemporary land systems science is described, and its relationships to land‐use and land‐cover change, and land change science explained. The importance of land systems sciences in contemporary local‐ to global‐scale environmental and societal issues is outlined, its interdisciplinary nature considered, and its position within geography explained.
Overlay, Graphical
Authors: Wong Man Sing , Choi Nanette S.Y.
Published: March 2017

Overlay is the concept of placing one layer of information on top of another to analyze the spatial relationships of features. With the advancement of computer technology, numerous software platforms and computer programs have been developed to facilitate spatial analysis, including the function of overlay. Vector overlay methods involve point‐in‐polygon overlays, line‐in‐polygon overlays, and polygon‐polygon overlays. Raster overlays work on cells and grids with values, which allow mathematical computation of the layers for spatial information retrieval and analysis. The applications of graphical overlay include meteorological predictions and climate analysis.
Alliances and Franchises
Authors: Vatne Eirik
Published: March 2017

Alliances are general and franchises specific institutional forms of partnership among organizations. This entry discusses why independent firms engage in relationships and why cooperative arrangements are organized in different institutional forms. Special attention is given to networks of firms in industrial clusters, strategic alliances, and franchise arrangements. Transaction cost theory, the resource‐based view, and the embedded and network‐based view of the firm are important bases for explanations. Circumstances in which spatial characteristics are particularly relevant for alliance formation are highlighted.
Sovereignty
Authors: Ashutosh Ishan
Published: March 2017

Sovereignty is supreme political authority over territory, most commonly associated with the nation‐state. Conventional accounts of sovereignty trace the concept to the Treaty of Westphalia alongside social contract theories of the Enlightenment, which argued for a political order predicated on the obedience of subjects in exchange for the protection of the sovereign. Sovereignty also emerged through the violence and dispossession of colonialism and its contemporary relevance is owed to ongoing concern with colonialism, imperialism, and national security. Although sovereignty has been a crucial concept in political geography and classical geopolitics, recent geographical work on sovereignty has generated new insights into the practices and power of sovereignty that often operate beyond the exclusive control of the state and are dispersed across multiple state territories.
Migrant Labor
Authors: Buckley Michelle
Published: March 2017

Migrant labor, or work away from one's usual residence, often for a temporary or fixed period, has become a key facet of many labor markets. Moreover, the use of migrant labor continues to grow in importance in the twenty‐first century; in contrast to earlier eras of labor migration which were marked more heavily by opportunities for permanent settlement, contemporary labor migration has become increasingly characterized by various forms of temporariness, including the growing prevalence of subcontracted and insecure employment arrangements and new territorial‐political mechanisms intended to facilitate the employment of migrant labor while limiting the duration of migrants' stay in their host country. Recent developments in geographical scholarship on migrant labor include deepening engagements with migrant household relations, research illuminating new practices of citizenship formation and border‐making by states, explorations of the elite forms of privilege that operate within certain migrant labor markets and examinations of the role that labor intermediaries play in sustaining migrant labor markets and temporary migration networks.