bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Account of Co‐ordination Mechanisms for Humanitarian Assistance During the International Response to the 1994 Crisis in Rwanda
Authors: BORTON JOHN
Published: December 2007

This paper examines the co‐ordination strategies developed to respond to the Great Lakes crisis following the events of April 1994. It analyses the different functions and mechanisms which sought to achieve a co‐ordinated response – ranging from facilitation at one extreme to management and direction at the other. The different regimes developed to facilitate co‐ordination within Rwanda and neighbouring countries, focusing on both inter‐agency and inter‐country co‐ordination issues, are then analysed. Finally, the paper highlights the absence of mechanisms to achieve coherence between the humanitarian, political and security domains. It concludes that effective co‐ordination is critical not only to achieve programme efficiency, but to ensure that the appropriate instruments and strategies to respond to complex political emergencies are in place. It proposes a radical re‐shaping of international humanitarian, political and security institutions, particularly the United Nations, to improve the effectiveness of humanitarian and political responses to crises such as that in the Great Lakes.
REVIEWS
Authors: Ottokar King , Hero  , Leander
Published: December 2007

King Ottokar, His Rise and Fall. By Franz Grillparzer.

Hero and Leander. By Franz Grillparzer.

Franz Kafka, Parable and Paradox. By Hcinz Politzer.

Kafkas Dichtungen: Die Travestien des Mythos. By Kurt Weinberg.

Humour et création littéraire dans l'œuvre de Kafka. By Michel Dentan.

Rilkes Duineser Elegien. By Jacob Steiner.

Stefan Zwcig Schachnovelle, edited by Harry Zohn.

Die Darstellung der Dimensionen menschlicher Existenz in Brochs ‘Tod des Vergil’. By D. Meinert.

Der Leserkontakt in den Erzählungen Hugo von Hofmannsthals. By D. Schafer.

Dichterische Hauptwerke. By Paul Scheerbart.

Prosa, Briefe, Verse. By Gustav Sack.

Der junge Goethe. Edited by Hanna Fischer‐Lamberg.

Goethe. A Critical Introduction. By Henry Hatfield.

August von Goethe und Ottilie von Pogwisch. Briefe aus der Verlobungszeit. Erstausgabe. Edited by Heinz Bluhm with a commentary by Dorothea Lohmeyer‐Hölscher.

Studien zu den Passions‐ und Osterspielen des deutschen Mittelalters in ihrem Übergang vom Latein zur Volkssprache. By Wilfried Werner.

Rudolf von Ems: Der guote Gêrhart. (Altdeutsche Textbibliothek, Nr. 56). Edited by John A. Asher.

Herder: God. Some Conversations. Translated by Frederick H. Burkhardt.

Theatergeschichte Europas, Bd. IV. Von der Aufklärung zur Romantik (I. Teil). By Heinz Kindermann.

Hugo von Hofmannsthal. Der Dichter im Spiegel der Freunde. Edited by Helmut A. Fiechtner.

Zeitgefährten. By Felix Braun.
The greying of the baby boom in the United States: Framing the policy debate
Authors: Kingson Eric R.
Published: December 2007

Issues surrounding the retirement of the large post‐World War II “baby boom” generation in the United States are often framed either in terms of impending intergenerational crisis or as an event to which the United States can gradually adjust. This paper examines these two perspectives as they compete to define US social security policy. It suggests that the intergenerational crisis perspective functions primarily as an ideological argument and strategy for de‐structuring social welfare policy. In contrast, the gradual adjustment perspective provides a stronger basis for planning social security and other policy responses to the ageing of the baby boom. However, it is not informed by a clear social vision and has not, as yet, responded sufficiently to the potential divisiveness which may accompany changing demography. Also, to date, relatively little attention has been paid to the diverse social and economic circumstances of baby boomers and the implications of this diversity for retirement planning.
Social policy and forms of family life in Europe
Authors: Kuijsten Anton , Strohmeier Klaus Peter , Schulze Hans‐Joachim
Published: December 2007

This paper presents unpublished data from an international comparative research project. A ten‐country study analysed change and diversity informs of private life during the 1980s in comparable age groups of women (women of young parental age and women at the start of the postparental phase). Changes in forms of private life and their international diversity make up the sociological background for demographic change. The scientific and political assumptions view demographic diversity in Europe as an expression of the simultaneity of the non‐simultaneous, of a unidimensional trend in changes informs of private life as a result of the dissolution of the traditional family and the subsequent increase in such forms. We show that although Europeans have to deal with similar trends, they are framed by various national and cultural traditions and different social policy guiding principles and actions. Social policy profiles define various “normality weightings” for (prospective) parents’options. Of particular significance is how States differ in reconciling the demands of family and work. Differences in compatibility between family and professional life are exemplified by what Kaufmann (1990) calls the “structural lack of consideration” that politics and society have for the family.
Urbanization, caring for elderly people and the changing African family: The challenge to social policy
Authors: Apt Nairn Araba , Gricco Margaret
Published: December 2007

An inquiry into the role of social welfare in the development process in Africa must start by determining the position of the family in the face of all the social changes that are taking place. The role of the traditional African family may be broadly subdivided into its social role, its economic role and its role as an agent for the transmission and renewal of sociocultural values. Intraditional African societies, there is a complex interaction between the members of the family and the community. Social organization centres on the kinship group and the age group. The economic, political and sociocultural values of present‐day Africa, with its sprawling urban centres and industrial zones, differ increasingly from its traditional values. In Africa, the concept of development has been greatly influenced by the colonial experience and Western modernization theory which posited that economic development and growth, mainly through industrialization, would automatically raise the living standards and meet the social needs of the population. Social welfare was viewed as a non‐productive activity and therefore accorded a low priority in national development planning and resource allocation. In such a context, the scope of social policy is limited and cannot deal with the critical problems of mass poverty and deprivation afflicting the majority of African peoples, especially in rural areas. The family is disintegrating and social change has brought in its wake a host of new social problems which remedial social welfare services are not adequate to meet. Using Ghana as an example, this paper will critically examine these key issues and make recommendations for effective social policies and programmes that must be incorporated centrally into national development plans.
The Brazilian public pension system: Policy changes, political effects
Authors: Hochman Gilberto , Williamson Iohn B.
Published: December 2007

This article discusses the reciprocal relationship between public pension policy and age‐based politics in Brazil, a nation with a public pension system that has the potential for influencing policy developments in other developing nations faced with the problem of how to extend social security coverage to the entire population. Our goal is to extend a line of analysis used in previous studies of industrial nations to the case of Brazil. Pension policy changes made during the 1960s and 1970s had a number of unintended consequences. One was the role these policy changes played with respect to the emergence of rural unions and age‐based interest groups: both are becoming increasingly important actors with respect to pension policy. We discuss the implications of the Brazilian case for policy options and outcomes in other newly democratic nations, particularly those in Latin America.
The welfare state in liquidation?
Authors: Ploug Niels
Published: December 2007

This paper is about the most recent reforms of cash benefit systems and the sociopolitical debate in eight European countries. The welfare state and the social security system rank high on the political agenda. After many years of economic crisis, with increasingly widespread unemployment and changed family patterns, the welfare system that developed in most western European countries since the end of the Second World War is the focus of attention. In a world of increasing international trade, with competition from countries — in eastern Europe and Asia as well as the United States — which have not developed such comprehensive systems of social security, one of the main issues in the debate is whether western Europe can afford to maintain welfare at the existing level, or whether it is necessary to make fundamental changes. But the discussion also centres on what can be called the welfare state's own internal problems.
A risky strategy: Reflections on the World Bank Report Averting the old age crisis
Authors: Beattie Roger , McGillivray Warren
Published: December 2007

This article is a critical assessment of a report on pensions recently published by the World Bank. It takes issue with the report's assertion that public pension systems have failed both socially and economically, demonstrating that many of the shortcomings identified by the World Bank apply with equal or greater force to private systems. It argues that the strategy outlined in the report, involving the replacement of social insurance by mandatory savings schemes, would involve an unacceptably high degree of risk for workers and pensioners, that it would make old‐age protection more costly, and that the transition would impose a heavy burden on the current generation of workers. The article concludes that a more efficient and less disruptive approach to the provision of retirement pension would be to focus efforts on measures to rectify design deficiencies and inequities in existing schemes.
Chile and beyond: The second‐generation pension reforms in Latin America
Authors: Queisser Monika
Published: December 2007

In the early 1990s, pension reforms leading to substantial changes in the organization and financing of old age security were undertaken in Argentina, Colombia and Peru. Implemented ten years after the pioneer reforms in Chile, they have taken advantage of the experiences and lessons of the Chilean case; at the same time, the second‐generation reforms clearly demonstrate the restrictions policy makers are being faced with in a democratic political context. This paper examines the recent pension reform experiences in Latin America and discusses their implications for a modified concept of old age security.
Cost containment in complex social security systems: The limitations of targeting
Authors: Bolderson Helen , Mabbett Deborah
Published: December 2007

Two aspects of the structure of existing social security systems limit the scope for containing costs by increasing targeting: the insurance principle, and the use of category membership to establish eligibility for benefits. The first aspect is antithetical to targeting because the most needy people are also the most likely to fail to establish an adequate contributions record. Some countries appear committed to maintaining the insurance principle because it is part of the fabric of the relationship between employers, employees and the State. The second aspect can be seen as an effective way of identifying groups whose income is likely to fall short of their needs. However, the primary function of category definition is to establish the legitimacy of claims—to examine why a shortfall of income in relation to needs has arisen, what personal responsibility the claimant bears, and what alternative mechanisms might be available. Several countries have revised category definitions in response to issues about the motivation and “deservingness” of claimants. We designate as “pseudo‐targeting” reforms of this type, which are not likely to result in the allocation of a higher share of social expenditure to the worst‐off. The scope for increasing targeting in existing systems is very restricted, reflecting the limitations of the concept. Non‐categorical social assistance is the archetypal targeted benefit, and it has serious limitations. The obstacles to targeting are integral to the legitimation of social security. If targeting reforms undermine this legitimating structure, they risk undermining the claim on resources exercised by the social security system.
Unemployment insurance in Bulgaria and other East European countries: The transition to a market economy
Authors: Sredkova Krassimira
Published: December 2007

Unemployment places those it affects in a situation of dependency on unemployment benefits. The regulation of that dependency and the measures necessary to avert it, in Bulgaria (and also in other East European countries) during the period of transition to a market economy, forms the subject of labour and social insurance legislation relating to unemployment and introduced on a temporary basis. Unemployment insurance benefits (unemployment benefits in cash, unemployment assistance, social assistance) are provided for limited periods fixed in the light of the nature of the benefit, the causes of unemployment, the number of years of service, age, gender and other factors. The degree of dependency of unemployed persons on such benefits is also determined by the level of those benefits. The principal categories of legal instruments by which that dependency can be averted or reduced are (1) contributions by the State to the establishment of labour law relationships by providing information to unemployed persons on job vacancies, vocational training and retraining measures, job creation measures and placement; (2) incentives to employers to maintain existing jobs and to create new ones (credits, exemption from interest payments, etc.).
Principles of financing social security pensions
Authors: Thompson Lawrence H.
Published: December 2007

This paper aims to provide a framework for debate on the financing of social security pensions. It begins with some basic principles related to the economics of financing social security. It then focuses on the prominent subtopics that arise in connection with financing discussions and how these subtopics relate to each other. The first section discusses the basic principles: (1) the rationale for government intervention in the market for retirement income, (2) the factors that combine to determine the social costs of supporting pensioners, (3) the mechanisms used to deliver the support to pensioners and allocate the costs and (4) the important role played by political and cultural influences in determining the actual economic impact of a particular institution. The next section focuses on ways that societies can alter the burden of supporting retired people. These include changes in relative incomes, in economic growth rates, in labour supply rates and in administrative cost. A third section concentrates on the distribution of benefits and costs among members of a particular birth cohort as well as between and among cohorts. This section also explores the relationship between programme structure and the extent of programme coverage. The fourth section discusses the challenge of assuring that the system remains economically and politically viable in the long run. It notes in particular the role that political traditions play in influencing how programmes structured in particular ways develop. The paper closes with a summary and some concluding observations.
Italy: A fundamental transformation of the pension system
Authors: Reynaud Emmanuel , Hege Adelheid
Published: December 2007

Italy completely transformed its pension system in 1995. The reform undertaken is of unequalled magnitude in industrialized countries. The main innovations introduced comprise the creation of a single scheme covering all employees, as well as the self‐employed; the adoption of a new method of calculation linking the pension amount to contributions; and the introduction of a flexible retirement age. In addition, measures have been foreseen to encourage the development of funded supplementary pension provision. This reform, which will transform the Italian pensions scene, is mainly the result of an agreement signed between the government and the confederations of trade unions.
SWEDEN
Authors: Svensson Hans , Brorsson Jan‐Åke
Published: December 2007

During the 1990s many changes have been carried out in Sweden in terms of forms of insurance for sickness and work‐related injury. The need to carry out these measures has its background in developments that took place over the course of the 1980s. In that decade, instances of both short‐ and long‐term sick leave, including periods covered by payment of disability pensions, increased substantially. This resulted in a sizeable increase in insurance costs. To counteract this negative trend, a number of measures were implemented over the first half of the 1990s. The task of change is not complete, but discussions on new measures continue. The Committee for Sickness and Work Injury has put forward a number of proposals in its final report.
The national provident fund model: An analytical and evaluative reassessment
Authors: McKinnon Roddy , Charlton Roger , Munro Harry T.
Published: December 2007

Both earlier and current analytical perspectives on appropriate modes of delivering retirement provision have tended to underestimate both the inherent adaptability and the developmental potentialities of the national provident fund (NPF) model. The essence of this model is found in the welfare salience of the possibility of synergy between the NPF's direct (retirement provision) and indirect (development finance institution) roles in developing political economies. Diffusion is found to be important in the development of the NPF model from Asian origins and in its subsequent retention in a limited number of states. NPF “success stories” are few in number but potentially significant given their regional concentration and impact, the latter currently underlined by further expansion and development of existing NPFs and by recently renewed prospects for regional diffusion of the model. Further examination of the significantly enhanced welfare outcomes achieved through the creative utilization of existing NPFs underlines the potentiality for NPF‐led development within “pillarized” retirement provision.
FINLAND
Authors: Lundqvist Bo
Published: December 2007

The durability of all institutions during this last decade of the twentieth century has been tested by the economic recession. Repercussions have hit the Finnish pension system from two directions ‐ problems in financing, and the need to cut costs in the public sector. However, in the long run, the question of securing pensions is a matter of will. In recent years, some major amendments to laws have been made successfully, including a higher age limit for early retirement, lower levels of disability and early retirement pensions and diminished index adjustments of old‐age pensions. These amendments give even more reason to believe that the main contributors to the pension system have the capacity and the will to secure the Finnish employment pension system.
Social security: Indispensable solidarity
Authors: Euzéby Alain
Published: December 2007

Social security must be considered not as an economic burden, but as a collection of mechanisms for collective solidarity based on the principle of income redistribution. The economic and social transformations that the various regions of the world are going through, in particular the globalization of the economy, are making social security increasingly necessary. Instead of yielding to proposals for the privatization of schemes — a formula that is less efficient and more expensive — we should be protecting and improving social security; developing it in those countries where its position is still weak; and stressing that, while its objectives are humane and social, it brings economic benefits too.
THE SAGITTA OF A TOROIDAL SURFACE IN AN OBLIQUE MERIDIAN
Authors: Churms P. W.
Published: December 2007

Abstract A method for the accurate calculation of the sagitta of a barrel‐form, toroidal surface in an oblique meridian is shown. The accurate oblique sagittae of barrel‐ and type‐form surfaces are compared with approximate sagittae derived from a method employing the concept of oblique cylindrical power. Differences between the values are examined in a range of toroidal surfaces common in ophthalmic lens manufacture. The implications of the data for lens volume and weight are discussed.
STEREOSCOPIC CONSTANCY SCALING WITH ANISEIKONIC LENSES
Authors: Morrison L. C. , Fox T. M.
Published: December 2007

Abstract When objects are viewed with an aniseikonic lens they appear to tilt from a subject's frontal plane and distort in shape, the distortion being attributed to size constancy scaling.

A technique was devised which permitted both the amount apparent tilting and of constancy scaling hi be measured. Therefore, the relation between the two tjualitios could be studied.

The results failed in confirm the invariance theory assumed by Ogle (1950). i.e. that scaling ii upplied in proportion to the amount of perceived tilting, but were consistent with the direct response theory of Gillam (1967) which assers that perceived tilting and constancy scaling are determined independently. Indeed, the results suggest that, for slanting objects with perspective attributes, the chief function of the stereoscopic cues is to set the constancy scaling and thus stereopsis greatly contributes to the shape constancy of tilted objects.
THE TREATMENT OF AMBLYOPIA BY THE ROTATING GRATING METHOD
Authors: Douthwaite W. A. , Jenkins T. C. A. , Pickwell L. D. , Sheridan M.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The rotating grating method, suggested by Campbell and co‐workers, of treating amblyopia was employed on 23 subjects. Three were students in the Department and 20 were patients attending the Orthoptics Clinic. Only two cases were found where an improvement in vision was thought to have possibly occurred.
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND TO AMBLYOPIA TREATMENT BY ROTATING GRATINGS
Authors: Westall Carol A.
Published: December 2007

ABSTRACT This paper contains a brief description of the new treatment for functional amblyopia introduced by Banks et al. (1978). The ways in which this treatment might stimulate the cells of the visual cortex by means of a high‐contrast grating, of continuously changing orientation and selective spatial frequency, are discussed in terms of (he normal visual system. Published studies of [he effectiveness of the technique in improving vision are reviewed.
CLASSICAL AND MODERN THEORIES FOR THE BASIS OF AMBLYOPIA
Authors: Westall Carol A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The decreased acuity in amblyopic eyes may be the outcome of motor and/or sensory anomalies. Eccentric fixation could be a major contributor. The sensory loss may result from some impairment in the sustained system, possibly caused by inadequate stimulation at a sensitive period of development. Strabismic amblyopia tends to he more of a central retinal problem, she peripheral retina approaching normal activity. As in non‐amblyopic eyes, am Myopes have size‐selective channels, but perhaps there is insufficient co‐operation between these channels.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLINICAL STEREOTESTS
Authors: Hall Chris
Published: December 2007

Abstract The stereo‐thresholds of 67 normal binocular subjects and two smaller groups of non‐binocular and temporarily occluded subject's were measured using three clinical stereotests and a laboratory two‐needle test. The Titmus, Frisby and two‐needle test were found to give a much lower mean threshold than the TNO test.

It was found that there is low, but significant, correlation between most pairs of the rests. This suggests they all measure the same underlying function of stereopsis, but other factors must also influence performance in these tests.

The non‐binocular subjects performed slightly better than the occluded subjects in some of the stereotests.
REACTION‐TIME DETERMINATION OF THE LATENCY BETWEEN VISUAL SIGNALS GENERATED BY RODS AND CONES
Authors: Barbur John L.
Published: December 2007

Abstract This paper reports the results of a series of reaction‐time measurements in response to light flashes which stimulate preferentially either the rod or the cone receptor mechanisms in human vision. The average response latency between rod‐ and cone‐generated signals as determined from these measurements was found to be 80 ms. Similar response latency values were also obtained from measurements involving only visual responses to real‐ and apparent‐motion stimuli. The results show that the rod–cone response latency, measured by reaction‐time or visual methods is relatively constant for target presentation locations between 4 and 9° of visual angle from the fovea along the horizontal meridian.
INVESTIGATION OF VISUAL PATHWAY ABNORMALITIES IN HUMAN ALBINOS
Authors: Boylan C. , Harding G. F. A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Flash visual‐evoked cortical and subcortical potentials are studied in human albinos for evidence of optic nerve fibre misrouting. The relationships between the results obtained and the visual problems associated with albinism are discussed.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE CONTRAST SENSITIVITY FUNCTION*
Authors: Woodhouse J. M.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The contrast sensitivity function, as a statement of visual capabilities over a wide range of object sizes, has proved to be a valuable tool in the study of visual mechanisms. This paper examines the more clinical applications of the function which may be of interest to practising optometrists. These applications include the assessment of binocularity and aids to the recognition of conditions not picked up by more conventional tests.
CORNEAL TOPOGRAPHY OF HUMANS WITH CONGENITAL NYSTAGMUS
Authors: Dickinson C. M. , Abadi R. V.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The refractive status of individuals with congenital nystagmus (albinos and idiopaths) has been examined. Our results indicate that there is a greater than normal incidence of high spectacle astigmatism. This is predominantly with‐the‐rule and corneal in origin (anterior surface). Partial neutralization by the against‐the‐rule residual astigmatism is frequent and does not differ significantly from that reported for normal populations. Topographical studies of the anterior cortical surface revealed that there was no significantly significantly difference in the mean shape factor values for the albino, idioparh and control populations. The aetiology of the astigmatism is discussed.
ASSESSMENT OF CHILDREN'S COLOUR, VISION USING THE PICKFORD‐NICOLSON ANOMALOSCOPE
Authors: Lloyd M.J. , Lowther P. S. , Heron G.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The colour vision of 439 boys, aged 4–11 years, was measured by the Pickford‐ Nicolson anomaloscope and four pseudoisochromatic tests. Matching range and dispersion of mid match point were found to be larger than adult values, but did not decrease with age. However, younger children took longer to establish matching range. Twenty‐eight(6.4%) colour defectives were found and it is concluded that the Pickford‐ Nicolson anomaloscope gives valid results with children.
MOVEMENT DETECTION AND SPATIAL PHASE *
Authors: Murray I. J. , Kuijkowski J. J.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Contrast thresholds for the detection of movement are determined when a sinusoidal grating pattern is shifted in spatial phase. “True” contrast reversal (180° phase shift) is compared with smaller phase shifts for a range of spatial frequencies. An unexpected increase in movement sensitivity is repealed for intermediate spatial frequencies. This effect is confined to those spatial frequencies where interaction between pattern and movement detectors occurs.
A ROD MONOCHROMAT'S PATTERN VECP AT HIGH AND LOW BACKGROUND LEVELS: SPATIAL TUNING OF COLOUR MECHANISMS AND RODS COMPARED
Authors: Klingaman Roger L.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The visually evoked cortical potential spatial‐tuning function, i.e. checksize vs. amplitude of response, was determined for a rod monochromat al a low background level of 0.2 scot td or a high background level of 200 scot td. The results showed evidence of a peak at 36′ for the low‐background spatial‐tuning curve, but almost no peak was evident when the high background level was employed. This latter finding was interpreted us consistent with a rod saturation effect. Additionally, the shape of the spatial‐tuning function found with the low background level was compared with that obtained front the blue or red (R) and green (G) cone mechanisms of normals. It was concluded that the blue cone mechanism may not use. as has been hypothesized, the same neural transmission pathway as rods because its spatial‐tuning curve differed from both the rod and R and G systems.
CLINICAL INFERENCES AND DECISIONS—III. UTILITY ASSESSMENT AND THE BAYESIAN DECISION MODEL
Authors: Aspinall P. A. , Hill A. R.
Published: December 2007

Abstract It is accepted that errors of misclassifications, however small, can occur in clinical decisions but it cannot be assumed that the importance associated with false positive errors is the same as that for false negatives. The relative importance of these two types of error is frequently implied by a decision maker in the different weighting factors or utilities he assigns to the alternative consequences of the decisions. Formal procedures are available by which it is possible lo make explicit in numerical form the value or worth of the outcome of a decision process. The two principal methods are described for generating utilities as associated with clinical decisions. The concept and application of utility is then expanded from a unidimensional to a multidimensional problem where, for example, one variable may be state of health and another monetary assets. When combined with the principles of subjective probability and test criterion selection outlined in Parts I and II of this series, the consequent use of utilities completes the framework upon which the general Bayesian model of clinical decision making is based. The five main stages in this general decision making model arc described and applications of the model are illustrated with clinical examples from the field of ophthalmology. These include examples for unidimensional and multidimensional problems which are worked through in detail to illustrate both the principles and methodology involved in a rationalized normative model of clinical decision making behaviour.
SHORT‐TERM VARIABILITY OF THE RESTING FOCUS OF ACCOMMODATION
Authors: Johnson Chris A. , Post Robert B. , Tsuetaki Tracy K.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Previous investigations have shown that, in dim illumination and empty visual fields, accommodation in most observers is for an intermediate distance referred lo as the dark focus or resting focus of accommodation. Dynamic properties of the resting focus were examined in the present study with a high‐speed infrared optometer. All subjects displayed fluctuations of accommodation in darkness that were primarily characterized by frequency components below 0.5 Hz. These fluctuations were substantially attenuated during cycloplegia or viewing a bright, high‐contrast target. Both the mean resting‐focus position and the magnitude of fluctuations varied from one subject to another and from day‐to‐day. A weak association was found between the mean and standard deviation of accommodation responses in the dark. The present findings suggest that the accommodation mechanism in most observers is somewhat unstable under degraded viewing conditions. In addition, the mean resting‐focus value for a large sample of subjects was found to be lower for i.r. optometer measurements than for previous investigations employing a laser optometer.
DIURNAL VARIATION OF SOME CYTOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONJUNCTIVA
Authors: Hirji N. K. , Scott J. , Sabell A. G.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Variation of conjunctival cells of healthy non‐contact lens wearing subjects is described using an impression biopsy technique over a period of nine waking hours. The total cell count was found to be highest on waking, falling to about half that value during the first 3 h, attributable almost exclusively to the change in the neutrophil count. A further slower decrease and finally a small increase in some cellular components was noted.
RAPID FADING OF VISUAL SENSATIONS IN A SUBJECT WITH A PARIETAL — OCCIPITAL TUMOUR
Authors: Holliday I. E. , Kennard C. , Ruddock K. H.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— We present psychophysical data measured for a single subject, who had a tumour in the left parieto‐occipital region, located by CT scan and post‐mortem study. Her vision was characterised by rapid fading during voluntary fixation of images located in the right hemifield. We describe a number of simple tests which we developed in order to study this phenomenon. The results of these tests established that significant loss of function occurs within 1 s of fixation and that the effects associated with fixation are spatially localised. We compare our subject's response characteristics with those observed in other cases of visual disturbance and we examine the possible underlying mechanisms which give rise to the rapid fading of her visual images.
EFFECT ON PERCEPTION OF HUE OF IMPOSED OSCILLATORY MOVEMENTS OF A STABILIZED RETINAL IMAGE
Authors: DITCHBURN R. W. , FOLEY‐FISHER J. A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— A stabilized image of a coloured square seen against a black background was produced. After the image had faded, oscillatory movements were applied in a direction parallel to a diagonal so that all boundaries had an equal component of motion normal to themselves. Movements of different frequency, amplitude and wave‐form were studied. Most of the experiments were carried out at fairly high retinal illuminance (80–500 td). The objective was to find the amplitude and frequency required for perception of hue and saturation. It was found that these movements had (i) a minimum amplitude of about 5′ (10′ peak‐to‐peak), (ii) a minimum velocity of 15′‐1 and (iii) a frequency range from about 1 Hz to about 4 Hz. The movements required are larger than those required for perception of the shape of the target and also larger than the normal movements which remain when a subject fixates a well‐defined mark. Also the movements associated with the perception of hue and saturation are restricted to a narrower frequency range. These features probably imply that it is necessary to excite numbers of cones covering a minimum area to give perception of hue and saturation.
SPATIAL FREQUENCY RANGE IN THE DETECTION PROCESS—2. WIDE BARS AND SHARP EDGE
Authors: Brogan David
Published: December 2007

Abstract— The effect upon the detectability of broad bars and a sharp edge of ideal low‐and high‐pass filters was investigated. The results indicate that, for optimum detection of the stimulus, spatial frequency components up to about 5 c deg‐1 need to be transmitted. Two models (a multi‐channel model, incorporating probability summation across spatial frequency, and a Grating Sensitivity Curve model) were used in attempting to fit the results. The multi‐channel model provided a more realistic fit, but both models ultimately failed because of non‐linearity in the summation of responses to frequency components.
PROGNOSIS OF REFRACTIVE CORRECTIONS
Authors: Saunders H.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— The validity and efficacy of the prognosis equation published by Saunders (1984b) is tested against previously reported longitudinal data. In a fair and random sample and over a short interval, nearly 60% of the sample was found to have a prediction error of less than 0.25 DS and, in 92%, the error involved was less than 0.5 DS. Long‐term prediction was found to have a less favourable outcome but 50% were correct within an error of 0.5 DS and 90% were found to have a prediction error of less than 1 DS. The largest prediction errors occur in the medium to high myopes whose myopia progresses rapidly.
THE GEOMETRY OF SPECIFIC HOROPTERS
Authors: Clement R. A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— The analysis by Helmholtz (1910) of the geometry of binocular vision has been modified to allow computerized calculation of specific examples of horopters. These are used to clarify the relationship between the shapes of the horopters and the physiological constraints involved.
COMPARISON OF THE ANTI‐INFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY AND EFFECT ON INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE OF FLUOROMETHALONE, CLOBETASONE BUTYRATE AND BETAMETHASONE PHOSPHATE EYE DROPS
Authors: Kadom A. H. M. , Forrester J. V. , Williamson T. H.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— (1) The effect of fluoromethalone 0.1% suspension (FML), clobetasone butyrate 0.1% (Eumovate) and betamethasone phosphate 0.1% (Betnesol) in post‐operative inflammation was studied in 60 eyes (50 patients) in a randomized trial.

(2) No significant differences were noted, although two patients required higher penetration steroids than FML or Eumovate.

(3) Betnesol seemed to have a greater tendency to cause raised intraocular pressure than FML. In this series, however, the authors are unable to comment on differences between Eumovate and Betnesol.
VERTICAL YOKED PRISM—PATIENT ACCEPTANCE AND POSTURAL ADJUSTMENT
Authors: Sheedy James E. , Parsons Steven D.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— Vertical yoked prism is sometimes incorporated into multifocal lenses to obtain a thinner lens, or prescribed for oculomotor deficiencies, or occurs if the vertical placement of spectacle lenses before the eyes is inappropriate. Patient acceptance of and postural and perceptual adaptation to such prism were studied. Twenty‐three subjects wore spectacles with no vertical prism and also with bilateral vertical yoked prism. The subject population could not significantly differentiate between 2Δ base down and 0Δ. There was a nearly unanimous rejection of 4 base down. Postural changes were significant during 4Δ wear but not during 2Δ wear. The results suggest that 2Δ may be accepted by most patients, but 4Δ will not.
INTEROCULAR EQUALITY OF TONIC ACCOMMODATION AND CONSENSUALITY OF ACCOMMODATIVE HYSTERESIS*
Authors: Fisher S. K. , Ciuffreda K. J. , Hammer S.
Published: December 2007

Abstract—Interocular differences in tonic accommodation were assessed before and after a 10 minute period of sustained monocular fixation. The fixation task was carried out once for each eye using a high‐contrast target at near, and once for each eye using an empty illuminated field. Tonic accommodation increased significantly as a result of fixating the high contrast target at near, but remained stable when viewing the empty field. Close correspondence was found between the two eyes with respect to both prefixation tonic level and magnitude of tonic after‐effect. Absence of interocular differences clearly demonstrates the consensuality of accommodative hysteresis.
A MODEL FOR RETINAL SHAPE CHANGES IN AMETROPIA
Authors: Dunne M. C. M. , Barnes D. A. , Clement R. A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Modelling ametropic retinal shape changes with an ellipsoid of constant equatorial radius has been found to produce types of peripheral astigmatism which are in good agreement with experimental findings.
Anomalous loss in blue‐green wavelength discrimination with very brief monochromatic stimuli presented to the normal human eye
Authors: Scase Mark O. , Foster David H.
Published: December 2007

The wavelength‐discrimination curve of the normal human eye shows minima in discrimination thresholds at about 490 and 580 nm for viewing times of 1 s or longer. A reduction in viewing time was found to yield non‐uniform increases in discrimination thresholds in the blue‐green region of the spectrum, and these findings were quantified in objective, two‐interval, forced‐choice discrimination measurements. Monochromatic stimuli were presented foveally in a circular, horizontally oriented, bipartite field of 100 Td and angular subtense 2. When viewing time was decreased to 3 ms there was a sharp increase in discrimination threshold over 490–520 nm, maximizing near 500 nm. In this region, the filds appeaed markedly desaturated. The loss in discrimination was distinct from that exhibited by tritanopes, and a control experiment showed that the effect was not attributable to the reduced energy of the short flash.
Are colour vision standards justified for the transport industry?
Authors: Vingrys Algis J. , Cole Barry L.
Published: December 2007

Colour vision standards are imposed in the road, rail, maritime and aviation industries and are often subject to vigorous opposition by those excluded by the standard. With greater emphasis in recent years on equality of opportunity, it is important that standards of personal fitness, such as colour vision standards, be subject to critical scrutiny. Such appraisal should be able to demonstrate that the community benefit arising from the application of the standard is sufficient to justify the personal and other costs of retaining the standard. This paper reviews the evidence relating to colour vision standards in the transport industries and concludes that a strong case can be made for their retention in public transport.
Laboratory evaluation of blended lenticular aphakic lenses
Authors: Atchison David A.
Published: December 2007

Six types of blended lenticular aspheric lenses for the correction of aphakia were assessed with respect to mass, spectacle magnification, off‐axis power errors, peripheral distortion, visual field size and cosmetic appearance. Relative to spherical surfaced lenses, these lenses showed considerably reduced mass, reduced peripheral distortion, increased visual field size and improved cosmetic appearance. All but one type showed considerably reduced off‐axis power errors, but none of the lenses showed much reduction in spectacle magnification. In general, the manufacturers' claims made in favour of the blended lenticular lenses were supported.
A method of determining the equivalent powers of the eye and its crystalline lens without resort to phakometry
Authors: Beenett A.G.
Published: December 2007

If the positions of the principal points of the crystalline lens are conjectured, its equivalent power and that of the eye can be calculated as described from ocular dioptrics. The only data required are the subject's refractive error and the results of keratometry adn A‐scan ultrasonography. The method assumes the profile of the lens of conform to and arbitrary norm. If the unkown lesn profile of given eye differs from this norm, errors will arise. These are shown to be realatively small, and even in extreme cases unlikely to exceed ±1.0 D for the lesn and + 0.5 D for the eye.
Effect of a mental arithmetic task on dark focus of accommodation
Authors: Jaschinski‐Kruza Wolfgang , Toenies Uwe
Published: December 2007

Three subjective techniques for measuring accommodation (polarized vernier optometer, laser optometer, and a hand optometer based on the vernier principle) were used to measure subjects' dark focus while they performed a short‐term mental arithmetic task. Compared with the intitial values measured without the arithmetic task, significant changes in dark focus occurred when the task was performed. The effects dependend on the initial dark focus of the subjects: in far‐dark‐focus subjects, inward shifts were generally observed; in near‐dark‐focus subjects, the dark focus shifted in different directions when different measuring techniques were used. The individual changes in dark focus due to the mental task were reproducible when the mean dark focus of the group shifted inward and when the same technique for measuring accommodation was used. The results have implications for the interpretation of dark focus shifts that are found following prolonged visual work at close distances, e.g. at visual display terminals.
The effect of optical defocus on the accommodative accuracy for chromatic displays
Authors: Lovasik John V. , Kergoat Hélène
Published: December 2007

Blur, Probably arising from focusing inaccuracies, has been cited in ergonomic and vision literature as one of the causes of visual stress and decreased task efficiency in operation of video display units (VDUs). With the advent of color coding in electro‐optical displays, the need for a detailed quantification of focusing responses to chromatic stimuli is particularly important because of the influence of the chromatic aberration present in ocular optics on the focusing response of the eye. In this regard, we used a computer‐aided laser speckle optometer system to measure the accommodative responses of 20 visually normal subjects, to brightness‐matched monochromatic and multichromatic stimuli displyed on a high‐resolution RGB monitor. We also investigated the effect of target size, target clarity, and viewing distance on the response accuracy of the focusing system of the eye. Our results show that while the accommodative responses are systematically influenced by target chromaticity, they are relatively independent of target size. There was no evidence of any anomalous focusing responses resulting from either target chromaticity or defocus that could account for the asthenopia frequently reported by VDU users. Furthermore, moderate levels of optical defocus did not drive accommodation into any visible hunting pattern for optimal focus or towards its tonic resting position. Implications of these findings in display designs are presented.
Contrast sensitivity and glare sensitivity changes with three types of cataract morphology: are these techniques necessary in a clinical evaluation of cataract?
Authors: Elliott David B. , Gilchrist Jim , Whitaker David
Published: December 2007

LogMAR visual acuity, contrast sensitivity and glare sensitivity measurements were made on 39 eyes of 18 cataractous subjects and compared against normative data. Only cataracts of one of the main three morphological cataract types were used‐cortical, nuclear and posterior subcapsular. Results indicate that contrast sensitivity decline with cataract is an intermediate and high spatial frequency loss. For nuclear and cortical cataracts with a LogMAR visual acuity of less than 0.5 (Snellen equivalent better than 6/18), there was no loss of contrast sensitivity at the lowest spatial frequency (1 c/deg). For posterior subcapsular cataracts, low spatial frequency contrast sensitivity loss did occur but was unrelated to visual acuity. Glare sensitivity increased for all cataract types. This was related to visual acuity for both cortical and nuclear cataracts but was not for the posterior subcapsular type. It was concluded that contrast and glare sensitivity measurements are a useful part of the assessment of visual function in patients with posterior subcapsular cataract.
Reflection characteristics of the human fovea assessed by reflecto‐modulometry
Authors: Gorrand Jean‐Marie
Published: December 2007

The optical quality of the human fovea was assessed by measuring the modulation of aerial fringes conjugate with the retina. The different possible causes of the decrease in modulation of this pattern were successively investigated, the main one being the passage through outer segments in unguided modes. Modulation diagrams measured on the fovea were compared with those of the perifovea.
Alternatives to toric contact lens fitting—for regular and irregular astigmatism
Authors: Astin Christine L.K.
Published: December 2007

Although toric contact lenses have improved in design and development and their use is increasing, further consideration should be given to the alternative methods of astigmatism correction by contact lenses. Much can still be achieved by non‐toric lens, both for a wide range of astigmatism and for ease of supply. A number of these alternatives are examined, their advantages and disadvantages reappraised, and the merits of lens correction compared with surgical methods considered.