bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO Excluding Communists
Authors: Howell David
Published: January 2010

The relationship between the Labour Party and the Communist Party remained unresolved through most of the 1920s. Only in 1928, after several debates resulting in ambiguous decisions, did the Labour Party finally exclude all members of the Communist Party from its institutions. Keen ideological divisions could be emphasized by partisans. Clement Attlee did not share in the welcome for the Bolshevik Revolution. Questions of constitutional propriety and political feasibility were crucial both to the protracted debate and to its eventual outcome. In particular, these concerns focused on the relationship between the Labour Party and its trade union affiliates. The controversy was also shaped by the broader industrial and political contexts. The industrial struggles of 1921 and 1926, the conflicting reappraisals fostered by industrial defeats, electoral optimism and anxieties, the brief fact of the 1924 Labour Government — all were significant. Moreover, the shifting industrial and political strategies of the Communist Party, responding to both domestic and international pressures, left their mark especially on debates within the trade unions.
Introduction
Authors: WYLIE NEVILLE
Published: January 2010

Recent studies detailing Switzerland's role in the German sale of ‘looted’ gold during the war and its seizure of ‘dormant’ bank accounts — left by those who perished in the death camps — has sullied the standing of Swiss neutrality and generated considerable scholarly and popular interest in Switzerland's wartime record. This introductory chapter summarises the state of current scholarship on the subject and the state of the archival holdings available to historians. In doing so, it makes the case for a more holistic approach to the study of Anglo-Swiss relations, one that balances an assessment of Britain's specific diplomatic and military agenda with an understanding of the broader intellectual, cultural and emotional currents that flowed between the two countries.
The Evolution of British Policy
Authors: WYLIE NEVILLE
Published: January 2010

This chapter summarises the principal findings of the book, and shows how British policy towards Switzerland evolved over the course of the war. London's success in extracting economic and intelligence advantages from Switzerland after the fall of France was used to justify treating Switzerland as a ‘special case’ in the blockade and reigning in those in the Air Ministry and Special Operations Executive, who were intent on overriding Swiss interests in pursuit of Britain's military objectives. The dominance of political interests over British policy continued until the end of the war, being only briefly eclipsed in late 1943. Appreciation of Berne's ‘protecting power’ work on behalf of British prisoners of war, and the desire to secure Swiss support for Britain's post-war objectives, encouraged London to overlook Switzerland's gold purchases from Germany and resist U.S. attempts to impose draconian economic and financial demands on the Swiss government.
British Economic Warfare and Switzerland
Authors: WYLIE NEVILLE
Published: January 2010

This chapter charts British efforts to limit Swiss–German economic collaboration. It explores how the Ministry of Economic Warfare tried to compel Berne into reducing its exports to Germany through a mixture of blockade quotas, pre-emptive purchasing, and the use of statutory and black list mechanisms, but how these efforts were always limited by an appreciation of the importance of ‘danegeld’ — Swiss manufactured goods — to the British war effort and the priority given to Britain's political relations with the Swiss government. The substantial concessions, granted by Berne following the listing of the Hans Sulzer engineering firm in late 1943, effectively met London's principal desiderata and for the remainder of the war London assumed the role of honest-broker between the Swiss and the Allied governments, and sought to use to position to temper U.S. efforts to impose the Allied ‘Safehaven’ programme on the Swiss authorities in the final months of the war.
Introduction
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

Of all the monuments of medieval European civilization, castles are probably the most familiar, rivalled only by the parish churches and great cathedrals. They may well be the most popular form of amateur history. How they are perceived has coloured ideas of medieval society, aristocratic culture, faith, and strife, permeating them all with images of dungeons, battering-rams, and boiling oil. Fortresses were only occasionally caught up in war, but constantly were central to the ordinary life of all classes: of the nobility and gentry, of widows and heiresses, of prelates and clergy, of peasantry and townspeople alike. The present book explores the social history of castles during the central middle ages. It offers new insights for England and Ireland derived, in no small part, from associating Britain with the provinces of France with which links were so intimate during that central medieval period that runs from the later 11th to the late 14th century.
Peacekeeping at Home and Abroad
Authors: COULSON CHARLES L. H.
Published: January 2010

However coloured by medieval (chiefly ecclesiastical) polemic, and by constitutionalists of a statist cast of mind misapplying the concepts of the modern nation, fortresses (castles in the original comprehensive usage) were not so much private force embodied in stone (or earthwork and timber, latterly brick) as, rather, the most conspicuous contemporary and still surviving manifestation of the socially diffusive medieval ruling class. This art, along with the ‘religious’ architecture to which it is so closely related as to be indistinguishable, was among the most noble achievements of medieval culture. Since fortifying, like the ‘arms-ban’, operated as a noble perquisite, the restraining hand of the ‘public interest’ must be pursued also in other directions than ‘military activities’. Political as well as social motives were involved. This chapter looks at castles, fortresses, and fortifications as means of peacekeeping and pacification in England and France during the medieval period.
1 The Charters
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

The earliest surviving original charters from the archive of Gorze, an abbey in early medieval Lotharingia, belong to the 11th century. However, the abbey's late 12th-century cartulary recorded the texts of 214 charters drawn from nearly every decade since Gorze's foundation in the mid-8th century. Forty of these charters were dated to the 8th, forty-six to the 9th, and thirty-seven to the 10th century. These charters provide evidence as to the size of the community, the background of its inmates, and the nature of its relationships with the bishops of Metz and the region's nobility.
9 St-Evre before the Reform: Continuity and Vigour
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

The interpretation of Saint-Evre's history and the pattern of its reform is inseparably linked to the interpretation of a succession of episcopal charters and diplomata stretching through the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries which confirm and enumerate the lands pertaining to the abbey. The first is the restoration charter of Bishop Frothar of Toul, followed by Charles the Bald's confirmation of 869, Charles the Fat's of 885, Louis the Child's of 906, Bishop Gauzelin's restoration charter of 936, Otto I's confirmations of 947 and 965, and Conrad II's of 1026. Viewed as a group, the most notable characteristic of these documents is the repetition of the same list of lands and the precision with which they are enumerated. It is assumed that this continuity, contradicting the preambles of Gauzelin's restoration charters and later narrative sources, could not reflect the reality on the ground during this turbulent period.
14 Kings and Lay Abbots: The Royal Diplomata
Authors: NIGHTINGALE JOHN
Published: January 2010

A series of three diplomata, granted by Arnulf, Zwentibold, and Charles the Simple, confirm the lands which pertained to the exclusive use of Saint-Maximin's religious community. They record a total of thirty-three places, twenty-one of which were situated in the diocese of Trier. Three possessions were named in the diocese of Metz: Borny, Bezange-la-Petite, and Lucy in the Seillgau. The most striking and extensive outlying groups were those in the diocese of Mainz. The three diplomata give no indication of the extent of the community's holdings in each place, but the extensive estates with numerous and often distant dependencies recorded at many of these places in Saint-Maximin's late 12th-century polyptych are most likely to have stemmed from donations, often of royal fisc, in the Merovingian and early Carolingian periods. The increasing fragmentation of villae in the Moselle region during the 9th century made their acquisition at a later date improbable.
The Rebellion of 1641 and the Evolution of the Confederate Catholics of Ireland
Authors: hAnnrachÁin Tadhg Ó
Published: January 2010

Henry VIII's breach with Rome, culminating in his assumption of the Supreme Headship of the church of England followed by Ireland, inaugurated the Irish reformation. In 1541, Henry became the first English monarch to style himself King rather than Lord of Ireland. For the rest of the century, with the exception of a brief interlude under Mary in the 1550s, the official religion of the Irish kingdom was a form of Protestantism. Despite the now unchallenged supremacy of the Stuart state in Ireland, the official church nevertheless continued to make little headway in terms of converting the native population. Catholicism, increasingly influenced by post-tridentine reform, established itself securely as the religion of the majority of the population, although the Catholic community was itself divided by a number of factors. This chapter examines the Irish rebellion of 1641 and the evolution of the Confederate Catholics of Ireland.
Aboriginal Societies and the Common Law
Authors: McHugh P.G.
Published: January 2010

This book describes the encounter between the common law legal system and the tribal peoples of North America and Australasia. It is a history of the role of anglophone law in managing relations between the British settlers and indigenous peoples. That history runs from the plantation of Ireland and settlement of the New World to the end of the 20th century. The book begins by looking at the nature of British imperialism and the position of non-Christian peoples at large in the 17th and 18th centuries. It then focuses on North America and Australasia from their early national periods in the 19th century to the modern era. The historical basis of relations is described through the key, enduring, but constantly shifting questions of sovereignty, status and, more latterly, self-determination. Throughout the history of engagement with common law legalism, questions surrounding the settler-state's recognition — or otherwise — of the integrity of the tribe have recurred. These issues were addressed in many and varied imperial and colonial contexts, but all jurisdictions have shared remarkable historical parallels which have been accentuated by their common legal heritage. The same questioning continues today in the renewed and controversial claims of the tribal societies to a distinct constitutional position and associated rights of self-determination. The author examines the political resurgence of aboriginal peoples in the last quarter of the 20th century. A period of ‘rights-recognition’ was transformed into a second-generation jurisprudence of rights-management and rights-integration. From the 1990s onwards, aboriginal affairs have been driven by an increasingly rampant legalism.
Moving Beyond Recognition: Aboriginal Governance in the Turbulent 1990s
Authors: McHUGH P.G.
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers the emergence during the 1990s of governance as a major issue for the post-recognition jurisprudence of aboriginal rights. It shows that the exercise of self-determination occurred at a number of levels, from the governmental, pan-tribal, inter-tribal, and intra-tribal and, in limited urban settings, extra-tribal. As the practice of self-determination grew and was accompanied by the injection of settler-state resources, aboriginal relations juridified. Aboriginal affairs acquired a deepening and broadening legalism, giving rise to a paradox: the more self-determining aboriginal groups became, the more law was involved in the management of their affairs. Instead of being used instrumentally against them, law was now being used instrumentally by and for them towards a full range of purposes. That those purposes varied and were subject to dispute within aboriginal culture, often in highly combustible ways, signalled the extent to which the principle had been reawakened.
Aboriginal Sovereignty and Status in the ‘Empire(s) of Uniformity’
Authors: McHUGH P.G.
Published: January 2010

Through the 17th and most of the 18th centuries, the formal pattern of British relations with non-Christian societies carried strong residual traces of a medieval and personalized approach to the nature of sovereign authority. This was expressed through an underlying jurisdictionalism by which British authority over non-Christians was based upon treaty, protocol and suchlike relations with those people. Essentially this approach recognized and worked through the political authority of the non-Christian polity. In the late 18th and 19th centuries, however, a new, modern approach towards sovereign authority emerged and was applied to tribal peoples. This chapter describes that transition.
Aboriginal Societies and International Law: A History of Sovereignty, Status, and Land
Authors: McHUGH P.G.
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows how, after World War II, international and municipal legal systems transformed into a more complex and juridified conception where law increasingly modified and curbed the exercise of settler-state authority over aboriginal peoples. In both the international and municipal systems the legal pattern was one of growing settler-state accountability for its management of aboriginal affairs. At the most general level, these systems witnessed an increasing legal recognition and accommodation of the claims of aboriginal peoples. The applicability of those international norms to some populations in Asia, Africa, and South America remained contentious. However there was never any doubt of their relevance to the aboriginal societies of North America and Australasia. State practice in those jurisdictions was — and to a significant extent remains — an influential factor in the normative development of international law.
7 Adversarial Experts
Authors: REDMAYNE MIKE
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the criticisms and reforms that might be applied to adversarial experts. It presents several criticisms of adversary expertise. It agrees with Wigmore in saying that cross-examination is the greatest legal engine ever invented for the discovery of truth. It also enumerates several negative points of cross-examination, as well as bias and adversarial system.
Language and German Disunity
Authors: Stevenson Patrick
Published: January 2010

This book investigates the history of national disunity in Germany since the end of the Second World War from a linguistic perspective: what was the role of language in the ideological conflicts of the Cold War and in the difficult process of rebuilding the German nation after 1990? The first part of the book explores the ways in which the idea of ‘the national language’ contributed to the political tensions between the two German states and to the different social experiences of their citizens. It begins by showing how the modern linguistic conflict between east and west in Germany has its roots in a long tradition of debates on the relationship between language and national identity. The book then describes the use of linguistic strategies to reinforce the development of a socialist state in the GDR and argues that they ultimately contributed to its demise. The second part considers the social and linguistic consequences of unification. The book discusses the challenges imposed on East Germans by the sudden formation of a single ‘speech community’ and examines how conflicting representations of easterners and westerners — for example, in personal interactions, the media and advertising — have hindered progress towards national unity.
The Discursive Construction of Difference
Authors: STEVENSON PATRICK
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on the ways in which (perceptions of) language use and reflections on language are more directly instrumental in constructing and negotiating different kinds of eastern and western identities. It is organized as follows. Section 5.1 discusses personal narratives in which individuals reconstruct their experience of the past and reflect on the role of language in their lives. Section 5.2 explores the ways in which internalized images of ‘eastern talk’ and ‘western talk’ are activated in interaction through contextualization cues. Section 5.3 then further develops the question of perceptions by analyzing how images of eastness and westness are variably realized in the course of personal interaction and in public discourses.
Collective modes
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

Having developed his theory of a Fermi liquid to account for the properties of liquid 3He, Landau predicted that at sufficiently low temperatures a new form of sound, called zero sound, would propagate. This chapter describes the theoretical basis for both longitudinal and transverse zero sound, together with an account of the experimental evidence for their existence. It also comments on a third collective mode in liquid 3He, spin waves.
Acoustic and temperature waves
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines 3He-4He mixtures with acoustic and temperature waves. Topics discussed include first sound, velocity of second sound, attenuation of second sound, oscillating superleak transducers, and Brillouin scattering.
Search for superfluidity in mixtures
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

Bardeen, Cooper, Schrieffer (BCS) showed that a Fermi fluid with an attractive interaction between its quasiparticles would, at sufficiently low temperature Tc, form an s-state superfluid of Cooper pairs having equal and opposite spin and momentum. The BCS theory was successful in explaining the occurrence of superconductors such as aluminium, lead, and tin. This theory for the fermions in a metal applied equally to the fermions (3He quasiparticles) in dilute solutions of 3He in superfluid 4He. The holy grail of the study of 3He in 4He is the discovery of a pairing transition between the 3He quasiparticles. This chapter outlines some of the calculations made on the elusive Tc for dilute 3He in 4He, followed by a summary of experimental attempts to find Tc.
BCS superfluids
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces the theory of superfluid 3He. It begins with a summary of the BCS theory of superconductivity, which is the basis for the development of the most complex theory of superfluid 3He. This is followed by the Ginzburg–Landau theory that is only valid for superfluids at temperatures near their transition temperature, Tc. A discussion of spin-triplet pairing leads to the identification of the B phase with the Balian–Werthamer state and the A phase with the Anderson–Morel state.
Multiple phases
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the effects of applying a magnetic field to the A and B phases of superfluid 3He. The first section describes the distortions of the energy gap in the B phase, producing changes in the spin susceptibility and enabling transitions to the A phase to be measured as functions of field and pressure. The second section describes the discovery of the unique properties of the small A1 phase. Finally, modern measurements of the Ginzburg–Landau free energy β-parameters by several methods are compared, and conclusions are drawn.
Quantum crystal
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the properties of the quantum crystal. Topics covered include phase diagram, thermal properties, and solid 3He-4He mixtures.
Lattice dynamics
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter outlines the development of a theory of solid helium as a quantum solid. First, it discusses the important differences between the environment of an atom in a classical solid like argon with those of a helium atom in a quantum solid. This is followed by a review of the calculations made for the static and dynamic properties of solid helium in its ground state during the last thirty years. The results of these theories for the volume dependence of the ground-state energy, pressure, and compressibility of 3He are compared with experimental results for both b.c.c. to h.c.p. phases. The difficult problem of calculating the stability of three phases of solid 3He, and hence predicting the transformations from b.c.c. to h.c.p. and h.c.p. to f.c.c. is discussed, and results are compared with those for solid argon and 4He.
Ferromagnetism in the h.c.p. phase
Authors: DOBBS E. R.
Published: January 2010

The higher-density, hexagonal close packed (h.c.p.) crystal is expected to become ferromagnetic below about 10 microkelvin. This chapter shows clear evidence of its existence.
Chaos and Nonlinear Dynamics
Authors: Hilborn Robert C.
Published: January 2010

This book introduces the full range of activity in the rapidly growing field of nonlinear dynamics. Using a step-by-step introduction to dynamics and geometry in state space as the central focus of understanding nonlinear dynamics, this book includes a thorough treatment of both differential equation models and iterated map models (including a detailed derivation of the famous Feigenbaum numbers). It includes the increasingly important field of pattern formation and a survey of the controversial question of quantum chaos. Important tools such as Lyapunov exponents, fractal dimensions, and correlation dimensions are treated in detail. Several appendices provide a detailed derivation of the Lorenz model from the Navier-Stokes equation, a summary of bifurcation theory, and some simple computer programs to study nonlinear dynamics. Each chapter includes an extensive, annotated bibliography.
The Universality of Chaos
Authors: Hilborn Robert C.
Published: January 2010

The many universal features of nonlinear behaviour took the scientific and mathematics worlds by surprise. For the period-doubling route to chaotic behaviour, the famous Feigenbaum numbers provide quantitative, universal features that link entirely different nonlinear systems. Self-similarity is introduced as another universal feature in state space. The chapter also discusses the crucial importance of computers and, in particular, computer graphics in the historical development of chaos theory and nonlinear dynamics.
Dynamics in State Space: One and Two Dimensions
Authors: Hilborn Robert C.
Published: January 2010

The description of nonlinear behaviour using state space techniques is introduced in this chapter by examining systems with one or two dynamical variables, that is, the state spaces have one or two dimensions. The important notions of attractors, fixed points, limit cycles, bifurcations, and stability are introduced using simple models. For systems described by differential equations, the behaviours in one and two-dimensional state spaces are quite limited due to the ‘no-intersection theorem’ for deterministic systems. Models described in this chapter are the (linear) simple harmonic oscillator and the Brusselator chemical reaction model. Taylor series expansions allow us to characterize the stability of behaviour near fixed points and limit cycles. Poincare sections are introduced as a way of reducing the effective dimensionality of systems displaying limit cycles. Bifurcation theory characterizes the sudden changes in behaviour that can occur for nonlinear systems as their parameters are changed.
Many Dimensions and Multifractals
Authors: Hilborn Robert C.
Published: January 2010

This chapter explores generalizations of fractal dimensions and correlation dimensions (generalized dimensions) that allow us to characterize more complex dynamics. These concepts are somewhat more sophisticated than those explored in the previous chapter but their exploration is worthwhile because they are closely related to the theory of statistical mechanics and thermodynamics with many analogies that link these subjects to dynamics. Embedding schemes are used to generate state spaces from time series recorded from numerical work or from experiments. In favourable circumstances it is sufficient to build the embedding space from the time series of a single dynamical variable. The calculation of correlation dimensions is used to illustrate these procedures. The Kaplan–Yorke conjecture links the (average) Lyanpunov exponents of a system to the dimension of its state space attractor. Sets of unstable periodic orbits can be used to characterize chaotic behaviour. Connections with partition functions in statistical mechanics, wavelet analysis and q-calculus are introduced.
Pattern Formation and Spatiotemporal Chaos
Authors: Hilborn Robert C.
Published: January 2010

When a dynamical system has significant spatial extent, its nonlinear dynamics can lead to the spontaneous formation of spatial patterns. Such systems provide models for how nature might have developed ordered, spatial structures from disordered states. Examples are given from fluid flow, transport models, coupled-oscillator modes, cellular automata, transport models, and reaction-diffusion systems. Diffusion-limited aggregation, viscous fingering, and dielectric breakdown provide further examples of pattern formation. Fractal structures make another appearance in this new context. This chapter also explores the somewhat controversial topic of self-organized criticality which has been put forward as an explanation for the occurrence of fractal structures in nature.
THE NUCLEAR LANDSCAPE
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter surveys the nuclear landscape to display a few typical patterns of nuclear spectra as well as some of the systematic changes in these patterns over sequences of nuclei. The goal is to let the reader see exactly what kinds of data characterize atomic nuclei and nuclear structure and are the most useful as tests of various nuclear models. Nuclear data refer to the vast, varied, and rich reservoir of information about atomic nuclei — from the deuteron to the actinides — obtained by a wide range of techniques. The simplest information is the mass of atomic nuclei. A more useful form for these is nuclear binding energies, which focus on the interactions between nucleons in the nucleus when the masses of the individual nucleons are subtracted. Still more useful (in many cases) are nucleon separation energies, or the energy required to remove the last, outermost nucleons from the nucleus.
EXOTIC NUCLEI AND RADIOACTIVE BEAMS
Authors: Casten R. F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on a new field of study in nuclear structure: the study of exotic nuclei with radioactive nuclear beams (RNBs). Exotic nuclei refer to beta-unstable nuclei with extreme ratios of proton to neutron number — on both the proton and neutron rich sides of stability. Exotic can also refer to extremes of mass number, namely, the heaviest (superheavy) nuclei that can be bound by the nuclear force. RNBs are beams of unstable nuclei produced in new generations of accelerators that are opening up these new horizons of the nuclear chart to study. The extent of existing knowledge of nuclei is first reviewed, after which the main production methods for RNBs are described including the projectile fragmentation method and the isotope separator-on-line method. The chapter concludes with both generic and specific discussions of the nuclear physics opportunities presented by the study of exotic nuclei.
Quantized thermal conductance of acoustic phonons in nanowires
Authors: Blencowe M.P.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the fundamental upper limit that quantum mechanics places on the thermal conductance of nanoscale width, suspended dielectric wires, known as the Landauer formula for the thermal conductance. A derivation of the Landauer thermal conductance formula is first given by solving for the phononic energy current flowing down an elastically isotropic suspended wire joining two heat reservoirs with slightly different temperatures. An overview is then given of the various experimental attempts to measure the Landauer thermal conductance, beginning with pioneering work of Wybourne and coworkers in the early eighties, and culminating in the first successful measurement by Schwab and coworkers in 2000. The conclusion briefly discusses further possible experimental directions and also discusses the universal, i.e. materials and particle statistics independent, nature of the Landauer thermal conductance.
Path integrals, FP method and BRS transformation
Authors: Bertlmann Reinhold A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter explains the path integral formalism, specifically the Faddeev–Popov method for quantizing gauge theories and the BRS transformations. Section 3.1 presents Feynman's idea of formulating quantum mechanics as a sum of particle trajectories (paths). Section 3.2 generalizes this approach to scalar fields with self-interaction and calculates the Green functions in a perturbative way. Section 3.3 introduces the Grassman algebra to define PI for fermionic systes. Sections 3.4 and 3.5 explain the Abelian- and non-Abelian field case, respectively, focusing on the occurrence of the Faddeev–Popov ghosts which play — together with the BRS transformation in Section 3.6 — an important role in the treatment of anomalies.
Space charge and instabilities
Authors: Wilson E. J. N.
Published: January 2010

This chapter treats collective effects of the beam upon individual particles. It first treats the transverse space charge forces and how they detune the beam. The effect is worst for non-relativistic particles. A tolerable limit is established. The concept of instabilities, in which beam fluctuations have a positive feedback causing growth, are introduced with the Negative Mass instability. Next, the A.C. component of the beam current is shown to excite fields in cavity-like objects. These react back on the beam. The growth rate of the instability is equivalent to an imaginary shift in synchrotron frequency equal to the square root of the beam current multiplied by an impedance—the energy increment seen by the beam—divided by the beam current itself. Contours of stability or growth rate are shown in a plot of the reactive versus resistive impedance. Landau damping produces an area of stability described by the Keil–Schnell Criterion.
Applications of accelerators
Authors: Wilson E. J. N.
Published: January 2010

Thousands of low and medium energy accelerators are used in industry, medicine, and for research. Applications include ion implantation for computer chips, hardening of plastics, surface treatment of metals, precision machining of miniature components and membranes, sterilisation of food, packaging, and in industrial waste disposal. Synchrotrons provide synchrotron light for studies of complex crystal structures, proteins, and other molecules. Protons are accelerated to produce neutrons by spallation for diffraction studies of similar structures. Principal medical applications include cyclotrons for isotope production as well as linacs, and proton and ion synchrotrons for advanced cancer therapy. Van der Graaf and other low emery accelerators are used for a variety of scattering experiments including carbon dating and material analysis. Future large-scale applications include energy production by heavy-ion fusion and accelerator-driven reactors.
Interatomic Forces in Condensed Matter
Authors: Finnis Mike
Published: January 2010

There is a continuing growth of interest in the computer simulation of materials at the atomic scale, using a variety of academic and commercial computer programs. In all such programs there is some physical model of the interatomic forces. For a student or researcher, the basis of such models is often shrouded in mystery. It is usually unclear how well founded they are, since it is hard to find a discussion of the physical assumptions that have been made in their construction. The lack of clear understanding of the scope and limitations of a given model may lead to its innocent misuse, resulting either in unfair criticism of the model or in the dissemination of nonsensical results. In this book, models of interatomic forces are derived from a common physical basis, namely the density functional theory. The book includes the detailed derivation of pairwise potentials in simple metals, tight-binding models from the simplest to the most sophisticated (self-consistent) kind, and ionic models. It provides a critical appreciation of the broad range of models in current use, and provides the tools for understanding other variants that are described in the literature. Some of the material is new, and some pointers are given to possible future avenues of model development.
Hybrid Schemes
Authors: Finnis Mike
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses two types of interatomic potentials for metallic systems that take neither the approach of perturbing a free electron gas nor of superimposing atomic charge densities and doing tight binding. Rather they combine aspects of both. The first is generalized pseudopotential theory, which subsumes and generalizes the pair-potential approach, while systematically adding three-body and four-body contributions to the total energy. It has proved very useful for the simulation of transition metals. The second is effective medium theory, which after much simplification becomes identical to the embedded atom method. The relative merits of different approaches are discussed.
3 The basic theory of neutron scattering
Authors: Hempelmann Rolf
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses ways to describe theoretically neutron scattering as a probe for condensed matter, first the scattering on a rigidly bound and isolated nucleus by the neutron-nucleus interaction as well as coherent and incoherent neutron scattering. Then the corresponding matrix element, in terms of perturbation theory of quantum mechanics, is derived which yields the double differential scattering cross-section of the sample as a function of momentum and energy transfer of the scattered neutrons. With the concept of the van Hove correlation functions, this matrix formulation is finally transformed into classical correlation functions, which are convenient if the particle motion can be described by classical dynamical models. In this way, the coherent scattering function S(Q, ω) is the double Fourier transform of the correlation function G(r,t), whereas the incoherent scattering function Si(Q, ω) is the double Fourier transform of the self-correlation function Gs(r,t). The convolution approximation relates S(Q, ω) to Si(Q, ω). The scattering intensity decreases with increasing Q due to the Debye–Waller factor which is directly connected to lattice vibrations.
11 Solid state proton conductors
Authors: Hempelmann Rolf
Published: January 2010

Aliovalently doped perovskite-type oxides (e.g., SrCeO3 doped with Yb2O3) contain, for reasons of charge neutrality, oxygen vacancies and become high temperature proton conductors in the presence of water. Proton conductivity is due to OH- ions on oxygen sites and to proton hopping from oxygen to oxygen according to the Grotthuss mechanism. This chapter examines aliovalently doped perovskites both by QENS and by muon spin rotation. It evaluates the QENS data in terms of the two-state model. Hydrogen bonded systems like CsHSO4 are another class of solid proton conductors. For these compounds, QENS also delivers an atomistic picture of proton diffusion. Another proton carrier is NH3 intercalated in molybdenum bronzes.
Long-wavelength emitters on GaAs
Authors: Ustinov Victor M. , Zhukov Alexey E. , Egorov Anton Yu. , Maleev Nikolai A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter is devoted to laser structures on GaAs substrates, which are capable of operating near the 1.3-um spectral window. Firstly, motivation for long-wavelength emitters on GaAs is discussed and possible semiconductor materials, suitable for 1.3-um application, are compared. The main part of the chapter is focused on long-wavelength quantum dot lasers. Various approaches for epitaxial deposition of long-wavelength QDs are described. The device characteristics of diode lasers comprising quantum dots formed either with atomic layer epitaxy or dots-in-a-well method are then compared. Efficiency, threshold, and temperature characteristics of long-wavelength QD lasers are also discussed. For the sake of comparison, data on non-QD laser structures are presented. InGaAsN quantum wells and diode lasers based on them are also discussed in detail.
14 Propagation of X-rays in highly deformed crystals
Authors: AUTHIER ANDRÉ
Published: January 2010

This chapter concerns highly deformed crystals where the Eikonal approximation is no longer valid. An expression is given for the limit of validity of this approximation. Takagi's equations are extended so as to apply to highly deformed crystals. Their resolution is the discussed and the principle of their numerical integration in an inverted Borrmann triangle given. The ray concept is generalized to the case of strong deformations by noting that new wavefields are generated in the highly strained regions; this is known as the interbranch scattering effect. The last part of the chapter is devoted to an account of the statistical dynamical theories for highly imperfect crystals, with emphasis on Kato's statistical theories. Examples of experimental test of the dynamical theory are also given.
17 X-ray diffraction topography
Authors: AUTHIER ANDRÉ
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the various techniques for obtaining X-ray topographs: single-crystal reflection topography (Berg-Barrett), single crystal transmission topography (Lang, section and projection topographs, synchrotron white beam topographs), and double or multiple-crystal topography (plane-wave, synchrotron topography, high-resolution). The formation of the images of the different types of individual defects and their contrast are discussed for the different experimental settings: dislocations, stacking faults, planar defects, and twins. It is shown how long range strains and lattice parameter variations can be mapped. Equal-strain and equal lattice parameter contours are described. Many examples of the use of topography for the characterization of materials are given.
Accurate Clock Pendulums
Authors: Matthys Robert J.
Published: January 2010

The Shortt clock, made in the 1920s, is the most famous accurate clock pendulum ever known, having an accuracy of one second per year when kept at nearly constant temperature. Almost all of a pendulum clock's accuracy resides in its pendulum. If the pendulum is accurate, the clock will be accurate. This book describes many scientific aspects of pendulum design and operation in simple terms with experimental data, and little mathematics. It has been written, looking at all the different parts and aspects of the pendulum in great detail, chapter by chapter, reflecting the degree of attention necessary for making a pendulum run accurately. The topics covered include the dimensional stability of different pendulum materials, good and poor suspension spring designs, the design of mechanical joints and clamps, effect of quartz on accuracy, temperature compensation, air drag of different bob shapes and making a sinusoidal electromagnetic drive. One whole chapter is devoted to simple ways of improving the accuracy of ordinary low-cost pendulum clocks, which have a different construction compared to the more expensive designs of substantially well-made ones. This book will prove invaluable to anyone who wants to know how to make a more accurate pendulum or pendulum clock.
A short history of temperature compensation
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

This chapter covers the temperature compensation of pendulum clocks. Temperature compensators can be divided into four groups: mercury for medium expansion pendulum rods (iron), gridiron for medium expansion pendulum rods (iron), sleeve for low expansion pendulum rods (invar, quartz), and miscellaneous low accuracy schemes (bimetal, length of the suspension spring, barometer on pendulum, and gears and levers). The story starts in the early 1700s, when people noticed that different metals expanded at different rates. Several clockrnakers independently measured the relative thermal expansions of different metals, with each using his own arbitrary scale of expansion.
Some practical properties of quartz
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

The big attraction of quartz as a pendulum material is its good dimensional stability over time. Stability over time is the biggest and most needed characteristic in an accurate pendulum. In contrast to invar, which was known to be unstable almost from its beginning, quartz has a long history of being a stable material. Dimensional stability is not the same as low thermal expansion. If a pendulum is temperature compensated, as all accurate pendulums are, then it does not matter much what the thermal expansion coefficient is, so long as the compensation has been done accurately. The accuracy of temperature compensation is limited by factors other than the thermal expansion coefficient. Because of their low density, quartz pendulum rods do have one drawback: they have a much higher sensitivity to barometric pressure changes than invar.
Dimensional stability of pendulum materials
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

The dimensional stability of a pendulum directly affects its accuracy. If the bob sags downward or warps upward, the clock slows down or speeds up. If the temperature compensator shrinks or expands in length, the same thing happens. If the pendulum rod gets longer or shorter, again the clock slows down or speeds up. It does not take much to disturb an accurate dock. Unless a pendulum is kept in a constant temperature room, it is apparent that heat treatment will improve the pendulum's stability by 2-8 times, the exact amount of improvement depending on the material. The combination of annealing plus temperature cycling is very effective in reducing the thermal hysteresis of pendulum materials, making a pendulum clock more stable and more accurate in the typical home environment where the temperature is not perfectly constant.
Stable connections to a pendulum’s suspension spring
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

Chops, located on the ends of a pendulum's suspension spring, are designed to get a more solid grip on the spring. With a degree of helpfulness varying from outstanding to useless, chops give a constant fixed length to the suspension spring and prevent the suspension spring from rocking back and forth on the top edge of the crosspin through the top end of the suspension spring. This chapter discusses the rocking of the suspension spring on one of its crosspins. A typical suspension spring has its ends pinned in narrow slots and contains no chops, with the slots slightly wider than the thickness of the spring. As the pendulum swings back and forth, the spring's ends bend or wiggle back and forth a little in the slots. The wiggling is more pronounced in the top slot than in the bottom slot. There would be no rocking motion if the spring's ends were a tight fit in the slots.
The instability of invar
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

Almost since its invention in 1896, invar has been known to be a dimensionally unstable pendulum rod material. A few articles have been published over the years, trying to address the dimensional instability and eliminate it. Data published in 1927 showed a dimensional growth of 50 ppm over a 27-year interval. The growth was exponential, gradually slowing down with time. Invar's growth today still follows the same exponential pattern, although shrinkage is occasionally observed. In 1950, invar's instability was tied to the presence of impurities, especially carbon. The lower the level of impurities, the more stable the invar is. Invar's impurity level has been reduced over the years, so that today's invar, using the traditional furnace melt process, is more stable than it was 20 years ago. Today's regular invar has a dimensional stability of 2-27 ppm per year, at room temperature. There are three types of invar available today: regular invar, free machining invar, and super invar. Super invar's thermal expansion coefficient is three times smaller than that of regular invar.
Position sensitivity along the pendulum rod
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

Every clock's pendulum needs a fine trim to adjust its rate to the desired value. This is frequently done by adding small weights to a weight pan, which is usually located about one-third of the way down the pendulum rod. The clock literature says that the effect of adding a small weight to a pendulum will vary, depending on the weight's location along the pendulum rod. The literature also says that the weight will have maximum effect on the pendulum's rate if placed halfway between the bob and the suspension spring, and will have zero effect if placed at the center of the bob or at the suspension spring. This chapter describes an experiment that was carried out to measure the position sensitivity of a pendulum rod by clamping a 24-gram weight on the pendulum rod at a given location and calculating the change in clock rate.
Effect of the pendulum rod on Q
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

A pendulum rod's air drag has a significant effect on the pendulum's Q. Many years ago, an experiment was carried out to determine the effect of bob shape on a pendulum's Q. The results showed that a football-shaped bob, pointed horizontally in the direction of swing, had the highest Q (least air drag) of any bob shape tested. The highest Q shape had a 2:1 length-to-diameter ratio. Spherical bobs had a little lower Q and right circular cylinders, with their cylindrical axis parallel to the pendulum rod's axis, had even lower Q. This chapter describes an experiment to measure the effect of the pendulum rod on Q. The pertinent rod variable is the rod's diameter. The data show that the Q decreases as the rod's diameter increases, and that the pendulum's Q with a spherical bob is 6-20% better than with a cylindrical bob. Better Q means proportionately better timekeeping.
Pendulum air movement: A failed experiment
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

A previous experiment showed that the walls of a pendulum clock case can slow down the pendulum via air drag by about 1 second per day. The pendulum has a 2-second period. This chapter describes an experiment designed to find out if the walls' drag on the pendulum could be reduced or made more constant by shaping the walls' inside surface for easier air flow. The concept basically involved rounding the square corners inside the clock case. The results show that a spherical bob had the smoothest airflow, while a large cylindrical bob disturbed the most air. There was very little, if any, air movement near the clock case walls. Any further attempt to affect the airflow should be aimed at the bob's surface-to-air interface, and not at the case walls.