bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
High School Athletics and Adult Sport–Leisure Activity: Gender Variations across the Life Cycle
Authors: Howell Frank M. , McKenzie James A.
Published: August 2016

There is a significant investment by schools and local communities in the athletic programs offered by secondary schools. A growing issue is, to what extent does the functioning of these sports programs coincide with the formal academic goals of the school? Using a structural equations model, we examine one theme within this major issue by estimating the effect of high school sports participation on sport and leisure activity later in adulthood. Further investigated is the process by which these effects are played out over the transition from adolescence to adulthood, as well as gender differences in the pattern of effects. Using the EEO panel of 1955 high school sophomores reinterviewed in 1970, we find that varsity and nonvarsity sports participation in high school increases adult sports involvement. However, whereas high school sports participation does not retard reading or “high-status” leisure pursuits in adulthood, curriculum track placement during high school does enhance these activities later in life. Track effects were also largely independent of completed school level. Finally, gender variations in the model were present but not uniformly so and largely appear to make sport participation and tracking effects significant only among men.
Toward an Applied Sociology of Sport: The Next Generation
Authors: Yiannakis Andrew
Published: August 2016

In the last decade, the issue of relevance and application has become the focus of concern for many sport sociologists. The need for an applied sociology of sport has been discussed in the literature, and has been the subject of deliberation at three major national conferences. Yet, efforts to develop an applied sociology of sport are still hindered by widely held beliefs that such activity is not worthy of our best efforts. This paper explores issues that continue to hinder the development of applied work in sociology and sport sociology today. The discussion focuses on such issues as value neutrality, the relationship of theory to application, and problems of definition, among others, and provides a theoretical context for grounding the present discourse. The result is the development of a conceptual model that clarifies the transfer of knowledge from applied research to implementation in various physical education, coaching, marketing, policy analysis, and counseling contexts. Also identified is a variety of roles (e.g., applied researcher, knowledge broker, change agent) that an applied sport sociologist may legitimately engage in.
Korfball: A Model of Egalitarianism?
Authors: Summerfield Karen , White Anita
Published: August 2016

Through an analysis of gender in contemporary korfball practice in Britain, this paper questions the claim that korfball is an egalitarian sport. Three aspects of the sport were studied: (a) official korfball literature, (b) formal positions of power held by men and women in the korfball organizations, and (c) the gender related dynamics of team play in international and club games. It was found that despite the ideological commitment to gender equality, korfball literature emphasized the prominence of males. Women held relatively few positions in the formal power structures of korfball organizations and men dominated in team play. Explanations for the mismatch between ideology and practice of korfball are advanced, and strategies for the future development of egalitarian sport are discussed.
Sport Identity and Motivation for Sport Participation: A Comparison between American College Athletes and Austrian Student Sport Club Members
Authors: Curry Timothy Jon , Weiss Otmar
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study is to compare competition, fitness, and social motivation for sport participation between American college athletes and Austrian student sport club members. Our hypotheses are drawn from symbolic interactionist theory, and we define sport motivation as the reasons that people give for participating in sport. The respondents are 301 University of Vienna student members of Austrian sport clubs and 397 college athletes drawn from three schools in Ohio. The results indicate (a) statistically significant main effects for ANOVA comparisons between competition and fitness motivation and the factors of gender and country, (b) a statistically significant two-way interaction between social motivation and gender and country, and (c) statistically significant Pearson product moment correlations between competition and fitness motives and the involvement of self in the sport role. Thus, we conclude that motivation for sport participation is likely to be influenced by the values of the sport organization as well as the sport and gender identities of the participant.
Partisanship and Sport: The Unique Case of Politics and Sport in Israel
Authors: Reshef Nurit , Paltiel Jeremy
Published: August 2016

Israel represents a unique case of an immigrant society formed on the basis of an ideological movement. This has had a profound impact on the development and organization of sport and has led to the institutionalization of sport within a highly politicized framework. The purpose of this paper is to show how the formation and development of each sport organization is intertwined with Israeli political evolution. In addition, the impact of politics on the organization of sport and the recent movement away from partisan sports organizations are discussed.
From Idealism to Actualization: The Academic Performance of Female Collegiate Athletes
Authors: Meyer Barbara Bedker
Published: August 2016

Semistructured interviews are used to examine the attitudes and subjective feelings of female collegiate athletes concerning their roles as student-athletes. The women begin college with an idealistic view of education; this view is strengthened over time. The athletic subculture the women are a part of, as well as their classroom and academic experiences, may to some degree influence or reinforce their educational optimism. The results of the current study are compared to those of Adler and Adler (1985), who studied male athletes. The experiences in question are discussed and possible explanations for the gender related similarities/differences are explored.
Social Practice, the Bodily Professions and the State
Authors: Sparks Robert
Published: August 2016

The relationship between sport and the modern state has been a focus of increased theoretical attention in recent years, particularly with respect to the role of sport in hegemony. At the same time there has been mounting interest in the significance of the body and bodily practices (including sports) as a site of political struggle. Yet, not much work has been done on the connection between these two projects. A monograph written in French and published in 1983 draws together many of these themes but has remained neglected in English-language sport sociology. This paper reviews Le corps programmé and discusses some of the book’s theoretical implications.
Emotion and Sport: A Case Study of Collegiate Women Gymnasts
Authors: Snyder Eldon E.
Published: August 2016

Previous studies of emotion in sport have examined team sports. The present research focuses on an individual sport—women’s collegiate gymnastics. Data were gathered during the gymnastics season of 1988-89 from 10 members of the team and its coach and trainer. The methodology included the use of photo-elicitation interviews and observations of women’s gymnastics. The emotion-work and categories of emotions described were displayed when the gymnasts were off stage, when preparing to compete, between events, and after competition. Discussion focuses on the control and management of emotions according to the “feeling rules” (i.e., the socially constructed subcultural norms of the sport). The gymnasts did display individual variations in their adherence to the feeling rules. Categories of emotion included nervousness, fear of pain and injury, frustration, and disappointment. Emotional social experiences included social psyching up and the happiness and joy associated with a successful performance. Consideration is given to some advantages and qualifications of the photo-elicitation technique.
Racial Differences in the Predictors for Academic Achievement of Student-Athletes in Division I Revenue Producing Sports
Authors: Sellers Robert M.
Published: August 2016

Concern over academic integrity in recent years has led the NCAA to establish eligibility standards for incoming student-athletes. This has stirred controversy because of the differential effects of the use of standardized test scores on black versus white student-athletes. The present study examines race differences in the predictors of college grade point average (GPA) for student-athletes participating in revenue producing sports. The findings suggest there are different predictors of college academic achievement for black versus white student-athletes. High school GPA and mother’s occupation are the only significant predictors of college GPA for black student-athletes. On the other hand, high school GPA, socioeconomic status, and SAT/ACT scores were significant predictors for white student-athletes. The results are discussed in light of the need for future investigations into the predictors of academic performance of student-athletes as well as current and future NCAA policy
Effects of a Goal-Setting Training Program on Basketball Free-Throw Self-Efficacy and Performance
Authors: Miller J. Ted , McAuley Edward
Published: August 2016

Though improved performance as a result of goal setting has been reported in organizational psychology studies, little research in sport settings has demonstrated these effects. This study was designed to examine the effects of a goalsetting training program on basketball free-throw performance, perceptions of success, and self-efficacy. Eighteen undergraduate students were matched by free-throw shooting ability, then randomly assigned to either goal-training (GT) or no-goal-training (NT) groups for a period of 5 weeks. Although the GT group reported significantly higher perceptions of success and self-efficacy than did the NT group, no significant differences between groups were revealed for free-throw accuracy. Correlational data suggested a stronger relationship between self-efficacy and free-throw performance for the GT group than for the NT group. Discussed are factors that contribute to the discrepancies between results found in sport related investigations of goal setting and those obtained from studies conducted in business and laboratory environments.
Rationale and Suggested Dimensions for a Code of Ethics for Sport Psychologists
Authors: Zeigler Earle F.
Published: August 2016

This paper presents a rationale and suggested dimensions for a detailed code of ethics for sport psychologists. The discussion is based upon a sequential analysis of the topic proceeding from the general to the specific. A detailed discussion of professions and their necessary features is carried out (Bayles, 1981). Publications from 1979 to 1984 are reviewed chronologically to determine what has been written about the field’s status as a profession, what perceptions are held about the possible need for a code of ethics, and what has been developing along this line. It is argued that the sport psychologist as a professional has certain obligations to his or her clients, to the public, and to the embryonic profession. It is argued further that the development of a detailed, specific code of ethics for sport psychologists would be another important step toward the total professionalization process. Such a code could be viewed as a system of norms, categorized according to areas of concern (e.g., ethical nature of counselor/athlete relationship), describing what should be the case in the individual’s professional practice. Such norms or obligations could be categorized as (a) standards of virtue, (b) principles of responsibility, and (c) rules of duty. Finally, some reasonable conclusions are drawn for the possible use of those concerned.
Existential Phenomenology: Emphasizing the Experience of the Athlete in Sport Psychology Research
Authors: Dale Gregory A.
Published: August 2016

Qualitative research in sport psychology is slowly becoming more of an accepted form of inquiry, and most of this research is conducted using various interview methods. In this paper, information is provided on a paradigm that has been given little consideration in sport psychology literature. This paradigm is termed existential phenomenology, and within this paradigm a chief mode of inquiry is the phenomenological interview. With its open-ended format and similarities to the athlete-sport psychology consultant interaction in a performance enhancement intervention, it is a method that appears to offer valuable information about the participant’s experience that might otherwise go unnoticied. The basic views of existential phenomenology, including its philosophical foundations as well as instructions for conducting a phenomenological interview study, are provided. Specific discussion of the potential significance of this type of research for the field of sport psychology is offered.
Do Coaches’ Efficacy Expectations for Their Teams Predict Team Performance?
Authors: Chase Melissa A. , Feltz Deborah L. , Lirgg Cathy D.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between coaches’ efficacy expectations for their teams, ratings of opponents’ ability, perceived control over outcome, perceived importance of success, and basketball performance. A second purpose was to identify sources of coaches’ team efficacy. Four collegiate women’s basketball coaches completed questionnaires prior to 10 basketball games (N = 40). Results indicated that coaches’ efficacy was significantly correlated with perceived control over the outcome (the higher their efficacy, the higher their perceived control). Regression analysis found that coaches’ efficacy was a significant predictor of making free throws and committing few turnovers and that perceived opponent ability was a significant predictor of coaches’ efficacy. An inductive content analysis of the sources of coaches’ efficacy beliefs identified sources of high and low efficacy for coaches (e.g., previous game performance, practice performance, comparison with opponent).
Multidimensional Anxiety and Performance: An Exploratory Examination of the Zone of Optimal Functioning Hypothesis
Authors: Randle Sherilee , Weinberg Robert
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present investigation was to empirically examine Hanin’s (1980) Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF) hypothesis using a multidimensional anxiety approach. Female collegiate softball players (N = 13) had optimal cognitive, somatic, and combined cognitive/somatic anxiety zones created using three different methods (retrospective-best, retrospective-postcompetition, precompetition) over seven different competitions to test the relationship between ZOF and both subjective and objective performance measures. Results revealed no significant differences between the three different methods of determining players’ zones of optimal functioning. In addition, no significant differences were found in subjective performance regardless of whether performance was inside or outside players’ cognitive, somatic, or cognitive/somatic combined zones. Nonparametric analyses revealed superior objective performance occurred when players were outside their combined somatic/cognitive ZOF. Results are discussed in terms of Hanin’s ZOF hypothesis and methodological limitations in examining optimal anxiety states, assessing performance, and the operationalization of the optimal zone of functioning.
Xs and Os and What the Coach Knows: Improving Team Strategy through Critical Thinking
Authors: Strean William B. , Senecal Kim L. , Howlett Stephen G. , Burgess J. Mark
Published: August 2016

Critical thinking can be defined most simply as thinking that assesses itself (Paul, 1995). We explored the degree to which coaches engage in critical thinking about strategy. We used Brookfield’s (1995) critical thinking model to examine coaches’ strategic thinking processes. The merit of the model as a tool to facilitate research and intervention in team sports was considered. We examined whether identifying and examining paradigmatic, prescriptive, and causal assumptions, as well as exploring alternatives for thinking and acting, can improve team strategy. The results provide examples of these various conceptual categories. The data support the use of Brookfield’s (1995) model for understanding and intervening with coaches and athletes. Examples of how sport psychology and performance enhancement consultants might use this model in their work are offered.
Performance Profiling and Construct Validity
Authors: Doyle Jo , Parfitt Gaynor
Published: August 2016

This study attempted to assess the construct validity of the performance profile technique (Butler, 1989) within elite track and field athletics. Twelve elite (senior international honors) athletes (5 male, 7 female: mean age = 21.2, SD = 1.81) completed their profile on five occasions across winter training and the indoor season. Support for the construct validity of the profile was identified by a reduction in profile areas of perceived need (F (4, 44) = 11.77, p < .05) which was congruent with the observed increase in performance (F (4, 44) = 26.30, p < .05) as athletes progressed from winter training to the peak of the competitive indoor season. Trend analyses also identified that areas of perceived need in profile constructs, which were classified as most important to performance, showed a greater and more rapid reduction across the five occasions compared to the least important constructs. However, the results raise some concern over the usefulness of the profile for detecting subtle but important changes in performance and perceived need.
A Five-Step Approach to Mental Training Incorporating Biofeedback
Authors: Blumenstein Boris , Bar-Eli Michael , Tenenbaum Gershon
Published: August 2016

A five-step approach of mental training incorporating biofeedback (BFB) with videocassette recorder (VCR) is presented in this article. The technique consists of five stages, with flexible time-session limits that can be individualized. These are (a) introducing mental techniques, (b) determining and strengthening the appropriate BFB modality, (c) BFB training with simulated competitive stress, (d) transformation of the mental training to practice, and (e) realization of the technique in competitive situations. The technique and some findings are further discussed.
Account-Making: A Model for Understanding and Resolving Distressful Reactions to Retirement from Sport
Authors: Grove J. Robert , Lavallee David , Gordon Sandy , Harvey John H.
Published: August 2016

In this paper, we examine the account-making model of Harvey, Weber, and Orbuch (1990) as a framework for understanding negative reactions to retirement from competitive sport. Theoretical aspects of the model are first summarized, and a case study is then presented to illustrate the central role of account-making in the adjustment process for an Olympic gold medallist. We conclude by suggesting ways that sport psychology consultants can facilitate account-making and thereby help athletes to cope with distressful reactions to retirement.
Psychological Commitment to Exercise and Eating Disorder Symptomatology among Female Aerobic Instructors
Authors: Martin Kathleen A. , Hausenblas Heather A.
Published: August 2016

Researchers have questioned aerobic instructors’ status as healthy role models by suggesting that they are excessive exercisers who may be at risk for developing eating disorders. To address this issue, 286 female aerobic instructors (mean age = 34.1) completed the Commitment to Exercise Scale (CES) and the Bulimia (B), Body Dissatisfaction (BD), and Drive for Thinness (DT) subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2). Instructors scored low on the CES (M = 62.24) relative to other high-exercising populations. Scores on the EDI-2 subscales were also low compared to published norms (M = .78, 7.8, and 3.2 for B, BD, and DT, respectively). Simple correlations revealed that the CES was related to all three EDI-2 subscales (rs ranged from .18 to .30; ps < .01). Discussion focuses on factors that may account for instructors’ healthy attitudes toward exercise and eating, and practical implications for sport psychologists who work with fitness instructors.
Smart Golf: Preliminary Evaluation of a Simple, Yet Comprehensive, Approach to Improving and Scoring the Mental Game
Authors: Kirschenbaum Daniel S. , Owens DeDe , O’Connor Edmund A.
Published: August 2016

Smart Golf is a comprehensive approach to improving and scoring the mental game in golf. The five components are preparation, positive focusing (positive self-monitoring), plan, apply, and react. The acronym PAR summarizes the latter three components. A simple scoring system encourages golfers to self-monitor their use of the Smart Golf approach. In this preliminary evaluation of the efficacy of the approach, five experienced golfers (M years of playing = 17.8) participated in a 4-week seminar. Process measures indicated the extent to which participants used the approach. Outcome measures included golf scores at pre- and postintervention and at a 3-month follow-up. Psychological skills were also assessed at pre- and postintervention. Process analyses revealed that participants used the approach consistently during the seminar and follow-up period. All participants improved two critical psychological skills (emotional control and positive self-talk) as well as their average scores (at postintervention) and handicaps (at follow-up).
The Acquisition and Development of Cognitive Skills and Strategies: I. Making the Butterflies Fly in Formation
Authors: Hanton Sheldon , Jones Graham
Published: August 2016

This study presents the first in a series of two articles extending previous findings that elite performers, compared to nonelite performers, interpret their preperformance cognitive and somatic anxiety symptoms as more facilitative than debilitating to performance (Jones, Hanton, & Swain, 1994; Jones & Swain, 1995). In-depth interview techniques were employed to investigate the cognitive skills and strategies underlying elite swimmers’ interpretations of their prerace thoughts and feelings. Participants were 10 male elite swimmers who consistently maintained facilitative interpretations. Data were drawn from verbatim transcripts and were inductively content analyzed. Four general dimensions traced the acquisition and development of the cognitive skills and strategies underlying facilitation from early competitive experiences to the present day. It was concluded that participants’ skills and strategies were acquired via natural learning experiences and various educational methods. These results extend the research literature on facilitative anxiety by identifying and clarifying the mechanisms underlying the phenomenon.
An Attribution Training Program and Achievement in Sport
Authors: Orbach Iris , Singer Robert , Price Sarah
Published: August 2016

This study aimed to investigate the influence of an attribution training program for learners who attribute their sport performance to dysfunctional attributions. Participants were 35 college beginner tennis players who were oriented to attribute their performance in a tennis skill task to controllable, unstable factors; uncontrollable, stable factors; or no specific factors. Participants received fictitious failure feedback over 10 trial blocks administered during four sessions. Dependent variables included attributions, expectations, emotions, persistence, and performance. MANOVA analyses revealed that it is possible to modify attributions in regard to a tennis performance task. More importantly, the new attributions were consistent up to 3 weeks postintervention and were generalized to a different tennis task. In addition, participants who changed their attributions to more functional ones had higher expectations for future success and experienced positive emotions.
The Role of Aggression and Violence in Sport: A Rejoinder to the ISSP Position Stand
Authors: Kerr John H.
Published: August 2016

This paper is intended as a response to the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) Position Stand on aggression and violence in sport (Tenenbaum, Stewart, Singer, & Duda, 1997). It challenges several arguments presented in the ISSP Position Stand. The current paper offers several counterarguments designed to clarify the real nature of aggression and violence in sport. It also suggests that the ISSP recommendations for dramatically reducing the incidence of aggression and violence in sport be radically revised and redrafted.
A Systematic Observation Study of the Teaching Behaviors of an Expert Basketball Coach
Authors: Bloom Gordon A. , Crumpton Rebecca , Anderson Jenise E.
Published: August 2016

A systematic observation analysis was performed on Fresno State men’s basketball coach Jerry Tarkanian over the course of an entire season. Based on Tharp and Gallimore’s (1976) work and recent research on expert coaches’ training techniques (Côté et al., 1995; Durand-Bush, 1996), the Revised Coaching Behavior Recording Form was created to observe and record Tarkanian’s teaching behaviors and verbal cues. Results showed that tactical instructions was the most frequently occurring variable, representing 29% of the coded behaviors. This behavior was 13% higher than the second highest variable, hustles (16%). Following these two categories were technical instruction (13.9%), praise\encouragement (13.6%), general instructions (12%), scolds (6%), and six other categories with percentages less than 3%. This means that almost one-third of Coach Tarkanian’s practice behaviors relate to teaching offensive and defensive strategies to his team. This differs from the practice sessions of beginner- and intermediate-level coaches, who often focus on teaching fundamental skills to their athletes. A complete description of all 12 categories are provided along with implications for coaches of all levels.
Ironic Mental Processes in Sport: Implications for Sport Psychologists
Authors: Janelle Christopher M.
Published: August 2016

The theory of ironic processes of mental control (Wegner, 1994) is reviewed in the context of typical issues confronted by sport psychology professionals. The theory maintains that mental control is achieved through the interaction of an operating process directed toward achieving thoughts, emotions, and actions that are consistent with particular goal states, and a monitoring process for identifying inconsistencies with the goal state, insuring that any threat to the operating process is recognized and handled accordingly. Moreover, mental control normally functions at a satisfactory level, but under conditions of cognitive load, the likelihood of effective self-regulation is reduced. Given the load-inducing circumstances of sport and exercise participation, reasons for the occasional failure of mental control in these settings are offered. Traditional and current sport psychology issues and interventions are interpreted considering the theory of ironic processes, with specific reference to imagery, self-confidence, pain perception, mood state regulation, anxiety, and attention.
Factors Affecting Olympic Performance: Perceptions of Athletes and Coaches from More and Less Successful Teams
Authors: Gould Daniel , Guinan Diane , Greenleaf Christy , Medbery Russ , Peterson Kirsten
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to examine if mental skills and strategies such as high confidence, commitment, and the use of cooperative routines, as well as previously unexamined physical, social, and environmental factors affect Olympic performance. Athletes and coaches from 8 Atlanta US Olympic teams were interviewed. Four teams met/exceeded performance expectations and 4 teams failed to perform up to performance predictions. Focus group interviews were conducted with 2 to 4 athletes from each team. Individual interviews were conducted with 1 or 2 coaches from each team. Each interview was recorded, transcribed, and analyzed by three trained investigators using hierarchical content analyses. Differences existed between teams that met/exceeded performance expectations and teams that failed. Teams that met/exceeded expectations participated in resident training programs, experienced crowd and family or friend support, utilized mental preparation, and were highly focused and committed. Teams that failed to meet expectations experienced planning and team cohesion problems, lacked experience, faced travel problems, experienced coaching problems, and encountered problems related to focus and commitment. Results indicated that achievement of peak performance at the Olympic Games is a complex and delicate process influenced by a variety of psychological, physical, social, and organizational factors.
Using Profile of Mood States (POMS) to Monitor High-Intensity Training in Cyclists: Group versus Case Studies
Authors: Martin David T. , Andersen Mark B. , Gates Ward
Published: August 2016

This study examined whether the Profile of Mood States questionnaire (POMS) is a useful tool for monitoring training stress in cycling athletes. Participants (n = 11) completed the POMS weekly during six weeks of high-intensity interval cycling and a one-week taper. Cycling performance improved over the first three weeks of training, plateaued during Weeks 4 and 5, decreased slightly following Week 6, and then significantly increased during the one-week taper. Neither the high-intensity interval training nor the one-week taper significantly affected total mood or specific mood states. POMS data from two cyclists who did not show improved performance capabilities during the taper (overtraining) were not distinctly unique when compared to cyclists who did improve. Also, one cyclist, who on some days had the highest total mood disturbance, responded well to the taper and produced his best personal effort during this time period. These findings raise questions about the usefulness of POMS to distinguish, at an individual level, between periods of productive and counterproductive high-intensity training.
Relationships among Coach Burnout, Coach Behaviors, and Athletes’ Psychological Responses
Authors: Price Melissa S. , Weiss Maureen R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship among coach burnout, coaching behaviors, and athletes’ psychological responses using Chelladurai’s (1980, 1990) multidimensional model of leadership as a theoretical framework. Two questions were addressed: (a) Do coaches who vary in level of burnout differ in the behaviors athletes perceive they exhibit? (b) Are coaching behaviors related to athletes’ enjoyment, perceived competence, anxiety, and burnout? A sample of 193 female soccer players and 15 head coaches of high school teams completed measures of the constructs of interest. Coaches higher in emotional exhaustion were perceived by their teams as providing less training and instruction and social support and making fewer autocratic and greater democratic decisions. For the second question, athletes’ perceptions of greater training and instruction, social support, positive feedback, democratic decisions, and less autocratic style were related to more positive (i.e., perceived competence, enjoyment) and less negative (i.e., anxiety, burnout) psychological outcomes.
Training Quiet Eye Improves Accuracy in the Basketball Free Throw
Authors: Harle Shawnee K. , Vickers Joan N.
Published: August 2016

University basketball players (Team A) received quiet eye (QE) training over two seasons of league play, compared to two control teams (Team B and Team C), who competed at the top of the same league but did not receive similar training. QE was defined as the player’s final fixation on the hoop or backboard prior to the shooting action. In Season 1, Team A improved significantly, Pre to Post, in experimental accuracy, QE duration, and relative shot timing but did not transfer these improvements to league play during the season. At the conclusion of Season 2, Team A improved their free throw shooting accuracy by 22.62% to 76.66%, more than Team A (66.18%) or B (74.05%). The results highlight the importance of training a sustained duration of QE on a single location on the hoop prior to the execution of the shooting action. Theoretical and applied implications of training QE are discussed, and recommendations are made for future research and training.
Rapid Technique Correction Using Old Way/new Way: Two Case Studies with Olympic Athletes
Authors: Hanin Yuri , Korjus Tapio , Jouste Petteri , Baxter Paul
Published: August 2016

Exploratory studies examine the effectiveness of old way/new way, an innovative meta-cognitive learning strategy initially developed in education settings, in the rapid and permanent correction of established technique difficulties experienced by two Olympic athletes in javelin and sprinting. Individualized interventions included video-assisted error analysis, step-wise enhancement of kinesthetic awareness, reactivation of the error memory, discrimination, and generalization of the correct movement pattern. Self-reports, coach’s ratings, and video recordings were used as measures of technique improvement. A single learning trial produced immediate and permanent technique improvement (80% or higher correct action) and full transfer of learning, without the need for the customary adaptation period. Findings are consistent with the performance enhancement effects of old way/new way demonstrated experimentally in nonsport settings.
Emotions, Perceived Qualities, and Performance of Rugby Players
Authors: D’Urso Valentina , Petrosso Andreina , Robazza Claudio
Published: August 2016

This study was mainly designed to contrast the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) emotion model and the performance profiling approach in predicting performance of rugby players based on normative, individualized, situational, and relatively stable characteristics. Pregame assessments were accomplished in 33 male Italian rugby players of a top-level team over a whole championship, and individual interviews were conducted at the end of the season. Performance differentiation and discrimination between athletes were reached on relatively stable qualities (i.e., constructs), according to predictions within the performance profile framework. Study findings also revealed that emotions modify widely during the game because of external events (e.g., behaviors of teammates or opponents) or individual behaviors (e.g., individual faults). In conclusion, findings add support to the contention that extending the IZOF model to other physical or performance related components would require situational rather than relatively stable qualities. On the other hand, the concept of zones extended to constructs seems beneficial for practical purposes.
A Survey of U.S. Olympic Coaches: Variables Perceived to Have Influenced Athlete Performances and Coach Effectiveness
Authors: Gould Daniel , Greenleaf Christy , Guinan Diane , Chung Yongchul
Published: August 2016

As part of a larger project to examine variables perceived to influence performance in Olympic competition, this manuscript was designed to (a) report coaches’ perceptions of variables influencing Olympic athlete performance, (b) triangulate findings from surveys and interviews with Olympic athletes, and (c) examine coaches’ perceptions of variables influencing Olympic coaching effectiveness. Surveys were completed by 46 U.S. Atlanta Olympic coaches (46% of all U.S. coaches) and 19 U.S. Nagano coaches (45% of all U.S. coaches). A large number of variables were perceived by coaches to have influenced athlete performances and included having plans for dealing with distractions, strong team chemistry and cohesion, loud and enthusiastic crowd support, high levels of athlete confidence, and fair and effective team selection. Variables perceived to have influenced coaching effectiveness included markedly changed coaching behaviors, the inability to establish trust with athletes, the inability to effectively handle crisis situations, staying cool under pressure, and making fair but decisive decisions.
Integrating Web Pages and E-Mail into Sport Psychology Consultations
Authors: Zizzi Samuel J. , Perna Frank M.
Published: August 2016

The present study compared the effects of two contact methods on sport psychology service use. The sample consisted of a total of 163 athletes on 14 teams. After a workshop, teams were randomly assigned to contact the sport psychology consultant (SPC) by traditional methods or by electronic methods. There were greater contacts and assessments completed in the electronic group compared to the traditional group one month after the workshop. The results suggest that athletes prefer using E-mail and web pages over phone and in-person meetings when initially contacting a SPC and gathering sport psychology information. Overall results suggest that electronic contact methods are at least equal, and in several cases superior, to traditional contact methods regarding generating requests for service from athletes on a short-term basis.
Peer Tutoring in a Sport Setting: Are There Any Benefits for Tutors?
Authors: Legrain Pascal , d’Arripe-Longueville Fabienne , Gernigon Christophe
Published: August 2016

This study examined the potential benefits of a peer tutoring program for tutors in a physical learning setting. Gender differences were also explored. Thirty-two college-age males and females identified as novices in a French boxing task were assigned in a 2 × 2, Gender × Training Type: Physical Practice (PP) versus Physical Practice associated with Peer Tutoring (PT) factorial design. All the participants were given six 2-hr French boxing lessons. The PT program included 6 min of peer coaching per lesson. Results indicated that the PT program entailed higher scores in boxing performance form, selfefficacy, interest-enjoyment, and personally controllable causal attributions and lower scores in tension-pressure. Males reported more certain expectancies and displayed higher performance outcomes than did females. Results are discussed in relation to the educational psychology literature.
Using Solution-Focused Brief Counseling to Provide Injury Support
Authors: Gutkind Susan M.
Published: August 2016

Athletes at all levels of competition run the risk of becoming injured through their sport participation, and individuals who work closely with athletes during the rehabilitation process (e.g., coaches, athletic trainers, sport psychology consultants) may be called upon to provide mental and emotional support. One approach that seems well suited as a theoretical framework for injury support is solution-focused brief counseling (SFBC). In this paper, athletes’ responses to injury are outlined, and several roles of the consultant are identified. Then the basic tenets of SFBC are discussed, and an example showing how SFBC can be used in an injury support setting is provided.
Helping Coaches Meet Their Own Needs: Challenges for the Sport Psychology Consultant
Authors: Giges Burt , Petitpas Albert J. , Vernacchia Ralph A.
Published: August 2016

Sport psychology offers many services to athletes to help them deal with the demands of competition. Although coaches are faced with many of the same types of stressors as athletes are, little has been offered to help them with their own needs. The purpose of this article is to examine some of the issues that are experienced by coaches and to stimulate interest in providing sport psychology services directly to them. These services include strategies to increase coaches’ self-awareness and to help them remove or cope more effectively with any psychological barriers (thoughts, feelings, wants, or behaviors) that interfere with their performance.
A Framework for Developing Contextual Intelligence (CI)
Authors: Brown Charles H. , Gould Dan , Foster Sandra
Published: August 2016

This article reviews the emerging concept of Contextual Intelligence (CI) and its relevance to sport psychology. Interviews with expert performance consultants suggest that CI is a key factor in successful consultations. Although CI has often been considered a tacit process learned indirectly through experience, systems theory and institutional research offer models for assessing organizations and developing contextual “maps.” By having a framework and language for assessing context, sport psychologists can more effectively develop contextually intelligent and culturally appropriate interventions. The authors offer a framework for assessing context and developing contextual “maps.” Specific guidelines and principles for designing contextually intelligent interventions are provided.
Team Consultation Following an Athlete’s Suicide: A Crisis Intervention Model
Authors: Buchko Kathleen J.
Published: August 2016

This article presents a three-phase model that can guide sport psychologists assisting in crisis intervention with athletes in the weeks following a major trauma. The model employs a systems theory framework within which therapeutic tasks that facilitate recovery from trauma are offered. The unique role of the sport psychologist in post-traumatic care of athletes is discussed. The model’s utility is illustrated via retrospective application to the author’s work with a team that experienced the suicide of one of its veteran members.
Professional Judgment and Decision Making: The Role of Intention for Impact
Authors: Martindale Amanda , Collins Dave
Published: August 2016

The field of applied sport psychology has recognized the growing consensus that professional autonomy and discretion brings with it the need to train, regulate, and evaluate practice (Evetts, 2001). However, research into how practitioners’ professional judgment is formed and the decision-making processes involved has not received concurrent attention. This paper illustrates some of the possible outcomes and implications for applied sport psychologists from consideration of Professional Judgment and Decision Making (PJDM) research in other fields such as medicine and teaching and in parallel disciplines such as clinical and counseling psychology. Investigation into the nature of decision content and how the crucial “intention for impact” (Hill, 1992) is formulated carries implications for the assessment, reflective practice, and professional development and training of applied sport psychologists. Future directions in PJDM research are suggested and a call is made for practitioners to be open to involvement in research of this nature.
Strategies for Managing Athletes’ Jet Lag
Authors: Davis James O.
Published: August 2016

Jetting across several time zones can attenuate the performance of athletes as well as markedly reduce comfort. Circadian disorganization occurs because, while some adaptation is controlled by external factors such as light and social activity, other adaptations must wait for internal clocks to slowly synchronize. To advise athletes how best to adapt to jeg lag, the sport psychologist must consider many variables such as distance traveled and direction of flight, and choose among options such as education of the athlete and strategies for improving reentrainment.
Perceptions of Mental Training Needs by Elite Field Hockey Players and Their Coaches
Authors: Grove J. Robert , Hanrahan Stephanie J.
Published: August 2016

Field hockey players (n=39) assessed their own psychological strengths and weaknesses by rank-ordering various mental skills. Coaches (n=5) who had daily contact with these athletes ranked the same skills on the basis of their perception of the players’ strengths and weaknesses. Comparisons indicated that the specificity of the skills being ranked influenced the amount of agreement between the responses of players and coaches. When general categories of skills were ranked, there was very little consistency between the groups. When specific skills within the general categories were ranked, there was considerable consistency between the groups. The results are discussed in relation to the nature of the questions asked when designing mental training programs. It is suggested that consultants should take care to identify potential problems in terms of specific skills rather than general categories. By doing so, they may increase the likelihood of agreement about mental training needs and increase their effectiveness. The issue of conducting selfassessments via rating-scale and rank-order formats is also addressed. Problems that the consultant may encounter in the use of a rating-scale format are noted, and the potential advantages of a rank-order format are discussed.
Beyond Winning and Losing: Guidelines for Evaluating High Performance Coaches
Authors: Mallett Cliff , Côté Jean
Published: August 2016

This paper proposes a three-step method of evaluating high performance coaches involving feedback from the athletes. First, data are collected using an instrument such as the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport (CBS-S: Côté, Yardley, Hay, Sedgwick, & Baker, 1999). Second, a summary report is prepared with descriptive information regarding the frequency of behaviors demonstrated by the coach that can be compared to previous results or to a criterion measure. The third step involves appropriate personnel reviewing the report and subsequently providing guidance for individual coach development. This three-step appraisal method provides useful evaluative feedback to coaches and has been used in several sport programs in Canada, the United States, and Australia.
A Qualitative Investigation into Experiences of the Role Episode in Soccer
Authors: Mellalieu Stephen D. , Juniper Scott W.
Published: August 2016

This study explored the phenomenon of the role episode in sport. Performance profiles and interviews were conducted with 11 male collegiate soccer players to identify the factors that contributed to the formation of positive perceptions of role states and the consequences for the individual and team. Role clarity developed via a combination of learning through implicit experiences in the sport and explicit instruction from role senders. Role acceptance formed through the focal person’s perceptions of the assigned performance role and the role sender. Positive perceptions of role states were suggested to improve performance by enhancing individual and group-related variables, including role satisfaction, group cohesion, and collective efficacy. The findings highlight the significance of understanding the factors that contribute to a positive role episode in sport and present implications for future team-building interventions.
Prevalence of Burnout in Competitive Adolescent Athletes
Authors: Gustafsson Henrik , Kenttä Göran , Hassmén Peter , Lundqvist Carolina
Published: August 2016

This study examined the factorial validity of the Eades Burnout Inventory (EABI) and the prevalence of burnout in adolescent elite athletes and whether burnout is more common in individual sports than in team sports. The EABI was distributed to 980 athletes (402 females and 578 males) in 29 different sports. Confirmatory-factor analyses revealed an acceptable factorial validity for a theoretically supported four-factor model of the EABI. Between 1% and 9% of the athletes displayed elevated burnout scores on these four subscales. The hypothesis of higher prevalence of burnout in individual sports was, however, not supported. Furthermore, no correlation between training load and burnout scores was found. These findings suggest that factors other than training load must be considered when athletes at risk for burnout are investigated.