bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Early Prediction of Malignant Cerebellar Edema in Posterior Circulation Stroke Using Quantitative Lesion Water Uptake
Authors: Broocks Gabriel , Elsayed Sarah , Kniep Helge , Kemmling Andre , Flottmann Fabian , Bechstein Matthias , Faizy Tobias D , Meyer Lukas , Lindner Thomas , Sporns Peter , Rusche Thilo , Schön Gerhard , Mader Marius M , Nawabi Jawed , Fiehler Jens , Hanning Uta
Published: September 2020

BACKGROUND

Malignant cerebellar edema (MCE) is a life-threatening complication of ischemic posterior circulation stroke that requires timely diagnosis and management. Yet, there is no established imaging biomarker that may serve as predictor of MCE. Early edematous water uptake can be determined using quantitative lesion water uptake, but this biomarker has only been applied in anterior circulation strokes.

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that lesion water uptake in early posterior circulation stroke predicts MCE.

METHODS

A total 179 patients with posterior circulation stroke and multimodal admission CT were included. A total of 35 (19.5%) patients developed MCE defined by using an established 10-point scale in follow-up CT, of which ≥4 points are considered malignant. Posterior circulation net water uptake (pcNWU) was quantified in admission CT based on CT densitometry and compared with posterior circulation Acute Stroke Prognosis Early CT Score (pc-ASPECTS) as predictor of MCE using receiver operating curve (ROC) analysis and logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

Acute pcNWU within the early ischemic lesion was 24.6% (±8.4) for malignant and 7.2% (±7.4) for nonmalignant infarctions, respectively (P < .0001). Based on ROC analysis, pcNWU above 14.9% identified MCE with high discriminative power (area under the curve: 0.94; 95% CI: 0.89-0.97). Early pcNWU (odds ratio [OR]: 1.28; 95% CI: 1.15-1.42, P < .0001) and pc-ASPECTS (OR: 0.71, 95% CI: 0.53-0.95, P = .02) were associated with MCE, adjusted for age and recanalization status.

CONCLUSION

Quantitative pcNWU in early posterior circulation stroke is an important marker for MCE. Besides pc-ASPECTS, lesion water uptake measurements may further support identifying patients at risk for MCE at an early stage indicating stricter monitoring and consideration for further therapeutic measures.
The Role of the Prime Minister in Japan
Authors: George Mulgan Aurelia
Published: September 2020

Despite a constitution and parliamentary cabinet system, which bestow considerable power on the prime minister, Japan has often lacked decisive political leadership, with strong prime ministers the exception rather than the rule. Factors undermining the prime minister’s position have included informal rules, political conventions, and practices that have worked to limit prime ministerial initiative and leadership in policymaking. Over time, however, the dominant trend has been for Japanese prime ministers to acquire greater power, with evolutionary change and reforms in critical areas of Japan’s political and administrative systems contributing to this development. Changes in each of the prime minister’s roles as leader of the ruling party, as policymaker, and as leader of the nation have been critical. The influence of internal party factions has declined, other party constraints on the prime minister’s policy leadership emanating from the ruling party’s own formal and informal policymaking machinery have been considerably curbed, processes of central government reform have delivered greater policy and administrative support for prime ministerial initiative as well as curbing the central bureaucracy as an autonomous power structure, and increased media focus on the prime minister has afforded him greater opportunity to project a public image as the nation’s leader. Some prime ministers, such as Shinzō Abe (in office 2006–2007, 2012–), have also worked proactively to expand their power, culminating in the creation of a “prime ministerial executive” in which the prime minister and his office hold formidable sway over all sectors of government, including the cabinet, the ruling coalition, and the bureaucracy.
Protecting Brand Value through Anticounterfeiting Supply Chain Strategies
Authors: Handfield Robert B. , Nair Anand
Published: September 2020

Counterfeiting is a problem many companies do not want to acknowledge or talk about. However, ignoring the problem is likely to have the effect of encouraging counterfeiters to go unchecked. A multilayered strategy that adopts several approaches and engages the entire organization is needed to address the counterfeiting problem. This chapter provides a set of recommendations to address the issue of counterfeiting. Initially, the size of the problem must be estimated and the return on investment approximated. This can help define the need for a team of experts to work in this area, leading to a set of performance metrics that are aligned with business objectives and outcomes. Next, the key focal product segments should be targeted and a system for identifying products through product trademark registration with customs authorities should be completed. In the end, combating counterfeiting is not a supply chain problem, it is not a legal problem, nor is it a packaging and covert marking problem. It is a global problem—one that impacts all organizations, large and small. All business functions need to be part of the discussion, not just a single brand security function. Failure to approach counterfeiting in this manner will simply allow the problem to continue to grow.
Use of Blockchain Partnerships to Enable Transparency in Supply Chain Digitization
Authors: Bailur Rekha Prabhu , Rao Shashank , Iyengar Deepak
Published: September 2020

This chapter introduces the use of blockchains to increase supply chain traceability and visibility. It argues for the use of technologies such as radiofrequency identification to realize the full potential of tracking every product and component in the supply chain, from its origin to its manufacture, use, and disposal on a real-time basis. The inherent advantages of blockchains remove the need for a central authority and promote decentralization of record keeping, hence increasing the integrity and security of the data. Blockchains by themselves are a platform that enables the transmission and sharing of data across the supply chain in a secure, fast, and robust manner. The technology works best when used with other data-capturing devices such as radiofrequency identification, which are already in use at different echelons of a supply chain. The chapter concludes by arguing that emergent technologies like the Internet of things work best by incorporating blockchains, because that would prevent the abuse of data by centralized systems and authorities and at the same time reduce the critical points of failure that centralized systems are prone to.
Innovation in Buyer–Supplier Relationships
Authors: Zhang Chun , Wu Fang
Published: September 2020

The increased reliance on external suppliers for generating new product and process innovation has resulted in a growing number of studies on supply chain innovation (SCI). This growing body of research, however, utilizes diverse theoretical perspectives to examine constructs relevant to SCI and has generated fragmented findings on the facilitators of SCI. In particular, although a large number of SCIs occur in a buyer–supplier relationship, the relationship characteristics that foster innovation generation remain unclear. The current study synthesizes the existing literature on innovation in buyer–supplier relationships and provides a comprehensive framework that highlights the key characteristics of a buyer–supplier relationship that foster SCIs. The study also aims to identify new opportunities for future research regarding innovation generation involving upstream suppliers.
Supply Chain Cybersecurity
Authors: Rogers Zachary S.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the importance of cybersecurity in supply chain management. This has not historically been a focus of many supply managers, but its importance is growing as an increasing number of malicious actors target the “weak cyber links” in supply networks. To better understand these phenomena, we discuss the rationale behind the increase in cyberattacks carried out through supply networks, along with common attack methods and common archetypes. The chapter also discusses how supply managers can modify their sourcing strategy to stymie these attacks. This will involve a discussion of supplier selection, supplier scorecards, basic cybersecurity standards, and working in cross-functional teams.
Organisational and Managerial Careers: A Coevolutionary View
Authors: Gunz Hugh , Mayrhofer Wolfgang
Published: September 2020

The field of organisational and managerial careers (OMC) covers a broad range of approaches, with roots in fields ranging from sociology to vocational and developmental psychology. This chapter draws on recent work that proposes a framework (the Social Chronology Framework, SCF) in which the study of careers, in particular OMC, is seen to involve the simultaneous application of three perspectives, to do with being, space, and time. Building on this, the SCF takes a view that emphasises the importance of a coevolutionary perspective. Within a bounded social and geographic space, career development happens based on configurations of individual and collective career actors who provide context for each other and coevolve together. The chapter illustrates this by showing how the SCF can suggest new approaches to studying established career development arrangements, such as mentorship.
Career Development and Human Capital Theory: Preaching the “Education Gospel”
Authors: Hooley Tristram
Published: September 2020

This chapter analyses the relationship between career development, education, and human capital theory. It argues that education lies at the heart of our understanding of how individuals develop their careers and how purposeful career development interventions can support them in this endeavour. Career development services are most evident and accessible in the education system. This relationship is not accidental but is rooted in both the historical development of the field and in the importance of human capital theory to the ideology of both education and career development. The chapter finishes by critiquing the dependence of policymakers and advocates for the field on human capital theory and by considering alternative relationships that could be built between education and career development.
Canons of the American Musical
Authors: Knapp Raymond
Published: September 2020

As the American musical has come of age and matured with continuing vitality, it has developed not just one canon but many. Various performing canons are tailored to specific cultural settings, reflecting venue, expected audiences, available performers, or other factors. There exist separate canons for high schools interested in getting lots of bodies on stage, for community theaters on a budget with a stable of local stars vying for plum roles, for church groups or junior high schools more careful with subject matter, or for college groups looking for something far enough out there to satisfy their rebellious urges. And finally, there exist a critical canon and a teaching canon, for which musicals are chosen in part according to the larger historical and social narratives they support. This chapter is paired with Micaela Baranello’s “Viennese operetta canon formation and the journey to prestige.”
Sound recording and the operatic canon
Authors: Henson Karen
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers three moments in the long relationship between sound recording and operatic canon. In the first, around 1902, the American Victor Talking Machine Company used the acoustically-recorded voice of the tenor Enrico Caruso to help “canonize” (or lend respectability to) what was then a very new form of entertainment. In the second, in the 1920s, Victor and its rival Columbia exploited the new techniques of electrical recording to make recordings of Wagner, and these and other recordings were marketed as part of a larger canon of classical-music “Masterpieces.” In the third, around 1952, newcomer EMI used tape and LP technology to produce one of the first large bodies of complete opera recordings, many of them featuring the soprano Maria Callas and an expanded Italian canon, from Pergolesi to Menotti. This chapter is paired with Hugo Shirley’s “Opera on film and the canon.”
The Survival of English Opera in Nineteenth-Century Concert Life
Authors: Weber William
Published: September 2020

This chapter shows how selections from English operas composed between the 1730s and the 1790s—chiefly by Thomas Arne, Charles Dibdin, William Shield, and Stephen Storace—became standard repertory in concerts throughout the nineteenth century. Such pieces were performed at benefit concerts organized by individual musicians and at events given by local ensembles that blended songs with virtuoso pieces and orchestral numbers. Critical commentary on such songs justified their aesthetic legitimacy as groups separate from pieces deemed part of classical music. By 1900, songs by Arne, Storace, and even Dibdin were often sung in recitals along with German lieder and pieces from seventeenth- or eighteenth-century Italy or France. The solidity of this tradition contributed to the revival of the operas themselves from the 1920s, most often Arne’s Artaxerxes (1762). This chapter is paired with Rutger Helmers’s “National and international canons of opera in tsarist Russia.”
Critical Reflections on the Operatic Canon
Authors: Rockwell John
Published: September 2020

This chapter looks back at the core canon in opera, tracing its evolution and mutation during the half century when its author served as a professional critic and then festival director. The chapter sees the core canon as either fixed or shrinking over the last ninety years. The public’s resistance to Modernist dissonance led to an explosion of repertory in areas immediately outside what had been the traditional canon. The need for novelty has been sated by directorial innovation (Regietheater), the early music revival (with George Frideric Handel the principal operatic beneficiary), and the ceaseless search for new curiosities to revive from the past. Moreover, the operatic canon has been enlarged by lighter forms of musical theater (West Side story and Sweeney Todd) and also by influence from non-Western cultures bearing their own canonic traditions and repertories. This chapter is paired with Kasper Holten’s “Inside and outside the operatic canon, on stage and in the boardroom.”
Aerodynamic Loading Due to Non-Synoptic Wind Systems
Authors: Chowdhury Jubayer , Wu Teng
Published: September 2020

In this chapter, an effort has been made to give an overview of the aerodynamic loading on structures due to non-synoptic wind events, mainly tornadoes and downbursts. A brief description of the provisions in the building codes and standards for non-synoptic wind loads is presented. Current state of the art in simulating non-synoptic wind systems to obtain wind loads on structures is also discussed. The primary focus is buildings, bridges, and transmission lines in the discussion of the aerodynamic loading on structures. Finally, some insights are given on how future research in evaluating non-synoptic wind loads on structures might unfold.
Assessing Wind Damage to Residential Structures
Authors: Marshall Timothy P. , Womble J. Arn
Published: September 2020

Most building damage occurs at relatively low wind speeds, at or below 50 m s–1 (112 mph), as certain components fail, such as doors, windows, chimneys, and roof coverings. Rainwater then enters these openings, leading to interior damage. Structural failures usually begin with the removal of gable end walls, roof decking, and poorly attached roof structures as wind speeds increase; the greatest damage occurs at roof level as wind speeds increase with height above the ground. Internal wind pressure effects can lead to additional, more catastrophic damage, such as the removal of walls and ceilings. It is difficult to measure wind speeds directly on buildings as they would have to be instrumented well in advance of the storm, and there is no guarantee the storm would strike them. Furthermore, flying debris can damage pressure sensors on instrumented buildings. Thus, damage evaluators must infer failure wind speeds indirectly by studying damage left behind in the wake of windstorms. Therefore, it is important that damage evaluators know how buildings are constructed to better understand how they fail. This chapter identifies similar failure modes in residential structures regardless of wind type according to information from more than four decades of storm damage surveys. The information presented herein highlights some of the lessons learned in evaluating storm damage to wood-framed residential structures.
Locating Physiology in the Study of Interpersonal Communication
Authors: Aloia Lindsey S. , Denes Amanda , Crowley John P.
Published: September 2020

Interpersonal communication is a biological behavior that necessitates coordination between multiple physical and physiological systems. Concurrent with the demands placed on the body to communicate, verbal and nonverbal messages impact the body. The goal of this chapter is to introduce the physiological approach toward the study of interpersonal communication. In the chapter, we start by reviewing the theory of evolution by natural selection as a theoretical foundation explaining the relationship between the physical body and interpersonal communication. We then review research highlighting physiological systems implicated in biophysiological behavioral research. Finally, we provide a preview of the chapters included in this edited collection.
Relational Transitions and Stress
Authors: Brisini Kellie St. Cyr , Solomon Denise Haunani
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines transitions that occur over the lifespan of romantic relationships, with a focus on marriages or partnerships with a similar long-term commitment. The chapter evaluates transitions that mark the early years of marriage (getting married and becoming parents), are sparked by unexpected challenges during the child-rearing phase of marriage (discovering infertility, learning a child has autism spectrum disorder, and bereaving the death of a child), and reflect developments later in life (living in an “empty nest,” caring for elderly parents, and coping with a partner’s declining health). The discussion of these transitions considers their potential to both undermine and enhance personal and relational well-being and includes evidence of physiological responses to these transitions where it is available. The conclusion highlights directions for research on relational turbulence, as well as resilience, over the lifespan of marriage.
Real or Not Real?
Authors: Turner Jeanine W. , Robinson James D. , McCarthy Alexandra
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the connections between computer-mediated communication (CMC) and physiology. Given that the study of CMC began in the late 1970s during the explosion of the Internet and use of email, there is limited empirical research available supporting this association. However, research within the areas of social support, telemedicine, channel use, online writing, and simulated environments provides a foundation for how best to approach investigating the link between physiology and CMC. We begin by exploring how scholars theoretically examine CMC through the cues-filtered-out approach (Culnan & Markus, 1987; Sproull & Kiesler, 1986), the hyperpersonal approach (Walther, 1996), presence (Lombard & Ditton, 1997), the psychobiological approach (Kock, 2004), and technological fit (Goodhue & Thompson, 1995). We then consider the physiological consequences of CMC as it relates to social support, telemedicine, and mobile technology. We conclude by considering future research opportunities.
Understanding Physiological Associations With Emotional Competence
Authors: Hesse Colin
Published: September 2020

The communication discipline has long believed that emotions are a fundamental part of the human experience, becoming one of the building blocks upon which interpersonal communication events can occur. This chapter examines the various ways that emotional competence is linked to biopsychosocial health. It focuses on alexithymia, a condition where individuals are less able to understand and communicate emotions. The chapter then describes the relationships between alexithymia and a host of physiological outcome measures, including elements of the sympathetic nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system. It also details several neurological structures that are related to alexithymia, including socioaffective processing, interoceptive arousal, and emotion-guided decision making. Finally, the chapter concludes with some general insights about the state of research in this domain and possible future directions.
The Physiology of Affectionate Communication
Authors: Floyd Kory , Pavlich Corey A. , Dinsmore Dana R. , Ray Colter D.
Published: September 2020

Affectionate communication consists of the verbal and nonverbal means through which people convey messages of love, fondness, appreciation, and commitment to others in close relationships. Like all interpersonal behaviors, affectionate communication has physiological antecedents, correlates, and consequences, many of which have implications for physical and mental wellness. This chapter begins by situating affectionate behavior in a bioevolutionary frame, noting its adaptive nature with respect to survival, procreation, and well-being. The chapter then reviews research on the genetic and neurological distinctions between highly affectionate and less affectionate individuals; the stress management and stress recovery benefits of affection exchange; the associations between affection, immunocompetence, and experiences of relaxation and calm; and the physical and psychological detriments associated with affection deprivation.
The Physiology of Conflict, VERBAL Aggression, and Violence
Authors: Aloia Lindsey S.
Published: September 2020

Recent research points to disturbances in physiological patterns caused by exposure to and participation in conflict, verbal aggression, and violence. In addition, disordered physiological systems encourage conflictual, verbally aggressive, and violent behavior. Accordingly, the goal of this chapter is to examine the bidirectional nature of the associations between physiology and conflict, verbal aggression, and violence. To start, I describe communication as an essential feature of conflict, verbal aggression, and violence. I then review the physiological responses from the autonomic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to conflict, verbal aggression, and violence. Also, I consider how activity in the HPA axis leads to compensatory activity in the cardiovascular, integumentary, and nervous systems. Finally, I explain how physiological dysregulation caused by conflict, verbal aggression, and violence predicts disease development, illness progression, and mortality, and I consider areas for future research.
Enacting the Demand/Withdrawal Pattern and Physical Well-Being
Authors: Roloff Michael E. , Reznik Rachel M.
Published: September 2020

The frequency and focus of conflict varies during relational development, however, disagreements occur during every phase. One maladaptive communication pattern that has received considerable attention is the demand/withdrawal sequence – a pattern that generally involves one individual demanding that his or her partner change, and that partner then responding by withdrawing from the interaction. This chapter reviews research that examines how the demand/withdrawal sequence is related to measures of emotional provocation, physiological arousal, and physical health. We first explicate the features of the pattern and theories that have guided previous research. Then we examine research that investigated how the pattern is related to emotional, physiological, and health-related outcomes. We conclude with a discussion of future research directions.
Regulation of Protein Synthesis by eIF4E in the Brain
Authors: Chalkiadaki Kleanthi , Kouloulia Stella , Bramham Clive R. , Gkogkas Christos G.
Published: September 2020

Regulation of gene expression at the level of mRNA translation is crucial for all the functions our brains carry out. eIF4E binds to the 5′-end of eukaryotic mRNAs and dictates the rate-limiting step of cap-dependent initiation. This chapter reviews the key pathways regulating eIF4E function, but also the less studied and novel mechanisms of eIF4E modulation, linked to synaptic plasticity, learning and memory, and nervous system disorders. Understanding how regulation of protein synthesis by eIF4E affects different aspects of brain function is yet elusive.
Focusing on mRNA Granules and Stalled Polysomes Amidst Diverse Mechanisms Underlying mRNA Transport, mRNA Storage, and Local Translation
Authors: Anadolu Mina N. , Sossin Wayne S.
Published: September 2020

In neurons, mRNAs are transported to distal sites to allow for localized protein synthesis. There are many diverse mechanisms underlying this transport. For example, an individual mRNA can be transported in an RNA transport particle that is tailored to the individual mRNA and its associated binding proteins. In contrast, some mRNAs are transported in liquid-liquid phase separated structures called neuronal RNA granules that are made up of multiple stalled polysomes, allowing for rapid initiation-independent production of proteins required for synaptic plasticity. Moreover, neurons have additional types of liquid-liquid phase–separated structures containing mRNA, such as stress granules and P bodies. This chapter discusses the relationships between all of these structures, what proteins distinguish them, and the possible roles they play in the complex control of mRNA translation at distal sites that allow neurons to use protein synthesis to refine their local proteome in many different ways.
Communicable Disease Law in the United States
Authors: Parmet Wendy E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the key features of American infectious disease law. The history of health law in the United States begins with the colonial laws that responded to the epidemics of smallpox, yellow fever, and other infectious diseases that regularly devastated the North American colonies. In the twentieth century, as the fear of infection declined, courts began to provide greater protections for individuals and vulnerable populations subjected to infectious disease laws. Moreover, the federal government began to play a more prominent and complex role in the control of infectious diseases. The chapter then looks at the allocation of authority between the states and federal government with respect to infectious disease control. It also discusses the role that restraint on individual rights plays in infectious disease control and the limits that the US Constitution and civil rights laws place on such restraints. The chapter also considers some of the specific tools that jurisdictions employ in response to infectious disease. It concludes with a brief discussion of the United States' role in global public health.
Regulating Medical Devices in the European Union
Authors: Mahalatchimy Aurélie
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the regulation of medical devices in the European Union. The overall goals of the European regulatory framework for medical devices are the same as the goals of the framework for medicines. It aims to protect public health by ensuring that medical devices are of good quality and safe for their intended use. However, the regulation of medical devices in Europe is very different from the regulation of medicines in two regards. First, unlike medicines, there is no pre-market authorisation by a regulatory authority for medical devices to lawfully enter the EU market. Second, unlike in the United States where the Food and Drug Administration is the primary regulator of devices throughout the nation, the European Union does not have a single regulator of medical devices. Instead, several organisations may be involved, and mainly a notified body in specific cases. The chapter then explains what constitutes a medical device in the EU and how devices are classified according to their level of risk in the EU. It then discusses how medical devices reach the market, how their risks are managed all along their lifecycle, and what kinds of incentives are provided for innovation and competition. The chapter also analyses the balance between public and private actors in the regulation of medical devices. It then concludes with case studies of innovative medical technologies that have challenged the traditional European regulatory scheme and that have led to many revisions in the 2017 device regulations.
Social Determinants in the United States
Authors: Parmet Wendy E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter studies the social determinants of health in the United States, focusing on one important but often overlooked social determinant: law. It explains how law influences social determinants and why law should itself be viewed as an important social determinant, one that can both magnify or diminish health disparities. Law can affect population health in numerous ways. Most obviously, laws create, empower, and restrain state, local, and federal public health agencies; regulate the delivery of healthcare; and seek to promote population health by regulating unsafe practices and activities, such as smoking. Health laws, however, are not the only laws that affect health. Laws that affect employment, income inequality, housing, the built environment, and education may also impact health. The chapter then considers some defining features of US law that may play a role in creating or perpetuating health disparities both within the US and between the US and other nations of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. It also reviews some recent initiatives in the US, many but not all undertaken via law, to address social determinants, and it looks at the barriers that remain to ameliorating social determinants through law, as well as some reasons for optimism.
photography as a research method
Authors: Holm Gunilla
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the development of photography as a research method in the social sciences. It describes the different types of photographs used, such as archival photographs and photographs taken by the researcher, and it focuses especially on photographs taken by participants. The uses of different approaches to obtain photographs and issues of interest concerning each approach are presented. The most common approaches to analyze photographs, such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and ethnographic analysis, are described. Interesting and challenging questions about the interpretation and presentation of photographs are raised, such as the impact of the researcher’s and participants’ habitus on the interpretation of photographs. Finally, ethical issues in research using photographs are considered, especially the meaning of informed consent, and confidentiality in photographic research is emphasized.
Qualitative Data Analysis Strategies
Authors: Saldaña Johnny
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an overview of selected qualitative data analysis strategies with a particular focus on codes and coding. Preparatory strategies for a qualitative research study and data management are first outlined. Six coding methods are then profiled using comparable interview data: process coding, in vivo coding, descriptive coding, values coding, dramaturgical coding, and versus coding. Strategies for constructing themes and assertions from the data follow. Analytic memo writing is woven throughout as a method for generating additional analytic insight. Next, display and arts-based strategies are provided, followed by recommended qualitative data analytic software programs and a discussion on verifying the researcher’s analytic findings.
Museum Studies
Authors: Tucker Erica L.
Published: September 2020

This chapter describes and discusses the major qualitative research methods used to study museums. These methods include analyses of visual displays and reconstructions; interviews with museum visitors, professionals, and stakeholders; as well as ethnographic fieldwork in museum settings. The chapter explores how these methods can be adapted to the study of exhibits, galleries, programs, and museums as knowledge-generating institutions from a range of case studies conducted by museum practitioners, anthropologists, historians, and other museum studies scholars at a variety of museums. Case studies are drawn from works that examine ethnographic, natural history, art and community museums as well as historic sites. Approaches to research design, data analyses, and writing up are also examined.
Contractual Arbitrage
Authors: Choi Stephen J. , Gulati Mitu , Scott Robert E.
Published: September 2020

Standard-form contracts are likely to be incomplete because they are not tailored to the needs of particular deals. In an attempt to reduce incompleteness, standard-form contracts often contain clauses with vague or ambiguous terms. Terms with indeterminate meaning present opportunities for strategic behavior well after a contract has been executed. This linguistic uncertainty in standard-form commercial contracts creates an opportunity for “contractual arbitrage”: parties may argue ex post that the uncertainties in expression mean something that the contracting parties did not contemplate ex ante. This chapter argues that the scope for contractual arbitrage is a direct function of the techniques that courts use to resolve ambiguities in boilerplate language. Using the case of NML Capital v. Argentina, this chapter shows how traditional contract doctrine can produce a fertile setting for the growth of contractual arbitrage.
The Accuracy of Stereotypes About Personality
Authors: Jussim Lee , Stevens Sean T. , Honeycutt Nate
Published: September 2020

This chapter first reviews general conceptual and methodological issues in the study of the (in)accuracy of stereotypes. First, the authors define stereotype accuracy. Second, different types of accuracy are discussed and standards for considering a stereotype belief accurate or inaccurate are presented. Finally, the chapter reviews the empirical evidence produced thus far that bears on the (in)accuracy of stereotypes regarding personality. The strongest evidence regarding the (in)accuracy of stereotypes regarding personality have focused on gender, age, and national character stereotypes. Weaker evidence relying primarily on self-reports of individual differences with respect to racial stereotypes and miscellaneous stereotypes (e.g., jazz vs. ballet dancers) is also reviewed. The chapter concludes by developing hypotheses that could help explain the pattern of (in)accuracy in stereotypes regarding personality.
Corporate Employee Training and Development Strategies
Authors: Rothwell William J. , Whiteford Anita Pane
Published: September 2020

This chapter defines employee training, describes categories of employee training, examines the role of training in onboarding programs, and reviews the benefits of training for individuals and organizations. The chapter also describes how training programs run by organizations meet corporate needs. Training goals can be linked to strategic plans, succession plans, and changes in corporate direction. Methods of training vary and include simulations, games, and distance education. Training evaluation addresses many issues, including how much people liked training, how much they learned, what they used on their jobs, and how the organization gained from the training. The future of training will require more attention to technology and to individual learning abilities.
Leading Is Learning
Authors: Diamante Thomas , Leavey Nicole J.
Published: September 2020

This chapter distills leadership development programs into their critical components in the context of the rapid digital onslaught. Alignment between individual behavior and organizational behavior is necessary in advance of the implementation of any developmental intervention. This alignment is viewed as a necessary but not sufficient condition for change. Development is examined as a by-product of a dialectic that is constructed purposefully with both the organization and the individual in mind. Delivered in many forms, the dialectic serves as the fulcrum that brings transformational power to leadership development programs. Leadership development is recognized as a process incorporating experiences that are crafted to compel behavioral, emotional, and intellectual transformation to drive competitive value.
Role of Supervisor as Coach and Developer
Authors: Su Weilin , Ding He , Liu Yuhao
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the role of supervisor as a coach and developer in the learning process of subordinates. Supervisor feedback has gradually become not only a significant tool for supervisors to influence their subordinates but also a hotspot of academic research. This chapter attempts to demonstrate the important role of supervisor and supervisor feedback in coaching and developing employee learning. This chapter also puts forward some suggestions on how to promote employee learning from the perspective of supervisors, including autonomy, assessment, assistance, and award. This chapter finally concludes with a comparison between traditional supervisors and coaches (developers) and offers advice for how supervisors can become coaches and developers.
Professionals as Lifelong Learners
Authors: Del Gaizo Edward R. , Laudermith Ariel
Published: September 2020

Learning for professionals is an ongoing process. They work in an era of changing laws and procedures that drive their need and desire to keep their knowledge and skills up to date. Lifelong learning can benefit professionals, the organizations in which they work, and the clients they serve. This chapter explores continuing education requirements to maintain licenses of certification, as well as the desire for lifelong learning among professionals from a variety of industries. Suggestions for developing and providing learning experiences are presented. While it is evident that professionals need to continue their learning, the content areas as well as learning options are continuously being reviewed by accrediting organizations. Various ways of obtaining continuing education credits are presented as well as trends in training modalities.
The Personalism of Nikolai Berdiaev
Authors: Siljak Ana
Published: September 2020

Nikolai Berdiaev was a prominent personalist philosopher in inter-war Europe, influencing such disparate thinkers as Jacques Maritain, Emmanuel Mounier, Hannah Arendt, and Eric Voegelin. This chapter looks at Berdiaev’s personalism, especially its origins in his pre-revolutionary writings, focusing on Berdiaev’s call for a new Christian philosophy of the person, one that would assert the central value of the human person and insist on the full freedom of the person in relationship to society, the church, and the state. Berdiaev’s trenchant critique of the erasure of the person in modernity, and his prescient insights into the essence of twentieth-century totalitarianism, led him to become one of the leading European intellectuals of the inter-war era.
The Name-Glorifiers (Imiaslavie) Controversy
Authors: Kenworthy Scott M.
Published: September 2020

In 1912–1913, a controversy erupted first among the Russian monks on Mount Athos of the claim in one book on prayer that ‘the Name of God is God Himself’. The so-called ‘Name-Glorifiers’ teaching would be condemned by the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church. Nevertheless, leading Russian religious thinkers, especially Sergius Bulgakov, Pavel Florenskii, and Aleksei Losev, would take up the issue. The very nature of the controversy would provoke these thinkers to reflect broadly on the philosophy of language in general. More specifically, they also reflected on the nature of religious symbols and the role of religious symbols such as language in mediating religious experience between the person in prayer and God. This chapter surveys the genesis of the debate and its treatment within the Church. The debate itself originated in connection with the practice of hesychastic spirituality and the Jesus Prayer, but the Church authorities reacted in a swift way, without fully understanding the issues at stake. One important consequence of the controversy was the revival of the theology of St. Gregory Palamas, the Byzantine theologian who had defended the hesychasts in the thirteenth century, but whose theology had largely been forgotten in Russia. Although the debate erupted on the eve of the revolution and therefore was forgotten by many, the reflections on language and symbols by thinkers such as Florenskii and Losev would have a broader resonance in later Russian thought, not only with regard to language but even in mathematics.
The Way, The Journal of the Russian Emigration (1925–1940)
Authors: Arjakovsky Antoine
Published: September 2020

The Way: A Journal of Russian Religious Thought, a journal in the Russian language, was published quarterly in Paris from 1925 to 1940 by the Academy of Religious Philosophy, directed by Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev. Scholars ranging from the French Slavist Pierre Pascal, who described the sixty-one issues of The Way as ‘uncommonly substantial’, to the American-based historian of the Russian emigration, Marc Raeff, who stressed its ‘high level of erudition’, have agreed that the journal is one of the most brilliant in all Russian intellectual history. The Way was intended to be the direct heir of the Put’ publishing house, founded in Moscow in 1909 by Berdyaev and other writers. Thus, The Way set itself the task of carrying the intellectual and spiritual renewal of the Silver Age forward. We can distinguish three main periods in the evolution of The Way: a modernist period (1925–1930), a non-conformist period (1930–1935), and, finally, a spiritual period (1935–1940). This evolution corresponds to that of an entire intellectual generation that was compelled by historical circumstances to think through the encounter between Western and Eastern intellectual and spiritual traditions and to seek a synthesis (thus ‘modernist’) between East and West. For all their internal differences, this intellectual generation evolved in a non-conformist direction, taking an equally critical stance towards liberalism and socialism and preferring personalism to both, moving towards a spiritual rationality that was simultaneously conscious of the limits of an excessively apophatic spirituality and of an exclusively positivist rationalism.
Lev Shestov: The Meaning of Life and The Critique of Scientific Knowledge
Authors: Fotiade Ramona
Published: September 2020

Lev Shestov is the author of a paradoxical strand of religious philosophy, akin to Tertullian’s credo quia absurdum, which had a decisive influence on the emergence of both religious and atheist strands of existential philosophy due to his positive reappraisal of the values of subjectivity and personal experience in the determination of truth. Drawing on literary sources (Shakespeare, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov) and non-systematic philosophical conceptions (Pascal, Nietzsche, Kierkegaard) which he brought for the first time into contact, Shestov elaborated a spirited critique of the phenomenological drive towards scientific, universal knowledge with lasting consequences for the French reception of Husserl and Heidegger. Born in Kiev in 1866, to an affluent Jewish family, Shestov was versed in the Jewish as well as Christian traditions, spoke several languages and travelled extensively throughout Europe before his definitive exile to Paris in 1921. The unique blend of Christian orthodoxy and Nietzschean nihilism which he brought to the debates between Slavophiles and Westerners in Russia, and which became his trademark in Europe after his exile, emerged from an understanding of faith which opposed rather than seek to reconcile scientific knowledge and revelation. His reputation as a maverick philosopher whose aphoristic style and paradoxical statements set him apart from mainstream speculative thinkers has led to his inclusion in the lineage of ‘private thinkers’ (alongside Nietzsche and Kierkegaard) by the post-war generation of philosophers associated with the emergence of a ‘thought from outside’.
Semyon Frank
Authors: Boobbyer Philip
Published: September 2020

Semyon Liudvigovich Frank was a proponent of ‘all-unity’, who sought to overcome the polarities in modern thought through a universal philosophical synthesis. Jewish by background, he was drawn to Marxism in his youth; but after some involvement in politics he grew disenchanted with the revolutionary movement. After 1905, he embarked on a career as a professional philosopher. He converted to Orthodoxy in 1912. Following deportation from Russia in 1922 he lived in Germany, France, and Britain. His main works of religious philosophy were written in emigration, although his underlying philosophical outlook was formed before the revolution. Most of the main themes in Christian theology were addressed in his work, even though theology was not his primary focus. Ontological questions were his main preoccupation. He saw his ideas as belonging to the Platonist tradition. His thinking was antinomian; following Nicholas of Cusa, he sought to demonstrate the ‘coincidence of opposites’. There was an apophatic tendency in his work, as well as an experiential emphasis. He saw evil as a kind of non-existent reality. He rejected charges of pantheism. There were echoes of Vladimir Soloviev’s thought in his writings, but this similarity only became clear to him after his philosophical system was formed. His outlook on the church was ecumenical, although he remained loyal to the Moscow Patriarchate. His social philosophy was personalistic and his political thought gradualist; he advocated a kind of Christian realism or humanism while warning against utopianism.
Varieties of Neopatristics
Authors: Gavrilyuk Paul L.
Published: September 2020

The chapter argues that the twentieth-century neopatristic theologies were not purely historical exercises, but theologically motivated enterprises. More specifically, Georges Florovsky’s ‘neopatristic synthesis’ was a response to his ‘modernist’ predecessors, such as Pavel Florensky and Sergius Bulgakov. The organizing principle of Florovsky’s neopatristics was Chalcedonian Christology. In contrast, Vladimir Lossky’s reconstruction of ‘mystical theology’ had the vision of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Gregory Palalmas as two focal points. It is argued that Alexander Schmemann’s liturgical theology may be likewise considered as a version of neopatristic theology with the emphasis on liturgical practice, and especially the eschatological dimension of the Eucharist, as the primary locus of theologizing. Thus, neopatristic theology cannot be regarded as a monolithic entity, but as a conglomerate of distinct theological visions, each with their own methods and organizing principles, which took as their inspiration the concept of a ‘return to the Church Fathers’ and creative appropriation of patristic heritage.
Mikhail Bakhtin
Authors: Emerson Caryl
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers the religious and metaphysical sides of Bakhtin’s thought—what might be called his ‘theological anthropology’—in the context of his posthumous recuperation as a philosopher in and beyond his homeland. Just as he never considered himself a literary critic or an academic philosopher, so Bakhtin would have declined the label of religious thinker, doctrinally defined. But his worldview was constructed against the clichés of materialism and positivism that saturated the Soviet era, and a religious subtext can be shown to enrich his secular ideas of novelness, dialogue, and carnival. Focal points in this discussion are Bakhtin’s revisionist Kantianism, his distinction between ‘spirit’ and ‘soul’, his kenotic Christology as part of a dialogic, dynamic personalism, his apophatic self–other relations, and his understanding of the graced virtues faith, hope, and love.