bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Shame and Guilt among First-And Second-Generation Asian Americans and European Americans
Authors: Liem Ramsay
Published: March 2007

Shame and guilt narratives of first-and second-generation Asian Americans and multigeneration European Americans were collected in semistructured interviews to learn how respondents perceive the phenomenology, function, and interpersonal dynamics of these emotions. This article focuses on the formal characteristics of shame episodes reported by members of these groups and offers an interpretive explanation for differences that involve respondents' conceptions of the self and related cultural practices. The analysis proposes that shame is at times embedded in a triadic structure for first generation Asian Americans comprised of the actor, a shamed other, and an audience. European American shame experiences, however, typically conform to a dyadic structure of actor and audience. Shame stories of second-generation Asian Americans contain elements of both emotion ecologies that may reflect a unique, bicultural adaptation. These findings are consistent with a cultural constructionist view of the emotions.
Toward a more Complex Understanding of Acculturation and Adjustment
Authors: Nguyen Huong H. , Messé Lawrence A. , Stollak Gary E.
Published: March 2007

This study examined possible links between acculturation and adjustment in 182 Vietnamese youths living in a primarily Anglo-American community. Extending past work, the present research employed a more complex perspective on both acculturation—cast as separate levels of involvement in the native and host cultures—and adjustment—measured across personal (distress, depression, self-esteem), interpersonal (family relationships), and achievement (school grade point average) domains. Results indicated that, as expected, involvement in the U.S. culture predicted positive functioning across all three adjustment domains, and involvement in the Vietnamese culture predicted positive family relationships. Contrary to hypotheses, involvement in the Vietnamese culture related negatively to personal adjustment (i.e., distress). These findings are discussed in terms of the apparent complexities of the acculturation-adjustment link, particularly with regard to the utility of viewing acculturation from a two-dimensional framework and the need to consider the type of adjustment indices examined and the social contexts in which ethnic groups reside.
Moral Reasoning among Estonian and Finnish Adolescents
Authors: Keltikangas-Järvinen Liisa , Terav Tuuli , Pakaslahti Laura
Published: March 2007

The moral reasoning of 14- and 17-year-old Finnish adolescents ( n = 1,230) who grew up in Finland and experienced Western individualistic educational practices was compared with that of adolescents ( n = 428) of the same age who grew up in Estonia during the period of Soviet socialism with collectivist educational practices. The same factors of moral reasoning were found in both samples: legitimization (attributing the responsibility to external factors), relativism, absoluteness, and universality of high moral standards. The results showed that the moral reasoning of Finnish participants had a higher internal consistency, whereas two levels were likely to exist in Estonia: a set of universal standards for what people ought to do and a different set for personal applications. The finding is discussed in terms of primary principles of collectivist education (i.e., a collective consciousness, a relative insignificance of family and parenting, and a lack of primary developmental context) as well as in the light of historical processes underlying the present time.
Some Thoughts On Human Nature and Its Control: I Am My Neighbor and My Neighbor Is Me
Authors: Ulrich Roger E
Published: March 2007

The classic controversy of free will versus determinism and its relation to the control of human behavior are discussed in terms of my experience as a Mennonite, as a researcher, as a participant in an alternative lifestyle experiment, and as an explorer of human consciousness. The concept of control as espoused by the behavioral tradition became less clearly discernable as I reflected on changes in my lifestyles and ideals, the relationship between politics and behavior modification, and "the other worlds of non-ordinary reality ". A reference to events beyond our individual efforts-the "enlarge- ment"-is imperative if we are to understand the present frame with any clear focus. Essentially, the notion that one human being controls another, or any aspect of the environment, becomes mcreasmgly meanmgless as the enlargement grows further from the experimental laboratory Moreover, a failure to perceive this may reveal an ego- centrism that is potentially hazardous not only to our interpersonal relationships, but to our ultimate connection with all life
Humanizing Law Enforcement: a New Paradigm
Authors: Woolpert Stephen
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the recent literature on the humanization of law enforcement policy. There are two major differences between humanistic and conventional approaches. The first is between voluntaristic and deterministic models of human nature. The second difference is the greater emphasis placed on experiential learning in humanistic approaches. Crisis intervention training programs, human relations training for police recruits, neighborhood team policing, and organization development approaches to management exemplify the humanistic perspective on police policy.
Communication as Skill: a Critique and Alternative Proposal
Authors: Plum Alan
Published: March 2007

This article was written to challenge behavioral skill approaches to com munication training that teach people "how to communicate" by prescribing specific behaviors. I suggest that it is preferable to encourage people who wish to improve personal communication to devise their own new or deepened ways of communicating by helping them to enhance their understanding of themselves, others, and the various meanings that underlie human inter action. This deepened understanding would increase the resources peo ple bring to their relationships without telling them how to behave, an at tempt to reverse the current tendency to displace the interpersonal with the technological.
Meditation Practice and Research
Authors: Walsh Roger
Published: March 2007

This article provides an introduction and overview of meditation practice, theory, and research. The models of human nature and consciousness from the meditative traditions are compared with traditional Western psychological models, and the former are suggested to encompass a wider range of states of consciousness and psychological well-being. The various models and mechanisms, psychological and physiological, Eastern and Western, that have been advanced to account for the effects of meditation are reviewed. Meditation practice is discussed both as a self-regulation strategy for specific psychotherapeutic and psychophysiological aims and as a discipline for deep self-exploration and transformation. When used for intensive self-exploration, meditation is best viewed as one component of a process demanding and producing a thoroughgoing transformation of all aspects of life and thought. The progression of experiences, insights, and states of consciousness that tend to emerge with intensive insight meditation are descibed, as are the author's initial experiences. The research literature on the effects and therapeutic applications of meditation is reviewed.

We know the outer world of sensations and actions, but our inner world of thoughts and feelings we know very little. The primary purpose of meditation is to become conscious of and familiar with our inner life. The ultimate purpose is to reach the source of life and consciousness.

Skill in meditation affects deeply our character. We are slaves to what we do not know; of what we know we are masters. Whatever vice or weakness in ourselves we discover and understand its courses and its workings, we overcome it by the very knowing; the unconscious dissolves when brought into the conscious [Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj, 1973, p. 15].
A Question of Balance
Authors: Vaughan Frances
Published: March 2007

This article was written after I participated in a research seminar sponsored by the Center for the Study of New Religious Movements, Berkeley, California. As part of our research, we interviewed members and former members of spiritual groups over a period of eight months. The topic of health and pathology in new religious movements was of particular interest to me as a practicing psychotherapist, and I discuss it here from a transpersonal perspective. Current popular interest in spiritual alternatives is viewed in terms of psychological development. Motivation for joining groups is varied, and participation in such groups may be either healthy or pathogenic for individual development. Distinctions are made between ego mastery and spiritual mastery, and characteristics of genuine spiritual mastery are delineated. Choosing a teacher and recognizing groups that are potentially detrimental requires both self-awareness and the ability to evaluate levels of development beyond ego. A balanced use of intuition and reason, and willingness to recognize personal limitations, can contribute to adequate evaluation.
Dispiritedness
Authors: Bugental Elizabeth K. , Bugental James F. T.
Published: March 2007

In this clinically based, conceptual article, dispiritedness is defined as the condition and the emotional aspect of that condition in which a person is unable to bring significant life intentions from the unconscious through subjective processing and thus to actualization. When in this condition, the person loses the sense of vitality in living, experiences melancholy, and has difficulty in taking effective and satisfying action. The central role of intentionality is described, as well as a sequence through which intentions evolve toward being realized. Interruption of the movement of impulses along this sequence occurs when the person experiences threats to constructs important to having a stable identity in a stable world. The dispirited state is analyzed into (a) its primary component, a threat to the person's self-and-world-concept; (b) a secondary overlay, socially learned reactions to one's own dispiritedness; and (c) a tertiary state of detachment in which concern is explicityly or implicitly denied. A complementing psychotherapeutic approach is sketched.
Midlife Themes of Invisible Citizens
Authors: Hardcastle Beverly
Published: March 2007

This article reports on a two-part interview study of 23 men and women aged 35 to 45 who held low-profile jobs such as prison inmates and guards, hospital cooks, laundry workers, custodians, resort maids, gardeners, bartenders, and bellmen. A research approach incorporating interview, life study, and oral history methods, mixed open-ended questions with formal inventories such as the Rokeach Value Survey and the KilpatrickCantril self-anchoring scale.

Four common themes emerged from the group. All were hopeful about their futures and most felt that their present lives were better than their past. A majority saw their lives as being strongly influenced by some painful and traumatic life event such as a divorce, death of a loved one, accident, drug addiction, or view of war. The women tended to select relational events when asked for their most significant life events, whereas the men chose public or personal events. All saw themselves as being responsible for their lives. The greatest contributions were the life stories themselves, reminding one of the need to see individuals in the rich context of their separate lives in order to appreciate the logic of their life themes.
Justifying Coercion through Religion and Psychiatry
Authors: Szasz Thomas
Published: March 2007

Before the Enlightenment, religious "truth" was generally regarded as a legitimate justification for coercion; since then, psychiatric "truth" is generally so regarded. In this article, I try to reconstruct the bygone mind-set that saw the controlling of deviants as a way to do good in God's name, and I compare it with the contemporary mind-set that sees controlling deviants as doing good in the name of mental health. I conclude that "we in the West have long repudiated the legitimacy of violence in the name of God. So long as we do not similarly repudiate the legitimacy of violence in the name of Mental Health, the very term 'psychiatric help' will carry an impossible load of ambivalence, rendering it useless, if not obscene."
The Myth of Self-Actualization
Authors: Daniels Michael
Published: March 2007

I argue that the primary function of a theory of self-actualization is to establish a myth of human development that provides conceptual support for people seeking fulfillment and offers clear normative guidance. An examination of Maslow's theory reveals inadequacies as a mythical interpretation of personal development. There are ambiguities and contradictions in the theory, and several conceptual elements may inhibit or corrupt the process of selfactualization. The failure of theory is due, I suggest, to confusing the project with naturalistic science and to the adoption of metaphors (biological) and methods (empirical) that are fundamentally inappropriate. A more fruitful approach may be found in emphasizing a mythical perspective from which life becomes a shared quest for the human good.
Behaviorism and Existentialism Revisited
Authors: Woolfolk Robert L. , Sass Louis A.
Published: March 2007

Some of the ontological and epistemological underpinnings of behavioral and existential systems of psychology were examined with the aim of elucidating neglected parallels and affinities between them. The philosophical presuppositions of both behaviorism and existentialism share an inclination toward nominalism and an opposition to subjectivism. Both orientations view action in the world as the basic material out of which any conceptualization of the human must be built. Each approach, in its own way, attempts to encompass both freedom and determinism.
The Challenge of Political Self-Responsibility in the Nuclear Age
Authors: Mack John E.
Published: March 2007

The attribution to another country of responsibility for the failures and perils of one's own society is a tradition, if not an accepted norm, in the conduct of international relations. There is, as yet, nothing analogous in the international political realm to the assumption of personal responsibility that is expected in working therapeutically with individuals, families, and other groups. Yet the destructive properties of thermonuclear weapons, and other world-uniting nuclear-age technologies, have made obsolete and dangerous habitually ignoring the contributions of one's own nation to international political tensions. The necessity of creating a transnational paradigm that includes the assumption of political self-responsibility by a nation and its leaders is argued here. The obstacles that stand in the way of political responsibility are examined, and possible steps for bringing this new paradigm into being are considered. One important project, the American-Soviet Film Initiative (ASFI), in which an industry has taken major steps toward achieving global political responsibility, is described in detail.
Wandering in Search of a Sign
Authors: Suler John R.
Published: March 2007

The vision quest was practiced in earlier societies, especially among some of the tribes of the Plains and Plateau Indians, as a method of gaining psychological and spiritual insight. The person would wander into the wilderness, alone, in search of a vision that would reveal a truth. Drawing on questionnaire data and the personal accounts of people who undertook a contemporary, modified version of the vision quest, this paper describes the essential ingredients of this practice. It explores the therapeutic qualities of wandering, relating self to world during the wandering, and attaining insights via the appearance of signs. The vision quest offers the opportunity to tap an archetypal form of consciousness that fosters individuation and activates the subjective experience of unity with the transcendental realm that nourishes the self.
Response to Berman's Critique of the Tree of Knowledge
Authors: Maturana Humberto R.
Published: March 2007

This article is Maturana's response to Morris Berman's review of The Thee of Knowledge by Maturana and Varela. Maturana claims that Berman partially misunderstood the book and explains that, far from advocating passivity in the face of evil, the book asks that we act out of responsible, personally chosen love, instead of from the belief that we hold a better "truth." In the case of Chile, this would mean opposing Pinochet for personal and cultural reasons rather than alleged biological principles of viability. Nothing is gained by attempting to defeat tyrants with the tyranny of our own imposed, alternative truth.
Rogerian Self-Actualization
Authors: Ford J. Guthrie
Published: March 2007

Carl Rogers's construct of self-actualization changed significantly in its theoretical meaning and usage. In an early period, self-actualization identified Rogers's central motivational construct, which centered on optimal functioning. In later theoretical periods, the tendency toward self-actualization became part of a larger and more dynamic motivational model in which there exists the very good chance that self-actualization will conflict with the realization of optimal functioning-quite a change from its former optimal-functioning meaning. There is evidence that a number of psychologists, even scholars and critics of Rogerian theory, are unclear regarding the accurate meaning and implication of self-actualization in contemporary person-centered theory. This appears to represent a naivet6 about Rogers's two core theoretical works. The goal of this article is to provide a brief review of these with emphasis on the constructs of self-actualization and actualization.
Inherent Potentialities of Actualization
Authors: Ford J. Guthrie
Published: March 2007

Biological factors are strongly emphasized in the actualization theories of Maslow and Rogers. Despite this emphasis, functionally nothing is known about the composition of the inherent potentialities of actualization. This study was intended to provide specific information about such potentialities. Toward that end, the study focused on the construct of the personality temperament, a trait having a significant genetic foundation. Using the temperaments of emotionality, activity level, and sociability, it was hypothesized that if these organismic potentialities were not actualized, then maladjustment would result, a deduction from Rogers's theory of personality. Degree of actualization was operationally defined by the discrepancy between retrospective parental recall of the participant's temperament profile as a young child and the college-aged participant's current self-perceptions of these temperaments. All temperament and maladjustment measures were taken by paper-and-pencil inventories, and the hypothesis was confirmed: The greater the child/adult temperament discrepancy, the greater were levels of current maladjustment. The results point to the personality temperament as a useful theoretical construct for understanding inherent potentialities of actualization. The findings are integrated into Maslow's and Rogers's theories, and the relevance of this research to the current crisis of general actualization theory in humanistic psychology is discussed.
Person-Centered Dream Work
Authors: Barrineau Phil
Published: March 2007

Person-centered writers have contributed little to our understanding of the role and purpose of dreams or to their use in therapy. This article seeks to address this gap in the literature and proposes a model for dream work that honors the principle of the person-centered approach. The model expands on the work of Jerry Jennings and calls for some expansion or modification in our understanding of traditional person-centered therapy. The author proposes that we rethink our view of the function and value of the unconscious, especially in regard to dreams, and suggests that a subtle distinction between content expertise and process expertise is necessary to maximize our therapeutic effectiveness with those who elect to explore their dreams in therapy.
Humanistic Psychology in China
Authors: Jin-sheng Xu
Published: March 2007

This article reviews the development of humanistic psychology in China since the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1980, including the activities of Lin Fang, Liu Xiao-feng, Chen Wei-zheng, Chen Zhong-geng, FangYuan-chu, Li Guang-wei, Li Wen-tian, Li Zheng-tian, Ma Yutian, Qu Wei, Shao Wei, Shong Shu-wei, Wang X 0000V Deng-feng, Wang Xiao-ping, Wu Xiao-feng, Yu Yang, Zhang Qi-ming, Zhang Yi-bing, and the author. Translations of Maslow, Rogers, May, Fromm, and others were published in large editions, original works were written, courses were taught, radio programs broadcast, newspaper articles published, research undertaken, and personality theories debated. Through 1989 Maslow's books sold 557,900 copies. Two organizations were founded, the Guangzhou Institute of Humanistic Psychology and the Beijing Research Association of Healthy Personalities. The events of June 1989 slowed these developments, but they are still continuing and have important implications for the future of China.
Bohm's Dialogue and Action Science: Two Different Approaches
Authors: Cayer Mario
Published: March 2007

This article claims that Bohm's dialogue could best serve individuals, organizations, and society if it is not assimilated into merely being a tool used in organizational development. After presenting first Bohm's dialogue and second Argyris's action science, similarities and differences between these two approaches are outlined. It is demonstrated that fundamental points distinguish these approaches, such as their purposes and the faculties they attempt to develop in the human being. In the last section, considering the dead end toward which our society and humanity are heading, it is suggested that Bohm's dialogue, when freed from its utilitarian yoke, could be a way to accede to Learning III, a necessity for our organizations, our society, and ourselves.
The Experience of Meaning in Suffering among Holocaust Survivors
Authors: Shantall Teria
Published: March 2007

Can life be experienced as meaningful in the face of tragic suffering? Research with a select group of Holocaust survivors explored this question. Using a heuristic approach, the phenomenon of meaning in suffering first was explored in a personal context. Entry into the “life worlds” of Holocaust survivors was then sought, through a 2-year attendance of the meetings of a survivor organization in Johannesburg, as a participant observer. Holocaust literature was studied and visits to the Yad Vashem in Jerusalem made with the view of gaining an understanding of the suffering of concentration camp victims. Five survivors were finally interviewed and their narratives analyzed and compared with the recorded narrative of the famous Auschwitz survivor, Viktor Frankl. The results highlighted that meaning can be experienced in suffering if suffering is accepted as a challenge to overcome evil with good in the practice of those values that make life worthwhile.
Canadian and American Unions Respond to Economic Crisis
Authors: Lipsig-Mumme Carla
Published: March 2007

Why have Canadian unions fared relatively well in the difficult industrial relations environment of the 1980s, while United States unions, operating in a continentally integrated economy and under a similar legal framework, are in quantitative and qualitative decline? After reviewing the four patterns of peak council response to the economic restructuring of the 1980s, the paper goes on to situate both national union movements, and to examine the historical source of contemporary United States union weakness, in contrast to the strategic sources of contemporary Canadian strength. Dissenting from the fashionable deterministic explanations, which relesate unions to a passive and reactive role, the paper returns to the idea of unions as actors and centres its comparative analysis on the notion of historically cumulative union strategy. The contemporary weakness of United States unions is thus presented as the result of a generation of strategic choices, which together have resulted both in the current anti- union environment and in the paucity of union strategies for defence. Canadian unionism, in contrast, has conserved its political influence and, in so doing, has both blocked the deterioration of the labour relations environment and maintained its own strategic margin of manoeuvre. The paper finishes with a brief questioning of the impact of the Free Trade Agreement on the future strategy of Canadian unions.
Australian Workplace Industrial Relations: Towards a Conceptual Framework
Authors: Littler Craig R. , Quinlan Michael , Kitay Jim
Published: March 2007

Although there is a rapidly growing level of academic research on, and interest in, workplace industrial relations in Australia, there has been little attempt to develop a conceptual framework for analysing workplace industrial relations that takes account both of overseas literature and local institutional patterning. This paper seeks to address this problem. We begin by assessing the more influential overseas literature, some of which-notably the bargaining model-has been uncritically introduced into Australian research. After identifying the limitations of the bargaining model, the control/resistance model and Edwards's modification to the latter, we consider an approach, developed by Anthony, that focuses on regulation. This forms the basis for suggesting a typology of workplace industrial relations relevant to Australia. While not ignoring bargaining, our typology places emphasis on the broader notion of regulation (and associated questions of enforcement). It is argued that a typology of workplace industrial relations must take account of the regulatory role of the state, especially Australia, with its reliance on arbitration. The paper concludes by examining further theoretical developments that are required, especially how to provide a more dynamic and causal model for understanding workplace industrial relations.
Marginal Workers in the Big Picture: Unionization of Visual Artists
Authors: Markey Ray
Published: March 2007

Australian unions face a crisis of declining membership density. An important contributor has been the increased proportion of marginal workers in the total labour force. These workers include casual and part-time workers, and sub contractors and the 'self-employed'.

Visual artists typify the marginal workforce. Most are employed most of the time on a commission or contract basis, their employment is intermittent, their income is appallingly low, and they are poorly unionized. A small majority of visual artists are women. A tiny Artworkers Union struggled to survive from 1979. More recently, the Operative Painters and Decorators Union has attempted to organize artists, gaining awards for them in two states, and pursuing job-creation policies in the building industry for artists. However, the Painters and Decorators' intervention has been controversial, and it has failed to attract many artist members. The new Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance seems to be a more appropriate union.

However, a major problem for unionization of artists is the individualism determined largely by the nature of the creative labour process. If unions are to achieve effective coverage of artists, they will need to adopt innovative ap proaches, which will have significant implications for unionism generally.
Workplace Reform at the South East Queensland Electricity Board, 1984-1994
Authors: Simmons David E. , Bramble Thomas
Published: March 2007

This paper explores workplace reform at the South East Queensland Electricity Board from 1984 to 1994. Workplace reform was introduced in the mid-1980s in the context of a change in senior management, the defeat of the major union after a prolonged industrial dispute, and increasing pressure from the Queensland government for the board to adopt a more commercial orientation. The major theme of the workplace reform programme at the board was an attempt to change from a culture driven by engineers and production to one focused on customers and marketing, driven by the philosophies of total quality management. The key components were an increased emphasis on workforce training and the implemen tation of teamwork and benchmarking. While certain benefits were evident for the corporation in terms of increasing productivity and quality of service, attempts to instil an atmosphere of teamwork had mixed results.
Civil War in the Post-Colonial World, 1946-92
Authors: Henderson Errol A. , Singer J. David
Published: March 2007

In this article, we provide a systematic analysis of the extent to which political, economic, and cultural factors are associated with civil wars in the post-colonial states of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Results of logistic regression analyses corroborate previous findings that semi-democracy is associated with an increased likelihood of civil war, while greater economic development reduces the probability of civil war. We also found that militarized post-colonial states are more likely to experience civil war, as are Asian — more than Middle Eastern and African — states. Among the political, economic, and cultural factors, semi-democracy has the greatest impact on the probability of civil war, which suggests the greater role of political — more than economic or cultural — factors in post-colonial civil wars. All told, the findings suggest that a multifaceted strategy of full democratization, demilitarization, and development is required to reduce the likelihood of civil war in post-colonial states.
Shocks, Expectancy Revision, and the De-escalation of Protracted Conflicts: The Israeli-Palestinian Case
Authors: Rasler Karen
Published: March 2007

This article introduces an evolutionary framework for the de-escalation of protracted conflicts. Key variables are political shocks, expectancy revision, policy entrepreneurship, third-party pressure, and reciprocity. The model is tested in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian case, 1979-98. A quantitative assessment is made with the use of Middle East KEDS data as well as a qualitative assessment of the intervening impact of shocks on the expectations and strategies of key decisionmakers. The results show that while shocks by themselves did not always change the expectations and strategies of the Palestinian and Israeli leaderships, their combined influence with entrepreneurship, third-party pressure, and reciprocity did indeed improve the frequency of Israeli and Palestinian agreements in the long term. In fact, the joint effect of shocks and entrepreneurship appears to play a crucial first step in the overall deescalation process. In addition, shocks had important intervening effects for both sides by reducing major institutional constraints that paved the way for an initial political settlement reached in the 1993 Oslo Accords. Finally, the results suggest that without political shocks, inertia overrides the inclination of decisionmakers to pursue new, risky policies that could undermine their political positions.
Twentieth-century Stories
Authors: KNUTSEN TORBJØRN L.
Published: March 2007

This essay examines four influential books on the trends and themes of the 20th century: The Age of Extremes, The Passing of an Illusion, Dark Continent and Triangulating Peace. All four books discuss the same historical events but incorporate them in very different stories. The main differences between the books are in the literary forms that they most closely conform to - tragedy, comedy, satire and romance, respectively. The essay concludes by asking why historians tend to bypass in silence the remarkable fact which constitutes the core of Triangulating Peace - and which might well be the most important feature of the 20th century - namely, that no democracy has gone to war against another democracy.
International Cooperation: Transforming 'Needs' into 'Deeds'
Authors: Underdal Arild
Published: March 2007

Why is effective international cooperation sometimes so hard to establish even when a seemingly convincing rationale can be given for its usefulness? Working from the assumption that accurate problem 'diagnosis' is a necessary, though not sufficient, condition for successful 'political engineering' of voluntary cooperation, the author starts out with an attempt at identifying the main political mechanisms of interdependence that can—if unchecked by adequate cooperative arrangements — lead to suboptimal outcomes. He points to two such mechanisms: incongruity and cost-efficiency. The former is split into relationships of externalities and competition, the latter into relationships of synergy and contingencies. Using this typology as a basis, the author then proceeds to examine the problems involved m transforming the integrative potentials generated by each of these relationships into cooperative achievement. He shows that relationships characterized by incongruity, particularly those involving competition, are more 'malign' than are problems of cost-efficiency, and that the dynamics of adversanal bargaining implies an inherent risk of blocking, possibly even 'destroying', the integrative potential that provides the basic rationale for cooperation efforts.
Atmospheric Pollution as a Global Policy Problem
Authors: Vaahtoranta Tapani
Published: March 2007

This article examines the prospects for further international control of atmospheric pollution. Air pollution has become a global policy problem, control of which requires the collaboration of many states. Despite the need for co-operation, however, the protection of the global environment is problematical in the anarchic state system. Co-operation is constrained by the fact that states are not equally affected by pollution and have dissimilar interests in environmental protection. Nevertheless, even though the prospects for environmental co-operation did not seem promising in the 1970s, five multilateral agreements were signed to reduce emissions of air pollutants. Three changes in particular contributed to the emergence of atmospheric pollution controls: the imperatives of ecological interdependence, technological developments, and growing public pressure on policy-makers.
The UN Secretary-General and the Mediation of International Disputes
Authors: Skjelsbæk Kjell
Published: March 2007

The United Nations Secretary-General's third party role is stated generally in the organization's charter. This basis has been exploited to the extent possible, and sometimes beyond that, by the successive incumbents of this office, whose different styles of operation are briefly described. The Secretary-General does not command economic or physical power, but has to rely on the moral status emanating from the principles of the charter, and on reputed impartiality. Political support from member governments is also important, but he cannot court the favours of any particular geographical or ideological grouping. He cannot operate against the express wish of the Security Council, but the Council depends on the services he can offer as chief executive. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and his staff are crucial to their function. The central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the provisional agenda of the Security Council. However, he works mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of his time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN, but also frequently on his own initiative. His function may be frustrated, replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peace-keeping missions are often closely linked to mediation (peace-making). The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the world's most reputable intermediary.
Empirical Investigation of Normative Discourse on War: The Case of the Donagan—Aquinas Thesis
Authors: Secrest Donald , Brunk Gregory G. , Tamashiro Howard
Published: March 2007

Quantitative and analytical social scientists increasingly have become interested in analyzing traditional normative problems. In this article we discuss the operationalization of conjectures contained in the Donagan—Aquinas thesis about the agreement of lay people and ethicists with the substantive content of the system of common morality concerning use of force. The thesis focuses on the complexity of reasoning at various levels in a claimed linkage between the golden rule, intermediate moral precepts, and just war theory. It holds that both lay people and ethicists who accept the golden rule also will accept the distinction between killing and murder; and both groups will reject pacificism, aggressive war, and amorality in favor of the moral acceptability of defensive war. However, this consensus between lay people and ethicists will break down on the more complex issues of war. The system of common morality is described as to its structure, derivation, and content, and the thesis is tested using national level survey data from five American elite groups. Most of the individuals surveyed support the principle of the golden rule and its application through just war theory regarding the moral complexities of conventional war, but the results to mutual assured destruction warfare items suggest a secular norm of negative reciprocity, which is analogous to the international legal concept of reprisal. We conclude that the Donagan—Aquinas thesis is supported regarding problems of conventional war, but its predictions — and the consensus among contemporary just war theorists — break down under the onslaught of the problems generated by nuclear weapons.
War and Peace: The Divergent Breakups of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia
Authors: Bookman Milica Z.
Published: March 2007

Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia are among the several countries that have broken up in the last few years, largely as a result of the centrifugal forces associated with secessionist aspirations. Yet, the process of that breakup has been vastly different in the two states. In the latter, the highly legalistic, violence-free divorce was rare, as history provides us with few examples of such state creation. In the former, a gruesome war is taking place, in which some nationalities are warring against each other for the third time in this century. This article addresses itself to these two extreme types of breakup. It describes the process by which the successor states of Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were born, and explores the conditions which underlie the differences in the two breakups. In this study, the breakup is divided into three phases, roughly corresponding to the before, during and after: re-evaluation, redefinition and re-equilibration. Each of these is described for both countries. Finally, the role of non-economic factors, such as national minorities, is explored. The aim of the study is to come to an understanding of how to maximize the possibility of democratic and peaceful breakups, if they have to occur, and thus to avoid the pitfalls that the former Yugoslav republics fell into.
The Diffusion of Military Conflict: Central and South-East Europe in 1919-20 and 1991-92
Authors: Hammarström Mats
Published: March 2007

Although previous research has established the diffusion of interstate military conflict as a rare event, few in-depth studies have been made. This article is a modest attempt to specify some of the interaction processes and regional contexts through which interstate conflict diffusion occurs. For this purpose a comparative analysis of individual cases is undertaken with each case consisting of a military conflict and a dispute in its vicinity. An examination is made of the sequence of events related to whether, and how, the military conflict might affect the dispute, transforming it to a new military conflict. The cases are drawn from the same region, Central and South-East Europe, for two different periods, 1919-20 and 1991-92, displaying an extremely high incidence of interstate conflicts. Comparing two hypotheses, one derived from a realpolitik perspective and the other from a linkage approach, it was found that the linkage-related hypothesis is supported in all cases across both periods, whereas the realpolitik-related hypothesis is supported only in a few cases pertaining to one of the periods. The theoretical implication is a linkage perspective which may offer new insights about conflict diffusion among neighboring countries, as it turns attention from their security concerns to the interplay of intra- and interstate relations transcending national boundaries.
War Initiation and Selection by Consequences
Authors: Nevin John A.
Published: March 2007

Two data sets for interstate wars between 1495 and 1815, and between 1816 and 1990, were examined to determine how a nation's tendency to initiate a war depended on its history of winning or losing previous wars. In both data sets, the proportion of wars initiated by a nation increased with successive wins and decreased with successive losses, and the time to initiate a war after a previous win was shorter than after a previous loss. Pooling the data sets revealed that the slowing effect of a loss was offset by one or more wins before the loss, and that losers had a high probability of initiating a war 20-24 years after the loss. Warmaking is interpreted as a cultural practice that is selected by victory or defeat, much as individual behavior is selected by reinforcement and punishment. One possible mechanism for this selection process involves the combined effects of national strength based on prior wins, military influence within a nation (also based on prior wins), and military preparations that raise the odds that a dispute will escalate to war.
Finishing START and Achieving Unilateral Reductions: Leadership and Arms Control at the End of the Cold War
Authors: Baglione Lisa A.
Published: March 2007

In 1991, the USA and USSR reached an accord to make significant cutbacks in their strategic arenals. A few months after the agreement was signed, the superpowers also unilaterally decided to undertake steps to decrease their readiness for war, eliminate tactical nuclear weapons, and accelerate the START reductions. While the outcomes may appear to follow from the collapse of Soviet power or domestic political developments, a closer examination suggests that a singular focus on neither power considerations nor internal politics can explain adequately these instances of arms control. Instead, leaders appear to have played a principal role, simultaneously balancing domestic political considerations against international challenges and opportunities.
Epistemology, Postmodernism and International Relations Theory: A Reply to Østerud
Authors: Smith Steve
Published: March 2007

In a recent article in this journal, Øyvind Østerud attacks postmodern interventions in international relations theory. He claims that postmodernism is not a serious academic approach, indeed that it threatens the very basis of scholarship. In this reply the epistemological claims of Østerud are examined. His main claims are examined and found to be superficial and misleading. Postmodernist accounts simply do not appeal to the same criteria for `good' theory as do traditional accounts, but it is nonetheless possible to distinguish between strong and weak postmodernist accounts. The article then summarizes some of the main areas for postmodern contributions to international theory. The main conclusion is that the epistemological waters are far deeper and muddier than Østerud claims, and that there are no secure epistemological foundations for the kind of research agenda that he desires. Indeed, postmodernism seems to offer much to readers of this journal precisely because it opens up to scrutiny questions of identity and points to a much wider agenda for international theory than that which has traditionally dominated the discipline.
Press Freedom and the Democratic Peace
Authors: Van Belle Douglas A.
Published: March 2007

A persistent question in the study of international conflict centers on the role of democratic political institutions and the initiation of war. Several dyadic examinations of data on regime type and conflict reveal that democracies do not appear to fight one another. This article describes a mechanism within the structure of modern democracies and their foreign policy decision-making process that might explain how the interdemocratic peace functions. When a democracy faces a non-democracy in international conflict, the democratic leader can expect to be the dominant source of `legitimate' information for the domestic news media. As the dominant source of information, the leader can use the resources of his or her office to influence the news content to his or her domestic political benefit. Information reported from the government controlled media of non-democratic regimes is reported as propaganda and dismissed as such. In contrast, when two democracies come into conflict, the domestic news media on both sides accept each other as legitimate sources of information and neither leader can expect to dominate the legitimate sources of news to nearly the same extent. As a result, neither leader can expect to have an overwhelming influence on the content of the news media, and the domestic political costs of war, upon which Kant based his model of a perpetual peace, will far outweigh any potential domestic political benefits received from engaging in conflict. This mechanism also offers an explanation for some of the seemingly inconsistent findings at the edges of the democratic peace, such as covert operations by one democracy against another.
The Language of Set Theory and Differential Association
Authors: Cressey Donald R.
Published: March 2007

The preceding article by Professors De Fleur and Quinney goes beyond mere coding of the verbal statements contained in the theory of differential association. It reveals hitherto unexpressed relationships in the theory and also shows how Sutherland's propositions are linked with more general sociological and social psychological principles. Further, the article demonstrates that "the theory" of differential association consists of all its first six propositions, and the section on empirical verification shows the tremendous number of hypotheses the theory generates. The work points the way to the ordering of criminological data and to the computerizing of criminological research.
Cognitive Organization of Sociopaths and "Normal" Criminal Offenders
Authors: Spitzer Stephan P. , Spevacek John D.
Published: March 2007

Most writers agree that the sociopathic personality is inflexible in behavior, immune to rewards and punishments, motivated to ward immediate rather than delayed gratification, and deficient in taking the role of the other. Agreement is based largely on observable behavior of the sociopath. Only inferences have been made regarding his cognitive organization, although the con cept of cognitive organization has been used to account for his asocial behavior. Using a sample of sociopaths and "normal" adult offenders, this study focuses on several properties of cogni tive structure. Several differences between sociopaths and non- sociopaths were observed in properties of cognitive structure as well as in the relation of the properties to one another.