bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Origin, history, composition and processing.
Authors: Mitra Sisir , Fuentes Gabriela , Chan Arianna , Girón Amaranta , Estrella Humberto , Espadas Francisco , Talavera Carlos , Santamaria Jorge M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the origin, history, composition, uses, and processing of pawpaw (C. papaya). Increasing evidence points to the fact that Mexico and Central America are the centre of origin of C. papaya. It is only in Yucatán, Mexico and some places in Central America where wild C. papaya populations can be found. The fruit of C. papaya was consumed by Mayan pre-Hispanic civilizations and they also used it for its curative properties. It appears that the Spanish brought this fruit to Asia and Europe since the 16th century. Since then, it has been grown in most tropical countries throughout the world. The importance of pawpaw has increased greatly in the last decade, and it is now the third most consumed fruit worldwide. It can be expected that this trend of increasing production and consumption of papaya will be maintained in future years, as there is increasing evidence that this fruit is not only accepted for its organoleptic properties but it also appears that its routine consumption may assist the consumer in preventing the occurrence of important diseases such as diabetes.
Production and trade.
Authors: Evans Edward A. , Ballen Fredy H.
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents an overview of the world production, export, import and consumption trends of papaya (Carica papaya) in the US and European Union (EU) markets. Despite the noticeable rise in global demand for papaya, production issues, particularly Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) disease, remains a major obstacle to increase the supply of the fruit, because of the disease growth in papaya production has lagged behind other tropical fruits such as mangoes and pineapples. Although there is a niche market for organic papaya, especially in the USA, because of the severity of the PRSV disease, major scale production of organic papayas remains an elusive target. Promotion and advertising activities touting the health benefits of papayas are needed to strengthen demand for the fruit and improve prices in export markets. Countries such as Mexico and Guatemala have been responsive to opportunities in the US import papaya market, given their close proximity to the USA.
Taxonomy, botany and plant development.
Authors: Jiménez Víctor M. , Gutiérrez-Soto Marco V. , Barboza-Barquero Luis , Guevara Eric
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the taxonomy, including genetic diversity, commercial importance and breeding of papaya. It also deals with botany, i.e. plant architecture and the different parts of the plant. The plant development is also described, starting from germination, seedling and juvenile growth to adult vegetative growth and reproductive development.
Biotechnology.
Authors: Kanchana-udomkan Chutchamas , Nantawan Usana , Drew Rod , Ford Rebecca
Published: September 2020

The application of biotechnology to plant breeding includes the development of tools and knowledge to increase accuracy and efficiency for pre-breeding and selection for crop improvement that have multiple advantages over traditional technologies. This chapter provides information on the in vitro culture, genetic transformation, genome project and sequencing technology, gene identification and characterization, genetic linkage maps and identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL), and molecular markers for crop improvement of pawpaws (Carica papaya).
Varieties and crop improvement.
Authors: Mitra Sisir , Sharma Suneel K.
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides information on the varietal diversity, crop improvement, plant genetic resources, inheritance pattern, conventional breeding, overcoming barriers to hybridization, backcross breeding, heterosis, combining ability, mutation breeding and marker-assisted breeding in pawpaws (Carica papaya).
Nutrition and irrigation.
Authors: Mitra Sisir
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the cultivation of papaya considering the soil requirement, salinity and inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The effects of application of nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, B and Fe, fertigation, irrigation, and the nutrition management in organic production are described. Judicious application of fertilizers to meet a balanced nutrient supply is necessary for obtaining regular and higher yield, better quality fruits and also increasing shelf life. Papaya plant water demand varies in relation to growth stage. Demand is substantially increased in trees producing new leaves, or coming into or being in flower, or having set fruit. The water requirement of plants possessing newly developing flowers is particularly high. Monitoring of water demand and application (irrigation) based on need at a particular stage, are essential to avoid crop loss. Flower drop, or drop of recently set fruits are often manifestations of poor soil water content. Use of fertigation based on nutrient needs at a specific stage and water demand is considered as the best option to supply both nutrients (especially N and K) and water. Foliar spraying of micronutrients and soil application of P are required to meet the requirements of the plant.
Fruit set, development, maturity and ripening.
Authors: de Resende Eder Dutra , Cuevas González Julián , Fabi João Paulo
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides information on the various factors affecting the fruit set, fruit development, maturity and ripening of pawpaws.
Greenhouse cultivation.
Authors: Galán Saúco Vìctor , Pérez Hernández Eudaldo
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of the greenhouse cultivation of pawpaws. Information on the various greenhouse types, the importance of cultivar selection, cultivation techniques and pests and diseases affecting pawpaw cultivation in greenhouses are also presented.
Play in appropriate natural environments to support child development (Fomento del desarrollo infantil mediante el juego en entornos naturales apropiados)
Authors: Martens Dörte , Molitor Heike
Published: September 2020

Nature experiences are important aspects in the development of children, with positive effects on the physical, mental and social level. Nature experience areas, that is, play areas with natural elements only, instead of constructed play elements, address the aim to support child development. This article analyses the effects of three nature experience areas in a metropolitan area, compared with three playgrounds serving as control areas. In a quasi-experimental design, behaviour observations on play behaviour and autonomy of children playing in either nature experience areas or control playgrounds were conducted in 2017. Results show that the play of children in the nature experience areas was more complex than that of those on the playground. The frequencies of children playing in nature experience areas are lower than on the playground. The autonomous behaviour, measured by social interactions, the involvement of adults and an autonomous mobility, shows a differentiated picture between the three areas. Natural experience areas could provide important aspects to support child developments, and improvements are being discussed.
Can Quantum Thermodynamics Save Time?
Authors: Swanson Noel
Published: September 2020

The thermal time hypothesis (TTH) is a proposed solution to the problem of time: a coarse-grained state determines a thermal dynamics according to which it is in equilibrium, and this defines the flow of time in generally covariant quantum theories. This article raises a series of objections to the TTH as developed by Alain Connes and Carlo Rovelli. Two technical challenges concern the relationship between thermal time and proper time and the possibility of implementing the TTH in classical theories. Three conceptual problems concern the flow of time in nonequilibrium states and the extent to which the TTH is background independent and gauge invariant.
A Justification of the Probabilistic Explanation of the Entropy Principle
Authors: Jodoin Laurent
Published: September 2020

In many ways, entropy and probability are two concepts that complement each other. But it has been argued that there is no ‘straightforward connection’ between them with a no-go thesis from Kevin Davey. However, this skeptical conclusion rests on counterexamples that fail to do justice to the entropy principle and the equivocality of the notion of probability. Proceeding from the disambiguation of probability, and acknowledging the explanatory goal of the entropy principle, it is argued that the Boltzmannian statistical mechanics account can be vindicated with a justification of the explanandum, the reference class, and the standard uniform probability measure.
Pressure-Dependent Point-Contact Spectroscopy of Superconducting PbTaSe2 Single Crystals
Authors: Zi Hai , Zhao Ling-Xiao , Hou Xing-Yuan , Shan Lei , Ren Zhian , Chen Gen-Fu , Ren Cong
Published: September 2020

We develop an experimental tool to investigate the order parameter of superconductors by combining point-contact spectroscopy measurement with high-pressure technique. It is demonstrated for the first time that planar point-contact spectroscopy measurement on noncentrosymmetric superconducting PbTaSe2 single crystals is systematically subjected to hydrostatic pressures up to 12.1 kbar. Under such a high pressure, the normal-state contact resistance is sensitive to the applied pressure, reflecting the underlying variation of contact transparency upon pressures. In a superconducting state, the pressure dependence of the energy gap Δ
0 and the critical temperature T
c for gap opening/closing are extracted based on a generalized Blond–Tinkham–Klapwijk model. The gap ratio 2Δ
0/k
B
T
c indicates a crossover from weak coupling to strong coupling in electron pairing strength upon pressure for PbTaSe2. Our experimental results show the accessibility and validity of high-pressure point-contact spectroscopy, offering rich information about high-pressure superconductivity.
Leakage characteristics of a sealing structure with damage holes based on super-resolution infrared thermography technology
Authors: Wang S , Yao XF , GW Wang
Published: September 2020

In this paper, leakage characteristics of a sealing structure with damage holes are measured, combining super-resolution algorithms with infrared thermography technology. First, leakage tests of a sealing structure with a single-hole and double-hole are conducted, and some original infrared images are operated to locate the leakage position and calculate the leakage rate. Second, different types of super-resolution algorithms are introduced to generate different high-resolution (HR) infrared images. Finally, the results of the leakage location and leakage rate measured by different HR infrared images of different super-resolution algorithms are compared and discussed, revealing that the machine learning algorithm has the best overall performance. The super-resolution algorithm reduces the measurement error of the leakage rate by 40% and improves the sensitivity of the positioning test by five to ten times. The result indicates that super-resolution infrared thermography is of significant help in ensuring the accuracy of the multiple-hole leakage test.
Performance comparison of particle tracking velocimetry (PTV) and particle image velocimetry (PIV) with long-exposure particle streaks
Authors: Qureshi Mumtaz Hussain , Tien Wei-Hsin , Lin Yi-Jiun Peter
Published: September 2020

Particle tracking velocimetry (PTV) and particle image velocimetry (PIV) are popular experimental methods to quantitatively measure flow fields. In many practical applications, hardware limitations result in longer exposure times, causing particle images to elongate into particle streak images. In this study, the performances of PTV and PIV in relation to particle streak images are evaluated systematically by means of both synthetic and experimental images. For the synthetic images, particle streak images are created via the integration over time of the standard Gaussian approximation of particle images, plus the effects of exposure time, and parameters such as particle image diameter, intensity, and density were investigated in terms of the velocity fields of a 1D uniform flow and the rotational 2D Hill’s vortex. The results show that PTV performs well for short exposure times, and its peak-finding criteria can be verified for nondimensional exposure times

E
T
∗

up to 10. As the

E
T
∗

increases from 10 to 70, the reliability of the PTV algorithm drops significantly, while the yield drops only slightly. Longer exposure times cause an increase in the number of RMS displacement errors; the PTV algorithm is more likely to fail when particle diameter, image intensity and particle density are larger. The displacement error of PTV RMS ranges from 0.064 pixels to 0.157 pixels. In comparison to PTV, PIV is more robust in relation to streak images with long-exposure times, and not sensitive to the effects of particle image diameter and intensity. The RMS dispersion errors for PIV range from 0.015 pixels to 0.316 pixels. A comparison of the RMS displacement errors exhibited by PIV and PTV shows that where the seeding of particles is not an issue, PIV is more robust, and can handle long-exposure streak images. The results of experimental streak images show that PIV produces lower RMS dispersion error values at low Reynolds numbers, whereas it produces more significant errors for high Reynolds numbers. At regions of low seeding density, PTV can resolve local fluid motions with superior accuracy, but it is vulnerable to high exposure time. Based on these results, where a longer exposure time is a requirement for an application, the use of PIV is recommended, by virtue of its robustness to image streaking, provided that a good seeding and high particle image density are available. For applications such as some microscale flows or flows with separation or recirculation regions, PTV is more capable of fulfilling their requirements.
Influence of crystallization temperature on fluorescence of n-diamond quantum dots
Authors: Ma Xuanxuan , Liu Xiaoyu , Li Yuanyuan , Xi Xiaonan , Yao Qianqin , Fan Jiyang
Published: September 2020

Nanodiamonds are popular biological labels because of their superior mechanical and optical properties. Their surfaces bridging the core and surrounding medium play a key role in determining their bio-linkage and photophysical properties. n-diamond is a mysterious carbon allotrope whose crystal structure remains debated. We study the influence of the crystallization temperature on the fluorescence properties of the colloidal n-diamond quantum dots (n-DQDs) with sizes of several nanometers. They exhibit multiband fluorescence across the whole visible region which depends sensitively on the crystallization temperature. Their surfaces turn from hydrophobic ones rich of sp2-bonded carbon into hydrophilic ones rich of carboxyl derivatives and hydroxyl groups as the crystallization temperature increases. The different surface states correlated with the surface structures account for the distinct fluorescence properties of the n-DQDs crystallized at different temperatures. These high-purity ultrasmall n-DQDs with tunable surface chemistry and fluorescence properties are promising multicolor biomarkers and lighting sources.
Motorcycling performance and sleepiness during an extended ride on a dynamic simulator: relationship with stress biomarkers
Authors: Bougard C , VanBeers P , Sauvet F , Drogou C , Guillard M , Dorey R , Gomez-Merino D , Dauguet J , Takillah S , Espié S , Chennaoui M , Léger D
Published: September 2020

Objective: Powered two-wheelers (PTW) make up a large proportion of fatal accidents. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of time-of-day and total sleep deprivation (SD) on simulated motorcycling performance during extended riding sessions (60 min), while evaluating stress mechanisms. Approach: A total of 16 healthy males participated in four simulated motorcycling sessions at 07:00, 11:00, 15:00 and 19:00, including city (8 min), country (2 min) and highway pathways (40 min), after a normal night of sleep and after total SD (30 h), in a randomized counterbalanced order. The recorded motorcycle parameters included: variation of lateral position, number of inappropriate line crossings (ILC), falls, riding errors, speed and speed limit violations. Subject parameters included the number of microsleeps in each pathway, the number of lapses during the 3-min psychomotor vigilance task (PVT—Brief version), and the Karolinska sleepiness scale (KSS) score. Saliva samples were used to assess cortisol (sC), α-amylase (sAA), and chromogranin-A (sCgA). ANOVAs and Pearson’s correlation analysis were performed between these variables. Main results: Most parameters were influenced by an interaction effect between ‘Motorcycling pathways’ × ‘SD’ (speed (p < 0.05), legal speed violations (p < 0.01), variation of lateral position (p < 0.001), falls (p < 0.001), EEG-microsleeps (p < 005)). An interaction effect between ‘SD’ × ‘Time-of-day’ influenced the number of ILCs (p < 0.01), sC (p < 0.05) and sCgA (p < 0.05) levels. SD affected KSS scores (p < 0.001) and PVT lapses (p < 0.05). The highest disturbances were associated with highway motorcycling simulation. Significance: Sleepiness due to circadian or SD and fatigue effects significantly affect riding and increase the risks involved with PTWs. The activation of both stress systems seems not sufficient to alleviate these deleterious effects
A Newman Penrose approach to Bertrand spacetime in general relativity
Authors: Jeevitha T U , Raibagkar Pranav , Das Sanjit
Published: September 2020

Newman Penrose (NP) formalism is a new approach to general relativity was presented. In various geometrical groups are estimate on a chosen null tetrad basis for tetrad formalism. This approach widely used in analytical and numerical studies of Einstein’s equations. The reasonable utilization of explicit complex straight emulsions of Ricci rotation coefficients which present, in the product, the spinor relative association. And we construct a null tetrad for general case and special attension for Bertrand’s space-time type-1 metric for special case k=0.
Effect of quercetin on micellization behaviour of Tween-20 in hydro-ethanolic solvent system: An electrolyte induced thermodynamic study
Authors: Abbot Vikrant , Sharma Poonam
Published: September 2020

The thermodynamic studies for non-ionic surfactant Tween-20 has been performed in presence of a well known flavonoid quercetin. The conductivity studies have been carried out with different concentrations of quercetin in 30% v/v ethanolic solution at five different temperatures (20 °C to 40 °C with difference of 5 °C). Since Tween-20 is non-ionic in nature, 1% w/v sodium chloride solution has been added as an electrolyte. Critical micelle concentration (CMC) and XCMC values as a function of temperature have been determined from conductance studies. Furthermore, various thermodynamic parameters viz. change in enthalpy (ΔH°m), entropy (ΔS°m) and Gibb’s free energy (ΔG°m) of micellization have been calculated. Overall, the changes in micellization process of Tween-20 in presence of quercetin has been studied and reported.
MnSb ferromagentic films synthesized by vacuum thermal evaporation
Authors: Marenkin S , Ril A , Rabinovich O , Fedorchenko I , Didenko S , Sizov S , Osipov Yu
Published: September 2020

By the original method, using the sequential high-purity Mn and Sb metals evaporation, followed by annealing under high vacuum conditions, MnSb semiconductor films were synthesized. It is shown that the high chemical activity of nanostructured Mn and Sb films significantly reduces the manganese antimonide evaporation temperature. Films are p- type and have a high charge carriers mobility.
AlGaP LEDs optimization
Authors: Rabinovich O , Sizov S , Orlova M , Didenko S , Osipov Yu , Podgornaya S , Panichkin A , Konovalov M
Published: September 2020

LED parameters trends, depending doping & temperatures were investigated by simulation. Working area in heterostructure can be presented as a sum of “NanoLEDs”. in Simulation and experimental results correlation is achieved. The optimum AlGaP working area consists of 5 QW. In the central QW there is a maximum radiation; edge QWs - “barriers” which supply electrons/holes into the working area.
Antibacterial activity of antimicrobial peptide-conjugated nanofibrous membranes
Authors: Onak Günnur , Ercan Utku Kürşat , Karaman Ozan
Published: September 2020

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are considered as novel potential alternatives to antibiotics against increasing number of multi drug resistant (MDR) pathogens. Although AMPs have shown strong antimicrobial activity against gram-negative or gram-positive microorganisms, AMP conjugated biomaterials that are effective against MDR microorganisms are yet to be developed. Herein, the potential use of (RWRWRWRW)-NH2 (AMP-1) and KRFRIRVRV-NH2 (AMP-2) peptide conjugated electrospun polylactic–co-glycolic-acid (PLGA) nanofibers (NFs) fabricated and their antimicrobial effect by themselves and in their dual combination (1:1) were evaluated on P. aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Those AMP conjugated NFs did not inhibit proliferation of keratinocytes. These results suggest that AMP conjugated NF, which has multiple biological activities, would be a promising candidate as a wound dressing material.
Coalescence, deformation and Bäcklund symmetries of Painlevé IV and II equations
Authors: Alves V C C , Aratyn H , Gomes J F , Zimerman A H
Published: September 2020

We extend Painlevé IV model by adding quadratic terms to its Hamiltonian obtaining two classes of models (coalescence and deformation) that interpolate between Painlevé IV and II equations for special limits of the underlying parameters. We derive the underlying Bäcklund transformations, symmetry structure and requirements to satisfy Painlevé property.
Susceptibility to disorder of the optimal resetting rate in the Larkin model of directed polymers
Authors: Grange Pascal
Published: September 2020

We consider the Larkin model of a directed polymer with Gaussian-distributed random forces, with the addition of a resetting process whereby the transverse position of the end-point of the polymer is reset to zero with constant rate r. We express the average over disorder of the mean time to absorption by an absorbing target at a fixed value of the transverse position. Thanks to the independence properties of the distribution of the random forces, this expression is analogous to the mean time to absorption for a diffusive particle under resetting, which possesses a single minimum at an optimal value

of the resetting rate . Moreover, the mean time to absorption can be expanded as a power series of the amplitude of the disorder, around the value

of the resetting rate. We obtain the susceptibility of the optimal resetting rate to disorder in closed form, and find it to be positive.
Task feasibility of V shape electrothermal actuators
Authors: Hussein Hussein , Younis Mohammad I , Fariborzi Hossein
Published: September 2020

This paper investigates the modeling, design, and task feasibility of V shape electrothermal actuators. In the first part, the force-deflection governing expressions are derived and the actuator performance is analyzed based on these expressions. The influence of the actuator dimensions and properties on its performance is clarified. In the second part, the task feasibility is further investigated. A performance measure is proposed for evaluating the capacity of the actuator to accomplish required tasks depending on the application. This measure is used for finding a feasible configuration and optimized design. A case study is finally presented, showing very good agreement between analytical model and finite element simulations, and demonstrating the robustness of the task feasibility measure.
Nanotechnology based approaches for combatting COVID-19 viral infection
Authors: Jindal Shlok , Gopinath P
Published: September 2020

The novel coronavirus pneumonia pandemic was declared as ‘public-health emergency of international concern’ by the World Health Organization on 30 January 2020. The sudden emergence of the viral pathogen responsible for this outbreak, the novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, has triggered alarm for their instant management using anti-viral measures and diagnostic tools. Early diagnosis will enable containment of COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019), allowing quick implementation of control measures for limiting the spread of this disease. Due to high human to human transmission, the development of effective anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapeutics for treating affected patients will help to slow down the transfer of viruses from patients to healthy individuals. However, till the time any effective therapeutic or vaccine is developed, preventing exposure to SARS- CoV-2 virus is the best way out. The development of more effective personal protective equipments (PPEs) is essential to maintain the safety of healthcare professionals and the public at large. Taking into consideration the current severity of this disease and the imperative need of SARS-CoV-2 specific treatment and diagnostic tools, nanotechnology-based approaches can provide promising alternatives to conventional ways of disease diagnosis, treatment, and preventing exposure to SARS-CoV-2. In this review, we inform about the different ways in which nanotechnology can help in the detection and treatment of prevailing SARS-CoV-2 infection as well as help to improve the PPE devices.
Clinical, Radiologic, and Pathologic Characteristics of Pulmonary Hamartomas With Uncommon Presentation
Authors: Chatzopoulos Kyriakos , Johnson Tucker F , Boland Jennifer M
Published: September 2020

Objectives

To investigate the clinicopathologic and radiologic features of pulmonary hamartomas (PHs) with uncommon clinical presentation.

Methods

A retrospective clinicopathologic and radiologic review was performed for patients diagnosed (1999-2019) with multiple hamartomas, lesions arising adjacent to a coexisting pulmonary malignancy, and tumors with predominantly extrapulmonary localization.

Results

Of 979 patients diagnosed with PHs, 6 (0.6%) had multiple hamartomas, 4 (0.4%) had hamartomas adjacent to lung adenocarcinoma, and 2 (0.2%) had large mediastinal masses. Patients with multiple lesions had a median age of 65 years and mean tumor size of 0.9 cm; 1 patient had 3 hamartomas, and 5 patients had 2. Lesions next to adenocarcinomas had a mean size of 1.4 cm, and affected patients had a median age of 69 years. Predominantly mediastinal PHs, diagnosed in a 63-year-old woman and a 68-year-old man, measured 4.1 to 6 cm and were connected to the lung. All lesions were solid on imaging with absence of definitive fat or calcification, concerning for granuloma or malignancy. All cases had typical histology of PH, although one of the mediastinal tumors had an unusual amount of epithelial hyperplasia.

Conclusions

PHs can be clinically and radiologically challenging to diagnose. Histopathologic examination of biopsies and resection specimens is diagnostically crucial in this setting.
Why punitive intent matters
Authors: Hanna Nathan
Published: September 2020

Many philosophers think that punishment is intentionally harmful and that this makes it especially hard to justify. But explanations for the latter intuition often say questionable things about the significance of the intent to harm. I argue that there’s another way to explain the intuition.
Hospitalization of Pediatric Enteric Fever Cases, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2017–2019: Incidence and Risk Factors
Authors: Saha Shampa , Sayeed K M Ishtiaque , Saha Senjuti , Islam Md Shafiqul , Rahaman Afiour , Islam Maksuda , Rahman Hafizur , Das Raktim , Hasan Md Mahmudul , Uddin Mohammad Jamal , Tanmoy Arif Mohammad , Ahmed A S M Nawshad Uddin , Luby Stephen P , Andrews Jason R , Garrett Denise O , Saha Samir K
Published: September 2020

Background

Enteric fever causes substantial morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries. Here, we analyzed Surveillance for Enteric Fever in Asia Project (SEAP) data to estimate the burden of enteric fever hospitalization among children aged <15 years and identify risk factors for hospitalization in Bangladesh.

Methods

SEAP used hospital surveillance paired with a community-based health-care utilization assessment. In SEAP hospital surveillance, blood was obtained for culture from children aged <15 years with ≥3 days of fever. In the hospital catchment area, a health-care utilization survey (HCUS) was conducted to estimate the proportion of febrile children hospitalized at the study hospitals. We analyzed hospital surveillance and HCUS data to estimate the health care–adjusted incidence of enteric fever hospitalization, and conducted univariable and multivariable logistic regressions.

Results

From July 2017 through June 2019, 2243 laboratory-confirmed enteric fever cases were detected in 2 study hospitals; 673 (30%) were hospitalized. The health care–adjusted incidence of enteric fever hospitalization among children <15 years old was 303/100 000 children/year (95% confidence interval [CI], 293–313). Salmonella Typhi contributed most to the enteric fever hospitalization incidence (277/100 000 children/year; 95% CI, 267–287). The incidence was highest among children aged 2 to <5 years (552/100 000 children/year; 95% CI, 522–583), followed by those aged <2 years (316/100 000 children/year; 95% CI, 288–344). Factors independently associated with enteric fever hospitalization included fever duration, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and leukocytopenia.

Conclusions

We estimated a high burden of hospitalization due to enteric fever among children aged <5 years in Bangladesh. The introduction of a typhoid conjugate vaccine would protect children from typhoid and avert typhoid hospitalizations.
Existence and possible roles of independent non-CpG methylation in the mammalian brain
Authors: Lee Jong-Hun , Saito Yutaka , Park Sung-Joon , Nakai Kenta
Published: September 2020

Methylated non-CpGs (mCpHs) in mammalian cells yield weak enrichment signals and colocalize with methylated CpGs (mCpGs), thus have been considered byproducts of hyperactive methyltransferases. However, mCpHs are cell type-specific and associated with epigenetic regulation, although their dependency on mCpGs remains to be elucidated. In this study, we demonstrated that mCpHs colocalize with mCpGs in pluripotent stem cells, but not in brain cells. In addition, profiling genome-wide methylation patterns using a hidden Markov model revealed abundant genomic regions in which CpGs and CpHs are differentially methylated in brain. These regions were frequently located in putative enhancers, and mCpHs within the enhancers increased in correlation with brain age. The enhancers with hypermethylated CpHs were associated with genes functionally enriched in immune responses, and some of the genes were related to neuroinflammation and degeneration. This study provides insight into the roles of non-CpG methylation as an epigenetic code in the mammalian brain genome.
Cruzioseptins, antibacterial peptides from Cruziohyla calcarifer skin, as promising leishmanicidal agents
Authors: Mendes Bruno , Proaño-Bolaños Carolina , Gadelha Fernanda R , Almeida José R , Miguel Danilo C
Published: September 2020

Screenings of natural products have significantly contributed to the discovery of novel leishmanicidal agents. In this study, three known cruzioseptins—antibacterial peptides from Cruziohyla calcarifer skin—were synthesized and evaluated against promastigotes and amastigotes stages of Leishmania (L.) amazonensis and L. (V.) braziliensis. EC50 ranged from 9.17 to 74.82 μM, being cruzioseptin-1 the most active and selective compound, with selectivity index > 10 for both promastigotes and amastigotes of L. (V.) braziliensis. In vitro infections incubated with cruzioseptins at 50 μM showed up to ∼86% reduction in the amastigote number. Cruzioseptins were able to destabilize the parasite's cell membrane, allowing the incorporation of a DNA-fluorescent dye. Our data also demonstrated that hydrophobicity and charge appear to be advantageous features for enhancing parasiticidal activity. Antimicrobial cruzioseptins are suitable candidates and alternative molecules that deserve further in vivo investigation focusing on the development of novel antileishmanial therapies.
Correspondence between Breeding Values of the Same Pinus taeda L. Genotypes from Clonal Trials and Half-Sib Seedling Progeny Trials
Authors: Shalizi Mohammad Nasir , Gezan Salvador Alejandro , McKeand Steven E , Sherrill Joshua R , Cumbie W Patrick , Whetten Ross W , Isik Fikret
Published: September 2020

The correspondence between breeding values of 65 loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) genotypes from clonal genetic tests and half-sib seedling progeny tests was studied in the southern United States. The two experiments were established separately, 10 years apart. Additive genetic variance estimates from clonal tests were larger compared with the estimates from the half-sib progeny tests, regardless of the covariance structure used in the statistical models and the traits. However, clone-mean and half-sib family-mean heritability estimates were comparable for all traits, ranging between 0.88 and 0.99. Based on the independent analysis, the correlation between the breeding values of the same genotypes from two propagule types was moderate (0.59) for tree height and stem volume. The combined analysis resulted in a strong genetic correlation (>0.93) between the breeding values of two propagule types. Herein the large discrepancy is mainly the outcome of different data analytical approaches. Conclusively, selecting genotypes for deployment based on clonal testing may not be optimal, but forest tree breeders can use the results from clonal tests to make some informed decisions.
Long-Term Timber Contracts in the Southeastern United States: Updating the Primer Valuation Framework
Authors: Restrepo Hector I , Mei Bin , Bullock Bronson P
Published: September 2020

Timberland ownership has drastically changed in the United States since the 1980s, driven by the divestitures of vertically integrated forest products companies. Having sold their timberland, forest products companies have exposed themselves more to the risk of raw material supply. To hedge against this risk, forest products companies usually use long-term timber contracts (LTTC). The objective of this article is to update the valuation framework for LTTCs proposed by Shaffer (1984) by including alternative option price models and refining the estimates of some key economic variables. In particular, conditional volatility from the generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity model and quasi-conditional volatility from rolling estimation windows, in addition to simple standard deviation, are used for the volatility estimates in the option pricing models. Contrary to the previous result by Shaffer (1984), our analysis suggests that LTTCs that were once profitable for forest products companies in the 1980s are no longer so under current market conditions. This is primarily because both timber price volatility and the risk-free interest rates have declined significantly. Thus, to be better off, forest products companies need to either lower the administration and management costs of those LTTCs or rely more on the open market for timber procurement.

Study Implications: Forest products companies have traditionally relied on long-term timber contracts (LTTC) negotiated with forest landowners to mitigate the risk of raw material supply. The value of these LTTCs highly depends on the economic context. This research provides some insights into the valuation of LTTCs in the southeastern United States. Forest products companies can use this updated framework to aid their decisionmaking in timber procurement.
Community Classification of Piñon-Juniper Vegetation in the Four Corners Region, USA
Authors: Falco Gennaro , Waring Kristen M
Published: September 2020

Piñon-juniper is one of the most common vegetation types in the Four Corners states of the western United States (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah). Because of its high degree of community heterogeneity across the landscape, development of a more detailed and statistically supported classification system for piñon-juniper has been requested by regional land managers. We used a USDA Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data set from the Four Corners states to develop a statistics-based classification system for piñon-juniper vegetation. Cluster analysis was used to group piñon-juniper FIA data into community classes. Classification and regression tree analysis was then used to develop a model for predicting piñon-juniper community types. To determine which variables contributed most to classifying piñon-juniper FIA data, a random forest analysis was conducted. Results from these analyses support a six-class piñon-juniper community-type model within the Four Corners states. Using the classification tree, membership of FIA piñon-juniper communities can be accurately predicted (r2 = 0.81) using only relative overstory species abundance. Our dominance-based classification system was useful in classifying piñon-juniper community types and could be used in the field to identify broad community types and complement more refined tools available for stand-scale decisionmaking.

Study Implications: Piñon-juniper vegetation communities commonly occur in the Four Corners region of the United States. We used a regional data set to develop a statistically based classification system for piñon-juniper communities. We found support for a dominance-based approach supporting initial classification into six community classes. Classes were based on different overstory species dominance patterns, stand structural characteristics (stand density index, basal area [square meters per hectare], trees per hectare, and stand age), and precipitation patterns (mean annual precipitation and monsoonal index) (Table S2). Community type can be predicted using relative overstory abundance to help managers prioritize regional areas (~6,000 acres [2,428 hectares]) for management and predict responses based on precipitation patterns, current understory tree regeneration, and plant community abundance. This system could lead to better planning documents and management decisions on a regional scale to complement more refined tools available for stand-scale management such as plant associations and detailed soil maps.
Use of n-alkanes to estimate feed intake in ruminants: a meta-analysis
Authors: Andriarimalala Jose Herilalao , Dubeux Jose Carlos B , DiLorenzo Nicolas , Jaramillo David Mirabedini , Rakotozandriny Jean de Neupomuscène , Salgado Paulo
Published: September 2020

Precise techniques to estimate feed intake by ruminants are critical to enhance feed efficiency and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient losses to the environment. Using a meta-analysis, we evaluated the accuracy of the n-alkane technique to predict feed intake in cattle and sheep and assessed the relationships between feed intake and fecal recovery (FR) of n-alkanes. The database was composed of 28 studies, including 129 treatments (87 and 42 for cattle and sheep, respectively) and 402 animals (232 cattle and 170 sheep) fed at troughs, from published studies. Relationships between observed (in vivo measurement) and predicted feed intake by C31:C32 and C32:C33 n-alkane pairs were evaluated by regression. Meta-regression addressed the relationships between the difference in FR of n-alkane pairs and the error in intake estimation, as well as the amount and duration of C32 n-alkane dosing. Regression of observed intake on n-alkane-based estimates revealed good relationships in cattle (adjusted R2 = 0.99 for C31:C32, and adjusted R2 = 0.98 for C32:C33; P < 0.0001) and in sheep (adjusted R2 = 0.94 for C31:C32, and adjusted R2 = 0.96 for C32:C33; P < 0.0001). FR of natural n-alkanes showed a coefficient of variation of about 15% and 16% for C31 and C33, respectively, in cattle. In sheep, the coefficient of variation was 8% and 14% for C31 and C33, respectively. The relationships between the difference of FR of n-alkane pairs and the error in feed intake estimation in cattle were characterized by an adjusted R2 = 0.83 for C31:C32 (P < 0.0001) and adjusted R2 = 0.93 for C32:C33 (P < 0.0001). In sheep, they were characterized by an adjusted R2 = 0.69 for C31:C32 (P < 0.001) and adjusted R2 = 0.76 for C32:C33 (P < 0.001). The n-alkane technique provided the reliability for estimating feed intake in cattle and sheep in barn experiments. The present meta-analysis demonstrated that without correction for differences in FR of n-alkane pairs, deviation in feed intake prediction would occur. However, further research is necessary to determine the relationship between the n-alkane dosing procedure (daily amount and duration of dosing) and FR of n-alkane.
A Forever War? Rethinking the Temporal Scope of Non-International Armed Conflict
Authors: Derejko Nathan
Published: September 2020

How do we know when a Non-International Armed Conflict (NIAC) is over? What does International Humanitarian Law (IHL) say about its temporal scope of application during NIAC? In practice, identifying the end of a NIAC can prove exceptionally difficult. In part, this is the result of the complex spectrum of factors that contribute to the existence and continuance of NIAC, and in particular the objectives that underpin and propel a NIAC. In addition, the virtual silence of IHL regarding its temporal scope of application adds another layer of complexity to identifying the end of a NIAC. While considerable research has focused on IHL’s threshold of activation during NIAC, much less attention has been given to its threshold of termination. However, the looming threat of the so-called ‘forever war’ has stimulated fresh interest in determining when and how NIACs (legally) end. This article provides a forensic examination of the temporal scope of IHL during NIAC, with an exclusive focus on IHL’s threshold of termination. It examines two of the leading approaches for determining the temporal scope of NIAC, and argues that neither approach is entirely satisfactory, and as a result, advances and explores a novel alternative—a ‘functional approach’ for determining IHL’s threshold of termination during NIAC.
Transcriptome Analysis of Pyrethroid-ResistantChrysodeixis includens(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Reveals Overexpression of Metabolic Detoxification Genes
Authors: Perini Clerison R , Tabuloc Christine A , Chiu Joanna C , Zalom Frank G , Stacke Regis F , Bernardi Oderlei , Nelson David R , Guedes Jerson C
Published: September 2020

Chrysodeixis includens (Walker, [1858]) is one of the most important defoliator of soybean in Brazil because of its extensive geographical distribution and high tolerance to insecticides compared with other species of caterpillars. Because of this, we conducted bioassays to evaluate the efficacy of pyrethroid λ-cyhalothrin on a C. includens resistant strain (MS) and a susceptible (LAB) laboratory strain. High throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of larval head and body tissues were performed to identify potential molecular mechanisms underlying pyrethroid resistance. Insecticide bioassays showed that MS larvae exhibit 28.9-fold resistance to pyrethroid λ-cyhalothrin relative to LAB larvae. RNA-seq identified evidence of metabolic resistance in the head and body tissues: 15 cytochrome P450 transcripts of Cyp6, Cyp9, Cyp4, Cyp304, Cyp307, Cyp337, Cyp321 families, 7 glutathione-S-transferase (Gst) genes, 7 α-esterase genes from intracellular and secreted catalytic classes, and 8 UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (Ugt) were overexpressed in MS as compared with LAB larvae. We also identified overexpression of GPCR genes (CiGPCR64-like and CiGPCRMth2) in the head tissue. To validate RNA-seq results, we performed RT-qPCR to assay selected metabolic genes and confirmed their expression profiles. Specifically, CiCYP9a101v1, CiCYP6ae149, CiCYP6ae106v2, CiGSTe13, CiCOE47, and CiUGT33F21 exhibited significant overexpression in resistant MS larvae. In summary, our findings detailed potential mechanisms of metabolic detoxification underlying pyrethroid resistance in C. includens.
Three-dimensional structure analysis of melanocytes and keratinocytes in senile lentigo
Authors: Mizutani Yuki , Yamashita Mika , Hashimoto Rie , Atsugi Toru , Ryu Akemi , Hayashi Akinobu , Rikimaru-Nishi Yukiko , Ohta Keisuke
Published: September 2020

Senile lentigo or age spots are hyperpigmented macules of skin that commonly develop following long-term exposure to ultraviolet radiation. This condition is caused by accumulation of large numbers of melanosomes (melanin granules) produced by melanocytes within neighboring keratinocytes. However, there is still no consensus regarding the melanosome transfer mechanism in senile lentigo. To date, most pathohistological studies of skin have been two-dimensional and do not provide detailed data on the complex interactions of the melanocyte–keratinocyte network involved in melanosome transfer.

We performed a three-dimensional reconstruction of the epidermal microstructure in senile lentigo using three different microscopic modalities to visualize the topological melanocyte–keratinocyte relationship and melanosome distribution. Confocal laser microscopy images showed that melanocyte dendritic processes are more frequently branched and elongated in senile lentigo skin than in normal skin. Serial transmission electron micrographs showed that dendritic processes extend into intercellular spaces between keratinocytes. Focused ion beam-scanning electron micrographs showed that dendritic processes in senile lentigo encircle adjacent keratinocytes and accumulate large numbers of melanosomes. Moreover, melanosomes transferred to keratinocytes are present not only in the supranuclear area but throughout the perinuclear area except on the basal side.

The use of these different microscopic methods helped to elucidate the three-dimensional morphology and topology of melanocytes and keratinocytes in senile lentigo. We show that the localization of melanosomes in dendritic processes to the region encircling recipient keratinocytes contributes to efficient melanosome transfer in senile lentigo.
A unique case of medulla oblongata epidermoid cyst
Authors: Tuan Tran Anh , Duc Nguyen Minh
Published: September 2020

Epidermoid cysts (ECs) are slow-growing, benign tumors that represent <2% of all intracranial tumors. ECs can be divided into following two types: extra-axial and intra-axial. Extra-axial ECs are most often positioned in the cerebellopontine angle. Intra-axial ECs, which are also referred to as intraparenchymal ECs, are most commonly found in supratentorial structures, such as the frontal and temporal lobes, accounting for <2% of all intracranial ECs and are especially rare in children. In this report, we described a unique case of medulla oblongata EC in a child, to contribute this knowledge to the existing body of literature.
Ankylosis of the temporomandibular joint—impression free CAD/CAM based joint replacement using patient-specific implants
Authors: Thiem D G E , Al-Nawas B , Kämmerer P W
Published: September 2020

In recent years, alloplastic temporomandibular joint (TMJ) replacement has become a permissible procedure for the reconstruction of severely destroyed TMJs. The use of computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) has extended the range of applications to complex anatomical situations. The aim of the treatment is to improve the usually restricted mouth opening and thus oral hygiene and nutrition, which leads to a regular improvement in the general quality of life. The following case report describes the bilateral replacement of ankylotically destroyed TMJs using patient-specific endoprostheses with simultaneous displacement of the maxilla. Innovative in the case described is the impression-free CAD/CAM planning, whereby the upper and lower prostheses were produced on the basis of 3D printed patient models.