bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Approach to Defining a Control or Diluent Soil for Ecotoxicity Assays
Authors: Sheppard SC , Evenden WG
Published: March 2009

Ecotoxicity assays must include controls, where there is no contaminant, and a dilution series, where the contaminated medium is diluted by uncontaminated medium. This has been a challenge for aquatic assays, but is usually satisfied by choosing water with the appropriate basic chemistry such as pH and hardness. It is a much greater challenge in soils, where the solid and biological components of the control material are dominant and crucial to the performance of the test organisms. Clearly, an ideal control and diluent soil would be collected from an uncontaminated point near the site of concern. However, proving the absence of contamination is difficult and costly, and natural variability of soils may make the exercise pointless anyway. We developed an alternative method. A suite of soils, very different in chemical and physical properties, were characterized and stored as defined stock materials. The same properties were measured in the contaminated soil. A blend-matching algorithm was used to define a blend of the stock soils that would have the same properties as the contaminated soil. At this stage, soil properties are assumed to mix linearly, but this could be improved. Importance factors are used to emphasize the properties thought to be most critical to the test organism or the contaminant. Blends of a few stock soils are thought to be preferable to blends of many soils, for simplicity. This method is the best surrogate to a true control and diluent soil that we have found. Results here include a dilution series of a blend and an (initially) unknown contaminated soil using a full-life-cycle plant, an earthworm survival and a lettuce emergence bioassay. Also included are pH and sorption characteristics for a large factorial blend of the five stock soils to evaluate the linear mixing assumption.
Utilization of a Duckweed Bioassay to Evaluate Leaching of Heavy Metals in Smelter Contaminated Soils
Authors: Youngman AL , Williams TL , Lydy MJ
Published: March 2009

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a duckweed bioassay could be used to evaluate the downward migration of heavy metals in smelter soils. The duckweed bioassay was initially used to evaluate elutriates prepared from samples of smelter soils. These initial tests verified that the elutriates would elicit toxic responses. Elutriate testing was followed with an evaluation of leachate from untreated soil cores or soil cores that had been amended with organic matter either unplanted or planted to a grass-forb seed mixture. There was an inverse linear relationship between heavy-metal concentrations in leachate and NOEC and IC50 values expressed as percentages among all soil cores. Based on these preliminary duckweed bioassays, there were no differences between soil types or organic amended or non-amended soil, but leachate from vegetated soil cores were less toxic than were leachates from non-vegetated soil cores. Overall, the duckweed bioassays were useful in detecting heavy metal availability in elutriate and leachate samples from smelter soils.
Quality Control Associated with use of Semipermeable Membrane Devices
Authors: DeVita WM , Crunkilton RL
Published: March 2009

Semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) were used to monitor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an urban stream. Replicate SPMDs were exposed during seven consecutive 14-day periods and analyzed for PAHs. Relative percent differences (RPDs) were calculated to determine precision (reproducibility) in SPMD replicates. RPDs ranged from 13.9% to 56.0% (n=14). Variations in replicates encompassed SPMD preparation, deployment, exposure, retrieval, and analysis. Seven SPMDs were spiked at various intervals throughout the study with a mixture of all PAH analytes at 2.0 μg/g triolein per compound. Average percent recovery (n=7) varied from 52% to 82%. Method detection limits (MDLs) were also assessed by spiking ten SPMDs at 0.200 μg/g with equal amounts of a PAH mixture. Most MDLs for PAHs in SPMDs ranged from 0.054 to 0.178 μg/g triolein, however, if considering a 14-day exposure period, these MDLs can be translated into water concentrations of 2.1 ng/L to 13 ng/L. These values are as much as 2 000 times lower than MDLs for methods which employ solvent extraction and high performance liquid chromatography to directly measure PAHs in water. Blank SPMDs were prepared, and analyzed along with each set of field exposures and proved to be free of PAH contaminants above MDLs.
Application of TIEs in Studies of Urban Stormwater Impacts on Marine Organisms
Authors: Jirik AW , Bay SM , Greenstein DJ , Zellers A , Lau S-L
Published: March 2009

Urban stormwater runoff is a significant, yet poorly understood, source of contaminants to the marine environment. One of the largest sources of stormwater inputs to Santa Monica Bay (California) is the Ballona Creek watershed. Receiving water and runoff water samples were collected during several storms in both the 1995–96 and 1996– 97 wet seasons. Sea urchin fertilization tests indicated toxicity in most Ballona Creek stormwater samples; EC50 values were about 12–20%. Receiving water samples were also toxic, with the magnitude of effects generally corresponding to the concentration of runoff present. Selected phase I TIE (toxicity identification evaluation) manipulations were applied to samples showing toxicity. Ballona Creek samples had a consistent response pattern; EDTA addition removed virtually all toxicity, implicating divalent trace metals as the probable toxic constituents. Santa Monica Bay surface water samples showed a similar response pattern but other manipulations also removed some toxicity. Toxicity of receiving water samples tended to degrade with storage, while runoff sample toxicity was more stable. Chemical analysis of runoff and comparison to spiking studies showed that concentrations of zinc and occasionally copper were sufficient to produce toxicity. Evaluation of the relative effectiveness of EDTA versus sodium thiosulfate in toxicity removal also suggested zinc as a likely cause of toxicity.
A Tiered Approach for Evaluating Avian Risk Posed by Pesticide Products
Authors: Habig C , Leyes GA
Published: March 2009

Current regulatory approaches to short-term and longer-term avian risk assessment of pesticides are primarily limited to an initial screening level evaluation. This evaluation is based on a product's maximum application rate and the maximum estimated residues for avian feed item categories described in the Hoerger and Kenaga nomograph. A more refined evaluation, including an uncertainty component, is needed if the screening procedure indicates a potential for adverse effects from labeled uses of a product. We describe a tiered approach to avian risk assessment that represents an integration of use pattern information, nature and magnitude of the residue data, soil metabolism data, and appropriate toxicological data. One example assessment focuses on longer-term evaluations for an acutely toxic insecticide; a second example assesses the potential risk from a toxic fungicide degradate. The screening level evaluation indicated unacceptable acute and longer-term risk for both products. Higher tier evaluation of the insecticide indicated a substantial reduction in potential risk because of rapid foliar degradation. Higher-tier analysis of the fungicide degradate indicate low risk because of metabolism patterns. The analyses compare estimated residues to actual residue data, and explore the limitations of estimating degradate concentrations on feed items from estimates of parentcompound.
Health Risk Assessment of Hexachlorobenzene and Hexachloro-Butadiene Residues in Fish Collected from a Hazardous Waste Contaminated Wetland in Louisiana, USA
Authors: Tchounwou PB , Abdelghani AA , Pramar YV , Heyer LR
Published: March 2009

Improper disposal of hazardous materials has often led to significant adverse effects on environmental quality and human health. This investigation was undertaken to compare the concentration levels of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) in various fish collected from a local hazardous waste contaminated wetland to those of a control site, and to assess the potential health risk that may be associated with consuming such fish. A total of 201 samples including 146 fish from the study site and 55 fish from a control site were examined. Statistical analyses revealed a highly significant difference (p<0.01) in concentrations between the 2 sites. Mean levels of contaminants in edible tissues were 23.52±53.54 ng/g (HCB) and 226.33±778.40 ng/g (HCBD) in the study site, and 2.00 ± 5.62 ng/g (HCB) and 6.84 ± 10.41 ng/g (HCBD) in the control site. For the study site, a combined hazard index of 0.65 was computed for a 10-kg child eating 6.5 g of fish per day, while 70-kg adults with daily intakes of 6.5 g toxicant (general population), 30 g (sport fishermen) and 140 g (subsistence fishermen) yielded hazard indices of 0.11, 0.50 and 2.32, respectively; indicating that subsistence fishermen had a higher risk for systemic effects, with an exposure in excess of the EPA-Reference Dose. Cancer risks varied from 3.52x10-6 to 75.52x10-6 for HCB, and from 1.64x10-6 to 35.33x10-6 for HCBD, indicating an exposure in excess of the widely accepted risk level of 1x10-6. For the control site, a significantly lower level of exposure was estimated for both HCB and HCBD.
Fire Development and Fatality Analysis of the 19 April, 1993 Fire at the Branch Davidian Mt. Carmel Center, Waco, Texas
Authors: Haussmann GJ
Published: March 2009

On 19 April, 1993, fire broke out and spread rapidly through the Mt. Carmel Center of the “Branch Davidians”, located near Waco, Texas. Seventy-six occupants of the structure perished in the resulting inferno. In sharp contrast to most large fires, a substantial amount of information is available regarding the origin and spread of this fire. This information clearly establishes multiple origins and documents rapid fire spread through the structure. Analysis of fatality records shows that fire related factors accounted for 80% of reported causes of death. Factors identified as contributing to the high casualty rate include multiple fire origins, rapidly spreading fires, structural collapse of critical egress points, the clustering of women and children in a perceived area of refuge (a fortified “bunker”), and the use of chemical agents in this area.
Analysis of Full-Scale Fire Tests of Wall Linings in Ranch House
Authors: Hirschler MM
Published: March 2009

A total of 4 tests were conducted, in the 1960's, in a three room arrangement, in a ranch house. The structure was 3.9 m wide and 13.6 m long, and contained three rooms, designated living room, dining room and bedroom, which were all of equal length, in a row, starting with the living room. All windows were closed during the tests, but interior doors were open. All rooms were fully furnished. The exterior walls and roof were fir plywood, and the exterior siding was gypsum board nailed to the “2 x 4” studs. The tests were all initiated by ignition of a 4.4 kg wood crib, in the living room, near an easy chair, which itself ignited very soon afterwards. Measurements made included temperatures, in °F, at 24 locations throughout the structure (including one measuring ambient temperature). Concentrations of three gases were also measured throughout the tests with continuous analyzers: carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen. The gas measurements were made in sequence, so that concentrations at each location were measured at different times, but all gases were measured simultaneously at each location. The tests were conducted using 4 different wall lining products: (a) 13 mm (0.5 in) thick painted gypsum board, nailed to the studs; (b) 6 mm (0.25 in) thick pre-finished plywood panels nailed over 13 mm (0.5 in) gypsum board, itself nailed directly to the studs; (c) 16 mm (0.25 in) thick pre-finished plywood panels nailed directly to the studs and (d) 6 mm (0.25 in) thick pre-finished fire-retardant (pressure-treated core) plywood panels nailed directly to the studs. The original data interpretation was restricted to a consideration of whether flashover was or was not reached and little else. A new analysis of the data, however, has permitted determination of broad approximations to heat release (both comparative values and rough average data), and comparisons with data from other standard fire test methods, such as the Steiner tunnel (ASTM E84) and the cone calorimeter (ASTM E1354). This type of analysis is very important because (a) it recovers information which is often lost and (b) it allows significant information to be obtained from existing tests conducted at earlier dates, for semi-qualitative reasons. In this way, cost savings can be achieved in decreasing the need for repeated testing.
Estimates of the Extent and Character of the Oxygen-Starved Interior in Large Pool Fires
Authors: Gritzo LA , Gill W , Nicolette VF
Published: March 2009

Based on data from large pool fire experiments and computational fire field model simulations, the size, shape, and character of the oxygen-starved interior in large pool fires is estimated. In the interior of the fire and near the pool surface, low average and low mean deviation temperatures were noted in experimental data for low wind conditions. These trends tend to indicate the presence of a non-combusting region. Using average and mean deviation temperature distributions (supplemented by heat flux measurements) from several data sets, the spatial extent of the vapor dome is estimated for a range of wind conditions. These estimates are compared with fire field model results of temperature and fuel/air concentration distributions. Predicted and measured temperature trends, supported by heat flux data, illustrate the importance of object placement within the fire during system fire survivability testing. The presence of this region also supplements conventional pool fire representations which are based on a continuous flame zone which extends to the pool surface.
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVE): Possible Failure Mechanisms
Authors: Venart JES
Published: March 2009

Detailed re-analysis of the catastrophic failures of four 2-tonne LPG vessels subjected to jet fire attack indicates that the severity of the event and the intensity of the fireballs formed may be a function of the initiating mode of vessel failure and the thermo-hydraulic state of the contents. The mechanism of vessel failure appears to be a two-step process; the formation of an initiating overpressure crack in the high temperature vapor wetted walls of the vessel, followed by a final catastrophic ‘unzipping’ of the containment and the nearly instantaneous release of its contents. The distribution and flashing of the lading causes a fireball. The surface emissive power of the BLEVE fireball does not appear to be directly related to the ‘superheat’ of the contents at failure. Possible reasons for the final rapid failure of the vessel are either crack instability or the rapid quenching of the crack tip, due to its two phase discharge, that results in large local thermal stresses.
Evaluation of Large-Scale Marine Fire Protocols
Authors: Hansen RL , Back GG
Published: March 2009

The United States Coast Guard has been actively involved in the research efforts to identify alternative fire protection methods to replace Halon 1301. The Coast Guard Research & Development Center conducted the first large scale marine fire extinguishment tests of four replacement agents in April, 1994. Large scale evaluation testing has also been performed on the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) Water Mist and Gaseous Agent test protocols. This paper will summarize some of the unique findings of these test programs and the value of large scale testing to the Coast Guard's regulatory authority.
Full-Scale Model Tests of Smoke Movement in Ship Passenger Accommodations (First Report)
Authors: Yoshida K
Published: March 2009

Full-scale smoke movement tests were conducted within a model ship accommodation space, which consisted of three deck levels containing a cabin, a corridor, and a stairway. Smoke extraction systems, as well as air supply systems, were installed in the model and used during the tests. A sprinkler system was also installed in a corridor. Cabin fires were simulated by using a burner and a smoke candle placed in a cabin. Temperature, pressure, and smoke movement were observed and analyzed. Numerical simulations using a zone model were also carried out, but the results will be reported in the second report.
The Influence of Floodplains on Mercury Availability
Authors: Wallschläger D , Wilken R-D
Published: March 2009

The floodplains of the german river Elbe affect the mercury distribution in the river system in two different ways: they act both as a medium-term sink and as a long-term source. The large amounts of mercury deposited onto the floodplains during annual floodings are first effectively fixed in the soils, rendering them basically unavailable. Sequential extraction experiments reveal that only a small fraction of the mercury (< 3 %) is present in available forms, whereas the vast majority is associated with humic substances or present in sulfidic binding forms. After deposition, a small fraction of the total mercury is gradually remobilized into the aqueous phase bound passively to water-soluble humic acids. The availability of mercury in these complexes is still low, since environmental influences such as changes in pH or redox potential and competition with other cations do not cause any mercury liberation. In the next step, reactions in the aqueous phase lead to the formation of the highly available volatile species Hg° and dimethylmercury (DMM). Their evaporation gives rise to a strong mercury flux from the floodplains into the atmosphere. Preliminary mass balances indicate that the majority of the deposited mercury stays bound in the floodplain soils, while small amounts are emitted back into the river's ecosystem. Atmospheric emission is more important as a remobilization pathway than aquatic export.
Biomarker Selection for Restoration Monitoring of Fishery Resources
Authors: Anderson MJ , Barron MG , Diamond SA , Lipton J , Zelikoff JT
Published: March 2009

Monitoring fishery resources affected by contaminant discharges can include two distinct components: (1) monitoring contaminant exposure (e.g., residues in fish tissues), and (2) monitoring biological effects. Although exposure monitoring may be appropriate for evaluating the efficacy of ecological restoration programs, effects monitoring is an equally important and often overlooked aspect of monitoring programs. Advantages of monitoring effects indices include (1) biotic integration of diverse exposure pathways and temporal variability; (2) ability to integrate responses across multiple Stressors; and (3) cost effectiveness relative to extensive chemical analyses. The objective of our work was to develop and review biomarker selection criteria including: (1) sensitivity (response time, permanence of response, degree of responsiveness); (2) specificity (specific to contaminant exposure); (3) applicability (cost-effectiveness, scientific acceptance); and (4) reproducibility (biological, methodological). Emphasis is placed on selection criteria for biomarkers associated with organochlorine, petroleum hydrocarbon, or metal exposure and effects.
Preliminary Results Using the Early Embryo Teratogenesis Assay: A Comparison of Early Embryo Abnormalities with Late Embryo and Hatchling Teratogenic Changes
Authors: Henshel DS , Sparks DW , Mayer CAA , Benson K , Fox C , Lam Y , Sobiech SA , Wagey R
Published: March 2009

Classical evaluations of the effects of toxicants on development in birds for ecological impact assessments and teratogenic evaluation generally entail an evaluation of the late embryo, immediately before hatching, or young hatchling. In the laboratory, these studies generally require approximately three weeks before one can evaluate the late embryo or hatchling, and a full teratogenic evaluation of growth and developmental parameters is relatively time intensive. Recent studies have shown that many teratogenic abnormalities may be detected as soon as the affected organ system starts to develop or differentiate. The early embryo teratogenesis assay is being developed to reduce the amount of time needed to evaluate potential teratogenic or developmental toxicological effects. Embryos which have been exposed in the laboratory or in the natural environment are incubated (preferably in the laboratory) and sacrificed at known time points which correspond to the time when specific developmental indicators (such as the heart or visceral arches) have begun to develop. These embryos are then evaluated for the type and frequency of abnormalities manifested at each stage of development. We have begun a series of laboratory studies using both a laboratory model animal (the domestic chicken) and wildlife species (barn and tree swallows) which enable us to compare the early embryo abnormalities induced by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD; chicken) or a mixture of environmental contaminants, which include TCDD-like compounds (swallow), to the abnormalities observed in the late embryo, hatchling or nestling.
Significance of Experimental Design in Evaluating Ecological Hazards of Sediments/Soils to Amphibian Species
Authors: Fort DJ , Stover EL
Published: March 2009

In an effort to determine the significance of experimental design on the results of laboratory sediment toxicity studies with amphibians (Xenopus laevis), two different sample preparations were evaluated from three different contaminated waste sites. Whole sediment and aqueous sediment extracts from each site were evaluated. Site 1 soil was characterized as loamy with a relatively high total organic carbon (TOC),moisture fraction (MF), and sulfide content; and contaminated with organochlorine pesticides. Site 2 soil was characterized as silty/clay with low/moderate TOC, MF, and sulfide; and contaminated with polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pentachlorophenol. Site 3 soil samples consisted of two separate subsamples, the first characterized as loamy with a relatively high TOC, MF, and sulfide content, and the second as a mixture of silty/clay and sand with relatively low TOC, MF, and sulfide content. Both sub-site samples were contaminated with heavy metals, including copper, lead, and zinc. FETAX (Frog Embryo Teratogenesis Assay — Xenopus) testing of Site 1 samples indicated that substantially greater levels of developmental toxicity were induced by the aqueous extracts than the whole bulk soil. Tests with Site 2 samples suggested that both of the preparations were capable of inducing comparable rates of developmental toxicity. Tests with subsample a of Site 3 indicated that the aqueous extract of the sample induced greater levels of developmental toxicity than the whole soil. Toxicity tests with subsample b produced variable results that seemed to suggest that the extracts induced greater levels of toxicity than the whole bulk preparations. However, the differences in toxicities noted between that two preparations were not as dramatic as observed in the Site 3a subsample tests. Results from these studies suggested the importance of experimental design in evaluating potential ecological hazards of contaminated sediments or soils, particularly to amphibian species.
Evaluation of the Genotoxicity of Bioaccumulatable Contaminants in Sediments Using Co-Solvent Mobilization
Authors: Means JC , McMillin DJ
Published: March 2009

Sediment toxicity assessments must address bioaccumulation potential of bound contaminants. This potential has been associated with the desorption of chemicals including many mutagens and carcinogens from sediment into interstitial waters. Environmental impacts and health hazards of sediment-bound normal, alkylated and heterocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are functions of their entry into food webs, the activation of promutagens, and bioaccumulation processes. Activation phenomena occurring in benthic organisms may generate genotoxic agents not extractable with non-polar solvents used for chemical analysis.

Co-solvent theory was applied to prepare aqueous-based extracts from petroleum contaminated sediments from Pass Fourchon, LA. Co-solvent solubilization of contaminants is thermodynamically related to partition coefficients which govern bioavailability to benthic organisms. Sediments were extracted into acetic acid co-solvent mixtures (0, 10, 20, and 50 %, in seawater) and mutagens mobilized into the extracts were detected by the Salmonella typhimurium mutagenicity assay with and without activation. Direct-acting mutagens were mobilized at all co-solvent concentrations, causing reversions in strain TA102, but not in TA97a, TA98, or TA100. Promutagens were detectable in all extracts after activation with Arochlor-induced rat liver S9. Increasing co-solvent strength seemed to suppress the extraction of water soluble mutagens but enhanced the extraction of lipophilic mutagens. Differing sensitivities were noted among the tester strains, with TA102 being most sensitive and TA98 showing no response to the mutagens. Mutagenicity varied among co-solvent concentrations, perhaps reflecting the mobilization of different arrays of compounds. Chemical analysis of co-solvent extracts by GC/MS yielded identifications of possible mutagenic constituents.
Development of Suitable Test Methods for Evaluating the Toxicity of Contaminated Soils to a Battery of Plant Species Relevant to Soil Environments in Canada
Authors: Stephenson GL , Solomon KR , Hale B , Greenberg BM , Scroggins RP
Published: March 2009

Environment Canada and the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) have embarked on a five year program to develop, standardize, and validate a battery of soil toxicity tests which can be used to assess the relative toxicity of contaminants in soils to terrestrial organisms. These tests must be applicable to soil conditions typically found in Canadian environments and the test species must be representative of the species of soil invertebrates or plants inhabiting soil ecosystems in Canada. Two of the tests being considered for development are a seed germination test and a seedling growth test using whole soils. The battery of plant species that is being considered for testing includes thirteen species representing six dicotyledonous families and 17 species representing two monocotyledonous families. The species of plants with one exception (Arabidopsis sp.) are representative of both above- and below-ground crop plants grown in agricultural lands across Canada, as well as non-crop plants that are also widely distributed in Canada. One of the objectives of the project is to screen 30 plant species and select ten species that are suitable for toxicity assessment of contaminated soils.

In addition to selection of the most appropriate test species, research has focused on test method development. Comparison of toxicity test endpoints from reference tests permitted the assessment of the variation associated with each endpoint (root length, stem length, wet and dry mass of stem and root) for each species tested to date. The tests were performed using boric acid as the reference toxicant and an artificial soil and a fieldcollected reference soil as control soils. The methods and results from toxicity tests have been summarized and presented with recommendations regarding test species, methods, endpoints, and conditions.
Age-Specific Sensitivity of Grass Shrimp (Palaemonetes Pugio) Embryos to Sublethal Concentrations of Diflubenzuron
Authors: Wilson JEH
Published: March 2009

Ovigerous grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) carrying 0.5-, 1-, 3-, 6-, and 8-day-old embryos (i.e., stages 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively) were exposed continuously for 4 days to a single dose of difiubenzuron (DFB) at sublethal concentrations (0.3 to 5.0 νg/L) in a static system. After the 4-day exposure, the shrimp were transferred to DFB-free seawater for the rest of the embryonic development. When the eggs hatched, the following toxicity-endpoints were measured: Hatchability (% hatch), larval viability (% of larvae surviving to the postlarval stage), duration of larval development from hatching to the postlarval stage, and severity of morphological abnormality in the larvae after hatching. There was no correlation between the age of the embryos at exposure and either hatchability or duration of larval development. Also, severity of abnormality did not vary with age of embryos except at an exposure concentration of 2.5 νg/L. However, within each age group of the embryos, the severity of larval abnormality was and duration of larval development was concentration dependent. Larval viability was significantly (P < 0.05) affected by the age of the embryos at the time of exposure to DFB. For all the test concentrations, exposure of 0.5- and 1-day-old embryos resulted in larval viability that was similar to the control group (viability > 80%). However, when 6- and 8-day-old embryos were exposed to DFB concentrations > 0.5 νg/L, larval viability was significantly (P < 0.05) less than the controls. These results indicate that older embryos (at more advanced stages of development) of the grass shrimp are more sensitive to sublethal DFB concentrations.
Laboratory Procedures for Using Infrared Thermography to Validate Heat Transfer Models
Authors: Türler D , Griffith BT , Arasteh DK
Published: March 2009

Infrared (IR) imaging radiometers, which measure relative levels of thermal radiation energy, can be used for noninvasive surface temperature measurements of building thermal envelope components undergoing steady-state heat flow in laboratory thermal chambers. One advantage of IR measurement is that it provides large contiguous sets of surface temperature data which are useful for validating the accuracy of complex computer models that predict heat flow through thermally insulated systems. Because they give such detailed information about surface temperature, IR measurements complement hot-box measurements of heat flow. This paper recommends general procedures for reliable quantitative thermographic measurements in chambers operated for winter heating conditions. Actual surface temperature depends on heat flow, surface emittance, and environmental conditions such as air temperature, air flow field, and background thermal radiation. The infrared temperature measurements are affected by many of the same factors including surface emittance, air temperature, background thermal radiation, and air humidity. Equipment specifications for the absolute accuracy of infrared temperature measurements are typically ±1° to ±2°C. Measurements that use a temperature-controlled reference emitter to remove error appear to show accuracies of ±0.5°C for flat specimens with low temperature gradients.
A Wall and Edge Guarded Hot Box for Thermal Transmittance Measurements
Authors: Gatland SD , Goss WP , Baumgardner RL , Williams RG , Miller RG
Published: March 2009

A unique guarded hot box designed for thermal testing of fenestration products incorporates several new design concepts from guarded hot plates, namely wall and edge guards, is described in detail. The wall and edge guarded hot box was built to meet the test methodologies specified in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard Test Methods C 236-89 [1], “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Performance of Building Assemblies by Means of a Guarded Hot Box”, C 976-90 [2], “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Performance of Building Assemblies by Means of a Calibrated Hot Box” and C 1199-91 [3], “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Steady-State Thermal Transmittance of Fenestration Systems Using Hot Box Methods”.

Calibration test results for the box wall and specimen frame flanking are presented. Results from calibration transfer standard tests are compared with theoretical calculations and discussed.
Determination of the Optimum Settings of a Fibrous Loose-Fill Blowing Machine Using Design of Experiments
Authors: Rushforth RJ
Published: March 2009

One of the problems facing the user of a blowing machine for loose fill material is the determination of the proper settings to achieve the desired blow times and installed density (coverage). Although these settings are stated on the bag label, not all of the available blowing machines are included. A simple method, using the design of experiments technique, can be used to determine the proper settings. As an illustration of this technique, a nine run designed experiment is used to determine the optimum settings of a blowing machine for a mineral fiber loose-fill material. The process parameters used are gate opening and motor rpm. Of these, only gate opening is statistically significant. There is a tradeoff between blow time and installed density. This technique enables the user to determine the gate opening to use to obtain the desired combination of blow time and installed density.
Use of Coconut Fiber as a Low-Cost Thermal Insulator
Authors: Kochhar GS , Manohar K
Published: March 2009

Cost is one of the major factors to be considered when choosing a thermal insulator. Design engineers continuously strive to provide the best at the lowest possible cost. In the tropics climatic conditions are essentially hot and humid and a cause for daily discomfort. To some extent, air-conditioning of buildings has solved this problem. The major deterrent to air-conditioning is the exorbitant cost of imported thermal insulation materials. This has prompted a search for local, low-cost but effective thermal insulation for buildings. Coconut fiber is available at minimal cost from the copra industry in Trinidad, as it is a waste product from the coconut. The viability of using coconut fiber as building thermal insulation was explored by conducting thermal conductivity tests on 200 mm × 400 mm × 60 mm thick slab-like specimens. The test equipment used was a locally designed constant temperature hot box apparatus. This apparatus was designed to test slab-like specimens under steady-state conditions. The reliability if this experimental set up was checked using Gypsum Plaster. The thermal conductivity test results for coconut fiber over the density range 30 kg/m3 to 115 kg/m3 showed the characteristic hooked shape graph for fibrous material. For the 60 mm thick specimens at a mean temperature of 39 °C, a minimum thermal conductivity of 0.058 W/mK occurred at an optimum density of 85 kg/m3. The thermal conductivity of commonly used industrial insulators, namely loose-fill expanded vermiculite, cellular glass and blanket fiber glass, at a mean temperature of 38 °C are 0.066 W/mK, 0.061 W/mK and 0.052 W/mK respectively [13]. When compared, these results show that air dried coconut fiber has far reaching potential for use as an effective building thermal insulation.
Thermal Conductivity Dependence of Mgo Thermal Insulation on Porosity in Temperature Range 500 – 2000 K
Authors: Litovsky E , Litovsky T , Shapiro M , Shavit A
Published: March 2009

Thermal conductivity of MgO (magnesia) foam thermal insulation with porosity 0.49–0.81 have been measured by the non-steady plane flow method in the temperature range of 500–2000 K at atmospheric pressure. We have demonstrated a significant influence of porosity on the apparent thermal conductivity of MgO insulating materials in the temperature range 500–1500 K. Materials with porosities exceeding 0.75, have relatively low radiation attenuation coefficients. This results in a relatively large contribution to the radiative component of the apparent thermal conductivity. For such materials this property measured at temperatures above 1700 K weakly depends on porosity.

The measured apparent thermal conductivities are analyzed on the basis of a theoretical model, accounting for total material porosity and particle size distribution. We discuss the suitability of the data on particle and pore size distributions, measurable by various experimental methods, for calculation of the apparent thermal conductivity.
Improved Temperature Oscillation Techniques for Measurements of Thermal Diffusivity and Conductivity of Insulation Materials
Authors: Czarnetzki W , Roetzel W
Published: March 2009

Periodic temperature oscillations are generated at the surface of a reference layer contacting the solid slab specimen and the temperature wave propagates through the reference layer into the specimen. Measuring and evaluating the amplitude attenuation and/or the phase shift between the fundamental temperature oscillations at the surface of the specimen and at a well defined position inside the specimen enables one to determine the thermal diffusivity. Knowing the thermal diffusivity of the specimen the thermal conductivity is determined using the measured amplitude attenuation and/or the phase shift between the fundamental temperature oscillations at both the surfaces of the reference layer. With an additional measurement inside the specimen the thermal contact resistance between the surface of the reference layer and the specimen can be estimated as well.
Radiation Scattering Versus Radiation Absorption — Effects on Performance of Thermal Insulation Under Non-Steady-State Conditions
Authors: Flynn DR , Gorthala R
Published: March 2009

Radiative heat transfer through insulation can be affected both by scattering of thermal radiation from the solid phase of the insulation and by absorption of radiant energy within the insulation, with, in the latter case, an attendant change in temperature and re-radiation of energy. For insulation in which there is heat transfer by both conduction and radiation, the temporal variation of heat flow can be quite different for the case where the radiative transfer is controlled by scattering than it is for the case where the radiative transfer involves absorption and re-radiation. In this paper, analytical solutions and numerical analyses are presented for several one-dimensional cases with temperature-versus-time boundary conditions. The results clearly show that if part of the heat transfer through a medium is by direct or scattered radiation, predictions of heat flow that are based upon conventional conductive heat transfer analyses can be drastically in error. In addition, it is shown that transient thermal tests on such (scattering) media do not yield proper thermal diffusivity values.
Innovative Self-Drying Concept for Thermal Insulation of Cold Piping
Authors: Korsgaard V
Published: March 2009

In the paper an innovative Self-Drying concept, the Hygro-Wick concept, for thermal insulation of cold piping is described. The concept is based on the wicking action of certain fabrics to remove by capillary suction condensed water vapour from the pipe surface to the outer surface of the insulation/jacket, from where it will evaporate/diffuse into the ambient air. Hence the concept will prevent long term accumulation of moisture in the insulation material. Theoretical and experimental results for two different embodiments of the concept is given: The Self-Drying system and the Self- Sealing system.
The Thermohygric Performance of Insulated Building Structures Under Conditions of Use
Authors: Häupl P , Fechner H , Grunewald J , Stopp H
Published: March 2009

Based on the energy, mass and momentum conservation laws, a system of coupled non-linear transport equations including a suitable computer code has been developed to determine the temperature, moisture, ice, vapour pressure, air pressure fields and the heat, enthalpy, vapour, water and air flows in porous building materials and in building structures under conditions of use. The contribution demonstrates the thermohygric behaviour of a typical heavy concrete flat roof with a mineral wool insulation layer, the drying out process of an insulated light-weight wooden roof caused by a capillary-active vapour barrier, the moisture and temperature field in an air permeable building component, and the impact of a capillary-active inside insulation of a framework-house (exposed timber) being thermally renovated right now.
Effect of Halogens and Inhibitors on the External Stress Corrosion Cracking of Type 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel
Authors: Whorlow K , Woolridge E , Hutto F
Published: March 2009

The methodology of the drip procedure of the Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Influence of Thermal Insulation on External Stress Corrosion Cracking Tendency of Austenitic Stainless Steel (ASTM C 692-95a) was used to research the effect of halogens and inhibitors on the external stress corrosion cracking (ESCC) of Type 304 stainless steel as applies to the insulation industry. Simulated insulation extraction solutions were made with pure chemical reagents for the halogens and inhibitors. The results indicated that sodium silicate compounds that were higher in sodium were more effective for preventing chloride-induced ESCC in type 304 austenitic stainless steel. Potassium silicate was not as effective as sodium silicate. Fluoride, bromide, and iodide may cause ESCC but they were much less active than chloride and could be effectively inhibited by sodium silicate compound. The addition of fluoride ions to the chloride / sodium silicate systems, at the threshold of ESCC, appeared to have no synergistic effect. The ratio of sodium + silicate (mg/kg) to chloride (mg/kg) at the lower end of the RG 1.36 Acceptability Curve was not adequate to prevent ESCC using the methods of this research.
The Acoustical Testing of Thermally Insulated Exterior Building Elements
Authors: Peppin RJ , Duersch GM , Beam MJ , Miller K
Published: March 2009

Often, but not always, acoustical insulation is used in place of thermal insulation, and vice versa. Often also, both are used for the same purpose. But the thermal and acoustical properties of a material are different and often not related. Hence a good thermal insulator may or may not be a good acoustical insulator. The physics of heat transfer and sound are different. As a result, the results of testing of the materials for one property do not necessarily provide any indication of the other property. This paper discusses the commonalties and differences of the thermal and acoustical materials used for exterior building elements and discuss national and international methods of acoustical test, emphasizing ASTM testing where appropriate.
Pesticide Formulations and Application Systems: Fourteenth Volume
Authors: Hall FR , Berger PD , Collins HM
Published: March 2009

Description

The latest edition featuring up to date information on pesticide applications, formulation techniques, innovations in the agrochemical field and related current government agricultural regulations.

In addition to a comprehensive twenty-year historical review of the ASTM Committee E-35 on Pesticides, this publication features twenty-eight peer-reviewed papers divided into the following three categories:

Pesticide Application Technology and Off-Target Effects-- Ten papers focus on different aspects of pesticide application technology, including spray cloud characteristics,electrostatics and a practical tank mixing evaluation procedure, as well as the impact of drift and evaporation of pesticide sprays, pesticide container regulations and recycling.

Formulation Technology-- Polymers, varying surfactants, water soluble and water dispersible granules are explored in seven papers.

Formulation Modifications and Biological Effects-- Eleven papers deal with the biological impact of formulation changes such as stability and pH effects, adhesion, and numerous controlled release technologies.
The Specification of Crack Arrest Properties for Storage Tanks: Background and Recommendations
Authors: Wiesner CS , Garwood SJ , Denham JB
Published: March 2009

Existing storage tank fracture prevention design criteria aim at the avoidance of fracture initiation. However, catastrophic failures have shown that the avoidance of crack initiation can never be guaranteed in any absolute sense. Consequently, European specifications increased initiation toughness requirements to reduce further the risk of failure and modified tank design concepts to alleviate the consequences of failure. It could be argued on safety and economic grounds that the use of crack arrest concepts for storage tanks may be the better option. In the present paper, the comparison of a collection of structurally representative large-scale test results with small-scale material characterisation tests shows that there is now a wealth of data available supporting the use of the ‘Pellini’ drop-weight test as a proxy for structural crack arrest behaviour, which is therefore recommended as design criterion for crack arrest during storage tanks fabrication. It is noted that, for a complete structural integrity evaluation of storage tanks, it is necessary to also consider the ductile tearing stability of long arrested cracks.
Vision—An Essential Factor for Safety in Skiing: Visual Acuity, Stereoscopic Depth Perception, Effect of Colored Lenses
Authors: Jendrusch G , Senner V , Schaff P , Heck H
Published: March 2009

Surveys undertaken at the evaluation center for skiing accidents run by a German sports insurance company show that approximately 80% of all skiing accidents are due to observation errors, perception errors or inattentiveness in conjunction with skiing errors. Therefore, the efficiency of the eyes plays a vital role in skiing. Between 1995 and 1996 the following investigations were carried out into aspects of visual and perceptive acuity on the ski slopes: • Registration of the eyesight of leisure-time skiers. • Tests on the influence of visual acuity on the ability to recognize potential danger spots on the slope. • Tests on the influence of different color filters on eyesight (laboratory tests) and perceptive acuity on the ski runs (field tests).

Results: In 28.8% of the skiers tested optical correction of visual acuity was needed. The skiers were tested under those conditions in which they are skiing. In stereoscopic depth perception, which is also of great importance, for example, in assessing distances, deficits were present in 19.7% of the skiers tested. Approximately 39.7% of the tested skiers wear either glasses or contact lenses in daily life. However, only about 65.5% of them wear these on the slopes, too. Visual acuity and depth perception have a crucial influence on the ability to recognize potential danger spots on a ski slope. With a reduction in visual acuity, recognition was found to undergo a clear-cut decrease, with potential danger spots being recognized less efficiently and at a later time. An improvement in visual power through filters of various colors was recorded only in unfavorable light conditions and poor visibility (dim light, shade, fog, etc.). On average, more danger spots were distinctly recognized with yellow goggles than with colorless filters.
Warm-Up Efficacy in Alpine Conditions
Authors: Whelan K , Gass E , Moran C
Published: March 2009

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a warm-up program designed for downhill skiing, performed on the snow, did in fact “warm-up” the body.

Eight recreational skiers were randomly allocated and participated in both the experimental (warm-up followed by skiing for 90 min) and control conditions (skiing for 90 min). Measures of rectal (Tre) and skin temperature (Tsk), heart rate (HR), and flexibility were taken. The main analyses used were planned contrasts on repeated measures ANOVA.

Participation in the warm-up program resulted in significant increases in: Tre (df = 1,6; F = 8.196; p = 0.0076); HR (df = 1,7; F = 32.972; p = 0.0001); and flexibility (df = 1,6; F = 10.145; p = 0.0034) when compared to the control condition. These findings demonstrate that the program was effective in warming up the body.