bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Temperature dependence of avalanche multiplication and breakdown voltage in Al0.52In0.48P
Authors: Ong Jennifer S. L. , Ng Jo S. , Krysa Andrey B. , David John P. R.
Published: February 2014

The temperature dependence of avalanche multiplication and breakdown voltage in Al0.52In0.48P, lattice-matched to GaAs, has been measured on a series of p+-i-n+ and n+-i-p+ diodes with nominal avalanche region thicknesses ranging from 0.068 to 1.0 μm from 77.8 to 298 K. From this, impact ionization coefficients as a function of temperature have been determined. For a given avalanche region thickness, Al0.52In0.48P exhibits temperature coefficient of breakdown voltage smaller than those of Ga0.52In0.48P and Al0.6Ga0.4As by approximately 1.6× and 2.0×, respectively. Our analysis shows that the alloy disorder potential and alloy composition ratio may be responsible for the large variation in temperature coefficient of breakdown voltages observed in a range of III–V ternary semiconductors.
Synthesis of multiferroic Er-Fe-O thin films by atomic layer and chemical vapor deposition
Authors: Mantovan R. , Vangelista S. , Wiemer C. , Lamperti A. , Tallarida G. , Chikoidze E. , Dumont Y. , Fanciulli M.
Published: February 2014

R-Fe-O (R = rare earth) compounds have recently attracted high interest as potential new multiferroic materials. Here, we report a method based on the solid-state reaction between Er2O3 and Fe layers, respectively grown by atomic layer deposition and chemical vapor deposition, to synthesize Er-Fe-O thin films. The reaction is induced by thermal annealing and evolution of the formed phases is followed by in situ grazing incidence X-ray diffraction. Dominant ErFeO3 and ErFe2O4 phases develop following subsequent thermal annealing processes at 850 °C in air and N2. Structural, chemical, and morphological characterization of the layers are conducted through X-ray diffraction and reflectivity, time-of-flight secondary ion-mass spectrometry, and atomic force microscopy. Magnetic properties are evaluated by magnetic force microscopy, conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy, and vibrating sample magnetometer, being consistent with the presence of the phases identified by X-ray diffraction. Our results constitute a first step toward the use of cost-effective chemical methods for the synthesis of this class of multiferroic thin films.
Maze energetics revealed by a large-scale two-dimensional Ginzburg-Landau type simulation
Authors: Iwano Kaoru , Mitsumata Chiharu , Ono Kanta
Published: February 2014

To understand the magnetization process of permanent magnets, the structural analysis of a so-called maze pattern plays a key role, because demagnetized states consist of maze domains. Motivated by this viewpoint, we explore the phase space of a magnetic order parameter in a thin film and clarify the energetics of various nonlinear states including the mazes, based on a two-dimensional Ginzburg-Landau model augmented by long-range dipole-dipole interaction
Effective anomalous Hall coefficient in an ultrathin Co layer sandwiched by Pt layers
Authors: Zhang Peng , Lin Weiwei , Wu Di , Jiang Zhengsheng , Sang Hai
Published: February 2014

Anomalous Hall effect in Co/Pt multilayer is important to study the effect of interface with strong spin-orbit coupling. However, the shunting effect of the layers in such system and the circuit in the plane perpendicular to the injected current were overlooked in most works and thus, anomalous Hall coefficient in Co/Pt multilayer has not been determined accurately. Considering the shunting effect and the equivalent circuit, we show that the effective anomalous Hall coefficient of a 0.5 nm thick Co layer sandwiched by Pt layers RS is 0.29 ± 0.01 μΩ cm/T at the zero temperature limit and increases to about 0.73 μΩ cm/T at the temperature of 300 K. RS is one order larger than that in bulk Co film, indicating the large contribution of the Co/Pt interface. RS increases with the resistivity of Co as well as a resistivity independent contribution of −0.23 ± 0.01 μΩ cm/T. The equivalent anomalous Hall current in the Co layer has a maximum of 1.1% of the injected transverse current in the Co layer around the temperature of 80 K.
Bio-economic modelling of decisions under yield and price risk for suckler cow farms
Authors: Briner Simon , Lehmann Niklaus , Finger Robert
Published: February 2014

Applying a bio-economic whole-farm model, we assess the impact of price and weather risk as well as different risk-management strategies on the variability of the gross margin in Swiss suckler cow production. For instance, flexible adjustment of fodder composition, feed stocks, or land use as well as gross margin insurance are considered. Our results show that assuming moderate risk aversion farms’ gross margin variability is rather high, with a coefficient of variation of gross margin ranging from 19 to 21%. Accounting for on-farm risk-management strategies we find that gross margin variability can be reduced significantly, causing only low reductions of average gross margin levels. We find that the use of maize as a switch crop and a market for the trade of roughage are the most efficient risk-management strategies. Our results also indicate that gross margin insurance is not attractive for farmers. Thus in particular promoting better access to markets for feedstuffs provides a valuable opportunity for farmers to manage gross margin risks.
Distinction and characterisation of salinity tolerant and sensitive rice cultivars as probed by the chlorophyll fluorescence characteristics and growth parameters
Authors: Singh Devendra Pratap , Sarkar Ramani Kumar
Published: February 2014

Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress that limits rice productivity worldwide. The problem is intense – particularly in areas with extremely dry and hot climatic conditions. Designing an effective phenotyping strategy requires thorough understanding of plant survival under stress. The investigation was conducted using 12 rice cultivars differing in salinity tolerance. Among these cultivars, seedling survival on day 10 of salt treatment (12 dS m–1) was above 85% during wet season and 75% during dry season in FL478, AC39416, Pokkali and Kamini. Highly salt-tolerant cultivars maintained greater proportion of green leaf and chlorophyll content under salt stress. Unlike sensitive cultivars, tolerant cultivars taken up less Na+ and more K+, resulting in lower Na+ : K+ ratio in leaf and sheath. Normalised chlorophyll a fluorescence data revealed that the Fv/Fm and PIABS values decreased on days 3 and 7, respectively, of salt stress in susceptible rice cultivar. Salinity factor index (SFI) calculated by giving different weights to relative PIABS values after variable days of salinity stress clearly distinguished the level of tolerance among rice cultivars. The SFI can be used for grouping of moderately to highly salt-tolerant cultivars based on their tolerance level. We conclude that maintenance of greater proportion of green leaf, and restricted transport of Na+ to sheath and leaf helps the plant to counteract adverse effects of salinity on rice growth.
Interpreting modals by phase heads
Authors: Akiba Daigo
Published: February 2014

This paper proposes that modal meanings are interpreted by modal features on phase heads (cf. Chomsky 2000, 2001). Epistemic modal auxiliaries are base-generated above v*P/vP, and they are in an Agree relation with a phase head C, which then carries an interpretable modal feature to be transferred to the semantic component. Root modals are base-generated under v*P and Agree with a phase head v*. In the syntax-semantics interface, modality is defined as information about possibility or necessity of proposition denoted by syntactic objects transferred to the semantic component, assigned by phase heads, which bear a discourse related property of the duality of semantics.
Mora da as a marker of modal meanings in Macedonian
Authors: Wiemer Björn
Published: February 2014

The article presents a semasiological case study of the Macedonian modal mora, which derives from the common South Slavic modal verb morati ‘must’, and its collocation with the morpheme da, which is the probably most prominent non-factivity marker of Macedonian used in a broad variety of syntactic functions: as a complementiser, as a main clause marker in “insubordination” phenomena (with hortative and optative functions) as well as a morpheme connecting auxiliary and lexical verb in complex predicates. The latter function forms the starting point for the investigation: the author raises the question whether mora and da should not (in many cases) be analysed as one single unit (in functional and lexicographic terms). Mora can be regarded as a full-fledged modal auxiliary, but it tends to lose its inflectional properties (first, person and number, then tense), so that mora becomes petrified as a form isolated from its paradigm and homonymous with the prs.3sg-form of the inflected verb. Furthermore, it needs to be somehow connected to a finite verb and can cooccur only with da. This distribution, in connection with the successive loss of inflectional categories, conditions a transient stage whereby mora+da appear to become a sentence adverb (or particle) with propositional scope (univerbation toward a function word). Together with this, the split between inflected and uninflected mora correlates with a strong tendency to distinguish deontic (with inflected mora) vs. epistemic (with uninflected mora) readings (dynamic readings have largely been ignored). As concerns this distinction, the feature [± inflected] proves more decisive than the choice of pfv. vs. ipfv. aspect for the lexical verb (being under scope of mora da). Moreover, the only grammatical context for which mora da + Vfin shows a systematic preference for deontic readings, is the pfv. present. All other contexts (and given mora is uninflected) rather favour epistemic readings, and for pfv. present tense (under scope of mora) the deontic reading can be overridden by some other factors. The article divides into two main parts: in the first, the author provides a systematic analysis of mora (da) in virtually all grammatical contexts imaginable for the occurrence of mora (da) in monoclausal structures (Section 2). In the second part (Section 3), the author takes issue with the question whether mora+da should not be treated as one linguistic unit, namely a propositional operator marking epistemic necessity (= ‘strong epistemic support’, in terms of Boye 2012).
Modal semantics and morphosyntax of the Latvian DEBITIVE
Authors: Lokmane Ilze , Kalnača Andra
Published: February 2014

The paper discusses the Latvian debitive from the viewpoint of modality and syntactic structure. In typological linguistics the system of moods in Latvian and in particular the Latvian debitive as a unique linguistic form has been rarely described. The debitive is a mood expressing meaning of necessity or obligation in Latvian. Therefore the introductory part of the paper offers a brief description of the mood system in Latvian explaining the functions of the debitive, its morphosyntax, and its modal semantics. The paper does not discuss exhaustively all the properties of the debitive and thus should be viewed as an initial discussion of this under-investigated subject matter. It proposes an overview of the forms of the debitive as well as a description of its modal meanings and distribution. Further research should involve a more detailed description of modal meanings as well as the distribution of the debitive and its seeming likeness to impersonal and passive constructions.
The modal category of sufficiency
Authors: Melis Chantal
Published: February 2014

This paper deals with constructions which express a notion of ‘sufficiency’. The presence of a degree quantifier such as enough, too, excessively or suffice constitutes their defining feature. On the proposed analysis, these constructions establish a relation of ‘necessity’ between the element that is in the scope of the quantifier and the state of affairs, specified in a complement clause or recoverable from the context, with respect to which the evaluation of sufficiency has to be interpreted. The study I present builds on this covert component of modal necessity and drawing on previous approaches explores the ways in which the relation of the sufficiency operators to possible worlds may be reconciled with their evaluating function in the real world.
From agent-oriented modality to sequential
Authors: Vydrina Alexandra
Published: February 2014

The paper provides an analysis of an unusual type of polysemy of a modal marker which so far has not been in the focus of the studies dealing with semantics and grammaticalization paths of modal meaning, namely the polysemy between the modal meaning of obligation and the sequential meaning. Modal meaning and the dependent status of a clause may be related because they are both characterized by the lack of assertiveness. This hypothesis is explored in the diachronic perspective on the example of Kakabe data.
A rare case of covert modality
Authors: Abraham Werner , Piskorz Jadwiga
Published: February 2014

Our point of departure is a twofold observation. There is, first, a new periphrastic past in spoken Polish using a Slavic newcomer in this temporal construction, namely mieć “have”+P(ast) P(articiple) of a lexical verb. The Polish temporal paradigm is thus enriched by an analytic past form similar to Modern German ‒ which, by itself, raises the question whether the Polish temporal paradigm is subject to linguistic areal contact. And there is, second, the observation that Polish mieć “have” +PP triggers epistemic and evidential readings. The latter phenomenon militates against the cross-linguistic insight that non-finite forms of modality, at least as long as they are in covert construal of the form have (to)+PP, never trigger epistemic readings. The simple logical reason for the expectation that non-finite forms do not trigger non-root modality readings is that epistemics are bound to appear under finiteness, s=t (i.e. speech act time is co-temporal with event time). As for the explanation of this unexpected phenomenon we take viewpoint aspect as the puzzle-solver. The central hypothesis that the predicative aspect of the embedded non-finite lexical drives the modal decision between root and epistemic modality (Abraham 1989) can be maintained once also adverbial material is adduced for a viewpoint aspectual evaluation: viewpoint perfectivity overwrites predicative telicity to yield root modality of the entire construal, mieć+non-finitival/PP, whereas viewpoint imperfectivity results in epistemicity or evidentiality. More generally yet, this result, at the same time, overwrites all previous conclusions in the literature on Polish covert modality.
(C)Overt epistemic modality and its perspectival effects on the textual surface
Authors: Zeman Sonja
Published: February 2014

With an eye on the universal status of modality, the paper focuses on covert and overt grammatical coding of epistemic modality and its perspectival effects on the textual surface. Based on a theoretical discussion concerning the core principle of root vs. epistemic modality, it is argued that the grammatical structure of epistemic modality is reflected on the sentence level, on the textual surface, and within narrative discourse, and thus is manifested in a recursive manner on different levels of linguistic structure. In consequence, it is claimed that the universal status of modality can be pinned down not only cross-linguistically, but also within the language itself. En passant, the alignment of linguistic micro- and macro-structure sheds light on the basic question what modality is about in its core meaning.
Dimensions of implicit modality in Igbo
Authors: Uchechukwu Chinedu
Published: February 2014

Modality is one of the grammatical categories in Igbo language studies that received the least attention within the last century. There is, however, a growing awareness that the category of modality is expressed in the language through specific verbs and suffixes that have recently been (re-)categorised as modal verbs and modal suffixes, respectively (Uchechukwu 2008, 2011). This paper explores further the issue of modality in Igbo by focusing on the constructions and lexical items that could be involved in the implicit expression of modality in the language. The different types of constructions include wh-complement, simple relative clause, and purpose clause constructions. Lexically, the verb -kwé ‘agree’ can be used to implicitly encode varying degrees of modal possibility. An additional lexical item that encodes implicit modality is the bound verb complement (BVC) (Nwachukwu 1987) or bound cognate noun (BCN) (Emenanjo 1978), which is a verbal derivative that is formed through a reduplication of the verb root. The insight from this investigation is that the Igbo language need not be classified as belonging to those languages with ‘sparse modality’; instead, it can be described as fully possessing the grammatical category of modality, expressed both implicitly and explicitly.
The 3DGD: a database of genome 3D structure
Authors: Li Chao , Dong Xiao , Fan Haiwei , Wang Chuan , Ding Guohui , Li Yixue
Published: February 2014

Summary: The studies of chromatin 3D structure help us to understand its formation and function. Techniques combining chromosome conformation capture and next generation sequencing can capture chromatin structure information and has been applied to several different species and cell lines. We built 3DGD (3D Genome Database), a database that currently collected Hi-C data on four species, for easy accessing and visualization of chromatin 3D structure data. With the integration of other omics data such as genome-wide protein–DNA-binding data, this data source would be useful for researchers interested in chromatin structure and its biological functions.

Availability and implementation: The 3DGD v1.1, data browser, downloadable files and documentation are available at: http://3dgd.biosino.org/.

Contact:  cwang@sibs.ac.cn; gwding@sibs.ac.cn; yxli@sibs.ac.cn

Supplementary information:  Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Spatial management of Indian Ocean tropical tuna fisheries: potential and perspectives
Authors: Kaplan David M. , Chassot Emmanuel , Amandé Justin M. , Dueri Sibylle , Demarcq Hervé , Dagorn Laurent , Fonteneau Alain
Published: February 2014

Effective use of spatial management in the pelagic realm presents special challenges due to high fish and fisher mobility, limited knowledge and significant governance challenges. The tropical Indian Ocean provides an ideal case study for testing our ability to apply existing data sources to assessing impacts of spatial management on tuna fisheries because of several recent controversial spatial closures. We review the scientific underpinnings of pelagic MPA effects, spatio-temporal patterns of Indian Ocean tuna catch, bycatch and fish movements, and the consequences of these for the efficacy of spatial management for Indian Ocean tropical tuna fisheries. The tropical Indian Ocean is characterized by strong environmental fluctuations, regular seasonal variability in catch, large observed tuna displacement distances, relatively uniform catch-per-unit-effort and bycatch rates over space, and high fisher mobility, all of which suggest significant variability and movement in tropical tuna fisheries that are simply not well adapted to static spatial closures. One possible exception to this overall conclusion would be a large time/area closure east of Somalia. If closed for a significant fraction of the year it could reduce purse-seine bycatch and juvenile tuna catch. Dynamic closures following fish migratory patterns are possible, but more focused information on fish movements will be needed for effective implementation. Fortunately, several recent improvements in conventional fishery management and reporting will likely enhance our ability to evaluate spatial and non-spatial management options in the near future, particularly as pertaining to bycatch species.
But Why Was Spinoza a Necessitarian?
Authors: Huenemann Charles
Published: February 2014

Spinoza was of course a necessitarian. But what motivated him to embrace such a troublesome view? This article first recounts the structure of Spinoza’s necessitarianism, recounting the roles of the attributes and infinite modes. It then explores various ways to interpret Spinoza’s claim that all things are necessitated: does that include only actual things? Can there be said to be any nonactual possibles? Finally, the chapter argues that Spinoza’s goals in ethics and in philosophy of religion could have been achieved without necessitarianism and that it was in fact Spinoza’s exceptionally high threshold for explanation that led him to adopt necessitarianism.
Spinoza’s Philosophy of Religion
Authors: Fraenkel Carlos
Published: February 2014

This chapter proposes a new interpretation of Spinoza’s approach to religion. The main thesis is that Spinoza is primarily concerned with a philosophical reinterpretation of Christ and Christianity. His celebrated critique of religion, by contrast, is a secondary project. It is not necessary to attain the goals of TTP, accounts for some of the main flaws in TTP’s argument and quite possibly was not part of TTP’s original plan. This chapter first shows that, in the writings prior to TTP, Spinoza consistently claims that the true content of Biblical religion agrees with the doctrines demonstrated in philosophy while the literal content of Biblical religion ensures that imperfectly rational citizens follow the prescriptions of reason. Then it gives an account of the philosophical interpretation of Christianity set forth along the same lines in his later writings. Finally, it discusses Spinoza’s critique of religion and proposes an explanation for why he chose to undermine his philosophical interpretation of Christianity.
Spinoza on Skepticism
Authors: Perler Dominik
Published: February 2014

Spinoza never discusses the scenario of radical skepticism as it was introduced by Descartes. Why not? This chapter argues that he chooses a preventive strategy: instead of taking the skeptical challenge as it is and trying to refute it, he questions the challenge itself and gives a diagnosis of its origin. It is a combination of semantic atomism, dualism, and anti-naturalism that gives rise to radical doubts. Spinoza attacks these basic assumptions, opting instead for semantic holism, anti-dualism, and naturalism. This crucial shift of basic assumptions prevents radical skepticism from arising. To be sure, local doubts are still possible, but the possibility of global doubt is ruled out. The chapter examines this preventive strategy, situating it in the historical context and building a bridge to more recent anti-skeptical strategies.
The Intellectual Love of God
Authors: Nadler Steven
Published: February 2014

The notion of the intellectual love of God, in Part V of Spinoza’s Ethics, is arguably one of the more opaque elements in a very difficult work full of opacity. This article analyzes the intellectual love of God, joy, and knowledge, contrasting it with what might be called the “ordinary” love of God, and examines the similarities and differences with the same notion as this appears in the works of Maimonides, one of Spinoza’s medieval Jewish rationalist sources.
Representation, Misrepresentation, and Error in Spinoza’s Philosophy of Mind
Authors: Garrett Don
Published: February 2014

Spinoza seems to commit himself to two implausible doctrines about representation: (i) that no idea can represent what is not the case and (ii) that every idea of imagination represents a truly vast amount of what is or has been the case. This essay examines the roles of confusion and causation in Spinoza’s theory of imaginative representation. In doing so, it uncovers a promising way in which he could use his distinctive conatus doctrine—that “each thing, insofar as it is in itself, strives to persevere in its being” (E3p6)—both to constrain the otherwise vast extent of the imaginative representation of what is and to explain how imaginative misrepresentation is possible.
Finite Subjects in the Ethics
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: February 2014

This chapter suggests a new interpretation of Spinoza’s concept of mind claiming that the goal of the equation of the human mind with the idea of the body is not to solve the mind-body problem, but rather to show how we can, within the framework of Spinoza’s rationalism, conceive of finite minds as irreducibly distinguishable individuals. To support this view, the chapter discusses the passage from E2p11 to E2p13 against the background of three preliminaries, i.e. the notion of a union between mind and body as it appears in Thomas Aquinas’ refutation of Averroism, Spinoza’s views on knowledge of actually existing things in E2p8c, and the phenomenological character of E2a2-4. It argues that while this view on the human mind does not undermine radical rationalism, it does require its amendment by some irreducibly empirical concessions.
Spinoza’s Political Philosophy
Authors: Rosenthal Michael A.
Published: February 2014

This article argues that Spinoza is a modern republican political philosopher. He combines Machiavelli’s idea of liberty with Hobbes’s version of the social contract. This claim has four basic elements. First, Spinoza rejects Hobbes’s view that the individual must alienate his natural rights to form a state through a contract. Rather, the contract’s validity depends on a continuous and dynamic transfer of power from its citizens, which is defined as participation in public life. Second, the stability of a state depends on how effectively the regime can foster participation in the state. Spinoza uses his theory of the imagination and passions to explain how the state can overcome free-rider problems in the social contract. Hence the republican ideal of government is expressed not so much in any particular constitutional form of the state but in how well each form can foster participation. Although democracy expresses the highest degree of participation—and hence stability—aristocracy and even monarchy can be also optimized. Third, the participation of the individual in the state is not an end in itself but the means to the individual’s own freedom. So, although participation in the state is a necessary condition of individual well-being, it is certainly not sufficient to become virtuous. Fourth, the participation of individuals in the state, the quality and structure of state stability, as a well as the freedom of the state and individual, all depend on the degree of rationality manifest in both the individual and in the institutional structures of the state.
Eternity
Authors: Jaquet Chantal
Published: February 2014

Eternity is a property that substance and modes have in common. Spinoza posits in E5p23 that “the human mind cannot be absolutely destroyed with the body, but something of it remains which is eternal.” Thus, men have both an indefinite existence or duration, and an eternal one. This thesis sounds very odd because it seems to stand in contradiction to the “parallelism” between body and mind. One may wonder whether Spinoza really thinks that the mind enjoys eternal existence or if he is merely paying lip service to a traditional belief. What does he mean when he states in E5p23s that “we feel and experience (experimur) that we are eternal.” The purpose of the article is to understand this mysterious statement and to examine Spinoza’s definition of eternity in order to determine if modes can enjoy a real eternity.
The Learning Way: Learning from Experience as the Path to Lifelong Learning and Development
Authors: Passarelli Angela M. , Kolb David A.
Published: February 2014

Lifelong learning requires the ability to learn from life experiences. This chapter describes the theory of experiential learning, whereby knowledge is generated from experience through a cycle of learning driven by the resolution of dual dialectics of action/reflection and experience/abstraction. We provide an overview of stylistic preferences that arise from patterns of choosing among these modes of learning, as well as the spaces in which learning occurs. Movement through these modes and spaces link one experience to the next, creating a learning spiral that guides growth and development through a lifetime. Lifelong learning is also shaped by an individual’s learning identity, the extent to which one believes he or she can learn, and learning relationships, connections that promote movement through the learning spiral. Strategies for enhancing the learning process are provided for each of these topics.
University Education: Leadership Development In and Outside the Classroom
Authors: Velázquez Suzanne L.
Published: February 2014

This chapter illustrates model student leadership development programs offered at institutions of higher education and discusses leadership competencies needed to succeed in today’s global job market and our diverse society. Highlighted programs are rooted in developmental theories, such as Chickering’s psychosocial theory; function within proven frameworks, including the Social Change Model of Leadership and Leadership Challenge; and include service-learning projects to optimize transformative learning and ethical leadership. The chapter concludes with areas for further research related to the sustainable impact of leadership development programs, as well as content and delivery methods of student leadership development programs that are tailored for diverse learners, including nontraditional-aged college students and students of varied cultural ancestry, such as Asian, Middle Eastern, and Indigenous Peoples.
Learning Linkages and Flows between Individuals, Groups, and the Organization: Creating Programs to Foster Student Engagement in Learning
Authors: Sessa Valerie I. , Finley Ashley , Gullu Beyza
Published: February 2014

Continuous, “lifelong” learning is not just needed in individuals. Groups and organizations need to learn continuously as well. Although we know a fair amount about how individuals learn (Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009) and there is a growing body of literature about how groups and organizations learn (Scribner & Donaldson, 2001, Senge, 2006, Sessa & London, 2006), little is known about continuous learning prompted by the interface between individuals, groups, and organizations. We begin by identifying parallel learning constructs and processes at the individual, group, and organizational levels, and then we briefly discuss a few theories that have addressed learning flow between these three levels. Finally, we analyze a case of an interorganizational project team encompassing subgroups from a number of different universities who are charged with making change within their institutions and sharing their learning at the project team level. While the original aim of the project was to impact student learning, the project team (and the organization housing the project team) soon learned that in order to do so, they also had to concentrate simultaneously on student (individual), faculty (group), and university (organizational) learning as well.
E-Learning: New Opportunities and a View of the Future
Authors: Mayer Richard E.
Published: February 2014

E-learning refers to computer-delivered instruction including multimedia presentations, interactive simulations, educational games, and virtual classrooms. This chapter shows how e-learning can play an important role in lifelong learning to the extent that it is informed by research-based principles of instructional design and consistent with how people learn. The chapter provides an introduction to applying the science of learning to e-learning, summarizes a research-based theory of e-learning, summarizes research-based principles for the design of e-learning, and suggests future directions for research on e-learning.
Learning Contexts and Contextual Learners: The Usage of Wireless Technology
Authors: Wolf Gerrit
Published: February 2014

Users of wireless technology are contextual learners. Wireless users learn from instant-and-anywhere feedback supporting informal roles of youth and adults or formal roles of students and employees. Just as learning contexts may be distinguished by kinds of wireless feedback, wireless users can also be differentiated into kinds of contextual learners who use different kinds of wireless technologies. Hence, we shall delineate how wireless services support learning contexts and technologies differentiate contextual learners.
Cross-National Differences in Education–Work Transitions
Authors: Raffe David
Published: February 2014

This chapter reviews comparative research on young people’s transitions between initial education and work, focusing on countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and especially on European countries. The processes and outcomes of transition vary across countries. Researchers attribute these variations, and their persistence in the face of globalization, to institutional differences between national “transition systems.” The chapter describes four explanatory frameworks that respectively analyze transition systems in terms of characteristics of education systems, labor-market structures, linkages between education and work, and welfare regimes. It reviews typologies of transition systems derived from these explanatory frameworks and their interconnections, and it notes that no typology explains all the variation in national transition systems. It briefly reviews strategies for policy learning from cross-national comparisons of transitions. It concludes that transition systems should be understood as clusters of institutional arrangements that generate a distinctive “logic” of transitions in each country.
Electromagnetism
Authors: Epstein Charles M.
Published: February 2014

This article elucidates on the concept of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction with a view to explaining the theory of magnetic stimulation, used to cure diseases in human beings. Magnetic stimulation follows the principles of electromagnetism. A changing primary current induces secondary currents, which are called eddy currents, in the nearby conductors (human tissue in this case). The strength of the electric field is measured by its electromotive force (emf), which in turn, is measured in volts. The changing primary current also gives rise to an induced voltage in the primary loop itself. The essential circuitry of a magnetic stimulator is composed of three elements, the capacitor, inductance of the stimulation coil, and a switch to connect them. This article also explains the process of the energy flow system through the inductor-capacitor system, applying this principle to the biphasic TMS pulse.
TMS waveform and current direction
Authors: Sommer Martin , Paulus Walter
Published: February 2014

This article introduces the difference between biphasic and monophasic transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Waveform and current direction determine the effectiveness of TMS in humans. The alternating use of mono and biphasic pulses as conditioning or test pulse has so far not been possible. Since pulses of different waveform or orientation cannot be applied through the same coil at an interval in the millisecond range, using two different coils could be a feasible approach. This article brings in the concept of repetitive TMS (rTMS). Although clinical relevance is lacking, there is plenty of interesting data available for rTMS. Both pulse configuration and current direction affect the modulation of corticospinal excitability induced by rTMS. The effects during rTMS may differ from those outlasting rTMS. Further studies are needed to confirm the histological and physiological basis for these differences, and to clarify their clinical relevance.
TMS stimulator design
Authors: Riehl Mark
Published: February 2014

Transcranial magnetic stimulators have progressed from basic implementations to integrated systems optimized for treatment of pathologies. This article reviews key factors of design of such clinically targeted systems, discussing design principles, procedure-specific features, and clinical safety requirements. A power source, a capacitor, and a high-power switch controlled by a processor form the basic stimulator. The fundamental operating mechanism of a TMS stimulator is to create a changing magnetic field that can induce a current in adjacent conductive material. The clinical TMS system must incorporate patient positioning, patient comfort, coil positioning features, and intuitive user controls and means of managing patient data to be a fully effective system. The most important safety risk with repetitive TMS reported in the literature is the risk of inducing seizure. Other safety considerations include proper use of human factor analysis to minimize improper operation, the biocompatibility of materials touching the patient, and addressing acoustic noise.
Magnetic field stimulation: the brain as a conductor
Authors: Davey Kent
Published: February 2014

For the purposes of magnetic stimulation, the brain can be treated as a homogeneous conductor. A properly designed brain stimulation system starts with the target stimulation depth, and it should incorporate the neural strength–duration response characteristics. Higher-frequency pulses require stronger electric fields. The background of this article is the theoretical base determining, where in the brain TMS induces electrical activity, and whether this shifts as a function of differences in the conductivity and organization of gray matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid. The use of strong electric fields to treat many neurological disorders is well established. Both in the treatment of incontinence and clinical depression, the electric field should be sufficiently strong to initiate an action potential. The frequency, system voltage, capacitance, core stimulator size, and number of turns are treated as unknowns in a TMS stimulation design. This article presents the possible topological changes to be considered in the future.
Lessons learned from magnetic stimulation of physical models and peripheral nerve in vitro
Authors: Maccabee Paul J. , Amassian Vahe E.
Published: February 2014

This article provides a conceptual framework, which contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms involved in brain stimulation. The relationship between the induced topographic electric field and specific sites and regions of nerve activation in the brain are still not precisely known. Nevertheless, there is much more specific information available concerning peripheral nerve and nerve root stimulation. In vitro studies provide insight into the different properties of monophasic versus polyphasic pulses. Studies of brain stimulation agree with the in vitro conclusion that the polyphasic pulse is more powerful than the monophasic pulse. The shape of the induced pulse may be a relevant clinical response factor in repetitive TMS.
Direct current brain polarization
Authors: Wassermann Eric M.
Published: February 2014

The transcranial application of weak direct current (DC) to the brain is an effective neuromodulation technique that has had more than a century of experimental and therapeutic use. Focal DC brain polarization is now undergoing renewed interest, because of the wide acceptance of TMS as a research tool and candidate treatment for brain disorders. The effects of static electrical fields on cortical neurons in vivo have been known since the advent of intracellular recording. These effects are highly selective for neurons oriented longitudinally in the plane of the electric field. DC can enhance cognitive processes occurring in the treated area. The earliest clinical application of DC polarization was in the field of mood disorders. However, due to lack of temporal and spatial resolution, this technique does not appear particularly useful for exploring neurophysiological mechanisms.
Transcranial electrical stimulation and intraoperative neurophysiology of the corticospinal tract
Authors: Deletis Vedran , Sala Francesco , Ulkatan Sedat
Published: February 2014

Transcranial electrical stimulation is a well-recognized method for corticospinal tract (CT) activation. This article explains the use of TES during surgery and highlights the physiology of the motor-evoked potentials (MEPs). It describes the techniques and methods for brain stimulation and recording of responses. There are two factors that determine the depth of the current penetrating the brain, they are: choice of electrode montage for stimulation over the scalp and the intensity of stimulation. D-wave collision technique is a newly developed technique that allows mapping intraoperatively and finding the anatomical position of the CT within the surgically exposed spinal cord. Different mechanisms may be involved in the pathophysiology of postoperative paresis in brain and spinal cord surgeries so that different MEP monitoring criteria can be used to avoid irreversible damage and accurately predict the prognosis.
The size of motor-evoked potentials: influencing parameters and quantification
Authors: Rösler Kai M. , Magistris Michel R.
Published: February 2014

This article discusses parameters influencing the size of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) in normal and pathological conditions, and the methods of meaningful quantification of the MEPs. MEPs are widely used to study the physiology of corticospinal conduction in healthy subjects and in patients with diseases of the central nervous system. The characteristics of MEP size are, stimulus intensity, coil positioning, and facilitation. MEPs show variability in size and shape from one stimulus to the next, even if the stimulus parameters are kept constant. This article describes the triple stimulation technique (TST), which was developed to eliminate the effects of phase cancellation from the MEPs, to allow for a better quantification. Pathological conditions may modify the parameters discussed in the article and influence the size of the MEPs by lesions of motor neurons or of their axons, central conduction velocity slowing, or conduction block.
Transcranial stimulation measures explored by epidural spinal cord recordings
Authors: Di Lazzaro Vicenzo
Published: February 2014

In response to a single-electrical stimulus to the motor cortex an electrode placed in the medullary pyramid or on the dorsolateral surface of the cervical spinal cord records a series of high-frequency waves. This has been shown by various studies conducted on animals. Recording from the surface of the spinal cord during spinal cord surgery has provided evidence for the action of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) on the human motor cortex. However, the interpretation of this data has been limited. This article explains both types of transcranial stimulation (magnetic or electrical) the direct recording of which shows that transcranial stimulation can evoke several different kinds of descending activities. The output also depends upon the representation of the motor cortex being stimulated.
TMS measures and voluntary motor function
Authors: Rothwell John C.
Published: February 2014

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can be used to probe the excitability of central nervous system pathways before, during, and after a movement. In addition, it can be used to interfere with movement and give information about the role of different cortical areas in different aspects of a task. This article reviews the work that has been carried out using TMS measures to probe the excitability of central circuits before and after different types of contraction in healthy subjects. In some cases the results confirm previous work on animals, which means that the same measures can be used to investigate the pathophysiology in human neurological disease. However, many results reveal new information that had not previously been described in experiments on animals. Therefore, it is not wrong to say that TMS measures can be used to describe in humans what has already been described in animals; they can become drivers of new concepts as well.
Changes in TMS Measures induced by repetitive TMS
Authors: Classen Joseph , Stefan Katja
Published: February 2014

This article reviews several protocols of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)-induced plasticity. rTMS, when applied to the motor cortex or other cortical regions of the brain, may induce effects that outlast the stimulation period. The neural plasticity, which emerges as a result of such interventions, has been studied to gain insight into plasticity mechanisms of the brain. In two protocols the structure of rTMS trains is modified, informed by the knowledge of the physiological properties of the corticospinal system. Pulse configuration, stimulus frequency, stimulus intensity, the duration of the application period, and the total number of stimuli are some variables that have to be taken into account when reviewing the physiological effects of rTMS. This article also introduces the concept of patterned rTMS pulses and rTMS with ischemic nerve block. In addition, rTMS has raised considerable interest because of its therapeutic potential; however, much needs to be done in this field.
The MEP in clinical neurodiagnosis
Authors: Sandbrink Friedhelm
Published: February 2014

This article gives information on the clinical application of motor-evoked potential (MEP). Transcranial stimulation of the cerebral cortex to elicit MEPs is a noninvasive method for assessing the integrity of the central motor pathway function. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used in diagnosing and monitoring neurological disorders. This article highlights the neurophysiological differences between TMS and transcranial electric stimulation. All the different MEP parameters that can be measured by TMS, the latency of the MEP is generally regarded as the most reliable and useful. TMS studies have been described in many neurological disorders. The sensitivity of TMS in detecting subclinical upper motor neuron lesion varies in different disorders, depending on number of muscles and different parameters used. This article talks about the application of MEP in pathophysiology, multiple sclerosis, motor neuron diseases, meyloptahy, cerebral infarction, movement disorders, epilepsy, Lumbar spinal stenosis and radiculopathies, peripheral nerve disorders etc.
TMS in the perioperative period
Authors: Gugino Laverne D. , Romero Rafael , Rameriz Marcella , Richardson Marc E. , Aglio Linda S.
Published: February 2014

Two stimulation approaches developed for selectively exciting descending motor pathways are, transcranial electrical (TES) and transcranial magnetic (TMS) stimulation. This article highlights the comparison between electrical and magnetic transcranial stimulation. Magnetic stimulation is relatively painless; therefore it is the more preferred technique. The article reviews the use of TMS for monitoring the functional integrity of the descending motor systems during surgery and discusses the potential role of TMS in the preoperative period for conscious patients planning to undergo neurosurgical procedures involving the cerebral cortex. Selective monitoring of spinal cord motor function involves acquisition of TMS-induced epidural and/or myogenic responses. As patients are generally given anesthesia before spinal cord surgeries, this article discusses the effect of general anesthetic agents on the myogenic responses.