bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Macroenvironment
Authors: Sammut‐Bonnici Tanya
Published: January 2015

The macroenvironment encompasses a number of variables that are beyond the control of an organization, but which nonetheless require analysis to realign corporate and marketing strategy to shifting business environments. The major forces in the macroenvironment are viewed to be political, economic, social, technological, legal, ecological, demographical, ethical, and regulatory. The objective of macroenvironment analysis is to help organizations recognize major developments and future implications. The structure of the analytical tools employed to view the macroenvironment implies that organizations are reactive to their environment. Some organizations may be instrumental in shaping their environment and act as game changers. An organization's environmental analysis can be biased in terms of the level of focus given to different factors of the macroenvironment and in their interpretation of them.
Market
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

The term “market” is clearly an important concept in the field of Marketing, yet while much debate has taken place on what constitutes an appropriate definition of “marketing,” less attention has been directed in the marketing literature toward the nature of Markets.
Market Manager
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Market managers are responsible for the Marketing activities for particular Markets or clusters of customers.
Market Orientation
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Market orientation in general suggests that organizations are outward looking, collect intelligence on competitors and customers, and disseminate this information throughout the organization.
Market Share
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

This is the ratio of a company's sales of a product or service (either by number of units or by value) during a specific time period in a specific market to the total sales of that type of product or service over the same period.
Markets
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

A market comprises all the individuals and organizations who are actual or potential customers for a product or service, and those in a market are involved in market
E
xchange with companies and others providing goods and services.
Mass Media
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Mass media are impersonal channels by which the communicator can communicate directly with the target audience.
Media Planning
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Media planning is concerned with the selection of the most appropriate media to deliver
M
arketing
C
ommunications messages to target audiences.
Media Schedule
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

A media schedule is an operational activity that results from
M
edia
P
lanning, designed to achieve particular objectives with respect to
R
each,
F
requency, and
I
mpact.
Mystery Shopping
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

In mystery shopping market, research interviewers, posing as shoppers, are trained to observe closely all the aspects of customer service during a typical shopping trip in either a client's own outlets or those of competitors.
Network
Authors: Zolkiewski Judy
Published: January 2015

This article discusses the role of networks in business to business marketing. It outlines the importance of considering how individual business relationships are affected by the other relationships of the firm as well as the other relationships of their customers and suppliers. This understanding of networks and position in a network can be seen to provide the basis for business strategy.
One‐Step Flow Model
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

The one‐step flow model of communications presents mass communications (
see
Mass Media), mainly Advertising, as acting directly on each member of the target audience.
Organizational Segmentation
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

This article discusses the major ways to segment organizational markets and the pros and cons of doing so.
Own Branding
Authors: Newman Andrew , Worrall Steve
Published: January 2015

This is the process whereby a product or service name is developed for or by a retailer for its exclusive use.
Personality
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Personality refers to those characteristics that account for differences among people and are predictive of their behavior.
Portfolio Analysis
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

In Marketing, portfolio analysis is used at both a business and a product level, but the discussion here will be in terms of businesses.
Postmodern Marketing
Authors: Marsden David
Published: January 2015

Postmodern marketing emerged in the 1990s as a radical alternative to mainstream scientific marketing.
Price Promotions
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Some pricing decisions involve a short‐term adjustment to the price of an existing product/service, possibly prompted by disappointing sales caused by an economic downturn, competitors' activities, seasonality, and so on.
Product Differentiation
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Although in some markets, such as commodities, price remains a primary determinant of demand, in general customers will seek an optimum combination of price and non‐price variables, such as technical features, delivery, service support, and
B
rand image.
Psychographics
Authors: Mitchell Vincent‐Wayne
Published: January 2015

This article covers most types of psychograhic segmentation tools from general ones such as VAL to more bespoke such as gerentographics.
Publicity
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

Publicity is nonpersonal communications that are not paid for by the source (the marketing organizations) but which provide information about the company and/or its products.
Questionnaire Design
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Questionnaires are associated mainly with
S
urvey
R
esearch but are used sometimes as part of experimental research.
Regression and Correlation
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

The possibility of a relationship between a pair of variables can be investigated in a scatter diagram where each pair of values is plotted as a point on a graph, where the axes are used to represent the variables.
Relationship Marketing
Authors: Karantinou Kalipso
Published: January 2015

Companies in all sectors of economic activity are encouraged to retain their customers and turn them into strong supporters, vocal advocates, and a powerful referral source for their products and services. To induce such loyalty, companies must exceed customer expectations, create customer value, and generate customer trust and commitment. Relationship marketing aims at creating long‐term, mutually satisfying, and interactive relationships with customers. Relationship development is thus regarded as an effective strategy leading to a significant and enduring competitive advantage, linked to profitability. Reduced uncertainty, managed dependence, exchange efficiency, higher overall degree of trust and reliability, and financial gains are some of the significant benefits associated with relationship development for all parties involved. At the same time, however, there are also costs, disadvantages, and opportunity costs associated with relationship development, which necessitate a sector‐ and context‐specific investigation in each case to establish the overall benefits and costs ratio; a clear understanding of the preferences and expectations of customers from relationships; and a careful selection of the specific customers and customer segments to focus.
Retail Buying
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Retail buying is concerned with the acquisition by retailers of a suitable range of stock from suppliers for sale within their stores.
Retail Distribution Channels
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Retail distribution channels include both store and nonstore selling media such as mail order and catalog shopping, home shopping, and teleshopping.
Retail Image
Authors: Newman Andrew , Greenland Steve
Published: January 2015

Retail image refers to the way in which the retailer is perceived by the public.
Retail Merchandising
Authors: Newman Andrew , Greenland Steve
Published: January 2015

Retail merchandising encompasses primarily the merchandise mix, store space allocation, and the placement of products within it.
Retail Security
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Retail security concerns several main areas including in‐store shoplifting, staff pilferage, premises security regarding shop‐breaking, hold‐ups, and the personal security of staff members as well as customers.
Retailing
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Retailing embraces those activities concerned with selling goods or services to the final consumer or another person acting on his/her behalf.
Reward/Loyalty Cards
Authors: Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

This refers to the concept adopted by many supermarkets and other types of retailers, which offers discounts and/or money off in exchange for frequent or continuous store purchases.
Service Characteristics
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

A number of generic characteristics of services distinguish them from products, namely: intangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity, and perishability.
Service Delivery
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The consumer may be actively involved in the production and delivery process, for example, in applying for a loan, providing information for tax returns, using salad bars in restaurants, and explaining symptoms to a healthcare professional.
Service Distribution
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Service distribution channels comprise service firms, their intermediaries, and their customers.
Service Process
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Service processes may be classified as “people” (e.g., hairdressing, healthcare, education) or “possession” (e.g., laundry, cleaning services, gardening, insurance, banking) processes – with tangible or intangible actions (Lovelock, Vandermerwe, and Lewis, 1999).
Service Promotion
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The communication and promotion of services present problems for providers due to the features of services (
see
Service Characteristics), in particular intangibility (services cannot usually be presented as physical entities), and variability in their production and delivery, owing to the presence and participation of service personnel.
Services Sector
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The services sector of an economy is generally considered to include all industries other than those involved in manufacturing, and so covers: financial services; tourism and hospitality; healthcare; leisure, sport, and entertainment; professional services; communications and transport; information services; public utilities; government and local authority; education; charities; personal services; household services; industrial and business services, and so on.
Shopper Typologies
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

Shopper typologies involve a classification that identifies shoppers based on their purchase behavior, motives, and
A
ttitudes.
Shopping Centers
Authors: Newman Andrew , Greenland Steve
Published: January 2015

Shopping centers are generally more planned than the traditional high street retailing central shopping areas and have more pedestrian activity.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

The
S
tatistical
P
ackage for the
S
ocial
S
ciences (
SPSS
) is a popular package of computer software used to analyze data, including the data obtained in marketing research surveys.
Statistical Sources
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

In order to monitor and, if possible, forecast environmental change, access to information, in the form of statistics, is vital.
Store Design
Authors: Greenland Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

The store has traditionally occupied a central role in retailing as the direct point of contact between retailer and consumers.
Strategic Objectives
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Organizations are expected to have objectives, often regarded as part of the strategic plan, that act as foci for organizational activities.
Target Market
Authors: Leverick Fiona
Published: January 2015

This is a group of potential users or consumers which is the focus of the marketing effort of the business for a particular product or service, usually identified by means of
M
arket
S
egmentation.
Technological Environment
Authors: Yorke David
Published: January 2015

The technological environment is one of the elements of the
M
arketing
E
nvironment.
Telemarketing
Authors: Yorke David , Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Telemarketing (or telephone selling) systematically uses a
D
atabase of actual and potential customers to define and sell to customers with a high probability of purchase.
Trade Journals
Authors: Littler Dale
Published: January 2015

Trade journals are a range of journals that are aimed at specific industries, for example, footwear, and at “trades”.
Two‐Step Flow Model
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

The two‐step flow model is concerned with the flow of
M
arketing
C
ommunications from the
M
ass
M
edia, in particular
A
dvertising, via opinion leaders to customers, or opinion “followers.”
Types of Measure
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Measurement involves assigning numbers to characteristics of objects or events in such a way that the numbers reflect reality.
Univariate Analysis
Authors: Greatorex Michael
Published: January 2015

Univariate analysis is concerned with the quantitative analysis of data where each variable is analyzed in isolation.
Utility
Authors: Lewis Barbara R.
Published: January 2015

Businesses, in providing products and services through their production and marketing activities, create a number of kinds of economic utility to consumers.
Validity
Authors: Greatorex Michael , Healey Mark P.
Published: January 2015

A scale or a measure is valid if it measures what it is intended to measure.
Wheel of Retailing
Authors: Worrall Steve , Newman Andrew
Published: January 2015

There are a number of theories that attempt to explain the evolution of retail enterprises, and the
wheel of retailing
is probably the most well known of these (Newman and Cullen.
Wholesalers
Authors: Newman Andrew , Greenland Steve
Published: January 2015

Wholesalers form the part of the marketing channel between producers/manufacturers and the retailer.
Netnography
Authors: Sibai Olivier , de Valck Kristine
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review netnography, the characteristics and benefits of a conducting ethnography and related terms of digitally mediated ethnography.
Attitudes
Authors: Kokkinaki Flora
Published: January 2015

Attitudes represent the positive or negative evaluation of an object of thought. Consumers hold attitudes toward products, services, brands, companies, stores, advertisements and so on. These attitudes guide behavior and therefore provide an important tool in marketing efforts to understand, predict, and influence consumers' preferences, purchase decisions, and usage behavior. Attitudes serve a variety of functions, broadly classified as instrumental or symbolic. They are commonly measured by means of direct self‐reports. Several alternative methods, including implicit attitude measures, have also been developed. Strong attitudes exert a strong influence on behavior and are resistant to counter persuasion. Attitude strength is reflected on attributes such as attitude extremity, certainty, importance, and accessibility. In the context of attitude change, the elaboration likelihood model and the heuristic‐systematic model hold that when message recipients are able and adequately motivated, they elaborate on its content; in contrast, when processing motivation or ability is low, attitudes are formed on the basis of peripheral cues or heuristics. The theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behavior provide a prominent approach in the study of the attitude–behavior relationship. These theories maintain that behavior and behavioral intentions are determined by an individual's attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. When highly accessible, attitudes can also influence behavior through automatic, and unconscious processes.
Buyer Behavior Models
Authors: Kokkinaki Flora , Gemtou Marilena
Published: January 2015

Buyer behavior models provide an integrative framework of the variables that influence consumer behavior and illustrate their interrelationships. The early “grand models” were descriptive in nature, based on assumptions of rationality and assumed a single‐phased decision‐making process. More recent attempts to modeling buyer behavior incorporate alternative ideas that account for the restricted human information processing capacity, the experiential aspects of consumption, and the multi phased nature of decision‐making processes.
Virtual World
Authors: Page Kelly L.
Published: January 2015

This article provides a review of virtual worlds, the features that define a virtual world as differing from other computer‐mediated experience and interest in their use for commerce and research.
Decoupling
Authors: Brandon‐Jones Alistair
Published: January 2015

The decoupling point is the point in the system where the forecast‐driven (or “push”) elements and the demand‐driven (or “pull”) elements intersect in a supply network.
E‐Auctions
Authors: Howard Mickey
Published: January 2015

e‐auctions use Internet technology to buy or sell goods and services from a number of known or unknown participants. The e‐auction requires an electronic marketplace or “cyber‐purchasing system” as an efficient collaborative platform for bringing together buyers and suppliers.
Key Account Management
Authors: Davies Iain A.
Published: January 2015

Key account management (
KAM
) has become one of the fundamental changes in how business‐to‐business companies manage their most strategic relationships. This study explores the antecedents to the development of
KAM
and the different streams of research exploring KMA from an organizational perspective including relational typologies, activity frameworks and implementation models.
New Product Forecasting
Authors: Goodwin Paul
Published: January 2015

New product forecasting refers to the process of forecasting the demand for products that have yet to be launched or which have recently been launched. Forecasts are often based on consumer intentions surveys, management judgment or mathematical diffusion models. Data from consumer intentions surveys is usually more reliable when the new product will be purchased soon after the survey has been carried out, but the data usually has to be de‐biased to improve forecast accuracy. Management judgment is subject to cognitive and motivational biases but its role can be improved by aggregating the judgments of groups of managers using methods like Delphi or prediction markets. Diffusion models require historic data on demand. When this is unavailable models can be fitted to the demand history of previously launched analogous products on the assumption that these will have similar sales patterns to the new product.
Offshoring
Authors: Squire Brian
Published: January 2015

Offshoring refers to the relocation of work from one country to another.
Prisoner's Dilemma
Authors: Yalabik Baris
Published: January 2015

This article provides an introduction to the prisoner's dilemma. The basic problem is introduced with its assumptions and components, and the classic solution is provided along with a critique. The article concludes with suggestions for further reading.
Public Procurement
Authors: Roehrich Jens
Published: January 2015

Public procurement refers to the acquisition of goods and services by government or public sector organizations. Public procurement represents a significant amount of a country's GDP and is a vital source for innovation policy. It can actively drive demand for innovative goods, while at the same time improving the level of public services by, for example, creating lead markets. Both nationally and at the EU level, attention has turned to initiatives seeking to increase the innovation impact of public procurement. However, the potential for public procurement to stimulate innovation has to be considered in a context in which it is increasingly expected to pursue often conflicting policy objectives.
Risk Management
Authors: Squire Brian
Published: January 2015

Starting with a classical definition, risk is the probability of an event multiplied by its consequences or impact, where probability is taken to be an objective phenomenon that is intrinsic, measureable, and quantifiable through risk assessment.
Sustainability
Authors: Pagell Mark , Wu Zhaohui
Published: January 2015

This article summarizes what sustainable supply chain management (
SSCM
) is and how creating more sustainable supply chains likely impacts supply chain performance. It then critically details what practices differentiate best practice in SSCM from more traditional supply chain management. The focus is on how to become more sustainable because researchers now recognize that all supply chains will have to move in this direction to survive in a world of reduced resource availability and higher stakeholder expectations.
International Motor Vehicle Program (
IMVP
)
Authors: Holweg Matthias
Published: January 2015

This article introduces the International Motor Vehicle Program, which coined the term “Lean Production” in 1990.
Business Process Redesign
Authors: Harrison Alan
Published: January 2015

BPR can be defined as the radical reshaping of business processes. It ranges from complete reinvention of business enterprise to the reshaping of processes into new, greatly simplified processes that are much faster, more flexible, and better quality.
Setup Reduction
Authors: Harrison Alan
Published: January 2015

The purpose of setup reduction is to reduce the time, effort, and cost associated with changing a process from one activity to another. It is often described as the most useful technique in the implementation of just‐in‐time operations management.
SIMUL8
Simulation Package
Authors: Greasley Andrew
Published: January 2015

SIMUL8
™ is a visual interactive modelling system based on the discrete‐event simulation method.
Quality Teams
Authors: Dale Barrie
Published: January 2015

The development of people and their involvement in improvement activities both individually and through teamwork is a key feature in a company's approach to Total Quality Management.
Quality Tools
Authors: Dale Barrie
Published: January 2015

To support and develop a process of Continuous Improvement, it is necessary for an organization to use a selection of quality management tools and techniques.
Statistical Quality Techniques
Authors: Dale Barrie
Published: January 2015

Statistical quality techniques are generally taken to be those techniques that are used in managing
Q
uality
M
anagement
S
ystems and are based on the theories of applied probability (as opposed to the simpler “tools of quality management”).
Total Quality Management
Authors: Dale Barrie
Published: January 2015

There are many interpretations and definitions of total quality management (
TQM
).
Time to Market
Authors: Voss Chris
Published: January 2015

When defined formally, “time to market” is the elapsed time between the inception of a product or service idea, definition, concept, etc. and its availability on market introduction.
Technology Tiers
Authors: Karlsson Christer
Published: January 2015

A technology tier is a level in a product system: final product, system, subsystem, component, or part. As a concept, it contrasts traditional “vertical” special technologies (for example, mechanics and electronics) and focuses “horizontal” feature technologies such as product characteristics, safety, comfort, or handling. Product functionality is in focus rather than product specifications. Suppliers take care of technical specialization, whereas further development of product functions takes place within the
OEM
.
Supply Chain Dynamics
Authors: Harland Christine
Published: January 2015

Industrial dynamics authors have applied elements of systems control theory to treat amplification effects in supply chains.
Cell Layout
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article defines a cell layout as being a group of dissimilar machines or processes arranged according to the design of the product being made
or the operations required for its production. The operation sequence and flow direction can be varied and the workers in a cell are usually multiskilled and can operate more than one machine or process.
Group Working
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article describes a type of work organization that is an alternative to individual working based on division of labour and specialization. Working in groups, it is argued, overcomes the frustration and boredom brought on by the monotony associated with repetitive, differentiated work. A particular for of group working, which is team‐based, emphasises the virtues of working together, such as the ability to make use of the various skills within the team.
Job Enrichment
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article defines job enrichment as being where jobs are extended vertically rather than horizontally, meaning that more satisfying jobs are created by adding work of a different level instead of merely increasing the amount of work carried out. Tasks of greater complexity can be undertaken or further responsibilitiescan be assigned such as production planning, material ordering, quality control, or maintenance.
Job Rotation
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article is about how jobs are rotated so that a greater variety of work is carried out as a way of reducing the monotony associated with performing repetitive tasks continuously. This can lead to greater job satisfaction and, as a result, higher performance and better quality of output.
Line Balancing
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article describes a technique for which the main objectives are to minimize the idle time when work is allocated along a line and spread it as evenly as possible across the workstations. Line balancing comprises two aspects, that is, determination of the required number of stations and the assignment of tasks to each station with the objective of maximizing efficiency.
Product Families
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article is about how products with the same or similar design characteristics can be grouped into families, which results in shorter overall setting times when they are produced on the same machine or group of facilities. This can result in improved efficiency since the time spent resetting a production facility results in a significant loss of capacity and also causes management to produce larger batches than may be required to satisfy immediate demand.
Product Layout
Authors: Bennett David
Published: January 2015

This article describes product layout and how it relates to the other facility layout options for producing goods or delivering services. It examines the different types of product layout and some of the problems associated with them, together with some of the approaches to solving them.
E‐Business
Authors: Ambrose Eamonn
Published: January 2015

Electronic business (e‐business) is the conduct of business on the Internet, including buying, selling, servicing customers, and collaborating with business partners.
Human‐Centered
CIM
Authors: Schmid Felix
Published: January 2015

Human‐centered computer integration is an approach to the management of production systems that makes best use of human skills and the power of technology. It uses both for the tasks for which they are most suited.
Continuous Improvement
Authors: Boer Harry
Published: January 2015

Continuous improvement, also known as kaizen, is the planned, organized and systematic process of ongoing, incremental and company‐wide change of existing practices aimed at improving company performance. Continuous improvement is:

•Process‐oriented: results can only be improved if processes are improved.

•People‐oriented: based on the belief in people's inherent desire for quality and worth, and that this will pay in the long run.

•Standard‐oriented: there can be no improvement where there are no standards.
Product Design Process
Authors: Moultrie James
Published: January 2015

The product design process is the set of parallel and sequential technical activities by which an idea is translated into a manufactured reality.
High‐Involvement Innovation
Authors: Moultrie James
Published: January 2015

Evidence suggests that organizations develop high‐involvement innovation over time and move from relatively simple and occasional attempts to capture employee suggestions through to more systematic approaches that deploy mechanisms for managing the flow of ideas created, providing reward and recognition systems, linking improvement activities to monitoring and measurement systems, and connecting the overall company strategy to continuous improvement activity.
Robotics
Authors: Bessant John
Published: January 2015

A robot is an automatic position‐controlled reprogrammable manipulator that is capable of handling materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions.
Analytical Estimating
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Analytical estimating is a structured, estimating technique, often used in Work Measurement, in which a task is analyzed with respect to its basic component operations or elements.
Ergonomics
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Ergonomics is the study of how the human body reacts to its immediate workplace and environment.
Multiple Activity Charts
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Multiple activity charts are used to show the interrelationships of individuals in teams of workers, or the relationships between workers and equipment, usually during the record stage of
M
ethod
S
tudy.
Predetermined Motion Time Systems
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Predetermined motion time systems (PMTSs) are Work Measurement systems based on the analysis of work into basic human movements, classified according to the nature of the movement and the conditions under which it is made.
Principles of Motion Economy
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

The principles of motion economy are guidelines to be used when examining and designing workstation and workplace layouts and during Method Study.
Process Mapping
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Process mapping (or charts) describes processes in terms of the activities within the process and how they relate to one another (this may also be called process blueprinting or process analysis).
Time Study
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Time study is a structured process of directly observing and measuring (using a timing device) human work in order to establish the time required for completion of the work by a qualified worker when working at a defined level of performance.
Work Measurement
Authors: Heap John
Published: January 2015

Work measurement is the process of establishing the time that a given task would take when performed by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance.
Inventory Management
Authors: Mapes John
Published: January 2015

All goods and materials that are held by an organization for future use or sale are called inventories or stocks.
Inventory Performance Measures
Authors: Mapes John
Published: January 2015

Measures of inventory performance consist of two main types.
P
areto Analysis
Authors: Mapes John
Published: January 2015

Pareto analysis is a method of distinguishing what is important from what is less so in a process.
Sandcone Model of Improvement
Authors: Ferdows Kasra
Published: January 2015

The sandcone model of improvement is an analogy that seeks to explain how assigning priorities to Operations Objectives may result in lasting improvements in performance.
Activity‐Based Costing
Authors: Bates Ken
Published: January 2015

Activity‐based costing identifies key activities and focuses on cost behaviour to determine appropriate cost drivers that are used to trace activity costs to products and thus produce more accurate product costs that support pricing and product mix decisions.
Manufacturing Strategy Process
Authors: Platts Ken
Published: January 2015

The process of manufacturing strategy formulation is concerned with the way in which organizations determine the objectives of their manufacturing function, the manufacturing resources that are required, and the methods of coordination and control of those resources.
Order Winners and Qualifiers
Authors: Spring Martin
Published: January 2015

The order winner/qualifier distinction ascribed to Hill (1993) is a widely adopted approach to distinguishing between the different competitive factors that operations may choose to emphasize.
Industrial Networks
Authors: Karlsson Christer
Published: January 2015

Companies organize in a way that involves many activities that are external to the traditional organizational boundaries. This presents challenges to operations management and managing operations involves many issues and actions dealing with external networks. Taking a network perspective changes the focus of operations management from managing the own organization to continuously developing and managing a network of external and internal resources forming a production system. This perspective may be called managing an “extraprise” rather than an “enterprise.” It should be noted that “an industrial network” should not be seen as an organizational form but as a perspective that can be used to enrich one's understanding of organizations. The industrial network perspective has three basic building blocks: actors, resources, and activities. The three building blocks and their relations constitute the network.
Manufacturing Systems Engineering
Authors: Gregory Michael
Published: January 2015

Manufacturing systems engineering (
MSE
) is a multidisciplinary development from the core principles of production/industrial engineering.
Advanced Manufacturing Technology
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Advanced manufacturing technology (
AMT
) is the generic label given to the application of leading‐edge information technology to manufacturing process applications.
Competence
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Following a classic OM transformation logic, competences are those combinations of resource and process that together underpin sustainable competitive advantage for a specific firm competing in a particular product/service market. The advantage thus conferred is based on key processes being better than, or different from, those of rivals and sustainable (the duration of which is dependent on the industry sector) because the underlying strategic resources are rare, difficult to copy, difficult to create a substitute for, and difficult to move.
Customer Support Operations
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

The diverse range of activities that firms undertake to support customers in the post‐purchase use and maintenance of their product: in business‐to business markets this has traditionally meant, as a minimum, the management of spares but increasingly includes the provision of more complex maintenance and technical support services.
Double‐Loop Learning
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Double loop learning is the ability to challenge existing operating assumptions in a fundamental way, seeking to reframe competitive questions and remain open to all sorts of contextual changes in the environment.
Fit
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Fit (or alignment) is the notion that “successful” operations align themselves with their external environments – either by adapting to particular market needs or finding markets that want their particular operations resources.
Implementing Process Technology
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Successfully implementing process technology is a significant technical/ organizational change. This article summarizes the ingredients of a successful implementation under three linked categories: (1) understanding the technology‐s characteristics, (2) alignment to overall strategic
goals, and (3) compatibility with existing systems, structures, and even attitudes and values.
Process Technology
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Process technology is the application of scientific knowledge to processes involved in the transformation of (1) material inputs (i.e., either physical state or physical location), (2) information inputs (e.g. analytical or transactional outcomes) or (3) customer inputs (e.g., physiological or psychological outcomes).
Volume
Authors: Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Volume is the term used to denote the level of broadly similar products, customers, etc. an operation can or is required to process – or similar tasks it is required to perform – per unit of time.
Total Productive Maintenance
Authors: Shulver Michael
Published: January 2015

Total productive maintenance (
TPM
) is productive maintenance carried out by all employees through small group activities.
Cladistics
Authors: Leseure Michel
Published: January 2015

Cladistics is an alternative classification technique for manufacturing systems.
Benchmarking
Authors: Oliver Nick
Published: January 2015

Benchmarking is the process of systematic comparison of operations. By revealing performance differences between comparable operations, it can challenge assumptions, trigger reflection and investigation and be a powerful tool for performance improvement. This article covers the history and origins of benchmarking, described the benchmarking process and provides examples of influential benchmarking projects. It is noted that benchmarking has a profoundly organizational‐ political dimension when used as a lever for change.
Capacity Management
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

The most common use of the word “capacity” is in a physical sense, for example, as applied to the fixed volume of a container or the space in a building.
Capacity Strategy
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Capacity strategy is the term applied to an interconnected set of decisions, which determine the long‐term capacity configuration of an organization.
Dependent and Independent Demands
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

An operation that produces components that go into an assembled product need not treat demand as a totally random variable: it knows that it is
dependent
on the demand for the finished product.
Failure Measures
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

There are three main ways of measuring failure: failure rates (how often a failure occurs), reliability (the chances of a failure occurring), and availability (the amount of available useful operating time).
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

The objective of failure mode and effect analysis (
FMEA
) is to identify the product or service features that are critical to various types of failure.
Gantt Chart
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

A Gantt chart is a simple device, first devised by H. L. Gantt in 1917, which represents time as a bar, or channel, on a chart.
Layout
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

The term layout is used to mean the physical location of an operation's facilities (machines, equipment, and staff) within the operation.
Operations Objectives
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Operations objectives are the explicit dimensions of performance against which an operation will attempt to satisfy market requirements: as a result they do not usually include measures such as return on investment or market share – even if they directly influence these metrics.
Operations Role
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

The “role” of the operations function refers to the set of long‐term strategic responsibilities that are seen as being its prime concern, and from that, the part it has to play in achieving competitive success.
PDCA
Cycle
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

The plan–do–check–act (PDCA) cycle is frequently used in the context of Continuous Improvement.
Productivity Ratios
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

The definition of productivity as a ratio is conceptually straightforward; the total factor productivity (TFP) of an operation can be described by the equation.
Product–Process Matrix
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

The product–process matrix is a model that is used to demonstrate the combination of a product's (or product group's) Volume and Variety characteristics and the nature of the processes that makes it.
Value Engineering
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Value engineering is a technical process whereby product designs are modified in order to minimize costs that do not contribute to the value and performance of the product.
Vertical Integration
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Vertical integration is the extent to which an organization owns the network of companies or processes that together give products or services their value.
Work Study
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

Work study is a general term for the study of human work, based originally on the principles of Scientific Management.
Work–Time Distributions
Authors: Slack Nigel
Published: January 2015

A characteristic of human work is that, when engaged on repetitive work, any person will not always take the same amount of time in performing a task.
Lot Sizing in
MRP
Authors: Burcher Peter
Published: January 2015

Lot sizing (or batching) in Material Requirements Planning (
MRP
) is the process of modifying the net requirement quantities before they are translated into planned orders in an
MRP
system.
Master Production Schedule
Authors: Burcher Peter
Published: January 2015

The master production schedule (
MPS
) is a management commitment to produce certain volumes of finished products in particular time periods in the future.
Netting Process in
MRP
Authors: Burcher Peter
Published: January 2015

The material requirements planning (
MRP
) netting process is the way
M
aterial
R
equirements
P
lanning carries out calculations on a level‐by‐level basis down through a
B
ill of
M
aterials, which converts the
M
aster
P
roduction
S
chedule of finished products into suggested or planned orders for all the subassemblies, components, and raw materials.
Optimized Production Technology
Authors: Burcher Peter
Published: January 2015

Optimized production technology (OPT) is both a philosophy (the OPT concept) and a planning and scheduling software (OPT), the name OPT being a registered trademark of the Scheduling Technology Group Ltd.
Safety Stocks in
MRP
Authors: Burcher Peter
Published: January 2015

Safety stocks in material requirement planning (MRP) systems are held, as in any manufacturing system, to cater for uncertainty.
Cross‐Docking
Authors: Romano Pietro
Published: January 2015

Cross‐docking is a distribution strategy that Wal‐Mart made famous.
Network Coordination Mechanisms
Authors: Romano Pietro
Published: January 2015

Network coordination mechanisms consist of (i) the informational structure defining who obtains what information from the environment and how that information is processed and then distributed among different members participating in the mechanism itself and (ii) the decision‐making process helping to select the appropriate action that needs to be performed from the set of alternative solutions.
Supply Chain Risk Pooling
Authors: Romano Pietro
Published: January 2015

Risk pooling is an important concept in
S
upply
C
hain
M
anagement.
Project Cost Management and Control
Authors: Levene Ralph , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

At the end of each project phase, an estimate is produced that increasingly matches the final cost. The concept phase produces a ballpark figure that will only be used to gain agreement to move onto the feasibility phase, when a more detailed preliminary estimate is produced. This should aim to be in the order of 25% of the final cost. The planning phase should refine this estimate to the range? 10% to provide the working budget for the major proportion of the project expenditure in its realization and final project delivery.
Project Leadership
Authors: Levene Ralph , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Project leadership is an extended combination of the traditional skills of the project manager with financial and strategic skills – in particular creating authorizing environments across organizational structures (e.g., managing in a matrix) and engaging with a wide range of stakeholders.
Project Risk Management
Authors: Levene Ralph , Lewis Michael
Published: January 2015

Project risk management is the process of identifying risks that might impact any part of the project life cycle, assessing their impact and likelihood, and planning their elimination, reduction or mitigation.
C
rosby
Authors: Silvestro Rhian
Published: January 2015

This article provides a profile of Philip Crosby and him main contributions to the Total Quality Management literature. Crosby's four “absolutes of quality” are presented, together with an explanation of Crosby's zero defects approach.
F
eigenbaum
Authors: Silvestro Rhian
Published: January 2015

This article provides a profile of A.V. Feigenbaum and his main contributions to quality improvement concepts and practices. One of the early exponents of Total Quality Management, Feigenbaum defined quality in terms of adherence to customer requirements and advocated a focus on reducing total quality costs through error prevention.
Critical Incident Technique
Authors: Johnston Robert
Published: January 2015

CIT
, critical incident technique, has its roots in
WW2
Operations Research. As applied to service operations, it usually comprises two questions: the first asks customers to think of a time when they felt very pleased and satisfied with the service/product received and to describe, in a few sentences, the situation and why they felt so happy; the second requires customers to think of a time when they were unhappy and dissatisfied with the service/product they received and to describe, in a few sentences, why they felt this way.
Service Strategy
Authors: Johnston Robert
Published: January 2015

A service strategy (cf. manufacturing strategy) provides the intellectual framework that allows operations managers to deliver service value to customers and retain financial value within the firm.
Outsourcing
Authors: McIvor Ronan
Published: January 2015

Outsourcing involves the sourcing of goods and services previously sourced internally from external suppliers. Outsourcing has moved from focusing primarily on peripheral activities of the business such as cleaning, catering and security to encompass more critical business areas such as design, manufacturing, and marketing. This article highlights the benefits of outsourcing including cost reduction, performance improvement, flexibility, specialization, and access to innovation. The risks of outsourcing are also highlighted including cost increases, supply market risk, loss of skills, and organizational change. A number of important aspects of outsourcing evaluation and management are discussed including critical activity definition, capability analysis, cost analysis, and supply management.
Focus
Authors: Chambers Stuart
Published: January 2015

Focus is a concept, first articulated by Wickham Skinner, which suggest that an operation that focuses on a narrow product mix for a particular market niche will tend to outperform an operation that attempts a broader mission. Some aspects of focus have been undermined by the increased, low cost, functionality of advanced
ICT
.