bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Memory and migration: research
Authors: Wirth Christa
Published: January 2013

The “cultural turn” of the 1980s led to a shift within history and other related disciplines. New methodological and theoretical paradigms consolidated this linguistically inspired turn, which, among other objectives, aims to deconstruct the master‐narratives in historiography. Memory studies is one of the products which spun off the turn. “Individual,” “communicative,” “collective,” “social,” “public,” and “private” memories have been vividly and broadly debated in the past twenty years. The purpose of this article is to outline how the memory paradigm has been received in migration research. The focus lies on the following questions: How do migrants and their descendants construct memories of migration, settlement, and “integration”? What experiences have been forgotten? How do nations remember (or in some cases forget) and commemorate their migrant histories? How do individuals and groups, who are mobile, carry or challenge national master‐narratives? What sources have researchers relied on to unwind the strands of memory? And what theoretical frameworks were applied? Memory and migration in this article are discussed within the time frame of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries.
Mental health and migration
Authors: Koehn Peter H.
Published: January 2013

Mental health should be conceptualized as a state of psychological well‐being and not merely the absence of mental illness. Considerations of mental health and migration encompass issues, conditions, opportunities, and constraints related to the psychological well‐being of mobile persons, including proactive and reactive movers. The mental health of migrants influences the capacity to realize personal aspirations and affects caregivers, families left behind, communities, and sending and receiving societies.
Merchant communities
Authors: Sharpe Pamela
Published: January 2013

TheOxford English Dictionarydefines “merchant” as one who buys and sells commodities for a profit, especially overseas traders dealing with foreign countries, and “community” as “a body of people organized into a political, municipal or social unity.” This essay aims to explore the sort of migrant communities merchants formed when they ventured overseas.
Mesopotamian and Persian migrations
Authors: Potts D. T.
Published: January 2013

Migration is a phenomenon that was frequently adduced in 19th and early 20th‐century archaeological and historical literature as an explanation for the diffusion of specific cultural traits, such as pottery styles. The fact that written (epigraphic or literary) confirmation of migration was in almost every case lacking, combined with the probability that alternative explanations (trade, artistic influence of one area on another, changing fashions) could account for the appearance of similar material culture in widely separated locales, meant that such diffusionist explanations went out of fashion after the mid‐20th century. Having said that, migration undoubtedly did occur in some situations, even though documentary evidence is lacking.
Mexican migration to the United States, 1880s to present
Authors: Henderson Timothy J.
Published: January 2013

Mexicans began migrating to the United States in significant numbers owing to a remarkable confluence of changes that took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During the 1880s, tracks were completed linking Mexico's rail system to that of the United States. Railroads in Mexico made it easier for Mexicans to travel to the US border, while those in the United States provided construction and maintenance jobs for Mexicans. Moreover, US railroads linked the American Southwest to markets in the Midwest and East, helping to spur a boom in that region's agriculture. Also contributing to that boom was the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902, which provided federal funding for ambitious irrigation projects in the Southwest, and the advent of refrigerated railroad cars that made it possible to ship produce to those far away markets. To the consternation of southwestern farming and railroad interests, the agricultural boom in their region coincided with a surge in xenophobia that led to the exclusion of Asian immigrants and severely curtailed immigration from southern and eastern Europe. This meant a drastic decline in what had been a leading source of low‐cost labor, inspiring southwestern employers increasingly to look southward to fulfill their labor needs.
Middle East, labor migration
Authors: Hanieh Adam
Published: January 2013

Labor migration in the Middle East refers to the mobility of people in the region primarily for the purposes of employment. These labor migrations may be contractual and documented or, as increasingly the case in the early 21st century, involve undocumented transit of people without legal status in destination countries. The vast majority of labor migration that occurs internal to the Middle East is temporary in nature; residency requirements are linked to employment and obtaining citizenship is very difficult for non‐nationals. In general, the category of labor migrant is not applied to large Middle East diasporas such as the Lebanese, who have migrated over generations for a variety of reasons and often settled permanently in their country of destination. This can present conceptual difficulties, however, as these diasporas frequently retain close linkages with their countries of origin and may remit significant amounts of money to dependent relatives. Labor migration in the Middle East overlaps considerably with patterns of forced migration, particularly in the cases of Palestinian and Iraqi refugees. The very large migration flows from outside the Middle East to the Gulf – primarily from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and the Philippines – generally do not move internally within the region and fall outside the scope of this essay.
Migration and agrarian change
Authors: Roberts Kenneth
Published: January 2013

If one considers that migration and agrarian change underlie economic history from the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution through the 20th century, the need to closely define our topic becomes evident. Agrarian change generally increases output per laborer, allowing movement of people from the countryside to the city. Without increased agricultural productivity, the agricultural sector will not produce the surplus to drive industrial growth. Thus, as W. Arthur Lewis says, “agricultural and industrial revolutions always go together” (Lewis 1954).
Migration and development, global South/Mexico‐Morocco
Authors: Iskander Natasha N.
Published: January 2013

In recent years, the relationship between migration and development has received renewed attention, and analysts, policy‐makers, and development experts have returned to the question of how to use emigration to foster economic growth in countries and communities of origin. The main thrust of this inquiry has focused on how to use remittances – the monies that migrants send back home – to support economic activity (de la Garza & Orozco 2002; Orozco 2002; Munzele Maimbo & Ratha 2005; Ratha 2005). However, among countries with high emigration rates, a handful of governments have expanded their emphasis past remittances to create policies that link emigration and development in a more comprehensive way (Castles & Delgado Wise 2008). Morocco and Mexico feature prominently among them. Both countries have policies to link emigration with local and national economic transformation that reach beyond a narrow focus on remittances, and that, more importantly, are creative, participatory, and dynamic (Iskander 2010). At their outset, however, the policies were as single‐minded in their focus on remittances as any of the more mercenary examples of today.
Migration control
Authors: Cook‐Martín David
Published: January 2013

Migration control in today's popular and scholarly imaginings generally refers to governments' ability to determine who enters and leaves a country's territory as well as what they do while there. Visas and permits, fraud‐proof passports, consular vetting, documentary proof, border checkpoints, militarized frontiers, and surveillance have been administrative mechanisms used by officials to exercise control over people's movement across borders. A government's capacity to control immigration is often conceived mechanistically as the pulling of levers that open, close, or regulate gates that determine people flows. When circumstances reveal that officials do not have absolute control of borders or territories, the inference is that they are inept, have no political will, or harbor ulterior motives. The assumption of full control is rarely challenged. The capacity to control or legitimately manage the movement of people across borders and the conditions of their permanence within a jurisdiction is a feature of modern state organizations that is taken for granted.
Mobility
Authors: Pooley Colin G.
Published: January 2013

Most people travel every day: to school, to work, for leisure, or for a multitude of other reasons. The ability to travel freely on a daily basis is usually taken for granted, and is essential to allow modern economies and societies to function. When the ability to travel is restricted (for instance, due to extreme weather, natural disasters, or war) then many aspects of everyday life also cease. While everyday mobility is clearly important, it may not be immediately apparent why it is also relevant to a volume on migration, which is concerned mainly with changes of residence often over very long distances.
Music and migration
Authors: Piva Edward George and Anna
Published: January 2013

This essay looks at the role of the Bible during the formative years of European imperialism in creating a sonic diaspora from which migrant music forms emerged, aided by the technologies of lithographic print media and phonography.
Nativism and xenophobia
Authors: Fernandez Lilia
Published: January 2013

Nativism and xenophobia refer to the preference for native‐born people of a given society and the fear of foreigners or “others” considered to be outsiders based on racial, ethnic, or national origin or religion. Such dynamics often emerge among those individuals who consider themselves to be the original inhabitants or rightful citizens of a given region or nation. Nativism and xenophobia can be directed at immigrants who are newcomers to a country but can sometimes be expressed towards anyone (regardless of nativity or immigrant status) who is perceived to be an outsider, based on physical features/appearance or cultural distinctiveness (in style of dress, language, or religious practice).
Neoliberal globalization and migration
Authors: Márquez Raúl Delgado Wise and Humberto
Published: January 2013

The 1970s witnessed the beginning of a new world order conceptualized by leading political economists as neoliberal globalization. This has been accompanied by a profound restructuring of the world's economy under the influence of large multinational corporations, the globe's most powerful governments led by the United States, and a triad of international bodies: the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Trade Organization (WTO) (Petras & Veltmeyer 2000). This new scenario has reshaped the scope and nature of contemporary human mobility.
Netherlands, migration 19th–20th century
Authors: Schrover Marlou
Published: January 2013

Migration to the Netherlands in the 19th and 20th century was similar to that of other northwestern European countries, but there were also differences, as the sections below will show (Lucassen & Penninx 1997; Obdeijn & Schrover 2008).
Nigeria, migrations early 20th century to present
Authors: Adeyanju Charles T.
Published: January 2013

Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa with a diverse ethnic and linguistic population. Colonized by Britain from the latter part of the 19th century until 1960, Nigeria as a country struggles with its past. High rates of unemployment, underdevelopment, ethnoreligious conflicts, corruption, violent crime, great socioeconomic inequality, poverty, rural–urban migration, poor public health, and other serious social problems confront contemporary Nigerian society. Along with politically orchestrated assassinations, perversion of justice, and poor infrastructure these problems make Nigeria undesirable to its citizens, and have been identified as motivating factors for both voluntary and involuntary migrations.
North Atlantic migrations in the Viking Age
Authors: Vésteinsson Orri
Published: January 2013

There are no contemporary descriptions of the migrations that established a Norse culture in the Northern Isles of Scotland (Shetland and the Orkneys), in Caithness and the Hebrides (the Western Isles) in the 8th–9th centuriesCEor of the apparent continuation of these, the colonization of the previously uninhabited islands of the Faroes, Iceland, and Greenland in the 9th and 10th centuries.
Norway, migration 19th century to present
Authors: Kjeldstadli Knut
Published: January 2013

Migrations may be ordered in several typologies. One approach in this text is to ask forreasons; another is to look at thekind of statein the receiving country.
Nurses and health‐care professionals as migrant workers
Authors: Yeates Nicola
Published: January 2013

Health worker migration has been of concern to the international development and health communities since the 1970s when it was linked to the continued underdevelopment of poorer countries (Mejia 1976). In the early 21st century, the migration of skilled health‐care workers returned to global policy agendas, which centered on the scale and dynamics of this migration and its consequences for social and economic development. The inability of poorer countries to retain skilled health workers for their own populations and the recruitment of these labor forces has taken on special significance in the light of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Organizations and conventions: rights of migrants
Authors: Piper Nicola
Published: January 2013

In principle, migrant workers (hereafter simply “migrants”) are protected through general norms of non‐discrimination and equality; substantive rights such as labor rights and the right to be free from debt bondage; and identity‐based rights aimed at specific groups, such as women's or children's rights (Piper & Satterthwaite 2007). In other words, there are internationally agreed standards for different roles migrants occupy: as men or women, workers, and non‐citizen migrants. The list of applicable human rights norms include: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on Social, Economic and Cultural Rights, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Convention of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and their Families (hereafter CRMW). In addition there are a number of International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions relevant to migrant workers. The two ILO migrant worker conventions are: convention no. 97 of 1949 (C97) concerning Migration for Employment and convention no. 143 of 1975 (C143) concerning Migrations in Abusive Conditions and the Promotion of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment of Migrant Workers. (For a full list of conventions relevant to migrant workers, see International Labour Organization (ILO) 2004.)
Organized crime and migration: the Lombroso Mafia myth
Authors: Woodiwiss Michael
Published: January 2013

Most media outlets, governments, and international organizations in the early 21st century tend to favor descriptions that identify the term “organized crime” with large‐scale conspiratorial entities such as the Mafia, the Triads, and Colombian – or Mexican – drug “cartels.” When definitions are used to describe organized crime, as they were in the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC of 2003), they tend to be formulated as groups of people who combine in structured organizations to commit crimes. Many academics agree, however, that the complexity of systematic illegal activity makes a satisfactory definition elusive, and some would claim that the constant repetition of centralizing demonologies conceals more than it reveals about the problem.
Pakistan, migration 1970s to present
Authors: Azam Farooq
Published: January 2013

Ranked 7th among the top countries of emigration and 13th among the top immigration countries by the World Bank in 2010, Pakistan is a leading migration country in the world; in terms of incoming cash remittances Pakistan is ranked 11th (World Bank 2011). Labor migration occupies a central place in Pakistan's economy as it is one of the main sources of absorbing the country's fast‐growing labor force and generating badly needed foreign exchange in the form of workers' remittances. Migration into the country consists mainly of Bangladeshi and Burmese nationals, who are there mainly in an “illegal” capacity, while a large number of Afghan nationals are also present, who are essentially regarded as refugees by Pakistan government (Azam 2009).
Penal colonies
Authors: Toth Stephen A.
Published: January 2013

The practice of transporting common‐law convicts to lands that served as overseas penal colonies came into being in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Penal colonization was an attempt on the part of many European powers to build new societies on the labor of convicts. All nations who engaged in the practice believed that convict labor could be made productive in the colonies while also serving as the primary means by which the prisoner was morally reformed.
Philippine migration to Japan
Authors: Piquero‐Ballescas Maria Rosario
Published: January 2013

The Philippines is among the world's major labor‐sending countries, with Japan a leading destination for overseas Filipinos. In 2010, an estimated 9,452,984 Filipinos lived overseas, of whom 4,423,680 were permanent, 4,324,388 temporary, and 704,916 irregular (undocumented) migrants. In the same year, the top 10 countries of destination of Filipino migrants were, in descending order, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Canada, UAE, Australia, Malaysia, Japan, UK, Hong Kong, and Kuwait (Commission on Filipinos Overseas 2011a).
Philippines, migration, 1948 to present
Authors: III Jose Gutierrez
Published: January 2013

The Philippines, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines, is a country in Southeast Asia. To its north lies Taiwan; to its west, Vietnam; to its south, Indonesia; and to its east, the vastness of the Pacific Ocean. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is endowed with natural resources which made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. With an estimated population of about 92 million people, the Philippines are the world's twelfth most populous country; an additional 11 million Filipinos live overseas.
Phoenician and Carthaginian migrations
Authors: Sagona Claudia
Published: January 2013

After the economic disruption that impacted on the lands of the Mediterranean at the end of the Bronze Age (c.1200BCE), the indigenous societies of Canaan along the Levantine coast gradually rose to importance. Several city‐states, among them Tyre, Sidon, Arwad, and Sarepta, grew wealthy through the mercantile interests of their people and the lively economic competition they generated (Markoe 2000: 257–282). Though each was independent, it was the ancient Greeks who coined the collective name,Phoiníke, for their combined territories andphoínikesfor its people – the Phoenicians in modern literature. Over the course of a millennium, the Phoenicians achieved significant economic standing in the Near East, ultimately turning to the coastal regions of the greater Mediterranean for commercial expansion and settlement, a process that unfolded through a series of human migrations. As a modern field of investigation, it is made complex by the considerable areas involved and the gamut of languages in which such research is published. Investigations are further complicated by numerous international borders, some fraught with ongoing political tensions; it is still true to say that we know more about the Phoenicians in the west than we do of their homeland city states in Lebanon and Syria.
Pilgrimage
Authors: Swatos, William H.
Published: January 2013

A good case can be made that pilgrimage and sacrifice stand as two of the most primitive forms of religious action, and in many cases they were intentionally combined – that is, one made a journey to a site in order to offer a sacrifice there and/or pilgrimage itself was considered a form of sacrifice. Pilgrimage is still recognized as an important religious act in at least some branches of all major world religions, and it is enjoined explicitly by the founders of Islam and Buddhism. In this sense, pilgrimage has a well‐established place in the history of travel and migration – and one that has grown significantly in numbers during the second half of the 20th century and continues into the present, inasmuch as air travel has allowed far greater numbers to make a pilgrimage in a considerably shorter period of time. The purported “decline of religion” notwithstanding, more and more people are making pilgrimage to more and more sites, and religious authorities are themselves not only taking note of this but also working to facilitate the process by restoring historic shrines and creating what are in effect tour routes around Europe, for example, by “bundling” a series of sites into a pilgrimage itinerary that can be completed in time frames consistent with vacation periods of different lengths, leading also to the phenomenon of “religious tourism.”
Police raids, detention, and deportation of migrants
Authors: Tazreiter Claudia
Published: January 2013

This essay focuses on the securitization of migrants as a range of strategies that have accelerated in the last two decades as states assert control in their “border zones.” While the various processes of globalization (Bauman 1998) have had the effect of challenging the power and sovereignty of the state, it can be argued that migration control is one area of policy and administration where the state has reasserted authority – at times with great force (Sassen 1999, 2006; Huysmans 2006). This essay will contextualize these developments and explore them in the context of two dominant events that have shaped migration control, first the end of the Cold War, and second the September 11, 2001 terrorist bombings in New York and Washington and the “war on terror” that followed. The essay outlines the categories of migrant that have been subject to such securitization as well as an analytic framework to consider the responses to migrants.
Political economy of refugees
Authors: Novak Paolo
Published: January 2013

The study of refugees necessarily starts from law, because despite episodes of politically motivated migration, as well as the notion of asylum being a constant feature throughout history, the modern refugee institution is a legal one. As stated in Article 1A(2) of the 1951 UN Convention on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, a refugee is a person who can, on a case‐ by‐case or group basis, be determined to have a well‐founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, or membership of a particular social group or political opinion; who is outside the country of his nationality; and who is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country (UNHCR 2005: 55).
Portugal: colonization and settlement
Authors: Góis José Carlos Marques and Pedro
Published: January 2013

This essay provides a brief overview of the primary Portuguese migratory movements from 1415 to the 20th century. The text is organized around two central themes that embrace different periods and types of migratory movements: settlement, and emigration and colonization.
Portuguese slave trade in the Americas
Authors: Kananoja Jelmer Vos and Kalle
Published: January 2013

Between the early 1500s and the effective abolition of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1860s, Portuguese and Brazilian vessels carried more than five million slaves to the Americas.
Public health and development
Authors: Acevedo Gregory
Published: January 2013

The relationship between development and public health is crucially intertwined with the conditions of migration and its effects on sender and receiver communities. There is a powerful association between public health and development (Shaffer et al. 2005; Waitzkin et al. 2005). The association between public health and development is complicated by their interaction with the dynamics of migration. Migration and development are inextricably linked (van Naerssen et al. 2008). In addition, migration has direct effects on public health conditions (Carballo & Mourtala 2005). This essay will conclude with a discussion of current trends in migration and development, and their implications for public health and governance in a globalized world.
Ethnic selection in immigration to Latin America
Authors: FitzGerald David Scott
Published: January 2013

Argentine intellectual Juan Bautista Alberdi observed in 1879 that “to govern is to populate.” Alberdi's observation is emblematic of the critical importance that attracting millions of immigrants played in creating the Argentine nation state, but his maxim applies in varying degrees throughout Latin America and beyond. In selecting who shall enter and who shall be excluded, immigration policies reveal the kind of nation that governments seek to create. From 1800 to 1970, approximately 13.8 million immigrants entered Latin America. Nearly 60 percent hailed from southern Europe, 15 percent from elsewhere in Europe, and 11 percent from Asia. Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba were the major countries of immigration through the 1920s. In the decade following World War II, Argentina and Brazil re‐emerged as significant countries of immigration, along with Venezuela. Throughout this period, Mexico, Central America, and the Andean states were unable to attract mass European immigration despite their best efforts. Europeans generally preferred countries with temperate climates, political stability, economic growth, and small indigenous or black populations. Yet whether immigrants came in numbers large or small, governments throughout Latin America sought to “whiten” their populations through ethnic selection until most disavowed racism in the mid‐ to late 20th century.
Race, nationality, and migration
Authors: Kil Sang Hea
Published: January 2013

Between the 16th and the 18th centuries, race was a folk idea in the English language and was similar to terms like “kind,” “type,” and “breed.” By the end of the 17th century in North America, the term “race” had emerged as a way to refer to different populations like Africans, Native Americans, and Europeans. By the early 18th century, “race” became more commonly used to refer to distinct peoples (Smedley & Smedley 2005). By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, race played a major role in the myths of national origin (Banton 1987; Miles 1987). In this sense, race and nationality are historically linked and help to constitute each other in references to, for example, a “British race” or “German race” of people.
Rainforests and migration
Authors: Hazarika Sanjoy
Published: January 2013

The term “rainforest” refers to the forests of the wet‐evergreen tropics where there is no, or only minimal, seasonal water shortage. Spread across the equatorial regions of four continents – South America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania – and stretching from northeastern India through parts of Myanmar/Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, southwest China and into the Malaysian peninsula, Indonesian archipelago, and Australia, these swathes of jungle have long been acknowledged as the lungs of the earth. After hundreds of years of human despoiling of these sensitive ecological regions that are essential to the survival of humans and other species, rainforests are extensively threatened or damaged.
Reconquista
Authors: Maser Matthias
Published: January 2013

In 711CEMuslim troops from North Africa invaded the Iberian peninsula. Within a few years they had conquered the former Visigothic kingdom of Toledo and made the land, which they called al‐Andalus, part of the pan‐Islamic caliphate. As a result of this invasion Christian rule was abruptly reduced to a small residual area in the Iberian northwest. A military re‐expansion of Christian dominion could be achieved only in slow steps: it took almost eight hundred years until in 1492 Granada, the last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian peninsula, fell back into the hands of the Christians. Western historical narratives often portray this centuries‐long Christian (re‐)expansion as a monolithic “reconquest,” an incessant process of territorial recuperation and the moral recovery of a “Spanish nation” (Tolan 2002). This highly ideological view presents the Reconquista as the most defining event of the Iberian Middle Ages, and even in scientific parlance the term “reconquest” is frequently used as a synonym for the whole epoch. This equation, however, is problematic: During the Middle Ages the Iberian peninsula witnessed a multitude of migrations, settlements, and cultural entanglements, which were far more varied than the biased narrative of a unidirectional Christian “reconquest” suggests.
Regularization programs
Authors: Zavodny Pia M. Orrenius and Madeline
Published: January 2013

Unauthorized immigration is the fastest growing form of international migration, with an estimated 2.5 to 4 million migrants crossing international borders without authorization each year (Sunderhaus 2007). As of 2005, the global stock of unauthorized immigrants was estimated at 30 to 40 million (Papademetriou 2005a). Unauthorized immigration presents both benefits and challenges to host countries. Unauthorized immigrants are often a flexible and relatively cheap source of labor, which benefits their employers and consumers. Challenges arise, however, when policy‐makers face the need to extend labor protections and social services to these workers and their families. At this point, government authorities have to decide whether and how to allow these migrants to regularize their status. Regularization programs for unauthorized immigrants have occurred in many countries in the post‐World War II period. This chapter offers an overview of those programs and their effects.
Remittances and poverty alleviation, Ecuador and Bangladesh
Authors: Velásquez Pritam Singh and Shirley
Published: January 2013

During the past few years, there has been a significant resurgence in the interest of one of the most visible outcomes of migration – remittances sent home by migrant workers abroad. This interest has been generated by a remarkable increase in remittances and its importance as a source of development. For instance, cross‐country analysis of 71 developing countries suggested that a “10% increase in per capita official international remittances will lead to a 3.5% decline in the share of people living in poverty” (Adams & Page 2005: 1645).
Remittances and undocumented migration
Authors: Pena Anita Alves
Published: January 2013

Remittances are transfers, of money and goods, across geographic boundaries, often internationally by migrants in a destination country to their family, friends, or communities in a source country. This essay presents data and critically reviews literature and empirical evidence on remittances, drawn from a number of countries, as to their magnitudes, causes, and effects, especially those originating from undocumented workers.
Remittances and development finance
Authors: Julca Alex
Published: January 2013

International remittances flows are born out of immigrants’ savings, which are part of wages earned for work performed abroad. Remittances are private transfers received by families to be used mainly on private consumption, saved, or invested in health, education (social investment), real estate, or small businesses. However, the circulation of remittances does not end after they have been spent
Reparations and refugees
Authors: Ludwig Bernadette
Published: January 2013

The scarcity of scholarly research on reparations for refugees may easily lead to an inaccurate conclusion that they are either uncommon or unimportant in the aftermath of refugee crises. This essay seeks to dispel this myth by examining reparations in a refugee context, their historical development, and the recent trend toward using reparations in peace processes.
Reserve army of labor and migration
Authors: Duggan Marie Christine
Published: January 2013

For exploitation by capital, Karl Marx 1990 argued, workers must be free in the double sense – free of possessions, but also politically free. Yet, the 19th‐century situation that Marx analyzed included Irish immigrants who formed a subsection of the British working class with fewer political rights. Marx began with a discussion of how economic growth under capitalism creates unemployment, which evolved into a discussion of five components of the working class: army of labor, floating reserve, stagnant pool, latent reserve, and paupers. While Marx never explicitly mentioned the lack of political rights, he did suggest that Irish migrants in the British working class were trapped in precarious stagnant pool jobs. This essay will examine Marx's theory of the multisector reserve army, and draw out the political implications for undocumented immigrants in modern advanced economies.
Retirement migration
Authors: Gustafson Per
Published: January 2013

Retired persons migrate for several different reasons, even though the migration rate in general is lower for retirees than among younger persons (Bradley & Longino 2009). One common form of retiree migration is the return migration of former labor migrants to their previous home countries or home regions. Another form can be described as family‐oriented migration, as retired parents move in order to be close to their children (Warnes 2009). However, in academic discourse, the termretirement migration, or sometimesinternational retirement migration(IRM), primarily refers to amenity‐oriented migration among retired persons from the Western world who move, permanently or temporarily, to new home places in search for an improved quality of life (King et al. 2000; Migration Policy Institute 2006).
Revolution and migration, Europe 1848–49
Authors: Freitag Sabine
Published: January 2013

If we look at the map of Europe in 1848 there is one striking feature: European revolutions in 1848 did not break out in liberal England, which had the highest level of industrialization, nor in tsarist Russia, the most backward agrarian state in the East. While in Britain reform politics managed to adjust gradually to the process of modernization, in Russia the political system was far too backward and repressive – serfdom would not be abolished until 1861 − to allow a climate of political protest. In 1848/49 England, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries stayed calm in the midst of turmoil for other reasons than autocratic Russia, unstable Spain and Portugal, the countries of southeast Europe occupied by the Ottoman empire (Balkan), and autonomous Greece. But revolutions broke out in those countries that found themselves “in between” – that is, countries that were already on the road to constitutional and economic modernity but which showed some kind of arrested development: France, Germany, and the Austrian empire. Although in some of these countries new constitutions had been granted after the Vienna Congress in 1815 (i.e. the smaller states of the German confederation: Württemberg, Bavaria, Baden, Hanover, Hesse, Saxony), many of them still lacked a real political, economic, and social transformation, and suffered from uninspired governments and reactionary political restrictions. Nevertheless all political and social unrest in Europe in 1848/49 had its own causes and aims, especially when it came to tax protests or hunger revolts on a regional or local level.
Revolution and migration, France 1789
Authors: Meadows R. Darrell
Published: January 2013

France's first written constitution, adopted by the French National Assembly on September 3, 1791, made freedom of movement a basic right of French citizenship. The repercussions of this intervention, as with other aspects of France's revolution in basic human rights, would ultimately extend throughout the Western world and beyond. In the immediate revolutionary context, however, recent scholarship reveals how this revolutionary act served as a catalyst for the growth and elaboration ofancien régimemigratory patterns, even as the revolutionary decade generated thousands of refugees and disrupted a number of long‐standing local, regional, and colonial migratory streams.
Roman world, mobility
Authors: Moatti Claudia
Published: January 2013

Although for a long time it was believed that pre‐contemporary societies were largely sedentary, closed, and stable, historiography has recently recognized the continuity of the phenomenon of migration between antiquity and the early modern times. For the history of the Roman empire, this new approach has constituted a sort of “migratory turn.”
Romania and Moldova, migration mid‐19th century to present
Authors: Horváth István
Published: January 2013

Romania as a modern polity was created in 1859 when the medieval principalities of Walachia (the southern part of present‐day Romania) and western Moldova were united in a single state (the Old Kingdom). The eastern part of the medieval Moldovan principality (known also as Bessarabia) was formally annexed to Russia in 1812 and kept under Russian rule until 1918. After World War I Romania took control over eastern Moldova, and Transylvania (a historical principality, part of the Hungarian kingdom) was also incorporated (the Greater Romania). On the eve of World War II, the Romanian state lost control over northern Transylvania (where Hungarian rule was reinstated), and the Soviets took control for a short period over eastern Moldova. Following World War II, Romania regained control over the whole of Transylvania (present‐day Romania). Eastern Moldova became a Soviet socialist republic, proclaiming its independence in 1991.
Rural migration and poverty, United States
Authors: Curtis Katherine J.
Published: January 2013

Despite having one of the highest average incomes in the industrialized world, the United States has the highest rate of poverty among developed nations (Smeeding et al. 2001; Iceland 2003). Throughout this essay, poverty refers to the official poverty threshold (Orshansky 1965). The measure is criticized for underestimating poverty in the general and metropolitan populations, and overestimating poverty among the nonmetropolitan population (Iceland 2005; Nelson & Short 2005). Still, most research on poverty continues to use the official measure. Of further concern is the uneven distribution of poverty across the United States. Poverty is highly clustered; places in poverty generally are near other places in poverty, while places with low poverty tend to be located near other places with low poverty (Beale & Gibbs 2006; Voss et al. 2006). This results in what are often called pockets of poverty which are distinct from other areas of the United States (Weinberg 1987). The uneven spatial distribution of poverty is persistent over time (Brown & Warner 1991; Beale 1993), tends to be located in rural areas (Tickamyer & Duncan 1990; Levernier et al. 2000; Weber et al. 2005), and is found in the Mississippi Delta, the Cotton Belt, southwestern borderlands, tribal reservations, and Appalachia.
Rural migration, Europe and North America 1945 to present
Authors: Kulcsár László J.
Published: January 2013

From the time of the Industrial Revolution, migration in the settlement structure has had a distinct general characteristic: people largely move from rural to urban areas. According to the 2009 revision ofWorld Urbanization Prospects, the proportion of urban population exceeded 50 percent for the first time in human history (UN 2010). This urban crossover had already occurred by 1950 in the more developed countries of Europe and North America. In 2010, the proportion of urban population in Europe was 73 percent, while in North America it was 82 percent. However, this seemingly stable urban population growth, and the rural outmigration which fueled it, was interrupted in the 1970s. Called “nonmetropolitan turnaround” in the United States and “counter‐urbanization” in Europe, rural places have gained population via migration, making population redistribution trends much more complex.
Rural–urban migrations, medieval era
Authors: Schäfer Regina
Published: January 2013

Rural–urban migration, is the most frequent type of migration and a phenomenon that is well known to all urban societies. In the Ancient world, as well as in China during the Song Dynasty, and in the Islamic world after 1000
CE
, big cities existed and held a strong attraction for the rural population. In the western part of the post‐Roman empire which is the focus of the following discussion, the economic and social system of the ancient world with its three components, namely
oppida
,
vici
, and
villae
, lost its importance and finally broke down during the upheaval of the “Migration Period.” This change was followed by a period of stabilization in the 7th century. In the 8th century, different types of urban centers came into existence: (1) the rebirth of towns with an ancient substrate; (2) the relocation to areas with new topographic conditions; and (3) the new foundation of towns without any ancient references either as emporia along the coast or on rural sites, for example Douai or Liège, which emanate from manorial nuclei (Verslype 2001).
Russia, migration 17th–19th century
Authors: Gevorkyan Aleksandr V.
Published: January 2013

Massive human migrations through the late 19th century undoubtedly influenced formation of nations and countries all across Eurasia's plateau. For Russia, those migrations were pivotal in national development due to the immense territorial span, wide range of cultural diversity, profound political significance, and sheer numbers of people on the move. As Russia's dominion grew over time, the intensifying population flows laid the foundation for the collective communication links needed in the subsequent stronger spread of political and administrative controls over the vast territories.
Russian internal migration, early 20th century to present
Authors: Ivanov Serguey
Published: January 2013

Internal migration in 20th‐century Russia included changes of place of residence for a person's own economic interests and by their free will, and many episodes of forced migration as a result of wars and violent repressions. Free migrations that were tightly controlled by the state peaked before World War II, driven by industrialization. The colonization of the east was and remained the official goal, whereas most resettlements take place along other axes. Rural exodus, which was the overwhelming form of spontaneous migration, has subsided during the last decades.
Russian international migration, 20th century
Authors: Heleniak Timothy
Published: January 2013

During the 20th century and into the 21st, Russia has undergone considerable social, economic, political, and demographic changes which have had enormous impacts on levels and patterns of international migration. Over this period, Russia has been part of the Tsarist empire, the Soviet Union, and, since 1992, an independent state. Since the 19th century, there have been considerable boundary changes to the Russian state both influenced by and impacting international migration. These boundary changes make tracking and describing international migration a challenge. International migration is typically defined as movement across an international border – but a person can also become an international migrant by virtue of the border moving, and there are certainly many examples of this in the case of Russia.
Sanctuary movements
Authors: Lippert Randy K.
Published: January 2013

Contemporary sanctuary movements are organized, collective efforts to provide physical protection to migrants facing arrest and deportation by state authorities in receiving countries. Medieval sanctuary practiced by the Christian church was a permanent element of a legal system and protection was extended to felons, fleeing serfs, and debtors (Morgenstern 2009). Such provisions were later appropriated by the modern state in Europe and were essential to the development of early modern criminal law (Shoemaker 2010). Only in the late 1970s did sanctuary movements and their practices develop a strong connection to protecting asylum‐seekers from arrest and deportation in receiving countries rather than other kinds of fugitives. The defining practices of these movements first became manifest in the UK (see Weller 1987: 10). But it was during 1982 and 1983, and then sporadically during the next three decades, that sanctuary practices ostensibly stemming from Christian churches emerged fully in the US, Canada, and Western Europe, including Germany, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Norway, and Finland (see Lippert 2006: 4). These practices arose amid a dramatic increase in the number of asylum‐seekers in the West, and a corresponding escalation of national and international efforts to discourage and control their arrival, including the use of physical arrest and deportation.
Scholars in search of knowledge, medieval era
Authors: Kintzinger Martin
Published: January 2013

Medieval scholars and students exhibited “modes of movement across community lines,” as Patrick Manning expressed it in his study on migration in world history (Manning 2005: 92). What they did is described by Dirk Hoerder (2010: 20) as “alltägliche Mobilität von speziellen Gruppen(everyday mobility of special groups).”
Schooling, education, and migration
Authors: Mansouri Fethi
Published: January 2013

Young people have been the focal point in recent debates about immigration, multiculturalism, cultural diversity, and the notion of living with difference. Within this overall debate, cultural identity and articulations of belonging and attachment remain central issues for migrant youth, regardless of how much time has elapsed since leaving their country of origin. Cultural identity is particularly salient for migrant youth who negotiate identity space comfortably alongside, in opposition to, or more commonly, somewhere in between their immigrant parents' conceptions and understanding of culture and the receiving culture within which they live. Unlike their native peers, migrant youth are exposed to intra‐ethnicandinterethnic dynamics in their journey towards cultural identity formation. These experiences can be fluid, complex, and diverse and are navigated within multilayered ethnic, racial, familial, gendered, socioeconomic, and educational contexts. Within this complex environment, education plays a crucial role in the settlement experiences of migrants irrespective of the period of settlement. This essay argues that the two critical dimensions of identity and education interact and combine to impact on the settlement and cultural adjustment experiences of migrant youth irrespective of their formal status in the countries of residence.
Seasonal migration
Authors: Plewa Piotr
Published: January 2013

Seasonal migrants are a subcategory of temporary migrants. According to the International Labor Organization, seasonal migrant workers are people who work in a country other than their homeland and for only a part of the year, since the work they perform is directly related to seasonal conditions.