bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Looking a Gift Horse in the Mouth
Authors: Lauter Paul
Published: November 2020

These are times which may not yet try our souls, but surely they tempt our spirits. It was but a few years ago that the current drug czar, then chairman of the federal agency dispensing opportunity to humanists, initiated a public campaign to reestablish as the basis of humanistic study a five, or maybe a two-and-a-half foot shelf of great books. These would, presumably, teach us, or at least the youth consigned to us, the central virtues: to quote William Bennett, “not to betray your friends, your God or your country.” Across Washington, the National Institute of Education issued a report suggesting that American higher education suffered from a deep head cold that, were it not properly treated, could easily develop into pneumonia. The treatment, among other things, was an expansion of the liberal arts, and perhaps a return to old-fashioned general education and distribution requirements. Dutifully pursuing the theme, reports of prestigious private organizations like the Association of American Colleges sounded the trumpet of reform. And then, as if in answer to these calls, President Reagan appointed a humanist, an academic, the very initiator of this campaign to revive the humanities and the study of Western civilization as Secretary of Education. And not, as it became apparent, to preside over the dismemberment of that federal department, but to reestablish in education traditional American virtues. It seemed like a humanist's dream, this federally-sanctioned campaign to restore the importance of our disciplines, to “place at the heart of the college curriculum” the “study of the humanities and Western civilization,” and a colleague in high place to put money behind the mouth. And besides, for many of us the very notion of reviving general education requirements, and especially the study of Western civilization, is itself appealing, regardless of money or power. So perhaps it would seem best not to look a gift horse too closely in the mouth, even if the emerging winds bring more than a whiff of sectarian values.
Introduction
Authors: Lamberti Marjorie
Published: November 2020

This study of the elementary school in Prussia began with the question of why the largest state in the German Empire, which had a government that was preoccupied with social and national integration and a political culture that was deeply affected by the ideology of nationalism, had a public elementary school system that served to reinforce religious particularism through its confessionally divided organization and its confessionally oriented textbooks and instruction. Confessional schooling remained the predominant form of elementary education for Catholics and Protestants in the Prussian state throughout the nineteenth century despite the changes that came in the wake of national unification, industrialization, and urbanization. Neither the secular school nor the interconfessional school providing a common educational experience for all children without distinction as to church affiliation ever took hold. The interconfessional school (the so-called Simultanschule), in which the Catholic, Jewish, and Protestant religions were taught to the pupils of each faith in separate classes as one subject in an otherwise religiously neutral curriculum, was the pedagogic ideal of a large number of schoolteachers in Prussia. They saw it as a means of diminishing church influence in the schools as well as promoting tolerance and social harmony in a confessionally segmented nation. When a school law was enacted in 1906 after more than fifty years of political controversy over the school question and abortive school bills, it categorized the interconfessional school as the exception to the rule. A legal seal was put on the prevailing practice of having children and teachers of one and the same faith in a school. Although the confessional public school under the supervision of school inspectors who were clergy by vocation appeared to the schoolteachers to be an anachronism in a modern society, it survived the revolution of 1918 and the efforts of the Socialists to abolish the instruction of religion in the schools. In the Weimar Republic the Social Democrats did not succeed in establishing a secular school system for the entire nation, and no more successful were the German Democrats who sought to make the interconfessional school the only legally valid norm.
Confessional Schooling and School Politics in the Imperial Era
Authors: Lamberti Marjorie
Published: November 2020

A reaction against Falk’s school policy was inevitable when a Conservative belonging to the Pomeranian landowning nobility took over the Ministry of Education in July 1879. During his first months in office, Robert von Puttkamer made several highly publicized gestures to communicate to the nation his disapproval of the school reforms and his intention to end the Kulturkampf in the school system. In September 1879 he used the occasion of a reply to a petition signed by more than 400 priests in the dioceses of Miinster and Paderborn to announce a policy of reconciliation. He declared, “I wish nothing more fervently than to be able to grant to the clergy of the Christian churches an effective role in the supervision of the elementary school.” He pleaded with the Catholic clergy “not to succumb to the mistaken notion that the policy of the state is to be hostile or indifferent to the beneficial influence of the church on the instruction and moral and religious education of the youth.” Once their resistance to the May Laws ceased, he promised to reinstate them in their former local school inspection offices. Another signal of the oncoming reaction was Puttkamer’s dramatic intervention in the school conflict in Elbing, a city in the province of East Prussia, where the municipal council decided to organize an interconfessional school system in 1875. Ignoring the objections of the Catholic minority, city officials carried out the first phase of the reform in 1876 with the opening of four interconfessional schools for girls. The Catholic parents protested this change and the forthcoming merger of the confessional schools for boys in a petition addressed to Falk in April 1877. Their petition remained unanswered, and only after they renewed their appeal in February 1879 did the minister request a report from the district governor in Danzig. The report arrived in Berlin on July 28, apparently held back until after Falk left office. The district government informed the new minister that “the Catholics in Elbing harbor a great distrust toward the interconfessional school, which the city government itself has provoked because it has constantly shown a conspicuous contempt toward all demands made on the school system from a church and confessional standpoint.”
Introduction: Why oxygen chemstry?
Authors: Sawyer Donald T. , Williams R. J. P.
Published: November 2020

The fundamental premise of chemistry is that all matter consists of molecules. The physical and chemical properties of matter are those of the constituent molecules, and the transformation of matter into different materials (compounds) is the result of their reactions to form new molecules. A molecule consists of two or more atoms held in a relatively fixed array via valence-electron orbital overlap (covalent bonds; chemical bonds). In the nineteenth century chemists focused on the remarkable diversity of molecules produced by living organisms, which have in common the presence of tetravalent carbon atoms. As a result the unique versatility of carbon for the design and synthesis of new molecules was discovered, and the subdiscipline of organic chemistry (the science of carbon-containing molecules) has become the dominant part of the discipline. Clearly, the results from a focus on carbon-based chemistry have been immensely useful to science and to society. Although most molecules in biological systems [and produced by living organisms (particularly aerobic systems)] contain oxygen atoms as well as carbon and hydrogen (e.g., proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, hormones, and vitamins), there has been a long tradition in all of chemistry to treat oxygen atoms as “neutral counterweights” for the “important,” character-determining elements (C, H, Al, Si, Fe, I) of the molecule. Thus, chemists have tended to take the most important element (oxygen) for granted. The chemistry curriculum devotes one or two year-courses to the chemistry of carbon (“Organic Chemistry”), but only a brief chapter on oxygen is included in the first-year and the inorganic courses. However, if the multitude of hydrocarbon molecules is from the incorporation of oxygen atoms in single-carbon molecules argues against the assignment of a “neutral character” for oxygen atoms [e.g., Cn(graphite), CH4(g), CH3OH(1), CH2(O)(1), HC(O)OH(1), (HO)2C(O)(aq), CO(g), CO2(g)]. Just as the focus of nineteenth century chemists on carbon-containing molecules has produced revolutionary advances in chemical understanding, and yielded the technology to synthesize and produce useful chemicals, polymers, and medicinals; I believe that a similar focus on oxygen chemistry is appropriate and will have analogous rewards for chemistry, biochemistry, and the chemical process technologies.
Reactivity of Oxy-anions [HO-, RO-, HOO- (ROO-), and O2-] as Nucleophiles and One-Electron Reducing Agents
Authors: Sawyer Donald T. , Williams R. J. P.
Published: November 2020

The preceding chapter describes the primary reaction chemistry of superoxide ion (O2-. to be that of (1) a Brønsted base (proton transfer from substrate), (2) a nucleophile (via displacement or addition), (3) a one-electron reductant, and (4) a dehydrogenase of secondary-amine groups. The chemistry is characteristic of all oxy anions [HO- (RO-), HOO- (ROO-), and O2-.], but the relative reactivity for each is determined by its pKa and one-electron oxidation potential, which are strongly affected by the anionic solvation energy of the solvent matrix. The present chapter will focus on the reactivity of hydroxide ion (HO-), but the principles apply to all oxy anions and permit assessments of their relative reactivity. The reactivity of hydroxide ion (and that of other oxy anions) is interpreted in terms of two unifying principles: (1) the redox potential of the YO- / YO· (Y = H, R, HO, RO, and O) couple (in a specific reaction) is controlled by the solvation energy of the YO- anion and the bond energy of the R-OY product (RX + YO- → R-OY + X-), and (2) the nucleophilic displacement and addition reactions of YO- occur via an inner-sphere single-electron shift. The electron is the ultimate base and one-electron reductant, which, upon introduction into a solvent, is transiently solvated before it is “leveled” (reacts) to give the conjugate base (anion reductant) of the solvent.
Industrial Archaeology
Authors: Gordon Robert B. , Malone Patrick M.
Published: November 2020

The prominence of industry in the culture of the North Atlantic nations has provoked thoughtful people to ask penetrating questions about the roots of innovation and the social and environmental consequences of industrial technology. One cluster of questions, long of interest to scholars, focuses on how and by whom new technologies were created and how their selection, use, or rejection has been influenced by cultural values. In the past quarter century, the impact of technologies and industries on the environment has become a widespread concern among citizens of the industrialized nations. People are raising questions about the past and present uses of natural resources and how their availability influences economic growth. They are concerned about the consequences of releasing industrial wastes and effluents into the air and water. They are also exploring their personal experiences with mechanisms and technological devices—how these artifacts enter work, play, and art, and how they express cultural values. Because the field of the history of technology is relatively new, scholars have approached it within the framework of established disciplines. The work of historians with the written record and of economists with numerical data is securely established in the academic world. We would add to these the material record, the domain of the industrial archaeologist. Evidence from artifacts is particularly important for the study of workers (because the written record is sparse), of inventors (because much of the secondary literature simplifies the complexities of invention), and of the industrial landscape. To discover the texture of industry, we need to examine both the documentary and the material record; artifacts as well as documents must speak for the experiences ot past workers. An artifact, in the words of historian Brooke Hindle, is “a solid piece of the past in a way that no quotation can ever be.”' Students of industry must rely heavily on material evidence because few participants in industry left written records of their experiences and because some aspects of technology cannot be expressed effectively in words.
Scarce Metals and Petroleum
Authors: Gordon Robert B. , Malone Patrick M.
Published: November 2020

Lured by the potential for substantial wealth, Americans have focused a disproportionate share of their industrial effort on extracting and processing resources that are both scarce and in high demand. Gold and silver were always valuable and eagerly sought, but in the nineteenth century, the demand tor other nonferrous metals and (or petroleum rose to unprecedented levels. Obtaining these scarce, nonrenewable resources brought new patterns of industrial land use and new environmental consequences. The continuing effects on our land, water, and air are serious concerns in American society today. The hope of finding gold and silver, the metals of wealth and display, drew numerous adventurers to North America in the seventeenth century. In the East, those hoping to repeat the Spanish experience in South America and Mexico were disappointed. Although colonial prospectors did discover small deposits of nonferrous-metal ores on the east coast and in the Appalachians, most of the metals were not in the precious category. There was a demand for utilitarian metals as well: English colonists depended on lead for pipes, window carries, and shot; they cooked with copper kettles, drank the products of copper stills, and set their tables with pewter (a tin alloy) tableware. Nevertheless, Americans generally found it cheaper and easier to use imported nonferrous metals until the mineral resources of the center of the continent were exploited in the nineteenth century. Iron was the only metal extensively mined in the English colonies. One of the few relicts of pre-Revolutionary nonferrous metallurgy is the Simsbury Copper Mine in East Granby, Connecticut. This mining enterprise obtained its charter in 1706. The state now preserves the site, not as an industrial monument but because the mine served for a time as the state prison. Visitors can enter the underground workings. Physical evidence of the first gold discovery in the United States, in 1799, exists at the Reed Gold Mine, a state historic site near Georgiaville, North Carolina. Most of the milling survivals are from later development at the mining site in 1854 and 1896. North Carolina led the nation in gold production until the California gold rush of 1849.
Quality of Ideas and Solutions
Authors: Kim Steven
Published: November 2020

We pass judgment on the value of scientific results. For example, we may feel that the periodic table of elements is of greater significance than the understanding that hydrogen is lighter than oxygen. For one thing, the latter fact may be deduced from an understanding of the periodic table. In this way, we may ascribe a measure of quality to an idea. The quality of an idea is subjective, and cannot be assigned an absolute value. However, it is possible to give a partial ordering and claim that idea A is of higher, lower, or equal worth in relation to idea B. The judgment of the relative importance of ideas is made routinely, for example, by an instructor in delivering a lecture or writing a book. The assignment of value occurs implicitly in the selection of topics and their relative emphasis. Once we admit a preference ordering among ideas, we may also assign an arbitrary numerical scale to them. This practice is standard in the field of economics, where a preference ordering among goods suggests a measure of utility. Since each consumer has individual tastes and needs, the resulting utility function varies from one person to another even for the same basket of goods. Further, the preferences are subjective and relative, rather than absolute. As a result, the level of utility can be based only on a conceptual scale. The basic measure of utility is an arbitrary unit called a util. In a similar way, we may assign a quality metric in terms of a granular unit of a qual. A person may assign a particular set of quals to a portfolio of ideas based on his own tastes and predilictions. A second person may offer a completely different set of quality values. This conception of an individual ordering of ideas is consistent with the view of difficulty and creativity as relative rather than absolute parameters. To pursue this line of reasoning, we may also speak of the combined quality of two or more ideas. The value of a set of ideas may be greater than, equal to, or less than the sum of the individual values.
The Making of a Mass Movement
Authors: Cohen Robert
Published: November 2020

Franklin Delano Roosevelt so dominated the American political scene from the fall of 1932 through the end of the Depression decade that historians refer to these years as the Age of Roosevelt. He won the 1932 presidential race in one of the greatest landslides in American history, trouncing Hoover—who the electorate blamed for the Depression—by almost seven million votes. FDR then presided over the extensive New Deal recovery, relief and reform programs, whose popularity helped keep him in the White House longer than any other president. But Roosevelt’s great popularity with the general public did not initially carry over onto college campuses. During most of his first term, neither FDR nor his major programs captured the imagination of the American student body. Roosevelt’s presidential campaign in 1932 failed to generate much excitement on campus, and from 1933 to 1935 the cause that most inspired college youth was world peace rather than the New Deal. If the choice had been left to college students, the straw polls show, Franklin Roosevelt would not have been elected president in 1932. FDR ran far behind Hoover in the campus polls taken shortly before election day. Only 31 percent of the collegians polled supported Roosevelt, while 49 percent endorsed Hoover. Roosevelt even did badly on campuses where he had direct, personal connections. At Harvard, FDR’s alma mater, the Democratic candidate lost to Hoover by a margin of more than three to one: 1211 students there voted for Hoover, while only 395 cast their ballots for Roosevelt. Support for Roosevelt was also weak among undergraduates at Columbia University, despite the fact that several of his key advisers, popularly known as the New Deal “brain trust,” including Raymond Moley, Rexford Tugwell, and Adolph Berle, were Columbia professors. With almost two thirds of Columbia undergraduates voting, FDR attracted only 221 votes, losing not only to Hoover, who drew 307 votes, but also to Norman Thomas, the socialist candidate, who won 421 votes. This enabled Columbia socialists to boast at the Norman Thomas rally at Madison Square Garden that “Columbia Professors May Write Roosevelt’s Speeches But Columbia Students Vote For Thomas.”
The Influence of Orthography on Children’s Spelling of Vowels and Consonants
Authors: Treiman Rebecca
Published: November 2020

So far, the first graders’ spellings have been studied from a phonological perspective. Spellings have been classified according to the phonemes they symbolize in order to examine children’s knowledge of the various phoneme-grapheme correspondences of English. The results of these analyses have shown that children’s spellings are built on their conceptions of phonemic structure. But orthographic influences have been visible too. As we have seen, the words that children see and read affect their own attempts to spell. In this chapter, these orthographic influences take center stage. The children’s spellings are classified according to the conventional spellings of the words that they represent in order to examine children’s knowledge of such orthographic features as digraphs and final is. The question is whether and how the conventional spelling of a word affects children’s attempts to spell the word. The special characteristics of these children’s first-grade experience make it particularly interesting to examine their learning of orthographic conventions. These children received little direct instruction in spelling. Even if they asked how to spell a word, their teacher did not tell them. The children were not explicitly taught about such orthographic conventions as the fact that ck occurs in the middles and at the ends of words but not at the beginnings of words. Did the children nevertheless pick up such conventions from the words they saw and read? For example, did they induce that ck occurs only in the middles and at the ends of words from seeing words like package and sick but not words like ckatl To anticipate the results presented in this chapter, the children did pick up this and other orthographic patterns on their own. Thus, the findings suggest that children can learn about certain orthographic conventions from their experiences with printed words, in the absence of direct instruction. The results presented in this book show that children often misspell graphemes such as ai and sh. Clearly, children have difficulty with graphemes in which two or more letters symbolize a single phoneme. Less clear, at this point, are the sources of this difficulty and the conditions under which it occurs.
Reversals
Authors: Treiman Rebecca
Published: November 2020

So far, in studying how children spell phonemes, I have discussed three kinds of spellings that children may produce. First, children may spell the phoneme correctly. Second, children may use an incorrect spelling in place of the correct spelling. Third, children may fail to spell the phoneme altogether. In this chapter, I consider yet another type of error. This error, a reversal error, involves a pair of phonemes. In a reversal error, a child symbolizes both phonemes in a pair, either correctly or incorrectly. The error arises because the child transcribes the phonemes in the wrong order. For example, the child who spelled and as NAD presumably intended n to symbolize /n/ (a correct spelling), a to symbolize /æ/ (a correct spelling), and d to symbolize /d/ (also a correct spelling). Although the child represented each phoneme in the word, she placed the letter for /n/ before the letter for /æ/. That is, she reversed /æ/ and /n/. In this chapter, I ask when and why such errors occur. The study of reversals takes on particular significance given the importance that has sometimes been attached to such errors. Reversals of letter sequence as in NAD for and, like reversals of individual letters as in DAT for bat, have often been seen as symptoms of spelling and reading disability. For example, Orton (1937) viewed these errors as signs of brain dysfunction. He claimed that the errors reflect a failure to establish normal hemispheric dominance for language. Contrary to Orton’s claims, it appears that reversals in reading are better explained in terms of orthographic knowledge than in terms of minimal brain dysfunction (I.Y. Liberman, Shankweiler, Orlando, Harris, & Berti, 1971). Misreadings like was for saw are not limited to disabled readers. They also occur among normal beginners. In this chapter, I ask whether the same holds true for spelling. Do normal beginning spellers sometimes make reversal errors? If so, when do these errors occur? Traditionally, reversal errors have been defined orthographically, with regard to the letters in the word’s conventional printed form.
Conclusions and Implications
Authors: Treiman Rebecca
Published: November 2020

Traditionally, spelling errors have been classified orthographically, by reference to the correct spelling of the word (see Spache, 1940). For example, the child who spells read as RED is said to have omitted the letter a. Orthographic classification schemes are based on the idea that children spell by recalling the letters in printed words that they have seen and memorized. Children may err by omitting a letter, reproducing the letters in the wrong order, substituting one letter for another, and so on. Orthographic classification schemes contrast with phonological classification schemes, in which errors are viewed by reference to the word’s sound. My results show that orthographic classification schemes are not sufficient to explain first graders’ spellings. Consider BAD for bed and SHA for she. From an orthographic viewpoint, the two errors should be about equally common. Both involve the substitution of a for e. However, the first graders were more likely to substitute a for e when e represented /ε/, as in bed, than when e represented /i/, as in she. This difference cannot be understood if one considers only the letters in the printed words. One must also consider the phonemes that the letters represent. The phoneme /æ/ is more similar to /ε/ than it is to /i/. This is one reason why children more often use a to spell /ε/ than to spell /i/. To make the same point in another way, consider the errors HR for her and HN for hen. From an orthographic perspective, both errors involve the omission of an e in the middle of a three-letter word. The two errors should be about equally common. In fact, the first graders were much more likely to omit the e of her than the e of hen. This difference does not make sense on purely orthographic grounds. It can be understood only if one considers the phonological forms of the two words. From the child’s point of view, the spoken form of her contains /h/ followed by a syllabic liquid. The spoken form of hen contains /h/ plus /ε/ plus /n/.
Understanding, Assessing, and Acting in Places: Is an Integrative Framework Possible?
Authors: Canter David
Published: November 2020

The field of environmental psychology appears to maintain three rather different habitats, that have not so far been formed into a coherent ecology. One is the area from which this book drew its central inspiration. That is the study of environmental cognition. The processes by which people perceive and know their physical surroundings. As made clear and presented in some detail in Chapter 1, this research has its roots in two interrelated traditions: the “cognitive mapping” tradition that is usually traced to the work of Lynch (1960), and the “environmental meaning” tradition that grew out of the studies of Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum (1956), especially as they were developed by Berlyne (1971). In many ways the great significance of Kaplan and Kaplan's (1978) contribution, developed in Chapter 9, is the way Kaplan has integrated these two strands and thereby enriched our perspectives on environmental knowing. At the heart of this domain is the cognitive psychology belief that knowledge of the world is integrally linked to the perception of it. Neisser (1976) has done most to elaborate this view and argue for epistemic perception as the starting point for understanding human transactions with the world. In providing this emphasis the laboratory-based, experimental tradition out of which it is derived is never completely forgotten. The transactions are with simple, concrete entities that exist outside the laboratory but could be readily simulated within it. This inheritance from an earlier generation of perceptual theorists is an important one, to which I shall return. I see it as the major reason why prospects for theoretical integration, even though they have been opened up by fruitful developments in cognitive theory, still escape us. The second distinct habitat in environmental psychology has far weaker theoretical roots and a less well-established vocabulary. It used to be called “building appraisal” (Canter, 1966), it then became the more alliterative “environmental evaluation” (Zube, 1980), and now is drifting into “assessment.” The origins of this domain are in the pragmatic requests of architects, planners, and environmental policy makers for information on how good their decisions have been.
The Lives of Medical Students and Their Teachers (Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century)
Authors: Bonner Thomas Neville
Published: November 2020

The lives of students in all periods of history are difficult to recapture. Only scattered correspondence and occasional diaries can normally be found to give us a firsthand look at their experiences. Less satisfactory but still useful are the accounts of teachers, often written long after the events they describe, as well as the memoirs of former students, usually composed with nostalgia toward the close of their careers. Enough evidence does exist, however, to provide at least some glimpses into the student culture of past eras. In this chapter, we trace the social origins of medical students from about 1780 to 1820 and describe something of their lives in and out of the classroom as well as give some account of medical teachers and teaching of the same period. No more uncertain time in the life of a medical student can be imagined than the unsettled years after 1780. Both Europe and America were convulsed by war during much of the period and by fears of the spreading revolution in France. Students everywhere were being pressed into military service; academic enrollments dropped on both continents; and demands for military surgeons had become desperate. Deans and directors of medical schools pleaded with governments to spare their students from army service. In 1799, for example, the director of the French school at Montpellier asked his counterpart in Paris to join him in a last effort to save students from the huge call to arms of that year. Some medical schools were suddenly closed during the years of war; others were reorganized; and everywhere standards fell rapidly. Most of the small number of American schools were forced to shut down during the War for Independence and were then slow to reopen. In Great Britain, the hope of recruiting more medical students needed for war service was dashed by “the reality of low pay, lack of respect and the physical dangers facing most recruits.” In revolutionary France, the medical schools were officially closed early in the Revolution; the title of doctor was disdained by equalitarian reformers; and near chaos prevailed in the hospitals.
Changing Student Populations in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century
Authors: Bonner Thomas Neville
Published: November 2020

By the turn of the twentieth century, the drive to make medicine more scientific and comprehensive and to limit its ranks to the well prepared had had a profound effect on student populations. Almost universally, students were now older, better educated, more schooled in science, less rowdy, and able to spend larger amounts of time and money in study than their counterparts in 1850 had been. Their ranks, now including a growing number of women, were also likely to include fewer representatives of working- and lower-middle-class families, especially in Britain and America, than a half-century before. Nations still differed, sometimes sharply, in their openness to students from different social classes. The relative openness of the German universities to the broad middle classes, as well as their inclusion of a small representation of “peasantry and artisans,” wrote Lord Bryce in 1885, was a sharp contrast with “the English failure to reach and serve all classes.” The burgeoning German enrollments, he noted, were owing to “a growing disposition on the part of mercantile men, and what may be called the lower professional class, to give their sons a university education.” More students by far from the farm and working classes of Germany, which accounted for nearly 14 percent of medical enrollment, he observed, were able to get an advanced education than were such students in England. A historic transformation in the social makeup of universities, according to historian Konrad Jarausch—from “traditional elite” to a “modern middle-class system”—was taking place in the latter nineteenth century. In France, rising standards in education, together with the abolition of the rank of officiers de santé—which for a century had opened medical training to the less affluent—were forcing medical education into a middle- class mold. In the United States, the steeply rising requirements in medicine, along with the closing of the least expensive schools, narrowed the social differences among medical students and brought sharp complaints from the less advantaged. The costs of medical education in some countries threatened to drive all but the most thriving of the middle classes from a chance to learn medicine.
Thermodynamic Properties of Simple Systems
Authors: Anderson Greg M. , Crerar David A.
Published: November 2020

We have now introduced several thermodynamic parameters that are useful in dealing with energy transfers (U, H, G, etc.). We wish now to see how these quantities are measured and where to find values for them. In later chapters we will see how they are used in detail. However, we have an immediate problem in that we cannot measure the energy parameters U, H, G and A, as discussed in Chapter 4. Because we do not know the absolute values of either the total or molar version of these variables, we are forced to deal only with their changes in processes or reactions of interest to us. But we obviously cannot tabulate these changes for every reaction of potential interest; there are too many. We must tabulate some sort of energy term for each pure substance so that the changes in any reaction between them can be calculated. In the example in §5.7 of water at — 2°C changing to ice at — 2°C, we said that AG was negative. How can we know this without carrying out a research program on the thermodynamic properties of ice and supercooled water? We begin by explaining how this is done. The problem created by not having absolute energy values is handled very conveniently by determining and tabulating, for every pure compound, the difference between the (absolute) G or H of the compound itself and the sum of the (absolute) G or H values of its constituent elements. In other words, AG or AH is determined for the reaction in which the compound is formed from its elements (in their stable states). These differences can be determined experimentally in spite of not knowing the absolute values involved.
Fugacity and Activity
Authors: Anderson Greg M. , Crerar David A.
Published: November 2020

In Chapter 7 we saw that the fact that minerals are to a good approximation incompressible means that the effect of pressure on the Gibbs free energy of solid phases is very easily calculated. Thus, in general and, because V for solids can often be considered independent of P, This, combined with the more complex integration of dG over a temperature interval at one bar pressure, allowed us to calculate the position of phase boundaries at high pressures and temperatures. The next question is how to evaluate the pressure integral (11.1) when a fluid such as H2O or CO2 is involved, either in the pure form, mixed with other fluid components, or reacting with solid phases? Obviously, assuming that the molar volume of a fluid is a constant is not even approximately true, and is unacceptable. A possible way to proceed would be to express V as a function of P in some sort of power series, just as we did for Cp as a function of T (equation 7.12). VdP could then be integrated, and we could determine the values of the power series coefficients for each gas or fluid and tabulate them as we do for the Maier-Kelley coefficients. Fortunately, thanks to the insight of G.N. Lewis, we can proceed in a simpler and completely different fashion. Lewis in 1901 defined a new function, the fugacity, which can be thought of as a kind of idealized or thermodynamic pressure, which expresses the value of ʃ V dP single-handedly.
Gaseous Solutions
Authors: Anderson Greg M. , Crerar David A.
Published: November 2020

The procedures described in Chapter 15 are well suited to solid and liquid solutions and could also be applied to gases, but in fact, other approaches are generally used. The main reason for this is partly historical; much work was done early in the history of physical chemistry on the behavior of gases, and these methods have continued to evolve to the present day. We have also just seen that the Margules equations become very unwieldy with multi-component systems. Because true gases are completely miscible, natural gases often contain many different components, so the Margules approach is not very suitable. Unfortunately, the most successful alternative methods described in this section are also quite unwieldy; however, they do not become much more complicated for multi-component gases than they are for the pure gases themselves, and this is a definite advantage. We have seen that with real, non-ideal gases, all the thermodynamic properties are described if we know the T, P, and the fugacity coefficient. For gaseous solutions, the fugacity coefficient for each component generally depends on the concentrations and types of other gaseous species in the same mixture. All gases, whether pure or multi-component, should approach ideality at higher T and lower P; conversely, non-ideality is most pronounced in dense, low-temperature gases where intermolecular forces are strongest. The challenge here is to find an equation of state that can adequately cover this range of conditions for gases of many different constituents. In the following discussion we first briefly outline some of the equations of state used to describe pure gases. We will introduce these from the molecular point of view since this helps understand the physical basis (and limitations) of each model. Each of these equations of state can then be applied to mixtures of gases using a set of rules which we describe at the end of this section.
The State of Matter Near the Interface
Authors: Kraus Eric B. , Businger Joost A.
Published: November 2020

A thermodynamic phase specifies a substance or mixture of substances that occupies a limited volume with a characteristic temperature, T, a definite pressure, p, at its boundary, and a composition that can be described at any moment by the masses of its constituents. A well-mixed sample of air or of sea water in contact with our instruments, therefore, is defined as a phase. Different phases, brought together in a thermodynamic system, tend to change until an equilibrium has been established. This involves an exchange of energy and matter between the originally different phases. If the process is isolated from external influences, then it results in an increase of entropy. In fact, entropy is always generated by mixing (i.e., by the transport of a conservative property down its own gradient). This can be said to include the transport of momentum by viscosity. Entropy can be diminished locally when gradients are sharpened by a flux in the opposite direction. In nature this can be brought about by a coupling of the transports of different properties. The potential for change that exists in a physical system is the subject of the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. The ocean and the atmosphere are open systems which can exchange matter through their boundaries. Though the system that they form together is closed—at least on the time scales with which we are concerned—it is not isolated, being subject to heat exchange with the surrounding universe. The inhomogeneity and variable temperature of both oceans and atmospheres cause further complications. Although equilibrium thermodynamics alone cannot provide information about the rate or the mechanism of energy transformations, it does provide, in the First Law, a constraint that must always be obeyed. It also allows us to predict the general direction of development in limited regions that only interact slowly with their surroundings. The properties or ‘coordinates’ which specify a thermodynamic phase are not independent. Anyone of them can be expressed as a function of all the others by an equation of state. In a liquid, the state is strongly affected by molecular interaction.
The Planetary Boundary Layer
Authors: Kraus Eric B. , Businger Joost A.
Published: November 2020

The term planetary boundary layer (PBL) is often used as a synonym for the Ekman layer (i.e., for the region in which the convergence of the vertical flux of momentum is of the same order as the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient). The definition favored in this chapter is somewhat broader and includes the regions on both sides of the interface in which the vertical fluxes, not only of momentum but also of heat, moisture, and salinity, determine the vertical distribution of these properties. Such a definition may suggest as many different boundary layers as there are transported properties. This may be the case, but the various fluxes are coupled with each other to such an extent that it is usually possible to define a single layer in which interface effects remain significant. In Section 6.1 we shall deal first with the classic Ekman treatment of the steady-state motion field above and below the boundary of two incompressible, rotating laminar fluids. This will be followed by a discussion of transients and of integral horizontal transports. Section 6.2 deals with coherent structures—longitudinal rolls, thermal plumes, convection cells, and so on—that are common phenomena, particularly in the gravitationally unstable PBL. This is followed in Section 6.3 by a discussion of various parameterization schemes and models that have been used either to represent vertical fluxes or vertical profiles of conservative properties. Mixed-layer models, which are the topic of Section 6.4, are distinguished from these parameterization schemes by use of vertical integrals of the conservative properties. The resulting gain in simplicity is offset to some extent by a loss of detail. In Section 6.5 we shall discuss the merits and drawbacks of the different approaches in the two preceding sections. During his arctic expeditions on the ship Fram, late in the nineteenth century, Nansen noticed that the pack ice drifted at an angle of about 20-40° to the right of the surface wind. He interpreted this correctly as being due to the deflecting force of the earth’s rotation, and inferred further that the water below, which is dragged along by the ice, must be driven even further to the right.
Overview and Preview of Conclusions
Authors: Bayly Brian
Published: November 2020

The purpose of this book is to fill something of a gap. In general, thermodynamics has been a great success and has provided a means of understanding and predicting material behavior of almost all kinds at the macroscopic level. Even when thermodynamic statements were limited to equilibrium states they were widely useful, and with extension to nonequilibrium states almost all behaviors that a person might observe directly became accessible to theory. But there has been and is one resistive point: if a cylinder of material is more strongly compressed along its length than radially, it is in a nonequilibrium state no matter how ideal its condition in other respects, and the effect of this type of nonequilibrium has not been successfully explored. The physical consequences are, of course, well known; the cylinder deforms in ways successfully described in almost all respects by the methods of continuum mechanics. But the chemical consequences are less well known. For example, suppose the cylinder contains iron and is surrounded by some second iron-bearing phase; suppose further that before the cylinder is compressed axially, the cylinder and its surroundings are in equilibrium. When the axial compression is imposed, how is the equilibrium disturbed and what processes begin to run? The purpose of the book is to provide the outline of a comprehensive approach to this question. The question has been discussed extensively in technical journals and in complicated ways. The stimulus for this book is the belief that the topic need not be so complicated. There are two equations that describe the stresses in the cylinder that have up to now not been used; using these neglected equations provides a point of view not taken by other writers, and it is the fresh point of view that permits certain simplicities to be seen (the key equations are 6.3 and 8.10). Of course, we make headway only to a limited extent; not all problems are answered, not all complications are resolved. The existence of a central and unresolvable complication is recognized toward the end of this overview, in the section on Continuum Behavior and Atoms.
Chemical Potential Under Nonhydrostatic Stress
Authors: Bayly Brian
Published: November 2020

The purpose of this chapter is to continue the unification that was begun in Chapter 8. There, first and second derivatives of normal stress with respect to orientation were used; we now examine the idea that the chemical potential of a component at a point can be a multivalued direction-dependent scalar like the normal-stress magnitude, and that it too can have a gradient with respect to orientation. The essence of a nonhydrostatic stress is that different planes through a point are subject to different normal compressive stresses: σn varies with the orientation of the plane considered. Let us focus on a plane i across which the normal compressive stress is σi: then we put forward the assertion that an equilibrium state that can be associated with plane i is a hydrostatic state whose pressure has the same magnitude as σi. For illustration, see Figure 9.1. (For the present, we take a cautious stance: each hydrostatic state in the figure is certainly an equilibrium state, and each is certainly associated with a plane, but is it the associated equilibrium state that properly belongs with that plane according to the precepts of, for example, de Groot (1951, p. 11)? For now, we make no attempt to prove that it is so: we simply use the assertion and explore its consequences. Fortunately its consequences include large amounts of classical mechanics so that it counts as a "successful assertion" on those grounds, but at least for now it lacks any underpinnings.) An immediate consequence of the assertion illustrated in Figure 9.1 is the relation in Figure 9.2.