bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The United States and Carranza, 1917: The Question ofDe JureRecognition
Authors: Gilderhus Mark T.
Published: July 2006

Woodrow Wilson seldom wavered in his determination to guide the Mexican Revolution along a course acceptable to the United States. From the beginning, he insisted upon the creation of a stable, constitutional, and representative government which could reform social and economic inequities and would provide a hospitable environment for American economic interests. The possibility of involvement in World War I, however, weakened the president's bargaining power with Mexico and reduced his ability to pursue his goals effectively. As Wilson learned to his regret, blatant interference tended to heighten Yankeephobic Mexican nationalism and to create a circumstance which Germany might exploit to her advantage. This problem became critical early in 1917, when the German question profoundly influenced the American government's response to the new Mexican Constitution. Historians hitherto have neglected this relationship, even though it provides an intriguing insight into United States policy toward the government of First Chief Venustiano Carranza.
Labor in Cortesian Enterprise: The Cuernavaca Area, 1522-1549
Authors: Riley G. Micheal
Published: July 2006

Fernando Cortés lived twenty-five years after his first, perhaps only, enterprise of grand design and gigantic proportion, the conquest of the Aztec Confederacy. In those remaining years, his were a multitude of endeavors; many, an outgrowth of his brilliantly successful triumph over the Aztecs, and most, dependent—for funds, materiél, and manpower—upon his great estate, a huge enterprise in itself.

Located in central and southern México, the estate comprised numerous, populous encomiendas, extensive landholdings, mines, Indian and Negro slaves and various commercial establishments. It was known as the Marquesado de Cortés after 1529 and in 1535 was constituted, with royal authorization, a mayorazgo, or entailed estate. Following Cortés’ death in 1547, it became the property of his legitimate son and designated heir, Don Martín.
The Deadly Selva Paraguay’s Northern Indian Frontier
Authors: Williams John Hoyt
Published: July 2006

The Role of the hostile Indian in nineteenth century Paraguay would be difficult to exaggerate, yet it is virtually unknown. The trail of agony so clearly expressed in the thousands of documents in the Asunción and other archives deserves to be better understood. This article can do little more than suggest the scope of the problem and describe how the Indian wars of the Paraguayan north did more to define and determine Paraguayan history during the years of the dictatorship of Dr. Francia (1814-1840), than has been previously noted by historians.

In 1810, Paraguay had as its real, if not legal border in the north, the Río Apa, a broad, sluggish tributary of the Río Paraguay, its banks choked in dense, humid vegetation. North of the river was a no-man's land claimed by both Portugal and Spain and thinly occupied by the former. West of the Río Paraguay was the Chaco, a region of desolate scrubjungle, where Spanish and hence Paraguayan claims were virtually unchallenged save by the Indians who lived there. Fort Borbón, in the Chaco, Paraguay's northern outpost, was situated some hundred miles north of the Apa border on the Río Paraguay.
The State of Scientific Inquiry in Colonial Spanish America During the Enlightenment: A Preliminary Bibliography
Authors: Jacques Leo M.
Published: July 2006

The scientific contributions of native scholars in the Americas have often been overlooked or neglected. The simultaneous discoveries of European scientists reached a wider audience because of the number of education centers in close proximity. The existence of several scholarly journals also facilitated the rapid dispensation of new scientific knowledge. Although Spanish American scholars lived far from the centers of European knowledge, there was no appreciable time lag between European discoveries and their circulation in Spain's colonies. On the other hand, Spanish American discoveries were unknown in Europe or North America except to a handful of prominent scholars.
The Honduran Army in the Sociopolitical Evolution of the Honduran State
Authors: Ropp Steve C.
Published: July 2006

Frequently, commentators on political developments in various small Central American nations describe the political participation of the military as if it were an unchanging and ineluctable force that had conditioned public life from time immemorial. Unfortunately, such a perspective not only distorts historical reality but makes it extremely difficult to offer accurate interpretations of current events. While it seems fundamentally correct to assert that Latin American military institutions differ from such organizations in other less developed areas in that they were forged in the crucible of 19th rather than 20th century events, such a generalization cannot apply to every Hispanic nation. A more adequate representation of reality might be that there are essentially two types of Latin American military establishments which relate in quite different ways to their respective political systems. First, there is that class of military organization where institutional identities were fairly well established by the early 20th century and, secondly, there are those which bear a closer affinity to military establishments in the new nations. Here, there has been a very late process of institutional consolidation which makes the behavioral patterns of these institutions particularly volatile.
When did Francisco I. Madero Decide on Revolution?
Authors: Knudson Jerry W.
Published: July 2006

A surprisingly frank letter from Francisco I. Madero, political figurehead of the Mexican Revolution of 1910, to New York publisher William Randolph Hearst casts new light on the difficult question of when Madero finally opted for revolution to topple the 35-year dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz (1876-1911).

The letter was dated April 25, 1911, when Madero was with insurrectionary troops fighting at Ciudad Juárez. It contained Madero's responses to some written questions on his role in the Revolution submitted by Hearst through Sonunerfield, an American consular official in Mexico. Madero's answers were to form the basis for a news story in the Hearst newspapers.
The Issue of Religious Liberty in the United States Commercial Treaty with Colombia, 1824
Authors: Winn Wilkins B.
Published: July 2006

The Republic of Colombia was the first Latin American nation to which the United States extended a formal act of recognition in 1822. This country was also the first of these new republics with which the United States negotiated a treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation. The importance of incorporating the principle of religious liberty in our first commercial treaty with Latin America was revealed in the emphasis that John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, placed on it in his initial instructions to Richard Clough Anderson, Jr., Minister Plenipotentiary to Colombia. Religious liberty was one of the specific articles stipulated by Adams for insertion in the prospective commercial treaty.
The Causes of the Carranza Rebellion: A Reinterpretation
Authors: Grieb Kenneth J.
Published: July 2006

Students of revolutionary movements often find that the early leaders were motivated more by a desire for power than by revolutionary idealism. After the movement triumphs, the original chiefs are hailed by their followers as farsighted patriots who sought to reform the country. Hindsight renders this conclusion easy, for the later reforms and legislation appear to flow from the uprising. But it must be remembered that the nature of the revolution may have changed during the fighting, and that those who launched the uprising could not perceive its entire course. It is difficult for historians to cut through the aura of idealism that surrounds these leaders, for no people wishes to hear that its hero was merely seeking personal power. Yet a careful examination of the origins of a revolution is essential to understanding the later developments.
Luso-Spanish Relations in Hapsburg Brazil, 1580–1640
Authors: Schwartz Stuart B.
Published: July 2006

Few epochs in the history of the Portuguese colonial empire have received less attention from historians than the sixty years from 1580–1640 when Portugal and Spain were jointly ruled by the Spanish Hapsburgs, Philip II, III, IV (or I, II, III by Portuguese reckoning). The union of the crowns in 1580 brought together the two greatest maritime empires of the sixteenth century, yet, curiously, this phenomenon has remained relatively unstudied. Portuguese neglect is based on the premise that the union with Spain was a “Babylonian Captivity“ during which the Spanish rulers and their policies destroyed in a half century what had taken the Portuguese two hundred years to build. Nationalism has prompted Portuguese scholars to concentrate on the loss of independence in 1580 or its triumphant restitution in 1640, but although this motivation is still present, a new generation of Portuguese historians has begun to turn from the shibboleths of their nineteenth-century predecessors. Spanish historiography, on the other hand, disdains the topic; hardly surprising since even today to many Spaniards “a Portuguese is a Galician who speaks poorly.” Moreover, there is the embarrassing fact that the Portuguese were able to wrest their independence from Spanish rule.
Jesuit Contributions to the Ideology of Spanish Empire in Mexico
Authors: Liss Peggy K.
Published: July 2006

Jesuits arrived in Mexico in 1572. They had come from a Spain unified by an imperial ideology—its prime components a single faith, shared cultural values and traditions, and belief in a royal mystique—allowing, indeed encouraging, expansion of the monarchy overseas. Spanish Jesuits, some of whom articulated adherence to this ideology, by 1580 had established their religious order among the most respected corporations in Mexican society. Through preaching, ministering to the needy, and missionary work, but above all through gaining a near monopoly on secondary education in New Spain, members of the Society of Jesus achieved a position of prestige and influence within all strata of society. In order to understand, therefore, how Jesuits contributed to the maintenance of Mexican ties to Spanish empire, it is first necessary to get some idea of the nature of their system of education, its curriculum, teaching methods, and aims in New Spain.
Sleight of Hand: Brazilian and American Authors Manipulate the Brazilian Racial Situation, 1910–1951
Authors: Rout Leslie B.
Published: July 2006

In June, 1908, Sir Harry Johnston, explorer, historian, diplomat and African colonial administrator, wrote to Theodore Roosevelt expressing a desire to come to the New World. In Johnston’s own words,

What I want to learn is the present condition and possible prospects of the Negro in North America, the West Indies and tropical South America.

This English Lord had written extensively about blacks in Africa, and while his knowledge of racial and historical conditions in the two Americas was hardly profound, his reputation opened doors that might otherwise have been hermetically sealed. Roosevelt’s reply was recognition of this fact:
Road to Revolution: The Liberal Party of Colombia, 1886-1899
Authors: Delpar Helen
Published: July 2006

During the first six decades of Colombia's existence as an independent nation, it experienced five major revolutions (1839-42, 1854, 1859-62, 1876-77, 1885-86) as well as innumerable uprisings confined to specific regions or localities. Although only one of these major revolutions was successful in its objective of overthrowing the government, all of them were destructive of lives and property and seriously disrupted plans for economic develpoment. None of them, however, had such devastating effects as the War of the Thousand Days (1899-1902). This vain struggle by Liberal revolutionaries to overthrow a Conservative-dominated government began only after years of debate among Liberals on the wisdom of attempting to attain political power by force and in defiance of the wishes of the party's top leaders. The events that culminated in the outbreak of the revolution will be traced in the following pages.
Religious Participation of the Porteño Merchants: 1778-1810
Authors: Socolow Susan M.
Published: July 2006

A Social History of colonial Latin America should endeavor to trace the patterns of behavior of the various social groups within the society. Group behavior can be viewed from a number of different perspectives. Among the more important variables are political behavior, economic behavior, social behavior and religious behavior. Religious participation and involvement is one of the more interesting of these variables, especially in Latin America, where the Catholic Church has traditionally been a social institution powerfully affecting all others. The Church and the upper social groups have often functioned in a symbiotic relationship one to another, with the Church providing a measure of social prestige and temporal power in exchange for economic and/or political support. This essay, based on a study of 178 wholesale merchants, seeks to interpret the relationships established between the Church and the economically and socially powerful merchant group in late eighteenth century Buenos Aires. At the same time, the essay attempts to illustrate that in studying the religious participation of a specific social group, the role of religion as an indicator of social prestige and power becomes dramatically apparent.
Jacobo De Villaurrutia and the Audiencia of Guatemala, 1794-1804
Authors: Chandler Dewitt S.
Published: July 2006

Scholars are presently re-examining the status of creoles in Spanish colonial administration at the end of the eighteenth century. All historians accept that the Crown discriminated against Americans but the degree and effect of that prejudice is the subject of much current research. Most have rejected Bolívar's sweeping generalization that Spain excluded Americans from all responsible positions, but few agree on the extent of creole participation. Recent studies suggest that creoles held more high positions than had been suspected. These studies further suggest that a new interpretation of the effect of creoles on administration and the independence movement is overdue. The road to this synthesis must be paved with case studies of individuals.
Indian Education, Nationalism, and Federalism in Mexico, 1910-1921
Authors: Britton John A.
Published: July 2006

The years of violence in the Mexican Revolution (1910-1924) have been viewed as a period of upheaval and disruption in which governments toppled, politicians were killed or banished, and the caudillo held sway. However, in such times ideas and institutions often continue to evolve in spite of revolutionary chaos. Mexican education in the second decade of the twentieth century revealed at least two important trends of a peaceful nature: the growth of socially cohesive nationalism and the triumph of the principle of federalism in public education.
Paraguayan Independence and Doctor Francia
Authors: Cooney Jerry W.
Published: July 2006

One of the consequences of the Buenos Aires revolution in May of 1810 was the eventual independence of Paraguay and the rise to power of Doctor José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia. But before analysing the events of the Independence Movement in the isolated province of Paraguay it is necessary to consider both the conditions in that region in the last decade of colonial rule and the activities of Doctor Francia in the same period.
A Latin American Spokesman in Napoleonic Spain: José Mejía Lequerica
Authors: Astuto Phlip L.
Published: July 2006

The Spanish political crisis of 1808 and the subsequent convening of the Cortes at Cádiz two years later helped crystallize certain political and philosophical concepts held by a number of “enlightened ”persons on both sides of the Atlantic. Their inherent faith in reason and progress made these delegates at Cádiz turn to a new instrument of government with confidence. In the end, however, strong vested interests thwarted the work of this liberal Cortes. This study examines the struggles, frustrations, triumphs, and failures of one influential and outspoken American in the Cortes at Cádiz, José Mejía Lequerica (1775-1813), who brought many ideas of the Enlightenment and of the French Constitution of 1791 to the new Spanish Constitution.
The American Touch in Imperial Administration: Leonard Wood in Cuba, 1898–1902
Authors: Hitchman J. H.
Published: July 2006

Leonard Wood Served as military governor of Cuba from December, 1899 to May, 1902. As the instrument of United States policy in Cuba, Wood’s administration provides an excellent example of the American touch in meeting the troublesome question of imperialism. This subject of exercising power over other people, as much debated today as it was at the turn of the century, was fully appreciated in its ramifications by those who formulated the Cuban policy of the United States: Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt, Secretary of War Elihu Root, Senator Orville H. Platt and General Leonard Wood. Having gone to war with Spain on the basis of the Joint Resolution of April 20, 1898, with the famous fourth clause inserted by Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado, that Cuba would be left to the Cubans once the island was pacified, the United States refused to acquire Cuba at the Paris peace conference of December, 1898. The United States was pledged to give Cuba her freedom, but opinions divided over the time needed to pacify the island and ensure future stability. Hopefully, by tracing the actions of the military government with regard to schools, courts, the economy, government and the Platt Amendment, it may be seen that General Wood, far from being a bureaucratic proconsul in khaki, attempted to prepare Cubans for managing their own affairs.
The Historical Society of New Mexico honors France Vinton Scholes for Outstanding Achievement in Spanish Colonial History 1970
Authors: Adams Eleanor B.
Published: July 2006

A FEW months ago the Board of Directors of the Historical Society of New Mexico agreed that the Society should, from time to time, recognize outstanding men and women who have worked toward the same goals as the Society: to increase public understanding and knowledge of history, and, in particular, the history of New Mexico. Tonight we are honoring the distinguished historian Dr. France Vinton Scholes, whom I have known for more than thirty-five years, since the autumn day when I first walked past the shrunken heads on the fifth floor of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University to the end of a crooked office corridor–and, all unsuspecting, into my life work. Into the profession of history by the back door! This short journey into a long future led not only to many satisfying years of collaboration with Dr. Scholes, but to an abiding interest in New Mexico and the Spanish Southwest.
The Latin American Military Establishment: Some Thoughts on the Origins of its Socio-Political Role and an Illustrative Bibliographical Essay
Authors: Nunn Frederick M.
Published: July 2006

Historians from the United States have studied the Latin American military using two principal approaches: in broad, topical studies dealing with the socio-political role of the military, i.e. armies, from colonial times to the present and in monographic works dealing thematically with the political role of the military in a specific country during a specific time. Neither approach boasts a defintive work. Certainly not the former, for the role of the Latin American military is simply too big to be dealt with between the covers of a single volume; nor the latter, because of the necessary exclusivism inherent in dealing with one nation-one period. A third approach, the multinational treatment of the military in Latin America during a fixed period exists, but to date few such works are in print.
Benjamin Apthorp Gould and the Founding of the Argentine National Observatory
Authors: Hodge John E.
Published: July 2006

The nineteenth century witnessed the first major change in astronomy since the birth of the science in antiquity. With the exception, in the eighteenth century, of William Herschel's great work in the course of which he speculated on the origin, composition and shape of the universe itself, man's concern with the heavens had been limited to plotting and cataloguing the positions and the movements of the stars and planets. The entire history of astronomy had consisted of more and more accurate observations of the solar system and the stars within our own galaxy, although only the haziest notions of the shape and size of that “island universe” were entertained by thoughtful astronomers.
A Reappraisal of the Sources of Inca History: The Works of Ake Wedin
Authors: Mörner Magnus
Published: July 2006

A. Wedin’s Works in General

Although the history of the Inca empire has received more attention from scholars and laymen than almost any other aspect of Latin American history, the state of research is far from satisfactory. The writings of generations of students of Inca history have deposited thick layers of myths. It is urgently required that these layers be removed before any serious historical reconstruction can be undertaken. However, the task is risky. Perhaps only quagmire is to be found beneath.
A Conqueror's Wealth: Notes on the Estate of Don Pedro de Alvarado
Authors: Sherman William L.
Published: July 2006

The remarkable career of the adelantado don Pedro de Alvarado is associated in the minds of most with his exploits during the conquest of the Aztec state. To a somewhat lesser degree he is remembered as the conqueror, and later governor, of Guatemala. But in retrospect, perhaps his most significant, though less dramatic, achievement was the fact that he was able to maintain his preëminence for two decades. In an age when Charles V followed a policy of removing conquistadores from positions of political power, Alvarado not only retained the good will of the Crown, but also enhanced his authority and prestige. Despite the many crimes of which he was accused, he was not replaced by royal officials. At his death in 1541 he was one of the most powerful men in the New World, overshadowed perhaps only by Viceroy Mendoza, with whom Alvarado had the shrewd sense to make an alliance.
The Franciscan Inquisition in Yucatán: French Seamen, 1560
Authors: Adams Eleanor B.
Published: July 2006

In the mid-sixteenth century the peninsula of Yucatán, with the remnants of its ancient Maya glories sleeping in the bush, had little to attract corsairs or contraband traders. When, after nearly twenty years of struggle, the Spaniards finally overcame the resistance of the stubborn Maya in the 1540’s, French intruders had already made many profitable voyages to the Antilles and extended their activities to the coast of Tierra Firme. More than another decade was to pass before they Cast a speculative eye on the possibilities of this later acquisition of the Spanish Crown.
New World Interlopers: The Portuguese in the Spanish West Indies, from the Discovery to 1640
Authors: Keith Henry H.
Published: July 2006

The roots of Spain’s policy of attempted exclusion of the foreigner from her New World possessions, whether in trade or in immigration, reach deep into the Iberian religious consciousness of the fifteenth century. The religious pulse of the Catholic Kings was beating strongly and quickly as a result of the coincidence of the momentous events of the year 1492: expulsion of the Jews, conquest of Granada from the Moors, and the discovery of the New World. It is not surprising that the Spanish conception of religiosity should have been linked inseparably with the attitude of exclusion of the foreigner. Expulsion of the hated infidel-foreigner Moor from Spain was integrally associated with the Jews, since the latter had often been in close cooperation with the former (The fact that they had also cooperated with their rulers in Christian-held parts of Spain was swept aside in wake of the religious zeal of the Reconquista.). On the one hand, there was the religious cause of Catholic Christianity to be served, and, on the other, the secular goal of the consolidation of Castilian rule throughout the Spanish portion of the Iberian Peninsula.
A Summary Index of Ecclesiastical Papers in the Archive of the Papal Nunciature of Rio de Janeiro for the Period of 1808–1891
Authors: Kiemen Mathias C.
Published: July 2006

After receiving official permission on September 13, 1969 “ to do research in the nunciature's archives,” I was allowed to spend about forty days during the months of May and June, 1970, in the rich collection of materials in this nunciature, situated in the Lagoinha district of Santa Teresa in Rio de Janeiro. It was a tantalizing situation for me as a historian, since the time limit and the prohibition against microfilming enabled me only to glance at much of the documentation, without being able to copy it or even to take copious notes. Perhaps as a result of my interest in these papers, it has been determined by the papal Secretary of State to send all these nunciature documents up to the reign of Pius XII to the Vatican Archive before the end of 1970. There, I was assured, all facilities would be given to scholars to work in this material. The collection when I saw it was intact, containing original materials from 1808 to the present, with apparently hardly a document missing, except for a few letters on the Religious Question of 1873-76, sent to Rome some time after these dates. Apparently very little else of the original papers had been forwarded to Rome during all those years, although copious reports in Italian were sent, of course, to Rome.
The Religious Question in the Congress of Gran Colombia
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: July 2006

In all the confusion of nineteenth century political conflict in Latin America, clearly defined doctrinal issues and policy disagreements . are often hard to detect. The clearest—it is generally agreed—had to do with religious matters. The specific content of debate might vary with time and place, but everywhere in Latin America a fundamental question was posed: i.e., to what extent the Roman Catholic Church should continue to enjoy the status it had acquired during the colonial period, when it held a religious monopoly, a vast amount of wealth, extensive influence in the field of education, and much more besides. Few Latin American leaders opposed all innovation on the ecclesiastical front, and even fewer wished a total transformation; but there was ample room for controversy, with "liberals" normally seeking more rapid and fundamental changes than "conservatives" were prepared to accept.
The Philanthropic Activities of Pedro Romero de Terreros: First Count of Regla. (1753–1781)
Authors: Couturier Edith B.
Published: July 2006

September, 1975 marks the 200th anniversary of the formal opening of the Monte de Piedad, one of the oldest continuously operating social welfare institutions in America. Conceived and endowed by Pedro Romero de Terreros, Count of Regla, the Monte de Piedad represented only one facet, albeit the most important, of the philanthropic contributions of this wealthy miner, merchant and landowner. His benefactions ranged from the small to the grand—the construction of an altar in the church of San Fernando to the gifting of a battleship to the Spanish navy.
“U.S. Diplomacy and ‘The Specter of Bolshevism’ in Mexico (1924–1927)”
Authors: Horn James J.
Published: July 2006

Scholars have paid considerable attention to the famous goodwill mission of Dwight Whitney Morrow to Mexico in 1927, but have written almost nothing about the conditions which necessitated it. An in-depth study of Morrow’s predecessor, James Rockwell Sheffield, whose ambassadorship (1924–27) featured a deterioration in Mexican-American relations, has yet to be published. During Sheffield’s tenure the administration of Plutarco Elías Calles made the strongest attempt to that time to implement the revolutionary program of “Mexico for the Mexicans” embodied in the Constitution of 1917. Especially alarming to Americans was legislation aimed at limiting foreign land-holding and severely restricting the privileges of foreign petroleum interests. These laws precipitated a prolonged diplomatic correspondence and generated considerable ill-will. This correspondence reached a complete impasse by the spring of 1926 since neither side was willing to compromise its position. The re-emergence of the perennial church-state conflict as well as Mexican opposition to American policies in Nicaragua further convulsed relations.
Spanish Fur Trade from New Mexico, 1540-1821
Authors: Weber David J.
Published: July 2006

When the Mountain Men began their invasion of the Rockies n the 1820's, the tiny village of Taos, in New Mexico, took its place alongside Fort Vancouver and St. Louis as one of their three favorite “jumping-off points” in the search for beaver pelts. Spanish exploration of the area that now comprises the Southwestern United States had antedated that of the Anglo-American by over 250 years, but it was not until the arrival of the latter group that large-scale fur trapping took place. In the mountains and high plateaus of Colorado and New Mexico and in the beaver-rich valleys and tributaries of the Arkansas, Rio Grande, Green, Colorado, Gila, Sacramento and San Joaquin, the Anglo extracted great wealth where the Spaniard had seen only an unpromising wilderness. Although the Spaniard carried on a lively trade in deerskins and buffalo hides in the Southwest, there is little evidence of a significant trade in fine furs during the period of 1540 to 1821.
The Orinoco River and Angostura, Venezuela, in the Summer of 1819: The Narrative of a Maryland Naval Chaplain
Authors: Vivian James F.
Published: July 2006

The distinction between privateering and piracy was blurring badly by the spring of 1819. The Spanish American revolutionaries, like their Anglo-American counterparts of four decades earlier, lacked a naval force able to challenge Spain's power while it was still en route to her vast American domains. Consequently it was only a question of time before the struggling republics hit upon the happy expedient of issuing letters of marque that authorized independent captains to war against Spain in their cause and under their auspices.
The Great Conspiracy in New Spain
Authors: Liebman Seymour B.
Published: July 2006

In the introduction to his The Jews in the Canary Islands, Lucien Wolf wrote almost a half-century ago that “The work of the… branches of the Holy Office in America has only been made known to us piecemeal… For social data relating to the great body of Marranos the records have not hitherto been studied.” These records of the trial proceedings, called procesos, still constitute a fairly virgin field of social, religious and economic Latin American history in general and specifically for the history of Jews and Judaism.

A few have written articles about Mexican Jews in colonial times after a cursory study of a few documents and several acclaimed texts. It is, therefore, not surprising that the results are superficial and often suffused with errors. The foregoing may be illustrated by statements in an article published in the American Jewish Historical Quarterly. Among the numerous errors that appeared therein are “among 2,281 trials of the Mexican Holy Office, 351 concerned crypto-Jews…” and that “By the end of the seventeenth century, the whole crypto-Jewish community had been destroyed.”
Francisco Javier Cisneros: A Pioneer in Transportation and Economic Development in Latin America, 1857-1898
Authors: Horna Hernán
Published: July 2006

The multifaceted character of economic growth in Latin America has several distinctive qualities. Research is now uncovering some basic features of different stages and areas in industrialization. In Latin America, where personalism assumes a more significant role than in the system oriented Anglo-America, the lives of individuals can be quite decisive in the functioning of society. Francisco Javier Cisneros played several highly meaningful roles, all of which are important not only for the legacy left by his agitated, dynamic and dramatic life, but also because his experiences illustrate a not uncommon pattern of economic development in Latin America.
Guadalupe Victoria: His Personality as a Cause of his Failure
Authors: Flaccus Elmer W.
Published: July 2006

Guadalupe Victoria, first president of Mexico (1824–1829), in many respects deserved the title Benemérito given him on numerous occasions by the writers of his time. He was honest, a sincere patriot, dedicated to the well being of his people. He died poor and in debt, a rare fate for Mexican presidents. He was the only president to complete his term of office in the first twenty-five years of Mexican history.
João Da Ascensão, O. F. M. and the Cultivation of Cinnamon and Pepper in Brazil
Authors: Meersman Achilles
Published: July 2006

In the days Portugal held sway over vast territories in Africa and in both the East and the West Indies, she made valuable contributions towards the development of these lands, not the least being the introduction of certain domestic animals, plants, both nutritional, and medicinal, and trees. Any number of plants or special strains were transported from East to West and vice-versa. Some of them have thrived so well in alien soil that today they are considered indigenous.
Industrial Trade Associations in Argentine Politics: Historical Roots and Current Prospects
Authors: Freels John W.
Published: July 2006

The Industrial trade association movement in Argentina is split into two rival organizations: the Argentine Industrial Union (U. I. A., and the Confederation of Industry (C. I.), a component of the General Economic Confederation (C. G. E.). The U. I. A. represents primarily Buenos Aires interests, the C. I./C. G. E. (hereafter the Confederation) primarily industrialists of interior provinces. As such the schism between the two reflects political and economic divisions which have characterized Argentina since the nation originally freed itself from the Spanish crown.

This study traces the historical background of hostility between the U. I. A. and the Confederation to determine whether the split is as irreparable as both sides claim. Has the future of the Argentine industrial sector been foreclosed by polemics arising from the nation’s peronista past?
Domingos Jorge Velho Conqueror of Brazilian Backlands
Authors: Freehafer Virginia
Published: July 2006

In EditingThe Bandeirantes, The Historical Role of the Brazilian Pathfinders, Richard M. Morse points out that on many points of interpretation neither the readings he has presented “nor the whole ofbandeirantehistory can furnish conclusive answers.” He states that “although the chronology and geography of thebandeirashave by now been fairly well pieced together by scholars, most other aspects of their history still lie open to speculation.” He concludes with a statement from a Brazilian source: “In spite of the fruitful results of research in this century, the study ofbandeirismoas the combined process of political, economic and social evolution of the colony has not yet been attempted.” While thinking over Professor Morse’s introductory comments it occured to me that a careful review of all available facts concerning the seventeenth century Paulista, Domingos Jorge Velho, might contribute a useful piece in the challenging, historic puzzle.
The Pan American Conference Act of May 10, 1888: President Cleveland and the Historians
Authors: Vivian James F.
Published: July 2006

Is it possible for two reputable and assumedly authoritative sources like the Congressional Record and Statutes at Large to contain mutually contradictory evidence as to whether the President of the United States approved or failed to approve a particular act of Congress? It could happen, obviously. It did in one instance, in fact, to the continuing confusion of students and scholars alike, who seemingly have been unaware of the discrepancy.
The Political Status of the Chilean Merchants at the end of the Colonial Period: The Concepcion Example, 1790-1810
Authors: Kinsbruner Jay
Published: July 2006

It is necessary to study the political status of Latin American merchants because we have so long heard that they were largely without franchise during the colonial period. We have been told that the creoles were the landowners, that the peninsulares were the merchants, and that the creoles generally controlled the cabildos. Though several writers have been investigating the merchants for some time now there are still historians who do not recognize the presence of a dynamic, influential group of creole merchants at the end of the colonial period. The Conceptión merchants (those who maintained residence in the town of Concepción) have been singled out for case study, but I am fully convinced that the patterns we see among them will apply also for the Santiago and far-northern merchants. By 1790 the town of Concepción was the capital of Chile's southern intendency, it was as it would demonstrate time and again in later years the capital of the south; and the south was the keystone of early nineteenth-century Chilean political life.
French Colonization in Cuba, 1791-1809
Authors: Lux William R.
Published: July 2006

Perhaps no event affected the lives of so many people and the history of so many nations as the French Revolution and subsequent roles played by Napoleon Bonapart. There was the Louisiana Purchase and the preliminaries to the War of 1812 in North America. In the Caribbean the Haitian independence movement which was precipitated by events in France set off a chain of events of farreaching consequence. For Spanish America the Napoleonic invasion and occupation of Spain had a catalytic affect for the independence-minded patriots who declared themselves independent “in the name of Spanish Prince Ferdinand.” The invasion of Portugal and the flight of the Court to Brazil set that country reeling on its course toward nationhood. This study begins with the earliest actions in the French colony of Saint Dominigue after the outbreak of the French Revolution.
Francisco Monte Alverne's Plan of Reform for the Franciscan Province of Rio de Janeiro, 1833
Authors: Kiemen Mathias C.
Published: July 2006

This unpublished document gives a revealing look at the situation of the Franciscan Order in southern Brazil in the early nineteenth century. It was written in 1833 at the request of Msgr. Scipione Domenico Fabbrini, Chargé of the Papal Nunciature of Rio de Janeiro, by Frei Francisco de Monte Alverne, O.F.M., one of the better-known friars of the nineteenth century, and considered by many to be the greatest preacher in the Portuguese language since António Vieira, S. J.

To understand the deep pessimism and melancholy evident in his Plan of Reform, one has to understand some of the background on the Franciscan Order in Brazil, and to know a little of the life of Frei Francisco himself.
Monoproductive Traits in Brazil’s Economic Past
Authors: Rogers Edward J.
Published: July 2006

During the first three hundred years of its existence, Brazil had no opportunity to develop its potential natural resources for the benefit of its inhabitants. Portugal, Brazil’s mother country, exploited the colony as a source of wealth for itself and did not administer it for the purpose of creating a sound economic structure for the good of Brazil. Its foreign commerce was a Crown monopoly until 1808. During this colonial period, easily exploited minerals and those crops which would command quick, lucrative profits on the world market, were stressed by Portuguese administrators. Thus, early in its history, the disastrous seeds of monoculture were sown in Brazil. These products were taken to Lisbon, which served as a jobbing center for the Empire, and from there they were distributed by vessel to other countries. Large-scale industry was discouraged by Portugal, and in some instances, actually forbidden. In this, Portugal was following the general colonial policy common to many European nations during that period. Characteristic of the Portuguese attitude was Queen Maria’s order in 1785 for the destruction of all industries and factories in Brazil that were not devoted to the production of sugar; a product from which Portugal at this time derived much of its national income. In return for the lucrative slave crops of sugar and cotton, the colony was forced to buy expensive finished goods from the mother country. The exchange profited Portugal greatly and strangled Brazil economically.
The Political Influence of the British Merchants Resident in Chile During the O’higgins’ Administration, 1817-1823
Authors: Kinsbruner Jay
Published: July 2006

For Several reasons the British merchants resident in Chile after the establishment of the patriot government in February, 1817, were in a position to exert political pressure. For one thing, they were beginning to increase in numbers and to prosper. For another, Supreme Director Bernardo O’Higgins, whose father was Irish and who himself had lived and studied in England, was predisposed toward the British and their brand of liberalism. The question of recognition was also important. After independence was declared in 1818, the government made a concerted effort to win recognition from the foreign powers. Attention was centered on Great Britain. But perhaps the most consequential factor was the potential role of the British navy.
A Latin American State within the State: The Politics of the Chilean Army, 1924–1927
Authors: Nunn Frederick M.
Published: July 2006

Political orientation and motivation of Chilean army officers in the twentieth century has generally been confined to the 1924-1932 period. During those eight years the military functioned as a politically deliberative body in four distinct ways. First, in September 1924 the actions of junior and middle-grade officers caused President Arturo Alessandri Palma to resign his office, whereupon a junta composed of two generals and an admiral assumed executive functions. Four months later, in January 1925, a coup led by the progenitors of the 1924 movement deposed the junta and recalled Alessandri, allowing him to serve out the remaining few months of his five-year term.
Pernambuco's Political Elite and the Recife Law School
Authors: Hendricks Craig , Levine Robert M.
Published: July 2006

This study explores the convergent ground of two separate research projects: an analysis of the role of the state of Pernambuco in the Brazilian federation between 1889 and 1937, and a forthcoming study of the Recife Law School. The first part of this presentation will discuss the definition of the political elite, describe its composition, and examine the theme of continuity and change over the period of study. The second part will focus on the Law School per se, the principal vehicle for the training of the political elite.

Pernambuco's political elite constitutes less a model for other Brazilian states than a phenomenon specific to Pernambuco's own historical role. This elite may be examined systematically, although only in the broadest sense. For one thing, its membership never remained static, but changed constantly according to the ebb and flow of political life. Relative power within an elite is not easily measurable; nor does there exist a single elite; rather, one observes a fluid set of power relationships, arrayed vertically according to levels of influence and authority, and horizontally from small urban interest nuclei through local elites to subgrous scattered across regional, economic, and social networks.
The “American Question” at the Cortes of Madrid
Authors: Rodríguez Mario
Published: July 2006

It is well known that the American question is one of the most important, not only for those countries, but for all of Europe as well, and it is one that will perhaps contribute most to her future prosperity. All of us, the overseas deputies as well as the Europeans, have regarded this question as very serious from its inception; but our esteemed American deputies know full well that the excessive zeal of some of their colleagues has done more to prejudice than to favor their cause; and if we choose to anticipate this question before the time is ripe, I believe that it will only preoccupy and irritate minds, and the result may be less favorable for America and for Europe.

Conde de Toreno, October 26, 1821.

The Riego Revolt of January 1, 1820 awakened hopes in much of the Spanish-speaking world that constitutionalism might again speed up the process of modernization. A few days later, King Ferdinand VII reinstated the Constitution of 1812, the “Niña Bonita” of the Cádiz years. Asking his overseas subjects to take the oath to the Constitution, he likewise urged them to participate in the impending parliamentary elections. He announced an amnesty for the insurgents in the Americas and assured everyone that all would be forgotten. The Spanish government was less disposed to welcome back the hated afrancesados, who had collaborated with the French invaders. Such vindictiveness, of course, incited political anarchy throughout Spain. The economic weakness of the Peninsula, plus the financial drain of war overseas, further heightened national chaos. These were indeed troublesome years for Spain and her second constitutional experiment. Prospects for reconciliation with American dissidents were not at all promising. If peace could not be restored in America, what action was Spain prepared to take? Would she accept the inevitable—the Independence of the Americas? These were some of the questions that tormented Spanish leaders in Madrid. Other Europeans, keenly interested in the developments taking place in Spain and America, appreciated their economic and international significance. The fate of European liberalism was also at stake.
Slave Over Master in Colonial Colombia and Ecuador
Authors: Chandler David L.
Published: July 2006

The social milieu in which slavery took place in Latin America, especially colonial Colombia and Ecuador, was markedly different than in Brazil, the Caribbean, or the thirteen colonies. Paternalistic attitudes of church and government, protective legislation, a slow, even stagnant, pace of economic development and other factors created a situation which a knowledgeable and enterprising slave could often turn to his advantage and even manipulate.

From the beginning the Catholic Church took the position that slavery was a contractual arrangement whereby the slave placed his time and the result of his labor at the disposal of his master, but that he remained a human being with certain innate rights: the right to life, limb, body and reputation. A master could not keep his slaves from marrying, for example, for to do so deprived him of the rights of the body. For a violation of any of these rights the master must make restitution to the slave, as if he were a free man. Moreover, in Catholic theology the soul of the black man was equally as important as the soul of any human being.
The Beginnings of Samuel J. Prescod, 1806-1843: Afro-Barbadian Civil Rights Crusader and Activist
Authors: Phillips Glenn O.
Published: July 2006

Samuel J. Prescod's path into Barbados' House of Assembly is singular in the island's history. The first Afro-Barbadian to sit on the island's highest elective body, he became its first representative from Bridgetown, the most populous and colorful constituency in Barbados. Most significantly, Prescod's electoral victory on June 6, 1843 symbolized the primary triumph of genuine freedom for the Barbadian working class, an accomplishment the Colonial Office was unable to implement in the island's community for almost thirty years through forced imperial legislation.