bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THERMODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses thermodynamic principles. Topics covered include the laws of thermodynamics, the second law of thermodynamics, the principle of Caratheodory, a comparison of various methods of the formulation of the second law, applications of the second law, free energy and related functions, entropy and volume, systems of several phases or components, entropy of gas mixtures, and forces and ordered structures.
THE QUANTUM RULES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the rules governing the energy content of substances. Topics covered include specific heat, radiation and quantum laws, the problem of rotational energy states, translational energy, wave mechanics, vibrational states, rotational states, and degenerate states.
THE BUILDING OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Authors: Hinshelwood C. N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses conflict between the random motions of constituent particles of matter and the forces which tend to order them into structures. Topics covered include mass and energy, nuclear stability, atom building, molecules, quantum-mechanical theory of covalency, descriptions of molecules by wave functions, and calculations on molecules by the variation method.
THE ORGANIC WORLD
Authors: Hinshelwood C.N.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses living matter. Topics covered include the creation of order by living things, the place of chemistry in the study of cell phenomena, bacteria, the law of growth, linked enzyme systems, adaptation, patterns of chemical reactions, and growth and form.
MODULAR IWASAWA THEORY
Authors: Hida Haruzo
Published: September 2007

This chapter proves the torsion of the anticyclotomic Iwasawa module of a (p-ordinary) CM field, and presents an explicit formula of the L-invariant of the CM field, which is a natural generalization of the formula by Ferrero-Greenberg and Gross-Koblitz from the 1970s for imaginary quadratic fields. These results are proven through the comparison theorem (the ‘R=T’ theorem) between the Iwasawa-theoretic version of the universal deformation ring and the universal nearly p-ordinary Hecke algebra over the (infinite) cyclotomic Iwasawa tower. These combined results enable us to compute the adjoint L-invariant of a CM theta family in terms of the U(p)-eigenvalue of the theta family.
Hidden in the Cave: The Upaniṣadic Self
Authors: Ganeri Jonardon
Published: September 2007

The discovery of the true self is a matter of fundamental concern in the Upaniṣads. This chapter examines the metaphors of concealment used, and analyses the substantive accounts of the self put forward. It also discusses the claim that there is a hidden identity between the individual and the universal self.
1 Shareholder Value as Context for Investor Engagement
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M.
Published: September 2007

Shareholder value provides the rationale, incentive, and justification for investor engagement. The chapter outlines the basic concepts of shareholder value, its preconditions, and the reasons for its growth since the 1980s, especially in the UK and the USA. Shareholder value developed out of responses to the economic crises of the 1970s, facilitated by the dominance of liberal economics and the absence of counter definitions of corporate transformation by organized labour.
The New French System
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

This chapter charts the way in which French revolutionaries reorganized the criminal law, courts, and punishment; how the Napoleonic Code consolidated the changes but also took a step back towards more repressive practices; and how many in rural society sought to use the new legislation in ways that best suited them. It explains further how French ideas informed criminal justice reform elsewhere. This was the case in territories incorporated into the French empire as well as among allies (specifically Bavaria, where a new Code was introduced) and enemies (specifically Britain, where debates about criminal law reform, prison, and punishment continued throughout the Revolutionary and Napoleonic period).
Crime and Police in Revolution and War
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars fostered banditry and smuggling across Europe and the fears of beggars, vagrants, and the idle persisted. In France the police institutions were revised and reformed; the maréchaussée became the Gendarmerie nationale. As with the legal changes of the Revolution and Napoleon, the new police institutions spread across Europe. The political upheavals of the period led to some emphasis on political policing (haute police) and, contrary to the traditional perception of British police history, this was much the same in Britain as in France. In 1829, the Metropolitan Police were established for London and this institution — with its civilian dress and the decision that its men should patrol without weaponry — provided a significant departure for Britain and a model which liberal politicians elsewhere in Europe would seek to emulate.
Protection, Punishment, and Reformation
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins by outlining a typology of the police institutions that developed across 19th-century Europe: state civilian (e.g., the Metropolitan Police); state military (e.g., gendarmeries); and municipal. It stresses, however, that for many, especially in rural areas, turning to the police was still not the automatic response for the victims of many offences: infrajudicial practices and appeals to sorcery continued. At the same time, there were activities, such as poaching, defined by the state as crimes, but not seen as such by local communities. From developments in policing, the chapter switches to an investigation of the changing ideas of punishment and the international exchange of ideas about prison regimes. The discussion picks up on the debates over the separate and silent systems of prison discipline, and on the creation of institutions for juveniles.
7 The Oligaithidai and their Victories (Pindar, Olympian 13; SLG 339, 340)
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses Pindar's thirteenth Olympian. The ode celebrates a double Olympic victory (stadion and pentathlon) won in 464 by a member of the Corinthian family of the Oligaithidai, Xenophon, son of Thessalos. The family had won enormous numbers of victories throughout the Greek world, and at the end of the ode (98-113) Pindar gives a summary catalogue: three at Olympia, six at Pytho, sixty at the Isthmos, sixty at Nemea, and others at a long list of venues from Marathon to Sicily. But this final catalogue is only the second in the ode: towards the beginning (29-46) Pindar has already listed (what are included in the totals of the final catalogue) the victories of Xenophon himself, of his father, and of other named persons who are evidently Xenophon's closer relatives.
12 Bacchylides 18. 52–3
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on Bacchylides 18. It shows that Aigeus, in Bacchylides 18, gives an account of Theseus' equipment and clothing as reported by the κάρυξ.
13 Bacchylides, Asine, and Apollo Pythaieus
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents an analysis of Bacchylides, Asine, and Apollo Pythaieu. Topics discussed include the text, identification, commentary, and literary evidence for the cult of Apollo Pythaieus at Asine.
15 Seven Against Thebes: the Final Scene
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

In Dionysiaca: Nine Studies...presented to Sir Denys Page (Cambridge 1978), R. D. Dawe considers on pp. 87-103 ‘the end of Seven Against Thebes yet again’. He presents what he considers to be ‘enough concrete linguistic and metrical fact to convince all but the most obdurate that the end of the play which we possess is not the end that Aeschylus wrote for it’. Unfortunately, a good deal of what Dawe offers as linguistic and metrical fact turns out to be linguistic and metrical fiction. This chapter comments on the final scene of the play, from the entry of the herald (1005) to the end. The goal is not to defend the ascription of these parts of the play to Aeschylus, but to defend the writer's knowledge of his native language.
18 Lyric-and-iambic Duets in Euripides
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines those scenes in the plays of Euripides which consist of a duet or dialogue conducted partly in excited lyric metres (predominantly dochmiac) and partly in iambic trimeters similar to the spoken iambics of dialogue. First, it classifies certain ‘licences’ — that is, divergences, real or apparent, from the strict distinction of complete iambic trimeters on the one hand and lyric metres on the other — and maintains that these licences do not constitute exceptions to the general distinction. Second, it examines, scene by scene, the surviving exceptions to the distinction, and attempts to show that each of them either has a motive or is to be removed by the correction of a false ascription in the manuscripts or the current texts.
19 Review of Turyn on the Manuscripts of Euripides
Authors: Barrett W. S.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a review of The Byzantine Manuscript Tradition of the Tragedies of Euripides by Alexander Turyn. Turyn has provided an immensely valuable repository of fact: we have now for the first time a catalogue of every surviving manuscript of Euripides, described with commendable accuracy, and with enough readings cited to give us at least an indication of its character. However, his views on the relationship of the manuscripts are often not merely wrong but perversely wrong: they are inquinated by a desire to find simplicity in a tradition that is at all stages tangled and confused, to explain in terms of a tidy Lachmannian stemma facts which cry aloud that they are due to contamination.
1 Down among the Documents: Criticism and Papyrus Letters
Authors: Hutchinson G. O.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines papyrus letters, with emphasis on private letters and their relationship with literature. The role of critical analysis in understanding the link between papyrus private letters and literature are discussed by citing the Greek document The Oxyrhynchus Papyri 2190, a letter from a student to his father dating from around AD 100. The document clearly has a pragmatic function, which must be related to its form; and, as with oratory, any persuasive shaping of the text would scarcely be separable from the text itself. Two approaches can be envisaged from the letter with respect to critical analysis. First, then, the category of literature could be conceived in institutional terms: one might try distinguishing, say, between writing essentially for one reader and writing for readers or listeners beyond one's immediate circle. The second approach, which should be added, would look beyond an institutional division.
2 ‘…when who should walk into the room but…’: Epistoliterarity in Cicero, Ad Qfr. 3.1
Authors: Henderson John
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the three-book collection of (Marcus) Cicero's Letters to (Quintus) Cicero that dramatizes the years of their writer's tempora (‘crisis’) between the fall-out from his consulate, through his banishment, return, and shift of alignment from unease with Pompey to investment in Caesar (60-54 BCE). Besides Marcus' own spell out in the cold, they are occasioned by three periods of Qfr.'s absence from Italy, as praetorian proconsul of Asia, and as legate to Pompey in Sardinia, and as legate to Caesar in Gaul. Their epistoliterarity spans the whole range from formal broadside through mimetic bulletin to keeping channels open. A text and translation follow the chapter and conclusion, and a bibliographical note is appended.
7 Confidence, Inuidia, and Pliny's Epistolary Curriculum
Authors: Morello Ruth
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines in detail Pliny's ‘inclusive’ persona, and particularly the ways in which his correspondence fosters a community of addressees and develops a didactic project in literary friendship and literary criticism. The letter presents another lesson in how to operate in literary society, taught by a man who seems unsure of himself in literary production, but confident that he does at least know how the social sides of literary activity should function. Pliny's own iudicium is insufficient: he needs to see, hear, and act on the responses of his friends, and the recitation is part of the process of literary production. When friends fail in their duty to encourage and to provide frank substantive criticism, disapproval can degenerate into inuidia, the resentment (potentially resulting in malicious action) of another's success or material benefit, or the generalized ill-feeling incurred by inappropriate behaviour. It is a prominent motif in Cicero's letters, and is observed in Pliny's ‘episto-literary’ project.
Notes on Catullus (2002)
Authors: Lyne R.O.A.M.
Published: September 2007

This paper provides textual and interpretative notes on issues in poems 10, 28, 30, 34, 61, and 68 of Catullus.
5 Results
Authors: Terras Melissa M. , Robertson Dr Paul
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the application of the GRAVA system to analyze various sets of test data to determine its effectiveness in producing the correct ‘reading’ of a text. Images of various sections of ink and stylus tablet fed into the system provided encouraging results, and indicated the asymptotic nature of the system’s convergence on a solution. Although a complete stand alone system has not yet been developed, these results demonstrate a proof of concept: that MDL can be used to compare and contrast semantically different information, and propagate realistic interpretations of image data within a reasonable time frame. This technique could form the basis of a future stand-alone system to read further examples of the Vindolanda texts. Suggestions regarding future work which could improve the success of the system are presented.
6 Conclusion
Authors: Terras Melissa M.
Published: September 2007

This research has demonstrated that an MDL architecture such as the GRAVA system can be appropriated to generate possible solutions to interpretation problems, which span different semantic levels and incorporate different types of data. In doing so, a system has been constructed which has an emergent behaviour similar to that of human experts and generates possible, reasonable interpretations of texts to aid the experts in their task. Much can be done to improve the system described in this book, and to incorporate other types of information into the architecture to improve its functionality. There is scope for further research in almost every facet. Considerations of future work presented in this chapter focuses on two main areas: other possible approaches to knowledge elicitation to enable further understanding of how experts read ancient documents, and the enhancement and development of the MDL-based GRAVA system to increase its accuracy, and eventually deliver an application to the papyrologists. This chapter also highlights the overall contribution the research has made to its many constituent fields. An evaluation of the research is presented: the cognitive visual architecture developed being a testament to the value of interdisciplinary research.
A Common‐Sense Kant?
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

This chapter builds on the contrast between Hume and Kant by showing how the Critical philosophy can be understood as an ally of Reid's critique of empiricism and the whole tradition of the ‘way of ideas’. The general ‘anti-Cartesian’ and realist approach of Reid's common-sense philosophy has gained many distinguished adherents, but most analytic philosophers have continued to assume that this approach is the very opposite of Kant's. By building on extensive research by Manfred Kuehn on the role of common-sense philosophy in 18th-century Germany, it is argued that there has been a deep misunderstanding concerning passages that have been repeatedly taken to prove that Kant's philosophy completely opposes Reid's. Moreover, it is argued that common sense plays a crucial role in the first stage of Kant's system (in his theoretical and practical philosophy as well as his aesthetics), and that historical research has established that this fact was clearly recognized by a significant circle of early Kantians who worked in Jena right before the full development of German Idealism.
The Legacy of Idealism in the Philosophy of Feuerbach, Marx, and Kierkegaard
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the impact of Hegel's work in relation to three influential successors — Feuerbach, Marx, and Kierkegaard — who accept much of his general story of the stages of the history of philosophy but believe, for different reasons, that it has an all too idealistic shape. Feuerbach feels a need to stress the importance of sensory experience, and he goes into much more psychological detail than Hegel in explaining the structures of the phenomenon of unhappy consciousness, that is, alienated religiosity, especially in dogmatic Christianity. Hegel's and Feuerbach's notion of alienation is thematized by Marx in terms of the concrete economic (capitalist) phenomenon of forfeiting our ‘species being’, that is, our capacity for acts of unfettered production for the sake of humanity as a whole. Kierkegaard seems implicitly willing to accept much of the historical and teleological story that Hegel has to tell about traditional philosophy as such, but he is most interested in something that this story leaves out: the concern with individual freedom and the possibility of a relationship to a personal God that dominates traditional Christianity and the work of figures such as Kant, Hamann, Jacobi, and the later Schelling (whose final lectures Kierkegaard briefly attended in Berlin).
1 A Fine, Well-Ordered Country
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes Catalonia a the height of its power in the 15th century. The principality was bounded to the north by France, to the east by Aragon and Castile, and by the kingdom of Valencia on its southern flank. It had a total area of about 37,000 square kilometers and a population of about 375,000. Catalonia owed its prosperity mainly to its association with the kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, and Majorca.
4 A Clamorous Peasantry
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses unrest among Catalonia's peasantry, who were chafing under the burdens imposed by lay and clerical landlords. Most resented were the mals usos borne by peasants known as remensas. These remensa peasants who numbered between 15,000 and 20,000 and who were found mainly in northern Catalonia, were tied to the land and subjected by their lords to a host of exactions, restrictions, and obligations known as the mals usos, which had been introduced by the Catalan Corts in 1283 to check flight into the towns.
14 The Portuguese Saviour
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on Catalan's Portuguese saviour, Pedro. In late November 1462, Pedro arrived in Barcelona, a Portuguese lawyer bearing a message from Dom Pedro, constable of Portugal. His father, the Infante Pedro, had married Isabel, daughter of that other Catalan icon, Jaume of Urgell, defeated by the Trastámar Fernando in his bid for the Aragonese throne at Caspe and in his subsequent rebellion. With these impeccable credentials Pedro declared himself a candidate for the vacant throne. He was then told that Enrique of Castile, who had a better claim, had already filled it, and ‘but should need arise we shall make use of your lordship’. No one among the rebels could then have dreamt that within a year they would spontaneously be begging him to take the crown.
Gilbert Murray, Bertrand Russell, and the Theory and Practice of Politics
Authors: Bruneau William
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents an introduction to Murray's involvement in politics, and focuses particularly on his friendship with Bertrand Russell. Gilbert Murray and Bertrand Russell met in February 1901 at Newnham College, Cambridge, where Murray was giving a reading of part of his translation of the Hippolytus of Euripides. Russell was cousin to Murray's wife, Lady Mary Howard, and had known of Murray's classical studies and research on that account. At this point they began an epistolary friendship that lasted until Murray's death in 1957. There are two ways of seeing how the Murray-Russell friendship continued and flourished despite occasional political differences. There is, first, the matter of their ‘fundamental’ liberalism. Second, the correspondence between the two, along with their published output, suggests they agreed fundamentally about ‘philosophy’, and understood each other broadly.
Socially responsible investment
Authors: Acharya Shanta , Dimson Elroy
Published: September 2007

Socially responsible investment (SRI) or ethical investment is a phrase which covers diverse approaches to investment strategy. An ethical investment policy or SRI may involve looking for companies which demonstrate best practice in areas like environmental protection, employment, and human rights, or those whose businesses contribute directly to a cleaner environment or healthier society. Institutions in Oxford and Cambridge expect their managers to factor in the SRI implications in their investment decisions. By simply following the guidelines set out by the Charity Commissioners many colleges fulfill their SRI obligations.
8 Introduction
Authors: Bassanini Andrea , Booth Alison , Brunello Giorgio , Brunello Giorgio , Paola Maria De , Leuven Edwin
Published: September 2007

This introduction to the second part of the book examines workplace training in Europe in a comparative perspective. Compared to training in general, workplace training is received while in employment, and is usually, but not exclusively, provided by the employer. This is an important area to consider, not only because company training covers a substantial part of education after labour market entry, but because of the perception — rather widespread in the documents by the European Commissions on the Lisbon Strategy — that European employers do not spend enough on increasing the skills and competences of their employees. The discussion starts by looking at the facts, including the differences in average training incidence across European countries, Anglo-Saxon countries and some countries of Eastern Europe, R&D investment and training, product market regulation and training, and temporary workers and training.
THE CAUCHY PROBLEM FOR QUASILINEAR SYSTEMS
Authors: Benzoni-Gavage Sylvie , Serre Denis
Published: September 2007

This chapter obtains local solutions for Hs-data when this space is contained in the differentiable functions. The proof proceeds from a contraction mapping principle. The stability is obtained in Hs, thanks to the linear estimates of Chapter 2 and to Moser estimates, while the contraction is established in the L2-norm. The Hs regularity is a little bit elaborate. Smooth solutions usually blow-up in finite time. The chapter recalls blow-up or continuation criteria. The analysis beyond blow-up requires the system to be given in the form of conservation laws. The chapter then recalls the notions of weak entropy solution, shock waves, and the Rankine-Hugoniot relations.
Tunneling Matrix Elements
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents systematic methods to evaluate the tunneling matrix elements in the Bardeen tunneling theory. A key problem in applying the Bardeen tunneling theory to STM is the evaluation of the tunneling matrix elements, which is a surface integral of the wavefunctions of the tip and the sample, roughly in the middle of the tunneling gap. By expanding the tip wavefunction in terms of spherical harmonics and spherical modified Bessel functions, very simple analytic expressions for the tunneling matrix elements are derived: the tunneling matrix elements are proportional to the amplitudes or the corresponding x-, y-, or z-derivatives of the sample wavefunction at the center of the tip. Two proofs are presented. The first proof is based on the Green's function of the Schrödinger's equation in vacuum. The second proof is based on a power-series expansion of the tip wavefunctions.
Nanomechanical Effects
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the effect of force and deformation of the tip apex and the sample surface in the operation and imaging mechanism of STM and AFM. Because the contact area is of atomic dimension, a very small force and deformation would generate a large measurable effect. Three effects are discussed. First is the stability of the STM junction, which depends on the rigidity of the material. For soft materials, hysterisis is more likely. For rigid materials, the approaching and retraction cycles are continuous and reproducible. Second is the effect of force and deformation to the STM imaging mechanism. For soft material such as graphite, force and deformation can amplify the observed corrugation. For hard materials as most metals, force and deformation can decrease the observed corrugation. Finally, the effect of force and deformation on tunneling barrier height measurements is discussed.
3 Reading and Reception
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses upon defining a particular reception-based approach to understanding changing interpretations of Cicero. Most readers stress the dogmatic ambitions of Cicero's philosophy over his Academic approach, seeking to establish what Cicero thought about Rome and to make his own interests appear central to Rome. This critical tradition is the result of a particular manner of reading that developed from a decline in the reputation of rhetoric, and in the popularity of sceptical philosophy, after the Enlightenment. A case study is Cicero's reworking of material from Timaeus in De republica: the ambiguities of Plato seem unnecessarily elaborate when applied to Cicero. It is argued that a dogmatic reading of Cicero is a misreading, which emerged as a result of the crucial role of Cicero in the establishment of all post-Renaissance models of civic education.
5 History with Rhetoric, Rhetoric with History: De oratore and De legibus
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: September 2007

The main focus of this chapter is De oratore, and Cicero's exploration of the idea that the work of the orator is central to Rome's political functioning and history. The discussion of different routes to political success in Pro Murena is examined, before De oratore itself. In that work, conflicting versions of Rome are presented, which differ in the degree to which rhetoric is seen as integral to the political process. The historical setting of the dialogue is discussed. Integrating rhetoric as necessary to the effective functioning of public life at Rome is presented as a historical, as well as a theoretical process. The discussion of historiography in De oratore 2 and the opening of De legibus are examined. The chapter concludes that Cicero observes the need to integrate rhetoric into the Roman political process, but that his presentation is sceptical, rather than validatory.
Presupposition
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

Someone may express a claim within a system of presuppositions held by his hearers. The presuppositions are however not part of the claim, and the truth-value of the claim does not depend on the truth-value of the presuppositions. The presuppositions of a culture also act to limit the range over which type sentences have clear meanings. A statement being true is a matter of its truth — conditions being satisfied to the degree of accuracy appropriate in the context.
The Need for Revelation
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

Humans need propositional revelation from God in order to know better what God is like, what he has done for us (e.g., become incarnate and made atonement for our sins), and will do for us (e.g., provide an after-life), and also in order to know moral truths. Some moral truths are independent of the will of God, but God may command us to do certain actions and his command will make those actions obligatory when they would not be so otherwise. The revelation would probably be expressed within the presuppositions of the culture to which it was originally delivered; and so there needs to be a continuing church which can interpret the original revelation for new cultures.
The Church
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

For there to be a meaningful relationship between the early Church and the present day Church, there needs to be a sense of connectedness and continuity of organization, and connectedness and continuity of aim. The early Church was formed around the twelve apostles and its aims centrally included proclamation of the teachings of Jesus. So to claim a direct connection with this Church, the modern day Church has to maintain an organization similar to and continuous with that of the apostolic church, and must concentrate on teaching the implications of the original revelation. Defining these implications involves more than deducing doctrine from the ‘deposit of faith’, the core of which is the Bible; interpretation of that deposit in the light of the Church's prior teaching is also necessary.
Theological Definitions
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

Christian doctrinal definitions (e.g., creeds) try to state doctrines in as precise a way as possible, using words — as far as possible — in literal senses. But they incorporate presuppositions which need to be siphoned off, for example, the Nicene Creed's presupposition that the Universe consists of ‘the sky’ (Heaven) and the Earth. And they often use words in analogical and metaphorical senses. Examples of the latter in the Nicene creed are its description of the relation of the Son to the Father as ‘light from light’, and of Jesus ‘sitting’ ‘at the right hand of the Father’.
The Bible
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

The Bible consists of small units, woven together into ‘books’ which were put together into the two Testaments, which were put together into one Bible. The meaning of the sentences of a unit depends on its context, including the identity of its author. When a unit is put into a book and the book eventually put into one Bible, the meanings of its sentences change since the context changes. The meaning of a sentence regarded as a sentence of the whole Bible depends crucially on who is the author of the whole Bible. If God inspired its compilation, then he is its ultimate author; and in that case passages of the Bible must be understood to have the meaning they would have if he had written it. For example all its sentences must be understood in such a way as to be consistent with each other, and with everything else God knows (for example the truths of science and history, and doctrinal truths certified by the Church). Our only grounds for believing the Bible to contain revealed truth are that the church declared that God authorized it.
4 Mediation in Athanasius of Alexandria
Authors: Robertson Jon M.
Published: September 2007

This chapter demonstrates that Athanasius — as desirous of holding to a true monotheism as were others of his day — located the ‘oneness’ demanded by monotheism in the Godhead (or θέ οτης) within which a plurality of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit exists. This view substantially differed from that of Eusebius of Caesarea and was a considerable theological issue at stake in the ‘Arian’ controversy; an issue which affected liturgy, worship, and the very identification of Christianity as a type of monotheism. The chapter begins by inspecting an early argument for the divine unity proffered by Athanasius in the Contra Gentes. It then analyses Athanasius' view of the unity of the ‘Godhead’ (θέ οτης) in Contra Arianos I, II, and III.
2 Recruitment, Background, and Education of the Clergy
Authors: Albert Jones David
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes the process of recruitment, selection, and examination of ordination candidates by bishops and their advisers. It examines the social and geographical backgrounds from which the clergy were drawn. It describes the education of clergy at grammar and free schools and at the universities. It examines the specific training for ordination that was provided for them and how provision was made for poor candidates — mostly from geographically remote areas — unable to attend one of the universities, and new developments in training during the 1830s. The means by which prospective clergy secured their first posts is discussed, and the means provided to encourage them to continue their theological studies.
4 Pluralism and Non-Residence
Authors: Albert Jones David
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers the definition of pluralism (the holding of more than one ‘cure of souls’ simultaneously), and its relationship to non-residence (not residing in the parsonage house of the parish of which one has the cure of souls). It considers the extent of pluralism and non-residence in the established Church, and regional variations of its incidence in England and Wales, and the attempts made by successive archbishops and bishops to monitor and manage pluralism and non-residence, and to eliminate pluralism and non-residence. The reasons for the relatively high incidence of pluralism and non-residence are investigated, and the emerging patterns of pluralism and non-residence arising from small endowments for parishes, and consequent risk of poverty among the clergy, are examined. The impact of pluralism and non-residence of incumbents of parishes on their pastoral efficiency in their parishes is also discussed.
Introduction
Authors: Steinhoff Uwe
Published: September 2007

The introduction describes the aims of the book, gives an outline of the central tenets of just war theory, and informs the reader about the book's structure. It also points out that jus ad bellum (when may a war be fought) and ius in bello (how may a war be fought) cannot be completely separated.
9 Morphology and semantics
Authors: Booij Geert
Published: September 2007

The semantic interpretation of complex words is governed by the general principle of compositionality. The semantic scope of morphosyntactic properties of words may be larger than the word on which they are marked. Polysemy is a pervasive phenomenon on the domain of word formation, and can be explained through general mechanisms of meaning extension such as metaphor and metonymy.
Projection and Realism in Hume's Philosophy
Authors: Kail P. J. E.
Published: September 2007

Hume talks of our ‘gilding and staining’ natural objects, and of the mind's propensity to ‘spread itself’ on the world. This has led commentators to use the metaphor of ‘projection’ in connection with his philosophy. This book spells out its meaning, the role it plays in Hume's work, and examines how, if at all, what sounds ‘projective’ in Hume can be reconciled with what sounds ‘realist’. In addition to offering some original readings of Hume's central ideas on God and the Self among other things, this book offers a detailed examination of the notion of projection and the problems it faces.
Realism, Meaning and Justification: The External World and Religious Belief
Authors: Kail P. J. E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the parallel between Hume's treatment of religious belief and the external world belief. Different kinds of threat to realism are considered, and it is argued that there is a crucial difference in Hume's treatment of the two topics. This difference allows us to read Hume as a realist about the external world, but a non-realist about religion.
Chapter 7 Cross‐Cohort Differences in Health on the Verge of Retirement
Authors: Manchester Joyce , Weaver David , Whitman Kevin
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on how Baby Boomers compare to prior groups on the verge of retirement. Specifically, it evaluates the stock of health which Early Boomers bring to retirement and compares it to two prior cohorts at the same point in their life cycles. In the Health and Retirement Study, it appears that Boomers on the verge of retirement are in poorer health than their counterparts a dozen years ago. Boomers indicate they have relatively more difficulty with everyday physical tasks in addition to having more pain, more chronic conditions, more drinking and psychiatric problems, than their HRS earlier counterparts.
On a Clear Day, You Can See the Coase Theorem
Authors: Nalebuff Barry
Published: September 2007

The Coase theorem states that with zero transaction costs, private and social costs will be equal and the value of production will be maximized. Absence of transaction costs means the world is a single economic unit. The Coase theorem gives us a good insight into local level problems. Assigning property rights to one of the parties (it does not matter whether it is to the polluter or the pollutee) results in efficient allocation. However, some problems may arise when the theorem is applied on a grander scale, such as in the cases of water pollution, acid rain, even depletion of the ozone layer. When applied on a global scale, although assigning property rights leads to a socially efficient outcome in the absence of transaction costs, the transaction costs at this scale could be so enormous as to outweigh the original externality problem. Some implications are considered.
Common-Property Resource-Management in Traditional Societies
Authors: Noronha Raymond
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers four examples of ‘common property resources’: Kerala in southern India, the Sudan, southern Bahia in Brazil, and forest dwellers. ‘Traditional’ systems of management appear to be confined only to economically marginal segments of national populations. In all cases, the groups are relatively small. Within the groups, there was comparative homogeneity and relative equality of economic activity. With the exception of the Kerala case, the ‘management’ systems were outside the formal legal framework of society. Are traditional societies exemplars par excellence of conservation? Romanticism can lead to a ‘museum pieces’ approach with four elements (or assumptions): that people in such societies have knowledge of their physical environments and resources; the life of these societies is ‘adapted’ to their respective environments; there is ‘care’ of natural resources; and this care results in economic systems that are ‘sustainable’. These are examined with reference to the four cases, and some inferences are drawn.
The Environment and Net National Product
Authors: Dasgupta Partha , Kriström Bengt , Mäler Karl-Göran
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents net national product (NNP) as a measure of social well-being. When certain technical restrictions are met, for any conception of social well-being and for any set of appropriate constraints, there exists a set of accounting prices of goods and services that can be used in the estimation of NNP. Provided the set of accounting prices is unaffected, an improvement in the index caused by an alteration in economic activities (from small investment projects) reflects an increase in social well-being. NNP should be thought of as the criterion function on the basis of which social cost-benefit analyses of economic policies ought to be conducted. Accounting prices could be computed in a number of ways. One possibility is to use prices that sustain an optimal plan; an alternative would be to use ‘local’ prices that households actually face when making consumption decisions.
Choice under Uncertainty: Problems Solved and Unsolved
Authors: Machina Mark J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a description of a model of individual choice under uncertainty, namely, the expected utility model of preferences for lotteries. A number of problems are examined from the perspective of linearity in the probabilities: the ‘Allais’ paradox or fanning out of indifference curves, the common-ratio effect for negative pay-offs, the effect of risk aversion, preference reversal, and framing effects (i.e., where systematic differences occur in choice due to alternative means of representing probalistically equivalent choice problems). The final section of the chapter discusses how private-sector decision analysts, government agencies, and environmental policy makers should adjust their prescriptive (normative) decision practices in the light of these findings.
Efficiency Issues and the Montreal Protocol on CFCs
Authors: Bohm Peter
Published: September 2007

Given that a treaty among national governments is the best institution available to control global public bads (GPBs) such as ozone layer depletion or global climate change, this chapter presents an investigation on whether there are any incentives to uncooperative inefficient behaviour based on the 1987 Montreal Protocol (MP). The main conclusion is that although at the time it was drafted MP was the ‘best’ feasible treaty for controlling CFC emissions, some incentives appear to be missing. The loss of CFCs as a result of inefficiency within the treaty is likely to be greater than that caused by a large number of (developing) countries not signing the treaty. Differences in net costs of reducing CFC use among signatories were not taken into account. Thirdly, the treaty focuses on CFC use and not on CFC emissions. The treaty allows trade of CFC-based products among signatories. This discourages signatories from trying to reduce CFC use more than that required by the MP. The existence of non-signatories means that scope remains for import of CFC-based products from such countries. This may also hinder the effectiveness of MP.
5 Figures of Speech in Aristophanes
Authors: Slings Simon R.
Published: September 2007

This chapter illustrates some of the problems that arise when we try to separate literary and non-literary language. It argues that a figure of speech such as chiasmus (and similarly anaphora) is a natural (or universal) means to package complex information. As long as it fulfils this primary aim, a chiasmus is therefore not a literary embellishment. If, on the other hand, the information complexity is minor so that the chiasmus is functionally ‘unnecessary’, the addressee will perceive it as a literary figure. Most of the Aristophanic examples of chiasmus and anaphora are not ‘justified’ by an excessive information complexity, leading to the conclusion that Aristophanes' style is in this respect more literate than oral.
Introduction: A Policy Analysis of Market Internationalisation and National Economic Institutions
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter offers an overview of the book. It sets out the book's subject, namely the effects of different forms of market internationalisation on decisions about national institutions. It also seeks to integrate internationalisation of markets and policy making through its ‘policy analysis’ framework. That framework seeks to avoid an over-narrow focus on international capital/trade flows and concentration on socio-economic interests driven by economic efficiency that weaken existing analyses of internationalisation. Instead, it gives due weight to policy making at both the international and domestic levels, underlines the role of governments and public officials in forming and leading reform coalitions, and shows how policy forms of internationalisation were influential because of their role in the policy process. The introduction ends by setting out the book's research design (five sectors chosen due to variations in forms of internationalisation compared across four countries that represent different ‘varieties of capitalism’) and summarises the following chapters.
The European Path to Radical Reform: Telecommunications in France, Germany, and Italy 1988–2005
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows how and why policy forms of internationalisation helped to undermine well-entrenched institutions in France, Germany, and Italy that had survived previous attempts at reform. Policy makers feared regulatory competition from Britain after its reforms of 1984 while EU regulation from 1988 offered occasions for change, arguments to legitimate reform, and opportunities for national champions to become international ones. Aided by these two international factors, governments and national suppliers formed broader reform coalitions that were able to overcome strong resistance and introduce sweeping institutional changes, notably privatisation of incumbent suppliers, termination of monopolies, and delegation of powers to independent sectoral agencies. Thus, by 2005, France, Germany, and Italy had broken with deeply-rooted domestic institutions that protected national suppliers from competition. Instead, they had adopted an institutional model of a liberalised market with private suppliers and independent regulatory agencies, which was similar to that in Britain but reached through a different route.
Liberalising the Letter: The Reform of Postal Services
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: September 2007

Postal services seem an unlikely case for internationalisation. Postal institutions have deep national roots. Few transnational technological and economic developments have taken place, neither the US nor Britain liberalised or even privatised their state-owned post offices and the scope for international regulatory competition is low. The main form of internationalisation has been EU regulation between the mid-1990s and 2005. Nevertheless, from the late 1990s, significant institutional alterations were made, as postal operators became more commercial organisations and expanded overseas. EU regulation provided both pressure for change and justifications for it. The case of postal services underlines the role of EU regulation even in the absence of transnational technological and economic pressures, or prior reforms in the US or Britain through its legal requirements, and more importantly, its indirect influence through being used by actors in the domestic policy process.
Conclusion: Internationalisation through Policy
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: September 2007

This final chapter summarises the findings of the book and relates them to broader debates about internationalisation of markets and domestic institutional reform. It presents a policy analysis approach of market internationalisation and economic institutions that builds on, but develops, second image reversed and comparative institutionalist approaches. The framework put forward differs from these last two by adopting a broader definition of internationalisation, one that includes international policy decisions. It suggests that carriers of internationalisation are not just socio-economic interests but also political and state actors, especially governments. It argues that internationalisation affects national decisions through a broader range of mechanisms than economic efficiency or distributional conflicts, and highlights those mechanisms that feed in directly to the domestic policy process and involve governments. It suggests that nations that represent very different varieties of capitalism can adopt similar sectoral institutions, but that they do so through diverse routes that reflect their domestic politics.
2 Operating the 1974 Railways Act
Authors: Gourvish Terry
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a discussion of decline in British Rail's financial performance between 1974 and 1979. It then discusses the impetus for organizational reform, the new organization of 1977, the subsidiary businesses, British Rail's strained relationship with the government, and the white paper on Nationalized Industries of March 1978.