bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Quantitative reconstruction of climate variability during the Eemian (Merkinė) and Weichselian (Nemunas) in Lithuania
Authors: Šeirienė Vaida , Kühl Norbert , Kisielienė Dalia
Published: April 2014

Little is known concerning climate changes in the Eastern Baltic region during the last interglacial–glacial cycle and in particular, climate changes during the Weichselian. In this study, a quantitative reconstruction of the mean January and July temperature for the Medininkai-117 site in Lithuania is presented. The reconstruction is based on pollen and plant macrofossils from this site, which reveal that the vegetation was characteristic of many northern Europe sites during the Eemian and Early Weichselian. Gradual evolution of the vegetation suggests that relatively uniform climate conditions existed during the Eemian. Our reconstructions support the view of a relatively stable Eemian, with short cooling phases of low amplitude. A strong increase in temperature was apparent during the beginning of the interglacial and decrease during the transition to the Weichselian. Reconstructed July temperatures of the Eemian interglacial were approximately 2 °C higher than today (18.5 °C; today: 16.2 °C) and were similar to today for January (−5.2 °C; today: −5.1 °C). July temperatures during the Early Weichselian were only ~2°C lower than during the Eemian, whereas the January temperatures gradually decreased. Winter temperatures were relatively high (above − 10 °C) during the Early Weichselian.
Zoological Philosophy
Authors: Lamarck Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de
Published: April 2014

The great French zoologist Lamarck (1744–1829) was best known for his theory of evolution, called 'soft inheritance', whereby organisms pass down acquired characteristics to their offspring. Originally a soldier, Lamarck later studied medicine and biology. His distinguished career included admission to the French Academy of Sciences (1779), and appointments as Royal Botanist (1781) and as professor of zoology at the Musée Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle in 1793. Acknowledged as the premier authority on invertebrate zoology, he is credited with coining the term 'invertebrates'. In this 1809 work, translated into English in 1914, he outlines his theory that under the pressure of different external circumstances, species can develop variations, and that new species and genera can eventually evolve as a result. Darwin paid tribute to Lamarck as the man who 'first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change … being the result of law'.
The Varieties of Religious Experience
Authors: James William
Published: April 2014

The Gifford Lectures were established in 1885 at the universities of St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh to promote the discussion of 'Natural Theology in the widest sense of the term - in other words, the knowledge of God', and some of the world's most influential thinkers have delivered them. The 1901–2 lectures given in Edinburgh by American philosopher William James (1842–1910) are considered by many to be the greatest in the series. The lectures were published in book form in 1902 and have been reprinted many times. James, who was educated in the United States and Europe, and spent much of his career teaching philosophy at Harvard, was very influential in the development of modern psychology, and in these twenty lectures he explores the personal experience of religion. Some of the topics include religion and neurology, 'the sick soul', saintliness, and mysticism.
Labor Relations and Population Developments in Tanzania: Sources, Shifts, and Continuities from 1800 to 2000
Authors: Pallaver Karin
Published: April 2014

This article analyzes trends in demography and labor relations in Tanzania for four cross-sections: 1800, 1900, 1950, and 2000. It discusses the quality and nature of the sources available on demography and labor relations in Tanzania for the aforementioned cross-sections. Subsequently, it reconstructs the main trends in the population size and composition, and connects them to the major shifts in labor relations in relation to the major historical events that took place in Tanzania over the last two centuries.
Effect of mean and fluctuating pressure gradients on boundary layer turbulence
Authors: Joshi Pranav , Liu Xiaofeng , Katz Joseph
Published: April 2014

This study focuses on the effects of mean (favourable) and large-scale fluctuating pressure gradients on boundary layer turbulence. Two-dimensional (2D) particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements, some of which are time-resolved, have been performed upstream of and within a sink flow for two inlet Reynolds numbers, ${Re}_{\theta }(x_{1})=3360$ and 5285. The corresponding acceleration parameters, $K$, are ${1.3\times 10^{-6}}$ and ${0.6\times 10^{-6}}$. The time-resolved data at ${Re}_{\theta }(x_{1})=3360$ enables us to calculate the instantaneous pressure distributions by integrating the planar projection of the fluid material acceleration. As expected, all the locally normalized Reynolds stresses in the favourable pressure gradient (FPG) boundary layer are lower than those in the zero pressure gradient (ZPG) domain. However, the un-scaled stresses in the FPG region increase close to the wall and decay in the outer layer, indicating slow diffusion of near-wall turbulence into the outer region. Indeed, newly generated vortical structures remain confined to the near-wall region. An approximate analysis shows that this trend is caused by higher values of the streamwise and wall-normal gradients of mean streamwise velocity, combined with a slightly weaker strength of vortices in the FPG region. In both boundary layers, adverse pressure gradient fluctuations are mostly associated with sweeps, as the fluid approaching the wall decelerates. Conversely, FPG fluctuations are more likely to accompany ejections. In the ZPG boundary layer, loss of momentum near the wall during periods of strong large-scale adverse pressure gradient fluctuations and sweeps causes a phenomenon resembling local 3D flow separation. It is followed by a growing region of ejection. The flow deceleration before separation causes elevated near-wall small-scale turbulence, while high wall-normal momentum transfer occurs in the ejection region underneath the sweeps. In the FPG boundary layer, the instantaneous near-wall large-scale pressure gradient rarely becomes positive, as the pressure gradient fluctuations are weaker than the mean FPG. As a result, the separation-like phenomenon is markedly less pronounced and the sweeps do not show elevated small-scale turbulence and momentum transfer underneath them. In both boundary layers, periods of acceleration accompanying large-scale ejections involve near-wall spanwise contraction, and a high wall-normal momentum flux at all elevations. In the ZPG boundary layer, although some of the ejections are preceded, and presumably initiated, by regions of adverse pressure gradients and sweeps upstream, others are not. Conversely, in the FPG boundary layer, there is no evidence of sweeps or adverse pressure gradients immediately upstream of ejections. Apparently, the mechanisms initiating these ejections are either different from those involving large-scale sweeps or occur far upstream of the peak in FPG fluctuations.
Oscillatory rarefied gas flow inside rectangular cavities
Authors: Wu Lei , Reese Jason M. , Zhang Yonghao
Published: April 2014

Two-dimensional oscillatory lid-driven cavity flow of a rarefied gas at arbitrary oscillation frequency is investigated using the linearized Boltzmann equation. An analytical solution at high oscillation frequencies is obtained, and detailed numerical results for a wide range of gas rarefaction are presented. The influence of both the aspect ratio of the cavity and the oscillating frequency on the damping force exerted on the moving lid is studied. Surprisingly, it is found that, over a certain frequency range, the damping is smaller than that in an oscillatory Couette flow. This reduction in damping is due to the anti-resonance of the rarefied gas. A scaling law between the anti-resonant frequency and the aspect ratio is established, which would enable the control of the damping through choosing an appropriate cavity geometry.
Perturbing vortex packets in a turbulent boundary layer
Authors: Zheng Shaokai , Longmire Ellen K.
Published: April 2014

A zero pressure gradient turbulent boundary layer of$\textit {Re}_{\tau }=2500$was perturbed by a single spanwise array of finite cylinders mounted on the bounding surface and extending through the logarithmic region. The cylinder height was$H/\delta =0.2$($H^{+}=500$), where$\delta $is the boundary layer thickness, with an aspect ratio ($AR$) (height/diameter) of four. Streamwise–spanwise ($x\text {--}y$) planes of the flow were examined by particle image velocimetry (PIV) up to$7\delta $downstream at a wall-normal location of$z^{+}=300$for cylinder array spacings ranging from$0.2\delta $to$0.8\delta $. Average streamwise velocity fields showed a splitting, then merging pattern of cylinder wakes which occurred further downstream as the cylinder spacing increased. Based on measurements at the furthest downstream location, both the spanwise variation of average streamwise velocity and the Fourier content in the instantaneous fields suggested that the case with$0.6\delta $cylinder spacing, which matched the dominant spanwise scale in the unperturbed flow, yielded the most persistent downstream flow organization. A flying PIV method was implemented to track specific packet structures over a range$-2<x/\delta <7$with respect to the cylinder array, corresponding to a time scale of$12.4\delta /U_{\infty }$. Packets approaching the$0.2\delta $spacing array first lost their organization but then regained it a distance$2\delta $downstream, suggesting that a persistent outer layer organization propagated inwards into the log region. For arrays with larger spanwise spacing, approaching packets were generally redirected into the spanwise location midway between cylinders and sometimes enhanced.
Global stability analysis of the axisymmetric wake past a spinning bullet-shaped body
Authors: Jiménez-González J. I. , Sevilla A. , Sanmiguel-Rojas E. , Martínez-Bazán C.
Published: April 2014

We analyze the global linear stability of the axisymmetric flow around a spinning bullet-shaped body of length-to-diameter ratio $L/D=2$, as a function of the Reynolds number, $Re=\rho w_{\infty } D /\mu $, and of the rotation parameter $\varOmega =\omega D/(2 w_{\infty })$, in the ranges $Re<450$ and $0\leq \varOmega \leq 1$. Here, $w_{\infty }$ and $\omega $ are the free-stream and the body rotation velocities respectively, and $\rho $ and $\mu $ are the fluid density and viscosity. The two-dimensional eigenvalue problem (EVP) is solved numerically to find the spectrum of complex eigenvalues and their associated eigenfunctions, allowing us to explain the different bifurcations from the axisymmetric state observed in previous numerical studies. Our results reveal that, for the parameter ranges investigated herein, three global eigenmodes, denoted low-frequency (LF), medium-frequency (MF) and high-frequency (HF) modes, become unstable in different regions of the $(Re,\varOmega )$-parameter plane. We provide precise computations of the corresponding neutral curves, that divide the $(Re,\varOmega )$-plane into four different regions: the stable axisymmetric flow prevails for small enough values of $Re$ and $\varOmega $, while three different frozen states, where the wake structures co-rotate with the body at different angular velocities, take place as a consequence of the destabilization of the LF, MF and HF modes. Several direct numerical simulations (DNS) of the nonlinear state associated with the MF mode, identified here for the first time, are also reported to complement the linear stability results. Finally, we point out the important fact that, since the axisymmetric base flow is $SO(2)$-symmetric, the theory of equivariant bifurcations implies that the weakly nonlinear regimes that emerge close to criticality must necessarily take the form of rotating-wave states. These states, previously referred to as frozen wakes in the literature, are thus shown to result from the base-flow symmetry.
Wine as an Experience Good: Price Versus Enjoyment in Blind Tastings of Expensive and Inexpensive Wines
Authors: Ashton Robert H.
Published: April 2014

Economic theorists maintain that wine is an experience good, a product whose quality can be evaluated only after purchase and consumption. Theory holds that consumers often rely on the price of experience goods as one cue to judge their quality. In this paper, however, I provide evidence that an important segment of wine consumers do not consider price a useful cue to quality. Specifically, I test the robustness of Goldstein et al.,'s (2008) finding that, in blind tastings, average wine drinkers consider less expensive wines to taste better than more expensive wines. Four blind tastings of 2006 red Bordeaux and 2009 white Burgundy with a price range of $20–$119 were conducted, in which members of a wine club rated their extent of enjoyment of each wine. In three of the tastings, there was no relationship between price and enjoyment, while in the other the relationship was negative, lending additional credibility to the contention that an important segment of wine consumers do not find enjoyment to increase with price. (JEL Classification: C91)
Idiom as the intersection of conceptual and syntactic schemas
Authors: SANFORD DANIEL
Published: April 2014

abstract

Two key issues in the study of idiom are the metaphorical status of idioms (whether or not underlying metaphors are active in the on-line processing of figurative idiomatic expressions) and the compositional status of idioms (whether or not the overall meaning of such expressions is analyzable from internal elements). This study addresses these questions from the perspective of emergent metaphor theory (Sanford, 2012, 2013), arguing that key properties of such expressions − idiosyncrasy of both form and meaning, the potential for idiom to be manipulated in discourse, and diachronic patterns in changes of idiomatic meaning − follow from the status of metaphorical idioms as highly entrenched instances of both conceptual and syntactic mappings. In the case of both types of schema, the interaction of type and token frequency effects predict the metaphoricity and analyzability of idioms.
Two Tales about Illness, Ideologies, and Intimate Identities: Sexuality Politics and AIDS in South Africa, 1980–95
Authors: Tsampiras Carla
Published: April 2014

This article focuses on the micro-narratives of two individuals whose responses to AIDS were mediated by their sexual identity, AIDS activism and the political context of South Africa during a time of transition. Their experiences were also mediated by well-established metanarratives about AIDS and ‘homosexuality’ created in the USA and the UK which were transplanted and reinforced (with local variations) into South Africa by medico-scientific and political leaders.The nascent process of writing South African AIDS histories provides the opportunity to record responses to AIDS at institutional level, reveal the connections between narratives about AIDS and those responses, and draw on the personal stories of those who were at the nexus of impersonal official responses and the personal politics of AIDS. This article records the experiences of Dennis Sifris, a physician who helped establish one of the first AIDS clinics in South Africa and emptied the dance floors, and Pierre Brouard, a clinical psychologist who was involved in early counselling, support and education initiatives for HIV-positive people, and counselled people about dying, and then about living. Their stories show how, even within government-aligned health care spaces hostile to gay men, they were able to provide support and treatment to people; benefited from international connections with other gay communities; and engaged in socially subversive activities. These oral histories thus provide otherwise hidden insights into the experiences of some gay men at the start of an epidemic that was initially almost exclusively constructed on, and about, gay men’s bodies.
Cardiovascular responses to the ingestion of sugary drinks using a randomised cross-over study design: does glucose attenuate the blood pressure-elevating effect of fructose?
Authors: Grasser Erik K. , Dulloo Abdul , Montani Jean-Pierre
Published: April 2014

Overconsumption of sugar-sweetened beverages has been implicated in the pathogenesis of CVD. The objective of the present study was to elucidate acute haemodynamic and microcirculatory responses to the ingestion of sugary drinks made from sucrose, glucose or fructose at concentrations similar to those often found in commercial soft drinks. In a randomised cross-over study design, twelve young healthy human subjects (seven men) ingested 500 ml tap water in which was dissolved 60 g of either sucrose, glucose or fructose, or an amount of fructose equivalent to that present in sucrose (i.e. 30 g fructose). Continuous cardiovascular monitoring was performed for 30 min before and at 60 min after ingestion of sugary drinks, and measurements included beat-to-beat blood pressure (BP) and impedance cardiography. Additionally, microvascular endothelial function testing was performed after iontophoresis of acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside using laser Doppler flowmetry. Ingestion of fructose (60 or 30 g) increased diastolic and mean BP to a greater extent than the ingestion of 60 g of either glucose or sucrose (P< 0·05). Ingestion of sucrose and glucose increased cardiac output (CO;P< 0·05), index of contractility (P< 0·05) and stroke volume (P< 0·05), but reduced total peripheral resistance (TPR;P< 0·05), which contrasts with the tendency of fructose (60 and 30 g) to increase resistance. Microvascular endothelial function did not differ in response to the ingestion of various sugary drinks. In conclusion, ingestion of fructose, but not sucrose, increases BP in healthy human subjects. Although sucrose comprises glucose and fructose, its changes in TPR and CO are more related to glucose than to fructose.
Changes in children's food group intake from age 3 to 7 years: comparison of a FFQ with an online food record
Authors: Vereecken Carine , Covents Marc , Huybrechts Inge , Kelly Colette , Maes Lea
Published: April 2014

Few studies have investigated the relative validity of FFQ in young children and no study has investigated the relative validity of changes in children's food intake in a longitudinal context. The aim of the present study was to compare the FFQ of the longitudinal Family Influences on Food Intake study, assessing children's food intake in the previous 3 months, with a 3 d online food record when children were 3 and 7 years old, as well as to investigate the relative validity of changes in food group intake over a 4-year period. Parents (n 89) completed the FFQ and an online food record over three non-consecutive days on two separate occasions (January–April 2008 and 2012). Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and Spearman's correlations were used to compare food group intake and changes in intake assessed using both methods. In 2008, the intake of eleven of the twenty-two food groups was overestimated and that of four food groups underestimated in the FFQ in comparison with the online tool; in 2012, the intake of four food groups was overestimated and that of seven food groups underestimated. Nevertheless, changes in intake did not differ significantly between the two methods for eighteen food groups. Correlations in 2008 and 2012 were, on average, 0·47; correlations between the changes in dietary intake were, on average, 0·26. The results suggest that despite the significant differences between the two methods for a number of food groups at both baseline and/or follow-up, the FFQ can be used to monitor changes in dietary intake for groups of young children.
Hydrogen and methane emissions from beef cattle and their rumen microbial community vary with diet, time after feeding and genotype
Authors: Rooke John A. , Wallace R. John , Duthie Carol-Anne , McKain Nest , de Souza Shirley Motta , Hyslop Jimmy J. , Ross David W. , Waterhouse Tony , Roehe Rainer
Published: April 2014

The aims of the present study were to quantify hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4) emissions from beef cattle under different dietary conditions and to assess how cattle genotype and rumen microbial community affected these emissions. A total of thirty-six Aberdeen Angus-sired (AAx) and thirty-six Limousin-sired (LIMx) steers were fed two diets with forage:concentrate ratios (DM basis) of either 8:92 (concentrate) or 52:48 (mixed). Each diet was fed to eighteen animals of each genotype. Methane (CH4) and H2emissions were measured individually in indirect respiration chambers. H2emissions (mmol/min) varied greatly throughout the day, being highest after feed consumption, and averaged about 0·10 mol H2/mol CH4. Higher H2emissions (mol/kg DM intake) were recorded in steers fed the mixed diet. Higher CH4emissions (mol/d and mol/kg DM intake) were recorded in steers fed the mixed diet (P< 0·001); the AAx steers produced more CH4on a daily basis (mol/d,P< 0·05) but not on a DM intake basis (mol/kg DM intake). Archaea (P= 0·002) and protozoa (P< 0·001) were found to be more abundant and total bacteria (P< 0·001) less abundant (P< 0·001) on feeding the mixed diet. The relative abundance ofClostridiumcluster IV was found to be greater (P< 0·001) and that of cluster XIVa (P= 0·025) lower on feeding the mixed diet. The relative abundance ofBacteroidesplusPrevotellawas greater (P= 0·018) and that ofClostridiumcluster IV lower (P= 0·031) in the LIMx steers. There were no significant relationships between H2emissions and microbial abundance. In conclusion, the rate of H2production immediately after feeding may lead to transient overloading of methanogenic archaea capacity to use H2, resulting in peaks in H2emissions from beef cattle.
The Architecture and Pottery of a Late Third-Millennium Residential Quarter at Tell Hamoukar, North-Eastern Syria
Authors: Colantoni Carlo , Ur Jason A.
Published: April 2014

The 2001 excavations in Area H on Hamoukar's lower town produced a wealth of information on a residential neighbourhood of a late third-millennium BC city. The excavations were intended to address several issues, including chronology, urban form and the final abandonment of the site. Toward these ends, a broad exposure of over 400 m2 was opened, revealing a prosperous neighbourhood that had been sacked and abruptly abandoned. This report addresses two aspects, its architecture and ceramic assemblage, in detail. The architecture demonstrates broadly shared principles in spatial patterning and planning, as well as similarities in construction, with variations connected to socioeconomic status. The ceramics represent a snapshot of the assemblage of the late or post-Akkadian period, including many whole or reconstructable forms. Contrary to the expectations of abrupt climatic change models, Hamoukar remained settled and urbanised after the proposed 2200 BC Akkadian collapse, and its abandonment was the result of a sudden and violent military event.
Kalḫu's palaces of war and peace: Palace architecture at nimrud in the ninth century BC
Authors: Kertai David
Published: April 2014

This article discusses the two main royal palaces constructed in Kalḫu during the ninth century: Ashurnasirpal II's Northwest Palace and Shalmaneser III's Military Palace. Through a re-examination of the architecture of both palaces, it will be argued that the two were more alike than has been commonly assumed. The military nature of the Military Palace did not preclude the presence of most types of spaces that were already present in the Northwest Palace. By discussing the differences and similarities between the kinds of spaces, decoration and spatial organisation found in each palace this article tries to offer a new analysis of both, and of the nature of Late Assyrian royal palaces more broadly.
Fifth-campaign Reliefs in Sennacherib's “Palace without Rival” at Nineveh
Authors: Jeffers Joshua
Published: April 2014

Scholars had once assumed that all of the relief programmes in Sennacherib's “Palace Without Rival” at Nineveh depicted events solely from his first three military campaigns. In 1994, however, E. Frahm successfully reconstructed a heavily damaged epigraph from the throne room specifically identifying the city of Ukku as the topic of the relief programme on Slabs 1–4 of this room's western wall. We know from Sennacherib's annals that Ukku was a target of the king's fifth campaign, aimed at enemies to the north of the Assyrian heartland in the Zagros mountain range. I have therefore re-examined the palace reliefs in order to identify other fifth-campaign programmes that have previously been overlooked. In this article, I argue that Rooms XXXVIII and XLVIII, in addition to the images on the western wall of the throne room, contain representations of Sennacherib's fifth campaign. With this identification substantiated, I then explore the typological aspects of these fifth-campaign programmes to classify their visual features.
Dialogues and Riddles: Three Old Babylonian Wisdom Texts
Authors: Streck M. P. , Wasserman N.
Published: April 2014

This article presents new editions of three Old Babylonian wisdom texts. Text A contains dialogues between different professionals and their customers(?), Text B is a dialogue between a friend and his fellow, and Text C contains several riddles. All three texts are poorly preserved and the interpretation is tentative in many points.
A Fragment of a Sumerian Lament: BM 65463, Tablet XI of the balaĝ úru àm-ma-ir-ra-bi
Authors: Gabbay Uri
Published: April 2014

The text of úru àm-ma-ir-ra-bi, the longest extant Sumerian balaĝ-lament, is in the process of recovery and reconstruction from Babylonian and Assyrian cuneiform tablets. This article presents a previously unpublished Babylonian tablet fragment that holds part of the composition's hitherto unknown eleventh tablet. The fragment also contains part of the catchline to the twelfth tablet, also unidentified until now, and is thus an important source for the reconstruction of úru àm-ma-ir-ra-bi.
The Feeding of the five Hundred Thousand: Cities and Agriculture in Early Islamic Mesopotamia
Authors: Kennedy Hugh
Published: April 2014

This paper discusses the impact of the foundation of major cities in Mesopotamia in the early Islamic period (c.636-900 CE) and their impact on the agricultural economy and rural settlement in the area. It considers the potential agricultural productivity of the area, the availability of river transport, the fiscal structure of the early Islamic state and the way in which it created demand for foodstuffs, and the development of theqaṭīcaas a form of landholding which provided security of tenure and hence the encouragement of long-term investment in agricultural infrastructure.
New Data on theSidru-Offering in Neo-Babylonian Sippar
Authors: Tarasewicz Radosław
Published: April 2014

This article presents a study of the little knownsidru-offering from the Neo-Babylonian Ebabbar temple at Sippar. The source data comes from an unpublished tablet belonging to the so-called Ebabbar archives. It is the only known example of the performance of this offering in a Babylonian temple. The organization of the cult and cultic calendar of Babylonian temples are the subject of numerous studies and much debate; the content of this tablet contributes valuable new data to the discussion.
“Where is Bazi? Where is Zizi?” The List of Early Rulers in theBalladfrom Emar and Ugarit, and the Mari Rulers in the Sumerian King List and Other Sources
Authors: Cohen Yoram
Published: April 2014

This paper argues that the peripheral recensions of theBallad of Early Rulersreflect Mesopotamian forerunners, and do not represent re-workings by the local scribes. The Ugarit recension is based on an Old Babylonian forerunner, and the Emar recension is based on a Middle Babylonian version that incorporated material from other scholarly sources. To support this contention, the Babylonian literary and scholarly background of the early rulers is discussed, and a reconstruction and analysis is offered of the Mari section of the Sumerian King List, in which two rulers of theBalladappear. The textual history of theBalladcontributes to the general debate regarding the origin, date of composition and transmission of Mesopotamian literature and its reception throughout scribal centers, not only in Ugarit and Emar, but also in Ḫattuša, Canaan and Egypt during the Late Bronze Age. A new copy of the Emar Ballad manuscript by Andrew George is offered at the end of this paper.
A Medieval City Within Assyrian Walls: The Continuity of the Town of Arbīl in Northern Mesopotamia
Authors: Nováček Karel , Amin Narmin Ali Muhammad , Melčák Miroslav
Published: April 2014

This study presents a first attempt at an archaeological topography of the city of Arbīl (Arbela, Urbilum, Arbail). Arbīl's large tell and citadel are among the most famous sites in northern Iraq, although research on the site has begun only recently. The study of the immediate hinterlands of the tell, complementary use of written sources, remote sensing and surveys offer a perspective on the extremely long-term evolution of the lower town, whose architectural remains have entirely disappeared under modern building development. Despite many lacunae in the data and a predominance of indirect hypotheses, the urban structure of Assyrian Arbail becomes comprehensible in the context of other Assyrian royal capitals. During the Islamic period, the city underwent a transformation, which merged the once prosperous Sasanian provincial capital with the expanding Muslim community.
Archaeology and Acrimony: Gertrude Bell, Ernst Herzfeld and the Study of Pre-Modern Mesopotamia
Authors: Cooper Lisa
Published: April 2014

Letters sent from the German scholar Ernst Herzfeld to Gertrude Bell between 1909 and 1912 provide valuable information about the scholarship of these remarkable characters as they explored issues pertaining to the development of early Islamic art and architecture in Mesopotamia. Through a spirited and often fractious exchange of ideas about a range of artistic and architectural topics that included vaulting techniques, the design of early mosques and palace forms, one can track the impact each had upon the other's scholarship, and the degree to which their respective views shaped one another's conclusions about important Islamic period sites such as Samarra and Ukhaidir.
“If a Star Changes into Ashes…” A Sequence of Unusual Celestial Omens
Authors: Fincke Jeanette C.
Published: April 2014

A sequence of omens has puzzled Assyriologists since 1866, when Henry C. Rawlinson published the first copy of these peculiar divinatory texts. The omens have the structure DIŠ MULana …GUR, “If a star turns into …”, where the object into which the star changes can be an animal, metal, stone or some other item. Such a change has been held to belong to the field of dreams or, more generally, to terrestrial events rather than to astronomy. In fact, however, these omens refer to a specific celestial phenomenon, the transformation of a “star” into a meteorite that can be picked up from the ground, as can also be seen in the phrasing of the correspondingnamburbi-ritual, which some scribes appended to their recension of this omen sequence.
The Historical Sections of the Astronomical Diaries in Context: Developments in A Late Babylonian Scientific Text Corpus
Authors: Pirngruber Reinhard
Published: April 2014

The article addresses developments within the Astronomical Diaries, as regards their formal structure and the content of their historical sections, with a particular emphasis on ominous references. Although both the total number and length of historical sections increased significantly over time, the number of ominous references declined. A relationship can be posited between this development and on-going changes in the prevailing scientific worldview in first millennium B.C. Babylonia. The Diaries were deeply embedded in Babylonian traditions of knowledge production, rendering untenable assessments that deny any impact of Babylonian science of divination on them; at the same time, a characterization of the Diaries as a kind of database for diviners falls equally short.
Treating Garments in the Old Babylonian Period: “At the Cleaners” in a Comparative View
Authors: Wasserman Nathan
Published: April 2014

This article examines UET 6/2, 414, the Old Babylonian dialogue between a fuller and a client, commonly referred to as “At the Cleaners”, from the point of view of ancient technology. Drawing upon a wide range of Talmudic and Classical sources mentioning laundry, and based on a careful philological reading of the Akkadian text, this study offers a new understanding of the different stages of washing and treatment of luxury garments in the Old Babylonian period. It is argued that the possible humorous aspect of the text is irrelevant to the fact that UET 6/2, 414 is a unique composition in antiquity, offering a long and accurate sequence of laundry instructions. Washing procedures and ways of treating luxury garments in Mesopotamia are outlined step by step; new Akkadian terms pertaining to garments and clothing are presented; wages of laundry workers in ancient Mesopotamia are briefly discussed. The study concludes with a new edition and translation of UET 6/2, 414.
The Alliance For or Against Progress? US–Brazilian Financial Relations in the Early 1960s
Authors: LOUREIRO FELIPE PEREIRA
Published: April 2014

This paper analyses the role played by US economic assistance during the administrations of Jânio Quadros and João Goulart in Brazil (1961–4). It focuses on the negotiation and implementation of financial agreements associated with the Alliance for Progress, President Kennedy's aid programme for Latin America. It demonstrates that the Alliance had a positive impact during Quadros' administration, providing substantial resources to the country and placing economic growth ahead of economic stabilisation as the principal criterion for aid. Circumstances changed, however, when João Goulart became president, resulting in serious funding constraints. The paper suggests that the main reason for this was political, specifically regarding Washington's perception of Goulart's links with communist groups.
Neither So Low nor So Short: Wages and Heights in Bourbon Spanish America from an International Comparative Perspective
Authors: DOBADO-GONZÁLEZ RAFAEL , GARCÍA-MONTERO HÉCTOR
Published: April 2014

This paper offers new quantitative evidence on living standards in Bourbon America through a pioneering study of both wages and heights. Wages were not low, nor were heights short, by the international standards of the period. The living standards of Spanish Americans thus compare favourably with those of other regions of the world, including Europe. As in many parts of the West, one can observe a trend towards the deterioration of real wages in Spanish America at the end of the period. Our findings suggest that the ‘Great Divergence’ in living standards between Spanish America and the developed Western countries might have taken place mainly after independence and that currently available GDP per capita estimates might be too low.
Paying for nature: what every conservationist should know about political economy
Authors: Scales Ivan R.
Published: April 2014

Global conservation policy and global capitalism have become increasingly intertwined over the last decade. The move towards ‘green capitalism’ has manifested itself in diverse ways, most notably in the expansion of payments for environmental services and attempts to commodify nature. However, there are concerns that prioritizing the financial value of nature could undermine efforts to conserve biodiversity. One particularly strong set of critiques has emerged from political economy. While providing rich theoretical and empirical insights into the potential downsides of green capitalism, the literature is often dense and difficult for non-specialists to navigate. Here I review and translate its main concepts and critiques for a conservation audience. I begin by exploring the basic process of commodity exchange. I then consider nature as a reluctant and uncooperative commodity that often requires new institutions and technologies to be commodified. This means conservation organizations play a key role in green capitalism's political economy. These developments are likely to have considerable social and environmental impacts, with a highly uneven distribution of costs and benefits.
Evaluation of portable microscopic devices for the diagnosis of Schistosoma and soil-transmitted helminth infection
Authors: BOGOCH ISAAC I. , COULIBALY JEAN T. , ANDREWS JASON R. , SPEICH BENJAMIN , KEISER JENNIFER , STOTHARD J. RUSSELL , N'GORAN ELIÉZER K. , UTZINGER JÜRG
Published: April 2014

The diagnosis of parasitic worm (helminth) infections requires specialized laboratory settings, but most affected individuals reside in locations without access to such facilities. We tested two portable microscopic devices for the diagnosis of helminth infections in a cross-sectional survey in rural Côte d'Ivoire. We examined 164 stool samples under a light microscope and then re-examined with a commercial portable light microscope and an experimental mobile phone microscope for the diagnosis of Schistosoma mansoni and soil-transmitted helminths. Additionally, 180 filtered urine samples were examined by standard microscopy and compared with the portable light microscope for detection of Schistosoma haematobium eggs. Conventional microscopy was considered the diagnostic reference standard. For S. mansoni, S. haematobium and Trichuris trichiura, the portable light microscope showed sensitivities of 84·8%, 78·6% and 81·5%, respectively, and specificities of 85·7%, 91·0% and 93·0%, respectively. For S. mansoni and T. trichiura, we found sensitivities for the mobile phone microscope of 68·2% and 30·8%, respectively, and specificities of 64·3% and 71·0%, respectively. We conclude that the portable light microscope has sufficient diagnostic yield for Schistosoma and T. trichiura infections, while the mobile phone microscope has only modest sensitivity in its current experimental set-up. Development of portable diagnostic technologies that can be used at point-of-sample collection will enhance diagnostic coverage in clinical and epidemiological settings.
The authority of God and the meaning of the atonement
Authors: DAVIS RYAN W.
Published: April 2014

Substitution and satisfaction theories of the atonement connect suffering or punishment to the possibility of forgiveness. I argue that even the most sophisticated versions of these theories cannot explain why the atonement was necessary. Instead, I suggest that the meaning of the atonement is in establishing the authority of God. God's authority, on this view, is analogous to the authority of a parent or friend. Christ's experience changed God to make him more like his children, and thereby to share a relationship of authority with them. On this proposal, the atonement is an act of divine humility.
Mirror neurons: From origin to function
Authors: Cook Richard , Bird Geoffrey , Catmur Caroline , Press Clare , Heyes Cecilia
Published: April 2014

This article argues that mirror neurons originate in sensorimotor associative learning and therefore a new approach is needed to investigate their functions. Mirror neurons were discovered about 20 years ago in the monkey brain, and there is now evidence that they are also present in the human brain. The intriguing feature of many mirror neurons is that they fire not only when the animal is performing an action, such as grasping an object using a power grip, but also when the animal passively observes a similar action performed by another agent. It is widely believed that mirror neurons are a genetic adaptation for action understanding; that they were designed by evolution to fulfill a specific socio-cognitive function. In contrast, we argue that mirror neurons are forged by domain-general processes of associative learning in the course of individual development, and, although they may have psychological functions, they do not necessarily have a specific evolutionary purpose or adaptive function. The evidence supporting this view shows that (1) mirror neurons do not consistently encode action “goals”; (2) the contingency- and context-sensitive nature of associative learning explains the full range of mirror neuron properties; (3) human infants receive enough sensorimotor experience to support associative learning of mirror neurons (“wealth of the stimulus”); and (4) mirror neurons can be changed in radical ways by sensorimotor training. The associative account implies that reliable information about the function of mirror neurons can be obtained only by research based on developmental history, system-level theory, and careful experimentation.
Unconsciously competing goals can collaborate or compromise as well as win or lose
Authors: Carruthers Peter
Published: April 2014

This commentary offers a friendly extension of Huang & Bargh's (H&B's) account. Not only do active goals sometimes operate unconsciously to dominate or preempt others, but simultaneously active goals can also collaborate or compromise in shaping behavior. Because neither goal wins complete control of behavior, the result may be that each is only partly satisfied.
A deeper integration of Selfish Goal Theory and modern evolutionary psychology
Authors: Conroy-Beam Daniel , Buss David M.
Published: April 2014

Conceptually integrating Selfish Goal Theory with modern evolutionary psychology amplifies theoretical power. Inconsistency, a key principle of Selfish Goal Theory, illustrates this insight. Conflicting goals of seeking sexual variety and successful mate retention furnish one example. Siblings have evolved goals to cooperate and compete, a second example. Integrating Selfish Goal Theory with evolutionary theory can explain much inconsistent goal-directed behavior.
Mapping the goal space: Personality integration and higher-order goals
Authors: Hirsh Jacob B.
Published: April 2014

By situating goals at the heart of human cognitive function, Huang & Bargh (H&B) provide a useful platform for understanding the process of personality integration as the gradual mapping of implicit motives into a coherently organized self-system. This integrative process is a critical feature of human development that must be accounted for by any complete goal theory.
Massively representational minds are not always driven by goals, conscious or otherwise
Authors: Huebner Bryce , Rupert Robert D.
Published: April 2014

The language of conscious and unconscious goals is rooted in a folk-taxonomy that is likely to inhibit progress in cognitive science. Severing the commitment to this taxonomy would allow Huang & Bargh (H&B) to consider a wider variety of representational forms with motivational force and to entertain the intriguing possibility that variations in the number of active-but-redundant representations account for variance in social behavior.
On the selection and balancing of multiple selfish goals
Authors: Kopetz Catalina , Hofmann Wilhelm , Wiers Reinout W. H. J.
Published: April 2014

The selfish goal metaphor is interesting and intriguing. It accounts for the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies in peoples' goal pursuits without invoking free will, self-regulatory, or self-control failures. However, people pursue multiple goals, sometimes simultaneously. We argue that the model proposed in the target article may gain significant theoretical and practical value if the principles underlying goal selection and/or balancing on a moment-to-moment basis are clearly specified and integrated with the notion of the selfish goal.
The conscious roots of selfless, unconscious goals
Authors: Moskowitz Gordon B. , Balcetis Emily
Published: April 2014

We counter Huang & Bargh's (H&B's) metaphoric description of the unconscious, selfish goal on three points. First, we argue, unconscious goals are rooted in conscious choices related to well-being. Second, unconscious goal pursuit occurs through early-stage orienting mechanisms that promote individuals' well-being. Third, unconscious goals work selflessly, resulting in their own demise.
Goals reconfigure cognition by modulating predictive processes in the brain
Authors: Pezzulo Giovanni
Published: April 2014

I applaud Huang & Bargh's (H&B's) theory that places goals at the center of cognition, and I discuss two ingredients missing from that theory. First, I argue that the brains of organisms much simpler than those of humans are already configured for goal achievement in situated interactions. Second, I propose a mechanistic view of the “reconfiguration principle” that links the theory with current views in computational neuroscience.
Cui bono? Selfish goals need to pay their way
Authors: Spurrett David
Published: April 2014

The target article falls short of explaining the phenomena, including motivational conflict, that it sets out to. The two main reasons for this are: (1) It is unclear in what sense goals are “selfish”; (2) We need an account of how selfish goals motivate people. If selfish goals are not in the replication business, then what is in it for them? And if they do not offer people something that they want, how do they ever influence what people do?
Goals are not selfish
Authors: von Hippel William , von Hippel Frank A.
Published: April 2014

The metaphor of selfish goals is misguided. Organisms can be considered vessels that further the interests of their genes, but not vessels that further the interests of their goals. Although goals can act at cross-purposes to each other and to longevity, such trade-offs are predicted by evolutionary theory. The metaphor of selfish goals provides no purchase on this problem.
The insufficiency of associative learning for explaining development: Three challenges to the associative account
Authors: Bertenthal Bennett I.
Published: April 2014

Three challenges to the sufficiency of the associative account for explaining the development of mirror mechanisms are discussed: Genetic predispositions interact with associative learning, infants show predispositions to imitate human as opposed to nonhuman actions, and early and later learning involve different mechanisms. Legitimate objections to an extreme nativist account are raised, but the proposed solution is equally problematic.
Reward in the mirror neuron system, social context, and the implications on psychopathology
Authors: Brown Elliot C. , Brüne Martin
Published: April 2014

Positive and negative reinforcers guide our behaviors as we interact with others in our social environment. Here, we present evidence that highlights a central role for reward in the general functioning of the mirror neuron system (MNS). We also discuss the relevance of reward-related modulation on other previous findings revealing certain properties of the MNS, and on social context and psychopathology.
A mass assembly of associative mechanisms: A dynamical systems account of natural social interaction
Authors: Duran Nicholas D. , Dale Rick , Richardson Daniel C.
Published: April 2014

The target article offers anegative, eliminativistthesis, dissolving the specialness of mirroring processes into a solution of associative mechanisms. We support the authors' project enthusiastically. What they are currently missing, we argue, is apositive, generativethesis about associative learning mechanisms and how they might give way to the complex, multimodal coordination that naturally arises in social interaction.
Evolution after mirror neurons: Tapping the shared manifold through secondary adaptation
Authors: Gervais Matthew M.
Published: April 2014

Cook et al. laudably call for careful comparative research into the development of mirror neurons. However, they do so within an impoverished evolutionary framework that does not clearly distinguish ultimate and proximate causes and their reciprocal relations. As a result, they overlook evidence for the reliable develop of mirror neurons in biological and cultural traits evolved to work through them.