bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sleep Modulation of the Expression of Plasticity Markers
Authors: Krueger James M. , Obál Jr. Ferenc , Harding Joseph W. , Wright John W. , Churchill Lynn
Published: September 2009

This chapter shows that various compounds (such as NO and various hormones, and cytokines) share three main functional features. They are released in response to neural activity; they are somnogenic; and they trigger a cascade of events involved in neural plasticity. After reviewing the somnogenic factors which are released in an activity-dependent manner, the chapter focuses on two examples, more closely related to neural plasticity: the expression of nerve growth factor (NGF), a neurotrophin involved in neural plasticity, which is modulated by sleep/sleep deprivation only in neurones with an elevated activity during previous waking periods; and metalloproteinase-9 which is involved in the interaction between neurones and extracellular matrix, a critical feature in neural plasticity. It is shown that sleep deprivation modifies the cerebral expression of the metalloproteinase-9 induced by spatial learning.
Time trends in cancer incidence and mortality
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter attempts to integrate experimental models of carcinogenesis and the life course approach into a common etiological framework. It presents a brief overview of trends in the most common cancer sites in relation to potential risk factors. Emphasis is given to breast and testicular cancers, sites for which there is evidence that their origins can be traced as far back as the prenatal period.
Statistical considerations in intergenerational studies
Authors: Nitsch Dorothea , Mishra Gita D
Published: September 2009

Intergenerational data necessarily reflect the time and place that the different generations of participants were living in. This chapter aims first to introduce simple concepts to provide an understanding of the founding assumptions and principles, before moving on to more complex analytic methods. As the objectives of analyses may vary substantially across intergenerational studies, there is no easy guideline for analyses, except perhaps that some a priori clarity on the main associations of interest is crucial. Since parents and their offspring are genetically related, intergenerational studies are to some extent genetically informative even if no genotyping was performed. Much of the analyses are concerned with identifying or unravelling the relationship between outcomes and genetic and environmental factors. Ways of handling missing data as well as approaches to deal with non-paternity are also discussed. Illustrative examples are drawn from the two cohort studies.
Discussant chapter—statistical considerations in family-based life course studies
Authors: Sacker Amanda
Published: September 2009

This chapter summarizes some of the issues that have been described in the previous two chapters on statistical considerations in family studies. It highlights some of the assumptions underlying the analytic methods and discusses how their use can impact the results. The statistical analyses outlined in this section share common features aimed at quantifying the association between genetic and environmental factors with phenotypic outcomes. For some research, the focus is on heritability while for other work, the focus is on environmental issues while controlling for genetic influences. Modelling approaches for each are discussed, emphasizing potential problems and providing guidelines for careful interpretation. Examples from published empirical epidemiological work is used to illustrate the breadth of analytical strategies adopted for family studies research.
Discussant chapter—using family-based designs in life course epidemiology
Authors: Lynch John , Yang Seungmi
Published: September 2009

The three chapters in this section offer different but complementary conceptualizations of ‘family’. Morton and Rich Edwards used ‘family’ to document inter-generational concordance of reproductive outcomes, Hatch and Mishra documented how ‘family’ could be characterized as a risk exposure for later poor mental health, and Lawlor and Leon used ‘family’ as a means to control for unmeasured confounding by family characteristics to better understand causal mechanisms relating fetal growth to later disease. Lawlor and Leon's approach is similar to that used in studies examining the possible intrauterine origins of birth weight and cognitive ability and this chapter briefly explores that literature. Families surely matter for better understanding individual and population patterns of ill-health.
Is There a Value Problem?
Authors: Baehr Jason
Published: September 2009

According to the ‘value problem’ in epistemology, any plausible analysis of knowledge must imply that knowledge is always more valuable than mere true belief. In this chapter it is argued that the problem thus conceived is not a genuine problem. It is widely held that the value problem is motivated by a certain intuition about the added value of knowledge compared with mere true belief. It is argued here that the intuition in question is neither sufficiently general nor sufficiently formal to play the suggested motivating role. The chapter concludes with a sketch of a very different and more plausible conception of the value problem.
Ugly Analyses and Value
Authors: DePaul Michael R.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines an argument that a number of philosophers have recently employed to show that something ordinarily considered valuable is not, in fact, valuable. The argument begins by emphasizing that the analysis of the concept of the putatively valuable thing is a ‘hodgepodge,’ ‘gerrymandered,’ ‘an ad hoc sprawl,’—in short, ugly. Reflecting upon the ugly analysis, we are supposed to intuitively judge that ‘things like that’ to lack value. The argument concludes that the putatively valuable thing is not valuable. Stephen Stich uses the argument to show true belief lacks value. The argument figures prominently in Jonathan Kvanvig's argument that knowledge has no distinctive value. Timothy Williamson flips the argument: since knowledge is obviously valuable, but its analyses have been forced to become increasingly ugly, knowledge is not analysable. This form of argument is rejected.
Luck, Knowledge, and Control
Authors: Riggs Wayne D.
Published: September 2009

A variety of ‘anti-luck’ theories of knowledge have recently been defended in the epistemological literature, but the nature of luck itself is contentious. Two prominent recent accounts of luck are the ‘lack of control’ theory and the ‘safety’ theory. This chapter undertakes a two-part defense of the former as against the latter—specifically, against Duncan Pritchard's version of the safety account. The first part argues that Pritchard's modal definition of luck falls to decisive counterexamples, both as a core notion of luck, and as a component in his theory of knowledge. The second part addresses an important objection that strikes at the heart of the lack of control account, the response to which illuminates some interesting features of luck that must be taken into account by any adequate theory.
Values of Truth and Truth of Values
Authors: Lynch Michael P.
Published: September 2009

In this chapter the following two questions are addressed: ‘What does it mean to say that truth is a value?’ and ’How seriously, from what we might call the meta-normative point of view, should we take this value?’ It is argued that in a certain sense to be explained, we have no choice but to take it very seriously, simply because we lack any standpoint from which we can make skepticism about the value, or, as we shall see, the values, of truth intelligible.
Building brands with competitive analysis
Authors: Gordon Ross , Hastings Gerard , McDermott Laura , Evans W. Douglas
Published: September 2009

This chapter demonstrates how competitive analysis can help build brands in public health by offering customer insight, helping to develop strategic alliances, and helping marketers deal with the competition from the hazards merchants. Key lessons can be generated to help inform these outcomes by using the following forms of competitive analysis: case studies of commercial brands, internal document analysis, and studies of the deleterious effects of commercial brands.
High brand recognition in the context of an unsuccessful communication campaign: The National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign
Authors: Jacobsohn Lela , Hornik Robert C.
Published: September 2009

The brand name associated with the National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign was highly recognized, but this brand name awareness did not translate into the intended change in cognitive or behavioural marijuana use outcomes. There are several approaches to brand name recognition measurement, including the comparison of recognition rates of true and false brand phrases, and their association with ad exposure; here they provide parallel support to claims of substantial brand name learning. However, recognition measures comprise only one aspect of overall brand evaluation measures. Strong brand name recognition can link together the ads of a public health communication campaign. This connectedness or aggregating of the messages may lead to positive or negative consequences for the campaign.
Public health branding Down Under
Authors: Donovan Robert J. , Carroll Tom E.
Published: September 2009

Brand image or positioning refers to the associations people have when reminded of or when confronted with the brand's logo, products, or services. All elements of an integrated marketing mix contribute to brand image, but the most visible are the brand's promotional activities. Public health brands have traditionally focused on increasing target audiences' awareness of various health issues and increasing awareness and encouraging adoption of preventive behaviours to reduce disease and injury. Following lessons from commercial marketing, public health campaigns can be even more successful by developing brand positioning that go beyond being simply informative, and begin to establish relationships with their target audiences. Although public health campaigns are far more limited in funding than commercial campaigns, and hence more restricted in establishing a desired brand positioning, using formative research with the target audience in developing the actual brand name and graphics can contribute substantially to establishing the desired brand image.
Branding of international public health organizations: Applying commercial marketing to global public health
Authors: Haider Muhiuddin , Lee Michelle J.
Published: September 2009

Organizational branding in public health transcends products and services, and seeks to develop a relationship and a sense of trust with its target audience. Organizational branding is both about transforming the internal culture of an organization's environment through people- and process-related change and about projecting the vision, goals, and focus of the organization into its products and services for the goal of behaviour change. There is no single approach to organizational branding in public health. However, the most effective approaches are achieved by organizations whose products and services reflect the core mission and values of the organization itself. In public health, organizational branding still has much to learn and to apply from the corporate branding. Organizational branding as an approach to behaviour change often lacks clarity. Adequate documentation of successes is needed.
The intersection between tailored health communication and branding for health promotion
Authors: Lewis Megan A. , McCormack Lauren A.
Published: September 2009

Branding and tailoring are health communication strategies with roots in commercial marketing perspectives. Despite their apparent dissimilarities in scope, with branding focusing on populations and tailoring focusing on individuals, these two health communication strategies are relevant to each other. Branding could add value to tailored health messages by enhancing their visual nature, source credibility, or helping to build stronger relationships with consumers. Tailored health messages could add value to branding by enhancing brand equity assets. Research is needed to examine the value added by integrating branding and tailoring as health communication strategies.
The evolving HIV pandemic
Authors: Hankins Catherine A , Stanecki Karen A , Ghys Peter D , Marais Hein
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes the pandemic by region, highlighting the changing dynamics of HIV transmission and the diverse patterns of infection found worldwide. The epidemic remains extremely dynamic, growing and changing character as the virus exploits new opportunities for transmission. Virtually no country in the world remains unaffected. The epidemic is not homogeneous within regions; some countries are more affected than others. In reality, like the pandemic, the national picture is made up of a series of epidemics with their own characteristics and dynamics. The number of people living with HIV has been rising in every region, with the steepest recent increases occurring in East Asia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. In the coming years, as access to life-prolonging antiretroviral treatment increases, more people will be living with HIV. Providing treatment is both a humanitarian and a human rights issue.
Determinants of the HIV pandemic in developing countries
Authors: Stillwaggon Eileen
Published: September 2009

It is no coincidence that the highest prevalence of HIV and the highest rates of increase in HIV infection are in countries with a myriad of other problems. The majority of people living with HIV and AIDS and most of those newly infected with HIV live in countries beset by economic and social problems. This chapter demonstrates how the economic and social environment of low- and middle-income developing and transitional countries makes them more vulnerable to epidemic diseases, including HIV. After a discussion of the status of economic and health systems in developing and transitional countries, it shows some ways in which poverty not only influences risk-taking behaviour but also creates a riskier environment for poor people. A few solutions that illustrate how to address the causes of risky behaviours and the risky environment conclude this chapter.
HIV prevention programmes: an overview
Authors: Strathdee Steffanie A , Newell Marie-Louise , Bastos Francisco Inacio , Patterson Thomas L
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a brief overview of interventions aimed at the general population and populations at high risk of HIV infection. Its focus is primarily in prevention of mother-to-child-transmission (MTCT), and specific groups such as injecting drug users (IDUs), men who have sex with men (MSM), and sex workers. The majority of infections globally are caused by heterosexual transmission, and this issue is not specifically addressed here. This review is by no means exhaustive, but it meant to provide a context for more detailed examples outlined in subsequent chapters. Where appropriate, this chapter discusses the implications of these findings for healthcare systems, and makes suggestions for future research.
Antiretroviral treatment and care of HIV
Authors: Lange Joep MA
Published: September 2009

The introduction of HAART is one of the great success stories of modern medicine. In fact its application in the developed world has led to striking reductions in HIV-related morbidity and mortality. Consequently, prophylaxis and treatment of opportunistic infections associated with HIV infection are less of an issue in the HAART era than they were before. However, this is not true for developing countries, where the introduction of HAART is still limited to a minority of the population in need and which also have to deal with a dual epidemic of HIV and tuberculosis (TB). Thus, this chapter also discusses prophylaxis and treatment of opportunistic infections in resource-poor settings and specifically deals with HIV/TB dual infections.
HIV vaccines: development and future use
Authors: Esparza José , Chang Marie-Louise , Gayle Helene D
Published: September 2009

A safe, effective, and accessible preventive vaccine represents the best long-term hope for the control of the HIV pandemic. The development of an HIV vaccine, however, has faced a number of difficult scientific challenges that have been compounded by additional logistical and financial difficulties. To address the scientific challenges, there is a need to coordinate the current research effort better so that the scientific creativity of individual investigators is complemented by a more global, collaborative strategy aimed at developing and testing novel candidate vaccines faster and more efficiently. The HIV vaccine development effort needs to be positioned in the context of the overall global response to the HIV pandemic alongside expanded access to existing preventive and treatment interventions and other research efforts, including developing better drugs and prevention tools. Ultimately, a safe and accessible vaccine will be critical to the successful containment of the HIV pandemic.
Ethical issues and HAART
Authors: Gilmore Norbert
Published: September 2009

Ethical concerns have been a prominent feature of the debate about the HIV pandemic. Most ethical issues had already been analyzed by 1996, when HAART became available, but few of those issues have been re-analyzed since then. Also, few of the newer issues raised by HAART itself have been analyzed exhaustively. These issues include concerns about the generation and communication of personal information, rights to, care of people infected with HIV, as well as rights in relation to prevention and vaccine research. The capacity of HAART to prevent infection following a variety of HIV exposures raises concerns about HIV testing and disclosure of personal information. Some issues arise from availability of HAART, whereas others arise from its lack of availability, especially in developing countries. This chapter briefly examines the principle ethical issues that HAART highlights as a basis for encouraging future investigations and discussion.
The contribution of cost-effectiveness analysis
Authors: Harling Guy , Soderstrom Lee
Published: September 2009

Organizations worldwide are struggling to cope with the HIV pandemic. They are confronted by a scarcity of resources that is particularly acute in Africa and other developing countries. This chapter focuses on the extent to which economic evaluations can help these organizations deal with fundamental economic constraint. Its discussions draw heavily on experiences in sub-Saharan Africa, as it is the region where the prevalence and impact of HIV have been greatest, and it is where almost all cost-effectiveness research in the less-developed world has been conducted. Nevertheless, the ideas advanced here are relevant for decision makers everywhere concerned about HIV, particularly those in lower-income settings.
Botswana
Authors: Lush Louisiana , Darkoh Ernest , Ramotlhwa Segolame L
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Bostwana's response to its HIV epidemic. To date, considering the limitations of its health system's capacity, Botswana has performed very well. In a two-year period, it has managed to create one of the fastest growing ART programmes in the world and has enrolled a large proportion of its HIV-positive population in therapy, compared with all other similar initiatives in Africa. The country will have to continue to face the challenges dictated by a complex disease affecting 35 percent of adults and still spreading. Based on the early and strong start that has been made, Botswana should continue to be a source of lessons and inspiration for many other initiatives across the continent.
Nigeria
Authors: Ogundiran Adeniyi , Fatunmbi Bayo , Costantinos Berhe T
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Nigeria's response to its HIV epidemic. The health system in Nigeria is widely regarded as being ineffective and inefficient. To stand any chance of developing a more effective response to HIV, the system needs extensive reform. This needs to be built on strategic partnerships within and between the local, state, and national levels of all actors involved in health and development. The capacities of ministries to support the overall national HIV response need to be improved. Also, despite recent attempts to galvanize the private sector to support the ongoing national response, its involvement is still very low and needs to increase.
Senegal
Authors: Simms Chris , Sow Papa Salif , Sy Elhadj
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Senegal's response to its HIV epidemic. Senegal's experience offers important lessons, particularly as regards why has it been successful and what aspects of this success can be ‘duplicated’ elsewhere. Social and cultural factors, low alcohol consumption, circumcision, conservative attitudes toward sexuality and, consequently, low levels of sexually transmitted diseases are some of the key features to this success. Responses that included condom distribution, STI control programmes, and antiretroviral drugs have been effective, especially because they were immediate and comprehensive. Political leadership and very strong participation by social and religious groups seem key to explaining the quality of the response: the leadership made good use of existing advantages by bringing on board and entering into dialogue with stakeholders and building on health system infrastructure.
South Africa
Authors: McCoy David , Wood Robin , Dudley Lilian , Barron Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews South Africa's response to its HIV epidemic. Within the current macroeconomic context, the public sector will find itself increasingly constrained in its ability to meet existing needs, let alone new demands generated by the HIV epidemic. There is a need to increase the portion of GDP spent on health, social and other support services. Critically, where operative the profound link between AIDS and poverty must be recognized and broken, and there is an urgent need for a national multisectoral response that goes well beyond the current public health response and engages the private sector and employers.
Indonesia
Authors: Gunawan Suriadi , Kosen Soewarta , Simms Chris
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Indonesia's response to its HIV epidemic. Since 2000, Indonesia has had a concentrated epidemic, and the total number of people living with HIV are estimated at around 110,000 (range 53,000 to 180,000), about 10,000 of whom have progressed to AIDS, while over sixteen million people are at increased risk of getting HIV. The launch in May 2003 of the new National AIDS Strategy for an expanded response in line with the global AIDS strategy of UNAIDS was a significant step to ensure a broader multisectoral response. Central government ministries and local governments in partnership with NGOs have to translate the strategy into realistic action plans.
Thailand
Authors: Tangcharoensathien Viroj , Phoolcharoen Wiput , Thanprasertsuk Sombat , Suraratdecha Chutima
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Thailand's response to its HIV epidemic. The Thai experience has provided several lessons on how the health system and health policy need to respond to the dynamic of HIV epidemics. The country's capacity to collect, analyse, and disseminate information and translate this information into policy and programme design, as well as the skill and capacity to influence policy-makers, has been a major factor in any effective health policy response to HIV.
Barbados
Authors: Walrond E R , Roach T C
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Barbados's response to its HIV epidemic. The World Bank loan has been instrumental in establishing expanded HIV response. However, such funding is a temporary measure and the government of Barbados must seek to establish the mechanisms necessary to continue funding the programme. Without a reduction in new HIV infections, the number of patients requiring ART, as well as its attendant costs, will continue to grow. Scientific methods must therefore be employed to monitor the HIV epidemic and put the programme in a position to respond appropriately.
Cuba
Authors: Abreu M I Lantero , Waller J , Fiol J Joanes , Avila J Perez , Peña R Torres , Peña M Santín , Soto R Ochoa , Torres G Estevez
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Cuba's response to its HIV epidemic. Cuba has had considerable success in limiting the spread of HIV and in caring for those infected by the virus. Much of this achievement is rooted in the nature of, and the broader achievements of, Cuban society, which has seen the development of appropriate health and social care services focused on the needs of people living with or affected by HIV.
Jamaica
Authors: Carr Robert , Figueroa J Peter , Carr Peter R
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Jamaica's response to its HIV epidemic. The experience of HIV control in Jamaica shows that a comprehensive programme that includes targeted interventions may begin to slow down the epidemic. The emphasis on sexually transmitted disease control has resulted in a significant decline in syphilis, congenital syphilis, gonorrhoea, and ophthalmia neonatorum. The numerous and varied education, intervention, and outreach programmes, including mass media, person-to-person interaction and cultural approaches, have resulted in a significant increase in condom use, a small decline in the proportion of men with multiple sex partners, and a small increase in the proportion of women abstaining from sex.
Argentina
Authors: Hamilton Gabriela , Falistocco Carlos , Cahn Pedro , Zala Carlos
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Argentina's response to its HIV epidemic. The HIV epidemic in Argentina has changed substantially in demographic and socio-economic terms. These changes have challenged the ability of public health officials and the community at large to deal with the consequences of this devastating disease. Furthermore, the political and economic instability that characterized the region during the last ten years has hampered the design and implementation of sustainable action to fight HIV.
Brazil
Authors: Petersen Maya L , Travassos Claudia , Bastos Francisco I , Hacker Mariana A , Beck Eduard J , Noronha José Carvalho de
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Brazil's response to its HIV epidemic. Brazil's reforms in the 1980s produced a healthcare system based on the principle that care should be delivered according to need rather than ability to pay. This commitment to equity played a major role in shaping the nation's response to the HIV epidemic, as is particularly evident in Brazil's provision of free antiretroviral therapy (ART) at the point of delivery. However, dramatic disparities between socio-economic groups and geographical regions in Brazil remain a challenge to the realization of this ideal, both within the HIV programme and across the Brazilian health system more generally.
Ukraine
Authors: Lekhan Valerya , Rudiy Volodomyr , Nolte Ellen , Jacobi Jantine , Andrushchak Lidia , Shcherbinska Alla , Kruglov Yuriy
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the Ukraine's response to its HIV epidemic. Despite the difficult transition towards a democratic system of governance and a struggling market-oriented economy, and the relative novelty of the HIV epidemic, the government of Ukraine engaged in numerous efforts to face the problems and respond to the epidemic, either directly or through partners and non-government organizations. At the same time, the country has recognized the need to step up its efforts to contain the epidemic and has successfully secured additional funding in order to do so. The biggest challenge is to scale up interventions that appear to be successful. Although some information is available, better understanding is required about the effectiveness and efficiency of interventions.
Mexico
Authors: Izazola-Licea Jose Antonio , Avila-Figueroa Carlos , Gómez-Fraga Sandra
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Mexico's response to its HIV epidemic. As the HIV epidemic spreads in Mexico, its direct costs challenge the ability of healthcare institutions to provide services for those infected. The social costs are also enormous and affect families and entire communities. The financial impact on the social security system, which provides resources for approximately 40 percent of the population in Mexico, and more than 50 percent of the AIDS cases, could be destabilizing in future.
The UN response to the HIV pandemic
Authors: Praag Eric van , Dehne Karl L , Chandra-Mouli Venkatraman
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the historical aspects of the AIDS policy debate within the UN family. It first shows that international AIDS policy has evolved, as had the public health policies earlier on, from an emphasis on individual risks and targeted behavioural interventions towards addressing the societal-level determinants of the epidemic. This section also shows that international AIDS policies and strategies have changed from an early emphasis on disease control to the promotion of community development, only to swing back later to a biomedical model that embraces new disease control elements such as rapid testing and antiretroviral treatment. Conceptual differences and developments within and between programmes and agencies in intervention approaches are highlighted to describe further the evolution within the UN community of a balanced HIV response addressing issues like vulnerability and stigma while at the same time scaling up access to effective therapies within strengthened health systems.
Donor, lender and research agencies’ response to the HIV crisis
Authors: Simms Chris
Published: September 2009

The international donor community has long held that governments' failure to confront the HIV pandemic and take clear steps aimed at its prevention and control, are key to understanding the severity of today's crisis. The evidence shows that donors themselves did not adequately prioritize and provide effective, timely leadership to tackle the pandemic. Donor aid and the way it was delivered were often donor-driven, short-term programmes, often lacking community participation, and they were evaluated in terms of inputs or disbursements. Donor initiatives may have actually reduced access to goods and services aimed at the prevention and treatment of HIV at the individual and community levels. Similarly, efforts by the international research community in dealing with issues like an HIV vaccine, a ‘social vaccine’ and inequalities in global research spending suggests the response to the pandemic was belated, underfunded and undermined by institutional constraints and the pursuit of Northern agendas over Southern needs.
Financing HIV: the roles of international financial institutions
Authors: Lewis Maureen , Stout Susan
Published: September 2009

The role of the international financial institutions is of particular relevance, given their influence on government investment priorities. Despite assumptions to the contrary, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund placed no ceilings on government spending. Both institutions are far more concerned with good government and the effective management of money, especially the efficient disbursement of funds. This chapter focuses on the role of international financial institutions, the effects of increased spending on macroeconomic and fiscal health, the constraints to this additional spending and, finally, the implications for the international financial institutions and other actors in reaching the twin objectives of sound economic policy and developing effectiveness in the effort to halt transmission of HIV and improve the treatment of AIDS.
Country-level public–private partnerships for successful HIV treatment programmes
Authors: Bos Jasper , Schellekens Onno , Groot Arie de
Published: September 2009

Public-private partnerships for healthcare have recently attracted great interest as a tool to achieve improvements in efficiency, consumer choice, and accessibility to healthcare. This chapter covers both practical and theoretical implications of public-private partnerships. First, it starts with a theoretical explanation of the reasons why public and private institutions engage in partnerships. Next, the chapter provides an overview of a number of influential multinational public-private partnerships for HIV. The remainder of this chapter draws attention to the potential role that local public-private partnerships could play in the creation of a strengthened, sustainable health infrastructure in sub-Saharan Africa.
The role of community involvement in HIV programmes in South Africa
Authors: Roberts RA , Hickey A , Rosner Z
Published: September 2009

The involvement of civil society organizations and community-based organizations in the global response to the HIV epidemic is unparalleled in public health history. The successful impact of such mobilization is nowhere more evident than in South Africa, where these organizations have had tremendous success in shaping the response to HIV in one of the world's highest burdened countries. Using the Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) and the AIDS Budget Unit (ABU) at the Institute for Democracy in South Africa (IDASA) as case studies, this chapter briefly looks at the government's relationship with civil society organizations, the cooperation amongst these organizations and how these various parties interact to directly influence policies and combat the effects of HIV on the country.
Responding effectively to the HIV pandemic
Authors: Hankins Catherine , Fontaine Chris , Sidibe Michel
Published: September 2009

The HIV pandemic is an extraordinary kind of a crisis. It is both an emergency and a long-term development issue, and cannot be simply lumped together with the world's many emergencies. HIV is exceptional for many reasons, but primarily because it affects young adults in their most productive years, and because HIV has a long incubation period from infection to manifest disease during which it can be unknowingly transmitted to others. As yet, there is neither a cure nor a vaccine. HIV requires an exceptional response that remains flexible, creative, energetic, and vigilant. The HIV pandemic is now at a crossroads. If the world's response to HIV continues in its well-meaning but haphazard and ineffectual fashion, then the pandemic will continue to outpace the response. This chapter reviews the response to HIV to date at global and country levels, and propose concrete actions to face the challenges ahead.
2 Bretton Woods and the Debate about Development
Authors: James Harold
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the evolution since the Bretton Woods conference of the IMF's approach to problems of low income countries. In particular, it seeks to locate that approach within the debate among economists about whether there is a special ‘development economics’. In that context, it examines the IMF's approaches to inflation, the ‘twin gaps’, fiscal issues, external debt issues, and exchange rate policy choice.
3 Lending to and for the Poor: How the IMF's Role Has Evolved
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: September 2009

The IMF began concerning itself with poverty and the social aspects of Fund-supported programs in the late 1970s. The limitations of the traditional exclusive reliance on macroeconomic policy tools gradually became apparent through the 1980s. That understanding, coupled with external pressures and changes in the world economy, led the IMF to broaden the scope of its policy advice and eventually the scope of its conditionality. In recent years, however, the weaknesses of that broad strategy have swung the pendulum back toward a more limited approach.
4 The Case for a Universal Financial Institution
Authors: Boughton James M.
Published: September 2009

All financial institutions specialize, in dimensions that may include categories of assets and liabilities, types of services offered, customer demographics, and geographic coverage. The IMF is the only international financial institution that is truly universal in its geographic scope, prepared to lend on request to virtually any country in the world. Why has this status come about? What are its costs and benefits? Is it an appropriate model for a world where macroeconomic imbalances, financial crises, and disparities in economic development must compete for attention and resources?
5 The Role of the IMF in Low‐Income Countries: An Institutional Approach
Authors: Lombardi Domenico
Published: September 2009

This chapter elaborates on the role of the IMF in support of its low-income members, pointing to the global character of the institution and to its superior ability — due to the multilateral nature — to serve as a financial institution, an information provider, and a commitment device. The IMF assists low-income members through a range of activities that are normally bundled together, including lending, offering policy advice, and providing assistance with capacity building. The study reviews the features of IMF policies towards its low-income membership and points to the main challenges to their success.
7 The IMF's Approach to Macroeconomic Policy in Low‐Income Countries
Authors: Bevan David
Published: September 2009

Donors often make foreign aid conditional on an ‘on-track’ IMF-supported program. This practice is supported by evidence that aid is more effective in the presence of sound macroeconomic policies. But it is important to consider whether IMF program approval is the measure of policy soundness most relevant to decisions on aid. Moreover, the use of IMF financing as a signal — like any signaling mechanism — affects the incentives of the parties concerned, including aid-receiving countries, donors, and the IMF itself. This chapter examines these issues and their implications for aid allocation and variability as well as for IMF financing.
9 Debt Relief in Low‐Income Countries: Background, Evolution, and Effects
Authors: Bird Graham , Powell Robert
Published: September 2009

The conventional modalities for providing financial assistance to low-income countries have been foreign aid and debt relief. Although some attention has been paid to establishing new methods of development financing, recent global initiatives have concentrated instead on the traditional ones. This chapter focuses on debt relief. It describes how debt relief to indebted poor countries has evolved from early attempts to relax the ‘terms’ applied to poor country debt, to the heavily indebted poor country (HIPC) initiative and its enhancement and, more recently, to the multilateral debt relief initiative first proposed in June 2005 at the G8 summit. It gives some calculations of the size of the relief provided. It also discusses and estimates the extent to which debt relief has been ‘additional’. In this context, it examines the relationship between debt relief and foreign aid; has it been positive or negative? The empirical part of the chapter focuses on the low-income countries of Sub Saharan Africa and shows that the effects of debt relief on aid flows and resource transfers have changed over time. The chapter conjectures as to why these changes may have occurred, and discusses some of the more important contemporary policy issues surrounding debt relief.
10 The Role and Performance of the IMF in Aid to Low‐Income Countries: Lessons from Evaluation
Authors: Salop Joanne
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the treatment of aid to Sub-Saharan Africa in programs supported by the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF), along with relevant Fund policies and communications. It builds on an evaluation by the IMF's Independent Evaluation Office — The IMF and Aid to Sub-Saharan Africa — which explored the validity (or not) of three external criticisms. The first is that PRGFs blocked the use of aid through overly conservative macroeconomic programs. The second is that PRGFs lacked ambition in projecting and identifying opportunities for the use of aid, which may in turn have tempered donors' actual provision of aid. The third is that PRGFs focused little on poverty reduction and growth. The chapter also explores the institutional drivers for Fund behavior and the disconnectedness identified in the evaluation between the Fund's rhetoric on aid, poverty reduction, and the Millennium Development Goals, and its operational practices.
11 Participation in IMF Programs and Income Inequality
Authors: Conway Patrick
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an empirical analysis of the determinants of income distribution in 108 developing countries over the period 1988 to 1998. The data comes from the developing-country subset of those used by Milanovic (2005), augmented by information on the cumulative prior participation of the country in IMF programs over the preceding ten years. Just as in Li et al. (1998), the conclusion is that the majority of variation in income inequality is cross-country in nature: this component of income inequality will depend primarily upon the development characteristics of the countries, and not on participation in IMF programs. It follows the pattern observed in the Kuznets U hypothesis. The findings, however, also show that cumulative past participation in IMF programs has a positive effect on the change in share of income held by the lowest quintile of the population. This effect is robust to the inclusion of other developmental indicators.
13 Proposing IMF Reforms for Low‐Income Countries
Authors: Momani Bessma
Published: September 2009

This chapter surveys recent IMF reform proposals emanating from academia, policy networks, think-tanks, member states, and even within the IMF. It argues that these IMF reform proposals are overly focused on governance reforms and do not adequately cover substantive policy changes. Low income countries would better gain from IMF reforms that addressed substantive policy issues; issues that debtors had long pursued about the efficacy, application, and fundamentals of Fund advice. These functional reform issues have been sidelined in current Fund reform proposals because the debate has been dominated by state officials, primarily from the emerging market economies, who are concerned with increasing their relative power in IMF decision-making. The chapter suggests internal IMF reforms, organizational and bureaucratic changes, that will help meet the needs of LICs.
Restitution Not Based on Performance
Authors: Dannemann Gerhard
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the second alternative of the general enrichment clause in § 812 para. 1 sent. 1 BGB, that being of ‘enrichment in another way at the expense of another’. This is a negative description and allows restitution in situations where the shift of wealth from the claimant to the defendant has occurred in a way other than by performance.
Lessons to Be Learned?
Authors: Dannemann Gerhard
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines whether the comparison between German and English law of unjust(ified) enrichment can be used for developing the law in both legal systems. It first looks at those other areas of law which can provide the legal basis for enrichments under an absence of basis approach, and in particular contract law. Existing differences between English and German contract law imply that an absence of basis approach should not simply be transplanted into English surroundings without a careful examination as to the effects which these differences in contract law can have on unjust enrichment law. Having thus placed an absence of basis approach in context, the chapter looks at the modifications which would then become necessary or advisable within unjust enrichment law. This concerns some English case law which cannot be reconciled with an unjust enrichment approach. It includes issues of taxonomy, in particular whether switching to an absence of basis approach should also entail the adoption of the performance/non-performance divide eventually adopted by German law in the 1960s, or whether English law would do better without this divide and operate a general absence of basis approach more similar to the pre-1960 system in Germany. Finally, the chapter looks at what German law could learn from the comparison with English law.
Selected Provisions of the German Civil Code
Authors: Dannemann Gerhard
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents translations of provisions of the German Civil Code which relate to restitution and unjustified enrichment partially adapted from two sources. A smaller selection, first appeared 1997 in the German Law Archive. Provisions which were amended during the 2002 reform (§§ 214-215, 275, 285, 346-354) have been taken from the translation of the Reform Act German Civil Code — Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, published in 2002, these are also in the German Law Archive. These have been slightly revised and a few extra translations have been added (§§ 100, 185, 267-268, 291-292, 426, 774, 779). These have not been previously published.
5 Anarchy is What Criminal Lawyers and other Actors Make of it: International Criminal Justice as an Institution of International and World Society
Authors: Ralph Jason
Published: September 2009

This chapter argues that the ICC is not merely a response to a developed consensus of the idea that individuals should be held criminally responsible for gross human rights violations. It is also a response to what Alexander Wendt might call the ‘instability’ of an international society that has enabled unaccountable great powers to decide when and where international criminal justice would be administered and promoted, and to grant effectively for themselves exceptions to the laws they applied to others. In this sense, the rules of international society remained unstable and states responded by creating the ICC, which, in effect, turned the exception into the norm. The chapter seeks to show how the Court's independence from the society of states leads us to contemplate further the other aspect of English School theorizing: world society. From this standpoint, it addresses the crucial issue of why so many states thought it necessary to create the Office of the Prosecutor, and to invest it with the powers to investigate without prior authorization of the UN Security Council.
3 Parts and wholes: Implicative patterns in inflectional paradigms
Authors: Ackerman Farrell , Blevins James P. , Malouf Robert
Published: September 2009

Humans show an amazing ability to produce novel words based on previous experience. What analogical processes are at work in this process, and how do analogical generalizations emerge from complex morphological systems? This chapter addresses these questions with new quantitative measures. Words are construed as recombinant gestalts. The predictive value of particular words in relation to others is calculated in terms of measures of conditional entropy. When applied to Tundra Nenets nominal paradigms, the model captures central aspects of morphological organization and learning.
10 Words and paradigms bit by bit: An information‐theoretic approach to the processing of inflection and derivation
Authors: Milin Petar , Kuperman Victor , Kostić Aleksandar , Baayen Harald R.
Published: September 2009

This chapter models the role of paradigm structure in lexical processing using cross-entropy measure. New experimental data demonstrates the usefulness of entropy, relative entropy, and cross entropy in modeling analogical generalizations.