bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
African Traditional Thought and Western Science
Authors: Horton Robin
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In Part I of this paper, I pushed as far as it would go the thesis that important continuities link the religious thinking of traditional Africa and the theoretical thinking of the modern West. I showed how this view helps us to make sense of many otherwise puzzling features of traditional religious thinking. I also showed how it helps us to avoid certain rather troublesome red herrings which lie across the path towards understanding the crucial differences between the traditional and the scientific outlook.
Land Concentration around a Few Individuals in Igbo-land of Eastern Nigeria: Its Processes, Scope and Future
Authors: Mbagwu Theo C.
Published: April 2006

Introduction

Among most groups of people in Nigeria, land is a basic and high value resource. This is not due simply to the people's dependence on agriculture to gain a livelihood. It owes more to the fact that the pattern of traditional rural life has continued to raise the demand for the available land.

The agricultural land is used as a fund-type resource which is exploited and abandoned, rather than as a flow-type resource whose productivity is maintained indefinitely. Every new farming season numerous old farm sites not considered, because of their low estimated nutrient status, to be adequate for exploitation are left idle. What then becomes available for use is, in most cases, not enough to meet the demand. This built-in idle capacity in the land utilisation system is a key factor conferring high scarcity value on agricultural land.
The social structure of the Sotho-speaking peoples of Southern Africa
Authors: Kuper Adam
Published: April 2006

Introduction

In this paper I draw together modern reports on various Sotho-speaking peoples and attempt to indicate the relationship between the political arrangements within each ‘tribe’ and certain aspects of its social system—in particular, patterns of marriage preference and residential alignment.

The richest data and some of the most penetrating analysis is to be found in Schapera's writings on the Tswana, and his Tswana material provides my central case-study. The Kgalagari and the Southern Sotho (Basuto) systems are obviously similar in many ways, although I shall point out some interesting variations. In the second part of the paper I attempt to show that the variables abstracted in the first part are related in only slightly different ways in the superficially divergent systems of the Pedi and the Lovedu, and even in some groups whose organization has been fundamentally disrupted by colonial or settler intervention.

The Sotho-speaking peoples have intrigued many anthropologists particularly because of their preference for marriage with close kin, usually including all cousins, and sometimes even closer relatives. It was with this in mind that Radcliffe-Brown (1950: 69) remarked that the Tswana ‘are decidedly exceptional in Africa, and might almost be regarded as an anomaly’. This is a problem which is central to my analysis, and in order to clear the ground something must be said about marriage strategies in general. Broadly speaking, there are three options, which I will now outline.
Social Anthropology and the ‘Bantu Expansion’
Authors: Kuper Adam , van Leynseele Pierre
Published: April 2006

Introduction

The debate on the ‘Bantu expansion’ has been notable for the relative absence of contributions by social and cultural anthropologists. Murdock's rather extravagant contribution (1959) has assumed a quite inordinate significance, as the only direct attempt to discuss the sociology of large linguistically defined areas. This anthropological silence is particularly noteworthy in view of the close collaboration between anthropologists, linguists and archaeologists in the Americas. It is fair to say that nothing in the Africanist literature approaches the sophistication of, say, Dyen and Aberle's Lexical reconstruction: the case of the proto-Athapaskan kinship system (1974). Studies like that are the outgrowths of a living tradition stemming from Boas and Kroeber and Sapir. There is nothing comparable in Africa—H. Baumann, the only candidate, lacked sociological interests and did not systematically relate his findings and hypotheses to those of the linguists. Yet it is surely obvious that an anthropological contribution is needed here, if only in a critical role. The present paper outlines a few of the ways in which social and cultural anthropologists might contribute; and begins with a critique of traditional ‘culture area’ approaches, since these are generally thought of as the kind of thing that anthropologists can do, however poorly.
Upland and swamp rice farming systems in Sierra Leone: the social context of technological change
Authors: Johnny Michael , Karimu John , Richards Paul
Published: April 2006

Introduction

It is thought that African rice (Oryza glaberrima), domesticated from the annual wild rice Oryza barthii, a plant of savanna river valleys and water holes, may have been first cultivated along the valley of the upper and middle Niger (Portères, 1970; Harlan, 1975). Cultivation under high rainfall conditions in the forest zone followed the development of ‘upland’ cultivars. Today, farmers in the drier savannas continue to depend on the seasonal rise and fall of flood water in valley bottom land for rice cultivation, and on occasion, this has developed into fully-fledged ‘irrigation’ agriculture (Linares de Sapir, 1970; Loquay, 1980), but elsewhere in the West African rice zone rain-fed ‘upland’ cultivation techniques now predominate. Where rainfall is more reliable ‘upland’ cultivation tends to be preferred because of its greater efficiency of labour use, but, as in ancient times, the occasional supplementary use of swamp to cope with bad years is not uncommon. This paper focuses attention on rice farming systems in Sierra Leone. Rice cultivation probably reached this area several thousand years ago (Atherton, 1979). Although in a few instances regular use of swamp land dates back to the later part of the nineteenth century (e.g. in the Bumban valley and the tidal swamps of the Scarcies estuary: Fyle, 1979, Carpenter, 1978) ‘upland’ cultivation still retains its former importance over large parts of the country.
Yam ceremonies and the values of Ohafia culture
Authors: Arua Emea O.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

The subject of this paper is the ceremonies which the Ohafia of south-eastern Nigeria perform in connexion with their major farm crop, yams (Dioscorea spp.). These relate both to the annual agricultural cycle and to the taking of yam-related titles which express status in Ohafia society at large. The special place yams occupy in Ohafia culture as the prestige crop, associated particularly with men, cannot be explained simply as an effect of the material importance of yam and its cultivation in the Ohafia economy. For whatever may explain the origin of yam's ritual importance, the Ohafia economy in both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has depended on other important bases too, and Ohafia men have combined farming with other activities: warfare and trade. Indeed, the agricultural economy itself has been more dependent on female labour. Nonetheless, ‘yam-values’ remain of central symbolic importance to the ideals of individual and communal success promoted by Ohafia culture.
Ibibio Drama
Authors: Messenger John C.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

In one of the few essays on drama in non-literate societies, Melville J. Herskovits pointed out that the subject had been little studied, and what we knew must ‘be gleaned from ethnographic accounts of rituals and dances of various sorts, descriptions whose primary intent is to explain other phenomena’ (Herskovits, 1944, p. 685). To Herskovits, as to most other anthropologists, drama among primitives was manifested only in religious ceremonialism—‘ritual drama’—and the formal recitation of prose narratives—‘secular drama’. It may be admitted that theatre in our sense appears to be rare in the non-literate world, but it is found among the Ibibio-speaking peoples of south-eastern Nigeria, where the ‘arena theatre’ (Brockett, 1969, pp. 470-4), professional actors, plots with memorized dialogues, rehearsals prior to public presentation, and props, costumes, and make-up are present.
The Relation of Oral History to Social Structure in South Nyanza, Kenya
Authors: Kenny Michael G.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

This paper concerns the historical and sociological significance of the traditions of certain lineage-groups residing on the eastern fringes of Lake Victoria in Kenya. These traditions have implications about the nature of pre-colonial social structure in the region, and allow the use of anthropological findings in the reconstruction of social forms through the medium of oral history.

The groups in question are to be found on the islands and adjoining southern mainland at the mouth of the Gulf of Kavirondo (see map 1). These lineages, together with others, are collectively known as the Basuba, and they inhabit in whole or in part a number of South Nyanza administrative locations and extend across the Kenyan border into Tanzania; the lineages of immediate interest here are to be found on Rusinga and Mfangano Islands, and in the mainland locations of Gembe, Kaksingiri, and Gwasi. The discussion which follows is largely based on information gathered from selected knowledgeable men on the islands, and supplementary researches conducted by the same means in the mainland areas mentioned above; five months of fieldwork were conducted in two periods in 1969 and 1973 and, unless otherwise indicated, all information below pertaining to South Nyanza is derived from that.
Barbers and Bearers: Ecology and Ethnicity in an Islamic Society
Authors: Horowitz Michael M.
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

This is an essay about strangers in a West African society. It asks how ethnicity constrains role selection and role performance. It asks why members of bounded ethnic groups occupy specific professions and exploit specific ecological niches in a multi-ethnic society. Field information from south-eastern Niger reveals the environmental and cultural elements which together generate a distribution of peoples into single ethnic and multi-ethnic occupations. My concern is with the processes of boundary maintenance among ethnic groups rather than with their distinct cultural contents. Barth has pointed out (1969) that in multi-ethnic interaction, ethnicity itself is a critical factor in status ascription. This is a simple and unassailable observation. The behavioural character of the ethnic unit must be demonstrated; it cannot merely be assumed a priori.
Elders, office-holders and ancestors among the Sisala of Northern Ghana
Authors: Mendonsa Eugene L.
Published: April 2006

Introduction

There are two ways of approaching the data on African ancestor worship. They can be dealt with as a system of beliefs viz., as a body of thought, or they may be handled as a reflection of social relations. African ancestor worship has most commonly been dealt with in the latter fashion, e.g. Fortes (1959: 30) says:

the ancestor cult is the transportation to the religious plane of the relationships of parents and children; and that is what I mean by describing it as the ritualisation of filial piety.
Hunters of the northern East African coast: origins and historical processes
Authors: Stiles Daniel
Published: April 2006

Opening Paragraph

This paper has three related themes. First, the hunting peoples of the northern East African coast are defined; second, a period of origin of each group is proposed; and, third, the processes which resulted in their creation and persistence to the present are hypothesised and discussed.
Contemporary art music in Nigeria: an introductory note on the works of Ayo Bankole (1935–76)
Authors: Omojola Olabode F.
Published: April 2006

The introduction of Christian missionary activity and the British colonial administration of Nigeria in the middle of the nineteenth century led to some of the most significant musical changes in the country. Perhaps the most far reaching was the emergence of modern Nigerian art music, a genre which is conceptually similar to European classical music. This study focuses on Ayo Bankole, one of the pioneer composers of Nigerian art music.

As an introductory study of Ayo Bankole, the article briefly discusses the musico-historical factors responsible for the growth of Nigerian art music as well as the nature of Bankole's musical training and experience. This provides an appropriate context for understanding and appreciating the stylistic features of Bankole's works. Drawing on examples from his works, the article establishes the eclectic nature of Bankole's style, in which European and African musical elements interact.
Critical Issues for Understanding Global Change Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Authors: Ojima D. S. , Kittel T. G. F. , Rosswall T. , Walker B. H.
Published: April 2006

Marked alterations in the Earth's environment have already been observed, and these presage even greater changes as the impact of human (i.e., land use and industrial) activities increases. Direct and indirect feedbacks link terrestrial ecosystems with global change, and include interactions affecting fluxes of water, energy, nutrients, and "greenhouse" gases and affecting ecosystem structure and composition. Community development can affect ecosystem dynamics by altering resource partitioning among biotic components and through changes in structural characteristics, thereby affecting feedbacks to global change. The response of terrestrial ecosystems to the climate—weather system is dependent on the spatial scale of the interactions between these systems and the temporal scale that links the various components. The International Geosphere—Biosphere Programme (IGBP), which was initiated by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) in 1986, has undertaken to develop a research plan to address a predictive understanding of how terrestrial ecosystem will be impacted by global changes in the environment and the potential feedbacks. The IGBP science plan, which incorporates established Core Projects and activities related to research on terrestrial ecosystem linkages to global change, includes the International Global Atmospheric Chemistry Project (IGAC); the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle (BAHC); the Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems (GCTE); Global Analysis, Integration, and Modelling (GAIM); IGBP Data and Information System (DIS); and IGBP Regional Research Centers (RRC). The coupling of research and policy communities for the purpose of developing mechanisms to adapt to these impending changes urgently needs to be established.
Forest Response Research in NAPAP: Potentially Successful Linkage of Policy and Science
Authors: Loucks Orie L.
Published: April 2006

The Forest Response Program (FRP), a major component of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), was established only after NAPAP had been underway for five years. Thus, it benefitted from a more sophisticated understanding of the essential policy questions that the research on forests would be required to answer, in comparison to the earlier aquatic studies. The "gradient studies" of the Eastern Hardwoods Research Cooperative were planned as 5—yr projects to determine whether there was any epidemiological pattern in forest responses corresponding to measures of pollutant dose (acidic deposition or oxidants). The NAPAP "Assessment" was written after only 3 yr of the research, and its findings differ in important ways from the 5—yr findings of the gradient studies. The FRP had the potential to be a model study of how applied research can be designed to solve major resource policy questions, but it is perceived to have failed for reasons of multiple non—congruences between planning and reporting. Potential still exists for a positive outcome.
Plant and Soil Responses to Chronic Nitrogen Additions at the Harvard Forest, Massachusetts
Authors: Aber John D. , Magill Alison , Boone Richard , Melillo Jerry M. , Steudler Paul
Published: April 2006

Data are presented on changes in plant and soil processes in two forest types (red pine plantation and oak—maple forest) at the Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts, in response to 3 yr of chronic N fertilization. The hardwood stand exhibited greater N limitation on biological function than the pine stand prior to fertilization as evidenced by a lower net N mineralization rate, nearly undetectable rates of net nitrification, and very low foliar N content. N additions were made in six equal applications throughout the growing season, and consisted of 5 and 15 g°m—2°yr—1 of N as ammonium nitrate. The pine stand showed larger changes than the hardwood stand for extractable N, foliar N, nitrification, and N leaching loss. Retention of added N was essentially 100% for all but the high application pine plot from which significant N leaching occurred in the 3rd yr of application. From 75 to 92% of N added to fertilized plots was retained in the soil, with larger fractions retained in the hardwood stand than the pine stand for all treatments. As hypothesized, the stands are exhibiting highly nonlinear patterns of nitrogen output in response to continuous nitrogen inputs. The implications of this nonlinearity for regional eutrophication of surface waters and atmospheric deposition control policy are discussed.
Biological Response to Climate Change: An Agenda for Research
Authors: Mooney H. A.
Published: April 2006

Our knowledge of the structure and functioning of terrestrial ecosystems on a global scale is not developed to a sufficient degree to understand–much less predict–the consequences of climate change either on the systems themselves or on subsequent atmospheric interactions. In many regards we have lagged behind the atmospheric scientists, and to a certain degree the oceanographers, in establishing a global understanding of the dynamics of our respective systems. This is due in part to the inherently greater complexity of biotic systems, but also to the lack of appropriate tools to measure regional biotic processes. These tools are now becoming available and with them a better understanding of terrestrial and atmospheric interactions. Even as these capabilities become a reality we must be realistic in recognizing that we have so far to go along the road to understanding that useful predictive capacity may elude us for a long time to come. What we need to do is act on the recommendations that have been emerging over the past few years and develop a global program to document more precisely the distribution, structure, and quantity of the earth's biotic systems, their principal functional properties, and–most difficult of all–their changing nature. In order to do this we will have to: (1) perfect some of the emerging new tools for assessing these properties, (2) fill some of the gaps in our knowledge about the relevant processes, and (3) establish an international network of long—term observations and large—scale ecosystem manipulations. We have been aware of these needs and shortcomings for some time and we must move from plans to concerted international action.
Northern Peatlands: Role in the Carbon Cycle and Probable Responses to Climatic Warming
Authors: Gorham Eville
Published: April 2006

Boreal and subarctic peatlands comprise a carbon pool of 455 Pg that has accumulated during the postglacial period at an average net rate of 0.096 Pg/yr (1 Pg = 1015g). Using Clymo's (1984) model, the current rate is estimated at 0.076 Pg/yr. Longterm drainage of these peatlands is estimated to be causing the oxidation to CO2 of a little more than 0.0085 Pg/yr, with conbustion of fuel peat adding °0.026 Pg/yr. Emissions of CH4 are estimated to release ° 0.046 Pg of carbon annually. Uncertainties beset estimates of both stocks and fluxes, particularly with regard to Soviet peatlands. The influence of water table alterations upon fluxes of both CO2 and CH4 is in great need of investigation over a wide range of peatland environments, especially in regions where permafrost melting, thermokarst erosion, and the development of thaw lakes are likely results of climatic warming. The role of fire in the carbon cycle of peatlands also deserves increased attention. Finally, satellite—monitoring of the abundance of open water in the peatlands of the West Siberian Plain and the Hudson/James Bay Lowland is suggested as a likely method of detecting early effects of climatic warming upon boreal and subarctic peatlands.
Biological Integrity: A Long‐Neglected Aspect of Water Resource Management
Authors: Karr James R.
Published: April 2006

Water of sufficient quality and quantity is critical to all life. Increasing human population and growth of technology require human society to devote more and more attention to protection of adequate supplies of water. Although perception of biological degradation stimulated current state and federal legislation on the quality of water resources, that biological focus was lost in the search for easily measured physical and chemical surrogates. The "fishable and swimmable" goal of the Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (PL 92—500) and its charge to "restore and maintain" biotic integrity illustrate that law's biological underpinning. Further, the need for operational definitions of terms like "biological integrity" and "unreasonable degradation" and for ecologically sound tools to measure divergence from societal goals have increased interest in biological monitoring. Assessment of water resource quality by sampling biological communities in the field (ambient biological monitoring) is a promising approach that requires expanded use of ecological expertise. One such approach, the Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI), provides a broadly based, multiparameter tool for the assessment of biotic integrity in running waters. IBI based on fish community attributes has now been applied widely in North America. The success of IBI has stimulated the development of similar approaches using other aquatic taxa. Expanded use of ecological expertise in ambient biological monitoring is essential to the protection of water resources. Ecologists have the expertise to contribute significantly to those programs.
Gradient Analysis of Ecological Change in Time and Space: Implications for Forest Management
Authors: Gosz James R.
Published: April 2006

Gradient analysis is a powerful technique to analyze for, and detect change in, the dynamics, structure, and function of ecosystems. Boundaries between zones or communities occur at distinctive locations along environmental gradients and are expected to be especially sensitive to environmental change. Gradient analysis can be performed at a range of scales, and allows integration and extrapolation of change across scales from those associated with communities to those of biomes. This review outlines the properties of gradients in space and time and uses an example of forests in the Rocky Mountain Physiographic Province to demonstrate constraints, the complex mosaics associated with distributional limits, transfers across boundaries, the role of disturbance, and threshold dynamics. A climate—change scenario is developed to hypothesize future changes in boundary movements, community mosaics, and ecosystem properties along elevational and latitudinal gradients in the Rocky Mountain Province. Mechanistic explanations of ecological phenomena that are necessary for management require information on: (1) the physical environmental constraints operating on the ecosystem; (2) the biota that operate within those constraints; and (3) the interactions among the biota and between the biota and environment. The relative importance of these three elements differs between environments and along environmental gradients. Biota and their interactions may account for much of the variance in system structure and function in mesic environments, while abiotic factors may limit biotic activity in less—favorable (arid) habitats. Plot studies that are analyzed as points along broader scale environmental gradients can provide quantitative information on the major driving variables, and broad—scale analyses of environmental factors along the gradient generate the information for extrapolating between sites and across scales. Modeling that includes such spatial gradients provides the foundation for local to regional management programs.
Ecosystem Modeling with Lisrel: A New Approach for Measuring Direct and Indirect Effects
Authors: Johnson Michael L. , Huggins Donald G. , DeNoyelles F.
Published: April 2006

Evaluating the effects of toxicants in ecosystems is difficult despite numerous attempts to develop field and laboratory tests. The problem appears to be the lack of an analytical methodology capable of taking advantage of the available experimental designs. Therefore, we propose a technique for modeling ecosystems–linear structural modeling with LISREL. LISREL is a path analytic technique that is more flexible than classical path analysis. Modeling with LISREL involves placing ecosystem structure and function into a framework of concepts and indicator variables. Concepts are theoretical constructs that are placed into a cause—and—effect network to reflect true ecosystem structure. Concepts are @indicated" by indicator variables; these are the measured variables in the ecosystem. LISREL incorporates measurement error into the modeling process by establishing a portion of the variance of each indicator variable as measurement error. The framework of concepts and indicators in a cause—and—effect network becomes a hypothesis that is tested using LISREL. LISREL also provides a determination of the total, direct, and indirect effects of the variables on each other. A measure of ecosystem stability is provided as part of the modeling process.
Regional‐Scale Relationships of Leaf Area Index to Specific Leaf Area and Leaf Nitrogen Content
Authors: Pierce Lars L. , Running Steven W. , Walker Joe
Published: April 2006

Specific leaf area (SLA) is an important link between vegetation water and carbon cycles because it describes the allocation of leaf biomass per unit of leaf area. Several studies in many vegetation types have shown that canopy SLA is closely related to canopy leaf nitrogen (N) content and photosynthetic capacity. SLA increases as light is attenuated by leaf area down through a plant canopy. It therefore follows that across an individual biome the spatial patterns in canopy—average SLA and leaf N content should be significantly correlated with the spatial patterns in leaf area index (LAI) and canopy transmittance. In this paper, we show that the LAI across the Oregon transect is closely related to canopy—average SLA (R2 = 0.82) and leaf N content on a mass basis (R2 = 0.80). Canopy—average leaf N per unit area is highly correlated to canopy transmittance (R2 = 0.94) across the transect. At any given site, canopy—average SLA and leaf N per unit area do not vary significantly, either seasonally or between different codominant species occupying the same site. The results of this study suggest that the spatial distribution of canopy—average SLA and leaf nitrogen content (and perhaps canopy photosynthetic capacity) can be predicted across biomes from satellite estimates of LAI.
Biodiversity and the Need for Habitat Renewal
Authors: Sinclair A. R. E. , Hik D. S. , Schmitz O. J. , Scudder G. G. E. , Turpin D. H. , Larter N. C.
Published: April 2006

The conservation of species requires preservation of natural habitats. Where the integrity of natural habitats has been upset, species go extinct. All natural habitats are continuing to decline, both inside and outside of reserves. Habitat change is partly a natural process (e.g., succession), but human activities have accelerated the process of decay so that natural rates of renewal are insufficient to maintain natural habitats. We argue that our only recourse, in light of these scenarios, is to adopt a new conservation strategy that considers the importance of habitat renewal in addition to habitat preservation. Accordingly, in our management decisions we must not only choose the size of area to preserve but also the size of area that balances habitat loss with habitat renewal. We also suggest that this habitat equilibrium point, H*, needs to be decided upon urgently, otherwise many species will become extinct in the next 50 yr according to numerous predictions. There are two ways to achieve H*. The first is to set habitats aside in protected areas in perpetuity. There are two reasons why this protection alone is insufficient: (1) protected areas continue to decline, albeit at a slower rate than outside of their boundaries, and (2) achieving H* simply by setting aside protected areas is no longer an option in many areas where severe habitat degradation or fragmentation has already occurred. The other way to achieve H* is to promote the reestablishment of natural habitats, or "habitat renewal." This concept is illustrated using a simple trade‐off model that balances habitat decay and habitat renewal. We then provide examples of habitat loss outside and inside of protected areas and discuss the potential for habitat renewal to offset these losses. We conclude that continued emphasis needs to be placed on setting aside natural habitat in protected areas. However, our examples of habitat loss show that this policy alone is most likely doomed to failure, so a policy of habitat renewal is also required.
Activity and Species Composition of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Following Soil Removal
Authors: Aziz T. , Sylvia D. M. , Doren R. F.
Published: April 2006

Large areas of the Everglades National Park have been invaded by exotic plant species, particularly Schinus terebinthifolius. In an attempt to return these areas to the former wetland vegetation, an experimental site was subjected to soil removal (SR). The objective of this study was to document the effect of SR on the activity–estimated by total propagule and spore numbers, and root colonization–and species composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Soil and plant samples were collected in the spring (following the dry season) and fall (following the wet season) for 2 yr from full‐ and partial‐SR plots, and adjacent site dominated by schinus, and the mature undisturbed glade. The mature glade had the lowest mycorrhizal activity, while the SR plots had the highest activity. Mycorrhizal activity in SR plots increased over the 2‐yr period. These plots also had greater plant species richness than the mature glade. No relationship was found between root colonization and plant hydrological category. A total of 22 fungal species, belonging to four genera, were present as the most abundant AM species in individual plots. Temporal changes observed in these species were likely related to changes in host plants and the edaphic environment. We suggest that the complexity of both AM and vegetation succession on these plots will decrease with time after species richness of AM and plants peak and the site conditions stabilize.
Human Disturbance and Long‐Term Changes on a Rocky Intertidal Community
Authors: Addessi Loana
Published: April 2006

The effects of human recreational activities on a rocky intertidal habitat on the coast of San Diego, California, USA were investigated. Organisms susceptible to collection for food, bait, or aquaria were identified and served as key species for the study of biota disturbance. This study examined three major aspects: (1) Distribution and activities of people along the shoreline were documented. (2) Distribution and density of echinoderms and molluscs inhabiting the cryptic underrock surface were sampled along an identified gradient of disturbance. (3) Densities of conspicuous organisms inhabiting the underrock surface at the most disturbed location detected in the spring of 1971 were compared with those detected in the spring of 1991. Surveys of human activity made during weekends with low tides exposing most of the intertidal zone (below O MLLW) during the daylight hours between December 1990 and August 1991 showed a definite pattern. People concentrated in an area with a 200 m radius centered on the primary accesses; areas farther from these points were less visited. The study site stood along a gradient of human disturbance, and the sampling of organisms along this indicated a gradient of biota disturbance as well. The density of all species was reduced in the more heavily visited intertidal area. The underrock community at the most heavily visited location changed substantially from spring 1971 to spring 1991. The density of most of the macroorganisms decreased between the two dates, with the exception of the density of small gastropods, which increased. Even if more long—term studies are needed for determining the actual status of communities under the influence of human disturbance, the combination of spatial and long—term studies shows the importance of setting better policy and more establishing more effective reserved in order to enhance and maintain species diversity and density.
Fundamental Differences Between Conventional and Organic Tomato Agroecosystems in California
Authors: Drinkwater L. E. , Letourneau D. K. , Workneh F. , van Bruggen A. H. C. , Shennan C.
Published: April 2006

In an integrated, multidisciplinary study we compared ecological characteristics and productivity of commercial farms categorized as either organic (ORG) or conventional (CNV) based on their use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides or reliance on organic soil amendments and biological pest control. We measured belowground parameters: various soil chemical and biological properties and root disease severity; common agronomic indicators: biomass, fruit yield and insect pest damage; and community level indicators, including arthropod diversity and soil microbial activity and diversity. CNV and ORG production systems could not be distinguished based on agronomic criteria such as fruit yield and arthropod pest damage levels. However, differences were demonstrated in many soil, plant, disease, and diversity indicators suggesting that the ecological processes determining yields and pest levels in these two management systems are distinct. In particular, nitrogen mineralization potential and microbial and parasitoid abundance and diversity were higher in ORG farms. Differences between the agroecosystems were sufficiently robust to be distinguished from environmental variation and suggest that biological processes compensated for reductions in the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.
Convicting the Innocent: The Inferiority of Unanimous Jury Verdicts under Strategic Voting
Authors: Feddersen Timothy , Pesendorfer Wolfgang
Published: April 2006

It is often suggested that requiring juries to reach a unanimous verdict reduces the probability of convicting an innocent defendant while increasing the probability of acquitting a guilty defendant. We construct a model that demonstrates how strategic voting by jurors undermines this basic intuition. We show that the unanimity rule may lead to a high probability of both kinds of error and that the probability of convicting an innocent defendant may actually increase with the size of the jury. Finally, we demonstrate that a wide variety of voting rules, including simple majority rule, lead to much lower probabilities of both kinds of error.
Strategy and Background in Congressional Campaigns
Authors: Sellers Patrick J.
Published: April 2006

Common conceptions of the electoral connection often make two assumptions about the behavior of candidates and voters. The first is that candidates focus their campaigns on their records. The second is that voters evaluate candidates on the basis of their campaign messages. This article explores how candidates' backgrounds influence these two components of representation. The main premise is simple: Campaign messages are more effective if they emphasize issues on which candidates have built a record that appears favorable to voters. Consequently, candidates tend to focus on this type of issue when choosing campaign themes. Candidates are less successful in winning favorable evaluations if they stray from their records and make unsubstantiated claims.
The Social Construction of Organizational Knowledge: A Study of the Uses of Coercive, Mimetic, and Normative Isomorphism
Authors: Mizruchi Mark S. , Fein Lisa C.
Published: April 2006

Arguing that knowledge in the social sciences is socially constructed through the selective interpretation of major works, we examine the fate of a classic article in organizational theory, DiMaggio and Powell's 1983 essay on institutional isomorphism. We show that one aspect of this article, the discussion of mimetic isomorphism, has received attention disproportionate to its role in the essay. A detailed examination of 26 articles in which researchers attempted to operationalize various components of DiMaggio and Powell's model shows that measures used to capture one of their concepts could have served as valid measures of one of the others. Findings show that DiMaggio and Powell's thesis has become socially constructed, as authors have selectively appropriated aspects of the work that accord with prevalent discourse in the field, and that centrally located researchers in sociology and organizational behavior are more likely than other scholars to invoke this dominant interpretation of their article.
The Formation of Breakaway Organizations: Observations and a Process Model
Authors: Dyck Bruno , Starke Frederick A.
Published: April 2006

Two qualitative studies examined the processes leading to the formation of breakaway organizations, which result when groups leave existing organizations to form new organizations. In the first study, analysis of interviews at 11 organizations in which group exit occurred revealed that the process unfolded in six stages: relative harmony, idea development, change, resistance, intense conflict, and exit. Five trigger events—introduction of conflicting ideas, legitimizing them, alarm, polarization of views, and justification—moved the participants through the group exit process. Study 2, conducted in three organizations in which group exit was avoided, revealed a trigger harmonizing event instead of a polarization event and a final dissonant harmony stage, instead of exit. Implications for the exit/voice/loyalty/neglect paradigm, the group studies literature, and organization theory in general are discussed.
The Collective Construction of Work Group Moods
Authors: Bartel Caroline A. , Saavedra Richard
Published: April 2006

This research examines mood as a collective property of work groups. We argue that work group members experience group moods when they can detect and display mood information through observable behavioral expressions. To test the hypothesis that work group moods are manifested behaviorally, we developed an observational instrument and compared observers' reports of work group mood with self-reported measures from 70 work groups. As predicted, groups converged for eight distinct mood categories, and observers' reports of work group mood were consistent with groups' aggregated self-reported values. Convergence in members' moods was positively associated with task and social interdependence, membership stability, and mood regulation norms. Theoretical and practical implications of work group mood are discussed.
Cognitive Biases and Organizational Correctives: Do Both Disease and Cure Depend on the Politics of the Beholder?
Authors: Tetlock Philip E.
Published: April 2006

The study reported here assessed the impact of managers' philosophies of human nature on their reactions to influential academic claims and counter-claims of when human judgment is likely to stray from rational-actor standards and of how organizations can correct these biases. Managers evaluated scenarios that depicted decision-making processes at micro, meso, and macro levels of analysis: alleged cognitive biases of individuals, strategies of structuring and coping with accountability relationships between supervisors and employees, and strategies that corporate entities use to cope with accountability demands from the broader society. Political ideology and cognitive style emerged as consistent predictors of the value spins that managers placed on decisions at all three levels of analysis. Specifically, conservative managers with strong preferences for cognitive closure were most likely (a) to defend simple heuristic-driven errors such as overattribution and overconfidence and to warn of the mirror-image mistakes of failing to hold people accountable and of diluting sound policies with irrelevant side-objectives; (b) to be skeptical of complex strategies of structuring or coping with accountability and to praise those who lay down clear rules and take decisive stands; (c) to prefer simple philosophies of corporate governance (the shareholder over stakeholder model) and to endorse organizational norms such as hierarchical filtering that reduce cognitive overload on top management by short-circuiting unnecessary argumentation. Intuitive theories of good judgment apparently cut across levels of analysis and are deeply grounded in personal epistemologies and political ideologies.
Antecedents and Consequences of Personal Attachment in Cross-Cultural Cooperative Ventures
Authors: Luo Yadong
Published: April 2006

This study examines how personal attachments between boundary spanners within cross-cultural international cooperative ventures (ICVs) are established and their association with venture performance. Results of analysis of 282 ICVs in an emerging market (People's Republic of China) show that the development of personal attachment depends on factors at three levels. At the individual level, attachment is an increasing function of overlap in tenure between boundary spanners. At the organizational level, attachment is heightened by goal congruity between the parent firms but is impeded by cultural distance. At the environmental level, market disturbance and regulatory deterrence lead to strong attachments. Such attachments stimulate an ICV's process performance and increase financial returns.
The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent: Managing Identification among Amway Distributors
Authors: Pratt Michael G.
Published: April 2006

An ethnographic study of distributors for Amway, a network marketing organization, examines the practices and processes involved in managing members' organizational identification. It shows that this organization manages identification by using two types of practices: sensebreaking practices that break down meaning and sensegiving practices that provide meaning. When both sensebreaking and sensegiving practices are successful, members positively identify with the organization. When either sensebreaking or sensegiving practices fail, members deidentify, disidentify, or experience ambivalent identification with the organization. A general model of identification management is posited, and implications for both theory and practice are offered.
Institutional Sources of Practice Variation: Staffing College and University Recycling Programs
Authors: Lounsbury Michael
Published: April 2006

In this paper, I examine how variation arises in the staffing of recycling programs at colleges and universities. Through initial fieldwork, I identified two basic recycling program forms. Some schools adopted recycling programs that entailed the creation of new, full-time recycling manager positions that were filled by ecological activists. Other schools adopted more minimalist programs that were staffed by current employees who were more ecologically ambivalent and assumed recycling management responsibilities as a part-time, additional duty. Results of a subsequent survey of a population of colleges and universities show that this variation in staffing was importantly shaped by the Student Environmental Action Coalition, a national social movement organization that provided resources and support to student environmental groups at particular schools. Implications for the study of how field-level organizations shape the content of organizational practices are discussed.
An Astronomical Test of Caso's Correlation
Authors: Weitzel R. B.
Published: April 2006

“La Correlaciόn de los Afios Azteca y Cristiano” by Alfonso Caso, Revista Mexicana de Estudios Antropologicos, Vol. 3, pp. 11–45, Mexico, 1939, may be tested by means of some astronomical data. For this purpose, sources are supplied.

Paul Radin, “The Sources and Authenticity of the History of the Ancient Mexicans,” University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology, Vol. 17, No. 1, Berkeley, 1920 (Codex Telleriano-Remensis, Part 4, pp. 45–50):

P. 46, PI. 5, “In the year 12 rabbit (1426 A.D.) … there was an eclipse of the earth(?).“
Recording of Cave Data
Authors: Wheeler S. M.
Published: April 2006

During the summer 1934, my wife and I were faced with the problem of excavating a dry cave that gave promise of being unusually valuable in the study of the ancient Indian cultures of southern Nevada.
The North Benton Mound: A Hopewell Site in Ohio
Authors: Magrath Willis H.
Published: April 2006

The North Benton Mound is a Hopewell site located in Mahoning County, northeastern Ohio. This mound is on the farm of Mr. John Malmsberry, near the village of North Benton. Mr. Roy Saltsman and the writer participated in the excavation of the site. The photographs and other records were made by the writer.

The recent history of the mound is interesting. The grave of Judge William Smith, original owner of the mound, was placed some seven or eight feet north of the crest. It is shown in the cross section (Fig. 4). When Smith died in 1837 with the strange request that he be buried in the mound, the top was apparently cut off to make a burial platform; the removed dirt which was thrown down upon the south shoulder is represented on the projected cross section by broken hatching. The mound, situated on a high knoll, later became an even more conspicuous landmark when conifers were planted on it and grew to great size.
Piedra Depressions
Authors: Dick Herbert W.
Published: April 2006

In his recent publication, Hall disagrees with Roberts' interpretation of depressions found in conjunction with house units, as set forth in a report in 1930.

Dr. Roberts' report includes the results of a thorough examination of eighty houses, two kivas, and six circular depressions. It is the latter with which this comment is concerned. These depressions, according to Hall, are neither “borrow pits” nor “reservoirs,” but probably mark the locations of former pit houses:

“The writer cannot help but feel that the majority of Roberts's Piedra ‘reservoirs’ are pit houses and that if these were defined they would resemble the Rosa Phase pit house in many respects.”
The First Thirty-Eight Sandia Points
Authors: Hibben Frank C.
Published: April 2006

It has become almost an archaeological maxim that each new culture should be followed up with some dispersal studies. Most of these take the form of tabulations of typical cultural items that may be recognized out of context. If these are sufficiently distinctive, dispersion of the particular traits or characteristics may be traced with fair facility. Inherent in this supposition are some outstanding difficulties, nowhere better illustrated than in the case of the Folsom point. After the discovery of the Folsom site at Folsom, New Mexico, and the relatively quick realization that the Folsom point was distinctive and had a characteristic outline and peculiarities of chipping which could be recognized out of context, a fervent search was initiated to discover the dispersal of this element.