bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Essays On Bioethics
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

For this collection, R. M. Hare has selected the best of his writings on medical ethics and related topics. Its chief theoretical interest lies in its synthesis between utilitarian and Kantian ethics, which are shown to have the same practical consequences. The main practical thesis in the book is that we can harm possible people by preventing them from becoming actual people. This thesis, if understood and accepted, would radically alter the terms of the public debate about embryo experimentation and population policy, and (perhaps surprisingly) support a fairly liberal view on abortion. There are also general introductions to medical and psychiatric ethics, and essays on the concept of health, the morality of experimentation on children, health care policy, free will, and vegetarianism.
Abortion and the Golden Rule
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

10.1 If philosophers are going to apply ethical theory successfully to practical issues, they must first have a theory. This may seem obvious; but they often proceed as if it were not so. A philosopher’s chief contribution to a practical issue should be to show us which are good and which are bad arguments; and to do this he has to have some way of telling one from the other. Moral philosophy therefore needs a basis in philosophical logic—the logic of the moral concepts. But we find, for example, Professor Judith Jarvis Thomson, in an article on abortion (1971) which has been justly praised for the ingenuity and liveliness of her examples, proceeding as if this were not necessary at all. She simply parades the examples before us and asks what we would say about them. But how do we know whether what we feel inclined to say has any secure ground? May we not feel inclined to say it just because of the way we were brought up to think? And was this necessarily the right way? It is highly diverting to watch the encounter in the same volume between her and Mr John Finnis (1973), who, being a devout Roman Catholic, has intuitions which differ from hers (and mine) in the wildest fashion. I just do not know how to tell whether Mr Finnis is on safe ground when he claims that suicide is ‘a paradigm case of an action that is always wrong’; nor Professor Thomson when she makes the no doubt more popular claim that we have a right to decide what happens in and to our own bodies.
The Abnormal Child Moral Dilemmas of Doctors and Parents
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

12.1 Like most of the papers in this volume, this is an attempt to apply ethical theory to a particular moral problem. The theory, outlined in r.6 f. and more fully set out in MT, is of a sort that can be described as both Kantian and utilitarian (see 15.2 and refs., H 1993a). It asks what are the interests (or as Kant might put it, the rational ends) of the parties affected, and then seeks prescriptions which we are prepared to universalize to all similar cases, and which will maximally satisfy these interests or fulfil these ends. The particular problem to be addressed is that which faces doctors and parents when a grossly defective child is born, or is expected to be born.
Evaluation of Language Use in Public Discourse: Language Attitudes in Austria
Authors: Moosmuller Sylvia
Published: November 2023

The study of how language use is evaluated is a large field and this chapter will concentrate on one specific aspect and on one German-speaking context: attitudes towards linguistic variation in public discourse in Austria. In order to do this, it is necessary to begin with a brief outline of the general language situation in Austria.
Orthography and Punctuation
Authors: Comrie Bernard , Stone Gerald , Polinsky Maria
Published: November 2023

The aspects of language change we have described so far in this book are only to a limited extent subject to the control of language planners. So far as pronunciation, stress, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary are concerned, language planning is largely a matter of assessing the changes that have already occurred and of deciding to what extent the codified standard should be adjusted to keep up to date. It is really a question of resolving conflict between standard and non-standard. Orthographical change is a different thing entirely, however, for orthographical change occurs exclusively through planning.
What Makes Choices Rational?
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

MY aim in writing this paper is to ask help in the laying of a pair of ghosts who continue to haunt moral philosophy. Their names are ‘objectivism’ and ‘subjectivism’; but the second sometimes assumes the name of ‘relativism’. I have long been convinced that the supposed battles between these two have no real substance; but for all that, they go on confusing many moral philosophers. It would be a great benefit to our profession if somebody could put an end to the confusion once for all; but it has proved harder than might have been hoped, and that is my excuse for trying again. The confusion nearly always arises when moral philosophers discuss either what they term the ‘objectivity’ or what they term the ‘rationality’ of moral judgements. The first of these words would be best abandoned altogether, because the introduction of either it or its supposed opposite ‘subjectivity’ into ethical discussion seldom does anything except spread darkness. These two words ‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ are properly applied to different sorts of fact: objective facts are facts which hold independently of the states of mind etc. of subjects (e.g. of a perceiver or the maker of a moral judgement); subjective facts are facts about the state of mind of such a person, including facts about the relation (e.g. a causal one) in which some object stands to that state of mind. There was a time when moral philosophers disputed whether moral judgements were statements of objective fact or whether they were statements of subjective fact. The terms had a use in this dispute.
The Structure of Ethics and Morals
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

I MUST start by saying what I think is the object of the enterprise called moral philosophy. It is to find a way of thinking better—that is, more rationally—about moral questions. The first step towards this is: Understand the questions you are asking. That might seem obvious; but hardly anybody tries to do it. We have to understand what we mean by expressions like ‘I ought’. And to understand the meaning of a word like this involves understanding its logical properties, or in other words what it implies or what saying it commits us to. Then, if we find that we cannot accept what it commits us to, we shall have to give up saying it. And that is what moral argument essentially is. Ethics, the study of moral argument, is thus a branch of logic. This is one of the levels of thinking that are the concern of the moral philosopher. The others are about more substantial questions; but this first one, the logical or, as it is sometimes called, metaethical level is the foundation of the others.
Utilitarianism and the Vicarious Affects
Authors: Hare R M
Published: November 2023

WHEN Professor Rescher was kind enough to dedicate his excellent book Unselfishness (1975) to me, he intended it, I am sure, not just as a kindness but also at least in part as the friendliest possible reproach, first for my neglect of the theory of games and its relevance to moral philosophy, and secondly for my remaining a utilitarian in spite of all the well-known arguments against that doctrine. The first fault I can readily acknowledge, and the book has helped me to begin to amend it. But in this essay I shall try to defend myself against the second reproach by showing that at any rate Professor Rescher’s arguments in chapter 5 of his book do nothing to impugn utilitarianism, provided that this is carefully formulated (see also MT ch. 8).
The Time and Space of Civilization
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

‘Ya somos gente civilizada’ (‘Now we are civilized people’). This is a statement constantly made by native people on the Bajo Urubamba. It seems, to the hearer, to be a statement of separation from the past, and of the irrelevance of older generations’ experience. But, in the speech of native people, it calls up a multiplicity of associations which extend out across time and space to locate them within a larger spatial and temporal system. To understand what ‘being civilized’ means for native people, we must understand what not ‘being civilized’ is, and what constitutes the process of becoming ‘civilized’: we must understand how they think of time, of space, and of kinds of people.
Conclusion: A Comparison of Native Amazonian Kinship Systems
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

Many of the themes of the kinship system outlined in the chapter of Part II are found in other areas of Amazonia, although not in quite this form. Thus the marriage pattern based on ‘marrying at a distance’ is similar to that of the Machiguenga, while the stress on marriage between different ‘kinds of people’ is similar to that of the North-West Amazon. The model of the community as composed of a set of people who are all kin to each other is common among Guianan societies. Similarly, the idioms of shared substance and feeding are widespread, as evidenced in the literature on the couvade. There is one serious problem, indeed paradox, of the kinship system of the Bajo Urubamba which requires some discussion. This is that the native people of the Bajo Urubamba hold the simultaneous values of marrying far, and of both spouses residing with close kin. My argument is that this pattern is related to the weakness of the idiom of cross-cousin marriage in this case, and I here use Dreyfus’s comparative discussion (1977) as a starting-point. This discussion is taken further in the Conclusion to Part III.
The School and the Shaman
Authors: Gow Peter
Published: November 2023

In native people’s narratives of history, schools play an important role. Leaving the haciendas, native people moved to communities with schools, so that their children could be educated. The school is today central to the definition of a native community as a caserio legitimo, ‘real village’. As an institution the school unites two powerful themes for native people: knowledge and children. This chapter investigates the meaning of the schools for native people, and contrasts it as a paradigm of power to shamanism. Both schools and shamanism concern the use of potentially dangerous knowledge for the defence of kinship. The school defends kinship by bringing ‘civilized’ knowledge inside native social relations, while shamanism uses the wild powers of the forest and river to defend kinship.
Organizing Jainism in India and England
Authors: Banks Marcus
Published: November 2023

Although the Jains have a religious history spanning two-and -a-half millennia Western scholars have shown little interest in them until recently. Drawing on fieldwork conducted among Jains in the Indian state of Gujarat and a migrant Gujarati Jain group in Leicester, England, Marcus Banks aims to provide an understanding of contemporary Jain identity through an examination of their social and religious organizations. The first part of the book describes the array of religious and caste organizations found among Jains in the Indian city of Jamnagar and how Jains from Jamnagar and elsewhere in Gujarat migrated to East Africa, transforming their organizations in the process. The second part looks at the new forms of organization that have developed among the Jains who came to Leicester from East Africa and the part these have played in changing perceptions of Jainism itself. Throughout the book Dr Banks plays special attention to the use and transformation of urban space by religious and other groups, and he concludes with comments on the definition of religion and religious identity. This is one of the first book-length studies of the Jains as a migrant group overseas, where they are studied in their own right rather than simply as an ethnic minority. It will be valuable both for its documentation of a small but influential population and for its direct comparison of aspects of communal and religious organization in India and the UK.
Coming Together in Leicester
Authors: Banks Marcus
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 3 I gave several examples of the ways in which Jains in Jamnagar 'came together' for festivals, fasts, and feasts. In this chapter I wish to do the same for the Jains of Leicester and it would be satisfying to construct this chapter as an exact parallel to Chapter 3, using the same types of events to draw a series of neat conclusions.
Introduction
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

THIS work is an anthropological analysis of four hundred years of social life in Iceland. In presenting a historical ethnography, my aim is to contribute to the development of anthropological theories of change and dynamism in human society. In the process I hope to shed new light upon the history of Iceland, which has provided me with privileged material for theoretical reflection. It is privileged both because it is rich, owing to the remarkable antiquarian interest of the Icelanders over the centuries, and because it is sufficiently limited to be known more or less in full owing to the comparatively small scale of the island community, with a population of only 50,000, or even fewer in parts of the period.
Conceptual Framework
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

IF ‘total history’ is taken literally, it is of course impossible; the historian must always select (Burke 1980: 197). But we may use the notion as a shorthand for a history that is less limited by geographical or disciplinary boundaries than other kinds of history (ibid.). In the Icelandic case the word ‘total’ refers to the global perspective on Icelandic culture, by which no single topic or theme is given priority in the analysis of history. Concepts of magic are as important for the comprehension of Icelandic development, for example, as is the Danish rule. Like Le Roy Ladurie studying the peasants of Languedoc, I have come to realize that in order to understand the impediments to ‘progress’ during some long centuries of Icelandic history we must pursue the problem ‘to the farthest reaches of the unconscious psyche’ (Le Roy Ladurie 1974a: 301). This psyche is part of the collective ‘unreal’ of the people; it is their mentality.
Theoretical Reflections
Authors: Hastrup Kirsten
Published: November 2023

ANY theory in anthropology is informed by the empirical, and all ‘evidence’ is marked by theoretical assumptions. Once data have become evidence they are evidence of something external to themselves. To discuss the theoretical implications of a history like the one I have tried to write is, therefore, to unfold an argument which was already inherent in the presentation.

Like culture, the theoretical order is virtual rather than empirical; in the territory of knowledge it is potentia rather than presentia (cf. Sahlins 1985: 153). To perceive the potency of Icelandic history the theoretical argument must be presented in some form, however, and that is the purpose of the present chapter. The mode of presentation will be rather general, but the multitude of particular instances from Icelandic history still form the mirror for my theoretical reflections. I have chosen two separate theoretical themes: first, I will discuss causation in the world; secondly, I will discuss the nature of anthropological history.
The Appropriation of an Invader: Opoti and the Reorientation of Chiefly Practice
Authors: Thomas Nicholas
Published: November 2023

The concern of this book thus far has been the description and analysis of indigenous Marquesan society. I have tried to avoid the tendency in anthropological interpretation to drift into either the ideal domain of symbolism or the material domain of social relations to the neglect of what becomes distinguished as the other sphere. The meanings of religious action, competition, production, exchange, conflict, servitude, and gender difference have thus emerged in a practical order and in the process of practice. In representing a Marquesan ‘system’ or social totality, I have also attempted to break from an unsatisfactory but persistent feature of Polynesian studies—the fabrication of vague and generalized accounts of a ‘traditional system’ or (early) ‘native culture’ which is neither observed nor precisely documented, which in fact is abstracted from any time. Instead, the social relations and some events of a short period in the earliest phase of contact have been investigated. (It has obviously been necessary to draw on sources deriving from later periods, but consideration has been given to the likelihood of changes in the particular practices or institutions being discussed.) The early period, and the system I have described, cannot be equated with some imaginary ‘precontact’ society unaffected by European contact. Since the precontact societies were themselves changing, what existed in (say) 1760 rather than 1790 has no particular status or authenticity.
Deng Laka: A Pragmatic Prophet
Authors: Johnson Douglas H
Published: November 2023

Deng Laka’s life among the Gaawar presents a sharp contrast to Ngundeng’s prophetic career among the Lou. Both were foreigners to the communities in which they lived; but whereas Ngundeng’s mother was a Lou ‘aristocrat’, Deng Laka’s mother was a Dinka refugee. Ngundeng fixed his central shrine permanently in the middle of the Lou plain; Deng Laka was forced by floods to relocate himself to the south-eastern edge of Gaawar territory.
Guek Ngundeng and the Minor Prophets: Divinity Dispersed
Authors: Johnson Douglas H
Published: November 2023

Nuer country at the time of the death of Ngundeng and Deng Laka was still largely free from government interference. Large parts of the Nuer frontier were subjected to exploratory probing from outposts along the main rivers, but there was no sustained contact. The whole of the Western Nuer had been bypassed. The prophets there, as we shall see in Chapter 7, were locked in closer competition with each other than was the case in the east, and had not yet impinged on administrative consciousness. Among the Nuer of the frontier there was a hiatus between the death of the great prophets and the establishment of their successors. In the interval government influence became more pervasive and changed the political geography in which the prophets could operate. Dual Diu (Chapter 6) ultimately continued his father’s diplomatic chess game with administrators in the 1920s. Among the Lou there was the inclination to follow Ngundeng’s model of aloof detachment, but less chance of success.
Contested Hierarchies
Authors: Gellner David N , Quigley Declan
Published: November 2023

The urban civilization of the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley provides a paradigm for the study of caste and Hindu kingship. In this book, six anthropologists, in a genuinely collaborative international endeavour, pool their knowledge of the three ancient Newar cities of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur, and settlements nearby. The social institutions of all the main case groups—priests, patrons, artisans, farmers, and low castes—are given extended consideration, and the study is framed by a historical introduction and a comparative conclusion. In addition, it is well illustrated with fascinating black and white photos which have been specially taken to illustrate aspects of the society under study. The result is the most complete description and analysis yet of a regional caste system. Located within wider theoretical debates surrounding the nature of caste, the book should appeal not only to students of Hinduism and South Asia, but to all anthropologists and comparative sociologists interested in the interrelations of politics, ritual, kinship, economy, and ideology in complex, pre-industrial societies.
Buddhist Merchants in Kathmandu: The Asan Twab Market and U rāy Social Organization
Authors: Lewis Todd T
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides an overview of Newar society in Asan Twab, Kathmandu, and of the Uray, a large merchant caste which has been prominent in the business and cultural life of Kathmandu for over 400 years. The ethnographic portraiture of Asan in Section 1 presents Newar bazaar society from shifting vantage-points and is intended as a contribution to Newar urban studies. Examining Newar society in terms of spatially defined urban units and with demographic measures is necessary to comprehend this market-place’s diversity and, moreover, for grasping the human geography of the largest Newar cities today. In Section 2 the focus narrows to the Urāy and surveys the social institutions that organize the caste’s public and private existence. A description of the inter-caste relations that so define the traditional life-style of these affiuent Kathmandu lay Buddhists is the theme of Section 3. Section 4 is a short concluding section with reflections on the Uray in the ethnohistory of Kathmandu as a Malla polity.
Imaging the Other in Japanese Advertising Campaigns
Authors: Creighton Millie R
Published: November 2023

Against a white misty background a white woman stands in a rounded doorway; her long blondish-white hair is drawn to one side thus half circling her head in curls. A white cloth is draped around her body from the waist down. Naked from the waist up, her arms lie across her breasts thus concealing the nipples, while still revealing the majority of breasts and skin. This was the focal image of an ad prominently displayed inside Tokyo commuter trains, on the walls of major transit stations, and on poster boards lining the streets of shopping districts throughout the summer of 1990.
Embodied Ontologies
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

Enough has been said, I hope, to indicate how much Jain religiosity consists of acts performed on and through the body, and to illustrate the armoury of ascetic practice Jainism has developed for its lay followers. All these forms of austerity—fasting, repentance, observing silence, and so on—are ways of using the body in order to effect some kind of inner transformation. I have suggested that this involves using the body as the soul’s ally against the mind, which is at once the most wayward and difficult to control of the sense organs, and, because it is where the passions arise, the front line, so to speak, in the defence against sin. The control of the mind enables you to act with the right bhav, which in the case of ascetic practice involves acting without any specific intention or meaning at all. Bhav comes to stand in this context not for symbolic or propositional meanings, but for the blotting out of desires, attachments, and purposes. I have tried to show how this way of thinking about ascetic practice, in which religious action comes to be seen as effective in so far as it is performed without desire, allows for an ambiguity, or plurality, in the purposes of ascetic practice so that ascetic renunciation and material good fortune may come to seem compossible. But this is not the only form that ascetic practice can take.
Magnificent Parsimony
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter I explained how it is that the baharana/ gocari transaction focuses, and to some considerable degree resolves, the tension between conflicting lay Jain religious identities: the ascetic follower and the worldly patron. However, the palpably agonistic atmosphere of the encounter is not an illusion, and the fact that the renouncer and house-holder must haggle, in order that they both may profit, does not explain why it is that in fact they do. In order to specify fully the form and content of the competition that is involved it is necessary to widen our focus beyond the dynamic of the transaction itself. In this chapter I shall consider first the relations between householders and renouncers over time, then the social context of status competiton between lay Jain families, and finally the contexts where the acts of individual patrons constitute Jain collective life.
Family Enterprise and Religious Community
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

The renouncer’s alms-round has brought us from the details of food preparation, to the symbolic dominance which elite Jain families are able to assert even in moments when the heights of ascetic renunciation are celebrated. This is not the only way in which religious life and the pursuit of social and economic success for Jain families are mutually constitutive, and so scarcely really separable, domains.
Conclusion
Authors: Laidlaw James
Published: November 2023

This book has attempted to show how, unlikely as it seems at first sight, those who profess the Jain religion can live by its strikingly austere ideal of world-renunciation. On the one hand Jainism can appear to be a simple and wholly consistent system. And some of its leading contemporary teachers insist that it is not, properly speaking, anything so jumbled and incoherent as a religion. They argue that it is a philosophy for escaping earthly life—a soteriology and nothing more. On the other hand it is clear that no one could live a whole life, and no self-reproducing communities could be sustained, on the basis of such a system. The more Jainism is defined as a single and complete theory, the more the lives of those who do claim to live by it come to seem incomprehensible, for these lives are, necessarily, also informed by other quite contrasting values. I do not mean to deny these teachers’ claims that there is a soteriology, and a set of rules and regulations which follow from it. But I have tried to show that that is not the Jainism people live by. It is not that the impressively austere ideals of Jain renunciation are ignored. Jains do, definitively, both revere and emulate their heroic renouncer-saints. But they do not do so as the application of a theory, as the execution of a programme.
Founding Fathers in the City
Authors: Wake Jehanne
Published: November 2023

Alexander Friedrich Kleinwort and Robert Benson jnr. had much in common, despite their dissimilar backgrounds. They shared the experience of early disappointment. Alexander Friedrich had been denied the education, wealth, and situation in Hamburg fitting to the station that his family’s social standing had led him to expect. They both served apprenticeships at firms which, for different reasons, had not led to partnerships. This had been more unlucky in Robert jnr.’s case: as the son of the senior proprietor at Cropper, Benson, a partnership would automatically have been his. Instead he and Alexander Friedrich had had to spend years in what to them were clearly unsatisfactory working milieu, at Worthington & Benson and at Drakes, unable to do exactly as they wanted.
The Expansion of Kleinworts
Authors: Wake Jehanne
Published: November 2023

The succeeding pairs of brothers who now directed Kleinwort, Sons & Co. and Robert Benson & Co. brought very dissimilar qualities and philosophies to the two partnerships. Their education, social position, and apprenticeships had little in common, not surprisingly, given the emphasis placed upon the German heritage of the Kleinwort sons. Considered by their fellow countrymen as Germans living in London, largely unassimilated into the national life of their father’s adopted country, they moved in the circles of the cosmopolitan haute bourgeoisie of Europe. The Benson sons, by contrast, were not only indigenous Englishmen, but they swiftly glided from their father’s world of the well-to-do professional classes, which was so stalwart a feature of the mid-Victorian years, to take their place as members of the ruling landed class.
The Rebuilding of Bensons
Authors: Wake Jehanne
Published: November 2023

Robin and Constantine were brought up, not under the thumb of primogeniture like the Kleinwort brothers, but with an even-handedness befitting the scions of a Quaker lineage. Their father, Robert jnr., treated them as members of equal importance in the family and fraternal relations were marked by deep affection which no hint of rivalry or urge for domination ever disturbed. Indeed, each brother delighted in the successes of the other. Like their Kleinwort counterparts, barely two years separated them; yet unlike them the Benson brothers were the closest of companions, a closeness intensified by the circumstances of their family life.
Reversal and Recovery
Authors: Wake Jehanne
Published: November 2023

Peace brought perils as grave as any in wartime for such City firms as Kleinwort, Sons & Co. At the end of the war in 1918 their acceptances were down to a mere £5m. from the 1913 high of £14.2m. Due to increased trading in the Americas, however, the partners’ capital had grown slightly to £4.6m., which was £263,000 more than in 1913. Lloyd George’s triumphant return from the Versailles peace treaty conference fed the optimistic mood of the country, a mood that was nurtured by the ‘restocking’ trade boom of1919 / 20. At Kleinworts profits had remained undistributed throughout the war but in 1919 the partners shared £300,000 [£6.Sm.)—after transferring nearly £257,000 to a contingency account to provide for moratorium interest paid to the Bank of England and retaining£29,ooo undistributed—and£n4,ooo [£2.2m.] in 1920. When acceptances leapt to £15.5m. in 1920, and capital rose to over £5.2m. [£101.4m.], it seemed as if they had quickly re-established their pre-war business and their position as the leading accepting house in a country that would continue to dominate the finance of world trade as it had done prior to 1914.
Bensons and a Complementary Union
Authors: Wake Jehanne
Published: November 2023

The Benson firm of the late1950s was very different from the one that perforce had gone into semi-hibernation on the outbreak of war in 1939. In the first instance, Bensons were no longer just Robert Benson & Co. They had merged with the Lonsdale Investment Trust in July 1947 and altered their name to Robert Benson Lonsdale & Co. in order to reflect the change in the ownership of the firm. In the second instance, they were a much more professionally managed organization than they had been in 1939. Rex’s long-standing plea for a team at the top had been achieved, though the team under his chairmanship was a meritocratic rather than wholly proprietorial one. These two developments had provided Bensons with a broader capital base and stronger management, which in tum gave rise to a substantial growth in new issue business. Here, Bensons moved away from their traditional interest in public utilities to concentrate upon issues for domestic industrial and commercial companies, matching the larger City trend.
A Modem Merchant Bank 1961 –1971
Authors: Wake Jehanne
Published: November 2023

The decade following the merger constituted a dynamic era in the City, reflecting the optimistic mood of a nation again enjoying the heady wine of full employment and improved living conditions. Under Wilson’s Labour government a new age seemed to beckon with the cult of youth, consumerism, and the ‘white heat of technology’, as the country experienced an acute bout of neophilia. The evolution and rapid growth of the Eurodollar market led to the resurgence of London as a leading international financial centre. This in tum stimulated other international banking activities, thereby increasing opportunities for merchant banks. Domestically, with the restructuring of British industry, there was an increase in mergers, acquisitions, and capital raising; while the rapid growth in the funds of institutional investors generated an equally strong demand for investment management services. It was also during the 1960s that merchant banks began to enlarge the range of services they could off earthier clients, as they diversified into leasing, project finance, hire purchase and insurance broking. The City, in short, was on course to resume a level of activity not seen since its pre-1914 heyday.
The Reaper and the Robot: The Adoption of Labour-Saving Machinery in the Past and Future
Authors: David Paul A
Published: November 2023

Sir John Habakkuk, perhaps more than any other single scholar, has been responsible for both the lively attention to and the productive fusion of economics and history that has come to distinguish the study of regional and national patterns in the introduction and diffusion of technological innovations. His seminal essay on the search for labour-saving innovations, American and British Technology in the Nineteenth Century, was offered modestly in 1962 as ‘a foray into the debatable borderland between history, technology and economics’. Sir John believed that the parties exploring this wilderness would from the outset benefit by forming ‘a marriage of history and theory’. One ground for such a union was that the past posed problems that might well interest contemporary economists. This was brilliantly exemplified by his own chosen subject-matter: the sources of the post-Second World War gap between US and British levels of labour productivity in manufacturing was a phenomenon whose historical origins had previously intrigued the wartime Anglo-American Productivity Teams.
Migration and Nationality in Post-war Britain
Authors: Hansen Randall
Published: November 2023

Commenting on the prospect of non-white migration in 1954, Winston Churchill told the Jamaican Governor, Sir Hugh Foot, that Britain ‘would have a magpie society: that would never do.’ When the British Nationality Act of 1981 was passed some twenty-five years after Churchill uttered these words, multiculturalism was indisputably a fact of British political and social life. The United Kingdom began the post-war years with a non-white population of some 30,000 people; it approaches the end of the century with over million, whose origins extend from Africa, the Pacific Rim, the Caribbean, and the Indian Subcontinent. Together with France and Germany, it has among the largest ethnic populations in Europe, and it shares with France the largest ethnic-minority citizenry.
Same Citizenship, Contrasting Rights: The 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act
Authors: Hansen Randall
Published: November 2023

By January 1961, it was clear that the free entry policy’s days were numbered. Efforts to regulate the rate of migration through informal measures appeared to have broken down, the Ministry of Labour continued to press the restrictionist case, and public opposition was growing. The ultimate introduction of controls took over a year, finally being enacted in April 1962. This chapter examines this period, and offers an explanation of both the delay itself and the institutional character of the controls ultimately adopted. The former highlights, for the final time, the importance of Colonial Office opposition to restrictions in facilitating further New Commonwealth migration, while the latter—a point that will be developed at length-was the direct result of the causal influence exercised by BNA 1948.
Introduction
Authors: Boer Bart de
Published: November 2023

Language defines humanity. It is generally agreed that what distinguishes humans from other animals is their intelligence and their ability to talk. Intelligence, however, is often defined in terms oflanguage. The well-known Turing test, designed by Alan Turing (Turing 1950) to decide whether a computer program is intelligent, is based on the computer’s ability to use language. Ethnic identity is also often defined by language. In Tok Pisin, the lingua franca of Papua New Guinea, the word for referring to people of one’s ethnic group is wantok, ‘one talk, meaning the people that speak the same language. The Slavonic peoples refer to the German people as nemec (for example, Russian HeMeQ),’those who cannot speak’. The ancient Greeks called the Persians (and probably all other peoples as well) pappap OL, ‘barbarians: supposedly because all they heard when they heard the Persian language were unintelligible sounds: ‘Barbarbar .. .’. Language is essential for humanity. Human languages are extremely diverse. Today, some 6,000 languages are spoken around the world. Although many of these languages are obviously related to each other, and can be grouped into large language families, such as Indo-European, Tibeto-Burman, or Austronesian, the links between the language families are much more difficult to establish. It is possible to reconstruct relations between languages up to a depth of approximately 8,000 years with currently accepted scientific methods. Beyond this time span, so much information is lost that reconstruction becomes speculative. As Homo sapiens has existed for more than 200,000 years and has been spreading around the world for at least 100,000 years, current linguistic knowledge suggests that many human languages have to be considered as historically unrelated.
Results
Authors: Boer Bart de
Published: November 2023

Running the simulation described in the previous chapter with the right parameter settings did result in natural vowel systems. Shared sets of vowels were obtained, so that imitation was highly successful. The vowel systems that emerged from the simulations were similar to those most frequently found in the languages of the world. However, it is hard to define similarity in the context of these simulations. It is easy to obtain an impressionistic idea of how realistic the agents’ inventories are by making a scatter plot of the agents’ vowels, using the first and effective second formant as coordinates. This is the way the outcomes of the simulations are usually plotted in this book. But the number of vowel clusters that emerge is not fixed, even for given parameter values, and not all agents in the population have exactly the same vowel system. It is therefore very hard to conduct a rigorous statistical analysis of the outcomes of the simulations. This chapter first presents an impression of the behaviour of the simulations. This is followed by two comparisons of the quality and realism of systems that result from different runs of the simulation. First, emerged vowel systems are compared with random ones and explicitly optimized ones, by using different measures of the system. Secondly, the classification of the emerged systems is compared with classifications of human vowel systems.
Introduction
Authors: Deutscher Guy
Published: November 2023

This book is both a study in the history of one particular area of one particular language, and a general investigation of the motivation for language change. The case study traces the development of some subordinate structures in the Babylonian dialect of Akkadian, one of the earliest written languages (c.2500 to 500 bc). The theoretical part of the study tries to interpret aspects of this development as an adaptation to the increased complexity of patterns of communication. The richly attested history of Akkadian provides an opportunity to observe diachronic changes over a period of two thousand years. It also allows us to view syntactic change from both a structural and a functional perspective. This study examines the development of one class of subordinate structures, sentential complements, from these two perspectives. On the one hand, this study describes the emergence of new structures. It examines how finite sentential complements emerged for the first time from adverbial clauses during the historical period. It also describes the emergence of another structure, a quotative construction, through a long process of grammaticalization. On the other hand, this study traces the changes in the functional roles of different existing structures over time. The study thus attempts to describe the diachronic changes in the functional organization of the language system. We shall see that during the history of Akkadian, some structures, such as finite complements, gain in functional load, whereas other structures, such as infinitival complements, recede.
Akkadian
Authors: Deutscher Guy
Published: November 2023

Akkadian is the earliest known Semitic language. It was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia, the ‘land between the rivers’ (the Tigris and the Euphrates), an area which roughly corresponds to today’s Iraq. Akkadian is one of the earliest and longest attested languages, with a history spanning more than two thousand years. The first written attestations of Akkadian are from around 2500 BC, and the language was spoken until around 500 BC, when it was displaced by Aramaic. Nevertheless, texts in Akkadian continued to be written even until the time of Christ. The ancient name of the language, Akkadum, derives from the city of Akkad, founded by King Sargon as his capital around 2300 BC. From the second millennium BC, two distinct dialects of Akkadian emerged, Babylonian and Assyrian. Babylonian was spoken in the southern part of Mesopotamia, an area which was dominated by the city of Babylon (Babili). Assyrian was spoken in the northern part of Mesopotamia, which was likewise dominated by the city of Assur (or Assur).
The Grammaticalization of the Quotative Construction
Authors: Deutscher Guy
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the development of the quotative construction in Babylonian (with enma!umma), which can serve as a ‘model textbook example’ of a process of grammaticalization. The construction started in the earliest period as a whole independent clause, which meant roughly ‘(this is what) X said’. In the following two thousand years, this construction followed a long path of reduction. Slowly but very surely, it underwent all the prototypical changes associated with grammaticalization: the independent clause was gradually reduced in phonetic form, in meaning, and in syntactic independence, to become a quotative marker, and finally to emerge as a general complementizer. The first five sections of this chapter follow the process of grammaticalization of the umma construction from Old Akkadian to Neo-Babylonian. The final section of the chapter explores the cross-linguistic implications of the grammaticalization of umma. The historical development of the umma construction is illuminating because its long attested history offers a stark contrast to most reported instances of the grammaticalization of quotatives, in which the develop-ment has to be reconstructed on the basis of synchronic evidence.22 The history of umma brings to light various intricacies of the grammaticalization process, which are lost when only synchronic evidence is available. The historical perspective also puts in context all the aspects in the behaviour of the construction which may appear irregular and unmotivated from a synchronic perspective.
Tropical Rain Forests
Authors: Whitmore T C
Published: November 2023

This new edition of Whitmore's classic introduction to tropical rain forests has been comprehensively revised and updated, reflecting the changes which have taken place since it was first published in 1990. The sections on human impact have been extended to include a new global assessment of deforestation as well as details of new research on biodiversity and conservation. Discussion of the future of the rain forests and priorities for action is incorporated. The book remains unique in linking rain forest biology and ecology with silviculture, and with concerns over sustainable resource utilization and the future of the tropical rain forests. It includes sections on the diverse animal and plant life forms which are found in the rain forest, and the interconnections between them. Nutrient cycles and forest dynamics are fully explained, with new data on ecophysiology and forest microclimates. The geologic and climatic history of rain forests, and the wide-spread canopy disturbances now understood to have occurred in the past, are explored. Accessibly written, and illustrated throughout with line-drawings and photographs, this is a must for biology and geography students, and anyone else who seeks to know more about the nature and importance of the world's tropical rain forests.
We exist
Authors: Rowan-Robinson Michael
Published: November 2023

There is an extraordinary range of profound implications of this simple fact. Life exists in the universe and has evolved in such a way, here at least, that at the last second of the hour an intelligent species has emerged. Here, now, perhaps only for a fleeting instant, consciousness exists in the universe. This book tries to show what this consciousness and this intelligence have achieved in understanding the universe we humans find ourselves in. Much of this understanding has been gained in the past century, which corresponds to only a hundred millionth of the age of the universe (if we think of the age of the universe as a year, then the past century would correspond to the last one third of a second of that year). If this is the first time that such understanding has been achieved in the universe, then cosmological knowledge is a truly novel phenomenon. For me it is a wonderful moment in which to have existed and worked in the field of cosmology.
An expanding universe
Authors: Rowan-Robinson Michael
Published: November 2023

The observations have disclosed the remarkable fact that in [the galaxies’] spectra there is a displacement towards the red corresponding to a receding velocity increasing with distance, and, so far as the determinations of the distances are reliable, proportional with it. If the velocity is proportional to the distance, then not only the distance of any nebula from us is increasing, but all the mutual distances between any two of them are increasing at the same rate. Our own galaxy system is only one of a great many, and observations made from any of the others would show exactly the same thing: all systems are receding, not from any particular centre, but from each other: the whole system of galaxies is expanding.
A universe of finite age
Authors: Rowan-Robinson Michael
Published: November 2023

The question of whether the universe has existed for ever has exercised the minds of scientists and philosophers from the earliest times. It is also the subject of myth and speculation in almost all cultures and religions. In Western Judeo-Christian culture we have the dominant myth of a Creation, which occurred at some particular moment of time, as recorded by the nomadic authors of ‘Genesis’ some time in the second millennium BC. For modern cosmologists the age of the universe is a purely scientific question and we have a range of techniques to estimate this age, which constitutes the fourth of the nine numbers of the cosmos. In the simplest cosmological models derived from Einstein’s general theory of relativity, the age of the universe depends only on the Hubble constant and the density of the universe. From the time of Hubble to the present there have been worries that estimated values of the age of the universe, the Hubble constant, and the density of the universe are inconsistent with these simple cosmological models.
Cold dark matter
Authors: Rowan-Robinson Michael
Published: November 2023

The processes by which stars and planetary systems form from interstellar gas clouds, and by which galaxies form from protogalactic gas clouds, are among the most intractable in modern physics. We know a great deal about general relativity, black holes, particle physics, the evolution of the universe. But the details of how stars and galaxies form remain, literally, hidden from view. We shall see that one of the key ingredients to explain the formation of galaxies is a new form of matter, cold dark matter. Our sixth cosmic number is the average density of cold dark matter in the universe.