bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
New Ecology and the Social Sciences: What Prospects for a Fruitful Engagement?
Authors: Scoones I.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review asks the question: What new avenues of social science enquiry are suggested by new ecological thinking, with its focus on nonequilibrium dynamics, spatial and temporal variation, complexity, and uncertainty? Following a review of the emergence of the “new ecology” and the highlighting of contrasts with earlier “balance of nature” perspectives, work emerging from ecological anthropology, political ecology, environmental and ecological economics, and debates about nature and culture are examined. With some important exceptions, much social science work and associated popular and policy debates remain firmly wedded to a static and equilibrial view. This review turns to three areas where a more dynamic perspective has emerged. Each has the potential to take central elements of new ecological thinking seriously, sometimes with major practical consequences for planning, intervention design, and management. First is the concern with spatial and temporal dynamics developed in detailed and situated analyses of “people in places,” using, in particular, historical analysis as a way of explaining environmental change across time and space. Second is the growing understanding of environment as both the product of and the setting for human interactions, which link dynamic structural analyses of environmental processes with an appreciation of human agency in environmental transformation, as part of a “structuration” approach. Third is the appreciation of complexity and uncertainty in social-ecological systems and, with this, the recognition of that prediction, management, and control are unlikely, if not impossible.
The Human Adaptation for Culture
Authors: Tomasello Michael
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Human beings are biologically adapted for culture in ways that other primates are not, as evidenced most clearly by the fact that only human cultural traditions accumulate modifications over historical time (the ratchet effect). The key adaptation is one that enables individuals to understand other individuals as intentional agents like the self. This species-unique form of social cognition emerges in human ontogeny at approximately 1 year of age, as infants begin to engage with other persons in various kinds of joint attentional activities involving gaze following, social referencing, and gestural communication. Young children's joint attentional skills then engender some uniquely powerful forms of cultural learning, enabling the acquisition of language, discourse skills, tool-use practices, and other conventional activities. These novel forms of cultural learning allow human beings to, in effect, pool their cognitive resources both contemporaneously and over historical time in ways that are unique in the animal kingdom.
The Anthropology of Public Policy: Shifting Terrains
Authors: Okongwu Anne Francis , Mencher Joan P.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  As we enter the twenty-first century, the terrain on which social policy is made is changing rapidly. This has resulted in anthropologists, in combination with other social scientists, giving serious attention to the impact of this new phase of globalization on changes in social and environmental policies. This review focuses on the ways in which anthropology as a field has contributed, and continues to contribute, to social policy research, practice, and advocacy in the current international context. Given the limited space allotted, we have selected the following six arenas of public policy for analysis and description: (a) links between globalization processes and policy on the national and local levels; (b) social welfare policy, including employment and family welfare survival strategies; (c) the impact of structural adjustment and economic restructuring on migration and labor force incorporation; (d) policies in the north and south related to global agriculture, social inequality, and the manipulations of some multinational corporations; (e) policies affecting sustainable agriculture; and (f) the role of anthropologists in examining the impact of political and economic hegemony on the environment.
Gay and Lesbian Language
Authors: Kulick Don
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The past two decades have witnessed a minor explosion in publications dealing with the ways in which gay men and lesbians use language. In fact, though, work on the topic has been appearing in several disciplines (philology, linguistics, women's studies, anthropology, and speech communication) since the 1940s. This review charts the history of research on “gay and lesbian language,” detailing earlier concerns and showing how work of the 1980s and 1990s both grows out of and differs from previous scholarship. Through a critical analysis of key assumptions that guide research, this review argues that gay and lesbian language does not and cannot exist in the way it is widely imagined to do. The review concludes with the suggestion that scholars abandon the search for gay and lesbian language and move on to develop and refine concepts that permit the study of language and sexuality, and language and desire.
“Family Values” and Domestic Economies
Authors: Creed Gerald W.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review inverts the idiom “family values” to show the value of the family. It grounds this value in family economic activity but advocates an interactive approach in which cultural commitments to the family influence economic and political outcomes. Historical and ethnographic research on the family is mustered to illustrate the interaction and then combined with theories of capitalism and nationalism to account for the resonance of the family values discourse. A final section reviews the potential dangers of family-focused research.

That tradesman who does not delight in his family will never long delight in his business. D. Defoe
Sexuality, Culture, and Power in HIV/AIDS Research
Authors: Parker Richard
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This article examines the development of anthropological research in response to AIDS. During the first decade of the epidemic, most social science research focused on the behavioral correlates of HIV infection among individuals and failed to examine broader social and cultural factors. By the late 1980s, however, pioneering work by anthropologists began to raise the importance of cultural systems in shaping sexual practices relevant to HIV transmission and prevention. Since the start of the 1990s, this emphasis on cultural analysis has taken shape alongside a growing anthropological research focus on structural factors shaping vulnerability to HIV infection. Work on social inequality and the political economy of HIV and AIDS has been especially important. Much current research seeks to integrate both cultural and structural concerns in providing an alternative to more individualistic behavioral research paradigms.
THE SYNTHESIS OF THE STARCH GRANULE
Authors: Smith A. M. , Denyer K. , Martin C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review describes and discusses the implications of recent discoveries about how starch polymers are synthesized and organized to form a starch granule. Three issues are highlighted. 1. The role and importance of ADPglucose pyrophosphorylase in the generation of ADPglucose as the substrate for polymer synthesis. 2. The contributions of isoforms of starch-branching enzyme, starch synthase, and debranching enzyme to the synthesis and ordered packing of amylopectin molecules. 3. The requirements for and regulation of the synthesis of amylose.
TYPE Ia SUPERNOVAE AND THE HUBBLE CONSTANT
Authors: Branch David
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The focus of this review is the work that has been done during the 1990s on using Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia) to measure the Hubble constant (H0). SNe Ia are well suited for measuring H0. A straightforward maximum-light color criterion can weed out the minority of observed events that are either intrinsically subluminous or substantially extinguished by dust, leaving a majority subsample that has observational absolute-magnitude dispersions of less than σobs (MB) ≃ σobs (MV) ≃ 0.3 mag. Correlations between absolute magnitude and one or more distance-independent SN Ia or parent-galaxy observables can be used to further standardize the absolute magnitudes to better than 0.2 mag. The absolute magnitudes can be calibrated in two independent ways: empirically, using Cepheid-based distances to parent galaxies of SNe Ia, and physically, by light curve and spectrum fitting. At present the empirical and physical calibrations are in agreement at MB ≃ MV ≃ −19.4 or −19.5. Various ways that have been used to match Cepheid-calibrated SNe Ia or physical models to SNe Ia that have been observed out in the Hubble flow have given values of H0 distributed throughout the range of 54–67 km s−1 Mpc−1. Astronomers who want a consensus value of H0 from SNe Ia with conservative errors could, for now, use 60 ± 10 km s−1 Mpc−1.
Cryptochrome: The Second Photoactive Pigment in the Eye and Its Role in Circadian Photoreception
Authors: Sancar Aziz
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Circadian rhythms are oscillations in the biochemical, physiological, and behavioral functions of organisms that occur with a periodicity of approximately 24 h. They are generated by a molecular clock that is synchronized with the solar day by environmental photic input. The cryptochromes are the mammalian circadian photoreceptors. They absorb light and transmit the electromagnetic signal to the molecular clock using a pterin and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as chromophore/cofactors, and are evolutionarily conserved and structurally related to the DNA repair enzyme photolyase. Humans and mice have two cryptochrome genes, CRY1 and CRY2, that are differentially expressed in the retina relative to the opsin-based visual photoreceptors. CRY1 is highly expressed with circadian periodicity in the mammalian circadian pacemaker, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Mutant mice lacking either Cry1 or Cry2 have impaired light induction of the clock gene mPer1 and have abnormally short or long intrinsic periods, respectively. The double mutant has normal vision but is defective in mPer1 induction by light and lacks molecular and behavioral rhythmicity in constant darkness. Thus, cryptochromes are photoreceptors and central components of the molecular clock. Genetic evidence also shows that cryptochromes are circadian photoreceptors in Drosophila and Arabidopsis, raising the possibility that they may be universal circadian photoreceptors. Research on cryptochromes may provide new understanding of human diseases such as seasonal affective disorder and delayed sleep phase syndrome.
Helical Membrane Protein Folding, Stability, and Evolution
Authors: Popot Jean-Luc , Engelman Donald M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Helical membrane protein folding and oligomerization can be usefully conceptualized as involving two energetically distinct stages—the formation and subsequent side-to-side association of independently stable transbilayer helices. The interactions of helices with the bilayer, with prosthetic groups, and with each other are examined in the context of recent evidence. We conclude that the two-stage concept remains useful as an approach to simplifying discussions of stability, as a framework for folding concepts, and as a basis for understanding membrane protein evolution.
Chaperonin-Mediated Protein Folding
Authors: Thirumalai D. , Lorimer George H.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Molecular chaperones are required to assist folding of a subset of proteins in Escherichia coli. We describe a conceptual framework for understanding how the GroEL-GroES system assists misfolded proteins to reach their native states. The architecture of GroEL consists of double toroids stacked back-to-back. However, most of the fundamentals of the GroEL action can be described in terms of the single ring. A key idea in our framework is that, with coordinated ATP hydrolysis and GroES binding, GroEL participates actively by repeatedly unfolding the substrate protein (SP), provided that it is trapped in one of the misfolded states. We conjecture that the unfolding of SP becomes possible because a stretching force is transmitted to the SP when the GroEL particle undergoes allosteric transitions. Force-induced unfolding of the SP puts it on a higher free-energy point in the multidimensional energy landscape from which the SP can either reach the native conformation with some probability or be trapped in one of the competing basins of attraction (i.e., the SP undergoes kinetic partitioning). The model shows, in a natural way, that the time scales in the dynamics of the allosteric transitions are intimately coupled to folding rates of the SP. Several scenarios for chaperonin-assisted folding emerge depending on the interplay of the time scales governing the cycle. Further refinement of this framework may be necessary because single molecule experiments indicate that there is a great dispersion in the time scales governing the dynamics of the chaperonin cycle.
CHONDRULES
Authors: Hewins Roger H.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Chondrules are ∼1-mm igneous droplets in primitive meteorites, and their abundance suggests widespread melting in the protoplanetary disk. Chondrules with relict unmelted grains or igneous rims record multi111ple melting events. There are two main types of chondrules, type I (FeO-poor and volatile-poor) and type II [FeO-rich and approximately chondritic (solar) in composition]. Type I chondrules in the unmetamorphosed chondrite Semarkona show evidence of evaporative loss with regard to the moderately volatile elements. Loss of S produces much of the FeNi metal in chondrules. Though the finest grained type I and II chondrules in Semarkona are both approximately chondritic in bulk composition, they differ in FeO content of olivine, indicating different precursors. Simulations suggest temperatures of chondrule formation of 1550–1900°C, with short (<1 min) heating times. Short-lived isotopes suggest that chondrules formed relatively late, and nebular shock waves are the current favorite heating mechanism. As chondrules were transported to the midplane more easily than fine dust or fluffy aggregates, they were probably important components in building planets.
Asteroid Fragmentation and Evolution of Asteroids
Authors: Ryan Eileen V.
Published: July 2002

To understand the complex collisional history of asteroids and explain their observed characteristics, it is necessary to be able to describe the fundamental physics of large-scale impact events. Because data collected on collisional outcomes is derived from small-scale laboratory experiments, success at describing asteroid evolution hinges sensitively on methods devised to “scale” this data to the appropriate size ranges. The recent use of numerical modeling to study collisional fragmentation is a valuable asset for calculating important impact parameters: energies required for catastrophic fragmentation, and resulting fragment size and velocity distributions. The current size distribution of main belt asteroids provides an important constraint of model predictions, as do comparisons of numerical impact calculations to asteroid families. Agreement between theory and observations is reasonable, but improvements in collision simulations are required for the modeling of more realistic asteroid shapes and structures.
EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF RESOURCE POLYMORPHISMS IN FISHES, AMPHIBIANS, AND BIRDS
Authors: Smith Thomas B. , Skúlason Skúli
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Resource polymorphism in vertebrates is generally underappreciated as a diversifying force and is probably more common than is currently recognized. Research across diverse taxa suggest they may play important roles in population divergence and speciation. They may involve various kinds of traits, including morphological and behavioral traits and those related to life history. Many of the evolutionary, ecological, and genetic mechanisms producing and maintaining resource polymorphisms are similar among phylogenetically distinct species. Although further studies are needed, the genetic basis may be simple, in some cases under the control of a single locus, with phenotypic plasticity playing a proximate role in some taxa. Divergent selection including either directional, disruptive, or frequency-dependent selection is important in their evolution. Generally, the invasion of “open” niches or underutilized resources requiring unique trophic characters and decreased interspecific competition have promoted the evolution of resource polymorphisms. Further investigations centered on their role in speciation, especially adaptive radiation, are likely to be fruitful.
The Evolution of Morphological Diversity
Authors: Foote Mike
Published: July 2002

The diversity of organismic form has evolved nonuniformly during the history of life. Quantitative morphological studies reveal profound changes in evolutionary rates corresponding with the generation of morphological disparity at low taxonomic diversity during the early radiation of many clades. These studies have also given insight into the relative importance of genomic and ecological factors in macroevolution, the selectivity of extinction, and other issues. Important progress has been made in the development of morphological spaces that can accommodate highly disparate forms, although this area still needs more attention. Other future directions include the relationship between morphological and ecological diversification, geographic patterns in morphological diversity, and the role of morphological disparity as a causal factor in macroevolution.
Phylogeny Estimation and Hypothesis Testing Using Maximum Likelihood
Authors: Huelsenbeck John P. , Crandall Keith A.
Published: July 2002

One of the strengths of the maximum likelihood method of phylogenetic estimation is the ease with which hypotheses can be formulated and tested. Maximum likelihood analysis of DNA and amino acid sequence data has been made practical with recent advances in models of DNA substitution, computer programs, and computational speed. Here, we describe the maximum likelihood method and the recent improvements in models of substitution. We also describe how likelihood ratio tests of a variety of biological hypotheses can be formulated and tested using computer simulation to generate the null distribution of the likelihood ratio test statistic.
Full of Sound and Fury: History of Ancient DNA
Authors: Wayne Robert K. , Leonard Jennifer A. , Cooper Alan
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The discovery that DNA survives in ancient remains and can be amplified by the polymerase chain reaction has added a direct temporal dimension to evolutionary studies. Initial reports suggested that the time period open to investigation was vast, extending back into the Cretaceous period. However, attempts to replicate of results involving DNA purported to be over a million years old have not succeeded. Theoretical studies suggest that DNA is unlikely to survive intact more than about 100,000 years. However, even over this time period, the evolutionary questions that can be addressed are far reaching and include systematics, paleoecology, the origin of diseases, and evolutionary processes at the population level.
African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology
Authors: Kornfield Irv , Smith Peter F.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Cichlid fishes (Perciformes: Teleostei) found in the lakes of Africa have served as model systems for the study of evolution. The enormous number of species (1000 in Lake Malawi alone), the great diversity of trophic adaptations and behaviors, and the extreme rapidity of their divergence (<50,000 y for some faunas) single out these organisms as examples of evolution in progress. Because these fishes are confined to discrete lacustrine environments and their origination is bounded by geological features, these groups provide models with which to study evolution. We review theoretical studies and empirical research on the cichlid faunas of Africa to provide a synthetic overview of current knowledge of the evolutionary processes at work in this group. This view provides the critical information needed to formulate and test hypotheses that may permit discrimination among the diverse theories and models that have been advanced to explain the evolution of these fishes.
Streams in the Urban Landscape
Authors: Paul Michael J. , Meyer Judy L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The world's population is concentrated in urban areas. This change in demography has brought landscape transformations that have a number of documented effects on stream ecosystems. The most consistent and pervasive effect is an increase in impervious surface cover within urban catchments, which alters the hydrology and geomorphology of streams. This results in predictable changes in stream habitat. In addition to imperviousness, runoff from urbanized surfaces as well as municipal and industrial discharges result in increased loading of nutrients, metals, pesticides, and other contaminants to streams. These changes result in consistent declines in the richness of algal, invertebrate, and fish communities in urban streams. Although understudied in urban streams, ecosystem processes are also affected by urbanization. Urban streams represent opportunities for ecologists interested in studying disturbance and contributing to more effective landscape management.
A REVIEW OFNATIONALEMISSIONSINVENTORIES FROMSELECTNON-ANNEXI COUNTRIES: Implications for Counting Sources and Sinks of Carbon
Authors: Houghton R. A. , Ramakrishna Kilaparti
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  A total of 176 countries have ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, thereby agreeing to limit emissions of greenhouse gases that threaten to interfere with the Earth's climate. While compliance procedures are being developed, the best indicators of implementation of the Convention are the emissions inventories of greenhouse gases that member countries must submit to the Convention as part of their national communications. We review some of the first emissions inventories from non–Annex I (developing) countries. We focus on land-use change and forestry because these activities are responsible for the major emissions of carbon in many non-Annex I parties, and because they are the only activities with the potential to remove carbon from the atmosphere and sequester it on land. The review shows first, that some developing countries have already begun to reduce emissions and second, that there are significant discrepancies between the data used in the emissions inventories and the data available in international surveys. Conceptual uncertainties also exist, such as distinguishing anthropogenic from nonanthropogenic sinks of carbon, and these will require political rather than scientific resolution. We discuss several options for counting terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon in light of the Kyoto Protocol.
ENGINEERING-ECONOMICANALYSES OFAUTOMOTIVE FUELECONOMYPOTENTIAL IN THEUNITEDSTATES
Authors: Greene David L. , DeCicco John
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Over the past 25 years more than 20 major studies have examined the technological potential to improve the fuel economy of passenger cars and light trucks in the United States. The majority have used technology/cost analysis, a combination of analytical methods from the disciplines of economics and automotive engineering. In this review we describe the key elements of this methodology, discuss critical issues responsible for the often widely divergent estimates produced by different studies, review the history of this methodology's use, and present results from six recent assessments. Whereas early studies tended to confine their scope to the potential of proven technology over a 10-year time period, more recent studies have focused on advanced technologies, raising questions about how best to include the likelihood of technological change. The review concludes with recommendations for further research.
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN CHINESE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS: Progress and Opportunities in Design and Policy
Authors: Glicksman Leon R. , Norford Leslie K. , Greden Lara V.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Energy conservation in Chinese residential buildings merits attention in part due to China's large population, increased standard of living, and high volume of construction. This paper focuses on three major themes: issues exerting an upward pressure on residential energy use, policy for promoting energy conservation, and technical opportunities to decrease energy use and increase comfort. An increase in total floor area, increasing electric appliance ownership, and an increase in demand for heating and cooling characterize the residential sector. Space heating remains the dominant energy end-use. Relatively new buildings in cold regions of China, while a marked improvement over earlier construction, still suffer from inadequate insulation, leaky windows, and lack of attention to construction quality. Energy-conservation standards have addressed these issues in part, but further effort is needed to ensure code compliance. A survey of prospective homeowners shows that energy-efficient housing would best be promoted by marketing the combined benefits of natural lighting and ventilation, better quality, and savings in heating and air-conditioning energy costs, rather than only promoting a dwelling as “environmentally friendly” or offering reduced heating bills. Reviewed technologies concentrate on reductions in heating and cooling energy through improved site layout, building design, building envelope materials, ventilation, and alternative cooling equipment.
BEHAVIORAL MANIPULATION METHODS FOR INSECT PEST-MANAGEMENT
Authors: Foster and S. P. , Harris M. O.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  We discuss methods using stimuli to manipulate behavior of a pest for the purpose of protecting a valued resource. The methods are divided into two categories: those that manipulate behavior over a long distance, e.g. volatile chemicals, visual, and auditory stimuli, and those that manipulate behavior at a short distance (>1 cm), e.g. involatile chemicals. Particular emphasis is placed on methods that have been developed through studies of pest behavior and on combining stimuli to increase efficacy. Future prospects for behavioral manipulation methods in pest management are discussed.
SYSTEMATICS OF MOSQUITO DISEASE VECTORS (DIPTERA, CULICIDAE):Impact of Molecular Biology and Cladistic Analysis
Authors: Munstermann Leonard E. , Conn Jan E.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The field of medical entomology, by nature of its association with problems of human health, has been conservative in its application of molecular and computer technologies to systematic research. Recently, however, these methods have opened new interpretations for systematics of disease vectors. Medically important insects, particularly mosquitoes, are among those more thoroughly described by conventional taxonomy, and thereby provide a secure framework for testing congruencies with molecular data. In turn, molecular investigations have provided a stimulus to vector systematics in the discovery and delineation of cryptic species complexes, as well as providing new perspectives on relationships at higher taxonomic divisions. In this review, examples involving cladistic analysis, cytogenetics—in situ hybridization, isoenzymes, DNA sequencing, and restriction fragment polymorphism are drawn from the following taxa: Aedes communis; Aedes (Ochlerotatus) group G; Aedes (Stegomyia) species including A. aegypti, A. albopictus, and A. scutellaris group; Anopheles albitarsis, Anopheles dirus, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles nuneztovari, Anopheles pseudopunctipennis, and Anopheles punctulatus groups; Culex pipiens and the Culex subgenus Melanoconion; and the tribe Sabethini.
Plasticity in Life-History Traits
Authors: Nylin S. , Gotthard K.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  We describe the impact of recent life-history plasticity theory on insect studies, particularly on the interface between genetics and plasticity. We focus on the three-dimensional relationship between three key life-history traits: adult size (or mass), development time and growth rate, and the connections to life cycle regulation, host plant choice, and sexual selection in seasonal environments. The review covers fitness consequences of variation in size, development time and growth rate, and effects of sex, photoperiod, temperature, diet, and perceived mortality risk on these traits. We give special attention to evidence for adaptive plasticity in growth rates because of the important effects of such plasticity on the expected relationships between development time and adult size and, hence, on the use of life-history, fitness, and optimality approaches in ecology, as well as in genetics.
PATHOGENS AND PREDATORS OF TICKS AND THEIR POTENTIAL IN BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Authors: Samish M. , Rehacek J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review summarizes the literature about pathogens and predators of ticks and their potential use as biocontrol agents published since the beginning of this century. In nature, many bacteria, fungi, spiders, ants, beetles, rodents, birds, and other living things contribute significantly toward limiting tick populations, as do, for instance, the grooming activities of hosts. Experiments with the most promising potential tick biocontrol agents—especially fungi of the genera Beauveria and Metarhizium and nematodes in the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, as well as oxpeckers—are described.
INSECTS AS FOOD: Why the Western Attitude Is Important
Authors: DeFoliart Gene R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The traditional use of insects as food continues to be widespread in tropical and subtropical countries and to provide significant nutritional, economic and ecological benefits for rural communities. Westerners should become more aware of the fact that their bias against insects as food has an adverse impact, resulting in a gradual reduction in the use of insects without replacement of lost nutrition and other benefits.
ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES OF EDAPHIC ARTHROPODS
Authors: Villani M. G. , Allee L. L. , Díaz A. , Robbins P. S.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  For those arthropod species adapted for living below the soil surface, the soil is a refuge from the biotic and abiotic perturbations existing above ground. Convergent morphological, physiological, and behavioral adaptations of epedaphic, euedaphic, and hemiedaphic arthropods to selective aspects of subterranean existence are examined in light of overlapping ecological niches. The abiotic impact of the soil environment and its relationship to arthropod evolution, radiation, and ecology are discussed as well. Specific areas addressed include the invasion of land by marine arthropods, the impact of morphology on arthropod mobility, osmoregulatory/respiratory systems, and defensive strategies.
BIOLOGY ANDMANAGEMENT OFGRAPEPHYLLOXERA
Authors: Granett Jeffrey , Walker M. Andrew , Kocsis Laszlo , Omer Amir D.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Homoptera: Phylloxeridae), is a worldwide pest of grapevines. Its life cycle has sexual and asexual portions with forms that feed from leaf and root galls. Not all forms occur throughout the insect's range. Root forms predominate on Vitis vinifera cultivars; leaf forms predominate on other Vitis species characteristic of the American native range. Other conditions influence expression of the life cycle. Hosts and conditions similarly affect life table performance. Damage to grapevines is by secondary soilborne pathogens attacking the feeding site and by physiological interaction of the insect with the grapevine, though the latter has not been well studied. Resistant rootstocks derived from native American Vitis are the primary control tool. The insect varies genetically and relative to performance on hosts. Use of insecticides is limited in effect, and other control methods are not proven. More research on the biology, ecology, and management of phylloxera is needed.
Biology and Management of the Japanese Beetle
Authors: Potter Daniel A. , Held David W.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, an introduced scarab, has become the most widespread and destructive insect pest of turf, landscapes, and nursery crops in the eastern United States. It also damages many fruit, garden, and field crops. This review emphasizes recent research on the beetle's biology and management. Adults feed on leaves, flowers, or fruits of more than 300 plant species. Adaptations mediating their host finding, dietary range, mating, and oviposition are discussed. We also address abiotic and biotic factors affecting population dynamics of the root-feeding larvae. Japanese beetle grubs are widely controlled with preventive soil insecticides, but options for remedial control of adults and larvae presently are limited. Advances in understanding host plant resistance, entomopathogens, and other biorational approaches may provide more options for integrated management. Despite ongoing regulatory efforts, the Japanese beetle remains a threat as an invasive species.
Capillary Effects on Surface Waves
Authors: Perlin Marc , Schultz William W.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  We concentrate on the rich effects that surface tension has on free and forced surface waves for linear, nonlinear, and especially strongly nonlinear waves close to or at breaking or their limiting form. These effects are discussed in the context of standing gravity and gravity-capillary waves, Faraday waves, and parasitic capillary waves. Focus is primarily on post-1989 research. Regarding standing waves, new waveforms and the large effect that small capillarity can have are considered. Faraday waves are discussed principally with regard to viscous effects, hysteresis, and limit cycles; nonlinear waveforms of low mode numbers; contact-line effects and surfactants; breaking and subharmonics; and drop ejection. Pattern formation and chaotic and nonlinear dynamics of Faraday waves are mentioned only briefly. Gravity and gravity-capillary wave generation of parasitic capillaries and dissipation are considered at length. We conclude with our view on the direction of future research in these areas.
Genetics and the Fitness of Hybrids
Authors: Burke John M. , Arnold Michael L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Over the years, the evolutionary importance of natural hybridization has been a contentious issue. At one extreme is the relatively common view of hybridization as an evolutionarily unimportant process. A less common perspective, but one that has gained support over the past decade, is that of hybridization as a relatively widespread and potentially creative evolutionary process. Indeed, studies documenting the production of hybrid genotypes exhibiting a wide range of fitnesses have become increasingly common. In this review, we examine the genetic basis of such variation in hybrid fitness. In particular, we assess the genetic architecture of hybrid inferiority (both sterility and inviability). We then extend our discussion to the genetic basis of increased fitness in certain hybrid genotypes. The available evidence argues that hybrid inferiority is the result of widespread negative epistasis in a hybrid genetic background. In contrast, increased hybrid fitness can be most readily explained through the segregation of additive genetic factors, with epistasis playing a more limited role.
Iron Metabolism: Iron Deficiency and Iron Overload
Authors: Andrews Nancy C.
Published: July 2002

Iron is an essential cofactor in a variety of cellular processes. Except for a few unusual bacterial species, iron is indispensable for living organisms. However, free iron is toxic because of its propensity to induce the formation of dangerous free radicals. Consequently, iron balance is tightly regulated. Disorders of iron homeostasis are among the most common afflictions of humans. This review discusses inherited iron deficiency and iron overload disorders and recent insights into their pathophysiology.
Pharmacogenomics: The Inherited Basis for Interindividual Differences in Drug Response
Authors: Evans William E. , Johnson Julie A.
Published: July 2002

It is well recognized that most medications exhibit wide interpatient variability in their efficacy and toxicity. For many medications, these interindividual differences are due in part to polymorphisms in genes encoding drug metabolizing enzymes, drug transporters, and/or drug targets (e.g., receptors, enzymes). Pharmacogenomics is a burgeoning field aimed at elucidating the genetic basis for differences in drug efficacy and toxicity, and it uses genome-wide approaches to identify the network of genes that govern an individual's response to drug therapy. For some genetic polymorphisms (e.g., thiopurine S-methyltransferase), monogenic traits have a marked effect on pharmacokinetics (e.g., drug metabolism), such that individuals who inherit an enzyme deficiency must be treated with markedly different doses of the affected medications (e.g., 5%–10% of the standard thiopurine dose). Likewise, polymorphisms in drug targets (e.g., beta adrenergic receptor) can alter the sensitivity of patients to treatment (e.g., beta-agonists), changing the pharmacodynamics of drug response. Recognizing that most drug effects are determined by the interplay of several gene products that govern the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of medications, pharmacogenomics research aims to elucidate these polygenic determinants of drug effects. The ultimate goal is to provide new strategies for optimizing drug therapy based on each patient's genetic determinants of drug efficacy and toxicity. This chapter provides an overview of the current pharmacogenomics literature and offers insights for the potential impact of this field on the safe and effective use of medications.
THE CD1 SYSTEM: Antigen-Presenting Molecules for T Cell Recognition of Lipids and Glycolipids
Authors: Porcelli Steven A. , Modlin Robert L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Recent studies have identified the CD1 family of proteins as novel antigen-presenting molecules encoded by genes located outside of the major histocompatibility complex. CD1 proteins are conserved in all mammalian species so far examined and are prominently expressed on cells involved in antigen presentation, which suggests a role in activation of cell-mediated immunity. This has now been confirmed by functional studies demonstrating the ability of CD1 proteins to restrict the antigen-specific responses of T cells in humans and mice. Identification of naturally occurring antigens presented by CD1 has revealed the surprising finding that these are predominantly a variety of foreign lipids and glycolipids, including several found prominently in the cell walls and membranes of pathogenic mycobacteria. Structural, biochemical, and biophysical studies support the view that CD1 proteins bind the hydrophobic alkyl portions of these antigens directly and position the polar or hydrophilic head groups of bound lipids and glycolipids for highly specific interactions with T cell antigen receptors. Presentation of antigens by CD1 proteins requires uptake and intracellular processing by antigen presenting cells, and evidence exists for cellular pathways leading to the presentation of both exogenous and endogenous lipid antigens. T cells recognizing antigens presented by CD1 have a range of functional activities that suggest they are likely to mediate an important component of antimicrobial immunity and may also contribute to autoimmunity and host responses against neoplastic cells.
In Vivo Activation of Antigen-Specific CD4 T Cells
Authors: Jenkins Marc K. , Khoruts Alexander , Ingulli Elizabeth , Mueller Daniel L. , McSorley Stephen J. , Reinhardt R. Lee , Itano Andrea , Pape Kathryn A.
Published: July 2002

Physical detection of antigen-specific CD4 T cells has revealed features of the in vivo immune response that were not appreciated from in vitro studies. In vivo, antigen is initially presented to naïve CD4 T cells exclusively by dendritic cells within the T cell areas of secondary lymphoid tissues. Anatomic constraints make it likely that these dendritic cells acquire the antigen at the site where it enters the body. Inflammation enhances in vivo T cell activation by stimulating dendritic cells to migrate to the T cell areas and display stable peptide-MHC complexes and costimulatory ligands. Once stimulated by a dendritic cell, antigen-specific CD4 T cells produce IL-2 but proliferate in an IL-2–independent fashion. Inflammatory signals induce chemokine receptors on activated T cells that direct their migration into the B cell areas to interact with antigen-specific B cells. Most of the activated T cells then die within the lymphoid tissues. However, in the presence of inflammation, a population of memory T cells survives. This population is composed of two functional classes. One recirculates through nonlymphoid tissues and is capable of immediate effector lymphokine production. The other recirculates through lymph nodes and quickly acquires the capacity to produce effector lymphokines if stimulated. Therefore, antigenic stimulation in the presence of inflammation produces an increased number of specific T cells capable of producing effector lymphokines throughout the body.
BISTABLE CHOLESTERIC REFLECTIVE DISPLAYS: Materials and Drive Schemes
Authors: Yang Deng-Ke , Huang Xiao-Yang , Zhu Yang-Ming
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Cholesteric liquid crystals possess a helical structure and exhibit two stable states at zero field: the planar texture and the focal conic texture. In the planar texture, they reflect circularly polarized light, whereas in the focal conic texture, they scatter light in forward directions. They can be switched from the planar texture to the focal conic texture by a low-voltage pulse and switched from the focal conic texture to the planar texture by a high-voltage pulse. The wavelength of the reflected light is easily adjusted by varying the pitch of cholesteric liquid crystals. They can be used to make reflective displays that do not need a back light and have a good readability under room-light conditions. We first review the optical properties of bistable cholesteric reflective displays and discuss the techniques used to achieve high contrast and large viewing angle. We then discuss the transitions among the cholesteric textures and the drive schemes used to address bistable cholesteric reflective displays.
The Properties of Ferroelectric Films at Small Dimensions
Authors: Shaw T. M. , Trolier-McKinstry S. , McIntyre P. C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This paper reviews the literature on size effects in ferroelectric materials, with an emphasis on thin film perovskite ferroelectrics. The roles of boundary conditions, defect chemistry, electrode interfaces, surface layers, and microstructure in controlling the measured properties of ferroelectric films, as well as the observed deviation from bulk properties are discussed. Examples of the manifestation of size effects in terms of the low and high field dielectric properties, the piezoelectric effect, and the leakage behavior of films are given.
PARANEOPLASTIC SYNDROMES AFFECTING THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Authors: Posner, MD Jerome B. , Dalmau, MD, PhD Josep O.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Paraneoplastic syndromes affecting the nervous system are rare neurologic syndromes caused by cancer but not ascribable to metastases. Any portion of the nervous system may be involved in a paraneoplastic syndrome. The pathogenesis of these disorders appears to be an immune reaction against antigens shared by the cancer and the nervous system. Some disorders, such as the Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, are effectively treated by removal of autoantibodies directed against the presynaptic cholinergic synapse. In other disorders, such as paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration or paraneoplastic sensory neuronopathy, neither removal of the autoantibody nor treatment of the cancer is effective.
TREATMENT OF TEMPORAL LOBE EPILEPSY
Authors: Ojemann, MD George A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Initial management of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy is with antiepileptic drugs, but these control seizures in only half the patients. Patients refractory to drugs should be evaluated for resective surgery. That evaluation requires identification of a focus of onset of seizures, as well as establishing that the focus is in an area of the brain that can be removed with a low risk of new neurologic deficits. Techniques used in that evaluation, including electroencephalography, imaging, recording from intracranial electrodes, use of the intracarotid amobarbitol perfusion test, and the role of specialized studies such as positron emission tomography, are reviewed, along with the correlation of the findings on that evaluation to the control of seizures after surgery. The different surgical techniques for temporal lobe resections are also reviewed, along with the risks of surgery, particularly to recent memory, and the changes in quality of life following surgery.
Atherogenic Lipids and Endothelial Dysfunction: Mechanisms in the Genesis of Ischemic Syndromes
Authors: Adams Mark R. , Kinlay Scott , Blake Gavin J. , Orford James L. , Ganz Peter , Selwyn Andrew P.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Atherogenic lipids, particularly oxidized low-density lipoprotein, are responsible for a wide range of cellular dysfunctions within the vessel wall. The effects on endothelial cells disrupt normal control of vasomotion, with a reduction of effective nitric oxide activity, the development of a procoagulant surface, chronic low-grade inflammation, and abnormal cell growth. These changes are central not only in the development of atherosclerosis but also in the evolution of both stable and unstable ischemic syndromes. There is growing evidence that these abnormal changes in cell function respond rapidly to changes in the atherogenic lipids. Certain cell functions can improve within hours or days of cholesterol lowering.
MECHANISMS OF ADHESION BY ORAL BACTERIA
Authors: Whittaker Catherine J. , Klier Christiane M. , Kolenbrander Paul E.
Published: July 2002

Adherence to a surface is a key element for colonization of the human oral cavity by the more than 500 bacterial taxa recorded from oral samples. Three surfaces are available: teeth, epithelial mucosa, and the nascent surface created as each new bacterial cell binds to existing dental plaque. Oral bacteria exhibit specificity for their respective colonization sites. Such specificity is directed by adhesin-receptor cognate pairs on genetically distinct cells. Colonization is successful when adherent cells grow and metabolically participate in the oral bacterial community. The potential roles of adherence-relevant molecules are discussed in the context of the dynamic nature of the oral econiche.