bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rethinking the Regular Education Initiative
Authors: Gersten Russell , Woodward John
Published: December 2008

The first section of this essay reviews the forces that led to the Regular Education Inititative. Next, relevant findings from the research on school reform, innovation and change, and staff development are synthesized. Based on this research, a conceptual framework is developed that enables the reader to understand the factors necessary to create the type of meaningful, sustained change in classroom practice required by the Regular Education Initiative.
Aiming for Superior Classroom Instruction for All Children
Authors: Showers Beverly
Published: December 2008

The success of school reform efforts in general and the Regular Education Initiative in particular will be dependent to a large extent on the quality of staff development programs and an understanding of the culture of the school. A review of relevant literature provides the context for construction of a model of staff development that includes (a) understanding of the underlying theory of the innovation; (b) multiple demonstrations of the innovation; (c) opportunities for practice in the training setting; and (d) coaching to facilitate transfer and integration. Application of the model in a low-income, low achieving middle school is described, and implications for the Regular Education Initiative are discussed.
Using What Is Known About Change to Inform the Regular Education Initiative
Authors: Loucks-Horsley Susan , Roody Deborah S.
Published: December 2008

Over the past two decades, research on the change process in education has converged on several conclusions that can fruitfully be applied to the Regular Education Initiative. This article discusses these conclusions, including the need for adequate time for change to occur; concrete models of innovations for teachers and administrators to adapt to their own situations; assistance and support that is tailored to the needs of teachers and administrators as the change process proceeds; opportunities for educators to be involved in decisions about the changes; and mandates that set clear direction and protect educators while they learn the new behaviors and procedures required by the change.
Predicting Reading Problems at Kindergarten for Children in Second Grade: SEARCH as a Screen
Authors: Morrison Delmont , Mantzicopoulos Panayota
Published: December 2008

In this study, 668 kindergarten children were screened and followed through second grade to compare the 2-year predictive validity of SEARCH (a test designed to assess delays in the acquisition of spatial and temporal information) with the predictive validity of academic achievement tests as screens for identifying children at-risk for developing reading problems. Six different cutoff scores on SEARCH were used to establish risk status, and reading scores at or below the 30th percentile were used to establish both at-risk status and inadequate reading at second grade. The use of SEARCH scores indicating major risk resulted in false negative error rates in the 52% to 69% range and false positive error rates in the 56% to 70% range. The use of academic tests to predict reading problems resulted in error rates of 65% for false negative and 62 % for false positive. The results are discussed in the context of issues in measuring perceptual and cognitive performance in an age range where normal and deviant variation are difficult to assess except in extreme cases.
An Analysis of In-Home Parent Tutoring Procedures: Effects on Children's Academic Behavior at Home and in School and on Parents' Tutoring Behaviors
Authors: Thurston Linda P. , Dasta Kathy
Published: December 2008

How to involve parents in the education of their children-both in school and in the borne-is a current issue in education. This paper describes successful tutoring procedures that parents used to tutor academic behaviors in the borne. The procedures were evaluated in three studies. Study 1 assessed the results of tutoring training on parents' tutoring behavior in oral reading. Study 2 analyzed the effects of parent tutoring using similar procedures with math facts and tested the effects on academic behavior in the home and in the school. Study 3 looked at spelling tutoring and analyzed effects in home and in school. Single subject research designs were utilized Study I demonstrated that parents could utilize the procedures successfully after training. Studies 2 and 3 showed that home tutoring improved math and spelling performance during the tutoring sessions and that the success carried over to school. Children, parents, and teachers reported satisfaction with the procedures.
Use of Choral and Individual Attentional Responses with Constant Time Delay when Teaching Sight Word Reading
Authors: Wolery Mark , Ault Melinda Jones , Gast David L. , Doyle Patricia Munson , Mills Beth M.
Published: December 2008

This study evaluated using choral and individual attentional responses with a constant time delay procedure in teaching students with mild handicaps to read sight words. Each student learned a different set of words; a choral spelling attentional response (i.e., all students simultaneously spelled the word before the target student read it) was used with half of the words, and an individual spelling attentional response (i.e., only the target student spelled the word before reading it) was used with the other half. Constant time delay was used to teach all words. Students were assessed on reading their words, reading others words, (i.e., observational learning), and spelling all words (i.e., incidental learning). A multipleprobe design across behaviors was used to evaluate the procedures. The results indicate that (a) constant time delay was implemented reliably and was effective in teaching word reading with minimal errors, (b) words taught with an individual spelling attentional response were learned in fewer sessions and with lower error percentages, (c) observational and incidental learning occurred for all students, (d) choral and individual attentional responses did not influence observational word reading, and (e) choral attentional responses resulted in students learning to spell other group members' words more than did the individual attentional responses.
Promoting Metacognition and Motivation of Exceptional Children
Authors: Paris Scott G. , Winograd Peter
Published: December 2008

Metacognition fosters independent learning by providing personal insight into one's own thinking. Such awareness can lead to flexible and confident problem solving as well as feelings of self-efficacy and pride. This is especially important for students who encounter difficulty in school because they do not understand how to appraise and manage their own resources for learning. Too often, students develop debilitating expectations and behavior that undermine learning in school and inhibit transfer of effective learning strategies. We describe four general kinds of instruction that help students learn to think: metacognitive explanation, scaffolded instruction, cognitive coaching, and cooperative learning. Teachers can adapt and combine these methods to teach students how to think as they read, write, and compute in classrooms.
Teachers' Thinking About Instruction
Authors: Borko Hilda , Livingston Carol , Shavelson Richard J.
Published: December 2008

Complex cognitive processes underlie the thoughts and decision making of teachers engaged in planning and carrying out instruction. Research on teacher planning is summarized with respect to reasons for planning, how teachers plan, influential factors, and differences between experienced and inexperienced teachers' planning. Research on teachers' interactive decision making is summarized with respect to the conceptions, components, antecedents, and decision making of experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research investigating the relation between teachers' decisions and student outcomes is presented. A cognitive psychological framework for analyzing teacher thinking is presented and applied to existing research on teacher planning and decision making. Finally, new directions for research on teacher thinking are explored.
Grading Mainstreamed Special Needs Students: Determining Practices and Attitudes of Secondary Vocational Educators Using a Qualitative Approach
Authors: Rojewski Jay W. , Pollard Richard R. , Meers Gary D.
Published: December 2008

Despite the importance of grades in our educational system, empirical research examining issues related to the grading of students with special needs has received relatively little attention. To address this situation, a qualitative research approach was used to explore a select number of these issues. An in-depth, semistructured interview was used with a purposive sample of 10 secondary vocational educators. Four themes (conclusions) emerged from an analysis of the data. First, a description of successful grading practices and problems/concerns experienced by teachers when grading students with special needs were examined. Second, the perceptions of educators concerning intended and actual messages that grades communicate to others was explored. A third issue focused on the degree of undergraduate/graduate preparation and inservice staff development teachers have received on issues related to grading students with special needs. Finally, a majority of those participating reported experiencing a developmental process of gradually changing grading practices. Implications for practice and recommendations for future research were also provided.
Write, P.L.E.A.S.E.: A Video-Assisted Strategic Intervention to Improve Written Expression of Inefficient Learners
Authors: Welch Marshall , Jensen Jeffrey B.
Published: December 2008

This investigation is the second phase of ongoing field-testing of a metacognitive strategy for teaching written expression. The instructional activities of a video-assisted strategic intervention for developing written expression skills known as Write, P.L.E.A.S.E are described. The instructional activities were field-tested during the 1989 summer school session for at-risk students using treatment and comparison groups. An analysis of covariance revealed significant gains in the written expression skills of students in the treatment group over time. Results also suggested that the strategic intervention was significantly more effective than the traditional, grammar-based language arts instruction delivered in the comparison group.
Special Education and Students At Risk: Findings From a National Study
Authors: Lombardi Thomas P. , Odell Kerry S. , Novotny Deborah E.
Published: December 2008

This article addresses the relationship between students with and without special education who are considered at risk. Data were analyzed from the national Phi Delta Kappa study of 22,018 students, 9,652 teachers, and 276 principals in 39 states and a Canadian province. Approximately 64% of the students eligible for special education services were categorized as having learning disabilities. It would appear that these students with special education needs, all of whom were enrolled in classes, are at greater risk than other students who do not possess a special categorical label. This was true for all special categories identified as well as for all grade levels assessed. The data also indicated that principals and teachers view special education as one of the more appropriate and effective intervention strategies for use with at-risk students. This finding poses more questions than answers, as a greater number of students with special education needs are being placed in general classrooms for instructional purposes.
Teachers Perceptions of the Social Skills of Adolescents with Hearing Impairment in Residential and Public School Settings
Authors: Cartledge Gwendolyn , Paul Peter V. , Jackson Dorothy , Cochran Lessie L.
Published: December 2008

The social–emotional behaviors of 76 adolescents with moderate to profound hearing impairment enrolled in residential and public schools were assessed by their classroom teachers. Each student was rated on two instruments: (1) The Meadow Kendall Social-Emotional Assessment and (2) The Social Skill Rating Scale–Teacher Form. Comparisons were made across two settings that included three educational programs (i.e., two total-communication programs and one oral program) located in two public schools and one residential school. No statistically significant differences were found among the three groups. The findings are discussed relative to previous studies and implications for educational programming for students with hearing impairment.
Relations Among Sustained Attention, Reading Performance, and Teachers' Ratings of Behavior Problems
Authors: Lam Chee M. , Beale Ivan L.
Published: December 2008

Children from a normal primary school were tested on the Continuous Performance Test (CPT) (Klee & Garfinkel, 1983), the Delay Task (Gordon, 1979), and the Progressive Achievement Test in reading. Their classroom behaviors were also rated on the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS) (Conners, 1969) by their teachers. Sex differences were found on the CTRS but not on the CPT or the Delay Task. Age differences were found on the CPT but not on the Delay Task. The results showed that the CPT, the Delay Task, and ratings on the Inattention factor on the rating scale were significantly correlated with reading scores.
From the Guest Editor
Authors: Reid D. Kim
Published: December 2008

I would like to thank all who have contributed to this issue. First and foremost is the guest editor, D. Kim Reid, who provided the conceptualization for this issue and took primary responsibility for its production. Dr. Reid, the former topical issue coeditor of RASE and a member of the editorial board, is a talented editor, and it has been truly a pleasure to work with her on this issue. I would also like to thank all the authors for the important contributions they have made in this issue toward building a better understanding of how future instruction for students with learning problems could look.—LI
Why Is Cognitive Instruction Effective? Underlying Learning Mechanisms
Authors: Reid D. Kim , Stone C. Addison
Published: December 2008

If we are to design efficient and effective instructional environments for students with learning difficulties, we must understand and build on the learning principles that undergird the most productive interventions. After an overview of several studies of cognitive instruction that addressed problem learners, we describe two learning mechanisms that explain why such cognitive interventions work—prolepsis and reflective abstraction, derived respectively from Vygotskian and Piagetian accounts of development.
The Gridlock of Low Reading Achievement
Authors: McGill-Franzen Anne , Allington Richard L.
Published: December 2008

In spite of an array of efforts and programs, low achievers in the primary grades almost invariably remain low achievers throughout their school careers. Rather than assuming that poverty and/or cultural differences are major impediments to literacy development, this paper recasts the problem as one of restricted access to the kinds of instruction that would develop self-improving, actively comprehending readers and accelerate achievement. This article reviews characteristics of low achieving readers' instructional experiences as participants in bottom-group classroom interactions and in remedial and special education programs to support this argument. Outdated beliefs about "slow learner" instruction drive current programs, policies, and regulations. To break the current gridlock of underachievement, we need to dramatically rethink our responses to children who find learning to read difficult.
An Assimilative Base Model of Strategy-Knowledge Interactions
Authors: Gallagher Jeanette McCarthy , Wansart William L.
Published: December 2008

An Assimilative Base Model is presented that is related to the later research and writings of Jean Piaget. The model is an attempt to capture the dynamics of the interaction between educational tasks in school settings and the assimilative base of the students, that is, the network of active relationships that are brought to the tasks. Three interchange processes are elaborated: automatic skill development, puzzlement leading to reorganization of relationships, and strategy development leading to enrichment of relationships. Special stress is placed on the difference between skills and strategies as related to curriculum planning. Practical suggestions for the improvement of instruction in writing are outlined, stressing the importance of collaborative social interactions among all children, including children labeled as learning disabled. Such collaborative interactions are seen as an arena for puzzlement and consequent strategy development leading to the enrichment of knowledge. In sum, the focus is on the processes involved in the acquisition of knowledge exemplified by Piaget's later and less well known work rather than the old emphasis upon stages and logical models.
Examining the Context of Strategy Instruction
Authors: Palincsar Annemarie Sullivan , David Yvonne M. , Winn Judith A. , Stevens Dannelle D.
Published: December 2008

The goal of literacy instruction is to teach reading and writing as tools to facilitate thinking and reasoning in a broad array of literacy events. An important difference in the disposition of children to participate in literacy experiences is the extent to which they engage in intentional self-regulated learning. The contexts attending six traditional models of strategy instruction are examined. An exploratory study, conducted with heterogeneous third graders, is reported, examining the implementation and outcomes of three models of strategy instruction—Direct Instruction, Reciprocal Teaching, and Collaborative Problem Solving—which manipulated teacher and student control of activity, as well as the instructional context.
Learning Through Observation
Authors: Halpern Honey
Published: December 2008

Preservice teachers conducted observational research to counteract stereotypes of low achieving students in the language arts. Student teachers observed 288 elementary students in Grades 1 through 6 during 30 minutes of language arts instruction. Expected behavior and actual behavior were noted during 1-minute intervals. Student behavior was further classified as definitely and completely involved in work, probably involved in work, or definitely not involved in work. Results showed that high achieves spent about twice as much time as low achievers definitely involved in their work, while low achievers spent about three times as much time as high achievers definitely not involved in their work. A second phase of this investigation was to examine the types of curricular tasks that produced a good fit between real and expected behavior and the types of tasks that did not.
A Decision Model for Social Skills Curriculum Analysis
Authors: Sugai George , Fuller Michael
Published: December 2008

Social skills instruction provides a proactive, positive methodology for increasing appropriate social behaviors and reducing inappropriate behaviors. This paper describes a decision-making model for comparing, choosing, and implementing social skills curricula that would be appropriate for specific students and settings. The decision model is structured around a systematic decision-making model that addresses three curriculum areas: (a) background, (b) assessment, and (c) instruction. The model also uses a cost-benefit analysis to assist in making modification decisions. The model has been developed to enable curriculum decision makers, teachers, and other users of social skills instructional materials (e.g., curriculum specialists, program coordinators, researchers, teacher trainers) to select a social skills curriculum that is appropriate for their specific needs and that utilizes empirically proven best practices. Flowcharts are used to direct the decision-making process.
Challenging the Routines and Passivity That Characterize Arithmetic Instruction for Children with Mild Handicaps
Authors: Parmar Rene S. , Cawley John F.
Published: December 2008

This article challenges the notion that rote practice in arithmetic computation should be the focus of instruction for children with mild handicaps in mathematics. Students were presented with worksheets containing two sample computation items and explored the characteristics of each item with the examiner. Students were then instructed to create items like the ones in the sample and answer them. Emphasis was on student production based on an understanding of the structure of the computation items. The performance of approximately 30 normally achieving students in Grades 3 through 6 was compared with that of grade-matched peers with mild handicaps. The results of the study indicate that students with mild handicaps are capable of understanding the characteristics of items well enough to create like items, though averaging 3 years behind their normally achieving peers. Of the items created by students in both groups, high percentages correct were evident. Neither normally achieving students nor students with mild handicaps engaged in mechanical repetition of items. A sample instructional activity is described at the end of the article.
Reciprocal Teaching and Transenvironmental Programming
Authors: Bruce Merle E. , Chan Lorna K.S.
Published: December 2008

This article reports on experimental evaluation of the effectiveness of combining two metacognitive instructional approaches to enhance the reading comprehension skills of upper-primary poor readers. The program involves the use of reciprocal teaching procedures in the resource room and transenvironmental programming techniques by which students were instructed to employ the newly learned comprehension strategies in their homeroom reading and social studies classes. The results support previous research into the facilitative effects of reciprocal teaching on reading comprehension and of transenvironmental programming on transfer of learning across settings. Of greater importance is the finding that it is the combination of the two instructional approaches that has provided a very effective means of facilitating poor readers' unprompted use of relevant strategies for enhancing text processing.
Learning Styles and Learning to Read
Authors: Snider Vicki E.
Published: December 2008

This paper examines the application of learning styles to the teaching of reading. The learning styles approach is based on the premise that learning styles can be assessed and the results can be used to determine instructional methods. Viewed in a historical context, learning style is not a new educational trend, but an extension of the well-worn process approaches that have been largely discredited. The application of learning styles to the teaching of reading is critiqued in light of four factors: (a) inability to adequately assess learning styles, (I$ failure to acknowledge the necessity of phonics instruction for beginning readers, (c) failure to consider the nature of reading disabilities, and (d) lack of convincing research. This critique suggests that the use of learning styles to prescribe methods of reading instruction must be viewed with skebticism.
Giving Unequal Learners an Equal Chance
Authors: Carbo Marie
Published: December 2008

Persistent and biased phonics advocacy is evident in Snider's one-sided critique of the application of learning styles to the teaching of reading. Unlike discredited process approaches, teaching reading through students' reading style strengths has resulted in accelerated Zearning and significant gains in student motivation, reading fluency, and comprehension. This paper examines three areas of research: (a) the flawed research base in phonics tbqt led to widespread adoption of that system of teaching in the United States during the 1970s and 1980s; (6) the rapidly growing research base in learning styles, including the research and analyses that provide support for teaching students through their modality preferences and strengths; and (c) research with The Reading Style Inventory.
Integration in Germany
Authors: Murray-Seegert Carola
Published: December 2008

Integration for persons with disabilities is progressing very slowly in the Federal Republic of Germany, in contrast with other European countries. This article provides an overview of European trends and reviews German disability services, emphasizing their historical and political context.
Special Education and the Exclusion of Youth with Social Maladjustments
Authors: Maag John W. , Howell Kenneth W.
Published: December 2008

The authors address the current controversy regarding the exclusion of youths labeled socially maladjusted from special education services under the auspices of the seriously emotionally disturbed (SED) category. Both proponents and opponents of serving these students base their arguments largely on the analysis of specijk child characteristics that can differentiate between social maladjustment and serious emotional disturbance. Subscribing to this child-centered perspective limits the discussion and potential for its resolution. Rather than attempting to refute or support arguments presented by both sides in this debate, the authors have chosen to reconceptualize the issue from a cultural-organizational perspective. From this view-point, calls to exclude youths who are socially maladjusted result from a society that has Zittle tolerance for “deviant” behavior, and from schools that must maintain their legitimacy and popular support. Distinctions are made among participants in what has become a characteristic special education conflict.
Teaching Students with Learning Problems in Math to Acquire, Understand, and Apply Basic Math Facts
Authors: Mercer Cecil D. , Miller Susan P.
Published: December 2008

Students with learning problems (i.e., students with learning disabilities or emotional disabilities and those considered at-risk for school failure) are not making acceptable math progress in the nation's schools. Fortunately, instructional practices exist that help these students achieve in math. Ten instructional components that have research support for promoting math achievement are presented. A math curriculum, the Strategic Math Series, which incorporates the research-based teaching practices, is described. Next, the results from field-testing the Strategic Math Series with 22 teachers are presented. The field-test results indicate that 109 students with learning problems were able to (a) acquire computational skills across facts, (b) solve word problems with and without extraneous information, (c) create word problems involving facts, (d) apply a mnemonic strategy to difficult problems, (e) increase their rate of computation, and (f) generalize math skills across examiners, settings, and tasks. Finally, issues in math instruction are discussed, and the need to include best practices within instructional materials is highlighted.
Teaching Mathematics to Adolescents Classified as Educable Mentally Handicapped
Authors: Horton Steven V. , Lovitt Thomas C. , White Owen R.
Published: December 2008

This study examined the effects of teaching adolescents classified as having educable mental handicaps (EMH) to solve four-column subtraction problems involving regrouping through three different methods: (a) pencil and paper, (b) calculators, and (c) calculators employing a rehearsal strategy using problems containing visual cues. The students classified as EMH (five females and two males) were enrolled in a self-contained special education class in a junior high school. Forty-four eighth-grade general education students were selected from the same school to participate in a preexperimental, noninstructional, peer group assessment. An ABCD, single-case experimental design was used, with multiple probes introduced at staggered intervals. Days per phase ranged from 4 to 10. Two maintenance phases were scheduled, the first immediately after the last instructional phase, and the second 26 days later. The results indicated significant differences in performance favoring calculators over pencil and paper for each student classified as EMH. No difference in performance was found for the sample of general education students across computational modes; however, a split point (cutoff score) was found at 17.5 correct digits per minute with pencil and paper, which predicted a student's best computational mode. Rehearsal and visual cues significantly influenced correct performance for only one student classified as EMH. Maintenance of correct performance with calculators over time was excellent for each pupil. A positive relationship was found between the number of head swings used to input digits into a calculator and computational time. Without calculators, the students classified as EMH were markedly inferior to their general education peers; however, with calculators the performances were equivalent. Several clinical issues involved in conventional and calculator instruction for students with special needs are discussed.
Categorical and Noncategorical Teacher Certification in Special Education
Authors: Cranston-Gingras Ann , Mauser August J.
Published: December 2008

A nationwide study examining the trend toward or away from categorical teacher certification in special education was conducted. Responses from both state directors of special education and state certification officers were obtained at a rate of 100% and 98%, respectively. Some discrepancies between responses from state officials were noted. Although states offering categorical certification alone outnumber those offering only noncategorical certification, the results of this study indicate a trend toward noncategorical models, as well as wide variation from state to state. Specific recommendations emphasizing interagency collaboration and task force sponsorship are included.
Coaching Secondary Special Education Teachers in Implementation of an Innovative Videodisc Mathematics Curriculum
Authors: Gersten Russell , Kelly Bernadette
Published: December 2008

This article reports case studies of four secondary-level special education teachers who received “coaching” as they implemented an innovative videodisc instructional program dealing with basic fraction concepts and operations. An exploratory, interrupted time series design was used in investigating the effects of regular observations and feedback on the teachers' use of the program. The coach---an experienced special education teacher with expertise in videodisc technology and instructional design---spent some time assisting each teacher with basic issues related to utilization of the technology. However, the majority of her efforts focused on sharing observational data with the teachers on their use of instructional approaches incorporated in the curriculum and found to lead to enhanced achievement in mathematics (Good, Grouws, & Ebmeier, 1983). Results suggest that the coaching led to positive changes in several important teaching techniques and, in some cases, to enhanced use of motivational strategies and classroom management techniques. Growth was noted, as well, in observed rates of student engagement. A semistructured interview assessing the teachers' reactions to and perceptions of the intervention indicated that they found the coaching procedure beneficial. The results also point out that teachers may be more open to receiving feedback on their teaching during the introduction of a new instructional technology, rather than in the context of conventional curricula.
The Knowledge Bases for Special and General Education
Authors: Reynolds Maynard C. , Wang Margaret C. , Walberg Herbert J.
Published: December 2008

This study was designed to review generally the knowledge base relating to pedagogical procedures and then to determine whether special and general education teachers and educators in several other roles would agree on importance of the principles that emerged. The study began with a comprehensive synthesis of the research review literature related to learning. The literature covered 179 major publications in the fields of special and general education. The results were summarized in the form of a 228-item survey questionnaire on items potentially valuable for learning environments. The questionnaire was administered to a panel of advisors and eight other groups of educators, including general and special education teachers. In this article we report briefly on the literature synthesis, then summarize results of the surveys. Results showed a very high degree of consensus about variables considered important for creating learning environments. Consensus was especially strong among teachers, cutting across both general education and special education, a result interpreted as evidence that teacher preparation in the several fields could be done mainly in a single or combined program.
Toward Independence with Keyword Mnemonics
Authors: King-Sears Margaret E. , Mercer Cecil D. , Sindelar Paul T.
Published: December 2008

The use of mnemonics to learn and remember information holds promise for students with learning and memory problems. Keyword mnemonics were used in two of three instructional procedures taught to students with mild handicaps in this study. Students were required to learn and remember definitions of previously unfamiliar science terms. Systematic teaching, an imposed keyword method, and an induced keyword method (taught by using the IT FITS strategy) were compared. Favorable results for imposed and induced keyword methods were obtained. Implications for teaching strategies that increase students' opportunities for independent success in content curricula are discussed, as well as active involvement of students in the learning process.
Expected Educational Outcomes for Students with Disabilities
Authors: Ysseldyke James E. , Thurlow Martha L. , Bruininks Robert H.
Published: December 2008

The current national preoccupation with the results of education must shift to include students with disabilities. It is time to move beyond concern over equal access to education and to examine the extent to which students with disabilities achieve the goals set for other students. In this paper we provide some definitions of key terms in the discussion of educational outcomes. We discuss current national and international practices in the assessment of educational outcomes and describe some activities of states in outcomes assessment. We highlight the recently funded National Center on Educational Outcomes and then delineate several major considerations in the development of a comprehensive system of outcome indicators for students with disabilities.
The Delivery of Special Education Programs and Services
Authors: Morsink Catherine V. , Lenk Linda L.
Published: December 2008

The design of alternative program and service delivery systems for children and youth with disabilities requires both an understanding of the present realities that restrain change and the knowledge of practices that can drive the profession of special education forward. In light of national policy and demographic and fiscal factors, we discuss the need for a continuum of services offered within the least restrictive environment (LRE). We then discuss promising practices in collaboration, new roles for professionals, intervention team models, and emerging trends in service delivery to new populations including preschool and transition groups.
Special Education in Content Area Classes
Authors: Nolet Victor , Tindal Gerald
Published: December 2008

Serving students with special needs in content area classes is a difficult issue. At the policy level, roles are not clearly articulated to help special and general educators demarcate responsibilities and working relationships. At the practical classroom level, strategies have not been clearly identified to define what and how content information should be taught to students with special needs. This study describes the results of a pilot investigation that focused on a range of variables in serving special education students in a science classroom. Data from several sources were collected to better understand the relationship between curriculum content, instruction, and assessment. The data confirm that if students are to be helped, special educators need to better understand how content area teachers prioritize instruction and assessment.
Research on Interpersonal Problem-Solving Training
Authors: Coleman Margaret , Wheeler Larry , Webber Jo
Published: December 2008

This review assessed the efficacy of interpersonal problem-solving training in educational settings with children and youth with learning and behavior problems. Only studies with a clear metacognitive component were included. For each of the nine studies meeting selection criteria, descriptive summaries of the training were given. Findings indicate that although researchers were successful in demonstrating cognitive gains as a result of interpersonal problem-solving training, they were much less successful in demonstrating that cognitive gains were (a) subsequently applied to actual behavior or (b) generalized to other social behavior. Such findings call into question the basic premise of this literature—that interpersonal problem-solving training mediates social behavior and generalizes to other behaviors and settings. Based on the literature to date, recommendations for researchers and practitioners are offered.
Selecting a Research Program in Special Education
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: December 2008

One means of selecting and judging the appropriateness of a special education research program for the “beginning” career researcher is to analyze the quality of published articles. An analysis of published literature in professional journals provides a means of comparison in terms of topic, theory, methodology, and application. This article reviews some of the findings related to published research on special education topics. Seven general guidelines related to developing special education research programs are suggested.
Grant Proposal Writing for Junior Faculty in Special Education
Authors: Hallahan Daniel P.
Published: December 2008

In this article, I first question the widely held assumption that junior faculty should be involved in writing grant proposals and administering grants. I note some of the pitfalls related to engaging in grantsmanship as a new faculty member. Second, I offer several suggestions for those junior faculty who do decide to engage in grant writing. Related to preparing to write a proposal, I discuss having a positive attitude and being sure one has enough time to prepare a good proposal. Related to writing a proposal, I discuss the importance of quality and offer suggestions for improving the quality of one's writing.
Federally Supported Research Procedures
Authors: Danielson Louis C , Coutinho Martha J. , Denny R. Kenton
Published: December 2008

In this article, we describe the grant funding process for initial career researchers. This includes a discussion of research priority development, a description of the application review process, clarification of the review criteria to evaluate applications, and the characteristics of projects that have been funded in recent competitions. Several recommendations for initial career researchers are also provided to improve their ability to write competitive applications.
Visions and Revisions: A Special Education Perspective on the Whole Language Controversy
Authors: Gersten Russell , Dimino Joseph
Published: December 2008

This article discusses the conflict between emerging conceptions of literature-based or whole language approaches to reading/literacy instruction and the direct instruction approach that was widely advocated in the 1980s. The conceptualizations underlying each approach are delineated, as are the limitations. The essay concludes with a depiction of each approach as an idealized vision of the teaching-learning process and the assertion that, in practice, these approaches often overlap. It concludes with a call for research that examines issues in literacy instruction, in a nonpolemic fashion, through careful observation of actual teaching.
Something a Little Out of the Ordinary: Reflections on Becoming an Interpretivist Researcher in Special Education
Authors: Ferguson Dianne L.
Published: December 2008

Qualitative research is both a set of methods for gathering and analyzing data and a worldview or paradigm about the nature of knowledge and inquiry. As a set of methods, qualitative research has increasingly gained acceptance in special education, although it is still not as common as more traditional quantitative methods. As an epistemological paradigm, however, the qualitative (or interpretivist) perspective remains much more controversial and rare in the field of special education research. Early career researchers face the dual challenge, then, of not only becoming comfortable with new methods commonly associated with qualitative research, such as participant observation and in-depth interviews, but also learning about a worldview that challenges some of the basic assumptions of traditional research in the social and behavioral sciences. The article describes one way of addressing both challenges through a process of self-reflection as well as methodological virtuosity. The author argues that not only should specific methodological techniques match the research questions being asked, but also those questions should be consistent with the view of the world that one finds most persuasive. It is a process of “discovering who you are as a researcher.” Three aspects of becoming competent and three aspects of becoming adept as an interpretivist researcher are also described as a guide for those who might wish to know a little more about the methods and the paradigm, and for those who wish to explore either one or both of these topics in earnest Feature Article
Transition to Adult Services: Support for Ongoing Parent Participation
Authors: Brotherson Mary Jane , Berdine William H. , Sartini Virginia
Published: December 2008

In this article we discuss five strategies that special educators can use to support parents and young adults with disabilities in making a successful transition into adulthood. These strategies recognize sociohistorical context, the impact of stressors on parents, and the burnout experienced by some parents of young adults with disabilities. These five strategies include (a) encouraging early expectations for community life, (b) assisting parents in recognizing the importance of their (parent) contributions, (c) supporting parents in honoring the choices of the son or daughter, (d) increasing the role of social support networks, and (e) addressing parent concerns regarding future employment. The purpose of this article is to stimulate future research and development of strategies for support of families with young adults making the transition to adulthood.
Using Spanish-Speaking Interpreters in Special Education
Authors: Plata Maximino
Published: December 2008

An increasing Hispanic population, with its diverse academic needs, presents a challenge for public schools. The lack of available bilingual and other appropriately trained personnel who can effectively interact with Spanish-speaking students and parents magnifies this challenge, especially when students are considered for special education placement. In such situations, interpreters are needed to communicate with parents. This article proposes criteria for selecting interpreters, discusses responsibilities of, and potential problems in using, interpreters, and suggests elements of a management system and training program for interpreters and those who rely on their services.
Examining Prevalence at the Ends of the Spectrum
Authors: Shriner James G. , Ysseldyke James E. , Gorney Deborah , Franklin Mary Jo
Published: December 2008

Variability of prevalence data for the category of gifted and talented was examined with respect to two alternative explanations: definitional differences and differences in the application of definitions. State-adopted definitions of giftedness were analyzed, as were guidelines for student identification procedures. Statistical analyses (coefficient of variability, t test for dependent samples) used in previous comparisons of prevalence data for learning disabilities, behavior disorders, and educable mental retardation also were applied to the gifted and talented. This category was found to be no less, if not more, variable than the disability conditions. Implications for identifying students as gifted and talented are discussed.
Homework
Authors: Epstein Michael H. , Polloway Edward A. , Foley Regina M. , Patton James R.
Published: December 2008

With the significant attention given to the American educational system by national commissions and reports in the 1980s, a variety of practices have come under review. One such practice is the role of homework in the curriculum. Findings that American students at the secondary level generally spend less than 1 hour per day on homework, combined with empirical data suggestive of the positive effects of homework in achievement, have given rise to increased commitment to the assignment of homework. However, scant attention has been given to the effect of this trend on students with disabilities. The purpose of this study was to determine the homework problems experienced by students identified as having either learning disabilities or behavioral disorders as compared to an age-matched sample of students in general education. An analysis of data from both teacher and parent ratings on the Homework Problem Checklist indicated that more significant problems were found for both of the groups of students with disabilities. Post hoc analyses revealed that the students with behavioral disorders had the most pronounced difficulties. The discussion focuses at length on the implications of these findings for educational interventions.
Teaching Concepts
Authors: Prater Mary Anne
Published: December 2008

Students acquire knowledge of concepts through observation and experience or through instruction. Students with disabilities often have difficulty acquiring concepts through experience and observation, making concept instruction a vital component of special and remedial education curricula. This article outlines a set of procedures for designing instruction and teaching concepts to students with learning difficulties. These procedures are based on well-grounded theories and empirical evidence. The major topics discussed include (a) analysis of the concept, (b) concept definitions, (c) use of examples and nonexamples, (d) instructional sequence, and (e) diagnostic assessment. In addition, the role of technology in the delivery of concept instruction is briefly described.
Elitism and Reform in School Mathematics
Authors: Hofmeister Alan M.
Published: December 2008

In this position paper, the recommendations contained in the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics' (NCTM) Curriculum Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics are reviewed with respect to the needs of diverse learners. Based on the history of previous education reforms and the nature of the ‘standards,’ the special educator is urged to exercise caution in using the standards as comprehensive criteria for developing and selecting programs for learners who are at risk for school failure. The need to transpose the standards into valid, replicable, instructional programs is stressed.