bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Cotton Mill Blues”
Authors: Russell Tony
Published: March 2021

This chapter discusses Lester (“Pete”) Bivins, “Cotton Mill Blues”, topical songs, occupational songs, cotton mills, and Decca Records
Modeling Multisystemic Resilience
Authors: Ungar Michael
Published: March 2021

Search for the term resilience and one finds definitions that vary widely between fields as diverse as ecology, disaster management, developmental psychology, neuroscience, engineering, and economics. Each definition emphasizes a shift in focus from breakdown and disorder to systemic recovery, adaptation, or systemwide transformation during and after exposure to adversity. Seldom, however, have researchers in the natural and human sciences explored the link between the resilience of one system and the resilience of mutually dependent, co-occurring supraordinate and subordinate systems. In this chapter, the author presents a comprehensive theory of resilience that draws together the research done by a range of disciplines where the term resilience has been used as an organizing concept. Using this diverse body of work, this chapter (a) starts with a discussion of definitions that both distinguish fields of resilience research from one another and suggests concurrence in how resilience is understood; (b) presents a model that accounts for the complex reciprocal relationships that enhance the resilience of co-occurring biological, psychological, social, built, and natural systems; (c) reviews seven principles that explain the processes of recovery, adaptation, and transformation of systems under stress; and (4) discusses the implications of a systemic understanding of resilience to the design of interventions that promote change to preferred patterns of functioning when systems are under stress.
Resilience Humanitarianism and Peacebuilding
Authors: Panter-Brick Catherine
Published: March 2021

How do we build the foundations for more resilient social, economic, and political systems and link individual with collective resilience to sustain change across generations? These are pressing questions in the fields of resilience humanitarianism and peacebuilding, fields that seek transformative, sustainable changes to achieve ambitious goals affecting research, policy and practice. This chapter provides three examples of systems-level thinking on resilience that have structured the architecture of the humanitarian and peacebuilding agenda. These examples offer proof-of-concept approaches to synergistically foster wealth, health, and peace, in ways that link: resilience and peacebuilding to household wealth and food security; resilience and social cohesion to individual health and stress regulation; and cultures of peace to caregiving and early child development. They emphasize a theory of change that strives to strengthen the social compact between state, civil society, and families in contexts of fragility, conflict, or forced displacement. Resilience is an everyday practice for crisis-affected communities, one rooted in the political economy of social action and structural transformation. Efforts to build systems-level resilience require careful work with respect to conceptual clarity, meaningful measurement, and grounded intervention.
Resilience of Legal Systems
Authors: Ruhl J. B. , Cosens Barbara , Soininen Niko
Published: March 2021

Resilience theory, also known as resilience thinking, has emerged as a powerful theoretical framework for many disciplines. Legal theorists have, however, only in the past decade begun to contextualize resilience thinking for legal systems. This chapter summarizes where resilience thinking has gone thus far in legal theory and recommends where it should go from here. The authors start by asking the two fundamental questions of resilience thinking, putting them in the context of legal systems: resilience of what and resilience to what? Because of the special role legal systems play in the governance of complex social-ecological systems, the authors add a third question: resilience for what? We then explore five key features of system resilience as they relate to legal systems: (a) reliability, (b) efficiency, (c) scalability, (d) modularity, and (e) evolvability. Using environmental law as a case study, the discussion offers concrete examples of how each property manifests and operates in legal systems. The authors close with an exploration of how what has been learned thus far about legal system resilience from theoretical research and practical experiences should shape future research, in particular toward a deeper understanding of adaptive governance.
Courage
Authors: King Nathan L.
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines intellectual courage, the virtue needed to persist in pursuit of our intellectual aims despite threats. It notes that courage is commonly exercised not just in our efforts to gain knowledge, but also in our efforts to keep and share it. It locates intellectual courage in relation to the vices of intellectual cowardice (a deficiency) and rashness (an excess). The chapter then argues that courage centrally concerns our persistence in the face of threats rather than fears, as is commonly thought. The chapter closes by examining courage in the context of psychological experiments on conformity, and by encouraging the reader to find opportunities to act courageously in the midst of intellectual activities.
Duplicated, Twisted, and in the Wrong Place
Authors: Scholtz Gerhard
Published: March 2021

The study of malformations is an important tool to understand mechanisms and causes of development and regeneration. Moreover, malformations indicate the morphological potential of living beings. Hence, a deeper understanding of how, to what degree, and why organismal structures can deviate from their normal expression is interesting in an evolutionary and ecological context. Like other arthropods, and animals in general, crustaceans show a certain variety of naturally occurring malformations of different body parts. This review is restricted to those that affect the axes of appendages and the trunk. Hence, the various patterns of axis distortion are described and classified. At the general level, malformations concerning limbs are discriminated from those that alter other body outgrowths and those that affect the pattern of the trunk. Among malformation of limbs and other body appendages, misplaced structures, fissions, and fusions are classified. Conjoined twins and distorted body segments are the main features of trunk malformations. The putative causes of malformations are discussed with respect to comparative and experimental approaches. Furthermore, gene expression studies, theories, and models, such as Hans Meinhardt’s Boundary Model, are applied to explain malformations at the level of pattern formation. Apparently, many malformations are not genetic mutations and thus not inheritable, but are instead the result of distortions during early development and regeneration artifacts based on injuries, high temperature, and toxic substances. Compared with other arthropod groups, there are very few experimental studies addressing malformations in crustaceans. Hence, the causes for specific patterns of deformities remain largely obscure.
Hatching
Authors: Fritsch Martin , Olesen Jørgen , Møller Sten Ole , Loose Günther
Published: March 2021

Hatching in crustaceans is an active mechanism in which free, mobile individuals are released from the egg envelopes. For the majority of species, this marks the transition from the embryonic phase of the life cycle, which is spatially constrained by the egg, and the free-living phase. The hatching process of crustaceans has so far not been subject to a detailed comparative treatment across taxa and thus we know little of the diversity of mechanisms, timing in relation to other developmental processes, or evolutionary history. Here we attempt to provide an overview of this diversity throughout the Crustacea. To this end, we treat a particular set of subjects that we consider relevant to the hatching process: the morphology of the involved structures (egg membranes, specialized hatching structures of the hatchling, morphology of the hatchling itself), mechanics of hatchling release, biochemical processes involved in egg shell degradation, maternal and embryonic control and initiation of hatching, as well as the temporal pattern of hatching-related events. A common feature of the hatching mechanism in the majority of crustacean species is an osmotic swelling of the embryo caused by active water uptake prior to hatching, which builds up pressure against the inside of the envelopes. The remaining features vary according to developmental mode and ecological parameters, but the causality behind many hatching-related features remains unclear. However, we conclude that the particular life history strategy can have a strong impact on the relative timing of hatching events.
Rethinking the Form of Oral History
Authors: Mahuika Nēpia
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the form of oral history sources and what scholars argue constitutes an “oral” source. It compares popular definitions drawn from the fields of oral history and tradition, and analyses these from an indigenous perspective using the voices of Ngāti Porou people. This chapter proposes a specific Māori definition of oral history called “kōrero tuku iho,” and explores the many ways in which tribal peoples describe and define the form of oral history. These include broader perceptions of what constitutes an “oral literature,” the concept of ownership and oral history, the living nature of oral sources, the shaping and dissemination of oral history via word of mouth, and the intergenerational construction of oral memory in formal speech making, narrative, performance, songs, carvings, incantations and prayer.
Indigenous Oral History in Method and Practice
Authors: Mahuika Nēpia
Published: March 2021

Over the past century, the life history interview has become the preferred methodology used by oral historians. This chapter compares the methods used by oral historians and oral traditionalists, and analyses these from an indigenous perspective. Centered in an indigenous analysis, this chapter examines various methods including one-on-one interviews, group interviews, surveys and questionnaires, and observation approaches popular in the work of anthropologists and ethnographers. It focuses on how these methods resonate, or not, with Ngāti Porou peoples, and considers the extent to which “walk-along” interviews, visual approaches, and other visceral multisensory methods are also part of the oral history methods toolkit. This chapter turns its attention to the importance of field notes, observations, and ethics to suggest a broadening and rethinking of the methodology of the field.
Allocation of Reproductive Efforts
Authors: Goos Jared M. , Jeyasingh Punidan D.
Published: March 2021

The allocation of resources is a fundamental component of all life history models. Inherent in these models is the concept of allocation trade-offs, where finite resources must be allocated to certain life history traits at the expense of others. Reproduction is thought to be a costly trait in most organisms, and thus allocation to reproduction could drive the evolution of other life history traits. Much research has examined patterns of resource allocation to reproduction and the resulting trade-offs with other life history traits, both within and among taxa. In many respects, empirical work on crustaceans has pioneered our understanding of life history evolution. In this chapter, we examine the great diversity in allocation of resources to reproduction among crustaceans. For many years, crustaceans have served as important models in understanding the importance of a variety of resources (e.g., energy, inorganic nutrients, organic nutrients) to reproduction. Diversity in allocation to reproduction is evident regardless of the resource under investigation. Because of the interconnectedness among such resource parameters, and the rapid change in the availability of such resources in the Anthropocene, frameworks integrating variation in multiple resource axes have much promise in discovering general rules underlying reproductive allocation in natural populations. Given the diverse allocation strategies employed, and the rich history of studies examining reproductive allocation, crustaceans will continue to be an important taxon for such work.
Environmental Influences on Crustacean Sex Determination and Reproduction: Environmental Sex Determination, Parasitism, and Pollution
Authors: Dunn Alison M. , Rigaud Thierry , Ford Alex T.
Published: March 2021

This chapter reviews the influences of environmental factors on sex determination, sex ratios, and reproductive behavior in the Crustacea, focusing in particular on amphipod and isopod examples. A range of abiotic and biotic environmental factors influence reproduction in Crustacea, including temperature, day length, pollutants, and parasites. Individual crustaceans may benefit from these environmental influences, but in other cases, reproductive biology responses to biotic and abiotic environments may be detrimental to individual fitness. Environmental Sex Determination (ESD) falls into the former category. ESD is an adaptive mechanism of sex determination that is rare, but has evolved in diverse taxa. Evidence from gammarid amphipods is used to explore the evolution of ESD in response to a patchy environment. While ESD is an adaptive mechanism of sex determination, the impact of other environmental factors can be very costly. Parasitic castrators can lead to a reduction or total cessation of reproduction in crustacean hosts, driving population declines. In contrast, parasitic feminizers convert male hosts into females, enhancing maternal parasite transmission but also leading to sex ratio distortion in the host population. The chapter discusses parasite-host coevolutionary conflict and reviews evidence that selection on the host in response to parasitic sex ratio distortion has led to altered mate choice in amphipods, and to the evolution of a novel system of sex determination in isopods. Human-induced environmental influences can also be seen in Crustacea, and the chapter discusses how parasites, ESD, and endocrine-disrupting chemicals can each affect sex determination and lead to abnormal intersex phenotypes. It ends by highlighting areas for future research on the diverse world of crustacean reproduction.
Animal Personality and Investment in Reproduction: Hermit Crabs and Other Crustaceans as Model Organisms
Authors: Briffa Mark
Published: March 2021

Animal personality has been demonstrated in a wide range of taxa, including crustaceans. This chapter defines personality as consistent variation in behavior among individuals. It describes related ideas about how individuals can differ in the way they adjust their behavior to match the current situation (“behavioral plasticity”) and how they might differ in how consistent their behavior is within a particular situation (“within individual variation”). Such behavioral variation may represent a component of wider syndromes encompassing among-individual differences in life history traits such as growth, metabolism, and fecundity. First, the chapter reviews studies that have tested these ideas in a range of crustacean species. It then focuses on a series of studies on the common European hermit crab Pagurus bernhardus. In both cases, it describes details of the experimental approaches and analyses used to study personality in crustaceans. While boldness appears to be a key personality trait in hermit crabs and other crustaceans, bold individuals are not necessarily those with the greatest success in acquiring resources or with the greatest life history productivity (i.e., investment in growth and reproduction). Rather, individuals that win fights and invest heavily in respiratory pigments and in reproduction appear to behave consistently more cautious when compared to other individuals from the same population. Despite these initial findings, there is a paucity of studies that investigate links between personality and mating behavior in crustaceans, or that investigate the behavior of females; these areas should be priorities for future work.
Getting Grand Strategy Right
Authors: Brands Hal
Published: March 2021

This chapter highlights ten common fallacies in the study of grand strategy and clarifies the misconceptions underlying them. Clearing away this conceptual confusion can lead to more productive debates about grand strategy writ large; it can also better inform discussions about the prospects for American grand strategy today. One of the fallacies is thinking of grand strategy as a principle or a doctrine rather than a process. Another is the idea that only certain types of grand strategies are worthy of the label. An additional one is the idea that democracies in particular just cannot get grand strategy right. The chapter then looks at the importance of politics and policy debates to grand strategy.
Denizens of a Center
Authors: Irwin Ryan
Published: March 2021

This chapter reviews the most commonly utilized historical example of grand strategy—the early Cold War—and revisits the period's most frequently analyzed protagonists: George Kennan, Walter Lippmann, and Dean Acheson. However, it is not about that era's seminal strategic doctrine: containment. Instead, it explores the relationship between law and power and argues for a new understanding of the intellectual architecture of the early Cold War. At mid-century, American liberals shared a particular vocabulary about strategy—about realism itself—that reflected specific claims about natural law, sovereign interdependence, and World War I. Drawing on rarely examined primary documents, the chapter excavates this conversation and suggests that these assumptions informed how American leaders defined their aspirations and their capabilities. At a time when US leaders are profoundly divided over the country's foreign policy, there is value in revisiting the concepts that animated and circumscribed an earlier generation's strategic thought.
Local Law, Military Orders and Administrative Law
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

When the IDF took control over the West Bank and Gaza in 1967 it issued a proclamation that the local law would remain in force subject to changes made by military orders. This chapter discusses the Court’s approach to various issues concerning the local law and its relationship with orders promulgated by the military commander, including the scope of judicial review over such orders. The Court has held that since the military commander is an arm of the Israeli government, his actions in the Occupied Territories, including promulgation of military orders, are subject to the rules of Israeli administrative law. The chapter concludes by addressing the role of administrative law in judicial review over actions in the Occupied Territories.
International Human Rights Law
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

The generally accepted position today is that international human rights treaties to which an occupying state is a party apply to that state’s actions in occupied territory. The Government of Israel rejects this position. This chapter examines the Court’s view on the issue. The Court often refers to provisions in human rights treaties in its decisions relating to Israel’s actions in the Occupied Territories, but it has never taken a firm position on the treaties’ formal applicability. The Court’s position on the relationship between international human rights law and other applicable bodies of law is also ambiguous. Thus the Court has left the applicable legal regime indeterminate.
Security Powers: Basic Issues
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

This chapter introduces the third part of the book, which deals with security measures. It describes the security concerns that underpin the Court’s decisions. It shows that while the Court never examines the legitimacy of establishing settlements, the Court later regards the need to protect the settlers as legitimate grounds for restricting the rights and liberties of the local population. The chapter discusses domestic courts’ disinclination to review security issues, and the Israeli Supreme Court’s approach to the matter, which has evolved through the years. The chapter concludes by discussing cases on freedom of movement and limitations on access to designated areas.
Internment on Security Grounds
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

One of the main security measures employed by the military authorities in the Occupied Territories has been internment, outside the criminal process. The main form of internment, employed since the beginning of the occupation, has been administrative detention. This form of detention was not considered appropriate when there were mass detentions of potential fighters during active hostilities and a special legal arrangement was adopted to deal with such detentions. Another form of detention adopted at the beginning of this century is incarceration of persons regarded as ‘unlawful combatants.’ This chapter discusses the Court’s approach in review of all these forms of internment.
Judicial Review of Hostilities
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the Court’s approach in petitions challenging means and methods of warfare and IDF actions during ongoing hostilities. It shows that while the Court has rejected the government’s argument that such petitions are by their very nature non-justiciable, the scope of review in such cases is narrow. The chapter argues that in cases regarding ongoing hostilities the Court serves as a mediator rather than as a body that must rule in a dispute between the parties. The final part of the chapter relates to the Court’s approach to petitions demanding investigation into deaths caused during hostilities.
Conclusion
Authors: Stoia Nicholas
Published: March 2021

The Conclusion turns back to the initial postwar examples. After the preceding excavation of the musical past, we can now see the ancient foundations upon which these later songs are built. It is not within the scope of this study to make a detailed exploration of the “Sweet Thing” scheme in postwar popular music, but consideration of these and a few other examples gives some indication of the increasingly wide range of genres that it enters into during this period, and of later popular music’s strong reflections of the past.
A Struggle for Recognition, 1911–15
Authors: Bryan Simms
Published: March 2021

Chapter 3 covers Berg’s life and music from the end of his apprenticeship until his conscription in the Austrian army during World War II. During this time Berg worked mainly as an assistant for his teacher, Schoenberg, and he also made several piano arrangements for the publisher Universal Edition. Berg was increasingly active as a writer on music, and in 1913 he completed a lengthy technical analysis of Schoenberg’s Gurrelieder. His compositions during the period contain many new procedures and materials that go beyond those approved of by Schoenberg. His Altenberg Songs (1912) and Orchestra Pieces (1914–15) reach a new level of complexity in their deep structure, and these works are intensely unified by the development and variation of themes. His Clarinet Pieces (1913) are brief works in an “aphoristic” style also used at the time by Schoenberg and Anton Webern.
Secret Programs with Twelve Tones, 1925–27
Authors: Bryan Simms
Published: March 2021

Chapter 7 covers the years 1925–27, the period in which Berg first began composing with a version of Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method. His first such work was the song “Schließe mir die Augen beide,” for which he reused the poetic text of an earlier song. Berg continued to apply and to refine his twelve-tone method in the Lyric Suite for string quartet and in all of his later works. The method ultimately became his alone, only remotely resembling that of Schoenberg. Berg also faced a midlife crisis during these years. In 1925 he fell in love with Hanna Fuchs-Robettin, the wife of a Prague industrialist and sister of the writer Franz Werfel. The “affair” was largely a fantasy on Berg’s part, although it inspired him to compose and to encode aspects of his encounter with Hanna Fuchs using ciphers and numbers. His Lyric Suite for string quartet made extensive use of such symbols.
Berg’s Final Year, 1935
Authors: Bryan Simms
Published: March 2021

Chapter 10 describes Berg’s final year, 1935. His financial and physical condition continued to deteriorate, and the rise of National Socialism prevented performance of his works in Germany and Austria. Completion of Lulu was delayed by a commission from the American virtuoso Louis Krasner to compose a violin concerto. Completed in the summer of 1935, the work became a memorial to Manon Gropius, the daughter of Alma Mahler. Berg’s Symphonic Pieces from Lulu was the last composition that he heard performed before his death on 24 December 1935. Berg’s final illness is analyzed. His death by sepsis was likely caused by an underlying immune deficiency brought about by his lifelong habit of excessive self-medication.
Interactions and Implications
Authors: Schroeder Daniel V.
Published: March 2021

Although the law of entropy increase governs the direction in which things change, we don’t observe entropy directly. Instead we observe three quantities—temperature, pressure, and chemical potential—that tell us how the entropy of a system changes as it interacts in three different ways with its surroundings. This chapter shows how these three quantities are mathematically related to a system’s entropy, energy, volume, and number of particles. These relations complete the foundation of macroscopic thermodynamics. Moreover, for the three model systems whose entropies are calculated explicitly in the previous chapter, these relations lead to detailed testable predictions of thermal behavior.
Establishing Pro-ᶜAbbāsid Orthodoxy
Authors: Ibrahim Ayman S.
Published: March 2021

Chapter 3 examines conversion themes in pre-miḥna historical works, written by historians who lived and wrote before the enforcement of the miḥna in 218/833. These works are the earliest available from the ᶜAbbasid era. The chapter analyzes how the caliphs’ attempts to establish a pro-ᶜAbbāsid orthodoxy influenced history writing and thus impacted historical depictions of conversion. Tracing and analyzing topoi of conversion, the chapter demonstrates how pro-ᶜAbbāsid historians portrayed the conversion of major Umayyad figures unfavorably, advancing pro-Shīᶜite and pro-ᶜAlid depictions. ᶜAbbāsid depictions are contrasted with pre-ᶜAbbāsid portrayals to emphasize how religio-political disputes shape the historiographical narrative.
Attempts at Compromise
Authors: Ibrahim Ayman S.
Published: March 2021

Chapter 4 focuses on the aftermath of the miḥna and the continued fight for orthodoxy in the period (218/833–299/911). It examines the interaction between the caliphs and their historians, tracing and analyzing conversion topoi in works written during this period. It establishes how the ᶜAbbāsid caliphs’ attempts—both at compromise with the traditionists and at maintaining the fight for ᶜAbbāsid claims—have redesigned conversion depictions. This period witnessed both the suppression of extreme views and the elevation of moderate portrayals of conversion. Conversion depictions in the aftermath of the miḥna were influenced by reconciliatory attempts between the rulers and historians, as evidenced by the harmonization of differing ideologies.
Income, Wealth, Employment, and Beyond
Authors: Medgyesi Márton , Tóth István György
Published: March 2021

This chapter looks at trends in 10 Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries, exploring both convergence between these countries and the centre of the European Union on the one hand and comparative inequality trends within some of the CEE economies on the other. Time trends are presented from the beginning of the 1990s until the most recent available year. The aim is to explore patterns of income convergence and inequality developments experienced during and after the transition from non-democratic regimes and centrally planned economies to competitive markets and representative democracies. Attention is paid to between-country similarities and dissimilarities of the paths taken, attempting to find out whether homogeneity or heterogeneity dominates between the observed countries, both in relation to trends and results.
Rising Inequality in the Egalitarian Nordics
Authors: Barth Erling , Moene Kalle , Pedersen Axel West
Published: March 2021

The chapter demonstrates that while the Nordic countries remain relatively affluent and egalitarian, inequality of disposable household income has been on the rise over the past 30 years. The increase in income inequality and relative income poverty has been strongest in Sweden and more modest in three other countries. In Sweden and, to a lesser extent, in Finland and Denmark, a reduced role for social transfers among the working age population has contributed to a decline in relative income levels enjoyed by the bottom deciles. Often in the wake of serious macroeconomic downturns, politicians have reduced the generosity of social transfers to improve labour market incentives. Even if these reforms have had the intended effect on employment, the increase in earnings has not been sufficient to replace the loss of social transfers.
Saved by the Baguette
Authors: Goff James , Dudley Walter
Published: March 2021

Volcanoes are an important cause of catastrophic tsunamis, none more so than Santorini (Thera) that erupted with devastating power approximately 1600 bc. This Late Bronze Age eruption generated a tsunami that rampaged throughout the Mediterranean and saw the beginning of the end for the Minoan civilization at the time. In more recent times, the 1883 eruption of Krakatau in Indonesia caused similar mayhem. However, the recent eruption of Krakatau’s child, Anak Krakatau, shows the disturbing ability of volcanoes to rebuild and repeat. In this chapter, these events and several more are charted through their local and distant effects, concluding with a salutary tale about the man in Martinique who was saved by a stolen baguette.
Soul
Authors: Adamson Peter
Published: March 2021

Razi’s posits a foolish cosmic soul that is responsible for triggering the creation of the world after it “turns toward” matter. This chapter shows that his reasons for this turn especially on the need to explain evil and suffering in the world. It also explores the relation between this cosmic soul and the individual souls of humans, drawing on not only what is known of Razi’s philosophical works, but also on his medical writings. Another question discussed at length is the relation between human and animal souls. Here it is argued that Razi may not, as usually assumed, have believed in the possibility of human-animal transmigration. Furthermore, it is shown that his views on animal rationality are more traditional than has been supposed, since he excludes rationality and intellect from the mental lives of animals. However, he does admit that animals are capable of a kind of non-rational “thought” or intelligence.
Creating Environments
Authors: Kingwell Mark
Published: March 2021

Perhaps the most challenging aspect of current building practices is the impact that long-standing creations have on the environment, even as they are slotted into existing networks of functionality. LEED certificates are just the beginning of environmental responsibility in current conditions. This chapter examines both what is currently being done in building practice and what the future might hold, or demand, from designers.
Creating Art
Authors: Kingwell Mark
Published: March 2021

Ethics and aesthetics are not always conjoined, but this chapter argues for a close connection between. Good design is its own kind of responsibility: to the norms of architectural history, but also to the possibility of elegant innovations that can, just a revolutionary work of art in another medium, alter the conversation. Some architects do not consider themselves artist, but the greats ones did and do so still.
Women and the elaboration of a Russian language norm
Authors: Archaimbault Sylvie
Published: March 2021

The chapter documents women’s contribution to the standardization and spreading of the Russian language, from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries. In eighteenth-century Russia, powerful women, among whom two empresses, were in a good position to shape language policy. The chapter carefully examines contributions of women to language development in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, through salons, literature, and translation. In the nineteenth century, due to social conservatism, women were unable to play a prominent a role in the development of the language, although they were active in producing translations, poetry, and prose. By the end of the century, the strong development of higher education courses for women led to an emergence of female specialists in the field of teaching the Russian language. This enabled women to achieve an active position in describing the Russian language and, more broadly, in the field of general linguistics.
Obstacles and opportunities for women linguists in Scandinavia
Authors: Bull Tove , Henriksen Carol , Swan Toril
Published: March 2021

This chapter concerns the role played by women in the history of linguistics in the Nordic countries: Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Our main focus is on the period from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-twentieth century, a period that began with the gradual emergence of the nation states of the North and the need for the codification of common national languages. Gradually, education became more widespread, and although the first schools were for boys, private education was given in upper-class homes and was thus also accessible for girls. The first grammarians were all men, so early on it is mostly behind the scenes that we find women involved in the study of language. Once women were allowed to participate in higher education, some of them made significant contributions to linguistics. In order to understand the role played by women, it is clearly necessary to view their contributions in the context of the age and society in which they lived.
Women and the codification and stabilization of the Arabic language
Authors: Sadiqi Fatima
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores and documents women’s contributions to the codification and stabilization of the Arabic language from the fourth to the nineteenth centuries across the region that roughly corresponds to today’s Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and Spain. Using the acknowledged sources of the Arabic language, namely pre-Islamic poetry, the oral and written process of transmitting the Qur’ân (holy book of Muslims) and Ḥadīth (Prophet Muhammad’s sayings and deeds), and consolidating practices such the construction of the language of Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and the teaching of Arabic, this chapter presents and reads women’s contributions to the codification and stabilization of Arabic as both direct and indirect. These readings are based on the linguistic value of women’s contributions and the contextualization of their legacy within an overall comprehensive Arab-Islamic patriarchy where women’s contributions helped establish the male canon in linguistic studies more than they served women as individual constructors of the Arabic language.
Disturbance, patches and mosaics
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

This chapter introduces the range of biological and physical processes that disturb soft sediment. It introduces the concept of disturbance regimes that connect the extent, frequency and magnitude of disturbance. Post-disturbance recovery processes are described in terms of processes that occur within the disturbed patch and processes that influence recovery from outside the patch. Moving on from the patch scale, the chapter introduces the concept of patch dynamics and the concept of the seafloor as a mosaic of patches at different stages of recovery from disturbance. Connectivity between patches is a critical factor linking local recovery processes to landscape-scale processes. This mosaic perspective leads to the introduction of metacommunity dynamics and the potential for heterogeneous landscapes to fragment and eventually homogenise seafloor communities as a consequence of the loss of large habitat-defining species.
Design and the philosophy of sampling
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

This chapter deals with the challenge we all face of translating ideas into the design of empirical research in soft-sediment habitats. It addresses the issues of study design and the inferences that can be drawn from different kinds of studies. Spatial and temporal scale is a critical issue in study design and the interpretation of results and the chapter introduces various elements of scale and how they can help you design rigorous and meaningful experiments. It focusses on the development of flow charts to help guide decisions needed to design field studies and the benefits of integrating experiments and surveys to improve mechanistic understanding and generality.
Restoration of soft-sediment habitats
Authors: Thrush Simon F. , Hewitt Judi E. , Pilditch Conrad A. , Norkko Alf
Published: March 2021

The final chapter addresses positive interventions that can help reverse the decline in soft-sediment ecosystems. Restoration draws on our understanding of ecosystem processes and the natural history of soft-sediment organisms. The chapter describes how active restoration can be designed to overcome bottlenecks that slow natural recovery processes and to form a critical part of integrative management strategies, such as ecosystem-based management. The chapter describes the what, why, where and how of active restoration, with a focus on the restoration of shellfish reefs, one of the most impacted soft-sediment habitats. Links between restoration and remediation are made to emphasise the importance of ecosystem function in generating positive changes in soft-sediment habitats. As restoration is likely to involve different elements of society in trying to fix problems, it is important that we develop effective ways of measuring success. The chapter ends by touching on the potential to generate new restoration economies, recognising that restoring nature can be at least as economically beneficial as developing more grey infrastructure.
The Origins of Technopopulism
Authors: Bickerton Christopher J. , Accetti Carlo Invernizzi
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the origins of the technopopulist political logic. It does so by identifying the origins and principal contours of the ideological political logic which preceded it. It then explores the relative decline of the ideological logic and the rise of technopopulism. The technopopulist logic has superimposed itself upon the ideological logic, leading to a complex interaction between the two. The theme of the chanpter is the formation and decline of organizing interests and the complex relationship between societal change and evolutions in national political party systems. The overarching narrative is of the separation of state from society (referred to process of disintermediation) and the connection of this to technopopulism. The rise of the technopopulist political logic is associated with a number of macro-historical processes, such as secularization, cognitive mobilization, and the decline of organized interests. However, the relationship between these processes and the rise of technopopulism is shaped by nationally specific experiences. The empirical focus of the chapter is on British, French, and Italian politics, but the argument refers also to broader changes that held across national political systems in Western Europe since 1945.
Joseph Addison and the Domestication of Paradise Lost
Authors: Corns Thomas N.
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the profound impact the editorial interventions and elaborate textual notes that Patrick Hume contributed to Tonson’s sixth edition of Paradise Lost in 1695 had on Milton’s status as a popular and accessible writer. Hume’s Annotations on Milton’s Paradise Lost, the first significant editorial treatment of a vernacular poet, acknowledges that a new readership had emerged that needed the kinds of assistance that Milton’s educated Protestant contemporaries had not required when reading the lifetime editions of 1667–9 and 1674. The shift in Milton’s status, from that of an elite-culture writer embedded in a radical political and theological tradition to that of the cultural icon of a broadly conceived English Protestantism, both prompted and was advanced by Joseph Addison’s remarkable series of essays on Paradise Lost in The Spectator.
A Just and Lasting Peace After War
Authors: Peperkamp Lonneke
Published: March 2021

While a ‘just and lasting peace’ is the axiomatic goal of a just war, it is not clear what that means exactly. The central question of this chapter is: How should a just war theorist understand peace, insofar that peace is the goal of just war theory, taking into account the theory’s middle position between political realism and moral idealism? In the first part of this chapter, the contemporary debate is mapped and various positions on peace are made explicit. This reveals a shift towards a more positive concept of peace. How far should this shift go? The second part of this chapter places the peace continuum in a lively debate in political philosophy on the role of feasibility constraints in normative theory. This chapter argues that a ‘just and lasting peace’ must be understood as a decent peace that is ‘just enough’.
Reconciliation and a Just Peace
Authors: Gallen James
Published: March 2021

This chapter re-examines reconciliation and the concept of just peace. Reconciliation is typically accepted as an aspirational goal, namely as a means to re-establish trust in norms, institutions, and civic community. Drawing on Dworkin’s theory of integrity, this chapter argues that reconciliation should be primarily understood as civic discourse in a post bellum context, namely as an instrument to empower affected victim-survivors and to identify legitimate areas of disagreement. Ultimately, this chapter argues the role of the international community in reconciliation, setting forth a holistic and critically engaged concept of it and the need of interdisciplinarity to assess such meaning.
Inclusion, Justice, and Peace in Colombia
Authors: Easterday Jennifer S.
Published: March 2021

This chapter discusses the interplay between inclusion and accountability, using the Colombian peace process as an example. The chapter examines how inclusive input into the peace process, including a referendum, can shape the nature of accountability in post-conflict situations. Drawing on the ‘peace before justice’ debate, the chapter asks whether extensive inclusion can be an impediment to peace, or a guarantor of just peace. It discusses the role of women in the negotiations and the Special Jurisdiction for Peace It concludes that peace processes should be inclusive and promote gender equality to support sustainable peace.
Downloading and Installing R
Authors: Láruson Áki J. , Reed Floyd A.
Published: March 2021

This chapter is a primer on getting started with the R language. It provides a brief background and history of R and a guide to downloading and installing R on three different operating systems (Windows, Mac, and Linux). It also gives an introduction to the Comprehensive R Archive Network (CRAN), the installation and use of the RStudio Integrated Development Environment (IDE), the basic commands concerning saving code that’s been written, and changing working directories.
Individual Differences Between Observers in Face Matching
Authors: Bate Sarah , Mestry Natalie , Portch Emma
Published: March 2021

Increasing evidence suggests vast individual differences in face-matching performance in both lay perceivers and relevant professionals. However, the field is hampered by a paucity of psychometric-standard assessment tasks. This chapter reviews the current evidence supporting individual differences in face matching, in light of the reliability of the available tools. The potential underpinnings of these individual differences are reviewed, alongside the overlap between different continua of face-processing skills. Given that so-called super-recognizers may offer a powerful security tool in relevant settings, the identification and deployment of these individuals are critically discussed. In particular, the reliability and appropriateness of current terminology and assessment tools are considered, together with potential limitations in the performance of even the strongest face matchers. While the current conceptualization of super-recognition can no doubt advance academic theory, this approach may not adequately identify the best individuals for real-world forensic face-matching tasks.
Forensic Face Matching
Authors: Moreton Reuben
Published: March 2021

Forensic face matching evidence has been presented in UK courts for over 30 years to provide crucial identification evidence in criminal investigations. To be admissible as evidence in UK courts, face matching must be conducted by a suitably qualified expert using scientifically validated procedures. Contrary to this notion, however, the field has been largely self-regulated, with little empirical investigation into the validity of face matching procedures and extensive criticism of forensic face matching in the scientific literature. Practitioner working groups are now addressing these criticisms and standardizing working practices, but further effort is required to ensure that the procedures used for forensic face matching are reliable and the limitations known. This chapter provides a critical analysis of the forensic face matching procedures used in the UK and internationally by forensic face examiners, alongside studies and case examples that have challenged and tested the reliability and accuracy of these procedures.
Anger and Injustice
Authors: Deane-Drummond Celia E.
Published: March 2021

Individual acts of violence are always situated in the context of a community of relationships with others. Anger, as a passion, can be used for good or ill and this chapter will explore ways in which anger can be expressed. This chapter will address two broad questions on biosocial capacities for anger and two theological questions. In what sense is the human capacity for anger shaped through biological or cultural influences? What specific contexts reduce the likelihood of anger and what are the evolutionary advantages? In what sense might anger become sinful in theological terms? How might God’s anger be perceived in Augustine and contemporary theology? This chapter will begin by exploring evolutionary aspects of aggression and how these are related to social psychological categories. In philosophical terms, Aristotle’s definition of anger and the specific criteria for its presence are important, but so is the difference between anger and hatred. Thomas Aquinas defines anger as one of the moral passions and works out in what circumstances it become sinful. Thomistic discussion is still relevant to contemporary analysis even though Aquinas did not have access to the evolutionary and psychological data that are available in a contemporary context.