bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Freedom of Speech and Representative Government
Authors: Zines Leslie
Published: October 2023

In recent decades similar issues of freedom of speech, expression or communication have come before the courts of several countries. The issues have arisen in the context of applying the provisions of constitutions or international conventions and common law principles. The courts include those of the United States, Britain, Canada, Germany, India, Australia, New Zealand and the European Court of Human Rights. In all these cases the courts have accepted that special regard should be had to freedom of communication on matters pertaining to politics and government which, in the words of the European Court of Human Rights, ‘is at the very core of the concept of a democratic society’.1 I shall be referring to only some of these jurisdictions.
Freedom of Expression in the EU Legal Order and in EU Relations with Third Countries
Authors: Qc Derrick Wyatt
Published: October 2023

The process by which freedom of expression has entered the legal order of the European Union1 and emerged as a value protected by the Union in its relations with third countries has been gradual, and explanation of the process as well as the result seems appropriate. The first stage in the process was the recognition by the Court of Justice of the European Communities of general principles of law binding upon the Community institutions in the performance of their tasks under the Treaties. A further stage was recognition that those general principles included human rights, as evidenced in particular by the European Court of Human Rights. The Court’s case law held that such principles were binding upon not only the Community institutions in the performance of their tasks under the Treaties, but also upon the Member States, when the latter implemented their Treaty obligations, and when they sought to rely upon express or implied derogations from the free movement provisions of the EC Treaty. Once an even indirect and evidentiary role for the European Convention on Human Rights was established, it was inevitable that freedom of expression would find its place in the legal order of the Community system, since Article 10 of the European Convention guaranteed freedom of expression.
Linkage Between Access to Information and judicial Review
Authors: Lewis Clive
Published: October 2023

This paper considers the extent to which the substantive principles of public law and more particularly the process of and procedure of judicial review encourages or requires openness and transparency on the part of decision-makers. Openness can involve two separate issues: namely, the giving of reasons for why a particular decision has been reached and also the disclosure of documents or other primary material used in a decision-making process. A number of theoretical and practical justifications have been advanced for the giving of reasons, including improving the quality of decision-making and the rights of the individual concerned. These reasons have been well canvassed in the literature.1 From the point of a court engaged in judicial review, however, the most pressing justification is the need to know why a particular decision has been taken. Absent some indication of the reasoning under lying a decision, the courts will, in practice, have difficulty in identifying whether or not the decision is flawed by some reviewable error.
Integrating Justice
Authors: Parker Christine
Published: October 2023

Weaving together the four waves of reform that access to justice researchers and policy-makers have developed over the last thirty years achieves modest improvements in access to justice. The first wave focuses on helping people enforce their traditional legal rights adequately in the courts. Its strategy is to provide more state-employed lawyers in an attempt to expand the scope of formal legal services. The second wave is concerned with using social movement politics to change the law, court procedures, and ultimately society so that this access becomes more meaningful. It advocates the employment of more lawyers by institutions of civil society to reform formal legal institutions.
Sources of International Law and the Control of Infectious Diseases
Authors: Fidler David P
Published: October 2023

The diplomatic efforts to control infectious diseases create a rich set of material to use in considering international law and infectious disease control. This chapter deepens the understanding of how international law has developed in this area over the course of approximately 150 years. The sources of international law provide the framework for this analysis because this chapter focuses on how infectious disease control has been reflected in the international legal tools available to States and international organizations.
Introduction to securities, interests in securities, the Securities markets and settlement*
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

The central idea in this book is that interests in securities are legally distinct from securities. Securities are a type of transferable financial asset. The meaning of the term ‘securities ‘has varied over time. Originally the term was used to denote security interests(such as mortgages and charges) supporting the payment of a debt or otherobligation. In the early modern period, companies and government agencies began to raise capital from the public by issuing transferable debt obligations; there payment of these debt obligations was secured on the assets of the issuer.
International and UK Securities Settlement1
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

Settlement is the process whereby (interests in) securities are delivered from per- son to person, usually against payment, in order to fulfil contractual delivery obligations such as those arising under contracts of sale and collateral arrangements. Chapter 1 provided a brief overview of settlement, and considered the different types of electronic arrangements that have been developed in order to facilitate settlement. It argued that where the interests of participants in settlement systems are intermediated and commingled in the course of electronic settlement, such arrangements alter the nature of the asset of the participant. This asset consists, not of securities held directly from the issuer, but rather of unallocated and indirect interests constituting intangible assets, which the author has called interests in securities. Chapter 2 considered the legal nature of interests in securities. Chapter 13 will argue that they confer property rights as against the intermediaries through whom they are asserted.
Property Rights in Interests in Securities
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

This chapter will develop the proposition that, as against the intermediary, the client enjoys property rights in interests in securities. This discussion involves a certain amount of legal history and technical material which may not interest practitioners, and has therefore been delayed until the penultimate chapter of this book.
British Pressure Groups and the European Community
Authors: Philip Alan Butt
Published: October 2023

Membership of the European Community has not only led to significant constitutional and organizational changes for British government, it als’l introduced a major new area of work for non¬ governmental bodies representing British interests. This brought about big organizational changes for many UK pressure groups and caused them to rethink their lobbying strategies to include a European dimension. This process of integration into Community decision-making attracted only limited attention in the early years of British membership, although it has in fact been continuing slowly from the 1970s onwards. Such changes did not all occur in the immediate aftermath of UK accession. 1
Causes and Functions of By-Elections
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: October 2023

The primary purpose of Parliamentary by-elections is to replace members in constituencies which fall vacant between general elections, but these contests can serve a range of other functions with an impact on Parliament, political parties, and election campaigns. By-elections can have significant consequences for the recruitment of new blood to the House. There have been almost 400 contests since the war and during some Parliaments there has been as much as a 10 per cent turnover of members through by-elections. By elections have allowed parties to bring back leading front-benchers defeated in the previous general election, such as Harold Macmillan in 1945, Anthony Barber in 1965, and Shirley Williams in 1981. This route into Parliament has become more significant in recent years given the increased safeness of incumbent MPs (Curtice and Steed 1986).
BY-Elections, 1966-1979
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: October 2023

From the start of Harold Wilson’s second term of office the government started losing by-election seats in rapid succession. The years of this administration proved a watershed in British by-election his tory: out of 37 contests the government was defeated in almost half. The Labour government, returned to office in April 1966 with a comfortable majority of 97, ran into serious trouble within four months. In early 1966 the government faced increasing economic problems with speculation against sterling, the mounting balance of payment deficit, and the seamen’s union on strike. To tackle the economic problems the government introduced a series of unpopular measures: the wages freeze in July 1966 to bring down inflationary pressures, the devaluation of the pound in November 1967, and reductions in public expenditure on defence, education and health.
Future Neutrality?
Authors: Holbraad Carsten
Published: October 2023

WHILE the 1980s, as we have seen, brought an accentuation of the neutralist tendencies in Danish foreign policy, the 1990s have opened with a fresh commitment to solidarity and co-operation in both alliance and Community policy. In regard to NATO, the change of course had already started in the later part of 1988. When the Radical Liberals, after the election in May of that year, joined the right-of-centre coalition government, the centre-left parliamentary majority on security issues disappeared. That put an end to the long series of parliamentary resolutions which for half a dozen years had constrained the minority ornament to follow the so-called footnote policy at NATO meetings. Later in the year, the four old political parties managed to restore the broad agreement on security policy on which Danish alliance policy had rested in the previous decades. The Social Democrats joined the government in passing a defence agreement for the 1989–91 period as well as a resolution setting up an ad hoc defence commission to report on the long-term goals and needs of the Danish armed forces. When that commission reported, in January of 1990, only the Socialist People’s party dissented. The report rested on the assumption of continued Danish membership of NATO and acknowledged the importance of the solidarity of the alliance, particularly in a period of significant arms reduction negotiations.1 The current commitment to NATO may also be detected in the results of public opinion surveys, which in the summer of 1990 still showed an overwhelming majority in favour of membership, and less than 20 per cent against.
‘Rule, System, and Technique’: Reconstructing Turkish Folk Music
Authors: Stokes Martin
Published: October 2023

Many folk musicians claim that the value of their music lies in the fact that it is free from abstract and arbitrary rules. For Gokalp, ‘Turkish music consists of melodies, unfettered by rule, system, and technique (kaidesiz, usulsuz, fensiz), of sincere songs which express the heart of the Turk’.1 At the same time, rules, systems, and techniques are not only implicitly recognized, but explicitly taught. A way of talking about music as though it were systematic has been created under the social and historical circumstances described in the last chapter. The relationship of this language to what it purports to describe is complex, but provides an important key to the arabesk debate.
Northern Ireland, 1921-1929: A Failed Consociational Experiment
Authors: O’Leary Cornelius
Published: October 2023

In the second decade of this century the British Liberal government was faced with an apparently intractable problem in Ireland-the fact that the Unionist majority in the province of Ulster seemed determined to carry opposition to the modest measure of Home Rule Parliament demanded by the overwhelming majority of the rest of Ireland to the point of civil war; so it searched desperately for what would nowadays be called a consociational formula. Various devices to conciliate the minority were considered-a qualified veto on legislation and additional members nominated by the government-but the device most widely supported was the Hare method of proportional representation, the single transferable vote (STV). This was canvassed by an influential pressure group, the Proportional Representation Society, first in submissions to the Royal Commission on Electoral Systems (1910) and then specifically in relation to the all-Ireland legislature envisaged in the Home Rule Bills of 1910, 19u, and 1912.
A Statistical Analysis of Judicial Discretion
Authors: Robertson David
Published: October 2023

In the first chapter we stressed two things-that we were committed to a legal realist position in which the decisions of courts are policy decisions, or acts arising from the interaction of judges’ personal preferences, and that much depends on the way the House of Lords works in ever changing quasi-random panels of only five Law Lords. The methodology of the Legal Realists, called by both themselves and their opponents ‘debunking’, was to subject cases to detailed argument to demonstrate the essentially arbitrary nature of the decisions, and the extent to which the judicial arguments signally failed to ‘determine’ the results. There is no alternative to such a method, and Chapters 3 and 4 present our attempt at a similar ‘deconstruction’ of modern English judicial argument. Such an approach is absolutely necessary, because our thesis requires that there be alternative arguments easily enough assembled to justify almost any decision a judge wishes to come to, and that his colleagues’ arguments cannot be logically powerful enough to block his route. This we describe as an analysis of judicial methodology. By itself though such an approach is not quite enough. All that can be established by such conventional methods of socio-legal analysis is that individual judicial preference could matter enormously.
Judicial Methodology and the Common Law
Authors: Robertson David
Published: October 2023

In contrast to the highly linguistic methods of statutory interpretation, purely common law argument from decided cases and their enshrined principles has a greater fluidity. Contrary to much lay opinion, common law still accounts for perhaps as much as half of the cases before the higher courts. In this book the common law is mainly studied in terms of criminal law, public law, and the general law of obligations, although large parts of contract and land law are predominantly uncodified. From the overall perspective of this book our task in this chapter is harder than in Chapter 3. There is very little in democratic thought, or in the working assumptions of the British constitution, that can legitimize judicial discretion in statutory interpretation if that discretion is widely used to make legislation mean what an individual judge can persuade his colleagues to agree it means in pursuit of his own beliefs. If slot machine jurisprudence can be expected anywhere, it is in statutory interpretation.
In1posing Rationality on the State
Authors: Robertson David
Published: October 2023

Public law, the subject of the next three chapters, is both hard to characterize in general, and a difficult area on which to assess the Law Lords. Obviously it is the area where political and other attitudes will have major consequences because it deals with the courts’ abilities to exercise control over the executive. There are several reasons for the difficulty, which is probably more acute in the nineties than for some time. First, there are important, perhaps still dominant strands in the British constitutional approach which tend against the very legitimacy of curial interference with the executive.
Counting Influence
Authors: Brand Jack
Published: October 2023

In 1970 and again in 1973, John Lynskey produced evidence to show that British back-benchers had some influence on the policies of their own parties. Norton analysed the increased rebelliousness of private Members and in a recent book he questioned the idea that they had no influence, but Lynskey is the only person who tried to study the actual influence of back benchers, as opposed to speculating on it or counting the occasions when they rebelled against the whips. Influencing policy and open rebellion against the party are not synonymous. A quiet word in the minister’s ear, perhaps before the measure even gets to the parliamentary draftsman, may change an important detail or even the whole drift of a Bill. Only in a few spectacular cases is a government proposal fought by the government’s supporters right up to the debate in the House. Thus Lynskey tackles the relation which King rightly says is the most important: that between a government and its own back benchers.
Parliament and Policy In Scotland
Authors: Brand Jack
Published: October 2023

Several characteristics of Scottish policy set it off from other fields discussed in this book. Most evidently, the field is defined by a territory and not by a type of service or governmental role. In other chapters, topics such as housing and education policy making have been explored, and among the relevant institutions have been the Department of Education and Science or the House of Commons Select Committee on the Environment. For the most part, these organizations deal with education or with housing policy in England or in England and Wales. Scottish policy, as far as Parliament is concerned, covers all the subject fields which have been administratively devolved to Scotland. This is the wide and sometimes difficult remit of the Scottish Office and of the Scottish parliamentary committees.
Apprehension and Cognition
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James
Published: October 2023

With ritualization there is a new state of affairs which can be summed up by saying that actors both arc and are not the authors of their acts. The relation between intention and action is transformed. This does not mean, as we have already remarked, that a person does not have thoughts and intentions when performing ritual. Such a person is not turned into an automaton or an unconscious subject of habit. Ritual acts are publicly stipulated cultural constructs, yet wide variations in how they are enacted and how they arc thought about indicate that while they are in this sense not individual, they are not completely shared either. In this chapter we compare the cognition of ritualized action with that of everyday action.
Tribes and Events in the Modern World
Authors: Dresch Paul
Published: October 2023

In the years around 1980 the tribes were often as little subject to direct governmental control as they had been in, say, the mid nineteenth century. Much of what happened in the short term was connected with an intense rivalry between North Yemen’s neighbours, South Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Not all of it need concern us. But to ignore the wider political context would be to discount the genuine problems the North had to face and which on the whole it faced successfully. Nor would events among the tribes, such as those on which we drew in the opening chapters of the present book, make anything but a mythical sense.
The House
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

Malay houses always have more than one door. There are many ways to enter the house. What is it that gives the house in Langkawi its significance? What makes a house a house? Is it its spatial layout, its physical structure as a building, the rituals which are enacted in it and which are part of the process of building? Or is the social significance of the house an aspect of the quality and types of relations of the people who live within it and of the activities which they engage in there?
Bodies within Bodies: The House and the Sibling Group
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

Brothers and sisters are, at least in theory, born and brought up in one house but, as they establish their own nuclear families, they come to live in different houses. Siblings are strongly attached to their natal house and symbolically associated with it, but siblingship is also the idiom of kinship in general and of relations in the wider community. In this chapter I trace out some of the specific and more general meanings of siblingship in Langkawi.
Between Houses: Visiting, Eating, and Feasting
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

The last chapter described how Langkawi villagers’ experience of the state, and of national and local political, religious, and economic institutions, is both fragmented and fragmenting. In this chapter and those that follow I show how an opposition between the house and the similarity of substance that unites those within it, and the divisive world that lies beyond the house is overcome.
The Incorporation of Difference: Marriage
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

In the last chapter I argued that houses may be symbolically expanded in order to negate the division that exists in the world outside, and which always threatens to destroy the inner harmony of the house. The com¬ pound and the neighbourhood can be viewed as expanded houses. And this is clear in the way visits are conducted and in patterns of commensality. At communal feasts, the whole village seems to be envisaged as an enlarged domestic group. Such feasts are held, above all, to celebrate marriages.
Building a Europe with the Regions: The Changing Role of the European Commission
Authors: Hooghe Liesbet
Published: October 2023

The president of the European Commission, Jacques Delors, launched the cohesion concept in 1986 as the counterpart of the free market. Cohesion had a double loading. It summarized a novel policy rationale to deal more effectively with the old problem of regional economic disparities, but it also held a political promise to involve subnational actors more openly in European decisionmaking. The target groups of Delors’s approach were les forces vives, among which regions figured prominently. Hence, subnational mobilization was crucial to its success. The core instrument of the new cohesion policy was structural programming for indigenous regional and local development. The three structural funds (agricultural, social, and regional funds) would combine their efforts in the regions and local areas of Europe. Organizationally, this meant that the Directorate-General for Regional Policy (DG XVI), which runs the large regional development fund, became the pivotal agency. To conceptualize and supervise the implementation of the policy, a separate directorate-general was created for the co-ordination of structural policies: DG XXII. Its task was to centralize control.
Germany and the Structural Funds: Unification Leads to Bifurcation
Authors: Anderson Jeffrey J
Published: October 2023

How best to characterize the impact of EU cohesion policy on German territorial politics? Intuitively, one might expect a significant reordering of centre-periphery relations; Germany’s ‘spatial-federal’ system endows its regional governments (Länder) with considerable autonomy and a prominent role in federal policy implementation, owing to Bonn’s lack of a field administrative apparatus (Blair 1981; Gunlicks 1986). As such, the Länder, in contrast to their counterparts in regionalized and unitary member states, are well positioned to compete for EU funds and to engage the Commission as full-fledged partners in the formulation and implementation of cohesion policy, perhaps even at the expense of Bonn’s federal regional policy goals and its position as ‘gatekeeper’ in Brussels. Has this in fact occurred?
Civil Service Attitudes Towards the European Union
Authors: Buller Jim , Smith Martin J
Published: October 2023

An assessment of civil service attitudes to the Europe Union (EU)1 is both conceptually and empirically difficult. Conceptually, it is not clear whether a unified ‘civil service attitude’ exists or can be defined. Empirically, discovering civil service attitudes to the EU is more or less impossible, because constitutionally civil servants are neutral and therefore do not express political attitudes. Unlike a political party or a trade union, civil servants do not release policy documents indicating their view on European integration.
Wages, Speculation, and Interest
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

It is difficult to say who the founders of modern macro-economics were. There is no doubt, however, that a starting-point for much of the subject’s subsequent development was Wicksell and his monetary theory, ‘which Lindhal clarified, and to which Myrdal gave the vital spark with his distinction between the two temporal viewpoints of ex-ante and ex-post’ .An extraordinary contribution to the development of the Swedish theory of monetary equilibrium was Myrdal’s essay Monetary Equilibrium. This was ‘in its original Swedish and German versions equally as remarkable and in certain respects equally as successful as Keynes’s own contribution in explanation of variations in the general level of output’.Myrdal’s essay broke new ground in strictly monetary matters as well, with its pioneering ideas on the variability of the velocity of circulation and, to a certain extent, its thesis of the endogeneity of the money supply.
Method and Vision of the World
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Kaldor was neither a pure deductivist nor an extreme inductivist; neither an economist who dealt solely in grand abstractions nor simply an applied economist; neither a detached theoretician nor a mere ‘counsellor to the prince’ he was, always, all of these things. But even though his interest in political matters and his appetite for facts may have sometimes prevailed over his concern for theoretical abstraction, especially towards the end of his life, he never neglected this latter dimension to his subject.
Government Budget and Privatization
Authors: Bos Dieter
Published: October 2023

This is the first section in which fiscal policy measures are discussed. We assume there are public expenditures which are spent for the provision of a public good. This good is the numeraire, so G measures both quantity and expenditures. The public good is perfectly divisible in production and is produced by the private firms as their (n+1)th output. The government and the privatized firm know the supply function y  n+1(pG), where p  G is the extended price vector (p, 1).
The Population Enigma
Authors: Ohlin Göran
Published: October 2023

There are two levels of discourse about population. The specialists, to whom I do not belong, are struggling to come to grips with a bewildering variety of evidence and theories. Economists tend to look for simple ideas that might be relevant to policy-making. I fall half-way between the two—impatient with some of the grossly simplified assertions about population that are so often encountered in the political arena, intrigued and disconcerted by the failure to make much headway in the interpretation of population changes.
Optimal Income Tax and Redistribution
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

This book provides a comprehensive survey of optimal income tax theory, following the development of research strategy from the basic Mirrlees model through to its refinements, examining how optimal tax rates and the shape of tax schedules are affected by new considerations. Optimal tax theory has an important contribution to make to tax policy formation, and has become especially pertinent in recent years with the renewal of controversy over whether progressive income tax is in fact desirable or not. The author not only covers the historical background and modern formulations of the theory, but extends his discussion to consider the most important extensions of the model and the interrelation of income tax with other instruments of tax and expenditure policy.
Labour Supply and Income Taxation
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

It has often been taken for granted that most of us work only for financial reward. This undoubtedly limits the chances of redistributing income. In other words, it raises the question of the necessity to provide incentives to work. What is meant by ‘incentive to work’ is not at all as obvious as it might seem. The quantitative results of both the interview and econometric models suggest that an increase in net earnings per hour may reduce the number of hours of labour an individual is willing to supply, that is, a backward-sloping labour supply curve (see Table 3.2). Many people’s first reaction to this is that taxes have very little (if anything) to do with the number of hours worked: in most jobs, the number of hours of work is fixed. Furthermore, the number of hours in different jobs is a consequence of technological or institutional considerations, including union and government regulation. Of course, institutions do change all the time. We also know from economic history that the continuing rise in the real wage rate over this century has been associated with a continuing reduction in hours worked per week. Many economists would argue that this change in hours worked has something to do with economic forces. As their wages have risen, individuals have chosen to take some of the gains in the form of increased leisure. It is worth emphasizing that .there is nothing irrational about such behaviour, which can be described by a backward-sloping supply curve.
Optimal Income Taxation and Utility Interdependence
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

Utility conflicts caused by redistribution have so far been solved by using utilitarian or Rawlsian social welfare functions. Thus redistribution has never been Pareto efficient in the sense that it allows all individuals to be at least as well off as they are under the status quo. The reason for this situation is simply that it has been assumed that each individual’s utility depends only on his or her income. This precludes incorporating the effects of utility interdependence (altruism and envy). In fact, much of the literature on economic theory recognizes that utilities are interdependent. Pareto and Pigou were among the first to write about utility interdependence. It is perhaps surprising to see Pareto’s name in this context in view of what is written about him in textbooks. Pareto’s (1917) concept of utility was totally different from the standard textbook definition. It was not restricted to the satisfaction that an individual could get from his own consumption, but also included all available sources of satisfaction, including those aroused by the consumption and relative income levels of others. Pigou (1947) in turn writes that ‘the satisfaction which a man derives from the possession of a given income depends, not only on the absolute amount of income, but also on the relation subsisting between it and the incomes of other people’. Pigou then concludes that the so-called proportional sacrifice principle indicates continued progression at the upper end of the income scale.
The Macro-economic Role of the State
Authors: Allsopp* Christopher
Published: October 2023

Most discussions of markets versus planning, or of compromises such as the ‘mixed economy’, focus on the role of government intervention in the allocation of resources and in the promotion and distribution of economic welfare. There is, however, another aspect of government which came to particular prominence in the post-war period—the role of the State in setting the macro-economic framework within which markets have to operate. Thus the 1950s and 196os—and arguably the 1970s and 1980s as well—were periods of active macro-economic management in pursuit of goals such as full employment, price stability, and balance of payments equilibrium. In parallel with changing views about the role of markets, this policy activism came to be widely questioned. Perceptions about what governments can and should do at the macro-economic level have swung about to an extraordinary extent as economic conditions have deteriorated.
Social Security Policy, Defining the Borders of the State
Authors: Dilnot* Andrew
Published: October 2023

In 1987/8 more than 25 million of the 56 million individuals in the UK received one or more social security benefits; for 9.6 million the benefit will be State retirement pension, for I2 million child benefit, for 3 million unemployment benefit or supplementary benefit. Some 7 million of the 20 million households in the UK received tested housing benefit. The cost of the whole social security programme was £47 billion, around one-third of total public expenditure, and considerably more than the total revenue from income taxation. The social security programme will cost more than twice as much as the next most expensive area, defence. It would not be unreasonable to think that in this area the State impinges most obviously on the behaviour and well-being of the population; that it is here that the economic borders of the State are most easily seen, and the activity of the State most important to the individuals affected.
Conclusion to Part III
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

The central hypothesis of Part III has been that peasant supply of marketed crops was influenced by the consumer goods shortages that developed in Tanzania in the late 1970s. Investigation of this hypothesis is fraught with difficulties, as will have become clear to the reader. We begin the chapter with a brief review of the problems and the devices adopted to circumvent them, and conclude it with a discussion of the implications of our results.
1914-1925: ‘A World Shattered—and Rebuilt’?
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

If, politically, the First World War can be seen as a culmination of trends already apparent before 1914, in the field of the economy it (eventually) marked a major break in trend. At its most general, this break combined a revolution in the way Britain related to the world economy, and domestically a vast extension of the role of the state. These consequences only gradually became apparent as the war progressed from ‘business as usual’ to a ‘nation in arms’ to ‘total war’ (French 1982). But whilst many foresaw—and some hoped—that this break, especially in its second aspect, would be permanent, by the early 1920s the thrust of economic policy was an attempt to re-establish British links to the world economy at their pre-1914 basis, and to rein back the state’s role. Policy looked back to a golden age and tried to restore it, just as post-revolutionary conservatives in France attempted to undo the French revolution, and in the long run just as unsuccessfully.
Introduction
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

This book analyses the structural, and hence endemic rather than cyclical, problems of Italian economic policy. It represents my view of the main results of a group of research studies carried out as part of the Italian National Research Council’s (CNR) First Targeted Project on the Economy. Many dozens of people contributed ideas, producing around 150 articles and books for a subproject entitled ‘Intervention strategies and techniques’, of which I was academic director for three years from 1985 to 1987.
Direct and Indirect Action by General Government and Public Corporations
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

Public-sector intervention in the Italian economy is substantial and increasing, in terms of both the volume and the functional diversity of public involvement. It takes the form of direct action which has an impact on the government’s budget, and indirect regulation of the private sector aimed at requiring or encouraging it to adopt certain patterns of behaviour. It is not always easy to distinguish between direct and indirect action, as a glance at the items of income and expenditure in the budget of general government in Italy amply demonstrates (Table 1.1).
Competition for the Market and Regulated Private Enterprises
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

Re-examining the problem of the link between natural and legal public monopolies, we should add that even where public intervention is preferable to counteract market failures due to a non-contestable natural monopoly, safeguards to prevent any abuse of a dominant position remain of vital importance. Such abuse could arise, for example, if a network operator claimed the right to compete with other enterprises in the provision of services over the network, either directly or via associated firms. Moreover, the practice of exclusive network operation should be subjected to periodic review, because network economies depend to a large extent on the size of the market; as the market expands, the co-existence of several competing networks may become compatible with economic efficiency.
Discretionary Instruments of Industrial Policy
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

Whereas the industrial-policy instruments listed above are of a general nature and leave the market free to adjust, discretionary measures in specific sectors are aimed at creating a different industrial structure to the one the market would have established. Industrial policy in this second sense tends to channel the flow of private investment towards particular companies, sectors, and regions. It is often used when it is felt that the market is incapable of bringing about the adjustments in the industrial structure that are deemed necessary, as in the case of the Mezzogiorno.
Direct Taxation
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

Finally, we wish to touch upon the income redistribution effected by the system of direct taxation. Three criteria have traditionally been suggested as a basis for judging the system: vertical equity, whereby those with a greater capacity to contribute are required to pay higher taxes; horizontal equity, whereby the revenue from incomes of equal amount but different types must be identical; and efficiency, in order to minimize the distorting effect of taxation on optimum resource allocation, which has been partly discussed above with regard to the choice between consumption and saving, between work and leisure.
1929-1939: Protection and Profits
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

The economic history of the 1930s is dominated by the boom and the slump. From the peak in 1929 output fell until 1932 when a recovery began, fuelled after 1935 by rearmament. Table 5.1 shows the dimensions of this slump. Unemployment followed the same cyclical pattern, but, whilst falling in the recovery, remained well over the million mark into the beginnings of the war. In comparison with many other countries the slump was relatively mild, and the recovery rapid. Output also grew quite rapidly from cyclical peak to cyclical peak (1929 to 1937). For those with work and especially in the South and East of Britain these were prosperous years as rising real wages fuelled a considerable expansion of expenditure. This forms one reason why despite the slump Conservative governments won successive elections with ease after the collapse of Labour in 1931. Nevertheless economic policy did change radically in the 1930s. The gold standard broke up and free trade disappeared. In addition the political and social pressures arising from unemployment drew government into acts of intervention in industry. Britain could certainly not be called a country of laissez-faire by 1939, though the best term to describe government ‘s role in the economy by that date remains questionable.
Twentieth-century Transformations
Authors: Lockwood Matthew
Published: October 2023

The procedures adopted here, and the principles underlying them, are fully explained in Bongaarts and Potter (1983). The usual procedure when using the model is to take the reported total fertility rate (TFR) and build up to a total fecundity rate of between thirteen and seventeen births per woman on the basis of information about each of the proximate determinants. Here, however, we have no detailed information on lactation, which will therefore have to be imputed. This can be done by taking the derived standard for total fecundity—15.3 births per woman—and working down towards the reported TFR.
Labour and Land in Mng’aru
Authors: Lockwood Matthew
Published: October 2023

The importance of demographic factors for household labour allocation and mobility in a rural economy depends crucially on land and labour institutions. Before we can understand how the life cycle and other demographic household features might influence economic activity in Rufiji we must assess (i) the role of wage labour and land acquisition, and (ii) the sexual division of labour. This chapter examines these institutions in Rufiji which form the background to the resulting process of accumulation, analysed in Chapter 7.
Household Demography and Patterns of Work
Authors: Lockwood Matthew
Published: October 2023

Seif Ali Tangu lived near the centre of Mng’aru, in a small house on a field which sloped down towards a valley to the west of the village. In 1986 he had nine children, and in August his wife delivered another. There were seven children aged under 12 years. The eldest boy, a 20-year-old youth, was living in Dar es Salaam. Seif Tangu and his wife were responsible for feeding and clothing all the other children between the two of them. This they could barely manage, and coping with their dependency burden left little time for trying any strategies of accumulation. The family were living in a house built out of palm thatch, which began to fall down in the long masika rains. Tangu had plans to build a more permanent house, but these had been indefinitely postponed.
Introduction
Authors: Walsh Vivian
Published: October 2023

We would not ordinarily say that a choice or action was rational but unreasonable, nor that it was reasonable but irresponsible, nor that it was responsible but unwise, nor that it was wise but morally indefensible. Our ordinary concept of rationality is embedded in a delicate fabric of interconnected ideas which can be understood only in the context of the family of uses of words and expressions which are employed in making, explaining, and defending rationality claims. The concept of rationality in formal, axiomatized economic theory is not like this; it can be given a formal definition. A ‘rational agent’ in such a model is simply one who obeys certain axioms, and that is the end of it. When we ordinarily claim of someone that they acted rationally, on the other hand, we are not claiming that they satisfied a certain finite set of necessary and sufficient conditions. Our claim is a defeasible one-very crudely, it may be defeated by the production of various different sorts of evidence, some of which we may never have anticipated. If I claim that I have acted rationally, you may be able to point out that I have failed to take account of certain facts, that I have sacrificed a major goal for the sake of some trivial successes, that I have ignored the rights of people for whom I am responsible, etc., etc. On the other hand a charge of irrationality may be defeated by presenting various valid excuses, some of them peculiar to the special circumstances of an individual situation, or perhaps to a type of situation not hitherto distinguished.
Rationality As Maximizing Utility
Authors: Walsh Vivian
Published: October 2023

It will be argued in this chapter and the next that the axiomatic utility theory developed by neo-Walrasian economists and by decision theorists, for all its formal austerity, presents a view of rational choice or action which favours teleological (or consequentialist) moral philosophy in general and utilitarianism in particular. Now, of course, most people would agree with John Broome (1991a) that part of ethics is concerned with good. A teleological ethical theory, however, claims (roughly) that the whole of moral philosophy is about maximizing good. Utilitarian ism, in its various versions, belongs among teleological theories. Such theories have been shown to lend themselves to formalization in terms of the structure of utility theory, specifically of axiomatic expected utility theory. The structure of concepts like ‘good’ and ‘well-being’ (more precisely the structure of the ‘betterness’ rela tion) and the formal structure of axiomatic utility theory, have been shown to have important features in common. As we shall see, the economic theorists and decision theorists who developed expected utility theory in the 1950s and 1960s embraced axiomatizations which happen to favour a particular moral philosophy (utilitarianism), all the while believing that they were producing value-free’ science.
Rationality as the pursuit of Self-interest
Authors: Walsh Vivian
Published: October 2023

When economic theorists have come to regard purely formal, or instrumental, accounts of rational choice as insufficient, they have frequently added substance to their account of rationality by argu ing that a rational agent is one who maximizes the attainment of self-interested aims. It may be observed right away that this move is not one which is likely to appeal strongly to moral philosophers. From the work of the ancient Greeks on, the mainstream tradition in moral philosophy would have rejected both the claim that ratio nality lay in mere consistency of choice or action with any goal, however wicked or foolish, and the claim that the pursuit of self interest could be the whole goal of rationality. Ordinary language, it may be added, here conforms to the dominant philosophical tradition. Utilitarianism, it should also be remembered, is fully in line with this tradition: it proposes a moral goal, and judges a person or society as rational in so far as these approximate to that goal. Whatever the shortcomings of utilitarianism, they do not lie in this direction. Hume who, as we have seen, pursues a strictly instrumental rationality to the point of paradox, stands out among philosophers for precisely this reason.
Choice And Rationality In Reproduction Models
Authors: Walsh Vivian
Published: October 2023

At the cost of truly drastic simplifying assumptions, the rudimen tary classical model whose quantity and price relations were sketched in the last chapter concentrates a spotlight upon aspects of economic experience which are left in the shadows in standard neo-classical models.1 As to the rationality of individual agents in general or of the allocations which result from equilibrium pos itions of the model, however, our simple classical model was almost bare of information. About the only rationality claim made was that the choices and actions of capitalists would ensure that, in equilibrium, there would be a uniform rate of profit across all sectors. The crucial choices, in classical eyes, have always been those concerning the use of the net product. But these choices are made only by those who control the capital stock (capitalists or state bureaucrats) and there is no claim in such models that the choice made, or the resulting equilibrium, will be judged rational by even the majority of the agents in the model. Indeed the spirit of such models (inherited from their classical ancestors, such as Ricardo) is that there will be at least two distinct classes whose interests will be opposed, and which will be engaged in struggle over the surplus.