bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Skeletal System Pectoral Girdle, Spine, Ribs, and Pelvic Girdle
Authors: Hudgins Louanne , Vaux Keith
Published: November 2023

The skeleton develops from the somatic layer of the paraxial and lateral plate mesoderm and from neural crest cells. At the same time the notochord and neural tube are forming, the paraxial mesoderm lateral to these structures form two longitudinal col- umns. These columns become segmented into blocks of meso- derm toward the end of the 3rd week. From the occipital region caudally, these blocks are referred to as somites. Each somite dif- ferentiates into two parts: the sclerotome, located ventromedially, which forms the vertebrae and the ribs, and the dermomyotome, located dorsolaterally, which forms the dermis and the myoblasts. The embryonic connective tissue, the mesenchyme, forms at the end of the 4th week from the sclerotome cells.
Rectum and Anus
Authors: Stevens Cathy A
Published: November 2023

Anorectal malformations are relatively common anomalies. They are usually recognized at birth and can cause life- threatening bowel obstruction. However, with appropriate surgi-cal intervention, the long-term prognosis is good. The historical treatment of anorectal malformations has been previously reviewed. There are a few references to anal atresia in the writings of ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, primarily suggesting rupturing an anal membrane with the finger. Paul of Aegina (A.D. 625–690), a Greek physician, gave the earliest account of surgical intervention for anal atresia. Following incision, dilation with bougies and application of wine and salve was recommended. Little more was written about this subject until the 17th century when Scultetus advocated anal dilation with gentian roots following the incision.
Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
Authors: Krantz Ian D , Aylsworth Arthur S
Published: November 2023

Atimetable of events involving the development of the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas is given in Table 27-1. By the beginning of the 4th week postfertilization in the human, the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) have been es- tablished. The endodermal layer is continuous with the yolk sac cavity and will form the lining of the developing gut (Fig. 27-1a). The portion of the gut that lies dorsal to the heart is the foregut (Fig. 27-1c), and its endodermal lining provides the primordia of the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
Asymmetry and Hypertrophy
Authors: Abdul-Rahman Omar , Hoyme H Eugene
Published: November 2023

Asymmetry of various body structures results from normal and pathologic developmental processes. Handed asymmetry refers to consistent left/right differences in structure, such as the dextral looping of the heart, variations in the number of lobes vis-a`-vis the two lungs, and abdominal visceral situs. Handed asymmetry must be differentiated from random asymmetry and from the differences that arise between the right and left sides due to mirror symmetry. Mirror symmetry refers to the fact that the slightly asymmetric development of many paired structures does not require differences in morphogenesis between the two sides, but simply reflects the sides developing in mirror symmetry to the midline of the embryo.
The Rest of the Story Restoring Pidginization to Creole Genesis Theory
Authors: Mcwhorter John h.
Published: November 2023

The traditional conception of the life cycle of creole languages has been that they are born as pidgins and subsequently expanded into creoles. This fundamental notion was most explicitly outlined in Hall (1966), followed most explicitly by Bickerton (1981 and later works) and Miihlhausler (1980 and later works) (see also Samarin 1980 and later works).
Creole Transplantation A Source of Solutions to Resistant Anomalies
Authors: Mcwhorter John h.
Published: November 2023

One of the most important aspects of creole studies is reconstructing how and why these languages developed. The dominant reconstruction has become what I will call the limited access conception. According to this, creole languages emerged when learners of a language, most often plantation slaves, received only fragmentary input from that language as the result of social or psychological distance. In need of a full language nevertheless, they created one from this material via transfer from substrate languages and the operations of universals of various kinds, be this through an innate bioprogram or more cognitively general universals of second-language acquisition.
Introduction
Authors: Trinkaus Erik , Svoboda Jiří A
Published: November 2023

It has long been recognized that human populations and their behaviors underwent a variety of dramatic changes during the middle of the last glacial period, the period also known as the Interpleniglacial or Oxygen Isotope Stage (OIS) 3. This has long been framed in the context of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition and as part of the phylogenetic emergence of early modern humans. However, it has become apparent that it involved not only these more generally recognized transitions but also significant human biological, technological, social, and cultural changes within the earlier Upper Paleolithic. For this reason, the Upper Paleolithic complexes of OIS 3 are increasingly divided into an Initial Upper Paleolithic (the Châtelperronian, Bohunician, Szeletian, etc.), the Early Upper Paleolithic (principally the Aurignacian), and the Middle Upper Paleolithic (the Gravettian and its variants in time and space) (Svoboda et al., 1996; Roebroeks et al., 2000; Svoboda & Bar-Yosef, 2003; Svoboda & Sedlácková, 2004). From this comes a recognition, long overdue, of the major amounts of human cultural fluorescence that emerged after 30,000 years B.P. and continued through the middle of the following ten millennia.
The Archeological Framework
Authors: Svoboda Jiří A
Published: November 2023

The lowlands of lower Austria, Moravia, and south Poland form a natural corridor, separating the Bohemian Massif in the west from the Carpathian Mountains in the east. As such, they have allowed movements of both animals and humans from the Danube Valley in the southwest to the north European plain in the northeast.
The Mandibular Remains
Authors: Franciscus Robert G , Vlček Emanuel , Trinkaus Erik
Published: November 2023

Six associated skeletons from Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov (Dolní Věstonice 3 and 13–16 and Pavlov 1) preserve a largely complete mandible. They are joined by the lateral corpus of Pavlov 3 and a corpus fragment from Pavlov 4. Even though they are proportionately and functionally part of the facial skeleton and therefore fit with the cranial remains described in Chapter 8, they are also described here because of the frequent isolation of mandibles in the human fossil record. In addition, as structural elements subjected to the biomechanical demands of mastication, they have properties that need to be addressed in a manner semi-independent of the crania with which they were originally articulated. The individual mandibles are described in terms of their preservation and morphology, and then they are compared with respect to a series of metric and discrete traits that have been shown to quantify variability across Middle and Late Pleistocene human mandibles.
Body Proportions
Authors: Holliday Trenton W
Published: November 2023

Over the last two decades, the study of the body proportions of Late Pleistocene humans has taken on new significance. Specifically, because of their observed relationship with climate among recent humans (New- man, 1953; Roberts, 1978) and the fact that, whereas they exhibit some phenotypic plasticity, there nonetheless appears to be a strong genetic component (Tanner et al., 1982: 419–420; Katzmarzyk & Leonard, 1998; but see Bogin & Rios, 2003), body proportions have been used as phylogenetic markers to study evolutionarily short-term events, such as the emergence of anatomically modern humans in Europe (Trinkaus, 1981; Ruff, 1994; Holliday, 1997a, 2000a,b). However, with few exceptions (e.g., relative femoral head diameter), the study of body proportions requires relatively complete associated skeletons—a rarity in the human fossil record. Yet the Gravettian hu- man skeletons from Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov include the remains of six individuals (Dolní Věstonice 3 and 13– 16, and Pavlov 1) who provide data from more than one limb bone, allowing the examination of body shape.
Body Length and Body Mass
Authors: Trinkaus Erik
Published: November 2023

The estimation of overall body length (or stature) and lean body mass from the skeletal remains of Pleistocene humans normally involves several steps of estimation, in which any errors might be (but are not necessarily) com- pounded. One can therefore query why one would under- take the exercise of estimating these values, rather than merely using the directly measured or minimally estimated dimensions of the appendicular skeleton as indications of body size. The answers are in both the degree of completeness of the remains and the need to have body mass estimations for the appropriate scaling of weight- bearing limb remains. The Dolní Věstonice 13 to 15 human remains are relatively unusual in preserving at least one of each of the long bones either virtually intact or lacking only portions of the epiphyseal regions, as well as in having complete pelvic remains. In this, they are matched only by several of the Italian Gravettian human remains among their mature contemporaries (e.g., Barma Grande 2, Fanciulli 4 and 5, Ostuni 1, and Paglicci 25); the lost Předmostí 3, 4, 9, 10, and 14 remains; and one Middle Paleolithic specimen (Skhul 4). Among contemporary or older immature remains, only Lagar Velho 1, Sunghir 2 and 3, and KNM- WT 15000 match the completeness of these skeletons.
The Upper Limb Remains
Authors: Trinkaus Erik
Published: November 2023

The human remains from Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov retain an exceptional number of well-preserved upper limb remains, from the claviculosternal articulation to the terminal hand phalanges (Sládek et al., 2000; Chapter 5). With only minor damage to some of the epiphyses and thinner areas of the scapulae, the bones to the distal radii and ulnae are essentially complete for both arms of Dolní Věstonice 13 and 15, and they preserve variable numbers of hand remains (Chapter 5; Table 16.5). The shoulder and arm bones are only slightly less complete for Dolní Věstonice 14, with damage mostly to the clavicular ends, the proximal humeri, and the distal forearms (which was exacerbated by the lack of fusion of the distal radial and ulnar epiphyses). The arm remains of Dolní Věstonice 16 and then Dolní Věstonice 3 have progressively greater damage to the epiphyses, but their arm bones, plus the shoulder remains of Dolní Věstonice 16, are sufficiently intact to permit reasonable estimation of their original interarticular lengths. The hand remains of Dolní Věstonice 13–15 are variably preserved and incomplete, but Dolní Věstonice 16 preserves an almost complete set of its right hand bones and a number of its left hand elements.
Direct Investment and Corporate Governance : Will Multinational Corporations “Tip” Countries Toward Institutional Change?
Authors: Kogut Bruce , Macpherson J Muir
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses the following question: can multinational corporations serve to improve the growth prospects of developing countries by improving institutions of corporate governance? This is a challenging question that we parse into two smaller questions: first, what do we know about foreign direct investment (FDI) and its effects on growth?; second, in what ways can FDI improve the institutions of corporate governance in a country? FDI (and its major conduit, mergers and acquisitions) plays a significant role in domestic capital formation and, hence, in domestic capital markets.
English Vocabulary Elements
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R
Published: November 2023

Fascination with words-their meanings, origins, pronunciation, usages-is something most of us experience at some point. This book aims both to fuel and to satisfy that fascination. The book is based on a course that each of the authors helped to develop at Stanford University over the past twenty years. The aim of the course was to help students master English vocabulary and to provide the fundamentals for pursuing an interest in English words. To this end, the book offers a detailed but introductory survey of the developments that have given English a uniquely rich vocabulary, taking into account both the changing structure of the language and the historical events that shaped the language as a whole. Anyone who believes that changes in the language are robbing it of its elegance or expressive power will see this view challenged by the developments described here. At the core of the book are a set of several hundred vocabulary elements that English borrowed, directly or indirectly, over the past fifteen hundred years, from Latin and Greek. These elements, introduced gradually chapter by chapter, provide a key to understanding the structure and meaning of much of the learned vocabulary of the language. The chapters trace the history and structure of English words from the sixth century onward, laying out the major influences that are still observable in our vocabulary today. Each chapter ends with a large number of exercises. These offer many different types of practice with the material in the text, making it possible to tailor the work to different sets of needs and interests. Upon finishing this textbook, students will be able to penetrate the structure of an enormous portion of the vocabulary of English, with or without the help of a dictionary, and to understand better how an individual word fits into the system of the language. This second edition incorporates improved and refined text as well as examples and exercises, with thorough revision of pedagogy as a result of their significant classroom-based expertise. The new edition also updates cultural references, accounts for variations in pronunciation among students, and clarifies when historical details are important or peripheral.
Usage and Variation
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R
Published: November 2023

Up to now, we have been considering English to be a language. That seems eminently reasonable, yet in a sense it is inaccurate. What goes by the single name English is not a single language. Instead, it is a large set of varieties from different parts of the globe, used in a wide assortment of social situations.
Latin and Greek Morphology
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R
Published: November 2023

Colleges and high schools used to place a far greater emphasis on Latin and Greek than they do now. In Europe, some universities used to require that doctoral dissertations be written in Latin. Times have changed, and the special status once accorded to classical languages is now given to other subjects, including modern languages. But the classical languages remain our most important source of new words, as shown by additions like megavitamin, telecommute, and cyclotron.
The Prehistory of English and the Other Indo-European Languages
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R
Published: November 2023

The origins of the different languages of the world have intrigued human beings throughout history. The story of the Tower of Babel in the Hebrew Bible expresses a widespread feeling that the diversity of languages is a remarkable state that needs to be explained: why aren’t we all still speaking the original language of the first humans? As we have seen in previous chapters, linguists now understand that change is a normal and universal characteristic of language. And given the fact that change is certain, it is also certain that the languages of different groups of people will diverge if those people are not in close contact with each other. But it is a large step from understanding divergence as a linguistic generality to understanding the specifics of how the current languages of the world diverged from common ancestors. Research into both the generalizations and the specific details of language history is the concern of historical linguistics.
Hot Spots and Hedges
Authors: Litterman Robert
Published: November 2023

This chapter is a tutorial on portfolio risk management. It describes how to identify the primary sources of risk in complex portfolios—the “hot spots”—and how to identify the trades that will reduce those risks—the “hedges.” While this topic, identifying and reducing risk, would seem to be at the heart of risk management, many of the ideas presented here are not well-understood. Unfortunately, too much of the recent focus in risk management has been directed elsewhere—for example, toward under-standing and incorporating the risks of derivative securities. While derivtives can create complex and highly nonlinear payoffs, they are often not the primary source of risk in a portfolio. Also, while risk managers have focused much attention recently on developing firm wide systems to aggregate information from many traders or portfolio managers, they have generally not yet concentrated on how to use that information to obtain a comprehensive understanding of enterprise risk. More generally, while risk managers have also recently developed a greater appreciation of the statistical nature of risk and the need to use statistical measures such as value-at-risk (VaR)1 to quantify, monitor, and set limits on risk-taking activities, the tools required to understand and incorporate these statistical measures in portfolio risk management have lagged behind.2 This most important area of risk management—the development of portfolio analytics based on the statistical understanding of risk—has not received as much attention as it deserves. We hope this chapter helps to address this concern by describing a number of portfolio analysis tools that we have developed at Goldman Sachs in recent years to better understand, manage, and monitor the risks in our clients’ investment portfolios as well as our own trading positions. We focus on the concepts of risk management and how they apply in realistic trading and portfolio management contexts rather than on details of implementation.
Visited at All Seasons (1821–1834)
Authors: Maynard W Barksdale
Published: November 2023

One day a family rode fifteen miles or so out from Boston to picnic in the woods. Just south of Concord village, their carriage rattled down a narrow, rutted road through a forest. Suddenly a broad sheet of water appeared through the trees. The year was 1821, and four-year-old Henry Thoreau caught his first glimpse of Walden Pond. His parents, John and Cynthia Thoreau, loved the out-of-doors and had often roamed the woods when they lived in Concord, where Henry had been born.
Viewed from a Hilltop (1848–1854)
Authors: Maynard W Barksdale
Published: November 2023

With all the attention historians have given to Thoreau’s time at Walden, the years immediately following have slipped into obscurity. They are crucial, however, for understanding the development of Walden and for seeing how appreciation of the pond and woods remained a shared endeavor of the Concord transcendental community.
Walden Breezes (1922–1959)
Authors: Maynard W Barksdale
Published: November 2023

“Bill to Make Lake Walden a Reservation,” a headline announced in May 1922. Passage of the bill promised to shape the future direction of Walden, “a spot that has strong literary connections with Concord.” No longer private, it would come under state control as an eighty-plus-acre park with Middlesex County as trustee.
walden.org (1990–2003)
Authors: Maynard W Barksdale
Published: November 2023

When he heard the name “Don Henley” at the other end of the line, Ed Schofield’s first thought was, “Who?” His TCCA companions had the same reaction—but surely they were somewhat exceptional in not knowing the name of the lead singer of the rock-and-roll band the Eagles, which has sold more than one hundred million albums worldwide with a string of popular songs, including “Take It Easy,” “Heartache Tonight,” and “Hotel California.” Like musician Pete Seeger before him, Henley had long admired Henry Thoreau.
A Layman’s Document, Not a Lawyer’s Contract the continuing struggle for popular constitutionalism
Authors: Kramer Larry D
Published: November 2023

By the early 1840s, popular constitutionalism and judicial supremacy were sharing space in American political culture, coexisting in an uncertain and sometimes tense relationship. The very diffuseness and decentralization of popular constitutionalism, combined with uncertainty over the means through which it was expressed, helped make this possible by leaving room for advocates of judicial supremacy to continue nursing their claim. The resulting dialectical tug of war continues even today. Struggle has not been constant. It has consisted of periodic confrontations or blowups occurring after years or sometimes decades during which active backers of the two perspectives jostled for position while ordinary citizens remained largely indifferent or unconcerned. Though we cannot know for sure, it is possible, and maybe even probable, that popular constitutionalism was the dominant public understanding during most of these latent periods, even as judicial supremacy was favored by and within the legal profession. What is certain is that popular constitutionalism was the clear victor each time matters came to a head. Yet the end of one cycle simply began another in which the Court and its supporters eventually renewed their efforts to establish judicial supremacy. Resurgent claims of judicial authority, in turn, gave rise to a new wave of criticism as opponents of the judiciary pushed back by advocating a revived or restored commitment to popular constitutionalism.
The Oxford Guide To Financial Modeling
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

The essential premise of this book is that theory and practice are equally important in describing financial modeling. In it the authors try to strike a balance in their discussions between theories that provide foundations for financial models and the institutional details that provide the context for applications of the models. The book presents the financial models of stock and bond options, exotic options, investment grade and high-yield bonds, convertible bonds, mortgage-backed securities, liabilities of financial institutions -- the business model and the corporate model. It also describes the applications of the models to corporate finance. Furthermore, it relates the models to financial statements, risk management for an enterprise, and asset/liability management with illiquid instruments. The financial models are progressively presented from option pricing in the securities markets to firm valuation in corporate finance, following a format to emphasize the three aspects of a model: the set of assumptions, the model specification, and the model applications. Generally, financial modeling books segment the world of finance as "investments," "financial institutions," "corporate finance," and "securities analysis," and in so doing they rarely emphasize the relationships between the subjects. This unique book successfully ties the thought processes and applications of the financial models together and describes them as one process that provides business solutions. Created as a companion website to the book readers can visit to gain deeper understanding of the book's financial models. Interested readers can build and test the models described in the book using Excel, and they can submit their models to the site. Readers can also use the site's forum to discuss the models and can browse server based models to gain insights into the applications of the models. For those using the book in meetings or class settings the site provides Power Point descriptions of the chapters. Students can use available question banks on the chapters for studying.
The War Power
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis
Published: November 2023

The constitutional boundaries of the war power are determined only marginally by court decisions. The principal forces that define military activities are nonjudicial: presidential decisions to initiate force, congressional decisions to acquiesce or resist, and public pressure for and against military actions. The momentous decision to commit the nation’s blood and deplete its treasury takes place almost exclusively outside the courts. This pattern is evident throughout U.S. history.
Privacy
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis
Published: November 2023

The Constitution explicitly protects a range of individual rights from governmental intrusion. In defending those core values, all three branches make important contributions. Privacy rights are not mentioned in the Constitution. Instead, they are defined by agency regulation, congressional statute, or court decision, with no branch having the final say. Increasingly, state legislatures, governors, and state courts are advancing their own concepts of privacy, drawing from different provisions in state constitutions. The driving force behind these governmental actions, whether at the national or state level, comes from individuals and groups pressing their privacy interests.
Religion
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis
Published: November 2023

It is widely believed that courts are essential guardians in protecting religious liberty, particularly when majority rule threatens minority religions. Yet the Court barely began to sketch out a jurisprudence of religious freedom until 1940.1 Thus, for a century and a half, the duty of protecting religious liberties was left to the regular political process. Individuals and private organizations, in their efforts to protect the rights of conscience, turned to nonjudicial bodies and the states for relief. Instead of the Court’s serving as the exclusive guardian of individual rights, a powerful dialogue operates between judicial and nonjudicial bodies, with the courts often playing a secondary role. Courts can nudge society at times, but the judicial role is usually marginal rather than pivotal. Religious lobbies press their views on all three branches at the national level and on state governments. Often, they prefer to rely on Congress and state legislatures to advance their interests.
The Ongoing Dialogue
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis
Published: November 2023

This book explains how constitutional law is produced by many forces: political and legal, nonjudicial and judicial, national and local, public and private. All three branches are involved, not just one. Fifty-one constitutions are at play, not just one. The historical record of this constitutional dialogue is richly documented, and yet support for judicial supremacy remains strong.
The Complaint: A Prelude to Litigation
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R
Published: November 2023

Suddenly you’re under the kind of scrutiny you’ve never had. The kind you’ve given other people but that you’ve never really had yourself . . . And publicly . . . the words liar, cheat, fraud etc. begin to be bandied about. It was at that time that I realized for the first time how a doctor must feel. A doctor who has spent his time . . . up until the time of that particular suit . . . and now what they are saying is, that you’re a killer. It’s got to be devastating. A reporter (such as myself), what do we have? We have our credibility, we have our integrity and, all of a sudden you’re being called thief, cheat, liar, fraud. It goes to your gut. If you’re a doctor, it’s the center of your soul; it’s the center of your life. If you’re a doctor, you’re a healer and somebody is ac- cusing you, not of healing but of hurting.
Closing Arguments
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R
Published: November 2023

As long as we work with patients in the high-risk environment of health care, we will live with the possibility of adverse events. After signing off on difficult cases of every kind in long careers in medicine, we come upon one for which we will never gain closure. It began in a moment that grew into years of turmoil as we were formally accused and had to defend ourselves against medical negligence. Responsible or not, we wonder, Did I do anything personally that contributed to the bad outcome? We understand Saul Bellow’s words, “The unexamined life may not be worth living but the examined life is driving me crazy.” Trained to constant self- examination, we are disquieted by the emotions—doubt and guilt, shame and disappointment, anguish and fear—it stirs within us.
Torture A Collection
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2023

Torture is perhaps the most unequivocally banned practice in the world today. Yet within six weeks after September 11, articles began appearing suggesting that torture might be “required” in order to interrogate suspected terrorists about future possibilities of violence. The United States and some of its allies are using methods of questioning relating to the war on terrorism that could be described as torture or, at the very least, as inhuman and degrading. It is known that the United States sent some suspected terrorists to allied countries that are well known to engage in torture. And in terror’s wake, the use of such methods, at least under some conditions, has gained some prominent defenders. Torture: A Collection brings together leading lawyers, political theorists, social scientists, and public intellectuals to debate the advisability of maintaining the absolute ban and to reflect on what it says about our societies if we do--or do not--adhere to it in all circumstances. One important question is how we define torture at all. Are “cruel and inhumane” practices that result in profound physical or mental discomfort tolerable so long as they do not meet some definition of “torture”? And how much “transparency” do we really want with regard to interrogation practices? Is “don’t ask, don’t tell” an acceptable response to those who concern themselves about these practices? Addressing these questions and more, this book tackles one of the most controversial issues that we face today. The noted contributors include Ariel Dorfman, Elaine Scarry, Alan Dershowitz, Judge Richard Posner, Michael Walzer, Jean Bethke Elshtain, and other lawyers from both the United States and abroad.
Chomsky’s Minimalism
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

Noam Chomsky's current theory, published in 1995, is known as The Minimalist Program and has been presented as his crowning achievement. Minimalism has spawned in linguistics an entire research program, despite being fundamentally misguided, according to distinguished linguist and philosopher of language Pieter Seuren. Seuren's accessible and spirited attack argues that the Minimalist Program is deeply flawed. Seuren points to the original acrimonious split in the 1960s and 1970s between Chomsky's generative grammar and the alternative generative semantics proposed by his followers, and argues that the latter theory was sounder and unfairly suppressed. Seuren maintains that this suppression, and the cult surrounding Chomsky and Minimalism more generally, has done great damage to linguistics by impairing open discussion of empirical issues and excluding valid alternatives.
The Language Faculty
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

In this chapter two things are done. First, Chomsky’s overall characterization of the language faculty is considered. Then, in section 3.5, this is contrasted with a different conception of what the language faculty amounts to and what the points of view are from which it can be studied most fruitfully.
Surface-Driven Elements of Semantic Interpretation
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

In this chapter an extended analysis is presented, showing that the argument of surface-driven elements of semantic interpretation—the one potentially relevant argument against the mediational view of the FoL and in favor of the random-generator view (though not the version instantiated in the MP)—is invalid, since all cases of alleged surface-driven semantic interpretation quoted are seen to be better handled in terms of deep structure semantic interpretation.
The Embarrassment of Evidence
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

Let us finally take a closer look at the actual complexity of grammar and try to decide whether the differences taken to exist between the surface and the semantic levels of representation (or whatever levels are invoked in the MP) are adequately described by the term “displacement.” This might seem a matter of minor terminological importance, yet a closer look will provide a clearer insight into what exactly is involved.
Prologue: Containment Before Kennan
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: November 2023

“My children, it is permitted you in time of grave danger to walk with the devil until you have crossed the bridge.” It was Franklin D. Roosevelt’s version of an old Balkan proverb (sanctioned by the Orthodox Church, no less), and he liked to cite it from time to time during World War II to explain the use of questionable allies to achieve unquestionable objectives.1 In all-out war, he believed, the ultimate end—victory—justified a certain broad-mindedness regarding means, nowhere more so than in reliance on Stalin’s Soviet Union to help defeat Germany and Japan. Allies of any kind were welcome enough in London and Washington during the summer of 1941; still the U.S.S.R.’s sudden appearance in that capacity could not avoid setting off Faustian musings in both capitals.
Implementing the New Look
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: November 2023

Criteria for judging the effectiveness of strategies vary, but Eisenhower’s were clear enough: his goal was to achieve the maximum possible deterrence of communism at the minimum possible cost. In retrospect, the “New Look” strategy appears to have met these objectives. Despite the fact that his administration refrained from large-scale overseas military activity after the Korean armistice, the only countries “lost” to communism during its term were North Vietnam, already largely under Ho Chi Minh’s control when Eisenhower entered the White House, and Cuba, whose communist orientation did not become clear until he was about to leave it. Expenditures for national defense remained remarkably stable, ranging from a low of $42.5 billion in fiscal 1956 to a high of $49.6 billion in fiscal 1961. More revealing are military expenditures as a percentage of the total budget—these figures actually declined, from 69.5 percent in 1954 to 50.8 percent in 1961. Defense spending as a percentage of gross domestic product also went down, from 13.1 percent in 1954 to 9.4 percent in 1961.1 And yet, despite appearances to the contrary, these cuts produced no net reduction in American military strength relative to that of the S viet Union—if anything, the United States was in a stronger posture vis-àvis its major competitor at the end of Eisenhower’s term than it was at the beginning.
Characteristics of Human Cancer
Authors: Ruddon Raymond W
Published: November 2023

During my career as a cancer scientist, I have frequently received calls from individuals who recently heard a physician tell them the ominous words “You have cancer,” or from people who have heard that statement about a family member or close friend. The first question usually is “What can you tell me about this kind of cancer?” They may have already visited several Internet sites and have some information, not always accurate or scientifically based. If the patient is a child and the inquiry comes from parents, they frequently have a great feeling of guilt and want to know what they did wrong, or they may lash out at some perceived environmental agent that they think is the cause, such as water pollutants or electromagnetic fields from high-power lines in their neighborhood.
Tumor Immunology
Authors: Ruddon Raymond W
Published: November 2023

All the cells in the body have antigenic determinants on their cell surface that reflect the expression of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes of that organism. In the human, this gene complex, called the HLA complex, is located on chromosome 6. The letters HLA stand for human leukocyte antigens, reflecting the cells in which the expression of these genes was initially determined. These genes determine recognition of self from non-self and are involved in the rejection of transplanted tissue from a foreign host. They also play a role in other aspects of the immune response system. When a normal cell becomes transformed into a malignant cell, it undergoes biochemical changes that often result in the production of new cellular antigens. These new antigens may be recognized by the host organism as foreign. Although new antigenic determinants may be present in other parts of a cancer cell, the ones that are most important in cancer cell recognition are most likely located on the cell surface, where they are “perceived” by interactions with host cells or shed into the bloodstream where they are recognized as foreign. In addition, peptides shed from cancer cells as they undergo cell death may be generated by proteolytic degradation and be found in the blood and urine. New antigens are found in tumors induced by chemicals, viruses, or irradiation in experimental animals.
Sequelae of Cancer and Its Treatment
Authors: Ruddon Raymond W
Published: November 2023

A malignant tumor growing in vivo produces a number of effects on the host (Table 8–1). The end result of one or more of these effects is what ultimately proves fatal. The effects of a growing cancer in a patient may include fever, anorexia (loss of appetite), weight loss and cachexia (body wasting), infection, anemia, and various hormonal and neurologic symptoms. These may occur out of proportion to the size of the tumor. A relatively small tumor may cause many symptoms, whereas another tumor may produce few symptoms and remain occult until it is far advanced and has metastasized. Malignant tumors affect host functions by compression, invasion, and destruction of normal tissues as well as by the elaboration of substances that circulate in the bloodstream. The effects of tumor-produced factors are called collectively the paraneoplastic syndromes. Approximately 15% of patients hospitalized with advanced malignancy will have clinically apparent systemic effects in organ systems distant from the primary neoplasm, even though there is no evidence of metastasis to the affected organ. From 50% to 75% of cancer patients eventually experience a paraneoplastic syndrome. A common form of paraneoplastic syndrome is related to ectopic hormone production by growing tumors.
Cancer Prevention
Authors: Ruddon Raymond W
Published: November 2023

To think about cancer prevention, one needs to consider the causes of cancer (Chapter 2) and the epidemiology of cancer (Chapter 3) as well as how tumors progress from an early, indolent, or less aggressive type into a full-blown invasive, metastatic cancer. We live in a “sea” of carcinogens in modern society. This is a fact of life. We are continually exposed to environmental agents that can potentially cause cancer in susceptible individuals. A key question then is: Can we adopt a lifestyle or take minimally toxic agents that lessen this risk? The answer to the first part of this question is clearly “yes.” The dangers of cigarette smoking are clearly defined. Obesity is linked to increased risk of certain cancers. Some dietary elements are suggested to help, based on epidemiologicaldata, althoughsomeofthesedata are still controversial. Early and prolonged exposure to estrogen or other hormones plays a role in breast cancer. Thus, there are some things that people can do to help decrease risk. The answer to the second part of the question relating to effective chemopreventive agents is less clear, but there are some encouraging data that suggest this is a possibility.
Roman Shares
Authors: Malmendier Ulrike
Published: November 2023

The publicly held company, or corporation, marks the height of the evolution of business organizations. Based upon the highly abstract concept of a “legal personality,” the emergence of the corporation has opened new doors for market interaction and economic growth.
The Relational Case for Same-Sex Marriage
Authors: Eskridge William N
Published: November 2023

The case for same-sex marriage has been most powerfully supported by reference to liberal premises: adults presumptively ought to be able to choose their own marital partner, and the state ought to recognize such unions of choice on an equal basis. Because many mature adults would like to form lasting commitments to sexual partners of the same sex, the state ought to recognize same-sex marriages. The case against same-sex marriage has been most powerfully supported by reference to communitarian premises: the state should guide individuals to make good choices and should limit choices that have bad effects on third parties or on society. Because same-sex marriage is not a worthy aspiration in the way different-sex (man–woman) marriage is, the state should discourage and may prohibit the former. Most Americans still oppose same-sex marriage for reasons such as these.
Between Justice And Commitment
Authors: Regan Milton C
Published: November 2023

In “Just Marriage,” Mary Shanley offers a perspective on marriage that builds on both liberal and communitarian insights. On the one hand, she argues that genuine equality between spouses should be an essential feature of marriage. Her analysis illuminates how commitment to this goal requires measures that go beyond the regulation of marriage per se to encompass reforms in the workplace and in social-benefit programs. On the other hand, Shanley accepts the view that society has an interest in treating marriage as a public institution. That institution embodies the ways in which intimate relationships can shape the identities of those within them and can generate dependencies and responsibilities that are not purely the product of individual choice.
The Public Supports Of Love
Authors: Cornell Drucilla
Published: November 2023

I agree with Mary Shanley that family and kinship are and should remain irreducible to contractual relationships. Indeed I agree with her that contractualism, as a solution to the dilemmas of heterosexual marriage, turns on a psychoanalytically naive conception of the person, one that assumes that people are independent and bounded individuals from birth, and perhaps even more naively, that people are ever rational when it comes to sexual relationships. In the end, that is my disagreement with sexual “rationalists” such as Richard Posner in Sex and Reason. Shanley, however, narrows the range of reforms of family law to a choice between contractualism and state-supported marriage that promotes the equal-status view of the lovers (including gay men and lesbians) in the marriage. (I am using the word lovers here, not partners or stakeholders, because Shanley is, at least implicitly, emphasizing the importance of ritual and other forms of commitment that bind people together.) But by defining the debate as between contractualists and conservatives who support complementary but unequal gender roles in a monogamous heterosexual marriage, Shanley misses some of the most pressing points made by critics of the legal establishment of heterosexual marriage as the publicly accepted and legally enforced norm of the family. Queer theorists have pointed out that marriage cannot be reformed because normalized heterosexuality packages us into contained gender roles that limit our freedom. It is freedom from this containment, even within marriage, not equality between the genders, that queer theory advocates. Queer theorists deride heterosexual monogamous marriage as a hotbed of pomposity and hypocrisy, and as one of the great illusions of heterosexuality.
α1-Antitrypsin Deficiency
Authors: Schwarzenberg Sarah Jane , Sharp Harvey L
Published: November 2023

The patient was a 35-year-old white male with α1-antitrypsin deficiency. He received a combined liver-kidney transplant for cirrhosis complicated by portal hypertension, renal insufficiency secondary to membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, and combined restrictive and obstructive pulmonary disease at age 18 years.
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Deficiency
Authors: Stacpoole Peter W , Gilbert Lesa R
Published: November 2023

Identical twins with the fictitious names Ann and Elizabeth were born 6 weeks prematurely to a healthy 26-year-old mother whose pregnancy was uneventful. The family history was noteworthy for epilepsy in a paternal aunt, congenital deafness in another paternal aunt, and possible mental retardation in a maternal cousin. The twins’ sister was a healthy 3-yearold girl with the same biological father. The birth weight was 3 pounds 9 ounces for Ann and 3 pounds 12 ounces for Elizabeth. Apgar scores (numerical expressions of the condition of a newborn infant; based on assessment of heart rate, respiratory effort,muscle tone, reflex irritability, and color) 1 and 5 minutes after birth were 8 and 9 for both girls (maximum score is 10). Other than prematurity, neither child evidenced physical or laboratory abnormalities, and they were discharged home within 2 weeks (for Ann) and 3 weeks (for Elizabeth), both apparently in good health. The mother subsequently remarried and gave birth to a son, who has remained well through age 6 years.
Neonatal Hypoglycemia and the Importance of Gluconeogenesis
Authors: Holzman Ian R , Milley J Ross
Published: November 2023

Female infant L. weighed 3.98 kg at birth to a 29-year-old mother after a 35-week pregnancy. Mrs. L. was an insulin-requiring diabetic who had had type 1 diabetes since she was 15 years old and had not yet shown signs of vascular disease. Her pregnancy had been complicated by multiple episodes of hyperglycemia (excess sugar in the blood) and glycosuria (presence of abnormal amounts of sugar in the urine). Her prenatal care was only episodic because her husband had been part of a layoff at work, and the family was without health insurance.
Hyperhomocysteinemia
Authors: Devlin Angela M , Lentz Steven R
Published: November 2023

A 35-year-old man presented to his family physician after he noted a 20-min episode of slurred speech and weakness of his left arm. He had had a similar episode, lasting 10 min, 3 days earlier. He had never smoked cigarettes, and he had no history of high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, stroke, or neurological problems. He did have a history of blood clots in his right leg (deep vein thrombosis) and lungs (pulmonary embolism) at age 15 years. From age 15 until age 20 he took the anticoagulant drug warfarin, which inhibits blood clotting by blocking the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors.
Vitamin B12 Deficiency
Authors: Vanderjagt Dorothy J , Mccarthy Denis M
Published: November 2023

The patient, an 84-year-old male resident of a veteran’s home, was admitted to the hospital following a fall in which he had sustained a fracture of his left radius and several lacerations. Physical examination on admission revealed a well-nourished elderly male in no great distress (body mass index (BMI), 22.5 kg/m2). He was moderately confused but with prompting was oriented to time, place, and person. There was no obvious pallor, cyanosis, or jaundice, and his skin and mucous membranes were unremarkable apart from the injuries he sustained in the fall. His right lower extremity was swollen and tender, and he walked cautiously and with a pronounced limp.
Hereditary Hemochromatosis
Authors: Fink Scott A , Chung Raymond T
Published: November 2023

A 46-year-old Caucasian man was referred to the gastroenterology clinic for evaluation of abnormal liver chemistries. The patient had initially presented to his primary care physician 1 month earlier complaining of new-onset fatigue impotence, and diminished libido. He denied any abdominal pain, confusion, or change in skin color. He did note a recent 10-pound weight loss.