bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Labor Violence in Russia in the Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Brower Daniel R.
Published: April 2006

Protest action accompanied by violence was widespread among Russian factory workers during the late nineteenth century. The phenomenon was noted by tsarist officials and radicals alike, but historians since then have paid little attention to the problem. This neglect has contributed to a distorted picture of the working-class movement and of the relations between Russian workers and factory and state authorities. In recent years it has become a truism to affirm that collective violence constitutes evidence of profound social stress. It is also true that the form and character of the violence in certain historical circumstances provide unique insight into the attitudes and expectations of groups, such as factory workers, otherwise unable to express their views. The violent actions of Russian workers are particularly important to an understanding of the origins of the revolutionary movement among the workers in the early twentieth century. What form did these actions take? Who were the participants, and what goals did they seek to attain? How did the incidence and nature of the actions change over the last decades of the century? Although the evidence is not abundant, answers to these questions suggest that collective violence played an important part in the working-class movement in the late nineteenth century.
Ideology in Turgenev’s Notes of a Hunter: The First Three Sketches
Authors: Ripp Victor
Published: April 2006

Turgenev’s Notes of a Hunter (1852) is considered by most critics—even by those who condemn his subsequent politics, judging them a mixture of vacuous pronouncements and ineffectual gestures—a genuine liberal statement. Literary critics who do not go so far as to claim that the work contributed directly to the Emancipation Proclamation of 1861—a view Turgenev himself occasionally espoused—at least assert that Notes of a Hunter is as biting and affecting a criticism of serfdom as literature could level at the time. There is, I believe, a serious objection to this position. I am not referring to the argument that a cycle of twenty-two sketches mainly about a man out hunting with his dog can hardly have much to do with politics; there are so many references to social injustice that even the narrator's most seemingly mundane observations, such as his disquisitions on various hunting techniques, must be read as willful efforts to distract himself from the corruption of Russian life.
The Environmental Crisis in Eastern Europe: The Price for Progress
Authors: Kramer John M.
Published: April 2006

Environmental pollution is the price that has to be paid for industrial development and the development of civilization. Arresting and eliminating these processes is extremely costly and we do not always have the means at our disposal for the necessary action. (Kurier Szczecinski [Szczecin], June 9, 1981)

Judging by most indexes of modernization, Joseph Stalin's long cherished dream of the socialist East overtaking the capitalist West remains unfulfilled. Ironically, however, the states of Eastern Europe may be close to preeminence in one unwelcome area: environmental pollution. Atmospheric emissions of sulfur dioxide in Czechoslovakia and Poland reportedly approximate similar emissions in France and the Federal Republic of Germany. Many waterways in Yugoslavia are said to be “polluted beyond all domestic, European, and world standards,” and in East Germany and Romania less than 20 percent of the main water-courses are sufficiently pure to provide potable water. The Slovak capital of Bratislava allegedly possesses the “worst environment among our own and other European cities,” while Western experts consider air pollution levels in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia to be among the highest in the world.
On Missing the Point: A Rejoinder
Authors: Simms James Y.
Published: April 2006

In responding to G. Hamburg's comment, it is necessary to reiterate briefly the argument that I presented in my article on the crisis in Russian agriculture at the end of the nineteenth century. I began with the premise that scholarly opinion—contemporary, Soviet, and especially Western—espouses the proposition that peasant husbandry was experiencing a deepening crisis as the last century came to a close. Scholars have argued that peasant well-being was declining steadily, especially in the 1890s relative to previous decades. After providing a definition of what the term “agricultural crisis” means, I proceeded to analyze what I considered to be the crucial indexes used to support the crisis hypothesis.
Soviet Science in the Stalin Period: The Case of Y. I. Yernadskii and his Scientific School, 1928-1945
Authors: Bailes Kendall E.
Published: April 2006

The social conditions for scientific work in the Stalin era are often assumed to have been patterned more or less after Lysenkoism and Soviet genetics in the 1930s and 1940s. Much less is known about other areas of Soviet science in the same period. Were Lysenkoism and the fate of genetics typical or atypical of what was happening in other areas of Soviet science under Stalin? The case of Vladimir I. Vernadskii, an earth scientist, and his scientific school in the years between 1928 and 1945 documents the survival and development of an important tradition very different from that of Lysenkoism and suggests something about the mentality of one segment of the scientific intelligentsia with strong ties to prerevolutionary Russian science. The fate of the Vernadskii school suggests something of the diversity and complexity of Soviet science, even during the worst years of the Stalinist regime and illuminates some of the ways Soviet scientists like Vernadskii were able to protect their scientific enterprises and continue a critical tradition in Russian science despite political interference.
Eighteenth Century Narrative Variations on “Frol Skobeev”
Authors: Hammarberg Gitta
Published: April 2006

One of the most striking innovations in late eighteenth century prose fiction was the introduction of a distinct narrator's voice. To throw some light on the emergence of this innovation, I will compare three works: “Povest’ o Frole Skobeeve,“ an anonymous work from the 1720s; Ivan Novikov's “Novgorodskikh devushek sviatochnyi vecher,” which appeared in a 1785 collection of his short stories; and Nikolai Karamzin's “Natal'ia, boiarskaia doch',” which appeared serially in his Moskovskii zhurnal in 1792. These works will be viewed as representative of three stages in the eighteenth century development of narrative prose structure.
Vasilii Aksenov and the Literature of Convergence: Ostrov Krym as Self-Criticism
Authors: Matich Olga
Published: April 2006

As the archetypal young prose writer of the 1960s, Vasilii Aksenov represented the hopes of the Khrushchev generation for the good life and for cultural and political liberalization. Rebelling against the ideological puritanism of socialist realism and the moral imperative of Russian literature, Aksenov’s writing reflected the pleasure principle, hedonism, unofficial popular culture, and the aesthetics of consumption. He perceived life as a multicolored, multinational carnival, which became the backdrop of his heroes’ adolescent identity crises and later problems of mid-life and aging. In response to Stalinism, war, and Soviet ideological bombast, Aksenov and his generation created a literature with a clearly western orientation; experimental, playful, and linguistically subversive, it was optimistic, but not in the socialist realist sense.
Military Justice and Social Relations in the Prereform Army, 1796 to 1855
Authors: Wirtschafter Elise Kimerling
Published: April 2006

When a young peasant in early nineteenth-century Russia was conscripted into the army from the taxpaying population, he underwent a fundamental change in juridical status: born into serfdom, he became a “free” man (vol'nyi chelovek) with a civic identity. He also entered a world of bureaucratic regulation that governed his daily routine and formalized his social relationships. While the master had unlimited control over his peasants, who were in fact his personal property, governmental regulation to some extent mediated relations between military commanders and their subordinates. In military society the state sought to legislate those paternalistic values that customarily defined relations between landlord and serf, relations conceived in the image of a father supervising his child. Theoretically this relationship combined paternal concern for the welfare of the soldiers with strict discipline and punishment. Like the biblical God, commanders were supposed to be both merciful and “terrible.”
The Symbolist Contamination of Gor'kii's “Realistic” Style
Authors: Brown Edward J.
Published: April 2006

I am concerned in this paper with investigating the complex relationship of Maksim Gor'kii with the literature of his day, including the so-called realists, but particularly with the decadents, the symbolists, and other writers generally thought of as alien to Russian realism, whether critical or socialist. The stereotype of Gor'kii still dominant in some quarters presents him as walled off from “decadent” and “bourgeois” literary styles and from the carriers of such “contamination.” But Gor'kii was much more complex and more interesting than we have supposed, and he functioned during much of his career as part of a literary world in which “symbolism,” rather loosely denned, was the dominant literary tendency. I would like to adduce evidence of the effect on his writing of symbolist and other modern influences and of his close relationship, at the same time, to the popular culture of the day.
A Different Type of Peasant Movement: The Peasant Unions in the Russian Revolution of 1905
Authors: Seregny Scott J.
Published: April 2006

Accounts of the Russian peasant movement of 1905-1907 have conventionally stressed its violent and spontaneous character. At least in the core provinces of the Central Agricultural Region, Volga, and parts of the Ukraine, where economic relations between peasants and gentry estates were highly exploitative, land hunger pressing, and the repartitional commune still viable, arson and destruction of estates were the most dramatic forms of agrarian activism. Peasant insurrection would crest in the weeks following promulgation of the tsar's October Manifesto, in some cases as the result of willful misinterpretation of that document, more often as a reaction to news of revolutionary occurrences in the cities and confusion among local authorities.
Science Fiction and Fantasy: A Prelude to the Literature of Glasnost
Authors: Peterson Nadya
Published: April 2006

When Chingiz Aitmatov's Plakha first appeared in Novyi mir in 1986 many readers here were astounded at the uncanny ability of this established author to ride the wave of the future. This sensational novel, with its stark portrayal of the drug trade, exploitation of the environment, and social alienation in the Soviet Union, was seen by many as the ultimate expression of newfound creative freedoms under Mikhail Gorbachev. For all its seeming novelty, however, Aitmatov's venture into the area of exposé literature has not been an isolated incident. Plakha is only one of a number of recent Soviet novels that focus exclusively on the ills of contemporary Soviet society.

The appearance of exposé literature under glasnost could be viewed simply as a direct effect of the loosening of controls under Gorbachev. Its emergence at this time, however, is actually the result of a whole complex of factors, only one political. Soviet literature has already dealt with such issues as the environment, impending nuclear catastrophe, and a disappearing national memory. These issues, in fact, form the thematic core of the trend of fantastic literature that immediately preceded glasnost and ushered in fundamental changes in Soviet literary discourse. This article is an attempt to examine four Soviet novels that appeared before the era of glasnost. My purpose is to elucidate the nature of the changes occurring in Soviet literature in the mid-1970s and early 1980s and the contribution of this literature to glasnost.
Baku Oil and Transcaucasian Pipelines, 1883–1891: A Study in Tsarist Economic Policy
Authors: McKay John P.
Published: April 2006

The leading role of the state in nineteenth-century Russian industrialization is one of the most widely accepted notions in economic history. Thus state-sponsored industrialization, deeply rooted in the strength of the despotic state and the subservience of an undifferentiated peasantry and an insignificant middle class, began in earnest in the era of the Great Reforms, after the Crimean War had shocked the government out of its economic lethargy under Nicholas I and Finance Minister Kankrin. It continued unevenly thereafter until it crested in the burst of state-led growth in the 1890s. The “statist interpretation” of prerevolutionary Russian industrial development has been most notably expounded by Alexander Gerschenkron in a series of influential essays and by Theodore Von Laue in his biography of Sergei Witte. It thoroughly dominates non-Soviet scholarship and serves as the point of departure for almost all general investigations.
The Functions of Communications Officials in the USSR: A Biographical Study
Authors: Mickiewicz Ellen
Published: April 2006

This study analyzes the biographies of a number of Soviet communications officials in order to address some fundamental and increasingly important questions about the communications process and about prospects for responding to the dilemmas that recent information about the Soviet audience has revealed. Major efforts to examine audience opinion have been undertaken in the Soviet Union. To a considerable extent these efforts are a response to the perception, on the part of media officials, that foreign communications sources have made inroads into the communications system and have created, especially in this time of increased bipolar world tension, alternative channels of information. As the officials recognize, the internal media system has changed substantially, and new patterns of communications consumption have emerged. But as a result of the findings of audience surveys, basic elements of the political doctrine concerning communications have been undermined.
Perspectives on Entrepreneurship and Privatization in Russia: Policy and Public Opinion
Authors: Nelson Lynn D. , Babaeva Lilia V. , Babaev Rufat O.
Published: April 2006

In 1991, the Supreme Soviets of both the Soviet Union and the RSFSR approved legislation that was a decisive departure from the tentativeness about individual initiative that had characterized the Gorbachev era until then. Between January and July, a series of laws was enacted which pointedly endorsed entrepreneurship and outlined aspects of a program to remove a broad spectrum of enterprises from state control. Scholarly analysis, however, highlighted a potential obstacle to the incipient transition toward a market economy: public opinion. During the period that the 1991 laws were being enacted, most Soviet and foreign scholars studying the subject were maintaining that the Soviet people generally opposed private enterprise and that historical suspicion about capitalism would probably make the transition away from state ownership particularly difficult.
Stalin and Beneš at the End of September 1938: New Evidence from the Prague Archives
Authors: Lukes Igor
Published: April 2006

At the height of World War II, General Wfadyslaw Sikorski visited Dr. Edvard Beneš at his London residence. The Polish prime minister warned the Czechoslovak president that if the Red Army were to occupy central Europe it would impose communist governments there. Beneš conceded that this was so but he added that there was nothing they could do about it. Sikorski continued pressing Beneš: "Why are you so friendly with the Soviets?" he demanded. He then invited the president to harmonize his foreign policy with that of the democracies. Beneš replied that he was unable to share Sikorski's confidence in the west for the simple reason that he had experienced the horror of Munich. "What partitions of Poland mean for the Poles, that is what Munich is for us," said Beneš forcefully.
Teniers, Flemish Art, and the Natural School Debate
Authors: Leblanc Ronald D.
Published: April 2006

Horace's dictum, Utpictura poesis, might appear anachronistic today in light of modern literary theory, which has tended to view literature as a distinctly verbal form of art and has preferred lately (especially during the current craze for Mikhail Bakhtin) to examine such decidedly nongraphic aspects of prose fiction as narratology, dialogicality, and polyphony.
Within and Without Cincinnatus's Cell: Reference Gauges in Nabokov's Invitation to a Beheading
Authors: Barabtarlo Gennady
Published: April 2006

Recurrent motifs in Nabokov's fiction not only point in the creator's direction and thus to the realm beyond specific fiction, but they sometimes serve to set and mark local temporal and spatial conditions within the created universe. Invitation to a Beheading is probably the most convincing case in point. The novel's dimensions are defined almost exclusively through a thematic network, and even much of its plot is propelled by periodic devices, of which many are interlinked, and perhaps all are retroactive, if only because each serial occurrence must refer to its antecedent in order to keep the thematic circuit closed.
Nationalist Propaganda in the Soviet Russian Press, 1939-1941
Authors: Thompson Ewa M.
Published: April 2006

The nationalities policy in the Soviet Union under Stalin, and specifically during the period of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, was more complex than has been indicated by many American interpretations. In the Soviet press of that period, many newspapers and periodicals carried articles that dealt with nationality issues. I will consider here the possibility that publication of these articles was part of a propaganda program originated by state policy.
Rightist Politics in the Revolution of 1905: The Case of Tula Province
Authors: Rawson Don C.
Published: April 2006

The pivotal year 1905 posed an unwelcome challenge for Russian conservatives. Disturbed by mounting social and political unrest, they found it appalling that the Tsar should bend to oppositionist demands by granting an elected legislative assembly in the form of a State Duma. Even if they refused to admit it, they knew that this change in state structure meant limiting the Tsar's autocratic power. Fearful that further concessions would lead ultimately to the end of monarchical rule, many loyalists faced the prospect of taking action on their own to preserve what seemed to be a tottering autocracy.
Capturing the Russian Peasantry: Stalinist Grain Procurement Policy and the “Ural-Siberian Method”
Authors: Hughes James
Published: April 2006

It has long been accepted by historians that the conjuncture of grain crises of 1927-1929 marked a turning point during which the Soviet Union descended into the tumult of Stalin’s “revolution from above.“ There is, however, no agreement as to what caused this outcome. Was the country pushed down this road as a deliberate act of policy by Stalin to enhance his dictatorial power? Did bolshevik ideology, which favored rapid industrialization and bureaucratic centralized state control, predetermine the end result? Did the sequence of events in this period generate an uncontrollable dynamic of crises and conflict between strengthening state power and societal, particularly peasant, resistance? To reach a more definitive answer to these fundamental questions I have undertaken a case study of a pivotal policy development of this period, one which bridged the crucial transition from NEP to “dekulakization”: the so-called “Ural-Siberian method” or “social influence” method of grain collection.
The Face of the Other in Idiot
Authors: Johnson Leslie A.
Published: April 2006

“Just what does it mean, this face …?” Evgenii Pavlovich asks himself in the last pages of Idiot (p. 485). Evgenii Pavlovich has just come away from a last meeting with Prince Myshkin, to whom he has given an exhaustive, and gratuitous, accounting of the prince’s misconduct. The prince, of course, is more than willing to accept the blame. All he can plead in his defense is the face of Nastas’ia Filipovna. “But there was something else,” he urges, “something which you left out because you don’t know it: I had looked upon her face! Even that first morning in the portrait I could not withstand it” (p. 484). Such extraordinary susceptibility to the human face puzzles Evgenii Pavlovich. For all his perspicuity, this self-appointed raisonneur has a blind spot—even though he soon laughs off the prince’s words as the raving of a “poor idiot!” (p. 485). His baffled question, however, only serves to reiterate an issue that the entire novel in one way or another has posed from the opening pages: What is the meaning of the human face?
Mythological, Religious, and Philosophical Topoi in the Prose of Valerii Shevchuk
Authors: Pavlyshyn Marko
Published: April 2006

Liberalized cultural discussion in the Soviet Union after the Twenty-seventh Party Congress in 1985 was concerned in part with the nature of a literature that would be appropriate to the new ideals of openness and restructuring. In Ukraine, as elsewhere, the debate brought forth a list of imperatives that, without challenging the socialist realist principle that literature must serve overarching social and political goals, amounted to a formula for a new kind of literary engagement. Literature must “boldly intrude into contemporary reality,” it must defend the historical, cultural, linguistic, and ecological heritage and must unmask the crimes and abuses of the past and present. It must no longer be bland and inoffensive and must not avoid controversial issues or praise the status quo as a matter of course.
The Russian Social Insurance Movement, 1912–1914: An Ideological Analysis
Authors: Ewing Sally
Published: April 2006

Social historians have argued for three decades that the Russian Revolution was preeminently a workers’ revolution. Leopold Haimson was the first to propose, in an influential 1964 article, that workers themselves, and not, as the prevailing wisdom then held, Lenin and the Bolshevik party, prepared the way for the October Revolution. In this article, however, I will argue that in some instances ideological institutions had shaped the workers’ expectations.
Who Rules Šiauliai? A Case Study of an Emerging Urban Regime
Authors: Clark Terry D.
Published: April 2006

Since the collapse of communism, much scholarship has examined the efforts by the countries of east central Europe and the former Soviet Union to develop democratic regimes. The majority of such studies have focused on institutional development and the problems of democratic transition at the national level. Although this focus is not at all surprising given the highly centralized political structures that have been the legacy of the communist past, the efficacy, indeed the ultimate success or failure of democratization, may well rest largely on the ability of local government to satisfy citizen demands. Local government is most directly involved in delivering the goods and services that affect people’s daily lives. Hence, citizens often form their judgments of political systems based on the performance of local government. To the degree that democracy depends on the loyalty of the citizenry, local government is important to the survival of democracy.

Who rules is the central question posed by scholars studying local government. This issue lies at the heart of democracy. While it is nowhere the case that citizens rule directly, in a democracy their preferences must have some effect on public policy.
Portrait of a Con Artist as a Soviet Man
Authors: Alexopoulos Golfo
Published: April 2006

Vladimir Gromov was thirty-six years old when he was sentenced to death in 1935 for pretending to be someone he was not. Asserting the identity of a skilled engineer and award-winning architect, this man with only a middle school education once convinced the commissar of supply, Anastas Mikoian, to give him one million rubles. Now, the Moscow prosecutor and people's court insisted that he was a pretender, an impostor, a master con artist. Yet in his own mind, Gromov was an artist of a different sort. While in solitary confinement awaiting execution in Moscow's Taganka prison, Gromov wrote a play, complete with elaborate drawings and stage directions, which he submitted to the deputy procuratorgeneral of the USSR, Andrei Vyshinskii.
Amoral Realism or Immoral Obfuscation?
Authors: Lilly Carol S.
Published: April 2006

In his article, "Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers," Robert Hayden combines comparative history, political commentary, and amoral realism. In the process, he presents a number of arguments with which it is difficult to disagree, but also many that are provocative and, indeed, offensive. Because Hayden makes so many arguments in this piece (both primary, secondary, and parenthetical; explicit and implicit; open and disguised) my critique will not follow the organization of his paper. Rather, it will challenge Hayden's article on three counts: 1) its factual accuracy; 2) its lack of reference to existing literature on the topic; and 3) the logic, validity, and moral consequences of its arguments.
Kinship and Concealment in Red Cavalry and Babel'’s 1920 Diary
Authors: Avins Carol J.
Published: April 2006

To begin, three encounters, and then some ruminations about two deaths, the veiling of identity and the expression of kinship. The encounters are from the diary Isaac Babel' kept during his service with Budenny's First Cavalry Army in the Polish campaign of 1920; the deaths are those that frame the work of fiction he drew from this experience, Red Cavalry. That book begins and ends with the narrator contemplating a corpse–in each instance, the body of a Jewish man whose passing leads the narrator to confront the meanings of kinship and loss. In the first case, he witnesses bereavement; in the second, he experiences it. On one important level, the narrator's trajectory in Red Cavalry is captured in the contrast between his links to the first death and to the last. Reading the story cycle against the background of the diary, one can see this feature of the cycle's design in terms of the central dilemma for Babel' (bearing papers in the name of Kirill Vasilievich Liutov, the name he bequeathes to his narrator) in his dealings with the civilians of the heavily Jewish towns through which his division passed: whether or not to reveal that he was himself a Jew.
Gender and Genre in Pavlova'sA Double Life
Authors: Greene Diana
Published: April 2006

The literary reputation of Karolina Pavlova (1807-1893) has fluctuated considerably over the years: she was praised in the 1830s, 1840s and early 1850s, reviled in the 1860s as unprogressive and consigned to oblivion from the 1870s until her death in 1893. At the turn of the century she was rediscovered by the Russian symbolists: Poliakov, Blok and Bely praised her, and Valerii Briusov edited a two-volume edition of her work (1915). Women poets of the time, such as Cherubina de Gabriak (Elisaveta Vasil'eva), Akhmatova, Tsvetaeva and Parnok, cited her and dedicated poems to her. After the revolution Pavlova was reconsigned to oblivion. Two scholarly editions of Pavlova's poetry appeared during the Soviet period (1937 and 1964) but accompanied by introductions deploring her unprogressive views on politics and art. At best they damned her with faint praise as “not first rate but all the same somewhat noteworthy.” The ambivalent attitude toward Pavlova may have reflected a conflict between the Soviet attempt to “claim the classics for the Soviet cause” while downplaying material that could not be construed retroactively to support the Soviet regime; Pavlova was identified with the politically conservative Slavophiles. Only after she had been rediscovered in the west did positive Soviet scholarship about her begin to appear.
The Secularization of the Search for Salvation: The Self-Fashioning of Orthodox Clergymen's Sons in Late Imperial Russia
Authors: Manchester Laurie
Published: April 2006

In recent decades, historians of prerevolutionary Russia have emphasized the diverse and complex nature of the group of educated Russians that has traditionally been referred to as the “intelligentsia.” In the existing historiography, there have been numerous investigations into various subgroups of the intelligentsia, including studies of noble intellectuals, students, women radicals, religious thinkers, ethnic elites, and members of political parties and of specific professions. The subgroup that contributed more to Russian professions and political movements than any other non-noble subgroup in both quantitative and qualitative terms is also the only prominent subgroup that has been neglected. The members of this neglected subgroup are Russian Orthodox clergymen's sons, referred to throughout this article by the Russian term popovichi?
Containing the Spectacle of Punishment: The Russian Autocracy and the Abolition of the Knout, 1817-1845
Authors: Schrader Abby M.
Published: April 2006

In 1817, Russian authorities apprehended six Tatar brigands in the port town of Feodosiia in the Crimea. Convicted of murdering seventeen people and of stealing from and desecrating a Christian church, the six were sentenced in April by the local civil and criminal court to punishment by knout–the harshest instrument of corporal punishment used in Russia. The knout consisted of a stiff thong of rawhide fastened by a bronze ring to a braided leather whip of approximately three and a half feet in length; this apparatus was attached to a wooden stick of two and a half feet that the executioner wielded. Following the knouting, the court authorized the executioner to rip out the nostrils and brand the faces of the Tatars, who were then to be dispatched into eternal exile at hard labor in the mines of eastern Siberia. Because the local court deemed these criminals especially dangerous, and because their apprehension and conviction ostensibly reinforced Russian leadership in the province, the court decreed that the knouting of the criminals be carried out in a variety of locations across the province, rather than in a single place.
Controlling Interlocutory Aspects of Proceedings in the International Court of Justice
Authors: Rosenne Shabta
Published: April 2006

Profound changes in the structure and composition of today’s international community of states and equally profound changes in the kinds of disputes coming before the International Court of Justice are making essential a thorough review of the Court’s methods of handling contentious cases, and possibly advisory cases as well. Attention has been focused on hearings, where some useful modifications have been introduced. It seems, however, that more is needed than adjustments in the oral proceedings, which nevertheless can serve as the point of departure for further developments. Article 48 of the Statute gives the Court almost unfettered power to “make orders for the conduct o f the case... and to make all arrangements connected with the taking o f evidence” (emphasis added). As will be seen, in 1999 the General Assembly of the United Nations encouraged the Court to adopt additional measures aimed at expediting its proceedings. This Note has the limited purpose of drawing attention to some recent measures taken by the Court with that end in view, and suggests directions for a more fundamental change in the Court’s procedures.
The development of Archaeopteris: new evolutionary characters from the structural analysis of an Early Famennian trunk from southeast Morocco
Authors: Meyer‐Berthaud Brigitte , Scheckler Stephen E. , Bousquet Jean‐Luc
Published: April 2006

A 5 m long trunk of a young Archaeopteris/Callixylon erianum tree from the Late Devonian of Morocco shows new branching patterns for early lignophytes. This progymnosperm tree produces a helical pattern of traces that we infer belonged to reduced, short‐lived, primary (apical) branches (type A) as well as two types of adventitious traces (types B and H). We infer that type‐B traces supplied branches that initiate close to the site of attachment on the trunk of some, but not all type‐A branches in an irregular but nonrandom pattern. Unlike ephemeral type‐A branches, those of type B persist and become long‐lived, potentially permanent units of the architecture of Archaeopteris trees. Type‐H adventitious traces are also short‐lived and occur singly or in serial groups, but differ from traces of either type A or B branches by lacking differentiation into a readily identifiable organ category. We interpret type‐H traces as supplying latent primordia that could develop into either adventitious roots or shoots depending on extrinsic factors. Our new data suggest that Archaeopteris had a wide range of branch primordium amplitude. Type‐B branches compare with axillary lateral branch buds of some Early Carboniferous spermatophytes (Calamopitys) and are a major developmental departure from the strictly apical, pseudomonopodial shoot branching of older aneurophyte progymnosperms. Type‐H traces suggest that Archaeopteris trees had some potential for formation of adventitious roots or shoots in response to environmental factors, such as partial burial by overbank sedimentation. Collectively, these novel methods of tree branching may partly explain the extraordinary success and worldwide dominance of Archaeopteris forests on fluvially dominated, Late Devonian floodplains.
The internal cuticle of Cirsium horridulum (Asteraceae) leaves
Authors: Pesacreta Thomas C. , Hasenstein Karl H.
Published: April 2006

Leaf internal cuticle has not previously been studied in detail, and yet its existence has profound implications for the path of water movement. The internal cuticle forms a uniform layer on the inner periclinal epidermal walls that border substomatal cavities. This cuticle is continuous with the external cuticle through the stomatal pores. The thickness of the internal cuticle on nonstomatal epidermal cells is approximately one‐third that of the external cuticle on the same cells. On both the abaxial and adaxial sides of the leaf the internal cuticle forms irregularly shaped islands bordered by mesophyll cells. The size of the islands coincides with the epidermal area of the substomatal cavity. The internal cuticle remains intact and connected to the external cuticle after incubation in cellulytic enzymes. After treatment with sulfuric acid or chloroform, both cuticles remain intact. The autofluorescence of both cuticles is increased by staining with auramine O. These results indicate that large portions of the leaf epidermis are covered by both an internal and an external cuticle.
Ballistic seed projection in two herbaceous species
Authors: Garrison Wendy J. , Miller Gary L. , Raspet Richard
Published: April 2006

We found that the majority of ballistic seeds tested [N = 74 of 78 in Vicia sativa ssp. nigra (Fabaceae); N = 25 of 27 in Croton capitatus var. capitatus (Euphorbiaceae)] were projected at angles that would yield a greater distance than the average of seeds with the same initial speed projected at random angles. In addition, the median of fractional distance error (maximum distance − seed distance)/(maximum distance), of the seeds were 0.11 and 0.04 for V. sativa and C. capitatus, respectively. Seed projection distance was modeled by using initial projection angle, initial speed, and measured drag, along with other seed data. We improved upon previous such studies by using dual‐angle high‐speed stroboscopic photography to determine initial projection angle and speed. We also measured seed drag in a low‐turbulence wind tunnel. Seed projection positions on the plant, which also affect seed projection distance, were found to be primarily from the top of the plant, with 98 of 137 and 407 of 407 fruits in the upper half of the plant for V. sativa and C. capitatus, respectively. Our findings are significant because they suggest that in addition to the ballistic projection mechanism itself, the species studied have additional adaptations that result in enhanced seed projection distance from the parent plant.
The status of Clarkia australis (Onagraceae)
Authors: Gottlieb L. D. , Ford V. S.
Published: April 2006

Clarkia australis and C. virgata grow on the western slope of the central Sierra Nevada of California. Clarkia australis was established to accommodate populations of C. virgata from south of the Tuolumne River that could not be successfully hybridized to populations north of the river. Although the species is maintained in the new Jepson Manual, its validity has been questioned because only two populations were originally tested, and they had no useful morphological traits that distinguished them from C. virgata. We report here the results of a large program of interpopulation hybridizations that show that C. australis is distinct and that its reproductive isolation from C. virgata is complete and absolute and reflects a compatibility block that apparently causes abortion of hybrid seeds in early development. Both species include populations north and south of the Tuolumne River and, in general, those of C. australis occupy higher elevations. Morphologically, the species are extremely similar though the mean values of several dimensions of the petals are different. However, significant variation among their populations has the consequence that, at present, the only certain way to assign particular populations to species is to test their compatibility with previously tested populations.
New perspectives on the Mesozoic seed fern order Corystospermales based on attached organs from the Triassic of Antarctica
Authors: Axsmith Brian J. , Taylor Edith L. , Taylor Thomas N. , Cuneo N. Ruben
Published: April 2006

A new Triassic corystosperm is described from the Shackleton Glacier region of Antarctica. The compression fossils include cupulate organs (Umkomasia uniramia) and leaves (Dicroidium odontopteroides) attached to short shoot‐bearing branches. The cupulate organs occur in groups near the apices of the short shoots, and each consists of a single axis with a pair of bracts and a subapical whorl of five to eight ovoid cupules. This unique architecture indicates that the cupules are individual megasporophylls rather than leaflets of a compound megasporophyll. A branch bearing an attached D. odontopteroides leaf provides the first unequivocal evidence that Umkomasia cupulate organs and Dicroidium leaves were produced by the same plants. Although this had previously been assumed based on organ associations, the new specimens are important in demonstrating that a single species of corystosperm produced the unique cupulate organs described here and the geographically and stratigraphically widespread and common D. odontopteroides leaf. Therefore, biostratigraphic, paleoecological, and phylogenetic studies that treat Dicroidium leaf morphospecies as proxies for biological species of entire plants should be reconsidered. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the corystosperm cupule is an unlikely homologue for the angiosperm carpel or outer integument.
A unique Hawaiian Schiedea (caryophyllaceae: Alsinoideae) with only five fertile stamens
Authors: Wagner Warren L. , Harris Elizabeth M.
Published: April 2006

The floral organogenesis and subsequent ontogenies of the Hawaiian endemic species Schiedea pubescens from Maui, Moloka'i, and Lana'i, and the Wai'anae Mountains, O'ahu, populations previously considered to be varietally distinct, were examined using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The O'ahu population consistently produced only five fertile stamens, those of the inner whorl. The five stamens of the alternisepalous or outer whorl abort prior to microsporogenesis and fail to elongate. Additional vegetative differences between the two taxa, combined with the floral morphology characters, merit the description of the O'ahu population as a new species, S. pentandra, described herein.
“Lycostrobus” chinleana, an equisetalean cone from the Upper Triassic of the southwestern United States and its phylogenetic implications
Authors: Grauvogel‐Stamm Le´a , R. Ash Sidney
Published: April 2006

Detailed study of the cone Lycostrobus chinleana Daugherty shows that the fossil was incorrectly attributed to the Lycopodiales by the author and to the quillworts by Retallack and that it actually should be assigned to the Equisetales. The cone, which occurs in the Upper Triassic Chinle Formation at several localities in the southwestern United States, is ∼2.5 cm wide and nearly 6 cm long and consists of a stout axis bearing whorls of peltate sporangiophores. Each sporangiophore is composed of a slender stalk and a hexagonal disk, which typically bears a single, generally long, lanceolate, forward‐directed leaf‐like umbo tip on the outer surface and several recurrent sporangia on the inner surface. Small round to oval trilete spores occur in the sporangia. Since the leaf‐like umbo tip is similar to the sterile leaves found in certain calamite cones and the recurrent sporangia are equisetalean‐like, it appears that the cone may represent a intermediate stage between Calamites and modern Equisetum. According to this hypothesis, the nonbracteate Equisetum cone could have developed from a bracteate calamite cone, through reduction and fusion of the bracts and the sporangiophores, rather than by the loss of whorls of bracts of the Calamites cone as suggested earlier by others. As a result of this study the cone is assigned to the new Equisetalean genus Equicalastrobus and redescribed under the name E. chinleana (Daugherty) Grauvogel‐Stamm and Ash, n. comb.
Love, Friendship, and Poetic Voice in Aleksandr Pushkin's Lycée Elegies
Authors: Morgan James L.
Published: April 2006

–A. S. Pushkin, Evgenii Onegin, 2:x

In his Materialy dlia biografii A. S. Pushkina, Pavel Annenkov first formulated what is now a critical commonplace: that Aleksandr Pushkin's 1816 elegies marked a turning point in the young poet's work, the rapid first steps toward poetic maturity and individuality.
Iurii Lotman's Pushkiniana
Authors: Reyfman Irina
Published: April 2006

Iurii Lotman authored nearly forty books and articles about Aleksandr Pushkin's works, life, and personality; there is little doubt, therefore, that the poet was central to Lotman's scholarly interests. Nonetheless, Lotman turned to Pushkin's legacy relatively late in his scholarly career: while his first article was published in 1949, his first article on Pushkin appeared only in 1960. Both Lotman's kandidatskaia and doktorskaia dissertations were devoted to far more marginal figures and issues of Russian literary development: the former to Aleksandr Radishchev and Nikolai Karamzin, and the latter to early nineteenth-century literature.
Criminal law—Italian constitutional law—European Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons—agreement regarding confinement of a transferred prisoner—effect and constitutionality of such an agreement
Authors: Oxman Bernard H. , Ciampi Annalisa
Published: April 2006

Baraldini (March 28, 2001), at .

Corte costituzionale (Constitutional Court of Italy), March 22, 2001.

Following breast cancer surgery in a Rome hospital, Silvia Baraldini—an Italian national who had been transferred from the United States to Italy for the purpose of serving the remainder of her prison sentence in Italy—requested her release from prison while she received radiation treatments or chemotherapy. By order of November 24, 2000, the Tribunale di sorveglianza (Supervisory Court) of Rome for the District of Lazio, on its own motion, brought a challenge of constitutionality against the Italian statute (Transfer Implementation Law) implementing the 1983 Council of Europe Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons (Strasbourg Convention).
Recent Writings about Soviet Historiography
Authors: Enteen George M.
Published: April 2006

In this essay, George Enteen reviews two studies of Soviet historiography, one Russian and one western, as well as a Russian who’s who of historians. The Russian study, which examines the establishment of censorship in the 1920s, is based on archives that have usually been overlooked. The western study examines the struggle against intellectual controls in the years from 1956 to 1974 and draws on archives and extensive interviews. This latter study receives most of the attention. Enteen takes issue with the study’s author on a number of points concerning Stalinist historiography. By posing questions that arise from a comparison of the studies, Enteen seeks to make an observation about the state of Soviet studies.
Francesco Zambeccari and a Musical Friend
Authors: Miller Clement A.
Published: April 2006

Our knowledge of the life of Francesco Zambeccari, the noted translator and fabricator of the letters of Libanius, is sketchy at best, and the course of his later years is shrouded in mystery. In 1474 he is known to have taught Greek and Latin literature in Perugia, and in the following year to have obtained a position with King Ferdinand I of Naples.

But when Zambeccari left Perugia, probably in April 1475, he went to Rome and not to Naples, for Ferdinand had already come to Rome to take part in the celebration of the seventh jubilee year of that city. While in Rome Zambeccari worked on his translations of the Libanian letters and consulted with Johannes Argyropoulos concerning them. Here every trace of Zambeccari ends. It is not known whether he ever went to Naples; Foerster's investigations of the archives at Naples and of contemporary letters of prominent Neapolitans have produced only negative results.
A Parisian Colloquy of 1566: Holy Spirit or Holy Church
Authors: Nugent Donald G.
Published: April 2006

Mary Stuart was accused of many things, but never of being a theologian. Nevertheless, at the end of the summer of 1561, the recently widowed and star-crossed Queen, in an extraordinary interview with the intrepid Reformer, John Knox, put her finger on what was perhaps the fundamental question of the Reformation. Concerning the respective credentials of the Kirk of Scotland and the Kirk of Rome, she pleaded: ‘Ye interpret the Scriptures in one manner, and they interpret in another. Whom shall I believe? And who shall be judge?’ Knox's reply was, au fond, an appeal to the Holy Spirit.
Humanisme
Authors: Françon Marcel
Published: April 2006

Thérèse Goyet dit, à propos du mot humanisme: ‘Littré ne reçoit le substantif que dans son supplément de 1877,’ et lui donne pour deuxième acception: ‘Théorie philosophique qui rattache les développements historiques de l'humanité à elle-même.’ En note, Thérèse Goyet exphque cette acception en écrivant: ‘Référence de Littré à la Revue Critique, 5 septembre 1874, page 156. “Rattache” et “historiques“ sont tout à fait vagues. Malheureusement, nous n'avons pu retrouver le texte: Il semble que la référence de Littré soit erronée.'

Or, je consulte le Supplément du Dictionnaire de Littré (Paris, 1883) et la Revue Critique d'Histoire et de Littérature, No 36—5 septembre—1874 (huitième année), p. 156, et je lis: ‘Il montre ensuite l'unité des Frères moraves naissant du hussitisme, le désir d'une réforme de l'Eglise s'emparant d'un grand nombre de personnalités marquantes et l'humanisme venant s'offrir à elles comme l'instrument d'une science plus sérieuse et d'une culture plus générale.'
Spenser's Amoretti LXII and the Date of the New
Year
Authors: Bennett Josephine Waters
Published: April 2006

Recently a new theory of the structure of Spenser's Amoretti k has been put
forward. It is based on the argument that Amoretti LXII refers, not to
January 1 but to March 25, 'the day on which the year number is changed' [in
Elizabethan times]. This revision of the day's date makes it possible to
argue that the forty-seven sonnets from XXII through LXVIII correspond to
the Lenten season in 1594, 'including Easter and the six Sundays before
Easter.