bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
WORLD OUTLOOK
Authors: Allen Chris , Burrell Andrew , Mitsui Tadasu , Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

Events in the Gulf have finally brought an end to the world economic boom of the last eight years. The oil price shock itself is only partly responsible for the downturn. The previous tightening of monetary policy in the face of inflationary pressures and the end of a rapid period of credit and asset price expansion had severely weakened the ability of some economies to respond to the shock. This is reflected in the diversity of response, most obviously in the United States where Fed fine tuning and the credit crunch have already weakened the economy. The rise in oil prices has led to a sudden collapse in consumer confidence and a swift cutback in output. Although we do not expect the recession to be deep, the financial problems will delay recovery. The Japanese economy was already in financial difficulties before the shock, although the real economy was stronger and here we expect a sharp deceleration from almost 6 per cent growth last year to around 3.5 per cent. In contrast the German economy, partly shielded by the substantial appreciation of the DM over the last year, has been affected less by the oil price shock and we expect the consumer and investment boom to continue this year as the economies merge. This provides a welcome boost to other European economies.
What Remains of Thatcherism?
Authors: DICKS GEOFFREY
Published: January 2008

Mrs. Thatcher came to power in 1979 with a mission ‐ to reverse years of economic decline in Britain. This, it was argued, required major reforms in microeconomic policy and a reduction in the role and size of the state. Macroeconomic policy was seen as playing a facilitating rather than a direct role. Above all a fundamental change in the attitudes of the British people was required. In this Viewpoint we examine the record of the Thatcher government and ask how much of this philosophy is likely to survive under the government of John Major. Our verdict is that, in key areas such as the community charge, health and education, Mrs. Thatcher failed to wean the British people off the welfare state ‐ we prefer public provision out of general taxation to a direct charge for services consumed. It is already evident that Mr. Major's government acknowledges this and is backing away from the harshest aspects of Mrs. Thatcher's social policies. In macroeconomics the primacy of the battle against inflation has generally been accepted, though the chosen policy ‐ the EMS rather than independent monetary policy ‐ is not Mrs. Thatcher's. We believe that the present approach offers the greater hope for a lasting reduction in inflation, but it is an irony that this was the area which ultimately brought Mrs. Thatcher down ‐ Britain accepted her end but not her means. On industrial policy there are fears, which were first raised by Sir James Ball in his Viewpoint of October 1989 and which were expressed forcibly when Mi. Heseltine first challenged Mrs. Thatcher, that the new government will revert to a more interventionist approach. It is too early to know whether these fears are justified, though it is clear that any backsliding in this area will be the test of how much of Thatcherism survives into the 1990s.
The Dollar, the Oil Price and Policy Divergence
Authors: ALLEN CHRIS , SCOTT ANDREW
Published: January 2008

There is currently a clear divergence of policy between the United States, Japan and Germany. With the US in recession and concern growing over the severity of the slump, interest rates have been cut in a move to revive the economy. In contrast Japan and Germany are both experiencing strong growth and monetary policy remains tight to combat inflation. This divergence was seen most clearly when the Federal Reserve Board lowered its discount rate to 6 per cent on 1 February, the day after the Bundesbank had raised its Lombard rate to 9 per cent. With G7 increasingly concerned about domestic factors, less emphasis is placed upon stable exchange rates and as a result the dollar is at an all‐time low. The last two G7 communiqués have stressed ‘stability oriented monetary policies’, an ambiguous phrase which fails to define ‘stability’ either in terms of exchange rates, inflation or growth. Thus both the German and Japanese policy of high interest rates to reduce inflation and low US interest rates aimed at stimulating the economy can be termed as ‘stability oriented’.

This analysis focuses on these divergent policy responses in two alternative scenarios to the world forecast we presented last month. The first scenario considers what might happen if the Federal Reserve Board were to stimulate the US economy by further cuts in interest rates, whilst Japanese and German rates were unchanged in the face of inflationary pressures. This case may be relevant if the recent US loosening of monetary policy is not sufficient to encourage growth because of a ‘credit crunch’, so that a more expansionary policy is required by the Fed. As a consequence, policy diverges further and the dollar weakens. The second scenario focuses upon a reduction in inflationary pressures in Japan and Germany brought about by an oil price fall. In this case we assume that US policy is already loose enough to avoid a prolonged recession, but that German and Japanese monetary policy is relaxed as inflationary forces recede. In this case policies converge. Each scenario thus concentrates on one of !he two features which are causing the policy divergence amongst G3 countries: recession in the US, inflation in Germany and Japan.
The London Business School with Gower Publishing: Forecast Release: EARNINGS AND UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE CAR INDUSTRY: THE BEST AND WORST OF BRITISH INDUSTRY
Authors: Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

The Chancellor has described the cost in terms of lost output and higher unemployment of getting inflation down as ‘well worth paying’. Yet the trade‐off so far is a miserable 1.25 per cent off the underlying rate of growth of earnings for an unemployment increase approaching 600,000, some 2–3 per cent off the underlying rate of inflation for a 3 per cent drop in GDP and a 7 per cent fall in manufacturing output. The question is clear: why is it that in the UK we seem to have to pay such a high price in terms of lost output and higher unemployment to make only modest progress on reducing wage and price inflation? One possible answer is in terms of the NAIRU; another stems from the way in which we measure retail price inflation. Using the example of the car industry as a backdrop, we examine the relationship between unemployment and inflation and ask whether there is a role for government to play in improving the trade‐off. Our conclusion is that the present non‐interventionist stance is probably appropriate but that the government should be doing more to educate both sides of the wage bargain ‐ a challenge picked up by the Prime Minister in his recent speech to the CBI. This is especially appropriate at the present time, because price inflation is falling but wage inflation is lagging behind. It is not a cut in real wages that is required but an equi‐proportionate deceleration in both wages and prices. By joining the ERM, we will ultimately obtain German rates of inflation; low wage settlements would both shorten the time‐scale and reduce the unemployment cost of convergence.
Forecast Release
Authors: Currie David , Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

Although the Chancellor did not say in so many words precisely what lay behind his thinking on the Budget, the implicit message was clear. His aim was to rebalance fiscal and monetary policy, tightening the former so that the monetary relaxation that we have already had does not have to be quickly reversed. In so doing, he has increased the chances that interest rates can stay lower for longer than would have been the case if he had not acted on the PSBR. The reaction of the foreign exchanges critical but again the Budget makes it more likely that the devaluation of the pound since last September can be made one off, not the precursor to a prolonged downward float. This is a necessary condition for a ‘successful’ devaluation, but it is not sufficient: the wage response is also critical. High unemployment is helpful in this respect, though it has not stopped us frittering away the benefits of previous devaluations. Our February forecast was pessimistic on the UK's ability to hold onto the competitive advantage that devaluation brings; the Budget, while short on monetary underpinning, increases the odds in favour of a more optimistic outturn.
The London Business School with Gower Publishing
Authors: Dicks Geoffrey
Published: January 2008

Suddenly the recovery is with us. After two months in which manufacturing output rose 2.5 per cent, there are few who doubt that a sustainable recovery is under way. While it is unlikely in the extreme that manufacturing will continue to grow at the rate of January‐February, an annual rate of 15 per cent, and equally likely that there will still be some bad months, almost no one is dismissing the recent experience as another ‘false dawn’. With retail sales rising steadily, and industrial surveys registering a marked upturn in business confidence, it would appear that the Chancellor's green shoots' are finally with us. Indeed, when the CSO conies to date the trough of the present cycle, it is likely to put it in the second quarter of last year. If this is the case, the first year of recovery will have been particularly weak, reminiscent of the experience in 1981‐2 when the trough of the cycle was in February 1981 but it was not until late 1982 that a convincing recovery was under way. Given the apparent similarity between these two episodes, we draw comfort from the fact that (non‐oil) GDP rose 1.3 per cent in 1982 and 2.8 per cent in 1983, in line with our February forecast of 1.3 per cent growth this year followed by 3.2 per cent in 1994.
The First Unified Budget What Should Mr. Clarke Do?
Authors: CURRIE DAVID , DICKS GEOFFREY
Published: January 2008

Mr. Clarke has the distinction of presenting the first Unified Budget, an innovation introduced by his predecessor. He does so against a subdued inflation outlook and a recovery from recession that has been proceeding since the first half of last year. But he is also aware that there are risks to this favourable outlook: European recession may slow growth, and there is the worry that underlying inflation may breach the Government's 4 per cent ceiling. III this Viewpoint, we argue that the Chancellor should go further that his predecessor in curbing public borrowing, aiming for a reduction of sonic £4‐5bn; this fiscal contraction could be accompanied by a further 0.5 per cent reduction in interest rates, or more if the recovery shows signs of faltering. A rebalancing of monetary and fiscal policy in this way reduces the risks associated with a high level of public borrowing, can help in reducing the excessive level of consumption (private and public) in the UK economy, and offers the best means of maintaining a competitive exchange rate without inflation. A curious feature of the first Unified Budget is that, having moved tax decisions to the autumn, the Chancellor appears to have ruled out further government spending cuts beyond those agreed by the Cabinet before the summer: with more favourable inflation arid the public sector pay limit, there would seem to be scope for a further reduction in the Control Total. On the revenue side, the Chancellor should seek to raise revenues in such a way that does not adversely affect incentives. Here he has several options: to extend the VAT net; to eliminate income tax allowances or reduce them to the 20p rate of tax; or to introduce new user charges. There is also the opportunity, one year on from the UK's exit from the ERM, to restate the basis for a sustainable macroeconomic framework. This should include a rebalancing of monetary and fiscal policy, and a move to enhance the powers of the Bank of England but with parliamentary accountability.
A MORE FLEXIBLE LABOUR MARKET?
Authors: Sentance Andrew
Published: January 2008

The firm downward trend in unemployment has been one of the most surprising aspects of the UK recovery to date. Unemployment has fallen at a much earlier stage of recovery than it did in the 1980s, despite the fact that measured growth has been fairly modest to date. More favourable demographic trends have contributed to this decline, as has early retirement and an expansion of higher education. It is also possible that growth is being understated. However, the decline in unemployment has also led to the suggestion that the UK labour market has become more flexible. In this Forecast Release, we examine this claim. We identify a number of ways in which both the demand for and the supply of labour have become more flexible. But in one crucial respect ‐ real wage flexibility ‐ the evidence is less persuasive. That should not prevent unemployment falling in the short term. But it could limit the extent to which a substantial further fall in unemployment could he sustained without inflation re‐emerging.
The monetary policy dilemma: Will interest rates have to rise?
Authors: CURRIE DAVID , SENTANCE ANDREW , GARRATT ANTHONY
Published: January 2008

UK interest rates are now at their lowest level for more than two decades, and the government is hoping that interest rates can be kept at a low and sustainable level comparable to the 1960s. Indeed, some commentators are calling for still lower interest rates to offset the risk that the £12bn tax increases and cuts in government spending that will come into effect in the next financial year will lead to stagnant consumer spending and a stalled recovery. Against this must be weighed the risk that the recent very good run of inflation figures will prove temporary. Both headline and underlying inflation will be pushed up by indirect tax increases and there is the possibility that wages will follow too, as employees seek to maintain their living standards in a tightening labour market. That risk would point to a much more cautious monetary policy stance and the possibility that the government may need to raise rates from their present level if it is to achieve its inflation objective. The Chancellor faces a clear dilemma. In this Viewpoint, we assess the evidence available to guide him in his decisions and draw out the implications for the future path of interest rates.
Keeping the lid on inflation
Authors: Nixon James
Published: January 2008

James Nixon and Andrew Sentance examine the current monetary policy dilemma: whether to raise interest rates in response to sterling weakness, or pay more attention to subdued consumer demand. They conclude that interest rates should rise (from their rate at the time of writing of 6.75%), but that other changes to the monetary framework would enhance the credibility and effectiveness of current UK anti‐inflationary policy.
Boom time for British manufacturing investment
Authors: Sentance Andrew
Published: January 2008

Andrew Sentance and Giovanni Urga review the performance of investment over the UK recovery and to date and discuss how the current upswing in investment will develop over the years ahead. By historical standards the economy as a whole is likely to see a modest investment recovery. But manufacturing industry is on the threshold of an investment boom which should see an exceptional period of growth in industrial investment.
Exchange rate regimes in the transition economies
Authors: Nuti D. Mario
Published: January 2008

D. Mario Nuti illustrates the extraordinary progress made by central and eastern European economies in their trade and exchange regimes. Surprisingly, instant convertibility of exchange rates was established. In spite of diverse exchange rate regimes they have all experienced initial severe undervaluation ‐ the cost of speed and of unrestricted trade ‐ followed by rapid real revaluation and incipient protectionism. Since 1994 an embarras de richesse has appeared: high capital inflows which are either inflationary or costly to sterilise. Lower interest rates are recommended.
All change? Prospects for the UK economy under “New” Labour
Authors: Sentance Andrew
Published: January 2008

The opinion polls suggest Labour will win the General Election and form the next government. In this article, Andrew Sentance discusses how the UK economy might fare under “New” Labour. He argues that there is likely to be a considerable degree of continuity in macroeconomic policy, but more change in approach to supply‐side issues. He highlights four key policy challenges which Labour would face at an early stage if elected and which will give an indication of how policies developed in opposition will be applied in practice.
ON THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECHINODERM EGG 1. THE VISIBLE CHANGES FOLLOWING FERTILISATION AND ARTIFICIAL PARTHENOGENESIS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EGG OF SPHAERECHINUS GRANULARIS.
Authors: CARTER G. S.
Published: January 2008

The visible changes at the egg surface during early development with or without a fertilisation‐membrane are described. The relation of the substances of the vitelline membrane and of the “gelatinous layer” to the substance to which the extrusion of the fertilisation membrane is due is discussed.
THE EFFECT OF THE HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION ON THE BEHAVIOUR, GROWTH AND OCCURRENCE OF SPIROSTOMUM
Authors: SAUNDERS J. T.
Published: January 2008

1. In a pond in which Spirostomum occurred in vast quantities the pH of the water was 7·4, that of an aquarium in which Spirostomum were present in large numbers was 7·5, and that of the water containing flourishing cultures of Spirostomum was 7·4 to 7·6.

2. The Spirostomum showed the greatest activity in solutions of pH 7·4. Below this value the activity is reduced, but down to pH 6·0 at any rate the effect is not lethal. In solutions above pH 7·6 to 7·8 the Spirostomum are killed within a few hours if the pH greatly exceeds these values, and in a longer time if they are barely exceeded. In dying as result of the alkalinity of the water being too great the animals assumed a characteristic pear‐shaped malformation.

3. Pütter (1903) supposed that the death of Spirostomum which occurred when the animals were placed in shallow vessels exposed to the atmosphere was due to oxygen poisoning. This is shown not to be the case but to be due to the pH rising above the lethal value.

4. Spirostomum, when placed in tubes in which the pH of the water at one end is 8·0 and 6·8 at the other, are found to migrate rapidly into the water of pH 6·8 and then finally settle in the middle of the tube where the water is pH 7·4. This preference for water of a particular pH, which is stronger in its effects than those of light and gravity, disappears in the darkness.

5. The normal behaviour of Spirostomum in the aquarium, in the pond and in the collecting jars may be explained to a large extent by the preference for water of a particular pH and by the presence or absence of a vertical pH gradient.

6. No evidence was found to connect an epidemic of conjugation with the pH of the water.

7. The temperature at which the experiments were performed or the observations made varied from 9 to 15· Centigrade, but the temperature was uniform throughout any tube or jar at the time it was observed. There was no temperature gradient.
THE TRICHOCYSTS OF PARAMECIUM
Authors: SAUNDERS J. T.
Published: January 2008

1. The trichocysts are the means whereby Paramecium adheres to surfaces. Adherence takes place when Paramecium are attracted to a particular spot. The cause of this attraction is largely the pH of the water, but it may be masked in certain circumstances.

2. The cause of the extrusion of the trichocysts is shown to be slight pressure such as may be set up by the Paramecium colliding with an object in the water. Verworn's view that the trichocyst consists of semi‐liquid material which hardens on being extruded into the water, is here adopted. It can be shown from the experimental evidence that the tip of the trichocyst thread is sticky, but the rest of the thread is not.

3. Ciliary motion does not cease when Paramecium is attached by the trichocysts. The speed of movement, which is dependent on ciliary activity, is reduced when the/>H of the water in which the animals are living reaches 80. This reduction in ciliary activity results in the slender trichocysts being able to hold the Paramecium fast, when the pH is within 0.1 of 7.9. A further increase in the pH of the water above 8.0 results in the speed of the Paramecium being so much reduced as to render the force of a collision insufficient to expel the trichocyst. For the Paramecium studied the critical pH for adherence was 7.95.

4. It is shown that the observations of previous workers on the structure of the trichocyst accord very well with their functioning as organs of adherence.
CHROMATOPHORES
Authors: PARKER G. H.
Published: January 2008

Chromatophores, the parts concerned with the colour changes in animals, are best developed in the cephalopods, the crustaceans, and the three lower classes of vertebrates, the fishes, amphibians, and reptiles. In the cephalopods chromato‐ phores are really diminutive organs in that each one consists of a central coloured cell which is expanded against its own elasticity by radial muscle fibres. In the crustaceans a cellular complex often with several colours makes up each chromato‐ phore. This expands and contracts slowly and thus changes the tint of the animal. In the vertebrates a coloured background in the skin is exposed to view or covered up by motile black pigment cells whose melanin granules are made to migrate within the containing cell. Most animals show relatively uniform changes of colour, but in a few, as, for instance, flat‐fishes, a pattern may be imitated showing that the central control of the chromatophore system must be somewhat differentiated in the direction in which the musculature is.
PHOSPHAGEN
Authors: BALDWIN ERNEST
Published: January 2008

1. The creatine of vertebrate muscle is mainly present in the form of a compound with phosphoric acid.

2. This labile compound is intimately associated with muscular contraction. It is broken down in activity and reconstituted during rest, and is a more immediate energy source than is glycolysis. It is also broken down under conditions which are unfavourable to the organism as a whole.

3. Similar considerations appear to hold in the case of the electrical organs of certain fishes, and may possibly hold for ciliary motion also.

4. The creatine of the vertebrates is replaced, in many if not in all invertebrates, by arginine, which also forms a labile compound with phosphoric acid, and this is of a physiological significance exactly parallel to that of creatine phosphoric acid.

5. The preparation, properties, and physiological behaviour of these compounds are described and discussed, while the methods in common use for their estimation are also described.

6. Guanidine derivatives other than creatine and arginine may also behave in the same way, giving phosphagenic compounds of similar functional importance. One such compound appears to be present in cephalopod muscle.

7. Creatine phosphate is practically confined to the vertebrates, whereas arginine phosphate is never found in members of that phylum. Both compounds have been found together in an echinoid and in an enteropneust. The Echinoderm‐Enteropneust theory of vertebrate affinity, previously postulated on purely morphological grounds, seems thus to find new support on biochemical grounds.

8. The Cephalopoda appear to contain a phosphagen whose base is not arginine, whereas arginine phosphate appears to be present in the Lamellibranchiata. This is possibly of evolutionary significance, since the Lamellibranchiata are believed to have branched off from the main line of evolution at a date considerably earlier than that of the divergence of the other Mollusca.

9. Protozoa appear not to contain phosphagen, but with a possible exception in the case of the Coelenterata, the Metazoa all make use of some phosphagen compound.

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr Joseph Needham and Mrs Needham for their continual help and advice, and to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research for a grant, during the tenure of which this article was written.
PROTOPLASMIC REORGANISATION AND ANIMAL LIFE CYCLES
Authors: TAYLOR C. V.
Published: January 2008

Comparisons of the Protozoa and Metazoa have emphasised their structure‐function relationships without due regard to their historical relationships. Thus cellularity has been a common basis for this comparison as applied to unicellular organisms on the one hand and multicellular organisms on the other, equating in each group the cell as the unit of structure and function; or, on the contrary, denying that this comparison holds since Protozoa are to be regarded as non‐cellular organisms.

It is proposed that genetic history, including both ontogeny and phylogeny, is the essential basis for this comparison. Since organic differentiation is the process by which the cell originated in phylogeny and each organism develops in ontogeny, maintaining its organismal unity throughout, it is suggested that primarily this process, protoplasmic differentiation, and secondarily its product, the primordial cell, should be given first importance in fundamental considerations of both protozoan and metazoan genetic history.

Protozoa as well as Metazoa begin their life cycle as a primordial cell which is the stage of minimal protoplasmic differentiation. From this primordial stage comes to be differentiated epigenetically diverse organs with specific functions, derived for the Metazoa during numberless mitotic divisions but for the Protozoa during one mitotic division and are rederived during each succeeding division. Thus, Protozoa retain the capacity to reorganise, that is, to dedifferentiate and redifferen‐tiate, which they tend to do during fission, conjugation, endomixis, cystment, and regeneration; and are accordingly potentially immortal. Metazoan ontogeny, however, proceeds toward a fixed and irreversible state of differentiation which eventuates in disintegration and death.

It is postulated further that protoplasmic reorganisation involves both cytoplasmic and nuclear structures which alike undergo a redifferentiation following dedifferentiation toward a primordial stage which represents the initial stage of the life cycle. While these changes may differ, with respect to the cytoplasm and nucleus, in the time, manner, or completeness of their occurrence; it is suggested that their visible manifestations have to do with dynamic processes which are fundamentally the same.
THE EQUILIBRIUM FUNCTION OF THE VERTEBRATE LABYRINTH
Authors: LÖWENSTEIN. OTTO
Published: January 2008

1. The vertebrate labyrinth can be divided into a pars superior, consisting of the utriculus and the semicircular canals, and a pars inferior, consisting of the sacculus and its various appendages.

2. Only the pars superior is concerned with the maintenance of muscle tone and with reflex reactions to gravity and to linear and angular accelerations. This has been demonstrated for fishes, amphibia and mammals, and, although the evidence is not completely satisfactory, it probably holds for reptiles and birds as well.

The pars inferior takes no part in any of these functions (again with the above reservation as to reptiles and birds), but, even in those vertebrates which lack the organ of Corti, is concerned with sound reception.

Breuer's theory of the localisation of the non‐acoustic function of the labyrinth has thus been shown to be erroneous.

3. Attempts have been made to discover which of the receptor endings of the pars superior are involved in each of its functions, by eliminating separately the various endings. The results obtained are not entirely consistent. Production of the static reflexes and of the reflexes to centrifugal force and fast linear acceleration is in all probability the main function of the otolith organ (utriculus). It appears, however, that the assumption that the otolith organ is purely static in function is incorrect, for it has been shown that the utriculus can be involved in dynamic responses to rotations.

The main function of the semicircular canals is the release of the dynamic reflexes. It has, however, been claimed that the vertical canals take part in the production of static reflexes as well.

Both the utriculi and the semicircular canals are involved in the maintenance of muscle tone.

4. In the discussion of the general conclusions as to the function of the utriculi and of the semicircular canals it is shown that one of the important functional differences between the two receptors consists in their different reaction time, which may be due to the difference in their auxiliary structures and to a different pattern of their nervous connection with the effector organs.
THE PASSIVE IRON WIRE MODEL OF PROTO‐PLASMIC AND NERVOUS TRANSMISSION AND ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL ANALOGUES
Authors: LILLIE RALPH S.
Published: January 2008

The phenomena of activation and transmission in the passive iron wire model are described, and the various parallels with the irritable living system, especially nerve, are discussed. In general, the similarity of behaviour is to be referred to a single structural feature common to both systems, namely the presence of a thin, polarisable and chemically alterable interfacial layer or surface film (oxide film; plasma membrane) situated at the boundary between the metal, or the protoplasm, and the surrounding medium. This film undergoes characteristic changes of chemical composition and physical properties, e.g. of permeability and electrical polarisation, when traversed by an electric current of an intensity and duration sufficient to produce a certain critical degree of chemical decomposition. The activity of the system as a whole is controlled by the electrochemical oxidations and reductions occurring in the film under these conditions. Hence both the model and the living system are electrically sensitive and transmit local states of activity, local changes on the film being associated with local electric circuits which have electrochemical effect at regions beyond. Hence, also, the essential conditions under which electrical activation occurs are the same in both systems (polar activation, intensity‐duration relationship, etc.). Activation and transmission are similarly affected in both by changes of temperature, by variations in the composition of the medium, by electrical polarisation (analogy to electrotonus), and by surface‐active compounds (analogy to narcosis). Closely analogous processes of progressive recovery occur in both systems after the passage of an activation wave (refractory phase). Other resemblances are seen in the phenomena of automatic rhythm, the mutual interference of activation waves, the transmission of inhibitory influence, irreciprocal transmission, and distance influence, excitatory and inhibitory. Biological analogies of a more general kind, relating to mutual interdependence between processes occurring in spatially separated regions traversed by the same electric current—a possible factor in certain types of integration—are briefly discussed.
DISEASE RELATIONSHIPS IN GRAFTED PLANTS AND CHIMAERAS
Authors: BOND T. E. T.
Published: January 2008

Disease relationships in grafted plants and chimaeras are shown to have both theoretical and practical significance.

Grafting experiments have been employed as a means of investigating the nature of resistance and susceptibility to diseases caused by pathogenic fungi and bacteria. The effects of grafting may be direct, owing to transmission through the graft union of the substance or substances actually responsible for the reaction concerned, or indirect, due to a change in the normal response to environmental conditions. Negative results, while necessarily inconclusive, indicate that resistance and susceptibility are either genotypic properties of the protoplasm, or else are due to some factor that is not, as such, transmissible.

Inoculation experiments have also been used in the interpretation of graft hybrids and chimaeras. In the case of the artificially induced Solanum chimaeras, experiments with Septoria lycopersici have shown that the two components retain their characteristic reaction to infection unaltered. Unless this assumption can be made in other forms, whose mode of origin is unknown, it becomes impossible to distinguish the two components, as such, from the modified tissues of a true graft hybrid. Results with the Crataegomespili and Pirocydoniae are not altogether consistent with the periclinal chimaera theory.

Examples are given of the practical importance of grafting in the prevention and control of disease and mechanical injury in fruit trees and other ornamental trees and shrubs. Choice of suitable stocks may entirely prevent leaf scorch and other physiological disorders, and a large body of information has accumulated concerning the influence of root‐stock on quality and storage life of the fruit.

The importance of incompatibility between stock and scion is discussed, and examples are quoted in which grafting has led to the transmission of an unsuspected virus disease. Improper fitting and tying of the graft union is liable to result in the production of wound overgrowths, and also increases the danger of external infection.
FISH MIGRATIONS
Authors: RUSSELL E. S.
Published: January 2008

A knowledge of the migratory movements of fish is of great practical importance in the commercial fisheries, and accordingly much research has been carried out on the subject by the maritime nations of Europe and by the United States, largely by means of marking experiments. The general schema of the migrations, which holds good for most species, is (1) a spawning migration of mature or maturing individuals towards a definite spawning area, generally upstream or up‐current, (2) a dispersion of the spent fish, generally downstream or down‐current, in search of food, leading sometimes to definite feeding migrations. The general effect of this cycle of migration is to keep the species within its ecological norm.

These principles are illustrated by reference to the cod and the plaice in the North Sea, Norwegian coast and Barentz Sea, Iceland and Greenland. It is shown that in each of these areas there is a definite migration cycle, and evidence is brought forward that in most cases the spawning migration takes place against the prevailing current. The recent spread of cod from Iceland to Greenland and their return to the Icelandic spawning grounds is described in some detail.

In cod and plaice the eggs and larvae are pelagic and are at first distributed passively by the currents. It seems impossible that they should retain any individual memory of their spawning places. In the case of the salmon, however, the eggs are deposited in the upper waters of rivers and streams and the young fish spend one or more years of their life in the vicinity. It has been shown for the chinook salmon of the Pacific that the fish returning from the sea to spawn remember and return to the stream in which they were brought up, even though they had been spawned in a stream hundreds of miles away. Hence individual and not ancestral memory is the dominant factor in the so‐called “homing instinct”.

To provide a contrast with the salmon and other anadromous forms, which run up rivers to spawn, brief reference is made to katadromous forms such as the flounder, the eel, and the New Zealand “whitebait” (Austrocobitis). The last‐named appears to spawn just after the height of spring tides, as is also the case with the Californian grunion (Leuresthes), whose very remarkable spawning habits are discussed in detail.

In conclusion, an account is given of the response of the local anchovy to the cutting off of its main spawning ground through the reclamation of the Zuider Zee; it has adopted new spawning grounds outside and has spread further north.

The article is not to be regarded as exhaustive, but merely as supplementary to the comprehensive surveys of the subject by Meek and Scheuring.
CHEMISTRY OF THE PLANT VIRUSES
Authors: McFARLANE A. S.
Published: January 2008

1. By fractional precipitation of the crude sap from virus‐infected plants, or by ultracentrifugation, protein substances are obtained which are capable of transmitting the disease. These proteins may be purified by various methods, notably by incubation with trypsin which selectively digests the impurities. They have high phosphorus contents and behave as nucleoproteins.

2. Examination in the ultracentrifuge reveals that these proteins have larger molecules than any hitherto discovered. In carefully prepared specimens the sedimentation boundaries are those of perfectly homogeneous substances. Sedimentation constants varying from 115times10–13 to 240times10–13 have been obtained for different viruses.

3. The viruses are stable inside the range pH 2.0–9.0, although showing often an insolubility zone. They are electrochemically homogeneous inside the stability range with isoelectric points somewhere between pH 3 and 5.

4. One virus, that causing Bushy stunt disease, has a spherical molecule and gives regular crystals. The others are anisotropic and give ill‐defined needles. Purified solutions of the anisotropic viruses show marked birefringence of flow, and this phenomenon in conjunction with X‐ray analysis has been used to obtain estimates of the molecular parameters. In the case of the tobacco mosaic virus the thicknzss of the molecule is 15 mμ. and the length probably 40 times this value. Bushy stunt virus has a diameter of 27 mμ. and a molecular weight of 8,800,000.

5. The crystallinity of the viruses cannot be regarded as a proof of their purity. X‐ray measurements on the crystals show that these have the intramolecular pattern characteristic of proteins. Measurements on semi‐dry films of virus show that in these the molecular rds are closely packed together with very little space for water or any foreign substance between them.
THE PRIME VARIABLES OF MEIOSIS
Authors: DARLINGTON C. D.
Published: January 2008

1. The uniform series of chromosome movements we know as meiosis (pairing, torsion, reproduction, crossing‐over, co‐orientation, segregation) can now be placed in a causal sequence. This serves two purposes: to be tested as a working hypothesis and to be applied to the understanding of the characteristic variations of which meiosis is susceptible.

2. Comparison of mutants, hybrids and other genetically controlled variants shows that these variations arise from three main sources: (i) the point at which the pairing chromosomes make contact; (ii) the time available for pairing; (iii) the amount of torsion capable of being developed in the parts of the chromosomes which are paired.

3. All species are, as such, characteristically co‐ordinated with regard to these variables. They may be classified as procentric (Mecostethus) or proterminal (Chry‐sochruon) in the initiation of pairing. This difference affects the relative frequency of crossing‐over in chromosomes of two main types, with the centromere near an end and away from it (Fritillariu, Lilium).

4. Exceptional cells, and individuals arising by segregation from hybrids, show that co‐ordination within the cell and the individual is not physiologically inherent in meiosis. Unco‐ordinated behaviour can take place in regard to all three prime variables (Allium, Lilium and Trillium).

5. The time limit to pairing may be imposed artificially by heat treatment or X‐raying. We then have artificial localization of crossing‐over (Uvularia, Vicia).

6. The amount of torsion depends on the speed of pairing and this in turn on the size of the nucleus. Doubling the chromosome number therefore reduces the crossing‐over frequency (Primula, Allium, Solanum, etc.).

7. The preservation of torsion depends on the early contact of a chromosome at two points. The more numerous contact points of triploids therefore increase their frequency of crossing‐over per unit length paired, at the same time changing its distribution (Fritillaria, Tulipa, Drosophila).

8. All species hybrids are structural hybrids. Their pairing is therefore slower and is cut short by the time limit. Hence their crossing‐over is reduced and relatively localized, unless the extreme of localization has already been reached in the parents (Triticum, Lilium).

9. The study of the three prime variables is therefore necessary for the understanding of the causal sequence of meiosis and of the conditions of stability and coherence in species.
CELLULAR INHERITANCE AND TRANSFORMATION
Authors: MEDAWAR P. B.
Published: January 2008

1. The article summarizes the empirical evidence relating to the production of inherited character differences between cells that generate cell lineages by asexual fission.

2. The modes of cellular transformation are classified under three headings: adaptive transformations, including antibody formation and some forms of bacterial adaptation; infective transformations, including those secured by viruses, some cellular transformations of micro‐organisms, and a colour transformation of mammalian skin; and inductive transformations, mainly exemplified by carcinogenesis and embryonic evocation.

3. Selective transformations of populations of cells are considered only as they may qualify the interpretation of the other types.

4. Adaptive transformations are defined as initially reversible and progressively induced particulate changes in cellular heredity that are functionally dependent in degree and kind upon the nature of the transforming stimulus.

5. Infective transformations are defined as heritable and serially propagable cellular transformations, not normally reversible and not progressively induced, in which the continued presence of the transforming agent or a replica of it is a necessary condition for the maintenance of the transformed state.

6. Inductive transformations are defined as heritable cellular transformations, normally irreversible, not serially propagable, and not progressively induced, in which the maintenance of the transformed state after its initiation does not depend on the continued presence of the inductive stimulus.

7. The inherited character differences between cells are particulate and combinatorial in nature, and there is ground for supposing that they are mediated by cytoplasmic entities that behave as discrete self‐reproducing particles.
SOIL MOISTURE AND THE ECOLOGY OF SOIL FUNGI
Authors: GRIFFIN D. M.
Published: January 2008

Some basic concepts concerning soil physical factors have been briefly discussed. The importance of evaluation of the total soil moisture stress, as indicative of the energy which must be used by an organism to gain water from the soil, is shown. This total stress can be divided into tensiometric and osmotic components, of which the latter is important only in saline or heavily fertilized soils and is but briefly mentioned. Tensiometric suction is discussed and shown to be best described along with a measure of the texture and structure of the soil by means of the moisture characteristic. From such a characteristic, additional information concerning porosity and aeration can be obtained.

Although there are few published experiments in which suction has been measured, none suggests a limitation of fungal growth directly due to suction factors in the soils between saturation and the permanent wilting point of mesophytic higher plants. Evidence derived from controlled humidity experiments reveals that most fungi can exert sufficient force to absorb water from atmospheres at a lower relative humidity than those in equilibrium with soil at the permanent wilting point. It is then suggested that absorption of soil water per unit area of absorptive surface will need to occur much less rapidly in the case of soil fungi than of higher plants, so that the growth of the former will not be limited to the same extent by reduction in the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. The conclusion is drawn that the majority of fungi will probably be able to grow in soils somewhat, or even considerably, drier than the permanent wilting point of higher plants.

From an examination of the evidence it is concluded that in a compact soil spores are dispersed by the soil water only when that water is moving through a nearly saturated soil. In natural soils, however, where cracks, root channels, etc., are present, rapid movement of water, and thus of spores, may take place to a considerable depth even when the general soil mass is far from saturated.

The literature reveals that such factors as moisture content, texture and structure, which affect soil aeration, have a profound influence on fungal activity and it is postulated that aeration is, in fact, the effective agent. Although the evidence is far from adequate, it appears that both excess of carbon dioxide and an insufficiency of oxygen are implicated as inhibitors.

I wish to pay particular tribute to Professor N. Collis‐George who provided the initial stimulus for me to begin investigations in the field which forms the topic of this article and who has been of much assistance to me in discussion. I also wish to thank Dr E. C. Childs and Dr S. D. Garrett for discussion and for reading and criticizing various sections of the manuscript and to thank Dr D. J. Greenwood for advice concerning soil aeration. I am grateful to Professor H. Godwin for providing accommodation for me at the Botany School, Cambridge, for a period during which this article was written.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE OVULE
Authors: SMITH DAVID L.
Published: January 2008

1. After reviewing current theories on the origin of the pteridosperm ovule it is concluded that only one, the telomic concept, can account for all the structural variations found within the group.

2. It is therefore suggested that in at least most cases the pteridosperm ovule evolved by the enclosure of a terminal sporangium within an integument derived from a number of adjacent branches or telomes.

3. A cupule or second integument, often enclosing more than one ovule, later evolved by a similar process.

4. The available evidence suggests that both integument and cupule evolved independently a number of times and that consequently the ovule itself must have arisen several times in the pteridosperms.

5. Since the possession of an ovule is the one important feature common to the whole group, this implies that the pteridosperms must have had a polyphyletic origin.

6. It is suggested that Cordaitalean ovules are primarily radially symmetrical, having a first integument derived from several telomes, and that they became bilaterally symmetrical with the evolution of a second integument derived from only two telomes.

7. Evidence provided by the ovule supports the view that the Cordaitales are monophyletic.

8. There is no foundation for the view that the ovulate organs of the Cordaitales are stachyosporous. The same is probably true of the pteridosperms.

9. Evidence of a direct relationship between the pteridosperms and the Cordaitales is inconclusive.