bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bracero
Authors: Mize Ronald L.
Published: December 2015

Bracero is a Spanish term that refers to one who works with their arms, but the term has a specific reference to a guestworker program between the United States and Mexico that brought well over two million Mexican farmworkers to the United States between 1942 and 1964. The Bracero Program is an ideal case study of how a national government policy can shape the life chances of groups uniquely designated as temporary laborers. The full range of governmental theories have been deployed to account for the contours of the twenty‐two‐year program, originally designed as a wartime labor‐relief measure. Specific forms of racialization marked Mexican
braceros
as not Americans, whites, or citizens but as essential labor. The enduring impact of the Bracero Program is felt today in the United States' H‐2A temporary visa program and Canada's Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program.
War and Nationalism
Authors: Malešević Siniša
Published: December 2015

There is a tendency to assume that nationalism and war are deeply interrelated. However, it is not completely clear whether nationalism causes war or is it itself caused by the war experience. There are three dominant analytical perspectives that try to provide a coherent answer to this question: naturalism, formativism, and gradualism. For naturalists nationalism is a principal cause of war; for formativists nationalism is a consequence of war; and for gradualists nationalism and war are independent phenomena that exhibit a similar historical trajectory.
Christianity
Authors: Oviedo Lluis
Published: December 2015

Christianity is a world religion with strong implications in the development of ethnicity and—in modern times—of national identities. Christian faith is per se universalistic in its orientation, but nevertheless it has supported many ethnic movements and has been the source of many national identities. Therefore, an internal tension between both tendencies—universal and particular—can be observed, with its roots in doctrine and tradition. Christianity would work as an instance to moderate too strong forms of ethnic or national particularism.
B
ritish Pluralism
Authors: Diamond Patrick
Published: December 2015

Pluralism began in the academy as a philosophical tendency but soon emerged as a powerful force in shaping the ideas and ideologies of major parties in British politics, in particular promoting a distinctively liberal view of the role of the state reconciling equality with liberty. In the postwar era, the pluralist political tradition began to shape dominant views of race, integration, and multiculturalism, leading to an enduring consensus in party politics. This liberal, pluralist consensus in Britain had largely disintegrated by the first decade of the twenty‐first century, however, and appears unlikely to be rebuilt in the near future.
Arndt, Ernst Moritz (1769–1860)
Authors: Leerssen Joep
Published: December 2015

The German intellectual Ernst Moritz Arndt, fervent opponent of the French‐Napoleonic hegemony, stands at the beginning of ethnolinguistic nationalism and of the tendency to devise the state's territorial outlines along cultural and historical lines.
NorthernIreland
Authors: Ganiel Gladys
Published: December 2015

Northern Ireland has been considered a conflict‐resolution success story. The 1998 Belfast/Good Friday Agreement provided a framework for managing a long‐standing ethnonational conflict, and has ushered in relative political stability. The consociational features of the Northern Ireland Assembly can be seen either as necessary for managing conflict or as institutionalizing sectarianism so that politics along left–right lines cannot emerge. Although there is evidence for the development of a “Northern Irish” identity to counter competing British and Irish identities, Northern Ireland is a long way from transcending the sectarian structures that shape almost all aspects of social and political life. Northern Ireland remains segregated along religious lines and is also prone to tensions around the anniversaries of atrocities and the public use of symbols and rituals. The failure to systematically “deal with the past” through public information recovery and truth‐telling mechanisms also seems to have hindered progress toward reconciliation.
Black Feminist Thought
Authors: Few‐Demo April L. , Glass Valerie Q.
Published: December 2015

Black feminist thought is a term used to describe a collection of ideas, writings, and art that articulates a standpoint of, for, and by African American women in the United States. Black feminist thought positions African American women as a group that is socially situated in a unique status due to simultaneous interlocking processes of race, ethnicity, gender, class, and sexual orientation. This theoretical framework posits that the politics of location and the intrapersonal and interpersonal negotiation of intersecting social identities shape African American women's individual and collective consciousness, self‐definitions, and actions. The history of black feminist thought as expressed through activism and seminal scholarship are presented.
Historically Black Colleges and Universities
Authors: Gasman Marybeth
Published: December 2015

This entry provides a historical and contemporary overview of historically black colleges and universities, noting important leaders, events, challenges, and successes.
Migration and the Labor Force
Authors: Kossoudji Sherrie
Published: December 2015

Migration to other countries to work brings about changes to the labor force in both the host and home country. Economists, in particular, examine the consequence of in‐migration on the native labor force in the host country and of emigration on the labor force of the home country. The impact on the wages and employment of the native labor force depends on many factors but is often small or nonexistent.
Golden Ages
Authors: Hutchinson John
Published: December 2015

Golden age myths are a feature of many nationalisms. Scholars differ over whether they are instrumental inventions or arise out of a concern for meaning. There are various types of golden age and they may serve various purposes. Although it is argued that they are integrative, they can also generate conflicts. Their emergence is closely linked to the rise of a disaffected intelligentsia. How central they are to the success of nationalist movements is in dispute.
K
ashmir
Authors: Kreutzmann Hermann
Published: December 2015

The legacy of the Kashmir conflict has been affecting the economic and political relations between India and Pakistan ever since their independence. Its territorial, strategic, and legal dimensions are many‐layered. Partly, they can be perceived as being rooted in the colonial domination of the British empire, the effects of which did not disappear with decolonization. For the Kashmir citizens a denied referendum on voting for their destiny has remained an open question until today. This entry examines the historical background of what is still the most prominent field of tension between India and Pakistan.
H
ayes,
C
arlton (1882–1964)
Authors: Jaskulowski Krzysztof
Published: December 2015

Carlton Joseph Huntley Hayes initiated a systematic and comparative study of nationalism in English‐speaking academia. He was the first to adopt a more neutral stance on nationalism, one that made a sustained attempt at dispassionate analysis of this phenomenon in order to define, classify, and explain it. His main contribution to the field of nationalism studies was a book entitled
The Historical Evolution of Modern Nationalism
, which was published in 1931. Having analyzed European history Hayes identified six types of nationalism in this book, namely: humanitarian, Jacobin, traditional, liberal, integral, and economic.
Underachievement in Education
Authors: Wong Billy
Published: December 2015

Underachievement in education refers to students who achieve below the average or expected grades. In western countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, minority ethnic young people tend to underachieve and attain lower grades than students from the majority ethnic background. A number of interrelated issues, such as racism, low teacher expectations and stereotypes, and cultural differences, can contribute toward the general underachievement of minority ethnic students in education.
Ethnic, Racial, and Nationalist Movements
Authors: Nagle John , Clancy Mary‐Alice C.
Published: December 2015

Ethnic, racial, and nationalist movements seek to advance group‐based politics in relation to their distinct identities. At different times movements can switch interchangeably between being ethnic, racial, or nationalist in character. This is largely due to movements' changing emphases and goals, as well as the often fluid and contextual nature underlying these identities, which allow groups to shift between categories. For the purpose of analysis, however, it is possible to explore ethnic, racial, and nationalist movements as discrete types.
I
bn
K
haldun (1332–1406)
Authors: Abdalla Mohamad
Published: December 2015

Ibn Khaldun was concerned with the study of history and society. In his attempt to study the history of the world, he postulated a scientific method of enquiry to verify the authenticity and reliability of historical narratives. His monumental works
Muqaddimah
and
Ibar
led some scholars to acknowledge him as the father of sociology and the forerunner to renowned sociologists Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber. Ibn Khaldun's background and significant work on history and sociology are articulated in this entry.
T
ruth,
S
ojourner (1797–1883)
Authors: Sanders Mobley Marilyn
Published: December 2015

The narrative of the struggle for freedom and justice for African American people in the United States would not be complete without the story of Sojourner Truth. Hers is not only a story of a woman's passage from enslavement to freedom but also a story of a woman's empowerment to broadcast her message of faith and social justice for her people and for women. She adopted the name Sojourner Truth after her religious conversion; she was a devout believer and itinerant preacher, and used her voice on the lecture circuit as an abolitionist and advocate both for her race and for the rights of women. Perhaps known best for the phrase “ain't I a woman?”—attributed to her speech at the 1851 Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio—Sojourner Truth remains a critical figure in American history for her ability to present and represent herself as a powerful voice for freedom and justice.
M
arley,
B
ob (1945–81)
Authors: Hagerman Brent
Published: December 2015

Jamaican musician and activist Bob Marley was the foremost individual responsible for popularizing reggae and the Afro‐Caribbean religion Rastafari internationally. Influenced by the Rastafarian theology of liberation and black nationalist thinkers Marcus Garvey and Haile Selassie, his outspoken songs with his band the Wailers contextualized poverty, racism, and the suffering of the underclasses as part of the colonial legacy, particularly in Africa and its diaspora. By expanding on the sound of Jamaican reggae and incorporating musical, lyrical and aesthetic aspects of folk, rock, and R&B, Marley successfully created a musical hybrid that generated a broad audience for his work that has continued to grow posthumously. His universal messages of unity and resistance against oppression—typified in the songs “One Love” and “War,” respectively—endeared him to social movements around the world as a symbol of empowerment, freedom, and, somewhat paradoxically, both peace and revolution.
Postcolonialism
Authors: Corráin Breandán Ó
Published: December 2015

Postcolonialism has become increasingly popular as both a field of study in its own right and an approach used by scholars from a range of backgrounds. While it is a diffuse concept, this entry will identify some of the key ideas underlying it. It will also touch upon the emergence of the field from its roots in the mid‐twentieth century and the scholars who helped to shape its development as an academic field.
Captive Mind, The
(
M
iłosz)
Authors: Grudzinska Gross Irena
Published: December 2015

This entry on Czesław Miłosz and his
The Captive Mind
presents the life of the preeminent Polish poet and his most famous prose book, which was one of the most original anticommunist books written during Stalinism. It has an autobiographical tone, though is not about its author, and it concentrates less on the coercive nature of communism and more on its allure, especially for the intellectuals. The core of the book consists of four analyses of the lives of Polish writers who succumbed to the Marxist temptation. Miłosz defines communism as logocracy—that is, ideological tyranny attempting to control the minds of its subjects. Violence and coercion were only part of the effort of imposing control; equally important were communism's uses of despair, a sense of inevitability, and a need for certainty, guidance, and leadership. Via a psychological historicism approach, Miłosz looks at the conditions that cause a mind to be prone to these seductions.
Organizational Behavior in Multinational Organizations
Authors: Cooper Danielle
Published: December 2015

This entry explores research on organizational behavior in multinational organizations. This literature looks at the ways in which nation and culture influence attitudes and behaviors in organizations and explores individual, team, and organizational characteristics that affect the success of cross‐national interactions in the multinational organizational context.
Civic and Ethnic Nationalism
Authors: Roshwald Aviel
Published: December 2015

Ethnic and civic nationalism denote, respectively, nationalism based on claims of kinship as manifested in shared culture, and nationalism rooted in shared citizenship and political values. The former has commonly been associated with authoritarian and intolerant movements and regimes, the latter with the liberal–democratic rule of law. Yet the simplistic dichotomy between these ideal types proves hard to sustain when looking empirically at the complex, contested, and ever evolving forms of national identity across the globe and over the course of history.
K
ohn,
H
ans (1891–1971)
Authors: Gordon Adi
Published: December 2015

Hans Kohn was a major mid‐twentieth‐century scholar of nationalism, whose work developed the distinction between “western” civic nationalism and “eastern” ethnic nationalism (“the Kohn dichotomy”). Kohn and Carlton Hayes are often described as “the twin founding fathers” of nationalism studies. Kohn was a politically engaged and vocal intellectual, and his academic career was always linked to his constantly evolving political agenda, on the margins of Zionism or in Cold War America. In dozens of books and scores of articles, Kohn—an early proponent of the “modernist” paradigm of nationalism—wrote comparative histories of nationalism in different regions and periods. Most of his work focused on ideologies—on evolving and diverging nationalist ideas—rather than on nationalist practices and policies.
Internal Colonialism
Authors: Gutiérrez Ramón A.
Published: December 2015

The idea that internal or domestic forms of colonialism could exist within the boundaries of modern nation‐states was first articulated during the late 1950s by Latin American and African developmental economists as a critique of the concept of dual economies. Such economies—one modern, capitalist, and dynamic; the other feudal, backward, and precapitalist—were seen as the reason for the backwardness of many parts of the globe. In the late 1960s internal colonialism as a theory gained fuller elaboration in the hands of African American and Mexican American activists and scholars, who sharpened its focus and expanded its terrain to explain the territorial concentration and segregation of minorities in the United States, the impact of racism on their lives, their de facto second‐class citizenship, and their brutalization by external forms of domination as practiced by the police, courts, merchants and landlords, and politicians.
W
ashington,
B
ooker
T
. (1856–1915)
Authors: Elias Sean
Published: December 2015

Booker Taliaferro Washington was one of the most influential and controversial black American leaders in US history. Washington, head of Tuskegee Institute, was an educator, author, power broker, and spokesman for the black community. Moreover, he was a sophisticated racial diplomat who operated across the well‐defined color line that deeply separated black and white America in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Washington was both a man of ideas and action who had a lasting influence and a social philosopher of black agency and self‐sufficiency whose views are often echoed by black leaders today. His educational program, which enabled thousands of schools for blacks to be built across the South in the early 1900s, established the initial educational infrastructure for many black communities. Indeed his many accomplishments left an impressive legacy, especially when considering the historical moment and social environment in which he and his ideas emerged.
S
yria
Authors: Al‐Ghazzi Omar
Published: December 2015

In post‐2011 Syria a long‐simmering crisis of national identity has imploded into a widespread popular uprising, and then into civil war. The raging conflict exposed how, since the creation of the Syrian state, the system of governance has often exacerbated sectarian and ethnic differences and affiliations to place of origin within Syria. Cross‐cutting cleavages between sect, class, place origin, and ideology have shaped configurations of nationalism throughout Syrian modern history.
Postnationalism
Authors: Sarmela Matti
Published: December 2015

This entry is based on a theory of structural change, with the focus on examining the possible outcomes of universal digital development and addressing a possible postnational, post‐local, and borderless future. The key topics covered include the post‐local digital environment, global techno‐systems, the decline of nation‐states, the rise of continent federations, global employment, borderless sexual freedom, the demise of marriage and the family, a planetary culture, the global consciousness industry, and the ubiquitous surveillance of humans and nature.
N
ehru,
J
awaharlal (1889–1964)
Authors: Tyabji Nasir
Published: December 2015

Jawaharlal Nehru was a major figure in the Indian National Movement, which brought independence from British rule in 1947, and was prime minister from 1947 to his death in 1964. His greatest historical achievement lies in his contribution to the creation of the state in modern India, through which he sought to carry the Indian struggle for democracy forward. Its main features were a republican constitution based on universal adult suffrage and a federal polity that guaranteed citizens fundamental rights; a secular polity with a clear separation of religion from politics; a significant public sector functioning under a system of national planning; and a policy of nonalignment in foreign affairs. Nehru failed to incorporate his vision entirely into the structure and actions of the Indian state. However, as an architect of modern India and arbitrator of many conflicts, both east–west and those associated with the decolonization of Africa, his historical stature is assured.
Eastern
E
urope
Authors: Bandelj Nina , Finley Katelyn
Published: December 2015

This entry reviews scholarship on race, ethnicity, and nationalism in Eastern Europe. First, it examines nationalism both during and after socialism, and, in particular, its role in the dissolution of multiethnic states. Then, it proceeds to review the empirical evidence on the ethnic versus civic nationalism debate, and contrasts it to the research grounded in the alternative, constructivist and cognitive, approaches to ethnic identity. In the last part, it discusses research on race in Eastern Europe, in particular on the underprivileged group of Roma. It concludes that future research should worry less about the demarcations of civic versus ethnic nationalism. Instead, it should explore the conditions under which ethnic/national/racial identities are made salient by either those who self‐identify or those who impose labels, and specify what consequences these identification and classification processes may have for social, political, and economic inequality in Eastern Europe.
Indonesia
Authors: Henley David
Published: December 2015

With one‐tenth of all living languages, and numerous adherents of every major religion, Indonesia is one of the most ethnically diverse countries. Accordingly its national identity, born in an anticolonial revolution rather than a precolonial culture or kingdom, is resolutely multicultural, emphasizing pluralism and tolerance, yet rooted in centralized political and educational institutions that the revolution created. Except in one area, Aceh, strong separatist tendencies have been limited to territories that were added to the country only after independence (East Timor, Papua). In domestic politics, the significance of race and ethnicity has been limited. Religious divisions, however, have been extremely important, shaping both party allegiances in peaceful times, and fault lines of violent conflict in times of crisis. One such crisis followed the collapse of the authoritarian New Order regime in 1998, when Christian–Muslim violence erupted in several areas, and separatist conflict in Aceh flared up dramatically. As Indonesia's new democracy was consolidated, however, peace was successfully restored almost everywhere.
J
ohnson,
J
ack (1878–1946)
Authors: Bloom John
Published: December 2015

This entry explores the life of Jack Johnson, the first African American world heavyweight boxing champion. Overcoming tremendous odds, Johnson fought his way to the pinnacle of the boxing world. Along with his athletic career, he is as much recognized for his rebellious and colorful lifestyle, which he openly flaunted in defiance of the social conventions of his time. Public responses to his lifestyle included an eventual criminal conviction for the violation of the Mann Act, which prohibited “white slavery.” This sent him first into exile for years and, upon his return to the United States, to prison for a year. Nevertheless, Johnson's fame made him an international symbol of black assertiveness. During his time he was one of the strongest symbols of resistance to white supremacy.
Family Diversity
Authors: Few‐Demo April L. , Demo David H.
Published: December 2015

Families have always come in diverse structural forms, reflecting norms of social obligation, biological and emotional ties, cultural values, political movements, and economic conditions. A critical, postmodern approach definesfamily diversityas inclusive of all familial and kinship forms. Although first‐time married heterosexual couples with biologically related children are still prevalent, dramatic social and demographic changes have spawned numerous other family forms, which are flourishing. The purpose of this entry is to describe trends occurring among diverse families, specifically in terms of composition, social mobility, and geographic movement.
Transatlantic Black Diaspora
Authors: Chivallon Christine
Published: December 2015

The transatlantic black diaspora consists of all the descendants of the slaves deported from Africa to North and South America during the transatlantic slave trade organized by European powers between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. Mainly found in the United States, Brazil, and the Caribbean—the three major hubs where slave trade structured colonial societies—these communities share the legacy of an experience of slavery that manifests itself today in the persistence of racial discrimination. A high level of cultural diversity, especially in religious matters, singles out the “transatlantic black diaspora” and exemplifies resistance to the violence of slavery. This form of creativity fuels the emancipation discourse, in which reference to Africa constitutes a major register of collective identity. The diaspora, qualified as “black,” “African,” or “transatlantic,” reflects an ongoing debate, both academic and political, where the place given to “race,” “slavery,” and “Africa” depends on the side one takes.
I
ndia
Authors: Desai Manali
Published: December 2015

The construction of Indian nationhood since independence in 1947 has had to contend with various alternative forms of belonging such as caste, religion, region, and language. Given that India was created through the partition of British Indian territory on religious grounds, an ethnic conception of nationhood retained its influence even though India was officially declared a secular nation. The postindependence constitution explicitly prohibited any discrimination based on caste or religion and the state does not officially recognize the existence of these categories. Yet they remained powerful to the present day. Major economic changes and rapid modernization have not mitigated the role of religion in everyday life. Nationalism remains powerful in political discourse, but its meaning is continually contested by these other forms of identification and belonging. Caste and religious–ethnic violence are one avenue through which such forms of belonging are asserted and a secular concept of nationhood is challenged.
Diversity and Knowledge Transfer
Authors: Geisler Asmussen Christian
Published: December 2015

Knowledge transfer is an important source of value in multiunit firms. Diversity may increase both the benefits and the costs of transferring knowledge within the firm, and it may be associated with a number of psychological barriers to such transfer. Firms pursue a variety of strategies to overcome these challenges.
Professions and Ethnicity
Authors: Sommerlad Hilary
Published: December 2015

Profession is a contested concept, its complexity being compounded by its fluidity and reflecting professions' embeddedness in their socioeconomic context. Definitions range from functionalist to market‐control perspectives; however, there is a consensus that elite status and social closure are key features and that the professional workplace is a primary site for the reproduction of status hierarchies grounded in ethnicity, class, and gender.
PoliticalIslam
Authors: Eligür Banu
Published: December 2015

Political Islam is an ideology that utilizes the faith of Islam to propose an Islamic political, legal, and socioeconomic order for Muslim societies. Political Islamists regard Islam as a political religion having a theory of politics and of the state; they see it as a unified political system and assert that religion and politics cannot be separated. The ultimate goal of Islamism is to create a society that is governed and guided by the sharia (Islamic law). Thus, controlling and reconstructing state institutions is a means (and only one of the means) for realizing this goal, not the end.
Racial Backlash
Authors: Meagher Richard J.
Published: December 2015

Racial backlash is a negative response to the increased population growth and greater social presence of a racial minority, or a perceived increase in that minority's social, political, or economic status. Racial backlash is typically a consequence, or even remnant, of extended systems of racial discrimination. While backlash can be observed internationally, as in Western Europe's current asylum crisis, the most prominent, and certainly the most studied, example of racial backlash involves the role of blacks in US history.
B
ulgaria
Authors: Naxidou Eleonora
Published: December 2015

The creation of the autonomous Bulgarian principality in 1878 through the Treaty of Berlin accomplished the main objective of the Bulgarian national movement: the political emancipation of the nation. Bulgaria was one of the successor states that contested the Ottoman territorial legacy in the Balkans. This was based on the political principle of nationalism that required that national and political entity should coincide. Since then national ideology has been salient in the country, despite changes in the political regimes. The initial state‐seeking version of nationalism, however, was later transformed into a “transborder” version and a “nationalizing” version. The former aspired to territorial expansion for the liberation of ethnonational kin in other states; the latter aimed at national homogenization within the state through the adoption of various exclusive and inclusive methods toward ethnoreligious minorities, the most numerous ones being the Muslims (Turks and Pomaks) and the Roma.
Ethnic Cleansing and Ethnic Swamping
Authors: Sekulić Duško
Published: December 2015

The term “ethnic cleansing” refers to an organized campaign to forcibly transfer a specific ethnic population out of an area. “Ethnic swamping” is the opposite process of introducing a population into a disputed area. The concept of ethnic cleansing started to be widely used in connection with the events associated with the dissolution of the Yugoslav state in the 1990s. Although the phrase itself is a recent formation, it describes an age‐old practice. Forced resettlements, deportations, bringing in the population of a loyal group to replace resettled ones can be found among states practicing territorial conquests and imperial expansion.
Black
Z
ionism
Authors: Adams Luther
Published: December 2015

Black Zionism blended Christianity and black nationalist thought into a movement for establishing an independent black nation or a place of refuge from white supremacy, whether north of slavery, in Canada, or in Africa. In the 1790s small groups of African Americans began to leave the United States to establish colonial settlements in Sierra Leone. By the 1820s Liberia became the primary destination for African American emigrants to Africa. Of the fifteen thousand blacks who migrated to Africa, just under twelve thousand were relocated there by the American Colonization Society. Black people advocated Zionism as a refuge from oppression in America and as part of a mission to Christianize and “civilize” Africans. Numerous individuals, groups, and organizations between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries promoted black Zionism, but there was no greater advocate for creating a black nation in Africa than Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association.
Solidarity
Authors: Fowler Snyder Greta
Published: December 2015

This entry identifies the definitive components of solidarity; discusses solidarity in relation to nationalism, ethnicity, and race; and draws the contours of contemporary debates about solidarity.
S
oekarno (1901–70)
Authors: Hadiz Vedi
Published: December 2015

Soekarno was an Indonesian nationalist hero, first president and important figure in the Cold War‐era Third World Movement. He played a key role in the formulation of the Indonesian state ideology of Pancasila and in ending Indonesia's experiment with parliamentary democracy in the 1950s. He is still revered in Indonesia as a symbol of Indonesian nationalism.
Social Capital
Authors: Ferragina Emanuele
Published: December 2015

Social capital is the capital accumulated by individuals and groups through their social interactions that can be used to smooth cooperation among people and to foster collective action. It is considered an important factor for explaining many societal outcomes: the stability of democracy, institutional performance, economic growth, inequalities, social cohesion, and health outcomes, to name a few. From Bill Clinton to Tony Blair, social capital is a key reference in public debate, often evoked to emphasize the importance of secondary groups when facing the rapid transformation of society in an age of globalization.
Socialism and Nationalism
Authors: Darr Benjamin
Published: December 2015

Socialism has an uncertain relationship with nationalism. Prominent socialists who have grappled with the national question have arrived at three different answers. First, many socialists, hearkening back to Marx and Engels, are adversarial to nationalism and see the nation‐state system as a product of capitalism that creates mass markets and also divides and conquers revolutionary forces. Other socialists, such as Lenin, take an instrumental approach to nationalism, arguing that nationalist movements are necessary for the liberation of the working class and that national identity is a force that should be harnessed, even if grudgingly so, by the socialist movement. Finally, many have seen nationalist and socialist goals as congruent. It seems that, over the course of modern history, nationalism has successfully domesticated socialism, diverting it from its initial global ambitions and instead channeling its forces into the nation‐state.
Minzoku
Authors: Yoshino Kosaku
Published: December 2015

Minzokuis one of the many Japanese words coined in early modern Japan that derive from concepts that were originally western. It means an ethnic group, a nation, a race, or even a combination of all these. The word reflects the fact that ethnic, national, and racial categories vaguely overlap in the Japanese perception of themselves. It had its origin in the early modern Japanese nationalist ideology according to which kinship, religion, and race were fused with one another to produce an intensely felt collective sense of “oneness.” In contemporary Japan, the “ethnic” ethos implied in the notion ofminzokuhas not totally disappeared.
Argentina
Authors: Geler Lea , Eva Rodríguez Mariela
Published: December 2015

As happened in other South American countries, the process of state consolidation in Argentina required the building of a nation. The local elites running the state agreed on a national, white‐European project, different to other Latin American countries that embraced
mestizaje
as a national ideology, veiling the presence of Afro‐Argentineans and indigenous peoples and celebrating the European migrations. Territorial conquest and citizenship worked to create an integrated system in the Republic, allowing the growth of feelings of national identification that subordinated ethnic or racial identities. The nation‐building process was also supported by strongly enforced public policies that nationalized the massive European immigration of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. During the twentieth century, the racialization of the class system, framed in a very nationalistic environment, channeled popular demands, leaving no place for claims of ethnicity. As a result of such a strategy Argentina, for the most part of its republican history, considered itself to be a homogenous white European nation. Today, this situation is changing, opening the future to new identifications, policies, and categories.
G
uevara,
E
rnesto “
C
he” (1928–67)
Authors: Holst John D.
Published: December 2015

Ernesto “Che” Guevara was an Argentinean‐born doctor who became a leader of the Cuban Revolution. He made significant contributions to socialist national economic planning, to the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare, and to revolutionary anti‐imperialist internationalism. These contributions can be found in his numerous writings and through study of his leadership and training roles in revolutionary movements in Cuba, the Congo, and Bolivia.
Bolivia
Authors: Morales Waltraud Q.
Published: December 2015

Historically a country with a majority of indigenous and native peoples, Bolivia is progressively becoming a truly multicultural and multiracial society, with a predominately mestizo rather than Indian population. Indigenous resurgence and activism in the Andean region has culminated in the election of the country's first indigenous president and in a new constitution, which expands the rights of indigenous and native peoples. As a result, race and ethnicity have been incorporated more openly and comprehensively into civil society and conceptions of citizenship and national identity. Although being Indian is no longer a stigma or a ground for discrimination and exclusion, the social and political interplay of race and ethnicity remains complex. The “ethnopolitics”—or pro‐indigenous orientation—of President Evo Morales's government has advanced the social and political empowerment of previously marginalized ethnic groups. However, the focus on race and ethnicity has also displayed a potential for political manipulation and divisiveness.
Model Minority Myth
Authors: Yi Varaxy , Museus Samuel D.
Published: December 2015

The model minority myth suggests that all Asian Americans achieve universal and unparalleled academic and occupational success. The model minority stereotype is a problematic construction of Asian Americans as a monolithic, homogenous group. It serves to discount the challenges of other minority groups, it masks the serious inequities within a vastly diverse population, and it renders that population invisible in discussions carried out in public policy, politics, health, education, and other arenas. For these reasons, Asian American scholars and community members are engaged in ongoing efforts to legitimize the struggles of underrepresented ethnic groups within the Asian American category. However, the myth continues to persist and pervades popular public perceptions.
Conflict Theory
Authors: Oberschall Anthony
Published: December 2015

Conflict results from competition for scarce resources, status, power, and values. When the competitors are ethnic groups, organizations, or states rather than individuals or small groups, one speaks of social or group conflict. Much group conflict is managed in institutions and conforms to norms (e.g., competition in the marketplace). Theories of group conflict seek to understand why normative restraints break down, why groups harm one another in pursuit of their goals, the dynamics of contention, and how peaceful competition is restored. This entry summarizes the principal theories of conflict theory in relation to ethnicity, race, religion, and nationality; the “political opportunity” approach to political contention; and protest and social movements along with their methodologies and databases.
Migration Controls, International Comparisons of
Authors: Vogel Dita
Published: December 2015

The gap between immigration policy aims and outcomes is addressed by migration control policies. A brief sketch of major developments in these policies indicates that external policies seeking to prevent irregular (undocumented) migration outside the destination country have gained prominence over internal policies. Furthermore, gatekeeping policies seeking to prevent seemingly legal access have gained prominence over fencing policies.
Invasion–Succession
Authors: Lee Barrett A.
Published: December 2015

Introduced to the social sciences by Chicago School sociologists in the early twentieth century, the concept of invasion–succession (IS) has most often been used to understand neighborhood racial change. Studies from the 1950s through the 1970s documented transitions from white to black occupancy that, in line with IS logic, were regarded as natural and irreversible. However, critics have contended that the model is more descriptive than explanatory. In particular, it neglects the ways in which household and institutional decision making and larger contextual forces shape the process of change. Recent research also finds IS to be less applicable to gentrification and the rise of multiethnic neighborhoods than to black–white compositional shifts. These concerns have significantly reduced the popularity of the IS concept.
Racism
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: December 2015

Definitions of racism vary because different authors use the word for different purposes. These differences have led to confusion in the international campaign against racial discrimination. The word has an important place in ordinary language discussions of the sources of inequality and these usages are the basis for dictionary definitions. Many sociologists have proposed definitions that might form part of the technical language of their subject. Their inability to agree on a technical definition casts light upon the current state of sociological theory.
Global Domestic/Homecare Workers
Authors: Cox Rosie
Published: December 2015

There are over fifty million domestic and homecare workers worldwide who carry out housework and take care of children, elderly people, and vulnerable adults in private homes. The majority are women; and domestic work has become a migrant niche in many countries. Domestic workers are often subject to immigration rules and working conditions that make them particularly vulnerable to abuse and exploitation.
JapaneseAmerican Internment
Authors: Ng Wendy
Published: December 2015

The experience of Japanese Americans during World War II highlight the issues of race discrimination, prejudice, and citizenship status during times of international conflict. The US government authorized the removal of persons of Japanese American ancestry, citizens and noncitizens, from their communities on the West Coast to ten relocation centers located in the interior of the United States. Other individuals were detained at Department of Justice detention camps. Altogether, more than 120,000 individuals were affected by the evacuation and internment program. This was one of the largest mass removals of a population under the US government in the twentieth century.
Jazz
Authors: Gabbard Krin
Published: December 2015

Jazz is an African American cultural practice that has attracted people of every race, ethnicity, and nationality. In spite of its vernacular beginnings, jazz is now considered an art music and is nurtured in conservatories and universities as well as in concert halls and nightclubs.
Tribalism
Authors: Trencher Susan R.
Published: December 2015

Tribalism refers to customs and beliefs transmitted and enacted in groups that share a common identity and in which centralized political organization and authority are usually absent. The term generally designates a form of political organization between “bands,” which occur in small‐scale societies with no formal leadership positions, and “chiefdoms,” found in larger societies, where tribes and villages are permanently allied under one leader. Tribalism has been used to refer to behaviors and beliefs associated with diverse populations, including those that share any or all of the following characteristics: race, ethnicity, language, religions, lifestyles, kinship, attitudes, age cohorts, and worldview. While sociologists generally focus on aspects of ethnicity and stratification, Barber's discussion of two factors—“retribalization” in many parts of the world (which he sees as part of jihad) and the emerging homogenous commercial and global network as part of “McWorld”—has influenced both social and commercial thought and vocabulary.
Philanthropy
Authors: Jensen Courtney
Published: December 2015

Philanthropy plays an important role in society, bridging the public and private and providing instrumental services and an avenue for expression. Over time philanthropy has evolved in response to changing social, political, and economic conditions, from a religious, individual focus to being more secular and attuned to the community. It has also taken on various ethnic and cultural conceptions. This entry begins with a discussion of the term “philanthropy” and then moves on to cultural conceptions of philanthropy.
G
arvey,
M
arcus (1887–1940)
Authors: Grant Colin
Published: December 2015

In 1919, when Marcus Garvey launched the Yarmouth, the first ship of his Black Star Line shipping company, he was undoubtedly one of the most famous black men on the planet. But within a decade he had been jailed and deported from the United States and his huge organization, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), was in retreat. His critics considered him a charlatan and a buffoon, but to his admirers “there was God and there was Garvey.” At his height he boasted hundreds of thousands of followers and branches of his movement were to be found in North America, Africa, and the Caribbean. But at heart was he any more than a dreamer and a romancer? What is the legacy of the man who, in 1920, was proclaimed provisional president of Africa, in front of thousands of adoring followers?
Three‐Fifths Compromise
Authors: Pope Jeremy
Published: December 2015

The three‐fifths compromise was an agreement between state delegations at the US Constitutional Convention. For purposes of representational apportionment, the agreement was to count each slave as three‐fifths of a person in the House of Representatives. The agreement worked to the benefit of whites in the southern states, who gained greater representation in the Congress. The effect of the clause was formally ended by the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in the wake of the Civil War, although the end of slavery (and the Thirteenth Amendment) rendered it moot even before that.
Ottoman Empire
Authors: Gauin Maxime
Published: December 2015

The Ottoman empire is a very specific case of multiethnic state, primarily based on the power of one dynasty, and, at least by the standards of the time, tolerant. The diversity was ruled by themilletsystem, which was initially religious and later, in the nineteenth century, became more ethnonational. The internal decline, the external pressure (primarily Russian), and the imposition of nationalism on this imperial reality eventually led—albeit not without resistance—to the tragic end of this empire.
Political Representation
Authors: Pulkkinen Tuija
Published: December 2015

Political representation is a theme in democratic theory. Modern democracies are representative democracies, which means that the representatives make political decisions on behalf of the citizens who elect them. According to the idea of popular sovereignty, the will of the people is expressed through its representatives. In all current democracies, the representatives are disproportionately male, and there are patterns of systematic underrepresentation of ethnic and racial minorities in comparison to the general makeup of the population. The presence of women and minorities in representative bodies is increasingly considered to be crucial in a democracy, and therefore means such as quotas have been introduced to guarantee the representation of women as well as that of cultural and linguistic minorities and indigenous populations.
Inequality, Wealth
Authors: Savas Kourvetaris Andreas Y.
Published: December 2015

Wealth inequality refers to a social stratification of life chances whereby a small number of social groups in the top strata are structurally advantaged to create, sustain, and perpetuate opportunities to hoard the vast majority of valued resources by comparison to other, structurally disadvantaged social groups in the strata below. Wealth inequality is one of the most durable social inequalities experienced by cultural groups, across generations, within and between all societies. Like social inequalities in general, wealth inequality is created by design, by power holders of society, who intend to maintain the status quo and to decide who gets what, where, when, how, and how much.
Religion
Authors: Morrison Ian A.
Published: December 2015

Since the earliest attempts to treat the nation and nationalism as objects of academic inquiry, a central and recurrent question while examining these phenomena has been their relationship to religion. Attempts to define the nation and nationalism have involved comparing and contrasting them with other powerful forms of collective identification and mobilization, one of which is religion. Studies of the relationship of religion to the nation and nationalism comprise a vast body of literature that offers divergent, conflicting, and often incommensurable positions and values.
Genetic Research and Representations of Race
Authors: Caulfield Timothy
Published: December 2015

Scientific initiatives like the Human Genome Project helped to demonstrate that the traditional categories of “race” are a social construct and a biologica8l fiction. But representations of genetic research in both popular culture and the scientific literature continue to use racial terminology, thus potentially perpetuating the idea that “race” has a biological foundation.