bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Unitarian Activism and the Politics of the Subscription Library
Authors: Reid Christopher
Published: January 2020

The subscription library, a characteristic expression of the associational culture of the Georgian town, made an important contribution to the dissemination of texts in the later eighteenth century. Although these libraries were often imagined as spaces of free enquiry, they were not immune from the intense religious and political controversies of the time. The Suffolk Public Library, established at Bury St Edmunds in 1790, is a case in point. This chapter examines the motives of the library’s founders, looks closely at its membership, regulations, and committee structure, and offers an analysis of the acquisitions recorded in its early catalogues. Using Bury as an example, it assesses the part played by the subscription library in a contemporary battle of the books.
The Problem of Choosing for Changing Selves
Authors: Pettigrew Richard
Published: January 2020

This chapter introduces the problem that the rest of the book seeks to solve, namely, the problem of choosing for changing selves. The chapter presents a series of examples. In each, an individual’s values change over the course of their life, and they must make a decision at a particular time in their life. These examples motivate our problem, and will be drawn on time and again in what follows. The chapter gives an overview of the structure of the book along with a brief précis of each chapter.
Why Aggregate Using Weighted Averages?
Authors: Pettigrew Richard
Published: January 2020

This chapter defends the claim that we should aggregate an individual’s different utility functions at different times by taking a weighted average of them. It introduces the Principle of Minimal Mutilation, which says that an aggregate of a collection of attitudes should lie as close as possible to the attitudes it aggregates. By giving a mathematically precise account of the distance between different utility functions, the chapter appeals to a mathematical result to show that only weighted averages do this. It then defends the practice of taking weighted averages in the case of credences against objections due to Elkin & Wheeler (2016) ‘Resolving Peer Disagreements Through Imprecise Probabilities’, Noûs, May, among others.
Spaces and Places of International Criminal Justice
Authors: Lohne Kjersti
Published: January 2020

The chapter draws on spatial sociologists to critically map out ‘where’ international criminal justice takes place, and how it is shaped by a multiplicity of scales, geographies, and sites. First, the chapter focuses on how international criminal justice is visibly and materially located, recognizing The Hague as a hub in the global networks of global justice-making—a ‘global city’ of justice-making. Yet, it is related to and dependent on other spaces, such as those where the crimes were committed. Uganda is one of these sites. There however, ‘justice’ is almost invisible and, from a view from The Hague, at a standstill. The disconnect between the metropole and periphery of global justice-making is also apparent in the virtual spaces of international criminal justice, as the chapter moves on to identify and discuss social media as a crucial space of global justice-making. While the internet is a major ground for debate, international criminal justice is promoted and legitimized globally through social media. Delinked from the nation state, the chapter suggests that social media is but one strategy of building constituency for international criminal justice. Another is the Assembly of States Parties (ASP) meetings that work as an annual ritual of international criminal justice invoking cosmopolitan images and justifications, yet in a space of increasing political friction. The chapter’s spatial analysis teases out the north-south and the metropole/periphery divide in international criminal justice, while situating the transnational networks of NGOs as part of its geography of power.
The Self-Evidence of Human Rights
Authors: Fassbender Bardo
Published: January 2020

The chapter is a comment on Lynn Hunt’s reconsideration, in the same volume, of a crucial moment in the history of human rights when in North America and in France for the first time a ‘self-evidence’ of certain rights of ‘all men’ was claimed in constitutional discourse and documents, and a fundamental shift occurred in the explanation of human rights from a religious framework towards a secular one. The first part of the comment is devoted to the drafting history of the 1776 Declaration of Independence of the United States and to the meaning of the claim to ‘self-evidence’ in the Declaration. In a second part, the author returns to Lynn Hunt’s analysis of the limitations of the actual enjoyment of rights in eighteenth-century North America and France. The third part of the comment deals with the importance, or rather unimportance, of the notion of the self-evidence of human rights in the present age. It is argued that the idea of self-evidence proclaimed in 1776 failed to find general recognition, so that we must search for a new credible foundation of universal human rights.
Being a Realist about Human Rights
Authors: Reus-Smit Christian
Published: January 2020

Being a realist about human rights requires a sober understanding of the dynamics of power. Yet conventional realist accounts of power, which relegate human rights to the margins of world politics, misunderstand power’s complexities. Rights revolutions have transformed world politics, not the least by driving the shift from empires to a universal state system. This chapter explains this more complex relationship between rights and power, drawing on recent theories of ‘protean power’, where it emerges from innovation under conditions of uncertainty. Uncertainty is ubiquitous in world politics, but is accentuated by meaning indeterminacy and institutional complexity, conditions that are inherent to the politics of rights. The chapter concludes by illustrating this argument with a critique of recent accounts of the post-1945 politics of human rights.
Women’s Progress and Women’s Human Rights
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C.
Published: January 2020

Focusing primarily on CEDAW, this chapter examines the role that international human rights law plays in the advancement of the protection of human rights of women. The author claims that although human rights law lags well behind the women’s movement in some crucial ways, nonetheless, it is worthwhile that documents like CEDAW exist, and not merely for their direct legal value (which can be questioned). Documents help people to network across national boundaries and to develop a sense of common purpose, a common language, a common set of demands, and a sense that progress is being made. In a few cases, moreover, CEDAW has had a real, if limited, legal significance, when implemented by friendly jurists. The author suggests that the influence of international human rights law ought to be assessed, often at least, in this broader way, looking at the role of documents in political and social movements.
The Limits of Human Rights in Times of Armed Conflict and Other Situations of Armed Violence
Authors: Clapham Andrew
Published: January 2020

Human rights are said to be ill-adapted to times of armed conflict or for dealing with exceptional terrorist threats. Are human rights limited by the applicability of other branches of international law including the laws of war? Are there limits to the work human rights can usefully do in situations of threatened violence when their strict application is said to put lives at risk? This chapter tackles some of the contemporary arguments surrounding the limitations of human rights law in the face of the competing demands of winning the war and killing terrorists. It focuses on killings and detention inside and outside armed conflict. It also asks whether there are limits to the obligations we can impose on armed groups.
Bohr’s Derivation of the Rydberg Formula
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

Atoms evolved from hypothetical entities into the objects of detailed laboratory study. The discovery of the negatively charged electron by Thomson in 1897 implied that atoms, indivisible for more than 2000 years, now had to be recognized as having some kind of internal structure. In 1911 Rutherford interpreted the latest experimental results in terms of a ‘nuclear atom’, in which most of the atom’s mass is concentrated in a small central nucleus, surrounded by electrons which account for much of the volume. In 1913, Bohr presented a theory of atomic structure which combined a model of classical mechanical ‘orbits’ and transitions between these orbits governed by quantum rules. Although he made some unjustified (and incorrect) assuptions regarding the quantization of orbital angular momentum, he successfully predicted the Rydberg formula and showed that the Rydberg constant is a composite of fundamental physical constants.
De Broglie’s Derivation of λ‎ = h/p
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

Whatever was going to replace classical physics in the description of radiation and atomic phenomena had to confront the difficult task of somehow reconciling the wave-like and particle-like aspects of light in a single structure. An important clue would come from Einstein’s E=mc2. We tend to want to associate mass (and linear momentum) with material particles. But the Planck–Einstein relation E=hν connects energy with frequency, a determinedly wave-like property. So, here are two very simple yet fundamental equations connecting energy to mass and energy to frequency. Can they be combined? Louis de Broglie thought so, and in 1923 he generalized the discovery made by Einstein in 1905 by extending it to all material particles, and most notably to electrons. The de Broglie relation λ=h/p can be derived quite straightforwardly by comparing the Lorentz transformations for energy and momentum with those for a system of plane waves.
Einstein, Bohm, Bell, and the Derivation of Bell’s Inequality
Authors: Baggott Jim
Published: January 2020

By 1935, the Copenhagen interpretation had become the orthodoxy. Einstein needed to find a situation in which it is possible in principle to acquire knowledge of the state of a quantum system without disturbing it in any way. Working with two young theorists, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, Einstein devised an extraordinarily cunning challenge based on entangled particles. We can discover the state of one particle with certainty by making measurements on its entangled partner. All we have to assume is that the particles are local: any measurement we make on one in no way affects or disturbs the other. Through the work of David Bohm and John Bell, the challenge posed by EPR became accessible to experiment, and Bell devised a simple test for all locally realistic theories. All the experiments performed to date suggest that the standard quantum formalism is correct: in any realistic interpretation, quantum particles are non-local.
The Texture of the Lexicon
Authors: Jackendoff Ray , Audring Jenny
Published: January 2020

The Texture of the Lexicon explores three interwoven themes: a morphological theory, the structure of the lexicon, and an integrated account of the language capacity and its place in the mind. These themes together constitute the theory of Relational Morphology (RM), extending the Parallel Architecture of Jackendoff’s groundbreaking Foundations of Language. Part I (chapters 1–3) situates morphology in the architecture of the language faculty, and introduces a novel formalism that unifies the treatment of morphological patterns, from totally productive to highly marginal. Two major points emerge. First, traditional word formation rules and realization rules should be replaced by declarative schemas, formulated in the same terms as words. Hence the grammar should really be thought of as part of the lexicon. Second, the traditional emphasis on productive patterns, to the detriment of nonproductive patterns, is misguided; linguistic theory can and should encompass them both. Part II (chapters 4–6) puts the theory to the test, applying it to a wide range of familiar and less familiar morphological phenomena. Part III (chapters 7–9) connects RM with language processing, language acquisition, and a broad selection of linguistic and nonlinguistic phenomena beyond morphology. The framework is therefore attractive not only for its ability to account insightfully for morphological phenomena, but equally for its contribution to the integration of linguistic theory, psycholinguistics, and human cognition.
Motivation in the lexicon
Authors: Jackendoff Ray , Audring Jenny
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the notion of motivation. It is typically explicated in terms of inheritance: lexical items inherit properties from more general patterns. Inheritance is attractive for morphology partly because it has also been invoked in the organization of concepts. It explores three models of motivation. The impoverished entry theory claims that lexical entries contain only idiosyncratic material, and higher-order items or schemas fill in the predictable parts. The full entry theory claims that words are encoded in full, and they are motivated by virtue of being redundant with schemas. The chapter argues that the proper realization of motivation is in terms of relational links, which mark pieces of structure shared between lexical items, both between words and schemas, and both horizontally and vertically. Hence motivation is extended beyond the typical top-down relations.
Probabilistic regression and Bayes nets
Authors: Trappenberg Thomas P.
Published: January 2020

This chapter revises regression with the inclusion of uncertainty in the data in probabilistic models. It shows how modern probabilistic machine learning can be formulated. First, a simple stochastic generalization of the linear regression example is offered to introduce the formalism. This leads to the important maximum likelihood principle on which learning will be based. This concept is then generalized to non-linear problems in higher dimensions and the chapter relates this to Bayes nets. The chapter ends with a discussion about how such a probabilistic approach is related to deep learning.
Cyclic models and recurrent neural networks
Authors: Trappenberg Thomas P.
Published: January 2020

This chapter discusses models with cyclic dependencies. There are two principle architectures that are discussed. The first principle architecture of cyclic graphs comprises directed graphs similar to the Bayesian networks except that they include loops. Formally, such networks represent dynamical systems in the wider context and therefore represent some form of temporal modeling. The second type of models have connections between neurons that are bi-directional. These types of networks will be discussed in the context of stochastic units in the second half of this chapter.
Beastly brains
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A. , Wise Steven P. , Baldwin Mary K. L. , Graham Kim S.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, a brainless cockroach has a shocking experience; a giant anemone eats a lawyer; and a drunken sailor considers the danger of dead bees. But mainly we consider the kinds of memories that evolved in early animals. Some of these ancestors didn’t have a brain, but they could still learn about their world. They could, for example, remember that a particular sensation predicted something beneficial or harmful in the near future. After the brain evolved, memories empowered animals to make similar predictions based on what they chose to do, such as where they went for food or safe haven. These predictions enabled early animals to prepare, in advance, for what was about to happen to them and to make choices attuned to their current needs.
Human heritage
Authors: Murray Elisabeth A. , Wise Steven P. , Baldwin Mary K. L. , Graham Kim S.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, a horse talks; pigs fly; and mice design a computer. But mainly we consider a form of memory that evolved in humans. Part of the temporal lobe expanded and added a generalization—representing the concepts and categories of cultural memory—to a specialization: representing distant signs of food. At about the same time, posterior parietal areas also expanded and added a different form of generalization—representing relations of many kinds—to a specialization: representing relations among quantities. Both the temporal and parietal lobes interact with the prefrontal cortex, especially the parts that first emerged in anthropoids. Together, these evolutionary innovations improved the ability of evolving hominins to cope with novel and challenging problems. In this sense, hominin evolution produced cortical areas with a specialization for generalization.
Introduction
Authors: Bertrams Kenneth , Marmol Julien Del , Geerts Sander , Poelmans Eline
Published: January 2020

The literature on beer as a topic for economic and business history took off in 2009 with the organization of the first Economics of Beer conference at KU Leuven. The publications and (bi)annual gatherings it spawned have helped develop a whole new field of research with a wide scope of analysis, using the products’ linkages with social, legal, technological, and cultural history. Business history’s interest for beer predated the conferences,...
Bridging Two Wars, 1914–1944
Authors: Bertrams Kenneth , Marmol Julien Del , Geerts Sander , Poelmans Eline
Published: January 2020

At Artois, the family members stepped up in terms of governance and leadership and led the company during both wars. During the First World War, consumers’ taste had changed under English and German influence towards stronger as well as sweet beer. After the war, several breweries mechanized their firms to brew bottom fermented beers, such as Artois’ ‘Stella Artois’ (1926), with hindsight the most successful product of the brewery. Artois became the number one brewery in Belgium by 1936 thanks to important investments. A major expansion programme and improvements to the brewery lifted Piedboeuf to a top sixteen status by 1938. Artois expanded its distribution network through several acquisitions of breweries and their pubs, while Piedboeuf was more involved in door-to-door deliveries. Politics of branding and other marketing practices took place on a larger scale. In this respect, in 1933, Piedboeuf was the first brewer to launch a monthly magazine.
Epilogue
Authors: Bertrams Kenneth , Marmol Julien Del , Geerts Sander , Poelmans Eline
Published: January 2020

After the IPO and the Bass dealings, Interbrew was put under a microscope by the media and investors. Beck’s in Germany was the next big move in rolling up the remainder of Western Europe. Beck’s was an acquisition of major importance: it was a very visible brand with popularity outside of Germany, the competition for its take-over was fierce, and above all the acquisition was highly mediatized. The acquisition was already announced in August 2001, but the deal was not closed until February 2002. At the time, Interbrew’s image had already taken a hit following the Bass fiasco. It was therefore in dire need of a win. Unfortunately, the media and stock market felt they paid an exaggerated multiple for the brewery. Indeed, the price was almost double of what had been put on the table during the first rounds of negotiations, but, the board—especially in favour of the take-over—and the management believed in the brand’s strength and future potential. Some months later, in late 2002, Interbrew was penalized by investors after it failed to properly communicate a lower EBITDA than predicted. What would not have been a real problem before, had a direct effect on the stock price of the company. The reality of the post-IPO era made it clear that both management and board would have to adapt their communication and style....
Social Innovation, Power, and Marginalization
Authors: Heiskala Risto
Published: January 2020

The neo-Weberian theoretical model, which Michael Mann presents in his The Sources of Social Power, reduces the multitude of relations of interaction in social networks to ideological, economic, military, and political sources of social power. Taking Mann’s IEMP model as its point of departure this chapter makes an attempt to develop such an approach in the theory of innovation, which would go beyond the ordinary dichotomy between technological and social innovation, recognizing instead that there are several types of innovation and there is a social aspect to all of them. By integrating Mann’s approach to the Social Grid model (Beckert 2010), the capabilities approach to well-being (Sen 1999; Nussbaum 2000) and to an extension of the IEMP model to a NACEMP model, which also includes nature (N), artefacts (A), and the whole culture (C) as sources of power, a new approach to power, innovations, and marginalization is outlined.
Public Policy as Social Innovation
Authors: Nicholls Alex , Edmiston Daniel
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores in detail the evolution of social impact bonds (SIBs) in the United Kingdom as an example of social policy as social innovation. Specifically, it presents new analysis of three empirical cases in the United Kingdom. The chapter examines some key claims made by policy actors concerning SIBs as social innovation and welfare reform, specifically that they offer improved outcomes by means of innovating hybrid collaboration. The relevance of such claims in the context of addressing sites of marginalization is also discussed with reference to theoretical approaches from the Social Grid model.
The Aesthetics of Island Space
Authors: Riquet Johannes
Published: January 2020

The Aesthetics of Island Space discusses islands as central figures in the modern experience of space. It examines the spatial poetics of islands in literary texts (from The Tempest to The Hungry Tide), journals of explorers and scientists (such as Cook and Darwin), and Hollywood cinema (e.g. The Hurricane and King Kong), tracing how islands have offered vivid perceptual experiences as well as a geopoetic oscillation between the poetic energies of words and images and the material energies of the physical world. Its chapters focus on America’s island gateways (e.g. Roanoke and Ellis Island), tropical islands (e.g. Tahiti and imagined South Sea islands), the islands of the Pacific Northwest, and mutable islands (e.g. the volcanic and coral islands in Wells’s fiction). The book argues that the modern voyages of discovery posed considerable perceptual challenges to spatial experience, and that these challenges were negotiated via the poetic engagement with islands. Postcolonial theorists maintain that islands have been imagined as geometrical abstractions subjected to the colonial gaze. There is, however, a second story of islands in the Western imagination which runs parallel to this colonial story: the experience of islands in the age of discovery also went hand in hand with a disintegration of received models of global space. Rethinking (post-)phenomenological, geocritical, and geopoetic theories, The Aesthetics of Island Space suggests that the modern encounters with islands as mobile and shifting territories implied a diversification of spatial experience, and explores how this disruption is registered and negotiated by non-fictional and fictional responses.
On Valuing and the Good Life
Authors: Theunissen L. Nandi
Published: January 2020

Theunissen develops the emerging positive proposal by specifying that in virtue of which human beings are relationally valuable. Her starting point is that human value depends on the distinctive relationship we bear to objects and activities of value. In her view this is the capacity for having final ends: roughly, the capacity for pursuing interests, projects, relationships, and self-ideals for their own sake. She offers a new account of this complex cognitive, affective and behavioral disposition, and the analysis contributes to discussions of valuing and care. How does the capacity for having final ends ground our value? By identifying connections between valuing and the good life, Theunissen defends the claim that it grounds our value by making us relationally valuable in the sense that it makes us able to lead a good life—a life that is of value, in the first place, for the person who leads it.
The Normative Significance of Human Beings
Authors: Theunissen L. Nandi
Published: January 2020

The chapter addresses classic Moorean challenges to relational value with a focus on worries about normativity. The author rejects the suggestion that personal value—whatever is good for one person but not for another—generates reasons that are only agent-relative—reasons for the beneficiary but not for others. She shows why, as she understands the components of a theory of value, being such as to benefit a person explains why something is of value, and for that reason such as to give reasons that are reasons for all human beings. The argument makes clear why people, who are relationally valuable in a sense she has explained, make ethical demands on one another
Introduction
Authors: Spencer Stephen J.
Published: January 2020

The Introduction critiques the methodological frameworks available to the historian of medieval emotions, arguing for the enduring value of the social constructionist approach and the need to simultaneously respond to the theoretical principles associated with the linguistic turn. Relevant crusades scholarship is then surveyed, including the long historiographical tradition of seeking to reconstruct participants’ beliefs and ideologies from historical narratives, before outlining the book’s structure and arguments. An overview of the core sources which form the backbone of this study follows, with the intention of introducing uninitiated readers to the breadth and diversity of sources available to historians of the crusades.
The Multifaceted Nature of Fear
Authors: Spencer Stephen J.
Published: January 2020

By exploring the intersections between fear and contemporary conceptions of chivalry, masculinity, deception, and power, this chapter demonstrates that the ways in which fear was represented in twelfth- and thirteenth-century crusade narratives were far more complex and multifaceted than has hitherto been appreciated. This, in turn, necessitates that we reject the scholarly approach of treating chroniclers’ accounts of crusader trepidation as representative evidence of participants’ actual feelings. Gender- and shame-centred appraisals of fear add further weight to the argument set forth in Chapter 1: that fear was an emotion which Latin combatants ought to relinquish. However, in alternative contexts, such as in the face of treachery, it was simultaneously considered an understandable—perhaps even praiseworthy—sentiment for crusaders to openly display; and fear terminology was integral to the texts’ power dynamics.
Empire Ascendant
Authors: Heere Cees
Published: January 2020

In 1902, the British government entered into a defensive alliance with Japan, a state that had surprised much of the world with its sudden rise to global prominence. For the next two decades, the Anglo-Japanese alliance would hold the balance of power in East Asia, shielding Japan from foreign rivals, and allowing Britain to concentrate on meeting the German challenge in Europe. Yet it was also a relationship shaped by its contradictions. On the one hand, Anglo-Japanese alliance legitimized Japan’s participation in great-power diplomacy, and worked to counteract racist notions of a ‘yellow peril’. On the other, Japan’s defiance of established racial hierarchies made the alliance controversial across much of the British Empire. On the settlement frontiers of Australasia and North America, white colonial elites formulated their own responses to the growth of Japan’s power, charged by the twinned forces of colonial nationalism and racial anxiety, as they designed immigration laws to exclude Japanese migrants, developed autonomous military and naval forces, and pressed Britain to rally behind their vision of a ‘white empire’. On the eve of the First World War, Japan stood at the centre of a series of escalating inter-imperial disputes over foreign policy, defence, migration, and ultimately, over the future of the British imperial system itself. This account weaves together studies of diplomacy, strategy, and imperial relations to pose searching questions about how Japan’s entry into the ‘family of civilized nations’ was complicated by ideas of race.
Backstage
Authors: Müller Henriette
Published: January 2020

The aim of this chapter is to shed light on the informal realm of European deliberation and decision-making and the role the Commission presidency plays in it. The Commission presidency occupies a unique intermediary position within the institutional system of the European Union, as the only office that participates in the four European-level policymaking arenas—the College of Commissioners, the European Council, the Council of Ministers, and the European Parliament. Mediative-institutional leadership encompasses the capacity to build consensus in the different decision-making arenas of the European Union as well as managing and guiding the Commission’s work effectively. The chapter analyzes the performance of institutional mediation of three Commission presidents, Walter Hallstein, Jacques Delors, and José Manuel Barroso. The study is based on twenty-nine semi-structured expert interviews as well as fourteen interviews conducted by the Oral History Program of the Historical Archives of the European Union.
The Audience
Authors: Müller Henriette
Published: January 2020

Politics is not a business exclusively conducted “behind closed doors,” so any comprehensive analysis of political leadership needs to take into account leaders’ public performance. This chapter examines the public leadership performance of the Commission presidents Walter Hallstein, Jacques Delors, and José Manuel Barroso. Based on the theory of candidate–media agenda convergence, performance of public leadership is considered strong when a leader is not only visible in the media but when his or her political agenda and issue frames are accepted by the media and overlap with the topics with which he or she is associated. The analysis thus focuses on the media’s attention allocation to the presidents’ political agendas and the tone of the reporting, assessing it as positive, neutral, or negative. The analysis is based on one print medium, the British Financial Times, encompassing 536 articles between 1958 and 2014 that directly cover each president under study.
Conclusion
Authors: Müller Henriette
Published: January 2020

The conclusion offers a summary of the main theoretical and empirical insights this book has produced. The empirical findings confirm the study’s basic argument that weak institutional powers and an unreliable situational setting presuppose a stronger dependence on the incumbent’s personal capacities and (pre-)dispositions to successfully address the office’s leadership demands. A comprehensive assessment of the political leadership performance of the three Commission presidents Walter Hallstein, Jacques Delors, and José Manuel Barroso, concerning their agenda-setting leadership, mediative-institutional leadership, and public leadership, finds that Hallstein’s leadership performance was moderately strong-executive, Delors’ was strong-entrepreneurial, and Barroso’s was weak-passive/non-leadership. A preliminary evaluation of the leadership performance of Jean-Claude Juncker, Commission president between 2014 and 2019, follows. Finally, there is a plea to substantially strengthen the institutional powers of the Commission presidency to make it less dependent on individual agency and incumbents’ personal (pre-)dispositions.
Alcohol as Embodied Material Culture
Authors: Dietler Michael
Published: January 2020

Alcohol is the most widely used psychoactive agent in the world, and it has a very deep history. Human beings have demonstrated remarkable creativity in producing alcoholic beverages from a diverse array of substances. Many varieties of alcoholic drinks have substantial nutritional value and they often form a significant component of the diet of many peoples. Like other foods, alcohol is a form of ‘embodied material culture’; that is, a substance created to be destroyed through ingestion into the human body. Hence, it has close relationship to the inculcation and symbolization of concepts of identity. Alcoholic drinks are not reducible to a chemical substance with physiological effects: they are a form of material culture with almost unlimited possibilities for cultural variation and are a versatile symbolic medium and social tool crucial to ritual, politics, and the construction of social and economic relations.
‘Solidarity’ versus Values as Drivers of Support for Immigrants’ Access to Social Benefits
Authors: Wright Matthew , Levy Morris
Published: January 2020

A large literature argues that ‘inclusiveness’ on the provision of social benefits flows from positive social identification with immigrants on the basis of mutually shared national identity. This chapter, however, argues that ‘identification with’ is perhaps sufficient but not necessary. The evidence demonstrates the limited influence of national identity as a social identity beyond a set of core values: (1) Americans, on average, are willing to extend social benefits to immigrants they do not identify with, and withhold them from those they do; (2) a ‘categorical’ response dominates questions about rights and benefits but not about ‘identity’, indicating that the two are considered differently; (3) a respondent’s own national identity does not necessarily influence how people approach questions about rights and benefits. Americans support or withhold benefits based on whether they see immigrants as living ‘civic’ lives, even if they do not necessarily identify with them on this basis. In terms of normative theory, most Americans are not liberal nationalists, they are simply liberal.
Inclusive Identities
Authors: Lenard Patti Tamara
Published: January 2020

This chapter defends an account of a cultural identity that is able to build trust in diverse, democratic states. It is developed using both normative and empirical material, with the objective of defining the parameters of its moral permissibility, from a specifically liberal perspective, with attention to capturing the role a shared identity must play in a democracy. The chapter begins by outlining the ways in which trust relations underpin and support robust democratic practice before offering a careful delineation of the features of a cultural identity in order to outline the range of possible features a morally permissible cultural identity may possess. Finally, this account of cultural identity is defended against three broad objections, one which proposes that the account remains too thin to be motivationally efficacious, a second which proposes that it remains too thick to be appropriate in liberal, democratic societies, and a third which protests that a cultural identity can permissibly include religious elements and remain inclusive in a democratic state.
An Unscientific Postscript
Authors: Appiah Kwame Anthony
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores some of the tensions between cosmopolitanism and nationalism, from above, and ethnic identity and nationalism, from below, in the light of some of the other chapters in this book. To do so, it sketches a general account of identity, with its three components: criteria of membership, psychological identification, and the treatment of members by others as members of the group, and argues that all are standardly contested. It then incorporates the insights of some of the earlier chapters that show that identification can involve (a) feelings of warmth for the nation, or (b) celebrating national culture and achievements, or (c) conceiving of one’s nation as superior to others, and it discusses the different effects of these on redistributive solidarity with minorities and migrants. Finally, it urges attention to the role of national honour in thinking about national identity and suggests that there is scope for more work on the political psychology of nationalism.
Waves
Authors: Guenther B. D.
Published: January 2020

A description of the solution of the wace equation is described as a wave that propagates without change. The set of parameters needed to describe a wave are: period, frequency, wave number, wavelength, and phase velocity. We will use a plane harmonic wave In 3 dimensions in all of our discussions and use complex notation to make the math simplier. We show we are justified in using such a simple wave by the fact that Foourier Theory allows us to construct any wave as a series of hamonics of the plane wave. The theory also will be needed in our discussion of defraction and imaging. There are a few topics that are more difficult and are marked. Their discussion can be skipped without loss of understanding of the general theory of optics.
Polarizers
Authors: Guenther B. D.
Published: January 2020

Introduction to how to measure polarization and the degree of polarization, The various physical processes used to control polarization including: absorption, reflection, interference, and birefringence. An explaination of the operation of a wire grid and its molecular equivalent, a polaroid plastic are given. Fresnel formula for reflection is used to calculate the Stokes component of the reflected light. A brief introduction to the concept of birefringence is given and the various designs of birefringent prism polarizers are listed with their advantanges and shortcomings. A sample design of a prism polarizer is given. Quarter wave and half wave retarders and their use are discussed. An optional section is devoted to optical activity and the use of chiral measurements in chemistry and drug manufacturing are discussed.
Imaging
Authors: Guenther B. D.
Published: January 2020

Treating an imaging system as a linear system and use llinear system properties to d iscuss both coherent and incoherent imaging. Use a one dimensional pin hole camera to study the theory of incoherent imaging. Two different criteria, Rayleigh and Sparrow, are used to define the resolution limits of the camera. From the simple theory define the optical transfer function and the modulation transfer function as appropriate characterizations of complex imaging systems. A review of the human imaging system emphasizes tits idfferences with man made cameras. Coherent imaging is based on Abbe’s theory of microscopy. A simple 4f imaging system can be used to understand how spatial resolution is limited by the optical aperture and by controlling the aperture, we can enhance the edges of an image or remove noise intensity noise on a plane wave. Apodizing the aperture allows astronomers to locate planents orbiting distant stars.
The Snake and the Whale
Authors: Thonemann Peter
Published: January 2020

This chapter introduces ancient Graeco-Roman traditions of dream-interpretation through a close reading of the opening scene of Aristophanes’ Wasps, which presents two slaves comparing their dreams. This scene provides us with a helpful encapsulation of popular views in antiquity about dreams and their significance. The chapter briefly summarizes five basic ancient assumptions about dreams: that dreams (or at least some dreams) come from the gods; that dreams (or at least some dreams) are predictive; that predictive dreams deal in symbols, not narratives; that predictive dreams resemble riddles; and that accurate dream-interpretation calls for the services of a professional dream-interpreter like Artemidorus.
The Body
Authors: Thonemann Peter
Published: January 2020

This chapter focuses on Oneirocritica Book 1, which is largely dedicated to the human body and body-symbolism, and examines the ways in which Artemidorus’ conception of the body and its functions might be historically and culturally distinctive. Artemidorus offers us a remarkably detailed and coherent ‘tour’ of the symbolic meanings of the constituent parts of the male and female body, based around a series of polarities (upper and lower, right and left, front and back), which reflect three different dimensions of the social order (status, age, gender). The ways in which bodies are gendered (firmness, dryness, vigour) in Artemidorus’ body-symbolism are discussed in detail, and the extraordinary over-signification of the male penis and under-signification of the female vagina in Artemidorus’ classificatory system are highlighted. The chapter concludes with an extended discussion of the presentation of physical and mental disability in the Oneirocritica.
Sexuality and Gender
Authors: Thonemann Peter
Published: January 2020

The Oneirocritica is a remarkably rich source of evidence for Graeco-Roman ideas about gender relations and male and female sexuality. For Artemidorus, as Foucault recognized, the key to the symbolic meaning of a sex-act in a dream is not the biological sex of the participants, but their relative social status. This chapter deals with Artemidorus’ classification of sex-dreams (varieties of sexual intercourse which are considered to be ‘in accordance with’ or ‘contrary to’ law and/or nature), as well as the symbolic significance of different sexual acts and positions; it is argued that Artemidorus’ sexual ethics are more strongly heteronormative than they have often been considered in previous scholarship. This chapter also explores the marginalization of women’s dreams (and female sexuality) in the Oneirocritica, as well as Artemidorus’ implicit and explicit assumptions about gender relations and female social and sexual roles.
Books and Literary Culture
Authors: Thonemann Peter
Published: January 2020

Quotations from earlier Greek literary works are very frequent in the Oneirocritica, and it is possible to reconstruct in some detail Artemidorus’ knowledge of (and tastes in) ‘classical’ Greek literature. As one might expect, Homer is particularly prominent, but in a manner that suggests that Artemidorus may not have been equally acquainted with all parts of the Iliad and Odyssey. His knowledge of early Greek poetry, tragedy, and comedy, and other ‘high’ Greek literature appears at first sight to be impressively extensive, but patterns of quotation in the Oneirocritica imply that he in fact knew little of this literature at first-hand. It is suggested that Artemidorus provides us with an unusually clear and representative picture of the intellectual and literary horizons of an ordinary ‘middling’ member of the civic elite in the Greek world during the high Roman imperial period.
Status and Values
Authors: Thonemann Peter
Published: January 2020

Artemidoran dream-symbolism is pervaded by status-distinctions: the same dream means different things depending on whether it is dreamed by a slave, a freedman, a poor man, a rich man, a slave-owner, and so on. As this chapter demonstrates, the Oneirocritica is one of our key sources for class dynamics and status-assumptions in Graeco-Roman society, and potentially provides us with rare access into the mindsets and aspirations of subaltern groups in the Greek East, including slaves and the labouring poor. The ideology of work and leisure in the Oneirocritica is explored in particular depth.
The Economic and Political Context of Coalition Politics in Central Eastern Europe
Authors: Backlund Anders , Ecker Alejandro , Meyer Thomas M.
Published: January 2020

This chapter introduces the economic and political context in Central Eastern Europe (CEE) at the wake of the democratic transition. It compares these circumstances to those in Western Europe and then goes on to trace the political and economic development of CEE since the onset of democratic rule. This economic and political context provides important background information to get a better understanding of coalition politics in the ten CEE countries studied in this volume. The chapter shows that the countries in CEE had quite different starting conditions. They differed substantially on factors such as level of industrialization, unemployment, and economic growth and they opted for different strategies in the transition from central planned to a free market economy. While most of the countries had reached comparatively high levels of market orientation within a few years of democratization, considerable differences remained when the countries joined the European Union. The ten countries also differ with regard to their democratic traditions, and opted for different institutional designs on matters such as the electoral system, the role of the head of state, and the organization of the legislature. High uncertainty associated with initial design choices has resulted in frequent institutional reforms. The communist legacy not only affected the development of party systems, it also affected the political culture in the polities. In conclusion, the countries studied in this book show both initial and persisting variation in terms of economic performance, their institutional framework, the social conditions, and attitudes towards politics among the electorate.
Hungary
Authors: Ilonszki Gabriella
Published: January 2020

The core features of coalition politics in Hungary are majority coalitions and stable governments. A small number of parliamentary parties are strongly divided both on cultural and economic cleavage lines. This does not offer much flexibility in coalition formation. Before 2010 coalitions were controlled by alternating senior parties of either conservative or left orientation, thereafter coalitions have been characterized by one-party conservative dominance. The coalitions of the left were based on more equal partnership, deeper policy consciousness, and more established party organization than the conservative coalitions. Hungary has developed in to a case of prime ministerial government built on constitutional, legal, political, and occasionally personal grounds. Secured by the constructive no-confidence vote, enjoying authority in the nomination and dismissal of ministers, being party leader, and not facing strong political rivals or institutional veto points, most prime ministers have enjoyed unquestionable power. Over the decades, governance has become increasingly centralized and politicized. The management of coalition conflicts has moved away from Parliament and cabinet to narrow circles of party political or personal nominees. Publicly available coalition agreements, with few exceptions, have not been policy-oriented and have not provided much guidance on coalition governance or conflict resolution techniques. Still, disciplined legislative and parliamentary behaviour has been common and early elections have never taken place. Government termination has rarely occurred due to policy conflicts between the coalition partners. Junior coalition parties have paid huge electoral costs for their participation in government.
The Chorus in ‘Old’ Tragedy
Authors: Jackson Lucy C. M. M.
Published: January 2020

The practice of revival and reperformance of drama in the fourth century, a practice illuminated by recent scholarship, allows for a recalibration of the view of fourth-century dramatic choral practice. Acknowledging the fifth-century plays (and their choruses) that were definitely and possibly revived in the fourth century instantly enriches the picture of fourth-century dramatic choral culture. As well as reviewing the significance of revivals for fourth-century dramatic culture more generally, this chapter considers the sections of tragic text (so-called ‘interpolations’) that seem to have been added to fifth-century plays for, it contends, fourth-century revivals. The reconfigured choruses of Euripides’ Iphigenia at Aulis and Aeschylus’ Seven Against Thebes, indicate what might have been possible and desirable for producers to change for revivals of these plays. The qualities of the additions here analysed add further evidence for varied and valued dramatic choruses in the later classical period.