bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ruth Crawford, “To an Angel” from Chants for Women’s Chorus (1930)
Authors: Hisama Ellie M.
Published: August 2022

Inspired by Eastern monastic chanting, Ruth Crawford’s Chants for Women’s Chorus (1930) displays her commitment to manifesting in music a “spiritual ideal.” This chapter explores the ethereal hummed floating sound-world of “To an Angel,” Crawford’s second chant in which she forges an unusual, non-hierarchical relationship between the solo and the choral voices. Drawing upon primary source documents, the author explores aspects of this work which establish it as a touchstone in forging Crawford’s compositional voice, one that prefigures her celebrated String Quartet 1931 in its unusual treatment of register and voice leading. This chant projects collective unity through its emphasis on what Crawford identified as monotony—of timbre, tempo, and sound-world—in all three voices. Her experimental approach, illuminated by the author’s “twist tool” that measures registral relationships among the voices, reinforces the chant’s projection of group solidarity through the deliberate de-emphasis of the solo voice as virtuosic.
J. M. Beyer, String Quartet No. 2 (1933–34)
Authors: Boland Marguerite
Published: August 2022

This chapter offers an analysis of String Quartet No. 2 (1936) by German-American composer Johanna Beyer (1888–1944). The analysis demonstrates Beyer’s application of the principles of melodic dissonation, theorized by Charles Seeger, to multiple levels of this four-movement work. Beyer quotes and dissonates Mozart’s famous aria “Ein Mädchen oder Weibchen” from The Magic Flute, and the analysis defines pitch motives and a structural pitch frame derived from this material that serve to unite the piece. At the same time, the analysis shows the way Beyer works with this common material to create four idiosyncratic movements that are exemplary of her unique musical imagination. Through the analysis of String Quartet No. 2, this chapter touches on Beyer’s broader interest in the experimental methods and concerns of the ultramodernist composers in the first decades of the twentieth century.
Objects
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S.
Published: August 2022

As we perceive and act, we automatically organize our surroundings into objects. This organization occurs so immediately and effortlessly that it feels like a perceptual capacity. At the heart of our knowledge of objects, however, is a cognitive system for representing interconnected, abstract properties of objects: properties beyond the limits of any perceptual system. Before infants learn what the objects around them look like or how they can be acted on, infants appreciate that objects are solid and cannot interpenetrate, that objects interact on contact but not at a distance, and that objects exist and move continuously whether they are visible or hidden. These abilities testify to a cognitive system that takes its inputs from our perceptual systems and provides infants with an early, abstract, commonsense understanding of the physical world that remains with us throughout our lives.
Number
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S.
Published: August 2022

Like adults, infants are sensitive to number, and they represent number abstractly, matching the number of objects in a visible array to the number of events in an accompanying sequence of sounds. Infants also compare visual arrays based on their numerical magnitude, whether the arrays remain in view or are hidden, and they combine and divide arrays in accord with the operations of elementary arithmetic. Nevertheless, infants’ numerical representations are limited: They are inexact and compressed: They view 4 and 8 as far more different than 14 and 18. Like representations of objects and places, core representations of number are formed automatically and unconsciously in adults, but only when we apply our limited powers of attention to the entities we enumerate. Despite these limits, the core number system contributes to our uniquely human talents for learning and reasoning about formal mathematics.
Core Knowledge
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S.
Published: August 2022

Research on infants’ knowledge of objects, places, and number provides evidence for core cognitive systems that capture abstract, interconnected concepts and are early-emerging, present throughout life, innate, and supportive of learning. These systems also are ancient (they are shared by a wide range of other animals), sharply limited, unconscious, automatically activated, and dependent on our limited attentional resources. Here the author suggests that these properties collectively form a natural kind: a cognitive system with some of these properties will likely have all of them. Notably, a cognitive system shared by diverse, distantly related animals will gain a primordial blessing of abstraction: For example, the core place system will represent only the abstract geometric properties that apply to all the environments of the navigating animals that possess it, including terrestrial rats, flying birds, and aquatic fish. In the coming chapters, the author uses these arguments to propose three more systems of core knowledge.
Introduction
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

How should spiritual experiences be regarded? Psychologist, physician, and philosopher William James pondered this question in The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature, published in 1902, and the search continues for answers. Given advances in the sciences of brain, mind, and behavior over the past century and the diminished reliance on entirely religious explanations, how can modern people make sense of these experiences? The aim of this chapter is to introduce William James’s influential work while describing the state of the art of scientific research on meaningful “spiritual” experiences in psychology, psychiatry, psychopharmacology, and neuroscience. This chapter describes the intention to pick up where James left off with the benefit of over a century’s worth of scholarly and scientific work.
The Varieties: The Classic Text and Its Impact
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

The Varieties of Religious Experience is a special book. Over the years, it has become William James’s most well-known work and has quietly cemented itself into the Western Canon. In it, James aimed to shift focus away from religious beliefs and theological doctrines and to instead examine religious experience. In contemporary psychological research, it is now taken for granted that religion and spiritualty can be broken down into different elements. This chapter describes how spiritual experience can be studied with some degree of independence from beliefs, and that this is important—because atheists, agnostics, the “spiritual but not religious,” as well as Christians, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, and Muslims (and many others) all report spiritual experiences.
The Psychology of Spiritual Experiences
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

James was world famous in his day but his legacy was eclipsed for several decades by figures in psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and other subfields of psychology. The scientific study of spiritual experience followed a similar pattern, resurfacing only relatively recently as a viable topic of psychological research. This chapter describes several false starts in the field of psychology on the study of spiritual experience, followed by several conceptual and statistical advances that have made the contemporary scientific study of spiritual experiences possible. This chapter argues that only recently has the field of psychology become capable of fully pursuing James’s scientific vision as he described it in The Varieties.
The Pragmatic Principle
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

The approach advocated by James in The Varieties was to look to the psychological outcomes of spiritual experience in order to judge their value. According to James, it is not the origin (roots) of the experience that ought to determine the value of each experience for each individual, but rather the outcomes (fruits) of an experience. This approach remains a useful perspective with which to proceed with contemporary scientific study. The fields of psychiatry, psychopharmacology, neuroimaging, clinical psychology, and positive psychology provide measures with which to examine the outcomes of spiritual experience quantitatively. While Sigmund Freud and many others have tended to pathologize spiritual experiences throughout history, this chapter describes how research shows that the vast majority of spiritual experiences are associated with positive outcomes.
Numinous Experiences
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B.
Published: August 2022

Each chapter of Part II considers one or more of the kinds of spiritual experience described in the typology introduced in the previous chapter. The first chapter of Part II focuses on numinous experience, the feeling of being in touch with divinity or God. This kind of spiritual experience may constitute the prototypical religious or spiritual experience. Our own research data show that numinous experiences are the most prevalent kind of experience that people report. Each of the chapters in Part II describe William James’s perspective on the particular type of experience, followed by contemporary scholarship and psychological research, including findings related to pathological and positive aspects. Finally, the discussion turns to neuroscience research on each type of experience.
Before the Kingdom of the Hittites
Authors: Barjamovic Gojko
Published: August 2022

This chapter is dedicated to the history of Anatolia prior to the formation of the Hittite State in the seventeenth century bc. At this time, the region was divided into several dozen micro-states, each centered on a ruling couple and their residence. These “grand residences” were the locus of extensive court societies led by cadres of landholding officials who oversaw local production and managed a system of international trade. The trade was based on mercantilist principles of geographical monopoly and strong political protectionism guaranteed by treaty. States invested in their physical infrastructure to attract and protect merchants. Trade was both an important source of income and a way to obtain exotica in societies where social power was built on overt displays of wealth and the enactment of status through prestige objects and grand feasts. The period leading up to the Hittite state saw a gradual centralization of political and executive power into a smaller number of states with hierarchies of multiple local urban centers and courts.
Egypt’s Middle Kingdom
Authors: Willems Harco
Published: August 2022

This chapter offers a critical overview of scholarly opinion on Middle Kingdom Egypt. Departing from a longue durée perspective, it problematizes the concept of what constitutes a historical period. It goes on to argue that the Middle Kingdom in fact covers two eras that were very different in social and cultural terms and that rather than marking a new era, the early Middle Kingdom continued the clientelist structures that went hand in hand with the creation of regional polities in the late Old Kingdom. Concerning the long-standing debate whether or not contemporary Egyptian literary sources reflect political sensitivities and may even be considered “propagandistic,” the chapter highlights that the sources indicate, from an inside perspective, which developments the contemporaries considered central. Key topics otherwise covered are the politics underlying the advent of the Twelfth Dynasty; the issue of co-regency; the role of royal patronage; and how Egypt’s role in international politics led to demographic and social changes that in turn contributed to the emergence of a society based less on patronage and more on individual agency in the context of dynamic social networks—a phenomenon that may also explain the complex system of royal succession in the Thirteenth Dynasty.
Middle Kingdom Egypt and Africa
Authors: Bard Kathryn A.
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses Egypt’s relationships with peoples and cultures to the south in Africa during the Middle Kingdom period, when they became increasingly complex due to the rise of a state in Upper Nubia centered at Kerma, as well as the Pan-Grave peoples in the Eastern Desert. Although the Egyptians built forts in Lower Nubia, where C-Group peoples were located, Kerma controlled the Nile in Upper Nubia and probably also overland routes to the southeast. No longer was it possible to directly obtain the exotic raw materials from Punt, especially incense, via overland routes. Instead, Egyptian seafaring expeditions were sent to Punt and Bia-Punt from a harbor located at Mersa/Wadi Gawasis (ancient Saww) on the Red Sea. The materials excavated at this harbor suggest that a major source of imported materials was the Sudanese-Eritrean lowlands (Kassala region), the location of the Gash Group culture, where there is considerable evidence of connections with Egypt.
Egypt’s Middle Kingdom
Authors: Grajetzki Wolfram
Published: August 2022

The Middle Kingdom (late Eleventh to mid-Thirteenth Dynasty) is the classical age of Egyptian art, and its language was seen as a model in later times. This chapter discusses the cultural and social history of this crucial period, which saw the production of the first written texts in Egypt that can be called literature. With the exception of its founder, Mentuhotep II, who created a unique burial complex in Thebes, the Middle Kingdom kings were buried in pyramids in Lower Egypt, while local governors initially erected their own monumental rock-cut tombs in their provinces. Temples in all parts of the country were placed under state control and were furnished with reliefs and statues—unheard of in earlier Egyptian history. Art production reached new heights at the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, and a key development was the invention of the portrait, when royal sculpture no longer showed an idealized youthful ruler but instead depicted the aging king with specific features. The later part of the Middle Kingdom period saw a drastic centralization as the provincial governors lost importance and the resources of the country were concentrated at a few royal centers, causing the local cultural traditions that flourished in the early Middle Kingdom period to disappear.
Introduction
Authors: Daub Adrian
Published: August 2022

The German ballad has long occupied a strange position in German literature. The ballad canon is probably among the most widely known set of poems among everyday Germans, but they have played a secondary role in literary studies. Ballads were poems one lived and interacted with, not necessarily poems that one studied. Part of the reason is that ballad aesthetics seemed to contravene the central impulses that propelled poetics with the onset of modernism: they tended to emphasize narrative over lyricism, convention over formal innovation, and an engagement with the outside world over autonomy. This introduction shows why these poems nevertheless allow us to tell a cultural history of Germany over the last 200 years.
Giving Well: Philanthropy for Human Rights
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

The standard view is that states are responsible for protecting human rights. In this chapter, the author makes the case that non-state actors have human rights responsibilities. The author argues that philanthropists, nonprofits, and their stakeholders have human rights responsibilities and that those responsibilities impact how philanthropy should be practiced. This argument is based on United Nations documents, specifically, the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. The Guiding Principles recognize the human rights responsibilities of business organizations. The author shows that they also apply to donors, nonprofits, and their stakeholders. In the end, if philanthropy meets its human rights responsibilities, it will regain its social license.
Philanthropy’s Democracy Problem
Authors: Illingworth Patricia
Published: August 2022

Philanthropy is at risk of undermining democracy. When people donate huge amounts of money to a cause, they can determine the social agenda. When they also take a charitable tax deduction for their gift, they deprive the state of money it needs to implement democratically chosen preferences. Although states have a duty to protect all human rights, many states do not or cannot do so. Surely, whether philanthropy undermines democracy depends on the charities that receive funding. When donors give to human rights, they do not determine what the good is; rather, the human right does. The author illustrates this argument with a comparison of the philanthropy of George Soros and that of the Koch brothers.
Pornography and the Philosophy of Language
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

Rae Langton and Jennifer Hornsby have argued that Austin’s theory of speech acts can illuminate both the nature of the harm pornography does to women, and the way in which pornography contributes to the perpetuation of sexual violence. This essay, first, disputes Langton’s contention that pornography is an illocutionary act. Even if we concede that pornography is some kind of speech act, the subordination it (supposedly) causes can be related only contingently to the speech act, and therefore cannot be an illocutionary effect. Second, the essay challenges Hornsby’s claim that pornography silences women by preventing the uptake of their refusals. Their applications of speech-act theory are misguided—both from a philosophical point of view and from a pragmatic, political point of view.
Because I Said So
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

Feminism is an antiauthoritarian movement that has sought to unmask many traditional “authorities” as ungrounded. Given this, it might seem as if feminists are required to abandon the concept of authority altogether. But, this essay argues, the exercise of authority enables us to coordinate our efforts to create and realize social goods that would not be attainable otherwise. Moreover, feminist principles support women’s need and right to assert authority—to be relied upon and listened to in an institutionally backed way. Authority must therefore be preserved. What is needed, though, and what is provided for here is a way to distinguish legitimate authority from objectionable authoritarianism. This essay argues that two necessary conditions for a system of authority to be properly grounded are that it contain (a) a reliable system of authority marking (those marked as authorities must, in general, possess the competence and the good will necessary to fulfill their appointed roles) and (b) provisions for critique and redress in case abuses of authority occur.
“Human Nature” and Its Role in Feminist Theory
Authors: Antony Louise
Published: August 2022

Feminist theorists divide on the question the notion of “human nature”: Some argue that progressive political demands need grounding in a theory of human nature, while others argue that there is no such thing as human nature, and that the notion has served historically to rationalize social hierarchy. This essay distinguishes different senses given to the term “human nature” and argues that there is such a thing as human nature in one of these senses (deriving from cognitive science). Human genotypes determine complex functions from environments to phenotypes (“norms of reaction”). Genetic similarities together with environmental regularities together ground provide empirical warrant for normatively important generalizations about human psychology. Such generalizations evade feminist and postmodernist objections to appeals to “human nature.” They do not support biological determinist views of gender, race, or social class, and they do not entail the erasure of difference. Understood this way, “human nature” provides a needed ground for liberatory politics.
The Infrastructure of Empire
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

This chapter lays out those elements of the Roman system that underpinned its strategic execution. It starts with a discussion of Rome’s extensive system of frontier defense, which allowed it to conserve troops when on defense and provided a covered zone to concentrate force for offensive operations. The frontier networks also made it possible for Rome to control trade and diplomatic relations across their frontiers, often to surprising extents—several hundred miles or more. This frontier system was supported by thousands of miles of paved roads that made it possible for Rome to rapidly move legions to threatened frontiers or provinces. Just as crucially, this extensive road system made it possible to feed the legions in whatever part of the Empire they were concentrated.
An Army for Empire
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

To paraphrase Josephus, Rome’s army was unbeatable because of its training. Its exercises were bloodless battles so that their battles could be bloody exercises. Almost to the end, the Roman army overmatched any force it encountered on the battlefield. Given anything approaching even odds, then, the combat results were almost preordained. This combat effectiveness was the result of organization, harsh discipline, and training regimes designed to give Roman formations unparalleled maneuverability, endurance, and striking power. This chapter lays out in detail the organization of the legions, their auxiliaries, and supporting elements. It also discusses their training and how these forces were employed in combat.
The Julio-Claudian Empire
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

This chapter starts with Augustus’s victory in the Roman Civil War, which made him the undisputed master of the Roman Empire. It then traces the Empire’s path through the remainder of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, including the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero. It highlights the importance of the military campaigns in Germania, including the Battle of Teutoburg Wald, which marked the end of Rome’s expansion in the north. I also detail the problems with integrating regions such as Pannonia, Thrace, and the eastern provinces. Finally, the chapter details the early wars with the Parthian Empire. Although these mostly went Rome’s way, they sowed the seeds for nearly five hundred years of persistent conflict.
The Severan Interlude
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

This chapter starts by detailing the wars that brought Septimius Severus to the height of power, followed by the wars he fought to maintain his rule. Next I present a narrative history of Severus’s wars of expansion against Parthia and in Britain. Even as these were going on, major changes were happening beyond the Empire’s frontiers. In Persia a new power, the Sassanids, under Ardashir, were in the midst of replacing the Parthians as rulers of the Persian Empire. This change would bring a new dynamism to Rome’s most powerful enemy and prove the catalyst for two hundred years of conflict that tested Rome to the fullest. The chapter finishes with the rise of Caracalla, who gave Roman citizenship to every freeman within the Empire. But when he lost the support of the army, he was deposed, leading to a series of weak emperors, just at the time Rome need a forceful ruler at the helm.
New Threats
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

At the start of the third century, Rome faced a new and more dangerous constellation of threats. This chapter details the rise of the Sassanids in Persia and explains what made them a qualitatively different and greater danger to Rome. It started with their greater ambition but includes their religious revival, economic strengthening, and the dynasty’s capacity to control the power of its provincial nobles. This is followed by a section on the changing climate. The Roman Climatic Optimum was ending. Colder, harsher weather conditions placed huge stresses on Roman agriculture, which had knock-on effects throughout the Empire’s economy. Moreover, the changing climate unsettled the stability of the great Eurasian land mass, which put huge populations of nomadic tribesman on the move west. This culminated in the fifth century with the Hunnic invasions of the Empire. The chapter also includes a more detailed discussion of the impacts of the various plagues that struck the Empire at this time. It concludes with a discussion of the changes roiling the barbarian tribes beyond the Rhine and the Danube. The small tribes of the Principate period were disappearing, replaced by much larger tribal amalgamations that were richer, better armed, and far more powerful than any Rome had previously confronted.
The Crisis of the Third Century
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

This chapter details the greatest crisis in Roman history to date, when Rome had fifty emperors in fifty years—almost all of them meeting violent deaths. This period marks the end of the old Empire as Rome fought off a massive series of invasions across both the Rhine and the Danube while also dealing with massive Sassanid attacks, which stripped Armenia away from the Empire and pushed deep into Syria. These troubles were compounded by internal convulsions that saw much of Spain, Gaul, and Britain pull free to form an independent Gallic Empire, even as Zenobia of Palmyra seized much of the Eastern Empire. Rome survived because it maintained its economic inner core and because it finally found an emperor—Aurelian, “the Restorer of the World”—who was up to the challenge. Through force of arms the Empire was reunited and its enemies defeated—for the time being. The Empire was weaker than it had been, but it was unified, and it still had a huge amount of latent power and resources—if they could be mobilized and employed properly.
The Late Imperial Army and Strategy
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

This chapter details the changes the Diocletian and Constantine implemented in the Roman military that saw the creation of permanent field armies (comitatenses) and other forces that were permanently stationed along the frontiers (limitanei). In it I examine the wisdom of this organizational change and how it impacted Rome’s execution of strategic policy. The chapter also answers the big question: Was the Roman military less effective than in previous centuries? The short answer is a definitive no. The Empire’s soldiers were still more than a match for their enemies on the field of battle, which they repeatedly proved during this period. What wrecked the Roman army was the incessant civil wars, which saw legions massacring legions on a regular basis. No institution could long endure such bloodlettings without severely harming its quality, which became apparent at the end of the fourth century.
The Gothic Challenge
Authors: Lacey James
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on the rise of Gothic power and the challenge it presented to Rome. It covers the movement of the Goths toward the west, pushed by the unrelenting drive of the Huns to their east. It then details the Goths’ attempts to enter the Roman Empire on peaceful terms and how this process went catastrophically awry. When military hostilities commenced, the majority of the Eastern Empire’s forces were preoccupied with the Persian threat. The emperor, Valens, was forced to patch up a hasty peace and march to meet a Gothic army rampaging through the northern Balkans. Valens then attacked before the western army could join him, leading his forces to near annihilation at the Battle of Adrianople. The rest of the chapter deals with Rome’s attempts to limit the damage brought about by the loss of the east’s field army.
What is the SJT?
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores the SJT in more detail, including the mechanics of the SJT (such as duration and number of questions), multiple choice questions, ranking questions, and how the two types of question are scored.
Academic Foundation Programme selection
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides information on the Academic Foundation Programme selection process, the application form and interview, and general advice on how best to approach it.
Effective communication
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents SJT scenarios on effective communication. Communication is fundamental to the role of the doctor. It includes routine verbal communication (e.g. history taking, updating relatives, handovers, and requesting investigations from specialists), written communication (e.g. prescriptions, updating the clinical notes, and discharge summaries), breaking bad news, and ‘challenging’ interactions, such as dealing with an angry relative.
Working effectively as part of a team
Authors: Dev Harveer , Metcalfe David
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents questions on working effectively as part of a team. Team working is an inevitable part of working within a complex multidisciplinary environment. Thankfully, most interactions with other members of the healthcare team will be positive and constructive. Unfortunately, such happy circumstances don’t make for particularly interesting SJT scenarios. The following chapter is therefore full of colleagues who are angry, rude, dishonest, unprofessional, and even intoxicated.
Martin Joos’sReadings in Linguisticsas the apogee of American structuralism
Authors: Newmeyer Frederick J.
Published: August 2022

As early as 1948 the idea was in the air to compile a collection of papers in American linguistics. This idea came to fruition with the publication of Martin Joos’s Readings in Linguistics in 1957, which is narrowly focussed on the more positivist of the ideas current in the US at the time. Joos’s reader is famous for the super-positivist Introduction and for his comments after most of the chapters. Via elaborating the stages in the publication of this work, the changes made in the successive editions, and the contemporary reviews of the book, we are given a fascinating picture of the development of American structural linguistics over the years and of the interplay among American linguists, both structuralist and non-structuralist. Joos’s reader became a model for ‘how linguistics used to be done’. Modern theorists, formalist and functionalist alike, decry Joos’s positivist comments in the book.
Women and Early Modern Cultures of Translation
Authors: Brown Hilary
Published: August 2022

Women and Early Modern Cultures of Translation: Beyond the Female Tradition offers a fresh account of early modern translation and the history of women translators. Research on women translators has often focused on early modern England; the example of early modern England has been taken as the norm for the rest of the continent and has shaped research on gender and translation more generally. This book brings a new European perspective to the field by introducing the case of Germany. It draws attention to forty women who can be identified as translators in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Germany and shows how their work does not fit easily into traditional narratives about marginalization and subversiveness. The study uses the example of Germany to argue against reading the work of translating women primarily through the lens of gender and to challenge claims about the existence of a female translation tradition which transcends the boundaries of time and place. Instead, it makes the case for a new, contextualizing approach to the study of women translators in history.
Fields of Translation
Authors: Brown Hilary
Published: August 2022

This chapter considers choice of text, questioning whether women and men reveal a propensity to work with different sources. It has been stated that women translated certain texts on account of their sex and traditionally the early modern woman translator was thought to have ‘restricted’ herself to religious material. Revisiting early modern England, the chapter unpacks common assumptions about gender and text one by one: there is little difference in the material translated by men and women; when translators turned to religious texts these should not be misjudged as innocuous or insignificant in this age of Reformation and Counter-Reformation; and ‘choice’ is in itself a problematic concept, often involving agents beyond the individual translator such as tutors, patrons, printers, and booksellers. The case of Germany reinforces the sense that women’s output was largely in line with broader translation trends, at least by the seventeenth century. The main difference between the output of women and men is quantity, as most women could translate only at times in the lives when they were free from the demands of marriage and childbirth. Wherever we are in Europe, then, establishing whether there are any particularly feminine fields of translation is fraught with difficulties, and current evidence from a number of countries suggests in any case that women’s output to a great extent mirrored that of men.
Methods of Translation
Authors: Brown Hilary
Published: August 2022

This chapter interrogates the relationship between gender and translation method. The origins of feminist translation are often located in the early modern period: critics claim that early modern women tended to translate ‘faithfully’ and celebrate the trailblazers who seem to adopt ‘freer’, more assertive approaches and thus display their feminine or feminist consciousness. This chapter argues that it is impossible to link translation practices so straightforwardly to the sex of an individual translator. It shows that the theoretical basis for such analyses is shaky and takes little account of insights offered by decades of research in Translation Studies. A reassessment of the English evidence underlines the difficulties of categorizing translation methods and of linking those methods to gender without due consideration of the environment in which the translator is situated. The situation in Germany provides further strong counter-evidence to narratives about feminist translation. By the seventeenth century, men and women alike tended to see their work in terms of the cultural-patriotic movement and implemented a variety of methods to serve this cause. In the end, traditional interpretations of women’s translation practices tell only part of the story, even if they provide a neat legitimization for the modern-day feminist translation project.
Modes of Translation
Authors: Brown Hilary
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores whether translators were likely to make choices about publication on account of their sex. Many translations by women in this period were unpublished and it has often been suggested that women resisted publication out of a sense of female modesty, content instead to let their works circulate only within a private, domestic sphere. However, the case of England demonstrates that manuscript translation was not typically feminine or always less significant than print, for in this era the lines separating manuscript/print, male/female, public/private were blurred, and we should rethink our modern notions of publishing as the privileged site for self-expression and the proper measure of achievement and impact. The chapter argues that the choice of mode was linked primarily to the intended function of the text and had little to do with gender. Turning to the German states, the chapter suggests that there, too, women did not avoid print on account of being women. They produced manuscripts in environments where print was not the privileged mode, notably the convent and the court; and those who sent their translations to the press did so for reasons which were often indistinguishable from those of their male contemporaries.
Gates of Horn in Ivory Towers
Authors: Tucker Herbert F.
Published: August 2022

That the eventual use of art inheres in its immediate uselessness—freedom from the industrial criterion of direct utility—furnished a steady theme in nineteenth-century British literature. Writers on aesthetics (Shelley, Arnold, Swinburne, Darwin) and especially poets (Keats, Browning, Tennyson, Hopkins) agreed that art’s cultural work is not laid out for it in advance but remains to be seen within a reception history that, being always radically unknown to the present, is therefore speculatively precious to the future. Works of art are collaboratively, thus provisionally, constructed by those who take a share in their interpretation and transmission. The stamina of shaped beauty grounds the diversity of its evolving truth, both of which hinge not on generality but on the specificities of aesthetic form and receptive milieu. Recalling the premises of Romanticism and Aestheticism can put a salutary check on the rush to relevance in contemporary humanities study, which will labor to better effect, even in service of those causes that summon it most urgently, as it redoubles attention to the resources of artistic form and to the unsuspected truth that beauty harbors. Even our most candidly ideological interventions will fare better—will disclose more, and do it more cogently—by attending to aesthetic practice than by conscripting art to serve a practical agenda.
Electromagnetic interactions
Authors: Terranova Francesco
Published: August 2022

Here, the physical meaning of Maxwell’s equations and their covariant formulation are recalled. The chapter introduces classical gauge transformations and the gauge principle. This fundamental principle is illustrated in an environment familiar to undergraduates: non-relativistic quantum mechanics. It then explains that the same principle can be used to derive the interactions between particles and force mediators. Quantum electrodynamics (QED) is introduced by Feynman diagram, a graphical representation of the perturbative series in electromagnetic scattering. It discusses the Feynman diagrams and vertices of QED and apples this technique to an electron–positron bound state: the positronium. The chapter concludes by recalling the classical meaning of the fine structure constant α and the modern interpretation based on Landau’s running formula.
Comedy and Vase-Painting
Authors: Piqueux Alexa
Published: August 2022

The first chapter presents the main sources on which the study of the comic body in this book is based, namely the (mainly fragmentary) texts of Old and Middle Comedy as well as the comic vases (earlier called ‘phlyax vases’). It takes up the debates raised over recent decades by these bodies of material and their relation to each other. The links between Attic comedy and comic vase-paintings from southern Italy and Sicily are discussed according to the contexts of production and use of the vases, both Greek or non-Greek, so as to place the investigation of the staging and representation of the body in Greek comedy in the Classical period on a solid scientific basis. The chapter also examines the methodological challenges of a text–image study, which aims to shed light on the history of the comic genre and performances.
Conclusion
Authors: Piqueux Alexa
Published: August 2022

The conclusion presents a synthetic overview of the findings reached in the book. They show how the enquiry has confirmed close links between textual and visual evidence relating to comedy, particularly between Attic comedy and comic vases from South Italy and Sicily. Certain fundamental aspects of the comic body which have been identified and studied from various points of view are highlighted, in particular the ambivalent meaning of its look, which prompts a positive and a negative laughter at the same time; its relatively undefined form, which is given meaning through speech; how the bodily signs that convey social and moral characterization meet the real-world aesthetic and moral criteria; its unreal and poetic vitality.
Faustina
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

Chapter 2 examines and discusses the imperial coins and medallions of Faustina the Younger. It reassesses and adjusts the prevailing typology and chronology of the portraits on the numismatic material and has a strong focus on the relation of the portrait types to birth-related reverse types, to assess whether or not K. Fittschen’s theory, that Faustina’s portrait types were created to commemorate the birth of her children, works.
Organization of the mint of Rome and system of production
Authors: Niederhuber Christian
Published: August 2022

Chapter 8 gives a close-up view of the mint’s organization and the system of production. It sets out a conceptual model for how the mint is argued to operate, with a strong focus on the workings of the imperial image in the mint. Die design and die-cutting are discussed to demonstrate how complex the functioning of the imperial image in the mint was and by how many factors it was influenced.
Fangs and Kisses
Authors: Brooks Peter
Published: August 2022

Especially in some of his shorter works (A Passion in the Desert, The Girl With the Golden Eyes, and others) Balzac explores intense situations of love and sex. Sex is a powerful force when it strikes his men and women. He explores forms of love and sex, including same-sex relations, that the novel of his time largely represses. He is deeply interested in how women can lead their lives, heroic or private. Laurence de Cinq-Cygne in A Murky Business may offer his most compeling version of woman as hero. But he is also attentive to how women’s lives are restricted in marriage, which largely appears a repressive social form.
Writing, Talking, Devouring Presses
Authors: Brooks Peter
Published: August 2022

Balzac dramatizes the coming of he newspaper, and with it advertising, the serial novel, the corruption of language. But also the democratization of literature, along with the decline of oral storytelling and the need for a new social semiotics. Lost Illusions, the “tragi-comic epic of the capitalization of spirit” according to Lukács, stands as the key novel about the transformations of literature in the early 19th century. Balzac at times displays nostalgia for an earlier time where oral storytelling stood in the place now occupied by the novel, yet in full awareness that his writing is now wholly subject to the publishing, priting, and journalism.
To Say Everything
Authors: Brooks Peter
Published: August 2022

In his search to represent all of French society of his time, Balzac (in the manner of Rousseau in his Confessions) feels compelled to “say everything.” This ambition entails as expressionistic aesthetic of success, which I have described as a melodramatic mode.
King Lear
Authors: Frank Arthur W.
Published: August 2022

The consolations of tragedy are dark, but their darkness is what rings true to readers whose lives already share it. In King Lear an enraged old man upends the lives of those around him. It’s a story of loss, forgiveness, and deeper loss. To show how this story can console, Arthur Frank draws upon both the decades he has spent witnessing serious illness and his own experiences of ageing. His reading presents King Lear as a resource for people living lives that are troubled, exemplifying how to find consolation in literature. Shakespeare did not write self-help books, but his plays can help: not by fixing but by making liveable what cannot be fixed. Shakespeare’s Dark Consolations invites readers, including those not already familiar with King Lear, to hear how the play’s words can speak for us when our own words fail, and how its characters can speak to us, becoming our companions. Frank understands tragedy as a form of human relationship: a tragic sharing. Cordelia’s words, ‘We are not the first / Who with the best meaning have incurred the worst’, express the companionship that makes vulnerability liveable. Shakespeare’s Dark Consolations is a companion to those who need the consolation that King Lear can offer.
Vulnerable Reading
Authors: Frank Arthur W.
Published: August 2022

The author tells a story about his life at one of its lowest points. In that moment, a biblical story came to him. This old story reflected his present troubles and brought him solace. That experience becomes the model for vulnerable reading: reading from the perspective of someone who needs help and looks to literature as a resource for confronting what seems overwhelming. The vulnerable reader is complementary to the author’s earlier trope of the wounded storyteller, someone who needs to tell their own story of suffering but finds it difficult to do so. The vulnerable reader, in order to tell her story, needs stories not her own. The author describes how Shakespeare came into his life and why he chose King Lear to exemplify vulnerable reading. Vulnerable reading involves a risk of narcissism. Against this risk, reading seeks to hear characters talking back, saying what was unexpected.
The Shadow Fell Like Light
Authors: Federico Annette
Published: August 2022

Shadows fall across many pages of Little Dorrit, a novel that summons contemporary fears about the collapse of fundamental human values. In this arrogant and noisy world, all the decent people are damaged and lonely, morally and emotionally isolated, weighed down by secrets and the past. World events challenge the understanding. But as Dickens saw, there are also challenges to the heart and the psyche. In this chapter, Federico reads Little Dorrit through her late-life encounter with psychoanalytic ideas and personal therapy, and finds in Amy Dorrit, the most beautiful of all Dickens’s heroines, a lig
But For You, Dear Stranger
Authors: Federico Annette
Published: August 2022

The inner lives of strangers and the strangeness of the self are among Dickens’s persistent preoccupations in A Tale of Two Cities. People are opaque and incomprehensible to each other. Yet within everyone there is the potential for an awakening of moral attention, and personal transformation. This brief chapter is about the value of a beautiful idea even when it cannot be realized in a reader’s own life. In Sydney Carton, Federico finds a saint in disguise, a man who cannot bear to do good without entangling it in a no-good life—until the achievement of good is made absolute in the famous ending of the novel, and the enlightened finish of a life that was not wasted.
Deliberation as Words, Arguments, and Themes
Authors: Schonhardt-Bailey Cheryl
Published: August 2022

This chapter analyses the content of select committee hearings on monetary policy, financial stability, and fiscal policy, focusing on the verbatim transcripts for these hearings and using quantitative text analysis. The focus is on the House of Commons’ Treasury Select Committee and the House of Lords’ Economic Affairs Committee during the 2010–15 Parliament. Patterns of deliberation are identified across the three policy areas and the two parliamentary chambers. Using the metrics of non-partisanship and reciprocity, the findings reveal that deliberative accountability is of highest quality in monetary policy hearings and of lowest quality in fiscal policy hearings, with financial stability hearings falling midway between. Differences in deliberative accountability across parliamentary chambers are also explored.
Conclusion
Authors: Schonhardt-Bailey Cheryl
Published: August 2022

This concluding chapter merges the findings on deliberative accountability parliamentary select committees, as derived from quantitative text analysis, qualitative coding and experimental investigation into the effect of nonverbal behaviour and elite interviews with central bankers, parliamentarians, staff and Treasury officials. By exploring variations in quality of deliberative accountability across different policy types and different institutional settings, it argues that trust suffers where (1) there is little respect among actors (for example, where actors on both sides of the table are aggressive and confrontational), (2) reason-giving is replaced with partisan point-scoring (for example, questioners seek to publicly ‘bash’ policymakers, or policymakers—typically as politicians—seek to whitewash their decisions), and (3) reciprocity in deliberation is absent (for example, answers are diversionary or seek to obfuscate, or questions themselves are inappropriate or unanswerable).