bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inter-Relationships Among Physical Activity, Body Fat, and Motor Performance in 6- to 8-Year-Old Danish Children
Authors: Morrison Kyle M. , Bugge Anna , El-Naaman Bianca , Eisenmann Joey C. , Froberg Karsten , Pfeiffer Karin A. , Andersen Lars Bo
Published: August 2016

This study examined the interrelationships among physical activity (PA), percent body fat (%BF), and motor performance (MP) in 498 6- to 8-year-old Danish children. PA was assessed by accelerometer, %BF was calculated from skinfolds, and the Koordinations Test für Kinder along with a throwing accuracy test was used to assess MP. PA was not correlated with %BF, but was significantly correlated with MP. The strongest correlations existed between %BF and MP. Low %BF/High PA had higher MP scores compared with High %BF/Low PA, and within the High %BF groups MP was higher in the High PA versus Low PA group. When comparing PA by %BF and MP groups, boys in the Low %BF/High MP had higher PA than both the Low %BF/Low MP and High %BF/Low MP groups. In girls, PA was highest in the High %BF/High MP group. This study highlights the complex interrelationships among PA, %BF, and MP in children and the need to develop fundamental motor skills during childhood.
Comparing Different Accelerometer Cut-Points for Sedentary Time in Children
Authors: Fischer Claudia , Yılıdrım Mine , Salmon Jo , Chinapaw Mai J.M.
Published: August 2016

Actigraph accelerometers are hypothesized to be valid measurements for assessing children’s sedentary time. However, there is considerable variation in accelerometer cut-points used. Therefore, we compared the most common accelerometer sedentary cut-points of children performing sedentary behaviors. Actigraph Actitrainer uniaxial accelerometers were used to measure children’s activity intensity (29 children, 5-11 years old) during different activities, namely playing computer games, nonelectronic sedentary games, watching television and playing outdoors. A structured protocol was the criterion for assessing the validity of four common cut-points (100, 300, 800, 1100 counts/minute). The median counts during all sedentary behaviors were below the lowest comparison cut-point of 100 cpm. The 75th percentile values for the sedentary behaviors were always below the cut-point of 300 cpm. Our results suggest that the cut-point of <100 cpm is the most appropriate.
Specific Types of Family Support and Adolescent Non-School Physical Activity Levels
Authors: Morrissey Joanna L. , Wenthe Phyllis J. , Letuchy Elena M. , Levy Steven M. , Janz Kathleen F.
Published: August 2016

In a sample of 291 adolescents (mean age 13 yr), seven psychosocial factors, including family support, were examined in relation to accelerometry-derived physical activity (PA) measured after school and during the weekend. Gender-specific stepwise linear regression analyses determined which combinations of factors explained the variance in nonschool moderate to vigorous PA and nonschool total PA after adjusting for % BF, age, and maturity (p ≤ 0.05). Being praised by a family member and % BF explained 13% of the variance in female nonschool MVPA, while being praised and maturity explained 13% of the variance in nonschool total PA. Having a family member watch him participate, % BF, and age explained 11.5% of the variance in male nonschool MVPA, while having a family member participate with him explained 6.4% of the variance in nonschool total PA. Despite adolescents’ growing independence, family support continues to influence PA levels.
Effects of Locomotor Skill Program on Minority Preschoolers’ Physical Activity Levels
Authors: Alhassan Sofiya , Nwaokelemeh Ogechi , Ghazarian Manneh , Roberts Jasmin , Mendoza Albert , Shitole Sanyog
Published: August 2016

This pilot study examined the effects of a teacher-taught, locomotor skill (LMS)- based physical activity (PA) program on the LMS and PA levels of minority preschooler-aged children. Eight low-socioeconomic status preschool classrooms were randomized into LMS-PA (LMS-oriented lesson plans) or control group (supervised free playtime). Interventions were delivered for 30 min/day, five days/week for six months. Changes in PA (accelerometer) and LMS variables were assessed with MANCOVA. LMS-PA group exhibited a significant reduction in during-preschool (F (1,16) = 6.34, p = .02, d = 0.02) and total daily (F (1,16) = 9.78, p = .01, d = 0.30) percent time spent in sedentary activity. LMS-PA group also exhibited significant improvement in leaping skills, F (1, 51) = 7.18, p = .01, d = 0.80). No other, significant changes were observed. The implementation of a teacher-taught, LMS-based PA program could potentially improve LMS and reduce sedentary time of minority preschoolers.
Comparison of Epoch and Uniaxial Versus Triaxial Accelerometers in the Measurement of Physical Activity in Preschool Children: A Validation Study
Authors: Hislop Jane F. , Bulley Cathy , Mercer Tom H. , Reilly John J.
Published: August 2016

The objectives of this study were to explore whether triaxial is more accurate than uniaxial accelerometry and whether shorter sampling periods (epochs) are more accurate than longer epochs. Physical activity data from uniaxial and triaxial (RT3) devices were collected in 1-s epochs from 31 preschool children (15 males, 16 females, 4.4 ± 0.8 yrs) who were videoed while they engaged in 1-hr of free-play. Video data were coded using the Children’s Activity Rating Scale (CARS). A significant difference (p < .001) in the number of minutes classified as moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was found between the RT3 and the CARS (p < .002) using the cut point of relaxed walk. No significant difference was found between the GT1M and the CARS or between the RT3 and the CARS using the cut point for light jog. Shorter epochs resulted in significantly greater overestimation of MVPA, with the bias increasing from 0.7 mins at 15-s to 3.2 mins at 60-s epochs for the GT1M and 0 mins to 1.7 mins for the RT3. Results suggest that there was no advantage of a triaxial accelerometer over a uniaxial model. Shorter epochs result in significantly higher number of minutes of MVPA with smaller bias relative to direct observation.
Accuracy of Accelerometer Regression Models in Predicting Energy Expenditure and Mets in Children and Youth
Authors: Alhassan Sofiya , Lyden Kate , Howe Cheryl , Keadle Sarah Kozey , Nwaokelemeh Ogechi , Freedson Patty S.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the validity of commonly used regression equations for the Actigraph and Actical accelerometers in predicting energy expenditure (EE) in children and adolescents. Sixty healthy (8–16 yrs) participants completed four treadmill (TM) and five self-paced activities of daily living (ADL). Four Actigraph (AG) and three Actical (AC) regression equations were used to estimate EE. Bias (±95% CI) and root mean squared errors were used to assess the validity of the regression equations compared with indirect calorimetry. For children, the Freedson (AG) model accurately predicted EE for all activities combined and the Treuth (AG) model accurately predicted EE for TM activities. For adolescents, the Freedson model accurately predicted EE for TM activities and the Treuth model accurately predicted EE for all activities and for TM activities. No other equation accurately estimated EE. The percent agreement for the AG and AC equations were better for light and vigorous compared with moderate intensity activities. The Trost (AG) equation most accurately classified all activity intensity categories. Overall, equations yield inconsistent point estimates of EE.
Comparison of Accelerometry Cut Points for Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior in Preschool Children: A Validation Study
Authors: Hislop Jane F. , Bulley Cathy , Mercer Tom H. , Reilly John J.
Published: August 2016

This study compared accelerometry cut points for sedentary behavior, light and moderate to vigorous intensity activity (MVPA) against a criterion measure, the Children’s Activity Rating Scale (CARS), in preschool children. Actigraph accelerometry data were collected from 31 children (4.4 ± 0.8 yrs) during one hour of free-play. Video data were coded using the CARS. Cut points by Pate et al., van Cauwenberghe et al., Sirard et al. and Puyau et al. were applied to calculate time spent in sedentary, light and MVPA. Repeated-measures ANOVA and paired t tests tested differences between the cut points and the CARS. Bland and Altman plots tested agreement between the cut points and the CARS. No significant difference was found between the CARS and the Puyau et al. cut points for sedentary, light and MVPA or between the CARS and the Sirard et al. cut point for MVPA. The present study suggests that the Sirard et al. and Puyau et al. cut points provide accurate group-level estimates of MVPA in preschool children.
The Actiheart in Adolescents: A Doubly Labelled Water Validation
Authors: Campbell Nerissa , Prapavessis Harry , Gray Casey , McGowan Erin , Rush Elaine , Maddison Ralph
Published: August 2016

Background/Objective: This study investigated the validity of the Actiheart device for estimating free-living physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE) in adolescents. Subjects/Methods: Total energy expenditure (TEE) was measured in eighteen Canadian adolescents, aged 15–18 years, by DLW. Physical activity energy expenditure was calculated as 0.9 X TEE minus resting energy expenditure, assuming 10% for the thermic effect of feeding. Participants wore the chest mounted Actiheart device which records simultaneously minute-by-minute acceleration (ACC) and heart rate (HR). Using both children and adult branched equation modeling, derived from laboratory-based activity, PAEE was estimated from the ACC and HR data. Linear regression analyses examined the association between PAEE derived from the Actiheart and DLW method where DLW PAEE served as the dependent variable. Measurement of agreement between the two methods was analyzed using the Bland-Altman procedure. Results: A nonsignificant association was found between the children derived Actiheart and DLW PAEE values (R = .23, R2 = .05, p = .36); whereas a significant association was found between the adult derived Actiheart and DLW PAEE values (R = .53, R2 = .29, p < .05). Both the children and adult equation models lead to overestimations of PAEE by the Actiheart compared with the DLW method, by a mean difference of 31.42 kcal·kg−·d−1 (95% limits of agreement: −45.70 to −17.15 kcal·kg−1·d−1 and 9.80 kcal·kg−1·d−1 (95% limits of agreement: −21.22-1.72 kcal·kg−1·d−1), respectively. Conclusion: There is relatively poor measurement of agreement between the Actiheart and DLW for assessing free-living PAEE in adolescents. Future work should develop group based branched equation models specifically for adolescents to improve the utility of the device in this population.
Lower Head Temperature Does Not Affect Children’s Self-Paced Running Velocity
Authors: Ferreira João , Martini Angelo , Borba Diego , Gomes Leonardo , Pinto João , Oliveira Bernardo , Coelho Daniel , Prado Luciano , Rodrigues Luiz
Published: August 2016

To test if the use of a peaked cap protects children against sun radiation, allowing increased exercise performance, nineteen healthy children (10.3 ± 0.8 years old, 146.2 ± 6.9 cm, 36.8 ± 5.5 kg, 1.2 ± 0.1 m2 and 44.1 ± 2.8 mL.kg-1.min-1) took part in 4 experimental situations: 2 initial familiarization runs and 2 self-paced 6km runs (4 × 1.5 km exercise bouts with 3min rest intervals) one of them wearing a peaked cap (CAP) and another situation without the cap (NOCAP). The CAP and NOCAP situations were randomized. Exercise was performed outdoors 3–7 days apart. Environmental variables were measured every 10min, and physiological variables were measured before and after each run and during the rest intervals. Running velocity did not differ between CAP and NOCAP situations. The mean head temperature was reduced by 1.1 °C in the CAP situation (p < .05). Average skin temperature, mean heart rate, rate of perceived exertion and wet bulb and globe temperature did not differ between CAP and NOCAP. The decrease in the mean head temperature was not sufficient to alter running velocity.
Parents’ Perceptions of Children’s Physical Activity Compared on Two Electronic Diaries
Authors: Lau Jamie , Engelen Lina , Bundy Anita
Published: August 2016

Background:

After-school hours provide an opportunity for physical activity (PA). Parental perceptions influence children’s PA. The aims were to: compare parents’ perceptions of children’s PA with objectively measured PA; shed light on PA during after-school hours; and compare two electronic devices for collecting data.

Methods:

Twenty parent-child dyads participated. Children (5–7 years, mean 6.25 ± 0.64) wore Actical accelerometers; their parents responded to activity diaries on electronic devices. Data were collected twice for 4 consecutive weekday afternoons (15.30–19.00).

Results:

While parents perceived their children to be quite active, children were, in fact, largely inactive. Parents’ responses compared with accelerometer data yielded moderate correlations (r = .44, p < .01). Two thirds of parents’ responses were overestimations. Boys were physically more active than girls and had higher PA outdoors than indoors. Girls’ PA remained similar indoors and outdoors but parents did not perceive the similarity. Both electronic devices produced similar results and compliance rates.

Conclusion:

Parents consistently over-reported their children’s PA. Findings have implications for initiatives to increase PA. If parents perceive their children as very active, they may lack motivation to promote PA. Parents’ limitations as proxy reporters aside, the similarity of results yielded by the two electronic devices suggests that the choice is a matter of researcher preference.
The Relation Between Environmental Factors and Pedometer-Determined Physical Activity in Children: The Mediating Role of Autonomous Motivation
Authors: Rutten Cindy , Boen Filip , Seghers Jan
Published: August 2016

Based on self-determination theory, the purpose of this study was to explore the mediating role of autonomous motivation in the relation between environmental factors and pedometer-determined PA among 10- to 12-year-old Flemish children. Data were collected from 787 6th grade pupils and one of their parents. Children completed self-report measures including autonomous motivation for PA and perceived autonomy support for PA by parents and friends. Parents completed a questionnaire concerning their PA related parenting practices (logistic support and explicit modeling) and the perceived home environment with respect to PA opportunities. The results confirmed that autonomous motivation mediated the relation between children’s PA and their perceived autonomy support by friends and parents. Autonomous motivation also mediated the relation between parental logistic support and PA. In addition, a positive direct relation was found between parental explicit modeling and children’s PA, and between perceived neighborhood safety and children’s PA.
Endurance, Explosive Power, and Muscle Strength in Relation to Body Mass Index and Physical Fitness in Greek Children Aged 7–10 Years
Authors: Tambalis Konstantinos , Panagiotakos Demosthenes , Arnaoutis Giannis , Sidossis Labros
Published: August 2016

We aimed to model endurance, explosive power, and muscle strength in relation to body mass index (BMI) and physical-fitness tests in Greek children aged 7–10 years old. In the present large epidemiological study, anthropometric measurements and physical-fitness tests (i.e., multistage shuttle run, vertical jump, standing long jump, small ball throw and 30-m sprint) from 141,169 children were analyzed. Age- and sex-specific normative values for physical fitness tests were expressed as tabulated percentiles using the LMS statistical method. The correlation coefficients between BMI and performances were negative and significant for both sexes (p < .01) in all physical-fitness tests. The only exception was a positive correlation between ball throw and BMI (p < .01). Only 2.9% and 4.0% of boys and girls respectively, passed the upper quartiles in all tests. The performance in speed may serve as a predictive factor explaining, at least in part, the performance in aerobic endurance and explosive power in children aged 7–10 years. The presented population-based data for physical-fitness tests revealed that only a small percentage of these children are in the upper quartiles in all tests. Furthermore, the data suggests that speed performance can be used to predict physical fitness.
Children’s Objective Physical Activity by Location: Why the Neighborhood Matters
Authors: Kneeshaw-Price Stephanie , Saelens Brian , Sallis James , Glanz Karen , Frank Lawrence , Kerr Jacqueline , Hannon Peggy , Grembowski David , Chan KC Gary , Cain Kelli
Published: August 2016

Knowledge of where children are active may lead to more informed policies about how and where to intervene and improve physical activity. This study examined where children aged 6–11 were physically active using time-stamped accelerometer data and parent-reported place logs and assessed the association of physical-activity location variation with demographic factors. Children spent most time and did most physical activity at home and school. Although neighborhood time was limited, this time was more proportionally active than time in other locations (e.g., active 42.1% of time in neighborhood vs. 18.1% of time at home). Children with any neighborhood-based physical activity had higher average total physical activity. Policies and environments that encourage children to spend time outdoors in their neighborhoods could result in higher overall physical activity.
Psychological Predictors of State Anxiety and Performance in Age-Group Wrestlers
Authors: Gould Daniel , Eklund Robert C. , Petlichkoff Linda , Peterson Kirsten , Bump Linda
Published: August 2016

This study examined psychological correlates of performance in youth wrestlers by replicating and extending the findings of Scanlan et al. (18). A secondary purpose was to replicate and extend work on antecedents of pre- and postcompetitive state anxiety. A total of 202 youth wrestlers, ages 13 and 14, completed a background questionnaire assessing demographic characteristics, trait anxiety, achievement orientations, and characteristic prematch cognitions prior to participating in an age-group wrestling tournament. Prematch performance expectancies and prematch state anxiety were also assessed 10 to 20 minutes before Rounds 1 and 2 of the tournament. Postmatch assessments of satisfaction and state anxiety were conducted immediately after both bouts. Results partially replicated those of Scanlan et al. (18), that is, wrestlers who performed best had more years of experience and higher prematch performance expectancies. Pre- and postmatch competitive state anxiety antecedent variables of trait anxiety, prematch performance expectancies, and parental-pressure-to-participate anxiety were also replicated.
Can the Point of Deflection from Linearity of Heart Rate Determine Ventilatory Threshold in Children?
Authors: Mahon Anthony D. , Vaccaro Paul
Published: August 2016

Whether the point of deflection from linearity of heart rate (HRD) coincides with ventilatory threshold (VT) has not been extensively examined in children. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between the VO2 measured at VT and the VO2 measured at HRD. Twenty-two boys with a mean age of 10.7 years (±1.0) performed a graded exercise test to determine VT, HRD, and VO2max. There was no significant difference between mean VO2 (ml/kg/min) at VT and at HRD (33.5±3.5 vs. 34.1±4.4; p>0.05). Linear regression analysis revealed a correlation of r = 0.76 (p<0.01) between the VO2 measured at VT and the VO2 measured at HRD. These results indicate that HRD may be an accurate predictor of VT in most but not all children, and caution should be used when interpreting the significance of HRD.
Potassium Content of the Fat-Free Body: Effects of Gender, Race, Maturation, and Age
Authors: Christ Constance B. , Slaughter Mary H. , Stillman Rachel J. , Lohman Timothy G. , Boileau Richard A.
Published: August 2016

Variability associated with the effects of gender, race, maturation (ML), and age on the potassium content of the fat-free body (K/FFB) was investigated in 163 males and 112 females ages 8 to 30 years. Measures of body density (hydrostatic weighing), bone mineral content (single photon absorptiometry), total body water (modified deuterium dilution), and whole body potassium (40K spectroscopy) were obtained. FFB was calculated using a multicomponent equation which accounted for the variability in FFB mineral and water content. Subjects were classified by maturation as prepubescent, pubescent, postpubescent, and adult (Tanner stages). Least-squares multiple regression analysis revealed significant (p<.05) effects of gender and maturation as well as an interaction between whites and blacks with maturation. The significant increase in K/FFB across maturation and age was most evident in the male sample for both racial groups, with K/FFB increasing from 2.37 in prepubescents to 2.54 in adults. The magnitude of increase in K/FFB across maturation was smaller and not statistically significant within the female sample. Hence, consideration of gender, maturation, and age is important in estimating FFB from total body potassium.
Disturbance in Heart Rate during Exercise Following Lntracardiac Repair: Contribution of Cardiopulmonary Bypass
Authors: Perrault Hélène , Davignon André , Grief Gail , Fournier Anne , Chartrand Claude
Published: August 2016

A disturbance in the chronotropic response to exercise has well documented following surgical repair of a congenital heart defect. Observations of a similar dysfunction following correction of simple atrial as well as ventricular septal defect suggest that its occurrence might be linked to a common denominator in the surgical procedures. Since cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is used for all initacardiac surgeries, the contribution of this factor to the abnormal response was examined. Three groups of patients von; evaluated: VSDop: operated on for a ventricular septal defect, CPB required; VSDnon-op: spontaneous closure of a congenital 73D, no surgery; and PDAoperated on for a patent ductus arteriosus, no CPB required. They were compared io a control group of healthy adolescents (C). The main, finding was that of lower submax final and maximal heart rates in VCDop disc in any other group. These results suggest that placement of cannulae resulting from-CPB could alter the control of heart rate during exercise and contribute to the abnormal chronotropic response following intracardiac repair of a congenital heart defect.
Scaling: Partitioning out Differences in Size
Authors: Winter Edward M.
Published: August 2016

In his “Editor’s Notes,” Rowland (15) raised an issue that is fundamentally important but frequently appears to be misunderstood. The issue is scaling, that is, the means of partitioning out differences in size. Because physiological variables are often dependent on size, an adjustment has to be made to “normalize” for body dimensions and assess more precisely a particular characteristic. These adjustments have four main applications: (a) to an individual who is compared against standards for the purposes of assessment; (b) in comparisons between groups; (c) in longitudinal studies, especially with children, in which for instance the effects of training have to be disentangled from the effects of growth and development; and (d) in studies that explore the relationship between physiological variables and performance. The purpose of this review is to assess the most appropriate means of scaling and demonstrate how well-intentioned, but nevertheless incorrect, scaling techniques have probably produced misleading results and retarded progress in our understanding of the physiology of exercise.
The 1600-M Run and Multistage 20-M Shuttle Run as Predictive Tests of Aerobic Capacity in Children
Authors: Anderson Gregory S.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the validity of using the 1600-m distance run (DR) and the maximal multistage 20-m shuttle run (SR) as predictors of aerobic capacity in active boys 10 to 12 years of age. The influence of weight and maximal sprint running speed on test performance scores were also investigated. Both the DR and SR were found to have concurrent validity in the group studied, correlated to a directly measured VO2max (ml kg−1·min−1) determined through a progressive bicycle ergometer test. However, predicted VO2max values using SR results differed significantly from measured values. Weight was not found to be significantly correlated with either of the predictive methods, whereas maximal sprint running speed, as measured through a 40-m dash, was found to correlate significantly with the results of both the DR and SR. These results suggest that the combined influence of running efficiency and anaerobic energy production significantly influence the performance of both predictive methods.
Anaerobic Performance—Assessed by the Wingate Test—in Patients with Cystic Fibrosis
Authors: Cabrera Marco E. , Lough Marvin D. , Doershuk Carl F. , DeRivera Georgette A.
Published: August 2016

Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients were studied to investigate the muscles’ ability to produce and sustain high-intensity short-term exercise in this population. The patients, 17 males and 23 females, ranged from 10 to 39 years of age. Each patient performed a pulmonary function test followed by a Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT). Based on a pulmonary function scoring system, patients were classified as having severe, moderate, or mild lung dysfunction, or normal lung function. Percent ideal body weight was used to categorize the patients as nourished or malnourished. Two indices of anaerobic performance (peak power and mean power) were determined from the WAnT and normalized by actual weight or by ideal weight. Patients in the severe and moderate groups had lower peak power (PP) and lower mean power (MP) than those in the mild and normal groups. Similarly, malnourished patients showed a lower PP and MP than did nourished patients. These results were similar regardless of whether PP or MP were normalized by weight or ideal weight. It is concluded that the anaerobic performance (muscle power and endurance) of CF patients, as assessed by the WAnT, was related to the degree of severity of the overall disease process.
Physiological Determinants of Wrestling Success in High School Athletes
Authors: Roemmich James N. , Frappier John P.
Published: August 2016

This study compared successful (n=19) and less successful (n=19) varsity wrestlers matched for age, weight, height, and wrestling experience on physiological variables important for wrestling success using field tests available to a high school wrestling coach. Significant (P<0.05) differences in favor of the successful wrestlers were found for mean left and right grip strength, flexibility of the low back and hamstrings, completed sit-ups, pull-ups, and push-ups. Successful wrestlers also covered a greater distance during a 12min run test and had significantly greater relative anaerobic power (Margaria step test). The groups did not differ significantly in the sum-of-six skinfolds. In conclusion, successful wrestlers had significantly more muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility of the low back and hamstrings, aerobic fitness, and relative anaerobic power than less successful wrestlers. It is suggested less successful wrestlers engage in regular training sessions that include stretching, cardiovascular, and strength/power components.
Correlates of Goal Orientations among Young Athletes
Authors: Hom Harry L. , Duda Joan L. , Miller Arden
Published: August 2016

Two major ways of judging one’s competence and defining subjective success in achievement situations are task (focus is on improvement) and ego (focus is on beating others) involvement (16). Specific to the athletic context, this study examined the relationship of young athletes’ proneness to task and ego involvement, or individual differences in the degree of task and ego orientation, respectively, to their (a) beliefs about the causes of success, (b) perceived ability, and (c) degree of satisfaction/enjoyment in the athletic domain. Subjects were 55 young athletes recruited from summer basketball camps. Congruent with previous research on older athletes and the classroom, a conceptually consistent relationship between goal orientations and views concerning the causes of success was revealed. Young athletes who were high in task and ego orientation tended to perceive themselves as more capable and report greater satisfaction/enjoyment. Implications concerning the motivational consequences of goal orientations for children and youth are discussed.
Developmental and Psychological Factors Related to Children’s Observational Learning of Physical Skills
Authors: Weiss Maureen R. , Ebbeck Vicki , Wiese-Bjornstal Diane M.
Published: August 2016

Visual demonstrations have long been regarded as a critical instructional method for children’s motor skill and social-emotional development. Despite their widespread importance, skill demonstrations have often been characterized by a failure to consider age related differences in children’s cognitive and physical abilities. Similarly, the potential psychological effects of modeling on children’s behaviors in the physical domain have rarely been discussed. Thus the purpose of this paper is to review theoretical and research perspectives from the motor behavior and psychology literatures about developmental and psychological factors associated with children’s modeling of motor skills. Specifically, this paper will emphasize (a) how children perceive characteristics of a visual demonstration, (b) how they translate perceptions to actions that attempt to match the skill demonstration, and (c) how observational learning can be used to enhance self-confidence and motivation in youth. Practical implications for maximizing motor skill and psychosocial development in children are addressed in each section of the paper.
Aerobic Capacity and Grade-Walking Economy of Children 5–9 Years Old: A Longitudinal Study
Authors: Forster Margaret A. , Hunter Gary R. , Hester Donna J. , Dunaway Donna , Shuleva Kathy
Published: August 2016

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), submaximal grade-walking oxygen uptake, and anthropometric measures were measured in a group of 19 children in 1988 and in 1992. The children were 5.2 ± .9 years old in 1988 and 9.2 ± 1.0 in 1992. The VO2max did not change relative to body weight over the 4 years (44.6 ml·kg−1·min−1 in 1988 versus 43.3 ml·kg−1·min−1 in 1992). Lower specific weight-relative oxygen uptakes were seen at the submaximal work levels in 1992 than in 1988, indicating an improvement in grade-walking economy.
Additional Physical Education and Plasma Lipids and Apoproteins: A 3-Year Intervention Study
Authors: Zonderland Maria L. , Erich Wietze B.M. , Kortlandt Wouter , Erkelens D. Willem
Published: August 2016

A 3-year controlled intervention was used to study the influence of physical activity on the plasma lipid and apoprotein profile of 10-year-old Dutch schoolchildren. Twice-a-year measurements were taken of height, weight, body composition (skinfolds), pubertal development (Tanner stages), total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides (TG), apoproteins A-I and B (immunoturbidimetry), and participation in physical activities. The effect of the intervention was analyzed with a MANOVA. The intervention did not affect the level of the lipids and apoproteins of the boys. In the girls, the intervention led to a smaller increase of TG and a larger decrease of apoprotein A-I. There may be two explanations for the limited intervention effect. First, it may be due to the healthy baseline plasma lipid and apoprotein profile, which leaves little room for improvement. Second, the exercise intensity during the physical education classes may have been too low to bring about the desired effect.
The Reliability and Validity of the 9-Minute Run in Third-Grade Children
Authors: Turley Kenneth R. , Wilmore Jack H. , Simons-Morton Bruce , Williston Jean M. , Epping Jackie Reeds , Dahlstrom Ginny
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to determine the validity and reliability of the 9-min distance run in assessing cardiorespiratory fitness in third-grade children. Fifty-one children (27 girls and 24 boys) participated in at least one maximal cycle ergometer test to determine peak oxygen consumption (V̇O2peak) and in two 9-min runs. Significant (p < .01) test-retest intraclass correlations indicated that both the peak cycle ergometer test and the 9-min run were reliable measures in boys and girls and when the total sample was combined. Interclass correlations of r = .62 and r = .64 were attained between V̇O2peak (ml·kg−1·min−1) and 9-min Run 1 and 9-min Run 2, respectively. When data were separated by gender, 9-min Run 1 and 9-min Run 2 correlated to V̇O2peak (r = .56 and r = .48 for the girls and r = .65 and r = .71 for the boys, respectively). These results suggest that the 9-min distance run is a reasonably valid and highly reliable field test for estimating cardiorespiratory fitness in third-grade children.
Allometric Scaling Factors for Oxygen Uptake during Exercise in Children
Authors: Rogers Danette M. , Turley Kenneth R. , Kujawa Kathleen I. , Harper Kevin M. , Wilmore Jack H.
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to examine the relationship between oxygen consumption and both body surface area and body mass in children to determine what allometric scaling factors from these variables provide appropriate means of expressing data for this population. These scaling factors were then compared to exponents based on theoretical and animal models to determine if the same relationships were present. Forty-two children (21 boys and 21 girls) 7 to 9 years of age participated in maximal and submaximal treadmill testing. The submaximal V̇O2 to body size relationship proved to be a more appropriate factor to use when scaling V̇O2 than the relationship seen between body size and V̇O2max. Therefore, in this population of children, V̇O2 relative to body surface area or body mass to the power 0.67, demonstrated submaximally, provided a more appropriate means of data expression both statistically and physiologically than the traditional expression of V̇O2 relative to body mass (ml·kg−1·min−1).
Use of Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) to Prescribe Exercise Intensity for Wheelchair-Bound Children and Adults
Authors: Ward Dianne S. , Bar-Or Oded , Longmuir Patti , Smith Karen
Published: August 2016

Seventeen individuals (ages 11–30 years), all wheelchair users, were classified as active or sedentary. Peak mechanical power, heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were determined during continuous, incremental all-out arm ergometry. Subjects were asked to wheel on an oval track at prescribed speeds, and one month later they repeated this task. All subjects could distinguish among prescriptions, as judged from HR and wheeling velocities. However, the active subjects chose higher speeds (by 0.8–1.3 m/s), a wider range of speeds, and could better distinguish among sequential RPE levels than did the sedentary subjects. All subjects chose wheeling velocities higher than expected from their originally established HR-on-RPE regression. One-month retention was high and similar between groups. Individuals who use wheelchairs can discriminate among wheeling intensities as prescribed using the RPE scale and have excellent retention for at least one month.
Physical Self-Perceptions of High School Athletes
Authors: Welk Gregory J. , Corbin Charles B. , Lewis Lisa A.
Published: August 2016

The Physical Self-Perception Profile (3) assesses perceptions of sport competence, physical conditioning, strength, and body attractiveness. Originally validated with college students, the profile has subsequently been adapted for use with younger children (13) and older adults (2) but not with teenage or athletic populations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the factor validity of the children’s version of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (C-PSPP) for high school athletes (N = 542). The C-PSPP was given to athletes (both boys and girls) from a variety of competitive sports. The internal reliability of the subscales was good for both sexes (alphas = .73 to .83), with the exception of the Sport scale for the males (alpha = .64). A clear four-factor structure was evident, though cross loadings existed for males on the Sport scale. Results indicate that teenage athletes have strong physical self-perceptions compared to other populations, particularly regarding skill performance and conditioning.
Habituation of Children to Treadmill Walking and Running: Metabolic and Kinematic Criteria
Authors: Frost Gail , Bar-Or Oded , Dowling James , White Catherine
Published: August 2016

This study examined habituation to treadmill walking or running in children. Twenty-four boys and girls, ages 7–11, completed six 6-min trials of treadmill exercise at one of these speeds: (a) comfortable walking pace (CWP), (b) CWP + 15%, (c) running at CWP + 3 km·hr−1, or (d) running as above + 15%. The six trials were repeated in a second visit. The a priori criterion for habituation was a decrease in steady state values of oxygen uptake (V̇O2), heart rate (HR), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and stride rate (SR) or an increase in stride length (SL) and hip joint vertical amplitude (HA) from one trial to the next. There was no consistent pattern indicating habituation for the group. Many trials and more than one day of testing do not appear to improve the stability of the metabolic or kinematic variables. The lack of consistency in individual responses suggests that monitoring subjects’ habituation individually is important.
Blood Lipid and Physiological Responses to Endurance Training in Adolescents
Authors: Blessing Daniel L. , Keith Robert E. , Williford Henry N. , Blessing Marjean E. , Barksdale Jeff A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an endurance training program on blood lipids and lipoproteins in adolescents. Fifteen males and 10 females, ages 13 to 18 years, underwent pretest evaluations, including physical measurements, nutritional intake, physical working capacity (PWC), and fasting serum lipid and lipoprotein levels. Physical conditioning consisted of a 16-week progressive endurance training (ET) program 40 min·day1 three times per week. Twenty-five males and females matched for age, sex, and race served as controls. Following the conditioning program, the ET group had a significant increase (p < .05) in PWC and a significant decrease (p < .05) in sum of skinfolds and resting heart rate. A significant decrease (p < .05) was also noted for total cholesterol (TC) and the ratio of TC to high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) with a significant increase (p < .05) in HDL-C. No differences were found for the control group. The results suggest that 16 weeks of endurance training favorably improves blood lipid profiles in adolescents.
Initial, Continued, and Sustained Motivation in Adolescent Female Athletes: A Season-Long Analysis
Authors: Weiss Maureen R. , Frazer Kirsten M.
Published: August 2016

Research on motivation to participate in physical activity has typically been characterized by an assessment of reasons for involvement at a single point in time. This study examined motives for participating, self-perceptions (perceived success, perceived basketball competence, perceived peer acceptance), and enjoyment several times during a sport season relative to player status (Le., amount of playing time). Female basketball players (N = 141) completed measures of participation motivation, perceptions of physical competence and peer acceptance, success, and enjoyment at preseason, midseason, and end of season. Players were classified as starters, primary substitutes, or secondary substitutes by their coaches based on extent of actual playing time. All athletes were similar in their reasons for participating; these included mastery, friends, team atmosphere, and fitness. However, starters and primary substitutes were higher than secondary substitutes in perceptions of success, basketball competence, peer acceptance, and enjoyment at midseason, and starters were higher than primary and secondary substitutes on perceived basketball competence at end of season. These results suggest that positive self-perceptions and affect experienced in the physical domain are related to players ’ opportunities to demonstrate competence in salient achievement areas.
The Effects of Resistance and Martial Arts Training in 6- to 8-Year-Old Boys
Authors: Falk Bareket , Mor Guy
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of a 12-week training program on the motor performance of 6- to 8-year-old prepubertal boys (n = 14). Each subject participated in a 40-min session twice a week, which included three sets of upper body strength exercises (1 to 15 repetitions/set), unregimented lower body strength exercises, coordination, balance, and martial arts skills. The control group included 15 prepubertal boys in the same age range. All subjects were pre- and posttested on 20-s sit-ups, seated ball put, standing broad jump, sit-and-reach flexibility, 6 × 4-m shuttle run, and a coordination task. The experimental group improved significantly (p < .05) more than the control group in the sit-ups and in the long jump. Both groups improved (p < .05) in the coordination task. No significant changes were observed in body weight, seated ball put, flexibility, and shuttle run. A twice-weekly training program seems to improve performance in selected motor tasks in 6- to 8-year-old boys.
Goal Orientation and Perceptions of the Motivational Climate Initiated by Parents
Authors: White Sally A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between goal orientation and perceptions of the motivational climate initiated by parents among female volleyball players. Female volleyball players (N=204), ranging in age from 14 to 17 years (age M = 15.40), participated in the study. All subjects completed the 36-item Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PIMCQ-2) and the 13-item Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ). Stepwise multiple regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between the predictor variables and goal orientation. Specifically, a climate where parents emphasized success without effort predicted ego orientation. Also, the results indicated that an individual’s perception of a climate fostered by parents that focused on learning/enjoyment predicted task orientation. Overall, results from this study indicated that female volleyball players’ perceptions of what their parents prefer and consider to be important in the learning of physical skills was related to dispositional goal orientation.
The Assessment of Children’s Anaerobic Performance Using Modifications of the Wingate Anaerobic Test
Authors: Chia Michael , Armstrong Neil , Childs David
Published: August 2016

Twenty-five girls and 25 boys (mean age 9.7 ± 0.3 years) each completed a 20- and 30-s Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT). Oxygen uptake during the WAnTs, and postexercise blood lactate samples were obtained. Inertia and load-adjusted power variables were higher (18.6–20.1% for peak, and 6.7–7.5% for mean power outputs, p < .05) than the unadjusted values for both the 20- and 30-s WAnTs. The adjusted peak power values were higher (7.7–11.6%, p < .05) in both WAnTs when integrated over 1-s than over 5-s time periods. The aerobic contributions to the tests were lower (p < .05) in the 20-s WAnT (13.7–35.7%) than in the 30-s WAnT (17.7–44.3%) for assumed mechanical efficiencies of 13% and 30%. Postexercise blood lactate concentration after the WAnTs peaked by 2 min. No gender differences (p > .05) in anaerobic performances or peak blood lactate values were detected.
Curricular Physical Activity and Academic Performance
Authors: Shephard Roy J.
Published: August 2016

Advocates of quality daily physical education for prepubescent children frequently encounter the argument that such initiatives will harm academic progress. The impact of daily physical education upon the academic performance of primary school students is thus reviewed with particular reference to studies conducted in Vanves (France), Australia, and Trois Rivières (Québec). When a substantial proportion of curricular time (14–26%) is allocated to physical activity, learning seems to proceed more rapidly per unit of classroom time, so that academic performance matches, and may even exceed, that of control students. Children receiving additional physical education show an acceleration of their psychomotor development, and this could provide a mechanism for accelerated learning of academic skills. Other potential mechanisms include increased cerebral blood flow, greater arousal, changes in hormone levels, enhanced nutrient intake, changes in body build, and increased self esteem. Academic teachers may also favor the enhanced physical education program, creating “halo” effects, and the resulting release time may enhance their academic teaching. Irrespective of mechanisms, the implication for public policy is that daily required physical education can be introduced when a child enters primary school without compromising academic development. Given the importance of establishing positive health habits from an early age, school boards should be encouraged to follow a policy of required daily physical activity in primary schools. Evidence of specific benefit in students with learning disabilities remains less convincing.
Validation of Sofit for Measuring Physical Activity of First- to Eighth-Grade Students
Authors: Rowe Paul J. , Schuldheisz Joel M. , van der Mars Hans
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) for measuring physical activity of elementary and middle school children. Students (N = 173,92 boys and 81 girls) from Grades 1–8 completed a standardized protocol that included lying, sitting, standing, walking, running, curl-ups, and push-ups. Heart rates were used as a criterion for concurrent validity. The results confirm the validity of the physical activity codes of SOFIT for elementary and middle school children. Activity Categories 2–5 indicate different levels of energy expenditure, whereas Categories 1 (lying) and 2 (sitting) refer to the same energy expenditure level. The common distinction between SOFIT Levels 4 and 5 as MVPA (moderate to vigorous physical activity) and SOFIT Levels 1 to 3 as non-MVPA is valid. Curl-ups and push-ups should be coded as MVPA.
Body Size and the Growth of Maximal Aerobic Power in Children: A Longitudinal Analysis
Authors: Rowland Thomas , Vanderburgh Paul , Cunningham Lee
Published: August 2016

Adjustment of VO2max for changes in body size is important in evaluating aerobic fitness in children. It is important, therefore, to understand the normal relationship between changes VO2max and body size during growth. Over the course of 5 years, 20 children (11 boys, 9 girls) underwent annual maximal treadmill testing to determine VO2max. The mean longitudinal allometric scaling exponent for VO2max relative to body mass (M) was 1.10 ± 0.30 in the boys and 0.78 ± 0.28 in the girls (p < .05). Respective cross-sectional values were 0.53 ± 0.08 and 0.65 ± 0.03. VO2max expressed relative to M1.0, M0.75, and M0.67 rose during the 5 years in the boys, but not the girls. Significant gender differences remained when VO2max was related to lean body mass. These findings suggest (a) factors other than body size affect the development of VO2max in children, and (b) gender differences exist in VO2max during childhood which are independent of body composition.