bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Insolvency Issues
Authors: Ian Professor , Fletcher F
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with the effect of the insolvency of the debtor upon the rights of a secured creditor. In particular, it is concerned with the assessment of ‘bankruptcy risk’ which should be conducted at the inception of a security transaction. For the purposes of examining the issues which arise, the chapter takes as its premise a security transaction in respect of tangible movable property of high value which wilt in theordinary course of usage, move from one jurisdiction to another. An aircraft provides an excellent example of the sort of asset in question although there will be no attempt to examine the special features of aviation financing practice or the registration and regulatory considerations which arise in respect of security over aircraft. For present purposes, the important point is to identify the possibility of security being taken in one jurisdiction and the subject matter of the security being located in another jurisdiction when questions of enforcement arise. The assumed facts are that a bank is willing to advance credit to a borrower against security of a type in respect of which that possibility arises. It will also be assumed that both parties are corporate although it should be noted that the ability of individuals to assume a domicile of choice adds an additional layer of complication if, for example, the borrower is unincorporated. In this chapter the creditor is called ‘B’ and the debtor is called ‘D’.
The Regulation of Non-Territorial Restraints in Licensing Agreements
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

The categorization of non-territorial restraints, by the Commission and Court, has produced more of a consensus in respect of the basis for clearance. As we have seen, both have accepted the concept of the ‘scope of the intellectual property right’ and the doctrine of ancillary restraints in relation to the status of restrictions in licensing contracts under Article 85(1). However, while the scope of the patent doctrine can justify a wide range of non-territorial clauses, the early cases of Burroughs Geha1 and AOIP v. Beyrard2 indicated that certain types of non-territorial clauses could be found to be prohibited under Article 85(1) and incapable of exemption under Article 85(3). Moreover, in Windsurfing, the Court of Justice had the occasion to review the Commission’s approach to clauses which it found to be beyond the scope of the patent. The case concerned a licensing agreement between a US corporation Windsurfing International Inc. and its six German non exclusive licensees.
The Concept of Dominance and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

Once the relevant market has been defined, the next step under Article 86 is to determine whether in fact the accused undertaking is in a dominant position on that market.
Tie-ins and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

A tie-in is a commercial practice of bundling two or more products into an integrated product so that a buyer must buy other products in order to obtain the one it wants. It is defined in Article 86(d) as ‘making the conclusion of contracts subject to acceptance by the other parties of supplementary obligations which, by their nature or according to commercial usage, have no connection with the subject of such contracts’.1 In the Article 86 context it is abusive because it excludes competitors as well as limits the freedom of choice of customers. Insofar as it applies to exclusionary methods, the abuse has been defined quite widely. It overlaps conceptually with the abuse of refusing to supply and discrimination.
Predatory Pricing
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

Article 86 has been applied by the Commission with the approval of the Community Courts to cases of predatory pricing. The abuse consists of pricing below cost with an intention to eliminate competitors. Insofar as Article 86 is used to regulate predatory pricing because of its exclusionary effects, courts must be careful not to prevent firms from competing on the basis of performance. If firms have achieved a dominant position by virtue of efficiency and innovation, they must be allowed to pass on the benefits to consumers even if that damages competitors.
Conclusions
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

The role of Article 86 in the regulation of technological intellectual property rights (IPRs) presents particular difficulties to IPR owners because in the name of preserving effective competition, it places limits on the capacity of IPR owners to obtain a full appropriation of the reward for their invention. The policy argument has been that the EC competition rules go too far. By encroaching on the lawful prerogatives of IPR owners, they undermine the system of rewards built into IPR legislation and thereby threaten levels of investment and innovation in the European economy. Yet there are at least four distinct reasons why it is by no means clear that this is the case.
Cross-Border Company Relationships in Europe: Main Features
Authors: Rammeloo Stephan
Published: November 2023

It is beyond dispute now that corporations have replaced states as the most important makers of waves in the world’s economy. It is also firmly established that with the increasing globalisation of that economy corporations operate in many cases far beyond the borders of the country that presided over their birth.

A continuing process of economic globalization has provoked profound changes in the conduct of business and trade and the reactions of states to those changes. Today more than ever, market players realize that entering into business transactions with ‘foreigners’ involves more than a mere exchange of goods and services. A more dynamic attitude is called for, with either active participation in foreign undertakings, or even the total transfer of an enterprise from one country to another.
‘Incorporation’ Countries versus ‘Real Seat’ Countries
Authors: Rammeloo Stephan
Published: November 2023

The overall impression one gets after having read the preceding chapters is that a paradoxical situation exists: a rapidly developing Single Market on one hand, and authorities of national legal orders either tending to limit the liberal concept of the ‘incorporation’ theory, or even adamantly holding onto the ‘real seat’ (siège réel) theory on the other. Undoubtedly, contrasting perceptions at national level (i.e. the legal and economic policies of the individual EC member states) may be held responsible for that. However, in-depth attention will now be given to the law of six legal orders (one of them being a non-EU country), three of which adhere to the incorporation theory, the others being representatives of the real seat theory.
Provisional Conclusions
Authors: Rammeloo Stephan
Published: November 2023

Part I of this book ended by asking how it is possible to explain the paradoxical situation of a progressively developing Single Market, despite which authorities of EC member states adamantly either stick to the ‘real seat’ theory, or, even worse, take a step backwards by limiting the liberal concept of the ‘incorporation’ theory. In order to develop an answer, the law of six legal orders (all of which, except Switzerland, are EC member states) three adherents of the ‘incorporation’ theory, the others applying the ‘real seat’ theory, have been analysed. With an eye to the common interest of cross-border company mobility in Europe, the prevailing question is, of course, whether something can be learnt from the existing disparities between ‘incorporation’ and ‘real seat’ countries.
Final Conclusions
Authors: Rammeloo Stephan
Published: November 2023

So far, neither EC law nor private international law has shown itself capable of elaborating the versatile legal instruments needed to tackle the problem of inadequate cross-border company mobility.

Rather than simply trying to ascertain the closest geographical relationship, each of the competing private international law recognition theories reflects the major national economic policies of the legal orders on whose territories companies operate. These national policies either favour stimulating industrialization by attracting foreign investors, or stress the need to control these foreigners by obliging them to opt for a domestic company form. The former policy will lead to the acceptance of the ‘incorporation’ theory, whereas the latter policy is best safeguarded by the ‘real seat’ theory.
Graphs Within Graphs
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

We met with spanning trees of a graph in the first chapter and with spanning circuits in the second. We shall next be concerned with spanning subgraphs satisfying certain valency conditions.
Reconstruction
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

Archaeologists may try to assemble broken fragments of pottery to find the shape and pattern of an ancient vase. Chemists may infer the structure of an organic molecule from a knowledge of its decomposition products. Graph theorists try to model such problems of reconstruction in their own subject.
Planar Enumeration
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

From time to time in a graph-theoretical career one’s thoughts turn to the Four Colour Problem. It occurred to me once that it might be possible to get results of interest in the theory of map-colourings without actually solving the Problem. For example it might be possible to find the average number of 4-colourings, on vertices, for planar triangulations of a given size.
Studying the thinking society: social representations, rhetoric, and attitudes
Authors: Billig Michael
Published: November 2023

The notion of ‘social representation’ has been one of the most controversial concepts to have been formulated in social psychology in recent years. Large claims have been made for Serge Moscovici’s vision of a social psychology based around the study of social representations. According to one sup porter, this vision offers the chance of creating ‘a unified approach for a whole series of problems situated at the crossing point between psychology and the other social sciences’ (Jodelet 1984, p. 378). Inevitably, such an ambitious perspective has provoked strong criticism. There are those who claim that there is little novel about the concept of social representations (Eiser 1986; McGuire 1986) or that the novelty is spoilt by hopeless obscurity (McKinlay and Potter 1987; Potter and Litton 1985), or that the whole project is theoretically misconceived (Parker 1987).
Neurotrophic factors and development of ionic channels in primary sensory neurones of the ear
Authors: García-Diaz F , Jiménez C , Vázquez E , Represa, J , Giraldez F
Published: November 2023

Differentiation of a particular neuronal phenotype involves the expression of a mosaic of ionic channels that provides a given neurone with characteristic functional properties. Ionic channels constitute for this reason excellent molecular and functional markers of neuronal differentiation during embryonic development. Neurones also exhibit specific connections that for sensory neurones are established with peripheral targets, the transducing elements, and with central sensory nuclei. Differentiation of neuronal pools and the organization of their connectivity occur during embryonic development on specified territories and with a fixed temporal sequence.
Ion channels formed by amyloid βprotein (AβP[1-40]). Pharmacology and therapeutic implications for Alzheimer’s disease
Authors: Pollard H B , Arispe, N , Rojas E
Published: November 2023

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic dementia which is becoming increasingly prevalent as the population ages. It has been generally estimated that as many as one-third of those reaching 85 years of age will suffer from a dementia of some kind, and Alzheimer’s disease will affiict nearly half of these. Inasmuch as modem medicine has made it very likely that many humans now alive will live to see their one hundredth year, attention to the quality of those lives suggests that Alzheimer’s disease portends to become a very significant public health problem.
Drug effeds on mechano-gated channels
Authors: Hamill O P , Jr D W McBride
Published: November 2023

Mechano-gated (MG) membrane ion channels provide a means of transducing membrane deformation or stretch into an electrical or ionic signal. They are characterized by the ability to change their open probability (i.e. gating) in response to mechanical stimulation. Together with voltage- and receptor-gated channels they form the three major functional classes of gated membrane ion channels.
Comparison of native and recombinant NMDA receptor channels
Authors: Stern P , Colquhoun D
Published: November 2023

One of the most important problems in synaptic physiology is the identification of which receptor subtypes are responsible for mediating synaptic transmission. The advent of the methods of molecular genetics has revealed that all of the fast neurotransmitter-activated receptor channels that mediate synaptic transmission are made up of several subunits. These studies have also shown that there are many sorts of subunits.
The Primate Posterior Cingulate Gyrus: Connections, Sensorimotor Orientation, Gateway to Limbic Processing
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Laureys Steven
Published: November 2023

The primate posterior cingulate gyrus (PCG) has been implicated in visuospatial and long-term memory functions. Although rodents perform these functions with precision, they do not have areas 31 and 23, a cingulate sulcus, PCG, or a caudal cingulate motor area that are present in primates. Although neuronal activity in this region can be modulated during working memory tasks, spoken and read words, pictures, intentions to move, and changing the position of the eyes and head, the question remains as to its specific contributions to brain function in primates. For the entire history of neuroscience, the PCG has been part of the limbic system and in this context it is presumed to have a role in emotion. This view is compatible with functional modulation by emotionally valenced pictures and words. The possible linkage of the PCG with emotion may be more subtle than previously thought, however, and it may not be limited to valenced events and memories. If the PCG has a role in emotion, does this mean the PCG has projections to autonomic motor nuclei and regulates affect like anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)? Interestingly, the PCG has no such connections. Alternatively, autonomic regulation and aspects of emotion or reward and valenced information processing may be uncoupled such that posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) is engaged in an aspect of emotion processing rather than regulating simple emotional states, mood, and autonomic functions per se.
Shared Norepinephrinergic and Cingulate Circuits, Nociceptive and Allostatic Interactions, and Models of Functional Pain and Stress Disorders
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Aston-Jones Gary , Vogt Leslie J
Published: November 2023

The cingulate cortex and locus coeruleus (LC) are reciprocally connected and they share many common functions including mediating aspects of fight-or-flight responses. Indeed, one of the primary functions of the LC is to coordinate these responses via projections throughout the limbic/emotional motor systems including those to cingulate cortex. Although the fight- or-flight responses are often referred to as acute ‘stress’ responses, ‘stress’ is generally associated with negative physiological outcomes and McEwen and Lasley (2002) suggest the term ‘allostasis’ for normal autonomic responses during fight-or-flight behaviors, while pathological changes are associated with chronic stress or ‘allostatic load.’A number of observations support the role of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in allostasis and chronic stress. The Stroop interference task has been used to generate allostasis by Gianaros et al. (2005) and they showed a correlation between mean arterial blood pressure and functional activity mainly in pregenual ACC. Lesions of ACC block gastric ulcers caused by restraint stress in rats (Henke, 1983). Intermittent footshock and restraint stress enhance cFos expression in pACC area 32 (Sawchenko et al., 2000; Rosene et al., 2004). Finally, maternal withdrawal in monkeys generates changes in metabolism in cingulate cortex and metabolism in part of area 32 is negatively correlated with cortisol levels (Rilling et al., 2001).
Course and Pattern of Cingulate Pathology in Schizophrenia
Authors: Benes Francine M , Cunningham Miles G , Berretta Sabina , Gisabella Barbara
Published: November 2023

Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder that has attracted the greatest interest by neuroscience. As early as 1919, Emil Kraepelin provided the first systematic descriptions of its symptoms and, in so doing, concluded that schizophrenia probably involves an organic process in the brain. A serious impediment to neuropathological studies of schizophrenic and bipolar disorder that historically has discouraged many investigators from studying this disorder has been the lack of hallmark histopathological features that could serve as a focus of investigation. Patients with schizophrenia characteristically demonstrate a slower deterioration during the first 10 years of illness, but then go on to live a full life with stable deficits. The mechanisms that give rise to schizophrenia likely involve alterations of normal brain circuitry that progress initially and later persist as a stable entity for an indefinite period of time, whereas those for bipolar disorder may show progression later. Taken together with the lack of any obvious brain changes, these clinical observations imply that these disorders may involve rather subtle abnormalities in neural circuitry. As discussed below, the diverse symptoms of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder make it unlikely that only one brain region is involved in the pathophysiology of this disorder. This issue is explored in detail in the discussion that follows by examining various functions that are abnormal in this disorder.
Cingulate Subregional Neuropathology in Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinson’s Disease with Dementia
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Vogt Leslie J , Purohit Dushyant P , Hof Patrick R
Published: November 2023

The Lewy body (LB) is one of the most common markers of cingulate neuropathology; exceeded only by amyloid-β peptides. Disorders in which LBs are encountered in the cingulate gyrus include Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease with dementia (PDD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and aging (Saito et al., 2003). Cases with LBs form 15–25% of all cases of dementia which is second only to that of pure AD (McKeith et al., 1996); however, as LBs are observed in more than half of definite AD cases, they are common in AD (Ditter & Mirra, 1987). The comorbid expression of DLB and AD is still a matter of debate because key markers of both diseases are so frequently observed in the same cases (Perl et al., 1998). Moreover, in addition to ‘pure’ forms of each of these progressive dementing diseases, their conjunction throughout the cingulate gyrus generates a complex neuropathological context in which to consider symptom etiology that still has not been resolved.The Consensus Guidelines for DLB identified progressive mental impairment leading to dementia as the central feature of DLB (McKeith et al., 1996). They also concluded that attentional impairments, visual hallucinations, and spontaneous motor features of Parkinsonism are essential diagnostic features for discriminating DLB from AD and other dementias. Although visual hallucinations may result from alterations in occipital lobe functions and progressive mental impairment results from general cortical damage, some of these symptoms do not result from primary cortical damage and little is known of how impairment of specific cingulate functions contribute to the early and progressive symptoms of DLB. A new generation of functional imaging research provides a more precise framework in which to evaluate structure/function correlates in progressive dementing disorders.
Localizing Cingulate Subregions-of-Interest in Magnetic Resonance Images Guided by Cytological Parcellations
Authors: O’Neill Joseph , Sobel Thomas L , Vogt Brent A
Published: November 2023

Understanding of the cytoarchitectural and functional subdivisions of cingulate cortex has greatly advanced in recent decades. Yet, use of the original Brodmann areas (BAs) delineated in his 1909 classic remains entrenched in human neuroimaging research. The same is true for his dichotomy of cingulate cortex into anterior and posterior divisions and this is mainly attributable to Talairach and Tournoux (1988). Their celebrated stereotaxic atlas of the human brain provides the Brodmann nomenclature most used to identify activity or structures in a standard space without reference to particular cytoarchitectures. What many investigators using this atlas do not realize is that, among other flaws, the single case in their atlas was never itself histologically analyzed. As no single imaging study has ever activated the entire BA24, the current trend is to apply numerous designations to cingulate regions and subregions, without specific justification, as the findings fail to corroborate Brodmann’s original conceptualizations. This is particularly true of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) as discussed in Chapter 1. Without specific justification from cytology and connections, recent studies have applied numerous designations to the anterior cortex such as rostral/caudal, dorsal/ventral, or superior/inferior. We still do not know the limits of any of these imaging designations because they refer to activation sites rather than to cytoarchitectural entities.
Human Growth In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Heywood Peter F , Norgan Nicholas G
Published: November 2023

Physical growth, the process of accretion of tissue mass, size, and length before maturity, is, like many human characteristics, the end result of interaction between environment and genes. Because growth can be measured accurately and with relative ease, it has been studied in a human biological context to describe variability and adaptation and the factors involved. More importantly, the measurement of growth is a powerful tool in assessment of differences in health, particularly nutritional health, between groups and populations.
Acute Respiratory Infections
Authors: Riley Ian D , Lehmann Deborah , Alpers Michael P
Published: November 2023

Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are the commonest causes of morbidity that people experience. One episode is distinguished from the next by its severity and by the location of inflammation within the respiratory tract. In general terms the two are related, because the deeper the infection within the tract, the more severe the episode. Pneumonia, the most severe of respiratory syndromes, results from inflammation of lung substance. The terms ‘pneumonia’ and ‘life-threatening respiratory infection’ have been used interchangeably by many authors. Other named syndromes are caused by inflammation of the airways at various levels.
Kuru
Authors: Alpers Michael P
Published: November 2023

The human biological aspects of the fatal neurological disease kuru have been expounded in some detail in the past (Gajdusek 1977; Alpers 1979, 1987, 1988). I am reluctant to go over the same ground since these previous discussions are still valid. However, it would be highly improper to discuss the human biology of Papua New Guinea without including some account of kuru since the puzzle of this disease was solved by adopting an interdisciplinary human biological approach (see Alpers and Attenborough, Chapter 1). Such a striking illustration of the value of human biology should not fail to be given its due emphasis in the context of the Small Cosmos.
Iodine-Deficiency Disorders In Papua New Guinea
Authors: Heywood Peter F
Published: November 2023

The element iodine is sparsely distributed over the surface of the earth. Iodine from the sea, the main store of the element, is continually redistributed to land by precipitation.
Spherical and Cylindrical Shock-Tube Analogues and Flow Simulation
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

When a sphere containing a gas at higher pressure than the surrounding air is instantly disintegrated, a spherical flow is generated. At small times the resulting wave system is analogous to that produced in a shock tube. A shock wave of rapidly decaying strength races into the surrounding atmosphere, while a rarefaction wave propagates at the local sound speed into the high-pressure gas. A contact surface separating the expanded gas from the compressed gas follows the spherical shock wave at a decelerating speed. Unlike the shock-tube case the flow regions separated by the contact surface are nonuniform. At later times (after the head of the rarefaction wave reaches the centre) the flow becomes quite complex.
Implosion Waves and Applications
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

The Institute for Aerospace Studies hemispherical implosion chamber [1] is a unique device for producing explosively driven implosions which are stable and well focused at the geometric centre and which provide a small region of extremely high pressures and temperatures. It has been used as a driver for launching hypervelocity projectiles [2] and as a generator of strong shock waves [3]. The implosion chamber consists essentially of two massive mating steel plates (Fig. 12.1). The rear plate contains a 20 cm diameter hemispherical cavity. Into it is fitted an explosive package consisting of a copper liner to which is bonded a shell of superfine pentaerythrital tetranitrate (PETN) secondary explosive about 3–6 mm thick, weighing up to 200 g, and releasing a total energy of 1.2 MJ.
Shock-Tube Construction and Instrumentation
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

The shock tube is a unique facility for creating a homogeneous, high-enthalpy, and high-pressure gas, whose parameters can be calculated from the state of the undisturbed gas and the measured shock velocity. The conventional shock tube consisting of one driver and one driven channel is an excellent tool for studying high-temperature gas dynamics and physics. It is one of the most versatile and economical test facilities for universities, government, and commercial institutions alike.
Driving Control with Motion Sensors
Authors: Boldea I
Published: November 2023

Electric drive control is related to closed loop torque, speed, or position control. The torque loop is imperative if direct torque control is required; otherwise an internal current control loop is used instead, in order to speed-up the response when speed or position control is required.
Permanent Magnets
Authors: Basak Amitava
Published: November 2023

In the last few decades, as the energy density of permanent magnets has improved, there has been a large increase in the use of permanent-magnet materials in many nontraditional devices and also in energy-conversion systems such as motors and generators. This chapter contains a historical survey of permanent magnets, and the properties and future uses of the presently available magnets are discussed.
Design and Analysis
Authors: Basak Amitava
Published: November 2023

An engineer designs a motor according to the specifications provided by the customers. For linear motors, the main specifications are the sensitivity of the motor (thrust coefficient), the output force, the output power, the efficiency, the velocity-versus-time characteristic, and the power-to-weight ratio. When determining the power-to-weight ratio, it is normal practice to take into account the weight of the whole moving unit, and also the weight of the part of the stationary unit which is enclosed by the moving unit.
Electromagnetism and basic optics
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we revise electromagnetism and a rather minimal amount of optics. Although the material is all elementary, we wish to set up a notation and to have a number of statements on record so that they can be referred to throughout the remainder of the book. The Maxwell equations relate the electric field E and the magnetic field1  B to the density of charge ρ and the density of current J.
Fourier series and Fourier transforms
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

A familiarity with Fourier mathematics will be needed on several occasions throughout this book. We take the opportunity in this chapter to set out those mathematical properties that will be needed later. It is assumed that the reader has encountered both Fourier series and Fourier transforms before, but may not be entirely confident with transforms, and may not have a fully developed insight into the meaning of it all. The present chapter therefore introduces afresh the Fourier transform, using the Fourier series as a jumping-off point.
The Fabry–Perot
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines a particular case of multiple-beam interference: where light is bounced repeatedly between two highly reflecting mirrors. It is assumed that the reader has already encountered interference ‘by division of amplitude’ in its two-beam case, as happens when light is reflected from opposite faces of a slab or traces the two paths through a Michelson interferometer. It is further assumed that the following are familiar: The optical path difference is n 2d cos θ when a light beam divides at the surfaces (separation d) of a slab of refractive index n, and travels inside the slab at angle θ to the normal.
Optical cavities
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

An optical cavity is an essential component in almost every laser. A pair of mirrors, such as is shown in Fig. 8.1, can enclose a steady distribution of electromagnetic field: an eigenfunction of Maxwell’s equations in the presence of this boundary. The mirrors are said to form a ‘cavity’, a name taken from microwave practice, where a closed metal box acts as a cavity resonator—the high-frequency equivalent of a tuned circuit. A Fabry–Perot is in principle a cavity resonator, but other shapes are usually better for lasers. In a laser, a cavity mode (eigenfunction) is maintained in oscillation, and is the source of the output beam.
Holography
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Holography is perhaps the most dramatic application of diffraction physics. Although it was invented and demonstrated by Gabor well before the invention of the laser, it is the opportunity to use lasers for recording and (usually) replay that has made most of the applications possible. Figure 13.1 shows in outline the processes that are carried out in making a hologram and in replaying it. We illuminate some object with a broad beam of light from a laser.
Optical fibres
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

The main application of optical fibres (now) is in optical communication. Telephone traffic between exchanges is almost all carried by optical fibre, and in many towns and cities a fibre passes every house entrance.When a signal is to be conveyed, it must be encoded in some way (modulated) onto light or some other wave. There is a range of frequencies, the bandwidth Δν, that is required for transmission of the signal; and that bandwidth is proportional to the rate at which information is to be transmitted. Conversely, the rate at which information may be carried along an optical fibre is determined by the range of frequencies that it is practical to transmit along the fibre, given the properties of the fibre and of the associated light sources and detectors.
Polarization
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss a few selected topics only. Polarization of light, including linear, circular and elliptical polarization, is usually described in elementary courses on optics, and the descriptions need not be given again here. It is assumed that the reader has also encountered double refraction, at least in uniaxial crystals, and seen it accounted for with Huygens wave surfaces. We, therefore, concentrate on describing the relative-permittivity tensor εij, and seeing how it links to the elementary descriptions of double refraction.
Two modern optical devices
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we take the opportunity to give brief descriptions of two optical devices that seem to be under-represented in textbooks in relation to their importance. The CD player is familiar as a household item and as the CD-ROM reader in a computer. Such everyday equipment ought not to remain mysterious. The confocal microscope is a laboratory instrument, but one that has become the instrument of choice for a wide variety of tasks. Each of the two systems represents a sophisticated application of the principles described in earlier chapters.
What is Time?
Authors: Whitrow G J
Published: November 2023

G. J. Whitrow (1912-2000) begins this classic exploration of the nature of time with a story about a Russian poet, visiting London before the First World War. The poet's English was not too good and when he asked a man in the street, 'Please, what is time?' he received the response, 'But that's a philosophical question. Why ask me?'. Starting from this simple anecdote, Professor Whitrow takes us on a good-humoured and wide-ranging tour of the thing that clocks keep (more or less). He discusses how our ideas of time originated; how far they are inborn in plants and animals; how time has been measured, from sundial and hourglass to the caesium clock, and whether time possesses a beginning, a direction, and an end. He coaxes the diffident layman to contemplate with pleasure the differences between cyclic, linear, biological, cosmic, and space-time, and he provides frequent diversions into fascinating topics such as the Mayan calendar, the migration of birds, the dances of bees, precognition, and the short, crowded lives of mu-mesons, particles produced by cosmic-ray showers that exist for just two millionths of a second. This reissue of the classic and authoritative What is Time? includes a new introduction by Dr J. T. Fraser, founder of the International Society for the Study of Time, and a bibliographic essay by Dr Fraser and Professor M. P. Soulsby of the Pennsylvania State University.
The origin of our idea of time
Authors: Whitrow G J
Published: November 2023

The story is told of the Russian poet Samuel Marshak that when he was ﬁrst in London, before 1914, and did not know English well he went up to a man in the street and asked, ‘Please, what is time?’ The man looked very surprised and replied, ‘But that’s a philosophical question. Why ask me?’ Many centuries ago a famous Church Father was troubled by the same question and confessed that if no one asked him he knew, but if he tried to explain it to someone then he had to admit that he did not know. Although there are many important ideas that most of us agree we do not understand, only time has this peculiar quality which makes us feel intuitively that we understand it perfectly so long as we are not asked to explain what we mean by it.
Time and ourselves
Authors: Whitrow G J
Published: November 2023

The increasing importance attached to the idea of time following the scientiﬁc revolution of the seventeenth century led philosophers to investigate the nature of the concept and its role in our personal awareness of phenomena. A central figure in the study of these questions was the philosopher Immanuel Kant, who came to the conclusion that time is one of the forms of our ‘intuition’. That is to say, it does not characterize external objects but only the subjective mind that is conscious of them. Consequently, Kant believed that the idea of scientific linear time was an automatic consequence of the fact that we are rational creatures.
Time and relativity
Authors: Whitrow G J
Published: November 2023

The invention of mechanical clocks which could, if properly regulated, tick away continually for years on end greatly inﬂuenced belief in the uniformity and continuity of time. These characteristics were implicit in the idea of physical time adopted by Galileo in the dynamical part of his famous Discourses on Two New Sciences, published in 1638. Although he was not the ﬁrst to represent time by a geometrical straight line, he became the most inﬂuential pioneer of this idea through his theory of motion expounded in this book.
The origin and arrow of time
Authors: Whitrow G J
Published: November 2023

The idea that any event has an intrinsic date leads us to ask how events in the universe can be dated. This is a technical question which has already been considered to some extent in Chapter 4, although the problem of a suitable choice of time zero was not considered. John Locke, in a passage quoted previously, said that ‘duration is but as it were, the length of one straight line extended in inﬁnitum’. A linear view of time does not, however, commit us necessarily to the conclusion that time is inﬁnite.
The signiﬁcance of time
Authors: Whitrow G J
Published: November 2023

The concept of time has never ceased to intrigue and puzzle those who think about it. We feel that, whatever happens, time must go on unceasingly and yet, when we come to analyse it, we ﬁnd good reasons for rejecting the idea that time exists in its own right. We regard time as the order in which events happen. Consequently, if there were no succession of events, there could be no time. ‘What did God do before He made Heaven and Earth?’ asked St Augustine, He rejected the facetious answer that God was preparing hell for those who pry into mysteries! St Augustine’s answer was that before God made heaven and earth he did not make anything. Time was made along with the heaven and the earth.
Religion and the Church
Authors: Peterson David S
Published: November 2023

The Renaissance was long relegated to a spiritual ghetto between the Middle Ages and the Reformation. It provided a denouement of waning devotion to a stained-glass vision of the medieval ‘age of faith’ and the backdrop of ecclesiastical corruption against which Protestant and Tridentine reforms were enacted. The revival of classical studies invited the charge that the Renaissance was essentially pagan or, at best, moving toward modern secularism. Jacob Burckhardt celebrated the dissolution of a medieval veil of ‘faith, illusion, and childish prepossession’ that freed its noblest spirits to approach the world objectively and to cultivate their subjective individuality; but he excoriated the ‘decaying Church’ for driving most Italians to unbelief, superstition, and paganism, by which the Swiss Protestant meant not classical culture but priestly sacraments and the veneration of saints and relics1 Catholic historians like Ludwig Pastor sifted artists and humanists of the ‘pagan Renaissance’ from those who served the ‘true Renaissance’ of the popes. Many preferred to locate the period’s vital forces elsewhere entirely (in civic life, statecraft, classical studies, or science) rather than in a Church awaiting reform or lay religious sentiments apparently in decline.
Bodies, disease, and society
Authors: Hughes Diane Owen
Published: November 2023

The body served as a powerful metaphor for society, one that defies a search for social margins. The concept of social marginality is based upon a textual image: a printed page surrounded by a margin, the contents of which are strictly subordinated to the text itself. It is the kind of page invented by humanists, who in purifying ancient texts also disciplined the page by eliminating or reducing the extensive marginalia that often threatened to invade the texts of medieval manuscripts. But the redrawn boundaries of the humanist text page did not provide a social model. In the Renaissance, it was the body rather than the text that gave shape to society: the well-run republic, claimed the Florentine humanist Matteo Palmieri, was like ‘a healthy, powerful, and well disposed body’. At a more cosmic level, the human body was recognized as a source for understanding God’s creation of which it was deemed a microcosm. Each body was thus a reductive representation of a universe that could be read through its signs. This concept, ancient in origin and well developed in the Middle Ages, attained new mathematical precision through the study of Vitruvius’s treatise on architecture, which presented the proportional symmetry of the human body as a model for architectural, and by extension social, design. On the theory that each member had an exact mathematical correspondence with the whole, Renaissance man could indeed be a measure of a Christian cosmos perfectly designed by God.
Introduction
Authors: Rocca Cristina La
Published: November 2023

An introduction to this volume on Italy in the early medieval period has to start by explaining how historical approaches to this period have changed in recent years. This is not a question of discussing more general shifts in historical interpretation or the influence of different historiographical schools, but rather of positioning the essays that make up the volume in their specific historiographical context, since each of the topics addressed in this book has been deeply influenced by new research, by the new methods that have been adopted, and by the conclusions that have been drawn from them.
Epigraphs
Authors: Rubeis Flavia De
Published: November 2023

The principal feature of the written culture of the Roman world was its uniform character, but it left a complex and sometimes fragmented cultural heritage for Italy of the fifth and sixth centuries. Areas of continuity alternated with others in which the tradition of epigraphic writing became deeply differentiated in both form and content. This process of fragmentation would not be reversed until the eleventh century, implying that the Lombard period was the fundamental moment in the transition from the old to the new epigraphic tradition in Italy.
Buddhism and the Sangha
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

What is so striking about Judaism and Islam is their undaunted optimism about human society in the face of almost overwhelming contrary evidence. Human societies throughout history are filled with violence, conflict, destruction, and debauchery, but Jews and Muslims on the whole continue to believe that a society of justice and peace is possible, even that they will be instrumental in bringing it about, and that with a little effort all people could obey the laws of God.

Buddhism has no such optimistic hopes. For most Buddhists, the whole structure of human society is doomed to failure, to endless suffering and frustrated desire. Buddhists do not seek to bring the world under the rule of the laws of God. There is no Creator God, and if there were, a God who could create such a world of suffering as this would not be entitled to obedience as an ultimate moral authority. Social laws are human constructs, and they can do no more than mitigate to some extent the conflicts engendered by that greed, hatred, and ignorance which are the universal marks of human nature.
Orthodox and Catholic Traditions
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

In writing of the Christian community, the church, I have characterized it as a community of diverse and developing reflection on a basic discernment of the nature and purpose of God as revealed in the events surrounding the life of Jesus. It is called by God to be a servant community of love, healing, reconciling, forgiving, and proclaiming a life in the Spirit of joy, compassion, and renewal. It is called to foreshadow the universal community of love which God wills for the world, when egoism and suffering will be ended, and when all who do not explicitly refuse will find true fulfillment and be united in the knowledge and love of God.

This view is not context-free. It arises within a particular historical tradition of thought and prayer, and in its statement one can trace the archeology of its leading ideas, the historical situations which generated the insights which make up its component pans.
The Post-Enlightenment Tradition
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

The Protestant Reformation radically challenged the authority of the church, and focused attention on the text of the Bible, now widely available after the invention of the printing press. It questioned the division between clergy and laity, and insisted that the clarification of the biblical basis of faith was in principle open to all, and was not to be laid down by church authority. Protestant Christianity nevertheless tended to be extremely authoritarian, not permitting deviations from biblical truth. It quickly became both dogmatic and sectarian, each sect formulating its own rather restrictive confession of faith, insisting on its own interpretation of the Bible, and condemning most of the others. This, however, contributed further to the undermining of authority, since it became clear that even the most devout and scholarly people could not agree on what the Bible said.
The Constitution of the European Union
Authors: Barendt Eric
Published: November 2023

THE European Union, and the rules of Community law, now exercise an enormous influence on the United Kingdom, including its constitutional law. We will see in the next chapter that the House of Lords has ruled that parliamentary legislation should not be applied when it conflicts with a rule of Community law. In effect, it has modified the principle of parliamentary legislative supremacy which the courts had consistently upheld for the last 300 years. A constitutional question more frequently asked now, particularly in the context of possible membership of Economic and Monetary Union, is whether the European Union is developing into a confederation or perhaps a full federation.
Criminal Justice
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

Following in the tradition of the Clarendon Law Series, Criminal Justice is an extended essay on the core concepts, structures, and processes of the criminal justice system. The book prefers theoretical reflection above detailed description and favours provocative questions over simple answers. Its primary aim is to stimulate students of criminal justice to think critically about what they have learned. Criminal Justice challenges conventional understanding of crime, criminal justice and punishment by revealing their meanings to be open to multiple interpretations. It explores the historical contingency and cultural specificity of the institutions and practices of criminal justice. And it considers the many, often conflicting, roles fulfilled by the various players in the criminal process. In so doing, it reveals criminal justice to be more diverse and its purposes more contested than conventional accounts allow. The book concludes by examining radical changes in crime control and the pursuit of security and considering their import for criminal justice as we know it.
Criminal Justice
Authors: Zedner Lucia
Published: November 2023

Our familiarity with criminal justice is both a benefit and a blight. It is not necessary to have stepped inside a police station, courtroom, or prison to have the sense that you already know the central institutions of criminal justice. The news media are generous in their coverage of the workings of the criminal justice system. They report individual cases, political debates, and policy developments at length. And to this factual reporting, novels, dramas, and films add a fictional dimension replete with colour, if no little poetic licence. The familiarity fed by this daily diet of criminal justice stories (fact and fictional) has certain advantages. We share a basic perception of what the police do, what a courtroom looks like, and what happens inside the prison walls. But familiarity has its dangers also. We may be less inclined to question the very existence of the criminal justice system and the power it wields over us.