bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Message of the Prophets
Authors: Sawyer John F A
Published: November 2023

In view of the bewildering variety of material attributed to the prophets, it may seem misguided to attempt any comprehensive or systematic survey of their teaching. Yet it is not hard to identify common themes, particularly when we take into account the final shaping of the prophetic corpus. As we saw, the original words of the prophets, from different times and places in the ancient Near East, have been built up into the literary structures now before us, so that, as well as tracing the development of an idea from, let us say, eighth-century BC Samaria down to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, it is also possible, and indeed desirable, to discuss the ‘Prophets’ as a whole. They are both a culmination of centuries of social and theological debate, and a part of the heritage from which Jewish and Christian communities have drawn their inspiration ever since. In the four short sections that follow we shall examine what seems to constitute the distinctive teaching attributable to this unique religious phenomenon. Where origins can be traced, these will be discussed, but our chief aim is to present each idea in its most developed form—the adult rather than the embryo.
The Apologetic Tradition
Authors: O’Daly Gerard
Published: November 2023

The City of God is arguably the culmination of the Latin Christian apologetic tradition in antiquity, and Augustine’s work concludes a series of writings that begins in the late second and early third centuries with Tertullian and Minucius Felix.2 Augustine’s apologetic addresses other questions and problems than Tertullian’s. The post Constantinian Christianization of the Roman empire had altered the context of apologetic. Rome had a new public religion, and the question of its efficacy in protecting Rome called for new arguments.
Final Destinations: Books 19-22
Authors: O’Daly Gerard
Published: November 2023

With the general aim of discussing the ‘ends’ (‘fines’) of the two cities, these books deal with four discrete but related topics. Book 19 is, in part at least, a critique of the teleological views of ancient philosophy and the provision of a Christian teleology. Book 20 deals with the last judgment and the final separation of the two cities. In Books 21 and 22 two consequences of God’s final judgment are discussed, the punishment of the damned (21), and the eternal bliss of the saved humans, whose predestined salvation will fill the places of the fallen angels in the heavenly city (22). There is, inevitably, some thematic overlap between the books.
Old Life and New
Authors: Ziesler J A
Published: November 2023

If for Paul Christ represents the shift of the ages and makes a new beginning for the human race, how does he see the two alternative possibilities of life, and how do people move from one to the other?

According to Rom. 1: 16 the gospel is ‘the power of salvation to everyone who has faith’. If we ask what salvation is, the answer is not always clear nor always the same, but is generally to do with life and freedom: life, because the goal is life under God now and in the future; freedom, because powers which oppress and harm humanity are now overcome. People can live with and for God, free from the penalties which follow life in opposition to him (e.g. l Thess. 5: 8-10; Rom. 5: 9). Most of the instances of ‘save’ words, however, have no specific reference, but as hopes for salvation were common enough at the time, Paul probably had no need to spell out what he meant.
Pauline Christianity in the New Testament and Beyond
Authors: Ziesler J A
Published: November 2023

Paul was no isolated figure, but the centre of a way of understanding Christianity that was widespread and influential, at least for a time. We turn now to writings, whether or not by Paul himself (and all that we discuss are either definitely not by him, or frequently thought not to be by him), which represent a second wave of Paulinism. We begin, however, with a letter which if it is genuine, is early.
Conclusion
Authors: Ziesler J A
Published: November 2023

Paul’s version of Christianity faced opposition in the early church, and has done so sporadically ever since. There have always been those who see him as corrupting the simple message of Jesus and complicating it, by turning it into a religion of redemption or by subverting its Jewishness. We must now, therefore, look briefly at the relation of Paul’s gospel to the teaching of Jesus and to some other early versions of Christianity. For an account of the Variety and Unity in New Testament Thought readers should consult the volume in this series with that title and for the question of how Pauline Christianity can be interpreted in modern times, the volume on Biblical Interpretation. Pauline theology certainly has a different look and feel from the accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels, both in overall impression and in detail. This is partly because letters tackling pastoral, theological, and ethical problems are bound to be more complex than works composed mostly of narrative and pithy sayings. The genre is different, but there is more to it than that. It would be as foolish to argue for no development from Jesus of Nazareth to Paul as to suppose that Paul betrays the simple gospel of Jesus.
Introduction: A New Conception of Arabic Literature
Authors: Badawi M M
Published: November 2023

Modern Arabic literature is the literature, written in Arabic, of the modern Arab world and this is generally assumed to begin with the French campaign in Egypt in 1798. The date is significant, for it marks the dramatic opening of the Arab world, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire, to the West, ultimately with momentous consequences in its political, economic, social, and cultural development. Out of the fruitful meeting of the indigenous Arabic literary tradition and the cultural forces of the West modern Arabic literature was born. It was a slow and gradual process, hedged round with doubts and uncertainties, and characterized by as much conservative opposition and reluctance as pioneering enthusiasm and radical fervour. For various reasons it began to make itself felt in Egypt and Syria (which then included Lebanon) from which it spread slowly to the rest of the Arab world.
The Modernists
Authors: Badawi M M
Published: November 2023

The modernity of Romantic Arabic poetry was not regarded as sufficient by the generation that emerged after the Second World War. There were several reasons for this apart from the obvious one relating to the generation gap. By the 1940s Arab Romanticism had developed its own conventional vocabulary, imagery, motifs, and attitudes, and had acquired its own poetic diction, which was regarded as no less of an obstacle to genuine self-expression than the poetic diction of neo-classicism. Romanticism was thought too vague, too escapist and too full of beauty and daydreams, too sugary and sentimental to express the social and political reality of the Arab world, which was growing increasingly harsh during and immediately after the Second World War. Whatever the truth of these accusations, not surprisingly the centre of interest of Romantic Arabic poetry was, on the whole, the individual rather than society, and its vision of society tended to be expressed in some-what idealized terms, in a language more suited to the communication of subtle subjective feelings and moods rather than conveying the shock and immediacy of external reality.
Najīb Mahfūz (Naguib Mahfouz) and Other Egyptians
Authors: Badawi M M
Published: November 2023

The Second World War proved to be as important a landmark in the history of Arabic literature in general as it was a turning point in much of the social and political life of the Middle East. It signalled the waning of Romanticism in poetry and prose alike (see Chapter 2). For various reasons it was during the war that young Egyptian intellectuals became increasingly interested in Marxist philosophy and writers became more keenly aware of their social and political message. This was a reflection of their realization of the pressing need for political action, which came as a result of their disillusionment with political parties, their horror at the corruption at court and in public life, at the abysmal poverty of the masses due to the inflation created by the war, the profiteering which widened the gap between the rich and the poor, and the alarming growth of the lumpenproletariat as a result of the migration of the destitute from the countryside in desperate search of a livelihood in Cairo and Alexandria. Some turned to communism or socialism for a possible solution, while others found the answer in the teachings of the Muslim Brotherhood, both parties using the novel, amongst other genres, as a means of expressing their social and political commitment.
Episodes 1n Poetry l: Poems from the War of Zāri’ al-Huzayyil (1875-1887)
Authors: Bailey Clinton
Published: November 2023

On joining the Tiyahā again, these villagers—known collectively as the Gaysiyya, descendants of Gays, the patronymic ancestor of the northern Arabian tribesmen who had settled in this area during the early years of Islam—dispatched their own poem of warning to the enemy in the apparent hope of intimidating them.
Episodes 1n Poetry II: Poems Sent from and to the Sinai Smuggler-Poet ‘Anēzabu Salim during a Prison Term (1962-1970)
Authors: Bailey Clinton
Published: November 2023

By the end of the nineteenth century intertribal wars in Sinai and the Negev had become a thing of the past, and even camel-raids between groups had ceased by 1925 as a result of effective governmental control in those areas
Butler on Self-Love and Benevolence
Authors: Frey R G
Published: November 2023

I do not accept what I shall below refer to as the usual interpretation of Butler on human nature. The moral psychology that l find in Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel (1726) and the later Preface (1729) to that work leans more in the direction of Hobbes than previous commentators on the whole have allowed, a matter I have discussed in my Past Master Joseph Butler, but which I hope to deal with at length in Virtue and Interest, a work on the moral psychology/philosophy of Shaftes-bury, Butler, and Hume that I have under way.
Butler on God and Human Nature
Authors: Millar Alan
Published: November 2023

The whole of Butler’s Fifteen Sermons is ’an attempt of shewing men to themselves, of shewing them what course of life and behaviour their real nature points out and would lead them to’ (S. 2. 1). In carrying through this project Butler seeks to clarify and defend the claim that virtue consists in following our nature and vice in deviating from it (SP 13). The enterprise raises a number of questions. Obviously, there is the problem of how to interpret this claim. How must we conceive of our nature if we are to make sense of either following or deviating from it? In what sense is the life of virtue natural and the life of vice unnatural? And assuming that these notions are intelligible how far are they plausible? Other questions arise from the fact that the Fifteen Sermons are the work of a moralist with the very definite aim of encouraging people to the practice of virtue. It is not clear how a review of our nature of the sort envisaged is supposed to achieve this. It is on this matter that Butler may be thought to be morally suspect.
Butler and Immortality
Authors: Roberts T A
Published: November 2023

In order to execute his strategy in the Analogy, Butler has to establish an analogy between the ’known course of nature’ and Christian claims concerning the nature and character of a ’future life’. This strategy would obviously come unstuck if it could be shown that the Christian claim concerning a future life is to be rejected simply because it is false to believe there exists life after death. Not unnaturally, Butler devotes the first chapter of the Analogy to establishing the reasonableness of the belief that each person continues to enjoy life after death. The truth, or the high probability of the truth, of this claim is crucial to his whole enterprise.
Gregory of Nyssa’s Treatise on the Inscriptions of the Psalms
Authors: Heine Ronald E
Published: November 2023

Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-395) made important contributions to both theological thought and the understanding of the spiritual life. He was especially significant in adapting the thought of Origen to fourth century orthodoxy. The early treatise on the inscriptions of the Psalms shows the early stages of the development of Gregory's thought. This book presents the first translation of the treatise in a modern language. The annotations show Gregory's indebtedness to the thought of classical antiquity as well as to the Bible. The Introduction sets forth the structure of Gregory's treatise, and places it in the context of earlier Christian commentaries on the Psalms. It shows how his hermeneutical approach was influenced by both Iamblichus the Neo-Platonist and Origen. Finally, Dr Heine compares Gregory's understanding of the stages of the spiritual life in the treatise with that in his later and more widely known writings on the life of Moses and the Song of Songs.
The Occasion and Date of the Treatise
Authors: Heine Ronald E
Published: November 2023

The precise chronology of most of the works of Gregory of Nyssa is very tenuous. The treatises usually lack references to external events which could give indications of the date of their composition. J. Danielou has presented the most extensive argument for dating the treatise on the psalms, which he places among Gregory’s earlier works produced before the death of Basil. The De virginitate can, rather confidently, be placed in 371. From this starting point, Danielou associates the De mortuis with the period of the De virginitate on the basis of certain shared viewpoints.
Gregory’s Exegetical Method in the Treatise and the Influence of the Hermeneutics of Origen and Iamblichus
Authors: Heine Ronald E
Published: November 2023

In a second article Rondeau returns to Gregory's exegetical method in the treatise and attempts to locate it in terms of his cultural context, both profane and Christian. She isolates three presuppositions behind Gregory's work: (1) that there is a single aim in the Psalter; (2) that the material sequence of its parts constitutes a meaningful sequence; and (3) that the initial psalm of each of the five sections determines the sense of the whole section. She connects the first presupposition with the approach taken to Plato by Iamblichus and his followers, about which I shall have more to say later.
Part II
Authors: Heine Ronald E
Published: November 2023

Since, then, we have elucidated these matters in this way, it would be appropriate now also to examine closely the subject matter’ concerning the inscriptions. For these too make a significant contribution to us in respect to the way of virtue, as can be learned from the meaning itself of the words which have been inscribed. But it would be necessary first briefly to submit a systematic approach to the inscriptions before our investigation of the psalms, so that it might become especially clear to us through these inscriptions too that the entire aim3 of this inspired teaching is to lead the understanding up to that which is truly blessed.
Peter Martyr Vermigli and Predestination
Authors: James Frank A
Published: November 2023

This study is in its broadest sense an inquiry into the intellectual origins of the Reformed branch of Protestantism generally, but inaccurately, designated Calvinism. More specifically, it concerns one of the early theologians who gave formative shape to Reformed theology, Peter Martyr Vermigli (1499-1562), and focuses on his adoption of the soteriological doctrine of gemina praedestinatio, double predestination: divine election and divine reprobation. One of the most erudite men of his age, Vermigli was also one of the most remarkable, for his religious career spanned the ecclesiastical horizon from prominence as a Roman Catholic theologian to one of the formative theologians of sixteenth century Reformed Protestantism. No other theologian of the early sixteenth century was so distinguished in both camps. James argues that Vermigli derived the doctrine of gemina praedestinatio from the writings of Gregory of Rimini and that it was fully formed before he allied himself with the Protestant cause, thus illustrating an important aspect of soteriological continuity between late medieval and reformation thought.
Vermigli’s Mature Doctrine of Predestination: Oxford to Zurich, 1547–1558
Authors: James Frank A
Published: November 2023

Vermigli’s most extensive treatment of predestination occurs in the locus de praedestinatione following his exegesis of chapter 9 of Romans. Although the commentary on Romans was actually published in 1558, the lectures on which it was directly based were given in Oxford 1550–2. One presumes that these Oxford lectures bear some relationship to previous lectures on Romans that he gave in Lucca and Strasbourg.
Early Foundation: Paul and Augustine
Authors: James Frank A
Published: November 2023

I. Apostolic Foundation: Paul If one could ask Vermigli the true source of his doctrine of predestination, he would undoubtedly give much the same answer as he gave to the divinity students at Oxford: ‘Let us return, I say, let us return to the first fountains of the scriptures.’ This exhortation to study the scriptures reflected his innermost conviction that scripture must form the marrow of theology. Like every predestinarian before him, Vermigli drew particular inspiration from Pauline writings. There are three Pauline texts which repeatedly appear in Vermigli’s discussion: Romans 8: 28–30, Romans 9: ro-24, and Ephesians 1: 1–11. It is the ninth chapter of Paul’s epistle to the Romans, however, which above all serves as the biblical epicentre ofVermigli’s doctrine of predestination.
Renaissance Manifestation: Juan de Valdés
Authors: James Frank A
Published: November 2023

The Italian Renaissance saw cultural transformation not only in the arts and literature but also in the realm of religious ideas. The Spaniard Juan de Valdes was one of those early sixteenth-century humanists who took seriously the slogan ad fontes (to the fount, that is, return to the original sources) and followed its logic back to a direct experience of the Bible in its original language. Valdes found himself on the cusp of a paradigm shift which produced in him a receptivity to the new theology emanating from Germany. Having fled the Spanish Inquisition sometime around 1530, he found refuge in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of many like-minded Italians, including the theologian Peter Martyr Vermigli. Simler’s brief reference to Valdes, in his account of Vermigli’s Italian period, belies the Spaniard’s profound influence on Vermigli’s life, for it was under the tutelage of Valdes that he began to read Protestant literature. Both men became key players in an Italian reform movement—a movement which provides our study with the overarching historical context in which Vermigli’s theological development must be understood.
Greek Apologists of the Second Century
Authors: Young Frances
Published: November 2023

For the second-century Greek apologists the key issues, it seems to me, lay with ancestral customs and literary canons. Their primary motive was justification, justification of their unpopular-indeed, potentially dangerous-decision to turn their backs on the classical literature inherited from antiquity and the customs of their fore fathers, thus abandoning the comfortable ethos of the Graeco-Roman synthesis into which they had been born, nurtured, and educated.What these people had done was somewhat analogous to the Westerner today who converts to Islam: they had taken leave of their senses by adopting what was regarded by most people, ignorant as they were of its high moral and philosophical tone, as a suspiciously alien culture. In order to mount this justification, this apologia for conversion, the apologists borrowed many genres, many traditions, many well-worn arguments, from the very culture they challenged, manipulating them for a new, unexpected purpose.
Latin Christian Apologetics: Minucius Felix, Tertullian, and Cyprian
Authors: Price Simon
Published: November 2023

Some thoughts about the definition of ‘ apologetics’ are essential at the outset. There is a certain amount of confusion around in the handbooks that we need to scotch. TheShorter Oxford English Dictionary defines one of the meanings of apologetic as ‘ the defensive method of argument, often specifically the argumentative defence of Christianity’. Obviously Christian apologetics deal with the relations between Christianity and other faiths or practices; it concerns the creation and maintenance of boundaries. However, I would stress that not all texts relating to boundaries should be counted as apologetic: it depends whether the text is addressed internally to those already members of the faith, or externally to outsiders. As Martin Goodman shows (Ch. 3), Josephus’Against Apion is a work of apologetic, addressed to a non-Jew, which aimed to persuade Gentiles of the falsity of certain charges against the Jews. On the other hand, the lvlishnaic treatiseAboda Zara, stating what pagan practices Jews must avoid, is aimed at Jews, and is for internal consumption.
Origen’s TreatiseAgainst Celsus
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: November 2023

Origen (184/5-254/5 CE) was a notoriously prolific writer.1 Even taking into account that the ancients tended to measure literary productivity in terms of books, rather than writings, so that a work such as a commentary on John’s Gospel might count not as one, but as more than thirty-two books, Epiphanius’ claim(Panarion, 64. 63) that Origen wrote 6,000 books sounds fantastic, but reflects the correct belief that Origen wrote a great deal. According to Jerome(Against Rufinus, 2. 22), Eusebius in book 3 of hisLife of Pamphilus, listed no fewer than 2,000 books by Origen. Almost all of these writings have been lost; some of them are extant only in fragments; and very few have come down to us in their entirety. One of these is Origen’sAgainst Celsus, or, to be more precise, ‘Against the So-TitledTrue Account of Celsus’, in eight books.
Defending Hellenism: Philostratus,In Honour of Apollonius
Authors: Swai Simon
Published: November 2023

In the period of the High Roman Empire apologetic literature was largely confined to Christian authors. But the justification of religion and culture is not of itself ‘Christian’, as (for example) Goodman’s study of Josephus’Against Apion well shows (see Ch. 3). The present chapter offers another text from this period,In Honour of Apollonius of Tyana (hereafterApollonius),which can be read as apology without straining the bounds of a necessarily loose category.Behind Christian apologetic stand the hostility and suspicion of non-Christian society and, to some extent, the internal disagreements and polemics of Christians themselves. Comparable factors cannot be found in Greek pagan society, at least in the first and second centuries. Here there is no sign of serious debate about the fundamental cultural and religious principles of Greek life. Polemic between philosophers exists, as it always has (see, for example, Plutarch’s anti-Stoic and anti-Epicurean tracts or Galen’s denunciations of rival logics). But this functions at an entirely abstract level, and is not in any way analogous to the bitter disputes and antagonisms of Christian schism and heresy.
The Flowering of Latin Apologetic: Lactantius and Arnobius
Authors: Edwards Mark
Published: November 2023

In a previous chapter, Simon Price considers the Latin apologists who wrote before the accession of a Christian emperor. He notes that they exhibit certain generic similarities, employing as they do a range of arguments which, far from being original or peculiar to Christianity, were the stock-in-trade of pagan rhetoric. He also shows that, despite their African origins and the indifference of their Greek contemporaries, they are all aware of being in some sense Roman, though they cannot be said to speak of Rome in accents of conventional patriotism. All these traits can be discerned again in the last two authors who regarded the defence of Latin Christendom as their principal occupation; yet Arnobius and Lactantius, though by far the most voluminous, are also the most neglected of the tribe. This, no doubt, is because, unlike their forerunners, they tell the historian little of their own times, and they offer even less to the theologian, who can at least read Tertullian and Cyprian with an eye to the development of dogma. A kinder way of putting this is to say that their endeavors are essentially-one could even say, quintessentially-rhetorical; I shall argue here that both, in their capacity as teachers, chose to flaunt their education and play host to a wider variety of arguments, in order to rob the pagans of that arsenal which Greek writers had employed in their attacks on Christianity, and to make their readers ask themselves what it is to be a citizen of Rome.
Eusebius’ Apologetic Writings
Authors: Frede Michael
Published: November 2023

Eusebius is the author of a good number of writings, some of them of very considerable length, which traditionally are classified as ‘apologetic’. It is easy to see why the treatises thus classified-for example,Against Hierocles andAgainst Porphyry, could be called ‘apologetic’. They answer questions, objections, and accusations raised against Christianity. It is not so easy to see why certain other treatises by Eusebius, not classified as ‘apologetic’ by patrologies like Bardenhewer’s or Quasten’s,should not be similarly regarded as ‘apologetic’, given such a wide notion of apology. Thus Eusebius wroteQuestions Arising in the Gospels and their Solutions, also entitledOn Discrepancy between the Gospels (Jerome,On Famous Men, 81;idem, Commentary on Matthew, 1, 16), only extant in fragments.On Discrepancy came in two parts, the first, dedicated to Stephanus, dealing with the accounts of Jesus’ youth. It is clear, from what seems to be a reference to this text in Eusebius’Demonstration of the Gospel, 7. 3. 18, that it dealt at some length with the discrepancy in Jesus’ genealogy.
Bargaining Power
Authors: Martin Roderick
Published: November 2023

Bargaining Power examines the balance of power between management and unions, showing why some managements-and some trade unions-are more powerful than others. Bargaining power has long been recognized as central to industrial relations, but no previous work has taken the issue as its central focus. Using both sociological and economic evidence, the author shows how managements and unions approach negotiations and how they use power to achieve their bargaining objectives. In turn he analyses different perspectives on power, negotiations, the industrial relations context, and human resources management. The book concludes with an examination of the changing position of trade unions in Britain in the 1980s, arguing that union bargaining power remains more significant than suggested by the decline in union membership.
Environmental Influences on Bargaining Power
Authors: Martin Roderick
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines environmental influences upon bargaining power, following a disaggregated ‘building block’ approach. The first part of the chapter is concerned with economic influences upon union and management power, focusing upon product-markets and labour-markets. The chapter then considers ‘operating system’ variables, most importantly size, technology, and payment systems. The third part of the chapter is concerned with non-economic contextual factors, primarily the political and judicial framework, the media and public opinion, and ideology. Each factor is treated separately, although of course any management union bargaining situation reflects a complex of several factors, interacting with each other and often pulling in different directions: examining the variables individually is a necessary first step.
Values, Beliefs, Objectives, and Bargaining Power
Authors: Martin Roderick
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter outlined the environmental influences on management-union power relations, showing how different factors influence the balance of power between management and unions. But management and unions do not respond automatically to environmental pressures- there is no inevitable logic of power relations. Exercising power is a conscious act. Managers and workers respond to environmental pressures in the light of their own values, beliefs, and objectives. By values I mean views of how industrial relations ought to be carried out, by beliefs views of how industrial relations are actually carried out, and by objectives what managers and workers are attempting to achieve in industrial relations. Understanding power relations therefore involves understanding the relevant values, beliefs, and objectives of managers and workers. Some of the relevant issues concern the enterprise as a whole-whether it is viewed as a family, as an alliance of convenience between stakeholders whose individual interests temporarily overlap, or as an arena in which one group exploits another.
Trade Union Power at the Beginning of the 1990s
Authors: Martin Roderick
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters have examined the factors affecting the balance of power between management and unions, and the processes involved in using power in collective bargaining, both in general and at industry level. Changing contexts, capabilities, and objectives cause power relations to be inherently unstable. This concluding chapter brings the threads of the argument together by reviewing changes in the power of trade unions in Britain in the 1980s in the light of the previous analysis and in doing so summarizing many of the issues covered. Two major alternative views are identified. According to one view, trade union power has declined sharply since 1979, and Mrs Thatcher is seen to have ‘solved the union problem’. Declining trade union power enabled Britain’s ‘productivity miracle’ of the early 1980s to occur. An alternative view stresses the continuities in trade union power, indicated most importantly in the continuing rise in real wages, despite sharp increases (and falls) in unemployment.
The Employer Counter-Attack
Authors: Fulcher James
Published: November 2023

If the national organizations of the British and Swedish unions have been markedly different in character, so too have the national organizations of the British and Swedish employers. In Sweden a centralized national employers’ association, Svenska Arbetsgivare forefinger (SAF), was founded in 1902 and had by 1906 negotiated a central agreement with the LO. The British employers lacked permanent national organizations until the period of the First World War, and it was not until 1965 that the Confederation of British Industries (CBI) came into existence. This body has never engaged in Swedish-style central negotiations with the TUC, and the two have only met formally in consultative bodies such as the National Economic Development Council.
Sects and the State: Some Issues and Cases
Authors: Wilson Bryan R
Published: November 2023

In most Western countries, religious sects—and the term is used to include what are more generally referred to as new religious movements—are generally accorded at least formal equality before the law. Paradoxically, it was the first secular state, the first state which did not embrace specific religious principles as part of its legitimation, that is to say, the United States, which became also the first guarantor of religious freedom. The religious diversity of immigrants gradually compelled those states, such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, which had given privileged or established status to one religious denomination, to accept the equality of all faiths. Even in the United States, however, complete toleration has at times been in jeopardy; while in other countries the extension of religious freedom has been patchy and uneven. None the less, the general course of development throughout the Western world has been clear.
Scientology: A Secularized Religion
Authors: Wilson Bryan R
Published: November 2023

Whether a particular ideological or therapeutic system can properly be designated a religion is an issue that is not solely academic. In order to acquire charitable status or to have premises registered as a place of religious worship, official recognition that an organization is a religious body is, in England and other English speaking countries, a matter of real importance at law. New movements—among them Scientology—have sought to have their religious status acknowledged, and in so doing have brought into prominence fundamental questions about the definition of religion, as the judgment delivered by the Australian High Court demon strates. What becomes apparent from such a case is that religion itself is a phenomenon which changes, and the conception of what constitutes religion must, therefore, also change. In practice, there is a distinct cultural lag before legal conceptions catch up with changes in social reality.
Pluralism and Religious Vitality
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

In descriptions and explanations of secularization, the notion of religious or denominational pluralism is deployed by a number of scholars for competing purposes. In the sociology of knowledge perspective of Peter Berger and those influenced by him, pluralism threatens the plausibility of religious belief systems by exposing their human origins.1 By forcing people to do religion as a matter of personal choke rather than as fate, pluralism universalizes ‘heresy’. A chosen religion is weaker than a religion of fate because we are aware that we choose the gods rather than the gods choosing us.
Decline of Donnish Dominion
Authors: Halsey A H
Published: November 2023

British higher education is internationally perceived as being in crisis. In this book A. H. Halsey examines how the present-day situation developed. Beginning with the 1963 Robbins Report, he argues that, despite the subsequent expansion of higher education, this initiative represented a failed thrust towards mass higher education. He shows how the rise of liberal economic policies was irrelevant to the long-term decline of academic power and demonstrates how power has ebbed away from academics towards government, and towards students and industry as consumers of education and research. Professor Halsey's arguments are buttressed by extensive surveys, carried out in 1964, 1976, and 1989, which chart the development of academic opinion in universities and polytechnics. The survey reveals low morale, disappointment, and resentment; but these feelings are still combined with a persistent belief in the British idea of university. Professor Halsey's discussion and analysis provide vital information about the current state of Britain's higher education system and offer an important contribution to the fierce debate about educational and training policies which is currently one of the central topics of British political debate.
Ideas Of The University
Authors: Halsey A H
Published: November 2023

THE modern university, and indeed the polytechnic, began with the Victorians. I have mentioned Weber and Veblen, who published highly relevant essays in 1918. But further back, in 1873, there appeared two views of educational expansion, the one Catholic and clerical, the other Protestant and secular, by John Henry Newman on The Idea of a University and Alfred Marshall on ‘The Future of the Working Classes’ (A. Marshall 1925).

Calendar dates, of course, give false clarity to the ebb and flow of ideas; otherwise, in these two discourses we might identify 1873 as the end of the ecclesiastical and the beginning of the lay conception of education. A truer chronology would note that Marshall stood on the shoulders of John Stuart Mill, modernizing the chapter from the latter’s Principles of Economics on ‘The Futurity of the Labouring Classes’.
The Evolving Hierarchy Before Robbins
Authors: Halsey A H
Published: November 2023

THE history of British higher education from Victorian times is one of evolving hierarchy. It is briefly traced here as a developing relation between Oxford and the system of higher education for reasons bluntly expressed by Edward Shils in 1955.

‘If a young man, talking to an educated stranger, refers to his university studies, he is asked “Oxford or Cambridge?”. And if he says Aberystwyth or Nottingham, there is disappointment on the one side and embarrassment on the other. It has always been that way’ (Shils 1955: So). Whether in the pages of eternity twentieth-century Oxford was a ‘good thing’ is an open question; the cultural fact of its superior image is a closed one. Not only was it a famous university but frequently the symbol of all universities. And it was more than a university. It was an integral part of an ancient establishment along with the crown and the aristocracy. So members of Hebdomadal Council (the elected central committee of the university) would refer to each other as the Warden (of All Souls) or the Dean (of Christ Church) with the same ceremonious attribution of dignified office as was used in the House of Lords. University College, London was seen as ‘provincial’ while University College, Oxford was metropolitan. Of course, ‘wherever two or three are gathered together’ there also shall be a sociological commonplace: invidious comparisons will emerge.
The Transition to Apartheid: 1946–1959
Authors: Brewer John D
Published: November 2023

The period covered by this chapter marks the transition to National Party government and the first phase of apartheid, although technically it was the Herenigdc Nasionale Party which won the 1948 general election, only becoming known as the National Party when it joined with the Afrikaner Party in 1949.
Sociology and Theology: An Introduction to Themes
Authors: Martin David
Published: November 2023

In the pages that follow I want to engage in a survey of themes which have concerned me over the past several years. Initially I offer a fairly abstract account of the sociological mode of procedure. I then offer two illustrations of that procedure in relation to religion. The first has to do with civil conflict and ethnic cleansing.
Religious Vision and Political Reality
Authors: Martin David
Published: November 2023

One of the major problems for Christians as they contemplate the social and political realm is the extent to which their faith seems to have been converted into its opposite. Faith claims to have ‘overcome the world’ but in truth the ‘world’ has absorbed and overcome faith. This reversal is not only sadly observed by Christians but sardonically commented upon by marginal believers and non-believers.
Religious Comment on Politics
Authors: Martin David
Published: November 2023

I Am not concerned with some miniature enquiry into the influence of religion on society. I am interested rather in the nature, role, and impact of Christian social comment, particularly of recent years. I want to elucidate certain resistances built into social arrangements and processes which I think Christian social comment likely to encounter and also likely to misunderstand or ignore. However, I will also indicate in summary form how Christian social comment may vary in impact and direction according to different types of situation.
A Meditation on Secular Process and Notes towards a Theological Response
Authors: Martin David
Published: November 2023

I Suspect that we are close to an end-time for the kind of relation between Church and Society that has obtained in Europe for over a millennium. That does not mean wiping the slate clean but finding the right balance between disentanglement and retention. In what follows I speak of how the vines of faith can be entwined around deteriorating social frames. I also suggest that disentanglement entails unique costs in Europe, be cause that is where the church has been most deeply embedded and where the secular impulse was first generated, both from within faith as well as poised against it.
Part-Time Work and Gender Inequality in the Labour Market
Authors: Rubery Jill , Horrell Sara , Burchell Brendan
Published: November 2023

Women’s fortunes in the labour market have been increasingly linked to the seemingly inexorable growth of part-time employment. This type of work now accounts for over 42 per cent of women’s jobs and over 23 per cent of the total stock of jobs in the economy. Moreover, part-time work is the fastest growing sector of employment: between 1984 and 1987 female part-time jobs increased by 6.8 per cent compared to a growth of 5.7 per cent in female full time. Male full-time jobs actually declined by over 2 per cent while male part-time jobs grew by no less than 14 per cent.
The Politics of Spirituality
Authors: Hornsby-Smith Michael P , Fulton John , Norris Margaret
Published: November 2023

This book provides the first in-depth case study of ‘Renew’ – a pastoral programme of religious revitalization. The programme originated in the United States in 1976 and has been widely adopted throughout the Roman Catholic world. Initiated from the top down in a hierarchically-structured church, it can be seen as an example of clerical attempts to stimulate and control lay spirituality in an organizationally controlled manner (as opposed to grass-roots movements, such as those associated with liberation theology). The authors look at the history of religious organizations in the Roman Catholic Church and the affects of modernity on religious practice, and the decline in the latter which prompted the diocese to adopt ‘Renew’. Their findings show that the effects of ‘Renew’ were limited and short-lived, an inevitable consequence of the ambiguous and often contradictory aims. In analysing these findings they suggest some ways in which the church might reform itself – by decentralization and a reform of the papacy, for example – to meet the challenges of the modern age.
An Assessment of the Diocesan Experience
Authors: Hornsby-Smith Michael P , Fulton John , Norris Margaret
Published: November 2023

In this and the following chapter we commence the analysis of the experience of the five RENEW seasons in the diocese as a whole and in the parishes. We will report a wide range of findings, using a variety of data collection methods, about the actual experiences of Catholics, whether they were actively involved as members of parish core teams or committees, or as participants in the small groups, or simply as regular Mass attenders. We will also refer to the reported findings from the official diocesan ‘evaluation’ reports at the end of each season of RENEW and point to some inconsistencies and biases in these. We wish to stress the complexity of the experiences of RENEW and suggest that they did not conform to an easily summarized, coherent, and consistent pattern. Rather, in reality, there was a great deal of contradiction, ambiguity, and conflict.
The Experience of Unemployment
Authors: Gallie Duncan , Marsh Catherine
Published: November 2023

In the 1980s unemployment in Britain rose to levels that were unprecedented since the great inter-war recession of the 1930s. Levels of unemployment were historically low in the 1950s and 1960s, began to rise in the early 1970s, and, then climbed very steeply after the second ‘oil shock’ of 1978–9. Since the mid- 1980s a period of decline in the official rate was followed by another sharp upturn in unemployment. While the underlying similarity of pattern between many of the advanced societies suggests that global forces were at work, making unemployment an issue over which market economies may not have full control, the rise in unemployment in Britain during the early 1980s was particularly steep. Britain moved from being a country with one of the lowest unemployment rates in the OECD to one with among the highest rates in a very short period of time.
Unemployment in Work Histories
Authors: Gershuny Jonathan , Marsh Catherine
Published: November 2023

There are two possible views of the social distribution of unemployment. In the first there is an unemployment ‘underclass’, made up of those who experience repeated periods of unemployment, starting from their first entry to the work-force, and spanning the whole of their working lives. The Social Change and Economic Life Initiative (SCELI) surveys do not suggest the existence of a substantial group of people who fall into this category.
The Relationship between a Husband’s Unemployment and his Wife’s Participation in the Labour Force
Authors: Davies Richard B , Elias Peter , Penn Roger
Published: November 2023

It is a well-replicated observation (e.g. Greenhalgh 1980; Layard et al. 1980; Joshi 1984) that there is an inverse relationship between husbands’ unemployment and the labour force participation of married women; wives of unemployed men in Britain are less likely to be engaged in paid work than the wives of employed men. For example, in the Women and Employment Survey (Martin and Roberts 1984) 33 per cent of wives with unemployed husbands were working compared with 62 per cent of wives with working husbands. One interpretation of this result is that if wives of unemployed husbands had behaved exactly as the wives of working husbands, an additional 29 per cent of them would have been in paid employment
Canon Barnett: Ethical Socialist
Authors: Parker Julia
Published: November 2023

Samuel Barnett has a special claim to a place in the tradition of British ethical socialism, not so much as a thinker nor as a writer nor as a teacher but as a man who lived out his ‘practicable socialism’ in the East End of London during the last thirty years of the nineteenth century. A university man, though without a notably distinguished academic career; a writer and preacher without marked originality or eloquence, it was the force of his moral conviction and his particular vision of the good society and the means of reaching it that made him an inspiring influence on those who knew him and an important, if idiosyncratic, figure in the late Victorian movement for social reform.
From Social Research to Educational Policy 10/65 to the Education Reform Act 1988
Authors: Smith George , Smith Teresa
Published: November 2023

Future historians, reviewing the influence of social research on educational policy in England and Wales over the past twenty five years (1965-90), may well conclude that the first few years-from circular 10/65 on the reorganization of secondary schooling, to circular 11/72 on pre-school expansion-marked the high point. They would note the widespread consensus that research on selection at 11+, particularly that of Halsey and Floud on social class and educational opportunity, had made a key contribution to the policy shift in the 1960s from selective to comprehensive secondary education. They would note, too, the active networks linking researchers, administrators, and politicians, not least in the appointment in 1965 of Halsey as research adviser to Crosland, then secretary of state for education at the Department of Education and Science (DES), as circular 10/65 marking the first stage in this policy change was in preparation. And in confirmation they would be able to quote the views of participants, both politicians and civil servants, that they had been influenced by research, had taken it into account, though the exact nature of this influence would, no doubt, remain subject to continuing controversy.
Introduction
Authors: Rubery Jill , Wilkinson Frank
Published: November 2023

Labour-market change in the 1980s and into the 1990s has been closely linked to the actions and policies of employers. Employment restructuring is seen to be the outcome of changes in industrial organization, including the closure or rationalization of capacity, the growth of small and decline of large employers, and the privatization of public services.