bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Streams of Thought
Authors: Hanlon Christopher
Published: December 2017

This chapter locates Emerson’s late-phase interest in aggregated, communal forms of intellection within similar fixations that permeated a broader cultural ambience during the 1850s and 1860s. This milieu included the oceanographer Matthew Fontaine Maury, whose crowdsourced researches captured public imagination as a model of communal thought; Herman Melville, whose mention of Maury in Moby-Dick (1856) portends his own vision of a proliferating and ever-closer association upon the waves; Walt Whitman, whose similar interests in communality inform the oceanic and liquid setting of “Sun-Down Poem” from the second edition of Leaves of Grass (1856); and indeed Emerson, whose 1862 “Perpetual Forces” foreran the even more fluid social subjectivity of Natural History of Intellect (1870–71). Finally, the chapter argues that Emerson’s ideas in these last two works provided a template for the radical pluralism of William James’s Principles of Psychology (1890) and “How Can Two Minds Know One Thing?” (1905).
The New England Watch and Ward Society
Authors: Kemeny P. C.
Published: December 2017

The New England Watch and Ward Society provides a new window into the history of the Protestant establishment’s prominent role in late nineteenth-century public life and its confrontation with modernity, commercial culture, and cultural pluralism in early twentieth-century America. Elite liberal Protestants, typically considered progressive, urbane, and tolerant, established the Watch and Ward Society in 1878 to suppress obscene literature, including Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass. These self-appointed custodians of Victorian culture enjoyed widespread support from many of New England’s most renowned ministers, distinguished college presidents, respected social reformers, and wealthy philanthropists. In the 1880s, the Watch and Ward Society expanded its efforts to regulate public morality by attacking gambling and prostitution. The society not only expressed late nineteenth-century Victorian American values about what constituted “good literature,” sexual morality, and public duty but also embodied Protestants’ efforts to promote these values in an increasing intellectually and culturally diverse society. By 1930, however, the Watch and Ward Society suffered a very public fall from grace. Following controversies over the suppression of H. L. Mencken’s American Mercury as well as popular novels, including Sinclair Lewis’s Elmer Gantry and D. H. Lawrence’s Lady Chatterley’s Lover, cultural modernists, civil libertarians, and publishers attacked the moral reform movement, ridiculing its leaders’ privileged backgrounds, social idealism, and religious commitments. Their critique reshaped the dynamics of Protestant moral reform activity as well as public discourse in subsequent decades. For more than a generation, however, the Watch and Ward Society expressed mainline Protestant attitudes toward literature, gambling, and sexuality.
Who They Were and Why They Wanted to Suppress Obscene Literature
Authors: Kemeny P. C.
Published: December 2017

After examining who supported the Society for the Suppression of Vice, this chapter explores why so many social leaders and prominent liberal ministers, usually recognized as leading social and cultural progressive voices in their particular fields, wholeheartedly supported the censorship activities of the Watch and Ward Society. Four key sources shaped the anti-vice reformers’ rationale for the censorship of obscene literature: liberal Protestant theology, nineteenth-century moral philosophy, the Whig-Republican view of the public role of religion in society, and their Victorian view of literature. To the anti-vice activists, licentious literature fostered an animalism that hindered the gradual Christianization of society, ruined individuals moral character, encouraged other antisocial behaviors, and contradicted the basic canons of what constituted good literature. For these reasons, the moral reformers argued, voluntary organizations and the state had a moral obligation to suppress obscene works that threatened the well-being of society.
The Halcyon Days of Protestant Moral Reform
Authors: Kemeny P. C.
Published: December 2017

During the 1910s the Watch and Ward Society continued to work to suppress gambling and obscene literature and achieved dramatic success in its campaign against prostitution. Two crucial victories in their battle against obscene literature were the landmark 1909 Massachusetts Supreme Court decision again Elinor Glyn’s Three Weeks and its cooperative arrangement with the region’s booksellers association in 1913 that led to the withdrawal of many morally objectionable books from the market. The “white slavery” scare, which swept across America between 1909 and 1913, revived the moral reform organization’s campaign to suppress prostitution. The formation of the Commission on Training Camp Activities, following the U.S. entrance into the World War in 1917, empowered the Watch and Ward Society to suppress prostitution in the vicinity of military bases in New England.
Introduction
Authors: Dallam Marie W.
Published: December 2017

Serving as an introduction to the text and the research, this chapter explores notions of the American West, outlines different conceptions of both cowboys and cowboy Christians, and introduces key themes. The chapter suggests commonalities in the ways people express what western heritage/cowboy culture means to them, and how it connects people who are geographically dispersed. The cowboy church’s focus on connecting with the “authentic” cowboy is studied in conjunction with the construction of the meaning of the term “cowboy.” A discussion of closely related forms of evangelical Christianity provides an initial religious context for understanding the present-day cowboy church and its history. A brief account of the book’s place in the scholarship on religion of the American West, as well as of the book’s methodology concludes the chapter.
The 21st-Century Cowboy Church Movement
Authors: Dallam Marie W.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 4 seeks to distinguish the ideology and approaches of the present-day cowboy church movement. Drawing heavily on the author’s experiences as a participant observer, this chapter explores cowboy church worship elements and physical spaces—including the roles played by live band music and arenas in attracting new worshippers—and examines the grassroots educational seminars that strive to unite leaders around core teachings. It also discusses several problematic issues, such as the consequences of having high numbers of “new” Christians, debates about arena ministry, and conflicting stances on morality taken by clusters of leaders. It thereby also showcases the diversity among cowboy churches.
The Cowboy Church as a Man’s Church
Authors: Dallam Marie W.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 5 examines issues of gender dynamics in the cowboy church movement. Church leaders use simplistic notions of gender, in combination with assumptions about the cowboy culture, and conclude that cowboy church needs to be a “masculine” environment to succeed. This chapter explores how these concepts are perpetuated and what “masculine church” means in practical terms. It also considers some of the more complicated and contradictory views held by pastors on the subject of women in ministry and women’s participation in church more generally. It contrasts the prevailing beliefs held by men about gender relations in the cowboy church with those of women, suggesting that the discrepancy between the two groups’ views may be problematic in the long term.
The Wider World of the 21st-Century Cowboy Christian
Authors: Dallam Marie W.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 6 pulls away from the cowboy church specifically to examine aspects of the broader cultural context of cowboy Christians. Topics include media and entertainment that deliberately blend ideas of cowboy values with religion, and how they are packaged for consumption by cowboy Christians. Examples including racetrack chaplaincy, Christian horse whisperers, and television shows demonstrate cowboy Christian alignment with the trends of consumerism found in mainstream evangelicalism. The second half of the chapter revisits and concludes various thematic discussions raised throughout the book, comparing the cowboy church to the Jesus movement of the 1960s and 1970s and the recurring iterations of muscular Christianity, and schematically charting potential developments for the cowboy church on the basis of developmental patterns for other new religious movements.
What Is Sexuality?
Authors: Hogan Patrick Colm
Published: December 2017

The second chapter focuses on sexuality. It begins with Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway, a novel that strongly suggests a sort of absoluteness to sexual preference. However derived, Clarissa’s sexual orientation seems impervious to the heterosexual pressures of her society and her own self-conscious wishes. The chapter then turns to a work of amateur pornography from a popular website devoted to body fat fetishism. Rather than intellectualizing sexuality, the author of this work tries to provoke sexual response. The result is a greater challenge to the ideas of those of us who have been nurtured on Woolf and Joyce rather than pornography. Specifically, the story suggests that elicitors of sexual desire may in some cases be at least partially dissociated from sex-related properties. It also points to the importance of one’s relation to one’s own body in sexual desire, a relation that may mirror one’s relation to the body of one’s partner.
What Is Gender?
Authors: Hogan Patrick Colm
Published: December 2017

The third chapter turns to gender, examining parts of Cao’s Story of the Stone and Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. The former treats a boy who strongly identifies himself with the girls with whom he is raised. The latter treats a girl who takes on the disguise of a boy. Both works suggest that personality and behavioral propensities are distributed fairly randomly across the two sexes; at the very least, sex does not align very consistently with such propensities. A careful reading of both works suggests what we might refer to as a “situated” or “situational” conception of gender. A situation triggers some situation category; that is, we class a certain social interaction as a particular type (e.g., a joke or an insult). That categorization includes context-appropriate gender norms. The norms range from diction and politeness through socially appropriate emotions and behaviors (e.g., sadness vs. anger in response to an insult).
Gender and Regulatory Regimes
Authors: Hogan Patrick Colm
Published: December 2017

The fifth chapter continues the focus on regulatory regimes, now turning to gender and taking up ideology and socialization rather than coercion. This chapter first considers some short stories by Tagore. Specifically, it examines the role of humiliation in the inhibition of boys’ empathic response, especially sensitivity about attachment needs. From here, the chapter turns to Woolf’s Orlando. In this novel, Woolf presents a situationist account of gender regulation. Orlando’s apparently masculine or feminine behaviors are provoked by such seemingly trivial situations as the nature of his/her clothing. Woolf nuances the situationist account by showing that some forms of situated behavior, as well as thought and feeling, are likely to become habitual through repetition. In short, it is not differences in minds that produce differences in behaviors, which in turn create social situations. Rather, differences in social situations produce differences in behaviors, leading to differences in thoughts and feelings.
The Evolution of the China Factor in India’s Foreign Policy
Authors: Grare Frédéric
Published: December 2017

Ongoing bilateral disputes and mistrust between Beijing and New Delhi, coupled with China’s growing economic, political and military role, have been important motivators behind India’s engagement with Asia. The relationship between the two countries involves territorial disputes, elements of rivalry for political dominance in Asia but also strong incentives for cooperation. Therefore, the Look East policy has been conceived as an attempt to not only balance and deter but also engage China. India seeks to create a virtuous circle by which engagement with India China will mitigate the consequences of the capacity gap between India and China and will provide India with the economic, military and political resources necessary to alter the Asian power structure in its favour.
The Impact of the US Factor on India’s Asia Policy
Authors: Grare Frédéric
Published: December 2017

The convergence of interests between India and the United States extend to most major regional issues. Both countries intend to pursue regional cooperation and develop an inclusive regional security architecture. Yet significant perception gaps persist between the two countries linked to their asymmetry of power as well as geographical locations. India does not want to be caught in a zero-sum game between China and the United States and remains uncertain about the willingness of the United States to act as a security provider. The relationship is ultimately based on a quid pro quo that takes into account US interests and India’s own constraints. A strong but autonomous India contributes to United States interests in the region.
India-Myanmar Relations
Authors: Grare Frédéric
Published: December 2017

The search for greater connectivity with Southeast Asia is driving the evolution of the relationship between India and Myanmar. A partnership with Naypyidaw could help India’s integration with the more dynamic economies of Southeast Asia as well as with the dynamic Yunnan province in China. In doing so, India also expects to contain China’s influence in Myanmar. Transport infrastructure projects, including the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, are being developed in Myanmar that may help India achieve its objectives. But numerous obstacles including ethnic conflicts in the country as well as relative mistrust between New Delhi and Naypyidaw may inhibit regional integration through Myanmar. India moreover faces competition from countries with much larger capacities such as Japan and the United States, which on one hand may help diminish China’s influence but also diminish the political space available for India.
India and Australia’s Paradoxical Strategic Relationship
Authors: Grare Frédéric
Published: December 2017

After decades of mutual indifference, India’s and Australia’s strategic interests are converging. Both countries share increasing apprehension about China’s rise. Yet, despite a common concern regarding Chinese assertiveness and growing trade between the two countries, engagement remains limited. Both states see a lot of risk but few security benefits in appearing confrontational toward China. Moreover, their respective partnerships with the United States constrain the development of their bilateral security relations as they feel no need to deviate from their current parallel trajectory. In that sense the relations between India and Australia illustrate the limits of the Look East Policy. Deep ambivalence persists between the two countries and defence cooperation is largely restricted to soft security and dialogue. Both sides remain cautious about giving the relationship a strategic significance that could be interpreted as the beginning of a coalition against China.
Japan in India’s Look East Policy
Authors: Grare Frédéric
Published: December 2017

With China’s rising international status, the importance of India-Japan security relations has grown commensurately. India’s and Japan‘s importance for each other security has grown commensurately with China rising international status. Yet their relationship illustrates the aspirations and limits of the Look East Policy. India’s and China’s Japan’s common concern vis-à-visabout China is as much a product of political proximity as of strategic ambiguity. Many of the dimensionsDimensions of this relationship, including the construction by JapanJapan’s construction of economic corridors in India, have potential strategic consequences. Their cooperation offers a mix of integration and balancing vis-à-vis China. In the strategic domain though, the convergence between Tokyo and New Delhi is still in its infancy while Indian and Japanese decision makers are very careful in their commitments towards one another. Both India and Japan are supporting a transition towards a balanced multipolar system in Asia. Both however aspire to some form of leadership, but in Asia and need the other in the process. But both each will welcome the other as a comprehensive partner only as long as the other will not seek dominance.
Observers and invariance
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 2 establishes restrictions on constitutive response so as to ensure observer consensus on material behavior. Reduced forms of the constitutive response, required by such consensus, are derived.
Material symmetry
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: December 2017

This chapter invokes the notion of local symmetry transformations to derive restrictions on constitutive response for specific material classes. This is used to derive formulas for stress in isotropic materials.
Stress response in the presence of local constraints on the deformation
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 6 develops the structure of the stress response in the presence of material constraints on the basis of the Lagrange-multiplier rule. Examples given include incompressibility and inextensibility. Further applications are examined in Problems. The concepts are presented in more detail than one usually finds in the text and monograph literatures.
Stability and the energy criterion
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: December 2017

This chapter motivates the criterion of minimum potential energy as a stability criterion for conservative problems. It examines the role played by various convexity conditions (ordinary convexity, quasiconvexity, polyconvexity, rank-one convexity) in the energy-minimization problem. Applications to simple phase-transition problems involving discontinuous deformation gradients are presented.
Defaults and lexical prototypes
Authors: Malouf Robert
Published: December 2017

Inheritance plays several distinct but crucial roles in the representation of linguistic information in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar and other constraint-based frameworks. The primary use of inheritance is in the definition of the type signature, a specification of what counts as a well-formed linguistic object. In more recent developments of the theory, inheritance is also used to express substantive linguistic generalizations. This latter use is quite different from the original problem that inheritance was introduced into HPSG to solve, and there are other knowledge representation devices that might be more appropriate. In particular, delegation can also be used to express linguistic generalizations. The use of delegation can simplify HPSG analyses of some phenomena and can also clarify some of the issues that arise in the use default unification.
Systemic polyfunctionality and morphology–syntax interdependencies
Authors: Ackerman Farrell , Bonami Olivier
Published: December 2017

The chapter examines classes of grammatical markers that can serve more than one function, polyfunctional markers, spoiling the one-to-one form and function relation which is what morphology tends to do. There are areas of the grammar more prone to this behaviour suggesting that there may be at work principles of morphological organization that lie orthogonally to sign-based principles such as Transparency. The distributions attested in Tundra Nenets provide a fertile ground for exploration because they combine polyfunctionality with cumulative exponence, where a single paradigm indexes two sets of features. Recasting Blevins’ (2016) abstractive analysis as a default inheritance hierarchy the analysis is guided by insights from Paradigm Function Morphology and Sign Based Construction Grammar, and treats polyfunctionality as the realization of a unifying morphomic feature that abstracts away what is common between different morphosyntactic configurations.
Pragmatic Aspects of Scalar Modifiers
Authors: Sawada Osamu
Published: December 2017

This book investigates pragmatic aspects of scalar modifiers. Through a detailed analysis of the semantics and pragmatics of comparatives with indeterminate pronouns, positive polarity minimizers, intensifiers, and expectation-reversal adverbs in Japanese and other languages, the book shows that scalarity is utilized not just for measuring a thing/event in the semantic level, but also for expressing various kinds of pragmatic information, including politeness, priority of utterance, the speaker’s attitude, and unexpectedness, at the level of conventional implicature (CI). The similarities and differences between at-issue and CI scalar meanings are analyzed using a multidimensional composition system (Potts 2005; McCready 2010). Two types of pragmatic scalar modifiers are proposed: a higher-level pragmatic scalar modifier, which utilizes an implicit pragmatic scale, and a lower-level pragmatic scalar modifier, which recycles the scale of an at-issue gradable predicate. The book also investigates the interpretations of pragmatic scalar modifiers that are embedded in the complement of an attitude predicate, and claims that there is a semantic shift from a CI to a secondary at-issue entailment in the case of non-speaker-oriented readings. It will also show that there is a phenomenon of “projection of not-at-issue meaning via modal support” in lower-level pragmatic scalar modifiers. Finally, the historical development of pragmatic scalar modifiers is also discussed. This book claims that although semantic scalar meanings and pragmatic (CI) scalar meanings are compositionally different, there is a relationship between the two, and it is important to look at both kinds of meaning in a uniform/flexible fashion.
Introduction
Authors: Sawada Osamu
Published: December 2017

Chapter 1 introduces the aim and the target phenomenon of this book, that is, the dual-use phenomenon of scalar modifiers and the meaning and use of pragmatic scalar modifiers. After a brief overview of the current views on the notion of conventional implicatures (CIs) and the semantics/pragmatics interface, and observation of data for the dual-use phenomenon of pragmatic scalar modifiers, this book raises questions concerning (i) the similarities and differences between at-issue scalar meanings and CI (not-at-issue) scalar meanings, (ii) variations in pragmatic scalar modifiers, (iii) the interpretations of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers, and (iv) the historical development of pragmatic scalar modifiers. It then also briefly outlines the core ideas and analytical directions used for answering these questions.
Counter-expectational scalar adverbs
Authors: Sawada Osamu
Published: December 2017

Chapter 7 investigates the meaning and use of Japanese counter-expectational scalar adverbs—that is, the counter-expectational intensifier yoppodo and the Japanese scale-reversal adverb kaette. It shows that although yoppodo and kaette convey some kind of counter-expectational meaning as lower-level pragmatic scalar modifiers, the way they trigger counter-expectational meaning is quite different. In an adjectival environment, yoppodo semantically intensifies degrees based on extraordinary evidence and conventionally implies that the degree is above the speaker’s expectation. By contrast, kaette reverses the scale of the gradable predicate and conventionally implies that the opposite situation is generally true. It is also proposed that there are two types of counter-expectational expressions that use scalarity: a relative type, which represents “above expectation” (e.g. yoppodo), and a reversal type, which expresses counter-expectation via polarity reversal (e.g. kaette). Comparison with wh-exclamatives, sentence exclamation, and the counter-expectational but is also discussed.
Interpretations of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers
Authors: Sawada Osamu
Published: December 2017

Chapter 8 investigates the interpretation of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers and considers the semantic mechanism behind subject- and speaker-oriented interpretations of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers and CIs. For a subject-oriented reading, it is argued that there is a shift from a CI to a secondary at-issue entailment at the clausal level when the embedded clause combines with an attitude predicate and has a subject-oriented reading. For a speaker-oriented reading of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers, it is claimed that the lower-level pragmatic scalar modifiers have the distinctive property of projection: unlike higher-level pragmatic scalar modifiers/typical CIs, lower-level pragmatic scalar modifiers can project out of the complement of a belief predicate only if there is a speaker-oriented modal in the main clause. This chapter shows that the interpretation of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers is not only a matter of context and involves semantic and pragmatic mechanisms.
Historical development of pragmatic scalar modifiers
Authors: Sawada Osamu
Published: December 2017

Chapter 9 considers the development of pragmatic scalar modifiers from a historical point of view. The main point is that although the directionality of the semantic change of scalar modifiers can be captured under a general path of semantic change or grammaticalization (i.e. propositional $>$ (textual) $>$ expressive; Traugott 1982), the semantic shift of scalar modifiers is not lexically at random. The chapter argues that semantic change in scalar modifiers is constrained or regulated by their lexical and morphosyntactic properties. At the lexical level, this constraint means that semantic change does not occur if the source meaning does not fit with an expressive mode. At the morphosyntactic level, there is a general constraint that the elements used for expressing a particular CI meaning must form a constituent. Finally, the relationship between syntactic change and semantic change is also discussed.
Mindreading Knowledge
Authors: McGlynn Aidan
Published: December 2017

Is knowing a mental state in its own right, as believing is, or is it, at best, a mental state in an attenuated sense due to being a species of belief? Jennifer Nagel has recently contended that there is a strong empirical case for the former view of knowledge, arguing indirectly for this conclusion by drawing on work in developmental and comparative psychology that she takes to suggest that the concept of knowledge is acquired before the concept of belief. This chapter critically reassesses the bearing of the relevant empirical results and argues that they present a messy, complicated, and inherently inconclusive picture of when children and other creatures acquire the concepts in question. It concludes that the available empirical evidence does not support Nagel’s conceptual priority claim, let alone her further metaphysical conclusions about the nature of knowledge.
The Nature of Knowledge
Authors: Klein Peter D.
Published: December 2017

The purpose of the chapter is to show that the defeasibility theory of knowledge provides the best solution to the most philosophically interesting way of characterizing the Gettier Problem. I will examine Gettier’s presentation of the problem in order to show that the principles that Gettier used to motivate the problem require some important corrections and, even with those corrections, the hard task remains, namely to make clear how fallible reasoning can result in real knowledge by eluding epistemic luck. I argue that various etiology of beliefs theories of knowledge (tracking theories, safety views, reliabilism, and virtue theories) do not provide a good basis for characterizing epistemic luck and depend upon highly speculative empirical claims. In addition, I will argue that among evidentialist theories (defeasibility theories, Dretske’s and Foley’s views) only a well-constructed defeasibility theory can correctly and informatively solve the Gettier Problem.
Sed ubi Socrates currit? On the Gettier Problem before Gettier
Authors: Hilpinen Risto
Published: December 2017

Medieval philosophers presented Gettier-type objections to the commonly accepted view of knowledge as firmly held true belief, and formulated additional conditions that meet the objections or analyzed knowledge in a way that is immune to the Gettier-type objections. The proposed conditions can be divided into two kinds: backward-looking conditions and forward-looking conditions. The former concern an inquirer’s current belief system and the way the inquirer acquired her beliefs, the latter refer to what the inquirer may come to learn in the future and how she can respond to objections. Some conditions of knowledge proposed in late nineteenth- and twentieth-century epistemology can be regarded as variants of the conditions put forward by medieval authors.
Conditions for a Constitution
Authors: Sajó András , Uitz Renáta
Published: December 2017

This chapter places the idea of the constitution and limited government within political and social conditions where the constitution is meant to endure. The more diverse the people, the trickier it is to govern them under one charter of government which works for all. The chapter starts from the privileged moment of constitution-making and explores the manner in which constitutions engage with the identity (or, more precisely, the identities) of the political community they stand for. The chapter discusses the uneasy relationship between constitutionalism and diversity as pre-conditions as well as challenges to the constitutional order. It examines the precursors of equality (toleration and tolerance), and situates the concept of citizenship in a context rife with opposing forces.
Ifs, Buts, and Maybes
Authors: Masters Ben
Published: December 2017

This chapter traces the fraught relationship between curiosity and explication in Carter’s major novels, and demonstrates how Carter’s experiments with grammatical modalities and syntax create a stylistically embodied curiosity that is responsive to uncertainty and contingency. It goes on to delineate an ethics of extrapolation, as enacted by Carter’s prose style, that draws us into a new kind of perception, and argues that this is fundamentally linked to what Carter called her ‘committed materialism’. Drawing on the work of thinkers and writers as diverse as Elaine Scarry, A.C. Bradley, Geoffrey Galt Harpham, Alex Houen, and William Burroughs, this chapter recovers Carter’s artistry (too often overlooked), to show how her ethics and politics are achieved first and foremost through the particulars of her extravagant prose style.
Coda
Authors: Masters Ben
Published: December 2017

This final chapter considers how far the broader arguments made about style in the previous chapters could be applied to other economies of novelistic prose (e.g. minimalism), before arguing that excess enacts its own peculiar and ethically enriching powers of thought and perception that cannot be so fully activated in a plainer style. To evidence this, it offers quick readings of Burgess, Carter, and Amis’s plainest books, showing how the ethical power of their characteristic styles is muted when the excess is tamed. Excess is shown to be both the product and regulator of the intellectual and political divisions that animate their thinking (especially between the conservative and the transformative), and the key to how their texts affect and engage the reader.
Introduction
Authors: Teubner Jonathan D.
Published: December 2017

This introduction conceptually outlines and historically locates the notion of the Augustinian tradition, and explains how the theme of prayer advances and refines our understanding of this tradition. The aim of this chapter is to indicate both the distinctiveness of Augustine’s own understanding of prayer, and the continuities of this theme (and variations upon it) in those who follow him. This chapter argues that Boethius and Benedict exemplify two distinctive forms of Augustinianism, both of which influence subsequent medieval Christian thought and practice. The central analytic distinction of this study between Augustinianism 1 (citations, references, allusions) and Augustinianism 2 (use of general orientations and constellations of themes) is presented in outline. Issues discussed include the relationship between tradition and modernity, the divergence of the Latin and Greek Christian traditions’ reflections on prayer, and the history of Augustinianism as a historiographical category.
A Theological Prelude
Authors: Teubner Jonathan D.
Published: December 2017

The brief prelude presents the theological criteria for the selection of Augustine’s texts in Part I. For the majority of interpreters, the Confessions has provided the existential context for theological treatments of prayer in Augustine’s work. Drawing on insights from De patientia, Part I of this book explores the connection between patience and wisdom. ‘A Theological Prelude’ outlines the theological reasoning that lies behind this text selection and thematic focus, including how Part I attempts to follow the logic of Augustine’s scriptural engagements and how those engagements informed the development of both his beliefs about and his practices of prayer.
Learning to Pray
Authors: Teubner Jonathan D.
Published: December 2017

This chapter opens by reflecting on the prayer with which Augustine opens his incomplete Soliloquia. In this work, Augustine introduces the reflexivity of prayer: prayer is a desire to know God and himself, to know God through himself and to know himself through God. In De magistro this reflexivity is expanded to account for a spoken yet essentially silent form of prayer. In these two works that bookend his experiment with the genre of philosophical dialogue, prayer emerges as an activity that is bound up with Augustine’s lifelong pursuit of wisdom, which, in turn, is closely related to the practice of prayer in non-Christian schools of philosophy of this period (388–91 CE).
Prayer as the Hope of Wisdom
Authors: Teubner Jonathan D.
Published: December 2017

The textual focus of this chapter is De trinitate 4 and 13, which will be framed by Augustine’s treatise on prayer (ep. 130) and selections from his anti-pelagian writings. In these important books of De trinitate, Augustine proposes Christ as that which ‘bridges’ or ‘heals’ the breach between scientia (knowledge) and sapientia (wisdom), themes which represent a climax within Part I of this book. The movement between scientia and sapientia is both an ‘ascent’ and a temporally unfolding pilgrimage to the beata vita, animated and sustained by the inseparable operations of the Trinity. But as ep. 130 in particular will show, this movement is only achieved in and through the work of the Holy Spirit, the consequence of which will be that patience emerges as that which the Pelagians ultimately lack. This chapter will treat issues such as illumination, participation, desire, and the theological virtues of faith, hope, and love.
The Augustinianism 1 of the Rule of St Benedict
Authors: Teubner Jonathan D.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 7 is the first of two examinations of Benedict’s Rule, which is at the centre of much current reflection on the identity of the Latin theological tradition. Borrowing insights from the commentaries of Terrence Kardong, Michaela Puzicha and Christian Schütz, and Aquinata Böckmann, which now deserve to stand alongside Adalbert de Vogüé’s masterful commentary and French translation, this chapter establishes cases of the Rule of St Benedict’s direct literary reliance on Augustine (Augustinianism 1). These instances of literary borrowing address ‘fraternal relations’, a concern shared by both Augustine and Benedict. Themes investigated in this chapter include solidarity, inequality, charity, and ‘pure prayer’.
An Ethical Postlude
Authors: Teubner Jonathan D.
Published: December 2017

‘An Ethical Postlude’ returns to reflect directly on an understanding of tradition that frames how Boethius and Benedict relate to Augustine vis-à-vis the theme of prayer. This final chapter reflects on the kinematics of tradition, that is, on the actual motions qua motions of the act of tradition. This chapter engages the work of Alasdair MacIntyre and Jeffrey Stout, both of whom have offered challenges to religious ethicists to broaden their historical horizons. Through critical engagement with MacIntyre and Stout, this chapter presents a case for an historical approach to Christian existence which can still give rise to meaningful moral and ethical reflection without having to accept (consciously or unconsciously) a Hegelian metaphysics of history.
Normative and Natural Truths
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter considers arguments for and against normative naturalism. According to the normativity objection, irreducibly normative, reason-implying claims could not, if they were true, state normative facts that were also natural facts. When some naturalists reply to the normativity objection, they appeal to cases in which words with quite different meanings, and the concepts they express, refer to the same property. According to non-analytical naturalists, though we make some irreducibly normative claims, these claims, when they are true, state natural facts. Such views take two forms. Hard naturalists believe that, since all facts are natural, we do not need to make any such irreducibly normative claims. According to soft naturalists, we do need to make such claims. Soft naturalism, this chapter argues, could not be true. If there were no irreducibly normative truths, our normative beliefs could not help us to make good decisions and to act well.
Railton’s Defence of Soft Naturalism
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter provides a counterpoint to arguments from the previous chapters. One such argument is that naturalists cannot defend their view by appealing to scientific analogies, such as the fact that heat is molecular kinetic energy. The chapter maintains that Soft naturalists cannot defend their claim that, though true normative beliefs would be about natural facts, these beliefs would help us to make good decisions and to act well. In answering this statement, the chapter suggests that these naturalists might appeal to the complex roles or job descriptions that certain natural properties might fulfil. The chapter, however, argues that this reply to the Triviality Objection does not succeed.
Jackson’s Non-Empirical Normative Truths
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter presents some arguments on non-empirical normative truths. It considers the assumption that, if there were any non-natural normative truths, these truths would be about ontologically weighty non-natural properties. Given what we have learnt about our world, we know that there are no such properties and truths. But the chapter argues that these normative truths are not about such ontologically weighty non-natural properties. It is implied that metaphysical Nnturalists can consistently believe that there are some non-empirical truths, such as logical, mathematical, and modal truths, and some fundamental normative truths. These truths do not add anything mysterious to a Naturalist's ontology, however.
Another Triple Theory
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter provides some further insights into normative thinking and reconciles a few meta-ethical disagreements. It builds on an earlier assumption that all non-naturalists make ontological claims of a kind which is ‘mysterious and incredible’. But these objections do not apply to the kind of non-realist cognitivism that has been discussed so far. Hence, the non-realist cognitivist view that there are some non-natural, non-ontological normative truths. The chapter details further dissenting views drawn from these arguments, in the process exploring other meta-ethical arguments concerning the use of the word ‘true’, non-realist cognitivism, normative concepts, normativity, oblique expressivism, and so on.
Conflicting Reasons
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter confronts ‘the profoundest problem in ethics’ — in which we always have most reason to do our duty, by doing whatever would be impartially best, and that we always have most reason to do whatever would be best for ourselves. These beliefs imply that, when one act would be impartially best but another act would be best for ourselves, we would have most reason to act in each of these different ways. That is a contradiction, which could not be true. These arguments can be revised so that they avoid this contradiction. But these beliefs would still imply that, whenever any impartial moral reason conflicts with any self-interested reason, neither reason would be stronger. Reason would give us no guidance, since there would be nothing that we had more reason to do.
The Right and the Good
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter introduces a number of claims. If we are not act consequentialists, we may think that we could always reasonably want and hope that things will go in the ways that would be best and that it would often be best if some people acted wrongly. Therefore we could often reasonably want and hope that some people will act wrongly. Act consequentialists claim that, when it would be best if people acted in some way, this fact would make this act right. Some other people claim that the badness of any wrong act would prevent this act from making things go best. This second claim is false. Some wrong acts make things go better by preventing several other similar wrong acts. There are other wrong acts, most of us believe, that would make things go best.
The integument
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

The skin is the boundary between fish and environment and possesses important boundary functions such as protection and camouflage. Fish skin is mucigenic, contrasting with keratinized skin in terrestrial vertebrates. Structurally, there is an outer epidermis, a dermis and an inner hypodermis, the entire mucigenic epidermis remaining alive, with mitotic cells, unlike a keratinized epidermis. A variety of specialized epidermal cells are described, and the role of the ‘bias-sleeve’ orientation of dermal collagen is discussed. Scales, scutes and bony plates have protective roles. The variety of morphological types is considered. Skin colouration has important boundary functions in fish; colour largely depends upon different kinds of chromatophores, mainly dermal, and may change under hormonal or neural control in some species. Seasonal changes may occur in skin structure which can also be affected by captivity. Pollutants such as oil can affect fish skin structure both directly and systemically by influencing hormonal activity.
Transport: blood and circulation
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

The blood system transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes; other functions include defence. Fish have a closed, single circulation in which blood is pumped by a contractile heart via a ventral aorta to the gills, then via the dorsal aorta to vessels supplying the tissues and organs, with a venous return to the heart. Large venous sinuses occur in elasmobranchs. Air-breathing fish have modifications of the circulation. Complex networks of narrow blood vessels can occur as red patches, retia, maximizing transfer of nutrients, oxygen or heat. Most fish have nucleated red blood cells (erythrocytes) with haemoglobin. The types of white blood cells (leucocytes) are similar to those of other vertebrates but there are thrombocytes rather than platelets. Nutrient transport is in the plasma, the fluid component of the blood, which may also carry antifreeze agents and molecules (e.g. urea in elasmobranchs) which counteract deleterious osmotic effects
Gas exchange
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

Oxygen intake for respiration, also carbon dioxide and, generally, ammonia elimination takes place across gas-exchange surfaces, usually the gills in fish. Water flows across gills, separated by the pharyngeal gill clefts, and supported by gill arches, and which possess highly folded surfaces covered by a very thin epithelium. Blood flow and water flow are separated only by the epithelium with a ‘countercurrent’ gas exchange between the two. A respiratory centre in the hind-brain is a respiratory rhythm pacemaker for the oral and pharyngeal ventilation movements creating water flow across the gills, although ‘ram ventilation’ occurs without such movements. The oxygen and carbon dioxide-carrying capacity of blood is increased considerably by temporary attachment to haemoglobin pigment in the erythrocytes. Some fish are air breathing, using lungs, swim bladder, skin or lips for gaseous exchange. Hypoxia, hypercapnia, supersaturation and high water temperatures present problems for fish respiration, which are discussed.
Metabolism, homeostasis and growth
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

Metabolism consists of the sum of anabolism (construction) and catabolism (destruction) with the release of energy, and achieving a fairly constant internal environment (homeostasis). The aquatic external environment favours differences from mammalian pathways of excretion and requires osmoregulatory adjustments for fresh water and seawater though some taxa, notably marine elasmobranchs, avoid osmoregulatory problems by retaining osmotically active substances such as urea, and molecules protecting tissues from urea damage. Ion regulation may occur through chloride cells of the gills. Most fish are not temperature regulators but a few are regional heterotherms, conserving heat internally. The liver has many roles in metabolism, including in some fish the synthesis of antifreeze seasonally. Maturing females synthesize yolk proteins in the liver. Energy storage may include the liver and, surprisingly, white muscle. Fish growth can be indeterminate and highly variable, with very short (annual) life cycles or extremely long cycles with late and/or intermittent reproduction.
Excretion
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, ions and water as well as toxic xenobiotics and metals. The process involves the gills, kidney, liver and rectal gland (elasmobranchs and coelacanth). In the liver, amino acids, haemoglobin, steroids and molecules resulting from human activities are transformed to excretable products. The rectal gland excretes ions, notably Na+ and Cl−. The kidney in teleosts has a distinction between an anterior head-kidney containing haematopoietic tissue and endocrine tissue and the posterior region with nephrons (kidney tubules). Fish nephrons generally have a Malphigian corpuscle with a glomerulus but the structure varies between fish taxa and some marine teleosts lack a glomerulus. Control systems for fish excretion are unclear but it is expected that various hormones influence excretory homeostasis.