bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Measuring Efficiency in Educational Production
Authors: Levin Henry M.
Published: November 2015

An attempt is made to explore the production set for educational achievement for both “efficient” and “inefficient” schools. The inefficient or average production relationship is obtained by estimating a reduced-form equation for all schools among a sample drawn from a large Eastern city. The efficient set is derived by using a linear programming approach to yield coefficients for those schools that show the largest student achievement output relative to their resource inputs. A comparison of the two sets of technical coefficients suggests that the relative marginal products are probably different. Because of such differences, the optimal combination of inputs for producing educational achievement relative to a given budget constraint will probably vary between achievement-efficient and inefficient schools, and may even vary from school to school. The result is that the use of such production-function estimates for attempting to improve the efficiency of the educational sector may have far less utility than its advocates imply.
Hochman and Rodgers on Brennan and Walsh: Reply
Authors: Brennan Geoffrey , Walsh Cliff
Published: November 2015

Harold Hochman and James Rodgers' response to our reconsideration of their discussion of Paretian redistribution indicates that their model and ours are quite distinct. However, the differences emerge from a number of assumptions that had not been explicitly raised in their earlier discussions of the model; and while these assumptions are not implausible, it is not clear that systematic analysis of them would yield the sort of redistributive patterns that their formal models have produced. Moreover, their response totally misinterprets our comments on the transfer-elasticity concept (which we argue obscures aspects of the transfer process which have an important bearing on the final redistributive pattern), and on the normative significance of the notion of Pareto desirable redistribution (which we believe to be less than H&R. have suggested).
Effect of Police Expenditures on Crime Rates: Some Evidence
Authors: Pogue Thomas F.
Published: November 2015

The main concern of this paper is the relationship between public sector use of resources for law enforcement and the rate of criminal activity. In addition, this paper reports tests of the hypotheses that crime rates are influenced by economic and demographic factors that condition the individual's environment and alternatives. The results support several tentative conclusions: existing intercity differences in crime rates cannot be attributed to the existing and substantial intercity differences in resources devoted to public law enforcement. Nor can the major share of crime rate variation be attributed to environmental factors that are widely regarded as determinants of individual decisions to engage in unlawful activity, although some of these factors (income, race, age, city size) appear to have a significant and stable effect on crime rates.
Evaluating Public Grants to Private Enterprise Where Information is Limited
Authors: Kuch P. J.
Published: November 2015

This paper sets out a framework for evaluating public grants to private firms, where recommendation as to the social desirability of individual grant proposals must be made in the absence of information about alternative public expenditures and the optimality of the proposed output level. It is argued that a surplus of social benefits over social costs, as they are conventionally defined, is not sufficient to justify publicly subsidized production of a good in the private sector. It must also be the case that the recipient firm's production of the good will generate net external benefits at least as large as the proposed grant. The magnitude of the public grant can not be ignored on the grounds that it is merely an income transfer. In the case of publicly subsidized private production, the mechanism of public investment is a transfer of resources. Proper evaluation of a grant involves determining the extent to which this transfer will improve allocative efficiency as opposed to merely redistributing income.
Predicting the Cost of Fiscal Equalization in School Finance
Authors: Gilmer Robert W.
Published: November 2015

The recent appearance on the national scene of the Serrano and Rodriguez cases served to dramatize one of the most persistent problems of school finance reform–the vast differences between the tax bases per pupil and the ability to provide educational services among school districts in the same state. As these cases have highlighted the issue, and as the presence of these inequities have been more widely recognized, the states have begun to consider reform more seriously. One of the major obstacles to the elimination of these fiscal differentials is the apparent cost. Although intuition would argue for a very high cost, there seems to have been no consistent estimates. This article estimates the cost for Texas. Using an estimating equation for shifts in district expenditure under different tax bases and aid patterns, and solving a system of equations for the fiscal equalization, I have derived the estimates. The results are encouraging as the tax bill for such reform may be less than the previously available estimates would lead us to believe.
Income Tax, Wage Tax, and Optimal Tax
Authors: Berglas Eitan
Published: November 2015

Recent studies find wage subsidies (WS) to be superior to negative income tax (NIT). However, these studies suffer from a serious aggregation problem. A model is suggested in which these aggregation problems are avoided. In this model there exists a WS schedule that increases labor supply compared with an equally costly NIT. However, the WS may be Pareto inferior. Furthermore, for high income workers given any income tax system it is always possible to find a wage tax system which both is Pareto superior and increases labor supply. The merits of the model and its implications for other optimal income tax studies are critically discussed.
Individual Preferences as Supply Determinants in the Municipal and Federal Bond Markets
Authors: Adams Royd.
Published: November 2015

This paper adds to the small stock of existing literature on the determinants of individual preferences regarding tax postponement via government borrowing. It is shown that because of the treatment of personal interest receipts and payments under the progressive U.S. individual income tax, there is reason for low-income persons to prefer bond-financed tax postponement, while higher-income persons have reason to oppose government borrowing. Since the income level separating the groups with opposing preferences depends on both interest rate ratios and the income tax rate structure, it is possible to predict the effect of tax reforms, inflation, and political reforms upon the quantity of government borrowing and the interest rates which apply to it.
Taxation and Inflation: A Survey of Recent Theory and Empirical Evidence
Authors: Auld D.A.L.
Published: November 2015

The past decade has witnessed considerable attention devoted to the relationship between tax increases and wage/price inflation. This paper surveys briefly the theoretical and empirical evidence of this period with emphasis on how tax variables have been incorporated into theoretical and empirical modes of wage and price determination.
Scandinavian Local Income Taxation: Lessons for the United States?
Authors: Gold Steven D.
Published: November 2015

This paper describes and analyzes the experiences of Norway. Sweden and Denmark with local income taxation in order to test the validity of comments made by numerous American economists about such taxes. Although local income taxes are their major source of locally raised revenue, it appears that the problems of revenue instability and tax base mobility are not serious in these countries. Fiscal disparities have been greatly reduced through consolidation of government units and heavy reliance on transfers from the national government, and these institutional arrangements may have reduced local autonomy in some important respects. The heavy reliance on income taxes by all levels of government is one reason for the extremely high marginal tax rales to which most workers are subject.
The Over-Regulated City: A Perspective on Regulatory Procedures in the City of New York
Authors: Hochman Harold M.
Published: November 2015

This article summarizes the pilot studies of local regulation in the City of New York of a team of City University of New York students and faculty. It deals with three categories of regulation: permits and licenses, qualitative restrictions on buildings and land use, and price controls. Direct effects on revenue and revenue potential seem small, but the burdens of compliance and enforcement appear to be significant. While no striking evidence that regulation is responsible for the economic fortunes of New York is unearthed, it seems clear, in many cases, that regulation serves no significant purpose, and has stifled incentive and inhibited market-clearing at “correct” prices. Further study, directed in particular to why private interests seem more successful in promoting their demands for regulation in New York than elsewhere, seems warranted.
State Equalizing Aids and Metropolitan Tax Base Sharing: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Fisher Peter S.
Published: November 2015

State gram programs aimed at equalizing local government fiscal capacities and metropolitan-wide programs for the sharing of property tax bases are very similar in terms of objectives as well as operation. The Twin Cities tax base sharing system, which has served as a model for numerous other proposals, has some serious deficiencies; a proposal for eliminating these defects is developed by viewing tax base sharing as a set of fiscal capacity equalizing grants. Alternative formulas are evaluated, and the merits of tax base sharing at the state rather than metropolitan level are discussed.
Corrective Taxes and Auctions of Rights in the Control of Externalities: Some Further Thoughts
Authors: Oates Wallace E.
Published: November 2015

Taking as its point of departure the Holcombe-Meiners contention that a system of marketable pollution rights is susceptible to the monopolization of these rights as a means to forestall the entry of competitors, this article explores more broadly the relative merits of systems of effluent fees and of marketable rights for the control of pollution. The article suggests, first, that the Holcombe-Meiners problem concerning the use of pollution rights as a barrier to entry is likely to be inconsequential, and, second, that from a wider perspective, a system of marketable pollution rights under which the rights are initially distributed to existing polluters has some quite compelling advantages in practice over the economist's more traditional proposal for a system of effluent fees. It is, moreover, the direction in which environmental policy appears to be moving in the United States.
Cost—Benefit Analysis of a New Health Insurance Card and Electronic Prescription in Germany
Authors: Lux Andreas
Published: November 2015

A new (electronic) health insurance card for Germans could eliminate errors in documenting exemption from charges. Electronic prescribing, if introduced nationally, would lead to improved medication-related information and the availability of structural and control data. An analytical model for Germany has shown that DM1 billion would be saved from improved prescription information simply in terms of the number of avoided hospital stays now paid for by the health-care system. However, the distribution of costs and benefits among the participants in health-care would be very uneven. For example, doctors would have the largest investment and operating costs, but would enjoy only marginal savings (less than 2% of investment).
Factors Influencing the Evaluation of Telehealth Interventions: Preliminary Results from a Qualitative Study of Evaluation Projects in the UK
Authors: May C R , Williams T L , Mair F S , Mort M M , Shaw N T , Gask L
Published: November 2015

We have carried out a qualitative study of factors that influence the evaluation of telehealth. The study concerned six telehealth projects that are being tracked over two years. In the first 12 months of the study we carried out semistructured interviews and made observations of the participants in the projects. Each case study involved 5–15 subjects, many of whom were interviewed several times. The results indicate that important issues affecting telehealth evaluation include developing and maintaining the technology, reorganization of clinical and administrative duties, professional dynamics, and the difficulty of integrating service provision and evaluation. The findings suggest that the evaluation of telehealth interventions is highly complex, and that this complexity is often underestimated in the design and conduct of evaluation studies.
The North-West Region Community PACS Study
Authors: Navein John
Published: November 2015

A recent study in the West Surrey Health Authority demonstrated substantial advantages from viewing a picture archiving and communication system (PACS) as a whole-community asset, that is, a community PACS (CPACS). To test how this concept could be translated to other situations, the present study extrapolated the CPACS concept to the north-west healthcare region of the UK (population around seven million). A CPACS is a network covering multiple hospitals and community organizations, with a single archive and a broadband network to support it. A CPACS would provide a much better service to patients. It would bring financial economies of scale of up to 17%. It could provide the ‘big modernization idea’ which brings clinicians, managers and technologists together. On the other hand, it could well be too big to manage.
Telemedicine in the Service of Peace
Authors: Shanit Dan , Striebel Werner , Michelson Georg , Ayed Saida , Assi Samer Al , Belfair Nadav , Ben-Simon Guy , Hamida Fafani , Kanawati Charlie , Lifshitz Tova , Madia Ghassan , Rafi Mostafa , Tahat Atef , Treister Giora , Tucktuck Khalid , Zaghloul Khalid
Published: November 2015

Ophthalmology is well suited to telemedicine, since optical and imaging devices provide the basis for virtually all ophthalmic patient evaluations. We established the Middle East Ophthalmology Network among ophthalmologists working in 10 major ophthalmology centres in Israel, Jordan, Morocco, the Palestinian Authority and Tunisia. The project offered some 50 physicians around the Middle East the opportunity to benefit from sharing clinical consultation for diagnosis and management decisions beyond physical and political boundaries. In the first year, over 100 consultations took place. The system overcame some of the constraints imposed by the uneven distribution of medical resources and expertise in the region, reduced professional isolation, encouraged more collaboration between physicians and offered ‘peace dividends' from cooperation between physicians across the political divide.
A Telemedicine Model for Integrating Point-of-Care Testing into a Distributed Health-Care Environment
Authors: Villalar J L , Arredondo M T , Meneu T , Traver V , Cabrera M F , Guillen S , Del Pozo F
Published: November 2015

Centralized testing demands costly laboratories, which are inefficient and may provide poor services. Recent advances make it feasible to move clinical testing nearer to patients and the requesting physicians, thus reducing the time to treatment internet technologies can be used to create a virtual laboratory information system in a distributed health-care environment. This allows clinical testing to be transferred to a cooperative scheme of several point-of-care testing (POCT) nodes. Two pilot virtual laboratories were established, one in Italy (AUSL Modena) and one in Greece (Athens Medical Centre). They were constructed on a three-layer model to allow both technical and clinical verification. Different POCT devices were connected. The pilot sites produced good preliminary results in relation to user acceptance, efficiency, convenience and costs. Decentralized laboratories can be expected to become cost-effective.
An Integrated Nursing and Telemedicine Approach to Vascular Care
Authors: Bangs Iris , Clarke Malcolm , Hands Linda , Jones Russell , Knott Mary , Mahaffey Wendy
Published: November 2015

We have developed a telemedicine approach to vascular care for patients being managed in primary care. District nurses visit patients in their homes. Clinical information and digital photographs can be sent by email to the vascular surgeon for assessment. Where appropriate a preliminary teleconsultation between the patient and a vascular surgeon, with the nurse in attendance, is held at the primary care centre and the management of the patient is agreed. This may include referral to surgery. Over eight months six patients with diabetes and peripheral ulcers participated in the vascular telemedicine clinic. The average consultation time was 12 min (SD 4), which included discussion of the case and negotiation of its management. Important outcomes of the new system were the ability to schedule patients for rapid referral and to have completed the management of the case during the teleconsultation.
Women in ethnic news media
Authors: Yu Sherry S
Published: November 2015

The representation of women in so-called mainstream media has been well studied; however, less is known about this representation in ethnic media, especially in North America where the ethnic media sector is constantly growing. Ethnic media’s unique news sourcing strategy – that is, a mix of news locally produced by local staff writers, news outsourced from local mainstream media, and news internationally imported from the country of origin – suggests that the underrepresentation of women in mainstream media can spill over to and be reproduced in ethnic media. A content analysis of Korean news media in Vancouver and Los Angeles finds an interesting interplay between the transnational effect and the local effect. That is, while a pervasive influence of mainstream media from the country of origin is evident (transnational effect), strong female leadership in the local community and the active roles of these leaders as news sources and actors contribute positively to overall representation of women (local effect).
The Impact of Star Ratings and Corporate Affiliation on Hotel Room Prices in Israel
Authors: Israeli Aviad A. , Uriely Natan
Published: November 2015

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the pricing decisions of hotels in an effort to ascertain whether corporate affiliation and stars influence hotels' pricing decisions. The findings suggest that high-quality (ie four- and five-star) hotels tend to be affiliated with chains and signal this affiliation using a naming strategy. In addition, the industry-based star rating system explains a large part of the price variation. The impact of corporate affiliation, modelled as the size of the corporation, has a relatively smaller, but overall positive, impact on price. An investigation of different locations reveals that the intensity of corporate affiliation, and specific characteristics of the consumers' market in each location are also significant in explaining the hotels' pricing decisions.
A Multivariate Model for Predicting Business Failures of Hospitality Firms
Authors: Gu Zheng , Gao Luyuan
Published: November 2015

This study estimated a multivariate discriminant model for predicting hospitality firm bankruptcy. The model has a 93 per cent accuracy in classifying the in-sample firms into bankrupt and non-bankrupt firms. The model suggests that unprofitable firms burdened with debts, short-term debts in particular, are more likely to be candidates for bankruptcy. Fast expansion and sales growth of those firms may increase their bankruptcy likelihood.
Economic Determinism and Human Resource Management Practice in the Hospitality and Tourism Industry
Authors: Riley Michael , Gore Julie , Kelliher Clare
Published: November 2015

The paper argues a case for the economic determinism of human resource management practice. The arguments put aside human agency and suggest that human resource management practice can best be understood through the influence of industrial and labour economics. The question has been asked in the HRM literature as to whether economic determinism has led to the collapse of the HRM metaphor. This paper suggests that the hospitality and tourism industry is a case of where economic determinism has prevented modern HRM paradigms from starting up. The friction between concerns for modern management practice and unchanging economic imperatives forms the basis of the paper. The conditions that might produce change are discussed.
Tourism Destinations and the Concept of Industrial Districts
Authors: Hjalager Anne-Mette
Published: November 2015

This paper identifies the main characteristics of industrial districts as interdependence of firms; flexible firm boundaries; cooperative competition; trust in sustained collaboration; and a ‘community culture’ with supportive public policies. In spite of the dominance of SMEs and local interdependence, and in spite of the spatial significance of tourism destinations, this type of firm has not been analysed systematically using the concepts and methods of industrial districts. The comparability between tourism destinations and industrial districts is less obvious, especially as regards governance structures. This is also true of the intensified vertical division of labour between regions delivering services to tourists and regions developing such services. However, new trends in consumer preferences, technological developments and environmental prerequisites make the development of some district properties more likely to emerge in tourism destinations in the future. This paper suggests a number of key issues for a research programme.
Potential Impacts of Climate Change on International Tourism
Authors: Agnew Maureen D. , Viner David
Published: November 2015

Global temperatures rose by over 0.5°C during the 20th century and current estimates suggest that they will continue to rise at between 0.2 and 0.3°C per decade during the course of the 21st century. This increasing trend towards warmer temperatures could have major consequences for the tourism industry, which is heavily dependent on present climatic and environmental conditions. The ecosystems of many international holiday destinations are potentially vulnerable to climate change. This paper reviews the potential impacts of climate change for ten international tourist destinations. The most serious impacts will result from the effects of sea-level rise on small island states. Other impacts likely to affect tourism include coral bleaching, outbreaks of fire, changed migration patterns of animals and birds, flooding, the spread of vector-borne diseases and shorter skiing seasons. Without appropriate adaptive measures, climate change could produce a shift in the comparative attractiveness of tourist destinations around the globe.
Wine Tourism, Culture and the Everyday: A Theoretical Note
Authors: Ravenscroft Neil , van Westering Jetske
Published: November 2015

This paper addresses the principal theoretical issues informing the significance of wine consumption as social practice and, within this, the significance of tourism to wine consumption. While recognising the work of Mike Hall and others, particularly in developing and applying Bourdieu's theory of distinction, the paper offers an alternative perspective. Drawing on the everyday experiences of serious leisure, the paper argues that distinction is attached to bodily rather than social practices — that people ‘become by doing’, rather than ‘doing to become’. In the case of wine, the ‘becoming’ is connected to entry to a ‘social world’ inhabited exclusively by those knowledgeable about wine. Others — tourists — are allowed access to some elements of this social world, such as drinking wine and visiting vineyards. This access serves only to convince them of how little they know, thus legitimising the prestige of the ‘full members’ of the social world. The paper thus offers a development of theory that links established work on ‘connoisseur skills’ and social distinctiveness to new understandings of tourism as an embodied journey around the self. This linkage is assisted by the growing body of literature on learning and the learning function, as portrayed in Elias's ‘back stage’, where people are able to develop their understanding and appreciation of wines away from the gaze of their home communities. The paper concludes by calling for a new research agenda that is driven by a deeper understanding of the significance to tourism of (wine) consumption as a bodily practice.
Managerial Training Needs: A Study of Spanish Tourism Organisations
Authors: Grau-Gumbau R. , Agut-Nieto S. , Llorens-Gumbau S. , Martínez-Martínez I. M.
Published: November 2015

The general aim of this study is to analyse training needs of managers in tourism organisations from the Valencian region (eastern Spain), by using qualitative methodology (focus groups composed of key respondents from Valencian tourism). A topic analysis of the focus groups' content was conducted by means of the NUD.IST 3.0 categorisation program. The information obtained has been interpreted according to the main premises of the theoretical model: organisation-job-person (McGehee and Thayer, 1961; Goldstein, 1993). Moreover, due to the wider scope of this paper, an additional analysis level — economic sector — has been included. The results show a strategy of training needs analysis and managerial training needs which focus mainly on organisational aspects. Specifically, new technologies, social changes and quality control systems are the organisational challenges and goals with the greatest training needs. The limitations of the study and future research directions are discussed.
Residents' Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction with Public Sector Governance: The Cretan Case
Authors: Andriotis Konstantinos
Published: November 2015

Local and national governments have at one point or another essential, or even critical influence over the local tourism industry for the provision of numerous services including infrastructure, transportation, security, overseas marketing, as well as funding of tourism projects. Observing a negligence of past research on the opinions of local community to public sector governance, the aim of this study was to investigate Cretan residents' satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the role of local authorities and the Greek government in tourism development. Based on the findings, this paper discusses the implications of the research for future tourism policy and suggests future research priorities.
Incentives and Self-Interest: Balancing Revenue and Rewards in China's Tourism Industry
Authors: Dong Lily C. , Droege Scott B. , Johnson Nancy B.
Published: November 2015

The travel service industry is a fast-growing part of the Chinese economy. With the recent announcement of Beijing as the host city for the 2008 Olympics, this trend is poised to continue. The quality of a travel service company's (TSC) reputation generates revenue from repeat and referral business and is critical to the ongoing success of firms in this industry. A key factor in maintaining reputation is the level of quality services provided by tour guides employed by these firms. Using an agency theory framework, this paper suggests that the optimal compensation contract of tour guides is a mixture of outcome-based and behaviour-based contracts. The authors propose specific contract components that balance TSC revenue requirements and their need to maintain a strong reputation while providing incentives for tour guides to act in the best interest of the company.
Analysis of the Impact of Organisational Factors in Managerial Hospitality Configurations
Authors: Navarro Mercedes Melchior , López Eduardo Parra , Domínguez Angel Ramos
Published: November 2015

Tourist activity constitutes one of the signs of economic and socio-cultural development in the Canaries; it is considered the fundamental and strategic point of regional economic growth and the driving force behind the growth of other sectors.

This paper attempts to define and provide a more in-depth study and awareness of these questions. For this reason, the prompt identification and appropriate response to these structural changes and new demands will aid the hospitality sector in achieving suitable competitive advantages.

The aim of the paper is to analyse various organisational factors affecting hotel units located in different tourism destinations in the Canary Islands and to study distinctive organisational populations, with their own contextual and structural answers.
Community Attitudes to the Acceptability of User Fees in Natural Settings
Authors: Lee Diane , Pearce Philip L.
Published: November 2015

A large-scale survey explored community attitudes towards the application of user fees in natural environment settings used for tourism and recreation. The study was undertaken in two Northern Australian cities where there is considerable tourism use and some existing application of a user fees approach. The study explored the acceptability of user fees for 14 different types of settings. Data revealed that a user fees approach was considered acceptable for tourism sites when tourists were being charged. There was some recognition that all users could pay user fees for the tourism sites. Seven recreation sites were seen as inappropriate locations for user fees irrespective of who was using the sites. Additional analyses identified clusters of respondents with common systems of knowledge or social representations about user fees. Further use of this systems of knowledge approach was recommended for advancing understanding and informing practice in this controversial area of tourism management.
Trends and Issues in Tourism and Hospitality Higher Education: Visioning the Future
Authors: Sigala Marianna , Baum Tom
Published: November 2015

Changes in the higher educational environment are having a tremendous impact on the education process, curricula, learning outcomes and instructional practices. This paper aims to identify the challenges facing established universities in tourism and hospitality education and to provide insight of how these could be managed in the future. Five sources of change are identified: the socio-economic and technological environment; global competition; the student market; educators and teaching methods; and the tourism and hospitality industry. The exploitation of modern technologies and the development of information literacy and knowledge management skills are the two major issues that universities need to consider in the future.
Visual Efficiency in Coloured Light
Authors: Dunbar C.
Published: November 2015

The visual efficiencies of observers in a street scene which was illuminated in turn with sodium, mercury, and white light have been compared. The scene was a brightness replica of a selected street-lighting installation reproduced on a screen by means of a cinematograph film. The street lamps were introduced into the picture from behind the screen.

Two films were used for the tests. In the first film, objects in the street scene were suddenly presented to the observer, while in the second, the objects were allowed gradually to attain the contrast which they presented in the actual installation. The number of objects detected by each observer was noted and the time taken to detect each object was automatically recorded.

The comparison of visual efficiency was carried out at three brightness levels, and for each comparison the street scene had the same distribution of photometric brightness whatever the illuminant, i.e., the comparison was based on sources of the same lumen output.

The results obtained at the three brightness levels, and with both methods of object presentation, show no significant differences in the number of objects detected with the three illuminants. An analysis of the detection times has also failed to reveal grounds for attributing a superiority to any one of the three illuminants.

The investigation gives no support to the claim that the visibility of objects in a street lighting installation will be improved by using sources which emit light of a particular spectral quality.
The Physical Realisation of the C.I.E. Average Eye
Authors: Winch G. T. , MacHin C. F.
Published: November 2015

After a brief historical survey of attempts at the realisation of a physical eye of defined spectral sensitivity, the earlier methods and technique employed are appraised. Subsequently, the problem is stated, both from the theoretical and practical aspects.

The main treatment of the paper deals with the description of the multi-purpose apparatus which the authors have developed and which is suitable for use as an “average eye,” as defined by the Commission Internationale d'Eclairage. It can be adapted for use as a physical colorimeter indicating directly the C.I.E. trichromatic coefficients of coloured light and as an instrument for measuring spectral luminosity distribution in terms of the proportion of the total luminosity in each of 8 defined spectral bands.

Finally, the possible general application to commercial photometry, colorimetry and colour rendering measurements, is discussed.
Tolerances and Their Effect on Physical Measurements
Authors: Darwin Charles
Published: November 2015

The tolerances that may be admitted in manufacturing processes have always been an important matter in works practice, but they have tended in the past not to be considered as a subject for deep study, but rather as a nuisance which would not arise in a perfect world. Recent developments in theoretical physics have very much altered this view, and have shown that the subject of errors and tolerances is not only interesting in itself, but is important in the foundations of physics.

A series of examples is given showing some interesting points in considering tolerances. It starts with the large numbers concerned in accident rates, and then takes a simple manufacturing process. Next, examples from acoustics and optics are considered, and then the “Uncertainty Principle” of the quantum theory, which lies at the basis of all physical measurement. Finally, it is shown that even pure mathematics is essentially based on the idea of tolerances.
The Testing of Night Vision
Authors: Godding E. W.
Published: November 2015

This paper is written with the object of further advancing the establishment of basic requirements in regard to the adequate routine testing of night vision and of obtaining a more general appreciation of the factors concerned. Attempts at accuracy and reproducibility in testing have been as few as methods have been legion. The result has been a marked conflict of experimental evidence. It is felt, therefore, particularly in view of the increase in the number of workers in this field, that the essentials of an accurate instrument and technique should be considered.
Lighting in Coal Mines
Authors: Graham J. Ivon
Published: November 2015

The paper opens with a general review of the problems involved in mine lighting and steps which have been taken to improve conditions in the mines by providing better lighting. Attempts to improve illumination at the coal face over that possible by portable lamps have so far not shown any benefit in increased output but there appears to be evidence of a reduction in accidents.

The merits of electric hand lamps and cap lamps are discussed, and suggestions for possible future improvements are made. Alternative methods of providing adequate illumination at the coal face by means of transportable self-contained battery lamps and by mains lighting are discussed at some length and mention is made of the application of mains lighting to mines in other countries. A description is given of the pneumatic-electric lamp which provides a means of greatly increasing the illumination at the coal face in those pits where, for various reasons, mains lighting cannot be used.

The paper deals with the subject of glare and discusses methods for ensuring the maximum reflectivity at the working face.
A Polar Distribution Calculator
Authors: Shurmer H. V.
Published: November 2015

This paper describes a simple graphical means of calculating the candle-power distribution in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the source(s) of any lighting fitting which employs fluorescent lamps and specular trough reflectors. The method is derived from considerations of the geometrical and optical properties of reflecting systems in conjunction with the lamp. In order to save time and labour in the initial stages of the design of fittings, an instrument has been developed to facilitate the graphical work. All that is necessary for the polar curve to be found is a cross-section drawing to scale of the proposed optical arrangement.
Visual Aids for Landing in Bad Visibility with Particular Reference to the Transition from Instrument to Visual Flight
Authors: Calvert E. S.
Published: November 2015

It has been known for many years that in bad visibility the transition from instrument to visual flight is difficult, and may be highly dangerous if the pilot is suffering from fatigue, but it is only in the last five years or so that the problem of finding patterns for the visual aids which would make the transition easy and safe has been systematically studied. This paper describes some of the illusions which occur at transition and shows that they can be largely prevented by using bars of lights running transversely across the approach zone. A brief account is given of the results which have been obtained on the Crossbar System of Approach Lighting under operational conditions.

A new theory of visual judgment, known as the “parafoveal streamer” theory is described, and from this the characteristics which are desirable in the visual aids are deduced. The crossbar and slopeline systems of approach lighting are compared in the light of this theory, and it is concluded that the ordinary run of pilots will find the crossbar system easier to use because the mental processes necessary for its interpretation are those which the pilot has built up in good weather flying. It is emphasised that in the absence of any coherent theory of how visual judgments are made, it is almost impossible to evaluate the various systems in a reasonable time, and that if international standardisation is to be achieved, some theory must eventually become generally accepted.
Brightness Patterns and Visual Fields
Authors: Lay S. D.
Published: November 2015

Brightness Patterns and Visual Fields

S. D. Lay

In Fig. 2 of the above paper, which was published in issue No. 7 of the Transactions this year, certain figures were omitted from the diagram. The diagram showed curves of equal contrast sensitivity. These curves, working from the centre of the diagram outwards, should have been marked as follows:-1. O, .95, .W,.8 6, .8 1, .76, .71, .67, .62, S7.

It would be appreciated if readers would kindly amend the diagram which appears on p. 174 of issue No. 7. 1951. accordingly.
The Eye, Brightness and Illuminating Engineering
Authors: Stiles W. S.
Published: November 2015

The great interest now being evinced in brightness engineering makes it desirable to review the basic facts concerning the quantity brightness and its rôle in vision, to inquire whether the properties of the eye suggest any desirable limitations on brightness or brightness ratios in the field of view, and to examine the suitability of brightness as a quantity in terms of which to couch illuminating engineering specifications. The importance of brightness in vision rests essentially on the fact that the illumination of the retina of the eye is proportional to the brightness of the object viewed, although a closer examination of the eye shows that the connection is not quite so simple. Again, the way in which radiations of different wavelength contribute to brightness under different eye conditions raises difficulties. Despite the considerable knowledge that exists of the response of the retina to light, it is by no means easy to deduce clear guiding principles to assist the illuminating engineer, and for some years the latter has had resort to the results of more ad hoc studies. It is always well, however, to take stock of fundamentals from time to time, and the present paper is an attempt in some measure to do this.
Visual Fatigue
Authors: Weston H. C.
Published: November 2015

“Visual fatigue” is often mentioned in discussions on the effects of different systems of lighting. Because the state so-named is not well understood, the nature and extent of the activities involved in seeing are examined to find a basis for it. Retinal fatigue—if it occurs at all—gives no feeling of “visual fatigue.” But vision is essentially a motor as well as a sensory process. Numerous muscles are necessarily at work for seeing; the action of others—of the face, head and neck—is common and helpful, and the whole voluntary neuromuscular system of the body participates in acts of the most intent vision. From excessive muscular—though not exclusively oculo-muscular—exertion and from “mental exertion” comes so-called “visual fatigue.” Such exertion may be due to unsuitable lighting, to “unphysiological” visual tasks or to ocular defects. Some relevant visual posture and time studies are described, and also, a study of facial muscular reactions to glare. Boredom and sleepiness due to lighting are distinguished from fatigue, and a definition is offered of “visual fatigue” in terms of the common meaning of “fatigue.”
Sports Lighting
Authors: Peirce M. W.
Published: November 2015

In this paper lighting requirements of various indoor and outdoor sports are discussed, together with some of the problems involved in finding satisfactory solutions. Costly equipment and exceptionally high intensities are only required where there are large numbers of spectators, and effective lighting for play can usually be simple and inexpensive. Suggestions are made what to look for in judging the success or otherwise of a particular installation for a number of sports. The lighting of football fields is dealt with at some length both as regards the fundamental considerations and the practical problems of aiming and focusing the floodlights.
Lighting Design and Brightness Patterns—A Preliminary Investigation
Authors: Bellchambers H. E. , Ackerman K. R.
Published: November 2015

While almost every aspect of lighting design for the whole visual field has been studied and much data accumulated, no single comprehensive method of design making full use of this work has been evolved.

The purpose of this paper is to describe an investigation made with the object of devising a method of lighting design in which the type, number and arrangement of fittings are determined from a consideration of the illumination and brightness patterns required at all surfaces in a lighted interior.

The chief factors to be considered when designing a lighting installation are presented and an analysis made of the present state of knowledge and practice. Use of the sector flux method of direct illumination calculation for linear sources has been checked and extended, a method of measuring and expressing the ratio of the direct to total illumination at any point in a room is described, and the assessment of glare is considered. These factors, direct lighting calculation, the Building Research Station glare data, and an experimentally determined inter-reflection ratio are combined, leading to the proposition of a new design method which takes account of the brightness pattern on all surfaces affecting an interior lighting design.
The Lighting of Small and Medium-Sized Shops and Stores
Authors: Tate R. L. C.
Published: November 2015

A shop lighting installation must be related not only to the size and shape of the shop but also to the class of merchandise displayed and the type of customer. Current techniques of window lighting are dealt with in some detail, and in particular the problems arising from the necessity of concealing the lamps, the use of dark or translucent louvres and the reduction of daylight window reflections. Where shop interiors are concerned one of the chief points at issue is the choice between general and localised lighting. Recommendations are made of suitable colours of light sources and the importance of blending the light of filament and fluorescent lamps is emphasised. The current fashion for dark ceilings is discussed together with the importance of wall lighting to display the merchandise and relieve the gloomy effect otherwise created by this method of lighting.

The paper gives a brief survey of after-hour lighting in some representative shopping centres made in 1949–50 and the spring of 1954. The paper closes with a brief résumé of some of the types of lamps and equipment now available for shop and shop window lighting.
The Maintenance of Lighting Installations
Authors: Robinson W. , Strange J. W.
Published: November 2015

The paper considers lamp replacement and depreciation of lighting equipment as factors in lighting maintenance. Improved ageing characteristics and lighting service provide increased economic justification for group replacement of discharge and fluorescent lamps, and the economics and procedure are discussed.

Recent investigations in this country and the United States into lighting fittings' depreciation have revealed, among other features, that ventilation of open fittings has a decisive self-cleaning effect which profoundly affects the economics of lighting maintenance and the performance of the lighting installation.

A consideration of the various factors, economic and practical, involved in lighting depreciation leads to the conclusion that maintenance should be a primary factor both in lighting design and fitting design.
Lighting at London Airport
Authors: Holmes J. G.
Published: November 2015

London Airport uses lighting extensively for the benefit of passengers, for the guidance and control of aircraft and for the maintenance of services. These three aspects are examined in detail, in terms of the requirements and appraisal of the results achieved rather than as a catalogue of designs or illumination levels.

Special lighting was required for the roads around and within the airport and particular requirements were stated for lighting the buildings of the central area in which the architect, the consulting engineer, the builder and the lighting engineer have collaborated closely. For aircraft guidance, the lights follow the international regulations, although in some respects those regulations have been written around the original installations at this airport. The hangar lighting is of a new order of magnitude, and permits comparison to be made between the standard blended type with localised sources and an installation of fluorescent tubing distributed over the whole ceiling.
Symposium on Screen Viewing
Authors: Nixon R. D.
Published: November 2015

The paper discusses the available contrast ratio on television screens of the aluminised and non-aluminised types, and indicates the reduction in contrast due to direct illumination of the dark portions of the picture by the bright portions, halation in the glass envelope and external illumination. The results show that picture contrast ratio may be reduced by these effects from about 150: 1 under the best conditions to 25: 1 under typical domestic viewing conditions.

Experiments in television picture viewing with illuminated surrounds are described and curves given relating picture luminance with the surround luminance giving greatest viewing comfort for three sizes of surround.
A Critical Analysis of Lighting Equipment and its Maintenance
Authors: Hawkins J. Mortimer , Veness C. J.
Published: November 2015

Although chiefly concerned with maintenance, this paper also draws attention to advantages and difficulties arising from the design and construction of lighting equipment. It gives typical examples of what is considered to be economical maintenance in factories, offices and stores. The experience derived from various light sources in relation to maintenance costs is discussed.