Ekonomika bosanskih velikaša u 14. i 15. stoljeću
Authors:   , Peco Almir 
Published: November 2024

The role and significance of the Bosnian nobility in the historical currents of medieval Bosnia can be reliably traced in the 14th and 15th centuries when various socio-political factors led to their rise and prominence at the state level, making the Bosnian nobility a relevant factor in shaping the political and economic landscape in medieval Bosnia. The path that brought the nobility to this visible, measurable position had its prehistory and reality in the social hierarchy of the relationship between lords and vassals, known in medieval Bosnia through the terms “loyal service” and “pledge of faith”. Vassals expressed their loyalty primarily through military service, demonstrating their ultimate allegiance, gratitude, and receiving the lord's faith in return, which included granted land holdings, confirmation of existing possessions, or guarantees of privileges and income. At the center of our research is the noble class, especially the medieval Bosnian aristocracy, understood in the narrowest sense of the word. This encompasses the most prominent noble families, the major Bosnian nobility, the magnates whom local 15th-century sources recognize as “lords of the Rusag”, “masters of the Rusag”, “magnates of the Bosnian Rusag”, “Bosnian lords”, They are often referred to as “magnates” and “nobility”, with the latter term also used in a broader sense. In Latin and Italian documents, they are mentioned as “domini” and “signori”. This is a privileged group of individuals who, along with their kindreds and families, ascended the social hierarchy. They are sometimes recorded in sources as “nobility” or “magnates”. This is, in fact, the most elite part of medieval Bosnian society which included Hrvatinići, Kosače, Pavlovići, Sankovići, Zlatonosovići, Radivojevići, and Kovačevići families. However, not all of them reached the level of “lords of the Rusag”, and if they did, it was often short-lived, unlike the Hrvatinići, Kosače and Pavlovići families did. True lordship and the status of a lord implied the absence of vassal dependence and service to another person. In their attempts to achieve the status of lords of the rusag, not everyone had lasting success, and many paid a high price in their efforts. The most prominent example is the Sankovići family, who lost a significant portion of their holdings in this attempt, along with their political and economic power. As for the Radivojevići, they may have achieved a degree of independence at one point, but it was short-lived. The Zlatonosovići may have had a similar fate. The status of the Dinjičići/Kovačevići remains unclear, but it seems that they had more success than the latter group, as the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia, in addition to the clearly defined territory of the Bosnian king, also encountered the territories of the Kosača and Pavlović families and by territorial extent, the smallest land of the Kovačević, which is certainly a strong indicator of their achieved status of territorial and administrative independence for this noble family. In that case, the Kovačevići could be considered the “youngest” lords of the Rusag. Overall, our research encompasses the upper elite strata of Bosnian society, including not only the lords of the rusag but also other members of nobility class who did not have that status but, based on their characteristics and position on the social ladder, belonged to the high nobility, the elite part of society, or the Bosnian aristocracy. These were landowners with their noble estates who enjoyed income and privileges, such as tax exemptions, and controlled significant territorial domains where they exercised jurisdiction over the population. The economic actions of Bosnian magnates are approached as a social group, which, until now, has not been the case in historiographical literature. Depending on historical circumstances and time, there were certain differences in the political and economic power among Bosnian magnates, and therefore, the power of certain families was greater and more long-lasting than others. Some of them managed, in multi-decade processes, to build a framework of independence to such an extent that they became sovereign rulers of their vast holdings. The status of a Rusag lords also took into account additional economic components that implied benefits arising from the fact that they acquired rights that had previously belonged to the attributes of royal prerogatives. Therefore, it is important to highlight the heterogeneous structure and diversity in the political and economic power of the high nobility. Both written sources and historical records clearly distinguish them from the rest of the nobility, both in the 14th and 15th centuries. Understanding and tracking the economic activities of the medieval Bosnian nobility, especially the magnates as its most prominent representatives, cannot be adequately comprehended without considering the natural-geographical potentials within the limited framework of the agrarian economy of that era. Depending on the region and geographical conditions, natural potentials were diverse and, in combination with other factors, shaped various economic foundations for their exploitation. Here, the physiognomy of the space, terrain forms, and climate characteristics played a crucial role as long-lasting structural supports that shaped economic strategies and leading economic activities. The exploitation of natural riches, whether geological or hydrographic resources, as well as the plant and animal world, was at the common basis of action and the foundation of survival and prosperity. Land was the primary resource, and the extent of its exploitation was aligned with the technological capabilities of the time. In contrast, regions rich in mineral resources in central and eastern Bosnia opened the doors to economic progress as early as the mid-14th century. The combination of noble metal exploitation and trade activities brought prosperity to medieval Bosnian state. Alongside this, the socio-political landscape underwent significant changes, giving rise to magnates, nobility with consolidated properties, territorial ownership, and control over natural resources. Thus, the mines in eastern Bosnia came into the hands of the nobility, which was strong enough to secure regalian rights from Bosnian rulers. Additionally, thanks to the developed trade routes passing through their estates, additional opportunities for income through customs control, river crossings and other duties were created. General economic progress manifested in the strong growth and development of urban settlements directly adjacent to mining sites or communication hubs. This was further followed by an increase in population and the workforce as one of the most important economic resources. Hence, it was essential to control those population categories engaged in more advanced economic activities. Increased production, intensive trade, and the rise of cities as consumer centers consequently increased revenues flowing into the landlord's treasury. The analysis of the natural potentials of the region revealed diverse opportunities and available possibilities for exploitation, which determined economic activity and ultimately shaped the economic activities of Bosnian magnates. The key role in agrarian economy was played by land, and the lord's rights over the land formed the basis of their income. Given that the research focus is on the economic dynamics of the medieval nobility, it was especially important to emphasize an understanding of the context of mutual relations within the noble layer, which changed over time. The distribution of land and ownership relations between the nobility and the ruler evolved in line with socio-political movements. Depending on the distribution of power and political circumstances, certain members of the noble families increased their holdings and created independent territorial entities. Equally important was securing the ruler's rights and privileges over lower nobility and subjugated population. This was a lengthy process that ultimately produced rounded areas of the Rusag nobility, the Pavlovići, Kosača, and Hrvatinići. In the first half of the 15th century, they became the largest landowners. They derived income primarily from dependent peasants, urban population, and lesser nobility. Within the estates that exceeded the characteristics of simple manors, the most significant income from the land was in-kind and monetary rent collected from dependent peasants who paid half, a third, a quarter, or a tenth of their production depending on the crop and established cultivation conditions. The most significant part of the landlord's income in this segment had to come from alodial land complexes primarily cultivated by the unpaid labor of subjects within the framework of work duties and obligations to the lord. In the process of emancipation from royal authority, Bosnian magnates gained or received the rights to collect the state tax paid by the population per household in the amount of one ducat. Thus, Bosnian magnates gradually shaped their estates into separate economic entities in which they controlled all financial flows that had once belonged to the domain of royal rights. The revival and rapid development of Bosnian mining from the mid-14th century, accompanied by dynamic trade, significantly transformed the social structure and economic conditions in medieval Bosnia. Economic development manifested itself in the export trade of noble metals, urbanization, increased monetary circulation, and the strengthening of the market economy. Through more active trade in noble metals, the development of urban economy, and the import trade of textiles and salt, the nobility gradually embraced new economic opportunities that required active engagement in the market. The lesser nobility played a crucial role in this development, as members of this class recognized new opportunities and became active participants in trade. Although initially nobles were not keen on trade, they eventually changed their views and adopted commercial practices as a means of acquiring wealth and strengthening their social position. This indicates the evolution of the economic paradigm in medieval Bosnia, where traditional views on trading activities changed to adapt to new circumstances and the needs of the time. This trend was in line with the evolution of European nobility, where economic changes became inevitable. Export trade in mineral wealth, import trade in textiles, salt, and other goods became significant segments of the nobility's economic activity. In this field, trade with the elite of Dubrovnik and other Mediterranean communities played a crucial role in shaping the economic strategy of Bosnian magnates, bringing new knowledge and techniques of economic business. Political, cultural, social, and economic influences, as well as the proximity of Mediterranean trade centers, naturally led to strong business interaction. Political interests, calculated diplomatic activity, and negotiation skills allowed the magnates to enter modern banking practices of the late Middle Ages in Dubrovnik and Venice. One of the accompanying aspects of their financial policy, especially during wartime, was credit and pawn loans. This enabled them to cover the costs of mercenary military units and war expenses. Magnates often turned to Dubrovnik, where they borrowed money using their annual revenues as collateral for the return of borrowed funds. On the other hand, they acted as lenders, providing loans to others. In addition, the modern banking trends were particularly evident in deposit operations, which involved depositing money and other material values for safekeeping or placement of money with annual interest, which was considered a special privilege from the perspective of mediterranean communities. This practice allowed for short-term satisfaction of financial needs while ensuring financial stability for their heirs in the long run. Sandalj Hranić Kosača (-1435), one of the most significant Bosnian magnates, negotiated these privileges in Dubrovnik and Venice. He especially used the opportunities to increase the principal amount and make a profit. Like the Kosača familiy, the Pavlovići also used deposit arrangements to stabilize and improve their finances. The fact that in general a smaller number of foreigners, regardless of their sociological background, engaged in this type of deposit business provides a clearer indication of the regional positioning of Bosnian magnates. It is important to note that deposit transactions and investments with profit were yet another indicator of economic changes and the adaptation of magnates to the challenges of the new era. Within the economic policy, Bosnian magnates sought to acquire permanent sources of income, such as annual tributes, to ensure stability and material benefit for themselves and their offspring. Some prominent magnate families in the 15th century managed to negotiate annual incomes through the sale of estates or diplomatic arrangements. These tributes often served as a means of repaying debts, taking out loans, and increasing credit ratings. The most important source of financial gain, resulting from the economic and trade development of the Bosnian state, came from customs duties and fees. The customs system developed parallel to trade traffic and had not only economic value but also political significance in financing the government and asserting sovereignty while simultaneously indicating the balance of power within the country. In the 15th century, Bosnian magnates controlled all customs revenues in the areas they ruled. The Drijeva customs was a significant source of income, especially for the Kosača family, which had the majority share in its ownership. The income from customs varied depending on different economic, political, and security factors. The collection of customs duties by Bosnian magnates occurred in two ways: the first involved leasing customs rights to third parties, while the second entailed direct organization and collection of customs duties through officials appointed by the magnates themselves. The leaseholders were often Dubrovnik nobility and citizens, with the involvement of Venetians and local Bosnian people. The lease was usually paid in advance, and annual lease income could vary depending on conditions and needs. Wars and conflicts among ruling structures, especially between the Pavlovići and the Kosača family, often led to changes in the distribution of customs revenues, further emphasizing their economic value. This conflict resulted in a change in the share in the distribution of income in Drijeva and Olovo, the most profitable customs in the possession of the magnates. The distribution of major customs, income division, and competition among noble families in this regard provide insight into the complex dynamics of economic and political relationships. These factors greatly shaped the development of the customs system, influenced trade flows, and illustrated the close relationship between economic prosperity and political stability. Apart from the main import-export trade customs, customs revenues also came from other charges closely related to the movement of goods and people. These included various transit customs depended on the intensity of traffic and trade. These revenues have been handed over to the nobles in the 14th century onwards, forming one of the components of their landholdings. Control and amounts of these customs in times of stable and strong central authority were consistent under the jurisdiction of the Bosnian ruler. At the end of the 14th century, as Bosnian magnates were establishing their independent positions, changes occurred in the customs system, with increasing demands for the payment of new customs duties and the augmentation of existing tariffs and obligations. There were different types of these customs depending on their purpose. Primarily, these were transit customs or tolls, collected from all travelers and traders for crossing rivers, bridges and overcoming natural obstacles on the roads. The introduction of additional fees for transporting goods marked the establishment of transit customs. It was an indicator of the economic policy of magnates focused on controlling traffic and profiting from the growing trade. In this regard, special steps were taken to ensure that no trader escaped payment. Their amounts varied depending on the type of goods, and increased trade encouraged the magnates to raise the amounts paid. Related to the trade were payment of market taxes, or various excise taxes, collected at medieval markets and related to buying and selling transactions. These fees were paid for various categories of goods such as food, textiles, leather, crafts products, etc., and the amounts depended on the category of goods. According to available indicators, the practice of collecting market taxes and transit customs was not consistent and varied in different markets and areas. It can be said that Bosnian nobles did not rely solely on rent and land income but actively participated in trade arrangements, borrowing and lending to finance their needs and ensure economic stability. These processes shaped the transformation of the noble elites in medieval Bosnia. The consumption preferences of Bosnian magnates in the 14th and 15th centuries reflected their social roles and aspirations for recognition within its hierarchical structure. Maintaining a political position, military strength, and showcasing prestige incurred significant costs. The noble way of life required substantial financial resources. In this context, the strong sociological component was particularly evident in organizing living spaces. Nobles had to maintain luxurious courts to impress their surroundings, competitors, and assert their social status. This created a need for the construction of new fortifications and residences, investment in architecture, art, and other forms of luxury. Significant amounts had to be spent on luxurious court residences, fortresses, and sacred objects. These did not just serve practical needs but were also a means of visual communication with the environment. Investment in construction was evident in the engagement of foreign builders and architects, which was a way to gain social recognition and demonstrate strength to competitors. Additionally, through artistic works and aesthetic details, nobles tried to create and maintain the identity of a high society that valued art and luxury. This was particularly visible in the contents of deposits and testamentary legacies, as well as in their residences adorned with frescoes, art installations, and refined materials. The costs of military activities of the Bosnian magnates demanded a significant portion of their resources. In the 14th century, these formed the backbone of the Bosnian ruler's army, serving under him and acquiring privileges and possessions. Their troops included vassals and lesser nobility whose military duty stemmed from the same obligations that nobles had towards the ruler. With the socio-political changes resulting in the rise of the Rusag lords, things changed on this front. These magnates became more independent in military campaigns, and thanks to economic progress and the acquisition of financial resources, they began to employ foreign mercenaries in addition to their troops. The development of new military technologies and warfare techniques required financial investment to keep up with trends and maintain competitiveness on the battlefield in a changing geopolitical environment. In this regard, the magnates bought weapons and military equipment on the foreign markets while at the same time, they worked on improving their own production capacities through the engagement of foreign military experts. Besides funding military campaigns, starting from the second decade of the 15th century, tributary obligations of the magnates towards the Ottoman Sultan posed a significant challenge to economic stability. In the end, the consumption structure of Bosnian magnates in the 145h and 15th centuries, was a complex combination of military expenses, construction investments, and costs satisfying the needs for luxury, extravagance, and the desires of the high elite. This shaped an economic and cultural paradigm that maintained their leading role in medieval Bosnia.