bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TEACHING PERSONS WITH PROFOUND MULTIPLE HANDICAPS: A REVIEW OF THE EFFECTS OF BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH
Authors: Reid Dennis H. , Phillips James F. , Green Carolyn W.
Published: March 2006

The behavioral research on teaching individuals who have profound multiple handicaps is reviewed. The primary focus is on determining the degree to which behavioral research has demonstrated the teaching of meaningful skills to this population. Results of the review indicate that investigations have demonstrated, albeit inconsistently, that behavior change has resulted from contingency management interventions with persons who have profound multiple handicaps. However, there is little evidence that such interventions have resulted in meaningful behavior change according to currently accepted criteria for beneficially affecting the quality of life of persons with serious handicaps. Potential explanations for the lack of such evidence are offered, including the relative lack of research attention given to this issue, the possible ineffectiveness of the components of the technology applied, and possible ineffective application of the potentially effective technology. Suggestions for future research are discussed in terms of developing more effective educational and habilitative services for persons with profound multiple handicaps. In particular, we suggest research on a wider variety of behavioral teaching procedures, providing more comprehensive evaluations of the applications of procedures and developing treatment programs that do not focus solely on traditional skill acquisition.
BEHAVIORAL COMMUNITY INTERVENTION TO REDUCE THE RISK OF SKIN CANCER
Authors: Lombard David , Neubauer Tamara E. , Canfield Deborah , Winett Richard A.
Published: March 2006

Peer leader modeling, posted feedback, posted goals, and a commitment raffle were used at two swimming pools to increase behaviors associated with skin cancer prevention. During the intervention condition, pool lifeguards modeled the protective behaviors by wearing sunglasses, t‐shirts, and hats, using zinc oxide and sunscreen, and staying in the shade. Children and adolescents (1 to 16 years old) increased their use of two or more protective behaviors from a baseline mean of 6.5% to 26.9% during the intervention. Adults (older than 16 years) increased their protective behaviors from a baseline mean of 22% to 37.95% during the intervention. The lifeguards increased their use of all the protective behaviors from a baseline mean of 16.7% to 63.5% during intervention. Ways to improve and expand this intervention are discussed.
AIDS PREVENTION: IMPROVING NURSES' COMPLIANCE WITH GLOVE WEARING THROUGH PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK
Authors: DeVries Jane E. , Burnette M. Michele , Redmon William K.
Published: March 2006

A performance feedback procedure was used to increase glove wearing by nurses in a hospital emergency room in situations in which contact with body fluids was highly likely. Infection‐control nurses provided biweekly performance feedback to staff nurses on an individual private basis to inform them of the percentage of contact opportunities in which they wore gloves. Observations made prior to (baseline) and during feedback in a multiple baseline design across 4 subjects indicated that substantial increases in glove wearing in target situations occurred after implementation of the feedback program and that increases occurred across most of the specific situations in which glove wearing was advised. Percentage increases in glove wearing ranged from 22% to 49% across subjects. The results are discussed in terms of prevention of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) by use of universal precautions.
STRATEGIES TO INCREASE EXERCISE‐REPORT CORRESPONDENCE BY BOYS WITH MODERATE MENTAL RETARDATION: COLLATERAL CHANGES IN INTENTION‐EXERCISE CORRESPONDENCE
Authors: Wilson Philip G. , Rusch Frank R. , Lee Suzanne
Published: March 2006

Correspondence between verbal and nonverbal behavior in an exercise room was taught to 4 13‐year‐old boys diagnosed with moderate mental retardation. Participants were asked prior to each exercise session which exercise machine(s) they intended to use. No contingencies on stating intentions (promising) were applied. Following the exercise session, participants were asked to say (report) which machine(s) they had used. Following the baseline condition, do‐report correspondence training was introduced sequentially across participants. During do‐report correspondence training, accurate reporting was reinforced. High rates of both do‐report and promise‐do correspondence were observed. Data were analyzed via a multiple baseline across subjects design and contingency‐space analysis. Results are discussed with regard to observed changes in promise‐do correspondence subsequent to observed changes in do‐report correspondence.
STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE INSTRUCTION OF FRACTION‐DECIMAL RELATIONS
Authors: Lynch Deirdre C. , Cuvo Anthony J.
Published: March 2006

Stimulus control technology was applied to the instruction of fraction ratio (e.g., ⅕) and decimal (e.g., 0.20) relations, with 7 students who demonstrated difficulty in fraction and decimal tasks. The students were trained to match pictorial representations of fractions (B comparison stimuli) to printed counterpart fraction ratios (A sample stimuli), and to match printed decimals (C comparison stimuli) to pictorial representations of counterpart quantities (B sample stimuli). Posttest performance by all participants indicated the emergence of equivalence relations between fractions represented as ratios, decimals, and pictures. Limited generalization of fraction—decimal relations was observed.
USE OF COMPONENT ANALYSES TO IDENTIFY ACTIVE VARIABLES IN TREATMENT PACKAGES FOR CHILDREN WITH FEEDING DISORDERS
Authors: Cooper Linda J. , Wacker David P. , McComas Jennifer J. , Brown Kimberly , Peck Stephanie M. , Richman David , Drew Janet , Frischmeyer Pam , Millard Thomas
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the separate components in treatment packages for food refusal of 4 young children. First, treatment packages were implemented until food acceptance improved. Next, a component analysis was conducted within a multielement or reversal design to identify the active components that facilitated food acceptance. The results indicated that escape extinction was always identified as an active variable when assessed; however, other variables, including positive reinforcement and noncontingent play, were also identified as active variables for 2 of the children. The results suggest that the component analysis was useful for identifying variables that affected food acceptance.
CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT BY PARENTS WITH DISABILITIES: A TALE OF TWO FAMILIES
Authors: Greene Brandon F. , Norman K. Renee , Searle Mariana S. , Daniels Monica , Lubeck Roger C.
Published: March 2006

Two families, in which the children had been placed in foster care due to abuse and neglect by parents who had disabilities, were studied. In the first case, the mother was instructed in skills that our assessment suggested were important for her child's survival. The mother readily acquired and applied these skills, a fact reflected both in changes in her behavior and in changes in the child's well‐being. In the second case, the parent's incremental resumption of child custody was made contingent upon completion of relevant parenting tasks. Initially, improvements in the completion of such tasks were evident, but over time and with the onset of militating factors, no further progress was made and all parental rights were terminated. The implications of these cases for behavior analysis and the effort to reunite and preserve families are discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF SPEECH OUTPUT TECHNOLOGY IN THE LEARNING OF GRAPHIC SYMBOLS
Authors: Schlosser Ralf W. , Belfiore Phillip J. , Nigam Ravi , Blischak Doreen , Hetzroni Orit
Published: March 2006

The effects of auditory stimuli in the form of synthetic speech output on the learning of graphic symbols were evaluated. Three adults with severe to profound mental retardation and communication impairments were taught to point to lexigrams when presented with words under two conditions. In the first condition, participants used a voice output communication aid to receive synthetic speech as antecedent and consequent stimuli. In the second condition, with a nonelectronic communication board, participants did not receive synthetic speech. A parallel treatments design was used to evaluate the effects of the synthetic speech output as an added component of the augmentative and alternative communication system. The 3 participants reached criterion when they were provided with the auditory stimuli. Although 2 participants also reached criterion when not provided with the auditory stimuli, the addition of auditory stimuli resulted in more efficient learning and a decreased error rate. Maintenance results, however, indicated no differences between conditions. Findings suggest that auditory stimuli in the form of synthetic speech contribute to the efficient acquisition of graphic communication symbols.
COMPLIANT IN A MOMENT: A COMMENTARY ON NEVIN
Authors: Houlihan Daniel , Brandon Paul K.
Published: March 2006

Nevin's scholarly and timely discussion attempts to maintain the precarious union of the experimentally derived theory of behavioral momentum with applications of the behavioral momentum construct to human subjects in applied settings. Nevin's discussion adds much‐needed clarification to a process that at times has proven to be awkward for applied researchers. In this commentary, we will address three general questions: (a) Can the applications of behavioral momentum be derived from the theory as conceptualized by Nevin? (b) Could those applications have been developed had the theory not been formulated? (c) Does behavioral momentum theory add significantly to the compliance literature?
EFFECTS OF EXTINCTION ALONE AND EXTINCTION PLUS FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING ON COVARIATION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIORS
Authors: Shukla Smita , Albin Richard W.
Published: March 2006

In this investigation, extinction (EXT) was applied alone or in combination with functional communication training (FCT) to less severe topographies of problem behavior while more severe topographies continued to be reinforced. EXT alone decreased less severe and increased more severe topographies of problem behavior (i.e., response covariation), whereas EXT with FCT reduced all topographies of problem behavior to near‐zero levels.
NONCONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT AS TREATMENT FOR SEVERE PROBLEM BEHAVIOR: SOME PROCEDURAL VARIATIONS
Authors: Lalli Joseph S. , Casey Sean D. , Kates Kelly
Published: March 2006

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) as a treatment for problem behavior has typically included (a) continuous access to reinforcers at the onset of treatment and (b) extinction. We extended research on NCR by conducting a three‐phase preliminary investigation of these components. In Phase 1, a functional analysis showed that the problem behavior of 3 participants with developmental disabilities was maintained by tangible positive reinforcement. In Phase 2, treatment started with the initial NCR interval based on the latency to the first problem behavior during baseline. In Phase 3, treatment consisted of NCR without extinction to determine whether extinction was an essential treatment component. Results showed that the initial NCR schedule based on latency (Phase 2) and NCR without extinction (Phase 3) were effective for reducing rates of problem behavior compared with baseline. Findings are discussed regarding the initial schedule of reinforcement and extinction as components of NCR.
IMPROVING ADHERENCE TO MEDICATION REGIMENS FOR CHILDREN WITH ASTHMA AND ITS EFFECT ON CLINICAL OUTCOME
Authors: Costa Irene G. Da , Rapoff Michael A. , Lemanek Kathleen , Goldstein Gerald L.
Published: March 2006

We examined the effects of a combined education and token system intervention to improve adherence to inhaled corticosteroids for an 8‐year‐old girl and a 10‐year‐old boy with asthma. Adherence was measured by an electronic chronolog monitor, and disease outcome was assessed by repeated pulmonary function testing. A withdrawal design demonstrated improved adherence and, for 1 child, an associated improvement in pulmonary function occurred. Methodological and clinical implications are discussed, including variables other than adherence that may affect disease outcome.
TEACHING CHILDREN TO SPELL: DECREASING CONSONANT CLUSTER ERRORS BY ELIMINATING SELECTIVE STIMULUS CONTROL
Authors: Birnie‐Selwyn Beverly , Guerin Bernard
Published: March 2006

Six elementary‐aged children were taught to spell words containing initial consonant clusters (CCs). They were trained to select printed words in response to the corresponding spoken words using computerized matching‐to‐sample procedures. After each training session, they were tested for spelling with a constructed‐response transfer test. Based on previous selective stimulus control research, we hypothesized that only the first letter of an initial CC might control spelling when CC spelling errors are made. Thus, a critical‐difference matching‐to‐sample training condition that required the children to respond to both letters of the CC to be correct was compared to a multiple‐difference training condition that required the children to respond to only one letter of the pair. Results showed that children made fewer errors during the multiple‐difference training condition than during the critical‐difference training condition. On the constructed‐response transfer tests, however, more overall errors and CC errors were made in the multiple‐difference condition than in the critical‐difference condition, and the words trained in the multiple‐difference condition required more training sessions to reach criterion. All children improved their spelling of novel CC words by the completion of training. If normal classroom or home reading was to be supplemented by computer tasks of the kind used here, some spelling problems could be circumvented without costly intervention by a teacher or a special trainer.
RESPONSE ALLOCATION TO CONCURRENT FIXED‐RATIO REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES WITH WORK REQUIREMENTS BY ADULTS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION AND TYPICAL PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Authors: Cuvo Anthony J. , Lerch Laura J. , Leurquin Deborah A. , Gaffaney Thomas J. , Poppen Roger L.
Published: March 2006

The present experiments examined the effect of work requirements in combination with reinforcement schedule on the choice behavior of adults with mental retardation and preschool children. The work requirements of age‐appropriate tasks (i.e., sorting silverware, jumping hurdles, tossing beanbags) were manipulated. Participants were presented with their choice of two response options for each trial that varied simultaneously on both work requirement and reinforcement schedule. Results showed that when responding to both choices occurred on the same reinforcement schedule, participants allocated most of their responses to the option with the easier work requirement. When the response option requiring less work was on a leaner reinforcement schedule, most participants shifted their choice to exert more work. There were individual differences across participants regarding their pattern of responding and when they switched from the lesser to the greater work requirement. Data showed that participants' responding was largely controlled by the reinforcement received for responding to each level of work. Various conceptualizations regarding the effects of work requirements on choice behavior are discussed.
REDUCTIONS IN SELF‐INJURY PRODUCED BY TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE STIMULATION
Authors: Fisher Wayne W. , Bowman Lynn G. , Thompson Rachel H. , Contrucci Stephanie A. , Burd Larry , Alon Gad
Published: March 2006

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is used to reduce pain but also may be useful for self‐injurious behavior (SIB). In the current investigation, a microcurrent electromedical device, classified as a transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulator (TENS), was applied with a man with Down syndrome who displayed SIB that persisted in the absence of social contingencies. Although clinically significant results were not maintained, a clear difference in the rates of SIB during active and inactive TENS was observed.
AUGMENTING SIMPLIFIED HABIT REVERSAL WITH AN AWARENESS ENHANCEMENT DEVICE: PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
Authors: Rapp John T. , Miltenberger Raymond G. , Long Ethan S.
Published: March 2006

The chronic hair pulling of a 36‐year‐old woman with moderate mental retardation was initially treated with a simplified habit‐reversal (SHR) procedure that consisted of awareness training, competing response training, and social support. When SHR did not produce large and sustained reductions in hair pulling, an awareness enhancement device was added, and it reduced hair pulling to near‐zero levels in two settings. The results are discussed, and directions for future research with this device are provided.
EFFECTS OF METHYLPHENIDATE ON SENSITIVITY TO REINFORCEMENT IN CHILDREN DIAGNOSED WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER: AN APPLICATION OF THE MATCHING LAW
Authors: Murray Laura K. , Kollins Scott H.
Published: March 2006

The behavior of children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been hypothesized to be the result of decreased sensitivity to consequences compared to typical children. The present study examined sensitivity to reinforcement in 2 boys diagnosed with ADHD using the matching law to provide more precise and quantitative measurement of this construct. This experiment also evaluated the effects of methylphenidate (MPH) on sensitivity to reinforcement of children with ADHD. Subjects completed math problems to earn tokens under four different variable‐interval (VI) schedules of reinforcement presented in random order under both medicated and nonmedicated conditions. Results showed that, in the medicated condition, the matching functions for both subjects resulted in higher asymptotic values, indicating an overall elevation of behavior rate under these conditions. The variance accounted for by the matching law was also higher under the medicated conditions, suggesting that their behavior more closely tracked the changing rates of reinforcement while taking MPH compared to placebo. Under medicated conditions, the reinforcing efficacy of response‐contingent tokens decreased. Results are discussed with respect to quantifying behavioral changes and the extent to which the drug interacts with prevailing contingencies (i.e., schedule values) to influence behavioral variability.
HABIT REVERSAL AS A TREATMENT FOR CHRONIC SKIN PICKING IN TYPICALLY DEVELOPING ADULT MALE SIBLINGS
Authors: Twohig Michael P. , Woods Douglas W.
Published: March 2006

In this study, habit reversal was evaluated as a treatment for skin picking in typically developing adult male siblings using a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design. Results showed socially valid decreases in reported picking as a result of treatment.
USE OF A MULTICOMPONENT TREATMENT FOR FOOD REFUSAL
Authors: Kahng SungWoo , Tarbox Jonathon , Wilke Arthur E.
Published: March 2006

We examined the use of a multicomponent treatment for food refusal exhibited by a 5‐year‐old boy who had been diagnosed with mild to moderate mental retardation. Treatment consisted of access to highly preferred tangible items, which were removed contingent on problem behavior or not accepting a bite, and differential reinforcement of alternative behavior. Treatment resulted in an increase in food acceptance to 100% of bite offers and near‐zero rates of problem behavior. In addition, the participant's caregivers were successfully trained to implement the treatment.
THIS IS NOT B. F. SKINNER'S BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS: A REVIEW OF HAYES, STROSAHL, AND WILSON'S ACCEPTANCE AND COMMITMENT THERAPY
Authors: Dougher Michael J.
Published: March 2006

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999) is an important addition to and extension of the growing field of clinical behavior analysis. The book provides a comprehensive introduction to a new therapy that is rooted in functional contextualistic philosophy and a “post‐Skinnerian” behavior‐analytic theory of verbal behavior. It begins with the assertion that language or verbal processes are at the heart of psychopathology and human suffering and goes on to describe a therapeutic approach that seeks to undermine these verbal processes and facilitate clients' active commitment to value‐driven behavior change. Along the way, the book provides a compelling behavior‐analytic account of a number of important but neglected issues in behavior analysis, including human suffering, the nature and function of private events, the self, suicide, anxiety, depression, values, responsibility, and commitment. In so doing, the book cogently challenges the unfortunately common but erroneous assertion that behaviorism does not and perhaps cannot address the complexity of the human condition. The present review provides a general overview of the book, summarizes its chapters, and raises a number of questions that might be addressed in future research.
THE EFFECTS OF NONCONTINGENTLY AVAILABLE ALTERNATIVE STIMULI ON FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OUTCOMES
Authors: Ringdahl Joel E. , Winborn Lisa C. , Andelman Marc S. , Kitsukawa Kana
Published: March 2006

The effects of noncontingently available alternative stimuli on functional analysis outcomes were evaluated for 2 individuals. Results suggested that noncontingent access to preferred items resulted in reduced levels of attention‐maintained behavior. The results are interpreted in terms of establishing operations.
EFFECTS OF TEACHER‐DIRECTED VERSUS STUDENT‐DIRECTED INSTRUCTION ON SELF‐MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
Authors: Mithaug Deirdre K. , Mithaug Dennis E.
Published: March 2006

In this study, students worked independently by setting goals, selecting assignments, and recording and evaluating their results after receiving one of two different types of self‐management training. During teacher‐directed training, the teacher set goals, assigned work, and recorded and evaluated results for students. During student‐directed training, students performed those tasks themselves. The results indicated that students engaged in the self‐management behaviors more frequently during independent work following student‐directed instruction than following teacher‐directed instruction.
INCREASING SAFETY‐BELT USE IN SPANISH DRIVERS: A FIELD TEST OF PERSONAL PROMPTS
Authors: Gras M. Eugenia , Cunill Monica , Planes Montserrat , Sullman Mark J. M. , Oliveras Carme
Published: March 2006

A variation of the ABAB experimental design was used to assess the impact of a verbal prompt on safety‐belt use for those traveling by urban roads and highways in Spain. The personal prompt resulted in an increase (29.6%) in safety‐belt use among drivers traveling on urban roads. This research shows that the impact of personal prompts can be generalized to cultures outside the United States.
SYSTEMATIC APPLICATION AND REMOVAL OF PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT IN THE ASSESSMENT OF MULTIPLE TOPOGRAPHIES OF SELF‐INJURY
Authors: Moore James W. , Fisher Wayne W. , Pennington Angela
Published: March 2006

We evaluated the effects of systematic application and removal of protective equipment on three topographies of self‐injurious behavior (SIB) exhibited by a girl who had been diagnosed with autism. Results showed that when protective equipment was applied, SIB decreased to near‐zero levels. In addition, withdrawal of protective equipment for specific topographies of SIB (by removing only the corresponding padding) increased rates of SIB only for that topography of SIB. Next, a functional analysis of hand SIB showed that protective equipment suppressed this behavior in all conditions and that the behavior was maintained by automatic reinforcement when padding was removed. Results are discussed in terms of sensory extinction as a possible mechanism responsible for response suppression.
THE OPPORTUNITY FOR AGGRESSION AS AN OPERANT REINFORCER DURING AVERSIVE STIMULATION1
Authors: Azrin N. H. , Hutchinson R. R. , McLaughlin R.
Published: March 2006

Squirrel monkeys were provided with a chain‐pulling response which produced an inanimate object that could be attacked. In the absence of pain‐shock, little or no chain‐pulling occurred. When pain‐shocks were delivered, chain‐pulling responses increased. The chain‐pulling response was successively reinforced, extinguished, reinforced, and again extinguished by presenting or withdrawing the opportunity to attack as the reinforcing event. Aggression appears to be a distinctive motivational state which is produced by aversive stimulation and which can be used to condition and maintain new behavior.
FORCE GRADIENTS IN STIMULUS GENERALIZATION1
Authors: Cole James Lawrence
Published: March 2006

Pigeons were trained to peck with differing force requirements on a key specially designed to measure and control force of pecking without changes in the mechanical threshold. Following training on a key illuminated by a single wavelength, a generalization test was given. Force and rate gradients were obtained. Force gradients were shown to have a form similar to rate gradients. The slope of the force gradients was a direct function of the force of responding at the conclusion of training. Rate gradients were independent of the force of responding.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF OBSERVING RESPONSES IN A MIXED FI‐FR SCHEDULE1,2
Authors: Kendall Stephen B.
Published: March 2006

In Exp I, three pigeons were trained on an observing response procedure where observing responses produced a stimulus correlated either with FI or with FR. Stimulus duration was 30 sec. During FR, the subjects completed the ratio before the stimulus terminated. During FI, the subjects usually observed the stimulus only once. Observing responses occurred immediately after food reinforcement. In Exp II, stimulus duration was shortened to 5 sec and the FR for food was increased. The results were similar to those of Exp 1. During most FIs and FRs, only one observing response occurred. The results of both experiments could be interpreted in a response competition framework. Immediately after food reinforcement, observing behavior is strong. When behavior on the food key begins it competes with further observing behavior.
VISUAL‐REINFORCER COLOR, AND OPERANT BEHAVIOR IN SIAMESE FIGHTING FISH1
Authors: Thompson Travis , Sturm Thomas
Published: March 2006

Male Siamese Fighting Fish (Betta splendens) were conditioned to emit an operant response sequence reinforced by presentation of a model of a male Siamese Fighting Fish in aggressive display. Operant response rate varied as a function of the color of the model with respect to the color of the subject.
PUNISHMENT SHOCK INTENSITY AND BASAL SKIN RESISTANCE1
Authors: Kaufman Arnold
Published: March 2006

The relationship between punishment shock intensity and basal skin resistance (BSR) was investigated in two sessions with human females selected for their ability to maintain a fairly substantial operant rate under a wide range of shock intensities. In both sessions each button‐pressing response was reinforced with a counter tally. Subjects were paid one cent for each 20 counts. In session 1, punishment followed each response during alternate 4‐min periods; in session 2 punishment was programmed in all 4‐min periods. Shock intensities were presented randomly among the 4‐min shock periods, with the restriction that the first three presentations occurred in ascending order. Operant responding showed some suppression at higher shock intensities in session 1, with substantial recovery in most subjects during session 2. Respondent behavior was characterized by greater activity at successively higher intensities, with recovery at all shock levels, especially the lowest levels, apparent during the second session.
SERIAL DISCRIMINATION‐REVERSAL LEARNING WITH AND WITHOUT ERRORS BY THE CALIFORNIA SEA LION1
Authors: Schusterman Ronald J.
Published: March 2006

A sea lion under water performed virtually without errors on a series of three form‐discrimination reversals. Significant training requirements were the combining of a previously well‐established size cue preference with the nonpreferred form cue, followed by the gradual reduction of the size cue until it was completely eliminated. Orienting responses reached a peak and then decreased during progressive‐dimensional‐change training, suggesting critical stages in the transition of attention from the size dimension to the form dimension. Further experimentation revealed that intensive training during these critical stages obviated the need to reduce very gradually the size cue. Without special training sea lions make perseverative errors on a series of form‐discrimination reversals. “Emotional” or nontest‐oriented behavior was associated only with the occurrence of successive errors.
THE EFFECTS OF ERRORS ON CHILDREN'S PERFORMANCE ON A CIRCLE‐ELLIPSE DISCRIMINATION1
Authors: Stoddard Lawrence T. , Sidman Murray
Published: March 2006

Children first learned by means of a teaching program to discriminate a circle from relatively flat ellipses. Children in the control group then proceeded into a program which gradually reduced the difference between the circle and the ellipses. They advanced to a finer discrimination when they made a correct choice, and reversed to an easier discrimination after making errors (“backup” procedure). The children made relatively few errors until they approached the region of their difference threshold (empirically determined under the conditions described). When they could no longer discriminate the forms, they learned other bases for responding that could be classified as specifiable error patterns. Children in the experimental group, having learned the preliminary circle‐ellipse discrimination, were started at the upper end of the ellipse series, where it was impossible for them to discriminate the forms. The backup procedure returned them to an easier discrimination after they made errors. They made many errors and reversed down through the ellipse series. Eventually, most of the children reached a point in the ellipse series where they abandoned their systematic errors and began to make correct first choices; then they advanced upward through the program. All of the children advanced to ellipse sizes that were much larger than the ellipse size at the point of their furthest descent.
EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT MAGNITUDE ON CHOICE AND RATE OF RESPONDING1
Authors: Neuringer Allen J.
Published: March 2006

Behavior is sometimes insensitive, and sometimes extremely sensitive, to changes in reinforcement magnitude. The present work attempted to analyze this disparity by comparing, in a single experimental situation, a pigeon's choices with its response rates. Whereas choices varied directly with reinforcement duration, rates of responding were comparatively insensitive to duration changes. These results suggest that the effect of reinforcement magnitude on responding partly depends upon the extent to which responding influences the amount of reinforcement.
DELAYED DISCRIMINATION AND DELAYED MATCHING IN PIGEONS1
Authors: Smith Lars
Published: March 2006

Three pigeons were each trained to perform a discrimination problem and a matching problem. Following acquisition, delays of 1 to 7 sec were interposed after stimulus presentation on both problems. Accuracy of responding on these two types of delay procedures was observed to be a function of length of delay interval. Performance was consistently poorer on the delayed matching problem than on the delayed discrimination problem.
LEVER HOLDING UNDER FREE‐OPERANT AVOIDANCE1
Authors: Hurwitz H. M. B.
Published: March 2006

Rate of response under a free‐operant avoidance procedure decreases as the response‐shock interval increases. The present experiment demonstrated an inverse relation between rate of response and lever‐holding time. An invariance was found in the total time per session that a subject was in contact with the lever. It is suggested that lever‐holding behavior may be as sensitive as response rate to changes in the response‐shock interval.
REINFORCEMENT OF LEAST‐FREQUENT SEQUENCES OF CHOICES1
Authors: Shimp Charles P.
Published: March 2006

When a pigeon's choices between two keys are probabilistically reinforced, as in discrete trial probability learning procedures and in concurrent variable‐interval schedules, the bird tends to maximize, or to choose the alternative with the higher probability of reinforcement. In concurrent variable‐interval schedules, steady‐state matching, which is an approximate equality between the relative frequency of a response and the relative frequency of reinforcement of that response, has previously been obtained only as a consequence of maximizing. In the present experiment, maximizing was impossible. A choice of one of two keys was reinforced only if it formed, together with the three preceding choices, the sequence of four successive choices that had occurred least often. This sequence was determined by a Bernoulli‐trials process with parameter p. Each of three pigeons matched when p was 1/2 or 1/4. Therefore, steady‐state matching by individual birds is not always a consequence of maximizing. Choice probability varied between successive reinforcements, and sequential statistics revealed dependencies which were adequately described by a Bernoulli‐trials process with p depending on the time since the preceding reinforcement.
OSCILLATORY BEHAVIOR DURING APPROACH‐AVOIDANCE CONFLICT1
Authors: Hearst Eliot
Published: March 2006

During one stimulus, food rewards and electric shocks were intermittently delivered to rats regardless of their behavior. Subjects could either terminate or initiate this stimulus by pressing a lever. Effects of the relative frequency of food and shock were studied by manipulating the variable‐interval schedules associated with each. Increases in the relative frequency of shocks led to decreases in the amount of time each rat spent in the stimulus. Subjects initiated and terminated the stimulus most often at intermediate relative frequencies of food and shock, rather than in situations where the conditions were either very favorable (e.g., only food was possible) or very unfavorable (e.g., only shock was possible). This technique thus provides quantitative data on oscillatory behavior during conflict which confirm and extend results previously obtained by qualitative observation.
REVERSAL OF PREFERENCE UNDER PROGRESSIVE‐RATIO SCHEDULES BY PUNISHMENT1
Authors: Dardano J. F.
Published: March 2006

A progressive‐ratio reinforcement schedule, in which successive reinforcements required an additional 50 responses, was programmed on one key. A response on a second key reset the progressive‐ratio schedule to the first step. Before punishment, all pigeons consistently reset the schedule after reinforcement on the first step, thereby minimizing the number of responses required for reinforcement. Punishment was a brief electric shock contingent upon each response on the reset key. The first effect of punishment was to change the frequency of extra responses on the reset key. Under higher intensities of punishment, the pigeons completed the advanced steps of the progressive‐ratio schedule before resetting to the first step. Completions of advanced steps were accompanied by decreases in the overall rate of responding and the rate of reinforcement. When the punishment contingency was removed, the major features of pre‐punishment performance were recovered.
THE STRUCTURE OF RESPONSE RATE1
Authors: Williams David R.
Published: March 2006

Interresponse time distributions of the terminal rate under fixed‐interval and fixed‐ratio schedules were examined, using data from three rats in each case. By means of a sequential analysis, the overall interresponse time distributions were separated into orderly components. Consideration of the component distributions suggested that multiple determinants of rate act in succession, not simultaneously, and that probability of reinforcement has an important effect on the probability of occurrence of interresponse times.
ACTUAL VERSUS POTENTIAL SHOCK IN MAKING SHOCK SITUATIONS FUNCTION AS NEGATIVE REINFORCERS1
Authors: Hake D. F.
Published: March 2006

The relative importance of potential and actual shocks in making shock situations function as negative reinforcers was studied. Shocks were scheduled to occur at the same rate during two stimuli. During one, squirrel monkeys could avoid the shocks; during the other, they were unavoidable. For the two stimuli the potential rate of shocks was the same, but the actual rate was lower during avoidance because of avoidance responding. Fixed‐ratio responding was maintained by the change from unavoidable shock to avoidance, indicating that the change was reinforcing when it resulted in a reduction in actual shock rate with no reduction in potential shock rate. Further increases in the rate of potential shock during avoidance had little effect upon the fixed‐ratio responding until the rate was increased to the point that the actual shock rate during avoidance was comparable with that during unavoidable shock. At that point, the fixed‐ratio response rate decreased nearly to zero. These findings show that actual shocks are more important than potential shocks in determining whether or not a shock situation will function as a negative reinforcer; this explains why the change from unavoidable shock to avoidable shock is reinforcing.
THE EFFECTS OF GRADUATED STIMULUS CHANGE ON THE ACQUISITION OF A SIMPLE DISCRIMINATION IN SEVERELY RETARDED BOYS1
Authors: Touchette Paul E.
Published: March 2006

Methods were compared for teaching severely retarded boys to discriminate the position of a 0.75‐in. black square and to press the response key closest to it. Seven boys were given trial‐and‐error training; one learned the task. The six boys who did not learn were presented with a program of graduated stimulus changes. All but one acquired the performance, and he was under appropriate control during the program. When he reached the criterion stimuli, he reverted to a position‐based response learned during trial‐and‐error training. Six similar subjects were presented with graduated stimulus training alone. All six learned the criterion discrimination with few or no errors. Both groups were tested for retention of the criterion performance 35 days after training was completed. Two boys who had near‐perfect criterion discrimination performances showed no signs of retention after 35 days. These boys had a history of trial‐and‐error training.
SOME FACTORS CONTROLLING PREFERENCE BETWEEN FIXED‐RATIO AND VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT1
Authors: Sherman James A. , Thomas John R.
Published: March 2006

A multiple schedule of food reinforcement for key‐pecking was arranged which consisted of nine fixed‐ratios, each of which operated in the presence of a different stimulus. Pigeons could complete a given fixed‐ratio within the multiple schedule or, by pecking a second key, could switch from the fixed‐ratio schedule to a variable‐ratio schedule consisting of the same nine ratios. Stable switching behavior was established which did not maximize simple probability or rate of reinforcement. Instead, the subjects showed a stable preference for the variable‐ratio schedule of food reinforcement. Increasing the number of responses required to switch, and removing the occasions on which reinforcement was delivered after a single response in the variable schedule, decreased the number of switches to the variable schedule. Periods of delay interposed between a completed switch and the availability of reinforcement after one response in the variable schedule also decreased switching to the variable schedule, particularly at long delay intervals.
EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT MAGNITUDE ON PIGEONS' PREFERENCE FOR DIFFERENT FIXED‐RATIO SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT1
Authors: Schwartz Barry
Published: March 2006

In concurrent, two‐member chains, the completion of one or the other of two initial percentage fixed‐interval 90‐sec links produced a terminal link in which the completion of a fixed ratio produced food reinforcement. The fixed ratios and the duration of reinforcement in the terminal links were varied. Relative response rate in initial links was proportional to the relative reinforcement duration per ratio response (reinforcement duration divided by fixed ratio) in terminal links. The rate of responding in the terminal fixed‐ratio links was insensitive to both ratio size and reinforcement duration and therefore did not vary sufficiently to distinguish between responses per reinforcement and immediacy of reinforcement as controlling variables in terminal links.
ESCAPE AND AVOIDANCE OF SHOCK BY PIGEONS PECKING A KEY
Authors: Hineline Philip N. , Rachlin Howard
Published: March 2006

Pigeons had been trained to peck a key when each peck removed a slowly increasing series of electric shocks. Without loss of the established key‐pecking response, the birds were gradually weaned from this procedure to one where intense shocks were presented suddenly, duplicating features that had proved ineffective for initial shaping of the response. Finally, a procedure was introduced in which key pecks could avoid shock. Avoidance responding was maintained in two of three pigeons.
EFFECTS OF INSTRUCTIONS AND REINFORCEMENT‐FEEDBACK ON HUMAN OPERANT BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY FIXED‐INTERVAL REINFORCEMENT1
Authors: Baron Alan , Kaufman Arnold , Stauber Kathleen A.
Published: March 2006

In three experiments, human subjects were trained on a five‐component multiple schedule with different fixed intervals of monetary reinforcement scheduled in the different components. Subjects uninstructed about the fixed‐interval schedules manifested high and generally equivalent rates regardless of the particular component. By comparison, subjects given instructions about the schedules showed orderly progressions of rates and temporal patterning as a function of the interreinforcement intervals, particularly when feedback about reinforcement was delivered but also when reinforcement‐feedback was withheld. Administration of the instructions‐reinforcement combination to subjects who had already developed poorly differentiated behavior, however, did not make their behavior substantially better differentiated. When cost was imposed for responding, both instructed and uninstructed subjects showed low and differentiated rates regardless of their prior histories. It was concluded that instructions can have major influences on the establishment and maintenance of human operant behavior.
DISCRIMINATIVE RESPONDING ON ASSOCIATED MIXED AND MULTIPLE SCHEDULES AS A FUNCTION OF FOOD AND ICS REINFORCEMENT1
Authors: Sadowsky Stephen
Published: March 2006

Performance on associated mixed and multiple variable‐interval—extinction schedules was studied as a function of food versus intracranial stimulation (ICS) reinforcement. For the mixed schedule, differential responding was greater for an ICS reinforcement group than for a food reinforcement group, demonstrating that conditions affecting resistance to extinction help to determine the control exerted by a mixed schedule. Performance on the multiple schedule demonstrated greater differential responding for an ICS group than for a food reinforcement group during the early training sessions, indicating that the control exerted by mixed schedules interacts with that exerted by the exteroceptive discriminative stimuli. The results suggest that the influence of the associated mixed schedule on discriminative responding would be greater, the greater the difficulty of the stimulus discrimination.
SCHEDULE‐INDUCED DRINKING: ELICITATION, ANTICIPATION, OR BEHAVIORAL INTERACTION?
Authors: Reid Alliston K. , Staddon J. E. R.
Published: March 2006

We carried out five experiments with rats on fixed‐time schedules in order to define the relation between drinking and individual food‐pellet presentations. In Experiment 1, unsignaled extra food occurred at the end of occasional fixed intervals, and we compared subsequent drinking patterns with drinking before the extra food presentation. In Experiment 2 we presented signaled and unsignaled extra food and measured elicited and anticipatory drinking patterns. In Experiment 3, we observed the persistence of modified drinking patterns when several consecutive intervals ended with extra pellets. In Experiments 4 and 5, we varied the magnitude of food delivery across (rather than within) sessions to replicate published findings. Results show that schedule‐induced drinking is neither elicited by food presentations nor induced by stimuli associated with a high food rate. All subjects seemed to follow a simple rule: during any stimulus signaling an increase in the local probability of food delivery within a session, engage in food‐related behavior to the exclusion of drinking. Schedule‐induced drinking appears to be the result of dynamic interactions among food‐related behavior, drinking, and other motivated behavior, rather than a direct effect of the contingencies of food reinforcement.
THE EFFECTS OF CONCURRENT RESPONDING AND REINFORCEMENT ON BEHAVIORAL OUTPUT
Authors: Duncan Heather J. , Silberberg Alan
Published: March 2006

Four birds key pecked on concurrent variable‐interval one‐minute variable‐interval four‐minute schedules with a two‐second changeover delay. Response rates to the variable‐interval one‐minute key were then reduced by signaling its reinforcer availability and later by providing its reinforcers independently of responding. Each manipulation increased response rates to the variable‐interval four‐minute key even though relative reinforcement rates were unchanged. In a final phase, eliminating the variable‐interval one‐minute key and its schedule produced the highest rates of all to the variable‐interval four‐minute key. These results show that both reinforcement and response rates to one schedule influence response rates to another schedule. These results join those of Guilkey, Shull, & Brownstein (1975) in failing to replicate Catania (1963). Moreover, they violate the predictions of the equation for simple action (de Villiers & Herrnstein, 1976). In terms of a median‐rate measure (reciprocal of the median interresponse time), rates to the variable‐interval four‐minute key were high when responding was not reduced to the variable‐interval one‐minute key and were low when it was reduced. This rate difference suggests a process difference between concurrent‐schedule procedures that maintain high concurrent response rates versus those that do not. This process difference jeopardizes attempts to integrate single‐ and concurrent‐operant performances within a single formulation.
FURTHER REMARKS ON THE ROLE OF COGNITION IN THE COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIOR
Authors: Wasserman Edward A.
Published: March 2006

Recent interest in comparative psychology has stimulated much research and debate concerning cognitive processes in animal behavior. The present paper relates to this general area by treating particular issues in the analysis of comparative cognition: specifically, how cognition is inferred from animal behavior; whether the postulation of intervening cognitive processes furthers our understanding of behavior; and how rival approaches help advance the science of behavior.