bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Over-the-Counter Markets
Authors: Duffie Darrell
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the institutional setting of over-the-counter (OTC) markets and raises some of the key conceptual issues associated with market opaqueness. An OTC market does not use a centralized trading mechanism, such as an auction, specialist, or limit-order book, to aggregate bids and offers and to allocate trades. Instead, buyers and sellers negotiate terms privately, often in ignorance of the prices currently available from other potential counterparties and with limited knowledge of trades recently negotiated elsewhere in the market. OTC markets are thus said to be relatively opaque; investors are somewhat in the dark about the most attractive available terms and about whom to contact for attractive terms. Prices and allocations in OTC markets are, to varying extents, influenced by opaqueness and by the role of intermediating brokers and dealers.
Information Percolation in OTC Markets
Authors: Duffie Darrell
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a simple model of the “percolation” of information of common interest through an over-the-counter market with many agents. It also includes an explicit solution for the cross-sectional distribution of posterior beliefs at each time. It begins with the basic information structure for the economy and the setting for search and random matching. It then shows how to solve the model for the dynamics of the cross-sectional distribution of information. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to market settings and to extensions of the model that handle public releases of information, the receipt of new private information over time, and the release of information among groups of more than two agents at a time.
Power Lines
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

In 1940, Phoenix was a small, agricultural city of 65,000, and the Navajo Reservation was an open landscape of scattered sheepherders. Forty years later, Phoenix had blossomed into a metropolis of 1.5 million people and the territory of the Navajo Nation was home to two of the largest strip mines in the world. Five coal-burning power plants surrounded the reservation, generating electricity for export to Phoenix, Los Angeles, and other cities. Exploring the postwar developments of these two very different landscapes, this book tells the story of the far-reaching environmental and social inequalities of metropolitan growth, and the roots of the contemporary coal-fueled climate change crisis. The book explains how inexpensive electricity became a requirement for modern life in Phoenix—driving assembly lines and cooling the oppressive heat. Navajo officials initially hoped energy development would improve their lands too, but as ash piles marked their landscape, air pollution filled the skies, and almost half of Navajo households remained without electricity, many Navajos came to view power lines as a sign of their subordination in the Southwest. Drawing together urban, environmental, and Native American history, the book demonstrates how power lines created unequal connections between distant landscapes and how environmental changes associated with suburbanization reached far beyond the metropolitan frontier. The book also offers a new account of postwar inequality, arguing that residents of the metropolitan periphery suffered similar patterns of marginalization as those faced in America's inner cities. Telling how coal from Indian lands became the fuel of modernity in the Southwest, the book explores the dramatic effects that this energy system has had on the people and environment of the region.
“Good Bye, Big Sky”: Coal and Postwar America
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter presents a reading of “Good Bye, Big Sky” and “The Giant Revived,” two articles on coal's rise as the fuel of postwar America and the cost of that transition. “The Giant Revived” explained how American electrical utilities found coal to be an inexpensive alternative to natural gas and nuclear power that could meet the nation's burgeoning demand for electricity. This demand drove a revival of the coal industry. By 1970, demand from utilities had tripled the amount of electricity generated by coal since 1956. Meanwhile, “Good Bye, Big Sky” suggested the costs of coal's new place as the nation's dominant source of electricity. With Four Corners alone releasing approximately 46,000 tons of nitrogen oxide and 35,000 tons of sulfur dioxide—the two main chemical components of smog—as well as 50,000 tons of fly ash annually, the resulting air pollution obscured vistas and suggested the Southwest's unique nature had come to an end.
Human Values and the Market
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter uses data on the diffusion of life insurance in nineteenth-century America as a testing ground to explore the larger theoretical problem of establishing monetary equivalences for sacred things. It hypothesizes that cultural resistance to including certain items in the social order—namely, those related to human life, death, and emotions—into a market-type of exchange introduces structural sources of strain and ambivalence into their marketing. Life insurance raises the issue in its sharpest terms by posing the question of how one establishes a fixed-dollar amount for any individual death. The chapter argues that resistance to life insurance during the earlier part of the nineteenth century was largely the result of a value system that condemned the materialistic assessment of death, and of the power of magical beliefs and superstitions that viewed with apprehension any commercial pacts dependent on death for their fulfillment.
The Price and Value of Children
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the development of children's insurance. It argues that the removal of children from the “cash nexus” at the turn of the past century was part of a cultural process of sacralization of children's lives. It uses the term “sacralization” in the sense of objects being invested with moral and religious meaning. While in the nineteenth century the market value of children was culturally acceptable, the new normative ideal of the child as an exclusively emotional and moral asset precluded instrumental or fiscal considerations. The primacy of children's qualitative, intrinsic value was affirmed by forsaking any immediate quantitative money value. The chapter analyzes historical data on the controversial development of children's insurance between 1875 and the early decades of the twentieth century as a specific measure of the radical transformation in the cultural meaning of childhood.
The Social Meaning of Money
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that the utilitarian approach to money is a theoretical and empirical straitjacket. Money belongs to the market, but not exclusively so. And while money is indeed an objective means of rational calculation, it is not only that. It first considers the traditional interpretation of money, that is, as “market money,” and then proposes an alternative model of “special monies” that incorporates the social and symbolic significance of money. Next, it presents a historical case study of domestic money as one example of a special money. It argues that domestic money—which includes a wife's money, husband's money, and children's money—is a special category of money in the modern world. The discussion focuses on the changing meaning of married women's money between the 1870s and 1930s, showing how this money, whether given by the husband or earned in the household or in the labor market, was marked as a different form of currency from an ordinary dollar.
Circuits in Economic Life
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter identifies the social arrangements called circuits of commerce, explains how they matter to economic life and where to look for them, enumerates some questions we should be asking about them, and sketches an approach to investigating them. Earlier papers describe three circuit-like phenomena: local monies, caring connections, and clusters within corporations. Instead of elaborating on those three, the chapter begins with two other economic phenomena that are widespread, consequential, multiply invented, and puzzling: migrants' remittance networks and rotating savings and credit associations. It concludes by outlining the general properties will we find in circuits and questions raised about commercial circuits on college campuses.
Culture and Consumption
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the intersections of culture and consumption. It takes up recent investigations of consumption outside of sociology; sociological studies of consumption, outside the claimed territory of economic sociology; and consequent challenges to economic sociology. Following those three points, it reviews three different sites of consumption—households, ethnic–racial communities, and retail settings—where extensive research has recently occurred, with an eye to better integration between economic sociology and empirical studies of consumption. It argues that although cultural variation plays a significant part in consumption, it is a common mistake to suppose that consumption forms a warm cultural island in a frigid economic sea. Shared understandings and their representations—the components of culture—undergird all of economic life, from e-commerce to sweatshops.
Repaying Darwin’s Debt to Agriculture
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This book proposes new approaches to improving agriculture based on the principles of evolutionary biology and natural selection. It argues that two popular approaches to improving agriculture, biotechnology and traditional plant breeding, have tended to ignore evolutionary tradeoffs—that is, cases where an evolutionary change that is positive in one context is negative in another—and that both of them would benefit from greater attention to evolution. Whether we focus on genetic improvement of crops or better management of agricultural ecosystems, the book emphasizes the need to identify (and sometimes accept) tradeoffs that constrained past evolution in order to find new solutions to agricultural problems. It also considers some of the challenges facing agriculture, such as resource-use efficiency and food security. This chapter provides an overview of the book.
Evolution 101
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers some definitions and fundamental concepts of evolutionary biology, with a particular focus on the power of natural selection to improve the adaptation of individual plants and animals to their environment. It begins with a discussion of evolution by natural selection as a well-tested scientific theory, along with three conditions that must be met in the evolution of species by natural selection: first, there must be differences among individual members of the species; second, individuals must have some tendency to inherit the characteristics of their parents; and third, inherited differences must affect reproductive success. The chapter proceeds by assessing the implications of these changes within species for agriculture. It also gives an example of how populations evolve by natural selection and concludes with an analysis of the evolution of transfer RNA genes via less-fit intermediates.
Darwinian Agriculture’s Three Core Principles
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the three core principles of Darwinian agriculture. First, natural selection is fast enough, and has been improving plants and animals for long enough, that it has left few simple, tradeoff-free opportunities for further improvement. Therefore, implicit or explicit acceptance of tradeoffs has been and will be key to crop genetic improvement, through biotechnology or traditional plant breeding methods. Second, competitive testing of individual adaptations by natural selection is more rigorous than nature's testing of natural ecosystems merely by endurance. Although testing by endurance shows sustainability, there may still be considerable room for improvement. Third, we should hedge our bets against future uncertainty with a greater variety of crops and of research approaches. The chapter argues that this bet-hedging will require allocating some land and other resources to crops and research programs that seem less promising today but may outperform today's winners if conditions change.
Diversity, Bet-hedging, and Selection among Ideas
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter summarizes the book's main conclusions and cautions against exclusive reliance on any single approach. The book's central thesis is that nature's wisdom is found primarily in competitively tested individual adaptations, in wild species and sometimes still in cultivated ones, rather than in the overall structure of natural ecosystems. It notes how some biotechnology advocates underestimate the perfection of existing individual adaptations and suggests that most near-term opportunities for genetic improvement of crops or livestock will involve tradeoffs that had constrained natural selection in the past. The chapter considers two basic approaches to the problem of varying environments: phenotypic plasticity and bet-hedging. It also discusses bet-hedging in food production, the bet-hedging benefits of organic farming and animal agriculture, and the use of diversity for bet-hedging in agricultural research. Finally, it describes traditional agricultural sciences that have been more receptive to input from evolutionary biology than biotechnology has.
Clutch Size
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

Clutch size is generally considered to be one of the most important determinants of reproductive success and lifetime fitness in birds. It is also perhaps the most well-studied life-history trait in birds, though many reviews have focused on interspecific variation. Clutch size sets an upper limit on brood size, and in single-brooded species, clutch size will therefore determine the maximum annual fledgling productivity. This chapter identifies the physiological mechanisms underlying individual, phenotypic variation in clutch size. Topics discussed include individual variations in clutch size and clutch number; why clutch size varies among individuals; selection on clutch size; and physiological mechanisms of clutch-size determination.
The Optics of Life
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

Optics—a field of physics focusing on the study of light—is also central to many areas of biology, including vision, ecology, botany, animal behavior, neurobiology, and molecular biology. This book introduces the fundamentals of optics to biologists and nonphysicists, giving them the tools they need to successfully incorporate optical measurements and principles into their research. The book starts with the basics, describing the properties of light and the units and geometry of measurement. It then explores how light is created and propagates and how it interacts with matter, covering topics such as absorption, scattering, fluorescence, and polarization. The book also provides a tutorial on how to measure light as well as an informative discussion of quantum mechanics. The book features a host of examples drawn from nature and everyday life, and several appendixes that offer further practical guidance for researchers. This concise book uses a minimum of equations and jargon, explaining the basic physics of light in a succinct and lively manner. It is the essential primer for working biologists and for anyone seeking an accessible introduction to optics.
Units and Geometry
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores units and geometry in light measurement. For biologists not working on humans, it comes down to a few simple rules: use photons not watts; use wavelength not frequency, but be extremely careful when comparing the peaks of light spectra to sensitivity curves; stick to measuring radiance and irradiance, but be a pioneer and add scalar irradiance measurements to your papers; irradiance sometimes obeys the inverse-square law; radiance rarely does; do not use photometric units, except possibly for lux. However, the underlying principle of weighted integrals is useful for modeling animal vision and other wavelength-dependent processes.
Absorption
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on absorption. Absorption has been called the “death of photons.” While the energy of a photon is never truly lost, most people find the conversion of photons into heat and chemical reactions less appealing than their original emission. However, without absorption, the earth would be a far less colorful place, with no paintings, flowers, leopard spots, or stained-glass windows. There would still be some colors due to interference and scattering, but people would be blind to them because human vision is based on absorption. More importantly, if nothing on earth absorbed light, the planet would be lifeless and cold. Understanding absorption helps one understand all the interactions of light with matter.
Scattering
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses scattering. As mentioned already, optics is primarily photons interacting with electrons, atoms, and molecules. If the energy of the photon matches the difference in energy between two levels of excitation, then the photon vanishes, its energy converted into other forms. However, if the photon's energy does not find a match among the differences in possible energy states, a new photon will quickly be emitted. The new photon is usually the same energy—and thus the same wavelength—as the old one, making it appear as if the original photon bounced, which is why this nonabsorptive interaction is known as “scattering.” When the energy of the new photon matches that of the old one, the scattering is known as elastic. When the energy of the new photon is lower, the scattering is known as inelastic. All the observed phenomena of scattering—refraction, reflection, structural colors, turbidity, and more—are based on these few principles.
What Is Light, Really?
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter explains that the modern theory of light falls within the field of quantum mechanics. At first glance, quantum mechanics does not seem that strange—its name is based on the fact that light comes in units and that electrons have discrete energy states. It also includes the uncertainty principle, which states that one cannot know certain pairs of physical properties with perfect precision. Moreover, quantum mechanics involves the wave-particle duality of photons. The chapter then explores two of the most unusual aspects of quantum mechanics: two-slit interference and quantum entanglement. Both violate the most fundamental notions about how the world works.
Introduction
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of how cultural differences are deeply relevant contemporary debates about moral responsibility. This is because (1) contemporary philosophical theories of moral responsibility develop universal conditions for fair assignments of blame and praise; and (2) they appeal to intuitions about cases and principles to justify these conditions. Consequently, these theories rely on empirical assumptions about the universality of the intuitions to which they appeal. This book develops an empirical and philosophical challenge to this assumption, one that if successful casts doubt on the prospect of establishing any theory of responsibility as objectively correct. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
The Appeal to Intuition
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the methodology that philosophers employ to defend their theories of moral responsibility, and reveals the ways in which they rely on appeals to intuition. It shows that most leading theories aspire to universality; that is, they aim to provide conditions for moral responsibility that hold for human beings across cultures. It then identifies the crucial empirical assumptions upon which theories of moral responsibility rely because of these common features. It suggests that philosophical theorizing can have a corrupting influence on our intuitions. Our intuitions might be biased in favor of theories we have spent much of our careers developing. Moreover, even if we concede that the intuitions of philosophers are more reliable than those of “common folk,” we cannot assume that these intuitions are uniform among the experts.
Option Games Valuation
Authors: Smit Han , Moraitis Thras
Published: November 2017

Valuing uncertainty in strategy requires the development of quantitative models reflecting the conceptual options games view on strategy. The application of fresh ideas based on two major strands in the existing literature—real options and game theory—has attracted increased interest, both to academia and to acquisition strategy practitioners. Despite the mathematical elegance of option game models, the key metrics and tools for implementation have not yet been fully developed, especially with regard to providing relevant managerial guidance. This chapter presents an in-depth examination of Xstrata's Falconbridge acquisition through option and game lenses in order to provide insights into the implementation of these new and effective quantitative real option models in practice, as well as pointing out their limitations.
Moving People
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how the remapping of Central Europe after the Second World War was radical not so much in terms of changes in national borders, as in the broadscale shifting of settlement boundaries. The borders had already been altered after the First World War and new countries created upon the ruins of the fallen Central and Eastern European empires. Prolonged mass migrations also ensued at that time. Many people did not want to live in the countries they found themselves in after the political map was redrawn, or they fled growing discrimination against ethnic minorities. After the Second World War, the Allied powers abandoned the principles to which they committed themselves in 1918. They wanted the territory between Germany and the Soviet Union to be made up of homogeneous nation-states that were no longer burdened by the existence of ethnic minorities.
Letters from Poland and Germany, January 1940 to August 1941
Authors: Arnold Klaus J. , Duffy Eve M.
Published: November 2017

January 22, 1940

Now we’ve really begun our watch in the East. We’ve never been so cut off from all bourgeois, western ways of life. It’s too bad we don’t have the inner freedom to fully experience the world around us. It really is like a dream vacation. The surrounding countryside is quieter than I’ve ever experienced it. There are unending vistas of snow. The silent forest serves as a backdrop to the scene; in the foreground is the manor with its large barns and stables. […]...
Representative Assemblies in Europe, 1250–1750
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the evolution of representative assemblies in Europe during the period 1250–1750. Numerous historical sources provide evidence of a clear distinction between the financial roles played by representative bodies in city-states and by those in territorial states. Within city-states, representative bodies met frequently, they played a direct role in controlling government finance. Within territorial states, representative assemblies were sometimes an obstacle to a government's efforts to obtain credit. The chapter first provides an overview of the origins of representative assemblies before discussing the prerogatives of representative assemblies in city-states and territorial states. The evidence relates to long-standing historical arguments about the emergence and evolution of political representation. The chapter also highlights the pronounced difference in the activities of representative assemblies in city-states and territorial states.
“Popping Sorrow”
Authors: Gikandi Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that the condition of possibility of being black in the new world could not be realized until slavery, a sorrowful state of shame and negation, was transformed into a narrative of identity. It is probably this transformation that W. E. B. Du Bois had in mind when, in the concluding chapter of the Souls of Black Folk, he described Negro spirituals—the sorrow songs—as the medium of what was tantamount to a black logos. Through these songs, Du Bois asserted, “the soul of the black slave spoke to men”; they were “the most beautiful expression of human experience born of this side of the seas.” For Du Bois, the sorrow songs functioned as allegorical expressions of the repressed self and its yearning for a language of freedom out of the ruins of enslavement.
The Ontology of Play
Authors: Gikandi Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that whether they were produced in defiance or imitation of the culture of taste, the works of art imagined and implemented by slaves, from buildings to dances and festivals, enabled the enslaved to redefine their relation to time and space, to reconstitute their own bodies and social relationships outside the shadow of their masters, and thus to display bodies that were not mere chattel. The animatedness of the slave in festival, the explosiveness of the body, the celebration of excess, was at odds with all the assumptions that governed white taste and polite behavior, the essence of Englishness and modern identity. In positioning itself against the norms of polite behavior and its regimes of controlled or regulated feelings, the slaves' negative sensorium became one of the most important arsenals in the making of the black self.
Coda
Authors: Gikandi Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes three events. The first is Republican representative from New York James Tallmadge Jr.'s proposed amendment to the to the bill seeking to grant statehood to Missouri. On February 13, 1819, he proposed that “the further introduction of slavery or involuntary servitude be prohibited” in Missouri as a condition for its entry into the union and that “all children of slaves, born within the said state, after admission thereof into the union, shall be free at the age of twenty-five years.” The second is the discovery in June 1991 in Lower Manhattan of the remains of four hundred Africans, mostly slaves, some of whom had been buried as early as the 1690s. The third is Barack Hussein Obama's inauguration as the forty-fourth president of the United States on January 20, 2009.
Making Credit Modern
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the modern credit system that took shape after World War I. Modern debt after World War I was defined through two new debt practices—installment credit and legalized personal loans—which reflected the social and economic order that emerged out of the new industrial economy. Installment credit allowed consumers to buy more, retailers to sell more, and manufacturers to make more, all at lower prices. Meanwhile, personal loans enabled those industrial workers who made all those goods weather the uncertainties of capitalism's labor market. Together, the two debt practices developed for two distinct purposes inaugurated a new relationship between credit and capitalism, connecting personal lending to the larger circulation of investment capital in the American economy.
Postwar Consumer Credit
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines postwar consumer credit. Many in the postwar United States achieved a material prosperity that, in debt's absence, they could not have attained. Indeed, this postwar prosperity enabled suburbanites with good incomes to live as well as their perhaps wealthier neighborhoods, even if they had little savings. However, this equality of consumption reinforced inequalities of wealth. While the amount loaned grew tremendously in the postwar period, the growth rate for outstanding debt remained relatively flat. Borrowing remained a viable strategy, not only because of rising incomes, but also because all consumer credit remained tax deductible. In such a favorable climate for borrowing, Americans borrowed their way to prosperity.
Securing Debt in an Insecure World
Authors: Hyman Louis
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how profits on credit cards became the center of lending. By the early 1980s, credit cards metamorphosed from break-even investments to leading earners. With much higher profits than commercial loans, financial institutions began to lend as much money as they could to consumers on credit cards. By the early 1990s, investments in credit cards were twice as profitable as conventional business loans. Increasingly, the now plentiful credit cards allowed consumers to borrow more money and with greater flexibility than they had before. For home owners, home equity loans also offered a new way to borrow by tapping into the value of their homes. Like credit cards, home equity loans allowed borrowers to pay back their debt when they wanted, without a fixed schedule.
Introduction
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter reveals that the years between 1973 and 1979 witnessed a critical transition that made American society simultaneously more equal and less equal, and American culture still more individualistic, than they had been before. Like a line of thunderstorms rolling across the prairie, a series of jolts hit Americans in 1973, leaving them uncertain of what new weather would come along behind this powerful storm front. U.S. troops withdrew from Vietnam; the cover-up of the Watergate scandal unraveled amid calls for the president's impeachment; the oil embargo by Arab members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) began, while Nixon unplugged the dollar from the gold standard and average real wages (adjusted for inflation) declined for the first time in forty years.
Crosscurrents of Crisis in 1970s America
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines American anxieties about the longstanding foundations of American society and thought. By the 1970s, American society would be buffeted by powerful crosscurrents which reshaped both the nation and the world beyond it. Military, political, economic, and environmental crises unfolded rapidly on top of each other, leaving many citizens uncertain of which to address first and how to do so. In the backwash of defeat in Vietnam and humiliation from the Watergate scandal, and in the midst of inflation and an oil crisis, distrust of government pervaded American society, the loss of confidence in public authority laid the foundation for deregulation and a turn toward the free market, a path that led to growing disparities between rich and poor. At the same time, the more tolerant and individualistic mainstream American culture increasingly rejected old forms of group discrimination and inequality.
Conclusion
Authors: Borstelmann Thomas
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter gives a brief overview of the dominant contemporary American values of formal equality and free-market economics after the 1970s. It also considers the relationship between two developments: the simultaneous flowerings of egalitarianism and free-market values. Both commitments had deep roots in the American past and had long helped shape the nation's politics and culture. The shedding of formal systems of social hierarchy was a continuing process, one that did not begin in the 1970s but did accelerate dramatically during that decade. In addition, the chapter considers other areas of American public life that has changed since the 1970s.
Numerical Method
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a numerical method for solving equations of thermal convection on a computer. It begins by introducing the vorticity-streamfunction formulation as a means of conserving mass. The approach involves updating for the vorticity first and then solving for the fluid velocity each time step. The chapter continues with a discussion of two very different spatial discretizations, whereby the vertical derivatives are approximated with a finite-difference method and the horizontal derivatives with a spectral method. The nonlinear terms are computed in spectral space. The chapter also considers the Adams-Bashforth time integration scheme and explains how the Poisson equation can be solved at each time step for the updated streamfunction given the updated vorticity.
Postprocessing
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains how to write a postprocessing code, and more specifically how to study the nonlinear simulations using computer graphics and analysis. It first considers how to compute and store results in a file during the computer simulation, assuming the Fourier transforms to x-space are done within the main computational code during the simulation. It then describes the postprocessing code for reading these files and displaying the various fields, along with the use of graphics software packages that provide additional, more sophisticated visualizations of the scalar and vector data. It also discusses the computer analysis of several additional properties of the solution, focusing on measurements of nonlinear convection such as Rayleigh number, Nusselt number, Reynolds number, and kinetic energy spectrum.
Time Integration Schemes
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on time integration schemes, including fourth-order accurate Runge–Kutta and predictor-corrector schemes as well as schemes that allow larger time steps (and therefore fewer steps for a given amount of simulated time) by treating the linear diffusion terms implicitly. The nonlinear terms, however, couple all the modes and so would be extremely expensive to treat implicitly; therefore they are usually treated explicitly. Such “semi-implicit” schemes considerably improve the efficiency of the computer code. The chapter also describes the Crank–Nicolson scheme and concludes by showing how the current numerical model can easily be modified to study mantle convection (also called “geodynamics”) using the vorticity equation in the limit of an infinite Prandtl number.
Magnetic Field
Authors: Glatzmaier Gary A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on magnetoconvection, which refers to thermal convection of an electrically conducting fluid within a background magnetic field maintained by some external mechanism. It first provides a brief overview of magnetohydrodynamics and the magnetohydrodynamic equations before explaining how to make a 2D model of magnetic field. In this approach, the case of a uniform vertical background field and the case of a uniform horizontal background field are both considered. The chapter then describes how one could simulate a case of a uniform background field that is tilted relative to both the vertical and horizontal axes. It also considers what can be learned about the stability and structure of magnetoconvection and the dispersion relation for magneto-gravity waves from analytical analyses without the nonlinear terms. Finally, it discusses nonlinear simulations of magnetoconvection in a box with impermeable side boundaries, along with magnetoconvection with a horizontal background field and an arbitrary background field.
Divine Machines
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

Though it did not yet exist as a discrete field of scientific inquiry, biology was at the heart of many of the most important debates in seventeenth-century philosophy. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the work of G. W. Leibniz. This book offers the first in-depth examination of Leibniz's deep and complex engagement with the empirical life sciences of his day, in areas as diverse as medicine, physiology, taxonomy, generation theory, and paleontology. The book shows how these wide-ranging pursuits were not only central to Leibniz's philosophical interests, but often provided the insights that led to some of his best-known philosophical doctrines. Presenting the clearest picture yet of the scope of Leibniz's theoretical interest in the life sciences, the book takes seriously the philosopher's own repeated claims that the world must be understood in fundamentally biological terms. Here it reveals a thinker who was immersed in the sciences of life, and looked to the living world for answers to vexing metaphysical problems. The book casts Leibniz's philosophy in an entirely new light, demonstrating how it radically departed from the prevailing models of mechanical philosophy and had an enduring influence on the history and development of the life sciences. Along the way, the book provides a fascinating glimpse into early modern debates about the nature and origins of organic life, and into how philosophers such as Leibniz engaged with the scientific dilemmas of their era.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the place of biology in early modern natural philosophy. “Biology,” though it did not yet exist in name, or even as a discrete domain of scientific inquiry, was at the very heart of many of the most important debates in seventeenth-century philosophy. Yet while in recent decades much important scholarly work has emerged on the early modern life sciences, the perception persists in the broader scholarly community that the seventeenth century was principally a period in which physics was of central importance. The chapter considers the role of the phenomena of life in the systems of Aristotle, Descartes, and Hobbes in the background of Leibniz's philosophy. It then summarizes the main points on which Leibniz distinguishes his theory from those of his predecessors in the history of philosophical reflection on the nature, structure, and generation of living entities.
“Que les philosophes medicinassent”
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Leibniz's principal texts on medicine and related domains. In a broad sense, all of Leibniz's philosophy of biology is at the same time a philosophy of medicine. It begins with a consideration of Leibniz's interest in chemistry, or what is for him fundamentally the study of the various “mixtures” that make up the fluid parts of the human body, and also the study of the uses of chemical elements and compounds in medical treatment. It is shown that for Leibniz, chemistry is first and foremost iatrochemistry, or the study of chemistry insofar as it relates to medicine.
The Nature and Boundaries of Biological Species
Authors: Smith Justin E. H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows that Leibniz's analysis of the nature and boundaries of biological species is very different from his now well-known nominalist account of the species of, for example, mathematical objects, and even of ordinary physical objects. With respect to plants and animals Leibniz positions himself squarely in the species-fixist camp, like his contemporary John Ray, the English naturalist who insists that “the number of true species in nature is fixed and limited and, as we may reasonably believe, constant and unchangeable from the first creation to the present day.” Leibniz, like Ray, believes that all species were formed at the Creation and will remain fixed for all time, notwithstanding his simultaneous belief in the possibility of tremendous morphological change in a species over time and even of tremendous morphological change or “transformation” over the course of an individual creature's life.
Kingdoms founded
Authors: Brett Annabel S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the question of the formation of the commonwealth. The question of the formation of the commonwealth implicates precisely the question of its form, the metaphysics of which pervades even the most anti-Aristotelian of theorists, Thomas Hobbes, whose book Leviathan (1651) is subtitled “the Matter, Forme and Power of a Common-wealth.” Two key words elucidate the form of the commonwealth: unity and order. The central issue around which the debate turned is the separability or otherwise of these two aspects of its being: that is, whether the commonwealth can exist as a unity independently of the particular order of command and obedience that informs it, or whether that order just is the commonwealth.
Introduction, main results, context
Authors: Edixhoven Bas
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to the subject, precise statements of the main results, and places these in a somewhat wider context. Topics discussed include statement of the main results, Schoof's algorithm, Schoof's algorithm described in terms of ètale cohomology, other cases where ètale cohomology can be used to construct polynomial time algorithms for counting rational points of varieties over finite fields, congruences for Ramanujan's tau-function, and comparison with p-adic methods.
An upper bound for Green functions on Riemann surfaces
Authors: Merkl Franz
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with an upper bound for Green functions on Riemann surfaces.
The Maxwell Equations and Constitutive Relations
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first introduces the constitutive relations which are commonly used in electromagnetic theory for the mathematical modelling of complex electromagnetic media. These constitutive relations are to be understood as operators connecting the electric flux density and the magnetic flux density with the electric and the magnetic fields. When they are introduced into the Maxwell equations, this chapter obtains differential equations (PDEs) that govern the evolution of the electromagnetic fields. This chapter also seeks to formulate and discuss the scope of the various problems related to the Maxwell equations that will be treated in this volume. It introduces and formulates in terms of differential equations various problems of interest related to the Maxwell equations: time-harmonic problems, scattering problems, time-domain evolution problems, random and stochastic problems, controllability problems, homogenisation problems, and others.
Well Posedness
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with electromagnetic fields in complex media in the time domain. First, the chapter discusses the Maxwell equations in complex media in the time domain and shows that they can be expressed as integrodifferential equations. It then provides a convenient functional setting that allows the Maxwell equation to be treated as an integrodifferential evolution equation, and also provides some solvability and well posedness results for this problem based on a semigroup approach. Two alternative approaches to the solvability of evolution problems in the time domain, namely, the evolution family approach and an approach using finite-dimensional approximations (Faedo-Galerkin) approach, are then discussed. Finally, the chapter presents some extensions related to evolution problems.
Well Posedness
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first presents a model for the Maxwell equations for complex random media in terms of stochastic integrodifferential equations. It then provides the appropriate functional framework that can allow for the treatment of the problem as an abstract stochastic integrodifferential equation in Hilbert space. In exploiting this framework, the chapter provides some solvability and well-posedness results for this model, using a semigroup-based approach. Hereafter, this chapter proposes alternative approaches to solvability and well posedness for the stochastic integrodifferential equations that arise in the modelling of random complex electromagnetic media, using either the finite-dimensional approximation (Faedo-Galerkin method) or the Wiener chaos approach.
Homogenisation
Authors: Roach G. F. , Stratis I. G. , Yannacopoulos A. N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a theory of homogenisation for random bianisotropic media exhibiting an ergodic structure. It shows that for such a medium there exists a homogenised system of the Maxwell type. To begin, the chapter presents an introduction to the necessary notions from the theory of ergodicity that will be used in this treatment of homogenisation. It then showcases a model for a random complex medium, on which this chapter's analysis will be based. The chapter also details a formal two-scale approach to set ideas and understand the basic mechanisms that will lead to a homogenised system, as well as to identify the coefficients of the homogenised system. Finally, this chapter presents some rigorous results on the homogenisation of random complex electromagnetic media.
Sovereign Wealth Funds
Authors: Clark Gordon L. , Dixon Adam D. , Monk Ashby H.B.
Published: November 2017

The worldwide rise of sovereign wealth funds is emblematic of the ongoing transformation of nation-state economic prospects. This book maps the global footprints of these financial institutions, examining their governance and investment management, and issues of domestic and international legitimacy. Through a variety of case studies—from the China Investment Corporation to the funds of several Gulf states—the book shows that the forces propelling the adoption and development of sovereign wealth funds vary by country. The book also shows that many of these investment institutions have identifiable commonalities of form and function that match the core institutions of Western financial markets. The book suggests that the international legitimacy of sovereign wealth funds is based on the degree to which their design and governance match Western expectations about investment management. Undercutting commonplace assumptions about the emerging world of the twenty-first century, the book demonstrates that even small countries with large and globally oriented sovereign wealth funds are likely to play a significant role in international relations. This book considers how such financial organizations have altered not only the face of finance, but also the international geopolitical landscape.
Rethinking the “Sovereign” in Sovereign Wealth Funds
Authors: Clark Gordon L. , Dixon Adam D. , Monk Ashby H. B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter asks what is the “sovereign” in sovereign wealth funds (SWFs)? More specifically, how can we interpret the SWF phenomenon without succumbing to classical notions surrounding the territorial status of sovereignty and of political economy? The first section discusses sovereignty in theory and in practice, and in relation to SWFs; it also includes a theoretical grounding for the primary contribution of the chapter in the second section. This is a stylized typology of SWFs in relation to the state and its sovereignty. It comprises five ideal-types: postcolonialist, rentier, productivist, territorialist, and moralist. This typology does not seek to replace the more conventional classifications or typologies of SWFs based on their source funding or the explicit a priori objectives of the sponsor. Rather, it is historical shorthand designed to provide an understanding of the long-term significance of SWFs and the factors that might underpin further development of new SWFs in different countries. The different typologies are illustrated with reference to different SWF cases in the following chapters of the book.