bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Isolated Versus Integrated Form‐Focused Instruction
Authors: Valeo Antonella
Published: January 2018

Isolated and integrated form‐focused instruction (FFI) are two types of FFI that are designed to draw learners' attention to form in communicatively oriented language classrooms. The distinction between the two types is one of timing: in isolated FFI, strategies designed to draw learners' attention to linguistic form are provided before or after learners' communicative activities. The lesson includes both a focus on form and communicative activities but they are provided at separate points during the lesson. In integrated FFI, the teacher draws learners' attention to form during communicative activities at brief intervals. Research suggests that there are benefits to each type of instruction and that the decision to adopt one over the other depends on context and learner differences. This entry outlines some of the principles and research underpinning isolated and integrated FFI and describes how it can be implemented in the language classroom.
Learnability and Teachability Hypothesis
Authors: Gholami Javad , Zeinolabedini Maryam
Published: January 2018

A growing body of research into second language acquisition (SLA) indicates there is a natural order for this process. Regardless of their first language (L1) or age, language learners naturally go through similar
developmental
stages. The
teachability hypothesis
(TH), the
learnability hypothesis
(LH), and
processability theory
(PT) are three outstanding notions designed to account for acquisition order and developmental sequence in SLA. On the basis of research findings inspired by these notions, we now understand that developmental aspects of grammatical features emerge in a fixed order while variational features do not. Instruction plays a facilitative role in SLA, provided that learners are developmentally ready for it. Language teachers need to be aware that formal instruction merely affects the rate of acquisition, not its sequence. TH, LH, and PT contain useful ideas for curriculum and syllabus design, for material development, teaching, and testing in general, and for diagnostic and placement testing in particular.
Pedagogical Grammar
Authors: Verity Deryn P.
Published: January 2018

Pedagogical grammar is a conception of grammar that specifically takes into account the needs of learners of a second language. Distinguished from prescriptive and descriptive (or linguistic) grammars, pedagogical grammars include basic and frequently used structures, chosen for their maximum relevance to students who plan to use the language for ordinary purposes, especially academic study. Published versions of pedagogical grammars, such as textbooks for learners and handbooks for teachers, typically draw upon specific theoretical orientations toward second language acquisition, language pedagogy, and linguistics. The grammar material is presented in small portions, is graded by difficulty or complexity, and is presented with what is considered to be an appropriate amount of metalinguistic terminology for the intended user. Teacher knowledge of grammar and how to teach it form an important component of pedagogical grammar knowledge in TESOL, too.
Receptive Versus Productive Grammar Knowledge
Authors: Shintani Natsuko
Published: January 2018

Receptive grammar knowledge refers to knowledge of linguistic rules a learner uses for listening or reading to retrieve the message, whereas productive grammar knowledge is knowledge of linguistic knowledge a learner uses to produce appropriate spoken or written language forms. There are two different theoretical positions concerning productive and receptive grammar knowledge. Theories of universal grammar (UG), information‐processing models, and connectionism are premised on a single unified store which is drawn in for both comprehension and production. In contrast, skill‐learning theory claims that comprehension and production are distinct skills and that there are corresponding separate stores for receptive and productive grammar knowledge. Second language classroom research provides evidence in support of both positions. Neurobiological studies have shown that to a degree distinct areas of the brain are responsible for comprehension and production but that the neurological structures involved are multiple and overlapping. Comprehension‐based or production‐based instruction is a pedagogical operationalization that specifically focuses on developing receptive or productive grammar knowledge. Both approaches contribute to the development of L2 grammatical knowledge but comprehension‐based instruction may be of greater benefit to beginner learners and for the acquisition of new grammatical structures.
Comprehensible Output
Authors: Quinn Paul Gregory
Published: January 2018

The comprehensible output hypothesis challenged the notion that second language (L2) acquisition occurs solely through comprehensible input, or put differently, through comprehending what is heard and read in the L2. The output hypothesis contends that the process of producing comprehensible output, that is, being pushed to communicate accurately through written and oral production in an L2, leads to noticing what you cannot express, testing hypotheses that you have about how the L2 works, and reflecting upon components of the L2 that already have been produced. These three functions of comprehensible output production are posited to aid in L2 acquisition. A large body of research has provided empirical support for the effectiveness of comprehensible output. This summary explains the theoretical underpinnings of the comprehensible output hypothesis, reports on the empirical support for it, and discusses some of the practical implications for ESL teachers.
Universal Grammar
Authors: White Lydia
Published: January 2018

This entry outlines arguments that universal grammar (UG) constrains the acquisition of the mother tongue, along with arguments that UG continues to constrain non‐native language acquisition, which helps explain the acquisition of linguistic competence. Pedagogical implications are considered, including the advantages offered by sophisticated linguistic descriptions, as well as the issue of how learnability considerations can highlight problem areas for second language learners, with potential insights for language teaching.
v and Beginner Levels
Authors: Cullen Richard , Rich Sarn
Published: January 2018

This chapter focuses on three issues which affect pedagogical decision‐making in the teaching of grammar, and shows, through examples of materials and tasks, some of the practical implications for teaching learners at both beginner and advanced levels. The three issues are the choice of inductive and deductive techniques for presentation and consciousness‐raising, the place and value of grammar practice activities, and applications of insights from cognitive linguistics for the teaching of grammar.
Institutional Accreditation
Authors: Hansen Christa
Published: January 2018

Accreditation is an assessment mechanism utilized by institutions of higher education to provide quality assurance and demonstrate accountability as part of their fiduciary responsibility to the public. In broad terms, educational accreditation is a self‐regulated, voluntary, non‐governmental, peer‐driven credentialing process for institutions, colleges, schools, and programs. The major foci of educational accreditation organizations are affirming academic quality, defined by broadly accepted measures of performance and quality, and emphasizing continuous quality improvement. However, for the purpose of narrowing the scope of this entry, it will focus specifically on accreditation of post‐secondary intensive English programs.
Knowledge Base for Second Language Teaching
Authors: Freeman Donald
Published: January 2018

A knowledge base is what people know in order to do certain work; in this instance, what a person knows in order to teach learners a language that is new to them. The question that drives the knowledge base of English language teaching is
What is the connection between knowing English in order to use it and knowing English in order to teach it?
There have been four generations of response to this question, each of which has further refined definitions of the knowledge base. The first generation focused on
disciplinary knowledge
; the second on methodology in
knowledge as pedagogy
; and the third on the particularities of teachers and students in
knowledge in person
. The current generation focuses on purposes in the classroom in
knowledge‐for‐teaching
.
Administration and Management of Kindergarten to 12th Grade Classroom Environments
Authors: Quirke Phil
Published: January 2018

This entry explores different approaches to classroom management and the various challenges language teachers face in finding an effective methodology that maintains control while embracing student‐centered learning. The entry provides a definition of classroom management that allows teachers to draw on educational management and leadership theories to involve students in the development of a classroom management approach that involves all participants in the classrom.
Mistreatment of Teachers
Authors: Blase Joseph J. , Blase Jo
Published: January 2018

This entry focuses on the problem of mistreatment of teachers by school principals. A brief conceptual overview of workplace mistreatment in general is presented. This is followed by a review of published studies of school principal mistreatment/abuse of public school teachers and a description of principals' abusive behaviors and their effects on teachers. A discussion of the implications of the problem of mistreatment/abuse for teachers, principals, and leadership education is also included. The entry concludes with a description of the benefits of transformational school leadership.
Motivating Students and Teachers
Authors: Dörnyei Zoltán
Published: January 2018

Motivation has been widely accepted by teachers and researchers as one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of language learning. This entry examines how teachers can turn a language classroom into a motivating learning environment by discussing a variety of motivational strategies that focus on the learner's vision, individual learning experience, and group experience. It concludes by stating that any motivational practice has to begin by motivating the teachers themselves: if a teacher is motivated, his/her class is likely to follow suit.
Portfolios and Teacher Evaluation
Authors: Lachance Joan R.
Published: January 2018

ESL/EFL teacher education programs worldwide are exploring the relevance of active reflective teaching practices. In many cases this notion of reflection‐in‐action is an inclusive program goal and as such, a key factor in the teacher evaluation process. Focus points in this selection include details that advocate for portfolios to be used as a measure and impetus for improved and reflective teaching practices. Likewise, this entry includes considerations for institutions looking to implement the use of teacher evaluation portfolios to authentically capture EFL/ESL teachers' performance and growth as professionals.
Supervision of Early‐Career Teachers
Authors: Mercado Leonardo A.
Published: January 2018

Supervisors are responsible for ensuring that early‐career teachers receive the support and guidance they need to succeed. The priority is to help them develop their teaching practice so it reaches a level of performance that is in line with institutional expectations as well as their own. In turn, this will hopefully convince them to stay on as faculty and remain in the field. This entry provides an array of practical ideas for supervisors who wish to make a significant, far‐reaching contribution to the success of early‐career teachers. In the end, supervisors will broaden their repertoire of strategies in three key areas that are essential for helping early‐career teachers reach their fullest potential.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Authors: Loumbourdi Lana
Published: January 2018

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is a modern language teaching approach that puts emphasis on teaching languages holistically, based on meaningful communication and interaction. In CLT, languages are learned not only as skills but also as social behavior, by using tasks that learners would also do in the real world. New kinds of activities, such as role plays, games, debates, and discussions, are used, along with more interactive social forms, where students are asked to share their opinions in pairs or groups.
Multiple Intelligences
Authors: Luo Shaoqian
Published: January 2018

This entry introduces the theory of multiple intelligences (MI), research related to MI, and pedagogical implications of MI. MI is composed of specific competences to solve problems. It consists, namely, of eight intelligences: verbal–linguistic, logical–mathematical, musical–rhythmic, visual–spatial, bodily–kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences. There are four features of MI: integrativeness, independence, practicality, and development. Despite some criticism of MI for aspects such as subjectivity, problematic definition, and lack of empirical research, this theory has been applied to instruction. In fact MI‐based English teaching is used to integrate the learning of English into intelligence building and to achieve the dual aim of English acquisition and enhancement of all intelligences. As part of MI education, MI‐based evaluation can also serve as an alternative for providing different assessment strategies in order to help students further improve their scholastic achievements.
Content and Language Integrated Learning (
CLIL
)
Authors: King Mick
Published: January 2018

CLIL is the umbrella term for any scenario in which content learning and language learning take place in one learning environment and, given the importance of English globally, it is increasingly learned in CLIL environments. The extent to which language is taught explicitly depends on the age and language level of learners and how evidently and quickly they use English authentically. The term CLIL arose from the European Union's drive toward integration among member states and is a natural successor to content‐based instruction. It focuses on general theories of learning as opposed to theories of language learning. Educators who want or need to apply CLIL will need to be open to the philosophy behind it and be suitably trained. Where appropriate they will need to make adjustments to materials, sequencing, delivery, and assessment until learners reach a mother tongue level and no longer need language scaffolding.
Games
Authors: Sterling Scott , Loewen Shawn
Published: January 2018

Games can provide learners genuine and varied access to their target language including opportunities to make use of authentic input, interaction, negotiation of meaning, and output. Studies on gaming have become increasingly popular since the turn of the century (Hwang & Wu, 2012), with more focus placed on digital gaming over other modalities. This entry discusses key terms in SLA gaming research, and provides current popular examples of different gaming genres.
Debates and Discussions
Authors: Coombe Christine
Published: January 2018

English language learners learn in diverse ways and there is a need at all levels to provide a variety of instructional strategies and forms of assessments. Debates and discussions are classroom and assessment activities that can be embedded in the curriculum and integrated into our language classrooms. These activities can complement other teaching/learning/assessment strategies as well as keep students actively engaged, as they promote interaction.
Skills‐Based Training
Authors: Vural Seniye , Bulut DoĞan
Published: January 2018

Based on skill acquisition theory (SAT), skills‐based training (SBT) refers to the proceduralization of the declarative knowledge through feedback. Skill acquisition applies to second language acquisition (SLA) just as it applies to any cognitive skill development. SBT in SLA requires a gradual progress from effortful use of the target language with declarative knowledge to automatic use of it with the help of contextual and meaningful practice, which eventually leads to the autonomous use of the language. This entry focuses on the theory and different phases of skills‐based training from SLA perspective.
Young Learners
Authors: Dalle Teresa , Kleckova Gabriela
Published: January 2018

The termyoung learner(YL) can denote the foreign language learner in preschool through secondary school, although current research on YLs focuses on early language study in pre‐primary and primary grades, typically from 4 to 11 or 12 years of age. Given the increasing number of YLs who study English, TESOL researchers have begun to look more closely at issues involved in teaching language to very young (pre‐primary) and young (primary) learners. Topics under investigation include the teachers' training and background, the shortage of well‐trained teachers, the advantages and disadvantages of early foreign language learning, individual student differences, out‐of‐school factors, target language goals and assessment in early grades, research challenges with young children, and the lack of good empirical evidence on best approaches.
Teaching Aids and Materials
Authors: Rüschoff Bernd , Sudhoff Julian
Published: January 2018

Current paradigms for ELT suggest authentic, flexible, and collaborative scenarios for classroom practice. Such approaches have resulted in a re‐thinking as to the types of materials and teaching aids used. This entry, therefore, revisits some of these approaches and presents current reflections concerning the role of textbooks as the sole driving force of lesson planning. On this basis, materials and teaching aids are discussed in more general terms, leading to more integrated settings that include a variety of resources in language‐learning processes. Guidelines as to the selection and adaptation of appropriate and effective teaching materials are also discussed.
Teacher and Student Beliefs
Authors: Kamiya Nobuhiro
Published: January 2018

Beliefs of teachers and students are known to have a strong influence on their language teaching and learning behaviors, consciously and unconsciously, as well as positively and negatively. Their beliefs are mainly derived from their learning experience, especially of language, in addition to their teaching experience in the case of teachers. Past studies indicate that neither a perfect match nor a mismatch should be expected between beliefs and behaviors. Some of the beliefs are changeable whereas others are not, but which belief would change in each teacher and student cannot be predicted. Teachers can use the Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI), a questionnaire to investigate beliefs regarding language teaching and learning, in order to understand their own beliefs and their students' beliefs, and find agreement and disagreement between them. Some of the suggestions for dissolving the latter are presented with an example.
Speaking Assessment for High‐Stakes Testing
Authors: Plough India C.
Published: January 2018

Results of international high‐stakes tests of speaking proficiency are used to make decisions regarding university admission, professional certification or licensure, immigration, and employment hiring or promotion. The most well‐known tests of academic English language proficiency, the TOEFL Family of Assessments developed by the Educational Testing Service in the United States and the suite of examinations developed by Cambridge English Language Assessment in the United Kingdom, are based on theory as well as empirical research from multiple fields, among them education, language assessment, linguistics, psychology, second language acquisition and teaching, and sociology. Classroom practice can benefit from referencing the main findings coming out of this work. Methodological principles and criteria for the selection and sequencing of pedagogic activities and tasks are summarized for designing or adapting a course syllabus that is intended to meet the needs of learners who will be sitting for a high‐stakes speaking test proficiency.
Teacher Preparation for Teaching Speaking to English Learners in K‐12 Contexts
Authors: Braden Sarah
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses issues related to teacher preparation for teaching speaking to English learners (ELs) in K‐12 contexts. The chapter identifies key features of teaching in K‐12 contexts, provides theoretical and empirical support for the need to teach speaking in K‐12, and provides suggestions for how teachers should approach teaching speaking to ELs of diverse ages and language backgrounds.
Development of Speaking Skills in Children Versus AdultL2Learners
Authors: Taylor Shelley K.
Published: January 2018

The view that speaking cannot be taught challenges language teachers' goals of fulfilling one of second language learners' primary needs: They must be allowed to speak in order to develop speaking skills. Yet educators unaware that speaking can be taught may not orchestrate classroom instruction to promote its development. In this entry past and present stances on the topic are reviewed and key issues are raised, including the need to (a) understand the role of speaking in the BICS/CALP distinction, (b) draw on plurilingual students' full range of linguistic repertoires to support their development of fluency and accuracy in speaking, and (c) scaffold spoken interaction at all levels. The pedagogical implications of these issues relate to how to structure appropriate instructional spaces (including practices) to enable all learners—K‐12 ESL learners, EFL learners at the tertiary level, and even rank beginners—to develop speaking skills. The issues discussed here also relate to the need for educators' and learners' cross‐cultural awareness if optimal skill development is to be achieved.
Role of Input in Teaching Speaking and Pronunciation
Authors: Liontas John I. , Siegel Matthew
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the role of input in teaching speaking and pronunciation. It draws upon current research in the areas of second language (L2) input in a variety of contexts—English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL), and other languages that are being taught as an L2. Types and sources of input are discussed, as well as differences in the sound systems of the first language (L1) and L2. Issues surrounding the measurement of input, meaningfulness of input, and strategy use for the utilization of input are also addressed and highlighted. Research‐based practical considerations and recommendations complete and underscore the role of input in teaching speaking and pronunciation.
Issues in Teaching Pronunciation: Prosody, Intonation, and Vowels
Authors: Gilbert Judy B.
Published: January 2018

For various historical reasons, skill elements involved in the achievement of intelligible pronunciation have been largely neglected in both teacher training and applied research for almost 60 years. However, recently there has been a new momentum of attention to the subject of the spoken language. This chapter will outline developments in the field and then suggest efficient ways to improve students' pronunciation (and listening comprehension), paying attention to the teaching of three basic skills: the English prosodic way of conveying emphasis, how to say the peak vowels clearly, and how to guess from the spelling which vowel sound is correct.
Interactive Activities for Promoting Speaking
Authors: Low Grace
Published: January 2018

Interactive speaking activities are an expression of the Communicative Language Teaching method. The activities largely take the form of meaning‐based tasks worked out by pairs or small groups of target language learners. The focus of the activities is on authentic unscripted communication. A brief incidental explanation of needed language structures may be included once the situation has been established, but only to support communication, which is paramount. Participation in these activities improves students' fluency and communicative ability and also contributes to improvement in the use of language forms.
Teacher Identity
Authors: Reeves Jenelle
Published: January 2018

Scholarship on teacher identity has experienced a profound transformation within the last two decades from understanding teacher identity as an internal, coherent, and fixed concept to looking at it as a socially mediated, fragmented, and multiple one. With this transformation current research now explores the previously underresearched role of teacher identity in teacher development, the ways social and institutional forces shape, legitimize, or threaten teachers' identities, and the power of teacher identity in the classroom context, particularly in the ways it relates to student identity. Teacher education programs are just beginning to include explicit attention to teacher identity construction and to provide guided identity work during teacher induction, and a few promising practices have emerged.
Continuous Teacher Training
Authors: Dassa Lori M.
Published: January 2018

With more and more English language learners (ELLs) entering our mainstream classrooms, all certified teachers need to be prepared to work with them. Beginning teachers are concerned that they are not graduating from teacher preparation programs ready to accomplish this task successfully. In reality beginning teachers do have the skills to work with ELLs, once they realize that many of the techniques they use in their classroom are appropriate for the task. The key is not to limit oneself to conceptualizing one's role as a
teacher
, but to understand the process and then use proper techniques to help a specific child understand. This is the training that new teachers receive in order to become quality teachers for all children. This training should be used along with a small refocusing on specific areas such as language acquisition, cultural growth, and social and academic language proficiency. High expectations for success should be enforced.
English Dominance on the Internet
Authors: Bokor Michael J. K.
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the dominance of English on the Internet and argues that the factors that promote this dominance are largely associated with the global appeal of English for international communication and for the Internet itself, which originated in the United States and is based on American English. Being the “language of computing,” English will continue to be the preferred language for Web content, regardless of the rising influence of Chinese and other languages. The entry offers suggestions on how to harness the Internet to improve the teaching of English by helping learners to acquire skills for intercultural communicative competence.
Cross‐Cultural Communication in the English as a Second Language (
ESL
) Classroom
Authors: DeCapua Andrea
Published: January 2018

This entry examines the nature of cross‐cultural communication and its place in the ESL classroom. As language teaching has moved away from a focus on grammar, translation, and the study of literature to incorporating more communicative approaches, so too have teachers become more cognizant of the inseparability of language and culture. People's cultural background and their cultural practices and behaviors shape how they understand and interpret the world around them and govern how they use language in communicative interactions. To become more communicatively competent demands that ESL students develop cross‐cultural awareness by exploring the values, beliefs, norms, language behaviors, and worldviews of their own culture and those of the new, English‐speaking culture. The entry concludes with brief descriptions of some practical experiential learning activities that promote the development of cross‐cultural awareness in the ESL classroom.
Cultural Differences in Conflict Resolution
Authors: Friedrich Patricia
Published: January 2018

While in many situations of communication the parties involved may want to avoid conflict when possible and resolve it when not, cultural differences at times get in the way of such goals. To better address conflict in its many manifestations, it is not enough to have a good grasp of linguistic forms, although those help; users of English should also be mindful of the diverse beliefs influencing behavior and discourse, and then learn strategies to better negotiate meaning in context, respecting value differences. Teachers of English to speakers of other languages have a unique opportunity to help create linguistic networks where nonviolent interactions thrive and conflict can be resolved productively. They can do that by embedding peace and conflict resolution strategies to lessons, focusing on linguistic items that foster understanding, modifying curricula to overtly include aspects of peace education, and including aspects of the sociolinguistics of peace to their teaching.
Integrating Chinese International Students Into American Colleges
Authors: Harvey Robin E.
Published: January 2018

Chinese international students currently make up 30% of all international students in American colleges, nearly equally represented at graduate and undergraduate levels. This presents both opportunities and challenges for American colleges. Opportunity lies in the new and diverse perspectives that Chinese international students bring to the college community; perspectives that broaden and enrich the campus worldview and enliven intellectual life. Challenges arise in the social and linguistic demands and gaps in cultural and contextual knowledge faced by Chinese international students. Colleges and faculty can lead the way in creating a welcoming, globalized environment while supporting Chinese international students in both academic and extracurricular settings within the college to facilitate a more integrated environment for all students.
Caribbean Creole‐Speaking Cultures, Language, and Identity
Authors: Milson‐Whyte Vivette
Published: January 2018

Caribbean Creole‐speaking territories are located between North and South America and have Creole and official languages linked to their colonial past and designating them as Anglophone/English‐speaking, Francophone/French‐speaking, Hispanophone/Spanish‐speaking, andNéerlandophone/Dutch‐speaking cultures. Necessary to discussion of these cultures, and especially the Anglophone Caribbean where English language and literacy learning and language teaching pose challenges, is consideration of linguistic contexts, attitudes to language in general and to Creoles in particular, and the implications for identity and education. Pedagogical strategies that help students from Creole‐speaking cultures develop linguistic mastery are those that address learning language in the classroom and that contribute to reducing stigma, developing accurate linguistic identity, and engendering pride regarding Creoles. Linguistic analyses and recommendations are provided to help practitioners select judiciously from available language teaching methods, including code‐meshing and translingualism, to enable Caribbean Creole‐speaking students to define and accept their linguistic identity and develop mastery in English and positive attitudes to their linguistic repertoire.
Projects
Authors: Tuzlukova Victoria
Published: January 2018

In the context of foreign and second language study, the term “projects” refers both to multiskill student‐centered activities and to alternative assessment initiatives. These two meanings correspond to two approaches to projects that are linked respectively to a communicative and a performance‐testing conception of language and acknowledge the effects of the context on learners' performance. This entry examines projects as an example of alternative assessment, which is also referred to as authentic assessment, performance, and multiple or complementary assessment. It discusses key research considerations related to the interpretation of projects as alternative assessments, their characteristics, their benefits, and critical issues related to them. It also gives some practical recommendations for constructing projects for language learners.
Presentations
Authors: Sadhwani Pushpa , Sheetz Dean
Published: January 2018

Presentations are commonly used as an assessment strategy across all fields of study. The main domains which can be directly assessed through presentations are language skills, content area knowledge, and presentation skills. Presentations also serve as a medium for directly and indirectly assessing reasoning across all levels of Bloom's taxonomy. In terms of language production, presentations are one of the few ways to assess speaking skills in a non‐interactive way. Language in presentations is typically more formal than conversational and also more deliberate in the sense that both planning and rehearsal are involved. In this entry, questions such as (a) to what extent does language ability contribute to a score, (b) how can we plan the assessment of presentations and develop assessment instruments which will validly and reliably measure what we want them to measure, and (c) what skills and knowledge do assessors need in order to develop and administer presentation assessments will be discussed.
Analyzing Test Results
Authors: Sadeghi Karim
Published: January 2018

This entry provides information on the concepts involved and the procedures commonly followed in systematically analyzing and reporting the performances of test takers. Stages in analysis such as ordering, reduction, description, and summarizing are explained and exemplified. Step‐by‐step advice is offered on how to calculate measures of central tendency such as mean and median, as well as indicators of spread such as standard deviation.
Reading Assessment
Authors: Hubley Nancy J.
Published: January 2018

Reading as a receptive skill generates no tangible product that can be easily assessed. Therefore language teachers test subskills that are important within their teaching context. These may include skimming for gist, scanning for specific information, distinguishing main ideas from supporting details, inferring opinions, identifying the meaning of unfamiliar words in context, and understanding text genre, purpose, and organization. Learners' reading purposes and levels vary depending on whether learners are learning to read or reading in order to learn. Although reading assessment has changed over time, the emphasis today is on communicative and authentic tasks that display learner competencies, whether in an academic, business, or general English context.
Assessment Literacy
Authors: Gebril Atta , Boraie Deena , Arrigoni Elizabeth
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses assessment‐literacy issues pertaining to language teachers. The entry starts with an attempt to define assessment literacy. The second section reports on the literature in three areas: identifying assessment‐literacy competencies, the role of assessment literacy in teacher education and professional development programs, and its perceptions among language teachers. The entry concludes by suggesting a number of guidelines for teacher educators, language teachers, and other stakeholders about how to develop assessment literacy.
Types of Assessment
Authors: Boraie Deena
Published: January 2018

This entry provides an overall picture of the types of assessments used in the classroom before, during, and after teaching. The confusion in assessment terminology related to types of classroom assessment is unraveled and clarified in the first section and the second section summarizes the latest research trends and findings related to formative and summative classroom assessment. The last section offers tips for using the various types of classroom assessments effectively as well as a discussion of six misperceptions or assessment myths about purposes and types of assessments with practical ideas and recommendations for what practitioners can do about them.
Assessing Written Production
Authors: Plakans Lia
Published: January 2018

Assessing writing production is a fundamental part of language teaching and writing instruction. Approaches to performance assessment range from written feedback, rubric and scale use, measures of textual features, and automated scoring. Research has considered each of these in relation to writing ability and in their strength for consistently and accurately assessing writing. Deciding how to assess writing production should be guided by purposes as well as the usefulness and meaningfulness of the resulting information for students, teachers, and other stakeholders.
Assessing Spoken Production
Authors: Fulcher Glenn
Published: January 2018

Spoken production is assessed using a scale that aids the rating process. The scale increases the reliability with which different assessors will arrive at the same judgment about a learner's current proficiency. Teachers can use scales adapted from large‐scale assessments, or devise their own for specific uses in a local context. There are two broad approaches to scale development, the intuitive and the empirical. Both have advantages and weaknesses that must be evaluated given the intended use and learner group. However, a scale should have properties that support the development of teaching teams and the articulation of explicit curriculum goals. This tends to favor locally designed scales that are sensitive to a specific learning ecology. When teaching teams articulate learning goals in scale descriptors it is possible to enhance task‐based learning, learner awareness, and independence.
Analytic, Holistic, and Primary Trait Marking Scales
Authors: Davis Larry
Published: January 2018

Major types of marking scales are holistic scales, where a single overall score is given, analytic scales, where separate scores are given for different aspects of performance, and primary‐trait scales, where scores are based on specific features that distinguish between better and worse performance on a given task. Each type has strengths and weaknesses, which must be made to fit with the assessment situation. For example, holistic scales can be relatively fast to use, given that only a single scoring decision must be made, while analytic scales can be easier to use with examinees who have uneven development of language abilities. The entry also discusses approaches for rubric development and provides a series of questions that should be asked when using rubrics to evaluate language performance. Finally, besides scoring, marking scales have a variety of other pedagogical uses, such as communicating and negotiating grading standards with students.
Rubrics
Authors: Elsheikh Aymen
Published: January 2018

Rubrics or rating scales are widely used nowadays to assess performance tasks. This entry provides a summary of the key aspects of rubrics and their use. It starts by elucidating what rubrics are as well as detailing the different types of rubrics. It also outlines the theoretical and empirical foundations of rubrics as well as offers guidelines on how to design them. The entry concludes by offering practical suggestions for the use of rubrics and their potential to enhance the learning and teaching process.
Placement Testing
Authors: Green Anthony
Published: January 2018

Placing learners into appropriate classes is one of the most common purposes for developing language tests. However, there is no generally agreed methodology for effective placement testing. Rather, suitable techniques must be put in place to meet the specific requirements of each teaching and learning context. Placement procedures should be carefully monitored and evaluated according to how successfully they allocate learners to classes that help them to learn effectively. On the basis of the evidence collected through monitoring and test analysis, efforts should be made to improve quality.
Distance Teacher Preparation
Authors: Motteram Gary
Published: January 2018

This article explores the nature and development of distance teacher preparation in the field of TESOL. It explores the origins of the practice and links it to general distance development. It uses two frames: a general TESOL frame offered by Freeman and Johnson, which includes the domains ofteacher–learner, thesocial context, and thepedagogical processand places this alongside the work of Moore's domains of distance education: technology, pedagogy, organization, and policy. It shows where we are today and gives advice for the practitioner.
CALL
(Computer‐Assisted Language Learning) and Feedback
Authors: Sauro Shannon
Published: January 2018

Within computer‐assisted language learning (CALL), knowing when, how, and how often to respond to learners' errors requires TESOL practitioners to look to research on corrective feedback (CF) in both CALL and non‐CALL contexts. Drawing upon this research, this entry presents an overview of key findings and their implications for the selection of feedback type, choice of modality, and evaluation of CALL tools for providing feedback on learners' grammatical, lexical, and spelling errors.
Simulation
Authors: Coleman Douglas W. , Yamazaki Kasumi
Published: January 2018

The use of simulation for language teaching and learning has a long pedigree. The foundational work for current approaches is Jones (1982)
Simulations in Language Teaching
. He adapted constructs of learning simulations to a second language learning context, including a widely‐accepted definition of what a language learning simulation is, how learning simulations are organized, and why they are of value. This summary takes his work as a starting point for the evolution of language learning simulations that has occurred over the intervening decades as a result of the emergence of newer theories of second language learning.
Technology Enhanced Learning Environments
Authors: Healey Deborah
Published: January 2018

Teachers and learners within a technology‐enhanced learning environment use digital tools and related techniques to achieve their teaching and learning aims. An effective environment takes advantage of the affordances of technology in connecting people to information and to others; anytime, anywhere access; sophisticated practice with ELT and authentic material; and the ability to share and modify information easily. The physical environment will likely have digital tools and allow flexible groupings of learners, and may be face‐to‐face, hybrid, or fully online. Teachers can use Puentadura's Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition (SAMR) model (2006) to classify their use of technology within the environment. All four levels are appropriate for different purposes. An essential component of an effective environment is a skilled teacher who can establish and employ the technology‐enhanced learning space for optimal use.
Technology for Teaching Listening
Authors: Gruba Paul
Published: January 2018

With the growing integration of technologies in TESOL programs, listening instruction now encompasses a range of dynamic visual media, digital devices, and interactive video conferencing. Such integration provides access to a vast array of listening materials, allows for greater learner mobility, and increases learner motivation and interactivity. As technologies are increasingly blended into second language classrooms, the pedagogical and theoretical foundations that support their principled use in the teaching of listening are developing.
Critical Thinking and Reading
Authors: Goertel Rachel Adams
Published: January 2018

Critical thinking is the identification and evaluation of evidence to guide decision making. Critical reading refers to a careful, active, reflective, analytic reading. A critical thinker and a critical reader use broad, in‐depth analysis of evidence to make decisions, form ideas, and communicate beliefs clearly and accurately. Learning to think critically is essential for developing literacy abilities. Focusing on activities to help diverse learners develop critical thinking skills will, in effect, help their critical reading skills.
Curriculum Development
Authors: Hartshorn K. James
Published: January 2018

This entry focuses on a single model that incorporates principles commonly utilized in curriculum development. These are described specifically for developing a reading curriculum for various TESOL contexts. The model emphasizes designing, developing, and implementing curricula within a framework of effective analysis and evaluation. Many critical questions are presented that may assist the reader to consider important issues that will need to be addressed throughout the development process. Since this work provides only a basic introduction to key principles and processes, additional sources are included that expand on information provided here or that offer additional perspectives.
Models of Reading
Authors: Ahmed Shafinaz , Han ZhaoHong
Published: January 2018

Reading is a process of decoding print and assigning meaning to it, and it happens for a variety of reasons—to obtain information, to communicate, for enjoyment, to name just a few. Second language reading research strives to understand what “good” first language readers do, and tries to guide second language instructors, learners, and readers in that direction (Grabe & Stoller, 2011). However, in order to effectively do so, an understanding of what reading is and its multifaceted nature, both in a reader's first as well as second language, is essential. This entry discusses several models of reading, and highlights the uniqueness—the dual relevance—of second language reading. Suggestions on how the dual relevance can be pedagogically fulfilled are also presented.
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Versus English as a Second Language (ESL) Writing
Authors: Pecorari Diane
Published: January 2018

Researchers and teachers frequently distinguish between English as a foreign language and English as a second language. Although this distinction usefully highlights some of the differences in the settings in which English, like other languages, is learned, it fails to capture many of the complexities of language learning. Writing is used here as a lens to inspect the blurred boundaries between the conceptual categories of EFL and ESL.
Adult Immigrant and Refugee Writing
Authors: Hirano Eliana
Published: January 2018

Adult immigrants and refugees comprise a vast and diverse population, ranging from highly educated professionals to adults with no previous literacy skills. This entry focuses on contexts in which adult immigrants and refugees learn and develop L2 writing. Even though research that specifically explores writing issues in this population is still scarce, findings indicate that L1 literacy and strong English oral skills facilitate the development of L2 literacy. The main pedagogical implications include the importance of acknowledging and using the adult immigrants' and refugees' life experiences as a springboard to developing writing and literacy skills and the usefulness of project‐based work.
Workplace Writing
Authors: Bremner Stephen
Published: January 2018

Workplace writing takes place in professional communities, and the resulting texts are closely linked to the contexts in which they are produced. This relationship between text and context, along with the fact that workplace genres are shaped by their purposes and target audiences, has strong implications for pedagogy. In addition, workplace writing is a complex, intertextual process, usually involving high levels of collaboration, while it also requires a considerable understanding of how power relations will impact on the register of a text. Approaches to the teaching of workplace writing should include an understanding of genre, training in genre analysis, and tasks which provide students with opportunities to draw on multiple texts as they compose, to interact with different readers and writers, and to take on a variety of roles.