bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Superstition” in the Collegiate Baseball Player
Authors: Ciborowski Tom
Published: August 2016

An investigation of superstitious activity among collegiate baseball players (n = 83) was conducted over the course of three full seasons. A major feature of the investigation was a distinction between behaviors mediated by a conscious belief, and behaviors (presumably nonmediated) established through simple contiguity. Additionally, the baseball players were compared to nonathletes (n = 348) on a variety of traditional indicators of superstitious belief, but the comparison yielded few significant differences. Although the investigation showed that the ballplayers engaged in a high level of superstitious activity, it was concluded that such activity is unremarkable, if not understandable.
Where Have All the Handouts Gone? … Long Time Passing
Authors: Brewer Britton W. , Buntrock Christine L. , Diehl Nancy S. , Van Raalte Judy L.
Published: August 2016

Poster sessions have become a standard feature at sport psychology conferences. Although these sessions are intended to facilitate interaction between presenters and audience members, recent research suggests that the exchange of information in poster sessions is less than optimal (Rienzi & Allen, 1994). This study examined the extent to which authors of poster presentations at a sport psychology conference mailed handouts or manuscripts containing details of their presentations to interested colleagues. Results indicated that authors of only 39% of the posters responded to the requests for written information, and some of those responses were not timely. By failing to provide handouts or manuscripts to interested individuals, poster presenters may impede scientific and applied progress. Presenters are encouraged to honor their ethical and professional obligations to disseminate information on their work to the sport psychology community.
Relationship of Intensity and Direction of Competitive Trait Anxiety to Skill Level and Gender in Tennis
Authors: Perry John D. , Williams Jean M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the intensity of competitive trait anxiety and self-confidence and interpret whether these symptoms facilitated or debilitated performance in three distinct skill-level groups in tennis for both males and females. Advanced (n = 50), intermediate (n = 96), and novice (n = 79) tennis players completed a modified Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. The three groups did not differ for somatic anxiety intensity, but the novice group reported less cognitive anxiety intensity and the advanced group higher self-confidence levels. Only advanced players reported more facilitative interpretations versus the hypothesized progressive increase across skill level. Males and females did not differ on self-confidence and anxiety intensity, but males reported a more facilitative interpretation of anxiety. Analyses of subjects who reported debilitating effects for cognitive and somatic anxiety revealed higher intensities on both anxiety subscales and lower self-confidence levels. The discussion addresses implications for the practitioner.
A Sport Psychology Service Delivery Heuristic: Building on Theory and Practice
Authors: Poczwardowski Artur , Sherman Clay P. , Henschen Keith P.
Published: August 2016

This article outlines 11 factors that a consultant may consider when planning, implementing, and evaluating psychological services. These factors are professional boundaries; professional philosophy; making contact; assessment; conceptualizing athletes’ concerns and potential interventions; range, types, and organization of service; program implementation; managing the self as an intervention instrument; program and consultant evaluation; conclusions and implications; and leaving the setting. All 11 factors represent important considerations for applied sport psychology professionals. Although consultants each have their own unique style and approach, these 11 factors are prerequisite considerations that form the foundation of a consultant’s effective practice. These guidelines may provide direction for a practitioner’s professional development, and as such, need time and commitment to be realized.
The Perceived Effectiveness of Interactions between Expert French Judo Coaches and Elite Female Athletes
Authors: d’Arripe-Longueville Fabienne , Fournier Jean F. , Dubois Alice
Published: August 2016

Coaches’ and athletes’ perceptions regarding their effective interactions and the underlying factors and reasons for effectiveness of these interactions were examined. An in-depth interview process was conducted with three expert judo coaches and six elite athletes. Qualitative data analyses revealed that the interaction style of the coaches was authoritative and was put into operation using the following six strategies: stimulating interpersonal rivalry, provoking athletes verbally, displaying indifference, entering into direct conflict, developing specific team cohesion, and showing preferences. Perceived autonomy, the main interaction style of athletes, was expressed by the following five strategies: showing diplomacy, achieving exceptional performance, soliciting coaches directly, diversifying information sources, and bypassing conventional rules. Results demonstrated the compatibility of particular interactions between coaches’ and athletes’ strategies. Theoretical models from industrial/organizational psychology are used to interpret these results, which differ from conventional findings in the sport psychology literature.
Predicting Stay/Leave Behavior among Volleyball Referees
Authors: VanYperen Nico W.
Published: August 2016

This study aimed to predict stay/leave behavior among volleyball referees. The predictor variables reflect commitment aspects from the literature: attraction, perceived lack of alternatives, personal investments, and feelings of obligation to remain. Intent to quit was assumed to mediate the link between these predictor variables and actual turnover. Participants were 420 volunteer volleyball referees officiating at the international, national, or local level. Predictor variables explained 50% of variance of intent to quit, which was the only significant predictor of actual turnover several months later. The percentage of correctly classified subjects was 86.2%. Intent to quit mediated the link between enjoyment and involvement alternatives and stay/leave behavior. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that intent to quit is conceptually and empirically separable from the predictor variables, albiet that strong overlap was observed between enjoyment and involvement alternatives. It is concluded that the most promising way to reduce actual turnover among volleyball referees is to enhance positive affective responses to officiating, particularly by ensuring procedural fairness in the promotion system and paying more attention to referee training and supervision.
Life on Steroids: Bodybuilders Describe Their Perceptions of the Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use Period
Authors: Olrich Tracy W. , Ewing Martha E.
Published: August 2016

A significant amount of attention has been given to the psychological effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use in sport (Bahrke, Yesalis, & Wright, 1996). However, apart from a few selected case studies, a relative dearth of information has been provided concerning the subjective experience of people using AAS. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of 10 men who were using or had previously used AAS. The participants in this study were weight trainers with primarily a bodybuilding emphasis. All had used AAS at some point in their training experience. The study involved in-depth interviews focusing on the AAS use experience. Nine of the 10 men described their AAS use experience in a very favorable manner. The men perceived increases in muscle mass, strength, peer recognition, social status, sexual performance, and vocational performance. These findings are discussed relative to current AAS educational programs and interventions.
Coping Strategies Used by Korean National Athletes
Authors: Park Jeong-Keun
Published: August 2016

This study examined the coping strategies used by Korean national athletes. One hundred-eighty Korean athletes from 41 different sports were interviewed about the coping strategies they used as national athletes, both presently and in the past. Qualitative methodology was utilized in this investigation and the interview transcripts were analyzed inductively. The interviews were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim. Themes were identified from the analysis of the interview data. Combining these themes, seven general dimensions of coping strategies were identified: psychological training, training and strategies, somatic relaxation, hobby activities, social support, prayer, and substance use. The most cited coping strategies by national athletes in Korea are similar to the coping strategies of the previous elite figure skaters in the study by Gould, Finch, & Jackson (1993).
How Emotions Influence Performance in Competitive Sports
Authors: Lazarus Richard S.
Published: August 2016

In this article, I have attempted to apply my cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion, on which I have been working for over 50 years, to an understanding of performance in competitive sports. I begin with four metatheoretical and theoretical positions: (a) stress and emotion should be considered as a single topic; (b) discrete emotion categories offer the richest and most useful information; (c) appraisal, coping, and relational meaning are essential theoretical constructs for stress and emotion; and (d) although process and structure are both essential to understanding, when it comes to stress and the emotions, we cannot afford to under-emphasize process. These positions and elaborations of them lead to my examination of how a number of discrete emotions might influence performance in competitive sports.
Expectancy Effects and Strength Training: Do Steroids Make a Difference?
Authors: Maganaris Constantinos N. , Collins Dave , Sharp Martin
Published: August 2016

Although expectancy has been shown to play a role in the effect of Anabolic Steroids (AS) on behavior, little research has been completed on the potential for parallel effects on performance. This is an important area for investigation because if expectancy effects can be shown to operate by improvements in performance through the administration of a placebo, arguments against the use of AS may be more successfully advanced. Accordingly, the present investigation used the administration of a placebo (saccharine) with competitive power lifters, using false information about the nature of the drug to delineate expectancy effects. The pervasiveness of these effects was further examined by disclosing the true nature of the drug to half of the participants, midway through the investigation. Notable improvements in performance associated with the belief that AS had been administered largely dissipated when athletes were informed as to the true nature of the drug. Results indicated that expectancy played a notable role in performance enhancement. Implications for this work include more effective use of such investigations in the fight against doping in sport.
Psychodynamics in Sport Performance Enhancement Consultation: Application of an Interpersonal Theory
Authors: Conroy David E. , Benjamin Lorna Smith
Published: August 2016

Psychodynamic concepts have only recently begun to attract serious attention in the sport psychology literature. A dynamically based, interpersonal approach to sport psychology consultation is outlined in this article. Key interpersonal constructs such as important persons and their internalized representations (IPIRs), copy processes, and self-sacrificing gifts of love are described to portray how a case formulation may be developed to explain and guide interventions to overcome some performance problems. Two cases, one involving a performance phobia and the other an enduring slump related to a fear of success, are presented to demonstrate the unique contributions of interpersonal case formulations in performance enhancement consultation.
High School Coaches’ Perceptions of the Process of Goal Setting
Authors: Weinberg Robert , Butt Joanne , Knight Betsy
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the perceptions of coaches regarding the process of goal setting using a qualitative methodology. Participants were eight male and six female high school coaches from Midwest United States representing both team and individual sports. Results revealed that coaches employed goal setting extensively for both individual and team goals in practice and competition. In addition, many interesting findings emerged including (a) coaches tended to set both long- and short-term goals; (b) coaches only inconsistently wrote down their goals; (c) goals were both dictated by coaches and set in collaboration with players; (d) the primary function of goals was to provide direction and focus; and (e) physical, psychological, and external barriers impeded goal attainment. These findings are discussed in relation to the current empirical/theoretical goal-setting literature and suggestions for best practice by sport psychology researchers are offered.
Assessing Stress and Recovery during Preparation for the World Championships in Rowing
Authors: Kellmann Michael , Altenburg Dieter , Lormes Werner , Steinacker Jürgen M.
Published: August 2016

Training stress and adequate recovery have been identified as important factors to enhance performance in sports and to avoid overtraining. Research dealing with training monitoring and overtraining is mostly based on the Profile of Mood Stales (POMS). Recently, Kellmann and Kallus (2000, 2001) published the Recovery-Stress-Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport), which assesses training effects from the perspective of stress and recovery. During a six-week training camp before and at the World Championships, 24 female and 30 male rowers of the German Junior National Rowing Team completed the RESTQ-Sport and the POMS six times. Results of selected MANOVA’s revealed significant increases of stress and decreases of recovery when training load expands, and vice versa. Changes in mood, creatine kinase, and ergometer performance reflect the alteration and success of training. These results suggest that the RESTQ-Sport is a potential alternative to the POMS in evaluating the impact of various training schedules.
Team Cohesion, Effort, and Objective Individual Performance of High School Basketball Players
Authors: Bray Corey D. , Whaley Diane E.
Published: August 2016

Previous research has demonstrated the relationship between high cohesion and optimal team performance. This study investigated the cohesion-individual performance relationship and examined expended effort as a mediator of that relationship. At the middle and end of the regular season, 41 male and 49 female varsity high school basketball players representing eight teams completed measures of group cohesion and perceived expended effort. At the same time intervals, the players’ game statistics were gathered, and coaches completed the expended effort questions regarding their players. Results partially supported the predictive ability of cohesion on objective individual performance and expended effort was a mediator of the cohesion-individual performance relationship at the end of the season. Results are discussed regarding theoretical and measurement issues. Practical implications for coaches and consultants are also provided.
The Development and Activation of Achievement Goals in Tennis: I. Understanding the Underlying Factors
Authors: Harwood Chris , Swain Austin
Published: August 2016

The present study forms the first of two progressive investigations into the development and activation of achievement goals within young sports performers. The focal research question in this paper centers on identifying and understanding some of the underlying factors and processes responsible for the socialization of goal orientations and the activation of goal involvement states in a competition context. In-depth interviews were conducted on seventeen elite junior tennis players who represented a full cross-section of achievement goal profiles. Following inductive content analyses, four general dimensions emerged demonstrating how the development and activation of task and ego goals rested on a complex interaction of cognitive-developmental and social-environmental factors. Specific general dimensions included cognitive developmental skills and experiences, the motivational climate conveyed by significant others, the structural and social nature of the game, and the match context. The rich detail within these dimensions serves not only to extend our knowledge of achievement goals and achievement goal theory, but also to inform practitioners of key components to effective social-cognitive interventions.
Feminist Methods and Methodologies in Sport and Exercise Psychology: Issues of Identity and Difference
Authors: Whaley Diane E.
Published: August 2016

Feminist methodologies are as varied as the individuals who conduct research using a feminist perspective. This article highlights some of the issues pertinent to feminist analyses in sport and exercise psychology. The underlying frameworks feminists employ (methodologies and epistemologies), as well as methodological questions important to feminist researchers, are discussed. Specific epistemologies evident in psychology and sport psychology are reviewed, and underused methods applicable to the sport and exercise context are offered as alternatives to existing methods. Finally, complexities and current tensions evident in feminist methodologies are discussed, and the particular issue of employing quantitative methods from a feminist perspective is debated. Particular attention is paid throughout the article to issues not only of gender but of age, ethnicity, race, and other differences.
The Personal Becomes Political: Exploring the Potential of Feminist Sport Psychology
Authors: Roper Emily A.
Published: August 2016

In this paper, I will briefly describe my ongoing feminist journey and the significance and meaning of aligning myself with feminism. Additionally, I will discuss my feminist perspective, mainly feminist cultural studies, and how this framework informs my sport psychological research and practice. Lastly, I will discuss the potential of a feminist approach for broadening what it means to be a “sport psychologist.”
The Development and Activation of Achievement Goals Within Tennis: II. A Player, Parent, and Coach Intervention
Authors: Harwood Chris , Swain Austin
Published: August 2016

This study acts as a follow-up to a previous investigation into the development and activation of achievement goals within young tennis players (Harwood & Swain, 2001). The project investigated the effects of a season-long player, parent, and coach intervention program on goal involvement responses, self-regulation, competition cognitions, and goal orientations of three junior tennis players. First, each player reported goal involvement, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and perceptions of threat and challenge prior to three ego-involving match situations. Aligned with a matched control participant, each treatment player, with their parents and coach, engaged in educational sessions and cognitive-motivational tasks over a three-month competition and training period. Postintervention, positive directional changes were reported in all players except the control participant. This study reinforces to applied researchers and practitioners the importance and practicability of social-cognitive and task-based interventions designed to facilitate optimal, motivational, and psychological states in high pressure competitive situations.
Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Sport Psychology Attitudes—Revised Form: A Multiple Group Investigation
Authors: Martin Scott B. , Kellmann Michael , Lavallee David , Page Stephen J.
Published: August 2016

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to develop a revised form of the Attitudes Toward Seeking Sport Psychology Consultation Questionnaire (ATSSPCQ; Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel, & Lounsbury, 1997). The 50-item ATSSPCQ was administered to 533 athletes (M = 18.03 ± 2.71). Exploratory alpha factor analysis with varimax rotation produced four factors: (a) stigma tolerance, (b) confidence in sport psychology consultation, (c) personal openness, and (d) cultural preference. The new questionnaire, the Sport Psychology Attitudes - Revised form (SPA-R), was then administered to 379 United States, 234 United Kingdom, and 443 German athletes (M = 20.37 ± 5.13). Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated the factorial validity of the four-factor model for the SPA-R for male and female athletes, late adolescent
Critically Examining White Racial Identity and Privilege in Sport Psychology Consulting
Authors: Butryn Ted M.
Published: August 2016

Recently, there has been an increased effort to establish multicultural training programs for consultants working with diverse athlete populations. Although several authors have suggested that one aspect of such training is the examination of one’s biases related to race (Andersen, 1993; Martens, Mobley, & Zizzi, 2000), a systematic means of doing so has not yet been adequately discussed. In this article, I briefly discuss the field of whiteness studies, and the process of confronting what McIntosh (1988) has termed the “invisible knapsack of white privilege.” I then present the results of a life-history interview with a white male consultant, in which we discussed his changing sense of racial awareness and how he views his own white racial identity and the privileges associated with it. Finally, I discuss the results of a three-way discussion between myself, the consultant, and an African-American graduate student in sport psychology and present a preliminary account of white privileges specific to the applied field.
Sydney 2000: The Interplay between Emotions, Coping, and the Performance of Olympic-Level Athletes
Authors: Pensgaard Anne Marte , Duda Joan L.
Published: August 2016

Drawing upon the Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory of Emotion (Lazarus, 1991, 1999, 2000) and Hanin’s (1993, 2000) conceptualization of emotions, the purpose of this study was threefold. First, the reported content, frequency, and intensity of emotions experienced by 61 athletes in relation to a stressful event when competing in the 2000 Olympic Games were determined. Second, the relationships between emotional responses and reported coping strategies and perceived coping effectiveness were examined. Finally, the degree to which emotions and perceived coping effectiveness predicted subjective and objective performance during the Olympics was ascertained. In general, the athletes experienced a high frequency of optimizing emotions. Optimizing emotions were related to coping effectiveness, which emerged as a positive predictor of objective competitive results. Coping effectiveness also positively predicted subjective performance while reported dysfunctional emotions emerged as a negative predictor.
A Retrospective Analysis of Leadership Development through Sport
Authors: Wright Andy , Côté Jean
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the development of six leader-athletes. In-depth qualitative interviews were used to explore the various activities that leader athletes engaged in from an early age as well as the roles and influences that peers, coaches, and parents played within these activities. Results indicated that leadership development in sport focused on developing four central components: high skill, strong work ethic, enriched cognitive sport knowledge, and good rapport with people. The types of activities engaged in throughout development as well as receiving feedback, acknowledgement, support, cognitive engagement, mature conversations with adults, and physical encounters with older peers are important social influences that can play an instrumental role in the formation of these four central tenets.
Collegiate Ice Hockey Players’ Perceptions of the Delivery of an Applied Sport Psychology Program
Authors: Dunn John G.H. , Holt Nicholas L.
Published: August 2016

This study examined collegiate male ice hockey players’ (N = 27, mean age = 22.4 years) perceptions of factors associated with the delivery of a sport psychology program. Participants were engaged in semistructured interviews. Interview data were transcribed verbatim and inductively analyzed. Results revealed that in terms of program delivery, the athletes had favorable perceptions of the absence of the (technical) coaching staff from sport psychology meetings and raised time demand issues. The sport psychology consultant was perceived to fulfill multiple roles (e.g., teammate, liaison, co-coach), and as being socially and emotionally involved with the team. Other results pertaining to the consultant reflected the importance of respect and communication skills. Implications for practitioners working in team settings are discussed.
Self-Evaluation of Competence by Adult Athletes: Its Relation to Skill Level and Personal Importance
Authors: Sheldon Jane P.
Published: August 2016

One’s perceived competence relates to participation and effort and can vary depending on the self-evaluation sources that athletes value. Ruble and Frey (1991) theorized that phase of skill development may affect one’s preference for different sorts of competence information. The present study tested Ruble and Frey’s model using a sample of 466 adult tennis players. Skill level was athletes’ United States Tennis Association rating. Participants rated the personal importance of tennis and the importance of different sources of self-assessment information. Results showed that beginners were more likely to value temporal comparisons, and advanced players were more likely to value social comparisons. Players rating tennis as highly important were more likely to value temporal comparisons and effort for self-assessment. The findings support Ruble and Frey’s model.
The Solution-Focused Approach in Sport Psychology
Authors: Høigaard Rune , Johansen Bjørn Tore
Published: August 2016

The solution-focused approach is a form of brief therapy that has been successfully adapted to business coaching and school counseling. The purpose of this article is to give an introduction to solution-focused counseling and how to use it in the field of sport psychology. This article highlights key issues in solution-focused counseling. It also describes the relationship between the athlete and the counselor, where it is common practice to distinguish between three types of relationship: the visitor type, the complainer type, and the customer type. In a solution-focused process of counseling, the introductory conversation usually has the following structure: (a) description of the problem, (b) development of well-formulated goals, (c) exploration for expectation, and (d) end-of-session feedback. The solution-focused process and a number of techniques are described, together with a case example from sport.
The Environment, Structure, and Interaction Process of Elite Same-Sex Dyadic Sport Teams
Authors: Wickwire Tamara L. , Bloom Gordon A. , Loughead Todd M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine elite same-sex dyadic sport teams. Semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with elite beach volleyball athletes. The results of the analysis revealed three higher-order categories: (a) sport environment, which included elements related to participation in beach volleyball such as challenges and comparisons between partnerships and other sports; (b) dyad structure and composition, which included individual and relationship elements that created a sense of balance in the partnership; and (c) dyadic interaction process, which focused on developing communication and cohesion in the partnership and working toward an ideal state where interaction was efficient and effective. The results of the study extend group dynamics literature by studying the dyad as a separate group entity and by revealing information specific to this group of athletes.
Professional Women’s Career Experiences in Sport Psychology: A Feminist Standpoint Approach
Authors: Roper Emily A. , Fisher Leslee A. , Wrisberg Craig A.
Published: August 2016

In 1995, Gill discussed women’s place in the history and development of sport psychology. However, no research to date has explored women’s experiences working in the field of sport psychology. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of professional women’s career histories and experiences in sport psychology. The study was framed by qualitative research, and eight professional women working in the field of sport psychology were interviewed. Analysis of the data produced themes in the categories of (a) entrance into sport psychology, (b) women’s status in sport psychology, (c) qualified obstacles, (d) the feminist sport psychologist, and (e) supporting women in sport psychology. Differences between co-participants were also noted regarding the extent to which various themes were or were not a part of their experiences.
Training Accurate and Coherent Decision Making in Rugby Union Referees
Authors: Mascarenhas Duncan R.D. , Collins Dave , Mortimer Patrick W. , Morris Bob
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to pilot a video-based training program designed to develop referees’ shared mental models. A group of English Rugby Football Union (RFU) national referees, divided into a control group (n = 15) and experimental group (n = 41) made their immediate decisions on pre and posttests of 10 video clips taken from real game referee perspective recordings. Over a six-week period the experimental group studied training tapes consisting of 5 sets of 5 tackles, in each case with an expert providing his interpretation of the correct decision. The lowest ranked referees on the national panel significantly improved their percentage of correct decisions, becoming 17.43% more accurate in their decisions at the posttest. These results suggest that such shared mental model training is an appropriate method for improving referee performance.
Communication Within Sport Teams: Jungian Preferences and Group Dynamics
Authors: Beauchamp Mark R. , Maclachlan Alan , Lothian Andrew M.
Published: August 2016

Contemporary group dynamics theorists and practitioners consistently highlight the importance of effective communication in facilitating successful team functioning (cf. Carron & Hausenblas, 1998). In this review paper, we explore how an understanding of Jungian preferences (cf. Jung, 1921/1971a) can provide an important theory-driven framework for those concerned with group dynamics in sport. As a basis for improved interaction, this model suggests that in order to effectively “adapt and connect” with other team members, one must first develop an acute understanding of self as well as the patterns of preferences that characterize those with whom one interacts. In this paper, we discuss the theoretical structure of this model and explain how the model can inform group dynamics interventions in sport.
Can Beginning Learners Benefit from Preperformance Routines When Serving in Volleyball?
Authors: Lidor Ronnie , Mayan Zohar
Published: August 2016

Two studies were carried out in order to examine the effectiveness of preperformance routines when learning a self-paced motor skill in volleyball. In Study 1, observational and verbal data were collected on elite male volleyball players in order to determine patterns of motor behaviors performed before they served the ball. In Study 2, beginning female learners were taught two variations of preperformance routines when learning the serve in volleyball: motor-emphasized and cognitive-emphasized. The routines were developed based on the data collected in Study 1. The data analyses revealed that the motor-emphasized learners were more accurate than the cognitive-emphasized learners in retention trials. It was concluded that it may be more beneficial for beginning learners to perform preparatory routines in which an emphasis is made on motor preparation.
Mental Links to Excellence
Authors: Orlick Terry , Partington John
Published: August 2016

This study included 235 Canadian Olympic athletes who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. Individual interviews were carried out with 75 athletes and a questionnaire was completed by another 160 to assess their mental readiness for the Olympic Games and factors related to mental readiness. Common elements of success were identified, as well as factors that interfered with optimal performance at the Olympic Games. Statistically significant links were found between Olympic performance outcome and certain mental skills.
The Relationship of Massage and Exercise to Mood Enhancement
Authors: Weinberg Robert , Jackson Allen , Kolodny Kathleen
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present investigation was to assess the relationship between exercise, massage, and positive mood enhancement. Subjects were students in physical education classes including swimming, jogging, tennis, and racquetball, with each separate activity comprising a level of the primary independent treatment variable. In addition, subjects from other classes made up a control rest condition and a massage treatment condition resulting in a one-way design. All subjects completed the profile of mood states, state anxiety, and an activation checklist just prior to and immediately after 30 minutes of activity. Instructors in the classes agreed not to schedule any competitions between students but rather just let them play or exercise. Subjects in the control rest condition read or rested for 30 minutes, while in the massage treatment condition a certified massage therapist gave a 30-min Swedish massage. Results indicated that the running and massage conditions consistently produced positive mood enhancement with significant decreases in tension, confusion, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and anger while maintaining high levels of vigor, which is representative of positive mental health. None of the other experimental activity conditions significantly influenced the dependent variables. Practical applications of the use of massage both before and after competition and exercise are discussed, and future directions for research are offered.
Factors Affecting the Ability of Coaches to Estimate Their Athletes’ Trait and State Anxiety Levels
Authors: Hanson Thomas W. , Gould Daniel
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the ability of coaches to estimate their athletes’ A-trait and A-state levels, examined variables influencing this ability, and attempted to identify what physical or behavioral cues coaches use in assessing the anxiety levels of their athletes. Collegiate cross-country coaches (N=126) and athletes served as subjects. Overall, the coaches were found to be inaccurate estimators of both levels, accounting for less than 8% of the variance. Multiple regression analyses also revealed that the coach’s age was a significant predictor of ability to assess an athlete’s A-trait level, and the size of the team affected a coach’s A-state estimating ability. Coaches of women’s teams were significantly more accurate than coaches of men’s teams in their estimates of A-trait and A-state levels. Finally, coaches rated changes in athletes’ communication levels and behavior patterns as the most important cues to look for when assessing anxiety levels.
Using Hypnosis, Technique Refinement, and Self-Modeling to Enhance Self-Efficacy: A Case Study in Cricket
Authors: Barker Jamie B. , Jones Marc V.
Published: August 2016

The present paper reports the impact of hypnosis, technique refinement, and selfmodeling on the self-efficacy levels of a cricket leg-spin bowler. A single-subject (A-B) design was employed with the collection of 8 baseline data points and 16 post-intervention data points that included 8 data points collected 7 months after the intervention. The intervention comprised three aspects. Aspect one focused on using hypnosis and self-hypnosis to increase self-efficacy. Aspect two was based around refining the bowler’s technique, focusing on the run-up, head position, and follow-through. Aspect three focused on self-modeling through the use of an edited videotape. The results revealed a significant difference between pre and post-intervention self-efficacy levels. This positive change was maintained in the long-term follow-up data. Also an increase in bowling performance was noted across the intervention. A number of consultancy issues are presented surrounding the use of hypnosis as part of a multimodal intervention.
The Development of an Undergraduate Competency-Based Coach Education Program
Authors: Demers Guylaine , Woodburn Andrea J. , Savard Claude
Published: August 2016

This article discusses the development of a university undergraduate competencybased coach education program in Canada, namely the Baccalaureate in Sport Intervention (BIS) at Laval University in Quebec City. It addresses program development in three phases: (a) design (b) implementation, and (c) evaluation. It discusses how decisions made regarding the program relate to current research on coaching, coach education, and sport psychology. This article offers an example of how competency-based training for coach education can be implemented within a university setting in a way that addresses some of the primary concerns in the literature on coach education.
Team Process and Players’ Psychological Responses to Failure in a National Volleyball Team
Authors: Males Jonathan R. , Kerr John H. , Thatcher Joanne , Bellew Emma
Published: August 2016

The present study investigated the psychological experiences of elite athletes in a team that failed using qualitative methods informed by reversal theory. Five athletes, from a national men’s volleyball team, playing in a European tournament completed a post-game review after each of 6 games. After the tournament, each player took part in in-depth semi-structured interviews, prompted by their post-game reviews. The results indicated that unrealistic expectations, poor team motivation, a negative coaching style, and faulty team process around game performance played an important role in the failure of this team. Also, inappropriate metamotivational states and state reversals were found to have had a negative impact on team performance. Several consultant recommendations for enhancing team motivation and functioning are identified.
Toward Two Grounded Theories of the Talent Development and Social Support Process of Highly Successful Collegiate Athletes
Authors: Morgan Taryn K. , Giacobbi Peter R.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to utilize multiple perspectives to describe the major influences and experiences during the development of highly talented collegiate athletes. Eight NCAA Division I collegiate athletes, 12 parents, and 6 coaches participated in this study. In-depth semi-structured interviews analyzed through grounded theory analytic procedures (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) were used. Overall, it was ascertained that a favorable interaction between perceived genetic dispositions, practice, situational factors, and mental characteristics facilitated and nurtured the participants’ talent development. The importance of social support for overcoming adversity was a salient theme and should be addressed by sport psychology consultants and coaches.
Swimming Coaches’ Perceptions of Sexual Exploitation in Sport: A Preliminary Model of Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity
Authors: Bringer Joy D. , Brackenridge Celia H. , Johnston Lynne H.
Published: August 2016

Bringer, Brackenridge, and Johnston (2002) identified role conflict and ambiguity as an emerging theme for some swimming coaches who felt under increased scrutiny because of wider concerns about sexual exploitation in sport (Boocock, 2002). To further understand this emerging theme, 3 coaches who had engaged in sexual relations with athletes, or had allegations of abuse brought against them, took part in in-depth interviews. Grounded theory method (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) was adopted to explore how these coaches responded differently to increased public scrutiny. The findings are discussed in relation to how sport psychologists can help to shape perceptions of coaching effectiveness that are congruent with child protection measures. Reflective practice is proposed as one method by which coaches may embed child and athlete protection in their definition of effective coaching, rather than seeing it as an external force to which they must accommodate.
Reflections on the Application of Reflective Practice for Supervision in Applied Sport Psychology
Authors: Knowles Zöe , Gilbourne David , Tomlinson Victoria , Anderson Ailsa G.
Published: August 2016

In the UK, sport psychologists are presently supervised under the auspices of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES). In the present article, reflective practice is evaluated as a process that can facilitate the supervisory exercise in applied sport psychology (Anderson, Knowles, & Gilbourne, 2004). The material presented was collated via a 3-year longitudinal supervisory process based on the process of staged reflection (Knowles, Gilbourne, Borrie, & Nevill, 2001). The benefits of staged reflective development in the supervision process are highlighted, while differentiating between reflective techniques both in and on action. The present article also considers how different writing styles develop through the different phases of discussion and revisits the challenges associated with representing reflective practice.
Burnout in Sport: A Systematic Review
Authors: Goodger Kate , Gorely Trish , Lavallee David , Harwood Chris
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present review was to provide an up-to-date summary of the burnout-in-sport literature. The last published reviews were in 1989 (Fender) and 1990 (Dale & Weinberg). In order to appreciate the status of current knowledge and understanding and to identify potential future directions, the authors conducted a synthesis of published work using a systematic-review methodology. Findings comprised 3 sections: sample characteristics, correlates, and research designs and data collection. A total of 58 published studies were assessed, most of which focused on athletes (n = 27) and coaches (n = 23). Correlates were grouped into psychological, demographic, and situational factors and were summarized as positively, negatively, indeterminate, and nonassociated with burnout. Self-report measures and cross-sectional designs have dominated research. The authors conclude by summarizing the key findings in the literature and highlighting the gaps that could be filled by future research.
“Bouncing Back” from Adversity: Athletes’ Experiences of Resilience
Authors: Galli Nick , Vealey Robin S.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explore athletes’ perceptions and experiences of resilience. Ten high-level athletes were interviewed regarding the most difficult adversities that they had ever had to overcome in sport. Richardson and colleagues’ (Richardson, Neiger, Jensen, & Kumpfer, 1990) resiliency model served as a guiding theoretical framework in the process of data collection and analysis. Inductive analysis (Patton, 2002; Thomas, 2006) was used to explore the data for key themes and patterns of relationships. Five general dimensions emerged that described the resilience experience of the athletes. These dimensions include breadth and duration, agitation, sociocultural influences, personal resources, and positive outcomes. A conceptual model of the resilience process as experienced by the athletes in this study is presented as a preliminary framework for future studies of resilience in sport.
What Works When Working with Athletes
Authors: Fifer Angela , Henschen Keith , Gould Daniel , Ravizza Kenneth
Published: August 2016

A highly effective method for disseminating knowledge is to observe the most experienced individuals in the field of interest. Although business, teaching, and coaching have been mentoring and apprenticing students for years, the field of applied sport psychology does not have a long formal history of doing so. The purpose of this article is to capture and present the thoughts, theories, and techniques employed by highly experienced applied sport psychology consultants to formally record what they believe “works when working with athletes.” General topics discussed include: gaining entry, techniques of assessment, delivery of information, and approaches for preparing athletes for “major competitions.” Common ideas and practical guidelines are summarized from the authors and discussed in light of current scientific and professional practice knowledge in the field. These consultants do not claim they have all the answers, but rather share their experiences in hopes of providing ideas and facilitating self-reflection concerning consulting effectiveness on the part of the reader.
Coaching Efficacy and Volunteer Youth Sport Coaches
Authors: Feltz Deborah L. , Hepler Teri J. , Roman Nathan , Paiement Craig
Published: August 2016

The Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES) measures beliefs coaches have to affect the learning and performance of their athletes. While previous research has provided support for the model of coaching efficacy and the CES as an adequate measure of the construct, these studies have used paid high-school and college coaches. It is possible that the factor structure of the CES may not replicate for volunteer youth sport coaches. The purpose of this study was to explore coaching efficacy sources used by volunteer youth sport coaches. In addition, the validity of the CES was examined, using a 5-point condensed rating scale, among volunteer youth sport coaches before exploring the sources. The study involved 492 volunteer youth sport coaches from various team sports. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the CES had an acceptable fit to the data. The sources of coaching efficacy were examined via multivariate multiple regression and canonical correlation. Results indicated that more confident coaches had more extensive playing and coaching backgrounds, felt their players improved more throughout the season, and perceived more support than did less confident coaches, particularly in regard to technique and game strategy efficacy.
“It’s Not My Fault; It’s Not Serious”: Athlete Accounts of Moral Disengagement in Competitive Sport
Authors: Corrion Karine , Long Thierry , Smith Alan L. , d’Arripe-Longueville Fabienne
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to assess athletes’ use of moral disengagement in competitive sport. We conducted semistructured interviews with 24 elite male and female athletes in basketball and taekwondo. Participants described transgressive behaviors in competitive situations and reasons for adopting such behaviors. Content analyses revealed that the eight moral disengagement mechanisms identified in everyday Life (i.e., moral justification, advantageous comparison, euphemistic labeling, minimizing or ignoring consequences, attribution of blame, dehumanization, displacement of responsibility, and diffusion of responsibility; Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996) were germane in sport. However, the most frequently adopted mechanisms in sport (i.e., displacement and diffusion of responsibility, attribution of blame, minimizing or ignoring consequences, and euphemistic labeling) differed somewhat from those considered most salient in everyday life (i.e., moral justification, advantageous comparison, and euphemistic labeling). Moral disengagement mechanisms linked to projecting fault onto others (“It’s not my fault”) and minimization of transgressions and their consequences (“It’s not serious”) appear to be especially prominent in sport. The findings extend the sport moral disengagement literature by showcasing athlete accounts of moral disengagement.