bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rome
Authors: Lovano Michael
Published: February 2013

This chapter evaluates the Roman writing on the subject of warfare, addressing Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic War and the Commentaries on the Civil War. It also considers Velleius Paterculus in his Roman Histories and Ammianus Marcellinus in his Histories. Moreover, the chapter discusses Frontinus in his Stratagems and Vegetius in his Epitome of Military Science, as well as Sallust in his War against Jugurtha and War against Catiline, Livy in his From the Founding of the City, and Tacitus in his Annals and Agricola. Like Velleius, Ammianus gives the commanding officers credit for military success or blame for failure, and like Caesar, recognizes the critical role of flexibility in combat. In conclusion, Roman authors identified that the smarter and more careful, virtuous, courageous, and determined generals (usually Roman) always prevailed.
The Three Thousand
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews the infantry guard of Alexander the Great. Macedonian hypaspists were first manifested in Alexander's campaign against the so-called independent Thracians. In addition to guard-duty, they served as a police force. The most famous and notorious fighting unit in the history of Alexander's Successors are the Argyraspids, after whose dismissal from Opis, a full contingent of hypaspists had remained with Alexander at the time of his death in the following and continued to serve in the Royal Army under Perdiccas. Diodorus spoke of the rivalry of two Indian wives for the honor of performing suttee. It is observed that the idea that Argyraspids' future service in the East was meant to destroy them may be wishful thinking on Hieronymus' part.
The Rise of Rome
Authors: Sage Michael
Published: February 2013

This chapter describes the rise of Rome. The end of the seventh and the first half of the sixth century were marked by the beginnings of urbanization, and by a substantial population increase in Rome. The cavalry was significant in the early regal and Republican battles. The Roman army had undergone a tactical revolution by the middle of the second century that included substantial numbers of allied forces in the Republican period. Early Roman tactics were usually aggressive and designed to break the enemy formation by a frontal assault. The growth of the semi-professional army in the late Republic allowed the development of legions of veteran soldiers, offering the commander a tactical advantage that could be especially effective against formations of new recruits.
Imperial Rome at War
Authors: Culham Phyllis
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the war in imperial Rome. The legions in the Principate were highly protected assets, even during an aggressive advance. It is observed that tactical victory on one field did not offer Romans control of the area. Few Roman opponents benefitted from the relatively infrequent battle, even when they picked the ground, often choosing hillsides for gathering momentum. Romans were only defeated by their own former auxiliaries who had broken their camp. Roman military deployment on the northern frontiers had to deal with immigration control, refugee management, river patrol, and prevention of crimes against property. Romans largely obtained resilience and avoided collapse at the strategic level after a tactical or even grand tactical defeat through a synergistic interaction of factors including a military culture of adaptability to local tasks, unit cohesion, and prior success.
The Business of War
Authors: Trundle Matthew
Published: February 2013

This chapter investigates the mercenaries in the Greek world. Mercenaries became stained with the brush of tyranny. The connection of tyrants and mercenaries continued into the Hellenistic age. Xenophon's Anabasis offers invaluable data on almost every aspect of Greek mercenary life, but it represents a landmark moment in Greek mercenary activity. Mercenaries were priceless in giving specialists to those in need and demonstrating the success of such specialists in war. The mercenary service was alleviated by personal relationships, guest-friendships, and friendship between ordinary Greeks and the powerful men of the eastern Mediterranean. Mercenaries in the ancient world displayed a high degree of military honor and spirit, despite their mercenary nature. It is shown that mercenaries played a central role in the Greco-Macedonian wars.
Generalship
Authors: Moore Rosemary
Published: February 2013

This chapter focuses on military leadership and military responsibilities. Primarily, the phalanx has been initially employed for territorial defense. Prior to the Peloponnesian Wars, generalship was not regarded in a specific and specialized sense, but had always been concerned with getting others to endanger their lives for the commander's sake, making motivation and discipline very closely intertwined. The generalship of Philip and Alexander was contended by many Greek and Roman commanders. Hellenistic generalship in large part followed the methods used by Philip and Alexander. Marius's influence on Roman generalship was successful in bridging the gap between the Roman nobility and the Italian and Roman soldiery. Real innovation in generalship certainly came from men outside the traditional ranks, namely professional soldiers with variable levels of education and outside traditional loci of power.
Horses for War
Authors: Hyland Ann
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the breeding and sustaining of warhorses. Horses refer to power in military and economic fields, and were sacrificed to the Sun before battle. Xenophon described the ideal warhorse. It was important for warhorses to have a good temperament. Some horses went willingly and repeatedly into battle. In war, horses would encounter camels and elephants, which were often employed in the armies of the east. Army animals could have lameness, injury, endemic diseases, and various common ailments. Puncture wounds were the most severe injuries in these animals. Tack gave the rider control over his horse and consisted firstly of bitting, secondly of saddlery. Seat security over horse could be achieved through a hard treed saddle with retentive front and rear horns. It is observed that some cavalry were armored, both men and horses.
The Germanic and Danubian Transfrontier Peoples
Authors: Wells Peter S.
Published: February 2013

This chapter explores the character of the societies beyond the frontier and the ways in which those peoples responded to their interactions with the Roman world. Marcomanni, Quadi, Cherusci, Alamanni, Franks, Burgundians, Goths, Gepids, Alans, Huns, Avars, and Slavs were some of the transfrontier peoples. The chapter also treats the transfrontier peoples in two main groupings, one pf which consisted of peoples east of the Rhine and north of the upper Danube, as far east as modern Hungary. The second major geographical grouping was comprised of peoples north of the middle and lower Danube, from Hungary to the Black Sea. Several conflicts along the frontiers between the mid-second and fifth centuries BCaffected Roman thinking about the transfrontier peoples and influenced Roman military tactics. The continuity through time and space of specific burial practices displayed a degree of contact and communication among its enemies that Rome did not comprehend.
Military and Society in Sasanian Iran
Authors: McDonough Scott
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the military as an institution in Iranian politics and society, starting in the Parthian era and focusing on Sasanian developments. Sasanian Iran was a considerably less populous, rich, and centralized polity than Rome, even though the Iranian society was highly militarized and its elites defined themselves as a “warrior aristocracy.” The Iranian (“Aryan”) cavalry was the backbone of Sasanian military power. The regions on the “bleeding edge” of Sasanian expansion contributed to Sasanian military strength. Successful offensive warfare gave the Sasanians a deeper base of military manpower. The final two centuries of the Sasanian era exhibited a military crisis, and the restructuring of the Sasanian military and society, all of which eventually resulted in the end of the Sasanian army. The soldiers and principles of the Sasanian military would live on in Iran and beyond though the Middle Ages.
Inside Media Psychology: The Story of an Emerging Discipline as Told by a Leading Journal
Authors: Baker Derwin Ellen , De Merode Janet
Published: February 2013

The journal Media Psychology debuted in 1999 as the first peer-reviewed academic publication in the United States dedicated to the intersection of psychology and communication research. Using abstracts (N = 242) and keywords (N = 5,276) we analyzed the focus of the first 12 years of publication. During this time, the journal was guided by the founding coeditors (1999–2005) and subsequent teams of editors in rotation (2006–2010). Output is traced overall and compared between the two editorship periods. Overall, television emerged as the focus of more articles than any other form of media, whereas technology, diversity, and political categories increased from the first to the second period. Young children received more attention than other age groups during all 12 years. Journal contributors indicated strong international scholarship. One particularly salient finding is that contributions from communication departments exceeded those from psychology departments. We recommend encouraging interdisciplinary work to reinforce the inaugural focus of Media Psychology.
Children's Media Use: A Positive Psychology Approach
Authors: Gregory Erik M.
Published: February 2013

The sky isn’t falling when it comes to children’s media use. The time is ripe to use media strategically, drawing from the field of positive psychology that promotes socially constructive outcomes that educate, inform, and entertain children for the 21st century. Although much of the academic literature on children’s media use has focused on the negative impact media have on children (especially television violence), less has been written on the ability of media to provide greater and more equal access to information for children around the world, or enrich and broaden the learning andunderstanding of children regardless of geographic location. Certainly, the great opportunities that the information age has brought with it have included risks for children. Parents, educators, and health care professionals are naturally concerned about the negative consequences to children who are interacting more with television and new media (such as the Internet, mobile phone texting, and MP3 players) than they often are with each other. This chapter presents arguments on the prosocial opportunities of children’s media use as informed by positive psychology’s rise in the past 10 years. Given that the proliferation of media and its globalization are shaping children today, it is important to use this powerful tool for constructive outcomes of engagement.
Violent Video Games and Aggression
Authors: Krahé Barbara
Published: February 2013

The potential impact of violent video games on increasing players’ aggression is a highly controversial issue in public debate and has been examined thoroughly in the scholarly literature. This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge about the empirical evidence and theoretical explanations concerning the relationship between exposure to video game violence and aggressive affect, cognitions, and behavior. It starts by presenting results from content analyses on the extent to which violence features in video games before looking at usage intensity and the appeal of violent games. The main part of the chapter provides a review of meta-analytic, experimental, and longitudinal studies addressing the strength of the link between the use of violent video games and aggression, followed by a discussion of the psychological processes underlying short-term effects and long-term consequences of playing violent video games. The final section summarizes interventions directed at reducing the effects of media violence on aggression.
The Japanese Approach to Research on the Psychological Effects of Media Use
Authors: Sakamoto Akira
Published: February 2013

The main objective of this chapter is to illustrate Japanese trends in the study of the psychological effects of media exposure, particularly electronic media. The chapter describes: (1) the history of media tool dissemination in Japan and its current state; (2) the current state and background of Japanese studies on psychological effects of use of media, and characteristics of such studies in comparison with American studies; and (3) five types of actual or potential contributions of Japanese studies to global study trends. These five types were cross-cultural generalization of research findings, expansion of study areas, deepening of understanding of preceding study findings, execution of studies unique to Japan, and execution of social experiments using the process of media tool dissemination. After these descriptions, the chapter states a brief conclusion, and finally discusses the future direction of Japanese studies.
Media Content Analysis: Qualitative Methods
Authors: Neal Michael R.
Published: February 2013

Although qualitative methods traditionally suffer from concerns about reliability, validity, and researcher bias (see Chapter 8), new computer-assisted methods can assist in addressing these issues. Intelligent software, integrated with mixed methods and visualizations can be a valuable tool for media psychology researchers. Techniques for automated text coding assistance, concept, theme, and data relationship extraction with advanced text analytics capabilities provide the ability for researchers to examine large volumes of poor quality data, such as those found in social media studies. The current chapter examines quantitative, qualitative, and text analytics methods within the context of a qualitative media content analysis. For media researchers, an example within the chapter provides insight into many of the challenges of extracting meaning from text. As an exemplar of integrated methods, this chapter extends the exploration of a definition for media psychology from the Introduction of this handbook to derive a definition of media psychology from the actual content of the Handbook.
The Cold War and the Imperialism of Nation-States
Authors: Duara Prasenjit
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the role of the imperialism of nation-states in the Cold War. It suggests that the Cold War rivalry provided the “frame of reference” in which the historical forces of imperialism and nationalism interacted with developments such as decolonization, multiculturalism, and new ideologies and modes of identity formation. The chapter also argues that while the equilibrium of Cold War rivalry generated an entrenched political and ideological hegemony limiting the realization of political, economic, and imaginative possibilities in much of the world, the developing world represented significant weak links and played an equally important role in its collapse.
Eastern Europe
Authors: Stöver Bernd
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the role and experience of Eastern Europe in the Cold War. It explains that the history of East Central Europe's Cold War began with the gradual dissolution of the anti-Hitler coalition at the end of World War 2 and that the transition to the officially declared Cold War was accompanied by various official statements. The chapter describes how the Cold War escalated with the Eastern bloc uprisings between 1953 and 1956, and argues that the construction of the Berlin Wall represented the main watershed in the history of the Eastern bloc as well as in the evolution of the Cold War.
Africa
Authors: Schmidt Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the impact of the Cold War on Africa. It explains that while Africa is the least-known Cold War battleground, the United States, the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba became embroiled in the internal affairs of countless African countries. The chapter analyzes the ideologies, practices, and interests of these main external actors and describes the four major arenas of conflict that are representative of broad trends in Cold War intervention in Africa. It also discusses how the Cold War altered the dynamics of local struggles, created unprecedented levels of destruction and widespread instability, and contributed to many of the problems that plague Africa today.
The Nuclear Revolution
Authors: Craig Campbell
Published: February 2013

This chapter, which examines the role of nuclear weapons in the Cold War and the role of the Cold War in the nuclear revolution, argues that the development of nuclear weapons significantly affected the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union beyond the nuclear crises and arms races. It investigates the role of the atomic bomb in making impossible the postwar cooperation between the United States and the Soviet Union, and evaluates the role of nuclear fear in invalidating the Soviet's Marxism-Leninism ideology. The chapter also considers how the mutual assured destruction pushed the superpowers away from direct military confrontation and into senseless weapon overproduction at home.
International Institutions
Authors: Sayward Amy L.
Published: February 2013

This chapter explores the role of international institutions during the Cold War. It explains that while international institutions promoted their own agendas for global action, they also provided venues for raising questions about the bipolar power contest and acted as mitigators in international conflicts. The chapter also suggests that the histories of international institutions can provide insights into the complexities of the Cold War. It furthermore discusses the role of the United Nations in creating an era of global expectations and conventions that do fit into the nation-states paradigm, and highlights the emergence of the so-called world society or world culture during the Cold War.
The International Environmental Movement and the Cold War
Authors: Tucker Richard P.
Published: February 2013

This chapter, which examines the history of the international environmental movement during the Cold War, analyzes the emergence of and tenuous collaboration between the environmental and anti-nuclear movements. It discusses the early anti-nuclear movement in the 1950s, the emergence of the international environmental movement in the late 1960s, and the environmental controversies in the Soviet Union. The chapter argues that it was the June 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment which marked the official recognition that environmental challenges must be addressed globally.
Globalization and the Cold War
Authors: Lynn Hyung‐Gu
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the role of the Cold War in the emergence of “globalization.” It argues that globalization did not succeed or supersede the Cold War but emerged from it through the rapid increase in the speed, scale, and scope of transnational linkages, fueled largely by developments in communications, transportation, and international agreements that occurred during the years 1945 to 1989. The chapter argues against the assertion that globalization is a profoundly new phenomenon and shows how Cold War innovations contributed to the three interlinked areas of globalization, which include communications, transportation, and international agreements.
Ethical Theories of Hermann Cohen, Franz Rosenzweig, and Martin Buber
Authors: Crane Jonathan K.
Published: February 2013

This chapter focuses on the thoughts of the early twentieth-century German Jewish thinkers Hermann Cohen, Franz Rosenzweig, and Martin Buber. These three German scholars, writing in the decades surrounding World War I, were both attracted to and repulsed by modernity. On the one hand, the modern drive toward nationalism inspired their commitment to Jews and Judaism, and so each plumbed the Jewish textual tradition to ground their ethical theories. Yet the destructiveness caused by self-centeredness led each man to promote an ethic that attended to others. The chapter explores this turn to others and otherness—a turn that oriented much subsequent Jewish ethical theorizing.
Ethical Theories in the Reform Movement
Authors: Marmur Michael
Published: February 2013

This chapter traces the emergence of Reform Jewish ethical sensibility from its early days in nineteenth-century Germany through its evolution to modern America, Israel, and beyond, identifying four major sensibilities that, while chronologically presented, are nevertheless found among contemporary Reform Jews. These include the notion that ethics rightfully should be the first theology of Judaism, a passion for tikkun olam (repairing the world from injustices), a suspicion and critique of modernity, and an ethics of authenticity.
Ethical Theories in the Orthodox Movement
Authors: Shatz David
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the writings of Modern Orthodox thinkers. To frame the discussion, it focuses on a so-called maximalist Modern Orthodox position consisting of four assertions, each of which is discussed in turn: (i) the validity thesis, (ii) the knowledge thesis, (iii) the jurisprudential thesis; (iv) the reconciliation thesis. The four components of the maximalist Modern Orthodox positions have varying degrees of textual, philosophical, and empirical support. Perhaps the deepest problem confronting a Modern Orthodox thinker is how a decisor can trust his ethical judgments, given that some of God's commands strike people as immoral and human judgment therefore appears to be deeply flawed.
Ethical Theories in the Reconstructionist Movement
Authors: Teutsch David A.
Published: February 2013

The Reconstructionist movement perceives Judaism as the evolving religious civilization of the Jewish people. This chapter demonstrates Reconstructionism's concern for ethics by identifying the movement's assumptions about how and why Jews should act in the world. As shaping actual Jewish living has continually been its major goal, the movement eventually developed what is now called values-based decision-making that would guide collective as well as personal ethical deliberation and concrete action.
Feminist Jewish Ethical Theories
Authors: Plaskow Judith
Published: February 2013

This chapter highlights some key contexts in which feminist ethical discourses emerge, and important methods that Jewish feminists employ in order to address gender and other inequalities, arguing that all the many forms of Jewish feminism are “fundamentally about ethics.” Across denominations, in the broader feminist movement, in academia, and in Israel as well as North America, Jewish women have been reshaping what and how Jews and non-Jews think and act—regarding women, gender, inequality and injustice, and many other critical ethical issues, including Judaism itself. Feminist methodologies creatively critique halakhah, theology, liturgy, ritual, and textual interpretation, with implications for social and political analysis and activism. In doing so, Jewish feminists “have created both a rich literature and a legacy of activism that is ethical to its core.”
Postmodern Jewish Ethical Theories
Authors: Kavka Martin
Published: February 2013

Nearly concurrent with the rise of feminist criticisms in recent decades was the emergence of post-modernism that both endorsed particularity (as against the universality championed by modernity) yet critiqued the totalizing effects inhering in particularity. This chapter begins by tracing the complicated interrelationship of Jewish and secular philosophy in Emmanuel Levinas' thought. It then turns to the ethical philosophy of embodiment and self-mastery by Jonathan Schofer and Chaya Halberstam, to show that postmodern Jewish ethics is simultaneously intensely personal as it is also procedural and communal.
Jewish Ethics of Speech
Authors: Gray Alyssa M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses a Jewish ethics of speech under the following headings: (1) Jewish legal and ethical norms pertaining to bad language and speech about other people; (2) holy speech; and (3) speech that is beneficial to society or other people. Throughout, special attention is given to the different voices within Jewish sacred literature, including voices that express ethical considerations bound to very particular historical contexts.
Longitudinal Studies
Authors: Sankoff Gillian
Published: February 2013

Interest in longitudinal sociolinguistic research has grown considerably over the past decade. This chapter notes that the major reason for this surge of interest is that longitudinal research has begun to answer some of the most important questions that relate language variation and language change. It examines what evidence longitudinal studies can provide about stability versus change, the relationship between language change and age grading, and whether longitudinal sociolinguistic evidence influences accepted wisdom on the relative stability of people’s grammars in adult life. Longitudinal studies are crucial in resolving these ambiguities of interpretation, and real-time data has now often been used to enrich apparent time interpretations.
English in Language Policies and Ideologies in Africa
Authors: Kamwangamalu Nkonko M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the relationship between African languages and the economy by addressing vernacularization against the language ideologies from the perspective of theoretical approaches to the spread of English on the one hand, and recent developments in the economics of language on the other. First, it summarizes postcolonial language-in-education policies in Africa, and the role of English and other former colonial languages in those policies. Next, the chapter discusses theoretical approaches to the spread of English in Africa to provide the background against which the ideologies that inform the spread of English can be understood better. It argues that, for vernacularization to succeed in Africa, especially in the era of globalization, African languages must be assigned an economic value at least in the local linguistic market place.
Language Policy and Ideology
Authors: Zhang Qing
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses language policies in the People’s Republic of China (PRC), including the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR since 1997) and Taiwan. The term “Greater China” refers to these three territories. Contemporary language policies in the region are driven by the need for, and play a vital role in, building a unified modern nation-state. The discussion notes that language policy is informed and shaped by language ideologies and attitudes, as well as by sociohistorical, geopolitical, and economic considerations. All three territories have witnessed drastic socioeconomic and political change since the last two decades of the twentieth century. Such transformations have undoubtedly left their impact on their languages and language policies.
Language Policies and Politics in South Asia
Authors: Chand Vineeta
Published: February 2013

This chapter explores socioeconomic, political, religious ethno-cultural, and national positions toward language management, which underlie diachronic changes in South Asian nations’ language policies and linguistic ideologies. In South Asia, feelings toward linguistic diversity, as realized through national language policies and in actual national language management practices, are highly diverse. The negotiation of and diachronic changes in language policies, together with functional and ideological goals—visible through language attitudes, overt and covert language policies, and diachronic changes in language competencies—offer a lens through which to understand language management and value.
Our Stories, Ourselves
Authors: Frankel Richard M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter aims to combine traditional approaches to analyzing narratives with strategies for using them to change organizational culture; introduce the concepts of emergent design and appreciative inquiry as a framework for uncovering and disseminating an organization’s core narrative; and describe several innovative organization-level activities that used emergent design and appreciative inquiry narratives to change the culture of a large medical school. Indiana University School of Medicine (IUSM) is currently the largest medical school in North America. In January of 2003, the Relationship-Centered Care Initiative (RCCI) was launched, with an audacious goal: to change the culture of the school and reverse some of the negative trends it had been experiencing over the past decade. Relationship-Centered Care is an expanded form of patient-centered care, which focuses on including the values, attitudes, and preferences of patients as they seek and receive care.
Language Revitalization
Authors: Grenoble Lenore A.
Published: February 2013

Linguists have become increasingly engaged in language documentation, working to record languages while they are still spoken. Speaker communities often turn to revitalization programs, attempting to strengthen the speaker base of their ancestral languages and make them vital again. This chapter addresses the factors that enter into the decision of what kind of revitalization to pursue and then discusses different kinds of models for language revitalization. It examines revitalization as a response to language endangerment, language attitudes, language domains and social networks, the role of the external linguist, and a successful revitalization in the case of the Hebrew language.
Sociolinguistics and Social Activism
Authors: Hudley Anne H. Charity
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the history of social activism in sociolinguistics, with a particular focus on efforts in the United States. It exemplifies ways that the study of sociolinguistics is critical for increased social justice and social change, and demonstrates how sociolinguistic models might better reflect a social justice framework if they are co-constructed by linguists and the communities in which they learn and teach. At the heart of a linguistics-centered social justice framework is the most basic right of a speaker: the right to speak his or her language of choice at all times. Sociolinguistics has made great advances in helping to demonstrate the links between language use and social justice across racial and cultural groups.
Evolving Concepts of Sustainability in Environmental Policy
Authors: Hempel Lamont C.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the evolution and application of sustainability concepts in environmental politics and policy, paying particular attention to the challenges of operationalizing and measuring sustainability in the highly dynamic environment of twenty-first-century politics and policy. It first surveys the concept's historical roots, and then examines the struggle to refine and apply the concept in contemporary policy analysis. It reviews the key policy initiatives that have incorporated sustainability language or contributed to its development within each branch of government. It then focuses on the pragmatic adoption of sustainability principles in policy making, culminating in a discussion of future directions and research needs.
Courts, Legal Analysis, and Environmental Policy
Authors: Duane Timothy P.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the role of the courts and legal analysis in relation to U.S. environmental policy. The key theme is that the courts play a vital and distinctive role in the dynamic development of U.S. environmental policy that directly affects both the power relationships among key policy stakeholders and the substantive outcomes of both legislative and regulatory processes. It emphasizes the structural features of the American judicial system and how that structure influences the dynamics of environmental policy making and implementation. It summarizes those features and describes the most important constitutional provisions and cases driving those dynamics across a wide range of substantive issues.
Public Participation, Citizen Engagement, and Environmental Decision Making
Authors: Daley Dorothy M.
Published: February 2013

This article reviews literature that explores civic engagement and environmental decision making in American politics; assesses its strengths and weaknesses; identifies broad areas of agreement and divergence; and pinpoints knowledge gaps that future research should address. Specifically, it examines the background and history of public participation and environmental policy, emphasizing the tension between scientifically informed decision making, democratic ideals, and broad changes in environmental policy. It also outlines the arguments for and against widespread participation in environmental decision making. The article explores the notion of what constitutes a community and the challenges inherent in identifying and defining “the public” in a decentralized political system. It describes and assesses different decision-making approaches that utilize public participation, ranging from traditional public hearings and comments to more involved collaborative decision processes. Finally, it discusses the ways in which public participation influences environmental decision making and suggests areas of inquiry for future research.
Ecosystem-Based Management and Restoration
Authors: Layzer Judith A.
Published: February 2013

This article begins by recounting the origins of ecosystem-based management (EBM) and describing early efforts to implement an ecosystem-based approach. It details the theoretical benefits of EBM and the criticisms leveled against it, and then summarizes the results of recent assessments, noting the strengths and weaknesses of these analyses. It concludes by articulating several unanswered questions and offering suggestions for further research. Evidence suggests that the theoretical benefits of EBM, although widely touted, do not always materialize in practice. In cases where EBM has been fully implemented, landscape-scale planning has yielded discernible benefits, but the effects of collaboration with stakeholders and flexible, adaptive implementation have been more ambiguous.
Environmental Policy Evaluation and the Prospects for Public Learning
Authors: Susskind Lawrence , Schulman Alexis
Published: February 2013

This article reviews conventional approaches to environmental policy evaluation, outlines their presumed relevance to policy making and implementation, and points out the main reasons why they have been subject to challenge. It contrasts the conventional approach to environmental policy evaluation—which presumes the identity of the policy analyst is unimportant—with the “collaborative approach,” which emphasizes the need to engage relevant stakeholders (i.e., the users of policy analyses and those affected by them) in the process of environmental policy evaluation. The article also describes the emergence of “adaptive” approaches to resource management and sustainable development, and explains why they represent an important shift away from emphasizing “success” and “failure” in environmental policy making and toward ongoing public learning for purposes of improvement.
Research on U.S. Environmental Policy in the New Century
Authors: Kraft Michael E. , Kamieniecki Sheldon
Published: February 2013

This book has provided a broad and detailed review and assessment of the literature on U.S. environmental policy and politics. Numerous studies on this topic have been conducted in response to the changing nature of environmental politics and increased federal government intervention. This article offers a general summary of the discussions in this text, including recommendations for future research.
Temperature Regulates the Initiation of Chasmothecia in Powdery Mildew of Strawberry
Authors: Asalf Belachew , Gadoury David M. , Tronsmo Anne Marte , Seem Robert C. , Cadle-Davidson Lance , Brewer Marin Talbot , Stensvand Arne
Published: February 2013

The formation of chasmothecia by the strawberry powdery mildew pathogen (Podosphaera aphanis) is widespread but often sporadic throughout the range of strawberry cultivation. In some production regions, notably in warmer climates, chasmothecia are reportedly rare. We confirmed that the pathogen is heterothallic, and that initiation of chasmothecia is not only dependent upon the presence of isolates of both mating types but also largely suppressed at temperatures >13°C. Compared with incubation at a constant temperature of 25°C, progressively more chasmothecia were initiated when temperatures were decreased to 13°C for progressively longer times. At lower temperatures, production of chasmothecia was associated with a decline in but not total cessation of conidial formation, and pairings of compatible isolates sporulated abundantly at 25°C. We developed mating-type markers specific to P. aphanis and used these to confirm the presence of both mating types in populations that had not yet initiated chasmothecia. The geographic discontinuity of chasmothecia production and the sporadic and seemingly unpredictable appearance of chasmothecia in P. aphanis are possibly due to the combined influence of heterothallism and suppression of chasmothecia formation by high temperatures.
Analyses of the Population Structure in a Global Collection of Phytophthora nicotianae Isolates Inferred from Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Sequences
Authors: Mammella Marco A. , Martin Frank N. , Cacciola Santa O. , Coffey Michael D. , Faedda Roberto , Schena Leonardo
Published: February 2013

Genetic variation within the heterothallic cosmopolitan plant pathogen Phytophthora nicotianae was determined in 96 isolates from a wide range of hosts and geographic locations by characterizing four mitochondrial (10% of the genome) and three nuclear loci. In all, 52 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (an average of 1 every 58 bp) and 313 sites with gaps representing 5,450 bases enabled the identification of 50 different multilocus mitochondrial haplotypes. Similarly, 24 SNPs (an average of 1 every 69 bp), with heterozygosity observed at each locus, were observed in three nuclear regions (hyp, scp, and β-tub) differentiating 40 multilocus nuclear genotypes. Both mitochondrial and nuclear markers revealed a high level of dispersal of isolates and an inconsistent geographic structuring of populations. However, a specific association was observed for host of origin and genetic grouping with both nuclear and mitochondrial sequences. In particular, the majority of citrus isolates from Italy, California, Florida, Syria, Albania, and the Philippines clustered in the same mitochondrial group and shared at least one nuclear allele. A similar association was also observed for isolates recovered from Nicotiana and Solanum spp. The present study suggests an important role of nursery populations in increasing genetic recombination within the species and the existence of extensive phenomena of migration of isolates that have been likely spread worldwide with infected plant material.
An additional methylene group driving the conformation and assembly of two arylsulfonamidepara-alkoxychalcone hybrids
Authors: Castro Mirian R. C. de , Aragão Angelo Q. , Napolitano Hamilton B. , Noda-Perez Caridad , Martins Felipe T.
Published: February 2013

The structures of two arylsulfonamidepara-alkoxychalcones, namely,N-{4-[(E)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)prop-2-enoyl]phenyl}benzenesulfonamide, C22H19NO4S, (I), andN-{4-[(E)-3-(4-ethoxyphenyl)prop-2-enoyl]phenyl}benzenesulfonamide, C23H21NO4S, (II), reveal the effect of the inclusion of one –CH2– group between the CH3branch and the alkoxy O atom on the conformation and crystal structure. Although the molecular conformations and one-dimensional chain motifs are the same in both structures, their crystallographic symmetry, number of independent molecules and crystal packing are different. The crystal packing of (I) is stabilized by weak C—H...π and π–π interactions, while only C—H...π contacts occur in the structure of (II). The role of the additional methylene group in the crystal packing can also be seen in the fact that the alkoxy O atom is an acceptor in nonclassical hydrogen bonds only in thepara-ethoxy analogue, (II). The remarkable similarity between the crystal packing features of (I) and (II) lies in the formation of N—H...O hydrogen-bonded ribbons, a synthon commonly found in related compounds.
Evidence of rational addiction to carbonated soft drinks?
Authors: Liu Xiaoou , Lopez Rigoberto
Published: February 2013

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to apply the Becker‐Murphy theory of rational addiction to the case of carbonated soft drinks. The research aims to reveal the rational addiction evidence of carbonated soft drinks and derive policy implications under this evidence. Consumers' rational addictive evidence for carbonated soft drinks provides a warning for the Chinese government to regulate the industry, due to its bad health consequences.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors empirically apply a time‐varying parameter model and scanner data set from 46 US cities.

Findings

Empirical results provide strong evidence that carbonated soft drinks are rationally addictive, thus opening the door to taxation and regulation. Taking rational addition into account, estimated demand elasticities are much lower than previous estimates using scanner data, which implies a limited role for taxes to curb consumption but a strong role to raise revenue to fund health promotion programs.

Originality/value

This is the first study to test the rational addiction nature of carbonated soft drinks, thus adding to the scarce economic literature on food addiction. Although the empirical results derived are based on soft drink consumption in the USA, China is experiencing a similar consumption increase in carbonated soft drinks as in the USA, in the examined period. Therefore, the lessons from the USA are also valuable for the public policy makers in China.
Painted gobies sing their quality out loud: acoustic rather than visual signals advertise male quality and contribute to mating success
Authors: Amorim Maria Clara P. , Pedroso Silvia S. , Bolgan Marta , Jordão Joana M. , Caiano Manuel , Fonseca Paulo J.
Published: February 2013

Females use multiple cues from different sensory modalities to choose males of high phenotypic or genetic quality to mate with. Fish may use visual and acoustic communication during mating, but few studies have associated multimodal signals with male quality and reproductive success.

We examined whether visual and acoustic courtship signals reflect male quality and influence mating success in the painted goby (Pomatoschistus pictus), a highly visual and vocal fish species with paternal care. Painted gobies make conspicuous courtship visual displays such as body quivering and eight‐shaped swimming patterns and two types of sounds: drums that are composed of a sequence of low‐frequency pulses and a thump‐like non‐pulsed sound. We predicted that both sensory modalities would advertise male size and condition and influence mating success.

We found that larger number of pulses in a drum, lower fatigue (where fatigue is the increase in pulse period during drum production) and higher drum absolute amplitude levels were good predictors of larger male size. Males with high condition factor (Fulton's K) showed high drumming activity and low thumping and visual courtship levels. Drumming activity was a good predictor of male fat reserves.

Males that succeeded to mate emitted sounds with higher number of pulses and longer pulse periods and showed higher drumming but lower thumping activity than unsuccessful males. All traits (except pulse period) reflected higher male Fulton's K or fat reserves, suggesting that females are selecting for male condition. Neither male size nor visual courtship was apparently used in mate selection.

Contrary to our expectations, females did not seem to prefer larger or vigorous visually displaying males but chose mates in better condition using multiple cues of drumming sounds. We suggest that preference for high mate condition is related to preference for increased parental ability and hatching success in species with paternal care. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that addresses the relative role of signals from different sensory modalities including acoustics, in advertising male quality and in contributing to reproductive success in fish.
Fat provisioning in winter impairs egg production during the following spring: a landscape‐scale study of blue tits
Authors: Plummer Kate E. , Bearhop Stuart , Leech David I. , Chamberlain Dan E. , Blount Jonathan D.
Published: February 2013

Provisioning of garden birds is a growing phenomenon, particularly during winter, but there is little empirical evidence of its true ecological impacts. One possibility is that winter provisioning could enhance subsequent breeding performance, but this seems likely to depend on the types of nutrients provided. For example, whereas effects of macronutrients such as fat are unlikely to be carried over to influence breeding in small passerines, micronutrients such as dietary vitamin E (an antioxidant) may be stored or have lasting health benefits.

Here, we examine the carry‐over effects of winter food supplements on egg production in wild populations of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus). Over three consecutive years, birds were provisioned with fat, fat plus vitamin E or remained unfed (controls).

The provision of fat in winter resulted in smaller relative yolk mass in larger eggs and reduced yolk carotenoid concentrations in early breeders. However, these effects were not seen in birds provisioned with fat plus vitamin E. Lay date, clutch size, egg mass and yolk vitamin E concentrations were not significantly affected by winter provisioning treatment.

Our results indicate that winter provisioning can have important downstream consequences, in particular affecting investment in egg production several weeks or months later.

Provisioning is widely applied to support garden bird populations and for the conservation management of endangered species. However, our results challenge the assumption that such practices are always beneficial at the population level and emphasize how the ecological impacts can depend on the specific nutritional profile of provisioned foods.
In search of reliable results: Socialist values and political trust in unified Germany – A comment on Campbell's analyses and conclusions
Authors: Schnaudt Christian
Published: February 2013

In a recently published article in this journal, Ross Campbell argues that adherence to socialist values establishes a hitherto neglected factor when it comes to the explanation of differences in East and West German citizens’ political trust. As the results of his study indicate, adherence to socialist values impacts negatively on citizens’ political trust, this effect is more pronounced and more stable over time for East German as compared to West German citizens and is sufficiently strong to eliminate aggregate‐level differences in political trust between East and West Germany. However, this research note suggests that Campbell's article contains several substantial inconsistencies and obscurities that question the reliability and validity of the empirical findings presented. It provides a re‐analysis of Campbell's main arguments and shows to what extent his initial conclusions can be upheld after the shortcomings have been remedied. The results of this re‐analysis suggest that socialist values indeed exhibit a negative impact on German citizens’ political trust, which is relatively stronger for East as compared to West German citizens. However, contrary to Campbell's initial results, the negative effect of socialist values on political trust is robust over time for both East and West German citizens. What is more, there is no empirical evidence confirming that differences in adherence to socialist values between East and West German citizens are sufficiently strong to account for aggregate‐level differences in political trust. In light of these findings, two of Campbell's three main conclusions are dubious and call for further examination.