bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interlanguage Features of the Speech Act of Complaining
Authors: Olshtain Elite , Weinbach Liora
Published: November 2023

In the speech act of complaining, the speaker (S) expresses displeasure or annoyance-censure-as a reaction to a past or ongoing action, the consequences of which are perceived by S as affecting her unfavorably. This complaint is usually addressed to the hearer (H) whom the S holds, at least partially, responsible for the offensive action. For the purpose of this study, censure will be assumed to have been expressed whenever S chooses to verbalize her disapproval of the violation.
Origins Of The Federal Judiciary
Authors: Marcus Maeva
Published: November 2023

Any discussion of the factors contributing to the longevity of the US Constitution must devote great attention to the development of the federal judiciary. Yet surprisingly, little has been written about the origins of the Judiciary Act of 1789, the legislation that established the federal court system. This volume analyses the Judiciary Act from political, economic and legal perspectives, bringing together the insights of leading scholars from a number of different fields.
Household Budget Data
Authors: Pollak Robert A , Wales Terence J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we report demand system estimates based on household budget data. In Section 1 we demonstrate that interesting complete demand systems can be estimated from a small number of budget studies despite the limited price variability represented in such data. To illustrate we use household data for two years to estimate the LES and the QES. In Section 2 using a larger sample we concentrate on functional form specification and demographic influences on consumption patterns. We compare the LES with the quadratic expenditure system (QES), and the basic translog (BTL) with the generalized translog (GTL). We incorporate the age composition and the number of children using linear demographic translating and linear demographic scaling. In Section 3 we investigate three additional methods of incorporating demographic characteristics; because of the complexity of these procedures we estimate a simpler demand system-the generalized CES-rather than the QES or translog forms. In Section 4 we explore two dynamic QES specifications and introduce a stochastic structure that allows disturbances in each time period to be correlated across households. Due to the complexity of the estimation procedure we analyze separately households with different numbers of children. In Section 5 we explore random coefficient models for the LES and QES.
Basic Concepts for the New Television Environment
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

To analyze the changes in the media environment it is necessary to understand some of the basic concepts and forces that affect it. The preceding chapter looked at the forces of internationalization in television media. This chapter continues the analysis of television more generally.
Netherlands
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Dutch broadcasting has often been idealized from a distance as a particularly pluralist and open system, but it could equally be described as the legacy of extraordinary past societal segregation. In the Netherlands the diversity in religious and political ideology resulted in a unique “pillarized” pluralism. But this system was eventually destabilized by several forces: the weakening hold of denominational and political elites on society; a loosening of collaboration among the ideological pillars; the entry of pirate broadcasters, who could be absorbed only for a while and whose influence on programming spread to the official broadcast associations; the evolution of European integration and opening of borders; and the substantial cabling of the country by municipalities and private firms. These forces overcame the considerable power of the traditional system that had integrated, for a long time, most of the relevant political and social currents of the country.
Denmark
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

The Scandinavian tradition of social and cultural concern characterized the development of broadcasting in Denmark. A state monopoly dominated broadcasting throughout most of its history; but broad citizen participation and foreign broadcast spill-ins have tempered its power. In the 1980s, the previously highly constricted one-channel television system was opened significantly through the creation of community radio and television, cable television, and satellitedelivered channels.
Israel
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Israel’s broadcasting system has been strongly shaped by its use as an instrument of social and cultural integration in a heterogeneous society in the midst of periodic warfare. The government has been reluctant to loosen its control, whether by expansion of channels or by liberalization of entry. However, alternative media options such as pirate cable television, Arab countries’ TV stations, and VCRs forced a change. The consequence was the establishment of cable television and of a second broadcast channel, with the likelihood of satellite program activities. These developments have paved the way to a more diverse television landscape in Israel.
Television in Eastern Europe
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

This book’s focus is the dynamic change of media from tight control to diversity. Until 1989, this excluded the eastern part of the continent, where broadcasting was rigorously frozen. After 1989, changes began to occur at a revolutionary pace and the opposite problem arose: Developments were moving so rapidly that no book treatment could avoid being outdated. Given these circumstances, the following chapter is only a brief survey.
Conclusion: The Evolutionary Stages of Broadcasting
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

The preceding country-specific and general chapters of this book have shown the extraordinary evolution in broadcasting systems. Different societies contribute their own distinct features based on their history, politics, geography, demographics, and economics. But these differences should not obscure certain central themes. We can discern five stages of evolution in the broadcast systems of democratic countries. Table 29.1 summarizes them for Europe.
Exodus
Authors: Fitzpatrick Sheila
Published: November 2023

For millions of peasants, the experience of collectivization was associated with departure from the village rather than entry into the kolkhoz. For every thirty peasants who became kolkhozniks in the years 1929-32, ten peasants gave up peasant agriculture and became wage earners. For some, this meant going to work on state farms, but for the majority it meant leaving the countryside. The rate of rural-urban migration reached unprecedented heights at the beginning of the 1930s. More than two and a half million peasants moved from village to town in 1930, compared with about a million a year in the late 1920s. Four million moved in 1931. All twenty of the Soviet Union’s largest cities grew rapidly in this period; and six of them-the rap-idly expanding industrial cities of Sverdlovsk and Perm in the Urals, Stalin-grad and Gorky (Nizhny Novgorod) on the Volga, Stalino (luzovka) in the Donbass, and Novosibirsk in Siberia-doubled or triped their population in the years 1929-32. The population of Moscow-the Soviet Union’s capital and largest city-almost doubled, jumping from 2 million to 3.7 million (a 181 percent increase). The next largest cities of the empire, Leningrad, Baku, and Kharkov, grew almost as dramatically in size.1
The Collectivized Village
Authors: Fitzpatrick Sheila
Published: November 2023

“The kolkhoz” was still an empty vessel waiting to be filled in 1930. The regime had called for collectivization without indicating exactly what it meant. The main type ofkolkhoz in existence in the 1920s-the small kommuna, farming on nonvillage land-was clearly inappropriate as a model. No official guidelines on the structure of the collective farm were distributed until after the initial collectivization assault: indeed, the Model Charter of the Agricultural Artel, signed into law on March 1, 1930, was published in the same issue of Pravda as Stalin’s “Dizzy with Success.” Thus, the Charter could not have served as a guide for collectivizers; rather, it was a summary of what the regime had learned from their recent experiences. The answers to the question “What is a kolkhoz?” emerged only gradually over time. Some of the answers were given in official pronouncements or government legislation. For example, the question of the kolkhoznik’s right to keep a cow was settled by “Dizzy with Success,” while the question of the kolkhoznik’s right to trade was settled by a decree of May 1932. Other answers
The “Job” of the Board: Defining the Portfolio
Authors: Demb Ada , Neubauer F -Friedrich
Published: November 2023

In chapter 2 we developed a concept of governance where boards are one component of a system designed to elicit corporate accountability. We believe they are a key component, although we disagree with those who lay the entire governance responsibility at the door of the boardroom. At a minimum, boards are the most visible component of the system. To fathom the nature of this disagreement and to shed some light on the commonalities and differences between boards, we asked almost 200 board members on both sides of the Atlantic about the mandate of the board in modern corporations. We opened each of our seventy-one interviews with this question: What do you think is the mandate of the board? The phraseology indicates that we were not simply interested in the legal definition of the board mandate for the national settings where our corporations were located; rather,.
Public Telecommunications: A Concept in Transition
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

A number of far-reaching changes in telecommunications policy originated in the United States. Because many were passed under a conservative political regime, they were usually viewed in Europe as the product of American business interests, wrapped in a Chicago free market economic ideology. But more recently, Japan and several European countries have begun to adopt similar policies, or at least to discuss changes that previously seemed unthinkable. This indicates that the changes in telecommunications go deeper than the nature of the respective governments in power and that they reflect a more fundamental transition.
Germany
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

For a discussion of the early history of German postal services, telecommunications, and institutions, the reader is referred to Chapter 2, in which the emergence of the country’s PTT system is discussed. The history of German telecommunications can be said to have begun in 1832, when Prussia introduced an optical telegraph system that connected Berlin with Koblenz on the Rhine. The system was designed for official dispatches only, and a petition by the Berlin Chamber of Commerce to transmit stock market information was emphatically rejected (Allentier, 1973). Later, civilians were permitted to use the telegraph during slack periods, as an effort to supplement state revenues.
Switzerland
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

The Swiss PTT is one of Europe’s last “classic” PTTs: It is an exclusive and monopolistic government administration where telecommunications subsidize the postal service with which they are fully integrated. In its equipment interconnection policy and procurement practices, the Swiss PTT is among the more rigid in Europe. At the same time, the quality of its service-in terms of both equipment and manpower-is good, and the density of its coverage is among the highest in the world. Thus, the traditional arrangement has worked reasonably well when the priority was to spread service to every household and when technology and large-user demands were relatively stable.
Ireland
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

The United Telephone Company opened its first exchange (with five subscribers) in 1880.1 United was taken over in 1882 by the Telephone Company of Ireland, which oversaw a slow growth to 500 lines in Dublin by 1988. The operation was acquired in 1893 by the National Telephone Company, which rapidly developed the network to encompass fifty-six exchanges by 1900. The Post Office, which operated the telegraph and feared revenue losses, began in 1893 slowly to invest in trunk lines and submarine cables. By 1908 the Post owned thirty-three exchanges to National’s eighty-five (Litton, 1961).
Israel
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Israel is closely related to Western Europe in its telecommunications system. Its dynamics of institutional change are similar, and are therefore included in this study. For a long time, Israel’s telecommunications system was that of the classic postal-industrial complex, with the state PTT nurturing the electronics industry in close collaboration with the trade unions. The government, meanwhile, regarded telecommunications as a source of revenue. This system led to dissatisfaction because the expansion and quality of the network were inadequate for the rapidly modernizing society. In 1982, it was decided to spin off telecommunications from the Ministry of Communications and to establish the independent operating company Bezeq. Bezeq (also often spelled Bezek) is still a state monopoly, albeit a regulated and part-private one, but its service orientation and performance have greatly improved.
Telecommunications in Eastern Europe
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Telecommunications in pre-reform Eastern Europe resembled that of the West in one important aspect: monopoly control over all aspects, under the aegis of a state PTT. Technical capability, performance quality, and service availability, however, were far behind. Telecommunications had long been neglected. According to a World Bank study, networks in Eastern Europe had growth rates of only 3 percent over the last thirty years, and what little investment was made went to new lines, not maintenance or infrastructure (Nulty, 1990). Penetration figures therefore did not reflect poor service quality and outdated equipment.
Telecommunications Policy as Industrial Policy
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

It is possible to view international telecommunications as merely a hodgepodge of national systems, each reflecting its society’s history and economics, and each happily self-contained except for collaboration on technical issues. It is equally possible to see national developments as variations on a single technology theme, inexorably driven by an underlying technological determinism, such as the convergence of telecommunications and computers. Or one can argue, as this book does, that common and often non-technical dynamics are changing the institutions of telecommunications: On the demand side, the sharing coalition of network users is breaking down, whereas on the supply side, the coalition in support of the monopoly system is eroding. For a long time the traditional arrangement was remarkably stable, successful, and undisputed. For a number of years, however, it has been subject to forces of disintegration.
International Telecommunications Services
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

The clash between the different policy approaches taken on the two sides of the Atlantic was particularly acute in international communications, partly because of its great profitability. Historically, U.S. policy on international telecommunications had carved up the market into distinct segments, assigning each segment to different kinds of carriers. In the 1970s and 1980s, however, the United States radically restructured its own rules of the game and forced the European countries to respond to a new situation. This led to frequent disputes. American changes destabilized the traditional European system, as analyzed later with the theoretical model of Chapter 40.
Videotex
Authors: Noam Eli
Published: November 2023

Videotex emerged in 1970, when the British Post Office started work on its viewdata system Prestel, with the aim of integrating the telephones, computers, and the television sets. France followed suit in 1972 with Antiope. In Germany, the Bundespost bought and built upon British rights in the development of its Btx system. In 1979, Canada developed Telidon, which, unlike the others, is based on a geometric rather than an alpha-mosaic display. All systems contended before the CCITT for recognition as the single international standard. The American position held that it was too early to implement standardization because of the rapid development of technologies. Europeans suspected that this view was based on the Americans’ absence from the forefront of videotex development. In 1980, the CCITT recognized three systems-Antiope, Prestel, and Telidon-and agreement or. a common protocol seemed impossible. In 1981, AT&T established its Presentation Level Protocol (PLP), closely related to the Canadian standard. In 1982, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) agreed upon a more mature version of PLP, the North American Presentation Level Protocol Standard (NAPLPS), and submitted it to the CCITT.
Dialogue in Lyric Narrative
Authors: Friedrich Paul
Published: November 2023

All lyric poetry is dialogical because the poet, no matter how solipsistic he intends or claims to be, is actually engaging or attempting to engage someone else, an interlocutor. Despite this inevitably dialogical situation, comparatively little lyric poetry, as contrasted with epic or dramatic poetry, contains actual quoted, literal dialogue. The deep structure is always dialogic, whereas the surface structure is only rarely so.
Causal Explanation
Authors: O’shaughnessy John
Published: November 2023

The type of explanation that is most popularly associated with the scientific enterprise is the causal explanation. In research on buyer behaviour, causal relationships might be assumed to cover any of the following:

External factors causing buying action. The external factors viewed as causing buying response might be culture, reference group pressure, brand name, packaging, and so on.

Mental state causing buying action. The mental states viewed as causing buying response might be attitude, degree of involvement with the purchase, personality, and so on.

External factors causing mental state. The external factors viewed as causing the men tal state (e.g., favourable attitude toward the brand) might be trial usage of the brand, advertising, medical recommendation, and so on.

Mental state causing some subsequent mental state. The mental state of involvement with the purchase might be viewed as causing subsequent complex mental processing.
Explanatory Systems of Psychology
Authors: O’shaughnessy John
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters explored the four modes of explanation: causal (Chapter 3); temporal/ process causal models (Chapter 4); rational choice models (Chapter 5); and the functional explanation (Chapter 6). Each of these four modes of explanation is present in the marketing literature on buyer behaviour and we have illustrated some major applications. However, we may explain marketing phenomena in any of these modes without claiming the explanation is in any way grounded in the social sciences. Yet systems of psychology and systems of sociology (see Chapter 8) both revolve around some preference for one of the four modes. This is to be expected since, if science is concerned with explanation, such explanations must necessarily reflect one of the given modes. This chapter describes the various systems of psychology to reveal their assumptions, claims, and preferred explanatory mode.
The Two-Way Mirror
Authors: Abelson Elaine S
Published: November 2023

If the dry-goods palaces represented “a pantomime of gentility,” we must look beyond the physical appearance and surface amenities of these new institutions to the values and attitudes that governed their management. Store owners and managers set out to challenge traditional notions of need and value. The special drama of the stores, the continual bombardment of sensual images, the new celebration of material goods, and the explicit refutation of an older ethic of self-denial and its replacement by one promoting self-gratification were the products of a conscious strategy. Geared to continual expansion and high profits, the staged luxury of late-ninetenth-century department stores encouraged consumption and desire beyond immediate need or means. It all prompted troubling conflicts in personal and social values for many women, and, as a consequence, the stores found themselves confronting a situation in which the relationship between the individual shopper and the new possibilities of possession became problematic. Management was forced to defend itself against the very loss of a sense of proportion that it had in fact encouraged.
Union Initiatives to Restructure Industry in Australia
Authors: Ogden Max
Published: November 2023

Over the past 10 years, the Australian union movement’s strategy has undergone a major transformation from what was virtually a sole concern with the distribution of wealth to a greater focus on the creation of wealth. Australian unions have broadened their advocacy efforts from a narrow preoccupation with issues specific to the worker, such as wages and working hours, to a wider concern with the health and global competitiveness of Australian industry.
Dynamics of Organizational Populations
Authors: Hannan Michael T , Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

This book seeks to deepen and broaden the understanding of change in organization populations by examining the dynamics of numbers of organizations in populations. The authors have studied various kinds of organizations, including national labour unions, newspapers and newspaper publishers, brewing firms, life insurance companies, and banks.
Theoretical Approach
Authors: Hannan Michael T , Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

The empirical work of this book relates density to rates of organizational founding and mortality with data on diverse populations. Some readers may wish to consider the models and empirical results directly on their own terms-as empirical regularities, instead of as implications of general theories of organizations. That is, readers may regard our research project as estimating complicated representations of the effects of density on these rates and no more. Such an interpretation appears to be warranted in that density serves as the key observable independent variable in our analyses.
Density and Founding Rates
Authors: Hannan Michael T , Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

We turn now to empirical tests of the theory of density dependence. This chapter reports our main results on founding rates. It begins by reviewing the considerable volume of prior research. It discusses several potentially important methodological limitations of earlier studies and proposes an alternative way to conduct empirical analysis of this issue. This chapter also reports new results on the effects of density on founding rates in all of the populations of organizations introduced in the first chapter.
Density and Organizational Mortality
Authors: Hannan Michael T , Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

We turn now to density dependence in rates of organizational mortality. Even though the main questions are the same as those in Chapter 4, this chapter’s structure differs in three main ways. First, the relevant stochastic processes have different state spaces. Founding, as we defined it, denotes a unitary event. (Recall that we do not regard starts by mergers or secessions as foundings.) Each founding means the creation of a new organization from scratch, and each presumably responds to the same causal processes. Mortality, as we shall see, is not a unitary event because organizational lifetimes end in several different ways. The rates of different types of mortality may be governed by different causal processes. Therefore, we pay considerable attention to different types of organizational mortality. We argue that the theory of legitimation and competition does not apply to all types, and we conduct empirical analyses to learn whether this is so.
Complications
Authors: Hannan Michael T , Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapters discussed a variety of issues that could confound the analysis of organizational density. Foremost among these are questions about (1) the appropriate level of analysis, (2) the reversibility of processes of legitimation and competition, and (3) the use of left-truncated observation schemes. This chapter examines these concerns in detail by analyzing further the data on American brewing firms.
Annual Meeting
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

The next morning, a few minutes before the start of GM’s 1991 annual meeting, its eighty-third, I stood beneath a small, starched white tent by the Grand Old Opry at the Opryland Convention Complex outside Nashville and listened to a GM spokesperson explain how the airbag in a dark luxury sedan deployed. He was talking about the longitudinal component of an impact. Surrounding him and the car, at which he would often gesture, was a sampling of a disappearing America, relaxed upper middle-class white people. Most of the men wore suits and tie shoes, and had the casual stance of gentlemen not worried about paying the rent. The women, in pleated skirts and dresses, were usually hip-locked to their men.
The Charlotte Store
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

On my drive north I stopped at Saturn of Charlotte, a store Skip LeFauve had spoken highly of. The first morning I was there all the professional automotive consultants, as they call Saturn car salespeople, gathered out front for a special training gig called a “ride and drive.” Saturn Marketing had sent a three-person team, with a Mitsubishi Eclipse, a Toyota Corolla LE, and a Honda Civic DX, to Charlotte. The team was on tour to explain and point out the competitive advantages of the SC, SL2, and SU over their closest competitors. Carol Marcinkowski, twenty-four, freckled and ebullient, headed the team, one of several visiting all 108 Saturn stores that were now open. Marcinkowski told the dozen consultants, all but one wearing white Saturn shirts, that she was first going to “give them some thought starters.”
A Speculation Whirlwind
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

The weekend of July 27, 1985, Saturn officially came down to Spring Hill and the eleven hundred women, children, and men in the village were swept up in a whirlwind beyond their wildest dreams. For days “For Sale” signs seemed to rain from the sky, and soon outnumbered the school children. Strangers appeared behind folks mowing their lawns and made them outlandish offers for modest homes. A Texan strolling through the village, a beer in hand, was spotted by a Spring Hill policeman. He approached the man and informed him, “You can’t drink in the street here, sir.”
One Hundred Acres Under Roof
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

During much of 1988, if you had climbed to the white cupola perched on the roof of the new Spring Hill Town Hall, you could have seen, about a mile to the southwest, a red steel frame being sheathed in blue. It was the powertrain building, where Saturn’s engines and transmissions would be made. Powertrain was going to be the first of the four buildings completed in the complex.
Learning to Be Teams
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

During the summer of 1989 U-Hauls carrying Michigan tags were a common sight in Maury County. So were tour buses-circling courthouse square in Columbia, slowing by the mansions in Ashwood, unloading in Spring Hill so passengers could look at one of the places where some of them would soon be registering kids for school, paying taxes, voting.
The Crank Team A-Crew
Authors: Sherman Joe
Published: November 2023

Teamsmanship was the hue and cry of Saturn. In a way, the entire enterprise strove to be one big winning team in order to recapture a substantial share of the small-car business from the Japanese. The suppliers, retailers, machinery manufacturers, and new-car haulers were members of the big team. The plant itself was the team’s center-its body, so to speak, with Troy as its brains and the retailers its fingers actually shaking buyers’ hands. As the body, the plant was where quality began, in teams, inside an integrated and complex facility. Here consensus was supposed to be guiding decisions, teams were refining lean production, bottom-up leadership was a password, trust and communication replaced time clocks and grievances.
Designing Global Strategic Alliances: Integrating Cultural And Economic Factors
Authors: Jr. John W Slocum , Leie David
Published: November 2023

The wide proliferation of alliances of varying degrees of sophistication between global firms makes it necessary for senior management to understand the critical success factors inherent in each type of alliance. Simple alliance designs, such as those involving licensing in manufacturing and service industries, depend primarily on economic factors for implementation. More complex alliance designs, such as joint ventures and consortia arrangements, require a more sophisticated understanding and tight meshing of cultural factors to ensure both fast organizational learning of new skills and smoothness of implementation. Because many U.S. firms have come to rely on global alliances to develop new products and to gain access to new markets, management practitioners and researchers need a conceptual framework to understand which alliance design is most suitable for particular purposes, as well as the underlying implementation issues associated with each.
Personal Names and Expressive Derivation
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

In many languages, for example, in many Slavic and Romance languages, expressive derivation plays a role that can hardly be overstated. In particular, the function al load of many so-called diminutive suffixes is simply colossal. Yet the meaning of such suffixes (and other related morphological devices) has never been studied in depth, and a suitable methodology for a rigorous study of this kind has never been developed. Labels such as ‘diminutive’ or ‘augmentative’, which may be useful as pointers to certain areas of meaning, prove hopelessly inadequate when treated as serious analytical devices (for semantic purposes).
The Asian Money Markets: An Overview
Authors: Wellons David C Cole Hals. Scott Philip A
Published: November 2023

This book reports the findings of a study of money markets in eight countries in East and Southeast Asia. This first chapter summarizes and draws conclusions from the studies. It provides a general background of the overall study and then explores the nature and function of the money markets and their development in the region. The major findings of the study concern the types of government policy regarding the development of money markets and the effect of those policies on the markets’ efficiency and stability.
Money Markets In The Philippines
Authors: Yap Josef T , Lamberte Mario B , Untalan Teodoro S , Socorro Ma. , Zingapan V
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we relate policies of the central bank to the behavior of the money market. The money market is defined as the short-term financial market for instruments that are close substitutes for money. By convention, only instruments with a maturity of less than sixty days are analyzed, although we present data for instruments with longer maturities.
An Econometric Analysis Of Asian Money Markets
Authors: Ouliaris Sam
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides an econometric analysis of Asia’s emerging money markets. We consider the money markets of five countries: Singapore, Malaysia, Korea, Indonesia, and the Philippines. We also examine Japan’s prewar money market. For each of these countries, we want to determine the time-series properties of returns payable on short-term money market instruments.
Understanding Conflict and Cooperation
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

The Two essential aspects of any strategic situation are conflict and cooperation. Rarely are different people’s aims identical; interactions typically involve some (polite or impolite) conflict. Equally rare are situations of pure conflict, in which one person’s gains equal the other’s losses. Even the fiercest conflict has some commonality of interest, some scope for cooperation. (In war, the combatants usually respect conventions of how prisoners should be treated.) Playing a game is like dividing a pie. Players are often faced with contradictory motives. Their actions affect the size of the pie, and all participants agree in wanting the pie to be as large as possible. But their interests are at odds when it comes to dividing the pie; all want their own shares to be as large as possible. The players’ attempts to increase their own shares may have the side-effect of decreasing the size of the pie. A tension exists between seeking a large total pie and seeking a large share of the pie. Expressed in simple terms, this is one of the central ideas of game theory.
Using Information Strategically
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

A Vital Aspect of actual negotiations has been omitted from most of our analysis so far, in that knowledge has been assumed to be perfect. We have represented each bargainer as knowing the other’s valuation, alternative opportunities, costs of delay, and commitment possibilities. But, in fact, uncertainty is an essential ingredient of most negotiations. Negotiators go to great lengths to learn their opponents’ aims and to conceal their own. Good labor union negotiators, for example, prepare themselves by researching the firm’s production costs and profitability. At the same time, the firm’s negotiators ascertain what wage the workers could earn elsewhere; and, more subjectively, they try to assess the mood of the workers, to see how determined they are to achieve their demands. During the negotiations, various tactics are used to elicit information. At the extreme, there are recorded instances of a company trying to learn the union’s limits by bugging the union committee’s deliberations. More routinely, information and misinformation are re­leased in a calculated way during the negotiations. Tricks like exaggerated impatience, feigned anger, excessive friendliness, and personal abuse are used to try to make opponents inadvertently reveal their true aims. Defensive responses to such ploys include pretending ignorance of details and submitting many demands so as to mask the important ones.
Setting Executives’ Incentives
Authors: McMillan John
Published: November 2023

As Is Obvious to anyone who has worked in a firm, or to readers of the business pages of any newspaper, firms do not always operate at peak efficiency; and the degree of efficiency varies from firm to firm. What determines how efficient a firm is? The firm’s owners, its stockholders, regard the firm as a source of income. Thus they want the firm to make high profits. This means producing at minimum cost. If production is carried out with higher-than-necessary costs, then it must be that, for some reason, the stockholders’ interests are not being fully realized. Why? Most large modern corporations are not run by their owners but instead by salaried managers. Ownership and control are separated. The stockholders have only a limited influence; most decision-making is delegated to the executives. The control of a corporation is subject to a principal-agent problem, with the stockholders collectively being the principal and the management being the agent. In this chapter we will use the ideas developed in the last two chapters to discuss the extent to which managers’ incentives are aligned with shareholders’ interests.
External Integration in Product Development
Authors: fujimoto Takahiro , iansiti, marco , Clark kim b.
Published: November 2023

In recent years, product development has become established as a focal point of competition in an increasing number of industries, as well as a focus of academic research. This emphasis has led to the development of new methods and concepts for understanding and improving a firm’s development processes. Much of the discussion of product development in the popular and academic literature has focused on the question of time to market. Concepts such as simultaneous engineering, which attempts to shrink the time required to develop a new product, have moved from the literature to widespread application. While academics and practitioners have focused on reducing lead time in development, competition in many critical industries has intensified, customers have grown more demanding and sophisticated, and markets have grown more diverse. Although the value of speed and responsiveness in development has increased, these factors by themselves are increasingly insufficient to ensure a company’s competitiveness. Changes in competition and in customer requirements have created an environment in which companies that excel must create products that deliver improved sophistication, performance, and reliability. Moreover, the growing diversity of customer requirements and their demands for products tailored to individual needs have created competitive pressure (and opportunity) to bring to market a broader range of products, and thus to take on an increased number of development projects over time. Thus, the competitive requirements facing manufacturers in a variety of different industries today are not limited to development speed, but include the additional imperatives of increasingly refined, sophisticated products, and to do so productively and efficiently.
Incentives for Supplier Participation in Product Development: Evidence from the U.S. Automobile Industry
Authors: Helper Susan
Published: November 2023

Suppliers can play an important role in product development. For example, Clark (1989) found that more extensive involvement of suppliers allows Japanese automakers to use 11 percent fewer engineering hours to design a new car than their U.S. and European counterparts.1 Supplier participation in product development can also be a key source of cost reduction. Over the past year, Chrysler says it has reaped $270 million in cost reduction as a result of supplier suggestions, many of which involved product design changes. For example, Trico Products pointed out that Chrysler was the only North American automaker to use plastic shields on the rubber part of the windshield wiper blade. Elimination of the shields saved $139,350. Rockwell International proposed using the same door locks on both passenger cars and 1991 Dodge trucks, for a savings of over $280,000 (Chappell, 1991).
Is Technical Innovation All? A Hidden Meaning of Social Relationships Behind the Product Development Stage in the Japanese Automotive Industry
Authors: sei Shoichiro
Published: November 2023

Many researchers have pointed out the high efficiency of the Japanese auto industry in developing new models. For example, Fujimoto and Clark in their epoch-making work have argued that such efficiency relies on uniquely Japanese organizations and on the cooperative development system in which customers and qualified suppliers work together in the same effort. Japanese methods of management and innovation creation, such as the highly evaluated ones presented in the preceding chapters, have been seriously examined by auto manufacturers throughout the world who want to attain the same degree of success. The project manager system, the cooperative development system, and the long-term contract system are all very familiar practices that Western auto manufacturers have tried to absorb in recent years.
Magic Bullets and Patent Wars: New Product Development and the Evolution of the Biotechnology Industry
Authors: Powell Walter W , Brantley Peter
Published: November 2023

Biotechnology was in many respects the hot industry of the 1980s. At the decade’s outset, venture capitalists and Wall Street investors poured money into the field, lured by the promise of new wonder drugs and magic bullets. But by the time of the stock market crash of 1987, many “gene dreams” had come face to face with the reality of biotechnology: Drug development is an extraordinarily expensive and protracted process. Yet just as the investment community soured on biotech, large pharmaceutical companies became active participants in the field. Although many established pharmaceutical companies initially looked askance at the new field, no major pharmaceutical or chemical corporation can ignore biotechnology today. Most large companies now have active research programs of their own and multiple ongoing strategic alliances with various smaller biotech companies. Indeed, the pattern of interfirm collaboration in biotech is probably more extensive than in any other industry (Powell and Brantley, 1992; Barley and Freeman, 1992; Pisano, 1990; Arora and Gambardella, 1990).
The “Pen Is the Tongue of the Absent” Reading and Writing Nineteenth-Century Love Letters
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: November 2023

Victorian Lovers occasionally reveled in eloquent nonsense and felt as unsteady as a balloon in the wind, but the emotions of love were more substantial than moonshine and writing love letters was more serious introspection than light-hearted frivolity. With almost no other means of voicing themselves across even the smallest distance, nineteenth-century lovers bridged the silences with ink and pencil.
Reproduction and Breeding
Authors: Silver Lee M
Published: November 2023

Reproductive performance can be measured according to several different parameters including age at first mating, number of litters sired, number of pups per litter, and the frequency with which a strain has productive matings. Table 4.1 shows the values obtained for these different parameters with the most commonly used inbred strains of mice. As the table shows, inbred strains vary widely in their reproductive fitness.

The first important measure of reproductive fitness is the frequency with which a mating pair will produce any offspring at all. With some strains, such as C3H/HeOuJ, CBA/CaJ and FVB/N, over 90% of all matings that are set up will produce offspring. The C3H/HeOuJ strain is at the extreme end of this group with a 99% frequency of productive matings.
National Systems Supporting Advance in Industry: The Case of Taiwan
Authors: Hou Chi-Ming , Gee San
Published: November 2023

The Taiwan model of economic development has attracted worldwide attention. Taiwan’s record of economic growth has been phenomenal and the fruits of economic growth have been widely shared by all income groups on the island. Furthermore, the improvement of the material well-being of the people was accomplished in a climate of high consumer sovereignty without undue government control, high economic stability without serious inflation or unemployment, and financial solvency without foreign debt. Also, a high degree of structural transformation took place and caused a shift from primary to secondary industries. Some countries have done as well as Taiwan in some of these areas but few, if any, have done as well as Taiwan in all of them.
Understanding Internationalization: Sense-Making Processes in Multinational Corporations
Authors: Caprioni Paula J , Lenway Stefanie Ann , Murtha Thomas P
Published: November 2023

American prosperity depends, in part, on U.S. firms’ abilities to adapt to increasing international competition. Much attention has been paid to the economic, political, technological, strategic, and organizational fac tors that help or hurt firms as they adjust to global change. International management scholars have built appealing theories of how managers handle the complex tradeoffs among these factors, mostly revolving around the concept that effective organizations fit strategy and structure to environments. But the reality is that what Yves Doz and C. K. Prahalad have called “structural indeterminacy” pervades most successful international organizations. That is, most organizations do not make explicit choices among discrete structural alternatives that trade off fac tors such as “national responsiveness” and “global integration.” Instead, managers examine conflicting environmental demands and organizational objectives and devote increasing attention and resources in responding to them all.
Negotiating the Initial Phases of Cross-Cultural Alliances
Authors: Reardon Kathleen K , Spekman Robert
Published: November 2023

To paraphrase John Donne, no corporation is an island. Just as people are linked by common concerns over such matters as pollution and world hunger, and countries form alliances for military protection and economic well-being, businesses today also find their fortunes inextricably bound with one another—with ties frequently crossing national borders.
Buyer-Supplier Coordination in the United States and Japanese Automobile Industries
Authors: Bensaou Ben M
Published: November 2023

In response to the new strategic challenges of global competition, many firms are undergoing profound organizational transformations. Typically, they are streamlining operations and moving toward more external contracting, producing a high level of interdependence between a focal firm and its network. But managers still have little understanding of the new organizational, managerial, and technological skills necessary for the effective coordination of these networks. The buyer-supplier relationships in the U.S. and Japanese automobile industries are examples of this phenomenon, and an examination of the differences be tween the two countries provides important insights into the factors that contribute to effective performance.
Corporate Refocusing and Global Strategic Competitiveness
Authors: Hoskisson Robert E , Hitt Michael A
Published: November 2023

In a 1987 survey of 4,000 executives, 92 percent agreed that U.S. competitiveness was declining. A concurrent survey of opinion leaders (e.g., economists, political leaders, small business owners, labor leaders, CEOs of large corporations) revealed a similar conclusion.1 While the decline of U.S. competitiveness against Japanese firms has been widely publicized, America’s competitiveness problems are not limited to its trade deficit with Japan. According to a report by the Council on Competitiveness, the United States has not fared well in comparison to Canada, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, or West Germany either.
The Making of a Religious Institution
Authors: Campbell James T
Published: November 2023

Reading contemporary colonial descriptions of African Methodism, one imagines swarms of “Negro” agitators—“alien demagogues of colour”—“stumping the country,” spreading their “hatred of the white man” throughout the furthest reaches of the subcontinent, poisoning “the good relations which have hitherto existed between Europeans and Natives.” In fact, African Americans were few and far between in the South African AME Church. Aside from Bishop Turner’s six-week visit in 1898, the church spent its formative years with no direct supervision from the United States. While the church drew much of its energy and meaning from its association with black America, it remained a distinctly “Ethiopian” movement.

That situation began to change in the early years of the twentieth century. In 1901 an African American Bishop, Levi]. Coppin, arrived in Cape Town to assume control of the newly designated Fourteenth Episcopal District of the AME Church. He was followed by a handful of African American ministers and teachers, as well as by the first returning South African graduates of Wilber-force University. Initially, the influence of this “American Colony”—the characterization was Coppin’s—was more or less confined to the Cape, thanks to the war in the interior and to postwar restrictions on travel.