bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Formation of Post-Classical Philosophy in Islam
Authors: Griffel Frank
Published: July 2021

This is a comprehensive study of the far-reaching changes that led to a reshaping of the philosophical discourse in Islam during the sixth/twelfth century. Whereas earlier Western scholars thought that Islam’s engagement with the tradition of Greek philosophy ended during that century, more recent analyses suggest its integration into the genre of rationalist Muslim theology (kalam). This book proposes a third view about the fate of philosophy in Islam. It argues that in addition to this integration, Muslim theologians picked up the discourse of philosophy in Islam (falsafa) and began to produce books on philosophy. Written by the same authors, books in these two genres, kalam and philosophy (hikma), argue for opposing teachings on the nature of God, the world’s creation, and the afterlife. This study explains the emergence of a new genre of philosophical books called hikma that stand opposed to Islamic theology and at the same time wish to complement it. Offering a detailed history of philosophy in Iraq, Iran, and Central Asia during the sixth/twelfth century together with an analysis of the circumstances of practicing philosophy during this time, this study can show how reports of falsafa, written by major Muslim theologians such as al-Ghazali (d. 505/1111), developed step-by-step into critical assessments of philosophy that try to improve philosophical teachings and eventually become fully fledged philosophical summas in the work of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606/1210). The book ends in a discussion of the different methods of kalam and hikma and the coherence and ambiguity of a Muslim post-classical philosopher’s œuvre.
Savoring God
Authors: Hernández Gloria Maité
Published: July 2021

This book compares two mystical works central to the Christian Discalced Carmelite and the Hindu Bhakti traditions: the sixteenth-century Spanish Cántico espiritual (Spiritual Canticle), by John of the Cross, and the Sanskrit Rāsa Līlā, originated in the oral tradition. These texts are examined alongside theological commentaries: for the Cántico, the Comentarios written by John of the Cross on his own poem; for Rāsa Līlā, the foundational commentary by Srīdhara Swāmi along with commentaries by the sixteenth-century theologian Jīva Goswāmī, from the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava school, and other Gauḍīya theologians. The phrase “savoring God” in the title conveys the Spanish gustar a Dios (to savor God) and the Sanskrit madhura bhakti rasa (the sweet savor of divine love). While “savoring” does not mean exactly the same thing for these theologians, they use the term to define a theopoetics at work in their respective traditions. The book’s methodology transposes their notions of “savoring” to advance a comparative theopoetics grounded in the interaction of poetry and theology. The first chapter explains in detail how theopoetics is regarded considering each text and how they are compared. The comparison is then laid out across Chapters 2, 3, and 4, each of which examines one of the three central moments of the theopoetic experience of savoring that is represented in the Cántico and Rāsa Līlā: the absence and presence of God, the relationship between embodiment and savoring, and the fulfillment of the encounter between the divine and the lovers.
Introduction
Authors: Hernández Gloria Maité
Published: July 2021

The Introduction chapter starts by evoking the first encounter of the author with the compared texts. Keeping in mind that most readers might not be equally familiar with both texts and their traditions, the chapter continues by presenting the Cántico espiritual and Rāsa Līlā within their larger religious and cultural-historical contexts. Then, the Introduction outlines the main resonances between the texts and their traditions that will be explored in the subsequent chapters. Next, it delineates the book’s comparative methodology, and establishes its dialogue with the work of other comparative scholars. To close, the Introduction offers an overview of the main topics and subtopics of each of the four chapters that comprise Savoring God.
Savoring Theopoetics
Authors: Hernández Gloria Maité
Published: July 2021

While the notion of theopoetic is modern, the concept existed long before the term was coined by twentieth-century theologians. Chapter 1 introduces in detail John of the Cross’s notion of gustar a Dios (to savor God) and the Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava concept of madhura bhakti rasa—“the sweet savor of divine love”—as analogous models of theopoetic. Each of these sixteenth-century theologians deploys the term “savoring” within his own context, and does so toward two ends: to describe the all-encompassing relationship between the person and the divine illustrated in the poetry; and to prescribe a mode of interpreting the verses that leads readers into a similar experience. In both cases, the poems’ commentaries not only explain the theological meaning of the poems but also recreate their metaphorical language. This use of poetry to communicate theological meaning is identified as the practice of theopoetic. The first chapter closes with an elucidation of the book’s methodology.
The Psychology of Journalism
Authors: Coen Sharon , Bull Peter
Published: July 2021

This book provides insights on psychological processes involved in the production, delivery, and consumption of news. At a time when the role and function of news journalism are under intense public scrutiny, this book takes a media psychological approach to explore the role of subjectivity in the construction and meaning-making of news. In particular, the book highlights a process involving the coordinated subjectivities of journalists and audience alike in constructing an account of how research in key areas of psychology (e.g., attention, knowledge, emotions, norms, values, social dynamics, culture, and verbal and nonverbal communication) can contribute to gaining a better understanding of journalism and current affairs.
The Transition to Adulthood for Individuals With Intellectual Disability
Authors: Curle Deirdre , Bouhali Asmae El , Zhu Ma , Marshall Sheila , Murray John , Parada Filomena , Stainton Tim , Wall Jessie , Wu Siwei , Young Richard A.
Published: July 2021

The transition from school to work is a time of excitement and uncertainty for many emerging adults. However, young people with intellectual disability (ID) face unique challenges with this transition. They often need a great deal more support in the activities of daily living, learning, and work. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the transition to adulthood and work through the lens of the intentional, goal-directed processes engaged in by the emerging adult with ID and their families. This examination will involve contextual action theory as the conceptual framework and the relevant literature on emerging adults with ID that speaks to this important transition in its particular social context. Through this framework, a deeper understanding is gained of the meaning involved in the actions that emerging adults and their families take as they navigate the transition to adulthood and work.
News Production and Distribution in the United States: Private Industry and Government Contributions
Authors: Minow Martha
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 anticipates objections to government involvement in news media by tracing the long-standing historical involvement of the federal government in enabling and shaping the development of the modern news media. Although private sector companies and investments have played a central role in the development of media news, for most of American history governmental involvement has been integral to the structure, financing, and effectiveness of the news industry while advancing free expression of ideas. The historic governmental actions shaping the news industry contradict the libertarian conception of the First Amendment that has grown in influence during the past several decades, a conception putting into jeopardy government actions to address the failing news industry.
Canada
Authors: Leuprecht Christian
Published: July 2021

Canada contrasts distinctly with the prominence of intelligence oversight in the United States, insofar as Canada stands out for a predominately ex post facto approach to reviewing intelligence. Recent changes, however, bolstered the role of oversight in Canada’s accountability system. Previously, only three of 16 agencies that make up Canada’s intelligence and security community were reviewed by independent expert review bodies. Critics, however, argued that review should be more encompassing, lamented constraints by the Canadian intelligence accountability system that made it difficult for review bodies to cooperate and the negligible role of Parliament in holding ISAs accountable. Recent legislation created a security-cleared committee of parliamentarians to review Canada’s security and intelligence community, an agency to review activity related to national security and intelligence as well as an independent commissioner to oversee certain ministerial intelligence authorizations. The chapter reviews member organizations of the Canada’s intelligence community, the strategic environment that has informed intelligence and accountability in Canada; national security threats to Canada; as well as internal and external dynamics that culminated in changes to Canada’s intelligence accountability architecture: the Civilian Review and Complains Commission of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the National Security and Intelligence Committee of Parliamentarians, the National Security and Intelligence Review Agency, and the Intelligence Commissioner. The prospect of the NSICOP, NSIRA, and the IC strengthening compliance and general operations of Canada’s intelligence and security community will be realized by how each fulfils its broad mandate in practice and the degree of cooperation among NSIRA, NSICOP, and CRCC.
Australia
Authors: Leuprecht Christian
Published: July 2021

Intelligence accountability in Australia balances compliance and bodies whose systematic focus is on efficacy and financial review with independent intelligence reviews, commissions, and inquiries that focus on efficacy. Australia differs insofar as it is not subject to a constitutionally or supranationally enshrined civil rights regime. A diversity of mechanisms, ranging from parliamentary committees and executive bodies to periodic independent reviews, fashion an oversight system that drives innovation. From the three Royal Hope Commissions to regular inquiries into the National Intelligence Community, Australia’s independent in-depth periodic reviews, inquiries, and commissions have a track-record of shaping and spurring change and innovation in the scope and structure of accountability across its broader intelligence and security community. The Australian tradition of independent expert intelligence reviews, commissions, and inquiries offsets the lack of accountability bodies dedicated to reviewing for efficacy and innovation. The chapter reviews the member organizations of the Australia’s National Intelligence Community, the strategic environment that has informed intelligence and accountability in Australia, national security threats as seen by Australia, as well as Australia’s systematic approach to reviewing and innovating its intelligence accountability architecture. It consists of the Inspector General of Intelligence and Security, the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security, and the Independent National Security Law Monitor. Although similar to the United States Office of the Director of National Intelligence and the United Kingdom’s Joint Intelligence Organization, Australia’s Office of National Intelligence is quite unique insofar as neither the US and UK equivalents nor comparable offices in Canada and the New Zealand have an analogous accountability function. These mechanisms balance existing independent review mechanisms with mandates to review legislation and compliance, propriety, administration.
“We have to build a success story”
Authors: Mérand Frédéric
Published: July 2021

After the July 2015 Greek referendum and the departure of Varoufakis, Moscovici moved closer to Alexis Tsipras, the Greek prime minister, and Euclid Tsakalotos, the finance minister who replaced Varoufakis. Trying to find an “alternative within the program,” they all defended a more socially sensitive application of austerity measures. This led Moscovici and his staff to engage in fierce battles with the Eurogroup and especially the IMF, backed by Germany. On visits to Washington and Athens, I observed the commissioner trying to find allies and communicate messages. To some extent, his political work succeeded, but this left a bitter taste for several members of the cabinet.
Tax justice
Authors: Mérand Frédéric
Published: July 2021

After his initial success in tax policy, the Moscos became more ambitious. Pushed by the French government and in competition with the OECD, they promoted an overhaul of the entire European tax system that would have allowed member states to tax multinationals more effectively, including a digital tax on the so-called GAFAs and the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB), creating a level playing field for corporate taxation. The commissioner promoted his ideas in different forums, including the G20 and in Washington. But after two years, this political work lost momentum, as a handful of governments managed to veto efforts in the Council. Despite the support of the European Parliament, the Commission’s efforts stalled in the Council, where the opposition of tax-light countries such as Ireland prevailed.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: July 2021

Twain is one of America’s most popular, renowned, and influential authors. He grappled with major theological concepts and issues and strove incessantly to find meaning in life. Twain extensively analyzed and criticized the biblical God, Christ, the Bible, and Christianity. His constantly changing views of these matters have led scholars to identify Twain as an agnostic, an atheist, a secularist, and a theologically liberal Christian. Twain functioned as a preacher, prophet, and social philosopher. He used his penetrating pen and the lecture platform to proclaim his understanding of the truth, attack a wide variety of social injustices, and present his views on numerous philosophical issues. Twain’s influence on American society extended well beyond providing entertaining, humorous novels, short stories, and essays as he addressed such major questions as is there a God, what is the nature of human beings, what is the purpose of life, and is there an afterlife.
1835–1860
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: July 2021

Twain was reared in Hannibal, a very religious small town in Missouri by a Presbyterian mother and a freethinking father. The “Presbyterian conscience” he developed as a youth deeply affected him throughout his life. Twain’s experiences in Sunday school and church and difficult childhood that included the loss of his father and two older siblings, fear of dying, and observations of drownings, murder, and mayhem are featured in many of his writings. Both Twain and many scholars have misrepresented the Calvinism that was preached and taught in antebellum Hannibal by portraying it as denying human free agency, preaching a prosperity gospel, damning the vast majority of people to perdition, and focusing on hell. Twain was especially affected by the death of his younger brother Henry as a result of a steamboat explosion when Twain was 22.
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Gary Scott
Published: July 2021

Understanding what Twain believed about religious matters is complicated by his desire not to hurt Livy, her censorship of some of his writings, his wanting to avoid being attacked for his skeptical positions, and his wish to not tarnish his reputation or hinder the sale of his books. Twain withheld many religious views he thought his Hartford neighbors would consider outrageous or heretical. Examining Twain’s own statements, comments by his family, friends, and acquaintances, his funeral and obituaries, and the conflicting views of scholars, the author rejects both the arguments that Twain was an atheist, an agnostic, or a heretic and that many of his views accorded with conventional Christian faith. Instead, he argues that the religious views he expressed throughout his life are complicated and often contradictory; they convey his strong desire to make sense of the universe and his own life.
Scattering, Quantum Current, and Resonant Tunneling
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

Having examined free particles and particles that are confined in space by a potential energy term, we now consider the impact of a disturbance in the flat energy landscape for a free particle. By disturbance we means some kind of fixed “obstacle” which is either a positive (repelling) or negative (attractive) potential. We are interested in determining the impact on the free particle. Continuing to work mostly in one dimension, the particle described by a plane wave corresponding to momentum moving in the positive direction (a positive k−vector in the x−direction), we study elastic scattering. In one dimension, this means that we determine the probability that the particle is transmitted (continuing in the forward direction) or reflected (now moving in the backward direction.) We will also determine the nature of the solution inside the potential and in the case that the potential energy maximum is greater than the kinetic energy of the particle, we will show that the particle tunnels through the barrier. Interestingly, when we have two barriers, we can find conditions where the probability that the particle is transmitted is unity. This is the result of resonance, a feature of the wave-like nature of the particle’s wave function.
New Design Rules for Quantum: The Postulates
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

In the previous six chapters, we focused on understanding the basic eigenstates of various Hamiltonians by solving the time independent Schrödinger equation. While the Hamiltonians seemed relatively simple, the solutions are frequently used. However, in practice, most of the important problems today do not make extensive use of the spatial solutions except when a specific number is needed. The focus on most problems today makes extensive use of operators where their behavior is governed by the new design rules that we must follow to do anything novel with quantum systems. The design rules are sometimes referred to as the postulates. Postulates are mathematical statements of specific rules. We will present five postulates in this chapter and then in later chapters augment them with three more. In the context of this math, we will continue to work with functions like ψ(r,t), but we will introduce Dirac notation such as ∣ψ(t)〉. The remaining chapters in this text work almost exclusively in Dirac notation and with operators.
Two-State Systems: The Atomic Operators
Authors: Steel Duncan G.
Published: July 2021

In the digital world, the concepts of on and off or high and low or 0 and 1 are common classical two-state systems. Quantum systems can be similarly configured, as we saw in Chapter 9 with the demonstration of Rabi oscillations. Two-state or few-state systems are so important that a powerful algebra has been developed to study and explore these systems. A similar algebra emerged from the algebra developed for spin ½ particles. While Chapter 10 discussed the spinors and spin matrices and the corresponding Pauli matrices, in this chapter the corresponding commutators are determined for the various atomic operators first introduced in Chapter 15. We then move to the Heisenberg picture including the operators for the vacuum field. The Heisenberg equations of motion are derived following the rules in Chapter 8 when a classical electromagnetic field is present and then in the presence of the quantum vacuum to include the effects of decay. This provides the first means of handling the return of an excited population back to the ground state which is very challenging to deal with in the amplitude picture. This chapter is enormously important because it sets the stage for much more advanced studies in advanced texts that determine the impact of fluctuations of the field and correlations measured from single photon emitters.
Challenges to Criminalizing State Responsibility for Genocide
Authors: Aquilina Kevin
Published: July 2021

This chapter shows that although often states are parties in a genocide enterprise, the centrality—and responsibility—of states for genocide does not receive attention commensurate with the severity of the problem. Indeed, genocidal states are not held criminally responsibility for genocide. Underscoring difficulties at proving state criminal responsibility for genocide, the analysis compares and contrasts individual criminal responsibility and state criminal responsible for genocide. Whereas in the former case the matter has been dealt with by domestic and international criminal courts and tribunals, in the latter case there is no international judicial authority which can try states for criminal responsibility. However, non-state corporate criminal liability, and evolution of this institute in international law, may provide some transferable lessons for state responsibility for genocide. The chapter highlights the nexus between individual responsibility and state responsibility, and the failures of international genocide law in establishing state responsibility for genocide.
Postgenocide Justice? Assessing the Prosecution and Punishment of Genocide by Internationalized Courts and Tribunals
Authors: Soler Christopher
Published: July 2021

This chapter evaluates the record of the prosecution and punishment of the crime of genocide by internationalized courts and tribunals—primarily the ICTY and the ICTR—the International Criminal Court, and the hybrid criminal tribunals. It unpacks the effects of the criminal sanction against the fulfilment of the responsibility to protect. It shows how the nascent quasi-prosecutorial model can sow the seeds for the delivery of criminal justice before the right place (the forum conveniens) and at the right time, notwithstanding the prospect of a delayed execution thereof. The author appeals to the international community to prosecute and punish genocide as a matter of principle irrespective of side-effects the prosecution itself may trigger at national, regional, or international levels. The chapter upholds ‘justice for its own sake’, a dictum that distinguishes the inherent value of prosecutions from their presumed social effects.
Rhetorical versus Substantive Reconciliation After Cultural Genocide in Canada
Authors: Hiebert Maureen S
Published: July 2021

The Canadian Truth and Reconciliation Commission (‘TRC’) report calls for the Canadian government and (settler) Canadians to acknowledge the painful past of the Indian Residential Schools (‘IRS’) (1890s–1990s) and to chart a new nation-to-nation(s) relationship with Canada’s Indigenous peoples. However, the reconciliation discourse replicates unequal power dynamics between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities endemic in Canadian politics and society. The selective listening of the IRS story is grounded in a constructed identity that paints Canada and (non-Indigenous) Canadians as an inclusive and tolerant society. This self-conception has led various levels of government to emphasize the idea of reconciliation as a process by which settler colonialism is conceptualized as a closed historical event that is now firmly in the past. There is little acknowledgement that the logic and structures of settler colonialism, which as the TRC notes amounts to cultural genocide, are still foundational to contemporary Canadian politics, law, economy, and society.
Remembering
Authors: Craik Fergus I. M.
Published: July 2021

The book sets out Fergus Craik’s view of human memory as a dynamic activity of mind and brain. In this account, remembering is understood as a system of active cognitive processes, similar to the processes underlying attending, perceiving, and thinking. The book therefore extends and elaborates the concept of “levels of processing” proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972). Thus, encoding processes are essentially the mental activities involved in perceiving and understanding, and retrieval is described as the partial reactivation of these same processes. It is further suggested that “memory traces” are represented by a hierarchically organized system of analyzers, modified, sharpened, and differentiated by encounters with successive events. This account proposes that episodic and semantic memory should be thought of as levels in a continuum of specificity rather than as separate systems of memory. The book also covers Craik’s views on working memory and on changes in memory as a function of aging. In the latter case the losses are attributed largely to a difficulty with the self-initiation of appropriate encoding and retrieval operations, compensated by support from the external environment. There is a short chapter on the cognitive neuroscience of human memory, and a final chapter bringing the ideas together. The book covers the development of these ideas, illustrated substantially by experiments from Craik’s own laboratory, and also by empirical and theoretical contributions from other researchers. The final product is a broad account of current ideas and findings in contemporary memory research but viewed from Craik’s personal theoretical standpoint.
Ontological Expressivism
Authors: Flocke Vera
Published: July 2021

Ontological expressivism is the view that ontological existence claims express noncognitive mental states. The chapter develops a version of ontological expressivism that is modeled after Gibbard’s (2003) norm-expressivism. It argues that, when speakers assess whether, say, composite objects exist, they rely on assumptions with regard to what is required for composition to occur. These assumptions guide their assessment, similar to how norms may guide the assessment of normative propositions. Against this backdrop, the chapter argues that “some objects have parts”, uttered in the context of an ontological disagreement, expresses a noncognitive disposition to assess the truth of propositions by using only rules of assessment according to which the proposition that some objects have parts is to be evaluated as true.
Why Our Natural Languages Are Ideal Languages for Metaphysics
Authors: Hofweber Thomas
Published: July 2021

The chapter argues that our human natural languages are ideal languages for metaphysics and perfectly suited to represent all the facts that metaphysics might aim to find out. It presents an argument for this conclusion from considerations about language alone, without assuming anything about what metaphysics aims to do other than that it is concerned with questions of fact, and without assuming anything about what reality in general is like. A crucial consideration in support of this argument concerns the possibility of facts ineffable for us human beings. We can see from reflecting on our own talk about facts that ineffable facts are ruled out, and thus that our languages are ideal languages for representing reality. After discussing how an argument of this kind could possibly work, the chapter outlines some larger metaphysical issues that all this is related to.
Cultivating Christian Love
Authors: Pelser Adam C.
Published: July 2021

In his “Great Commandments” Jesus places love at the heart of the virtuous Christian life. Yet, the task of trying to cultivate Christian love might seem impossible from the start. For, a prominent Christian tradition understands love (charity) to be a gracious gift from God, not a virtue we can acquire through practice. Moreover, love seems to involve emotions that are outside of our control. In response to these worries, Pelser explains how it is possible to work toward the cultivation of Christian love, even though it is an infused, emotional virtue. He develops Søren Kierkegaard’s insight that Christians can contribute to the cultivation of love in one another’s hearts by “presupposing” love in each other. Pelser concludes by explaining how certain practices that combine loving action with contemplative reflection can help till the ground of our hearts so that love might be cultivated in us by God and others.
Accountability as Part of the Human Moral Condition and as a Virtue
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: July 2021

Although accountability is a fundamental part of human life, it is something we often do not like. We do not like it when the presence or gaze of another places demands on us. In Christian ethics today there is a massive swing away from talk about God’s commands and God’s law and toward virtue ethics. There is nothing wrong with recognizing the importance of the virtues. But an ethic of virtue cannot in this life replace or supplant an ethic of law. Biblically, there is no competition between God’s law and the virtues God wants to instill in us. Rather, God’s law is a gracious gift that is an essential tool in acquiring the virtues God wants us to have, one of which is in fact faithful obedience. Evans concludes by offering theological reflections that can help Christians recover a sense of gratitude and joy for our accountability to God.
The Foundations
Authors: Rostagno Massimo , Altavilla Carlo , Carboni Giacomo , Lemke Wolfgang , Motto Roberto , Guilhem Arthur Saint , Yiangou Jonathan
Published: July 2021

The design of the European Central Bank (ECB) reflected a decades-long evolution of academic thinking and real-world experience concerning the optimal practice of central banking. In this chapter, we aim to unpack these influences and explain how they motivated both the drafters of the ECB’s statute and the economists in the national central banks who set the ECB up. We concentrate on the ideas that were dominant at the turn of the last century and the principles that were seen to constitute ‘good’ monetary governance, including the notion that monetary policy should focus primarily on price stability. We show how these principles were not only echoed in the EU Treaty, but also ‘hard-coded’ into the policy framework that, by the second half of the 1990s, had come to prominence in academic and policy circles: inflation targeting and its counterpart in econometrics, the New Keynesian model.
Middle Innovation Trap
Authors: Lee Jeong-Dong , Baek Chulwoo , Yeon Jung-In
Published: July 2021

In the context of emerging economies, long-run economic growth and development encompass mechanisms from technological catching-up to moving forward by one’s upgrading. However, as the economy reaches the middle-income range, economic growth mostly slows down unless adopting strategies for building technological capabilities. To identify the bottleneck in sustainable technological development and the ways to avoid the middle-income trap, therefore, this chapter focuses on the development patterns of two different types of technological capabilities: implementation and concept design capabilities. Our first finding from the empirical study emphasizes the need for the development of the concept design capability, describing the middle-income trap as a “capability transition failure” or “middle-innovation trap”. Secondly, discussing difficulties of the capability transition from the institutional rigidity perspective, this chapter highlights “innovation commons” as a coherent transition platform for the development of concept design capability.
Catching Up or Developing Differently? Techno-Institutional Learning with a Sustainable Planet in Mind
Authors: Altenburg Tilman
Published: July 2021

Developing as a latecomer country is tricky. It implies competing with established production systems that benefit from know-how, economies of scale, and network externalities accumulated over decades. It is thus unsurprising that very few countries have been able to close the technological and income gap. Those that did, like South Korea and China, started by inviting foreign investors, buying licenses, and emulating the early movers’ proven business models until they had enough capabilities to chart their own pathways and become wealthy knowledge societies—and role models for other latecomers. Global warming and other major environmental crises, however, reveal the unsustainability of a techno-economic paradigm based on burning fossil fuel and maximization of material throughput and consumption. Hence, latecomers can no longer build on emulating technologies and institutions, but need to start deviating from established practices early on. Still, the successful country cases hold important policy lessons for them.
Group Incomes and Preferences for Redistribution
Authors: Donnelly Michael J.
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, I examine the relationship between group incomes and individual attitudes toward redistribution. One major implication of heuristic theory is that individuals who are members of relatively high income ethnic groups or live in high income regions should oppose redistribution more than those in relatively low income ethnic groups or regions. To test this, I present global data from the World Values Survey, UK data from the British Household Panel Survey, and Czech and Slovak data from the Central and Eastern Eurobarometer. I show that the predicted pattern holds in all three settings across a range of approaches, and close by discussing the methodological lessons from these analyses.
Within-Group Inequality, Prediction, and the Value of Heuristics
Authors: Donnelly Michael J.
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, I argue that groups with greater within-group variation in income are less useful as predictors of future incomes for group members. This implies that members of groups with higher levels of within-group inequality should express lower levels of linked fate and display a lower correlation between the mean group income and attitudes toward redistribution. I test this argument by examining a survey of Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom, followed by a global sample from the World Values Survey. I close by returning to the three-country survey to show that within-region inequality does not seem to reduce regional identity.
Introduction
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

Limited force (vim) is different from war (bellum). Setting up and maintaining no-fly zones, conducting limited strikes, Special Forces raids, and the use of drones outside the “hot” battlefield have a different feel, seemingly falling below the threshold of war. They are different in scope, strategic purpose, and ethical challenges. While scholars tend to evaluate limited force according to just war principles, doing so misses considerable ethical precision and nuance. This lacuna warrants reformulating, reimagining, and recalibrating the just war framework and its principles better to understand the permissions and constraints of limited force. This chapter locates the pursuit of a moral framework of limited force, sometimes called force-short-of-war or jus ad vim, in the broader debates of the just war tradition. It poses three questions that set the tone for the wider inquiry. How are the moral concerns posed by using limited force different when compared to law enforcement and war? How does the ethics of limited force fit into broader debates about just war? What would a framework of the just and unjust uses of limited force look like? The chapter defends the choice of methodology—following in the footsteps of Michael Walzer’s turn to casuistry—as a commitment to the experience of using limited force, which entails discerning the plausible goals, engaging with how people talk about the various measures of limited force, and how they judge its use. Finally, it relates the status of the debate about vim and lays out the general plan of the book.
Germany
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter tests the book’s premises on a case of mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) representation, using the case of legislative committees in the Bundestag of Germany. Its results cover the two largest parties, the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party. German parties should have a strong tendency to use the expertise model, because the MMP system means that votes cast anywhere in the country are of approximately equal value in maximizing seats. Thus, parties are able to emphasize their national reputation for policy, for which matching the expertise of their personnel to committee function is valuable. The MMP system also creates local single-seat districts in which nearly half of members are elected. Thus, aspects of the electoral–constituency model also should apply, as parties seek to develop connections to constituencies through local and personal vote of their legislators. The results offer strong support for the premises of the theory.
Britain
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

In Britain’s first-past-the-post (FPTP) system—an exclusively single-seat-district system—every member of the House of Commons is elected in a unique geographically defined single-seat district. The FPTP system thus maximizes the importance of the geographic location of votes to party seat maximization. Yet as a single-tier system with no intraparty competition, it also promotes reliance on the expertise model, as the party seeks to emphasize its national policy reputation. Given the crucial role of districting in such a system, a party is expected to trade off reliance on the expertise model in order to deploy its personnel to Select Committees as a means to maximize the party’s chances of holding marginal (swing) districts. The findings show that the expertise model holds more strongly for the Conservative Party, and more weakly for the Labour Party, with the reverse pattern holding for the electoral–constituency model. Both parties show a high tendency toward issue ownership.
The Ontic Cosmic Coincidence Problem for Non-Naturalism about Morality
Authors: Hussain Nadeem J. Z.
Published: July 2021

The combination of non-naturalism and standard morality generates an ontic cosmic coincidence problem different from the epistemic and semantic coincidence problems already facing non-naturalism. In the normative realm, morality has a very special status. In turn morality gives a central role to persons both as agents and patients. Only some humans are persons; even very intelligent creatures such as chimpanzees and dolphins are not regarded as persons. The existence of humans, however, is highly contingent. The coincidence is that precisely the kind of very distinctive creatures needed for moral principles to apply just happen to exist. It is a coincidence because for non-naturalists moral principles do not explain events in the natural world and natural facts do not explain moral principles: the non-natural moral facts cannot explain why there are humans, and the existence of humans, or facts about their nature, cannot explain why the moral principles focus on persons.
If You’re Quasi-Explaining, You’re Quasi-Losing
Authors: Baker Derek
Published: July 2021

Normative discourse frequently involves explanation. For example, we tell children that hitting is wrong because it hurts people. In a recent paper, Selim Berker argues that to account for this kind of explanation, expressivists need an account of normative grounding. Against this, I argue that expressivists should eschew grounding and stick to a more pragmatic picture of explanation, one that focuses on how we use explanatory speech acts to communicate information. This chapter proposes that the standard form of a normative explanation is a generalizing explanation, one which shows a particular moral injunction to follow from a more general injunction. An additional upshot of the resulting view is that it paves the way for a purely metaphysical solution to the problem of creeping minimalism. Quasi-real properties are those that, unlike real properties, stand outside of the metaphysical hierarchy of grounding relations.
The Global Adoption of PB
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

This chapter develops a framework to explain how and why governments adopt and adapt PB as it spreads around the world. The chapter identifies three waves of adoption: 1989 through the mid-1990s; mid-1990s through mid-2000s; and mid-2000s through 2020. Within each wave, the authors identify where PB is adopted and who is driving adoption. They identify and explain key transformations in the areas of scale/place of adoption, decision-making rules, and social justice considerations during each wave. This chapter also provides a typology to help categorize the global patterns of change that we see across the PB landscape. The chapter identifies six types of PB programs, including: Empowered Democracy and Redistribution; Deepening Democracy through Community Mobilization; Mandated by National Governments; Digital Participation; Social Accountability and Development; Efficient Governance. The typology links PB’s core principles and the political motivations of the main actors promoting adoption. The typology then also captures the differences across the cases and helps the reader better understand the diversity of PB programs and outcomes.
Parallel Paths to Local Democracy in Asia
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

Extensive experimentation with new democratic institutions took place in Asia across the 1980s and 1990s, but PB only formally arrived at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The spread of PB across Asia thus stems from democratic impulses to empower citizens in new democracies. This chapter focuses on three countries—South Korea, the Philippines, Indonesia—to illuminate key trends in the region. The chapter shows that a small number of local governments initially adopted “PB-like” programs. Positive evaluations of these programs then spurred national governments to mandate PB to incorporate large segments of the population in public decision-making. An additional focus, toward the end of this chapter, is the expansion of PB to China because it helps to illuminate how the malleability of PB’s rules enables local governments to implement the program in authoritarian contexts; the use of PB by authoritarian governments is one of the most controversial issues facing PB today. The cases from Asia reviewed in this chapter offer the promise of social and political change. However, the limitations on evidence means that enough information about these programs’ specific impacts is still lacking.
A new understanding of competition
Authors: Arora-Jonsson Stefan , Brunsson Nils , Hasse Raimund
Published: July 2021

Competition is currently found in many, if not most, social domains, such as the economy, politics, public services, sports, culture, higher education, and science. But competition is not endemic to any of these fields. Rather, it has been constructed by those involved or by observers. We ask what competition is and how it can be introduced into a new context. Critically reflecting on insights from economics, management studies and sociology, we define competition as a combined social construction of four factors: actorhood, relationships among actors, scarcity, and desire. We shed light on asymmetric constructions of competition among different actors. Our definition leaves open the effect of competition on behaviour: competition may lead competitors to avoid interaction with each other or to cooperate; it may motivate people to try harder or it may demotivate them. Finally, we discuss issues for further research that follow from our understanding of competition.
Ruling With (and Without) Laws
Authors: Horn Christoph
Published: July 2021

Chapter 9 discusses Statesman 297b5-303d3, where Plato appears to be both a legalist (ranking law based constitutions above lawless ones) and an anti-legalist (ranking the rule by a single expert individual above even law-based constitutions). While these statements can be reconciled, a deeper interpretative problem concerns Plato’s views about laws that are formulated in the absence of an expert ruler. Does he find value in such a legal order, or does the worth of a legal order depend on the expertise of its legislator? Is law valuable on the basis of its efficiency or morality or something else? Or is law valuable, simply by the fact that it provides order and regularity? This chapter argues that, for Plato, the value of law is based on expertise, but does not require the presence of a fully knowledgeable lawgiver.
Election
Authors: Näsström Sofia
Published: July 2021

The chapter examines the corruption, disintegration, and renewal of democracy in relation to election. Taking issue with two canonized views on election, it shows that neither the liberal nor the republican version captures its emancipatory spirit; how it tames and shapes the essential uncertainties of the future equally. What makes election democratic is that it gives institutional body to the principle of emancipation, and secures our freedom to begin anew. On this basis, the chapter elaborates on the meaning of democratic corruption. It distinguishes between three democratic “tyrannies” in electoral politics based on distinction, virtue, and emancipation respectively: the tyranny of the majority, the tyranny of the minority, and the tyranny of novelty. It ends by discussing the future role of election as path to democratic disintegration, on the one hand, and democratic renewal, on the other.
Not to Make a Ticonderoga of It
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the 21-day British siege of Fort Stanwix and its small American garrison that guarded access to the Mohawk River. Brigadier General Barry St. Leger’s 1,800-man force made up of regulars and Indians, besieged the fort on their way to Albany in support of Burgoyne’s main army. This was an important part of Burgoyne’s overall plan. The American garrison led by Peter Gansevoort and Marinus Willett withstood this long siege despite being outnumbered almost 4 to 1. The American response to this siege, and the actions of the leaders, was in stark contrast to what occurred a month before at Fort Ticonderoga.
Battle of Bennington
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the pivotal Battle of Bennington and its impact on the Saratoga campaign. Once Burgoyne moved from Fort Edward to Fort Miller, he ordered a large detachment of predominately German soldiers under Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum to march to Bennington to capture cattle and other urgently needed supplies. Baum’s force was caught and destroyed by Americans led by Brigadier General John Stark. A relief force led by Heinrich Breymann was unsuccessful and escaped with heavy casualties. With this disaster, Burgoyne lost over 10% of his army, and most of his Indians left after the battle, which severely hurt his ability to gather intelligence. At this point, Burgoyne was faced with perhaps the most momentous decision of the campaign: continue to march to Albany or fall back to Ticonderoga. Despite the loss at Bennington and St. Leger’s failure at Stanwix, Burgoyne decided to push on.
The Battle of Freeman’s Farm
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the September 19, 1777, battle of Freeman’s Farm. In this battle, Burgoyne wanted to probe the American positions on Bemis Heights, skirt around Gates’s left flank, and then dash to Albany. Burgoyne advanced with three columns. Gates ordered Morgan’s and Dearborn’s units to attack, keeping the rest of the army behind their fortifications. Americans struck the British center column, then two more brigades attacked. Elements of Burgoyne’s other two columns marched to the middle, and the Americans repulsed. Burgoyne held the ground and claimed victory, but he suffered heavy casualties that he could not replace. As Burgoyne’s army grew weaker, Gates’s army grew stronger. After the battle, Arnold and Gates quarrelled bitterly for days over credit for the battle’s outcome and the follow-on actions. Contrary to most accounts of the campaign, Gates and Arnold had reconciled by the time of the second battle.