bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
American Credo
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

American society may be hostile to the thought of ideologies, but it possesses a sophisticated but little understood ability to engage in deep conflicts over political ideas, while at the same time reducing adversarial positions to legitimate derivatives of American history and development. This book asks how this occurs; how the sources, traditions, and usages of core ideas and their derivative compounds animate political discourse and structure the basis of political conflict; and how it is possible to sustain a high incidence of competitive value-laden argument and principled political conflict within a stable political order. The fundamental aim of this book is to examine the traditions and usages of American political ideas within the arena of practical politics. By locating them in their respective contexts, it is possible to assess both their changing meanings and their shifting relationships to one another. In surveying America's core ideas, the book facilitates an informed awareness of their political and cultural leverage as forms of persuasion and sources of legitimacy. The book roots the examination of American political ideas firmly in the milieu of social drives, political movements, and contemporary issues within which the ideas themselves are embedded. This not only allows the study to investigate the interior properties and traditional priorities of America's key values, but permits the theoretical implications and practical consequences of these ideas to be traced and evaluated.
The anarchical society revisited
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: January 2008

This chapter lays out some of the most important features of a pluralist view of the anarchical society of states. It discusses the principal features of a state-based pluralist conception of international society and introduces some of the major issues, debates, and dilemmas to which it has given rise. It establishes an initial framework against which subsequent developments and alternative conceptions can be evaluated. It then gives a sense of just why pluralism has remained such a powerful and influential way of thinking about international order. Although there can be no retreat to a pluralist world, it is important to understand the case for pluralism and to appreciate its continued vitality in political and legal practice, and in political theory. Pluralism continues to be viewed by many as both politically powerful and normatively attractive. The chapter is divided into four sections: pluralism and the state, pluralism and power, pluralism and values, and pluralism and law.
6 Human rights and democracy
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: January 2008

The current rise in the normative ambition of international society is most evident in the field of human rights and democracy — in the idea that the relationship between ruler and ruled, state and citizen, should be a subject of legitimate international concern; that the ill treatment of citizens should trigger international action; and that the external legitimacy of a state should depend increasingly on how domestic societies are ordered politically. The first part of this chapter sketches some of the main features of this process of expansion; it then considers the ways in which this expansion has pushed beyond a state-based liberal solidarism, both conceptually and in terms of an increasingly strong element of transnational legal and political practice. This part of the chapter also examines both the gaps in the process of expansion and the limits to that process. The second part of the chapter looks at three sets of problems: (i) the impact of the changing character of threats to human rights and democratization; (ii) the tensions that exist within the liberal agenda: between human rights and democracy and between democracy and peace; and (iii) the deeply problematic relationship between human rights and democracy on the one hand and the political and security interests of major states on the other.
2 The Role of Economic Groups in Latin America
Authors: Grosse Robert
Published: January 2008

The largest firms in Latin America are a mix of subsidiaries of foreign multinational enterprises, government-owned companies such as oil companies, and locally-owned Grupos that are involved in multiple businesses. Among private-sector, locally-owned firms, the grupos are the dominant structure in Latin America for very large firms. This chapter explores the grupo form, which also dominates in many other countries around the world. Latin American grupos are often family-based or owned by a few dominant owners. The Latin American grupos tend to possess competitive strengths such as domination of local distribution channels and diversification of industry sectors, which are often difficult to replicate overseas. A set of major grupos from several countries — including Ardila Lulle, Carso, Cisneros, Luksic, and Techint — are described and common competitive strengths identified. This form is likely to persist for a long while in Latin America, and the challenge for these firms is to build competitive advantages that are transferable across national boundaries.
The GATS
Authors: Adlung Rudolf , Mattoo Aaditya
Published: January 2008

This chapter explains the basic structure of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), and how it applies to measures that affect trade in services. Although a number of terms and concepts in the GATS have been borrowed from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) — the older agreement covering merchandise trade — there are important differences. That is, the GATS is more comprehensive in coverage, its definition of trade in services extends beyond the traditional notion of cross-border exchange to cover consumer movements and factor flows (investment and labor), and the reach of relevant disciplines is not confined to the treatment of products (i.e., services), but extends to measures affecting service suppliers (producers, traders, and distributors). The breadth in scope and coverage of the GATS contrasts with the flexibility of its rules. Unlike under the GATT, the use of quantitative restrictions is legitimate under the GATS unless explicitly foregone by the Member concerned, and national treatment is not a general obligation, but a negotiable commitment. Country specific schedules of commitments define the extent to which these rules apply to individual service sectors. There are no common templates. The chapter then discusses the achievements to date (or lack thereof) in the current Doha Round of services negotiations, with a focus on the issues especially from a developing-country perspective.
Regionalism in Services Trade
Authors: Mattoo Aaditya , Sauvé Pierre
Published: January 2008

This chapter reviews the recent wave of regional trade agreements (RTAs), to assess the benefits and costs of alternative approaches and identify the policy choices developing countries will face in negotiating regional agreements. The chapter focuses on three core issues: (1) whether services trade differs sufficiently from goods trade as to require different policy instruments and approaches in the context of preferential liberalization, whether and how RTAs may allow deeper forms of regulatory cooperation to occur, and the effects on non-members; (2) lessons learned from the practice of preferential liberalization in services in terms of market access and rule design; and (3) the legal dimension of the policy interface, focusing on a number of aspects of rule-design, including the strengths and weaknesses of existing multilateral disciplines on regional approaches to services trade and investment liberalization. A summary is provided of Article V (Economic Integration) of the GATS, including a discussion of the extent to which its disciplines are likely to allow third countries to object to provisions in proposed agreements that are detrimental to their interests. The chapter concludes with a discussion of issue areas that parties to prospective RTAs in services will need to confront and seek novel solutions to in advancing the process of services liberalization and rule-making at the regional level. The addendum to the chapter includes a discussion of liberalizing services trade in ASEAN region and in Latin America.
The Images of Time
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin
Published: January 2008

Do we ‘perceive’ time? In what sense does memory give us access to the past? Can photographs and paintings capture more than a single moment? What is ‘fictional time’? These apparently disparate questions all concern the ways in which we represent aspects of time, in thought, experience, art, and fiction. They also raise fundamental problems for our philosophical understanding, both of mental representation, and of the nature of time itself. This book brings together issues in philosophy, psychology, aesthetics, and literary theory in examining the mechanisms underlying our representation of time in various media, and brings these to bear on metaphysical debates over the real nature of time. These debates concern questions over which aspects of time are genuinely part of time's intrinsic nature, and which, in some sense, are mind-dependent. Arguably, the most important debate concerns time's passage: does time pass in reality, or is the division of events into past, present and future simply a reflection of our temporal perspective — a result of the interaction between a ‘static’ world and minds capable of representing it? It is argued that contrary to what perception and memory lead us to suppose, time does not really pass, and this surprising conclusion can be reconciled with the characteristic features of temporal experience. The book goes on to consider the representation of time in art and fiction, and draws on the metaphysical and psychological themes previously discussed to cast light on the nature of depiction and fictional narrative.
Egocentric and Objective Representation
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores an important distinction between two kinds of mental representation: that between ‘egocentric’ representation, which reflects the subject's own position in space and time, and ‘objective’ representation, which does not, but takes as it were a ‘God's eye’ view of reality. Is it clear, however, that this distinction can be applied to our representation of time? The chapter discusses this question, and introduces two metaphysical views of time: the A-theory, according to which time passes; and the B-theory, according to which it does not.
Image and Instant: The Pictorial Representation of Time
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin
Published: January 2008

Can a painting or photograph represent movement and the passage of time? A traditional distinction, due to G. E. Lessing, between the arts of time and the arts of space suggests not: a static image (one that does not itself change) can only represent a single instant of time. This idea was attacked by Ernst Gombrich in a very influential article which is the subject of this chapter. Notions of depiction and time perception are brought together in an attempt to understand how and what static images represent: moments or movements.
4 Tragedy of Ideas
Authors: Wright Matthew
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins with the observation that Euripides is often called ‘the philosopher of the stage’, and explores what is meant by this description. It examines the relationship between tragedy and philosophy. It argues that Euripides, far from being a merely ‘clever’ and superficial playwright, was in fact deeply and seriously engaged with philosophical ideas. It is shown that the escape-tragedies can be read as a complex exploration of epistemological and ontological ideas, in common with and parallel to the Sophists and Presocratics. Philosophical problems of knowledge, language, appearance, reality, and personal existence are seen as central to the meaning of the trilogy.
First Things
Authors: Tsouna Voula
Published: January 2008

This chapter outlines the fundamental principles of Philodemus' ethics in connection with the canonical views of the Epicurean school, and points to his own original contributions. It examines the central features of Philodemus' hedonism, which sometimes are stated but often merely presupposed, and also looks at elements of his approach to the virtues and friendship. It draws evidence from the text [On Choices and Avoidances] and from the eulogy On Epicurus both of which can confidently be attributed to Philodemus, and also from the first and the second books of Cicero's De finibus.
The Religious Crisis of the 1960s
Authors: McLeod Hugh
Published: January 2008

The 1960s were a time of explosive religious change. In the Christian churches, it was a time of innovation from the ‘new theology’ and ‘new morality’ of Bishop Robinson, to the evangelicalism of the Charismatic Movement, and of charismatic leaders, such as Pope John XXIII and Martin Luther King. But it was also a time of rapid social and cultural change when Christianity faced challenges from Eastern religions, from Marxism and feminism, and above all from new ‘affluent’ lifestyles. Using oral history, this book tells in detail how these movements and conflicts were experienced in England, but because the 1960s were an international phenomenon, it also looks at other countries, especially the USA and France. The book explains what happened to religion in the 1960s, why it happened, and how the events of that decade shaped the rest of the 20th century.
Foreword
Authors: Spielberger Charles
Published: January 2008

This Special Issue is divided into two parts: the second, dealing with heart disease and hypertension, will appear as Volume 32, Number 2, April 1983. The foreword and introduction relate to both parts of the issue.
Analyse d'une Sepreuve d'image mentale chez des adolescents presentant des difficultis d'apprentissage scolaire1
Authors: Husain Odile , Moutinot France , Speierer Daniele , Spira Anne , de Ribaupierre Anik , Rieben Laurence
Published: January 2008

Le travail faisant l'objet de cet article s'inscrit dans le cadre d'un programme de recherche plus large qui s'intéresse à la variabilité individuelle des processus cognitifs et à son influence éventuelle sur les lois générates du développement de l'intelligence. Une partie des résultats a déjàété présentée dans d'autres publications auxquelles le lecteur pourra se référer pour plus de détails (par exemple, Rieben et al., 1983). Nous nous contenterons de les décrire brièvement afin d'introduire l'aspect spécifique sur lequel nous nous sommes centrées ici.
Applied psychology in Mexico
Authors: de Weiss Susan Pick , Diaz‐Loving Rolando
Published: January 2008

Two important issues must be made clear in the context of the development of psychology in Mexico. Psychology in general and applied psychology in particular are relatively new and fast‐growing fields of study in this country. In 1940, there were only six students registered in the Department of Psychology at the National University of Mexico (the largest institution both for teaching and research in this country), and the first research papers in what at the time could be considered applied psychology appeared in the 1950s (e.g. Días‐Guerrero, 1952, on the mental and social health of Mexicans living in the cities; and Gómez‐Robleda, 1959, on industrial psychology).
Judgements of Appropriate Occupational Pay as Influenced by Occupational Characteristics and Sex Characterisations
Authors: Mahoney Thomas A. , Blake R. Hilton
Published: January 2008

Aprés avoir pris connaissance de la description d'une vingtaine de professions, des sujets masculins et feminins durent proposer le niveau de revenu selon eux normal pour chacune de ces professions. lis ont aussi apprecie quantitative‐ment quinze caracteristiques professionnelles dont masculinite‐feminite. Les reponses ne divergent pas selon le sexe du repondant. La variable sexe procede davantage de l'emploi masculin ou feminin que des dimensions propres du travail. Les criteres d'appreciation des revenus normaux des professions etudiees s'appuyaient sur le sexe et sur les caracteristiques du travail. Les jugements des etudiants, aussi bien masculins que feminins, etaient soumis a la dimension sexe. Ces travaux doivent favoriser l'usage d'un critere objectif et souligner le role de 1'evaluation du travail dans l'elaboration de ce critere.
Systematic Selection of Job Evaluation Items
Authors: Elizru Dov
Published: January 2008

Disposer d'items pertinents pouvant servir à la comparaison des postes est de premiere importance. Pourtant la littérature ne propose pas de solutions claires pour la selection de ces items. Notre travail suggere des principes pouvant presider a leur selection et a leur elaboration. Une serie d'items d'evaluation ont été selectionries et soumis a une prevalidation. L'analyse des relations entre les items d'evaluation des taches a mis en evidence trois types de relations: lineaires, non lineaires et absence de relations. Les items en relation lineaire et ceux qui pouvaient etre observes fidelement ont été juges convenir a revaluation du travail.

Des principes complementaires de selection des items ont été tires de l'analyse de contenu: les items decrivant la realisation de la tache, le niveau de la performance, et les items suffisamment generaux et independants de postes precis ou de groupes professionnels ont été retenus. Quatre dimensions de 1'evaluation du travail ont aussi été mises en evidence (la notion de limitation de l'autonomie dans la realisation de la tache les concerne tous): (1) precision des instructions recues, (2) controle hierarchique, (3) maitrise du travail, et (4) possibility d'introduire des changements.

Sur la base des principes et des dimensions, on a defini une serie de sept items generaux de 1'evaluation du travail. Les evaluations empiriques ont corrobore l'hypothese selon laquelle une hierarchie des postes approximative‐ment unidimensionnelle pouvait etre obtenue.
Job Evaluation and Justification Criteria for Income Differentials
Authors: Hermkens Piet , van Wijngaarden Piet
Published: January 2008

On presente dans cet article les résultats de plusieurs recherches neerlandaises portant sur les criteres justifiant les differences entre les revenus tires du travail. II apparait en conclusion que les preferences s'orientent vers une reduction des differences de revenus. Les facteurs de differentiation des salaires qui font le meilleur score sont ceux sur lesquels l'individu peut agir et ceux qui tendent a mettre en evidence une compensation pour des conditions de travail defavor‐ables. Ces choix ont été compares aux criteres retenus dans les systemés devaluation du travail utilises aux Pays‐Bas: les deux listes sont proches. Quelques‐unes des consequences de cette comparaison sont discutees. Le resultat le plus significatif semble etre qu'il faut scrupuleusement recompenser la reussite et l'implication personnelles.
International Organisations in Psychology: The International Council of Psychologists
Authors: Halpern Esther
Published: January 2008

Cet article décrit le développement de ľassociation “International Council of Psychologists”. II donne des détails sur sa contribution à Finternationalisation de la psychologic

This paper looks at the International Council of Psychologists in an international perspective. Its history is briefly traced and its contributions to the “internationalisation of psychology” are discussed. The point is made that today our interest in international organisations ‐is guided by the extent to which this aim is reached.
Two Simulated Feasibility Studies in Computerised Adaptive Testing
Authors: Stocking Martha L.
Published: January 2008

This paper describes two simulated feasibility studies conducted in support of a project to implement computerised adaptive testing on microcomputers for college placement purposes. The first study compares adaptive testing with alternative conventional peaked tests. The second study explores two stopping rules: fixed test length and fixed standard error of measurement. These studies typify the kind of psychometric research required to initiate and support operational adaptive testing programs.

Cet article décrit deux études de modèles de faisabilité conduites pour rendre fiable un projet de construction de batterie de tests informatisés sur micro, en vue ďorganiser le placement dans les collèges. La première étude compare cette catégorie de tests avec les tests conventionnels les plus connus. La deuxième explore deux règies: la longueur imposée du test et ľerreur standard imposée dans la mesure. Ces études fixent le type de recherche psychométrique requis par ľinitiation et le support opérationnel de programmes de tests informatisés.
On Probabilistic Computer‐based Test Interpretations and Other Expert Systems
Authors: Huba G. J.
Published: January 2008

Computer‐based test interpretation (C.B.T.I.) reports are becoming well established in psychology. To date, most C.B.T.I. reports have been focused on selecting the “correct” global paragraph to apply to a given client. An alternative approach is to use C.B.T.I. services to provide highly technical and sophisticated statistical summaries of the individual client's responses. Such summaries can be tests of major hypotheses about the individual client resulting in probabilistic statements about the likelihood of a client being a member of a group or being accurately described by the statement. Such probabilistic C.B.T.I. reports may represent a major contribution to the individual clinician's tool‐kit.

Les compte‐rendus ďinterprétation des tests utilisant les ordinateurs (C.B.T.I.) sont un fait bien établi en psychologic Jusqu‘à cette date, la phipart ďentre eux se centraient sur le choix de la séquence globale “correcte”à appliquer a un client donné. Une alternative consiste à utiliser les services du C.B.T.I. pour obtenir des résumés de réponses de clients hautement techniques et sophistiqués sur le plan statistique. De tels résumés peuvent fournir des hypothèses majeures sur un client, en apportant des données probabilistes sur sa participation à un groupe ou sur des détails précis du rapport. Ce genre de compte‐rendus probabilistes C.B.T.I. pourraient représenter une contribution majeure à la panoplie du clinicien.
Computerised Test Interpretation Services: Ethical and Professional Concerns Regarding U.S. Producers and Users
Authors: Eyde Lorraine Dittrich , Kowal Dennis M.
Published: January 2008

This article focuses on consumer issues arising from the impact of advances in computer technology on the use of psychological assessments. It describes how the widespread use of microcomputers and minicomputers and the development of software for interpreting complex diagnostic and pre‐employment tests of a clinical nature, coupled with the growing demand for cost‐effective clinical assessment, has led to increased use of computer‐based test interpretations by health care professionals. Although these interpretations offer advantages, they also carry a potential for misuse. The authors make recommendations for professional self‐regulation to strengthen the gatekeeper function of controlling access to clinical assessment tools.

Cet article s'intéresse aux préoccupations des utilisateurs nées de ľ impact des progrés de ľ informatique sur la pratique de ľévaluation psychologique. On y décrit comment ľ usage généralisé des mini‐ et micrc‐ordinateurs ainsi que le développement des logiciels dans ľ interprétation des diagnostics complexes et des tests de sélection de nature clinique, associéà la demande croissante ď une évaluation clinique efficace au meilleur coût, a amené de plus en plus les spécialistes de la santéà exploiter les interprétations de tests par ordinateur. Cette solution présente des avantages, mais aussi des risques ď abus. Les auteurs recommandent aux spécialistes de renforcer eux‐mêmes le contrôle du droit ď accés aux outils ďévaluation clinique.
Factors Affecting Managerial Desires for Various Types of Employee Participation in Decision Making
Authors: Long Richard J.
Published: January 2008

Cette étude essaie de cemer les facteurs qui contrôlent la motivation des cadres à divers aspects de la participation à la prise des dècisions, cela grâce à un long questionnaire proposéà des échantillons de managers appartenant à deux entreprises canadiennes. Il est apparu que les dimensions en relation avec les attirances pour la participation à la prise des décisions au niveau du poste de travail, du département et de la politique générate différaient fortement, ce qui met en évidence la nécessité d'aborder maintenant séparément ces differents degrés. Le déterminant le plus efficace à la participation est la conviction qu'une influence acerue du salarié améliorera les décisions. Contrairement aux attentes, les cadres le moins satisfaits sont les plus disposés à prendre en charge les niveaux les plus élevés de la participation. Les variables de personnalité ne jouent pas un rôle majeur dans ces motivations, pas plus que certaines caractéristiques centrales telles que l'adhésion aux objectifs de l'organisation.

This study sceks to identify factors determining managerial desires for various types of employee participation in decision making, through the use of a comprehensive questionnaire administered to samples of managers at two Canadian firms. It was found that the correlates of desires for employee participation in decision making at the job, department, and organisational policy levels differed considerably, thus indicating a need for future studies to consider each of these separately. The most powerful determinant of managerial desires for worker participation was the belief that increased worker influence would improve decisions. Contrary to expectations, those managers who were least satisfied with behavioural and attitudinal conditions within the firm were most likely to endorse higher levels of employee participation. Personality variables did not play a major role in affecting these desires, nor did certain key employee characteristics, such as commitment to organisational goals.
Attribution of Causal and Moral Responsibility to a Victim of Rape
Authors: Kanekar Suresh , Vaz Laura
Published: January 2008

L'imputation aux victimes de viol de responsabilité causale ou morale, fait l'objet de deux études, conduites selon le même plan d'expérience, avec les mêmes variables indépendantes, un protocole et une population identiques: et, comme première variable dépendante dans les deux études, la requête d'emprisonnement pour les auteurs de viol; comme seconde variable dépendante dans la première étude, la faute du viol imputée aux victimes elles‐memes, mesure de leur responsabilité morale; comme seconde variable dépendante dans la seconde étude, les attentes de viol des victimes, represéntation opérationnelle de leur responsabilité causale. La distinction entre responsabilité causale ou morale fut examinée à la lumière de l'effet des variables indépendantes sur les variables dépendantes. Chaque étude pŕesentait un plan d'analyse factorielle avec par case, quinze étudiants de collége à Bombay, de 2 (sexe des sujets) × 2 (statut des victimes, employeur ou employé de l'auteur de viol) × 2 (séduction de la victime) × 2 (virginité de la victime). Les résultats principaux montfer̀ent que les sujets féminins préconisent plus que les sujets masculins l'emprisonnement des auteurs de viol, et attribuent moins de responsabilité aux victimes quand elles sont vierges. De plus, les femmes dans leur ensemble estiment plus que les hommes, les viols crédibles. Ces résultats et d'autres furent discutés dans le contexte d'imputation défensive autant que par rapport à la différence pertinent entre imputation causale ou morale.

Two experimental studies of causal and moral responsibility attribution to a rape victim were conducted with the same experimental design, independent variables, procedure, and subject population. The first dependent measure in both studies was recommended imprisonment for the rapist. The second dependent measure in the first experiment was fault attributed to the victim for her own rape, this measure representing the moral responsibility of the victim. The second dependent measure in the second experiment was perceived likelihood of rape, which was an operational representation of a victim's causal responsibility for her own rape. The distinction between the victim's causal and moral responsibility was examined in light of the effects of the independent variables on these two measures. Each study had a 2 (subject's sex) × 2 (victim's status, employer or servant of the rapist) × 2 (victim's physical attractiveness) × 2 (victim's premarital virginity) factorial design with 15 subjects, college students in Bombay, per cell. The major findings were that female subjects, as compared to male subjects, recommended longer imprisonment to the rapist and attributed less fault to the victim when the victim was a virgin. Also, female subjects on the whole indicated greater likelihood of rape than did male subjects. These and other findings were discussed in the context of defensive attribution as well as for their relevance to the distinction between causal and moral attribution.
La Mesure des Intérêts Professionnels au Moyen de Stimuli Photographiques: Le TVI
Authors: Tétreau Bernard , Trahan Michel
Published: January 2008

Cet article présente une synthèse générate de nos recherches des 15 dernières années. Ann d'atténuer l'influence des facteurs cognitifs et verbaux dans la mesure des intérêts professionnels, nous avons élaboré un instrument basé sur la projection de 102 diapositives en couleur de diverses professions, le Test visuel d'intérêts (TVT), ainsi qu'une formule verbale devant servir dans des études comparatives avec des éChantillons de personnes provenant de différents groupes linguistiques, culturels et socio‐économiques. Les analyses montrent que le TVI est un test fiable dont les échelles correspondent à celles de la typologie des intérêts et de la personnalité de Holland. Les études comparatives du TVI et de sa version verbale montrent qu'il est généralement plus sensible dans le cas des adolescents, particulièrement de ceux de niveau socio‐économique défavorisé. Les résultats d'études interculturelles avec des étudiants des nivcaux secondaire et collégial dans une douzaine de pays confirment l'hypothèse que les profils d'intérèts sont plus différemment universels qu'universellement différents.

This article presents a general synthesis of our research over the past 15 years. In order to counteract the influence of verbal and cognitive factors in the measurement of vocational interests we constructed the Visual Interest Test (VIT), a pictorial instrument based on 102 colour slides of various occupations, as well as a verbal form to be used in comparative studies with samples of people from different linguistic, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Item analyses show that the VIT is a reliable test yielding scores on scales corresponding to Holland's RIASEC interests and personality typology. Comparative studies between the VIT and its verbal counterpart show that the nonverbal instrument is generally more sensitive with adolescents, and particularly with socioeconomically underprivileged students. Results of intercultural and interlinguistic studies with high school and college students in a dozen countries support the hypothesis that interest patterns are more differentially universal than universally different.
Personality and Biographical Differences between Male and Female Managers in the United States and India
Authors: Ottaway Richard N. , Bhatnagar Deepti
Published: January 2008

Cette recherche fut faite sur deux échantillons composés de cadres des deux sexes poursuivant des études à l'Institut Indien de Management ou dans une “business school” américaine. On a recueilli des informations sur la personnalité et la biographic des sujets. Elles ont été soumises à une analyse de variance pour éprouver l'hypothèse selon laquelle les cadres féminins américains sont plus proches de leurs collègues masculins (quant à leur personnalité, leur salaire et leur statut professional) que ne le sont les cadres indiens masculins et féminins. Pour ce qui est de la personnalité, les femmes des deux pays sont plus exigeantes que les hommes et davantage victimes de conflits. Les Américaines sont aussi plus naïves. Les éléments biographiques montrent que les cadres des deux sexes ne différent pas significativement quant au niveau hiérarchique, au nombre de subordonnés ou à l'importance du budget mis à leur disposition. Les femmes sont plus instruites, mais gagnent significativement moins. Le cadre américain gagne 41,8 % de plus que la femme, mais en Inde l'homme ne gagne que 8,7 % de plus que sa collègue.

This study was conducted on a sample of male and female managers studying at the Indian Institute of Management and a sample of male and female managers studying at an American business school. Personality data and biographical characteristics were collected. They were analysed by an ANOVA to test the hypothesis that American female managers are nearer in personality, salary, and job status to American managers than the Indian male and female managers. From the personality data we found that the females in both countries are more hard‐driving and conflicted than the males. The American female manager is also more naive. The biographical data indicate that the male and female managers do not differ significantly on job level, number of subordinates, or size of budget controlled. The females are better educated and earn significantly less. Furthermore, the American male manager earns 41.8% more than the female and in India the male earns 8.7% more than the female.
Relationships between Protestant Work Ethic and Work Effort in a Field Setting
Authors: Poulton Richie G. , Ng Sik Hung
Published: January 2008

Soixante‐huit étudiants ont relevé leurs activatés quotidiennes pendant sept journées consécutives. Ils ont ensuite passé l‘échclle de Mirels et Garrett, le “Protestant Work Ethic” datant de 1971 (P.W.E.). Les sujets qui présentent un score élevé au P.W.E. consacrent plus de temps a leurs etudes et moins à leurs loisirs (par comparaison avec ceux dont le résultat au P.W.E. est faible). Ces différences existent pour les jours ouvrés, mais pas pour le week‐end.

Sixty‐eight student subjects recorded their daily activities for seven consecutive days, and afterwards completed Mirels and Garrett's (1971) Protestant work ethic (PWE) scale. Compared to low PWE scorers, high PWE scorers worked longer hours on their study and spent less time on leisure. These differences occurred during weekdays but not at the weekend.
Using Repertory Grids to Investigate Racial Prejudice
Authors: Smith Mike , Gibson Jim
Published: January 2008

Cette étude portant sur 291 officiers de police fournit un exemple de l'intérêt de la grille de Kelly dans l‘étude des préjugés. Elle débute par l'hypothèse selon laquelle les cartes mentales des individus à préjugés devraient manifester de la simplicité et présenter une séparation des secteurs “colorés” et “blancs”; enfin, les coordonnées de n'importe qui devraient étre profondément modifiées si la couleur de la personne en cause change. On a construit des grilles relatives à des situations couramment vécues par les sujets; quelques‐uns des incidents évoqués mettaient en cause des gens de couleur. Les grilles ont élé réadministrées un mois plus tard, la couleur de la peau de quelques‐uns des acteurs ayant changé. Les résulats incitent à conclure que les officiers de police ont tendance à classer les situations selon le risque de violence, les conflits ou exigences émotives subis, le temps demandé ou les ennuis provoqués plutôt que selon la couleur des acteurs. La recherche montra aussi que les grilles pouvaient produire des indices de simplicité, de ségrégation et de changement. On fait remarquer que l'adoption de la grille de Kelly pourrait inaugurer un nouveau courant de recherches dans le domaine des préjugés raciaux.

This study of 291 police officers provides an example of the potential of repertory grids to investigate prejudice. It starts by suggesting that the cognitive maps of prejudiced individuals should show (a) simplicity, (b) segregation into “black” and “white” regions, and (c) the position of any individual should show a marked change if the colour of the person changed. Grids of practical policing situations were developed in which some of the incidents involved coloured people. The grids were readministered after a month but the colour of some of the actors were changed. The results showed that police officers tended to classify situations according to the probability of violence, the emotional demands or hassle it would make on them, the time and trouble it would entail —rather than the colour of the actors. The study also demonstrated that repertory grids were able to produce indices of simplicity, segregation, and marked change. It is suggested that the adoption of repertory grids could usher in a new genre of research into racial prejudice.
Self‐efficacy and Endurance Performance: A Longitudinal Field Test of Cognitive Mediation Theory
Authors: Garland Howard , Weinberg Robert , Bruya Lawrence , Jackson Allen
Published: January 2008

On demanda à 123 étudiants de cours de perfectionnement, désignés au hasard, de réaliser “de leur mieux” une tâche très difficile, au but presqu‘ impossible à atteindre, après cinq semaines d'entraînement à effectuer une tâche spécifique en trois minutes. Une période‐test de quatre semaines suivit au cours de laquelle les buts des táches que devaient réaliser les sujets et leur confiance en leur efficacité furent mesurés une fois par semaine avant chaque évaluation de performance. Construit d'après une théorie de médiation cognitive (Garland, 1985), un modèle causal fut utilisé dans lequel des buts de tâches individuelles furent soumis aux effets de la performance, notamment sur l'efficacité des sujets. L'analyse des résultats à partir des quatre tests hebdomadaires confirma les propositions du modèle.

One hundred and twenty‐three students in a fitness training course were assigned at random to a “do your best,” very hard, or highly improbable goal condition after five weeks of baseline training on a three‐minute sit‐up task. A four‐week test period followed in which subjects' task goals and efficacy expectations were measured once each week prior to an assessment of their performance. Based on cognitive mediation theory (Garland, 1985), a causal model was presented in which individual task goals are proposed to influence performance through their influence on self‐efficacy. Path analyses on the data over each of the four test weeks provided support for the proposed model.
The Current Situation of Traffic Psychology in Japan
Authors: Nagatsuka Yasuhiro
Published: January 2008

L'année 1955 constitue une date charniére pour la psychologie de la circulation routiére japonaise. Le président, en exercice de I'association japonaise de psychologie appliquée, attira l'attention sur le besoin d'études psycho‐logiques en matière d'accident de la circulation. Après plusieurs essais, I'association japonaise de la psychologie de la circulation (JATP) fut organisée en 1975. Cinq directions de recherches sont décrites dans cet article, exemples de récents courants en psychologie de la circulation routière au Japon: (1) Etude des conducteurs, clef de la sécurité routière. (2) Innovation en compréhension des conduites des chauffeurs. (3) Etude expérimentale de la conduite au volant. (4) Autres études importantes, en matière de conclusion. (5) Phare sur les problèmes que les psychologues japonais de la circulation s'attendent à aborder.

The year of 1955 constituted a turning point for Japanese traffic psychology. The then president of the Japan Association of Applied Psychology drew attention to the need for psychological studies of traffic accidents. The Japanese Association of Traffic Psychology (JATP) was finally organised in 1975. Five directions of research are described in this contribution as examples of recent trends in traffic psychology in Japan: (1) studies on drivers as a key to road safety; (2) understanding of driver behaviour; (3) experimental approaches to driving behaviours; (4) some other important studies, and, by way of a conclusion, (5) some problems which Japanese traffic psychologists are expected to tackle are outlined.
La Théorie de la Privation Relative Appliquée au Monde du Travail
Authors: Alain Michel
Published: January 2008

Selon la theorié de la privation relative (PR), les sentiments de quelqu'un pour son sort dépendraient plus de critères relatifs que de critères absolus. Selon son milieu social, quelqu'un peut se sentir heureux/satisfait (s'il s'en tire aussi bien ou mieux qu'eux) ou malheureux/insatisfait (s'il s'en tire moins bien qu'eux). De nombreux auteurs ont fait appel à ce concept pour expliquer une foule de phénomènes sociaux, par exemple la satisfaction et le bonheur. les révokes urbaines, et même la santé mentale. De même, de nombreux théoriciens ont tenté de spécifier les conditions susceptibles d'influencer les sentiments de PR. II existe au moins cinq modèles spécifiques à ce propos. Cependant, très peu de chercheurs ont tenté de les appliquer en situation réelle. La présente recherche avait pour hypothèses de tester les cinq conditions préalables à la PR seln le modèle de Crosby (1976) en milicu de travail. De plus, pour tester la généralisation de la PR, des travailleurs provenant de trois catégories d'emploi différentes ont été interrogés par questionnaire (n= 215, 93 hommes et 122 femmes). Les résultats révèlent que les conditions de la PR s'appliquent également aux trois catégories d'emploi et que les hommes et les femmes réagissent de la même façon. De plus, les analyses par corrélations et par régressions multiples favorisent le modèle proposé par Crosby (1976). Les résultats sont discutés en fonction de la théorie de la PR et des implications qu'ils représentent pour le monde du travail.
A Psychological Footnote to Gorbachev's Economic Perestroika
Authors: Cervin V. B.
Published: January 2008

Voici un essai de psychologie comparée de politique étrangère. Il propose une vue du problème qui est différente de celle des idéologies qui actuellement s'affrontent sur le champ politique. Pendant trois générations, des tentatives ont été faites en U.R.S.S. pour créer une société et un homme nouveaux, construisant le socialisme de façon désintéressée et supprimer l‘écart économique et technologique entre les systèmes socialiste et occidental. Mais en raison d'une plus faible croissance dans les pays socialistes, l'inverse s'est produit: l’écart semble s‘être élargi et est maintenant suffisamment important pour justifier quelques changements fondamentaux. En interprétant l’évolution des pays de l'est d'un point de vue comportemental, la psychologie, en se passant des ajectifs “bourgeois” et “prolétaire”, peut nous aider à mieux comprendre ce qui s'y passe, particulièrement en terme de qualité de vie dans ce type de société. La qualité de vie produite par les systèmes économiques de l'est et de l'ouest est susceptible d‘être un critère de comparaison plus pertinent que les mérites théoriques des “ismes” qui en sont le fondement.

This is an essay in comparative psychology of international politics. It offers an alternative approach to the problem that is now a battleground of ideologies, or worse. In the U.S.S.R. for three generations attempts were made to create a new society and a “new” man/woman, selflessly building socialism, and to close the economic and technological gap between the socialist and western systems; because of slower growth in the former, however, the converse has happened: the gap seems to have widened and is now serious enough to warrant some radical changes. Interpreting the developments in socialist countries in behavioural terms, psychology (without the adjectives “bourgeois” or “proletarian”) may improve our understanding of what is going on there, especially in terms of the quality of life under their system. The quality of life generated by the economic systems in the east and west may be a more important criterion of comparison than the theoretical merits of the “isms” that give rise to them.
The Effective Utilization of Intellectual Abilities and Job‐relevant Knowledge in Group Performance: Cognitive Resource Theory and an Agenda for the Future
Authors: Fiedler Fred E.
Published: January 2008

La théorie des ressources cognitives cherche à rendre compte du rôle que jouent les aptitudes intellectuelles, les connaissances techniques et l'expérience professionnelle dans le leadership et la performance de groupe. L'article résume les hypothèses de la théorie des ressources cognitives concernant l'exploitation efficace par le leader de son intelligence et de son expérience et propose de nouvelles perspectives pour des recherches à venir.

Cognitive resource theory seeks to explain the role which intellectual abilities, technical knowledge and job‐relevant experience play in determining leadership and group performance. This paper summarises the hypotheses of cognitive resource theory as they relate to the effective utilisation of leader intelligence and experience, and proposes new directions for further research.
The Patterning of Work Meanings which are Coterminous with Work Outcome Levels for Individuals in Japan, Germany and the USA
Authors: England George W.
Published: January 2008

L'analyse des données relatives à la signification du travail fournies par des échantillons représentatifs des travailleurs allemands, japonais et américains montre qu'il existe une relation étroite entre les modèles individuals de signification du travail et les scores sur des variables dépendantes générale‐ment considérées comme importantes pour l'individu (le revenu, la qualité du travail, la satisfaction professionnelle et la satisfaction liée au poste). On fait l'hypothèse que ces résultats convaincants s'observent en raison des “effets cohésifs” de certains modèles de signification du travail sur la “mobilisation motivationnelle” qui elle‐même influence les niveaux de performances. Selon ce type de raisonnement, les significations du travail sont des dimensions cognitives de la personnalité en rapport avec les niveaux de performances à travers leurs effets sur la motivation. Une possibilité de causalité réciproque entre personnalité et performance est mentionnée et on souligne la nécessité d‘étudier plus avant la raison de cette relation étroite.

Analysis of work meaning data from representative national labour force samples in Germany, Japan, and the United States shows that there is a strong contingency between work meaning pattern membership of individuals and levels of outcome realisation on outcomes generally considered important to the individual (income, quality of work, occupational satisfaction, and job satisfaction). These strong findings are hypothesised to occur because of the “cohesive effects” of certain meaning of working patterns on “effort outlay” which in turn influences the level of outcome(s). This line of reasoning sees work meanings as personality constructs which are related to outcome levels through their effects on effort outlay. The possibility of reciprocal causation occurring between work personality and work outcomes is noted and the need to study further the causality of this strong contingency is highlighted.