bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Storm Warnings for Those Who Would Proceed
Authors: Knudson James K.
Published: March 2007

The present or prospective shipper, investor, owner, operator, or laborer in the transportation field in the next few years must be a watchman in the night of one big, overriding factor—competition in its most emulous form. Competition between and among most transporters is now regulated by a beneficent government which, by policy, is also commanded to foster and preserve all forms of transportation. But there are not enough passengers or freight to keep all forms going at a healthy fiscal rate nor at anywhere near their hauling potentials. Accordingly, they are now starting to compete ruthlessly as never before, and the government, through the administration in power, is harking back to the theory of Adam Smith—that the supply will equal the demand, given freedom from controls; hence, that controls should be done away with. The public may realize short-term benefits and yet be victimized in the end. Government take-over of transportation in some utopian manner such as was advocated by Edward Bellamy in 1887 in Looking Backward may now become the forward look. The question is what can be done about it.
The Fall of the House of Efficiency
Authors: Nell Edward J.
Published: March 2007

Under competitive conditions, in capitalist and market-socialist societies, income is said to be paid in approxi mate proportion to productive contributions. This doctrine is the rock upon which the House of Efficiency is built. The geology implicit in the reswitching controversy suggests that this rock is sedimentary, indeed, loosely packed sandstone. As the rock crumbles in the harsh Cambridge weather, it re veals the outline of the real forces determining the distribution of income.
Public Interest Litigation and Political Finance Reform
Authors: Fleishman Joel L. , Greenwald Carol S.
Published: March 2007

More than any other individual or group actor, Common Cause shaped current law regulating election finances. It managed to do so by developing and carrying out a craftsmanlike strategy which blended litigative, legisla tive, and publicist tactics into a coherent and mutually advantageous whole. Without litigation, the need for new laws might well not have become obvious. Without legisla tion, the court suits could have left campaign finance reform unconsummated. Together, they constituted an im pressive example of a citizen lobby operating resourcefully and productively to benefit the public interest.
Trends in Education and Training
Authors: Ferriss Abbott L.
Published: March 2007

Because of changes in the magnitude of cohorts to be educated, the elementary school population will fluctuate by a decrease of some 7 million pupils and more than a quarter of a million teachers, followed by increases of the same magnitude over the 14 years following 1982. Such variation will impose traumatic adjustments upon the educational system. The increasing enrollment in prekindergarten schools pushes new responsibilities on the school system and promises to accelerate progress in primary grades. A number of unmet needs of school children, which require attention, correction of speech deficiencies and the special problems of the emotionally disturbed, for example, are identified. The record of retention in school is satisfactory up to high school ages, but drop-outs and decreasing enrollment of youth 17 years and over are unmistakable. Educational lag is apparent in both dropping out and in falling behind the modal grade of the school age group. Females are beginning to surpass males in college going. The continuation from high school to college appears to have peaked and now is decreasing, but the college attendance of youth in the top half of the ability spectrum may be superior to the record two decades ago. As to learning, particularly in the secondary schools, the evidence of improvement is scant while there are extensive indicators of decreasing test performance at the end of high school. Models of processes of education are needed to identify appropriate educational statistics to improve social indicators of education in the United States.
Perceptions About Black Americans
Authors: Carter Barbara L. , Newman Dorothy K.
Published: March 2007

The data sources used in Social Indicators, 1976 are more restricted and interpretation more restrained than in earlier reports by the Census or the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Available data that measure how institutions established for dealing with racial injustice are working have not been incorporated in the report. Black Americans continue to have less of the society's most valued characteristics and conditions and more of those that are disvalued and stigmatized, or are evidence of discrimination and neglect. At the root of blacks' disfavored position is a combination of interacting forces. These include the cumulative effects on American institutions of generations of blatantly overt racial discrimination in every area of life; the continuing subtle practices of racial and economic discrimination ; and the absence of a national will or commitment to undertake those pragmatic political, social, and economic policies necessary to erase discrimination, and to enforce those policies forthrightly.
The Internationalization of Domestic Affairs
Authors: Cleveland Harlan
Published: March 2007

The content of "international affairs" is now mostly the "internal affairs" of still sovereign nations. The imperatives that drive this internationalization of domestic affairs are political, economic, environmental, technological and moral. Nongovernmental people and organizations have a comparative advantage in penetrating the porous membranes of national sovereignty. The governance of a world with nobody in charge seems to require nonresponsible people who anticipate problems that responsible governments will later have to tackle.
The Shadow of Death Over Aging
Authors: Pollak Otto
Published: March 2007

The twentieth century has been a time of great economic and social stress during which people have experienced war, economic depression, and the failure of philosophical sustenance. Technological discoveries, which have prolonged life, have also presented older people with problems of adjustment for which they are ill prepared. Only their remarkable capacities for adaptation, relearning, and renewal have armed them to withstand the onslaught of diminishing physiological, cultural, and social attacks.
In Between: The Community College Teacher
Authors: London Howard B.
Published: March 2007

Viewing community college teachers as a distinct subculture of the larger professoriate, this article analyzes the consequences for these teachers of the extraordinarily rapid growth of two year institutions during the past two decades. Lines are drawn between the community colleges' status, the special mission of the community college, and the teachers' conceptions of their school, their work, and themselves. A large proportion of two year college teachers are seen as demoralized and uncomfortably isolated from the larger academic culture.
Rand Meets the President's Commission: The Life Cycle of a Non-Event
Authors: Pincus John
Published: March 2007

The President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies was created to survey and report the state of language training and international studies in the United States, including an analysis of supply and demand for these skills. The Commission retained Rand for this purpose. Rand's study found that there was a surplus of people trained in these fields, with the exception of economics and profes sional fields, where there was little interest in area studies. Language training was poor in spoken language. Rand sug gested that there was little economic justification for more spending in advanced training and research. The Commis sion viewed the matter differently, in terms of desirable levels of demand and supply. The Commission saw its mission as building a more cosmopolitan America through language and international training at all age levels. Rand was largely focused on marginal changes in the market economy, while the Com mission aimed at social reconstruction. As a result, the two parties failed to communicate, and their collaboration was not fruitful.
A Promising Agenda: International Studies in Elementary and Secondary Education
Authors: Bullard Betty M.
Published: March 2007

Public schools in the United States have always had some instruction about other parts of the world. What that content included differed as the country's allies and concerns shifted. Increasingly throughout the past decades it has become clear to careful observers of the school scene that the two-way impact of global events did not have a cor responding agent in formal education. The response of the public to dilemmas facing the country indicates that the years spent in elementary and secondary education have to enable the student to gain a global frame of mind which will serve him as an adult in an increasingly interdependent world. Now the report of the President's Commission on Foreign Language and International Studies has been made; teachers, schools, professional associations, and others are for the first time put ting aside discrete objectives to find ways to work together to carry out the recommendations and others these triggered.
U.S. Government Exchanges: the Quest for Coordination
Authors: Lee Hayden Rose
Published: March 2007

The nature and range of international exchanges in the past three decades is impressive. Despite the fact that federally sponsored exchanges account for only 5 percent of the total of foreign visitors in this country, this 5 percent embraced, in fiscal year 1977, some 39,000 individuals under the auspices of several dozen agencies and at an estimated total cost of $662 million. The total estimate for purposeful, that is, nonmilitary and nontouristic foreign exchanges, is estimated to be over one million exchanges annually. Since 1953, attempts have been made to collect data about federal exchange programs and to coordinate this activity. Increas ingly, better data and interagency information sharing will be needed to assess the impact of exchanges and areas where shrinking funds can best be invested. Better infusion of exchanges experiences into educational programming aimed at educating Americans about other peoples and cultures is similarly a challenge in the eighties.
The Consumer's Stake in Environmental Regulation
Authors: Frieden Bernard J.
Published: March 2007

Local governments across the country have been enacting new growth control regulations, usually in the name of environmental protection. The effects of these new controls can be seen most clearly in northern California, where a large number of San Francisco suburbs have all tightened their restrictions on home building. The new control systems have made it easy for groups that oppose growth to block or curtail new housing developments. Growth control tactics and the environmental politics that surround them have succeeded in reducing the amount of housing built in many new developments, restricting competition among home builders, raising costs to consumers, and restricting the locational choices available to families with average incomes. At the same time, they have contributed little to the improvement of the public environment, but have protected many established suburban communities against the inconveniences of growth and the loss of open land. By blocking growth in locations close to job centers, opponents have shifted home building to the suburban fringe, where the environmental costs are usually greater.
Public Policy Toward Children: Identifying the Problems
Authors: SPONSELLER DORIS BERGEN , FINK JOEL S.
Published: March 2007

This article identifies four problems with the way American society deals with children's needs: the discussion of children's problems seldom results in effective legislation or social action; child advocates are unable to achieve sufficient consensus on policy recommendations to provide direction to legislators; services needed by all children are provided only to special groups and even in these cases the help is not sustained; and much of the aid provided is directed toward adults and does not necessarily have the desired impact on children. Some possible explanations for these problems are offered: the cultural belief in parents' rights, the devaluing of children as recipients of economic investment, the cultural tendency to respond only to crises, and the political inexperience of child advocates are all identified as forces that contribute to the inadequacies in the way children's needs are met.
Women at Middle Age: Developmental Transitions
Authors: O'RAND ANGELA M. , HENRETTA JOHN C.
Published: March 2007

The shapes of women's lives have changed over the twentieth century as a result of declining fertility, extended longevity, new life-styles in marriage and family formation, and increased attachment to the labor force. Midlife role transitions for women are diverse and dependent upon earlier life events related to marriage, child bearing, and work. Trends such as the postponement of marriage and child bearing, divorce and separation, and early career entry have changed the traditional family life cycle. Low fertility among women with patterns of early childbirth has led to an extended empty nest period and to increased labor participation at midlife. All these trends point to the continuities and discontinuities in individual women's lives and in the experiences of different age cohorts of women over time. The future prospects for today's middle-aged women are viewed in terms of both their predictable and variable features.
Death and Survivorship: The Final Transition
Authors: KALISH RICHARD A.
Published: March 2007

In spite of some recent increases in services for bereaved persons, the availability of such services is minimal. The process of grieving itself takes place in time in several ways: the extent to which the death is sudden, expected, and timely; the passage of time from the beginning of anticipatory grieving before the actual death through the diminishing effects of the loss over an extended period of time; and the age and stage in life of the grieving persons. During the grieving process the survivors often develop physical and health problems, face psychological and emotional distress, encounter difficulties with social relationships, and must cope with numerous practical issues. The subsequent adjustment of widows and widowers appears to be related to the extent to which there had been the opportunity for open communication. Whether widows fare better than widowers after the death is uncertain; research has provided conflicting results and equally conflicting interpretations of the results.
Policy Innovation and the Structure of the State: The Politics-Administration Nexus in France and Britain
Authors: HALL PETER A.
Published: March 2007

Democratic governments often promise political change, but have difficulty delivering it. The capacity of each state to formulate and implement innovative forms of policy varies across nations. In particular, it is affected by the structural features of the state itself, of state-society relations, and of social institutions in each nation. This article focuses on one facet of the structure of the state, the organization of the politics-administration nexus, in Britain and France. Its purpose is to compare the impacts of different forms of politician-civil-servant relations on the capacity of governments to innovate. After a consideration of the general problems associated with governmental innovation, four conditions conducive to innovation are identified. The dimensions of the politics-administration nexus associated with the position of the chief executive, interministerial coordination, departmental innovation, and the character of the higher civil service in both nations are examined, with a view to ascertaining the extent to which these conditions are present in Britain and France. Finally, the implications of this analysis for the United States are reviewed.
Identifying the World's Refugees
Authors: GRAHL-MADSEN ATLE
Published: March 2007

In a world in deep crisis, tendencies toward protectionism and xenophobia, as well as fear of new mass flows of asylum seekers, have brought the development of international instruments for the benefit of refugees to a virtual halt. The legal framework was formed during the 1950s and 1960s. There are several definitions of “refugee,” serving different purposes, and there is a trend to interpret and apply them more narrowly. The term “economic refugee” is a misnomer. There are many categories of de facto refugees, the common denominator being that they should not be forcibly returned to their homeland. States employ different, often very crude methods to stem the tide of would-be refugees. More humane and equitable practices could be developed at negligible financial and political cost; so too could a low-keyed protocol on territorial asylum, making us aware of our responsibility as fellow human beings.
How many Physicians are Enough?
Authors: GINZBERG ELI
Published: March 2007

Although it is difficult to ascertain whether or not the nation faces an oversupply of physicians in the coming decades, there is no doubt that a health care system can be operated more effectively with a taut supply of medical personnel than with a loose supply. The perception of severe specialty and geographic imbalance, which informed national health policy during the 1960s and 1970s, has been modified by evidence of a significant redistribution in the supply. Increasing numbers of practitioners are likely to effect further escalation in the costs of physician services and total expenditures for health care, even if—in conformity with classicial laws of supply and demand—individual physicians' incomes and the relative economic advantage of the profession were to decline. Since the objective of improved access has to a considerable extent been realized, the principal benefit of the loosened supply in the future will be to facilitate the initiation of innovative practice modes and alternative health care delivery systems that offer the potential of improved efficiency and quality.
Supporting the Arts in the Eighties: The View from the National Endowment for the Arts
Authors: HODSOLL FRANCIS S.M.
Published: March 2007

The federal government's direct involvement in funding the arts has come relatively recently in our nation's history. The National Endowment for the Arts was established to this end in 1965. Local private giving to support the arts preceded the Endowment and continues as the principal factor. The federal government's role, intended to complement the highly active role of private citizens, provides national recognition that the arts are vital to the nation. Within the context of America's private giving, the National Endowment for the Arts has a number of specific tasks in support of the arts, which will be particularly important in this decade—a time of major economic and demographic change. The Endowment's six-part strategy for the 1980s encourages (1) longer-term institutional support for arts organizations; (2) projects that advance the art forms or bring a diversity of arts to broader audiences; (3) better management and planning by arts institutions; (4) development of partnership among public arts agencies; (5) greater private support; and (6) linkages among systems of arts information.
Work Place Democracy and Quality of Work Life: Problems and Prospects
Authors: KORNBLUH HY
Published: March 2007

The concept of increasing the participation of workers in decisions affecting their work lives is appearing more often on the labor-management agenda. The reasons for management interest include the need for (1) increasing productivity and quality; (2) increasing the quality of work life for the new worker, who is more educated, with a good work ethic but alienated and unmotivated under current management practice; and (3) meeting foreign competition. Problems may arise for firms involved in forms of participation such as quality circles and quality of work life programs, when management aims of a streamlined work force and control of worker innovations clash with the workers' expectations of work place democracy inherent in such programs. A dilemma is posed for unions when the new forms of participation undermine the union, or maintain or create so-called union-free environments. Many unions are now playing a more active role in these programs. More aggressive approaches to bargaining on work environment and other issues reflect movement by some unions to a more proactive philosophy of the union's role in participation-enhancing strategies.
Sports Betting
Authors: IGNATIN GEORGE
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the type of people who wager on sports events and the reasons they gamble. It describes different types of bets on sports events, how betting lines are set, and the odds and probabilities involved. It examines in detail the difficulties in estimating the amounts of money wagered illegally in this country, and, after describing the nature of bookmaking operations, it concludes that total dollar amounts wagered with bookmakers are usually underestimated while the net income of bookmakers is typically overestimated.
The Human Resource Implications of Plant Shutdowns
Authors: GORDUS JEANNE PRIAL
Published: March 2007

Human resource programs that were developed to serve those displaced by plant closings have been fragmented. Participation rates have been low in placement, job search assistance, relocation, and retraining programs, and results have not been particularly positive. Great emphasis was placed upon serving those in need when programs did develop. The fragmentation characteristic of previous policy—or nonpolicy—seems to have undergone considerable organization and rationalization with the advent of the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) and the association of several major labor-management displaced worker programs with the federal-state program. This change tends to emphasize placement and to focus upon training exclusively. As a result, not only will disadvantaged workers compete with displaced workers for training resources and jobs, but participation in programs for displaced workers will be encouraged for those who are most advantaged, thus consigning a large number of less-advantaged displaced workers to underemployment, permanent unemployment, and eventual dependence upon income maintenance.
Industrial Restructuring: Public Policies for Investment in Advanced Industrial Society
Authors: BLAKELY EDWARD J. , SHAPIRA PHILIP
Published: March 2007

The American economy is undergoing a fundamental process of industrial restructuring. The manufacturing sector is being reorganized and deindustrialized, the location of capital investment is changing, labor markets are becoming increasingly polarized, and new job-displacing technologies are rapidly being introduced. Although this restructuring process maintains profitability for large corporations, it imposes heavy costs on workers and their communities and adversely affects the nation's long-term economic and social stability. As a consequence of restructuring, concern about job retention and creation is higher now than it has been since the 1930s. However, the authors argue, the current policy responses of liberal, industrial policy advocates and conservative less-government proponents are inadequate because they subordinate the needs of workers and their communities in order to restore the conditions of capital accumulation. The authors outline an alternative strategy based on a new national framework for investment, greater community involvement, and increased worker control and certainty over their own livelihoods.
Birth Planning and Fertility Transition
Authors: CHEN PI-CHAO
Published: March 2007

In 1971 the government of the People's Republic of China launched the third birth control campaign. The goals were to raise the age at marriage, lengthen the birth interval, and limit the number of births per family to two in the cities and three in the countryside. A birth-quota and pregnancy-authorization system was instituted. The campaign was greatly facilitated by the nationwide network of free community-based contraceptive and abortion services and generous incentives. By the early 1980s the contraceptive prevalence rate rose to 70 percent, and the total fertility rate fell to about 2.5 children per woman of reproductive age. The year 1979 saw the introduction of the one-child campaign. By 1982 first births accounted for 47 percent of total births, and 42 percent of the one-child families had pledged to have no more children. The successful implementation of the one-child campaign will, however, lead to a rapid aging of the population. The percentage of the population older than 64 years of age will increase rapidly, from 5 percent in 1982 to 7.3-7.7 percent in 2000 and to 23-27 percent in 2050. With such a high aged-dependency ratio, caring for the aged will entail heavy fiscal outlay in the twenty-first century.
Iran's Religious Regime: What Makes It Tick? Will It Ever Run Down?
Authors: BEEMAN WILLIAM O.
Published: March 2007

Clerical aspiration for governance in Iran is not a phenomenon that originated with the revolution of 1978-79. It has roots that go back at least three centuries and are well established in Iranian cultural tradition. The current regime is the only fully functioning theocracy in the world at present. It has managed to stabilize its rule and is likely to persist even after the death of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, its current leader. Internal decay is likely to be the only source of political change in Iran for the immediate future.
Migration to the United Kingdom and the Emergence of a New Politics
Authors: PETERS B. GUY , DAVIS PATRICIA K.
Published: March 2007

Britain has had three different types of guest workers. One has been the Irish with continuing rights in the United Kingdom. Another has been guest workers as found in most other European countries. The largest group has comprised residents of former Commonwealth countries who come to live permanently. This article examines the latter group as they become partially assimilated into the British society, economy, and polity.
Of Philosophers, Foxes, and Finances: Can the Federal Election Commission Ever Do an Adequate Job?
Authors: OLDAKER WILLIAM C.
Published: March 2007

This article assesses the effectiveness of the Federal Election Commission (FEC) in today's environment by discussing three types of constraints that limit the FEC's authority: contextual, legal, and administrative. The contextual restraint is seen in the unique political position in which the FEC finds itself, regulating its maker and benefactor, the Congress. The legal constraints involve the First Amendment and its interplay with the statutes that the FEC administers. Finally, the article addresses the administrative constraints under which the FEC must labor, and it examines two frequent charges against the commission: the politicalization of its enforcement procedure and the assertion that the FEC pursues petty infractions. The article concludes that the FEC deserves a mixed review, noting that it stumbles in its attempt to keep the foxes out of the chicken coop and the chickens in during congressional elections. The FEC must be made far more independent to be effective.
Ethnic Groups in Flux: The Changing Ethnic Responses of American Whites
Authors: LIEBERSON STANLEY , WATERS MARY C.
Published: March 2007

As whites become increasingly distant in generations and time from their immigrant ancestors, the tendency to distort, or remember selectively, one's ethnic origins increases. Distortions and inconsistencies in ethnic reporting are shown to vary with age, educational attainment, and marital status and even to exist within families when parents report the ethnic ancestry of their children. These examples of inconsistency, simplification, and systematic distortion all demonstrate the flux of the ethnic categories among white Americans. It is concluded that ethnic categories are social phenomena that over the long run are constantly being redefined and reformulated.
America's Industrial Cities: Jolted but Resilient
Authors: PORTER PAUL R.
Published: March 2007

Many industrial cities, especially those associated with steel and automobile manufacturing, will probably suffer additional damage to their economic base as a result of foreign competition. A further decline in federal aid to cities is a strong prospect. Despite these prospects, such cities have the potential of becoming stronger than before in the opportunities and living benefits they offer. They have human and physical resources that are used far below their capacity. The author proposes recovery compacts between dependent cities on the one hand and the federal government and the relevant state governments on the other whereby in return for a commitment by a city to pursue agreed recovery goals, the federal and state governments, acting jointly, would agree to assist it to become independent of a need for external aid. The article discusses essential elements of such compacts with reference to successful precedents.
The Future of Regions and Cities of Traditional Industry in Europe: Some Thoughts Drawn from the Second RETI Conference, Leeds, United Kingdom, September 1985
Authors: ERNECQ JEAN MARIE , McDONAGH ALISTAIR
Published: March 2007

The European Community today is concerned by the decline of old urban regions. The problems of the traditional industrial cities and regions are social, economic, as well as environmental. Since its establishment, the European Economic Community has essentially undertaken sectoral policies whose effects on the regions are showing themselves to be increasingly dramatic. The last few years have seen the regions mobilize for institutional as well as social and economic reasons; the creation of the association of traditional industrial regions of Europe translates the importance of the new challenges facing its member regions. The present article, after a brief analysis of the principal problems, will suggest certain perspectives for new policies in face of these challenges.
The Foreign Policy of the Republic of Zaire
Authors: BUSTIN EDOUARD
Published: March 2007

In many ways, dependency has been the keystone of Zairian foreign policy since independence. Domestic preoccupations—political or economic stability, legitimacy or sheet regime survival—as perceived and interpreted by an oligarchic elite, rather than any ideological premise or any projection of Zaire's role in a global or regional context, have been the only consistent and predictable determinants of Zairian foreign policy. The successive regimes have seldom been able to fully control their domestic environment or even to insulate it from external manipulations. Within a narrowly circumscribed set of options, however, Zairian foreign policy—especially under Mobutu—has demonstrated considerable dexterity at playing off one patron against another, and thus at limiting some of the potentially adverse consequences of the country's lack of a solid power base.
The Measurement of Foreign/Second Language Proficiency
Authors: BACHMAN LYLE F. , CLARK JOHN L. D.
Published: March 2007

Based on and synthesizing recent advances in both psychometric procedures and communicatively oriented linguistic analysis, a theoretical framework for describing factors affecting performance on foreign/second language tests is presented. Included within this framework are both test method factors—such as the testing environment, the nature of the instructions to the examinee, and the stimulus and response modalities represented in the test—and linguistic factors, including the examinee's organizational and pragmatic competence, strategic competence, and psychophysiological skills involved in the proper reception or production of the test language. Implications of the framework for the development and validation of communicative language proficiency tests are discussed and an action plan is suggested, including further refinement of the theoretical framework; development of large-scale, highly authentic criterion measures operationalizing each of the framework factors; and subsequent validation of both existing and to-be-developed practically oriented communicative proficiency tests against the criterion measures. Establishment of a working group of interested individuals from several institutions and disciplinary areas is proposed as an appropriate administrative vehicle for these activities.
Advanced Technology in Foreign Language Instruction and Translation
Authors: FOUGHT JOHN
Published: March 2007

The hardware available for computer-assisted language learning is rapidly improving. Software development continues to lag, and the empirical foundation for second language acquisition research is inadequate. A strategy for remedying these deficiencies is outlined. Networked microcomputers whose software for computer-assisted language learning generates logs of user activity for analysis of second language acquisition offer interesting possibilities both for practical applications and in research. With access to a national network of data, testing, and teaching materials, such local networks will support advanced workstations and software allowing more complex interactions with the learning environment.
The Breakdown of the Postwar Boom
Authors: ANELL LARS
Published: March 2007

Mass unemployment has returned to Europe, and we know precious little about its causes and effective remedies. There is, however, a clear connection with the breakdown of the postwar boom. In the 1970s a long period of rapid stable growth abruptly gave way to sluggish, unstable growth and financial insecurity. The general consensus among economists is that classical unemployment increased rapidly during the 1970s. There are, however, manifest problems on the demand side. The international economic system is intrinsically geared toward contraction. The classical remedy—that is, lower real wages—could work in theory. In practice, it is too painful and wasteful to be politically feasible. The obvious measures are lower payroll taxes and social service charges in order to reduce labor costs without reducing wages; internationally coordinated demand management; and more employment-focused priorities.
Population, Labor Supply, and Employment in Developing Countries
Authors: WANDER HILDE
Published: March 2007

Over the past thirty years, almost all developing countries have been suffering from severe underutilization of their rapidly growing work force, manifest in the first place in various forms of underemployment rather than in open unemployment. Prospective trends in the working-age population suggest an even steeper increase in labor supply and respectively rising employment problems for some time ahead. Policies promoting economic growth have proved insufficient to solve the problems. New strategies are called for, aimed explicitly at mobilizing the ill-used labor potentials for developmental purposes. This article consists of three parts. The first one gives a general outline of the relationships between population, labor supply, and employment, while the second one deals with empirical trends and structural changes in labor supply in the second half of this century. Both analyses bring forth the arguments for comprehensive approaches to the employment problem, which are presented in part three.
Creating New Jobs in the Service Sector
Authors: WEGNER MANFRED
Published: March 2007

The U.S. experience in the decade since 1973 shows that slow economic growth is compatible with the large-scale creation of new jobs. The contrast with Europe is accounted for by the service sector. In Germany, where overall economic growth was no slower than in the United States, the growth rate of service sector jobs was about one-quarter of that in the United States. The dramatic and continuous employment gains in the United States are often explained by the higher flexibility of its labor market, by higher labor mobility, and by fewer social regulations and protections than in Europe. There are many institutional and socioeconomic influences and demographic pressures that have pushed low-skilled labor, such as women and young people, into poorly paid service jobs. Most of the European countries, and especially Germany, have provided service outputs by less labor-intensive production processes promoted by the rapid growth of real wages and nonlabor costs in the 1970s. But there are many unsolved questions concerning the main underlying causes of the divergent employment patterns in the United States and Germany that justify a comprehensive research agenda.
Inventing and Reinventing Argus: What Makes One Community Organization Work
Authors: STURZ ELIZABETH LYTTLETON , TAYLOR MARY
Published: March 2007

Since 1968, Argus Community, Inc., a South Bronx community-based organization, has had a 70 percent success rate in reclaiming the lives of some of the most at-risk youth in New York City, including juvenile delinquents and drug abusers. In 1987 Argus was selected by the Greater New York Fund as one of six best-managed social welfare agencies in New York. Argus begins by filling in emotional and parental gaps, through an extended family environment that restores trust and develops self-esteem. It moves young people through educational and vocational training to job programs and colleges, among other avenues of future growth. Organizations like Argus can be replicated. The effort must be carried out at the community level, but underwritten by the public sector working with additional private sector resources.
Can the U.S. Dollar Survive as a World Reserve Currency?
Authors: HELDRING FREDERICK
Published: March 2007

Following World War II, the United States emerged as the world's single, dominant economic power. That role is diminishing, however, as European nations, Japan, and newly industrialized countries of the Pacific basin begin to exert more economic influence in the world marketplace. As we move to an age of more shared economic power, it seems unlikely the U.S. dollar will survive as the only world reserve currency. A natural extension of this pluralism would be the development of a single, international currency that would be freely accepted by all nations for the purposes of international transactions. An international institution would issue the currency and maintain the support and cooperation of member nations.
The Price for Effective Verification in an Era of Expanding Arms Control
Authors: McFATE PATRICIA BLISS , GRAYBEAL SIDNEY N.
Published: March 2007

Arms control has become an increasingly important aspect of U.S. security and foreign policy; at the same time, verification has emerged as the major consideration in judging arms-control agreements. Although the concept of military significance has been used as the criterion for determining effective verification of arms-control agreements over several presidential administrations, the demand for stringent and comprehensive verification regimes has increased in the past seven years to the point where implementing the regimes for the intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF) and Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) agreements will be costly, albeit beneficial because the agreements will contribute to bilateral relations and international security. The verification regime being put into place for the INF Treaty is the most rigorous and comprehensive ever negotiated. Verification of the START agreement will be far more extensive and expensive due to its broader scope and the fact that it reduces rather than eliminates classes of weapons. This article analyzes the verification criteria, costs, and benefits associated with current bilateral arms-control endeavors.
The Urban Homeless: a Portrait of Urban Dislocation
Authors: ROSSI PETER H. , WRIGHT JAMES D.
Published: March 2007

In this decade, homelessness has been recognized as a serious and growing urban social problem. Using a new research approach to the study of undomiciled urban populations, we describe the social, economic, and demographic characteristics of the literally homeless population in Chicago. The homeless in the Chicago sample are unaffiliated persons living in extreme poverty, with high levels of physical and mental disability. Homelessness is interpreted as a manifestation of extreme poverty among persons without families in housing markets with declining stocks of inexpensive dwelling units suitable for single persons.
Electronics and Computing
Authors: YOUNG LEO
Published: March 2007

Electronics and computing are among the fastest-moving areas of science and engineering. The universities have played and will continue to play a major role in advancing the state of the art. Nowhere is it more important to be at the cutting edge of technology from the point of view of defense, and nowhere is academic research more rewarding. These areas illustrate well the cooperation that is possible between the Department of Defense and the universities when their interests coincide.
Life-Style Risk Factors
Authors: MANTON KENNETH G.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the evidence for two propositions: that health and ability to function can often be sustained into advanced old age through interventions that (1) control risk factors among people already old and (2) improve lifelong health behaviors and life-styles starting with people currently still young. Beginning with a general model of age-related changes in health, function, and survival, the article shows how the interrelationship between the three varies between two extreme types of diseases: the fast, lethal type, where death occurs early and rapidly, with few years spent in unhealthy or disabled conditions; and the slow, degenerative type, where prolonged survival allows for added years in unhealthy or disabled conditions. Since this latter type is predominant among older people in the United States today, interventions to prevent morbidity and functional loss are of critical importance. The need for an improved research base to guide such interventions is strongly urged.
Labor and Development Policy in East Asia
Authors: DEYO FREDERIC C.
Published: March 2007

The rapid industrial transformation of South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong has in part been sustained by state development strategies oriented exclusively toward the needs of capital. Less often have criteria relating to the welfare of workers entered directly into state policy except insofar as such criteria are supportive of growth. Underlying this pattern of strategic priorities is the insulation of development planners and corporate executives from the political demands and opposition of workers. While political controls go some distance in explaining the political weakness of East Asian workers, the more fundamental causes are to be found, first, in the nature of employment relations in these countries and, second, in the sequencing of political and economic changes during the course of industrialization.
Reforming the Planned Economy: The Hungarian Experience
Authors: BAUER TAMÁS
Published: March 2007

Hungary has experienced the longest uninterrupted experiment of reforming a planned economy. A comprehensive reform blueprint was drafted during the mid-1960s with the aim of finding a sound combination of plan and market. The reform of 1968 represented a simultaneous transformation of all aspects of the economic system. The New Economic Mechanism resulting from the reform turned out to be a peculiar transitory economic order substantially different both from the traditional Soviet-type planning system and from a market economy. It brought little actual improvement into the operation of the economy, thus making further reform efforts necessary. The second round of reforms, during the early 1980s, under the constraints of general stagnation in the Soviet bloc, resulted in the first important steps toward privatization. The present, third round of reforms is directed toward a genuine market economy.
The Position of U.S. English on Bilingual Education
Authors: IMHOFF GARY
Published: March 2007

U.S. English is a nonprofit organization that promotes English as the common language of the United States. This position has been attacked by bilingual advocates as racist and antiminority. The author examines U.S. English's position toward bilingual education as an educational technique, an educational theory, a social theory, and a political movement. U.S. English has no objection to the use of non-English-speaking students' native languages in classrooms as an educational technique. Research evidence, however, supports neither claims that bilingual education is superior to alternative methods nor the educational theory behind bilingual education. Therefore, U.S. English advocates broadening federal funding for educational programs designed for limited-English-proficient children to include the full range of such programs rather than limiting funding to bilingual programs. Bilingual education is rooted in a social theory of cultural pluralism and a belief in the institutional racism of American schools. U.S. English advocates an emphasis on the commonalities between Americans rather than on the divisions between ethnic and cultural subgroups. It advocates English-language training leading to rapid classroom integration rather than to long-term language-based segregation within schools. Politically, advocacy of bilingual education comes primarily from Hispanic organizations whose continued power depends upon maintaining strong ethnic solidarity and separatism and from defining Hispanic Americans as a minority rather than an immigrant group.
State-Local Relations in the 1990s
Authors: PAGANO MICHAEL A.
Published: March 2007

This article extrapolates into the next decade the probable changes in state-local relations and emphasizes three central themes: (1) fiscal federalism, (2) localism, and (3) state-local cooperation. The principal argument is that the nature, success, and prognosis of state-local relations for the foreseeable future depend largely on the fiscal health of state and local governments and the fiscal ties between the two sets of governments. Demands for constitutional and statutory autonomy for local governments, levels of satisfaction and discord between state and local governments, and the flexibility and constraints imposed upon the revenue-generating capacity of local governments reflect the larger and more dominant variable of fiscal well-being.
Growth and Diversity of the Population of the Soviet Union
Authors: ANDERSON BARBARA A. , SILVER BRIAN D.
Published: March 2007

The most remarkable feature of the Soviet Union's demography is its ethnic diversity. More than 90 ethnic groups are indigenous to the territory of the Soviet Union. Ethnic Russians composed only 50.8 percent of the population according to preliminary 1989 census results. The article examines official Soviet statistics for the period 1959 to 1989 to illustrate some of the risks in describing Soviet demographic behavior. Is fertility in the Soviet Union high or low? Answer: both. Is the Soviet population growing rapidly or slowly? Answer: both. The changing ethnic composition of the population of the USSR as a whole reflects large differences in growth rates of ethnic groups; the changing composition of the USSR by region also reflects differences in migration by ethnic group. Differences in growth rates are reshaping the ethnic composition of the Soviet labor force. For the USSR as a whole between 1979 and 1989, three-fourths of the net increment to the working ages was contributed by the one-sixth of the population in 1979 that was traditionally Muslim in religion.