bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Marketing prospects for organic and pesticide-free produce
Authors: Jolly Desmond A. , Norris Kim
Published: October 2009

The March 1989 food safety episodes involving Alar on apples and the cyanide tainted grapes found in a Chilean shipment were seminal events in the history of U.S. organic agriculture. Demand for organic produce soared as a consequence of these events, and mainstream supermarkets began adding more organic produce to their traditional product lines. But when organic supplies proved scarce, and as prices increased, consumer purchases decreased and many marketing managers began to question the rationality of allocating scarce shelf space to organic products. In fact, many supermarket chains either drastically reduced their organic offerings or dropped them altogether. Some analysts proclaimed that organics had failed the market test. However, two surveys we carried out in 1989 and 1991 among major California supermarket chains show that forecasts of the demise of organic produce in mainstream markets may have been premature. Of 16 chains responding to our survey, 12 continue to carry organic produce. All had carried organics for more than six months, two-thirds of them for more than a year. Of the 12 that carry organics, six rate organics as worse overall than conventional produce. But, interestingly, six rate organics as “about the same” as conventional produce. This is a significant achievement for organics. Organics rated better on environmental impact and residues, worse on appearance and shelf life, and “about the same” on flavor and nutritive value. Despite the constraints and difficulties encountered in marketing organic foods, 8 of the 12 chains that carry organics would carry more organic fruits and vegetables if supplies were available. The prospects for certified “pesticide free” produce are less definite.
The economics of small-scale rabbit production
Authors: Gebremedhin Tesfa G.
Published: October 2009

Diversification into alternative enterprises appears to be gaining in popularity and economic importance as a way to supplement family income and to provide alternative sources of high-quality food. However, potential rabbit producers lack information about investment requirements and production and marketing costs. The objective of this study was to determine the most profitable operation of small-scale rabbit production by estimating the costs and returns, net present values, and payback periods of two rabbit production systems. Despite a difference in the net income generated, a cash surplus occurred for both systems at the end of the third year. This surplus was the return to land, family labor, and management. Thus, rabbit enterprises may provide economic opportunities for farm families who have limited land and capital.
Assessing the character of agricultural production systems: Issues and implications
Authors: Batie Sandra S. , Taylor Daniel B.
Published: October 2009

Alternative agriculture can be viewed as an alternative belief system to that underlying conventional agriculture. However, alternative agriculture can also be viewed from a technological perspective—that is, as a set of substitute technologies to conventional agriculture from which a farmer can selectively choose. Definitional distinctions between low-input, organic, sustainable, and conventional agriculture become important with this second perspective. Different policy and research implications are generated from these competing perspectives.
Soil quality—The key to a sustainable agriculture
Authors: Papendick Robert I. , Parr James F.
Published: October 2009

Soil is the world's most vital component for food and fiber production: preservation of this critical natural resource is paramount for protecting the environment, and ensuring that current and future populations are healthy and well-fed. In many countries of the world, including the United States, soils are being degraded at an alarming rate by wind and water erosion, desertification, and salinization resulting from misuse and improper farming practices. Often the topsoil is lost at a rate that far exceeds the capacity of natural processes to regenerate it. With soil degradation, there is a concomitant decline in soil quality, i.e., the soil's capacity to produce healthy and nutritious crops, resist erosion, and reduce the impact of environmental stresses on plants. Many decades of research have consistently shown that the best means of improving and restoring soil quality and productivity is by proper and regular additions of organic materials mainly through the use of crop rotations, cover crops, crop residues, animal manures, composts, and reduced tillage.
Soil quality: Attributes and relationship to alternative and sustainable agriculture
Authors: Parr J.F. , Papendick R.I. , Hornick S.B. , Meyer R.E.
Published: October 2009

Different chemical, physical, and biological properties of a soil interact in complex ways that determine its potential fitness or capacity to produce healthy and nutritious crops. The integration of these properties andine resulting level of productivity often is referred to as “soil quality.” Soil quality can be defined as an inherent attribute of a soil that is inferred from its specific characteristics and observations (e.g., compactability, erodibility, and fertility). The term also refers to the soil's structural integrity, which imparts resistance to erosion, and to the loss of plant nutrients and organic matter. Soil quality often is related to soil degradation, which can be defined as the time rate of change in soil quality.

Soil quality should not be limited to soil productivity, but should encompass environmental quality, human and animal health, and food safety and quality. There is inadequate reliable information on how changes in soil quality directly affect food quality, or indirectly affect human and animal health. In characterizing soil quality, biological properties have received less emphasis than chemical and physical properties, because their effects are difficult to measure, predict, or quantify. Improved soil quality often is indicated by increased infiltration, aeration, macropores, aggregate size, aggregate stability, and soil organic matter, and by decreased bulk density, soil resistance, erosion, and nutrient runoff. These are useful, but future research should seek to identify and quantify reliable and meaningful biological/ecological indicators of soil quality, such as total species diversity or genetic diversity of beneficial soil microorganisms, insects, and animals.

Because these biological/ecological indexes of soil quality are dynamic, they will require effective monitoring and assessment programs to develop appropriate databases for research and technology transfer. We need to know how such indexes are affected by management inputs, whether they can serve as early warning indicators of soil degradation, and how they relate to the sustainability of agricultural systems.
International activities in assessing and monitoring soil degradation
Authors: Sanders D.W.
Published: October 2009

The problem of land degradation is not new, but never before has it been so widespread or affected the lives of so many people. The need for a global assessment of land degradation was highlighted by the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972. Since then, several attempts have been made to develop methodologies that will allow for systematic assessment and monitoring of global land degradation. Systematic work started in 1975, when FAO and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) collaborated in a study to develop a provisional method for soil degradation. This method was tested, and maps on a scale of 1:5,000,000 were produced for North Africa and the Near East. However, the method proved difficult to apply accurately, so this project was followed by another where the method was revised and refined in an effort to assess and map desertification. Again, problems were encountered because of the complexity of the subject and the lack of usable reliable data. More recently, ISRIC, using a simplified methodology and the assistance of some 250 scientists from around the world, has produced a world map of human induced soil degradation at a scale of approximately 1:10,000,000. Meanwhile, interest has been growing in the problem of nutrient depletion in developing countries and a study has been completed of N, P and K balances in the soils of 38 African countries. Although we still do not have an accurate assessment of global land degradation and no systematic monitoring is yet in place, these innovative studies have provided us with a sound basis for future work and have identified many of the practical problems of measuring land degradation, data collection and analysis that will have to be overcome before more accurate assessment and monitoring can be achieved.
Characterization of soil quality: Physical and chemical criteria
Authors: Arshad M.A. , Coen G.M.
Published: October 2009

The impact of soil degradation on human welfare and the global environment presents a major challenge. A significant decline in soil quality has occurred worldwide through adverse changes in its physical, chemical and biological attributes and contamination by inorganic and organic chemicals. There is a need to develop criteria to evaluate soil quality so that the progress of any corrective action required by the international community can be monitored.

There currently are no generally accepted criteria to evaluate changes in soil quality. This lack impedes the design and evaluation of meaningful soil management programs. This paper examines the principal physical and chemical attributes that can serve as indicators of a change in soil quality under particular agroclimatic conditions. Proposed indicators include soil depth to a root restricting layer, available water-holding capacity, bulk density/penetration resistance, hydraulic conductivity, aggregate stability, organic matter, nutrient availability/retention capacity, pH, and where appropriate, electrical conductivity and exchangeable sodium. We also discuss the justification for selecting these key attributes, their measurement, critical limits for monitoring changes in soil productivity, and future research needs in soil quality.
Invertebrates as determinants and indicators of soil quality
Authors: Stork Nigel E. , Eggleton Paul
Published: October 2009

Invertebrates are an integral part of soils and are important in determining the suitability of soils for the sustainable production of healthy crops or trees. We discuss the importance of the soil invertebrate fauna in relation to terrestrial habitats and global biodiversity as we understand it. We describe the role of the main invertebrate groups in soils, including earthworms, termites, springtails, and nematodes, and how they determine soil quality. Practical problems in dealing with the invertebrate fauna include sampling, taxonomy and availability of biological information on species. Various measures are available that use invertebrates to assess soil quality, each with its advantages and disadvantages. They include abundance, biomass, density, species richness, trophic/guild structure, food web structure, keystone species and ecosystem engineers. We propose the three most useful and practical of these as suitable to be combined with other biological (microbial) and non-biological (hydrological, physical, chemical) criteria into a single index of soil quality that might be used on a regional, if not international basis.
Advisory/oversight councils: An alternative approach to farmer/citizen participation in agenda setting at land-grant universities
Authors: Stevenson G. W. , Klemme Richard M.
Published: October 2009

Reviews of historical and organizational literature provide the backdrop for a general discussion of citizen input into land-grant universities and for a specific case study: the Citizens Advisory/Oversight Council of the Center for Integrated Agricultural Systems (CIAS) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. This strong citizens' council, established in 1989, took its form in response to institutionally structured fears among university personnel, on one hand, and farmers and citizen groups on the other. Each group's recognition that the other's concerns were legitimate led to an acceptable resolution. We describe the principal characteristics of the resulting successful CIAS Council that is composed of farmers and representatives of the state's environmental community. Such councils facilitate new approaches to integrating the craft and science of farming, and for linking the production side of agricultural systems with policy issues.
Farmer participation in research: A model for adaptive research and education
Authors: Gerber John M.
Published: October 2009

Many farmers view with skepticism the dominant agricultural research and extension education model, in which new knowledge on f arming practices is developed by researchers and delivered through extension programs. The participatory research and education model is designed to support a shared vision of research and education as a learning process among partners working in community. The participatory model is offered as a way to achieve better communication and enhanced cooperation among farmers, researchers and extension educators.
Mandatory supply controls versus flexibility policy options for encouraging sustainable farming systems
Authors: Dobbs Thomas L. , Becker David L.
Published: October 2009

We analyzed two sets of farm policy options, representing different ideological approaches to government involvement in agriculture, to estimate their effects on the relative economic attractiveness of “sustainable” and “conventional” farming systems. The mandatory supply control approach, through strict acreage limitations on program crops, represents a strong government role in commodity supply management. The Normal Crop Acreage approach, on the other hand, allows farmers greater flexibility in deciding what crops to grow. We used economic models of five pairs of case study farms in different agroclimatic areas of South Dakota, covering corn-soybean, spring wheat, and winter wheat growing regions. Mandatory restrictions on the planted acreage of “program” crops, including soybeans, were found to favor the conventional systems, because they induced high prices for crops that predominate in conventional systems, especially com, soybeans, and wheat. In principle, however, mandatory acreage controls could require compliance with certain sustainable agriculture practices. Normal Crop Acreage (NCA) proposals can encourage greater use of sustainable farming systems. Where conventional corn and soybean production is relatively profitable, as in parts of eastern South Dakota, NCA options by themselves appear insufficient to induce changeovers to sustainable cropping systems. In wheat growing areas of northern and western South Dakota, however, where the two systems oflen are about equally profitable, NCA policies could promote sustainable systems, particularly if deficiency payments are not reduced for harvesting legumes and other non-program crops on NCA base. To have this positive effect, NCA policies must be introduced gradually and structured to limit adverse effects on the markets for legumes and other non-program crops that are important in sustainable rotations.
A compendium of crop varietal tolerance to weeds
Authors: Callaway M. Brett
Published: October 2009

Genetic improvements in crop tolerance to diseases, insects, and other stresses have reduced or eliminated applications of pesticides and other inputs for many crops. However, little work has been done to examine the potential for increasing levels of tolerance to weeds, even though herbicides account for 69% of the pesticides used in the United States eachyear. This paper documents thatfor all 21 crops examined, varieties differ in their tolerance of non-parasitic weeds. Characteristics influencing varietal tolerance to weeds are summarized.
What will be required to guarantee the sustainability of U.S. agriculture in the 21st century?
Authors: Dicks Michael R.
Published: October 2009

The increased effort by Congress to reduce agriculture's adverse consequences on the environment has been focused almost entirely on changing agricultural production practices at the farm level Because the agricultural sector is highly integrated, attempts to change a specific industry within the sector, such as production, input supply, or processing, may have undesirable effects. Programs designed to achieve society's environmental objectives by forcing change in agricultural production practices will lead to increased frustration, new programs and regulations, and further conflict between society and farmers. To guarantee sustainability of U.S. agriculture into the next century, efforts to incorporate new social needs into production agriculture should include changes in the research agendas of public and private institutions, marketing grades and standards, and the institutions that support the agricultural producer.
Comparison of alternative farming systems. I. Infiltration techniques
Authors: Logsdon S.D. , Radke J.K. , Karlen D.L.
Published: October 2009

Quantitative data are needed to understand how alternative farming practices affect surface infiltration of water and associated surface soil properties. We used a rainfall simulator, double ring infiltrometer, small single ring infiltrometers, and tension infiltrometers to measure water infiltration for Clarion loam (fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludoll) and for Webster silty clay loam (fine-loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Haplaquoll) soils located on a conventionally-managed and an alternatively-managed farm in central Iowa. Steady-state measurements suggested that infiltration rates were somewhat higher for the alternative farming system. Bulk densities were sometimes lower, and volume of large pores was a little higher for the alternative farming system. Small single rings were more reproducible than rainfall simulators or double ring infiltrometers, and data trends were the same as for rainfall simulators.
Managing interference in a sweet corn-white clover living mulch system
Authors: Fischer Albert , Burrill Larry
Published: October 2009

Living mulches are vegetative covers that can be grown in association with row crops to reduce soil erosion, improve trafficability and suppress weeds. Interference by the living mulch can reduce yields of an associated crop. The interference between a white clover (Trifolium repensL. ‘New Zealand’) living mulch and sweet corn (Zea maysL. ‘Golden Jubilee’) was studied using an established clover sward that was mowed and then sprayed with 1 to 1.5 kg ai/ha of atrazine. Corn was planted at different densities and planting arrangements into a narrow band tilled in the clover. Interference by clover reduced corn yields by 12 to 39%. However, when corn row width was reduced from 0.76 to 0.38 m, competition among corn plants declined; they became more vigorous and clover- suppress ive and reached even higher yields than conventional (no mulch) corn in 0.76 m rows. Similarly, sweet corn planted at a range of densities into a clover mulch killed by atrazine yielded more in equidistant planting than in wide (0.76 m) rows. A near equidistant corn planting arrangement can be a low-input alternative to achieve season-long clover suppression and thus minimize clover's competition with the intercropped corn.
Cereal and wool production in the Esperance Sandplain area of Western Australia: The need for a systems approach for sustainable agriculture
Authors: Fulton Murray
Published: October 2009

The problems facing farmers in the Esperance Sandplain region of Western Australia—salinity, herbicide resistance, wind erosion, and plant disease—are highly interrelated. Unless the biological, economic and social aspects of the problems are examined in an integrated way, no sustainable system will be found. Similarly, agricultural teaching and research must become much more integrated if they are to address agricultural and environmental problems satisfactorily. This will require changes in the structure of university and research institutions and in the rewards for research and teaching.
Environment-friendly swine feed formulation to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus excretion
Authors: Honeyman Mark S.
Published: October 2009

The nutrient composition of swine excreta can be altered by manipulating the composition of the pig's diet Several approaches are reviewed: feeding according to the pig's growth phase, formulation according to the feed's digestible amino acids, use of crystalline amino acids, the ideal protein approach, formulation according to available phosphorus, and the addition ofphytase enzymes. Each has the potential to lower nitrogen or phosphorus excretion levels. Together they can dramatically reduce the nitrogen and phosphorus concentration of swine manure, which could be a major advantage in regions with a high density of swine or for swine operations with limited access to arable land. However, the value of the swine manure would be much less as a fertilizer because these two elements are important plant nutrients.
Revisiting the USDA reports: Context, capital and organization
Authors: Flora Cornelia Butler
Published: October 2009

Much of what has been said regarding the two USDA reports relates to social organization: How do we organize science? How is indigenous knowledge organized? How is our food system organized? Social organization implies we have choices: at the individual level, the household level, the community level, the regional level, and the national level. It also means we must be aware of the global context in which our actions occur. Social organization is context-specific; one size does not fit all.
Revisiting the USDA reports: Further thoughts
Authors: Johnson Paul
Published: October 2009

I was down on the farm when the Bergland reports on organic farming and the structure of agriculture were released. I thought at the time they were a “breath of fresh air.” At last we were having a national dialogue on how we should farm and who would farm. I was very disappointed in 1981 when this dialogue seemed to come to a screeching halt. It had been so refreshing to watch people get involved in these important issues.
Creating a farmer sustainability index: A Malaysian case study
Authors: Taylor Donald C. , Mohamed Zainal Abidin , Shamsudin Mad Nasir , Mohayidin Mohd Ghazali , Chiew Eddie F.C.
Published: October 2009

In on-farm studies of sustainable agriculture, farmers often have been classified as sustainable according to their organizational affiliation; self identification; or use or non-use of a particular production practice or input, usually synthetic chemicals. Because this is a great oversimplification, researchers recently have been incorporating several dimensions of sustainability into a composite measure. Typically this is a relative measure of sustainability, with scores assigned by comparing individual farmers' practices to those used by all farmers. In contrast, in the farmer sustainability index (FSI) presented here, practices are scored according to their inherent sustainability. We report on the development of an FSI in a case study involving 33 production practices used by 85 cabbage farmers in Malaysia. We describe its underlying principles, the procedure and rationale for scoring each sustainability item, and the result of combining the constituent items into a composite index.
Innovative approaches for integrated research and educational programs
Authors: Bezdicek David F. , DePhelps Colette
Published: October 2009

Over the past half century, American agricultural productivity has increased while the number of full time farmers and rural populations have decreased. Although most people believe we have a safe, nutritious, and affordable food supply, the high level of productivity has had negative impacts on the environment and rural communities and has increased farmers' dependence on purchased inputs. As Americans become more concerned about food safety and the environment, a new paradigm for American agriculture is emerging. This new alternative agriculture takes an ecological approach to food production. The challenge facing the land-grant university system is how to answer questions about sustainable agricultural systems, maintain productivity and respond to the needs and concerns of their broadened clientele. Whole farm case studies, focus groups, farm improvement clubs, on-farm research, field-size research trials, and whole farm comparisons are new qualitative and quantitative methods for interdisciplinary research and education. These methods integrate biological and social strategies and bring community members into the research and education process. When these groups work together, questions critical to maintaining the long-term sustainability and productivity of agricultural systems can be answered.
Will there be people in sustainable ecosystems? Designing an educational mosaic for the 22nd century
Authors: Francis Charles , King James
Published: October 2009

Unlike other creatures, humans have the unique ability to delay their own extinction. We can store, analyze and transmit information to the next generations, and education helps us adapt to varied ecological situations. Looking beyond the 21st century to a post-industrial society where biological systems will emerge as the most renewable and sustainable activities on the planet, we need educational systems to prepare creative problem solvers who can confront and adapt to change and be willing to move toward lifelong growth and learning. Students need to understand the complexity of biological systems and the importance of connectedness. We need to educate them about watersheds and ecosystems, about the roles of a wide range of species and how they interact, and about long-term sustainability. Some programs already involve interactive student activities, case studies, and real world examples, and have empowered students to formulate their own approaches to challenges. A new initiative in the North Central region includes a structured experiential program in practical agroecosystem studies that taps into the technical and financial resources in the region's 12 land-grant universities and other organizations. In the future, we will need to forge more linkages between education and research, understand the impacts of alternative strategies for food production and other human needs, and search for ways to empower people to pursue their own educational agendas. This approach should include a mosaic of educational opportunities that will promote the survival of our species beyond the 22nd century.
Farmer initiated on-farm research
Authors: Rosmann Ronald L.
Published: October 2009

Practical Farmers of Iowa was founded in 1985 to help farmers generate and share information on environmentally sound farming methods. Its on-farm research trials allow farmers to do statistically valid comparisons of competing techniques, such as different weed control methods. However, sustainable agriculture means more than providing farmers with adequate information about appropriate techniques. It also requires policies that reward farmers for adopting sustainable methods and that support rural community well-being.
Case studies of integrated/whole farm system designs: Field-scale replicated IPM trials
Authors: Young Frank L. , Ogg Alex G. , Papendick Robert I.
Published: October 2009

A 6-yr interdisciplinary field project using large plots was initiated in 1985 to assist Pacific Northwest growers in developing an integrated pest management system to control weeds, reduce erosion and grow crops profitably. Run by a network of 10 to 14 scientists from eight disciplines supported by five agencies, the project showed that wellmanaged conservation tillage systems had a higher average profit and lower economic risk than traditional conventionally tilled systems. Information was disseminated successfully to user groups by field days, plot tours and an educational video. Organizational strategies included an interdisciplinary design with three levels of objectives. Cooperating scientists were invited to participate in writing the proposal and followed strict field protocols and attended mandatory organizational meetings. This long-term study used large machinery, went beyond the transitional stage and allowed treatments to mature. Limitations included the restricted number of experimental variables, the location of the plots, the large labor force required, and publication decisions.
Whole farm systems research: An integrated crop and livestock systems comparison study
Authors: Luna John , Allen Vivien , Fontenot Joseph , Daniels Lee , Vaughan David , Hagood Scott , Taylor Daniel , Laub Curtis
Published: October 2009

To examine the long-term productivity, profitability, and ecological interactions associated with whole farming systems, we established an interdisciplinary replicated comparison of a conventional and an experimental alternative crop-livestock farming system in southwest Virginia in 1988. The conventional system uses the best management practices commonly used in the mid-Atlantic region. The alternative system puts more emphasis on crop rotation, grazing and forage management, conservation tillage, cover crops, and integrated pest management. Each is managed as a year-round system, with management decisions based on the system's overall goals.

The comparison is planned to run for 10 years, so that only preliminary conclusions can be drawn so far. These include the following: 1) similar total productivity can be achieved with either reduced or full use of herbicides and insecticides; 2) the need for N fertilization can be decreased using grazing management and short-rotation alfalfa; and 3) recycling of manure from cattle fed corn silage provides most nutrients needed for the following corn crop. The comparative profitability of the two systems has fluctuated among years, and it is too early to know which system is more profitable. The process of interdisciplinary systems research has increased our knowledge of total system interactions, challenged prior assumptions, and clarified the methodological problems of integrated systems research.
An interdisciplinary, experiment station-based participatory comparison of alternative crop management systems for California's Sacramento Valley
Authors: Temple Steven R. , Friedman Diana B. , Somasco Oscar , Ferris Howard , Scow Kate , Klonsky Karen
Published: October 2009

In 1989, a group of researchers, farmers and farm advisors initiated an interdisciplinary study of the transition from conventional to low-input and organic management of a 4-year, five-crop rotation. Crop yields initially varied among systems, but now appear to be approaching each other after a transition period that included the development of practices and equipment most appropriate for each system. Farming practices and crop production costs are carefully documented to compare the various systems' economic performance and biological risks. Supplying adequate N and managing weeds were challenges for the low-input and organic systems during the first rotation cycle, and experiments are being conducted on an 8-acre companion block to find solutions to these and other problems. Leading conventional and organic growers provide a much-needed farmer perspective on cropping practices and economic interpretations, because we try to provide “best farmer” management of each system. Research groups within the project are focusing on soil microbiology, economics, pest management, agronomy and cover crop management.
Addressing the challenges of sustainable agriculture research and extension at land-grant universities: Radially organized teams at Wisconsin
Authors: Stevenson G. W. , Posner Joshua , Hall John , Cunningham Lee , Harrison Jan
Published: October 2009

Researchers at land-grant universities are under pressure to widen their research objectives, which requires them to expand their inquiry from a disciplinary base to a systems level, to include farmers and nonuniversity organizations as research collaborators, and to communicate with broader sectors of the public, such as consumers and policy makers. However, there are few rewards for scientists who undertake long-term, systems based research. An approach that brings together multidisciplinary, multiprofession teams using a radial model of organization has successfully addressed these challenges in Wisconsin. A small “hub” manages the team, with the remaining participants linked to component taskforces or “satellite” projects. This enables research to be done on both multidisciplinary and related single-discipline questions. Radially organized teams can attract diverse people with different time commitments and reward incentives. The research meets the criteria of public and academic audiences alike. For innovative research and extension efforts like radial teams to reach their full potential, larger institutional changes are needed within the land-grant system and professional agricultural societies.
Participatory assistance: An alternative to transfer of technology for promoting change on farms
Authors: Lanyon L.E.
Published: October 2009

Participatory assistance (PA) is a proposed approach for promoting change that involves both the biophysical processes of farms and the management processes of farmers. It integrates external expertise, inputs, and expectations with the unique character of a particular farming system. It focuses on improving the processes of the farm and farmer rather than on the traditional interests of “outsiders” such as disciplinary researchers, industry sales people, government regulators, consumers, or environmental interest groups. As an alternative to transfer of technology, it promotes learning both by the farmer and by specialists from academia, industry, government, and the public. Participatory assistance can promote innovations in the operation of farms, in the conduct of research and education, in the development of products and services, in the formulation of policy, and in the involvement of the public in agriculture. The outcome is not assumed to be the adoption of the “best” technology, but may be found in the emerging properties that result from innovations. Assessing the improvement that follows each innovation will require clear specification of the relevant performance criteria, provision of appropriate technical support, and reinforcement by the appropriate incentives. Reconciling today's farming with water quality protection illustrates the potential of the PA approach.
Mycorrhizae in sustainable agriculture. I. Effects on seed yield and soil aggregation
Authors: Bethlenfalvay Gabor J. , Barea José-Miguel
Published: October 2009

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi colonize plant roots and the surrounding bulk soil. They transport mineral nutrients from the soil to the plant and carbon compounds from the plant to the soil, and have pervasive effects on plant form and function and on the composition of the soil microbiota. This experiment evaluated VAM effects on plants and soil to determine if VAM fungi mediate a relationship between changes in seed yield and soil aggregation. In a pot experiment with peas, an isolate of the VAM fungus Glomus mosseae (Nicol & Gerd.) Gerd. and Trappe did not significantly affect seed yield (8%), but improved soil aggregation by 400% in one soil, a gray silt-loam high in organic matter (OM) and phosphorus. In another soil, a yellow clay-loam low in OM and phosphorus, seed yield was enhanced significantly (57%), but there was only a small change (50%) in aggregation. The results suggest that carbon allocation between the plant (measured as seed yield) and the soil (measured as the formation of water-stable aggregates) is influenced by this VAM fungus. The soil appeared to gain carbon at the expense of carbon lost by the plant Mycorrhizal fungi thus seem to affect two biologically controlled aspects of sustainable agriculture: plant production and soil quality.
Communicating between farmers and scientists: A story about stories
Authors: Connie  , Hatfield Doc , Preston  , Boop Wanda , William Ray D.
Published: October 2009

Ranching in the 1990s involves vivid word pictures with emotions, learning, a bit of humor, and fierce independence, explained Connie, as students and resource specialists sat on hay bales in a small barn on the high desert in central Oregon. Rangeland Resource students listened, a high school English teacher listened, an Extension horticultural specialist listened, and a Bureau of Land Management ecologist listened along with the professor. A wagon wheel stood near a rusty bucket of sagebrush and bunchgrass. Doc contributed short stories, a few facts, and his perspective of the same events. As she continued, Connie looked toward Doc and wondered whether her story was pitched at about the right level of emotion; was she effectively describing their ranching experience in the 1990s? He smiled under a large grey cowboy hat as his boot rested on the wagon wheel. Everyone felt the tension. Inviting environmental advocates to their ranch … was this wise?

Many experiences later, Doc says they have regained independence through collaborative learning with urban dwellers and consumers of their beef products. They welcome people with open minds toward learning. Their vision includes cattle, fish, and wildlife; the 7 inches of rain or snow that falls in winter and must be captured to sustain fish and urban dwellers in August; and sharing beliefs and values about the landscape while fish, grass, and ranchers survive.
Removing applied agricultural research from the academy
Authors: Lockeretz William
Published: October 2009

Applied agricultural research that is concerned with highly specific production methods and growing conditions differs in its purposes and social value from more “academic” kinds of research intended to advance knowledge in a more general and less immediately practical way. Nevertheless, it is conducted in an institutional setting established largely for the latter kind of research. Many people have suggested that the resulting conflicts could be reduced by introducing greater flexibility into the professional reward system for agricultural researchers. However, the mismatch may go too deep to be fixed this way. An alternative would be to remove highly applied researchfrom the academic domain and treat it instead as a service to the university's outside constituencies. A service orientation is especially appropriate for publicly supported universities, which is where most such research is done.
Soil quality and profitability of biodynamic and conventional farming systems: A review
Authors: Reganold John P.
Published: October 2009

Biodynamic and organic farming are similar in that both are ecologically oriented and do not use chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The main difference is that biodynamic farmers add eight specific amendments, called preparations, to their soils, crops, and composts. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in biodynamic farming practices and systems because they show potential for mitigating some detrimental effects of chemical-dependent conventional agriculture. Only a few studies examining biodynamic methods or comparing biodynamic farming with other farming systems have been published in the refereed scientific literature, especially in English. This paper summarizes data from previous studies, both published and unpublished (theses), that have compared biodynamic and conventional farming systems with respect to soil quality or profitability. These studies have shown that the biodynamic farming systems generally have better soil quality, lower crop yields, and equal or higher net returns per hectare than their conventional counterparts. Two studies that included organic management treatments with and without the preparations showed that the preparations improved biological soil properties and increased crop root growth. However, more research is needed to determine whether the preparations affect soil physical, chemical, and biological properties and crop growth and, if so, their mode of action.
The Wisconsin integrated cropping systems trial: Combining agroecology with production agronomy
Authors: Posner Joshua L. , Casler Michael D. , Baldock Jon O.
Published: October 2009

Two large-scale (25 ha) trials were initiated in 1989 in Wisconsin to compare six alternative production systems regarding productivity, profitability, and environmental impact. The project was designed and is managed by a coalition of farmers, extension agents and research personnel. Deliberations between production-oriented and ecologically oriented team members resulted in a factorial design, with two enterprise types (cash grain and forage-livestock) and three levels of biological complexity. Statistical methods have been used to identify the most efficient plot size, plot shape, and block shape, and the optimal procedures for sampling soil characteristics. A uniformity year was allowed before initiation of the trial, and the start was staggered. We defined treatments as production strategies rather than a specific set of inputs, which led to a more flexible plot management program.
Farmers' markets and the local community: Bridging the formal and informal economy
Authors: Lyson T.A. , Gillespie G.W. , Hilchey D.
Published: October 2009

Farmers' markets are important but inadequately studied contributors to local economies. They allow individual entrepreneurs and their families to contribute to the economic life of local communities by providing goods and services that are not readily available through formal, mass markets, and they bring producers and consumers together to solidify bonds of local identity and solidarity. Using data collected from 115 farmers' market vendors in three regions of New York in 1993, we examined the characteristics and operations of three categories of vendors: full-time growers, part-time growers, and non-grower artisans and craftspeople. Drawing on theories of mass production and mass markets, we show how farmers' markets represent intermediate social structures that bridge the formal and informal sectors of the economy.
Minnesota extension agents' knowledge and views of alternative agriculture
Authors: Paulson Deborah D.
Published: October 2009

I interviewed 19 county agricultural extension agents about their views of alternative agriculture as it is being promoted by sustainable agriculture groups in Minnesota. They varied considerably in how much they knew about it, their openness to it, and how heavily they were involved in it County extension agents share broad economic and environmental goals with sustainable farming advocacy groups, but many believe that agriculture is already working to meet those goals and are skeptical of the feasibility of alternative agriculture. Extension agents generally did not accept as realistic a primary social goal of sustainable agriculture advocates: maintaining the number of family farms. If county extension agents and sustainable agriculture groups in Minnesota are to work together for more sustainable agriculture, open discussion is needed on the goals of agriculture and visions for its future.
Västgötmodellen: Sweden's sustainable alternative for swine production
Authors: Honeyman Mark S.
Published: October 2009

In a harsh, northern climate and under restrictive animal welfare laws and a strict ban on the use of subtherapeutic antibiotics, Swedish pig farmers have developed a managementintensive system of pig production that relies on straw, the animals' natural behavior, group housing dynamics, and keen husbandry skills. The system is very efficient, with excellent pig reproduction and growth performance. The housing is simple and versatile. Called “Västgötmodellen” after the region in western Sweden where it was developed by farmers during the 1980s, the system now is successfully used on approximately 100 farms in Sweden. The system is specific to producing feeder or weanerpigs of 25 to 30 kg for feeding in more conventional European-style finishing units. Västgötmodellen may represent an agricultural system that is well adapted and economically competitive on modest-sized farms but not well suited for very large farms.
Intensive rotational grazing for dairy cattle feeding
Authors: Rust J.W. , Sheaffer C.C. , Eidman V.R. , Moon R.D. , Mathison R.D.
Published: October 2009

A 2-year study compared milk production and profitability for confinement feeding versus rotational grazing. Guernsey and Guernsey x Holstein cows grazed perennial grass pastures from mid-May to October or were fed in confinement. Averaged over both years, confined cows produced 7% more milk; their milk was similar in fat concentration to that of grazing cows. Body weight changes and health of the two groups were similar. Net return per cow averaged $64 higher for rotational grazing than for confinement because of lower costs for feeding, facilities, equipment, and labor. Intensive rotational grazing of pastures is a competitive alternative for dairy cow feeding. However, farmers in the northern U.S. will still require stored feeds from late fall through early spring.
Adopting multidisciplinary approaches to sustainable agriculture research: Potentials and pitfalls
Authors: Stark C. Robert
Published: October 2009

Multidisciplinary approaches are being attempted by agricultural research units along with their traditional single discipline approaches. Although single discipline research will still be needed, multidisciplinary approaches present special advantages.

The potential value of multidisciplinary approaches to sustainable agriculture research will be viewed differently by researchers with different perspectives. The participants in this symposium, all of whom were experienced sustainable agriculture researchers, identified five areas as keys for success. First, to capitalize fully on the opportunities it provides, there must be a justification for using a multidisciplinary approach for the specific research topic; while some projects work best with a multidisciplinary approach, others are best done within a single discipline. Second, everyone involved, including administrators, must invest time and money to establish communication between the disciplines. Third, careful attention must be given to forming and operating multidisciplinary teams effectively so that they generate shared benefits. Fourth, new sources of research funds will become available as agencies adopt multidisciplinary approaches, and revised systems will be required to administer those funds at the university or research unit level. Finally, major adjustments in the present systems for promotion, tenure and publication are necessary to properly measure and distribute credit.
Trap cropping to manage the red sunflower seed weevil in oilseed sunflower
Authors: Brewer Gary J. , Schmidt Gene
Published: October 2009

The red sunflower seed weevil,Smicronyx fulvusLeConte, is a major pest of sunflower in North and South Dakota and Minnesota. Typically, insecticides are used to reduce oviposition and prevent economically damaging larval populations from developing. In a test of a reduced-pesticide alternative, we planted early maturing sunflower in the margins around commercial fields of oilseed sunflower. The margins flowered earlier than the field interiors and acted as a trap for the red sunflower seed weevil. They were treated with an insecticide while the trap rows were blooming and before the field interior began to flower. Conventional fields entirely treated with insecticide served as checks. We compared the trap and check fields with regard to yield, the fraction of larval-damaged seeds, and economic costs (insect damage and the cost of insecticide materials and application). Yield and larval damage of seeds were comparable between check and trap fields. However, the economic costs of weevil control in the check fields was greater than in the trap fields. Trap cropping is a recommended strategy for the red sunflower seed weevil, especially where economically damaging populations of the weevil are expected.