bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
7 Air Control
Authors: Satia Priya
Published: May 2008

This chapter describes the surveillance technology the British devised, initially in Iraq, as a result of their conspiracy obsessions. The panoptical ambitions of “air control” followed from wartime experiences and the culture of British surveillance in the Middle East—the preoccupation with the region's inscrutability, lack of frontiers, multiplication of rumors and lies—all of which air control would theoretically turn to advantage. In theory, “terror” would enable it to minimize casualties. The chapter describes the regime's actual brutality, showing how cultural conceptions circulated by the agents—the chivalry of Bedouin, the tolerance of a biblical people—helped mute criticism of its inhumanity and inaccuracy, as did its cooperation with allegedly empathetic ground agents. Thus did aerial bombardment become a central part of British military practice. The RAF's dependence on the Middle East for its survival made it impossible for the British to leave Iraq even after Iraqi “independence.”
Failed Fathers: Personal Indulgence, Public Woe
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

At the height of Israel's monarchal and communal glory, King David soon gives way to indulgences both physical and familial. He yields to the lure of another man's wife, and covers up his adultery by having the husband killed. Worse, at least in terms of its effect on communal well‐being, is the wrongdoing of an indulgent father: son Amnon, who rapes a sister without reprimand from his father; son Absalom, who kills his brother Amnon and stirs rebellion in the kingdom with no word or action from his father; finally, son Adonijah, to whom David has never spoken a word of displeasure—a son who surreptitiously seeks the throne without his enfeebled father's endorsement. Just as Eli before him, David falters grievously as a father, with momentous negative consequences to the people he is supposed to be ruling. In the end, as David lies dying, we find a twist in the pattern that yields a culminating insight into David's character and an added confirmation of what God found in David that pleased the divine heart. The paternal indulgence pattern begins with Eli, whose two sons die (I, 2:12‐4:22), followed by David‐the‐father, whose son Amnon dies (II, 13:1‐29); son Absalom dies (II, 13:30‐19:15); finally, son Adonijah, with whom David finally deals firmly—a son whose death is not attributed to David's fatherly indulgence (1 Kings 1:5‐2:25).
Chiastic Conclusion: Warriors, Leadership, and Poetic Reflection
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

The final four chapters of the Samuel text are arranged with no regard for proper chronology but with great care as a conclusion. Here we find a chiastic pattern of repetition (ring composition) that gathers together and concludes major dramatic concerns of the whole story: contrast between Saul and David, particularly with respect to wrongdoing; David's leadership capacity (implicitly contrasted with Saul's); and, the happy synergy of David's God‐devotion and political acumen. This chapter deals with the middle two rings: Ring 2, David's Warriors & Leadership (II, 21:15‐22, echoed by Ring 2*, David's Warriors & Leadership (II, 23:8‐39); and Ring 3, Poem, God & Politics: Divine Assistance (II, 22:1‐51) echoed by Ring 3* Poem, God & Politics: Leadership (II, 23:1‐7).
Chiastic Conclusion: Final Contrast, Soul and David Sinning
Authors: Borgman Paul
Published: May 2008

The chiastic frame, rings 1 and 1*, bring the narrative contrast between Saul and David to a conclusive focus. The second part of the frame, ring 1* interlocks with a four‐part pattern of David's wrongdoing and response, emphasizing the centrality of the narrative concern with leaders doing wrongfully, at the expense of the community. Ring 1, Saul Sins: Blame, 3 Years Plague, Resolution (II, 21:1‐14) is echoed by Ring 1*, David Sinning, Blame, 3 Days Plague, Resolution (II, 24:1‐25). This latter (Ring1*) also concludes another major pattern, “David Sinning”: David Sins: (Abigail Confronts), I, 25; David Sins (Nathan Confronts), II, 11‐12:25; David Sins: (Joab Confronts), II, 19:1‐8; David Sins [also Ring 1* of chiastic conclusion] (David Confronts Himself), II, 24:1‐25.
Reference
Authors: Gundel Jeanette , Hedberg Nancy
Published: May 2008

The ability to produce and understand referring expressions is basic to human language use and human cognition. Reference comprises the ability to think of and represent objects (both real and imagined/fictional), to indicate to others which of these objects we are talking about, and to determine what others are talking about when they use a nominal expression. The articles in this volume are concerned with some of the central themes and challenges in research on reference within the cognitive sciences—philosophy (including philosophy of language and mind, logic, and formal semantics), theoretical and computational linguistics, and cognitive psychology. The papers in the volume address four basic questions: What is reference? What is the appropriate analysis of different referring forms, such as definite descriptions? How is reference resolved? and How do speaker/writers select appropriate referring forms, such as pronouns vs. full noun phrases, demonstrative vs. personal pronouns, and overt vs. null/zero pronominal forms? Some of the papers assume and build on existing theories, such as Centering Theory and the Givenness Hierarchy framework; others propose their own models of reference understanding and/or production. The articles examine reference from a number of disciplinary and interdisciplinary perspectives, informed by different research traditions and employing different methodologies. While the contributors to the volume were primarily trained in one of the four represented disciplines—computer science, linguistics, philosophy and psychology, and use methodologies typical of that discipline — each of them bridges more than one discipline in their work and their approach.
5 Rethinking the SMASH Approach to Pronoun Interpretation
Authors: Kehler Andrew
Published: May 2008

This chapter argues that the manner in which pronoun interpretation has been characterized by many psycholinguistic and computational linguistic studies over the last three decades — what is called here the SMASH procedure, for Search, Match, and Select using Heuristics – is untenable and therefore should be abandoned. Data are presented that are unlikely to be explained by theories based on interactions among superficial heuristics and preferences, and instead motivate an account in which the relevant interactions lie at the levels of information structure and discourse coherence establishment. The study sketches an analysis of this process, with reference to a set of key examples, although a more complete analysis will be left for future work.
6 Good‐Enough Representation in Plural and Singular Pronominal Reference
Authors: Koh Sungryong , Sanford Anthony J. , Clifton Jr. Charles , Dawydiak Eugene J.
Published: May 2008

When two individuals have been linked by a connective, a complex reference object is formed, and subsequent reference by plural anaphors rather than singular ones is preferred. Two reading time and one text change detection study were carried out to examine further the details of the representation of singular and plural objects under these circumstances. The normal conjunction cost associated with subsequently referring to one of the individuals by a singular pronoun is eliminated in circumstances where for the purposes of communication there is nothing to be gained from a singular/plural distinction. The findings fit with current views of shallow, good-enough processing, in which semantic distinctions in mental representations are only made when functionally necessary.
8 Reference, Centers, and Transitions in Spoken Spanish
Authors: Taboada Maite
Published: May 2008

The goal of this chapter is to examine the relationship between Centering transitions (Grosz et al., 1995) and choice of referring expression. For that purpose, analyses based in Centering Theory were carried out in two different corpora of spoken Spanish. The corpus analysis confirms reports in previous literature about what is the typical choice of referring expression. In some cases, however, the referring expression chosen violates expectation, or does not follow what other researchers have found (e.g. a proper name is used when a pronoun is expected). In those cases, the most likely explanation is that other constraints related to spoken language are at play (turn-taking and grounding).
9 Linguistic Claims Formulated in Terms of Centering A Re‐Examination Using Parametric CB‐Tracking Techniques
Authors: Poesio Massimo
Published: May 2008

Reliable techniques were developed to annotate corpora with the information to test several instantiations of Centering, and software that could be used to automatically compute CFs and CB of utterances according to a variety of proposals.These methods were then used to evaluate several claims concerning discourse topics. Support was found for a variant of proposals by Gundel, Hedberg, and Zacharski concerning when demonstratives will be used to realize a discourse entity. Secondly, it was found that the transitions in which CB=CP are most predictive of subject pronominalization. The third studyrevealed a clear, but not very predictive, correlation between segment boundaries and the use of `discontinuous' transitions in which one or both of the utterances have no CB. Finally, support was found for the claim by Hitzeman and Poesio that only entities that have been CBs serve as the antecedent of long-distance pronouns.
1 Orientation
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Cognitive Grammar represents one approach to cognitive linguistics, which in turn belongs to the functionalist (as opposed to the formalist) tradition in linguistic theory. Its central claim is that grammar is meaningful. More specifically, grammar forms a continuum with lexicon and is fully describable as assemblies of symbolic structures (form-meaning pairings). Lexicon varies with respect to the complexity of expressions and the degree of specifity of the meanings symbolized. Grammar varies along the same dimensions, being distinguished from lexicon primarily on the basis of being more schematic in regard to form as well as meaning. Cognitive Grammar is a usage-based approach, in which linguistic structure is seen as emerging by abstraction from usage events, i.e. the reinforcement of what is common across multiple instances of language use in interactive contexts. The theory is highly restrictive in what is posited, limiting linguistic units to structures that are either directly apprehended as parts of occurring expressions or else derive from such structures by the general cognitive phenomena of schematization and categorization.
2 Conceptual Semantics
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Without contradiction, linguistic meaning is seen as residing in conceptualization and as having a social-interactive basis. Conceptualization is fundamentally imagistic rather than propositional. Instead of there being a unique set of semantic primitives, there are different kinds of elemental conceptions, each basic in its own respect. Certain fundamental grammatical notions are semantically characterized both schematically, in terms of basic cognitive abilities, and prototypically, in terms of experientially grounded conceptual archetypes. Linguistic meanings do not reflect the world in any direct or straightforward manner, but rather embody particular ways of construing the situations described, often involving imagination and mental constructions. There is no specific boundary between linguistic and extralinguistic aspects of lexical meanings (which are better likened metaphorically to encyclopedia entries rather than dictionary entries), nor between semantics and pragmatics. Hence semantics is only partially (not fully) compositional. An expression derives its meaning by flexibly invoking an open-ended set of cognitive domains, i.e. concepts or conceptual complexes of any degree of complexity. These domains are connected in various ways, e.g. by overlap, inclusion, and metaphorical correspondences. There is no clear distinction between domains and mental spaces.
4 Grammatical Classes
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

The standard doctrine that basic grammatical classes (parts of speech) are not semantically definable rests on erroneous assumptions about the nature of linguistic meaning. With a proper view of meaning, basic categories—notably noun and verb—have plausible conceptual characterizations at both the prototype level (for typical examples) and the schema level (valid for all instances). The prototypes are based on conceptual archetypes: objects for nouns, and actions for verbs. The schemas are independent of any particular conceptual content, residing instead in basic cognitive abilities immanent in the archetypes: for nouns, grouping and reification; in the case of verbs, the ability to apprend relationships and to track their evolution through time. An expression's grammatical category specifically depends on the nature of its profile (not its overall content). Thus a noun profiles a thing (defined abstractly as any product of grouping and reification), while a verb profiles a process (a relationship tracked through time). Expressions that profile non-processual relationships include adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, infinitives, and participles. Relational expressions can be categorized in different ways, depending on factors like the number and type of focused participants, whether the profiled relation is simplex or complex, and whether it is apprehended holistically or sequentially. These characterizations prove efficacious in describing how relational expressions function as noun modifiers and in clausal organization.
9 Grounding
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

Grounding is the grammaticized means of relating the thing profiled by a nominal, or the process profiled by a finite clause, to the ground (the speech event and its participants). As narrowly defined, grounding elements make very fundamental specifications of a basically epistemic nature. Moreover, they construe the ground subjectively—leaving it implicit as the offstage locus of conception—with the profiled entity being the focused, onstage object of conception. Whereas a lexical noun or verb merely names a type of thing or process, a full nominal or finite clause designates and grounds an instance of the type. An instance differs from a type by being thought of as having a particular location in the domain of instantiation, one that distinguishes it from other instances. The profiled instance is not necessarily an actual individual, but may also be a virtual (or fictive) entity confined to a special mental space. A nominal referent is generally identified through a combination of description, which selects a set of eligible candidates, and grounding, which directs attention to a member of this set. Two basic grounding strategies are deixis (abstract pointing) and quantification. The deictic grounding elements—demonstratives and the definite article—are definite: they single out the intended referent independently of the content of the clause containing the nominal. By contrast, with indefinite grounding elements the referent is initially virtual, pending its identification by means of the clausal content (in the case of indefinite articles), or is necessarily virtual (in the case of quantifiers). Clausal grounding is less concerned with identification than with existence, i.e. whether or not an event occurs. For English the basic grounding elements are tense and the modals. The tense opposition present vs. past is a special case of the more schematic value of immediate vs. non-immediate (with respect to the ground). The absence of a modal indicates that the speaker accepts the profiled occurrence as part of the speaker's conception of reality. The presence of a modal indicates that it does not yet have this status, but is still a target for realization. The choice of modal registers the impetus for speaker control, which occurs on either of two levels: effective vs. epistemic control (corresponding to root vs. epistemic modals).
11 Clause Structure
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

A full clause profiles a grounded instance of a process type. Conceptual archetypes function as the prototypical values of basic clause types and clausal elements. Languages naturally differ in their implementation of this general characterization, and within a language clauses are varied and complex. Subject and object are defined schematically as trajector and landmark, i.e. primary and secondary focal participant. In most languages a particular semantic role represents the typical choice of trajector: either agent or theme (a patient-like participant). Each is the starting point along a natural path: the path of energy flow in the case of agent, and a path based on conceptual autonomy in the case of theme. In varied proportions and for different grammatical phenomena, every language makes some use of these two basic strategies. This is the basis for nominative/accusative, ergative/absolutive, and agent/patient organization. It can be argued that subject is a grammatical universal when defined abstractly in terms of primary focal prominence. In addition to the most typical clausal organization, every language offers a variety of alternatives for special purposes. Voice alternations (such as active, passive, and middle) pertain to the semantic role of the participant focused as trajector. The trajector can also be a non-participant, e.g. a setting or location. There is comparable variation in the choice of landmark, resulting in different kinds of objects. In agent-oriented languages, clauses which choose the theme as trajector represent an important secondary option. The verb of a clause is often complex. In addition to incorporating nominal or adverbial elements, the verb can exhibit layers of morphological derivation, be a phrase instead of a single word, or even consist in a series of verb-like elements.
12 Complex Sentences
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

The distinction between coordination and subordination is not clear-cut. The essence of coordination is the mental juxtaposition of structures construed as parallel and co-equal. Subordination has a number of dimensions, including form, the participation of one clause in the relationship profiled by another, and a clause's profile being overridden at the composite structure level. Constituency and profiling are often flexible, depending on factors like the size of clauses and their discourse function. The traditional division into adverbial, relative, and complement clauses is based primarily on how clauses are connected with one another. To the extent that these distinctions hold, they are based on semantic function rather than specific structural configurations. In the case of complements, the classic distinction between control and raising constructions is non-fundamental, the latter being just a special case of the former. Finite and nonfinite complements differ not just in form but in meaning and typical function. Predicates taking finite complements pertain to the epistemic status of propositions; those taking nonfinite complements pertain to the realization of occurrences. Complementation involves multiple conceptualizers and levels of conception. Different conceptualizers apprehend the same proposition each from their own perspective, assessing it with respect to their own conception of reality. Complement-taking predicates refer to different phases of this assessment. Impersonal constructions invoke a conceptualizer and the relevant scope of awareness in generalized fashion, suggesting that anyone would make the assessment under the circumstances.
13 Discourse
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: May 2008

A discourse consists of usage events, and in the usage based approach linguistic units are seen as being abstracted from such events. Discourse is fundamentally interactive and necessarily dynamic. Abstracted units retain these properties to varying degrees. At both the semantic and the phonological pole, discourse unfolds in a number of channels: objective content, information structure, speech management; segmental content, prosody, gesture. Discourse presupposes an elaborate conceptual substrate which supports and makes coherent what is overtly expressed. One facet of this substrate is the context, including the speaker-hearer interaction and the ongoing discourse itself. Another is the viewing arrangement, i.e. the relation between the interlocutors and the situation described. Also involved are speech acts, based on culturally recognized scenarios of linguistic interaction; while typically covert, these can also be expressed by clauses used descriptively or as performatives (actual enactments of the scenarios). Closely related are vocatives and other kinds of expressive utterances. Being used for many purposes, discourse occurs in many spoken and written genres. Depending on the genre, various levels and dimensions of organization can be discerned. Important in conversation is organization into attentional frames: intonation groups each representing a single window of attention. As discourse proceeds, a conceptual structure is built and progressively updated. Discourse is most effective when it follows certain basic principles of structure building. Grammar is shaped by discourse, and grammatical structures serve particular discourse functions. Grammar includes not only conventional patterns for assembling complex expressions but also established ways of applying them to the ongoing discourse. Grounding is often effected in this manner.
Introduction
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

Theater is necessary to human cultures in the way language and music are necessary. Theater pervades our lives and occurs whenever we practice the arts of watching or being watched, as in weddings, sports events, and public trials or executions. Art theater as developed in European cultures, however, plays to small audiences.
ONE Defining the Art
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

The first chapter proposes the hypothesis of the book: that the arts of theater are the art of making human action worth watching and the art of finding human action worth watching. Chapter 1 examines the purpose of definition in philosophy and explores the consequences of the definition of theater that it proposes, which includes a wide range of human endeavors, but excludes film and literature. The art of theater requires the presence of human action, but does not necessarily involve fiction or mimesis. Extreme theater and theater of presence can effect real changes in the lives of those involved. Theater need not be a fine art; that is, it can allow pedantry, utility, and other factors often thought inconsistent with the fine arts.
FIVE People Worth Watching: Characters
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

A character, in the art of theater, is a person worth watching, whether that person is fictional, historical, or actually present. Persons are worth watching if we are able to see them as agents with whom we can become emotionally engaged; they are carable about. A particular character takes his or her identity not from personal qualities or êthos, which is a universal, but from particular relationships with other characters. To be coherent, a character should act in ways that do not defy reasonable expectation (Aristotle's eikos), but characters may be reasonably expected to do unreasonable things. The most effective character is a “center of love,” who loves and is loved, and who has a past and pursues a future. This presents a problem for comedy, which often engages audiences through means other than character.
SIX Sacred Space
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

Theater is the heir of a tradition that makes spaces sacred for religious ritual; only people who have been consecrated may enter such a space without transgression, that is, without a violation of reverence. The art of theater divides the watchers from the watched by placing the watched in a measured or defined space, such as a stage, a sanctuary, or a playing field. Space is usually defined externally in theater, but it may be defined more fluidly by actors as they move, especially if they are seen as consecrated in such a way that they change the meaning of the space they enter. Transgression of performers into watching space, or of audience into performing space, can be electrifying, but only if it is seen as transgressive, and occurs only if the space has been fairly well defined at the outset. Powerful theater sometimes leads to an altar call that draws the audience into sacred space and converts them from watchers to participants, closing down the theatrical nature of the event while opening something new.
SEVEN Mimesis
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

Mimesis is an activity by which one thing produces at least part of the effect that another thing would naturally produce. In art theater, mimesis is what makes a performance have an effect on its audience similar to the one that real events would have. Music may be mimetic, but in a limited way. Mimesis in all cases involves duplicity—producing the double of something—and in theater and fiction it also requires the complicity of an audience. In some cases, mimesis involves modeling, as when a child models the behavior of a parent. Plato rejected mimesis in theater because he thought that modeling would corrupt actors who present weak or bad characters, and also because he held that mimesis of virtue threatens to lead an audience astray through duplicity. Plato is wrong on the first point, but partly right on the second, which will be addressed in Chapter 12.
ELEVEN Understanding Theater
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: May 2008

Understanding theater requires an emotional response, but different watchers have different responses depending on their experiences of life, their beliefs, and their personal qualities, so different watchers come to different understandings. It appears that only relativism would allow for different understandings of the same performance, but Chapter 11 argues that elements of a performance have certain emotion-engaging properties, and these are misunderstood by those who are not attuned to them.
The Dao and the Field
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Henricks Robert G.
Published: May 2008

For many years Robert Henricks has used the image of an untended field to help his students understand what the DDJ means by the Dao. Henrick's field is not a farmer's field but rather a natural field that is “barren and deserted in the winter but filled with a host of different wildflowers throughout the spring and summer.” This analogy leads naturally into discussion of such central Daoist themes as: the Dao's rhythmic cycles from tranquility to activity and back; the need to remain “rooted” in the Dao; the true nature of morality; and what the DDJ might mean by immortality.
The Daode Jing and Comparative Philosophy
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Hall David L.
Published: May 2008

This essay discusses the way the DDJ contradicts or even subverts many Western philosophic and religious assumptions about ontology, cosmology and the self. Where many Western philosophers describe being as “a common property or a relational structure” the DDJ seems not to posit any such “superordinate One to which the Many reduce.” Similarly, where many Western thinkers portray the self as a collection of competing and sometimes conflicting faculties (e.g. reason, appetite and will), the DDJ does not. Bringing students to an awareness of these differences is, David L. Hall argues, an excellent way to introduce them to the advantages of a comparative approach to philosophic reflection.
Mysticism In the Daode Jing
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , DeAngelis Gary D.
Published: May 2008

This essay outlines the way Gary D. DeAngelis employs the DDJ in a course on comparative mysticisms. Beginning with Ninian Smart's definition of mystical experience as a “state of consciousness where one ‘acquires a fundamental insight into the nature of reality,'” DeAngelis leads students into a discussion of how the DDJ responds to two basic questions: “What is the nature of ultimate reality?; and How may one experience that reality?” These questions lead students to explore basic epistemological issues as they come to a deeper understanding of what the DDJ may mean by saying that it is possible to “know” a Dao which is itself “unknowable.”
My Way: Teaching the Daode Jing at the Beginning of a New Millenium
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Girardot Norman J.
Published: May 2008

Reflecting on his own history of teaching the DDJ at American colleges and universities from the early 1970's through to the end of the 20th century, Norman Girardot describes scholarly and cultural changes that have had an impact on what he does in the classroom, especially his use of popularized presentations of the DDJ both as a way of opening students to the text, and as a reference point to be criticized once he has led them toward a fuller understanding of its historical and cultural context. Included is a discussion of the nature and role of performative ritual including a one‐day college‐wide phantasmagora called “Dao‐day.”
Hermeneutics and Pedagogy: Methodological Issues in Teaching the Daode Jing
Authors: DeAngelis Gary D. , Frisina Warren G. , Kirkland Russell
Published: May 2008

In this “contrarian” approach to reading he DDJ, Russell Kirkland argues that most textbooks do a credible job of presenting the DDJ as it has been inherited through both Confucian and Western conceptual lenses, but that such a view fails to see the Daoist as they saw themselves. He challenges students to “ponder the alienity of ancient China” before making assumptions about what the text is trying to accomplish. By focusing their attention on early Daoist religious practices, and the status of the DDJ as a Daoist scripture, Kirkland aims to cultivate in his students an appreciation for both the originary aims of the text and the way hermeneutical models are developed, challenged and clarified.
1 Cathay to Confucius
Authors: Nock-Hee Park Josephine
Published: May 2008

This chapter argues that Ezra Pound's multiple invocations of China were bound to his American ambitions. Pound struggled with Whitman to take on the mantle of American bard, but he turned to the Orient as a means of disciplining the homeland he had fled. Reading both Pound's early interest in Tang Dynasty verse in his Imagist poetry and his later devotion to Confucianism in the China Cantos, this chapter unveils an underlying desire to speak for and to America via the Orient that runs the length of Pound's career.
2 Beatific Orientalism
Authors: Nock-Hee Park Josephine
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines Gary Snyder's interest in the Far East as a mode of reclaiming a native sense of America. The fifties counterculture turned to the Orient in search of a subterranean America, and Snyder's advocacy of Zen presented a vision of the nation as a sacred environment. Snyder combined religious and environmental aims in a unified attempt to become an American bard, and this chapter considers the structure and durability of his cultural creation.
3 Beats and Bandits
Authors: Nock-Hee Park Josephine
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents a spectrum of poetic responses to American Orientalism by Asian American poets in the early years of the ethnic nationalist movement. Largely forgotten poets like David Hsin‐Fu Wand played native informant to both Pound and Snyder, but the Orient was a prisonhouse for activist poet Lawson Fusao Inada, who turned instead to African American and Chicano artistic influences. In reading the differing transpacific and American alliances imagined by Asian American artists, this chapter argues that a literary legacy of Orientalism exerted significant pressure on the formation of Asian American poetry.
Conclusion
Authors: Nock-Hee Park Josephine
Published: May 2008

The conclusion briefly elaborates the significance of American Orientalism in the formation of Asian American literature. By reconsidering the complex negotiation with Orientalism in the work of the figurehead of the ethnic nationalist movement, Frank Chin, this conclusion suggests the persistence and continuing significance of an Orientalist legacy for Asian American literature.
Reenvisioning Buddhism in the Late Ming
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter recounts the Buddhist revival in the late Ming. It first describes the institutional reorganization of Buddhism in the early Ming. Then the revival of Tiantai, Huayan, Yogacara, and ordination ceremonies in the late Ming was introduced. However, Chan Buddhism was not fully recovered because of the confusion of dharma transmission and divergence of Chan understandings.
The Literati and Chan Buddhism
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores how Confucian literati, especially Wang Yangming's followers, helped to reshape Chan communities through their reinterpretation of Chan teaching. The focus of this chapter is literati's textual spirituality and textual practice such as reading and writing Chan literature. It shows that Chan Buddhism first grew from the pro‐Chan literati culture and was promoted by the literati. Later, this intellectual movement influenced the monastic world and introduced Chan masters to Eastern Zhejiang.
The Rise of Chan Buddhism
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter describes the rise of Chan Buddhism by focusing on the Linji and Caodong schools and their leaders such as Miyun Yuanwu, Hanyue Fazang, Muchen Daomin, Feiyin Tongrong, Zhanran Yuancheng, Wuming Huijing, Yinyuan Longgi, Shilian Dashan, and Fang Yizhi. It shows that these prominent figures first rose under the patronage of the literati, and later their lineage spread all over China in the late Ming and early Qing. During the Ming‐Qing transition, many literati became monks.
Clashes among Enlightened Minds
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter introduces the first controversy between Miyun Yuanwu and Hanyue Fazang. It details Hanyue's understanding of Tathagata Chan, Patriarch Chan, and the perfect circle. The chapter also tells the story about the author's encounter with Miyun and his reluctant acceptance of Miyun's dharma transmission. This chapter lists all relevant polemical essays related to the controversy.
The Divergence of Interpretation
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores the disputed issues in the first controversy, which are: (1) using Chan principle as standard to test students' enlightenment experience, (2) the perfect circle as the origins of five Chan schools, and (3) proper understanding of encounter dialogues.The chapter explores the practice of dharma transmission, esoteric ritual, and encounter dialogue in 17th‐century Chan Buddhism.
The Debate about Tianhuang Daowu and Tianwang Daowu in the Late Ming
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

The chapter introduces the beginning of the second controversy in the late Ming. This dispute concerns the identity of Tianhuang Daowu and Tianwang Daowu in the Tang dynasty. The author summarizes all evidence and explains how the literati first discovered the issue. The key issue here is the use of evidential scholarship in determining dharma transmission. The controversy started with the publication of Muchen Daomin's Chandeng shipu, which relied on the spurious inscription of Tianwang Daowu.
The Lawsuit about Feiyin Tongrong's Wudeng yantong in the Early Qing
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the dispute about Feiyin Tongrong's Wudeng yantong (Strict transmissions of the five Chan schools). The chapter details the process of the debate and contents of various polemical books. In particular, based on a newly discovered collection of legal documents, the chapter explores how the lawsuit about Feiyin's book was judged by officials.
The Aftermath
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the aftermath of the second controversy after 1654 in China and Japan. In China, some Linji monks defended Feiyin and the Caodong monks opposed them. The center of controversy was the publication of Wudeng quanshu (Complete book about the five Chan schools), which is based on Feiyin's theory about the two Daowus. In addition, because Feiyin's disciple Yinyuan Longqi published Feiyin's Wudeng yantong in Japan, this book also influenced Japanese Buddhism.
Explaining the Rise and Fall of Chan Buddhism
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter explains the rise and fall of Chan Buddhism in the 17th century. The chapter shows that Chan Buddhism was revived through romantic imaginations of textual ideals and thus should be described as a reinvention. The literati and Chan Buddhists formed various kinds of textual communities that were devoted to reading and interpreting ancient Chan texts. However, the revived Chan Buddhism based on textual ideals contradicted the ritualized monastic reality in many ways.
The Pattern of Buddhist Revival in the Past
Authors: Wu Jiang
Published: May 2008

This chapter identifies the legacies of 17th‐century Chan Buddhism as expansion of Chan influence in Chinese culture and society, integration of monastic practice, and intensive networking by dharma transmission. The chapter argues that Chan Buddhism has a larger role in the history of Chinese Buddhism because it not only bridged the gap between Buddhism and Chinese culture and society and also unified the Buddhist world by systemizing monastic rituals and spreading dharma transmission. The reinvention of Chan also shows that there was a boundary within Chinese society to limit the growth of Buddhism and a general pattern of Buddhist revival can be discerned.
Introduction
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: May 2008

The introduction explains the notions of aesthetic and theoretical “mediations” of theology and locates the Renaissance and Reformation “paradigms” of theology in their historical context. The importance of this period for both religion and art are examined, and the method of procedure is explained.
The Protestant Reformation in the Church and the Arts
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the context of the Protestant Reformation and explores the centrality of the cross in the theologies of the Reformers, especially Luther and Calvin. Both Reformers espoused a form of the theory of Christ's “penal substitution” for sinful humanity in his suffering on the cross. The emphasis on the Bible as the “word of God” resulted in iconoclasm on the part of some Reformers, and a devaluation of the pictorial arts for others. Albrecht Dürer is presented as a transitional figure, showing elements of both late medieval devotionalism and of the new humanist approach in his many portrayals of the Passion. Lukas Cranach exemplifies the direct influence of Luther on art, both thematically and in technique.
The Cross in the Catholic Reformation and Counter‐Reformation
Authors: Viladesau Richard
Published: May 2008

The theology of the passion in the Catholic Counter‐Reformation is examined in the decress of the Council of Trent and in the Catechism written by Robert Bellarmine. The art of the early Counter‐Reformation is dominated by the figure of Michelangelo. His portrayals of the passion and crucifixion are studied in relation to the humanistic and theoretical emphases of the reform era. Michelangelo's “Mannerist” followers exemplify the new triumphal and affective emphases in Catholic theology in response to the Protestant Reformation.
Movements of Ritual and Sincerity
Authors: Seligman Adam B. , Weller Robert P. , Puett Michael J. , Simon Bennett
Published: May 2008

This chapter looks at different cultural examples of the tensions between ritual and sincerity over time. First, it discusses the interplay of law and love, Judaism and Christianity, and ritual and sincerity in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice. Second, it looks at the history of architectural ornament, which is ritual-like in its repetitions and rhythms and in its concern with boundaries and framing. Here the ritual/sincerity tension plays out typically as conflict between ornament and pedagogy. Iconoclasm is a core theme of this section. Finally, it compares the formal features of music to those of ritual. Like ritual, music is a way of establishing and crossing boundaries, and of ordering a messy world through techniques of intonation, rhythm, and ornament. The tension between ritual and sincerity culminates in 20th-century attempts to move beyond the conventions of tonality completely.
Introduction
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

To bring the conceptual structure of Augustine's doctrine of grace into focus one must avoid several common strategies for minimizing his Platonism, such as assuming that no philosophy or religion other than Christianity could have a concept of divine grace (which is false); treating faith as deeper and more ultimate than understanding (which is the opposite of Augustine's view); separating intellect from love or head from heart (which Augustine never does); and attributing to Platonism the view that happiness can be achieved by unaided human effort (which is quite contrary to Platonism's ontology of participation in the Good).
Pauline Grace
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

Augustine's doctrine of grace is modified by his reading of the apostle Paul in the 390s, when he realizes it can be difficult to will the good we want to will. The psychological order of salvation fits a four‐stage schema, in which we cannot wholeheartedly will or love the good until we reach the stage under grace. Where faith and merit fit in this schema is unclear until the treatise To Simplicianus, when Augustine concludes that the difference between the saved and the damned is ultimately due to divine election. For it is God who chooses to give unmerited grace to some sinners rather than others by means of a “suitable call,” an external word or admonition that God knows will unfailingly elicit the will's delight and free assent to believe. This attempt to reconcile grace and free will, illustrated by Augustine's own conversion narrative, will prove insufficient.
Conclusion
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

Aspects of Augustine's doctrine of grace that are worth being critical of include his belief in the human capacity for intellectual vision; his belief that intellectual vision sees more deeply than faith in the Gospel of Christ; his belief in a psychological order of salvation that begins at a particular moment of conversion to faith; his location of the power of prevenient grace within the soul rather than in external signs such as word and sacrament; his notion that we can find God by looking within the self; and his failure to see that God is other and external to the self because he is the God of the Jews, and that this is a blessing for all nations.
Outward Signs
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

Augustine invented expressionist semiotics, the theory that words and other bodily things are external signs that give expression to what lies within the soul. This theory of signs is quite different from Greek philosophical semiotics, which is a theory of empirical inference, not a theory of language or expression. Augustine's semiotics is rooted in his Platonism, which allows no external or sensible thing to have causal power over the inner realm of the soul. Consequently, Augustine thinks we learn nothing from words, not even from Scripture. Faith, for Augustine, means believing in the authority of external teachers or witnesses, which is useful so long as we cannot yet see for ourselves in the light of the inner teacher, which is Christ, the Wisdom of God. Like words, sacramental signs are inherently powerless, and cannot convey to us any inner thing. Hence, in contrast to medieval theology, Augustine has no place for sacraments as efficacious means of conferring grace and does not attribute life‐giving power to the flesh of Christ.
How Words Became Signs
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

Augustine's new Platonist theory of signs can be called “expressionist semiotics.” In this theory, lower things can be signs of higher things, and words are external signs expressing what is in the soul. The most important precursor for this expressive notion of signs is Latin theories of rhetoric, especially in Cicero, who treats bodily gestures as signs that signify and give expression to movements of the soul. In the semiotics of Augustine's treatise On Christian Doctrine, words are classified as “given signs,” which get their significance by expressing the communicative will of the soul. Such signs are needed after the Fall, when our bodies become mortal and opaque, and one soul cannot see into another. But by the same token, after the Fall words are often used to deceive, and despite their inherent powerlessness they can move us because of our inordinate attachment to external things.
Why We Learn Nothing from Words
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

According to Augustine's early treatise On the Teacher, we do not learn things from words or other signs. Real understanding comes from the inner teaching of Christ as divine Wisdom. Hence neither Scripture nor discursive proof gives us knowledge of God; such knowledge comes only through inner intellectual vision. Words are useful as admonitions or reminders directing our minds to look for the truth in a more inward and intelligible dimension of being. Likewise, faith is useful because while we are still learning we must trust the authority of external teaching until we can see with our own reason. Hence on Platonist grounds, we must believe before we can understand or see for ourselves. The great shift in Augustine's later relation to Platonism is his recognition that the authority of Christian teaching is not something Christians ever outgrow in this mortal life.
The Efficacy of the Church's Baptism
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

In his polemics against Donatism, Augustine makes a sharp distinction between the validity of the sacrament of baptism and the salvific efficacy of what it signifies. Efficacy is found not in the external sign but in the inner unity and peace of the church, outside of which there is no salvation. The efficacy of baptism, for both infants and adults, derives from the prayers of the one true church. Though the external sacrament itself is not efficacious, it is a necessary outward mark of this inner unity. Hence even infants are damned if they die without it, for all who are not united inwardly with Christ are united with Adam in the mass of damnation generated by original sin.
New Testament Sacraments and the Flesh of Christ
Authors: Cary Phillip
Published: May 2008

Augustine belongs with Calvin in denying that external signs can confer grace, in contrast to the medieval view, shared by Luther, which makes sacraments efficacious external means of grace. Because they do not take them literally, Augustine contends, Christians are less burdened by external signs and sacraments than the Jews are. Unlike the medieval theologians, when Augustine speaks of the virtue of the sacrament he means not its power but the piety it signifies. Even the flesh of Christ, for instance in the Eucharist, has no life‐giving efficacy because it is external.