bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Women in Economic Life: Rights and Opportunities
Authors: Johnstone Elizabeth
Published: June 2007

Women's role in economic life is changing under the impact of many forces. While discrimination and built-in prejudice against women in employment have been lessening in most parts of the world, in law and in practice, many eco nomic, social, and cultural factors and attitudes still place women at a disadvantage in the world of work and restrict their contribution unnecessarily and, in many cases, unfairly. A more constructive and imaginative approach is needed if women are to develop their potential, give of their best in economic life, and at the same time fulfill their other roles in society harmoniously. A first essential is more realistic and forward-looking vocational guidance and training for girls in the initial stage of preparation for work life. A second is a positive adaptation of society as a whole to the needs of women workers with family responsibilities of one kind or another. Women in developing countries will need new opportunities to participate in economic life as industrialization progresses. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) can help to promote equal rights and opportunities for women and to ensure them the social protection they need in relation to their special role of maternity and motherhood.
Access to Education at All Levels
Authors: Friderich Nicole M.
Published: June 2007

Even though women are enjoying ever increasing participation in the benefits of education, they are far from having reached an equal status with men. At the various levels of instruction, the situation varies considerably depend ing on the area of the world and the country. Whether it be a question of primary education, where as soon as it is possible to establish compulsory education, this largely solves the problem; or a question of secondary education, which, espe cially in the technical and professional domain, reflects more directly woman's role in society and its socioeconomic evolu tion; or a question of higher education, a relatively new con quest for women, who, except in a few countries, still tend to pursue quite traditional study programs—the proportion of women in education varies from a small percentage to half or more of the total numbers enrolled, always lesser in the rural areas and sometimes almost overwhelmingly large in teacher- training courses. The poor schooling of girls leads to a female illiteracy which is generally greater than that among men. The efforts at assuring literacy, which have begun to make inroads on this problem, must be intensified, just as the op portunity to enter increasingly varied programs of extracur ricular instruction must be made more readily available, for education is nowadays as much a duty for women as it is a right.
An Account of United Nations Action to Advance the Status of Women
Authors: Bruce Margaret K.
Published: June 2007

The foundation for United Nations action to advance the status of women was laid in the Charter adopted in San Francisco in 1945. The Commission on the Status of Women is the organ primarily responsible for United Nations work in this field. A number of international instruments have been adopted on the recommendation of the Commis sion, the most recent being the Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, approved by the General Assembly on November 7, 1967, by a unanimous vote. Of all the areas with which the Commission has been concerned, the greatest progress can be seen in the field of political rights. Equal educational opportunities for women is perhaps the major problem of many developing countries. Employment of women raises the question of their dual role and how to combine successfully the responsibilities of a family and those of a profession or occupation. Family law, closely bound to custom and tradition, is the area where change is perhaps most difficult to effect. The United Nations sets international standards to be applied at the national level. It is therefore important to disseminate those standards widely. Consider able assistance in this task is given by nongovernmental organ izations and by interested individuals. The United Nations hopes to launch in 1968 a long-term program for the advance ment of women in which all United Nations agencies will participate.
The Decline and Fall of the Double Standard
Authors: Smigel Erwin O. , Seiden Rita
Published: June 2007

The limited available information on premarital, heterosexual behavior of young people in the United States reveals that the changes in sexual behavior which took place in the 1920's have changed only slightly in the 1960's, and that this slow change is continuing. The belief that a gradual transformation is taking place (except in overtness) rests on a comparison of the early studies on sexual behavior, the data from attitudinal studies, researched from 1940 to 1963, and observations of the current scene. Conclusion: the double standard is declining but has not yet fallen.
Sexual Patterns in Three Ethnic Subcultures of an American Underclass
Authors: Rosenberg Bernard , Bensman Joseph
Published: June 2007

Three American ethnic subcultures, all consisting of transmigrated groups living in poverty, were studied and the sexual patterns of the youth described. The groups con sisted of white Appalachians living in Chicago, Negroes in Washington, D.C., and Puerto Ricans in New York. Sharply differentiated patterns of sexual behavior, involving conquest, sex education, sex misinformation, attitudes toward females, responsibility, and affect were discovered, and these patterns are reflected in the language of the subcultures, particularly in their argot. The underclass sexual mores differ from those of the American middle class, but not more than they differ from each other among the three ethnic groups. Sexual practices are related to general life styles, and reflect ghettoization, subcultural isolation, and short-range hedonism in groups only recently transplanted from their rural areas of origin.
The Implications of American Physical Abundance
Authors: Theobald Robert
Published: June 2007

The prime issue which divides the intellectual establishment at this point in time is not whether they support the Left or the Right but whether they assume that the future can and will be like the past or whether they are convinced that there must be fundamental change in order for mankind to survive. This article develops the thesis that basic alterations in our socioeconomic system are essential if we are to benefit from the potentials of the new technologies. It argues that the necessary alterations will be exceptionally difficult to achieve and endeavors to set out the possibilities and problems in achieving change. Now that automation and cybernation have provided the world-wide potential for adequate food, clothing, and shelter, our most urgent problem is to ensure that each person is provided with the resources which can be made available and also with a sense of security that the resources made available will not be withdrawn under any circumstances. The consequent economic security, coupled with community security and educational security, are shown to be peculiarly essential if man is to rise to the new challenges of the cybernetic era through growing understanding of the need for self-actualization.
Mental Illness, Alcoholism, and Drug Dependence
Authors: Demone Harold W.
Published: June 2007

In recent years, substantial federal interest has developed in mental illness, alcoholism, and drug dependence. Funds for research, training, preventive, and therapeutic programs are becoming increasingly available. Although epidemiological findings do not suggest any increasing rates of mental illness or alcoholism in this century, it is true that many more mind-altering drugs are available and that experimentation may be more widespread. More significant is an increasing awareness that these problems are not particularly social-class-linked. As a problem either permeates, or is acknowledged as affecting, the middle class, positive sanctions for programming are evident. The exercise of social controls, traditionally a police activity, becomes a more appropriate function for other social institutions. Medical definitions take precedence over the legal. The afflicted is perceived as ill rather than criminal. Alternative intervention programs are designed. Means for primary prevention are sought. The skills of the biological, physical, and social scientists and educators are brought to bear upon the problem. In varying degrees—for mental illness, alcoholism, and drug dependence could be placed on a continuum of relative enlightenment (mental illness) to non-enlightenment (drug dependence)—progress is being made. The contemporary American philosophical trend to treat problems pragmatically will eventually dominate. Defining all three as medical and social problems, legal and moralistic approaches are placed in perspective.
The Quality of Intellectual Discipline in America
Authors: Brameld Theodore
Published: June 2007

Four of the seven words of this title are controversial. The image of "America" has become blurred both toward itself and in the eyes of the outside world. Education on all levels is a barometer of this uncertainty. The term "intellectual" often suffers from superficial equation of "quality" in terms of burgeoning quantity. This is exemplified by heavy stress upon physical science and technology at the cost of the arts and human sciences; by high-pressure promotions of educational computerization; by recent American philosophy (for example, logical empiricism); and by comparative weakening of alternative philosophies especially as they bear upon education (for example, the classical and holistic-organismic). "Discipline," in turn, is more frequently judged by rigorous standards of measurable mastery than by alternative meanings—meanings that include both Eastern philosophies of inner discipline and Western conceptions of social discipline. The latter, in turn, points to modern processes of co-operative learning-teaching as well as to movements of student activism which, democratically understood, afford abundant resources for educational experience. Yet, granting certain advances, the grimmest of all problems remains unsolved: whether any such modes of "intellectual" and "discipline" are able to generate a "quality" of moral ends sufficient not only for troubled "America," but for a whole world of unprecedented peril.
Bad Manners in America
Authors: Vanderbilt Amy
Published: June 2007

The widely held contention that American manners are uniformly bad is not tenable. The very mobility of American society brings into sharp focus the bad manners of the minority, thus making bad manners seem to be the norm. The sharp delineations between classes are less important as proponents of exemplary manners and mores. The changes in etiquette frequently come from other sources. Higher education does not necessarily result in culture. Education and social grace are today not necessarily synonymous. The decline of the mother's influence in the home has meant the decline of what was once known as "ordinary" manners among America's children. Because of many economic pressures, we are living more simply, with less formality and a minimum restriction upon the family. The pattern of meal-taking has changed drastically. There is a blurring, too, of the difference between the sexes, with a resulting difference in our approach to manners between them. "Society" has taken on many meanings and is influenced by geography. Reduction in service has been one of the most striking changes in our society, along with a great change in our attitude toward language, from which "indelicacies" have virtually disappeared. The Negro revolution is making, and will continue to make, a great change in our manners and mores. The admission of new peoples into our social stream has made changes in our behavior. We have become increasingly forthright. Our etiquette is changing. When developing manners are deemed "bad," they are usually modified because bad manners make people uncomfortable.
The Stature of the American in the World Community
Authors: Benson Oliver
Published: June 2007

Concern of Americans with their world image has been persistent, attributed to a need for identification in a classless society and to a zeal for exporting the ideology of democracy. The salience of this concern is now heightened by the increased visibility of Americans abroad and the prominent role of the United States in all aspects of world affairs. In the aftermath of World War II, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) surveys showed that most foreigners had a highly favorable image both of Americans and of the United States. Criticisms of Americans and of American culture are noted and grouped into those typically made by Europeans, Communists, intellectuals of the emergent nations, and Latin-Americans. Impact of the Vietnam war has damaged the stature both of Americans and of the United States in most of the world.
The Federal Budget and Expenditure Control
Authors: Rinta Eugene F.
Published: June 2007

Experience over the past year with administra tion and congressional efforts to restrain federal expenditures has emphasized the need for better budget control procedures and mechanisms than now exist. Although expenditures can only be made on the basis of prior authorization of Congress, primary control of the levels of annual spending is exercised by the Executive. Item-veto authority would strengthen its con trol. Congressional control of a given year's expenditures through the conventional appropriations process is limited to a small portion of the total budget—about one-third of total for nondefense programs. Congress could increase its control over annual expenditures by adopting the practice of setting ceil ings on expenditures or at least on obligations, and preferably in conjunction with a single-package appropriations bill in place of the present multibill practice of appropriating. The making of decisions by the Executive and Congress on budget priorities, with respect to both the total and its individual parts, could be improved by creation of a program-evaluation commission. Finally, creation of a joint congressional budget committee consisting of a relatively small number of majority and minority members of the appropriations and tax-writing committees would encourage over-all budget decisions by the Congress instead of piecemeal decisions alone.
Budgeting for State and Local Government Services
Authors: Crihfield Brevard , Bell George A.
Published: June 2007

State and local governments have an increasingly important role in the solution of complex domestic problems. Despite improvements in many services and increasing tax efforts, urban-related problems are growing even more rapidly, and greater financial efforts must be made. State and local governments probably cannot bear this burden alone; federal assistance must be increased above already high levels. Im proved state and local decision-making and administration may accrue if less emphasis is placed on narrow categories of federal grants. Block grants, tax sharing, and tax credits are possible methods of providing greater flexibility in grant-ad ministration. The state and local governments must improve their own fiscal and administrative systems, and strong efforts are now being made in this direction throughout the nation.
The President: A Changing Role?
Authors: Furnas Howard
Published: June 2007

The manner in which the President discharges his foreign affairs responsibilities is likely to change markedly in the next few years, for the atmosphere of our national life is changing. The American mood will not be isolationist. However, the public may, for a number of valid reasons, call for a de-emphasis on foreign affairs. The foreign affairs agencies might then have to co-ordinate themselves, for the President may have neither the time nor the inclination to contribute as he has heretofore. It will also be essential to relate foreign policy more closely to the broader national scene, for in the 1970's foreign affairs will have to compete with domestic needs for resources as well as presidential attention. The President might, therefore, be better served in the future by a Secretary of State with broad national experience rather than by another of the foreign affairs specialists who have held the job in recent administrations. In the period since World War II, there has not evolved any generally satisfactory way of organizing the various foreign affairs agencies to meet the President's needs. President Johnson, however, took a major step forward in providing the Department of State with the legal authority to assert effective leadership over all aspects of American foreign affairs activities. Although the innovation has worked imperfectly so far, it is a good tool, and may be the key to an adequate foreign policy and diplomacy in the 1970's.
Organizational Imperatives
Authors: Martin Graham
Published: June 2007

For the turbulent, uncertain world of the 1970's, with the role of the presidency in foreign affairs more limited or less visibly centrally involved, revised organizational modalities become imperative. Foreign affairs staffing of the President should be sufficient to ensure that he is immediately informed of all significant events abroad, but should avoid overcumbersome organizational layers or overintense presidential involvement. This will require the State Department to carry out fully the responsibilities envisioned in National Security Affairs Memorandum (NSAM) 341. Given certain apparently immutable characteristics of American bureaucracy, this will necessitate return of the United States Information Agency (USIA) to the Department, which will give the Secretary of State line control over all major agencies dealing primarily with foreign affairs. It will be necessary to relieve the Secretary's enormous burden by converting the Department's second ranking position to one in which the incumbent can act as true alter ego of the Secretary; by creating a new position of Permanent Under Secretary as the third ranking Department position, where lines of policy and management can converge effectively; and by staffing other high-level positions with individuals capable of making the decisions required by the 1970's. The new President can further strengthen the State Department by giving his full support to the ambassador in his role of "the President's man."
People: The Squandered Resource
Authors: Bray Charles W.
Published: June 2007

There is widespread agreement among the members of the various foreign services of our government that they are not logically organized. Few innovations have been made in their structure in more than forty years, although there has been a major study of one or more of them every two years since World War II. The Foreign Service Act of 1946, drafted by members of the foreign service themselves and containing the only really successful innovations, has not been fully implemented, and the problems of organization and personnel-administration are increasing rapidly with the multiplication of our foreign services and the broader definition of "diplomacy" today. There should be a single Foreign Service of the United States, directed by an independent board analogous to the Civil Service Commission. In this way, uniform policy could best be assured, and an efficient and progressive personnel-administration could be designed to attract and hold good people in an increasingly competitive employment market.
Morale
Authors: Haselton Norris S.
Published: June 2007

Morale can have a significant effect upon the utilization and development of the human resources of diplomacy. For some time, morale in the Department of State and its Foreign Service has not been as good as it should be. A growing number of career officers have come to feel that proven ability and broad professional experience are at a discount as they see an increasing number of top jobs in Washington and appointments in the field going to political appointees and noncareer individuals. Another major morale factor arises from confused and ever-changing patterns of management and administration. This has resulted, in part, from excessive turnover in the Department's highest administrative position and from adoption of varying and sometimes contradictory recommendations made by many outside groups which have studied the Department and the Foreign Service since 1945. Stronger career incentives are needed if morale is to be brought up to desirable levels.
Education and Training for Our New Diplomacy
Authors: Ullman Richard H.
Published: June 2007

Because the conduct of international affairs is not a profession, but, rather, involves elements of many professions, there is no single path of education for careers within the foreign affairs establishment. Educational requirements must therefore not be looked upon as a bottleneck restricting access. For this reason, and others, there should be no national academy of foreign affairs. There are three principal varieties of educational experience which may aim specifically at education for the conduct of foreign affairs: preservice graduate training in a university, in-service government-sponsored training, and mid-career education generally (but not always) within universities. Each has its place. The first and last today confront a widening gap between the concerns of the academic social scientist and those of the outcomes-oriented practitioner. Such a gap is in the interest neither of the academic community nor, of course, of the government.
Dealing with Congress
Authors: Willis David K.
Published: June 2007

Vanished are the days when American foreign policy belonged exclusively to American diplomats. Today, diplomacy must be based solidly on the support, or at least the acquiescence, of the Congress, as well as public opinion. Capitol Hill is not "the enemy," as too many Foreign Service officers have tended to believe. Senators and representatives are busy men, "generalists" by necessity, who need information and assistance. Congress itself badly needs reform; but that cannot excuse the State Department from an intensified effort to explain what it is doing, and how its decisions are being reached. The Department must be persistent, sympathetic, and imaginative, bringing to bear the skills with which its officers analyze situations abroad. The Secretary of State should demand that all of his officers view policy-making through the eyes of the President. Senior men should not only keep in close touch with the key committee members in their own areas, but should obtain and consider legislative views as an indispensable part of their work. The Congressional Relations Bureau must be ably led and strongly staffed, though probably not enlarged to any great degree. These efforts will not lead to complete agreement all the time, of course; but American diplomacy is much too important to let slip the prospect of greater unity and in-depth support at home for what it is doing around the world.
Lessons of Vietnam
Authors: Critchfield Richard
Published: June 2007

One of the most urgent problems facing the next Secretary of State is how to develop a politically oriented counterinsurgency doctrine and a Foreign Service capable of implementing it, in which top priority is put on defeating political subversion, rather than the enemy's military forces. The United States military establishment has been somewhat discredited in Vietnam, not for failing to do its job, but because the State Department has failed to face and solve the problem of political subversion. This allowed Hanoi to apply successfully Lenin's principle of "exploiting internal contradictions in the enemy camp" to divide and weaken the American and South Vietnamese societies. From mid-1963 until its subversion was arrested and partly countered in mid-1968, Hanoi exploited a serious internal contradiction created by the seizure of state power in Saigon by a self-serving cabal of North Vietnamese refugees, thus effectively denying the South Vietnamese people the right to self-determination, although this was the political basis of the American war effort. The development of a successful counterstrategy, and the personnel to carry it out, will depend on the new administration's ability to understand the enemy—thinking, strategy, and tactics—and to assert supreme political authority in future counterinsurgency efforts, whether they occur in Vietnam, elsewhere or—and the same doctrine will have application—in the United States itself.
The Rise of the Child-Saving Movement: A Study in Social Policy and Correctional Reform
Authors: Platt Anthony
Published: June 2007

Contemporary programs of delinquency-control can be traced to the enterprising reforms of the child-savers who, at the end of the nineteenth century, helped to create special judicial and correctional institutions for the labeling, processing, and management of "troublesome" youth. Child- saving was a conservative and romantic movement, designed to impose sanctions on conduct unbecoming youth and to dis qualify youth from enjoying adult privileges. The child- savers were prohibitionists, in a general sense, who believed in close supervision of adolescents' recreation and leisure. The movement brought attention to, and thus "invented," new categories of youthful misbehavior which had been previously unappreciated or had been dealt with on an informal basis. Child-saving was heavily influenced by middle-class women who extended their housewifely roles into public service and emphasized the dependence of the social order on the proper socialization of children. This analysis of the child-savers offers an opportunity to examine more general issues in cor rectional research: What are the dynamics of the popular and legislative drive to bring "undesirable" behavior within the ambit of the criminal law? What problems are caused by "agency-determined" research? What are the practical and policy implications of research on politically sensitive institutions?
The Lessons of Norman House
Authors: Turner Merfyn
Published: June 2007

Norman House in London is the prototype of the halfway house movement, which works for the resettle ment of homeless offenders. Norman House originated in its founder's visits to a prison where he realized that homelessness was frequently a consequence of repeated imprisonment, and recidivism itself a disqualification for social help on discharge. What the inadequate recidivist was asking for was support and direction so that he could be a useful citizen. What he received, in fact, was advice and admonition and a couple of nights in a common lodginghouse, which amounted to a return ticket to prison. Norman House was started in 1954 as a small family home for twelve adult recidivists who wanted something better than the advice to go straight and the lodg inghouse where they were expected to start the journey. Nor man House was designed as a family home where the isolated offender could feel that he belonged. "Going straight" then began to have purpose because it was related to people who cared for him. What happened to him was a matter for concern to someone. This was the simple beginning of what is now developing into a national service. It is not without influence on developments in the United States, Canada, and Australia.
The Continuum of Corrections
Authors: Moeller H.G.
Published: June 2007

The work of the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice brought into sharp focus problems arising from the fragmented character of the criminal-justice system in the United States. State and local study groups which became involved in the development of plans for compreshensive criminal-justice systems must take into account recent developments in correctional services. The emergence of community-treatment centers, work-release, and furlough programs provides new opportunities to rein force the process of reintegrating the offender into the com munity. As the new programs have been introduced and corrections has broadened its base in the community, the traditional jurisdictional lines between probation, institutional services, and parole have become blurred. This poses an interesting range of organizational problems which will give impetus to a realignment of correctional programs. Reports of two studies—one in New York and one in New Jersey— tend to highlight some of the issues involved and suggest directions which might be explored by state crime commissions in other jurisdictions.
Designing for Change: Problems of Planned Innovation in Corrections
Authors: Bradley Harold B.
Published: June 2007

The major theme of the paper is the need to design correctional organizations that can respond to change. "Adaptive innovation" is defined as a reaction to a situation after the fact; it is the kind of innovation most commonly en countered in corrections. "Planned innovation" is defined as a response to a need in advance of the situation that actively demonstrates the need; it presupposes a system that is designed to respond to change. Several problems encountered in de signing for change are discussed. The writer sees the need for a design phase in program-development prior to the plan ning of specifics for action in order to ensure an eventual pro gram that is not based on unexamined concepts and contradic tory goals. Also necessary to innovative planning is an environment that protects planners from the decision-making world without isolating them from it. The need for research and evaluation of correctional practices is stressed. Tasks as contrasted with functions are seen as highly amenable to measurement and evaluation, and correctional organizations that emphasize task-orientation over functional performance are advocated. Lastly, the need to view change as a process rather than as isolated single events is emphasized. Correc tional organizations of the future must be designed on flexible forms that permit planned innovations in response to changing attitudes, values, technology, and laws.
Some Directions for Citizen Involvement in Corrections
Authors: O'Leary Vincent
Published: June 2007

Since the latter part of the 1950's, there has been a growing emphasis on bringing more citizens into cor rectional affairs. And yet, the extent of such involvement is relatively small. An important reason is a failure to recog nize the varying roles which citizens can play in corrections and the different strategies which must be employed to recruit them and maintain their participation. Four key roles can be identified: the correctional volunteer, those who work di rectly with correctional clients; the social persuader, persons of influence in the dominant social system who are willing to persuade others to support correctional programs; the gate- keepers of opportunities, custodians of access to important social institutions; and the intimates, members of offenders' traditional peer groups and their communities. Each of these roles induces supportive and resistant forces within the cor rectional system. These must be successfully manipulated if widespread citizen participation is to be achieved.
Deterrence and Corrections
Authors: Morris Norval , Zimring Frank
Published: June 2007

A commitment to corrections must not lead us to repudiate the notion of deterrence as a legitimate and often obtainable goal of criminal sanctions. Knowledge about de terrence can provide us with more rational means of crime control, and may well liberate corrections from the heavy burdens of unitary assumptions about deterrence and penal sanctions. The necessary beginning of a sustained explora tion of deterrence is the development of sensitivity to the differences in situation, audience, and goal which account for the great differences noted in the effects of threats on human behavior. A few distinctions basic to deterrence research are suggested by the authors.
The Generation Gap
Authors: Friedenberg Edgar Z.
Published: June 2007

The "generation gap" between youth and adults in contemporary American society reflects a real and serious conflict of interest rather than mutual misunderstanding. In an open, bureaucratic society, sanctions against nepotism and the attrition of property through inheritance taxes lessen the utility of each generation to the other: the young cannot suc ceed. Youth, moreover, is a discriminated-against minority in America—more seriously so than any ethnic minority. It is excluded from economic opportunity, and is seriously exploited by being forced to supply, as members of the Armed Forces, its services at a fraction of their market value. School atten dance is less obviously exploitive, but is as much a forced sub sidy of the social and economic system by the young as "an opportunity to invest in the future." Compulsory school at tendance, the juvenile court system, and the Selective Service System all operate as serious, age-graded constraints from which adults are exempt—these constraints, indeed, define youth as a social role. Informal and often abusive constraint by schools and law-enforcement officials exacerbate the conflict. The humiliation of, particularly, youth from the upper-middle and upper classes, especially those prone to dissent, is functional in preventing the disruption of a democratic society by the hostili ties of the "lumpenbourgeoisie."
Protest against the War in Vietnam
Authors: Guttmann Allen
Published: June 2007

Dissatisfaction with American policy in Vietnam has increased from early criticism by the Left to the point where nearly two-thirds of the people have expressed their disap proval. This dissent is undoubtedly one factor in President Johnson's decision not to seek re-election. Protest by the Right is based on the conviction that the Johnson administra tion has refused to seek "victory" in Vietnam. Protest from the Center and Left is more complicated. A useful, if some what arbitrary, categorization divides the arguments into two groups: those based on conceptions of national interest and those based on the alleged illegality and/or immorality of American actions. Within the first group, protestors have argued either that the war in Vietnam is not worth its costs in men and material or that it is simply unwinnable. Within the second group, there is a division between the many who are horrified by the means used by the Armed Forces and the few who reject the administration's ends (that is, a non-Commu nist South Vietnam). Within the smaller group is a still smal ler segment of the population ideologically committed to com munism. Finally, protest of all kinds must be seen within the context of a widespread dissatisfaction with American society, above and beyond the specific ills resulting from the present war.
Conflict in the Catholic Colleges
Authors: Hassenger Robert
Published: June 2007

The Catholic colleges, founded both to prepare immigrant Catholics to swim in the mainstream of society, and to provide them with a set of spiritual water-wings, that they might not lose their faith there, are experiencing the stresses of any institution which must accommodate itself to a milieu that no longer takes its definitions of reality for granted. Faced with increasing costs and a diminished distinctiveness of educational product, the Catholic institutions of higher learning must face difficult decisions involving both their via bility and their desirability. A number of key issues which must be resolved are discussed under the headings of "Clientele," "Religious Communities," "The Institutional Church," "Faculty and Administration," and "The Future." It is suggested that there is no necessary contradiction between the terms "Catholic" and "university," and that it is possible that, freed from the constraints of state legislatures and boards of regents, the Catholic colleges may be able to shake loose from the false professionalism now characterizing higher edu cation in America, drawing from a distinctive set of values and traditions to work against the fragmentation which is at the root of much that is wrong in the groves of academe.
The Federal Government and Protest
Authors: Mars David
Published: June 2007

During the late 1950's and the 1960's, the federal government took substantial action in dealing with injustices in the area of civil and political rights. Five major enact ments were processed in the years between 1957 and 1968, dealing with a variety of matters, including voting rights and open housing. The same kind of accomplishments cannot be reported, however, for legislation designed to deal with perceived injustices in the social and economic fields. This is true partly because of the inherent difficulty in legislating for these areas and partly because progress in such legislation must be preceded by major societal attitudinal changes and the mood of the United States public has become more con servative and cautious during the past few years. This conservatism stems, in part, from reaction to the various pro tests of the 1960's. Protest, then, must be viewed in its strategic dimension: it is necessary in order to demonstrate that a condition exists and in order to win support, but engaging in protest often alienates many, including the very people whose support is sought.
"The Times They Are A-Changin"' : The Music of Protest
Authors: Rosenstone Robert A.
Published: June 2007

Once a medium of vapid love lyrics, popular music in the 1960's has taken on a new seriousness. In the words of popular songs, young musicians have begun to express their alienation from and disdain for American institutions and mores. Part of this has taken the form of traditional attacks on war and intolerance. More significant, however, have been criticisms of the quality of life in an affluent society. In their music, youth have worried about such things as the impact of technology on man, the confused state of American sexual practices, and the repressive nature of supposedly democratic institutions. Affirming a strong faith in the freedom of the individual, song writers have turned their backs on pragmatic reality and have sought freedom in a transcendental exploration of man's internal reality. Part of this has been done with "mind-expanding drugs," and many songs have urged listeners on to the use of hallucinogens. For youth, music has come to serve the function of helping to define and codify the standards of their own subculture. And it has also put them in touch with more serious critiques of American life made by the intel lectual community.
Alimony
Authors: Ploscowe Morris
Published: June 2007

Money and property are weapons in the matrimonial war. A woman usually drives a hard bargain as the price for a divorce. There are limiting factors in the battle-ground over alimony, even where agreeable to the husband and wife. Most husbands and wives cannot afford divorces, but the wife makes the best bargain possible. In court, the judge has to decide how much money should be paid by the husband to the wife. Awards of alimony vary with individual cases and also with the philosophy of the judge. Alimony is a perquisite of wives legally married. Traditionally, it cannot be granted to a woman who has not been married, or if the marriage has been annulled. But even in annulments, the legislature frequently makes provision for the wife. Frequently, the husband and wife enter into a separation agreement which aids the court. The factors to be taken into account are many and varied. There are sharp disputes as to how much income and property the husband has. Alimony awards are not fixed and permanent. A court order may be changed if circumstances change, but generally there is no certainty in alimony arrangements. If the husband refuses to pay the alimony, the law provides the wife with many legal weapons. Is it desirable to continue the alimony system? Should alimony be granted for a specific period, for example, three years? Should the basis of alimony be the wife's net need, consistent with income and assets of the husband? Should not all divorce courts employ techniques to reduce the areas of disputes in awarding or modifying alimony?
The Family Desertion Problem across State Lines
Authors: Brockelbank W.J.
Published: June 2007

When fathers desert, families are left destitute, and have to depend on relief. For such situations, the welfare and public assistance departments of the fifty states pay out many millions of dollars each year. Given the fact that there is much diversity in the laws of the fifty states, both regarding obligation to support and regarding procedures entailed, and given the fact that the deserter usually goes to another state to avoid his obligations, how can the deserted family get support payments, and how can this drain on the public purse be prevented? This essay is concerned with the American solution to this problem.
Who Will Speak for the Child?
Authors: Coyne Thomas A.
Published: June 2007

It falls to the courts to decide whose ward a child will be when the family unit malfunctions. The failure may be caused by the death, disappearance, or physical or mental incapacity of the mother or father. The question of custody also arises when parental conduct conflicts with community values. But, whatever the reason for the failure, the courts have been granted broad discretion to decide custody according to the "best interests of the child." Many times, the custody award is made to depend on parental rights which have no relevance to a child's welfare. One of the factors which led to the creation of juvenile courts was a recognition that children need protection. Proceedings in these special forums, however, were not truly adversary. Recently, the Supreme Court of the United States has said that a child has the right to counsel in a delinquency hearing. Surely, if the child needs an advocate in a delinquency matter, his need is equally as great in a custody question, when the effect of the court's decision is to determine the child's environment while he develops into an adult.
American Laws Regulating the Formation of the Marriage Contract
Authors: Drinan Robert F.
Published: June 2007

American law regarding the formation of the marriage contract has not changed in any substantial way during the twentieth century. This body of law, which was generally adopted from English and ecclesiastical law, is, however, archaic in many respects. It contains impediments and inducements to marriage which violate basic human rights. Among the several reforms which should be introduced are the establishment of a nationally accepted uniform marriage registration act, the phasing-out of marriages which are neither valid nor void but voidable, and a new emphasis on the rights of minors and children. The most important modernization needed is a law to regulate the formation of marriage that is consistent with the law's approach to divorce and that responds to and reinforces those moral values which are a part of the consensus on marriage that exists in America.
The Utopian World of Juvenile Courts
Authors: Tenney Charles W.
Published: June 2007

Born in a period of great social reform, the juvenile courts of the United States promised a new deal for children caught up in the processes of criminal justice. For nearly fifty years, the courts were permitted to grow, and to develop, virtually without interruption, practices and facilities to comport with the philosophy of the court as a "social agency," designed not to punish but to help children in trouble. Examinations of the actual nature of the court and its procedures have, however, revealed that as a "social agency" the court remains largely an idea and an ideal. Its traditionally informal procedures, designed to reflect its noncriminal nature, have been criticized in recent Supreme Court cases. The resulting return to a more legalized approach may signal, therefore, a retrenchment in the work of the juvenile courts.
The Future of Family Law
Authors: Foster Henry H.
Published: June 2007

In the nineteenth century, marriage and divorce became matters of judicial cognizance. Ambivalence toward divorce is shown by the propensity of Anglo-American law to maintain a strict divorce law in theory, but to institutionalize divorce in practice, so that, in reality, divorce is readily obtainable when both parties desire it. Social change and a general rejection of hypocrisy have led to a reform of matrimonial law following World War II. Recent legal opinions agree on the necessity for reform, but differ concerning whether non-fault-grounds should be added to fault-grounds as a basis for divorce. Ferment and change are also occurring in laws concerning matrimonial property, alimony, and support. Juvenile courts may no longer deprive juveniles of due process on the theory that institutionalization is treatment for the good of the juvenile delinquent. Family law depends, in large measure, upon advances in behavioral science. However, the moral sense of the community is also a necessary element. Family law reflects changing social values and felt needs of the people, but there is a time lag between mores and law, which may be observed by noting the difference between "living law" and formal law. It is likely that legal aid and community legal services will give greater assistance to poor families with problems, and that welfare laws will eventually be changed in order to promote family stability.
The American Share in the Stream of International Payments
Authors: Roosa Robert V.
Published: June 2007

The United States position in the world economy has been changing fundamentally over recent years. The traditional large surplus accumulated through foreign trade disappeared in 1968. Gross capital inflows became as large as the proceeds of exports in that year. And the dollar declined in use as a reserve currency among central banks while its use expanded in private transactions outside the United States. Although the extreme shifts evident in 1968 may exaggerate the more lasting pattern of change, they do point to the need for a basic realignment of United States policies. In balance-of-payments adjustment, emphasis may have to be placed as heavily upon capital transactions as has been customary for trade transactions. The dollar may serve less as a reserve currency and more as an international-transactions currency. The Special Drawing Rights (SDR's) in the International Monetary Fund (IMF) should provide most needed future additions to official reserves. Changes in exchange rates should be expected to occur more frequently, but also in smaller size, to reflect the divergent paths of advance among rapidly expanding countries. United States foreign policies will have to be tailored to the relative shrinkage in the United States economic position within the world economy.
Community Action: Where Has It Been? Where Will It Go?
Authors: Kravitz Sanford , Kolodner Ferne K.
Published: June 2007

The authors describe the origins of the concept of co-ordinated action on behalf of the poor in the rise of Community Chests and welfare councils. The Ford Foundation Gray Areas Program and the demonstration programs of the President's Committee on Juvenile Delinquency provided the initial testing for the major themes later embodied in the Community Action Program of the Office of Economic Opportunity. Community-action programs are credited with already having wrought major changes in the social welfare structure of American communities, particularly in spreading service programs to previously unorganized areas, enhancing competence of program-managers, reaching downward into poor and nearly poor groups for additional sources of leadership, training new black leaders, and developing the concept of subprofessional employment. Community-action agencies continue to be plagued by such major problems as, on the national policy level, guaranteed income, housing, and employment, and, on the local level, appropriate levels for decentralizing power and programs, departure from traditional patterns of delivering services, development of effective professional and lay leadership, and management of large-grant programs. The authors conclude that CAP has already made an enormous contribution. Attention must be given to enhancing planning capability, improving management and fiscal responsibility, and developing national policies which undergird local action effectively.