bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
EVALUATING THE TEACHING OP INTELLIGENCE1
Authors: Jacobs Paul I. , Vandeventer Mary
Published: August 2014

Recent studies (e.g., Anderson, 1965; Jacobs & Vandeventer, 1968; Wittrock, 1967) have demonstrated that young children can learn, retain, and transfer general cognitive problem‐solving skills and strategies. In each case the instruction has been carried out in a laboratory‐like setting with fairly well‐defined procedures.

The success of these studies may lead to attempts to teach “intelligence” directly. This paper argues that a taxonomy of intelligence tasks is required to provide the dimensions for measuring transfer following teaching for intelligence. At the present time Guilford's Structure‐of‐Intellect model is considered too macrocosmic for this purpose.

A micro‐taxonomy was therefore constructed within the domain Guilford refers to as cognition of figural relations. First, 201 aptitude and intelligence tests were examined as possible sources of relevant tasks. Thirteen hundred thirty‐five test items were located and defined as our universe of interest. Twelve logical relations were derived for use in classifying these items. A manual written to explain these 12 relations was successful in communicating how they apply. The relations were adequate for classifying 95$ of the items in our universe. It was concluded that the taxonomy based on the 12 logical relations could be meaningfully used for evaluating attempts to teach the cognition of figural relations domain of intelligence.
COGNITIVE ORIENTATION AND DEFENSE MECHANISMS1
Authors: Kreitler Hans , Kreitler Shulamith
Published: August 2014

The purpose of these studies was to determine whether beliefs measured along four cognitive variables–Norms, General Beliefs, Beliefs about Self and Goals–are related to behaviors corresponding to the defense mechanisms of rationalization, denial and projection. Study I reports the construction of a questionnaire of beliefs and the testing of its adequacy in terms of interrelations between the scores, homogeneity, reliability and validity. Study II describes three behavioral measures of defenses, administered after a series of frustrations, and provides data confirming the hypothesis that only scores representing the distributions of beliefs along all cognitive variables, but not each cognitive variable separately nor an overall distribution of beliefs regardless of variables, are predictive of behavior.
COLLEGE FRESHMAN ATTITUDES TOWARD CHEATING
Authors: Centra John A.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study was to study characteristics of students with lenient attitudes toward cheating and to identify the types of colleges that tend to enroll these students. The student sample consisted of 1500 entering freshmen at 37 colleges, while the analysis by type of institution was conducted with 119 colleges and universities. Students with lenient attitudes toward academic cheating shared similar attitudes about cheating in government and industry. Furthermore, these students, compared to other students, tend to be less academically motivated, have fewer artistic‐literary interests, and come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Institutions that enrolled students with strong attitudes against cheating, and thus provided less of a climate for cheating, were generally more selective, all‐female, and small in size. These same types of institutions, according to previous research, also have lower cheating rates.
THE IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION OF COLLEGE EFFECTS ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT1
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Centra John A. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

A sample of 6855 students from 95 colleges was used in an attempt to identify groups of colleges with students showing high achievement relative to initial aptitude. College means on the Scholastic Aptitude Test obtained at college entrance were used as a control measure for differences in initial aptitude. Student achievement was measured by college means on the Graduate Record Examination Area Tests obtained from the same students as upperclassmen. Measures of college characteristics were used to form subgroups of colleges.

Although the correlations between the aptitude means and the achievement means were quite high, certain college characteristics, particularly college income per student and the proportion of faculty with a doctorate, did distinguish high achieving groups of colleges from low achieving groups.
THE AGE VARIABLE IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH1
Authors: Wohlwill Joachim F.
Published: August 2014

This paper examines the manner in which age is treated in the design and conception of developmental research, and the dissatisfaction with its status as a concept and its use in research. This is attributed to the widespread tendency to consider age as an independent variable, comparable to others employed in differential research, and to study age differences rather than age changes. An alternative view is presented, which treats developmental questions as analogous to other phenomena involving changes in behavior over time. Age is looked at as a dimension along which behavior changes are to be traced, forming part of the definition of the dependent variable in developmental studies. This dependent variable is to be defined in terms of specified aspects or parameters of the function describing the changes which occur with age for a given behavioral variable. Implications of this view for developmental research are brought out, with particular reference to problems of description and quantitative analysis of developmental change, to the application of the experimental method in developmental research, and to the study of individual differences in the context of developmental change.
A GENERAL METHOD FOR ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE STRUCTURES WITH APPLICATIONS: PART I: GENERAL METHODOLOGY*
Authors: Jöreskog K. G.
Published: August 2014

A general model and an associated method of data analysis are presented. It is assumed that observations on a set of response variables have a multivariate normal distribution with a general parametric form of the mean vector and the variance‐covariance matrix. Any parameter of the model may be fixed, free or constrained to be equal to other parameters. The free and constrained parameters are estimated by the maximum likelihood method. Approximate standard errors and confidence intervals for the estimated parameters may be obtained by computing the inverse of the information matrix. The adequacy of any specific model contained in the general model may be tested by the likelihood ratio technique, yielding a large sample chi‐square test of goodness of fit.

Great generality and flexibility are obtained, in that a wide range of models is contained in the general model by imposing various specifications on the parametric structure of the general model. Part II of this paper deals with applications to various problems mainly from the field of psychology. In part I the general model is dealt with purely formally without reference to any particular specialization or application of it. Expressions for first‐order derivatives and expected values of second‐order derivatives of the likelihood function are derived, and the method of maximizing the likelihood function is described.
A COMMENTARY ON KERLINGER'S STRUCTURAL THEORY OF SOCIAL ATTITUDES1
Authors: Zdep S. M. , Marco G. L.
Published: August 2014

Kerlinger's structural theory of attitudes is analyzed, and some of the implications of the theory are examined. Initially, Kerlinger's generalization from educational attitudes to the whole domain of social attitudes is questioned. In addition, Kerlinger's conclusion that social attitudes are multidimensional is shown to be an artifact of his definition of “attitude.” Moreover, it is pointed out that the factor analytic results obtained by Kerlinger cannot be interpreted as evidence against the bipolarity of attitudes. Finally, in terms of implications for attitude measurement, it is suggested that the relevance as well as the affect of items be assessed.
CARDIAC RESPONSIVITY TO TACTILE STIMULATION IN WAKING AND SLEEPING INFANTS1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Dodd Cornelia , Harwitz Marcia
Published: August 2014

The role of state in determining a psychological or physiological response is not disputed. However, a few studies using neonates and young infants have paid much attention to this variable. This study was designed to investigate state differences in the newborn's cardiac response to a tactile stimulus. The results indicated: (1) the infant when asleep showed significantly different cardiac response than when awake. This replication demonstrates that an infant's state must be considered in any work using heart rate response. (2) In the present study, six cardiac response parameters were observed and it was clear that not all these measures of the cardiac response yield similar results and that the response parameter E chooses to use will determine the degree of habituation found and the nature of the response curve. (3) In general, there were differences in habituation between the waking and sleeping infant.
SELF, VALUES, AND AFFECTS: DERIVATIONS FROM TOMKINS' POLARITY THEORY1,2
Authors: Carlson Rae , Levy Nissim
Published: August 2014

Tomkins' polarity theory (1963b, 1965) proposes that ideologies in many domains may be described in terms of a very general humanistic‐normative polarity and rest upon more basic loosely organized “ideo‐affective postures” reflecting cognitive‐affective dynamics derived from socialization experiences. Tomkins' theory provided the basis for three empirical studies exploring the personality context of ideo‐affective postures. In Study 1, the humanistic‐normative polarity (assessed by “taste” or “smell” imagery) was significantly‐related to interpersonal versus individualistic bases of self‐conception and of value hierarchy in 202 Negro College students. Study 2 systematically varied affective imagery and social‐personal orientation and found both variables significantly related to judgments of facial expressions of emotion in an initial study and in a replication (Ns = 40). Study 3 found humanistic‐normative affective imagery related to students' (N = 20) affective responsiveness in a science education class. The results of all three studies offer clear support for Tomkins' formulation by demonstrating the role of ideo‐affective postures in organizing personal judgments and choices and encourage further inquiry on basic cognitive‐affective dynamics in personality.
A BAYESIAN SOLUTION FOR SOME EDUCATIONAL PREDICTION PROBLEMS
Authors: Lindley D. V.
Published: August 2014

The paper considers a single college selecting students from a variety of high schools. It criticizes the usual statistical analysis and proposes an alternative procedure which uses more efficiently all information that is present in the system. The bulk of the paper consists of a mathematical appendix in which some general theory is developed which, it is expected, will be of value in studying other more complex prediction systems besides the one discussed here.
ANALYZING SCHOOL EFFECTS: ANCOVA WITH A FALLIBLE COVARIATE1 (GROWTH STUDY PAPER #32)
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

The analysis of covariance method has been employed as a means of controlling for input when studying the differential impact of schools on students. The interpretation of such results is confounded by unreliability in the input measures which may result in spurious findings because in effect input has not been completely controlled. Some of the logical and statistical problems in dealing with covariate unreliability are discussed.
THE PATH ANALYSIS OF CATEGORICAL DATA*
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

Consideration of the model equations for analysis of covariance and analysis of variance indicates that these methods can be expressed in terms of a regression equation which then can be interpreted by the technique of path analysis. The heuristic advantages of this procedure and the necessary assumptions are discussed.
GENERALIZATION OF A THEOREM BY JOHN VON NEUMANN ON THE TRACE OF CERTAIN MATRIX PRODUCTS1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

In 1937, John von Neumann gave a theorem on the maximum of the real part of the trace of a matrix product Z1A1Z2A2 where A1,A2 are fixed complex matrices and Z1,Z2 run independently over all unitary matrices. The theorem is extended to admit analogously tr Z1A1 … ZnAn, n > 2. The Proof is not related to von Neumann's method. Four seemingly different, but in fact equivalent, versions of the result are given. These differences stem from initially requiring Aj to be real diagonal as well as from considering separately the maxima of the absolute value, the real part and the imaginary part of tr Z1A1 … ZnAn. An application is given by way of illustration.
A NOTE ON CERTAIN PROPERTIES OF THE REGRESSION METHOD FOR ESTIMATING COMMON FACTOR SCORES1
Authors: Pennell Roger
Published: August 2014

An alternative derivation of the regression method for estimating common factor scores is presented. The method provides an estimate of the unique factor scores which is used in estimating the common factor scores. Certain relations to canonical factor analysis are discussed as well as certain properties of the resulting estimates.
THE PREDICTION OF SPELLING DIFFICULTY: I. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND A PRELIMINARY STATEMENT OF A MODEL TO PREDICT SPELLING DIFFICULTY1
Authors: Cahen Leonard S. , Craun Marlys J. , Johnson Susan K.
Published: August 2014

A review of the literature has led to the first phase of a model to predict spelling difficulty from stimulus properties of words and various cultural and psychological aspects of language. The model does not incorporate dimensions of individual differences among learners or methods of instruction. A tentative list of 23 predictor variables to be used in the model has been compiled.
LINEAR MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING OF CHOICE1
Authors: Bechtel Gordon G. , Tucker Ledyard R , Chang Wei‐Ching
Published: August 2014

A multidimensional scaling analysis is presented for replicated layouts of pairwise choice responses. In most applications the replicates will represent individuals who respond to all pairs in some set of objects. The replicates and the objects are scaled in a joint space by means of a linear model which assigns weights to each of the dimensions of the space. Least squares estimates of the replicates' and objects' coordinates, and of unscalability parameters, are obtained through a manipulation of the error sum of squares for fitting the linear model. The solution involves the reduction of a three‐way least squares problem to two subproblems, one trivial and the other solvable by classical least squares matrix factorization. The analytic technique is illustrated with political preference data and is contrasted with multidimensional unfolding in the domain of preferential choice.
ANTECEDENTS AND PATTERNS OF ACADEMIC GROWTH OF SCHOOL DROPOUTS1
Authors: Evans Franklin R. , Patrick Cathleen
Published: August 2014

In an attempt to better understand the phenomenon of early school leaving (“dropping out”), relationships among several areas of academic achievement (STEP) and ability (SCAT) and early school leaving were investigated. The study focused on early identification of school dropouts using ability and achievement measures and growth from fifth to seventh grade as measured by difference scores on several achievement tests.

The dropouts were found to be about a year older than their classmates in the fifth grade and to score significantly lower on several ability and achievement measures in the fifth grade. No evidence was found to support the hypothesis that data relating to a student's academic growth from fifth to seventh grade would significantly increase the ability to predict future dropouts, or that patterns of academic growth were different for dropouts and nondropouts.
GENERALIZATION OF “A THEOREM CONCERNING THE REARRANGEMENTS OF TWO SETS”1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

The range of the function tr ZΓZ*Δ is determined when Γ and Δ are real diagonal matrices and matrix Z with hermitian transpose Z* varies unrestrictedly over the group of unitary matrices. Two equivalent versions of the result are given. The real case (Z restricted to be real orthogonal) is considered separately. Further specialization of the matrix argument yields a “very simple, but important,” theorem on rearrangements of two finite sets of real numbers. Two applications are appended by way of illustration.
THE LEARNING AND TRANSFER OF DOUBLE‐CLASSIFICATION SKILLS: A REPLICATION AND EXTENSION
Authors: Jacobs Paul I. , Vandeventer Mary
Published: August 2014

A previous study by Jacobs and Vandeventer had shown that first‐graders could learn the skill of double‐classification with color and shape relationships in a half hour or less of individualized instruction. When some details of the training task were altered in an intuitively compelling way to test for transfer, it was found that the trained Ss could also handle double‐classification problems with shading and size relations. Since the transfer dimensions had been selected somewhat arbitrarily, subsequent work by Jacobs and Vandeventer mapped out a universe of relations within which transfer could be more meaningfully assessed. The universe consisted of combinations of 12 basic relations. The primary purpose of the present research was to assess transfer from the training procedure of the earlier study within this universe. Subsidiary purposes were to evaluate the effects of more extensive training and to investigate the effectiveness of different trainers.

Experiment 1 was concerned with certain preliminary methodological issues. Thirty‐one first‐grade boys and 30 first‐grade girls were tested on a series of 57 double‐classification problems involving 11 different kinds of relations. Learning effects within the testing series were found to be inconsequential. The type of relation had a significant effect: double‐classification tasks using size relations were easiest.

In Experiment 2, 57 Ss, matched for pretest score, were randomly assigned to either regular training (with shape and color the relations to be learned, as in the previous study), extended training (with shape, color, shading and addition the relations to be learned), or control (no training) groups. Within each of the training groups, Ss matched for pretest score were assigned at random to either Trainer1 or Trainer2. Posttests were administered covering a stratified random sampling of all possible pairs of the 12 basic relations. “Build‐a‐matrix” tasks were also administered in which S had to put four or more pieces missing from the same matrix into their correct position.

As in the earlier study, regular training Ss significantly outperformed control Ss on shape and color matrices. Their superior performance also transferred throughout the universe of relations. Extended training produced significantly more transfer than regular training. Neither trained group, however, showed transfer to the build‐a‐matrix task with new relations. The two trainers did not differ in effectiveness.

Three months later retention testing was carried out. Transfer effects for regular and extended training were found to hold up. Transfer was also found to Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices, which was administered for the first time at this stage of the experiment. The implications for the trainability of intelligence are discussed.
A BAYESIAN SOLUTION FOR SOME EDUCATIONAL PREDICTION PROBLEMS, II
Authors: Lindley D. V.
Published: August 2014

In a previous paper (Lindley, 1969) the problem of a single college selecting students from a variety of high schools was discussed and a statistical solution provided in the case where all the variances were known, as part of general development of Bayesian least squares. The present paper removes the rather unnatural constraint on the knowledge of the variances, thereby providing a more realistic statistical basis for a single college's prediction system.
ON METRIC MULTIDIMENSIONAL UNFOLDING
Authors: Scho̎nemann Peter H.
Published: August 2014

The problem of locating two sets of points in a joint space, given the Euclidean distances between elements from distinct sets, is solved algebraically. For error‐free data the solution is exact, for fallible data it has least squares properties.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SETS OF CONGENERIC TESTS*
Authors: Jo̎reskog K. G.
Published: August 2014

Various models for sets of congeneric tests are considered, including models appropriate for the analysis of multitrait‐multimethod data. All models are illustrated with real data. The special cases when two or more tests within a set are tau‐equivalent or parallel are also considered. All data analyses are done within the framework of a general model by Jo̎reskog (1969b).
CONSIDERATIONS WHEN MAKING INFERENCES WITHIN THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE MODEL1
Authors: Werts Charles E. , Linn Robert L.
Published: August 2014

The Implications of the dummy variable form of the analysis of covariance are explored, especially the consequences of violating the assumption of independence between treatments and covariate.
A LATENT STRUCTURE MODEL FOR ANSWERING PERSONAL QUESTIONS1
Authors: Damarin Fred
Published: August 2014

A latent structure model for answering true‐false questionnaire items is shown to predict a circular ordering among some MMPI scales that were used in a recent study by Wiggins and Lovell (1965). A circular ordering can be demonstrated, but certain systematic departures from the predicted effects also occur. The data suggest the operation of three latent traits: self‐descriptive accuracy, favorable bias, and a tendency to endorse items that are neutral in the sense of being unrelated to the other two traits. Alternative interpretations of the results are discussed together with suggestions for further research.
CONFORMITY, ANTICONFORMITY, AND INDEPENDENCE: THEIR DIMENSIONALITY AND GENERALITY1
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J. , Messick Samuel , Jackson Douglas N.
Published: August 2014

This study examined the dimensionality of responses to group pressure and their generality across procedures employing different kinds of social situations and experimental tasks. Two group pressure procedures were based on the Asch situation (counting clicks and responding to attitude items), and two procedures involved questionnaires with fictitious average answers (estimating probabilities of events and responding to attitude items). Conformity, anticonformity, and independence responses on each of these four procedures were factor analyzed, separately for subjects unsuspicious about the deceptions employed in these devices and for suspicious subjects. Conformity and independence appeared to represent a bipolar dimension, but anticonformity seemed to be a distinct dimension. These responses were not consistent across procedures; the devices functioned differently, particularly for the unsuspicious subjects.
THE USE OF CONFIDENCE TESTING IN OBJECTIVE TESTS
Authors: Echternacht Gary
Published: August 2014

Confidence testing has been used in varying forms over the past 40 years as a method for increasing the amount of information available from objective test items. This paper traces the development of the procedure from Hevner's beginning method up to the various methods in use today and describes both the testing procedures and scoring methods used. The term confidence testing is applied to both probabilistic testing and confidence weighting procedures. Various procedures are presented and their relationship with personality factors discussed.
TEACHING STYLES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF DIMENSIONS AND EFFECTS
Authors: Baird Leonard L.
Published: August 2014

An exploratory model of teaching behavior as a role contract is proposed. The model consists of three subject strategies–the didactic, generalist, and researcher strategies, and the dimensions of student response, ambiguity, and warmth. Indices designed to measure the dimensions in the model were developed and related to various criteria in a large sample of two‐year colleges and students. These criteria included faculty ratings, students' sense of progress, satisfaction, and college achievements. The indices were related to these criteria in plausible ways, the generalist, researcher, and warmth indices typically having positive relations, and ambiguity having negative relations.
AN EMPIRICAL BAYES PROCEDURE FOR FINDING AN INTERVAL ESTIMATE
Authors: Lord Frederic M. , Cressie Noel
Published: August 2014

A numerical procedure is outlined for obtaining an interval estimate of a parameter in an empirical Bayes estimation problem. In the particular problem considered, each observed value X has a binomial probability distribution depending on the binomial parameter Z, where Z has an unknown distribution. For each x, the parameter estimated is ε(Z|x = x), the “posterior” mean. Illustrative numerical results are presented.
A FIELD STUDY OF NONVERBAL CREATIVITY1
Authors: Ward William C. , Warren Patricia A.
Published: August 2014

Creative products submitted in response to a contest were examined to discover whether creativity was related to the sex and socioeconomic status of the respondent and whether characteristics of the objects could be specified which would predict their level of rated creativity. No sex difference was found, but socioeconomic status was significantly associated with creativity for those objects to which at least a moderate amount of effort had been devoted. Ratings of the objects on several simple dimensions proved effective in predicting rated creativity. Judges differed on which dimension best predicted their creativity ratings, but differences between subsets of the objects were of greater importance than individual differences among judges in determining the bases on which the ratings were made.
AN EVALUATION OF FORCED‐CHOICE AND TRUE‐FALSE ITEM FORMATS IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT1,2
Authors: Jackson Douglas N. , Neill John A. , Bevan Ann R.
Published: August 2014

In a comparative evaluation of a standard true‐false format for personality assessment and a forced‐choice format, subjects from college residential units were assigned randomly to respond either to the forced‐choice or standard true‐false form of the Personality Research Form (PRF). All subjects also rated themselves and the members of their residential units on behavior traits corresponding to the PRF scales. Reliabilities of the scales comprising the true‐false form were substantially higher than those in the forced‐choice form. Peer rating validities for the true‐false and forced‐choice forms were in a comparable range, but correlations with self‐ratings were higher for the true‐false form. Results do not support the contention that for personality scales a forced‐choice format is consistently more valid than a standard format. Considering the other advantages of the true‐false format, including its freedom from the complicating effects of ipsative scores, the use of this format is recommended for the great majority of applications in personality assessment.
FIVE‐ AND EIGHT‐YEAR‐OLD CHILDREN'S RESPONSE TO AUDITORY AND VISUAL DISTRACTION1
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Stevenson Edward E.
Published: August 2014

This study assessed 5‐ and 8‐year‐old children's performance on a short‐term memory task under two auditory and two visual distraction conditions, as well as under a nondistraction condition. Performance under nondistraction was found to be superior to that under distraction (p < .001), indicating that the extraneous stimuli had a generally detrimental effect on performance. The comparison between nondistraction and distraction did not interact significantly with age, suggesting little developmental change in distractibility over this age range. The data also indicated a reduction in the effects of the distractors following their initial presentation, implying an adaption to the presence of extraneous stimulation.
THE EFFECT OF A RECIPROCAL DECISION RULE ON DECISIONS FOR ANOTHER PERSON1
Authors: Teger Allan I. , Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

Subjects made decisions on a gambling task where the outcome would affect their own payoff or the payoff of another person. For the latter, decisions were made reciprocally or nonreciprocally, and for a friend or a stranger. Decisions for others were significantly more cautious when the subject believed that the other person was making reciprocal choices which would affect the subject's payoff than where no reciprocity was involved. Degree of friendship with the other person had no effect on the level of caution chosen for him. Subjects deciding for self more closely resembled subjects in the nonreciprocal than in the reciprocal condition in terms of chosen risk levels, but overall differences were of relatively small magnitude. The enhanced caution in the reciprocal relative to nonreciprocal condition was attributed to a desire to insure at least a modest payoff for another who might benefit the self. It is conjectured that caution in such circumstances serves the function of guilt avoidance.
CREATIVE ABILITY OVER A FIVE‐YEAR SPAN1
Authors: Kogan Nathan , Pankove Ethel
Published: August 2014

Fifth‐grade middle‐class children whose levels of associative creativity had been assessed with the Wallach‐Kogan tasks were retested on identical and similar tasks five years later in 10th grade. In the smaller of two school systems employed in the research, 10th‐grade creativity data were obtained by an individual examiner; in the larger system, group administration was employed. Substantial stability in ideational productivity and uniqueness scores over a five‐year period was observed for males in the setting of group administration and for females in the context of individual testing, Creativity and IQ, which were unrelated at 5th‐grade level, remained unrelated for females at 10th grade, but became positively correlated for males. Multiple regression analysis indicated that 5th‐ and 10th‐grade creativity and 5th‐grade IQ accounted for approximately half of the variance in extracurricular activities in the smaller school system. Predictability was considerably poorer in the larger school system. A possible interpretation of the differential predictability across school systems is offered in the paper.
TRANSFER OF TRAINING IN DOUBLE CLASSIFICATION SKILLS ACROSS OPERATIONS OF GUILFORD'S STRUCTURE‐OF‐INTELLECT MODEL1
Authors: Jacobs Paul I. , White Margaret N.
Published: August 2014

The present study was undertaken to assess whether training that was known to produce transfer within the Cognition of Figural Relations (CFR) domain of Guilford's Structure‐of‐Intellect model would also produce transfer to other operations in Guilford's model. Fifty subjects, matched for pretest score on a double classification task, were randomly assigned to either training (with shape, color, shading and addition the logical relations to be learned) or control (no training) groups. Within the training group, subjects matched for pretest score were assigned at random to either of two trainers. Training was given both on CFR and NFR (Convergent Production of Figural Relations). Posttests were administered covering CFR, NFR, DFR (Divergent Production of Figural Relations) and EFR (Evaluation of Figural Relations).

As in previous studies, training subjects significantly outperformed control subjects in CFR with both taught and untaught logical relations. The two trainers differed in effectiveness. For the better trainer, transfer was obtained within NFR and to EFR, but not to DFR or to Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices as a measure of CFR. Transfer effects held up three months later.
AN EVALUATION OF THE FEASIBILITY OF CONFIDENCE TESTING AS A DIAGNOSTIC AID IN TECHNICAL TRAINING
Authors: Echternacht Gary J. , Sellman Wayne S. , Boldt Robert F. , Young Joseph D.
Published: August 2014

This report describes a study to determine the feasibility and the cost‐effectiveness of using confidence testing as a diagnostic aid in technical training programs. Two types of confidence testing, Pick‐One and Distribute 100 Points, were developed for comparison to conventional multiple‐choice testing. The study was carried out in two technical training courses, Aerospace Ground Equipment Repairman (AGE) and Jet Engine Mechanic (JEM), currently being taught at Chanute Air Force Base, Illinois. The criteria for feasibility included end of block examination grades, number of student remediational sessions, and both student and instructor attitudes. In addition, the relationship of various personality variables to confidence test scores was examined for both types of confidence testing. The major finding was that while scoring was somewhat more time consuming, end of block examination grades improved slightly and the number of remediations required declined slightly when either confidence testing method was employed. Other areas of investigation produced essentially null results.
POWER SCORES ESTIMATED BY ITEM CHARACTERISTIC CURVES1
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

A method for estimating power scores is described. By way of illustration, it is applied to 21 students who were improperly timed on a standard test. Some empirical results are given in support of the estimation procedure.
BEYOND STRUCTURE: IN SEARCH OF FUNCTIONAL MODELS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESS1
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

This paper emphasizes the need to go beyond structural models of personality and intellect to develop sequential models of psychological process, particularly for such complex phenomena of prime concern to theory and application as learning, problem solving, and creativity. It is further argued that factor analysis, in a multitude of studies of cognition and personality over the past fifty years, has already delineated many relevant process variables that might serve as components in these sequential models.
EFFECTS OF MODELS OF CREATIVE PERFORMANCE ON ABILITY TO FORMULATE HYPOTHESES1
Authors: Frederiksen Norman , Evans Franklin R.
Published: August 2014

The effects of sex, verbal ability, test anxiety, ideational fluency and training procedures on Formulating Hypotheses test performance were studied. Training consisted of presentation of models of “acceptable” responses that stressed either quantity or quality of performance. Both the quantity and quality models were effective in modifying behavior in the expected direction. Ideational fluency was related to number of responses, and verbal ability was related to scores reflecting quality. Females were in general superior to males with respect to scores reflecting quantity of responses. Test anxiety was not significantly associated with performance. Weak evidence of treatment‐anxiety and sex‐vocabulary interactions was found.
DIMENSION REDUCTION ANALYSIS
Authors: Hall Charles E.
Published: August 2014

In multivariate analysis of variance the canonical variates of one effect may be correlated with the canonical variates of another effect. When the two effects are an interaction and a main effect this correlation interferes with the interpretation of the main effect. When the two effects are both main effects the interpretation of the common canonical variates could provide interesting insights into the data. This paper discusses a procedure by which one effect can be examined independent of the significant canonical variates of another effect.
A CLASSIFICATION SCHEME FOR METHODS OF USING STUDENT DATA TO ASSESS SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS
Authors: Marco Gary L. , Murphy Richard T. , Quirk Thomas J.
Published: August 2014

In this paper twelve different methods of using student data to assess school effectiveness are classified and described. A rationale for the classification scheme is developed based on (a) one‐shot, cross‐sectional, or longitudinal data and (b) the presence or absence of a comparison group; and symbolic codes for the twelve methods are given. Examples of each method are presented together with a brief discussion of some of the key issues surrounding the use of the method.
THE ASSESSMENT OF A TREATMENT EFFECT WHEN A COVARIATE IS OBSERVED ON A SUBSET OF THE UNITS: I. SIMPLE ESTIMATORS
Authors: Rubin Donald B. , Weisberg Sanford
Published: August 2014

Consider a completely randomized experiment with two groups, say treatment and control, and a covariate X that has been observed on a subset of the units. The objective is to estimate τ, the treatment effect on the variable Y which is recorded for all units. Although the average Y difference in the two groups, , is unbiased for τ, it is common to try to use X to increase the precision of the estimate of τ by forming a covariance adjustment, especially if the correlation between X and Y, ρ, is large. If X is not fully observed it is not clear whether to and/or how to form the covariance adjusted estimate. In addition to , we consider two covariance adjusted estimates of τ, which ignores the units without X, and which fills in group means for the missing values. We compare the three estimators' variances and find the conditions under which each estimator is best.
AN ALGORITHM FOR THE POSTERIOR DISTRIBUTION OF THE CELL MEANS IN A TWO‐WAY UNBALANCED MANOVA
Authors: Rubin Donald B. , Stroud T. W. F.
Published: August 2014

When the prior distributions for the grand mean, row effects, column effects and interaction effects are all independent, with that for the grand mean being flat, the posterior expectation and covariance matrix of the cell means (under a Gaussian model) in a 2‐way MANOVA may be obtained via a special matrix inversion technique which offers a great saving in storage and computation time. An APL program and example are presented.
CONTROLLING ITEM EXPOSURE RATES IN A REALISTIC ADAPTIVE TESTING PARADIGM
Authors: Stocking Martha L.
Published: August 2014

In the context of paper and pencil testing, the frequency of the exposure of items is usually controlled through policies that regulate both the reuse of test forms and the frequency with which a candidate may retake the test. In the context of computerized adaptive testing, where items pools are large and expensive to produce and testing can be on a continual basis, new strategies are required. This paper discusses the popular randomization strategy for controlling item security and a less well known probabilistic approach due to Sympson and Hetter. Extensions are developed to the Sympson and Hetter approach to make it more relevant for modern adaptive testing. Examples are given of the application of the randomization approach and the extended Sympson and Hetter approach.
SOME FORMULAS FOR USE WITH BAYESIAN ABILITY ESTIMATES
Authors: Mislevy Robert J.
Published: August 2014

Relationships between Bayesian ability estimates and the parameters of a normal population distribution are derived in the context of classical test theory. Analogues are provided for use as approximations in work with item response theory. The following questions addressed:

• What is the relationship between the distribution of the latent ability variable in a population, and the distribution of ability estimates?

• Because calculating Bayesian estimates typically requires knowing the population distribution, how should one proceed if it is not known?

• What if Bayesian ability estimates have been calculated in accordance with a common population distribution, but it is later desired to estimate the distributions of specified subpopulations?
USING THE SELECTION VARIABLE FOR MATCHING OR EQUATING1,2
Authors: Wright Nancy K. , Dorans Neil J.
Published: August 2014

This paper addresses whether we can improve equating results if we know the variable that accounts for all systematic differences between equating populations and use it as either an anchor in an anchor test design or as a variable on which to match equating samples. The sample invariant properties of four anchor test equating methods (Tucker and Levine equally reliable linear models, chained equipercentile and frequency estimation equipercentile models) under three sampling conditions, “representative”, “matched on equating test”, and “matched on selection variable” are examined. The “selection variable” is defined as the variable or set of variables along which subpopulations differ. In addition to being used for matching of subpopulations, the selection variable was used as an anchor for the four equating methods, and compared to equatings in which the equating test served as the anchor. All equatings were performed with either real Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) populations or with data drawn from simulated pseudopopulations which differed from their original real SAT populations on the basis of the selection variable. The tests used were the verbal and math portions of two forms of the SAT. The criteria for accuracy were equivalent‐groups equipercentile equatings based on old and new form subpopulations of over 115,000 test takers.

Results showed that matching on the selection variable improved accuracy over matching on the equating test for all methods. Compared with the representative sample equatings, Tucker and frequency estimation results improved with matching on the selection variable; chained equipercentile and Levine results were similar under these two sampling conditions. Results with the selection variable as an anchor were good for both the Tucker and frequency estimation methods; chained equipercentile and Levine results were quite unacceptable as anticipated since use of the selection variable – math scores for the verbal equatings and verbal scores for the math equatings – violated assumptions of these models.

The positive results obtained for use of the selection variable as a matching variable or anchor test (for some methods) suggest that future research into the reasons test takers select certain test administrations may lead to improved test score equating practices.
ON THE RELATIVE VALUE OF MULTIPLE‐CHOICE, CONSTRUCTED‐RESPONSE, AND EXAMINEE‐SELECTED ITEMS ON TWO ACHIEVEMENT TESTS1
Authors: Lukhele Robert , Thissen David , Wainer Howard
Published: August 2014

Using analyses based on fitting item response models to data from the College Board's Advanced Placement exams in Chemistry and United States History, we found that the constructed‐response portion of the tests yielded little information over and above that provided by the multiple‐choice sections. These tests also allow examinees to select subsets of the constructed‐response items; we found that scoring on the basis of the selections themselves provided almost as much information as did scoring on the basis of the answers. Finally, we found that the chemistry test was too difficult for its primary goal, but that this could be at least partially corrected by taking into account information in the wrong answers to the multiple‐choice items.
A RESEARCH PLATFORM FOR INTERACTIVE PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT IN GRADUATE EDUCATION
Authors: Sebrechts Marc M. , Bennett Randy E. , Katz Irvin R.
Published: August 2014

This report describes development of a new tool for assessment research in graduate education. The tool, the Algebra Assessment System, is based on GIDE, a pre‐existing program that diagnostically analyzes complex constructed responses to algebra word problems. The project had three goals. The first goal was to build a generically usable interface for presenting performance tasks and collecting answers in machine‐readable form. This program makes the data gathering and analysis process more efficient and permits examinees to respond in the computerized environment in which GRE Program offerings will be delivered. Second, the range of problems scorable by GIDE was increased to demonstrate the feasibility of automatically analyzing complex constructed responses across a broadened domain. Finally, minor faults in GIDE's analysis mechanism were corrected. Together, these improvements constitute a tool that can be used (1) in future research to permit stronger inferences to operational computer‐based testing environments and (2) as the basis for an eventual interactive performance assessment prototype for graduate education.
USES OF THE SECONDARY LEVEL ENGLISH PROFICIENCY (SLEP) TEST: A SURVEY OF CURRENT PRACTICE
Authors: Wilson Kenneth M.
Published: August 2014

The Secondary Level Proficiency (SLEP) test, offered by the SLEP School Services Program (SSP) at Educational Testing Service (ETS), measures English language listening comprehension and reading comprehension skills. It was developed for use with nonnative‐English speaking students in grades 7‐12. SLEP is administered and scored locally, and the SLEP program does not receive routine feedback from local test users. The work described herein was undertaken to obtain formal feedback from a sample of SLEP users by means of a survey questionnaire. Questionnaires were mailed in April, 1991, to over 300 potential SLEP‐use contexts worldwide (addresses of individuals, institutions or agencies placing orders for the SLEP or related materials within the most recent 18‐month period). Although the return rate was relatively low (71 usable returns), the distribution of the returns by general institutional type and location was similar to that of the total sample. Survey findings provide information regarding testing practices, purposes of testing, selected characteristics of examinees (age/grade level, language background, and so on), test‐users' perceptions of the principal strengths and limitations of the SLEP and/or the SLEP Test Manual (and suggestions for modification), the extent and nature of local studies concerned with validating the SLEP, and so on. Implications of the findings for SLEP‐related research and development activities are discussed.
AN EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION OF THE IRT INFORMATION IN POLYTOMOUSLY SCORED READING ITEMS
Authors: Donoghue John R.
Published: August 2014

One natural question about polytomous items (which yield responses which can be scored as ordered categories) concerns the information contained in the items; how much more information do polytomous items yield? Using the generalized partial credit IRT model, polytomous items from the 1991 field test of the NAEP Reading Assessment were calibrated with multiple choice and short open‐ended items. The expected information of each type of item was computed.

On average, four‐category polytomous items yielded 2.1‐3.1 times as much IRT information as dichotomous items. These results provide limited support for the ad hoc rule of weighting k category polytomous items the same as k‐1 dichotomous items for computing total scores. Comparing average values, polytomous items provided more information across the entire proficiency range. Polytomous items provided the most information about examinees of moderately high proficiency; the information function peaked at 1.0 to 1.5, and the population distribution mean was 0. When scored dichotomously, information in the extended open‐ended items sharply decreased. However, they still provided more expected information than did the other response formats.

For reference, a derivation of the information function for the generalized partial credit model is included.
INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS IN TIME TO THE DOCTORATE
Authors: Stricker Lawrence J.
Published: August 2014

The aim of this study was to delineate departmental differences in the length of time that doctoral students take to receive their degrees and the institutional characteristics linked with it, being as comprehensive as possible in the institutional characteristics examined and disentangling the confounding effects of student characteristics. Variables describing graduate departments in three disciplines (Chemistry, English, and Psychology) and their parent universities were obtained from available records. In analyses of departments in each discipline, a relatively small set of institutional variables correlated with average time to the doctorate for the department, after controlling for characteristics of students in the department, and these relationships differed from discipline to discipline. The clearest and most extensive findings emerged for Psychology: the institutional variables identified primarily concerned faculty accessibility (student/faculty ratio and department size)—longer time for departments with many students per faculty member or many students. Student characteristics accounted for about half of the departmental variation in time in each discipline.