bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What is an Ecodisaster?
Authors: Cloudsley-Thompson John L.
Published: August 2009

The term ‘ecodisaster’ may be defined as ‘a global catastrophe of the human species’. Any ecodisasters occurring in the near future will, almost certainly, be caused, directly or indirectly, by the present overpopulation of the world, accompanied by unwise and irresponsible disregard of environmental deterioration.

The suggestion is made here that Man's first and, it is to be hoped, last, ecodisaster may already have begun. Although not dramatic, it is taking the form of a steady decline in the standard of living nearly everywhere, coupled with massive pollution, and widespread malnutrition in the under-developed countries of the world. It will persist until world population eventually becomes adjusted to environmental resources.

It is ironical that control of the pests and diseases which have inflicted so much misery on mankind in the past, should have helped to engender the present population explosion with all the hunger and privation that accompany it in the under-developed regions of the world.
Connections Between Climate and Desertification
Authors: Hare F. Kenneth
Published: August 2009

The widespread fear that the Earth's deserts are spreading was reawakened by the major 1968–73 drought in Sahelian West Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, and parts of Kenya. There appears, however, to be no firm evidence that a permanent desiccation of the arid zone is in progress. Instead, the evidence suggests that ‘desertification’—defined as the spread of desert surfaces, regardless of cause—results more immediately from faulty land-use practices and their interaction with prolonged natural drought episodes.

Desertification appears to be a process of degradation of grassland, scrub, or savanna, ecosystems under the impact of overstocking or excessive cultivation. During periods of desiccation there is widespread destruction of perennial vegetation, compaction of soil (especially near watering places), and deflation of fine materials (wind erosion).

Such surfaces are lighter-coloured than native vegetation, and reflect more sunlight. This may enhance atmospheric subsidence, and hence intensify drought. Loss of surface organic litter may also act as a positive feedback for drought.

Prediction of such episodes is at least some years away, but three possibilities exist for such prediction: use of cyclical variations, where present; time-lagged teleconnections; and general circulation modelling.

Reduced infiltration in some arid areas, combined with excessive withdrawals in others, have lowered both shallow alluvial and deep fossil ground-water tables—in some areas to the point at which stock water-supply can no longer be maintained.
Reclamation of the Sahara
Authors: Cloudsley-Thompson John L.
Published: August 2009

Arab oil money is currently being invested in agricultural development of the Sudan. To halt desert expansion and to develop arid regions are different problems, however. The former could not be achieved without stronger political and sociological measures than would be acceptable to the inhabitants. The latter may be financially rewarding, but agricultural schemes may be attended by considerable risks that are often overlooked until too late.

It is argued that small improvements may prove to be sounder investments than grandiose schemes, and that the latter, if adopted, should always be tested by experimental pilot projects prior to any wide implementation.
The Impact of Development Projects on Estuarine and Other Wetland Ecosystems
Authors: Elkington John B.
Published: August 2009

Wetlands represent significant reservoirs of wildlife and natural diversity, in addition to any role which they may play in underpinning the productivity of river, estuarine, and offshore, fisheries. Various campaigns have been mounted to publicize their value and plight, but it is argued that the pressures for development and economic growth are often such that the ecological issues are obscured.

The biology of the estuarine environment is discussed as a first step to evaluating the impact of pollution and land-use policies. The impacts of urban, agricultural, and recreational, uses of wetland areas are reviewed, with particular reference to wetland ecosystems in Third World countries.

The paper concludes by arguing that the estuarine environment needs to be considered as a single ecosystem, and that an understanding of the carrying capacity of a given environment is a necessary precondition for sound management policies. The destruction of natural resources in the process of development planning effectively inflates the costs of that development, emphasizing the need for an ecological basis for planning decisions. The importance of experiment in evaluating alternative land-use options (such as intensive fish-farming) is stressed, and a simple model for ecologically sound development is proposed which could apply to Lake Manzala, in the Arab Republic of Egypt's Northern Wetlands.
Simple Techniques for Monitoring Footpath Erosion in Mountain Areas of North-West England
Authors: Coleman Rosalind A.
Published: August 2009

Very precise measurements of the movement of coarse-textured, unconsolidated materials may be meaningless. Therefore the study of individual processes operating on footpaths may require a different approach. However, for identification of changes of reasonable dimensions, methods such as those described above are inexpensive, quick, and require no technical expertise. It may be argued that, for path management, erosion that is too limited to be measured by these methods is too limited to be a problem. It can certainly be argued that the problem of spatial correlation implies a large number of measurements. What is lost in lack of precision may be more than compensated for by the gain in data from the larger area and wider variation in site-types that it is possible to monitor with such simple techniques.

To monitor the effects of recreation in mountain areas, it is desirable to be able to measure any change in path-state and relate this to recreation factors at different seasons and under different sit; -conditions. Three methods of measurement have been considered in this paper, corresponding to three time-scales. Aerial photography has been used to demonstrate trends over the long term, and has proved adequate to differentiate between path sections with differing resistance to erosion.

Short-term measurement has been carried out relative to known fixed positions. Two methods are suggested. One is less precise, but simple and widely applicable, and can be used for measurement intervals of six months to one year. The other is more detailed and can be used for measurement intervals of a few days, but is limited in its application by practical considerations.

It is suggested that simple techniques used at a large number of different types of site may be more effective than detailed measurements at a few sites.
American Conservation Viewpoints
Authors: Shin Suk-han
Published: August 2009

The evolving conservation views and movements in the United States are characterized by their changing social goals and the resultant alteration of attitudes towards the physical environment. Our examination results in a six-stages classification of conservation views: (1) the naturalist view, which was based on the idea of undisturbed harmony of Nature; (2) the utilitarian view, which was highly influenced by Gifford Pinchot's conservation philosophy of ‘common goods for common men’ in natural resource use; (3) the ethical view, which resulted from an awareness that increasing consumption combined with increasing population would deplete resources and depress living standards; (4) the developmental view, or a technocratic approach to resource development, which rejected a fixed inventory of natural resources and perceived an everincreasing resource base; (5) the aesthetic view, which valued the aesthetic contribution of natural resources more than the economic contribution, i.e. amenity valueversuscommodity value of natural resources; and (6) the ecological view, which is based on the concept of an ecosystem wherein Man is an integral and inseparable part of the total environment and is responsible for the maintenance of the total environment.

These conservation views of the United States reflect a historical conflict between progressivist and preservationist philosophies of natural resource use. The conflict derives from changing societal concepts of resource scarcity regarding their physical, economic, or qualitative, aspects. The current ‘ecological’ view remains uncertain in terms of its concept of scarcity.
Studies on Biological Control of Intermediate Hosts of Schistosomiasis in Western Kenya
Authors: McMahon J. P. , Highton R. B. , Marshall T. F. de C.
Published: August 2009

The experiment described was conducted in water impounded by earth dams, for local water-supply, in Nyanza province, Kenya. Control of snails was attempted by introduction of the malacophagous fish Astatoreochromis alluaudi; other species were also introduced. The schedules of introduction of fish were varied between the reservoirs, and one was left as a control without any introduction of fish. The necessity for the establishment of a fish-rearing pond, prior to large-scale stocking, is emphasized.

Assessment of snail control was made by scooping for snails, catches being expressed per man-hour. This was carried out both before and after introduction of fish, over a total period of 15 years. It is concluded that the data indicate that A. alluaudi did reduce the numbers of some species of snails—particularly Biomphalaria pfeifferi and, to a lesser extent and with less certainty, Bulinus spp.

Two other introduced fish species, Tilapia zillii and T. leucosticta, did not appear to be associated with any fall in snail numbers.
Restoration of Arid and Semi-arid Ecosystems in Afghanistan
Authors: Hassanyar Amir S.
Published: August 2009

Barren, desert-like environments have been created over large areas in Afghanistan, and various degrees of desertification can be seen especially in the southwestern plains. Extensive overgrazing, frequent drought, and unwise land-use, have initiated processes of local desertification also elsewhere in Afghanistan.

The first step in the restoration of depleted vegetation is to correct the improper uses that have been responsible for these conditions. Improper grazing practices of rangelands are a primary cause of reductions in the productivity of arid and semi-arid ecosystems in Afghanistan.

The second step in restoration is to prepare a detailed revegetation plan. The following maps and information are needed: (1) a vegetation-cover map, (2) a soil-series map, (3) a topographic map, and (4) baseline data on climatic conditions. The vegetationcover map identifies the plant biomass potential and the species that might be suitable for revegetation. The soil-series map is accompanied by a description of the physical and chemical features of the topsoil and subsoil along with an assessment of the general herbage production potential. The topographic map helps with species selection and planting methods. The climatic parameters assist in determining the season of planting and any need for drought-resistant species to be planted.
Seasonal Variation of Trace-metals in the MusselMytilus californianus
Authors: Ouellette Thomas R.
Published: August 2009

Natural seasonal variations of the whole-body concentrations of six trace-metals inMytilus californianuswere determined by sampling fortnightly (‘biweekly’) for one year in a relatively pristine environment. Mussels of similar size were collected from a single mussel-bed, and within a discrete tidal range, in order to reduce variability unrelated to the availability of metals in the environment. The accumulation of iron, aluminium, and manganese, and to a lesser extent lead, was directly related to the input to inshore waters of terrigenous materialviastorm-generated runoff and bottom resuspension during the winter months.

Variations in the accumulation of copper appeared to be related to elevated concentrations of organic Cucomplexing compounds in the water-column both during the winter (e.g. humic acid, introducedviarunoff) and during upwelling (e.g. extractable organic material from decomposing phytoplankton). Increased accumulation of cadmium by mussels during the spring was directly proportional to increased surface nutrient concentrations, indicating that Cd is upwelled to inshore waters.

Quantities of both Cd and Pb available to mussels during the Upwelling period appeared to be depleted by, and diluted within, the increased phytoplankton biomass present at that time. No relationship was observed between concentrations of any of the trace-metals analyzed and the reproductive condition ofM. californianus.
On the Role of Underwater Parks and Sanctuaries in the Management of Coastal Resources in the Southeastern United States
Authors: Davis Gary E.
Published: August 2009

Aquatic resources in parks and reserves are not as adequately protected as comparable terrestrial resources. Thus the values of protected aquatic ecosystems as standards for comparison, reservoirs of genetic materials, and ‘emotional’ reserves, are apt to be greatly diminished.

Even seemingly static ecosystems such as coral reefs are dynamic, changing dramatically in response to natural short-term environmental variations. Such ecosystems require protected natural areas as dynamic standards that will allow distinctions to be drawn between effects of exploitation or pollution and normal variation. Furthermore, fisheries harvests may reduce the size at which exploited species mature, and reduce the amount and variability of genetic material produced by exploited populations.

The seven underwater parks or sanctuaries established since 1935 in Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands exhibit wide variations in the degree of protection accorded to aquatic resources, a range being apparent from nearly complete protection in the first parks to be established to virtually no protection at all in the recently-established parks.

The consequences of permitting consumptive uses of aquatic resources in parks and reserves need to be objectively evaluated. Unless these consumptive uses are severely curtailed or eliminated, the primary values of the parks and reserves may never be realized.
Incorporating Environmental Considerations into Planning
Authors: Engelmann Rudolf J.
Published: August 2009

It is possible to produce environmental assessments in an efficient, economical manner by the careful advance specification of future information needs, the collection of the pertinent data into a single set of sectoral reports, and subsequent analysis of the information on a case-by-case basis as individual projects arise. The procedure for this, in six main steps, can be as follows:

A development scenario is produced that is a description of the chronological sequence of economic, industrial, and agricultural, activities. The scenario is studied to identify potential issues and conflicts. A list of basic questions and more specific sub-questions that follow from the issues and conflicts is then derived. The data to answer those questions are then collected and organized into sectoral reports. Later, as each assessment need arises, these sectoral reports will be found to contain the information that is required. Finally, the assessment is produced from the sectoral reports and leads to a decision on which action is taken.

The mechanics of the above procedure include: surveys of a wide range of information sources, each survey using sources which are appropriate to the step that is being taken; use of a standing core assessment group; use of common base-maps and formats; and well-planned interdisciplinary meetings.

As well as producing assessments at short notice, the procedure can be expected to provide priorities for research, and eventually to lead to due insertion of environmental considerations into national planning during the planning stage itself.
Aspects of Water Pollution in Lake Naini Tal, U.P., India
Authors: Pant M. C. , Gupta P. K. , Pande J. , Sharma P. C. , Sharma A. P.
Published: August 2009

The paper discusses certain microbiological, biological, and chemical, aspects of pollution in Lake Naini Tal, U.P., India, which is characterized by heavy input of domestic sewage and other organic pollutants. The most probable number (MPN) for coliform Bacteria varied from 0.59 × 105 to 3.61 × 105 per 100 ml, being highest in the monsoon season and lowest in spring. The water was alkaline in reaction throughout the period of study. The concentrations of dissolved oxygen showed high values near the surface and low ones in the bottom waters. BOD values always exceeded 6.0 mg/1. The concentrations of NO3−N and P04−P varied from 0.100 to 0.750 mg/1 and 0.018 to 0.153 mg/1, respectively. These concentrations are sufficient to cause blooming of certain phytoplankters on occasion. The values of NH3–N fluctuated from 0.033 to 0.422 mg/1, being highest in winter and lowest in the monsoon months. Among the metallic ions, the values of Pb and Mn were higher than permissible limits.

The bottom sediments of the Lake were also found to produce toxic gases such as CH4, H2S, and NH3. Most of the carp fishes, such as Cyprinus carpio specularis, Tor tor, and Schizothorax spp., were found to be infected with Saprolegnia or other Fungi, or with trematodes. Certain phytoplankters (such as species of Microcystis, Anabaena, etc.), zooplankters (such as species of Bursaria, Spirostomum, Phillodina, etc.), and macrobenthos (including Tubifex tubifex, Limnodrilus sp., Chironomus plumosas, etc.), were found to be abundant. Macrobenthic species were absent from the profundal zone of the Lake, which showed all the important characteristics of a polluted water-body.
Regeneration Methods for Tropical High-forests
Authors: Kio Philip R. O.
Published: August 2009

Changes taking place in the natural tropical forests are intricate, and the ecological processes which they entail are only gradually becoming understood. Human interference in these processes frequently leads to unforeseen consequences, silvicultural treatments being apt to be applied long before much is known about the characteristics of the constituent species and the particular successional phases on which treatments have been imposed.

Perturbations create gaps of varying sizes. Both regeneration in the gaps and the latter's restoration to a state of equilibrium, depend on their size and the intensity of the disturbance. Deflected successions may occur in sensitive ecosystems whereby progress towards vegetational climax is permanently interrupted. In Africa, the human impact on the natural vegetation has been more severe and for a much longer period than in either the Amazon or in large areas of the Indo-Malaysian rain-forest.

Apart from the limitations of existing silvicultural techniques for inducing regeneration and promoting growth, vital management decisions are commonly based on the results of regeneration sampling. But this traditional sampling technique does not make sufficient use of the indications provided by Iiocourt's ‘living space’ theory. However, modified procedures which can easily be undertaken and which assign more appropriate areas of occupation to individual seedlings, saplings, poles, and trees in the stand, provide more realistic estimates of the overall stocking. Though much damage is done to saplings and poles by the felling of large trees, the severity of damage is related more to the number of trees felled than to the basal area or volume removed. However, research into effects of alternative logging regimes (monocyclic versus poly cyclic) is required to resolve, for particular forest types, the issue of appropriate management/silvicultural prescriptions.

On the basis of silvicultural research in Nigeria, tentative conclusions have been reached that the growth of a residual stand after exploitation can be accelerated by shelterwood treatments. In particular, climber cutting and opening of the canopy by poisoning are effective treatments in promoting recruitment of saplings and poles from seedlings, and their subsequent growth and survival. Controlled logging can be as effective as a poisoning operation to remove shade-casting, uneconomic emergents, and if substituted for such shelterwood poisoning could reduce the expense of implementing forest treatment.

In forest management, account must be taken of differing capacities for growth between different species—especially in response to different silvicultural treatments. Thus in the experiments discussed, heavy poisoning promoted greater increments than selective poisoning, though the difference was not statistically significant.
Populating Israel's Mountains while Preserving Their Environmental Quality
Authors: Soffer Arnon
Published: August 2009

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Galilee Mountains were still practically a ‘closed system’, as a result of which the balance of land-use was more or less preserved. Rural settlements had then hardly developed, and stagnation of the few remaining mountain towns was observed. In general, the roads were unpaved routes, the economy served for subsistence only (based mainly on agricultural terraces), while most of the area was of forest or rocky ground serving as pasture.

During the British Mandatory period, the Galilee Mountains area opened up slowly, and this process has increased ever since the establishment of the State of Israel. The Mountains are facing a tremendous increase in population as a result of natural local increase (mostly Arabs) and migration (mostly Jews). This excessive mountain population in Israel is an unusual phenomenon in comparison with other mountain regions in the western world, which have generally decreased in population though there, too, the equilibrium of land-use has been shaken—for instance in the Swiss Alps (Bugmann, 1980; Gallusser, 1980; Messerli et al., 1980), and in the Rocky Mountains of the United States (Kelly, 1980).
A World in Balance
Authors: Westing Arthur H.
Published: August 2009

The attempt is made here to provide an approximation of the number of people that the world can support in the light of three constraints: (a) provision for a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of everyone, (b) consideration for wildlife and Nature, and (c) reliance on existing levels of technology and politics. In fact, two alternative standards of living are suggested, ‘affluent’ (based on the standard of the 27 richest nations in the world) and ‘austere’ (based on the standard of the 43 next most wealthy nations in the world).
The Balance of Environmental Protection and Development in Hokkaido, Japan
Authors: Simmons Ian G.
Published: August 2009

The policy of the Japanese Government is to bring the island of Hakkaido further into the National polity—by constructing the ‘Bullet Train’ line from Tokyo to Sapporo by 1985, and by carrying out a ten-years' comprehensive development plan for Hokkaido. This plan aims at high rates of economic and population growth. At the same time, increased interest in conservation is being shown at all levels, and the Prefectural Government is putting forward a comprehensive nature conservation plan for Hokkaido, as well as requiring an Environmental Impact Assessment for all new developments above a particular set of thresholds.
Biological Colonization of an Industrial Pond: Status After Two Decades
Authors: Rickard William H. , Fitzner Richard E. , Cushing Colbert E.
Published: August 2009

The biological status of an isolated, man-made pond established in 1957 is described principally after its first 20 years of existence. The pond is located in the dry sagebrush region of south-central Washington (USA), and is colonized by Bulrushes, Cattails, and numerous Algae. Migratory waterfowl were the first vertebrate users of the pond; and with the establishment of shoreline plant communities and submerged macrophytes, the pond now provides nesting habitat for several duck species, American Coots, and Pied-billed Grebes. Use of the pond by large mammals is limited to visits by Mule Deer, Coyotes, and Raccoons. There are no Muskrats or Beavers in the pond. Turtles and Garter Snakes are not found in or around the pond but are present in the near-by Columbia and Yakima Rivers. The absence of these vertebrate animals is attributed to the isolation of the pond and the absence of connecting surface waterways between the pond and the regional watercourses. The only fish in the pond are Goldfish—presumably of artificial introduction.

Some of the more sedentary pond organisms—aquatic arthropods, crustaceans, and snails—may have reached the pond in raw Columbia River water, or been transported as eggs externally attached to waterfowl, or possibly been voided into the pond along with avian faecal material.

The pond contains low levels of industrially-derived radionuclides—especially caesium-137. Radiocaesium is mostly confined to bottom sediments, but is readily assimilated by biota and so appears in all trophic levels. Some of the societal concerns and research potentials associated with the pond are discussed with special references to food-chain and biotic transport mechanisms.
Modifications to Stream Channels in the Brisbane Metropolitan Area, Australia
Authors: Boughton Walter C. , Neller Ronald J.
Published: August 2009

Knowledge is needed of the geomorphological characteristics of stream-channels in urban areas in order to manage the streams for recreation, biota conservation, environment enhancement, erosion control, and the discharge of stormwater runoff. This study is concerned with how urban streams in Brisbane have been substantially modified by many different human activities, and how the future behaviour of the channels is likely to be very complex because of the diversity and magnitude of these modifications.

Major water-supply dams have been constructed on three of the streams, and some flood-detention storages are soon to be constructed on another. The earth embankment of the South-east Freeway fills the upper reaches of Norman Creek, and stormwater runoff is now carried in a man-made channel. Elsewhere in this catchment, flood-flows have been modified by culverts—where the Freeway and access roads cross the drainage channels, and where the Freeway embankment occupies a substantial part of the floodplain of the Creek.

The construction of Brisbane Airport has already modified the tidal reaches of Kedron Brook, and the proposed redevelopment of the Airport will replace the existing modification with a major new floodway.

Several of the stream-channels have been deepened, widened, and straightened, for flood-mitigation purposes, with 465,000 m3 of material removed from Breakfast Creek alone. Three of the stream-channels have been used as major sources of sand and gravel for building activities in the City. Flood characteristics of the streams appear to have been changed by increased runoff from impervious surfaces when these reached a critical threshold in the urban areas, and by increased velocities of flow in piped, lined, and other, artificial stormwater channels. Construction of new artificial channels amounts to some 15 km per year.

The modifications which have occurred differ among the urban streams in Brisbane, and each stream requires individual study to assess the long-term effects of the changes. All of the streams reported on in this study have been substantially modified by human activities.
The Climatic Sensitivity of ‘Green Revolution’ Wheat Culture in Sonora, Mexico
Authors: Michaels Patrick J.
Published: August 2009

A statistical model was developed to assess the effects of interannual climatic variability on wheat yields in Sonora, Mexico, where the high-yielding variety (HYV) agricultural ‘package’ was first developed. The approach taken was necessary because of the lack of suitable ‘dynamic’ formulations. The climatic terms in the model—transformed monthly mean temperature and precipitation values—explain almost 37% of the variance in the yield time-series, after allowing for the simultaneously generated base and trend values. This figure is somewhat less than that in similar formulations for North American wheat, where the climatic and yield data may be more reliable.

The yields are most sensitive to preplanting moisture input, when the irrigation system is being recharged, and to March temperature, when fertilization can be reduced by heat. The yield response to these two variables was found to increase significantly as more HYV agriculture is adopted. Increases are over twofold for the precipitation term, and nearly threefold for the temperature variable.

A variety of arguments suggests that the results truly indicate an increased climatic sensitivity in the yieldresponse, although the formulation is incapable of discriminating between sensitivities that are purely ‘genetic’, and those associated with the cultural practices which the genetic change allows to be established. When impacts upon the consuming population are considered, the distinction between the two becomes somewhat less important.
The Human Causes of Forest Depletion in Nigeria
Authors: Osemeobo Gbdebo Jonathan
Published: August 2009

Human activities in Nigeria are not evenly distributed on the land surface, owing to marked differences in climatic, geological, demographic, and cultural, factors in different areas of Nigeria. The use of land is designed to optimize resources for diverse interest-groups, thus causing pressures to be exerted on the land in varied degrees. Because land-uses are neither influenced by capabilities of existing resources nor based on effective land-use policy, the economic development of land is not conducive to conservation of the environment. Indeed, the attempt to maximize the use of resources constitutes a serious impediment to future development, as most lands are either destroyed or rendered marginal for primary production.

However, the best use to which land can be put is ultimately largely a political matter, and this is influenced by socio-economic factors at work in a given environment. Unfortunately, when the use of land is not in harmony with ecological approaches to development, the soils commonly depreciate to counter-productive levels. This is why, when land uses are in opposition, they pose serious questions regarding the extent to which they can adequately sustain life. There is plenty of evidence that the rate of forest depletion in the country may increase in relation to population increase, which is why, without adequate measures being taken, constraints in land-use could lead to shortened fallow periods, reduced crop-yields, overgrazing, indiscriminate burning of vegetation, excessive hunting, poor techniques of mineral exploitation, and application of unconserving agro-technical practices for food production.

In the face of the above problems, however, adoption of alley cropping by smallholder farmers, establishment of woodlots for fuel-wood production in the vicinity of large towns, planting of timber trees in the periphery of cocoa and oil palm plantations, private-sector participation in reafforestation, and rehabilitation of mined areas with suitable vegetational forms, are some of the strategies that can reduce the rate of forest depletion in the country.
Hydrology and Soil Fertility of Degraded Grasslands at Cherrapunji in Northeastern India
Authors: Ram Subhash C. , Ramakrishnan P.S.
Published: August 2009

Four grassland types at Cherrapunji, in northeastern India, namely the Osbeckia, Arundinella, Ischaemum, and Eragrostiella, types, were studied for soil nutrient losses through their hydrology and related soil-fertility changes. Losses through water and the consequent soil-fertility depletion were shown to be related to the frequency of the burn to which these grasslands are subjected. The Ischaemum type, with regular burning at 2-years' intervals, was the most adversely affected, compared with the Osbeckia type, which had not been burnt for the past 6 years.

In all the grassland types which were studied, the losses through water were high during the early part of the monsoon period, owing to the poor vegetation cover at that time. A desertified site with the Eragrostiella type of grassland had the lowest soil-fertility level, and had losses through removal in water that far exceeded the prevailing soil-nutrient level.

Fire can help in stabilizing the seral grassland vegetation if the soil is sufficiently deep and the frequency of the burn is not too great. On the other hand, too frequent perturbations by fire are apt to result in a desertified landscape that is difficult to restore.
The Role of Government Subsidies in the Population Decline of Some Unique Wildlife Species on Amami Oshima, Japan
Authors: Sugimura Ken
Published: August 2009

Amami Oshima (Island of Amami) in Japan has five species and two supspecies of animal wildlife that are designated as natural monuments by the national government. However, government subsidy has indirectly induced population decline of some of them through habitat destruction. Self-supporting industries make up only a small portion of the whole economy of Amami Oshima, so that financial support from the national and prefectural governments has been necessary to create a large number of jobs for local people.

Forestry has been subsidized by the central governments to a large degree. As a result of cost-reduction in logging through the subsidy which has been devoted mostly to construction of logging roads, most original forests have been replaced by young secondary forests and logged areas in the central part of Amami Oshima, where all the wildlife taxa under consideration are to be observed at present. The governments have planned to manage these young forests with a 35–40 years' rotation-cycle for pulpwood, of which the commercial value is relatively low.

Of the involved seven species and subspecies, the Great White's Thrush (Turdus dauma amami), Owston White-backed Woodpecker (Drendrocopos leucotos owstoni), and the Long-haired Rat (Rattus legata), appeared to be so dependent on mature forest (uncut for at least 40 years after selective felling) that they will probably not be able to maintain their populations if all the old forests are cut down. Small populations of the Ryukyu Robin (Erithacus komadori) may be able to survive in young secondary forests, but population decline will be substantial through the decrease in the area of mature forest. On the other three species—the Amami Rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi), Purple Jay (Garrulus lidthi), and Spinous Rat (Tokudaia osimensis)—the effects of clear-cutting of the mature forests are less obvious. Further decreases in the area of mature forests will probably cause a significant reduction in the present population-level of the Amami Rabbit, but negative effects of logging on the other two species should not be very serious. An increase in the length of rotation-cycles, and changes in the use of the subsidy, are proposed for improving the wildlife habitat and the economic efficiency of local forestry.
The ‘Ecosystem’ Approach to Managing Human Uses and Abuses of Natural Resources in the Great Lakes Basin
Authors: Vallentyne John R. , Beeton Alfred M.
Published: August 2009

An approach to planning, research, and management, that relates people to ecosystems of which they are part, is described and related to the Canada-United States Great Lakes Water Quality Agreements of 1972, 1978, and 1987. Factors favouring the development of an ‘ecosystem approach’ in the Great Lakes Basin include: a shared, highly valued resource; the long residence-times of ‘conservative’ pollutants in the Lakes; use of the Lakes for drinking-water supplies by c. 23 million people; threats to the integrity of the Lakes (pollution, water diversion); advances in ecosystem theory; the rise of voluntary membership associations with interests in the resource; institutional arrangements for managing nationally shared resources; and common economic ties and cultural heritages.

The principal obstacle to implementation of an ‘ecosystem’ approach in the Great Lakes Basin is the lack of policies for comparable approaches in the political jurisdictions surrounding the Great Lakes. The principal obstacle to global implementation of an ‘ecosystem’ approach is the lack of international institutional arrangements for joint advice and operational capabilities in respect of the management of nationally shared resources. Another impediment is the widespread egocentricity of governments, corporations, individuals, and the general public.
Desertification or Sustainable Yields from Arid Environments
Authors: Cloudsley-Thompson John L.
Published: August 2009

Throughout their existence, civilized peoples have been turning their environment into desert. The causes of desertification are well known—overgrazing, the felling of trees for fuel, and bad agricultural practices. Their effects are apparent in disasters such as the Sahel drought and recent famines in Ethiopia, the Sudan, and elsewhere. The population explosion enhances the extent of the environmental degradation. More agricultural land is currently being lost through salinization and waterlogging than is being created by new irrigation schemes, but this is only part of a problem that faces all tropical third-world countries and for which multinational organizations and the affluent nations of temperate regions are, regrettably and often unknowingly, largely responsible.

Because the poorer countries receive, for their agricultural products, cash of which the market value does not take into account the cost to the environment of overexploiting the land, they are apparently doomed to a vicious circle of increasing poverty, deprivation, and famine. Yet it is not beyond the abilities of civilization to devise a viable scheme, based upon sound ecological principles, by which the quality of life of desert peoples could be immeasurably improved. Instead of trying to change the land to make it conform to present economic and political expectations, development should be adapted to exploit the potentialities of the environment as it exists. Such a scheme, profiting from the diversity of microenvironments that occur in desert regions, would encompass multiple land-use and the development of numerous small agricultural and other projects—rather than the large-scale schemes hitherto initiated in fragile environments, and which have so often led to large-scale disaster. By adopting it, the world would simultaneously be made both more stable and more productive for the benefit of all its inhabitants.
Tropical Deforestation and Climatic Change
Authors: Myers Norman
Published: August 2009

As tropical forest cover is eliminated, there appear to be—despite earlier supposition to the contrary—a number of significant repercussions for climatic regimes, whether at local, regional, or even global, levels. These are manifested through disruptions of hydrological systems and precipitation patterns, through changes in albedo and associated evapotranspiration rates, and through contributions to the ‘greenhouse effect’. Certain of these processes are well established scientifically, whereas others remain speculative pending urgently-needed research.

This exploratory paper reviews some of the ecological linkages at work in the above super-serious circumstances. Further, it assesses the profound consequences that may arise for major development sectors such as agriculture, energy, and human settlements. It concludes with a short appraisal of some policy responses available, though here again choices for adoption should be based on the results of far more scientific research and allied investigation than has yet resulted in reliable knowledge.
The Greening of Estonia
Authors: Westing Arthur H.
Published: August 2009

The environment and natural resources of Estonia (area 45,000 km2, population c. 1.5 million) are described: Estonia is a flat country of which 40% is forested (managed on a sustained-yield basis), 20% is covered by peat bogs (widely cut for agricultural purposes and fuel), and 22% is under cultivation, often on drained land (largely growing grain for livestock). Rich deposits of oil-shale (used for fuel, etc.) and phosphorite (used for fertilizer, etc.) are exploited, especially in the north-east. Both of these resources are to a large extent strip-mined, causing enormous local surface disruption and more widespread water and air pollution— especially so in the case of the phosphorite extraction. Estonia has, however, recently been able to prevent a planned expansion of phosphorite exploitation.

About 3% of Estonia is set aside as Nature reserves, including some wetlands of international importance. Environmental protection is an important item on Estonia's agenda; the prognosis is quite favourable, not only because of a commendable population density, but also in large part (as there is considerable evidence to suggest) because the population has a keenly-developed Nature ethic of long standing.
Classical Biological Control and Insect Conservation: Are They Compatible?
Authors: Samways Michael J.
Published: August 2009

Exotic insect pests worldwide are many. They are accidental biotic contaminants. Classical biological control (CBC) agents can be considered as deliberately introduced biotic contaminants that, when successful, reduce the overall biomass of contamination and often bring considerable self-sustaining economic relief to farming communites.

Although the introduction of exotic agents would seem to be contrary to conservation philosophy, there are no quantified instances to date where the introduction of arthropod agents has been shown to have harmed a specific conservation programme or has been categorically damaging to native fauna. There is only limited anecdotal evidence that introduced parasitoids may have damaged certain specific native taxa. CBC in some cases actually assists conservation by reducing the level of exotic pests in nature reserves.

As CBC is an important socio-economic method of pest control, especially for tropical farmers, and as the taxonomic groups and life-histories of its targets are so different from those insects of endangered status, the two approaches are not in conflict. But as CBC is virtually irretrievable, it must continue to be carried out carefully and selectively only by truly responsible CBC agencies using appropriate quarantine facilities.

Tourists and general travellers pose a greater threat to native faunas than do the activities of such CBC agencies. It is well known that vertebrate agents and certain invertebrates, especially snails, can be devastating to certain native biotas. Additionally, and in view of the impending world-wide biotic diversity crisis, even traditional agents such as insect pathogens, insect parasitoids, and insect and mite predators, should be viewed with extreme caution—especially when oligophagous, and unquestionably when polyphagous.
Empirical Evidence for the Effect of Tropical Deforestation on Climatic Change
Authors: Clark Colin
Published: August 2009

If large areas of tropical rain-forest are replaced by grassland, there is likely to be about 300 mm less evapo-transpiration and 650–800 mm less rainfall during each year in these areas than is currently experienced. Lower rates of evapotranspiration will allow more energy to be used for sensible heat, and this will lead to surface air temperatures that are higher than currently by about 3°C. Reduced cloud-cover will also lead to even higher temperatures, because clouds have a net cooling effect. When this additional heat is combined with the extrasensible heating, the overall effect is expected to be a rise in temperature of about 4–5°C.

These contentions are based upon data obtained from ‘natural experiments’. They have given results which suggest that tropical deforestation will have a larger effect on temperature than was hitherto expected, and that the effect on both temperature and rainfall will be more widespread than has been expected hitherto. The effects on global climate cannot as yet be determined by a ‘natural experiment’.

The removal of so much of the tropical rain-forest as is now projected will have such a dramatic effect on local and even wider climate that no further replacement of the rain-forest ecocomplex by others or other land-uses should be allowed to take place.
Environmental Implications of Aquarium-fish Collection in the Maldives, with Proposals for Regulation
Authors: Edwards Alasdair J. , Shepherd Alec Dawson
Published: August 2009

Export of aquarium-fish from the Maldives began in 1980 and in 1989 almost 54,000 marine fishes, worth approximately US$ 130,000, were exported. The collection of aquarium species is confined to a relatively small area around the capital island, Malé. Estimates of annual exports of 95 species were obtained by examining packing-lists held by Maldivian Customs. In parallel, the population densities of about 70 aquarium-fish species were estimated by visual assessment. Using a number of assumptions, potential (maximum sustainable) yields for 65 of these species — those for which export data were available — were estimated for the area (530 km2) within a 13-km radius (one hour's journey by local boat) of Malé.

For 27 species there were some reasons for concern about the levels of exploitation, although only 12 of these species appeared to be ‘at risk’ in 1986 (the year of highest exploitation). If the assumptions made in estimating potential sustainable yields were valid, these 12 aquarium-fish species were being overexploited or exploited at levels close to maximum sustainable yields. Should the trade expand threefold, a further 12 species are considered to be potentially at risk of overexploitation. Two species of butterflyfish, Chaetodon meyeri and C. triangulum, which feed exclusively on coral polyps and generally die in captivity after a short time, were being exported in significant numbers. Both clownfishes (Amphiprion spp.) and their host sea-anemones were being heavily exploited. Because of the symbiotic relationship between these fishes and their anemone homes, this group may be particularly susceptible to overexploitation.

Damage to branching corals may result from the collection of specimens of Dascyllus aruanus, which shelter within them. With many thousands of individuals of this species being exported each year, this could represent considerable collateral coral damage. Although levels of exploitation of ‘cleaner wrasses’ (Labroides bicolor and L. dimidiatus) appear well below potentially sustainable ones, it is unclear whether the health of reef fishes might locally be adversely affected in heavily exploited areas.

Monitoring and regulation of the aquarium-fish trade is discussed, together with the need for collection of catch statistics by those involved in the trade. The importance of regulation of collection techniques, of standards of facilities, and of satisfactory packaging of fish for export, is stressed. If more accurate estimates of sustainable yields are to be obtained, there needs to be monitoring of populations of key aquarium-fish species in designated collecting areas where exploitation levels are known. Until such estimates become available, the cautious approach adopted in the Maldives to estimate yields and set species-based quotas will, it is hoped, prevent local overexploitation.