bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Carlyle, Thomas (1795–1881)
Authors: McManus Helen
Published: August 2023

Thomas Carlyle was a Victorian thinker whose writings invigorated nineteenth‐century debates about work and politics. He rejected democracy and utilitarianism as mechanisms or systems that disregarded God's laws, the eternal laws of the universe. He did not offer a programmatic political vision; instead, he demanded that everyone – nobles, parliament, “captains of industry,” and the poor – recognize their task within the eternal order and begin to do their work.
Case Study
Authors: Campbell Rosie
Published: August 2023

There is no single definition of the term “case study” in political science, political scientists usually use it more narrowly than other social sciences. In the main social science methods texts refer to all small “n” (or small sample studies) as case studies. But, when political scientists use the term they are most often referring to one case or “thing” that is to be studied (when more than one case is used, in a small sample study, political scientists usually say they are conducting comparative research).
Chomsky, Noam (1928–)
Authors: Glover Robert W.
Published: August 2023

Noam Chomsky is the Institute Professor of Linguistics (Emeritus) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, MA. Chomsky's work in linguistics, the idea that the faculty of language is born out of an innate human capacity rather than conditioning, paved the way for much of modern cognitive science. However, Chomsky's contributions to political thought and analysis are, by his own admission, virtually unrelated to such pioneering research. Rather, it is through his role as a leftist public intellectual, analyst of US foreign policy, and critic of corporate capitalism that Chomsky's influence has been most significant. Such contributions even led the
New York Times
to dub him in 1979 “arguably the most important intellectual alive” though, as Chomsky never hesitates to mention, the very same review chastised him for being “maddeningly simple‐minded”.
Civil Law
Authors: Hesselink Martijn W.
Published: August 2023

The concept of civil law has two distinct meanings. that is, disputes between private parties (individuals, corporations), as opposed to other branches of the law, such as administrative law or criminal law, which relate to disputes between individuals and the state. Second, the term civil law is often employed to indicate a legal “tradition” or a “family” of legal systems, this time in contrast with other legal traditions or families, in particular the common law. This is the sense in which we say, for example, that France and Germany are civil law countries while the USA and Australia are common law countries. The present entry will be concerned exclusively with the civil law in the latter sense.
Clausewitz, Carl von (1780–1831)
Authors: Bousquet Antoine
Published: August 2023

Nearly two hundred years after his death, Carl von Clausewitz's standing as the pre‐eminent military theorist remains unchallenged and his reputation is as elevated today as it has ever been. This remarkable longevity has much to do with the singular approach that he took to the subject of war relative to most of his peers, many of whom were held in higher regard in both his own lifetime and the following decades. Indeed his particular focus on the political and moral aspects of war, his refusal to treat warfare as merely a technical problem to be solved rationally but rather as an object of philosophical contemplation, and his acute sense of the tensions and contradictions inherent to military conflict have all ensured that his ideas continue to appear relevant despite the wide‐ranging transformations that the conduct of war has traversed since.
Coase, Ronald H. (1910–)
Authors: Johnson James
Published: August 2023

Ronald Coase is an English economist who has spent the bulk of his career teaching at the University of Chicago Law School. He received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1991, recognizing two of his papers on the importance of “transaction costs” for the operation and analysis of political economic institutions. This work has been enormously influential, providing intellectual underpinnings for fields such as law and economics, industrial organization, and what is called the new institutional economics.
Paris Commune
Authors: Eichner Carolyn J.
Published: August 2023

The Paris Commune of 1871 was a brief but deeply influential revolutionary civil war that arose in the wake of the Franco‐Prussian War. Often termed the “first socialist revolution,” the Commune emerged as working‐class and bourgeois socialist Parisians reacted against the conservative French government's ignominious surrender to Prussia and the repressive measures instituted in the aftermath.
Community
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: August 2023

“Community” refers to a group of people with two characteristics: (1) a web of affect‐laden relationships that often crisscross and reinforce one another (rather than merely one‐on‐one or chain‐like individual relationships) and (2) a commitment to a core of shared values, norms, and meanings, as well as a shared history and identity – in short, to a particularistic normative culture. Many communities are confessional, ethnic, or professional, but they are not necessarily residential. They tend to command a strong sense of loyalty and mutual responsibility – like families writ large. Critics often call them “tribal.” Moreover, rather large societal entities, including nations, can develop a fair measure of the two key attributes of community – what Benedict Anderson referred to as “imagined communities.”
Consequentialism
Authors: Peterson Martin
Published: August 2023

Consequentialism is a class of moral theories that evaluate acts and other entities solely according to their consequences. The most well‐known version of consequentialism is
utilitarianism
. Utilitarians believe that an act is morally right if and only if the act brings about at least as much well‐being as every alternative act. Other consequentialist theories make different claims about the correlation between consequences and moral properties. For instance, consequentialist
egalitarians
believe that an act is right if and only if the well‐being produced by the act is distributed equally in society. The key claim that all consequentialists endorse is that whether something has some moral property depends only on consequences.
Consociationalism
Authors: Caverly Matthew M.
Published: August 2023

Consociationalism is a governmental arrangement that guarantees representation among a highly heterogeneous society's ethnic, racial, religious, social, cultural, and political groups through institutionalized shared power arrangements. Some forms of these arrangements are: the employment of representation quotas in the legislature, a sharing of executive and legislative powers through coalitional cabinets, parliamentary bicameralism with differentiated representation, an independent judiciary with judicial review capacity, and social proportionality in bureaucratic appointment as well as employment. Consociationalism has been employed in a number of countries as a means to end sociopolitical and ethno‐religious conflict.
Corpus Iuris Civilis
Authors: Lee Daniel
Published: August 2023

The
Corpus Iuris Civilis
(“body of civil law”) was the formal compilation of Roman law commissioned by the sixth‐century Roman emperor Justinian. Alongside Scripture and Greek philosophy, it ranks as one of the major classical authorities studied or cited by medieval and modern political theorists, such as Aquinas, Marsilius, Bodin, Grotius, Hobbes, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Tocqueville, and Weber.
Crimes against Humanity
Authors: Canetti Daphna , Karpyuk Tetyana
Published: August 2023

Crimes against humanity (CAH) are offensive
acts against human dignity
committed as
part of widespread or systemic attack
against
civilian populations
. They can be a series of events or a one‐time event, planned and committed by state or nonstate organized groups, banned by one policy or ideology.
Dallmayr, Fred R. (1928–)
Authors: Schneck Stephen F.
Published: August 2023

A German American academic known both for his critical exegeses of contemporary Continental philosophy for political theory and for his founding work in the field of comparative political theory, Dallmayr was born in Ulm, Germany, in 1928 and raised in the Bavarian city of Augsburg. After attending a classical gymnasium run by the Benedictines in Augsburg, he studied law at the University of Munich, completing his doctorate in 1955. He immigrated to the USA and received a doctorate in political science from Duke in 1960, where he had worked with Robert Rankin and John Hallowell. After stints at Purdue University and the University of Georgia, he was named Packey Dee Professor of Government at the University of Notre Dame in 1978. Dallmayr's contribution to political theory is twofold. He came to prominence exploring the question of theory itself, with special attention to issues of interpretation and critique deriving from Continental philosophy and social theory in the western tradition. Subsequently, Dallmayr turned to challenge the western‐centric orientation of political theory, endorsing a pluralist, “cosmopolitical” comparative political theory.
Deliberative Democracy
Authors: Michelbach Philip A.
Published: August 2023

The deliberative ideal is now a central topic in democratic theory. Theories of deliberative democracy are a critical response to liberal democratic thought, and in particular to the liberal theories of democracy that dominated American political science in the mid‐twentieth century. As a research project, the “deliberative turn” is relatively recent, emerging as a coherent strand of theory over the last three decades. Despite its relative novelty, at this point deliberative theory is now a relatively mature field, and has moved far beyond an early theoretical stage and into many areas of democratic practice. Theorists of deliberative democracy attempt to elaborate definitions of democracy that are simultaneously normatively ideal and practical. They seek to provide a definition of democracy that supplants what it sees as the thin, liberal, and “aggregative” model of democracy with one based in participation, rational deliberation, and a politics centered on a strong conception of the public good. Deliberative theorists also aim to make practical contributions, by discovering and fostering deliberative opportunities within existing institutions.
Democratization
Authors: Mostov Julie
Published: August 2023

Democratization refers to the process of developing democratic institutions and practices and the sustainability of these institutions. Theories of democratization have focused on causes, necessary and sufficient conditions, the fragility of democratic processes, mechanisms for promoting successful consolidation of democracy, and strategies for avoiding reversal or stagnation of democratic reform. Significant debates involve differences in core definitions of democracy; emphasis on economic development or on elite interactions; the impact of international (transnational) norms and interventions; the role of popular participation and civil society; exclusions based on gender, race, and ethnicity; universal criteria or regional differences; and historical patterns and preconditions. Recently, theorists have begun to use the notion of de‐democratization to note significant retrenchment in conditions that support equal citizenship, accountability in government, and civil and political liberties associated with democracy.
Demos
Authors: Saxonhouse Arlene W.
Published: August 2023

The Greek word
dêmos
, semantically tied to the word “democracy,” is generally translated as “people,” with democratic regimes commonly understood as those that grant political power or sovereignty (
kratos
) to the “people” rather than to those who claim superior status based on wealth, heritage, or distinctive virtues. In ancient Athenian democracy of the fifth and fourth centuries
bce
,
dêmos
played a double role. On one hand, it referred to the people as a whole, the sovereign power that assembled in order to make laws and policy decisions for the city. On the other, it referred pejoratively to the mass of people, the many (
hoi polloi
), who lacked the intellectual sophistication of the elite, or to the poor as opposed to the “well‐born” or wealthy citizens.
Dhimmi
Authors: Kopel David
Published: August 2023

Dhimmiis the Arabic word for certain religious groups who, under Sharia law, are granted limited toleration if they accept inferior status. While primarily used for Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians, dhimmi status was also accorded to conquered Hindus in India and to Buddhists in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Since Islamic political theory is often contract theory, the dhimmi were seen as implicitly accepting a contract (aqd al‐dhimma), by which they receiveddhimma(“protection”) in exchange for submission to Muslim supremacy.
Dialogue
Authors: Kögler Hans‐Herbert
Published: August 2023

Dialogue plays an increasingly central role in modern and postmodern political thought. It holds a rich promise to articulate the value‐core of a participatory democracy via a basic principle that ties together an intersubjective understanding of truth and normativity with a practical conception of political decision‐making and public deliberation. Dialogue is thus both an empirical and normative mode of intersubjective exchange that entails a postmetaphysical grounding for democratic politics. It implies that agents commit themselves, via their own collectively realized capacity to yield rationally acceptable norms, to a political order of their own making without metaphysical or transcendental foundations.
Digital Democracy
Authors: Halbert Debora
Published: August 2023

Digital democracy describes the use of computer technology to empower citizens and make government more accessible and transparent. Information and computer technology (ICT) is generally viewed as enhancing democracy, but scholars also express skepticism about its potential. Others critique digital democracy, raising concerns about its promise and the focus on the existence of a digital divide. Digital democracy describes a range of possible relationships between technology and politics from reform of existing political structures to revolution against them. Three of these relationships will be described in this entry.
Dignity, Human
Authors: Zuckert Michael
Published: August 2023

Since World War II the idea of human dignity has been a prominent feature of political thought, and to a degree of political practice. The language of human dignity indelibly entered the world of practical politics in 1945 in the United Nations Charter, a document inspired by revulsion against the many affronts to humanity and human dignity experienced during and prior to that war: “We the people of the United Nations determined … to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person.” A link between human dignity and human rights and of both to justice, or, rather, the claim that human dignity and rights are the basis of justice, was explicitly made three years later in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: “whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world …”
Environmentalism
Authors: Lane Joseph H. , Davis Edward
Published: August 2023

Environmentalism is a broad term used to describe a wide range of philosophical stands, political commitments, and social movements. Although there is considerable diversity among the various streams of environmentalism, they are all characterized by a commitment to preserving the systems, species, and specializations of the “natural” world from human damage and even destruction. Environmentalism may be conceived as having two distinct but theoretically compatible roots. The first root may be found in the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution. The second is grounded in ecology and its central tenet: the biosphere is an interdependent set of systems within which disturbances in one part of a system have unintended and generally adverse consequences throughout the system.
Eschatology
Authors: Hutchings Kimberly
Published: August 2023

Eschatology is literally the study of last things. Within the Hebraic and Christian traditions it is that part of theology that is concerned with questions of death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul of humankind, that is, heaven and hell. Both Judaism and Christianity are eschatological religions in the sense that they posit a messianic moment in which the world as we know it ends. Eschatology concerns both the apocalyptic (judgment and accounting) and the millenarian (the nature of the new kingdom of God) aspects of the end. Christianity, because of its identification of Christ with the Messiah prophesied in Judaic scriptures has, from the beginning, been particularly preoccupied with the meaning of the end of the world. Christianity contextualizes human history as part of a much bigger, divine story, which does not end happily for all. In the Book of Revelation, John of Patmos sets out this end in a series of apocalyptic visions that prophesy great suffering and violence presaging the ultimate coming of the kingdom of God.
Euben, J. Peter (1939–)
Authors: Brendese P. J.
Published: August 2023

J. Peter Euben is Research Professor Emeritus of Political Science and Kenan Distinguished Faculty Fellow in Ethics at Duke University. Euben's scholarship and teaching span ancient, modern, and contemporary political theory, literature and politics, the politics of morality, and political education. Widely credited for the renewed interest in the relevance of ancient Greek drama for contemporary democratic thought and practice, Euben situates classical political theory in conversation with some of the most pressing cultural, ethical, and political questions of the present day.
European Socialism
Authors: Beyeler Michelle
Published: August 2023

European socialism broadly refers to socialist thinking and socialist political movements on the European Continent. In a narrower sense the term “European” in connection with socialism stands for more than a geographical area, implying the existence of a specific European model or a specific European type of socialism. Although no commonly acknowledged definition of this specific European model exists, in contemporary political debates the term often refers to the kind of mixed economy model with universal social rights promoted by social democratic parties.
Evil
Authors: Alford C. Fred
Published: August 2023

For many, evil is a useful concept in making sense of some of the terrible people and events in the world. Others find the concept of evil polarizing – dividing people and the world into two and rendering some people, groups, and nations so bad that they cannot be dealt with in a human way but must be destroyed. Such a concept of evil, some believe, is dangerous, and best not invoked. This suspicion of evil deserves to be taken seriously.
Expropriation
Authors: Heins Volker M.
Published: August 2023

Expropriation is the taking of property or the coercive elimination of property rights held by private persons or businesses. The concept plays an important role in liberal as well as in Marxist political thought. Both the justice and the prudence of acts or processes of expropriation have been debated since the rise of modern capitalism, and continue to be controversial to this day.
Fairness
Authors: van Roermund Bert
Published: August 2023

The meaning of “fairness” is distributed over various concepts in languages other than English, in particular equivalents of justice, equity, and honesty. Within English, it requires careful semantic priming to determine the nuances that distinguish “fair” from these and other related concepts. “fair” and “unfair” are used in contexts that amount to trade‐offs in welfare taking place between agents in a certain community, with others in that community holding certain beliefs about the limits these agents should respect regarding the costs they may cause for others in pursuing their own interests. This confirms a thesis, to the effect that, generally, “mutuality of restrictions” is the moral basis of any justifiable appeal to the principle of fairness, whether such an appeal is backed up by distributive or by commutative reasoning. Some theorists argue that detecting and respecting these restrictions is a matter of virtue others that they can be absorbed by welfare economics, properly understood (Posner 1981; Kaplow & Shavell 2002); still others that such mutually imposed limits require an account of justice as fairness independent of welfare. These are three modes that fairness as a normative concept can adopt.
Ferguson, Adam (1723–1816)
Authors: Elazar Yiftah
Published: August 2023

A professor of philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, and one of the leading lights of the Scottish Enlightenment, Adam Ferguson was a distinct voice in the eighteenth‐century debate on the effects of civilization on the social and political virtues. His call to restore the classical spirit of patriotism, while cautiously embracing progress, paved a middle course between the modern outlook of David Hume and Adam Smith, and the romantic primitivism of Jean‐Jacques Rousseau. Long admired by sociologists, Ferguson's writings have recently been rediscovered by intellectual historians and political theorists, who have been fascinated by the timeliness of his critical observations on the emerging liberal order.
Fetishism of Commodities
Authors: Groff Ruth Porter
Published: August 2023

The secret of the fetishism of commodities is just this: underlying all of the real but contingent laws of the capitalist economy are the creative, necessarily social, agential powers of human beings. Those powers are alienated, but they needn't be.
Feuerbach, Ludwig (1804–72)
Authors: Shamis Asaf
Published: August 2023

Ludwig Feuerbach was a German philosopher and theologian. Although Feuerbach started out as an ardent follower of Hegel, in the early 1840s his criticism of German Idealism and religion turned him into the leading voice of the Young Hegelians, who harnessed Hegelian dialectics to advocate for the expansion of political freedom and religious tolerance with a view to undermining Prussian political and religious orthodoxy.
Fortescue, Sir John (ca. 1385–ca. 1479)
Authors: Kelly M. R. L. L.
Published: August 2023

Sir John Fortescue, English jurist and constitutionalist, was a member of the House of Commons (1421–36) and a chief justice on the king's bench (1442). He supported Lancaster under Henry VI, being exiled with him in Scotland during the civil war (the War of the Roses) after Edward of York (Edward IV) designated him traitor; there Henry appointed him “chancellor of England.” In Scotland Fortescue wrote Lancastrian propaganda, including
De natura
(1461–3), on the law of nature that also challenged York's claim to the throne. He accompanied Henry's queen as tutor to the prince of Wales to France (1463), where he wrote
De laudibus legum Anglie
(1468–71),
In Praise of the Laws of England
. This dialogue between the chancellor and the prince is one of the first modern “mirrors of princes,” anticipating both Christopher St. German's
Doctor and Student
, and Machiavelli's
The Prince
. After Henry VI's defeat and murder in 1471, Edward IV granted Fortescue a general pardon, subject to retraction of his Lancastrian propaganda. This Fortescue did in
Declaration upon Certain Writings
(1471–3). From October 1471, he was a member of Edward's council and sat in the Star Chamber. In 1471 Fortescue wrote
The Governance of England
, the first constitutional treatise written in English; while probably first envisaged as a template for Henry VI's government, it is directed to Edward IV.
Fraternity
Authors: Bird Colin
Published: August 2023

As a political concept, fraternity evokes notions of universal fellowship, of mutual aid, of sympathy and perhaps benevolence toward others, and of shared, cooperative, effort. Although conservatives sometimes celebrate certain fraternal ideals (particularly when implied by organic forms of community, nationality, and tradition), fraternity owes its place in modern political discourse mainly to social critics on the left who mobilize the concept to draw attention to the competitiveness, class division, and self‐servingness characteristic of modern commercial societies. The concept of fraternity involved in such arguments is far from uniquely modern, however, as it evokes several ideas familiar in a variety of premodern intellectual traditions and social forms.
Freire, Paulo (1921–97)
Authors: Deardorff Michelle D.
Published: August 2023

Paulo Freire was one of the most significant educational theorists of the twentieth century and a founder of the critical pedagogy movement. His work derived from his adult literacy efforts among the impoverished of Brazil. Heavily influenced by anticolonialist revolutions in Latin America and the Caribbean, Freire combined a Marxist orientation with the liberation theology taught within the Catholic church. Freire's explicit rejection of a class‐based society influenced his perception of education as a political act in which the teacher either maintains the status quo, acting on behalf of the oppressor, or explicitly uses his authority to encourage students toward liberation.
French Revolution
Authors: Plassart Anna
Published: August 2023

Few events have had as strong an impact on modern political thought, or indeed on modern history, as the French Revolution. Ushered in by decades of financial unrest, against a backdrop of European commercial and military competition, the collapse of the French absolutist monarchy in 1789 was immediately recognized by contemporaries as a transformative historical moment. The following decades saw not only successive mutations of France's internal political system, but also a reshaping of European international relations and intense debates about the concepts of nationalism, democracy, and natural rights. While the most intense phase of the Revolution concluded with the fall of Robespierre in 1794, the revolutionary process can be said to have continued until Napoleon's rise to power in 1799, and even until the end of the revolutionary wars and the re‐establishment of the monarchy in 1815. The Revolution of 1789–94 remains however the symbolic landmark separating the Enlightenment period from the long nineteenth century, and a watershed moment for many of the political attitudes and philosophical concerns that went on to define the modern era, and still resonate in the twenty‐first century.
Friedman, Milton (1912–2006)
Authors: C. Peterson Paul
Published: August 2023

Friedman (PhD, Columbia University, 1946) was an American scholar in economics and a public intellectual greatly admired by libertarians and conservatives, although he rarely referred to himself as a conservative. Friedman taught at the University of Chicago (1946–77) and became the center of a highly influential department at Chicago that came to be known as “the Chicago School of Economics.” It was during this period that Friedman had considerable influence on the scholarly discipline of economics, which was ultimately acknowledged with the 1976 Nobel Prize in Economics.
Fromm, Erich (1900–80)
Authors: Cheliotis Leonidas K.
Published: August 2023

After briefly studying law at the University of Frankfurt, Erich Fromm moved to the University of Heidelberg, where he studied sociology under Alfred Weber (Max Weber's brother), and in 1922 earned a PhD with a dissertation on the function of Jewish law in maintaining cohesion among three diasporic communities. Over the next few years, Fromm trained in psychoanalysis and set up a private practice in Berlin. In 1930, he was made the tenured director of the social psychology section of the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt. In the intervening years, Fromm built upon his rare interdisciplinary background to combine Marxist and Freudian insights into human behavior, one of the products being his unduly underappreciated concept of the “authoritarian character.” He emigrated to the USA in 1934, where he practiced psychoanalysis, gave lectures and seminars at a number of institutions, and started publishing his work in English, including such classic books as
Escape from Freedom
and
The Sane Society
. His work became increasingly philosophical over time, with a strong humanist orientation that also engaged with various theological traditions.
Führerprinzip
Authors: King Martha A. , King Jonathan S.
Published: August 2023

The
Führerprinzip
, or “leader principle,” refers to a guiding principle of political organization particularly associated with the National Socialist regime of Germany (1933–1945). According to this principle, the task of forging a strong national unity requires leadership of a strong, charismatic individual to whom absolute or near‐absolute obedience is given by all members of society. Under these conditions such a leader, according to the
Führerprinzip
, can then represent the concrete embodiment of the state, of its laws, and of the will of the nation as a whole.
Geertz, Clifford (1926–2006)
Authors: Gardner Don
Published: August 2023

Clifford Geertz was one of the most important anthropologists of the twentieth century. His persuasive vision of culture and strikingly stylish essays also gave him a unique influence in other disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Many scholars believe he played a decisive role in shaping the intellectual climate of his era.
Giddens, Anthony (1938–)
Authors: Bryant Christopher G. A.
Published: August 2023

The British sociologist Anthony Giddens has authored or edited more than 40 books and 200 articles. From the 1960s to the 1980s they were addressed solely to social scientists and their students. They were political only insofar as they engaged with issues of structure and agency both in theory and in the practices of alternative forms of modern society. Giddens acknowledges that his many (meta)theoretical writings that culminate in
The Constitution of Society
are an attempt to resolve the complex problems hidden in Marx's deceptively simple claim that “Men make history, but not in circumstances of their own choosing.” Giddens's own “structuration theory” seeks to supersede the dualisms of the individual and society, subjectivism and objectivism, and voluntarism and determinism. It has numerous interconnected components. They include the “duality of structure” (whereby structure, understood as rules and resources, is the medium and outcome of the conduct it recursively organizes) and the “reflexive monitoring of action” by the agent.
Global Constitutionalism
Authors: Peters Anne
Published: August 2023

Global constitutionalism comprises different strands of thought most of which read (or reconstruct) some features of the status quo of global law and governance as “constitutional” and even “constitutionalist” (positive analysis), and which also seek to provide arguments for their further development in a specific direction (normative analysis). Constitutionalism claims that the principles of the rule of law, a separation of powers, fundamental rights protection, democracy, and solidarity, together with institutions and mechanisms securing and implementing these principles, are (comparatively) well suited to safeguard and promote as much as possible the well‐being of natural persons not only as atomized individuals but also in their group relationships. The claim of probably all types of global constitutionalism is that the respective principles, institutions, and mechanisms can and should be used as parameters to inspire strategies for the improvement of the legitimacy of an international legal order and institutions without asking for a world state.
Godwin, William (1756–1836)
Authors: Lamb Robert
Published: August 2023

The moral and political theory articulated in the prolific writing of William Godwin defies easy classification. He can nevertheless be seen to have contributed to a number of different intellectual traditions, including anarchism, liberalism, and utilitarianism. The arguments for which he is most famous would seem to reveal him as the epitome of Enlightenment rationalism and underscore the radical social and political implications of that movement.
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–)
Authors: McIvor David W.
Published: August 2023

Jürgen Habermas has a strong claim to be considered the most important and influential social theorist of the twentieth century. He is the inheritor of a German intellectual tradition reaching back to Immanuel Kant, yet Habermas's work ranges far beyond Continental philosophy, reaching into other traditions such as analytic philosophy and American pragmatism. There are multiple areas of academic inquiry to which Habermas has made a significant contribution, and the current debates within the disciplines of philosophy, linguistics, developmental psychology, philosophy of science, sociology, cultural studies, and political theory are all influenced by his work. In addition to his scholarly contributions, Habermas has been one of the more prominent public intellectuals over the past several decades. He has contributed to political debates surrounding immigration, German unification, the expansion of the European Union, the role of religion within liberal democracies, and the memory of the Holocaust within German public life. Few individuals have made a greater contribution to both intellectual understanding and public life.
Hall, Stuart (1932–2014)
Authors: Eldridge John
Published: August 2023

Born in Jamaica, Stuart Hall was educated at Jamaica College and went to England as a Rhodes Scholar to Merton College, Oxford (1951–7). He read widely in literature and politics and went on to do graduate work on the novelist Henry James. He was drawn into the ferment of left‐wing politics, which characterized Britain in the early postwar period. With Charles Taylor, Raphael Samuel, and Gabriel Pearson he founded the
Universities and Left Review
and became a significant figure in the formation of the first wave of the New Left and the development of New Left Review Clubs, with strong links to the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and the peace movement. The
Universities and Left Review
merged with the
New Reasoner
and became the
New Left Review
, which he edited for two years until 1961. In that context he encountered significant figures on the left including Edward and Dorothy Thompson, John Saville, Alasdair MacIntyre, and Raymond Williams. He then proceeded to teach media, film, and popular culture at Chelsea College and together with Paddy Whannel wrote
The Popular Arts
. This represented a very early example of cultural studies in Britain, as generally understood.
Hellenism
Authors: Evangeliou Christos
Published: August 2023

Hellenism (
Ελληνισμός
in Greek, from the verb
ελληνίζειν
or
hellenizein
, which means to speak, to think, to act and, in general, to behave like a Hellene) refers to that set of distinctive traits and characteristics which used to set the ancient Hellenes apart from the non‐Hellenes or barbarians. Historically, the meaning of Hellenism changed considerably, as we moved from the classical or Hellenic period to the Hellenistic or postclassical period, and more so with the coming of the new monotheistic religions of Christianity and Islam, which Hellenism opposed initially, being identified traditionally with the Hellenic polytheism and the Olympian pantheon. This entry will try to follow synoptically and briefly the historical and diachronic changes in the character of Hellenism in the last three millennia or so, from Homer to the present time.
Helvétius, Claude Adrien (1715–71)
Authors: Audidière Sophie
Published: August 2023

Helvétius, a wealthy tax‐farmer of the French
ancien régime
, is the author of poetry and of two philosophical treatises:
De l'esprit
(1758) and
De l'homme
(1773, posthumous), leaving manuscript notes and a vast correspondence.
De l'esprit
, part of a memorable scandal, was one of the most widely read and most often republished works in eighteenth‐century France. Among French Enlightenment ideas, Helvétius's political thought, based on his anthropology, is noteworthy as a nonutilitarian policy of interest, which one may call issues of public interest, and as an original version of republicanism, centered on the reduction of wealth inequalities.
Herder, Johann Gottfried (1744–1803)
Authors: Fox Russell Arben
Published: August 2023

Johann Gottfried Herder was an educator, Lutheran pastor, literary critic, translator, philosopher, and central figure in the
Sturm und Drang
movement in German arts and letters. His writings have had a long, if usually indirect, influence on debates over nationalism, communitarianism, historical anthropology, and the role of language, religion, and folk culture in public life.
Historical Interpretation
Authors: Laursen John Christian , Mannies Whitney
Published: August 2023

Historical interpretation of political thought is, most generally, the setting of the authors and works of the field into their contexts in order to determine their meaning. It is almost unavoidable, since one must minimally describe an author such as Plato by such contexts as that he was an ancient Greek living in the times of the city‐states. Nevertheless, how to go on from the very basics of historical context, and how much more is required, has been the subject of much methodological debate. Thucydides was arguably the first political theorist to employ historical interpretation, explaining political ideas and developments in hisThe Peloponnesian Warin terms of the historical context. In recent decades, some of the most important schools of historical interpretation have been labeled the Cambridge School, the Straussians, the Marxists, GermanBegriffsgeschichteor conceptual history, historical hermeneutics, and, the most recent movement, comparative political thought.
Hook, Sidney (1902–89)
Authors: Talisse Robert B.
Published: August 2023

Sidney Hook was an American philosopher and prominent public intellectual. Born in Brooklyn, Hook attended City College of New York, where he studied philosophy with Morris Cohen. In 1927, he earned his PhD in philosophy from Columbia University under the direction of John Dewey. He spent most of his career at New York University. From 1973 until his death, Hook was a fellow at the Hoover Institution. Hook's philosophical interests and influence ranged from philosophy of science and metaphysics to philosophy of education, aesthetics, and ethics. He is best known, however, for his work in social and political philosophy and his public opposition to Soviet Communism. This work earned Hook the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1985.
Horkheimer, Max (1895–1973)
Authors: Campbell Colin J.
Published: August 2023

Max Horkheimer was a founding member and lifelong participant in the Frankfurt School of critical theory, where he collaborated with Friedrich Pollock, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, and others. Born to a wealthy Jewish family, as a young student he disagreed with his father's wish that he follow in the family business. After attending the universities of Munich and Frankfurt, he wrote hisHabilitationschriftin 1925, further developing his dissertation research on Kant'sCritique of Judgment. In 1930, after teaching as a privatdozent (lecturer) at Frankfurt University he became director of the Frankfurt School for Social Research, which had been newly established by Felix Weil and Carl Grünberg in 1923. He oversaw the emergency move of the institute into exile in New York and then Los Angeles in the wake of Hitler's victory in 1933. In 1949 he returned to Frankfurt and assumed a full professorship, which he held until his retirement in 1958.
Humanism
Authors: Farley Jared A.
Published: August 2023

Humanism is a general term incorporating any philosophy that places human beings as its focal point, rather than the traditional focus of religious institutions or god(s). All ideas and actions are evaluated based upon how they impact humanity and the worth and dignity of individual humans. Thus for humanists, humanity becomes the standard by which ethics, science, art, politics, and economics are measured. All varieties of political philosophy contain elements of humanism as all make assumptions, either directly or indirectly, about human nature and values. While in contemporary usage humanism, especially secular humanism, has taken on a negative connotation the broader history, definition, and scopes of the term are frequently misunderstood. There are countless varieties of humanism, of both a religious and a secular nature. The Reformation of the sixteenth century and the eighteenth‐century Enlightenment, both of which heavily influenced the Founding Fathers of the United States, were profoundly shaped by humanist philosophy.
Industrial Democracy
Authors: Peschek Joseph G.
Published: August 2023

Industrial democracy as a normative goal is associated with the growth of industrial working classes and labor movements in developed capitalist countries from the mid‐nineteenth century onwards. Championed mainly by the political left, industrial democracy encompasses a wide range of meanings and institutional arrangements. A minimal definition is employee participation in workplace decisions.
Information
Authors: Duff Alistair
Published: August 2023

It is safe to say that information has not hitherto been a central concept of political philosophy. Apart from occasional flashes – from ancient Greek speculations on the political significance oflogos(translatable in some contexts as “information”) to journalist‐philosopher Walter Lippmann's comments on information and the “good society” – information, unlike related concepts such as knowledge or education, has generally slipped under the disciplinary radar. However, today, amid the socio‐technical process of “informatization” – the dramatic rise in the salience of information as object of both consciousness and technology – political philosophers as well as economists and sociologists are beginning to ask what this phenomenon might imply for perennial questions concerning justice, freedom, and the role of the state.
International Political Theory
Authors: Gomes Bjorn
Published: August 2023

This entry seeks to offer an overview of the field of international political theory. It begins by looking at some of its component features, and addresses questions such as “what is theory?”; “what is the distinction between international political theory and international relations theory?”; “what does the international stand for?”; and “who are the principal agents within the realm of the international?” The entry then proceeds to examine and discuss some of the main issues and ongoing debates within the field – just war theory, humanitarian intervention, sovereignty, human rights, citizenship and immigration, and global redistributive justice. It ends by asking if the claims of universal human rights are indeed universal and sustainable, given the cultural and political diversity of the world in which we live.
Internet Democracy
Authors: Anstead Nick
Published: August 2023

Internet democracy (sometimes electronic or e‐democracy) involves the use of Internet communication technology to facilitate democratic participation. In addition, scholars have also discussed the challenges posed by the same technology to existing democratic institutions, such as political parties and elections.
Interpretive Social Science
Authors: Schwartz‐Shea Peregrine
Published: August 2023

Interpretive social science (ISS) positions human meaning‐making at the center of the research endeavor. Drawing on the hermeneutic and phenomenological traditions, interpretive researchers study social phenomena – for example, institutions, public policy, violence – in terms of the discourses, actions, artifacts, texts, and so on, that constitute these
within
specified geographies, cultures, and histories. This orientation toward contextuality implies that meaning is understood not as given nor fixed, but as constructed and dynamic. And differences in meaning are consequential: whether the estate tax is understood as an “inheritance tax” or a “death tax” affects its legitimacy; conceiving of immigrants as “illegal” or “undocumented” shapes their treatment; and depicting the public as “citizens” or “consumers” motivates the design and delivery of public services, to take but a few of myriad examples.
Intersectionality
Authors: Barvosa Edwina
Published: August 2023

Intersectionality is one of the most influential concepts in feminist political theory today. Rooted in black feminist thought, the central insight of intersectionality is that various inter‐related and mutually influencing forms of subordination and privilege shape each person's life. As a result, not only are diverse groups affected differently by various social divisions, even within social groups people may be set apart by intersecting influences. Among women for instance, although all women may experience the gender subordination of patriarchy, each woman is simultaneously immersed in other interpenetrating relations of privilege and/or oppression that will inter‐relate to make her experiences of patriarchy different from those of other women. Other inter‐related systems of influence can include hierarchies of race, class, age, sexual orientation, physical ability, language community, citizenship, and so on in a list of possible influences that potentially encompasses the fullest range of socially constructed human relations and categories.
Islamic Political Thought
Authors: Tampio Nicholas
Published: August 2023

Islamic political thought is a tradition of conceptualizing human affairs that originates with the Prophet Muhammad (570–632ce) in seventh‐century Arabia. In his lifetime Muhammad recited the Qur'an and established a precedent (sunna) that Muslims ever since have taken as a guide for how to establish a just community. In the following centuries Muslims spread the Islamic way of life (din) across the Middle East, North Africa, southern Europe, Iran, Central Asia, and India, until today approximately one and half billion people, or one fifth of humanity, identifies as Muslim. Islamic political thought has consistency insofar as certain terms – such as community (umma), justice (‘adl), and struggle (jihad) – recur throughout the Qur'an and Prophetic narratives (hadith) and subsequent political texts. Throughout its history, however, Islamic political thought has incorporated, as well as modified and challenged, Arab customs, Jewish law, Persian statecraft, Hellenistic philosophy, Christian theology, and European and American culture. Muslims are currently debating how to reconcile (or not) Islamic notions of community, justice, and struggle with concepts that first appeared in ancient Greece or medieval Christendom, such as democracy, liberty, and secularism. This entry provides a background to that debate by focusing on how leading Muslim thinkers address questions of sovereignty and law, or of who ought to govern according to which interpretation of Sharia (divine law).
Justice
Authors: Berkowitz Roger
Published: August 2023

Justice is the virtue of acting rightly and properly with regard to others (political justice) and with regard to oneself (moral justice). Justice is also understood as the good, the appropriate, or what is right in a given situation.
Kemalism
Authors: Davison Andrew
Published: August 2023

The Republic of Turkey's founding and hegemonic ideology derived from the thought and practice of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938), leader of the War of Independence (1919–22), first president, and “Eternal Leader” of the Republican People's Party and its single‐party regime (1920/23–1945/50).