bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genetic variation in Sri Lankan leopards
Authors: Miththapala S. , Seidensticker J. , Phillips L. G. , Goodrowe K. L. , Fernando S. B. U. , Forman L. , O'brien S. J.
Published: June 2005

Electrophoretic variation of 50 gene‐enzyme systems was typed in a population of 33 captive leopards (Panthera pardus) from the island of Sri Lanka. The captive leopard population was composed of several lineages: (1) wild‐caught leopards of the island subspecies (P. p. kotiya), (2) captive‐born animals of the same subspecies, (3) a melanistic lineage whose founders were obtained from Malaysia (P. p. delacouri), and (4) leopards of known mixed lineage and unknown status. Two loci, APRT and PGD, were polymorphic in all samples, whereas 48 loci were invariant. Percent polymorphism (P) and percent average heterozygosity (H) were calculated as 4% and 1.4%, respectively, for the wild‐caught leopards; 4% and 1.2% for the captive‐born kotiya leopards; and 4% and 2.0% for the melanistic lineage. The overall results revealed a detectable decrease in genetic variability compared with a previous study of captive leopards from mainland origins. The mainland leopards had three additional polymorphic loci, ADA, ESI, and HBB. Reexamination of the TF locus using a revised protocol resolved a new allele in the sample of mainland leopards but not in the Sri Lankan sample. With this new polymorphism, recalculated P and H values for the mainland sample are 10% and 3.1%, respectively. No significant differences in polymorphic loci were observed between the leopard subspecies examined.
Giant chacoan peccary: Feeding and social behavior of a captive group in natural habitat
Authors: Handen Cynthia E. , Benirschke Kurt
Published: June 2005

Social behavior of the giant Chacoan peccary, also known as the taguá, is relatively unknown due to the harsh environment and endangered status of the population. In order to characterize feeding and social behaviors, a group of 7 adults, 2 juveniles, and 3 infants was observed in their feeding area for 99.25 hours over 18 days during October and November 1989. All animals were housed in a 2 ha natural‐habitat enclosure in the Chaco of Paraguay. It was determined that these peccaries fed in intervals throughout daylight hours and that juveniles spent more time per approach in the feeding area than adult males. It was also observed that infants were accepted and well tolerated by the entire group, including adult males. These observations have relevance to taguá behavior in the wild and provide new insights into social patterns of this recently discovered species.
Simple method for calculating confidence limits around inbreeding rate and effective population size estimates from pedigrees
Authors: Reed J. Michael , Blackwell Bradley F. , Emigh Ted H.
Published: June 2005

An important concept in population genetics is effective population size (Ne), which describes the expected rate of loss of genetic variability from a population. One way to estimate Ne is using a pedigree. However, there are no methods for comparing the Ne estimated from a pedigree with that expected from life‐history models. In the paper we show how Ne can be estimated from the change in inbreeding rate (f) estimated from a pedigree. The mean individual inbreeding rate in a population at a given time must be calculated from averaged values for males and females, where each age class is weighted by its reproductive value. We show an exact method for placing confidence intervals around f and Ne using a binomial distribution, and present a method for approximating this interval for large Nes using a Poisson distribution. These confidence intervals can be used to compare f and Ne from a pedigree to expected values from demographic models, and to compare Nes of two populations.
Shark bite wounds of the valvular intestine: The cause of an acute mortality syndrome of captive blacktip reef sharks, Carcharhinus melanopterus
Authors: Crow Gerald L. , Brock James A. , Howe Jeffrey C. , Linnon Beth E.
Published: June 2005

During 1987–1990 nine cases of mortality in captive blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) were attributed to bite wounds to the valvular intestine. Necropsies revealed lacerations, amputation of the scroll valve folds, or complete severance of the valvular intestine. Wounding resulting from attack by tankmates occurred during episodes of intestinal eversion, an apparently regular event of unclear physiological function in sharks with a scroll valve intestine. This paper adds intestinal biting as a putative cause of mortality in captive shark species having a scroll valve intestine.
Simple toys do not alter the behavior of aged rhesus monkeys
Authors: Line Scott W. , Morgan Kathleen N. , Markowitz Hal
Published: June 2005

Simple toys and sticks have frequently been suggested as inexpensive forms of environmental enrichment for nonhuman primates. Most descriptions of these items do not provide quantitative data on their use, or the effects that their presence have on general behavior. We tested wooden sticks and four different dog toys with aged and young adult rhesus monkeys to determine whether or not they led to decreases in abnormal behaviors, or increases in activity. We monitored object‐use, abnormal behaviors, and general activity in a series of three experiments. Use of all objects tested declined sharply by the second day after they were placed in the cage. High levels of use were seen each time new objects were introduced, suggesting that a regular schedule of object rotation would lead to increased interest from the monkeys. No changes in abnormal behaviors or general activity were attributed to the presence of the objects. We conclude that sticks and simple toys have limited effectiveness as environmental enrichment options for aged rhesus monkeys. Where possible, socialization and/or actively responsive enrichment devices may be more effective in enhancing the lives of captive primates. In the case of animals in zoos, responsive environments and increased social opportunities also contribute to the educational, aesthetic, and health diagnostic missions of the institutions.
Reproduction of the lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis) at Dvůr Králové Zoo
Authors: Váhala Jiří
Published: June 2005

Reproductive data on captive lesser kudus (Tragelaphus imberis) were collected from 1972 to 1990. The estrous cycles of two females were 21 and 22 days. Mean gestation length of 18 pregnancies was 244 ± 5.5 days (range = 235–256 days), and 71.2% of interbirth intervals (n = 146) were from 248 to 365 days. Births occurred throughout the year, but 55% were from September to December. Females always gave birth to a single calf (n = 215), and the sex ratio did not differ from unity. Neonatal weights (1–3 days postpartum) of 32 males and 28 females surviving at least 30 days were 6.4 ± 0.8 kg and 5.8 ± 0.7 kg, respectively. Males and females reached sexual maturity at the ages of 16 and 19 months, respectively. The oldest male lived to slightly more than 14 years, 5 months, and the oldest female to more than 18 years, 11 months. Males were fertile until at least 14 years and females minimally to 14–18 years of age; however, the maximum age of successful lactation was 13–14 years. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Serum and urinary levels of reproductive hormones associated with the estrous cycle in white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
Authors: Knox W. M. , Miller K. V. , Collins D. C. , Bush P. B. , Kiser T. E. , Marchinton R. L.
Published: June 2005

Concentrations of estradiol‐17β (E2), progesterone (Po), and luteinizing hormone (LH) in serum and estrone glucuronide (E1G) and pregnanediol glucuronide (PdG) in urine were determined by direct radioimmunoassay in five yearling and three adult female white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from 14 October to 20 December 1985. Elevated levels of LH were recorded before the first estrus of the breeding season and immediately preceding or during behavioral estrus. Urinary E1G and PdG concentrations were poorly correlated with serum levels of E2 and Po, respectively. Serum Po levels prior to the first estrus of the breeding season indicate that pubertal yearlings experience silent ovulations and suggest that silent ovulations may be important in the transition from adolescence to cycling adult in white‐tailed deer. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Variables that influence the activity of captive orangutans
Authors: Perkins Lorraine A.
Published: June 2005

It is well known that the environment significantly influences the behavior of captive animals. However, the specific nature of the cues that promote speciestypical behavior patterns is not usually known. This study extends an earlier investigation by Wilson (Zoo Biology 1: 201–209, 1982). The objective was to identify and quantify specific environmental components that influence activity levels in orangutans. Six enclosure variables were quantified, and activity levels measured, for 29 orangutans housed in nine zoological parks. Multiple regression analysis indicated that the combination of the number of animals, amount of usable surface area, number of movable objects, and enclosure volume was the best predictor of activity levels, accounting for 58% of the variance in activity levels. It was concluded that the provision of large enclosures, containing large numbers of movable objects and providing social opportunities, would promote higher levels of activity in captive orangutans. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Cage Design and Forms of Play in Red‐Bellied Tamarins, Saguinus labiatus
Authors: Caine Nancy G. , O'Boyle Vincent J.
Published: June 2005

We investigated the role of cage design in the expression of play in a group of red‐bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus). For each of the four play behaviors that were measured in this study (wrestle, pounce, grasp, and chase), significant differences in frequency appeared as a function of substrate. When playing on broad, flat, horizontal substrates, the tamarins primarily wrestled with one another. When playing on branches and vines, the tamarins wrestled less but chased and grasped more. Play sequences were less varied in terms of inclusion and order of play behaviors when they occurred on flat, horizontal substrates. To the extent that zoo or laboratory enclosures are outfitted with substrates, whose size and physical orientation are at odds with a species' natural habitat, the validity of play data and the educational value of an exhibit are compromised. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Evaluation of extenders and cryopreservatives for cooling and cryopreservation of spermatozoa from the western spotted skunk (Spilogale gracilis)
Authors: Kaplan Joyce B. , Mead Rodney A.
Published: June 2005

Experiments were conducted to develop a suitable protocol for cryopreservation of spotted skunk semen. Semen was collected by electroejaculation of captive male skunks (n = 16) from late January through late November. In the first experiment, fresh semen was diluted in either TEST (n = 10), TRIS (n = 9), or BF5F (n = 7) extenders and maintained at 4°C for 16 hr. Sperm motility in these extenders was not significantly different before cooling (P = 0.71), but samples diluted with BF5F exhibited significantly lower sperm motility than the other extenders at all time points after cooling (P < 0.05). In the second experiment, fresh semen was diluted in TEST containing either 3, 5, or 10% DMSO or 3, 5, or 10% glycerol as a cryopreservative. These samples were cooled to 4°C and frozen in 0.25 ml French straws on dry ice. Some samples containing 5% DMSO or 5% glycerol (n = 4), were also frozen on dry ice as pellets. Frozen samples were maintained in liquid nitrogen. Fresh samples had significantly greater sperm motility in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) than in glycerol (P < 0.05), while frozen and thawed samples had the highest motility in 5 or 10% DMSO or 10% glycerol. Samples frozen in French straws had significantly greater sperm motility after freezing and thawing than those frozen by the pellet method (P < 0.05). Optimum cryoprotection was achieved with the TEST extender containing 5 or 10% DMSO, when used in conjunction with French straws. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The influence of food presentation on the behavior of small cats in confined environments
Authors: Shepherdson David J. , Carlstead Kathy , Mellen Jill D. , Seidensticker John
Published: June 2005

Captive small felids frequently pace repetitively and/or spend large amounts of time inactive. Presenting a fishing cat with live‐fish resulted in more activity (60% less sleeping), increased behavioral diversity, including previously unobserved hunting behaviors, and greater enclosure utilization. Effects persisted for at least 48 h after presentation of live fish, and up to 8 days. In a second study, four leopard cats were fed: (1) once per day, (2) four times per day and, (3) four times per day with food hidden in small piles of brush. Multiple feedings of hidden food increased daily exploratory behavior from 5.5% to over 14%, and increased the diversity of behaviors observed. It also reduced the total duration, and bout length of stereotyped pacing. These studies suggest that providing food to small cats in a way that minimizes predictability of food availability, while maximizing the functional consequences of foraging behavior, can be an effective enrichment technique. These results are discussed in relation to two models of behavioral motivation, one that focuses on the issue of behavioral needs, and the other that emphasizes the importance of information acquisition. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
An introduction to the biogeochemical cycling of calcium and substitutive strontium in living coral reef mesocosms
Authors: Lang Gerald T.
Published: June 2005

The coral reef mesocosms designed by the Smithsonian Institution's Dr. Walter Adey, his Marine System Laboratory personnel, and staff members of the Pittsburgh Aqua‐Zoo simulate most of the physical, chemical, and biological parameters found in natural Caribbean coral reefs. After developing the mesocosm in Pittsburgh, an evaluation and comparison between natural reef seawater sources and closed mesocosm seawater conditions indicated that an additional parameter should be investigated. It was hypothesized that, given time, the aragonite‐ and calcite (CaCO3 crystal forms)‐producing organisms in the closed mesocosms could deplete the seawater of available Ca2+ and substitutive Sr2+. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry was utilized to determine concentrations in the seawater over time. Results showed a substantial reduction in dissolved Ca and Sr in the mesocosm after approximately two years. Dissolved aragonitic Halimeda algae parts were put into the system for replacive purposes. In terms of the biogeochemical cycling of Ca2+ and Sr2+, the coral reef mesocosm organisms behaved similarly to natural reefs, which have a constant supply of dissolved Ca2+ and Sr2+. Further research utilizing radiolabeled sources of Ca2+, Sr2+, and Mg2+, in conjunction with in vivo scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and growth increment studies, are recommended for determining the exact biogeochemical pathways for these elements in coral reefs, and to quantify growth parameters. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Food intake and mass gain of hand‐reared brown bear cubs
Authors: Huber Djuro , Kulier Ignac , Poljak Andrea , Devčić‐Kuhar Branka
Published: June 2005

Five orphaned European brown bear cubs (Ursus arctos) from 3 litters were hand‐reared from the ages of 1–4 months. Body mass initially ranged from 1.7 to 2.8 kg. Growth rates were monitored with reference to diet. Over a period of 3 years, 6 different feed formulas were used. The first 4 formulas were given with bottles until an average age of 133 days. Conversion to mass in the first 10 months ranged from 3.5 to 32.0 g of food per gram of body mass (or 38.1–192.6 kJ of gross energy/gram body mass), and was affected by type of diet. High fat content increased, whereas high carbohydrate content decreased the conversion rates. Formula 3, with 12.0% protein, 23.9% fat, and only 0.2% carbohydrates, simulated values found in bears' milk and produced the best growth rates. Formula 6 (bread, fruits, and meat) was used from ages 7 to 35 months, and over this period, the efficiency of gross energy conversion decreased gradually, by an eventual factor of 3.8. Hand‐reared cubs ranged from 1.3 to 2.7 times heavier than 17 wild cubs measured at matching ages. Wild mass is probably limited by maternal hibernation, and by the largely herbivorous nature of the diet. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The effects of early experience on adult copulatory behavior in zoo‐born chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: King Nancy E. , Mellen Jill D.
Published: June 2005

This paper examines the relationship between the early rearing experience of zoo‐born, zoo‐reared chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and the subsequent occurrence of successful copulation as adults. Developmental histories were acquired for 71 subjects via questionnaires and phone interviews. The following variables related to aspects of chimpanzees' early rearing experience were examined: (1) Rearing conditions, that is, hand reared alone, reared with siblings or peers, or reared by at least one adult conspecific. (2) Age removed from mother. (3) Sex of subject, and/or (4) participation in shows. Each of these variables was then compared to the subjects' sexual competence, defined here as having been observed to exhibit functional copulatory behavior as adults. Seventy‐five percent of the subjects were observed to exhibit functional copulatory behavior on at least one occasion. No single component of rearing was successful in producing sexually competent adults 100% of the time; no rearing condition, as defined in this study, resulted in reproductive failure for all subjects experiencing those conditions. Chimpanzees that were hand reared alone, that is, in the total absence of conspecifics, were least likely to copulate as adults; about half of those chimpanzees that were reared with siblings or peers (and in the absence of adult conspecifics) copulated as adults. Almost 90% of those chimpanzees that were reared with at least one adult conspecific copulated as adults. Chimpanzees removed from their mothers at an early age (less than one year of age) were less likely to reproduce as adults. Male and female chimpanzees were equally likely to reproduce as adults. Participation in shows or demonstrations appeared to have no effect on chimpanzees' ability to copulate as adults. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fecal steroid hormone analysis as an indicator of reproductive function in the cheetah
Authors: Czekala N. M. , Durrant B. S. , Callison L. , Williams M. , Millard S.
Published: June 2005

Techniques were developed and validated to measure fecal estrogen and progesterone concentrations of the female cheetah. Fecal samples were collected from seven mature females. Cheetahs were monitored before mating and continued until parturition. Four females had normal pregnancies, one conceived but the pregnancy resulted in spontaneous abortion, one was mated but apparently did not conceive and one was treated with gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to induce follicular growth and ovulation. Vaginal superficial cells increased with increasing estrogen concentrations. Peak estrogen occurred one day postcopulation. Increases in fecal progesterone concentrations, indicative of ovulation, occurred after copulation and hormonally induced ovulation. For the first time reproductive function can be monitored in the cheetah using noninvasive sample collection. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Bioenergetics of the bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, maintained in captivity
Authors: Schmid T. H. , Murru F. L.
Published: June 2005

Understanding the energy requirements for captive sharks is important for their successful long‐term maintenance. This information is critical in assessing the health of the animals and the suitability of their environment. We studied five bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) for up to 7 years in a 2.5 × 106 liter oceanarium. Individual animal feedings provided information for food intake analysis. During the first 3 years, fork length increase was estimated to have averaged 1.9 cm/month (s.d. = 0.1), or 23.0 cm/year. Biannual measurements, begun in the fourth year, showed that growth rates decreased during the next 4 years to a mean rate of 0.6 cm/month (s.d. = 0.2), or about 7.0 cm/year. Mean food consumption from June 1988 to December 1992 was 3.4% body weight per week. Caloric conversion of weights incorporated into a simple bioenergetics model providing mean metabolic expenditures per animal was 5.7 (s.d. = 0.3) and 4 (s.d. = 0.5) kcal/kg/day for 1991 and 1992, respectively. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Is inbreeding depression more severe in a stressful environment?
Authors: Miller Philip S.
Published: June 2005

Successful reintroduction of endangered species depends in part on their ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. Population genetics theory suggests that inbred populations lacking genetic variability may be unable to respond effectively to environmental stress. There have been very few studies designed explicitly to investigate the phenomenon of inbreeding depression under environmental stress, particularly in the context of conservation genetics. Three separate experiments using Drosophila melanogaster were designed to explore this issue. No increase in the magnitude of inbreeding depression was detected in laboratory lines subjected to three generations of continuous full‐sib mating under temperature stress (28°C), lead stress (medium contaminated with 400 ppm Pb), or a combination of these stresses. Individual isofemale lines from a different population, however, did show significant increases in inbreeding depression when exposed to temperature stress for one generation of full‐sib mating following three generations of full‐sib inbreeding at 25°C. Further, chromosome‐2 homozygotes showed, on average, a significant increase in inbreeding depression under lead stress when in competition with corresponding chromosome‐2 heterozygotes compared to the same lines in a benign environment. Taken together, these results suggest that inbreeding depression is more severe under conditions of environmental stress and is more likely to be realized in an inter‐ or intraspecific competitive situation as can be experienced in the wild. Therefore, it is likely that reduced genetic variability through inbreeding is a much greater problem for recently reintroduced populations than it is for populations in a relatively benign zoo environment. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Monitoring fecal samples for estrogen excretion across the ovarian cycle in Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii)
Authors: Pryce C. R. , Schwarzenberger F. , Döbeli M.
Published: June 2005

In captive Goeldi's monkeys, estrogen concentration was determined in fecal samples collected from 4 cycling/unmated females and 4 postpartum/mated females in order to ascertain the potential of fecal estrogen monitoring for providing basic information about reproductive status in this endangered Amazonian monkey. Subjects were fed an omnivorous diet and first‐void feces were collected in the home cage at 1–3‐day intervals for 30–50 days from the cycling females, and at 6–14‐day intervals around the estimated time of the postpartum ovulation in each of the 4 mated females. Estimates for the duration of ovarian cycles (22–26 days) and the timing of ovulation were based on cyclic profiles of either blood progesterone or urinary pregnanediol‐3α‐glucuronide. Fecal estrogen values were normalized using these plasma or urinary profiles. HPLC analysis of estrogen from postpartum fecal samples demonstrated the presence of unconjugated estrone and estradiol‐17β (“unconjugated estrogen”). Unconjugated estrogen was extracted and its fecal concentration estimated via EIA. The correlation (r) between plasma estrone conjugates and fecal unconjugated estrogen across nonconception ovarian cycles was 0.65 and measurement of the latter generated cyclic profiles. A range of 4–36‐ng unconjugated estrogen g−1 feces was identified for follicular phases of nonconception cycles. Fecal unconjugated estrogen first exceeded the concentration range of the follicular phase 2–5 days after ovulation; the range was 49–402 ng g−1 feces in samples collected during the remainder of these nonconception luteal phases. Luteal phase concentrations were on average 10‐fold higher than follicular phase concentrations. Each of the 4 mated females conceived at its postpartum ovulation; concentrations of fecal unconjugated estrogen excreted by 3 of these females demonstrated a marked postovulatory increase. This study demonstrates that fecal unconjugated estrogen can be applied to monitor ovarian cyclicity in Goeldi's monkey. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Nursing behavior in dam‐reared Russian saiga (Saiga tatarica tatarica) at the San Diego wild animal park
Authors: Rubin Esther S. , Michelson Karla J.
Published: June 2005

This study was designed to examine the nursing patterns and related behavior of young saiga raised by their dams. Four captive born lambs were observed at weekly intervals during continuous 14 h watches for the first 7 weeks of life. One‐week‐old lambs were found to nurse at an average rate of 1.1 bouts per hour and nursed for an average of 14.6 seconds per bout. This high nursing frequency and the average total daily nursing time of 242 seconds decreased rapidly with age. Saiga lambs sampled solid food as early as 4 days of age and were nearly dependent on solid food by the age of 7 weeks. Communal nursing, in which one or more lambs would nurse from an unrelated adult female while she nursed her own, was common. Grooming of the lamb by the dam was never seen except immediately following birth. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Masturbation in captive Hylobates (gibbons)
Authors: Mootnick Alan R. , Baker Elaine
Published: June 2005

Masturbation was observed in 9 of 52 captive adult Hylobates (gibbons) over a period of 17 years at the International Center for Gibbon Studies (ICGS). Four females and 5 males masturbated with varying degrees of regularity. The behavior may be related to a disruption in early rearing experiences of Hylobates. This is the first report on masturbation in these animals and documents that this behavior occurs infrequently in captive Hylobates. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Feed intake and digestion in the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus): Consequences for dietary management
Authors: Barboza Perry S. , Allen Mary E. , Rodden Melissa , Pojeta Kim
Published: June 2005

Captive maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus) often consume diets high in prey and meat items even though they are omnivorous in the wild. These soft, high protein diets may exacerbate conditions of gingivitis and cystinuria in this species. Feed intakes were monitored in wolves provided with prey and meat‐based diets (3 periods) and subsequently with extruded dog chows and small amounts of prey (2 periods). Digestibilities of each type of diet were measured with the indigestible marker chromic oxide. Dry matter intakes were similar between diets (374–584 g · 30 kg−1 · d−1), even though dietary protein content was reduced from 44% to 29% of dry matter. Digestibility of dry matter was unaltered by these dietary changes (77% of high prey diet vs. 73% of chow diet), but fecal consistency changed to softer stools at lower intakes of prey. Estimated metabolizable energy intakes of wolves (501–674 kJ · kg−0.75 · d−1) were similar to the maintenance requirement for domestic dogs (525 kJ · kg−0.75 · d−1), suggesting a similar energy requirement for maintenance of the wolves. The metabolizable energy derived from protein in the high prey diets was 37%, whereas that of the chow diets was only 27%. These levels exceed estimates of protein requirements for maintenance (4.3–21.8%) and growth (11.5–20.3%) in domestic dogs and may thus exceed those of the wolves. Dietary management of maned wolves should minimize excess protein intake by limiting prey consumption and acclimating animals to extruded diets for domestic dogs. Further research is required to formulate diets for long‐term management of cystinuria in maned wolves. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Use of positive reinforcement training in the management of species for reproduction
Authors: Desmond Tim , Laule Gail
Published: June 2005

Positive reinforcement training holds great potential for enhancing the management of species for reproduction. This paper reviews a wide range of animal training activities and resultant benefits which could have application to captive reproduction programs. Recognized benefits fall into several categories. Basic animal care can be improved through voluntary cooperation by the animals with veterinary procedures and routine husbandry activities. The quality and quantity of physiological data collected for research can be improved through voluntary cooperation by the animal subjects with sample collection. Positive social interaction and reproductive behavior can be increased and aggressive behavior reduced through employment of a specialized training regime called cooperative feeding. Good success has been reported with special training programs to facilitate introduction of new members into primate social groups, while mixed results have been obtained in efforts to use training to enhance maternal skills. Finally, a discussion of both direct and indirect enhancement of psychological well‐being through the use of positive reinforcement training is presented. While positive reinforcement training techniques will not be useful in every situation, information developed to date strongly suggests that these techniques should be given serious consideration when developing comprehensive programs for the management of species for reproduction. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Control of behavioral development in the context of reintroduction programs for birds
Authors: Wallace Michael P.
Published: June 2005

Only over the last few decades has there been a concerted effort to develop and refine release methods for threatened species. With the goal of achieving self‐sustaining wild populations, three main techniques have been employed: parent‐rearing, cross‐fostering, and isolation‐rearing. Although there are many considerations in developing or selecting the most efficient method for any given species, the behavioral aspects of preparing birds for release are important. The concept of different life history strategies may also help in designing a preparation and release methodology. The degree of interspecific and intraspecific sociality also is important in the development of effective behavioral preparation of individuals for release. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Validation of an enzyme immunoassay for measurement of excreted estrogen and testosterone metabolites in the white‐crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys oriantha)
Authors: Lee Julian V. , Whaling Carol S. , Lasley Bill L. , Marler Peter
Published: June 2005

Over the past few years there has been a growing interest in hormonal analyses, despite the cost and difficulty involved in measuring hormones using radioimmunoassays. Therefore, there is a need for alternate procedures, such as enzyme immunoassays, capable of providing similar data to that provided by radioactive methods. Enzyme immunoassays are a less expensive method of measuring estrone conjugates and testosterone. With further work, the enzyme immunoassay also provides the potential to adapt the enzyme assay for use in the field. The data in this study demonstrate that an enzyme assay can accurately detect both endogenous and exogenous hormonal changes in the droppings of white‐crowned sparrows. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hematology and plasma chemistry values in free‐ranging Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in Chile
Authors: Wallace Roberta S. , Teare J. Andrew , Diebold Edward , Michaels Margaret , Willis Mary Jo
Published: June 2005

To establish baseline hematologic and plasma biochemistry values in free‐ranging Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), heparinized blood samples were collected from 51 apparently healthy, adult Humboldt penguins residing at two colonies off the Chilean coast. Thirty samples were collected in April, 1992, from penguins inhabiting the Ex‐islote de los Pájaros Niños in Algarrobo, Chile. In September, 1992, 21 samples were collected from birds inhabiting Isla de Cachagua, Chile. Hematologic values measured include packed cell volume, leucocyte count, leucocyte differential, and the presence of blood parasites. Plasma biochemistry values measured include glucose, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, uric acid, calcium, inorganic phosphorous, sodium, potassium, chloride, total protein, albumin, globulin, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, total bilirubin, and creatine kinase. Only the mean values for chloride and for the number of eosinophils differed significantly between the two sample groups. No blood parasites were seen. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Enclosure utilization and activity of Round Island geckos (Phelsuma guentheri)
Authors: Wheler Colette L. , Fa John E.
Published: June 2005

This study evaluated space use and activity of individually housed Phelsuma guentheri to formulate recommendations for environmental enrichment. Gecko location within small (0.03 m3) and large (0.22 m3) vivaria and substrate use data were collected over five 24 h periods. Thermogradients within each enclosure type were determined by measuring temperature at various heights. From these data, geckos' space use, activity cycle, and substrate preference were calculated in relation to temperature changes and photoperiod.

Geckos did not utilize their environment uniformly. Heavily utilized locations contained cage furnishings or hides. Geckos avoided the use of vertical glass walls. Thermogradients were not actively utilized; however, when given the opportunity, geckos would orient towards natural sunlight. Enclosure size did not affect activity cycle, which was nocturnal with crepuscular peaks.

Recommendations for enclosure improvement include provision of more furnishings and hides at different thermal levels. An alternate focal heat source other than UV light is recommended to provide warmth without light. Larger enclosures may encourage more uniform use of available space. Transparent glass may not be an appropriate substrate for these geckos.

Once recommendations have been implemented, a similar study must be conducted to assess benefit. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Immunocontraception of captive exotic species. I. Przewalski's horses (Equus przewalskii) and banteng (Bos javanicus)
Authors: Kirkpatrick Jay F. , Zimmermann Waltraut , Kolter Lydia , Liu I. K. M. , Turner J. W.
Published: June 2005

A contraceptive vaccine made of porcine zonae pellucidae (PZP) was tested in three Przewalski's mares and five banteng cows. The vaccine antigen consisted of the complete family of glycoproteins of the porcine zona pellucida, including the sperm receptor ZP3. All mares and three of five banteng were inoculated with 2 or 3 i.m. injections of approximately 65 μg of antigen given over a 6 week period. Two other banteng received inoculations of only 35 μg of antigen on the same schedule. Two of the three mares and three of five banteng cows were pregnant at the time of inoculation. No new pregnancies, as a result of postinoculation breedings, occurred among either the mares 36 months after 65 μg antigen inoculations or among the banteng for 24 months after 65 μg inoculations. One postinoculation pregnancy resulted among the two banteng receiving only 35 μg of antigen. Differences in fertility between treated and control mares and between preinoculation and postinoculation reproductive performance of the banteng were significant (P < 0.05). Urinary ovarian steroid metabolites and behavioral observations indicated follicular development and ovulations were occurring among treated mares during the year following PZP inoculations. PZP immunization produced progressively elevated anti‐PZP antibodies in both species, which provided contraceptive protection. PZP immunization appears to be an effective form of contraception in both species. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Interaction sequences between chimpanzees and human visitors at the Zoo
Authors: Cook S. , Hosey G. R.
Published: June 2005

Data were collected on the behavior and physical characteristics of 259 human visitors and 24 chimpanzees at Chester Zoo. The successive responses of humans and chimpanzees to each other's behavior were recorded, the resulting long sequence being referred to as an interaction sequence. There was no particular set of characteristics that distinguished interactors from noninteractors in either humans or chimpanzees, although there was some evidence that chimpanzees were particularly likely to respond to men carrying objects. Chimpanzee responses were random with respect to the previous human behavior, but human responses were significantly associated with the preceding chimpanzee behavior. In particular, chimpanzee sounds were likely to be followed by human sounds, and begging was likely to be followed by the offer of food. Interaction sequences varied in length, but 9% of chimpanzee‐initiated sequences went as far as a ninth interaction. Sequences resulted in the chimpanzees being given food in 25% of human‐initiated, but only 8% of chimpanzee‐initiated sequences. The results are consistent with the interpretation that humans and chimpanzees are motivated to interact with one another and that the chimpanzees do this primarily to obtain food. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Radiative influences on drop and cloud condensation nuclei equilibrium in stratocumulus
Authors: Marquis James , Harrington Jerry Y.
Published: June 2005

Radiative heating and cooling occurs throughout most of a stratocumulus cloud layer. Shortwave (SW) heating of individual drops can be strong enough that drop temperatures at equilibrium deviate by as much as 6°C from the surrounding environment. These large temperature differences lead to substantial errors when the classical equation for vapor growth is used. A new form of the vapor growth equation is derived for cases of strong radiative heating. The new equation is used to assess the equilibrium supersaturation (seq) state of drops and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) within a stratocumulus cloud. Longwave (LW) cloud top cooling has two primary effects on seq. It tends to reduce seq for large drops to values as low as −6%, providing for drop growth at subsaturations. It also tends to reduce the critical supersaturation and size at which larger CCN activate to become growing cloud drops. In contrast, LW heating of cloud base suppresses the growth of cloud drops and CCN. Larger CCN (sizes between 0.5 and 5 μm) lose their Köhler curve maximum, indicating restricted CCN growth. Solar heating produces seq up to 20% for drops with sizes between 500 and 1000 μm, indicating strong evaporation of drizzle drops. Since solar absorption increases more slowly with drop size than LW emission, a minimum appears in the Köhler curves at sizes between 20 and 100 μm, suggesting a preferred size range for vapor growth in SW heated clouds. Like LW heating, SW heating causes suppression of growth for larger CCN.
India, United States discuss joint efforts to monitor the ionosphere
Authors: Simpson Sarah
Published: June 2005

The “India‐United States Conference on Space Science, Applications, and Commerce: Strengthening and Expanding Cooperation” event drew some 600 scientists, engineers, business people and senior government and space agency officials from both countries. Representatives of the space science communities from both nations recommend satellite missions as one of the best ways to collaborate on space weather research.
Gene movement by
Helitron
transposons contributes to the haplotype variability of maize
Authors: Lai Jinsheng , Li Yubin , Messing Joachim , Dooner Hugo K.
Published: June 2005

Different maize inbred lines are polymorphic for the presence or absence of genic sequences at various allelic chromosomal locations. In the
bz
genomic region, located in
9S
, sequences homologous to four different genes from rice and
Arabidopsis
are present in line McC but absent from line B73. It is shown here that this apparent intraspecific violation of genetic colinearity arises from the movement of genes or gene fragments by
Helitron
s, a recently discovered class of eukaryotic transposons. Two
Helitron
s,
HelA
and
HelB
, account for all of the genic differences distinguishing the two
bz
locus haplotypes.
HelA
is 5.9 kb long and contains sequences for three of the four genes found only in the McC
bz
genomic region. A nearly identical copy of
HelA
was isolated from a
5S
chromosomal location in B73. Both the
9S
and
5S
sites appear to be polymorphic in maize, suggesting that these
Helitron
s have been active recently.
Helitron
s lack the strong predictive terminal features of other transposons, so the definition of their ends is greatly facilitated by the identification of their vacant sites in
Helitron
-minus lines. The ends of the 2.7-kb
HelB Helitron
were discerned from a comparison of the McC haplotype sequence with that of yet a third line, Mo17, because the
HelB
vacant site is deleted in B73. Maize
Helitron
s resemble rice Pack-MULEs in their ability to capture genes or gene fragments from several loci and move them around the genome, features that confer on them a potential role in gene evolution.
STRUBBELIGdefines a receptor kinase-mediated signaling pathway regulating organ development inArabidopsis
Authors: Chevalier David , Batoux Martine , Fulton Lynette , Pfister Karen , Yadav Ram Kishor , Schellenberg Maja , Schneitz Kay
Published: June 2005

An open question remains as to what coordinates cell behavior during organogenesis, permitting organs to reach their appropriate size and shape. TheArabidopsisgeneSTRUBBELIG(SUB) defines a receptor-mediated signaling pathway in plants.SUBencodes a putative leucine-rich repeat transmembrane receptor-like kinase. The mutantsubphenotype suggests thatSUBaffects the formation and shape of several organs by influencing cell morphogenesis, the orientation of the division plane, and cell proliferation. Mutational analysis suggests that the kinase domain is important for SUB function. Biochemical assays using bacterially expressed fusion proteins indicate that the SUB kinase domain lacks enzymatic phosphotransfer activity. Furthermore, transgenes encoding WT and different mutant variants of SUB were tested for their ability to rescue the mutantsubphenotype. These genetic data also indicate that SUB carries a catalytically inactive kinase domain. The SUB receptor-like kinase may therefore signal in an atypical fashion.
Structural basis for ordered substrate binding and cooperativity in aspartate transcarbamoylase
Authors: Wang Jie , Stieglitz Kimberly A. , Cardia James P. , Kantrowitz Evan R.
Published: June 2005

X-ray structures of aspartate transcarbamoylase in the absence and presence of the first substrate carbamoyl phosphate are reported. These two structures in conjunction with
in silico
docking experiments provide snapshots of critical events in the function of the enzyme. The ordered substrate binding, observed experimentally, can now be structurally explained by a conformational change induced upon the binding of carbamoyl phosphate. This induced fit dramatically alters the electrostatics of the active site, creating a binding pocket for aspartate. Upon aspartate binding, a further change in electrostatics causes a second induced fit, the domain closure. This domain closure acts as a clamp that both facilitates catalysis by approximation and also initiates the global conformational change that manifests homotropic cooperativity.
Nonviremic transmission of West Nile virus
Authors: Higgs Stephen , Schneider Bradley S. , Vanlandingham Dana L. , Klingler Kimberly A. , Gould Ernest A.
Published: June 2005

West Nile virus (WNV) is now the predominant circulating arthropod-borne virus in the United States with >15,000 human cases and >600 fatalities since 1999. Conventionally, mosquitoes become infected when feeding on viremic birds and subsequently transmit the virus to susceptible hosts. Here, we demonstrate nonviremic transmission of WNV between cofeeding mosquitoes. Donor,Culex pipiens quinquefasciatusmosquitoes infected with WNV were fed simultaneously with uninfected “recipient” mosquitoes on naïve mice. At all times, donor and recipient mosquitoes were housed in separate sealed containers, precluding the possibility of mixing. Recipients became infected in all five trials, with infection rates as high as 5.8% and no detectable viremia in the hosts. Remarkably, a 2.3% infection rate was observed when 87 uninfected mosquitoes fed adjacent to a single infected mosquito. This phenomenon could potentially enhance virus survival, transmission, and dispersion and obviate the requirement for viremia. All vertebrates, including immune and insusceptible animals, might therefore facilitate mosquito infection. Our findings question the status of dead-end hosts in the WNV transmission cycle and may partly explain the success with which WNV established and rapidly dispersed throughout North America.
Nutritional effects of autoxidized fats in animal diets
Authors: L'estrange J. L. , Carpenter K. J. , Lea C. H. , Parr L. J.
Published: June 2005

1. Beef fat oxidized to a peroxide value of 109 μmoles/g (218 m-equiv./kg), with a reduction in iodine value of 3.4 units, was incorporated at a 5% level in the diet of day-old chicks (diet 2) and stored for 8 weeks at room temperature during feeding. Similar diets containing fresh fat (diet 1, peroxide value zero) or oxidized fat in which the peroxide had been largely destroyed by heating (diet 3, peroxide value 2 μmoles/g) were also used. The diets contained adequate but not excessive levels of all vitamins, including stabilized vitamin A, except that for half of the chicks the supplement of stabilized vitamin E was omitted. 2. No further oxidation of the dietary lipid occurred during storage, and the initially high peroxide value in diet 2 decreased rapidly. The natural vitamin E decreased by more than 50% in diet 2, but remained unaffected in diets 1 and 3. 3. The chicks grew normally, with no difference in weight gain or feed conversion between the groups, the only differences attributable to the diets being marginally lower vitamin A levels accumulated in the livers of the birds on diet 2 and ajustdetectablyhigher liver weight in the birds on diet 3. 4. One of the twelve chicks receiving oxidized fat (diet 2) without synthetic vitamin E developed encephalomalacia. There was no other suggestion of performance being inferior as a consequence of the absence of the vitamin E supplement. 5. No difference could be detected in the flavour of the chickens, either freshly roasted or reheated.