bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Foraging ecology of the mangrove salt marsh snake, Nerodia clarkii compressicauda: effects of vegetational density
Authors: Mullin Stephen J. , Mushinsky Henry R.
Published: April 2008

The mangrove salt marsh snake (Nerodia clarkii compressicauda Baird and Girard) may experience varying levels of foraging success because the prop roots of the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) have a six-fold variation in density. Adult female N. c. compressicauda were allowed to forage for 24 h on a known density of prey in an enclosed habitat simulating one of four experimental prop root densities. Snake behaviors were recorded during the first hour of each trial, and the number of prey ingested was determined at the conclusion of the trial period. Individuals had the greatest success at the root density most often encountered in their habitat. More time was spent in the water than atop roots; but individuals were less likely to forage in the water at low root densities, suggesting that they, like their prey, may be afforded protection from avian and mammalian predation by the mangrove forest canopy. Mangrove salt marsh snakes spent the majority of time resting motionless and appeared to be opportunistic predators, attempting to ingest prey only during chance encounters.
Variations in brood size and birth rates of Salamandra salamandra (Amphibia, Urodela) from different habitats in northern Israel
Authors: Degani Gad , Warburg M.R.
Published: April 2008

Ovoviviparous births of larvae of Salamandra salamandra (L) were compared from a number of disjunct habitats in northern Israel, at the south-eastern limit of the Palearctic distribution of the species. The numbers, period and rate at which larvae were born varied between different habitats. In one winter pond, 90±11 larvae per brood were born at a rate of 5 per hour during December-January; in another pond, broods of 114±13 were born at 4 per hour during November-January; in a third, 112±15 were born at a rate of 4 per hour during November-December. In a perennial spring habitat, 68±2 larvae per brood were born at a rate one per hour during February-March, while in a stream habitat, brood size was 55±10 larvae, born at two per hour over the whole year. There were no significant differences in size between larvae from different habitats. Adjustments in birth parameters of larvae born in winter ponds indicate adaptation to an unpredictable habitat.
A field study of reproductive interactions in Bosca's newt, Triturus boscai
Authors: Faria Manuel Mouta
Published: April 2008

Observations of a free-living population of Bosca's newt, Triturus boscai, show that courtship behaviour in nature is similar to the behaviour observed in earlier laboratory studies. Complementary evidence was obtained on the behaviour called flick, which is sometimes inserted at the end of the static display phase, and may be viewed as an equivalent behaviour to the retreat display of the other small-bodied newt species. Sexual interference in the natural population was mainly caused by males. Two characteristic male behaviour patterns were recognised, the waiting position and the push-tail. Females tend to withdraw from situations of interference. Courtship sequences solely consisting of orientation and spermatophore transfer phases, so-called short-circuit sequences, may be interpreted as a male strategy to avoid the very severe male-to-male interference that exists in a wild population.
Geographic variation, taxonomy, and distribution of Eumeces skiltonianus and E. lagunensis (Squamata: Scincidae) in Baja California, México
Authors: Lee Grismer L.
Published: April 2008

An analysis of scalation, color pattern, and distribution of Eumeces skiltonianus and E. lagunensis in Baja California indicates that these taxa are discretely diagnosable from one another and allopatric. In the context of an evolutionary species concept, they are considered to be separate species. New records extend the range of E. lagunensis 220 km to the north in central Baja California. An erroneous report on the southern extent of E. skiltonianus in northern Baja California is corrected, restricting its southern distribution 145 km further north than previously reported.
Ultrastructural changes of the air-blood barrier in the lung of Rana esculenta during natural hibernation
Authors: De Piceis Polver Paola , Bernini Franco , Barni Sergio
Published: April 2008

Possible changes of the air-blood barrier in naturally hibernating frogs were examined by transmission electron microscopy and measured with an eye-piece micrometer under light microscopy. During hibernation a reduction of the "alveolar" air-space and a folding of the air-blood barrier were noticed: the thickness of the latter in the deep lung septa was double that seen in the active phase, as a consequence of deeper changes of the interstitial and surface epithelial components. An increase in electron-dense multilamellar bodies inside the pneumocyte cytoplasm was also observed. These morphological characteristics are indicative of a hypofunctionality in the lung respiratory components and may be related to a decrease in oxygen consumption during this quiescent phase of the annual life cycle.
The effects of insulin on TSH secretion and the morphology and physiology of the thyroid in the lizard Podarcis s. sicula
Authors: Laforgia Vincenza , Cavagnuolo Antimo , Sciarrillo Rosaria , Capaldo Anna
Published: April 2008

Insulin was administered to Podarcis sicula in winter, when the thyroid gland is inhibited. The activity of the thyroid increased, plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones and hepatic 5'-monodeiodinase activity (MDA) increased, and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations fell to undetectable values. This result confirms the influence of insulin on the activity of the thyroid gland in the lizard species studied. The mechanisms are still unclear, although there is evidence which leads us to believe that insulin is directly responsible for thyroid activation.
Material and energy budget during incubation in a Chinese skink, Eumeces chinensis
Authors: Xiang Ji  , Fu Shui-Yu , Zhang Hua-Song , Sun Ping-Yue
Published: April 2008

The incubation time of Eumeces chinensis eggs at 30±0.3°C averaged 22.6 days. During incubation, the pliable-shelled eggs of E. chinensis increased in wet mass. Dried shells from freshly laid eggs averaged 4.1% of the entire egg dry mass. No significant difference in shell dry mass was found between freshly laid and hatched eggs with the same wet mass at oviposition. During incubation, approximately 66% of dry mass, 44% of non-polar lipids and 62% of energy in egg contents of the freshly laid egg were transferred to the hatchling, with 34% of dry mass, 56% of non-polar lipids and 38% of energy used for embryogenesis. Fully developed embryos could obtain all magnesium from yolk but withdrew approximately 19% of their total calcium requirements from sources other than yolk.
Dentitional surface features in snakes (Reptilia: Serpentes)
Authors: Young Bruce A. , Kardong Kenneth V.
Published: April 2008

The complexity of snake tooth morphology is more varied than has been recognized in functional, evolutionary, or taxonomic studies. We surveyed a broad sample of species across taxonomic groups to document and summarize the variation present. Our survey included a scoring of dentitional features of 1169 specimens representing 611 species of snakes on four dentiferous bones (dentary, pterygoid, palatine, maxilla). Besides presence or absence of teeth on these bones, we ranked the tooth type on each bone on the basis of a four category system: basic, furrowed, grooved, or hollow tooth. Basic teeth, without surface recesses or grooves, were the most common tooth type. Hollow teeth (fangs) were found most commonly on the maxilla and grooved teeth were often adjacent. Grooved teeth, when present, were found only on the maxilla although teeth with furrows, shallow creases in the surface enamel, were found in low numbers on the dentary, pterygoid, and palatine. Teeth exhibited further specializations, including multiple grooves, basal reinforcing ridges, development of a blade-like design, variation in the degree to which the secondary groove in hollow teeth might be in evidence, and variation in the position of the groove along the shaft of the tooth.
Sexual behaviour of the Chinese fire-bellied newt, Cynops orientalis
Authors: Sparreboom Max , Mouta Faria Manuel
Published: April 2008

The courtship of the Chinese fire-bellied newt, Cynops orientalis (David 1873), resembles that of Japanese congeneric taxa but shows significant temporal differences: the tail-fanning and creeping stages are of relatively short duration and one spermatophore is deposited a few seconds after the male starts to creep. The female loses interest in the male soon after the first spermatophore deposition. Instances of prolonged biting after spermatophore deposition are recorded. Successful insemination was a relatively rare event. In encounters with a potential rival present, a male may slightly alter the timing of his courtship. Observed behaviour patterns are compared to the sexual behaviour of other species of Cynops and Triturus.
Parentage of Caucasian parthenogenetic rock lizard species (Lacerta) as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis of highly repetitive DNA
Authors: Grechko Vernata V. , Ryabinin Dmitry M. , Fedorova Larissa V. , Fedorov Alexey N. , Ryskov Alexey P. , Darevsky Ilya S.
Published: April 2008

The Caucasian parthenogenetic rock lizards of the L. saxicola complex probably originated by hybridisation of some bisexual species. We verified this hypothesis using a new approach based on comparison of repetitive DNA characters, which produce species-specific patterns (named "taxonprint"). The method relies on restriction endonuclease hydrolysis of genomic DNA, with the following 32P-end labeling and polyacrylamide gel electrophoretic separation of the fragments. The parthenogenetic species L. armeniaca and L. dahli possess specific features both of putative maternal L. mixta (in some taxonprints), and of paternal L. valentini (in other ones), whereas L. portschinskii and L. rudis also could be the paternal species. Parthenoclones L. unisexualis and L. uzzelli have the specific DNA features in several taxonprints of L. raddei or L. nairensis (which cannot be discriminated by taxonprints) which are supposed to be maternal species for L. unisexualis and paternal ones for L. uzzelli. The specific features of L. valentini (or L. portschinskii) are observed in L. unisexualis; L. uzzelli has not been investigated in this respect. Parthenogenetic L. rostombekovi also possesses properties of L. raddei or L. nairensis, but we have not be able to find any features of supposed paternal L. portschinskii in this parthenogenetic species.
Two new species of Leptolalax (Anura: Megophryidae) from northern Vietnam
Authors: Lathrop Amy , Murphy Robert W. , Orlov Nikolai , Thu Ho Cuc
Published: April 2008

Two new species of Leptolalax are described from two mountain ranges in northern Vietnam (Song Gam and Tam Dao) that are less than 150 km apart. Currently, only two species of Leptolalax, L. pelodytoides and L. bourreti, are described from Vietnam. The two new species are distinguished from other Leptolalax by a combination of characters including skin texture, ventral color pattern, presence or absence of spots on the flanks, and lateral fringes on the toes. Furthermore, the new species can be distinguished from the widely distributed and sympatric L. pelodytoides by their large size, indistinct color pattern, and an absence of granules under the chin. In addition, one of the new species has a higher cellular DNA content than sympatric L. pelodytoides.
Sexual dimorphism and testosterone responsiveness in hypaxial muscles of the northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
Authors: Blackburn Daniel G. , Bernardo Vincent A.
Published: April 2008

Abdominal hypaxial muscles of male anurans function in vocalization by causing forcible expulsion of pulmonary air through the larynx. The hypaxial muscles were studied in the leopard frog, Rana pipiens, to test whether functions of these muscles in males are reflected in sexual dimorphism and in androgen responsiveness. The combined abdominal oblique muscles and the rectus abdominis showed significant sexual dimorphism in wet mass and dry mass. However, the abdominal oblique muscles were less concentrated in protein content in males than in females. In overwintering males, exogenous testosterone cypionate stimulated a significant increase in mass and protein content of the abdominal oblique and rectus abdominis muscles. Castration had no effect on muscle mass or on the response to androgen treatment.
Growth in a population of Liolaemus wiegmannii (Squamata: Tropiduridae) in Central Argentina
Authors: Martori Ricardo , Cardinale Lisandro , Vignolo Pablo
Published: April 2008

Size frequencies in a population of the lizard Liolaemus wiegmannii were determined throughout the year, to evaluate the effects of recruitment and mortality on the population structure, and to estimate the daily growth rate and its variation. The cycle started in spring when most of the lizards had reached reproductive size, in December eggs were laid and the new lizards were born in January. This cohort grew rapidly and reached adult size in late March, while the postreproductive cohort died in late fall. The differences between growth rates during the year are due to the seasons and the size of the lizards during the period.
Feeding, reproduction and growth in the crowned snake
Authors: Marques Otavio A.V. , Puorto Giuseppe
Published: April 2008

The crowned snake Tantilla melanocephala is a small fossorial sonorine snake, widely distributed through South America. Dissection of 186 specimens, combined with observations of captive specimens, provided information on the natural history of this species in southeastern Brazil. Females attained larger body sizes than males. Apparently T. melanocephala forage at night for active prey. Centipedes of the genus Otostigmus were the main prey item. These centipedes are subdued by injection of venom. Data from preserved specimens showed no significant seasonal variation in the number of collected snakes. Reproduction seemed to be highly seasonal with vitellogenesis occurring from onset to the middle of the rainy season and hatching at the end of the rainy season. Clutch size ranged from one to three and was correlated with female body length. Neonates measured 10-12 cm snout-vent length and juveniles attained about 17.5 cm SVL during the first year. Apparently males attain sexual maturity at an age of about 10 months and females at about 20 months.
Immunocytochemical study of pituitary FSHß and LHß cells during the ontogeny of the toad Bufo arenarum
Authors: Miranda Leandro A. , Somoza Gustavo M. , Affanni Jorge M.
Published: April 2008

The ontogeny of gonadotrophs in the pituitary of Bufo arenarum was studied by immunocytochemical techniques using monoclonal antibodies against bullfrog lutropin ß-subunit and bullfrog follitropin ß-subunit. The first appearance of immunoreactive gonadotropic cells was at midprometamorphosis in the caudal zone of the pars distalis. During metamorphosis, in juveniles and especially in adult animals, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) producing cells were distributed throughtout the gland. The number of these cells was greatly increased in older stages. In all the stages studied colocalization of FSH and LH was observed. At least three types of gonadotrophs were identified: the first cell type containing only FSH; the second only LH; and the third, FSH and LH in the same cell.
Cranial myology of some species of Liolaemus and Phymaturus (Squamata: Tropiduridae: Liolaeminae)
Authors: Moro Silvia , Abdala Virginia
Published: April 2008

The cranial musculature of 19 species of Liolaemus and two species of Phymaturus was compared and analyzed for taxonomic significance. Using 52 myological cranial characters a cladistic analysis of the taxa mentioned was performed. Parsimony analysis was conducted with the program Nona, and 180 equally parsimonious trees were obtained. In all of them the Tropidurinae are paraphyletic. The Liolaeminae are a monophyletic group. Phymaturus and Liolaemus are monophyletic groups, and the relationships among the species of Liolaemus remain unresolved.
The distribution of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Caiman yacare populations in Brazil
Authors: Brazaitis Peter , Rebêlo George H. , Yamashita Carlos
Published: April 2008

The distribution and relationships among populations of Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and Caiman yacare were investigated throughout Brazil. Caiman c. crocodilus inhabits the drainages of the Rio Solimões/Rio Amazonas, Araguaia, Araguari, Itapicuru, Paranaiba, Negro, Tapajos, Tocantins, Xingú, and the rivers draining to the Atlantic Ocean on the northern coast of Brazil. It does not occur in the Rio Saõ Francisco. Caiman yacare is endemic to the Rio Mamoré, Rio Guaporé, Rio Paraguai and Rio Paranã river systems and all of their lowland drainages. The northernmost limit for C. yacare lies between Costa Marques (12°25'S, 64°10'W) and Guajara Mirim, Pacaas Novos on the Rio Mamoré (10°55'S, 65°15'W). Small populations of apparently hybrid individuals were observed in the upper Rio Acré, the Rio Abunã, the upper Rio Madeira, and the Rio Mamoré between Guajara Mirim and Abunã. Caiman c. crocodilus and C. yacare populations are geologically separated and morphologically distinct. The taxonomic recognition of Caiman species with overlapping distributions in the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul appears to be without merit.
The Effect of Honey-Guides
Authors: Manning Aubrey
Published: April 2008

1) The effect which the honey-guides of flowers have upon visiting bees is investigated with the use of large model flowers. 2) It is found that bumble-bees have a strong tendency to react to the edge of plain shapes, where there is a line of colour contrast with the background. If a contrasting honey-guide pattern is added, the bees still fly initially to the edge, but subsequently react often to the contrast margins formed by the pattern. On real flowers the honey-guide is arranged around the entrance to the nectaries and thus could direct the bees' reactions there. 3) The total patterns formed by honey-guides have no significance for bumble-bees. They follow converging lines to the flower's centre only because they always arrive first at the outer edge. 4) Bumble-bees do not distinguish between plain and honey-guided models when choosing from a distance, but having flown to a model, they hover longer over the latter. 5) Various observations on bees visiting real flowers are described and the validity of arguing from models to real flowers is discussed. It is believed that honey-guides will have qualitatively the same effect on both. 6) Some aspects of the effects of the honey-guides and the scent of flowers are discussed.
The Following Response of Young Coots and Moorhens
Authors: Hinde R.A. , Thorpe W.H. , Vince M.A.
Published: April 2008

(i) Experiments with young hand-raised Moorhens (Gallinula chloropus) and Coots (Fulica atra) were performed in order to survey the nature of the factors influencing the following response. (ii) Following can be evoked by many objects quite different from each other in size and shape, but having in common the property of being in motion. (iii) The establishment of the following response is not dependent on brooding, feeding or any other activity normally directed by the parent to its young, though these may play a role in nature. (iv) Birds could be trained to follow different models on successive runs. Further, birds trained on one model would generalise to others throughout practically the whole period in which they would follow at all. In this sense, the learning is not irreversible. (v) Moorhens were more likely to follow if tested from the first day after hatching than if several days were first allowed to elapse. Fleeing increases during the first few days of life, and this may be an important factor limiting the "sensitive period" for the establishment of the following response. (vi) The following response is maintained at a steady level under conditions of massed practice only if the object on which the birds are being tested is a familiar one. The significance of this is discussed. (vii) There is no evidence that "imprinting" is fundamentally different from other types of learning. It is suggested that learning occurs when the bird follows the moving obj ect.
Experimentelle Untersuchung Über Die Optische Wirkung Der Streifung Beim Preussenfisch (Dascyllus Aruanus)1)
Authors: Franzisket L.
Published: April 2008

Durch Wahlversuche wird gezeigt, dass die auffällige Schwarz-Weiss-Färbung des Preussenfisches Dascyllus aruanus keine kryptische Wirkung, sondern attraktive Wirkung auf Artgenossen ausübt. Durch die Streifung sind die Fische zwar gegen ihre Umgebung auffällig, aber nicht als Beuteschema "Fischgestalt" auffällig.
Effects of Prior Food Competition On the Rat's Killing Response To the White Mouse
Authors: Newton Grant , Heimstra Norman W.
Published: April 2008

Forty male albino rats were paired and given 15 trials in a dominance test situation where only one animal in a pair could eat at a given time. Length of time in control of the food and frequency of dominant gestures and failures, which involved either success or failure in displacing the other animal from the food source, were the criteria employed in determining the dominance relationship within a pair of animals. A second group of 20 animals, of the same age and strain, did not receive the competitive experience and served as a control group. The day following the termination of the dominance trials, an adult albino mouse was placed in the home cage of each rat in both groups. Results showed that: I. None of the rats in the non-competitive control group killed the mouse they were paired with. 2. Twenty-two of the rats in the competitive group killed. 3. Sixteen of the killer rats in the competitive group were dominant animals while only six were submissive. The results are explained as being due to the difference in past experience of the two groups of rats.
Incubation and Nest-Building Behaviour of Black-Headed Gulls III : the Pre-Laying Period
Authors: Beer C.G.
Published: April 2008

(I) Elements of incubation behaviour and nest-building behaviour that are performed by Black-headed Gulls in the pre-laying period are described as they appear in the natural situation and when a model egg is placed in the nest. (2) Quantitative material is presented and shows the following:- (a) Time spent on the territory, time spent sitting in the nest, the frequency of settling, the proportion of complete settlings, the proportion of relatively long combinations of pre-settling movements, and the frequency of sideways-building all increase steadily as the date of laying draws closer. This is not true for time spent by partners together on the territory or the frequency of collecting trips. (b) Time spent on the territory, time spent sitting in the nest, the frequency of settling, and the frequency of sideways-building vary together to significant extents; this is at least partly a result of common correlation with the passing of time. Settling and sideways-building, however, remain highly significantly correlated after the effects of common correlation with all other variables are eliminated. (c) Performances of settling and sideways-building tend to occur in close temporal proximity to each other. (d) Comparison with the behaviour in the natural situation shows that presence of an egg in the pre-laying period depresses the amount of time spent on the territory somewhat but increases the amount of time spent sitting in the nest, the frequency of settling, and the frequency of sideways-building. Frequency of collecting trips and amounts of time partners were together on the territory were not affected by presence of the model egg. Presence of an egg in the nest is almost a necessary condition for performance of shifting and quivering in the pre-laying period. (e) Most collecting trips are performed when the partners are together on the territory. This is not true for settling or sideways-building. (f) Males perform more settlings, more sideways-building movements, more collecting trips, and spend more time sitting in the nest than females but the partners spend more or less equal amounts of time on the territory. (g) The evidence suggests that sideways-building has more causal affinity with settling and sitting in the nest than with collecting trips. (3) A sample of brood-patch and gonad measurements from birds found at different stages of the pre-laying period indicate that, in both males and females, defeathering of the brood patches begins some time before eggs are laid, and that changes in these structures may develop parallel with, and be implicated in, the changes in sitting and nesting behaviour in the pre-laying period.
Determinants of Cliff Edge and Escape Responses in Herring Gull Chicks in Nature1)2)
Authors: Emlen John T.
Published: April 2008

Herring gull chicks from nests on a) cliff ledges and b) vegetated plateaus showed different types of escape and edge response when tested on an elevated platform. The birds from cliff sites, though bolder at the platform edge, were more reluctant to jump. Those from the plateau nests leapt to the ground with relatively little hesitation. Chicks from cliff eggs, hatched and reared in the plateau by foster parents, resembled native plateau chicks in their escape responses while chicks of plateau origin reciprocally transplanted to and reared on cliff sites showed the reluctance typical of cliff chicks. The posssibility of two genetic types reproductively isolated on the two breeding situations is thus essentially eliminated. The likelihood of a stable genetic polymorphism is considered and tentatively discarded as less plausible than an explanation based on learning. Although conditions favorable for simple instrumental conditioning along divergent lines are present in the two rearing situations, a theory is favored which attributes the divergence to major differences in the amount and variety of experience afforded by the two environments. Modest support for this theory is provided by experiments in which plateau chicks confined by fencing to the immediate nest vicinity tended to resemble the naturally deprived cliff chicks in their reluctance to jump. In conclusion the concept of species-characteristic responses is considered inapplicable to the cliff edge and escape patterns of herring gull chicks except as it incorporates recognition of a determining role in factors of the rearing environment.
A Behavioural Study of the Home-Cage Activity of the White Rat
Authors: Draper William Arthur
Published: April 2008

Traditionally, the activity of the white rat has been investigated with a variety of mechanical recording devices (activity-wheels, stabilimeters, photo-electric relay systems, etc.), but quite limited data are available on rat behavior per se. The purpose of the present study was to develop an observational time-sampling technique that would provide a comprehensive description and catalogue of the various activities exhibited by individual animals and to use this to investigate the home-cage activity of the male laboratory rat under normal and experimental conditions. The following were studied: (1) age-related changes in normal animals at three age levels (approximately 30, 60, and 100 days) ; (2) effects of food- and water-deprivation in young (age 30 days) and adult (age 100 days) animals; (3) effects of food- and water-deprivation in adult animals (age 100 days) which had previously experienced similar deprivation at ages 30 and 60 days. Home-cage activity was measured simultaneously along a large number of different behavioural dimensions, hence an increase or decrease in "activity" typically reflected changes in a number of categories. The main age-related changes in home-cage activity were a sharpening of the diurnal activity cycle and a decrease in vigorous ambulatory behaviour. The effects of the various deprivation conditions proved to be quite different. At both 30 and 60 days, food-deprived animals showed much greater activity in a number of categories than did water-deprived and control animals. Water-deprived animals were somewhat more active than controls, but maintained an alert, immobile position more than the other two groups. At 100 days of age animals undergoing their third food deprivation showed marked increases in activity and some of these effects persisted during post-deprivation, whereas animals undergoing their third water deprivation showed relatively small increases in activity. Animals food-deprived for the first time at 100 days showed fewer activity changes; but 100 day old animals water-deprived for the first time presented a mixed picture, being more active than controls in the afternoon but less active at night. It was concluded that the drive properties of hunger and thirst have distinct, different, and cumulative effects on the home-cage activity of the white rat.
Sociobiology of Rhesus Monkeys Iv: Testing Mason's Hypothesis of Sex Differences in Affective Behavior
Authors: Altmann Stuart A.
Published: April 2008

During a two-year field study of rhesus monkeys, data were obtained that are relevant to a hypothesis, proposed by MASON, GREEN & POSEPANKO (1960), that adult females will show a higher incidence of affective reactions than adult males, including threat behavior and aggressive posturing, and will probably more often be involved in episodes of minor aggression. This hypothesis is here restated in probabilistic terms, and a method is described for quantitative testing of the hypothesis under field conditions. Relevant data from a two-year field study of rhesus monkeys are presented and analyzed. These data gave no indication that females showed a higher incidence of affective responses as a whole, nor that they were more inclined to exhibit the milder forms of agonistic behavior. There was an indication that the affective social behavior of adult males is somewhat more likely to be aggressive than is that of adult females, while the behavior of the adult females is more likely to be submissive. Adult females were more likely to ignore the social partner than were adult males, and were perhaps less likely to lip-smack in affective situations. Among juveniles, the females displayed relatively more affective behavior than did males, as predicted. There was no indication that juvenile females were more likely to ignore their social partner than were males of the same age class. With juveniles, too, there was no indication that the females were more prone to display mild forms of agonism in their affective interactions. While the available data do not confirm the hypothesis of MASON et al., they do support an alternative hypothesis, namely, that in affective behavior, adult males tend, more often than adult females, to lunge, screech, approach, chase, or screech while grimacing, and that females tend, more often than males, to hit, avoid, flee from, or ignore their social partner. Some possible sources of error in this kind of research are discussed; at present the accuracy of generalizations that are made about primate behavior on the basis of field observations is greatly restricted by errors of sampling.
The Vocal Repertoire of the Bullfrog (Rana Catesbeiana)
Authors: Capranica Robert R.
Published: April 2008

i. The vocal repertoire of bullfrogs maintained in laboratory terrariums in a semi-natural environment consisted of a distinct set of stereotyped calls. Each call could be readily identified with specific patterns of behavioral activity, thus indicating the significance represented by each of these sounds. 2. Mating calls were made only by males. The call by an adult male often evoked calling from other male bullfrogs; the call by a juvenile male did not evoke calling. 3. Territorial calls consisted of three distinct types: (i) one type made only by males, (ii) a second type made only by females, and (iii) a third type made by both males and females. These calls seemed to alert other bullfrogs that a territory was occupied and was being trespassed. 4. Release calls were made by both sexes. When an unreceptive female or a male was clasped by another male, the clasped animal first usually struggled and then emitted this call, whereupon it was released. 5. Warning calls were made by both sexes. This call was often made prior to a leap into or out of the terrarium ponds. It also was sometimes made by a bullfrog shortly after having produced one of the other calls in his vocal repertoire. 6. Distress calls, made by both sexes, could be evoked by repeated application of a noxious stimulus. This high-pitched call was always made with the mouth wide open. 7. The bullfrog's peripheral auditory system is well suited to detect and encode the calls in his vocal repertoire.
Species Differences in the Gross Behaviour of Nonhuman Primates
Authors: Davis Roger T. , Leary Robert W. , Dell Casebeer Smith Mary , Thompson Richard F.
Published: April 2008

1. Lemurs (Lemur catta) and six groups of monkeys - three groups of Old World and three of New World monkeys were compared by means of gross observations in laboratory cages. 2. The profile of scores for any one animal was unambiguously diagnostic of its species. 3. Rhesus and apella monkeys specialized in manipulating objects, stumptail monkeys in social grooming, squirrel monkeys in self manipulation and woolly monkeys in vocalizing. 4. Lemurs were not as socially oriented as monkeys and spent most of their time in visual survey or looking at social objects. 5. Results were discussed in terms of implications for laboratory studies that are based largely on one nonhuman primate (Macaca mulata).
Form Perception in Papilio Demoleus L. (Papilionidae, Lepidoptera)
Authors: Vaidya Vidyadhar G.
Published: April 2008

1. Freshly emerged imagines of Papilio demoleus kept in a large cage, were offered some circular patterns of different sizes and different degrees of contour, cut out of coloured papers of the standardized Ostwald series. 2. On the coloured patterns, these hungry insects showed a characteristic feeding response: each one approached a pattern in flight, landed on it and unrolled its tongue with which it performed probing and sucking movements on the paper. Such responses on each of the patterns were counted separately. 3. The results clearly show that this insect can distinguish between forms of different sizes, and between forms presenting different degrees of contour. 4. The attractiveness to this insect in the feeding state increases with size of the form and with its compactness. 5. A definite interaction between form preference and colour preference has been established. The tendency of preferring a bigger form to a smaller one and that of preferring a compact form (poor in contour) to a broken one (rich in contour) increases with less and less attractive colours and vice versa. 6. Some experiments have brought out clearly the striking difference in the preference of the degree of contour shown by this insect (a Papilionid) and the Vanessids (ILSE, 1932). They have further provided an experimental proof for the conclusion reached by LEPPIK (1953) on the basis of his field observations that Lepidoptera prefer compact flowers for feeding.
The Role of Experience in the Development and Retention of Seed Preferences in Zebra Finches
Authors: Rabinowitch Victor
Published: April 2008

The role of experience in the development of individual food preferences was tested in Zebra Finches using seeds of canary grass, white millet and red millet. Natural preferences, determined in birds reared from hatching on a mixture of equal parts of the three seeds was: red millet = white millet> > canary seed at five weeks of age, and red millet> white millet> > canary seed at 21 weeks. Birds reared exclusively on one of the millets invariably selected a millet over canary seed when tested at five weeks of age or at 21 weeks of age. Choice between the two millets in these tests was irregular with a slight tendency to select the familiar type. Birds reared exclusively on canary seed selected canary seed over a millet in 19 of 22 cases at five weeks of age and in 8 of 10 cases at 21 weeks of age. Selection in the 5 exceptions was statistically random. Birds reared exclusively on one of the millets for five weeks and then changed to the mixed ration for 16 weeks showed preference for a millet in 16 of 10 cases; the remaining 3 showed no definite preference. Birds similarly reared on canary seed and then given the mixed rations before testing selected canary seed in two cases, a millet in 7 and showed no definite preference in 3. Birds reared exclusively on canary seed for 21 weeks and then given only millets for 8 weeks selected canary seed in 2 cases, a millet in one and showed no clear preference in two. Birds reared on one seed type through the nesting period and then on a second seed through the fledgling period all selected the second, fledgling period, seed when tested immediately. When a two weeks period on a third seed, one of the naturally preferred millets, was inserted before testing 3 birds fledged on canary seed retained a preference for canary seed, 4 selected a millet and 2 showed no clear preference. Birds reared on the mixed ration to 21 weeks of age and then given only canary seed for 8 weeks showed a preference for canary seed in 2 cases, for a millet in 3 cases and for neither type in one. It is concluded that restriction to a non-preferred seed during the first 5 weeks of life induces a preference for that seed in Zebra Finches. This learned preference declines gradually with open or forced experience with naturally preferred seeds but persists in some individuals for at least 2 to 4 months. The 2-3 week period after fledgling is important in the establishment of these induced seed preferences, but some birds are postively influenced by imposed food experiences after 5 months of age.
Displays of Sayornis Phoebe (Aves, Tyrannidae)
Authors: Smith W.J.
Published: April 2008

(1) This report describes the behavior of communicating individuals of Sayornis phoebe (a North American tyrant flycatcher) and emphasizes the employment of the vocal repertoire. This comprises eight calls, of which only three are used commonly and in many contexts. Each of the remaining five occurs in fewer contexts, and all five may be restricted to the pair bonding and nesting phases of the annual behavioral cycle. The visible displays were studied less closely. Eight were identified, some of which were very rare. (2) Most attention was given to the vocalization commonly called "song" (herein Regularly Repeated Vocalization, RRV) which comprises two largely discrete units, the RR1 and RR2. These specify the identity of the communicator, and appear to indicate the existence of association tendencies which are non-aggressive in the case of the RR1, but occur with aggressive tendencies in the RR2. Association tendencies were inferred when an individual persistently remained near another individual (or sometimes a nest site) without attempting any form of contact behaviour. This was most commonly seen when the male of a pair associated with his mate (often without displays) wherever she went in the territory. RRV, however, was usually uttered in the absence of a visible recipient; if the recipient did appear the communicator associated at a distance or ceased using RRV and employed other displays. (3) The message of song is variable and determined by the relationships of its components. That is, changing combinations of the RR1 and RR2 appear to provide an index of the shifting mood of the singing individual. During continuous RRV calling the degree to which each unit is represented provides a relevant context for the other unit according to a temporal pattern which I have measured by "string length", and which could also be measured by the relative frequencies of occurrence per unit time. The varying relationships between the two units seems always to be patterned; only one case of RRV could be shown even to approach a random distribution.
Kinesthetic Orientation in the California Newt (Taricha Torosa)
Authors: Endler John
Published: April 2008

Experiments were performed to test the possible role of the kinesthetic sense in the maintenance of the direction of travel in migrating newts. Two hundred and fifteen Taricha torosa were allowed to orient in an arena open only to the night sky and, after being spun, were allowed to orient again. One hundred and fifty-three came from the area in which the arena was located and sixty-two from a locality 39 airline miles away. "Unspun" newts oriented in the direction that they were travelling when first seen, and a roughly straight-line course was followed. Newts from the distant locality did not orient as well as those captured near the arena. After spinning, random movements or a route determined by the direction of release, was observed. It is concluded that a kinesthetic sense is probably important in helping these animals maintain a straight-line course during their migratory movements.
The Reproductive Behaviour and the Nature of Sexual Selection in Scatophaga Stercoraria L. (Diptera : Scatophagidae)
Authors: Parker G.A.
Published: April 2008

Sexual attractiveness of calypterate Diptera may be measured by their ability to elicit encounters from individuals of opposite sex. Stationary female S. stercoraria elicit a much higher encounter rate from searching males than do stationary males and immobile pairs elicit an intermediate rate. It is therefore concluded that males can 'recognise' these three types of individual; probably by visual means. Sexual attractiveness after contact may be measured by the extent to which a contact courtship bout progresses or by measuring the 'bout duration'. There is no difference between the bout durations of males with other males and that with pairs. This implies that on contact there is no ability to discriminate between pairs and males. This is not true, however, when an attacking male manages to touch a paired female during a contact bout. This results in a struggle between males for the possession of the female. Paired males perform characteristic rejection response patterns to different types of encounter bout, depending on the direction of attack and the extent to which the bout proceeds. The responses appear to have evolved to prevent touching of the female by the attacker. By far the most common type of bout occurs when the attacker mounts a pair. The paired male almost always reponds by raising both middle legs and 'standing' (straightening the front legs), a reaction which doubles the distance between the attacker and the female and thus effectively prevents contact of the attacker with the female. This is essentially a contact reaction, since a premature response would allow direct access to the female rather than having the effect of 'shrugging off' the attacker. The rejection reactions of paired males could have arisen from the avoidance reactions of single males. Single ('searching') males perform most of the reactions of paired males but less vigorously, and in addition perform swaying movements similar to those of females. The avoidance reactions of single males may have adaptive value in reducing the time wasted in a bout with another male. With both single and paired males, the intensity of the rejection response elicited is proportional to the extent to which the bout proceeds after contact. Males in the passive phase (i.e. paired to ovipositing females) react most intensely to a given type of bout. Struggles occur in about 7% of encounters with both type of pair and result from failure of the rejection responses, instability, or multiple attacks. They involve up to several minutes time waste before one male finally dominates. Take-overs (where the original male is ousted) are much more frequent in attacks of pairs involved in oviposition than with pairs in genital contact, occurring in 1.75% and 0.65% of encounters respectively. The second male then begins genital contact immediately.
Mating Behaviour in the Bug, Pyrrhocoris Ap Ter Us L. (Heteroptera): Ontogeny and Its Environmental Control
Authors: Zdarek Jan
Published: April 2008

I. The male mating behaviour in Pyrrhocoris apterus is initiated by a non-specific response to a moving object. For its completion olfactory stimuli perceived by the terminal antennal segment are necessary. An active female contributes to the epigamic interactions by releasing an attractive factor, and mainly by manifesting her receptivity upon tactile stimulation of the courting male. 2. Non-diapausing specimens (kept in 18 hr/day photophase) start to mate 3 to 5 days after the imaginal moult; in males the sexual activity does not fluctuate throughout the imaginal instar; in females drops in activity were recorded in connection with cyclic oviposition. 3. Starvation following the itnaginal moult does not Interfere with development of the sexual instinct in males. On the contrary, females do not display sexual activity until they are fed; this applies to females after the moult or after oviposition. Feeding is thus an initial stimulus not only for oogenesis in each consecutive cycle but also for the onset of sexual activity in non-diapausing females. 4. Diapausing specimens of both sexes (kept in 8-12 hr/day photophase) are sexually inactive. In the male, this in the most significant sign indicating the imaginal diapause.
An Ethological Analysis of Communal Nursing By the House Mouse (Mus Musculus)
Authors: Sayler Anne , Salmon Michael
Published: April 2008

Pregnant female mice (Mus musculus) housed in the same cage, will, upon parturition, combine their litters into a common nest. Young raised communally in this manner grow faster than young raised by single mothers. Since communal nursing occurs consistently in the laboratory, we analysed several aspects of the behavior. I. In the first group of experiments, we determined which factors were responsible for promoting increased growth rates in communally-nursed pups. Groups containing one mother and 14 young (1/14), one mother with seven young (1/7) and two mothers with 14 young (2/14) were compared. Communal young nursed more than young raised by single mothers. At the same time, each communal female nursed less than a solitary female with a litter of equivalent size. Mammary gland development in communal females was greater than in single females nursing 7 young. The interaction between these factors accounts for increased growth rates in communal pups. 2. The reactions of mice raised in a communal nest and mice raised by single mothers were measured in the open field test and in the emergence test. There was no effect of fostering on "exploration" as measured by activity in the open field. Defecation rates, reflecting "emotionality" were low in males raised in a litter of 14 young, regardless of the number of mothers. Mice of both sexes raised in 1/14 litter groupings were the least "timid" as defined by the emergence test. It thus appeared that communal nursing had little influence on adult emotional behavior. 3. The factors influencing females to combine their young into communal nests were determined. Females and their young, separated from similar groups by a barrier consistently combined their young into a common nest when the barrier was lifted. Maternal experience, age of the young or the presence of nesting materials made little difference in their ability to perform this behavior. Aggressive behavior on the part of the mother with infant litters was directed at the alien young when there was a large age discrepancy between the two litters of pups. The significance of these results is discussed.