bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Default Logic
Authors: Poole David
Published: November 2023

In nonmonotonic reasoning we want to reach conclusions that we may not reach if we had more information. There seem to be two ways to handle this; we could change the logic to be defeasible, or we could allow some premises of the logical argument that may not be allowed when new information is received.
Elements of Algorithmic Proof
Authors: Gabbay D M
Published: November 2023

Imagine an expert system running on a personal computer, say the Sinclair QL. You put the data Pinto the system and ask it queries Q. We represent the situation schematically as depending on the answer.
The Semantics of Types in Programming Languages
Authors: Gunter Carl A
Published: November 2023

In the twentieth century, there have been at least two lines of development of the notion of a type. One of these uses types to conquer problems in the foundations of mathematics. For example, type distinctions can resolve troubling paradoxes that lead to inconsistent systems. But a second, more recent, line of investigation into types pursues their application in programming languages. Although computer architectures themselves suggest few type distinctions, ‘higher-level’ programming languages generally use a classification of data into types to serve a variety of different purposes. There are at least four motives for doing this.
Continuing mathematics
Authors: Clark Malcolm
Published: November 2023

The conventions described in the previous chapter for sub- and superscripting may also be used for some of Tex’s ‘large operators’. Perhaps the two key operators are \sum for summation, and \int for integral sign. Note that \Sigma and \sum are different (they may look similar, but they behave differently): when placed side by side Σand Σ the difference is quite apparent.
Graphics
Authors: Clark Malcolm
Published: November 2023

To a very large extent, Tex was designed for the placement of characters on a page. It was implicitly assumed that the characters were probably alphabetic or mathematical. Nevertheless, Knuth notes If you enjoy fooling around making pictures, instead of type setting ordinary text, Tex will be a source of endless frustration/amusement for you, because almost anything is possible... While it is well able to draw horizontal and vertical lines, or even to plot dots more or less at random (see, for example, Knuth, 1986, p.389, and Figure 17.1), most people expect a little more from their graphics. There is also an architectural limitation: although Tex could easily simulate an arbitrary continuous curve by placing a very large number of small dots (or rules) on the page (or screen), Tex was only granted a finite memory. You quickly run out of memory. This is all the more distressing since there now exist versions of Tex with small and large amounts of memory (basically related to the addressing ability: 64-bit Tex on a Cray has potentially much more memory than 16-bit Tex on a pc: Tex in-UNIX is generally somewhere in between). Sadly, this has had the effect of making Tex documents less portable, and seriously undermines Tex’s claim to universality.
Jonsson Algebras In Inaccessibles λ, Not λ-Marlo [Sh 380]
Authors: Shelah Saharon
Published: November 2023

Using quite complete (mainly normal) filters to get bounds (even equalities) in Cardinal Arithmetic has a long history. Scott [Sc] proved that for ““ measurable if GOH holds below “‘k it holds for “‘k by taking ultrapower of the universe, which is still well founded and include P(k,,). Solovay [Sol] proved that above a compact cardinal.
Advanced: Cofinalities Of Reduced Products [Sh 371]
Authors: Shelah Saharon
Published: November 2023

In Section 6 we give a strong answer when λ. is successor of regular (by 6.1 as explained in 6.2(1)). So for this case, we answer Rubin Shelah [RuSh117] question (1) (p.46 line-4), hence question (2) (p. 46 line-1) as we contradict the expected answer to (1). In [Sh430] we get an answer to original questions without this restriction (and without the additional information).
Modal Deduction with Applications in Epistemic and Temporal Logics
Authors: Cerro Luis Farinas del , Herzig Andreas
Published: November 2023

The widespread use of non-classical logics in Artificial Intelligence makes it desirable to have automated deduction methods (and in particular resolution methods) for these logics at our disposal. In this chapter we present several automated deduction methods for modal logics. We focus on the problems of normal forming and variable skolemization, which prove to be harder than in classical logic because of the enriched language. In particular we study a special type of modal logics called deterministic logics which provide a very general framework for these deduction methods. Their semantics are based upon access functions instead of accessibility relations. That allows us to refer explicitly to possible worlds. For these logics several difficult problems, like the existence of normal forms, can be solved in a very simple way, by skolemizing modal operators.
An Introduction to Quantum Theory
Authors: Hannabuss Keith
Published: November 2023

This book provides an introduction to quantum theory, primarily for mathematics students. It assumes a knowledge of basic algebra and elementary group theory, with little or no familiarity with more advanced topics. Although it takes a traditional approach, the book exploits ideas of linear algebra and points out some of the mathematical subtleties of the theory. It also covers such topics as Bell's inequalities and coherent and squeezed states, and introduces group representation theory, algebraic quantum theory, and quantum statistical mechanics. Later chapters discuss relativistic wave equations and elementary particle symmetries from a group-theoretical standpoint.
Inference operations on scenario descriptions
Authors: Sandewall Erik
Published: November 2023

Reasoning about scenario descriptions may appear to be a straightforward application of formal logic, but it turns out to have a number of peculiar characteristics which have to do with how different types of premise are expressed. The preSCDt chapter attempts to express, in precise terms, both what the important issues are and how they can be broken down into more restricted subproblems.
What is Logic?*
Authors: Hacking Ian
Published: November 2023

What follows is a general theory about classical logic. It is not to be expected that logic can be or should be characterized to everyone’s satisfaction, for the subject is too ancient, its workers too active, and its scope too vast for that. Instead this chapter falls within one lively and enduring tradition, the one called ‘logicist’. It is an organization and development of some of the thoughts of Leibniz, Bolzano, Frege, Russell, and Wittgenstein. The main technical device is due to Gentzen. The chief philosophical idea that has not already been widely used by many writers is taken from the Tractatus. The general thrust of the inquiry goes back to Frege and to Leibniz, but although I shall allude to origins I shall not trace them in any detailed way.
General Dynamic Logic
Authors: Benthem Johan van
Published: November 2023

A ‘logical system’ is a complex architecture for analysing one or more styles of reasoning. This paper approaches this notion by example, focussing on current ‘dynamic’ conceptions of logic, as being concerned both with declarative propositions and with cognitive procedures of update, revision, etc. The semantic model proposed for this purpose is a general dynamic logic (inspired by dynamic logic in computer science). We show how this architecture leads to (1) new perspectives on logical constants (essentially, these become invariants in an infinite hierarchy of process simulations), (2) notions of inference (which may be classified via sets of structural rules and corresponding representation theorems) as well as (3) a systematic study of switching mechanisms between static and dynamic levels, effecting a flow of information between short-term and long-term reasoning.
Defeasible Logics: Demarcation and Affinities
Authors: Alchourrón Carlos E
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this paper is twofold: to present a certain general perspective on the nature of conditionals, and to develop a formal apparatus, semantic and syntactic, that reflects it. The general perspective is that conditionals of ordinary language, whether they be counterfactual or not, are usually intended defeasible and for this reason fail the principles of both antecedent-strengthening (alias monotony) and modus ponens. However, in the cases in which a conditional is meant indefeasibly, both these principles hold. This perspective runs counter to the familiar one embodied in the Stalnaker-Lewis account of counterfactuals, where modus ponens is accepted whilst antecedent-strengthening is not. In contrast, we see no good reason for abandoning the latter apart from defeasibility, which when present also requires abandonment of the former.
Dynamic properties of polymer solutions
Authors: Brown Wyn , Nicolai Taco
Published: November 2023

It is not our intention to review the application of DLS to the field of polymer solutions, which would be a prohibitive undertaking, but rather to illustrate the application of the technique in a number of chosen areas. We describe in Section 6.2 some selected applications of dynamic light scattering to the study of the properties of dilute polymer solutions in terms of translational as well as internal motions of the polymer coil. Section 6.3 deals with dynamical behaviour in semidilute solution, reflecting the structure of the transient network when polymer coils overlap. Section 6.4 describes some applications to ternary polymer systems.
Diffusing-wave spectroscopy
Authors: Weitz David A , Pine David J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we describe a recent development in dynamic light scattering (DLS), which may ultimately have a significant impact on the range of problems that can be addressed and on the types of system that can be studied. We discuss diffusing-wave spectroscopy (DWS), which extends DLS to very highly multiple scattering media. This technique extends the analytic power of DLS to opaque samples such as concentrated suspensions, obviating the need to dilute or index-match. In addition, DWS opens new and exciting possibilities for studying particle dynamics on length scales that are unattainable using conventional methods. We present a summary of the theoretical principles underlying DWS, and discuss its applications, both in extending traditional DLS techniques and in studying new physical phenomena. The development of DWS is still in its relatively early stages, and considerably more work is needed to exploit this technique fully. Our goal here is to provide a comprehensive introduction to the underlying principles, and to provide some examples illustrating the great promise of DWS, in the hope of making further work more productive.
General Introduction
Authors: Meli Domenico Bertoloni
Published: November 2023

Over the last few decades Newton’s itinerary to the Principia has been meticulously reconstructed through the study of his private manuscripts and correspondence; the new picture which has emerged has enriched enormously our understanding of his work in many aspects, ranging from the interaction between mathematics and mechanics to the role of alchemy and theology. The formation of Leibniz’s techniques and ideas about planetary motion is extremely well documented in an exciting series of previously unknown manuscripts which are published and analysed here for the first time. Leibniz’s manuscripts, dating from the late 1680s, include his first annotations to the Principia and his first attempts to construct an alternative theory; they are among the most extensive documents we possess on the early reception of Newton’s masterpiece, and while providing us with deeper insights into Leibniz’s thought and strategy, allow us to gain a better understanding of Newton’s theory as well. They constitute stimulating material for reconsidering the issues of equivalence between rival theories, mathematical formulations and physical interpretations, private research versus publication, intellectual property, and priority in the late seventeenth century. These issues are inextricably interwoven with the dispute about the world system between the Cambridge Lucasian Professor and the Court Librarian and Councillor in Hanover.
Astronomy And The Keplerian Programme
Authors: Meli Domenico Bertoloni
Published: November 2023

Although Leibniz explicitly mentions Kepler as one of his masters, the role of Keplerian themes on Leibniz’s system has been little studied and often altogether ignored. One of the few exceptions is represented by Ernst Cassirer. In his classic monograph Cassirer claims that Kepler’s concept of vera hypothesis developed in the Mysterium Cosmographicum and Apologia pro Tychone contra Ursum was very influential on Leibniz. Cassirer identifies two astronomical traditions whose aims were to provide a description of phenomena and to explain them causally, respectively. Purely descriptive accounts were incapable of going beyond sensory data and establishing a link between experience and the general laws of knowledge. Causal accounts were merely speculative and considered phenomena in a negative way, as something contradicting the course of thought. According to Cassirer, the central theme of the Keplerian reform of astronomy was the view that phenomena were a positive challenge influencing the direction of knowledge.
Continued Fractions
Authors: Fowler D H
Published: November 2023

The mathematical techniques developed and deployed so far in the historical reconstructions of this book have not been arithmetised; that is, they have not been expressed in terms of some model, explicit or implicit, of the real numbers and its arithmetic. This chapter will be different. My aim is to prove the main results underlying the reconstruc tion and to describe some of the more recent investigations into the subject, and I shall give this modern theory in the arithmetised style in which it is now conceived, expressed in the modern algebraic idiom. So the formulae in this chapter, and this chapter only, should be regarded as abstractions of the underlying arithmetic of real numbers.
Möbius’s geometrical mechanics
Authors: Gray Jeremy
Published: November 2023

In his day, Mobius was probably best known for his popularizations of astronomy. The discoveries that bear his name today achieved fame and importance only after his death. In between these achievements come the ones that established him among the leading mathematicians of his day: his extensive works on geometry and mechanics. It might seem that, with the calculus, these were the central areas of mathematics, but few topics in the subject have the curious history that geometry acquired. The Greeks had made geometry seem almost synonymous with mathematics, and for a time the Western revival of the subject adopted this point of view. But it soon merged with another current that may also be traced back to the Greeks, although it has more important and vital sources—algebra. The consequences for geometry were literally overwhelming. During the eighteenth century it almost disappeared, as the language of algebra and the methods of the calculus took over. The geometrical questions the Greeks had asked, and their natural generalizations to new problems, yielded to the new approach, while the old methods seemed increasingly cumbersome and futile. By 1790, the study of geometry had slowed to a murmur.
Short mean free paths and Anderson localization
Authors: Mott Sir Nevill
Published: November 2023

A main theme of this book is the behaviour of the conductivity of metals and semiconductors when the mean free path k is of order a, the distance between atoms or scattering centres. In this case the assumption of single scattering on which the Boltzmann formula (eqn (1.4)) is based breaks down. One way of treating this problem is by using the Kubo-Greenwood formula (Kubo 1956; Greenwood 1958) which we shall now derive. In this formula the conductivity σ (ω) at frequency ω is calculated, and ω is then allowed to tend to zero. We suppose that an electric field F cos ωt acts on a specimen of volume Ω.
Studies of neotropical Caddisflies, XXXVIII: A review of the classification and biology of the neotropical Microcaddisflies, with the description of a new genus (Trichoptera: Hydroptilidae: Leucotrichiini)
Authors: Flint Oliver S
Published: November 2023

An understanding of the neotropical Hydroptilidae, the microcaddisflies, has emerged only in the last 50 years. The first significant contributions were those of Mosely on microcaddisflies of Mexico (1937) and Brazil (19 39). Since then Botosaneanu, Flint, Kelley, Ross, and others have described many new species and genera, while studies being initiated by Harris, Holzenthal, and Flint are producing many new discoveries and changes in apparent relationships. Over the same time frame, knowledge on a world basis of the higher classification of the family has progressed. Nielsen (1948) proposed the first significant classification for the European fauna, Botosaneanu, Flint and Ross added tribes, and Marshall (1979) brought the whole family together into a coherent picture. However, recent collections in south-east Asia and Australia (Wells, personal communication) and the Neotropics (Harris and Holzenthal, personal communications) are revealing many new taxa that do not fit well into the currently accepted tribes. I am presenting here an overview of the current classification of the neotropical microcaddisflies, with notes on their biology.
Systematic catalogue of the Caddisflies of Panama (Trichoptera)
Authors: S. Yolanda Aguila
Published: November 2023

The Trichoptera are holmnetabolous insects which are often overlooked because of their similarity to Microlepidoptera. It is possible to distinguish adults of those two groups by the following characteristics. In Lepidoptera the proboscis (formed from the modified maxillae) is coiled; the maxillary palps are generally reduced or absent; and the body, and in most cases the wings, are covered with scales. In Trichoptera the mouthparts are reduced and the maxillae are not modified to form a coiled proboscis, although the palps are well developed; the body and wings bear setae, which make them appear hairy; and the wings occasionally bear some scales. The majority of Trichoptera larvae are aquatic (including one marine species) or are associated with wet soil. They resemble the larvae of certain aquatic Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Trichopteran larvae may be distinguished from lepidopteran larvae by the absence of prolegs (false legs on the abdomen), present in all Lepidoptera. Trichopteran larvae usually can be distinguished from coleopteran larvae by the absence of cerci.
Nocturnal butterflies in Panama, Hedylidae (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera)
Authors: Aiello Annette
Published: November 2023

Butterflies (Rhopalocera) are the most conspicuous and familiar members of the order Lepidoptera. Their diurnal activity together with their habit of visiting flowers brings them into close proximity with people, and their often colourful wings cause us to notice them. However, it is not only the butterflies that are diurnal and colourful among Lepidoptera. Diurnal behaviour has arisen several times in the order, usually accompanied by colourful wings. The moth families Castniidae, Zygaenidae, Geometridae, Uraniidae, Sphingidae, Arctiidae (in several subfamilies), and Agaristidae all include some diurnal and colourful members, and many people who see them just assume that they are butterflies. Several of these moth families are comprised of exclusively diurnal species, but most of the largest ones are predominantly nocturnal groups. When one considers that, among the close to 120 families of Lepidoptera, diurnal examples can be found only in these few families of moths plus the six families of true butterflies, it becomes apparent that the day-flying habit is actually rather rare. The butterflies themselves are in a distinct minority; they represent only about 10 per cent of lepidopteran species.
Hanging-flies of Panama (Mecoptera: Bittacidae)
Authors: Byers George W , Roggero Ricardo J
Published: November 2023

Mecoptera are a small order of insects, including only about 500 species. These are currently assigned to 32 genera in nine families. Panamanian representatives belong to the family Bittacidae. They have a superficial resemblance to large Tipulidae, being slender-bodied, about 20-25 mm in length, with long legs and four long, narrow wings. Although Mecoptera are found in all tropical and temperate regions, the known geographical ranges of most individual species are extremely limited. Some species may actually be rare, but inadequate collecting and observing are surely factors in our meagre knowledge of these insects. The order is an ancient one, well represented among fossil insect remains in rocks of lower Permian age, perhaps 280million years old.
Comparative aspects of the social suppression of reproduction in female marmosets and tamarins
Authors: Abbott D H , Barrett, J , George L M
Published: November 2023

Marmosets and tamarins certainly have in common a particular adaptation to reproduction: only one female breeds in any single social group (for reviews see Mittermeier et al. 1988a). This extreme reproductive specialization has become one of the hallmarks of the Callitrichidae where, as far as females are concerned, the winner in social dominance interactions ‘takes all’. The dominant female in each callitrichid group is therefore the only breeding female, and she actively attains and maintains her dominant breeding status (Abbott and Hearn 1978; Epple 1967; French et al. 1984; Rothe 1975b). This state of reproductive affairs is rather unusual for an anthropoid primate. Most primate species are polygamous, and where reproductive suppression is found amongst subordinate female primates, it is usually manifest as poorer birth rates or poorer rates of infant survival in comparison with dominant females (Abbott 1991; Harcourt 1987). This trait of social control of reproduction is apparently taken to its logical conclusion in callitrichid monkeys, where there is a complete social block to reproduction in subordinate females.
Individual variation, social structure, community organization, and hierarchical views in the marine context
Authors: Iwasaki Keiji
Published: November 2023

Since the nineteenth century when, thanks to Darwin’s brilliant achievements, community ecology took root, ecologists have grappled with three kinds of hierarchies. The first is a trophic hierarchy into which food webs, involving micro-organisms, plants, herbivores, and predators, are organized. The second is a competitive one, in which interspecific competitive dominance in the same trophic level is assumed to be fixed and immutable. The third is a form of organization of biological units interacting with one another in a community, that is, a nested hierarchy consisting of individuals, populations, species, and guilds. The incorporation of the first and second hierarchies into one theoretical framework has led to stimulative theories on community organization (Paine 1966, 1969, 1980; Menge and Sutherland 1976, 1987). Indirect interactions that operate through the hierarchies have, in recent times, become a popular field of community ecology, and many investigators have revealed that even mutualism and commensalism are exerted through these interactions (Dethier and Duggins 1984; Dungan 1986, 1987; Schmitt 1987). It has generally been assumed, however, that the unit of interaction is a species or a population whose ecological traits are virtually homogeneous, although not a few authors have demonstrated or suggested the importance of size difference (Buss 1980; Russ 1982), social structure (Jarman 1974), and individual behavioural differences within a species (West 1988a; Iwasaki 1989; Katano 1989, 1991) in community organization. Because of this internal complexity, the real structure of the nested hierarchy of biological units involved in interspecific interactions has hardly begun to be understood.
Discussion: community and social organization—morphology and function of linkages between organisms
Authors: Ezaki Yasuo
Published: November 2023

A community consists of individual organisms belonging to different species. Every individual in a community is linked with others by two fundamental relationships. One is the trophic (vertical) relationship between heterospecifics. Another is the sexual or reproductive relationship between conspecifics. These two relationships are fundamental, since they directly influence survival and reproduction of the individual. Two other kinds of relationships are common to most communities. They are the (horizontal) relationship between species at the same trophic level and the relationship within species, usually referred to as ‘social’. The totality of relationships among all members of a species, i.e. the sexual and the social relationships in the above categories, is defined as ‘social organization’ (Brown 1975). In the same way, community organization can be defined conveniently as the totality of relationships among all members of a community. By definition, community organization includes social organization. When we study social organization, we usually regard interspecific (vertical and horizontal) relationships as environmental factors that influence a population.
Concluding remarks
Authors: Cohen Joel E
Published: November 2023

The three previous chapters envision strikingly diverse futures for community ecology. Rossiter bases his vision of the future on detailed studies of net-spinning caddisfly larvae (of the family Hydropsychidae). He compares caddisfly larvae communities at a given point in a river (under various conditions and at various times), at different points in a river (upstream and downstream), and in different rivers. He is impressed by the subtlety and diversity of the factors that affect their communities, such as water temperature, seston (floating food) quality and size, current velocity, laminar versus turbulent flow, substrate form, macrophytes, and interactions among species. According to Rossiter, ‘Given the inherent complexities, it may well be unrealistic to expect population dynamics and community composition to be governed by general rules’ applicable to differing types of communities. Schoener combines theoretical and empirical approaches.
Crustaceans
Authors: Hayward P J , Isaac M J , Makings P , Moyse J , Naylor E , Smaldon G
Published: November 2023

The crustaceans (Phylum Crustacea) exhibit a great diversity of structure, adaptation, and development. Freshwater and terrestrial species are common, but the majority of species are marine. Crustaceans occur in all marine habitats, from the supralittoral zone to the abyss; additionally, most holoplanktonic animals belong to the Crustacea, and the meroplankton largely consists of the larval stages of benthic Crustacea.
Is the evolution of herbivore resistance influenced by parasitoids?
Authors: Strong Donald R , Larsson Stig
Published: November 2023

Ecological theory is often given to the diversion of make-believe simplicity. In models of parasitoid-host dynamics, perhaps the greatest fiction is autonomy of parasitoid and host insect from plants, other organisms, and abiotic factors that are the very medium of ecological and evolutionary interactions. The idea of ‘tritrophic interactions’ (Price et al. 1980), which explicitly includes host plants into a food chain from producer through herbivore to consumer, begins to deal with real ecological complexity. Along with other pioneers of integrated food web interactions, like Hairston et al. (1960), Jermy (1984), and Ehrlich and Raven (1964), Price et al. (1980) emphasized the role of host plants in affecting the vulnerabilities and protections of herbivorous insects from parasitoids, predators, and diseases.
The taste of enemy-free space: parasitoids and nasty hosts
Authors: Gauld Ian D , Gaston Kevin J
Published: November 2023

Throughout the twentieth century it has become increasingly apparent that secondary plant substances in the diet of a herbivorous insect may have a profoundly detrimental effect on the fitness of those parasitoids which attack it (Table 15.1). Morgan (1910) was perhaps the first to suggest this, but the effects of these allelochemicals remained largely uninvestigated until their relevance to biological control became apparent. Early efforts to introduce the encyrtid Comperiella bifasciata Howard into the United States to control the citrus pest Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) were thwarted because attempts were made to transport the parasitoid across the Pacific culturing it on A. aurantii feeding not on citrus, but on sago palms. The latter food plant was subsequently shown to be toxic to the parasitoid (Smith 1957). Indeed it was not until 1941, some 35 years after initial attempts were made, that A. aurantii was successfully introduced into California (Flanders 1942).
Mapping Species Occurrence on Habitat Availability
Authors: Hanski llkka
Published: November 2023

Experienced field biologists are often amazingly successful in predicting the occurrence, or the absence, of particular species at particular sites. They know the species’ ecological requirements, and they base their predictions on the assumption that where the requirements are met, within the geographical range of the species, the species is to be found-abundance and distribution reflect the response of local populations to local conditions (Brown 1995, p. 51). Although there is no reason to doubt that this conclusion would not capture a big element of truth, it does not capture the entire truth. Metapopulation dynamics with population turnover imply that a significant fraction of suitable habitat is unoccupied, even if it is not the same patches of habitat that are unoccupied all the time. Apart from being contrary to the expectations of many biologists, the question about empty habitat has profound implications for conservation (Hanski and Simberloff 1997).
Epilogue
Authors: Hanski llkka
Published: November 2023

Viewed from outside, metapopulation ecology represents a particular brand of spatial ecology. Ecologists are used to thinking about assemblages of interacting entities, such as individuals in populations, but usually without an explicit reference to space. The novelty of spatial ecology is in the claim that the spatial locations of individuals, populations and communities can have equally significant consequences on dynamics as birth and death rates, competition and predation. Spatial ecology is one of the most visible developments in ecology and population biology in recent years; some regard it as a new paradigm arising towards the end of the twentieth century. New paradigm or not, it is true that never before has space been considered to be so pivotal to so many biological phenomena as today.
Cranial and dental adaptations to predation in canids
Authors: Valkenburgh Blaire Van , li Klaus-Peter Koepf
Published: November 2023

Within the family Canidae, there are four species which regularly take prey much larger than themselves: the grey wolf, wild dog, dhole and bush dog. Each of the four species hunts co-operatively and it is likely that this allows them to kill prey much larger than a single individual could kill. This study examined the craniodental morphology of these species within the context of the family. Its purpose was to determine whether the hunters of large prey exhibit morphological specializations that distinguish them from other canids which consume smaller prey and/or are more omnivorous. If so, the presence of similar morphologies in extinct canids could be used to infer aspects of their feeding behaviour. Thirty measurements of the cranium, mandible and teeth are used to construct 17 ratios that describe craniodental shape and proportion and estimate bending strength of the mandibular corpus. Species were assigned to one of four dietary groups that differed in prey size and/or the proportion of vertebrate to non-vertebrate foods consumed. Differences among the groups in ratio values were assessed with analysis of variance and discriminant analysis. R sults demonstrated a clear separation between the hunters of large prey and other canids and significant separation among the remaining three groups. The canids that routinely take large prey exhibited relatively reduced grinding areas of their dentition, larger canines and incisors, broader snouts, wider occiputs, larger second moments of area of the dentary relative to its length and increased advantage of the major jaw closing muscles. This suite of features indicates specialization for large bite forces at the canines and efficient slicing of meat with the carnassials and is consistent with expected adaptations for killing and consuming large ungulates.
The evolution of echolocation for predation
Authors: Speakman J R
Published: November 2023

Active detection of food items by echolocation has some obvious advantages over passive detection, since it affords independence from ambient light and sound levels. For predatory animals, however, echolocation would also appear to have a significant disadvantage-the echolocation calls might alert prey to the predator’s presence. Surprisingly, therefore, all but two of the different groups of vertebrates that have evolved echolocation are predatory. Despite the diversity of predatory taxa in which echolocation has evolved it is still a relatively uncommon form of perception. It has been suggested that a major constraint on the evolution of echolocation is its high energy cost, due to rapid attenuation of sound in air. The cost of producing echolocation calls has been measured in insectivorous bats, whilst hanging at rest. These measures confirm that echolocation is extremely costly. However, bats normally echolocate in flight which also has a high cost. How bats cope with the high cost of echolocation, when it is combined with flight, is therefore of extreme interest. Measures of the energy cost of flight of small echolocating bats suggest that the cost is no greater than that for non-echolocating birds and bats. The reason for this parent economy is that the same muscles which flap the wings also ventilate the lungs, and produce the pulse of breath which generates the echolocation call. For a bat in flight, therefore, the additional cost of echolocating is very low, whilst for a bat on the ground, and presumably other terrestrial vertebrates, the cost is very high. The release from the energetic constraint may explain the proliferation of echolocation systems amongst flying predators and their paucity amongst terrestrial predators. This model for the evolution of echolocation has some significant problems-notably the absence of echolocation amongst predatory birds and fruit bats. Possible solutions to these problems include the lack of an advantage for diurnal predators and phylogenetic constraints in both the ventilatory and perceptual systems of these animals.
Carnivore life histories: a re-analysis in the light of new models
Authors: Gittleman John L
Published: November 2023

The Carnivora show tremendous diversity in life-history patterns, ranging from species such as the giant panda that typically do not reproduce until five years of age to many weasel species which reproduce at six months of age. Such differences in life histories have profound effects on reproductive output, population dynamics and rates of evolution. An earlier comparative analysis of nine life-history variables across 112 carnivore species revealed that 38-83% of the variation was associated with allometry, significant phylogenetic patterns were observed at familial levels and ecological factors were surprisingly uninfluential. The present analysis updates this study in the light of recent developments in the comparative data base, comparative statistical models and models of mammalian life-history evolution. Phylogenetic association is significant with 13 life histories but correlation is quite varied depending on particular variables and taxonomic ranks. After taking account of phylogeny to enhance statistical independence in the data, allometry (brain and body size) is significantly correlated with all life histories but, given the imprecise causality of allometric patterns and the number of exceptions in allometric scaling, it is unlikely that an allometric approach will reveal insights into carnivore life-history evolution. Ecological factors, as in other comparative studies, also are not influential. Finally, in agreement with various theoretical life-history models and comparative studies across eutherian mammals as a whole, carnivore life histories may compensate for sources of juvenile and adult mortality. Some examples are given from single-species study to show how comparative patterns may arise from differences in mortality.
Otter (Lutra lutra L.) numbers and fish productivity in rivers in north-east Scotland
Authors: Kruuk H , Carss D N , Conroy J W H , Durbin L
Published: November 2023

A method has been developed, using radio-tracking and radionuclide recovery, to estimate numbers of otters Lutra lutra along streams of different sizes in Scotland and the amount of time otters spend in these streams. Linear range sizes varied up to 78 km of stream (80 ha of water) for males and up to 21 km (34 ha of water) for females. Diet composition and food intake were estimated and compared with electrofishing data on populations of the main prey species, brown trout Salmo trutta and Atlantic salmon S. salar. Eel Anguilla anguilla was less important. Overall, otters appeared to take more young salmon than trout, compared with numbers in the population (18% of salmonid prey was salmon, compared with 6% in the population), and they consumed a high proportion of the total biomass of 1+ fish (fish in their second year of life, or over) and of 1+ fish production (53-67%).
Jaguar predation and conservation: cattle mortality caused by felines on three ranches in the Venezuelan Llanos
Authors: Hoogesteijn Rafael , Hoogesteijn Almira , Mondolfi Edgardo
Published: November 2023

The most important prey species taken by jaguar are given for the Llanos area of Venezuela, and compared with dietary analyses conducted elsewhere. In three studies carried out in seasonally flooded savannah, cattle constituted 35, 48 and 56% of total prey killed by jaguar. Causes predisposing jaguars to prey on cattle are deforestation (loss of habitat), poaching of the jaguar and its prey, and rudimentary herd management. In two studies, 75% and 53% of jaguars killed while preying on cattle exhibited man-inflicted wounds diminishing the cat’s ability to hunt normally. Physical and ecological features are described for three cattle ranches on seasonally flooded savannah. Mortality and loss of calves caused by felines on these well-managed ranches are compared with other causes. On one ranch calf mortality increased following measures aimed at the conservation of jaguars and other fauna. However, predation rates were considerably less than other causes of pre- and post natal calf mortality and accounted for 6% of all calf losses or deaths. On another ranch, in an area of greater agricultural development and poaching, feline predation caused 30% of total calf losses or deaths. Predation was less significant on a third ranch. Counter-measures to diminish predation included fencing areas of gallery forest to restrict access by cattle, pasturing pregnant cows or cows with small calves in open fields or savannah away from forested areas, and controlling the poaching of jaguars and their wild prey. Translocation and sport hunting of jaguars were found to be unsatisfactory methods for controlling predation problems.
Behavioural and physiological options in diving seals
Authors: Fedak M A , Thompson D
Published: November 2023

Phocid seals are animals which live at depth and only periodically return to the surface to breathe. They are not surface-dwellers which occasionally leave the surface to forage. This view involves more than a semantic distinction: its adoption is essential to the creation of more realistic conceptual models of the behaviour of diving animals and the understanding of the physiological constraints under which they operate. In this paper, we develop such a conceptual model in terms of the behavioural decisions seals must make and how the physiological options available may constrain behavioural choices. We then consider a model of one of these choices in more detail (the choice of resorting to anaerobic metabolism to extend dives) to demonstrate the consequences such a decision would have on diving behaviour. And finally, we examine some of the field data available from grey, Weddell and elephant seals in terms of which behavioural and physiological options are chosen in particular circumstances.
Calcareous microfossils
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with calcareous microfossils. These generally range in size from 0.1-1.0 mm (though ‘larger’ benthonic foraminifera with complex inner structures range up to 10 cm in diameter). Preparation of samples for calcareous microfossil study generally consists of the disaggregation or thin-sectioning of the containing sediment, depending on the degree of induration (though the ‘peel’ technique can also be useful). Acid treatment is not recommnded, owing to the solubility of calcite (although it can be useful in the extraction of agglutinating foraminifera and in rendering the opaque walls of calcareous forms transparent (Stancliffe and Matsuoka 1991)). Note in this context that all samples collected at sea are susceptible to natural acid attack unless treated (taking the necessary safety precautions) with formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde(Maybury and Ap Gwynn 1993).
Phosphatic microfossils
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with phosphatic microfossils (those composed of calcium phosphate). These range in size from 0.1-5.0 mm. Preparation of samples for phosphatic microfossil study generally consists of the disaggregation or dissolution of the containing sediment. The safest method of disaggregation is boiling in water with added sodium bicarbonate (washing soda). Pre-soaking in sodium hypochlorite (bleach) or solvent such as white spirit facilitates the process, but the excess must be drained off prior to boiling (owing to the risk of fire). Dissolution is by means of acetic (ethanoic) or formic acid (or, in special cases, hydrofluoric acid; Etheridge and Austin 1993). Samples are studied under a reflected light microscope.
Petroleum exploration, appraisal and development
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This chapter contains sections on basin exploration and on exploration, appraisal and development drilling (placing particular emphasis on applications of micropala eontology). The section on drilling includes subsections on the processes of drilling, logging, testing and completion (in particular micropalaeontological sample collection), exploration drilling (especially applications of micropalaeontology in monitoring while

drilling, determination of casing, coring and terminal depths and post-drill auditing) and appraisal and development (placing particular emphasis on applications of micropalaeontology in reservoir zonation). Unfortunately, for reasons of commercial sensitivity, the subsection on appraisal and development has had to be kept to a minimum.
Other commercial applications
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the commercial applications of micropalaeontology outside the oil industry and contains sections on environmental monitoring, coal mining, mineral exploration and exploitation and engineering. There are also more esoteric applications such as those in the fields of criminology, archaeology, aerobiology and melissopalynology. For instance, palynological analysis is used in criminology to deter-mine whether a corpse has been moved after death (by comparing the pollen content in samples from bodily secretions, clothes or shoes against that of the ‘background’) or to test alibis (by comparing the pollen content in samples from a suspect against that of the ‘background’ of his/ or her alleged whereabouts at the time of the crime).
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: an introduction
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

In its broadest sense, the Tokelau Island Migrant Study (TIMS) is an analysis of social change. However, it is distinguished from other such studies in several respects. First, it examines the relationship between social change and the health of a specific population. In order to accomplish this, we have synthesized findings from three different scientific traditions: ethnography, sociology, and epidemiology. Such a synthesis involves numerous interpretative difficulties. None the less, we believe that such an approach is necessary to present an adequate portrayal of some of the dynamics and consequences of social change for individuals and populations alike.
The ecology and prehistory of Tokelau
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

The three islands of Tokelau – Atafu, Fakaofo, and Nukunonu – are located in an isolated area of the south central Pacific Ocean, between latitudes 8° S and 10° S and longitudes 171° W and 173y W. The islands of Western Samoa, about 480 kilometres to the south, are the closest land mass of any size, but tiny Olosega (Swain’s Island) is somewhat closer. The scattered, largely uninhabited islands of the Phoenix group lie some 600 km to the north. To the east it is over 900 km to Pukapuka atoll in the northern Cook Islands, and to the west it is 800 km to the closest atolls of Tuvalu.
Tokelau, New Zealand, and the United Nations 1948 to 1984
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

Although life in Tokelau remained relatively undisturbed by the Second World War, the atolls were quickly caught up in the widespread changes in the international order which came with its ending. As in the past, the changes in Tokelau stemmed largely from initiatives taken from abroad, and were heavily influenced by New Zealand and its larger Pacific foreign policy, particularly that regarding Western Samoa.
Development and change on the atolls: 1967 to 1984
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

Tokelauan villages have their own clearly defined rhythms and preoccupations-as do all remote and isolated communities. Daily life goes on, for the most part, caught within fixed and regular limits - the demands of subsistence, the vagaries of weather and crops, social and institutional obligations, births, deaths, and the regular slow process of seasonal change. During the late 1960s ships visited Tokelau from Apia only once every three months, staying only a day or so offshore at each atoll while transshipping mail, cargo, and passengers. Only a few households had radios; urgent messages still came and went only by Morse code, through the crackles and static of isolation. Life in Tokelau was largely village-oriented, oblivious for long calm stretches to the concerns of the outside world- even when, however fleetingly, these happened to affect Tokelau.