bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fracture Toughness and Time‐Dependent Strength Behavior of Low‐Doped Silicon Nitrides for Applications at 1400°C
Authors: Klemm Hagen , Pezzotti Giuseppe
Published: March 2005

The influence of small additions of three selected oxides on the microstructure and the mechanical behavior of high‐purity silicon nitride was systematically investigated. Dense silicon nitride bodies doped respectively with SiO2, Y2O3, and Yb2O3 were fabricated by hot isostatic pressing (HIP). Two different compositions of the intergranular phase (nominal oxide additions of 0.7 and 1.7 vol%) were examined for Y2O3 and Yb2O3 in comparison with the same volume of pure SiO3. Only in the material with the higher Y2O3 and Yb2O3 content was an improved level of fracture toughness obtained. The mechanical properties at 1400°C were evaluated with emphasis placed on time‐dependent strength and deformation behavior. The materials containing only SiO2 or doped with the small amount of Y2O3 showed linear elastic KI‐controlled fracture behavior at 1400°C and the critical phenomenon for failure was subcritical crack growth (SCG) from preexisting defects. In the materials with additions of Yb2O3 or the larger amount of Y2O3, crack extension was governed by creep crack growth as a result of the exhibited strong creep effects. In the silicon nitride doped with 1.7 vol% Yb2O3, however, a considerably improved creep behavior as a consequence of crystallization processes in the intergranular phase (Yb2Si2O7) caused by both thermal treatment and stress‐initiated effects during the mechanical testing at 1400°C was found.
Effective Ionic Radius of Y3+ Determined from Lattice Parameters of Fluorite‐Type HfO2 and ZrO2 Solid Solutions
Authors: Kim Dae‐Joon , Hyun Sang‐Hoon , Kim Seung‐Goo , Yashima Masatomo
Published: March 2005

Fluorite type HfO2 and ZrO2 solid solutions were prepared by doping with 8 to 14 mol% of Ho2O3 and Y2O3, and their lattice parameters were determined. In both HfO2 and ZrO2 systems, the lattice parameters of the solid solutions containing Ho203 were consistently greater than those containing the same amounts of Y2O3. This indicated that the ionic radius of Ho3+ was larger than that of Y3+ in the fluorite structure solid solutions. The effective ionic radius of Y3+ in eightfold coordination was estimated to be 0.1011 nm by using the measured lattice parameters and the empirical equations to predict the lattice parameters of the fluorite‐type solid solutions.
Kinetics and Mechanisms of Oxidation of 2D Woven C/SiC Composites: I, Experimental Approach
Authors: Lamouroux Franck , Camus Gérald , Thébault Jacques
Published: March 2005

The oxidation behavior of a 2D woven C/SiC composite partly protected with a SiC seal coating and heat‐treated (stabilized) at 1600°C in inert gas has been investigated through an experimental approach based on thermogravimetric analyses and optical/electron microscopy. Results of the tests, performed under flowing oxygen, have shown that the oxidation behavior of the composite material in terms of oxidation kinetics and morphological evolutions is related to the presence of thermal microcracks in the seal coating as well as in the matrix. Three different temperature domains exist. At low temperatures (<800°C), the mechanisms of reaction between carbon and oxygen control the oxidation kinetics and are associated with a uniform degradation of the carbon reinforcement. At intermediate temperatures, (between 800° and 1100°C), the oxidation kinetics are controlled by the gas‐phase diffusion through a network of microcracks in the SiC coating, resulting in a nonuniform degradation of the carbon phases. At high temperatures (>1100°C), such diffusion mechanisms are limited by sealing of the microcracks by silica; therefore, the degradation of the composite remains superficial. The study of the oxidation behavior of (i) the heat‐treated composite in a lower oxygen content environment (dry air) and (ii) the as‐processed (unstabilized) composite in dry oxygen confirms the different mechanisms proposed to explain the oxidation behavior of the composite material.
Mechanical Properties of Partially Dense Alumina Produced from Powder Compacts
Authors: Lam David C. C. , Lange Fred F. , Evans Anthony G.
Published: March 2005

The elastic modulus (E), the critical strain energy release rate (Gc), and the flexural strength (σ) have been determined for two partially dense alumina bodies produced from the same powder but with different initial densities. The mechanical properties were measured for specimens fabricated at four different relative densities. The measured elastic modulus, critical strain energy release rate, and a calculated critical stress intensity factor (Kc) were observed to be linearly related to (ρ–ρ0)/(1 –ρ0), where ρ is the current relative density and ρ0 is the initial relative density of the powder compact. With the observed linear relations for E, Gc (or Kc), and the assumption that the crack length responsible for failure was present in the initial powder compact and shrunk in proportion to the relative density change, a Griffith equation was constructed to estimate the strength at any relative density. This relation was in good agreement with measurements.
Oxygen Tracer Diffusion in Lanthanum‐Doped Single‐Crystal Strontium Titanate
Authors: Kiessling Uta , Claus Jürgen , Borchardt Günter , Weber Sylvain , Scherrer Stanislas
Published: March 2005

Strontium titanate (SrTiO3) is known as a good high‐temperature resistive oxygen sensor material; its response time depends on oxygen bulk diffusion and surface exchange processes. In the present work, 18O diffusion has been investigated in lanthanum‐doped SrTiO3, single crystals in the temperature range 700° to 900°C by secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). Oxygen tracer diffusivities between 2 × 10−15 and 1 × 10−13 cm2/s have been calculated from the SIMS results. Low surface enrichment of 18O compared to the 18O concentration in the gas atmosphere gives clear evidence for a surface exchange reaction.
Use of Two‐Phase Standards of Unknown Compositions to Determine Calibration Constants for Powder XRD by Linear Regression
Authors: Jovanovic Zoran , Kimura Shoichi
Published: March 2005

A simple method is proposed for the determination of calibration constants for powder X‐ray diffraction. The method uses two standards of unknown compositions of two phases, α and β, together with an essentially pure standard of a third phase, σ, and determines in a straightforward manner the calibration constants not only for α/β but also for σ/α mass ratios on the basis of linear regression. The method is applicable to cases when standard samples are available only as mixtures of two phases of interest.
Identification of the t(15;17) in AML FAB types other than M3: evaluation of the role of molecular screening for the PML/RARα rearrangement in newly diagnosed AML
Authors: Allford Sarah , Grimwade David , Langabeer Stephen , Duprez Estelle , Saurin Andrew , Chatters Stephen , Walker Helen , Roberts Pamela , Rogers Joanne , Bain Barbara , Patterson Keith , McKernan Angela , Freemont Paul , Solomon Ellen , Burnett Alan , Goldstone Anthony , Linch David ,   on behalf of the Medical Research Council (MRC) Adult Leukaemia Working Party
Published: March 2005

Acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL) is characterized by the t(15;17) leading to the formation of PML‐RARα and RARα‐PML fusion genes; this rearrangement has been considered both diagnostic for, and restricted to, this subtype of acute myeloid leukaemia (AML FAB M3). We describe two cases of AML with the t(15;17) associated with a PML/RARα rearrangement which lacked typical APL morphology, classified as FAB M1 and M2 respectively. In both cases morphological review revealed small populations of cells which exhibited some features associated with APL. In the case classified as M1, PML immunofluorescence studies revealed the classic microparticulate nuclear staining pattern as observed in typical cases of APL with the t(15;17). Similarly, blasts from this case were found to be sensitive to ATRA in vitro as determined by NBT reduction test and by normalization of the PML nuclear body staining pattern. To determine the frequency of PML/RARα rearrangements in FAB subtypes other than M3, 530 patients from the MRC AML trials were screened using nested RT‐PCR. Only one individual, initially classified as M5 with a normal karyotype, was found to have a PML/RARα rearrangement. The diagnosis was revised to M3 variant on subsequent morphological review. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that, in rare cases, the t(15;17) is not restricted to patients with M3 morphology as defined by current FAB criteria. Therefore, although we consider cytogenetic analysis of newly diagnosed cases of AML to be mandatory, our data suggests that routine molecular screening for PML/RARα rearrangements is not justified and should be reserved for those cases displaying features which may be suspicious of APL even if such cells comprise only a minority of the total population.
The C677T MTHFR gene mutation is not predictive of risk for recurrent fetal loss
Authors: Holmes Zandra R. , Regan Lesley , Chilcott Ian , Cohen Hannah
Published: March 2005

We have investigated the potency of the C677T mutation in the methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene as a genetic risk factor in women with a history of early (12 weeks gestation) and/or late (>12 weeks gestation) recurrent miscarriage (three or more consecutive pregnancy losses). Fifty‐seven of the total 173 (32.9%) patients were heterozygous for the MTHFR mutation, 14/173 (8.1%) were homozygous (allele frequency 0.25). The prevalence of the MTHFR mutation in these women did not differ significantly from that in the control group of parous women with uneventful pregnancies, where 30/67 (44.8%) were heterozygous and 6/67 (9.0%) homozygous for the mutation (allele frequency 0.31; odds ratio for homozygous T/T 0.90, 95% CI 0.30–2.4). There was no association between the trimester of pregnancy loss and MTHFR genotype. We conclude that the C677T MTHFR mutation is not a risk predictor in women with a history of early or late recurrent miscarriage.
Changes in platelet count after cardiac surgery can effectively predict the development of pathogenic heparin‐dependent antibodies
Authors: Pouplard Claire , May Marc Antoine , Regina Sandra , Marchand Michel , Fusciardi Jacques , Gruel Yves
Published: March 2005

Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) induces the release of platelet factor 4 (PF4) and patients are at risk of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). This study was aimed to determine whether an abnormal evolution in platelet count (PC) after CPB is predictive of the development of HIT antibodies. Two abnormal PC patterns were defined: pattern P1, characterized by a decrease in PC following previous correction of thrombocytopenia occurring during CPB, and pattern P2, defined as a persistent low PC in the days following CPB. PC was evaluated for 10 d in 305 consecutive patients before and after CPB. Serotonin release assay (SRA) was carried out between days 8 and 10 to detect pathogenic heparin‐dependent antibodies. Moreover, antibodies to heparin–PF4 (H–PF4) complexes were assayed by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay. PC evolution after CPB was normal in 300 patients although antibodies to H–PF4 were frequently present (53·4%). Changes in PC were abnormal in five patients with pattern P1 (n = 4) or P2 (n = 1). As SRA was positive in four of the five cases, the positive predictive value of abnormal PC pattern for pathogenic HIT antibodies was 80%. Careful follow‐up of PC after CPB makes it possible to predict with high specificity (99%) for those patients who develop pathogenic HIT antibodies.
Stable isotope analysis of trophic position and terrestrial vs. marine carbon sources for juvenile Pacific salmonids in nearshore marine habitats
Authors: ROMANUK T. N. , LEVINGS C. D.
Published: March 2005

Abstract  Stable isotope analysis was used to determine trophic position and the relative contributions of terrestrial‐derived carbon (TDC) and marine‐derived carbon for Chinook, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum), pink, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum), and chum, Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum) salmon fry in near‐shore marine habitats. Chum fry were enriched in δ13C relative to pink fry, and enriched in δ15N relative to both Chinook and pink fry. Between 5.5 and 39.7% of the carbon in the three species was TDC. The TDC was higher in chum fry (28.7 ± 4% SD) than in pink fry (24.9 ± 4.4% SD), but TDC did not differ between Chinook fry (27.8 ± 9.5% SD) and either chum or pink fry. The fry of these three species of Pacific salmon may form a trophic hierarchy with chum fry occupying the highest trophic position and the three species may also partition resources according to carbon source.
Sturge–Weber syndrome in a 6‐year‐old girl
Authors: PEREZ D. E. C. , PEREIRA NETO J. S. , GRANER E. , LOPES M. A.
Published: March 2005

Sturge–Weber syndrome is a congenital disorder characterized by vascular facial birthmarks and neurological abnormalities. Oral cavity involvement may occur, and the extent of the vascular abnormality may vary considerably. The present authors report the case of a 6‐year‐old girl with Sturge–Weber syndrome, focusing on the clinical and radiographic features. Her dental management involved a multidisciplinary team and included orthodontic treatment using removable appliances.
Inhibition by Lipopolysaccharide of Naloxone‐Induced Luteinising Hormone Secretion Is Accompanied by Increases in Corticotropin‐Releasing Factor Immunoreactivity in Hypothalamic Paraventricular Neurones in Female Rats
Authors: He D. , Akema T.
Published: March 2005

We have recently reported that lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a bacterial endotoxin, inhibits steroid‐induced as well as naloxone‐induced luteinising hormone (LH) secretion in ovariectomised oestrogen‐primed rats. In the present study, we examined whether corticotropin‐releasing factor (CRF) may be involved in the LPS‐induced inhibition of LH secretion. Unanaesthetised rats were treated with an intravenous (i.v.) injection of LPS (10 µg) or saline, followed by an i.v. injection of naloxone (20 mg/kg). After sequential blood samples were collected for determination of serum LH concentrations, the brains were fixed and CRF‐immunoreactivity was examined histochemically. In control rats receiving saline injections, only a small number of CRF‐immunoreactive (ir) cells were found in the parvocellular portion of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), and naloxone significantly increased serum LH concentrations within 10 min. By contrast, in LPS‐treated rats, the number of CRF‐ir cells was significantly greater than that in control rats, and the effect of naloxone was completely abolished. In a separate experiment, an intracerebroventricular injection of 5 µg CRF inhibited naloxone‐induced LH release, mimicking the effect of LPS. These results suggest that LPS stimulates production of CRF in PVN neurones, which in turn inhibits LH secretion without opioidergic mediation.
Male and Female Prolactin Receptor mRNA Expression in the Brain of a Biparental and a Uniparental Hamster, Phodopus, Before and After the Birth of a Litter
Authors: Ma E. , Lau J. , Grattan D. R. , Lovejoy D. A. , Wynne‐Edwards K. E.
Published: March 2005

Prolactin receptor (PRL‐R) mRNA transcript level was quantified in the choroid plexus (ChP) of a naturally biparental hamster, Phodopus campbelli, and its otherwise similar, yet nonpaternal, sibling species, Phodopus sungorus. Pair‐housed males and females on the day before the birth of their first litter (G17), the day after birth (L1), lactation day 5 (L5), and unpaired animals that were sexually naïve, were tested. PRL‐R mRNA transcript level relative to total RNA, was evaluated by reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction using primers common to the long‐ and short‐form of the PRL‐R in Phodopus. In the ChP, a region implicated in prolactin transport into the central nervous system, females had the expected increase in PRL‐R mRNA transcript from dioestrus to L5, consistent with known actions of prolactin. As predicted, males and females of the biparental species were similar, although PRL‐R mRNA in naïve males was higher than in dioestrus females. Males of the two species also differed as predicted. PRL‐R mRNA transcript levels were higher in the biparental males. In addition, P. campbelli males had low PRL‐R mRNA at G17 compared to L5. By contrast, non‐paternal P. sungorus males had elevated PRL‐R mRNA transcript levels on G17 relative to unpaired males. We conclude that PRL‐R mRNA in the ChP is differentially regulated before and after birth in a paternal and a nonpaternal male.
Vitamin E does not reduce the side‐effects of isotretinoin in the treatment of acne vulgaris
Authors: Kus Sadiye , Gün Dilek , Demirçay Zeynep , Sur Haydar
Published: March 2005

Background  Isotretinoin is widely used in the treatment of severe, recalcitrant, nodular acne. Mucocutaneous side‐effects are seen in the great majority of patients and some of them have elevations in their serum lipid and liver enzyme profiles. Recently, it has been shown that addition of vitamin E decreased the toxicity of high‐dose retinoids.

Objective  The purpose of this investigator‐blinded, randomized study was to assess whether vitamin E would reduce the side‐effects of isotretinoin in the treatment of acne vulgaris.

Methods  Eighty two patients were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups with isotretinoin (1 mg/kg/day) alone or combined with vitamin E (800 IU/day). The treatment duration was 16 weeks. Mucocutaneous side‐effects such as facial erythema, facial dryness, cheilitis and serum lipid and liver enzyme profiles were assessed.

Results  There was no difference in the incidence and severity of side‐effects related to isotretinoin between the two treatment groups.

Conclusion  Eight hundred IU/day vitamin E did not improve the side‐effects of 1 mg/kg/day of isotretinoin in the treatment of acne vulgaris.
The development of cutaneous lesions during follow‐up of patients with primary neuritic leprosy
Authors: Suneetha Sujai , Sigamoni Arunthathi , Kurian Nisha , Chacko Chinoy J. G.
Published: March 2005

Background  Primary neuritic leprosy (PNL) is a rare form of leprosy where the characteristic skin lesions are absent. Investigations of apparently normal skin from the areas of sensory change have revealed microscopic evidence of nerve involvement. Clinical studies have found that a proportion of patients develop visible skin lesions during follow‐up. The aim of the study was to perform a clinical and histological analysis of PNL patients who developed visible skin lesions during treatment and follow‐up, to gain insight into the pathogenesis of the disease.

Methods  Twenty‐nine individuals in a series of 182 PNL patients developed visible skin lesions during follow‐up. Analysis of the number, location, histology and time of onset of the new skin lesions in relation to the type and regularity of the treatment regimen were noted. A biopsy from the new skin lesion when available was compared with the nerve biopsy findings at the time of initial diagnosis.

Results  Thirty‐eight per cent of patients developed a single patch and 28% developed two patches. Over three‐quarters of these were on the lower limb (47%) or the upper limb (29%). Sixty‐two per cent of patients developed the lesions within 2 years of the onset of symptoms. Patients on regular treatment developed patches earlier than those on irregular treatment or no treatment. A skin biopsy from the new patch revealed borderline tuberculoid leprosy histology in 47% of the patients.

Conclusions  The findings suggest that leprosy primarily affects the nerve and that a neuritic phase precedes the development of visible cutaneous lesions.
Relationships between Top Management Team Characteristics and International Diversification: an Empirical Investigation*
Authors: Herrmann Pol , Datta Deepak K.
Published: March 2005

Drawing on the executive demography and the upper‐echelons perspectives, this paper examines the relationships between top management team (TMT) characteristics (educational level, tenure, age, international experience and functional background) and firm international diversification. The study is based on a sample of 112 relatively large, internationally diversified US‐based firms in the manufacturing sector. Findings indicate that firms with higher levels of international diversification are likely to have TMTs characterized by higher educational level, shorter organizational tenures, younger executives and greater international experience. In addition, findings indicate that the relationships between TMT characteristics and international diversification are more dominant in better‐performing than in lower‐performing firms.
Accountability and Creating Accountability: a Framework for Exploring Behavioural Perspectives of Corporate Governance
Authors: Huse Morten
Published: March 2005

What is board accountability, and how is such accountability created? This response to Roberts, McNulty and Stiles suggests a framework for exploring behavioural perspectives of boards and corporate governance. The contribution of this framework is to develop a terminology that may help us accumulate knowledge and provide directions for a research agenda. The consistent use of a terminology, the accumulation of knowledge and an accepted research agenda among a core group of scholar are some of the first steps in developing a promising research field with considerable potential to create actionable knowledge. The framework can help us sort some of the research, concepts and anecdotes that have been presented in efforts to open the black box of board research.
Lost in Translation? Health Systems in the US and the UK
Authors: Ham Chris
Published: March 2005

This paper compares health systems in the US and the UK in relation to levels and types of finance and provision. The main part of the paper focuses on comparisons between the British National Health Service (NHS) and Kaiser Permanente in California. Although major differences in financing and provision make cross‐national comparisons between the US and the UK difficult, recent work comparing service utilization between the NHS and Kaiser Permanente has highlighted opportunities for learning between the two systems. The paper describes the results of this work, and the way in which the NHS has sought to apply and adapt some of the managed care techniques used in Kaiser Permanente. It concludes by identifying the cultural and other obstacles that have to be addressed in translating practices from one system to another.
Effects of HIV disease on lipid, glucose and insulin levels: results from a large antiretroviral‐naïve cohort
Authors: El‐Sadr WM , Mullin CM , Carr A , Gibert C , Rappoport C , Visnegarwala F , Grunfeld C , Raghavan SS
Published: March 2005

Objectives

With the use of potent antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV disease, changes in lipid parameters and glucose homeostasis have been noted. However, these effects have been difficult to interpret because of the varied demographic and treatment characteristics of the cohorts and the complexity of differentiating the effect of HIV disease from that of the drugs used in its treatment. This study was designed to explore these issues.

Methods

Demographic information and fasting blood samples were collected from 419 antiretroviral‐naïve HIV‐1‐infected patients.

Results

The average age of the participants was 38.2 years, with 21% being female, 60% being African American, and 14% having a history of injection drug use. The mean CD4 lymphocyte count was 216 cells/μL, the mean baseline log10 HIV viral load was 4.98 HIV‐1 RNA copies/mL, and 26% of patients had a history of AIDS‐defining events. Women and African Americans had significantly higher levels of high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and older age was associated with higher total cholesterol levels. Lower CD4 lymphocyte counts and higher HIV RNA levels were independently associated with lower HDL cholesterol levels. Additionally, higher HIV RNA level was associated with lower levels of low‐density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and higher levels of very‐low‐density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol and triglycerides. A history of AIDS‐defining events was associated with higher total cholesterol, VLDL cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations. With respect to glucose homeostasis, a higher CD4 lymphocyte count was associated with less evidence of insulin resistance. However, a higher body mass index was associated with higher lipid levels and with more evidence of insulin resistance.

Conclusions

Both HIV disease and demographic characteristics were found to influence lipid values and glucose homeostasis in the absence of antiretroviral treatment. More advanced HIV disease was associated with less favourable lipid and glucose homeostatic profiles. The independent association between HIV RNA levels and various lipid parameters suggests that viral replication had a direct effect on lipid levels. Interpretation of the effects of various HIV treatment regimen and drugs on metabolic parameters must take into account the stage of HIV disease and the demographic characteristics of the population studied.
When more is not better: the role of cumulative risk in child behavior outcomes
Authors: Appleyard Karen , Egeland Byron , van Dulmen Manfred H.M. , Alan Sroufe L.
Published: March 2005

Background:  Cumulative risk research has established the deleterious effects of co‐occurring risk factors on child behavior outcomes. However, extant literature has not addressed potential differential effects of cumulative risk at different points in development and has left open questions about whether a threshold model or a linear risk model better describes the impact of cumulative risk on behavior outcomes. The current study examined the impact of cumulative risk factors (i.e., child maltreatment, inter‐parental violence, family disruption, low socioeconomic status, and high parental stress) in early and middle childhood on child behavior outcomes in adolescence.

Methods:  Using data from an ongoing longitudinal study of at‐risk urban children (N = 171), the cumulative effects of these five risk factors across early and middle childhood were investigated.

Results:  The findings support the cumulative risk hypothesis that the number of risks in early childhood predicts behavior problems in adolescence. Evidence for a linear but not a threshold model of cumulative risk was found; the more risks present, the worse the child outcome. Moreover, the presence of multiple risks in early childhood continues to explain variations in predicting adolescent behavior outcomes even after including the effects of risk in middle childhood.

Conclusions:  The results support the need for comprehensive prevention and early intervention efforts with high‐risk children, such that there does not appear to be a point beyond which services for children are hopeless, and that every risk factor we can reduce matters.
Supporting the inclusion of pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties in the primary school: the role of teaching assistants
Authors: Groom Barry , Rose Richard
Published: March 2005

During the past ten years in the UK there has been a considerable increase in the number of teaching assistants (TAs) appointed to work alongside teachers in schools. A significant number of these colleagues are appointed to support pupils with special educational needs (SEN), including those with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). This paper reports on the ways in which the role of the teaching assistant in supporting pupils with SEBD has been developed in schools for pupils aged 7–11 years in one English Local Education Authority (LEA). It suggests that there are several models of support emerging and that the role of the teaching assistant is perceived as crucial to the effective inclusion of pupils with SEBD in mainstream classrooms.
NATIONAL ACCOUNTS FOR ANALYSING CREDIT MARKET CONDITIONS
Authors: Beales R. E. , Berman L. S.
Published: March 2005

It is only within the last two years that the published United Kingdom accounts have been extended to include sector financial accounts; their use for market analysis is, therefore, still in its infancy.

The sectors and sub‐sectors distinguished in the financial accounts agree very closely with those recommended by the Working Group on Financial Statistics of the Conference of European Statisticians. A major difference is that in the United Kingdom accounts particular emphasis is placed on the distinction between the public sector and the private sector. For this purpose the public sector consists not only of general government but also includes public corporations (that is, public non‐financial corporate enterprises). The classification of assets and liabilities is based on a general list which is also similar to that developed by the Conference of European Statisticians.

Because of the large capital formation of public corporations and local authorities, the public sector is normally a substantial borrower from the pirvate sector, although its borrowing requirements fluctuate considerably from quarter to quarter because of the uneven incidence of tax receipts. The personal sector provides about one‐third of the total saving of the economy, much of which is in the form of contractual saving—through life assurance and superannuation funds and the repayment of house purchase loans. No direct information is available about transactions in stocks and shares by the personal sector, but it is estimated that the sector is a very large seller of securities and in recent years its sales have amounted to £700 million a year.

One factor which is important in the analysis of financial accounts and which is not shown specifically as part of the system is the rate of interest. The proportion of personal saving going into the different forms of short term assets has tended to vary according to the relative rate of interest received. The rate of interest also affects the pattern of borrowing by public authorities.

The United Kingdom prepares short term forecasts of national income and of the balance of payments, and also forecasts of the borrowing requirement of the public sector and of the central government in particular. For internal purposes, forecasts are made of the various ways in which the government is expected to finance its borrowing requirement. These forecasts provide a useful framework for considering monetary prospects and are particularly important for showing the relation between the forecasts of the balance of payments and of government borrowing from domestic sources, especially from the banks.
A SOCIAL WELFARE VIEW OF THE MEASUREMENT OF INCOME EQUALITY
Authors: Aigner D. J. , Heins A. J.
Published: March 2005

Economists' use of the term “equality” in reference to a distribution of incomes has historically been in the sense of a consensus for some statistical characteristic(s) of the distribution rather than a firm concept of equality. Of course such a concept rests on appropriate welfare assumptions about income and its distribution, assumptions which, for the most part, have been left implicit (and unknown) in discussions of income equality in the literature.

Our purpose in this paper is dual: first, we wish to discover an unambiguous, welfare‐related equality measure. This we accomplish through suitable assumptions on a social welfare function. What is produced is an “index” of equality which describes the performance of a given distribution relative to the maximum welfare derivable from the total income it represents. The measure thus depends functionally on the welfare attributes of income, something which in reality we know little about.

This impasse leads us to inquire into the sensitivity of the index over specifications of the welfare function, which is done by comparing equality ranks for the states of the United States for 1960 under various functional forms and among curves within a given form. As an interesting secondary issue, the performance of traditional equality measures is tested relative to the welfare‐oriented index to discover implications about their welfare content.

It is found that the equality index is, in certain ranges for the welfare function, insensitive to its specification. The findings lead directly to conclusions concerning traditional equality measures, their usefulness in correctly accounting for equality differences among alternative income distributions and, concomitantly, their implicit welfare inputs.
THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT IN KOREA
Authors: Cazell Gabriel F.
Published: March 2005

South Korea began its measurement of Gross National Product during the turbulent 1950's, a period of postwar rebuilding and of political and social changes. With only a small and largely inexperienced staff, and with little support from other statistical agencies whose data were essential to adequate GNP measurement, the Bank of Korea began this task in the early 1950's. Early estimates were extremely rough; over the years, the statistical staff was trained and other statistical agencies were upgraded. Measurements of output in the large agricultural sector and in manufacturing have gradually but consistently been strengthened as recent input‐output data has been developed. Gaps still persist, particularly in the wholesale and retail sectors, but certain strengths are present: an outstanding job has been done in product pricing. The author describes the evolution of Korea's improving GNP program, presents its sources of data and its methodologies, and gives an assessment of problems of the past and prospects for the future.
STRUCTURAL CHANGES AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME BY SIZE: THE CASE OF INDIA
Authors: Swamy Subramanian
Published: March 2005

The interrelation between changes in the economic structure, i.e., industrial distribution of income and labor force, and the size distribution of income is studied in this paper in a case study of India (1951–1960).

The change in the size distribution of income is the sum of changes due to (1) inter‐sectoral factors and (2) intra‐sectoral factors. The need for this distinction is emphasized by the result obtained for India, that 85% of the changes in the size distribution may be assigned to inter‐sectoral factors, and only 15% to intra‐sectoral factors. Since the inter‐sectoral factors are significantly influenced by changes in the industrial distribution of income and labor force, our result points out a relation between economic growth and the size distribution which quite often is overlooked in studies of the size distribution.

The results obtained in this paper support several cross‐section results of Professor Kuznets. In particular some of these are: (a) inter‐sectoral inequality in the economic structure widened with economic growth, (b) the inequality in the size distribution of India widened, (c) the level of inequality in India is higher than in any of the eight developed countries considered.
NOTES ON THE MEASUREMENT OF REAL CAPITAL IN RELATION TO ECONOMIC PLANNING MODELS1
Authors: Johansen Leif , Sørsveen Age
Published: March 2005

Economic planning can in principle be seen as consisting of two phases: first a description of all possible development paths, and second a choice of “the best one” from among these possibilities. In the present paper the measurement of real capital is discussed in relation to the needs of the first of these two phases. In section 2 of the paper it is argued that the most relevant measure of capital for this purpose is the gross value of the existing capital stock, i.e. the total value without accounting for depreciation. In section 3 of the paper different ways of estimating this gross capital stock are discussed. In sections 4, 5 and 6 there follows a discussion of how one can correct the capital measures for changes in efficiency with age, for “embodied technical progress” and for different durabilities. The latter correction leads to concepts which are equivalent to measuring “capital services” as a factor of production. The treatment of maintenance and repair will be important for the interpretations of some of these “corrections.” The final section of the paper suggests a model which requires data on vintages of capital.
FUNCTIONAL ESTIMATES OF JAPANESE GOVERNMENT DOMESTIC EXPENDITURES, FISCAL 1952–1963
Authors: Patrick Hugh T.
Published: March 2005

The purpose of the paper is to describe current and constant price estimates of Japanese central and local government postwar domestic expenditures by economic type and function recently completed by Miss Yoshiko Kido, International Christian University, Tokyo, and myself. The rationale of the functional classification is to estimate those government expenditures which enhance the economy's productive capacity.

Expenditures are divided into four broad functional categories: developmental, disaster repair and prevention, social welfare, and general government. These four categories are subdivided to two levels of disaggregation. We were able to break down government fixed investment, government enterprise inventory investment, current domestic transfers and subsidies into 42 functional components. For constant price series, each functional component by economic type was deflated by separate price indexes. We followed the Economic Planning Agency's procedure for the official national accounts of assuming no productivity change in the provision of government services.

Our results are generally comparable to the official national accounts estimates. The major difference is that we attribute considerably more fixed investment to local governments, and correspondingly less to the central level.

Government expenditures had the following characteristics. Growth was rapid; in real terms the public sector use of the economy's resources in 1963 was 2.2 times more than in 1952. The elasticity of government expenditures to GNP was unity in current prices, slightly less in real terms. The government postwar share in GNP has been smaller than in European nations and, unlike them, was not rising. This reflects the underlying growth strategy of emphasis upon private business fixed investment. Government consumption expenditures declined relative to GNP, and investment rose.

Developmental expenditures comprised the largest share (40–45 per cent) of the government total. The elasticities to GNP of government expenditures by economic and functional categories are provided and discussed.

A simple test was made of the cyclical relationship of government expenditures (both total and by category) to GNP. The results suggest that government expenditures, rather than contra‐cyclical, were pro‐cyclical in effect.
THE PUBLIC SECTOR IN FINANCIAL FLOW STATEMENTS: JAPAN'S CASE
Authors: Samukawa Tatsuya
Published: March 2005

One of the most characteristic features of Japan's public sector is the predominant role of the Treasury system, which operates not only budgetary funds of the central government but also various other funds such as Postal Savings Funds and surplus funds of public corporations.

Among the general account and 45 special accounts of the Treasury system, the Foodstuff Control, the Foreign Exchange Fund and the Trust Fund play important roles, both through their intra‐governmental transactions and through their transactions with private sectors. Particularly noticeable is the role played by the Trust Fund Bureau, which serves as a financial institution for government agencies. Surplus and accumulated funds in the Postal Savings and other special accounts of the Government are deposited in the Trust Fund Bureau, which employs these funds for intra‐governmental ways and means loans, and for government loans and investment programs.

Another feature of Japan's Treasury system is that it deposits all the Treasury funds solely with the Bank of Japan.

The activities of local authorities and local public enterprises are also largely financed by Treasury funds, and are intertwined with the Treasury system.

The statistical systems for monetary and financial flow analysis developed by the Bank of Japan, therefore, place stress on the analysis of flows of Treasury funds, and are based on an institutional sectoring to reflect the flows of funds as they actually take place. One exception is the Monetary Survey compiled in accordance with the IMF formula, which adopts a kind of functional sectoring for international comparison purposes.

In the last three years, Japan's public sector, which had long stood rather neutral in the financial patterns of the economy, has begun to show an increasing financial deficit. With the increasing financial deficit of the sector, the financial patterns of the nation as a whole are undergoing remarkable changes.
THE ROLE OF TRANSACTIONS IN KIND IN DEVELOPING ECONOMIES
Authors: Mukherjee M.
Published: March 2005

The paper is concerned with non‐monetized transactions which are dimensionally important in developing countries. The notion of degree of monetization attaches to all real flows. It is necessary to analyze non‐monetized transactions in order to a have a better understanding of the producing and consuming activities of households which contribute a large part of national product in less developed countries. Among different non‐monetized flows, particular attention is paid to the use of the output of own production for different purposes. A survey of Indian information on the degree of non‐monetization shows that it is different for different flows: highest for consumption, intermediate for current inputs and lowest for investments. Cross section Indian data indicate that the degree of non‐monetization is expected to fall with the improvement in the average household expenditure and urbanisation but it may rise if development occurs largely through agricultural improvement. Some of the Indian findings may apply to other developing countries as well. Normally, estimates of expenditure elasticities based on cross section data are obtained from consumption expenditure on a particular item (e) and the aggregate consumption expenditure (E) without going into the question of the degree of non‐monetization of either element. Since traditional models of consumer behaviour apply only to the relation between money expenditure on a particular item (em) and the aggregate money expenditure (Em), it is suggested that the relation between e and E should be broken down into relations between (i) em and Em, (ii) ek and Ek where these are the corresponding kind elements and (iii)among E, Em and Ek. Some estimates of elasticity based on this scheme are presented indicating that the procedure is reasonable and suggesting that this type of analysis would probably furnish a suitable framework for answering relevant questions in the field.
ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY IN ISRAEL, 1950–1965 1
Authors: Gaathon A. L.
Published: March 2005

Macroeconomic productivity in Israel is here conceived as comparison of output with factor inputs during given periods, and as creation of sustained capacity out of given resource increments. However, present social accounting practice prevents full implementation of this second approach.

In contrast to nine European countries, only one third of the rapid growth rate of Israel in 1950–1965 is “explained” by the “Residual” because of relatively large infrastructural investments and of growth problems. One of these problems is inflationary pressures which caused productivity increases to restrain the rise of product prices by 30 per cent only below the rise of input prices. The real productivity gain accrued, in Israel and in the U.S.A. (1919–1957), nearly fully to labor because unit returns to capital remained constant whereas those to labor sharply rose.

Some refinements of the statistical models are attempted by incorporating the utilization rates of labor and capital (for industry); and by measuring product from the uses, instead of from the income, side, adding the differences to the capital shares. This makes distributive factor shares nearly constant as postulated by Cobb‐Douglas.

In order to get a basis for appraising efficiency in creating long‐term capacity, that part of product increments is measured which represents rises of p.c. final domestic uses and changes in the export surplus. This “net margin” formed in Israel one fifth and in the U.S.A. (1889–1913) much less of incremental product. Though in Israel one quarter, and in the U.S.A. over half (in 1919–1953) of the net margin went into sonsumption, large proportions of it presumably actually created human capacity. A comparison of product growth rates with population growth, and of the breakdown of the resulting p.c. product growth rates into full final uses, for Israel and two groups, of developed and less developed countries in the fifties shows, inter‐alia, that in the L.D.C. only small proportions of their presumable capacity creation was financed by net capital inflows, thus imposing upon them domestic saving rates which presumably are too high to be sustainable.
INCOME DISTRIBUTION THEORY
Authors: Ruggles Richard
Published: March 2005

This paper introduces two special issues of the Review devoted to income distribution theory and its empirical implementation. Most of the papers that will appear in these two issues were prepared for a special session on income distribution held during the Eleventh General Conference of the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, held at Nathanya, Israel, in August 1969. The present issue contains theoretical papers; the following one will present more empirical work. This introductory paper is intended to indicate the relationships among the papers that follow, and to suggest possible future directions for work in this area. In the latter connection, the author discusses the use of microanalytic models applied to microdata sets dealing with individuals and households.
A POSITIVE AND A NORMATIVE THEORY OF INCOME DISTRIBUTION
Authors: Tinbergen Jan
Published: March 2005

A positive theory of income distribution based on assumptions concerning the supply of and demand for each type of productive service is presented. The demand function of the organizers of production may be derived from the maximization of profits with the income scale and the production function as restrictions. A normative theory based on the maximization of a social utility or welfare function is also considered. In the normative theory, production functions and balance equations (some representing compartmentalization of factor markets) are introduced as restrictions and again an income scale results, this time maximizing social welfare. Empirical testing is also considered. The positive theory was developed in part to take into consideration the fact that personal income distributions can reasonably well be described by log normal distributions, and that skill parameters are often normally distributed. Limited testing of the influence of wealth, intelligence, education, and sex suggest that these account for only a small part of the variance in the income distribution. This suggests the need for further research.