bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chapter 15 The Pension System in Argentina
Authors: Rofman Rafael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses pension reform in Argentina. Argentina instituted a major pension reform in 1994 following an extremely serious macroeconomic crisis. Partly inspired by Chile's experience, it replaced its PAYGO system with a mixed model that incorporated elements of both public and private systems. It is argued that the pension reform was actually a combination of four separate but interdependent reforms: a number of parametric changes, which resulted in stricter requirements for receiving benefits; a shift from a DB formula tying benefits to previous earnings to a DC structure; a re-introduction of a funded scheme; and a set of institutional changes that created both pension fund management firms and public supervisory agencies. Coverage rates as well as indirect economic effects, such as the impact on capital and labour markets are considered, and key policy challenges with respect to coverage, institutional design and efficiency, and system fragmentation are reviewed. While these issues were exacerbated by the 2001-2 financial crisis, it is shown that the pension funds have produced reasonable returns over time.
Divine Qualities
Authors: Clark Anna J.
Published: January 2008

Qualities receiving public cult in Rome have too often been understood simply as incarnating ‘Roman virtues’. This book presents a critical new account of divine qualities (often misleadingly called personifications, abstracts, or virtues) in the Republic, as a lens through which to explore how Romans thought about themselves. It contends that the existence of cults to clementia, concordia, felicitas, fides, honos, libertas, mens, ops, pietas, pudicttia, salus, spes, virtus, or victoria does not illustrate the ‘Roman‐ness’ of these qualities in any simple way. Cult rather gave these qualities a particular tone or resonance. The resources generated through cult served as springboards for claims, counter‐claims, appropriations, and explorations, and it was these interactions that made divine qualities ‘Roman’. Mediated through oral, visual, and written symbols and attributes, divine qualities are found in contexts ranging from consular speeches to graffiti, festivals to passwords, plays to prodigies, coins to horti, temples to tombs, aristocratic competition to plebeian struggles for recognition, board‐games to brothels, and from Rome itself to its colonies and battlefields. The resonant language of divine qualities was far from confined to élites: its lexicon was used by, familiar to, and could make meaning for a very wide social spectrum, from emperors to slaves. Exploring this range of engagements with divine qualities, and examining ways of using them to order and challenge perceptions of the world, this book presents as full a picture as is now possible of this aspect of ‘Roman‐ness’, created as it was lived.
Guilt by Descent
Authors: Sewell-Rutter N. J.
Published: January 2008

Blighted and accursed families are an inescapable feature of Greek tragedy, and many scholars have treated the questions of inherited guilt, curses, and divine causation. This book gives these familiar issues a fresh appraisal, arguing that tragedy is a medium that fuses the conceptual with the provoking and exciting of emotion, neither of which can be ignored if the texts are to be fully understood. It pays particular attention to Aeschylus' Seven against Thebes and the Phoenician Women of Euripides, both of which dramatize the sorrows of the later generations of the House of Oedipus, but in very different, and perhaps complementary, ways. All Greek quotations are translated.
Ex PONTO: The Athenian Grain Supply and Black Sea Archaeology
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the role of the Black Sea as a source of grain for the Aegean Greek world, and particularly for Athens, in the fifth and fourth centuries. It is argued that the beginning of Athens' reliance on the Black Sea as more than a lucrative and strategic asset, and ultimately as the systematic source of most of its imported grain, first began near the end of the Peloponnesian War, with the collapse of Athens' Aegean empire. For most of the fourth century Athens and the Bosporan (Spartocid) Kingdom were bound in a tight social and economic relationship largely designed and determined by the mutual interests of their elites. Archaeological evidence and the iconography of Graeco‐Scythian art illustrate this interdependence. The “school” of the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates is argued to have been the crucial network along which this elite relationship functioned culturally and politically.
The Quality of Work Life in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Galie Duncan
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents a summary of the dimensions of work quality discussed in the preceding chapters. These include skill levels and skill trends, employer training, task discretion, work-family balance, and job insecurity. It then considers their implications for the contrasting arguments about the determinants of work quality discussed in Chapter 1.
5 Ecclesiastical Hierarchies
Authors: Lunn-Rockliffe Sophie
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores Ambrosiaster's attitudes toward ecclesiastical hierarchies. His work does not accurately describe all the nuances of over three centuries of change and development in church hierarchy. The likelihood that he himself was a presbyter gives an added piquancy to his promotion of presbyters as co-bishops. But he did have a fairly acute sense of the difference between ministry in the contemporary and in the earlier church. It is particularly striking, then, that he was able to present the process of change as culminating in the most desirable situation, and so to defend spiritedly the monarchical episcopacy which he knew. His awareness that the current church hierarchy was not ‘authentic’ was happily reconciled with the patterns of the Old and New Testaments.
7 Diabolical Tyranny
Authors: Lunn-Rockliffe Sophie
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores Ambrosiaster's presentation of the Devil as the tyrannical opponent of God, and a spiritual political model for earthly tyrants and usurpers. He was not the first Christian to pair the diabolical and the political. Christian writers before Ambrosiaster had characterized persecuting emperors as tyrants and close to the Devil, and the Devil himself as a cruel, tyrannical ruler. However, where earlier writers had tended to focus on the brutal aspects of the Devil's tyranny, that is, on his cruel persecution of Christians, Ambrosiaster insisted that the Devil was a contumacious rebel who attempted a usurpation of God's kingship and successfully won mastery over sinful man. It is argued that historical circumstances may have influenced this shift; Ambrosiaster's Latin predecessors had lived under the threat of persecution and suffering (Lactantius under the pagan Diocletian, Hilary and Lucifer under the Arian Constantius), whereas Ambrosiaster's immediate historical context was that of a plethora of western usurpers.
Conclusion
Authors: Lunn-Rockliffe Sophie
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the significance of the writings of Ambrosiaster. His writings present a rich repository of the theological, political, ecclesiastical, and social thought of a late Roman Christian. They provide a window into the preoccupations and intellectual horizons of a writer who influenced writers in his own time and throughout the Middle Ages. It is important to recognize and preserve the very intertwining of the political and theological when reading Ambrosiaster. His own analysis of the political was inspired by scripture, expressed in biblicizing language, and supported by lengthy quotations from the Bible.
Beautiful and Sexy
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on the two aspects of body that are often said to be the furthest removed from Christianity's own emphases: the body as beautiful and as sexual. It highlights key moments of engagement from the earlier history of the Christian tradition. The ancient Greek understanding of beautiful bodies as graced by the divine was renewed at the Renaissance, just as the potentiality of sexuality as a religious metaphor was rediscovered in Baroque art. The chapter suggests that there is a desperate need for sexuality to be freed from the rather narrow range of associations it has come to acquire in the modern world.
The Dancer's Leap
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses how dance was once so central to worship. It argues that the complexity of movement that the dancer seeks to achieve, not least in lifts and leaps from the ground, hints at a world entered that is otherwise than our present flawed reality, and is thus symbolic of the possibility of a quite different form of joyful and ordered existence. The discussion proceeds in two stages. The first half of the chapter offers a largely historical examination of dance as it has functioned in various religiously sanctioned roles. The second part explores how, despite its avowedly ‘secular’ context, the religious dimension does often still emerge in ballet and modern dance, though almost invariably without any hint of worship.
The Liturgical Imperative
Authors: Brown David
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents the author's concluding comments. It explains why the book has sought to place the eucharistic body in the much wider context of how the body in general might mediate the divine. It is argued that it is not just the symbolism associated with bread and wine that affects the sort of experience we have at the altar rail and in the service as a whole, but also the additional assumptions we bring along in respect of our own understanding of body and of Christ's body in particular.
3 War Is More than a Chameleon
Authors: Echevarria II Antulio J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses Clausewitz's understanding of the nature of war. He argued that the nature of war was complex and variable, not static or immutable. It was made up of a trinity of forces: hostility, chance, and purpose.
7 Principles of Strategy
Authors: Echevarria II Antulio J.
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses Clausewitz's principles of strategy. Among these are: defence as the stronger form of war, numerical superiority, surprise, concentration, and the culminating point of victory. Contrary to the conventional wisdom that Clausewitz eschewed principles, they were actually germane to his attempt to build a coherent theory of war.
2 Clausewitz and the Non‐Linear Nature of Warfare: Systems of Organized Complexity
Authors: Beyerchen Alan
Published: January 2008

Clausewitz availed himself of the physics and mathematics terminology of his time, some of which addressed problems of simplicity with Newtonian concepts, while some treated problems of disorganized complexity with new tools of probability calculation. These idealizations did not capture what Clausewitz saw as the essential features of war and a theory of war, so he also incorporated terms and ideas from the emerging fields of chemistry and biology. Today, we would say he was grappling with problems of organized complexity.
8 Clausewitz's Ideas of Strategy and Victory
Authors: Heuser Beatrice
Published: January 2008

Clausewitz's definition of strategy, as given in On War, is very unsatisfactory. Taking his own ideas about the relationship between political aims and military means further, one is led to define strategy in relation to the degree of success in the achievement of the war aims, which must include a lasting, stable peace, the conditions of which are bearable or even satisfactory for all sides. This requires a change in the enemy's mind about the situation, and not just a breaking of his will. The enemy must be convinced that he has a stake in the peace, not just be temporarily disabled. Only then is military victory the true end of war and the foundation of peace, not a prelude to the next war.
11 Clausewitz and the Nature of the War on Terror
Authors: Echevarria II Antulio J.
Published: January 2008

Having explored Clausewitz's concept of the nature of war so far in this book, this chapter applies it to the contemporary war on terror. The wondrous trinity — the core of the Clausewitzian nature of war — provides a useful framework for understanding the nature of the war on terror.
3 Wealth
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses wealth and property rights in American society. It argues that material wealth has not only been integrally linked to the founding ideals and narrative themes of the country, but has also been central to the principles, methods, and objectives of government. The right to acquire and to own property has been privileged in America as a fundamental feature of citizenship and this has led to profound consequences for the nature of civil society and the remit of public policy. The theme of wealth being appropriated and protected by the natural rights attributed to individuals has served to shape conceptions of personal liberty and also to define the values, identity, and internal dynamics of an expansionist social order. Wealth and the organization of social life through property draw upon, and are informed by, many other American values. By the same token, the principle of property rights contributes to, and cultivates those values. It can even be plausibly asserted that the rights of property acquisition and security have a dominant position over other sources of principle and legitimacy.
5 The Rule of Law
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the American reverence for the rule of law and due process, which is exemplified by the political status afforded to the Constitution. The brevity and ambiguity of the Constitution gives it an extraordinary capacity to absorb different positions and principles within a single unified dimension of presumptive constitutionality. It is this lack of definition that provides it with so many contending definitions. Constitutional disputes provide the occasions when different components of the American creed or different constructions of the creed come into direct and explicit conflict. In arbitrating between these conflicting perspectives, the Supreme Court has to use the Constitution to weigh not merely the merits of the constitutional argument, but also the contemporary meaning and importance given to the variety of American values accommodated within the Constitution. In this respect, Supreme Court judgments are often in essence declarations of public philosophy in constitutional dress. They are declarations in which the inherent strains between American values are not so much resolved as reformulated either to reflect current conceptions of, and allegiances to, different aspects of America's liberal democracy, or else to achieve a different balance between the constituent themes of the regime.
8 Progress
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses the importance of progress in American society. Change is conceived as being largely synonymous with vitality, purpose, and direction, and is viewed as an integral and imperative feature of an open society. Political, economic, and social forms of progress are generally thought to occur in tandem and, especially so, in a social order like that of the United States which is traditionally geared to the emancipation of human potential for individual action and collective enterprise.
12 Liberalism
Authors: Foley Michael
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses liberalism in American society. Topics covered include the populist movement, the progressive movement, the New Deal as the pivotal point in the development of American liberalism, liberal disturbances, and liberal complaints.
Governing the globe
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: January 2008

This chapter starts by briefly introducing debates concerning the global challenges we face in the 21st century, particularly the political challenge. It describes the primary focus of the book, which is the extent to which the inherited anarchical society of sovereign states can provide a practically viable and normatively acceptable framework for global political order in an era of globalization. In contrast to the technocratic and interest-driven literature on global governance and institutionalism, the book emphasizes and illustrates the threefold nature of the challenge facing international society: the need to capture shared and common interests, to manage unequal power, and to mediate cultural diversity and value conflict. It is argued that the difficulty of finding a legitimate form of global politics capable of meeting these three challenges together makes the problem of order a quintessentially political problem. An overview of the succeeding chapters is provided, and the central arguments and theoretical underpinnings of the analysis are discussed.
State solidarism and global liberalism
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: January 2008

This chapter addresses three questions: what are the main features of the liberal solidarist conception of international society? What are the major forces and factors that not only explain the emergence of solidarist forms of international society but also demand that international society move further in this direction? In what ways has liberal solidarism complicated the search for legitimacy? It builds on earlier usages of the term solidarism, taking it as a composite label for a qualitatively different kind of international society, in which four dimensions are especially important: the move to institutions and expansion of global rule-making; changes in the making, development, and justification of international law; the increasing emphasis placed on the enforcement of international norms and rules; and a changed understanding of the state and of state sovereignty. It is shown that all political orders struggle with the trade-offs amongst the different dimensions of legitimacy. They dominate politics even within the most well-established example of governance beyond the state, namely in Europe.
Complex governance beyond the state
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins by looking at the deepening of inter-state governance and suggests that whilst the outward form of much institutionalization continues to have an inter-state character, the inner reality is changing in important ways. It then considers the many arguments that have been made about the increased role within global governance of civil society and transnational civil society. The chapter then turns to markets and asks what is involved in the idea of economic governance and how this contributes to the debate about global order. The concluding section raises four (open) questions about law, power, the state, and legitimacy.
7 War, violence, and collective security
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: January 2008

The idea of collective security and the drive to increase the collective element in the management of violence and insecurity have long been fundamental elements of the liberal solidarist conception of international society. This chapter examines the role of collective security in contemporary international society and the recurring dilemmas to which it gives rise. It highlights and explains the vast gulf that continues to exist between the normative ambitions of international society in the field of security and the power-political structures on which effective responses have depended; and between the increased demands for security from a growing range of subjects against a growing range of threats and the very modest degree of protection that is all too often available.
8 Economic globalization in an unequal world
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: January 2008

Globalization has become a central part of the rhetoric of contemporary world politics and the subject of increasing volumes of academic analysis. It is the most common term to capture the sense of radical and increasing change in the character of global politics. It resists any single or simple definition, but the many strands within the globalization debate are fundamental to the analysis of the changing character of international society and the emergence of new ideas about global governance. This chapter addresses four questions: what is globalization? What has been the impact of globalization on the state? What is the relationship between globalization and inequality and in what ways has this influenced the question of legitimacy? How far has globalization reinforced the element of consensus in international society and, in particular, consensus behind a liberal solidarist conception of international society?
1 Preemption and Prevention in Historical Perspective
Authors: Strachan Hew
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents a historical perspective of pre-emption and prevention. Topics discussed include the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Prussia's initiation of the Seven Years War in 1756, and the Cold War. The United States had used preventive war regularly since 1945 to forestall revolutionary change. However, this existing predisposition in favour of preventive war was obscured until the 1990s by the wider context of the Cold War, by America's endorsement of international law and multilateral institutions, themselves designed to curb preventive war, and by the use of special forces and covert operations which ensured that the United States' actions were largely overlooked. But by 2001, the United States had embraced a declaratory policy of using preventive war. It is argued that the vocabulary of pre-emption when applied to preventive war created misplaced expectations.
The False Promise of Preventive War: The ‘New Security Consensus’ and a More Insecure World
Authors: Crawford Neta C.
Published: January 2008

This chapter begins by outlining the arguments for preventive war by an individual state, as articulated by the United States. It then outlines the argument for preventive war undertaken with the approval of the UN Security Council. The underlying logic of the US and the UN High-level Panel are compared, and it is shown that despite apparent significant differences from the logic of the United Sates, the High-level Panel's arguments are based on a similar understanding of the contemporary context of world politics and of security. The chapter then shows how the logic of collective preventive war is almost as destructive of international society as unilateral preventive war.
5 The Politics of Institutional Renovation and Economic Upgrading: Lessons from the Argentinian Wine Industry
Authors: McDermott Gerald A.
Published: January 2008

Through a comparative, longitudinal analysis of the wine industry in two Argentine provinces, this chapter examines how different political approaches to reform shapes the ability of societies to build new institutions for economic upgrading. Upgrading in wine and grapes often demands the creation of skills and the coordination of experiments in processes, products, and functions across a wide variety of organizational forms and sub-regions. Inherited structural factors per se can not easily explain the different solutions to this challenge. In particular, although voluntary associationalism improves the needed social learning and collaboration, it is also self-limiting. A better explanation focuses on how governments confront the dual challenge of redefining the boundary between the public and private domains, and of recombining the socio-economic ties among relevant firms and their respective business associations. A ‘depoliticization’ approach emphasizes the imposition of arm's-length incentives by a powerful, insulated government, but appears to contribute little to institutional change and upgrading. A ‘participatory restructuring’ approach promotes the creation of public-private institutions via adherence to two key principles: inclusion of a wide variety of relevant stakeholder groups, and rules of deliberative governance that promote collective problem-solving. The latter approach appears to have the advantage of facilitating collaboration and knowledge creation among previously antagonistic groups, including government.
6 Antioquia Entrepreneur Group (GEA)'s Strategies for Facing International Competitors: The Case of the Food Manufacturing Group
Authors: Ochoa Héctor
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents the results of a study conducted in Colombia to determine how some Latin American companies successfully expanded into international markets, and to identify business models and common characteristics of these companies and their affiliates in other regions worldwide. The foods division of the Colombian ‘Grupo Empresarial Antioqueño’ (Antioquia Business Group), which consists of a conglomerate of companies owned by Inversiones Nacional de Chocolates, was selected for analysis because it is probably the group that has achieved the greatest success in Colombia in the globalization process. The study identifies the outstanding characteristics that enabled the group to develop the core competences that provided the foundations for establishing successful strategies to penetrate different international markets; learn from the different cultures associated with those markets, but at the same time expand its own culture in those places, specially in the retailing activity to neighbourhood stores; and develop processes to manage risks, add value to the products, and face the increasing competition from other multinational firms.
7 Competing Under Stress: The Shrimp Cluster in Venezuela
Authors: Penfold Michael
Published: January 2008

As a consequence of the great economic and institutional volatility experienced during the last two decades, Venezuela has registered low economic growth rates that hindered the development of a competitive non-oil export sector. One of the few exceptions is the emergence, expansion, and consolidation of the shrimp industry which is dominated by both national and international firms. Although the Venezuelan shrimp production has not attained the same importance as its counterparts in countries like China, Vietnam, and Thailand, it is among the most important regional players in that field in Latin America, behind countries such as Brasil, Ecuador, and Colombia. This chapter explores the competitiveness of the shrimp industry using cluster analysis. It highlights how the emerging shrimp cluster in Venezuela lacks the tools for cooperation between its producers and the support institutions that could enhance its productivity and guarantee its long-term consolidation.
9 Corporate Strategies of Business Groups in the Wake of Competitive Shocks: Lessons from Argentina
Authors: Fracchia Eduardo , Mesquita Luiz F.
Published: January 2008

In the first half of the 1990s, a broad macroeconomic reform took place in Brazil leading to changes in institutions, industries, and firms. Ultimately, the reform opened the local market to foreign firms and gave local firms a strong incentive to go abroad. This chapter discusses Brazilian firms' competitive capacity in the new business environment. The study is based on three levels of analysis — national, industry, and firms — with emphasis on the firm level. The objective is to depict the current situation and discuss how Brazilian firms can be competitive in the global market. The chapter shows how successful Brazilian firms dealt with the new open, transitional, and turbulent environment, and proposes four sets of success factors for Brazilian firms to be competitive. The aim of this chapter is for lessons drawn from the Brazilian environment to be useful to firms in other emerging economies with similar characteristics.
11 Sources of Competitiveness of Large Mexican Groups
Authors: Grosse Robert , Thomas Douglas
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the processes of organizational adaptation and competitiveness of firms in an emerging economy. The study is set in the Argentine context of the 1990s when a combination of economic and political change triggered a massive change in the competitive context of indigenous firms. Two highly flexible firms from the pharmaceutical and edible oil industries are studied, and longitudinal data are supplied to explore the determinants of organizational flexibility in those organizations.
16 Conclusions: So … Can Latin American Firms Compete?
Authors: Mesquita Luiz F.
Published: January 2008

Latin America presents unique challenges, such as roller-coaster bouts of economic development boom and bust; massive presence of state in the economy; failing markets for human and physical capital, and many other intermediate production goods; and underdeveloped and unstable institutional environments, especially in areas related to finance and law. Some firms have successfully learned how to navigate such a difficult environment. This book aims to help disseminate the lessons these firms bring to other firms and economic sectors. This chapter summarizes these in light of three leading theoretical perspectives: institutional theory, transaction cost economics, and the resource-based view of the firm. The chapter weaves common threads across the studies, and distills common strategic factors and decisions used by successful Latin American firms to compete.
1 The Problems of Commodity Dependence
Authors: Razzaque Mohammad A. , Osafa‐Kwaako Philip , Grynberg Roman
Published: January 2008

This chapter reviews the reliance of least developed countries (LDCs), small vulnerable states (SVS), and heavily indebted poor countries (HIPCs) on commodities for production and export and the problems associated with such reliance.
Empirical Analysis of Barriers to International Services Transactions and the Consequences of Liberalization
Authors: Deardorff Alan V. , Stern Robert M.
Published: January 2008

This chapter reviews methods used to identify and quantify barriers to international trade in services. Barriers typically take the form of regulations that either restrict supply or make it more costly. The economic impact of barriers can, in principle, be quantified as a ‘tariff equivalent’, defined as the percentage tax on foreign suppliers that would have the same effect on the domestic market for the service as is caused by the barrier. Barriers to trade in services can be those that restrict entry of firms versus those that affect firms' operations, and those that discriminate against foreign-service providers versus those that do not. The measurement of services barriers are either direct or indirect. Direct measurement involves documenting barriers that are known to exist, either by extracting information about them from government documents or by questioning those market participants who confront them. Indirect measurement attempts to infer the presence of barriers from their market effects, much as non-tariff barriers on trade in goods are often inferred from price differences across borders. Approaches to measuring services barriers are illustrated by citing a number of studies that have been carried out. The chapter concludes with a presentation of guideline principles and recommended procedures for measuring services barriers and assessing the consequences of their liberalization.
Trade in Infrastructure Services: A Conceptual Framework
Authors: Dee Philippa , Findlay Christopher
Published: January 2008

This chapter discusses what many infrastructure industries have in common — economies of scale or scope — and how this poses some significant policy challenges for successful trade policy reform. These conditions can lead to natural monopoly. The problem is that the single producer may abuse its monopoly power by restricting the quantity or quality of output and pricing above costs. Opening this market to trade creates opportunity for alternative suppliers but also creates challenges of arranging the transition to a new provider and regulating them appropriately. The chapter discusses how international trade negotiations can contribute to ensuring successful outcomes. The key messages are that while natural monopoly is a common feature of the infrastructure sector, care should be taken not to exaggerate its importance. There are circumstances in which no policy problem arises. Further, even if there is an apparent natural monopoly, it is important to separate that part of the chain of supply from other elements in which competition can develop. Even so, natural monopoly elements remain. The GATS is relevant to natural monopoly markets and contains some disciplines on policy in those markets. Trade-policy reform can contribute to performance in markets in which natural monopolies have some influence. However, market opening has to be complemented by the appropriate regulatory structures to capture these benefits, for example, related to the terms on which competitive firms have access to bottleneck facilities. Commitments made through international trade negotiations can facilitate the necessary regulatory reform.
Trade in Services Telecommunications
Authors: Cowhey Peter F. , Aronson Jonathan D.
Published: January 2008

This chapter focuses on issues of negotiations on trade arrangements for international telecommunications and information services. The first part of the chapter provides background on the major changes that have transformed and globalized communications and information technology during the past two decades. The second part reviews the agreements that came out of the Uruguay Round (1994), including the Basic Telecommunications Agreement (1997) and other international agreements. It also examines the regulatory choices tied to competition and trade in telecommunications services. The third part of the chapter considers the experiences of Ghana and South Korea as they adapted their national systems to the post-1997 telecommunications reality. The final part of the chapter provides an overview of the international telecommunications/IT issues that are under consideration in the Doha Round negotiations. It seeks to explain what the industrial countries are seeking, why they argue that these additional reforms are desirable, and whether and under what circumstances these arguments might make sense to developing countries and their negotiators. The addendum to the chapter discusses the commitments of Costa Rica with regard to telecommunication services in the context of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the United States.
E‐Commerce Regulation: New Game, New Rules?
Authors: Primo Braga Carlos A.
Published: January 2008

The rapid expansion of electronic commerce (e-commerce) is impacting economic activities both at the national and international levels. E-commerce is still in its infancy, but it is often identified as one of the main drivers of the economic and social changes associated with the ‘networking revolution’. There is broad consensus that the establishment of the regulatory environment under which economic agents practice e-commerce plays an important role in shaping the impact and depth of these transformations. Most countries have by now introduced domestic legislation devoted to foster an adequate ‘digital’ environment with special emphasis on the rules and regulations relevant for e-commerce. At the international level, debate is also ongoing not only under the auspices of the World Trade Organization (WTO), but also in many other forums (e.g., OECD, WIPO, ICANN, ITU). This chapter reviews the case for multilateral rules and the challenges faced by regulators around the world to cope with the extra-territorial implications of e-commerce. It first discusses the economic dimensions of e-commerce and the most relevant regulatory issues for its expansion, and thereafter analyzes the case for multilateral rules concerning e-commerce, focusing on ongoing discussions on trade-related issues in the WTO.
An Introduction to Women's Anti‐Suffragism
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

Women played an important and in some ways distinctive role in the British anti-suffrage movement, though many female ‘antis’ were reluctant to take an active part in public campaigning. It could be argued plausibly before 1914 that the majority of ‘ordinary’ women did not want the parliamentary vote. Anti-suffragists' prominent role within the largest non-political women's organizations suggests their views were closely attuned to mainstream female opinion on desirable gender roles. Anti-suffrage beliefs were varied in origin and diverse in expression. The new approaches which have shaped revisionist histories of suffragism in recent years are of equal relevance to understanding the complex history of its female opponents. These women's ideas formed part of an extended debate on the Woman Question, rather than merely over the franchise issue. Suffragists and female anti-suffragists found much common ground, drawing from the same developing spectrum of ideas around gender and citizenship. The chapter concludes with a summary of the book's structure and contents.
Maternal Reformers and Social Duty
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

Women's wider social duty was understood by most female anti-suffragists to be a benign extension of their maternal role, though it must not be allowed to overshadow home life. The lives of the five women discussed in Chapter 2 are followed through in relation to their social activism at the end of the 19th century. Individual social action gradually led to a deepening involvement in collective work for philanthropic and religious causes. The National Union of Women Workers was the largest ‘umbrella’ organization for womanly social service from the 1890s onwards, and an important meeting ground for suffragists and anti-suffragists until an acrimonious split within its Council in 1912-13. The major Anglican women's organizations — the Girls' Friendly Society and the Mothers' Union — were more successful in maintaining an apolitical stance at the height of the suffrage campaign, whilst at the same time subtly reinforcing the gender conservatism which underpinned female anti-suffragism.
Imperial Ladies
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

Both suffragists and anti-suffragists laid claim to the mantle of empire. This chapter outlines the general imperial contours of the suffrage debate, and examines male definitions of an imperialist anti-suffrage agenda, before turning to the leading imperialist women. The anti-suffragism of Violet Markham, Gertrude Bell, Margaret Jersey, Ethel Colquhoun, Mary Kingsley, and Flora Shaw was closely related to their views on empire and their relationships with male imperialists. These relationships varied between imperial hero-worship (Markham and Bell), imperial wifehood (Jersey and Colquhoun), and the more independent status of Kingsley and Shaw as imperial celebrities with a high public profile and a circle of male imperialist friends. The chapter concludes with an account of the leading female imperialist associations in late Victorian and Edwardian Britain, and their connections to the anti-suffrage cause.
The Women's Appeal and After
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

The anti-suffrage movement has been portrayed by most historians as reactive and episodic. This account emphasizes its continuities in terms of female support, and the importance of female agency in determining its extra-parliamentary strategies. 1889 was the year in which women anti-suffragists first voiced their collective viewpoint, as authors and mass signatories of an Appeal Against Female Suffrage published in the Nineteenth Century journal. This chapter considers the parliamentary and extra-parliamentary contexts of the Appeal, before proceeding to a discussion of its arguments, its publicly-declared female support, and its short-term and longer-term aftermath. A detailed review of the available evidence suggests that women played a significant part in initiating the Appeal, authoring its content, and mustering signatures. They were far from being the ‘cats-paws’ of the male anti-suffragists as some historians have suggested, though they certainly valued male support and depended upon male collaboration to make their Appeal effective.
Working with Men
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

Despite its considerable achievements, the WNASL was handicapped by limited funding and lack of direct parliamentary influence. Meanwhile, the Men's League for Opposing Woman Suffrage, founded in December 1908, suffered from weak organization and political complacency. In 1910, the way was prepared for a full-scale merger of the two organizations. This proved an unexpectedly difficult process as male and female leaders vied for influence over procedures and policies. The WNASL commitment to promoting women's public service in local government was a major stumbling block. There were also conflicts over the name, constitution, and administrative arrangements of the new National League for Opposing Woman Suffrage, finally launched in December 1910. The chapter provides a detailed analysis of the formation and development of the NLOWS, focusing particularly upon gender relations, but also investigating propaganda methods and local branch-building across Britain. Despite some setbacks, female activism remained vital to organized anti-suffragism.
Suffrage, Sexuality, Citizenship
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

The internal problems of the NLOWS were linked to evolving gender beliefs as well as to contested organizational tactics. This chapter reviews various aspects of anti-suffrage gender ideology, developed both within the NLOWS and through dialogue between suffragists and women anti-suffragists. Anti-suffrage women commented with increasing dismay upon female sexual behaviour in early 20th-century Britain, connecting suffragette militancy to various forms of sexual deviance. Feminism was attacked as a sexualized threat to social solidarity and imperial strength. However, anti-suffrage women hesitated to exaggerate links between the more insidious forms of feminism and the suffrage cause, partly because of their awareness of shared ground with many suffragists over issues of moral reform. Though a suffrage truce was never likely in the pre-war years, the anti-suffrage forward policy and related constitutional reform proposals were closely aligned to the suffragists' advocacy of more feminized forms of citizenship.
Anti‐Suffragists at War
Authors: Bush Julia
Published: January 2008

Anti-suffrage women believed that their particular virtues and capacities would be needed more than ever during the First World War. Political campaigns were suspended, but an undercurrent of suffrage debate flowed through the war relief efforts of suffragists and anti-suffragists alike. Anti-suffrage women were keen to demonstrate their superior patriotism, and to carry forward their gender beliefs into the new wartime debates over such issues as female employment, maternity, and childcare. In 1916, it became clear that franchise reform was inevitable, and supporters and opponents of votes for women resumed subdued levels of activism. The NLOWS was a much-weakened organization, but far from entirely quiescent as women's suffrage inexorably neared the statute book. Women continued to play a significant opposition role beyond Parliament, and were outraged by Lord Curzon's final capitulation. The NLOWS wake in April 1918 was a mainly female affair, emphasizing commitment to the future political education of women voters.
The Project
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin
Published: January 2008

This chapter outlines the main issues to be discussed in the book such as the perception of time and our understanding of time. It draws attention to the variety of ways in which we are aware of time in our experience.
The Unity of Time and Narrative
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin
Published: January 2008

This final chapter explores the idea that time could consist of a number of parallel and unconnected time-streams. Various considerations against the coherence of this supposition are discussed, and none are found to be compelling. Attention is then focused on fictional time, and the question asked whether the constraints of fictional narrative rule out fictions in which parallel time-series are represented. A number of fictions that appear to present disunified time are discussed, and conclusions drawn, both concerning the nature of real time and of mechanisms of fictional representation.
2 Myth, Fiction, Innovation
Authors: Wright Matthew
Published: January 2008

This chapter analyses Euripides' use of myth in the escape-tragedies. It begins with a detailed discussion of the terms ‘myth’ and ‘plot’ in relation to Greek tragedy, and explores the precise extent of Euripides' innovation and creativity when dealing with pre-existing material. The chapter examines certain central strands in the mythical traditions relating to the plays' heroines, including counterfactuality, geography, and the escape-theme. It argues that Euripides' innovation lies in a disconcerting mixture of pre-existing elements from myth: he has not invented the plots that he uses, nor has he directly inherited them from specific or single literary sources (such as Stesichorus). The chapter concludes by identifying a specific type of mythical self-conscious, which the chapter terms ‘metamythology’.
3 A Tragic Landscape
Authors: Wright Matthew
Published: January 2008

This chapter explores the different ways in which Euripides and Greek tragedy in general creates a ‘sense of place’, and the ways in which dramatic setting contributes to the meaning of these works. It explores the startlingly exotic settings of the escape-tragedies (Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Black Sea), but shows that the plays make little attempt to describe these settings accurately or distinctively. It examines the plays' paradoxical presentation of cultural and ethnic identity, and shows that the traditional polarity between ‘Greeks’ and ‘barbarians’ is destabilized. It argues that the ‘sense of place’ in the escape-tragedies is metaphorical rather than literal: the plays rely on an idealized ‘imaginary landscape’ which reflects the characters' own identity and situations.
5 The Tragic Universe
Authors: Wright Matthew
Published: January 2008

This chapter examines the role in the escape-tragedies of ritual, religion, the gods, and other supernatural forces, which are seen by Euripides and his characters as being at work in the universe. It shows that Euripides' plays — far from being heterodox, atheistic, or agnostic as is often thought — are in fact based on a theological world-view familiar to many Greeks. The religious problems posed by the plays must be seen in connection to the philosophical problems discussed in Chapter 4. This chapter briefly examines the connections between real-life religious ritual and the plots of the plays, and argues against the view that Euripides invented aetiological cult. It examines the connection between religious views and irony, and the role of tyche or ‘chance’ in the plays' world-view. The chapter ends by viewing Euripidean gods as one of a range of ‘interpretative strategies’ by which the characters try, and fail, to make sense of their own role in the universe.
1 Historical and Conceptual Background
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: January 2008

This chapter presents an overview of the four different interpretations of the doctrine of the Trinity discussed in the two succeeding chapters included in Part I of this book. All of them use Gregory of Nyssa's writings; some focus on him in more detail than others. The authors have been divided into two pairs, each highlighting a particular interpretation of Gregory's work, that is, Gregory as philosopher and Gregory as a (proto-) ‘social Trinitarian’.