bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Variability in yield of four grain legume species in a subhumid temperate environment. II. Yield components
Authors: AYAZ S. , McKENZIE B. A. , HILL G. D. , McNEIL D. L.
Published: July 2004

The effects of plant population (one-tenth of the optimum to four times the optimum populations in 1998/99 and 10–400 plants/m2 in 1999/2000) and sowing depth (2, 5 and 10 cm) on yield and yield components of four grain-legumes (Cicer arietinum, Lens culinaris, Lupinus angustifolius and Pisum sativum) were studied. Seed yields were strongly positively correlated with the number of pods and seeds/m2 in both years in all species. The mean seed weight and number of branches/plant were inversely related to plant population. There was a nearly six-fold reduction in the number of branches/plant as plant population increased, which was due to restricted branching, and not to branch senescence. Generally, the variation in yield components was species dependent. However, for all species the number of pods/m2 and seeds/m2 could be used as primary criteria for selection in a breeding programme.
Why Was Hans Denck Thought To Be a Universalist?
Authors: LUDLOW MORWENNA
Published: July 2004

Hans Denck is commonly cited as a universalist. Probably he was not, but there are several reasons why it was easy for his opponents to claim the opposite: his theology admitted the possibility that all people will be saved; his broadly Origenistic conceptions of freedom, divinisation and punishment tempted opponents to attribute Origen's idea of universalism to him; and he so challenged the core beliefs of mainstream Reformation theology that his opponents may have found it difficult to understand how he could claim that God wills all to be saved, Christ died for all and all are free, without being universalist.
Why Was There So Little Government Reaction to Gunpowder Plot?
Authors: OKINES A. W. R. E.
Published: July 2004

This article rejects the approach that treats the Gunpowder Plot as a discrete historical episode. The plot is better understood when examined in parallel with the period after November 1605; the surprising leniency shown by the Jacobean government towards English Catholics destroys the motives upon which conspiracy theories are based. This article demonstrates that Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, supported King James's toleration since both wished to preserve domestic stability and peace with Spain. The assassination of King Henri IV of France in 1610 did more to jeopardise toleration than did the Gunpowder Plot, despite the latter's profound impact on the English popular consciousness.
Rimbert's Vita Anskarii and Scandinavian Mission in the Ninth Century
Authors: PALMER JAMES T.
Published: July 2004

The idea of converting Scandinavia to Christianity had been enthusiastically pursued by the Emperor Louis the Pious and Archbishop Ebbo of Rheims in the 820s. Optimism such as theirs was, however, not to last, and little progress was made between the death of Archbishop Rimbert of Hamburg-Bremen in 888 and the conversion of Harald Bluetooth a century later. This article examines how Rimbert wrote a saint's Life about Anskar, his predecessor and ‘apostle of the north’, in an attempt to arrest the waning support for the mission. It considers how this was achieved by placing the text in the context of the clashes between Ebbo and his successor, Hincmar, the predestination debate and the idea that mission was fulfilling apocalyptic prophecies.
Early Methodism
Authors: TABRAHAM BARRIE
Published: July 2004

John Wesley. The evangelical revival and the rise of Methodism in England. By John Munsey Turner. Pp. x+214. Peterborough: Epworth Press, 2002. £14.95 (paper). 0 7162 0556 4

Wesley and the Wesleyans. Religion in eighteenth-century Britain. By John Kent. Pp. vi+229. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. £37.50 (cloth), £13.95 (paper). 0 521 45532 4; 0 521 45555 3

A brand plucked from the burning. The life of John Wesley. By Roy Hattersley. Pp. vii+451+18 plates. London: Little, Brown, 2002. £20. 0 316 86020 4

Mirror of the soul. The diary of an early Methodist preacher, John Bennet, 1714–1754. Edited and introduced by S. R. Valentine. Pp. xii+243 incl. 2 frontispieces. Peterborough: Methodist Publishing House, 2002. £15 (paper). 1 85852 216 1

The tercentenary of John Wesley's birth saw the appearance of a whole crop of studies on various aspects of the Wesleys and early Methodism. Whether the current conversations between Methodists and Anglicans concerning the Covenanting Proposals is providing an additional spur remains to be seen. However, there can be no doubt that there is continued interest in the Wesleys and the way that Methodism developed, particularly in the eighteenth century, as the following four studies show in their very different ways.
Time in Human Experience
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: July 2004

A set of eight mini-discourses. 1. The conceivability of the physical world's running in the opposite temporal direction. 2. Augustine's reason for thinking this is not conceivable for the world of the mind. 3. Trying to imagine being a creature that lives atemporally. 4. Memory's need for causal input. 5. Acting in the knowledge that how one acts is strictly determined. 6. The Newcomb problem. 7. The idea that all voluntary action is intended to be remedial. 8. Haunted by the strangeness of the idea of the past qua past.
The Concept of Evil
Authors: Singer Marcus G.
Published: July 2004

Though ‘evil’ is often used loosely as merely the generic opposite of ‘morally good’, used precisely it is the worst possible term of opprobrium available. In this essay it is taken as applying primarily to persons, secondarily to conduct; evil deeds must flow from the volition to do something evil. An evil action is one so horrendously bad that no ordinary decent human being can conceive of doing it, and an evil person is one who knowingly wills or orders such actions. Malignant evil—doing evil because it is evil—is not just possible but real, and is one of several kinds of evil delineated. There are incidental discussions of cruelty, Rosenbaum on Explaining Hitler, Baumeister on Evil, and Benn on wickedness.
Literature and Philosophy: Emotion and Knowledge?
Authors: Wheater Isabella
Published: July 2004

Nussbaum attempts to undermine the sharp distinction between literature and philosophy by arguing that literary texts (tragic poetry particularly) distinctively appeal to emotion and imagination, that our emotional response itself is cognitive, and that Aristotle thought so too. I argue that emotional response is not cognitive but presupposes cognition. Aristotle argued that we learn from the mimesis of action delineated in the plot, not from our emotional response. The distinctions between emotional and intellectual writing, poetry and prose, literature and philosophy, the imaginative and the unimaginative do not cut along the same lines. That between literature and philosophy is not hard and fast: philosophy can be dramatic (eg Plato's dialogues) and drama can be philosophical (eg some of Shakespeare's plays), but whether either is emotional or not, or written in poetry or prose, are other questions.
Reason and History in Locke's Second Treatise
Authors: Tarlton Charles D.
Published: July 2004

The idea of an original contract is, ironically, inherently narrative in form; although tautological in essence, it nevertheless portrays events occurring in sequence. In response to Filmer's provocations that the idea of an original contract lacks historical veracity, Locke tries and repeatedly fails to establish a direct historical substantiation of his position in the early chapters of the Second Treatise. The most important of these various miscalculations concern the role of consent in his account of the origins of government, the tension between logical and historical evidence in describing the development of prerogative in the English monarchy, and the inescapable conclusion that conquest and not consent was the likely origin of most states. In these places, the Locke's deductive argument is forced to slow, hesitate, and change direction. The general concept of individual transgression, as it emerges from Locke's depiction of the state of nature, war, and slevery, later transforms itself into the basis of governmental injustice and tyranny. These, in turn, work to generate a sort of secondary and “political” state of nature in which now “historical” people, by means of concrete acts of resistance and revolution, enact the hypotheses of the consensual theory in their own actual time and place.
Ebersole's Philosophical Treasure Hunt
Authors: Levi Don S.
Published: July 2004

Frank Ebersole's extraordinary investigations of certain key
philosophical ideas behind problems in epistemology and metaphysics are the subject of
this article-review. I have resisted providing what many readers will expect me to provide,
namely, a critical examination of his philosophical methodology. I do question his unwilligness
to say why his investigations only yield I negative results, and I do have something to say
about classifying him as an ordinary language philosopher. However, my main focus is on trying
to engage critically with what he actually does in his work. To this
end, I provide a narrative of the investigation he carries out into
the possibility of comparing the objects of perception and dreams, and
I cite other works of his in support of my understanding of that
investigation. Although one of his lengthiest essays seems to be
devoted to an anticipation of an objection to his approach, I explain
why even there he is not concerned with the question of why he always
seems to get negative results. After suggesting why some of his later
essays seem to be so hard to read, I conclude by saying something
about what I take to be his achievement.
Famine and Fanaticism: A Response to Kekes
Authors: Horton Keith
Published: July 2004

In this paper, I critically discuss a number of arguments made by John Kekes, in a recent article, against the claim that those of us who are relatively affluent ought to do something for those living in absolute poverty in developing countries. There are, I argue, a variety of problems with Kekes' arguments, but one common thread stems from Kekes' failure to take account of the empirical research that has been conducted on the issues which he discusses.
Reply to Horton
Authors: Kekes John
Published: July 2004

‘Reply to Horton’ gives four reasons why Horton's attack on Kekes' earlier article fails. In particular Horton fails to make the case that we have a moral obligation to do more than we already do towards relieving poverty through the taxes we already pay.
Wittgenstein on Ethics and the Riddle of Life
Authors: Wiggins David
Published: July 2004

The paper seeks to interpret and then to criticize Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus paragraph 6.4 to 7 (the end), connecting this so-called mystical section with the “Lecture on Ethics” given in Cambridge in 1929, the Notebooks, and a passage in the Big Typescript. Interpretive and critical efforts focus on the claims: (1) that if having intrinsic value, good or evil, is nothing zufällig, then its basis is nothing in the world; (2) that value can only enter through the willing subject; (3) that “how things are in the world is a matter of indifference for what is higher”. Concerning (1), it is proposed that the zufällig is here that which simply or merely happens (or is brute fact). The argument for (1) rests on Wittgenstein's misconception of the categorical. It is remarked that (1) and (3) result in a philosophy of life that is unliveable. Witness the travails of Wittgenstein's own life and his struggle to “get over a particular fact”. Finally (3) will even undermine (2), which is in any case fatally ambiguous. In conclusion, it is suggested that both the stresses and strains that are induced within the Tractatus itself by its circumscription of the sayable and the difficulties of (1) (2) (3) can be overcome within Wittgenstein's later philosophy, but in ways already prefigured in the doctrine of “showing” as that appears in both Tractatus and “Lecture on Ethics”.
Seeing Objects and Surfaces, and the ‘In Virtue Of’ Relation
Authors: Campbell Scott
Published: July 2004

Frank Jackson in Perception uses the ‘in virtue of’ relation to ground the distinction between direct and indirect perception. He argues that it follows that our perception of physical objects is mediated by perceiving their facing surfaces, and so is indirect. I argue that this is false. Seeing a part of an object is in itself a seeing of the object; there is no indirectness involved. Hence, the ‘in virtue of’ relation is an inadequate basis for the direct-indirect distinction. I also argue that claims that we don't, ‘strictly speaking’, see objects, are also false.
Wrongful Life
Authors: Archard David
Published: July 2004

I argue that it is wrong deliberately to bring into existence an individual whose life we can reasonably expect will be of very poor quality. The individual's life would on balance be worth living but would nevertheless fall below a certain threshold. Additionally the prospective parents are unable to have any other child who would enjoy a better existence. Against the claims of John Harris and John Robertson I argue that deliberately to conceive such a child would not be to exercise the right to procreate. For this right is internally constrained by the requirement that any resultant child has the reasonable prospect of a minimally decent life.
Knowledge, Provenance and Psychological Explanation
Authors: Lockie Robert
Published: July 2004

Analytic theories of knowledge have traditionally maintained that the provenance of a true belief is critically important to deciding whether it is knowledge. However, a comparably widespread view is that it is our beliefs alone, regardless of their (potentially dubious) provenance which feature in psychological explanation, including the explanation of action: thus, that knowledge itself and as such is irrelevant in psychological explanation. The paper gives initial reasons why the ‘beliefs alone’ view of explanation should be resisted—arguments deriving ultimately from the Meno indicate that the provenance of a true belief may be relevant to the explanation of action. However, closer scrutiny of these arguments shows that they are incapable of according provenance anything like as central a role in action explanation as provenance has traditionally been given in the theory of knowledge. A consideration of the history of science suggests anyway that all knowledge has a compromised provenance if one looks back any significant distance. It is concluded that the importance of the provenance of our beliefs is something that has been seriously over-emphasised in epistemology.
The Momentariness of Simples
Authors: Perrett Roy W.
Published: July 2004

Many philosophers have supposed that while most of the objects in our immediate experience are composed of parts, at some point we must come down to those fundamental impartite objects out of which all partite things are composed: the metaphysical simples (usually conceived of as enduring, even eternal, entities). I consider what reason we have to believe that there really are simples, then we also have good reason to believe in their momentariness.
Countering the Appeal of the Psychological Approach to Personal Identity
Authors: Hershenov David
Published: July 2004

Brain transplants and the dicephalus (an organism just like us except that it has two cerebrums) are thought to support the position that we are essentially thinking creatures, not living organisms. I try to offset the first of these intuitions by responding to thought experiments Peter Unger devised to show that identity is what matters. I then try to motivate an interpretation of the alleged conjoined twins as really just one person cut off from himself by relying upon what I take will be the reader's disagreement with Locke's conjecture that a dreaming Socrates and an awake Socrates are two distinct people.
An Argument for Marriage
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2004

This paper replies to two arguments against marriage presented by Dan Moller (Philosophy 78, 2003: 79–91). One of Moller's arguments examines several ways in which the marriage promise could be explained, and shows that none of them is viable. The other argument suggests that marriage may not be a worthwhile enterprise since marriages frequently fail, in that they become loveless or end up in divorce. I argue that the marriage promise can be explained in a way unconsidered by Moller, which renders the promise viable; and that notwithstanding the failure of many marriages, it still is, for some people, a worthwhile enterprise.
Effects of cannabis and psychosis vulnerability in daily life: an experience sampling test study
Authors: VERDOUX H. , GINDRE C. , SORBARA F. , TOURNIER M. , SWENDSEN J. D.
Published: July 2004

Background. Epidemiological findings suggest that cannabis use is a risk factor for the emergence of psychosis, and that the induction of psychotic symptoms in the context of cannabis use may be associated with a pre-existing vulnerability for psychosis. This study investigated in a non-clinical population the interaction between cannabis use and psychosis vulnerability in their effects on psychotic experiences in daily life.

Method. Subjects (N = 79) with high or low levels of cannabis use were selected among a sample of 685 undergraduate university students. Experience sampling method (ESM) was used to collect information on substance use and psychotic experiences in daily life. Vulnerability to develop psychosis was measured using a clinical interview assessing the level of psychotic symptoms. Statistical analyses were performed using multilevel linear random regression models.

Results. The acute effects of cannabis are modified by the subject's level of vulnerability for psychosis. Subjects with high vulnerability for psychosis are more likely to report unusual perceptions as well as feelings of thought influence than subjects with low vulnerability for psychosis, and they are less likely to experience enhanced feelings of pleasure associated with cannabis. There is no evidence that use of cannabis is increased following occurrence of psychotic experiences as would be expected by the self-medication model.

Conclusion. Cannabis use interacts with psychosis vulnerability in their effects on experience of psychosis in daily life. The public health impact of the widespread use of cannabis may be considerable.
Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people
Authors: FERGUSSON D. M. , HORWOOD L. J. , SWAIN-CAMPBELL N. R.
Published: July 2004

Background. The aims of this research were to use data gathered over the course of a 21 year longitudinal study to examine the linkages between cannabis dependence at ages 18 and 21 and rates of psychotic symptoms taking into account previous symptom levels and other confounding factors.

Method. Data were gathered during the course of the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS). The CHDS is a longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1265 children who have been studied from birth to age 21. As part of this study, data were gathered on cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms at ages 18 and 21.

Results. Young people meeting DSM-IV criteria for cannabis dependence had elevated rates of psychotic symptoms at ages 18 (rate ratio = 3.7; 95% CI 2.8–5.0; P<0.0001) and 21 (rate ratio = 2.3; 95% CI 1.7–3.2; P<0.0001). These associations were adjusted for previous psychotic symptoms and a range of other confounding factors using a generalized estimating equation model. This analysis showed that after adjustment for confounding factors, those meeting criteria for cannabis dependence still had an increased rate of psychotic symptoms (rate ratio = 1.8; 95% CI 1.2–2.6; P<0.005).

Conclusions. The results show that the development of cannabis dependence is associated with increased rates of psychotic symptoms in young people even when pre-existing symptoms and other background factors are taken into account.
The serotonin transporter promoter repeat length polymorphism, seasonal affective disorder and seasonality
Authors: JOHANSSON C. , WILLEIT M. , LEVITAN R. , PARTONEN T. , SMEDH C. , DEL FAVERO J. , BEL KACEM S. , PRASCHAK-RIEDER N. , NEUMEISTER A. , MASELLIS M. , BASILE V. , ZILL P. , BONDY B. , PAUNIO T. , KASPER S. , VAN BROECKHOVEN C. , NILSSON L.-G. , LAM R. , SCHALLING M. , ADOLFSSON R.
Published: July 2004

Background. Conflicting results have been reported in previous association studies of the serotonin transporter promoter repeat length polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and seasonality (seasonal variations in mood and behaviour). The aim of this study was to test for association in new case–control and population-based materials, and to perform a combined analysis of all published studies of 5-HTTLPR and SAD.

Method. One hundred and forty-seven new SAD cases and 115 controls were genotyped for 5-HTTLPR and in total 464 patients and 414 controls were included in the pooled analysis. In addition, 226 individuals selected for unusually high or low seasonality scores from a population based material and 46 patients with non-seasonal depression were analysed. Different genetic models were tested and seasonality was analysed both as a qualitative (high v. low) and as a quantitative trait in the different sample sets.

Results. No association between 5-HTTLPR and SAD was found in the new case–control material, in the combined analysis of all samples, or when only including 316 patients with controls (N=298) selected for low seasonality. A difference was detected between the population based high and low seasonality groups, when assuming a recessive effect of the short allele (20% and 10% short allele homozygotes, respectively, OR (95% CI): 2·24 (1·03–4·91)). Quantitative analysis of seasonality revealed no association with 5-HTTLPR in any sample set.

Conclusions. These results do not suggest a major role of the short variant of 5-HTTLPR in susceptibility to SAD, but provide modest evidence for an effect on seasonality.
The recognition of facial affect in autistic and schizophrenic subjects and their first-degree relatives
Authors: BÖLTE SVEN , POUSTKA FRITZ
Published: July 2004

Background. Autism and schizophrenia are considered to be substantially influenced by genetic factors. The endophenotype of both disorders probably also includes deficits in affect perception. The objective of this study was to examine the capacity to detect facially expressed emotion in autistic and schizophrenic subjects, their parents and siblings.

Method. Thirty-five subjects with autism and 102 of their relatives, 21 schizophrenic subjects and 46 relatives from simplex (one child affected) and multiplex (more than one child affected) families, as well as an unaffected control sample consisting of 22 probands completed a 50-item computer-based test to assess the ability to recognize basic emotions.

Results. The autistic subjects showed a poorer performance on the facial recognition test than did the schizophrenic and the unaffected individuals. In addition, there was a tendency for subjects from multiplex families with autistic loading to score lower on the test than individuals from simplex families with autistic loading. Schizophrenic subjects and their relatives as well as siblings and parents of autistic subjects did not differ from the sample of unaffected subjects in their ability to judge facial affect.

Conclusions. Findings corroborate the assumption that emotion detection deficits are part of the endophenotype of autism. In families with autistic children, the extent of facial recognition deficits probably indexes an elevation in familial burden. It seems unlikely that problems in emotion perception form a consistent part of the endophenotype of schizophrenia or the broader phenotype in relatives of patients with psychosis or autism.
Genetic and environmental influences on psychological distress in the population: General Health Questionnaire analyses in UK twins
Authors: RIJSDIJK F. V. , SNIEDER H. , ORMEL J. , SHAM P. , GOLDBERG D. P. , SPECTOR T. D.
Published: July 2004

Background. The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) is the most popular screening instrument for detecting psychiatric disorders in community samples. Using longitudinal data of a large sample of UK twin pairs, we explored (i) heritabilities of the four scales and the total score; (ii) the genetic stability over time; and (iii) the existence of differential heritable influences at the high (ill) and low (healthy) tail of the distribution.

Method. At baseline we assessed the GHQ in 627 MZ and 1323 DZ female pairs and at a second occasion (3·5 years later) for a small subsample (90 MZ and 270 DZ pairs). Liability threshold models and raw ordinal maximum likelihood were used to estimate twin correlations and to fit longitudinal genetic models. We estimated extreme group heritabilities of the GHQ distribution by using a model-fitting implementation of the DeFries–Fulker regression method for selected twin data.

Results. Heritabilities for Somatic Symptoms, Anxiety, Social Dysfunction, Depression and total score were 0·37, 0·40, 0·20, 0·42 and 0·44, respectively. The contribution of shared genetic factors to the correlations between time points is substantial for the total score (73%). Group heritabilities of 0·48 and 0·43 were estimated for the top and bottom 10% of the total GHQ score distribution, respectively.

Conclusion. The overall heritability of the GHQ as a measure of psychosocial distress was substantial (44%), with all scales having significant additive genetic influences that persisted across time periods. Extreme group analyses suggest that the genetic control of resilience is as important as the genetic control of vulnerability.
Deliberate self-harm is associated with allelic variation in the tryptophan hydroxylase gene (TPH A779C), but not with polymorphisms in five other serotonergic genes
Authors: POOLEY E. C. , HOUSTON K. , HAWTON K. , HARRISON P. J.
Published: July 2004

Background. There is a heritable component to suicidal behaviour, encouraging the search for the associated risk alleles. Given the putative role of the 5-HT (5-hydroxytryptamine; serotonin) system in suicidal behaviour, serotonergic genes are leading candidates. In particular, several studies have reported an association with variants in the tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) gene.

Method. We studied six serotonergic gene polymorphisms in a well-characterized sample of 129 deliberate self-harm subjects and 329 comparison subjects. The polymorphisms were TPH (A779C), 5-HT transporter (5-HTT, LPR S/L), monoamine oxidase A (MAOA G941T), 5-HT1B receptor (HTR1B G861C), 5-HT2A receptor (HTR2A T102C), and 5-HT2C receptor (HTR2C Cys23Ser). Genotyping was done using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays. The primary analyses compared allele and genotype frequencies between cases and controls. There were a limited number of planned secondary analyses within the deliberate self-harm group.

Results. The TPH A779 allele was more common in deliberate self-harm subjects than in controls (OR 1·38, 95% CI 1·02–1·88; P=0·03). None of the other polymorphisms was associated with deliberate self-harm. Within the deliberate self-harm group there were no associations with impulsivity, suicide risk, lifetime history of depression, or family history of deliberate self-harm.

Conclusions. Our data extend the evidence that allelic variation in the TPH gene is a risk factor for deliberate self-harm. No evidence was found to implicate the other polymorphisms.
Depression and the lower risk for breast cancer development in middle-aged women: a prospective study
Authors: NYKLÍČEK I. , LOUWMAN W. J. , VAN NIEROP P. W. M. , WIJNANDS C. J. , COEBERGH J.-W. W. , POP V. J.
Published: July 2004

Background. Depression has been hypothesized to be potentially linked to an increased risk of breast cancer. Few studies have addressed this question using population-based cohorts and prospective designs, adjusting for known biomedical risk factors. This has been done in the present investigation.

Method. Participants were 5191 women from a cohort of women born between 1941 and 1947 and living in the city of Eindhoven, The Netherlands. All women completed questionnaires regarding the presence of depressive symptoms (Edinburgh Depression Scale) and background (demographic, medical and lifestyle) variables. The questionnaire data were linked with the records of the Eindhoven Cancer Registry. These records provided data on breast cancer diagnoses, which took place up to 5 years after the questionnaire screening.

Results. Fifty-eight women (1·1%) were found to have developed breast cancer at least 2 years after the questionnaire screening. After controlling for 15 potential risk factors, of which family history of breast cancer, hypothyroidism and unilateral oophorectomy were significant predictors of breast cancer development, women with depressive symptoms had a lower risk of subsequent breast cancer (OR=0·29, 95% CI=0·09–0·92, P=0·04).

Conclusions. Depressive complaints may be associated with a protective factor involved in the development of breast cancer. Some of the possible candidates for this factor are discussed.
Autobiographical memory and theory of mind: evidence of a relationship in schizophrenia
Authors: CORCORAN RHIANNON , FRITH CHRISTOPHER D.
Published: July 2004

Background. It has been proposed that inferences about the mental states of others are drawn after a referral to autobiographical memory. This study explored the relationship between autobiographical memory retrieval and performance on tests of theory of mind in people with schizophrenia.

Method. Fifty-nine people with a DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia and 44 healthy participants matched for age, sex and estimated IQ were given the Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI), two measures of theory of mind (ToM) and a logical memory test.

Results. There was clear evidence that the people with schizophrenia were under-performing on all tasks. Within the schizophrenia sample, robust relationships existed between the total scores achieved on the AMI and the ToM tasks. Furthermore, there was evidence that the participants with schizophrenia had a tendency to recollect odd or negative events when prompted by the standard questions of the AMI.

Conclusions. The results of this study indicate that when people with schizophrenia attempt to think about the beliefs and intentions of others they use analogical reasoning. Whether this approach is also adopted by other clinical and normal adult groups is a question for future research.
Age of menarche: the role of some psychosocial factors
Authors: ROMANS S. E. , MARTIN J. M. , GENDALL K. , HERBISON G. P.
Published: July 2004

Background. The goal of this study was to determine associations between the age of first menstrual period (menarche) and adverse childhood experiences in a random community sample of New Zealand women. Previous reports have linked early menarche to absence of a live-in father figure and to family conflict, as well as genetic determination of early puberty and adiposity.

Method. Two groups of women randomly selected from the community on their responses to a mailed screening questionnaire on childhood sexual abuse (CSA) were interviewed in detail. Data about their childhood experiences, including age of menarche, were collected on two occasions, 6 years apart. Early menarche was defined as first menstruation occurring before the age of 12 years.

Results. Univariate analyses identified a number of adverse childhood experiences preceded early menarche, which was reported by 20·3% of this sample. These included low family socio-economic status, absence of father, a number of variables showing family conflict, poor relationships between the girl and either/both parents, a self-rated childhood personality style as a loner, childhood physical and sexual abuse. Sequential modelling showed parental rows, being a loner and the duration of CSA to be most important, although lack of a father and any CSA were each also independently associated with early menarche. No variables survived the modelling exercise as predictors of early menarche for those women who did not report childhood sexual abuse.

Conclusions. The identified variables statistically interacted with each other in a highly complex manner. The attempt to rank their importance was only partially successful, for methodological reasons (half the sample reporting CSA). Chronic or protracted CSA needs to be added to the list of factors associated with early menarche in future studies.
Interpersonal dependence and major depression: aetiological inter-relationship and gender differences
Authors: SANATHARA V. A. , GARDNER C. O. , PRESCOTT C. A. , KENDLER K. S.
Published: July 2004

Background. Although prior research has demonstrated a strong association between interpersonal dependency (IPD) levels and risk for major depression (MD), the possible aetiological explanations of this association as well as any gender differences in the IPD–MD relationship need further clarification.

Method. Population-based twin samples (N=7174) were interviewed in multiple waves to assess IPD and MD as part of a larger twin study. IPD levels were assessed using the Interpersonal Dependency Inventory while MD diagnoses were derived from the SCID. Cox proportional hazard models and multiple regression techniques were utilized.

Results. IPD was strongly associated with a risk for lifetime MD. Pre-morbid IPD scores were predictive of future onsets of MD while experiencing a MD episode was also associated with a significant rise in IPD levels. While females had higher IPD scores, IPD scores were more significantly associated with risk for lifetime MD in males. Controlling for the level of IPD substantially reduced the observed association between gender and risk for MD.

Conclusion. The strong association observed between IPD and risk for MD results largely from IPD being a risk factor for MD, but state effects of MD on IPD also contribute. IPD scores in males were more predictive of lifetime MD than for females. The higher levels of IPD in women than in men may contribute meaningfully to the sex differences in risk for MD.
Predictors of fatigue following the onset of infectious mononucleosis
Authors: CANDY B. , CHALDER T. , CLEARE A. J. , PEAKMAN A. , SKOWERA A. , WESSELY S. , WEINMAN J. , ZUCKERMAN M. , HOTOPF M.
Published: July 2004

Background. Infectious mononucleosis (IM) is a risk factor for chronic fatigue. Reduced activity is the most consistent factor found to be associated with poor outcome following the onset of infectious mononucleosis. However, little is known about the biological mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of chronic fatigue following IM and no study, so far, has examined the relation between certain illness beliefs and poor outcome. This study explored immunological, endocrine, behavioural and cognitive responses to the acute illness and assessed which components of these groups of risk factors predicted a chronic course.

Method. Using a prospective cohort design, 71 primary care patients with IM were enrolled onto the study and interviewed. Their recovery was explored by postal questionnaire up to 1 year later.

Results. In the univariate analysis, increased baseline levels of immune activation were associated with fatigue at baseline and 3 months. Cortisol levels were not associated with fatigue at any point. Using multivariate models of clinical and psychosocial baseline factors, severity of symptoms and illness perceptions were found to predict fatigue 3 months later. At 6 months, fatigue was best predicted by female gender and illness perceptions, and at 12 months by female gender and a symptoms–disability factor.

Conclusions. In the multivariate analysis no factors were found to predict poor outcome at all time-points. Instead the pattern of predictors changed over time, partly but not completely consistent with our a priori predictions. Larger studies are needed to explore further the predictive nature of biopsychosocial factors in the pathogenesis of chronic fatigue related to IM. The psycho-behavioural predictors found in this study are amenable to intervention. Such interventions should be tested in randomized controlled trials.
One-year outcome of unexplained fatigue syndromes in primary care: results from an international study
Authors: SKAPINAKIS P. , LEWIS G. , MAVREAS V.
Published: July 2004

Background. Outcome studies of chronic fatigue, neurasthenia and other unexplained fatigue syndromes are few and have been carried out in developed Western countries. This paper aimed to study the outcome of unexplained fatigue syndromes in an international primary care sample and to identify risk factors for persistence.

Method. We used data from the WHO collaborative study of psychological problems in general health care, in which 3201 primary care attenders from 14 countries were followed-up for 12 months. The assessment included a modified version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview.

Results. Unexplained fatigue persisted in one-fifth to one-third of the subjects depending on the definition of fatigue. From the factors studied only severity of fatigue and psychiatric morbidity at baseline were associated with persistence 12 months later. Outcome did not differ between countries of different stages of economic development.

Conclusions. The prognosis of fatigue syndromes in international primary care is relatively good. The study underlines the importance of psychological factors in influencing short-term prognosis.
Asthma and the risk of panic attacks among adults in the community
Authors: GOODWIN RENEE D. , EATON WILLIAM W.
Published: July 2004

Objective. The study was designed to determine the association between self-reported asthma and the risk, persistence and severity of panic attacks among adults in the community.

Method. Data were drawn from waves 1 and 2 of the Baltimore site of the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study (N=2768), which included self-report information on asthma, treatment for asthma and panic attacks in 1981 and 1982. Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to calculate odds ratios comparing the prevalence of panic attack at baseline and follow-up by asthma status at baseline. Linear regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between self-reported asthma status and the number of panic symptoms during a panic attack.

Results. Self-report asthma was associated with significantly increased likelihood of having panic attacks at baseline (1981) (12·1% v. 7·3%, P<0·05) and of having panic attacks at both baseline and follow-up (15·9% v. 7·3%, P<0·05), compared to those without asthma at baseline. Adults receiving treatment for asthma at baseline had an increased risk of incident panic attacks at follow-up (OR=2·65 (1·11, 6·34)) and at baseline and follow-up (OR=5.88 (2·21, 15.62)), though untreated asthma did not appear to increase risk of incident panic at follow-up. Similarly, the risk of panic at follow-up was not increased among those with asthma at baseline who did not report asthma at follow-up, compared with those without asthma at baseline. Treated asthma was associated with having more panic symptoms during panic attacks, compared to those without asthma (P<0·001).

Conclusion. These findings are consistent with and extend previous results suggesting that self-reported asthma is associated with an increased risk of panic attacks among adults in the general population, and that there is a consistent relation between severity and persistence of asthma and panic attacks. The lack of association between remitted asthma and panic attack may reveal a need for further research to determine whether asthma may be a causal risk factor for panic attacks, or whether a third factor (genetic or environmental) may be associated with increased risk of the co-occurrence of asthma and panic attacks. Replication of these results using alternative methodology with corroborative data on asthma and panic attacks is needed next.
Neuropsychological performance of OCD patients before and after treatment with fluoxetine: evidence for persistent cognitive deficits
Authors: NIELEN M. M. A. , DEN BOER J. A.
Published: July 2004

Background. There is an ongoing debate about the nature of executive dysfunction that accompanies obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). One reason for this may be that state-related factors, such as use of medication or co-morbid symptoms, confound with task performance. This study tried to isolate trait- from state-dependent cognitive impairments by examining variability of cognition following treatment.

Method. Nineteen OCD patients were tested on the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) before and after treatment with fluoxetine. Their pattern of performance was compared to the one observed in healthy volunteers (N=24).

Results. OCD patients displayed impairments in planning ability, spatial memory and motor speed that persisted after clinical improvement. With treatment, OCD performance diverged from that of controls on measures of focused attention and strategic ability. However, these effects were rather mild as they did not entail a significant deterioration of performance within the OCD sample.

Conclusions. Our data suggest that cognitive impairments in OCD are not secondary to symptoms and therefore form a trait feature of the disorder. The nature of the deficits refers to a chronic dysfunction of the dorsolateral–striatal circuit. The minor effects of treatment on task performance is in line with recent evidence that serotonin mediates cognitive functions of orbitofrontal cortex to a greater extent than those associated with dorsolateral prefrontal regions.
Time to recurrence after recovery from major depressive episodes and its predictors
Authors: KANAI T. , TAKEUCHI H. , FURUKAWA T. A. , YOSHIMURA R. , IMAIZUMI T. , KITAMURA T. , TAKAHASHI K.
Published: July 2004

Background. Depression is a remitting but recurring disease. However, there is a paucity of prospectively recorded data on the course of depression after recovery.

Method. A multi-centre prospective serial follow-up study of an inception cohort of hitherto untreated unipolar major depression (N=95) for 6 years. We report the time to recurrence after recovery from the index depressive episode and their predictors.

Results. The cumulative probability of remaining well without subthreshold symptoms was 57% (95% CI, 46 to 68%) at 1 year, 47% (95% CI, 36 to 58%) at 2 years and 35% (95% CI, 23 to 47%) at 5 years. The same without full relapse was 79% (95% CI, 70 to 88%) at 1 year, 70% (95% CI, 60 to 80%) at 2 years and 58% (95% CI, 46 to 70%) at 5 years. The median duration of well-interval from the end of the index episode to the beginning of the subthreshold episode was 19·0 months (95% CI, 2·4 to 35·7), and that to the end of the full episode was over 6 years. Residual symptoms at time of recovery predicted earlier recurrence.

Conclusions. The median length of the well-interval was much longer than previously reported in studies employing similar definitions but dealing with a more severe spectrum of patients. However, the sobering fact remains that less than half of the patients can expect to remain virtually symptom-free for 2 years or more after recovery from the depressive episode.
Subclassifications for mild cognitive impairment: prevalence and predictive validity
Authors: BUSSE A. , BISCHKOPF J. , RIEDEL-HELLER S. G. , ANGERMEYER M. C.
Published: July 2004

Background. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is associated with an increased risk of developing dementia. Recently published results of the Current Concepts in MCI Conference suggested subclassifications for MCI (MCI-amnestic, MCI-multiple domains slightly impaired, MCI-single nonmemory domain) based on the recognized heterogeneity in the use of the term. These subclassifications have not been empirically validated to date.

Method. A community sample of 1045 dementia-free individuals aged 75 years and over was examined by neuropsychological testing in a three-wave longitudinal study. The prevalences and the predictive validities for the subclassifications of MCI and their modifications (original criteria except for the report of subjective decline in cognitive function) were determined.

Results. The prevalence was 1 to 15% depending on the subset employed. Subjects with a diagnosis of MCI progressed to dementia at a rate of 10 to 55% over 2·6 years, depending on the subset employed. MCI-amnestic achieved the highest positive predictive power (PPP). ROC curves of the subclassifications for MCI indicate that all but one subset for MCI failed to predict dementia (MCI-multiple domains slightly impaired-modified: AUC=0·585, P<0·01, 95% CI, 0·517–0·653). The use of modified criteria for MCI (original criteria except for the report of subjective decline in cognitive function) is associated with a higher diagnostic sensitivity but also with a reduction in diagnostic specificity and PPP.

Conclusions. Modified criteria should be applied if a concept for MCI with a high sensitivity is required and the original criteria (including subjective cognitive complaint) if a concept with high specificity and high PPP is required.
Does the level of family dysfunction moderate the impact of genetic factors on the personality trait of neuroticism?
Authors: KENDLER K. S. , AGGEN S. H. , JACOBSON K. C. , NEALE M. C.
Published: July 2004

Background. While the family environment can directly influence later risk for psychopathology, dysfunction in the family of origin may also moderate the impact of genetic factors on liability for psychiatric disorders. Can a similar pattern be seen for the personality trait of Neuroticism (N) – which is a risk factor for many psychiatric conditions?

Method. Our sample of 957 complete female–female twin pairs from a population-based register had measures of self-reported N and multiple reporters (twin, co-twin, mother, father) for family dysfunction (FD). Statistical analysis was conducted by traditional regression analysis and a moderator structural equation twin model operationalized in the computer program Mx.

Results. Dividing the sample into quartiles based on increasing levels of FD, the mean of N increased substantially while correlations of N in monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins were relatively constant. Regression analyses did not suggest greater twin resemblance for N with increasing levels of FD. The best-fit structural equation model was the standard un-moderated model in which the proportion of variance in N due to genetic (39%) and unique environmental effects (61%) remained constant across values of FD.

Conclusions. Although a false-negative result due to limited power cannot be excluded, these analyses do not support the hypothesis that FD moderates the impact of genetic factors on levels of N.