bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Architecture of Moderate Government
Authors: Craiutu Aurelian
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the concept of “moderate government” during the Old Regime by drawing on the political writings of Montesquieu. It first considers Montesquieu's claim, which he articulated in the book The Spirit of the Laws (1748), that moderation is the key virtue of all legislators; his views on the relationship between moderation and mixed government; and the distinction between moderate and immoderate governments, with political liberty existing only in the former. The discussion then turns to Montesquieu's philosophy of jurisprudence and his ideas on penal laws, fiscal moderation, and how democratic and aristocratic regimes can be moderated. Finally, the chapter explores the relationship between moderation and pluralism in connection with Montesquieu's discussion of the moderating effects of commerce.
The Radical Moderates of 1789
Authors: Craiutu Aurelian
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the meanings of moderation during the initial phase of the French Revolution by focusing on the ideas of Jean-Joseph Mounier, Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre, Trophimé-Gérard Lally-Tollendal, and Pierre Victor Malouet—the French monarchiens, also known as the “radical moderates” of 1789. It first provides a background on the monarchiens before discussing their attitude toward Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It then considers the debates in the new Constitutional Assembly over the task of “fixing” the French constitution, Mounier's influence on the document Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and the controversy surrounding bicameralism and the royal veto. It also looks at the dialogue between the monarchiens and Edmund Burke regarding the former's political agenda that mixed moderation and radicalism. The chapter concludes by suggesting that the monarchiens' experience demonstrates the limits of moderation in revolutionary times.
Equilibrium with Decreasing Returns
Authors: Balasko Yves
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses an approach to the study of the general equilibrium model with private ownership of smooth production with decreasing returns by adjusting consumers’ individual demand functions for production. The “exchange model” defined by these production adjusted demand functions is then shown to be equivalent to the original general equilibrium model with private ownership of production. The production adjusted demand functions are very close to satisfy the properties considered in the first part of this book, properties that guarantee that the main properties of the exchange model are satisfied. As a result, the general equilibrium model with private ownership of smooth production with decreasing returns features exactly the same properties as the standard smooth exchange model.
General Introduction
Authors: Tolan John , Veinstein Gilles , Laurens Henry
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter argues that, far from being a “clash” of two rival civilizations, the Muslim world and Europe (or the West) were in reality two branches of a single “Islamo-Christian” civilization, with deep roots in a common religious, cultural, and intellectual heritage: the civilization of the ancient Mediterranean and the Near East, biblical revelation, and Greek and Hellenistic science and philosophy. This common heritage had grown stronger over fifteen centuries, thanks to the uninterrupted exchange of goods, persons, and ideas. The forms of contact were continuous and extremely varied: wars, conquests, reconquests, diplomacy, alliances, commerce, marriages, the slave trade, translations, technological exchanges, and imitation and emulation in art and culture. Far from marginal curiosities within the history of the European and Muslim peoples, these contacts have profoundly marked them both.
The Eighteenth Century as Turning Point
Authors: Tolan John , Veinstein Gilles , Laurens Henry
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the major intellectual and technological revolutions of the eighteenth century, which was driven in large part by the printed word. The dizzying pace—made possible by the printed word—at which knowledge accumulated demonstrates the essence of the Enlightenment as an effort at totalizing and deciphering that knowledge. Two distinct historical sources, moreover, provided the Enlightenment with its specific orientation. First, the European crisis of conscience in the wake of the Wars of Religion opened the way for a critique of religion, tending more in the direction of deism than of atheism. And second, the progress of the modern state tended to undermine the foundations of the old law-and-order societies.
The First Blows to European Domination
Authors: Tolan John , Veinstein Gilles , Laurens Henry
Published: November 2017

This chapter chronicles the initial wave of revolutionary fervor in the Muslim world. It first looks at Persia, the first revolutionary Muslim tendencies arose. Moreover, in the early twentieth century, European political alignments changed, with tragic consequences for the Muslim world under European domination, despite theoretical independence. The new European political alignment, founded on a de facto alliance between France, Great Britain, and Russia, came about directly at the expense of the Muslim world in Morocco, Egypt, and Persia. By contrast, imperial Germany, which felt threatened by a supposed desire to encircle it, more than ever looked like the major power protecting Islam.
The Spread of Market Logic
Authors: Berman Elizabeth Popp
Published: November 2017

The preceding three chapters showed how changes in the policy environment, driven by a newfound political concern with innovation, allowed specific market-oriented practices to grow and spread across universities in the late 1970s and early 1980s. This chapter examines how the market logic embodied in those practices became increasingly influential throughout academic science during the 1980s. The success of biotech entrepreneurship, university patenting, and university-industry research centers encouraged additional experiments with and expansions of market-logic activity, only some of which were successful. The 1980s also saw a new wave of expansion of older market-oriented activities, like research parks, that had stagnated during the 1970s.
Conclusion
Authors: Berman Elizabeth Popp
Published: November 2017

The preceding chapters have presented evidence in support of the book's main argument that government decisions were the most important driver of universities' decision to expand their economic role, and that those decisions were made because a new way of thinking became politically important. This concluding chapter reexamines the evidence for that argument and compares the proposed explanation with alternative possibilities. It then takes a step back to consider some broader implications of the story told about the transformation of academic science, both for how we understand the changing role of the market in our society and for how we think about the university today.
How to Learn Something in an Empowerment Project
Authors: Eliasoph Nina
Published: November 2017

This chapter is an overview of “empowerment projects.” It shows how empowerment projects are supposed to blend different kinds of people and different kinds of organizations—civic association, state agency, nonprofit organization, family, and cultural tradition. Since funding is usually short-term, all of this blending has to happen flexibly, rapidly, and transparently, with documentation for multiple sources, each with a separate form. Organizers celebrate all this melting of stiff boundaries, finding it exciting and empowering. But the blending also produces tensions, as it is often hard to juggle this many different types of relationships all in one place, all at once.
“The Spirit that Moves Inside You”: Puzzles of Using Volunteering to Cure the Volunteer’s Problems
Authors: Eliasoph Nina
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains how the empowerment talk suggests that volunteering is good because it is soul-changing, which leads organizers to embrace this mission. Fulfilling this mission of deeply inspiring and transforming the volunteers, however, would be hard. Moreover, to fulfill the mission of helping needy volunteers themselves—youth who are “not the usual leader type,” who lack confidence—organizers have to make sure that volunteering seems easy. These two missions come into possible tension with each other, and with a third to complicate matters: helping others, which usually requires knowledge, or even expertise, and not just inspiration. There is thus a possible three-way dissonance between inspiring all of the volunteers, helping the needy volunteers, and having the expertise or know-how to help other people.
Static Linear Anti-windup Augmentation
Authors: Zaccarian Luca , Teel Andrew R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the first constructive tools for anti-windup augmentation. It considers the simplest possible augmentation scheme that may induce on the closed loop the qualitative objectives of anti-windup augmentation, possibly in addition to some of the quantitative performance objectives. The focus is on the “static linear anti-windup” augmentation architecture, wherein the difference between the input and the output of the saturation block drives a static linear system that injects modification signals into the unconstrained controller dynamics. Before introducing the anti-windup design algorithms, the chapter discusses suitable state–space representations of the control systems, along with algorithms providing global and regional guarantees. The class of algorithms examined here is based on linear matrix inequalities that, when appropriately solved, provide gain selections that correspond to optimal values of certain performance measures.
The MRAW Structure Applied to Other Problems
Authors: Zaccarian Luca , Teel Andrew R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains how the model recovery anti-windup (MRAW) structure can be applied to other problems. For plants with both input rate and magnitude saturation, the scheme can be employed to recover the performance of a controller synthesized for the system without input magnitude and rate saturation. From a mathematical viewpoint, input rate saturation can be modeled by augmenting the plant equations. The chapter first considers how the MRAW scheme can be generalized when dealing with magnitude- and rate-saturated inputs before discussing the MRAW solution to the windup problem in the case of dead-time plants. It also describes bumpless authority transfer in multicontroller schemes and reliable control via hardware redundancy.
Anti-windup for Euler-Lagrange Plants
Authors: Zaccarian Luca , Teel Andrew R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers a specific case study where the model recovery anti-windup (MRAW) framework is applied to a class of nonlinear plants consisting of all fully actuated Euler-Lagrange systems. For such plants, an anti-windup construction is proposed that is capable of recovering global asymptotic stability of the closed loop with saturation as long as the unconstrained controller guarantees global asymptotic stability and local exponential stability of the unconstrained closed loop. The chapter first explains how MRAW for the saturated closed loop can be performed by generalizing the compensation scheme for linear plants, highlighting the selection of the stabilizer as a key aspect of successful anti-windup augmentation. It then presents some simulation examples to demonstrate the proposed anti-windup construction, including its application to a simple nonlinear robot arm and to models of two industrial robots, the PUMA robot and the SCARA robot.
Why Spin Glasses?
Authors: Stein Daniel L. , Newman Charles M.
Published: November 2017

Spin glasses are disordered magnetic materials, and it is hard to find a less promising candidate to serve as a focal point of complexity studies, much less as the object of thousands of investigations. On first inspection, they don't seem particularly exciting. Although they're a type of magnet, they're not very good at being magnetic. Metallic spin glasses are unremarkable conductors, and insulating spin glasses are fairly useless as practical insulators. This introductory chapter provides an overview of why spin glasses might be of interest to the reader if they are not a physicist but are interested in any of a variety of other problems outside physics, or more generally in the field of complexity itself. It explores those features of spin glasses that have attracted, in turn, condensed matter and statistical physicists, complexity scientists, and mathematicians and applied mathematicians of various sorts.
Benfordʼs Law Geometry
Authors: Leemis Lawrence
Published: November 2017

This chapter switches from the traditional analysis of Benford's law using data sets to a search for probability distributions that obey Benford's law. It begins by briefly discussing the origins of Benford's law through the independent efforts of Simon Newcomb (1835–1909) and Frank Benford, Jr. (1883–1948), both of whom made their discoveries through empirical data. Although Benford's law applies to a wide variety of data sets, none of the popular parametric distributions, such as the exponential and normal distributions, agree exactly with Benford's law. The chapter thus highlights the failures of several of these well-known probability distributions in conforming to Benford's law, considers what types of probability distributions might produce data that obey Benford's law, and looks at some of the geometry associated with these probability distributions.
When the State Speaks, What Should It Say?
Authors: Brettschneider Corey
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on democratic persuasion. Although democratic persuasion stresses the importance of an active role for the legitimate state in promoting democratic values, value democracy does not abandon all accounts of neutrality in thinking about freedom of expression. The Supreme Court's doctrine of viewpoint neutrality is appropriate as a standard for limiting state coercion. Viewpoint neutrality means that all viewpoints, regardless of their content, should be protected by freedom of expression, provided they are not direct threats to individuals. However, while viewpoint neutrality is appropriate as a standard for applying the right of free expression to citizens, it is misplaced as a guide to determining the state's own expression and what it should say. The chapter argues that the state should be non-neutral in its persuasive and expressive roles.
Value Democracy at Home and Abroad
Authors: Brettschneider Corey
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter examines some possible further implications of democratic persuasion that might be a source for further study. The first implication is that the book's view might serve as a model for other states that seek an alternative to the two dominant approaches to free speech. The third approach, democratic persuasion, allows free speech advocates to retain the protections against coercion found in rights of free expression. However, democratic persuasion also gives voice to the fundamental value of free and equal citizenship that underlies free speech. The second implication of the book's view is that it can also serve as a model for understanding how to promote ideals of equality in international law without violating the rights of individuals or the rights of states. Indeed, democratic persuasion already has a prominent role in international law.
Price Behavior in Hellenistic Babylon
Authors: Temin Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about Hellenistic prices in Babylon, with which a large data set has survived. The price data come from a vast archive of astronomical cuneiform tablets from the ancient city of Babylon. These tablets are unique among documents pertinent to the study of ancient history. Because of the astronomical content, any evidence extracted from these texts can be dated with certainty. Furthermore, the market quotations always were expressed in the same terms: quantities that can be purchased for one shekel (a weight measure, not a coin) of silver. In addition, values of the same six commodities were listed in a set order: barley, dates, cuscuta (mustard), cardamom (cress), sesame, and wool.
The Labor Market
Authors: Temin Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains how labor is an important input into the production of wheat and other commodities. However, this examination of the Roman market is complicated by the presence of Roman slavery. The existence of slavery was taken by a previous generation of scholars to preclude the possibility of a Roman labor market. A functioning labor market couples a labor demand with a labor supply. Two conditions must be filled, at least partially: workers must be free to change their economic activity and/or their location, and they must be paid something commensurate with their labor productivity to indicate to them which kind of work to choose. Labor productivity here means the output of goods or services that results from the employment of an individual worker.
Economic Growth in a Malthusian Empire
Authors: Temin Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Rome's lack of an industrial revolution. Without this momentous change, Rome was subject to Malthusian pressures that limited its economic growth. Yet Malthusian economies can have economic growth, which means having rising standards of living. The Malthusian theory of population change argues that changes in productivity lead to changes in the size of the population, but leave the level of per capita income. The chapter shows dynamics providing a way to acknowledge growing per capita income in the basically Malthusian world of the early Roman Empire. It also provides a way to ask if the Romans could have escaped the Malthusian constraints.
Roman Macroeconomics
Authors: Temin Peter
Published: November 2017

This final section brings together my thoughts and speculations on the implications of the preceding chapters on individual markets. When I began working on Roman economics, I did not think there was enough information to deal with macroeconomic questions of economic growth and the size of the economy. I still believe that the shortage of information makes these questions difficult and elusive. I hope that readers who have followed me so far in my intellectual journey will be encouraged to stay along for thoughts and speculations about what all the market activity of the Roman Empire meant for ordinary Romans....
The Juggernaut of Global Capitalism
Authors: Nadeem Shehzad
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the cultural dynamics of the offshore workplace from the perspective of Tyler Pfeifer, an American executive in Bombay. Pfeifer had come to India armed with a firm belief in the promises of globalization. Instead, he found a hopelessly muddled reality. This chapter considers what it is like for an American to manage Indian workers by assessing Pfeifer's experience. It traces Pfeifer's journey from intense optimism about globalization, when he cofounded an outsourcing company, to the melancholic uncertainty that made him decide to leave India. It also discusses Pfeifer's views on attrition, the benefits of global capitalism, India and Indian workers, and the social costs of modernization.
Conclusion
Authors: Nadeem Shehzad
Published: November 2017

This conclusion revisits the book's central themes and explores their relevance for development strategies. It first considers the economic divide in India, arguing that it is also a cultural one and that both are reinforced by economic reforms that benefit specific class segments to the exclusion of others. It then discusses India's reliance on the global market and international trade, along with the effect of the outsourcing debate on the attitudes of business, policymakers, and the citizenry. It also calls for the denaturalization of globalization and construction of alternative paths of development that allow for experimentation and creativity. Finally, it contends that the prevailing desire for economic growth must be situated within a broader framework in which social goals can be pursued simultaneously.
Perfectible Apes in Decadent Cultures: Rousseau’s Anthropology Revisited1
Authors: Wokler Robert , Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

The diffusion of Rousseau's influence over the past two centuries has been so wide and so substantial that hardly a subject or movement appears to have escaped his clutches. Rousseau perceived a historical connection between the animal and cultural features of humanity, and between our physical evolution and social development, which led him to construct a comprehensive anthropological theory remarkably original in his own day and remains worthy of critical investigation now. This chapter sketches the leading features of that theory in the intellectual context, which at once most clearly establishes their meaning and elucidates their significance as well. For Rousseau, our physical evolution is based on a set of conjectures to the effect that the human race may have descended from apes.
Preparing the Definitive Edition of the Correspondance de Rousseau
Authors: Wokler Robert , Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter details the story behind the publication of the Correspondance complète de Rousseau by Ralph Leigh. It begins in the 1920s and the the Dufour-Plan edition of the Correspondance générale de Rousseau, which was, at least from the point of view of Rousseau studies, a publishing fiasco which from its inception cried out for remedy. It then moves on to the 1950s and the efforts of Theodore Besterman to publish a “definitive” edition of the correspondence of Rousseau, and his relationship with Leigh. Over the whole period of their dealings from the early 1960s until the death of Besterman in 1976, they exchanged recriminations about Rousseau.
Rouseau’s Two Concepts of Liberty
Authors: Wokler Robert , Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

In the history of political thought there is no more outspoken defender of freedom than Rousseau, no one who expressed a deeper regret over the liberty we have lost or a more profound longing for the liberty we should seek. However, the main charge leveled against him by his opponents has consistently been that the manipulative powers entrusted in his works to sovereign assemblies, legislators, and tutors alike deprive persons of the very liberty he claims they should enjoy. This chapter considers the objection to Rousseau's doctrine that the very concept acknowledged to lie at the heart of his philosophy in fact means the opposite of what he claims on its behalf—in effect, that his defense of liberty is illiberal. That charge of illiberalism is generally premised on the claim that Rousseau defined liberty falsely, and that the institutions he prescribed for its fulfillment in fact thwart or destroy it.
The Enlightenment and the French Revolutionary Birth Pangs of Modernity
Authors: Wokler Robert , Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter's overriding objective is to explain how both the invention of our modern understanding of the social sciences, on the one hand, and the post-Enlightenment establishment of the modern nation-state, on the other, encapsulated doctrines which severed modernity from the Enlightenment philosophy which is presumed to have inspired it. It offers illustrations not so much of the unity of political theory and practice in the modern world as of their disengagement. In providing here some brief remarks on how post-Enlightenment justifications of modernity came to part company from their Enlightenment prefigurations, it hopes to sketch an account of certain links between principles and institutions which bears some relation to both Enlightenment and Hegelian conceptual history.
Isaiah Berlin’s Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment
Authors: Wokler Robert , Brooke Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the work of Isaiah Berlin. In 1973, Berlin produced the essay on “The Counter-Enlightenment,” which is commonly said to mark the invention of that term, at least in English. In the years following his retirement, his work on the Counter-Enlightenment enhanced his standing over the past twenty-five years, invigorating keen interest in new circles, most notably among communitarians who had earlier found his liberalism unpalatable. Perhaps even more than his liberalism, however, it is Berlin's pluralism that now forms the mainspring of his reputation. It is largely through his elaboration and embellishment of his notion of the Counter-Enlightenment that his pluralism has come to be seen as the mainspring of his political philosophy as a whole.
Moduli Space
Authors: Farb Benson , Margalit Dan
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the moduli space of Riemann surfaces. The moduli space parameterizes many different kinds of structures on Sɡ, such as isometry classes of hyperbolic structures on S, conformal classes of Riemannian metrics on S, biholomorphism classes of complex structures on S, and isomorphism classes of smooth algebraic curves homeomorphic to S. The chapter first considers the moduli space as the quotient of Teichmüller space before discussing the moduli space of the torus. It then examines the theorem (due to Fricke) that Mod(S) acts properly discontinuously on Teich(S), with a finite-index subgroup of Mod(S) acting freely such that M(S) is finitely covered by a smooth aspherical manifold. The chapter also looks at Mumford's compactness criterion, which describes what it means to go to infinity in M(S), and concludes by showing that M(Sɡ) is very close to being a classifying space for Sɡ-bundles.
The Nielsen-Thurston Classification
Authors: Farb Benson , Margalit Dan
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains and proves the Nielsen–Thurston classification of elements of Mod(S), one of the central theorems in the study of mapping class groups. It first considers the classification of elements for the torus of Mod(T² before discussing higher-genus analogues for each of the three types of elements of Mod(T². It then states the Nielsen–Thurston classification theorem in various forms, as well as a connection to 3-manifold theory, along with Thurston's geometric classification of mapping torus. The rest of the chapter is devoted to Bers' proof of the Nielsen–Thurston classification. The collar lemma is highlighted as a new ingredient, as it is also a fundamental result in the hyperbolic geometry of surfaces.
Pseudo-Anosov Theory
Authors: Farb Benson , Margalit Dan
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the construction as well as the algebraic and dynamical properties of pseudo-Anosov homeomorphisms. It first presents five different constructions of pseudo-Anosov mapping classes: branched covers, constructions via Dehn twists, homological criterion, Kra's construction, and a construction for braid groups. It then proves a few fundamental facts concerning stretch factors of pseudo-Anosov homeomorphisms, focusing on the theorem that pseudo-Anosov stretch factors are algebraic integers. It also considers the spectrum of pseudo-Anosov stretch factors, along with the special properties of those measured foliations that are the stable (or unstable) foliations of some pseudo-Anosov homeomorphism. Finally, it describes the orbits of a pseudo-Anosov homeomorphism as well as lengths of curves and intersection numbers under iteration.
Thurston's Proof
Authors: Farb Benson , Margalit Dan
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes Thurston's original path of discovery to the Nielsen–Thurston classification theorem. It first provides an example that illustrates much of the general theory, focusing on Thurston's iteration of homeomorphisms on simple closed curves as well as the linear algebra of train tracks. It then explains how the general theory works and presents Thurston's original proof of the Nielsen–Thurston classification. In particular, it considers the Teichmüller space and the measured foliation space. The chapter also discusses measured foliations on a pair of pants, global coordinates for measured foliation space, the Brouwer fixed point theorem, the Thurston compactification for the torus, and Markov partitions. Finally, it evaluates other approaches to proving the Nielsen–Thurston classification, including the use of geodesic laminations.
Between Citizens and the State
Authors: Loss Christopher P.
Published: November 2017

This book tracks the dramatic outcomes of the federal government's growing involvement in higher education between World War I and the 1970s, and the conservative backlash against that involvement from the 1980s onward. The book recovers higher education's central importance to the larger social and political history of the United States in the twentieth century, and chronicles its transformation into a key mediating institution between citizens and the state. Framed around the three major federal higher education policies of the twentieth century—the 1944 G.I. Bill, the 1958 National Defense Education Act, and the 1965 Higher Education Act—the book charts the federal government's various efforts to deploy education to ready citizens for the national, bureaucratized, and increasingly global world in which they lived. It details the myriad ways in which academic leaders and students shaped, and were shaped by, the state's shifting political agenda as it moved from a preoccupation with economic security during the Great Depression, to national security during World War II and the Cold War, to securing the rights of African Americans, women, and other previously marginalized groups during the 1960s and 1970s. Along the way, the book reappraises the origins of higher education's current-day diversity regime, the growth of identity group politics, and the privatization of citizenship at the close of the twentieth century. At a time when people's faith in government and higher education is being sorely tested, this book sheds new light on the close relations between American higher education and politics.
Reorganizing Higher Education in the Shadow of the Great War
Authors: Loss Christopher P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the growth of American higher education during the 1920s. Though World War I caused havoc at many campuses, some fields of study, such as psychology, exploited the war in order to extend their professional influence beyond the university laboratory. The explosion in psychological knowledge after World War I moreover opened up higher education's parental powers beyond the academic and bodily to include students' emotional health and well-being. This new focus on personal adjustment turned higher education into an institution that not only imparted knowledge and credentials to students, but also offered students training to navigate hierarchical organizations. Higher education pioneered work on personal adjustment, which during and after World War II became the very heart of educated citizenship.
Educating Global Citizens in the Cold War
Authors: Loss Christopher P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter depicts the challenges posed to higher education during the Cold War. Despite suffering a torrent of anticommunist attacks—and more than a few casualties—higher education also played a leading role in the government's battle for hearts and minds in the 1950s. At home and abroad the American state deployed education in order to produce democratic citizens and then used public opinion polls to evaluate the integrity of the production process. Obsessively tracked during the Cold War, “public opinion” offered policymakers and educational elites access to the American people's collective psychological adjustment and mental health, to their intellectual fitness and their knowledge of the bipolar Cold War world in which they lived.
Higher Education Confronts the Rights Revolution
Authors: Loss Christopher P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how students' private concerns came to occupy the center of campus and national politics in the 1960s and in so doing thrust higher education into the thick of the nascent rights revolution. Students' rights-based reconstruction of the educated citizen marked a departure from the older reciprocal-based formulation that had been decisive in the creation of past higher education policy. From the 1930s through the 1950s, the state provided citizens with educational opportunities in order to repay them for their sacrifices during the Great Depression and the brutal war years that followed. But the gradual expansion of educational access and of federal involvement in higher education set in motion a sequence of unexpected social and political reactions that prepared the way for the shift from a reciprocal to a rights-based conception of the educated citizen founded on the principle of diversity.
Liberal Imperialism
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that liberalism is intrinsically imperialist and that we should understand the attractions of liberal imperialism, even as it cautions against succumbing to that attraction. Liberal imperialism, or liberal interventionism, is the doctrine that a state with the capacity to force liberal political institutions and social aspirations upon nonliberal states and societies is justified in so doing. Contrary to the orthodoxy in political theory, there is nothing odd about the notion that we can force an individual or a society to be free. The chapter considers two actual cases of liberal imperialism, one relating to the East India Company and the other to World War II, and one nineteenth-century text: John Stuart Mill's essay On Liberty. It also examines the consequentialist-liberalism defense of intervention and how it overlaps with arguments for intervention based on human rights.
Sense and Sensibility in Mill’s Political Thought
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines John Stuart Mill's political thought, asking in particular what we can learn about his intellectual project from attention to his Autobiography. It explores the way Mill's depiction of his own life and personality illuminates his social, political, and intellectual allegiances by focusing on the interconnections between On Liberty, Autobiography, and The Subjection of Women. It suggests that Mill's ambivalence about passivity and self-assertion is related to his arguments in The Subjection of Women. There are two views one might take of this matter. One would be to argue that liberalism is ideologically committed to an unsatisfactory view of marriage and perhaps of all close personal relationships; the other would be to argue that there is no particular reason why a satisfactory liberal view of these matters cannot be developed, but that Mill himself came up short.
Mill in a Liberal Landscape
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the difficulties a late twentieth-century reader will have with John Stuart Mill's liberalism as well as its differences from many contemporary—that is, late twentieth-century—liberalisms. It first lays out Mill's argument and the context of his discussion, that is, about whom the essay On Liberty was aimed at, negatively and positively. The essay was less interested in employing the principle to restrain coercion by single individuals than to restrain the coercive actions of groups. The chapter concludes by contrasting Mill's liberalism with the liberalisms of John Rawls and Isaiah Berlin in order to bring out some of the ways in which Mill was and was not a pluralist, did and did not attend to “the separateness of persons,” did and did not espouse a full-fledged teleological and ideal conception of the autonomous individual.
Mill and Rousseau: Utility and Rights
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines some differences between rights-based and utilitarian defenses of democracy by referencing to John Stuart Mill and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Since the early 1960s, Mill and Rousseau have been regarded as theorists of “participatory democracy,” defenders of a classical ideal of citizen virtue and public spirit who could still teach us something about the point of democratic government. The chapter first explains a rights-based theory of democracy and its emphasis on questions of legitimacy and authority before considering how the account of Rousseau and Mill seem to be at odds with the account of the connection between rights and democracy, on the one hand, and between utility and democracy on the other. It suggests that Rousseau's ethics are fundamentally the ethics of natural rights, whereas Mill's ethics are fundamentally utilitarian.
Pragmatism, Social Identity, Patriotism, and Self-Criticism
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the interrelationships between John Dewey's educational ideals, his philosophy more broadly, and his account of American identity. It considers the background of Dewey's discussion of “Americanization” and his philosophical account of national identity; Dewey's pragmatism, with its emphasis on the sociality of thought and individuality; and his distinction of good and bad nationalism. It also places Dewey's ideas in their American political context by contrasting them with those of some other pluralist writers of the period of World War I. The contrast is between Dewey's conception of identity and that of German philosophy of the 1920s and 1930s. The contrast is interesting inasmuch as it is sometimes said that Dewey and Martin Heidegger held similarly nonfoundationalist views of philosophy, held similarly skeptical views about traditional metaphysics, and in a sense agreed that philosophy had become the criticism of culture.
John Rawls
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the impact of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice on the liberal audience that took it up. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls offers a defense of civil disobedience that would make politically motivated disobedience a much more acceptable part of our political life than either the U.S. Supreme Court or the English judiciary seems likely to contemplate. Furthermore, his views about the subservience of economic institutions to “social justice” place him firmly on one side of what is currently the most fiercely contested dividing line in politics in Britain today. The chapter also considers Rawls's use of the theory of the social contract to support his arguments; his principle of “the priority of liberty”; and his “difference principle.” It asserts that Rawls is safe from those critics who maintain that what purports to be a defense of liberalism actually collapses into a wholesale collectivism.
Maximizing, Moralizing, and Dramatizing
Authors: Ryan Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a “dramatistic,” “dramatic,” or “dramaturgical” approach to the study of social interaction. It asks whether the dramaturgical model insists on the theatricality of social life merely in the sense of insisting that people fill roles just as persons act parts in a play. This is the question of whether the crucial element in the dramaturgical picture is that cluster of insights that goes under the general heading of “role distance.” The chapter considers the peculiarities of rational explanation and about the role of reconstructions of “the thing to do” other than the role of explaining an action or series of actions by focusing on voting behavior in the terms proposed by Anthony Downs's An Economic Theory of Democracy. It also examines some recent accounts of the phenomenon of suicide, along with the rationality principle, which Karl Popper calls “false but indispensable” to the social sciences.
Life History Variation and Phenology
Authors: Post Eric
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at examples illustrating patterns in phenological responses to observed and experimental climate change. The most commonly observed phenological response to recent climate change is an advance in the timing of early life history events such as migration, plant emergence or flowering, amphibian breeding, or egg-laying dates in birds. Patterns in satellite-derived images of primary productivity suggest a lengthening of the plant-growing season in recent decades, whereas data on plant phenological dynamics from studies conducted at plot and sublandscape scales indicate shortened phenophases, or phenological events, in response to warming. This contrast may be resolved by recognizing the difference between phenology in the context of individual life history strategies of disparate species and landscape-scale patterns of phenology, and by recognizing the difference between local, species-specific phenological dynamics and those occurring at the landscape scale.
Creating Oportunity
Authors: Acs Zoltan J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the system of opportunity creation in the United States, which has been a series of inventions and reinventions of the means by which opportunity has been provided. It begins with a historical background on efforts to suppress opportunity—or at least keep a monopoly hold on it—particularly in Britain. It then considers how opportunity has been embedded in American-style capitalism in two fundamental ways. The first is by equipping individuals with the skills they need to participate in capitalism; the second relates to the functioning of innovation and markets, and to the ability of new industries, firms, and jobs to challenge the status quo—namely, creative destruction. It also highlights the fundamental tension between wealth creation and maintaining economic opportunity. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the role played by schools and education reformers in the history of opportunity and opportunity creation in America.
Charity and Philanthropy
Authors: Acs Zoltan J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the history of philanthropy and shows the extent to which it is woven into the very fabric of the American entrepreneurial experiment. In order to understand philanthropy as a viable system for recycling wealth and creating opportunity, it is worth probing the dynamics that have sustained philanthropic giving and the conditions under which it has prospered and wavered. After providing a historical background on philanthropy in the United States, the chapter considers the Giving Pledge, an idea put forth by Bill Gates and Warren Buffett that commits billionaires to give away one-half of their wealth in their lifetimes. It then looks at the origins of American generosity, along with volunteerism, associations, and self-reliance. It also discusses mass philanthropy, the welfare state and the persistence of philanthropy, political philanthropy, and the rationale behind philanthropy and charity.
Transposition and Refunctionality
Authors: Padgett John F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter asserts that the organizational genesis mechanism behind the emergence of the Renaissance Florentine partnership systems was “transposition and refunctionality.” Transposition in this case means that master-apprentice relational protocols from the world of guilds were imported into the previously patrilineage world of Florentine international finance. Here, partnership systems, which were an important innovation in the history of commercial capitalism, became one constitutive network in a new multi-network republican-cum-merchant open elite. The Florentine partnership system was a legally decentralized “network star” organizational form for doing diversified business in international trade and finance and in domestic textile manufacturing. The dominant relational language within this new Renaissance elite, in politics, in marriage, in business, and in art, was patronage.
Why the Valley Went First
Authors: Fleming Lee , Colfer Lyra , Marin Alexandra , McPhie Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows the early emergence of Silicon Valley and Boston. Much has been made of the cultural differences between Silicon Valley in the Bay Area and Boston's Route 128. The chapter digs beneath this surface portrait, discerning which organizations are most generative. It looks at the structural differences between two leading technology hubs. Using patent data that capture inventor networks, the chapter highlights the importance of careers. It also reveals much greater information flow and career mobility across organizations and industries in the Valley than in Boston. This movement of people and ideas was spurred by the critical intermediary roles of certain institutions which functioned like the anchor tenants that were the pollinators in the biotechnology clusters in Chapter 14. The chapter thus argues that this anchoring of diversity is central to the formation of technology clusters.
Managing the Boundaries of an “Open” Project
Authors: Ferraro Fabrizio , O’Mahony Siobhán
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the emergence of Debian, a community software project, from 1997 to 2002, showing how select, skilled programmers emerged as the custodians who guided Debian in the context of its highly distributed and pluralistic structure. These stewards functioned in a somewhat comparable fashion to the open elite in biotechnology, ushering in promising newcomers, policing free riders, and maintaining the norms of the community. In such a manner, this small community of gatekeepers helped mobilize resources and commitment to a model of governance that resembled the invisible college of biotech science described in chapter 13. Through the development of key signing practices, a membership process was monitored by a small number of gatekeepers who maintained the openness of the system.
On the Currency of Egalitarian Justice
Authors: Cohen G. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines answers to the question posed by Amartya Sen in his Tanner Lecture of 1979 called “Equality of What?” Sen asked what metric egalitarians should use to establish the extent to which their ideal is realized in a given society. What aspect(s) of a person's condition should count in a fundamental way for egalitarians, and not merely as cause of or evidence of or proxy for what they regard as fundamental? The chapter also advances the Cohen's own answer to Sen's question. This answer is the product of an immanent critique of Ronald Dworkin, one that rejects Dworkin's declared position because it is not congruent with its own underlying motivation.
Afterword to Chapters One and Two
Authors: Cohen G. A.
Published: November 2017

1. INTELLECTUAL ETHICS DEMAND a degree of follow-through on things that one has written: one should respond to criticism and, where necessary, amend one’s position. But satisfying that demand can mean diminishing returns in illumination per unit of effort, and trade-off judgments sometimes have to be made....
Love’s Blindness (2): Love’s Friendly Eye
Authors: Jollimore Troy
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains that we have already seen that love encourages the lover to be effectively blind to a great many properties of and facts about people other than her beloved—facts and properties that if attached to her beloved, would command her attention and in many cases matter a great deal. This chapter considers the suggestion that there is a second sort of blindness, which stands alongside and functions simultaneously with the first. Both species of blindness raise issues in both moral and epistemic contexts. Love, because it might seem to encourage these forms of blindness, may be accused of a tendency to cause lovers both to perform immoral actions and to form or accept false or misleading beliefs. Indeed, some writers have suggested that we see love's requirements as fundamentally opposed to requirements of morality and of epistemic rationality. The chapter looks at the epistemic issue and argues that love, rather than representing a challenge to epistemic standards, is best understood as embodying epistemic standards of its own.