bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rituals of Punishment
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

The small minority of offenders whose journey through the judicial system ended in a capital conviction and therefore in a period in the most feared room on that journey—the condemned cell—were subjected (if they failed to negotiate a pardon) to a series of rituals which are worthy of more detailed discussion in themselves. In particular they faced both the public pronouncement of the sentence of death—the climactic emotional point of the criminal law Hay has argued—and the most terrible experience the law had to offer to property offenders—the one way journey to the gallows. This chapter will look at the public rituals that accompanied these events, assessing their impact not only on the accused but also on the wider audiences which they were designed to influence.
The Clergy
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

On 5 April 1608 the Durham clergy assembled in the cathedral under the presidency of their new bishop, William James, for the Easter diocesan synod. The sermon was delivered by a local minister, Thomas Oxley. It was remarkable for Oxley’s sharp criticism of many fellow clergymen, and of the late bishop, Tobias Matthew. Casting his eyes round his audience, Oxley declared:
Epidemics on Small Islands
Authors: Haggett Peter
Published: November 2023

Ever since Charles Darwin landed on the Galapagos Islands in September 1835, small islands have secured a special place in scientific history. In this lecture I try to show how the complex warfare of island invasion and island extinction observed by Darwin for plants and animals, also applies with equal force to the invasion and extinction of those microorganisms which cause many epidemic diseases. While case studies range from the familiar (influenza and the common cold) to the exotic (kuru and tsutsugamushi), I concentrate on the tracker diseases (measles) described in the opening lecture and confine myself to the islands Iceland and the Fijian group, which we have studied with most care.
Dancing Through Time
Authors: Telban Borut
Published: November 2023

Dancing through Time presents a rich and incisive analysis of person, time, and identity among the Karawari speakers of Ambonwari village in the East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea, through the examination of everyday practices, language, social institutions, kinship, myths, spirit-things, rituals, and dances. In addition to its descriptive value, the book offers a fresh theoretical approach to the study of Melanesian cultures.
Social Institutions
Authors: Telban Borut
Published: November 2023

Certain features of ‘the way of the village’ (iminggan kay) are represented as quintessentially primordial—as if they were unchanged and unchanging. In constructing their present, however, people also construct their past. ‘[W]hat constitutes a living tradition may reveal an extra dimension to the past—one whose validity is not a matter of “what happened” but of how it may be understood’ (Toren 1988: 696). By collapsing ‘the way of the village’ and ‘the way of the ancestors’ into one another, both can be made to manifest the present or to reveal the past.
Regions and Nations
Authors: Rodríguez-Pose Andrés
Published: November 2023

The cross-sectional study of growth has been mainly carried out at a national level and not at a regional one. Since the pace-setting works of Harrod (1942), Domar (1946), and Solow (1956), applied research on the topic has fundamentally dealt with the growth trajectories of nations. The endogenous approach to growth has been no exception: the renewal of interest in growth was to a certain extent provoked by the compilation of new data sets which allowed the question of economic growth to be researched from new perspectives and with greater accuracy. The databases compiled by Maddison (1982), and by Summers and Heston (1988)—which acted as the base for most recent studies on growth—contained information at a national level. As a consequence, recent research on growth has focused on issues like convergence, increasing and diminishing returns to investment, or the role of technological progress in a national context.
Rituals of Immediacy
Authors: Widlok Thomas
Published: November 2023

So far I have discussed Hai‖om social relationships with regard to their ethnic identity (Chapters 1 and 2), their subsistence economy (Chapters 3 and 4), and their local organization (Chapters 5 and 6). In all these instances the informal and negotiated character of Hai‖om social relationships has been demonstrated. This and the following chapter discuss Hai‖om religious practices in detail, not only because they constitute an important field of everyday Hai‖om life but also because, as rituals-that is, formalized and socially shared activities-they contribute a certain degree of inertia and institutionalization to otherwise flexible practices.
Demanding Ritual Cooperation
Authors: Widlok Thomas
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I elaborate on Hai‖om ritual practices, with particular reference to the central Hai‖om ritual of today, the medicine trance dance. Since the trance dance itself forms part of the interaction between Hai‖om and their neighbours, and since its focus is on social cohesion and cooperation, it shows both the impact of external conditions on Hai‖om group identity and the effect of Hai‖om ritual practice on internal and external social relations. HaiII om not only receive ritual practices from elsewhere, they also contribute ritual forms to their ‘non-Bushman’ neighbours, be they Khoisan-or Bantu-speaking. Furthermore, ritual events are not only structures that may reflect social transformations, but their actual performance adds force to social relations between individuals and between groups.
The Same and Different
Authors: Edwards Jeanette
Published: November 2023

MANY residents of Bacup talk about it as an attractive and a desirable place to live. Recent immigrants come to retire or to bring up their children away from the city. They talk of the beauty of the moors and hint at a rural idyll. Such images are, however, belied by a landscape scarred and battered by successive generations of human activity. Surrounding the town, the land is dissected, seemingly haphazardly, by beautifully crafted drystone walls in varying degrees of disrepair. To the north, huge electricity pylons forge a straight and imposing pathway across hills with sides etched by quarries. It was local millstone grit that was used to build the town’s dwellings, factories, and meeting places. For me, there is something reassuring about this landscape; it is neither pretty nor cosy, but rugged and worn. It is peopled and used. Built, as it is, up the sides and on the floor of a valley, there is a view of hills from many Bacup houses. The combination of open moorland and a history of industry presents a contradiction put to work by residents.
Betrothal Order, Dowry, and the ‘Sisters First’ Principle
Authors: Rheubottom David
Published: November 2023

Ragusa was very different from both Florence and Venice in one respect. To be considered a patrician and be eligible for office in Ragusa, one must have had both a patrician father and a patrician mother. In Venice, on the other hand, one needed to be the legitimate child of a patrician father. The mother need not be of patrician status. She could be a servant or a free woman of low status so long as she was not a slave (Chojnacki 1990: 167). The picture in Florence is somewhat more complex. There one needed to be a Guelf guildsman who met certain other residential and fiscal requirements. This brings us to the topic of marriage. Marriage, as we shall see, presents us with an unexpected reason why certain casate did not dominate Ragusan government. Patrician probity, punitive legislation, and the structure of the nomination system also played a part, but it is aspects of the marriage system which provide a more illuminating explanation.
Changes in the Great Council and Political Competition
Authors: Rheubottom David
Published: November 2023

Following the plagues of the fourteenth century which had wrought such devastation and misfortune to the city, the fifteenth century brought affluence and population growth. Even though there were serious reoccurrences of plague in 1437, 1465-6, and again in 1482, the Ragusan patriciate grew in size through the fifteenth century. A November entry in the 1432 Liber Viridis notes with satisfaction that ‘Our city ... has grown and multiplied, as much in temporal goods and possession, as it has in people and inhabitants’ (Krekic 1987a: 197).As Krekic has shown, there are a number of contemporary documents which also comment on this increase in size. Much later in the century, as a result of the continuing growth, the Great Council decided in 1477 that it was prudent to raise the number of Senators required for a quorum from thirty-one to thirty-five. As the legislation noted, ‘because by the grace of God the number of noblemen has grown and multiplied’ (ibid., quoting Act. Maior. 11: fo. 30v).
Cognition, Emotion, and Politics
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines in more detail the cognitive dimensions of alternative styles of codification and transmission, relating these to the social structure, cohesiveness, and the moral character of religious traditions. If a corpus of doctrine is to be sustained intact as a coherent, uniform, and stable ideological system, then there must be mechanisms for monitoring, remembering, and enforcing the orthodoxy. Paliau and Koriam introduced a variety of sanctions against non-conformity. As well as proclaiming supernatural sanctions, both Koriam and Paliau used the threat of excommunication to discourage would-be innovators (Whitehouse 1995: 89–90; Schwartz 1962: 348). Moreover, on various occasions these leaders were obliged to intervene personally to block splinter organizations within their movements (see, for instance, Schwartz 1962: 342–53).
Entangled Histories
Authors: Whitehouse Harvey
Published: November 2023

We have seen that, in Papua New Guinea, modes of religiosity tend to coalesce as constellations of mutually reinforcing features, including contrasting styles of codification, transmission, cognitive processing, and political organization. In the cases we have examined, the elaboration of a body of doctrine, organized in dialogical, narrative, and digital schemas, tends to be associated with routinization or short cycles of transmission, the cognitive processing of general schemas for ritual performances and religious discourse, the conceptualization of large, anonymous communities, and relatively wide dissemination. Conversely, we have observed a tendency for ritually transmitted ecstatic revelatory imagery to be associated with much longer cycles of transmission, the formation of enduring autobiographical memories for ritual episodes, the establishment of cohesive religious communities, and regional fragmentation.
The Phonology and Morphology Of Kimatuumbi
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

As is typical of African languages, there is little published material on Kimatuumbi, a Bantu language spoken in Tanzania. The grammatical sketch and lexicon published by Krumm in 1912 give no indication of vowel length and tone which are two of the most interesting and complex phonological properties of the language. The descriptive account of these properties and of rule interaction in Kimatuumbi phonology bears on a nember of important theoretical issues, including theories of interaction between phonology and syntax, lexical phonology, the geometric representation of vowel features, and the theory of prosodic representations. This study both broadens our understanding of the structure of African languages and provides data which are crucial for resolving certain questions in contemporary phonological theory.
Segmental Phonology
Authors: Odden David
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers Kimatuumbi segmental phonological alternations, that is, rules involving phonological features as opposed to those involving syllable structure or tone, which will be considered in subsequent chapters.
Word Stress In Portuguese
Authors: Mateus Maria Helena , d’Andrade Ernesto
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we present the facts about word stress in Portuguese, first in the noun and then in the verb system. For the majority (over 70 per cent) of nouns, adjectives and adverbs ending in an oral vowel, stress falls on the syllable before the last, as in (1).
Remarks on the. Impact of Connectionism on Our Thinking about Concepts
Authors: Schopman Joop , Shawky Aziz
Published: November 2023

In this paper attention will be given to the incentive which the revival of connectionism has had on the ideas about the nature of concepts. Therefore, we will start with a short description of the prevailing position in this problem. Then a sketch will be presented of connectionism as far as is needed to sketch the consequences its reintroduction has for our thinking about concepts. Finally, an evaluation will be given which in its turn might lead to suggestions for future research.
Modularity and Logical Cognitivism
Authors: De Gelder Beatrice
Published: November 2023

Since the late 1950s philosophy of science and psychology have each gone their own way. Psychology need no longer restrict itself to behaviourism as it would have had to if the regime,of empiricist philosophy of science had been successfully imposed upon it. In any case, it would seem that in philosophy an empiricist approach to science has been largely abandoned just as in psychology behaviourism now belongs to history. But the interest philosophers take in the proper conduct of psychological research has remained and become more intense over the last two decades. Among the few milestones marking the road away from empiricism and behaviourism is J. A. Fodor’s Psychological Explanation (1968) making a convincing anti-behaviourist case defending mentalism and the scientific study of mental processes as the building-blocks of proper psychological explanations. In other words, whatever the shape of things to come, a future ‘entente’ between philosophy and psychology would no longer be negotiated among empiricists and behaviourists.
Folk Psychology and Naive Physics
Authors: Shanahan Murray
Published: November 2023

The subject of this essay is a particular sort of activity, namely everyday problem-solving, an aptitude for which is displayed by each human being in his ability to attain simple goals, such as navigating an unfamiliar city, or making a cup of tea, or driving a car. Even cats and dogs display such an aptitude, to a lesser degree than human beings but to a greater degree than house flies, in their capacity to find food and shelter and sexual solace.
Encoding Psychological Knowledge
Authors: Pratt Ian
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this paper is to challenge a widely accepted philosophical view concerning the nature of the psychological concepts. By ‘psychological concepts’, I mean, centrally, the concepts of believing, desiring, intending, doubting, hoping, fearing, and so on. According to the view I want to challenge, our grasp of these concepts is to be understood as our mastery of a theory governing their use-specifically, a theory consisting of that body of commonsense knowledge which David Lewis calls folk psychology.
Semantic Structure and Logical Form
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

The validity of some inferences is said to be explained by reference to the meanings of the particular expressions occurring in them, while that of other inferences is due, rather, to the way in which the sentences are constructed out of their parts. The inference from ‘John knows that snow is white’ to ‘Snow is white’ is given as an example of the first type of inference; for it is said to be explained by providing an analysis of the semantical primitive ‘knows’. The inferences from ‘John ran breathlessly’ to ‘John ran’ and from ‘John is a large man’ to ‘John is a man’ may, tentatively, be taken to be examples of the second type.
Can There Be Vague Objects?
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

It is sometimes said that the world might itself be vague. Rather than vagueness being a deficiency in our mode of describing the world, it would then be a necessary feature of any true description of it. ‘It is also said that amongst the statements which may not have a determinate truth value as a result of their vagueness are identity statements. Combining these two views we would arrive at the idea that the world might contain certain objects about which it is a fact that they have fuzzy boundaries.
Reference and Contingency
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

‘A logical theory may be tested by its capacity for dealing with puzzles, and it is a wholesome plan, in thinking about logic, to stock the mind with as many puzzles as possible, since these serve much the same purpose as is served by experiments in physical science.’ This paper is an attempt to follow Russell’s advice by using a puzzle about the contingent a priori to test and explore certain theories of reference and modality. No one could claim that the puzzle is of any great philosophical importance by itself, but to understand it, one has to get clear about certain aspects of the theory of reference; and to solve it, one has to think a little more deeply than one is perhaps accustomed about what it means to say that a statement is contingent or necessary.
Understanding Demonstratives
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

It has recently been claimed that the use of demonstrative or indexical expressions like ‘today’, ‘yesterday’, ‘here’, ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘this’, etc., resists incorporation into a Fregean theory of meaning. I have two reasons for attempting to show that this claim is not true. First, the reasoning seems to me to rest upon a common view of Frege’s notions of sense and reference which is neither attractive nor required by the text, and second, because I believe that a Fregean approach to demonstrative expressions is essentially correct.
Semantic Theory and Tacit Knowledge
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

In his provocative paper, Crispin Wright threw down several challenges to philosophers like myself who have been attracted by, and supposed themselves to be participating in, the enterprise of constructing a systematic theory of meaning for a natural language. I shall have time this evening to take up only one of his challenges, which I hope is the most important.
Molyneux’s Question
Authors: Evans Gareth
Published: November 2023

Suppose a man born blind, and now adult, and taught by his touch to distinguish between a cube and a sphere of the same metal, and nighly of the same bigness, so as to tell, when he felt one and the other, which is the cube, which the sphere. Suppose then the cube and sphere placed on a table, and the blind man to be made to see; quaere, Whether by his sight, before he touched them, he could now distinguish and tell which is the globe, and which the cube? This question aroused tremendous interest among philosophers and psychologists on both sides of the Channel, so much so that Cassirer was able to claim that it formed the central question of eighteenth-century epistemology and psychology.
Social Contexts Conducive to the Vernacularization of Literacy
Authors: Carrington Lawrence D
Published: November 2023

Vernacular languages can remain unused for literate purposes for either technical or societal reasons. Technical reasons would include lack of a writing system, or of a standardized spelling system, or of linguistic descriptions that would allow ready development of these. Societal reasons would include the demographic and structural and political characteristics of the community, the legal status and political and economic affiliations of its languages, the attitudes towards them of members of the society, the educational processes, and the availability of literacy instruction. In this chapter we seek to identify the contexts that might be conducive to the vernacularization of literacy by focusing on the societal interfaces between literacy and vernacular languages. Of course, technical factors eventually become part of the societal discussions, but here we recognize their suitability for separate treatment with limited reference to the social environment.
Essays on Plato and Aristotle
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

J. L. Ackrill's work on Plato and Aristotle has had a considerable influence upon ancient philosophical studies in the late twentieth century. In his writings the rigour and clarity of contemporary analytic philosophy are brought to bear upon ancient thought; in many cases he has provided the first analytic treatment of a key issue. Gathered now in this volume are the best of Ackrill's essays on the two greatest philosophers of antiquity. With philosophical acuity and philological expertise he examines a wide range of texts and topics--from ethics and logic to epistemology and metaphysics--which continue to be in the focus of debate.
Plato on False Belief: Theaetetus 187-200
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

1. The paradox that there can be no such thing as falsity is treated by Plato in a number of places. As exploited in the early dialogue Euthydemus (283e-284c), it appears to rest on a simple equivocation. A false statement would be one that stated what is not , but to state what is not is to state nothing; so a false statement would in fact be a non-statement, no statement at all.
Clauses: Type, Combination, and Integration
Authors: Miller Jim , Weinert Regina
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2 it was argued that the sentence be abandoned as a unit of analysis for spontaneous spoken language and that Halliday’s notion of clause complex be applied instead. We now tum to units smaller than the sentence—the clause and the phrase. The clause is the topic of this chapter while Chapter 4 deals with noun phrases. The discussion of clauses includes infinitives and gerunds, traditionally treated as phrases but now generally regarded as non-finite clauses. This chapter will present a large amount of data from English and Russian in order to demonstrate three general points. Two relate to the constructions of spontaneous spoken language: clause constructions occur in spoken language which are excluded from written language, and many clause constructions which are typical of writing are quite untypical of spontaneous speech; (2) clauses combine and interconnect differently in spontaneous spoken language and in written language. The third point is that similar (but not completely identical) constructions occur in spontaneous speech across languages. This point is important because it makes it more difficult to dismiss the structures of spontaneous speech as mere performance errors.
The Phonology Of Armenian
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

Armenian is geographically one of the most widespread languages of the world, with distinct dialects located as far west as Poland and as far east as India. It has a rich literary history dating from the fourth-century translation of the Bible into Classical Armenian. It is one of the most linguistically divergent of the Indo-European languages, having undergone a host of complicated phonological, morphological, and syntactic changes that continue to resist satisfactory analysis. However, the language has yet to receive a comprehensive treatment by theoretical linguists. Bert Vaux remedies this problem, bringing Armenian into the sphere of phonological discussion by making available to Western readers the results of Armenological work published in Armenian and Russian, and by presenting theoretical analyses of many of the more striking phonological phenomena described in these sources or culled from the author's fieldwork. The topics addressed include syllabification, stress assignment, vowel harmony, feature geometry, consonantvowel interactions, and prosodic structure. Series Information: The Phonology of the World's Languages Series Editor: Professor Jacques Durand, Université de Toulouse-le-Mirail Series ISBN: 0-19-961355-9 Series Description: The phonology of most languages has until now been available only in a fragmented way, through unpublished theses, or articles scattered in more or less accessible journals. Each volume in this series will offer an extensive treatment of the phonology of one language within a modern theoretical perspective and will provide comprehensive references to recent and more classical studies of the language.
Survey Of Armenian Phonology
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I present the basic elements of Armenian phonetics and phonology, focusing on the phonemes and their allophones, and syllable typology. This being the first systematic theoretical study of Armenian phonology (useful non-theoretical studies include Abeκjan, 1923; 1932; Fairbanks, 1948; Allen, 1950; Johnson, 1954; Atf atjan, 1971; Xathjatrjan, 1988; Sukiasjan, 1989), I have drawn my material directly from primary sources, which are cited in the appropriate locations. Throughout this study I concentrate on standard eastern Armenian (SEA), spoken in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Iran, primarily because it distinguishes in pronunciation the three consonant series (voiced, voiceless, and voiceless aspirated) employed in both western and eastern orthography. I also make use of standard western Armenian (SWA) and various non-literary dialects where they help to shed light on the phenomena under consideration or themselves manifest interesting phenomena not found in SEA.
Stress Assignment And Metrical Structure
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

Armenian stress systems are of two basic types, conventionally termed ‘final stress’ and ‘penultimate stress’ by Armenologists. Final stress systems are found in most dialects, and penultimate stress systems occur in Erevan, (Old) Julfa, Meghri, Agulis, Karabagh, Astraxan, and some subdialects of Mush. With the exception of Syria and Shamaxi, which have developed vowel-length contrasts, Armenian dialects appear to be insensitive to prosodic weight distinctions. Nevertheless, a number of phenomena involving irregular stress patterns, vowel reduction, and unstressable vowels reveal that Armenian in fact has an intricate system of metrification similar to those we find in better-known languages such as Cheremis and Chuvash.
Vowel Harmony
Authors: Vaux Bert
Published: November 2023

Vowel harmony systems occur in a wide range of Armenian dialects, from Marash in Turkey to Maragha in Iran to Shamaxi in Azerbaijan. These harmonic systems constrain specifications for the feature [back] (and occasionally [round] as well) within two phonological domains: roots and words. A third, local, type of harmony applies to epenthetic vowels. The dialects in (la) show root harmony, according to which roots can possess no more than one contrastive specification for [back]. This harmony type is examined in 5.2. In group (lb), the same restriction on contrastive [back] specifications applies to the entire word; this harmony type is discussed in 5.3. Epenthetic harmony, which always involves both [back] and [round], occurs in the dialects in (le). This type of harmony, which differs from the other harmony types in being strictly local, is considered separately in 5.4.
Intentionality
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

Thought and speech are intimately connected, in ways that make the study of each shed light on the other. But the nature of that connection, and of the illumination it casts, are vexed issues that are the subject of considerable controversy. At the level of our platitudinous background knowledge about these things, speech is the expression of thought. And understanding what such expressing involves is central to understanding the relation between thinking and speaking. Part of what it is for a speech act to express a mental state is that the speech act accurately captures the mental state and can convey to others what mental state it is. And for this to occur, the speech act at least must have propositional content that somehow reflects that of the mental state, and perhaps must have other such properties as well.
Introspection and Self-Interpretation
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

Introspection is a process by which people have focused access to their own mental states. We have access, of course, to all our conscious states, since a mental state’s being conscious in the first place means in part that one is conscious of that state. That we are conscious of all our conscious states is evident from the fact that, if one is altogether unaware of a state, that state does not count as a conscious state. But our introspective access to a mental state is something more than that state’s simply being conscious. Access to a state is distinctively introspective only when it is deliberate, attentive, and reflective.
Moore’s Paradox and Consciousness
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

As G. E. Moore famously observed, sentences such as ‘It’s raining but I don’t think it is’, though they aren’t contradictory, cannot be used to make coherent assertions.1 The trouble with such sentences is not a matter of their truth conditions; such sentences can readily be true. Indeed, it happens often enough with each of us that we think, for example, that it isn’t raining even though it is. This shows that such sentences are not literally contradictory. But even though these sentences have unproblematic truth conditions, we cannot say the same about their conditions of assertibility. There are no circumstances in which one can use such sentences to perform coherent assertoric speech acts. Situations exist in which these sentences would be true, but none in which anybody could use them to say so.
Why Are Verbally Expressed Thoughts Conscious?
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

Suppose I think it’s going to rain, and leaving my home I take my umbrella. My act of taking my umbrella expresses my thought that it’s going to rain. One way this can all happen is that I consciously think it’s going to rain and deliberately get my umbrella to take with me. But it need not happen this way. I may be late and preoccupied with what I must do that day. So I may reach for my umbrella and take it with me automatically—without thinking, as we might say. In this case I may not even be aware of my thought that it’s going to rain; it may be a nonconscious thought. Nonconscious thoughts often cause appropriate actions, and when that happens the action typically expresses the thought that causes it.1
Verb-Second in Middle Welsh
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with the central word-order patterns of Middle Welsh. It develops a synchronic analysis of the abnormal sentence as a verb-second (V2) phenomenon parallel to similar phenomena in the Germanic languages and in Breton. The discussion shows that, with minor modifications to deal with adverb-placement rules, the standard analysis of verb-second is applicable to Middle Welsh. Restrictions on movement, parallel to those affecting relative clauses, justify the conclusion that in most cases moved preverbal constituents undergo A’-movement. A number of other aspects of the abnormal sentence will also be explored, specifically how it interacts with negation and how the observed agreement patterns can be accounted for. As well as providing an analysis of the construction, the chapter aims to show that the abnormal sentence manifests such intricate rules and cross-linguistic parallels that it is inconceivable that it could be an artificial literary construction.
Verb-First in Middle Welsh
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

Absolute verb-initial (Vl, verb-first) clauses, where at most only the preverbal particle y(d) precedes the verb, are not common in Middle Welsh. On average the frequency of absolute VI, excluding negative clauses and other contexts where it is compulsory, is close to nil in Middle Welsh texts, and in no text which has ever been investigated does it exceed 10 per cent (see Table 3.1).
Children, Families, and Health Care Decision Making
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

Issues In Biomedical Ethics General Editors: John Harris, University of Manchester; S(ren Holm, University of Copenhagen. Consulting Editor: Ranaan Gillon, Director, Imperial College Health Service, London. North American Consulting Editor: Bonnie Steinbock, Professor of Philosophy, SUNY, Albany. The late twentieth century has witnessed dramatic technological developments in biomedical science and the delivery of health care, and these developments have brought with them important social changes. All too often ethical analysis has lagged behind these changes. The purpose of this series is to provide lively, up-to-date, and authoritative studies for the increasingly large and diverse readership concerned with issues in biomedical ethics--not just health care trainees and professionals, but also social scientists, philosophers, lawyers, social workers, and legislators. The series will feature both single-author and multi-author books, short and accessible enough to be widely read, each of them focused on an issue of outstanding current importance and interest. Philosophers, doctors, and lawyers from several countries already feature among the contributors to the series. It promises to become the leading channel for the best original work in this burgeoning field. this book: Lainie Friedman Ross presents an original and controversial examination of the moral principles that guide parents in making health care decisions for their children, and the role of children in the decision-making process. She opposes the current movement to increase child autonomy, in favour of respect for family autonomy. She argues that children should be included in the decision-making process but that parents should be responsible for their children's health care even after the children have achieved some threshold level of competency. The first half of the book presents and defends a model of decision-making for children's health care; the second half shows how it works in various practical contexts, considering children as research subjects and as patients, organ donorship, and issues relating to adolescent sexuality. Implementation of Ross's model would result in significant changes in what informed consent allows and requires for paediatric health care decisions. This is the first systematic medical ethics book that focuses specifically on children's health care. It has important things to say to health care providers who work with children, as well as to ethicists and public policy analysts.
Introduction
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

My purpose in writing this book is to examine how decisions should be made for children, with a focus primarily on health care decisions. I argue that in a liberal society, decisions about a child’s health care should be made by his or her parents. In order for parents to make health care decisions for their child, they must balance the child’s health needs, his or her needs for other primary goods, and the needs and interests of other family members.
The Child as Research Subject
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

The Nuremberg Code was adopted in 1946 in response to the documented abuse of human beings as research subjects by the Nazis. The Code was quite explicit that ‘[t]he voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential’. There was no mention of proxy consent; the subject had to be able to consent to participation. Later codes of ethics included the possibility of participation by incompetent subjects by permitting proxy consent. Whether such consent is morally adequate, particularly when the incompetent subjects are children, was the topic of a series of articles between two American Christian theologians, Paul Ramsey and Richard McCormick, in the early 1970s. Despite contributions by many other ethicists, there remains vigorous disagreement within the medical ethics community as to the morality of a child’s participation as a research subject.
The Sexually Active Adolescent
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

There is a contradiction between the purported acceptance of diverse lifestyles within a liberal community and our present-day policy regarding contraceptives for minors. In a liberal community, it is supposed that adults have a special insight into their own conception of the good life, which they can pass on to their children. Yet recent legislation and court decisions in the United States usurp parental power on health care issues pertaining to adolescent sexuality and reproduction.
Conclusion
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

In the last four chapters, I have applied the model of constrained parental autonomy to various health care activities. Implementation of this model requires significant changes in what informed consent allows and requires for paediatric health care decisions. The model runs counter to the current trend to increase the health care autonomy of adolescents.1 For example, parents would be allowed to override their incompetent and competent child’s dissent to participate in minimal-risk non-therapeutic research, which parents may not do under the current Federal Regulations.
Introduction
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

Norwegian is the branch of North-Germanic spoken in Norway. The other members of the North-Gennanic branch are Swedish, Danish, Icelandic and Farnese. Norwegian is not spoken as a mother tongue outside of Norway, except that it may still be found among older speakers in some Scandinavian settlements in the United States. Among the North-Germanic languages, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian are particularly close. They are to a large degree mutually intelligible, although amount of previous exposure, education and the accents of the interlocutors wi11 play a certain role. Modem Icelandic and Farnese, which descend from the tongue of the settlers from Norway who came to Iceland and the Farnese islands during the medieval period, are generally not understood by Norwegians.
Phonotactic Constraints
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

In this chapter the strcture of lexical items in terms of segment sequencing will be discussed. It is organized as follows. In Section 3.1 I shall introduce the Jexical architecture assumed, and in Section 3.2 I shall go on to discuss the phonotactic principles that constrain segment sequences in the lexicon. Note that this will be done independently of syllabic structure, for reasons that will become clear below. Sy11able structure will be discussed in Chapter 5.
Tonal Accents
Authors: Kristoffersen Gjert
Published: November 2023

Contrastive use of pitch characterizes most Norwegian dialects. Two distinctive melodies are found, usually called accent 1 and2,or within structuralist analyses more often toneme 1 and2. Their realization is dependent on primary stress, and accent 2 normally requires at least one unstressed or secondary stressed syllable following the syHable carrying primary stress. The nonnal case is therefore that no accentual contrast is possible between monosyllabic words. In the present chapter, we shall concentrate mainly on the lexical aspects of the tonal accents and their relationship with word stress. Their relationship and interaction with intonation will also be taken up to the extent that is deemed necessary, but this aspect will be discussed in more detail in Chapter I0.
The Picture of Man as Reconstructed from Linguistic Data: An Attempt at a Systematic Description
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

For hundreds of years the human being has been the subject of study of physiologists, psychologists, philosophers and linguists, to say nothing of sociologists. In the last two to three decades alone dozens of books and hundreds of articles have appeared dealing with human thoughts, desires, feelings, and speech acts. In this chapter it is not possible to take account of all the relevant literature, or even to mention it. We must perforce limit ourselves to references to the following books (Arutiunova 1976: 93—m; Arutiunova 1988: 101—99; Wierzbicka 1987b, 1992; Zalizniak 1992) and the survey by V. Apresjan (1995a), all containing extensive bibliographies. From earlier studies we will mention only a few of those closest to this theme, above all the early works of the Moscow semantic school (Zholkovsky 1964a; Martem’ianov 1964; Shcheglov 1964; Mel’čuk 1974a; MeJ’čuk and Zholkovsky 1984; J. Apresjan 1974) and the books by Anna Wierzbicka and N. D. Arutiunova which have already been mentioned. In particular, the ideas set forth here about the ‘human make-up’ have much in common with what was said by Arutiunova (1988) about the perceptual, mental, emotional, and volitional ‘modes’, their subtypes and their interpenetration. It would be impossible in the space available here, however, to register all the similarities or all the equally numerous differences both in general ideas and in the specific assessments of linguistic facts. It is more practical to explain why yet another essay is needed on a matter on which there is already a vast body of literature, and how this work differs from the others. I shall cite four differences.
On the Language of Explications and Semantic Primitives
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

Work on an explanatory dictionary of Russian synonyms in progress since 1991 (see J. Apresjan 1992b> 1993, Chapters 2–6 in this volume, and J. Apresjan et al. 1992, 1995, 1997) has entailed broad theoretical research in the field of semantics, and in particular it has required a new approach to the language of explications in which a description is given of the shared part of the meanings of the synonyms.The question of the language of explications, or semantic metalanguage, has been discussed over the past thirty to forty years in all the advanced lexicographies of the world. For the purposes of the present work, the ideas of greatest interest are those set forth on this subject by two contemporary semantic schools: the Moscow School (Zholkovsky et al. 1961; Zholkovsky 1964a; Mashinnyi perevod 1964; Shcheglov 1964; Mel’cuk 197,ta; J. Apresjan 1974; Mel’cuk and Zholkovsky 1984; Mel’cuk 1989; Apresjan 1995b) and the Polish School (Boguslawski 1966 and 1970; Wierzbicka 1969, 1972, 1980, 1985, 1987b, 1992).
A Lexicographic Portrait of the Verb vyiti [to emerge, come out]
Authors: Apresjan Juri
Published: November 2023

By a lexicographic portrait of a lexeme we mean a dictionary entry compiled within the framework of a unified or integrated description of a language. The general concept of this description is set out in J. Apresjan (1986b).The integration principle requires that the dictionary and the grammar be coordinated in the types of information given in them and the ways in which they are recorded. Only then are the dictionary and the grammar able to interact with each other within the framework of an integrated linguistic model. In practical terms this means two things. On the one hand, every lexeme in the dictionary should be assigned all the types of information that the rules of grammar may refer to (adjusting the lexis to grammar). By rules of grammar in this context we mean fairly general linguistic rules, including, for example, apart from grammatical rules proper, prosodic, semantic, pragmatic, communicative, and co-occurrence rules.
Fungu la tatu Lakini But ‘
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

Word stress in Swahili is on the penultimate (next to last) syllable. (There are a very few exceptions to this rule, consisting of some loan words.) The rule holds even where words are extended, e.g. asante has stress on sa, asanteni has stress on te. Similarly pole (on po], poleni (on te); kwa  heri (on he), kwa  herini(on ri).
Fungu la kumi na tano Kwenda Mombasa (1) — Going to Mombasa
Authors: Maw Joan
Published: November 2023

The infinitive form of the verb can be used for ‘intention’, also after verbs of wishing, willing, trying, and so on, e.g. ninataka  kununua  tikiti — ‘I want to buy a ticket’. However, if the subject of the second verb is not the same as that of the first, it is necessary to use the subjunctive, e.g. ninataka  ununue  tikiti — ‘I want you to buy a ticket’, anataka  ninunue  tikiti — ‘he wants me to buy a ticket’ etc. Either verb can be in the negative, e.g. sitaki  ununue  tikiti — ‘I don’t want you to buy a ticket’, and nataka  usinunue  tikiti  — ‘I want you not to buy a ticket’. The difference is subtle but real, and can sometimes be crucial. The negative infinitive has —to— before the stem, e.g. kutonunua — ‘not to buy’. You might say to your husband, jaribu  kutokunywa  bia  leo  usiku — ‘try not to drink (any) beer this evening’.
Some Specs on Specs in L2 Acquisition
Authors: Schwartz Bonnie D
Published: November 2023

There are two goals to this chapter: first, to familiarize those outside the field of non-native language (L2) acquisition with some of the conceptual and theoretical concerns of L2 acquisition research; secondly, to discuss some empirical findings, related to the area of specifiers, that bear on these issues. In regard to the latter, data from two studies on child L2 acquisition-one involving clitics (White I 996), the other the order between verb and object (Haznedar 1995, 1997)-will be reexamined. Before turning to these data (Sections 3 and 4, respectively), a brief introduction to the principal issues guiding L2 acquisition research in the generative framework is in order.
Attempts to Solve the Problems
Authors: Carstairs-McCarthy Andrew
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will look at explanations that have been proposed for the three aspects of human language that this book is concerned with—namely, vocabulary size, duality of patterning, and the sentence/NP distinction. I will argue that no previous explanation accounts satisfactorily for any of these aspects of language individually. A fortiori, no previous explanation accounts satisfactorily for them all in a unified fashion. Some of the proposals discussed here shed light on the relationship between the syntactic sentence/NP distinction and the lexical-cum-semantic noun/verb distinction, but none of them explains why the sentence/NP distinction arose in the first place, and certainly no other proposal relates it to vocabulary size and duality of patterning in the way that the scenario to be presented in Chapter 5 does.
The Vowel System
Authors: Siptdr Peter , Torkenczy Miklos
Published: November 2023

A surface phonetic classification of the Hungarian vowel system is shown in (1):1

This classification involves five heights, three points of articulation along the sagittal axis, plus the rounded/unrounded distinction. Obviously, a number of phonetic details can be filtered out of this representation on grounds of pre-dictability. The difference between upper mid and lower mid might be taken to be a matter of tense/lax (or else, [+/-ATR]); but even that is predictable (redundant) on the basis of long vs. short (i.e. XX vs. X in terms of skeletal positions/timing slots). On the other hand, the two lows may be simply taken to be the same height phonologically: the exact height of [a:], as well as its centrality, is a matter of phonetic implementation since in the phonological pattern of Hungarian (e.g. with respect to vowel harmony, long/short alternations, etc., see below) [a:] behaves as a low back vowel. Hence, the simplified pattern in (2) emerges.