bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Boundaries And Limitations
Authors: Callahan Christopher M , Berrios German E
Published: November 2023

In the first two parts of this book, we described the broad scope of social and scientific factors that are important in explaining the current treatment model for depression. This includes discoveries in psychiatry and psychopharmacology, as well as primary care and clinical epidemiology, and it includes social changes that experts often have viewed as external to medical care. We highlighted the fundamental role of primary care in treating people with emotional disorders and out- lined the history of symptoms and treatments for emotional disorders in primary care. Around 1990, psychiatry offered a new treatment model for caring for people with depression, with a particular emphasis on care provided by generalist physicians. In this chapter, we discuss the limitations of that model.
Dead Reckoning And Moving Forward
Authors: Callahan Christopher M , Berrios German E
Published: November 2023

We cannot move forward with purpose if we do not understand where we are and how we got here. Many wonderful histories of psychiatry are available, including studies of nosology, diagnosis, and treatment, as well as biographies of many of the great minds in psychiatry and psychology. Our goal has been much different. We have sought to provide a history of treatment for depression. Such a history cannot be told without weaving in the threads of primary-care doctors and patients because the formal care of emotional disorders takes place largely in primary care. Our goal has been to use this broader perspective as a navigational aid to determine where we are, how we got here, and where we need to go.
Retreat from Hookworm ( 1920-1930)
Authors: Farley John
Published: November 2023

By 1920 the Health Board’s hookworm campaigns were in disarray. The authorities in British Guiana, India, and Ceylon had failed to live up to their responsibilities for improving sanitary conditions. The Health Board now believed that without prior sanitation any hookworm campaign would be doomed because of repeated reinfections from polluted soil. Rather than using hookworm as a means to encourage authorities to develop public health agencies by which sanitary conditions could be improved, it now required that these conditions be in place before any campaign began. Hookworm campaigns would now focus on the parasite and not on a public health response. What mattered was how well they succeeded in eradicating the parasite; the Health Board now had to come up with an accurate measure of hook-worm prevalence in order to assess the outcome of their campaigns. That had never been easy. Detecting hookworm eggs in fecal smears had always been a hit-and miss affair; failure to locate eggs in light infections must have contributed to the extraordinary cure rates reported at that time. In the mid-1920s, field staff began to use a flotation method which revealed eggs in the feces even when worm loads were low, and a dilution method was used to estimate the total number of eggs produced. These methods had been devised by Norman Stoll of the Department of Medical Zoology at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene. Stoll had also linked the egg count with the number of worms expelled after treatment, enabling worm loads to be calculated from the egg count.
Yellow Fever: From Coast to Jungle
Authors: Farley John
Published: November 2023

That the goal of the Health Board would be the eradication of disease rather than development of public health agencies became clear long before a shift along these lines had taken place in the hookworm campaigns. This policy change had been initiated by Rose himself, when in 1915 he decided to take on malaria and yellow fever. Neither of these diseases resembled hookworm. There was no cure for either disease and the cause of yellow fever remained a mystery. The malarial parasite could be revealed by staining, but the minute immobile intracellular parasites were hardly likely to excite as much comment as those wriggling hookworms. Both malaria and yellow fever were known to be transmitted by mosquitoes, which appeared to be their Achilles heal. By the 1920s the Health Board was actively engaged in campaigns against yellow fever and malaria, with minimal reference to building agencies of public health.
Frustrations in Sao Paulo; The Wrong Step In Rio
Authors: Farley John
Published: November 2023

That an organization devoted to developing public health services where none existed before should have allocated a large share of its budget (27% in total; see Table 1.2) to the endowment and maintenance of schools of public health and schools of nursing as well as the provision of fellowships to study in them is not surprising. Only six months after it had been formed in 1913, the Health Commission pressed the Rockefeller Foundation to address the issue of public-health training. From the Sanitary Commission’s hookworm work in the South, the Health Commission knew much about the incompetence of part-time patronage-appointed health officers, untrained in public health, who often owed their allegiance to their own private practices. As a result, the Rockefeller Foundation invited the General Education Board to examine ways to train a new cadre of full-time public health professionals.
Introduction
Authors: Campos Frank Gabriel
Published: November 2023

Technical skill determines our success in artistic performance to a larger degree than any single factor. Without it, the world’s greatest artist would have nothing more to say than the average person in the street. Although making music can be a deeply satisfying thing to do, it can also be frustrating if you have difficulty expressing yourself because of such factors as an inadequate level of skill, poor technique, and fear.
Performance Psychology
Authors: Campos Frank Gabriel
Published: November 2023

Research from the partnership of sport and science has given the performing arts an understanding of how the mind functions in high-level performance and specific ways to train the mind to enhance performance ability. Gaining control of the mental aspects of performance is an important contributing factor in the success or failure of any performer. Finding a teacher or coach who puts the same emphasis on mental skill as on phys-ical skill is extremely rare. Players whose performance problems are rooted in the mental aspects of performance often learn to cope through hard and unpleasant lessons.
“War on Our Own Citizens”
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

Hamilton’s economic program was in place before the congressional elections in 1792. Jefferson had hoped that those elections would be a referendum on Hamiltonianism, and as the results trickled in he was convinced that the Treasury secretary had lost his congressional majority. Candidates did not yet label themselves Republicans, but those who campaigned against broadening the authority of the national government scored victories “every where South of Connecticut,” Jefferson crowed, leaving the “republican interest” to hold a slight “majority of the next Congress.” Other signs also existed that Jefferson’s partisan efforts had paid dividends.
Pursuing Wellness Through Mental Health Systems Reform
Authors: Vandiver Vikki L
Published: November 2023

The pursuit of individual wellness and the responsibility of caring for individuals with mental health conditions and their families has been an aspect of every society for millennia. For just as long, societies have struggled to get it right—resulting in various levels of policies, systems, and interventions ranging from publicly shackling mentally ill people in stocks to the creation of nationally recognized consumer advocacy organizations. Currently, mental health systems in countries across the industrialized world are in transition—some in response to geopolitical forces, others in response to declining health care systems, and yet others through enlightened leadership and policy initiatives. Despite the various reasons for transition, most governments echo the same message: mental health systems are in need of reform to reflect contemporary approaches of care that support the pursuit of individual, community, and societal health and wellness; promote the concepts of recovery and hope; and provide sustainable outcomes. Health promotion is one such approach and the focus of this book.
Evidence-Based Mental Health For Health Promotion Practice
Authors: Vandiver Vikki L
Published: November 2023

Evidence-based practice (EBP) is an aspect of health promotion that describes a process of using the best available scientific evidence to answer the question: What seems to works best? This chapter provides a snapshot of contemporary definitions, principles, topics, issues, and strategies encountered in the process of selecting efficacious mental health and health promotion interventions for complex clinical problems.

The chapter begins by examining evidence-based practice (EBP) from four perspectives—those of researchers, administrators, health promotion advocates, and policy makers. Next, descriptions are provided of various categories, definitions, principles, strategies and goals of EBP that shape the application of EBP for health promotion activities. The remainder of the chapter reviews the various means of establishing criteria for “levels” of evidence, followed by discussion on research methods, practice guidelines, resources, and policies. It concludes with a review of the strengths, limitations, challenges, and future recommendations for integrating EBP into health promotion efforts. The chapter concludes with a section entitled “In Our Own Words,” a summary of consumer and focus group perspectives on the topic of EBP. For this chapter, participants responded to the following question: “What do you think makes for effective treatment?”
Integrating Health Promotion Strategies With Mental Health Interventions: The Role of Empowerment
Authors: Vandiver Vikki L
Published: November 2023

A central goal of health promotion is to empower people, families, and communities. In this chapter we focus on the importance of the role of empowerment as a guide in the application of evidence-based (EB) mental health interventions and health promotion strategies. Interventions are designed to enhance a sense of personal, familial, and community or societal empowerment. In order to do so, these interventions must have their impact at three levels: intrapersonal (individual), interpersonal (others), and intergroup (community and society). Within each of these levels, assessment issues influence the selection of EB practice interventions, which in turn are enhanced by health promotion strategies. These strategies reflect a combination of programs, initiatives, and efforts that illustrate the notion of empowerment-based health promotion and are used in conjunction with established EB interventions.
In Vivo and Functional Imaging in Developmental Physiology
Authors: Brainerd Elizabeth L , Hale Melina E
Published: November 2023

Recent advances in functional and in vivo imaging provide powerful tools for the study of developmental physiology. Techniques such as confocal microscopy, magnetic resonance microscopy (MRM), microtomography (microCT), and ultrasound microscopy allow developmental physiologists to collect high-resolution images of living embryos and larvae. In vivo imaging techniques can be applied repeatedly over time, allowing longitudinal studies of development in the same individual (Fenster 2002).
Introduction
Authors: Emanuel Ezekiel J , Grady Christine , Crouch Robert A , Lie Reidar K , Miller Franklin G , Wendler David
Published: November 2023

The last decade has witnessed tremendous controversy surrounding the ethics of clinical research. There have been disagreements over the use of placebos in developing countries when there are effective but costly therapies available in more developed countries; there has been uncertainty over researchers’ obligations to participants once trials are complete; there have been disagreements over research with children and mentally incapacitated patients; and there is widespread condemnation of academic researchers’ financial conflicts of interest. The deaths of Jesse Gelsinger and Ellen Roche while both were enrolled in clinical research, and the suspension of clinical research at Duke, Johns Hopkins, and other major research institutions has created concern over the safety of clinical research. Suppression of data on adverse drug events by pharmaceutical corporations has created concern over the integrity of both researchers and the research enterprise. Probably nothing signifies this controversy and its public nature better than the April 22, 2002, issue of Time magazine, whose cover depicted a human being in a hospital gown inside a cage, under a caption that read, “How Medical Testing Has Turned Millions of Us into . . . Human Guinea Pigs”
The Imperial Japanese Experiments in China
Authors: Tsuchiya Takashi
Published: November 2023

Between 1933 and the end of World War II, Japanese researchers—mostly under the aegis of the Japanese Imperial Army—killed thousands of humans in medical experiments. The experiments, which included vivisection, fell broadly into three categories: explanation of diseases, development of therapies, and research into and development of biological and chemical warfare. Most of the human experimentation took place in Japaneseoccupied Manchuria and China, although the Japanese army also operated experimental centers in Southeast Asia and on the main Japanese islands. Most of the victims were Manchurian or Chinese criminals, political prisoners, or prisoners of war, although some Allied prisoners of war—such as Americans, Australians, and New Zealanders—were also used and killed in these experiments.
The Salk Polio Vaccine Field Trial of 1954
Authors: Meldrum Marcia L
Published: November 2023

In the first half of the 20th century, poliomyelitis meant long summers of fear and suffering for families living in the United States. The disease, hardly recognized before the 20th century, had become a significant danger to children and to general quality of life, especially in the post–World War II era. The epidemiological work of John Paul, Thomas Francis, Dorothy Horstmann, and others had only recently shown that the apparent increased danger of the infection was directly related to modern American affluence. In less prosperous, less sanitized times and places, babies usually contracted the polio, or infantile paralysis, virus early in life, while still protected by their mother’s immune system. In the postwar United States, a whole generation was growing up healthy, well nourished and often bottle-fed, protected from infection until they began nursery school. But these practices left them defenseless against polio virus. Although the incidence of the paralytic form of the disease was quite low, it was disproportionately high among young, middle-class children. As prosperity increased, so did crippling and death; for Americans, polio took on the face of a fearful plague. In 1948, polio incidence had risen to 19 per 100,000 people in the population, the highest since the horrible epidemic of 1916. In 1949, it rose again to 28.3 per 100,000.
The Nature, Scope, and Justification of Clinical Research What Is Research? Who Is a Subject?
Authors: Levine Robert J
Published: November 2023

This chapter begins with an examination of the nature and scope of medical practice. As we shall see, there are several alternative visions of the nature and scope of medical practice. Clinical research is a subset of a larger category called biomedical research, which has as its purpose the enhancement or improvement of medical practice. We cannot begin to consider the nature, scope, and justification of clinical research until we have a clear understanding of the enterprise it is intended to serve. This chapter also includes a review of the definitions of research and human subject that have been developed in the context of developing policy to safeguard the rights and welfare of human research subjects.
The Ethics of Placebo-Controlled Trials
Authors: Miller Franklin G
Published: November 2023

Randomized clinical trials test the efficacy of experimental or existing treatments by comparing them with a control intervention. The control group may receive a placebo disguised to appear indistinguishable from the treatment under investigation or standard treatment. Placebo-controlled trials have generated considerable ethical controversy and debate when they are used to evaluate treatments for patients with particular disorders despite the availability of proven effective treatment. Critics of placebocontrolled trials in these circumstances have argued that the use of placebos in the control group rather than proven effective treatment is unethical. It is alleged to violate the therapeutic obligation of physicians, by randomizing patients to an intervention known to be inferior to standard treatment. These placebocontrolled trials contravene the principle of “clinical equipoise,” which is widely held to be an ethical foundation for the design and conduct of randomized clinical trials. Defenders of such placebo-controlled trials have contended that placebo controls are ethically justifiable in these circumstances provided that sound methodological reasons support their use and that they do not expose research participants to excessive risks of harm. At the heart of the debate are fundamental issues concerning the nature and ethical justification of clinical research.
Challenge Experiments
Authors: Miller Franklin G , Rosenstein Donald L
Published: November 2023

Challenge experiments are among the most controversial forms of clinical research. They involve experimental interventions aimed at perturbing the biological or psychological functioning of human beings for the purpose of developing scientific knowledge about diseases and their treatment. Challenge agents include drugs, inhaled or ingested substances, physical or psychological stimuli, and pathogens. No precise definition of challenge experiments has been developed, such that it is not always clear whether a particular investigation falls into this category. These studies characteristically offer no prospect of medical benefit for the enrolled participants. In this chapter we concentrate on two types of challenge studies: symptom-provoking experiments with psychiatric patients and infection-inducing experiments with healthy volunteers. Psychiatric symptom-provoking studies include administering challenge procedures known to evoke panic attacks, depressive symptoms, obsessions, and psychotic experiences. Infection challenge experiments have induced diseases such as cholera, malaria, influenza, shigella, and E. coli.
Phase I Oncology Research
Authors: Agrawal Manish , Emanuel Ezekiel J
Published: November 2023

Despite substantial improvements in treatments for individual cancers, 50% of people diagnosed with cancer—more than 550,000 per year in the United States—still die from it. As the average age of developed country populations rises, both the absolute number and proportion of deaths from cancer will also rise in those countries. Therefore, research into finding novel therapies for most cancers remains an important priority. The process of translating basic research into clinical applications that could potentially lead to larger clinical trials and eventually to effective cancer therapies begins with Phase I oncology studies (see Table 33.1). Classic Phase I oncology studies are cohort studies in which patients are treated with increasing doses of investigational agents to learn about toxicities, maximum tolerated dose, and the pharmacokinetics of the agents, thereby permitting planning for Phase II studies of efficacy.
Research Involving Women
Authors: Denny Colleen , Grady Christine
Published: November 2023

As of July 2005, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that there were approximately 150,410,658 women living in the United States, a little less than 51% of the total population. This percentage is not a new phenomenon; due to a greater death rate in men of a number of age groups, women have long been the majority sex in the United States. Yet despite this majority, women have long found themselves excluded or at least underrepresented in many areas of society, including academia, the business sector, and the political arena. What has recently come to be recognized, however, is that women have long been underserved in the context of modern medicine as well. Since the United States began seriously engaging in clinical research in the mid-20th century, views on women as participants and as a source of valuable research questions have changed enormously, fluctuating from a sort of indifference, to active exclusion, to today’s state of deliberate inclusion. This oscillation is in large part attributable to the unique ethical dilemmas that surround the participation of female subjects in clinical research: Not only might women in general be subject to particular pressures and risks due to their status as a historically oppressed population, but their biological capacity to become pregnant and gestate may also put both them and future human beings at risk of dignitary and=or physical harm. Balancing these unspecified risks with the desire to enable research participation in hopes of more fairly distributing research’s benefits has been a difficult and ongoing struggle.
Research With Identifiable and Targeted Communities
Authors: Foster Morris W , Sharp Richard R
Published: November 2023

Most research studies that involve human participants target specific categories of people through inclusion=exclusion criteria. Some of those targeted categories are defined by scientific criteria, such as people with a diagnosis of a particular disease or people without the disease who can serve as “healthy” controls. Other targeted categories are defined by demographic criteria, used either as proxies for specific life experiences, exposures, or incidence rates or as measures of inclusiveness. As an example of the latter, even studies that recruit members of the “general public” often use social identities such as gender, race, or ethnicity to ensure that a sample resembles the makeup of that larger general population.
A History of Informed Consent in Clinical Research
Authors: Moreno Erika Blacksher Jonathan D
Published: November 2023

This chapter traces the evolution of informed consent as a concept and practice in biomedical research, attending to the evolving content and justification of consent, and when possible, the actual consent practices of researchers. We include the predecessors of informed consent, some of which bear only a faint resemblance to the concept and practice as we understand them today. These precursors lack what are now considered essential features of informed consent, having evolved from mere acquiescence to become informed, comprehending, and voluntary. As there was no clear policy delineation between medical research and clinical care until perhaps the 1960s, we find that the evolution of informed consent doctrine occurred in both contexts and actually helped to distinguish these medical encounters.
Philosophical Justifications of Informed Consent in Research
Authors: Brock Dan W
Published: November 2023

The rule that, with a few exceptions, research with humans should not take place without participants’ informed consent is a settled ethical and legal principle. This chapter explores the philosophical foundations of this principle. Exploring these foundations helps to clarify how the requirement of informed consent should be understood as well as what limits, if any, should be placed on its implementation. No such requirement exists for the use of things or nonhuman animals, such as microorganisms or mice. The simple explanation of the difference, of course, is that things and animals are not capable of giving informed consent, so it would not be possible to require it of them, whereas human beings or persons are so capable. But that tells us only why it is possible to require informed consent of human research participants, not why we should do so. Why can’t people be used in research in the way that we use things? We have reason not to be wasteful of things and animals because they have instrumental and economic value to others, but that is a limitation on their use for the sake of other persons, not for the sake of the things or animals themselves.
Empirical Data on Conflicts of Interest
Authors: et.al. Lindsay A Hampson
Published: November 2023

The clinical research landscape changed dramatically during the final two decades of the twentieth century. Unprecedented investment in both basic and clinical research led to a six-fold increase in biomedical research expenditures. In 2001, industry funded 60% of biomedical research expenditures, compared to 32% in 1980, with industry providing a majority of funding by the mid-1990s (see Figure 70.1). This shift in funding sources was fueled in large part by the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in 1980. The act encouraged universities and medical schools to commercialize research conducted with government funds by providing them the exclusive patent rights. The potential revenues from these arrangements, combined with decreasing clinical revenues, resulted in a substantive growth partnership between academic medical centers and industry.
Industrialization of Academic Science and Threats to Scientific Integrity
Authors: Campbell Eric G , Blumenthal David
Published: November 2023

Relationships between academia and industry have existed since the early 1900s, when more than half of all trustees of U.S. universities were from the industrial sector.1 However, academicindustry relationships (AIRs) and commercialization began in earnest when chemical and pharmaceutical companies began to undertake research and sought university help in solving scientific problems. Commercialization of research got another boost as universities established independent organizations to commercialize the results of faculty research. The earliest of these was the Research Corporation, which was formed in 1912 to manage pollution technology developed at the University of California. A similar technology transfer organization was created in 1925 when the University of Wisconsin formed the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF ) to commercialize a patent on the technology for irradiating dairy products to instill vitamin D in them— a process that virtually eliminated rickets as a childhood disease. The purpose of organizations like WARF and the Research Corporation was to keep commercial activities “at arm’s length” out of fear that they would compromise the integrity of the academic research enterprise. Despite the fact that these firms conferred great benefit on the public, their creation met with considerable angst within the halls of the academy.
Fraud, Fabrication, and Falsification
Authors: Resnik David B
Published: November 2023

Honesty is one of the core values of science, but for many years there have been concerns about dishonesty and deception in research. In 1830, the mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage (1791–1871) wrote about unethical practices that he had observed in British science. He discussed examples of hoaxing, forging, trimming, and cooking data. Hoaxing and forging occur when one makes up data; trimming occurs when one clips off pieces of data that do not agree with one’s hypothesis; and cooking occurs when one manipulates data in order to make them appear to be more accurate than they really are. In 1847, the American Medical Association (AMA) was formed to promote professionalism in medical practice and research. In 1849, the AMA formed a board to analyze quack remedies and debunk fraudulent claims made by snake oil salesmen.
The Scleroderma Book
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Scleroderma means hardening of the skin, due to a malfunction of the vascular and immune system resulting in the overproduction of collagen (a protein substance found in the body’s connective tissue). In this second edition of The Scleroderma Book, Dr Maureen Mayes—the leading authority in the field—draws on her extensive experience treating scleroderma to provide up-to-date, practical information that will help patients manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life. Scleroderma can be localized (small patches of hardened skin, which tend to clear up over time), but may become systemic with excess collagen building up in various organs such as the oesophagus, kidneys, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, heart skin, and peripheral nervous system. The disorder most commonly occurs in women between the ages of 20 and 40. However, men and children can be affected as well. The disease is not contagious and is not thought to be inherited and currently, there is no known cure. Writing specifically for patients and their families, Dr. Mayes offers sympathetic and reassuring advice on matters that often concern those living with scleroderma, such as the best course of action for those who want children, what to do if the disease affects your sex life, and what you can do to help your doctor treat your illness more effectively. The book concludes with a good humoured, frank discussion about how to cope, day in and day out, with an uncertain future—how to be a “person living with” scleroderma, not a “victim suffering from” it. Touching on virtually every aspect of this disorder, The Scleroderma Book provides a reliable source of information and reassurance for patients of any age, no matter how severe their form of the disease.
Scleroderma And The Heart
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Scleroderma can affect the heart in several ways. In some cases, heart rhythm can be affected. This is demonstrated. by a slow or irregular heartbeat or by an abnormality that is seen only on an electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG). In these cases, the approach to treatment involves either medication to help keep the heartbeat regular or a pacemaker to override the natural electrical system that controls the heartbeat. Heart rhythm is controlled by an electrical conduction system comprised of specialized cells that generate an electrical current to stimulate the heart muscle to contract in a smooth and regular way. There is a complex system of reflexes that tells the heart to speed up (as with exercise) or to slow down (as with rest), but there is only one electrical system that sends signals to both sides of the heart so that all four chambers contract or pump in a synchronized fashion. The problem that occurs in some cases of scleroderma is that scar tissue (the same culprit we have discussed in the previous chapters) is deposited in the path of the electrical current, so the current is interrupted or blocked. This can be partial or a complete block depending on exactly where it is and how much scar tissue is present. Sometimes the irregular\heartbeat is noticed by the patient and sometimes not. It is important to get an EKG to determine exactly what type of problem exists. If no irregularity is picked up on the EKG, then a portable Holter monitor can be given to the patient, which records the EKG for an entire day. This test can pick up heart irregularities that occur only occasionally and are not captured during the short period of time that the EKG is recorded in the doctor’s office.
Scleroderma And Joints, Tendons, Muscles, And Nerves
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Stiffness and achiness are common problems in scleroderma. Sometimes patients can’t tell whether the aching is coming from the joints, the muscles, both, or neither. The thickness and tightness of the overlying skin can make it hard even for the doctor to determine if joint swelling is present. This can be an important distinction to make, since joint pain and swelling (arthritis) may require different treatment than muscle aches or tendon inflammation. A small percentage of patients will have a true overlap between rheumatoid arthritis and scleroderma and may need to be treated with medications that are usually considered to be specific for rheumatoid arthritis. Most, however, will not have this overlap.
Systemic Scleroderma And Pregnancy
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Young women with systemic scleroderma often ask me if it is okay to get pregnant. The answer is that it depends on several factors: the stage of the disease, the medications that are required to control the disease, and the risks that people are willing to take in order to have a child. (Note that this does not apply to people with localized scleroderma, a condition that does not present a higher-than-usual risk during pregnancy. However, the use of any medication needs to be reviewed by the patient and her doctor before pregnancy occurs.)
The Courtesan’s Voice: Petrarchan Lovers, Pop Philosophy, and Oral Traditions
Authors: Feldman Martha
Published: November 2023

Like the donna angelicata (the revered woman) of Petrarch’s lyric canon, so immensely popular in the sixteenth century, courtesans were often reproached by abject lovers but also venerated by them. A painting by Parrasio Michel of ca. 1560 (fig. 4.1) condenses this double status of the courtesan by presenting her in a performative guise. She gazes heavenward as she sings to the lute but with breasts exposed and is attended by a secularized Cupid who stands in as both son of Venus (herself a standin for the courtesan) and the Roman God of Love deployed so prolifically in sacred and secular images.
The City Geisha and Their Role in Modern Japan: Anomaly or Artistes?
Authors: Downer Lesley
Published: November 2023

From the very beginning of their history, geisha were always a profession entirely separate from courtesans as they were conceived of in Japan. They originated in eighteenth-century Japan, both inside and outside the pleasure quarters, and were defined as “entertainers” or “artistes”: the word gei-sha literally means “arts person.” The courtesans of the pleasure quarters (known as tayu in seventeenthand eighteenth-century Kyoto and oiran in eighteenthand nineteenth-century Edo [Tokyo]) offered their bodies as currency—though very often at a price too high for all but the wealthiest and most powerful men to afford. The geisha conversely were defined as selling music, singing, and dancing.
In the Service of the Nation: Geisha and Kawabata Yasunari’s Snow Country
Authors: Matsugu Miho
Published: November 2023

The Oxford English Dictionary defines the geisha as a “Japanese girl whose profession is to entertain men by dancing and singing; loosely, a Japanese prostitute.”1 Many geisha, to the contrary, define themselves as professional artistes, and take pride in dedicating their lives to the traditions of Japanese art and culture.2 Yet as I will argue, particularly before the end of the war in 1945, geisha often performed many of the same services as prostitutes. To understand geisha and their current status as cultural symbols, it is important to acknowledge this tension between the sex work that many geisha performed throughout parts of history, and their denial of it. The insistence on the part of many geisha both now and then that they are not prostitutes is a rejection of the stigma that has historically marginalized these women and kept them from being seen as self-supporting, skilled workers.3 If they are now national symbols, it is because their former ignominy as entertainers and sometimes prostitutes, exploited by the state and oppressed by society, has today been replaced with the “prestige” of representing the artistic tradition of the same state and society that once oppressed them.
Female Agency and Patrilineal Constraints: Situating Courtesans in Twentieth-Century India
Authors: Qureshi Regula Burckhardt
Published: November 2023

From at least 1800 until after Indian independence, courtesan singer-dancers (tawa’if) were at the center of elite entertainment in feudal and mercantile-colonial milieus of India, performing at courts and presiding over reenactments of court assemblies in salons that became the first public venue for Hindustani art music. Ostensibly free from the constraints of patrilineal kinship, these women enjoyed cultural and personal prominence as well as wealth and influence, and they could set musical trends.
Prologue: Naval Battles and History
Authors: Symonds Craig L
Published: November 2023

History is about change, and more than any other human activity, war both causes and accelerates change. War propels history into fast forward, precipitating social and cultural transformation so swiftly and profoundly that often it is that transformation, rather than the object that provoked hostilities in the first place, that emerges as the principal consequence of war. Occasionally the change is self-conscious, the product of deliberate revolution, such as the one that took place in France in 1789. More often, however, change is a by-product of war, unforeseen and even unimagined, as in the dramatic social and cultural revolution that resulted from the mass mobilization and ghastly bloodletting in Europe from 1914 to 1918. Despite the best efforts of policy makers who struggle to fulfill the Clause witzian dictum that wars ought to be a means by which nations secure clear and discrete national policy objectives, wars create a momentum of their own that constantly threatens to seize control of events from the hands of the decision makers and send history careening forward like a runaway train.
Language Categories in the Brain: Evidence from Aphasia
Authors: Caramazza Alfonso , Shapiro Kevin
Published: November 2023

A central question in the study of cognition concerns the way conceptual information is represented and organized in the mind/brain. If we presuppose, as most experimental scientists do, that cognitive processes are computational processes, it becomes self-evident that the presumably enormous amount of information over which these processes operate must be structured in some way in order to be accessible and useful.
Locality and Left Periphery
Authors: Rizzi Luigi
Published: November 2023

The goal of this chapter is to provide a new, refined formal characterization of the locality principle known as Relativized Minimality. At the same time, we will try to show how the study of locality interacts with the “cartographic approach,” the attempt to draw maps of syntactic configuratons as precise and detailed as possible. A fundamental discovery of modern formal linguistics is that, if the length and depth of syntactic representations is unbounded, core structural relations are local. According to the Relativized Minimality approach, a local relation is one that must be satisfied in the smallest environment in which it can be satisfied. One traditional implementation of this idea is that, in a configuration like (1), a local structural relation cannot hold between X and Y if Z is a potential bearer of the relevant relation and Z intervenes between X and Y.
TheDry Eye
Authors: Gulati Abba , Dana Reza
Published: November 2023

Dry Eye Syndrome, also called keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS), is a component of the dryness (sicca) that characterizes Sjogren’s syndrome. The ocular surface consists of the conjunctiva (the mucous membrane covering the outside of the eyeball and the lining of the lids) and the cornea (the central transparent part of the eyeball that allows the light rays to pass through). Dry eye syndrome includes a variety of disorders that affect the ocular surface (both conjunctiva and cornea).
The Salivary Glands, Ears, Nose, and Larynx
Authors: Lebovics Robert S , FACS MD
Published: November 2023

SJOGREN’s SYNDROME IN ITS primary form, also known as the sicca syndrome, is a multisystem disease with a multiplicity of target organs and clinical effects. Understanding the otolaryngologic manifestations of this disease can best be appreciated with a brief introduction to the anatomy of the upper airways and alimentary tract (Figure 8.1).
The Internal Organs in Sjogren’s
Authors: Soliotis Fotini C , Kassan MD Stuart S , Moutsopoulos MD Haralampos
Published: November 2023

IN SJOGREN’s SYNDROME the immune system primarily targets the salivary and lacrimal glands. However, less commonly the same immune process can also affect the major organs of the body, such as the lungs, the heart, the gut, the liver, the kidney, and the nervous system. Major organ disease is only seen in one-third of primary Sjogren’s patients and can be divided into two categories depending on whether it manifests itself early (that is, together with the symptoms of dry eye and dry mouth) or later on, sometimes years after the diagnosis of Sjogren’s has been made.
Systemic Therapies in Sjogren’s
Authors: Chrysochou Aikaterini D , Soliotis Fotini C , Kassan MD Stuart S , Moutsopoulos MD Haralampos M
Published: November 2023

A Major Goal Of therapy in Sjogren’s syndrome is to treat the main symptoms of dry eye and dry mouth. Replacement of decreased secretions and administration of stimulators of tear and saliva secretion are the most important therapeutic measures for those patients. In addition, a variety of drugs for specific symptoms or complications of Sjogren’s are available for extraglandular involvement. Immunosuppressive therapies are reserved only for serious and life-threatening major organ involvement.
Rehabilitation of Executive Function Impairments
Authors: Cicerone Keith d.
Published: November 2023

Disturbances of executive functioning (e.g., planning, self-monitoring, behavioural and emotional self-regulation) are common after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and represent significant obstacles to resuming social participation and productivity. Executive dysfunction also represents a challenge to the rehabilitation process. In many cases, remedial interventions for acquired cognitive impairments often emphasize the acquisition of specific compensations in con- trolled situations. Responsibility for the selection and application of compensatory strategies may initially rest with the therapist, with the assumption that the patient will be capable of implementing these compensations independently with adequate practice. In contrast, disturbances of executive functioning are most likely to be evident when the patient is required to assume responsibility for the application of compensatory strategies (Shallice & Burgess, 1991) or to cope with novel situations (Godefrey & Rousseaux, 1997). Disturbances of executive functioning often coexist with impaired self-awareness, representing an additional challenge to rehabilitation.
Interventions for Caregivers
Authors: Sander Angelle M
Published: November 2023

In recent years, researchers and policy makers have emphasized the substantial contribution of the environment to the ability of persons with physical, cognitive, or emotional impairments to achieve full participation in their communities (Tate & Pledger, 2003; White neck et al., 1987). The family is an aspect of the person’s immediate environment that has the potential to significantly aid or impede resumption of community activities. The role of the family or other caregivers may be especially important for persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI).
Genesis
Authors: Jones Howard
Published: November 2023

Throughout the 1950s the Eisenhower administration sought to maintain economic and political stability in Cuba as a means for promoting both U.S. commerce and security in the Caribbean world. To facilitate these objectives, the White House supported Fulgencio Batista’s iron rule by providing arms and military advisers through the Mutual Security Program until congressional pressure cut off military assistance in the latter part of the decade. On the surface U.S. aid efforts underscored a resounding success, for the very mention of Havana conjured up images of booming and risque´ nightclubs, packed and festive gambling casinos, and streets overrun by rollicking tourists with wads of money to spend. The reality was profoundly different. Years earlier the Mafia had forged a virtual alliance with Batista that gave it control over the casinos, drug traffic, and brothels. Furthermore, American businesses owned much of the prime land, and the Cuban government callously ignored its people’s welfare.
D-Day
Authors: Jones Howard
Published: November 2023

The maritime armada looked formidable on the night of April 16 as it gathered at a spot forty miles off Cuba before relocating within three miles of its beaches. The command ships Blagar and Barbara J, both LCIs bought by the CIA from a private firm in Miami, were armed with .50-caliber machine guns and a pair of anti-aircraft 75-mm recoilless rifles (cannon referred to as ‘‘pom-poms’’).
“You’re in the Army Now”
Authors: Kennedy David M
Published: November 2023

Shortly after the declaration of war on April 6, 1917, Major Palmer E. Pierce, an aide to Secretary of War Baker, settled uncomfortably into a chair under the inquisitorial gaze of the Senate Finance Committee. Before the Senators lay a bulky sheaf of documents, presenting in fine detail how the War Department anticipated spending the three-billion dollar appropriation it was requesting.
The Political Economy of War: The International Dimension
Authors: Kennedy David M
Published: November 2023

The world economy in the pre war years was a marvel of growth and interdependence. Though nineteenth-century industrial capitalism showered its benefits unevenly on different social classes, all the developed countries had witnessed amazing leaps in their wealth and standards of living in the several decades before 1914. Much of that material advance owed to the deepening harmony and coordination of international economic relationships. Despite ominously intensifying colonial rivalries in Africa and Asia, the European states allowed goods and capital and even labor to move easily across their own national frontiers.
American Wilderness and First Contact
Authors: Perreault Melanie
Published: November 2023

The gods delivered a message ten years before the destruction began. A bright light pierced the dark of midnight, awakening the Nahua villagers. Frightened men and women looked to the east, where they saw a vision that “was like a flaming ear of corn, or a fiery signal, or the blaze of daybreak; it seemed to bleed fire, drop by drop, like a wound in the sky.” Other bad omens followed: lightning struck temples, lakes suddenly boiled, and fishermen saw strange animals in the waters surrounding Tenochtitlan. But despite appeals to the most knowledgeable Aztec seers and magicians, no one could penetrate the meaning of the signs etched in the wilderness. The people went back to their cornfields, palaces, and marketplaces, but a general sense of unease settled on the land. Only later would they see that the disturbances were portents of the cultural and environmental devastation that would be set in motion upon the arrival of men whose sole interest in the land seemed to be in gathering gold.1
Religion “Irradiates” the Wilderness
Authors: Stoll Mark
Published: November 2023

It was no coincidence, the great Puritan divine Cotton Mather believed, that so soon after Christopher Columbus discovered America, Martin Luther set the Protestant Reformation in motion. These two providential events surely demonstrated America’s central place in God’s plan: wilderness and Protestantism had some common destiny. When the hand of God struck Native Americans down with plague and illness, did he not intend for Protestants to take possession of a wilderness world for his purposes?1 As Europeans and colonists like Mather reflected on the opportunities, the meanings, the significance, and the destiny that America represented, they often returned to certain religious themes. Along with the interpretations of wilderness that Melanie Perreault described in the previous chapter, the American wilder-ness offered a place remote from the “depravations” of Europe, where one could, sinless, begin again and build a perfect society according to God’s plan. The English had the greatest success in setting up enduring religious utopias in the wilderness and success as well in implanting in American culture at large ideas about wilderness that would survive the gradual extinction of their original purposes. While such colonizers as the Lords Baltimore in Maryland.