bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dinosaurs of Consumption
Authors: Ritzer George
Published: March 2012

While virtually all of the cathedrals of consumption experienced difficulties with the onset of the Great Recession, it was the higher‐end, especially the costliest to build and to maintain, cathedrals of consumption that experienced the greatest difficulties (Ritzer 2010). This was certainly clear in the United States in general, and Las Vegas in particular, as the epicenters of the development of the paradigmatic cathedrals of consumption. By late 2008 visitor volume, gaming revenue, and daily room rates in Las Vegas were down substantially. When one of the great cathedrals on the Strip – Wynn Las Vegas – opened in 2005 a bargain rate for a room was $250 a night. The month after Encore (an adjacent casino‐hotel also built by Steve Wynn) opened, rooms in January 2009 could be had for $159 a night (Powers 2008). True to the need to be spectacular, Encore, which cost $2.3 billion to build, is three stories higher than the neighboring Wynn Las Vegas and features the original art of Fernando Botero, a 231‐carat pear‐cut Wynn diamond, and a nightclub that seats 3000 people. Such a casino‐hotel requires lots of visitors spending and gambling enormous sums of money and that is much more difficult to achieve in the midst of a deep recession. This resulted in great economic pain including a huge budget deficit for the state of Nevada, a drop in new construction of 92 percent from October 2007 to October 2008, a huge decline in housing prices, and a rise in statewide unemployment from a minuscule 0.4 percent to 8 percent in November 2008 (and this quickly exceeded 10 percent within a relatively short period of time).
Easternization
Authors: Campbell Colin
Published: March 2012

Easternization is a term that has only come to prominence since the mid 1990s. Originally used very specifically to refer the spread of oriental (mainly Japanese) management techniques to the West (see Kaplinsky 1994), or alternatively to the manner in which Western modes of economic practice may be modified when adopted by countries in the Far East (Hwang 1995), its use has been expanded in recent years to refer to more general processes of cultural change as opposed simply to those relating to economic matters. Unfortunately, as can be seen from the above two examples, “Easternization” may refer either to processes that are perceived to be occurring in the East itself (which is usually understood in this context as the orient), or to processes occurring in the West. In the former case, use of the term is often related to the ongoing debate over “Asian Values,” while in the latter it overlaps with the debate over the direction of cultural change in the West, and hence debates such as those concerning secularization (Bruce 2002), or the spiritual revolution (Heelas & Woodhead 2005). To confuse matters further, the term also has affinities with Orientalism (Said 1988), in the form of the concept of reverse orientalism (Hendry 2000), that is to say in the tendency to praise, rather than criticize, non‐Western values and beliefs. Finally one may note that the term also has connections with the idea of cultural fusion, or the belief that both Westernization and Easternization are giving way to a single, fused world culture (Smith 1990). Two central issues can however be discerned to lie behind what on the surface appears to be a rather confusing body of work. The one refers not merely to the extent to which Western institutions and practices have been modified during their adoption in the Far East but also whether the resultant Asian model could be judged superior to the Western original, while the other refers to the extent to which the West itself has been penetrated, or molded, by values and beliefs that originate in the orient. It is the second of these that will be focus of the following discussion, as the former issue is more properly considered under the Asian Values Debate.
Education
Authors: O. Ramirez Francisco
Published: March 2012

Much of the literature on globalization and education revolves around two different theoretical perspectives, one emphasizing the world capitalist economy and the other focusing on world society. Both perspectives assume that many educational developments are better understood if one situates the nation‐state and national educational systems in a wider world context. That is, both perspectives stress world level dynamics. Although at times they imply similar educational outcomes, these perspectives differ in what they view as the main driving forces. What follows is a brief review of the literature guided by the first perspective and then turns to the studies informed by the second perspective.
End of History: The Views of Francis Fukuyama
Authors: Ritzer George
Published: March 2012

A well‐known and wide‐ranging argument implies that neoliberalism is the culmination of history and that no major changes are to be expected in it. Neoliberalism is not only seen as a good thing, but it is with us for the foreseeable future, if not forever.
Ethnic cleansing
Authors: Oberschall Tony
Published: March 2012

Ethnic cleansing is the use of force or intimidation by a government to expel members of an ethnic group, race, nationality, or religion from a territory, usually their homeland. The United Nations Commission of Experts defined it in 1993 as “the planned deliberate removal from a specific territory of a particular ethnic group, by force or intimidation, in order to render that area ethnically homogeneous.” Before the 1990s, ethnic cleansing was called “mass deportation.” The goal of perpetrators is to render the territory ethnically homogeneous for the majority or the dominant group in accordance with the nationalist ideal of a nation‐state. Expulsions have also occurred when rival ethnic groups lay claim to their own state over the same territory, and when in war or civil war the government was threatened by a troublesome minority that it feared might side with insurgents and the enemy. During ethnic cleansing murderous violence and criminal offenses are committed, such as massacres, killings, rape, robbery, destruction of cultural property, and other crimes against humanity. These crimes create panic and mass flight by the targeted population.
Ethnoscapes
Authors: Chun Allen
Published: March 2012

Ethnoscape is a term coined by Arjun Appadurai in his essay “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy” (1990). One of five such terms, ethnoscape is defined as “the landscape of persons who constitute the shifting world in which we live: tourists, immigrants, refugees, exiles, guest workers, and other moving groups and individuals constitute an essential feature of the world and appear to affect the politics of (and between) nations to a hitherto unprecedented degree.” As Appadurai continues to explain, “This is not to say that there are no relatively stable communities and networks of kinship, friendship, work, and leisure, as well as of birth, residence, and other filial terms. But it is to say that the warp of these stabilities is everywhere shot through with the woof of human motion, as more persons and groups deal with the realities of having to move or the fantasies of wanting to move … And as international capital shifts its needs, as production and technology generate different needs, as nation‐states shift their policies on refugee populations, these moving groups can never afford to let their imaginations rest too long, even if they wish to.” Ethnoscapes by nature refer to people in flux.
Euro
Authors: Duina Francesco
Published: March 2012

The euro (€) is the currency of 16 of 27 member states of the European Union (EU): Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. Those countries comprise the “Eurozone.” The majority of the 11 member states outside of the Eurozone are in Eastern and Central Europe: their economies and monetary conditions are considered not ready for adopting the euro. They are legally bound to join sometime in the future. A few countries – namely Denmark, Sweden, and the United Kingdom – could be in the Eurozone but have opted to stay out, though Denmark pegs its krone to the euro. These countries cite several reasons for holding on to their currencies: autonomy in setting interest rates, control over exchange rates, economic cycles that are out of sync with the Eurozone member states, and strong popular attachment to national currencies.
Executive Search
Authors: Beaverstock, Jonathan V. , Faulconbridge, James R. , Hall Sarah J.E.
Published: March 2012

Executive search, also known as
headhunting
, is today a very sophisticated worldwide, multimillion US dollar industry. The industry's roots can be found in the United States' proliferating management consultancy business from the early 1950s onwards in cities like Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York (Hall et al. 2009). Early entrants into headhunting were US firms like Heidrick & Struggles (established 1953), Spencer Stuart (1965), Russell Reynolds (1969), and Korn/Ferry (1969). In Europe, the industry quickly mimicked its US counterparts with the establishment of firms like Egon Zehnder in Zurich (1964) and Alexander Hughes in London (1965) (Jenn 2005). By the start of the twenty‐first century, the industry was dominated by 20 or so transnational corporations (TNCs), of mainly US and European nationality, who compete in global‐local markets with literally thousands of small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). These TNCs, like Korn/Ferry, Heidrick & Struggles, Russell Reynolds, Egon Zehnder, Alexander Hughes, IIC Partners, and Odgers Berndtson, have multi‐million US dollar fee incomes, employ hundreds of highly qualified search consultants and researchers, are retained for business by many of the 15 000 or more TNCs operating in other primary, manufacturing, and service sectors as well as by governments, and have extensive international office networks in world and capital cities (Table 1). The large executive search firms are, thus, agents responsible for facilitating the mobility of key, elite labor between firms and other organizations, whether within local labor markets or in cross‐border search and selection between nation‐states. In terms of the magnitude of elite labor search and selection, the financial services industry is by far the most prevalent sector for the headhunting industry, followed very closely by technology, R&D, manufacturing, retail, and government (Jenn 2005). But, as noted above, executive search firms are active in all segments of the economy, from mining to universities, car manufacturing to IT.
Fast‐Food
Authors: Royle Tony
Published: March 2012

One of the most visible aspects of globalization is the global brand, and there are few better examples than the fast‐food brands that seem to reach into every corner of the planet. However, defining fast‐food is not as straightforward as one might assume, not only because of the multitude of “quick” food offerings that are now available (from burgers, chicken, sandwiches, to juices, fish, soups, sandwiches, hot dogs, pizzas along with many ethnic variations such as Latin American and Asian), but also because “quick” food is now available from an increasing number of competitor formats: café bars; street stalls; home delivery; self‐service catering; convenience stores; retail stores; and those catering for the recent trend in “fast casual dining.” Nevertheless, fast‐food is usually distinguished from these other formats by its standardized and restricted menu, food which is available for immediate consumption, usually sold at a counter, with tight individual portion and ingredient control and tight control over the finished product. The increasing competition in the industry is largely driven by the potential for high profit margins and the continuing demand for the fast‐food product; it seems that global consumers continue to find the standardized fast‐food offer attractive. In 2010 the global fast‐food industry is estimated to have made sales of US$500 billion; it is also one of the few industries that have continued to increase their sales during the economic recession, with global sales rising from US$481 billion in 2008 to US$496 billion in 2010, arguably benefitting from consumers “trading down” their eating habits (
www.euromonitor.com
).
Flat world
Authors: Powell Jason L.
Published: March 2012

The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty‐First Century
is an international bestselling book by Thomas Friedman that analyzes globalization, primarily in the early twenty‐first century. The title is a metaphor for viewing the world as a level playing field in terms of commerce, where all competitors have an equal opportunity. As the cover illustration of the first edition indicates, the title also alludes to the perceptual shift required for countries, companies, and individuals to remain competitive in a global market where historical and geographical divisions are becoming increasingly irrelevant due to the annihilation of time and space.
Food Justice
Authors: Galli Anya M. , Clift Bryan C.
Published: March 2012

Access to adequate, nutritious food is a ­fundamental human need and right. Problematically, today's global food system provides this access to only certain members of the global population. Food justice has emerged as a local, national, and global movement, working simultaneously from across and within state arenas, local communities, global markets, and geographic boundaries. The movement works to build and support strong and sustainable local food systems and ensure equal access to fresh, healthy, and culturally relevant, ethically produced food. Pertinent concerns of the food justice movement are inequalities and barriers to access, environmental consequences of industrial food production, and the widespread consequences of increasing corporate monopoly over food markets.
Free Trade Area of the Americas
Authors: Saguier Marcelo
Published: March 2012

The Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) was an intergovernmental initiative announced in 1994 between 34 states in the Western Hemisphere – all states except Cuba – to create a trade bloc stretching from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Although this was never accomplished, the FTAA represented the most ambitious trade integration scheme ever attempted (Salazar‐Xirinachs 2001). Equally, it was one of the most disputed of such attempts.
Fundamentalism
Authors: Kivisto Peter
Published: March 2012

Fundamentalism refers to a movement within organized religion that defines itself primarily in terms of its rejection of the culture of secular modernism. Opposed to ambiguity and doubt, those who embrace fundamentalism attempt to articulate bright rather than blurred boundaries between the elect and the damned, or to use the distinction made by theologian Reinhardt Niebuhr (1960), between the children of light versus the children of darkness. Fundamentalism is a global phenomenon. All of the world's major religions – Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism – contain fundamentalist elements or currents, and a fundamentalist mindset can be found in other religions besides the major ones. Fundamentalism can take both apolitical and political form. When its adherents opt for the latter, it often takes the form of a social movement, and in some instances it endorses ­violence in order to advance its goals.
General Agreement on Trade in Services
Authors: Batista Juliana Peixoto
Published: March 2012

The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is the agreement that regulates multilateral trade in services. It is included in the so‐called Marrakech Agreements as a result of the multilateral negotiations in the Uruguay Round (1986–1994), which ultimately led to the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In force since January 1, 1995, the WTO took up the regulation of multilateral trade in place of the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT), which had been the framework of negotiations on the liberalization of the goods market among its member countries between 1947 and 1994.
Genital Mutilation
Authors: Lee Susan Hagood
Published: March 2012

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is the ancient cultural practice of removing portions of a girl's genitalia. It occurs extensively in Africa on girls from infancy to puberty with significant negative medical consequences. The custom is known as female circumcision in English‐speaking areas of Africa and excision in French‐speaking areas. In Arabic, the language of many proponents of female circumcision, the practice is known as
tahara
, cleanliness or purification.
Geography of Globalization
Authors: Herod Andrew
Published: March 2012

Whatever else it may be, globalization is a geographical process, one that connects diverse parts of the globe together in new and different ways as it supposedly fosters the increasing integration of planetarywide labor, commodity, and financial markets. As such, a common spatial metaphor used to describe it is that of the shrinking globe, as the time and costs that it takes to cross space become ever diminished. Thus, it is now possible to fly from one place and be in virtually any other location on the Earth's surface in no more than about 24 to 48 hours. Likewise, the speed with which information and money can travel around the globe has meant that events in one place are known about, and reacted to, in myriad others across the planet virtually as they happen – for instance, stock markets in Europe reacted within minutes to the attacks of September 11, 2001 (Herod 2009: 5). Such time‐space compression means that we are increasingly said to be living in an “epoch of simultaneity” (Foucault 1986), an era of “fast capitalism” (Agger 1989) operating across an increasingly “borderless world” (Ohmae 1990).
Global Futures
Authors: PatomÄki Heikki
Published: March 2012

We measure time and coordinate our activities in terms of mechanical movements of clocks (seconds and minutes and fractions of these) and in terms of the rotation of the Earth (days) or its orbit around the sun (a year). However, these constant and repetitious movements do not constitute time. They are just particular rhythmics amongst numerous ongoing causal processes. The present is not a point on a line, but an indefinite boundary state of a causal process (cf. Bhaskar 1994: 67–72).
Global Village
Authors: Longhurst Brian
Published: March 2012

The global village is an idea originally propounded by the Canadian media theorist Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980). He argued that due to the development and expansion of mass media of communication, the world was becoming village‐like. McLuhan introduced the idea in his famous work of the early 1960s including
The Gutenberg Galaxy
(1962) and
Understanding Media
(1964). Discussions of the idea occur in his other books and it forms the title of a posthumous publication,
The Global Village
(1989, with Bruce R. Powers).
Global Warming
Authors: Beer Todd
Published: March 2012

Global warming, also commonly referred to as climate change or the greenhouse gas effect, refers to the precipitous rise in the average temperature of the Earth caused by industrial society. The burning of fossil fuels increases the accumulation of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, causing global warming. The international scientific community has warned that without drastic reductions in the level of greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth's natural systems will be greatly altered and humanity will face numerous negative consequences, possibly making it the overarching crisis of our time.
Globalists
Authors: Wilson Erin K.
Published: March 2012

The term
globalists
is used with growing frequency in academic literature. Although there is some ambiguity surrounding its meaning, the term generally has two main uses. The first and original application of the term refers to academic theorizing, primarily in economics, sociology, and international relations, about the significance and impact of globalization. Globalists argue that processes of globalization are empirical fact and have a profound impact on international economic, political, cultural and ecological arrangements. Also referred to as “globalizers,” these academics suggest that increased interconnections amongst national economies are gradually eroding aspects of state power. Globalists point to dramatic – some would say unprecedented – increases in cross‐border flows of finance, goods and people to suggest that state borders are becoming more porous and that the global economy is growing in significance.
Globality
Authors: Wilson Erin K.
Published: March 2012

The term “globality” primarily refers to a social condition, potentially the end‐point of globalization, whereby individual and collective consciousness is focused increasingly at the global level and away from the national level. As in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when collective consciousness shifted away from religious affiliations towards national affiliations, in the era of globalization there is speculation that we are witnessing a shift away from national allegiances towards a global consciousness or “imaginary” (Steger 2008), whereby individuals will feel a greater connection with the global community than with presently existing national communities. This shift in consciousness is orchestrated and promoted through increasing social, economic, political, cultural, and ecological interconnections across current state borders brought about by globalization. Proponents of globality do not argue that a state of globality already exists. Rather, they suggest that globality is one possible future condition amongst many that could result from current processes of globalization. Further, globality, like all social conditions, will be temporary and will eventually give way to other social conditions, such as, potentially, “planetarity,” which could result from the possible future colonization of the Solar System.
Globalization
Authors: Dean Paul , Ritzer George
Published: March 2012

Globalization is easily among the most important and contested topics within the contemporary social sciences. Debated in both popular media and academic circles, it has inspired avid proponents and passionate protestors as it reconfigures social relations in all areas of life, lessening and exacerbating inequalities. The world, now instantaneously connected through telecommunications technologies and rapid modes of transport, is organized through a vast network of global institutions, civil society, multinational corporations, and nation‐states. Within this loose network, governments have struggled to control flows of people, capital, and ideas, as states have sought to balance their autonomy with an increasingly interdependent world. Local economies are now quickly affected by distant policies and cycles, and formerly isolated locales have been integrated into a new “global village.” Even the most fundamental questions about what globalization is, when it began, and the nature of global politics, culture, and the economy, are all hotly debated throughout the social sciences.
Globalization and Inequality
Authors: Albrecht Scott , Korzeniewicz Roberto Patricio
Published: March 2012

The United Nations'2005 Report on the World Social Situation: The Inequality Predicamentopens with the claim that “globalization has helped to accentuate trends that show the wealthiest 20 per cent of the planet accounting for 86 per cent of all private consumption and the poorest accounting for just above 1 per cent”; the first area demanding “urgent attention” in the report is “worldwide asymmetries deriving from globalization” (United Nations 2005: 6, 9). On the other hand, albeit writing about a previous wave of globalization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Williamson (1997: 405) concluded that “globalization wasthecritical factor promoting economic convergence” not only between nations, but within nations as well. These two examples illustrate deep disagreements about the impact of globalization on inequality.
Globalization from Below
Authors: Langman Lauren
Published: March 2012

In the beginning of 2011, the self‐immolation of a Tunisian street vendor, an unemployed college graduate, set off massive popular protests in Tunisia, then Egypt, Libya, and beyond, and rocked the Middle East. While these mobilizations were directed at local leaders, more careful scrutiny reveals that a broad spectrum of the common people, the poor, workers, unemployed college students, professionals, and so on, were reacting to inequality, unemployment, and underemployment. However, much of this adversity stemmed from neoliberal globalization. Local leaders such as Ben Ali, Mubarak, or Gaddafi, acting on behalf of global corporations, enriched themselves with billions of dollars while the masses remained impoverished.
Globophilia
Authors: Kahn Richard
Published: March 2012

Globophilia can be defined generally as an ideological perspective affirming that globalism in either its economic, political, or cultural aspects is a beneficial and necessary social force in the world. Conceived broadly, in this way, those who support globophilic ideas may variously hail from differing ends of the political spectrum, be in favor of cultural cosmopolitanism or not, and believe either in capitalist or alternative economic frameworks. Still, the existence of a core focus upon the need for unfolding globalism as a driving engine for their ideological ends characterizes all forms of globalization advocates as at least somewhat globophilic in their persuasion. More specifically, however, globophilia is most typically a moniker used to describe the particular positions of globalization ideologues who lobby for the extension of the “Washington Consensus,” neoliberal‐styled policies of capitalist modernization throughout the world, thereby arguing that such globalization is inevitable as well as synonymous with the continued revelation of democratic progress, cultural diversity, consumer choice, and increasing social equity.
Governance
Authors: Henry Cox Robert , Schilthuis Albert
Published: March 2012

Global governance is a term used to describe the complex network of international institutions, treaties, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and bilateral and multilateral agreements that provide leadership and establish standard practices across the globe. As a concept, global governance identifies an architecture for governing international affairs that is broader than the traditional view of the international system. In that traditional view, the international order consists of a collection of sovereign nation‐states whose interaction with one another was guided by a series of legal treaties. Globalization, however, has helped to spawn a number of new organizations that operate beyond the reach of nation‐states, yet which guide and constrain the actions of states and individuals.
Greenpeace
Authors: Eden Sally
Published: March 2012

Greenpeace
1
is a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that campaigns on environmental issues and is run through an international network of offices, with a headquarters in Amsterdam. It is generally regarded as a more radical and activist organization than many in the environmental movement, and is particularly well known for media coverage of its campaigns and direct actions against symbols of environmental destruction, such as whaling ships, nuclear power plants, and fossil fuel companies. Today, the name Greenpeace often serves as shorthand for the environmental movement as a whole in public consciousness, reflecting the group's success in helping to make environmental ideas part of everyday parlance.
Grobalization
Authors: Ritzer George
Published: March 2012

Grobalization is defined as “the imperialistic ambitions of nations, corporations, organizations, and the like and their desire, indeed need, to impose themselves on various geographic areas” (Ritzer 2007: 15). The term implies that these entities seek to have their power, influence, and in many cases profits
gro
w (hence the term
gro
balization). The term was created as a counterpart to glocalization, or “the interpenetration of the global and the local, resulting in unique outcomes in different geographic areas” (Ritzer 2007: 13; see also Robertson 2001). While glocalization is important, the literature on globalization, especially cultural globalization, has tended to emphasize, even overemphasize, the process of glocalization (as well as closely related ideas such as hybridity, hybridization (Nederveen Pieterse 2009), and creolization (Hannerz 1987)).
Health
Authors: Linn James G. , Wilson Debra Rose
Published: March 2012

The globalization of health encompasses a wide array of epidemiologic, organizational, cultural and environmental processes, which affect many national societies, but are not controlled by any single country (Ritzer 2003). A central problem of health globalization today is the international and local tension resulting from cultural homogenization as Western health norms and organizational structures are widely disseminated in all regions of the world, while Eastern practices and folk or complementary medicine is being integrated worldwide.
Hegemony and Counterhegemony
Authors: Cox Robert Henry , Schilthuis Albert
Published: March 2012

Counterhegemony is a notion developed by Antonio Gramsci (1995) to define the way people develop ideas and discourse to challenge dominant assumptions, beliefs and established patterns of behavior. In the context of globalization, counterhegemony is employed to explain some of the criticism of, and mobilization against, globalization. It is the intellectual foundation for much of the anti‐globalization movement.
Homosexuality
Authors: Ryan J. Michael
Published: March 2012

The term homosexuality can refer to sexual relations between members of the same sex, desire linked to physical or emotional attraction between members of the same sex, or to the social identity of someone who engages in relations, sexual or otherwise, with members of the same sex. It is important to note that while the term generally has sexual connotations, these need not be implicit in its use. It can refer to a sense of behavior, desire, identity, or some combination thereof.
Identities
Authors: Niezen Ronald
Published: March 2012

The term identity is derived from the Latin
idem
“the same,” which provided the foundation for the later permutation,
identitas
, referring to the qualities of sameness, likeness, or oneness. This implies a relationship of similarity between things, or, more importantly, between people belonging to the same community or society. Identity thus refers to the most important qualities shared by people within a recognized group, the cultural practices that set them apart from others and ultimately their character or personality, sometimes referring to an innermost essence that lacks clear definition but that nevertheless is a foundation for distinctiveness and, at times, sovereignty.
Ideoscapes
Authors: Martínez Airín D.
Published: March 2012

Ideoscape is a term introduced by Arjun Appadurai (1990) to represent one of the five contemporary global cultural flows that is constitutive of linked images and ideas related to the political discourses of the Enlightenment such as sovereignty, freedom, rights, welfare, representation, and democracy. Ideoscapes are attempts to capture state power and therefore also consist of counter‐ideologies in opposition to modern, dominant political discourses. Appadurai's major goals for developing his five dimensions (
ethnoscape
,
technoscape
,
financescape
,
mediascape
, and
ideoscape
) of global cultural economy were to demonstrate that globalization was not merely rooted in the expansion of global capitalism within core–periphery models, or produced a homogenized global culture. Rather, Appadurai sought to demonstrate how modernity circulates through geographic, diasporic, imaginary, and local spaces to produce irregularities of globalization. The suffix,
scapes
, is used to parallel the variable and often uneven terrain of landscapes to that of uneven global modernization.
Inequality, education
Authors: Rizvi Fazal
Published: March 2012

Over the past few decades, inequalities in education have been a major source of concern for most societies around the world. Almost every educational system has used public policy to ensure greater participation in education in an attempt to reduce levels of social stratification. Commitment to equality has been based on the principles of economic efficiency and social justice. It has been argued that a more educated population is necessarily good for the economic development of a nation (Darling‐Hammond 2010). On social justice grounds, educational equality has been regarded as a basic human right, essential for social cohesion. A commitment to these principles has led governments, often with the assistance of international development agencies, to invest heavily in education, in an attempt to increase access, widen participation, reduce levels of illiteracy, and, to some extent, achieve greater equality of social outcomes.
Inequality, health
Authors: Rinaldo Lindsay A. , Ferraro Kenneth F.
Published: March 2012

Inequality in health is broadly defined as socially‐patterned variability in indicators of health status such as disease, disability, and mortality. Inequality is an attribute of a population, and sociologists examine the social patterns, antecedents, and consequences of inequality between and within countries. In this essay, we investigate (1) widely studied forms of health inequality, (2) changes in health inequality over time, and (3) the ascendancy of the life course perspective for studying health inequality.
Insourcing
Authors: Lair Craig D.
Published: March 2012

One of the factors generally overlooked in the debate surrounding outsourcing is that it is always a two‐way process. That is, outsourcing involves the transfer of activities from one entity
to
another. As such, any instance of outsourcing necessarily involves a parallel process of
insourcing
– the taking in of affairs that have been outsourced by others. For example, if an automobile manufacturer decides to outsource the production of its chassis to an outside firm, the latter is insourcing what was previously performed by the former. Indeed, outsourcing is fundamentally premised on the idea that there are businesses that can and will take on (i.e., insource) what others do not wish to, or cannot, perform themselves.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Authors: Bhandari Medani
Published: March 2012

International organizations can create powerful tools to solve a particular problem, which helps to increase their power, access, and authority through collaborative efforts, mutual agreements, and policy formation. This situation creates a favorable environment for formulating new regimes, where solutions can be contemplated. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a good example of international regime formation on climate change because, based on the outcomes of its first four assessment reports, it is creating global agreement on how climate change may hamper the life of the planet. The reports demonstrate that climate change is scientific fact, and that the alarming rate of change is anthropogenic (IPCC 2010).
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
Authors: Bhandari Medani
Published: March 2012

The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) was established in December 1983 as a regional knowledge and learning center for sustainable development in the Hindu Kush‐Himalayan (HKH) region, with a mandate of improving lives and the environment in mountain communities of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. Its secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal. ICIMOD works through three key strategic and programmatic thrusts: integrated water and hazard management, environmental change and ecosystem services, and sustainable livelihoods and poverty reduction. It helps clients balance the priorities of highland and lowland communities, plan for and adapt to climate change impacts, and apply effective integrated land and water resources management strategies. Using a transdisciplinary problem analysis, design, and implementation model, ICIMOD helps clients translate their concerns into operational action by supporting team work; instituting program monitoring and evaluation measures; and optimizing their use of financial, human, and institutional resources. ICIMOD's programs are committed to integrating crosscutting criteria of policy, governance, equity, and gender, and to mainstreaming principles of information and knowledge management (Bie & Qvenild 2005; ICIMOD and Asia Water Forum 2009: 1–4; ICIMOD 2010).
International Courts
Authors: Nagan Winston , Haddad Aitza M.
Published: March 2012

International courts were a tentative innovation in the early twentieth century. After World War II the international community developed a greater confidence in the importance of international courts within the context of law and public order. In the latter part of the twentieth century international confidence in the courts reached unprecedented levels as both international and regional international judicial institutions were created to meet many problems that were not suited to the conventional methods of solving international problems through diplomacy and other less formalized methods of dispute settlement.
International Governmental Organizations
Authors: Owsiak Andrew P. , Diehl Paul
Published: March 2012

As the iron curtain was drawn back across Europe at the end of the Cold War, policy‐makers anticipated that international governmental organizations (also known as intergovernmental organizations or IGOs), most prominently the United Nations (UN) and the European Union (EU), would be the primary mechanisms through which the global community addressed international problems. Such heightened expectations corresponded with a renewed scholarly interest in IGOs. To be sure, scholars never abandoned the study of international organizations (broadly defined). Nevertheless, specific attention on IGOs subsided decades earlier when international events undermined confidence in their effectiveness as international actors.
International Labour Organization
Authors: Jarman Jennifer
Published: March 2012

The International Labour Organization (ILO) is the United Nations (UN) agency with responsibility for labor issues. In 1969, the quality of its work was recognized with a Nobel Peace Prize, awarded for its relative success in achieving its mandate when compared to most other international organizations. In giving the award, the Nobel Prize committee recognized the difficulty of improving employment standards in a complex global environment. At the time of the award, it was noted as a substantial achievement that the goals of the organization had been met in most developed countries. It was also noted that the future role of the organization would lie in continuing its work to help shape standards in the developed world. As of May 2009 a total of 183 countries, almost all of the countries in the world, were members. These elements, together with the ILO's long history, its international mandate and profile, and the broad level of participation and comprehensive membership, combine to make it a significant organization involved in the creation of an international framework of employment rights and minimum standards.
International Nongovernmental Organizations
Authors: Boli John
Published: March 2012

International nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) are voluntary associations operating on a nonprofit basis at the transnational or global level. Most have members or participants from many countries, bringing together like‐minded individuals or associations of individuals to conduct a wide variety of activities. They organize virtually all social sectors, from astronomy to field hockey to paleontology to zoo management. While the best‐known INGOs focus on human rights (for example, Human Rights Watch), the environment (World Wildlife Fund), disaster relief (Red Cross), and the like, most INGOs are found in scientific, technical, business and industry, medical, and professional sectors. Sizeable numbers are also active in such sectors as sports and recreation, development, education, and women's rights. As of 2009, well over 7000 “conventional” INGOs (defined below) were in operation, along with about 20 000 internationally oriented nongovernmental organizations of more limited scope.
International Organization of Securities Commissions
Authors: Tonkiss Fran
Published: March 2012

The International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) is a representative forum for regulators of securities and futures markets. Founded in 1983, it is headquartered in Madrid, Spain. IOSCO's voting membership includes the chief regulatory authorities for the world's financial jurisdictions. These are mainly but not solely national – certain members represent transnational (e.g., the West African Monetary Union acts for eight countries) and sub‐national markets (e.g., Ontario and Québec have separate delegates). The organization's voting membership totalled 114 in 2010, with oversight of more than 95 percent of global securities markets. IOSCO forms part of a developing architecture of global governance through international networks. It is significant as an agency whose goals are both to promote global exchange and to regulate the terms of such exchange, implying a model of economic globalization based on increasing standardization across national borders and legal systems. IOSCO is especially interesting in aiming to steer activities in financial markets, one of the primary challenges for global economic coordination. The organization's work has become highly relevant in light of successive shocks to the global financial system: notably the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and the global financial crisis of 2008.
International Relations
Authors: Elliott David L.
Published: March 2012

“International relations” refers to relations that cross national boundaries, especially political relations among states. At the root of international relations is international politics, though social, cultural, economic, and geographic considerations increasingly occupy thinking on international relations. One concept, realism, has dominated theory and practice of foreign policy and international politics since 431 BCE when the Second Peloponnesian War began and was chronicled by Thucydides (400 BCE). In that war, Athens besieged and conquered the previously independent island of Milos. Athens, in turn, was conquered by Sparta. In each case, first Athens over Milos and then Sparta over Athens used superior force to achieve its goal. To this day, realists argue that leaders of each state should exercise power to act in the state's own interests with respect to other states, all existing internationally in a condition of anarchy by virtue of a lack of governance apparatus that transcends the sovereign state. Realists recognize that in the seemingly anarchic absence of a political structure above or mediating existing states, successful international or interstate politics depends upon power and its exercise. This power may take many forms, usually material (economic or military) or ideological. While realism may be considered as much a theory of foreign policy as a theory of international relations (Morgenthau 1972; Barkin 2010), these themes have endured for 2500 years and continue to shape the trajectory of international relations into the epoch of globalization.
Islam: Globalization and its Intellectual Development
Authors: Moaddel Mansoor
Published: March 2012

Globalization is a master historical process of time–space compression (Harvey 1990) between various localities made possible through the employment of modern means of communication and transportation. This process enhances and is reinforced by the expansion of international trade and transnational movement of capital in search of valorization. Globalization may affect major areas of human concerns: from economic and political to the pattern, volume, and intensity of human migration, to transnationalization of migrant communities, to family life and gender relations, to educational institutions, to religious, artistic, and intellectual movements, and to the nature and style of political violence.
Joint‐Ventures
Authors: Rivera‐Santos Miguel
Published: March 2012

A joint‐venture is a voluntary cooperative agreement between two or more organizations, the goal of which is to improve performance by sharing tasks or resources. While joint‐ventures have existed for several decades, their importance in firms' strategies has dramatically increased with globalization, leading some authors to argue that we have entered an age of alliance capitalism with porous boundaries of firms, countries, and markets. In the strict sense, a joint‐venture involves some form of equity sharing, either through the creation of a separate entity jointly owned by the partners, or through the partners' acquisition of a minority stake in each other's equity. A great deal of inconsistency exists in the use of terminology across authors and disciplines, however, and the term “joint‐venture” has also been used to refer to any type of inter‐organizational relationship. Reflecting this tendency, the terms “joint‐venture,” “alliance,” and “inter‐organizational relationship” are used interchangeably in this entry.
Judaism
Authors: Goldscheider Calvin
Published: March 2012

Jews, their communities and their Judaism, have undergone major transformations in the decades since the end of World War II. Their migrations and settlements in dozens of countries around the world have made them the quintessential ethnic and religious minority characterized by globalization. Their population dispersal among many countries, the development of local institutions, and their cultural and social assimilation are legacies of the past but have been radically reshaped beginning in the nineteenth and continuing in the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries.
Labor and Work
Authors: Jarman Jennifer
Published: March 2012

Labor and work are related concepts with overlapping meanings. Because human beings have such a wide variety of purposes, there is no simple definition of either “labor” or “work” that applies to all societies at all points in time. Work has more of a connotation that something is being or has been accomplished, and labor has more of a physical connotation. Both terms suggest that a purposeful effort has been expended and some sort of a result produced.
Labor Movements
Authors: Timms Jill
Published: March 2012

Labor movements consist of people and groups who come together to establish and protect the rights of workers. They can differ in terms of their focus, organizational form and composition, ideology, size, reach, and the strategies employed, but share a determination to improve conditions of work. Labor movements are by no means static, but are continually evolving, often conflicting, and increasingly diverse. The range includes formally organized and legally recognized trade unions; networks of precarious workers; labor‐focused nongovernmental organizations (NGOs); peasant associations; and broader social movements for human rights and global justice as they connect to issues of work.
Labor Migration
Authors: Stalker Peter
Published: March 2012

Around 200 million people live outside the country of their birth – some 3 percent of the global population. Some will have moved to build a new life in another country, others might be living overseas as refugees, studying abroad, or joining family members who have already emigrated. But one of the principal motivations, especially for people moving from developing to developed countries, is to earn a higher income. Those who travel primarily to work can be considered as “labor migrants” – though there is considerable overlap between the various categories. Even refugees or students may also be working.