bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gating the glutamate gate of CLC-2 chloride channel by pore occupancy
Authors: De Jesús-Pérez José J. , Castro-Chong Alejandra , Shieh Ru-Chi , Hernández-Carballo Carmen Y. , De Santiago-Castillo José A. , Arreola Jorge
Published: December 2015

CLC-2 channels are dimeric double-barreled chloride channels that open in response to hyperpolarization. Hyperpolarization activates protopore gates that independently regulate the permeability of the pore in each subunit and the common gate that affects the permeability through both pores. CLC-2 channels lack classic transmembrane voltage–sensing domains; instead, their protopore gates (residing within the pore and each formed by the side chain of a glutamate residue) open under repulsion by permeant intracellular anions or protonation by extracellular H+. Here, we show that voltage-dependent gating of CLC-2: (a) is facilitated when permeant anions (Cl−, Br−, SCN−, and I−) are present in the cytosolic side; (b) happens with poorly permeant anions fluoride, glutamate, gluconate, and methanesulfonate present in the cytosolic side; (c) depends on pore occupancy by permeant and poorly permeant anions; (d) is strongly facilitated by multi-ion occupancy; (e) is absent under likely protonation conditions (pHe = 5.5 or 6.5) in cells dialyzed with acetate (an impermeant anion); and (f) was the same at intracellular pH 7.3 and 4.2; and (g) is observed in both whole-cell and inside-out patches exposed to increasing [Cl−]i under unlikely protonation conditions (pHe = 10). Thus, based on our results we propose that hyperpolarization activates CLC-2 mainly by driving intracellular anions into the channel pores, and that protonation by extracellular H+ plays a minor role in dislodging the glutamate gate.
Every coprime linear group admits a base of size two
Authors: Halasi Zoltán , Podoski Károly
Published: December 2015

Let

G
G

be a linear group acting faithfully on a finite vector space

V
V

and assume that

(

|

G

|

,

|

V

|

)
=
1

(|G|,|V|) =1

. In this paper we prove that

G
G

admits a base of size two and that this estimate is sharp. This generalizes and strengthens several former results concerning base sizes of coprime linear groups. As a direct consequence, we answer a question of I. M. Isaacs in the affirmative.
Fuse: multiple network alignment via data fusion
Authors: Gligorijević Vladimir , Malod-Dognin Noël , Pržulj Nataša
Published: December 2015

Motivation: Discovering patterns in networks of protein–protein interactions (PPIs) is a central problem in systems biology. Alignments between these networks aid functional understanding as they uncover important information, such as evolutionary conserved pathways, protein complexes and functional orthologs. However, the complexity of the multiple network alignment problem grows exponentially with the number of networks being aligned and designing a multiple network aligner that is both scalable and that produces biologically relevant alignments is a challenging task that has not been fully addressed. The objective of multiple network alignment is to create clusters of nodes that are evolutionarily and functionally conserved across all networks. Unfortunately, the alignment methods proposed thus far do not meet this objective as they are guided by pairwise scores that do not utilize the entire functional and evolutionary information across all networks.

Results: To overcome this weakness, we propose Fuse, a new multiple network alignment algorithm that works in two steps. First, it computes our novel protein functional similarity scores by fusing information from wiring patterns of all aligned PPI networks and sequence similarities between their proteins. This is in contrast with the previous tools that are all based on protein similarities in pairs of networks being aligned. Our comprehensive new protein similarity scores are computed by Non-negative Matrix Tri-Factorization (NMTF) method that predicts associations between proteins whose homology (from sequences) and functioning similarity (from wiring patterns) are supported by all networks. Using the five largest and most complete PPI networks from BioGRID, we show that NMTF predicts a large number protein pairs that are biologically consistent. Second, to identify clusters of aligned proteins over all networks, Fuse uses our novel maximum weight k-partite matching approximation algorithm. We compare Fuse with the state of the art multiple network aligners and show that (i) by using only sequence alignment scores, Fuse already outperforms other aligners and produces a larger number of biologically consistent clusters that cover all aligned PPI networks and (ii) using both sequence alignments and topological NMTF-predicted scores leads to the best multiple network alignments thus far.

Availability and implementation: Our dataset and software are freely available from the web site: http://bio-nets.doc.ic.ac.uk/Fuse/.

Contact:  natasha@imperial.ac.uk

Supplementary information:  Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Combined effects of low pH and low oxygen on the early-life stages of the barnacle Balanus amphitrite
Authors: Campanati Camilla , Yip Stella , Lane Ackley , Thiyagarajan Vengatesen
Published: December 2015

Ocean acidification (OA) is anticipated to interact with the more frequently occurring hypoxic conditions in shallow coastal environments. These could exert extreme stress on the barnacle-dominated fouling communities. However, the interactive effect of these two emerging stressors on early-life stages of fouling organisms remains poorly studied. We investigated both the independent and interactive effect of low pH (7.6 vs. ambient 8.2) and low oxygen (LO; 3 mg l−1 vs. ambient 5 mg l−1) from larval development through settlement (attachment and metamorphosis) and juvenile growth of the widespread fouling barnacle, Balanus amphitrite. In particular, we focused on the critical transition between planktonic and benthic phases to examine potential limiting factors (i.e. larval energy storage and the ability to perceive cues) that may restrain barnacle recruitment under the interactive stressors. LO significantly slowed naupliar development, while the interaction with low pH (LO–LP) seemed to alleviate the negative effect. However, 20–50% of the larvae became cyprid within 4 d post-hatching, regardless of treatment. Under the two stressors interaction (LO–LP), the barnacle larvae increased their feeding rate, which may explain why their energy reserves at competency were not different from any other treatment. In the absence of a settlement-inducing cue, a significantly lower percentage of cyprids (∼15% lower) settled in LO and LO–LP. The presence of an inducing cue, however, elevated attachment up to 50–70% equally across all treatments. Post-metamorphic growth was not altered, although the condition index was different between LO and LO–LP treatments, potentially indicating that less and/or weaker calcified structures were developed when the two stressors were experienced simultaneously. LO was the major driver for the responses observed and its interaction with low pH should be considered in future studies to avoid underestimating the sensitivity of biofouling species to OA and associated climate change stressors.
Central Nervous System
Authors: Palacio Ryan , Clinton Megan , Yeung Albert , Brooks Meredith , Ellinas Herodotos
Published: December 2015

This chapter contains 49 questions relevant for the Pediatric Subspecialty Exam about the topic of the central nervous system.
Painful Disease States
Authors: Bilge Aykut , Lee Jason S. , Scemama de Gialluly Pascal
Published: December 2015

This chapter contains 26 questions relevant for the Pediatric Subspecialty Exam about the topic of painful disease states.
Special Techniques and Situations
Authors: Park Raymond , Eastburn Elizabeth C.
Published: December 2015

This chapter contains 10 questions relevant for the Pediatric Subspecialty Exam about the topic of special techniques and situations.
Revisiting the classics: is [Mg/Fe] a good proxy for galaxy formation time-scales?
Authors: Martín-Navarro Ignacio
Published: December 2015

In the local Universe, massive early-type galaxies exhibit enhanced [Mg/Fe] ratios, which has been traditionally interpreted as the result of a rapid (τ ≲ 1 Gyr) collapse. However, recent claims of a non-universal, steep initial mass function call for a revision of this standard interpretation. In the present work we show how the simultaneous consideration of a high [Mg/Fe] and a steep IMF slope would imply unreasonably short (τ ∼ 7 Myr) and intense (SFR ∼105 M⊙ yr−1) formation events for massive early-type galaxies. We discuss possible caveats and explanations to this apparent inconsistency, and we suggest that further IMF determinations, both in the local Universe and at high redshift, are necessary to better understand the problem.
Foreign Policy after 1990
Authors: Mohan C. Raja
Published: December 2015

Four broad themes in India’s foreign policy since 1990 are analysed in this chapter: restructuring of great power relations, reconnecting to the extended neighbourhood, recasting the South Asian policy, and rethinking some of the core concepts like non-alignment. Liberated from the Cold War constraints and in search of capital, technology, and markets in the reform era, India intensified the engagement with the West without abandoning its traditional Russian partnership. It began to rebuild its economic and political ties to the extended neighbourhood, injected greater flexibility into its engagement with the smaller neighbours in the subcontinent, and sought, unsuccessfully, to normalize relations with Pakistan. The absolute increase in its military and economic resources began to compel India to think less like a developing, non-aligned country and more like an emerging and responsible power. India is also struggling to address the tension between the concepts of ‘strategic autonomy’ and ‘strategic influence’.
India’s International Development Program
Authors: Mukherjee Rohan
Published: December 2015

Unlike many other aspects of its foreign policy, India’s international development program—or foreign aid, for short—displays a fairly stable pattern of continuity since independence. Although largely focused on South Asia, India has always given aid in some form to the rest of the developing world. Contrary to the claims of many analysts and Indian officials, India’s aid giving is neither unique nor uniquely attuned to developing country needs. Indian aid projects have largely served Delhi’s strategic interests, which used to be primarily military or diplomatic and since the 1980s are primarily economic. However, it is unclear to what extent aid has been effective in securing India’s foreign policy interests. In the final analysis, India’s aid program reflects the regional priorities of a rising power that is not yet able to buy the kind of influence it seeks.
Officialdom
Authors: Madan Tanvi
Published: December 2015

India’s interaction with other states today involves a range of subjects beyond traditional diplomacy, including those in the economic, energy, environment, defence, and diaspora realms. Consequently, the officialdom at the central level involved in the formulation, approval, and implementation of foreign policy includes a number of actors. For these official Indian actors, a number of factors have made foreign policy-making more complicated than it was in the past. This chapter outlines these factors. It also examines the various actors involved in the Indian foreign policy process, providing examples of the kind and scale of their involvement and interaction with each other. Furthermore, it outlines the informal and formal mechanisms for coordination between these actors. Finally, it explores some challenges inherent in the foreign policy-making system, as well as criticisms levelled at it.
The Economic Imperatives Shaping Indian Foreign Policy
Authors: Baru Sanjaya
Published: December 2015

India’s national priority is economic development, the well-being of all its people, and the maintenance of peace and stability within its neighbourhood. While Indian foreign policy is defined by these considerations, there has always been a tension between its economic policy compulsions and its international aspirations. However, India has come to recognize that its global image and influence are shaped primarily by its economic capability and capacity. The key question for foreign policy-makers is how any given strategy would impact India’s developmental aspirations and needs and provide a secure environment for the fulfilment of those needs and aspirations. India will, therefore, seek to maintain good relations with all major powers, key economic and strategic partners, and its neighbours with a view to maintaining a regional and global environment conducive to her sustained and sustainable growth.
China
Authors: Acharya Alka
Published: December 2015

For nearly half a century India’s relationship with China had a highly uneven trajectory, punctured by intense mutual suspicion, occasional fraternal bonhomie, a border war, bitter exchanges and near conflict scenarios. It took almost three decades after the 1962 conflict for this relationship to start acquiring a more comprehensive and multidimensional character. Since the last decade of the twentieth century, through a politics of incremental engagement, India has continually broadened and deepened its bilateral relations with China, and steadily expanded its regional and global engagement. The rise of China and the slower emergence of India as major powers has resulted in an increasing significance of their relationship for each other (and of this relationship for global politics). The dynamics of this phase are being shaped by their respective domestic imperatives of development and modernization, a rapidly transforming regional strategic environment, the forces of economic globalization, and the newer security challenges.
India’s Nepal Policy
Authors: Muni S. D.
Published: December 2015

This chapter focuses on India’s relations with Nepal. India’s security interests and its Nepal policy have been shaped by historical legacy, geographical imperatives, and regional and global political dynamics. India tried to evolve mechanisms of mutual security arrangements and foreign policy coordination to underline its ‘special relationship’ with Nepal but did not succeed. It was also keen to keep strategically adversarial foreign influences out of Nepal but could not do so fully. India successfully helped Nepal in resolving the latter’s transformational political upheavals, but failed to make Nepal institutionalize the changes. India’s failures in Nepal resulted from a lack of long-term policy perspective, interventionist and insensitive diplomatic behaviour, diversity of domestic stakeholders, and the role of aggressive external players like China, Pakistan and the United States. India’s future challenges in Nepal can be met through a stable and forward-looking Nepal as well as a resilient regional policy of India.
India’s ‘Look East’ Policy
Authors: Acharya Amitava
Published: December 2015

India’s relationship with its eastern neighbours has evolved from pan-Asian romanticism and assertive leadership in the late 1940s and 1950s, to isolation and neglect following its defeat in the 1962 war with China, and finally to a more pragmatic resolve since the early 1990s to seek integration with the region and to benefit from its economic dynamism. But while the economic dimension of India’s ‘look east’ policy remains far from realizing its full potential, a strategic dimension has emerged, namely India’s role as a useful political and diplomatic counterweight to Chinese influence in the Asian security architecture. Another dimension of India’s ‘look east’ policy, its participation in Asian regionalism, has New Delhi pursuing a somewhat passive role under ASEAN’s leadership. The ‘look east’ policy faces new challenges as India must reconcile its role as an emerging power, with its traditional tendency to isolate itself from external economic and geopolitical currents.
The Indian Ocean as India’s Ocean
Authors: Scott David
Published: December 2015

This chapter discusses India’s role in the Indian Ocean and the role that the Indian Ocean plays in Indian foreign policy. In effect this represents a ‘look south’ policy for developing India’s sea power in its extended neighbourhood. Six sections look in turn at India’s official frameworks, geopolitics and geoeconomics, location and oceanic holdings, blue-water naval projective capabilities, diplomatic position in the Indian Ocean, and relations with extra-regional powers. The chapter concludes by looking beyond the present into the near future where India will probably maintain and extend its regional pre-eminence, but will face the challenge of maintaining required financial outlays. It also concludes by looking at the implication for India and the Indian Ocean of ‘Indo-Pacific’ strategic formulations.
US–India Relations
Authors: Tellis Ashley J.
Published: December 2015

Throughout the Cold War, relations between the United States and India were defined by the two countries’ often mismatched worldviews, national priorities, and capabilities. These three factors prevented Washington and New Delhi from realizing the full potential of their relationship, despite the natural kinship bestowed by their shared identity as liberal democracies. Today, although Cold War-era non-alignment politics and the irritant of India’s exclusion from the international nuclear non-proliferation regime have largely abated, vestiges of these structural constraints persist even as India opens itself to global markets and undertakes economic reforms. To make good on the strategic partnership to which they have committed themselves and which is especially important given China’s rising power, both countries must define a minimally acceptable notion of reciprocity in their interactions by reconciling the American expectations of exchange-based relations with the Indian desire for a no-obligations partnership that preserves its strategic autonomy.
Brazil
Authors: Sahni Varun
Published: December 2015

The chapter analyzes India’s relations with Brazil in three distinct ways. Firstly, India–Brazil relations are analyzed in the historical context of India’s relations with Latin America. Then, India’s bilateral links with Brazil across a wide spectrum are explored, focusing on high-level visits and trade relations and the gradual transformation of the relationship from transactional to strategic. Finally, the chapter analyzes the evolution of India’s partnership with Brazil as two emerging powers simultaneously striving forgrandeza(greatness), that are now engaged in power aggregation, problem solving, and community building initiatives in diverse forums that include G4, BRICS, G20, and IBSA.
India in the International Trading System
Authors: Mehta Pradeep S. , Chatterjee Bipul
Published: December 2015

Although India’s foreign trade policy has undergone drastic changes over the years, its recognition of the international trading system as the vehicle for trade negotiations has remained unwavering. As India’s economy has begun to grow due to the use of open policies, so has its influence in championing the ambitions of developing countries. India’s history tells a story of the convergence of its foreign trade policy with the underlying principles of the multilateral trading system. However, looking forward, to maximize fully the benefits to it of the international trading system, India’s attention must now turn to facilitating convergence between its domestic policy and its foreign policy. This chapter discusses India’s trajectory in the international trading system over the years and the domestic issues India must now confront in order to fully garner its benefits.
The Rule of Experts
Authors: Koppl Roger
Published: December 2015

The division of labor creates a division of knowledge, which creates expertise and the problem of experts. The rule of experts exists when experts have an epistemic monopoly and choose for others. Generally, experts may have power that threatens individual autonomy. Competition tends to dissipate the power of experts, although the details of market structure matter. Even well-meaning experts may fail because they have bounded rationality. Epistemic monopoly increases the risks of error and expert failure; competition reduces them. Information choice theory is an economic theory of experts. It may help in the design of epistemic systems, which are agent-based processes viewed from perspective of their knowledge properties. Epistemic engineering studies the design principles of epistemic systems. Economists should consider the epistemic properties of alternative institutions to minimize the problem of experts and avoid the rule of experts. Applications discussed include religion, law and justice, and medical research.
Ordoliberalism and the Austrian School
Authors: Kolev Stefan
Published: December 2015

Having emerged in the 1930s and 1940s as the German variety of neoliberalism, the ordoliberal perspective on economics provides an intriguing set of politicoeconomic problems and solutions. While its impact on postwar German economic policy is commonly recognized, more light needs to be shed on the role of ordoliberal ideas within scientific discourses. Embedded in the intellectual climate during the formative years, the essentials of Walter Eucken’s and Wilhelm Röpke’s paradigms regarding the theory of orders and order-based policy are presented in comparative perspective. Possible mutual gains from trade between Freiburg and Vienna are explored in two steps. Historically, the particular proximity of Friedrich Hayek’s early social philosophy to ordoliberal reasoning and to its notion of the competitive order deserves attention. Conceptually, clarity from widespread misinterpretations and higher awareness of existing and potential substantive commonalities can generate crucial impulses for a better understanding of liberty and its prerequisites.
The Tax State as Source of Perpetual Crisis
Authors: Wagner Richard
Published: December 2015

The term “tax state” originated in a controversy between Rudolf Goldscheid and Joseph Schumpeter over the treatment of Austria’s public debt in the aftermath of World War I. Goldscheid asserted that this debt represented a crisis for a state that relied on taxation. Schumpeter argued that the crisis was temporary and could be resolved by a one-time capital levy to reduce the debt, after which the state could resume its tax-based mode of operation. This chapter explains that Goldscheid’s analysis was more on the mark than Schumpeter’s, because perpetual crisis is a systemic quality of the admixture of private and collective property. Mitigation of this systemic crisis requires modification of political activity in relation to property rights, as illustrated by extending the principle that hotels are forms of city state.
Austrian Economics and the Evolutionary Paradigm
Authors: Beck Naomi , Witt Ulrich
Published: December 2015

This chapter discusses the challenges raised by the inclusion of evolutionary elements in the theories of Carl Menger, Joseph Schumpeter, and Friedrich Hayek. Each adopted an idiosyncratic position in terms of method of inquiry, focus, and general message. The breadth of the topics and phenomena they cover testifies to the great variety of interpretations and potential uses of evolutionary concepts in economics. Menger, who made no reference to Darwin’s theory, advanced an “organic” view of the emergence of social institutions. Schumpeter elaborated an original theory of industrial development based on the recurrent emergence and dissemination of innovations. Hayek adopted the biological notion of group selection and made it the central element in his theory of cultural evolution and the rise of the free market. The chapter concludes with a preliminary evaluation of the possible role that evolutionary theorizing might play in the future development of Austrian economics.
The Sensory Order, Neuroeconomics, and Austrian Economics
Authors: Butos William N. , McQuade Thomas J.
Published: December 2015

In the social science literature spawned by Friedrich Hayek’s “The Sensory Order,” the questions asked were: (1) In what ways does Hayek’s cognitive theory fit with his social theory and with Austrian economics in general? (2) Do we need “The Sensory Order” at all to do our social science, and how does it make a difference in providing insight toward understanding the social realm? This chapter surveys this literature and, by drawing out the ramifications from both Hayek’s work on epistemology and psychology and the ongoing experimental investigations of individual economic behavior, it points to the possibility of a coherent new view of economic and other social systems in which individuals have realistic capabilities, where emergent effects are recognized as macro-phenomena that supervene on micro-activity rather than being simply reducible to it and where systemic characteristics such as adaptation and knowledge generation are given their due.
What Have We Learned from the Collapse of Communism?
Authors: Nicoara Olga , Boettke Peter
Published: December 2015

Following the collapse of communism in central and eastern Europe (1989) and the Soviet Union (1991), the field of comparative political economy has undergone multiple stocktakings and revisions. In the former communist countries, Marxist economics was abandoned in favor of neoclassical economics, which dominated the profession in the West. But was neoclassical theory equipped to suggest adequate institutional arrangements in support of the transformations to capitalism in the former centrally planned economies of central and eastern Europe (C and EE) and the former Soviet Union (FSU)? What have economists working in the field of comparative political economy learned from the collapse of communism and the experience of transition so far? This chapter surveys the thoughts of leading transition scholars and assesses the new lessons learned in comparative transitional political economy.
On Your Mark, Get Set, Develop!
Authors: Beaulier Scott A. , Smith Daniel J.
Published: December 2015

One of the lingering questions for development economists is that of economic transition and whether development can be promoted by a strong political leader. Earlier writings on leadership and economic development tend to fall into one of two camps: (1) leaders matter and can contribute positively to economic growth, or (2) leaders seldom have positive effects and, at best, can avoid doing a great deal of harm. This article establishes a third option—a middle-ground position—between these two views. Good leadership can, indeed, have a positive effect on economic growth but only during the initial moment when economic reform is up for grabs. Once the opportunity to implement sweeping reform has passed, interests become entrenched, and the opportunity for growth-enhancing reform passes. Bad leaders, on the other hand, can hamper economic growth in periods well beyond the ideal reform moment.
The Financial Crisis in the United States
Authors: Horwitz Steven
Published: December 2015

The Austrian theory of the business cycle provides a necessary but not sufficient framework for understanding the intertemporal discoordination that caused the housing boom and bust and the financial crisis of 2008. Artificially low interest rates after 2001, caused by central bank expansionary policy, encouraged long-term loans, and housing policy and institutions, especially Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, channeled those funds into the real estate market. The ensuing boom facilitated the growth of exotic financial instruments premised on rising housing prices, all of which crashed when the intertemporal discoordination became clear. Once in a bust, Austrian economics, supplemented by public-choice theory and other parts of Virginia political economy, rejects expansionary fiscal and monetary policy as appropriate responses. Only market discovery processes in a sound monetary framework can reallocate the malinvestments of the boom.
Market Theory and the Price System
Authors: Sautet Frederic
Published: December 2015

This chapter presents a narrative about the evolution of market theory, which can be divided into two lines of thinking: the genetic-causal and the instrumental-causal traditions. The difference between the two views became clear around 1920, when prices came to be considered as parameters. This evolution had wide-ranging implications, as it drove the entire corpus of perfect competition and rejected the classical notion of the market as a dynamic, entrepreneurial system. Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek criticized the instrumental-causal view of market theory, arguing that its focus on equilibrium precluded an explanation of the way the market process unfolds. But it was Israel Kirzner who offered a theory of entrepreneurial discovery based on the alertness to hitherto unnoticed profit opportunities. It is argued that Kirzner’s market theory is the most accomplished theory of its kind in the genetic-causal tradition.
Austrian Business Cycle Theory
Authors: Young Andrew
Published: December 2015

Austrian business cycle theory (ABCT) is a body of hypotheses embodying particularly Austrian insights and assumptions. The canonical variant associated with Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich A. Hayek is particularly well suited to the Great Depression. However, it is an inadequate account of the recent US recession and financial crisis. This chapter develops a suitable ABCT variant that explicitly incorporates not only the economy’s time structure of production but also (1) its structure of consumption and (2) its risk structure. The continuous input–continuous output nature of the housing market is highlighted, along with the Treasury and the Federal Reserve’s roles in externalizing the risk associated with government-sponsored entities’ (GSEs’) debt. The chapter then extends Roger Garrison’s graphical framework to illustrate this ABCT variant.
Playing for Work
Authors: Sakakeeny Matt
Published: December 2015

New Orleans is ideal to study music as a form of labor, because live musical performance is critical to its overall economic infrastructure. After the devastation of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the reliance on the return of displaced culture bearers to facilitate recovery exposed the inner workings of the cultural economy and highlighted long-standing patterns of exploitation that are endemic to black musicians, the culture industry, and global capitalism. This case study, based on years of ethnographic study among black brass band musicians in New Orleans, offers a view of broader issues of heritage tourism, commodification and authenticity, festivalization and exhibition, racial appropriation, and the value of economic and social capital. The author’s observation of musicians provides a foundation for reevaluating live musical performance as a form of labor, extending a large body of literature on the political economy of music with emphasis on the monetary economy of musicians.
The Luwian Language
Authors: Yakubovich Ilya
Published: December 2015

The Luwian language belongs to the Luwic subgroup of the Indo-European Anatolian languages and is a close relative of Hittite. It was used for writing in the Empire of Hattusa and the Neo-Hittite states, which arose after its collapse (appr. 1400-700 BC). It is recorded in two scripts: an adaptation of Mesopotamian cuneiform and Anatolian hieroglyphs. The goal of this article is to provide a concise description of the Luwian language. It contains both information on its structure, with an emphasis on phonology and morphology, and sociolinguistic data. The grammatical description is predominantly synchronic, but historical and comparative information is occasionally introduced if it has a potential to clarify the synchronic state of affairs.
Cultural Poetics (Ethnopoetics)
Authors: Webster Anthony K.
Published: December 2015

This article argues for the continuing importance of ethnopoetics/cultural poetics in the work of linguists and anthropologists. A heuristic definition of ethnopoetics (or cultural poetics) is given as the various traditions of such recurrent patternings of linguistic forms (and the thwarting of such expectations of such patternings). The continuing relevance of a Hymesian-inspired anthropological philology is noted. After framing the discussion of poetry and poetics as both linguistic and ethnographic questions, this article engages questions of linguistic relativity and its relationship to poetics, as well as poetry and poetics as social practices. Examples of parallelism and metaphor are given and discussed both in relation to their poetic form and to their social work. A final extended illustration is given concerning Navajo poetry as an example of a cultural poetics informed by both linguistics and anthropology. It is argued that research on cultural poetics/ethnopoetics encourages patience and reflection.
Sentencing Policies and Practices in Pennsylvania
Authors: Ulmer Jeffery T. , Laskorunsky Julia A.
Published: December 2015

This article outlines the history and evolution of Pennsylvania’s sentencing policies and practices since the adoption of its sentencing guidelines in 1978. Pennsylvania’s sentencing practices have many features in common with other states, such as mandatory minimum sentences and intermediate punishment; however, the system also has some unique features, such as having two independent parole processes for county and state inmates and not awarding a “good time” reduction for state inmates. Major recent developments include the adoption of a sentencing risk assessment and the nullification of many of the state’s mandatory minimum laws. Pennsylvania remains one of the most studied states in sentencing research. Major empirical research on sentencing and incarceration patterns, disparity, and effects of policy changes is summarized.
Models of Semantic Memory
Authors: Jones Michael N. , Willits Jon , Dennis Simon
Published: December 2015

Meaning is a fundamental component of nearly all aspects of human cognition, but formal models of semantic memory have classically lagged behind many other areas of cognition. However, computational models of semantic memory have seen a surge of progress in the last two decades, advancing our knowledge of how meaning is constructed from experience, how knowledge is represented and used, and what processes are likely to be culprit in disorders characterized by semantic impairment. This chapter provides an overview of several recent clusters of models and trends in the literature, including modern connectionist and distributional models of semantic memory, and contemporary advances in grounding semantic models with perceptual information and models of compositional semantics. Several common lessons have emerged from both the connectionist and distributional literatures, and we attempt to synthesize these themes to better focus future developments in semantic modeling.
Modeling Simple Decisions and Applications Using a Diffusion Model
Authors: Ratcliff Roger , Smith Philip
Published: December 2015

The diffusion model is one of the major sequential-sampling models for two-choice decision-making and choice response time in psychology. The model conceives of decision-making as a process in which noisy evidence is accumulated until one of two response criteria is reached and the associated response is made. The criteria represent the amount of evidence needed to make each decision and reflect the decision maker’s response biases and speed-accuracy trade-off settings. In this chapter we examine the application of the diffusion model in a variety of different settings. We discuss the optimality of the model and review its applications to a number of cognitive tasks, including perception, memory, and language tasks. We also consider its applications to normal and special populations, to the cognitive foundations of individual differences, to value-based decisions, and its role in understanding the neural basis of decision-making.
Features of Response Times
Authors: Algom Daniel , Eidels Ami , Hawkins Robert X. D. , Jefferson Brett , Townsend James T.
Published: December 2015

Psychology is one of the most recent sciences to issue from the mother-tree of philosophy. One of the greatest challenges is that of formulating theories and methodologies that move the field toward theoretical structures that are not only sufficient to explain and predict phenomena but, in some vital sense, necessary for those purposes. Mathematical modeling is perhaps the most promising general strategy, but even under that aegis, the physical sciences have labored toward that end. The present chapter begins by outlining the roots of our approach in 19th century physics, physiology, and psychology. Then, we witness the renaissance of goals in the 1960s, which were envisioned but not usually realizable in 19th century science and methodology. It could be contended that it is impossible to know the full story of what can be learned through scientific method in the absence of what cannot be known. This precept brings us into the slough of model mimicry, wherein even diametrically opposed physical or psychological concepts can be mathematically equivalent within specified observational theatres! Discussion of examples from close to half a century of research illustrate what we conceive of as unfortunate missteps from the psychological literature as well as what has been learned through careful application of the attendant principles. We conclude with a statement concerning ongoing expansion of our body of approaches and what we might expect in the future.
Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification for the Detection of Tylenchulus semipenetrans in Soil
Authors: Lin Borong , Wang Honghong , Zhuo Kan , Liao Jinling
Published: December 2015

Tylenchulus semipenetrans is an economically important plant-parasitic nematode occurring in all citrus-producing regions of the world and causing a disease called “slow decline”. For the rapid detection of this nematode, a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay was developed, based on the ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer sequence. The optimal condition for the LAMP assay was 65°C for 50 min. The LAMP products were confirmed using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction analysis with the BamHI enzyme, and by adding SYBR Green I to the LAMP products for visual inspection. The LAMP assay was highly specific for the detection of T. semipenetrans populations from different geographical origins. It was also sensitive, detecting a tenth of the DNA from an individual specimen of T. semipenetrans, which was 10 times more sensitive than conventional PCR. The LAMP protocol was applied to natural citrus rhizosphere soil samples from several orchards in China and the results were fast, sensitive, robust, and accurate. This study is the first to provide a diagnostic tool for T. semipenetrans using DNA extracted directly from citrus rhizosphere soils. This LAMP assay could be used as a practical molecular tool to identify T. semipenetrans and diagnose slow decline disease, even in remote locations.
Noise Reduction in the Simplified Reference Tissue Model for Neuroreceptor Functional Imaging
Authors: Wu Yanjun , Carson Richard E.
Published: December 2015

The Simplified Reference Tissue Model (SRTM) produces functional images of receptor binding parameters using an input function derived from a reference region and assuming a model with one tissue compartment. Three parameters are estimated: binding potential ( BP), relative delivery ( R1), and the reference region clearance constant k′2 Since k′2 should not vary across brain pixels, the authors developed a two-step method (SRTM2) using a global value of k′2. Whole-brain simulations were performed using human input functions and rate constants for [18F]FCWAY, [11C]flumazenil, and [11C]raclopride, and parameter SD and bias were determined for SRTM and SRTM2. The global mean of k′2 was slightly biased (2% to 6%), but the median was unbiased (<1%) and was used as the global value. Binding potential noise reductions with SRTM2 were 4% to 14%, 20% to 53%, and 10% to 30% for [18F]FCWAY, [11C]flumazenil, and [11C]raclopride, respectively, with larger reductions for shorter scans. R1 noise reduction was larger than that of BP. Simulations were also performed to assess bias when the reference and/or tissue regions followed a two-tissue compartment model. Owing to the constrained k′2, SRTM2 showed somewhat larger biases due to violations of the one-compartment model assumption. These studies demonstrate that SRTM2 should be a useful method to improve the quality of neuroreceptor functional images.
The Efficacy of Pregabalin in the Treatment of Prediabetic Neuropathic Pain
Authors: González-Duarte Alejandra , Lem Mónica , Díaz-Díaz Eulises , Castillo Cinthia , Cárdenas-Soto Karla
Published: December 2015

Objective:

We report the results of a pilot, enrichment-design, placebo-controlled crossover trial of pregabalin for the treatment of prediabetic small-fiber neuropathic pain.

Methods:

Individuals with impaired fasting glucose or impaired glucose tolerance and neuropathic pain were evaluated according to UTAH Early Neuropathy Scale (UENS), Quantitative Sensory Testing, and intraepidermal nerve fiber density (IENFD). Symptoms were graded according to the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS). Individuals who responded to the administration of placebo were not eligible. Pregabalin was initiated at a dose of 75 mg qid and tapered up to 300 mg bid. Only individuals with a reduction of pain scores ≥30% were eligible to continue with the double-blind phase, which consisted of a randomized crossover period of 1 month of pregabalin and 1 month of placebo, with 7 days of washout between periods.

Results:

Forty-five participants were enrolled in the study. There was 36% reduction in the NRS from baseline after 1 month of single-blind pregabalin (NRS=5.1±2.6). Twenty-six participants were eligible for the double-blind phase. There was further reduction of pain in the double-blind pregabalin and the placebo groups, but the pregabalin group had a statistically significant reduction of pain (NRS=3.2±2.2 vs. 4.0±2; P<0.05). Participants who did not respond showed a lower IENFD than those who responded, suggesting more severe nerve damage.

Conclusions:

This pilot study showed improvement of prediabetic neuropathic pain. Participants with higher pain scores at baseline had higher UENS scores and a lower IENFD. Limitations of the study include the small number of participants and the carry-over effect.
The Intraoperative Effect of Methadone on Somatosensory Evoked Potentials
Authors: Higgs Maureen , Hackworth Robert J. , John King , Riffenburgh Robert , Tomlin Jeffrey , Wamsley Brian
Published: December 2015

Background:

Evoked potentials (EP), both somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP) and transcranial motor evoked potentials (TcMEP), are often used during complex spine surgery to monitor the integrity of spinal pathways during operations in or around the spine. Changes in these monitored EP signals (increased latency and decreased amplitude) may result from ischemia, direct surgical injury, changes in blood pressure, hypoxia, changes in CO2 tension, and anesthetic agents. Typically, a clinically significant change for SSEPs is defined as an increase in latency >10% or a decrease of amplitude >50%. A clinically significant change for TcMEPs is much more complex but is also described in terms of large signal loss or decrease. Opioids have been shown to both increase latency and decrease the amplitude of SSEPs, although this change is usually not clinically significant. There has been a renewed interest in methadone for use in spine and other complex surgeries. However, the effect of methadone on intraoperative monitoring of SSEPs and TcMEPs is unknown. We present the first study to directly look at the effects of methadone on SSEP and TcMEP monitoring during complex spine surgery.

Methods:

The goal of this study was to observe the effect of methadone on an unrandomized set of patients. The primary endpoint was methadone’s effect on SSEPs, and the secondary endpoint was methadone’s effect on TcMEPs. Adult patients undergoing spine surgery requiring intraoperative neuromonitoring were induced with general anesthesia and had a baseline set of SSEPs and TcMEPs recorded. Next, methadone dosed 0.2 mg/kg/lean body weight was given. Repeat SSEPs and TcMEPs were recorded at 5, 10, and 15 minutes, with the timing based on distribution half-life of methadone between 6 and 8 minutes. Postoperatively, adverse events from methadone administration were collected.

Results:

There was a statistically significant difference found in SSEPs for N20 latency (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.17-0.53; P=0.028), P37 latency (95% CI, 0.65-1.25; P=0.001), and N20 amplitude (95% CI, 0.09-0.32; P=<0.001), but not for P37 amplitude (95% CI, −0.19 to 0.00; P=0.634). There was no significant effect found for TcMEPs, the secondary endpoint of the study, and there were minimal adverse events recorded postoperatively.

Conclusions:

The data demonstrate that a single intravenous dose of methadone has a statistically significant difference on the amplitude and latency of SSEPs. However, this statistical difference does not translate into a clinical significance.
Nodular Colloid Milium of the Conjunctiva and Anterior Orbit
Authors: Munro Andrew , Hitchcock Michael , Sangueza Omar , Gandhi Parag
Published: December 2015

Colloid milium is a rare deposition disorder with accumulation of a characteristic amorphous substance in both protected and sun-exposed areas depending upon the disease subtype. The patient was a 59-year-old woman who was referred for evaluation of a gelatinous-appearing mass in the inferior fornix of the right eye, extending from the medial to the lateral canthal region, and extending up onto the bulbar conjunctival surface and anterior lacrimal gland. Hematoxylin and eosin stain of an incisional biopsy showed deposits of an amorphous brightly eosinophilic material within the conjunctiva with scattered plasma cells at the periphery. There was no evidence of monoclonality, and a Congo red stain was negative. Based on histopathologic findings, a diagnosis of nodular orbital colloid milium was made. To our knowledge, the adult and nodular forms of colloid milium have not been previously described as occurring in the conjunctiva or anterior orbit.
Pediatric Periocular Keratin Horns: A Case Series
Authors: Sachdev Amun , Shafi Fariha , Mehta Purnima , Ahluwalia Harpreet
Published: December 2015

There are very few published cases of periocular keratin horns that have been reported in children. This study reports 2 pediatric cases of periocular keratin horns. The authors describe a 7-year-old male child who developed a keratin horn on the right lower eyelid and a 16-year-old female who developed a caruncular keratin horn. Both cases underwent excision biopsy, and subsequent histology confirmed that there was no evidence of malignancy. However, on the basis of the current evidence in adults and the difficulty in drawing firm conclusions from the small number of reported pediatric cases, the authors suggest that these lesions should be carefully managed due to the possibility of premalignant or malignant change at the base of the lesion.
Nasoorbital Osteoma Presenting as Valsalva-Induced Orbital Emphysema
Authors: Heymann Hans B. , Thompson Christopher F. , Lissner Gary S. , Kern Robert C.
Published: December 2015

An 18-year-old female athlete with a history of multiple traumatic concussions presented with complaints of recurrent bouts of right periorbital swelling that arose with Valsalva maneuvers such as nose-blowing or sneezing. The swelling resolved over hours to days. A CT scan of the sinuses revealed an osteoma originating from the right ethmoid roof involving the frontal recess and projecting into the orbit. She underwent excision of the osteoma via endoscopic transnasal and transcaruncular anterior orbitotomy approaches without complication.