bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A NOTE ON BASAL LEVEL OF SKIN CONDUCTANCE AND BINET I.Q.
Authors: O'CONNOR N. , VENABLES P. H.
Published: April 2011

A group of imbecile women tested on a resting GSR level, namely micro‐mhos conductance and on a dexterity test (GATB tests 0 and P) as well as on Binet Scale (Stanford, 1937 Revision) showed a correlation of −0·4 (P = 0·02) between Binet i.q. and resting conductance level. It was inferred that male imbeciles would have a significantly higher level of conductance than an equivalent normal male sample. This was found to be case (t = 2·75, P < 0·01). results suggest a relationship between mental performance and autonomic reactivity which deserves further investigation.
‘ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR’ INDUCED BY NITROUS OXIDE
Authors: STEINBERG HANNAH
Published: April 2011

Psychological changes induced in normal volunteers by inhalations of nitrous oxide are described. Some of these changes resembled psychiatric symptoms, for example illusions and hallucinations, perseverations, and ‘dissociated’ states.

There was no relation between individual differences in number of changes reported, ratings for emotional stability, and cognitive impairment attributable to drug.

Possible relations between normal, drug‐induced, and other forms of abnormal behaviour are discussed.
NEUROTICISM IN CHILDREN
Authors: THORPE J. G. , JAMES D. P.
Published: April 2011

Three groups of children aged 11–15 years, equated on sex, age and intelligence, were given a battery of neuroticism questionnaires and objective performance tests. experiment was designed to throw light on effects of testing situation upon test scores. results indicate that all tests, questionnaire or objective performance alike, are to some extent affected by testing situation, questionnaires being so much affected as to be virtually useless in discriminating between normal and neurotic groups when testing situation is more strictly controlled. objective performance tests still appear to behave in manner expected of them in spite of additional controls.
PSYCHOLOGICAL REFRACTORY PHASE*†
Authors: MARILL THOMAS
Published: April 2011

A reaction‐time experiment was performed in which S was presented with two lights and two hand‐keys. A flash of left light served as a stimulus to press left key with left hand; right light to press right key with right hand. Trials were given in which both lights flashed; interval between flashes being randomly selected from nine possible values ranging from 0 to 600 msec, various intervals occurring with equal probability.

If s1 and s2 are prior and subsequent of a pair of stimuli calling forth responses r1 and r2, respectively, it was found: (a) that presenting s2 during s1‐s2 interval has no systematic effect on this interval; (6) that s2‐r2 interval varies markedly as a function of s1‐s2 interval, with s2‐r2, longest for short s1‐s2.
CONFLICT AND CHOICE TIME
Authors: BERLYNE D. E.
Published: April 2011

Four variables have been suggested as determinants of degree of conflict: (1) number, (2) nearness to equality in strength, (3) absolute strength, and (4) degree of incompatibility, of competing response tendencies. first two, but not others, have figured in investigations relating reaction time to information theory. Three experiments were carried out to test effects of all these variables on choice time. Two types of choice RT were recorded: first, forced‐choice RT (i.e. traditional choice RT), for which one stimulus was presented at a time, each stimulus having its appropriate response; and second, free‐choice RT, for which two or more stimuli were presented together, S having to respond to any one of them.

principal findings were as follows. (1) Both types of choice RT were longer when number of alternative responses was increased. (2) Free‐choice RT's were invariably longer than forced‐choice RT's, confirming influence of equality of strength. (3) Forced‐choice RT's were inversely related to stimulus intensity, which was regarded as a factor influencing absolute strength of response tendencies. Free‐choice RT's were shortest at intermediate of three intensity levels studied and significantly longer at highest and lowest levels. proportion by which free‐choice RT's exceeded forced‐choice RT's increased with stimulus intensity. (4) Degree of physiological incompatibility did not affect free‐choice RT's, although physiologically incompatible responses produced longer forced‐choice RT's. (5) There were no significant differences between RT's of S's with high and low neuroticism scores.

expediency of continuing to include degree of physiological incompatibility among determinants of degree of conflict is called in question by results. Otherwise, choice time, apart from time taken up by eye movements, etc., which may be shorter with more intense stimuli, appears to increase with degree of conflict. results are discussed in light of various theoretical models, derived from Hull's principle of behavioural oscillation, Miller's theory of conflict, information theory, and Hebb's theory of cortical disruption.
PERSONALITY FACTORS AND RATE OF CONDITIONING
Authors: FRANKS CYRIL M.
Published: April 2011

Sixty normal male students were conditioned, using eyeblink reflex. It was found (1) that those, students who were introverted conditioned considerably better than those who were extraverted, and (2) that there was no correlation between conditioning and neuroticism. This experiment was designed primarily to provide support for an introversion‐extraversion theory of conditioning as opposed to Spence's drive theory. implications of experiment are discussed and related to other experiments designed to show that Hull's Seventh Postulate, as used by Spence, leads to erroneous deductions. It would seem that conditioning is independent of drive level where drive is a secondary factor in conditioning situation.
DISTRIBUTION OF INTELLIGENCE
Authors: BURT CYRIL
Published: April 2011

Current criticisms of use of normal curve in assessing intelligence seem to arise from misconceptions both about nature of evidence available and about hypothesis assumed. theoretical evidence suggests that individual differences in intelligence are effect partly of multifactorial and partly of unifactorial inheritance: on this basis distribution to be expected would be bell‐shaped, but more or less skewed, i.e. a ‘type IV’ rather than a ‘normal’ curve. empirical evidence is mainly derived from tests scaled independently of resulting distribution. With such methods, provided samples are sufficiently large and complete, frequency‐curves obtained exhibit small but significant deviations from strict normality. If, however, specific cases of mental deficiency are omitted, then, for most practical purposes, resulting distributions can be treated as approximately normal.
THE INFLUENCE OF EXTRANEOUS STIMULATION ON THE REACTION TIME OF SCHIZOPHRENICS
Authors: TIZARD J. , VENABLES P. H.
Published: April 2011

In a first experiment 74 chronic schizophrenics made 50 consecutive responses to the presentation of a stimulus light on each of two occasions. In an experimental run a 70 db white noise sounded between responses 21–30; in the control run there was no extraneous stimulation. Patients rated as ‘withdrawn’ showed an increase in speed of reaction in the presence of the noise, while there was no evidence to show that the extraneous stimulus affected those patients rated as ‘sociable’. There was a general tendency for all schizophrenics regardless of classification to show a greater fall off of performance over time than normals. In a second experiment 30 sociable and 30 withdrawn patients responded to an auditory stimulus, in two different conditions of illumination. RT's of withdrawn schizophrenics were significantly faster when they worked in a brightly lit room than when they worked in a dimly lit room. Sociable patients showed a slight tendency to work faster in dim illumination. The findings are discussed.
A FACTORIAL STUDY OF INTROVERSION‐EXTRAVERSION
Authors: HILDEBRAND H. P.
Published: April 2011

Abstract

Previous research suggested that Jung's Theory of Psychological Types could best be examined by factorial methods. Two orthogonal factors of neuroticism and introversion‐extra version were hypothesized in order to explain Jung's theory. A varied neurotic population was examined on a large battery of tests, and factors identified as ‘neuroticism’, ‘g’ and ‘introversion‐extra version’ extracted. Further evidence confirming Jung's theories was given by using regression equations and factor scores which enabled criterion groups not included in the original matrix to be correctly identified.
THE EFFECTS OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE ON TEST PERFORMANCE
Authors: WICKHAM MARY
Published: April 2011

It has been suggested that the menstrual cycle may represent a source of unreliability in the group testing of older girls and women. Data are presented for 4000 young women in which test scores are related to menstrual and health variables. It would appear that, during the Period Phase, there tends to be a slight depression of scores, other than in practical/mechanical performance, but this is too inconsistent and insignificant to warrant compensation in prediction, being no greater than the effects of the more common minor ailments.
PARTIAL ADVANCE INFORMATION IN A CHOICE REACTION TASK
Authors: LEONARD J. ALFRED
Published: April 2011

An experiment was carried out to study the effect of partial advance information on performance. Reaction time and accuracy measures were compared for three conditions: a six‐choice task, a three‐choice task, and a set of experimental conditions in which a two‐choice task preceded two three‐choice tasks by various durations of time. Tests under all conditions were carried out after varying amounts of practice. It was found that at all stages of practice a difference between performance on the six‐choice task and on the three‐choice task was maintained. As the separation between the two‐choice and three‐choice task was varied from 0.04 sec. to 0.50 sec. in the experimental conditions, performance became increasingly similar to, and finally identical with, that under the control three‐choice condition. The relationship between duration of forewarning and performance was, however, not a simple one. The results are discussed with reference to traditional and current views on information processing.
THE ATTENTION‐GETTING VALUE OF STRUCTURAL CHANGE
Authors: GREEN ROBERT T.
Published: April 2011

The structure of a list of items in a serial learning task seems to have a reliable influence upon the probability of recalling a particular item. The results pose serious difficulties for either the gestalt or the usual behaviouristic serial interference interpretations. In particular, it would appear that earlier experiments which were explained in terms of Von Restorff's ‘isolation’ effect have overlooked and confounded the variable of structural change.
EFFECT OF QUINAL BARBITONE, DEXTROAMPHETAMINE, AND PLACEBO ON APPARENT TIME*
Authors: GOLDSTONE SANFORD , BOARDMAN WILLIAM K. , LHAMON WILLIAM T.
Published: April 2011

Quinal barbitone, dextro‐amphetamine and placebo were compared with respect to changes produced in perceived duration in ninety normal subjects. A method was employed which permitted quantitative derivation of a subject's concept of one second, pre‐drug, 30 min. post‐drug and 60 min. post‐drug. The following findings were obtained. (1) A significant decrease in the clock‐measured value of the apparent second with the ingestion of dextro‐amphetamine. (2) A significant increase in the clock‐measured value of the apparent second with the ingestion of quinal barbitone. (3) A trend toward increase in the apparent second with placebo. These findings were discussed in terms of earlier reports and a theoretical framework was offered.
THE TOLMAN AND HONZIK INSIGHT SITUATION
Authors: ANTHONY W. S.
Published: April 2011

It is argued that an explanation in terms of processes simpler than insight would account for almost all the evidence relating to this situation, but that a result obtained by Evans is a notable exception, and is particularly favourable to the supposition that insight is involved and also to an ‘expectancy’ theory such as that of Deutsch.
EFFECTS OF AGE AND EXPERIENCE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF INTERNAL INHIBITION IN FINCHES
Authors: VINCE M. A.
Published: April 2011

An experiment was carried out to test the hypothesis that internal inhibition, learning not to respond in an un‐reinforced situation, is more stable in adult than in young birds and also more stable in birds reared under more varied conditions than in those reared under restricted conditions. Canaries and greenfinches were given the task of differentiating between a dish containing food and covered with a white lid, and an empty dish covered with a black lid. In the earlier negative trials, juvenile canaries were superior to adults in their capacity to ignore the black lid, and juvenile hand‐reared greenfinches were superior to adult wild greenfinches; but in the later trials the two adult groups were superior to these two juvenile groups. A group of juvenile greenfinches reared in an outdoor aviary were superior to all other groups. These results are discussed and it is suggested that a more detailed hypothesis may be formulated: that internal inhibition is weak in very young birds, develops as a result of age and also as a result of experience during the juvenile stage and, later again, weakens slightly.
THE BLOCKING EFFECT OF BENACTYZINE HYDROCHLORIDE ON A BEHAVIOUR DISTURBANCE INDUCED WITH LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE
Authors: GLOW PETER H.
Published: April 2011

The mein interest with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD‐25) lios with its capacity to mimic most of the clinical features of schizophrenia. It gives rise to short, sharp and transient psychotic disturbances in man and severe behaviour anomalies in animals. These behavioural disorders lend themselves to a systematic analysis. Some consideration has been paid to the development of blocking agents, that is, drugs which can reduce the severity or completely abolish the behavioural effect of LSD‐25.

Experiments are described at three levels of inquiry at which it can be shown that benactyzine hydrochloride has a blocking effect on the behavioural disturbance in rats treated with lysergic acid. These experiments were conducted at the physiological, behavioural and pharmacological levels and the observations made are consistent.
A GROUP VERSION OF A PERCEPTUAL MAZE TEST
Authors: ELITHORN ALICK , KERR MYFANWY , MOTT JOY
Published: April 2011

Two group versions of a multiple‐choice perceptual maze test are described. The test has been administered to two groups of normal subjects. The results show that the test has a high reliability and suggest that the material reliably samples an ability which is not normally measured by intelligence tests. It is tentatively suggested that this ability may be related to perceptual capacity. The importance of perceptual factors in determining intelligent behaviour is briefly discussed.
STIMULUS‐RESPONSE THEORY AND EXPECTANCY
Authors: TREISMAN MICHEL
Published: April 2011

In the debate between ‘expectancy’ and ‘S‐R’ theory the latter has appeared to be objective and precise and the former vague. Since fairly detailed models have now been put forward for expectancy theory, the adequacy of ‘S‐R’ answers to ‘expectancy’ questions deserves re‐examination. These answers are found to depend mainly on the employment of ‘secondary reinforcement’ and the ‘fractional anticipatory goal response’. The explanations of such problems as latent extinction, reasoning and drive discrimination, which these afford, are shown to be fallacious.
CONSTRUCTION OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL SCALE OF WEIGHT FROM FRACTIONATION DATA
Authors: CHATTERJEA R. G. , KUNDU RAMANATH
Published: April 2011

A subjective scale of weight, by the method of fractionation, has been attempted with graphical and analytical procedures. The comparison weights were presented in two ways—in the first they accompanied the standard weight serially and in the second each standard weight was accompanied by all the comparison weights. A weight of 63 g. was found to be judged half as heavy as a physical weight of 100 g. The subjective weight corresponding to the physical weight of 100 g. was taken as the unit of subjective weight and it was termed as 1 veg. In terms of this unit a veg scale of subjective weight has been constructed. An empirical equation relating to the physical weight in grammes and the subjective weight in vegs has also been deduced.
DEGREE CLASS AND ATTAINMENT IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Authors: HUDSON LIAM
Published: April 2011

The most important criterion for the award of a grant for post‐graduate research in science appears at present to be the class obtained by the candidate in his final B. A. or B. Sc. degree. As a preliminary check on the validity of this criterion, the degree classes gained by four groups of eminent British scientists have been ascertained. These groups comprise Fellows of the Royal Society and Doctors of Science who have graduated from either Oxford or Cambridge during the period 1920–39. The degree classes obtained by members of comparable groups of research scientists who have not as yet been elected to Fellowship of the Royal Society or awarded the Doctorate of Science are used as a basis of comparison.

The results of these comparisons indicate: (i) that neither the Cambridge F.R.S.'s nor the Cambridge D. Sc.'s had better degree classes than those of their respective control groups; (ii) that although Cambridge F.R.S.'s were roughly three times as numerous as those from Oxford, they were far less likely to have first class degrees and (iii) that the F.R.S.'s of both Universities gained considerably better degrees than the D.Sc.'s.

Some implications of these results are discussed.
PROBLEM‐SOLVING, PAST EXPERIENCE AND AVAILABILITY OF FUNCTIONS
Authors: SAUGSTAD PER , RAAHEIM KJELL
Published: April 2011

Following on previous studies which explored problem‐solving in terms of availability of functions, the present experiment considered whether the necessary past experiences for the solution of a problem can be conveyed to subjects by demonstrating to them the functions found to be critical for the solution. The ‘ball problem’ was given to sixty‐five 17‐year‐old school boys. The two critical functions were demonstrated beforehand to twenty boys of whom nineteen solved the problem within the 30 min. allowed. Of the forty‐five boys given no such demonstration only ten attained solution. These results support the conclusion drawn from earlier experiments that a subject will solve a problem if he has the necessary functions available. They also support the more general contention that a fundamental aspect of problem‐solving is uncovered by considering the process in terms of the functions of concrete objects. The results are related to a number of experiments on the effect of hints at demonstration on problem solving.
RECOGNITION OF AMBIGUOUS AND UNAMBIGUOUS VISUAL CONFIGURATIONS WITH SHORT AND LONGER EXPOSURES*
Authors: MOONEY CRAIG M.
Published: April 2011

Three kinds of novel visual configurations—forms with incidental details, formless masses of details, forms devoid of details—comprised two parallel series for presentation in a running sequence of initial and subsequent appearances, at varying intervals. Eight of each kind of configuration comprised a series; the twenty‐four, appearing initially, and subsequently, constituted a sequence of forty‐eight presentations. In the sequence, two of each kind of configuration reappeared after one intervening perceptual occasion, two after five such interventions, two after ten, and two after fifteen. Subjects viewed one sequence where the configurations were tachistoscopically exposed for 0·07 sec., and the alternate sequence with configurations exposed for 5·0 sec.

A small, but significant, advantage accrued to the method of visual inspection, on both perceptual counts, under all varied experimental conditions. Apart from this, the two methods could not be differentiated on the basis of configural diversity or of lengthening of the intervals between the initial and subsequent appearances of the configurations. This want of evidence for the premise that the superiority of the method of visual inspection might be uniquely attributed to the efficacy of viewing time and scanning eye movements by virtue of contingent cognitive associations suggests that perceptual learning occurs identically with the two methods of observation and that the overall difference can be attributed to incidental procedural factors.

It is concluded on the basis of all evidence in this and earlier related studies that this simple kind of perceptual learning is not prosecuted on the basis of viewing time and scanning eye movements and that its explanation must be governed by the fact that it occurs through the single brief glance.
ANXIETY AS A FUNCTION OF PSYCHOMOTOR AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR
Authors: ANTHONY H. SYLVIA
Published: April 2011

The aim of this study was to investigate the relation between (a) psychomotor behaviour, in the form of manual response to visual signals, (b) task difficulty, and (c) social behaviour, in the form of delinquency in a military milieu. The psychomotor response was measured in terms of amplitude and duration of manual movement. Significant association was established between psychomotor and subsequent social behaviour. The delinquent groups showed over‐activity, in a sense defined. Overactivity has been found typical of anxiety in other experimental and clinical observations.

The theoretical implications of the observed association are discussed in terms of Hullian learning theory and the Brown‐Farber theory of frustration. It is suggested that the difference between the response patterns of the delinquent and non‐delinquent groups may be accounted for in terms of the Brown‐Farber formulation, under certain conditions. These require the assumption of a factor operative as a personality constant, affecting the strength of the avoidance impulse. A three‐factor function of anxiety is suggested. The psychomotor and social behaviour of the delinquent group are held to show a common feature of extreme avoidance‐tendency in frustrating circumstances.
EMERGENCE OF SET ON THE BASIS OF IMAGINAL SITUATIONS
Authors: NATADZE R.
Published: April 2011

The main results are reported of an experimental study in which the writer set out to ascertain the possibility of inducing a set (Einstellung) on the basis of some pertinent conceived (and not perceived) situation. In a series of experiments the subject is to imagine, repeatedly and in close succession, that he is lifting a heavy object with one hand, and a light object with the other; or, that he is grasping a large ball with one hand, and a small ball with the other. A fixated set resulting from this imaginal handling of objects differing in size should manifest itself in the subject's subsequent perception of objectively equal objects. And so it does: for example, objectively equal weights or equal balls are perceived as unequal. It is concluded that the problem of the feasibility of evolving a set on the basis of imagination has been solved.
APPARENT CHANGES IN THE VISUAL THRESHOLD: CENTRAL OR PERIPHERAL?
Authors: DIXON NORMAN F.
Published: April 2011

An experiment is reported which examines the issue of perceptual defence by measuring the threshold of one eye during the subliminal presentation to the other eye of anxiety‐producing stimulus material.

By comparing the discrimination thresholds for each of two complementary colours with the ratios of these colours that are required to produce an achromatic mixture, under two conditions of subliminal stimulation, an attempt is made to distinguish between peripheral and central changes as likely factors in perceptual defence phenomena. The evidence from this exercise suggests very tentatively that ‘perceptual defence’ depends upon central as opposed to peripheral mechanisms and that these underlie changes in the decision processes of recognition.
THE EFFECT OF DISTRACTION ON TIME GAP IN THE ESTIMATION OF SHORT DURATION
Authors: CHATTERJEA R. G.
Published: April 2011

An experimental study was performed on the nature of time gap (i.e. the time before the subject begins his estimation) in relation to estimation of short duration of different magnitudes under an ambient condition of noise. The estimates of all subjects at the different stimulus durations were found to be overestimations. The magnitude of the time gap showed a greater correlation with stimulus duration than that found in a previous study, without noise.
THE BI‐POLAR AND UNIDIRECTIONAL MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
Authors: THOMPSON J. W.
Published: April 2011

Insufficient distinction has been made in psychology between bi‐polarity which can be converted to unidirectional measurement, and bi‐polarity which is not thus convertible. As one or other kind of polarity is entailed by many kinds of psychological data, methods of scoring and measuring techniques ought to take into consideration the kind of polarity which the data entail. This is most easily illustrated in the scaling of attitudes. In the use of factor analysis, unless attention is drawn to the difference between what the writer calls ‘convertible’ or tautologous and ‘inconvertible’ bi‐polarity, the assumption is too readily made that it is not of importance whether factors having all positive loadings emerge from an analysis. This laxity is due solely to convention and is not justifiable on logical grounds. In the field of intelligence, although it is taken for granted that intelligence is a unidirectional concept, this may also be merely due to an habitual mode of thinking. It would therefore appear desirable to test the hypothesis that intelligence is inconvertibly bi‐polar, perhaps by using a scoring procedure similar to that adopted in multi‐dimensional tests for the measurement of values. If the hypothesis were proved, ‘brightness’ tests and tests for ‘backwardness’ scored in this way might lead to the resolution of existing difficulties connected with the concept of intelligence.
PSYCHOPHYSICAL METHODS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE KINAESTHETIC FIGURAL AFTER‐EFFECT
Authors: BROADBENT D. E.
Published: April 2011

Recently Eysenck found that hysterics displayed greater figural after‐effects than dysthymics do in a situation involving judgements of width of a wooden block by touch, before and after experience of a wider block. In the present research three groups of subjects were tested in a similar situation with some modifications. There was no correlation between extraversion and figural after‐effect: however, there was a correlation with one of the constant errors which might under some circumstances give rise to an apparent relation with figural after‐effect. Two other groups gave pseudo‐figural after‐effects although never exposed to a wider block. It was concluded that extraverts do not necessarily show larger figural after‐effects, and that the exact method of determination of such effects is far more important than is generally assumed.
ILLUSORY CHANGES OF DISTINCT SPEECH UPON REPETITION—THE VERBAL TRANSFORMATION EFFECT
Authors: WARREN RICHARD M.
Published: April 2011

If a loop of tape plays a clearly pronounced word or phrase over and over, sudden shifts seem to occur in what is being said. This ‘verbal transformation effect’ continues at frequent intervals during continued stimulation, sometimes introducing a new form, sometimes returning to a form already reported. The illusion was found for all stimuli used: from a word with two speech sounds to complete sentences. Quantitative measures were obtained of the effect of stimulus complexity, loudness, masking noise, and repetition rate. Transitions frequently involved a very great degree of phonetic distortion and often exhibited semantic consistency.
THE SPEED AND ACCURACY CHARACTERISTICS OF NEUROTICS
Authors: BRIERLEY HARRY
Published: April 2011

This experiment tests the psychiatric observation that the different groups of neurotics can be distinguished by their speed and accuracy. It is shown that introverted neurotics are characterized by low speed and extroverted neurotics by low accuracy. If regarded as measuring an aspect of personality, speed‐accuracy patterns may be specially valuable because of their sensitivity to variations in time.
THE PERCEPTION OF SHAPE AS A FUNCTION OF INCLINATION
Authors: JOYNSON R. B. , NEWSON L. JOHN
Published: April 2011

This is a descriptive study of the various judgments of shape which are spontaneously made when the inclination of an object is varied. The full range of inclinations is examined, using independent and unsophisticated subjects at each inclination, and recording subjects' descriptions.

The chief findings are: (1) Two main judgments are possible: judgments of real shape (R), which approximate to the true shape at all inclinations; and judgments contrasted with these (not‐real or N), which show typically a compromise between true and retinal shape. (2) Some subjects (group RN) are spontaneously aware of both possibilities. They describe the N judgment as an attempt to equate on the basis of a direct, instantaneous, visual impression; whereas the R judgment involves ‘allowing for the slope’. These subjects predominate at greater inclinations. (3) The remaining subjects (group RO) are spontaneously aware of the R possibility only. For these subjects, the R judgment seems to approximate closely to that quality of direct visual impression which for group RN characterizes the N judgment.

It is suggested that judgments of real shape involve a skill. Group RN are in an ‘investigating’ frame of mind, and offer an analysis of this skill. Group RO, in an ‘unreflecting’ frame of mind, take it for granted. Determining factors are also noted in the experimental situation and the instructions. It is suggested that previous studies fail to take adequate notice of these factors, and so give partial accounts.
THE EFFECTS OF MEPROBAMATE ON KINESTHETIC FIGURAL AFTER‐EFFECTS
Authors: COSTELLO C. G.
Published: April 2011

The effects of 800 mg. meprobamate on kinesthetic figural after‐effects were investigated. There was a tendency for subjects to overestimate the test block width during pre‐stimulation trials. This tendency was found to be negatively correlated with extraversion as measured by the M.P.I. (1959). Meprobamate reduced the tendency of subjects to overestimate the test block width during pre‐stimulation trials and also reduced the size of the figural after‐effects produced by rubbing a stimulus block wider than the test block. Results for ascending and descending trials were analysed separately and the above effects were found only in the case of the descending trials. The effect of the interpolated stimulus block in producing figural after‐effects is discussed in terms of the changing of the frame of reference set up between the test block and comparison block. Extraversion was not significantly correlated with any of the measures of figural after‐effect.
EXPERIMENTALLY INDUCED DRIVE AND DIFFICULTY LEVEL IN SERIAL ROTE LEARNING
Authors: WILLETT R. A. , EYSENCK H. J.
Published: April 2011

The interaction of experimentally induced drive with task difficulty was investigated in a group of candidates for selection to an industrial training school. The performance of the experimental group and a control group, on two nonsense syllable lists of different difficulty levels, showed no evidence of interaction but a simple facilitative effect of drive on level of performance.
SOME INVESTIGATIONS OF PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT AND RELATED DEPTH PHENOMENA
Authors: ZAJAC J. L.
Published: April 2011

Investigations of perception of real movement have been carried out using a special apparatus designed by the author. Movement of a pendular character was produced by placing a prismatic ‘Chance Crookes’ glass in front of one eye of an observer looking through it at a vertical rod, and rotating the glass. Amplitude and direction of the movement were a function of the distance of both the glass and the rod from the eye, of the thickness and prismatic angle of the glass, and of the direction and angle of turn of the glass in relation to the eye. When angle of turn or speed of rotation, or both, are gradually increased, other factors remaining constant, observations concerning movement, in both monocular and binocular vision, varied following fixed sequences for monocular and binocular vision. The experiments consisted in noting the kind of observation and recording the related angle of turn and number of rotations of the prismatic glass; from these data mean speeds of the movement of the image of the rod were calculated. Observations concerning depth phenomena accompanying various kinds of perceived movement were also made.
DISINHIBITION AND THE REMINISCENCE EFFECT IN A MOTOR LEARNING TASK
Authors: RACHMAN S.
Published: April 2011

This study was designed to investigate the operation of disinhibition in humans. Two groups of subjects were made to perform a motor learning task (pursuit rotor). The subjects in the experimental group were presented with a brief disinhibiting, alien stimulus during their 5 min. practice period. It was predicted that the introduction of this alien stimulus would produce an augmentation of performance level and a reduction in the reminiscence effect. Both predictions received partial confirmation and the results are interpreted in terms of Pavlov's description of inhibition and Eysenck's account of the development and dissipation of reactive inhibition. In an attempt to clarify some aspects of the results, a second experiment was carried out. Four groups of ten subjects each were given the same pursuit rotor task to complete. Group A acted as a control, group B was presented with an alien stimulus early in the 5 min. practice period, group C late in the practice period and group D very late in the practice period. In addition to clarifying some of the earlier results this experiment showed that the effect of an alien stimulus on performance is most marked when it is introduced late in the practice period.
EFFECTS OF A SUBSIDIARY TASK ON PERFORMANCE INVOLVING IMMEDIATE MEMORY BY YOUNGER AND OLDER MEN
Authors: BROADBENT D. E. , HERON ALASTAIR
Published: April 2011

Many practical situations expect a man to seek out and respond to signals, while at the same time remembering which signal is the one now requiring response. Most situations devised by psychologists, on the other hand, examine either reaction to signals without memory, or memory without reaction. A task has been devised in which both functions are involved. It consists of sets of random numbers which are observed through a small slot allowing only a few numbers at a time to be visible. The subject has to cross out particular digits, and has to remember which digit he is seeking at any particular instant. This type of task is compared with a more conventional number crossing task in which the subject has to find all instances of one particular digit, and both types of task are performed with and without an additional auditory distraction. In the present experiment, conducted with groups of young and of old subjects, it was found that the tasks involving memory are very vulnerable to distraction. The older subjects differed greatly among themselves, some being seriously inferior in performance to younger subjects; no such difference in variance appears in the similar task without memory load. When a distracting task is presented together with a main task involving memory, older subjects do very badly at one or the other, whereas young subjects do reasonably at both.
PERSONALITIES IN THE EARLY DAYS OF THE BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Authors: PEAR T. H.
Published: April 2011

To disclose the circumstances which produced this article may explain its unusual form as a contribution to this Journal. The editor asked me to write up a light‐hearted speech made at a dinner held in London on 15 December 1961, the year of the Society's Diamond Jubilee. Impulsively I assented; at leisure I nearly repent. I had hinted at the personalities of early members of the Society as they appeared to a young recruit. The Society's ideals and the outstanding contributions of its founders are discussed in Prof. L. S. Hearnshaw's ‘Sixty Years of Psychology’ (Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, no. 46, January 1962, pp. 2–10). Photographs of the psychologists mentioned below are in the Society's archives.
THE CONCEPT OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Authors: BURT CYRIL
Published: April 2011

The object of the following paper is to criticize the current practice which takes behaviour rather than consciousness to be the defining characteristic of psychology. It is argued that consciousness must be regarded as a generic term covering (i) certain specific relations (e.g. intuitive awareness), and (ii) certain specific contents (e.g. sense‐data, mental images, feelings, etc.). Both relations and contents are directly given; both are unique phenomena of sufficient importance, practically as well as theoretically, to deserve systematic study in their own right. The methods available for studying them necessarily include introspection; and this, it is contended, is as valid as any other mode of observation. Detailed instances are given, showing how the neglect of introspective procedures leads to descriptions of human behaviour which are not only incomplete but frequently misleading.
CONDITIONING AND PERSONALITY
Authors: EYSENCK H. J.
Published: April 2011

The application of learning theory to the study of personality presents many problems, some of which are here discussed in reply to a critique by Champion of the author's particular contribution to this field. It is suggested that such discussions are relatively fruitless unless they take into account the differences between ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ theories, and unless they bear in mind the many different ways along which predictions may be mediated from postulates.
CHANGES IN AUTOKINETIC PERCEPTION AS A FUNCTION OF THE TRANSFER OF CONDITIONING EFFECTS*
Authors: FARROW BOBBY J. , SANTOS JOHN F.
Published: April 2011

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that the spatial region in which autokinetic movement occurs can be altered by means of negative reinforcement operations.

Three groups were employed. Control Group I was tested on autokinetic perception, and after a 4 min. delay was retested. Control Group II viewed and reported the location of a moving light with no negative reinforcement between the test and retest of autokinetic perception. The Experimental Group received the same training as Control Group II, but was negatively reinforced while viewing and reporting the location of a moving light. A reinforcement schedule provided 75 % of the reinforcements on the predominant side (left or right) of initial autokinetic movement and 25% of the reinforcements on the opposite side.

The data supported the hypothesis that the spatial region of autokinetic movement can be altered by conditioning operations intervening between test and retest. An explanation of the results in terms of the conditioning of affect to the individual's subjective space is proposed and some implications of these effects for perception and behaviour are discussed.
GSR CONDITIONING AND PSEUDOCONDITIONING
Authors: MARTIN IRENE
Published: April 2011

Subjects were placed into conditioning or pseudoconditioning groups, and received one, three, or five UCS trials (paired with CS or single). The sequence of the schedule was: ten light stimuli—tones (the UCS)—ten light stimuli. Significantly more GSR's were given to the final light series than to the first. Conditioning groups together gave significantly more responses than pseudoconditioning groups during the final lights. However, the effect of different numbers of UCS trials was more clear‐cut between pseudoconditioning groups.

Basal skin resistance was significantly lower in all groups following the tones. There was no difference between conditioning and pseudoconditioning groups in this measure. Number of GSR's and basal skin resistance were not significantly correlated in the first light series, but were highly (negatively) so in the final light series. Autonomic Lability Scores to tone 1 correlated significantly with number of GSR's to both light series only in the conditioning groups. This effect was interpreted as a generalized responsiveness of these groups plus a small facilitatory effect from the extent of the S's response to the tones.

The results are discussed from two points of view: (i) physiological, and considering how various C.N.S. levels might affect GSR amplitude and threshold via excitability of spinal internuncial neurones, and (ii) within behavioural theories of learning, and considering the effect of the UCS upon level of ‘drive’.
SEQUENTIAL RECALL OF A MIXED LIST
Authors: GREEN ROBERT T. , HARDING GRAHAM
Published: April 2011

A previously reported finding that an item with a high probability of recall will not necessarily be emitted any earlier in a recall series was submitted to closer investigation.

The anomalous result was reproduced, using the original experimental design. Two further groups were introduced to control context effects and item uniqueness. More careful analysis shows that the factors governing order of emission during recall may be distinguished from those affecting the overall probability of recall. The two processes are distinct and, in some circumstances, independent.

After eliminating various alternative hypotheses the outcome in the present instance was found to depend largely on previously learned associations of meaningful material. The implications of this with regard to the von Restorff effect are discussed.

During the course of this experiment an interesting side effect intruded itself on the data. For reasons not at present clear, there was a significant tendency for the recall of paralogs to be disturbed in the presence of a noun, and, to a lesser extent, for the recall of nouns to be disturbed by the presence of a paralog.
THE PERCEPTION OF RHYTHMICALLY REPEATED LINEAR MOTION IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE
Authors: WALSH E. G.
Published: April 2011

Normal subjects were subjected to linear motion rhythmically repeated at rates in the range 1 to 1/9 cyc./sec. With horizontal oscillations of 1/3 cyc./sec. the sensations of moving came at the turning‐points of the swing. The person felt he was moving most rapidly when he was momentarily stationary. The C.N.S. interprets acceleration as velocity under these circumstances. At times the first sensation of moving in one direction came whilst the person was travelling rapidly in the opposite way. At 1 cyc./sec. the sensations were in time with the movements as they occurred. Threshold data indicate that the peak acceleration adequately describes the stimulus at 1/3 and 1/9 cyc./sec. The findings are discussed in relation to the behaviour of the otolith organs and may have a bearing on possible explanations of motion sickness.
THE MULTIPLICITY OF THOUGHT*
Authors: NEISSER ULRIC
Published: April 2011

Many writers have distinguished two types of mental processes. One kind of thinking is conscious, straightforward, predictable, and rather pedestrian; the other is confused, rich, productive of novelty, emotionally charged, and generally outside of consciousness. It is suggested that the latter arises from a multiplicity of processes going on together, while the former represents a single sequence among the crowd. These concepts are clarified by showing that sequence and multiplicity arise as alternative modes of organizing computer programs for pattern recognition. Even in the computer, multiple processing exhibits a superior ability to deal with novel or irregular input, while sequential processing appears less wasteful, and better adapted to fully predictable situations.

The properties that have been said to distinguish primary and secondary process, autistic and realistic thinking, creativity and constraint, insightful and rote activity, and the like, are shown to follow from the multiplicity of thought. Relevant experimental findings are discussed.
EFFECT OF VISUAL SPATIAL CONTEXT ON PERCEPTION OF ONE'S OWN BODY
Authors: WAPNER S. , McFARLAND J. H. , WERNER H.
Published: April 2011

Three experiments, dealing with the effect of extension of surrounding visual spatial context on apparent size of body parts, were conducted. In the first two studies (forty‐eight subjects in each) the dependent variable was arm length, and in the third study (twenty‐four subjects) the dependent variable was head width. It was found that apparent arm length and apparent head width are relatively larger in an ‘open‐extended’ visual spatial context than in a ‘close‐confined’ spatial context. These results are interpreted in keeping with developmental and sensory‐tonic theory.
MASSED PRACTICE AND REACTIVE INHIBITION, REMINISCENCE AND DISINHIBITION IN THE SPIRAL AFTER‐EFFECT
Authors: HOLLAND H. C.
Published: April 2011

It is suggested that the rotating spiral and its after‐effect may be used as a method of inducing and measuring reactive inhibition, or some perceptual parallel. Several related experiments are reported outlining the effects of massed and spaced practice and the reminiscence phenomenon resulting from the dissipation of inhibition, usually by rest. Stimulant and depressant drugs are shown to change the rate at which inhibition is generated, and also dissipated, in a predictable fashion. Another experiment outlines the way in which reactive inhibition generated by massed practice can be dissipated by an external stimulus. It is suggested that the occasional failure to generate reactive inhibition may be due to spontaneous dissipation by extraneous external or internal stimuli.
INTELLIGENCE, SEASON OF BIRTH AND CLIMATIC TEMPERATURE
Authors: ORME J. E.
Published: April 2011

Among a sample of adult intellectual subnormals, season of birth is significantly associated with the subsequent level of intellectual performance. An analysis of these data was made, together with climatic temperature levels during the embryonic development of these individuals. The association between season of birth and subsequent intellectual performance appears to be a result of the climatic changes (as measured by climatic temperature) occurring throughout pregnancy.
THIRD‐ORDER FACTORS IN OBJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTS*
Authors: PAWLIK KURT , CATTELL RAYMOND B.
Published: April 2011

Intercorrelations of second‐order factors in objective personality tests were pooled from three researches and subjected to a new analysis in terms of third‐order personality factors. Application of Guttman's criterion allowed for the extraction of three factors which, after combined analytical and visual rotation for oblique simple structure, could be identified as ‘Immature Self‐Centred Temperament (v. Mature Environment‐Oriented Stolidity)’, ‘Restrained Acceptance (v. Unrestrained Neglect) of External Norms’, and ‘High (v. Low) Self‐Assertion’, respectively. A brief review of first‐ and second‐order factor structure in objective personality tests is given in the introductory section.
MIMICRY IN MYNAS (GRACULA RELIGIOSA): A TEST OF MOWRER'S THEORY
Authors: FOSS BRIAN M.
Published: April 2011

Mowrer considers that talking birds will imitate only those sounds which have been associated with primary or secondary reinforcement. His theory was tested by playing whistles to two groups of myna birds, in the presence of reinforcers and in their absence. The birds mimicked the whistles equally well under each condition.