bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Suffrage
Authors: Halsaa Beatrice
Published: April 2016

The entry briefly discusses these issues: Why did women's suffrage movements emerge? When was suffrage introduced? Suffrage as a transnational movement. Suffrage as a dividing issue. How did women (and men) argue during the campaigns? Why has suffrage taken so long? Challenges ahead.

Popular sovereignty means that the people should be the sovereign author of the laws to which they are subject. In representative democracies, the voice of the people is expressed through political elections. Suffrage – the right to vote – is the privilege of full citizens, but the boundaries of citizenship are contested. Legal capacity, full age, income, race, and sex are examples of issues in the struggle for democracy. This entry discusses the struggle for women's right to vote.
Gender Identification
Authors: Burn Shawn Meghan
Published: April 2016

Gender identity is a person's sense of themselves as biologically, psychologically, or socially male or female and may or may not be congruent with birth‐assigned sex. Uncertainty remains regarding the neurobiological basis of gender identification, but it appears that prenatal intrauterine hormonal exposure in the second half of pregnancy interacts with multiple genes to influence brain development in ways that impact gender identification. Social cognitive theorists suggest that children learn basic gender categorizations due to social influences and observation that serve as the precursors of early gender identification. Gender identities are complex and varied, but worldwide, socially constructed gender binarism limits gender identity expression and contributes to norms supportive of stigmatization, harassment, discrimination, marginalization, and violence towards those with non‐conforming gender identities and expressions. Activists work to broaden notions of gender identity, depathologize non‐traditional gender identities, and gain legal and human rights protections for gender non‐conforming people.
Fatherhood Movements
Authors: Santucci Nancy , Crowley Jocelyn
Published: April 2016

Fatherhood movements are broad‐based forms of collective action that focus on more clearly defining the role of male parents in modern families. Fatherhood movements are composed of two types of organizations: those that concentrate on advocacy and policy research and those that are membership based with actual fathers as participants. Each movement, however, has different belief systems and goals. Pro‐marriage groups place marriage at the center of any properly functioning family unit, whereas responsible fatherhood groups argue that men need to assume larger leadership roles in their families. Other fatherhood movements include spiritual groups that are based in strong religious belief systems and fathers' rights groups, which advocate on behalf of reforming child custody and child support laws. Across all of these movements, fathers in the twenty‐first century are transforming themselves and the meaning of parenthood.
Commitment Ceremonies
Authors: Lewin Ellen
Published: April 2016

Commitment ceremonies are devised to mark the celebration of same‐sex relationships not eligible for legal recognition. This entry details the strategies couples use in devising such rituals, especially with respect to their religious content, participants, and other symbolic mechanisms.
War, International Violence, and Gender
Authors: Chaban Stephanie
Published: April 2016

War is inherently gendered, as is the violence that stems from such conflict. The experiences of men and women during conflict vary; therefore the experiences of men and women during war cannot be generalized, including their experiences of violence. Men are often viewed as warriors, protectors, or diplomats, whereas women are usually perceived to be victims, nurturers, or peacemakers. Specifically, while women may be survivors of sexual assault and suicide bombings, or deemed as innocent bystanders or collateral damage, or viewed as mothers, daughters, sisters, or wives of soldiers, their lives during violent conflict are more complex and nuanced. While sexual and gender‐based violence are the most reported forms of violence inflicted on women during war, violence can occur in different forms; in some instances, such violence can be rendered invisible. Gendered stereotypes, poverty, displacement, and institutional reform can have a negative impact on women during conflict.
Feminism, Nineteenth‐Century
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nited
S
tates
Authors: Adams Michele A.
Published: April 2016

The nineteenth century was a time of social, demographic, and cultural turmoil, within which true womanhood situated within the private sphere was seen as symbolic of order. These ideologies constrained women economically and culturally, while the doctrine of coverture constrained them legally. In this context, nineteenth‐century feminism arose, seeking to establish rights, including the right to vote, for women as autonomous citizens equal to men. In spite of their inability to achieve enfranchisement for women before the end of the century, nineteenth‐century feminists succeeded in changing the discourse on womanhood, normalizing women's participation in the public sphere, and disrupting the doctrine of coverture. Other successes included liberalization of the divorce law and increased educational opportunities for women.
Camp
Authors: Shugart Helene A.
Published: April 2016

Camp is an aesthetic sensibility that is historically anchored in strategic performances of gender or sexuality, especially at their intersection. The origins of camp are strongly associated with gay male culture, so much so that some critics have defined it as a peculiarly “gay sensibility.” Camp is characterized by qualities of parody, irony, excess, humor, and nostalgia; some critics further attribute critical and elitist impulses to camp as well. Widely available contemporary popular articulations of camp are no longer necessarily tied to gender or sexuality; moreover, critics decry these incarnations as “pop camp” or “camp lite,” which they argue are purely stylistic, devoid of substance and critical potential.
Body Politics
Authors: Harcourt Wendy
Published: April 2016

This entry looks at how feminist practice and writing in the last 30 years has engaged in body politics. The discussion takes three main entry points: feminist theory on the body; international development policy related to bodies, namely health, sexuality, and reproduction; and popular writings on the female body as a site of political action.
Feminist Organizations, Definition of
Authors: Lemke Melinda A.
Published: April 2016

Despite broad theoretical and orientation differences, feminist organizations are in large part a product of the global women's movement. Differing from traditionally bureaucratic and hierarchical organizational structures, feminist organizations tend toward collectivist approaches to internal operation and external activism. Fundamentally concerned with the end of female oppression, feminist organizations are responsible for prompting local, national, and international policies that address sexual harassment, rape, gender discrimination, and female poverty among other major social issues. Faced with conservative backlash and the hastened pace of neoliberal globalization, twenty‐first‐century feminist organizations face unique challenges associated with alliance building, co‐optation, and sustainability.
Bullying
Authors: Rosen Lisa H. , Rubin Linda J.
Published: April 2016

A definition of bullying is provided and the core characteristics of this behavior are highlighted. Research findings regarding gender differences in physical aggression, social aggression, and cyber aggression are presented. Bullying roles are discussed with attention to gender differences. Implications for prevention and intervention are outlined.
Democracy and Democratization
Authors: Moghadam Valentine M.
Published: April 2016

The relationship between women's rights and democracy and democratization is examined, along with the gendered nature of pro‐democracy movements. A summary of the structural and cultural factors and forces that underpin pro‐democracy movements, and those that may predict whether or not outcomes will be compatible with women's equality and rights, is presented. References are made to various democracy movements and democratic transitions, including the Arab Spring.
Sex Segregation and Education in the
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nited
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tates
Authors: Woolley Susan W. , Wiley Thomas
Published: April 2016

Sex segregation in education takes various forms across time periods, institutions, and practices. Institutional segregation has meant the formation of single‐sex schools in addition to the structured separation of boys and girls within coeducational schools. Although the term “segregation” typically points to more formal, historically embedded practices of legal and de facto separation between peoples, in this case it may also refer to the informal ways in which people are divided and socialized into binary gender roles and identities. This entry centers on both institutional and informal educational practices in the United States across public primary and secondary schools, religious schools, private preparatory and boarding schools, universities, and colleges.
Psychology of Gender: History and Development of the Field
Authors: Etaugh Claire
Published: April 2016

The psychology of gender has evolved in three phases. The early years (pre‐1960s) were characterized by androcentric bias and the omission or marginalization of women and women's issues. The compensatory years (the 1960s and 1970s) were fueled by the second wave of feminist activism and were marked by a focus on neglected “foremothers,” the demonstration and correction of previous sexist biases, and a shift in emphasis from women to gender. In the current transformational phase, the psychology of gender is an active, recognized, and respected discipline, represented in psychology's core research journals and textbooks. The field has expanded to include a broad array of theoretical models, topics of study, and methodological tools. The discipline continues to mirror and explore transformations in the status of women and men during the past 50 years. Better understanding of the intersecting identities within each gender remains a challenging task.
Imaginary
Authors: Ragland Ellie
Published: April 2016

Jacques Lacan (1901–1981), born in Paris France, changed the course of thought in psychoanalysis and philosophy in his teaching of yearly Seminars from 1952 to 1981. Replacing Jean‐Paul Sartre as the reigning intellectual of his day, Lacan taught analysts and worldwide intellectuals that the basis of thought lies in language, identifications, desire, drive, and
jouissance
. These create signifying chains that make up the topologically formed units or registers that consist of the imaginary (ego and narcissistic identifications), the symbolic (language and law), the real (trauma and discontinuity), and the symptom (how sexual difference is interpreted by each subject). They also make up the interlinked quattrocentric “structure” of language and body as interlinked, not binary. The imaginary is a principle register of thought and interpretations of the body and consists of identifications nailed in place by the earliest and ongoing signifiers that interpret images. This dimension of being (thought/body) governs the subjective, fantasy‐laden register of what we call “mind” and “body” which can undergo identificatory transformations in psychoanalytic treatment.
Y
ogyakarta
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rinciples
Authors: Thoreson Ryan Richard
Published: April 2016

The Yogyakarta Principles are a soft‐law instrument that affirms that human rights protections must fully extend to those marginalized on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI). They are not independently binding upon states, but instead draw their force from widely accepted obligations that states must follow under international law.
Free Trade Zones
Authors: Gunawardana Samanthi J.
Published: April 2016

Free trade zones (FTZs) are territorially delineated spaces where historically, goods could be stored, processed, or serviced before redistribution around the world. They are distinct from free trade agreements. FTZs have attracted attention owing to their use and dispersion across the world as a tool of economic development pursued under neoliberal, open‐market economic policy. However, they are also found in high‐income advanced economies. The International Labour Organization (ILO) reported that in 1986 there were 176 zones in 47 countries; by 2006 there were approximately 35,000. Alongside attempts to evaluate their effectiveness in stimulating economic development and growth, they have also attracted critique for the working conditions found within FTZ enterprises. Weaving through these narratives has been a sustained focus on gender and sexualities, not only in terms of noting the gendered division of labor found in zone employment systems, but also the way in which gender identities are constituted, mobilized, and reconstituted in global spaces of production, and the connections between violence, economic policy, and gender.
Plastic Sexuality
Authors: Scambler Graham
Published: April 2016

The term “plastic sexuality” was introduced by Giddens as a companion to his notion of a “pure relationship.” A pure relationship is one of sexual and emotional equality, and as such has explosive potential in the context of pre‐existing forms of gender power. The modern concept of romantic love is the harbinger of the pure relationship but betrays a number of tensions. On the one hand it implied a radical, active engagement with the “maleness” of modern society, but on the other it confined women to “their place,” to the home.
Capabilities Approach
Authors: Cavalieri Shelley
Published: April 2016

The capabilities approach is a theoretical model that focuses on building human capacity to achieve a range of individual, personal outcomes. The theory has been most notably articulated by Amartya Sen, a development economist, and Martha Nussbaum, an Aristotelian philosopher. The theory generally focuses on social justice theory and comparisons regarding quality of life. The hallmark of the capabilities approach is to consider societies through the lens of what each person is able to do and to be. It stands in contrast to development theories that analyze the development of nations by reference to aggregate measures of well‐being, such as gross domestic product, and instead contemplates the capacities with which the society endows each individual, allowing the individual to pursue his or her own ends.
Metrosexual
Authors: Coad David
Published: April 2016

The metrosexual is an urban male who adopts a number of self‐care and sartorial behaviors that have traditionally been associated with women or gay men. His ancestor is the dandy. Metrosexuality queers the codes of hegemonic masculinity. Sports culture and the cinema have successfully promoted it.
Lesbos
Authors: Kantsa Venetia
Published: April 2016

Lesbos – Lésvos in Modern Greek – is a Greek island located in the northeastern Aegean that every year attracts hundreds of lesbian women from all over the world. The actual history of this seasonal lesbian community can be traced back to the end of the 1970s when the first lesbian women came to the place, but its imaginary roots go back as far as the sixth century
bce
, the time of Sappho's birth.
Genetics and Racial Minorities in the
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nited
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tates
Authors: Efstathiou Sophia
Published: April 2016

This entry surveys constructions of “race” and racial minorities in natural and social science and more recently in genetics. It examines how “race” comes into current biomedical research even though the category has been contested and shown to lack a biological evolutionary basis. The focus of this analysis is the United States, where race/ethnicity standards are regularly employed as demographic categories, and where the bulk of bioscientific research employing such categories happens.
Gender Budget
Authors: Sharp Rhonda
Published: April 2016

The terms gender‐responsive budgets, gender‐sensitive budgets, gender budgets and women's budgets are used interchangeably to refer to the application of a gender lens to government budgets to provide an assessment of the impacts of policies, programs, and funding and change budget decision‐making in order to promote gender equality and women's empowerment. Over the past 25 years gender budget initiatives have expanded rapidly as a means of monitoring and contesting economic policy with feminist economics providing an emerging theoretical critique of conventional macroeconomics.
Women‐Church
Authors: Hunt Mary E.
Published: April 2016

Women‐church is a movement of feminist‐based communities that seeks to create a church and society that reflect a “discipleship of equals.” Its roots are in the Catholic tradition, but its reach is well beyond that. Women‐Church Convergence is the umbrella organization that sponsors conferences, networks members, and acts as a coalition to bring about feminist‐rooted religious social change.
Occupational Health and Safety
Authors: Matsuura Hiroaki
Published: April 2016

Risk of occupational injuries and illnesses among women has not been studied in detail in the literature. This entry summarizes the literature of occupational health and safety by focusing on the three public health questions concerning the different effects of occupational exposure on men and women, including (1) the impact of choosing physically demanding work and longer working hours, especially when women are often not exempted from the traditional domestic and family duties in households, (2) the heterogeneous health effects of the same chemical, physical, and psychological hazards in the workplace on gender, and (3) the impact of such hazards on reproductive outcomes. Further research is needed for all three areas, but research on the heterogeneous effects of chemical, physical, and psychological hazards by gender are most needed. This will overcome the current situation whereby much of the exposure limits and ergonomic design are based on average male physical and biological capacity.
Division of Labor, Gender
Authors: Barker Drucilla K.
Published: April 2016

The gender division of labor can be traced to hunter‐gatherer societies and continues through the twenty‐first century. It is not a simple binary, but is inflected by race, class, and nationality. Although many explanations reduce this division of labor to biological differences, more rigorous explanations stress the social expectations about the appropriate roles for women and men.
Environmental Disasters and Gender
Authors: Dominelli Lena
Published: April 2016

Environmental disasters, whether natural or (hu)man‐made ignore gender relations and the differentiated experiences of disasters among men and women. Men tend to be first‐stage responders helping to evacuate people. Women focus on taking care of people, ensuring that they survive the disaster, rebuild afterwards and get life back to normal routines. Gendered relations receive limited attention in the disaster literature, although research has highlighted the exclusion of women from decision‐making structures including preparation initiatives prior to the disaster, distribution of aid in the immediate aftermath and rebuilding of communities afterwards. Men perpetrate increased levels of violence against women within the home/temporary shelters and sexual harassment on the street. Women face limited facilities in maintaining their bodily integrity and theirs and their children's health. Initiatives aimed at rebuilding their livelihoods emphasize traditional gendered activities like embroidering, sewing, cooking, and agriculture in rural areas. At the same time, men's emotional needs, especially those who have lost their livelihoods and place in their communities are ignored, thereby contributing to men's frustrations and leading to violent confrontations with those around them. Patriarchal relations are reinforced by donor (in)activity and deny the needs of women seeking to reestablish themselves after a disaster.
Strategic Essentialism
Authors: Eide Elisabeth
Published: April 2016

Strategic essentialism is a strategy by which differences (within a group) are temporarily downplayed and unity assumed for the sake of achieving political goals. In political practice, its usage in opposing and fighting against gender oppression, is recommended, be it for judicial or social rights; but so is opposing and fighting against theories and discourses that imprison groups within unifying categories, which necessarily must be narrowing.
Victim Blaming
Authors: Espinoza Michelle Casarella
Published: April 2016

Victim blaming is the process of observers finding instances within victims' behavior to hold them at least partially responsible for their fate. Essentially, it is the practice of blaming victims to varying degrees based on personal and contextual variables. It is an ideological process, resulting from beliefs and ways of viewing the world that is based on distorted perceptions of reality. Victim blaming is disproportionally related to victims of rape and sexual assault. Traits such as rape myth acceptance and hostile masculinity are positively correlated with tendencies to blame rape victims. Continual denial of the presence of the rape culture that exists within the United States and the world, and of the violence against women in general will only perpetuate such injustices.
Sexual Rights
Authors: Plumb Alison
Published: April 2016

Sexual rights have been defined as an evolving set of entitlements related to sexuality that contribute to the freedom, equality, and dignity of all people. Sexual rights are human rights related to sexuality that address a wide range of issues and often intersect with several other rights. Examples of sexual rights issues include, but are not limited to, sexuality education, reproductive rights, maternal morbidity and mortality, and sex work. More broadly, sexual rights are one field that falls under sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR). Three other related, but separate fields in SRHR are sexual health, reproductive health, and reproductive rights. In the broad concept of SRHR, these four fields are treated as separate, but are inherently intertwined. Beyond this broad definition, what constitutes sexual rights is contested and means different things to different groups.
Health Disparities
Authors: Hudspeth Edward F.
Published: April 2016

Health disparity is a complex phenomenon related to health, healthcare, and quality of life that results in inequalities based on socioeconomic, environmental, and biological differences within populations. Specific health disparities may be related to age, gender, race or ethnicity, education, sexual orientation, geography, and/or culture. Disparities are not by choice and are conceptualized as unjust and avoidable.
Gender Development, Theories of
Authors: Miller Cindy Faith
Published: April 2016

Given the ubiquitous influence of gender in a person's life, a number of theories have been developed to explain gender development. These theories can be generally divided into three families: biological, socialization, and cognitive. According to biological theories, psychological and behavioral gender differences are due to the biological differences between males and females. Within this family of approaches, researchers have focused on historical explanations (such as evolutionary processes) and proximal explanations (such as genes and sex hormones). Socialization theories of gender development view gender differences as a byproduct of the differential treatment girls and boys receive from the people in their lives and the pervasive gender stereotyped messages that children are exposed to in their environment. Cognitive theories of gender development view children as active constructors of knowledge who seek, interpret, and act on information in an effort to match their behavior to their understanding of gender.
Initiation Rites
Authors: Roscoe Paul
Published: April 2016

Initiation rites were once common performances in small‐scale, politically decentralized societies, practiced at important points in a person's life cycle to mark and/or mold his or her maturation and development. This entry reviews the definition of initiation rites and the social construction of this category in Euro‐American society. It examines the commonalities, diversity, and distribution of these rites around the world and traces major theoretical attempts to explain their distribution and why societies practiced them. It concludes by noting that initiation rites have either disappeared under the advance of modernity or undergone radical transformation.
Global Restructuring
Authors: Runyan Anne Sisson
Published: April 2016

Global restructuring is an alternative conceptual framework that was posited by feminist global political economists to challenge and complicate dominant, unidirectional, and gender‐blind views of globalization that arose during the 1990s. At that time, globalization was seen as an unprecedented and irresistible force capable of dissolving economic, political, and cultural borders in order to spread capitalist production, universalize capitalist values, and homogenize cultures. Feminist scholars responded to such top‐down analyses and teleological assumptions by arguing that they failed to take into account human, and particularly women's, agency in globalizing processes and resistances to them and presented globalization as an overarching phenomenon rather than a process that is uneven, multi‐directional, disjunctive, and contradictory. While neoliberalism, or the ideology of market rule, has become almost synonymous with globalization, restructuring need not take neoliberal forms, even though they are dominant. Examining gender in global restructuring uniquely brings into focus the relations between the global and the personal, specifically the simultaneous restructuring of production and reproduction, governance and bodies, and social movements and identities. It also raises new concerns about the neoliberalization of feminism and other social movements as well as new approaches for restructuring the politics of resistance to neoliberalism.
Sex Work and Sex Workers' Unionization
Authors: Geymonat Giulia Garofalo
Published: April 2016

The variety of conditions and meanings in the sex industry has been widely documented. Even what is, or is not, “prostitution” or “sex work” is not an objective fact established once and for all time, but is often contested and resisted. In fact, what appears to define “sex work” or “prostitution” is the very fact that it is labeled as such: that is, the “stigma of prostitution,” a set of opinions, behaviors, and laws that isolate, discriminate, and punish anyone explicitly exchanging their sex labor for material advantages. This stigma has been crucially challenged by the sex workers' movement, which emerged in the 1970s and is currently increasingly visible at the global level. While traditional political parties and funders have largely denied support to this movement, in many contexts sex work activists have been part of larger grassroots movements inspired by labor, feminist, LGBTQ, anti‐racist, and HIV‐positive critiques.
Feminism, Eighteenth‐Century Britain
Authors: Maruca Lisa
Published: April 2016

“Feminism” is an anachronistic term when applied to the eighteenth century, yet common themes in women's writing in the period do emerge. Published writers reflecting on gender discussed issues important to their lives such as women's essential rationality; women's need for a better education; the freedom to marry a partner of one's choice or freedom from marriage; the appropriateness of publication in an age that still celebrated modesty as an essential feminine virtue; and the ability of a woman to earn a living from her pen when necessary. Major thinkers of the period include Mary Astell, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, the Bluestocking group, and Mary Wollstonecraft.
Feminist Art
Authors: Penn‐Goetsch Christina Morris
Published: April 2016

The feminist art that was conceived during the second wave had no monolithic theory or style, and this definition is still an accurate one for the third wave. Harmony Hammond shared this position along with the stipulation that such art was made by women with a feminist consciousness. Although the former remains true today, the latter is not the case. A twenty‐first century designation for feminist art has expanded to include artists who do not necessarily share a feminist agenda and whose work suggests an analysis based on an intersection of multiple identities.
Gay Male Pornography
Authors: Morrison Todd G. , Bishop C. J. , Kiss Mark , Nielsen Elly Jean
Published: April 2016

This entry addresses the context and status of research pertaining to gay male pornography (GMP). A brief historical snapshot is included as well as an overview of the key frameworks that have been employed to study this medium. Where heterosexual pornography has a rich and diverse literature, scant empirical attention has been directed to GMP, with much of the research embracing a simplistic pro‐ or anti‐pornography stance. However, through eclectic and interpretative approaches, the study of GMP has diversified and gained unforeseen complexities resulting in a more nuanced understanding of those who consume GMP and on the medium itself.
Subaltern
Authors: Verloo Mieke
Published: April 2016

Subaltern as a concept is related to issues of domination and power, democracy and citizenship, resistance and transformation.Subalternityis a position without identity, a position “where social lines of mobility, being elsewhere, do not permit the formation of a recognizable basis of action.” The concept originally is used from a strong political perspective against subordination, to understand the mechanisms of subordination better, rewrite history so that subaltern groups are seen to be part of it, and contribute to the development of strategies to further a postsubaltern society or at least to outline the conditions under which subaltern studies can avoid a too strong or naive use of them by hegemonic powers.
Normalization
Authors: Valocchi Stephen
Published: April 2016

This entry presents a basic introduction to the concept of normalization as defined by Michel Foucault and extended by Judith Butler. It dovetails with poststructural discussions of power and social subjectivity.
Menstrual Rituals
Authors: Plancke Carine
Published: April 2016

Anthropological literature reveals a widespread occurrence of ritual practices related to women's cyclical bloodshedding, or menstruation, in cultures and religions throughout the world. Foremost among these are menarche (first menstruation) rituals; regular instances of ritual seclusion of menstruating women in special shelters, called “menstrual huts;” and ritual prohibitions and rules regarding food preparation, bathing, sexual contact with men, entrance to sacred places, etc., known as “menstrual taboos.” In order to convey the diversity of these rituals, this entry provides a few examples of each type of practice from a variety of cultures, including rituals in traditional settings, those prescribed by monotheistic religions, and practices from New Age or Neopagan movements. Adopting a gender‐sensitive approach, it highlights evolving interpretations of these rituals in terms of female subordination, power, agency, and creativity.
Shaman Priestesses
Authors: Rutecki Dawn M.
Published: April 2016

Shaman priestesses are female spiritual specialists that transgress the boundaries of the spirit world. Identified in societies globally, they draw their power from the supernatural world on behalf of their community, especially for healing and divination rituals. Shaman priestesses undergo difficult apprenticeships, often committing to a life of being exhausted and ostracized. Despite historic persecution, their function in society continues to be viewed as important to their communities' existences.
Cardiac Disease and Gender
Authors: Worrall‐Carter Linda , Rahman Muhammad Aziz
Published: April 2016

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of deaths among both sexes and is a major health problem for women. There are a number of key issues: a general lack of awareness in women, as well as poor symptom recognition which is often because of atypical symptom presentation. In addition, the difference in symptoms is not only within the general community, but also not recognized by healthcare providers and this poor recognition means that critical treatment can often be delayed. This gender disparity in diagnosis and management comes with a poorer prognosis, as there is greater likelihood of disability and higher rates of illness and deaths than in men. Furthermore, the social impact of women with CHD is often ignored and to date women have been largely under‐represented in research. Finally, it is argued that knowledge translation from guideline to clinical practice is necessary to ensure equity for cardiac disease management among women.
Relations of Ruling
Authors: Griffith Alison I.
Published: April 2016

The relations of ruling are the actual activities of people as they develop, engage with, and construct the objectified processes through which societies are managed and governed. Ruling relations are translocal processes. They are textually mediated relations, which enable institutions to act. Ruling relations are not static, nor are they deterministic. Ruling relations are constructed, enacted, and reshaped by people in actual times, places, and spaces.
Contraception and Contraceptives
Authors: Lee Robyn
Published: April 2016

Contraception consists of methods or devices used to prevent pregnancy. Forms of contraception are known as contraceptives. Access to contraception is key to women's health and equality. Despite increasing availability of contraceptives, access is still limited for many women and there are substantial global inequalities in access to contraception. Contraception has historically been linked to racism and eugenics, and coercion and forced sterilization have been serious issues in reproductive justice.
Sexual Orientation and the Law
Authors: Sáez Macarena
Published: April 2016

This entry on sexual orientation and the law (SO&L) analyzes the legal treatment of the categories sexual orientation and gender identity and the impact of legal practices, doctrines, and customs in the lives of individuals and groups who define themselves or are defined by societies, communities, or other individuals as non‐heterosexuals. The entry provides a summary of the main areas of development of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and intersex individuals (LGBTIs) and their rights, and also the main obstacles encountered by LGBTIs in different legal systems. It covers the main features of criminalizing sexual conducts and the new topics covered by SO&L today including the rights of trans people and LGBTI families. It also analyzes the main arguments provided by courts to advance LGBTI rights and the role of international law in the protection of sexual minorities.
Disability Rights Movement
Authors: Chandler Eliza
Published: April 2016

The disability rights movement (DRM), which emerged globally in the latter half of the twentieth century, is dedicated to asserting that disability rights are human rights. The DRM focuses on legal and legislative changes directed to dismantling inaccessibility and ableism – discrimination of disabled people – as well as bolstering public awareness of disability identity, community, and culture in order to ensure that disabled people are meaningfully included in all aspects of civic and social life.
Educational Testing and Gender
Authors: Breda Thomas
Published: April 2016

This entry lays out the main gender differences in educational tests during the course of studies. It reviews the possible explanations for the differences observed. It also discusses gender discrimination in the assessment of pupils' proficiency through educational tests.
Cognitive Critical and Cultural Theory
Authors: King Christa Knellwolf
Published: April 2016

Cognitive critical and cultural theory has emerged as a model for the explanation of meaning and representation that is based on the results of recent brain research. While exploring and interrogating the implications of neuroscientific research, the main goals of this critical direction are to apply results from empirical studies of mind and consciousness to the interpretation of experience and its representation in all disciplines in the humanities and social sciences, including gender studies. The most influential critical directions inspired by cognitive studies are mind reading, and a spate of new approaches to creativity and the processes of reading. Another influential field of study is devoted to cognitive studies of emotions, which is based on the recognition that cognition and emotion cannot be described as independent activities of the mind, that the emotions have their own rationality, that the emotions are important components of social exchanges, and that they can only be registered as embodied experiences.
Extended Families
Authors: Teixeira Robert
Published: April 2016

An extended family is generally defined as two or more generations (by blood, adoption, or marriage/cohabitation) sharing one or more households connected by varying degrees of kinship. The term “extended family” has had a complex and ambiguous status in family studies. Uses of the term have harkened back to a largely mythological past where rural or pioneer families were often depicted in terms of several generations living under one roof, despite empirical evidence such as statistical studies and national censuses to the contrary.
LGBTActivism inEasternAfrica
Authors: Luft Aliza
Published: April 2016

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) activism in Eastern Africa operates in a heavily constrained and oppressive environment. Despite these obstacles, activists continue to mobilize on behalf of LGBT rights and create safe spaces for same‐sex practicing individuals. This entry looks at the laws that shape Eastern African LGBT activism, the role of the West in both helping and hindering LGBT activism, how different LGBT organizations function with respect to the limitations they face, the relationship of LGBT activism to women's movements, and the impact of HIV/AIDS on LGBT individuals and activism.
Sexual Scripts
Authors: Nagar Naama
Published: April 2016

Sexual scripts are organized cognitive schema, which people employ in order to understand their own actions and desires sexually, to consider certain bodily activities as pleasurable, to interpret certain social situations as potentially sexual, and to recognize appropriate behavior for each situation. In other words, scripts are widely shared ideas about sexuality through which people learn what sex is, what is sexual, what is sexy, how to experience pleasure, and how to conduct oneself sexually. Social script theory argues that the “private world” of desire does not originate merely in the self, but evolves at the interaction between sociocultural ideas and ongoing processes of self‐creation and meaning making. No bodily act or social conduct has sexual meaning without the prior existence of sexual scripts. In directing people's self‐definition, orientations, beliefs, and behaviors, scripts may have a beneficial impact of reducing anxiety through providing guidance, but they also convey confining norms, which confer social inequality and limit individual expression.
Intimate Citizenship
Authors: Nordmarken Sonny , Heston Laura , Goldstein Alyssa
Published: April 2016

Building on conceptualizations of feminist and sexual citizenship, the term intimate citizenship describes changing intimacies and new forms of citizenship appearing in late capitalism. In this new social order, public discourses of private matters circulate. There are new reproductive technologies, more sexual choices, legal recognition of previously unrecognized sexual identities, a plurality of public voices and opinions, and autonomy for those who can be classified as intimate citizens. However, the concept of intimate citizenship reproduces a liberal “progress” narrative, which posits an evolving “West” against a backward “rest” of the world. Under this rubric, the concept of intimate citizenship creates categories and boundaries, including certain intimate actors while excluding others. Although technologies avail more choices to certain actors, access to these privileges and choices is unequal. Further, intimacies are implicated in a complex global context of neoliberal capitalism, empire, and racialized disciplinary power relations within and between nation‐states. Although some intimate actors experience expanding personal autonomy through homonormative legal recognition, incorporation, and protection, state and ideology also function together to control and limit the choices of others.
Consciousness‐Raising
Authors: Pedro Michelle San
Published: April 2016

Consciousness‐raising involves increasing one's awareness of social conditions that sustain injustice. In this dynamic process, individuals make sense of their role within oppressive structures. Consciousness‐raising is known as an emancipatory method. Through reflection and dialogue, oppressed groups recognize their own exploitation by the privileged. When disadvantaged groups become conscious of their actions, they move toward liberation, or realization of their full potential. Disadvantaged groups no longer view social conditions as static; they work toward changing structural inequalities. The cultivation of consciousness generates political agency. This self‐reflexive practice can lead to collective social action. Consciousness‐raising stimulated land reform in the Chinese Revolution, the literacy campaign in Brazil, and the feminist movement in the United States. With critical inquiry into the gendered system of relations, politics of power, and systematic oppression, individuals imagine alternative social possibilities. Consciousness‐raising serves as a foundation for activism, experiential learning, and feminist pedagogy.
Black Feminist Thought
Authors: Nuñez Caryl
Published: April 2016

This entry explains the origins and definition of black feminist thought in the United States. It discusses the epistemological and methodological interpretations of black feminism and draws on critical lifelong work of black feminists Angela Davis, Patricia Hill Collins, bell hooks, and Beverly Guy‐Sheftall.
Feminist Pedagogy
Authors: Pedro Michelle San
Published: April 2016

Feminist pedagogy is a teaching approach concerned with gender injustice and other inequalities. It is grounded in feminist theory, which critically questions knowledge production and the politics of difference. Feminist pedagogy is an academic movement against educational paradigms that accept or reproduce oppressive social orders. By exposing the masculine bias that shapes concepts in the social sciences, feminist pedagogy highlights voices traditionally excluded from power structures. Courses modeled with a feminist perspective explore identity in relation to race, location, class, (dis)ability, and sexuality. This alternative style of teaching confronts dominant views of the body, colonialism, and gender. Teachers challenge students to apply theory to practice and change their sense of self and the world. Thus, education becomes a site of empowerment and social transformation. Feminist pedagogy intersects activism, politics, and experience.
Yoruba Culture, Religion, and Gender
Authors: Case Menoukha
Published: April 2016

The traditional religion of the Yoruba isIfa/Orishaworship. Yoruba culture remains strong in West Africa and is part of religions such as Vodun, Candomble, Santeria, and Voodoo through both voluntary and involuntary Diaspora. Traditional Yoruba language, everyday life, and religious tenets are inextricably linked. Since the Yoruba language is largely gender neutral and traditional Yoruba culture is gender balanced, this religious family offers insights into non‐Western ways of thinking about gender that are shared among many indigenous groups. Since Western gendering expects behavior and abilities according to genitalia, of particular interest are the way in which language and praxis draw clear distinctions between anatomical sex, sexuality, personal characteristics, and social function. These distinctions remain evident in religious practices even when the history of a particular branch has included severe patriarchal constraints during slavery.
Images of Gender and Sexuality in Advertising
Authors: Baker Christina N.
Published: April 2016

Advertisements often reflect and reinforce cultural ideologies about gender and sexuality. Renowned sociologist Erving Goffman was one of the first sociologists to study gender representations in advertising. He argues that the images in advertisements act as symbolic representations that help to construct the ideals of masculinity and femininity. His work, and also that of others, find that women are often portrayed in submissive roles or family roles, and in lower physical and social positions than men. Men, on the other hand, are portrayed as powerful, strong, and violent. An intersectional approach to examining gender in advertising highlights the ways that women of color are excluded and exoticized in advertisements.
Sexual Citizenship inEastAsia
Authors: Cho Joseph Man Kit
Published: April 2016

Sexual citizenship in East Asia is a rapidly developing concept and practice. It consists in the legal boundary of whom we can have sex with and at what age. It also circumscribes our rights claims to gaining sexual gratification through commercial sex and pornography. As a system of sexual rights, sexual citizenship is extended to include the right to non‐discrimination, recognition of same‐sex relations, and determination of legal sex.
Feminization of Migration
Authors: Gabaccia Donna R.
Published: April 2016

The relative numbers of men and women in international migrations hold important clues to how gender ideology and inequalities drive emigration and facilitate immigrant integration for both men and women. Until recently, the feminization of migration, with men and women migrating in relatively equal numbers, was understood to be a product of economic restructuring taking place in the late twentieth century. Historical studies have pushed the onset of feminization back to the early twentieth century and revealed earlier periods of gender balance and both masculinization and feminization among long‐distance migrants. Across the twentieth century, international regimes of restriction – which enhanced national provisions for family unification and drove numbers of refugees higher –encouraged gender balance in international migration; after 1970, global demand for predominantly female care workers sometimes also produced female majorities in some migrations.
Class, Caste, and Gender
Authors: Patil Smita M.
Published: April 2016

This entry discusses the linkages between the ideology and practices related to class, caste, and gender.
Criminal Justice System and Sexuality in theUnitedStates
Authors: Panfil Vanessa R. , Wodda Aimee
Published: April 2016

Although societal reaction to a variety of sexual orientations, acts, and identities has differed across time and space, the criminal justice system has attempted to regulate sexuality by deeming certain acts and desires as deviant, illegal, or both. Criminal and juvenile justice systems, which are comprised of police, courts, corrections, and are guided by law, have been used to leverage control and punishment against individuals who do not conform to society's expectations for sexual behavior and/or sexual identity. Those most deeply affected by the regulation and punishment of so‐called deviant sexuality include gay men, lesbian women, transgender persons, black women and men who have been sexually stereotyped, people who sell sex, and people in cross‐generational partnerships. Other issues relevant to the regulation of sexuality in the criminal justice system include sodomy and abortion laws, criminalization of sex work, the prohibition of consensual relationships in correctional facilities, perceptions of LGBTQ persons as criminal and depraved, and over‐policing of young people's sexuality