bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Living conditions in high altitude waters
Authors: Jacobsen Dean , Dangles Olivier
Published: October 2017

Chapter 3 deals with the abiotic environment in high altitude lakes and streams worldwide. It searches for general patterns in relation to altitude, without overlooking the enormous variability, both temporally as well as at small and large spatial scales. Overall, environmental conditions in high altitude waters may be regarded as harsh. Indeed, certain features such as low temperature, low oxygen pressure, and high ultraviolet radiation (all a direct result of high altitude) as well as transparent and ion-poor waters with low nutrient concentrations are typical of high altitude aquatic systems. However, streams and lakes turbid from inflow of glacial meltwater loaded with glacial mineral flour and peatbogs with deep brown water from a high concentration of coloured dissolved organic matter are equally prominent. So, evidently, environmental conditions in aquatic systems are probably just as variable at high as at low altitudes.
The Changing Graduate Labour Market
Authors: Tholen Gerbrand
Published: October 2017

This chapter demonstrates that the graduate labour market has fundamentally changed in recent decades. By using secondary statistical data as well as reviewing existing empirical studies, the chapter illustrates some key changes shaping the British graduate labour market. The chapter first covers the growth of so-called high-skilled jobs. Then it looks at the evidence for the demand for skilled workers. It examines where graduates work and it covers trends in graduate wages. The chapter argues that the growth of skilled occupations may have partly been induced by the growing number of graduates in the labour force, yet it is unclear how the influx of graduates relates to the demand for their skills.
Skills and Knowledge
Authors: Tholen Gerbrand
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the notion of graduate skills. The graduate labour market is often understood as that part of the labour market characterized by high skills and high knowledge intensity and that is perceived to be needed and used in an increasingly complex economy. Higher education is understood as the developer of these advanced skills. The chapter shows that in all four occupations a mixture of soft and hard skills is required to perform the roles. Most skills in graduate work are not associated with higher education and within the job setting, there is limited space to use the hard skills graduates have developed during higher education.
Graduate Occupations
Authors: Tholen Gerbrand
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the notion of graduate occupations and examines how occupational boundaries are structured within the four occupations. Various existing analytical approaches link graduate occupations to skills use or requirements, high autonomy, or the prevalence of degree holders. These classifications cannot deal very well with the fact that what counts as graduate labour in a graduatizing and competitive labour market is symbolically negotiated (and therefore socially constructed). On top of this, substantive differences in skill requirements and job tasks make the use of existing classifications for distinguishing the graduate and non-graduate occupations challenging. The chapter also shows that many graduate occupations may lack the organizational power, occupational identity, or knowledge base for professionalization to develop.
Legislation at Westminster
Authors: Russell Meg , Gover Daniel
Published: October 2017

This book describes and analyses the legislative process in the British Westminster parliament, with a focus on the contributions of different parliamentary ‘actors’, and close attention to questions of policy influence. It draws on the largest study of the process for over 40 years, which included analysis of 12 government bills as they passed through both the House of Commons and House of Lords. In addition to studying over 4,000 amendments proposed, and public records such as parliamentary speeches, the book draws on over 100 interviews with those closely involved. The opening chapters summarize the basics of the legislative process and review common assumptions that Westminster’s policy influence is relatively weak. Subsequent chapters explore in detail the contributions of different groups: government, opposition, government backbenchers, non-party parliamentarians, select committees, and outside pressure groups. In each case the organization, motivations, and actual policy influence of these groups are discussed. An additional chapter shows that cross-party working between these actors is far more common than often assumed. The book uncovers many of the subtleties of the process. Despite the appearance of executive dominance, ministers routinely respond to parliamentary pressure, and government takes parliament into account when drafting legislation (including through ‘anticipated reactions’). Opposition members raise the profile of issues, and can use the House of Lords to negotiate changes. Other actors similarly exercise various forms of policy power. Overall, this study demonstrates that Westminster is more influential in the legislative process than often assumed, with parliamentary power exercised in a variety of interconnected ways.
The Role of Government Backbenchers
Authors: Russell Meg , Gover Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter explores how government backbench parliamentarians in both chambers at Westminster influence the content of government legislation and the dynamics of politics. Government backbenchers are often thought to be Westminster’s most influential policy actors, operating through the ‘intraparty mode’. As summarized here, governments have recently become less able to rely on their votes, thanks to declining party cohesion. Yet governments are rarely defeated as a result of rebellious votes. This chapter analyses government backbenchers’ amendments proposed to the 12 case study bills—some of which served purposes other than immediate policy change—and their role as ‘pivotal voters’ in resolving legislative disputes with other (particularly opposition) actors. It also emphasizes their influence on legislation before it is introduced, and the importance of ‘anticipated reactions’. For example, ministers introduced the Corporate Manslaughter Bill only reluctantly, following backbench pressure. Backbenchers hence have subtle, and often hidden, influence in the legislative process.
Introduction
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Chapter 1 explains the main question that this book seeks to answer, lays out the most important assumptions on which its argument is based, and describes the basic problem that it aims to solve. After introducing the normative question about rationality (1.1), the chapter outlines the basic picture of normativity that will be presupposed, discussing the concepts ‘ought’ and ‘reason’ and their function in practical and epistemic deliberation (1.2). The chapter then examines the relation between the phenomenon of structural irrationality (1.3) and the idea of structural requirements of rationality (1.4). The discussion allows for a statement of the basic problem that is the subject of this volume and describes a range of views that have been advocated with respect to that problem (1.5). The chapter ends by pointing out the main difficulties of these views and giving a brief preview of later chapters (1.6).
The Myth of Structural Rationality
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

While Chapters 4 and 5 suggest that structural requirements of rationality cannot be normative, Chapter 6 argues for the stronger conclusion that there are no such requirements to begin with. The argument is that both narrow- and wide-scope interpretations of structural requirements face problems independently of whether these requirements are understood as being normative. Starting with the narrow-scope interpretation, the chapter discusses the problem that it licenses bootstrapping of rational requirements (6.1), that it entails inconsistent requirements (6.2), and that it entails requirements that undermine each other in a counterintuitive way (6.3). Turning to the wide-scope interpretation, the chapter discusses the charge that wide-scope requirements cannot capture an important asymmetry involved in structural irrationality (6.4–6.5), and that they are incapable of guiding our responses (6.6). It is argued that all of these objections pose serious problems for the respective accounts. This supports the conclusion that there are no structural requirements of rationality (6.7).
Rationality as Responding Correctly to Reasons
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

Chapter 7 outlines a non-structural account of rationality according to which rationality requires us to respond to available reasons, where a reason is available if it is part of an agent’s body of evidence (7.1–7.3). It is argued that such a response conception of rationality is compatible both with the factivity of reasons and the thesis that rationality supervenes on the mind or the internal (7.4–7.5). The chapter goes on to defend the idea that evidence provides practical reasons against the objection that all practical reasons must be good-making features (7.6). The remainder of the chapter seeks to vindicate some more specific response requirements of rationality, such as the requirement to believe what one’s evidence supports as true (7.7), and the requirement to intend what one’s evidence suggests one ought to do (7.8–7.9).
Conclusion
Authors: Kiesewetter Benjamin
Published: October 2017

This concludes my account of structural irrationality. I have argued, in Chapters 9 and 10, that structural irrationality claims such as (AI)–(MI) can be explained without recourse to structural requirements of rationality, by adherence to rational requirements to respond to available reasons alone. This enables us to respond to the problem that I described in ...
Trials for the Mistreatment of Civilians and Prisoners of War and Civilian Internees
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

This chapter looks at representative cases involving the mistreatment of prisoners of war and civilian internees by Japanese camp personnel, as well as noninterned civilians who were mistreated while being interrogated by the Japanese police authorities. The chapter also looks at a war crime that was never prosecuted involving the murder of 900 Indonesian civilian laborers, who died as a result of a faulty medical experiment. A key case examined in this chapter is the prosecution of Army Captain Sone, who was the first Japanese national to be tried, convicted, and sentenced to death for war crimes committed against prisoners and civilians.
Command Responsibility
Authors: Borch Fred L.
Published: October 2017

The Dutch prosecuted commanders for the war crimes committed by their subordinates, even though these commanders had not personally participated in the criminal acts and perhaps did not even know that a particular individual under his command had violated the law of war. Such prosecutions were justified by the legal doctrine of “command responsibility,” in which a commander is guilty of a war crime when, having actual or constructive knowledge that his subordinates are committing war crimes, he either fails to prevent these violations of the law of war or else fails to punish the responsible subordinates after learning of their misconduct. The three trials examined in this chapter are important because Generals Maruyama, Imamura, and Okazaki were found not guilty by the temporary court-martial sitting in Batavia, despite sufficient evidence to support guilty verdicts.
Core Logic and the Paradoxes
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: October 2017

The Law of Excluded Middle is not to be blamed for any of the logico-semantic paradoxes. We explain and defend our proof-theoretic criterion of paradoxicality, according to which the ‘proofs’ of inconsistency associated with the paradoxes are in principle distinct from those that establish genuine inconsistencies, in that they cannot be brought into normal form. Instead, the reduction sequences initiated by paradox-posing proofs ‘of ⊥’ do not terminate. This criterion is defended against some recent would-be counterexamples by stressing the need to use Core Logic’s parallelized forms of the elimination rules. We show how Russell’s famous paradox in set theory is not a genuine paradox; for it can be construed as a disproof, in the free logic of sets, of the assumption that the set of all non-self-membered sets exists. The Liar (by contrast) is still paradoxical, according to the proof-theoretic criterion of paradoxicality.
‘Decline’ to Modernization
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the underpinnings of the‘declinist’ turn in public economic argument from the late 1950s; while there had been previous notions of economic decline at work in Britain, none had the force, significance, and longevity of that which began to be produced in this decade. It shows how this turn depended in part upon the publication of new internationally comparative economic statistics, which allowed a new political argument about ‘failure’ in economic management to gain credibility. The chapter then goes on to look at the emergence of ‘modernization’ narratives in both the Labour and Conservative parties, each a response to the broad agreement on the evidence of decline, and a belief that economy had to take a new direction.
Turnout in Multi-Level Systems
Authors: Golder Sona N. , Lago Ignacio , Blais André , Gidengil Elisabeth , Gschwend Thomas
Published: October 2017

Voters face different incentives to turn out to vote in one electoral arena versus another. Although turnout is lowest in European elections, it is found that the turnout is only slightly lower in regional than in national elections. Standard accounts suggest that the importance of an election, in terms of the policy-making power of the body to be elected, drives variation in turnout across elections at different levels. This chapter argues that this is only part of the story, and that voter attachment to a particular level also matters. Not all voters feel connected to each electoral arena in the same way. Although for some, their identity and the issues they most care about are linked to politics at the national level, for others, the regional or European level may offer the political community and political issues that most resonate with them.
Livorno and Political Economy in the Late Renaissance
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 1 examines the theoretical tools and institutional framework that the grand dukes had at their disposal when planning Livorno. Although contemporary theories of reason of state authorized a range of interventions in economic life, the regime lacked organizations for analyzing, evaluating, and implementing economic policy. Policy was a function of ambitions formulated at the center and unforeseen institutional dynamics at the periphery. This chapter begins by contextualizing the reform of 1566, which endowed Livorno with its own customs regime (largely a consolidation of prior arrangements). It then turns to examine late Renaissance theories of economic development. It concludes by examining the privileges of Livorno, focusing on merchant hospitality and the Medici effort to induce Jews to settle in Livorno.
Livorno and the Science of Commerce in Enlightenment Tuscany
Authors: Tazzara Corey
Published: October 2017

Chapter 7 shows how commercial crisis in Livorno, combined with debates over its distinctive institutions and problematic role in the policy process, helped introduce scientific political economy to Tuscany. The strength of foreigners in Livorno and the city’s inability to promote Tuscan industry convinced elites of the need for an economic strategy focused on domestic agriculture and industry, marking a sharp turn in the direction of political economy in the grand duchy. In the course of struggle between Livorno and the central government, Livorno succeeded in defending its status as an enclave of free trade while nonetheless regularizing relationships between merchants and officials through the application of abstract norms of governance.
Tristimania
Authors: Griffiths Jay
Published: October 2017

This chapter uses theBlack Hole as a metaphor for depression based on personal experience with the disease. Like a Black Hole, depression consumes and contorts time. Depression sucks an entire human life into itself, the chapter states. Nothing can withstand its relentless tug into sheer black nothingness; it is a force field of pure negativity, a Black Hole. Depression slows one’s sense of time as—in what is called ‘gravitational time dilation’—an object falling into a Black Hole appears to slow down as it approaches the event horizon, taking an infinite time to reach it. The chapter describes the condition when in a depressed state and says depression is an illness which seems to punish the sufferer with isolation, noting that isolation is different from loneliness and solitude. The chapter also suggests that animals are like the opposite of a Black Hole; for example, cats can be extremely important to someone who is depressed.
On Being Not Depressed
Authors: Foster Charles
Published: October 2017

This chapter is written from the perspective of someone who claims never to have suffered from depression. When asked if he has ever been depressed, the author of this chapter reports that he responds vaguely. He states he can be evasive and pompous, insisting that he does not think he satisfies all the clinical criteria. The reason why he is reluctant to accept the notion that he is depressed is not because he feels ashamed about being depressive. On the contrary, he feels that he does not belong to the community of the depressed—an elite club with a black, glorious fellowship of agony in which he cannot share. Another reason is that depression and its symptoms are impossible to describe, even if the will to describe them is intense. No metaphors or similes are sufficient to describe what happens. The author says he is better off with the unnamed and unnamable. He concludes by suggesting that the least unsatisfactory picture is of auto-immune disease: self-consumption.
Depressions Plural
Authors: Fulford K W M (Bill) , Crepaz-Keay David , Stanghellini Giovanni
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines how values influence the heterogeneity of depression. The plurality of values is increasingly significant for contemporary person-centred mental health care with its emphasis on quality of life and development of self-manvnagement skills. Values-based practice is a partner with medical law invn working with the plurality of personal values. The chapter explains what values are, shows how the plurality of values influences the heterogeneity of depression at several levels, and provides an overview of values-based practice. It looks at the resources available for combining values-based practice with medical law in contemporary person-centred care and indicates some of the challenges this raises. It concludes with a brief reflection on these challenges understood as an instance of what the political philosopher Isaiah Berlin called the challenge of pluralism.
Depression in the Developing World
Authors: Minas Harry
Published: October 2017

This chapter provides an overview of what is known about prevalence, social determinants, treatment, and course and impact of depression in developing, or low- and middle-income, countries. The importance of culture in depression and in the construction and application of diagnostic classifications and in health and social services is highlighted, with a particular focus on the applicability of ‘Western’ diagnostic constructs and service systems in developing country settings. The role of international organizations, such as WHO, and international development programs, such as the SDGs, in improving our understanding of depression and in developing effective and culturally appropriate responses is briefly examined. There is both a need and increasing opportunities in developing countries for greater commitment to mental health of populations, increased investment in mental health and social services, and culturally informed research that will contribute to improved global understanding of mental disorders in general and depression in particular.
Depression in the Workplace
Authors: Bogg Alan , Green Sarah
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses depression in the workplace from the perspective of employment law. Despite the myth that people with mental illness are unable to work, it is almost certain most working people will be working alongside someone who has experienced mental illness. The idea that mental health at work is a marginal concern is no longer sustainable, and reflects ingrained fears and prejudices about the ‘otherness’ of mental illness. The legal framework regulating employment is important in ensuring that work and employment have a constructive part to play in public health strategies to promote mental health and well-being. There are several avenues of legal protection available to those with mental illness such as depression. This chapter explores three regulatory approaches to depression at work that should be regarded as complementary, each with a distinctive contribution to achieving the so-called ‘inclusive workplace’ for those with mental health problems such as depression: the private law approach, the equality law approach, and the labour standards approach.
The Argument Defended
Authors: Stoljar Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter defends the argument of Chapter 3, optimistic argument 1 (OA1), by focusing on eight objections: 1) the successor objection: is there not a successor problem to any solved philosophical problem? 2) The impossible denial objection: isn’t it impossible to deny the boundary theses constitutive of boundary problems? (3) the negativity objection: isn’t any progress made of an objectionably negative sort? (4) the wrong problem objection: isn’t any progress made on the wrong sort of problem? (5) the standards objection: isn’t the case for progress based on overly easy standards? (6) the triviality objection: couldn’t any problem be represented as a boundary problem? (7) the wrong people objection: isn’t any progress made due to scientists rather than philosophers? (8) the reasoning objection: doesn’t the reference to ‘reasonably many’ problems mean that the overall reasoning is no good?
The Extension Defended
Authors: Stoljar Daniel
Published: October 2017

This chapter defends the argument in favour of optimism set out in Chapter 5 (OA2) by focusing on whether it operates with too low a standard for explanation. Three proposals for higher standards are considered in turn: 1) an explanation should provide what will be called ‘total information’; 2) an explanation should provide what will be called ‘reductive information’; 3) an explanation should provide what will be called ‘highly naturalistic information’. The latter concept arises from ideas about natural properties due to David Lewis. A discussion of Lewis on natural properties and their definition leads to a further discussion of scientific realism. All three proposals for higher standards are found wanting. At the end of the chapter, an assessment of the overall case for optimism set out in Chapters 3–6 is offered.
Conclusion
Authors: Stoljar Daniel
Published: October 2017

The conclusion offers some speculation about the causes of pessimism. Outside philosophy, the main cause is an overly narrow understanding of the research aims of institutions that house philosophy departments; inside philosophy, the main cause is a tendency to assume that, as regards philosophical problems, all the facts are in.
Sympathy, Tragedy, and the Morality of Sentiment in Lessing’s Laocoon
Authors: Harloe Katherine
Published: October 2017

Katherine Harloe surveys Laocoon’s important contributions to the wider field of eighteenth-century aesthetic criticism. The particular focus of Harloe’s chapter concerns Lessing’s thinking about sympathy, above all in the context of ancient tragic drama. Anticipating numerous aspects of Lessing’s later Hamburgische Dramaturgie, his Laocoon forges a theory of drama against the backdrop of both Aristotelian philosophy and ancient dramatic paradigms. Harloe hones in on the fourth chapter of Laocoon, where Lessing has recourse to Sophocles’ Philoctetes in order to engage with Adam Smith’s arguments about the moral force of sympathy.
Lessing’s Laocoon and the ‘As-If’ of Aesthetic Experience
Authors: Grethlein Jonas
Published: October 2017

In this chapter Jonas Grethlein tackles the shared but distinct aesthetic mechanics of responding to narratives and pictures. After taking into account ‘deconstructionist’ readings of Laocoon, Grethlein argues that Lessing’s insights are fundamental for articulating how aesthetic experience works. Reformulating Lessing’s categories of temporal ‘poetry’ and spatial ‘painting’, while also concentrating on aesthetic response rather than formal medial difference, Grethlein renders Lessing’s essay into a guide for approaching the poles of what he labels ‘narratives’ and ‘pictures’. According to Grethlein, Lessing’s arguments concerning ‘poetry’ and ‘painting’ can help to advance a phenomenological argument about the ‘as if’ (in Kendall Walton’s terms) of aesthetic experience.
Art and Necessity
Authors: Kottman Paul A.
Published: October 2017

This chapter aims to rethink Lessing’s Laocoon by reassessing its fundamental aesthetic contribution. The essay proceeds in three parts. First, it argues that Lessing’s critical practice in Laocoon demonstrates how the amateur’s ‘felt’ responses to an artwork’s aesthetic effect bears on the critic’s judgment concerning both what and how artworks mean. Second, Kottman claims that Lessing’s discussion of medium-specificity is not meant to arrive at any fixed ‘theory’ of different media; rather, it follows from his broader sense of what art does through its solicitation of our imagination. Third, the chapter argues that Lessing’s focus on the ‘limits’ of painting and poetry does not present transcendentally derived criteria according to which different ‘media’ are graspable; rather, Lessing shows how the very view that artworks or practice yield a special understanding of human life, unavailable elsewhere, is earned through the careful consideration of the achievements of specific artworks and practices.
Newman's Early Roman Catholic Legacy, 1845-1854
Authors: Shea C. Michael
Published: October 2017

For the past several decades, scholars have stressed that the genius of John Henry Newman remained underappreciated among his Roman Catholic contemporaries, and in order to find the true impact of his work, one must look to the century after his death. This book takes direct aim at that assumption. Examining a host of overlooked evidence from England and the European continent, Newman’s Early Legacy tracks letters, recorded conversations, and obscure and unpublished theological exchanges to show how Newman’s 1845 Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine influenced a cadre of Catholic teachers, writers, and Church authorities in nineteenth-century Rome. The book explores how these individuals then employed Newman’s theory of development to argue for the definability of the new dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary during the years preceding the doctrine’s promulgation in 1854. Through numerous twists and turns, the narrative traces how the theory of development became a factor in determining the very language that the Roman Catholic Church would use in referring to doctrinal change over time. In this way, Newman’s Early Legacy uncovers a key dimension of Newman’s significance in modern religious history.
Early Reactions to the Essay on Development
Authors: Shea C. Michael
Published: October 2017

This chapter explores the social dimensions of the Essay on Development’s initial reception in England among Roman Catholics after Newman’s conversion to Roman Catholicism on October 9, 1845 through the time of his Roman seminary studies in November of the following year. The chapter traces Nicholas Wiseman’s leadership and solicitude in the process of the Essay’s early reception, and key factors in the theological atmosphere in Rome during the middle decades of the nineteenth century. This chapter also examines what has become known as the “Orestes Brownson controversy,” which followed the publication of Newman’s Essay, and provides a reassessment of the dispute in its relation to the Essay on Development’s early readership in Rome.
A Deity’s Conquest of China
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

From the eleventh century onwards we see an increasing importance of supra-local cults for anthropomorphic deities all over China, including the worship of Lord Guan. In the conventional account of the spread of the cult, it is assumed that people were acquainted with the deity’s image from written narrative traditions, especially the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. This account derives in large part from the typical mind-set of literate elites (including modern scholars) that written texts trump all other forms of cultural influence. This chapter argues that the cult was transmitted all across northern China in particular in the form of oral stories that featured a miraculous event demonstrating Lord Guan’s power. It will be shown how the cult was already widespread by the first half of the early fourteenth century, long before the narrative traditions of the Three Kingdoms acquired their phenomenal popularity and were transformed into written texts.
Bringing Rain and Protection
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

Deities were thought to help and protect people, heal them from illnesses, and sometimes also to punish them. And yet, a worshipper was not free to decide what to ask for, but had to work within a collectively created and transmitted paradigm of expectations of the deity. In Northern China, Lord Guan was often requested to provide rain, and everywhere he was asked to assist in the fight against demons and other types of outsiders (barbarians, rebels, or otherwise), or even appeared of his own accord to do so. From the early seventeenth century onwards, Guan Yu was seen as the incarnation of a dragon executed at the command of the Jade Emperor for bringing rain out of compassion to a local community sentenced to extinction by the supreme deity. Finally, his loyal image inspired his rise as a God of Wealth in the course of the eighteenth century.
A Tight Connection Among Wealth, Income, Sustainability, and Accounting in an Ultra-Simplified Setting
Authors: Weitzman Martin L.
Published: October 2017

In theory, and under some very strong assumptions, there exists a tight quantitative relationship among the following four fundamental economic concepts: (1) ‘wealth’; (2) ‘income’; (3) ‘sustainability’; (4) ‘accounting’. These four basic concepts are placed in quotation marks here because a necessary first step will be to carefully and rigorously define what exactly is meant by each. This chapter reviews what is known about this important fourfold quantitative relationship in an ultra-simplified setting. It identifies some basic applications of this simplified economic theory of wealth and income (and sustainability and accounting). While the contents of this chapter are expressed at a very high level of abstraction and require many restrictive assumptions, the fundamental fourfold relationship it sharply highlights should be useful for conceptualizing, at least in principle, what is ‘wealth’ and what is its theoretical relationship to ‘income’, ‘sustainability’, and ‘accounting’.
Human Capital, Tangible Wealth, and the Intangible Capital Residual
Authors: Hamilton Kirk , Liu Gang
Published: October 2017

Since income is the return on wealth, the total wealth of a country should be around twenty times its GDP. Instead, the average observed ratio from the System of National Accounts (SNA) is a factor of 2.6–6.6. Clearly, wealth accounts are incomplete. Estimating the value of the most obvious omission, human capital, using the lifetime income approach for a sample of thirteen (mostly high-income) countries yields a mean share of human capital in total wealth of 63 per cent—four times the value of produced and fourteen times that of natural capital. But for selected high-income countries an average of 25 per cent of total wealth remains unaccounted. This residual intangible is arguably the ‘stock equivalent’ of total factor productivity—the value of assets such as institutional and social capital that augment the capacity of produced, natural, and human capital to support a stream of consumption into the future.
Social Capital, Trust, and Well-Being in the Evaluation of Wealth
Authors: Hamilton Kirk , Helliwell John F. , Woolcock Michael
Published: October 2017

This chapter combines theory with data from different domains to provide an empirical analysis of the scale and variability of social capital as wealth. This is used to argue, given the existing literature on social capital, that the welfare returns to investing in trust could be substantial. Social trust data from 132 nations covered by the Gallup World Poll are used to present a range of estimates of social trust’s wealth-equivalent values. These estimates are very large, with a structure and distribution quite different from those for physical capital. They reflect values above and beyond what social trust contributes to supporting incomes and health. Although social trust is an important component of total wealth in all regions and country groupings, there are nonetheless big variations within and among regions, ranging from as low as 12 per cent of total wealth in Latin America to 28 per cent in the OECD.
Infrastructure
Authors: Klein Michael
Published: October 2017

Infrastructure services in energy, transport, water, and telecommunications services underpin the wealth of modern nations. Yet inefficiencies abound. In developing nations hundreds of millions of people lack access to modern infrastructure services. Globally, as much as 40 percent of expenditures on infrastructure may constitute waste, equivalent to some 1 to 2 percent of global GDP. Natural monopoly features and sunk costs provide incentives for the parties to infrastructure ventures to play ransom games. Particularly in developing economies prices are often well below cost. Hence investors shy away and access remains limited. Government involvement in project choice and implementation may lead to ‘white elephants’ and mismanagement. Where head-to-head competition can be introduced, such as in modern telecommunications systems, the syndrome can be kept in check. Yet where such competition is not feasible, policymaking and inevitable price and quality regulation remain a challenge, requiring patient effort at arm’s-length from day-to-day political pressures.
Counting the Spiritual
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: October 2017

The data from two thoroughgoing attempts to estimate popular involvement in religious and spiritual innovations—a two-year study of the small English town of Kendal and a detailed social survey—are examined. Both point to the same conclusion: that the number of people typically engaged in New Age spirituality activities broadly defined is less than 2 per cent, and half of them do their yoga, meditation, and the like for reasons of physical and psychological well-being rather than for spiritual growth. That is, much of what is often claimed as proof that religion is changing rather than declining is actually secular in purpose and nature. Further, because New Age spirituality appeals more to those disillusioned with conventional religion than with secularity, it depends on conventional religion for recruits, and that pool is drying up.
The Secular Beats the Spiritual
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: October 2017

If religion is changing rather than declining, the number involved in new expressions of religious and spiritual interest should come close to matching those lost to the churches, but the new religious movements of the late 1960s were numerically trivial and attempts to measure serious interest in spirituality have failed to show it is at all popular. While eastern religious themes have proved somewhat attractive, they have been changed in ways that look like capitulation to the West’s secular culture. The evaluative conclusion is that New Age ‘authenticity’ is socio-psychologically damaging, that New Age relativism threatens the knowledge base of modern societies, and that contemporary spirituality is unusually vulnerable to sexual exploitation. On the positive side, the individualism, toleration, and relativism of contemporary spirituality have helped make the modern world more civil.
The mamillothalamic pathways: my first encounter with the thalamus
Authors: Guillery Ray
Published: October 2017

My thesis studies had stimulated an interest in the mamillothalamic pathways but also some puzzlement because we knew nothing about the nature of the messages passing along these pathways. Several laboratories were studying the thalamic relay of sensory pathways with great success during my post-doctoral years. Each sensory relay could be understood in terms of the appropriate sensory input, but we had no way of knowing the meaning of the mamillothalamic messages. I introduce these nuclei as an example of the many thalamic nuclei about whose input functions we still know little or nothing. Early clinical studies of mamillary lesions had suggested a role in memory formation, whereas evidence from cortical lesions suggested a role in emotional experiences. Studies of the smallest of the three nuclei forming these pathways then showed it to be concerned with sensing head direction, relevant but not sufficient for defining an animal’s position in space. More recent studies based on studies of cortical activity or cortical damage have provided a plethora of suggestions: as so often, the answers reported depend on the questions asked. That simple conclusion is relevant for all transthalamic pathways. The evidence introduced in Chapter 1, that thalamocortical messages have dual meanings, suggests that we need to rethink our questions. It may prove useful to look at the motor outputs of relevant cortical areas to get clues about some appropriate questions.
Global Norms and Local Courts
Authors: Berger Tobias
Published: October 2017

What happens to transnational norms when they travel from one place to another? How do norms change when they move; and how do they affect the place where they arrive? This book develops a novel theoretical account of norm translation that is located in-between theories of norm diffusion and norm localization. It shows how such translations do not follow linear trajectories from ‘the global’ to ‘the local’. Instead, they unfold in a recursive back and forth movement between different actors located in different contexts. As norms are translated, their meaning changes; and only if their meaning changes in ways that are intelligible to people within a specific context, the social and political dynamics of this context change as well. This book analyses translations of ‘the rule of law’. It focuses on contemporary donor-driven projects with non-state courts in rural Bangladesh and shows how in these projects, global norms change local courts—but only if they are translated, often in unexpected ways from the perspective of international actors. Based on extensive fieldwork, this book reveals how grassroots-level employees of local non-governmental organizations significantly alter the meaning of global norms—for example when they translate secular notions of the rule of law into the language of Islam and Islamic Law—and only thereby also enhance participatory spaces for marginalized people. Such translations that change both global norms and local courts have been largely neglected by scholars and policy makers alike; they are the central theme of this book.
Introduction
Authors: Berger Tobias
Published: October 2017

This chapter introduces the book’s central arguments as well as the theoretical account of norm translation that is developed through the in-depth analysis of contemporary donor-sponsored projects with village courts in rural Bangladesh. It opens with brief ethnographic accounts of a non-state court session and a courtyard meeting through which international donor agencies seek to promote transnational notions of the rule of law in rural Bangladesh. The chapter then outlines the overall argument of the book and its contributions to existing scholarship on the diffusion of norms and ideas as well as to research on non-state justice institutions and the rule of law. Subsequently, the chapter introduces Bangladesh’s recent political history, delineates the methodological approach, and reflects on the challenges of doing translation research. In conclusion, it outlines the overall structure of the book and summarizes the key arguments advanced in its individual chapters.
Populism and Patronage
Authors: Kenny Paul D.
Published: October 2017

Populist rule is bad for democracy, yet in country after country, populists are being voted into office. Populism and Patronage shows that the populists such as Indira Gandhi and Narendra Modi win elections when the institutionalized ties between non-populist parties and voters decay. Yet, the explanations for this decay differ across different types of party system. Populism and Patronage focuses on the particular vulnerability of patronage-based party systems to populism. Patronage-based systems are ones in which parties depend on the distribution of patronage through a network of brokers to mobilize voters. Drawing on principal agent theory and social network theory, this book argues that an increase in broker autonomy weakens the ties between patronage parties and voters, making the latter available for direct mobilization by populists. Decentralization is thus a major factor behind populist success in patronage democracies. Populists exploit the breakdown in national patronage networks by connecting directly with the people through the media and mass rallies, avoiding or minimizing the use of deeply institutionalized party structures. Mrs Gandhi herself famously promised to go “once more direct to the people” in her populist election campaign of 1971. This book not only reinterprets the recurrent appeal of populism in India, but also offers a more general theory of populist electoral support that is tested using qualitative and quantitative data on cases from across Asia and around the world, including Indonesia, Japan, Venezuela, and Peru.
Understanding Populism and Why It Matters
Authors: Kenny Paul D.
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the concept of populism in greater detail and also describes how party systems are measured and classified. Rather than conceive of populism as a type of thin political ideology, this book understands populism as a distinctively personalistic type of political movement or organization in which charismatic leaders look to directly mobilize mass constituencies through the media and other means. The chapter next distinguishes between programmatic, patronage, and populist party systems, based on which type of party is most common. Finally, the chapter provides a quantitative analysis of the consequences of populist electoral success for democracy across a number of indicators. It shows that populist rule has generally negative consequences for the functioning of liberal democracy, which makes the effort to understand populist electoral success all the more pressing.
British Empire
Authors: Conway Stephen
Published: October 2017

This chapter pursues further the theme of British direction. It argues that, despite the involvement of other Europeans, the empire remained essentially British. After having considered the case for Europeanization, it goes on to show that many of those foreigners who became involved in or with the empire were at least partially Anglicized by the experience. Large numbers of foreign settlers, scientists, and technical experts learned English for public purposes, adapted to British norms, and consumed British goods, even if they continued to use their native language in their family lives. The same was true of many foreign European soldiers in British pay. More importantly, the empire remained British not only because British needs determined the nature and extent of most types of continental European participation, but also because Britons imposed some degree of control over the process.
CETA, TTIP, and TiSA
Authors: Petersmann Ernst-Ulrich
Published: October 2017

These new orientations in international economic law and the EU’s external economic relations are analysed in the following chapters of this volume. This chapter discusses mega-regional free trade agreements and other plurilateral trade agreements as ‘new trends’ in international economic law (IEL). CETA, TTIP, and TiSA use ‘legal fragmentation’, ‘regulatory competition’, and ‘methodological pluralism’ as instruments for WTO-consistent, piecemeal reforms of the world trading and investment system. The competing conceptions of IEL result from diverse conceptions of ‘principles of justice’ and diverse ‘legal methods’ for further developing IEL. CETA, TTIP, and TiSA are likely to enhance productivity, competition, and consumer welfare. By disregarding the EU’s ‘cosmopolitan foreign policy mandate’ to act as ‘protector of citizens’, CETA and TTIP risk undermining fundamental rights, democratic accountability, and judicial remedies in the EU. The less the WTO succeeds in liberalizing world trade and regulating ‘market failures’, the more important becomes the policy option of plurilateral agreements, which could ultimately replace ‘WTO 1994’ by a new ‘WTO 2020’ based on a ‘merger’ of mega-regional and plurilateral agreements.
The Reform of Investment Protection Rules in CETA, TTIP, and Other Recent EU FTAs: Convincing?
Authors: Tietje Christian , Crow Kevin
Published: October 2017

This chapter explores the systemic problems that plague provision-dependent investment protection reforms in CETA, TTIP, and other recent EU FTAs. The authors suggest that the current international investment system’s asymmetrical structure precludes effective reforms because reforms that ‘level the playing field’ between state and investor run counter to the logic of a system designed with the purpose of protecting investors and investments, not states. The authors suggest that a new symmetrical international investment dispute settlement structure may provide a more convincing answer to calls for reform. After beginning with a background on the necessity of and problems with ‘vagueness’ in law (both generally and in the international investment system), the chapter analyses the most prominent reforms and reform proposals in the current international investment landscape. The chapter elucidates several of the structural problems that plague these current reform proposals and demonstrates that a symmetrical approach could alleviate these problems.
Human Rights, Labour Standards, and Environmental Standards in CETA
Authors: Bartels Lorand
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the provisions in the Canada–EU Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) on the protection of labour and environmental standards and human rights. It first outlines the obligations of the parties to protect labour and environmental standards, human rights, and democratic principles. Next, it discusses certain means by which the economic obligations of the parties may be interpreted, either expressly or by implication, to reflect these values. Third, it analyses the rights of the parties, in the context of exceptions, to adopt measures to protect labour and environmental standards and human rights obligations, and the extent to which CETA’s obligations might expand the ordinary jurisdictional scope of these rights.