bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Climate change cumulative impacts on deep-sea ecosystems
Authors: Bris Nadine Le , Levin Lisa A.
Published: October 2020

Climate models report that the environmental changes resulting from excess CO2 and heat absorption by the ocean already reach many deep-ocean margins, basins, and seas. Decadal monitoring programmes have confirmed significant warming and deoxygenation trends down to the abyss, which combine with CO2-enriched, more corrosive conditions. Although the resolution of current models does not account for the typical mesoscale seafloor heterogeneity, cumulative impacts on biodiversity and productivity hotpots are anticipated. The growing interest in deep-sea resource exploitation has shed light on the lack of knowledge about current climate-driven disturbance and potential cumulative threats at great depth. Assessing the sensitivity of deep-sea ecosystems to temperature increase combined with oxygen and resource decline is emerging as a growing challenge. The natural patchiness of deep-seafloor habitats and associated deep-sea diversity patterns inform about environmental constraints over space, but the temporal dynamics of these systems is not well known. Experimental studies are required to assess the physiological limits and explore the adaptation and acclimation potential of foundation species exposed to various forms of abiotic stress. The case of cold-water corals is particularly illustrative of the potential synergistic effects of climate stressors, including warming, acidification, deoxygation, and reduced food availability. Addressing ecosystem vulnerability also requires dedicated monitoring efforts to identify the current and future drivers of climate-change impacts on deep-sea habitats. United Nations policy objectives for protected high-sea biodiversity and healthy oceans and seas drive the momentum towards better climate-change forecasting over the ocean-depth range and related integrated observing strategies.
Space, the final resource
Authors: Juniper S. Kim , Thornborough Kate , Tyler Paul , Randrianarisoa Ylenia
Published: October 2020

The greater than 109 km3 volume of the deep-sea water column and greater than 300 × 106 km2 area of the deep-sea floor represent a major natural capital asset. Global society has been utilising space in the deep ocean as a reservoir for solid, liquid, and hazardous waste produced by terrestrial-based societies, as a buffer that absorbs nonsolid, nonliquid industrial waste streams, specifically CO2 from fossil fuel and biomass burning, heat from a warming atmosphere, and as freely available and convenient space. High-value uses such as the deployment of transoceanic telecommunications cables provide substantial, near-term economic and societal returns with minimal environmental impact. Low-value uses of this natural capital as empty space to absorb waste have arguably enabled industrialisation to continue further along an unsustainable trajectory than would have occurred had there been no such waste buffer available.
High-level Overview of Project Risk Management (PRM)
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

Selection of adequate project risk management (PRM) methodologies should be based on deep understanding of PRM context of a project to avoid PRM context—PRM method mismatch. Various realizations of bias can impede the selection. All PRM methodologies can be grouped as either conventional (they follow traditional PRM process steps to identify, evaluate, address, monitor, etc.) and unconventional (they are focused mostly at risk assessments). All PRM methodologies—deterministic (scoring), probabilistic (Monte Carlo), parametric, etc—have limitations. Deterministic (scoring) methods can help with development of risk addressing although they are useless for development of project contingencies. Monte Carlo methods can be used for development of project contingencies only if they take into account all relevant components of project risk exposure consistently. Parametric methods suffer from using biased sampling—convenience and judgement sampling—that undermine their accuracy. Two emerging methodologies—system dynamics and artificial neural networks (ANN)—can be considered unconventional.
Conventional Project Risk Management (PRM) Methodologies
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

Overview of the conventional PRM methodology is based on the introduction of a PRM system that comprises a PRM context, a PRM process, and PRM tools. Typical PRM process steps to identify, address, assess, monitor, etc risks are reviewed to comply with PRM context (i.e. features and challenges of a project). Main sorts of uncertainties related to risks as possible impacts on project objectives—uncertainties of identification, manageability, assessments of impacts and probabilities, and favourability—are discussed. Key PRM tools to support the PRM context and the process—a PRM plan, a bowtie diagram, a risk breakdown structure (RBS), a risk assessment matrix (RAM), and a risk register—are introduced. A role of psychological and organizational bias as a systematic error in the PRM process is elaborated.
Overview of Conventional Risk Quantification Methods
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

Deterministic (scoring) and probabilistic (Monte Carlo) risk quantification methodologies are overviewed as related to risk assessment steps of the PRM process. A role of various realizations of bias including zealotry in selection of conventional methods is reviewed. It is shown that deterministic (scoring) methods are irreplaceable when developing risk-addressing actions (the first PRM goal), although they are notoriously inaccurate when developing project contingencies (the second PRM goal). These methods can handle risks of impacts on both quantifiable and unquantifiable project objectives and are effective in selection of project alternatives. The Monte Carlo methods are valuable for development of schedule and cost contingencies only. Various Monte Carlo methodologies may have high systematic errors if they overlook main components of project risk exposure. Activity and line-item ranging methods miss out risk events; cost risk analyses miss out schedule-driven costs; all Monte Carlo methods overlook risk interactions as attributes of complex project systems.
Project Zemblanity Business Case (I): Linear Monte Carlo Schedule and Cost Risk Analysis (L-SCRA)
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

A traditional linear integrated Monte Carlo schedule and cost risk analysis (L-SCRA) methodology is overviewed using a fictional case of project Zemblanity. A project schedule, a base estimate, a risk register, etc. are introduced to undertake the L-SCRA modelling. This chapter can be used as a ‘crash course’ on the L-SCRA modelling. As the L-SCRA models (available on the book’s companion website) yield uncomfortably low schedule and cost contingencies, particular concerns related to the methodology are listed related to project complexity. Possible ways to improve the method’s accuracy are contemplated including the joint confidence level (JCL) concept. It is shown that all proposed improvement steps based on the traditional ‘linear Monte Carlo paradigm’ cannot drastically reduce the systematic error and improve the accuracy of the L-SCRA methodology. A quest for more accurate version of a Monte Carlo methodology is formulated that should take into account missed features of project complexity.
A Brief Introduction to System Dynamics (SD)
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter introduces all main concepts of system dynamics (levels/stocks, flows/rates, variables, feedback loops, etc.). It represents a ‘crash course’ on system dynamics. It is used for development of project system dynamics models in Chapter 7 that mirror project Zemblanity Monte Carlo modelling undertaken in Chapter 5. System dynamic concepts are introduced using a so-called bathtub (BT) model. Five versions of the BT model are introduced through corresponding differential equations. All considered differential equations have analytical solutions. All five workable BT system dynamics models are available on the book’s companion website.
Project System Dynamics (SD)
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter demonstrates project system dynamics (SD) models that mirror the Monte Carlo L-SCRA models developed in Chapter 5 (project Zemblanity). Historic overview of project system dynamics is undertaken: from claims and dispute resolutions to modelling of project rework cycles and project changes. Approaches to model extra risk-related works, out-of-sequence works, impacts on productivity of works, etc. are introduced. Three SD models are built that combine engineering and construction rework cycles (the two-rework-cycle models). The first is a risk-free model to become aligned with the project Zemblanity schedule. The second is a model that takes into account only quality-related risks. The third factors in all risks of project Zemblanity. Results of the SD modelling demonstrate good alignment with L-SCRA Monte Carlo outcomes and explain reasons for a non-linear behaviour of the project Zemblanity system. All three workable SD models are available on the book’s companion website.
Introduction to Project Complexity
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter provides a literature review of the complexity concept and selects practical ideas that can be used for risk quantification in complex projects. This topic has two angles—complexity of project dealing with practical methods and complexity in project that reflects on general complexity ideas coming mostly from physics. A classification of projects—simple, complicated, complex, and chaotic—is adopted. Three types of interactions in project systems are distinguished—pooled, sequential, and reciprocal. As these interactions exist even in ideally developed project systems, only deviations from the ideal case are of interest that are interpreted as project risks and their interactions. Three analogues types of risk interactions—internal risk amplifications, knock-on interactions, and risk compounding are distinguished. Two fundamental interacting subsystems of a project system are introduced—a project structure subsystem (PSS) and a project delivery subsystem (PDS). Project risks and their interactions are associated with PSS–PDS mismatches.
Interactions in a Project System
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter is a bridge from the traditional ‘linear’ definitions of projects and project risks to their ‘non-linear’ versions for complex projects. A project is a dynamic system accompanied by a phased process to deliver a new product, service or facility that is characterized by evolving phase-specific structure (the project structure subsystem (PSS)) matched by a required delivery organization (the project delivery subsystem (PDS)). Risk is a possible aggregated impact on project objectives by an affinity of interacting risks that form dynamic risk patterns supported by a project system. Three types of modified bowtie diagrams are introduced to identify and address instances of risk interactions (internal risk amplification, knock-on interactions, and risk compounding). Risk interactions are described mathematically. Based on the system dynamics experience, even a traditional bowtie diagram for standalone risks in complex projects should be modified to factor in risk-induced work constraints, rework, out-of-sequence work, and lower productivity.
A Project Structure Subsystem (PSS)
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter provides a high-level discussion on the project structure subsystem (PSS) through description of main typical ‘project parts’ and their interactions. Project deliverables, labour requirements, locations, technologies, interface points, and stakeholders are reviewed as ‘project parts’. A discussion on interactions in complex systems including risk interactions is reiterated to tell apart intra-risk interactions (internal risk amplifications) and cross-risk interactions (knock-on and compounding interactions). A role of interface points for propagation of cross-risk interactions is accentuated. High-level PSS description for simple, complicated, and complex projects is provided. Chaotic projects are considered complex projects that have been pushed to the edge of chaos and beyond due to overwhelming risk interactions.
Non-linear Multipliers for Risk Interactions
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

The purpose of this chapter is to mathematically describe three types of risk interactions (internal risk amplifications, knock-on, and compounding) associated with the static and dynamic PSS–PDS mismatches. This is required to factor all relevant instances of risk interactions into Monte Carlo models. It is shown that corresponding three types of non-linearity parameters should be introduced to form non-linear (quadratic) multipliers for interacting risks. In the linear case (non-interacting risks) all non-linearity parameters are equal to zero and all non-linear multipliers are equal to one. As a risk may take part in several interactions it has several non-linear multipliers. Required non-linearity parameters and non-linear multipliers for opportunities are also developed. When all relevant instances of risk interactions are factored to a project risk register, they describe an aggregated impact of the affinity of interacting risks (dynamic risk pattern) on project schedule and cost objectives.
Project Zemblanity Business Case (II)
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter is devoted to the second business case of project Zemblanity. Based on the developed risk quantification principles for complex projects, two non-linear Monte Carlo schedule and cost risk analysis (N-SCRA) models are developed. These models factor in all relevant risk interactions before and after addressing. Modified ‘non-linear’ project risk registers that take into account the risk interactions are developed as inputs to the Monte Carlo models. It is shown that before risk interaction addressing the forecast project duration and cost are unacceptably high due to unaddressed risk interactions. Agreed risk interaction addressing measures factored to the models result in the acceptable project duration and cost. A joint confidence level (JCL) concept is used to amend the N-SCRA results at the P70 confidence level to distinguish stretched targets and management reserves using JCL70. The two workable N-SCRA models are available on the book’s companion website.
Project System Dynamics
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

The purpose of this chapter is to develop project system dynamic (SD) models that mirror non-linear Monte Carlo N-SCRA models of project Zemblanity. Only schedule part of risk exposure is considered. Required recalculations of parameters is undertaken. As these are no one-to-one relations between the parameters of the SD and Monte Carlo models, required assumptions are applied. These can be used for mutual calibrations of the two types of models. Two SD models are built that reflect on the project risk exposure before and after risk interaction addressing. Limitations of the project SD modelling are revealed. The SD modelling results demonstrate a good alignment of corresponding non-linear schedule and cost risk analysis (N-SCRA) and SD models. One additional SD model is built to explicitly demonstrate a contribution of risk compounding to overall project duration. The three workable SD models are available on the book’s companion website.
Spin-off Discussions on Project Complexity
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter combines all ‘by-product’ topics that are worth discussing. First, it is argued that complex projects should be adaptive systems. Decentralized short-term flexible planning is encouraged as opposed to centralized detailed scheduling with a primary purpose—to avoid work constraints. Second, a concept of a single failure mode is developed. It is demonstrated that the single failure mode is represented by a two-peak (bi-modal) probabilistic distribution due to existence of a distinctively sensitive risk. Third, a two-well model is drawn from quantum physics to explain a mechanism of the single-mode realization. Fourth, using project system dynamics lessons learned, practical recommendations on organization of project quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) are put forward. Fifth, the origin and nature of general uncertainties and internal risk amplifications are uncovered. Sixth, ‘a reverse engineering’ approach to handle risk addressing is contemplated along with a possibility to use stretched targets.
Conclusion
Authors: Raydugin Yuri G.
Published: October 2020

This chapter provides a high-level overview of concepts, models, and results discussed in this book. It is accentuated that risk quantification used in decision-making can be tagged as ‘political mathematics’. The political aspects are defined by various realizations of bias from strategic misrepresentation to the Hiding Hand principle. It is pointed out that the mathematical aspects may succumb to the similar realizations of bias as political ones. Recommendations to balance the political and mathematical aspects are proposed. A role of the non-linear Monte Carlo N-SCRA methodology supported by the project system dynamics modelling is established as a role of the Revealing Hand. It should provide ammunition for decision-making before the project approval, not after in a form of lessons learned as the Hiding Hand does. This is a way to decline the invitation to attend a ‘banquette of consequences’ referring to project failures as ‘unpleasant unsurprises’.
Dieter Grimm
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

Dieter Grimm is one of Germany’s foremost scholars of constitutional law and theory with a high international reputation and an exceptional career. He teaches constitutional law at Humboldt University Berlin and did so simultaneously at the Yale Law School until 2017. He was one of the most influential justices of the German Constitutional Court where he served from 1987 to 1999 and left his marks on the jurisprudence of the Court, especially in the field of fundamental rights. He directed one of the finest academic institutions worldwide, the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin (Institute for Advanced Study). He is also well known as a public intellectual who speaks up in questions of German politics and European integration. This book contains a conversation that three scholars of constitutional law led with Dieter Grimm on his background, his childhood under the Nazi regime and in destroyed post-war Germany, his education in Germany, France, and the United States, his academic achievement, the main subjects of his research, his experience as a member of a leading constitutional court, especially in the time of seminal changes in the world after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and his views on actual challenges for law and society. The book is an invaluable source of information on an outstanding career and the functioning of constitutional adjudication, which one would not find in legal textbooks or treatises. Oxford University Press previously published his books on Constitutionalism. Past, Present, and Future (2016) and The Constitution of European Democracy (2017).
Biographical Imprints—Childhood Home, War, School, Career Hopes
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The chapter treats the family background of Dieter Grimm, his childhood during the Second World War and in post-War Germany, education and teachers, religious context, treatment of national socialism in post-War Germany, division of the county, emergence of the Federal Republic, early political interest.
Bielefeld
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The chapter is devoted to the first professorship at the University of Bielefeld, the specific orientation of that university, the colleagues, the interdisciplinary contacts, in particular with colleagues from history (Kosellek, Wehler, Kocka), political science (Offe) and sociology (Luhmann), his directorship at the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research (ZiF) of Bielefeld University, his project on “Functions of the State” at the ZiF and the other subjects of his research in these years (1979–1987)
Uproar about the Constitutional Court’s Jurisprudence
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The chapter deals with the two most contested judgements of the Court in which Dieter Grimm was involved (“Soldiers are Murderers” and “Crucifix in Classrooms in Bavaria”), the protests that the judgments entailed, his personal attitude vis-à-vis the protest, murder threats against him, relationship between national and constitutional law.
International Constitutionalist: Renewed Ties with the US
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

This chapter deals with Dieter Grimm’s international engagement after his time on the Court, especially with his teaching in the US, next to his chair at the Law Faculty of Humboldt University Berlin where he has been teaching since 2000. The American universities where he taught mostly comparative constitutional law were NYU, Harvard, and mostly Yale. The merits of a comparative approach in constitutional law, the necessity of contextualization if one wants to understand foreign legal systems. The chapter treats moreover Yale’s famous Global Constitutionalism Seminar and its prominent participants as well as the difference between the conditions for teaching and research at German and American universities.
From Outsider to the Center of Constitutional Scholarship
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: October 2020

The final chapter tries to determine the impact of the main stations and cities of his career and his academic achievement and the future of constitutionalism as the centrepiece of his work and his reflections.
Human perfection in Orthodox theological anthropology
Authors: Torrance Alexis
Published: October 2020

This chapter deals first with the question of methodology in Orthodox theology, offering an explanation and defence of the increasingly controversial neo-patristic synthesis model proposed by Georges Florovsky. This is followed by a discussion of Orthodox theological anthropology, beginning with a plea for a Christocentric approach. An outline of modern Orthodox theological anthropology is then offered, with an emphasis on theological personalism (represented by John Zizioulas, Christos Yannaras, and others) and its place within larger personalist movements. Debates regarding the meaning of the term ‘hypostasis’ or person in the patristic and Byzantine sources form part of this discussion. Finally, the importance of deification and the impact of the concept of ‘Godmanhood’ (or ‘Divine-Humanity’) from Soloviev and Bulgakov is also briefly examined. The chapter ends with another call to focus primarily on the doctrine of Christ in order for Orthodox theological anthropology to develop in creative continuity with its heritage.
Perpetual progress or eternal rest?
Authors: Torrance Alexis
Published: October 2020

The idea of perpetual progress or epektasis has become a popular way to characterize the Byzantine and Orthodox approach to eschatology, whereby the human being forever stretches out in an unending ascent into God. Gregory of Nyssa is taken as the chief architect of this approach, but Maximus the Confessor is also frequently marshalled to the same cause. This chapter questions the applicability of epektasis to the theology of Maximus, and further challenges the hegemony of this idea as a general shorthand for the Byzantine and Orthodox view of eschatology. Without denying its presence as a component of Byzantine eschatological discourse, the far more prevalent interest in rest/stasis is brought out through an examination of Maximus’s eschatology. This is connected with the view that what is true of Christ’s humanity becomes true of the humanity of the saints by grace, and Christ’s enthroned humanity is no longer subject to growth or progress.
Perfection before our eyes
Authors: Torrance Alexis
Published: October 2020

The connection between the humanity of Christ and the pursuit of human perfection lies at the heart of this chapter on the theology of Theodore the Studite. The case is made that while Theodore is often overlooked as a theological thinker, this is regrettable, and that in particular on the issue of Christ’s humanity he has much to offer. Bringing together Theodore’s detailed dogmatic defence of icons (specifically icons of Christ) and his ascetic or pastoral thought, it is argued that both form a cohesive whole held together by a strong devotion to the continuing particularity and specificity of Christ’s humanity. It is only through recognition of, and devotion to, the concrete humanity of Christ that human perfection can be accessed for Theodore. He considers it a perfection to be appropriated above all not through the flight of the hermit, but through the workaday life of the monastic coenobium.
I am called by two names, human and divine
Authors: Torrance Alexis
Published: October 2020

Symeon the New Theologian is known for his mysticism of divine light and his constant preoccupation with the theme of perfection. This chapter first examines this preoccupation, specifically his opposition to what is dubbed ‘the heresy of mediocrity’. In order to live up to the name, every Christian, for Symeon, must be oriented towards the fullness of perfection. This chapter highlights the unmistakably Christocentric form this perfection takes in Symeon, emphasizing in particular his tendency to transpose the language of Byzantine Christological dogma (Christ as one person in two natures, energies, and wills) into the arena of human perfection. The strong correlation between Symeon’s understanding of the incarnate Christ and his understanding of the human ideal towards which all must strive is the chief focus of this chapter.
Pictures, Communication, and Meaning
Authors: Kulvicki John
Published: October 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the project. Pictures are used for communication, and the way they do this sheds light on their syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pictures can have attributive and singular contents in many different ways. All of these pictorial meanings are built on a foundation of pictorial character and pictorial content. Unpacking these various meanings constitutes the meaning thread of the book, which is most prominent in Chapters 2, 4, 5, and 6. In addition, it is impossible to understand the communicative uses to which pictures are put without understanding how pictures have meaningful parts, the focus of Chapters 3, 7, and 8. This chapter sketches both the meaning thread and the parts thread as a way of helping keep the whole project in view, while each subsequent chapter winds up being focused on a specific aspect of it.
Iconography
Authors: Kulvicki John
Published: October 2020

Wherever one finds rich picture-making practices, one tends to find iconography. The painting of a well-dressed young woman standing next to a bladed wheel, for example, represents St Catherine of Alexandria. Iconographic interpretation is reading pictures as having singular contents, like St Catherine, but the operation that yields those contents is not dthat as described in Chapter 4. Instead, it is another operation defined over character and content. The pictorial content is searched for attributes, which deliver the individual associated with them as a new iconographic content. The structure of the operation is like dthat, in that a pictorial content becomes a character which determines a new content, but the means by which a new content is determined are different. This process allows pictures to represent not just people, but all manner of things, like abstracta, which have no visual appearances at all.
Metaphor
Authors: Kulvicki John
Published: October 2020

Pictures can be used metaphorically. Many non-standard uses of pictures have been inaccurately classified as metaphorical. In addition, many seemingly metaphorical uses of pictures might not be that because they are used along with language. So, the first part of the chapter isolates strictly pictorial metaphors as a phenomenon. The chapter then shows that a semantic account of metaphor due to Josef Stern (2000) tidily accounts for these uses. This semantic operation is related to Kaplan’s dthat, but it does not yield a new singular content. Instead, it yields a new attributive content. In this way, pictures can be used to represent all manner of qualities that cannot figure in ordinary pictorial contents.
Excellent Population Health, Low Economic Growth
Authors: Brunner Eric , Cable Noriko , Iso Hiroyasu
Published: October 2020

At the time of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, Japan was young. There were six children and teenagers for each person 65 and over. Now (2020), there are ten older people for every six children and teenagers. The fertility rate of 1.4 is far below replacement level and Japan’s population is shrinking. It is well known that the health of Japanese people improved rapidly during the 1960–1990 period of rapid economic growth. After 1990, Japan experienced 30 years of low growth; however health continued to improve and inequality in wellbeing stayed low. Age-adjusted stroke and cancer mortality rates continued their downward trajectory, and life expectancy continues to be the highest of any major nation. The health of Japanese people reflects its history and culture. Social inequality has tended to increase in recent years. Collective identity remains strong.
Women, Men, and the ‘Missing’ Babies
Authors: Baba Sachiko , Iso Hiroyasu
Published: October 2020

Japan experienced a baby boom in the late 1940s and a second smaller one during the 1970s. This small second baby boom in the 1970s generated far fewer women of reproductive age in the 2000s, resulting in a missing third baby boom. Legalization of induced abortion in 1949 may have contributed to shortening the baby booms and suppressing the fertility rate. Less frequent sexual intercourse, delayed marriage, remaining single, and childless marriages play increasingly prominent roles in the recent low fertility rates in Japan. In the 1980s and 1990s, fertility rates in South Korea and China declined to similarly low levels. Fertility rates remain low in the three countries. Despite different histories and cultures, e.g. abortion rights and access to contraception, East Asian countries seem to share factors, such as trends in marriage and remaining unmarried, leading to low fertility rates. Further research and education across all age groups is needed. Policies that prioritize reproductive-aged adults, children, and childcare could play a key role in raising fertility rates.
Japan’s Miracle Decades
Authors: Tsutsumi Akizumi
Published: October 2020

Since the end of World War II, the Japanese economy has experienced two types of ‘dual structure’ issues among occupational groups. The period before the war until 1950 consisted of large-scale companies stemming from zaibatsu (financial cliques) and indigenous domestic industries. The health disparities across occupational groups, often observed in the West, increased between the pre-war period and the 1950s but declined in the subsequent high economic growth period. The decline in health disparities was aided by economic democratization policies, active labour union functions, and post-war economic growth. Near-total employment was achieved, at least among male workers, in the late 1960s to early 1970s. Later, recession in the wake of the bursting bubble economy after 1991, and the subsequent economy-first policy, brought another dual structure: regular employees versus lower-paid ‘precarious’ employees. The latter group includes many women. Stressful working conditions including long working hours among specific occupational groups may cause unique patterns of health disparity among Japanese workers.
Work and Health in a Diverse and Disparate Labour Market
Authors: Inoue Mariko , Fukuda Yoshiharu , Brunner Eric
Published: October 2020

Japan’s economic growth excelled in the twentieth century. Since the 1990s, there has been a long period of low economic growth (the ‘lost decades’) and expanding social disparity. Traditional lifetime employment, mainly for men, gradually shifted towards diverse working arrangements including part-time, temporary, and fixed-term contracts, for men and women. Deregulation aimed to introduce labour market flexibility in response to the economic slowdown. Working regulations were not reformed in response to diversification of working patterns. Economic and health gaps between regular workers and non-standard workers expanded. Non-standard workers were disadvantaged by relatively limited access to healthcare. Epidemiological and policy analysis is limited partly because participants in non-standard employment are difficult to follow. More research evidence on current diverse working patterns and health is necessary for policymaking in the Japanese context. Social changes in employment arrangements prompted the Japanese government to initiate work reforms in 2019 to secure fair treatment of all workers, regardless of work arrangements, and to reduce working hours.
Health and Financial Sustainability in Ageing Japan
Authors: Hashimoto Hideki
Published: October 2020

As a front runner of population ageing, Japan faces a future that the human species has never experienced. While we rejoice in longevity, it can bring financial and social challenges resulting from loss of independence. Frailty and dementia are important in this context. To meet those challenges, the Japanese government has been making efforts to reform public medical and social care systems, and to develop a trans-sectoral social policy programme for dementia. Culturally, the Japanese value seniority and family traditions of caregiving. Drastic demographic change, and the subsequent decrease in household capacity for informal caregiving, requires cultural and normative reform in society. An ongoing dialogue between social determinants of health and policy responses in Japan can provide valuable lessons for other countries with a growing ageing population, including the UK.
Physical Activity, Sport, and Health in Japan
Authors: Inoue Shigeru , Kikuchi Hiroyuki , Amagasa Shiho
Published: October 2020

The 1964 Tokyo Olympics left a legacy of economic development and increased interest in exercise participation in Japan. Evidence was starting to accumulate that physical activity was good for health, including prevention of non-communicable disease. Policies for physical activity promotion appeared around this time. Currently, physical activity levels are higher among Japanese adults than those from other countries. An ecological finding indicates that the inequality was inversely correlated with country levels of physical activity. The activity-friendly neighbourhood environments of Japanese cities provide equal opportunities for walking in daily life for the general population. A well-designed school education system has contributed to enhancing physical activity and reducing its inequality. However, recent changes in city planning in Japan have promoted a car-dependent society. Consequently, Japanese physical activity has decreased in the last few decades. Now, policy (Health Japan 21) includes a socio-environmental approach which aims to reverse decreasing activity levels. The 2020 Tokyo Olympic and Paralympic Games have the potential to reshape social trends in sport and exercise participation. In super-ageing societies, physical activity will play an important role in reducing the burden of age-related problems such as functional decline.
Tobacco Control Policy and Tobacco Product Use Disparity in Japan
Authors: Tabuchi Takahiro
Published: October 2020

Tobacco smoking continues to be a major contributor to mortality, morbidity, and social inequalities in health worldwide. Smoking prevalence and inequality are influenced by tobacco control measures and interference from the industry including Japan Tobacco. Tobacco control is weak in Japan by international standards. Control measures such as taxation, labelling, and smoke-free legislation have differing effects on smoking inequality. Quit rates differ across socioeconomic strata, as does exposure to second-hand smoke. Equity effectiveness research takes account of socioeconomic gradients in response to new control measures and products. In Japan, e-cigarettes with nicotine have been prohibited since 2010. New heated tobacco products were introduced in 2013 and their use increased dramatically from 2016. To monitor smoking behaviour and health inequalities in Japan, we need to focus on heated tobacco products as well as cigarettes.
Mental Health and Wellbeing in Japan
Authors: Kawakami Norito , Shimazu Akihito
Published: October 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the history and current status of mental health and mental health care in Japan in the last 50 years. One in 37 people currently receives treatment for any mental disorder, while one in 20 people have experienced a common mental disorder in the past year. Prevalence of mental disorders may not have increased significantly during the last 10–15 years, despite the economic slowdown and social change in this period. Mental hospitals played a central role in treating people with mental disorders, isolated from the community, and the number of beds in mental hospitals per population remains greater in Japan than in other countries. Policy has shifted from inpatient treatment towards community-based care and support, however change is slow. Suicide rates have been influenced by economic factors. The male rate was high between 2000 and 2012. Rates in both sexes have recently declined, but remain above those in other countries. The Japanese have a characteristic perception of wellbeing in the family- and community-oriented collective culture, based on a sense of the meaning of life (ikigai). However, it remains unclear whether the collective culture is entirely beneficial to mental health. In the last decade, Japan has faced several behavioural problems among younger generations, at home and at school. Mental health care in Japan faces many challenges.
Japan’s Engagement with Global Health
Authors: Nakatani Hiroki
Published: October 2020

Despite a common claim that Japanese official development assistance (ODA) is not visible enough, Japan remains the fourth largest provider of ODA and is one of the strongest advocates of global health, as demonstrated by its leadership at the previous three G7 Summits. This chapter looks at the perception of global health by the Japanese population, historical development of Japan’s ODA policy, development of relevant policies regarding Japanese international commitment, and evolution of the conceptual framework of ‘human security’. This is followed by discussion of the engagement of Japan with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Universal Health Coverage (UHC). The final section introduces recent developments in new mechanisms to advance Japan’s contribution to global health through more effective coordination, innovative R&D funding, and enhancing the presence of Japanese staff in international organizations. Throughout this chapter, the relevance and possibility of strengthening commitment to global health is sought.
Disaster and Health What Makes a Country Resilient?
Authors: Kondo Naoki , Aida Jun
Published: October 2020

Resilience reflects the capability of communities and individuals to resist, cope with, and continue functioning during and after a disaster. Evidence from the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami suggest that maintaining community social interactions is especially important to enhance community resilience. Economic crisis is another type of disaster that challenges population health, and may affect privileged social groups, e.g. corporate managers. In the aftermath of the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, health risks for the children of impoverished households and single-parent households increased. Community preparedness and adequate social capital before disasters is important to build resilient communities. With routine monitoring of health conditions across subpopulations, we can identify groups in need of support and assess the effects of those actions. It is crucial that central government measures align with local actions to maximize support for communities affected by disaster.
Shakespeare and the Political Way
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

This book offers a sustained analysis of normative concepts and theories of political conduct and power, focusing on why we (should) value ‘the political way’, by examining Shakespeare’s dramatic treatments of the puzzles of domination and sovereignty, and how the dramas explicitly pose questions of action and theatricality. Politics—in the broadest sense, as contestation over and for power to govern—is commonly associated with ethical dubiety. Much political thought, accordingly, focuses on conditions of citizen and governor virtue and wisdom, or on displacement of politics in favour of constitution and law, private exchange, or some other source of authority such as religion. Some, though, focuses on the positive values of political action—its creativity or immanent values of commitment and forgiveness. Shakespeare’s characters and plots for the most part treat political power as a species of wickedness (in particular as ‘machiavellian’), ironically (with play on the idea of ‘politic’ action); or as ineffectual (compared with voluntaristic love, the power of money, patriarchal authority, or violence). But readings (sometimes against the grain of text, plot, and established interpretations of the psychology and ethics of the plays) taking into account the theatrical engagement of Shakespeare’s drama with the politics and power of his time produce complex accounts of the hope and promise of a political way of resolving human dilemmas and difficulties. The chapters develop an original approach to theories of political power, showing the particular value of examination of these issues through the frame of Shakespeare’s drama.
Political power and Measure for Measure
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

This chapter analyses Shakespeare’s consideration of the pulls of seclusion, and of concealment, against the demands of public government and open contestation of the power to rule. Measure for Measure dramatizes the abuse and corruption of authoritarian governing power, in particular in the form of male sexual coercion and exploitation of females. The plot focuses on a ruler’s use of secrecy and surveillance in order to monitor their attempts to counter overly lax law enforcement with authoritarianism. It also puts questions of market rationality, and the imperatives that govern poor people’s attempts to earn livings in constrained urban circumstances in relation to questions of political order, and into relation with the imperatives of theological truth and spiritual virtue. The claims and imperatives of frank public speech, as a method of revealing corruption and pursuing justice, are brought into relationship with the political strategy of trickery.
Political and Military Power
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

This chapter shows how Coriolanus juxtaposes the claim that military distinction is a sign of fitness for governing authority, with the claims of popular choice of governors. The plot of Coriolanus also brings the strategies of dynastic kinship ambition into conflict with militarist authoritarianism, with open government, with the logic of class struggle and the threatened or actual uses of popular violence in order to prosecute political claims, and with tricky uses of political strategy. An overarching theme in Coriolanus is the conflict between loyalty and allegiance to a state, and the factors that push individuals into treachery; the analysis in this chapter focuses on the range of ways that individuals are tied to their societies, their state, and their interpersonal and intimate networks.
Friendship and Justice
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: October 2020

Merchant of Venice and Timon of Athens are both read, in this chapter, as questioning the place of friendship in political societies and states. Classically, friendship, or friendly relations at least, between citizens has been understood as a condition of political stability; but in the early modern era an idea of friendship as a transcendent tie, indifferent to politics, and in tension with it was developing. Republican thought also questions the relationship between friendship and commerce, with some critics seeing these as antithetical, others seeing them as bound up together. Both of these plays problematize the dilemmas of exchange, of contract, of bonds in the sense of agreement and promise, in relation both to intimate ties, and to the authority of sovereign institutions. Merchant of Venice considers these matters in particular in relation to a society fissured by religious antagonism—by anti-semitism; both plays consider them in relation to a society marked by clear sex and gender distinction and exclusion.
Mechanisms of Internal Deliberation
Authors: Tanasoca Ana
Published: October 2020

Chapter 4 explores the mechanisms of reflection and internal deliberation: how citizens assess deliberative inputs and update their beliefs in light of them. It discusses, first, how epistemic weights are assigned to the claims encountered in public deliberation. Epistemic weights alone should determine what citizens believe to be true. It discusses, second, how democratic weights (derived proportionally to the stakes citizens have in collective decisions) are allocated to the same deliberative inputs. Both epistemic and democratic weights should bear on the question of what citizens collectively should do. The chapter finally discusses how the epistemic and democratic weights of the same claim should be balanced against each other in internal deliberation.
Mechanisms of Deliberating Together
Authors: Tanasoca Ana
Published: October 2020

Chapter 5 discusses the mechanisms allowing citizens to deliberate together on an everyday basis: their social-qua-communicative networks. It distinguishes between two models of deliberation: synchronic-group deliberation and serial-diachronic deliberation. The first is exemplified by mini-publics and other formally organized group deliberative events, the second by informal networked deliberation occurring everyday among citizens. The chapter argues that informal networked deliberation can serve as the main platform for a real existing deliberative democracy. It can satisfy at the macro level the classic deliberative-democratic standards of inclusion, equality, and reciprocity that small-scale organized group deliberations can achieve only in micro settings.
Sensitive Issues and Pluralistic Ignorance
Authors: Tanasoca Ana
Published: October 2020

Informal networked deliberation can be hindered if citizens refuse to discuss certain topics with others or do so in an insincere way. Topics that are perceived as being settled and non-contentious in the community, like social norms, might elicit such a response. The problem, however, is that some norms survive with the help of pluralistic ignorance—a situation where most people wrongly believe that most others support a norm when in fact they do not, based on those others’ silence and public compliance with those norms. This chapter proposes a way in which organized group deliberations under the Chatham House rule can be used to discover pluralistic ignorance where it exists, by encouraging citizens to sincerely communicate their concerns to others without the fear of social sanctions. Once it is thus revealed, surveys can be used to confirm, and hence dispel, pluralistic ignorance.