bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Lee Michael J. , Atchison R. Jarrod
Published: January 2022

Separation has often been a response to segregation and discrimination, an attempt to achieve greater safety for and connections within a beleaguered community. All told, separatist discourse is, quite ironically, an essential performance of American political identity. That is to say, separation has an American chic, and therefore some performances of American political identity negate the possibility of a nation. That separatism is not the ideological property of any particular group of believers does not, however, mean that the political language is unideological; the patterns of words and the lines of argument employed across diverse groups are politically consequential. Separatists may not share many beliefs, but each group creates and perpetuates an atomistic world. These disparate separatists share a static view of the political world and, often, an unforgiving view of other people. Separatism is a language of enemies too big to eliminate and too dangerous to live with.
Learning to Look
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This book presents a collection of short, stimulating essays that explore how we experience art and what it means to be an “observer.” Ranging far and wide, from Pina Bausch to RoboCop, from Bob Dylan to Vermeer, it uses encounters with specific artworks to gain entry into a world of fascinating issues—like how philosophy and science are represented in film; what evolutionary biology says about art; or the role of ethics, fakes, and copies in our experience of a work. Each essay arises out of an art encounter—in a museum, listening to records, or going to a concert. Carefully articulating the experience of each of these encounters, the book proposes that, like philosophy, art is a sort of technology for understanding ourselves. Put simply, art is an opportunity for us to enact ourselves anew.
Speak, Draw, Dance
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This chapter studies the relationship between drawing, talking, and dancing. To draw is to make marks, and marks are—certainly before the age of printing and the computer—always the traces of movement or action. Writing, people forget, is a species of drawing, not a species of talking. People tend to think of talking on the model of writing: people take themselves to be stringing together sounds to form linear progressions of words. They forget that talking is a strange ballet they undertake with tongue, lips, throat, eyes, and hands. Talking is like dancing, and writing is a way of making traces—it is a kind of drawing. Anne Teresa de Keersmaeker's performance of an excerpt from her work Fase at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 2011 as part of the exhibition “On Line: Drawing Through the Twentieth Century” combined all these ideas and much more.
Faces and Masks
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This chapter begins by addressing Mozart's Don Giovanni. The word “person comes from the Latin persona, meaning “mask,” as in the mask worn by actors on the classical stage. A person, then, in the original meaning of the term, is not the player, not the living human being, but rather the role played. By changing hat and cloak, the Don and his manservant Leporello exchanged the trappings of their different social roles and so, at least for limited purposes, they really did exchange identities. The modern conception of the person is poised awkwardly between these two poles: at one extreme, the roles we play, and at the other, the living human being who appears in these roles. One can see the tension between these different conceptions working itself out in the history and development of portrait painting. The chapter then looks at two paintings from the permanent collection of the Städel museum in Frankfurt, Germany: Cranach the Younger's 1550 portrait of Martin Luther and Rembrandt's 1633 portrait of Maertgen van Bilderbeecq.
Storytelling and the “Uncanny Valley”
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This chapter highlights animations. Animators do an excellent job bringing the non-human to life on the screen, but they falter with the more realistically human. This precipitous drop-off in psychological reality, or in normalcy, as one gets close to verisimilitude, but not close enough, was first dubbed “the uncanny valley” in 1970 by the Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori. We meet the uncanny valley when we disrupt the rhetorical rules that govern storytelling. Brian Selznick violates the rules of drawing, making drawings that are more like optical stills. And animators get lost in the uncanny valley, not because they fall short in regards to verisimilitude but because they lose track of the narrative rules governing their particular way of telling stories with cartoons.
Coughing and the Meaning of Art
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This chapter details Keith Jarrett's solo piano recital at Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco, as well as Karen Finley's performance at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts, assessing why there is so much coughing at live performances. One of the sources of art's value is that it provides an opportunity to pay attention and perceive what, after all, may require quite an effort to make sense of or appreciate. Art is an opportunity to cultivate in ourselves the ability to comprehend and perceive what is going on. Even the performers have trouble staying focused. This brings out what is all too obvious—namely, that the audience too is performing, and that the audience too is on display. People cough at live performances because they are uncomfortable, uncertain, very often bored out of their minds, and under pressure not to cough. Audiences cough to remind the artist that they are there and to let the artist know that they are uncomfortable. Artists and audiences both need to acknowledge that this discomfort is not a bad thing. In fact, it is what the audience is paying for.
Art Placebo
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the idea that if art is whatever “we,” or the art cognoscenti, say it is, then there is no such thing as art. The worry that art is a sham is an old idea, and it is one that art itself has cherished. The confounding of folk ideas about what art is and what it is not is one of twentieth-century art's most flamboyant gestures and familiar clichés. But skepticism about art takes more subtle and more interesting forms. From the point of view of psychology and neuroscience, works of art trigger experience, and experience is a neurological effect. This means that the art itself does not matter, not really. Since what we like is not confined to art, the implication is clear, even if it is not usually noticed: we cannot draw a meaningful line between what is art and what is not. However, for John Dewey, experiences are made; they are transactions with the world around us; they are, in fact, exercises of a kind of criticism or critical seeing. If we follow Dewey in rejecting a psychologized conception of experience, this opens up the possibility of taking seriously a new, more positive, non-mythological conception of the connoisseur or the critic.
What’s New Is Old
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores the 2011 charges of plagiarism against Bob Dylan and Beyoncé. In both cases, the accusations are misguided. Anxieties about plagiarism can seem to have a new urgency in our era, in which ideas, images, thoughts, and inventions are so easily reduced to data strings that can be transmitted, reproduced, and manipulated with little cost and effort. Sampling is the word we now use to refer to the practices of assembling and recombining words, song, and movement of others in new ways to make something new out of something old. Sampling is nothing new, not in art, and not in life. Every time we use a word or phrase we are, wittingly or not, making a pastiche out of the linguistic gestures of those who came before us. In the absence of direct intention to deceive, plagiarism has nothing to do with this.
The Performance Art of David Bowie: A Remembrance
Authors: Noë Alva
Published: January 2022

This chapter argues that pop music is performance art. It is since the 1960s that pop music, as an art form, has really acquired its characteristic shape. It is the death of David Bowie, one of its greatest proponents—indeed, one of its inventors—that occasions this remembrance. Bowie is a great artist the way Andy Warhol is a great artist. And they are performance artists both. Warhol has about as much to do with painting (or visual art), really, as Bowie has to do with music. Warhol used visual art as a vehicle to make art in the medium of himself, and the same is true of Bowie and music. And this explains why it is that in the vast outpouring of admiration and mourning for Bowie, both by critics and fans, both in the press and also on social media, there has been barely a word devoted to Bowie's music.
Irving Berlin
Authors: Wilder Alec
Published: January 2022

The outstanding feature of this chapter is the inclusion of musical examples by Irving Berlin, which had been excluded from the 1972 edition of American Popular Song because of copyright restrictions. Before delving into some of the songs from his prodigious output, Berlin’s unusual method of composition is discussed. Having very limited faculty on the piano, Berlin generally hired a professional piano player to assist him. Presented with Berlin’s melody, the assistant would explore several possible harmonizations to each part of the song under Berlin’s close supervision. Berlin wrote many different types of songs, and it is impossible to define general traits that define a specific style. Contrasting such numbers as “White Christmas,” “God Bless America,” and “There’s No Business Like Show Business” bears this out. This chapter includes more than sixty-five musical examples that were not in the first edition.
Cole Porter
Authors: Wilder Alec
Published: January 2022

It is ironic that although Cole Porter had a thorough musical education—far more than most composers—he is best remembered for his saucy lyrics. It is also ironic that, in spite of this training, he failed to produce really good songs until he was well past thirty years of age. The final irony is that just after his career finally took off, he smashed his leg in a riding accident in 1937, spending the rest of his life in pain or debilitated by pain killers. Nevertheless, he continued to produce great material, turning out possibly his greatest score with Kiss Me, Kate in 1948 at the age of fifty-seven. This chapter examines more than thirty of his finest songs.
Reason and Maximization
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter represents the first statement of the author’s revisionist account of practical rationality. The influential “economic” conception of rationality, the maximization of the agent’s utility (or the satisfaction of his or her preferences) is found wanting. This kind of “straightforward maximization” is contrasted to “constrained maximization”, which would commit the agent to make and carry out agreements which afford him the expectation of greater utility than independent action. If we were to suppose that we could choose our conception of rationality, then a straightforward maximizer should choose to be a constrained maximizer. This statement of the author’s view is criticized and revised in later chapters.
How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Prisoner’s Dilemma
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This essay argues that rationality should not be identified with expected utility maximization. It focuses on the Prisoner’s Dilemma and claims that it exhibits the clash between two rival accounts of practical rationality. The orthodox theory is dubbed a best-reply theory, as it counsels that agents choose the utility-maximizing act (or strategy). By contrast, a P-optimal theory would have agents seek to bring about an outcome which is Pareto-optimal. It is evident that in the Prisoner’s Dilemma, the P-optimal outcome is P-superior to the best-reply outcome. The former requires that agents cooperate; this requires that agents realize their objectives (as measured by utility maximization) by acting to bring about some agreed outcome rather than by choosing for oneself on the basis of one’s expectations of others’ choices. The orthodox, best-reply theories insist that any cooperation must be grounded in a deeper level of non-cooperation, a view which seems to verge on incoherence. Persons are concerned to realize their aims; practical reason must surely be understood as conducive to this realization. The essay concludes with the thought that we must P-optimize; there is no going it alone. That may be a practical problem, but only a practical problem. Rightly understood, the Prisoner’s Dilemma shows the way to achieve beneficial interaction—and the way not to achieve it. We should relabel it “the Cooperator’s Opportunity”.
Assure and Threaten
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter is seminal in the author’s rethinking and development of his revisionist account of practical rationality and deliberation. The new account requires treating assurances and threats differently, abandoning features of the author’s earlier defences of deterrence. Starting with the thought that one’s aim be that one’s life go as well as possible, then normally one deliberates by choosing that action that at the time of performance one expects to be part of one’s life or to lead to one’s life going as well as possible. But sometimes one’s life will go better if one is able to commit oneself to an action even though, when or if one performs it, one expects that one’s life will not thenceforth go as well as it would were one to perform some alternative action. Nevertheless, it is rational to make such a commitment, and to restrict one’s subsequent deliberations to actions intentionally compatible with it, provided that in so doing one acts in a way that one expects will lead to a life going better than one reasonably believes it would have gone had one not made the commitment. As a rational agent one shall not be able to commit oneself to actions if one believes at the time of commitment that performing them would leave one worse off than had one not committed oneself, but one shall be able to offer and honour assurances when it is advantageous for one to do so.
Resolute Choice and Rational Deliberation
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter attempts to characterize rational deliberation in the face of changing evaluations of possible outcomes arising from anticipated or experienced preference shifts, or from perspectival shifts that bring different preferences into play. As one carries out a plan, one may find one's evaluations of possible outcomes changing, as one's preferences shift or as different preferences come to bear on one's choices. The essay starts by examining the framework introduced by Edward F. McClennen in his important Rationality and Dynamic Choice: Foundational Explorations (Cambridge, 1990), in particular his notion of “resolute choice”, which subordinates posterior choices to prior choices. The author thinks that McClennen’s discussion of the conditions under which resolute choice is rationally feasible mistakenly assimilates the intrapersonal problem to the interpersonal problem, in a way that he himself has in the past uncritically accepted. This paper defends an account of the feasibility of resolute choice that is quite different from that proposed by McClennen, and quite different from an account of rationally feasible planning or intending that would be appropriate to contexts of interpersonal cooperation.
Achieving Pareto-Optimality
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter begins with two simple, similar interactions. In one, maximizing agents will reach a Pareto-optimal equilibrium, in the other, they won’t. The first shows the working of the Invisible Hand; the second, its limitations. Using other simple interactions in which equilibrium and P-optimality are incompatible, the essay argues that the rational outcome of interaction answers to optimality rather than maximization, and requires agents to cooperate in realizing an agreed outcome, rather than to seek their best reply to their fellows. The terms of cooperation are set by a social contract, which coordinates choices to achieve a Pareto-optimum when the Invisible Hand is absent.
Individual Reason
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter contrasts the author’s understanding of reason and morality with those of Kurt Baier. Baier thinks the roots of reason and morality are social, while the author thinks that the roots of human morality and society are to be found in reason. In addition, he thinks that rationality is a socially subversive characteristic of individuals. Rational reflection destroys the bonds that hold traditional forms of human society together, but it also provides the basis for reconstructing those bonds. The “order of reason” that Baier speaks of must be created. Morality as well as society–the latter considered as the institutional structuring of interactions that constitute a “cooperative venture for mutual advantage”–may be given a rational foundation, without any appeal beyond the individual agent.
Hobbes’s Social Contract
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter defends an account of Hobbes’s social contract against the revisionist interpretation defended by Jean Hampton in her Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition. Hampton argues that the social contract is no contract, but a “self-interested agreement” or convention. She is led to deny that this agreement involves the alienation of liberties to the sovereign; instead, the latter is (only) the agent of the people, with their liberties loaned to it. This essay defends the more traditional view that Hobbes’s argument does make use of contract and not (only) convention, and that his is an alienation theory, not an agency one. With a richer moral psychology and understanding of practical rationality, Hobbes’s alienation theory can adapted to a limited sovereign. This essay revises some of the author’s interpretation defended in his earlier work, The Logic of Leviathan.
The True and Only Moral Philosophy
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

In chapters 14 and 15 of Leviathan Hobbes sets out “the true and onely moral philosophy.” Chapter 13 is an essential prolegomenon which states the problem that the moral theory seeks to resolve. There prove to be two interpretations of his theory, incompatible but both amply supported by the text. This chapter (previously unpublished) introduces the concept of a normative primitive, a starting point for normative discourse. Whether Hobbes has one normative primitive—the right of nature, or two—the right and the laws of nature, in earlier writings the author had unreflectively accepted the “one primitive” view. The present chapter explains how he was increasingly drawn to the “two primitives” view, though he suggests it is not possible to conclusively determine how Hobbes would have reacted had he been confronted with either the “one primitive” or “two primitives” views.
Political Contractarianism
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

The contractarian proposes a mode of justification for norms governing interaction. These norms are at once enabling and limiting; they define practices that expand the prospects of individuals, and they are also limiting. The contractarian begins from a baseline that is free of all such practices, of all social enabling and limiting. Justification is then addressed to the individual agents, who are characterized as and only as rational deliberators. The contractarian test applied to a norm or set of norms is simply whether, were the persons within the scope of the norm or set of norms to be in a position to determine their conditions of interaction, it would then make sense for each of them, deliberating rationally, to agree on such conditions, and to include the norm or set of norms among the agreed conditions. Social institutions and practices, the opportunities and limitations, the rights and duties, that they create are thus seen by the contractarian as justifiable in terms of a hypothetical agreement, and indeed only in such terms.
The Best of Times (Universality, Individuality, and Democracy)
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter was written in the nineties after the fall of communism, when it seemed that the only reputable form of government was liberal democracy. Then it seemed that future generations would look back on this past century and see a nearly miraculous transformation which is making it possible, as never before in human history, for each person to live as an autonomous individual in a community without bounds. Whether our achievement will inaugurate an era of human flourishing, or whether we shall overreach ourselves, impoverish our environment, and risk our survival, we cannot now know. But we can know this: if one were to choose a time to live, knowing only that whatever time one chose one would have the average prospects of the persons alive at that time, then now would be the time to choose. This chapter seeks to draw out the political implications of our fortunate aspects of our liberal democracy.
A Society of Individuals
Authors: Gauthier David
Published: January 2022

This chapter gives a sketch of a society that has no good of its own, no social end, but exists to enable each individual member better to pursue their own good, facilitating cooperation, and resolving the basic Interaction Problem (exemplified by the Prisoner’s Dilemma): that utility-maximization and Pareto-optimization are sometimes incompatible. The chapter argues that if per impossibile we could determine the features of our society by prior agreement, we would agree to a Society of Individuals. And that fact, that we would agree ex ante to some social practice or institution, provides the best possible justification of it holding for us. Some of the main features of the Society are sketched, with the assumption that members of the Society are not all adherents of contractarianism, but may hold any of a number of reasonable views, which the Society must seek to accommodate. The chapter considers how several alleged rights, such as a right to resources, fare in the Society, and concludes with the idea that contractarianism, in arguing that each adult member of society enjoys equal citizenship, must afford each the right to participate in choosing and dismissing governments. The emergence of a Society of Individuals may then be thought of as democracy’s fulfilment.
Through the Taurus Gorge
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

Beside the Euphrates from Commagene to the tip of the Malatya plain. The first and only account of a difficult mule track, utterly remote, climbing at times to great heights and descending to the riverbed, linking a string of mainly Zaza Kurdish villages. Traces of forts at Barzalo, Claudiopolis, and Metita. The Çünküş ferry, used by Ammianus in flight in AD 359. The perils of rapids and navigation by raft. The Karakaya dam site. Destruction above the Atatürk and Karakaya dams.
The Malatya Plain, the Euphrates Crossing (Tomisa), Dulluk Tepe, and Melitene
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

Description of the eastern Malatya plain from the mouth of the Taurus Gorge to the legionary fortress (of XII Fulminata) at Melitene. The historic crossing at Tomisa, used by Shalmanezer, Sardur II, the Persian Royal Road, and Roman invasions of southern Armenia. Villages beside the Euphrates and the port of Melitene. The conical peak of Dulluk Tepe, a signalling node hanging above the fortress. Description and new plan of the remains of Melitene. Destruction above the Karakaya dam.
North of Melitene: Ciaca and Keban
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

Description of the northern Malatya plain. The bridge over the Melas, and road beside the Euphrates. Probable sites of Ciaca and Sartona, important in resupply by raft. The Roman road in the Deregezen valley, and the ferry at Keban Maden. Ottoman caravans to Trebizond and Harput. Destruction above the Karakaya dam.
Sabus, and over the Antitaurus
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

Course of the Roman road running towards Sabus, a well-preserved cavalry fort and place of Armenian pilgrimage. Climbs steeply into the Antitaurus by Vereuso and over the Mamahar pass (6,000 feet). Long descent, marked by miles of wonderfully preserved roadbed, by Zenocopi, to the Çaltı Çay. The last caravans.
From the Antitaurus to the Karabudak: Zimara, and the road to Nicopolis
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

From the bridge over the Çaltı Çay, the Roman road curved east beside the Euphrates to reach Zimara, an important fort, utterly remote, from which Corbulo knew downriver navigation of the Euphrates. A journey by raft through the enormous Antitaurus gorge. Continuation to Decius’ bridge over the Sabrina (Karabudak), and division of roads. The route, by Armudan, to Nicopolis. The significance of places until 1915 occupied by Armenians.
Across the Mountains to Satala
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

Description of three routes from the Euphrates, through and over the mountains to Haris (Melik Şerif): by Bubalia, the Sinibeli pass (5,900 feet), and Elegarsina; by Analiba, and the Kerboğaz pass (7,400 feet); and by Carsaga, Cengerli, and the eastern shoulder of Kurtlu Tepe (7,150 feet)—the last carried a section of the winter route from Nicopolis to Satala in Roman and Ottoman times. From Haris the frontier road climbed by Dracones over the long Çimen Dağları (7,700 feet), and descended to Satala.
From Satala to the Upper Harşit
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

Description of the route across the upper Lycus and through Domana to reach the great caravan route, the Transit Road from Trebizond to Erzerum; of the Roman (Baghdad) bridge over the Harsit; and of the fort at Zindanlar. Division of winter and summer routes over the Pontic mountains.
Through the Pontic Mountains to Maçka
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

Description of the northbound route taken by the frontier road in winter, followed later by caravans and the Transit Road. Perilous with landslides and blizzards, it followed the narrow valley of the Harxit to pass below Sedisca, Eski Gümüşhane, and Thia; climbed by Zigana to the dangerous Zigana pass (6,665 feet); and descended to Ad Vicensimum.
Maçka to Trapezus (Trabzon)
Authors: Mitford Timothy Bruce
Published: January 2022

The route beside the Pyxites and over Boztepe. Position, history, importance, and remains of Roman Trapezus. Hadrian’s visit and buildings: harbour, eastern base of the Pontic fleet, statue of Hermes, monumental inscription. Legion (I Pontica) and its undiscovered fortress.
Introduction
Authors: Anstey Peter R. , Braddon-Mitchell David
Published: January 2022

This introductory chapter explains the origins and motivation for the collection on D. M. Armstrong’s materialist theory of the mind. In August 2018, a group of philosophers converged on the University of Sydney to discuss the philosophy of mind. The occasion was the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of David Armstrong’s A Materialist Theory of the Mind. This volume contains, more or less, the proceedings of that conference, though with four additional chapters. After some introductory remarks, the present chapter introduces these papers and shows how they connect to the themes and details of A Materialist Theory of the Mind. We start with the essentially historical chapters, and then move through chapters inspired by more contemporary takes on the legacy of Armstrong’s seminal work on perception, the causal theory of the mind, introspection, conation, and phenomenal consciousness itself.
A Materialist Theory of the Mind in Context
Authors: Anstey Peter R. , Braddon-Mitchell David
Published: January 2022

This chapter aims to set out the proximal and distal issues, both philosophical and polemical, that gave rise to Armstrong’s most important book, A Materialist Theory of the Mind, and sets the book in the context of its appearance on the philosophical scene in 1968. The chapter addresses the specific themes of Armstrong’s materialism, such as the centrality of causation, his attitudes toward the identity theory of the mind and conceptual analysis, as well as his response to behaviourism. The chapter then turns to the broader theme of the location of A Materialist Theory of the Mind in the history of twentieth-century Materialism and the various methodological manoeuvres that materialists have pursued.
Materialism, Then and Now
Authors: Godfrey-Smith Peter
Published: January 2022

The first part of this chapter revisits central themes in Armstrong’s defence and development of materialism about the mind. It argues that Armstrong’s focus on ‘peripheral’ mental states involving perception and intention leads to a mishandling of ‘core’ states, especially belief and desire. Frank Ramsey’s belief-desire model, developed decades earlier, enables a better handling of core mental states. The second part of the chapter looks at the present status of materialism—what the position amounts to, and why we might believe it. Parsimony arguments for materialism (used by Armstrong and Smart) are rejected. More compelling arguments make use of continuities between human and non-human mental capacities, and an evolutionary perspective. A form of ‘neutral monism’ is introduced as a better rival to materialism than other nonmaterialist views, but is also rejected.
Causal Conditionalism
Authors: Braddon-Mitchell David
Published: January 2022

In this chapter, Braddon-Mitchell returns to the central thesis of A Materialist Theory of the Mind––the truth of materialism––and develops a new response to the conceivability argument against physicalism. It is a response designed to have the benefits of an earlier response—the so-called ‘conditional concept’ strategy. But that response moves away from the pure causal theory (or analytic functionalism) of Armstrong to a view where the causal theory, while perhaps true, is no longer an analysis. The new view uses some thoughts of Armstrong’s about causation to develop a conditionalism about causation which makes it possible for the casual theorist to accept that they can coherently conceive of a physical duplicate of the world which is a ‘zombie’ world—i.e., contains no experience—while still holding that such a world is metaphysically impossible.
Predictive Modelling Overview
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

This chapter covers the types of models, associated risks and their management, shock events and data used. (1) Types—of financial models and their uses; choices in terms of functional form (structural, reduced form}, methodology {parametric, non-parametric}, parameter estimation {empirical, judgmental, hybrid} and the model lifecycle {plan, build, use, scrap}. (2) Model risk (MR)—origins in forms that align primarily with the model lifecycle {concept, input, build, implement and report}; the three-lines of defence of management {owner, internal controls, audit} and means of streamlining the governance task. (3) Shock events—details of the analytics surrounding some past upsets {UK recession of ’90, Subprime Crisis of ’08, Hurricane Harvey in ’17}. Particular focus is given to government and lender responses to COVID-19. (4) Data—an introduction covering data quantity and quality, available sources {customer, internal, external, public} and types {obligation, transaction, non-financial behaviour, disclosed, investigation and comfort}. Both traditional and alternative sources are covered.
Front-Door
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

The ‘front-door’ covers marketing, Originations and Account Management processes—areas not associated with problem accounts. (1)Marketing—attracts people to the door. An area with a different culture and greater latitude. Much relates to advertising and pre-screening of applicants. The data used can be different and varied. (2)Originations—vets them before they come in. The process is i) gather—information through whatever means; ii) sort—into strategy buckets {internal and external enquiries and assess}; and iii) action—decline or accept, with possible down-, up-, or cross-sales, and needs for documentation and fulfilment. (3)Account Management—which manages them once inside, with delineations between types of credit users {takes, askers, givers, repeaters, leavers} and types of lending limits {agreed, target, shadow} Most relates to how risk assessments are used as part of the process, mostly with respect to current accounts and credit cards.
Borrowed Measures
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

Borrowed measures are those derived from other disciplines, outside statistics. (1) Mathematics and probability theory—Logarithms, Bayes’ theorem and Kolmogorov–Smirnov. (2) Probability distributions and hypotheses—normal Gaussian {bell-shaped}, logistic {sigmoid}, chi-square {left-skewed} and Student’s t {small-sample}. (3) Economics—tools initially used to assess inequalities within population, first wealth and then income. These include the Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient {and related impurity index}.(4) Information theory and cryptography—tools used to assess the predictive power of individual attributes {Gudak’s weight of evidence} or pieces of information {Kullback’s divergence, Shannon’s entropy}.(5) Signal-detection theory—assess how well signals (predictions) are working, including confusion matrices, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and the area under the ROC (AUROC) is a summary measure. (6) Forecasting—Markov chains, which rely on roll-rates between categories to determine the future outcomes; and, survival analysis, which relies upon mortality rates noted at regular intervals.
Project Management
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

Model developments are projects (activities over a temporary period towards a specific end), where project-management frameworks are used. (1) Process overview—i) initiation—needs identification, start-up, ii) preparation—data identification, proposed definitions and sampling, iii) construction—from segmentation and inference to model training; iv) finalization—presentation, governance, monitoring. (2) Initiation and project charter—i) descriptors and model register; ii) business case, scope, and assessment criteria; iii) stakeholders and players; iv) resources and timetables; v) assumptions, risks and constraints. (3) Project deliverables—vary by project type {gap analysis, feasibility study, business case, system implementation}. For model developments it includes project communication and documentation, model development documentation, implementation instructions, project code and data used. (4) Other—i) proprietary versus open-source development software {Statistical Analysis System (SAS), worldwide payment system (WPS), savings, pensions share schemes (SPSS), R, Python}; ii) implementation infrastructure, technology choices; software and service vendors; iii) next steps.
Target Definition
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

Predictive models need something to predict. Extracted data is used to set (or confirm) the target definition, if not cast in stone. This is one of the most crucial steps of the process, which may not be straightforward. (1) Overview—i) continuous versus binary targets, and distinctions between probability of default (PD), exposure-at-default (EAD) and loss given default (LGD); ii) definition requirements—relevance, focus, transparency, adequacy and data quality; iii) performance components—automated counters/statuses and manual statuses; iv) code cross-checks—to determine whether statuses are properly understood. (2) Definition strictness—i) status nodes—define treatment {out-of-scope, exclusion, trivial balance, Bad/Indeterminate/Good}; ii) roll-rates—used to define delinquency levels; iii) trivial balances—avoid penalization of minor infractions; iv) closed accounts—possible treatments. (3) Integrity checks—i) consistency—period-on-period changes in distribution; ii) characteristics—ensuring they have the intended influence within the definition; iii) swap-set—assessing new versus old OR alternative definitions.
Reject-Inference
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

Rejects had not the opportunity to perform. Marginal Rejects are often cherry-picked based upon other data, or cheapened through down-sells, which distorts an Accepts-only model. Reject inference addresses resultant distortions but is contentious. (1) The basics—i) pointers—basic considerations; ii) missing at random, or not; iii) terminology—data manipulation, allocation, methodology; iv) characteristic analysis—for reject inference; v) swap-set analysis—proposed versus past; v) population flow diagram. (2) Intermediate models—especially ‘known Good/Bad’, which may use bureaux’s performance data. Others are Accept/Reject and Cashed/Uncashed. Possible formulae are provided for extrapolated performance assignments. (3) Inference smorgasbord—i) supplementation; ii) performance surrogates; iii) reject is Bad; iv) augmentation; v) weight of evidence (WoE) adjustments; vi) iterative reclassification; vii) extrapolation of accept performance. (4) Favoured technique—involving i) fuzzy-parcelling—record cloning and weight adjustments; ii) extrapolation—graphical setting of performance-adjustment parameters; iii) attribute-level adjustments—where needed; v) practicalities—variable names and coding, with an example.
Model Training
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

The chapter provides an approach and issues for model-training using Logistic Regression. (1) Regression—key model qualities plus i) options and settings, and ii) outputs to be expected/demanded. (2) Variable selection—i) criteria; ii) automation; iii) stepwise review; iv) constraining betas, where coefficients do not make sense; v) stepping by Gini, model pruning. (3) Correlation checks—i) multicollinearity—checks of variance inflation factors; ii) correlations—further checks to guard against the inclusion of highly correlated variables. (4) Blockwise variable selection—treatment in groups: i) variable reduction; ii) staged, or hierarchical regression; iii) embedded, model outputs as predictors; iv) ensemble, using outputs of other models. (5) Multi-model comparisons—Lorenz curves and strategy curves, should choices not be clear. (6) Calibration—i) simple adjustment by a constant; ii) piecewise, varying adjustments by the prediction; iii) score and points—adjusting the final score or constituent points; iv) MAPA, for more complex situations
Finalization
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

We are now entering the home stretch, including validation, documentation, implementation and monitoring. (1) Validation—i) high-level—backtesting, stress testing, sensitivity assessments &c; ii) independent oversight—audit and regulatory requirements; iii) quantitative assessments—of ranking ability, accuracy, stability and detailed model functioning. (2) Documentation—i) possible outline; ii) supplementary tables and graphs; iii) selection strategies—cut-offs, and impact assessments; iv) new versus old comparisons—transition matrices and swap sets. (3) Implementation—i) platform choice factors {criticality, budget}; ii) testing—test and implementation platforms, test cases and user testing; iii) further considerations—effects on key segments, what-if analyses, policy rules, option evaluation and use of models in tandem. (4) Monitoring—i) front-end—focused on observation data; ii) back-end—considers performance data at various levels {score, characteristic, attribute}. Selection processes have extra requirements due to the accept/reject and cashed/uncashed statuses plus the extra element of overrides.
The Fluid Self
Authors: Bill Stanley
Published: January 2022

Chapter 4 examines Miłosz’s poetic representations of a radical, “feminine” kind of embodiment, positing the weakening or dissolution of the self into the material world. The chapter emphasizes the gendered nature of this “fluid” model of the self, as well as Miłosz’s general association of women with corporeality. It puts his work into dialogue with feminist thinkers who offer tools for a critique of his gender essentialism, while also revealing his unexpected engagement with subversive forms of subjectivity. The chapter elucidates several key moments in which the valence of the traditional gender hierarchy reverses, as a symbolically “feminine” form of corporeal and non-rational subjectivity asserts itself over a metaphysical and rational “masculine” self. The chapter traces this shift through Miłosz’s frequent representations of women in front of the mirror, his development of a “feminine” philosophy of the body, his ambivalent treatment of bodily fluids, and his representation of the erotic encounter with the female “other” as an experience of transcendence.
Poetry and the Body
Authors: Bill Stanley
Published: January 2022

Chapter 5 explores Miłosz’s conviction that poetic language best expresses both the contradictions of the human self as embodied consciousness and the dilemmas of modern religiosity. Through analysis of various works, the chapter reveals a series of productive conflicts within Miłosz’s poetics: between rhythmic and discursive language, but also between several different types of rhythm. The chapter pays particular attention to a distinction between traditional metrical rhythm and “sense rhythm,” regulated by syntax and the breath. In these confrontations, he seeks new poetic forms that would better capture the underlying, fluid “reality” of the body, despite the basic “non-adherence” of language to material existence. Finally, the chapter elucidates Miłosz’s characterization of poetry and religious ritual as parallel forms of human meaning stretched between the inexpressible body below and the inaccessible realm of God above. Through the “ritual” of poetry, he aims to unite these two unreachable dimensions.
Art, Science, and the Natural World in the Ancient Mediterranean, 300 BC to AD 100
Authors: Thomas Joshua J.
Published: January 2022

The Hellenistic period witnessed striking new developments in art, literature, and science. This volume addresses a particularly vibrant area of innovation: the study of animals and the natural world. While Aristotle and his followers had revolutionized fields such as zoology and botany during the fourth century BC, these disciplines took on exciting new directions during Hellenistic times. Kings imported exotic species into their royal capitals from faraway lands. Travel writers described unusual creatures that they had never previously encountered. And buyers from a range of social levels chose works of art featuring animals and plants to decorate their palaces, houses and tombs. While textual sources shed some light on these developments, the central premise of Art, Science, and the Natural World in the Ancient Mediterranean is that our surviving artistic evidence permits an even fuller understanding. Accordingly, the study brings together a rich body of visual material that invites new observations on how and why knowledge of the natural world increased in importance during this period. It is suggested that this cultural phenomenon affected many different groups in society: from kings in Alexandria and Pergamon to provincial aristocrats in the Levant, and from the Julio-Claudian imperial family to prosperous homeowners in Pompeii. By analysing the works of art produced for these individuals, a vivid picture emerges of this significant aspect of ancient culture.
The Tomb of Apollophanes at Marisa
Authors: Thomas Joshua J.
Published: January 2022

The subject of this chapter is a tomb excavated in Marisa, a prosperous Idumaean town located about 40 kilometres south-west of Jerusalem. Named after an important individual buried in the tomb, the Tomb of Apollophanes contained a remarkable painted frieze depicting a procession of real and fantastical animals accompanied by identifying labels in Greek. While this frieze has sometimes been interpreted in eschatological terms, this chapter offers a different reading. It is argued that the composition was commissioned by a patron well attuned to the latest modes of expressing power and privilege in Ptolemaic Alexandria, and that it documents the spread of royal interest in the natural world to other groups in Hellenistic society.
The Artemidoros Papyrus
Authors: Thomas Joshua J.
Published: January 2022

This chapter concentrates on the so-called Artemidoros Papyrus, a papyrus roll covered in texts and images that was published only in 2008. While discussions of the papyrus have been dominated by a fierce debate concerning its authenticity, this chapter adopts a different approach. Starting from the assumption that the papyrus is ancient, much of the chapter is devoted to discussing the labelled animal drawings on the verso (reverse side) of the roll. It is argued that these drawings provide important new insights into the world of Hellenistic natural science, but that the papyrus itself probably originated in a comparatively modest social milieu. The connections between the animal drawings and the other contents of the papyrus are also examined, with significant results.
Conclusions
Authors: Thomas Joshua J.
Published: January 2022

This short concluding chapter brings together the most important observations presented in the rest of the volume. The first part of the chapter offers an evocative sketch of how the natural world was exploited for new purposes in the Hellenistic East and Late Republican Italy, paying particular attention to the works of art analysed in Chapters 1–7. The second part, meanwhile, outlines some of the ways in which these Hellenistic developments left long-lasting legacies in Roman art and culture. It is suggested that the impact of Hellenistic natural science was keenly felt not only during the Roman Imperial period, but also during Late Antiquity.
Fundamentals of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
Authors: Bažant Zdeněk P. , Le Jia-Liang , Salviato Marco
Published: January 2022

The linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is the pillar of all fracture mechanics. In this chapter, it is presented in full, with complete derivations and many examples. Griffith's concept of the energy release rates is described, the elastic singular near-tip stress field is derived, and the stress intensity factors are defined. Their relation to the energy release rate, discovered by Irwin, is derived, and three different fracture modes in isotropic solids are defined. A rigorous derivation of Rice's J-integral is given and illustrated by examples. Various ways of numerical calculation of the stress intensity factors are reviewed. It is shown how the elastic compliance and deflections due to a crack or a system of cracks under external loads or crack pressure can be calculated from the known stress intensity factors. Various LEFM methods of calculating and measuring the energy release rate and fracture energy are presented and test control by a crack-mouth or crack-tip gage is explained. The complex singularities at interfacial cracks are described. The remote decay of the stress field disturbance by a crack is also derived. The chapter ends with comments on anisotropic materials and on three-dimensional singularities at the intersection of crack edge with the surface.