bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Water Assessment and Criteria
Authors: Winger Parley V.
Published: July 2005

The most useful measures of biotic integrity of aquatic systems reflect the biological responses of organisms and their populations to the prevailing (past and present) environmental conditions. The ability to classify the quality of streams and rivers (with indigenous biological assemblages) provides information that is integral for making management decisions and identifying anthropogenic impacts (35). Development of an “Index of Biotic Integrity” (IBI) using a combination of 12 community parameters (metrics) for fish assemblages provided direction into a new and innovative way of obtaining this type of information (24). The combination of these community attributes (multimetrics) into an IBI provided a classification of the quality of fish communities as a measure of water/habitat quality. The metrics used in the construction of the IBI encompassed several levels of fish community structure and function—species composition/richness and information on ecological factors (trophic structure and health). Successful application of multimetric indices depends on selecting the appropriate metrics used to describe and delineate the biological assemblages (36). The use of multimetrics provides a way of measuring the response of biological assemblages at several levels of organization (e.g., composition, condition, and function) to anthropogenic influences, and these measurable biological attributes can be tested, verified, and calibrated for use in the respective geographical areas of study.
Microbial Detection of Various Pollutants as an Early Warning System for Monitoring of Water Quality and Ecological Integrity of Natural Resources, inRussia
Authors: Dimitrieva‐Moats Galina
Published: July 2005

The author of this paper had long‐term extensive experience working with water quality control and ecological integrity monitoring using microbial indices. This practice includes eight years of microbial bioassessments and the development of biocriteria implications for the detection of various organic pollutants, a number of heavy metals, and biological contamination in seawaters of Russia, which provided impressive results, demonstrating the advantages of such an approach for monitoring ecological integrity and water quality of estuaries and shallow and pelagic regions of marine coastal zones. The composition alteration of aquatic sediment or plankton microbial assemblages subjected to pollution resulted in an increase of pollutant‐resistant (indicator) groups that detected expected and unexpected pollutants and their levels. The analysis of the proportion between all indicator groups assisted us in drawing conclusions about the natural or anthropogenic process or factors causing impairment of water resources.
Water Quality Aspects of Dredged Sediment Management
Authors: Jones‐Lee Anne , Lee G. Fred
Published: July 2005

About 500 million yd
3
of sediment are dredged annually to maintain navigation depth in the United States' approximately 25,000 miles of navigable waterways. Sediments in some of these waterways are contaminated with potential pollutants (e.g., heavy metals, organics including pesticides, PCBs, and nutrients) from municipal, industrial, and agricultural sources. As a result of this contamination, concern exists about the potential water quality impacts that could be caused by the dredging and disposal of these sediments. In the 1970s, the U.S. Congress authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to conduct a $30 million, five‐year Dredged Material Research Program (DMRP) to evaluate, with laboratory and field studies, the potential water quality impacts associated with dredged sediment management and to develop protocols for evaluating sediments for their potential to cause adverse impacts on disposal. Those studies showed that open water disposal of dredged sediment would not be expected to be adverse to water quality, aquatic organisms, or other beneficial uses of waterbodies. However, on land, so‐called “confined” disposal of dredged sediments could lead to water quality impacts to surface and groundwaters because of the release of heavy metals and some other pollutants. The DMRP studies and subsequent studies also reaffirmed that the concentration of contaminants in sediments does not predict the potential for contaminant release from sediments during or after disposal. More recent attempts to develop numeric, cooccurrence‐based sediment quality criteria are also technically unsupportable and unreliable for screening, evaluation, or regulatory purposes.
Classification and Environmental Quality Assessment in Aquatic Environments
Authors: Feng Huan , Onwueme Victor , Schneider Lewis
Published: July 2005

Water plays an important role in our daily life. Natural water in each compartment on Earth is balanced through a hydrological cycle. With the population increase, industrialization, and rapid urbanization, water quality has been affected and an increased demand for water use has occurred. Anthropogenic substances are discharged into our aquatic environment. As a consequence, water contamination has been found in many rivers, streams, and lakes globally. Facing our current water environmental problems, water resources management and aquatic environmental protection and restoration are important issues to us. In the United States, water quality has been improved significantly since 1972 when the Clean Water Act was enacted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. In this article, we introduce the classification of waters based on the reservoir they reside in and discuss the water quality, water pollution, and aquatic environmental legislations. This article gives a general overview of water classification, quality assessment, and legislations. Greater efforts are still needed to protect the aquatic environment and improve water quality.
Shellfish Growing Water Classification
Authors: Andrews Linda S.
Published: July 2005

Seafood‐related illnesses in the United States are primarily associated with the consumption of bivalve molluscan shellfish. These animals are water filter feeders and are often consumed raw, and the quality of their growing waters affect the safety and quality of the shellfish. Water authorities, usually producer states, monitor the quality of the water in and around the shellfish beds or reefs according to guidelines adopted by the National Shellfish Sanitation Program. For commercial markets, harvesting is only permitted from approved growing areas. Growing areas are classified for their microbiological acceptability on the basis of a sanitary survey of the shoreline to detect potential pollution sources and bacteriological analysis of water samples taken from the area. In general, each growing area is classified as approved, conditionally approved, restricted, conditionally restricted, or prohibited based on the results of the surveys. Rules for classification of shellfish growing waters have been established to provide the safest shellfish possible. Illness caused by the consumption of human pathogens that are present in raw molluscan shellfish are rare because of these rules for classification.
Watershed Protection
Authors: Mishra A.K.
Published: July 2005

Developmental pursuits globally have witnessed a substantial increase in the amounts of pollutants into the world's environment and water bodies (lakes, rivers, wetlands, estuaries, coastal waters, ground waters, etc.) in the last century. The adverse impacts of such actions have negatively affected the resources, environment, and the health of the populace. The importance of environmental protection has been well realized by one and all, governments and people alike. The quality of water bodies can be best protected from being deteriorated by following the principles of watershed protection. To safeguard the degrading quality of water bodies because of increasing population pressure and rapid urbanization, domestic and industrial nonpoint source pollution, and so on, a systematic scientific strategy is presently in vogue throughout the world which is referred to as the watershed protection approach. Watershed protection is a scientifically correct and technically achievable strategy for effectively managing water resources by protecting and restoring the health of natural resources and aquatic ecosystems from getting polluted vis‐à‐vis protecting human health.
Cartridge Filters for Iron Removal
Authors: Vayenas D.V. , Lyberatos G.
Published: July 2005

The presence of iron in a water supply at concentrations exceeding the secondary drinking water standards of 0.2 mg/L is undesirable for aesthetic and operating reasons. Groundwater iron is in its ferrous state in the deeper layers of some water reserves that lack oxygen. Aeration followed by solid–liquid separation is the most commonly used physicochemical treatment method for iron removal. The rates of ferrous iron oxidation may be increased through the action of microorganisms. There are several genera of bacteria that oxidize dissolved iron by different mechanisms under specific conditions of pH and oxidation potential. The presence of ammonia and manganese may inhibit biological iron removal. The engineering systems that have been developed for biological iron removal can be classified based on the type of water flow and on aeration into pressurized filters, gravity‐flow units, and trickling filters. Cartridge filters combine physicochemical and biological iron removal. The type of the filter which should be used in each case depends on the physicochemical water characteristics, iron concentration, volumetric flow rate, and costs.
Chlorination
Authors: Kazmi Absar A.
Published: July 2005

Chlorine in its various forms is invariably and almost universally used for disinfecting water supplies. It is cheap, reliable, easy to handle, easily measurable, and above all, it is capable of providing residual disinfecting effects for long periods, thus affording complete protection against future recontamination of water in distribution system. At low concentrations, chlorine probably kills microorganisms by penetrating the cell and reacting with the enzymes and protoplasm. At higher concentrations, oxidation of the cell wall destroys the organism. Chlorination also removes soluble iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide from water.
Chlorine Residual
Authors: Andrews Linda S.
Published: July 2005

Chlorine is a disinfectant added to drinking water to control microbial contamination. Both commercial water bottlers and public water systems use chlorine for this purpose. Levels added are calculated to maintain a disinfectant (chlorine) residual throughout the distribution system from the treatment facility to the end user. Chlorine may be applied as chlorine gas, hypochlorite solutions, or other chlorine compounds in solid or liquid form. Hypochlorous acid present in aqueous chlorine solutions is the biocidal “active chlorine.” In recent years, some health concerns have developed over the discovery of potentially carcinogenic by‐products generated during chlorination in the presence of organic material. Continuous chlorination is a necessity for surface water supplies from lakes, springs, ponds, or cisterns, and it typically uses a chlorine residual of 3–5 ppm. Higher levels of chlorine residual may cause an objectionable flavor and odor. Many health risks are associated with water that has not been disinfected, and health risks are associated with total residual chlorine.
Perchloroethylene (
PCE
) Removal
Authors: Inniss Enos C.
Published: July 2005

Perchloroethylene (C
2
Cl
4
) or PCE, an industrial solvent and common groundwater contaminant, can be degraded by several means, both biological and chemical. Its recalcitrance in the environment has been due in part to the fact that initial biological degradation must be a reduction of this highly oxidized compound, sequentially replacing each of the chlorines with hydrogen through the use of dehalogenase enzymes. Once reduced, dechlorination products of PCE may be further transformed by either reductive or oxidative pathways. The biological oxidation of the lesser chlorinated ethylenes requires particular oxygenase enzymes that perform cometabolic chemistry on the carbon–carbon double bond. Similarly, chemical transformation of PCE can be by either reduction or oxidation. The chemical reductive dechlorination process typically occurs using zero valent metals and is very similar to the biological process. Oxidation of the compound requires a strong chemical oxidant, such as potassium permanganate, or photooxidation using a titanium dioxide catalyst, which also attacks the carbon–carbon double bond of the chlorinated ethylene.
Ciliated Protists as Test Organisms in Toxicity Assessment
Authors: Nicolau Ana , Dias Nicolina , Lima Nelson
Published: July 2005

In recent years, much research has been done to assess the toxicity of various compounds in a series of biotests using several organisms. The appeal of these tests lies in their simplicity and high degree of reproducibility (2). On the other hand, test organisms for assessing environmental risk and impact must possess a lot of desirable features: they must be eukaryotic, their biology and general responses must be well known, the laboratory handling must be relatively easy, and a short generation time is desirable whenever studies of long‐term effects are necessary (3).

Ciliated protists fulfill all those requirements. Furthermore, as they have a wide distribution and ecological significance, performing key functions in energy flow and elementary cycling in aquatic foodwebs, they can be ideal early warning indicators of aquatic ecosystem deterioration. Recently, the use of ciliates in toxicological tests has been investigated and their potential in standard bioassays has been demonstrated in aquatic environments and even elsewhere.
The Control of Algal Populations in Eutrophic Water Bodies
Authors: Davies Joanna , Scarlett Peter M.
Published: July 2005

The process of eutrophication is accompanied by increased algal growth, which, without appropriate management, can develop to nuisance proportions. The presence of excessive algae can disrupt the use of many water bodies by restricting navigational and recreational activities and interfering with domestic and industrial water supplies. In particular, algal blooms can have a severe impact on water quality, causing noxious odors, tastes, discoloration, and, in the case of blue‐green algae, may also pose a serious health hazard. Ultimately, the presence of excessive algae will inhibit macrophyte growth and reduce biodiversity. The options for controlling algae can be categorized as follows:

Environmental methods involve limiting the availability of those nutrients that are essential for algal growth. These methods involve reducing nutrient inputs from external sources by the processes of diversion, effluent treatment, the use of constructed wetlands, buffer strips, and good agricultural practice. Methods for reducing internal nutrient concentrations include dilution and flushing, hypolimnetic withdrawal, hypolimnetic aeration, artificial circulation, sediment sealing, or sediment removal.

Chemical methods involve the application of herbicides, or products such as barley straw, that have a direct toxic effect on algae.

Biomanipulation involves the control of zooplanktivorous fish to favor algal grazing by invertebrates but also describes the use of microbial products.
Algal Toxins in Water
Authors: Ji B. , Wong M. H. , Wong R. N. S. , Jiang Y.
Published: July 2005

Algal toxins have various adverse implications on the ecosystem directly and indirectly. Cyanotoxins, a group of algal toxins produced by toxic cyanobacteria, are of great concern. The understanding of their occurrence, properties, detection, and removal from water bodies is of importance for monitoring and management of cyanotoxins in freshwater bodies.
A Weight of Evidence Approach to Characterize Sediment Quality Using Laboratory and Field Assays: An Example forSpanish Coasts
Authors: DelValls T. A. , Casado‐Martínez M. C. , Riba I. , Martín‐Díaz M. L. , Blasco J. M. , Fernández N. Buceta
Published: July 2005

During recent years, different initiatives have been carried out to use multiple lines of evidence with the aim to assess sediment quality in aquatic ecosystems. One of the most useful and widely used methods was the design and application of integrative assessments to establish sediment quality (1). These methods comprise the synoptic use of different methodologies such as chemical analysis in sediments to establish contamination, in sediment toxicity to address the biological effects under laboratory conditions, chemical residue analyses in organism tissues to determine the bioavailability of the contaminants, and the structure of the benthic community or the histopathological lesions in resident organisms to determine the biological effects under field conditions (1, 2). One of these integrative assessments widely used in the studies of sediment quality is the Sediment Quality Triad that was used synoptically for the first time in Spain and in Europe in the early 1990s (3, 4). This method also permits using convenient statistical tools to derive sediment quality guidelines (SQGs), which can be used to derive concentrations associated and not associated with the biological effect in the overlapping area of the different lines of evidences (Fig. 1).
Amphipod Sediment Toxicity Tests
Authors: Cesar Augusto , Martínez Maria Del Carmen Casado , López Inmaculada Riba , Casillas Tomás Ángel Del Valls
Published: July 2005

The purpose of the amphipod solid‐phase toxicity test is to determine if test sediment samples reduce survival (growth, reproduction, etc.) of exposed organisms relative to that of organisms exposed to control and reference sediment. Test results are reported as treatment (station) or combination of treatments (sites or chemicals) that produce statistically significant reduced survival (growth, reproduction, etc.) from control or reference sediments.

Sediment amphipod tests (3) can be used to (1) determine the relationship between toxic effects and bioavailability, (2) investigate interactions among contaminants, (3) compare the sensitivities of different organisms, (4) determine spatial and temporal distribution of contamination, (5) evaluate hazards of dredged material, (6) measure toxicity as part of product licensing or safety testing or chemical approval, (7) rank areas for clean up, and (8) set cleanup goals and estimate the effectiveness of remediation or management practices.
E

h
Authors: Gao Suduan , Tanji Kenneth K.
Published: July 2005

Redox potential (
E
h
) is an intensity measure of the reducing or oxidizing conditions in a system and reflects the tendency of ions or molecules in a solution to donate or accept electrons. It is an easily measured parameter to evaluate water chemistry. However, there is a large discrepancy between theoretical definition and measured
E
h
values, leading to difficulties in correlating the measured
E
h
with specific redox reactions or redox species in water. This is mainly because redox systems in natural environments are seldom at equilibrium, in addition to the presence of multiple redox components and many redox species are not electroactive. Thus,
E
h
measurement only gives a qualitative indication of the electron richness or poorness of a system. If handled carefully by following proper procedures,
E
h
data can indicate the progress of a system toward reduction or oxidation, delineate redox gradients in a stratified system, and assist in further determination of redox reactions. A review and summary of theoretical predictions, measurement, and the applications of
E
h
in aqueous chemistry are presented.
The Submitochondrial Particle Assay as a Biological Monitoring Tool
Authors: Doherty Francis G.
Published: July 2005

While studies assessing the toxicity of environmental contaminants to aquatic organisms date back to the early 1900s, the use of toxicity testing as a tool for monitoring the environmental acceptability of discharges from wastewater treatment and manufacturing facilities to surface waters (i.e., rivers, lakes, and oceans) did not begin to evolve until the 1970s. One of the primary motivating factors behind the development of biological monitoring, or biomonitoring, was the manufacture of exponentially increasing numbers of new chemicals for which analytical procedures were generally lacking. Biomonitoring was viewed as an approach to detect the presence of potentially toxic chemicals in facility discharges without necessarily having to identify the contaminants at that stage of the assessment. Additional advantages included the reduced expense associated with biologically testing significantly greater numbers of samples in comparison with analytical procedures. This approach also focused on only biologically available forms of the chemicals in solution reflecting any interactive effects (synergistic or antagonistic) that might be occurring among contaminants within a complex sample.
Genomic Technologies in Biomonitoring
Authors: Carvan Michael J. , Rise Matthew L. , Klaper Rebecca D.
Published: July 2005

Biological monitoring, or biomonitoring, is defined as using measurements of the resident biota in surface waters to evaluate the condition of the aquatic environment (1). In part, biological monitoring in the United States is designed to satisfy the goals of the Clean Water Act, which aims to protect wildlife in and on the water and eliminate discharge in toxic amounts into navigable water. Biomonitoring has inherent advantages over simply measuring the presence or concentration of a particular stressor or toxin due to the fact that organisms represent an integrated response to factors in their environment over time. Biomonitoring in aquatic habitats traditionally involved measuring the diversity within the community of macroinvertebrates, fish, or periphyton using species diversity, composition with respect to functional groups, or genetic diversity (2). Community indices have inherent problems. For example, streams can include a large spatial variance that is not correlated with problems in habitat. In addition, sampling effort can affect diversity measurements, resulting in an increase in the number of species sampled with longer or more frequent sampling times (3). Identification of species is time consuming and can increase the costs associated with these types of measurements due to personnel‐hours required (4).

As one alternative, measurement of the concentration of chemicals has been used as a surrogate for biological criteria. These chemical water quality criteria (TMDL or total maximum daily load) have been developed by determining concentrations of compounds that cause acute toxicity to standard test organisms.
Iron Bacteria
Authors: Li Baikun
Published: July 2005

Two types of iron bacteria (iron‐oxidizing bacteria and iron‐reducing bacteria) are described in this article. Iron‐oxidizing bacteria get energy through the oxidation of ferrous (Fe2+) to ferric (Fe3+) in aerobic condition, which can cause undesirable odors, tastes, and corrosion in well systems and water distribution systems. Moreover, they are the major role in the formation of acid mine drainage, which finally leads to acid creeks in mining regions. Iron‐reducing bacteria convert ferric (Fe3+) to ferrous (Fe2+) under anoxic condition with the presence of organic compounds as electron donor, which makes them environmentally significant because they can degrade organic contaminant in ferric‐rich aquifers. Some iron‐reducing bacteria (e.g.,Geobacter) can directly transfer electrons through the cell membrane on to the surface of electrodes, which has made it possible to design novel microbial fuel cells that can efficiently convert waste organic matter to electricity. Besides the environmental significance of iron‐oxidizing bacteria and iron‐reducing bacteria, the chemical and mechanical solutions for iron bacteria in water distribution systems are proposed in this article.
Heavy Metal Uptake Rates Among Sediment Dwelling Organisms
Authors: Vink Jos P.M.
Published: July 2005

When exposed to several undisturbed water/sediment systems, sediment dwellers such as the oligochaeteLimnodrilusand the mosquito larvaeChironomusshow different accumulation patterns of heavy metals. Uptake rates differ according to time‐dependent exposure concentrations, expressed as chemical speciation in the surface water and sediment compartment. Concentrations of free metal ions in the overlying surface water, rather than in sediment pore water, proved to be the best predictor for uptake in biota.
Luminescent Bacterial Biosensors for the Rapid Detection of Toxicants
Authors: Davoren Maria B.
Published: July 2005

There is an increasing demand for sensitive and user‐friendly biological assays for the rapid and cost effective assessment of environmental contaminants in soil, sediment, and water ecosystems. Luminescent bacterial biosensors have emerged as promising tools in environmental monitoring for the sensitive and specific quantification of both toxicity and bioavailability. The naturally luminescent marine bacteriumVibrio fischerihas been extensively employed to assess the toxicity of a wide range of pollutants. In addition, recent advances in reporter gene technology have led to the development of many luminescent‐marked bacterial biosensors. Some of the bacterial biosensors that have been constructed are used for general toxicity testing, as they constitutively express luminescence and respond to toxicants in a “lights off” manner. Another class of biosensors have been developed which react to toxicants in a “lights on” manner, where light production is induced by bioavailable concentrations of toxicants. These microbial biosensors offer a powerful new approach to environmental monitoring, providing an indication of the bioavailabilty of specific pollutants in complex environments, rather than the total concentration obtained by traditional analytical techniques. Here the focus is on the use of both natural and genetically engineered luminescent bacterial biosensors for the assessment of toxicity and bioavailability.
Methemoglobinemia
Authors: Shindler Daniel
Published: July 2005

Methemoglobinemia is a disorder of the oxygen‐carrying hemoglobin in red blood cells. One cause of methemoglobinemia is contaminated well water. There are also many non‐water related causes. Individuals are particularly susceptible to the development of methemoglobinemia during early infancy and during pregnancy. Exposure to certain foods, drugs, and chemicals may cause methemoglobinemia. Methemoglobinemia can also occur in the absence of environmental exposure as part of several inherited disorders.

Methemoglobinemia is potentially lethal if it is left undiagnosed. Transient blue or grayish skin discoloration of an infant may be mistakenly dismissed as being because of changes in temperature. Familiarity with methemoglobinemia and a high index of suspicion by the physician are potentially lifesaving. As soon as the diagnosis of methemoglobinemia is suspected, a blood methemoglobin level should be measured to confirm the diagnosis. When methemoglobin levels are greater than 30%, patients are given intravenous methylene blue. In cases of environmental exposure, such as contaminated well water, it is equally important to identify the excess nitrate source and to prevent repeat exposure to it by the susceptible individual.
Microbial Activities Management
Authors: Franzmann Peter D. , Zappia Luke R.
Published: July 2005

Microbial activity in water distribution systems affects the health compliance and aesthetics of the distributed water. Control of microbial activity in distribution systems is never complete, but it can be sufficiently achieved by limiting microbial energy and food sources (i.e., by removing as much AOC, BDOC, DOC, ammonia, reduced metals, and reduced sulfur compounds as is possible), in most cases by maintaining a reasonable residual disinfectant in the distributed water, and by careful selection and maintenance of distribution infrastructure. Water utilities have many treatment and disinfection choices for the control of microbial activity in distribution systems, and those choices will be guided by the quality of the waters they receive, their geography, the retention time of water in the system, and the expectations of the community. The choices must be guided by analysis of the performance of treatment methods through extensive testing and optimization.
Microbial Forms in Biofouling Events
Authors: Li Baikun
Published: July 2005

Biofouling is the result of the accumulation of inorganic and organic particulate matters along with the growth of various microorganisms on a surface. It has led to many undesirable problems in industry, medical transplant, and water distribution pipelines. The major advantages of bacterial adhesion for microbial survival are that microorganisms growing inside biofilm are much less susceptible to antimicrobial agents than are their planktonic counterparts, and the microbial adhesion to solid surface can enhance the possibility of accessing nutrients in an aqueous environment. This article describes the microorganisms' forms in biofouling formation, including different phenomena of microbial attachment to surfaces. Moreover, the competition and syntrophic correlation among microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi, algae) in biofouling events are explored. Two important examples of biofouling in water industry (cooling tower and membrane water treatment system) are discussed with respect to microbial phases in biofouling layers. Finally, different types of biocides for biofouling control are introduced and compared.
Microplate Toxicity Tests with Microalgae
Authors: Cheung K.C. , Wong M.H.
Published: July 2005

Algae are the dominant primary producers in the aquatic food chain. Disruptions to this production base would probably cause effects at higher trophic levels. Algal growth inhibition tests have been developed to apply in the field of ecotoxicological test. Many researchers optimized the procedure and performed the test in microscales using cuvettes, scintillation tubes, or microplates. The algal microplate technique has conferred a number of advantages over the classical flask test. Some of the principal advantages of microbiotests are reliability, low or no maintenance, rapid, space saving and minimization of equipment requirements. This review summarizes the major types of microplate procedures described in the literatures and the major experimental factors of importance linked to microplate assays. It indicated that the toxicity data was presented in numerous ways such as the different exposure times, temperatures, light intensity and nutrients that makes a direct comparison of the data difficult. The method standardization is needed to achieve comparable data.
Metal Ion Humic Colloid Interaction
Authors: Geckeis Horst
Published: July 2005

Natural organic matter dissolved in natural water, such as humic and fulvic acids, is known to strongly interact with the polyvalent metal ions by complexation, colloid formation, and redox reactions. Aqueous speciation and thus bioavailability and mobility are significantly dominated by metal–humic/fulvic acid interaction. In order to study the impact of humic/fulvic acid on metal ion speciation, a broad variety of analytical methods are available. They range from physicochemical separation of complexed and noncomplexed species up to sophisticated spectroscopic methods, such as X‐ray spectroscopy, that allow insight into the coordination environment of humic/fulvic acid bound metal ions and the structure of those compounds. Based on available knowledge, geochemical models have been developed in order to predict metal ion speciation in humic/fulvic acid containing natural water. Still a matter of current research is the partly pronounced kinetic stability of humic/fulvic acid bound trace metal species. Very strongly delayed metal ion dissociation from humic colloids under natural groundwater conditions may have some impact on the assessment of humic colloid relevance on the transport of toxic metal ions such as nuclear waste derived radionuclides.
Background Concentration of Pollutants
Authors: Gonçalves Mário Abel
Published: July 2005

Determining background concentration of pollutants in surface and groundwaters is a particularly difficult task, but a most important one because of the definition of water quality standards. The major difficulty resides in the dynamic nature of pollutant dispersion and persistence in water systems and its individual characteristics, thus making it sometimes hard to distinguish between contaminated and uncontaminated samples based in one or a limited number of elements. The factors that determine the water chemistry are briefly discussed with some relevant examples, because it is essential to understand global water chemistry. A distinction between background concentration of inorganic and organic pollutants is made, which is because the former can have both natural and anthropogenic derived sources, whereas the latter are exclusively because of anthropogenic activities. In either case, determining background concentrations requires a representative set of water samples unaffected by factors that can change an element's concentration considerably in that system. These samples should preferably be taken in the same area, or at least in similar geological contexts. When this is not achieved satisfactorily, the use of probability plots or geostatistical methods, such as factorial kriging, may be possible solutions to the problem.
Interest in the Use of an Electronic Nose for Field Monitoring of Odors in the Environment
Authors: Nicolas Jacques
Published: July 2005

An electronic nose is a promising technique for field monitoring of malodors in the environment. It is based on an array of nonspecific gas sensors coupled with some form of mathematical data processing method to analyze global response patterns. Some applications concerning the control of water quality are reported in the literature. They often imply the generation of a headspace gas above liquid samples, but they also concern the odor emitted in the air from wastewater.

The typical needs of the final user require both qualitative and quantitative approaches, that is, both discriminating between slight variations in complex gas mixtures and monitoring a global odor signal that can be correlated with classical characterization variables of water or air quality.

Although potential applications in odor assessment by electronic noses are numerous, a number of challenges still need to be overcome: understanding and controlling the impact of environmental parameters (such as temperature and humidity), improving sensor sensitivity and noise reduction, and developing calibration procedures to account for sensor drift. The present limitations of electronic nose technology restrict its use in the environment to odor monitoring in the surroundings of the emission by instruments specifically designed for the application.
Passive Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage (Wetlands)
Authors: Rose Arthur W.
Published: July 2005

Starting in about 1985, passive treatment has been increasingly used as a method of remediating acid mine drainage (AMD). A passive treatment facility uses natural reactions such as microbial oxidation or reaction with a bed of crushed limestone to improve water quality, with only minimal human attention after construction.
Biomarkers, Bioindicators, and theTrondheim Biomonitoring System
Authors: Triebskorn Rita
Published: July 2005

The state of the art of biomarker/bioindicator research in aquatic ecosystems is reviewed. In addition to a theoretical overview, practical examples are given for two biomonitoring attempts (the Trondheim biomonitoring system and the VALIMAR project), which included biomarker/bioindicator applications referring to different levels of biological organization (e.g., physiological biomarkers, histological and ultrastructural diagnoses, or stress protein analyses). In order to answer the question of whether biomarker responses are relevant for effects at higher biological levels (i.e., populations or ecosystems), experimental and theoretical approaches based on the weight of evidence are presented. The suitability of biomarker/bioindicator application to assess environmental pollution in aquatic ecosystems is discussed.
Protozoa in Water
Authors: Bean Christine L.
Published: July 2005

Protozoa are eukaryotic unicellular animals that possess membrane‐bound genetic material and other cellular organelles that carry out various life functions (1). They are colorless and lack cell walls. These motile Eukarya obtain food by ingesting other organisms or organic particles. The uptake of these macromolecules occurs by a process called pinocytosis (2), whereby fluid is sucked into a channel formed by cell membrane invagination and enclosing the fluid within a membrane‐bound vacuole. Particulate matter such as bacteria may also be ingested by phagocytosis.

Protozoa may be found in a variety of freshwater and marine habitats and in soil.
Quality of Water in Storage
Authors: Chaves Paulo , Kojiri Toshiharu
Published: July 2005

In the last few decades, many of world's lakes and reservoirs used for water storage have suffered from poor water quality, mainly caused by human activities within the watersheds and inefficient operation. Although a variety of techniques exist to improve water quality in storage, most are either very costly or not sustainable. One efficient method is by taking advantage of the close relationship between quality and quantity of water to better manage stored volumes to yield optimal benefits for water use while at the same time improving its quality. This article presents the main sources of impact on the quality of water in storage and discusses the main issues related to the evaluation of water quality and water uses. Then, the relationship between quantity and quality of water in storage are explained showing the potential influence to water management. Finally, all these topics are combined within the storage management and operation framework when water quality is considered.
Quality of Water Supplies
Authors: Wang Xinhao , Mitsova‐Boneva Diana
Published: July 2005

Water is an excellent solvent that can dissolve many elements. The amount of each element affects water quality, reflected in the chemical, physical, or biological condition of water. Therefore, water quality is often measured with what is contained in water, such as dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, pesticides, metals, oils, minerals, and nutrients. Pathogenic bacteria might affect human and animal health and so they are often measured. Physical conditions are another set of water quality measurement, such as water temperature, water color, and turbidity. Water quality also can be assessed with biological indicators, which measure the type and diversity of fish, macroinvertebrate species, and plants.

Some uses of water for industrial activities, such as mining, cooling water supply, washing, fire protection, or oil well repressurization, may not depend on water quality.
River Water Quality Calibration
Authors: Ng Anne , Perera B. J. C.
Published: July 2005

Management of river water quality has become increasingly important due to its decline caused by human activities, and this decline in river quality can be managed through implementation of effective strategies. Water quality models can be used as tools to simulate and assess the cause and effect relationships of river water quality and then to implement appropriate management strategies to improve river water quality. In order to use river water quality models effectively, it is necessary to estimate model parameters when they cannot be measured physically. This process is often referred as model calibration. Manual and automatic methods are the two main techniques used in model calibration. It has been proven that automatic methods are better than manual methods as it provide some measured of objectivity to parameter estimation. Genetic algorithms are one such automatic method and it has been proven as one of the promising calibration method in efficiently identifying the optimum parameter set in many water related applications. The paper will begin with an overview on different calibration methods. A case study on the overall development of a river water quality model on Yarra River, Australia will then be provided.
Review of River Water Quality Modeling Software Tools
Authors: Ng Anne , Perera B. J. C.
Published: July 2005

River water quality has generally declined due to many human activities. In order to prevent or to control the degradation of river water quality, an appropriate management strategies must be considered. To manage river water quality in the most effective and efficient way, the cause and effect relationship of the river system must be identified. This can be done with a river water quality modelling tool. Many of these modelling tools are generic and are available in the public domain at no cost. However, it is necessary to review available river water quality software modelling tools, so that the most appropriate tool can be selected for the specific application. This paper will concentrate on the review of river water quality modelling tool. Then a case study on the selection of a suitable tool for the development of a river water quality model for Yarra River, Australia will be discussed. Based on the investigation, QUAL2E was identified as the most suitable software for the development of a Yarra River water quality model.
Sorptive Filtration
Authors: Matis K. A. , Lazaridis N. K.
Published: July 2005

A typical recent example of sorption is the removal of copper by suspended particulate matter from river water (5). Iron, silicon, and aluminum oxides were used as adsorbents, serving as models of naturally occurring suspended particles. On the other hand, sorption upstream of filtration constitutes a solution; the combined process has been also termed adsorptive filtration (6). In this module (offered by Separation Technologies), fundamental aspects of the process are illustratively given, such as inertial impaction and diffusional interception; however, the latter is effective only in gas filtration. Sorption, in general, is defined as a surface process irrespective of mechanism, adsorption or precipitation (7).

Batch and column sorption studies of zinc, cadmium, and chromium were conducted on calcite to determine its retention capacity for these elements common in industrial effluents and to explore its behavior as a purification filter in a continuous flow system.
Water Quality Management in an Urban Landscape
Authors: Clayshulte Russell N.
Published: July 2005

Urban landscape broadly defines a built environment influenced by different combinations of land uses. Residential and commercial development, industrial areas, parks, open space, and roadways are examples of urban land uses. The construction of wastewater, water, and stormwater pipelines, and power lines, generally called utility infrastructure, also change the natural environment and help shape the urban landscape. Land use patterns strongly influence surface water quality and to a lesser extent groundwater. Land use choices are interactive parts of water quality management, restoration, or enhancement programs. Urban land use decisions must consider water quality management strategies and goals. Conversely, water quality must be considered in zoning and plotting processes used by local governments. A goal in shaping urban areas is to produce a sustainable urban landscape that incorporates reasonable and effective water quality strategies to restore, protect, or enhance the urban environment.
Water Quality Models: Mathematical Framework
Authors: Chau K. W.
Published: July 2005

In recent decades, accompanying agricultural and industrial development and population growth, it has often been observed that an increasing tendency exists for some water bodies to exhibit increases in the severity and frequency of algae blooms. Water quality models are employed to describe the balance of mass and energy within an aquatic ecosystem. The input of polluting materials includes organic and inorganic nutrients into a water body that stimulate the growth of algae or rooted aquatic plants resulting in the interference with desirable water uses. Temporal simulation of phytoplankton growth in a coastal water system is complicated, resource demanding, and computationally intensive because several chemical, biological, and biochemical processes interact, and the reaction rates and external inputs vary with time. Furthermore, the flow and associated circulation are also functions of time, with time scales ranging from minutes to months, even years. With the advances in computing resources, water quality models are capable of addressing this problem efficiently and flexibly because of their grid system and good numerical performance.
Sustainable Water Management On Mediterranean Islands: Research and Education
Authors: Lange Manfred A. , Poszig Dörte , Donta Antonia A.
Published: July 2005

Considering the long‐term perspectives for sustainable water use in the European Union, the Mediterranean in general and its islands in particular deserve special attention for a number of reasons:

Island water resources are largely influenced by the (non‐)existence, timing, and amount of precipitation. In some parts of the Mediterranean, the amount of (winter) precipitation has decreased (2), and the main precipitation period has shortened during the last few decades. This trend may continue as a result of regional climate change, thus exacerbating the problem (2, 3).

Of aquifers, in many instances, has led to lowering of the water table and the deterioration of water quality, primarily through saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. In some cases, this has resulted in exploitation of lower lying aquifers, thereby further reducing the remaining reserves of the islands.

The demand for water is expected to increase on Mediterranean islands because of, among others, an expected increase in the population and the number of tourists. Conflicts between competing users of water will inevitably intensify.

Agriculture is the predominant consumer of water on most Mediterranean islands (Fig. 1). Agricultural activities threaten the availability (quantity) but also the quality of water due to the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and the release of olive‐oil‐mill wastes. During the summer months, tourism also becomes a major water consumer, and competition between agriculture and tourism can lead to serious stakeholder conflicts.
Water Managed in the Public Trust
Authors: Phoenix Laurel
Published: July 2005

Managing water in the public trust requires considering the water demand of current and future citizens as well as that of ecosystems, fish, and wildlife. This presumes that water will be managed sustainably for human and ecosystem benefit, despite the fact that ecosystems have no voice in the political process. To understand how complicated it is to accomplish this, the definition and history of the public trust is examined. Next, water management is briefly described to contrast current water management methods with the finesse that managing water in the public trust would require. Finally, some of the difficulties of achieving this in a world of rising demand and finite resources are highlighted, followed by the principles of “respect, protect, fulfill” that describe how government can fulfill its obligations to its citizens to uphold human rights.