bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TESTS OF LITERARY APPRECIATION
Authors: WILLIAMS E. D. , WINTER L. , WOODS J. M.
Published: May 2011

Résumé

DES TESTS DE L'APPRÉCIATION LITTÉRAIRE.

L'on a appliqué à plus de 200 enfants, d'âges divers, cinq méthodes d'évaluera l'appréciation littéraire. Sous une forme rudimentaire l'aptitude à apprécier la littérature se découvre à un âge beaucoup plus bas qu'on ne le suppose généralement; elle se développe, paraît‐il, plus tôt que le pouvoir de la comprendre, et elle croît régulièrement à mesure que l'âge augmente.

Une analyse des corrélations entre individus indique au moins deux facteurs fondamentaux dans les tests: le premier représente apparemment un facteur général de l'appréciation littéraire: le second, deux tendances moins importantes et opposées, à savoir, une préférence pour un style plus objectif (ou “classique”) et une préférence pour un style plus subjectif (ou “romantique”). Lorsqu'on applique le “critère de la symétrie” de Burt, l'on trouve que des facteurs semblables jouent un rôle dans d'autres formes de l'appréciation esthétique, par exemple la picturale et la musicale; bien qu'ils soient fortement influencés par l'enseignement, il semble qu'on puisse les attribuer en grande partie à des différences dans l'attitude ou le type du tempérament.

Tous les tests montrent une corrélation élevée avec l'intelligence. Néanmoins, quand on élimine son influence, il reste des intercorrélations significatives. L'on peut donc en déduire que l'appréciation littéraire est, du moins en partie, une manifestation spéciale d'une aptitude à l'appréciation esthétique en général.

Zusammenfassung

PRÜFUNGSMETHODEN BEI WÜRDIGUNGEN DER LITERATUR.

Fünf Methoden zur Prüfung der literarischen Würdigung sind bei über 200 Kindern von verschiedenem Alter angewendet worden. In primitiver Form kommt die Fähigkeit, die Literatur zu schätzen, viel früher vor, als man allgemein annimmt; sie scheint sich noch früher zu entwickeln als die Fähigkeit, sie zu verstehen; und sie nimmt mit zunehmendem Alter ständig zu. M. P. Eine Analyse der Korrelationen zwischen Einzelmenschen weist auf mindestens zwei den Tests zugrundeliegenden Faktoren hin; der erste vertritt anscheinend einen allgemeinen Faktor der literarischen Würdigung; der zweite zwei geringe und antithetische Neigungen, nämlich eine Vorliebe für einen mehr objektiven (oder “klassischen”) Stil und eine Vorliebe für einen subjektiveren (oder “romantischen”) Stil. Verwendet man Burts “Kriterium der Symmetrie,” so entdeckt man, dass wesentlich dieselben Faktoren anderen Formen der ästhetischen Würdigung innewohnen, nämlich malerische und musikalische; obgleich vom Unterricht stark beeinflussbar, scheinen sie in hohem Grade vom Temperament oder Typ abzuhängen. N. P. Sämtliche Tests weisen hohe Korrelationen mit der Intelligenz auf. Auch wenn man deren Einfluss beiseitesetzt, bleiben noch bedeutende Interkorrelationen zurück. Daraus darf man wohl schliessen, dass literarische Würdigung mindestens zum Teile ein besonderes Zeichen der Fähigkeit für die ästhetische Würdigung im allgemeinen ist.
A STUDY OF THE BEGINNINGS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PLAY IN INFANCY
Authors: VALENTINE C. W.
Published: May 2011

Résumé

UNE ÉTUDE DES COMMENCEMENTS ET DE LA SIGNIFICATION DU JEU DANS LA PREMIÈRE ENFANCE.

Cet article est basé principalement sur les observations faites par l'auteur sur ses cinq enfants, avec une considération comparative des rapports d'autres observateurs. Il décrit le jeu des premiers mois, les commencements du jeu social (avant 12 mois), et la joie produite par des activités nouvelles. Une autre section traite du jeu imaginatif (de 1½ ans à 2½ ans) et l'on cite des témoignages d'un genre de jeu comportant des sensations nouvelles et des émotions et impulsions. L'on prétend que l'interprétation du jeu enfantin comme symbole des idées sous‐conscientes, ou des impulsions reprimées, est superflue, et qu'elle est souvent contradictorie aux faits. L'on démontre que le témoignage en faveur des idées, psychanalytiques et autres, que présuppose ordinairement le traitement par le jeu est insuffisant, et l'on maintient que les guérisons dans les cliniques, attribuées aux jeux adaptés exprès aux conflits de l'enfant, peuvent s'expliquer autrement.

Zusammenfassung

EINE UNTERSUCHUNG DER ANFÄNGE UND DER BEDEUTUNG DES SPIELES IN DER KINDHEIT.

Diese Abhandlung hat zur Grundlage hauptsächlich die Beobachtungen des Verfassers über seine eigenen fünf Kinder zusammen mit einer vergleichenden Behandlung der Aufzeichnungen anderer Beobachter. Sie beschreibt das Spiel der frühesten Monate, die Anfänge des Gemeinschaftsspiels, und die Freude an neuen Tätigkeiten. Ein späterer Abschnitt befasst sich mit dem Rollenspiel (vom 1 1/2 bis zum 2 1/2 Lj.), und es werden Beweise gegeben vom Spiel mit neuen Eindrücken und mit Gemütsbewegungen und Trieben. Man führt Gründe dafür an, dass die Ausdeutung des kindlichen Spieles als Symbol der unbewussten Ideen oder unterdrückten Triebe unnötig ist und oft mit den Tatsachen nicht übereinstimmt. Man weist auf die Unzulänglichkeit der Beweise von psychoanalytischen und anderen der Spieltherapie gewöhnlich zugrundeliegenden Ideen hin, und es wird die Meinung vertreten, dass die Heilungen, die die Kliniken dem Spiel zuschreiben, das den kindlichen Konflikten besonders angepasst sein soll, anders erklärt werden können.
THE DRIVES WHICH DETERMINE THE CHOICE OF A CAREER
Authors: VERNON MAGDALEN D.
Published: May 2011

Résumé.

DES IMPULSIONS QUI DÉTERMINENT CHEZ L'INDIVIDU LE CHOIX D'UNE CARRIÈRE.

Chez l'individu son choix d'une carrière ou d'un emploi, même s'il est influencé par une connaissance de ses aptitudes et de celles que semble exiger l'emploi, est ordinairement motivé par certaines impulsions, ou tendances à. l'action, fondamentales. Celles‐ci fonctionnent aussi à déterminer chez lui beaucoup d'autres intérêts et occupations. Par des questions appropriées des étudiantes d'université furent encouragées à décrire ces intérêts et occupations et leurs raisons pour les poursuivre, aussi bien que pour leur choix d'une carrière. Les réponses montrent, dans les cas divers, l'influence des impulsions suivantes: la conformité au milieu social, l'activité humaniste ou humanitaire, l'indépendance, le plaisir, le pouvoir, la supériorité, l'admiration. Les étudiantes semblaient se partager en trois groupes principaux: les deux premiers de ceux‐ci étaient dominés presque exclusivement par l'impulsion de la conformité, laquelle, cependant, produisait dans les deux groupes des types assez variés de comportement. Chez les étudiantes du troisième groupe d'autres impulsions étaient aussi fortes, sinon plus fortes, que celle de la conformité; chez quelques unes elles menaient à de vifs conflits avec celle‐ci. Il était moins probable que l'impulsion humaniste luttât avec cella de la conformité. La fréquence et l'importance de ces impulsions, aussi bien que leur façon de fonctionner, furent rapportées au milieu social de l'individu.

Zusammenfassung.

DIE TRIEBE, DIE DIE WAHL DES BERUFS BESTIMMEN.

Im allgemeinen wird die Wahl eines Berufs oder einer Laufbahn im Leben, auch wenn sie von der Kenntnis spezifischer Fähigkeiten und der Veranlagungen, die der Beruf anscheinend verlangt, geleitet wird, durch gewisse zugrundeliegende Haupttriebe oder Tendenzen zur Handlung verursacht. Diese funktioneren dadurch, dass sie gleichzeitig viele andere Interessen und Vorlieben bestimmen. Man regte Universitätsstudentinnen durch passende Fragen an, diese Interessen und Vorlieben und die Gründe, aus denen sie sie verfolgten, und die Gründe ihrer Berufswahl zu beschreiben. Die Antworten zeigten in verschiedenen Fällen die Wirkung folgender Triebe: soziale Anpassung, humanistische oder humanitäre Tätigkeit, Selbständigkeit, Freude, Macht, Überlegenheit, Bewunderung. Die Studentinnen schienen sich in drei Hauptgattungen zu teilen: die beiden ersten wurden fast ausschliesslich vom sozialen Anpassungstrieb beherrscht, der aber ziemlich verschiedene Typen von Benehmen in den beiden Gattungen hervorrief. In jenen der dritten Gattung waren andere Triebe ebenso stark wie oder noch stärker als die soziale Anpassung und kamen in einigen Fällen in scharfen Konflikt mit demselben. Es war weniger zu erwarten, dass der humanistische Trieb mit sozialer Anpassung in Konflikt geraten würde als die anderen Triebe. Die Häufigkeit und die Bedeutung dieser Triebe sowohl wie die Art der Funktion wurden in Beziehung gesetzt zu der sozialen Umgebung des einzelnen Menschen.
A COMPARISON OF TESTS OF ARTISTIC APPRECIATION.1
Authors: DEWAR HEATHER
Published: May 2011

Résumé.

UNE COMPARAISON ENTRE DES TESTS DU GOÛT ARTISTIQUE.

Des tests divers du goût artistique furent appliqués à un nombre d'adultes et d'enfants. L'analyse des facteurs suggère qu'un seul facteur général du goût artistique est responsable des classements obtenus. On trouve aussi quelque évidence de facteurs spécifiques indiquant des “types” variés du goût artistique Il semble que le développement de ce goût renferme un changement non seulement d'aptitude mais d'attitude ou de type. Les résultats obtenus par l'analyse statistique sont confirmés par l'introspection.

Des corrélations tirées d'un groupe de plus de 300 enfants montrent que le test des images de Burt possède la validité la plus élevée, et que ses résultats correspondent le plus étroitement aux opinions des professeurs sur l'aptitude artistique des enfants. On découvre une légère corrélation positive entre le goût artistique et l'intelligence.

Zusammenfassung.

EIN VERGLEICH ZWISCHEN TESTS FÜR KUNSTWÜRDIGUNG.

Man hat Erwachsenen und Kindern verschiedene Tests für Kunstwürdigung gegeben, Faktorenanalyse weist darauf hin, dass ein einzelner allgemeiner Faktor der Kunstwürdigung für die gegebenen Ordnungen verantwortlich ist. Ein gewisser Beweis ist auch vorhanden für spezifische Faktoren, die verschiedene “Typen” der Kunstwürdigung andeuten. Anscheinend verursacht die Entwicklung der Kunstwürdigung eine Änderung nicht nur im Können, sondern auch im Verhalten oder im Typus. Die durch statistische Analyse erzielten Resultate werden durch Selbstbetrachtung bestätigt.

Korrelationen, die man bei einer Gruppe von über 300 Kindern bekam, zeigen, dass Burts Bildertest die höchste Zuverlässigkeit hat und dass dessen Ergebnisse äusserst genau mit den von den Lehrern gegebenen Würdigungen des Kunstkönnens der Kinder übereinstimmen. Man hat eine geringe, aber positive Korrelation zwischen Kunstschätzung und Intelligenz gefunden.
THE SCIENTIFIC INTERESTS OF SENIOR SCHOOL CHILDREN
Authors: RALLISON R.
Published: May 2011

Résumé.

LES INTÉRÊTS SCIENTIFIQUES DES ÉLÈVES DES ÉCOLES PRIMARIES SUPÉRIEURES.

L'on recueillit et analysa des feuilles, sur lesquelles les élèves avaient écrit des questions sur des sujets sur lesquels ils voulaient se renseigner. Ces feuilles provenaient d'Écoles Primaires supérieures dans une grande ville, dans des communes, et à la campagne. L'on résume les 170 thèmes principaux de l'intérêt scientifique qui émergèrent des données ainsi rassembleés.

Le sexe exerce une influence puissante à déterminer la distribution des intérêts entre les sciences et les autres sujets, et pourtant il n'a qu'une faible influence sur les intérêts principaux en dedans du champ scientifique. Les thèmes principaux de l'intérêt scientifique appartiennent également aux deux sexes.

Le milieu a une influence non seulement sur le choix des garçons entre la science et le reste mais aussi sur le choix de la branche de la science à laquelle l'enfant s'intéresse, et pourtant il ne s'associe qu'à un petit groupe de thèmes typiques. L'âge auquel les principaux intérêts scientifiques se manifestent est également déterminé par le milieu.

Il y a relativement peu de sujets qui sont charactéristiques d'un certain âge. La biologie, la chimie, la mécanique et l'électricité sont les intérêts scientifiques les plus importants chez les deux sexes.

Zusammenfassung.

DIE WISSENSCHAFTLICHEN INTERESSEN VON SCHÜLERN AN SENIORSCHULEN (DER OBERN HÄLFTE DER ENGLISCHEN VOLKSSCHULE).

Kinder aus grosstädtischen, städtischen, und ländlichen Gegenden wurden aufgefordert, Fragen über Dinge zu schreiben, die sie wissen wollten.

Die Knaben hatten zum grössten Teil Interesse für wissenschaftliche Angelegenheiten; die Interessen der Mädchen waren verschiedenartiger. Doch übte das Geschlecht wenig Einfluss auf die Hauptinteressen, die auf wissenschaftlichem Gebiet lagen, aus. Die Hauptthemen wissenschaftlichen Interesses sind der gemeinsame geistige Besitz beider Geschlechter.

Die Umgebung beeinflusst nicht nur die Verteilung der Interessen der Knaben zwischen Nichtwissenschaft und Wissenschaft; sie beeinflusst auch die Zweige der Wissenschaft, wofür die Kinder Interesse haben; und doch ist sie mit nur einer geringen Zahl typischer Gegenstände verbunden. Das Alter, in dem die hauptsächlichen wissenschaftlichen Interessen auftreten, wird auch teilweise durch die Umgebung bedingt.

Verhältnismässig wenige Themen sind charakteristisch für ein bestimmtes Alter.
SYMPOSIUM: THE USE OF ESSAYS IN SELECTION AT 11+
Authors: PIDGEON D. A. , YATES ALFRED
Published: May 2011

Summary.

A number of essay‐type English examination papers were administered on different occasions to groups of eleven‐year‐old children. Seven examiners were employed in marking the scripts, and a complex experimental design enabled a variety of statistical analyses to be carried out.

In another area the validity of similar papers was investigated by comparing the results with a criterion of success in secondary schools after the children concerned had completed two years of their course. The correlations obtained were also compared with those between an objective test of English and the criterion.

The results of the reliability investigation indicated that:

There are differences between examiners with respect to the mean mark and the variance of marks awarded for English papers of the essay type.

The seven papers given varied in their level of difficulty, as judged by the mean mark awarded.

English papers of the type described are subject to practice effects.

There is clear evidence from this experiment that examiners and children have idiosyncrasies which interact.

The error variance attributable to examiners is greatly reduced on the more objective English question paper (Part II) compared with the essay (Part I), although the amount of fluctuation due only to the children is relatively of almost the same size.

There were significant differences between examiners regarding their consistency of marking.

Compared with the figures of ·980 for the strictly objective Moray House English tests and ·970 for the slightly less objective National Foundation English tests, the reliability of the ‘old type’ English paper considered here was found to be approximately 0·88.

The equivalent test, re‐test reliabilities for the essay alone were ·766 if the same examiner re‐marked, and ·719 if a different examiner re‐marked.

The upper limit to the reliability of the ‘older type’ of English paper, including an essay, is set by the figure of 0·923 calculated on the assumption of perfect marking.

Slightly over half the children opted to write on a different essay topic when attempting the same paper a second time. An analysis of the children's choices, however, showed that for some of the papers their choice was severely limited by the inclusion of one or more unpopular topics.

The results of the validity investigation indicated that the ‘old type’ English examination provides a significantly less satisfactory forecast of subsequent success in secondary schools than is obtained from the results of an objective test.

The introduction of new types of item into objective tests is suggested as a means of creating a less undesirable ‘backwash’ on the primary school curriculum. Tests of this kind, it is claimed, could maintain the high reliability and validity of the more conventional objective tests.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONALITY TRAITS IN SEVEN‐YEAR‐OLD CHILDREN: A COMBINED PSYCHOLOGICAL, PSYCHIATRIC AND SOMATOTYPE STUDY
Authors: DAVIDSON MAY A. , McINNES R. G. , PARNELL R. W.
Published: May 2011

Summary.— The physical constitutions of 100 seven‐year‐old children have been assessed. The more closely correlated facets of physique and behaviour in childhood are reported. A time may come when it will be possible to compare these findings in a series of healthy children with those in a group of children needing psychiatric help. When this is achieved, further light may be thrown on the aetiology of mental illness. In the meantime, it has been shown that the somatotype can give some indication of the kind of behaviour to expect in different individuals, and that exact measurements support what has for centuries been appreciated in less precise form, namely that physical constitution plays an important part in shaping people's lives.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE VIEWS OF SUPERVISORS ON THE ATTRIBUTES OF SUCCESSFUL GRADUATE STUDENT TEACHERS
Authors: ROBERTSON J. D. C.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

Eighteen supervisors of graduate students ranked fifty student attributes associated with successful practice teaching. The rankings were correlated and the matrix of correlations was factorised by the technique of Correlation of Persons.

The lines of reference indicated among the participating supervisors showed:

That there was limited agreement among them, amounting to 39 per cent, of the variance of their rankings, and

That there was a number of subsidiary viewpoints among the supervisors, accounting for at least 17 per cent, of the variance. Groups holding these viewpoints appeared to vary in the emphasis placed upon the cognitive, affective (or personal) and conative aspects of teaching ability, and each group was divided again into:

Those whose view was complex and analytical, concerned with adaptive aspects of personality, and

Those whose view was simpler and more intuitive, concerned with expressive aspects.

Weighted average rankings of the attributes were obtained, and provide material for further research into an agreed scheme or system of student attributes. Groupings of the attributes made by the supervisors assisted in the interpretation of the factors, and were comparable in some respects with current theories of personality structure.

The findings supported the conclusion of earlier researches that there is a need for an agreed scheme or system in the assessment of students' practice teaching. The limited amount of agreement found among the supervisors indicated a weakness in researches which have used uncontrolled assessments as criteria of teaching ability.

The attribute group—Attitude and Insight in Dealing with Others was found, from the rankings of this group of eighteen experts, to represent for them the most important aspects of teaching ability.
A NOTE ON THE USE OF THE SCHONELL AND GATES READING TESTS IN THE FIRST YEAR OF THE JUNIOR SCHOOL
Authors: PRINGLE M. L. KELLMER , NEALE M. D.
Published: May 2011

Summary.— Two of the Gates Reading Tests were administered to 180 children in their first year of the junior school and the results were compared with those obtained from two of Schonell's Tests. In view of a number of advantages such as easier early gradients and greater attractiveness, they are recommended as alternative or additional tests for diagnostic purposes. As the norms of the Gates Word Recognition Test are too easy for English children, an adjustment is suggested.
II.—Nature‐Nurture Balance Sheets
Authors: MADDOX H.
Published: May 2011

Summary.— Empirical studies have brought the nature‐nurture controversy no nearer to a generally agreed solution. Attempts to derive a nature‐nurture balance sheet from genetic theory fail to take into account the correlation between heredity and environment. Shuttleworth's widely quoted balance sheet rests on some doubtful assumptions. The only unequivocal evidence is derived from identical twins reared apart, but, in any case, any particular balance sheet can be neither final nor of general applicability since heredity and environment are in dynamic interaction. Test variance in groups whose education has been defective is likely to include an unusually large environmental contribution.
V.—An Experiment on Practice, Coaching and Discussion of Errors in Mental Testing
Authors: HEIM A. W. , WATTS K. P.
Published: May 2011

Summary.— An experiment was conducted in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting results reported on coaching and practice effects in mental testing. Parallel and identical (spatial) tests were administered weekly, to 13‐ and 14‐year‐old boys and girls, drawn from six schools. On the basis of first test score, every form was divided into five equated sub‐groups each of which subsequently received different treatment. Two sub‐groups took the same test (Test 1) for six consecutive weeks, one of these receiving coaching but not the other. The remaining three sub‐groups took a different (parallel) test each week, receiving between sessions either coaching or discussion of previous week's errors or neither. At the final session, every sub‐group took Test 7.

The experimental results are confused by the fact that inter‐school differences equalled or exceeded inter‐group differences. The conclusions which follow are, therefore, offered tentatively: (a) Discussion of errors is the most effective improver of performance on a new test, (b) Coaching plus practice is more efficacious than practice alone, whether the practice task be the re‐taking of identical or of parallel tests, (c) Coaching plus practice‐on‐the‐same‐test produces better performance on a new test than does practice alone on different tests, (d) Practice alone on the same test yields the poorest result, on the criterion of performance on a new test. Personality differences among individuals and groups are found to contribute materially to the results.
THE FACTORIAL NATURE OF ABILITY IN ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS
Authors: WRIGLEY JACK
Published: May 2011

Summary.— The structure of mathematical ability in grammar and technical schools was investigated by factorial analysis. The following conclusions were drawn:

There is a close connection between mathematical and general ability; high intelligence is the most important single factor for success in mathematics.

In addition, there exists a clearly identifiable mathematical group factor. The different branches of mathematics are linked together more closely than they would be if a general factor only were in operation.

Verbal, spatial, and numerical group factors were isolated.

Performance in geometry is connected with spatial ability as measured by the spatial factor.

Performance in arithmetic (especially mechanical arithmetic), and to a lesser extent performance in algebra, is in part dependent upon numerical ability as measured by a number factor.

When the influence of general ability is eliminated, verbal ability has little connection with mathematical ability.

No marked differences in factor pattern were observed between different types of school ‘grammar and technical) or between different countries (England and Northern Ireland).

The attainment tests of mathematics, constructed specially for this research, proved to be highly reliable and valid measures of mathematical ability.
THE CHANGES IN INTELLIGENCE TEST SCORE OF STUDENTS BETWEEN THE BEGINNING AND END OF THEIR UNIVERSITY COURSES
Authors: TOZER A. H. D. , LARWOOD H. J. C.
Published: May 2011

Summary. A group of university students given the same intelligence test at the beginning and end of their university degree courses, made large and statistically significant gains. These gains do not seem attributable to increase in age and appear unrelated to courses of study taken: they are of the same magnitude as those made on re‐test at an interval of a few weeks. Explanations in terms of mental growth, transfer effects and sophistication or practice are discussed.
A QUANTITATIVE STUDY OF MEANING
Authors: COHEN JOHN , DEARNLEY E. J. , HANSEL C. E. M.
Published: May 2011

Summary. In the present investigation we have extended the quantitative study of meaning by introducing several new features. We have used ‘operational’ methods of determining the subject's interpretations of words and phrases. Thus, where previously we relied on his written answers to questions, we now measure his interpretations on the basis of what he actually does when given certain instructions. This procedure enables us to control the qualitative context and to measure the effect of changes in the size of the population. We have also eliminated previously uncontrolled variables. Our main conclusion is that the words and phrases studied appear to be understood by the subjects partly in an absolute sense and partly in a relative sense. The effect of age on the interpretations is confirmed. Several suggestions are made for further research in this sphere.
SYMPOSIUM: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL VALUES IN CHILDREN
Authors: CRANE A. R.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Information was collected from Teachers' College students in Australia and England about gangs to which they had belonged during their pre‐adolescence. Of all students asked, about 90 per cent, of the men and almost 40 per cent, of the women had belonged to at least one such gang.

In this way data about 326 boys' and 54 girls' gangs were collected and analysed. These data revealed that all boys' gangs were at times occupied in some form of socially unacceptable (‘delinquent’) behaviour.

In discussing these facts, it is argued that belonging to such a gang is not necessarily an indication of future delinquent behaviour. On the contrary, gang membership can be an important bridge between the kinship‐based status conferred on the child by the family and the achievement‐based status conferred by society at large.
A RESEARCH INTO TRUANCY*
Authors: TYERMAN MAURICE J.
Published: May 2011

Summary. A study of 137 truants charged at Court, and a comparison between forty representative truants and a group of non‐truant children, revealed that adverse home circumstances and a lack of satisfaction in home or school are probably the most important conditions of truancy.
VERBAL COMPREHENSION IN HUNGARIAN CHILDREN OF 8–10 YEARS
Authors: BARANYAI ELIZABETH H.
Published: May 2011

Summary. The development of children's understanding of what they read and assessment of the appropriateness of their school books was studied by means of a test of comprehension of words and phrases taken from the reading books used by children aged between 8 and 10 years in Hungarian schools. The results showed a general growth in comprehension with age, and a wide difference in ability associated with social class and with rural and urban populations. They also showed that the school readers were too difficult for most children and were inappropriate for those in rural areas.
THE LONG‐TERM FOLLOW‐UP OF ASSESSMENTS AT AGE ELEVEN
Authors: NISBET JOHN , BUCHAN JIM
Published: May 2011

Summary.

The careers of 102 students who entered Aberdeen University from Aberdeen City schools in 1953, were traced from the end of primary school to fourth year at university.

Of those who entered Aberdeen County secondary schools in 1950, 153 sat the Leaving Certificate at the end of secondary education, and forty‐six entered Aberdeen University; their careers were traced from primary school to first‐year university.

In both investigations scores in tests at the age of eleven‐plus were compared with subsequent performance in Leaving Certificate and university examinations, as a check on the accuracy of the tests in predicting high scholastic achievement six to ten years later.

The results show that even in this highly selected group, the tests at age eleven‐plus are not without validity; but the agreement between test scores and university performance is not high, particularly in science courses.

Correlations between five primary school assessments in the City group and fourth‐year university performance ranged from +0·05 to +0·28.

In the County group, out of 77 who gained university entrance qualifications, 19 had scored below I.Q. 110 in the test at the end of primary school.

Examples of poor subsequent performance by high scorers in the selection tests at eleven plus, and of excellent performance by low scorers, indicate that, within this group and over this interval of years, accurate prediction of scholastic attainment is not possible.
TEST ANXIETY AND THE “ELEVEN‐PLUS” EXAMINATIONS
Authors: SARNOFF IRVING , SARASON SEYMOUR B. , LIGHTHALL FREDERICK F. , DAVIDSON KENNETH S.
Published: May 2011

Summary. After a brief review of our previous work in the area under investigation, the results of two studies which bear upon the validity of the Test Anxiety Scale (TA) are reported. Both studies involved the 11+ examinations. In the first study, it was predicted that TA scores would increase as children moved closer in time to the 11+ examinations. In the second study it was predicted that there would be a small but statistically significant negative correlation between TA scores and performance on the 11+ examinations. The obtained results failed to confirm either of these predictions. Drawing upon other empirical data which have been gathered as part of a research programme on the correlates of anxiety, several alternative interpretations of the findings are advanced.
BILINGUALISM AND NON‐VERBAL INTELLIGENCE: A FURTHER STUDY OF TEST RESULTS
Authors: LEWIS D. G.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Previous investigations of the effect of (English‐Welsh) bilingualism on performance in non‐verbal tests of intelligence have not yielded a consistent pattern of results. In the present study a non‐verbal test was given to ten‐year‐old pupils from primary schools in Wales. Linguistic background was assessed by means of a language questionnaire, the assessment being compared with teachers' ratings. Care was taken to select a homogeneous group of a thoroughly Welsh background (i.e., a bilingual group) together with a corresponding English‐speaking group (with a background of no appreciable ‘Welshness’). The test results showed a statistically significant difference, in favour of the monoglots, corresponding to about 8 points of I.Q. It is suggested that this difference may be due, in part, to (i) the test being a timed one, and (ii) the groups not being equal with respect to urban‐rural differences. Again the ‘verbal residue’ of a non‐verbal test might well be a non‐negligible factor in measuring the intelligence of the bilingual child.
PERSONALITY FACTORS IN THE FORMATION OF OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE
Authors: CHOWN SHEILA M.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

Ninety‐six boys and ninety‐six girls selected from the third to seventh forms of eight grammar schools were given a questionnaire about their interests, behavioural traits, and reasons for choosing their desired occupation. Intelligence test scores were available for half the group.

Interests were compared where possible with the type of jobs desired; practical spare time interests were related to job choices which involved these interests.

Intelligence was found to have a limiting effect on choice; the most intelligent in this group made a free choice, but those of low intelligence tended to choose office work.

The answers to the personality questionnaire were factor analyzed, giving two unrelated factors of confidence and sociability. Choice of office work was related to low confidence scores in the case of girls, and high sociability scores in the case of boys.

The reasons for choice given by the subjects were factor analyzed; two unrelated factors were isolated. Vocation was related to the choice of occupations requiring further training, and unadventurousness to choice of office work.

The importance of these results in relation to choice of occupation is discussed.
THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN'S MORAL IDEAS
Authors: HILLIARD F. H.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Up to the beginning of adolescence the majority of children believe that God upholds the moral law or ideal by rewarding good behaviour. At the same time, the majority have already either rejected or begun to wonder about earlier and cruder ideas about God's punishment of wrong‐doing. As a result of the development of the ability to reason critically, an increasing number of adolescents question, and in many cases abandon, these earlier ideas about God rewarding the good and punishing the bad. Some adolescents and adults, however, retain the basic belief that moral attitudes and decisions should be determined in the light of religious beliefs. The majority of adolescents and adults believe, more vaguely, that religion can and should help them to live a morally good life, though on what grounds this belief is maintained cannot be stated with any certainty. Not all who hold this view believe that religion is essential for living a morally good life.
A FOLLOW‐UP STUDY OF SOME FORMER GRADUATE STUDENT TEACHERS
Authors: COLLINS MILDRED
Published: May 2011

Summary. A follow‐up study was made of 115 former graduate student teachers of one education department and assessments by heads of schools were compared with teaching grades awarded during training. There was a 75 per cent. correct forecast as to which students were likely to have, or not to have, difficulties and a biserial correlation of +0·566 was obtained between heads' and tutors' assessments.

A study of discrepancies in assessments (‘over’ or ‘under’ achievement) was used as a check on conclusions derived from an enquiry concerned with. teaching practice assessments only. ‘Under’ or ‘over’ achievement in schools seemed to indicate the importance of type of school, academic achievement, physical and mental health, family problems and length of professional experience among former students who had shown rather limited practice teaching ability. Case histories demonstrated how difficult it is in individual cases to distinguish the ‘late‐developer’ from the ‘non‐starter.’
THE VALUE OF TEACHERS' RATINGS OF THE ADJUSTMENT OF THEIR PUPILS*
Authors: THORPE J. G.
Published: May 2011

Summary. The present experiment was designed to test the relationship between teachers' ratings of adjustment and maladjustment, and more objective estimates obtained by psychological testing. Three groups of thirty‐six children were built up—a group of most adjusted, a group of least adjusted, and a group selected at random.

Objective tests of neuroticism which had been shown previously to distinguish between neurotic and normal children were found, with the exception of the Sociometric test, not to differentiate between these three groups.

The results indicated that, if the battery of neuroticism tests is an acceptable criterion of neuroticism, the teachers' ratings of adjustment bore no relation to this criterion. It may be argued, however, that the criterion was an inadequate indicator of psychiatric abnormalities and, therefore, that it did not follow that teachers were unable to detect these abnormalities.

The teachers in this study appeared to be leaning heavily upon the Sociometric status of their pupils for their judgments, a knowledge of which they were bound to have from everyday observation. It is argued that the Sociometric test discriminated between the groups of children selected by the teachers probably by virtue of its projection on to some dimension other than neuroticism. This dimension is possibly that of introversion‐extraversion.
TWO PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Authors: LYNN R.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Experimental studies suggest that capacity for sustained work depends largely on an individual's level of drive and rate of accumulation of inhibition. This work implies that good academic achievers should be characterized by high drive levels and a slow rate of accumulating inhibition. The Maudsley Personality Inventory measures these two personality dimensions and a comparison of the scores of university students with those of controls confirms both predictions.
AGGRESSIVE AND WITHDRAWING CHILDREN IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL
Authors: LUNZER E. A.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Forty‐two “aggressive” and forty “withdrawing” children, selected by teachers out of a total school population of 1,002 children, are compared with each other and with a group of “exceptionally well‐adjusted children.” Comparisons are based on rating scales, Bristol Guides to Social Adjustment, a sociometric test, and a test of social adaptation.

The results indicate that there are probably rather more problems of aggression than withdrawal but that the severity of the two behaviour patterns is comparable. These indications are confirmed by a limited one‐year follow‐up.
A NOTE ON THE RESPONSES MADE BY SECONDARY SCHOOL CHILDREN IN THEIR DEFINITIONS OF WORDS
Authors: BURNS DONALD G.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Investigations into the nature of children's definitions commonly imply some classification based on the formal characteristics of the definition (definition by synonym, by class, by description and so on). Examination of a large number of definitions from school children in Leeds suggested that it was impossible to group definitions with confidence in categories of this kind and that any attempt to assess their value should be based on criteria of a psychological kind.

Definition by emotional tone appears to be one of the most rudimentary types of definition and though such definitions have frequently very little social value, they evidently occupy an important place in a psychological scale of values.

Definition that associates meaning with a specific situation often appears superior to definition by emotional tone because it suggests a more socialised and mature concept: but within this category, many levels may be noted, ranging from the proto‐class to the purely emotional.

Definitions that are generic in type, seem to reveal greater social maturity and would appear to be superior logically and psychologically to definitions in terms of specific contexts or emotional tone. Four kinds of definition of this type are distinguished.

Various levels of definition are to be found within each of these main categories and it is suggested that the level of definition and its category should be considered separate criteria in any scale of semantic values. In general, the category indicates the extent to which the definition may be logically adequate and the level, the extent to which it reflects maturity of understanding. A good definition is satisfactory by either criterion but any definition that is less complete than this, should presumably, be judged by a criterion of conceptual as well as logical adequacy and in many situations (e.g., psychological tests), the former may be more useful than the latter.
A TYPE OF BIAS IN MARKING EXAMINATION SCRIPTS
Authors: FARRELL M. J. , GILBERT N.
Published: May 2011

Summary. We consider the hypothesis that, in some circumstances, the variance of the marks awarded by an examiner will increase with the number of scripts he has marked. We test this hypothesis on the data of fifty‐four different class‐lists, and find a small but highly significant effect of the sort predicted. We consider various possible alternative explanations of the observed effect, and conclude that there is fairly strong evidence of the existence of such a bias.
ZERO ERROR IN MORAY HOUSE VERBAL REASONING TESTS
Authors: PILLINER A. E. G. , SUTHERLAND J. , TAYLOR E. G.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Non‐equivalence in the performance of the samples of children used in standardising the several members of a series of similar tests results in lack of comparability between the standardised scores obtained with different tests in the series; all the standardised scores from one test may be positively or negatively biassed relative to those from another. The bias is named ‘zero error’.

The zero errors of twenty Moray House verbal reasoning tests, all relative to one taken as standard, are estimated and shown to be larger for more recent than for earlier tests. The increase is ascribed mainly to increased test sophistication in the later standardisation samples.

Local education authorities should take zero errors into account in their allocation procedures.
DIFFERENCES IN ATTAINMENT BETWEEN PRIMARY‐SCHOOLS IN MIXED‐LANGUAGE AREAS: THEIR DEPENDENCE ON INTELLIGENCE AND LINGUISTIC BACKGROUND
Authors: LEWIS D. G.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Differences in attainment in English and arithmetic between primary schools in mixed‐language areas of Wales are studied with respect to differences in both intelligence and linguistic background. School attainments tended to increase with intelligence, though not regularly; and the school differences in intelligence did not account fully for the differences in attainment. Generally, the attainment of schools with pupils of a strongly Welsh background—i.e., bilingual pupils—was lower than that of other schools, this tendency being strong in English and slight in arithmetic. It is concluded that a bilingual environment may be regarded as an important factor with respect to primary‐school differences of attainment in English which cannot be accounted for by intelligence.
INTERACTION OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN REGARD TO ‘MEASURED INTELLIGENCE’
Authors: STOTT D. H.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Recent work in experimental biology suggests interaction in the form of the facilitation of genetic pre‐disposition by adverse conditions of gestation. This may explain not only how certain environmental factors may produce mental defect and physical malformation in human beings, but also certain more general findings of the Scottish Mental Survey.

The greater resemblance in ‘measured intelligence’ of monozygotic twins can no longer confidently be attributed to ‘heredity.’

Interaction of this type presupposes a very great number of alternative modes of development. Congenital variations in temperament and motivation, by affecting the acquisition of mental skills, add further alternatives.

The ‘contributions’ of heredity and environment can, consequently, be the subject only of retrospective estimate in individual cases; general quantitative estimates for a population are meaningless.
A NATIONAL SURVEY OF THE ABILITY AND ATTAINMENT OF CHILDREN AT THREE AGE LEVELS
Authors: PIDGEON D. A.
Published: May 2011

Summary. During 1955 some 10,000 children attending maintained or assisted schools in England and Wales were given specially designed tests of reading, arithmetic and non‐verbal ability. The children tested formed separate samples in each of three age groups. The age groups and the dates of testing were so chosen that the children in the three samples were:

Commencing their junior school course (7–8 years).

Ending their junior school course (10 1/2–11 1/2 years).

In the last year of compulsory education (14–15 years).

A systematic but unbiased method of sampling was employed which was considered to be effectively random.

The aims of the survey were:

To obtain reliable estimates of attainments as a base‐line for future comparisons.

To determine the degree of backwardness in each age group.

To compare the levels of attainment of boys and girls, and of children attending schools in urban and rural areas and of various types, e.g., mixed, single‐sex, all‐age, voluntary.

While the results obtained relevant to the first two aims cannot be evaluated until the repeat of the survey, planned for 1960, is carried out, this paper gives some of the more general findngs relating to the levels of attainment achieved by the children in the three age groups, and to the differences in performance observed between children in various sub‐groups.
THE MEASUREMENT OF EFFICIENCY OF SELECTION BY PROCEDURES OF VARYING VALIDITIES
Authors: SANDON FRANK
Published: May 2011

Summary. Tables are given to show the numbers and percentages ‘correctly’ chosen at various intensities of selection by selection procedures of various validities. The tables are derived on the assumption of bivariate normal distribution, i.e., on the assumption that the measures of both the selection procedure and of the criterion are normally distributed, that the regressions are linear, and that the various arrays of each measure are homoscedastic.
SYMPOSIUM: CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DIAGNOSIS AND AND REMEDIAL TREATMENT OF READING DIFFICULTIES
Authors: VERNON M. D.
Published: May 2011

Summary. In spite of the large number of studies in recent years of problems connected with the processes of reading and with inability to learn to read normally, these problems are still very imperfectly understood. Although they are undoubtedly complex, failure to solve them appears to be due in part to the inadequacy of the methods employed in investigating them. Experimental studies of methods of teaching reading are often not suitably controlled, nor carried out for a sufficient length of time. The various factors associated with different types of reading backwardness are not always properly measured, nor their incidence and frequency assessed in different individual cases. The causal relationship between these factors and reading backwardness remains obscure. In part, these failures may be due to the fact that insufficient attention has been devoted to the nature of the reading processes and of their breakdown in backward readers.
II—The Effect of Practice on Performance in Scholastic Tests
Authors: CURR W. , GOURLAY N.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

The main object of the investigation was to obtain some measure of practice effect for tests in mechanical reading, reading comprehension and arithmetic. Standardised tests in these skills were given at varying intervals of time to groups of 9–10‐year‐old children in four primary schools.

The statistical analysis employed provided estimates of the mean gains both at the average level of ability for the age group (9·5 years) and two years below average (7·5 years).

Practice effect was greatest for reading comprehension. At the 9·5 level, a re‐test after one month produced a mean gain of 10·1 months and further re‐tests after 3 and 6 months gave gains of 18·2 and 26·9 months, respectively. The corresponding figures at the 7·5 level were 8·9, 10·4 and 12·2 months.

For the mechanical reading test, the gains were 5·3, 8·0 and 14·1 months at the 9·5 level and 4·4, 6·2 and 11·8 at the 7·5 level. Practice effect was only slight for the arithmetic test.

Practice effect was also estimated for other cases. In particular, pupils tested on both forms of the reading comprehension test at an interval of one month registered gains of 7·2 and 4·2 months at the 9·5 and 7·5 levels, respectively.

Reference was made to our earlier investigation into the scholastic results of remedial education. It was pointed out that, in the light of the data here presented, the gains made by the controls in our experiment could be explained entirely in terms of maturation and practice effect. Data are also given to show the impermanence of the net gains made by the pupils receiving remedial education. Corroborative data from another investigation are also presented.
III—Part‐time Classes for Young Backward Readers
Authors: HILLMAN H. H. , SNOWDON R. L.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

A scheme for the remedial teaching of reading was established to determine whether part‐time teachers working with small groups of backward children could significantly improve the reading achievement of their pupils.

130 children of junior school age had been tested and taught under this scheme by April, 1958. The remedial teachers adopted a predominantly ‘phonic’ approach.

Comparison was made between the progress of backward children who attended remedial classes and children similarly handicapped who did not. Comparison was also made between the progress of children before and after a period of remedial teaching. The difference in both comparisons was found to be significant at the 0·01 level.

The scheme was found to be acceptable to the schools from which the children came.

The results appear to be roughly comparable with the results of similar (and more elaborate) remedial schemes and with the results of teaching retarded children.