bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Approximate Analytical Method Based on Differential Equations for Solving Problems of Statically Determinate Beam and Rigid Frame
Authors: Zhang Xiang Dong , Gao Xin , Wang Lei
Published: July 2014

With the application of computer technology in civil engineering more and more widely, it is important to find new methods suitable for computer programming to solve the engineering problems. In this paper, a new method based on differential equation group is introduced to analyze statically determinate beam and rigid frame. Firstly, the division method of member system is given and differential equation group is established. Secondly, the determination of boundary conditions is discussed in different situations. And the approximate analytical solution of internal force of statically determinate beam and rigid frame is obtained. At last, two calculating examples are given. The result shows that this method is easy to be programmed and suitable for application in engineering and teaching.
Challenges of Dealing with the Massive Monitoring Data for Safety Assessment of Bridges
Authors: Liu Fu Ming , Ding Qun
Published: July 2014

This paper aims at discussing and summarizing the methods for dealing with the massive monitoring data obtained from the structural health monitoring system of bridges. Firstly, some methods related to the 'big data' issue were introduced such as dynamic fingerprint analysis, model updating method, artificial neural network, genetic algorithm, wavelet analysis etc,. Secondly, this study focused on the basic idea, research situation and existing problems of above methods. Finally, the research emphasis of the methods for dealing with massive data was proposed.
Pre-Camber Study on the Steel-Concrete Composite Beam Constructed by the Incremental Launching Method
Authors: Sun Yong Ming , Zhang Wei , Wang Dian Bo
Published: July 2014

This paper summarized and evaluated the girder construction methods of self-anchored suspension bridge, pointed out that the main beam linear would have a local depression between the largest span temporary pier when the steel-concrete composite beams were constructed by the incremental launching construction method, even if the main beam were withstand uniform bar-forces, moreover, the pre-camber curve of the main-girder could not arranged as a circle curve or quadratic parabola within the entire span. In view of this, the entire construction process of a self-anchored suspension bridge was analyzed by the finite element method, The results showed that the section property changes of the steel-concrete composite beam were the nature reason of the local depression on the main beam linear; The completed main beam was simplified into a three-span continuous beam which suffered vertical uniform distributing load and horizontal forces at the two ends, and the simplified formulas of calculating the vertical displacement of each span were derived by the force method; The numerical example showed that, the proposed simplified formulas could effectively solve the affection by the section property changes, accurately predicted the main beam cumulative vertical displacement, and the calculation accuracy could meet the engineering requirements, the conclusions of this paper had a strong guiding significance and reference value on the camber design and construction of the bridge wth the similar structural type.
Comfort Analysis of Large-Span Continuous Girder Bridges to Moving Vehicular Loads
Authors: Gao Qing Fei , Wang Zong Lin , Chen Chuang , Guo Bin Qiang
Published: July 2014

To address the drawback of comfort evaluation on Highway Bridges due to moving vehicular loads, a large-span continuous girder bridge, namely Yilan Songhua River Highway Bridge, is studied in detail. The pedestrians comfort and riding comfort of the selected bridge under both single-vehicle and multi-vehicle are analyzed by our computer programs VBCVA (vehicle-bridge coupled vibration analysis) which is based on modal synthesis method and VCE (vibration comfort evaluation) which is based on existing common evaluation criteria. The peak accelerations of vehicles and the bridge are significantly influenced by the increase in bridge surface roughness as speed increases. Pedestrians acceleration induced by truck is larger than that induced by car. Except at the abutment span where the resonance speed is lower than other spans, the comfort of pedestrians at different locations of the mid-span are practically the same for various speeds. The riding comfort influenced by the truck on adjacent lane is dependent on the relative value between the dynamic response of the bridge and its roughness. For continuous girder bridges, because of the smaller dynamic response induced by the truck on adjacent lane compared to that induced by the roughness of the lane itself, the influence between adjacent lanes can be ignored. Finally, it is shown that the pedestrian comfort and riding comfort of the newly built Yilan Songhua River Bridge could meet the existing requirements in normal operation.
‘The woman was deceived and became a sinner’ – a literary-theological investigation of 1 Timothy 2:11–15
Authors: Mbamalu Abiola I.
Published: July 2014

In 1 Timothy 2:11–15 women are forbidden to teach and have authority over men in the church. The ground for this instruction is the creation account in Genesis 2 that asserts the priority of Adam over Eve in the order of creation. The second reason for the instruction is the deception of Eve according to the account of the Fall in Genesis 3. This pericope has elicited arguments between advocates of egalitarianism and complementarianism revolving over the issues of grammar, the context of the Ephesian church with regard to false teachings and the comparison of this text with the other writings of Paul, for those that subscribe to the authorship of Paul. The contention of this article is that verse 15 provides a major clue as to how this text should be understood. In addition, the author’s rhetoric in this text is interrogated with regard to the text’s own internal literary and theological logic. In this regard, the author is found to be inconsistent in his outlook, for the grace that was poured out abundantly on him: a blasphemer, a persecutor and a violent man and on account of his ignorance andunbelief (1 Tm 1:12–16) is apparently, being denied women on account of Eve’s deception.
Imaging of articular cartilage
Authors: Paunipagar Bhawan K , Rasalkar DD
Published: July 2014

We tried to review the role of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in understanding microscopic and morphologic structure of the articular cartilage. The optimal protocols and available spin-echo sequences in present day practice are reviewed in context of common pathologies of articular cartilage. The future trends of articular cartilage imaging have been discussed with their appropriateness. In diarthrodial joints of the body, articular cartilage is functionally very important. It is frequently exposed to trauma, degeneration, and repetitive wear and tear. MRI has played a vital role in evaluation of articular cartilage. With the availability of advanced repair surgeries for cartilage lesions, there has been an increased demand for improved cartilage imaging techniques. Recent advances in imaging strategies for native and postoperative articular cartilage open up an entirely new approach in management of cartilage-related pathologies.
Bilateral congenital absence of flexor pollicis longus with thumb hypoplasia and thenar atrophy
Authors: Chaudhary Vikas , Sehgal Harsha , Bano Shahina , Parmar Pranjali R , Kumar Sanjay
Published: July 2014

Congenital absence of flexor pollicis longus with or without associated anomalies of thenar muscles and thumb is of rare occurrence. Inability to flex the interphalangeal joint of the thumb and absent dorsal wrinkles and flexion creases of the thumb are important clues to the diagnosis. Routine radiography and cross-sectional imaging help to confirm and document the condition. This article presents an extremely rare case of bilateral congenital absence of flexor pollicis longus tendon with thumb hypoplasia and thenar atrophy.
Morel-Lavallée lesion: A closed degloving injury that requires real attention
Authors: Nair Anirudh V , Nazar PK , Sekhar Resmi , Ramachandran PV , Moorthy Srikanth
Published: July 2014

Morel-Lavallée lesions are post-traumatic, closed degloving injuries occurring deep to subcutaneous plane due to disruption of capillaries resulting in an effusion containing hemolymph and necrotic fat. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the modality of choice in the evaluation of Morel-Lavallée lesion. Early diagnosis and management is essential as any delay in diagnosis or missed lesion will lead to the effusion becoming infected or leading to extensive skin necrosis.
MRI imaging of displaced meniscal tears: Report of a case highlighting new potential pitfalls of the MRI signs
Authors: Prasad Abhishek , Brar Rahat , Rana Shaleen
Published: July 2014

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been found to be an excellent imaging tool for meniscal injuries. Various MRI signs have been described to detect displaced meniscal injuries, specifically the bucket-handle tears. Although these signs are quite helpful in diagnosing meniscal tears, various pitfalls have also been reported for these signs. Double anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) sign refers to presence of a linear hypointense soft tissue anterior to the ACL, which represented the flipped bucket-handle tear of the meniscus. Disproportional posterior horn and flipped meniscus signs represent asymmetrically thickened horns of the menisci due to overlying displaced meniscal fragments. We report a case wherein MRI of the knee showed tear and displacement of the medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) and vastus medialis complex, medial collateral ligament (MCL), and posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) mimicking these signs. To our knowledge, internally displaced MPFL and MCLs have not been described as mimics for displaced meniscal fragments.
Imaging in emphysematous epididymo-orchitis: A rare cause of acute scrotum
Authors: Mandava Anitha , Rao R Prabhakar , Kumar D Anjani , Naga Prasad I Shiva
Published: July 2014

Emphysematous epididymo-orchitis is an uncommon, acute inflammatory process of epididymis and testis characterized by the presence of air within the tissue. Patient presents with fever, acute pain, swelling and tenderness in the scrotum. Imaging is needed for rapid accurate diagnosis and to differentiate it from other causes of acute scrotum such as testicular torsion. We report a case of emphysematous epididymo-orchitis with imaging findings on plain radiography, ultrasound, CT and MRI and a brief review of the literature.
Tc-99m Mebrofenin Hepatobiliary Scan in Obstructive Hepatobiliary Disease: Determining Causes with Early and Late Delayed Imaging
Authors: Matthews Robert , Goodman Mera , Relan Pryanka , Safaie Elham , Franceschi Dinko
Published: July 2014

Hepatobiliary radionuclide imaging is typically performed to detect cholecystitis. Infrequently, imaging reveals an obstructive pattern. Although delayed hepatobiliary imaging is commonly used to differentiate between intrahepatic (IH) and extrahepatic (EH) obstruction in the newborn; there is room to clarify the use of delayed imaging in the adult population. A retrospective review was performed of adult patients demonstrating a complete obstructive pattern on initial Tc-99m mebrofenin hepatobiliary imaging. Delayed imaging was divided into early delayed (ED) (<10 h) and late delayed (LD) (≥10 h) imaging. Two physicians qualified the presence of intestinal radiotracer (negative, low to high) on delayed images. Determination of EH or IH pathology was obtained from chart review. A total of 24 patients demonstrated an obstructive pattern using delayed Tc-99m mebrofenin hepatobiliary imaging, with delayed imaging ranging from 4 to 30 h. EH pathologies (choledocholithiasis, stricture, other) represented 63% of cases (n = 15), IH pathologies (cirrhosis, hepatitis, other) represented 33% cases (n = 8) and 1 case was indeterminate. 67% of EH cases showed intestinal activity on delayed imaging (67% on ED and 67% on LD imaging), whereas 63% of IH cases showed intestinal activity on delayed imaging (67% on ED imaging and 60% on LD imaging). The presence of intestinal activity on the both the early and delayed images did not differentiate between the IH and EH pathology groups. Subdividing the groups into ED imaging and LD imaging was also not predictive of determining location of obstructive pattern on the initial 1 h of imaging. This data suggests that delayed hepatobiliary scintigraphy has little or no role in determining the cause of obstructive pathology.
Autonomous Functioning Thyroid Nodule in a 4-year-old Male Child Treated with Radioiodine (I-131)
Authors: Khare Abhishek , Bhutani Puneet , Chauhan Suneel
Published: July 2014

Autonomous functioning thyroid nodules that cause toxic manifestations (toxic adenomas) are benign monoclonal tumors characterized by their capacity to grow and produce thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) autonomously, i.e. in the absence of thyrotropin thyroid stimulating hormone. Toxic adenomas are a rare presentation of hyperthyroidism in the pediatric population. Radioiodine (I-131) has been widely used for therapy of patients with toxic adenomas and is now accepted as a safe and effective treatment even in the pediatric age group. The authors here present a case of a 4-year-old boy with a solitary hyperfunctioning thyroid nodule, who was successfully treated with radioiodine (I-131) and is presently on follow-up.
Vesicoureteral Reflux Detected on Post-void Image of 99m Tc MAG3 Renal Scintigraphy
Authors: Nizar Naureen , Ahmed Akhtar
Published: July 2014

99m Tc MAG3 scintigraphic scan is sensitive at depicting focal parenchymal abnormalities and can be used for the measurement of overall renal function. We experienced a 5-year-old boy presenting with bilateral flank fain, intermittent urinary stream and dysuria. On the post-void delayed image of 99m Tc MAG3 scintigraphic scan vesicoureteral reflux was detected in left non-functioning kidney, which was missed on voiding cystourethrography.
PBW-deformations and deformations à la Gerstenhaber of $N$-Koszul algebras
Authors: Herscovich Estanislao , Solotar Andrea , Suárez-Álvarez Mariano
Published: July 2014

In this article we establish an explicit link between the classical theory of deformations à la Gerstenhaber (and a fortiori with the Hochschild cohomology) and (weak) PBW-deformations of homogeneous algebras. Our point of view is of cohomological nature. As a consequence, we recover a theorem by R. Berger and V. Ginzburg, which gives a precise condition for a filtered algebra to satisfy the so-called
PBW property
, under certain assumptions.
Corrosion of Refinery Equipment By Sulfuric Acid and Sulfuric Acid Sludges★
Authors: GROTH V. J. , HAFSTEN R. J.
Published: July 2014

Characteristics of sulfuric acid solutions encountered in refineries, the types and kinds of containers, piping, valves, heaters and other equipment used to handle it are considered by the authors with respect to their corrosion resistance and certain other related qualities. Materials of construction for construction, fabrication and design details of the various vessels and equipment are discussed with relation to the several concentrations, temperatures, pressures, velocities and other peculiarities of the sulfuric acid solutions encountered in petroleum refineries.

Results of field experience and laboratory tests are reported and recommendations are made respecting the selection of materials, optimum design, expected service life, maintenance procedures and economic considerations with respect to many materials. Precautions to be taken with welded and riveted tanks, fabrication and design considerations related to lead and other linings; examples of good and bad service and reasons for failures for containers, pipes, valves, pumps and heater coils are given. Galvanic effects encountered in connection with certain equipment are reported and remedial measures recommended.

Figures showing examples of failures and charts and tables of data are included.
Some Experiences With Cathodic Protection in Chicago
Authors: PLYM L. M.
Published: July 2014

Removal of street car rails in parts of Chicago has necessitated the use of cathodic protection for many sections of lead sheathed telephone cables. For each of several situations data have been collected as follows: 1. Type of power supply. 2. Design of ground bed. 3. Current and voltage requirements. 4. Cable sheath potentials. 5. Amount of cable protected and 6. First cost and power cost.
Oxidation of Plain, Alloyed And Ductile Irons at 1300 Degrees F★
Authors: CAMERON J. A.
Published: July 2014

Oxidation tests of up to 4000 hours duration at 1300 degrees F were made on ordinary flake graphite gray irons, ductile iron, and on highly alloyed cast iron having both flake and spheroidal graphite. It is concluded that ductile irons possess resistance to oxidation markedly better than that of flake graphite irons. In highly alloyed irons the difference is less pronounced at this temperature. Specimens exposed in atmospheric tempering furnace equipped with fan for circulation of air.
Air Injection for Prevention of Hydrogen Penetration of Steel★
Authors: BONNER W. A. , BURNHAM H. D.
Published: July 2014

The use of very small amounts of air for the prevention of hydrogen attack leading to blistering and fissuring of equipment is described. This protection is achieved by producing a small amount of polysulfide in situ which converts cyanide to thiocyanate and inhibits the primary corrosion reaction. The method has been used successfully for about two years. Inspections have failed to show any hydrogen damage to equipment protected by adequate air injection; no degradation of product quality has been observed.

In the application of the method, a number of problems arose which have since been solved. These difficulties include: 1) accumulation of oxygen in stagnant vapor areas, 2) accumulation of acidic ammonium thiocyanate leading to high corrosion rates, 3) control of pH in the desired range to prevent deposition of ammonium salts and to prevent decomposition of ammonium polysulfide, and 4) limited reaction rate between oxygen and hydrogen sulfide to form polysulfide.

Several methods are considered for the control of air injection to meet the polysulfide requirement in the system. Hydrogen penetration probes and chemical spot tests for ferrocyanide and free cyanide have been found adequate for this purpose. Complete protection against hydrogen damage has been attained by only infrequent adjustment of the air injection rates.
Test Methods to Determine The Resistance of an Insulating Joint★
Authors: PEARSON E.T.
Published: July 2014

Test methods for determining the resistance of an insulating joint under a number of conditions are discussed. Consideration is given to the purposes for which insulating joints are commonly used. A detailed study is made of the problem of determining the true resistance of an insulating joint installed between two buried structures when a direct, accurate current measurement is not possible on either structure at the insulating point. The Parallel computation, Delta computation and the Null circuit methods are discussed in connection with this problem.
Construction Materials for Liquid Sodium Systems★
Authors: BRUSH E. G.
Published: July 2014

The use of sodium as a heat transfer agent in nuclear power plants has resulted in a new phase of corrosion technology to evaluate the surface properties of materials of construction for high temperature, irradiated, liquid metal cooled heat transfer systems.

In pure sodium, engineering alloys may be subject to mass transport effects, preferential solution of alloying constituents and diffusion welding of mating surfaces. Trace amounts of impurities which are difficult to remove result in damaging oxidation and also act to accentuate preferential solution phenomena, particularly decarburization and intergranular attack.

The resistnce of alloys to attack by sodium has been investigated in static and dynamic laboratory tests and in pilot plant heat transfer systems. Extensive laboratory data and service performance indicate that the design engineer has a wide selection of materials of construction that will give satisfactory service in high temperature sodium systems.
Induced Alternating Current Used for Cathodic Protection of a Coated Pipe Line★
Authors: BELLASSAI S. J.
Published: July 2014

After making repairs on a leak on a coated line through a salt marsh and paralleling a high voltage high line, it was learned that although considerable gradients existed in the earth adjacent to the high line there was no correlation in the measured quantities. It had been considered that natural rectification of the induced AC voltage was occurring. After tests with coupons buried near the pipe line showed the pipeline was predominantly positive to earth at the leak location, a test ground bed was constructed to examine the feasibility of rectifying the induced alternating current. Measurement of the rectified voltage between the pipeline and the test ground bed through a 25-ampere, 18-volt selenium rectifier was 5 volts DC available for cathodic protection. A 5-ampere, 15-volt selenium stack, ten 3-inch x 60-inch graphite rods and 500 feet of 1/0 copper cable was calculated to provide circuit resistance of the required value to protect the line cathodically.
Correlation of the Results Obtained With Corrosion Inhibitors in the Laboratory and in the Field★
Authors: PURDY G. E. , RIES WILLIAM J.
Published: July 2014

One of the responsibilities of the oil field corrosion engineer is to correlate laboratory and field test data. With this in mind the principle factors which influence internal corrosion in oil wells (factors which the corrosion engineer must consider) are reviewed here.

A laboratory corrosion test method is discussed. Corrosion rate data obtained in the laboratory with three West Texas crude oil and brine systems and the corrosion inhibition obtained in these systems with two organic inhibitors are analyzed and compared. Field corrosion test data for the same three fields are presented. The correlation of laboratory and field test data is discussed in relation to the many variables encountered.

It is concluded that the evaluation of the use of inhibitors in some cases may be difficult and may require considerable experience and judgment on the part of the corrosion engineer.
Role of Minor Elements In the Oxidation of Metals★
Authors: GULBRANSEN EARL A.
Published: July 2014

An analysis is made of the role of impurities in the oxidation of metals. The various impurities are considered in terms of their effects on the physical and chemical structure of the oxide, oxide-metal interface and metal. Eight types of effects are discussed and where experimental data are available these data are used to illustrate the nature of the effect. The eight types of effects are: (1) formation of new oxide of impurity atoms in outer layer, (2) formation of mixed oxides or spinels, (3) formation of impurity atom oxide in inner layer, (4) change in conductivity of oxide film, (5) change in physical properties and adhesive properties of oxide and oxide-alloy interface, (6) formation of inclusions and other defects in the metal, (7) concentration of impurities at the grain boundaries of the metal and (8) surface oxide-impurity atom reaction with volatile reaction product. 3.7.2
The Conductometric Method Applied to the High Temperature Oxidation of Iron
Authors: FRYBURG GEORGE C.
Published: July 2014

The conductometric method is used to study the oxidation of pure iron in the region of 600 C. Iron ribbons of known thickness were used in the tests and the conductance of the central portion of the specimens measured by the potentiometer method. A constant current of 50 ma, small enough to prevent heating even in vacuum, was used. It was found that the conductivity method gives a true measure of the thickness of iron oxidized and yields results that are in agreement with those obtained by the gravimetric method.

An analytical method of measuring the amount of unoxidized iron remaining in specimens is described briefly.
Dealuminization of Aluminum Bronze
Authors: SCHUSSLER MORTIMER , NAPOLITAN D. S.
Published: July 2014

Though rarer than dezincification in brass, dealuminization can occur in aluminum bronze, and such attack can constitute a failure hazard. A case of a dealuminization failure in a cylinder valve is cited. This failure was attributable to selective corrosion of the aluminum-rich phase in an aluminum silicon bronze having a duplex structure.

In the process of selecting a more suitable material for the cylinder valves, dealuminization studies were carried out on samples of single and two phase aluminum bronzes which were exposed to aqueous hydrofluoric acid, the corrosive agent to which the valve failures were affixed. Alpha aluminum bronze suffered no harmful attack; the duplex aluminum bronze, regardless of its heat treated structure, suffered a selective dealuminization attack which caused a severe loss in ductility.
Aqueous Corrosion of Aluminum
Authors: DRALEY J. E. , RUTHER W. E.
Published: July 2014

Aluminum alloy 1100 corrodes uniformly in nearly pure water at rates which increase with temperature. The reaction is characterized by an initial period of relatively rapid corrosion, followed by a constant lower rate of corrosion. The slope of the linear part of the curve or the “corrosion rate” changes from about 0.02 to 2.5 mg/dm2-day (.01 to 1.3 mil/yr) from 50 to 200 C. Above 200 C intergranular attack occurs, with resultant more rapid penetration and deterioration of the metal.

The corrosion rate can be reduced by the addition of an acid to the water. The solution pH of minimum corrosive attack on aluminum goes down with increasing temperature. It is of the order of 6.5 at 50 C and 3 at 300 C.

Corrosion in slightly alkaline solutions (pH 8.5) is more rapid than in neutral water at all temperatures. At 100 C the difference shown in stagnant tests is very slight, but increases considerably if the temperature is increased to the order of 200 C. Presumably the effect of solution flow rate would be greater in the case of alkaline water than in neutral water.

At 200 C the addition of dichromate ion increased the rate of corrosion. A small concentration of sodium silicate resulted in a higher corrosion rate at pH 9.4, while at pH 3.5 it reduced the rate significantly. Chloride ion (5 ppm) caused some pitting and increased the corrosion rate slightly.

Electrical coupling to more cathodic materials, such as graphite, zirconium or stainless steel produced no undesirable effects in distilled water at 200 C. At 315 C, the corrosion life of samples was extended by such coupling. 6.4.2
Some Experiences With Sodium Silicate As a Corrosion Inhibitor in Industrial Cooling Waters★
Authors: WOOD J. W. , BEECHER J. S. , LAURENCE P. S.
Published: July 2014

The use of sodium silicate as a corrosion control agent for open-recirculating cooling water systems is discussed. Emphasis is placed on the results of tests made with low-carbon steel coupons in eight operating plants. The normal development of silica films, effect of prior corrosion and the influence of pH, water temperature and magnesium hardness are discussed.

Long-term test data indicated that crystalloidal silica is highly effective in stopping corrosion of mild steel by a wide variety of industrial cooling waters. Thirty to forty ppm of total crystalloidal silica provided adequate protection in waters containing upwards of 500 ppm of chlorides and sulfates. Magnesium hardness in concentrations above 250 ppm as CaCOa was found to greatly reduce the inhibitive action. 5.8.2
Corrosion and Adsorption Studies Using Sulfonate Inhibitors★
Authors: ROEBUCK A. H. , GANT P. L. , RIGGS O. L. , SUDBURY J. D.
Published: July 2014

The existing literature pertaining to the use of sulfonates as corrosion inhibitors is reviewed briefly. An account is given of radiometric adsorption and desorption studies made of sodium and amine salts of sulfonic acids. Corrosion inhibitor studies also were made of these salts in H2S and CO2 environments; some of the variables encountered include the effect of: (1) concentration, (2) solubility, (3) molecular weight, and (4) extent of neutralization of sulfonic acid. A simplified explanation of the mechanism of sulfonate inhibitors also is given. 5.8.3
The Static Electrode Potential Behavior Of Aluminum and the Anodic Behavior of the Pure Metal And Its Alloys in Chloride Media
Authors: KHAIRY E. M. , HUSSEIN M. KAMAL
Published: July 2014

The electrode potential behavior of aluminum investigated in buffer solutions of pH 4-8 containing varying concentrations of chloride ions, shows that the electrode potential does not respond to variations of pH. It changes linearly with pCl yielding a more or less constant Eo′ value of —0.54 volt. The corroding effect of the chloride ions supposedly is restricted to the adsorption of these ions on the surface and the electrode behaves as one of the second type.

The oscillograms obtained both with the pure metal and with its alloys indicate that the surface oxide resists the corrosive effect up to a 0.1-N [CI–]. At higher concentrations, the electrode surface is appreciably activated acquiring relatively high double layer capacities, prominent passivity being achieved only on passing appropriate amounts of electricity. 6.4.2
A Concentrator For Coordinated Corrosion Testing—A Contribution to the Work of NACE Technical Unit Committee T-4B on Corrosion of Cable Sheaths(1)
Authors: Henderson Oliver , Horvath Louis
Published: July 2014

A concentrator for coordinated corrosion testing is described with which 19 simultaneous voltage readings can be made and which requires only one suitable voltmeter.

The test box contains nineteen 4 mf capacitors, each of which accepts a charge from one of the external test circuits. At the desired instant of testing, the external circuits are all disconnected from the capacitors by the opening of gang-type relays. The voltage standing on each capacitor is then the corresponding voltage of the particular external circuit at the instant of disconnection. By means of a rotary switch, these voltages can be taken off in sequence and read out on a suitable external voltmeter at the convenience of the observer.

The advantages derived from the use of the test box are as follows: (1) One meter observer can duplicate the work of up to nineteen observers on a meter-per-circuit basis;

(2) One accurate voltmeter, having a high input impedance, can be selected for use rather than using an assemblage of 19 meters; (3) Despite fluctuation in measured voltages, the data obtained are more accurate than ordinarily can be obtained by direct readings of a meter on a test circuit; (4) The readings are truly simultaneous; (5) The use of one observer and one meter avoids variances formerly introduced by human characteristics and meter dissimilarities. 4.5.3
Interpretation of Tubing Caliper Surveys★
Authors: MAXWELL VICTOR W. , PARK BEN D.
Published: July 2014

An arithmetical interpretation of tabulated data is derived in an effort to obtain the maximum utilization of tubing caliper surveys. Analysis of consecutive surveys allows the engineer to determine the corrosion status of a string of oil well or gas well tubing and to assess a treatment efficiency. Limits assigned were based on field experience of grading tubing. Limits are therefore not inflexible and may be changed to meet specifications of any company or can be standardized throughout the industry as more information is compiled. The proposed method offers a simple yardstick to the corrosion engineer which previously was not available in the area of tubing caliper surveys. 2.1.2
Corrosion of Aluminum In High Purity Water
Authors: LOBSINGER R. J. , ATWOOD J. M.
Published: July 2014

In-reactor corrosion rates of 1245 and M-388 aluminum alloys were determined in demineralized water at temperatures up to 200 C. A correlation between corrosion rates and the effective aluminum surface temperature is presented. The effect of increased hydrogen ion concentration on corrosion rates is also discussed. 4.6.1
The Formation of Oxide Films On Chromium and 18 Cr-8 Ni Steels
Authors: YEARIAN H. J. , DERBYSHIRE W. D. , RADAVICH J. F.
Published: July 2014

The formation of oxide films on simple chromium steels and 18-8 stainless steels oxidized in air at temperatures of 300 C to 700 C has been studied by electron microscopy, electron diffraction and X-ray diffraction methods. A thin uniform film forms in the first few minutes of oxidation and grows very slowly thereafter. As oxidation proceeds the protectiveness of the base film fails at randomly distributed positions, permitting the rapid growth of localized polycrystalline nodules of oxide. These nodules continue to grow and new ones are formed until the base film is completely covered. The rate at which the process proceeds depends on alloy composition and temperature in the same way as does the scaling rate at higher temperatures.

There is no evidence that the failure is due to cracking of the base film. There seems to be no detrimental effect produced by the usual amounts of minor constituents in the alloys. Local failure may be due to blistering or recrystallization.

The principal component of the base film is a solid solution of ferric and chromic oxides preferentially oriented with the (111) plane parallel to the surface. The degree of the orientation and the chromic oxide content of the solution increase with time of oxidation. A small amount of spinel may be present also. In the case of the 18Cr-8Ni alloy the spinel contains some Ni. The nodules are principally αFe2O3 or a low chrome ferric-chromic oxide solution and contain somewhat more spinel than does the base film. 3.2.3
Cavity Formation in Iron Oxide
Authors: JUENKER D. W. , MEUSSNER R. A. , BIRCHENALL C. E.
Published: July 2014

A study is made of the deep oxidation of iron at high temperatures and in an oxygen atmosphere. Large cavities are always found in specimens whose total oxygen content has been brought to that of FeO. The scale thickness of such specimens, along with other evidence, implies that FeO is plastic in the temperature range in which it is stable, while one or both of the higher oxides is relatively rigid. Evidence is presented which indicates that iron is transported to its surrounding scale with little or no body diffusion path; the mechanism involved is not identified. An expression, analogous to the parabolic rate law for scaling of plane specimens, is developed for application to cylindrical geometry. 3.2.3
Records Related to a Natural Gas Distribution Corrosion Control Program★
Authors: HILL LEONARD C.
Published: July 2014

This paper is concerned with general policy procedure and useful recording of data relative to corrosion control in some 169 retail distribution systems. Some 115 of these systems are all painted and wrapped and under complete cathodic protection; the remaining 54 towns are spot protected. Since 1944 all new construction has been painted and wrapped, isolated into convenient sections, all meter sets insulated and cathodic protection applied. Recording procedure is discussed and illustrated as is also the manner in which leakage data are kept.

Annual current and potential surveys are made by a corrosion technician and monthly potential checks are made by district personnel. Occasional training schools are responsible for the satisfactory maintenance of protection by district personnel with a minimum of assistance from corrosion technicians. Illustrations of data use and records are discussed.

Practical aspects of this program are considered briefly although cost records are not specifically discussed. 8.4.2
A New Inorganic Cement Mortar For Sulfuric Acid Service★
Authors: MERCER ROBERT S.
Published: July 2014

Silicate cement mortars, consisting of a chemically inert solid filler containing a fluoride setting agent and a liquid sodium or potassium silicate binder, have been used for many years in acid-proof construction for high temperature, strong acid service. While silicate cements have performed well under unusually tough conditions, they are not without their shortcomings in sulfuric acid service. Instances of corrosive attack are explained by breakdown of the setting agent and hydrate or alum formation.

A new material of construction, a silica cement mortar, has been developed which shows promise in sulfuric acid service. The binder is a silica sol instead of a solution of a sodium or potassium silicate which is alkaline. The setting agent permits an orderly gelation of silica resulting in a strong mortar.

Unit cell dimensions are given for a number of sulfates and alums. Seven physical properties are listed and compared for sodium silicate mortar, potassium silicate mortar and silica mortar. The comprehensive strengths of these three materials after immersion in sulfuric acid are reported. 6.6.5
Processes of Electrochemical Corrosion★
Authors: AKIMOV G. V.
Published: July 2014

Theoretical considerations involved in determining the potential of hydrogen and oxygen electrodes are reviewed briefly. Overvoltage is discussed in detail. The various connected stages involved in the process of the passage of ions into solution are outlined.

Use is made of the Evans diagram for real processes. In making the study of processes with hydrogen depolarization it was found convenient to use a model of a microelement. A comparison of experimental data obtained with models and from deductions from the Evans diagrams indicates that there was a complete agreement between the theory and experiment for processes with hydrogen depolarization.

Considerable attention was given to the factors affecting the rate of oxygen diffusion to the metal in view of the fact that the rate of corrosion processes with oxygen depolarization is determined mostly by the rate of oxygen diffusion toward the metal surface. A model was used to examine the part played by the electrical resistance of a cell with oxygen depolarization. It was found that it was only when the resistance became very large and the potential difference was close to the initial value that the current started to decrease. Experiments showed also that changing the anodic material did not influence the rate of the cathodic process when it was controlled by the rate of oxygen diffusion to the cathode.

The theory of microcells is examined in detail and a review made of some of the experimental data for processes with hydrogen depolarization. The influence of alloying elements on corrosion rates of metals in various media is discussed. A number of explanations are offered to show why the regularities observed on models are not applicable to corrosion of microelements.

The “difference effect” is discussed in connection with corrosion processes having hydrogen depolarization. Other topics considered include electrochemical cells with differential aeration, corrosion processes in a moisture film, and atmospheric corrosion. Extensive data are reported in 54 figures and 6 tables. 3.6.8
The Corrosion Resistance of Ductile Iron★
Authors: LaQUE F. L.
Published: July 2014

The internal structure of ordinary grey iron, pearlitic ductile iron, ferritic ductile iron, malleable iron and mild steel are compared. Differences in the amount of carbon present and in the form in which it occurs are responsible for some differences in the corrosion behavior of these materials. This is explained on the basis of the electrochemical reactions which occur during corrosion. As corrosion proceeds, the graphite which is present in the cast materials may accumulate as a graphitic layer on the surface. The adherence and permeability of such graphitic layers and their influence on subsequent corrosion and on galvanic behavior are discussed. Corrosion data in acids, in neutral and alkaline solutions, in sea water, in the atmosphere and underground, in miscellaneous environments, and under conditions involving erosion are presented and interpreted in the light of the principles outlined above. By and large, it is concluded that ductile iron has satisfactory corrosion resisting properties which permit its use where grey iron, malleable iron, or steel are regularly employed. 6.2.2
Corrosion Protection for Pipe Type Electric Transmission Lines in the Chicago Area★
Authors: ROSE W. T.
Published: July 2014

Pipe type high voltage transmission lines used in the Chicago area were protected with either an asphalt mastic coating or a reinforced coal tar enamel coating. Both are factory applied. Cathodic protection was then applied to these lines to police the pin holes in the coating. Before cathodic protection could be economically applied, it was necessary to insulate the pipes from the station ground busses. It was also necessary to maintain a low resistance path between the pipes and the ground busses for fault current in the event of a service failure. This was accomplished by using oxide film cutout disc in the ground connections. Both magnesium anodes and a rectifier were used to provide cathodic protection. 7.2
Effect of Increasing the Area of Iron to Zinc On the Rate of Reversal of Potential in a Zinc-Iron System—A Technical Note
Authors: SHULDENER HENRY L. , LEHRMAN LEO
Published: July 2014

It is well known that under certain conditions iron becomes anodic to zinc in water systems. The experimental work carried out on the reversal of potential used a constant zinc to iron area. However, in galvanized pipes carrying water the area of iron exposed varies due to threaded joints, flaws in the zinc coating and solution of the zinc. As the ratio of iron to zinc area is increased it is shown that the reversal of potential is faster. 3.6.4
Corrosion of Refinery Equipment During Acid Cleaning★
Authors: WALSTON K. R. , DRAVNIEKS A.
Published: July 2014

Economical, effective and relatively easy to handle, hydrochloric acid is being widely used as a solvent for chemical cleaning of refinery equipment. Inhibitors must be added to retard corrosion during cleaning operations, but these inhibitors must not prevent dissolution of the scale to be removed. Practical temperature ranges for cleaning are given. The corrosion rate increases exponentially with temperature and with acid concentration. The corrosion .rates of various metals in 5 percent inhibited hydrochloric acid are given. The influence of inhibitors on the rates of dissolution of iron oxides and sulfides are shown.

Four typical cases of corrosion occurring during acid cleaning are discussed with special safety precautions that should be observed during cleaning operations. The influence of commonly present substances such as hydrogen sulfide is shown to increase the rate of corrosion. 5.9.2
Staining of Copper and Brass★
Authors: MATTSSON EINAR
Published: July 2014

Copper alloys are known for their fine lustre and high resistance to corrosion, but they will tarnish under certain conditions. A surface oxidation of the metals normally occurs under the influence of the atmosphere. At elevated temperatures this process may result in colored so-called temper films. The presence of hydrogen sulfide in the atmosphere may accelerate the reaction so that tarnishing occurs even at room temperature.

When copper alloys are exposed to an outside atmosphere a black film will soon form on the surface. After some years, however, the film usually will change to a pleasing green patina.

Ugly dark stains, “water stains,” are formed when copper-base material is left in contact with stationary water for a lengthy period. Such water damage may be caused by rain or condensed moisture in transit or in storage. A similar staining is caused by hygroscopic surface impurities. Typical examples are chlorides coming from tap water that has evaporated on the metal surface, solder residues, hand perspiration, sulfuric acid and dust.

Copper alloys can be protected from corrosion by means of passivating inhibitors, slushing compounds, lacquers or packaging. 6.3.6
Controlling Corrosion In Coal-Chemical Plants★
Authors: LARRABEE C. P. , MATHAY W. L.
Published: July 2014

Data are presented showing the types of constructional materials that are resistant to the many corrosive environments in coal-chemical plants. The protection of structural-steel work by paints is viewed from the standpoint of minimizing maintenance costs. To minimize the corrosive attack, copper steels and high-strength low-alloy steels are frequently used for outside structural-steel work, and stainless steels are used for roofing and siding applications.

Coal-handling equipment, and processing equipment such as primary coolers, tar stills, and light-oil stripping-stills are discussed with regard to the mitigation of corrosion through the proper selection of materials and changes in process conditions. Stainless steels such as AISI Types 304 and 316 were found to be economically resistant to corrosive attack in primary coolers, ammonia saturators, tar stills and light-oil recovery equipment, but should be used only in locations where plant corrosion tests have shown the use of these steels to be justified. 8.8.1
Heat Transfer Through Coated Metal Surfaces★
Authors: LEE ROBERT P.
Published: July 2014

Tests were conducted to determine what effect protective coatings would have on heat transfer of metal surfaces. Experiments involved the use of a 4-mil thick phenolic coating and a 15-mil thick vinyl coating on heat exchangers. It was found that application of thin coatings to such surfaces in low to medium coefficient systems, not only decreases corrosion but also gives higher heat transfer rates than ultimately experienced with corroded, uncoated metal surfaces. This is true even though a somewhat lower heat transfer coefficient exists initially for the coated surface. 7.4.1
Statistical Concepts in The Testing of Corrosion Inhibitors★
Authors: NATHAN C. C. , EISNER E.
Published: July 2014

Workers in the field of corrosion testing have long been familiar with the difficulties in obtaining reproducible data. These difficulties are especially pronounced in mildly corrosive systems in which steel is being protected by corrosion inhibitors of the adsorption type. The present paper discusses tests on both synthetic fluids and actual fluids from producing oil wells. It describes the fluctuations in weight losses of test coupons and the occurrence of accelerated weight losses and increased differential attack or pitting in systems where low concentrations of organic adsorption type inhibitors are employed.

Data from both static and dynamic test systems are analyzed. In particular, the large amount of data collected by laboratories cooperating in the NACE proposed T-1K sour crude inhibitor test have been evaluated. The data are shown to approximate a normal distribution and are treated by methods of statistical analysis. Other systems are discussed in which normal distribution and other types of distribution have been observed.

An explanation is advanced for statistical variations in data obtained from these systems. The explanation is based on present knowledge of adsorption type inhibitors, surface heterogeneities on steel, and interaction between local anodes and cathodes. 5.8.1
Corrosion of Zinc By Differential Aeration★
Authors: BlANCHI G.
Published: July 2014

Tests were made to study the differential aeration corrosion of zinc in molar NaCl solutions under varying conditions of aeration, pH, and length of test time. Test results led to the conclusion that formation of differential aeration macrocells is due to passivity of zinc on the zones of the specimen where cathodic reduction of oxygen takes place, and that the principal process of corrosion is accompanied by local corrosion processes at the cathodic and anodic areas of the macrocell. With buffered solutions which do not permit the passivation of zinc, distribution of corrosion changes radically, a localized attack taking place at the water level line where the oxygen flux is at a maximum.3.6.2