bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Quest for Sophic Sal Ammoniac
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter begins with a survey of the very early material in Newton's “master notebook,” CU Add. 3975 along with Boston Medical Library B MS c41 c. It then performs a systematic examination of CU Add. 3973, Newton's set of chronologically ordered notes for the period from 1678 to at least 1696. These records detail three experimental programs. The first, called “the quest for sophic sal ammoniac,” runs from the beginning of December 1678 until midsummer 1680, when Newton actually discovers the material that he terms “Philosophicum”—philosophical or sophic sal ammoniac. The second begins in August 1682 and consists mostly of a series of tests to determine whether stibnite refined by fusion or the ore as it comes directly out of the mine should be used in preparing Newton's antimonial sublimates. The third program is described in detail in Chapter 16.
A Final Interlude
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

Robert Boyle was one of the most famous scientists in Britain, known for his experimental expertise and for his prominent role in the Royal Society, and also a semicloseted seeker of the philosophers' stone. This chapter considers Newton's relationship with Boyle in the light of both men's attempts to arrive at a “sophic mercury” that would in principle dissolve gold into its primordial constituents and make it possible for the noble metal to “ferment,” as Newton says in his short text of 1692, De natura acidorum. The two major English representatives of public science in the seventeenth century had very different ideas about the path to chrysopoeia, though both, in the end, were alchemists in the fullest sense of the term.
Contested Truths
Authors: Tannous Jack
Published: May 2019

This chapter details how people dealt with doctrinal difference in the post-Chalcedonian Middle East. Some of the ways in which disagreement was handled include violence. Another route a Christian leader might take was persuasion and argument. Indeed, a culture of debate was part of the landscape of this period before the sixth century and well after it; debates might be between Christians and non-Christians, as well as both formal and informal; and it is a traditional scholarly focus on this form of dealing with post-Chalcedonian religious difference that can be credited for giving the impression that the late Roman Middle East was an enormous patristic seminar run amok. The tendency toward dispute was a result of several factors: the religious diversity of the Middle East, coupled with the Christian impulse to mission and conversion, and a belief in the exclusive truth of its religious claims.
Joining (and Leaving) a Muslim Minority
Authors: Tannous Jack
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the most consequential kind of Christian–Muslim interaction: conversion. It considers legitimate and illegitimate reasons for converting from one religion to another. For some Christian leaders, becoming a Muslim was something that people did out of a number of motivations, some of them more unholy than others: in addition to a desire for material benefits or a drive for status and power, there were family or tribal connections that drew people to convert. There was also an attraction to a religious framework that allowed a greater range of human behaviors and activities. People might also become Muslims under compulsion. Tellingly, these leaders could not conceive that a person might convert out of sincere religious motivation. Conversions that took place with reference to doctrines or beliefs were seen as cases where people had been deceived or had acted out of a lack of education and ignorance.
Worldmaking after Empire
Authors: Getachew Adom
Published: May 2019

Decolonization revolutionized the international order during the twentieth century. Yet standard histories that present the end of colonialism as an inevitable transition from a world of empires to one of nations—a world in which self-determination was synonymous with nation-building—obscure just how radical this change was. Drawing on the political thought of anticolonial intellectuals and statesmen such as Nnamdi Azikiwe, W. E. B Du Bois, George Padmore, Kwame Nkrumah, Eric Williams, Michael Manley, and Julius Nyerere, this book reveals the full extent of their unprecedented ambition to remake not only nations but the world. The book shows that African, African American, and Caribbean anticolonial nationalists were not solely or even primarily nation-builders. Responding to the experience of racialized sovereign inequality, dramatized by interwar Ethiopia and Liberia, Black Atlantic thinkers and politicians challenged international racial hierarchy and articulated alternative visions of worldmaking. Seeking to create an egalitarian postimperial world, they attempted to transcend legal, political, and economic hierarchies by securing a right to self-determination within the newly founded United Nations, constituting regional federations in Africa and the Caribbean, and creating the New International Economic Order. Using archival sources from Barbados, Trinidad, Ghana, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, this book recasts the history of decolonization, reconsiders the failure of anticolonial nationalism, and offers a new perspective on debates about today's international order.
From Principle to Right
Authors: Getachew Adom
Published: May 2019

This chapter turns to the United Nations, where anticolonial nationalists staged their reinvention of self-determination, transforming a secondary principle included in the UN Charter into a human right. Through the political thought of Nnamdi Azikiwe, W. E. B. Du Bois, Kwame Nkrumah, and George Padmore, the chapter illustrates that this reinvention drew on a distinctive account of empire as enslavement. The emergence of a right to self-determination is often read as an expansion of an already existing principle in which anticolonial nationalists universalize a Westphalian regime of sovereignty. In contrast to this standard account, the chapter argues that the anticolonial account of self-determination marked a radical break from the Eurocentric model of international society and established nondomination as a central ideal of a postimperial world order.
Knowledge or Conjecture
Authors: Feke Jacqueline
Published: May 2019

This chapter shows how Ptolemy blends an Aristotelian form of empiricism with a Platonic concern for distinguishing knowledge and opinion, and thereby produces a new and subversive epistemology where mathematics is the only science that generates knowledge rather than conjecture. He argues that philosophers will never reach consensus on the nature of physical and theological objects, because these fields of inquiry are, on their own, conjectural. Mathematics, on the other hand, yields sure and incontrovertible knowledge, and its contributions to physics and theology are epistemically efficacious. Mathematics enables a good guess at the nature of the Prime Mover, and it reveals the nature of physical objects. In this way, Ptolemy bolsters the value of mathematics and co-opts the fields of inquiry traditionally studied by philosophers for mathematicians.
Journalists between Hitler and Adenauer
Authors: Berghahn Volker R.
Published: May 2019

This book takes an in-depth look at German journalism from the late Weimar period through the postwar decades. Illuminating the roles played by journalists in the media metropolis of Hamburg, the book focuses on the lives and work of three remarkable individuals: Marion Countess Dönhoff, distinguished editor of Die Zeit; Paul Sethe, “the grand old man of West German journalism”; and Hans Zehrer, editor in chief of Die Welt. All born before 1914, Dönhoff, Sethe, and Zehrer witnessed the Weimar Republic's end and opposed Hitler. When the latter seized power in 1933, they were, like their fellow Germans, confronted with the difficult choice of entering exile, becoming part of the active resistance, or joining the Nazi Party. Instead, they followed a fourth path—“inner emigration”—psychologically distancing themselves from the regime, their writing falling into a gray zone between grudging collaboration and active resistance. During the war, Dönhoff and Sethe had links to the 1944 conspiracy to kill Hitler, while Zehrer remained out of sight on a North Sea island. In the decades after 1945, all three became major figures in the West German media. The book considers how these journalists and those who chose inner emigration interpreted Germany's horrific past and how they helped to morally and politically shape the reconstruction of the country. With fresh archival materials, the book sheds essential light on the influential position of the German media in the mid-twentieth century and raises questions about modern journalism that remain topical today.
Hanseatic Journalism and Its Networks
Authors: Berghahn Volker R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes the broader context of the three journalists' work in Hamburg as one of several media centers in West Germany. It also explores the question of press freedom during the Cold War and of how far journalists were able to enjoy it. After all, the West German Basic Law guaranteed the freedom to write and speak, within the limits of the law, without fear of being arrested and imprisoned. The Nazi era, when these freedoms had been suppressed, was over. Yet there was another constraint: after the war the Federal Republic, having abolished Nazi regimentation of the press, adopted a capitalist economy. This meant that the ultimate freedom to publish rested with the publishers and owners of a particular paper. This is the legal background of the emergence of a free press in West Germany. Many journalists who had experienced “un-freedom” and brutal censorship during the Nazi period now found themselves in the era of the Cold War, with its new conformist pressures, which were personified by Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, for he in many ways embodied the autocratic style that continued to pervade post-1945 West German political culture.
Freedom of Expression in the Twentieth and Early Twenty-First Centuries
Authors: Berghahn Volker R.
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter recounts the struggles faced by the three journalists and places them within the wider scope of press freedom. It also considers the lessons which might be learned from their stories and how they might apply to the twenty-first century. The chapter shows how Paul Sethe, Marion Countess Dönhoff, and Hans Zehrer initially anticipated that the Nazi regime would be short-lived, but when it did last and moved toward unleashing a war of aggression and conquest, it became more and more difficult for them to expect a collapse of the Third Reich. But even the eventual collapse of the Nazi regime did not signal an end to their woes. The chapter argues that three wrestled, as writers and intellectuals, with the question not only of how to build a postwar career but also of how to transmit the experiences and insights that they had gained from the previous two decades of German and European history to their fellow-citizens and the international community, horrified by the now certain knowledge of the unprecedented crimes that had been committed in the Nazi-occupied territories and especially in the Holocaust.
The Making of the Indebted State
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter illustrates a number of basic points that will help contextualize the postwar decline in the incidence of sovereign default by setting this development against a broader historical canvas. It begins by locating the origins of financial power firmly within the state's structural dependence on credit, which has historically given rise to a powerful creditor class. Then, it shows how sovereign debt repayment has always been a highly contentious affair from the very beginning, regularly resulting in intense distributional conflicts between creditors and taxpayers, and protracted power struggles over fiscal policy and democratic representation. Finally, it draws on two early-modern examples—Genoese lending to King Philip II of Spain and the development of the Amsterdam capital market—to show how international lending was made possible in the early-modern period despite the regular recurrence of default and the contested nature of repayment.
From Great Depression to Financial Repression
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers the mass defaults of the Great Depression. The economic shock played a decisive role in depleting foreign-exchange reserves and circumscribing the debtors' ability to pay. However, the economic shock was only part of the story. In fact, the nearly universal resort to unilateral debt moratoriums in the 1930s was made possible at least in part by the relative weakness of the three enforcement mechanisms of debtor compliance, which left dispersed bondholders without the necessary leverage and coordination capacity to keep the debtors solvent while simultaneously imposing discipline on them. The chapter takes a closer look at the moratoriums themselves before turning to the conditions that caused the three enforcement mechanisms to fail. It also summarizes the consequences of the defaults.
The Exception That Proves the Rule
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

On December 23, 2001, Argentina declared a unilateral suspension of payments on $82 billion in public debt, triggering the largest sovereign default in history. This chapter demonstrates how the process leading up to the largest default in history, far from challenging the structural power hypothesis developed in this book, actually confirms it. Argentina, in short, is the exception that proves the rule. To understand why, the chapter takes a closer look at what happened to the three enforcement mechanisms of debtor compliance over the course of the crisis. Initially fully effective, each of them gradually broke down over the course of 2001, making a disorderly Argentine default not only possible but increasingly unavoidable.
Anatomy of a “Holding Operation”
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

By April 2010, Greece was teetering on the brink of bankruptcy. The largest sovereign default in history now loomed as early as May 19, when a massive €8.9 billion bond payment was due. Since Greece's principal lenders were a handful of systemically important French and German banks, each “dangerously overexposed to peripheral countries,” the prospect of a Greek payment suspension and subsequent contagion across the periphery unleashing a crippling continental banking crisis looked particularly unattractive to the French and German governments. This chapter shows how the high concentration of Greece's debt among a number of big banks in the core countries eventually moved the creditor states and the European Central Bank to join forces with the IMF and intervene aggressively on foreign bondholders' behalf, disbursing a series of record-breaking international bailout loans under strict policy conditionality to keep Greece solvent and servicing its external debts.
Shaking Off the Burden
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. The three in-depth case studies of Mexico, Argentina, and Greece showed how the newfound insistence on full and uninterrupted debt service has had far-reaching social implications, leading to a very skewed distribution of adjustment costs between private financiers in the advanced capitalist countries and working people inside the peripheral borrowing countries. The crises in these countries also signaled the start of a new era in international lending; a phase marked by the growing capacity of international creditors to shape the outcomes of major financial disturbances to their own advantage. This has, in turn, greatly undermined the quality of democracy in the debtor states, leading to more intrusive forms of creditor control and greater disregard for established democratic procedures.
Democratization and the Case of Women
Authors: Teele Dawn Langan
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the different social scientific arguments about women's enfranchisement. It evaluates several alternative explanations of women's enfranchisement, such as economic modernization, growth in women's labor force participation, sex ratios, and warfare, that have been generated from scholarship on male democratization. It lays out an alternative argument that links political cleavages and electoral competition to politicians' and suffragists' strategies surrounding suffrage. Drawing on the massive literature on suffrage movements, which has historical and social scientific branches, the theory forms insights into the tensions among suffragists and between suffrage organizations, and outlines the political hurdles that suffragists must overcome to make suffrage bills become law.
The “Clerical Peril” and Radical Opposition to Female Voters in France
Authors: Teele Dawn Langan
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents a case study of women's enfranchisement in France. It considers evidence for the role religious cleavage played in hampering French suffrage politics. It argues that Catholicism influenced both the incentives of leaders in the Radical Party and the motivations of women who were suffragists. The first section delves into the rules governing electoral politics and the groups that were empowered throughout the period. The second section gives a brief introduction to the campaign for women's suffrage in France after 1870. The third section analyzes the failure of suffrage reform in the French legislature. In 1919, when a bill for women's suffrage was debated in the Chamber of Deputies, an amalgamation of Socialists, conservative republicans, some Radicals, and parties of the right brought it to a majority vote. But many among the Radicals, and nearly every member of Georges Clemenceau's cabinet, voted against the measure.
Microfoundations
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren , Kertzer Joshua D.
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents two cross-national survey experiments that explore the relationship between self-monitoring characteristics, beliefs about the efficacy of force, and concerns for reputation for resolve. The first survey consists of two thousand American adults recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk), whereas the second survey is conducted on a nationally representative sample of Israeli Jewish adults. Obtaining almost identical results in each study, the chapter found that the interaction between self-monitoring and general predispositions toward the use of force produces systematic differences in support for the use of force. These findings carry significant implications for the ability of leaders to mobilize domestic support for the use of force: when leaders are able to frame an international conflict in reputational terms, a segment of the population that would not otherwise be convinced about the use of force is likely to become more supportive of military engagement.
Approaches to Testing the Theory with Case Studies
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores historical case studies as part of a layered methodological approach. It uses three observable implications to code a president as believing strongly in the efficacy of force: a preference for higher military spending, a preference for covert military action, and a preference for military solutions over diplomatic ones. Beliefs about the effectiveness of military force capture the president's views regarding use of force in general. Thus, as the theory suggests, those views might affect the propensity to fight for reputation, but that effect is deterministic, because it interacts with the president's self-monitoring disposition. The chapter then explains how evaluating the self-monitoring, hawkishness, and policy recommendations of the presidents' main advisors offers several significant benefits to the research design.
Alexander, Star of Film, Stage, and Novel
Authors: Boardman John
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how Alexander seems to have been ignored as a subject for the movies until after the Second World War, but he was soon on the stage, as in Terence Rattigan's Adventure Story (1949). Soon after, a full-length film, Alexander the Great, was shot in Spain in 1955, starring Richard Burton and Claire Bloom. Alexander has also been a subject for children's films. Maya the Bee was a German book by Waldemar Bousels of 1912. As for novels, Louis Couperus (Dutch, 1863–1923) wrote an Iskander. De roman van Alexander de Grate. Meanwhile, the novels The Alexander Cipher by Will Adams and Sunset Oasis by Baha Taher deals with an Alexander buried at Siwa.
The Unsolid South
Authors: Caughey Devin
Published: May 2019

During the Jim Crow era, the Democratic Party dominated the American South, presiding over a racially segregated society while also playing an outsized role in national politics. This book provides an entirely new understanding of electoral competition and national representation in this exclusionary one-party enclave. Challenging the notion that the Democratic Party's political monopoly inhibited competition and served only the Southern elite, the book demonstrates how Democratic primaries—even as they excluded African Americans—provided forums for ordinary whites to press their interests. Focusing on politics during and after the New Deal, the book shows that congressional primary elections effectively substituted for partisan competition, in part because the spillover from national party conflict helped compensate for the informational deficits of elections without party labels. The book draws on a broad range of historical and quantitative evidence, including archival materials, primary election returns, congressional voting records, and hundreds of early public opinion polls that illuminate ideological patterns in the Southern public. Defying the received wisdom, this evidence reveals that members of Congress from the one-party South were no less responsive to their electorates than members from states with true partisan competition. Reinterpreting a critical period in American history, this book reshapes our understanding of the role of parties in democratic theory and sheds critical new light on electoral politics in authoritarian regimes.
Battle for the Stone Age
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter relates the story of how the discovery and spread of scientific knowledge regarding Stone-Age humans and their cultures profoundly changed understandings of anthropology at the time. In this version of the birth of human nature, an evolutionary leap had taken place through the tight interaction of several factors—increased brain size, bipedialism, family structure, a new ecology of life on the savannah, hunting and access to meat, and language—all caught in a maelstrom of positive feedback that resulted in the modern human. In the meantime, new fossil finds had revealed that Australopithecus, with a brain case about one-third the size of modern humans, appeared to use weapons and exhibited something that resembled proto-culture (both assertions were controversial). New primatological evidence, too, demonstrated that baboon and chimpanzee behavior were more complicated than anthropologists had previously thought possible. The former bright line between human and animal thus seemed more like a hazy stripe.
The Human Animal
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter turns to the work of Konrad Lorenz. Primarily interested in the scientific study of animal behavior, Lorenz believed that understanding how and why animals behave the way they do would shed light on the predicament of human behavior and the problem of nuclear escalation. Whereas Ardrey had lumped together hunting, cannibalism, and murderous rage into a single entity that defined humanity, Lorenz carefully distinguished the hunger associated with the killing of other species for food (an interspecific behavior) from (intraspecific) aggression inherent to killing a member of one's own species. Hunters and warriors were not the same thing—and between them, Lorenz was interested in only the latter. One of the deepest intellectual splits between Ardrey and Lorenz concerned the timing and causality of man's relationship with tools of war: whereas Ardrey insisted that the accidental discovery of weapons drove our intellectual and social development as humans (the weapon made the man), Lorenz flipped these, asserting the far more commonly held belief that early humans self-consciously developed weapons as tools for hunting.
The White Problem in America
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter turns to anthropological efforts to approach the question of violence in American cities, which is inextricably entwined with preconceptions about race. At issue were the root causes of urban unrest, why it had started, and ultimately who should be held responsible. Analogical reasoning from anthropological studies of other cultures and zoological explorations of violence in animals played an important role in these debates which attempted to make sense of the social chaos of the time. This chapter presents arguments that present social policies were dividing the country into ever-more separate societies, with white society itself being the one to instigate and condone such situations.
The Old Determinism
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores the increasingly heated debates over sociobiology. These debates within academic circles had polarized into arguments over nature versus nurture, biology versus culture, as the primary determinants of why humans behave the way we do. Scientists on both sides of the issue accused the other of allowing politics to interfere with clear-headed scientific analysis. Sociobiology's critics mobilized out of a concern that sociobiologists were using their authority as scientists to advance ideas and concepts that at best lacked rigorous proof and at worst reframed social policy in the language of natural order. That sociobiologists did not intend for their theories to be used as the basis for social policy was irrelevant. If the not-so-Cold War had taught scientists anything, sociobiologists' detractors argued, it should have been that they had a moral obligation to choose their research topics carefully. This precept extended to conflicts at home, where courts and politicians used biological and anthropological research to prop up discriminatory social policies, they suggested, as well as abroad, where the efforts of scientists in creating bombs and other weapons of war were deployed to devastating effect.
Leaks, Hacks, and Scandals
Authors: El-Ariss Tarek
Published: May 2019

In recent years, Arab activists have confronted authoritarian regimes both on the street and online, leaking videos and exposing atrocities, and demanding political rights. This book situates these critiques of power within a pervasive culture of scandal and leaks and shows how cultural production and political change in the contemporary Arab world are enabled by digital technology, yet emerge from traditional cultural models. Focusing on a new generation of activists and authors from Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula, the book connects WikiLeaks to The Arabian Nights, Twitter to mystical revelation, cyberattacks to pre-Islamic tribal raids, and digital activism to the affective scene-making of Arab popular culture. It shifts the epistemological and historical frameworks from the postcolonial condition to the digital condition and shows how new media challenge the novel as the traditional vehicle for political consciousness and intellectual debate. Theorizing the rise of “the leaking subject” who reveals, contests, and writes through chaotic yet highly political means, the book investigates the digital consciousness, virality, and affective forms of knowledge that jolt and inform the public and that draw readers in to the unfolding fiction of scandal. The book maps the changing landscape of Arab modernity, or Nahda, in the digital age and traces how concepts such as the nation, community, power, the intellectual, the author, and the novel are hacked and recoded through new modes of confrontation, circulation, and dissent.
Moving the Needle
Authors: Carnes Nicholas
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the growing body of research on the oversized political influence of the upper class in American politics and the somewhat checkered recent history of conventional political equality reforms like campaign finance laws, lobbying regulations, and programs to increase voter turnout. Whereas these kinds of programs have encountered numerous practical and political roadblocks, pilot efforts to recruit and support working-class candidates have been remarkably successful. Activists who want to give the less fortunate more of a say in American politics have always had a curious blind spot when it comes to helping the less fortunate hold office. It may be time for that to change. If reformers want to continue moving the needle on the problem of political inequality, one of their best bets may be to start paying attention to America's cash ceiling.
The Revolution
Authors: Hoffman Philip T. , Postel-Vinay Gilles , Rosenthal Jean-Laurent
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the French Revolution's impact on credit markets and the long-term implications for lending. It begins with the revolution's fundamental institutional reforms, which shaped credit markets for the rest of the nineteenth century. The chapter analyzes the effect of the reforms and the consequences of the revolutionary inflation—this entails looking at how borrowers and lenders reacted, both in the short and long run. It also involves examining shifts in their demand for notaries' services, whether to draw up contracts if clients were illiterate, or to secure loans with collateral. Finally, the chapter examines the difficulty that borrowers and lenders had in the peer-to-peer matching markets where only a few loans were made each month.
Networks of Knowledge
Authors: Hoffman Philip T. , Postel-Vinay Gilles , Rosenthal Jean-Laurent
Published: May 2019

This chapter explains how, in the wake of the French Revolution's devastating inflation, local, peer-to-peer credit markets recuperated slowly. After such enormous losses, conditions for lending were hardly promising. Worse yet, one of the major revolutionary reforms that would eventually bolster credit markets—the Hypothèques registers created to record liens—took decades to take hold, particularly outside Paris. Yet despite these obstacles, credit markets did grow outside Paris and they did so substantially. By 1840, the stock of debt outside Paris exceeded its Old Regime peak. Clearly, the three decades between 1807 and 1840 was a time when notarial credit revived and expanded.
Uzbekistan
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores the national economy and transition strategies of Uzbekistan. At independence Uzbekistan inherited important assets, including the best civil aircraft fleet, the military command, and the best administrative capacity in Central Asia. Indeed, during the 1990s, Uzbekistan was the most successful of all Soviet successor states in terms of limiting the fall in output, and in the early 2000s it became the first former Soviet republic to regain its pre-independence level of GDP. Uzbekistan was fortunate that world cotton prices increased substantially after independence, providing the resources to maintain public services, and when cotton prices fell in 1996 the government overreacted by introducing foreign exchange controls. A new phase of Uzbekistan's economic development dates from the termination of forex controls at the end of 2003.
Tajikistan
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on the national economy and transition strategies of Tajikistan. Tajikistan is the only Central Asian country whose political transition from Soviet republic to independent nation was not peaceful. Open civil war in 1992–1993 simmered on for several years before peace negotiations led to the June 1997 Agreement on Peace and National Reconciliation. Moreover, Tajikistan was the poorest republic in the Soviet Union, with the highest proportion of under-provisioned households. During the 1990s, economic progress was massively disrupted by the civil war, which completed the destruction of central planning but prevented introduction of institutions such as the rule of law and contract enforcement that are essential for a well-functioning market economy. The rapid growth that could be expected in the recovery from civil war did not begin until 2000, and Tajikistan remains the poorest country in Central Asia.
Multiplying Status Locations
Authors: Brint Steven
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines how, in the college-for-all era, colleges and universities simultaneously maintained and expanded high-status tracks and locations. In most cases the mechanisms that colleges used to encourage high-achieving and motivated students reinforced rather than redistributed family-related social advantages. These mechanisms ranged from increased levels of selectivity in the country's elite colleges and the maintenance of rigorous standards in quantitative majors to the addition of new honors and leadership programs. By multiplying status locations on campus, colleges and universities maintained and invented new hierarchies of privilege even as they accommodated intensifying demands for democratization and equity. Diversity was desirable so long as it did not harm white upper-middle-class students' own opportunities.
The Priorities of Patrons
Authors: Brint Steven
Published: May 2019

This chapter talks about the priorities that patrons expressed and the consequences of their largesse, focusing on the three giants of giving: the federal government, the fifty states, and million-dollar-plus donors. It argues that the priorities of patrons tended to favor fields that were closely aligned with power centers in American society—many connected to technological innovation—and their financial aid preferences tipped decidedly in the direction of support for middle-class and affluent college students. Less well-connected fields and financially needy students were not neglected by patrons, but support for them failed to keep pace. By contrast, most professors identified with the structures of academic professionalism, and a large proportion also supported the universities' aspirations for wider social inclusion.
Foundations of Cooperation
Authors: Laland Kevin N.
Published: May 2019

This chapter reveals that there is strong evidence that the large-scale cooperation observed solely in human societies arises because of our uniquely potent capacities for social learning, imitation, and teaching, combined with the coevolutionary feedbacks that these capabilities have generated on the human mind. Culture took human populations down evolutionary pathways not available to noncultural species, either by creating conditions that promoted established cooperative mechanisms, such as indirect reciprocity and mutualism; or by generating novel cooperative mechanisms not seen in other taxa, such as cultural group selection. In the process, gene–culture coevolution seemingly generated an evolved psychology, comprising an enhanced ability and motivation to learn, teach, communicate through language, imitate, and emulate, as well as predispositions to docility, social tolerance, and the sharing of goals, intentions, and attention. The chapter concludes that this evolved psychology is entirely different from that observed in any other animal, or that could have evolved through genes alone.
Reading Machiavelli
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: May 2019

To what extent was Machiavelli a “Machiavellian”? Was he an amoral adviser of tyranny or a stalwart partisan of liberty? A neutral technician of power politics or a devout Italian patriot? A reviver of pagan virtue or initiator of modern nihilism? This book answers these questions through original interpretations of Niccolò Machiavelli's three major political works—The Prince, Discourses, and Florentine Histories—and demonstrates that a radically democratic populism seeded the Florentine's scandalous writings. The book challenges the misguided understandings of Machiavelli set forth by prominent thinkers, including Jean-Jacques Rousseau and representatives of the Straussian and Cambridge schools. It emphasizes the fundamental, often unacknowledged elements of a vibrant Machiavellian politics: the utility of vigorous class conflict between elites and common citizens for virtuous democratic republics, the necessity of political and economic equality for genuine civic liberty, and the indispensability of religious tropes for the exercise of effective popular judgment. Interrogating the established reception of Machiavelli's work by such readers as Rousseau, Leo Strauss, Quentin Skinner, and J.G.A. Pocock, the book exposes what was effectively an elite conspiracy to suppress the Florentine's contentious, egalitarian politics. In recovering the too-long-concealed quality of Machiavelli's populism, this book acts as a Machiavellian critique of Machiavelli scholarship. Advancing fresh renderings of works by Machiavelli while demonstrating how they have been misread previously, the book presents a new outlook for how politics should be conceptualized and practiced.
Vulgarity and Virtuosity
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter presents an overview of the crucial themes within Machiavelli's three major political writings: The Prince, the Discourses and the Florentine Histories. It challenges what is considered to be misguided interpretive efforts offered by three illustrious, widely influential appraisals of the Florentine's work. Furthermore, the chapter substantiates Machiavelli's consistent advocacy for a new form of muscular, populist politics conveyed across his three greatest works. It also details how and why major interpretive schools of Machiavelli's political thought have either missed or deliberately obscured the radical extent of the Florentine's decidedly democratic form of republicanism. The chapter tackles suspect engagements with Machiavelli's political thought undertaken by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Leo Strauss, and scholars affiliated with the Cambridge School.
The Passion of Duke Valentino
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: May 2019

This chapter demonstrates how Machiavelli's narrative of Cesare Borgia's career—to which he devotes more space than any other in The Prince—is presented as a story in which a holy father sends his son to redeem, and to bring peace to, his people. All of a sudden, religious tropes or images jump out and impose themselves on the reader in potentially subversive ways: one begins to discern the presence of the crucifixion, the transfiguration, a circumcision, a bloody sacrifice that atones for political sins, an empty tomb, even St. Paul—all of which signify Machiavelli's beliefs concerning the appropriate covenants that should characterize prince-people relationships.
On the Myth of a Conservative Turn in the Florentine Histories
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: May 2019

This chapter argues that the people must assert their necessary, salutary role as the guardian of liberty against predatory oligarchs and tyrants. It suggests that once readers appreciate that one of the most frequently quoted passages in the entire Florentine Histories occurs just a mere few paragraphs after Machiavelli has demonstrated this to be a deeply inaccurate assessment of events, they are encouraged to begin rethinking the entire relationship of words and deeds in that book—a reconsideration which reveals that Machiavelli, perhaps more often than not, seems to undermine his own expressly declared evaluative judgments throughout the entire Histories. The chapter also shows how pleasurable, perplexing, and beguiling the careful reading of Machiavelli's political writings can be.
Leo Strauss’s Machiavelli and the Querelle between the Few and the Many
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes Leo Strauss' engagement with the democratic elements of Niccolò Machiavelli's political thought; specifically, Machiavelli's self-avowed departure from the ancients in favoring the political judgment and participation of the many over the few, and in recommending the people, rather than the nobles, as the ultimate foundation for political authority. It identifies several of Strauss' misinterpretations of Machiavelli's democratic, anti-elitist republicanism and explores tensions and discrepancies within Strauss' reconstruction of Machiavelli's political-philosophical project. Furthermore, Strauss exaggerates Machiavelli's criticisms of peoples and underplays his criticisms of the nobilities within republics. Strauss marshals instances of elite-popular interactions in the Discourses that purportedly demonstrate Machiavelli's preference for elite intervention and manipulation over popular participation and judgment.
Pengaruh Pengetahuan Pemilik, Skala Usaha, dan Umur Usaha terhadap Keberhasilan Kinerja Usaha dengan Penggunaan Informasi Akuntansi sebagai Variabel Moderasi (Survei pada Pemilik Usaha UKM Makanan Khas di Kabupaten Banyumas)
Authors: Utami Hastin Tri
Published: May 2019

This study aimed to determine the influence of ownerâ€™s knowledge, business scale, busines life partially toward the success of business performance and also to determine the influence of ownerâ€™s knowledge, business scale, business life partially toward the success of business performance with using of accounting information as moderating variable.
The population of this study is SMEâ€™s (Small Medium Enterprises) owners of Banyumas specialty food. Sample determining is using purposive sampling method. The respondents consist of 64 business owners. Hypotheses testing of this study use multiple linear regression and Moderated Regression Analysis (MRA).
Based on the research result and data analysis using multiple linear regression and MRA show that : (1) ownerâ€™s knowledge has positive significant influence to the success of business performance; (2) business scale has positive significant influence to the success of business performance; (3) business life has positive significant influence to the success of business performance; (4) using of accounting information moderated positively toward the relationship of owner knowledge to the success of business performance; (5) using of accounting information moderated positively toward the relationship of business scale to the success of business performance; (6) using of accounting information moderated positively toward the relationship of business life to the success of business performance.
The limitation of this study are: (1) independent variables only focus on internal business factors such as ownerâ€™s knowledge, business scale, and business life; (2) situational factor which is used as moderating variable in this study only one situational factor that is using of accounting information.
Pengaruh Tingkat Suku Bunga, Tingkat Bagi Hasil, Likuiditas, Inflasi, Ukuran Bank, dan Pertumbuhan Produk Domestik Bruto terhadap Deposito Mudharabah Bank Umum Syariah di Indonesia
Authors: Sholikha Akhris Fuadatis
Published: May 2019

The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of interest rates, the level of profit sharing, liquidity, inflation, the size of the company, and the growth of gross domestic product simultaneously and partially on mudaraba deposits at Islamic Commercial Banking in Indonesia. This study conduct quantitative research with hypothesis testing on secondary data in term of time series on the quartely financial statements starting from the first quarter of 2011 to fourth quarter of 2014. The reserach sample is six Islamic Commercial Banking in Indonesia. The data analysis technique in this study are descriptive analysis, classical assumption test, multiple regression analysis, hypothesis test uses F test, and t test. The result showed that variable of interest rates, the level of profit sharing, liquidity, inflation, the size of the company, and the growth of gross domestic product simultaneously significant influence on mudaraba deposits at Islamic Commercial Banking in Indonesia. while partially variable of the level of profit sharing, and the size of the company positivelly significant influence on mudaraba deposits at Islamic Commercial Banking in Indonesia, but interest rates, liquidity, inflation, and the growth of gross domestic product does not  significant influence on mudaraba deposits at Islamic Commercial Banking in Indonesia.
PENGARUH MODEL PROBLEM BASED LEARNING BERBANTU PETA KONSEP TERHADAP HASIL BELAJAR SISWA SMA
Authors: Simatupang Mardiana Afriany , Simatupang Sehat
Published: May 2019

This study aims to determine the effect of the use of problem-based learning model-assisted learning concept maps on learning outcomes of students in the subject matter of dynamic power in the second half of class X SMA Negeri Medan FY 14 2013/2014. This research is a quasi-experiment with the entire population of students in grade 14 class X SMA Negeri Medan, amounting to 9 classes. The study sample consisted of two classes defined by cluster random sampling technique, which is a class X IPA-3 by using a model-assisted learning problem based learning concept maps and IPA-2 class X using conventional learning models. The instrument used in this study was twofold: 1) achievement test in the form of multiple choice with 5 possible answers of 20 questions that have been declared valid by the validator. 2) observation sheet student learning activities. The average value of student activities for learning problem-based learning model with the concept of classified active-assisted map. Based on the t test at significance level α = 0.05 level, we could say that there is an influence model of learning problem-based learning-assisted concept mapping on learning outcomes of students in the subject matter of dynamic electric field in SMA 14 TA 2013/2014. Keywords   :         problem based learning, concept maps, learning outcomes, activities.
PENGEMBANGAN PROGRAM PEMBELAJARAN BERBASIS PENDEKATAN PEMBELAJARAN SAINTIFIK UNTUK MENINGKATKAN KETERAMPILAN GENERIK SAINS CALON GURU FISIKA
Authors: Wahyuni Ida , Amdani Khairul , Harahap Mukti Hamjah
Published: May 2019

ABSTRAK Sesuai tujuan utama penelitian telah disusun perangkat pembelajaran untuk beberapa komptensi dasar mata kuliah Fisika Umum dengan model-model pembelajaran berbasis karakter untuk meningkatkan karakter dan hasil belajar mahasiswa (yang meliputi: pembelajaran berdasarkan masalah, pembelajaran kooperatif dengan berbagai type, dan inquiry training. Jenis penelitian adalah penelitian pengembangan. Perangkat  pembelajaran yang disusun meliputi (1) silabus, (2) rencana pelaksanaan pembelajaran (RPP), (3) bahan ajar, (4) lembar kerja mahasiswa (LKM), dan (5) pedoman/alat evaluasi. Target khusus yang ingin dicapai adalah (1) peningkatan hasil belajar mahasiswa, dan (2) mengembangkan karakter mahasiswa antara lain sikap jujur, tanggung jawab, disiplin,  berlaku hormat, kerjasama, kemampuan berkomunikasi dan kreativitas.   Kata Kunci : Program Pembelajaran Berbasis Pendekatan Saintifik (P2BPS), keterampilan generik sains