bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Service Strategies
Authors: Batt Rosemary
Published: September 2009

This article first reviews the alternative theoretical approaches to human resource management that have been developed in the academic literature and discusses why these need to incorporate conceptual advances from services' marketing and operations management. Here, it also discusses the evidence regarding what strategies lead to better service and sales, under what conditions, and why. It then examines alternative organizational models that rely on outsourcing and supply chain management for customer service and sales and the arguments for and against these approaches. The next section reviews real world trends: what strategies are companies actually pursuing and what are the results for consumers and employees? The article closes with conclusions about the future direction of service management strategies and the role of HRM in them.
Critical Theory Beyond Habermas
Authors: Scheuerman William E.
Published: September 2009

This article analyses the changes in critical theory after Jürgen Habermas. It suggests that recent Habermasian attempts to tackle the normative and institutional quagmires of globalization offer a useful test for determining whether the paradigm of deliberative democracy should continue to occupy the energies of critical theorists. It contends that while Habermas-inspired deliberative democracy has undoubtedly enriched the ongoing debate about the prospects of transnational governance, it remains both programmatically and conceptually tension-ridden.
The Political Theory of Classical Greece
Authors: Frank Jill
Published: September 2009

This article explores the conception of political theory in classical Greece. It discusses the works of classical political theorists Homer, Plato, and Aristotle and suggests that their works provide the best answers to the fundamental questions of politics. Modern and contemporary political theorists, like the Greeks, are also concerned with the possibilities, responsibilities, and the limitations of a political life. However, while modern theorists orient their analyses of the political to one particular axis of inquiry, the Greeks theorized politics by drawing all of these axes together.
In the Beginning, All the World was America: American Exceptionalism in New Contexts
Authors: Schmidt Ronald J.
Published: September 2009

This article considers the concept of the so-called American exceptionalism in new contexts. It explains that American exceptionalism is a highly adaptable narrative for commentators on the political culture of the U.S. was first coined in the mid-twentieth century as part of an attempt by social scientists to explain the lack of a revolutionary socialist response to the failures of industrial capitalism in the Great Depression. The article suggests that rather than reversing or redeeming American exceptionalism, the theorist must now confront it and find new ways to read the role played by the U.S. in a new century, and refuse to be tempted by the easy and apolitical escape of identifying the one true and essential American soul.
The People
Authors: Canovan Margaret
Published: September 2009

This article analyses the notion of the ‘the people’ in contemporary political theory. It explains that the people's authority is considered to confer legitimacy upon constitutions, new regimes, and changes to the borders of states. It discusses the attribution of ultimate political authority to the people and investigates how the people came to have an authoritative status. It also analyses whether the repository of the ultimate political authority is a collective entity, a collection of individuals, or both.
Democracy and Citizenship: Expanding Domains
Authors: Saward Michael
Published: September 2009

This article analyses some key recent threads in the debate about the meaning and scope of democracy and citizenship in contemporary political theory. It uses the frame of expanding domains to link the two concepts together in order to determine the impact that different innovations in democratic thinking have on the conception of citizenship. It also explores the ways which elements of contemporary innovative conceptions of democracy seek to reconstruct and reconstruct the concept of citizens and citizenship.
Justice, Luck, and Desert
Authors: Olsaretti Serena
Published: September 2009

This article examines the relation among luck, justice, and desert in the context of contemporary political theory. The distinctive feature of the conventional view of desert-based justice consists in its claim that we deserve on the basis of our achievements, the outcome of our actions, or the quality of our performances. One challenge to the conventional view's treatment of the relation between justice, luck, and desert comes from those who hold that desert-based justice is compatible with more luck than is allowed by the conventional view.
From International to Global Justice?
Authors: Brown Chris
Published: September 2009

This article examines the concepts of international and global justice. It explains that the former implicates on the relations of states or nations while the latter focuses on justice for humanity taken as a whole. The article explores the traditional agenda of international versus global justice and evaluates the impact of globalization and the hyper-power position achieved by the U.S. on the conception of justice in the international scene.
Political Theory and the Environment
Authors: Meyer John M.
Published: September 2009

This article examines the relation between political theory and environmental policy. It describes characteristics that seem to distinguish contemporary environmental political theory and evaluates how the project of environmental political theory might be usefully construed in the future. It suggests that the work of contemporary environmental political theory is to grapple with the relative merits of a wide variety of potential strategies for reconciling forms of democracy and environmentalism. It explains that the question of democracy's relationship to environmental concern is a multifaceted one that has no easy, self-congratulatory answers.
Emergence of Schools of Public Policy: Reflections by a Founding Dean
Authors: Allison Graham
Published: September 2009

This article provides an insider's view of the appearance of one school of public policy and several thoughts on its developments. It includes an overview of the schools of public policy, from its roots as a distinct profession, to the growth of professional graduate schools in the 1970s. It finally provides a personal perspective on the arrival of the Kennedy School of Government, which became widely recognized as the fourth among Harvard's major professional schools by 1989.
Policy Impact
Authors: Van den Bosch Karel , Cantillon Bea
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the impact of policy, starting with a review of a number of approaches that can be used in the study of policy impacts. It looks at the impact of tax-and-transfer systems on income inequality and poverty, as well as the impact of public transfers of different activities, such as labor market participation and informal care. These two areas experience unwanted effects from welfare state programs, thus they discourage people from working, and even crowd out informal care by relatives and friends. In order to clarify this issue, related evidence is presented in this article.
Policy Dynamics
Authors: Bardach Eugene
Published: September 2009

This article discusses policy dynamics, which involves an understanding of change. It explains some of the key concepts in systems analysis that are important for understanding dynamics. It then deals with dynamic processes that are dominated by negative feedback, followed by processes that are dominated by positive feedback. A brief description of the dynamic processes that unfold in only one direction is provided. The article concludes with a list of possible areas of future research.
Policy Analysis as Organizational Analysis
Authors: Friedman Barry L.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses organizational analysis and the insights that it can provide to policy analysis. It stresses that private organizations have an innovative role in developing programs in order to further their vision of social change, as well as providing feedback effects. This supports the point that a complete policy analysis must consider social policy innovations both in and out of government, as well as the influence of government and organizations on policies. The article also looks at the information problems that arise in the many services that have complex outcomes that are difficult to measure.
Institutional Constraints on Policy
Authors: Immergut Ellen M.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the institutional constraints on policy. It shows that there is a historical and theoretical affinity between institutional theory and policy theory: institutions have affected policies, and policies have changed people's understandings of institutions. The article looks at the impact of research on public policies on the development of institutional theory. It also examines the implications of institutional theory for the development of public policies.
Democratizing the Policy Process
Authors: Fung Archon
Published: September 2009

This article discusses part of a challenge for democratic theory and practice, where the characteristic deficits of the conventional representative and professionalized policy-making process are highlighted. It suggests how the novel combinations of representation and administration, along with participation and deliberation, can address those deficits. The article also provides an exploration survey, where several ways of participation and deliberation can meet the shortcomings of a minimal representative policy process. The subset of solutions that deepen democratic engagement is the focus of the other sections in the article.
Ethical Dimensions of Public Policy
Authors: Shue Henry
Published: September 2009

This article looks at the ethical dimensions of public policy. The sections in this article try to illustrate some of the major points on which public policy unavoidably makes ethical judgments. Time, inequality of benefit, and benefit of harm are some of the points discussed in the article. The article shows that these judgments can be made using media fashion, conventional wisdom, public opinion, religious tradition, personal bias, or systematic ethical analysis as a basis.
Policy Modeling
Authors: Crawford Neta C.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses policy modeling. A brief summary of some of the main strategic nuclear beliefs and arguments that were held in USA during the Cold War is provided in the first section. The article reviews the origins of systems analysis and summarizes the core beliefs that underpin the practice. It explores the abstract and formal world of systems analysis by reviewing some of the basic techniques and then discusses the ‘scientific seduction’ of operations research and systems analysis. The article concludes with the question of the consequences of systems analysis: how nuclear abstractions made the world.
Social Experimentation for Public Policy
Authors: Weiss Carol Hirschon , Birckmayer Johanna
Published: September 2009

This article discusses and considers the nature of social experiments that have been conducted for the past four decades. It provides a review of the efforts of many social scientists and economists to develop systematic empirical evidence about the likely advantages and disadvantages of specific policy proposals via the conduct of social experiments. The article also studies the advantages and disadvantages of social experiments and attempts to incorporate the current trend into the future of social experimentation.
Choosing Governance Systems
Authors: Young Oran R.
Published: September 2009

This article looks at the public choices that feature in the creation of governance systems or institutional arrangements. It emphasizes the added value that can be derived from supplementing the normal focus on the national level with comparative studies of the formation, implementation, and adaptation of these regimes that happens at the local and international levels. One section in this article explores the insights about the policy process that arise from this approach to public choice. Another section focuses on the questions that can be raised about the practical implications of these insights.
Reflections on Policy Analysis
Authors: Klein Rudolf , Marmor Theodore
Published: September 2009

This article discusses different reflections on policy analysis. It provides a proposal that the policies advanced and implemented by governments actually reflect their larger concerns about gaining and maintaining office legitimately. It is then argued that the individual policy outputs should be interpreted using the context of the overall policy portfolio. The article also explores the importance of taking into account the historical dimension when public policy is analysed. It then examines the promise and perils of cross-national analysis, as well as its role to check on overdetermined national explanations of why governments do what they do. The article concludes with the case of eclecticism in public policy analysis.
Elaborating the “New Institutionalism”
Authors: March James G. , Olsen Johan P.
Published: September 2009

This article expands on ideas that were presented over two decades ago in the article ‘The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life’. Here, some theoretical ideas were suggested that clarify certain aspects of the role of institutions in political life. This article aims to continue on elaborating the ideas presented in the aforementioned article, and does not try to replace more comprehensive reviews of the different institutionalisms, their comparative advantages, and the controversies in the field.
Rational Choice Institutionalism
Authors: Shepsle Kenneth A.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the institutional arrangements of rational choice institutionalism, as well as the patterns and regularities that they produce. It reviews several theoretical ways that institutions are interpreted by rational choice theorists, and then surveys the progress made in understanding structured and unstructured institutions. This article also studies the limitations of rational choice institutionalism.
Network Institutionalism
Authors: Ansell Chris
Published: September 2009

This article seeks to provide a broad interdisciplinary overview of network institutionalism. It clarifies the meaning of the term ‘network’ and includes a brief survey of the techniques used to analyze networks. The article then focuses on five substantive domains where network institutionalism has been prominent, including markets and organizations.
The State and State-Building
Authors: Jessop Bob
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the state, which has been studied from many angles. However, it has been deemed that no single theory can completely capture and explain its complexities. The article begins by addressing the question: what is the state? It then moves on to trace the origins of the state and state-building, and discuss Karl Marx's various approaches to the state. The rest of the article is devoted to identifying the state-centered theories and the Foucauldian, feminist, and ‘strategic-relational’ approaches. Discourse analysis and the stateless state theory are introduced in the chapter as well.
Analyzing Constitutions
Authors: Shane Peter M.
Published: September 2009

This article looks at constitutions. The status and function of constitutions are discussed in the first section of the chapter. It then discusses implementing key founding bargains and structuring the exercise of power. The next sections talk about creating affirmative government obligations, constitutional interpretation and change, the modes of argument, and interpretation and legitimacy. The article ends with several directions for future research on the subject.
Territorial Institutions
Authors: Thoenig Jean-Claude
Published: September 2009

This article presents dominant approaches that structure knowledge about center-periphery relationships. It also summarizes key findings from a comparative perspective. The first section views territory as a social and political construct, and then pinpoints the various contemporary issues. This is followed by a discussion of the issues that relate to the nation states and those that relate to beyond the dynamics of nation-states. Other topics discussed in this chapter include interorganizational analysis, political dynamics, and state theories.
Political Parties In and Out of Legislatures
Authors: Aldrich John H.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses political parties, specifically those that are in and out of legislatures. It first views political parties as institutions and moves on to the party systems. It then considers the two major arenas of action for the political party and considers two core questions about the value of the political party for citizens and for politicians.
International Security Institutions: Rules, Tools, Schools, or Fools?
Authors: Duffield John S.
Published: September 2009

This article centres on two issues. The first is with regards to those features that distinguish International Security Institutions (ISIs) from international institutions in other issue areas. The article argues that ISIs may be usefully differentiated on the basis of two fundamental analytical distinctions that are especially relevant, if not unique, to security affairs. The second issue is related to the significance of ISIs. It also examines the four leading theoretical perspectives that provide varying and conflicting assessments of the degree to which international institutions matter.
International NGOs
Authors: Florini Ann
Published: September 2009

This article provides a broad overview of the literature on international non-government organizations (INGOs). The first section presents a historical overview of the rise of INGOs and other non-governmental cross-border ties. It then reviews the definitional debates and research on whether, why, and when these non-governmental bodies grow in importance to the conduct of global affairs. It also looks at the ways and conditions these non-governmental bodies matter.
Candidate Objectives and Electoral Equilibrium
Authors: Duggan John
Published: September 2009

This article looks at the known foundational results on spatial models of elections. The issues of equilibrium existence, the characterization of equilibria (in terms of their social welfare properties), and the distance between equilibrium policy and positions of the candidates are examined. It then discusses the results of the case where candidates are able to give precise predictions of voters' behaviour precisely; the article also introduces the ‘Downsian model’. The article looks at two models of probabilistic voting, before finally moving on to consider the most common objective functions that are used to model the electoral incentives of different types of candidates.
Federalism
Authors: Rodden Jonathan A.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses federalism, and starts by introducing the classical approach to the study of federalism. It then reviews the influential normative approaches in economics during the 1970s and 1980s, as well as some of the empirical literatures that they spawned. The newer positive political economy literature and the resulting empirical work are reviewed also in the article. Finally, the reader is cautioned in drawing policy implications from the new literature as it stands.
Social Choice
Authors: Moulin Hervé
Published: September 2009

This article provides a brief overview of social choice. It concentrates on the interface between traditional notions of endstate justice and the more modern theme of strategic implementation. It outlines a general model of mechanism design and defines the classical notions of procedural and endstate justice in the context of that model. A survey of the extensive research of the last three decades that identify strategy-proof mechanisms in a variety of microeconomic problems is also included in the article.
A Tool Kit for Voting Theory
Authors: Saari Donald G.
Published: September 2009

This article lists down some results that can serve as useful tools to analyze actual elections. It first looks at representing profiles, which enumerate the number of voters who have each ranking of the candidates. Procedure line and hulls are used to provide a display of the different outcomes of computing tallies. The article moves on to the ‘axiomatic representations’ of voting rules, and then looks at how the ‘will of the voters’ is determined. Finally, the theorems of Arrow's, Sen's, and Gibbard-Satterthwaite are discussed.
Fair Division
Authors: Brams Steven J.
Published: September 2009

This article provides a review of the literature on fair division, which has flourished in recent years. It focuses on three different literatures in the field: the allocation of several indivisible goods, the division of a single heterogeneous good, and the division, in whole or in part, of several divisible goods. The article discusses problems that arise in allocating indivisible goods, and highlights the trade-offs that must be made when not all of the criteria of fairness can be satisfied at the same time. It also describes and provides the procedures for dividing divisible goods fairly, which is based on different criteria of fairness.
Structure and Coherence in the Political Economy of Public Finance
Authors: Winer Stanley L. , Hettich Walter
Published: September 2009

The article provides an outline of the economics of the public sector and of its structure when collective choice is regarded as an essential component of the analysis. It identifies the key issues that must be faced by political scientists and economists who insist that collective institutions cannot be ignored in research on taxation and public budgets. It also reviews various alternatives to the median voter model; these alternatives are frameworks that interpret public policies as equilibrium outcomes in a multidimensional setting.
Voting and Efficient Public Good Mechanisms
Authors: Ledyard John
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the processes for the allocation and financing of public goods. It first discusses markets and market processes. It explores whether there are any conditions under which voting processes are good mechanisms for the allocation of and taxing for public goods. It is determined that there are similar results for voting and public goods.
Fiscal Competition
Authors: Wildasin David E.
Published: September 2009

This article studies fiscal competition and provides a brief overview of some of the principal themes that have figured prominently in economic analyses of fiscal competition. It surveys some of the contours of existing research on fiscal competition, provides a working definition of the term ‘fiscal competition’, and identifies significant gaps that need to be studied in the future. The discussion shows how the economic impacts of fiscal policies are dependent on the mobility of the resources to which these policies are applied.
Voting and the Macroeconomy
Authors: Hibbs Douglas A.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses voting and the macroeconomy and focuses on its more important developments. It studies two views of economic voting, which are prospective and retrospective. This is followed by a section on empirical implementation, where pure prospective voting, pure retrospective voting, and prospective voting are introduced. The article also examines individual electoral choices and aggregate vote shares, and clarifies responsibility in macroeconomy.
Inequality
Authors: Glaeser Edward L.
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on the concept of inequality, beginning with its main causes. It reviews the second half of the causal chain between inequality and politics, namely the impact of inequality on government. The review also examines the special question of ‘American exceptionalism’, which refers to the question of why there is less redistribution and more inequality in the USA than in Europe.
Comparative Perspectives on the Role of the State in the Economy
Authors: Wren Anne
Published: September 2009

This article has a comparative perspectives on the role of the state in the economy. It first describes the challenges that are posed to the thesis that state actors possess the instrumental capacity to engage in macroeconomic demand management. It also discusses the literature analyzing the capacity of state actors to effectively intervene on the supply side of the economy to create the conditions for growth, stability, and expansion. The article also presents an outline of how these debates eventually lead to important questions about the relative explanatory power of arguments.
Authoritarian Government
Authors: Haber Stephen
Published: September 2009

This article discusses authoritarian government, and argues that the literature on authoritarianism can be integrated into a unified framework that explains variance in economic performance across dictatorships. It discusses the organizational theory of dictatorship and addresses the question why there are few stationary bandits. The logic of terror, which is the most direct strategy to curb the launching organization, is introduced in one section. This is followed by a study of the logic of co-optation, which is the strategy of co-opting the leadership of a launching organization by buying its loyalty. The final section focuses on the logic of organizational proliferation.
International Political Economy
Authors: Lake David A.
Published: September 2009

This article provides an overview of international political economy (IPE) and an outline of the early origins of the field. It discusses one of the first comprehensive statements regarding the Open Economy Politics (OEP) approach, which adopts the assumptions of neoclassical economics and international trade theory. The article ends with a short discussion of possible areas for future research.
Laboratory Experiments
Authors: Palfrey Thomas R.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses four kinds of political science experiments that use the political theory/formal theory approach. These are committee decision-making, elections and candidate competition, information aggregation, and voter turnout and participation games. Each kind of experiment is examined in detail.
The Evolutionary Basis of Collective Action
Authors: Bowles Samuel , Gintis Herbert
Published: September 2009

This article discusses two problems in the study of political behaviours that support collective action. It reviews recent behavioural experiments documenting the variety and extent of these so called social preferences, as well as the manner in which the existence of individuals — even a minority — can affect group behaviour dramatically. This article shows that repeated interactions and kin-based altruism do not provide an adequate account of the forms of cooperation detected in natural and experimental settings.
Questions about a Paradox
Authors: Arrow Kenneth J.
Published: September 2009

This article addresses the various questions about a paradox, and focuses on personal reflections about contributions to social choice theory and related themes. It considers and provides answers to questions regarding the impossibility theorems, economics, political economy, and methodology. Other miscellaneous questions and their answers are included in this article.
The Future of Analytical Politics
Authors: Hinich Melvin J.
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on serious problems regarding the recent research agenda in political economy that are likely to continue in the future. The first problem discussed is the multidimensional political choices, followed by the lack of equilibrium in political games. This is followed by the lack of common knowledge and the complex non-linear dynamics of the political/economical system. The discussion presented in this article is within the context of electoral politics.
Globalization of the ICT labour force
Authors: Lazonick William
Published: September 2009

This article shows how, over the past four decades or so, the development strategies of the East-Asian nations interacted with the investment strategies of US-based ICT companies to generate a global supply of ICT labour. This process of developing a global ICT labour supply has entailed flows of US capital to East-Asian labour as well as flows of East-Asian labour to US capital. As a result new possibilities to pursue high-tech careers, and thereby develop their productive capabilities, have opened up to vast numbers of individuals in East-Asian nations. Many found the relevant educational programmes and work experience in their home countries. But many gained access to education and experience by following global career paths that included study and work in the US. For the East-Asian nations, the existence of these global career paths has posed a danger of ‘brain drain’: the global career path could come to an end in the US (or another advanced economy) rather than in the country where the individual had been born and bred.
Economic policy analysis and the internet: Coming to terms with a telecommunications anomaly
Authors: David Paul A.
Published: September 2009

This article shows, first, that the problem of congestion which was widely perceived to be a critical economic resource allocation challenge turned out to be largely chimerical; and, second, that economists were quite blasé in proposing solutions for that and other related problems by introducing pricing mechanisms whose implementation required radical engineering modifications to the Internet. The latter, however, would jeopardize, and possibly vitiate, the unique, socially valuable performance capabilities of the system. The third section takes note of the fact that the recommendations for usage-sensitive pricing that were advanced by economists on static and rather narrow ‘efficiency’ grounds probably posed less of an actual threat to the continuation of the end-to-end design principle than the pressures that presently emanate from the private sector. The fourth section addresses the questions of whether, and on what grounds, public policy might be mobilized to protect the architecture of the Internet. The final section concludes with some observations and suggestions regarding future policy-relevant directions for Internet economics.
Internet diffusion and the geography of the digital divide in the United States
Authors: Greenstein Shane , Prince Jeff
Published: September 2009

This article analyses the rapid diffusion of the Internet across the United States over the past decade for both households and firms. It puts the Internet's diffusion into the context of economic diffusion theory where costs and benefits are considered on the demand and supply side. The article also discusses several pictures of the Internet's current physical presence using some of the current main techniques for Internet measurement. It highlights different economic perspectives and explanations for the digital divide, that is, unequal availability and use of the Internet. This article provides an overview of the economic processes underlying the geographic digital divide. This involves two goals — to analyse a specific phenomenon, and to communicate general lessons.
The economics of ICTs: Building blocks and implications
Authors: Steinmueller W. Edward
Published: September 2009

The exploitation of technological and market opportunities in the ICT industries has produced a series of changes in both supply and demand that serve to regulate or channel the rate and direction of industrial growth. The focus of this article is on the micro or building block level, where the programme of economic research has been directed by the goal of explaining the origins and consequences of rapid technological change and cost reduction. By focusing on this level, it is possible to illuminate some of the underlying processes influencing industrial structure and to suggest consequences for policy aimed at promotion of industrial growth and success. The central theme of this article is that the micro foundations or building blocks of supply and demand shape industrial structure and performance as well as influencing the opportunities and limits for government policy (including policies aimed both at promoting industrial growth and regulating economic concentration).
ICT, organizations, and networks
Authors: Kallinikos Jannis
Published: September 2009

This article first reviews some widespread claims that associate ICTs with patterns of interaction, work, and communication that are said to be conducive to the structural arrangement of the network. In so doing, it seeks to lay bare and occasionally question a few key assumptions on which these claims are predicated. It endeavours to develop an alternative explanation of networks that is closely associated with the contemporary growth dynamics of information and the technologies which sustain and give it momentum. A key element of these dynamics is manifested in the increasing decomposability and mobility of a growing number of operations and resources that can thus be lifted out of particular contexts, and transferred, reshuffled, and recombined, often on a global scale. The article concludes by positioning an appreciation of these claims within the nexus of institutional relationships associated with current developments, and evaluating them critically.
Making sense of ICT, new media, and ethics
Authors: Introna Lucas
Published: September 2009

The purpose of this article is to propose and clarify some of the different ways of seeing or approaching, as well as the implications these might have for regulators, designers, users, and researchers of ICT and new media, especially with regard to their ethical significance. Of course any clarification (classification, categorization, or analysis) is always problematic: incomplete, and often — in a sense — violent. It usually claims more than it can offer and forces the singular into a category in ways that deny the very idiosyncrasies that are often most important when approaching phenomena. Thus, it would be reasonable for the reader to take the analysis in the following presentation as incomplete, preliminary, and not definitive in any sense whatsoever.
Electronic networks, power, and democracy
Authors: Sassen Saskia
Published: September 2009

The first part of the article discusses some of the general questions raised thus far regarding ICTs. The second part examines the role of digitization in shaping today's global capital market and the extent to which it is or is not largely electronic, supranational, and hence able to escape all territorial jurisdictions. And the third part examines the formation of types of global politics that run through the specificities of localized concerns and struggles yet can be seen as expanding democratic participation beyond state boundaries. This article regards these as non-cosmopolitan versions of global politics. These types of politics raise questions about the relation of law to place that are the opposite of those raised by global finance.
Communicative entitlements and democracy: The future of the digital divide debate
Authors: Couldry Nick
Published: September 2009

This article attempts to map the depth and importance of the problems at issue: first, through a review of digital divide debates at a time (2005) when in policy circles they are no longer in fashion; secondly by linking this to recent debates in political sociology and media sociology about, respectively, the declining prospects for political engagement, and the public uses of people's media consumption; and finally by reviewing competing theoretical formulations of the communicative preconditions of democracy. It suggests that all citizens require a share of a society's communicative resources if they are to participate effectively in the democratic process, and considers what form such resources should take. Arguing that ‘digital divide’ debates have pushed this issue to the centre of policy discussions the article assesses what policies might be needed to achieve improved distributive equity with respect to these resources. It provides an insight into how the communicative preconditions of democracy might be understood in the light of the growing use of ICTs.
Wittgenstein on Language: From Simples to Samples
Authors: Beaney Michael
Published: September 2009

The so-called ‘linguistic turn’ that took place in philosophy in the first half of the twentieth century is most strongly associated with the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951). If there is a single text that might be identified as the source of the linguistic turn, then it is Wittgenstein's first book, the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, published in German in 1921 and in an English translation in 1922. Throughout his work, Wittgenstein was concerned with the foundations of language; the crucial shift lay from the appeal to simples to the appeal to samples, and a corresponding shift from assumptions about what lies hidden to an appreciation of what is visible to all in our linguistic practices. This article first outlines the main elements of Wittgenstein's early conception of language, before considering his critique of that conception and his later views.
Psychologism
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2009

This article develops Frege's conception of answerability, and his correlative views on psychologism of the first sort. Compared to prior philosophers, such as British empiricists, Frege is a minimalist in the demands he sets on answerability. If he is ever less than minimalist, that is something that flows out of his particular conception of logic. The article then turns to Wittgenstein's (last) conception of answerability, by which Frege is not quite minimalist enough. That allows us to see how the pursuit of answerability might lead to psychologism of the second kind.
Rule‐Following, Meaning, and Normativity
Authors: Wilson George M.
Published: September 2009

This article starts out by delineating an interpretation of Kripke on Wittgenstein, an interpretation that seems to stand the best chance of fitting at least the basic concerns and insights expressed in the Investigations. In doing so, this article sketches a conception of meaning and truth conditions against which Wittgenstein's remarks are plausibly directed, and it explains how Kripke's reconstruction of Wittgenstein can be read as incorporating a broad attack on that conception. The interpretation with which the article opens offers what the article calls ‘the (merely) dramatic reading of the Skeptical Argument.’
Naturalist Theories of Meaning
Authors: Papineau David
Published: September 2009

Naturalist theories of meaning aim to account for representation within a naturalist framework. This programme involves two ideas: representation and naturalism. Both of these call for some initial comment. To begin with the former, representation is as familiar as it is puzzling. Sentences can represent, and so can mental states. By and large, naturalist theories of meaning take mental representation to be basic, and linguistic representation to be derivative. Most such theories aim first to account for the representational powers of mental states — paradigmatically beliefs — and then to account for the representational powers of sentences in public languages by viewing the latter as in some sense ‘expressing’ mental states.
Truth and Meaning
Authors: Segal Gabriel
Published: September 2009

This article says something about previous work related to truth and meaning, goes on to discuss Davidson (1967) and related papers of his, and then discusses some issues arising. It begins with the work of Gottlob Frege. Much work in the twentieth century developed Frege's ideas. A great deal of that work continued with the assumption that semantics is fundamentally concerned with the assignments of entities (objects, sets, functions, and truth-values) to expressions. So, for example, those who tried to develop a formal account of sense did so by treating senses as functions of various kinds; the sense of a predicate, for example, was often seen as a function from possible worlds to extensions.
Meaning Holism
Authors: Pagin Peter
Published: September 2009

The term ‘meaning holism’ (together with variants like ‘semantic holism’ and ‘linguistic holism’) has been used for a number of more or less closely interrelated ideas. According to one common view, meaning holism (MH) is the thesis that what a linguistic expression means depends on its relations to many or all other expressions within the same totality. Sometimes these relations are called ‘conceptual’ or ‘inferential’. A related idea is that what an expression means depends, mutually, on the meaning of the other expressions in the totality, or alternatively on some semantic property of this totality itself. The totality in question may be the language to which the expressions belong, or a theory formulation in that language.
Indeterminacy of Translation
Authors: Weir Alan
Published: September 2009

W.V. Quine's thesis of the indeterminacy of translation is the theory which launched a thousand doctorates. During the 1970s it sometimes seemed to be as firmly entrenched a dogma among North American philosophers as the existence of God was among medieval theologians. So what is the indeterminacy thesis? It is very tempting, of course, to apply a little reflexivity and deny that there is any determinate thesis of indeterminacy of translation; to charge Quine with championing a doctrine which has no clear meaning, or which is hopelessly ambiguous. Such a charge is, it is argued in this article, false. His meaning is fairly clear and there is widespread agreement on what the thesis amounts to. The second section of the article looks at Quine's ‘argument from below’ for indeterminacy, then the ‘argument from above’, with concluding remarks in the last section.
The Essence of Reference
Authors: Sainsbury R. M.
Published: September 2009

People use words and concepts to refer to things. There are agents who refer, there are acts of referring, and there are tools to refer with: words and concepts. Reference is a relation between people and things, and also between words or concepts and things, and perhaps it involves all three things at once. It is not just any relation between an action or word and a thing; the list of things which can refer, people, words and concepts, is probably not complete (scenes in more recent movies can refer to scenes in less recent movies); and a complete account would need to speak of cases in which the reference relation seems to involve three terms in a different way from the one already mentioned. In the philosophy of language, it has been customary to think of reference as a two-place relation, with some object as the second term and a word or phrase as the first.
Names and Natural Kind Terms
Authors: Braun David
Published: September 2009

Names and natural kind terms have long been a major focus of debates about meaning and reference. This article discusses some of the theories and arguments that have appeared in those debates. It is remarkably difficult to say what names are (more exactly, proper names) without making controversial theoretical assumptions. This article does not attempt to do so here. It instead relies on paradigm examples that nearly all theorists would agree are proper names, for instance, ‘Aristotle’, ‘Mark Twain’, ‘London’, ‘Venus’, and ‘Pegasus’. All of the proper names that are discussed in the article are singular nouns that have no syntactic structure. Most of them refer to objects (for instance, people, cities, and planets), but some, such as ‘Pegasus’, apparently do not. The article begins with proper names and the question ‘What is the meaning of a proper name?’ It turns to natural kind terms later.
Plurals
Authors: Schein Barry
Published: September 2009

Extension of the logical language to deliver plural reference and the logical relations that constitute knowledge of the singular and plural acquires empirical bite just in case it conforms with increasing precision to the syntax of the natural language and affords explanation of what speakers know about the distribution and meaning of plural expressions in their language. As for the syntax of natural language, this discussion, being none too precise, is guided throughout by just two considerations and their immediate consequences, which is discussed at greater length in this article. The first, morpheme univocality, is that a morpheme despite its various syntactic and morphological contexts has a single meaning that supports all its occurrences.
The Perils and Pleasures of Interpretation
Authors: Davidson Donald
Published: September 2009

There is a contrast between the difficulties that stand in the way of explaining in detail how we manage to find out what is in other people's minds and the relative ease with which we do it in practice. The first part of the article explores the obstacles that thwart theory, the second part describes features of our minds that work in our favor when it comes to practice. At the end it is suggested that the project of fully naturalizing our understanding of other minds — a project philosophers are bound to find enticing — is doomed. We understand others, but we cannot reduce this understanding to a branch of the natural sciences.
Political Approaches
Authors: Barnett Michael N. , Finnemore Martha
Published: September 2009

This article discusses theoretical approaches that have led the study of international organization, including the United Nations (UN), for the last fifty years. It explores how analysts have conceived the ways that the UN not only regulates the existing activities of states, but also helps weave the fabric of international society. It clarifies the different schools of thought that were developed throughout the twentieth century to help understand the behaviour and misbehaviour of international institutions. The article concludes by asking scholars to work harder in understanding influence within intergovernmental organizations, otherwise known as the first, second, and third UN.
General Assembly
Authors: Peterson M. J.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the General Assembly, the forum where the sovereign equality of member states is taken very seriously. It shows that the most prominent change in international relations during the second half of the twentieth century was the liberation of colonized peoples, who are now citizens of the majority of member states. The article presents an argument for a better division of labour with other principal organs and also opening the General Assembly to other, nongovernmental voices.
Security Council
Authors: Malone David M.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses a post-Cold War Security Council. It studies the extent to which the decisions made during the 1990s led to success or failure, including the drama of the war in Iraq and its aftermath. The article shows that the Council still functions as a club of great powers, and states that some people would argue that the P-5 has effectively become the P-1 because of the US's preponderant power.
Regional Groups and Alliances
Authors: Sidhu Waheguru Pal Singh
Published: September 2009

This article provides an analysis of the regional groups and alliances. The article describes their advantages and disadvantages in comparison with the universal UN. The article also looks at the distinct difference in capacities between regions such as Europe and Africa.
Private Sector
Authors: Murphy Craig N.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses extensively the growing involvement of the for-profit sector, not only as a lobby but also as an active partner in international cooperation. It begins with the irony that intergovernmental organizations arose mostly in response to problems and opportunities created by capitalist industrialism, or what is now known as ‘economic globalization’. It also explores the complement to non-profit civil society in the for-profit business world.