bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Clinical Behavior of Self-Adhesive Composite Resin Restorations: Literature Review
Authors: Zanatta Cassia Thaís Iurkiv , Cardoso Poliana Maria de Faveri , Camilotti Veridiana , Mendonça Márcio José , Ueda Júlio Katuhide
Published: March 2024

Self-adhesive flowable composite resins are relatively new formulations on the market. These materials do not require the prior application of the adhesive system and, at the same time, can promote a durable seal at the tooth-restoration interface. However, there is little clinical information about these materials. Therefore, this review aimed to gather information on the clinical behavior of these self-adhesive materials by conducting a bibliographic search from 2010 to February 2024 in the PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases. Clinical follow-up studies of restorations performed with these materials were eligible for selection. The search terms used were “self-adhesive composite” or “self-adhesive flowable composite” where 14 complete articles were evaluated and 12 were selected. Only clinical follow-up studies of enamel and/or dentin restorations performed with self-adhesive resins were eligible for selection. This systematic review concluded that the self-adhesive flowable resin showed results comparable to those of the conventional flowable resin. However, studies have shown that for restorations in Class I and V cavities, self-adhesive flowable composite resin performed better than restorations in Class II cavities.
Assessment of Passive Geodetic Control Network in Anambra State, Nigeria
Authors: Oraefo C. P.  , Ono M. N.  , Eteje S. O.
Published: March 2024

Anambra State is facing a number of environmental challenges that require geodetic infrastructure for effective solutions. Unfortunately, much remains to be done in this area as many control stations have been removed from their original locations, leaving some of their pillars in disrepair. To address this issue, a study was conducted to assess the reliability of the geodetic control network in Anambra for various applications. The study involved identifying the location of control stations within the state, assessing the status of the geodetic control network, and confirming the status of individual control stations. Using a handheld GNSS receiver, the control stations were located and critically assessed for their physical condition. In addition, in situ checks were carried out to determine if they were still maintaining their original positions. The results of the study showed that 36% of the visited and located control stations are still intact in their original positions, while 56% have been removed and 8% require maintenance. There should be continuous sensitization of the public on the importance of geodetic controls and the dangers of their destruction.
Defective Hepatic Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain in Patients With Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis
Authors: Pérez-Carreras Mercedes , Del Hoyo Pilar , Martín Miguel A. , Rubio Juan C. , Martín Ana , Castellano Gregorio , Colina Francisco , Arenas Joaquín , Solis-Herruzo José A.
Published: March 2007

Mitochondrial dysfunction might play a central role in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatits (NASH). The aims of this study were to evaluate whether free fatty acid (FFA) transport into the mitochondria or the activity of mitochondria respiratory chain (MRC) complexes are impaired in NASH. In patients with NASH and control subjects, we measured free carnitine, short–chain acylcarnitine (SCAC) and long–chain acylcarnitine (LCAC) esters, carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT) activity, and MRC enzyme activity in liver tissue as well as serum concentration of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF–α), homeostatic metabolic assessment of insulin resistance (HOMAIR), and body mass index (BMI). In patients with NASH, the LCAC/free carnitine ratio was significantly increased and the SCAC/free carnitine ratio was decreased. In patients with NASH, the activity of the MRC complexes was decreased to 63% ± 20% (complex I), 58.5% ± 16.7% (complex II), 70.6% ± 10.3% (complex III), 62.5% ± 13% (complex IV), and 42.4% ± 9.1% (adenosine triphosphate synthase) of the corresponding control values. Activity of these complexes correlated significantly with serum TNF–α and HOMAIR. Serum TNF–α (36.3 ± 23.1 pg/mL), HOMAIR(4.5 ± 2.38), and BMI (29.9 ± 3.5 kg/m2) values were significantly increased in patients with NASH. In conclusion, activities of MRC complexes were decreased in liver tissue of patients with NASH. This dysfunction correlated with serum TNF–α, insulin resistance, and BMI values. (Hepatology 2003;38:999-1007).
Clinical outcome of HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B in relation to virological response to lamivudine
Authors: Di Marco Dr. Vito , Marzano Alfredo , Lampertico Pietro , Andreone Pietro , Santantonio Teresa , Almasio Piero Luigi , Rizzetto Mario , Craxì Antonio
Published: March 2007

The effect of lamivudine treatment on the outcome of patients with hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg)-negative chronic hepatitis is unclear. In a retrospective multicenter study, we have analyzed the virological events observed during lamivudine therapy in patients with HBeAg-negative chronic hepatitis and evaluated the correlation between virological response and clinical outcomes. Among 656 patients (mean age 49.1 years) included in the database, 54% had chronic hepatitis, 30% had Child-Turcotte-Pugh (CTP) A cirrhosis, and 16% had CTP B/C cirrhosis. On therapy (median 22 months, range 1-66), a virological response was obtained in 616 patients (93.9%). The rate of maintained virological response was 39% after 4 years. During follow-up, 47 (7.2%) patients underwent liver transplantation, liver disease worsened in 31 (4.7%), hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) developed in 31 (4.7%), and 24 patients (3.6%) died of liver-related causes. Patients who had cirrhosis and who maintained virological response were less likely than those with viral breakthrough to develop HCC (P< .001) and disease worsening (P< .001). Survival was better in CTP A patients with cirrhosis and maintained virological response (P= .01 by rank test). Multivariate analysis revealed that presence of cirrhosis and viral breakthrough were independently related to mortality and development of HCC. In conclusion, lamivudine is highly effective in reducing viral load in HBeAg-negative patients. After 4 years of therapy, 39% of patients maintain a virological and biochemical response. Loss of virological response may lead to clinical deterioration in patients with cirrhosis. (Hepatology 2004;40:883-891).
Spoiling of transverse magnetization in gradient‐echo (GRE) imaging during the approach to steady state
Authors: Epstein Frederick H. , Mugler John P. , Brookeman James R.
Published: March 2007

The signal evolution behaviors and corresponding image appearances for different methods of spoiling or refocusing the transverse magnetization in short TR gradient‐echo imaging during the approach to steady state were investigated experimentally and using computer simulations based on the Bloch equations. Specifically, ideally spoiled, gradient‐spoiled, gradient‐refocused, and RF‐spoiled pulse sequence configurations were studied. This study showed that, for the gradient‐spoiled configuration, the signal evolution is position and phase‐encoding order‐dependent and, under typical imaging conditions, can deviate substantially from the ideally spoiled signal evolution at some spatial positions, resulting in intensity banding image artifacts. For the gradient‐refocused configuration, the signal evolution oscillates toward the steady state and, generally, does not closely approximate that of ideal spoiling, resulting in different image contrast or image blurring. Using RF spoiling, the signal evolution closely approximates the ideally spoiled case for flip angles less than approximately 20° and T2 values of less than approximately 200 ms and results in relatively artifact‐free images. Also, this study showed that, for RF spoiling, an RF‐pulse phase‐difference increment other than 117°, such as 84°, may be optimal for gradient‐echo imaging during the approach to steady state.
Inhomogeneity correction using an estimated linear field map
Authors: Irarrazabal Pablo , Meyer Craig H. , Nishimura Dwight G. , Macovski Albert
Published: March 2007

A fast and robust method for correcting magnetic resonance image distortion due to field in homogeneity is proposed and applied to spiral k‐space scanning. The method consists of acquiring a local field map, finding the best fit to a linear map, and using it to deblur the image distortions due to local frequency variations. The linear field map is determined using a maximum likelihood estimator with weights proportional to the pixel intensity. The method requires little additional computation and is robust in low signal regions and near abrupt field changes. Additionally. It can be used in combination with other deblurring methods. The application of this method is illustrated in conjunction with a mura'slice, T2‐weighted, breath‐held spiral scan of the liver.
Short echo time proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging of macromolecule and metabolite signal intensities in the human brain
Authors: Hwang Jong‐Hee , Graham Glenn D. , Behar Kevin L. , Alger Jeffry R. , Prichard James W. , Rothman Douglas L.
Published: March 2007

A novel approach is presented for imaging macromolecule and metabolite signals in brain by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging. The method differentiates between metabolites and macromolecules by T1 weighting using an inversion pulse followed by a variable inversion recovery time before localization and spectroscopic imaging. In healthy subjects, the major macromolecule resonances at 2.05 and 0.9 ppm were mapped at a nominal spatial resolution of 1 × 1 × 1.5 cm3 and were demonstrated to be highly reproducible between subjects. In subacute stroke patients, a highly elevated macromolecule resonance at 1.3 ppm was mapped to infarcted brain regions, suggesting potential applications for studying pathological conditions.
MR measurement of relative water content and multicomponent T2 relaxation in human breast
Authors: Graham Simon J. , Bronskill Michael J.
Published: March 2007

MR techniques providing accurate measurement of relative volumetric water content and multicomponent T2 relaxation times from a large volume of interest, have been implemented for characterization of breast tissue in vivo. In a sequence of 20‐s breath‐holds, data are obtained from much of the breast volume while suppressing signal from the chest wall and torso. Relative water content of each breast is calculated from one‐dimensional fat and water profiles obtained using a hybrid two‐point Dixon method (TE/TR=17/5000 ms). Multicomponent T2 relaxation measurements are calculated from T2 decay curves obtained using a CPMG train of rectangular pulses (TE/TR=8/5000 ms, 140 echoes) preceded by saturation pulses to localize longitudinal magnetization spatially. These techniques, validated in phantoms and human volunteers, are suitable for quantitative study of breast tissue in vivo, and in particular to investigate the potential role of MR for assessment of breast cancer risk.
Velocity encoding using ghost artifacts
Authors: Madore Bruno , Henkelman R. Mark
Published: March 2007

Motion artifacts represent a significant limitation of MRI, and an ideal solution to that problem has proved elusive. However, in this paper, motion artifacts are not considered as the usual enemy and are not suppressed; on the contrary, they are deliberately created to encode flow information. In MRI, velocity is encoded readily into the phase of a pixel. However, if the pixel contains overlapping signals, the phase of one of these signals now has consequences on both the magnitude and phase of the resulting pixel. It is shown here that an overlap of information may be used to encode velocity both in the phase and in the magnitude of an image, making the velocity‐encoding process faster. The overlap of information is obtained by superposing ghosting artifacts of different orders and information is retrieved about complex intensity and velocity in two dimensions using the equivalent of two images instead of the usual three images. The price to pay to do so is some loss of simplicity in the equations involved, an increase in reconstruction computing time requirements, and a factor of 4 decrease in signal‐to‐noise ratio in the velocity measurements.
Literacy and Social Milieu: Reading Behavior of the Black Elderly
Authors: Heisel Marsel , Larson Gordon
Published: March 2007

Studies which have attempted to assess literacy behavior on the basis of universal standards have failed to account for the variance in literacy demands of differing social contexts. This study examined the literacy behavior of 132 elderly blacks in a large city environment, a population of particular interest to literacy research because of its high concentration of undereducated adults. The research provides a clearer picture of how this subgroup of American culture is affected by their lack of traditional education. Despite an anticipated high degree of total illiteracy, and an equally low level of educational attainment, this group has generally developed the necessary literacy skills to meet the demands of their social environment. The results of this research refute findings of the APL and other surveys which have portrayed this subgroup as woefully lacking in functional literacy skills.
Factor Structure of Deterrents to Public Participation in Adult Education
Authors: Darkenwald Gordon G. , Valentine Thomas
Published: March 2007

This study sought to identify the factors that deter the general public from participating in organized adult education. An instrument modeled on the Deterrents to Participation Scale (DPS) reported in an earlier study (Scanlan & Darkenwald, 1984) was developed and mailed to a randomly selected sample of households; 215 usable questionnaires were returned. Principal components analysis yielded six orthogonal factors labelled Lack of Confidence, Lack of Course Relevance, Time Constraints, Low Personal Priority, Cost, and Personal Problems. These conceptually meaningful factors hold promise both for theory-building in the area of participation and for the development of practical strategies to increase the number of adults who engage in organized learning activities.
The Benefits of Ged Graduation and A Typology of Graduates
Authors: Valentine Thomas , Darkenwald Gordon G.
Published: March 2007

This study sought to determine the benefits obtained by adults who study for and pass the General Educational Development (GED) tests. A self-administered questionnaire was constructed and mailed to a statewide random sample of recent graduates; the unadjusted response rate was 57.3% (N = 172). Analyses indicated that the percentages obtaining each of the twelve economic and noneconomic benefits measured were substantial. Using this data set, the twelve benefits were empirically reduced, by factor analysis, into four factors: job advancement, increased employment, improved self image, and further education. Subsequent cluster analysis suggests that there are five principal "types" of graduates, the first four each faring comparatively well on one of the four benefit factors and the fifth doing comparatively poorly on all factors.
Metaphors of Adult Education: Beyond Penance Toward Family
Authors: Proctor Russell F.
Published: March 2007

Metaphoric expressions offer insight into the meanings created within given cultures. The culture of adult education is explored in this study through an analysis of metaphors elicited from weekend students. Focus group interviews produced metaphoric themes of "blessing and penance," "running and juggling," and "addiction for learning." In addition, the metaphor of "family" was cited frequently as an ideal for adult education programs. A discussion of the metaphors and suggestions for applications are provided.
Railroads Have Quit Slumbering
Authors: Buford Curtis D.
Published: March 2007

Railroads have been too busy for slumber. They have been busy doing a basic transportation job, busy improving ways and means of doing that job, and busy attempting to acquaint the public with inequities in government policy inimical to transportation progress and detrimental to our general economy. Railroads continue as the nation's major transportation agency. They have retained business through economies resulting from applications of technology. Since World War II, railroads have spent an average of more than a billion dollars per year to modernize plant and equipment. However, railroad earnings currently do not attract the capital the industry needs to continue its program of scientific and engineering progress. Railroads have inherent capacities to earn money. They can supply more transportation service per unit of fuel and per unit of manpower than any other generally available mode of transportation. But they lack the freedom to earn the money they need. Freedom requires legislative action. Discrimination and other inequities must be removed from transportation policy. Under fair and equal treatment, railroads could become sound and vigorous. Unless there are reforms in transportation policy soon, for all carriers, our entire economic structure—perhaps our national destiny—will be in jeopardy.
War Termination and Conflict Theory: Value Premises, Theories, and Policies
Authors: Carroll Berenice A.
Published: March 2007

Conflict theory has an abstract appearance, but it is basically a field of applied social research, in which theo ries and their policy implications are profoundly affected by the underlying objectives and value premises of the conflict theorist. On the whole, conflict theory today operates from value premises favoring the reduction, moderation, or stabiliza tion of conflict rather than its intensification; in practice, if not in theory, this tends to align it with status quo interests. The initial impact of this value orientation was to discourage study of war termination, but in recent years conflict theorists have begun to turn their attention to this problem. Some who have done so have seen wars as "fightlike," some as "gamelike." In both cases, the studies have been heavily influenced by assumptions congenial to the prevailing value premises. In particular, conflict theorists have sought to view abstractly the conflicts they study, to fit them into sym metrical models, and to focus upon conflict behavior—mili— tary action and strategic options—rather than upon the an tagonistic interests or political issues in conflict. In certain recent studies applying conflict theory to current problems of war termination, these values and assumptions have led to conceptual schemes and policy conclusions strikingly similar to Defense Department strategies of pacification and to stand ing policy positions of the United States government, in particular with respect to the war in Vietnam.
Evolution of the Senate's Committee System
Authors: Kravitz Walter
Published: March 2007

After a quarter century's reliance on select committees, the Senate established a system of legislative standing committees in 1816. Whereas select committees had been subordinate creatures of the Senate, the standing panels acquired prerogatives which almost completely reversed this relationship. Eventually, the political parties evolved procedures which ensured majority control of the committees, but also granted the minority equitable representation. The seniority system emerged shortly thereafter; however, it differed somewhat from modern usages because of the large number of standing committees. After precipitous increases at the turn of the twentieth century, the Senate drastically reduced the number of committees in 1921 and again in 1946, forcing a change in seniority practices and contributing to the growth of subcommittees. Fewer committees also enhanced the influence of the remaining chairmen. In part, that enhancement provoked moves both to limit the chairmen's authority within their committees and to disperse other positions of power among more members. Other recent trends include more equitable distribution of assignments to important committees, attempts to reduce the overall committee burden of members, growth of committee staff and the evolution of a formal code to regulate committee procedures.
Restructuring the House of Representatives
Authors: Gardner John W.
Published: March 2007

Most organizations have a structure designed to solve problems which no longer exist. Jurisdictional boundaries within organizations tend to get set in concrete. Some potential solutions are not seriously considered because those solutions would threaten jurisdictional lines. The House of Representatives is like other organizations in this regard. In order to perform effectively its Constitutional and traditional functions, the House must update itself. However, there is no one ideal mode of organization which—if we achieve it will spare us later reorganizations. The Select Committee on Committees of the House of Representatives is now looking into this difficult issue. Common Cause has advanced a number of proposals for the select committee's consideration and will be working to help achieve reforms designed to improve the effectiveness and the accountability of the House and its committees. Our proposals are: (1) rotation, (2) jurisdictional realignment, (3) improvement of oversight, (4) revision of budget and priorities-setting procedures and (5) strengthening of the Speakership.
Incumbent Television: A Case of Indecent Exposure
Authors: Minow Newton N. , Mitchell Lee M.
Published: March 2007

Throughout his term of office, an incumbent president of the United States has ready access to tele vision time which allows him to reach millions of potential voters regularly, conveying both his views and "image" at little or no cost to himself or his political supporters. In con trast, the opposition party and those potential candidates who would challenge the incumbent's reelection have little similar access. An incumbent member of Congress, although not enjoying television access to the same extent as the presi dent, also has a unique television advantage over potential challengers. While Congress prevents broadcast coverage of many of its activities, individual members are able to produce their own television programming to reach voters. This "incumbent television" can be a significant electoral ad vantage to the officeholder seeking reelection. Moreover, with incumbents dominating television, contrasting political viewpoints and personalities, instead of being presented in rational debate throughout an office term, appear too often only in political "spots" immediately preceding elections. Innovations such as televised National Debates, limited right of reply for the opposition party, government-sponsored broadcast time for presidential candidates, and television coverage of congressional proceedings, would counter this trend and help to fulfill television's potential as a medium for political debate.
Public Financing after the Supreme Court Decision
Authors: Agree George E.
Published: March 2007

The Supreme Court decision in Buckley v. Valeo assures that large amounts of private money will con tinue to play an important role in political financing in America. By thus altering the environment in which public subsidies were intended to operate, the decision foreshadows that public funding will shift toward the objective of providing financial floors under candidates rather than implementing ceilings over them. The problem of third party candidates, the several methods of allocating public funds, the feasibility of administration and enforcement, and the suitability of the check-off as an appropriation device may all be affected. Yet it seems inevitable that public financing will become a perma nent feature of American political life.
Housing, Neighborhoods, and Race Relations: Recent Survey Evidence
Authors: Taylor D. Garth
Published: March 2007

This essay looks at the various uses which have been made of public opinion data in explaining and predicting patterns of racial residential segregation. Public opinion is central to understanding the process of housing discrimination because housing market behavior is difficult to monitor and police in any official or bureaucratic fashion. Current poll results show that racial attitudes or preferences for segregated neighborhoods by whites (or by blacks) are not the central stumbling blocks in desegregating American neighborhoods. Rather, shifts in the nature of the housing market in an area reflect responses to a broader, more complex set of neighborhood processes. Factors causing neighborhood change vary greatly in their effects depending on the kind of neighborhood "at risk" and the amount of integration which is likely to occur. Simple calculations of the future of integrated neighborhoods or the amount of segregation due to preferences are in error unless they take these complexities into account.
Towards a Rational Energy Policy
Authors: Bardin David J.
Published: March 2007

Environmental and energy policies are fundamentally concerned with resource allocation, resource enhancement, and resource constraints in light of the ultimate limitation of resources on the planet. The United States consumes thirty percent of the world's energy and a rational energy policy must deal carefully with choices designed to achieve the optimum public good. Petroleum is crucial to our economy and will continue to be for the next two decades. Our dependence on it involves not only financial and technical problems but also geopolitical considerations. We must devise ways to control our petroleum consumption, increase the efficiency of our use, move to develop alternate energy sources such as coal, nuclear, hydroelectric, and solar. We must review the tradeoffs between environmental protection and energy production, and we must consider pricing policy. The President's energy policy is aimed toward achieving these goals. We should implement it for the present while encouraging creative technological development of new and innovative solutions for the future.
Nursing the Dying: Implications of Kübler-Ross' Staging Theory
Authors: Germain Carol P.
Published: March 2007

Society's failure to value the work of nurses, the professionals most frequently involved in the care of the dying, is attributed to a cultural definition of nursing as a second-class occupation and the public's need to deny the realities of the suffering and indignities often associated with the process of dying. Efforts within the field of nursing to improve the care of the dying, by shifting emphasis from a narrow physical focus to a more holistic patient and family focus, preceded the past decade's contributions of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross. Although her staging theory has been cited as having limitations in development and in interpretation, Kübler-Ross' influence towards increasing awareness of the needs of the dying and others experiencing major losses has been substantial as evidenced by many references to staging theory in nursing literature, by a marked increase in attention to holistic care of the dying in the basic and continuing education programs of nursing, and by specialty role development in nursing care of the dying. This decade has also witnessed the major growth of professionalism in nursing, including strides towards professional autonomy. Conflict with the traditional pattern of medical dominance and bureacratic constraints in institutions is inevitable, especially when the medical goal of cure is not attainable. Change to an interdisciplinary model of care is viewed as essential for optimal care of the dying and their families.
The Hospice Movement and Its Implications
Authors: Holden Constance
Published: March 2007

Hospices, unheard of in this country a few years ago, have become a fast-growing American phenomenon. They promise effective pain relief for terminal cancer patients as well as a warm, homey atmosphere where fear and loneliness are minimized. Hospices are basically a creation of the British and it is still unclear how—or even whether—the principles they embody can be successfully incorporated into American medicine. However, hospices can make an important philosophical contribution by showing the way toward removing the stigma attached to death. Hospice principles also have implications for all of health care, in emphasizing the importance of treating the whole person rather than just the disease.
The Politics of Ineffectiveness: Federal Firearms Legislation, 1919-38
Authors: Leff Carol Skalnik , Leff Mark H.
Published: March 2007

The federal firearms legislation proposed and enacted between the two world wars, although a breakthrough in federal activism on the issue, left a neutral legacy for future regulatory efforts. The 1927 statute barred handguns from the U.S. postal system without closing off alternative shipping routes. The National Firearms Act of 1934 ultimately limited its registration provisions to "gangster" weapons, like machine guns. The more inclusive Federal Firearms Act of 1938 proved impossible to effectively enforce. In view of the New Deal Justice Department's ambitious regulatory pro posals, which would be considered far-reaching even by later standards, this lackluster record proved decidedly anti- climactic. The minimal impact of federal law was partially rooted in the low enforcement priorities of the Treasury De partment and was in part attributable to the influence of a traditional individualist ethos hostile to the "civilizing" pre tensions of federal intervention. But just as important as the administrative and cultural barriers to gun control effective ness was the character of the policymaking process. Anti- regulation forces out-organized Justice Department regu lators, with their vaguer public anticrime constituency, and parlayed their intensive commitment into a formidable in fluence on the legislative outcome. This capacity to circum scribe federal initiatives helped to neutralize the impact of the first federal gun control legislation.
The Effect of Gun Availability on Violent Crime Patterns
Authors: Cook Philip J.
Published: March 2007

Social scientists have started to find answers to some of the questions raised in the ongoing debate over gun control. The basic factual issue in this debate concerns the effect of gun availability on the distribution, seriousness, and number of violent crimes. Some evidence is available on each of these dimensions of the violent crime problem. The distribution of violent crimes among different types of victims is governed in part by the "vulnerability pattern" in weapon choice. The seriousness of robbery and assault incidents is influenced by weapon type, as indicated by the objective dangerousness and instrumental violence pattern. A reduc tion in gun availability would cause some weapon substitution and probably little change in overall robbery and assault rates—but the homicide rate would be reduced.
Who Loses From Inflation?
Authors: Foster Edward
Published: March 2007

To know who loses from inflation we must understand the social forces that cause it and be able to predict what will happen if we stop it. We do not know enough to make such a prediction, so my answer to the question is partial. Inflation should not be blamed for the fall in private consumption caused by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), food shortages, or government spending. Rather it is the way we have resolved the conflicts created by the need to cut consumption. The main cost identified by economists is distortion of economic activity as people change their behavior to avoid holding cash; such effects are not severe enough to explain the intensity of public opposition to inflation. This could mean simply that people are deluded, blaming inflation for shortages, rather than the reverse. But here is another possible explanation: the most serious costs of persistent inflation may be that it destroys our confidence that society can solve its problems and creates fear that our social contract is falling apart. Coupled with the fear is resentment, based on suspicion by many that inflation treats them unfairly. Those who lose are all of us who share those fears and frustrations.
Soviet Strategic Doctrine and the Soviet-American Global Contest
Authors: Ra'anan Uri
Published: March 2007

Soviet Military Doctrine, despite the exigencies of the thermonuclear age, continues to follow Clausewitz in viewing war as a continuation of politics by other means. Accordingly, war is regarded both as feasible and winnable, provided the USSR continues to maintain the initiative, to pursue the offensive, and to utilize surprise and deception. These factors mean that an initial blow against an adversary may prove ultimately decisive, but without ensuring that conflict necessarily would be short. Preparations have to be adequate for protracted warfare, with particular emphasis on reserves, military and economic. Pacifist rejection of wars as such is condemned in the USSR for failing to distinguish between just and unjust conflicts, that are judged by their class content—not by the question of who started the fighting. There is little evidence for the view that the Soviet Military Doctrine is the product of military rather than civilian (Party) leaders. In accordance with the dialectic, the USSR believes that balance, or stalemate, is unfeasible as a long-term concept since, ultimately, there are only victors and the defeated.
Strategic Forces, General Purpose Forces, and Crisis Management
Authors: Gray Colin S.
Published: March 2007

The 1980s could prove to be an unusually dangerous decade because of the simultaneous maturing of Soviet multilevel military superiority and of very severe Soviet domestic problems. It is not clear that the Western "window of military vulnerability" will be defined by the Soviets as a "window of opportunity," but the West has been very imprudent in permitting such a question ever to have potential policy salience. Unlike the situation in the 1960s and 1970s, fairly plausible scenarios for war between the United States and Soviet Union can be drafted for the 1980s. Western understanding of how acute crises should be managed almost certainly is outdated as a consequence, in good part, of the cumulatively dramatic change in the East-West military balance. U.S. defense planning should recognize the essential unity of military and crisis bargaining problems and appreciate that one cannot prudently choose to emphasize, for example, the modernization of the general purpose forces at the expense of the "less usable" strategic forces. Indeed, if anything, the United States can least afford relative weakness at the higher potential end of the escalation spectrum.
Trial by Jury in Complex Civil Cases: Voice of Liberty or Verdict by Confusion?
Authors: RUBIN ALVIN B.
Published: March 2007

Although the Seventh Amendment preserves the right to civil trial in cases arising at common law, some federal courts have held that a case may be too complex for a lay jury to understand, and that submitting such a case to a jury is a denial of due process. Others have held that no litigant otherwise entitled to a jury trial should be denied it because of the difficulty of the case, that jurors are capable of understanding any case, and that trial by jury protects liberty and permits the decision to incorporate community values. The Supreme Court has not yet decided this issue. Its decisions might take into account whether jurors understand the issues in complex cases, whether jury trials cause delay and increased expense, whether the jurors who can serve and who are chosen in lengthy trials are representative, and whether the verdict in such cases is likely to be based on rules of law or inappropriate factors. The empirical research does not yield clear answers to these questions. However, laywers elect jury trials for tactical rather than doctrinal reasons, and jury cases are tried differently from others. All trials, jury or bench, suffer from poor management, and all can be improved by good administration.
Social Dynamics of Terrorism
Authors: TURK AUSTIN T.
Published: March 2007

Effective strategies for avoiding the projected “legitimation crisis” presuppose the clarification and resolution of issues regarding the definition, causation, and justification of political violence. It is proposed that terrorism be defined as an ideology or strategy justifying terror—defined as lethal or nonlethal violence intended to deter political opposition by maximizing fear, specifically by random targeting. On causation, it is argued that terrorism is to be explained as the product not of discrete causes but rather of systemic processes generated in functional and interactive relationships of inequality. Examples of relational dynamics encouraging groups to adopt terrorism are considered. Such dynamics encouraging groups to adopt terrorism are considered. Such dynamics are found to vary among as well as within authority structures. Terrorism is more likely to appear in totalitarian structures, but acts of terror are more frequent in democratic structures, which is largely attributable to the dissemination of terrorist ideologies, the displacement of political conflicts to freer settings, and the propensity of totalitarian governments to sponsor terror elsewhere. Terrorism and terror are associated with the breakdown of traditional authority structures and with efforts to create modern ones. Regarding issues of justification, it is concluded that terrorism and terror are unjustifiable on empirical grounds.
Government Funding of Culture: What Price the Arts?
Authors: JOYCE MICHAEL S.
Published: March 2007

The immediate challenge to the National Endowments for the Arts and the Humanities is not financial but philosophical. Government responsibility for culture must include an explicit statement of policy based upon a careful consideration of essential questions concerning the nature of and relationship between the state and culture. In the past the Endowments have been reluctant to enunciate a cultural policy lest it be objected that talk of a cultural policy sounds like a call for an autocratic ministry of culture. But grants cannot be made in a vacuum, and some cultural policy, however incoherent, inevitably informs decisions about grants. The issue is whether such a policy is to be made explicit, so that it may be studied and criticized, or whether such a policy is tacit, in which case it is likely to be enforced with little public scrutiny or evaluation. The federal government—responsible to both the individual and the nation, to the present and the future—has a unique role to play in American culture. What the role is can be defined only through the political process, in open debate.
Our Government's Support for the Arts: Nourishment or Drought
Authors: BIDDLE LIVINGSTON
Published: March 2007

The National Endowment for the Arts, coming into existence in a period when federal support of the arts was not a popular cause in Congress, has survived and prospered with bipartisan support. From its beginnings the Endowment has operated under the principle that private support of the arts is of primary importance, and that the agency should be guided by the advice of private citizens. Endowment grants have supported artists and cultural institutions and companies, increased education in the arts, improved the aesthetics of city living, and encouraged development of ethnic projects. Challenge Grants, which bolster arts organizations, have been an immense success. The article presents the author's views regarding the essential and precedent-setting nature of the Arts Endowment, its meaning to Americans and the arts at the very core of life. The author discusses the catalytic impact of the Endowment since 1965, and expresses deep concern that a time of exceptional nourishment may give way to a time of drought.
The use of Polls in Congressional, State, and Local Elections
Authors: CONWAY M. MARGARET
Published: March 2007

The use of polls in presidential campaigns has received considerable attention in both the news media and in academic studies, but the use of survey research in political campaigns for other offices has received substantially less attention. This article examines the extent to which surveys are used, the types that are employed, and their uses in campaigns for offices other than the presidency.
Changing Concepts of Worker Rights in the Work Place
Authors: St. ANTOINE THEODORE J.
Published: March 2007

Under the traditional doctrine of employment at will, contracts of hire can ordinarily be terminated by either party at any time for any reason. The Wagner Act of 1935 and union contracts provide some protection for employees. In addition, public employees enjoy constitutional and statutory safeguards. But about 70 percent of the total labor force still has no guarantee against arbitrary action by employers. A most significant development of the past decade has been increasing judicial modification of the at-will principle to prevent grosser abuses. Civil rights legislation has outlawed job discrimination based on race, sex, religion, national origin, and age. Other statutes have been enacted to promote the physical safety and economic well-being of workers. Nevertheless, voluntarism remains the distinctive characteristic of American labor relations. Not even an employer's legitimate regard for profit making or the public's justified concern for a productive economy should totally override the workers' claim to a voice in the decisions of ongoing enterprises that will vitally affect their future job opportunities. The law should encourage the trend toward participative management.
Casino Gambling in Atlantic City: Issues of Development and Redevelopment
Authors: RUBENSTEIN JOSEPH
Published: March 2007

In 1976 the citizens of New Jersey legalized casino gambling in the resort town of Atlantic City. Since the Great Depression, Atlantic City had been on an economic downswing representative of resort cycles in general. Casino gambling was supposed to revitalize Atlantic City and generate jobs and revenue for New Jersey. While the casinos have become successful, and jobs and revenue have been created, the revitalization of Atlantic City beyond the Boardwalk remains to be achieved. This outcome may be accounted for by pointing to rampant land speculation following the passage of the casino referendum, ineffective government intervention, and an historic urban planning pattern that emphasized Boardwalk and tourist-associated infrastructure development. With the casinos successfully in place, attention is now being paid to a second phase of development in order to improve other segments of the city.
Significant Influences on the United Kingdom Casino Industry since 1960
Authors: KENT-LEMON NIGEL
Published: March 2007

The last 24 years have seen the introduction of casions in the United Kingdom, first by mistake as a result of two acts of Parliament in 1960 and 1963, and then on purpose by the 1968 Gaming Act. We have also seen the pressures placed by high-rolling Middle Eastern gamblers on the London casino owners to break the law and the resulting cataclysmic effect on many of the casinos. The industry has survived a royal commission and a report by the Monopolies Commission. Nigel Kent-Lemon analyzes these and other significant events relating to the United Kingdom casino industry since 1960.
China's Political Reforms: A Net Assessment
Authors: LIEBERTHAL KENNETH
Published: March 2007

China's leaders since the death of Mao Zedong have tried to reform the political system so as to reduce the level of political coercion, increase the use of rational/legal processes, put talented individuals into responsible positions, enhance their capacity to base decisions on pragmatic criteria, and restore and strengthen the legitimacy of the polity. Their efforts to further these goals have produced important results, but the reforms still have not taken root. The reforms have been hedged in by fundamental untouchables, resisted by uncooperative cadres, and undercut by the inherent incompatibility of different components of the reform package itself. The prognosis for the various elements of the reform effort depends both on keeping the initiative in the hands of the reformers at the top of the Communist party and on achieving good results in the economic arena.
The Economics of Prison Crowding
Authors: FUNKE GAIL S.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the economic implications of the problem of overcrowding when the construction of new prisons is selected as the solution. True costs, which are substantially more than commonly understood, are derived. The costs of specific sentences are also examined. Prison is compared with other punishment alternatives. Myths about prisons are discussed and the real policy choices faced by public decision makers are presented.
Denominational America and the New Religious Pluralism
Authors: ROOF WADE CLARK , McKINNEY WILLIAM
Published: March 2007

This article examines the changing character of religious pluralism in America since midcentury. Major changes bringing about a new climate include an expanding pluralism, declines of the liberal establishment, and a conservative religious and moral resurgence. As a result there have been broad shifts and realignments of religion and culture and a changing social and demographic basis of religion in the country. Patterns of religious switching point to a new voluntarism in identifying with the religious tradition of one's choice. The demographics suggest that in the future the liberal sector of Protestantism will continue to decline and that the divergence of conservative religious and secular cultures may intensify.
Peace Propaganda and Submarines: Soviet Policy toward Sweden and Northern Europe
Authors: OLDBERG INGMAR
Published: March 2007

Since the late 1970s, as part of an intensified peace propaganda campaign, the Soviet Union has sought to create a nuclear-free zone in Sweden and northern Europe. Simultaneously, it has increased its criticism of Sweden's defense, partly to offset the effects of Soviet submarine violations of Swedish waters. These violations have increased since the stranding of the U-137 in 1981 and have seriously impaired Soviet-Swedish relations. The Soviet leaders perceive new opportunities with the advent of the Social Democrats in Sweden, whose active foreign policy favors détente and disarmament rather than the arms race. Important factors in the background include growing East-West tension, with Soviet superiority in northern Europe, and the political and economic stagnation, militarization, and “KGB-ization” of Soviet society.
Immigrant Settlement and the Structure of Emergent Immigrant Communities in Western Europe
Authors: HEISLER BARBARA SCHMITTER
Published: March 2007

Throughout modern history the majority of immigrants have occupied inferior socioeconomic positions and have settled in segregated communities. The migrant workers who came to the advanced industrial countries in Western Europe have had similar experiences. A closer examination of the legal and political circumstances surrounding their unanticipated prolonged presence reveals significant differences between the Western European situation and that encountered elsewhere. The original contract labor system legally provided sending countries with the opportunity to establish networks of organizations and institutions in the countries of destination. Although the sending countries' networks may vary in specifics, each represents an important dimension of that national community and helps to maintain an ideology of return. This, in turn, represents an important force in defining the situation for all participants—host societies, sending countries, and immigrants. The argument that one cannot approach all aspects of the European experience using theoretical models that may be appropriate for other situations is illustrated by examples of sending-country organizations active in the Federal Republic of Germany.