bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Relationship Between Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and Wrist Angle in Computer Workers
Authors: Liu Chin‐Wei , Chen Chia‐Hsin , Lee Chia‐Ling , Huang Mao‐Hsiung , Chen Tien‐Wen , Wang Ming‐Cheng
Published: July 2009

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is the most widely known entrapment neuropathy. The aim of this study was to assess the incidence of CTS in a group of computer workers by typical symptoms, median nerve conduction studies, and their combinations. The posture of extended wrists while typing on a computer keyboard seems to be a predisposing factor for CTS. However, the correlation between wrist extension angle and the incidence of CTS is not well known. Forty‐five subjects (mean age, 38.8 ± 7.8 years) who used a computer for more than 6 hours daily in a medical center in southern Taiwan were studied. All completed questionnaires to ascertain their age, employment duration, dominant hand, and the severity of symptoms. Physical examinations (Tinel's sign and Phalen's test) were performed by a physician. The maximal wrist extension angle when typing on a computer keyboard was also measured by the same physician. Nerve conduction studies were performed on each subject to determine the severity of CTS. Results showed that the incidence of CTS in the computer workers was 16.7% (15 of 90 hands). Twelve subjects showed electrodiagnostic evidence of CTS: it involved the dominant hand in seven, the non‐dominant hand in two, and bilateral hands in three. The severity of clinical symptoms was compatible with the findings of the nerve conduction studies. Among the major predisposing factors, we found significant correlation between CTS development and the wrist extension angle while typing on a computer keyboard. Computer workers who kept their wrists extended by more than 20° were at greater risk of developing CTS.
Classes sans conscience ou préfiguration de la société sans classes
Authors: Crozier Michel
Published: July 2009

Les discussions sur les rapports entre catégories sociales et sur la stratification ont été longtemps dominées, en Europe au moins, par la problématique marxiste de l'opposition entre deux classes. Le concept de classe pourtant, tel que l'avaient redéfini les marxistes, ne pouvait s'appliquer concrètement qu'à une minorité ou tout au plus une moitié de la population. Mais la croyance à la possibilité d'une société sans classes, ce mouvement mystique moteur du « militantisme » socialiste permettait de rejeter provisoirement de l'analyse les groupes intermédiaires, assez dédaigneusement appelés « petits bourgeois ».
Zur Frage des Menschenbildes in der Soziologie
Authors: Bahrdt Hans Paul
Published: July 2009

Auf den ersten Blick scheint es fast eine Selbstverständlichkeit zu sein, daΒ die Soziologie ein «Menschenbild» haben müsse; und es erscheint sogar als wahrscheinlich, daΒ die Soziologie ein besonderes, aus der Eigenart ihrer Themenstellung und ihrer epochalen Rolle bestimmtes «soziologisches Menschenbild» besitzen könnte (i). Die Soziologie ist eine der Wissenschaften vom Menschen. MuΒ deshalb ihren Bemühungen um die Erforschung und Deutung menschlichen Zusammenlebens nicht ein Bild von Menschen zugrunde liegen, auf dem alles weitere Denken und Forschen aufbaut? Freilich hat die Soziologie nur einen Teilaspekt menschlichen Lebens zum Thema : die sozialen Strukturen. Auch beschäftigt sich der Soziologe hauptberuflich nicht mit alien sozialen Erscheinungen. Die sogenannten «primitiven» Gesellschaften überläΒt er — trotz mancher sehr wichtigen Querverbindungen, die zwischen den Disziplinen bestehen — den Ethnologen. Was die Gesellschaften der Vergangenheit anbelangt, so muΒ sich der Soziologe vielfach auf das Urteil der Historiker verlassen, so wünschenswert es ist, wenn er auch selbst etwas von der Geschichte und der Arbeitsweise der Historiker versteht. Im wesentlichen beschränkt sich die Forschungsarbeit der Soziologie und damit auch die Legitimität der speziell soziologischen Aussagen auf die nach abendländischem Muster hochzivilisierten Gesellschaften der Gegenwart. Das heiΒt : die eigentlichen soziologischen Aussagen beschränken sich auf einen bestimmten geschichtlich und geographisch lokalisierbaren Teilbereich des menschlichen Daseins. Ihre Aufgabe ist nicht, Aussagen über den Menschen zu machen, sondern nur über Ausschnitte aus dem Leben bestimmter Menschen.
De la bureaucratie comme système d'organisation
Authors: Crozier Michel
Published: July 2009

Depuislongtemps, pour beaucoup d'auteurs et non des moindres, le phénomène bureaucratique constitue un des problèmes clefs de la sociologie et de la science politique moderne. Et pourtant la bureaucratie reste toujours une zone d'incertitude rebelle à l'analyse scientifique et l'un des terrains d'élection des professions de foi et des mythes idéologiques de notre temps. Une telle situation surprend d'autant plus à première vue que très tôt, il y a cinquante ans déjà, Max Weber avait donné une brillante description du « type idéal » de la bureaucratie et une analyse suggestive de son développement historique qui semblaient avoir parfaitement préparé le terrain pour une sociologie de la bureaucratie débarrassée de tout jugement de valeur.
Armies in the Process of Political Modernization
Authors: Pye Lucian W.
Published: July 2009

Only a few years ago it was generally assumed that the future of the newly emergent states would be determined largely by the activities of their Westernized intellectuals, their socialistically inclined bureaucrats, their nationalist ruling parties, and possibly their menacing communist parties. It occurred to few students of the underdeveloped regions that the military might become the critical group in shaping the course of nation-building. Now that the military has become the key decision-making element in at least eight of the Afro-Asian countries, we are confronted with the awkward fact that there has been almost no scholarly research on the role of the military in the political development of the new states.
Soziale Marktwirtschaft oder Wohlfahrtsstaat? Die deutsche Erfahrung
Authors: Boettcher Erik
Published: July 2009

Die Frage kann nach über einem Jahrzehnt in Deutschland praktizierter Marktwirtschaft überraschen, und sicherlich wird es viele geben, die ihre Berechtigung rundweg leugnen werden, nämlich zu prüfen, wieweit die Struktur der Marktwirtschaft schon von wohlfahrtsstaatlichen Elementen überwuchert wurde. Wir wollen nicht versuchen, das Problem exakt zu lösen, vielmehr geht es darum zu zeigen, daß hier überhaupt ein Problem vorliegt, dessen Bedeutung in der heutigen deutschen Sozialpolitik nicht recht erkannt zu sein scheint.
International Prestige, Competition and Peaceful Coexistence
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: July 2009

There is room for unilateral action to improve international relations in areas other than nuclear test bans, the cessation of bomb production, or general disarmament. One such area—the subject of this article—concerns the effects of international competition for prestige on peaceful coexistence.
Universities and Academic Systems in Modern Societies
Authors: Ben-David Joseph , Zloczower Awraham
Published: July 2009

Universities engage in teaching and research. They prepare students to become men of action in practical politics, the civil service, the practice of law, medicine, surgery etc. Others studying at universities want to become scholars and scientists whose style of work is far removed from the on-the-spot decisionmaking which is so important among the former category. The professions and disciplines taught and developed at universities require a great variety of manpower and organization of entirely different kinds. Universities nevertheless insist on comprising all of them, in the name of an idea stemming from a time when one person was really able to master all the arts and sciences. They, furthermore, attempt to perform all these complex tasks within the framework of corporate self-government reminiscent of medieval guilds. Indeed there have been serious doubts about the efficiency of the university since the 18th century. Reformers of the “Enlightenment” advocated the abolition of the universities as useless remnants of past tradition and establish in their stead specialized schools for the training of professional people and academies for the advancement of science and learning. This program was actually put into effect by the Revolution and the subsequent reorganization of higher education by Napoleon in France. The present day organization of higher education in the Soviet Union still reflects the belief in the efficiency of specialized professional schools as well as specialized academic research institutions.
British Universities
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: July 2009

The university is a social institution which, like any other institution, has aims or functions for its members, for other social groups and for society as a whole; it has also a structure of roles, denned, sanctioned and provided with facilities for their performance. The normative conception of the institution—in this case the ‘idea of a university’—may or may not faithfully reproduce an objective description of statistical norms of behaviour. Under conditions of institutional change the two norms do not coincide. In this essay I will consider the British university from these two points of view (i. e. the ‘idea’ of a university and the ‘facts’) in an attempt to understand the discrepancy (i. e. the processes of change which lie behind the differences between wish and reality).
The Democratization of Higher Education in America
Authors: Trow Martin
Published: July 2009

American higher education is currently undergoing an enormous and rapid expansion. Between 1939 and 1961 the number of students enrolled in colleges and universities and earning credits toward degrees rose from about 1.3 million to over 3.9 million (1). This three-fold increase has resulted almost completely from increasing rates of enrollment, since the population of college age—that is, the 18 to 21 year olds—was almost exactly as large in 1939 as in 1960 (2). The difference is that in 1939 college and university enrollments comprised about 14% of the 18–21 year old population, while by 1961 that figure was about 38%. This rate has been increasing at an average of 1% a year since the end of World War II.
Von der Herrschaft über Menschen zur Verwaltung der Dinge
Authors: Pirker Theo
Published: July 2009

Neben dem Kommunistischen Manifest gehört die kleine Schrift von Friedrich Engels Die Entwicklung des Sozialismus von der Utopie zur Wissenschaft (1) wohl zu den bekanntesten und am weitest verbreiteten Dokumenten des Marxismus. Diese kleine Schrift stellt eine Zusammenfassung von drei Kapiteln aus Herrn E. Dührings Umwälzung der Wissenschaft aus dem Jahre 1878 dar. Engels hat diese Zusammenfassung für eine Übersetzung ins Französische vorgenommen. Sie erschien in Frankreich zuerst in der Revue socialiste und sodann im Jahre 1880 als selbständige Broschüre mit dem Titel Socialisme utopique et socialisme scientifique. Erst im März 1883 erschien die Broschüre in Deutschland.
Socio-economic Aspects of German Rearmament
Authors: Brandt Gerhard
Published: July 2009

The advent of a new branch of social research under the name of civil-military relations studies within the course of the last two decades may be taken as an indication that the relationship between military and civil institutions has become one of the crucial problem areas in highly developed industrial societies. Whether this state of affairs might be characterized in terms of an increasing militarization of industrial society, like the Garrison State theory implies, or on the other hand, as a permeation of military institutions by specific values of civil institutions, does not now seem to be clear. Very likely, the problem before us does not lend itself to clear-cut statements like these. Notwithstanding the complexity of the relationships involving the two subsystems and the divergence of interpretations by different students of civil military relations, there appears to be agreement that both military and civil institutions have lost some of their relative autonomy. Something like a reciprocal interpenetration of both subsystems, without precedent in the history of industrial societies, has taken place. Likewise, the reasons for changes in the relations between the two sectors seem to be beyond controversy. The question of national defense has become a crucial problem of industrial societies which has been traced back to changes in the traditional world balance of power on the one hand, and revolutionary advances of weapons technology on the other. Concentrated as they are in the hands of two overwhelming antagonists, modern weapons, because of their range and destructive power, are capable of dealing a decisive blow to the war potential of the opponent within a matter of hours. Consequently, the outcome of any conflict must be anticipated within its earliest phase; to put it another way, the antagonists have to be prepared to face a showdown at any moment or risk their own destruction. It is for this reason that the full deployment of the military potential before a conflict is even in sight has become a postulate of modern military policy (2). Yet, permanent mobilization, as it is required by a rational military policy in the atomic age, tends to call in question the very social order which it to be secured against outside aggression.
Closed and open social stratification
Authors: Béteille André
Published: July 2009

It is generally held that traditional Indian society was based on the regime of caste and was to that extent a peculiarly closed system. Much of the contemporary discussion of Indian society, including the analysis of social change, uses the caste system as the basic frame of reference (1). I shall try to argue that this is inadequate and that, in order to gain a realistic picture of what is happening in India today, other factors such as class and power have to be considered as independent variables.
Greedy Organisations
Authors: Coser Lewis A.
Published: July 2009

Organized groups are always faced with the problem of how best to harness human energies to their purposes. They must concern themselves with mechanisms which insure that people are sufficiently motivated to be loyal to them even in the face of competing appeals from other sources within the wider social structure.
Some Problems about Rationality
Authors: Lukes Steven
Published: July 2009

In what follows I shall discuss a philosophical problem arising out of the practice of anthropologists and sociologists which may be stated, in a general and unanalysed form, as follows: when I come across a set of beliefs which appear prima facie irrational, what should be my attitude towards them? Should I adopt a critical attitude, taking it as a fact about the beliefs that they are irrational, and seek to explain how they came to be held, how they manage to survive unprofaned by rational criticism, what their consequences are, etc? Or should I treat such beliefs charitably: should I begin from the assumption that what appears to me to be irrational may be interpreted as rational when fully understood in its context? More briefly, the problem comes down to whether or not there are alternative standards of rationality.
The Limits of Irrationality
Authors: Hollis Martin
Published: July 2009

The anthropologist starts with an empty notebook and it seems that everything he writes in it is discovered empirically. But is it? I shall argue here that the fact that the natives are ‘rational’ in Mr. Lukes first or ‘universal’ sense is not discovered empirically and that this puts Mr. Lukes' philosophical problem in a different light.
Domination and Assertion Towards a theory of educational change
Authors: Archer Margaret Scotford , Vaughan Michalina
Published: July 2009

In the sociology of Max Weber, the history of any social institution corresponds to the constant interplay of a dominant and an assertive group and their supportive ideologies. While Weber himself posited the relevance of such interaction for the study of educational change, he limited himself to the description of historical stages in this process without attempting to account for their sequence. To do so requires a specification of the necessary condition for successful educational domination or assertion by any group. The factors of such domination over the social institution of education may at times coincide with those required for social domination–defined as domination over the main institutions of a society. This coincidence will depend on the degree to which education is integrated with other social institutions. When education is largely unintegrated with such institutions, the group dominating it will tend to be distinct from the ruling group in society. A corresponding statement can be made about assertion. However, as education is never completely autonomous, a theory of educational change (1) necessarily goes beyond this institution to the extent to which it is integrated with others.
Succession in contemporary Africa
Authors: Goody Jack
Published: July 2009

Modes of succession to high office in Africa today present the same problems for study as most other institutions in that continent; we have to analyse and understand both ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ practices. The two terms imply time-depth and it is of course true that we can pinpoint, for example, the recent entry of the extensive electoral procedures which follow a European model, whereas the kind of hereditary system by which offices circulated between segments of royal dynasties was there long before. But today ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ exist side by side and from one standpoint the insistence upon this division carries some dangers if it leads automatically to the idea that, as time goes on, ‘modern’ practice is necessarily going to completely oust ‘traditional’ methods. In the first place, the two systems may continue to operate in different spheres of social life, the ‘traditional’ for local chiefs, the ‘modern’ for national politicians. Even when this is the case, both types of leadership occur within one socio-cultural field, which, however highly differentiated it may be, is bound to modify the behaviour of the interacting individuals, roles and institutions. The mode of selecting an Ashanti chief is certainly not what it was before the advent of first colonial over-rule and secondly independent nationhood. The style of choosing representatives for local and national government is in turn influenced by the norms of chiefship. One continues to modify the other because both exist side by side.
The Great Patron A reinterpretation of tribal rebellions
Authors: Gellner Ernest
Published: July 2009

The original attempt to interpret the post-independence tribal unrest was first published in the European Journal of Sociology in 1962 (1). Its evidence was drawn primarily from the first half decade of Moroccan independence. It sought to explain certain oddities of Moroccan political life of the period.
Film and the communication of values
Authors: Jarvie I. C.
Published: July 2009

Viewing a movie can often be a powerful experience, leaving a deep impression. Particularly when that experience is worrying or upsetting, it may challenge people's values. This leads one to question what values movies have, where they acquire them, and whether they are (e.g. inadvertently) making propaganda for violence.
Folk culture and the mass media
Authors: McCormack Thelma
Published: July 2009

Black students in North American Universities calling for ‘soul’ courses and the official recognition of dialect speech; small underdeveloped nations fearing the cultural encroachment of ‘Americanization’; policy makers wishing to protect village traditions of handicraft from the technology of factory production; planners advocating decentralization and the preservation of regional or neighbourhood groups; minority ethnic group leaders attempting to maintain their religious customs, language and arts—all share one assumption, namely, that folk societies with their characteristic symbolic cultures are viable (1). Some go further and see in these small, homogeneous, proximate groups the last hope that advanced industrial secular societies can be held down to a human scale, can resist the multiple pressures to become, in the pejorative sense of the word, ‘mass societies’ (2).
Two approaches to the study of mass media
Authors: Buerage Michael
Published: July 2009

In this essay two sociological perspectives are used to examine aspects of the mass media. One is derived from Marx's theory of capitalism and the forces and relations of production that determine its structure and development. According to this perspective, the mass media are part of a capitalist society and the content of the media is analysed in terms of class interest and class conflict. The second perspective is derived from Tocqueville's theory of democratic society. In Democracy in America Tocqueville uses two ideal types—of aristocratic and democratic society—to analyse American society and to compare it with European society.
The cultural orientation of Czechoslovak youth
Authors: Freiová Eliška
Published: July 2009

To understand and evaluate the cultural orientation of youth in Czechoslovakia today—the structure of their cultural interests, etc.—is impossible in the absence of an understanding of the fundamental social and political changes that have taken place in Czechoslovakia in the post-war period. These have left their impact on the character of each of the generations of this period. Our purpose is not, nor can it be, to present any profound analysis of these changes in the present study, and we can therefore only confine ourselves to giving a rough outline of the more important trends.
The literary imagination and the explanation of socio-cultural change in modern Britain
Authors: Filmer Paul
Published: July 2009

Much of the substance of the contemporary debate on the nature and consequences of ‘mass culture’ in Britain is to be found in the work of four English literary critics: T. S. Eliot, F. R. Leavis, Richard Hoggart and Raymond Williams (1). Their work is in the Utopian tradition of social and aesthetic critical thought that has been termed “the English Dream: the ideal of the collective, unalienated folk society, where honest men work together and create together” (2); the ideal of the organic community, in short. Such a society is seen as composed of homogeneous, self-sufficient, stable and tradition-dominated communities, comprising a population which shares a common language and culture, and which is typified—but not exclusively bound—by a mentality attached to the tangible, local and known (3).
The Worker and the Media
Authors: Agassi Judith B.
Published: July 2009

The mass media have aroused concern and discussion by social scientists—both as media of political persuasion and as conveyors of mass culture. The first aspect—the media as means of political persuasion—arose as a direct result of the spectacular use of mass propaganda by the Fascists. It has since become a component of the continuing discussion about the means of modernization of underdeveloped societies. The second aspect—the media as conveyors of mass culture—goes back at least to the nineteenth century discussion about the impact of the first “mass medium”, cheap print, such as the “penny dreadfuls” and the “railway literature”.
An Institutional Critique of Development Concepts
Authors: Streeten Paul
Published: July 2009

A critical examination of economic models soon leads to the examination of concepts, which are the bricks of which the models are built. Such an examination reveals that the bias in our view of economic and social reality enters before the model building begins, at the level where concepts are formed. The formulation of any concept, as I have tried to argue in my chapter on “The Use and Abuse of Models in Development Planning” (I), presupposes two procedures: aggregation of one set of items and isolation of this set from other sets. When we speak of a ‘tree’ we aggregate birches, beeches, elms, firs, larches, etc., into one category and, at the same time, differentiate them from bushes, shrubs, flowers, ferns, etc.
Reason or Revolution?
Authors: Popper Karl R.
Published: July 2009

I will begin by telling some of the history of the book and of its misleading title. In i9601 was invited to open a discussion on “The Logic of the Social Sciences” at a congress of German sociologists in Tubingen. I accepted, and I heard that my opening address would be followed by a reply from Professor Theodor W. Adorno of Frankfurt. It was suggested to me by the organizers that, in order to make a fruitful discussion possible, I should formulate my views in a number of definite theses. This I did: my opening address to that discussion, delivered in 1961, consisted of twenty-seven sharply formulated theses, plus a programmatic formulation of the task of the theoretical social sciences. Of course, I formulated these theses so as to make it difficult for any Hegelian and Marxist (such as Adorno) to accept them; and I supported them as well as I could by arguments. Owing to the limited time available, I confined myself to fundamentals, and I tried to avoid repeating what I had said elsewhere.
Religion and Modernization in Southeast Asia
Authors: Alatas Syed Hussein
Published: July 2009

The relation between religion and modernization in Southeast Asia is a theme of such a complex nature that a discussion of any of its various aspects would necessitate a preliminary methodological and conceptual clarification. Such a clarification is further necessitated by the fact that modernization as a historical and contemporary phenomenon has been treated by scholars from different disciplines using concepts as political modernization, economic modernization, technological modernization, military modernization, educational modernization, administrative modernization, and so forth. It becomes almost the general practice to employ the concept modernization in a diffused and ambiguous manner. The ambiguity and diffuseness of the concept lies in the fact that no distinction or differentiation is accomplished between the numerous phenomena.
Role distance, role identification, and amoral role behavior
Authors: Mayntz Renate
Published: July 2009

In role theory—especially of the structural-functional variety attention has predominantly been paid to the question of how conformity is achieved, while the complementary question of how the individual can avoid being completely absorbed by his roles, how he can maintain some measure of personal autonomy, has been rather neglected. Attempts to bring in this neglected aspect have recently made use of the concept of role distance.
Une interprétation de la théorie de la religion selon Max Weber
Authors: Bourdieu Pierre
Published: July 2009

Par un paradoxe tout à fait conforme à la théorie webérienne de la relation entre Ies intentions des agents et le sens historique de leurs actions, la contribution la plus importante que Max Weber ait apportée à la sociologie de la religion se situe sans doute sur un tout autre terrain que celui qu'il a choisi pour son affrontement de toute une vie avec Marx. Si, dans son effort obstiné pour établir l'efficacité historique des croyances religieuses contre Ies expressions Ies plus réductrices de la théorie marxiste, Max Weber est parfois conduit à une exaltation du charisme qui, comme on l'a remarque, n'est pas sans évoquer une philosophic «héroique» de l'histoire a la manière de Carlyle, par exemple lorsqu'il désigne le chef charismatique comme « la force révolutionnaire spécifiquement ‘créatrice’ de l'histoire » (I), il reste qu'il fournit lui-même le moyen d'échapper à l'alternative simpliste dont ses analyses Ies plus incertaines sont le produit, c'est-à-dire à l'opposition entre l'illusion de l'autonomie absolue portant à concevoir le message religieux comme surgissement inspiré et la théorie réductrice qui en fait le reflet direct des conditions économiques et sociales: il met en effet en lumière ce que Ies deux positions opposées et complémentaires ont en commun d'oublier, à savoir le travail religieux que réalisent Ies agents et Ies porte-parole spécialisés, investis du pouvoir, institutionnel ou non, de répondre, par un type déterminé de pratiques ou de discours, à une catégorie particulière de besoins propres à des groupes sociaux déterminés.
Remarques sur un débat
Authors: Aron Raymond
Published: July 2009

La thèese de M. Zygmunt Bauman souffre, me semble-t-il, de quelques équivoques que les commentaires de MM. Kolakowski et Lane ont plutôt aggravées que dissipées. Puisque MM. Bauman et Lane se réfèrent à un article de moi publié il y a plus de vingt ans (I), ils me permettront de participer à mon tour au débat.
The Problem of Adequacy Reflections on Alfred Schutz's Contribution to the Methodology of the Social Sciences
Authors: Zijderveld Anton C.
Published: July 2009

The theories of the Austrian-American philosopher and social scientist Alfred Schutz have been summarized and introduced sufficiently by various of his students. The purpose of the present paper is not to provide the reader with yet another comprehensive summary of his phenomenology and social theories but will try to formulate what Schutz has contributed to one of the most crucial issues in the methodology of the social sciences, namely the problem of an adequate social theory. Without underestimating the many fruitful insights of his phenomenological philosophy and the contributions he made to social theory in general, it was in the field of methodology that, according to this author's opinion, Schutz contributed most to the social sciences.
Sous convert des maîtres Aperçu sur la pensée politique d'une ethnie indochinoise
Authors: Dournes Jacques
Published: July 2009

Sans prétendre décrire les structures politiques de l'ethnie jörai — matière d'un gros ouvrage (I) — cette étude envisage un aspect de leur fonctionnement, pensé par le peuple en terme de »couverture« (l'image est jörai, comme nous lever rons). Cette »couverture« favorise une certaine anarchie pratique tout en maintenant l'unité du groupe, qui a horreur de tout despotisme et se delecte à 1'audition de récits où les tyrans sont renversés. S'il éprouve vivement le tragique de la situation actuelle, le peuple jorai la place dans une séquence historicomythique, oú elle n'est pas insolite et nouvelle, dont la loi pourrait se formuler dans les termes memes de la sentence que Brecht a reprise des Chinois.
The Military and Society in Greece
Authors: Brown James
Published: July 2009

In this century military intervention in the political arena on the part of the Greek armed forces has been, either directly or indirectly, the rule and not the exception (i). The forms of and the motivations for this political activism have varied greatly, but in spite of the often decisive effects of their intervention in political affairs the Greek military and the reasons for their intervention have not been studied in any serious or systematic manner.
Some Social Implications of Military Service and the Reserves System in Israel
Authors: Horowitz Dan , Kimmerling Baruch
Published: July 2009

An uneasy relationship between the army and the society within which it operates is a situation characteristic of most contemporary, relatively developed countries. The major tensions crystallize around three foci: first, the incompatibility between the continuous decline in the centrality and salience of the national security issue and the increased allocation of human andmaterial resources to the military institutions. Second, the societal dilemma between an ideology which advocates the total segregation of the army from the other institutional spheres and the tendencies towards overt or latent role expansion of the military system. Third, the decline of military values and roles as a result of the impact of competing values. As a result of these tensions, the balanced exchange between the social system and the military sub-system tends to be disturbed. The military is often geared to maintaining a level of national security which requires a commitment of resources to this function exceeding the actual input of such resources. Consequently, the performance of the military is often impaired, and the government comes under pressure to increase military spending. Our paper deals with two democratic political systems which, to a considerable extent, avoided this kind of tension between the society at large and its military institutions. The comparison will be between Israel and Switzerland, with the emphasis on the former. The comparison will be made in reference to specific points relevant to the problems under study and will not be a general comparison of the two systems.
From Restitutive Law to Repressive Law Durkheim'sThe Division of Labor in Societyre-visited
Authors: Sheleff Leon Shaskolsky
Published: July 2009

When Durkheim'sThe Division of Labor in Societyfirst appeared in English translation in 1933, it was greeted by a terse and scathing critique by Ellsworth Faris, who suggested that there was no empirical foundation to Durkheim's thesis, and that subsequent anthropological research—in the forty years since the publication of the book in French—had rendered the work redundant. In particular, Faris called attention to the fact that in primitive societies—in stark contradistinction to Durkheim's basic theme—there was much division of labor and very little repressive law.
Do We Need a Theory of the State?
Authors: Macpherson C. B.
Published: July 2009

MyQuestionis not whether we need a theoretical understanding of the political process in modern states, but whether we need a theory of the state in the grand manner of the acknowledged ‘great’ theories, ranging in modern times from, say, Bodin and Hobbes to Hegel and the nineteenth century juristic theories of sovereignty, and on to the less ‘great’, but in intention equally grand, theories of Green and Bosanquet and such twentieth century thinkers as Barker and Lindsay and MacIver.
Class before State: the Soviet treatment of African feudalism
Authors: Gellner Ernest
Published: July 2009

Soviet anthropology differs from its Western counterpart, for better or for worse, by a certain kind of density. It is the social world which is generated by the scholarly activities of the Soviet učenyj, and which he also inhabits, which has this dense quality. Any social structure or institution which he investigates is held firmly in its place by a wider framework, within which it can be shifted and budged only with difficulty. This framework is of course constituted by a set of ideas and questions and concepts which, in a loose way, one can lump together as ‘Marxism’.
Class Structure in Italian Society
Authors: Paci Massimo
Published: July 2009

Class structure in Italian society presents some important specific characteristics in relation to other ‘advanced’ capitalist countries. I shall deal with these specific characteristics especially, using statistical and descriptive material which has only recently become available, following on new research and studies in this field. Then, as a conclusion to this paper, I shall deal with the problem of interpreting these specific characteristics, asking particularly whether they should be put down to the ‘backwardness’ (or insufficient development) of Italian capitalism, or, whether we should rather see them as the expression of the Italian economy's ‘peripheral’ position inside the Western capitalist system.
The Man in the Study and the Man in the Field Ethnography theory and comparison in social anthropology
Authors: Kuper Adam
Published: July 2009

Histories and critiques of anthropology usually deal mainly with what anthropologists say, including what they say they do. However, like their informants, anthropologists are accustomed to saying one thing and doing another. The emphasis in this paper is on the nature of anthropological data and methods, and thus on what anthropologists really do. The argument is that what anthropologists do is often productive and sensible, but that it has very little relationship to what many anthropologists say they should be doing. Indeed those anthropologists who take such theoretical directives seriously labour under a considerable, self-inflicted handicap.
The Shiʿite Hierocracy and the State in Pre-modern Iran: 1785–1890
Authors: Arjomand Saïd Amir
Published: July 2009

With the progressive development of secularism in the West, of which Spain's formally becoming a secular state in 1978 may be taken as a symbolic culmination, the Church-State problem has long receded from the foreground of the Occidental memory. Yet, in other parts of the world, where God is not dead, the analogue problem of the relationship between the hierocracy and the state merits attention. As the Islamic revolution of February 1979 eloquently demonstrates, the problem is of great importance and the sociologists' or social historians' neglect of it could only be to the detriment of their understanding.
Michels and his Critics
Authors: Beetham David
Published: July 2009

Ipropose in this paper to develop a theme from an earlier article I wrote on Michels: namely, that Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens is to be understood as the work of someone who had passed over from revolutionary Marxism into the camp of elite theory; more precisely, it is a work which takes as its starting point a problem posed within a revolutionary tradition and proceeds to answer it from within a quite different theoretical framework. We could say that it offers a Right-wing answer to a Left-wing question. It is in this conjunction that lie both the strengths and weaknesses of the work (1). One failing of much of the critical literature on Zur soziologie des Parteiwesens is that it treats the conceptual and other inadequacies in its argument as a series of isolated errors, of separate points to be challenged, rather than as arising systematically out of the particular intellectual conjunction I have indicated (2). I propose, however, to go further in this paper than simply present a historical analysis of the intellectual development of an individual thinker. I want to ask the question: How far can the inadequacies of Michels' argument be overcome from within the framework of elite theory itself, and how far can they only be overcome by breaking with some of the central assumptions of that perspective? In other words, I want to broaden out the enquiry to consider what are the limitations of an elite-theoretical approach to the study of parties and elites, particularly parties of the Left.
Anthropological thought in the wake of the French devolution:la Société des observateurs de l'homme
Authors: Kilborne Benjamin
Published: July 2009

In recent months a number of lively and stimulating papers have been published dealing with the meaning of history within the discipline of anthropology (Bermann 1978, Boon 1980, Cannon 1978, Cohn 1980, Higonnet 1980). In the literature, however, relatively little emphasis has been given to the variation in anthropological ideas within the tradition of anthropology. One very important aspect of such variation is to be found in the relationship between particular national cultural traditions and the development of anthropological ideas. Writers who have tended to see the history of the discipline in terms of biological paradigms, utilitarian behaviorism, and various conceptions of anthropology as 'objective' science, have failed to grasp adequately either the continuity or the range of variation within the anthropological tradition. Therefore, anthropologists and those thinking about the history of anthropology need to analyze anthropological ideas in historical context. Such an attempt to reconsider the past arouses opposition because it necessarily contradicts rationalist assumptions about anthropology as a science akin to the natural sciences, obedient to the laws of progress and independent of humanpreoccupations, a curious claim anyway for a science of man.
Provincials and professionals: the British post-war sociologists
Authors: Halsey A. H.
Published: July 2009

The story is therefore restricted to a period, as well as to persons. It is restricted, too, to a short essay which is not a ‘researched’ history but a personal appraisal of past events; not a complete account but an answer to particular questions about those who graduated from L.S.E. in the early 'fifties to be dispersed by professional success during the 'sixties.
Class and political action in nineteenth-century England: Theoretical and comparative perspectives
Authors: Kumar Krishan
Published: July 2009

Political sociology has from its very inception had an overriding concern with the nature of political order and stability, and the threats to that stability. Ever since ‘the entry of the masses on to the stage of history’, at the time of the French Revolution, one source of that threat has regularly been seen as the industrial working class. That has been so, whether the threat was perceived by the liberal centre and conservative right; or whether is was converted, by the left, into a definite promise to overthrow ‘bourgeois’ stability. In both cases, in the anxious speculations of Mill and Tocqueville as much as the triumphant predictions of Marx and Engels, a key role was marked out for the developing working class of nineteenthcentury Europe.
The decline of patron-client relations in developed societies
Authors: Theobald Robin
Published: July 2009

An enormous amount of scholarly attention has been devoted to the phenomenon of patron-client relations both in the form of conceptual elaboration and to the application of the patronage model to a wide variety of empirical situations. However despite the prodigious amount written on the relationship its analytical status remains equivocal: no one, for example, has been able to say with any degree of precision what patron-clientage is, and especially where patron-clientage ends and the reciprocity which pervades all social relations begins. But a certain lack of clarity has not deterred social scientists from resorting to the patron-client model and few studies of social and political change in the Third World manage to get by entirely without it.
Material and nonmaterial incentives in political machines
Authors: Rhodes Aaron A.
Published: July 2009

Studies of political machines in American cities have typically been concerned with voting patterns that have allowed machines to control municipal governments and with the mechanisms of machines themselves, which keep political operatives active in city precincts. The presence of ‘material incentives', defined as tangible rewards in the form of city jobs, business opportunities, easements from city regulations, and gifts, is the factor most commonly understood to account for both voter support for machines and for the motivation to participate in the work of machine politics.
L'expansion de l'enseignement et la surqualification sur le marché du travail
Authors: Windolf Paul
Published: July 2009

Du point de vue historique, l'expansion de l'enseignement s'est faite progressivement du cycle primaire au secondaire, puis au supérieur. A chaque étape, la demande d'éducation a développé sa dynamique propre, qui n'a pu être influencée politiquement que de façon limitée et a conduit chaque fois à une expansion du système éducatif au niveau supérieur.
The autonomous power of the state: its origins, mechanisms and results
Authors: Mann Michael
Published: July 2009

This essay tries to specify the origins, mechanisms and results of the autonomous power which the state possesses in relation to the major power groupings of ‘civil society’. The argument is couched generally, but it derives from a large, ongoing empirical research project into the development of power in human societies. At the moment, my generalisations are bolder about agrarian societies; concerning industrial societies I will be more tentative. I define the state and then pursue the implications of that definition. I discuss two essential parts of the definition, centrality and territoriality, in relation to two types of state power, termed heredespoticandinfrastructuralpower. I argue that state autonomy, of both despotic and infrastructural forms, flows principally from the state's unique ability to provide aterritorially-centralisedform of organization.
The Italian state and small business
Authors: Weiss Linda
Published: July 2009

Despite the certainty with which our theories of industrial society chorused the demise of the small-scale economy, Italy'ssmall producers have not merely refused to disappear but have continued to nourish, multiply and predominate in the postwar economy. Most explanations for this phenomenon have centred oneconomic factors—whether the old linear notions of delayed development and backwardness (Fuà 1976; Sereni 1966), or the more fashionable centre-periphery model which attributes the survival of small-scale production to Italy's ‘latecomer’ status within the international division of labour (see, e.g., Paci 1979; Bagnasco 1977). In this paper I shall attempt to provide a non-economic explanation for the persistence and reproduction of Italy's small business stratum. The weight and importance of small enterprise in a given economy is not entirely explained by economic factors, since comparative statistics tell us that in many advanced economies petty production is by no means a marginal organisational form. Indeed they indicate that the processes of industrialism, far from generating homogenous and purgative effects, produce a diversity of conditions in which small firms can survive. On these and other empirical grounds, the paper argues that the differences observable in the Italian case are the product of particular social and institutional factors.
Minorities and majorities in the Middle East
Authors: Kedourie Elie
Published: July 2009

Minority and majority are correlative terms: to say the one necessarily implies the other.

The notion of minority and majority has for a long time now been part of the Western political vocabulary. How did this happen ? It is a natural question to ask since neither the Latin words from which they are derived, i.e., minor and maior, nor their particular derivations in various European languages originally had a political bearing or implication. In English (and French) for instance minority and majority indicated simply the age of a person, having regard to issues of legal competence. A minor could not act in his own behalf. In due coursethe minor will be able so to act, and we then say that he has attained his majority.
Anomie and social theory in ancient Greece
Authors: Orrù Marco
Published: July 2009

It is only recently that social scientists have rediscovered the importance of setting their research in historical perspective. Twenty years ago, Alvin Gouldner remarked that ‘Many modern social scientists scarcely manage to conceive of their work as having nineteenth century roots, and most of us live in an intellectual world whose historical boundaries usually stop at the Enlightenment’ (I). Today such an attitude has ceased to be the rule. Historical grounding is needed, not only for social theory in general, but also for key concepts that appear with increasing frequency in contemporary sociological work. Anomie is one of them.