bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cappadocia, Late Antiquity
Authors: Métivier Sophie
Published: December 2012

Cappadocia is known in an exceptional way during Late Antiquity, especially in the fourth century. While inscriptions and archaeological remains are scarce, historiographical, legal and, most of all, religious writings shed light on the regional history of Cappadocia. Among authors of Late Antiquity, several were Cappadocians. They occasionally disclose fragments of that history.
Languages of the Caucasus
Authors: Hewitt George
Published: December 2012

The Caucasian isthmus, lying between the Black and Caspian seas at the interface of Europe and Asia, is one of the Earth's richest ethno‐linguistic regions. Some of the currently spoken languages arrived when outsiders immigrated during recorded history. But the majority, the indigenous languages of the Caucasus, belong to descendants of peoples the date of whose arrival is simply unknown – hence the name. Depending on one's analysis, the autochthonous languages divide into two or three families: South Caucasian (Kartvelian) and either North Caucasian or Northwest Caucasian and Nakh‐Daghestanian, the northern languages being completely unrelated to Kartvelian.
Chalcedonian controversy
Authors: Menze Volker
Published: December 2012

“Chalcedonian Controversy” is not (yet) a well‐established technical term to define the Christological quarrels around the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Here it will be used to discuss the beginning of the controversy already before 451 up to the controversy over Monoenergism and Monotheletism in the seventh century.
Constitution of Medina
Authors: Lecker Michael
Published: December 2012

The so‐called Constitution of Medina ‐ probably the first legal document of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam ‐ dates back to the first year after his
hijra
(622
CE
), or “emigration,” which brought him from his hometown Mecca to the cluster of towns known as Yathrib or Medina in the Hijāz (northern Arabia) and marked the beginning of the Islamic era.
Court (imperial), Roman
Authors: Berenger Agnes
Published: December 2012

The imperial court, in the Roman Empire, was a heterogeneous group of people who were living and/or working inside the Imperial Palace and had direct access to the emperor. In Latin, the expression used to refer to imperial court isAula Caesaris.
Cyril of Alexandria
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

Cyril of Alexandria (378–444CE, bishop of Alexandria 412–44) was one of the greatest theologians and ecclesiastical leaders of the patristic age.
Dekapolis
Authors: Costa Kate da
Published: December 2012

“On the side of Syria, joining up to Judaea, is the region of Dekapolis, so called from the number of its cities; as to which all writers are not agreed” (Plin.
HN
5.16.74).
Desert castles, Umayyad
Authors: Genequand Denis
Published: December 2012

Desert castles is a generic name given to a series of aristocratic residences or palaces built during the Umayyad period (661–750CE) by the caliphs, their entourage, and the elites. The term does not accurately reflect the true nature of the different buildings; indeed, if a large part of them are effectively situated in steppe land areas, another part lies in areas that are less or not marginal.
Dioskoros, bishop of Alexandria
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

One of the most controversial figures of Late Antique Christianity, Dioskoros was elected bishop of Alexandria in 444CEand died in exile at Gangra in Paphlagonia in 454.
Ecclesiastical history
Authors: Whitby Mary
Published: December 2012

Ecclesiastical (Church) history blossomed in Greek and Syriac between the late fourth and late sixth centuriesCE: its “Father”was the pro‐Arian Eusebius (early 260s–339CE), bishop of Caesarea, while the lawyer Evagrius Scholasticus was writing in 593CE.
Epiphanius of Salamis
Authors: Simelidis Christos
Published: December 2012

Epiphanius (ca. 315–403CE) was bishop of Constantia (ancient Salamis) in Cyprus for thirty‐six years from 367.
Ethnogenesis
Authors: Reimitz Helmut
Published: December 2012

The termethnogenesiswas introduced to late Roman studies in the late 1970s by Herwig Wolfram.
Eunuchs, Late Antiquity
Authors: Tougher Shaun
Published: December 2012

Eunuchs are a defining feature of Late Antiquity, for in this period they became an institutional feature of the Roman imperial court, in their capacity as chamberlains (cubicularii).
Franks
Authors: Mathisen Ralph
Published: December 2012

The Franks were the most successful of the several barbarian peoples who settled in the Roman Empire during the fifth century. Their country of France preserves their name.
Greek Anthology
Authors: Fournet Jean‐Luc
Published: December 2012

TheGreek Anthology (AG)is the conventional name given to the most important collection of Greek epigrams. It is composed of the fifteen books of thePalatine Anthology(whose name is due to the manuscript of the Palatine Library in Heidelberg, which transmitted it to us) plus a sixteenth one (also calledAppendix Planudea) containing 388 epigrams the modern editors excerpted from another anthology compiled in 1301 by Maximus Planudes (Planudean Anthology).
Hilary of Aries
Authors: Mathisen Ralph
Published: December 2012

Bishop Hilary of Arles (ca. 401–49) was supported by an influential episcopal faction and powerful secular officials. He took control of the church of southern Gaul and flouted the will of the bishop of Rome.
Historiography, Late Antique
Authors: Fündling Jörg
Published: December 2012

That Latin historiography after Tacitus nearly vanished is remarkable, since it had no parallel in the Greek and Hellenized eastern provinces.
Huns
Authors: Lawrence Thomas Christopher
Published: December 2012

The Huns were a nomadic people who emerged from the Black Sea region in the 370sCE. They were mounted warriors whose weapons included the composite bow and the lasso. Their movements westward into Europe put pressure on several barbarian groups, including the Alans and the Goths, forcing the latter group to seek admittance into the Roman Empire in 376. Before the accession of Attila in ca. 435 the Huns operated as disparate groups under various kings. The Hunnic king Uldin had contact with both the eastern and the western empires in the first decade of the fifth century. A fragment of Olympiodorus of Thebes also records an embassy to the Huns under Donatus and Charaton in ca. 412.
Hypatia
Authors: Haas Christopher
Published: December 2012

Hypatia (ca. 355‐415CE) was an influential Alexandrian teacher of Neoplatonist philosophy and mathematical theory, who flourished in the last quarter of the fourth century and the early fifth century.
Isidorus of Pelusium
Authors: Camplani Alberto
Published: December 2012

A corpus of some two thousand letters is attributed to Isidore of Pelusium, a monk, priest, and teacher who lived in Pelusium, capital of the province Augustamnica in northern Egypt.
Jabala
Authors: Bray Julia
Published: December 2012

The name Jabala may have been borne by three chieftains of Jafna at indeterminate dates.
Jacob Baradaios
Authors: Menze Volker
Published: December 2012

Jacob Baradaios was a non‐Chalcedonian titular metropolitan of Edessa, who started to ordain an ecclesiastical hierarchy for his church.
Jerash
Authors: Williams D. F.
Published: December 2012

Jerash (classical name Gerasa) is traditionally said to have been founded by Alexander the Great and lies in a fertile valley in northern Jordan.
Jerome
Authors: Cooper Kate
Published: December 2012

Jerome is known as one of the outstanding writers of the great age of patristic literature in the late fourth century, especially as a biblical commentator and as a translator of the Bible into Latin from the original languages.
Justiniana Prima
Authors: Spieser Jean‐Michel
Published: December 2012

We know, principally from Procopius (De aedificiis, 4), that the emperor Justinian founded a new town called Justiniana Prima, near the village where he was born.
Mons Porphyrites
Authors: Russell Ben
Published: December 2012

The remote quarrying complex of Mons Porphyrites, the modern Gebel Dokhan, is located in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, 40 km west of the Red Sea and approximately 165 km northeast of the Nile at Qena.
Mount Nebo
Authors: Whiting Marlena
Published: December 2012

Mount Nebo, located 7 km west of Madaba in western Jordan, is associated with the site from which Moses viewed the Promised Land (Deut 34:1).
Orosius
Authors: Lawrence Thomas Christopher
Published: December 2012

Orosius was an influential church historian who wrote in the second decade of the fifth century.
Patriarchs, Christian
Authors: Ford Simon.S.
Published: December 2012

Governance of the Late Antique Christian church was organized along essentially geographical lines.
Paulinus of Nola
Authors: Sogno Cristiana
Published: December 2012

The almost exact contemporary of Augustine of Hippo and Prudentius (see Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens), Meropius Pontius Paulinus was born at Bordeaux ca. 352/353CEand died at Nola on June 22, 431.
Peter Patrikios
Authors: Feissel Denis
Published: December 2012

Born in Thessalonike around 500
CE
, Peter Patrikios was one of the principal diplomats and officials of the reign of Justinian.
Philoxenos of Mabbug
Authors: Michelson David A.
Published: December 2012

Philoxenos of Mabbug (ca. 440–523
CE
) was a Syriac theologian and bishop notable for his contributions to ascetic thought and for his involvement in the ecclesiastical disputes that followed the Council of Chalcedon (
see
Chalcedonian Controversy).
Popes
Authors: Perrin Michel‐Yves
Published: December 2012

After they had founded and built up the Church, the blessed apostles (Peter and Paul) handed over the office of the episcopate to Linus; it is of this Linus that Paul speaks in the letters to Timothy.
Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens
Authors: Sogno Cristiana
Published: December 2012

Aurelius Prudentius Clemens (348–after 405CE) is one of the most important and influential figures in Latin Christian poetry.
Romulus Augustulus
Authors: McEvoy Meaghan
Published: December 2012

Romulus, so‐called Augustulus (“the little Augustus”), is commonly viewed as the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. He was the son of the general Orestes, who had previously served as the secretary (
notarius
) of Attila the Hun in the early 450s, a position which had involved him in two embassies to the eastern imperial court at Constantinople. In 475, the western emperor Julius Nepos (who had been in power for less than a year himself) appointed Orestes as
magister militum
(commander‐in‐chief) of Gaul. In response to the grievances of the multi‐ethnic barbarian army under his command, whose requests for land grants from Nepos had been refused, Orestes led the army against Nepos at Ravenna; the emperor fled by sea to Salona. Orestes established himself in command at Ravenna and on October 31 created his young son Romulus Augustus in Nepos’ stead.
Sasanians
Authors: Edwell Peter
Published: December 2012

The Sasanian Dynasty ruled ancient Iran together with parts of Central Asia and India from ca. 224 to 650CE. The Sasanians were more warlike than their Parthian predecessors, and their support for Zoroastrianism at times elevated the religion to an exclusive status. In their conflicts with the Romans the Sasanians were often victorious, but persistent difficulties with tribal groups from Central Asia and Arabia limited their capacity to extend the empire. Contemporary sources on the Sasanians are limited, with much of the information on them coming from Byzantine and Arabic annalistic sources.
Shi'ism
Authors: Bernheimer Teresa
Published: December 2012

The term Shi'ism refers to the second largest branch of Islam, which supports the rights of the family of the Prophet Muhammad (ahl al‐bayt) to the political and religious leadership of the Muslim community.
Temples, Late Antiquity
Authors: Caseau Béatrice
Published: December 2012

During the third and fourth centuriesCEthe number of temples was still high. To the public temples, formally consecrated on Italian soil by the emperor or in the name of the Roman populus, one should add the far more numerous temples belonging to a community of citizens or to private families in the different regions of the empire.
TheodosiusII
Authors: Holum Kenneth
Published: December 2012

Born in 401, Roman emperor in the east, he reigned at Constantinople from his elevation as Augustus in 402 until his death after falling from a horse in 450.
Theophilos, patriarch
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

Theophilos (ca. 345–412CE) was an ambitious and at times violent bishop of Alexandria (384/5–412), who sought to reinforce the authority of his see, both within Egypt and in relation to the imperial capital of Constantinople.
White Monastery Federation
Authors: Davis Stephen J. , Bolman Elizabeth S.
Published: December 2012

The White Monastery Federation was an ancient confederation of three monasteries located on the western bank of the Nile, across from the city of Panopolis (Akhmim), about 10 km from modern Sohag.
Iamblichus
Authors: Townsend Philippa
Published: December 2012

Iamblichus (ca. 240–325) was a Neoplatonist philosopher.
Accusatio
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

The Romans depended on private citizens to initiate and pursue a criminal charge, since the Roman system of justice had no public prosecutor.
Citations, law Governing
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

The so‐called Law of Citations(Lex Citandi)was originally part of a long enactment on the sources of law and other matters addressed to the Senate in Rome by the government of the western emperor, Valentinian III, in November 426.
Codex Justinianus
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

TheCodex Justinianusis a compilation of edited extracts of laws and rulings issued by Roman emperors between the second and sixth centuries CE, which exists today only in its Second Edition of 534. Under instructions issued by the emperor Justinian in February 528, a commission of officials and jurists was appointed to compile the Code.
Coercitio
Authors: Drogula Fred K.
Published: December 2012

Coercitiowas the authority vested in Roman magistrates to compel obedience from their fellow citizens. Magistrates invested withcoercitiowere able to enforce statutes, edicts, and official commands by imposing summary penalties for non‐compliance, and in this waycoercitioprovided the fundamental compulsory aspect in Rome's legal system.
Collatio legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

The
Collatio legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum
(Comparison of Mosaic and Roman Laws) or
Lex Dei
(Law of God), whose author and original title are unknown, is a fourth‐century Latin work that is an early attempt at comparative law.
Consultatio veteris cuiusdam iurisconsulti
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

TheConsultatio veteris cuiusdam iurisconsulti(Consultation of some antique jurist), whose author and original title are unknown, is a fifth‐century Roman legal treatise in Latin.
Crimen
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

Crimenmeans “charge,” that is, a formal accusation, in a judicial setting, of an offense that affected the community, prosecuted by someone invested with the authority of the state to perform that function (e.g., thenominis delator), and resulting in a defined penalty if the defendant was found guilty.
Decretum de saltu Burunitano
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

Thedecretum de saltu Burunitanois an inscription from an imperial estate in the Bagradas (modern Medjerda) valley in the Roman province of Africa, dated to the reign of Commodus (CILVIII 10570, 14454, 182CE).
Diadikasia
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

For most actions in Athenian law, there were an accuser and a defendant. If convicted, the defendant would pay damages to the accuser (in a Dike or private suit) or a penalty to the state (in a Graphe or public suit).
Edict, praetor's
Authors: Peachin Michael
Published: December 2012

In 367BCEthe Romans created a new magistrate: the Praetor.
Emporikai dikai
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

In the fifth century
BCE
, there were at Athens special judges called the
nautodikai
who appear to have had jurisdiction over those traveling by sea, which included merchants (Lys. 17.5).
Formula
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

Formula
is used in Roman law to refer to the
formula actionis,
which is the characteristic element of the formulary procedure. The
formula
was issued by the magistrate who presided over the first stage of proceedings. It contained a set of instructions for the judge or judges appointed by the magistrate to decide the case (See Gai.
Inst
. 4. 30–137). The competent magistrates published model
formulae
in their
edictum
.
Fragmenta Vaticana
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

TheFragmenta Vaticana(Vatican Fragments) are the remains of an anonymous fourth‐century Roman legal work, which only survives partially preserved in a palimpsest manuscript of the fifth century.
Fragmentum (fragmenta) de iure fisci
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

The
Fragmentum (fragmenta) de iure fisci
(fragment or fragments on the law of the
fiscus
: both denominations have been used) comprises two incomplete pages of a fifth‐century Roman law manuscript, identified and transcribed at Verona at the same time as the famous Gaius palimpsest (1816).
Gortyn, law code of
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Numerous laws from the city of Gortyn on Crete have been preserved in inscriptions from the Archaic and Classical periods; these fall into two general categories. First, there are many shorter documents (often very fragmentary) containing only one or a few statutes and dating from the early sixth to the fourth centuriesBCE.
Gymnasiarchic law (Beroia)
Authors: Skaltsa Stella
Published: December 2012

The gymnasiarchic law of Beroia, inscribed on both sides of a marble stele (1.755 m high x 0.407–0.468 m wide), contains a set of regulations that pertain to the office of the gymnasiarchy and the running of the gymnasium in this Macedonian city in the first third of the second centuryBCE. It systematizes information that prior to its discovery was deduced from honorific decrees and victors' lists scattered across the Hellenistic world.
In iure cessio
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

In iure cessio
was a formal act by which ownership was transferred following a choreographed procedure.
Infamia
Authors: Banfi Antonio
Published: December 2012

The word
infamia
has both a moral and a legal meaning.
Institor
Authors: Aubert Jean‐Jacques
Published: December 2012

Aninstitorwas a Roman business manager whose legal transactions, in so far as they were connected with his regular professional activities, entailed the civil liability of the principal who appointed him to this position, on the basis of a remedy (actio institoria, Dig. 14.3) granted by the praetorian edict.
Intestatus
Authors: Schermaier Martin J. , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

Anintestatuswas a Roman who died without a valid will. We encounter the term – as a technical legal term – mostly in legal writings, but it can be found in nonlegal literature as well.
Indicium populi
Authors: Banfi Antonio
Published: December 2012

Literally “popular tribunal” or “popular judgment,” the Roman
indicium populi
was a criminal trial where the verdict was given by the assembly of the people, the
comitia centuriata
or the
comitia tribute
; in the Archaic age, the ancient
comitia centuriata
had jurisdiction over criminal affairs.
Ius vitae necisque
Authors: Harders Ann‐Cathrin
Published: December 2012

In comparison to other ancient societies, the RomanPaterfamiliasheld a uniquely extensive power over his children, thePatria Potestas.
Law, “vulgar”
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

“Vulgar law” is acategory introduced into the study of Roman law by Ludwig Mitteis (1891), and implies aparallelism between the evolution of Roman law and the evolution of “vulgar Latin.”
Law, civil
Authors: du Plessis Paul J.
Published: December 2012

Civil law (and the associated concept “civilian tradition”), derived from the Latinius civile, is the term used in contemporary legal scholarship to refer to the reception of Roman law into the legal systems of western Europe (Van Caenegem 2002: 38). This use of the term is different from its original meaning as that body of Roman law only available to Roman citizens, which was used in Roman legal sources as an antithesis to theIus Gentium, that body of law which was common to all men.
Law, epigraphical sources for (Greek and Roman)
Authors: Harter‐Uibopuu Kaja
Published: December 2012

Together with literary texts such as forensic speeches and the writings of jurists, inscriptions constitute the most important source for legal history, especially for public law and interstate law, and to a lesser extent for private law.
Lex Acilia
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

One side of the fragmentarytabula Bembinacontains the text of a Roman statute (CILI2583) often called thelex repetundarum, and usually identified with a law proposed by the tribune M’. Acilius Glabrio (tribunus plebisca. 122BCE; Cic.Verr. 51, 2; Cic.Verr. 1.26; 121–2).
Lex coloniae Genetivae Iuliae seu Ursonensis
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The
Lex coloniae Genetivae Iuliae seu Ursonensis (CIL
II Suppl. 5439 =
ILS
6007;
CIL
II
2
594; C. G. Bruns,
Fontes
7
, n. 28 = S. Riccobono,
Leges
[FIRA I
2
], n. 21 = D'Ors 1953 n. 7;
Eph
.
Ep
. II 105–151.0221–232;
Eph
.
Ep
. III 87–112 cf.
Eph
.
Ep
. VIII 527;
Eph
.
Ep
. IX 83–91) is a Flavian copy of the Caesarian founding law of the colony at Urso, today Osuna (Seville), on display at the Archaeological Museum in Madrid.
Lex Irnitana
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The six tablets of the
lex Irnitana
(91
CE
), a municipal statute, were discovered in a village called El Saucejo (Seville) in 1981. Six of ten tablets are preserved: III, V, VII, VIII, IX, and X (this one is fragmentary); these are exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Seville.
Lex Iulia and lex Papia
Authors: Severy‐Hoven Beth
Published: December 2012

In 18BCE, Augustus, the first Roman emperor, passed thelex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus, the “law about the social orders marrying.” Later jurists conflated this with alaw that subsequently refined and completed it, thelex Papia Poppaea, sponsored by consuls of 9CE. The two came to be known as thelex Iuliaandlex Papia. Together they created asystem of rewards for married persons and parents and penalties for the unwed and childless that remained in effect for over two centuries.
Lex Rubria de Gallia Cisalpina
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

TheLex (Rubria) de Gallia Cisalpina (CILXI 1146;CILI2592=Bruns,Fontes7, no. 16 =FIRAI2no. 19; Crawford 1996: I.461–77 no. 28), inscribed on a bronze tablet (54–72 cm) –the fourth of an original set of five – was discovered in Veleia, near Piacenza, in 1760, and is today displayed in the National Archaeological Museum in Parma. The text – first edited in 1787 by C. R. Carli – is highly fragmentary and even its name remains uncertain. In two places (XX 29 and 38, in the formula of therepromissio damni infecti) alex Rubriais quoted, and for some scholars this is the original name of this statute. The Rubrian law constitutes a clear attestation of the extent to which Roman law was exported beyond Italy.
Lex, leges
Authors: Drogula Fred K.
Published: December 2012

Alexis a law or statute passed by one of Rome's citizen assemblies (thecomitia curiata, thecomitia centuriata, or thecomitia tributa), although – after thelex Hortensiaof 287BCE– actions by theconcilium plebisalso had the force of law (lex Plebiscitum) (Gai.Inst. 1.1–3).
Manus iniectio
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

Manus iniectio(laying of a hand upon a person) was a Roman procedure by which a private citizen formally arrested another person.
Murecine Tablets
Authors: Terpstra Taco
Published: December 2012

The Murecine tablets are a collection of wooden writing tablets, found in a villa just outside Pompeii in an area now called the “Agro Murecine,” hence their modern name.
Nomosand nomothesia
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Nomosis the Greek word for law, though in some contexts it can mean “custom.”
Obsequium
Authors: Perry Matthew J.
Published: December 2012

Obsequium(commonly translated “respect”) is a non‐technical, blanket term used by Roman jurists primarily to describe a range of prohibitions and duties designed to ensure freedpersons' proper treatment of their ex‐masters.
Paramone
Authors: Gallo Luigi
Published: December 2012

Paramoneis a contractual obligation that binds someone to remain (paramenein) with another for whom he works.
Phasis
Authors: Scafuro Adele C.
Published: December 2012

Phasis
refers to an act of denunciation before a magistrate or to the document that was lodged with a magistrate when the denunciation was made (Dem. 58. 7–8); the denunciation was used to initiate different kinds of public prosecutions in Athens by any Athenian who was competent before the law. Most instances of
phasis
concern offenses against property, but oddball offenses so initiated caution against suggesting a rationale for its use or exclusive realm of concern. The evidence suggests there was no general law regulating
phasis
; instead, individual statutes stipulated that something or some person “be denounced” to a magistrate; prosecution would follow.
Plebiscitum
Authors: Drogula Fred K.
Published: December 2012

Aplebiscitumwas a resolution (scitum) passed by a Roman assembly made up only of plebeians (it often appears as two words:plebei scitumorplebis scitum).
Probole
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Probole
was a special procedure to pass a vote of censure in the Athenian Assembly during the Classical period. A
probole
could be brought by any citizen against sycophants (those who abused the legal system) and those who deceived the people by making promises and not keeping them. This kind of
probole
could be brought only at the first (or
kyria
) meeting of the sixth prytany. Charges could be brought against three citizens and three metics ([Arist.]
Ath
.
Pol
. 43.5). At a special meeting in the theater convened shortly after the Greater Dionysia in Elaphebolion (roughly March), a citizen could bring a
probole
against someone who committed an offense against the Greater Dionysia (Dem. 21.9). The procedure was later extended to cover offenses against the Eleusinian Mysteries (Dem. 21.175).
Procedure, legal, Greek and Roman
Authors: Thür Gerhard
Published: December 2012

Legal procedures in Greece – our best evidence comes from Athens of the fifth and fourth centuriesBCE– and Rome have only some common features.
Prostates
Authors: Zelnick‐Abramovitz Rachel
Published: December 2012

Theprostatesis a person who “stands before” or “in front,” but the word's semantic array is wider: it can mean protector, guardian (e.g., of the city gates in Aesch.Sept. 408; of the peace in Dem. 15.30). In this senseprostatesis also an epithet of gods (e.g., of Apollo in Soph.Trach. 209).
Provocatio
Authors: Perry Matthew J.
Published: December 2012

In republican law,provocatio(literally a “calling out”) was a citizen's right of appeal to the Roman people against a magistrate's summary use of power.
Prytaneion
Authors: Wolpert Andrew
Published: December 2012

The prytaneion was the equivalent of the town hall for the Greek city.
Quinquevirale iudicium
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

Thequinquevirale iudiciumwas a Late Antique Roman commission of five senators that exercised criminal jurisdiction in proceedings against a senator.
Sententia
Authors: Steiner Anja
Published: December 2012

In Roman legal language,
sententia
signifies the opinion or conviction of a person, the expression of this opinion, or the intended meaning or sense of a legal act (e.g., a contract).
Sententiaeof Paulus
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

TheSententiae(Sentences or Opinions) of Paulus are a pseudonymous Late Antique legal compilation.
Stipulatio
Authors: Straumann Benjamin
Published: December 2012

Stipulatio
, a centrally important and original concept of Roman law, was a formal Roman contract that was concluded orally, by question and answer (Paulus
Sent
. 2.3).
Tabelliones
Authors: Caldwell Craig H.
Published: December 2012

The
tabelliones
, sometimes translated as notaries, were the private, professional experts who crafted Roman legal documents.
Tablettes Albertini
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

TheTablettes Albertini(Albertini Tablets) are a set of legal documents on wood, important for illustrating law, society, and economy in Vandal Africa.
Tabula Bantina
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

TheTabula Bantina(CILIX 416;FIRAI 6;FIRAI 16), drawn up in Bantia (today Banzi, a small town in Lucania) and discovered in 1790 in Monte Montrone, in the area of Oppido Lucano (Apulia), is a bronze tablet (25/38 cm) preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum, and contains two legal texts, one in Latin (FIRAI 6) and the other in Oscan (FIRAI 6).
Tabula Hebana
and
Tabula Siarensis
Authors: Salvo Davide
Published: December 2012

The
Tabula Hebana
and the
Tabula Siarensis
are two inscriptions on bronze dated to the emperorship of Tiberius containing the funerary honors decreed by the Senate to Germanicus and an amendment by
rogatio
(proposed law) to the
Lex Valeria Cornelia
of 5
CE
, a
lex
that regulated the procedure for elections of Consuls and Praetor.
Testatio
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The termtestatio(literally “attestation”) implies the oral or written testimony of a witness and especially the document containing this declaration. In the Digesta the termtestatiois used in both senses, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish when this term alludes to a written or an oral act (Dig. 14.6.16.4: Paul), but in others it is clear that we are dealing with writtentestationes(Dig. 26.7.5.10: Ulp.;Dig. 48.19.9.5: Ulp.). Imperial court procedure, the Cognitioextraordinem, fostered an extensive development of written evidence and consequently many declarations of witnesses were replaced by writtentestationes, a development also seen in the formulary system.
Testimonium
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

Testimonium
is the term of Roman law referring to the testimony of a witness (
testis
).
Theoderic, Edict of
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

The Edict of Theoderic is a Late Antique legal compilation based on Roman law, produced in Italy ca. 500CE.
Witnesses, Greek and Roman
Authors: Scafuro Adele C.
Published: December 2012

Athenian habits of witnessing are the best attested among the Greeks in the classical period.
Xenodokoi
Authors: Zelnick‐Abramovitz Rachel
Published: December 2012

The primary meaning ofxenodokoi(sg.xenodokos) is persons “receivingxenoi,” that is, foreigners (Hom.Od. 8.210) or guest‐friends (Hom.Il. 3.354; Hes.Op. 183), hence “hosts.” Likewise, the corresponding verbxenodokeinmeans “to receive axenos” in one's house (Hdt. 6.127.3; Eur.Alc. 552; Pl.Resp. 4.419a).
Judaean desert, documents from
Authors: Katzoff Ranon
Published: December 2012

The term refers to a set of about two hundred papyrus documents discovered in caves in the Judaean desert, written variously in Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, Nabataean, and some Latin, mostly by Jews in the period 70–135CE.
Libellus
Authors: Sänger Patrick
Published: December 2012

The word
libellus
is the diminutive of
liber
and means “small document.” In Roman law it appears in four main forms.
Precedent, Roman
Authors: Woolstenhulme Guinevere T.
Published: December 2012

In Roman law, prior judgments generally were not considered binding precedent.
Dowry, Greek
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

According to anthropologists, there are three main ways of transferring assets in a marriage.
Divorce, Greek
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

In Athenian law there were four procedures for divorce. First, the husband could send his wife back to her family. His only obligation was to return the dowry that he had received; there was no requirement for the husband to make a public declaration or apply to the court.
Ai Khanum
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

The Hellenistic site of Ai Khanum (Uzbek, “Lady Moon”) in eastern Bactria (northeastern Afghanistan), whose Greek name remains unknown, was founded perhaps in the late fourth or early third centuryBCE.
Aigai
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa
Published: December 2012

Aigai, or Aigeai, the first capital and royal residence of the Macedonian kingdom under the Temenid Dynasty, was situated east of Beroia, on the right bank of the Haliakmon River, on the northern slopes of the Pierian mountains. According to the legend, it was originally a city of the Bryges named Edessa, renamed Aigai by its Macedonian conquerors, or a foundation of the Temenid Perdikkas or Karanos or Archelaos in the eighth or seventh century
BCE
, heading an army of Argive colonists.
Akrotiri
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Akrotiri is the modern name of the site of a Minoan palace, located on the south coast of the island of Santorini whose considerable remains date from the Middle Cycladic period (2000–1550
BCE
) and later.
Albania
Authors: Iacono Francesco
Published: December 2012

The Albania region is a mountainous region on the southeastern coast of the Adriatic Sea.
Alexandria Arachosia
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

Alexandria Arachosia, presumably founded by Alexander the Great in 329
BCE
, perhaps corresponds to the Old City of Kandahar. Although excavations were never completed, the site contained an Achaemenid fortress and later a Hellenistic settlement (Fraser 1996: 132–40). Seleukos I ceded the city to the Indian king Chandragupta Maurya by ca. 303. Four Greek inscriptions have been found at the site, two issued by Asoka in Greek and another in Greek and Aramaic, and a Greek inscription on the base of a statue (Canali de Rossi 2004: nos. 290–3), as well as a Greek votive epigram (Bernard
et al
. 2004: 227–332).
Alexandria Paropamisadai
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria Paropamisadai (also called Alexandria in Caucaso and Opiane) during his Bactrian campaign in the Hindu Kush region of modern Begram, north of Kabul. In 323 and 321BCEthe father of Roxane, Oxyartes, served as satrap (Tarn 1951: 95–102; Fraser 1996: 140–51).
Alexandria Oxiana
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

The city is located by Ptolemy (6.12.5–6) in Sogdia, although its modern location remains speculative (Fraser 1996: 153–6).
Amphipolis
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa
Published: December 2012

An Athenian colony in the Edonis, Amphipolis was founded in 437/36 on the eastern bank of the lower Strymon with the participation of other Greeks, thus with mixed population, under the general Hagnon, on the site of Ennea Hodoi, some 5 km upstream from the maritime Emporion of Eion.
Anatolia
Authors: West III William C.
Published: December 2012

The termAnatolikedesignated a province of the Late Roman Empire, including parts of Syria, Lebanon, Gaza, and Egypt, derived fromanatole(“east”).
Apollo Maleatas sanctuary
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas, a healing divinity associated with Asklepios, was located high on Mount Parnon in eastern Lakonia, northeast of Sparta.
Argolis
Authors: Hall Jonathan M.
Published: December 2012

The Argolis region of Greece is situated in the northeast Peloponnese, bordering Corinthia to the north, Arcadia to the west, and Lakonia to the south. It is known to have accommodated at least elevenpoleis,of which Argos was, for much of the historical period, the most significant.
Asklepieion sanctuary
Authors: Melfi Milena
Published: December 2012

The Asklepieion of Kos was one of the most famous cult places of Antiquity and a renowned healing center. Worshippers and physicians flocked to the island of Kos from all parts of the Greek and Roman world. By the early Roman period the story had become widespread that Hippocrates of Kos had learned medicine from theiamata– the tablets recording the god's cures – on display at the Asklepeion.
Athens
Authors: Gaukroger Louise
Published: December 2012

Athens occupies a special place in Greek history.
Attaleia
Authors: Harl Kenneth W.
Published: December 2012

Attaleia, Pamphylia, modern Antayla, Turkey was founded, or more likely refounded, by king Attalos II (160–138
BCE
) as a royal naval base with settlers from Athens.
Beroia
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa
Published: December 2012

Beroia was an important ancient city in Macedonia (Bottiaia), built on the eastern slope of Mount Bermion, allegedly named after the daughter of the mythical king Beres.
Bisitun
Authors: Rendu Loisel Anne‐Caroline
Published: December 2012

Bisitun (Behistun/Bisutun) is the modern name of the Old Persian Bagastana (“the abode of the gods”; 124), a mountain in the Kermanshah Province in western Iran. The site is known for a monumental multilingual inscription engraved in the rock face. The inscription consists of three versions of the same text, using three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian (Babylonian). This monumental inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: it was the first step toward decipherment of cuneiform.
Boiotia
Authors: Kühr Angela
Published: December 2012

Boiotia is a region in southeastern Central Greece, covering some 2,500 km2, bounded by the Corinthian Gulf to the south and the Euboean Gulf to the northeast. Since it was centrally located, and was the only land bridge between northern and southern Greece, Boiotia became the scene of countless battles. Called a “dance‐floor of Ares” (Plut.Mor. 193E;Marc. 21 (310)), it was, for example, the site of the battles of Plataia in 479 and Chaeronea in 338BCE. Boiotia's natural borders meant that it also was an inward‐looking area.
Chalcedon
Authors: Cojocaru Victor
Published: December 2012

A Megarian colony in Bithynia, Chalcedon was founded in 685
BCE
on the Asian shore at the southern entrance to the Bosphorus (on the modern promontory Kadiköy).
Chalcis
Authors: Reber Karl
Published: December 2012

Chalcis was a city on the western coast of Euboea, where the so‐called Euripos is only 40 m wide.
Constantinople, history and monuments
Authors: Bassett Sarah E.
Published: December 2012

Located on a hilly peninsula at the confluence of the waters of the Golden Horn, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus, Constantinople covered an area of approximately 14 sq km at its largest extent and was, by dint of its lavish urban infrastructure, among the most impressive cities of the later Roman world. This entry outlines the city's historical fortunes and urban development from the period of its initial settlement as a Greek colonial outpost in the seventh centuryBCEthrough its Late Antique heyday in the sixth and early seventh centuriesCE. Three major phases, each independently named, define this development: Byzantion (seventh centuryBCEto second centuryCE), Colonia Antonina (second to fourth centuryCE) and, finally, New Rome or Constantinople (fourth to seventh centuryCE).
Daldis
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

Daldis‐Flaviopolis is situated on a dominant hill north of the Sardian plain.
Daskyleion
Authors: Iren Kaan
Published: December 2012

Daskyleion was a settlement serving as the capital of a Persian satrapy that controlled Hellespontine Phrygia, and probably also Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia, in ancient Anatolia. The settlement was additionally important due to its multi‐cultural (Phrygian, Lydian Persian and Greek society and materials.
Dios Hieron
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Dios Hieron was a small city of Lydia, in the foothills of the Tmolos range on its south side (Ptol. 5.2.17).
Eleusis, Attica
Authors: Michaleas Spyridon
Published: December 2012

An Athenian suburb and municipality, Eleusis was the site of the Eleusinian Mysteries and the homeland of the great tragic poet Aeschylus (525–456BCE).
Elis
Authors: Roy James
Published: December 2012

Elis lies in the western Peloponnese, bordering on Achaia to the north, Arcadia to the east, and Messenia to the south.
Eurotas
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Eurotas River rises between Mount Parnon, in northwestern Arcadia, and the northern reaches of Mount Taygetos, near its highest elevation, in Lakonia. It flows south into the Gulf of Lakonia at a location west of ancient Elos, east of Gytheion, forming a flood plain which encouraged malaria (Strabo 8.5.2). The ancients believed that in its origin it joined the Alpheios River at a place called Asea near Megalopolis and flowed underground (Strabo 6.2.9, 8.3.12; Paus. 8.44.3, 54.2). Following a depression of the tectonic plates, it enters the Lakonian basin north of Sparta and runs through the valley in central Lakonia, bounded on the west by Taygetos. The principal settlement along the river was Sparta, formed from the uniting of disparate settlements in the ninth century
BCE
. The Eurotas was spanned by a bridge in Sparta, the remains of which are probably Roman. Habitation in the area goes back to the Bronze Age.
Gortyn
Authors: Francis Jane
Published: December 2012

The city of Gortyn is located near the western end of the fertile Mesara plain, in south‐central Crete. It has been excavated by the Italian School of Archaeology in Athens since the late nineteenth century.
Hatra
Authors: Freyberger Klaus
Published: December 2012

In antiquity, Hatra was one of the most important caravan cities on the eastern fringe of the Mesopotamian desert‐steppe.
Hemodos/Himalaya mountains
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

The ancient Greek name for the Himalayas, Hemodos is derived from the Sanskrit
Haimavata
or the Prakrit
Haimota
, both meaning “snowy”.
Herakleia by Latmos
Authors: Hülden Oliver
Published: December 2012

Herakleia is situated close to the village of Kapikiri in western Asia Minor.
Hermione
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Hermione is a port at the southern end of the Argive peninsula.
Hydraotes
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

Hydraotes is the ancient Greek name for the River Ravi, one of the tributaries of the River Indus.
Ikos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Ikos is a small island, whose modern name is Alonnisos, lying east of Peparethos in the northeastern Aegean. Strabo cites it as an island off the coast of Magnesia (9.5.16). The two islands are south of the Gulf of Thessaloniki, sufficiently close to the coast that they would provide good lookout stations for the grain ships coming out of the Dardanelles.
India
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

The subcontinent of India or
Bharatvarsha
has a long material culture going back to the Old Stone Age.
Ios
Authors: Liampi Katerini
Published: December 2012

Ios is a mountainous island in the Southern Cyclades (107 km
2
;) with fertile valleys and a protected harbor.
Jaxartes
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

The name Jaxartes (modern Syr Daria) derives from Old Persian,
Yaksha Arta
(“Great Pearly”), due to the color of its water.
Kaystros River
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

The Kaystros River, today Küçük Menderes, flows westward between the ranges of Mount Tmolos and Mount Messogis through “wide, thickly settled and productive” plains (Strabo 13.4.13), which were inhabited by the tribes of the Kilbianoi in the east and the Kaystrianoi in the west. Both had their own coinage in Hellenistic times. After passing the site of Ionian Metropolis, where there was possibly a river harbor, at the western end of the prosperous plain, a great part of which belonged to the possessions of the Ephesian Artemis, the river breaks through coastal hills into the silty marshland of the bay of Ephesos. A personification as a reclining man holding a reed and resting on an overturned amphora from which water flows is depicted on the coins of Ephesos, Dioshieron, and Hypaipa.
Kenchreai
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

Kenchreai is one of the two most important harbors in the east of Corinthia, situated in a shallow bay of the Saronic Gulf. The other port, Lechaion, is situated at the Corinthian Gulf. According to Pausanias, the name can be attributed to a child of Poseidon and Peirene called Kenchrias. During the Hellenistic period, the importance of Kenchreai is reflected in thePeriplousof Skymnos (508) where the Saronic Gulf is even named the Gulf of Kenchreai. This harbor is about 7 km away from the city center of Corinth. Kenchreai was located on important land routes along the shoreline. There are indications of harbor installations and fortifications (now in many places under water); some of them can be dated to the fourth centuryBCE(Ps.‐Skylax 55; Thuc. 4.42.4; 44.4; 8.10.1; 20.4; 23.1; see, in particular, Apul. Met. 10.35).
Keos
Authors: Michaleas Spyridon
Published: December 2012

Keos, in the western utmost of the Cyclades Islands (Strabo 10.5.3), is located near Attica, Euboea, and Aigina. According to mythology, the first residents of the island were the Nymphs who lived near the springs, from which it received the name Hydrousa (Heraclid. Pont.
Keos pol
. 1). The island was named Keos after the first settler, who was head of the Lokris residents from Naupaktos (ca. twelfth century
BCE
). During the historical period, the island was inhabited by the Ionians (Hdt. 8.46; Thuc. 7.57.4).
Kephallenia
Authors: Bonelou Elena
Published: December 2012

Kephallenia is situated at the western opening of the Corinthian Gulf.
Keramos
Authors: West III William C.
Published: December 2012

Keramos is a Carian city, lying on the northern coast of the Ceramic Gulf which extends to the east from the island of Kos and the peninsula of Knidos.
Knidos
Authors: Bresson Alain
Published: December 2012

According to Herodotus (1.174.2), Knidos was a Spartan foundation, while Strabo (14.2.6) states that the first colonists came from Megara.
Kolophon
Authors: Hülden Oliver
Published: December 2012

Kolophon is one of the most important cities of the pre‐Hellenistic periods on the Ionian Coast (western Asia Minor), but its mythological beginnings are confused. Strabo reports, for example, that the city was founded by colonists from Pylos (Strabo 14.1.3).
Laodikeia ad Libanum
Authors: Iossif Panagiotis P.
Published: December 2012

The settlement, often referred to as Skabiosa (Ptol. 5.14.16), is located on Tell Nebi Mend, the site of ancient Kadesh. The site occupies the northern entrance of the Beqa‛ valley, the ancient valley of Massyas or Marsyas (Ptol. 5.45.8), and lies between the Orontes and a stream called Muqadiyyah.
Laodikeia Kombusta (in Lykaonia)
Authors: Corsten Thomas
Published: December 2012

The city of Laodikeia Kombusta (Laodikeia Katakekaumene) was situated on the border of Phrygia and Lykaonia on an important route from the west coast of Asia Minor to the Euphrates via Dorylaion.
Latmos mountain
Authors: Bresson Alain
Published: December 2012

Latmos mountain is a long, granite ridge overlooking the north of the Latmic Gulf, east of Miletos.
Leros
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Leros is a mountainous Greek island, with vineyards and good harbors, in the Icarian Sea off Caria. In modern times, it is considered to belong to the Dodecanese, but in ancient times it was part of the Sporades Islands.
Letoon sanctuary
Authors: Cavalier Laurence
Published: December 2012

Located a few kilometers to the southwest of the Lycian city of Xanthos (modern Turkey), the sanctuary of Leto was first visited.
Magnesia ad Sipylum
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

Magnesia, today Manisa, is situated on the slopes of Mt. Sipylos, about 32 km northeast of Smyrna, in the Hermos valley.
Maeander
Authors: Herda Alexander
Published: December 2012

The Maeander (Maiandros, from Hittite *Mai‐anda‐/du‐?; cf. Tischler 1977: 94) is the main river in southwest Asia Minor/Turkey, today's Büyük Menderes, and was first mentioned by Homer(II. 2.869).