bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
7. Share capital
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter examines how company law governs maintenance of a company’s share capital, with emphasis on the distinction between private and public companies. It also discusses various ways in which shareholders might legally receive funds (‘distributions’) from the company, including issuance of shares and payment of shares in kind (that is, goods, property, or services rather than in cash). The relevance of the nominal value of shares issued to shareholders, the issue of paying dividends to shareholders, and disguised return of capital to shareholders are considered as well. The chapter also examines two other means of returning funds to shareholders, reduction of share capital and redemption or purchase by a company of its own shares, before concluding with an assessment of the prohibition and the exceptions concerning the issue of financial assistance for the acquisition of shares in a public company.
8. The constitution of the company: dealing with insiders
Authors: Dignam Alan , Lowry John
Published: September 2020

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses the constitution of the company, with emphasis on the articles of association. It first outlines the operation of the memorandum and the articles before turning to the law surrounding the contract of membership under s 33 of the Companies Act 2006. It then considers some elements of corporate theory in relation to the articles of association, contract between the company and the members, contract between the members, the question of who is entitled to sue to enforce the s 33 contract, and the issue of outsider rights with respect to the s 33 contract. The chapter also looks at the historical reforms proposed by the Company Law Review Steering Group for the Companies Act 2006 and concludes by analysing the effects of shareholder agreements on the statutory obligation of the company.
6. Homicide 1: murder
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2020

This chapter, which examines homicide law in Great Britain, focusing on murder, explains that the term homicide includes the offences of murder and manslaughter and can also be used to refer to other forms of statutory offences of killing. It clarifies that murder refers to intentional killings while manslaughter concerns unintentional killings, and discusses actus reus and mens rea elements of murder. The chapter discusses the sentence for murder under the Criminal Justice Act 2003 and comments on the justification for mandatory life sentence. It also reviews the most recent proposals for reform of murder and the mandatory sentence, and analyses court decisions in relevant cases.
10. Non-fatal offences against the person
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the provisions of criminal law for non-fatal offences against the person in Great Britain, which include assault, battery, malicious wounding, grievous bodily harm, and racially and religiously aggravated assaults. It examines the distinction between these major offences against the person and discusses the actus reus and mens rea elements of them. The chapter evaluates the use of the consent and lawful chastisement in legal defence, analyses the relevant provisions of the Harassment Act 1997 and the new offence of coercive control, and reviews some recent reform proposals. It also provides examples of related cases and comments on the bases of court decisions on each of them.
12. Property offences 1: theft, robbery and handling
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines property offences in Great Britain, focusing on theft, robbery, and handling. It explains that these three are in the top ten list of the most frequently occurring property offences in Britain. The chapter outlines the general principles of these offences and discusses their actus reus and mens rea elements. It looks at the key provisions of the Theft Act 1968 including the s1 definition of theft in the Act and analyses the bases of court decisions in several examples of relevant cases. It discusses property and appropriation. It also discusses recent changes to the definition of dishonesty and how juries are now asked to assess dishonesty after the recent civil case of Ivey v Genting Casinos (UK) Limited (Crockfords).
13. Property offences 2: fraud and making off without payment
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines property offences in Great Britain, focusing on fraud and making off without payment. It explains the key provisions of the Fraud Act 2006 for different types of fraud, which include fraud by false representation, fraud by failing to disclose information, fraud by abuse of position, and obtaining services dishonestly. It clarifies the distinction between fraud and the previous offences of deception. In particular, the fact that there is no longer a requirement for causation is discussed. The chapter discusses the actus reus and mens rea elements of the offences of fraud, and provides several examples of relevant cases, and analyses court decisions in each of them, including changes to judicial directions on dishonesty.
5. Homicide
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses homicide in the criminal law, which can be divided into the following categories: murder, manslaughter, infanticide, and a number of specific offences concerned with causing death while driving. It considers suicide pacts, mercy killing, and euthanasia, homicide statistics, non-homicide killings, and diminished responsibility. Significant academic and political energy is put into homicide law, given the relatively few homicide offences that take place each year. What this reveals is that the law’s approach to homicide has great symbolic importance in both political and legal terms.
8. Theft, Handling, and Robbery
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on theft, robbery, assault with intent to rob, handling stolen goods, and money laundering offences. The second part of the chapter focuses on the theory of theft, covering property offences; the debate over Gomez; the Hinks debate; temporary appropriation; dishonesty; robberies; and handling stolen goods.
10. Burglary and Blackmail
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the law and theory on burglary and blackmail. The offence of burglary is committed where a defendant enters a building as a trespasser with intent to commit one of the offences listed in section 9 of the Theft Act 1968. It is also committed where a defendant has entered a building as a trespasser and then committed one of a list of other offences. To be guilty of blackmail, a defendant must make unwarranted demands with menaces with a view to making a gain for him or herself or a loss to another.
12. Defences
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2020

This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on defences. It covers private defence and the prevention of crime; necessity; chastisement; consent; duress; coercion; entrapment; superior orders; automatism; insanity; diminished responsibility; loss of control; intoxication; and mistake. The second part of the chapter focuses on the theory of defences, covering the definition of defences; justifications and excuses; character, choice, and capacity; determinism; the rejection of an overarching theory; insanity; private defence; duress; necessity; and issues that fall between the gaps of the defences.
7. Cross-examination and re-examination
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter first discusses cross-examination, the questioning of a witness immediately after his examination-in-chief by the legal representative of the opponent of the party calling him, or by the opposing party in person, and by the legal representative of any other party to the proceedings or by any other party in person. The object of cross-examination is to elicit evidence which supports the cross-examining party’s version of the facts in issue and to cast doubt upon the witness’s evidence-in-chief. It then turns to re-examination. A witness who has been cross-examined may be re-examined by the party who called him. The object of re-examination is to repair damage that has been done by cross-examination.
17. Evidence of character: evidence of character in civil cases
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses the admissibility of evidence of character. A number of factors govern the admissibility of character evidence, including whether the proceedings are civil or criminal and whether the evidence relates to the character of a party or non-party. It is also necessary to consider the nature of the character evidence in question. It may relate to either good or bad character and, in either event, may constitute evidence of a person’s actual disposition, that is his propensity to act, think, or feel in a given way; or evidence of his reputation, that is his reputed disposition or propensity to act, think, or feel in a given way. Thus, the character of a person may be proved by evidence of general disposition, by evidence of specific examples of his conduct on other occasions (including, in the case of bad conduct, evidence of his previous convictions), or by evidence of his reputation among those to whom he is known. The chapter considers civil cases in which bad character designated ‘similar fact evidence’ has been admitted
22. Privilege
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses several well-established principles whereby relevant evidence is excluded because of extrinsic considerations which outweigh the value that the evidence would have at trial. Three types of privilege are considered: (i) the privilege against self-incrimination (including statutory withdrawal of the privilege, compatibility with Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, the compulsory production of pre-existing documents and materials, and substituted protection); (ii) legal professional privilege, which enables a client to protect the confidentiality of (a) communications between him and his lawyer made for the purpose of obtaining and giving legal advice (known as ‘legal advice privilege’) and (b) communications between him or his lawyer and third parties for the dominant purpose of preparation for pending or contemplated litigation (known as ‘litigation privilege’); and (iii) ‘without prejudice’ privilege, which enables settlement negotiations to be conducted without fear of proposed concessions being used in evidence at trial as admissions.
23. Judgments as evidence of the facts upon which they were based
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the circumstances in which a judgment in a civil case or a verdict in a criminal case is admissible in subsequent proceedings as evidence of the facts on which it was based. It analyses the rule in Hollington v Hewthorn & Co Ltd, which has been widely criticized, that judgments are not admissible as evidence of the facts on which they are based. Its effect, in both civil and criminal proceedings, has been largely removed by the Civil Evidence Act 1968 and the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 respectively. Concerning civil proceedings, consideration is given to previous convictions generally, previous convictions in defamation proceedings, previous findings of adultery and paternity, previous acquittals, and other previous findings. Concerning criminal proceedings, consideration is given to previous convictions of the accused, previous convictions of persons other than the accused, and previous acquittals.
2. Actus reus
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter discusses the actus reus elements of a criminal offence. The actus reus of an offence may involve an act or omission (conduct crimes); certain consequences being caused (result crimes); or the existence of surrounding circumstances (‘state of affairs’ crimes); it must be voluntarily performed. There is generally no liability for an omission to act. There are five exceptions: special relationship, voluntary assumption of responsibility, supervening fault, contractual duty or public office, and statutory duty. Where the defendant is charged with a ‘result’ crime, the prosecution must prove causation. An intervening event will break the chain of causation and the actus reus will not be established.
14. Defences II: general defences
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explores the remaining general defences: self-defence and the prevention of crime, duress, duress of circumstances, and necessity. A defendant may rely on self-defence where he honestly believes that use of force is necessary in order to protect him and the force used is reasonable. The issue of duress arises where the defendant is threatened that he must commit a criminal offence or suffer physical injury or injury to his family. Duress excuses a defendant’s behaviour as a concession to human frailty, whereas necessity justifies it. Necessity does not require a threat made by a person of death or physical injury, but merely a choice between two evils.
17. Study skills
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter offers some guidance as to how to study effectively and how to approach assessments and exams. It discusses how to manage your time effectively and how to get the most out of criminal law lectures and seminars/workshops. It covers how to deal with multiple choice questions and provides advice on writing assignments (answering problem questions and essay questions is considered separately). It also provides advice on how to prepare for and approach exams.
Business Law
Authors: Marson James , Ferris Katy
Published: September 2020

Business Law provides an introduction to the subject. Packed with up-to-date and relevant examples, it demonstrates the real applicability of the law to the business world. The book is split into eight parts. After an introduction about studying the law, Part 2 covers the English legal system, the constitution, EU law, and human rights. This comprises important issues including statutory interpretation and the legislative process, and court structures. Part 3 considers contractual obligations. Here terms such as, contractual capacity, mistake, misrepresentation, duress, contractual terms, regulations, and remedies for breach are discussed. Part 4 discusses tortious liability and describes issues of negligence, nuisance, economic loss, psychiatric injury, and statutory duties. Part 5 examines company law, including trading structures, maintenance of finance and capital, and corporate administration and management. Part 6 explores the employment relationship, the nature of which will determine many important factors for both the individual and the employer. It includes discussions on the Contract of Employment, statutory regulation of dismissals, equality in employment relationships, and Statutory and Common Law Regulation of the Conditions of Employment. Part 6 then discusses agency law and the duties and responsibilities that exist for both principal and agent. Finally, intellectual property and data protection issues are considered in Part 8.
2. The English Legal system, Constitution, and Human Rights
Authors: Marson James , Ferris Katy
Published: September 2020

This chapter, in discussing the English legal system and its features, begins by outlining what the law is and some important constitutional principles. The discussion is primarily based on the institutions and personnel involved in the practice and administration of justice. It therefore involves a description and evaluation of the courts, tribunals, and the judiciary, including their powers and the rationale for such authority, as well as the mechanisms of control and accountability. The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate how the mechanisms of the justice system work. The English legal system exists to determine the institutions and bodies that create and administer a just system of law. It should be noted here that the UK does, in fact, possess a written constitution, it is merely uncodified.
7. Factors Affecting The Validity of a Contract
Authors: Marson James , Ferris Katy
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses how the manner in which a contract is concluded can potentially affect its validity. Before discussing the terms and details of a contract, it is important to note that a contract may fail due to one or both parties not possessing the capacity to establish a contract. Some of the common reasons includes a mistake by one or both parties, a provision that has been misrepresented in the negotiations, or the use of undue influence or placing the other party under duress in the process of concluding the contract. Some of the reasons listed in this chapter may be common, but the emphasis here is to identify where problems may occur that could prevent the successful operation of the contract despite fulfilling the essential features discussed in the previous chapters.
Family Provision
Authors: Sloan Brian
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses family provision, with particular reference to the Supreme Court’s decision in Ilott v The Blue Cross. Under the Inheritance (Provision for Family and Dependants) Act 1975, certain persons can apply for financial provision out of the deceased’s estate on the grounds that the deceased’s will or intestacy (or a combination of the two) does not make reasonable financial provision for the applicant. The persons entitled to apply are the deceased’s surviving spouse or civil partner, former spouses or civil partners who have not remarried or entered a subsequent civil partnership, children, children of the family, dependants, and cohabitants. The remainder of the chapter covers the powers of court to make orders; the ‘standards’ applicable to applicants and the ‘matters’ which the court must take into account in applications for an order under the 1975 Act; and anti-avoidance provisions of the 1975 Act.
4. Parliamentary sovereignty: an overview
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an introduction to judicial review and its various features and requirements. It starts by exploring the meaning and purpose of judicial review, explaining the particular functions of the courts and the jurisdiction that justifies their scrutiny of administrative matters. It then sets out the legal basis for judicial review and the process through which applications proceed, which while rooted in statute, has developed incrementally through both case law and the 1998 Woolf Reforms. The chapter considers issues relating to access to review, exploring the legal requirements that must be fulfilled before an application for judicial review can be entertained by the Administrative Court. This includes a discussion of standing, which determines who can bring a claim, and consideration of the issues relating to the public law/private law divide, which concerns against whom a claim can be brought and the matter upon which that claim can be founded.
7. Central government
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the structure and role of central government, with the latter part focusing on the key constitutional requirement that the government is accountable to the people through Parliament, reflecting the democratic nature of the constitution. The phrase ‘central government’ refers to the Prime Minister, Cabinet, ministers, government departments, and civil servants. Informally, these parts of central government are often referred to as ‘Whitehall’, reflecting how most government departments and the Prime Minister are based around that area of central London close to Westminster. A more constitutionally appropriate phrase is the ‘executive’. However, this term can also be taken to mean other elements which include the governments of Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales, as well as local government and organizations such as the police.
10. Judicial review: access to review and remedies
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an introduction to judicial review and its various features and requirements. It starts by exploring the meaning and purpose of judicial review, explaining the particular functions of the courts and the jurisdiction that justifies their scrutiny of administrative matters. It then sets out the legal basis for judicial review and the process through which applications proceed, which while rooted in statute, has developed incrementally through both case law and the 1998 Woolf Reforms. The chapter considers issues relating to access to review, exploring the legal requirements that must be fulfilled before an application for judicial review can be entertained by the Administrative Court. This includes a discussion of standing, which determines who can bring a claim, and consideration of the issues relating to the public law/private law divide, which concerns against whom a claim can be brought and the matter upon which that claim can be founded.
15. The European Convention on Human Rights and the Human Rights Act 1998
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2020

One of the most fundamental aspects of any constitution are the provisions and measures that protect the rights and freedoms of individuals. In the UK, rights protection is markedly different to that in America, in chief because there is no entrenched Bill of Rights. Rights protection is dominated by the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), incorporated by the Human Rights Act 1998, which sets out a number of positive rights that are actionable in the UK courts This chapter discusses the ways in which these rights are protected in the UK Constitution. It discusses the courts’ historic civil liberties approach and common law protection of rights, before then examining the development, incorporation, and application of the ECHR. The chapter also explores the way in which the various sections of the Human Rights Act 1998 work to ensure appropriate enforcement and protection of rights in UK law.
16. Human rights in the UK: public order and police powers
Authors: Stanton John , Prescott Craig
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the rights contained within Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (freedom of expression), Article 11 (freedom of association and assembly), Article 5 (the right to liberty), and Article 8 (the right to a private and family life). It considers the domestic application of these rights as well as the various cases in which they have been raised. In doing this, the chapter explores the balance that must be struck between certain rights on the one hand and competing interests and needs on the other. With this in mind, it focuses on two areas: first, the freedoms of association and assembly, balanced against the need to ensure public order; and secondly, the freedom of liberty and right to a fair trial, against the need to ensure that the police can carry out their functions and responsibilities appropriately.
1. Studying the English legal system
Authors: Wilson Steve , Rutherford Helen , Storey Tony , Wortley Natalie , Kotecha Birju
Published: September 2020

This chapter introduces you to the study of the English legal system in higher education. After explaining some of the different expectations of studying at this level, the chapter’s focus is on how you will learn and how to succeed on the module. There is considerable advice and tips on how to get the most out of lectures and seminars. The coverage introduces some key terminology and emphasises the importance of independent research and reading both primary (legislation and case law) and secondary sources (textbooks and journal articles). Finally, the chapter discusses and provides guidance on how to tackle commonly used assessments such as written essays, oral presentations, and examinations.
7. Human rights in the United Kingdom
Authors: Wilson Steve , Rutherford Helen , Storey Tony , Wortley Natalie , Kotecha Birju
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and its relationship to the English legal system. The focus in the chapter is on key provisions of the Human Rights Act 1998—the Act that incorporated the Convention into UK law. In the earlier part of the chapter there is coverage of sections 2, 3, and 4 of the Act. These provisions concern the duties placed on the courts to take into account judgments of the European Court of Human Rights, to interpret domestic legislation so as to comply with rights under the Convention, and finally to issue a declaration of incompatibility when domestic legislation does not comply with rights under the Convention. Using examples from the case law, the chapter assesses how the courts balance their constitutional role to respect the supremacy of Parliament, with the duties provided in the Act to respect rights under the Convention. There is also an analysis of s.6 of the Human Rights Act 1998 which makes it unlawful for a public authority to act incompatibly with Convention rights. The analysis includes the contested question of what precisely constitutes a ‘public authority’, particularly when a private body is carrying out a public function.
11. Access to justice
Authors: Wilson Steve , Rutherford Helen , Storey Tony , Wortley Natalie , Kotecha Birju
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the issues and arguments surrounding access to justice. The chapter considers the recent reforms and proposed changes to legal aid provision. There is an outline of the basic principles relating to public funding in both civil and criminal cases. Different methods of funding civil legal representation are discussed including CFAs and DBAs. Organisations involved in giving legal advice on a pro bono basis, including Citizens Advice Bureaux and law centres, are also included. in the discussion about the availability of legal advice. The chapter aims to stimulate thought about the idea of access to justice and whether such access is fair and open to all in England and Wales.
14. Sentencing
Authors: Wilson Steve , Rutherford Helen , Storey Tony , Wortley Natalie , Kotecha Birju
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains the aims of sentencing and types of sentence that may be imposed upon a convicted offender. The main sentencing options that are available to a court when an adult is convicted of a criminal offence include: absolute and conditional discharges, fines, community orders, and imprisonment. Custodial sentences include extended determinate sentences, the new sentence for offenders of particular concern, and life sentences. A custodial sentence has punishment as its primary purpose, whereas a community order focuses more on reform and rehabilitation. The chapter also outlines the key types of sentence that can be imposed upon youths and discusses restorative justice initiatives. It explores the various factors to which the judge or magistrates must have regard when passing sentence, including maximum/minimum sentences, the nature and seriousness of the offence, sentencing guidelines, and pre-sentence reports.
16. Alternative dispute resolution
Authors: Wilson Steve , Rutherford Helen , Storey Tony , Wortley Natalie , Kotecha Birju
Published: September 2020

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) describes any method of resolving legal disputes other than through litigation in the ordinary courts or tribunals. ADR includes methods such as arbitration, mediation, adjudication, conciliation, med-arb, and early neutral evaluation/expert determination. This chapter explains why ADR in general exists, its many advantages (compared to litigation) as well as its disadvantages, and the differences between the various forms of ADR. The chapter examines the case law over the last fifteen years on the ‘cost consequences’ of a failure by one party to a legal dispute to engage in ADR when presented with the opportunity to do so. The chapter considers whether ADR should ever be made compulsory and the extent to which the parties to a dispute, having agreed to resolve their dispute through ADR, can be compelled to honour that agreement.
10. The preliminary ruling procedure
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the relationship between the Court of Justice (CJ) and the national courts in the context of the preliminary ruling procedure provided by Article 267 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The chapter focuses on the text of Article 267 TFEU. It analyses the extent to which national courts are willing and able to gain access to the CJ in order to resolve the questions of European Union (EU) law before them. The chapter also explains the concept of acte clair. The analysis reveals that the CJ has rarely refused its jurisdiction and has interpreted broadly the term ‘court or tribunal’. The CJ has also rarely attempted to interfere with national courts’ discretion in matters of referral and application of EU law, while national courts have generally been ready to refer cases to the CJ.
12. Direct action for annulment
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on the Treaty provisions providing for judicial review of European Union (EU) law in Article 263 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). It explains the grounds for challenge and the consequences of a successful challenge to EU regulations. The chapter also highlights criticisms of Article 263 TFEU concerning restrictive tests for the admissibility of actions by individuals, and the restrictive attitude to the locus standi of trade associations and pressure groups. The implications of the case law after the Treaty of Lisbon, particularly regarding the term ‘regulatory act’, are explained. It considers the scope of indirect review under Article 277 TFEU. Finally, this chapter examines the provisions of Article 265 TFEU concerning action for failure to act. It discusses the notion of ‘reviewable omissions’, the scope of the EU institutions’ duty to act and the consequences of a successful action.
18. Free movement of payments and capital
Authors: Costa Marios , Peers Steve
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the rules concerning free movement of payment and capital within the European Union provided in Articles 63, 64, 65 and 66 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). It explains the scope of and derogations to the free movement of capital. The chapter also considers restrictions on free movement of capital between Member States and third countries. It highlights the willingness of the Court of Justice (CJ) to borrow principles (i.e. rule of reason) from the other freedoms. This chapter also considers briefly the provisions relating to monetary and economic union and the developments in the light of the financial crisis.
8. Remedies: direct and indirect effects and state liability
Authors: Foster Nigel
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the remedies developed by the Court of Justice (CJEU) for member states who violate European Union (EU) laws. It considers the concept of direct applicability and reviews the development of the doctrine of direct effects through an analysis of case law. The chapter proposes ways for overcoming the lack of horizontal effect for EU Directives to avoid the result of the ‘Marshall’ ruling and discusses state liability in the CJEU cases C-6 and 9/90 Francovich. These remedies are known as the enforcement from below as a part of the dual system of vigilance of EU law. It also considers national procedural law and the system of remedies developed by the CoJ.
14. Elements of defamation
Authors: Brennan Carol , Bermingham Vera
Published: September 2020

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Defamation differs from other aspects of tort law because it is concerned with protecting against harm caused by words. The law of defamation is intended to provide compensation for people whose reputations have been damaged by untrue statements and it may allow one to obtain an interim injunction to stop a potentially defamatory statement from being published. This chapter discusses the human rights dimension in defamation and the procedural and substantive changes to defamation law introduced by the Defamation Act 2013. It also explores how to strike a balance between the competing rights of freedom of expression and protection of reputation.
12. Trustee investment
Authors: Watt Gary
Published: September 2020

Trustees must invest in a manner that is prudent and fair, and failure to do so may make them personally liable to compensate for any loss. However, it is difficult to prove a breach of trust, and to prove and quantify the loss suffered by the fund. Even if the trustees admit that they invested imprudently and that the trust fund suffered a loss, there seems to be no effective remedy for improper trustee investment. This chapter deals with trustee investment and shows that the modern trend in trustee investment is towards liberalization, freedom of choice, and the free participation of trust funds in investment markets. After discussing the nature of trustee investment, it considers the goals of trustee investment and the trustees’ investment powers. The chapter also analyses types of investment, the trustees’ investment duties, liability for improper investment by trustees, and ethical investment.
15. The equitable personal liability of strangers to the trust
Authors: Watt Gary
Published: September 2020

Even if a trust beneficiary successfully traces misappropriated trust property, he will only be entitled to a proprietary remedy against a stranger, who retains possession or control of the trust property. The beneficiary’s proprietary claim will fail if the stranger received the trust property, but has not retained it. However, the beneficiary (or the trustee) may be able to bring a claim against the stranger personally if the receipt was wrongful. This chapter analyses the circumstances in which a stranger may be personally liable in equity for analogous wrongs. After providing an overview of who strangers are, it examines a number of policy considerations and practical measures designed to give strangers some degree of protection. The chapter also looks at trusteeship de son tort, personal liability in equity for receipt, and equitable liability for assistance in a breach of trust.
16. Equitable maxims, doctrines, and remedies
Authors: Watt Gary
Published: September 2020

In general, the leading court cases on equitable doctrines and remedies are very old. The fact that they still have the power to determine modern cases proves that equity is inherently adaptable. Originally developed by the old Court of Chancery in constructive competition with the common law courts, equity is now applied (since the Judicature Acts 1873–1875) by the unified Supreme Court of England and Wales. In addition, equity, as a dimension of law, has retained its special function of restraining or restricting the exercise of legal rights and powers in certain cases. This chapter considers particular principles (including maxims), doctrines (including conversion, satisfaction, performance, and election), and remedies that have been developed over time to help predict the way in which equity will operate in various types of cases.
2. The Characteristics of Equity
Authors: Virgo Graham
Published: September 2020

This chapter analyses the essential characteristics of Equity. It identifies fourteen maxims that are useful and relevant today as guidelines for the operation of the equitable jurisdiction. The most important of the maxims are examined in some detail, namely that Equity is discretionary and is triggered by unconscionability. The meaning of discretion and the contemporary relevance of conscience and unconscionability are examined. Other maxims include that Equity will treat as done that which ought to be done and Equity responds to cynical conduct. This chapter explains the principles underlying these maxims and suggests that they are often subject to exceptions and sometimes it may even be necessary to redefine them to ensure that they are fit for purpose today.
5. Formalities
Authors: Virgo Graham
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the processes for creating an express trust, which involves two processes. The first involves possible formality requirements relating to the creation of the trust itself, particularly involving trusts of land and testamentary trusts. It also considers how a trust may be valid despite failure to satisfy these requirements, notably where a statute is being used as an instrument of fraud or where a secret trust is recognized. The second process involves the formality requirements which need to be satisfied to ensure that title to property is vested in the trustees, so that the trust is constituted. Constitution of the trust is considered where a settlor declares themself as a trustee and where another party is declared as a trustee. The chapter also examines when Equity may intervene where a trust has not been properly constituted or where a gift has not been validly transferred to a donee.
7. Non-Charitable Purpose Trusts
Authors: Virgo Graham
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the concept of the non-charitable purpose trust. It explains that non-charitable purpose trusts are generally considered void by virtue of failing to comply with the beneficiary principle. It describes exceptional conditions under which non-charitable purpose trusts are considered valid, such as trusts of an imperfect obligation, and discusses mechanisms for the implementation of non-charitable purposes. This chapter also considers the peculiar problems arising where property is transferred for the benefit of unincorporated associations and how Equity has provided solutions for property-holding by such associations and why the nature of property-holding for unincorporated associations has proved to be significant where the association is dissolved.
17. Liability for Breach of Trust and Fiduciary Duty
Authors: Virgo Graham
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the nature of the liabilities of trustees for a breach of trust and fiduciary duty. The chapter particularly focuses on the operation of particular doctrines which may be engaged when a trustee or fiduciary may have breached their duty. The extent to which the liability of a trustee or fiduciary can be excluded is considered. The extent to which the court may, in the exercise of judicial discretion, determine that it is not appropriate to hold a trustee liable is examined. The law on the limitation of liability is also examined as regards different claims relating to breach of trust and breach of fiduciary duty. This chapter also explores issues concerning liabilities between trustees, liability of trustees to creditors, and their liabilities for breach of trust before appointment and after retirement.
1. Introduction
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2020

This introductory chapter begins by setting out the book’s three principal aims: to provide an exposition of the rules that make up the law of contract, to explore the law of contract in its transactional context, and to explore English contract law from a transnational and comparative perspective. The discussions then turn to the scope of the law of contracts; the growth in the use of standard form contracts and the increasing complexity of the form and the content of modern contracts; transnational contract law; and conflicting policies that underpin the law of contract.
8. The Terms of the Contract
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2020

A contract is composed of terms, the number of which depends upon the importance of the transaction. The terms of the contract are of great significance to the parties because they define their rights and liabilities. This chapter examines two preliminary issues, the first of which relates to the identification of the terms of the contract. How do the courts decide what is and what is not a term of the contract? The second issue concerns the entitlement of the parties to lead evidence of terms not to be found in their written contract. Where the parties take the time, trouble, and expense of reducing their agreement to writing, are they still entitled to adduce evidence of terms other than those found in the written document, or is the written document the sole source of the terms of their contract?
14. Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2020

This chapter focuses on Part 2 of the Consumer Rights Act 2015. The Act gives to the courts much broader powers to regulate terms in contracts which have been concluded between traders and consumers. Section 2 examines the individual sections of Part 2 of the Act and the leading cases decided under the Regulations which preceded the Act. Particular attention is given to key concepts such as ‘significant imbalance’, ‘good faith’, the exclusion of certain terms from assessment for fairness, the indicative and non-exhaustive list of terms that may be regarded as unfair, and the role of regulators in the enforcement of the legislation. Section 3 draws on work done by Professor Susan Bright in relation to the role of the Unfair Contract Terms Unit in the early days of the enforcement of the legislation.
19. Undue Influence
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses cases of alleged undue influence. Such cases have caused considerable difficulties for the courts in recent years, not in relation to the existence of the doctrine, but to its scope and its relationship with other doctrines, particularly duress, and other cases in which courts have intervened to protect the vulnerable or those who have been exploited. Recent judicial exposition of undue influence has tended to take place in the context of three-party cases rather than two-party cases, that is to say cases in which a wrong has been committed by a third party and not the defendant. Two leading cases of undue influence are analysed: Allcard v. Skinner (1887) 36 Ch D 145 and Royal Bank of Scotland plc v. Etridge (No 2) [2001] UKHL 44, [2002] 2 AC 773 and they are used to illustrate the limits of the modern doctrine of undue influence and in particular the role of presumptions in this area of the law.
23. Damages
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the entitlement of a claimant to recover damages in respect of a breach of contract committed by the defendant, and is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the different measures of damages that can be awarded, while Section 3 analyses the performance interest. Section 4 examines the circumstances in which a claimant can seek damages based on his ‘reliance’ losses rather than his performance interest, while Section 5 discusses the circumstances in which damages may be awarded to protect the claimant’s ‘restitution’ interest. Section 6 examines the entitlement of a claimant to recover damages in respect of non-pecuniary losses, particularly ‘mental distress’. Section 7 considers the general rule that damages are assessed as at the date of breach and the exceptions to that rule, while Section 8 considers the various doctrines which the courts use in order to keep liability within acceptable bounds. These include remoteness, mitigation, and contributory negligence. Section 9 examines the circumstances in which a claimant can recover what is known as ‘negotiating damages’ or the defendant can be ordered to account to a claimant for the profits that he has made from his breach of contract. Section 10 looks at the possibility that exemplary damages might play a role in breach of contract cases. The chapter concludes, in Sections 11 and 12, with a discussion of agreed damages clauses (and related clauses) and their legal regulation.
4. Constitutionalism and the European Union
Authors: Schütze Robert
Published: September 2020

This chapter addresses the question of whether the EU has a constitution. It explores the formal constitutionalist credentials of the Union legal order and shows that the Union has claimed that the EU Treaties constitute the highest law in Europe. It then examines the constitutional nature of the Union from a ‘democratic’ perspective. Finally, it evaluates the Union legal order through the lens of liberal constitutionalism. This ‘classic’ constitutionalism assesses the legal nature of a document by insisting on a separation of powers and the existence of fundamental rights.
18. Economic and Monetary Union
Authors: Hinarejos Alicia
Published: September 2020

This chapter explains how the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was set up and the flaws within the system. It gives a brief overview of the euro crisis and its relationship to, and consequences for, EMU. Finally, it looks to the current debate on the future of EMU and the EU, including the development of an EU banking union.
25. Immigration and asylum
Authors: Peers Steve
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores EU law on immigration and asylum. It first describes the basic legal framework for the adoption of EU rules on immigration and asylum. It then discusses the rules for visas and border control; irregular migration; legal migration; and asylum legislation.
2. Membership: Crisis, Conceptions and Challenges
Authors: Craig Paul , de Búrca Gráinne
Published: September 2020

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter considers two important issues that have affected the EU in recent years: Brexit and the rule of law crisis. These issues are explored in the context of the considerations they raise about EU membership and resulting obligations. The discussion of Brexit covers the UK referendum and ensuing debate, Article 50 TEU, and the relevant Treaty provisions. It explores what the Brexit negotiations tell us more broadly about the EU, and describes the Withdrawal Agreement and Political Declaration. The second half of the chapter is concerned with the rule of law crisis: the Treaty framework and membership obligations that flow therefrom, the problem posed by ‘rule of law backsliding’ by some Member States, and the different ways in which the EU has responded to this ‘backsliding’.