bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Coil Tubing Fishing Operations Utilize a First Time Technique to Strip Over and Recover 9500 Feet of Stuck Slickline Wire
Authors: Forgenie V. H. , Heiberger E. M. , Kelso L. K. , Roeth R. E.
Published: December 2007

Coil tubing was utilized to perform a modified strip over operation and recover 9500 ft. of stuck slickline (0.108 in.) wire. The technique, thought to be an industry first, eliminated the risky option of recovering the wire piecemeal via conventional wireline fishing operations. This paper documents the background that lead to the development of the technique. An operational summary details its implementation and illustrations are included of the special tools and techniques employed.
Developing Countries: No Environmental Regulations Equals Project Stranglehold
Authors: Chailer Jack D.
Published: December 2007

In many developing or newly opened countries, the lack of environmental regulations is more confusing and detrimental to project planning, timing and finance than in those countries with seemingly stifling regulations. A government without knowledgeable, experienced environmental and mineral resource staff presents real challenges to a project. The regulatory uncertainties faced by the petroleum industry as it pursues exploration and development around the globe are sometimes monumental. The interrelationship of international companies, their stockholders, standards organizations, financial institutions, host country governments, and non-government special-interest groups must be determined for each project. Each of these entities can have significant effects on projects. It is, however, in many cases, a country's lack of environmental policy and established, written regulations that is the primary inhibiting element of projects and the planning element with the longest lead time.
Management of A Safety Management System
Authors: Fitts Travis G. , Hignite Jim R.
Published: December 2007

The three fundamental components of a safety system are man, machine, and method (Figure 1). Effective safety systems address the interaction of these components to optimize the capability of the system as a whole. Man is the most critical component in the system because manuals, policies, and procedures (methods) can not and will not alone ensure a safe and healthy operation. Likewise, there are no accessories or guards (machines) that can compensate for a lack of careful attention and competent skill level.

Safety systems should be managed with the aim to help people optimize the system so that everyone benefits (win/win).
Integrated Three-Dimensional Seismic and Three-Dimensional Reservoir Flow Simulation Exposes the Effects of Faulting on Coal Gas Production at Cedar Hill
Authors: Heim R. N. , Van Kirk C. W.
Published: December 2007

This study used an integrated approach to characterize the Cedar Hill field, a naturally-fractured coalbed methane reservoir, through use of a three-dimensional flow model, three-dimensional multicomponent seismic survey, and detailed engineering and geologic analyses. Results indicate that faulting influences reservoir production and illustrate the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in the characterization of coalbed methane reservoirs.

Geophysical techniques were used to locate previously unrecognized structural features and zones of higher pressure indicating inadequately depleted portions of the reservoir. Petroleum engineering and simulation techniques verified and quantified reservoir parameters, such as faults, identified from seismic interpretation. The integration of geophysical, engineering, and geological data accelerated the study and increased the accuracy of the reservoir model leading to a better understanding of production controls at Cedar Hill.
Qaharir Field, Oman: A Textbook Case
Authors: O’Dell P. M.
Published: December 2007

Qaharir Field is located in the southern part of the Sultanate of Oman. Like several fields in South Oman, it produces a light oil with very little solution gas. Qaharir Field contains a large depletion reservoir and several natural water drive reservoirs. There is, therefore, a large variation in the primary recovery efficiencies. A recent petroleum engineering review of this field deternined the reservoir drive mechanisms and provided a basis for further development plans. This review of Qaharir Field demonstrates the application of conventional reservoir engineering tools to gain an understanding of the reservoir in sufficient detail to select and plan the next development objectives.
Immiscible Displacement Mechanisms and Scale-Up in the Presence of Small-Scale Heterogeneities
Authors: Saad Naji , Cullick A. S. , Honarpour M. M.
Published: December 2007

Relative permeability and capillary pressure functions determined from laboratory core floods must often be scaled-up for assignment to reservoir simulation models used in performance prediction. Conventional scale-up methods do not take into account the heterogeneities at the lithofacies scale, and use core plug measured relative permeability and capillary pressure data in the calculation of effective properties for use in flow simulation. This may not capture the true two-phase flow behavior in the reservoir. The displacement mechanisms encountered in reservoir rocks at the lithofacies scale with small-scale heterogeneities may be very different from displacements in core plugs of the same rock. This paper discusses the immiscible displacement mechanisms in the presence of small-scale heterogeneities at the lithofacies scale. Our aim was to characterize the displacement mechanisms during steady-state flow at different fractional flows and during unsteady-state flow as related to scale-up issues.

The extensive experimental data used in this study consisted of imbibition and drainage data from steady-state tests and from waterflooding measurements on a 108 cm long, laminated rock sample; relative permeability and capillary pressure measurements on core plugs cut parallel and perpendicular to the crossbedding; in situ saturation data measured during flooding using linear x-ray and x-ray CT scanning; and pressure measurements at the inlet/outlet and along the rock sample at various locations.

Numerical simulation was used to history match the laboratory waterflood test. Validated numerical model was used to investigate displacement mechanisms and scaling laws at different fractional flows. Experimental results from the imbibition and drainage test for the long core and the core plugs were compared and flow simulation was used to investigate the use of core plug data at the lithofacies scale.
The Calculus Of Common Sense
Authors: Grayson C. Jackson
Published: December 2007

The president of a major oil company was recently quoted in The Oil and Gas Journal, as saying that today's circumstances require every oil-company management to "face up to reality and begin making more hard-headed decisions" (italics mine) regarding its day-to-day operations and future capital investment policies. The reasons he cited were the slowed rate of growth in demand and overcapacity in nearly every phase of oil operations. Judging from similar remarks by others in the industry, it appears that the future success of the industry, and particularly, that of individual companies, is going to depend on wise courses of action, or as he puts it, "hardheaded decisions."

I agree. In this paper, I want to talk about such hard headed decision making. What really is a decision? How does one go about collecting information, naming alternatives, assigning gains and losses from alternative actions, formulating criteria, selecting one action? It is difficult enough under conditions of relative simplicity and certainty, but when the decision is complex and the outcomes highly uncertain, the problem is compounded.

DECISION PROCEDURES

In such a situation, a decision maker generally follows one of three courses:Decides solely on the basis of intuition, judgment, hunch, seat of pants, experience, etc.. This is decision making as an art.Decides on the basis of simple, quick calculations and "reasonedjudgment." This is mixed art and scientific thinking.Decides on the basis of some fairly detailed and rigorous procedure, capturing as much information and judgment as possible in mathematical and statistical language so that it may be studied and manipulated by formallogic.

The last decision procedure is what can be called hard-headed decision making. It is what academic people are referring to today as "decisiontheory."
Optimization of Lean Gas Injection in Gas-Condensate Reservoirs
Authors: Pires A. P. , Correa A. C. F. , Mohamed R. S. , Sousa R.
Published: December 2007

In gas-condensate reservoirs, a major challenge is to avoid the drop-out of the heavier fractions, which represent the rich part of the gas, responsible for great part of its heat capacity and, consequently, its price.

A widely used prattice to keep the reservoir fluid above its few point pressure is the injection of produced lean gas into the reservoir. This technique is known as gas cycling. As the lean gas is injected in the reservoir, the overall fluid composition is changed and so does its dew point and phase envelope. Furthermore, the rate of pressure decline fo the reservoir depends on the fraction of the produced gas being injected.

We present a coherent thermodynamic analysis of the effects of lean gas injection fo two Brazilian gas/condensate reservoire through the determination of the phase behavior of injected/original gas mixtures.

The accuracy of the thermodynamic model employed is verified through the comparison of the model predictions with laboratory data.

The results obtained from this analysis are used to determine the maximum amount and optimal composition of lean gas to be injected fo a gas/condensate reservoir in onler to change its composition and shift the phase envelope to a point where the liquid droprout can be eliminated or minimized during the isothermal deletion of the reservoir.

The results can also be used to optimize the operation of gas pipelines and production equipment and facilities.
Controlling Formation Damage Caused by Kaolinite Clay Minerals: Part I
Authors: Hayatdavoudi A. , Ghalambor A.
Published: December 2007

During petrophysical and petrographical analyses of the core plugs, generally, we pay close attention to the "fines migration" when we observe kaolinite minerals filling the pore space or lining the pores. The conditions leading to a drastic reduction of permeability (formation damage), at low temperature, by kaolinite have been documented in the literature: (1) to depend on the colloidal and hydrodynamic forces far from and near the well bore respectively and (2) to mechanically bridge the pore throats. And, at high temperature like in steam flooding, the formation damage caused by kaolinite depends on (1) water chemistry i.e. ionic content, (2) pH of the injection water, and (3) low salt concentration. Although these mechanisms provide a general knowledge base to control the formation damage by controlling the kaolinite particles we found no clues as to what changes occur in the kaolinite morphology or mineralogy. The case in point is a Tuscaloosa sand core from central Louisiana while being drilled with a high pH fluid i.e. pH=10-12 with caustic soda.

In order to understand and therefore to control the formation damage due to kaolinite migration, we subjected a series of core plugs prepared from a Tuscaloosa sand conventional core to a low temperature, high simulated spurt loss (flow rate of 11.1 cc/min) for a short period of fluid/rock contact time (45 minutes). After a thorough petrophysical analysis, we found that within this short period of contact time between the rock and fluid at pH=10-12 at low temperature, the permeability of cores decreased considerably. The petrographical analysis of the same cores revealed that the reason for this drastic change in permeability was the onset of the conversion of kaolinite to hallovsite and dickite under the oxidative effects of Sodium Peroxide. Also, the amphoteric nature of kaolinite similar to Al(OH), i.e. dissolution of kaolinite in both acids and bases, plays an important role in its solubility in caustic soda at pH=10-12.

On the basis of our findings we concluded that in both field and laboratory coring and/or drilling the Tuscaloosa sand or possibly any other sand with a high kaolinite content (greater than 5%) the best conditions for controlling the formation damage are to keep the pH of all injection fluids in a buffered and well controlled state of near neutral and/or to control the filtrate to near zero in such sensitive formation.
A New Model for Formation Damage by Particle Retention
Authors: Nabzar L. , Chauveteau G. , Roque C.
Published: December 2007

The formation damage caused by the injection of water containing suspended particles, which are stable and are not adsorbed spontaneously onto pore surfaces under Brownian motion, has recently been analyzed at a pore scale level. Formation damage is the result of four more or less overlapping successive steps:deposition on a grain surface,formation of mono- or multiparticle bridges with subsequent accumulation upstream from the bridges,internal cake formation as soon as the nonpercolation threshold has been reached near the core entrance, andexternal cake formation.

The surface deposition is not uniform over the grain surface and varies from the upstream stagnation point to the near pore throat zone according to a function depending on flow rate and surface forces. The bridging of pore throats is strongly dependent on the effective pore throat-to-particle size ratio, and the pore-throat size is often reduced by previous surface deposition.

A new model has been developed to predict formation damage while taking into account these different steps. The dominant mechanism in each step is governed by parameters that have a clear physical meaning. However, due to the complexity of natural systems, these parameters cannot be quantitatively predicted from theoretical considerations but can easily be determined by specifically designed lab experiments. The model predicts the retention by deposition, by bridging and by subsequent accumulation upstream from bridges, the concentration in flowing particles and the local permeability reduction as a function of the distance from the inlet, as well as the overall permeability reduction, and the beginning of external cake formation.

This new model appears to be an effective tool for analyzing the consistency of a set of laboratory data and for selecting the values of the parameters that must be introduced in a near-well bore field simulator for the proper prediction of formation damage in a given application.

Introduction

The early models proposed in the oil literature aimed to fit the decrease in relative permeability observed when a particle suspension is injected into a permeable core. Thus these models are empirical or at best purely phenomenological in the sense that they simulate observed phenomena by using equations without any clear physical meaning. They are very attractive however for petroleum engineers since they are very simple and easily introduced in conventional field simulators without increasing computing time too much. A good review of these empirical models can be found in Ref. 1.
An Overview of HF Acid as Applied to the Wilcox Sand in Reddell Field, Southwest Louisiana
Authors: Guichard J. A. , Allison David , Gdanski R. D. , Ghalambor A.
Published: December 2007

The Wilcox reservoir in South Central Louisiana's Reddell Field has responded quite favorably to slow-reacting HF acid treatments. A historical perspective, dating back to 1981, is the basis for the comparison of traditional HF acid (12% HCl – 3% HF) systems to that of the slow-reacting HF acid system. These documented benefits are listed below:Two-to four-fold production increaseAccelerated recovery of well productionReduced workover fluid recovery time from 24 months to 2 monthsIncreased success rate associated with stimulation from 40% to 90%

The improved performance was achieved because of careful attention to reducing chemical incompatibilities. Separation of the HF fluids from the potassium chloride workover fluids and the proper choice of HC1-HF concentrations for the Wilcox formation mineralogy dramatically reduced secondary plugging from the HF treatment.

This paper discusses Wilcox formation mineralogy and its susceptibility to formation damage. In addition, the paper compares conventional acid treatments to slow-reading HF acid treatments. Finally, criteria are suggested regarding applications of HF acid for similar formations.
Water Flooding Facilities Salem Unit, Marion County, Illinois
Authors: Livingston Rex L.
Published: December 2007

Introduction

The Lake Centralia-Salem Oil field, Marion County, Ill. was formally unitized September 1, 1930 for simultaneous water flooding of five pay horizons. The engineering and operational aspects of the formation of the Salem Unit have been discussed by Love. Geology of the field has been presented by Arnold. The unitized field embraces an area of 8,800 acres approximately 6 1/2 miles in length and 2 1/2 miles in width. The field has produced 222,000,000 bbl of oil while some 15,000,000 bbl remain to be produced by primary methods. It is estimated that the ultimate secondary oil recovery will be approximately 85 per cent of that recovered under primary production.

The magnitude of this project may be appreciated when it is realized that accumulated injected water will be of the order or 1,680,000,000 bbl during a 20 year flood life. At peak conditions the total injection requirements may reach 350,000 B/D.

The proper selection of surface facilities for a project of this size presents a multitude of complex problems. Careful consideration must be given to the economic aspects of each phase, not only in equipment and construction, but also from the standpoint of operational costs. It is the purpose of this paper to present a discussion of the equipment and facilities that have been installed in the Salem Unit to accommodate the secondary recovery operations.

Figure 1 shows a diagrammatic flow plan of flooding facilities.

Water Supply

The field was producing approximately 8,000 B/D of salt water at the time of unitization. It was estimated that a maximum water injection requirement of nearly 350,000 B/D would be reached during life of the flood for all formations. Considering time for flood development, field water production, etc., it was further estimated that make up water of approximately 185,000 B/D would be needed to meet this requirement. Extensive investigations were conducted in the immediate and surrounding areas of the Salem Pool to determine the most satisfactory source of water.

From these investigations it was concluded that the most economical source of water would be from fresh water gravel terrace deposits along the Kaskaskia River approximately 17 miles northwest of the field. In these investigations, consideration was also given to the possibility of developing a salt water supply from aquifers of 1,000 ft to 1,500 ft depth in field area, but the economics of such a source were not favorable because of the large anticipated volume requirements. It was estimated that development and operating costs of the fresh water source to produce 185,000 B/D would be about 60 per cent less then that of the salt water source.
Review Of Domestic Oil Operations
Authors: Sowers Don
Published: December 2007

Sowers, Don, Member AIME, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Tulsa, Okla.

Publication Rights Reserved

Discussion of this paper is invited. Three copies of any discussion should be sent to the Society of Petroleum Engineers office. Such discussion may be presented at the above meeting and considered for publication in one of the two SPE magazines with the paper.

Introduction

Preliminary statistics indicate that 1961 will be a better profit year than 1960. As reported by "The Oil and Gas Journal", net earnings of 20 major oil companies averaged 7.5 per cent higher for the first 9 months of 1961, as compared with the same period in 1960. Crude oil production appears to be about 100,000 B/D higher than in 1960, and LPG production is up from 3.5 to 4 per cent over 1960.

The increase in production is partially offset by an increase of 10 million bbl in crude stocks. Product stocks appear to be in line with 1960 and the recent cold weather may cut down stocks of heating oils.

Drilling activity for 1961 may be slightly less than in 1960. As a result, it is doubtful if crude oil reserves will increase during 1961. However, because of gasoline plant construction during 1961, LPG production and reserves will probably show an increase. Gas reserves will probably show' some increase again in 1961 because of the increased number of successful gas wells.

Since drilling activity is the predominant factor in generating oil and gas production, let us examine what has happened since 1945.

U. S. DRIVING ACTIVITY

Post-war drilling activity increased from about 29,000 wells in 1946 to slightly over 58,000 wells in 1956, as shown on the chart. The number of wells drilled during this period increased each year, with the exception of 1949. From 1956, the wells drilled decreased through 1958, recovered somewhat in 1959 and reached an eight-year low of about 47,000 wells drilled in 1960. Drilling activity in 1961 should be at about the 1960 level.

Successful wildcat oil wells increased from about 500 in 1946 to about 1,800 in 1955. The increase was continuous with the exception of 1952. Since 1955, there has been a decrease in successful wildcat oil wells to about 800 in 1960 and may be even lower in 1961. Discover wells provide locations for extension wells which in time make up additions to production and reserves.

Successful development oil wells in general follow the pattern of successful wildcat oil wells. Total successful oil wells during this period represent about 93 per cent of total successful oil and gas wells. However, since 1955, total successful oil wells as a per cent of total successful oil and gas wells, ranged from 93.6 per cent in 1955 to 91.6 per cent in 1960.
Comparison of In-Situ and Laboratory Test Results on Granite
Authors: Stowe Richard L.
Published: December 2007

Four NX-diameter holes were diamond-drilled in competent granite. Samples of the recovered core were used in laboratory tests. A borehole, plate-bearing device known as a Goodman jack was used to perform load-deformation tests on the rock in the core hole. The samples used in the laboratory tests were taken from depths in the hole at or within 5 ft of those at which the jacking tests were made. Borehole camera records, compressional and shear-wave velocities, and densities were measured. Dynamic elastic constants were computed for the in-situ material, while comparative data [except camera records] were obtained in the laboratory. These data were examined to evaluate the significance of the in-situ modulus of deformation [Ed], the value computed from Goodman-jack tests. Average test results show an excellent correlation between in-situ and laboratory data. The ratio of laboratory to field deformation modulus ranges from 9.82 to 7.21 for 3,000- and 9,000-psi stress levels, respectively. The dynamic modulus ratio, ED field/ED lab, is 1.02; the compressional wave velocity ratio, Vp field/ Vp lab, is 0.94; the shear-wave velocity ratio, Vs field/Vs lab, is 1.12; and the density ratio, gamma field/gamma lab, is 0.95.

Introduction

This paper presents and discusses some of the test results obtained from a large rock mechanics program. That portion of the program discussed in this paper was conducted program discussed in this paper was conducted for purposes of developing data for use in a computer code used in connection with the design of a medium-size structure. As an outgrowth of the analysis of these data, several questions arose. One concerned the accuracy of the in-situ deformation modulus [Ed]; i.e., was the Ed calculated from pressure-displacement data, the value computed pressure-displacement data, the value computed from NX plate-bearing tests, realistic? The plate-bearing device used in this program was plate-bearing device used in this program was the Goodman jack.

Several approaches could have been used in getting a reasonable answer to the above question. One approach would be to evaluate other similar devices in the same rock mass in which the Goodman jack was used; however, the expense would be prohibitive. Other deformation moduli tests, such as flat-jack and radial jacking tests and large plate-bearing tests, are described in Ref. 2. Another approach would be to rely on published data that would give an approximate figure. Coons states that in-situ tests indicate that the Ed is generally from one-half to one-tenth of the laboratory modulus of elasticity. This range is given for a large number of other types of plate-jacking tests; however, one could assume plate-jacking tests; however, one could assume it applies to borehole deformation tests also. An examination of comparative values suggests that the in-situ Ed obtained for the rock mass in question was reasonable.
An Analysis of the Hopkinson Split Bar Method of Rock Testing
Authors: Wu Paul , Hustrulid William
Published: December 2007

The Hopkinson split bar has been used for about 20 years to study properties of rock and rock failure under dynamic loading conditions. The mathematical analysis needed to construct stress-strain curves from the measured waves requires that the rock specimen be very short compared to the wave length of the impact generated wave. In practice, specimens of several different lengths are often used with the same length wave, always making the assumption that the specimen is "short" enough for the analysis to apply. This paper describes the results of a study on the effect of the ratio of specimen length to wave length on the stress-strain curves derived from strain wave measurements.

A computer simulation of the Hopkinson split bar has been made in which a rock having known elastic properties (ER, rho R) and given length is assumed to be placed between two steel bars also of known properties (ES, rho R). An incident wave of given shape and wave length is assumed to travel toward the steel-rock interface. Using plane wave assumptions, it is possible to compute the shapes of the reflected possible to compute the shapes of the reflected and transmitted waves. These are then used as if they were experimental results to compute the stress-strain relationship for the rock. This is then compared with the specified value. It is found that the slope and shape of the calculated curve for a given incident wave length is very dependent upon the specimen length. Similarly, the method of superposition of the measured waves is very critical. It is suggested that apparent rate of loading effects observed by some authors in comparing "static" and "dynamic" (Hopkinson bar) stress-strain curves may be a result of the analysis rather than a true rock behavior.

A Hopkinson split bar was constructed and used to test four rock types. When the measured strain waves were analyzed using the techniques suggested from the computer simulation, it was found that the resulting stress-strain curves agreed well with the static curves.
An Osmotic Model for Gas and Overpressured Formations
Authors: Overton Harold L. , Zanier Aldo M.
Published: December 2007

The zone below 10,000 ft in the earth is dominated by ionic and surface phenomena. Whenever sufficient overburden stress and temperature are available, a mechanical model is incapable of explaining the behavior of sediments. This is especially true of shales, and it is noticed that clays undergo phase changes whenever active tectonics are evident.

Shales under sufficient compaction have such small pore size and surface charge that their gross behavior is dominated by the interaction of water, ions and membrane surfaces. The phenomena of geopressure in the deep crust is associated with low water salinity, due to ionic diffusion in shales at great depths.

The normal circumstance for marine sediments shallower than 10,000 ft is that of simple compaction. The porosity and permeability is high enough to allow water and salt to be squeezed from shales, to yield an increasing water salinity with depth. The sands become more saline and the shales become fresher under increasing load. Below 10,000 ft mechanical stress is offset by ionic gradients accompanied by incipient gas pressure. Both sands and shales are observed to freshen as pressure gradients increase.

Vertically, salinity gradients show the change of both solid stress and fluid pressure gradients. It is evident that mechanical stress, such as around faulting, disturbs the electrochemical equilibrium. Ions tend to move in the direction of decreasing salinity, bringing water of hydration with them. A new equilibrium is established whenever gas expansion is offset by influx of water under compression. One foot of dewatered shale will pressure up 150 ft of high water fraction pressure up 150 ft of high water fraction sediments an additional 1,000 psi. The cap zone above geopressure is the dewatered shale zone, which signals entry into high pressure gradients.
Parameters for Identification of Overpressure Formations
Authors: Fertl Walter H. , Timko Donald J.
Published: December 2007

A number of methods are used in the industry to detect and evaluate overpressured formations. The ability to detect and recognize overpressured formation is critical in conducting efficient and safe drilling operations.

Observed changes in the properties of rocks, especially shales, can be used to evaluate the overpressured zones. Variations of rock properties can be detected by geophysical methods, wire-line logging techniques, surface measurements on the drilling mud and shale cuttings, and monitoring of several drilling parameters.

The best approach for the detection and evaluation of overpressured formations is the study of a combination of several measured parameters since relying on one type of data parameters since relying on one type of data can result in misinterpretations.

Introduction

In the worldwide search for oil and gas, abnormally high pressure zones (geopressures) have been encountered in numerous countries on several continents. In our present discussion such geopressures, or abnormally high subsurface pressures, are defined as any pressure which exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of a column of water containing approximately 80,000 ppm total solids. ppm total solids. For the oil industry, occurrence of geopressures are important in many respects.

1. Worldwide experience indicates a significant correlation between the presence and magnitude of geopressures and the shales and ratio of sedimentary sections penetrated by the drill bit.

2. In some areas, the distribution of oil and gas appears to be related to the regional and local pressure environments.

3. Knowledge of the expected pore pressure and fracture gradient is the basis pressure and fracture gradient is the basis to make the best of modern drilling techniques, i.e., efficiently drilling wells with correct mud weights and proper casing programs. This also prevents a breakdown of exposed formations and contains the high-pressure fluids in deeper formations, thereby reducing blowout hazards.

4. Much of the extra cost in the search for and development of hydrocarbon reserves is for drilling fluid and casing programs. An additional, quite expensive item is the properly selected completion method which properly selected completion method which must be effective, safe and allow for killing of the well. Here, too, reliable pore pressure and fracture gradient data are a prerequisite.

5. Last but not least, geopressures are also an important factor in several aspects of reservoir engineering. This includes consideration of compressibility and failure of the reservoir rock and the possibility of water influx from the overlying and underlying shale formations.

For years the drilling industry dreamed of a method to predict and evaluate geopressures. Today, a number of methods, both surface and subsurface techniques, have become available for geopressures detection and measurement. These overpressured intervals and as much prior knowledge of them before drilling as is possible - are critical to conducting efficient and safe drilling operations.
Destructive Stresses Generated by Impulsive End Loading of a Cylinder
Authors: Rinehart John S.
Published: December 2007

High-speed photography [166,666 to 333,330 frames/second] has been used to observe and define the pattern of destructive stresses generated by an explosive charge detonated on the end of a right circular cylinder. The loading is somewhat more severe, but not substantially unlike, the loading a drill rod receives during percussive drilling operations. It was found that the internally convex cylindrical surface transforms and focuses the energy of the blow first in the form of a converging tensile wave, which is followed shortly by a similarly converging shear wave. Damage is successively wrought by the two converging waves that arrive one after the other, the damage being due to the shear wave extending further down the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder regulates the extent of the damage, limiting severe damage to the first three diameters of length.

Introduction

When a solid cylinder is struck a sharp and strong blow on one end, the end of the cylinder generally suffers severe damage, appearing as if an internal axial explosion had blown it apart. Major damage is usually limited to a distance along the cylinder equal to about 2 or 3 cylinder diameters. A well defined teardrop-shaped symmetrical plug forms in Plexiglas [Fig. 1] and a similar pattern of fracturing is observed in aluminum, steel, glass and copper cylinders. The pattern is controlled principally by the geometry of the specimen rather than the material and scales almost perfectly with cylinder diameter.

Only a small fraction of the energy of the original blow remains in the cylinder, the rest being carried away by the pieces that fly off. This small remaining fraction moves down the cylinder as an elastic wave with rod velocity, [E/p] 1/2, where E is the Young's modulus and rho is the density of the rod material.

Previous tests with essentially point explosive charges, charges whose area of contact was very small compared with the area of the end of the cylinder, have shown that internally reflected and transformed stress waves can cause fracturing when they are focused and thus caused to interact.

The present study differs from previous ones in several respects. The entire end of the cylinder was covered with explosive so that the impulsive load acted simultaneously over a large area. The simple ray-tracing techniques used before are inadequate to describe the wave interactions since the phenomenon must now be treated as a diffraction problem. Damage is much more severe and the intensity of the elastic wave developed with the larger explosive is high enough to make visible the deformation produced during action of the wave. But most important, the present tests were monitored with high-speed photographic equipment up to framing rates of 333,330/second. This made it possible to observe the actual formation of the fractures, the propagation of the waves generated by the explosion and subsequent reflections and, from these observations, develop a better understanding of the genesis of rod waves.
Platform Production And Injection Facilities - Mc Arthur River Field
Authors: Horton R.M. , Duthweiler F.C.
Published: December 2007

Over the past five years the application of turbomachinery for use in conjunction with the exploration and development of oil and gas has gained increasing popularity within the industry, especially in offshore and isolated or remote locations.

The several operational and environmental considerations leading to the selection of turbomachinery for use on Union Oil's Grayling Platform, located In Alaska's Upper Cook Inlet, Platform, located In Alaska's Upper Cook Inlet, will be reviewed. Also included is performance data on specific turbine driven equipment along with recommendations outlining installation, operation and preventive maintenance procedures to promote a successful turbomachinery application.

Introduction

The Grayling Platform was originally constructed as a typical Cook Inlet "four poster type" self-contained drilling and poster type" self-contained drilling and production facility. It was designed to production facility. It was designed to accommodate simultaneous operation of two DC powered drilling rigs, and was installed with powered drilling rigs, and was installed with mud pumps and tanks, cementing and logging units, mud and cement storage, etc., to perform all normal drilling functions. The platform also contained oil and gas separation equipment, along with associated manifolding and piping, diesel powered AC generator sets, glycol-water boilers powered AC generator sets, glycol-water boilers for platform heating, instrument air compressors, salt water and dry chemical fire protection equipment, two 50 ton pedestal mounted cranes, and a 70 man quarters with an attached heliport.

The platform is located in Cook Inlet's Trading Bay, approximately 45 miles southwest of Anchorage, Alaska. It is basically supported by four 17 ft. diameter legs in approximately 140 ft. of water. It has three equipment deck levels: the drilling and production decks, spaced 20 ft. apart, which are both 120 ft. square, and a 47 ft. X 60 ft. sub-deck located between four 17 ft. diameter horizontal beam tanks which comprise the top of the structural jacket (See Fig. 1).

The platform is pinned to the Inlet floor by twelve 33 In. diameter piles driven through each of the four legs and grouted in place. These piles also serve as conductors through which as many as 48 wells can be directionally drilled from the platform to measured depths of over 16,000 ft. for the development of subterranean oil producing zones.

The platform is subject to the corrosive and erosive effects of oxygen saturated and silt laden Cook Inlet sea water.
The Impact Of The North Slope Or Oil And Survival
Authors: Gilmore R.B.
Published: December 2007

Survival to most people connotes catastrophy. The association most often is to war, earthquake, flood, or fire. Survival is a favorite of the clergy and heard often on the sawdust trail. Teachers used it on some of us who barely scraped through school. It once characterized the Mets and some say the Dallas Cowboys — up to the Super Bowl. Like it or not, the petroleum industry appears to be entering a new phase in its evolution petroleum industry appears to be entering a new phase in its evolution that, to me, looks like the beginning of a struggle for survival. White hats no longer are sold to oil men. We can't seem to -do anything right.

Success in continually producing better and better products at stable and almost bargain prices, in spite of ever-increasing costs, turns out to be a handicap. This capital intensive industry can't generate enough cash from operations to carry on even a reduced level of exploration and development and also add to transportation, refining and marketing facilities. Some companies even borrowed money to bid on federal tracts at the last sale in the Gulf off Louisiana. Others give away part of their leasehold interest to a drilling fund or syndicate for capital to drill prospects. The gas shortage added some welcome new money in advance prospects. The gas shortage added some welcome new money in advance payments, but this source doesn't seem like a long-range solution. payments, but this source doesn't seem like a long-range solution. We know we find the easy fields first and that money goes farther drilling relatively shallow wells onshore than deep wells offshore in deep water. We develop a strong sense of urgency from a 24-hour-a-day, 7-days-a-week effort to find and produce oil and gas - a process that is almost impossible to stop and then start up again. We have learned that the best oil fields usually turn out to be in the worst places. We know how precarious to our national security A is to have a reserve-life ratio of less than ten years for our domestic oil or gas reserves.
Concrete Structures for the Arctic Ocean
Authors: Gerwick Ben C.
Published: December 2007

Studies for specific arctic offshore structures-drilling and production platforms, offshore terminals, piers, and underwater (under-ice) storage - confirm the advantages of concrete caissons: mass, low-temperature performance, economy, and speed of installation performance, economy, and speed of installation at the site. Stability is attained by sand and gravel fill, piles, or prestressed anchors.

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The proper development and exploitation of the resources of the Arctic Ocean requires that structures be developed which are suitable to the environment, offer a high degree of security, are economical, and are practicable for construction during the extremely short working periods available.

The Arctic Ocean presents, of course, a wide spread of environmental zones, varying from the shallow water lagoons to the offshore ice pack area. Ice dominates all design criteria pack area. Ice dominates all design criteria although seismic forces on occasion may approach the same order of magnitude. The dynamic nature of ice failure by crushing necessitates that any structure have ductile behavior throughout the entire temperature range to which it may be exposed. The resonant period of the structure should be substantially longer than the period of ice crushing, that is, longer than about 1 second; thus, mass is required. Of over-riding consideration in structures planned for such widely varying and extreme planned for such widely varying and extreme conditions, is the nature of failure under overload. It cannot be brittle nor subject to self-propagating cracking. Environmental considerations require that every possible step be taken to prevent pollution in an accident.

Thus, a structure for Arctic Ocean service bears a great deal of resemblance to a nuclear reactor pressure vessel. In design, one must take the structure through a whole series of limit states, each with its own probability and degree of security or safety factor.

Economics play a major role also, for successful development of the resources of the arctic requires that structures and systems be economically feasible. The utilization of the resources, such as oil, is in the temperate zone Production in the arctic therefore, must be Production in the arctic therefore, must be matched with transport systems in order to be economically competitive with other sources of oil and ultimately other sources of energy.
Review Of 1961 Foreign Production
Authors: Mayhew Zeb
Published: December 2007

Introduction

Intense competition in the foreign petroleum industry was the foremost news of 1961. Spare crude oil producing capacity increased, crude and product prices were weak, and, as a result, there was keen competition for markets. Many companies came to the conclusion that foreign operations were not the gold mines they had envisioned several years ago.

The year 1961 marked the start of commercial production in Libya, and it was the first year of full production from the Algerian Sahara. It was a year in which Argentina nearly reached its long sought goal of self-sufficiency in petroleum, and Canadian producers exceeded the ambitious goal set for them by their government. It was also a year in which the potential of the offshore areas of the Persian Gulf was amply demonstrated.

None of these activities can be entirely attributed to 1961, since they were the results of activities of the past decade. Therefore, this paper briefly reviews some of the factors which led us to the current situation.

Consumption

After World War II it became obvious that great supplies of energy had to be developed if foreign areas were to grow and prosper in the post-war world. The task of supplying the bulk of this energy has fallen to oil.

In 1961, there were 13 countries in the Free World which consumed more than 250,000 B/D of petroleum products. Table 1 shows the demand for these 13 countries in 1952, when the total Free World consumption was 11.7 million B/D. The 12 foreign countries had a combined consumption of 2.4 million B/D, or 21% of the Free World. The United States consumed 7.3 million B/D or 62%. In total, these 13 countries consumed 83% of the Free World oil.

Table 1 shows that consumption in 1961 has risen to 20 million B/D for an average growth of 5% per year, or at the rate of nearly 1 million B/D annually. The 12 major foreign consumers' demand increased 2-1/2 times to 6.4 million B/D and their share of the Free World increased from 21% to 32%. Their growth average 10% per year, compared with 3% per year in the United States.

This rapid growth in consumption has been a large factor in the increasing importance of foreign oil and has contributed to increased foreign producing activity.
Use of Nuclear Chimneys for Underground Gas Storage
Authors: van der Harst, Leo
Published: December 2007

Underground nuclear explosives create vertical cylindrical rubble-filled cavities in the earth, called chimneys. These chimneys have a practically infinite permeability and a usable void space, depending on the size and depth of the explosive charge. Chimneys created this way in impervious rock media can be used as storage systems for liquids or gases; this paper deals only with the latter kind.

A hypothetical market located in the Midwest Ins been selected as the basis for a model study. The paper touches on matters of nuclear technology but concentrates on the solution of the storage requirements. A realistic construction time schedule and a cost analysis for a nuclear storage system will be discussed.

In comparing underground pore-space gas storage systems with the nuclear alternative, overall advantages of the latter are outlined.

Introduction

Deeply-buried underground nuclear explosions in competent rock create cylindrical rubble-filled caverns, called chimneys. There have been more than 150 underground nuclear explosions and the phenomenology is well known. (Fig. 1)

The detonation generates extremely high temperatures of the order of 20 million deg. F and pressures of about 16 billion psi. The instant following the detonation, the explosive package and surrounding rock are vaporized package and surrounding rock are vaporized and the high pressure pushes the wall of the resulting spherical cavity outward. As the cavity cools, the vapor phase gives way to one in which the cavity wall melts and the molten rock runs to die bottom. The outward movement of the cavity wag continues and the tremendous shock wave fractures a large zone around the cavity. This whole sequence takes place in a fraction of a second. place in a fraction of a second.