bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Viscosities for Completion Fluids at Temperature and Density
Authors: Ortego Anne M. , Vollmer Daniel P.
Published: December 2007

Brine viscosities are an important property in sand control and coil tubing operations. Viscosities are used to calculate sand settling rates for gravel packing and frictional pressure losses. Due to limited brine viscosity data, viscosites were determined for conventional completion fluids using an Oswald viscometer. Then three dimension equations were determined as a function of density and temperature for calcium chloride, calcium bromide, calcium chloride and calcium bromide, calcium bromide and zinc bromide, three salt mixture of calcium chloride, calcium bromide and zinc bromide, and sodium bromide solutions. All equations had an average deviation from the measured values of less than 10%.
Experimental and Theoretical Simulation of Gravel Pack Displacement in Extended Horizontal Offshore Wells
Authors: Martins A. L. , de Magalhães J. V. M. , Calderon A. , Mathis S. P. , Trujillo C. , Nguyen H. T.
Published: December 2007

This article presents the development of a computational tool to guide horizontal gravel pack design for long horizontal offshore wells. Mechanistic model formulation, experimentation at a large scale flow loop and software development are detailed. The computer simulation results are then compared with field data collected in Campos Basin operations, offshore Brazil. A discussion on design alternatives for long horizontal well at low frac gradient formations is presented. This discussion includes a sensibility analysis on screen eccentricity, open and closed BOP configurations and alpha vs alpha plus beta wave displacement options.
Completion of High-Rate Gas Wells, Horizontal Gravel Pack and Filter-Cake Cleanup: A Case History From the Mahogany Field, Trinidad
Authors: Akong S. , Tinegate I. , Hassanali H. , Tocalino S. , Omonze D.
Published: December 2007

Completing high-rate gas wells in areas where sand control is necessary ranks among the top challenges within the oil industry. High-velocity gas flowing through the downhole hardware combined with the abrasive nature of finer formation solids dislodged and produced can significantly shorten the completion life and have strong financial implications for the operator.

This paper describes the gravel-pack and filter-cake cleanup techniques applied to Mahogany MB-13, an offshore horizontal openhole completion and Trinidad's best producing well at the time of its production start-up. Optimizing these operations, along with correct well configuration and precise borehole placement in the reservoir structure, were fundamental to achieving high production rates.

The gravel placement method and the uniform coverage of the gravel-pack screens helped to deter the creation of high-velocity spots. This result allowed the operator to use higher drawdown pressure differentials without damaging the completion.

Aspects of the sand-control design, gravel-pack placement to ensure complete wellbore coverage, and the chemicals and procedures for filter-cake cleanup are analyzed in depth.

The new-generation sand-control service tools that were developed to preserve the optimum wellbore conditions from the end of drilling through the completion are also discussed.

Finally, production data from the MB-13 are presented to support the completion efficiency reported.
Improved Production with Mineralogy-Based Acid Designs
Authors: Jiang Zhizhuang , Luo Donghong , Deng Zhiyun , Chong King Kwee , Gdanski Rick
Published: December 2007

This paper presents a case history on new sandstone acidizing technology using a nonhydrofluoric formulation to successfully treat a high carbonaceous sandstone formation. The improved understanding of the chemical complications of hydrofluoric (HF) on dirty sandstones led to the design of a nonhydrofluoric treatment on the high carbonate content (dirty) sandstone formation.

Previous treatments using various formulations of HF acid failed to remove the high skin associated with several wells in this formation. A new approach was taken to identify the damage mechanism and evaluate damage removal options based on the formation mineralogy. This approach analyzed the potential chemistry risks associated with using HF type treatments in the presence of particular mineralogies and temperatures.

The new approach also used logging and reservoir modeling technology to forecast the estimated production profile of the complex multilayered formation. Candidate wells were identified by comparing the forecast production profile potentials to the surveyed production profiles based on production logging (PLT) of the prescreening candidates. The final treatment candidate was then selected for the trial of the new treatment formulation. The treatment was specifically tailored based on the identified mineralogy and encompassed the damage prevention strategies. The result was a 40% increase in oil production for the well, but a 2-fold to 10-fold increase for the treated zone, depending on pretreatment production assumptions.
A Novel Method of Preventing Perforation Damage In High-Temperature Offshore Wells
Authors: McElfresh Paul , Gabrysch Allen , Van Sickle Ed , Myers Bill , Huang Tianping
Published: December 2007

During the course of normal perforating operations, special attention is paid to minimizing debris in order to prevent perforation tunnel plugging or other forms of formation damage. However, operational constraints, especially in high-temperature offshore wells, may result in freshly perforated zones being left in contact with brines or formation fluid for a long time. Exposure to these fluids can cause zinc-containing scales to form inside perforation tunnels or zinc particles to become embedded in the formation, which in turn may cause damage to the full-flow potential of the perforations. Since the damage potential increases with brine density and pressure, the risk is greater in high-temperature/high pressure wells.

The damages described above can be prevented or eliminated by using a perforating acid. However, at high temperatures acid corrosion rates must be taken into account when selecting an effective acid system. Debris can be removed with strong acid or prevented with an inhibitor, but as formation temperatures increase, metal corrosion and acid sensitivity of the formation become highly problematic. At these higher temperatures, organic acids are often used, but many of them do not have the acid strength or the capability to dissolve zinc or zinc salts.

This paper describes a highly biodegradable organic acid system that has high zinc dissolution activity but low corrosion rates to steels and chrome alloys. The corrosivity of these acids is low enough that it can be spotted above the perforation guns for long periods of time at high temperature to aid in the immediate prevention and/or clean-up of formation damage products. Corrosion tests have shown that at 350°F, the corrosion rate caused by the biodegradable organic acid is 0.001 lbs/ft2 on 22-Cr for 16 hours, a value that is 90% lower than that of acetic acid under the same conditions. Acid reaction tests have confirmed that this new acid system can effectively prevent formation damage induced by perforation at temperatures up to 400°F. These tests and their effects on well production will be described in detail in the paper.
Formation Damage Due to Scale Formation in Porous Media Resulting From Water Injection
Authors: Moghadasi J. , Jamialahmadi M. , Müller-Steinhagen H. , Sharif A.
Published: December 2007

Due to the extensive use of water injection for oil displacement and pressure maintenance in oilfields, many reservoirs experience the problem of scale deposition when injection water starts to break through. In most cases the scaled-up wells are caused by the formation of sulfate and carbonate scales of calcium and strontium. Due to their relative hardness and low solubility, there are limited processes available for their removal and preventive measures such as the ‘squeeze’ inhibitor treatment have to be taken. It is therefore important to gain a proper understanding of the kinetics of scale formation and its detrimental effects on formation damage under both inhibited and uninhibited conditions.

This paper presents the results of an experimental and theoretical study of permeability reduction of porous media caused by scaling. Two incompatible solutions of calcium and /carbonate ions were injected into the porous medium, where calcium or calcium carbonate was generated by chemical reaction. Mechanisms by which a precipitate reduces permeability include solids deposition on the pore walls due to attractive forces between the particles and the surfaces of the pores, individual particles blocking pore throats, and several particles bridging across a pore throat. The characteristics of the precipitate influence the extent of formation damage. Conditions such as large degree of supersaturation, presence of impurities, change in temperature, and rate of mixing controls the quantity and morphology of the precipitating crystals.
Modeling Pressure and Temperature Effects on Reactive Flow and its Impact on Well Performance under Common Operational Conditions
Authors: Araque-Martinez Aura , Lake Larry W.
Published: December 2007

Reactive flow in a permeable medium is a combination of reactions between the fluids and minerals in the host formation and reactions within the same fluid. Among these reactions, solid dissolution and precipitation are important reactions since precipitated reactions products, in particular, can plug flow channels and cause flow impairment. The subject of this work is the simulation of these aqueous phase reactions during flow.

Simulation of these geochemical reactions is based on solubility calculations, which depend on pressure and temperature among other parameters. Pressure dependency becomes important where large pressure changes occur as in near wellbore flow. Similarly, injecting a fluid that is at a different temperature from the reservoir (as in hot water injection) can cause geochemical reactions even if the injected fluid and resident fluid have the same composition. Modeling these geochemical reactions can get even more complicated during production after hot water injection (push-pull cycles) since the inlet fluid composition may change in each cycle. Neglecting these effects can lead to an unrealistic estimate of the predicted precipitates, since solubility depends on pressure and temperature.

This work presents a simplified approach, based on experimental literature data as well as thermodynamic properties to account for solubility changes as a function of pressure and temperature in geochemical modeling. Reactive flow is based on nonequilibrium aqueous-solid reactions. The approach is novel because it allows for the effects of pressure and temperature changes on solubility calculations during the production and injection period as well as the change in the inlet fluid composition for push-pull cycles.

We illustrate the model results on two cases, one production and the other an injection-production combination: We model flow from a producer in West Texas carbonate reservoir in which there may be substantial well impairment due to gypsum precipitation. Pressure changes have more effect on mineral precipitation in producer than injectors, since most of the sulfates tend to become less soluble as pressure decreases, however, water must flow to cause significant precipitation.We also study the effect on the productivity of a well after hot water has been injected and the well returned to production. We use data from a sandstone reservoir that initially contained kaolinite. K-feldspar and quartz are possible secondary minerals. Results show that during the production cycle kaolinite re-precipitation is likely to occur; quartz and K-feldspar precipitate during the injection cycle.

The damage during production is more severe that during injection.
Alternate Path Completions: A Critical Review and Lessons Learned From Case Histories with Recommended Practices for Deepwater Applications
Authors: Hurst G. , Cooper S. D. , Norman W.D , Dickerson R. C. , Claiborne E. B. , Parlar M. , Tocalino S.
Published: December 2007

Since its introduction, over 700 alternate path sand control completions have been implemented around the world ranging from single zone cased hole gravel-packs to multi-zone fracpacks and fibre optic (DTS) enabled open hole horizontal completions. Over the last six years, the alternate path system has been field proven to provide high reliability in achieving complete packs as well as additional features allowing simultaneous cake cleanup, shale bypass and other contingencies that enable doing it right the first time in deep-water/subsea completions where interventions tend to be economically and logistically prohibitive.

This paper provides a critical review of those completions, capturing both successes and failures, along with the lessons learned in their design, execution and evaluation in relation to completion efficiency in sanding reservoirs. Furthermore, it details future development work and enablers that will allow the use of alternate path technology as the mainstay of intelligent well solutions, geometrical design improvements to provide optimal aspect ratios in the wellbore and its applicability in conjunction with water packing.
Changes in Perforation-Induced Formation Damage with Degree of Underbalance: Comparison of Sandstone and Limestone Formations
Authors: Halleck Phillip M. , Karacan C. Ozgen , Hardesty John , Detwiler Russ
Published: December 2007

Field data and recently developed models provide some guidance for estimating the underbalance needed to obtain fully functional perforations, but there are little data available that relate flow efficiency to lower underbalances in different rock types. To improve understanding of the surge cleanup process, we have performed two series of perforation flow tests in Berea Sandstone and in Bedford Limestone cores at increasing levels of underbalance. Flow tests were performed according to modified API RP19B, section 4 test procedures. At the conclusion of the tests, the cores were analyzed using high-resolution X-ray CT techniques. The shape, dimensions and total volumes of both the open tunnel and the remaining embedded liner metal were extracted from the CT data and correlated with the underbalance and with the flow test results.

Open tunnel diameters and volumes are much lower in the limestone samples, and there is preliminary evidence of a compacted zone surrounding the tunnel that is not present in the Berea samples. While the amount of metal remaining in the tunnel and at the perforation tip decreases dramatically with underbalance in Berea Sandstone cores, the amount of metal is nearly constant in the limestone cores. Conversely, the tunnel volume increases with underbalance in the Sandstone cores but stays constant in the limestone. Preliminary core flow efficiency (CFE) results correlate well with these observations. There is a shape increase in CFE in the sandstone samples as the tunnel volumes increase and little change in CFE in the limestone samples corresponding to unchanging tunnel volume.

The tests also offer some evidence of the cleanup mechanism at the perforation tip, at least in the sandstone cores. Samples at intermediate underbalance levels show evidence of open tunnel space in an annulus surrounding the metal slug at the tip. This suggests that cleanup may proceed, at least partially, by axial flow through crushed rock surrounding the metal. As this material erodes away, the metal is loosened and is flushed from the tunnel. Existing models for cleanup are based primarily on radial flow.
Underbalance Pressure Criteria For Perforating Carbonates
Authors: Subiaur Servio T. , Graham Craig A. , Walton Ian C. , Atwood David C.
Published: December 2007

Underbalance perforating has long been recognized as one of the best techniques for mitigating perforating damage. Earlier studies have attempted to establish the level of underbalance necessary to stimulate perforation clean-up in sandstone. These models are stated in terms of the underbalance pressure thought necessary to remove damage from perforations for a given matrix permeability (some models also give consideration to fluid properties and perforation geometry). The purpose of this study is to evaluate the extent to which these correlations for underbalance perforating may be applicable to carbonates.

Single shot laboratory flow tests were performed with limestone and dolomite cores to determine the extent of perforation damage as a function of underbalance pressure. The calculated perforation skins from the carbonate perforating experiments are not well described by the earlier sandstone correlations. In particular, the primary reliance on rock permeability as a prognosticator of perforation clean-up does not work for carbonates. Rather than relying upon the initial underbalance pressure and matrix permeability as has been done previously for sandstones, perforation skin for carbonates is best related to peak underbalance pressure and rock strength. The underbalance pressure condition is not surprising. Progressive perforation clean-up with increasing underbalance is intuitive and has been well noted by previous investigators. This study extends the concept by making reference to a peak dynamic underbalance pressure occurring during perforating. Relating rock strength instead of rock permeability to perforation clean-up is a relatively new idea that may also have merit for sandstones. The results of this study suggest that the initial mechnism of perforation clean-up is primarily related to failure of the perforation tunnel wall under stress as opposed to fluid surge flow.
Annular Barrier Re-Establishment Using a Long-Life, High-Strength Polymer Gel System
Authors: Mebratu Amare , Nerland Børge , Kleppan Tore
Published: December 2007

Well A-01A in the Valhall field has been on production since late 1993, but its performance has been unstable with proppant and chalk flowback. Mechanical impairments have been repaired, the subsurface safety valve (SSSV) was locked open, and an insert SSSV was installed in May 2001. Although the control line was repeatedly treated with a pressure-activated sealant, leakage has been a recurring problem.

Recently, a production tubing annulus communication was detected in Well A-01A. The leak point was believed to be at the seal assembly at the bottom of the production tubing string. The operator and service company engineers evaluated the mechanism of the leak and its severity.

In January 2003, 30 bbl of a long-life, high-strength polymer system (HSPS) were placed in the annular space between the 5 ½-in. production tubing and 9 5/8-in. casing. Applying this polymer system as an annular barrier was a new technique. A temporary gel plug (TGP) consisting of a hydroxy propyl guar polymer and a crosslinker was pumped both ahead and behind the HSPS for placement accuracy and to prevent contamination. Because the well was at low pressure, base oil was used as a displacement fluid. The base oil helped reduce hydrostatic head under placement. The well was kept producing at normal rates during the operation, and pumping was completed within 4 hr with no production loss and no downtime.

Annulus pressure was dramatically reduced from 1,300 psi to less than 250 psi. Some pressure increase was observed following well intervention work, but later pressure stabilized at 600 to 700 psi. When the well was shut in, there was no pressure increase observed in the annulus, while the tubing pressure increased from approximately 800 to 2,000 psi. Currently, the well is producing oil at 2,200 BOPD. Stable annulus pressure and normal production performance indicate that the annular gel plug is effectively blocking the communication. The use of this long-life polymer gel plug as an annular barrier is intended to keep the well producing until a tubing workover is possible and a permanent barrier is established. Payback time for the total cost of this operation is approximately four days.

This paper describes the polymer gel systems, placement technique, operational aspects, and benefits of the method used.
A New Field Method for Determining the Levels of Iron Contamination in Oilfield Completion Brine
Authors: Carpenter Joel F. , Dalton Ferrill G. , Isaac D. Donald , Freeman Michael A. , Prasek Bethicia B. , Guy-Caffey Judith K. , Tomlin Marsha , Javora Paul , Berry Sandra L. , Jones Tom A. , Malachosky Ed , Neale Teresa
Published: December 2007

Quantifying total iron in brine is critical in order to mitigate its unfavorable effects. An API-sponsored work group has developed a robust field method for determining the levels of iron contamination in all oilfield completion brine, including zinc-based brine. This colorimetric, semi-quantitative method is based on chemistry involving acidification, peroxide oxidation, and thiocyanate complex formation. The iron content is quantified by comparing the intensity of the resulting colored complexes to standards.

Using newly-developed, commercially available vacu-ampoule test kits (Figure 1), this assay is quick and particularly user-friendly, and it is easily implemented in the field. It is anticipated that this method will be incorporated into the API Recommended Practice 13J, Testing of Heavy Brine.
Microemulsion Additives Enable Optimized Formation Damage Repair and Prevention
Authors: Pursley John T. , Penny Glenn , Holcomb David
Published: December 2007

A new microemulsion additive has been developed that is effective in remediating damaged wells and is highly effective in fluid recovery and relative permeability enhancement when applied in stimulation treatments at dilute concentrations.

The microemulsion is a unique blend of biodegradable solvent, surfactant, co-solvent and water. The nanometer sized structures are modeled after Veronoi structures which when dispersed in the base treating fluid of water or oil permit a greater ease of entry into a damaged area of the reservoir or fracture system. The structures maximize surface energy interaction by expanding to twelve times their individual surface areas to allow maximum contact efficiency at low concentrations (.1-.5%). Higher loadings on the order of 2% can be applied in the removal of water blocks and polymer damage.

Lab data is shown for the microemulsion in speeding the cleanup of injected fluids in tight gas cores. Further tests show that the microemulsion additive results in lower pressures to displace frac fluids from propped fractures resulting in lower damage and higher production rates. This reduced pressure is also evident in pumping operations where friction is lowered by 10-15% when the microemulsion is added to gelled fracturing fluids.

Field examples showing remediation and stimulation are provided from the Rocky Mountains, and the Ft Worth basin.
One Step Beyond: Managing Areas of High Biodiversity Value
Authors: Macklin Stephen , Kapila Sachin , Hartog Jan
Published: December 2007

The scientific consensus is that biodiversity is under increasing threat from habitat loss, climate change and pollution. The challenge to protect areas of high biodiversity value is gaining profile and the issue is not going to go away. Increasingly, society is expecting the oil/gas industry to make a broader contribution to solving the issue and increasingly industry wants to make that contribution. Hydrocarbon resources required to meet future demand for affordable energy are often located in protected or sensitive areas, which can give rise to tensions around competing land use.

At the heart of the issue is the call to establish a universal system of protected areas. Protected areas was a key theme at the World Parks Congress in September 2003 and will also feature in the 7th Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in February 2004.

Government signatories to the CBD are required to establish areas to protect biodiversity as part of their obligations under international law. There are a number of global systems for designating protected areas. World Heritage Sites are designed to protect areas of outstanding universal value and are also part of government's international obligations. Oil and gas activities are not considered compatible with the objectives of such sites. The UN List of National Parks and Protected Areas is classified into six categories by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The Category System was not designed to define where industry should and should not operate, but is increasingly being used to determine land use options, although this system lacks the clear rules and procedures that characterise the World Heritage Convention. Then there are other protected areas systems such as Ramsar (for wetlands) or man and biosphere reserves. Governments may also put in place regional or national regulatory frameworks such as the European Union Habitats and Birds Directives (Natura 200 sites). Less formal are areas or regions that have been prioritised by various conservation organisations - these differ according to the criteria used by the organisation.

There is a lack of trust between the conservation community and business. Some NGOs are willing to engage, but are coming under pressure to deliver benefits to conservation. Others are more adversarial. Financial institutions are also enquiring about company policy with respect to operating in protected areas.

All these factors will affect us. We therefore need to position ourselves to manage this issue in the long term. The paper will outline the case for action, the recent developments within and key challenges faced by the Shell Group - particularly Shell EP, and the key features of its approach.
Management of Oil & Gas Exploration and Production in Sensitive Social Environment and Mangrove Ecosystem
Authors: Suripno S. , Najib M. , Asmaradewi Gayatri
Published: December 2007

TOTAL E&P INDONESIE (TI), a subsidiary of TOTAL Group, has been operating in Mahakam Contract Area for more than 30 years, despite of increasing sensitivity in the operation area from social environment and mangrove ecosystem point of view. Handil and Tunu Field are located in Mahakam Delta area, which was initially covered by dense mangrove vegetation. In the last decade there has been very rapid increase of local population activities and deforestation due to shrimp-culture development. Hence, Company faced more challenges in managing environment of E&P activities in such sensitive social environment and mangrove ecosystem.

TI carried out some big efforts of environmental management actions to protect mangrove ecosystem through several programs such as minimizing land clearing and reinstatement of cleared area. These environmental programs involved local communities and other stakeholders such as NGOs and governmental bodies. Other actions to manage mangrove ecosystem were also carried out through a sustainable development steering committee. The committee launched programs related with institutional aspects, regulatory framework, law enforcement, community awareness improvement, etc.

The growth of local economic activities attracted more people to come to the delta area. Increasing number of people gave impacts to E&P activities especially through environmental issues. Number of claims and disturbances from local people increased. Therefore, the Company initiated some approaches to manage such issues, such as participatory community development, environmental claim management, and social approaches through environmental programs.

All those actions were wrapped in the frame of sustainable development programs where environment is part of it.

The above efforts resulted in successful solutions for social environmental problems and generated good track record in protecting mangrove ecosystem. Process of implementation on site was challenging and very interesting to be shared among other companies operating in sensitive area.
ESIA Experiences and Lessons in China
Authors: Luo Huaisheng
Published: December 2007

Since China re-opened its doors to multi-nationals in the 1980s, Shell has developed its oil and gas activities in the country. In the past 10 years, Shell has conducted near twenty environmental and social impact assessments (ESIAs) in China, ranging from offshore&onshore seismic survey, exploration drilling, gas field development, pipeline, coal gasification plant, to petrochemical complex. The implementation of EIA Law in September 2003 is a milestone in strengthening the environmental impact assessment process for development projects in China.

The learnings from these ESIAs are shared, notably in respect of the practicalities of conducting them to international expectations, and the importance of JV partners supports/buy-in to their successful implementation.
Hearts And Minds Change Programmes Make A Difference
Authors: van der Graaf Gerard , Bryden Robin , Zijlker Volkert , Hudson Patrick
Published: December 2007

For many years Shell, have shared at SPE conferences the insights gained from research together with universities of Leiden, Manchester and Aberdeen, into incident prevention and human behaviour. Some of the tools developed from this research, notably Tripod BETA and Tripod DELTA have been made available to the industry. During the last conference an overview was given of 15 years of research and its results. The present paper provides an overview and update of recent research, the practical tools that have been developed and the methods and strategy to successfully turn science into practice. A stage has now been reached in which these "Hearts and Minds" tools really start to make a difference and successes become visible in the form of revived enthusiasm and genuine care for HSE, which is not forced by the management system but comes from "inside" because the people believe in it. As Shell believes that the tools represent "best practice" in behaviour and culture change programmes they are made available at this conference.
Safety and Situation Awareness in Offshore Crews
Authors: Sneddon A. , Mearns K. , Flin R. , Bryden R.
Published: December 2007

Much work involved on offshore installations has the capacity to be hazardous, and despite many rules and regulations in place to ensure that accident risk is kept to a minimum, accidents still occur. One factor known in other industries (e.g. aviation) to contribute to the occurrence of accidents is a reduction in the "situation awareness" (SA) of those concerned. Good SA is essential when work is potentially hazardous, as workers must accurately discern and monitor conditions if they are to reduce accidents. Accident analyses have shown that a team can lose their shared awareness of the situation when it is vital to the safety of their operation. This may be particularly relevant to drill crews given the interactive and hazardous nature of their work. In this way, lack of/reduced SA may be a predictor of the likelihood of an accident occurring.

This paper presents a brief history of SA, an overview of the study, a preliminary review of an accident database, and results from interviews with onshore and offshore oil and gas industry personnel.
Integrating Organisational Safety and Human Factors
Authors: Hudson Patrick , van der Graaf Gerard , Bryden Robin
Published: December 2007

Since 1985 psychologists have been working to understand and manage the human factor in Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production. This work has led to the development of a model for organisational accidents, known as either Tripod or the Swiss Cheese model, and the development of tools for accident analysis and prevention based on that model that has subsequently become a world standard in a wide variety of industries. The organisational model was aimed specifically at systemic factors and was intended to divert attention away from individuals. More recently attention has returned to individual human factors with a research program aimed at discovering how to get people to be intrinsically motivated for good HSE behaviours. This was translated into the development of a culture of HSE and, as the Hearts and Minds program, is also supported by a variety of tools.

Because the two approaches, organisational and individual, appear very different, this can lead to confusion and the belief that one set of tools replaces the other. This paper sets out the wider underlying theory and show how the two models are part of a larger approach to understanding the human factor and how it can be managed in hazardous industries.
Inherently Safer Design; Changing Attitudes and Relationships
Authors: Dalzell G. A.
Published: December 2007

There is safe design and there is safer design. With safe design, there are active safeguards to prevent the occurrence of hazardous events and to protect people and plant from the effects. With safer design, there are fewer hazards, fewer causes and fewer people to be exposed to the effects. Currently, the majority of our designs strive to produce safe designs but in doing so, the facilities are becoming more complex, with increased maintenance and human exposure. This paper argues that industry has been trying too hard, and in doing so, has lost many of the opportunities to minimize risk at source. This paper offers an alternative route to design safety, an inherently safer one, through simplification, reliability and longevity. It uses examples from offshore facilities to illustrate these arguments.
Results From a Four Year Regulatory Campaign To Reduce Offshore Hydrocarbon Releases
Authors: Edmondson Neville
Published: December 2007

In April 2000, The Offshore Safety Division of the United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive launched a 4 year campaign to try to reduce the number of hydrocarbon releases occurring on offshore installations in the UK Continental Shelf (UKCS). The target was to reduce the annual number of major and significant releases by 50% by the end of March 2004. The campaign resulted from concerns that no improvement had been seen in the hydrocarbon release record over the previous several years. The paper will

Outline the main elements of the campaign Report on ‘bottom line’ progress in reducing release numbers Indicate the main problem areas (in terms of both equipment and systems procedures) that have been identified as involved in the releases, report on the remedial measures formulated to counter these problems areas and indicate the effectiveness of the measures Report on the excellent co-operation achieved between regulators and industry in pursuance of the campaign and indicate some of the forms that the co-operation has taken Conclude that carefully formulated joint action plans between regulators and industry can lead to significant reductions in annual hydrocarbon release numbers
Integrating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Management Into Capital Projects Planning
Authors: Cain John , Grant Jonathan , Shinn John , Milliet Michael , Lee Arthur
Published: December 2007

Issues of international interest, economics, energy technology and public perception drive the complexity of the climate change issue for businesses and industries. Since 2002, ChevronTexaco has compiled comprehensive annual emissions inventories of its worldwide operations and interests using the SANGEA™ system. At the same time, ChevronTexaco made a public commitment to integrate greenhouse gas emissions management into its business planning processes. This paper describes ChevronTexaco's process and tools for integrating greenhouse gas emissions management into the planning and review of new projects. The tools include a screening tool, to quickly and with minimal data estimate the potential impact of greenhouse gas emissions on a project's economics, and the more rigorous ChevronTexaco Projector, for detailed greenhouse gas and criteria pollutant emission projections. The tools also include a mitigation options planning tool and a tool for evaluating the greenhouse gas implications of potential mergers, acquisitions, and divestitures. Finally, a capital projects GHG evaluation flowchart provides guidance regarding when each tool should be applied, with the recommendations made appropriate according to the potential significance of greenhouse gas concerns for the specific project.

The tools and flowchart are innovative applications in greenhouse gas emissions management. They allow capital project teams to quickly determine the magnitude of potential greenhouse gas concerns for their projects, and then tailor their analyses appropriately. This assures that any capital project team, regardless of whether greenhouse gas emissions are a major issue or a relatively insignificant issue for their project, will devote the appropriate level of effort, at the right times, and with the necessary support tools, to evaluating potential greenhouse gas emissions impacts and benefits from greenhouse gas emissions reductions.
Management of Sour Gas by Underground Injection - Assessment, Challenges and Recommendations
Authors: Abou-Sayed Ahmed S. , Zaki Karim , Summers Chris
Published: December 2007

Many of the world's Mega-fields (> 1 billion barrels of reserves) contain sour gas, a blend of natural gas and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), either alone or in combination with carbon dioxide (CO2). H2S gas is extremely toxic, the combination of H2S and CO2 (Acid Gas - AG), can be highly corrosive, the elemental sulphur reacts with water to form acid rain, and CO2 is now recognized as a significant green house gas. Where there is a demand for the natural gas, and capacity to separate the components, the H2S and CO2 can be separated out. However, these components must be managed in a cost-effect way and according to regulatory requirements to maximize recovery of hydrocarbons and minimize AG safety and environmental impacts. To date, the CO2 components have typically been vented to the atmosphere, and sulphur has been produced for industrial uses. Novel step changes are needed to handle the large sour gas volumes to be produced by the mega-fields under development in the Caspian Sea and Middle East regions.

Underground injection and sequestration of E&P associated streams(such as produced water, drill cuttings slurries, and production/completion return fluids) have been practiced for many years by the industry; sour gas injection is a relatively new technology. This paper reviews comparative economic and risk analyses of various H2S management options available to developing middle East and Caspian fields, considering: the impact on recovery (including rate, ultimate total volume, engineering capacity), the health and safety risks, impact on environment, reputation consequences, implementation (including construction and operation complexity), and regulatory Issues (based on current North American standards, recent judicial actions, and Kyoto Protocols). Emphasis is given to H2S gas injection in improved oil recovery (IOR) projects/schemes because:

- It is an environmentally sound solution that manages both H2S and other green house gases.

- It provides for permanent, reliable storage and eliminates current taxation (in foreign countries) or future liability associated with emissions and/or surface storage of sulphur. For example, one operator in the Caspian Sea was recently fined several million dollars US because of sulphur storage above ground.

- Compared with other options, H2S injection can reduce acid production, dust generation and avoid adverse impact on agriculture and aquaculture, thus it improve the operator's image and reputation with local community.

- It is the easiest sulphur-handling method to implement, as it uses established technologies, without requiring sulphur-separation plant and equipment.

- H2S mixture has better sweeping efficiency than CO2 or sweet gas alone, therefore H2S injection may increase recoverable hydrocarbon in an EOR or IOR schemes.

- It has the opportunity for favorable economics, both in terms of operating cost (lower energy, no storage operations) and by improving production through use in IOR schemes.
Forecasting Energy Demand, Emissions and Discharges for the Petroleum Industry - Examples and Experiences
Authors: Bakkane Kristin Keiserås , Husdal Geir , Linde Melhus Marta S. , Utvik Toril Røe
Published: December 2007

This paper presents state of the art methodology for establishing reliable fuel consumption and emissions to air forecasts for the offshore petroleum business in Norway. The methodology is applicable for any operation within the upstream oil and gas industry. It is unique due to a combination of simple input, simple algorithms and accurate output results.

The general forecasting method is established as a process between the operators and Norwegian Authorities, under the management by FUN (Forum for Forecasting and Uncertainty Evaluations). The accuracy is proven by simple calibration techniques, comparing measured fuel consumption against calculated demands from using the forecasting method.

Forecasts have been established by Novatech on behalf of the operator Norsk Hydro. Results for the Troll oil field are shown as a sample case. The case verifies the ability to forecast fuel consumption within an accuracy of 2-3% when the forecasting model is checked by use of actual activity level input data.

Also by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD)'s experience the precition of reported fuel and emission forecasts has been gradually improved as the methodology as described below has been implemented by the operators.
Development of a Consistent Approach to Estimating Greenhouse gas Emissions for the Petroleum Industry
Authors: Nordrum Susann , Loreti Chris , McMahon Michael , Ritter Karin
Published: December 2007

As petroleum companies throughout the world work to improve their understanding of potential contributions to human induced climate change, developing an inventory of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is an important step for each company. In order to achieve consistent, meaningful data, it is important that petroleum companies have consistent definitions of what is included in the inventory, and use consistent methodologies for calculating the emissions. The International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA), the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP) and the American Petroleum Institute (API) have taken the lead in developing guidance for reporting of GHG emissions. A recently-completed IPIECA-led effort has led to the development of the Petroleum Industry Guidelines for Reporting Greenhouse Gas Emissions, which focuses on petroleum industry accounting and reporting of GHG emissions at the facility through the corporate level. The Guidelines were coordinated with API's Compendium of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimation Methodologies for the Oil and Gas Industry. The API Compendium has been developed to provide a consistent set of emission estimation methodologies for the petroleum industry. API is also providing a tool for estimating emissions, the SANGEA™ Energy and Emissions Estimating System. This paper will describe highlights of the Guidelines, the Compendium, and provide examples of how these documents can be used with the SANGEA™ software tool to develop a meaningful estimate of emissions from petroleum industry operations.

Results, Observations and Conclusions: A credible, systematic approach, as embodied in the Petroleum Industry Guidelines and the API Compendium, provides strategic value to the petroleum industry as we address the climate change issue.

By working towards a consistent standard for greenhouse gas emissions estimating, our industry improves its credibility and provides a foundation for future cooperative efforts among petroleum industry companies, regulators and other industries to address this important issue.
Environmental Business Plans: Strategy Through to Implementation
Authors: Teal Andrew , Shield Helga
Published: December 2007

The paper provides an overview of the strategic planning process for effective environmental management within a comprehensive HS&E managing system utilizing the corporate planning process. The focus of the presentation will be a guide to effective process and tools for integration of Environmental Business Plans with other corporate managing systems.

Through the implementation of the Environmental Business Planning process, ExxonMobil's goals are to apply continuous efforts to improve environmental performance, efficiently obtain development approvals, minimize environmental liability and foster development of public policy based on sound science. In Canada, both Imperial Oil Resources and ExxonMobil Canada utilize this strategic planning tool. This process leads to increased stakeholder confidence and lowest total cost operations. The key to success lies in a sustained stewardship process that is owned by operating and project departments supported by HS&E staff.

The key components of the system are:

- Situation analysis - Long term strategy - Objectives, Goals and Targets - Environmental Management Plans - Environmental Aspects - Environmental Improvement Plans - Routine environmental expenditures - Clear roles and accountabilities - Stewardship of plan implementation and performance results - Performance overview
Global Sustainability Reporting Practices and Trends in the Oil and Gas Industry - A Survey
Authors: Depraz Sophie , Retzsch Walter C. , Salmond Donald A. , Metzger Bernhard
Published: December 2007

Oil and natural gas companies realize that measuring and reporting sustainability performance is increasingly important to both internal and external stakeholders. Not only is it an opportunity to enhance a company's reputation, it provides license to operate and access to new opportunities. It also clarifies the industry position for external stakeholders.

Oil and gas companies have for many years been carefully measuring and openly reporting financial performance according to well prescribed accounting rules. Yet, companies face significant challenges when they extend the same practice to reporting sustainability performance: There is no industry consensus on what constitutes sustainability reporting.As companies internalize the concepts of sustainability, they discover that the measures change.While guidelines such as the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) are emerging, it is not clear that they satisfy the needs of the oil and gas industry.

In response to this challenge, the American Petroleum Institute (API) and the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA) initiated an industry-led initiative in 2001 to help oil and gas companies and industry associations improve the quality, scope, completeness and usefulness of reporting sustainability performance as a means to meet the needs and expectations of key internal and external stakeholders.