bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Decline of the Old Monetary Order
Authors: Blaazer David
Published: July 2023

In the aftermath of the restoration of the monarchy, the English, Scottish, and Irish monetary systems were as far apart as they had ever been. They nevertheless cannot be understood in isolation from each other. This chapter traces the entwined, yet distinct, paths taken from dysfunction to crisis by each kingdom’s monetary order in the final decades of the seventeenth century. It identifies differing attitudes to the relationship between money and national prestige among monetary writers and political actors in each kingdom. In particular, Scotland and Ireland were often obliged to respond to monetary challenges resulting from English developments and policies. The monetary orders of all three kingdoms showed clear signs of profound structural crisis. As debates over monetary problems raged, authorities in all three kingdoms limped from one expedient to another to try to manage the problems. For Scottish authorities, and even more for Irish, their capacity to do so was severely constrained by the fact that money remained a royal prerogative, exercised primarily in England’s interest. Scotland’s monetary problems were further exacerbated by long-running corruption at the mint under the regime of its politically powerful head, leading many influential Scots to advocate complete monetary assimilation with England. In each kingdom, monetary crisis reached its tipping point in the wake of the revolution of 1689 and the consequent war with France.
Things Fall Apart
Authors: Blaazer David
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines the long monetary crisis that began with the outbreak of the First World War and ended with the UK’s final abandonment of the gold standard in 1931. In the process, the monetary order of the UK was radically and irrevocably transformed. The chapter highlights the mobilization of patriotism to enjoin specific monetary behaviours during the war and to enlist support for efforts to restore and maintain the gold standard after it, even when these came at significant cost in the form of high unemployment and severe cuts to wages, welfare, and education. For its supporters, which included most leaders of opinion across the political spectrum, the gold standard had become an end above all others, essential to national prosperity and honour. The sterling crisis of 1931, which destroyed the second Labour government, was widely regarded as a test of British honour and patriotism. Accordingly, Britain’s departure from the gold standard was experienced as a national humiliation. The gold standard consensus embraced the leaders of the newly established Irish Free State, who believed that nationalism was out of place in matters of currency. Although committed to creating a separate national currency, Ireland’s new leaders saw the gold standard as the embodiment of ‘sound’ monetary internationalism. Understanding the UK’s commitment to the gold standard as unshakeable, they willingly pegged their new currency to sterling on a pound-for-pound basis.
Introduction
Authors: Ross Stephen
Published: July 2023

This chapter introduces the pervasiveness of spectrality for modernist writers, growing up as most of them did during the heydays of spiritualism and occultism. For Conrad, Forster, Butts, and Bowen among others the spectral was not merely accidental, ornamental, or symptomatic. It was a privileged way of thinking, of working through the problems they faced. It moves on to outline the author’s approach to spectrality as a mode of thinking through rhetoric, with ethical and political dimensions. The literature review covers studies of spectrality in modernist writing, as well as cultural histories of spiritualism, occultism, and the uncanny, to establish how what is undertaken here is new. In a similar vein, it surveys key contexts—spiritualism, occultism, and the ghost story—to show that the book’s approach to the rhetoric of spectrality diverges in productive ways, as did the modernist use of that rhetoric. The introduction concludes by outlining the author’s method in the book, explaining his choice of authors, and centring his driving question about tropes of spectrality in modernist fiction: not why are they there, or where do they come from, but what do they do once they appear?
‘What Love Looks Like in Public’
Authors: Ross Stephen
Published: July 2023

In this chapter it is argued that key works of Forster’s articulate a nexus of concerns in which he employs the term ‘friend’ as code for homosexual lover. Anchored by this terminology, Forster navigates the problems of alterity and ethics through figures of unspeakability. The whole is overcoded in terms of an informal Christianity that is in constant dialogue with paganism and presented in a distinctly spectral register, one that accommodates all the various configurations demanded by this overdetermined—at times overwrought—matrix of concerns. Where Conrad deployed a phalanx of spectrality to manage the various concerns in his work, Forster uses surgical strikes, marking out specific elements in Maurice, ‘The Life to Come’, and A Passage to India as interconnected by presenting them under the common sign of the spectral. Central to this chapter is the illustration of how Forster uses spectral rhetoric to navigate the shoals of not just homosexuality, but race and eroticism, with a relentless focus on justice (and its conventionally British miscarriages). Borrowing from Cornell West, the whole is cast in terms that resonate throughout Forster’s oeuvre, as he outlines a vision of justice that is precisely ‘what love looks like in public’. For Forster, though, much of what he called love could not be publicly displayed (as evidenced in the delayed publication of Maurice and ‘The Life to Come’ only after his death). This temporal lag captures precisely the logic of tendential utopianism that adheres to modernist uses of spectrality.
Introduction
Authors: Hildebrand Jayne
Published: July 2023

This introduction gives an overview of Victorian scientific debates about organism–environment interaction and establishes their implications for understanding description in the nineteenth-century novel. It first traces the emergence of the idea of an environment as an object of knowledge in Victorian science, beginning with the displacement of the notion of the fixed habitat by the transformationist biology of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and followed by the emergence of an abstract, singular “environment” or “medium” in the mid-century organicist philosophy of Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. This discourse led Victorian thinkers to conceive of biological life—including especially human life—as intimately and dynamically entangled with its material surroundings. The introduction concludes with an overview of critical accounts of description, and argues that reading novelistic description and the emergence of the environment concept as interrelated cultural developments enables us to see description as a dynamic and experimental formal feature of the novel.
Properties for and of Better Best Systems
Authors: Schrenk Markus
Published: July 2023

Many advocates of the Better Best System Account (BBSA) and variations thereof suggest that Lewis-style best system competitions can, in principle, be executed for any arbitrary but fixed set of predicates/properties. This affords the possibility to launch system analyses separately for each of the special sciences. However, predicates/properties of these sciences are unlike the perfectly natural properties Lewis envisaged in that they are non-fundamental, maybe non-natural, and not intrinsic. Moreover, they might be dispositional, i.e. already equipped with a nomological profile. Further challenges arise for the BBSA when it comes to selecting eligible sets of properties/predicates: What are the boundaries between the different sets of properties that demarcate the sciences? Also, system analyses for different property sets might well be incommensurable. Can a unity or hierarchy of the sciences still be established? These are a number of challenges for the BBSA. This chapter presents and aims to give answers to most of these challenges.
A Discourse on Methods; or, Humean Metaphysics of Science without Best Systems
Authors: Roberts John T.
Published: July 2023

The best-known Humean theory of laws of nature is David Lewis’s best-system analysis. Almost all of the other Humean theories of laws in the literature are also “best-system theories”: like Lewis’s account, they say that to be a law is to belong to a system of statements or propositions that maximizes some desirable feature. In fact, in conversation, philosophers commonly use “the Humean account of laws” and “the best-system account of laws” interchangeably. But Humeanism about laws and the best-system approach to laws are not the same thing: Humeanism imposes a metaphysical constraint on an acceptable theory of laws, and the best-system approach is one strategy for meeting that constraint. There are other theories of lawhood that also meet the constraint. This chapter aims to present a sketch of a new Humean theory that eschews all reference to best systems, and to make it clear that this theory is plausible enough to be worth looking into further.
Archival Voices
Authors: Barrett Graham
Published: July 2023

This chapter introduces the lifecycle of the corpus of charters: how early medieval birth gave way to centuries of changing hands, passage from archive to archive, until the only homes which have preserved them became ecclesiastical and state institutions. In defining the corpus for study, the chapter casts the widest possible net, ranging over the entirety of northern Iberia (excluding Catalunya), to control for particularities which can distort the overall picture and vagaries which can frustrate understanding an individual text. It surveys all surviving and published charters from 711 to 1031, outlining their geographical diffusion and archival history, their varying modes of textual transmission, their chronological distribution and how it maps onto what else we know of the period, and the range of actors and actions represented in the material. In concluding, the chapter considers the key question of why there is growth over time in the number of charters, and propose a ‘lateral diffusion’ model of literacy. Exposure to charters which conferred advantage on their users engendered adoption of documentary practice and stimulated the development of documentary habits in new quarters: if we apply this model to the contours of the corpus, the expansion of estates becomes the driver of documentation.
Mobilizing Mirabai, Mobilizing Women in the Struggle for Independence
Authors: Martin Nancy M.
Published: July 2023

This chapter explores the key contributions of Rabindranath Tagore, Mohandas K. Gandhi, and Mahadevi Varma to lasting conceptions of the sixteenth-century Hindu woman saint Mirabai, particularly in relation to the involvement of Indian women in the struggle for their own autonomy and freedom as well as that of the nation. Tagore interweaves references to her in fictional works advocating women’s emancipation and self-realization, as a woman who chose to leave husband and home and to live, even as he also understood the darker side of the rhetoric of devotion that might equate husband and God. Gandhi would draw on her as a quintessential example of nonviolent resistance and a model for women’s movement into the political realm as an extension of feminine devotion and self-sacrifice. He would strive in his own life to be as responsive to God as she was, even as he encouraged women to cultivate a Mira-like fearlessness. Mahadevi Varma, lauded as the first modern Hindi poetess, would be called a modern Mirabai and would offer an alternate vision of the saint, remaining unmarried, wearing khadi and living an austere life, and working tirelessly for women’s education and emancipation, the development of Hindi literature, and the constructivist agenda in the Indian struggle for independence. The saint would offer precedent for her choice, making her independent life culturally comprehensible, even as Mahadevi herself modeled new possibilities for women as authors, educators and leaders.
Black, Blues, and America
Authors: Lebron Christopher J.
Published: July 2023

Amiri Baraka and Angela Davis were at the forefront of re-envisioning radical black politics during the 1960's and 1970's. Baraka was a founder of the Black Art Movement during the peak of the Black Power Movement and sought to synthesize artistic vision with a political program of black empowerment and resistance to white supremacy. His intellectual contributions depended heavily on his understanding of jazz and blues as art forms historically rooted in slavery and developing alongside American society's contortions over racism. Angela Davis's biography as a promising philosopher turned fugitive from the law motivated her intellectual journeys into describing the ills of white racism. And, like Baraka, she turned to the blues and jazz and importantly focused on the contributions of women artists who were pioneers in confronting the problem of racism while representing the promise of racial and sexual emancipation.
The Church for Others
Authors: Snow Jennifer C.
Published: July 2023

In the 1970s, the Episcopal Church went through two major internal shifts: the production and revision of a new Book of Common Prayer, and the ordination of women. These two landmarks in the Episcopal Church’s history, which led to controversy within the denomination and later within the global Anglican Communion, were both connected to the midcentury missional shift to missio dei described in the previous chapter. Those who were oriented toward mission as justice, inclusion, and attending to God’s transformative work in the world supported these changes, while those who saw mission in terms of church-planting and the older assimilative model of mission found it threatening and incomprehensible, leading to early schisms within the church.
Facilitating Dyadic Synchrony
Authors: Atzil-Slonim Dana , Soma Christina S. , Zhang Xinyao , Paz Adar , Imel Zac E.
Published: July 2023

When humans interact, they tend to coordinate or synchronize their physiology and behavior spontaneously and mutually. This chapter highlights the facilitation of dyadic synchrony as a core psychotherapist skill that occurs at the nonverbal level and underlies many other therapeutic methods. The chapter defines dyadic synchrony, differentiates it from similar constructs, and provides an excerpt illustrating dyadic synchrony in a psychotherapy session. It also conducts a systematic review of studies that have examined the associations between dyadic synchrony and psychotherapy outcomes and conducts a meta-analysis that examines whether there is more synchrony between clients and therapists than would be expected by chance. The chapter includes situations in which synchrony may not be beneficial. It concludes with diversity considerations, training implications, and therapeutic practices.
Introduction
Authors: Khoja-Moolji Shenila
Published: July 2023

Rebuilding Community uncovers the stories of care, help, and support that dozens of Ismaili Muslim women have extended to coreligionists against the dislocating effects of wars and forced migration. The book focuses on two cohorts of women: one that fled East Pakistan in the early 1970s due to civil war, and the other that was forced to leave East Africa during the same time, when Idi Amin expelled Asians from Uganda and anti-Asian sentiments intensified in Kenya and Tanzania. It tells the tale of how these women began the individual and collective work of remaking religious community in the diaspora. In doing so, the author not only writes women into modern Ismaili history but also expands the definition of placemaking—usually about the built environments that displaced people have constructed—to include a consideration of spiritual and sensory dimensions, reclaims care work from productivist frames, and illuminates lived Shia Islam.
Early Regional Dialects
Authors: Ostler Rosemarie
Published: July 2023

Chapter 2 describes language variation in early America. As successive streams of English-speaking immigrants arrived in the colonies, they transplanted the dialects of their home regions to new soil. The chapter focuses on the four main migrations that took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—the Puritans to New England, the Cavaliers to the South, the Quakers to Pennsylvania, and the Scots-Irish to the backcountry—and considers the part each played in laying a foundation for modern regional dialects. It describes the salient linguistic features of each early region. It also discusses what we know about early African American speech.
Links Between Intellectual Humility and Open-Mindedness
Authors: Krumrei-Mancuso Elizabeth J. , Worthington, Jr. Everett L.
Published: July 2023

“Links Between Intellectual Humility and Open-Mindedness: Does Strength of Belief Matter?” examines the relationship between intellectual humility and open-mindedness in the context of convictions. Intellectual humility and open-mindedness are both challenging yet particularly valuable when it comes to strongly held beliefs. The authors explore how the link between intellectual humility and open-mindedness can weaken for beliefs that are held closely. Yet, intellectual humility, the recognition of the limitations of one’s knowledge, can spur meaningful exploration through open-mindedness, even for strongly held beliefs. Considering contrary perspectives can strengthen a person’s convictions by uncovering additional support for preexisting views or can weaken convictions held only because they were unexamined, unopposed, or founded on faulty information—making room to reformulate convictions. The authors suggest ways to advance understanding of how the strength of beliefs affects the connection between intellectual humility and open-mindedness.
Introduction
Authors: Fibiger Mattias
Published: July 2023

Suharto launched his Cold War in the wake of the assassination of Indonesia’s most senior army leaders by the September Thirtieth Movement. This introduction charts the chaos that unfolded on the morning of October 1, 1965, as Suharto responded to the murder of his colleagues. It also outlines the national, regional, and global dimensions of Suharto’s Cold War. Suharto mobilized international aid and investment to construct and consolidate his authoritarian government within Indonesia. He internationalized counterrevolution across Southeast Asia and sought to contain Chinese influence in the region. And he linked his anticommunist project to the global Cold War by forging ties with counterrevolutionary powers across the world.
Conclusion
Authors: Fibiger Mattias
Published: July 2023

This conclusion argues that Suharto’s Cold War reshaped Indonesia, Southeast Asia, and the world. It steered the Indonesia away from political collapse and economic decline and toward a prosperous future, but it also ensured the democracy that emerged in the archipelago after the fall of the New Order would suffer from considerable deficits. It helped ensure that Southeast Asia remained oriented to the Western bloc after the Vietnam War, but it entrenched autocratic political dynasties that continue to menace the region decades later. Finally, it contributed to the decomposition of the Cold War by furthering the derevolutionization of China and the emergence of political Islam as a key international concern. Ultimately, Suharto’s Cold War revealed the pivotal role of capital in the unfolding of the global Cold War.
Existential Suffering
Authors: Lee Virginia
Published: July 2023

This chapter addresses the nature of suffering within a broad theoretical spectrum of the existential experience and care by nurses, particularly in the context of major life transitions. It is helpful to understand the nature of the existential experience to guide person-centered care and address suffering. Specifically, the recognition of existential needs in clinical practice, the delivery of well-timed nursing interventions, and structuring the optimal conditions to promote beneficial existential care will be discussed. Two clinical exemplars are offered to illustrate the role of nurses in addressing existential suffering in the clinical setting.
Suffering of Infants, Parents, and Families
Authors: Abascal Elena , McCarthy Frances T.
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines how suffering is experienced in the perinatal and neonatal period by patients, their families, and health care providers. The authors consider the role of physical pain in suffering while also exploring emotional, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects of suffering. It examines perinatal and neonatal suffering from the perspective of both the baby and those around them, within a variety of contexts including perinatal losses, prenatal diagnoses, and in the neonatal intensive care unit. It considers the concept of prenatal suffering in babies diagnosed with life-limiting conditions, genetic anomalies, or chronic conditions and the challenges parents of medically complex babies face before and after birth. Concepts including liminality and disenfranchised grief are used to illustrate the causes of anxiety and distress among parents of critically ill infants or those who have experienced a perinatal loss. Finally, this chapter discusses the effect of suffering on health care providers and the concept of resilience as it applies to both parents and nurses.
Suffering in the Context of Cancer
Authors: Wisniewski Renee , Marcus Blima
Published: July 2023

This chapter examines the suffering that may occur throughout the trajectory of a patient’s experience with cancer. Commonly reported symptoms of suffering in cancer—including psychological, physical, social, and existential—are defined and described. Suffering is explored from initial diagnosis through survivorship with attention to the impacts of systemic and structural stressors, such as financial strain and racism. The unique suffering experiences of “the sandwich generation”; adolescents and young adults (AYAs); Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC); and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ+) patients with cancer are used as exemplars to emphasize the unique needs of diverse people and populations. The chapter provides nurses with strategies they can utilize to alleviate suffering among patients with cancer and their families.
Suffering of Nurses
Authors: Rushton Cynda Hylton , Nelson Katie E.
Published: July 2023

Nurses play pivotal roles in caring for patients, families, and communities in various contexts, positioning them to experience their own personal suffering and distress. Their suffering includes physical, psychological, spiritual and moral dimensions. This chapter explores sources of nurses’ suffering and discusses opportunities for responding to these challenges at individual and systems levels. Methods such as applying the G.R.A.C.E. process to cultivate the conditions for compassion to arise offer nurses useful tools to apply to their own suffering and the suffering of others. Nursing—the most trusted profession—must prioritize compassionate action, boundary setting and reflection on one’s personal and professional moral code so that nurses are able to bear witness to continuous suffering in their roles without degrading their wellbeing and integrity.
“What Is the Nature of Suffering and What Are the Goals of Nursing?”
Authors: Ferrell Betty R. , Rosa William E.
Published: July 2023

The chapters of this volume provide an overview of the nature of suffering and the goals of nursing in various settings and contexts. The contributing authors have provided detailed responses for nurses to attend to the suffering of patients, their loved ones, and their communities. Importantly, addressing the suffering of the nurse is emphasized as a key opportunity to sustain the workforce and ensure that the provision of dignified, human-centered care remains central to the profession. This concluding chapter provides a synthesis of the previous chapters while considering suffering and nursing care in response to suffering as evolving concepts. The tenets of suffering published in the first edition of this work have been revised and expanded alongside individual and system-level reflections to support nurses in responding to suffering.
House Instructions for Dwelling-in-the-Phantasmal Hermitage in Zhongfeng Extensive Record
Authors: Broughton Jeffrey L.
Published: July 2023

This is a dharma talk in the form of a text on the “family precepts” for Zhongfeng’s Dwelling-in-the Phantasmal Hermitage. Phantasmal seeing lies latent in the mind-ground, producing the discrimination of phantasms; Śākyamuni throughout his teaching career gave phantasmal answers to phantasmal questions; he held up a phantasmal flower, and Kāśyapa cracked a phantasmal smile; Bodhidharma faced a phantasmal wall, and Huike asked Bodhidharma to pacify phantasmal mind; Shenxiu and Huineng composed phantasmal verses; Linji gave phantasmal shouts; everything is a phantasm, from the outset ready-made; with a writing brush draw the character phantasm hanging at the summit of all-pervading space; all buddhas complete correct awakening in this (i.e., the character phantasm); chew on the indestructible huatou that has no meaning or taste; Zhongfeng denies that he is trying to establish his own school and claims that he is merely mapping out truth/reality to manage ordinary life, and so forth.
Song of Dwelling-in-the-Phantasmal Hermitage in Zhongfeng Extensive Record
Authors: Broughton Jeffrey L.
Published: July 2023

This chapter contains a short piece called a “song” about phantasm (huan) and Zhongfeng’s Dwelling-in-the-Phantasmal Hermitage. In this hermitage, phantasmal clothing and phantasmal food are provided for a phantasmal life; phantasmal awakening and phantasmal Chan cancel out the phantasmal deluded consciousness of the resident Chan monks. With a phantasmal rope, Zhongfeng reins in the phantasmal ox (i.e., the unchecked mind) that the student is riding. With phantasmal gong’ans, one manages phantasmal cultivation and realization. Don’t ask where these phantasms arise from: leave it to the clouds, the moon, the streams, and the mountains.
Ten Poems on Living on a Boat in Zhongfeng Extensive Record
Authors: Broughton Jeffrey L.
Published: July 2023

Translation 8 is a collection of ten poems about living on a boat, and it is dated 1309. The poems picture a self-proclaimed “awkward discard from society” who is free on his boat as he trusts to wherever the boat goes. Zhongfeng freely travels here and there and never loses his way. A great mansion is not the equal of a single small boat. Dealing with students is unnecessary on a boat. On the boat, anything is life. Zhongfeng claims he is “a single indolent Chan monk with no worldly function at all.” At the end, he even links huatou practice to the sights and sounds of his experiences in living on a boat.
The Possibility of Degrees of Moral Status
Authors: Wendler David S.
Published: July 2023

This chapter begins by considering whether it is possible to reject degrees of moral status out of hand given James Rachels’s argument that individuals’ properties are morally relevant only to the extent that they influence what they have at stake in specific circumstances. This argument assumes that some individuals are not morally more important than others, raising the need to assess whether this assumption is accurate. To pursue this question, the chapter distinguishes between three types of morally relevant properties: moral status conferring properties, moral action guiding properties, and moral status enhancing properties. The finding that degrees of moral status cannot be based on moral action guiding properties reveals that they require moral status enhancing properties in the sense of properties which increase the moral importance of those who possess them.
Introduction
Authors: Vidyasagar Ishvarchandra , Hatcher Brian A.
Published: July 2023

The goal of this chapter is to situate Ishvarchandra Vidyasagar’s 1871 tract calling for the abolition of Kulin polygamy in its historical, social, and intellectual context. Emphasis is placed on understanding how the failure of the tract to achieve its goal reflects the changing moral, political, and administrative context in Bengal in the wake of the 1857 rebellion. While there had been considerable petitioning and public debate around the problem of high-caste polygamy throughout the mid-century, the rebellion marked a radical turning point. If hitherto the British had intervened to suppress such rites as sati or to endorse reforms in support of Hindu widow marriage, the rebellion left them feeling wary of further intervention in Indian religious life. At the same time, the idea of appealing to the colonial government for assistance with social change was also rapidly losing support among Indians. As a result, Vidyasagar’s arguments in favor of government legal intervention came to sound out of step with the moment. Ironically, for all that the 1871 tract looks back wistfully on the earlier era of reform, it also departs in some striking ways from the strategies adopted by Vidyasagar’s in his 1855 tracts promoting Hindu widow marriage. While the latter tracts focused almost exclusively on the dense exegesis of Sanskrit legal texts, Against High-Caste Polygamy supplements this scripturalist strategy with innovative methods of historical analysis, social research, and empirical data collection. When coupled with Vidyasagar’s unique narrative and rhetorical skills, the presence of these new tools make the 1871 tract distinctly modern and morally compelling. And as this chapter reveals, even if colonial legislation was never passed, Vidyasagar proved to have been prescient regarding the eventual demise of the distinctive and troubling abuses of Kulin marriage practices.
Whether and How Confidence Shapes Concrete Support for Raising and Maintaining the Military
Authors: Feaver Peter D.
Published: July 2023

Military leaders are wise to monitor overall public confidence in the military because public attitudes about confidence in the military track closely with other attitudes military leaders rightly must prize: the public’s support for raising and maintaining strong armed forces and public attitudes about the sort of missions the military should be assigned to conduct. Exposure to portrayals of the military in popular culture appears to be linked with higher confidence among younger Americans of recruiting age. Moreover, other Americans—the parents, friends, or aunts and uncles of potential recruits—with high levels of confidence in the military are more likely to advise friends and family members to consider military service than are those with low confidence. More confident Americans—and this is especially true of Republicans in the post-9/11 era—are more likely to support higher military budgets, but other fiscal and domestic factors likely shape the context of budget debates in even more critical ways.
Whether and How Confidence Shapes Views on the Military as an Instrument of Foreign Policy
Authors: Feaver Peter D.
Published: July 2023

Respondents with high esteem for the military are more likely to think the military is an important and useful tool across a range of potential military missions. However, partisanship likely is doing quite a lot of the work in driving attitudes regarding how and when to use the military. In general, Republicans tend to be more hawkish than Democrats on threat-based missions, while Democrats tend to be more hawkish than Republicans on values-based missions. Although confidence is uniformly a good predictor of military importance and usefulness across parties for realpolitik missions, a respondent’s partisan identification mitigates the effects of confidence for other types of missions. Neither confidence nor party provides clear and consistent results on withdrawal decisions from Iraq and Afghanistan. It seems highly likely that President Trump’s rhetoric about withdrawal played an important role in shaping these attitudes, but whether those changes were fleeting or persistent—and whether new dynamics emerged after the chaotic end to US involvement in Afghanistan in August 2021—is a question for future research.
Cultivating Youth Engagement
Authors: Nelsen Matthew D.
Published: July 2023

This chapter addresses whether the form of civic education presented in Chapter 2 has a casual effect on political participation. Using an experiment distributed to nearly seven hundred fourteen- to eighteen-year-olds spanning nine high schools and twelve classrooms in the Chicago area, it establishes a causal relationship between course content that highlights critical categories of knowledge and rates of intended participation among Black and Latinx youth. It supplements these experimental results with three additional pieces of evidence: observations of classrooms, analyses of teachers’ course syllabi, and survey data from a nationally representative sample of young people. Taken together, these data sources provide strong evidence that there is a causal relationship between content and intended participation; that the effect of this pedagogical tool has long-lasting effects; and that similar trends are observable within a national sample of young people who are asked to think back on their experiences in their high school social studies courses.
Inference and Argument
Authors: Atkins Richard Kenneth
Published: July 2023

Inference is a psychological process in which some person draws some conclusion from a set of premises using some procedure. The logician’s task is to subject such processes of inferring to scrutiny. The logician may take an interest in inferences as they have been made or in inferences as they could be made. Reflection on actual processes of inference provides fodder for examining inferences that might be made and in what respect inferences are good or bad. Peirce maintains that every inference involves a leading principle, but his doctrine of the leading principle is confused. This chapter clarifies his theory by distinguishing between leading principles and guiding principles. Whereas inference is a psychological process, an argument is a semiotic relationship in which some sign (the premises) shows its interpretant (the conclusion). Two accounts of arguments are distinguished, implying two different ways to subject arguments to logical scrutiny.
Invented Traditions
Authors: Latsis Dimitrios
Published: July 2023

At the core of this chapter is Stanford University’s celebration of the semicentennial of the chronophotographic experiments of Eadweard Muybridge. This 1929 event organized jointly with the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences leads to a wider exploration of initiatives that memorialized and interpreted film history for the broader public through jubilees, pageants, and commemorations that proliferated in the second half of the 1920s. An air of premature nostalgia and self-congratulation perverted Hollywood. At the same time, this atmosphere of introspection catalyzed some of the most far-reaching and widely visible opportunities for the industry to narrate its own origins.
Introduction
Authors: Scheuers Timothy R.
Published: July 2023

Framing the topic of this volume around Gerald Strauss’s decades-old question, “Had anything changed in the consciences and minds of men as a result of the Reformation?,” the Introduction explains that the principal aim of this study is to demonstrate how oaths and vows were used to shape confessional identity, secure social order, forge community, and promote faithfulness in public and private contracts, as well as to illustrate the complex and difficult task of simultaneously protecting the individual conscience as part of bringing a new take on Christian freedom to Reformed communities. The rest of the Introduction identifies the state and significance of this question in current scholarship, and outlines the author’s method and approach to this complex topic.
Inequality and Stress
Authors: Hitlin Steven , Andersson Matthew A.
Published: July 2023

Social categorizations such as race, sex, age, and class imply much more than differences in resources. They also generate varying degrees of social stress. This chapter breaks out declines in subjective dignity from 2017 to 2021 for numerous demographic groups. Generally, it is found that overall losses in dignity across the pandemic have been greater for minoritized and vulnerable groups, with some exceptions. Then, the chapter documents declines in dignity linked to specific stressors, such as missing house or rent payments, increasing debt, going hungry, experiencing serious conflict at home, and being unable to afford health care. It shows how Blacks, Hispanics, women, and sexual/gender minorities are disproportionately likely to experience these stressors. Additionally, it is found that physically disabled individuals lost dignity at three times the rate of nondisabled individuals from 2017 and 2021, and this steep loss is analyzed in terms of health, work, financial, and network difficulties that disability entails.
Drought and Famine in Ethiopia, 1983–1985
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 3 examines drought and famine in Ethiopia between 1983 and 1985, which cost more than a million lives and generated dramatic media coverage, significant celebrity engagement, and enormous public concern and funding for humanitarian response. It argues that it was not drought alone but rather drought in conjunction with armed conflict and particular government policies that led to famine. While political factors were the primary causes of the famine, the way it was portrayed by mainstream Western media and celebrities served to obscure these political causes from view. Media and celebrities played an important role in raising public awareness and concern around the world. Their depoliticized and decontextualized depictions of the famine undoubtedly helped to generate widespread support and funding for a large-scale humanitarian response, but they also promoted a particular way of thinking about the famine focused on the symptoms rather than the causes. A lack of attention to underlying political dynamics facilitated government manipulation of aid, which was used in the forcible resettlement of civilians and to feed government militias.
Afghanistan, 2001–2014
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 6 examines the international humanitarian response during armed conflict in Afghanistan between 2001 and 2014. After 9/11, the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom in October 2001, with UK and US airstrikes targeting al-Qaeda and the ruling Taliban in Afghanistan. Although the Taliban was quickly overthrown, conflict continued and international forces involving more than fifty countries were engaged in combat operations for just over thirteen years. Throughout the 2001–2014 period, aid was politicized in a variety of ways, with significant consequences for how and where assistance was provided. The international military forces sought to instrumentalize assistance for the purpose of stabilization and state-building and to co-opt international non-governmental organizations and United Nations humanitarian agencies in pursuit of these wider goals. There is not much to suggest that this ‘hearts-and-minds’ strategy was effective in stabilizing Afghanistan, but it does appear to have had consequences for the aid worker security. Afghanistan became significantly more dangerous for aid workers and agencies in the years following the US-led invasion, and humanitarian access suffered as a result.
Sri Lanka, 2008–2009
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 8 examines the international humanitarian response in Sri Lanka during the final months of the civil war and its immediate aftermath. After decades of sporadic fighting between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the Sri Lankan state, in 2009 the government opted for an all-out military solution to the war. In the end stages of the conflict, both sides adopted harsh military strategies with little concern for the civilian population. They also sought to manipulate international humanitarian actors, and the government in particular was very successful at this, with severe consequences for civilians. One way in which the government manipulated humanitarian operations was through limiting access to affected populations and to information about what was going on in Sri Lanka—particularly about abuses perpetrated by the state. The humanitarian community responded passively to government efforts to restrict access and information. Both during the final stages of the war and in its immediate aftermath, the protection of the civilian population was of paramount importance and a resounding failure of the humanitarian response. The United Nations had incontrovertible evidence of government forces shelling and killing civilians but did very little with this evidence. Humanitarian actors faced a familiar dilemma: should they speak out and risk losing access or stay quiet in the hope of saving some lives through the delivery of relief? Most humanitarian agencies decided that access was more important than advocacy, despite the fact that they had little access to lose and their ability to delivery relief was anyway incredibly limited.
Haiti Earthquake, 2010
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 9 examines the international humanitarian response to the earthquake that hit Haiti in January 2010 and the subsequent cholera outbreak. It argues that this response was problematic in many respects. Humanitarian funding reached USD 3.5 billion in 2010 alone, making the international humanitarian response in Haiti the highest funded since the 2004 tsunami. However, the international response largely sidelined Haitian contextual knowledge and capacities, which significantly limited its impact. While the emergency response was generally considered a success, international aid agencies failed to fulfil the promise to ‘build back better’, either in terms of building better physical infrastructure or in terms of building better public institutions. Worse, UN peacekeepers who arrived as part of the international response inadvertently (but avoidably) brought cholera to Haiti, and both peacekeepers and international aid workers were involved in the sexual exploitation of Haitians. Overall, the chapter highlights not only the limitations of recovery and rehabilitation efforts by humanitarian agencies but also the power that international intervenors wield, the scope for them to abuse this, and the inadequacy of mechanisms through which affected populations can hold them to account.
Ebola in West Africa, 2014–2015
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 11 examines the international humanitarian response to the Ebola outbreak in West Africa in 2014 and 2015. The hardest-hit countries were Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, whose health systems lacked the capacity to mount an effective and timely response to contain the outbreak in its early stages. Apart from Médecins Sans Frontières, most international actors failed to recognize quickly enough the seriousness of the outbreak, and the World Health Organization was slow to declare a public health emergency of international concern. Key Western policymakers largely ignored it until public fears that Ebola would spread back home combined with electoral dynamics to prompt a significant response, including the deployment of military personnel. The international military response focused primarily on providing support, coordination, and logistics for local authorities and international aid agencies, and the troop-contributing countries were highly risk averse, so their logistical and medical capacities were not used to full effect. The chapter argues that mutual distrust between international and national responders, on the one hand, and local communities, on the other, served to limit the effectiveness of the response. Furthermore, international responders emphasized biomedical measures without properly taking into account local capacity and the political and social contexts in which those measures were being implemented. This narrow technical focus limited the effectiveness of those measures and was, in some ways, counterproductive in terms of bringing the outbreak under control.
Law and International Humanitarianism
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 14 explores the interactions between law and international humanitarianism. First, it outlines the main processes of international law-making. Second, it introduces the main bodies of international law with salience for humanitarian action and outcomes: international humanitarian law (IHL), international refugee law (IRL) and other laws relevant for displaced persons and migrants, international disaster response law (IDRL), and other relevant parts of international human rights law (IHRL). These bodies of law provide a legal foundation for the work of international humanitarian agencies and specify a number of rights and protections for the victims of humanitarian emergencies and the corresponding obligations of states and other actors. Third, the chapter argues that international law can be enforced through hard and soft measures, although enforcement is selective and many victims of humanitarian emergencies will have no effective recourse when the rights and protections to which they are entitled are violated. Finally, the chapter explains how humanitarian action has been criminalized in some contexts through counter-terror and anti-smuggling legislation.
Dialogue, Negotiation, and Advocacy
Authors: Bradley Miriam
Published: July 2023

Chapter 23 turns to the dialogue- and advocacy-based activities undertaken by international humanitarian agencies. Given that a wide range of actors have an impact on humanitarian needs, responses, and outcomes, operational agencies have an interest in influencing the conduct of those different actors with a view to reducing humanitarian needs, facilitating humanitarian responses, and improving humanitarian outcomes. This chapter discusses three distinct approaches: (i) private dialogue or negotiation with (de jure and de facto) authorities, (ii) strategic sharing of information with select third parties who may be able to influence authorities, and (ii) public statements and criticism of the conduct of authorities. Different humanitarian agencies favour different approaches, but most seem more cautious about negotiating directly with armed groups than with the governments of affected states and more cautious about publicly criticizing governments than armed groups. The effectiveness of all these approaches is context-specific and difficult to gauge, and public criticism of authorities in particular can expose humanitarian agencies to threats of expulsion or violence. The difficulty and the high stakes of dialogue- and advocacy-based activities suggest a need for greater investment in dedicated training and strategizing than appears common in most international humanitarian agencies.