bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Scope of the Conceptual
Authors: Laurence Stephen , Margolis Eric
Published: February 2013

This article explains different views on concepts, which are among the most fundamental constructs in cognitive science. Michael Dummett argues that nonhuman animals are not capable of full-fledged conceptual thought but only a diminished form of thought, which he calls, proto-thought. Human beings can remove themselves from the moment and can rise above the confined world of current perceptions because of their linguistic abilities. Donald Davidson, a contemporary philosopher, denies that animals are capable of conceptual thought and claim that conceptual content requires a rich inferential network. Donald Davidson made an argument against animals having conceptual thought. Davidson's original formulation of the argument begins with the claim that having a belief requires having the concept of a belief but adds that having the concept of belief requires possession of a natural language. It follows, then, that to have a belief requires facility with natural language. The characterization of the conceptual/nonconceptual distinction that is implicit in Davidson's metacognitive argument is a complex one involving a capacity for belief about beliefs, a concept of belief, and concepts of truth and falsity. Both Robert Brandom and John McDowell argued that conceptual thought requires more than a capacity for detection. They claim that conceptual thought requires the ability to appreciate the reasons that would justify a given concept's application and use, and this, in turn, is inherently a social practice that is dependent on natural language
Innateness
Authors: Gross Steven , Rey Georges
Published: February 2013

The article describes to what extent the structures and contents of the mind are innate, and to what extent they are learned or otherwise acquired from the environment. Aristotle argued that all ideas are derived from experience by a causal process in which forms (or properties of things) in the external world are transmitted into the mind. John Locke insisted that the simple ideas are derived from sensation, and all other ideas are constructed from the simple ones by the mental operations of compounding, comparing, and abstracting. Sober emphasized that there is no common currency with which to compare the relative contributions of genes and environment and suggested that biological determinants do not in general decompose into amounts of genetic versus nongenetic force. Sober suggested that there might not be a single specification of relevant environments and one might need to fix the range pragmatically as it varies with explanatory interests. Ariew suggested that what matters for innateness is whether a trait's emergence is sensitive to certain specific kinds of environmental factors, where the relevant factors can vary with the trait in question and indeed with one's explanatory interest. Fodor's initial agument for the innateness of concepts was quite simple. He pointed out that standard accounts of learning a trait it as a process of hypothesis confirmation.
The Language Faculty
Authors: Pietroski Paul , Crain Stephen
Published: February 2013

The article illustrates that humans have a language faculty, a cognitive system that supports the acquisition and use of certain languages, with several core properties. The faculty is apparently governed by principles that are logically contingent, specific to human language, and innately determined. A naturally acquirable human language (Naturahl) is a finite-yet-unbounded language, with two further properties that include: its signals are overt sounds or signs, and it can be acquired by a biologically normal human child, given an ordinary course of human experience. Any biologically normal human child can acquire any Naturahl, given an ordinary course of experience with users of that language. An E-language is a set of signal-interpretation pairs, while an I-language is a procedure that pairs signals with interpretations. The I-languages that children acquire are biologically implementable, since they are actually implemented in human biology. A function has a unique value for each argument, but Naturahls admit the possibility of ambiguity. A domain general learning procedure might help children learn the environments in which negative polarity items (NPI) can appear but acquiring the constraint on where such expressions cannot appear is another matter. The language faculty makes it possible to acquire an I-language that permits questions with a medial-wh, even if one does not encounter such questions.
The Reception of Hugo Riemann's Music Theory
Authors: Holtmeier Ludwig
Published: February 2013

This article traces the reception of Hugo Riemann's ideas and examines their gradual transformations in the hands of his contemporaries and successors. By placing Riemann's legacy in a wider context of music-theoretical traditions, the article demonstrates that, divergent to the common belief, there existed a middle ground between Viennese scale-degree theory and Riemannian function theory, voice-leading approaches and Klang-based approaches. In this article, theorists such as Georg Capellen, Rudolf Louis, and Johannes Schreyer are discussed and seen as the missing links between the two great musical-theoretical centres of Vienna and Leipzig.
From Matrix to Map
Authors: Gollin Edward
Published: February 2013

This article examines the changing meaning of the Tonnetz in Riemann's writings over the course of his career. It examines how Riemann came to reconcile the literal-acoustical and the spatial-metaphorical views of the Tonnetz—how the Tonnetz as a literal matrix to represent and calculate relative frequencies of the tones in just intonation evolved in his later writings into traversable landscape of tones. This article begins by examining the table from Arthur von Oettingen's Harmoniesystem in dualer Entwickelung, which provided not only the graphic model for the table of relations in Riemann's dissertation but also shaped its underlying acoustical conception. The article then examines how two developments in the following decades were significant for Riemann's conceptual reformation of the Tonnetz. The transition from a literal to a metaphorical understanding of the Tonnetz did not simply mirror Riemann's shift from an acoustical to a psychological view of the foundation of harmony, but rather made possible the transition, providing Riemann a mechanism to mediate between the phenomenal world of musical practice and the unbounded noumenal realm of musical meanings.
Chromaticism and the Question of Tonality
Authors: Kopp David
Published: February 2013

This article examines the role of key and function as a component of Riemann's relational harmonic system. It is argued in this article that while the neo-Riemannian abstraction of Riemann's Harmonieschritte offer certain insights into the nature of chromatic relations in the nineteenth-century music, it has also resulted in a view of harmonic relations uncomfortably divorced and separated from the tonal and functional contexts in which they were conceived. In addition to examining the role of key and function as component of Riemann's relational harmonic system, and chromaticism, the article also suggests how neo-Riemannian analysis can benefit by reconnecting Riemannian harmonic relations to the functional tonal contexts in which they arose, illustrating the recovered and renewed nineteenth-century perspective with analyses of music by Beethoven, Schubert, and Wolf.
Riemannian Analytical Values, Paleo- and Neo-
Authors: Rings Steven
Published: February 2013

This article considers Riemann's analysis of Schubert's triadic but highly chromatic Gb-major Impromptu. This article compares Riemann's own analysis of the work with neo-Riemannian view inspired by the writings of Richard Cohn, assessing the differences in analytical methodology and technology, and locating those differences with the divergent ideologies of the two approaches. In this article, the central focus is not on the analytical technologies, but rather on the assumptions and values that underlie the distinct analytical perspectives. It focuses on the analytical values, with a focus on the methodological and ethical contrasts between these two approaches. The article ends by considering the ways in which a technical rapprochement between the theories might open ethical horizons and provide new ways to value music through Riemann-inspired analytical activity.
Aquinas and Jewish and Islamic Authors
Authors: Burrell David B.
Published: February 2013

The works of Plato and of Aristotle were made available to the Islamic people by virtue of Syriac translators from Greek into Arabic. Aristotle's Metaphysic offered the paradigm for carrying out philosophy to al-Farabi's successor, Avicenna (980–1037). His al-Shifa adapted the cosmological scheme of al-Farabi, whereby the planetary spheres transmit the primary causal influence of the One successively to the earth. Moses Maimonides (113–-1204) lived all of his life in the Islamicate, which is the linguistic and cultural world of Islam, coming eventually to serve as court physician for Saladin in Foster, the modern Cairo. He composed works of philosophy in Judaeo Arabic, the most significant of which is the Guide of the Perplexed, addressed to his student, Joseph. It was quickly translated into Hebrew, coming to Aquinas's attention in Latin translation. Avicenna had tried to reconcile Qur'anic assertions about creation with a pre-existent (and eternal) matter because he could see no other place to locate the possibility that what came to be would come to be. Aquinas was able to offer a coherent characterization of the act of creation without pretending to have described it. Existence (esse), understood as actuality, becomes the vehicle for articulating God's transcendence, as well as what links created things with their creator.
The Relation of Reason to Faith
Authors: Niederbacher Bruno
Published: February 2013

The article explains how Aquinas conceived the relation between reason and faith. In Aquinas's view the object of faith is God as the first truth and the last end of human longing. The object of faith is related to both, intellect (truth) and rational appetite (last end). Aquinas argued that only those truths belong to the object of faith, which is believed on God's authority. Aquinas called such truths credibles. Aquinas explored the kind of the act involved by doing two things. Firstly, he tried to situate the kind of assent involved in the act of faith by comparing it to other acts of assent to propositions. Second, Aquinas distinguished three aspects of the one interior act of faith with the aid of the traditional formula to believe that God (credere Deum), to believe God (credere Deo), to believe in God (credere in Deum). Aquinas defined the virtue of faith as ‘a habit of the mind whereby eternal life is begun in human beings, making the intellect assent to what is not apparent’. Aquinas claimed that sacred doctrine is a science (scientia). Thus, he thought that the content of faith can fulfill the highest rationality conditions as Aristotle developed them in the Posterior Analytics. The first and most obvious aspect of reason in Aquinas's account of faith is that one believes on the basis of divine testimony
The Saving Work of Christ
Authors: Van Nieuwenhove Rik
Published: February 2013

The article outlines Aquinas's soteriology by examining the many themes that include the saving significance of the passion of Christ, the body of Christ, and the role of the Eucharist. Aquinas could argue that every aspect of Christ's life, death, and resurrection has a sacramental meaning and power. Aquinas pointed out that there are two major differences between punishment and making satisfaction. The first difference is that punishment is inflicted upon the sinner against his will, while making satisfaction is something human beings freely undertake to restore a broken relationship with somebody. The second major difference between punishment and making satisfaction is that one person can make satisfaction for another if the two are united in charity. Aquinas argued that Christ's saving activity benefits all the faithful. He argued that in the divine self-gift that is the life and death of Christ the divine mercy and justice are in perfect harmony with one another. The key presupposition governing Aquinas's soteriology is the intimate union between Christ and his faithful. Aquinas pointed out that Christ, was both priest and offering. A priest is a mediator between God and the people, somebody who bestows divine things upon the people. Christ freely offers himself to suffer on the behalf of human beings.
Romanticism
Authors: Packer Barbara L.
Published: February 2013

This article explains the concept of Romanticism relating it with Transcendentalism and Puritanism. Romanticism influenced future Transcendentalists at different times. During the first period, which extended from around 1810 to the end of the 1820s, the Transcendentalists read Romantic authors with uncritical delight. The exclusion of women from higher studies made Transcendentalist women especially fond of Romantic writings as the intellectual fearlessness of the Romantic writers appealed to their hidden sense of defiance. Transcendentalists such as Alcott, Emerson, Fuller, and Peabody were prominent lovers of Romantic literature. Wordsworth was one such writer who was widely read in that sense. Romanticism had different levels of influence on Transcendentalism. Though the works of the Transcendentalists and Romanticists differed at some level, all their footprints mingled at another level. The article also explains the differences that had occurred among the Transcendentalists over the period of time.
Lectures and the Lyceum Movement
Authors: Ljungquist Kent P.
Published: February 2013

This article is about lectures and the lyceum movement. The lecture form has a long history that antedated the advent of a coherent network of public speaking. In its initial phase, the lyceum movement stressed the importance of mutual instruction and random lectures. Many early lecturers were local residents, commonly clergymen or lawyers, speaking before audiences in their own towns or villages. The article states that although New England remained a stronghold of the lyceum movement, settlers moved into Ohio, the old Western Reserve, where expanding literacy rates supported both the extension of the public lecture and new periodicals such as the Western Messenger, admired by many Transcendentalists. Theodore Parker and Emerson were much in favor of the lecture form. Emerson even noted that the “orator is the most American of Americans”.
Conversations
Authors: Baker Noelle A.
Published: February 2013

The article explains how Transcendentalists utilized the form of conversation to propagate their ideology. For Transcendentalists, conversation channeled inspiration and embodied a “free” or fluid power more commonly associated with Jesus of Nazareth, magnetism, and electricity. The article states that Transcendentalists repeatedly attempted to recreate the vitality of the concept of conversation, which assumed both print and oral forms: “parlor conversations” and advertised public classes. Margaret Fuller and Alcott conducted the most sustained and ambitious of these. They published transcriptions of such events and privately circulated bundled extracts of selected letters, verse, and journals. The article also states that the role played by female scrubs and scholars was crucial to the development of conversation as a Transcendentalist genre, for a woman-centered tradition of rhetorical practices informed its methods, goals, and influence.
Transcendentalist Periodicals
Authors: Richardson Todd H.
Published: February 2013

This article talks about Transcendentalist periodicals and the kind of policy they followed. Periodicals are social texts involving complex relationships among writers, readers, editors, publishers, and distributors. But Transcendentalist periodicals were far more this; they often served refreshingly open discussion environments in which the conflicting beliefs of the movement and the movement's conflicting beliefs of itself took their shape. The article states that the periodicals were wonderfully dialogic and possessed an open-ended conversational quality, but for a unifying editorial mission. The periodicals also revealed a great deal about the character of the movement, as first and foremost, Transcendentalism was a movement that continued with vitality, not just in legacy of individual luminaries, though the periodicals actualized that vitality in an incredible diversity of voices, personalities, and ideals through a complex textual space in which they found expression, conflict, harmony, and power.
Nature Writing
Authors: Gura Philip F.
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the idea of nature writing as adapted by the Transcendentalists. Henry David Thoreau is considered as the exponent of nature writing in American Transcendentalism. This article traces what nature writing is, what constitutes Transcendentalist nature writing, and why one author can be more successful at it than another. For more than a century some literary critics have bravely, if not fully convincingly, addressed these issues. One of the first twentieth-century commentators to do so, Philip Marshal Hicks, offered, in 1924, a very strict definition of the genre of nature writing. This article refers to the works of Thoreau and Emerson in relation to the genre of nature writing. Thoreau's occasion was the publication of a series of scientific reports issued by the state of Massachusetts, but he opened this essay with a moving meditation on the restorative powers of nature rather than with a mention of the reports' practical value.
Architecture
Authors: Maynard W. Barksdale
Published: February 2013

As the title suggests, this article takes on the architectural significances of the Transcendentalist movement. The Transcendentalists had considered several different aspects for constructing a shelter. Thoreau's Transcendentalist house at Walden was not merely physical but intellectual as well and, as the article states, it must be understood in the context of contemporary architectural thought. This period also witnessed new publications called “villa books”, which were different from the old architectural “pattern book”. Pattern books were aimed primarily at carpenters and offered only a dry text while villa books, with a rich store of pictures and prose, evoked a bright new lifestyle, intending to establish proper “taste” among the middle class. Through that, the readers were told, in a quasi-religious language, that the way they embellished their homes spoke volumes about their moral proclivities and had a potentially powerful impact on their families and communities.
The Life and Legacy of “Civil Disobedience”
Authors: Johnson Linck
Published: February 2013

“Civil Disobedience”, an essay by Henry Thoreau that was first published as “Resistance to Civil Government” in 1849, was one of only two written works on the topic of civil disobedience by an American before 1900. Thoreau had been strongly influenced by the antislavery activists and it was them who developed and widely applied the concept of civil disobedience during the decades leading up to the Civil War. The article clarifies that although the prominence of Thoreau's essay had led many to assume that he was the father of civil disobedience, that form of dissent was deeply rooted in Protestant tradition and the ethos of Transcendentalism. The article also sheds light on the involvement of Mohandas Gandhi, who supported “Civil Disobedience.” His frequent references to the essay gave rise to the widespread belief that it inspired the nonviolent political movements Gandhi led in South Africa and later in India.
Nature Writing and Environmental Activism
Authors: Burkholder Robert E.
Published: February 2013

As the title suggests, the article is concerned with the concept of nature writing and environmental activism and the involvement of the Transcendentalists in it. It states that beyond the obvious significance and continuing influence of Thoreau, the role of other Transcendentalists on the development of nature writing was less clear. However they revered nature in ways their New England ancestors did not because nature was no longer the daily obstacle it had once been. Moreover, for the Transcendentalists, nature was “evidence and analogue of man's relation to God.” Apart from the works of Thoreau, the article examines the content of some of the works of Margaret Fuller such as “Summer on the Lakes” which was a combination of travel writing, landscape description, and advocacy for Native Americans. The article states that though the Transcendentalists were humanists and social and religious reformers, the human themes in their writings found way into nature writing.
Economic Effects of Migration: Receiving States
Authors: Orrenius Pia M. , Zavodny Madeline
Published: February 2013

This article reviews recent empirical research on the economic effects of immigration. After summarizing the labor market literature, it provides a survey of research on the effects of immigration on prices, economic growth and efficiency, and government revenue and expenditures. Immigration lowers prices, raises the level of economic activity, and in this way boosts the income of natives. Research indicates that high-skilled immigration is particularly economically advantageous, because it increases innovation and entrepreneurship, which can boost productivity and long-term economic growth. Low-skilled immigration offers fewer economic advantages, primarily because of its sizable negative fiscal impact.
Migration and Culture
Authors: Werbner Pnina
Published: February 2013

This article begins by suggesting three ways of approaching transnational migrant “culture” that evade the charge of essentialism. It then explores comparatively a range of ethnographic examples of immigrant cultural celebrations, starting with an analysis of homemaking and translocated migrant domestic rituals, from seasonal holidays to weddings, sacrifices, and offerings. Collective public festivals, street processions, and carnivals that inscribe immigrants' presence on their new places of settlement are discussed next. Finally, the article explores the aesthetic products of diaspora, both imported and created, and considers scholarly debates on cultural hybridity and hyphenated, multiple, and situated cultural identities.
Explaining Migration Policy: Historical Perspectives
Authors: Reimers David
Published: February 2013

This article offers a historical perspective on the U.S. immigration debate and the evolution of its immigration policy. The first controversies over immigration occurred during the French Revolution, when Federalist anxiety about French immigrants caused the U.S. Congress to lengthen the naturalization period and radically restrict immigrant civil rights, and when concern about Haitian immigration prompted the first racial restrictions in U.S. immigration law, limiting naturalization to “free white persons.” The federal government mainly left migration to the states during the nineteenth century and many state policies were focused on immigrant recruitment during this period, including in particular efforts by southern states after the Civil War to recruit European immigrants to boost their white populations. Immigration rates plunged during the Great Depression and World War II, but then the pendulum began to swing the other way, beginning with the creation of a quota for Chinese immigrants during the war, followed by quotas for Indians and Filipinos and, with the passage of the McCarran–Walter Act in 1952, quotas for the rest of Asia, still at levels far below those of European countries. It was not until 1965 that Congress passed the Hart–Celler Act, finally establishing a universal rule for immigrant admissions—a change that contributed to dramatic and largely unexpected increases in migration inflows from Asia and Latin America. Finally, the contemporary immigration system also has been shaped by refugee flows from Vietnam and Central America and by surging unauthorized immigration since the 1970s.
An Enduring Dilemma: Immigration and Organized Labor in Western Europe and the United States
Authors: Fine Janice , Tichenor Daniel J.
Published: February 2013

This article compares Fine and Tichenor's research on the United States to scholarly treatments of labor movements in the European Union and uses these accounts to examine the ways that shifting labor market structures, immigration flows, national attitudes toward specific immigrant groups, and the disposition of the state toward unions have contributed to the positions on immigration adopted by national labor movements. It begins with a brief historical and policy overview highlighting the dilemmas that labor immigration has posed for labor movements in Western Europe and the United States. The next section provides a summary of the major immigration policy debates and labor's policy stances in the post-World War II period in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and discusses the most important factors that seem to have influenced labor's evolving stance in each country. Although labor movements in each of the three countries have their own unique historical dynamics, all follow a similar arc of early hostility to migration, emergence of internal divisions, and important reversals on key policy questions that eventually lead to pro-immigration positions.
Music and Pain
Authors: Dorschel Andreas
Published: February 2013

This article looks at the connection between music and pain. It shows that the art of producing sound was closely linked with magic, and reveals that pain was believed to be inflicted by demons. Music was the only way these demons could be pacified, and the relief that music offered was more indirect. The article also examines modern music therapy, which directly turns to the person suffering the pain.
The Strange Landscape of Middles
Authors: Beckerman Michael
Published: February 2013

This article explores the concept of musical middles, which exhibit some rare properties. These properties are discussed in detail, starting with the fact that some musical middles are found near the beginning of a song or composition. Musical middles are also located in funeral marches, can be slow, and can play the kind of variability that imitates human behavior. The article also studies the work of Charles Altieri, who addressed some issues of literary middles, and reveals that middles are used to place fragments, making them both hidden and obvious.
The Genre of National Opera in a European Comparative Perspective
Authors: Ther Philipp
Published: February 2013

This article looks at the nationalization of opera, which was the result of an increase in cultural transfers. It demonstrates that nationalism shaped many of the features of opera history, as well as its artistic and institutional levels. It notes that the share of indigenous work in the collection of opera theaters in continental Europe rose, and that the process of nationalization resulted from the context of the “age of nationalism” and the efforts of music composers and critics.
Cosmopolitan, National, and Regional Identities in Eighteenth-Century European Musical Life
Authors: Weber William
Published: February 2013

This article determines how scholars have defined cosmopolitanism. It suggests how this concept can be applied to musical life, and studies how geography is played out with cultural authority. It compares how composers from various regions held concerts in Paris, Vienna, London, and Leipzig during the 1780s by referring to the texts of the concert programs. The discussion shows that concerts were relevant in opera life, and that cosmopolitanism in musical culture should be viewed as a political process.
An Evening at the Opera in Seventeenth-Century Venice
Authors: Muir Edward
Published: February 2013

This article describes what it was like to attend the very first operas that were composed and performed during the early seventeenth century and were made popular in the commercial theaters in Venice. It studies the complications of early opera placed upon composers and dramatists, and shows that female voices in the opera were “echoed” by the female singers in convents. The carnival mask, the comic theater, and the influence of the Jesuits are discussed. The latter portion of the article focuses on the changes that occurred in the Venetian theaters during the seventeenth century.
Stress, Coping, and Health
Authors: Carver Charles S. , Vargas Sara
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses the confluence of two sets of processes—stress and coping—as they come to bear on health. It first addresses the following questions: What defines the experience of stress? What defines coping? What sorts of distinctions among coping responses are useful, or even necessary? Finally, how do processes of stress and coping interweave to influence health? Addressing this last question entails confronting at least two further issues: What boundaries must be placed around the construct of “health,” and by what pathways might health be affected by stress and coping? After considering these issues, the chapter describes selected evidence from several areas of research on how stress and coping influence health.
Social Comparison Processes: Implications for Physical Health
Authors: Suls Jerry
Published: February 2013

Social comparisons in the physical health domain can serve several motives, including self-evaluation, self-enhancement, and the finding of common bonds. Comparisons may be made with actual people, media role models, or with implicit “created-in-the-head” norms. Such norms, including the false consensus effect and unrealistic optimism, can undermine health-promotive practices. Comparisons also affect the interpretation of ambiguous somatic changes that might be indicative of physical illness. Symptom appraisal via comparison is discussed in the context of the lay referral network and mass psychogenic illness. Experiencing acute or chronic illness produces uncertainty and threat, which elicit both self-evaluation and self-enhancement motives. These instigate comparisons, leading to assimilation or contrast with better- or worse-off or more knowledgeable targets. Implications of social comparison research and theory for public health campaigns and medical practice are discussed.
Transplantation
Authors: Dew Mary Amanda , DiMartini Andrea F.
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses the health psychology of organ transplantation and the relevance of this field to the broader study of psychological issues in chronic disease. It begins with an overview of the evolution and prevalence of transplantation, and describes the time-line of events that typically occur as patients and prospective living organ donors advance through the transplantation process. Evidence regarding ethnic, gender-related, and other disparities in access to and availability of organ transplantation is reviewed, and strategies undertaken to reduce these disparities are described. Then, from the perspective of the individual transplant recipient, his or her family caregiver, and the living donor, the chapter discusses stressors and psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with each phase of the transplantation (and organ donation) process. General quality of life, mental health, and medical adherence are considered. Intervention strategies to improve these outcomes are discussed. The chapter lists important questions to guide future research.
Health Behavior Change
Authors: Schwarzer Ralf
Published: February 2013

An overview of theoretical constructs and mechanisms of health behavior change is provided, based on a self-regulation framework that makes a distinction between goal setting and goal pursuit. Risk perception, outcome expectancies, and task self-efficacy are seen as predisposing factors in the goal setting phase (motivational phase), whereas planning, action control, and maintenance/recovery self-efficacy are regarded as influential in the goal pursuit phase (volitional phase). The first phase leads to forming an intention, and the second phase leads to actual behavior change. Such a mediator model serves to explain social-cognitive processes in health behavior change. Adding a second layer on top of it, a moderator model is provided in which three stages are distinguished to segment the audience for tailored interventions. Identifying persons as preintenders, intenders, or actors offers an opportunity to match theory-based treatments to specific target groups. Research examples serve to illustrate the application of the model to health promotion.
The Perception of Health Risks
Authors: Renner Britta , Schupp Harald
Published: February 2013

This chapter first examines how risk experts and nonexperts construe health risks and indicates systematic differences between the lay and expert risk estimates. Second, it analyzes the difference between general risk perceptions and personal risk perceptions, with particular emphasis on typical biases in personal risk perceptions, such as the optimistic bias and differences in personal risk perceptions across the lifespan. Third, it examines how people respond to health risk information indicating that they are at risk by highlighting the question of whether the core motivational fabric of reactions toward personalized risk information is made up of self-defensive or adaptive strivings.
Physical Activity and Health: Current Research Trends and Critical Issues
Authors: Wilson Dawn K. , Zarrett Nicole , Kitzman-Ulrich Heather
Published: February 2013

The field of health psychology may offer unique theoretical and practical approaches for promoting physically active lifestyle changes. This chapter addresses relevant theoretical mediating and moderating factors ranging from cognitive, emotional, and physical to social and environmental influences on improving physical activity (PA) across the lifespan. It highlights the critical need for theoretically driven research that focuses on understanding mediational factors that may explain behavior and behavior change processes. It also focuses on understanding the balance between conducting science-based research using randomized controlled trials (RCTs) versus the need for involving communities in more participatory research for improving community engagement. In addition, it highlights the need for incorporating a developmental perspective and outlines key issues relevant to understanding PA behavior across the lifespan.
Dispositional Optimism, Psychophysiology, and Health
Authors: Segerstrom Suzanne C.
Published: February 2013

Dispositional optimism—the belief that the future generally holds positive but not negative events—appears to confer widespread benefit in terms of psychosocial well-being. An important question is whether this advantage extends to biological functions, such as immune activity, and to physical health. Although several studies have examined this question, the answer is still obscure. Amid studies demonstrating a physiological or health benefit to being more dispositionally optimistic are a substantial number of null findings. This chapter reviews these studies and considers why optimism is not more consistently associated with lower blood pressure, higher immune function, and lower morbidity and mortality.
Health and Social Relationships in Nonhuman Primates: Toward a Comparative Health Psychology
Authors: Capitanio John P.
Published: February 2013

Humans are not the only creatures that show rich and complex social relationships, nor are they the only creatures for whom health is a significant concern. A comparative approach to the study of social relationships and health is taken in the present chapter, with a focus on research conducted with nonhuman primates. Ecological, evolutionary, and mechanistic studies of monkeys, from both field and laboratory, are described. Characteristics of social relationships as studied by primatologists are discussed, and the roles of three such characteristics (complementarity [social dominance], “meshing” [social buffering], and stability) on endocrine, immune, and disease-related endpoints (including simian immunodeficiency virus [SIV] infection, atherosclerosis, and parasite abundance), are reviewed. Finally, several questions for future research are suggested.
Clinical Personality Assessment: History, Evolution, Contemporary Models, and Practical Applications
Authors: Butcher James N.
Published: February 2013

This book provides a comprehensive view of the field of personality assessment from its historical roots to the major, methodological issues defining the field and that have led to numerous approaches and applications, and to the broad range of assessment techniques available today. One can find throughout history an awareness of the importance of evaluating personality and character using observation and other means of acquiring information on which to make such decisions. The modern era for personality assessment began in late-nineteenth-century England with the work of Sir Francis Galton. The first self-report personality inventory used to obtain personality information was developed by Robert Woodworth during World War I. Numerous personality inventories were developed in the years that followed, including the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Paralleling the work on personality inventories was the development of projective assessment instruments such as the Thematic Apperception Test. These instruments came to be the most widely used assessment instruments during the expansion of applied psychology after World War II and are still the predominant tests in use today.
Changing or Replacing an Established Psychological Assessment Standard: Issues, Goals, and Problems with Special Reference to Recent Developments in the MMPI-2
Authors: Ranson Michelle B. , Nichols David S. , Rouse Steven V. , Harrington Jennifer L.
Published: February 2013

The question of whether to revise a psychological test often emerges during the test development phase rather than after the publication of the test because there are always unanswered questions or alternative strategies one could have taken. For a personality assessment “standard” that has found broad acceptance among practitioners and researchers the considerations which bear on its change or revision can be especially complex and demanding. Several valid reasons for test revision have been mentioned in the literature, but they generally fall into two categories: “deficiency changes” and “growth changes.” This article reviews literature relevant to the process of test revision, including how changes in a test are to be occasioned and warranted; the motives that may become involved in driving changes; and the various ethical expectations, implications, and responsibilities which have a role to play in guiding and influencing all of these. It presents a case study to illustrate some of the recent issues that have emerged with proposed changes to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) and its RC Scales.
The MMPI-2: History, Interpretation, and Clinical Issues
Authors: Cox Andrew C. , Weed Nathan C. , Butcher James N.
Published: February 2013

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) is the most widely used personality assessment instrument in research and clinical practice. This article orients new users to the test and highlights a number of current issues with the test that may also be of interest to experienced users. It briefly illustrates the development of MMPI-2, from its origins in the University of Minnesota Hospitals to its current form. The article then describes some of its key features and the contributions they make to assessing personality and psychopathology: Validity Scales, Clinical Scales, Content Scales, Supplementary Scales, Personality Psychopathology Five Scales, and Restructured Clinical Scales. It concludes by discussing specific clinical issues related to the use of, and new developments involving, the MMPI-2: assessment of ethnic-minority clients, international adaptation of the MMPI-2, short forms, and computer applications.
The Five-Factor Model and the NEO Inventories
Authors: Costa Paul T. , McCrae Robert R.
Published: February 2013

Personality traits provide distal explanations for behavior and are compatible with personality development, useful in clinical applications, and intrinsically interesting. They must, however, be understood in the context of a broader system of personality functioning. One of the recurring challenges to personality psychology has been the classification of personality traits into a meaningful system. Introduced in the 1980s, the Five-Factor Model (FFM) is a comprehensive and universal model applicable to psychiatric as well as normal samples. The NEO Inventories are operationalizations of the FFM, and offer computer administration and interpretation. They are available in a number of languages and use a novel approach to protocol validity. Research using the NEO Inventories has led to a reconceptualization of the importance of the person in the social sciences, and may be the basis for a revolutionary new approach to the diagnosis of personality disorders.
The California Psychological Inventory
Authors: Megargee Edwin I.
Published: February 2013

This article describes the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) and presents a brief overview of how it has been used. It also discusses Harrison Gough's philosophy of test construction, and how it guided the development and evolution of the CPI. In addition, the article provides a brief description of the twenty current CPI folk construct scales, focusing on their construction and the correlates of high and low scores. This is followed by a brief account of the CPI's factor structure and a discussion of the CPI's three vector scales assessing the dimensions of person orientation, values orientation, and level of realization. The article looks at how CPI's three vector scales are used to define four personality types. The concluding section offers a brief overview of CPI interpretation.
Assessing Adolescents with the MMPI-A
Authors: Cumella Edward J. , O'Connor Jennifer Lafferty
Published: February 2013

The MMPI-A is a sophisticated self-report instrument that allows clinicians to assess psychopathology in adolescent clients despite complex developmental, clinical, and methodological issues which can interfere with the psychological assessment of teens. It includes Validity Scales that measure the extent to which an adolescent responds to questions in a cooperative and truthful manner. The MMPI-A also includes ten basic Clinical Scales, fifteen Content Scales, thirty-one Content Component Scales, and forty-two Supplementary Scales. MMPI-A profiles require specialized knowledge and training to correctly interpret adolescent functioning and psychopathology. Computer-driven scoring and reporting may assist clinicians in accurate, comprehensive, and integrated interpretation of the MMPI-A's many scales. The MMPI-A can be used to provide feedback to adolescents about their self-reported psychopathology and gain their cooperation with the therapeutic process.
A History of Clinical Psychology
Authors: Routh Donald K.
Published: February 2013

To be memorable, a history such as this might best be organized under a small number of headings. Accordingly, this chapter is structured around the work of seven pioneers who arguably had the greatest influence on the development of the field. Lightner Witmer is generally considered to have founded clinical psychology in 1896 (McReynolds, 1987, 1997; Routh, 1996; Watson, 1956). Hippocrates was the ancient Greek founder of medicine, always a close professional cousin of clinical psychology and a scientific model for psychology in general. Theodule Ribot led the development of psychology as an academic discipline in 19th-century France, as one primarily focused on clinical issues. Alfred Binet, also in France, devised the first practical “intelligence” test in 1905; administering such tests was among the most common activities of early clinical psychologists. Leta Hollingworth was an early practitioner who played a large role in the development of organized clinical psychology beginning in 1917 (Routh, 1994). Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis, the first influential form of psychotherapy practiced by clinical psychologists, among others. Finally, Hans Eysenck was among the earliest to conceptualize behavior therapy and to promote the use of what have come to be known as evidence-based methods of intervention in clinical psychology.
Schools of Psychotherapy and the Beginnings of a Scientific Approach
Authors: Boswell James F. , Sharpless Brian A. , Greenberg Leslie S. , Heatherington Laurie , Huppert Jonathan D. , Barber Jacques P. , Goldfried Marvin R. , Castonguay Louis G.
Published: February 2013

The theoretical, clinical, and empirical foundations of psychotherapy come from five primary movements that still exist today, continue to evolve, and remain scientifically productive: psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic, systemic, and integrative. The goal of this chapter is to examine the philosophical, clinical, and scientific underpinnings of each of these major traditions in detail. Experts in these five approaches will describe: (a) the model of psychopathology (especially focusing upon etiological and maintenance factors emphasized in assessment and case formulation); (b) the focus and specific techniques used in treatment planning and implementation; (c) the hypothesized therapeutic mechanisms of change; and (d) the outcome literature/empirical support for each modality. We conclude with a look toward the future of the science of psychotherapy and the scientist-practitioner model of psychotherapy.
Evidence-based Practice in Clinical Psychology
Authors: Spring Bonnie , Neville Kelly
Published: February 2013

The Institute of Medicine identifies evidence-based practice (EBP) as a core competence for all 21st century health professionals (Greiner & Knebel, 2003). Psychology is a relative newcomer to the evidence-based movement, having just adopted EBP as policy in 2005 (www2.apa.org/practice/ebpstatement.pdf). Evidence-based practice is both a conceptual model and a process for basing clinical decision-making on the integration of research, client characteristics, and resource considerations. We describe the evolution of models of EBP across the health disciplines and discuss how the concepts and methods of EBP apply in clinical psychology. Psychologists’ roles in relation to EBP are as creators, synthesizers, and consumers of evidence. We consider implications of EBP’s adoption for clinical psychology training, and describe learning resources that support clinical psychologists in mastering EBP.
Training, Credentialing, and New Roles in Clinical Psychology: Emerging Trends
Authors: Grus Catherine L.
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of key developments in the education, training, and credentialing of clinical psychologists; new roles in the field; and intersecting issues across these domains. Emerging issues highlighted within education and training include the move toward the assessment of competence in trainees, accreditation developments, and the doctoral internship match imbalance. Changes in licensing laws, mobility, and the degree of coordination between education and training and credentialing systems are described. Expanded roles for clinical psychologist, such as in health-care settings and public health, are reviewed. Finally, emerging developments such workforce analyses conducted within and across health-care professions and the relationship of issues such to national policy initiatives that are and will impact the future of clinical psychology are presented.