bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mechanisms used by young children in the making of empathic judgments
Authors: Gibbs Judith G , Woll Stanley B
Published: April 2006

Forty‐four preschool children ranging from three to five years of age received a series of stones in which the protagonists experience happiness, sadness, or fear These protagonists were portrayed as either similar or dissimilar to the child, and the situations depicted were either familiar or unfamiliar to him/her as well The children's task was to infer the emotions experienced by the protagonists Results indicate that children were more accurate in judging the emotions of similar target persons than they were for dissimilar ones Familiarity with the situation, on the other hand, had no effect on accuracy Children were more accurate in identifying happiness and sadness than they were in judging fear, and age was positively related to judgmental accuracy for the former two but not for the latter These results help to resolve the controversy arising from earlier studies of empathy development which failed to disentangle the similarity and familiarity dimensions
Effects of opportunity to reciprocate and self‐esteem on help‐seeking behavior
Authors: Nadler Arie , Peri Netanel , Chemerinski Abigail
Published: April 2006

The present investigation explored the link between an individual's self‐esteem and willingness to seek help under conditions in which future reciprocity is, or is not, expected Based on past research on (a) the effects of perceived opportunity to reciprocate on help seeking, and (b) the effects of self‐esteem on help‐seeking and receiving, it was expected that relative to low self‐esteem individuals, high self‐esteem individuals would be more committed to the norm of reciprocity in interpersonal helping, and be more reluctant to seek help which cannot be reciprocated Two studies were conducted In the first it was observed that the higher the level of self‐esteem the more the expressed commitment to the norm of reciprocity as measured by scores on an especially designed scale The second study assessed actual help‐seeking behavior, and found that least help was sought by high self‐esteem individuals who did not foresee an opportunity for future reciprocity The conceptual and applied implications of these findings are discussed
Cooperative behavior as a function of interpersonal style in preschoolers
Authors: McLeod Mark , Nowicki Stephen
Published: April 2006

A study of the effectiveness of preschoolers interpersonal interactions was conducted based upon a circumplex model of interpersonal behavior and the corollary complementarity hypothesis developed by Leary (1957) and Carson (1969) The interpersonal styles of 92 preschoolers' interpersonal interactions was rated in a naturalistic free‐play environment These ratings were used to obtain status and affiliation scores for each child which, in turn, were the basis for assigning subjects a complementary or an anticom‐plementary partner It was predicted and found that complementary pairs performed a difficult puzzle task more efficiently than did anticomplementary pairs The usefulness of the complementarity hypothesis and implications for its use in future research were discussed
The sampling of experiences in situ
Authors: Hormuth Stefan E
Published: April 2006

The experience sampling method (ESM) attempts to sample randomly from people's everyday experiences Typically, subjects carry beepers and report their experiences immediately following a signal ESM stresses ecological validity and potentially permits the study of the stream of thought or behavior Within personality psychology, ESM allows for the investigation of interactions between person and situation variables without some of the limitations of other approaches A detailed presentation of the practical issues involved in the use of ESM is included, along with a discussion of some procedural and technological variants An assessment of the method discusses issues of data quality and validity, possible other areas of application for the method, as well as limitations that require the continued empirical assessment and future refinements of the method
Development of self‐relatedness in descriptions of others over adolescence
Authors: O'Mahony John F
Published: April 2006

This paper takes a positive view of the functions of self‐related thinking in social conception Free, written descriptions of self and various others were elicited from 190 school children aged 13 to 17 A measure of the commonality (use of common dimensions and concepts) between self and other descriptions were defined and called projection Drawing on a theory that stresses the adaptive and positive functions of self‐related thinking, it was predicted that projection would be positively related to other measures indicating developmental maturity age, intelligence, amount of information, and use of sophisticated psychological, organized, and qualified vocabulary in descrbing persons Some, but not all of these predictions were supported and their theoretical implications are discussed.
Construct similarity, self‐meaningfulness, and interpersonal attraction
Authors: Leitner Larry M , Klion Reid E
Published: April 2006

Self‐meaningfulness, a concept arising from personal construct theory research, has been defined in terms of the importance of the self in the personal construct system Forty‐two undergraduate volunteers completed Repertory Grid ratings of the self and 15 individuals (five liked, five disliked, and five toward whom the subject was neutral) It was found that high self‐meaningfulness individuals' ratings of attraction were more strongly associated with the perception of similarity than were the ratings of low self‐meaningfulness subjects High self‐meaningfulness subjects saw liked individuals as significantly more similar to the self than did low self‐meaningfulness subjects In addition, liked, neutral, and disliked figures were seen as significantly different from one another on the similarity to self‐measure for high self‐meaningfulness subjects Only disliked figures were judged as more distant from the self for low self‐meaningfulness subjects These findings were discussed in terms of the importance of investigating individual differences in similarity‐attraction
Of beasties and butterflies: Evidence for the stability and domain‐specificity of individual differences in categorization
Authors: Garber Benjamin D , Miller Mark L
Published: April 2006

Previous research has failed to demonstrate unambiguously the relative stability across time and consistency across tasks of individual differences in categorization, or categorization breadth The present study of categorizing behavior in college students assesses breadth at each of four points in time over a six‐week period Results are consistent with an interpretation of breadth as a highly stable individual difference variable, but one that is constrained by the nature of the stimulus sets employed High stability coefficients were observed for each of two redundant tasks In contrast, cross‐task consistency indices were generally low Personality correlates of breadth were similarly weak and inconsistent Several variables are suggested that may attenuate the generality of categorization breadth The existence of multiple styles of categorization is discussed
Belief systems and attitudes toward the death penalty and other punishments
Authors: Harvey O J
Published: April 2006

This study focused on the relationship of belief systems as a configural construct and conservatism‐liberalism to attitudes toward the death penalty and other punishments for offenses of varying severity Extrapersonalists, the most concretely functioning of the four conceptual or belief systems posited by Harvey, Hunt, and Schroder (1961), were most in favor of the death penalty They also endorsed the most severe punishment for a variety of crimes, to a particularly greater extent than did representatives of either of the two more abstractly functioning systems

The belief dimensions of Openness, Evaluativeness, and Complexity, as well as the frequency of church attendance, correlated more highly and consistently with attitudes toward punishment than did either Conservatism‐Liberalism or gender Both of the latter variables failed to correlate with a number of the outcome variables and related at only low levels to the others

The greater predictive power of a configural conception of personality or belief systems over a unidimensional conception seems to have been demonstrated Configural concepts may additionally be generally superior to multidimensional concepts treated linearly
Sexual experience and recall of sexual vs. nonsexual information
Authors: Lewis Robin J , Gibbons Frederick X , Gerrard Meg
Published: April 2006

The effects of both sex guilt and sexual experience on the ability to remember sexual and nonsexual information were examined Male and female subjects were asked to read and then recall facts from vignettes that concerned sexual and nonsexual dilemmas As expected, the sexually inexperienced subjects made more mistakes than did the experienced subjects when recalling sexual information There were no differences between the groups in recall of nonsexual information, and there were no differences associated with the sex guilt variable In addition, one subgroup of the sample was singled out as being particularly interesting from an applied perspective Previous research has identified high‐guilt, high‐experience women as being an at‐risk group for unwanted pregnancy In fact, these women did have difficulty in remembering the sexual information Moreover, there was a clear bias in their recall pattern toward remembering information in favor of being sexually active Results are presented in terms of the relationship between sexual experience and sexual schemata, and between sex guilt and emotionality
Helping: The Influence of Anticipated Social Sanctions and Self‐Monitoring
Authors: White Michael J. , Gerstein Lawrence H.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT A field experiment was conducted to examine the influence of social sanctions and self‐monitoring on willingness to help handicapped persons Compared to low self‐monitoring individuals, those high in self‐monitoring tendencies were more likely to offer help if told that significant social rewards were attached to the act of helping, but were less likely to help if led to believe that these consequences were weak Implications for research on helping and self‐monitoring are considered with particular attention being given to the relationship between social sanctions and self‐monitoring
Self‐Reference in the Encoding of Creative‐Relevant Traits
Authors: Katz Albert N.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Participants (N= 103) engaged in an incidental memory study in which they made one of three decisions about trait terms i e, regarding its physical nature (upper or lower case), semantic meaning (synonymity) or self‐reference (i e, does the word describe you?) In each condition, one‐half of the trait terms were relevant descriptors of creative persons, chosen from the creative personality scale of Domino (1970), whereas the other traits were irrelevant as descriptors of creativity Following the rating task the participants completed a short version of the Remote Association Test (RAT), a test with predictive validity for creative activity Participants were then unexpectedly asked to recall as many of the trait terms as possible High creatives (RAT scorers) recalled more creative‐relevant trait terms than did low creatives, there were no memory differences between groups for creative‐irrelevant descriptors This memory difference was observed only under the conditions in which self‐schemata would be activated (the self‐referent condition) and was not observed under conditions in which the word's meaning (semantic) or physical appearance (case) was manipulated A second study (N= 53) replicated the self‐referent effect and discounted confounds due to differences in IQ or time spent studying the trait terms These results were consistent with the hypothesis that the self‐concept is aroused when persons engage in self‐referent decision‐making in contrast to models which downplay a special role for the “self”
Explanatory Style and Illness
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Seligman Martin E. P.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Explanatory style is an individual difference that influences people's response to bad events The present article discusses the possibility that a pessimistic explanatory style makes illness more likely Several studies suggest that people who offer internal, stable, and global explanations for bad events are at increased risk for morbidity and mortality We tentatively conclude that passivity, pessimism, and low morale foreshadow disease and death, although the process by which this occurs is unclear
The Fallacy of the Private‐Public Self‐Focus Distinction
Authors: Wicklund Robert A. , Gollwitzer Peter M.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Taking the distinction between Aristotelian and Galilean modes of thought (Lewin, 1931) as a background, the bifurcation of the self‐focus concept into “private” and “public” types of self‐focus is discussed critically A theoretical connection between the private‐public distinction and other central concepts within the self‐awareness literature is found to be lacking Further, it is found that (a) the relation between the theoretical definitions of “private” and “public” and their respective empirical definitions is not explicated, that (b) the public half of the dichotomy does not involve a focus of attention toward or away from the self, and perhaps most important, that (c) the conceptual work surrounding the private‐public distinction illustrates how an Aristotelian approach to theorizing prevents the raising of pertinent questions
Fusing Apples and Oranges: A Rejoinder to Carver & Scheier and to Fenigstein
Authors: Gollwitzer Peter M. , Wicklund Robert A.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT A simple parable is introduced that serves as an analogy to the private/public self‐focus distinction The analogy elucidates that the reliability of the effects observed by the private/public research direction is not the focus of the Wicklund and Gollwitzer critique Rather, the critique questions the validity of the explanations offered More importantly, the analogy implies the conclusion that construing social dependency as an issue of self‐focus does injustice to both the social dependency and self‐focus concepts
The Heart on the Sleeve and the Secret Self: Estimations of Hidden Emotion in Self and Acquaintances
Authors: Johnson Joel T.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT This research investigated how estimations of subjectively experienced emotion and estimations of displayed emotion varied with the familiarity of the target person Subjects imagined themselves, a close friend, a moderate friend, or a casual acquaintance in a series of brief affect‐eliciting situations, and then estimated the degree to which the designated person would both feel and display specific emotions Subjects consistently estimated that people, including themselves, would feel more emotion than they displayed This discrepancy between experienced feeling and displayed feeling increased as a linear function of familiarity with the person The amount of undisplayed affect–the estimated “secret self”–was generally smallest for a casual acquaintance, greater for a moderate friend, still greater for a close friend, and greatest of all for the self The magnitude of this familiarity effect, however, varied with the social desirability of the emotion If an emotion was socially desirable, subjects estimated that familiar persons would both feel the emotion more and display it more than less familiar others would If an emotion was socially undesirable, subjects also estimated that familiar others would feel it more than unfamiliar others would However, they estimated that familiar and less familiar others would display socially undesirable emotions to about the same degree, and estimated that they themselves would display these emotions significantly less than others Consequently, although subjects always perceived
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny: Relations to Self‐Esteem and Social Desirability
Authors: Marsh Herbert W. , Antill John K. , Cunningham John D.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT The present investigation is a reanalysis of data from Antill and Cunningham (1979,1980) consisting of responses to five Masculinity‐Femininity (MF) instruments, two self‐esteem instruments, and two social desirability instruments The present study examined recently developed models of the MF/ esteem relation and the influence of social desirability on this relation The unique contribution of Masculinity (M) to esteem was consistently more positive than that of Femininity (F) which was either ml or negative, did not vary with sex as posited by sex‐typed models, and did not interact with F as posited by interactive androgyny models Partialing out the effects of social desirability failed to alter the general pattern of results In contrast to esteem, social desirability was more correlated with F than M, and these findings were consistent with the observation that esteem items may reflect stereotypically masculine characteristics whereas social desirability items reflect stereotypically feminine characteristics The findings of the present study, and those of previous research, were examined in relation to important methodological issues that have been largely ignored by previous research in this area
The Changing Self: Using Personal Documents to Study Lives
Authors: Stewart Abigail J. , Franz Carol , Layton Lynne
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT In this paper we describe a technique for coding expressions of preoccupation with aspects of the adult self in personal documents and retrospective autobiographical writings In particular we explore the value of this approach by analyzing themes of identity, intimacy, and generativity expressed in Vera Brittain's diary and correspondence, written during her adolescence in World War I, and in her retrospective autobiographical account of that period in her life Analyses aim to use Erikson's theory of personality development to describe her psychological experience at the time and to compare that account with the later one
Global Self‐Evaluation and Changes to Self‐Description as a Function of Information Discrepancy and Favorability
Authors: Shrauger J. Sidney , Kelly Robert J.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT In three studies we attempted to account for differences in high and low self‐confidence subjects’ acceptance of favorable and unfavorable self‐relevant statements At issue was whether acceptance was determined only by the degree of discrepancy with people's initial beliefs, about those specific statements or also by the discrepancy with their general level of confidence In Studies 1 and 2 subjects were given a personality description containing an equal number of statements with which they had either agreed or disagreed earlier and which were either favorable or unfavorable High‐confidence subjects accepted favorable statements more than unfavorable ones, whereas low‐confidence subjects accepted both types equally High‐confidence subjects tended to accept favorable statements more and unfavorable statements less than low‐confidence subjects These patterns occurred even though subjects’ initial agreement with the statements was comparable In Study 3 a similar shift in endorsements occurred even when the statements were not described as being based on personality test feedback Factors accounting for these differential endorsements were discussed
The Effects of Success and Failure on Children's Use of Defense Mechanisms
Authors: Cramer Phebe , Gaul Robin
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT The effects of moderate stress on the use of defense mechanisms by 64 second‐ and sixth‐graders were determined The use of denial, projection, and identification was assessed from stones told to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) prior to, and subsequent to, an experimentally controlled experience of success or failure Subjects who experienced failure were more likely to use the lower level defenses of denial and projection, while the experience of success was followed by greater use of identification The results also were consistent with previous studies in demonstrating age and sex differences in the use of defense mechanisms
On the Integration of Nomothetic and Idiographic Research Methods in the Study of Personal Meaning
Authors: Hermans Hubert J. M.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT This study presents the technique of self‐investigation as a research tool for the study of personal meaning from the perspective of the general and the particular After reviewing the nomothesis‐idiography debate, I argue that personality psychology can benefit from a combination of nomothetic and idiographic research methodologies This creates a need for new theoretical frameworks that incorporate both nomo‐concepts, enabling the study of people in general and idio‐concepts, enabling the psychologist to understand the particular world of the individual Allport's term “value” is reformulated as the idio‐concept “valuation,” which refers to personal meaning in an individual's history The term “affect,” as a central component in the process of valuation, is treated as a nomo‐concept The relation between the two concepts is demonstrated by studying specific concerns in the history of an individual as recurrent expressions of general winner and loser experiences
Recalled Parent‐Child Relations and Adult Personality
Authors: McCrae Robert R. , Costa Paul T.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
Adult children's ratings of their parents' behaviors on the Parent‐Child Relation Questionnaire II were correlated with self‐reports and peer ratings of personality on the NEO Personality Inventory in a sample of 619 men and women aged 21 to 96 Individuals who reported that their parents were loving scored lower in neuroticism and higher in extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness Individuals, especially men, who described their parents as casual rather than demanding were lower m extraversion and conscientiousness, but higher in openness Parental attention (i e, spoiling) was associated with extraversion and low agreeableness Several of these correlations were replicated when peer ratings of personality were examined However, all the associations were modest, and several alternative explanations suggest that the correlations may exaggerate the influence of these childrearing practices on adult personality Parental behaviors and attitudes seem to have less effect on broad dimensions of adult personality than traditionally supposed
Self‐Ratings of Personality: A Naturalistic Comparison of Normative, Ipsative, and Idiothetic Standards
Authors: Chaplin William F. , Buckner Kathryn E.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to examine some of the implicit standards that individuals may use when they rate themselves on personality dimensions Specifically, we compared ratings based on instructions that specified normative, ipsative, or idiothetic creteria with ratings obtained when subjects used their own (implicit) standards In a series of three studies, we found that each of the explicit ratings was highly similar to the implicit‐standard ratings and that there were substantial individual differences in the relative similarity of each of the explicit ratings to the implicit ratings However, because the normative instructions elicited less extreme responses than any of the other instructions, there was a small but consistent tendency for them to be less similar to the ratings based on implicit standards than the ipsative or idiothetic ratings The implications of this research for personality assessment and self‐evaluation are discussed
Children's Behavioral Inhibition Over Age and Across Situations: Genetic Similarity for α Trait During Change
Authors: Matheny Adam P.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Ratings of behaviors pertaining to inhibition were observed for 130 twins participating in a longitudinal study Ratings were available for four ages (12, 18, 24, and 30 months) and from three sources at each age direct observations obtained in a laboratory setting, direct observations obtained in conjunction with infant mental testing, and a temperament measure from a questionnaire completed by parents For the individual twins, the age‐to‐age correlations were in the moderate range (26 to 64) The situation‐to‐situation correlations were generally in the same range (17 to 64) When the twins were recombined into twin pairs, within‐pair (intraclass) correlations indicated that monozygotic (MZ) twins were more concordant than dizygotic (DZ) twins for each of the behaviors at each of the ages Also, the MZ twins were more concordant for the direction and degree of behavioral change from age to age or from situation to situation These data provide additional evidence for the biological influence on behavioral inhibition, a characteristic that has been studied in temperament and personality research The results suggest that the trait of behavioral inhibition and a change in the trait are genetically conditioned in addiction, it is suggested that the concept of trait be expanded to include the person‐centered biological regulation of change
Comparing Idiothetic, Ipsative, and Normative Indices of Consistency
Authors: Rogers James H. , Widiger Thomas A.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Lamiell's (1981) “idiothetic” index has been praised for raising significant conceptual and methodological issues, but Paunonen and Jackson (1986a) indicated that it might not provide any unique information The current study demonstrates that the unique value of the idiothetic index relative to the ipsative, normative, and normative‐ipsative indices is dependent in part upon what information is collected and how it is analyzed Subjects completed inventories on three occasions that assessed seven dispositional variables Interindividual analyses indicated a high correlation between the idiothetic method and two of the other models, whereas intra‐individual analyses indicated a much lower degree of correlation Intra‐individual analyses indicated that the idiothetic method produced higher temporal stability coefficients The idiothetic index provides information not contained in a normative index and it may be more useful to personality researchers for the assessment of temporal stability and for the assessment of traits with extreme base rates
Masculinity and Femininity: A Bipolar Construct and Independent Constructs
Authors: Marsh Herbert W. , Antill John K. , Cunningham John D.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT The present investigation is a reanalysis of data from Antill and Cunningham (1979, 1980, Marsh, Antill, & Cunningham, 1987) consisting of responses to five masculinity‐femininity (MF) instruments, two self‐esteem instruments, and two social desirability scales Correlations between M and F for the five instruments varied from 23 to approximately ‐ 10, support for distinguishable (nonbipolar) M and F factors was found for four of the instruments Applying confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and hierarchical CFA (HCFA), the present study examined the dimensionality of MF and the influence of method/ halo effects m response to specific instruments The best fitting model identified three higher order factors, in support of traditional personality theories one factor was a bipolar MF construct, but m support of androgyny theory the other two factors were distinguishable M and F factors The factor structures were reasonably invanant for men and women, and methodological implications of this important finding were examined In subsequent analyses, the higher order MF factors were related to self‐esteem, social desirability, and gender in order to further test interpretations of the MF factors.
Shakespeare's Sonnets: A Case of and for Single–Case Historiometry
Authors: Simonto Dean Keith
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT The two oldest forms of psychohistory, as generically defined, are psychobiography (Idiographic, qualitative, and single‐case) and historiometry (nomothetic, quantitative, and multiple‐case) In practice this distinction gets blurred, both because psychobiography is often nomothetic (e g, psychoanalytic) and because historiometry may work with N= 1 After outlining the assets of single‐case historiometry, a specific case is given in an analysis of the 154 sonnets of William Shakespeare These sonnets were first reliably differentiated on aesthetic success according to an archival popularity measure, and then this relative ment was predicted using content analytical measures suggested by research on artistic creativity The superior sonnets (a) treat specific themes, (b) display considerable thematic richness in the number of issues discussed, (c) exhibit greater linguistic complexity as gauged by such objective measures as the type‐token ratio and adjective‐verb quotient, and (d) feature more primary process imagery (using Martindale's Regressive Imagery Dictionary) After discussing how these results can enlarge our general understanding of artistic creativity as well as our specific appreciation of Shakespeare's creativity, the potential application of single‐case historiometry to intrinsically psychobiographical problems is examined
The Role of Sympathy and Altruistic Personality Traits in Helping: A Reexamination
Authors: Eisenberg Nancy , Miller Paul A. , Schaller Mark , Fabes Richard A. , Fultz Jim , Shell Rita , Shea Cindy L.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
The purposes of this study were (a) to examine the role of social evaluative concerns in the self‐report of sympathy and in the relation of sympathy to helping, and (b) to determine the role of “altruistic personality” traits and situationally induced vicarious emotional responses in the intention to help Dispositional and situational self‐reports of sympathy and other vicarious emotional reactions were obtained for persons who also were given the opportunity to assist a needy other Moreover, dispositional measures of concern with social evaluation and an altruistic orientation were obtained, and a bogus pipeline manipulation was instituted for half the study participants Both dispositional and situational self‐reported sympathy were positively related to helping, as were other personality indices viewed as reflecting altruistic characteristics The relations for the dispositional indices of sympathy were not due solely to social evaluative concerns or to other egoistic concerns The effects on intended helping of dispositional sympathy, perspective taking, and the tendency to ascribe responsibility for others to the self appeared to be both direct and mediated by situational sympathetic responding Finally, situational sadness did not mediate the effects of sympathetic responsiveness
Letters From V: Adolescent Personality Development in Sociohistorical Context
Authors: Espin Oliva M. , Stewart Abigail J. , Gomez Cynthia A.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Systematic content analysis of personal documents is used to assess the course of personality development in one adolescent female exposed to traumatic historical and personal events, as well as more normative life changes Seventy‐one letters written by a young girl to her former teacher over a 9‐year period comprise the data for this study. Our analyses assess the normal developmental processes of preoccupation with identity formation and the establishment of intimate relationships, as well as responses to life changes (emigration, marriage, pregnancy) Overall, results suggest that despite serious challenges and losses, this individual experienced normal personality development throughout her trying adolescence. In addition, particular life events affected the course of that development. Factors which may have facilitated her resilience are discussed
Distress and Restraint as Superordinate Dimensions of Self‐Reported Adjustment: A Typological Perspective
Authors: Weinberger Daniel A. , Schwartz Gary E.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Individual differences in distress and restraint have recently been validated as two superordinate dimensions of social‐emotional adjustment (Weinberger, 1989) In two samples (N1= 139, N2= 136) of university students, scores on these dimensions were jointly used to define six higher order personality styles reactive, sensitized, oversocialized, undersocialized, self‐assured, and repressive To evaluate this typology, group differences were investigated on 28 measures within seven domains related to adjustment self‐expression, emotional control, proneness to personality disorders, physical illness, self‐concept, neurotic symptoms, and impulse gratification One‐way multivariate analyses of variance revealed significant group differences within each domain Univariate analyses revealed significant differences on 26 of the 28 measures and marginally significant differences on the remaining 2 A large number of nonadditive patterns consistent with a priori group descriptions corroborated the utility of a person‐centered, typological approach The data also provided an empirically derived, prototypic description of each adjustment style
Self‐Esteem, Self‐Handicapping, and Self‐Presentation: The Strategy of Inadequate Practice
Authors: Tice Dianne M. , Baumeister Roy F.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT In two experiments we investigated the causes of low preparatory effort (minimal practicing for an upcoming event that is to be evaluated), a possible form of self‐handicapping Experiment 1 found that people with high self‐esteem practiced less than people with low self‐esteem, although a prior experience of success eliminated this difference Experiment 2 showed that people with high self‐esteem practiced less only when the practice duration was publicly known, indicating that they were using a strategic self‐presentational ploy rather man responding to superior confidence This difference may reflect a desire to maximize the self‐presentation of high ability by appearing to succeed despite minimal preparatory effort These results suggest that this form of self‐handicapping is a strategy used by highly confident individuals in uncertain situations to make a favorable impression on others
The Structured Nonverbal Assessment of Personality
Authors: Paunonen Sampo V. , Jackson Douglas N. , Keinonen Mirja
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT This article describes the development of a structured nonverbal measure of personality based on Murray's (1938) system of needs. The items of the Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire consist of line drawings of a central figure performing trait‐relevant behaviors in specific situations; respondents are asked to indicate the likelihood of engaging in similar behaviors. The nonverbal form was administered to three Canadian samples of respondents and one Finnish sample. Reliability and validity data for the initial item pool and for a revised form are reported. The utility of the nonverbal inventory for cross‐cultural and theoretical work in personality is discussed.
Personality Correlates of Confidence in One's Decisions
Authors: Wolfe Raymond N. , Grosch James W.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Taylor and Brown (1988) hypothesized that certain illusions, such as unrealistic optimism, are predictably associated with positive affect, social skills, and intellectual functioning. To test this hypothesis, we obtained data from 162 students who first filled out a questionnaire containing dispositional measures of affect, social skills, and approaches to problem solving; in a second session they completed three tasks requiring difficult decisions, reporting their confidence in each decision. Accuracy of judgments was found to vary considerably from task to task, but confidence ratings showed a consistent pattern of individual differences. This result lent support to Taylor and Brown's hypothesis, as did other features of the data, most notably several small but significant Pearson rs between confidence ratings and dispositional variables. Removing the effects of accuracy from these rs reduced their magnitude very little; it yielded partial rs interpretable as evidence that illusory confidence is associated with personality traits which, in this case, load saliently on factors labeled (a) affective, and (b) cognitive/social.
The Influence of Public Self‐Consciousness and the Audience's Characteristics on Withdrawal from Embarrassing Situations
Authors: Froming William J. , Corley Eric B. , Rinker Laurie
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT Two studies examined the impact of public self‐consciousness (PSC) and the audience's characteristics on withdrawal from embarrassing situations In Study 1 subjects verbally responded to a series of hypothetical events of an embarrassing nature before audiences described as either strangers or friends Subjects high in PSC expressed similar tendencies to withdraw no matter who the audience was, whereas low PSC subjects reported that they were less likely to withdraw when the audience was composed of friends as compared to strangers Study 2 had high and low PSC subjects perform an embarrassing act in front of either a friend or two types of strangers–those they either would or would not interact with in the future Low PSC subjects withdrew sooner from an audience of strangers they would have to interact with than from either an audience of friends or strangers they would never see again Again, high PSC subjects responded similarly to the three audiences They tended to withdraw quickly no matter who the audience was Discussion focuses on the role situational and dispositional factors play in withdrawal from embarrassing situations
Responses of the Socially Anxious to the Prospect of Interpersonal Evaluation
Authors: DePaulo Bella M. , Epstein Jennifer A. , LeMay Carol Steele
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT We predicted that socially anxious people who are faced with the prospect of an interpersonal evaluation will act in an inhibited and withdrawn way Subjects who scored low or high on a measure of social anxiety told four stories about themselves to an interviewer In the anticipated‐evaluation condition, the subjects learned that after they had told their stories, the interviewer would tell them her impressions of them In the control condition, no mention was made of an evaluation Judges rated transcripts of the stories As predicted, socially anxious subjects who thought they were going to be evaluated (relative to anxious subjects in the control condition and nonanxious subjects in both conditions) told shorter stories, and the events in their stories were commonplace rather than unique Their stories were also less revealing about them as individuals, and less vivid Contrary to a second prediction, socially anxious subjects who expected to be evaluated did not act any less inhibited or withdrawn when their interviewers were described as very trusting than when they were described as very wary Implications are discussed
On the Universality of Human Nature and the Uniqueness of the Individual: The Role of Genetics and Adaptation
Authors: Tooby John , Cosmides Leda
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
The concept of a universal human nature, based on a species‐typical collection of complex psychological adaptations, is defended as valid, despite the existence of substantial genetic variation that makes each human genetically and biochemically unique These apparently contradictory facts can be reconciled by considering that (a) complex adaptations necessarily require many genes to regulate their development, and (b) sexual recombination makes it improbable that all the necessary genes for a complex adaptation would be together at once in the same individual, if genes coding for complex adaptations varied substantially between individuals Selection, interacting with sexual recombination, tends to impose relative uniformity at the functional level in complex adaptive designs, suggesting that most heritable psychological differences are not themselves likely to be complex psychological adaptations Instead, they are mostly evolutionary by‐products, such as concomitants of parasite‐driven selection for biochemical individuality An evolutionary approach to psychological variation reconceptualizes traits as either the out‐put of species‐typical, adaptively designed developmental and psychological mechanisms, or as the result of genetic noise creating perturbations in these mechanisms
Sir Francis Galton, Epigenetic Rules, Genetic Similarity Theory, and Human Life‐History Analysis
Authors: Rushton J. Philippe
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
In this article, an evolutionary perspective is applied to individual differences Among the issues discussed are (a) the seminal contributions of Francis Galton and the subsequent ideological reaction, (b) the distalproximal continuum for understanding levels of explanation in social behavior, (c) consistent patterns of group differences in behavior (age, sex, social class, and race), (d) the heritability of personality and the role epigenetic rules play in guiding development in one direction over alternatives, (e) the genetic similarity theory perspective on friendship and mate choice, and (f) the view that personality is part of an r‐K reproductive strategy involving a compensatory exchange between the production of gametes and parental care It is suggested in conclusion that personality traits be considered aspects of a coordinated life cycle deeply embedded in evolutionary history
Personality and the Problems of Everyday Life: The Role of Neuroticism In Exposure and Reactivity to Daily Stressors
Authors: Bolger Niall , Schilling Elizabeth A.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT This article investigates mechanisms through which neuroticism leads to distress in daily life. Neuroticism may lead to distress through exposing people to a greater number of stressful events, through increasing their reactivity to those events, or through a mechanism unrelated to environmental events. This article evaluates the relative importance of these three explanations. Subjects were 339 persons who provided daily reports of minor stressful events and mood for 6 weeks. Exposure and reactivity to these minor stressors explained over 40% of the distress difference between high‐ and low‐neuroticism subjects. Reactivity to stressors accounted for twice as much of the distress difference as exposure to stressors. These results suggest that reactions within stressful situations are more important than situation selection in explaining how neuroticism leads to distress in daily life.
Cognitive and Emotional Reactions to Daily Events: The Effects of Self‐Esteem and Self‐Complexity
Authors: Campbell Jennifer D. , Chew Barry , Scratchley Linda S.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT In this article we examine the effects of self‐esteem and self‐complexity on cognitive appraisals of daily events and emotional lability. Subjects (n= 67) participated in a 2‐week diary study; each day they made five mood ratings, described the most positive and negative events of the day, and rated these two events on six appraisal measures. Neither self‐esteem nor self‐complexity was related to an extremity measure of mood variability. Both traits were negatively related to measures assessing the frequency of mood change, although the effect of self‐complexity dissipated when self‐esteem was taken into account. Self‐esteem (but not self‐complexity) was also related to event appraisals: Subjects with low self‐esteem rated their daily events as less positive and as having more impact on their moods. Subjects with high self‐esteem made more internal, stable, global attributions for positive events than for negative events, whereas subjects low in self‐esteem made similar attributions for both types of events and viewed their negative events as being more personally important than did subjects high in self‐esteem. Despite these self‐esteem differences in subjects' views of their daily events, naive judges (n= 63) who read the event descriptions and role‐played their appraisals of them generally did not distinguish between the events that had been experienced by low self‐esteem versus high self‐esteem diary subjects.
Narcissism, Self‐Esteem, and Defensive Self‐Enhancement
Authors: Raskin Robert , Novacek Jill , Hogan Robert
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
This study investigates the relationships among narcissism, self‐esteem, and defensive self‐enhancement in samples of 60, 84, 300, and 57 subjects. Using various self‐report indices of these constructs we found that (a) defensive self‐enhancement is composed of two orthogonal components: grandiosity and social desirability; (b) grandiosity and social desirability independently predict self‐esteem and may represent distinct confounds in the measurement of self‐esteem, (c) narcissism is positively related to grandiose self‐enhancement (as opposed to social desirability), (d) narcissism is positively associated with both defensive and nondefensive self‐esteem, and (e) authority, self‐sufficiency, and vanity are the narcissistic elements most indicative of nondefensive self‐esteem. The results are consistent with several theories that postulate a two‐component model for self‐esteem regulation and personality development.
Task‐Intrinsic and Social‐Extrinsic Sources of Arousal for Motives Assessed in Fantasy and Self‐Report
Authors: Koestner Richard , Weinberger Joel , McClelland David C.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
A review of the literature on individual differences in motive dispositions points toward the importance of distinguishing between motives as assessed in fantasy and self‐report. We proposed that these two modes of assessment have identified independent motivational systems that influence behavior in different ways. Two experiments were designed to show that the two kinds of motives are unrelated to one another and are aroused by different factors in a performance situation. It was hypothesized that motives as assessed from fantasy (seen as implicit needs) are primarily aroused by factors intrinsic to the process of performing an activity, whereas motives obtained through self‐report inventories (seen as self‐attributed needs) are aroused by social factors that are extrinsic to the process of performing an activity (e.g., the way in which a task is presented by an experimenter). In the first experiment, performance on a memory task was shown to depend on the interaction of subjects' self‐reported motive for achievement with achievement‐arousing instructions, whereas performance on a word‐finding puzzle depended on the interaction of subjects' fantasy need for achievement with the puzzle's level of intrinsic challenge. A second experiment generalized these findings to the power domain.
Do Students with Different Characteristics Take Part in Psychology Experiments at Different Times of the Semester?
Authors: Cooper Harris , Baumgardner Ann H. , Strathman Alan
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT
In this study we examined 15 personality and demographic differences between psychology students who took part in experiments at different times of the semester and different times of the day. In general, few significant relations were found and those that did emerge were small in magnitude. Females and freshmen signed up for experiments earlier in the semester. Females took part in their first experiment earlier in the semester, as did students who were Protestant and who came from smaller home towns. Students low in self‐consciousness also tended to begin participating earlier. Extraverts participated earlier in the day than introverts. Results generally were consistent with previous findings of differences between research volunteers and non‐volunteers. However, it was concluded that because of their small magnitude and inconsistency from site to site, with a few precautions experimenters probably need not be concerned that timing effects threaten the external validity of psychological research outcomes.