bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Economic Deregulation and the Least Affluent: Consumer Protection Strategies
Authors: Brobeck Stephen
Published: April 2010

In the past decade, legislators and regulators fully or partially deregulated eight major industries. The deregulation of natural gas, depository banking, and telephone services in particular had profound effects on low‐income households. This paper examines these impacts and the reaction of consumers, consumer advocates, and public policymakers. It finds many parallels in related economic, psychological, and political developments resulting from deregulation of the three industries. It also suggests implications for research on economic deregulation, low‐income consumers, and the consumer movement.
The Quest for Human Nature: Social and Scientific Issues in Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Caporael Linnda R. , Brewer Marilynn B.
Published: April 2010

Historically, evolutionary theory applied to human behavior has often been used to explain and justify existing social arrangements and institutions. Biological explanations of human social behavior tend to be ideologically and politically reactive. A politicized biology is an obstacle to socially responsible scientists who seek to use evolutionary theory in their work. The papers in this volume represent an attempt to recapture human evolutionary theory by framing it as an interdisciplinary, reflexive endeavor that can transcend old‐style biological determinism and nature‐nurture debates.
Bodies and Minds: Dualism in Evolutionary Theory
Authors: Oyama Susan
Published: April 2010

As more social scientists adopt an evolutionary perspective, it becomes increasingly important to reflect upon the relevance of evolutionary theory to human behavior. The distinction between biologically based “nature” and environmental “nurture,” however, continues to create conceptual difficulties. One problem is that “nature” tends to be associated with the body, so that the innate‐acquired distinction partially parallels the one between the body and the mind. A brief exploration of this parallel is followed by a discussion of the assumptions that biological nature is intractable and fundamentally selfish. These assumptions raise particular concerns when human nature is at issue, for such ideas about biological nature are incorporated into our deepest beliefs about what it is to be human and what a human society must be like.
Exaptation: A Crucial Tool for an Evolutionary Psychology
Authors: Gould Stephen Jay
Published: April 2010

Evolutionary theory lacks a term for a crucial concept—a feature, now useful to an organism, that did not arise as an adaptation for its present role, but was subsequently coopted for its current function. I call such features “exaptations” and show that they are neither rare nor arcane, but dominant features of evolution—though previously unappreciated in the context of the overly adaptationist neo‐Darwinian theory. This article argues that exaptation overcomes the fallacy of human sociobiology, helps us to understand the major patterns of flexibility and contingency in life's history, revises the roles of structure and function in evolutionary theory, serves as a centerpiece for grasping the origin and meaning of brain size in human evolution, and thereby cries out for recognition as a key to evolutionary psychology. Historical origin and current utility are distinct concepts and must never be conflated.
Ideological Commitments in Evolutionary Theories
Authors: Rapoport Anatol
Published: April 2010

The controversy over the theory of evolution raging in the 19th century was especially intense over the descent of humankind, since the linkage of our species to nonhuman ancestors challenged the creed of our uniqueness as possessors of a soul and as beings created in God's image. Since established religion in those days generally supported the political right, attacks on the theory of evolution came predominantly from that end of the political spectrum. In our day, sociobiologists seek to explain cultural differences by genetic variation. Ironically, this approach, which weakens the case for the uniqueness of humankind, is associated by the critics of sociobiology with the political right. The controversy illustrates the important role of ideological commitment even in the context of natural science.
Sexual Selection, Parental Investment, and Sexism
Authors: Travis Cheryl Brown , Yeager C. P.
Published: April 2010

The application of sociobiological concepts such as sexual selection and parental investment to the understanding of human behavior has been accorded credibility by the appearance of scientific objectivity, but has also contributed to a persistent sexism that is detailed in this paper. Basic assumptions of sociobiological theories of sexual selection and parental investment are outlined, and both the theoretical limits and contradictory data associated with these concepts are reviewed. We argue that the persistent widespread adherence to simplified and often erroneous models derived from these concepts reflects a social construction of gender that is relatively independent of the facts. Several mechanisms by which this social construction is accomplished are discussed, including androcentric reference points, prejudicial language, biased selection of examples, deprecation of environmental and contextual factors, and differential application of standards of evidence.
Ranking and Linking as a Function of Sex and Gender Role Attitudes
Authors: Sidanius Jim , Cling B. J. , Pratto Felicia
Published: April 2010

A great deal of empirical research has shown that many of the behavioral and attitudinal differences found between males and females can be conceptualized as falling within the domains of “ranking” and “linking” orientations. This paper explores the three major paradigms that can be and have been used to explain the etiology of these male‐female differences: (a) cultural determinism, (b) biological determinism, and (c) biocultural interactionism. It argues that, although there is no definitive evidence in support of any of these three major explanatory paradigms, the cultural and biological deterministic paradigms are difficult to reconcile with a good deal of empirical evidence. Hence, understanding male‐female differences as a complex interaction between biological and cultural factors may be a more fruitful approach.
Individual and Cultural Differences in Response to Leaders' Nonverbal Displays
Authors: Masters Roger D.
Published: April 2010

Humans share a repertoire of nonverbal displays with other primates, but they integrate these cues with learned information in a complex manner. In politics, as in other spheres of life, individuals in a given situation not only react differently, but even see different things. Building on research in ethology, social psychology, and cognitive neuroscience, this research used variations in leaders' facial displays to elicit differing emotional and cognitive responses. Effects associated with the viewer's sociocultural background, personality, and gender were found to be distinct in character. Cultural differences entail patterns of evaluating cues whereas the influence of personality is mediated by differential perceptions. Gender differences seem to involve an interaction of both types of effect. Evolutionary psychology can thus explore how emotion and cognition interact when humans' natural repertoire of social behavior is expressed in meaningful situations.
The Role of Evolution in Ethnocentric Conflict and Its Management
Authors: Ross Marc Howard
Published: April 2010

Although ethnocentric conflict is perhaps the most intractable political problem of our times, we understand it very incompletely. A useful explanation must be evolutionarily informed, but it must go beyond inclusive fitness theory, the heart of sociobiology. Culturally evolved predispositions for human sociality and social identity are also critical for explaining the intransigence of ethnocentric conflicts, and they could have evolved independently of, and even at odds with, biological evolution. Sociobiological theory produces either resignation or inefficacious action proposals to manage ethnic conflicts, and it ignores the peacemaking relevance of culturally evolved predispositions, which can help ethnic groups to manage conflict in constructive ways.
Perceptions of Control in Vulnerable Populations
Authors: Thompson Suzanne C. , Spacapan Shirlynn
Published: April 2010

A lack of control is a critical social issue when it is experienced by individuals who already have little opportunity to exercise control; thus, this journal issue brings together research on a number of vulnerable populations: children, medical patients, lower level employees, and the elderly. Because of the diverse populations to which this concept has been applied, the perceived control literature is diffuse and fragmented. This article covers the positive outcomes associated with a sense of control—emotional well‐being, successful coping with stress, good health, desired behavior changes, and improved performance. It also identifies common themes that cut across work in this area—the conceptualization and measurement of control, threats to control, conditions that determine the effects of control, and interventions to enhance control. Finally, it suggests how this work may be applied to enhance the well‐being of other vulnerable segments of our society.
Perceived Control and Coping with Stress: A Developmental Perspective
Authors: Compas Bruce E. , Banez Gerard A. , Malcarne Vanessa , Worsham Nancy
Published: April 2010

This article discusses developmental changes in perceptions of control, the relationship between perceived control and strategies used by children to cope with stress, and the interaction between perceived control and coping in their association with psychological adjustment and disorder. Developmental research on children's perceptions of control has identified both changes and consistencies in contingency, competence, and control beliefs during childhood and early adolescence. Developmental changes in coping have also been documented, with problem‐focused skills emerging during childhood, and more rapid development of emotion‐focused coping skills during later childhood and early adolescence. Studies have shown that perceptions of control are related to the ways that children and adolescents cope with stress. The implications of this research for interventions aimed at enhancing children's problem‐solving and coping skills are discussed.
Control Versus Autonomy During Early Adolescence
Authors: Eccles Jacquelynne S. , Buchanan Christy Miller , Flanagan Constance , Fuligni Andrew , Midgley Carol , Yee Doris
Published: April 2010

Research and theorizing about adult control have often made seemingly conflicting recommendations and predictions about the potential impact of that control on children's social and intellectual development. Researchers concerned with intrinsic motivation have argued for minimal use of controlling strategies with children; other researchers, in contrast, argue that relatively high levels of adult control, when exercised in an emotionally supportive relationship, produce the best developmental consequences. Optimal levels of control undoubtedly change as children grow older. Person‐environment fit theory suggests that the match between the child's need for autonomy and the amount of adult control exercised is critically important. This article puts this theory into a developmental framework, and suggests that parents and teachers need to modulate their levels of control based on the developmental stage of the child. Optimal developmental outcomes ought to result from an environment that gradually reduces adult control as the child's desire for autonomy increases. Evidence from the Michigan Study of Adolescent Life Transitions is presented to support this hypothesis.
Adult Development, Control, and Adaptive Functioning
Authors: Schulz Richard , Heckhausen Jutta , Locher Julie L.
Published: April 2010

This article examines variations in control over the adult life course and their relation to adaptive functioning. First, normative adult physical declines and the age‐graded structure of western societies are described, in order to identify biological and societal constraints on exercising primary control. The central theme of this article is that primary control first increases as humans develop from infancy through middle age and then decreases in old age. In order to minimize losses in and maintain the potential for primary control, individuals increasingly rely on cognitively based secondary control processes during middle and old age. Finally, the article reviews the diverse literatures bearing on control processes throughout the adult life course.
This Business of Topology
Authors: Back Kurt W.
Published: April 2010

Lewin's introduction of topological psychology was an exciting innovation as well as an object of ridicule. The reasons for its function as a fighting slogan for the Lewinian school and for its decline are analyzed. Topology provided a fruitful metaphor, but its mathematical use was insufficiently developed, partly because topology was an underdeveloped field of mathematics at the time. However, Lewin showed foresight in insisting on the need for a mathematics applicable to psychology. Modern developments in topology, especially catastrophe theory, are shown to be productive for psychological theory and its applications, thus justifying Lewin's intuition.
Metatheory and Field Theory in Social Psychology: Relevance or Elegance?
Authors: Gold Martin
Published: April 2010

Current common confusion about the nature of Lewin's field theory can be resolved by making a distinction between Lewin's psychological metatheory and his specific field theory. This clarification reveals a dilemma for social psychological theory: Either it must abandon that facet of Lewin's metatheory that is the source of theoretical elegance, or it will fail to fulfill the function of social psychology among the social sciences—to further understanding of the interrelationships between the individual and the social environment. Making this fundamental theoretical change will also help social psychology to realize the aspirations for relevance that Lewin had for it. A strategy for the future of social psychological theorizing is suggested, and the strategy is applied illustratively to the study of the social issue of victim blame.
An Application of Person—Environment Fit Theory: Perceived Versus Desired Control
Authors: Conway Terry L. , Vickers Ross R. , French John R. P.
Published: April 2010

A brief overview of Person—Environment Fit Theory and new findings applying this model to the area of perceived control are presented. This study examined whether different control constructs (i.e., perceived control, desired control, and “misfit” between perceived and desired control) are all important for predicting psychological adjustment. Respondents included 622 men and women who participated in a six‐month longitudinal panel study. Misfit measures for three sources of control (internal, others, and chance) accounted for significant variance independent of the variance accounted for by perceived and desired control measures. In general, either too much or too little perceived control relative to the amount desired tended to be associated with more psychological “strain.”
Mobilization to Achieve Collective Action and Democratic Majority/Plurality Amplification
Authors: Rosenwein Robert E. , Campbell Donald T.
Published: April 2010

This article extends the exchange between William Graebner, Miriam Lewin, and Ronald Lippitt concerning the politics and ethics of “democratic social engineering” and “action research.” It proposes the hypothesis that mobilization for collective action in a democracy requires majority/plurality power amplification. Areas of social science research are reinterpreted in light of this hypothesis, focusing on the conflict between mobilizing for collective action through majority I plurality amplification and the democratic injunction to protect minority voices. The ambivalence of those engaged in action research, and the roles social scientists take in these efforts, may reflect this conflict.
A Lewinian Approach to Intergroup Workshops for Arab‐Palestinian and Jewish Youth
Authors: Bargal David , Bar Haviva
Published: April 2010

This article utilizes three areas of knowledge derived from field theory to conceptualize and analyze the planning and conduct of conflict management workshops for Arab and Jewish youth in Israel. The three areas of knowledge are ethnic identity and majority—minority relations, a theory of individual change within a social group, and principles of action research. The central field‐theoretical concepts in each of these areas were applied to contemporary conflict management workshops. Among the products of this action research were changes in participants' attitudes, development of methods for the training and support of trainers, and accumulated knowledge regarding the differences between the two ethnic groups in communication and interpersonal styles.
Abortion, Public Health Policy, and Informed Consent Legislation
Authors: Wilmoth Gregory H.
Published: April 2010

This article presents the historical and policy background for the articles comprising this volume on psychological perspectives on abortion. President Reagan brought new life to public health concerns about abortion. Although Surgeon General Koop concluded that the scientific evidence was inadequate to say whether abortion did or did not cause psychological harm, debate continues. This article describes this debate and the policy differences between pro‐life and pro‐choice advocates. “Right‐to‐know” (informed consent) legislation is presented as a case study of how policy based on inadequate and flawed research evidence will result in implementation problems.
Prevalence of Psychological Risks Following Legal Abortion in the U.S.: Limits of the Evidence
Authors: Wilmoth Gregory H. , de Alteriis Martin , Bussell Danielle
Published: April 2010

The incidence of psychological problems following abortion is hotly debated. This article uses a methodological critique of the key research to argue that prevalence rates for psychological risks following legal abortions in the U.S. should be viewed with great caution. Knowledge of prevalence alone, however, is inadequate for policy decisions. Information is also needed about the risks associated with the policy options intended to replace abortion (relative risk). Studies that used a comparison group have shown that the psychological risks associated with abortion are similar to those associated with childbirth. Furthermore, past research cannot answer whether abortion causes psychological responses that sometimes occur. We conclude that, although the studies cited by pro‐choice advocates are much more methodologically sound than those cited by pro‐life advocates, decisions about what risks are acceptable are largely political decisions rather than scientific ones.
The Adoption Alternative for Pregnant Adolescents: Decision Making, Consequences, and Policy Implications
Authors: Sobol Michael P. , Daly Kerry J.
Published: April 2010

It is estimated that approximately 3% of pregnant adolescents who carry to term will place their infant for adoption. Birth mothers who place for adoption have higher socioeconomic indices and are less influenced by a negative social network than are those who keep the child. As a result of placing an infant, birth mothers may experience an enduring sense of loss. This is exacerbated by the social blocking of open grieving and restricted opportunities to participate, even indirectly, in the life of the child. If adoption is to become a more frequently used pregnancy resolution option, then structural changes in the delivery of counseling and supportive services must be considered.
Born Unwanted: Long‐Term Developmental Effects of Denied Abortion
Authors: David Henry P.
Published: April 2010

Studied were 220 children born in 1961–1963 to Prague women twice denied abortion for the same pregnancy and 220 pair‐matched controls, whose mothers were also pair‐matched for socioeconomic status and the husband's or partner's presence in the home. All the children were born into intact homes, and they were medically, psychologically, and socially assessed at ages 9, 14–16, and 21–23. Findings show that differences between the two groups of children widened over time, always to the disadvantage of the unwanted children. In the aggregate, unwantedness in early pregnancy has a detrimental effect on children's psychosocial development. In adulthood, marital partners of the unwanted children were similar to their spouses. Families founded by men or women unwanted in early pregnancy were more problem‐prone than families founded by individuals wanted or accepted in early pregnancy. A further follow‐up at age 30 is in progress.
A Theory of the Causes of Courtship Rape: Part 2
Authors: Shotland R. Lance
Published: April 2010

A theory is proposed that there may be as many as five varieties of courtship rape. Each type is described as arising at a different stage of a romantic relationship in terms of both the length of the relationship and previous sexual activity. Beginning date rape occurs during a couple's first few dates. Early date rape occurs after several dates but before the couple has established sexual ground rules. Relational rape occurs after the couple's sexual ground rules have been established. The remaining two forms of rape occur after a couple has or had an active sexual relationship, and they are distinguished by the presence or absence of battering. When this form occurs without physical abuse, it may be essentially the same as relational rape. Suggestions and hypotheses for testing this model are provided.
Sexual Violence in the Mass Media: Legal Solutions, Warnings, and Mitigation Through Education
Authors: Linz Daniel , Wilson Barbara J. , Donnerstein Edward
Published: April 2010

Depictions of sexual violence in the media can promote antisocial attitudes and behavior. Three approaches to the problem of sexual violence in the media are explored: (a) legal restrictions, (b) informational labeling, and (c) formal education. It is premature to advocate legal restrictions since existing research leaves too many questions unanswered. Informational labeling is not a viable solution because of problems inherent in the most widely used scheme, including the basic assumption that ratings should be based on what is offensive to parents rather than on what is assumed to be or known to be “harmful” to viewers. Research on educational interventions designed to mitigate the effects of exposure to sexual violence is discussed, and several promising procedures are identified.
Unfinished Business in Rape Law Reform
Authors: Goldberg‐Ambrose Carole
Published: April 2010

Substantial and widespread changes in federal and state rape laws, designed to advance the concerns of feminists and law enforcement interests, have gone into effect over the past 15 years. Some researchers who have tried to assess the effects of these reforms believe the changes have thwarted feminist goals; others have found little impact on case processing or victims' experiences; still others have pronounced the reform efforts a success. There are many obstacles to measuring and achieving rape reform, the most notable being the need to eliminate juror misconceptions about rape and its victims. Contemporary research and law reform should focus on the trial process, especially on how rules of evidence and methods of constructing a rape case relate to social perceptions about gender, coercion, and sexuality.
The Social Amplification of Risk: Theoretical Foundations and Empirical Applications
Authors: Renn Ortwin , Burns William J. , Kasperson Jeanne X. , Kasperson Roger E. , Slovic Paul
Published: April 2010

The social experience of risk is not confined to the technical definition of risk, i.e., the product of probability and magnitude. What human beings perceive as threats to their well‐being is influenced by their values, attitudes, social influences, and cultural identity. This article introduces the framework of social amplification of risk, which integrates the technical assessment and the social experience of risk. This viewpoint proposes that events pertaining to hazards interact with psychological, social, institutional, and cultural processes in ways that can heighten or attenuate individual and social perceptions of risk and shape risk behavior. An empirical study investigated the functional relationships among five sets of variables that enter into the amplification process: physical consequences, the amount of press coverage, individual layperson perceptions, public responses, and the socioeconomic and political impacts. It found that perceptions and social responses are more strongly related to exposure to risk than to its magnitude.
Psychological Mechanisms in the Human Use of Animals
Authors: Plous S.
Published: April 2010

American society uses millions of animals each day for food, recreation, and a variety of other purposes, yet psychologists—in contrast to other social scientists—have devoted very little attention to studying how people think about their use of animals. In this article, I propose that many factors supporting the use of animals are psychological in nature and are therefore legitimate topics for psychological research. After a brief review of research on attitudes toward the use of animals, I discuss several psychological factors that enable people to harm animals for human benefit: (1) structural variables that dissociate consumptive practices from the infliction of harm, (2) mechanisms that reduce personal conflict when dissociation is threatened, (3) ingroup‐outgroup biases, and (4) factors relating to the perceived similarity of animals and humans. Throughout, the emphasis is on opportunities for empirical research rather than ideological or philosophical arguments concerning animal rights.
Attitudes, Knowledge, and Behavior Toward Wildlife Among the Industrial Superpowers: United States, Japan, and Germany
Authors: Kellert Stephen R.
Published: April 2010

This paper examines attitudes, knowledge, and behavior toward wildlife in the United States, Japan, and Germany. These countries collectively account for some 40% of the world's gross national product, and they have a major impact on the global environment. A similar conceptual and methodological approach was used to study national samples in each country over a roughly ten‐year period. The primary conceptual approach was a typology of basic attitudes toward animals. The main methodological procedure involved closed‐ended surveys of national samples in each country. Respondents in each country had a distinctive pattern of basic attitudes, knowledge, and behavior toward wildlife and its conservation. These differences are described and interpreted in terms of the biogeographical, cultural, and historical characteristics of each country.
Attribution of Cognitive States to Animals: Anthropomorphism in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Eddy Timothy J. , Gallup Gordon G. , Povinelli Daniel J.
Published: April 2010

Subjects were asked to indicate the likelihood that each of 30 animals (chosen as exemplars of the major phylogenetic classes) could engage in three complex cognitive tasks. Subjects were also asked to rate the extent to which they felt each animal was similar to themselves and whether they felt the animal experienced the world in a manner similar to the way they experienced it. The results showed that in all cases the perceived similarity and inferred cognitive abilities of animals proceeded from lesser to greater in the following order: invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals (excluding dogs, cats, and primates). For pets (dogs and cats) and primates, there was a marked increase in perceived similarity and in the tendency to make attributions about complex cognitive characteristics. The data are discussed in the context of viewing anthropomorphism as a derivative of our ability to infer the mental states of conspecifics—an ability that evolved as a consequence of the need to take into account the experience and intentions of other humans. Although we routinely generalize this capacity to species other than our own, the evidence that the effects are reciprocal is extremely limited.
“The Movement Is My Life”: The Psychology of Animal Rights Activism
Authors: Herzog Harold A.
Published: April 2010

I used a qualitative research approach to investigate psychological aspects of involvement in the animal rights movement. Interviews were conducted with 23 rank‐and‐file activists, focusing on cognitive and emotional aspects of involvement with the movement, concomitant lifestyle changes, effects on interpersonal relations, and the happiness and well‐being of the participants. Three main themes emerged from these interviews. First, there was a surprising degree of diversity in attitudes and behavior of the activists. Second, animal rights activism usually entailed major changes in lifestyle; almost all interviewees strove to achieve consistency between their ideals and their actions. Third, there were several parallels between an involvement with the animal rights movement and religious conversion. The potential for increased communication between the animal protection and scientific communities is discussed.
The Case Against Laboratory Animal Research in Psychology
Authors: Bowd Alan D. , Shapiro Kenneth J.
Published: April 2010

The use of animals in psychological research and teaching raises complex scientific, social, and ethical questions. Indeed, the animal rights movement has specifically targeted behavioral research for its invasive procedures and often trivial or repetitive results. The response of the psychological establishment—particularly the American Psychological Association—has been to adopt a defensive posture and to trivialize the concerns of animal protectionists. However, a growing number of psychologists are expressing reservations about animal research on both scientific and ethical grounds. We discuss the dimensions of this debate and offer practical suggestions for the protection of animals in psychology, beginning with the provision of choice for students who object to the use of animals in classroom or laboratory demonstrations. We also advocate a shift from laboratory‐based invasive research to minimally manipulative naturalistic studies.
Introduction: An Entree for Social Scientists
Authors: Tangri Sandra S. , Levitin Teresa E.
Published: April 2010

This paper presents the reasons for having an issue of JSI on the topic of new medical technologies; the rationale for including perspectives of economists, sociologists, physicians, philosophers, and others; and the organization of the issue. It also presents the framework for the papers that was established by having each author address a common set of questions. Suggestions are made about how psychological theories and methods could be applied to the questions addressed. It is concluded that this is an important area for research, though relatively little work has been done by psychologists. It is hoped that this issue will encourage JSI readers to bring their conceptual and empirical skills to the issues raised in these articles.
Comparisons of Strategies to Prevent Breast Cancer Mortality
Authors: Bowen Deborah J. , Urban Nicole , Carrell David , Kinne Susan
Published: April 2010

A health system should meet the health needs of the population. Given limited resources, choices are made about problems—typically, diseases—to attack. Then, choices must be made as to how to identify, treat, and ultimately, prevent their occurrences. This process is the subject of this article; it uses the case of breast cancer to examine allocation of resources to disease prevention and treatment. The paper reviews current allocation patterns among three strategies for prevention: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Each varies with respect to where the disease process is halted and in the amount of technological support required. Currently, the U.S. health care system allocates most resources to tertiary prevention, with scant support of primary and limited support of secondary prevention. Possible explanations for the current allocation patterns are discussed. Areas where social sciences have made contributions are highlighted. Finally, cost‐effectiveness analyses are presented to illustrate a relatively balanced method for making decisions about future allocations.
New Reproductive Technologies: Equity and Access to Reproductive Health Care
Authors: Henifin Mary S.
Published: April 2010

While attention has focused on the promise of new reproductive technologies to provide cures for infertility, efforts aimed at preventing infertility have languished, and the major cause of infant morbidity and mortality—lack of prenatal care—has worsened. This article explores the social and ethical issues arising out of the uses of three new reproductive technologies: surrogacy, in vitro fertilization, and prenatal screening. In addition, coerced medical interventions during pregnancy are described. Examination of the social circumstances surrounding the use of these medical techniques supports the conclusion that new reproductive technologies have increased, rather than decreased, inequities in access to and allocation of health care resources.
Assistive Technology Policy: A Road to Independence for Individuals with Disabilities
Authors: Seelman Katherine D.
Published: April 2010

This article identifies and analyzes equity issues in assistive technology policy for adults with disabilities in the United States and makes recommendations for further research and advocacy. The following equity issues are considered: (a) who has access to assistive technology, (b) which technology is available, (c) who decides on the technology, and (d) who controls or determines the allocation of assistive technology. The discussion considers the role of stereotyping and discrimination in policy‐making and how these affect equity. There is a need to rethink the concepts of normal and abnormal, and to reformulate policy more on the basis of the values of empowerment, independence, and community integration.
Developing and Delivering New Medical Technologies: Issues Beyond Access
Authors: Juengst Eric T.
Published: April 2010

The articles in this issue illuminate psychosocial issues raised by the development and delivery of new medical technologies. Five kinds of questions surface repeatedly: questions about a technology's purpose(s), the value judgments it presumes, the locus of its control, the external forces that drive it, and its long‐term social risks. These questions take the discussion of new technologies beyond the challenge of improving access to their benefits. They also raise issues that will become increasingly important as the capabilities of medical technology expand. For example, they suggest research questions for three other emerging medical technologies: use of biosynthetic growth hormone to treat short stature in hormonally normal children, genetic tests on fetal cells from the circulating maternal blood, and development of clinically reliable biomarkers of the aging process. Part Three of this issue provides a theoretical basis for encouraging psychosocial perspectives in this arena, by illustrating the central role that “robust,” multifaceted analysis has come to play within the methods of bioethics.
Individualistic and Collectivistic Perspectives on Gender and the Cultural Context of Love and Intimacy
Authors: Dion Karen K. , Dion Kenneth L.
Published: April 2010

Individualism and collectivism help explain culture‐related differences in romantic love and in the importance of emotional intimacy in marriage. Three propositions are suggested: (a) Romantic love is more likely to be an important basis for marriage in individualistic than in collectivistic societies; (b) psychological intimacy in marriage is more important for marital satisfaction and personal well‐being in individualistic than in collectivistic societies; and (c) although individualism fosters the valuing of romantic love, certain aspects of individualism at the psychological level make developing intimacy problematic. Evidence pertaining to these propositions is considered based on conceptual and empirical accounts of romantic love and psychological intimacy in marriage in two individualistic societies (Canada and the United States) and three collectivistic societies (China, India, and Japan). In addition, we suggest that consideration of individualism and collectivism as these constructs pertain to gender provides a framework for interpreting gender differences in the reported experience of love and intimacy in North American society.
Traditional Gender Roles: Do They Make, and Then Break, our Relationships?
Authors: Ickes William
Published: April 2010

Despite societal pressure for change in traditional gender roles, the coevolution of genes and culture may still lead us to be attracted to potential mates whose appearance and behavior is stereotypically masculine or feminine. This attraction is ironic in light of a growing body of research evidence indicating that the relationships of men and women with traditional gender roles are far from optimal—and are generally worse than those of androgynous men and women. These seemingly paradoxical findings may reflect the conflict between what our genes and past culture dispose us to do and what our present culture prescribes.
In What Ways Do Gender‐Related Attributes and Beliefs Affect Marriage?
Authors: Huston Ted L. , Geis Gilbert
Published: April 2010

This article examines spouses' sex role ideology and personality dispositions in connection with marital behavior patterns. It shows that sex role ideology and sex typing in personality are distinct properties, that husbands and wives typically bring to marriage a mixture of gender‐related attributes and beliefs that, in turn, create marital behavior patterns that contain a variety of traditional and nontraditional elements. Spouses' sex role attitudes and the extent to which they possess stereotypic personality attributes, such as “masculinity” (instrumentality) and “femininity” (expressiveness), are examined in connection with marital roles, the extent to which spouses communicate positive and negative affect to each other, and the amount of time they spend with friends and family. The results suggest a new direction for studying the intersection of gender and relationships, one that moves beyond simplistic typologies that categorize marriages along a single dimension of traditionalism to one that examines the character and quality of the marriage as it is influenced by (or covaries with) particular gender‐related attributes and beliefs.
Gender, Entitlement, and the Distribution of Family Labor
Authors: Major Brenda
Published: April 2010

Research is reviewed demonstrating that although wives contribute a disproportionate share of the unpaid labor of the family (e.g., housework and childcare) compared to their husbands, they nonetheless report relative contentment with this unequal distribution. It is argued that wives' paradoxical contentment can be understood by considering men's and women's sense of personal entitlement with regard to what they should put into and receive from marriage in the domain of family work. Gender differences in entitlement are hypothesized to result from societal norms regarding women's and men's roles within the family, comparison processes, and justifications that legitimize an unequal division of family labor.
Gender as an Organizing Feature in Parent‐Child Relationships
Authors: Crouter Ann C. , McHale Susan M. , Bartko W. Todd
Published: April 2010

This article reviews findings from a longitudinal study of single‐earner and dual‐earner families with school‐age children. We first summarize similarities and differences in the experiences of boys and girls and their mothers and fathers in terms of three ongoing daily family processes: (1) parental monitoring of children's everyday experiences, whereabouts, and companions; (2) parent‐child involvement in joint activities; and (3) children's involvement in household chores. We then review findings linking these family processes and family context (single vs. dual earner) to boys' and girls' psychosocial functioning. These findings generally reveal different patterns of psychological adjustment, school achievement, conduct problems, and evaluations of parents as a function of the intersection of gender, family process, and family context. These themes are discussed in terms of the ecological perspective on human development.
Effects of Gender Role Expectations on the Social Support Process
Authors: Barbee Anita P. , Cunningham Michael R. , Winstead Barbara A. , Derlega Valerian J. , Gulley Mary R. , Yankeelov Pamela A. , Druen Perri B.
Published: April 2010

Based on a model of interactive coping activation, we review the impact of gender in the giving and receiving of emotion‐ and problem‐focused social support. The research suggests that the female role (emphasizing nurturance and emotional expressiveness) makes it easier for women to activate social support from close relations as well as to provide social support; whereas the male role (emphasizing achievement, autonomy, emotional control) makes it difficult for men to seek and obtain social support. Type of support required (social‐emotional vs. instrumental) may moderate when men and women are more effective in providing social support. The gender‐linked model of social support activation may be useful in diagnosing interpersonal problems in providing and obtaining social support.
Solidarity and Hierarchy in Cross‐Sex Friendships
Authors: McWilliams Susan , Howard Judith A.
Published: April 2010

The gender dynamics of cross‐sex friendships provide information about two fundamental aspects of all social relationships: solidarity and hierarchy. This article analyzes how gender stereotypes activated in cross‐sex friendships produce interpretations of behavior that, in turn, affect the solidarity, hierarchy, and ultimate viability of cross‐sex friendships. Given that females' behaviors are more likely to be interpreted in terms of gender stereotypes about women's prosociability, their behavior is less likely to produce hierarchy. In contrast, given that males' behaviors are more likely to be interpreted in terms of gender stereotypes about men's instrumentality, their behavior is more likely to produce hierarchy. Because hierarchy is an impediment to solidarity, the operation of gender stereotypes in cross‐sex friendships builds into such relationships the potential for their demise. The role of the broader social context in lessening the destructive impact of gender stereotypes is discussed.
Coping with Stressors on the Home Front
Authors: Figley Charles R.
Published: April 2010

This article seeks to correct the paucity of attention to the psychological impact on families of having a member engaged in war. The initial section focuses on the impact of the Persian Gulf War on military families, drawing upon family stress and coping and Miller's biological systems theory to help categorize and account for the stressors affecting these families at various strategic points in the Persian Gulf War: deployment, during the war, homecoming and reintegration, and long‐term reactions. The middle section focuses on the stress reactions and the factors that tend to mediate these reactions, such as effective methods of coping. Among the most significant yet widely overlooked reactions is secondary traumatization. The final section—based on both the extant research and the theoretical orientation articulated in section one—focuses on intervention. Among those interventions listed are programs that were successful during the Persian Gulf War. Implications for research and policy are noted.
Psychosocial Debriefing After Operation Desert Storm: Marital and Family Assessment and Intervention
Authors: Ford Julian D. , Shaw David , Sennhauser Shirley , Greaves David , Thacker Barbara , Chandler Patricia , Schwartz Lawrence , McClain Valerie
Published: April 2010

This article provides an overview of and initial empirical findings from a preventive clinical/educational model for psychosocial assessment and intervention with the families of Operation Desert Storm (ODS) veterans. Interview and questionnaire data were obtained (a) 2–6 months after demobilization from ODS from veteran/veteran or veteran/civilian spouse couples who received conjoint time‐limited therapy and veterans from the same Reserve and National Guard Units who received one‐to‐one time‐limited therapy and (b) 12–15 months after demobilization from veterans deployed during ODS with the same military units. Principal findings are as follows: (1) the trauma and strain of war‐zone military service, family separation, and subsequent family and community readjustment take a toll on a significant minority of ODS veterans and their families that is directly related to the stress symptomatology experienced by the veteran; and (2) with timely psychosocial intervention—based on life‐span developmental and self‐psychology, family systems theory, and a communitarian social integration model—veterans and families in distress are able to substantially resolve symptoms of psychosocial malfunctioning and even begin to accrue personal and systemic benefits from their ODS stressor experiences.
A Social Stage Model of Collective Coping: The Loma Prieta Earthquake and The Persian Gulf War
Authors: Pennebaker James W. , Harber Kent D.
Published: April 2010

When individuals face an emotional upheaval, they naturally talk and think about it. If they are unable to talk with others but continue to think about the event, they are at greater risk for a variety of psychological and health problems. Drawing on survey data gathered from San Francisco residents after the Loma Prieta Earthquake and from Dallas residents during and after the Persian Gulf War, we found evidence to support a social stage model of coping. Immediately after an upheaval, individuals openly talk and think about the event for approximately two weeks. Following this emergency stage, individuals progress into an inhibition stage wherein they stop talking about the upheaval but continue thinking about it for approximately six weeks. Certain indicators of distress, such as hostility and dreaming, peak during the inhibition phase. After this time, people enter an adaptation phase wherein they neither talk nor think about the upheaval. Implications for theory and interventions for both broad‐scale collective upheavals as well as personal traumas are discussed.
Changes in Integrative Complexity Among Middle East Leaders During the Persian Gulf Crisis
Authors: Suedfeld Peter , Wallace Michael D. , Thachuk Kimberly L.
Published: April 2010

Integrative complexity scoring was performed on almost 1250 paragraphs, whose source was the English transcription of materials produced by 14 Middle Eastern leaders between summer of 1990 and March, 1991. The data set was divided by leader, two levels of involvement in the Gulf crisis (high vs. peripheral), two political positions (adherence to pro‐ vs. anti‐Iraqi policies), and seven temporal phases of the crisis (before the invasion of Kuwait, during and shortly after the invasion, diplomatic/economic attempts at solution, the last two weeks before the U.N. deadline for Iraqi withdrawal, aerial counterattack, ground counterattack, and after the cease‐fire). Eight leaders provided sufficient material during at least four of the above phases for reliable scoring. Pro‐ and anti‐Iraq leaders showed complexity changes in opposite directions across most phases of the crisis, except that both sides declined during the attempt to find a peaceful solution (October‐December 1990). Individual changes, with particular attention to Saddam Hussein, are also analyzed. The results are interpreted in terms of cognitive management: the perceived costs and benefits of investing in particular strategies varying in complexity.