bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
High-Yielding Variety Policies in Africa
Authors: Cramer Christopher , Sender John , Oqubay Arkebe
Published: July 2020

Chapter 10 highlights policy priorities capable of generating large productivity improvements, balance of payments improvements, and big increases in employment, especially for rural women. Growth, structural transformation, and welfare improvements in African economies require a sustained high investment rate, led by public sector spending to maximize crowding in of private investment; they require state support for the development of ‘national champion’ firms (and farms); they cannot be sustained without a massive export drive; investment needs to be encouraged in specific kinds of labour-intensive economic activities. This ‘possibilist’ strategy depends developing capabilities for monitoring performance and disciplining recipients of state resources; among the relevant targets for firms are measures to encourage the effective organization and voice of the workers they employ. The strategy also has to include policies to expand the non-inflationary supply of basic wage goods, including intervention to manage grain prices.
A Fundamental Crisis
Authors: Primiero Giuseppe
Published: July 2020

This chapter reconstructs the historical background of the mathematical foundation of modern computing. At the beginning of the twentieth century,mathematical correctness and truth were under scrutiny and three main theoretical positions emerged in trying to offer anappropriatemethodological answer to theirdefinitions. The resulting debatewas the basis for explaining what it means to compute.
Computing and Deciding
Authors: Primiero Giuseppe
Published: July 2020

This chapter illustrates the basic tools of computability theory, essential to the formulation of the decision problem and the definition of the notion of computable function.
On the Nature of Algorithms
Authors: Primiero Giuseppe
Published: July 2020

This chapter generalizes the notion of mechanical computation in the larger context of the notion of algorithm. While general recursion and its different interpretations are a product of mathematical research of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, much older is theideathatknowledge shouldbebasedonfiniteanddefiniteprocedures.Despite these ancient origins, the nature of algorithms and how their formal and conceptual definition should be given are still debated today.
Specification and Implementation
Authors: Primiero Giuseppe
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers the need to understand the relation between specification and implementation of computing systems, and to clarify the problem of miscomputation.
Elements of Experimental Computing
Authors: Primiero Giuseppe
Published: July 2020

This Chapter starts by considering the third foundation: computing as an experimental science. It overviews the origin of the term, the early positions on experimental computer science and introduces two basic notions of computational hypothesis and computational experiment essential to the understanding of computing as an experimental discipline.
Formal Relations
Authors: Primiero Giuseppe
Published: July 2020

This chapter investigates further in formal detail the epistemic properties of the relations between computer simulations, models, and their target system. It reviews current analyses present in the relevant literature and advances a view on some formal methodological aspects required for a graded approach to such relations.
Friendship and Other Selves in Aristotle’s Ethics
Authors: Brill Sara
Published: July 2020

This chapter is a detailed exposition of the role of the concept of shared life in Aristotle’s thinking about the nature of friendship in both his Nicomachean and Eudemian Ethics. At its most vivid, the concept of shared life illuminates the nature of the highest forms of human friendship by designating the intimacy that arises from the sharing of one’s most cherished actions. Moreover, in his handling of two interlinked questions—whether the virtuous person needs friends and whether it is possible to be a friend to oneself—the concept of shared life emerges as essential to Aristotle’s investigation of the political conditions necessary for the performance of noble deeds, deeds which provide the polis with its final cause.
Polis-Dwellers
Authors: Brill Sara
Published: July 2020

This chapter offers an account of the bios of the human animal in light of Aristotle’s treatment of the lives of non-human animal collectives. This discussion is anchored in Aristotle’s claim that the regime (the politeia) is the way of life of the city, and it is argued that proper attention to the zoological lens informing Aristotle’s Politics requires us to view the relation between human being and polis as an intensified form of the relation between any animal and its proper habitat. Its intensity is due precisely to the forms of intimacy and estrangement made possible by the possession of language. The Politics’s sustained meditation on how to ensure the longevity of a city’s bios—its political ecology—must, then, be read as a necessary complement to its account of human nature, its anthropology.
The Commodification of Life
Authors: Brill Sara
Published: July 2020

This chapter traces the connection between Aristotle’s conception of property, his insistence on private ownership, and his eugenics legislation. For Aristotle, the ownership of property arises from a natal scene: the first “possession” is the sustenance one receives upon birth, which Aristotle explicitly casts not as a product of maternal labor but as a gift of nature. In so doing, the chapter argues, he both sets the stage for a hierarchy of life justified by appeal to the “natural” and sows the seeds for the very commodification of life that he will elsewhere diagnose as a function of the moral failure to discern how to live well and the evils of interest. This is especially clear in his account of the natural slave, a being whose bios has its end not in its own living but in the living of another.
Coda
Authors: Brill Sara
Published: July 2020

The coda summarizes the argument of the volume and explores the political valence of life in current scholarship. Recently, the scholarly tendency has been to query the political valence of life through the lens of Giorgio Agamben’s formulation of the zōē/bios distinction in Aristotle, taking as established a connection he suggests between zōē and bare life. The present study has argued that this formulation fundamentally misconstrues the political valence of zōē and bios in Aristotle’s thought and has aimed to open aspects of Aristotle’s thinking that come to light if we set aside Agamben’s construction. The coda also explores the debt owed to Aristotle by contemporary notions of power, politics, and the affective bonds that shape human political community.
Stopped Clocks
Authors: Pong Beryl
Published: July 2020

Chapter 3 begins by examining a prominent trope in photographs of the home front: the stopped clock. Unpacking the manifold, often competing, meanings of this image—by turns denoting suspension and dislocation, but also temporal resilience and transcendence—it underscores how the photographic medium corroborates or problematizes the temporalities portrayed within its frames. The chapter then turns to the short stories of Elizabeth Bowen and William Sansom, both of whom variously conceived of their own writing as ‘photographic’. Rendering a temporality somewhere between what Frank Kermode, in narratological terms, called ‘tick-tock’ and ‘tock-tick’, Bowen’s and Sansom’s fragmented short stories blended fiction with non-fiction, and were ultimately anthologized as ‘records’ of the war.
The Archaeology of Ruin-Time
Authors: Pong Beryl
Published: July 2020

Chapter 7 addresses the peculiar archaeology of the blitzed landscape, when air raids made new ruins out of modern-day infrastructure, even while revealing older ones from London’s Roman past. Theorists have often conceived of the temporality of ruins as a dialectic between pastness and futurity, ending and return, and these tensions pose representational challenges in the wartime present, when ruins from different eras populated the visual landscape. This chapter argues that wartime works responded to this environment by engaging in their own acts of imaginative archaeology, excavating past ruins to find continuity with those of the dislocated present. It reads a wide array of visual and literary texts: from the romantic paintings of the Recording Britain scheme to portraits of bomb damage made by the War Artists’ Advisory Committee, and from the paratactic poetry of H.D. to the hallucinatory short fiction of Elizabeth Bowen.
Conclusion
Authors: Manow Philip
Published: July 2020

This final chapter of the book summarizes the argument, discusses its main findings, and situates the German case in a broader comparative framework. The chapter mentions possible extensions of the argument especially with respect to the role of the education system for Germany’s variant of coordinated capitalism (in particular in contrast to its Scandinavian homologue). It then summarizes the argument of how the German welfare state provided capital and labor with functional equivalents for the structures of neo-corporatist concertation which Germany’s federal and “economically liberal” polity lacks. Finally, the chapter discusses the implications of the argument for a comparative political economy of advanced capitalisms.
Introduction
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

The introductory chapter explains why it is timely to focus on China’s discourse and behaviour with respect to the UN’s human protection agenda. The book’s contributions include advancing understanding of the obstacles faced by the UN in redefining the concept of security to embrace the idea of human protection, and China’s contributions and general wariness with respect to this policy area. The research question focuses on how a more powerful China satisfies its desire to shape global norms relating to human protection in ways that not only reflect its ideological beliefs, but also bolster its image as a responsible great power. Also covered in brief before further elaboration in chapter one is the methodological approach adopted; the organizing framework associated with China’s beliefs, power, and international image; the sources utilized; and the structure of each chapter and central argument that is arrived at. This introductory chapter also provides chapter outlines for chapters one through eight.
UN Peace Operations
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

The primary aim of this chapter is to explain the apparent paradox of increasing Chinese support and involvement even as UN peace operations have become more complex, dangerous, and intrusive. The argument explores why Beijing moved from a position of hostility to UN operations in the Maoist era to one of constructive if still cautious engagement. It then establishes how the building of a positive image and reputation through involvement in UN peace operations has proven useful to the more active presentation of its core beliefs about the role of such activity in generating peace and security, before assessing the extent to which its ideas contradict or complement some of the central recommendations offered in the major reports that the UN has commissioned on this topic and that will be referenced in the opening sections of this chapter. A final section concentrates on Beijing’s decision to augment further the UN’s capacity to carry out peace operations, particularly after 2015, before exploring some of the consequences, actual and potential, that have come in the wake of that decision.
The Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict, and the Women, Peace and Security Agenda
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

The protection of civilians in armed conflict (POC) since 1999 has been recognized as a core obligation of the United Nations, and as vital to the legitimation of the Security Council’s role and status in its efforts to control and confront large-scale violence. Over the course of this same period, and with the passage in 2000 of Security Council Resolution 1325, the women, peace and security (WPS) agenda has also become a prominent part of action associated with the protection of civilians. This chapter first discusses some of the steps that have been taken to put POC and WPS on the UN’s agenda, before turning to the official Chinese response to these two core areas of the UN’s activities. That response illustrates once again a complex interplay between Beijing’s understanding that it must be responsive in this area of action, while remaining attentive to its belief in the need to ensure the preservation of a state-based international order that includes a restrained UN Security Council interpretation of the types of conflict that represent threats to international peace and security. In both the POC and WPS policy areas, China accords a primary role to economic development as the most effective means of preventing the conflicts that are the source of civilian harm and for improving women’s rights and representation.
The ‘Responsibility to Protect’ (R2P)
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

This chapter traces the origins and elaboration of the R2P norm. It places the accent on the process of norm development during which a variety of states, including China, were able to shape the norm’s characteristics. It begins with a discussion of the norm’s origins in 1990s debates, initial reception in 2001, formalization in documentary form in 2005, and then its implementation structure as elaborated in 2009. Next, it turns to the Libyan intervention in 2011 under the R2P banner and the impact of that usage on R2P’s status. The tracing of the R2P’s pathway shows that for a state, such as China, that is concerned about international image and does not wish to appear obstructive or irresponsible, it can find welcome and bedrock support for its conservative attitude towards R2P among several other states concerned about the norm’s implications. The discussion also shows how the complex layering of the norm has presented China with the ability to shape the norm discursively and to insert its own normative preferences into the process of R2P elaboration.
The Syrian Crisis
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

This chapter begins with a brief exploration of the various phases of this devastating conflict. It explores why China has used its veto power on seven occasions over the course of this war (up to September 2019); a puzzle, because vetoing is extremely unusual Chinese behaviour. The chapter also explores the image consequences for China, mostly damaging in the early stages of this war, that have flowed from that change in its approach. It references some of the resolutions that have caused UN Security Council division. In particular, it focuses on the justifications Beijing has offered for the voting decisions it has made over the course of a devastating conflict that has included the use of chemical weapons. The Syrian case is afforded its own chapter in this study not only because of China’s more frequent use of the veto, but also because of Syria’s status as one of the worst failures in human protection since World War II. The case study is additionally instructive with regard to China’s approaches to the UN’s POC and R2P agendas.
The UN’s Human Rights Bodies
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines the evolution of the UN’s two human rights bodies: namely, the UN Commission on Human Rights and its replacement, the UN Human Rights Council. Three key moments in China’s history in relation to these organizations—notably the Commission’s (and Sub-Commission’s) role during and after the Tiananmen crisis of June 1989, the movement from Commission to Council in 2005–6, as well as the impact of the UN’s 2011 Libyan intervention and the advent of the broader ‘Arab Spring’—are used to uncover how and why Beijing has worked to influence the procedures of bodies designed to advance the UN’s human protection agenda. In all these instances, China’s active involvement in the work of these bodies demonstrates a potent relationship between its ideological beliefs and concerns about image. The chapter concludes that China has become less reticent and more confident in putting forward its world view about what best promotes human rights. The balance has shifted in its approach from an essentially defensive strategy towards one that aims to promote its own ideas in this issue area. Beijing is arguing for a development-first model based on the assumption that the benefits of its politico-economic model, and the relationship of that model to improved levels of human protection, have become plainer to many other states.
Introduction
Authors: Walter Anke
Published: July 2020

The Introduction begins with a brief survey of the scholarship on aetia and continues with an overview over the occurrence of aetia in ancient Greek and Latin literature, showing just how pervasive this phenomenon is and how many forms it can take, and setting the scene for the exploration of aetia from select texts in the main chapters. Aetia are then explored from a narratological perspective: what makes a story a story of origin, how does it relate to the narrative that surrounds it, and what are the temporal and commemorative processes that are at stake? The Introduction ends with a reflexion on the methodology adopted in this study and the choice of texts, as well as with an outline of the individual chapters.
Archaic aetia
Authors: Walter Anke
Published: July 2020

The aetiological story of Ate, told by Agamemnon in Book 19 of the Iliad, establishes a connection between the crucial moment when the main conflict of the epic is resolved and an important moment of transition on Olympus. While tying the time of men and the time of gods together in a shared ‘ever since then’, the aetion also marks a growing divide between the two, providing a vivid stratigraphy of Iliadic time. In Hesiod’s Theogony, three aetia that explicitly invoke the poet’s present revolve around the central event of the work, the birth of Zeus: the origin of Hecate’s powers, Zeus’ marking the start of his reign by planting the stone that his father Cronus had swallowed instead of himself in the earth of Delphi, and Prometheus’ theft of fire. These aetia create a particularly meaningful present moment: one that testifies to the different types of divine time and its interaction with human time—including the complex model of time embodied by Hecate and the linearity of time introduced by Zeus—and implicates the audience in the stability of this new order of the world. Finally, in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the aetion of how the lyre becomes a token of Hermes’ and Apollo’s friendship imbues the present with a strong sense of the connection with the divine sphere, even while the lyre itself as the instrument accompanying the performance of the hymn vividly enacts its own continuity.
Hellenistic literature
Authors: Walter Anke
Published: July 2020

In the Histories, the fourth-century historian Ephorus engages with one of the central aetia of the past: the story of how Apollo founded the oracle in Delphi (F 31b). Ephorus shifts the emphasis from the continuity of archaic time to the more dynamic time of the history of men on earth. In his discussion of the Spartan constitution and its origin (F 149), Ephorus uses aetia to give a nuanced picture of the interplay of continuity and change in human affairs. Callimachus, in the story of Acontius and Cydippe in his Aetia, juxtaposes the reference to the continuity of Acontius’ line with the eventful history of Acontius’ island of Chios, thus raising the question how stable the aetion can actually be. Rather than the aetiological formula, the beauty of the young couple, made immortal in Callimachus’ poetry, guarantees the story’s eternity. In Callimachus’ Hymn to Apollo, aetia are prominent in creating an intense moment of the sacred presence of the god, in which the present moment of the performance is just as much involved as the historical past of the city of Cyrene and the mythical past of Apollo’s deeds on earth. The aetia employed in Apollonius Rhodius’ Argonautica function as hinges between the earlier foundational deeds of the Olympian gods and the new earth-bound time-frame of the Argonauts, which is carefully measured out in terms of the days and nights the Argonauts spend at sea or on land. Overall, however, the aetia of the Argonautica emphasize continuity and eliminate further change, creating a present that is remarkably stable, while being anchored in several layers of the past
Augustan aetia
Authors: Walter Anke
Published: July 2020

Livy, in his ab urbe condita, makes it clear that origins are subject to change: to growth and development, or to decay and decline. This temporal framework is closely connected with the circularity of exemplarity, of deeds that can be re-enacted again and again. This draws attention to the fact that Livy himself, by writing this aetiological account, also acts in an exemplary way, exhorting his readers to do something similar for the city they see preserved ‘even now’. In Vergil’s Aeneid, the aetion of the Game of Troy in Book 5 brings home the message that what had been spoken as fatum in the remote past is now being fulfilled in the Augustan present. Yet with the so-called reconciliation of Juno, the aetion of the lusus Troiae appears in a new light: it becomes an act of naming that is not to be repeated—a thing of the past. The aetion, ultimately, signals both a strong sense of arrival, while also pointing to the fact that, eventually, time will have to move on. In Ovid’s Fasti, time becomes even more dynamic. In the constant sequence of the days of the Roman calendar, each new ‘now’ constructed by the poet is soon supplanted by a new day and a new ‘now’. However, another axis of time comes into play here as well: the eternity of the city of Rome, which is guaranteed by its closeness to the gods. Aetia form the points at which the passage of days, the time of history, and the eternal power of the gods are brought into contact.
The Decision of Septimius Severus and Caracalla on longi temporis praescriptio (BGU 267 and P.Strass. 22)
Authors: Plisecka Anna
Published: July 2020

In the provinces, the emperor is the representative of the centralized empire and in his decisions and regulations he therefore mainly used Roman law. The institute of long-lasting possession has a scholarly history of being traced back to either Roman or provincial law, and thus the debates encapsulate many of the recurring tensions between provincial practice and centralizing tendencies. Through a detailed study of two documents pertaining to the longi temporis praescriptio that record the decision of Septimius Severus and Caracalla (BGU 267 and P. Strass. 22), this article locates the origins of the institute firmly in a provincial context and explains how the emperor was confronted with the requirements of provincial legal practice.
Legal Interactions in the Archive of Babatha
Authors: Chiusi Tiziana J.
Published: July 2020

The article discusses two documents from the archive of the Jewish woman Babatha: P. Yadin 21 and 22, dated to 130 CE. They are interrelated contracts, referring to the fruits from date orchards which were in Babatha’s possession, but were to be harvested by Simon. So far, most studies have sought to prove that these contracts were based on Jewish law and hence specific to this region. This article attempts to understand them from a Roman perspective. In the categories of Roman law, what is at issue is an emptio rei speratae. The fact that no money is involved is remarkable in the light of debates between Sabinian and Proculian jurists which were still not resolved in the time of Gaius. P. Yadin 21 and 22 are evidence for the practical application of the Sabinian doctrine. Clearly, the scribe who wrote the documents attempted to phrase a common business transaction in the terms of Roman law, to make it actionable before a Roman court.
Law and Citizenship in Roman Achaia
Authors: Girdvainyte Lina
Published: July 2020

This chapter addresses the interrelated topics of law and citizenship in Roman Achaia. The epigraphic evidence for cohabitation of Greek and resident Roman communities since the second century BCE, as well as the consequences of Roman military involvement—namely the creation of citizen colonies, administrative and political restructuring, transfers of land, and displacement of populations—inevitably raise questions of juridical gradation between and within the communities of mainland Greece. The spread of Roman citizenship on the one hand, and the persistence of the importance of local citizenships on the other, are directly relevant to the questions of jurisdiction and legal development in the province. Among the most discernible changes in juridical matters of the region is the decline of interstate arbitration and judicial capacities of territorial leagues. The institution of foreign judges, although still mentioned in epigraphic sources of the mid-second century CE, likely lost its original functionality too. Inter-community disputes fell under the complete jurisdiction of Roman authorities by the early first century CE, and the development of territorial dispute resolution under Rome reveals various points of interaction between Hellenistic arbitral practices and the procedural framework of Roman civil law. That said, the governor’s court, whether operating on an assize system or not, could not have been easily accessible, and private law matters within a polis were often dealt with by local judiciaries.
An Outline of Legal Norms and Practices in Roman Macedonia (167 BCE–212 CE)
Authors: Arnaoutoglou Ilias N.
Published: July 2020

In the last three decades our knowledge about ancient Macedonia, classical, Hellenistic and Roman, has been boosted thanks to archaeological discoveries and editions of epigraphic corpora or reassessment of individual documents. The study of legal norms and practices in Roman Macedonia will unavoidably rely on the epigraphic material published or re-edited over this period. Inscriptions tend to cluster around three main themes: a) the public domain as revealed through honorific practices of (autonomous) poleis or other collectivities, b) manumissions for which there is the dossier from the sanctuary of the Autochthonous Mother of the Gods of Leukopetra as well as other similar acts from various localities, and c) funerary monuments, containing information about fines, endowments, and testaments. This chapter will provide an outline of what we know about legal rules, procedures, and practices. These concepts are not shaped in a vacuum, therefore a brief excursus into the legal life of the kingdom of Macedonia and the terms of its incorporation into the Roman administrative structures is necessary.
The leges municipales as a Means of Legal and Social Romanization of the Provinces of the Roman Empire
Authors: Eck Werner
Published: July 2020

Sections of the leges municipales from at least forty different cities in Southern Spain have survived to us. These laws, understood as a powerful instrument by which Roman legal regulations were introduced into the provinces, are usually connected with Baetica. As a result it is too easy to overlook the fact that corresponding leges were issued wherever Roman or Latin cities were founded, and continued to be issued long after the Flavian era, the time to which most of the surviving fragments date. Documentary evidence has now made clear that leges municipales are a general phenomenon which continued to play a role in the second and third centuries CE. Fragments of city laws are known not only in the province of Alpes Maritimae, but also in Noricum (Lauriacum), Moesia superior (Ratiaria), and in Troesmis (Moesia inferior). The law for Troesmis is especially important because, in contrast to the laws from Baetica, it was issued for a Roman and not a Latin municipium. This demonstrates that specific Roman legal regulations, which were issued in Augustan times exclusively for Roman citizens, were still of relevance in the second century and also must have been used in the province of Moesia inferior. This material indicates that people had to obey Roman legal regulations more or less everywhere in nearly all provinces of the West. The leges municipales were thus one of the decisive means by which Roman law spread in the provinces—more so than has previously been realized—and could even be the basis for daily life.
Law, Empire, and Identity between West and East
Authors: Eckhardt Benedikt
Published: July 2020

Compared to the rich material from Egypt, evidence for law and legal practice in the Danubian provinces is rather slim. Still, inscriptions offer some insights into how Roman law was received, applied, and transformed in the second and early third centuries CE. Moving from West to East, the article will discuss three case studies and their wider implications. The rescript of Septimius Severus regarding membership in a collegium centonariorum at Solva in Noricum not only shows the emperor directly involved in a legal dispute, but also testifies to the application of the rules on collegia vel corpora known from the Digest. The wax tablets from Alburnus Maior in Dacia show how private legal practice could be shaped by Roman models, but diverge from them as people saw fit, leading to legal forms that have been frowned upon as ‘invalid’ by scholars of Roman law, but must have been useful to people at that time and place. Finally, the new municipal law from Troesmis in Moesia Inferior can be understood as a symbolic assertion of Roman identity in a region bordering on the barbaricum. From a range of rather different epigraphical sources, the multiple uses of Roman law can be deduced, leading to an overall impression that is not entirely different from what is found in the East.
Legal Education and Legal Culture in Gaul during the Principate
Authors: Wibier Matthijs
Published: July 2020

From a conceptual point of view, it has often been pointed out that education is a key way in which cultural models, expectations, and standards are disseminated. The pervasiveness and success of the Greek model known as enkyklios paideia have been amply charted for the Hellenistic and Imperial Periods. Similar developments have been traced in the context of Roman education and Latin literacy in the provinces, not least the West. However, these studies have focused primarily on—to use a contested term—acculturation in certain aspects of daily life as well as in terms of education in the Latin language and in Roman literature, while law has been largely left out. Part of the reason for this is no doubt the lack of much very direct evidence. Yet the evidence there is, in particular the paraphrase of Gaius’ Institutes known as the Fragmenta Augustodunensia (FA), has in fact been unduly marginalized. Accordingly, this chapter shows that, focusing on Autun and its cultural sphere, it is possible to piece together a picture of how students in Imperial Gaul were trained in the basics of Roman law.
Quantum Phenomena
Authors: Barrett Jeffrey A.
Published: July 2020

The behavior of electrons provides several concrete examples of quantum phenomena. We consider electron spin properties, how electrons move, quantum randomness and the relationships between observables, quantum limits on empirical prediction, superpositions, interference effects, nonlocality, and the role of observation in generating quantum phenomena. Each illustrates the counterintuitive nature of quantum phenomena and provides a sense of the sort of phenomena that any satisfactory formulation of quantum mechanics must predict and explain.
The Quantum Measurement Problem
Authors: Barrett Jeffrey A.
Published: July 2020

We use the Wigner’s friend story to characterize the quantum measurement problem. On the standard formulation of quantum mechanics, whether a physical system is measured determines which of the theory's two dynamical laws obtains. For this reason, the logical consistency of the theory depends on one specifying strictly disjoint conditions for when when each law obtains, which means that one needs to say precisely what constitutes a measurement. But since the term measurement occurs in the standard theory as an undefined primitive term, the theory is at best incomplete. We see precisely how this conceptual incompleteness threatens the logical inconsistency of the theory and why, on even the most charitable reading, it entails that the theory is empirical incomplete. We end by considering why its empirically incompleteness is extremely difficult to test.
Pure Wave Mechanics
Authors: Barrett Jeffrey A.
Published: July 2020

Everett thought of the quantum measurement problem as one of providing a consistent description of nested measurement. He proposed solving the measurement problem by simply supposing that all physical systems whatsoever always obey the linear dynamics and hence never collapse. Dropping the collapse dynamics immediately solves the measurement problem, but it introduces two new problems: explaining determinate measurement records and explaining quantum probabilities. In addition to these, we also consider the problem of empirical coherence in the context of pure wave mechanics. We then discuss how Everett himself understood determinate records and probabilities in his relative-state formulation of pure wave mechanics. What he ultimately provided was an argument that his formulation of quantum mechanics was consistent and empirically faithful. We will see why this is a relative weak standard by which to judge the empirical adequacy of a physical theory.
Morality by Degrees
Authors: Norcross Alastair
Published: July 2020

Consequentialist theories of the right connect the rightness and wrongness (and related notions) of actions with the intrinsic goodness and badness of states of affairs consequential on those actions. The most popular such theory is maximization, which is said to demand of agents that they maximize the good, that they do the best they can, at all times. Thus it may seem that consequentialist theories are overly demanding, and, relatedly, that they cannot accommodate the phenomenon of going above and beyond the demands of duty (supererogation). However, a clear understanding of consequentialism leaves no room for a theory of the right, at least not at the fundamental level of the theory. A consequentialist theory, such as utilitarianism, is a theory of how to rank outcomes, and derivatively actions, which provides reasons for choosing some actions over others. It is thus a purely scalar theory, with no demands that certain actions be performed, and no fundamental classification of actions as right or wrong. However, such notions may have pragmatic benefits at the level of application, since many people find it easier to guide their conduct by simple commands, rather than to think in terms of reasons of varying strength to do one thing rather than another. A contextualist semantics for various terms, such as “right,” “permissible,” “harm,” when combined with the scalar approach to consequentialism, allows for the expression of truth-apt propositions with sentences containing such terms.
Harm
Authors: Norcross Alastair
Published: July 2020

The standard consequentialist account of harm is given by the following principle: HARM An act A harms a person P just in case P is worse off, as a consequence of A, than she would have been if A hadn’t been performed. An act A benefits a person P just in case P is better off, as a consequence of A, than she would have been if A hadn’t been performed. In most cases, there are multiple different alternatives, and no context-free method of determining which is the appropriate one with which to compare A. Judgments of harm are thus always implicitly relative to alternatives. There is no fundamental fact of the form: A really harms (or benefits) P.
Contextualism
Authors: Norcross Alastair
Published: July 2020

The threat of determinism suggests that every action, including the action of holding morally responsible, is both the best and worst of all possible alternatives. This seems to pose a problem for consequentialist approaches to determinism, and moral responsibility. The solution is to appeal to the conversational context of praising, blaming, judging right and wrong, holding responsible, and the like. Even if, strictly speaking, an agent couldn’t have done otherwise, conversational context may select certain counterpossible alternatives as the relevant ones with which to compare the action. The non-identity “problem,” popularized by Parfit, suggests that the existential dependence of people on our actions creates puzzles, problems even, for some common approaches to ethics. A scalar version of consequentialism, combined with a contextualist semantics for some moral terms, dissolves the apparent problem. The scalar contextualist approach has practical implications for our moral discourse.
Introduction
Authors: Fried Barbara H.
Published: July 2020

The introductory chapter sets forth the broad argument of the book, and its relevance to the more particular concerns explored in succeeding chapters. While most of the attention in this chapter and succeeding ones is devoted to an internalist critique of nonconsequentialism, the chapter touches briefly on the real world implications of nonconsequentialist intuitions in moral philosophy.
Facing Up to Risk
Authors: Fried Barbara H.
Published: July 2020

By banishing decision-making in the face of uncertainty (risk) to the margins of moral philosophy, nonconsequentialists have obscured the quotidian, unavoidable, and ubiquitous tradeoffs we face in almost every arena. The chapter explores the historical antecedents of the marginalization of risk in contemporary moral philosophy, and details how nonconsequentialist arguments have finessed the problem of risk. It also explores the catastrophic consequences for all of us when the nonconsequentialist view that bad outcomes are both necessary and sufficient to establish the badness of the conduct that produced them is let loose in the policy realm.
Typographies of Performance in Early Modern England
Authors: Bourne Claire M. L.
Published: July 2020

Typographies of Performance is the first book-length study of early modern English playbook typography. It tells a new history of drama from the period by considering the page designs of plays by Shakespeare and others printed between the end of the fourteenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth century. It argues that typography, broadly conceived, was used creatively by printers, publishers, playwrights, and other agents of the book trade to make the effects of theatricality—from the most basic (textually articulating a change in speaker) to the more complex (registering the kinesis of bodies on stage)—intelligible on the page. The coalescence of these experiments into a uniquely dramatic typography that was constantly responsive to performance effects made it possible for “plays” to be marketed, collected, and read in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as a print genre distinct from all other genres of imaginative writing. It has been said, “If a play is a book, it is not a play.” Typographies of Performance shows that “play” and “book” were, in fact, mutually constitutive: it was the very bookishness of plays printed in early modern England that allowed them to be recognized by their earliest readers as plays in the first place.
Introduction
Authors: Hentschell Roze
Published: July 2020

This chapter is an overview of the book’s argument, of the cathedral precinct spaces, their uses, and their users, and outlines the critical framework of the book. It provides an overview of the cathedral and precinct, attending to architectural details, and the various buildings and spaces in the church and precinct, including the interior of the church and the surrounding churchyard. The physical transformations of several sites is highlighted and the material state is discussed. The chapter considers the religious, commercial, civic, and social activities of Paul’s, and provides an overview of some of the everyday users of the space, emphasizing that the precinct operated as a neighbourhood and fostered community. The cultural geography methodology of the book is reviewed, and its approach aligned with historical phenomenology and the notion of spatial dynamism. The importance of both imaginative and literary texts to the overall understanding of St Paul’s is explored.
Paul’s Nave
Authors: Hentschell Roze
Published: July 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the architectural features, uses, and users of the nave, with discussion of its physical condition. It also discusses the occupations of the nave—the various church-related and secular practices and professions that were carried out in the interior, and emphasizes the commercial activities, including those of labourers, lawyers, clergy, serving men, and criminals. The chapter looks at the newsmongers and walkers of Paul’s, including John Chamberlain, and attempts to reframe the rituals of their ‘walk’ as purposeful rather than idle. Several literary texts, including those by Thomas Middleton, Ben Jonson, and Thomas Dekker, are discussed. Further, consideration is given to how the nave’s architecture and material features, principally the tombs and monuments influenced the practices by both restricting and affording human agency, all the while affirming the importance of the dead to the living in Paul’s.
Paul’s Boys
Authors: Hentschell Roze
Published: July 2020

This chapter focuses on the Children of Paul’s and emphasizes that the boys were choristers for the cathedral first and only occasionally actors. The boys’ spatial milieu, including the Almonry (which likely served as the singing school, residence hall, and ‘theatre’), the chancel, the churchyard, and the grammar school, is discussed. The make-up of the neighbourhood—the precinct and nearby spaces—is examined in order to get a better sense of the audience at Paul’s. Audiences were drawn to plays by Paul’s actors because they were talented singers and educated students. John Marston’s early plays for the Children of Paul’s affirm the distinctiveness of the ‘company’, the playing space, and the talents of the actors. They display a preoccupation with the lives of the boys—as singers, students, and servants—and reveal a rich understanding of the varied roles of the child actor.
Paul’s Work
Authors: Hentschell Roze
Published: July 2020

This chapter highlights the fabric of the cathedral and the protracted debates surrounding its repairs. A narrative is constructed of the efforts of cathedral renovation in the sixty years after the 1561 burning of the spire, focusing especially on the Jacobean period when royal and public interest in the condition of the church gained ground. While secular writers such as Henry Farley and Thomas Dekker demonstrate the cultural interest in the renovation, visual representations of the cathedral serve as reminders of the Cathedral’s prominence in London. King James paid special attention to Paul’s and commissioned a sermon by Bishop John King arguing for its repairs, laying the important groundwork for the massive renovation project of the 1630s.
Conclusion
Authors: Hentschell Roze
Published: July 2020

The conclusion analyses John Earle’s Microcosmography to emphasize that even the most detailed descriptions of places are necessarily incomplete. Spatial transgression, nostalgia, and the role of texts are discussed. The author points to the potential for future scholarly work on St Paul’s precinct. The role of speculation and imagination in historical geography is discussed. The conclusion ends with a discussion of the 2019 fire at Notre-Dame.
Reason and Experience in Mendelssohn and Kant
Authors: Guyer Paul
Published: July 2020

This work examines the lifelong intellectual relationship between Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and Moses Mendelssohn (1729–86). Both engaged in a common project of striking the right balance between rationalism and empiricism, they sometimes borrowed from one another, often disagreed with one another, and can usefully be compared even when they did not directly interact. Their arguments and conclusions on metaphysical issues such as proofs of the existence of God, immortality, and idealism are examined; their works in aesthetics are compared; and the path-breaking work of both on the “religion of reason” and the separation of church and state are contrasted. Both philosophers turn out to have much to offer: Kant sometimes provides deeper insight into the underlying structure of human thought, but Mendelssohn is often the deeper student of the variety of human experience.
Waste Management from Center to Suburb
Authors: Emmerson Allison L. C.
Published: July 2020

“Waste Management from Center to Suburb” investigates how one humble activity illuminates multi-faceted relationships between city and suburb. It begins by reconsidering the infamous “puticuli” of Rome’s Republican Esquiline, arguing that these were not—as has long been believed—mass graves that marked the zone as a nightmarish no man’s land. The fixtures uncovered in nineteenth-century excavations are better interpreted as public cesspits, one of many contemporaneous investments in urban infrastructure, installed in a busy and well-connected district outside the growing city’s first wall. The second section moves forward in time to the early Imperial period, exploring waste management at Pompeii and elsewhere. Drawing on the results of recent excavations, it contends that the garbage mounds commonly found in Italy’s suburbs were not abandoned deposits of unwanted materials, akin to modern landfills, but active sites in an intense economy of use, reuse, and recycling, in which suburbs played a key role.
Italy’s Suburban Amphitheaters
Authors: Emmerson Allison L. C.
Published: July 2020

“Italy’s Suburban Amphitheaters” traces the benefits that a city might derive from placing a major entertainment building in the suburb, concentrating on examples at Verona, Capua, Herdonia, and Ocriculum. Not least, suburban amphitheaters took advantage of the zone’s open space to manage large festival crowds that included locals as well as the residents of neighboring cities. At the same time, the Italian highway system brought many regional and long-distance travelers to the suburbs, making a suburban amphitheater a particularly effective means of communicating competition with neighboring cities while at the same time expressing participation in a larger shared culture. Nearby monumental tombs, moreover, reinforced an amphitheater’s message, enhancing the urban façade while celebrating the city’s most prominent residents. In some cases, this interaction could even recall the architecture of the capital and declare a local endorsement of imperial power.
Gods Outside the Walls
Authors: Emmerson Allison L. C.
Published: July 2020

“Gods outside the Walls” approaches the chief exception to the standard patterns of suburban development. Temples for the gods appeared outside Rome’s early colonies at Minturnae, Ostia, and Cosa already in the mid-Republican period, and certain examples, including a sanctuary at Hispellum and the shrine to Magna Mater in Rome’s Transtiberim, thrived through the fourth century CE. These spaces functioned in various ways, but indicate above all the enduring need for gods to protect and define all parts of a city, through even dramatic alterations to urban space. Early colonial sanctuaries oversaw not just urban expansion, but the active transformation of military outposts to urban centers, while the later temples survived the contraction of cities by reserving space for traditional modes of worship, even as a new force—Christianity—rose up to dominate Italy’s suburbs.