bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
In summary
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Watson Christine
Published: November 2023

+ There is significant medico legal risk because of the possibility of suicide and complaints+ Clinicians need to practise according to a “reasonable practitioner standard”+ Demonstration of professional judgement based on a sound risk-benefit analysis in keeping with a “reasonable practitioner standard” will be used to refute a charge of negligence Obtaining a second (or more) opinion will indicate that there was checking of the “reasonable practitioner standard”The riskier the circumstance and the more radical the treatment approach, the more widely the clinician needs to seek out other opinion
Research in psychotherapy
Authors: Margison Frank , Bateman Anthony
Published: November 2023

Our aim in this chapter is to outline fundamental principles of research in psychotherapy and to challenge the assumption that research is a specialized area and only the concern of the researchers themselves. Core knowledge of psychotherapy research is required by therapists for a number of reasons. First, an understanding of how to apply research thinking to daily practice is fundamental to being a good clinician. We cover this in the section on apply- ing research methods to practice. Second, good practice depends on a working knowledge of what has already been discovered, with an ability to sort the wheat from the chaff by knowing what constitutes good psychotherapy research and what is meaningful to clinical practice.
Legal Education in the Twenty-First Century: A Time of Challenge
Authors: Clark Eugene , Tsamenyi Martin
Published: November 2023

THE aims of legal education in any particular era are influenced by the wider social context in which legal education operates and challenges which emerge from this context. This chapter surveys some of the most significant challenges facing Australian legal education as it approaches the Twenty-First Century. Its thesis is that the aims of legal education cannot be stated in the abstract or separated from the context in which legal education must operate. Accordingly, in searching for the aims of legal education in the next century one must identify the likely challenges faced by legal education in the years ahead and how legal education may/should respond to these challenges.
Stress and the Sojourner
Authors: Shupe Ellen I , McGrath Joseph E
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents a general theory of stress and coping, and a model of how that theory applies in the lives of sojourners—individuals living temporarily in a culture foreign to them. Sojourner stress is an important case because many aspects of the stress and coping cycle are intensified, or rendered more problematic, when the person experiencing the stress is from a different culture than the one in which the stressful situations are occurring. Stress among sojourners, therefore, is not only important in itself, especially given the increasing global interdependence; it is also an important topic of study in that it can give us new insights into the more general case of stress and the coping process.
A Cybernetic Theory of Organizational Stress
Authors: Cummings Thomas G , Cooper Cary L
Published: November 2023

There is a growing body of evidence from studies in the workplace (Cooper and Marshall, 1976; Sauter et al., 1989; Cooper, 1996) to suggest that occupational stress (OS) is an important causal factor in cardiovascular disease, mental ill-health and other health behaviors. The empirical work in this field has expanded so rapidly (Cooper and Payne, 1988) that we have been unable to put these developments into a coherent theoretical framework. Cartwright and Zander (1960) have argued that all scientific endeavor moves progressively through the stages of armchair speculation, to data collection to theory building. Osler (1910), Selye (1946), and others (Ryle and Russell, 1949) provided the early speculative notions of the dynamics underlying occupational stressors and the general adaptation syndrome. Our intention here is to continue the process of theory-building in the OS field by presenting a cybernetic theory of stress, drawn from our earlier model (Cummings and Cooper, 1979).
Clinical Dermatology
Authors: Path Rona M MacKie MD DSc FRCP FRC
Published: November 2023

This concise yet comprehensive, fully illustrated, four-colour textbook has established itself as a favourite amongst undergraduate medical students, nurses and pharmacists in practice and in training, and with general practitioners and other physicians seeking a clear and well-illustrated guide to dermatology. Since the last edition, there have been exciting advances in dermatology, both in treatment and in our understanding of the molecular biology of the diseases. The new edition includes thoroughly updated material on all common skin diseases, their clinical features, aetiology, pathology, necessary investigations and treatment. In response to developments in medical education, Clinical Dermatology has been extensively rewritten to take account of the changing structure of many undergraduate medical curricula. Problem-based learning exercises, special study module projects and problem case discussions are included.
Dermatological disability: incidence, prevalence, and classification of skin disease
Authors: Path Rona M
Published: November 2023

Dermatologists always firmly claim that the skin is the largest organ in the body, and therefore merits more time and attention than it is allocated in most medical school undergraduate programmes. Table 2.1 lists some of its important functions. These include protection from external injury, control of fluid balance and electrolytes, temperature control, an important outpost of the nervous system, immunological functions, interaction with ultraviolet radiation, synthesizing Vitamin D, and lipid synthesis.
Dermatitis and eczema
Authors: Path Rona M
Published: November 2023

A young couple come to see you together to ask for your help in treating their first child, a boy now aged 9 months, who has had red apparently itchy skin since the age of 3 months.
Acne, hair problems, and other disorders of the skin appendages
Authors: Path Rona M
Published: November 2023

A female in her late twenties consults you about easy flushing and papules on her face. She has a job that involves meeting the public, and finds the development of these lesions distressing and unacceptable.
Drug eruptions
Authors: Path Rona M
Published: November 2023

You are asked to see an elderly male with chronic obstructive airways disease on the respiratory wards. He has been admitted with an exacerbation due to infection and was started on an oral antibiotic 7 days ago. He is now erythrodermic with blisters on his trunk. He is also febrile and anuric.
Narcotics Anonymous, twelve-step programmes, and rehabilitation treatments
Authors: Gossop Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter looks at a number of treatments, which, although they differ in several respects, also share many common features. All owe their origins, to a greater or lesser extent, to Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), and they all share a common focus upon abstinence as the overriding goal of treatment. These treatments see recovery from addiction as requiring a profound restructuring of thinking, personality, and lifestyle, and involving more than just giving up drug-taking behaviour.
Paediatric dentistry Dental trauma
Authors: Evans Dafydd
Published: November 2023

Dental trauma in childhood is common, with around 16 per cent of 15-year-old boys and 10 per cent of 15-year-old girls showing some evidence of traumatic injury of their anterior teeth (Office for National Statistics 2004). The consequences of traumatic injury can range from being insignificant through to the loss of the tooth, as either an immediate or delayed effect of the trauma. In fact, trauma is the most common cause of loss of permanent anterior teeth in childhood. Effective immediate management of dental injuries can significantly improve the prognosis of the teeth affected. However, although the prevalence of dental injuries is high, their relatively low incidence means that it is unlikely the average dental student will manage sufficient cases of dental trauma to achieve competence while an undergraduate. The First Five Years(GDC 2002) limits the specific learning outcomes for the management of dental trauma to acknowledge base. However, the competent ices relating to this area that might be expected of the dental graduate are elaborated on below, according to the GDC’s terminology of competence at, knowledge of and familiraity with.
Special care dentistry
Authors: Nunn June
Published: November 2023

Special care dentistry is the branch of dentistry that aims to secure and maintain the oral and dental health of, and enhance the quality of life for, people with impairments where an inter-professional approach, supported by appropriate behaviour management techniques, is required to deliver efficacious and effective care in a holistic way. To define what is meant by impairment and disability is important: At its simplest, not being able to walk is an impairment but not being able to get into a dental surgery because of the steps up into the building is a disability (Watson 2000).The General Dental Council’s document The First Five Years(GDC 2002) does not make any specific reference to dental care in special needs patients, but this is implied in many generic statements referring to the duty of care, awareness of physical, medical, social and psychological aspects of dental care.
Surgical dentistry
Authors: Pedlar Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The contemporary view of undergraduate learning should seek to integrate oral surgery, oral and maxillofacial surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology and oral radiology. A broad interdisciplinary approach and vertical integration would also improve the relevance of the pre-clinical and para-clinical subjects. Both The First Five Years(GDC 2002) and the QAA benchmark statement for dentistry (QAA 2002) include oral surgery in their description of the characteristics of an undergraduate programme in dentistry: In the benchmarking statements, paragraph 3.17 deals with oral medicine, pathology and surgery as an integrated package: Manage patients with facial pain, disease and disorders of the oral cavity and associated structures, including a recognition of when it is appropriate to refer for specialist help and advice; Manage basic dent alveolar surgical procedures, including intra and post-operative complications and recognise when it is appropriate to refer for specialist help and advice; Understand the importance of and procedures for submitting specimens for laboratory diagnosis and demonstrate the ability to interpret diagnostic reports.
Oral medicine
Authors: Lewis Mike
Published: November 2023

The European perspective on Dental Education is specified in a document known as the Dental Directives document 78/687/EEC. Since its appearance, a more focused and competency-based document has been produced by the Advisory Committee on the Training of Dental Practitioners (ACTDP), and this covers undergraduate competencies in Oral Medicine. However, all of these are also comprehensively covered by the The First Five Years(GDC 2002) and the QAA benchmark statement for dentistry (QAA 2002). From these documents, the description of the oral medicine input to the undergraduate programme in dentistry is recorded below.
Developing Questionnaires
Authors: McColl Elaine
Published: November 2023

The focus of this chapter is how qualitative research methods and cognitive aspects of survey methodology can be applied in the development of a new quality of life instrument. The emphasis is on the stages of item generation and wording, the establishment of content and face validity, and the initial stages of instrument pre-testing. In the past, many developers of quality of life measures adopted a ‘top-down ‘ approach to determining instrument content. The conceptualization and operationalization of ‘impairment ‘ or ‘quality of life ‘, and the choice of items to be included, was determined primarily by a review of the literature and of the content of existing instruments. ‘
Computerized Adaptive Testing And Item Banking
Authors: Border Jakob B , Kosinski Mark , Jr John E Ware
Published: November 2023

Improving the validity and precision of our measurement tools and making them more practical are constant challenges for the quality of life field. Computerized adaptive testing (CAT) holds great promise in helping us meet these challenges (see e.g. Wainer et al. 2000). The basic idea of CAT is to have a computer to select the items that seem most appropriate for a particular respondent (given our knowledge so far) and to score the responses in way that allows us to compare the results with results from other respondents answering a different set of items. This results in a quicker and more accurate assessment. To function, the CAT needs a set of rules for selecting the most appropriate items and scoring them on a common ruler, and a bank of items that can be chosen for the test.
Health-Related Quality Of Life Outcomes In Clinical Trials
Authors: Osoba David
Published: November 2023

Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) outcomes may be measured as either a primary outcome or as secondary outcome in addition to other, more traditional outcomes, e.g. survival, time to progression of disease, duration of remission of disease, days lost from work, and economic impact of illness. A combination of HRQoL measurement with a measurement of these other outcomes can provide a comprehensive assessment of the effects of a disease and/or its treatment. The feature that distinguishes HRQoL assessment from the other assessments is that it is self-assessed by the patient and not by an observer (except in the unusual case of proxy assessments). HRQoL measurement has similarities to health status assessment and symptom assessment, since these are also reported by patients; thus, it has been grouped with them under the term ‘patient-reported outcomes ‘ (PROs) (Acquadro et al. 2002). It is probably reasonable to view them as being related to each other like the components of a Venn diagram.
Overall plan of management of difficult conversations
Authors: Macdonald Elisabeth
Published: November 2023

Let us now summarize a practical basic formula for many conversations between health professionals, patients and relatives. The shortlists in the boxes on this page will map your path through many conversations. However, it cannot be emphasized enough that each patient is individual and each circumstance different and unique to the situation. What is appropriate in one context may be far from appropriate in another. Use these checklists to create a constructive mind-set that will enable you to adapt to the situation in hand.
The patient’s perspective
Authors: Macdonald Elisabeth , Murphy Katherine
Published: November 2023

The Patients’ Association, which represents one voice speaking for patients, summarizes a number of important problems seen from the patient’s perspective. Health-care workers are also aware of many aspects of the doctor–patient interchange that are inherently problematic. Difficulties arise as a result of the subject matter of consultations as well as from the preconceptions, which patients bring to the exchange.
Difficult conversations with children and parents
Authors: Edwards Melinda
Published: November 2023

Although effective communication skills are a pre-requisite in all aspects of clinical medicine, paediatric care can present unique challenges given the need to work with both the family system and health care system in issues regarding the responsibilities and welfare of the child. In addition there are the challenges of communicating complex and sometimes very emotive information to children within a range of cognitive and developmental maturity.
Difficult practical circumstances
Authors: Macdonald Elisabeth
Published: November 2023

This chapter identifies some of the practical issues involved in talking to patients over the telephone, via an interpreter or recording the conversation on audiotape. Some difficult issues raised in dealing with close or collusive relatives are addressed.
Legal constraints and guidelines to good practice
Authors: Martinez Liz
Published: November 2023

This chapter approaches the subject of doctor–patient communication from the perspective of a lawyer with over a decade of experience in handling medical negligence claims on behalf of patients. Practical advice on communication is offered with the intention of avoiding the need for patients to resort to litigation in order to meet their needs for information, explanations and apologies when their medical treatment fails to meet their expectations.
Conclusions and future directions
Authors: Macdonald Elisabeth
Published: November 2023

The doctor–patient relationship is evolving and this chapter looks at the influence of the Internet on this interaction and the different relationship models that may evolve to change fundamentally the types of communication between patient and professional. Useful sources of Internet information are included.
Theoretical Perspectives: Linking Research and Practice
Authors: Dent Ann
Published: November 2023

Every child is unique with a unique background. Children can experience death at any age from infancy to adulthood, during which time, each child is developing physically, emotionally, intellectually, spiritually, and socially. They may suffer the death of a parent, sibling, grandparent, or that of a close friend or family member. Death can be sudden and unexpected through accident, illness, suicide, murder, war, or natural disasters; or expected when death occurs from natural causes or a life-threatening disease. With so many variables, it is clear that childhood bereavement is a multi-faceted and complex subject.
Working with traumatically bereaved children
Authors: Yule William
Published: November 2023

Bereavement is a part of normal human experience. It is often distressing, and some would say ‘traumatic’. For a child to lose a parent or a sibling can radically affect their life. But some deaths are truly traumatic—sudden, unexpected deaths; accidental deaths where the child witnesses the accident; murders, where the child witnesses one parent killing the other. In these circumstances, the child may develop particular stress reactions and depression, as well as bereavement and additional techniques may be required to help the child cope.
Family liaison: when once has to be enough
Authors: Ellison Julie
Published: November 2023

The newspapers report tragedy all the time; murders, rapes, traffic collisions, and fre- quently the report is followed by the words, ‘Police family liaison officers are comforting the family’ So, who are these family liaison officers, and what do they do? Family Liaison has always been a function of the police, although for many years, it was generally confined to homicide enquiries. A police officer was assigned to liaise with the bereaved family and keep them informed about the investigation. For most families, it is important to know how the police are progressing with enquiries into the death of their loved ones. For some, the grieving process cannot even begin to start, until they know that the person responsible for killing their loved one has been apprehended and a sentence passed upon them. The role of the Family Liaison Officer is to update them at regular intervals and inform them of the progress in their investigation.
Crossing the great barrier grief
Authors: Sinclair Stewart
Published: November 2023

Two blue tanagers (common birds in this part of the Caribbean) court and make love in the wisps of the Casuarina tree, as the early morning sun disperses the steamy secrets of the tropical night. As the light increases, noisy little nocturnal tree frogs have gone quiet and the contented couple of tanagers sing post-coital melodies to the dawn of the new day. I am looking towards the horizon, from my hotel balcony at that indeterminate point of uncertain reality, where the blue sky of this tropic meets the blue sea, and I think back to those happy distant days when Susan and I scraped our wages together to elevate youthful love from campsites in Margate, in the back of a very ancient Land Rover, to the sensory delights of a world where the vision captured by Kew Gardens in a London bubble is liberated; and perhaps where the glass-framed plants of Decimus Burton’s palace secretly dream about in their leafy slumbers in the long grey English winter.
The origins of community psychiatry
Authors: Burns Tom
Published: November 2023

‘Community Psychiatry ’ is a slippery term. It is used widely, and generally with positive connotations, implying a more liberal and progressive approach to the care of the mentally ill. At its simplest form it contrasts the care previously afforded to patients for extensive periods of their lives in large, impersonal asylums with services that exist in a range of settings outside those walls.
The concept of micro-organisms
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Before the development of the light microscope all living organisms could be divided empirically, without too much debate, into two kingdoms: the plants and the animals. In the 1660s, Robert Hooke, using a crude compound microscope, was probably the first person to see cells; a few years later Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, using the first high-resolution, single lens microscope, saw micro-organisms for the first time. These microscopic living creatures, some of which were seen to move, were described as small animals or ‘animalcules’. From Leeuwenhoek’s drawings we know them to be bacteria and protozoa. It is of interest to note that his specimens included material scraped from his own teeth.
Viruses
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Viruses are an important cause of human disease. They are relevant to dentists because they may cause disease either directly (for example herpes simplex virus) or indirectly (for example HIV) in the oral and perioral regions. Furthermore, the prevention of cross-infection with viruses during dental treatment (Chapter 30) is an important element of safe dental practice. Viruses differ from other groups of micro-organisms, such as bacteria, in many key respects. The important characteristics of viruses are summarized in Fig. 6.1. They are very small agents with a simple chemical composition comprising the viral genome and an outer protein coat known as the capsid. The capsid is composed of multiple building blocks known as capsomeres, and each particle has a strict geometric structure. The genome may be either DNA or RNA, but never both, and may be single or double-stranded, linear or circular.
Cleaning, disinfection and sterilization
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Prevention of cross-infection in healthcare facilities is based upon the routine use of procedures that prevent the spread of microbes between patients and the dental team. More specifically, disease prevention involves interfering with one or more of the steps involved in the development of an infectious disease, as described in Chapter 4. General issues relating to instrument decontamination together with surface disinfection will be discussed here, while other infection control procedures relevant to dental surgery will be described in Chapter 30. Cleaning, disinfection and sterilization are the keystones of infection control in all clinical environments, but their effectiveness depends on construction and design attributes of the device or facility in question. For example, a device that possesses many intricate components, such as hinges or lumens, will be more difficult to clean. This may necessitate disassembly of the device in order to clean inaccessible regions. In some cases, if the device
Genitourinary tract infections
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Several infectious diseases are transmitted mainly or entirely by sexual intercourse. Often the causal organisms are delicate and do not remain viable outside the body for long. Transmission of the infective agents by direct contact between mucosal surfaces is essential. The primary lesion is usually, but not always, on the genitalia but several infections give rise to systemic manifestations. The prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) increased during the 1970s and early 1980s but by the late 1980s and early 1990s a decline occurred, particularly in relation to gonorrhoea. Fear of AIDS and the promotion through the media of ‘safe sex’, particularly using condoms, may have played a part in this. However in recent years this trend has reversed (Fig. 14.1).
Infective endocarditis and sepsis syndrome
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Infective endocarditis was first recognised in 1885 by Sir William Osler, who described the clinical appearance as ‘malignant endocarditis’, because of the rapid progress of the disease and multisystem involvement. Osler also described the valvular defects of endocarditis as vegetations and noted that ‘micrococci are constant elements in the vegetations’. Endocarditis is an infection of the endocardial surface of the heart, most commonly affecting the heart valves. It is usually due to microbial colonization of thrombi formed over surface irregularities or defects. The thrombi consist of a meshwork of platelets
Periodontal diseases
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Periodontal disease in its widest sense includes all disorders of the supporting structures of the teeth, namely the gingiva, periodontal ligament and supporting alveolar bone. This may vary from inflammation of the gingiva alone, termed gingivitis (Fig. 24.1), to the severe inflammation of the periodontal ligament called periodontitis (Fig. 24.2), in which there is destruction of alveolar bone and eventual tooth loss. Unlike many medical infections, periodontal diseases are not caused by pathogens that have their primary habitat outside the host. Instead, they are associated with a shift in the balance of the resident microflora, a similar situation to dental caries (Chapter 23). The micro-organisms may produce disease directly, by invasion of the tissues, or indirectly via bacterial toxins.
Salivary gland infections
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Salivary gland infections may be viral or bacterial. There are several ways of classifying salivary gland infections, including acute or chronic, bacterial or viral, and obstructive or non-obstructive (Fig. 26.1). The most common salivary gland infection is that caused by mumps virus, but acute sialadenitis is usually bacterial in origin. A number of factors are involved in the pathogenesis of salivary gland infections (Fig. 26.2). Decrease in host resistance is of particular importance and may relate to general factors, such as dehydration or previous radiotherapy, or to local factors including sialolithiasis, ductal strictures and other salivary gland pathology.
Bacterial and viral infections of the oral mucosa
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Specific bacterial infections of the oral mucosa are uncommon in the USA and Europe and many are manifestations of systemic diseases, for example syphilis, gonorrhoea or tuberculosis. Such infections are seen more frequently in many developing countries. The microbiology of this sexually transmitted disease, caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae (N. gonorrhoeae), has been discussed in Chapter 14. When lesions are present in the oral cavity (Fig. 28.1) they are found most frequently in the pharynx, though any part of the oral mucosa may be affected. The main risk factor for gonococcal pharyngitis is oro-genital sexual contact. Thus, the oral lesions are more commonly associated with primary infection of the mouth than with spread of N. gonorrhoeae from a distant site.
Infection control in dentistry
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Infection control is a critical element of safe dental practice. In recent years there has been heightened professional and public awareness of the potential for cross-infection in the dental surgery. The emergence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in the early 1980s prompted a major review of infection control procedures in dentistry. In line with other health care settings, universal precautions (now known as ‘standard precautions’ – see note below) have been adopted to prevent transmission of blood-borne viruses (BBVs). Cleaning, disinfection and sterilization are key elements of infection control procedures and the reader is referred to Chapter 11 for detailed consideration of these processes. More recently, prion diseases have emerged as a new challenge to infection control. Those practising in the UK have been especially aware of this problem because of the discovery of variant CJD (vCJD) (Chapter 17) and its link with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as ‘mad cow disease’.
Ageing: age-related changes in episodic and working memory
Authors: Daselaar Sander , Dennis Nancy , Cabeza Roberto
Published: November 2023

Ageing is associated with ongoing deterioration of not only the anatomy and physiology of our brain, but our cognitive abilities as well. As our brain shrinks and its functions decline, cognitive processes become slower and start to fail. Deficits in memory function are among the most-heard complaints in older adults, and cognitive research generally agrees with these self-observations. Modest difficulties in learning and memory can be found, to some extent, in all older adults. Understanding age-associated deficits in memory is important for two reasons. First, in view of the growing number of older adults in today’s society, cognitive ageing is increasingly becoming a problem in general health care, and effective therapeutic intervention methods can only be developed on the basis of knowledge obtained through fundamental research. Second, there is a subgroup of elderly whose memory impairments are more severe, preventing normal functioning in their environment. In these persons, such memory impairments can be the earliest manifestation of pathological age-related conditions such as Alzheimer’s dementia (AD). Particularly in the early stages of this disease, the differentiation from normal, age-related memory impairments is very difficult. Thus, it is important to outline which memory impairments can be regarded as a correlate of normal ageing and which are associated with age-related pathology. The two forms of memory that are most affected by ageing are working memory and episodic memory. Working memory (WM) refers to the short-term memory maintenance and simultaneous manipulation of information. Clinical and functional neuroimaging evidence indicates that WM is particularly dependent on the functions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the parietal cortex. Episodic memory (EM) refers to the encoding and retrieval of personally experienced events. Clinical studies have shown that EM is primarily dependent on the integrity of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system. However, functional neuroimaging studies have also emphasized the contributions of PFC to EM processes.
The development of cell cycle active agents for cancer therapy
Authors: Shah Manish A , Archie Tse , Schwartz Gary K
Published: November 2023

With advancements in our understanding of the basic mechanisms of oncegenesis and the induction of apoptosis, we have gained a greater appreciation of the critical role cell cycle regulation plays in malignant transformation and in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. Perturbations in the cell cycle are commonly described in carcinogenesis. Furthermore, with our improved understanding of the effects of chemotherapy on normal and cancer ous cells, it is increasingly apparent that the cell cycle also plays a critical role in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. These observations have led to the development of a new class of anticancer therapeutics in clinical development today: specifically, those drugs that target the motors of the cell cycle, the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).
Cytokines
Authors: van Herpen Carla M L , Punt Cornelis J A
Published: November 2023

Cytokines are proteins secreted by the ce11s of innate and adaptive immune system and mediate many of the functions of these cells. Cytokines are produced in response to microbes and other antigens, for example, tumour antigens. They stimulate the growth and differentiation of lymphocytes, and activate different effector cells to eliminate microbes and other antigens. Of the many cytokines that currently have been identified, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon-a (IFNa), interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) are most advanced in their development in the treatment of cancer.
Immunology
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

Immunology is the study of the defences of the body against foreign materials and infections. The collection of tissues, cells, and molecules that mediate immunity is called the immune system, and the integrated reaction of this system is called the immune response.
Respiratory disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

The lungs are the organs of gas exchange. The process of gas exchange occurs in alveoli which are tiny (0.2 mm diameter) thin sacs where inhaled air comes into very close contact with capillaries of the lung, allowing diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the blood. Each of the 300 million alveoli in the lungs must be connected to the environment if they are to participate in gas exchange. The connection is achieved by a large number of airways which all originate from successive branching of the trachea (Fig. 7.1). The first 16 generations of airways, which comprise the bronchi and bronchioles, are the conducting airways.
Urological disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

Urology deals with diseases of the urinary tract and male genital system. The urinary tract is often divided into the upper urinary tract comprising the kidneys and ureters, and the lower urinary tract which includes the bladder and urethra. The male genital tract includes the penis, scrotum, testes, and prostate (Fig. 11.1).
Paediatric disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

Paediatrics is a distinct speciality related to the care of children in the age span that begins with the fetus and extends through adolescence (Table 22.1). During this period, there are dynamic changes, not only in the child’s growth and development, but also in its immediate environment. So, diseases in children must be understood against the background of these changes.
Case studies
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

A 48-year-old woman is referred to her local hospital. She discovered a breast lump whilst showering which her GP was concerned about. The breast clinic at the hospital operates a ‘one-stop’ breast clinic where the triple approach to breast lumps is used Q What is meant by the term ‘triple approach’? A The triple approach refers to the combination of clinical, pathological, and radiological assessment of a breast lump. Together, these three modalities are very good at accurately diagnosing or excluding breast cancer.
Concrete Minimalism
Authors: Culicover Peter W , Nowak Andrzej
Published: November 2023

The objective of this concluding chapter is to link the dynamical perspec tive on language acquisition and language change to issues in syntactic theory. The key proposals are summarized in I-IV.
A Concise German Grammar
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

A Concise German Grammar aims to equip undergraduates with a comprehensive yet compact account of German grammar. There has long been a need for an easy-to-use guide to the subject that answers users' questions without confronting them with a bewildering mass of secondary detail. Clear and accessible, including many lively examples of modern usage, this practical book can be used both to learn German grammar and as an essential reference for students of German. Leading the field by using the new German spelling, the book also includes a glossary of grammatical terms and detailed alphabetical guides to prepositions and conjunctions.
Punctuation
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

German punctuation differs from English punctuation in a number of import ant points: The Comma. The use of the comma in German is strictly syntactical, whereas the English comma is often used as a stylistic device to indicate a pause in the sentence.
Articles
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

Certain other words take the same endings as the definite article, namely dieser, diese, dieses this, that, jeder, jede, jedes each, every, jener, jene, jenes that, mancher, manche, manches many a, solcher, solche, solches such a, welcher, welche, welches which-with the exception that where the definite article takes the form die they have the ending -e (e.g. diese), and in the nominative and accusative neuter they have the ending -es (e.g. dieses).
Nouns
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

German nouns, which are written with a capital initial letter, may be divided into three main groups in the singular: Masculines (except weak masculines) and NEUTERS. These form the genitive by adding -s (e.g. der Deckel lid I des Deckels, das Fenster window I des Fensters) or, in the case of native (but not ‘foreign’) monosyllables, -es (e.g. der Tag day I des Tages, das Schiff ship I des Schiffes: contrast das Gen gene I des Gens).21 (Exception: monosyllables ending in a vowel or vowel + h, e.g. der Schuh shoe I des Schuhs.)
Pronouns
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

Non: The genitive forms are relatively rare, occurring chiefly with verbs and adjectives that govern the genitive. The familiar 2nd person pronouns du and ihr are used when addressing relatives, close friends, one’s peers (among certain groups such as workmen), children, animals, God (Du), and (in poetry) personified inanimate objects; the reader of a book, advertisement, etc.
Numerals
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

Note the omission of s in the spelling of sechzehn and sechzig and of en in siebzehn and siebzig. Numbers are written as one word, starting with the greatest magnitude, but units-followed by und-precede tens, e.g. 2468 is zweitausendvier hundertachtundsechzig.
Verbs
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

German verbs, like English verbs, fall broadly into two groups: weak and strong verbs. Weak verbs form the past tense by adding -te to the stem, and the past participle by prefixing ge-to the stem and adding -t; there are also some irregular verbs that are conjugated weak but which also exhibit vowel change in the past tense and past participle.
Guide to Prepositions
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

Abbreviations used for newspaper titles: Faz Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung  Mm Münchner Merkur  Nzz Neue Zurcher Zeitung  Sz Süddeutsche Zeitung Reference works: Aktuell Aktuell: Das groBe Lexikon der Gegenwart (Dortmund: Chronik Verlag, 1984 ff.) PersonenLexikon Das groBe PersonenLexikon (Dortmund: Chronik Verlag, 2nd ed., 1988) AB (+ dative) 1. (indicating time) from (. . . onwards): ab Mitte der achtziger Jahre (also Achtzigerjahre) from the mid-eightiesab Ostern from Easter Kinder ab sechs Jahren children from the age of six When the article is omitted the accusative may also be used in e.g. ab nachstem/ nachsten Montag (as) from next Monday.
Guide to Conjunctions
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

Aber may also, however, function as an adverb and come later in the clause (sometimes expressed by however): er wollte kommen, er durfte aber nicht Im Norden [Schottlands] aber kann man stundenlang wandern an ve lassenen Seen (St. Zweig) In the north, however, one can walk for hours on end by solitary lochs.
Conjugation of Strong and Irregular Verbs
Authors: Buck Timothy
Published: November 2023

Only a selection of verbs is given here, to illustrate the various types; details of conjugation are given for all strong verbs in the alphabetical list below. The parts shown are: (a) the infinitive, (b) (only shown—in brackets—where vowel change is involved) the 2nd and 3rd persons singular of the present tense, (c) the past tense, (d) the past participle.
Semantic structure in Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter we saw that phonological structure has a certain autonomy vis-à-vis its role in the symbolization of conceptual structure. In this chapter I show that a comparable state of affairs holds with semantic structure. The meaning of a complex expression is not simply a function of the meanings of its parts and the manner in which they are combined. Typically, the meaning of the whole is more specific than, or even at variance with, the meaning contributed by the parts, and may contain elements that are not actually symbolized by any of the constituent units. There are good reasons, therefore, to assume a level of conceptual organization which modifies and enriches the semantic content supplied by the symbolic units which make up an expression.
Schema and instance
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

A language may be characterized as a structured inventory of linguistic units. The linguistic units comprise phonological units, semantic units, and symbolic units. The inventory is not only very large, it is also structured, in that units are interrelated in complex and intricate ways.
Schema and instance in phonology
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 7 I examined the schema-instance relation that can hold between semantic units. In this chapter I turn to phonological units, focusing mainly on segments rather than larger phonological units such as syllables. (These are discussed in Chapter 13.) We will find that much of what was said in Chapter 7 about relations between semantic units carries over, with little modification, to relations between phonological units.
Meaning: Profile, base, and domain
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

Meaning is a difficult topic to address in a systematic way. In the recent past, many linguists considered semantics to be simply too hard to handle at all and directed their attention to more tractable topics in syntax and phonology. As a consequence, a good deal of linguistics, both in the Bloomfieldian and the Chomskyan traditions, has simply ignored semantics. However, if we take the idea of language as a symbolic system at all seriously, semantic representations are going to have to play a central role. In fact, it is probably fair to say that one of the major achievements of Cognitive Grammar to date has been in the area of semantic analysis, and in elucidating the semantic motivation of syntactic and morphological structure.
Schema competition
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I take up some further aspects of plural formation in English. There are, as everyone knows, different ways of forming plural nouns in English. The existence of different plural-forming devices raises a number of important questions. A single schema for plural formation will be inadequate—we will need a set of schemas, or sub-schemas, to cover the different cases. A speaker who wishes to produce a plural form cannot therefore appeal to the plural-forming schema; it will be necessary to select from a set of schemas that are, in a sense, in competition. In this chapter, I consider the factors that are relevant to this process.
Nouns and nominals
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I address the ways in which a nominal expression can be ‘grounded’. That is, the ways in which the designated entity can be ‘located’ with respect to the speech act situation (the ‘ground’). A discussion of grounding involves examining the role of determiners and quantifiers, and other aspects of the noun phrase.
Constructions
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

On several occasions already in this book I have emphasized that Cognitive Grammar does not recognize a distinct level of syntactic organization. The combination of words into larger configurations is handled, not by a special syntactic component of the grammar, but in terms of constructions. A study of constructions reinforces many of the points made in the last chapter, concerning, for example, the absence of a clear-cut distinction between the idiomatic and the regular, and the impossibility, in principle, of separating facts pertaining to the lexicon from facts pertaining to the syntax.
Agriculture and the Land
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

In 1845, the Home Secretary, Sir James Graham, wrote to his son expressing pessimism about his prospects as the owner of a 26,000-acre agricultural estate. Since 1819, he had spent £93,000 on improvements, had consolidated farms, and had improved the calibre of the tenancy. Although his income had increased from £17,946 in 1818 to £21,599 in 1845, his outgoings had also risen so that he had only £7,000 to maintain his standing as a leading politician. If he could sell the estate for £700,000 and pay off loans, he could expect to receive an income of almost £14,000 a year. Above all, the prospect of repeal of the corn laws filled him with gloom.
The Rise and Demise of the Gold Standard
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

In 1865, R. H. Patterson, a leading financial journalist, saw gold as a sign of civilization and international peace, complementing free trade in a vision of Cobdenite peace and prosperity. The convertibility of bank notes into gold imposed morality and discipline on businessmen and on the government. The discipline prevented militaristic ministers from printing notes to wage war; and it limited speculation by businessmen by preventing over-expansion of credit. Gold was a measure of intrinsic value which helped resolve difficulties in measuring value in a highly commercialized capitalist economy. Gold was a measure of intrinsic value.
Managing the Economy
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

In 1930, Winston Churchill reflected on the change in the nature of politics during a career that had taken him from involvement in new Liberal social reforms before the First World War to Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Conservative government of 1924–9. Only since the First World War, he suggested, had economic issues intruded into politics. Perhaps he was exaggerating the change, for the election of 1906 was fought on an economic issue and he had himself abandoned the Conservative party in opposition to tariff reform. Welfare reform had an economic dimension, as his own speeches made clear: the reform of the labour market and creation of an efficient capitalist system.
The Festival of Britain and British Identity
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: November 2023

By 1951, Britain had experienced six years of war and six years of austerity— and the government felt that the nation deserved to celebrate what had been achieved through self-sacrifice and communal spirit. The Festival of Britain of 1951 provided— in the words of its director— a ‘tonic to the nation’, marking a shift from austerity to affluence, from reconstruction to achievement, and not coincidentally encouraging voters to reflect on the record of the Labour government. Herbert Morrison, the minister responsible for the Festival, summed up its character as ‘the people giving themselves a pat on the back’.