bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Data Transformation
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

Results can be significantly improved by pre-processing (transformation) to accommodate non-linear relationships, and failure to do so limits results. Much detail is provided specific to discretization. (1) Traditional—i) dummy variables—0/1 (one-hot) values represent group membership, or not; ii) weight of evidence—assesses risk for the group relative to the sample; iii) piecewise—uses multiple weights of evidence (WoE) proxies per characteristic, not just one. (2) Classing/binning—to define groups: i) characteristic analysis; ii) bulk classing—initial power/stability assessments; iii) fine-classing—a preliminary step; iv) coarse classing—final categories; v) piecewise—for assignment to different proxies; vi) final transformation—across all samples. (3) Missing data treatment—of fields/records: i) traditional—drop the record, neutralize the value, or impute a value; ii) missing singles—treat as a distinct class, combine with nearest next, exclude; iii) missing multiples—multiple subjects missing same fields, e.g. no information about past dealings for new customers.
Segmentation
Authors: Anderson Raymond A.
Published: January 2022

Segmentation identifies subgroups better served if treated separately, especially for risk-heterogeneous populations. Trade-offs occur between the resulting extra lift and the extra costs and complexities. It provides little where risk-homogeneity is enforced by strong filtering mechanisms. (1) Overview—i) drivers—operational, strategic, feedstock or interactional; ii) inhibitors—limits on the number of segments {insufficient data, costs of development, implementation, monitoring}; iii) mitigators—steps to reduce model count {interaction characteristics, alternative transformation and development methodologies}. (2) Analysis—i) learning types—supervised and unsupervised; ii) finding interactions—how to measure interactions for binary targets; iii) segment mining—comparing multiple options; iv) boundary analysis—assessing the impact for cases that switch segments. (3) Presentation—tabular and graphic means of presenting comparisons of different options, especially against having a single model. It includes performance within and across segments, drill-downs into segments and strategy curves showing differences in Accept and Bad rates.
Garden Paintings in Rome and the Bay of Naples
Authors: Thomas Joshua J.
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the garden paintings produced in Latium and Campania during the Late Republic and Early Empire, including the famous examples from the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta and the House of the Golden Bracelet at Pompeii. These compositions have often been interpreted in ‘symbolic’ terms, with individual birds and plants understood as visual allegories for more wide-reaching political, religious, or cultural concerns. Here it is argued that the paintings owed more to the garden culture that blossomed in Italy from the mid Republican period onwards, attested by a range of textual and archaeological sources. This connection with Italian garden culture invites a consideration of when and where such paintings were first conceived. It is suggested that inspiration from the Hellenistic East should not be ruled out.
Migration
Authors: Koczan Zsoka , Peri Giovanni , Pinat Magali , Rozhkov Dmitriy
Published: January 2022

International migration is an important channel of material improvement for individuals and their offspring. The movement of people across country borders, especially from less developed to richer countries, has a substantial impact in several dimensions. First, it affects the migrants themselves by allowing them to achieve higher income as a result of their higher productivity in the destination country. It also increases the expected income for their offspring. Second, it affects the destination country through the impact on labor markets, productivity, innovation, demographic structure, fiscal balance, and criminality. Third, it can have a significant impact on the countries of origin. It may lead to loss of human capital, but it also creates a flow of remittances and increases international connections in the form of trade, FDI, and technological transfers. This chapter surveys our understanding of how migration affects growth and inequality through the impact on migrants themselves as well as on the destination and origin countries.
Macroeconomic Stability, Adjustment, and Debt
Authors: Davoodi Hamid R. , Montiel Peter , Ter-Martirosyan Anna
Published: January 2022

The chapter surveys the literature on the relationship between macroeconomic stability and inclusive growth and identify gaps in our knowledge. It examines the role of macroeconomic policies (fiscal, monetary, macroprudential, and exchange rate) and measures of inclusiveness (income inequality, consumption inequality, wealth inequality, poverty, and unemployment) across countries at different income levels. Avoiding procyclical macroeconomic policies and mitigating macroeconomic volatility should be on the agenda of all policymakers concerned with promoting inclusive growth. The emerging theory and evidence suggest a strong role for macroeconomic policies in shaping inclusive growth, both in the short-run and the long-run. The two-way relationship between the macroeconomy and inequality underscores the challenge of identifying and estimating causal relationships. Models with heterogeneous agents have much to offer in this area.
Tax Policy
Authors: Abdel-Khader Khaled , Mooij Ruud De
Published: January 2022

This chapter discusses the theory and practice of tax design to achieve an efficient and equitable outcome in support of inclusive growth. It starts with a discussion of the key principles from tax theory to guide practical tax design. Then, it elaborates on the practice of tax policy making, thereby discussing key choices in the structure of the personal income tax on labor, capital income, wealth, the corporate income tax, and consumption taxes. The chapter concludes by highlighting the political economy considerations of the issues with concrete recommendations as to how to implement tax reform.
The Political Economy of Inclusive Growth
Authors: Dutzler Barbara , Johnson Simon , Muthoora Priscilla
Published: January 2022

This chapter reviews the role of the political economy in inclusive growth. A key finding is that political economy forces on the demand and supply side have weakened redistribution over time and contributed to a new wave of populism. The chapter documents growing support for a rethink of the social contract to make growth more inclusive and discuss some of its broad elements.
Sharing Resource Wealth and Addressing Fragility
Authors: Pouokam Nathalie
Published: January 2022

This chapter discusses the main challenges faced by resource-rich nations in promoting equity; describes policy tools available for managing exhaustible natural resources; and analyzes the relationship between resource wealth and state fragility. The chapter argues that human capital accumulation, innovation, and technology diffusion can help escape the trap of low growth and resource dependence that plagues so many developing countries. But to make this possible, resource-rich nations must sustain strong citizen participation in the policy making to hold governments accountable and ensure the inclusive management of resource wealth.
Bibliophobia
Authors: Cummings Brian
Published: January 2022

Bibliophobia is a personal meditation on the 5,000-year history of writing and of books, from the perspective of the smartphone. Its starting point is the contemporary idea of ‘the death of the book’, embodied not only in the replacement of the physical book by digital media, but in the accompanying twenty-first-century experience of paranoia and of literary apocalypse. It traces a twin fear of omniscience and oblivion right back to the origins of writing in ancient Sumeria and Egypt, and then forwards to the age of Google. It covers examples of bibliophobia from the first Chinese emperor to Nazi Germany, alongside a parallel story of bibliomania and bibliolatry within world religions and literatures. Using examples from six continents, it discusses topics such as the origins and decipherment of different kinds of human script; the development of textual media such as scrolls, codices, printed books, and artificial intelligence; the collection and destruction of libraries; the use of books as holy objects, talismans, and shrines; and the history of slavery, heresy, blasphemy, censorship, and persecution. Originating as the Clarendon Lectures in the Faculty of English at the University of Oxford, the methods of Bibliophobia range across book history; comparative religion; philosophy from Plato to Hegel and Freud; and a wide range of global literature from ancient to contemporary. Richly illustrated with manuscripts, printed objects, and art works, at its heart is the power that books always (and continue to) have in the emotional, spiritual, bodily, and imaginative life of readers.
Kissing the Book
Authors: Cummings Brian
Published: January 2022

Until the nineteenth century, it was the law in England to swear the truth of evidence by kissing the Bible. This practice long outlasted a Protestant suspicion that it was based on superstition. People kiss books still today. What is the metaphysical relationship so intended? The chapter explores the place of the book in the cult of the saints from the late antique period onwards. It also examines the physical make-up of books in Christianity, in calligraphy, in bindings, and in boxes called ‘book shrines’. The discussion builds on that in chs 9 (on Islamic books) and 10 (Jewish books). It surveys famous examples such as the Book of Kells and the Lindisfarne Gospels, before also examining the parallel traditions of kissing books (and eating them), and of kissing in general, before tracing attacks on such practices from before the Reformation onwards.
The Hand in the History of the Book
Authors: Cummings Brian
Published: January 2022

The chapter opens with the famous story of Petrarch’s mountain walk on which he carried a copy of Augustine’s Confessions in his pocket. What is the significance of a book’s portability? The key question in the chapter concerns an obvious but little-observed correspondence between the pages of a codex and a pair of hands. The book creates a prosthetic relationship with the body, acting in a triangle between hand, eye, and mouth. In the midst of this opens out a longstanding philosophical quarrel about orality and the written (and about silent reading) in literary history, from classical times to Nietzsche. The argument here is for a more open acknowledgement of the book as a transitional object, including analysis of books in works of art, and finishing with a discussion of reading in Cicero and in Dante.
Book Burial
Authors: Cummings Brian
Published: January 2022

The assimilation between the book and the human body reaches its apogee in the worldwide phenomenon of book burial. The sūtras in Mahāyāna Buddhism were buried in a stūpa (burial mound), as if they were themselves relics of the Buddha. In China, Japan, and Korea, traditions grew of ritual chanting of the text, character by character, with each character drawn inside a stūpa. Comparable traditions are found in Judaism, Islam, Christianity, and Sikhism. The ritualized disposal of sacred texts suggests a profound connection between the book and the body. This is not only a matter of sacred transference but also a deep metaphor of the idea of writing conveying contents in terms of human subjectivity.
The Execution and Return of Writs
Authors: McGovern Jonathan
Published: January 2022

The English common law required the issue and execution of innumerable writs: official slips of parchment commanding the sheriff to take some action in the king’s name. This chapter begins with an overview of the service of writs in the Tudor period, explaining the difference between original and judicial writs, and between the delivery of writs ‘of record’ and ‘off record’. Focussing on writs pertaining to litigation in personal actions, the chapter explains the function of various common writs, including capias and distringas, and how the sheriff was required to act on them. It focusses in particular on the sheriff’s responsibility for empanelling juries in response to writs of venire facias, examining the extent to which Tudor jury panels were marred by corruption. It concludes by analysing successful and unsuccessful attempts to reform the execution of process in this period.
Police Powers, Prison Keeping, and Other Duties
Authors: McGovern Jonathan
Published: January 2022

This chapter analyses the sheriff’s police powers, including his right to arrest suspected felons, traitors, and disturbers of the peace without a warrant from a court, and his responsibility of quelling riot and disorder. It also discusses his responsibilities of keeping prisons. High sheriffs and municipal sheriffs were charged with keeping four main categories of prisoner: those arrested on suspicion of wrongdoing, those arrested on an indictment, those arrested in the course of civil proceedings, and those arrested after judgment. The chapter also discusses the sheriff’s seizure of property forfeited by felons, traitors, heretics, and (from 1587) recusants; and his duty of making proclamation in the king’s name.
Political Limits
Authors: McPherson David
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores the importance of limits in the political domain, starting with a discussion of the bonds and bounds of political community. It takes on the cosmopolitan outlook that rejects patriotism, which involves loyalty to one’s country and fellow citizens. Patriotism, it is contended, is important not only because it meets the human need for belonging but also, relatedly, because it enables democratic self-government and distributive justice. The second section argues against egalitarian views of distributive justice (with a focus on luck egalitarianism) and in favor of a sufficientarian view, where what matters is that everyone has enough. This sufficientarian view embraces the limiting virtue of contentment and with this a politics of imperfection, and so the third section argues against utopianism, including what is called “ideal theory” in political philosophy. The fourth and final section discusses the importance of the limiting virtue of moderation in politics and, in connection with this, the importance of limiting government. Many of the most important pursuits in life, it is contended, lie outside of the political domain, and politics should make space for these pursuits.
De motu: Leibniz on the Relativity of Motion
Authors: Arthur Richard T. W.
Published: January 2022

In this chapter it is shown how Leibniz distinguished between motion in its geometrical sense, where it is mere change of situation, and motion with respect to cause. Motion in the former sense is abstract and essentially relative, whereas the identification of which bodies are actually in motion is achieved by recourse to the “most intelligible hypothesis,” the one best explaining the origins of the motions under consideration. It is explained how on this basis Leibniz could distinguish true from merely apparent motions, even while rejecting the idea that true motions are motions with respect to an existing immobile space, and how he used this distinction from 1676 onwards to defend Copernicanism without this committing him to instrumentalism. The relationship of his views on the relativity of motion to his emerging dynamics in the 1680s and ’90s is examined, and the idea that vis viva is a criterion for determining which bodies are really moving is refuted. Commentators’ claims that derivative force acts on a different ontic level from primitive force, or that bodies are on a different ontic level from forces, are also examined and refuted. Leibniz’s views on the relativity of rotational motion are analysed and found wanting. The last section gives an extended analysis of the way in which Leibniz treated motion through space and time in his analysis situs, showing how the “spacetime” in question is a mental construction for determining motions on the basis of the most intelligible hypothesis, rather than a really existing thing.
Belonging—Part 2
Authors: Field Clive D.
Published: January 2022

The extent of religious belonging is investigated in terms of membership of particular faith communities, preferably as directly enumerated by them, supplemented by Peter Brierley’s estimates and the census of population. In scholarly debates about secularization, membership is frequently cited as a metric, yet there is ambiguity surrounding what it entails and certainly no common criteria, rendering comparisons and aggregate analysis difficult. Some communities (notably the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches and non-Christians) consider their entire constituency to be members, while mainstream Protestant denominations often have some form of membership coincidental with the transition to late adolescence or adulthood, thereby differentiating members from children and other adult worshippers. To avoid misrepresentation, data for each major denomination and faith are examined in turn. Overall, net religious membership in Britain has declined substantially during the half-century under review, notwithstanding pockets of growth (variously attributable to natural increase, immigration, or––less commonly––conversion).
Behaving—Part 2
Authors: Field Clive D.
Published: January 2022

Four other aspects of religious behaviour are reviewed, largely through claims in sample surveys. The frequency of private prayer, core to nearly all religions, has diminished; half the population stated they prayed weekly or more until the 1970s, but now it is under one-quarter. The Bible, the foundational document of Christianity, has become less central to its followers and wider society, with reductions in ownership, readership, knowledge, literalist beliefs, and influence on everyday life. Religious broadcasts have been marginalized by broadcasters and deserted by listeners and viewers. Surviving programmes no longer air at peak times and often assume the character of documentaries or entertainments. Religious observance of the major Christian festivals, Christmas and Easter, has shrunk. For the overwhelming majority of Britons, they have become purely secular holidays, to be spent on enjoyment and with family and friends, untroubled by churchgoing or even by thoughts about the events’ religious meaning.
Global Need
Authors: Temkin Larry S.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 2 discusses Temkin’s longtime commitment to ameliorating global poverty, and the fact that he has long been sympathetic to the aims of Peter Singer and Effective Altruism regarding global aid. However, Chapter 2 argues in favor of a pluralistic approach to aiding the needy, rather than the narrower utilitarian, or “do the most good” approach favored by Singer and Effective Altruists. Specifically, Chapter 2 argues that there are a host of normative reasons that have a bearing on the nature and extent of our obligations to the needy, including outcome-based reasons, virtue-based reasons, and deontological-based reasons.
Model Projects and the Difficulty of Predicting Future Success
Authors: Temkin Larry S.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 9 draws on the lessons of handpump tubewells, thalidomide, and DDT, to argue that global aid may have unanticipated long-term negative consequences that make predicting the overall future success of aid problematic. Further, since each aid context is unique, highly successful aid efforts in one context may face problems of replicability; they may also face problems of scaling up. Drawing on an example from education—the Rice School—Chapter 9 illustrates how projects can spectacularly fail even in seemingly ideal, local, circumstances, let alone in the far-from-ideal circumstances that attend most global aid efforts, where resources and education are severely limited, and the possibility of missteps are great due to social, cultural, political, historical, and, often, language differences. Chapter 9’s worries may apply to a lesser extent to some of the top-rated charities of organizations like GiveWell, but they don’t disappear entirely.
Individual versus Collective Rationality and Morality
Authors: Temkin Larry S.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 12 considers the view that even if many charities do more harm than good, surely, not all do; thus, as Effective Altruism claims, we must support the most effective charities, which can be counted on to be doing more good than harm. Drawing on recent work in philosophy concerning Prisoner’s Dilemmas, Each/We Dilemmas, Derek Parfit’s Repugnant Conclusion, and anti-additive-aggregationist principles like the Disperse Additional Burdens View, Chapter 12 argues that this response fails to understand the full force of Angus Deaton’s position. Unfortunately, there can be conflicts between individual and collective rationality and morality. This raises the deeply troubling possibility that even if some charities have overall impacts that are, individually, desirable, so that each of us, individually, have reason to support them, it could still be, as Deaton believes, that the collective impact of such charities is undesirable, so that, collectively, we ought not to support such charities.
Responsibility and Fairness
Authors: Temkin Larry S.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 14 discusses Thomas Pogge’s claim that for most people in the world’s richest countries aiding the needy is a duty, and not merely an optional act of charity or supererogation, because they are partly responsible for the plight of the world’s needy and have engaged in activities that directly or indirectly harmed them or violated their rights. Chapter 14 also argues that considerations of fairness, justice, and equality are relevant to how we should respond to global poverty and the plight of the needy. It notes that these issues raise a host of questions not easily answered. Together, Chapter 14’s considerations further illustrate the extreme complexity of the topics of global poverty, global need, and foreign aid, both normatively and empirically; and the need for pluralism in our thinking if we are to have any hope of determining how to be good in a world of need.
Conclusion
Authors: Temkin Larry S.
Published: January 2022

Chapter 16 summarizes the book’s main claims. It acknowledges serious doubts regarding whether this book may ultimately harm the global needy, but contends that there may be even greater danger in the one-sided approach to global poverty and aid that has dominated philosophy. Chapter 16 notes many difficult issues requiring further exploration concerning, among others, pluralism, individual versus collective rationality and morality, responsibility and complicity, the importance of good governance, humanitarian aid and the urgency of now, and the basic income movement. Chapter 16 also suggests various avenues besides on-the-ground charities for aiding the needy, including basic research; knowledge dissemination; revising TRIPS, the rule of effectiveness, and other policies of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Trade Organization (WTO); strengthening international human rights and the rule of law; ending human trafficking; reducing the sale of arms and other noxious products; and opening borders.
Towards a Tax on Actual Returns
Authors: Gerritsen Aart , Zoutman Floris T.
Published: January 2022

The Netherlands currently taxes capital income on the basis of a presumptive rate of return and leaves the actual returns on capital untaxed. This means that the Netherlands effectively levies a wealth tax instead of a capital-income tax. A tax on actual returns is more equitable and more efficient than the current tax. It would, moreover, be better for macro-economic stability. Thus, the Dutch government would be wise to move from a tax on presumptive returns to a tax on actual returns. Contrary to current policy, such a tax should ideally be levied on the returns on all forms of private wealth, including housing and pension wealth. Finally, it should, again ideally, tax capital gains on an accrual basis and tax above-normal returns at a higher rate than normal returns.
Fundamental Reform of Taxes on Capital Income in the Netherlands
Authors: Jacobs Bas
Published: January 2022

In the Netherlands, the tax treatment of capital income influences the allocation of capital and risk-taking, resulting in deadweight losses, tax arbitrage, and financial fragility. Moreover, the tax treatment of capital income implies that income redistribution is not achieved at the lowest social costs. Fundamental reform of the taxation of capital income in the Netherlands can generate substantial efficiency and equity gains, while reducing tax arbitrage and financial fragility. This chapter proposes a uniform tax treatment of all capital income from savings, portfolio investments, pensions, owner-occupied housing, and business ownership with a uniform, flat-rate tax on all capital incomes. The efficiency of the mix of Dutch taxes is increased by shifting the tax burden from labour to capital income as much as possible in a distribution-neutral way. The debt bias should be removed in the entire tax system.
The Dutch Damage Done
Authors: Wier Ludvig
Published: January 2022

The size of Dutch tax haven activities is investigated, and the impact of these activities on both global corporate tax revenue and economic efficiency. Recent estimates suggest that multinational firms shift more than 600 billion US dollars of profits to tax havens each year, which corresponds to a tax loss of 10% of global corporate tax receipts. According to the same estimates, the Netherlands receives $57 billion in artificial profits and is thereby responsible for 10% of the world’s global tax haven activities. The Netherlands benefits from these activities by collecting substantially higher tax revenue but, as global tax rates continue to decline, this revenue model is under pressure.
Options for Origin- and Destination-Based Rent Taxes in the Netherlands
Authors: Hebous Shafik , Klemm Alexander
Published: January 2022

The chapter considers different rent taxes and the relative pros and cons for their adoption, as well as their optimal design, from the point of view of a small open economy such as the Netherlands. Origin-based rent taxes in the form of allowances for normal profits or cash-flow taxes are efficient at the firm level, but subject to tax competition pressures. Recent proposals for destination-based rent taxes, if universally adopted, address tax competition and profit shifting, but would result in revenue losses for some countries, including the Netherlands. A unilaterally adopted destination-based tax would create major spill-over effects on the rest of the world and might cause retaliation.
Dutch Tax Policy Creates Heterogeneity in Tax Burdens
Authors: Caminada Koen , Goudswaard Kees
Published: January 2022

The development and distribution of the burdens of the income tax and social security contributions (jointly called ‘taxes’ for brevity) since 2001 are identified using income data from Statistics Netherlands. This provides significant information for policymakers and pointers for reform. Tax burdens have increased substantially for most households. Further, as a result of the many targeted tax changes, there are considerable differences in tax burdens between households, even if the income is the same. Finally, tax policy does not appear to be in line with ability-to-pay considerations and its effectiveness is doubtful; simplification is desirable.
Road Pricing by Design
Authors: Vrijburg Hendrik , Geilenkirchen Gerben
Published: January 2022

An analysis is provided to what degree the current taxation of the purchase and ownership of cars can be replaced by a system of kilometre-based road pricing, which charges for using the car. Such a change might enhance social welfare when the external cost of the use of cars is currently inadequately priced. It is concluded that congestion pricing based on time and place is socially desirable, with local cordon fees being a feasible alternative. Further, a flat levy of about 3 cents per kilometre can be justified alongside congestion pricing in order to internalize external costs other than congestion and greenhouse gases. Current fuel duties approximate such a flat levy. Finally, it seems neither feasible nor efficient to shift the entire tax burden from purchase and ownership to use. An efficient policy mix, therefore, also includes taxes on purchase and/or ownership.
Willing Pain in Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl
Authors: Constantinesco Thomas
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores how Harriet Jacobs’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861) exposes the problematic function of pain in the disciplinary apparatus of slavery and in the constitution of Black subjectivity. It considers how Jacobs illuminates the contradiction of slavery’s biopolitical power, which treated enslaved men and women as both possessing and not possessing a will. As property, the chapter shows, enslaved people had no will, only a body that did not belong to them; as legal persons, they were granted a negative will of criminal intent, which returned them to their commodified body, experienced through the pain of forced labor and corporeal punishment. The chapter demonstrates however that, rather than seeking to escape from body to will, Jacobs’s journey from enslavement to emancipation takes the form of a looping structure, whereby she comes to will her own pain of body and mind through her escape in the “loophole of retreat” she finds in her grandmother’s garret. It further argues that the narrativization of her pain complicates the equivalence between literacy and liberation that underwrites slave narratives, as much as it challenges the conventions of sentimentalism that Incidents nevertheless deploys. It eventually makes the claim that, by willing pain as a paradoxical source of agency, Jacobs’s narrative reveals how pain is integral both to the reappropriation of embodied selfhood and to the familial and social bonds she strives to recover after her flight from enslavement.
Anti-Methodism and Theological Controversy in Eighteenth-Century England
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

John Wesley and George Whitefield are remembered as founders of Methodism, one of the most influential movements in the history of modern Christianity. Characterized by open-air and itinerant preaching, eighteenth-century Methodism was a divisive phenomenon, which attracted a torrent of printed opposition, especially from Anglican clergymen. Yet most of these opponents have been virtually forgotten. Anti-Methodism and Theological Controversy in Eighteenth-Century England is the first large-scale examination of the theological ideas of early anti-Methodist authors. By illuminating a very different perspective on Methodism, Simon Lewis provides a fundamental reappraisal of the eighteenth-century Church of England and its doctrinal priorities. For anti-Methodist authors, attacking Wesley and Whitefield was part of a wider defence of ‘true religion’, which demonstrates the theological vitality of the much-derided Georgian Church. This book, therefore, places Methodism firmly in its contemporary theological context, as part of the Church of England’s continuing struggle to define itself theologically.
Epilogue and Conclusion
Authors: Lewis Simon
Published: January 2022

This chapter stresses the importance of history. Far from viewing Methodism as an innovative movement, anti-Methodist authors associated John Wesley and George Whitefield’s ministries with the past. There was, however, no single conception of the past which united the theologically diverse range of authors who attacked Methodism. Thus, there was no homogeneous definition of ‘Methodism’ on which opponents could agree. This disparity was a product of the fierce contests over the doctrinal makeup of the eighteenth-century Church of England. For orthodox divines, attacking Methodism formed merely part of a wider defence of ‘true religion’—an agenda that also underpinned their attacks on deism and Dissent. As has been shown throughout this book, the various doctrinal concerns about Methodism—such as antinomianism and schism—should not be viewed in isolation from the various socio-political objections that were posed to Wesley and Whitefield. Nevertheless, these evangelical leaders shared many of their orthodox opponents’ doctrinal priorities, thus illuminating the theological vitality of the Georgian Church.
Things and Properties
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: January 2022

Chapter 4, section 4.1 is about reification—that is, about treating such or such as a thing. It argues that reification need not be treated as such a big deal philosophically as it often is. For instance, “has a belief that p” reifies believing, and “believes that p” does not; but in ordinary English they mean the same thing, and have the same truth value. The overarching thesis of section 4.2 is that in predicate logic with quantifiers, to reify something by quantifying over it is to treat it as a node in a network of facts involving coinstantiation and non-coinstantiation of predicates. Other theses are that existence entails self-identity, but does not entail individuation in the sense of having precise boundaries—and that consistency in what is asserted requires sameness of meaning of predicate as well as subject terms. Section 4.3 compares two models for thinking about the relation between properties (as particulars rather than universals) and the subjects or “substances” in which they inhere. Model (1): Pills are in a bottle, which is something that exists in addition to all the pills. Model (2): Human beings exist in social groups, without which they could not live their whole lives; but the existence of the social groups consists entirely in the being and doings of the humans. The second model seems the more plausible one.
Identity, Time, and Self
Authors: Adams Robert Merrihew
Published: January 2022

Section 9.1 of this chapter is an argument for the actuality of coordinated multi-modal experience, for instance of simultaneously seeing and hearing something going on, and of oneself as a seer who is identical with a hearer. In section 9.2, Presentism, the doctrine that only the present is real, is rejected on the ground that a present that does not include some of the past or some of the future is not a space in which anything can be, but only a boundary between past and future. Section 9.3 discusses trans-temporal identity of persons, and also of artifacts, over longer periods. It is argued that we treat such identity, in some ways, as based on its relation to practical reason, and to ownership of things and of a life—and rightly so. Section 9.4, on life after death, discusses what sorts of shared memories and after-death experiences (if any) might rightly convince a group of “after-life persons” that God has given them life after death. Section 9.5, on “primitive trans-world identity,” argues that it can be a fact about a possible world that Richard Nixon, for example, (he himself and no other) exists in it and loses the 1968 presidential election, if and only if that world contains the whole concrete reality of our actual world and its history up to some time (before that election) at which Nixon already existed.
Mutual Recognition of Authorizations to Provide Services
Authors: Bates Alan , McGurk Brendan , Peretz George , Williams Jack
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines the application and effect of section 19 of the Act, which provides for the mutual recognition throughout the United Kingdom of authorizations to provide services. The section provides that ‘an authorisation requirement in relation to the provision of services in one part of the United Kingdom does not apply to a person who is authorised to provide those services in another part of the United Kingdom’. The term ‘authorisation requirement’ means ‘a legislative requirement that a service provider must have the permission of a regulator before carrying on a business of providing particular services’. The mutual recognition provided for in section 19 applies in relation to new requirements for prior regulatory authorization which are imposed in a part of the United Kingdom on or after 31 December 2020, unless there has been a substantive change to relevant authorization requirements in a part of the United Kingdom since that date. Certain categories of services are excluded from the scope of mutual recognition under section 19. Mutual recognition under section 19 does not benefit persons providing services within the United Kingdom who do not have a permanent establishment within the United Kingdom. This chapter answers four overarching questions. What is the mutual recognition rule? In what circumstances does the rule apply? When is the rule excluded? What effect does it have in practice?
Wondering on and with Purpose
Authors: Drucker Daniel
Published: January 2022

This chapter contains a proposal about what wondering is and how it differs from other mental phenomena such as curiosity, arguing that, though it’s tempting to analyze wondering as a desire to know the answer to the question one wonders about, that would be wrong, since wondering is an activity rather than a state. The chapter also argues that wondering about a question needn’t even essentially involve a desire to know the answer to that question, even as a necessary part of what rationalizes the wondering. Instead, to wonder about a question is to consider various answers as possible answers, guided by mechanisms that make the subject epistemically better off with respect to those answers. Considering ceases when a person is consciously certain of the answer to their question. This allows wondering to not be objectionably metacognitive, and allows us to make sense of cases in which the motivating desire isn’t to know an answer but just to wonder itself.
Intensionalism and Propositional Attitudes
Authors: Yli-Vakkuri Juhani , John Hawthorne
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores solutions to a somewhat underappreciated family of puzzles concerning propositional attitudes generated by intensionalism—the view that necessarily equivalent propositions are identical. After presenting the puzzles informally, the chapter introduces the apparatus of higher-order logic, which allows one to quantify into the position of any type of expression, and makes possible a formally rigorous statement of the puzzles. Many philosophers will think that it’s quite obvious how one should respond to the puzzles—namely by treating them as refutations of intensionalism. But this response is arguably too quick. The chapter explores strategies for responding to the puzzles within the framework of intensionalism, laying out a taxonomy of such strategies. Certain of these strategies treat English attitude sentences as opaque and others don’t. However all of them use a transparent (i.e. non-opaque) language as the vehicle for theorizing. The focus here will be on the logical ramifications of the various strategies.
Two Problems in Spinoza’s Theory of Mind
Authors: Cleve James Van
Published: January 2022

The aim in this chapter is to expound and (if possible) resolve two problems in Spinoza’s theory of mind. The first is how Spinoza can accept a key premise in Descartes’s argument for dualism—that thought and extension are separately conceivable, “one without the help of the other”—without accepting Descartes’s conclusion that no substance is both thinking and extended. Resolving this will require considering a crucial ambiguity in the notion of conceiving one thing without another, Descartes’s principle that each substance has a principal attribute, and the prospect of neutral monism as a theory of the mind. The second problem is how Spinoza can maintain that each mental event is identical with some physical event while denying that there is any causal interaction between mental and physical events. Resolving this problem will require looking into the reach of opacity in Spinoza’s philosophy and considering whether there are ever any legitimate exceptions to Leibniz’s Law.
Experimental Evidence that Knowledge Entails Justification
Authors: Nolte Alexandra , Rose David , Turri John
Published: January 2022

A standard view in philosophy is that knowledge entails justification. Yet recent research suggests otherwise. Chapter 2 argues that this admirable and striking research suffers from an important limitation: participants were asked about knowledge but not justification. Thus it is possible that people attributed knowledge partly because they thought the belief was justified. Perhaps though, if given the opportunity, people would deny justification while still attributing knowledge. It is also possible that earlier findings were due to perspective taking. This chapter reports further research that directly addresses these questions; its findings support the hypothesis that knowledge entails justification on the ordinary view.
The Empirical Case for Folk Indexical Moral Relativism
Authors: Beebe James R.
Published: January 2022

Recent empirical work on folk moral objectivism has attempted to examine the extent to which folk morality presumes that moral judgments are objectively true or false. Some researchers report findings that they take to indicate folk commitment to objectivism, while others report findings that may reveal a more variable commitment to objectivism. However, the various probes that have been used to examine folk moral objectivism almost always fail to be good direct measures of objectivism. Some critics have suggested that the problems with existing probes are serious enough that they should be viewed as largely incapable of shedding any light on folk metaethical commitments. Building upon the work of Justin Khoo and Joshua Knobe, this chapter argues that many of the existing probes can be seen as good measures of the extent to which people think that the truth of one moral judgment excludes the possibility that a judgment made by a disagreeing party is also true and that the best explanation of the findings obtained using these measures is significant folk support for indexical moral relativism—the view that the content of moral judgments is context-sensitive. If this thesis is correct, many contemporary moral philosophers are deeply mistaken about the metaethical contours of folk morality in one very important respect.
Insufficient Effort Responding in Experimental Philosophy
Authors: Pölzler Thomas
Published: January 2022

Providing valid responses to a self-report survey requires cognitive effort. Subjects engaging in insufficient effort responding (IER) are unwilling to take this effort. Compared to psychologists, experimental philosophers so far seem to have paid less attention to IER. This chapter is an attempt to begin to alleviate this shortcoming. First, it explains IER’s nature, prevalence and negative effects in self-report surveys in general. Second, it argues that IER might also affect experimental philosophy studies. Third, it develops recommendations as to how experimental philosophers should (and should not) try to prevent IER. Fourth, it develops recommendations as to how experimental philosophers should (and should not) try to detect IER. Fifth, it sketches how experimental philosophers ought to proceed once a subject has been identified as an insufficient effort responder. And finally, the chapter reports the results of an online survey that addresses experimental philosophers’ current knowledge, consideration, and assessment of IER.
From University to Court
Authors: Yáñez María Díez
Published: January 2022

This chapter traces three coordinates: the source — Aristotle, through Thomas Aquinas; the goal — government by a sovereign; and the two virtues of liberality and magnificence. It explains the process and traits of a dual transition as the basis for the three coordinates. The chapter begins with a chronological transition as it explores the sixteenth century through variations, adaptations and rewritings that were already extant in the fifteenth century. It is followed by a special transition that discerns the similarities, differences and exchanges that could be observed between university and courtly environments. It also examines Aristotelian moral philosophy taught at the School of Salamanca, which is characterized by the influence of a Thomist perspective.
The Impure Non-Identity Problem
Authors: Tomlin Patrick
Published: January 2022

Some of Derek Parfit’s most significant work concerns the non-identity problem. Briefly put, this is the problem of how, morally speaking, we should understand cases in which we can act in one way, and produce persons with sub-optimal lives, or act in another way, and produce different persons with better lives. Discussions of the non-identity problem tend to assume that it is a single problem, raising a single set of moral issues. This chapter seeks to complicate this picture. It introduces ‘Impure Non-Identity Cases’. These are cases in which a policy, or group of acts, is a non-identity case, and so nobody is harmed, or made worse off, by the policy, or group of acts, but some (and maybe even all) of the individual acts within the policy or group are not non-identity cases, and are harmful. The chapter investigates the moral implications of such cases, and the problems and questions they raise, aside from those raised by ‘Pure Non-Identity Cases’.
Totalism without Repugnance
Authors: Nebel Jacob M.
Published: January 2022

Totalism is the view that one distribution of well-being is better than another just in case the one contains a greater sum of well-being than the other. Many philosophers, following Parfit, reject totalism on the grounds that it entails the repugnant conclusion that, for any number of excellent lives, there is some number of lives that are barely worth living whose existence would be better. This chapter develops a theory of welfare aggregation—the lexical-threshold view—that allows totalism to avoid the repugnant conclusion, as well as its analogues involving suffering populations and the lengths of individual lives. The theory is grounded in some independently plausible views about the structure of well-being, identifies a new source of incommensurability in population ethics, and avoids some of the implausibly extreme consequences of other lexical views, without violating the intuitive separability of lives.
Can Parfit’s Appeal to Incommensurabilities in Value Block the Continuum Argument for the Repugnant Conclusion?
Authors: Rabinowicz Wlodek
Published: January 2022

Parfit proposed blocking the Continuum Argument for the Repugnant Conclusion by letting incommensurabilities (“imprecise equalities” in his terminology) intervene at some points in the argument’s population sequence. It is an attractive option. But the relevant incommensurabilities need to be very thoroughgoing if the argument is to be blocked: they must persist even if the next population in the sequence is improved by making it arbitrarily larger. While such persistency might well seem problematic (not just in this case but also when it comes to blockings other spectrum arguments), this article suggests how it can be explained and defended if incommensurability is interpreted on the lines of the fitting-attitudes analysis of value relations. On that analysis, two items are incommensurable if divergent preferential attitudes towards them are permissible (i.e., not unfitting); for example, if it is permissible to prefer one item to the other but also permissible to have the opposite preference. It is shown how to provide a modeling of this kind for persistent incommensurability and how to account for this persistency. However, even if Parfit’s main suggestion can in this way be defended, one of his substantive value assumptions—the Simple View regarding the marginal value of added lives—should be given up, to avoid implausible implications.