bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Estimation Update and Feedback Procedures
Authors: Lee P.J.
Published: November 2020

A basin or subsurface study, which is the first step in petroleum resource evaluation, requires the following types of data: • Reservoir data—pool area, net pay, porosity, water saturation, oil or gas formation volume factor, in-place volume, recoverable oil volume or marketable gas volume, temperature, pressure, density, recovery factors, gas composition, discovery date, and other parameters (refer to Lee et al., 1999, Section 3.1.2). • Well data—surface and bottom well locations; spud and completion dates; well elevation; history of status; formation drill and true depths; lithology; drill stem tests; core, gas, and fluid analyses; and mechanical logs. • Geochemical data—types of source rocks, burial history, and maturation history. • Geophysical data—prospect maps and seismic sections. Well data are essential when we construct structural contour, isopach, lithofacies, porosity, and other types of maps. Geophysical data assist us when we compile number-of-prospect distributions and they provide information for risk analysis.
Fourier Analysis in Systems Theory
Authors: Marks II Robert J
Published: November 2020

In the most general sense, any process wherein a stimulus generates a corresponding response can be dubbed a system. For a temporal system with single input, f (t), and single output, g(t), the relation can be written as . . . g(t) = S{ f (t)} (3.1) . . . where S{·} is the system operator. This is illustrated in Figure 3.1. There exist numerous system types. We define them here in terms of continuous signals. The equivalents in discrete time are given as an exercise. For homogeneous systems, amplifying or attenuating the input likewise amplifying or attenuating the output. For any constant, a,. . . S{a f(t)} = aS{ f (t)} (3.2) If the response of the sum is the sum of the responses, the system is said to be additive. Specifically,. . . S{ f1(t) + f2(t)} = S{ f1(t)} + S{ f2(t)} (3.3) . . . Systems that are both homogeneous and additive are said to be linear. The criteria in (3.2) and (3.3) can be combined into a single necessary and sufficient condition for linearity.. . . S{a f1(t) + bf2(t)} = aS{ f1(t)} + bS{ f2(t)} (3.4) . . . where a and b are constants. All linear systems produce a zero output when the input is zero. . . . S{0} = 0. (3.5). . . To show this, we use (3.4) with a = −b and f1(t) = f2(t). Note that, because of (3.5), the system defined by . . . g(t) = b f(t) + c . . . where b and c¹ 0 are constants, is not linear. It is not homogeneous since . . . S{a f} = b f + c ≠aS{ f} = a (b f + c) .
Generalizations of the Sampling Theorem
Authors: Marks II Robert J
Published: November 2020

There have been numerous interesting and useful generalizations of the sampling theorem. Some are straightforward variations on the fundamental cardinal series. Oversampling, for example, results in dependent samples and allows much greater flexibility in the choice of interpolation functions. In Chapter 7, we will see that it can also result in better performance in the presence of sample data noise. Bandlimited signal restoration from samples of various filtered versions of the signal is the topic addressed in Papoulis’ generalization [1086, 1087] of the sampling theorem. Included as special cases are recurrent nonuniform sampling and simultaneously sampling a signal and one or more of its derivatives. Kramer [772] generalized the sampling theorem to signals that were bandlimited in other than the Fourier sense. We also demonstrate that the cardinal series is a special case of Lagrangian polynomial interpolation. Sampling in two or more dimensions is the topic of Section 8.9. There are a number of functions other than the sinc which can be used to weight a signal’s samples in such a manner as to uniquely characterize the signal. Use of these generalized interpolation functions allows greater flexibility in dealing with sampling theorem type characterizations. If a bandlimited signal has bandwidth B, then it can also be considered to have bandwidthW ≥ B.
Eyelid Lacerations and Acute Adnexal Trauma
Authors: Uzcategui Nicolas
Published: November 2020

When evaluating a patient who has sustained any type of trauma, life-threatening injuries should be addressed or ruled out before proceeding with assessment for ocular and adnexal trauma. In the setting of trauma the practitioner must never forget the basics of life support and systemic trauma assessments. The first goals are to maintain a patent airway and to provide respiratory support. Adequate circulation and perfusion need to be reestablished once an airway has been established. The nature of the accident should alert the practitioner as to the possibility of a cervical spine injury. In accidents that are unwitnessed, that produce loss of consciousness, and/or that are produced by high-velocity impacts to the head, face, and neck, the patient should have C-collar stabilization/immobilization until the cervical spine can be cleared both radiologically and clinically. Only then should ocular and adnexal injuries be assessed. Adnexal trauma is addressed only after the integrity of the globe and intraocular contents has been confirmed by a complete eye examination. A dilated funduscopic examination can be deferred for a reasonable amount of time if a neurologic injury and central nervous system compromise is suspected, since the use of mydriatic agents is a relative contraindication in these circumstances. If a facial nerve injury is not present and/or a ruptured globe has been excluded, the extent of the eyelid and adnexal injuries can be safely determined. Complex lacerations of the eyelid often include extensive wounds involving the eyelid margin, canaliculi, and lateral canthus; these can be associated with tissue loss and can be caused either by sharp objects or bite injuries. In general it is preferable to repair soft tissue injuries within hours of their occurrence; nevertheless, special considerations can delay the primary repair in exceptional circumstances such as severe tissue edema, active infection at the wound site, or extensive hematomas. Intermittent ice compresses, drainage of hematomas, and systemic steroids and/or antibiotics can be instituted prior to repair if swelling or infections limit the possibility of reconstruction. Local wound care and sometimes topical antibiotics are a cornerstone of management in adnexal injury.
Management of Entropion and Trichiasis
Authors: Verity David H. , Rose Geoffrey E.
Published: November 2020

Entropion is a posterior rotation of the upper or lower lid margin against the globe; the causes include involutional changes within the eyelid tissues or cicatricial shortening of the posterior lamella of the eyelid. Congenital lower lid entropion is rare and results from an excess of skin and orbicularis oculi muscle being only loosely attached to the eyelid retractors. The symptoms of entropion—which include ocular irritation, lid spasm, pain, redness, and watering—are worse in the presence of a keratinized lid margin (occurring in cicatricial disease) and where the ocular surface is compromised. Discomfort may lead to secondary blepharospasm, which exacerbates the entropion by causing the preseptal part of the orbicularis muscle to override the pretarsal component. The eyelids and globe should be examined to identify underlying causative factors—in particular the degree and position of tissue laxity, the position of the eyelid margin and lashes, and the thickness of the tarsus. Any secondary effects of entropion, both within the lid and on the ocular surface, should also be noted. 7-1-1 Tissue Laxity. Aging of collagen and the force of gravity leads to eyelid laxity and an excess of tissues, particularly the anterior lamella of the lid. Stretching of the orbicularis muscle and canthal tendons results in horizontal laxity, and eyelid stability is further compromised by enophthalmos due to age-related fat atrophy. Where there is a relative dissociation between the anterior and posterior lamellae, the preseptal orbicularis muscle overrides the pretarsal muscle, leading to eyelid inversion, and this effect is exacerbated both by laxity of the lower lid retractors and age-related tarsal atrophy. Tissue laxity in the absence of orbicularis overriding tends to cause ectropion; with complete loss of retractor action, this can result in complete eversion of the tarsus (“shelf ectropion”). Horizontal laxity of the eyelid tissues is assessed by grasping the lid skin and applying gentle traction in the appropriate direction. The overall horizontal laxity is judged by the extent to which the eyelid can be parted from the globe—greater than about 6 mm is abnormal for a lower eyelid—and by the speed with which the retracted lid returns to the surface of the globe (the “spring-back” test).
Management of Facial Palsy
Authors: Wesley Ralph E.
Published: November 2020

Facial palsy can devastate patients. Facial appearance can be grossly distorted by the sagging of half the face, often accompanied by drooling of food and saliva from the paralyzed lip. Blurred vision and ocular pain from exposure and dryness may interfere with the patient’s ability to perform an occupation or interact socially. Many patients with facial palsy experience depression or severe discouragement. Effective management of ocular problems by the ophthalmologist can have a profound effect on the patient’s rehabilitation. The ophthalmologist managing facial palsy should be aware of wide-ranging choices in the medical and surgical armamentarium to treat facial palsy. This chapter describes the varying clinical dimensions of facial palsy so that treatment can be individualized for effective management. The facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) has four important functions: 1. The facial motor nucleus controls muscles of facial expression, including the orbicularis oculi. 2. The superior salivatory nucleus sends parasympathetic fibers for lacrimal gland secretion and salivary secretion. 3. The nucleus solitarius receives sensory fibers of taste for the anterior two thirds of the tongue. 4. The trigeminal sensory nucleus receives sensory fibers for a small portion of the external ear. Facial motor fibers constitute about 58% of the 7,000 fibers of the facial nerve, while preganglionic fibers for tearing and salivation represent about 24%. The facial nerve leaves the cerebellopontine angle caudal to the trigeminal nerve adjacent to the nervus intermedius and then enters the internal auditory canal of the temporal bone. Large lesions of cranial nerve VII or VIII may cause loss of corneal sensation from pressure on the trigeminal nerve. The 30-mm course through the temporal bone is the longest interosseous course of any cranial nerve, which makes the facial nerve vulnerable to swelling. Three branches leave the facial nerve within the temporal bone. The first, and most important, arises at the geniculate ganglion just as the nerve makes a sharp bend, or genu, to head posteriorly. These fibers for lacrimal and palatine gland secretion constitute the greater superficial petrosal nerve carrying lacrimal secretory fibers to the pterygopalatine ganglion.
Lower Eyelid and Midfacial Rejuvenation
Authors: Lin Yang Chun Cheng , Anderson Richard L.
Published: November 2020

Over the past two and a half decades, techniques for midfacial rejuvenation have evolved. Midfacial rejuvenation has gained significant popularity among many aesthetic surgeons, including the ophthalmic plastic surgeon. Yet rejuvenation of the midface remains a challenge for the aesthetic surgeon who seeks facial harmony. A variety of techniques and approaches are available, yet no single approach is ideal for all patients. It is clear that the age-related anatomic alterations that cause patients to seek rejuvenation vary from patient to patient, and that many patients have more than one anatomic alteration that must be addressed to rejuvenate the lower lid. The surgeon must address the individual needs of each patient for optimal results. It has also become clear that the lower eyelid and midface form a continuum that needs to be addressed in its entirety for optimal rejuvenation. To achieve this, the surgeon must understand the basic concepts important to lower eyelid and midface rejuvenation, which include an understanding of eyelid and midfacial anatomy, an understanding of aging changes of the lower eyelid and midface, and surgical approaches and nonincisional options. A full understanding of aging changes in the lower eyelid and midface is essential to successfully address midfacial rejuvenation. A harmonious facial appearance consists of a balanced relationship among all tissues of the face. With age, disturbance of this harmony among midfacial tissues occurs. The aging process of the midface encompasses the lower eyelid, malar fat pad and associated structures, melolabial fold, and lateral perioral region. Hester describes four important features of midfacial aging: (1) baring of the inferior orbital rim with creation of a hollow valley at the junction of the lower eyelid and cheek; (2) descent of the malar fat pad, with loss of malar prominence; (3) deepening of the tear trough; and (4) exaggeration of the nasolabial fold. The midface represents a crucial aesthetic unit of the face. It is bordered by structures that play major roles in the overall appearances of the face. The lower eyelid and tear trough toward the nose and the lateral canthus and crow’s feet at the superior lateral aspect frame the midface superiorly.
Pathways to Success Through Identity-Based Motivation
Authors: Oyserman Daphna
Published: November 2020

Everyone can imagine their future self, even very young children, and this future self is usually positive and education-linked. To make progress toward an aspired future or away from a feared future requires people to plan and take action. Unfortunately, most people often start too late and commit minimal effort to ineffective strategies that lead their attention elsewhere. As a result, their high hopes and earnest resolutions often fall short. In Pathways to Success Through Identity-Based Motivation Daphna Oyserman focuses on situational constraints and affordances that trigger or impede taking action. Focusing on when the future-self matters and how to reduce the shortfall between the self that one aspires to become and the outcomes that one actually attains, Oyserman introduces the reader to the core theoretical framework of identity-based motivation (IBM) theory. IBM theory is the prediction that people prefer to act in identity-congruent ways but that the identity-to-behavior link is opaque for a number of reasons (the future feels far away, difficulty of working on goals is misinterpreted, and strategies for attaining goals do not feel identity-congruent). Oyserman's book goes on to also include the stakes and how the importance of education comes into play as it improves the lives of the individual, their family, and their society. The framework of IBM theory and how to achieve it is broken down into three parts: how to translate identity-based motivation into a practical intervention, an outline of the intervention, and empirical evidence that it works. In addition, the book also includes an implementation manual and fidelity measures for educators utilizing this book to intervene for the improvement of academic outcomes.
A Focus on Educucation
Authors: Oyserman Daphna
Published: November 2020

American students aspireto getgood grades and succeed in college (Rosenbaum, Deil-Amen, & Person 2006; Trusty, 2000). This is true across the socioeconomic spectrum (for a review, see Oyserman, 2013). American parents share these goals. They have high educational aspirations and expectations for their children even if their own educational and economic attainments are low (Entwisle et al., 2005; Kim, Sherraden, & Clancy, 2012; Madeira, 2009). Parental. In this paper I do not distinguish between aspirations and expectations. This is in contrast to other researchers who find it useful to make that distinction, with an aspiration involving hopes and dreams (e.g., “if you could be anything at all, what would you most hope and want to be?”) and an expectation involving subjective estimation of what is actually possible (e.g., “if you had to bet money on it, what will you be?”). Logically, the two are different. Hopes will be higher than expectations, since expectations imply that one could really do it and hopes imply only that one would want it to transpire. Researchers also assume that expectations are more likely to be linked to behavior than hopes, in part because expectations involve predictions of one’s own competence. An expectation is something one believes one has the skills and competence to attain; in that sense it is akin to how the term efficacy, or self-efficacy, is used. In education, expectancy-value theories (e.g., Wigfield & Eccles, 2000) predict that people will take action to attain valued school outcomes if they expect that they have the skills to attain these outcomes. Because aspirations are not defined as being linked to skills, within a value-expectancy framework, they are less central. Although all of these arguments are compelling, as I outline next, the parents and children who respond to surveys and are of interest to us here do not seem to be following this logic. The way that data on aspirations and expectations are collected in survey research is typically to ask children and their parents, first, how far they would ideally like to go in school and, second, how far they realistically expect to go in school.
Cognitive and Behavioral Complications of Congenital Hypothyroidism
Authors: Nass Ruth D.
Published: November 2020

Congenital hypothyroidism (CH) affects approximately 1 in 3,500 newborns. There is a female preponderance. In areas of iodine insufficiency, the incidence is higher, since iodine is a key element in the synthesis of thyroid hormone. Approximately 85% of CH cases are sporadic, whereas 15% are hereditary. Thyroid hormone is essential for normal pre- and postnatal brain development. The importance of in utero thyroid hormone status is demonstrated by the fact that maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy is known to result in cognitive and motor deficits in the offspring (Forrest 2004; Zoeller and Rovet 2004). Congenital hypothyroidism is already expressed in fetal life; maternal T4, transferred via the placenta, is not sufficient for normal brain development (Forrest 2004; Haddow et al. 1999; Opazo et al. 2008; Pop and Vulsma 2005). Prior to newborn screening, CH that went undiagnosed and untreated for more than 3 months was associated with permanent and significant mental retardation, as well as behavioral problems. Outcome is now significantly better. Children with CH have normal intelligence, although subtle and specific cognitive and behavioral problems occur. Congenital hypothyroidism can be caused by primary hypothyroidism, due to a defect of the thyroid gland, or by central hypothyroidism secondary to defective hypothalamic or pituitary regulation of thyroid hormone. Several types of primary thyroid abnormalities may occur. Thyroid dysgenesis is the result of a missing, ectopic, or hypoplastic gland. Proteins that are crucial for normal thyroid gland development include the thyroid transcription factors PAX8, TTF1, TTF2, FOXE1 and the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor gene. Thyroid dyshormonogenesis is generally due to an autosomal recessive genetic defect in any of many stages of thyroid hormone synthesis, secretion and transport (Moreno and Visser 2007). One in 50,000 children has autosomal dominant thyroid hormone resistance (RTH) due to a mutation in the gene encoding for the TRb thyroid receptors (Hauser et al. 1993; Weiss et al. 1993). Iodine deficiency can also cause CH (endemic cretinism) (DeLange et al. 2000). Gaudino and colleagues (2005) determined the etiology of CH in 49 non-athyroid cases.
Intrauterine Growth Restriction
Authors: Geva Ronny
Published: November 2020

Recent data shows that 30 million low-birth-weight (LBW) infants are born annually worldwide (23.8% of all births). Although the global prevalence of such births is gradually decreasing, rates are still as high as 30% in many developing countries (World Health Organization 2008). Low birth weight is due to intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), rather than or in addition to prematurity, in approximately one-third of these cases. This staggering number of affected children underscores the importance of understanding the short- and long-term cognitive and behavioral complications of IUGR. Intrauterine growth restriction conveys short- and long-term neurodevelopmental risks and thus requires costly long-term investment of medical, cognitive emotional, educational, and economical resources. Nevertheless, if treated aggressively, IUGR more often than not bears a fairly optimistic outlook, once the infant overcomes the initial life-threatening issues (Geva et al. 2006a). Intrauterine growth restriction is frequently detected in a pregnancy with a less-than-expected third trimester weight gain (100–200 g [3.5–7 oz] per week) or as an incidental finding on ultrasound examination when fetal measurements are less than expected for gestational age (GA; Geva et al. 2005). An estimated fetal weight under the 10th percentile, as determined by serial ultrasound examination, strongly correlates with growth restriction (Bernstein and Gabbe 1996; McCormick 1985). The etiologies of IUGR are typically thought of according to three interdependent categories: fetal factors, placental factors, and maternal factors (Kay 2008). Fetal factors include chromosomal events, such as trisomy 18 and 13 and sex chromosome abnormalities, which account for 5%–15% of all IUGR cases. Further exploration of genetic factors is currently under way, with mixed results (Kotzot et al. 2001). Other fetal factors linked to IUGR include congenital anomalies, mostly cardiovascular malformations, gastroschisis and omphalocele; infection, often related to rubella, cytomegalovirus, and toxoplasmosis (see Chapter 25); and multiple gestations, in which uteroplacental blood flow variations and/or twin–twin transfusion develops (Miller et al. 2008). Fetal villus circulation abnormalities are placental factors related to IUGR (Roberts and Post 2008).
Prematurity: Impact on Neurodevelopmental and Behavioral Outcomes
Authors: Vohr Betty R.
Published: November 2020

Prematurity continues to be a major public health problem and, despite advances in antenatal care, prematurity rates continue to rise in the United States. Preterm and low-birth-weight (LBW) rates increased in 2006 to 12.8% and 8.3%, respectively. The very low birth weight (VLBW) (<1500 g) rate rose to 1.46% (62,283 of 4,265,996 births in 2006). In addition, the birth rate for women aged 40–44 years rose 3% to 9.4 per 1,000 between 2005 and 2006 (Martin et al. 2008). A component of the increase in the preterm birth rate remains attributed to older maternal childbearing, multiple births, and increasing rates of assisted reproductive technology (Heck et al. 1997). The increase in the number of multiple births is a concern because of the associated increased risk of death, preterm birth, low birth weight, and long-term adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. Major therapeutic advances in perinatal and neonatal care in the past 20 years, including surfactant therapy, antenatal steroids for both pulmonary maturation and central nervous system protection, improved ventilation techniques, and parenteral nutritional support have resulted in a significant improvement in survival of extremely low-birth-weight infants (ELBW) (<1000 g) (National Institutes of Health [NIH] 1995; El-Metwally, Vohr, and Tucker 2000; Fanaroff, Hack, and Walsh 2003; Fanaroff et al. 2007; Hintz et al. 2005a; Hintz et al. 2005b). These infants have increased complex neonatal medical morbidities affecting all organ systems including lungs, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and brain, and increased growth, neurological, developmental, and behavioral morbidities both in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and after discharge (Blakely et al. 2005; Ehrenkranz, 2000; Ehrenkranz et al. 2005; Laptook et al. 2005; Shankaran et al. 2004; Schmidt et al. 2003; Vohr et al. 2003; Vohr et al. 2004;Vohr et al. 2005; Walsh et al. 2005). Predicting the survival and neurodevelopmental outcomes of preterm infants becomes a challenge since outcomes are dependent on a combination of biologic factors including gender, gestational age, birth weight, singleton versus multiple, neonatal morbidities, neonatal interventions, and post-discharge environment.
The Patient’s Experience
Authors: Fink MD Max
Published: November 2020

The popular images of electroshock presented in the media reflect practices that were discarded more than 40 years ago. The films One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest and A Beautiful Mind portray imaginative Hollywood images—not reality. The dramatic scene of a pleading patient dragged to a treatment room, forcibly administered electric currents as his jaw clenches, his back arches, and his body shakes while being held down by burly attendants or by foot and wrist restraints, is false. Patients are not coerced into treatment. They may be anxious and reluctant, but they come willingly to the treatment room. They have been told why the treatment is recommended, the procedures have been explained, and many have seen DVD or video images of the procedures. Each patient has consented to the treatment in writing, and in many instances, family members have also agreed. Understandably, the patient may be hesitant about the first treatment. He has seen those movies, so the procedures are explained again, and, except for feeling a needle placed in his vein and electrodes and measuring devices attached to his body, the patient is unaware of the treatment as it occurs. One patient described his treatment this way: “It is a nonentity, a nothing. You go to sleep, and when you wake up, it is all over. It is easier to take than going to the dentist.” Many patients ask to be treated early in the morning so that they can return to the day’s activities as soon as possible. It is not uncommon for patients to reassure family members about the procedure. Doctors frequently ask an experienced patient to explain the procedures and the discomforts to a candidate; patients undergoing ECT have proved to be its best advocates. A consent form, voluntarily signed by each patient, is a necessary part of electroconvulsive treatment in the United States. Such a consent procedure is uncommon in psychiatric practice, and was developed to address concerns about abuse at a time when public distrust of governmental authority was widespread and had affected the physician-patient relationship. In most venues, doctors accept the patient’s cooperation with medication treatment and psychotherapy as consent.
Depressive Mood Disorders
Authors: Fink MD Max
Published: November 2020

Electroconvulsive therapy is most often used to treat disorders of mood. The internally experienced feeling is the emotional state reflected in the way we present ourselves to others and in the ways we react to them. Mood varies with daily circumstances and is sensitive to the conditions of the body, particularly physical health, fatigue, hunger, and hormonal activity. Moods are experienced internally and fluctuate widely. Two disorders are recognized. Depression, or depressive mood disorder, is dominated by sadness, hopelessness, fear of the future, and the persistent thought that life is not worth living. Mania, or manic mood disorder, is a state of excitement, grandiosity, expansiveness, and feelings of increased power and energy. In the present psychiatric classification, mania is labeled bipolar disorder and the depressed phase is labeled major depression. In a depressive mood disorder, body functions are disrupted. Patients are sleepless, appetite is poor, and weight loss may be pronounced, at times amounting to 20% of the body weight within a few weeks. Work, sexual activity, and family may be disregarded. The future appears hopeless, patients believe they are helpless to affect it, and their thoughts are filled with gloom. Threats of suicide reflect their distress. They are often agitated and restless. Many meet the criteria for the malignant syndrome of melancholia. Overwhelmed by feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, and worthlessness, the depressed patient dwells on thoughts of suicide. He may believe that others are watching or talking about him; voices are heard when no one is present; and concerns that his spouse is unfaithful dominate his thought. At times, the events depicted on the television or movie screen seem to apply directly to him. Such strange thoughts are delusions, and this severe state of depressed mood and disorder in thought is labeled delusional depression or psychotic depression. These disorders require intensive treatment and almost always hospital care. A depressed patient is commonly unaware of the day’s events, registers little of what happens around her, and has a compromised memory. This form of depression can be difficult to distinguish from an Alzheimer-type dementia. When the symptoms of dementia are brought about by depression, however, they can be reversed with treatment.
Pediatric ECT
Authors: Fink MD Max
Published: November 2020

The role of ECT in the treatment of adolescents and children is not well understood. The experience is limited and poorly documented, especially in pre-pubescent children. For much of the twentieth century, child and adolescent psychiatrists believed that the mental disorders of children and adolescents are psychologically, not biologically, determined. Psychological attitudes and family interactions were considered the cause of the pathology of the disorders. In the past two decades interest has shifted to biological causes and treatments. Depression and mania, autism, anorexia nervosa, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are now recognized in children and adolescents with increasing frequency. These shifts in attitude encourage greater interest in medication trials, and with these, increasing tolerance for trials with ECT. The renewed interest in the role of ECT in pediatric patients was shown at a 1994 conference when experts reported an additional 62 case reports beyond the 94 that had been described in publications. Patients between 14 and 20 years of age with major depressive syndromes, delirious mania, catatonia, or acute delusional psychoses had been successfully treated with ECT, usually after other treatments had failed. No reports of harm to age-related faculties, such as impaired maturation, growth, and the capacity to learn, were presented. On the contrary, the resolution of their mental disorders encouraged the young people to complete school and continue their education. No adjustments to the adult ECT protocol were required except that close attention was given to energy dosing. Adolescents require very little energy to induce an effective seizure. No reporter described instances of uncontrolled seizures. Some clinicians, faced with seriously ill adolescents with features that would encourage ECT if the features were seen in adults, now recommend ECT. Examples of the successful treatment of melancholia, psychosis, mania, and catatonia dot the literature. Efficacy is reported in patients with severe mental retardation and in those with self-injurious repetitive behavior and catatonia grafted onto various forms of autism. These reports are sufficiently encouraging to loosen the usual injunctions against the use of ECT in adolescents. In 2004, the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry offered official practice guidelines for the use of ECT in adolescents that closely follow the guidelines for treatment in adults.
How Did Convulsive Therapy Originate?
Authors: Fink MD Max
Published: November 2020

In the second half of the nineteenth century, European neuropsychiatrists had identified three mental illnesses that dominated the clinical scene: neurosyphilis (described as dementia paralytica), dementia praecox (schizophrenia today), and manic-depressive insanity (now known as the two disorders of major depression and bipolar disorder). These diseases were devastating, often fatal, and no effective treatments were known. Caretakers of the mentally ill commonly resorted to chains, restraining chairs, cold and hot baths, and seclusion to control aggressive behavior. Morphine and other sedative chemicals kept patients asleep but did little to heal their illnesses. The mentally ill who were dangerous to themselves or to others were housed in large state-supported hospitals managed by hospital superintendents with full authority to treat the inmates. Lacking effective remedies, they permitted many experimental and unsafe interventions. Prolonged sleep was an experimental treatment that seemed to relieve severe depressive and agitated states. Agitated patients were kept in a stupor for days with continuing high doses of barbiturates, with periods of alertness for feeding and toileting. While some died of pneumonia, the few who recovered their senses encouraged these trials. Body infections were once thought to cause mental disorders, so to cure mental disease, the teeth, tonsils, gallbladder, and large sections of the colon were often removed even though there was no credible evidence to justify the procedures. Many patients died. The patients suffered further humiliation when hospitals did not provide false teeth to help them chew their food. Surgical removal of sexual organs was another “treatment.” Eugenicists argued for sterilization of the mentally ill, especially those who had become burdens on society. It is estimated that more than 18,000 people in psychiatric institutions were surgically sterilized during the first half of the twentieth century. The discovery of bacteria as the cause of infectious febrile illnesses was a great accomplishment of medical research in the nineteenth century. The French chemist Louis Pasteur’s demonstration that high temperatures would destroy bacteria, an observation that led to the pasteurization of foods, also suggested that fevers could have a therapeutic benefit in bodily infections. This theory was supported by improvement of psychosis in patients who survived infections with smallpox or typhoid fever.
Write Like a Chemist
Authors: Robinson Marin S , Stoller Fredricka L , Constanza-Robinson Molly , Jones James K
Published: November 2020

Write Like a Chemist is a unique guide to chemistry-specific writing. Written with National Science Foundation support and extensively piloted in chemistry courses nationwide, it offers a structured approach to writing that targets four important chemistry genres: the journal article, conference abstract, scientific poster, and research proposal. Chemistry students, post-docs, faculty, and other professionals interested in perfecting their disciplinary writing will find it an indispensable reference. Users of the book will learn to write through a host of exercises, ranging in difficulty from correcting single words and sentences to writing professional-quality papers, abstracts, posters, and proposals. The book's read-analyze-write approach teaches students to analyze what they read and then write, paying attention to audience, organization, writing conventions, grammar, and science content, thereby turning the complex process of writing into graduated, achievable tasks. Concise writing and organizational skills are stressed throughout, and "move structures" teach students conventional ways to present their stories of scientific discovery. This resource includes over 350 excerpts from ACS journal articles, ACS conference abstracts, and successful NSF CAREER proposals, excerpts that will serve as useful models of chemistry writing for years to come. Other special features: Usable in chemistry lab, lecture, and writing-dedicated courses Useful as a writing resource for practicing chemists Augmented by Language Tips that address troublesome areas of language and grammer in a self-study format Accompanied by a Web site: http://www.oup.com/us/writelikeachemist Supplemented with an answer key for faculty adopting the book
Writing the Results Section
Authors: Robinson Marin S , Stoller Fredricka L , Constanza-Robinson Molly , Jones James K
Published: November 2020

This chapter focuses on the Results section of the journal article. The Results section makes use of both text and graphics to highlight the essential findings of a study and to tell the story of scientific discovery. In this chapter we focus on writing the text; we refer you to chapter 16 for information on formatting graphics. After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following: ■ Distinguish between the description and interpretation of data ■ Organize and present your results in a clear, logical manner ■ Refer appropriately to a figure or graph in the text ■ Use appropriate tense, voice, and word choice ■ Prepare a properly formatted figure and table As you work through the chapter, you will write a Results section for your own paper. The Writing on Your Own tasks throughout the chapter will guide you step by step as you do the following: 4A Read the literature and review your results 4B Organize your results 4C Prepare figures and/or tables 4D Tell the story of scientific discovery 4E Practice peer review 4F Fine-tune your Results section The purpose of a Results section (the third section in the standard IMRD format) is to present the most essential data collected during a research project. A well-written Results section guides the reader’s attention back and forth between text and graphics while highlighting important features of the data and telling the story of scientific discovery. Months (possibly years) of accumulated knowledge and wisdom, and countless pages of data, are distilled into only a few pages; hence, only the essential threads of the story are included in the Results section. In many journal articles, the Results section is actually a combined Results and Discussion (R&D) section. Combined R&D sections are preferred by many scientists who want to present and discuss results in an unbroken chain of thought. The combination is often more concise because less time is spent reminding the reader which results are being discussed. Combined R&D sections are not all alike; rather, they fall on a continuum with fully separated R&D sections at one end and fully integrated R&D sections at the other.
Writing the Abstract and Title
Authors: Robinson Marin S , Stoller Fredricka L , Constanza-Robinson Molly , Jones James K
Published: November 2020

This chapter addresses how to write abstracts and titles for journal articles. Both the abstract and title provide succinct, informative (not descriptive) summaries of the research. To this end, they are usually written in the final stages of the writing process. After completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following: ■ Write a concise and informative abstract ■ Write a concise and informative title As you work through the chapter, you will write an abstract and title for your own paper. The Writing on Your Own tasks throughout the chapter will guide you step by step as you do the following: 7A Read titles and abstracts 7B Prepare to write 7C Write your abstract 7D Write your title 7E Practice peer review 7F Fine-tune your abstract and title When compared to the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections of a journal article, the title and abstract are quite short; the title usually has fewer than 20 words, and many journals limit the abstract to fewer than 200 words. Despite their brevity (and perhaps because of it), the title and abstract are the most widely read sections of the journal article and thus are viewed by many as the most important sections of the journal article. As you read the title and abstract in excerpt 7A, consider the following: a. Read the title. Which of the following are included: research topic, importance, gap statement, procedures, instrumentation, results, interpretations, citations, conclusions? b. The abstract contains six sentences (107 words). Briefly state the purpose of each sentence. Based on these purposes, propose a move structure for the abstract. c. Are there any sentences in the abstract that do not include science content? Explain. d. Based only on the title and abstract, who are the intended audiences for this article (including subdisciplines of chemistry)? Give reasons for your choices.
The Imperial Legacy of Language
Authors: De Blij Harm
Published: November 2020

Language is the essence of culture, and culture is the epoxy of society. Individually and collectively, people tend to feel passionately about their mother tongue, especially when they have reason to believe that it is threatened in some way. Ever since the use of language evolved in early human communities, some confined in isolated abodes and others on the march into Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas, languages have arisen, flourished, and failed with the fortunes of their speakers. Linguists estimate that tens of thousands of such languages may have been born and lost, leaving no trace. Some major ones, including Sumerian and Etruscan, survive fragmentarily in their written record. A few, such as Sanskrit and Latin, live on in their modern successors. But the historical geography of language is the story of a loss of linguistic diversity that continues unabated. At present, about 7,000 languages remain, half of them classified by linguists as endangered. In the year from the day you read this, about 25 more languages will go extinct. By the end of this century, the Earth may be left with just a few hundred languages, so billions of its inhabitants will no longer be speaking their ancestral mother tongues (Diamond, 2001). If this projection turns out to be accurate, the language loss will not be confined to those spoken by comparatively few people in remote locales. One dimension of the “flattening” of the world in the age of globalization is the cultural convergence of which linguistic homogenization is a key component. Some of my colleagues view this as an inevitable and not altogether undesirable process of integration, but if I may be candid, most of those colleagues speak one language only: English. Having spoken six languages during my lifetime (I can still manage in four), I tend to share the linguists’ concern over the trend. English has the great merit of comparative simplicity and adaptable modernity, but as it reflects historic natural and social environments it is sparse indeed and no match for the riches of French or even Dutch. If such contrasts can arise and persist among closely related languages in Europe, imagine the legacies of major languages such as Yoruba, Urdu, Thai, and others potentially endangered as language convergence proceeds.
Places Open and Shut
Authors: De Blij Harm
Published: November 2020

The power of place manifests itself in continua of opportunity and risk, advantage and privation. On the global map it is revealed in patterns of health and sickness, wealth and poverty. On the ground it is demarcated by barriers and barricades, patrols and controls. Reflecting on the impress of place on the fortunes and misfortunes of the planet’s nearly seven billion human inhabitants, it is worth noting that, for all their vaunted mobility, only about 200 million live outside the country of their birth, or less than 3 percent of the total. Some academics (as well as politicians) refer to the present as the “age of migration.” The figures indicate otherwise. The overwhelming majority of us die under the governmental, linguistic, religious, medical, environmental, and other circumstances into which we were born. The constraints on transnational and intercultural migration remain powerful and, in some respects, are increasing rather than softening, roughening rather than flattening the global playing field. Place, most emphatically place of birth but also the constricted space in which the majority of lives are lived, remains the most potent factor shaping the destinies of billions. As a result, those destinies are closely tied to the fortunes and misfortunes of the state that imparts “nationality” on citizens born within its borders. One of these involves relative location. There are numerous reasons why approximately 70 percent of the poorest-of-the-poor are citizens of African states, but one of these reasons may not be immediately obvious—until one takes a close look at the continent’s regional geography. Africa has more landlocked countries than any other continent or geographic realm in the world, and almost as many (14) as the rest of the world put together (and still another one may join this group if voters in a future referendum in Southern Sudan opt for independence). Unless a landlocked country has a combination of good management and a relatively rich resource base, as Botswana does but Zimbabwe does not, it is far more susceptible to any regional malaise than a coastal state. As economic geographers have long pointed out, a coastal state trades with the world; a landlocked state trades with, or through, its neighbors.
Solution Chemistry
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O.
Published: November 2020

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. It is usually made up of a solute and a solvent. Generally, Solute+Solvent = Solution A solute is any substance that is dissolved in a solvent. For example, when granulated sugar dissolves in water to give a clear sugar solution, the sugar is the solute, while water is the solvent. Relative to the solvent, a solute is usually present in small amounts. A solvent is any substance in which a solute dissolves. It is usually the part of the solution that is present in the largest amount. Two liquids are said to be miscible if they form a single phase (homogeneous solution) or dissolve in each other in all proportions. For example, ethanol and water are miscible. If two liquids do not form a single phase (or do not dissolve in each other) in any appreciable amount, they are said to be immiscible. For example, water and oil are immiscible. When mixed, they separate into two distinct layers. Substances that are only slightly soluble in a given solvent are said to be insoluble. An aqueous solution is one in which water is the solvent. A dilute solution is one that contains a small amount of solute compared to the maximum amount the solvent can dissolve at that temperature. A concentrated solution is one that contains a large amount of solute compared to the maximum amount the solvent can dissolve at that temperature. A saturated solution is one that is in equilibrium with undissolved solute at a given temperature and pressure: Solute(solid) ⇌ Solute(dissolved) In other words, it contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved at that particular temperature. An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the maximum amount (saturated solution) possible at the same temperature. A supersaturated solution is a solution that contains more solute than the saturated solution at the same temperature. This type of solution is very unstable. When it is agitated, or a speck of the solute is added to it, the excess solute will begin to crystallize out rapidly from the solution until the concentration becomes equal to that of the saturated solution.