bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Medical Waste Management during Conflict: A Cross-sectional Study in Yemen
Authors: Hanash Samira Hameed , Al-Maktari Lutfi A , Al-Naggar Redhwan A
Published: August 2021

Introduction: Proper handling and disposal of medical waste is an important issue. However, a lack of awareness on medical waste management is a dangerous hazard for humans and the environment. Aim: To determine the knowledge and practices of Health Care Workers (HCWs) about medical waste management in Yemen. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 337 HCWs in four main hospitals in Ibb city, Yemen, from November 2019 to May 2020. Knowledge and practice of medical waste disposal were assessed using a self-administered questionnaire to gather data from the respondents in Arabic language. Data analysis was performed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) v. 25.0. Mann-Whitney, Chi-square, and Spearman and correlation tests. Results: Most of the participants had a diploma (47.8%), occupation was nursing (41.2%), with less than five years experience (50.7%). The study showed that respondents demonstrated good knowledge and practice about medical waste management. There was a moderate positive correlation between knowledge and practice domains. Occupation significantly influenced knowledge (p=0.001) and practice (p=0.002) of the participants. Type of hospital showed a statistically significant relation to knowledge (p=0.001). Education significantly influenced the knowledge (p=0.030) of the study participants. conclusion: Occupation, type of hospital and education level are the factors which significantly influenced the knowledge of Yemeni nurses. Contentious education should be focused on medical waste management among HCWs.
Marginal Adaptation of CAD/CAM Restorations: A Systematic Review
Authors: Alghulikah Khaled , Bohairi Maha Loay , Al-Mutlaq Ruba , Al-Feraih Basmah
Published: August 2021

Background: Several treatment options are available for restorative dental treatment of moderate to large teeth defects. However, in recent years, improved computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) technology show several advantages, including favorable esthetic results, conservative preparation techniques and cost-effectiveness hence the aim of the study was to search for the best available evidence in investigating whether CAD/CAM fabricated partial coverage restorations will show better marginal adaptation and provide an evidence-based clinically relevant statement.

Methodology: An extensive search was performed using four online databases. Search strategies were developed for each online database, the studies were reviewed by three independent authors, and inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied and the quality of the included studies was assessed. Results: The initial search resulted in 998 studies from all the databases. Six clinical studies were identified as relevant to the research question and were included in the qualitative assessment.

Conclusions: Marginal adaptation of CAD/CAM-fabricated restoration shows excellent clinical outcomes in short-term observation periods. There is a need for clinical trials that compare the clinical outcomes of CAD/CAM-fabricated restoration to direct composite restorations.
Study of Typhoid Fever: A Review
Authors: Kaluse Prathmesh Siddheshwar , Bhatt Neha , Bankar Nandkishor
Published: August 2021

Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi, all members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, are the primary causes of typhoid fever. Salmonella enterica serovar and enteritidis are isolated by multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction PCR after detailed study. Salmonella nontyphoidal (NTS) is most frequent in infants, although the majority of cases are limited to gastroenteritis. Salmonella is spread by polluted water, raw food, and large groups of sick people, and is most prevalent in heavily populated cities, civil disorder, and inadequate sanitation. It can only be passed from one sick individual to another and humans are the only ones that can spread it. Chickens, milk, and uncommon tortoises are the most common causes of salmonella. The Patients went directly to the Observed Treatment in the Dept. of Medicine, at DMMC, SMHRC Nagpur. Enteric fever is still a major public health concern around the world, particularly in developing countries. Typhoid cases in cities are estimated to be about 800-900 per year, according to studies. While inexpensive and widely available, the Widal exam should be used with caution. Massive public awareness campaigns should be undertaken to inform citizens about the importance of taking preventative measures, vaccines, and seeing a doctor, among other items. Doctors should be aware of the emergence of newer antibacterial agents that are both safe and reliable, as well as the gradual development of antibiotic resistance. Aside from that, the discipline should anticipate newer curative and preventative interventions.
Flattening the Pandemic Curve of COVID-19 Explosion in India
Authors: Syed Tipu Khalil
Published: August 2021

Background: COVID-19 is pandemic which recently crossed the hundred million mark of infection cases all over the world. In the last one year from its inception China, two million people lost their lives struggling with COVID-19 related complications.

Summary: COVID-19 or coronavirus disease 2019 is seriously hurting almost all the aspect of human lives. Flattened curve of COVID-19 infections is the desired outcome of mitigation measures which must be achieved at the earliest. Various methods can be employed to mitigate the viral spread such as mask wearing, hand hygiene and so on so that flattening of the curve can be attained as soon as possible to avoid any further damage.

Conclusion: COVID-19 must be mitigated with all means and follow up of each activity must be done. More study is needed to analyze which measure is particularly effective in certain set of conditions.
Effects of Relationship between Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Children's Obesity
Authors: Ghudale Gautami , Ambad Ranjit S. , Bankar Nandkishor
Published: August 2021

Introduction: Women who have a GDM diagnosis, on the other hand, are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes later in life. Many risk factors, such as obesity and obesity, were shown to be shared by GDM and type 2 diabetes, and GDM is believed to be the second most prevalent type of diabetes mellitus. Human risk tests are used to determine the proportion of GDM cases that may have been eliminated if all overweight or obese women had a GDM risk similar to that of average weight women. To better understand the possible effect of weight loss on GDM cases, we calculated the number of children with GDM and the proportion of GDM cases caused by obesity and obesity-related diseases.

Aim: Effects of relationship between gestational diabetes mellitus and children's obesity

Materials and Methods: The full texts of 32 publications were retrieved for those whose abstracts listed a connection between maternal gestational diabetes and childhood obesity.to the Observed Treatment in the Departments of Medicine and Respiratory, Datta Meghe Medical College and Shalinitai Meghe Hospital and Research Centre,

Conclusion: While the association between diabetes and weight loss is reduced after the pre-pregnancy obesity adjustment, there is a positive relationship, according to this recent research study. Only two of the 12 previous studies of maternal obesity were found to be 12, and both showed that organizations were no longer purposeful after the correction. To better define and differentiate the roles of prenatal obesity and gestational diabetes, further research is needed to look at the functioning of common genes and / or shared substances, such as postpartum diet and physical activity. Regardless of genetics, animal studies have shown that maternal hypernlymemia and fatal hyperinsulinism can cause infertility in adolescence, lower glucose tolerance, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance
Prevalence of Color Blindness Among Medical Students
Authors: Bhatti Shahid Anwar , Zahra Qundeel , Ahmed Atif Mansoor , Haneef Anum , Saeed Muhammad , Mahmood Muhammad Arshad
Published: August 2021

Aim: To find out the prevalence of color blindness among medical students.

Study Design: Descriptive cross-sectional.

Place and Duration of Study: Study was conducted at Chaudry Mohammad Akram teaching and research hospital, Superior university during December 2020 to May 2021.

Methodology: All the medical students having age range between 21-25 years were included in the study. An ophthalmologist did ocular examination, after that color vision was checked by putting Ishihara plates. The score less than 12 out of 14 red-green test plates were labelled as color blind. Data was analyzed by using the SPSS version 20. Chi-square was used to find out the association of color blindness with age groups and gender. p-value less than 0.05 was considered as significant.

Results: The mean age with standard deviation of study participants was 23.27 ± 0.87 years. The prevalence of color blindness among medical students was 2% out of which 1.7% were having strong red-green deficiency while only 0.3% were with mild red-green deficiency. Majority of participants with color blindness were noted in the age group of 22 years while very few were in the other age groups of medical students but these results were non-significant. On the other hand, all the color blind was male but no association was found as the p-value was more than 0.05.

Conclusion: Current study reported that about 2% of medical students are affected by color vision deficiency. So there is a need of proper visual screening program among medical undergraduates for early detection of color blindness and counselling session for them.
Utilization of Phosphoric Acid and Lime for Stabilizing Laterite for Lateritic Bricks Production
Authors: AYODELE Adekemi Loretta , Adekoya Adefemi Daniel , Mohammed Abdulhalim Oshioke , Oluwatosin Ayowande
Published: August 2021

This study investigates the use of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and lime in stabilizing lateritic soil for lateritic bricks production. Varying percentages (0, 2, 4 and 6%) of 1 M H3PO4, 5% lime and their combinations were mixed with lateritic soil for stabilization purpose. Hollow bricks were produced from the different mixes. The bricks were cured for 7, 14 and 28 days under ambient air condition. The compressive strength (fc), bulk density (pb), dry density (pd) and water absorption rate were determined at each of the curing days while the modulus of rupture (fr) and pH were determined after 28 days. The results show  a maximum fc of 0.93 N/mm2 and 0.87 N/mm2 were obtained at 5% and 4% H3PO4 stabilization. The maximum pb and pd of 15.2 kN/m3 and 14.9 kN/m3 respectively were obtained at 4% H3PO4 stabilization. The maximum fr of 0.2 N/mm2 was obtained at combined 4% H3PO4 and 5% lime stabilization while none of the bricks passed the water absorption test.
Sitting for long periods is associated with impaired work performance during the COVID-19 pandemic
Authors: Wakaizumi Kenta , Yamada Keiko , Shimazu Akihito , Tabuchi Takahiro
Published: August 2021

Objectives

The unprecedented coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the corresponding government state of emergency have dramatically changed our workstyle, particularly through implementing teleworking and social distancing. We investigated the degree to which people’s work performance is affected and the association between sedentary behavior under the state of emergency and worsened work performance during the COVID-19 pandemic, as previous studies have suggested that sedentary behavior decreases work performance.

Methods

We used data from the Japan “COVID-19 and Society” Internet Survey (JACSIS) study, a cross-sectional, web-based, self-reported questionnaire survey. The main outcome was change in work performance after the COVID-19 pandemic compared with that before the pandemic. We analyzed the association between the change in work performance and sitting duration under the state of emergency, adjusted for work-related stress, participants’ demographics, socio-economic status, health-related characteristics, and personality.

Results

The change of work environment from the pandemic decreased work performance in 15% of workers, which was 3.6 times greater than the number of workers reporting increased performance in 14 648 workers (6134 women and 8514 men). Although telework both improved and worsened performance (odds ratio [OR], 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.0, 1.6-2.5 and 1.7, 1.5-1.9, respectively), sitting for long periods after the state of emergency was significantly associated only with worsened performance (OR, 95% CI = 1.8, 1.5-2.2) in a dose–response manner.

Conclusion

Sitting duration is likely a risk barometer of worsened work performance under uncertain working situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Spinoza, Baruch
Authors: Rosenthal Michael A.
Published: August 2021

Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) provides a systematic and radical critique of traditional beliefs and philosophical views on religion. Many have claimed that he attempted to demolish religion and replace it with a way of life based strictly on reason. This entry argues that Spinoza is neither a debunker of religion nor is he a proponent of what we could now call secularism, that is, the view that we do not need God to understand the world or how we should live in it. Instead, we shall see that God is at the center of all his views and that Spinoza attempts to revise religion in light of reason. The entry examines Spinoza's views on how we know God through the imagination and reason, the nature of the divine attributes, the rejection of divine providence and the critique of miracles, and his conception of the highest good based on the intellectual love of God.
Structuralism
Authors: Putt B. Keith
Published: August 2021

Structuralism as a theory may be identified as a “scientific” investigation into deep structures of meaning that underlie transcultural and transdisciplinary symbolic expressions of human existence. These deep structures predominantly remain hidden within the plurality and diversity of various social and cultural manifestations and interpretations. Consequently, structuralism as a methodology may be identified as an abstractive revelation of those deep meanings and a systematic accounting of their transformations into multiple idioms. It operates under the assumptions that, first, the deep structures form a synchronic symbolic system in which the tenor of each individual component depends upon its interrelationship with all of the other signifying components in the system and, second, that these components “transcend” every specific culturally contingent variant of the system.
Suárez, Francisco
Authors: Penner Sydney
Published: August 2021

Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) is the most prominent scholastic theologian and philosopher of Spain's Golden Age. This entry surveys several key contributions Suárez made to philosophy of religion: a formulation of Molinism known as congruism as part of the
De auxiliis
controversy, a detailed analysis and defense of concurrentism, a multi‐stage cosmological argument for the existence of God, and a book‐length examination of the incarnation.
Suhrawardī
Authors: Aminrazavi Mehdi
Published: August 2021

Shihāb al‐Dīn Suhrawardī (1170–1191) was a twelfth‐century Persian philosopher and mystic, and the founder of the “School of Illumination” (
Ḥikmat al‐Ishrāq
). Perhaps the most important philosopher between Ibn Sīnā and Ibn Rushd, Suhrawardī synthesized Peripatetic philosophy, Sufism, and intellectual intuition, and created his own philosophical perspective commonly known as “Illuminationism” (
Ishrāqī
).
Śūnyatā
Authors: Arnold Dan
Published: August 2021

Śūnyatā, a Sanskrit word typically translated as “emptiness,” is a major term of art in Mahāyāna Buddhism, and is of particular importance for the Madhyamaka tradition of philosophy. In this context, the word denotes the fact that all existents are “empty” of any essence – a claim that effectively generalizes the Buddhist no‐self doctrine as applying to all existents. Rival schools of Indian philosophy (Buddhist and non‐Buddhist) typically read Madhyamaka's emphasis onśūnyatāas an expression of nihilism – and this despite the fact that it was a recurrent concern of foundational Madhyamaka texts to foreclose this conclusion by clarifying that “emptiness” amounts to the fact that everything is dependently originated.
Svasaṃvedana/Svasaṃvitti
Authors: Kellner Birgit
Published: August 2021

The theory of “self‐awareness” (
svasaṃvedana, svasaṃvitti
) in classical Indian philosophy advances the claim that mental states or events are intrinsically and indubitably aware of themselves, or that they are self‐revealing. Developed primarily in the Buddhist logico‐epistemological (
pramāṇa
) tradition initiated by Dignāga and Dharmakīrti around the middle of the first millennium
ce
, this theory was criticized from within traditions affiliated with Brahmanical orthodoxy, notably the Nyāya and Bhāṭṭa Mīmāṃsā, and also by a current of the Buddhist Madhyamaka school. It was selectively adopted in Prābhākara Mīmāṃsā, later Advaita Vedānta, as well as in Śaivism. While the theory was adapted to soteriological, metaphysical, and epistemological frameworks that radically differed from those supporting its development in Buddhist contexts, it also became refashioned and repurposed to serve criticism of core Buddhist theories, especially the theory that object awareness bears an object form (
sākārajñānavāda
), the no‐self theory, and the theory of universal momentariness. Indian debates about self‐awareness, extending over more than seven centuries, anticipate many arguments in contemporary controversies about higher‐order theories of consciousness in the philosophy of mind.
Ṭabāṭabāʾī
Authors: Javadi Mohsen
Published: August 2021

Muhammad Husayn Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1903–1981) was an Iranian philosopher. His thought can be seen as a continuation of the school of Transcendent Wisdom. Thinking about the existence and attributes of God, religious language, prophecy, and its necessity for human felicity, miracles, and immortality were among the most argued topics of his works. He invented a very sophisticated version of ā Ṣadrā's famous argument called the Proof of the Sincere. He accepts the possibility of having one concept and meaning but with different forms of existence among its instances. He thinks that the best way to understand God's agency is to think about the agency of human soul. The human being has a corporeal and temporal origination but has a possibility to become an immaterial eternal being. His very innovative idea of the constructive nature of values, including moral values, makes for some difficulties in attributing moral characteristics to God, and it also makes for difficulties in his theory of normativity.
Talmud
Authors: Kiel Yishai
Published: August 2021

The Babylonian Talmud or Talmud Bavli (“Talmud”), redacted c. the sixth century in Sasanian Babylonia, is structured and arranged as a commentary to the Mishnah and, ultimately, came to be regarded as the source of normativity and authority in rabbinicJudaism. The Talmud is a multifaceted and eclectic work containing a variety of tannaitic traditions; amoraic statements attributed to Palestinian and Babylonian rabbis; anonymous legal discussions; legal narratives; scriptural exegesis; extended “historical” narratives; and a host of traditions pertaining to popular wisdom, astrology, mythology, medicine, demonology, and other miscellaneous areas of knowledge. The Talmud can be illuminated by recourse to a variety of critical methodologies and perspectives, including source‐critical, historical, literary, philosophical, comparative, and cultural analysis.
Tantra, Philosophical Aspects of
Authors: Flood Gavin
Published: August 2021

Tantric philosophy flourished in the medieval period in particular within the nondualist tradition of Śiva, although there were important tantric Buddhist philosophers as well. The most important tantric Hindu philosopher during this time was Abhinavagupta from Kashmir who presented arguments for nondual consciousness as the foundation of self and world, opposing at the same time the Buddhist critique of self.
Tertullian
Authors: Adkin Neil
Published: August 2021

Though Tertullian professes serious reservations about philosophy, he is in practice happy to employ it – principally Stoicism – as an occasional handmaid alongside the Bible in conducting his own theological speculations: always a gung‐ho foe of Gnosticism, he breaks new ground in the matter of the soul, the Trinity, and the nature of Christ.
Theodicy
Authors: Speak Daniel
Published: August 2021

This entry aims to provide a coherent and useful account of the philosophical project of theodicy as understood in contemporary philosophy of religion (largely ignoring questions of historical development). To do this, it distinguishes theodicy from defense, characterizes a pair of core claims of any theodicy, canvasses three influential components of existing efforts at theodicy, and highlights four important questions for further consideration regarding the nature, limits, and propriety of the project of theodicy. The emphasis throughout is upon the contentious nature of the evaluation of the success of any specific effort to produce a theodicy.
Tibet, Buddhist Philosophy in
Authors: Kapstein Matthew T.
Published: August 2021

The Buddhist philosophical tradition of Tibet began during the eighth century and has remained active to the present day. Following a period of intensive translation work, in which Tibetan‐language versions of the main Buddhist Sanskrit philosophical writings were achieved, Tibetan thinkers became increasingly concerned with the interpretation and logical cogency of the Indian sources at their disposal. Basing themselves on the scholastic methods and doctrines of later Indian Buddhism, the Tibetans refined investigations in many areas including Buddhist logic and epistemology, Madhyamaka, and the analysis of philosophical systems. Despite a broad consensus in regard to the fundamental aspects of Buddhist thought, the tradition was punctuated by sharp divisions over several key questions, including the interpretation of the “two truths,” of “buddha‐nature,” and of the relationship between Yogācāra and Madhyamaka philosophies.
Toland, John
Authors: East Katherine A.
Published: August 2021

John Toland (1670–1722) was a radical writer usually situated in the tradition of English Deism. Toland used a combination of rationalism, free thought, materialism, and scholarship, to argue the case for a natural religion free from revelation, and fully accessible to man's natural reason. He then directed this interpretation of religion against the authority of the clergy, campaigning as a significant figure in the “war on priestcraft” to undermine the clergy's claim to special divine knowledge.
Transcendental Arguments
Authors: Mourad Ronney
Published: August 2021

Transcendental arguments attempt to demonstrate necessary conditions of the possibility of experience or some essential component of experience such as apprehending the world, using language meaningfully, asserting claims, or making choices. In their modern form, these arguments are most associated with the work of Immanuel Kant. Recent philosophers have used them to argue against various forms of epistemic and moral skepticism, but their arguments also have religiously significant applications. Some contemporary philosophers of religion argue transcendentally that morality presupposes a theistic metaphysics.
Trinity
Authors: Hasker William
Published: August 2021

This entry begins with a brief summary of the history of the doctrine of the Trinity, followed by a discussion of current issues and developments concerning that doctrine.
Tsongkhapa
Authors: Vose Kevin
Published: August 2021

Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) is one of Tibet's most important philosophers. His understanding of Buddhist Madhyamaka (“Middle Way”) philosophy, particularly the “two truths,” brought together Candrakīrti's interpretation of emptiness (
śūnyatā
) with Dharmakīrti's epistemology. His creation of a systematic cohesion out of disparate elements of Buddhist epistemological and ontological thinking, ethical concerns, meditative praxis, and soteriology rank his project among the Buddhist world's great philosophical accomplishments. The Gelukpa (
dGe lugs pa
) order, founded by his students at his directive, systematized and expanded upon his thinking, creating a philosophical training system still flourishing today. The Gelukpa order gave rise to the Dalai Lamas, whose political rule over some 300 years gave Tsongkhapa a lasting sociopolitical prominence.
Tyndale, William
Authors: Werrell Ralph S.
Published: August 2021

When William Tyndale (c. 1390–1536) was 10, he went to Katherine, Lady Berkeley's Grammar School, Wotton‐under‐Edge, leaving school for Oxford when he was 16. Whilst still at school he read Trevisa's English translation of
The Polychronicon
, and its Dialogue between a “Knight and a Clerk.” This led him to decide to translate the Bible into English. As this was illegal in England, he migrated to Germany, where he published his 1526 New Testament. He moved to Antwerp, where he found shelter in the English House. He published his translation of the Pentateuch and Jonah, and his other writings. He translated the Old Testament to the end of 2 Chronicles before he was betrayed and burnt at the stake. Tyndale's translation forms over 80% of the King James Bible (1611).

Tyndale's covenant theology is between the Persons of the Trinity; through Christ's blood the elect are born again as God's children and know the Father's love; whilst the Holy Spirit sprinkles Christ's blood on the elect. Tyndale's theology teaches both the unity of the Old and New Testaments, and also of the Law and the Gospel for the Christian's life.
Udayana
Authors: Flood Gavin
Published: August 2021

Udayana was a philosopher in the Nyāya tradition of Logic and a philosopher who established the combined tradition with the Vaiśesika. The Nyāya‐Vaiśeṣika school of philosophy was realist and pluralist, arguing against the Buddhist understanding of the self and defending arguments for the existence of God. Udayana wrote a defense of the self, the
Ātmatattvaviveka
, and a defense of theism, the
Nyāyakusumañjali
.
Upaniṣads
Authors: Burns Graham
Published: August 2021

This entry introduces the reader to the genre of ancient Indian texts from the Vedic tradition known as the Upaniṣads. It positions the Upaniṣads in their textual, social, historical, and religious contexts, before introducing some of the ways in which the Upaniṣads develop philosophical speculation in ancient India, specifically around the identification and analysis of the ultimate substratum of the universe, noting how later doctrinal interpretations of the Upaniṣads have sought to find consistency of teaching in texts which in fact display greater consistency in the questions which they ask than in the answers which they give.
Vaiśeṣika
Authors: Sjödin Anna‐Pya
Published: August 2021

The Hindu Vaiśeṣika philosophers' main concerns in relation to liberation from rebirth are knowing (
jñāna
) and acting (karma). In connection to this, ideas of a disembodied self (
ātman
) as eternal, noncognizing, and uncreated are important factors within their thought. They furthermore purport a creator god who is responsible for a world wherein the selves could be liberated. The actions required are performance of religious duties and refraining from unethical behavior. Through the practice of yoga a human being can attain a mindset suitable for such actions. The Vaiśeṣikas' main interests are to describe the bodily self, its capacity for knowledge, and what this self should know, hence epistemology and ontology are central aspects of their philosophizing.
Vaiṣṇavism, Philosophical
Authors: Edelmann Jonathan
Published: August 2021

The Hindu theologian Jīva Gosvāmin (c. 1517–1608
ce
) argued that God is always a single, conscious being, yet this God could be talked about in real and in meaningful ways using three specific‐terms:
brahma, paramātmā,
and
bhagavān
.
Brahma
(or
brahman
) refers to God as “awareness only” or “mere awareness,” a concept familiar to Śaṅkara's theology.
Paramātmā
, however, refers to God as the power of consciousness that activates or expands throughout the power that creates the world, the
māyā‐śakti
.
Bhagavān
refers to the being of God that is “qualified by all powers in their complete fullness.” This entry details how Jīva Gosvāmin retains a monotheism while holding a triune God‐concept.
Veda
Authors: Witzel Michael
Published: August 2021

This entry describes the oldest religious texts of India, the Veda, their form, content, and underlying religion.
Vedānta
Authors: Moise Ionut
Published: August 2021

Among Indian religions, Vedānta is by far the most widespread philosophical tradition and its popularity has now surpassed the geographical boundaries of the Subcontinent. While it is known that the Hindu religions, unlike the Buddhist religions, do not attract converts, throughout the centuries Vedānta has undergone multiple doctrinal changes and adaptations in order to meet different spiritual and social needs. Its variations are as broad as Hinduism itself. From absolutistic monism (Advaita) to pluralistic dualism (Dvaita), from absolute renunciation (
saṃnyāsa
) to an active role in instigating social change in India, Vedānta continues to play a most significant part in both religious practice and modern philosophical reflection.
Vedāntadeśika (Veṅkaṭanātha)
Authors: Schmücker Marcus
Published: August 2021

The entry addresses Vedāntadeśika's concept of ontology and relates key elements of his theological philosophy, such as substances and their alternating states, to the central topics of his main works, such as the individual self (jīvātman) and its qualifying knowledge (dharmabhūtajñāna). Against this background the entry highlights how these two as a unity are not only related to the material world in the process of (temporal) cognition, but also to other souls. Finally, Veṅkaṭanātha's view on the knowledge of the highest soul, i.e. God, is explained, and the entry outlines not only the relation of God's knowledge and will to time, but also to the Veda, which is one of the most important topics in his works.
Verification Principle
Authors: Taliaferro Charles
Published: August 2021

In this entry Ayer's version of the verification principle is presented and assessed. It faced five significant objections involving normativity (its nature and limits), the nature of experience, the assessment of worldviews and not just individual propositions, the coherence of radical skepticism, and finally the coherence of the principle itself.
Vijñānabhikṣu
Authors: Nicholson Andrew J.
Published: August 2021

Vijñānabhikṣu, a Hindu philosopher who lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in northern India, was a systematic thinker who elaborated on earlier teachings from the Vedānta, Sāṃkhya, and Yoga philosophical schools. In his earliest works, he upheld a form of realist Vedānta philosophy known as “Difference and Non‐difference” (Bhedābheda Vedānta) and critiqued the anti‐realism of the “Nondual” (Advaita Vedānta) subschool. With his argument that Vedānta, Sāṃkhya, and Yoga are best understood as complementary aspects of a single comprehensive philosophy rather than competing systems, he anticipated themes of nineteenth‐ and twentieth‐century Hindu reformers.
Vivekānanda, Swāmī
Authors: Killingley Dermot
Published: August 2021

After a brief outline of Vivekananda's (1863–1902) life, the entry looks at the ideas that appear unsystematically in his collected works. His acceptance of all religions as true is related to his interpretation of evolution in the light of rebirth, and the monism of Advaita Vedānta. His claim that Advaita is the key to ethics, and his elevation of spiritual experience above texts and history, are sketched, with references to his works and to research.
Whitehead, Alfred North
Authors: Desmet Ronny
Published: August 2021

To overcome the fact/value dichotomy, Alfred North Whitehead (1861–1947) developed his process philosophy and claimed that everything is constituted by internally related elementary valuation‐processes, and that God is bipolar – primordially, God infuses luring value‐potentials in each valuation‐process and, consequently, God saves what is valuable from transitoriness. The resulting process theology solves the theodicy issue and promotes religious pluralism.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig
Authors: Schönbaumsfeld Genia
Published: August 2021

This entry offers a brief overview of some of the main themes in early and later Wittgenstein's (1889–1951) conception of religious belief. It also responds to some of the most frequently made objections to later Wittgenstein's views on religious language.
Indian Philosophy: Women's Enlightenment in Jainism
Authors: Balbir Nalini
Published: August 2021

Jainism, an important Indian religion, has contributed significantly to the crucial issue of women's access to enlightenment and liberation from the cycle of rebirths. Its two main sectarian trends, which emerged in the first century
ce
, have held opposite positions in this regard. The Digambaras consider that nakedness is a prerequisite for liberation because nakedness means total detachment from all possessions and worldly bonds, but that the physiology of the female body prevents it from being nude. As a consequence liberation as a woman is impossible. One must be reborn as a man first. The Śvetāmbaras, on the other hand, consider that wearing clothes is a means, just like food, and does not imply attachment which they do not understand literally. This contrasted attitude is mirrored in Jain mythology through the figure of the nineteenth Jina, Malli. The Digambaras consider that he gained enlightenment as a man, whereas the Śvetāmbaras publicly state in the narrative of Malli included in their canonical scriptures that Malli gained enlightenment as a woman.
Wu‐wei
Authors: Bruya Brian
Published: August 2021

This entry addresses the notion ofwu‐weiin the context of the philosophy of religion, as related to the moral status of nature, the moral status of human action vis‐à‐vis nature, and highest achievement.
Wyclif, John
Authors: Conti Alessandro D.
Published: August 2021

John Wyclif (c. 1330–1384) was one of the most important and authoritative thinkers of the Middle Ages. Not only was he a forerunner of the Reformation who led a movement of opposition to the medieval church, but he was also, together with William of Ockham and Walter Burley, the most famous and influential English philosopher of the fourteenth century. His philosophical theories were the final result of the preceding realist tradition of thought and the point of departure for the new forms of realism proper in the late Middle Ages: he is the “father” of the Oxford school and a key figure in late medieval forms of realism.
Xenophanes of Colophon
Authors: Lesher J.H.
Published: August 2021

Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–c. 475bce) was a poet, performer of epic verse, and philosopher who made significant contributions to early Greek thought. His main interests were the standards for proper conduct at symposia, the measures of personal excellence, erroneous depictions of the gods, the attributes of the one greatest god, the basic substances and forces that order nature, the value of inquiry, and the limits of knowledge. He is best remembered for his criticisms of the stories about the gods told by Homer and Hesiod and his rejection of anthropomorphic conceptions of the divine.
Yoga: Classical (Pātañjala)
Authors: Chapple Christopher Key
Published: August 2021

The Yoga system of Patañjali is encapsulated in 196 statements known as the Yoga Sutra. Divided into four chapters, this text defines Yoga as the quelling of thought resulting in a state of freedom. Several techniques towards this attainment are described, including ethical behavior, ease of bodily movement, control of breath, inwardness, concentration, meditation, and
samādhi
, a state of absorption. Various powers arise from the practice of Yoga, though the text warns that these must be regarded as distractions from the ultimate purpose of Yoga, human freedom.
Yoga: Haṭha
Authors: Mallinson James
Published: August 2021

The Sanskrit term
haṭhayoga
denotes a variety of yoga in which physical practices predominate. These practices include therapeutic cleansing techniques, complex bodily postures, diverse methods of breath control, and esoteric techniques for manipulating the body's vital energies.
Haṭhayoga
first appears in the Indian textual and material record about 1000 years ago. By the eighteenth century it had become central to yoga more broadly conceived. Its methods were incorporated into many mainstream Hindu religious traditions, and they form the basis of much of the yoga practiced around the world today.
Yogācāra
Authors: Kapstein Matthew T.
Published: August 2021

Yogācāra, the “practice of spiritual discipline,” designates one of the two major currents of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The school originated in India during the fourth century
ce
and is characterized in part by a strong emphasis on the philosophy of mind. Some currents of the tradition argued for the elimination of external, physical objects from its ontology, for which reason it is also known as
Cittamātra
, “Mind Only,” and often considered to espouse a form of idealism. Yogācāra gave rise to the epistemological school of later Indian Buddhism and, through its transmission beyond India, came to play an important role in philosophical developments throughout Central and East Asia as well.
Yogic Perception
Authors: Ferrante Marco
Published: August 2021

The entry discusses the way South Asian philosophers and religious thinkers understood and formalized the question of how and why special individuals (
yogin
s) have special cognitive abilities; it focuses on the role the issue had for the philosophical debate that arose between Buddhist and Brahmanical traditions in the first millennium
ce
, with particular reference to the problem of the
yogin
's epistemological reliability.
Zhentong
Authors: Mathes Klaus‐Dieter
Published: August 2021

Mainstream Tibetan Buddhism asserts that everything from matter up to omniscience lacks an independent existence, and is thus “empty of an own nature” orrangzhin‐gi tong(rang bzhin gyis stong; Sanskrit:svabhāvena śūnya). Numerous passages in Buddha's discourses (sutras) and canonical treatises (śāstras) suggest, however, there to be an ultimate reality beyond the conventional truth. This led some Tibetan thinkers to propose the need to distinguish, besides “self‐emptiness” (rangtong), a second mode of emptiness pertaining to the ultimate, which is “empty of other” orzhentong(gzhan stong), i.e. empty of adventitious defilements.
Zhu Xi
Authors: Thompson Kirill
Published: August 2021

Zhu Xi (1130–1200) conceives of nature and humanity, matter and spirit as continua underli(pattern), andqi(primal vapor) complements. His is a living world, home to a resonant, interactive humanity. Confucian religiosity emerged through ancestral rites, conducted with reverence (jing). Such reverence was to purify the mind, opening one to ancestral spirits. Over time, such cultivated reverence was to infuse one's entire life. Zhu Xi's religiosity was also ethical; besides ancestors, he venerated sage kings who set forth the Way (dao). For Zhu, cultivation by reverence opens one's resonance with reality, self, and other, and clarifies one's moral compass. Zhu's writings were influential in China from the late twelfth century and transmitted around East Asia, until the fall of China's imperial court in 1911.
Yogācāra Buddhism in China
Authors: Yao Zhihua
Published: August 2021

Yogācāra Buddhism in China is divided into two stages. The early stage is represented by the schools of Dilun and Shelun, while the late stage is known as the school of Faxiang (
dharma
‐characteristic) or Weishi (consciousness‐only). Besides upholding the traditional Yogācāra teachings of store‐consciousness, three natures, and consciousness‐only, Chinese Yogācāras also had some interesting contributions to the relationship between the theories of mind and of Buddha‐nature, to the analysis of the structure of consciousness, and to the classification of objects.
Chan/Zen
Authors: Ahn Juhn Y.
Published: August 2021

Chan, pronouncedsŏnin Korean andzenin Japanese, is a polysemic Buddhist term that was used by a tradition of the same name to refer to techniques for directly perceiving the true nature of reality. The Chan tradition referred to this highly regarded perception as “awakening” or “enlightenment” and its object as “buddha nature,” “mind ground,” or the “Way.” For centuries, the Chan/Sŏn/Zen traditions continued to experiment with and develop newchantechniques, among which the koan is perhaps the most successful and popular.
Fazang
Authors: Chen Jinhua , Lin Weiyu
Published: August 2021

Fazang

 (643–712) is recognized as the third patriarch of the Huayan tradition (Huayan zong

), a Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition known for its complex and difficult metaphysical system and its exegesis on the
Avataṃsakasūtra
(Chinese:
Huayan jing

). Fazang is reputed as a great synthesizer who laid the theoretical foundation of the Huayan tradition. Most notably, Fazang systemized the key Huayan doctrine of “interdependence” and “interpenetration” while also introducing indigenous Chinese elements to his Buddhist philosophizing. But Fazang was no armchair philosopher; he was also a shrewd politician in the court of Empress Wu Zhao

 (624–705), the actual ruler of China from 655 to 705, while his polymathy further extended to being a translator, mystic, miracle‐worker, shaman, inventor, and promoter of technology. His incredibly diverse roles all somehow fed into his cause of promoting the
Avataṃsakasūtra
and its derivative doctrines. In light of his numerous contributions, modern scholars unanimously recognize Fazang as the de facto founder of the Huayan tradition.
China, Buddhist Philosophy in
Authors: Poceski Mario
Published: August 2021

The entry explores the introduction and development of Buddhist philosophy in China, with a focus on the classical systems that became dominant during the medieval period and continue to shape modern conceptions of Buddhist theory and practice. It covers the main traditions of Mahāyāna doctrine, initially developed in India, which were transmitted into China together with other aspects of Buddhism: Madhyamaka (Middle Way), Yogācāra (Yoga Practice), and Tathāgatagarbha (Embryo of Buddhahood). The translation, study, and exegesis of canonical texts that expound these central doctrines gave rise to a number of distinct Chinese schools, which represent discrete traditions of Buddhist philosophy. Some of the early schools are usually described as Chinese versions of Indian systems of Buddhist philosophy. For instance, Shelun, Dilun, and Faxiang are closely associated with Yogācāra philosophy, while Sanlun is said to be a Chinese version of Madhyamaka. In contrast, during the late medieval period (from the late sixth to the tenth century) there was the emergence of uniquely Chinese systems of Buddhist philosophy, which were subsequently exported to other parts of East Asia. The last two sections of the entry describe the two most notable philosophical systems of that kind, developed by the Tiantai and the Huayan schools, which represent the pinnacles of ingenious philosophical thinking within Chinese Buddhism.
Bhagavadgītā
Authors: Maitra Keya
Published: August 2021

The
Gītā
, as the celebrated Hindu text the
Bhagavadgītā
(Song of the Lord) is commonly known, is part of the Sanskrit epic, the Mahābhārata. It is a 700‐verse‐long conversation between two characters – Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna. The
Gītā
is considered the most important text especially of modern Hinduism because the
Gītā
is where a practicing Hindu turns for guidance, and it has also shaped the very nature of Hinduism. The
Gītā
presents an incredible synthesis of different and disparate theological and philosophical strands within Hinduism. This entry outlines some of the
Gītā
's main contributions relating to topics in philosophy of religion, namely, the concept of
dharma
; yoga of action and devotion; transcendence and immanence; the nature of Kṛṣṇa's divinity; the relation between free will and determinism; faith; and a vivid account of mystical experience.
Langton, Stephen
Authors: Bieniak Magdalena
Published: August 2021

Stephen Langton (c. 1150–1228), the promoter of the Magna Carta, famous for his crucial role in the history of medieval Europe, was also one of the most eminent masters of theology of his time. He left extensive exegetical and speculative works, and was a pioneer in early university educational practices. Thanks to his advanced theological method and influence, he occupies a key position in relation to both the subsequent development of university teaching and the earlier scholastic tradition. Langton made logical and grammatical speculation his chief tool in resolving problems that originally stem from exegesis, and approached theology as a coherent system of interconnected statements, with the aim of rejecting all the possible contradictions. He is one of the key figures in the study of the early theory of supposition. Not confined to any particular school, he felt free to modify the views of his masters and to offer his own solutions. It has been recognized that a number of later authors made extensive use of Langton's main speculative work,
Quaestiones theologiae
, but the exact impact of his production is still to be assessed.
Foucault, Michel
Authors: Boodman Eva
Published: August 2021

Michel Foucault (1926–1984) is known for articulating the connections between knowledge, power, and the subject. His works have been called historical philosophies, or philosophical “histories of the present,” because of his interest in the practices and complex lineages through which subjects and objects of knowledge emerge. This entry looks at the role of Christianity and Christian practices like confession in Foucault's histories of prisons, sexuality, the art of government, and the formation of subjectivity, paying attention to Foucault's contributions to the philosophy of religion.
Critical Buddhism (Japan)
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: August 2021

Critical Buddhism is a methodological approach for assessing the philosophical and practical implications of the Zen Buddhist institution in Japan that arose among a group of scholars and priests in the 1980s who responded to claims that antinomian and substantialist tendencies contributed to various social defects, including discrimination against the outcast community and support for pre‐World War II imperialism. The impact of this controversial faction linking scholarship to ideology by stressing the need for a return to fundamental Buddhist values of compassion based on adhering to the moral law of karmic causality has been associated with other wide‐ranging critiques and challenges to Zen orthodoxy in addition to contemporary reform movements such as Engaged Buddhism.
Rosenzweig, Franz
Authors: Pollock Benjamin
Published: August 2021

Franz Rosenzweig (1886–1929) was a German‐Jewish philosopher, educator, and translator, whose
The Star of Redemption
(1921) ranks as one of the most important works of Jewish philosophy written in the modern period.
The Star
is a system of philosophy, in conversation with the systems of German Idealism, which seeks to provide a comprehensive account of “All” that is. But it is a system whose central concepts – creation, revelation, and redemption – are borrowed explicitly from theology; and in which Judaism and Christianity are claimed to offer visions, each through the course of its liturgical calendar, of the redemptive unity of “All” that is.