bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Africa in the Atlantic World, C.1760 – C. 1840
Authors: Law Robin
Published: February 2013

The transatlantic slave trade peaked in the third quarter of the eighteenth century, when more than 80,000 slaves annually were being shipped from Africa for the Americas. This overshadowed the older-established trade in slaves northwards from West Africa across the Sahara Desert to the Muslim world, which was probably under 10,000 annually. Despite the long history of commerce, direct European involvement in Africa remained limited. In contrast to the Americas, European colonial occupation of African territory was minimal before the later nineteenth century. Some African states maintained diplomatic relations with their trading partners across the Atlantic. The operation of the Atlantic trade had the effect of linking up different parts of Africa with each other, as well as with Europe and the Americas. The autonomous (or northern-oriented) character of the West African historical process might seem to be self-evidently illustrated by one of the major developments of this period, a series of jihads, or ‘Islamic Revolutions’, in which Muslim clerics seized power from existing ruling groups.
The Ending of Anglo‐Saxon England
Authors: Griffiths David
Published: February 2013

The ‘end’ of Anglo-Saxon England was a ragged and discordant affair within which the Norman Conquest certainly represented a major upheaval, but not one which was inflicted on anything like an ethnically-unified populace. A change of equal significance to national conquest and attempts at unification in later Anglo-Saxon England was the development of urban life, and the drawing in of the countryside increasingly to an urban-focused economy. Three of the Anglo-Scandinavian metalwork styles seem to have stimulated widespread indigenous adaptive fashions in England: the Borre style of animal masks and ring-chains, and the later more fluid and open Ringerike style of hooked vegetal fronds, pear-shaped fleur-de-lis, and standing quadrupeds, and the sparer Urnes style. The Conquest effected a transformation of the focus of social and political aspiration on the part of lordly and ecclesiastical elites and the nascent urban classes.
Raw Materials: Sources and Demand
Authors: Hinton David A.
Published: February 2013

Timber for buildings in Anglo-Saxon England, and for ships such as those at Sutton Hoo and Graveney, had to come from trees left to grow to good lengths in woods, forests, or hedges, often coppiced to encourage straight and prolific growth and to obtain poles and fuel from the loppings. Wood provided charcoal needed by metalworkers and others for its more intense heat and carbon input. Gold had to be imported, mostly in the form of coins. Lead is a constituent of pewter, which needs tin. Silk was very rare until the eighth century, but by the eleventh had become a marketed product. Animal skins could provide both furs and leather. Animals also supplied bone for glue and oil and for making into a variety of tools, ornaments, handles, and the like. The raw materials used in the Anglo-Saxon period were varied, but generally indicate the nature of the economy.
Diet: Recent Evidence from Analytical Chemical Techniques
Authors: O'Connell Tamsin C. , Hull Bradley D.
Published: February 2013

The evidence for Anglo-Saxon diet presented in this article is derived from stable isotope analysis (carbon and nitrogen), ceramic residue analysis, cess pit analyses, and other archaeological features. Archaeological floral and faunal records present some evidence for the types of food available for human consumption. Pottery residues (and other materials) can be informative about the preparing, cooking, and storing of food, providing an insight into specific foodstuffs consumed in the Anglo-Saxon period. Furthermore, isotopic evidence for the Anglo-Saxon diet is explored at a large scale, and then investigates isotopic variation in conjunction with other factors. Three themes of variation — social, geographic, and chronological — are mentioned. The Anglo-Saxon stable isotope results indicate a mainly terrestrial diet, with medium to high amounts of animal protein intake depending on period/cemetery. The overall consistency of the Anglo-Saxon diet lies in the comparison with contemporaneous continental sites.
Disease
Authors: Lee Christina
Published: February 2013

This article explains that visible skeletal characteristics may have been unnoticed by their bearers, while socially — and physically — debilitating problems may leave no trace on the skeleton. Burial in consecrated ground, close to relics and the celebration of Christian ritual, had been an ecclesiastical privilege since the advent of monasticism in Anglo-Saxon England. The study showed that the Anglo-Saxon populations were slightly healthier, which may be linked to lifestyle. Nutrition plays an important part in maintaining a healthy immunity. Textual evidence seems to suggest the continuation of ‘folk medicine’ into the later Anglo-Saxon period, such as charms and rituals. The connection between religious buildings and health care may have been anticipated in special temples that were associated with the cure of disease in ancient Greece. It is feasible that Anglo-Saxon society had spaces for all kinds of people: the sick and the hale, the old and the young.
Sacred Spaces and Places in Pre‐Christian and Conversion Period Anglo‐Saxon England
Authors: Semple Sarah
Published: February 2013

This article provides a summary of a lengthier exploration of the numinous and sacred qualities of the natural world in pre-Christian England. Types of natural locale considered to have held sacred or superstitious importance are reviewed. Topographic observation and archaeological evidence are used alongside historical sources and accounts, in a review of evidence for special natural places in the Anglo-Saxon psyche. The article then concentrates on the human-altered landscape, with monument re-use and new monumentality reviewed as evidence for sacred places and religious structures. Some thoughts on three overarching themes: accessibility, identity, and the importance of the longue durée. Springs, wells, rivers, and lakes attracted activity of a ritual or religious nature in the pre-Christian and Conversion period. It highlights the significance of the natural landscape and ancient remains within the beliefs and spiritual perceptions of early medieval communities, before and after the Conversion.
Social Transactions, Gift Exchange, and Power in the Archaeology of the Fifth to Seventh Centuries
Authors: Scull Christopher
Published: February 2013

This article explores some structures and dynamics which may have contributed to the development of social and political hierarchies in England in the fifth to seventh centuries, and some of the problems associated with this field of research. In particular, it investigates how some social dynamics and institutions, and the relationships between economic and social dynamics, may be seen to have promoted structures of power in ways that conditioned the development of dynasties wielding local, regional, and eventually supra-regional power by the beginning of the seventh century. Assemblages from furnished burials constitute the main archaeological source for considerations of gift exchange. Burial was an arena of social and political competition. Inheritance, as a mode of exchange between generations, is in many ways the antithesis of gifting items to the dead through furnished burial.
Literary Sources and Archaeology
Authors: Hines John
Published: February 2013

The integrated study of archaeology and literature has a key role to play in attempts to characterize and understand the Anglo-Saxons. This article focuses on aspects of the relationship between literary sources in the Old English vernacular language and Anglo-Saxon archaeology; but any impression that Anglo-Saxon England was a monolingual culture must be exploded. A considerable range of Old English literary sources also had to deal with the profound topic of death. It is nothing new to observe that early Anglo-Saxon grave-goods correlate in various ways with the identity of the individual they were buried with. The critical and historical study of that literature ought to include informed consideration of the circumstances of its production in the real-world.
Anglo‐Saxon Archaeology and the Public
Authors: Marzinzik Sonja
Published: February 2013

This article mentions certain aspects of the dynamic relationship between Anglo-Saxon archaeology and concentrates on the question of whether formal education has kept pace with these new developments. Anglo-Saxon archaeology has a low profile on the curriculum, compared to the Romans or modern history. It is suggested that, as far as the higher education sector is concerned, Anglo-Saxon archaeology has only low prominence. The impact on the public of PPG16 is both direct, via the influence it might have on the planning process of any given project, and indirect, via new modes of dissemination. Archaeologists have an important role to play in current debates to which Anglo-Saxon archaeology is directly relevant. The previous government had an interest in archaeology and it accepted responsibility for continuing the Portable Antiquities Scheme after Heritage Lottery funding ended in March 2006.
Consumption
Authors: Dietler Michael
Published: February 2013

The main focus of this article is consumption. Consumption is a material social practice involving the utilization of objects, as opposed to their production or distribution. Some scholars, who argue for the recent development of a distinctive ‘consumer society’ during the modern period, would define it even more specifically as the utilization of commodities, but this seems unnecessarily restrictive. Consumption was recognized as the social process by which people construct the symbolically laden material worlds they inhabit and which, reciprocally, act back upon them in complex ways. This article offers a brief review of recent studies of consumption, with an emphasis on the fields of archaeology and socio-cultural anthropology. It examines the dramatic growth of a general analytical focus on this practice and the relationship to an expanding interest in the study of material culture. Finally, the issue of methodology is briefly assessed, with special reference to the requirements for developing an effective archaeology of consumption.
Fieldwork and Collecting
Authors: Lucas Gavin
Published: February 2013

Studies of collecting and fieldwork in the disciplines of archaeology and socio-cultural anthropology are relatively undeveloped, but in the last decade there has been a noticeable rise in interest as part of a broader reflexivity in the practices of these and related disciplines. Collecting, studied from a psychological perspective has a longer history, especially through Freudian interpretations that linked it with the anal retentive stage, thus associating it with certain personality traits. However, as part of a wider discourse, it is a fairly recent topic of investigation and has been generally approached either in the context of consumer research or more commonly, museum studies. This article traces the consequences of fieldwork and ways of interpreting the same. This distinction shares a similar focus on retrieving and collecting material culture. This article further discusses the status of fieldwork as it is today with special reference to anthropology and archaeology.
Gifts and Exchange
Authors: Miyazaki Hirokazu
Published: February 2013

A gift contains within itself a part of its giver: ‘to make a gift of something to someone is to make a present of some part of oneself’. This article traces the trajectories of debates in socio-cultural anthropology that have stemmed from Mauss' solution to the problem of reciprocity, with a view to stepping outside these trajectories. The first half of this article seeks to demonstrate that the succession of debates following Mauss' essay consists of repeated attempts to rework the relationship between Mauss' original problem and solution. This article draws upon the ideas of the French sociologist Marcel Mauss and his critique of Claude Levis Strauss. This article further traces Weiner's revision and renewal of Mauss' thesis of the inalienability of gifts which has had a significant impact on subsequent debates about gifts and exchange. A detailed analysis of aesthetic constraints related to gift and ideas of extension concludes this article.
Art as Action, Art as Evidence
Authors: Morphy Howard
Published: February 2013

This article is a strong defence of the idea of ‘art’, but it also recognizes its complexity and the fact that as a concept, ‘art’ is fuzzy around the edges. It uses a concept of family resemblance and sees art objects as forming polythetic sets. The category contains within it an immense diversity and includes objects that have little in common with each other and require very different methods of analysis. However, at the heart of this concept of art lies a set of loosely connected features or themes around which the idea of art coalesces: art is a form of action, art production is integral to meaning creating processes and requires a sense of form, and art is associated with aesthetic experience. This article proceeds to explain ideas of art and material culture. An analysis of art as cross-cultural category concludes this article.
Materiality and Embodiment
Authors: Crossland Zoë
Published: February 2013

The ideas of materiality and embodiment are explored in this article. It considers the contribution of archaeology to the interdisciplinary study of materiality and embodiment, focusing especially on the emergence of the archaeology of the body since the late 1980s. Human bodies have been a focus of archaeological study for a long time, with two divergent modes of analysis. What follows in this article is a review of some of the ways in which archaeologists have attempted to overcome these disciplinary limitations, by deploying a range of anti-foundationalist perspectives to theorize the embodied agency of past people. It further explores how questions of materiality have entered into the debates around embodiment. Finally this article presents two case studies. The first considers the use of apotropaic devices in seventeenth-century England, and the second looks at how the agency of the dead body is portrayed in discourse around contemporary forensic archaeology. An analysis of relations after death in forensic archaeology concludes this article.
Material Culture in Primates
Authors: Humle Tatyana
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the idea of material culture in primates. The ascription of culture to non-human animals has been controversial and a source of much debate. Much of this debate hinges on the definition of culture. This article cites the classic definition by Tylor which says that culture as ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’. The term ‘culture’ was first used in relation to non-human primates by Kummer. This article explains elementary technology among primates which concerns predominantly subsistence behaviours, expressed in, often complex, foraging techniques. Elementary technology among wild primates is typically based on natural materials, whether vegetation or non-organic matter. The various processes involved in the transmission of material culture are explained in detail. An in-depth analysis of the conditions of material culture followed by a study of culture among primates concludes this article.
Built Objects
Authors: Bailey Douglass , McFadyen Lesley
Published: February 2013

This article presents two bodies of work, both of which take an interdisciplinary approach to the study of buildings from Neolithic Europe. The first connects archaeology to theories in architectural history, while the second creates links between archaeology and art. This article works through four ideas about architecture which the article offers as disconnected propositions. There is no easy narrative for this article, just as there is none for the living built environment of the past or the present. This article proposes that archaeologists step away from accepted and comfortable knowledge of architectural form and interpretation. The aim of this article is to work through four case studies from our work on prehistoric European architecture. The case studies illuminate four propositions, which are offered as provocations for further work on architecture by archaeologists but also by anthropologists and other social scientists and humanities scholars whose work engages architecture concludes this article.
Mexico and Central America
Authors: Lohse K. Russell
Published: February 2013

This article reviews scholarship on the history and historiography of slavery in Mexico and Central America. Slaves (and people of African descent generally) played a far greater role in both Mexico and Central America than previously assumed or acknowledged. Although a minority of the population in most areas, black and mulatto slaves provided the bulk of the workforce in several key colonial industries. Even as a small minority of labourers, slaves often occupied critical roles in production as skilled workers and supervisors. By the late seventeenth century, creoles outnumbered Africans in Mesoamerica, and by the mid-eighteenth century, most slaves in the region were mulattos. By then, the recovery of the Indian population and the phenomenal growth of the mestizo and free mulatto populations throughout Mexico and Central America gradually eliminated the need for slave workers in most regions. Abolition in the 1820s resulted not just from the growth of the free population, nor from the commitment of creole patriots to Enlightenment ideals, but in part from the slaves' own efforts at liberating themselves.
French Caribbean
Authors: Garrigus John
Published: February 2013

This article reviews scholarship on the history and historiography of slavery in the French Caribbean. Pierre d'Esnambuc, a Norman sailor, planted France's first Caribbean colony on the tiny Lesser Antillean island of St Christopher in 1625. The settlement contained several dozen slaves. Although Great Britain removed this French foothold at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), slavery expanded under French auspices, albeit in fits and starts, to other islands during the seventeenth century. Slavery peaked in the French Caribbean during the eighteenth century as French slave traders carried more than one million slaves to the Americas. Most slaves in the French Caribbean laboured on plantations and in other commercial enterprises.
Race and Slavery
Authors: Lockley Timothy
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the concept of ‘race’ and how Americans of various sorts understood it, particularly in relation to slavery. The discussion covers early constructions of race, the introduction of slavery to the Americas, the ‘mixed-race’ problem, the problem of poor whites, and race and Native Americans.
Religion and Slavery
Authors: Ambrose Douglas
Published: February 2013

This article reviews scholarship on the religious lives of slaves. The emergent field of Atlantic history has profoundly influenced scholarship on the response of African slaves to Christianity, the nature of black Christianity in the Americas, and the ways that black Christianity differed from that of whites. The study of the religious lives of enslaved peoples in the Americas has benefited enormously from the work of historians and anthropologists who have studied Africa during the centuries of the Atlantic slave trade. In articles and books, John Thornton, most notably, a historian of pre-colonial Africa, has argued for the need to understand the religious lives of Africans before their enslavement and forced relocation to the Americas. Thornton's work underscores that many enslaved Africans were in fact believing and practicing Christians before the Middle Passage. This recognition has implications for the ways in which African Christianity informed slave life and culture in the New World.
Slave Culture
Authors: Dawson Kevin
Published: February 2013

This article reviews scholarship on slave culture and the slave experience. Historians of the American South have had an interest in slavery since the early twentieth century but not until fairly recently have they paid sustained attention to the enslaved. Historians have begun to examine slaves, providing a bottom-up analysis of how slavery and slaves shaped their culture, daily lives, and southern white culture generally. This more recent emphasis has been sensitive to the importance of variables: how southern slave culture was shaped by time, place, work patterns, source population (the origins of African-born slaves); whether a region was under English, Dutch, Spanish, Spanish, French, or American jurisdiction; whether slaves lived and worked in societies with slaves or slave societies; whether slaves were skilled, toiled under the task system, or were gang labour; whether they produced tobacco, indigo, rice, sugar, and cotton; their proximity to Native Americans or Spaniards; and whether they lived in times of war or peace.
Post‐Emancipation Adjustments
Authors: Engerman Stanley L.
Published: February 2013

The demise of slavery in the Western hemisphere unfolded in a remarkably short period of time, in roughly 100 years. Yet, the various emancipations hardly realized the rosy scenario predicted by their most ardent advocates. The history of post-emancipation societies poses multiple questions — some unanswered, others the matter of continuing debate — about the meaning of freedom and the costs borne by different groups of historical actors. This article begins with a discussion of the ending of slavery and its aftermath. It then considers post-emancipation economic performance, and education and human capital formation in the post-emancipation period.
Lamentation and Lament in the Hebrew Bible
Authors: Greenstein Edward L.
Published: February 2013

This article provides a discussion on lamentation and lament within the Hebrew Bible. It also reviews the necessary fluidity of elegiac forms that virtually all the historical essays elaborate. The two categories of lament — lamentation over death or destruction and complaint over distress — are treated both separately and in relation to one another. Acts of mourning and lamentation are intermeshed in the Hebrew Bible, and it is unsurprising that the tropes and images employed in biblical laments — falling, sitting in dust, and weeping are the most obvious — will often correspond to gestures of mourning. The lamentation over a city and temple in Ancient Israel and in Mesopotamia are elaborated upon. In the book of Lamentations, it may be suggested that amid the outpouring of grief, shared by a desolate community, there is both explicit and implicit protest against the God who would wreak such devastation — 'eikha, ‘How can it be?’.
Romantic Elegiac Hybridity
Authors: Curran Stuart
Published: February 2013

This article reports that the elegy in the Romantic period ‘is seldom the expression of grief per se’. It also outlines the march of elegy through the period, beginning with Anna Seward's epic elegies, to Charlotte Smith's highlighting of affect and psychological realism, to William Wordsworth's indebtedness to Smith's influence. Seward's epic elegies introduce the tradition of what Anne K. Mellor has aptly called ‘Mothers of the Nation’. Smith's Elegiac Sonnets map existence itself as something recessive, predetermined according to a calculus of loss. If Smith and Wordsworth employ the elegiac to probe psychological resources and vulnerabilities, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Percy Shelley deliberately cast their poems as statements with every bit of the public resonance with which Seward invested her encomia to cultural icons.
‘Between the Bullet and the Lie’
Authors: Rae Patricia
Published: February 2013

This article states that the inter-war poets were determined to stake their place in history, positively to document their self-consciousness about elegiac writing with a steely determination to enter a history reflectively recognized as historic. The elegies considered belong to an interval whose place was felt even as it was being lived. The article also explores how some representative examples negotiate the choices of elegiac discourse then available to them. It outlines some of the distinctive characteristics of the two inherited strains of elegy, since these form the raw materials for the interwar elegists' bricolage. George Orwell's elegy, like Tom Wintringham's ‘Monument’ and W. H. Auden's famous elegy for Yeats, is a memorial with a more general warning about the dangers of memorializing embedded within it. George Barker's resolution for himself is to repudiate transcendent language of all kinds.
The Contemporary Anti‐Elegy
Authors: Spargo R. Clifton
Published: February 2013

This article describes the measure of the elegy's self-subversions through history, but finds that in its contemporary form it has reached an apex of resistance that plays out in the realm of ethics. Focusing on Elizabeth Bishop, Ann Sexton, and Jorie Graham, the article reveals that contemporary elegy is intensely self-conscious; this self-consciousness plays out not only in the terms of the self-reflexive engagement, but in its acuteness with respect to its own temporality, and to the ethical considerations that are thereby inextricably tied to it. Bishop's poetry explores the provisional negotiations of memory in an effort to establish a continuous self that, despite the best efforts, is far less stable than its everyday capability might lead to suppose. Graham's poetry has been celebrated for its modernist or postmodernist difficulties. The surest sign of anti-elegy resides in its refusal to find restitution in the function of commemoration in culture.
Elegy and the Gothic
Authors: Hogle Jerrold E.
Published: February 2013

This article deals with the Gothic, and seeks to broaden the generic horizon of the study of elegy. It also argues that the relationship of the elegy to the Gothic and vice-versa is much more symbiotic, more rooted in deep-seated common grounds, than both their immediate similarities and their obvious differences might suggest. Gray, Richard Bentley, and Walpole revise the elegy and instigate a revisionist ‘Gothic’. John Milton proves to be just as influentially Janus-faced in his extremely classical and thoroughly rebellious use of the funereal pastoral elegy. Gothic works continue to be fed by the elegy, and they therefore continue to find new methods for drawing the inconsistent belief-systems of the times into the vital quest to keep generating meanings in the face of personal and cultural death.
Nationalism, Transnationalism, and the Poetry of Mourning
Authors: Ramazani Jahan
Published: February 2013

This article is about elegy and transnationalism that similarly charts the rich tensions that arise between and within culturally diverse kinds. Elegy's affective content has transnational bearings: wherever there are bonds of family and friendship, death produces grief, mourning, and melancholia. It then distinguishes among varieties of, and develops a taxonomy for, elegiac transnationalism. But first, it dialectically investigates the nationalist and antinationalist strands of elegy. Death is seen not as national but as post-political and post-national. Elegy can be put in the service of nationalism, equivocal nationalism, anti-nationalism, transnationalism, and many combinations of these positions. Elegiac transnationalism can be tracked intrinsically and extrinsically. Its intrinsic factors are assessed. While nations erect hierarchies of grievability, transnational elegy's cross-cultural influences, solidarities, and migrations, its border-crossing influences, forms, and ontologies suggest other ways of mourning death than within physical barriers and conceptual lines patrolled by militaries and enforced by violence.
‘Sweit rois…delytsum lyllie’
Authors: Rudd Gillian
Published: February 2013

This article examines metaphorical and real flowers in medieval English verses, focusing on William Dunbar's poem To a Lady. It analyses in detail flowers in a selection of lyrics to show how familiar tropes and typical passages contain elements of the material world rather than just in literary conception. It shows that words and images slide across the boundary between real and symbolic, so much so that we might question how much there is indeed a boundary.
Emergent Englishness
Authors: Stodnick Jacqueline
Published: February 2013

This article examines emergent Englishness in pre- and post-Conquest literary culture of England. It describes the strategic relation between ethnicity and the past and suggests that during this period Englishness resists any characterization as emergent, instead being found in association with the antique. It argues that hagiography works to transmit ideas about communal integrity by investigating and instantiating the relation between bodily incorruption and the past.
The City and the Text
Authors: Wiggins Alison
Published: February 2013

This article examines London literature during the medieval period. It analyses whether the definition of London literature should be focused around writers or whether it should prioritize dialect, books, texts, scribes, or readers, or perhaps a combination of these. It investigates how geography should be related to literary culture and how locality engages with issues of literary interpretation or interact with methods and modes of reading. It also comments on some notable London literature including Auchinleck Manuscript, The Anonymous Short English Metrical Chronicle, and Bevis of Hamtoun.
Maps and Margins
Authors: Hiatt Alfred
Published: February 2013

This article examines the relation between maps and margins in medieval English literature. The concept of the margin is relevant to medieval maps and mapping in two ways. First, it was literally in the margins of manuscripts that maps first appeared in the Middle Ages, and second, the literal meaning of the Latin margo had, in classical and medieval formulations, topographical/cartographical applications. This article describes what was shown at the margins of medieval maps and how these margin maps correspond with literary descriptions of travel to and encounter with marginal spaces and peoples.
Procedural Transparency
Authors: Delaney Joachim , Magraw Daniel Barstow
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the transparency and public participation opportunities that should be provided at each stage of the arbitral process to ensure that (a) the public is appropriately informed and (b) information, perspectives, and arguments provided by the public can appropriately be considered by arbitral tribunals. Section 1 briefly describes the increasing use of arbitration in investment disputes (both disputes between States and disputes between investors and States); the process of arbitration in the context of international investment; and the different arbitral rules and institutions typically used or available for investment arbitrations, including the institution's rules and practices regarding transparency and public participation and including how these issues have been handled under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Section 2 examines the issue of transparency in investment arbitrations, discussing how the courts of several countries have dealt with the related issues of privacy and confidentiality in arbitration; the role of transparency in international investment arbitration disputes; various arbitral tribunals' consideration of transparency; and the advantages and disadvantages of transparency at the different stages of the arbitration proceedings, drawing in part on the experience of trade dispute settlement mechanisms. Section 3 addresses the practical role of public participation in the proceedings by way of pleadings and other submissions from non-arbitrating parties and the tribunal's obligation or discretion to accept such submissions, including consideration of the advantages and disadvantages of public participation and the means of improving public participation. Finally, the chapter presents very brief conclusions with respect to transparency and public participation in investment arbitrations.
Independence, Impartiality, and Duty of Disclosure of Arbitrators.
Authors: Malintoppi Loretta
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of the issues of independence and impartiality of members of investment tribunals and offers some further reflections on this subject. Section 1 reviews ICSID provisions on the methodology of appointment of arbitrators and their independence and impartiality, and provides a summary review of some available precedents in investment arbitrations (under ICSID, UNCITRAL, and ad hoc proceedings). Section 2 examines how the question is treated by reference to a sample of institutional rules, model laws, and professional guidelines. Section 3 analyses the approach adopted under the practice directions of the International Court of Justice. Section 4 provides an overview of the NAFTA and WTO codes of conduct. Section 5 contains a summary review of national laws on the subject, while Section 6 looks at the contribution of professional associations. The concluding section compares these rules to assess the extent to which they can provide a model for investment arbitration. Finally, some preliminary conclusions and recommendations are put forward.
Consent to Arbitration
Authors: Schreuer Christoph
Published: February 2013

This chapter focuses on mixed arbitration, that is, arbitration between a host State and a foreign investor. It discusses five methods to give consent to arbitration: consent by direct agreement, consent through host state legislation, consent through bilateral investment treaties, consent through multilateral treaties, and consent under most-favoured-nation clauses. The chapter then looks at temporal issues of consent and interpretation of consent.
Raphael Lemkin, Culture, and the Concept of Genocide
Authors: Moses A. Dirk
Published: February 2013

This article describes the genocide concept of Raphael Lemkin. Genocide is a curious anomaly in the post-war regime of international humanitarian law, which is dominated by the discourse of human rights with its emphasis on individuals. It embodies the social ontology of ‘groupism’, because genocide is about the destruction of groups per se, not individuals per se. Lemkin thought that the Nazi policies were radically new, but only in the context of modern civilization. Wars of extermination have marked human society from antiquity until the religious conflagrations of early modern Europe, after which the doctrine that dominated was that war should be conducted against states rather than populations. Given that forty-nine members of his family died in the Holocaust, Lemkin's ecumenical approach to human suffering is at once astonishing and exemplary.
‘Ethnic Cleansing’ versus Genocide?
Authors: Lieberman Benjamin
Published: February 2013

This article compares ethnic cleansing with genocide. Since the 1990s, ethnic cleansing has become one of the most widely known forms of violence directed against groups. Ethnic cleansing is related to genocide, but ethnic cleansing is focused more closely than genocide on geography and on forced removal of ethnic or related groups from particular areas. The greatest overlap between ethnic cleansing and genocide takes place when forced removal of population leads to a group's destruction. Ethnic cleansing is often a policy carried out by strong states to mould the population map, especially of border zones, but the breakup of such states also generates power struggles that can lead to ethnic cleansing. Another paradox is that partition or division of ethnically or religiously mixed states has been identified both as a cause of ethnic cleansing and as a possible remedy for ethnic cleansing.
Rethinking Genocide in North America
Authors: Smithers Gregory D.
Published: February 2013

This article explores the concept of genocide in North America. Colonial North America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries constituted an ever growing number of racially and ethnically heterogeneous sites of trade, exploration, and settlement. As Europeans ventured westward into the North American wilderness, territorial expansion, changing land-use patterns, new economic networks, and different systems of coerced labour all motivated settlers to think and act with different colonial motives that contributed to a sense of instability and flux in settler communities. What bound Europeans together, and provided the ideological and political basis for ordering settler societies, was an increasingly explicit racialized anxiety and disgust for Native Americans. The settlers' sense of disgust was important to the genocidal intentions behind different forms of colonial violence.
Mass Deportations, Ethnic Cleansing, and Genocidal Politics in the Later Russian Empire and the USSR
Authors: Werth Nicolas
Published: February 2013

Between the middle of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth, the immense areas of the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union saw some extreme forms of state violence, though of course, in very different historical contexts. This article addresses the main specificities of the great episodes of deportation and ethnic cleansing in the later Russian Empire and in the Soviet Union, as well as an immense event that remained completely hidden for more than half a century, the ‘man-made famines’ of the early 1930s. It also discusses the applicability or otherwise of the word ‘genocide’ to the Ukrainian famine of 1932–3 and the deportation of the ‘punished peoples’ from 1941–4.
Modernity
Authors: Lauzon Matthew J.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses modernity, considering different aspects such as European intellectual and cultural history, global modernity, critiques of modernity, and multiple and alternate modernities. The related terms modern and modernity are notoriously wooly words with contested chronologies and debated definitions. At the most prosaic level, the words imply simply something like ‘new’ or ‘now’. Many use the term ‘modern’ in this sense as a marker of temporal discontinuity and present a variety of different dates. The field of world history, like anthropology, is a reflexive project that contributes to the articulation of modernities even as it attempts to represent them.
Genders
Authors: Hughes-Warrington Marnie
Published: February 2013

This article examines the relationship between genders and world history studies. Gender is commonly held to be a neglected topic in world historical scholarship. We could point to the ever-growing body of scholarship that has outlined how gender is implicated in the full range of human activities. The relations that bind men and women, men and men, and women and women together in social, political, economic, and cultural activities are so fundamental a part of human experience that they cannot be glossed over, passed by or passed on as the province of specialist historians. The discussion argues that there is no shortage of writing on gender in world history. What is still lacking, however, is widespread awareness of the extent to which gender shapes world historical research, writing, and teaching, particularly works in which women are not mentioned.
Technology, Engineering, and Science
Authors: Headrick Daniel R.
Published: February 2013

This article tell the story of science and technology, of humans' increasing power over nature, the ability to live healthier and more comfortable lives, to travel and communicate faster, and to transform the world. Technology includes the tools, artifacts, skills, and processes that humans have devised to use nature for practical purposes — from the most primitive hand-axe to the Internet. It requires science and often mathematics. Science is not built on logic and mathematics alone, but requires complex and costly instruments like cyclotrons, space probes, and supercomputers. The symbiotic relationships between technology, engineering, and science are the hallmarks of the modern world. However, one risk is humans' ability to kill and destroy with increasing efficiency. There is also the problem of the destruction of the natural environment.
Cultural Exchanges in World History
Authors: Bentley Jerry H.
Published: February 2013

Since the 1960s, when world history gradually began to emerge as a distinct field of professional historical scholarship, world historians have focused their attention and their analyses mostly on political, social, economic, demographic, and environmental issues with strong material dimensions. One of the most fundamental assumptions of this contemporary world history is the notion that historical development does not take place exclusively within the boundary lines of individual societies or cultural regions. However, this article argues that cross-cultural interactions and exchanges have influenced the development of all or almost all peoples and societies throughout the world's history, looking at cultural exchanges in pre-modern and modern times. If this point is true, it stands to reason that there have likely been cultural as well as political, social, economic, demographic, and environmental implications of cross-cultural interactions and exchanges.
South Asia and Southeast Asia
Authors: Wink André
Published: February 2013

For many centuries, South Asia and Southeast Asia did not constitute two distinct regions of the world but one. This one region encompassed the bulk of the landmasses, islands and maritime spaces which were affected by the seasonal monsoon winds. Throughout its fertile and often extensive river plains it adopted recognizably similar patterns of culture and settled organization. Early geographers mostly referred to it as ‘India’. This article describes the expansion of agriculture and settled society; kings and Brahmans; a graveyard of cites in the Mediterranean that were centers of power and civilization geography and the world-historical context; the Indo-Islamic world; pathways to early modernity; and the effects of European imperialism.
Europe and Russia in World History
Authors: Smith Bonnie G. , Kelley Donald R.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses ancient Europa; national states; Renaissance innovations; imperial Europe; twentieth-century global warfare; the downfall of empires; and global migration and communication. Europa is associated with the territories north of the Bosporus starting with the Balkans, set off from Africa and Asia. The subsequent ‘Holy Roman empire’ survived for a millennium as a form of ‘Europe’, especially under the Habsburgs, until it was dissolved by Napoleon in 1806 and succeeded by the Austro-Hungarian empire until 1918. Other expansive institutions in the modern period included the overseas empires of individual European nations, the Soviet empire after 1917, and the growing European Union of the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
The pacific Ocean Basin to 1850
Authors: Buschmann Rainer F.
Published: February 2013

The Pacific Ocean is the world's largest and deepest ocean, spanning about one-third of the earth's surface. Despite its size, the Pacific has received only scant global historical attention when compared to the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans. However, the Pacific has played a prominent role intermittently in world history, highlighted by Austronesian expansion, Manila Galleon trade, eighteenth-century European exploration, and the intense island-hopping military campaigns of World War II. At the same time, such historical interest did not translate into a familiar timeline integrating this watery geographical feature into a larger world historical framework. This article argues that there is more discontinuity than continuity to this ocean, and its history is best broken down by three distinct periods of exploration and settlement.
Introduction
Authors: Smith Helmut Walser
Published: February 2013

This book departs in significant ways from previous histories of modern Germany. The book also represents a novel attempt to place German history in a deeper international and transnational setting than has hitherto been the case. This is the second important departure, and is, in this sense, that national histories and ‘area studies’ need to take fuller account of changes occurring in the wider world. There have also been a number of attempts to emphasize the history of the everyday, or to underscore the impact of war on German society. The book makes nation-state sovereignty into a decisive marker as well as a problem of modern German history. A concept of the German nation reaches at least to the early sixteenth century, when the Holy Roman Empire officially added the appellation ‘of the German Nation’. This article chronicles the history of Germany from the eighteenth century to the twentieth century.
International Conflict, War, and the Making of Modern Germany, 1740–1815
Authors: Planert Ute
Published: February 2013

The article traces the making of modern Germany. War made the state, and the state made war: This statement holds true for the state of Germany. Unlike in France and England, political loyalties in Germany oscillated between the Reich, the nation, and individual states, as well as between different confessions. For this reason, problems in the course of state and nation building were more complex than in those European neighbor states where centralized power was established earlier and on a mono-confessional basis. The international rivalry of power played a pivotal role for European developments in the eighteenth century. Several German language territories strove to outgrow the constraints of the Holy Roman Empire, or Old Reich, and gain influence and importance. A detailed description of Napoleonic Rule in Germany, the decline of the same, the reshaping the state and its aftermath concludes this article.
Nation State, Conflict Resolution, and Culture War, 1850–1878
Authors: Weichlein Siegfried
Published: February 2013

Germany as the nation state forms the basis of this article. The notion that rule requires identity, and that identity has to be based on unity and consensus, derives from assumptions of the liberal historiography of the nineteenth century. Symbols and liturgies, on the other hand, represented actions, differences, tasks, and institutions. Between 1850 and 1878, industrialization and nation building were the principal forces generating conflict. Both played a crucial role in politics and society. But in this article, the foundation and formation of the German nation state is the main focus. The second conflict over nation building, which was linked to the first, was the antagonism between the confessional majority and minority: in Germany, this conflict centered on the tension between Catholicism and a Protestant inflected liberalism. This conflict was ideologically charged. This article explains the incidents that led to nation building in the German hinterland.
Authoritarian State, Dynamic Society, Failed Imperialist Power, 1878–1914
Authors: Smith Helmut Walser
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on statehood, society, and the failed imperialist powers that continued to rampage Germany in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. A social history of German politics is given in this article. It begins with analyzing the meaning of Kaiserreich and emphasizing its inner logic, and endogenous social and political processes. This article concentrates on the relationship between state, society, and democracy, and argues that the essential conflicts of the Kaiserreich involved the contradictory integration of a newly-formed, authoritarian national state, with an exceedingly dynamic and mobile society, into a competitive world of overseas empires in the process of imposing white hegemony on large parts of the globe. The interpretive emphasis, which is on the national level, rather than the state or local level, does not presuppose that endogenous structural elements brought about the crisis of the late imperial period.