bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Professional Ethics and Enhancement of Competent Practice
Authors: Soudijn Karel A. , Poortinga Ype H.
Published: February 2013

Professional codes of ethics are meant to set standards for the competence of psychologists and the quality of their professional actions (for which we will also use the term interventions). The codes encourage psychologists to continuously improve their level of competence. This chapter presents arguments as to how the standards or rules in such codes can contribute to the overall objective of competent practice and to the enhancement of competence practice. First we show that standards of competence can never be absolute. We also mention some distinctions between categories of rules in professional codes of ethics, adding one further distinction to existing categorizations; namely, between constituent rules that define a game and the tactical rules that are used by players. We see tactical rules as indicating ways in which psychologists can improve the level of quality of their actions. We then address the question of what constitutes the foundation for the competence of psychologists in some of the internationally better known codes. We subsequently describe four ways of anchoring ethically competent actions. Three of these are a matter of the profession and its members, viz: (i) the fund of scientific knowledge that exists in psychology and the psychologist's familiarity with this through education; (ii) the fund of professional knowledge and expertise; and (iii) professional experience. The fourth mode of anchoring places competence in broader contexts, referring to clients, sponsors, the public at large, and the legislation in a country that applies to the profession of psychology. This mode refers to the interactions between the profession and stakeholders from outside. In the concluding section we list four questions that refer to four sets of stakeholders. These questions set a frame for competent practice of psychologists; they are interrelated in the sense that an answer to one of them imposes constraints on how the others should be answered.
A Call for Ethical Standards and Guidelines for Cross-Cultural Research Conducted by American Psychologists
Authors: Lyons Brent J. , Leong Frederick T. L.
Published: February 2013

In light of expansive globalization, the lack of ethical guidelines regulating the cross-cultural international research of American psychologists reflects an emerging ethical challenge. The American Psychological Association (APA) code of ethics (2002) is silent on ways to cope with cross-cultural ethical dilemmas, and the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists (Gauthier, 2008 ), though a useful framework for shedding light on the issue, offers no practical recommendations for researchers. Considering the cross-cultural ethical gaps that exist, in this chapter we provide examples of ethical dilemmas faced by American psychologists conducting cross-cultural international research, such as dilemmas with institutional approval, informed consent, participant inducement, research involving deception, and the dissemination of research results. We conclude with a “Call to Action” and present frameworks that may aid in the APA's development of a code of ethics specific to American psychologists who conduct cross-cultural international research.
Ethical Issues of Web-Based Interventions and Online Therapy
Authors: Hilgart Michelle , Thorndike Frances P. , Pardo Jose , Ritterband Lee M.
Published: February 2013

Increased access to and use of the Internet is significantly impacting health care, psychological practice, and clinical research, leading to the development of a new field called eHealth. This chapter highlights the ethical issues associated with providing psychological interventions over the Internet, in the context of both research trials and delivery of clinical services. It covers both the ethical benefits of eHealth (greater access to treatment, increased options for communication, enhanced convenience, potential cost savings, and improved data collection) and the challenges surrounding the delivery of eHealth (informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, appropriateness of online treatment, online assessment, identity verification, data validity, communication, competence, crisis intervention, and legal concerns). By more clearly defining eHealth interventions, the inherent ethical challenges can become more transparent and ethics codes can be more aptly developed. While ethics codes will be challenged to keep pace with evolving technologies, researchers should continue to investigate the ethical benefits and challenges of delivering eHealth interventions and then work to make these benefits and risks known through evolving codes of practice.
Psychological Ethics and Immigration
Authors: Robila Mihaela , Akinsulure-Smith Adeyinka M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the unique challenges faced by immigrants, while exploring the ethical questions that arise when conducting research or providing therapeutic services to this population. An exploration of the American Psychological Association's (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct offers guidelines to address ethical challenges encountered in research and service provision to immigrants. The chapter emphasizes the importance of adopting a multicultural perspective to illuminate the key ethical questions from competing perspectives, as well as offering suggestions for consideration in conducting sound ethical research and clinical practice.
Psychologists and Prisoner Interrogations
Authors: Abeles Norman
Published: February 2013

Recent estimates suggest that there have been over 300 articles on the topic of detainee interrogations in the last few years. There has been a marked increase in detainee interrogations in the military system accompanied by allegations of abuse and torture of international prisoners and statements that psychologists were directly or indirectly involved. The American Psychological Association authorized a task force to look at the topic of harsh interrogations, with particular focus on ethical concerns. Part of the report of this task force concluded that psychologists must not engage in behaviors that violate the laws of the United States, and may refuse for ethical reasons to follow laws or orders that are unjust or that violate basic principles of human rights. Further, the report stated that psychologists have an ethical responsibility to report acts of torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment to the appropriate authorities.
Ethical/Deontological Issues in Work and Organizational Psychology
Authors: Prieto José M. , Chacón Pedro , Marín Carolina
Published: February 2013

Pragmatism is the prevailing philosophical framework in work and organizational (W/O) psychology and so is an a posteriori perspective, a justification dependent on consequences of psychological actions and values that highlight transactions. Deontological codes are mere descriptions of inappropriate practices, and deontological committees are not final decision makers on ethics in the profession. Conflicts or complaints are examined privately first, and disagreements have recourse to law. Human rights in the workplace have been outcomes of political and legal actions, never based on ethical allegations (too conservative or religious, often). W/O psychology values, issues, and dilemmas were not taken into consideration in the elaboration of deontological codes for decades. Complaints in this area are rare, and controversial issues such as discrimination, plagiarism, and sexual behaviour are understood differently in W/O psychology. Human resources and global economy policies are interconnected and international (ISO) or national standards and norms abound in the field.
Psychological Ethics in Chinese Societies
Authors: Chan Charles C. , Leung Alvin S. , Lee Peter W. , Wang Li-fei , Zhang Kan
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviewing the status of psychological ethics will be organized around a coherent concept of the level of receptivity to psychology in the Chinese societies. The common feature of this unified direction of progression of psychology includes three core components. First, the regions’ governmental and circumstantial conditions surrounding statutory registration, or the lack thereof, and regulation of psychological practice; second, the strength and the role of the psychological associations in situ; and finally, the maturity of the marketplace in these regions for consumption of professional psychological services. The readers will be able to note the diversities that exist among these regions while not losing sight of Chinese societies as a collective.
Psychological Ethics in Europe: Convergence and Divergence
Authors: Aanonsen An-Magritt , Althaus Katharina
Published: February 2013

One characteristic of psychological ethics in Europe is that the continent has very diverse historical, cultural, and professional traditions. This makes the development of a good, visible structure with transparency in matters concerning ethics—i.e., codes of conduct, ethics committees, and sanctioning procedures—rather a challenge. In this chapter we will look, with the structure of the Meta-Code of the EFPA as a template, at the variety of ethical codes throughout the European continent—depending on the development of the profession of psychologists, the different kinds of psychological organizations and regulation of psychologists—and comment on communalities, differences, or special characteristics of the ethical codes of a majority of EFPA member associations.
Psychological Ethics in Oceania: Convergence and Divergence
Authors: Allan Alfred , Garton Alison F.
Published: February 2013

This chapter describes psychological ethics in Oceania, mainly in Australia and New Zealand. It traces the chronology of the development of formal codes of ethics for practicing psychologists, their rationales, and their applications. The chapter considers specifically the relevance, development and application of codes to the various indigenous populations in the region. The final section of the chapter considers the most recent development in Australia, namely the introduction of national accreditation and registration for health professions, including psychologists and the implications of this for psychological ethics and for New Zealand.
Psychological Ethics and Macro-Social Change
Authors: Stevens Michael J.
Published: February 2013

After empirically demonstrating that the well-being of psychology is tied to fundamental economic and political conditions, I illustrate how psychological ethics codes are socially situated by sampling from the codes or regulatory laws of selected countries that have transitioned or are transitioning from communism to free-market democracy, military dictatorship to representative government, economically and politically divided to unified, internationally isolated to globally interconnected, monarchy to theocracy, racially segregated to pluralistic, bicultural to multicultural, and at peace to wartime status. I also examine how the Meta-Code of Ethics reflects the complex, multidimensional integration of Europe. I conclude by identifying features common to the ethics codes of the above countries in transition and compare them to the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists.
Argentina
Authors: Ferrero Andrea
Published: February 2013

Political and economic changes shape the development of societies in a process of dialectical feedback. Scientific and professional fields are also affected by these changes, and especially those fields that are strongly related to human sciences (Bourdieu, 1991 ). In this chapter, the influence of political matters in the development of professional psychologists’ associations in Argentina is considered. It establishes how those circumstances affected the legal status of psychology and the definition of professional competencies in the country. It also considers the particular situation of ethics codes that were being developed in the 1970s, and how the return of democracy impacted the course of action in the development of such codes in Argentina..
Aotearoa/New Zealand
Authors: Seymour Fred , Nairn Raymond
Published: February 2013

The 2002 Code of Ethics for Psychologists Working in Aotearoa/New Zealand marked a major departure from its predecessor and from codes of other jurisdictions. Following the lead of the Canadian Psychological Association, an aspirational model was adopted in which guidance for ethical decision making is directly related to broad principles and related values. The code explicitly admitted the views of Māori, the indigenous people of New Zealand. As a consequence it reflects a bicultural perspective, including a shift away from an individualized conception of people and their behavior to a stronger acknowledgement of the role of community and culture in people's lives. The social and political influences on the development of this code are described.
Russia
Authors: Velichkovsky Boris B. , Yuriev Alexander I.
Published: February 2013

Ethical issues are at the core of psychology, both as a science and a profession. By virtue of the subject, psychologists are often dealing with sensitive topics and their words and deeds can exert a profound influence on individuals, organizations, and societies. It is, thus, not surprising that the development of ethical standards and regulations for psychological research and practice has long been given considerable attention by psychological organizations on both the national and international levels. This is clearly documented by the recent development of two unifying ethical frameworks: the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists by the International Union of Psychological Science and International Association of Applied Psychology (Ad Hoc Joint Committee, 2008) and the Meta-Code of Ethics by the European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations (1995). However, the professional life of psychologists around the world is still dominated by sometimes very different economic, social, historical, and political factors, which often lend a very distinct flavor to the practices of resolving ethical issues in a given country. In the present chapter, the development of psychological ethics in modern Russia will be analyzed with special emphasis on the ideological, societal, and economic forces that have shaped Russian psychology during the last three decades. We will also present the Ethics Code adopted by the Russian Psychological Society (2004) and try to explain some of its features in the context of these influences.
Introduction
Authors: Danzon Patricia M. , Nicholson Sean
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the key characteristics of the biopharmaceutical industry. The biopharmaceutical industry is unusually research intensive. The US research-based biopharmaceutical industry invests about 15 percent of its sales in research and development (R&D), compared with about 4 percent for US industry in general. The R&D cost of bringing a new compound to market is estimated to be greater than $1 billion. This research intensity underlies many of the unique features of this industry. Two key policy issues are briefly considered: whether and how governments should support and regulate R&D with the goal of generating the optimal amount and types of R&D spending; and how government should regulate the market access, prices, and promotion of biopharmaceuticals. An overview of the structure and contents of this book is also provided.
Feminist and Multicultural Ethics in Counseling Psychology
Authors: Brabeck Mary M. , Brabeck Kalina M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the origins and major themes of feminist and multicultural ethics, as well as the contributions of counseling psychology to feminist and multicultural ethics. Finally, these ethical frameworks are applied to the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2003) to demonstrate the benefit of incorporating feminist and multicultural ethics in professional psychology.
Gender and Mental Health in Ecological/Sociocultural Context
Authors: Ancis Julie R. , Meghan Davidson M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter describes an integrated, ecological perspective on girls’ and women’s mental health. The interplay of multiple oppressions and their impact on the physical, psychological, and spiritual functioning of girls and women is described. Core values of positive psychology, feminist psychology, and counseling psychology emphasize individual strengths, and are applied to working with girls and women. In addition, the authors review relevant APA (2007) Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Girls and Women and discuss issues in assessment and diagnosis as related to women. Finally, implications for clinical work and future research are discussed. An ecological perspective that attends to the diversity within and between girls and women, as well as their social and environmental contexts, holds great promise for promoting girls’ and women’s wellness.
Feminist Multicultural Counseling Psychology in Transnational Contexts
Authors: Horne Sharon G. , Arora Kiran S. K.
Published: February 2013

As the field of counseling psychology becomes increasingly global in scope, feminist and multicultural contributions are vital to the development of socially just, transnational counseling psychology. In this chapter we focus on (a) the ways in which both feminist and multicultural theory and practice inform and challenge prevailing approaches to transnational and cross-cultural work, in particular by drawing upon Sharon Horne’s experiences with post-communist countries and communities, and Kiran Arora’s work within transnational Sikh communities as a second-generation Sikh woman; (b) the foundational work conducted by feminist multicultural counseling psychologists in transnational contexts and with recent immigrants in the United States; (c) the developmental aspects of education and training in feminist-multicultural (F-M) transnational work; and (d) finally, future directions for F-M transnational counseling psychology.
Feminist Vocational/Career Theory and Practice
Authors: Hackett Gail , Kohlhart Julie D.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews the literature on feminist vocational/career theory and practice. In particular, it reviews the theory and research on the major career development theories focused on career choice and critiques their applicability for understanding women’s vocational behavior. Major theories reviewed include Holland’s person-environment theory, Super’s developmental career theory, and social cognitive career theory. Coverage of career development theories that were developed specifically to account for women’s vocational behavior and that influence the dominant theories of today are also included, namely, Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise, as well as models proposed by Farmer, Astin, Betz & Fitzgerald, and Fassinger. Research on the applicability of the various theories with respect to diverse groups of women is addressed; issues in the extant empirical literature are explored; and limitations of the theories are discussed. The heuristic value of the various theories for guiding career interventions is discussed.
Feminist Therapy with Male Clients: Empowering Men to Be Their Whole Selves
Authors: Mintz Laurie B. , Tager David
Published: February 2013

Empowerment is the overarching goal of feminist therapy. This is accomplished through an analysis of power, gender, and social location, with key strategies including the creation of an egalitarian therapy relationship and the framing of distress as attempts at gaining power in an oppressive and patriarchal society. The field of men and masculinity, emanating from feminist scholarship and created by the pioneering work of counseling psychologists, also strives to empower men. Like feminist therapy, the field of men and masculinity focuses heavily on analyzing gender roles and also, more recently, albeit less thoroughly, attends to issues of social location. This chapter attempts to do what surprisingly has not been done before: systematically integrate scholarship from the field of men and masculinity with the tenets and processes of feminist therapy. Through this integration, it is demonstrated that feminist therapy is an excellent therapeutic modality for doing psychotherapy with men.
Political Analysis: Cornerstone of Feminist Multicultural Counseling and Psychotherapy
Authors: Morrow Susan L. , Hawxhurst Donna
Published: February 2013

During its first decade of practice and scholarship, feminist therapy was rich with political analysis. As feminist therapy has become more professionalized, political analysis has been de-emphasized (Morrow & Hawxhurst, 1998). Multicultural counseling has focused on the importance of building cross-cultural relationships and examining issues related to counselor and client identity development, as well as engaging clients in understanding the context and cultural variables surrounding their lives and the problems they bring to counseling. However, engaging clients in analyzing the sociopolitical forces impacting their lives has been a nebulous activity, left to the counselor or therapist to figure out on her or his own. This chapter addresses points of convergence and paradoxes surrounding the integration of feminist and multicultural perspectives, including issues of inclusion. We also define feminist multicultural counseling (FMC) as an integrative approach to counseling and therapy. Next, we address the implementation of FMC, including the underlying components. Finally, we offer a process-oriented empowerment model for use in FMC.
Couples and Family Counseling In Multiple Contexts
Authors: Nutt Roberta L.
Published: February 2013

Working with couples and families fits the historic emphasis in counseling psychology of considering the individual in context. As many trains of feminist thought also emphasize the importance of relationships, a chapter tying together feminist couples and family counseling within counseling psychology is an important area of integration. This chapter provides an overview of the feminist critique of traditional couples and family counseling, followed by a description of couples and family counseling from a feminist perspective that is informed by multicultural contexts. Feminist couples and family counseling is more a philosophical and political viewpoint than a specific set of techniques, so a variety of strategies may be employed. Descriptions of intervention possibilities are grouped by their intent, including to demystify the therapy process and empower, aid communication, build empathy and connection through mutual understanding of gender roles in cultural context, analyze and negotiate power issues, and negotiate the redistribution of work within the family. Applications to diverse families and research findings are also discussed.
Feminist Multicultural Perspectives on Body Image and Eating Disorders in Women
Authors: Kashubeck-West Susan , Tagger Lori
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses feminist multicultural approaches to the understanding and treatment of eating disorders and body image dissatisfaction. Historical and contemporary feminist conceptualizations are presented, including a multicultural critique of feminist perspectives. Current approaches to treatment are detailed, including the lack of attention to feminist approaches in the research literature on therapeutic effectiveness. Integration of feminist therapy tenets with other therapeutic approaches is encouraged.
Feminist Multicultural Mentoring in Counseling Psychology
Authors: Gormley Barbara
Published: February 2013

This theoretical chapter presents a feminist perspective of mentoring relationships. A recent history of efforts related to feminist mentoring within the field of counseling psychology is described, including efforts to integrate multiculturalism into feminist mentoring. The contributions of a leader in the field of feminist mentoring, Ruth Fassinger, are highlighted. The Multicultural Feminist Mentoring Model (Benishek, Bieschke, Park, & Slattery, 2004) is presented, and its limitations are discussed. A brief review of literature regarding effective mentoring relationships is provided and critiqued from a multicultural and feminist perspective. This chapter argues for a systemic perspective that concurrently considers cultural, organizational, interpersonal, and individual contributors to successful mentoring relationships. Dysfunctional mentoring relationship dynamics are addressed, including misuses of power and cultural differences in approaches to managing conflict. A global perspective of the use of feminist versus traditional mentoring approaches is included. Future directions for practice and research are suggested.
Intergroup Contact
Authors: Wagner Ulrich , Hewstone Miles
Published: February 2013

Intergroup contact can reduce prejudice between groups. However, the overwhelming number of publications supporting this claim come from societies in North America and Europe that are relatively free of violent intergroup conflict. After presenting the current state of research, we extend the perspective to intractable conflicts and the role of contact in reducing these kinds of conflicts. We do this by distinguishing between different phases for contact and contact effects, namely a previolence phase, a phase of physical violence, and a postviolence phase. Evidence shows that intergroup contact helps to prevent escalation of intergroup conflict and violence. In addition, recent surveys and interventions support the assumption that intergroup contact, after a phase of violence, can contribute to reconciliation in the form of reducing prejudice and increasing intergroup trust and forgiveness toward the outgroup. Very few studies focus on prior effects of intergroup contact on the conduct of violence, or on the reconciliation process after violence. Data are also sparse regarding effects of contact during phases of violence on postviolence reconciliation. We end with some critical reflections about shortcomings of the current state of research.
Building Sustainable Peace and Compassionate Community
Authors: Clements Kevin P.
Published: February 2013

This chapter argues that sustainable peace is most likely in stable, cooperative, and compassionate communities that place a higher value on trust, equality, and welfare than safety and security. While states and multilateral organizations have a significant role to play in generating the conditions for stable peace, they will only be successful if they focus most attention on issues of justice, welfare, and positive incentives for social cohesion. If they concentrate on security and safety at the expense of these other factors, they will not be helpful players in the quest for sustainable peace. It is a central argument of this chapter, therefore, that more analytic and political attention should be directed to understanding interpersonal “bottom-up” strategies for peace and how these connect to the “top-down” long-term structural prevention of violence. This chapter argues that sustainable peace is most likely to flow from a deeper attention to relational ethics and egalitarian community building than imposed macro-level development initiatives. This is a challenge to many standard approaches to development and peacebuilding, which promote strong coercive, deterrent capacities and didactic top-down development.
Demographic and Achievement Characteristics of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students
Authors: Mitchell Ross E. , Karchmer Michael A.
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, we focus on two essential concerns for the practice of primary and secondary education: (1) Who are the children for whom school programs are responsible, and (2) How well are the aims of education being accomplished? We review recent reports on the demographics of deaf and hard-of-hearing children in the various K-12 educational settings in the United States and reflect on how this profile has changed over the last three decades. We discuss the academic achievement patterns among deaf and hard-of-hearing students in the context of variations in outcomes among hearing students and present a synthesis of what is known about the link between student characteristics and achievement outcomes among program settings.
Educational Consequences of Alternative School Placements
Authors: Stinson Michael S. , Kluwin Thomas N
Published: February 2013

The education of the deaf in the United States is every bit as diverse as is American education itself (Moores, 1996, Stewart & Kluwin, 2000). Today, a deaf or hard-of-hearing child could find herself in a public, private, or parochial school, in a residential program, or in a day program. A teacher of the deaf could spend his entire career in one school in a small town or ride the subway in a big city from one school to another. This diversity in part reflects the continuum of types of educational placement available in the United States today. This continuum is important because individual deaf students have different levels of need for support (Schirmer, 2001). The term “deaf ” will be used here to refer to the full range of deaf and hard-of-hearing students who receive special educational services.). This chapter discusses the following four categories of alternative placements: (a) separate schools, (b) resource rooms and separate classes, (c) general education classes, and (d) co-enrollment classes. Two questions that immediately occur regarding these options are: “What are the differences in the experiences of students in these alternative placement types?” “What are the differences in the characteristics and attainments of students in these placement types?” A more complex question isasks “Is it possible to relate these different educational experiences to characteristics and attainments of the students?” That is, do different experiences produce different educational consequences? The second and third sections of this chapter consider the research that best answers these questions. The first section provides background, description, and conceptualization that aids understanding of the research that this chapter reviews and of thinking in the field in regard to alternative types of placement.
Development of Spoken Language by Deaf Children
Authors: Blamey Peter J. , Sarant Julia
Published: February 2013

Studies of speech perception, production, phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary for deaf and hard-of-hearing children tend to show a normal sequence of developments at a slower than normal rate. There is a wide range of performance at every age and every degree of hearing loss, although there appears to be a critical level of hearing loss at about 90 dB HL, separating “deaf” from “hard-of-hearing” children. Experimental data show that deaf children who receive cochlear implants within a few years of the onset of deafness perform similarly to hard-of-hearing children. Factors that are most successful in explaining the variability include characteristics of the child’s home and education, intelligence, and age at intervention. These factors can promote or retard language learning regardless of the degree of hearing. There is emerging evidence that neonatal screening, early intervention using language-based methods, modern hearing aids, and cochlear implants are increasing the proportion of children achieving age-appropriate spoken language, however there is still a large proportion of hard-of-hearing children who do not reach this level.
Cochlear Implants: Advances, Issues, and Implications
Authors: Spencer Patricia Elizabeth , Marschark Marc , Spencer Linda J.
Published: February 2013

For both adults and children who have significant hearing losses, hearing aids have long provided some support for hearing language and environmental sounds. However, they often are insufficient to allow persons with the most severe hearing losses access to spoken language. More recently, cochlear implants (CIs) have been developed to assist individuals who have severe and profound hearing losses. Initially developed primarily for use by adults with late-onset hearing loss, they are now widely used by children, even at the infant and toddler ages. Cochlear implants convert sound into electrical signals that are delivered directly to peripheral portions of the auditory nerve. In most cases, this increases the availability of spoken language and other sounds, lowering but not completely eliminating many of the barriers confronting persons with greater levels of hearing loss. A number of factors, including length of period of hearing loss before use, age of first use, and cognitive abilities, have been identified as predictors of outcomes from cochlear implantation.
Epilogue: What We Know, What We Don’t Know, and What We Should Know
Authors: Marschark Marc , Spencer Patricia Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

Significant new findings about social, psychological, linguistic, and pragmatic aspects of deafness have in some cases confirmed long-held assumptions and beliefs about deaf and hard-of-hearing persons—their communities, languages, patterns of learning, and achievements. In other cases, research has failed to support preexisting beliefs, and many issues remain insufficiently investigated. Research is especially needed about the continued development of deaf children, adults, and their communities in the context of technological advances, increased appreciation for alternative approaches to communication and language development, and recognition of the impact of cognitive as well as social abilities on development of literacy and academic skills.
A Design Science Approach to Evidence-Based Management
Authors: van Aken Joan Ernst , Romme A. Georges L.
Published: February 2013

In this chapter we adopt a design-science approach to demonstrate how evidence-based management can extend experience-based management by judiciously gathering, validating, selecting, and using knowledge. The creative processes in which valid knowledge is used in designing and creating preferred futures are discussed, as well as the nature of the design knowledge needed for this. This includes knowledge on possible interventions with expected outcomes and on the mechanisms producing these outcomes.
Evidence-Based Management in “Macro” Areas: The Case of Strategic Management
Authors: Madhavan Ravi , Mahoney Joseph T.
Published: February 2013

Despite its intuitive appeal, evidence-based management (EBMgt) faces unique challenges in “macro” areas such as organization theory and strategic management, which emphasize actions by organizations and business and corporate leaders. The inherent focus on complex, multilevel and unique problems presents serious challenges that EBMgt scholars must address. EBMgt will nurture the establishment of a new model of research that is not only cumulative in its knowledge building but also promotes engaged scholarship. Further, the uncertainty and conflict that characterize “macro” decision contexts heighten the need for EBMgt. We put forward four recommendations to advance EBMgt: (1) using more sophisticated meta-analyses, (2) providing syntheses that go beyond quantitative summaries, (3) engaging in a disciplined conversation about our implicit “levels of evidence” frameworks, and (4) developing decision supports.
Research Findings Practitioners Resist: Lessons for Management Academics from Evidence-Based Medicine
Authors: Giluk Tamara L. , Rynes-Weller Sara L.
Published: February 2013

We explore why practitioners resist scientific evidence and what academics—as researchers and educators—can do to promote its use. Evidence shows that practitioners often disbelieve, dismiss, or simply ignore findings from scientific studies. Drawing parallels between the fields of medicine and management, we discuss seven sources of resistance to research findings. Then, based on the relatively longer history of evidence-based medicine, we make recommendations for management academics wishing to more effectively advance evidence-based management.
Buried Treasure: A Business Librarian’s Insights on Finding the Evidence
Authors: Werner Roye
Published: February 2013

This chapter offers my perspective as a professional librarian and former manager on accessing the research evidence in the business and management fields. I describe the barriers faced by managers, students, and scholars in locating and reading the peer-reviewed literature: its scattered placement, varying formats, controlled access, and swiftly changing environment. I explore how those roadblocks are being overcome, and I offer practical recommendations for both managers and researchers on what they can do today to bring that evidence to light.
Designing Strategies for the Implementation of EBMgt among Senior Management, Middle Management, and Supervisors
Authors: Speicher-Bocija Jayne , Adams Richard
Published: February 2013

Proponents of evidence-based management (EBMgt) point to a range of benefits accruing to users, including more effective decision making through exploitation of the science base. Despite this lure, incorporating research evidence findings is relatively new to much management practice. In this chapter, EBMgt is conceived of as a technological innovation, and we draw on diffusion-of-innovation theory and the transtheoretical stages-of-change model to explore some individual and organizational factors impacting the adoption of EBMgt at different levels of management. In light of this analysis, a number of strategies and initiatives to accelerate the adoption of EBMgt are proposed.
State Corporate Income Taxes
Authors: Brunori David
Published: February 2013

Addressing the state corporate income tax (CIT), this article goes immediately to the question of whether the states can “rescue the state corporate income tax from near irrelevancy.” Even though the tax is used in forty-five states and the District of Columbia, it has diminished—dropping from a high of 9.5 percent of state revenues in 1997 to less than 5 percent today. In addition to simply broadening the tax base, the CIT is primarily justified on two grounds: as a complement to the tax on real property (which ignores the returns to the input of intangible property) and a need for a mechanism that integrates with the state personal income tax (to ensure some degree of neutrality by type of business organization). At the same time, the article largely dismisses the frequently cited justification that a state CIT adds to the progressivity of state public finance systems, noting that depending on the nature of the market, the tax is just as likely to be shifted forward to consumers in the form of higher prices or backward to factor suppliers such as labor as it is to be shifted to landholders in the form of lower rents and by reducing the shareholder return to equity.
Pullback Management: State Budgeting Under Fiscal Stress
Authors: Bourdeaux Carolyn , Hildreth W. Bartley
Published: February 2013

This article analyzes the challenge of state budgeting during periods of dramatic and unplanned declines in state revenue collections. Most public finance textbooks describe the budget process as an orderly cycle of preparation, approval, execution, and evaluation. When governments are experiencing a steady growth or only marginal declines in revenues such as during the past two decades (1989–2009), it's easy to see how state budget officials can become accustomed to a predictable, “regular rhythm.” Thus, when the Great Recession hit, a series of month-after-month and quarter-after-quarter revenue shortfalls affected nearly all state budgets. The result was that with little warning and preparation, policymakers faced midyear budget deficits. This article takes on the topic of managing midyear budget adjustments. Beginning with a review of the institutional tools available to governors and legislatures (e.g., allotments, apportionment, budgeting, impoundments, special fund transfers, fund withholdings, furloughs), the article carries out a study of how five states went about balancing their budgets in 2009–2010 and how the lessons from these state responses can inform those dealing with the next fiscal crisis.
The Intergovernmental Grant System
Authors: Scheppach Raymond C. , Hildreth W. Bartley
Published: February 2013

History will write the two-year period of 2009 to 2010 as a watershed in the federal-state-local fiscal relationship. The outpouring of aid helped states to avoid cutting spending and increasing taxes in the depths of the Great Recession. Federal grants dramatically increased as a percentage of total state revenues, from 26 percent to 35 percent. The fiscal relief packages were harbingers for the future, because 70 percent of the federal grants were devoted to health and education. But the relief supplied by the federal stimulus was short-lived. The expected “new normal” revenue path means that states will continue to downsize and streamline along all fronts. Health-care spending holds the key. Existing health programs and the new Affordable Care Act, if is fully implemented, will mean that 130 million individuals will look to the states to help meet or, at least, control health-care costs. That is the difficult and expensive mission confronting the states in the future.
Employment in Low-Income Families
Authors: Hetzner Nina M. Philipsen , Brooks-Gunn Jeanne
Published: February 2013

In the past 50 years the labor force participation rate of mothers has surged, and rising numbers of children are spending time in nonparental care. These increases are especially dramatic for single mothers and mothers with young children. As a result, the effects of parental employment on child socioemotional, cognitive, and health outcomes in a low-income context have gained research attention. Findings highlight important differences between employment in low income samples versus higher or nationally representative income samples. In a low-income context results suggest that employment has either no association or a small positive association with child development. Yet, in a nationally representative context, the majority of studies suggest that early employment has a negative association with child socioemotional and cognitive development. Differences in effects by income are likely due to differences in the way low- and higher income children experience the pathways through which employment is linked with development. Parental employment out of the home influences aspects of the child's environment. Employment has been associated with the amount of time spent with a child, the amount of language used by parents with the child, the parent-child attachment relationship, the home environment, child care arrangements, the household income, and the family's access to health care. In turn, these environmental characteristics impact the socioemotional, cognitive, and physical development of the child. Implications and future directions for this field of work are discussed.
How Welfare and Employment Policies Influence Children's Development
Authors: Huston Aletha C.
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, I review the research investigating the effects of welfare and employment policies on children's circumstances and development. A rich body of research comprises random assignment experiments testing policy variations as well as longitudinal investigations spanning the period of policy change before and after 1996. Both experimental tests and longitudinal studies indicate that, on average, parents’ transitions from welfare into employment produced little change in overall family income and little discernible effect on children's cognitive or social development or on the immediate family environment, but nuanced assessments indicate that effects on children's well-being vary depending on the features of the policies in place. The goal of this chapter is to illuminate how such policy variations matter for children's well-being. I conclude by discussing important welfare-to-work policy lessons.
Preventive Interventions: Parenting and the Home Environment
Authors: Huberman Harris S. , Mendelsohn Alan L.
Published: February 2013

Although the central importance of parent-child interaction (PCI) in shaping early child development is well established, the effectiveness of preventive intervention approaches that mainly focus on PCI (as opposed to direct child stimulation) is more controversial. This chapter describes selected PCI-focused approaches in the United States and around the world, including home visiting models, group visit and community-based models, public health and primary care approaches, and comprehensive Early Child Development programs. While quite different in format, duration, and cost, these models share common attributes: they have a strong focus on PCI, they have the most impact with moderate-risk families, and they use participatory, interactive methods to engage parents and/or they take advantage of timing, context, and relationships (such as the primary-care encounter) to effectively promote parenting practices and parent-child relationships that support optimal child development. The importance of integrating these preventive approaches with other early childhood services and larger health systems and infrastructures is discussed.
Conditional Cash Transfer Programs: Effects on Growth, Health, and Development in Young Children
Authors: Fernald Lia C. H. , Gertler Paul J. , Hidrobo Melissa
Published: February 2013

Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs operate by giving cash payments to families only if they comply with a set of certain requirements relating to the health and education of family members. In this paper we discuss why and how CCTs could affect children's outcomes, and review evidence from CCT programs throughout the world that focus on the effects of CCT programs on birth outcomes, children's health and growth, and children's cognitive development. Finally, we examine the effects of CCT programs on factors that could indirectly affect child outcomes, such as growth monitoring and household food purchases. We discuss evidence from conditional cash transfer programs in Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, India, Nepal, and Jamaica, and unconditional cash transfer programs in South Africa, Malawi, and Ecuador.
Cross-Cultural and Cross-National Parenting Perspectives
Authors: Lansford Jennifer E.
Published: February 2013

This chapter focuses on understanding how culture and poverty jointly influence parenting. Depending on cultural, national, and socioeconomic contexts, parents’ attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors may differ, and specific forms of parenting may have different implications for children's development. Poverty can make it more difficult for parents to promote children's survival and development, protection from abuse and exploitation, and participation in making decisions that affect their lives. Both culture and poverty can affect the ways that parents show love and acceptance to children, stimulate children's cognitive development, teach them to be well-functioning members of society, and manage children's behavior. Ignoring cultural factors can lead to overgeneralizations about parenting. Precautions in research designs are needed to assess parenting in culturally valid ways that apply across nations. Parenting interventions are more effective when they are culturally sensitive. Culture and poverty often are confounded, making it important to consider both in attempts to understand parenting and children's development.
Introduction: Why Study Poverty?
Authors: Maholmes Valerie
Published: February 2013

This Introduction explains how this book came about. The book is an outgrowth of an research initiative called the Science and Ecology of Early Development (SEED), in which a research agenda was sought that would examine the impact of poverty on child development and health outcomes, and identify the most pressing scientific issues involving poverty and child development, and to offer new ideas and questions that would lead to the development of a “new science” of research. The Introduction then outlines the various parts of this book in detail, and the analysis contained therein.