bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Iceland
Authors: Þorláksson Eiríkur Elís
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on Icelandic perspectives on the Hague Principles. The constitution of the Republic of Iceland does not contain any provisions on the principles of private international law. Moreover, there is no general act on private international law in force in Iceland. However, legislation on specific aspects of private international law, such as conflicts of the laws of contract and recognition and enforcement of foreign decisions, can be found in Icelandic law. Moreover, individual provisions on recognition and enforcement, jurisdiction, and choice of law can be found throughout Icelandic legislation. The legislative act which applies to contractual obligations in the field of private international law in Iceland is Act No 43/2000 on the law applicable to contractual obligations. There are no other acts that explicitly aim to address choice of law issues other than Act No 43/2000, but individual provisions can be found indicating the choice of law in specific areas of law; otherwise, Icelandic courts will apply general principles to the case at hand. There is currently no revision of Act No 43/2000 under discussion in Iceland.
Liechtenstein
Authors: Heiss Helmut
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at Liechtenstein perspectives on the Hague Principles. Rules on choice of law, including international commercial contract law, have been codified by virtue of the Act on Private International Law 1996 (Liechtenstein PILA). The Liechtenstein PILA does not expressly state that conventions will take precedence over national laws. However, it has been held by the Liechtenstein Constitutional Court that international treaties are of at least equal status to regular national laws and that national law must be interpreted in line with public international law. Moreover, an international convention will often be considered to be a lex specialis and be given precedence over national rules on that ground. Liechtenstein courts will refer first of all to (old) Austrian case law and legal literature when dealing with matters pertaining to the parties’ choice of law. Whenever these sources leave ambiguity to a specific question, Liechtenstein courts may and most likely will consider other persuasive authorities. The Hague Principles may constitute such persuasive authority.
Turkey
Authors: Ekşi Nuray
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores Turkish perspectives on the Hague Principles. The content of Turkish Private International Law is highly comprehensive. In addition to choice of law and international procedural law, it also covers nationality law, as well as the law on foreign nationals. Private international law rules and issues regarding international procedural law are codified in Law No 5718 on Private International Law and Procedural Law (PILA), which has been in force since 2007. Besides the PILA, the Turkish Commercial Code contains conflict of laws rules regarding bills of exchange, checks, and promissory notes. According to Article 1(2) PILA, the application of international treaties ratified by Turkey takes priority over the application of PIL rules. Consequently, in each case, the court, before taking into account PILA’s Articles, has to determine whether any international treaty exists regarding international commercial contracts. If an international treaty exists, then it takes priority unless otherwise expressed in the treaty itself. For the time being, the Turkish Parliament has no intention to revise the PILA and supplement it with the Hague Principles.
Colombia
Authors: Salame Antonio Aljure
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at Colombian perspectives on the Hague Principles. In Colombia, civil and commercial regulations are contained in two separate codes: the Colombian Civil Code and the Commercial Code. Despite their separation, commercial law draws from civil law and regulates several areas not covered by the latter. As a result, civil and commercial law in Colombia should be understood as complementary in that they both regulate international contracts and share similar foundations and principles. There is currently no modern law that comprehensively deals with private international law in Colombia. However, the Bogotá Chamber of Commerce is in the process of drafting legislation with the objective of clarifying the interpretive approach to norms underlying international contracts. Although there is no express reference to the Hague Principles as a guiding or interpretative source of law for judges, it has been recognized in case law that international instruments such as the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (UPICC) may govern a legal relationship if they do not contravene an express rule. This gap-filling role facilitates the transition of law to modernity by virtue of the requirements of relevance, coherence, and justice.
Guatemala
Authors: Montano Pedro Mendoza , Guzman Enrique Martinez
Published: May 2021

This chapter describes Guatemalan perspectives on the Hague Principles. In Guatemala, the sources of Private International Law for international commercial contracts are: (i) international treaties, comprised of: the Convention on Private International Law (Bustamante Code) and the Inter-American Convention on General Rules of Private International Law (Second Inter-American Specialized Conference on Private International Law); and (ii) national laws. In general terms, the Guatemalan private international law regime applicable to international commercial contracts recognizes the ability of parties to a contract to choose the applicable law. Notwithstanding, important differences deriving from such regime may apply, and will ultimately depend on the type of dispute resolution mechanism the parties are using: litigation or arbitration. Currently, there are no on-going revisions or proposed revisions of the Guatemalan national laws or international treaties that provide rules of private international law for international commercial contracts. In the event that the rules of private international law would be revised, the Hague Principles could play a role, as they facilitate the legislative body’s task of creating a new statute and put forward the most advanced developments in the matter. For this to happen, however, the Hague Principles should be disseminated and made available and known to all relevant parties.
Tissue- and stage-specific landscape of the mouse translatome
Authors: Wang Hongwei , Wang Yan , Yang Jiaqi , Zhao Qian , Tang Nan , Chen Congying , Li Huihui , Cheng Chichi , Xie Mingzhe , Yang Yang , Xie Zhi
Published: May 2021

The current understanding of how overall principles of translational control govern the embryo-to-adult transition in mammals is still far from comprehensive. Herein we profiled the translatomes and transcriptomes of six tissues from the mice at embryonic and adult stages and presented the first report of tissue- and stage-specific translational landscape in mice. We quantified the extent of gene expression divergence among different expression layers, tissues and stages, detected significant changes in gene composition and function underlying these divergences and revealed the changing architecture of translational regulation. We further showed that dynamic translational regulation can be largely achieved via modulation of translational efficiency. Translational efficiency could be altered by alternative splicing (AS), upstream and downstream open reading frames (uORFs and dORFs). We revealed AS-mediated translational repression that was exerted in an event type-dependent manner. uORFs and dORFs exhibited mutually exclusive usage and the opposing effects of translational regulation. Furthermore, we discovered many novel microproteins encoded by long noncoding RNAs and demonstrated their regulatory potential and functional relevance. Our data and analyses will facilitate a better understanding of the complexity of translation and translational regulation across tissue and stage spectra and provide an important resource to the translatome research community.
Machine-Learning Approach to Differentiation of Benign and Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors: A Multicenter Study
Authors: Zhang Michael , Tong Elizabeth , Hamrick Forrest , Lee Edward H , Tam Lydia T , Pendleton Courtney , Smith Brandon W , Hug Nicholas F , Biswal Sandip , Seekins Jayne , Mattonen Sarah A , Napel Sandy , Campen Cynthia J , Spinner Robert J , Yeom Kristen W , Wilson Thomas J , Mahan Mark A
Published: May 2021

BACKGROUND

Clinicoradiologic differentiation between benign and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (PNSTs) has important management implications.

OBJECTIVE

To develop and evaluate machine-learning approaches to differentiate benign from malignant PNSTs.

METHODS

We identified PNSTs treated at 3 institutions and extracted high-dimensional radiomics features from gadolinium-enhanced, T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences. Training and test sets were selected randomly in a 70:30 ratio. A total of 900 image features were automatically extracted using the PyRadiomics package from Quantitative Imaging Feature Pipeline. Clinical data including age, sex, neurogenetic syndrome presence, spontaneous pain, and motor deficit were also incorporated. Features were selected using sparse regression analysis and retained features were further refined by gradient boost modeling to optimize the area under the curve (AUC) for diagnosis. We evaluated the performance of radiomics-based classifiers with and without clinical features and compared performance against human readers.

RESULTS

A total of 95 malignant and 171 benign PNSTs were included. The final classifier model included 21 imaging and clinical features. Sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of 0.676, 0.882, and 0.845, respectively, were achieved on the test set. Using imaging and clinical features, human experts collectively achieved sensitivity, specificity, and AUC of 0.786, 0.431, and 0.624, respectively. The AUC of the classifier was statistically better than expert humans (P = .002). Expert humans were not statistically better than the no-information rate, whereas the classifier was (P = .001).

CONCLUSION

Radiomics-based machine learning using routine MRI sequences and clinical features can aid in evaluation of PNSTs. Further improvement may be achieved by incorporating additional imaging sequences and clinical variables into future models.
All That Coughs Is Not COVID-19: A Delayed Diagnosis of Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis Following Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection
Authors: Chen Joshua C , Wong Darren , Rabi Sina , Worswick Scott , DeClerck Brittney , Gibb Jean
Published: May 2021

Coccidioides immitis (and Coccidioides posadasii) are endemic fungi of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Uncomplicated, symptomatic Coccidioides infection most commonly causes a self-limited pneumonia; however, immunocompromised patients can manifest severe pneumonia with an additional risk of dissemination to bone, joints, soft tissues, and in the most severe cases, the central nervous system. In 2020, clinicians were challenged with a previously unseen volume of acute respiratory complaints as a result of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic. We present a patient with respiratory failure secondary to SARS-CoV-2 who experienced prolonged hypoxia and neurologic deterioration, eventually leading to a diagnosis of occult disseminated coccidiomycosis involving meningitis, miliary-pattern pneumonia, and cutaneous lesions.
Yield of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Lower Respiratory Tract Testing After a Negative Nasopharyngeal Test Among Hospitalized Persons Under Investigation for Coronavirus Disease 2019
Authors: Egbuonu Kenechukwu , Hyle Emily P , Hurtado Rocio M , Alba George A , Zachary Kimon C , Branda John A , Hibbert Kathryn A , Hooper David C , Shenoy Erica S , Turbett Sarah E , Dugdale Caitlin M
Published: May 2021

Among hospitalized persons under investigation for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), more repeated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) after a negative NAAT were positive from lower than from upper respiratory tract specimens (1.9% vs 1.0%, P = .033). Lower respiratory testing should be prioritized among patients displaying respiratory symptoms with moderate-to-high suspicion for COVID-19 after 1 negative upper respiratory NAAT.
Disseminated Cryptococcal Disease in A Patient With Chronic Chylothorax and a Pleurovenous Catheter, a Case Report With Autopsy Findings
Authors: Mundo William , Berning Amber , Koullias Yiannis , Chastain Daniel B , Stone Neil , Franco-Paredes Carlos , Henao-Martínez Andrés F , Vargas Barahona Lilian
Published: May 2021

Cryptococcus species are ubiquitous in the environment with a global distribution. While causing disease predominantly in immunocompromised hosts such as those with advanced HIV, HIV-uninfected patients are increasingly recognized as being affected. The most common forms of infection are cryptococcal pneumonia and meningitis. HIV-uninfected patients and extrapulmonary infections have worse outcomes, likely due to delayed diagnosis and treatment. Cryptococcus infections involving chylothorax or chyloabdomen have rarely been reported in humans. We describe a case of fulminant disseminated cryptococcosis with fungemia, peritonitis, and empyema in a patient with chronic chylothorax treated with an indwelling pleurovenous shunt. Key autopsy findings included cryptococcal organisms identified on calcified lymphadenopathy, pleural adhesions, and pericardium. We discuss the importance of identifying patients with nontraditional risks factors for cryptococcal disease, such as lymphopenia and hypogammaglobulinemia, and the potential implications of pleurovenous catheters in Cryptococcus dissemination.
Introduction
Authors: Feldstein Steven
Published: May 2021

This chapter presents the main arguments and framework for the book. It explains how regimes apply a range of digital repression strategies to advance their political objectives. While authoritarian leaders rely far more on digital repression techniques than their democratic counterparts, democracies are also prone to exploiting these tools. In certain countries, digital technology is having a transformative effect on repression. This impact, however, is highly dependent on an array of factors: state capacity, technological sophistication, security force capabilities, and regime type. The chapter describes principal stakeholders in the digital ecosystem and motivations for why leaders pursue repression strategies.
Responding to Digital Repression
Authors: Feldstein Steven
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses strategies civil society groups can use to raise the costs of repression associated with the dictator’s digital dilemma. It examines specific approaches activists can pursue to counter state repression, such as using reputational, economic, political, and supply-side pressure to reverse regime advantages. Turning to the private sector, it describes companies’ roles and responsibilities in relation to digital repression. It contends that democracies should consider advancing a stronger normative framework that will set clearer guidelines about responsible corporate behavior related to digital technology. Such steps will help companies push back on political demands from nondemocratic states. Finally, it proposes strategies that democracies and civil society can adopt to counter the proliferation of digital repression equipment and services provided by authoritarian states like China and Russia, and it discusses policy implications of the COVID-19 pandemic in relation to digital technology.
The Columnist
Authors: Ritchie Donald A.
Published: May 2021

In the “Washington Merry-Go-Round,” a nationally syndicated newspaper column that appeared in hundreds of papers from 1932 to 1969, as well as on weekly radio and television programs, the investigative journalist Drew Pearson revealed news that public officials tried to suppress. He disclosed policy disputes and political spats, exposed corruption, attacked bigotry, and promoted social justice. He pumped up some political careers and destroyed others. Presidents, prime ministers, and members of Congress repeatedly called him a liar, and he was sued for libel more often than any other journalist, but he won most of his cases by proving the accuracy of his charges. Pearson dismissed most official news as propaganda and devoted his column to reporting what officials were doing behind closed doors. He broke secrets—even in wartime—and revealed classified information. Fellow journalists credited him with knowing more dirt about more people in Washington than even the FBI and compared his efforts to Daniel Ellsberg with the Pentagon Papers or Edward Snowden with WikiLeaks, except that he did it daily. The Columnist examines how Pearson managed to uncover secrets so successfully and why government efforts to find his sources proved so unsuccessful. Drawing on a half century of archival evidence, it assesses his contributions as a muckraker by verifying or refuting both his accusations and his accusers.
The Logic of Filtering
Authors: Kromhout Melle Jan
Published: May 2021

This book traces the profound impact of technical media on the sound of music, asking: How do media technologies shape sound? How does this affect music? And how did it change what we listen for in music? Based on the information theoretical proposition that all transmission channels introduce noise and distortion, the argument accounts for the fact that technologically reproduced music is inherently shaped by the technologies that enable its reproduction. The media archaeological assessment of this noise of sound media developed in the book draws from a wide range of sources, both theoretical and historical, conceptual and technical. Together, they show that noise should not be understood as unwanted by-effect but instead plays a foundational role in shaping the sonic contours of technologically reproduced music. Over the course of five chapters, the book sketches a broad history of the problem of noise in sound recording, looks at specific analog and digital noise-related technologies, traces the ideal of sonic purity back to key developments in nineteenth-century acoustics, and develops an analysis of the close interrelation between noise and the temporality of sound. This relation, it argues, is central to the way in which recorded sound and music resonate with listeners. Ultimately, this media-specific analysis of the noise of sound media thereby greatly enriches our understanding of the way in which they changed and continue to change the sonorous qualities of music, thus offering a new perspective on the interaction between music, media, and listeners.
Cinematic TV
Authors: Richards Rashna Wadia
Published: May 2021

In the last two decades, media scholars have often suggested that television has become cinematic. Once considered “a mere instrument of transmission,” as Rudolf Arnheim put it, or derided as a vast wasteland, TV is now praised for its visual density and complexity. Serial dramas, in particular, are acclaimed for their imitations of cinema’s stylistically innovative and narratively challenging conventions. But what exactly does “cinematic TV” mean? Cinematic TV takes up this question comprehensively, arguing that TV dramas quote, copy, and appropriate (primarily) American cinema in multiple ways and toward multiple ends. Putting together an innovative framework by combining intertextuality and memory studies, Cinematic TV focuses on four modalities of intermedial borrowings: homage, evocation, genre, and parody. Through close readings of such exemplary shows as Stranger Things, Mad Men, Damages, and Dear White People, the book demonstrates how serial dramas reproduce and rework, undermine and idolize, and, in some cases, compete with and outdo cinema. Ultimately, Cinematic TV argues that serial dramas function archivally in relation to cinema, for cinematic moments, motifs, and contours hover around the televisual frame, constantly breaking through. How serial dramas handle such cinematic hauntings is the story that this book tells.
“How about . . . We Watch a Scary Movie Together”
Authors: Richards Rashna Wadia
Published: May 2021

Chapter 1 explores serial drama’s affectionate relationship with cinema through the concept of homage. Homage has historically been thought of as a gesture of unconditional love; in cinema studies, it is meant to visualize one auteur’s affection for another. But this chapter turns to more recent treatments of homage, which tend to balance admiration with critique. Chapter 1 reads Stranger Things (Netflix, 2016–present) as an act of homage to the 1980s. Unlike the nostalgia-driven interpretations of homage, however, here it is read as an act of critical reflection. What this implies is that the series devours its cinematic love objects, thus demonstrating how televisual homage might manifest itself as a desire to embody and replace cinema.
“You See Everything”
Authors: Richards Rashna Wadia
Published: May 2021

Chapter 2 concentrates on implicit cinematic references in serial television, ones that seem to flash up suddenly and perhaps even inadvertently. References are usually seen as synonymous with invocations, which entail the active summoning of sources, whereas this chapter relies on evocative references, which seem more random or unmotivated and often non-canonical. Using Mad Men’s (AMC, 2007–15) myriad evocations—ones that exceed the usual references to Billy Wilder’s The Apartment (1960) or Jacques Demy’s Model Shop (1969)—this chapter demonstrates how a series engages with cinema to talk about a particular era. It concludes with this paradox: the more authored a series, the wider its set of unintended intertextual connections might be.
In the Street
Authors: Çidam Çiğdem
Published: May 2021

The 2010s were a decade of protests, and if the initial few months of 2020 are any indication, various forms of street politics, including spontaneous protests, demonstrations, acts of civil disobedience, and occupations are here to stay. Yet, contemporary discussions on the democratic significance of such events remain limited to questions of success and failure and the relative virtues of spontaneity and organization. In the Street: Democratic Action, Theatricality, and Political Friendship moves beyond these limited and limiting debates by breaking the hold of a deeply engrained way of thinking of democratic action that falsely equates spontaneity with immediacy. The book traces this problematic equation back to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s account of popular sovereignty and demonstrates that insofar as commentators characterize democratic moments as the unmediated expressions of people’s will and/or instantaneous popular eruptions, they lose sight of the rich, creative, and varied practices of political actors who create those events against all odds. In the Street counters this Rousseauian influence by appropriating Aristotle’s notion of “political friendship” and developing an alternative conceptual framework that emphasizes the theatricality of democratic action through a critical engagement with the works of Antonio Negri, Jürgen Habermas, and Jacques Rancière. The outcome is a new conceptual lens that brings to light what is erased from contemporary discussions of democratic events, namely the crystallization of political actors’ hopes in the novel ways of being that they staged and the alternative forms of social relations that they created in and through the intermediating practices of political friendship.
Democratic Action, Spontaneity, and the Intermediating Practices of Political Friendship
Authors: Çidam Çiğdem
Published: May 2021

This chapter accomplishes two goals. First, it critically engages with the contemporary debates on the last decade’s democratic uprisings to demonstrate the ongoing influence of Rousseau’s emphasis on immediacy in democratic theory. By casting organization as that which precedes politics and moments of spontaneous action as sudden explosions, contemporary accounts reduce spontaneity to immediacy. Thus, they both erase on-the-ground practices of the political actors, and, taking an antidemocratic Rousseauian turn, construe the transience and unpredictability of democratic events as problems to be resolved under the guidance of the theorist. Second, the chapter appropriates Aristotle’s notion of political friendship, laying the groundwork for the conception of democratic action developed in the book, and arguing that democratic events are created in and through “intermediating practices,” including deliberation, judging, negotiation, artistic production, and common use. Through intermediating practices, people establish relations with strangers, constitute a common amid disagreements, and stage their equality as political friends.
Antonio Negri
Authors: Çidam Çiğdem
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on Antonio Negri’s turn to democratic theory in the wake of Italy’s “Long ’68.” As an activist thinker involved in the political struggles of his time, starting in the early 1970s, Negri challenged the Marxist orthodoxy’s exclusive focus on factory workers through a series of conceptual innovations, such as the “multitude,” highlighting the emancipatory potential of diverse political actors and their innovative resistance practices. Despite this crucial contribution, the chapter contends, Negri’s account, too, is haunted by the Rousseauian dream of immediacy: for Negri, insurgencies are moments of democracy because they are the immediate expressions of the multitude. And while Negri refuses to characterize such short-lived moments as failures, he still, like Rousseau, considers their transience a problem, which he tries to resolve through the cultivation of “adequate” revolutionary consciousness—a problematic move, the chapter concludes, which reproduces the antidemocratic Rousseauian tendency to turn political theory into a theory of education in Negri’s work.
The Common Law Legal Tradition: First Things First
Authors: Calabresi Steven Gow
Published: May 2021

This chapter explains briefly the origins and development of the common law tradition in order to better understand the rise of judicial review in the seven common law countries discussed in this volume. The common law legal tradition is characterized historically, in public law, by limited, constitutional government and by forms of judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation. In private law, the common law tradition is characterized by judge-made case law, which is the primary source of the law, instead of a massive code being the primary source of the law. The common law tradition is also characterized by reliance on the institution of trial by jury. Judges, rather than scholars, are the key figures who are revered in the common law legal tradition, and this is one of the key things that distinguishes the common law legal tradition from the civil law legal tradition. The common law legal tradition emphasizes judicial power, which explains why it has led to judicial review in the countries studied in this volume. It is the prevailing legal tradition in the four countries with the oldest systems of judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation: the United States, Canada, Australia, and India. Thus, judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation in these four countries is very much shaped by common law attitudes about the roles of judges.
The United States: Creation, Reconstruction, the Progressives, and the Modern Era
Authors: Calabresi Steven Gow
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on the origins and growth of judicial review of the constitutionality of federal and state legislation in the United States. American judicial review emerged from the vertical federalism umpiring of the King-in-Council, which reined in errant colonies; and from the open political space created by bicameralism, the separation of powers, and federalism, which gave the federal courts the political leeway to engage in judicial review of the constitutionality of federal and state laws. American judicial review took its present form of allowing horizontal separation of powers and enumerated powers vertical judicial review during the critical years between 1776 and 1803 when the faith of the American people shifted away from state legislatures and state governments and toward stronger executives and courts and a much stronger national government. This theory is set forth correctly by Professor Gordon S. Wood in both articles he has shared with me and in conversation. The addition of the three Reconstruction Amendments, and the enormous statutory expansions of federal court jurisdiction and of the number of lower federal court judges after the Civil War, occurred for rights from wrongs reasons. They led, after the incorporation of the Bill of Rights against the states between 1940 and 1970, to a situation where the Supreme Court now reins in errant state legislatures in much the same way the King-in-Council used to rein in errant colonial legislatures.
The Commonwealth of Australia
Authors: Calabresi Steven Gow
Published: May 2021

This chapter traces the development of judicial review in Australia, which was modeled on the U.S. system of judicial review. Australian judicial review evolved out of a need for an umpiring body in federalism and separation of powers cases. Indeed, the original purpose of the Australian High Court under the Australian Constitution was to umpire federalism disputes between the Commonwealth and the six Australian states, which predated the federal government of Australia; and to ensure that the traditionally guaranteed rights and freedoms of British subjects under the common law and responsible parliamentary government were respected regarding Australia’s citizens. The Australian Constitution does not have a Bill of Rights or an enumerated Judicial Review clause, but it does limit and enumerate the broad powers of the Australian federal government. The Framers of the Australian Constitution, like the Framers of the U.S. Constitution, assumed that the courts would have the power of judicial review. As a result, there is, in Australia, judicial review in federalism and separation of powers umpiring cases but not in Bill of Rights cases since there is essentially no Australian Bill of Rights.
The Republic of South Africa
Authors: Calabresi Steven Gow
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores the origins and growth of judicial review in South Africa. Judicial review originated in South Africa in 1994 for rights from wrongs reasons. The great moral wrongs of racist Afrikaner and British imperial rule could only be overcome with a new Democratic Constitution, accepted by blacks and whites, with a very generous Bill of Rights that is enforced by a very powerful Constitutional Court. The African National Congress (ANC) party, led by Nelson Mandela, had called for a Bill of Rights and judicial review ever since the 1950s. In the 1990’s, the ANC got its wish. South African judicial review also result, in part, from borrowing. South Africans borrowed heavily from the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms of 1982 and from the German Basic Law of 1949. South Africa particularly borrowed from Germany the idea of creating one very powerful Constitutional Court, which alone has the power of judicial review in South Africa.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Authors: Calabresi Steven Gow
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the origins and growth of judicial review in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Judicial review in the United Kingdom under the Human Rights Act is best explained by borrowing from the United States, Canada, Germany, and the European Court of Human Rights. The emergence of judicial review in the United Kingdom also coincided with the devolution of power to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, thus creating a need for a federalism umpire. This was vividly illustrated by a recent U.K. Supreme Court separation of powers umpiring opinion; and by a 2019 umpiring ruling, which upheld Scotland’s highest court, while overturning an English and Welsh court on the justiciability and breadth of The Queen’s power to prorogue Parliament. The adoption by the United Kingdom of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), as a judicially enforced Bill of Rights, was done, in part, out of embarrassment that the United Kingdom kept losing so many human rights cases when they were heard by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). There is, accordingly, a mild rights from wrongs story that explains the adoption of the Human Rights Act of 1998, although a desire to borrow that which was fashionable and in style provides the major explanation for the adoption of this act.
Basic research, snake venoms, and ACE inhibitors: Ondetti, Cushman, and Patchett
Authors: Cordes Eugene H.
Published: May 2021

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are highly important drugs for control of blood pressure, chronic heart failure, and kidney protection. The discovery of ACE inhibitors derived from several basic research sources. The peptide angiotensin-II was demonstrated to contract the smooth muscle layer lining the vasculature and to cause retention of water in the body. Both conditions tend to raise blood pressure. It follows that an inhibitor of the enzyme that promotes the synthesis of angiotensin-II, ACE, would relax the vasculature, decrease water retention, and lower blood pressure. The questions were to confirm this hypothesis and discover ACE inhibitors. The chemistry of snake venoms helped with both. A peptide isolated from a venomous snake proved to be an ACE inhibitor and, while not suitable to be a drug, lowered blood pressure in clinical trials, confirming the hypothesis. In addition, the structure of the venom peptide provided an important clue to the structure of ACE inhibitors. The final key was provided by the discovery of a novel inhibitor design concept in an academic laboratory. Pulling this information together led to the discovery of the following ACE inhibitors suitable for clinical use: Capoten, Vasotec, Zestril, and others.
HIV protease inhibitors: weapons in the war against HIV/AIDS
Authors: Cordes Eugene H.
Published: May 2021

The discovery of drugs for AIDS has converted these infections from a death sentence into a chronic infectious disease. The research of Luc Montagnier and Robert Gallo established that HIV is the cause of AIDS, subsequently known as HIV/AIDS, the most deadly infective disease known. Basic research into the life cycle of HIV revealed a number of potential molecular targets for treatment of the infection. Among these are HIV protease and reverse transcriptase, enzymes required for the propagation of the virus in human T cells. AZT (azidothymidine), a reverse transcriptase inhibitor, was the first drug approved for treatment of HIV/AIDS. It was followed by three HIV protease inhibitors: saquinavir, ritonavir, and indinavir (Incivek). The last of these was discovered through a structure-based drug design strategy and proved to be a turning point in therapy for HIV/AIDS. This drug discovery effort was conducted in an atmosphere of prejudice, ignorance, snake oil medicine, and intense activism by Act Up and others. The net result is a miracle of modern medicine.
Statins: protection against heart attacks and strokes—hallelujah!
Authors: Cordes Eugene H.
Published: May 2021

The class of drugs known as statins is very effective in lowering plasma cholesterol levels; these drugs have been established to reduce the frequency of heart attacks and strokes in multiple settings. The statins are inhibitors of an enzyme known as HMGR, an enzyme on the metabolic pathway to cholesterol. The first statin, mevastatin, was discovered by Japanese scientists in a fermentation broth from an organism cultured from a soil sample taken near a golf course. Mevastatin established the efficacy of HMGR inhibitors as cholesterol-lowering agents but ultimately failed as a drug candidate. The first marketed statin was lovastatin (Mevacor), isolated at Merck from a fermentation broth. Pravachol followed from Squibb, as did simvastatin (Zocor) from Merck and subsequently several other, notably Lipitor and Crestor. They are among the most widely prescribed drugs in the world.
Fludalanine: nice try but no hallelujah
Authors: Cordes Eugene H.
Published: May 2021

Fludalanine was one of the most promising antibiotics of its generation: a simple inexpensive molecule having a novel mechanism of action highly effective against problem bacteria. It ultimately failed as a consequence of potential toxicity to patients resulting from one of its metabolites. The starting point for fludalanine is the simple molecule D-fluoroalanine, a potent inhibitor of alanine racemase, the enzyme that supplies the amino acid D-alanine for bacterial wall synthesis. D-Alanine has no role in human metabolism. Fludalanine is derived from D-fluoroalanine by an isotopic substitution designed to slow its rate of metabolism. Remarkably, at high concentrations of fludalanine, bacteria actually use the antibiotic for cell wall synthesis. To prevent that, another inhibitor of a distinct enzyme required for bacterial cell wall synthesis, pentizidone, was combined with fludalanine: problem solved. However, long-term safety studies in rodents revealed that fludalanine caused vacuole formation in the brain, called spongy brain. The toxicity was traced back to a metabolite of fludalanine, and the toxicity of that molecule in rodents was established. Unhappily, levels of that metabolite proved too high in patients to ensure their safety. That was the end of a highly promising effort to add an important antibiotic to clinical practice.
Populism and Trade
Authors: Jones Kent
Published: May 2021

Populism and Trade traces the role of populist trade policy in the increase of global protectionism and the erosion of international trade institutions. Populist anti-trade rhetoric played a major part in US President Donald Trump’s 2016 election campaign, in which he portrayed current trade agreements as elitist measures to undermine US manufacturing jobs, economic security, and the interests of the American people. Upon taking office he proceeded to implement trade restrictions that were unprecedented in the era of GATT-WTO rules. His use of national security criteria for unilateral tariffs on steel and aluminum and his trade war with China represented an abandonment of WTO trade rules and practices. In the United Kingdom, the 2016 Brexit referendum resulted in a vote to leave the European Union, thereby ending the UK trade integration arrangement that had begun in 1973. The referendum campaign drew on UK criticism of EU intrusion on UK sovereignty in presenting the issue in populist terms of elitist control from Brussels set against the interests of the victimized British people. The book develops a conceptual framework of protectionism that links behavioral factors with perceived external threats and voting behavior based on emotion. It also offers a review of trade policies of other populist governments and an assessment of their economic and institutional cost. A concluding chapter provides recommendations for addressing the populist challenge, focusing on adjustment policies, reforms of global trade institutions, and the need to protect domestic democratic processes.
Populism, Trade, and Trump’s Path to Victory
Authors: Jones Kent
Published: May 2021

This chapter traces US populism back to President Andrew Jackson (1828–1836), providing early characteristics of a US populist leader. Major US populist issues have included immigration, the banking sector, and more recently, foreign trade. While Franklin D. Roosevelt’s populist-inspired New Deal reforms included trade liberalizing measures, postwar populists linked advancing globalization in the late twentieth century to elitist trade policy, inspiring new populist movements. Anti-trade populists were unsuccessful third-party presidential candidates until Donald Trump exploited this issue, capturing the Republican Party nomination and developing particularly provocative anti-trade rhetoric. He successfully integrated an anti-trade platform with a host of other populist issues, and vowed to alter US trade policy to “make America great again.”
Brexit and the Crisis of European Integration
Authors: Jones Kent
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the role Europe’s long history of conflict over geography, religion, and national identity, as well as its aristocratic traditions, on modern European populism. The Brexit referendum gave direct electoral voice to the accumulated resentments of populist forces in the United Kingdom against EU rules administered by what its supporters regarded as an elite bureaucracy in Brussels. Their concerns, mainly over budgetary and regulatory issues, overrode the prospect of losing trade benefits from the EU single market. Elsewhere in the European Union populist parties continue to be active, and many of them are Euroskeptic, based largely on immigration and monetary issues. Many right-wing and left-wing populist parties in particular tend to favor protectionism, but will not be in a position to challenge centralized EU trade policy until they gain power in large EU countries. The UK exit from the European Union will weaken a prominent pro-trade voice in the EU Council of Ministers.
Introduction
Authors: Ball Blake Scott
Published: May 2021

Many critics have assumed that Peanuts was popular in Cold War America because it was apolitical and inoffensive, yet the opposite is actually true. This introduction reviews how Charles Schulz’s comic strip regularly engaged in political and social commentary. Even more, thousands of fans wrote regular letters to discuss, critique, and debate the messages they read in Peanuts each day. For nearly fifty years, Peanuts was an important part of popular discourse around political and social events. Schulz’s unique wishy-washy style allowed fans from across the American political spectrum to see their values, concerns, and hopes reflected in this enduring comic strip.
Epilogue
Authors: Ball Blake Scott
Published: May 2021

Peanuts persists to this day as an important shorthand in political and social commentary. The legacy Schulz established in his comic strip has been caught and carried on by his fans. Despite his passing in 2000, Peanuts is one of the highest grossing cartoon properties in the world. As Peanuts’ relationship with insurer MetLife demonstrates, however, the twenty-first century has presented new challenges to the continued relevance of Peanuts in American pop culture. While some were unsure that the characters could survive without Schulz, Peanuts has been remarkably resilient and enjoyed a resurgence in film, television, and publication in recent years.
Philosophy and Community in Seneca's Prose
Authors: Seal Carey
Published: May 2021

This book shows how Seneca’s prose works offer both an illustration of and an invitation to philosophy as a way of life. In Seneca’s hands, the specificity of the philosopher’s social and historical location becomes generative of that way of life rather than an obstacle to be transcended. The social character of Senecan philosophical practice is brought to light through detailed examination of the ideas of solitude and independence in Seneca’s writing. Later chapters explore the relationship in Seneca’s works between the Socratic ideal of the examined life, on the one hand, and, on the other, some characteristically Roman social and political institutions: slavery, the philosophical school, and the commonwealth. Seneca emerges as a keen observer of philosophy’s social entanglements.
Conservation
Authors: Perrings Charles , Kinzig Ann
Published: May 2021

This book explores the process by which people decide to conserve or convert natural resources. Building on a seminal study by Harold Hotelling that connects conservation to expected changes in the value of resources, the authors develop the general principles involved in conservation science. The focus of the book is the resources of the natural environment. This includes both directly exploited resources such as agricultural soils, minerals, forests, and fish stocks, and biodiversity—the wild species and natural ecosystems put at risk when people choose to convert natural habitat, or to discharge waste products to water, land, or air. The theory of conservation shows how much or how little to extract from the environment, and how much to leave intact. It also shows how conservation decisions are influenced by the existence of market failures—the external impacts of market decisions on ecosystems, and the public good nature of many ecosystem services. It shows how conservation connects to expected changes in the relative importance or value of natural resources, and what is needed to uncover that value. It shows how context matters. Decisions about the conservation of natural resources are influenced by property rights—whether land is private property or in the public domain; by environmental policies, laws, and regulations within countries; and by environmental agreements between countries. Finally, this book shows how conservation differs within and beyond protected areas, how it connects to the system of environmental governance, and how governance structures have evolved over time.
Sosipatra as a Teacher
Authors: Marx Heidi
Published: May 2021

Upon losing her husband, Sosipatra moved to Pergamum and opened her own philosophy school. This chapter explores what her school might have been like from its structure, student body, and curriculum. For a late ancient philosophy school in the Platonist tradition, students lived near or with their teacher, following prescribed study of Aristotle and Plato, and discussing these works. Their main goal was to live with and learn from one teacher. Such teachers were often considered holy as well as gifted teachers who inspired devotion as much as desire for intellectual stimulation in their followers. Sosipatra certainly fits this description as her educational pedigree and virtuosity signal some sort of divine inspiration as the source of her knowledge and wisdom. Eunapius’s estimation of Sosipatra’s superiority as a teacher indicates that he wished his readers to think of her as a leading light in the Iamblichean lineage when it came to teaching on standard Platonic topics.
Most Americans Will Experience Poverty
Authors: Rank Mark Robert , Eppard Lawrence M. , Bullock Heather E.
Published: May 2021

Chapter 2 reviews the life course research on the risk of experiencing poverty. Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), the majority of Americans will at some time during their adulthood experience a spell of poverty. Furthermore, 10 percent of children spend at least half of their childhood living in poverty. Many Americans will also turn to a social safety net program for economic assistance. The implications of this research are discussed, which include understanding poverty as a structural rather than an individual failure. Shoring up safety net programs and investing in poor children and families can be a long-term financially sound strategy for the United States.
Hard Work Is Insufficient
Authors: Rank Mark Robert , Eppard Lawrence M. , Bullock Heather E.
Published: May 2021

Chapter 6 explores the role of hard work in avoiding poverty. It is often assumed that anyone can get ahead and avoid poverty by working hard. This chapter argues that hard work is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for getting ahead in life. Consequently, although it is difficult to imagine individuals doing well in life without a decent amount of effort and work, working hard and being motivated by no means guarantee success. Several examples are given of individuals working hard but finding it difficult to escape poverty. The number and nature of low-wage work are also discussed.