bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING IN MAURITIUS
Authors: Murday Maylo , Gundlach Erich R.
Published: January 2013

The Government of Mauritius, the International Maritime Organization, and the United Nations Environment Programme sponsored a joint project in 1987 and 1988 to establish an oil spill contingency plan for the island of Mauritius. Two main objectives were achieved: the formulation of a National Oil Spill Contingency Plan (NOSCP) for consideration by the government and the creation of a Coastal Sensitivity Atlas detailing the sensitive resources of Mauritius and the strategies to protect them. The project was in support of the Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region and its protocol on emergency cooperation.

The organizational structure of the proposed NOSCP evolved during workshops with Mauritius authorities and was expressly developed to utilize the capabilities of existing emergency response units such as the National Coast Guard, the port authority, and the fire services. The NOSCP document also recommends supporting legislation and ratification of relevant regional and international conventions, and proposes techniques for oil spill response and the disposal of oily wastes.

The Coastal Sensitivity Atlas is a separate document containing 19 maps on a scale of 1:30,000, which cover the coastline of Mauritius and neighboring islets. The atlas is color-coded to indicate the priority areas for containment and cleanup. Living and socioeconomic resources are indicated by symbols and suitable response actions are specified.
SUPPORT FOR REGIONAL OIL SPILL RESPONSE IN THE ROPME SEA AREA
Authors: Ryan P. B. , Brown D. J. S.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill contingency planning is concerned with the organization of preplanned responses to anticipated oil pollution emergencies in defined geographical areas. A major factor that must be considered when drafting any contingency plan is the support that can be expected from a variety of sources in times of emergency. Oil spills vary in both their magnitude and complexity and so do the responses to such incidents. It follows, therefore, that there is a tiered structure of oil spill contingency planning and response and that there is a corresponding tiering of sources of support.

This paper identifies the various tiers of oil spill planning and response and reviews the external support relevant to each tier. The discussion base of this paper relates particularly to the ROPME sea area as defined herein but many of the observations will apply to other regions of the world where similar situations may be encountered.
ESTIMATION METHOD FOR OIL CLEANUP CAPABILITY OF REFINERIES AND TERMINALS
Authors: Matsumoto Ken
Published: January 2013

In making preparations for cleanup of oil spill incidents, oil refineries and terminals have been content to provide cleanup equipment and materials only in the nominal physical capabilities and quantities stipulated in related laws and regulations.

This has often led to negligence of such considerations as workers’ experience and skill, the development of response organizations, the technical level of response equipment, and environmental conditions. Consequently, there is a large gap between the actual oil cleanup capability and the nominal one appearing in the oil cleanup programs, as has been experienced in many oil spill incidents.

In May 1987, the Oil Spill Cooperative of the Petroleum Association of Japan (PAJ), the sole private petroleum organization in Japan, developed a formula for evaluating the oil cleanup capabilities of more than 380 oil-handling facilities, and is disseminating it among the parties concerned. In this formula, the nominal oil cleanup capability based on the physical properties of the equipment and materials supplied is defined as “static oil cleanup capability,” whereas the actual cleanup capability taking into account the efficiency of the work is defined as “kinematic oil cleanup capability.” The calculation formula includes coefficients for personal, physical, technical, and environmental factors determined in reference to various data. These coefficients facilitate the calculation of the true oil cleanup capability.
DEVELOPMENT OF WILDLIFE PROTECTION GUIDELINES FOR ALASKA'S FEDERAL ON-SCENE COORDINATORS
Authors: Bergmann Pamela Ann
Published: January 2013

Alaska's coastline and offshore areas provide seasonal feeding, breeding, and staging grounds for large numbers of birds and marine mammals. In addition, offshore waters serve as passageways for oil tankers and other ocean vessels, and as the location of oil exploration, development, and production activities. Because of the potential for wildlife to contact oil as a result of a spill in the marine environment, the Alaska Regional Response Team (RRT) established a working group in September 1987 to develop and maintain guidelines to assist Alaska's federal On-Scene Coordinators (OSCs) in dealing with oiled wildlife.

The working group, originally comprised of representatives from four federal and state agencies on the Alaska RRT, was expanded to include members from three special-interest groups—the oil industry and environmental and native groups—and the guideline objectives were broadened to address three response strategies: (1) controlling the release and spread of oil to protect wildlife; (2) keeping wildlife away from a spill; and (3) cleaning oiled wildlife. Through the cooperative efforts of working group members, the guidelines were drafted in early 1988 and are currently undergoing a multistage review. The working group anticipates that the guidelines will be submitted to the Alaska RRT for adoption in late 1988.

The guidelines, which divide Alaska into 11 planning areas, focus on important species that inhabit offshore and coastal environments. Relevant resource information, suggested response strategies, and recommended technical experts and response manuals are listed for appropriate species or groups of species. Equipment, materials, and facility requirements for various response strategies as well as inventories of appropriate equipment and materials stockpiled in the state, and facilities that could be used during a response also are identified.

Alaska's environmental and logistical constraints present unique challenges for protecting wildlife from oil spill effects. Nonetheless, other RRTs and local response organizations may benefit from the experience gained by the Alaska RRT in developing the guidelines, and from the scientific information and wildlife protection technologies incorporated in the guidelines.
OIL SPILL PREVENTION AND TREATMENT IN OFFSHORE OIL INDUSTRY OF CHINA
Authors: Mu-Zhen Lu
Published: January 2013

The China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC), established in October 1982, is the sole Chinese company dealing with offshore oil exploration, development, and production. It has four regional corporations, and four specialized corporations, as well as seventeen joint venture corporations. CNOOC has four representative offices outside China.

Since the Sino-foreign cooperation for offshore oil exploration and development in China started, 360,000 line km of seismic survey have been shot, thirty-nine oil and gas bearing structures have been found, fifteen oil fields have been evaluated as having large hydrocarbon accumulations, nine oil fields have been developed and put into production, 179 exploratory wells have been drilled, and CNOOC has signed thirty-nine contracts with a total of forty-five foreign companies from twelve countries.

There are five laws and regulations in the PRC affecting offshore oil development and marine environmental pollution. In accord with these laws and regulations, CNOOC has reviewed four environmental impact statements for offshore oil fields received from its regional corporations. CNOOC has made oil spill contingency plans for the Cheng-Bei offshore oil field in Bo-Hai, and the Wei 10-3 offshore oil field in the Gulf of Bei-Bu. Some oil spill combating equipment is owned by the Bo-Hai Oil Corporation and the Nan-Hai West Oil Corporation, selected on the basis of the crude oil characteristics.
EMERGENCY REPORTING FOR OIL DISCHARGES: RECENT STATUTORY AND REGULATORY CHANGES
Authors: Yoshioka Gary A. , Jonas Lori , Armstrong Katherine E.
Published: January 2013

The principal trigger for federal reporting of discharges of oil remains the “sheen test” promulgated in 1970 under the authority of the Clean Water Act. The sheen test is not, however, the only requirement of concern to potential dischargers of oil. Certain provisions of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), of Title III of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA), and of other environmental statutes may also apply, complicating the picture for the regulated community.

CERCLA requires federal reporting of releases of hazardous substances, but contains an exclusion for most releases of petroleum products. The CERCLA “petroleum exclusion” is not, however, absolute, and recent policy documents by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have clarified the scope of the exclusion. Releases of certain petroleum waste streams listed under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), for example, are not excluded. Title III of SARA, which expands the emergency reporting requirements of CERCLA to include notification of state and local response authorities for releases of CERCLA hazardous substances and of listed “extremely hazardous substances” (EHSs) does not contain the equivalent of the CERCLA petroleum exclusion.

To the extent that the list of EHSs includes certain constituents of petroleum products, it is possible that state and local reporting will be required under SARA Title III for oil discharges otherwise (or previously) exempted from federal reporting under CERCLA. In 1988, a regulatory program for reporting leaks from underground storage tanks was established under Subtitle I of RCRA. In addition to these federal requirements, statutory provisions enacted by various states also affect oil discharge reporting.

This paper presents a review of the changing regulatory picture for oil discharge reporting requirements by first examining recent regulatory and judicial developments related to the oil sheen test, and then exploring the potential impact of other federal and state programs. Summary tables comparing federal provisions are provided as a useful guide for determining the scope of these programs.
SUCCESSFUL NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE CLAIM FOR A COASTAL OIL SPIL1
Authors: Brown James D.
Published: January 2013

In September 1987 a consent order was signed providing a damage settlement of $1.2 million to the U.S. government and the States of Georgia and South Carolina for an oil spill at Savannah, Georgia. This settlement, which included funds for injuries to fish and wildlife resources at Savannah National Wildlife Refuge and adjoining areas in the lower Savannah River, was reached through a cooperative natural resource damage assessment using the U.S. Department of the Interior's Natural Resource Damage Assessment Regulations. This paper describes this first and successful implementation of the damage assessment regulations and provides guidance for their future use in support of natural resource damage claims.
TOXICITY TESTS ON BIOLOGICAL SPECIES INDIGENOUS TO THE GULF OF MEXICO
Authors: Shuba Peter J. , Heikamp A. J.
Published: January 2013

Dispersant toxicity tests were performed on marine species indigenous to the Gulf of Mexico in support of the Region VI Regional Response Team Dispersant Work Group. Concurrent with the toxicity testing, the group is developing a Subpart H regional contingency plan for authorization of the use of dispersants in non-life-threatening situations.

Static and flowthrough toxicity tests were performed on five Gulf species: brown shrimp, white shrimp, blue crab, eastern oyster, and redfish.

The test results indicated that when the test species were exposed to chemically dispersed Mayan or Saudi Arabian Light (SABL) crude oil, the observed toxicity occurred rapidly, usually within 6 hours after addition of the dispersed oil. During the tests, the organisms became disoriented and lethargic immediately after addition of the dispersed crude oils. However, the test animals that survived the first 6 to 12 hours of exposure usually recovered and survived for the remainder of the test period. In almost all cases, surviving test organisms were swimming normally and were not lethargic 12 to 24 hours after test material addition.

Test results indicated that if the organisms were exposed to dispersed Mayan or SABL crude oil, but survived long enough for the material to decrease in concentration, the organisms could recover and survive without any apparent short-term effects.
IMPROVED DISPERSANT BASED ON MICROEMULSION TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Canevari Gerard P. , Bock Jan , Robbins Max
Published: January 2013

An initial basic study focused on the interaction between dispersant surfactants and the oil-water interface. In essence, the study identified criteria to explain why a good dispersant is effective and why a poor dispersant is ineffective. The dynamic behavior of the oil-water interface, after the addition of the dispersant, was continuously monitored by a modified Wilhelmy plate device. This procedure provided much insight on the impact of the dispersant at the oil-water interface.

One key finding of this study concerned the conditions for achieving very low interfacial tensions. It is known in microemulsion technology that a microemulsion formed by specific surfactants exhibits ultra-low interfacial tension against either oil or water. Microemulsion phase behavior studies then established that some specific surfactants, which form a certain type of microemulsion, are also highly effective dispersants, more effective than current state-of-the-art products. This improvement results in the formation of much finer dispersed oil droplets generated by a very minimum and lower level of energy.

This paper will review the results of the basic study and the subsequent formulation of an improved dispersant. Laboratory and field data evaluating and supporting the improved overall performance will be presented.
METHODS FOR MAKING DISPERSANT USE DECISIONS
Authors: Fraser J. P.
Published: January 2013

A decision for or against dispersant use involves several components, including considerations of operational feasibility and regulatory policy as well as environmental concerns. Eleven examples of the major published procedures for making oil spill response decisions, including decisions for or against use of chemical dispersants, are summarized and compared in this paper. These procedures are often depicted by decision diagrams, which are also included in the paper.
THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISPERSANTS IN FRESH AND LOW SALINITY WATERS
Authors: Belk John L. , Elliott Deborah J. , Flaherty L. Michael
Published: January 2013

Four marine dispersant concentrates and two freshwater dispersant concentrates were tested in the laboratory for effectiveness in zero to average salinity using two different test oils. The data show that the comparative laboratory effectiveness for all the dispersants tested is lower at zero salinity, but that the variation in effectiveness as the salinity increases is different for each dispersant.

Another part of the study compares the effectiveness of one marine dispersant and two freshwater dispersants in different electrolyte solutions. It is shown that effectiveness behavior in calcium and magnesium salt solutions is markedly different from that in sodium salt solutions. The results suggest that any future test protocol for dispersant effectiveness in fresh waters should take into account the detailed composition of the water in question.
OPTIMIZATION OF DISPERSANT APPLICATION, ESPECIALLY BY SHIP
Authors: Merlin François , Bocard Christian , Castaing Gilles
Published: January 2013

A lot of information has been made available for 10 years on the use of dispersants through offshore and meso-scale trials. A state-of-the-art review shows that among the key factors that have been identified, the contact between dispersant and oil is of utmost importance. A better knowledge of this parameter should be taken into account in defining operational procedures, especially when applying dispersants by ship, which is considered to be complementary to aerial spraying.

Upon request of the French Navy, a series of meso-scale trials was carried out off Brittany in June 1987, according to the methodology previously used in 1984. Three dispersants were sprayed from a boat. It was concluded that a high level of energy at the sea surface mitigates discrepancies in dispersants’ efficiencies as measured in laboratory tests. Better results were obtained in the case of relatively thick oil slicks. The low efficiency that was measured when treating downwind was attributed to the already-observed herding effect.

These complementary results reinforce the actions that have been recently developed to optimize dispersant application by ship:Shipboard equipment for neat dispersant spraying is described. Its main feature is an original nozzle assembly that allows the dispersant to be applied effectively onto the oil at a flow rate that can be widely and very quickly changed according to the estimated oil thickness.An operational treatment procedure is discussed, showing how to map, mark out, prospect and treat oil slicks according to the slick shape, estimated oil thickness, and wind direction.
DECISION-MAKING ON THE USE OF DISPERSANTS: THE ROLE OF THE STATES
Authors: Cunningham John , Kooyoomjian K. Jack , Rojo Minnie , Jordan Julie M.
Published: January 2013

According to the authorization-of-use procedures outlined in the National Contingency Plan (NCP), a state with jurisdiction over navigable waters polluted by an oil spill must concur with the decision to apply dispersants or other chemical oil spill control agents. To be effective, a dispersant must be applied quickly, but reaching consensus among the necessary parties can be slow unless all the participants are well prepared at the outset. Ideally, consideration of dispersant use should take place prior to an emergency in order to reach a timely decision. Several states and Regional Response Teams have active programs that are addressing dispersant use planning and technical and environmental considerations. In several states where the use of dispersants is an emerging issue, there appears to be a willingness to consider their use on a case-by-case basis and a genuine interest in learning more about their effectiveness and toxicity.
LABORATORY TESTING OF DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS: THE IMPORTANCE OF OIL-TO-WATER RATIO AND SETTLING TIME
Authors: Fingas Merv F. , Munn Debra L. , White Barton , Stoodley Robert G. , Crerar Irene D.
Published: January 2013

Laboratory tests and apparatus for oil spill dispersant effectiveness were the subject of the present study. A review of previous work shows that test results from different apparatus are not highly correlated, and often the rank of effectiveness is also not correlated. The effect of two experimental parameters—settling time and oil-to-water ratio—are examined in this study and found to be very important in determining final effectiveness value. Four apparatus—the swirling flask, the flowing column, the Labofina, and the Mackay—are used with 3 dispersants and 16 oils to examine effectiveness values when the oil-to-water ratio is the same (1:1,200) and when the settling time is maintained at the same value (10 minutes) in all apparatus. The effectiveness values resulting from the four devices are nearly identical after values from the more energetic devices are corrected for natural dispersion. Our conclusions are that the most important parameters of laboratory dispersant testing are settling time and oil-to-water ratio. Energy is less important than previously thought and is important only to the extent that when high energy is applied to an oil-dispersant system, dispersion is increased by an amount related to the oil's natural dispersibility.
EFFECT OF CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL ON ARABIAN GULF CORALS: A FIELD EXPERIMENT
Authors: LeGore Steve , Marszalek Donald S. , Danek Larry J. , Tomlinson Michael S. , Hofmann Jack E. , Cuddeback John E.
Published: January 2013

Portions of an Arabian Gulf coral reef were exposed to oil/dispersant mixtures, oil alone, and dispersant alone, while others were left untreated as controls. Arabian light crude and Corexit 9527 dispersant were the test toxicants.

Two series of experiments were conducted, one with a 24-hour exposure period and the other with a five-day (120-hour) exposure period. Corals were stained with Alizarin Red S for growth rate studies and were extensively photographed to document observed effects. Corals were examined for biological impacts immediately after the exposures, and then at three-month intervals for one year. Water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and hydrocarbon concentrations were recorded during the exposure periods.

Coral growth appeared unaffected by exposure to the toxicants under test conditions. Some Acropora species exposed to the dispersed oil for five days exhibited delayed, but minor, effects, which became apparent only during the relatively cold and stressful winter season.
FISHERIES AND MARICULTURE AFFECTED BY OIL SPILLS1
Authors: Moller T. H. , Dicks B. , Goodman C. N.
Published: January 2013

An increasing number of oil spills affect commercial fisheries and mariculture activity. With the growth of mariculture and an accompanying emphasis on high-value species, the economic repercussions of oil spill damage have risen. This is particularly true in Southeast Asia, where seafood cultivation is widespread in coastal waters, which are also noted for navigational hazards and dense maritime traffic, leading to a higher than average incidence of mariculture damage. Perceptions of the value of seafood vary from one region to another and at least partly explain why claims for compensation for mariculture damage can reach very high levels. Differences in the sensitivity of fisheries and mariculture activities depend on the species, mariculture methods, spill cleanup methods employed, the location, and other external factors. The differences in mariculture methods and species call for different approaches to spill cleanup; the proper approach can minimize later compensation claims. Knowledge of mariculture and fisheries activities affected by a spill also is a key component of assessing compensation levels.
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION BY OIL IN ISRAEL'S COASTAL PLAIN AQUIFER
Authors: Kanfi Yacov
Published: January 2013

Improper drainage management in handling kerosene for a period of over 30 years has resulted in severe groundwater pollution in the southern coastal plain aquifer of Israel. Oil that had drained via open trenches infiltrated at one point to a depth of 43 meters (m), polluting the unsaturated zone, accumulating as a lens above the water table. Investigations of the extent of the pollution were based on research wells dug to a depth of 53 m, which enabled a partial mapping of the boundaries of the contaminated area, including its dimensions in both the aquifer and the unsaturated zone. A direct relation was discovered between one of the pollution sources and the oil lens found above groundwater. Field observations have enabled monitoring of variations in the lens's configuration and location within the aquifer and identification of factors that may have caused these variations. A historical reconstruction of the pollution process revealed that oil reached the groundwater and accumulated in a lens of tens of centimeters in thickness many years before oil was found in water pumped from a pumping well in the region.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF THE PAC BARONESS OIL AND COPPER SPILL
Authors: Hyland Jeffrey , Kennedy Janet , Campbell James , Williams Susan , Boehm Paul , Uhler Allen , Steinhauer William
Published: January 2013

A study was conducted to investigate the initial environmental effects of an offshore oil and copper spill resulting from the sinking of the freighter Pac Baroness approximately 19 kilometers (km) southwest of Point Conception, California, at a water depth of 430 meters (m). Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (GC/MS) was used to examine the distribution and levels of hydrocarbons in surficial sediments and to compare patterns of hydrocarbons in the sediments to those of a source-oil sample obtained from the vessel. Potential impacts of the spill on macroinfauna were also evaluated by examining changes in community structure and composition and in abundances of component species, based on comparison between control and wreck-site samples. Results of the chemical analyses show that sediment samples collected in the vicinity of the Pac Baroness contain elevated levels of hydrocarbons and other petroleum components that clearly originate from the oil on board the sunken vessel. Statistical comparisons of the macroinfaunal data reveal distinct biological effects of the spill within the immediate surrounding area of the vessel, at water depths of 410 to 436 m. Among these effects are significant reductions in mean number of species, mean number of individuals (all species combined), abundances of several component species (half of which are dominants within the community), and the combined abundance of sensitive amphipod species. These initial levels of contamination and associated environmental effects are unique in consideration of the extreme water depth in which the spill occurred.
INFAUNAL RECOVERY AT EDIZ HOOK FOLLOWING THE ARCO ANCHORAGE OIL SPILL
Authors: Blaylock William M. , Houghton Jonathan P.
Published: January 2013

The Arco Anchorage crude oil spill occurred near Ediz Hook, in Port Angeles, Washington, in 1985. Following the spill, replicate infaunal sampling was carried out during five summer and winter seasons at a series of transects that ranged from relatively clean and unaffected by the spill to industrialized sites that had received heavy oiling. Average wet weight biomass, abundance, species diversity, and number of species were calculated for all samples. Analysis of variance was used to test for differences in these parameters over time within a transect. A statistically significant increase in average biomass, density, and species diversity was seen at several heavily oiled stations over time. A similar pattern was not seen at an unoiled reference station. Biomass, density, and number of species had significant negative correlations with sediment hydrocarbon concentration. A widespread settlement of bivalves was observed in October 1986 samples. Several species from this settlement (e.g., Macoma nasuta and Clinocardium nuttallii) were present in successively larger sized classes in subsequent samplings. The industrialized nature of Ediz Hook and pollution events unrelated to the oil spill probably limited the degree of recovery and re-colonization documented at several of the transects.
MANGROVE RESTORATION AFTER THE 1986 REFINERIA PANAMA OIL SPILL
Authors: Teas Howard J. , Lasday Albert H. , L. Elias Luque , Morales Ricardo A. , De Diego Maria Eugenia , Baker Jenifer M.
Published: January 2013

On April 27, 1986, a storage tank at the Texaco Refineria Panama on the Caribbean coast of Panama ruptured, releasing approximately 50,000 barrels (8,000,000 liters) of medium light crude oil into Cativa Bay, which, like other embayments in the area, is bordered by mangroves, predominantly Rhizophora mangle. The present study reports on mangrove restoration experiments using Rhizophora propagules and nursery-grown seedlings planted in holes filled with upland soil. Under these conditions, mangrove seedlings were successfully replanted six months post-spill, although growth of such plants was more rapid if planting was delayed to nine months or one year post-spill. More than 42,000 nursery-grown seedlings and 44,000 propagules have been planted to restore oil-killed mangrove forests in the area.
EFFECTS OF UNTREATED AND CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL ON TROPICAL MARINE COMMUNITIES: A LONG-TERM FIELD EXPERIMENT
Authors: Ballou Thomas G. , Hess Stephen C. , Dodge Richard E. , Knap Anthony H. , Sleeter Thomas D.
Published: January 2013

A multidisciplinary long-term field experiment was conducted to evaluate the use of chemical dispersants to reduce the adverse environmental effects of oil spills in nearshore, tropical waters. Three study sites, whose intertidal and subtidal components consisted of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs, were studied in detail before, during, and after exposure to untreated crude oil or chemically dispersed oil. This study simulated an unusually high (“worst case”) exposure level of dispersed oil and a moderate exposure level of untreated oil. The third site served as an untreated reference site. Assessments were made of the distribution and extent of contamination by hydrocarbons over time, and the short- and long-term effects on survival, abundance, and growth of the dominant flora and fauna of each habitat. The whole, untreated oil had severe, long-term effects on survival of mangroves and associated fauna, and relatively minor effects on seagrasses, corals, and associated organisms. Chemically dispersed oil caused declines in the abundance of corals, sea urchins, and other reef organisms, reduced coral growth rate in one species, and had minor or no effects on seagrasses and mangroves. Conclusions were drawn from these results on decision making for actual spills based on trade-offs between dispersing or not dispersing the oil.

This report deals only with the major results of the study. A large number of parameters were monitored, but in the interest of brevity only the most important aspects of the study are reported here. A detailed description of the methods used and a complete presentation and discussion of results is given in Ballou et al.2
DISPERSED OIL EFFECTS ON TROPICAL HABITATS: PRELIMINARY LABORATORY RESULTS OF DISPERSED OIL TESTING ON JAMAICA CORALS AND SEAGRASS
Authors: Thorhaug Anitra , McDonald Franklin , Miller Beverly , Gordon Valerie , McFarlane John , Carby Barbara , Anderson Marcel , Gayle Peter
Published: January 2013

The island of Jamaica experiences six small- to medium-sized oil spills per year. Major ports for petroleum entry are close to mangrove, seagrass and coral resources.

Mangrove and coral habitats form important nurseries for fish and shrimp populations. The coral reefs and white sand beaches of the north and west coasts are the basis of the tourism industry, which generates $406 million U.S. dollars per year, and accounts for 55 percent of the island's foreign exchange earnings. Thus, protecting these resources from the effects of spilled oil is of priority to the government. Mechanical means are clearly not the solution in a variety of spills. Also, no maps exist to guide the on-scene coordinator (OSC) in oil spill management.

To initiate a study of dispersed oil and formulate a command map, habitat-dispersed oil toxicity testing on three species of seagrasses, three indicator species of coral, and three mangroves has been conducted in Jamaica. Ten dispersants and their dispersed oil toxicity in these habitats will be ranked. In general, the coral toxicity parallels the seagrass response to the dispersants. Responses of the coral to intermediate-toxicity dispersants differed widely. Black, white, and red mangroves also were tested. This is the first time comprehensive among-dispersant and among-species dispersant testing has been carried out in the tropics.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL RECOVERY OF INTERTIDAL AND SHALLOW SUBTIDAL SEDIMENTS IMPACTED BY THE ARCO ANCHORAGE OIL SPILL, EDIZ HOOK, WASHINGTON
Authors: Miller James A.
Published: January 2013

The December 21, 1985 Arco Anchorage crude oil spill affected approximately 7,000 feet of the sheltered, south-facing shore of Ediz Hook, Washington. Some of the stranded crude oil penetrated sand and gravel sediments in the intertidal zone. An aggressive beach agitation program was implemented between February and April 1986 to remove most of the oil trapped within the intertidal sediments. Post-cleanup monitoring activities between August 1986 and January 1988 determined the crude oil content of intertidal and shallow subtidal sediments at five elevations along thirteen sampling transects. Sediment samples were also obtained for laboratory grain-size testing at five of these transects.

Post-cleanup monitoring of sediment chemistry indicated a consistent trend of decreasing crude oil content of the intertidal sediments between March/April 1986 (mean oil concentration 670 ppm) and July 1987 (mean oil concentration 110 ppm). A similar pattern was observed for the shallow subtidal sediments, where the mean crude oil concentration decreased from 460 ppm in August 1986 to 110 ppm in July 1987. The mean oil content of these sediments increased somewhat after July 1987, indicating probable hydrocarbon inputs from other sources. Chromatograms of the hydrocarbons in the sediments after July 1987 were dissimilar to chromatograms for the unweathered oil from the Arco Anchorage.

The grain-size distribution of the sediments changed relatively little during the post-cleanup monitoring period, reflecting the relatively sheltered nature of the study area. However, the minor changes observed in sediment grain size suggest that gradual redistribution of intertidal and subtidal sediment occurred along the south shore of Ediz Hook during the monitoring program.
COMPREHENSIVE OIL SPILL LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION LEGISLATION
Authors: Corbett Charles R. , Bovet David M.
Published: January 2013

Comprehensive oil spill liability and compensation legislation has eluded the United States for about 12 years, despite the fact that well-crafted legislation would benefit all interested parties. The public would be better protected from catastrophic effects of oil spills; industry (both oil and shipping) would be provided reasonable limits of liability (or alternative measures); and state governments would become full partners in federally funded oil spill responses. Most of the parties who would be affected by oil spill legislation have made substantial contributions and shown increased flexibility since 1984. Still, one major hurdle must be crossed before legislation can become a reality: state liability law preemption.
A MICROCOMPUTER-BASED SPILL IMPACT ASSESSMENT SYSTEM FOR UNTREATED AND CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL SPILLS IN THE U.S. GULF OF MEXICO
Authors: Trudel B. K. , Belore R. C. , Jessiman B. J. , Ross S. L.
Published: January 2013

A microcomputer-based spill impact assessment system has been developed and applied to the problem of making oil spill impact predictions and real-time dispersant use decisions for the U. S. Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of Florida. The system predicts the effects of chemically-dispersed and untreated spills on 70 important resources, including oil-sensitive habitats (salt marsh, coral reef) ecologically and economically important species, and shorelines and property. Impact is estimated by means of a model that integrates the effects of such variables as spill conditions, oil properties, environmental conditions, oil toxicity, and resource vulnerability. When used for decision making on dispersant use, the system computes the risk to all or a selected group of resources for a given spill when the spill is treated with dispersants (assuming complete or partial dispersant effectiveness) and when the spill is left untreated. The system produces a tabular summary of quantitative risk estimates for each resource for each countermeasure strategy. To be effective in making real-time management decisions for spills, the system completes its analysis quickly (in less than one hour for any given spill), is “user-friendly,” and yields detailed information on resource-specific impact calculations that are essential for real-time verification of predicted spill effects. The system has been developed in cooperation with environmental regulation and resource management agencies in the states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and with federal government agencies (the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Minerals Management Service, and the U.S. Coast Guard), and has been funded by the Marine Industry Group.
COASTAL INTERACTION PROCESSES IN THE MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE COASTAL ZONE OIL SPILL MODEL1
Authors: Reed Mark , Gundlach Erich
Published: January 2013

A coastal zone oil spill model (COZOIL) was developed to predict the behavior and fate of oil along an arbitrarily varying coastline. This paper describes algorithms for explicit computation of processes controlling behavior of oil in the intertidal zone. Selected sensitivity studies of these algorithms are presented and discussed.
COMPARISON OF TECHNIQUES FOR FORCING AN OIL SPILL TRAJECTORY MODEL
Authors: Paluszkiewicz Theresa , Marshall Charles F.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Spill Risk Analysis model used by the U.S. Department of the Interior simulates trajectories of hypothetical oil spills on the outer continental shelf. The trajectories are calculated from surface current fields provided by a general circulation model with a superimposed wind-drift simulation. This paper compares two techniques for driving the wind-drift portion of the trajectory model. In this comparison, a statistical model of the wind, utilizing a first-order Markov approach, is used to simulate wind records to drive the model; these results are compared with trajectories forced by the observed winds. The comparison shows that trajectories resulting from the two forcing techniques differ; the trajectories forced by the observed winds are more variable and have directional differences as compared with the trajectories forced by modeled winds. The differences appear to be due to the inability of the first-order Markov approach to simulate wind history and the duration of wind events.
SOURCE IDENTIFICATION OF AN OIL SPILL ON TRINIDAD'S EAST COAST
Authors: Khan Ahmad A. , Chang-Yen Ivan , Chatergoon Lutchminarine
Published: January 2013

In April 1986, a large quantity of unrefined crude oil was released into the nearshore marine environment on Trinidad's east coast. The oil was observed to have affected approximately 20 kilometers of coastline. Physical examination of the oil collected revealed that it had the appearance of a light grade crude, was golden brown in color, and had a characteristic gassy odor. Also observed was a mass mortality of the bivalve Donax sp (chip-chip), which inhabits sandy areas of the intertidal zone.

Oil was extracted from samples of water, beach sand, and chip-chip collected from selected stations along the affected area. Also collected were samples of oil from possible sources located both offshore and at land-based facilities. Chemical characterization of the oil extracts, using capillary gas chromatography, atomic absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy, and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry, yielded data sets that distinguished the oils in the environment from the suspect source oils investigated.

Application of statistical pattern recognition techniques, utilizing a hierarchical clustering procedure, to data from both environmental and suspect source samples yielded a high probability match between the spill samples and samples from one of the two oil companies operating in the area.
CORPUS CHRISTI CATASTROPHE: CASE OF A CLASSIC CLEANUP1
Authors: Alejandroand Anthony C. , Crickard Alvin M.
Published: January 2013

At 10:50 p.m. on July 13, 1988, the 800-foot, 107,776 dwt Singapore-flag motor tankship Nord Pacific, loaded with 625,000 barrels of Beatrice (North Sea) crude, sustained hull damage while docking at No. 3 dock of the Southwestern Refinery in the Corpus Christi, Texas, inner harbor. The impact opened an 8 ft by 1 ft gash in No. 6 port wing tank 1 ft above the waterline, spilling 15,350 barrels of crude oil into the harbor over a one-hour period before the tank could be pumped down.

The cleanup that followed was a textbook case in which everything went right. The relative ease and rapidity of cleanup are attributed to favorable geography, weather, accessibility, fast response, and luck. The amount of spilled oil recovered amounted to 11,344 bbls, a recovery rate of almost 74 percent. All free-floating oil in the harbor was recovered in 2½ days. The majority of shoreside cleanup, including two affected marsh areas, was completed one week after the spill. Minor mop-up to conclude the cleanup continued for three days after.

The Corpus Christi inner harbor was closed for 2½ days during the spill, with daylight one-way traffic commencing Saturday, July 16. Regular traffic resumed Monday morning, July 18. Environmental impact was minimal, with very little wildlife affected. Permanent repairs were made to the Nord Pacific and she sailed for Venezuela on July 21, 1988.
NATIONAL STRIKE FORCE EMPLOYMENT IN HUMANITARIAN RELIEF: MONONGAHELA RIVER OIL SPILL1
Authors: Crouse James W.
Published: January 2013

In January 1988, 3.9 million gallons of diesel fuel were released from an Ashland Oil Company oil storage tank. Of that amount, approximately 770,000 gallons entered the Monongahela River near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

The U.S. Coast Guard Atlantic Area Strike Team was called in to assist the first federal official on scene, U.S. Coast Guard Captain of the Port-Marine Safety Office (MSO) in Pittsburgh, and subsequently the predesignated federal on-scene coordinator (OSC) provided by the Environmental Protection Agency Region III. Among the duties performed by the strike team were providing a temporary water supply to the city of Wheeling, West Virginia, and attempting to supply Robinson Township, Pennsylvania.

This paper is an evaluation of the events and logistics, and an assessment of how federal services could be used in this manner with no obstruction to commercial interests.
CLEAN SEAS' RESPONSE TO THE SINKING OF THE PAC BARONESS
Authors: Onstad Skip , McCloskey Thomas
Published: January 2013

At 5:30 a.m. on September 21, 1987, the dry bulk carrier Pac Baroness collided with the freighter Atlantic Wing approximately 14 miles west of Point Conception. The Pac Baroness foundered throughout the day and was under tow, out to sea, when it sank at 4:18 p.m. At 5 p.m., a large discharge of oil began rising to the surface from the sunken vessel, and by 6 p.m. a slick had formed in the vicinity of the wreck site that was 1.5 miles long and 0.5 miles wide. A large quantity of oil continued to bubble to the surface from the sunken ship for several days.

The incident occurred in the Clean Seas’ area of responsibility. Although the incident involved a nonmember company, Clean Seas was activated minutes after the collision. All three of Clean Seas’ oil spill response vessels were on-scene from Tuesday, September 22, to Friday, September 25, when the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) released Mr. Clean and Mr. Clean II from service. Mr. Clean III remained on-scene until September 29.
Oil Spill Preparedness in Kenya
Authors: Okolo N.
Published: January 2013

Following oil spills and petroleum fire incidents in Kenya, and in light of the recent increase in environmental awareness worldwide, the oil industry in Kenya and its affiliates have taken tangible steps to enhance alertness and implement emergency response plans. A National Oil Pollution Committee was formed in 1989 and charged with (1) assessing the existing capability of the industry to cope with oil spills, and (2) defining the maximum credible incident that the industry can handle, including establishing stock levels of equipment and chemicals, setting up plans, and organization and development of regular practice drills.

Since the oil industry in Kenya cannot provide resources capable of responding to, and effectively controlling all emergencies which might occur, the National Oil Pollution Committee includes representatives of two government corporations, Kenya Ports Authority and Kenya Pipeline Company, and the four government ministries of Transport and Communications, Energy, Tourism and Wildlife, and Environment and Natural Resources. The Kenya Ports Authority has been appointed as the oil spill coordinator responsible for manpower, storage and maintenance of the equipment stockpile, and equipment employment in case of an oil spill.
Analysis of Oil Recovery Vessels used Worldwide
Authors: Kerambrun Loïc , Peigné Georges
Published: January 2013

Before considering any possibility of increasing her capacity to combat an oil spill offshore, the French Navy asked CEDRE to inventory the different types of vessels used worldwide, and more especially in Europe, to recover oil spilled offshore. Two types of ships can be differentiated:those which were specifically conceived for recovering oil,and those which have been adapted or used for this mission.In the last case, we can also make a distinction between vessels which are only, or mainly, used for antipollution combat and those which are normally used for commercial activities, e.g., dredgers or coastal tankers.Except for Germany, the only country to have ships that were specifically conceived for recovering oil offshore, most countries make use of dredgers or supply vessels. Storage capacities for recovered oil are generally between 500 and 1,000 m3, except for dredgers which may have storage capacities of 6,000 m3 and even more. The oil recovery devices associated to these vessels generally combine oil containment and recovery and are deployed alongside. Most of them are mechanical weir skimmers and use high-capacity transfer pumps.Taking into account the conditions of intervention off the French coastline, the comparison of the different solutions pointed out numerous advantages of supply vessels having large storage capacity inboard, even if improvements are still needed to increase the capacity of controlling a large oil spill with bad sea conditions.
The Exxon Valdez 1989 Wildlife Rescue and Rehabilitation Program
Authors: Monahan Thomas P. , Maki Alan W.
Published: January 2013

During 1989 the Exxon-operated bird and sea otter rehabilitation program was the largest and most comprehensive effort of its kind ever attempted. In total, eight centers were established, with three for otters, four for birds, and one for raptors. In total, over 140 boats and five aircraft were dedicated to this operation. Costs directly associated wth this effort were approximately $45 million. This paper describes the types of facilities used to treat these animals, the expertise of the people staffing these centers, and the techniques developed. Also discussed are the relative bird and otter release rates and some of the key findings and lessons from this program.