bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
6 Defining Palestrina
Authors: Ellis Katharine
Published: September 2008

This chapter analyzes fracture lines in attitudes toward Counter-Reformation polyphony, from its championing by Choron in the 1820s to the immensely popular performances conducted by Bordes from 1892. Fétisian music theory, Choron's performance practices, the composer's reputation as savior of Catholic church music (via the Pope Marcellus Mass), and the belief that Goudimel taught him gave his music Romantic allure and nationalist importance. Yet within church reformist circles, increased interest in the renovation of Gregorian chant as the purest and most democratic form of liturgical music enhanced suspicion about polyphony's technical demands, artifice, and barriers to understanding of liturgical texts. The chapter analyzes the sometimes vitriolic battles between radical and moderate ultramontanes, in which the latter (his supporters) allied Palestrina with the Middle Ages and the latter (his detractors) with the Renaissance. The roles of Bordes, the Schola Cantorum, and its supporters in negotiating this chasm and bringing Palestrina to official recognition via the papal Motu proprio of 1903 close the chapter.
Conclusion
Authors: Ellis Katharine
Published: September 2008

This concluding chapter takes in the entire century, highlighting continuities and disjunctions, repertorial patterns, absences, and disappearances. It addresses the ways in which early music's increasing normality related to aesthetic conservatism after around 1840, discusses the reasons for certain works' totemic allure, cautions against the rigid association of certain aesthetic choices with particular political persuasions, and foregrounds pervasive feelings of French musical decadence as a driving force for revivalism of both French and foreign music. Paradoxically, after decades of disdain, French Baroque dance and keyboard music — low-status “feminine” repertories — became the focus for turn-of-the-century composers writing explicitly “French” music, while Bach became a “universal” reference point. Finally, the book returns to its opening (Le Vieux Paris, 1900), broadening to address the general question of what revivalism can tell us about the ideological premises that underpin cultural life.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the calls made by Eduard Hanslick and Guido Adler to transform the study of music after the model of the natural sciences in light of statements on science and historical study published by Wilhelm Windelband, Moriz Thausing, and other 19th-century theorists of method. It argues that polemics such as Hanslick's On the Musically Beautiful inspired and reflected considerable confusion and disagreement among critics and scholars with respect to methodologies and ideologies of music research. It examines Adler's use of the term Musikwissenschaft or the “science of music,” arguing that he intended it to connote not the literal emulation of research methods associated with the natural sciences but the application of a mode of investigation that valorized empirical observation and inductive reasoning. It concludes by suggesting that many late-century writers on music, including Hanslick, Schenker, and Adler himself, harbored ambivalent attitudes toward such scientifically inspired approaches and methods.
CHAPTER ONE FORGOTTEN HISTORIES AND UNCERTAIN LEGACIES
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter offers a substantial reevaluation of Hanslick's work by situating it at the center of late 19th-century debates about the future of the discipline he helped to found. Hired by the University of Vienna in 1856 to advance an empiricist movement in art-historical study inspired by the work of the philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart, Hanslick veered sharply from the Herbartian path within a decade of his appointment. Giving up his attempts to expand his formalist treatise On the Musically Beautiful into a systematic aesthetics in the 1860s, he determined to dedicate himself to the study of cultural history in the post-Hegelian tradition of August Wilhelm Ambros, as evidenced in his second book, History of Concert Life in Vienna (1869). The chapter concludes by arguing that it was Hanslick's abandonment of Herbartianism, rather than his early formalism, that defined his reputation among university colleagues during the final quarter of the century.
CHAPTER TWO MUSIC CRITICISM AS LIVING HISTORY
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter takes a close look at Hanslick's writings published after his abandonment of Austrian Herbartianism in the mid-1860s. It argues that Hanslick, after producing a Hegelian history of Viennese musical life in 1869, soon rejected Hegel's philosophy of history as well, and spent his remaining thirty-four years elaborating a novel and avowedly subjective historiography of music that placed the experiences of the listening subject at the center of the historical narrative. Examining the contents of his resulting twelve books, which he collectively called a “living history” of Viennese concert life, the chapter suggests that the latter project constituted Hanslick's contribution to a broad and diffuse movement among some late-century historians and philosophers—including Nietzsche, Windelband, and Jacob Burckhardt—who questioned the pretense to objectivity in the work of their positivist colleagues and insisted upon the inherently subjective nature of all historical observations.
CHAPTER THREE MUSIC ANALYSIS AS CRITICAL METHOD
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines Schenker's analytical reviews of Brahms's songs, Op. 107, and choral pieces, Op. 104 (1891–92), in light of the disciplinary debates considered in the previous chapters. It argues that Schenker adopted a hermeneutic approach to analysis and criticism in an attempt to elucidate the structure and significance of Brahms's work, and invoked theories of musical structure and meaning that are distinctly Wagnerian. The chapter suggests that this pairing of critical agenda and analytical strategy was inspired by Schenker's desire to illuminate the effects of Brahms's genius in his work, and, more broadly, by his sense that his fellow critics' fascination with scientifically inspired modes of musical inquiry had hindered their appreciation of that genius and limited the broad cultural relevance of their work. In Wagner, it concludes, Schenker found a theoretical foundation for his self-consciously subjective explorations.
CHAPTER FOUR COMPOSER, CRITIC, AND THE PROBLEM OF CREATIVITY
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter argues that Schenker, despite his misgivings about positivist scholarship, appreciated its promise with respect to the study of the creative process. In his earliest essays, he had toyed with an array of speculative theories of artistic creativity indebted to Wagner, E. T. A. Hoffmann, and a host of Romantic writers. Sometime around 1895, however, he made a radical turn, disavowing all speculative approaches to the subject and lobbying his readers to assume a self-consciously realistic and empirical perspective by considering only those insights into the compositional act provided by the sketches and reminiscences of practicing composers. This new emphasis in Schenker's writings made clear his newly found sympathies with the positivist spirit famously exemplified in Gustav Nottebohm's studies of Beethoven's sketchbooks. However, this empiricist strain of thought was fleeting; within a decade, Schenker would disavow it and again embrace a purely metaphysical notion of the creative mind.
CHAPTER FIVE A SCIENCE OF MUSIC FOR AN AMBIVALENT AGE
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter elaborates a revisionist portrait of Guido Adler as a writer deeply troubled by the implications of an increasingly scientific culture for the vitality of his nation's artistic life. It does this by examining Adler's attempt to respond, in his turn-of-the-century work, to an array of Wagner- and Nietzsche-inspired critiques of science and historical study. In an important yet largely forgotten corrective to his earlier positivist polemics, Adler rejected the programmatic assertions of Thausing, Philipp Spitta, and other positivist historians, and argued instead that musicologists must work to advance historical understanding not as an end in itself but in the service of composers, who would in turn work to transform historical styles and idioms into the “living” music of the present. The chapter concludes by suggesting that Adler's revised program for his discipline was exemplified in his advocacy of the work of Mahler, Schoenberg, and other contemporary artists.
CHAPTER SIX GERMAN MUSIC IN AN AGE OF POSITIVISM
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter considers the nationalist underpinnings of late-century musicology by examining the diverse and even contradictory cultural associations that Adler forged through the medium of his work. In his publications on the medieval origins of harmony, Adler distanced himself from attempts to claim exclusively Germanic origins for polyphonic phenomena. But in essays on Bach, Handel, and Mozart, penned in the mid-1880s, he indulged a brand of cultural chauvinism associated with Wagner and his followers. In his work on the Monuments of Music in Austria series of editions, Adler embraced a supranational vision of Austrian cultural identity endorsed by Habsburg officialdom, yet in his 1904 monograph on Wagner he declined to engage the composer's most inflammatory statements on race and identity. Each of these cases illuminates Adler's response to a specific crisis that shook his society, and together they testify to the difficulties of defining the German in the late-century musicological discourse.
EPILOGUE
Authors: Karnes Kevin C.
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the reception of trends in the late 19th-century musicological discourse over the course of the next half-century and considers the politicization of these trends under the pressures of new ideological realities. It compares the reception of Arnold Schoenberg's empiricist accounts of the creative process, which were widely hailed in the postwar years, with the instinctual and later neglected accounts of the once-influential theorist Ernst Kurth. It suggests that the reception of these figures' work reflects the intellectual climate of postwar German and North American academe, in which subjective and irrationalist modes of humanistic inquiry were widely associated with the Nazi reception of Nietzsche and Wagner. The stringent positivism characteristic of much musicological work in the postwar years, it suggests in conclusion, seems to constitute a radical reinterpretation of nineteenth-century trends, undertaken within this new ideological context.
The Physics of Warm Nuclei
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This book offers a survey of nuclear physics at low energies and discusses similarities to mesoscopic systems. It addresses systems at finite excitations of the internal degrees of freedom where collective motion exhibits features typical of transport processes for small and isolated systems. The importance of quantum aspects is investigated both with respect to the microscopic damping mechanism and to the nature of the transport equations. It is vital to account for nuclear collective motion being self-sustained, which in the end implies a highly nonlinear coupling between internal and collective degrees of freedom, a feature which in the literature all too often is ignored. The book is to be considered self-contained. The first part introduces basic elements of nuclear physics and guides to a modern understanding of collective motion as a transport process. This overview is supplemented in the second part with more advanced approaches to nuclear dynamics. The third part deals with special aspects of mesoscopic systems for which close analogies with nuclear physics are given. In the fourth part, the theoretical tools are discussed in greater detail. These include nuclear reaction theory, thermostatics and statistical mechanics, linear response theory, functional integrals, and various aspects of transport theory.
Elementary concepts of nuclear physics
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter describes the basic concepts of nuclear models beginning with the bare force between two nucleons and ending with the complex configurations of the many-body system. For example those encountered in the optical model or in Niels Bohr's pictures of the compound nucleus and the liquid drop model. The role of sub-nuclear degrees of freedom is briefly considered. Elementary many-body properties related to independent particle motion are analyzed for the Fermi gas, and two-body correlations implied by the Pauli principle are introduced. Basic properties of nuclear reactions are explained and the relevance of the nucleonic mean free path is examined, for instance with respect to transport properties of collective motion. The Bethe-Weizsäcker-formula for nuclear masses is shown and the deformed liquid drop model is presented.
Nuclear matter as a Fermi liquid
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter discusses the significance of two body interactions to many-body properties, beginning with a schematic model showing the relevance of short-range correlations beyond those of the Fermi gas. These correlations are studied within Brueckner theory and the help of the Bethe-Goldstone equation, mainly for nuclear matter proper but extensions to finite temperature are presented. Effective forces of Skyrme type are derived through an expansion of the G-matrix to small relative momenta. This scheme hinges essentially on the Brueckner-Hartree-Fock approximation, for which results for binding energy and equilibrium density are presented. An alternative variational method based on Jastrow functions is sketched, which demonstrates the necessity for considering effective three body forces. The concept of the nuclear equation of state is presented and parameterized by Skyrme forces with density dependent parameters. Finally, a semi-classical transport theory is presented which accounts for statistical collisions of the nucleons.
Independent particles and quasiparticles in finite nuclei
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter begins with an explanation of the application of Hartree-Fock for effective two-body forces. The benefits of exploiting those of Skyrme type are demonstrated and other interactions are presented, such as the Gogny force or others of separable nature. Phenomenological single particle potentials are introduced, which in many practical applications of the shell model may replace those of the self-consistent mean field: the oscillator potential, its modification in the Nilsson model, the Woods-Saxon and the folded-Yukawa potential. These contain a spin-orbit interaction, and for deformed nuclei, they deviate from the spherical shape. Finally, pair correlations are described at zero and finite temperature, and the usefulness of effective separable pairing forces is shown. The relevance of the gap parameter on the quasi-particle excitations is described.
From the shell model to the compound nucleus
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines nuclear properties that are related to the presence of interactions residual to the mean field. The elementary features of random matrix theory are explained, and the Wigner form of nearest level spacings in Gaussian ensembles is derived and compared with experimental evidence. Examples from nuclear physics and other chaotic and complex systems are shown. The spreading of states into more complicated configurations is described within a schematic model. For the general case, strength functions are introduced and their mathematical structure is explained. The energy dependence of single particle widths is discussed and compared with information from experiments. Inferences are drawn on the validity of the independent-particle model. For a time-dependent description, recurrent versus irreversible behavior is studied.
Shell effects and Strutinsky renormalization
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

In finite nuclei, the shell effects of the independent particle model are manifest for states in the neighborhood of the Fermi level. Guided by the Strutinsky energy theorem, this fact is exploited in the Strutinsky method by renormalizing the macroscopic liquid drop energy through a shell correction. This chapter presents details of this method in its various facets, discusses consequences for the deformation energy, and provides numerical examples. The relation of the fluctuating part of the level density to periodic orbit theory (POT) is explained. An extension to finite temperature is presented. For the model of a strictly harmonic variation of the level density with energy, useful analytic formulas for the temperature dependence of thermal quantities of interest are derived, such as free energy or entropy; comparisons with the general case are given, both analytically in the spirit of POT and numerically.
Average collective motion of small amplitude
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter focuses on collective motion of isoscalar nature parameterized by shape variables. The equations of motion are derived from energy conservation as implied by self-consistency. A basic ingredient is the variation of the total static energy with deformation, which at finite thermal excitations has to be calculated for constant entropy. Linear response theory is exploited for the dynamics, especially for separating reactive and dissipative forces. Response functions for intrinsic, nucleonic motion are distinguished from those for collective dynamics. The origin of irreversible behavior due to the decay of simple to more complicated nucleonic configurations is described in detail. In practical applications, dressed single particle states are used in their dependence on temperature. The variation of the transport coefficients for inertia and friction with T obtained this way is confronted with that given in various other models, like in the diabatic one, in common RPA, in the random matrix model, or in the liquid drop model and for wall friction. Implications on rotational motion are discussed.
Transport theory of nuclear collective motion
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter develops a quantal transport theory for non-linear nuclear collective motion, the coordinates of which are functionals of the nucleonic degrees of freedom, the latter being interpreted as ‘heat bath’. Introduced on the mean field level the collective variables must be quantized. This is accomplished through the Bohm-Pines method, which leads to an extended Hamiltonian for the entire system. On this basis, transport equations are deduced through a non-perturbative Nakajima-Zwanzig procedure. This scheme is carried out within a locally harmonic approximation, in which all collective forces are linearized locally and in which Gaussian forms are used for propagators of Wigner functions. The diffusion coefficients are determined by the quantal fluctuation dissipation theorem, which for unstable modes requires appropriate analytic continuations. This scheme breaks down below a critical value of temperature identical to that found in the Caldeira-Leggett model for real time propagation. Fundamental properties of these propagators are studied.
The statistical model for the decay of excited nuclei
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter begins with a discussion of the decay of the compound nucleus by particle emission. Formulas for the transition rates are derived by exploiting basic properties of the T-matrix, such as the concept of microreversibility. Connections with the statistical model of nuclear reactions are established and interpretations in terms of statistical mechanics are given. Finally, the Bohr-Wheeler formula for the fission rate is reviewed and interpreted by considering, amongst others, stability conditions for fission in the liquid drop model.
Pre-equilibrium reactions
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

In pre-equilibrium reactions, the nuclear complex breaks up before it reaches statistical equilibrium. Such reactions can be described within a time-dependent picture, in which the population and de-population of different classes of configurations is determined by master equations. This chapter describes an illustrative model for reactions with light particles, which elucidates the physics of such processes and allows the derivation of formulas for the fluctuating cross sections. The one for the last of all possible decays may be related to that of the statistical model. As an essential difference, the more general formula contains the formation cross section as a multiplicative factor, and through this depends on the initial channel. In the last section, comparisons are made with more complex theories. An approximate formula for p-h-densities is presented as an intermediate step.
Level densities and nuclear thermometry
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

Based on the Darwin-Fowler approximation various models for the many-body level density Ω are introduced, critically examined, and confronted with empirical parameterizations. This concerns both the macroscopic limit as well as the case where shell effects are included. Interpretations in the spirit of thermostatics are given. Implications for the use of the temperature concept and of the canonical ensemble are discussed in greater detail. Dependences of Ω on particle number and angular momentum are described. Theoretical approaches are sketched by which Ω can be treated on a microscopic basis, by applying functional integrals or the shell model Monte Carlo method (SMMC), for instance.
Dynamics of fission at finite temperature
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents basic schemes of deriving rate formulas from Fokker-Planck equations, following Kramers and Langer but accounting for variable transport coefficients. Langer's derivation involves the imaginary part of the partition function, which is calculated for variable inertia. For over-damped motion, the concept of the mean first passage time is introduced and the associated fission escape time is compared with that given by rate formulas. It is demonstrated how structures in the potential energy may lead to sizable modifications of rates deduced by saddle point approximations. A critical review of transient times and saddle-to-scission times is given in their application to the analysis of experiments. The influence of quantum effects on the fission rate is examined, firstly as determined by the quantal Fokker-Planck equation, secondly by evaluating microscopically the many-body partition function within a functional integral approach. Critical temperatures and comparisons with the Caldeira-Leggett model are discussed.
Heavy-ion collisions at low energies
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

In this regime heavy ion collisions can be parameterized by shape variables, the evolution of which is determined by transport equations of Fokker-Planck or Langevin type. This chapter describes basic scenarios together with the commonly used input for the equations of motion. Formulas for differential cross sections of deep inelastic reactions and total cross sections for fusion reactions are derived. For the latter, results obtained with microscopic and macroscopic transport coefficients (e.g. from the piston or the wall and window model) are compared with each other, including the case of quantum effects in collective motion. Critical reviews of various theoretical approaches and their assumptions are given for microscopic and macroscopic pictures, with particular emphasis on the challenges one faces especially for nuclear transport.
Metals and quantum wires
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter discusses conductivity in metals and semiconductor heterostructures. It aims to exhibit the similarities to nuclear transport problems. Semi-classical transport equations are used and the relaxation time approximation is exploited for the collision term. For metals, several processes are possible whose temperature dependence is discussed, namely electron-electron and electron-phonon collisions and scattering at impurities. The extent to which such features can be taken over to mesoscopic systems, such as quantum wires, is examined. For the two-dimensional electron gas it is shown that the electron transport may behave ballistically and that the conductivity is quantized. The resistance becomes finite because of contacts with leads. This makes up an essential difference from the nuclear case, where no external heat bath exists.
Energy transfer to a system of independent fermions
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the rate of energy transfer to a system of independent fermions inside a cavity. It is formulated first for the classical wall picture and then for quantum systems by applying basic formulas of linear response theory and allowing for finite frequencies of the external field. It is shown how wall friction can be regained by suitably energy averaging the strength functions involved. Studies of chaotic billiards are briefly reviewed. The formula of wall friction is derived by introducing a macroscopic limit to the microscopic response functions by way of Strutinsky smoothing defined in analogy to the Strutinsky procedure for the static energy.
Elements of reaction theory
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter derives formulas for gross sections of potential scattering, and shows their generalizations to nuclear reactions. A projection technique is introduced, which allows one to separate in the T-matrix the part which varies smoothly in energy from that for resonances. For the latter, general expressions are deduced which involve partial and total widths. Non-hermitean Hamiltonians for the optical model are obtained by applying suitable energy averages. The doorway mechanism is explained by which the intermediate structure in the resonances can be understood: it employs widths for decays to the continuum and to the compound states. The statistical theory is addressed, for which on the basis of general assumptions, analytic formulas for the fluctuating cross section are derived, which are in accord with N. Bohr's hypothesis of the independence of entrance and exit channels. The Weisskopf-Ewing relations and the Hauser-Feshbach theory are described, which involve branching ratios and formation probabilities. A critique of the statistical model is included.
Density operators and Wigner functions
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter introduces density operators and matrices for many-body systems, and explains their reduction to one- and two-body densities. Starting from the Slater determinant, the latter are explicitly calculated for independent fermions. For such systems, the classical limit is discussed and formulas for partition function, free energy, and entropy are derived by introducing and employing the concept of Wigner transformations. The propagation of wave packets is described in one dimension, a case for which correspondence rules are derived for various combinations of quantum operators. Finally, formulas are given for the equilibrium distribution of the quantal oscillator and the associated Wigner function.
The Hartree–Fock approximation
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter formulates the Hartree-Fock approximation with density matrices, and discusses the properties of the Hartree-Fock equations together with the energy functional for the ground state energy. A generalization to finite thermal excitations is performed by applying the variational principle to the grand canonical ensemble. Finally, the equations for time-dependent Hartree-Fock (TDHF) are described both at zero and at finite temperature.
Transport equations for the one-body density
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter begins by calculating the Wigner transform for the von Neumann equation for the one-body density operator. It shows how the Liouville equation follows in leading order in an expansion to ℏ. Properties of this expansion and of the resulting equation are discussed with respect to their physical and practical importance. Semi-classical approximations to the collision term are described and interpreted in terms of relevant transition rates. In Born approximation, equations of Boltzmann-Uehling-Uhlenbeck (BUU)- or Landau-Vlasov-type are obtained. The relevance of the conservation laws for particle number, energy, and momentum is discussed. For relaxation processes to equilibrium, self-energies are introduced and the relaxation-time approximation to the collision term is presented. The physical meaning of self-energies is discussed, together with the formula for the leading-order dependence of their imaginary part on energy, chemical potential, and temperature.
Nuclear thermostatics
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents the basic elements of statistical mechanics, and derives differential laws of thermostatics of deformed nuclei. Adiabatic and isothermal susceptibilities are introduced. Density operators for generalized ensembles are defined, from which various extremal properties are deduced, together with the second law and the meaning of quasi-static processes. Level densities and energy distributions are discussed, for which the Darwin-Fowler procedure and Gaussian approximations are introduced, respectively. Such methods allow for simple but realistic estimates of fluctuations of energy and temperature, and thus help to understand the applicability of the canonical ensemble to nuclei as isolated and self-bound systems. This property reflects itself in inherent uncertainties in the value of temperature, as expressed most clearly by a thermal uncertainty relation. Likewise, there is the obvious lack of extensivity, which is believed to lead to negative specific heats. A critical review upon these issues is given. Finally, general formulas for thermostatic potentials of independent particles are derived.
Linear response theory
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents a universal definition of linear response, which at first is studied for the example of the damped oscillator. From the quantal time evolution operator lowest order transition rates are deduced, together with microscopic response functions. Their fundamental properties are studied, in particular, the meaning of their reactive and dissipative parts for energy transfer. Correlation functions are introduced and related to response functions by way of the fluctuation dissipation theorem. For a random matrix model, the latter is shown to also hold true for microcanonical ensembles. Connections to thermal Green functions are established and an extension of response theory to unstable modes is discussed. With the help of the Mori product, relations among the static response, the adiabatic and the isothermal susceptibilities are given. Time dependent irreversible processes are studied by introducing relaxation functions and by following the variation of the density operator and of entropy. Onsager relations are presented and Kubo's expressions for transport coefficients are given.
Functional integrals
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter presents a short review of path integrals in quantum mechanics. This is followed by a detailed discussion of the evaluation of the semi-classical propagator, involving quadratic expansions of the action and the calculation of determinants. The concept of functionals is introduced for multi-dimensional cases, using a system linearly coupled to many oscillators as an example. The use of path integrals in statistical mechanics is described and quantum corrections to the classical limit are obtained. The connection with Green functions and level density is presented, with an excursion to periodic orbit theory and to the Gutzwiller formula for the oscillating part of the single particle level density. Many-body systems with separable interactions are treated by the Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation. For quantum corrections to the partition function, the static- and perturbed static path approximations are developed. The breakdown for unstable modes is discussed and a possible extension to damped motion is sketched.
Properties of Langevin and Fokker–Planck equations
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter introduces Langevin- and Fokker-Planck equations by way of a heuristic approach to the physics of Brownian particles. Variances of physical quantities are defined and related to cumulants. General properties of stochastic processes are described, with special emphasis on Markov processes and the Chapman-Kolmogorov equation. From the latter, Fokker-Planck equations are derived by the Kramers-Moyal expansion and connections with Langevin equations are established. The meaning of additive and multiplicative noise is clarified. Mathematical problems implied by the latter are studied for a one-dimensional system. Ito's and Stratonivich's suggestions of how to handle stochastic differential equations are presented. The concept of the mean first passage time is elucidated and basic formulas for its evaluation are derived. A short excursion is devoted to the Master equation and to detailed balance. Microscopic approaches to transport problems are reviewed. The perturbative Nakajima-Zwanzig equation is derived and compared with equations used in quantum optics.
Formal means
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

This chapter elucidates various mathematical formulas. Based on expressions for Gaussian integrals in one and many dimensions, the methods of stationary phase and steepest descent are deduced, representations of the delta-function are given and applied to Fourier and Laplace transformations. For quantal operators, the Mori product is introduced and an important formula for the derivative of exponentials is shown. Elementary properties of spin and isospin are discussed; for fermions, the formalism of second quantization is produced.
Natural units in nuclear physics
Authors: Hofmann Helmut
Published: September 2008

In this chapter the units are summarized in which nuclear quantities are usually measured, all traced back on the elementary units of energy, time and length (in MeV, 10^{-23}sec and fm).
Occasion-Sensitivity
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

This book presents a series of chapters which develops the author's distinctive view of the relation of thought to language. The key idea is ‘occasion-sensitivity’: what it is for words to express a given concept is for them to be apt for contributing to any of many different conditions of correctness (notably truth conditions). Since words mean what they do by expressing a given concept, it follows that meaning does not determine truth conditions. This view ties thoughts less tightly to the linguistic forms which express them than traditional views of the matter, and in two directions: a given linguistic form, meaning fixed, may express an indefinite variety of thoughts; one thought can be expressed in an indefinite number of syntactically and semantically distinct ways. The book highlights the importance of this view for linguistic theory, and shows how it gives new form to a variety of traditional philosophical problems.
On What Is Strictly Speaking True
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

Saying is one way of putting things into words. Others include hinting at, implying, suggesting, and letting slip out. But how is saying distinguished from such rival modes of conveying, or at least expressing things, and why does this matter? One answer to these twin questions was proposed some years ago by H. P. Grice, who believes that what is said is often simpler than it seems. And he offers, in effect, a way to argue that it is wherever complexities may seem to be rearing their heads. Given the seriousness with which this offer has been taken up, and the relentlessness with which it has sometimes been applied, and given the resultant dismissal of phenomena better worried about, this chapter shows why Grice's suggestion cannot be correct.
Annals of Analysis
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

H. P. Grice transformed the problems he touched and, thereby, the terms of philosophical discussion. The discussions he touched most deeply concern meaning, saying, and perceiving. All Grice's work displays a particular method, practised with consummate skill. This chapter argues that the method often decides much as to what his view must be. Studies in the Way of Words, a self-selection of his work, provides an occasion for evaluating both the transformations and the method they represent.
Meaning's Role in Truth
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

There is a widespread view of truth, tracing back at least to Frege, on which we may say all there is to say about what truth is without so much as mentioning words. This chapter shows that this view is wrong. It argues that what words mean plays a role in fixing when they would be true; but not an exhaustive one. Meaning leaves room for variation in truth conditions from one speaking to another. What that non-exhaustive role is depends on what it is to have said what is true. Identification of the aspect of truth which fixes this role will collapse the widespread view.
Insensitive Semantics
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

What is insensitive semantics (or semantic minimalism? This may become clear in this chapter from Cappelen and Lepore's objections to their opponents. They signal two main opponents: moderate contextualists and radical contextualists. This chapter presents the position of the latter. It argues that the former position collapses into the latter; Radical contextualism is incoherent, or inconsistent, on various counts, as this chapter shows. The chapter concludes therefore that semantic minimalism is the only game in town.
Vagueness, Observation, and Sorites
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

Frege believes that vagueness leads to inconsistency in language, and Michael Dummett has suggested that he may have been right, at least in some cases. Dummett writes: ‘the use of vague predicates — at least when the source of the vagueness is the non-transitivity of a relation of non-discriminable difference — is intrinsically incoherent’. The moral Dummett draws is that ‘while our language certainly contains observational predicates as well as relational expressions, the former (though not the latter) infect it with inconsistency’. This chapter argues that Dummett is mistaken on both scores. First, our language does not and could not contain observational expressions in Dummett's sense, nor is there reason to want it to. Second, our language is not and could not be inconsistent for anything like the reasons Dummett offers.
On Constraints of Generality
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

Gareth Evans proposed, as a constraint on thought, that anyone, to entertain any given thought, must be able to entertain a particular (thinker-relative) system of them. This chapter argues that our thinking is not constrained by the generality constraint. So there is no legitimate philosophical work that constraint can do. The constraint seems plausible only when an over-simple picture of which capacities are in play in grasp of a thought is given. Insofar as our grasp of a particular thought to the effect that a is F involves grasp of what it is for a thing to be F, it also requires exercise of a further sort of capacity which Evans ignores, and which may be present with respect to a given thought to the effect that a is F, while missing for another thought to the effect that b is F (where a and b may, or may not, be distinct). The chapter then considers Wittgenstein's idea about systems. For Wittgenstein, a system of thoughts has certain roles to play in conferring the content they have on each of its members. It may well be that systems are needed to play such roles, and hence that any thought must be understood in terms of some system of thoughts to which it belongs. If the plausibility of the generality constraint derives in part from that of Wittgenstein's idea, it is important that the two ideas are not the same.
A Sense of Occasion
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: September 2008

This chapter explores the views of John Cook Wilson, J. L. Austin, and John McDowell. Some stances aim at the world: if all goes well, stance and world match. Some stances contain the world: for one to have that stance towards something is for that thing to be so (or there). Some of these simply contain their object: taking them is not aiming at their object (which then, happily, is there to hit). John Cook Wilson saw knowledge as a stance of this last sort. John McDowell showed why knowledge needs to be like that. But it was J. L. Austin who made the idea viable. He did it by showing how a sense of occasion is required for proper ascription of epistemic notions.
1 The Emergence of the Idea of Institutions as Repositories of Knowledge
Authors: Hodgson Geoffrey M.
Published: September 2008

This chapter traces the history of the idea of organizational learning back to last quarter of the 19th century. In focuses on George Henry Lewes's concept of the ‘general mind’ and Thorstein Veblen's notion of collective knowledge. Both point out that the social store of custom and tradition is made up of accumulated knowledge. Learning is thus a process of positive feedback between individuals and society. The recent revival of the concept of institutional knowledge is discussed.
2 Dynamic Capability as a Source of Change
Authors: Winter Sidney G.
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the concept of dynamic capability as it has developed in the strategic management field, taking primarily the ‘learned competence’ perspective and emphasizing the proactive uses of dynamic capabilities by business firms. It seeks to clarify how apparent opposites — novelty and familiarity, creativity, and learned routine — come into a pragmatic synthesis in the context of dynamic capability. It also places the discussion in a broader frame than the usual profit-oriented one of strategic management, giving more emphasis to both causes and consequences at levels of analysis above that of the individual firm. The chapter begins by reviewing the intellectual background, linking the dynamic capability idea to Schumpeter's ‘routinization of innovation’ and to the analysis of routines in evolutionary economics. It then sketches two examples of dynamic capabilities: product development in semiconductors and retail outlet replication. Only after the dynamic capability concept is thus motivated and illustrated does the focus shift to more careful definitions and economic analysis of the hierarchy of change.
3 Rules, Routines, and Learning in Organizations
Authors: Kieser Alfred
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the specific interplay of rules and routines in organizational learning. It is argued that rules and routines provide media of organizational learning. Organizational learning based on rules and routines comes about only when there are organizational members who actively pursue changes in rules and routines, when these members overcome the learning barriers and thus complete the learning cycle, and when the organization succeeds in correctly interpreting feedback from the environment.
4 Problemistic Search and (Inter‐)Organizational Learning
Authors: Greve Henrich R.
Published: September 2008

This chapter addresses the question of how the institutional environment relates to organizational learning. Two areas of research on organizational change are distinguished: the concept of problemistic search and the concept of inter-organizational diffusion. Research on problemistic search examines conditions that give rise to organizational problems, whereas the theory of diffusion emphasizes the availability of effective solutions. However, both perspectives rely on a similar model of managerial cognition and its operational effects. A theoretical synthesis thus will advance the understanding of how new behaviours are adopted by organizations.
5 Change in Institutional Fields
Authors: Hinings C. R. , Malhotra Namrata
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines institutional change at the field level of analysis. In doing so, it provides an overview of the work on archetypes and institutional change that has been developed theoretically and empirically through work on municipalities, accounting, law, architecture and management consulting firms, health care organizations, and sport organizations. The dynamics of change involve inter-organizational relations as well as the activities of individual organizations and groups within organizations. Organizational responses to institutional change need to involve aspects like values, interest, and power. The proposed process model of institutional change then addresses the de-institutionalization as well as the re-institutionalization of organizational components as an evolutionary process.
6 Myths of the Market
Authors: Fligstein Neil
Published: September 2008

This chapter aims to supplement the understanding of entrepreneurship and competition by demonstrating that they cannot occur without governments and stable social structures to support them. It considers two major developments in the American economy that have been typically hailed as emblematic of the working out of free markets: the emergence of the ‘shareholder value’ conception of the firm and the rise and growth of Silicon Valley. It is shown that these phenomena were not just caused by entrepreneurial activity, but were embedded in pre-existing social relations. In both cases, the government played a pivotal role in pushing forward the conditions for ‘entrepreneurial activity’. The chapter discusses why governments sometimes do not figure in either economic or some economic sociological arguments about markets and economic growth, and suggests how an economic sociology with a view of embeddedness that includes governments, law, and supporting institutions offers a more complete picture of market evolution.
8 Institutional Entrepreneurship and the Structuring of Organizations and Markets
Authors: Walgenbach Peter , Meyer Renate E.
Published: September 2008

This chapter argues that organizational actors and interests need to be regarded as cultural constructions. It considers organizational institutionalism and Giddens's structuration theory to relate strategic action with the process of institutional innovation. This allows for a reconsideration of social practices through which organizational actors reproduce certain structures. Accordingly, institutional innovation is perceived as a representation of the structuring of organizations and markets through entrepreneurial efforts.
12 Institutional Evolution and the Political Economy of Governance
Authors: Ebner Alexander
Published: September 2008

This chapter examines the co-evolutionary relationship between markets and states as a path-dependent process that reflects the social construction of institutional change. It reviews the major contributions to the governance approach, as originally provided by the new institutional economics and subsequently extended in the transdisciplinary discourse of the new institutionalism. Oliver E. Williamson's transaction cost approach to governance is examined, offering insights into the notion of private ordering as a governance device. Douglass C. North's theory of the institutional evolution of markets and states and, Mancur Olson's collective action approach to governance are then considered.