bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Emergent and Contemporary Life Styles: An Inter-generational Issue
Authors: Friedlander Frank
Published: August 2005

In order to explore the diverse and emerging patterns of life styles within our social milieu, the beliefs, values, and preferences of a heterogeneous sample of 1 154 men and women were factor analyzed. Derived life styles were then related to various biographic and demographic data. Three life style dimensions emerged: (1) The formalistic life style which places a heavy reliance on higher authority, law and order, precedent, and advancement as a criterion of success. The formalistic is older, higher in men than women, typical of sales, business, and technical occupations, and greatest in the Protestant religions. (2) The sociocentric life style which looks to close intimate relationships for guidance and direction. The sociocentric shows a drop with age until 25 years and then a rise, is most typical of the social service and science occupations, and is higher in women than men. (3) The personalistic life style which looks to himself for guidance and direction, and places a high value on his personal freedom to decide how he wants to live and act. The personalistic declines steadily from the teens to the mid 50's, is lowest among those with a master's degree, is typical of those in the arts, entertainment, cultural and student occupations, is higher in women than men, and is characteristic of Jews and agnostics. Inferences are drawn concerning intergenerational issues, cultural change, and organization structures of the future. The study focuses both upon youth as a pacesetter for cultural change, and upon cultural norms as influencing life styles.
Reactions to Three Types of Distributive Injustice
Authors: Donnenwerth Gregory V. , Tbrnblom Kjell Y.
Published: August 2005

Recent formulations of distributive justice or equity theory are examined. It is suggested that the basic differences, and indeed difficulties, of these formulations lie in the manner in which social comparisons have been conceptualized. It is proposed that as a result of these conceptual problems, existing formulations account for only a small number of the many possible types of injustice situations. A conceptual elaboration of distributive justice theory is presented. It is demonstrated that within what has previously been recognized as one type of distributive injustice there are many other possible types of injustice states. An examination of one of the many related propositional elaborations is presented. An hypothesis derived from this proposition is tested in one cognitive and one experimental study. This hypothesis proposes that individuals will differentially define and respond to previously unrecognized injustice states. The results of both studies clearly indicate that individuals do differentially define and respond to the injustice states manipulated. The methodological implications of this work along with its implications for future theoretical development in distributive injustice and equity theory are discussed.
The Judgement Process in Management Students' Evaluation of their Learning Experiences
Authors: Burgoyne John G.
Published: August 2005

The ideal approach to evaluating management development programmes has often been held to involve objective measurement of achievement of criteria, carried out within an experimental design which allows any chance discovered to be attributed to the programme itself rather than any other factor. In practice many evaluation studies rely on the collection, after the programme, of evaluative opinions from the participants. Campbell et al. (1970) have pointed out that such opinionbased follow up studies may give valid results if the judgements made by the participants, which underlie their expressed opinions, themselves embody the logical and scientific procedures that give validity to the experimental type of study.

This research investigates the process of judgement underlying the formation of evaluative opinions by programme participants. The methodology of 'protocol analysis', used so far mainly in laboratory studies, is employed. This calls for an inductive analysis of the content of recordings made when a person is asked to 'think aloud' while making a decision. Although this is a controversial methodology from some epistemological standpoints, it is also one with many potentially useful applications in the applied social sciences.

The results show that many of the features of valid judgement, like the use of objectifiable criteria, and 'control group' logic are present, to some extent, in the judgement process underlying evaluative opinions. This suggests that a certain amount of validity can be attached to opinion based follow-up studies, and that there is the possibility of designing such studies to encourage these processes to occur, and hence to enhance the validity of the conclusions.
Communication and Satisfaction in Organizations
Authors: Marrett Cora Bagley , Hage Jerald , Aiken Michael
Published: August 2005

The present study, based on data obtained in a set of health and social welfare agencies, attempted to develop some measures for examining organizational communication and to relate those measures to worker satisfaction. The communication properties of primary concern were the formality of the communication network and the direction of communication in the organization. The results indicated that these dimensions could be specified empirically and that their relationships to satisfaction measured. Those relationships were found to vary depending upon whether satisfaction with the job or with co-workers was the focus. The study discusses several implications of the differentiation made among dimensions of communication and proposes some hypotheses to be tested in further research on the social-psychological correlates of organizational communication patterns.
The Demise of Management and the Ritual of Employment
Authors: Pym Denis
Published: August 2005

Industrial man's central social ritual is employment. This article is about my continuing personal explorations of the link between the condition of employment and a range of pressing issues - alienation, the overconsumption of scarce resources and pollution. I am expressing here a point of view relevant in limited time and space. Since the tradition of industrial social and behavioural enquiry is geared to maintaining a deception, our primary task is the search for reality. The case against the institutions of employment begins with their literary basis (the central role of written words and numbers in transactions) and rational veneer. Rites in this context fail to fulfil the function of religious activity. Employment, in short, is bad ritual. Important, though. debatable, distinctions are made here between positive work and negative employment and the consumption of the former by the latter. Attention is focused on the convergence of employment and ritual with the growth of large organizations and the service sector and their links with the demise of management. At the pivot of employment and its maintenance stands the manager, propped up by the professional, educator, and trade unionist, with his lopsided and now dysfunctional view of organization. His stereotyped means of maintaining control by and within the closed system of employment has led to the flight into bad ritual.

The second part of the paper considers some solutions which fit the belief expounded by Illich above. It recommends a return to the pursuit of emancipation as a primary concern in re-examining the relationship between man, work and employment. The final section is an attack on the wastefulness, suffering and lunacy of industrial man's continuing faith in compulsory employment. Escape from its enslavement can only come from making public, and acting on, the private feelings that a large section of men and women in employment now harbour.
How Different Types of Change Agents Diagnose Organizations
Authors: Tichy Noel M.
Published: August 2005

This article explores the results of a questionnaire study which focused on how four types of change agents, the Outside Pressure Type, the Organization Development type, the Analysis for the Top Type and the People Change Technology Type diagnose organizations. The four types of change agents were found to use different diagnostic categories. The differences were found to relate to both their value orientation and to the change techniques which they employ.
Interdependence and Complementarity-The Case of a Brokerage Office
Authors: Pennings Johannes M.
Published: August 2005

This paper attempts to develop a framework for defining the concept of interdependence theoretically and operationally. A distinction is being made between task, position-role, social and skill interdependence. The significance of these distinctions for outcome variables is discussed. Data descriptive of members of brokerage offices reveal weak or negligible intercorrelations among the modes of interdependence. Social interdependence appears to be the best predictor of organizational or group performance. The implications of the findings are discussed.
Rank Order Survey of Seven Employee Self-Interest Areas
Authors: Fuselier Cecil , Tanja Jon J.
Published: August 2005

'In our society there is no single situation which is potentially so capable of giving some satisfaction at all levels of basic needs as is the occupation' (Schletzer, 1966).

Employees have definite self-interests that they expect to receive from their employer. Among these self-interest areas are items such as: (1) opportunity for expression and development, (2) acceptable hours and wages, (3) fair and efficient leadership, (4) interest in work, (5) recognition as an individual, (6) safe-healthy work conditions, and (7) economic security.

To gain a better insight into how pharmacists rank these seven employee self-interest areas, a study was proposed with six objectives. These objectives were: (1) to obtain a pharmacist opinion of the ranking order of the areas studied, (2) to classify these rank order findings into individual categories, (3) to provide some managerial insight as to how sex, degree held, area of practice and other vital statistics affect an individual's response to the rank order of the areas, (4) to compare the similarity of responses amongst individuals in various professional specialties, (5) to contrast the responses amongst individuals in various professional specialties and (6) to furnish a tool in better understanding the individual needs of pharmacists practicing in different facets of the profession.

When grouped together, pharmacists expressed that the first three most important self-interest areas were interest in work, acceptable hours and wages, and opportunity for expression and development. These three areas were followed by economic security, recognition as an individual, fair and efficient leadership and safe-healthy work conditions.

The responses were stratified into individual categories. The mean order ranking of the seven areas was computed for each of those categories.
T-Groups-Twenty Years on
Authors: Levine Ned , Cooper Cary L.
Published: August 2005

This article examines the development of experiential learning groups in terms of their social values and the socioeconomic conditions leading to their growth. In addition, and more importantly, it will attempt to prophesy the future of the human relations/experiential movement by a detailed examination of four socioeconomic trends: Anglo-American orientation of the movement, production and growth trends of advanced capitalist economies, shifting age structure, and the changes in the expression of middle-class needs. These issues are considered in the context of the developing and developed countries separately.
Staff Processes and Pupil Attitudes
Authors: Seeman Alice Z. , Seeman Melvin
Published: August 2005

This paper examines the relation between the involvement of teachers in school management and their pupils' school-relevant attitudes. The teacher participation is conceived in terms of a process of dialogue, decision-making, and action-taking (DDA) regarding particular changes under way in the school. The pupil attitudes that are shown to be associated with DDA are attitudes toward learning, attitudes toward school, and the pupil's self-concept. Data are presented to substantiate the view that it is not the teachers' personal characteristics (e.g., teaching experience or dogmatism) which are crucial in developing favorable student attitudes, but rather the teachers' organizational participation. The evidence indicates that teachers who are more involved in the dialogue-decision-action process have students with more favorable attitudes; and that these teachers likewise reflect the greater sense of mastery (low powerlessness scores) that staff participation hypothetically should encourage.
A Discontinuity Theory of Psychological Development
Authors: Isaac D. J. , O'Connor B. M.
Published: August 2005

A discontinuity theory of psychological development is designed such that the associated experimental work relies on quantitative variates of behavior to discriminate stages. Using a dynamic element, expressed abstractly in terms of "poles" and "relations, " a series of structures relating to developmental stages is constructed. The element operates in either of two ways: in a discriminating mode or confusing mode. Operating in the discriminating mode, poles and relations become more defined; operating in the confusing mode leads to loss of discrimination of poles and relation. The element is applied to an imaginary situation of baby with mother. In the course of applying the element, a resolution of the situation into two components is introduced, which leads finally to a unity which comprises a self-structure and two classes of objects, things and persons. The essential structure of this unity, expressed in terms of a self-pole related to an object-pole serves as the level 1 structure of the series. In moving from one level to the next, a transformation of self and objects of the preceding level takes place, elements of the preceding level becoming integrated and serving aspolesfor the succeeding level. Finally, five levels of psychological development are constructed, comprising 15 fundamentally different modes of functioning. The quantitative statements arising from the theory opened possibilities for rigorous experimental testing. Problem-solving experiments and experiments involving loss of skill under increasing stress have been designed to test the theory, the results of which support the theory.
Worries about Deprivation of Job Rewards Following Computerization: A Partial Order Scalogram Analysis
Authors: Shye Samuel , Elizur Dov
Published: August 2005

The introduction of a major change in an organization, like computerization, may be expected to raise some worries on the part of affected employees. Four sources of worries experienced by the employees of accounting departments are discussed: job security, job stability, job proficiency, and job interest. An empirical structure of these worries, based on scalogram technique, was found, and an interpretation for it is proposed. By the use of Partial Order Scalogram Analysis, a parsimonious description of the contents behind the variables was obtained. Empirical profiles can be characterized by two scores, rather than the original four, by means of two scales: the joint scale represents the "amount" of worry and the lateral scale measures the composition or the "quality" of worry. The findings confirm our hypothesis concerning the content underlying the lateral ("quality-of-worries') scale, namely that it reflects the degree of "intrinsicality" versus "extrinsicality" of the job reward the loss of which is feared.
An Integrated Formalization of Organization-Environment Interdependencies
Authors: Mileti Dennis S. , Gillespie David F.
Published: August 2005

A formal model is developed facilitating (1) an integration of theories dealing with organization-environment interaction, and (2) an explanation of how an organization's boundaries become increasingly permeated by the environment. It is argued that rates of change per se represent the principal impetus in promoting adaptive exchanges between an organization and its environment, both for long-term (evolutionary) and short-term (mutational) changes in the environment. The model reveals that a key variable in organization-environment interdependencies is the ratio of legitimate demands placed upon the organization by the environment to either the capacity or minimum performance levels of the organization.
A Comparative Analysis of the Psychological Consequences of Change
Authors: Lauer Robert H. , Thomas Rance
Published: August 2005

Both social scientists and laymen have defined the present age as one of anxiety, and many have linked that anxiety with rapid change. The present study investigates the relationships between change in individual life circumstances, perceived rate of social change, and anxiety level. These relationships are examined in two samples-one from England and one from the United States. In both societies, there is a positive correlation between both kinds of change and anxiety level, with the perceived rate of social change being more significant as a predictor of anxiety level than change in life circumstances. In both societies, the effects of rate were moderated when the change is defined as desirable. A few differences between the two societies are noted and discussed. In general, however, the data support the notion that a high rate of change generates psychological reactions which require adjustment on the part of individuals, with the reaction moderated when the changes are perceived as desirable.
Political Constraints on Public Policy
Authors: Spadaro Robert N.
Published: August 2005

This exploratory research considers folkways devised by political leaders in general and specifically engaged in campaigning as cues to social and policy constraints and manipulative strategies. First, while we know a good deal about voter experience, we have little systematic knowledge of the politician's campaign experience, and thus our understanding of this important mass-elite linkage is limited. Kingdon (1968) has reported that politicians experience minimal learning in a campaign, whether they win or lose. The model developed here explores political folkways which may serve as important clues to (1) understanding the impact and learning of the campaign on the politician, and (2) determining whether these folkways lead to an accurate assessment and/or potential means of influencing the voters.
Social Patterns and Norms in Lebanon and the United States
Authors: Starr Paul D.
Published: August 2005

This study reports selected respondents' views of the norms and patterns generally present in the contemporary societies of Lebanon and the U.S.A. Employing an instrument initially developed by Miller in the comparison of Ibero-Latin-American societies with those of the Anglo-American culture complex, it is possible to compare judgments of Lebanon and the U.S.A. on a number of characteristics, to consider indications of recent changes in American society, and to observe several interesting similarities between Lebanon and other societies which share in the tradition of the circum Mediterranean culture area.
Influence of Schools on Economically Disadvantageous Attitudes: A Solomon Islands Study
Authors: Macbeth Alastair M.
Published: August 2005

While there is recognition that attitudes affect national economic advance in developing countries, there is doubt whether schools can significantly influence attitudes and whether it is morally right for them to attempt to do so. This study examines the economically detrimental attitude of regionalism in a Solomon Islands secondary school and measures (by an extended sociogram technique which largely eliminates response set) changes in regionalism with exposure to a school experience which stressed regional integration. Significant decreases in regionalism were recorded. However, the author warns that factors other than school policy (e.g., the boarding element, parental support, and the fact that regionalism in society had not reached crisis proportions) may have been preconditions of the attitude change. It is doubtful if schools should be expected to change attitudes to suit political or economic ends.
Identification, Personality Needs, and Managerial Position
Authors: Rotondi Thomas
Published: August 2005

An empirical research study was conducted to determine the relationships between the personality needs and identification models of organizational personnel. Also examined were the effects of managerial position upon such relationships. Variables under investigation included n Affiliation, n Achievement, organizational identification, work group identification, occupational identification, and external group identification. To reflect the impacts of differing occupations and organizational philosophies, data was collected and analyzed from a geographically diverse sample of 187 U.S. industrial employees. Significant findings of the study showed that (a) among managers, both n Affiliation and n Achievement were directly associated with each of the identification models, whereas (b) among nonmanagers, n Affiliation was related directly to occupational identification and work group identification, with n Achievement being directly associated only with occupational identification.
Factors Affecting Acquisition of Beliefs about a New Reward System
Authors: Goodman Paul S. , Moore Brian E.
Published: August 2005

This paper examines the relationships between individual, organizational, and interpersonal variables on the acquisition of beliefs about a new organizational reward system. The setting for the research is the introduc-tion of a companywide incentive plan (Scanlon Plan) into a manufacturing plant. Two types of beliefs are analyzed: (1) the belief that suggestion-making behavior leads to a reward (system expectancy); and (2) the belief that, given the effort, the individual can make productivity-related sugges-tions (self-expectancy). After the introduction of the reward system, managers' beliefs about this new Plan are more affected by individual level variables (e.g., educational level), while beliefs of blue-collar workers seem more affected by organizational (e.g., nature of task) or interpersonal variables. A measurement 6 months after the Scanlon Plan had been in operation seemed to indicate that the beliefs remained relatively stable. However, despite frequent bonuses from and participation in the new Plan, there was a tendency for some participants to be more skeptical about future payoffs from the Plan.
Presenting Problems in Social Consultancy: Three Case Histories Concerning the Selection of Managers
Authors: Bain Alastair
Published: August 2005

This paper examines the nature of presenting problems in social consultancy through analyzing three case histories concerned with the selection of managers. A theory is put forward that the role that is assigned by the presenter to the consultant contains within it the presenter's denied relationship to the problem. The work of social consultancy reverses this process such that what has been projected into the role of consultant is taken back by the presenter in the form of his link to the problem. The social space containing consultant, presenter, and problem has thereby been changed.
Sex Differences in Emotionality: A Multidimensional Approach
Authors: Allen Jon G. , Haccoun Dorothy Markiewicz
Published: August 2005

An Emotionality Survey was developed to assess sex differences in three dimensions of emotion: covert responding, interpersonal expression, and attitudes toward responses and expressions. Situational determinants of responses were also investigated. Within each of these areas, four types of emotion were distinguished: anger, fear, joy, and sadness. In general, females exceeded males in reported emotionality, but sex differences varied as a function of dimension and type of emotion. Differences were greatest for interpersonal expression, and for fear and sadness. Females also reported more of an interpersonal basis for their emotional responses. The findings suggest a sex difference in the functional significance of emotion, and support a multidimensional approach to the investigation of sex differences in emotionality.
Attempted Suicide and Cultural Change: An Empirical Investigation
Authors: Robertson Alex , Cochrane Raymond
Published: August 2005

Monitoring ofpatient records has shown that, over the last decade in Edinburgh, there has been a dramatic increase in the incidence of attempted suicide among men aged under 25; whereas among men aged over 40, the rates have remained stable. This trend is paralleled in other parts of the U.K. The research described in this paper was based on the assumption that a change has occurred in the world-view of young people, and that this has been responsible for the differential increase in attempted suicide. The elements of this change were seen as: (a) an emphasis on the importance of "self-fulfillment"; (b) a belief that society, rather than the individual, should be responsible for providing the means to personal fulfillment; (c) a resulting tendency to regard social and material deprivations as obstacles to self-fulfillment. It was postulated that individuals who possess these values, and who live in objectively deprived circumstances, would be less willing to tolerate stresses than would their older counterparts, who were seen as placing less emphasis on personal fulfillment, and more on personal responsibility. A set of hypotheses, derivedfrom this model, were tested in a study of 100 male attempted suicides and 100 controls. Findings support the view that changes of the type suggested have taken place in the consciousness of young people; but these do not seem to relate to the trend in attempted suicide among the young.
Work Integration, Marital Satisfaction, and Conjugal Power
Authors: Kemper Theodore D. , Reichler Melvin L.
Published: August 2005

Information was gathered on several aspects of the work integration of a sample of husbands and on the marital satisfaction and power relations of the husbands and their wives. These data were separately factor analyzed, producing three factors of work integration: Job Satisfaction, Power Relations, and Mobility Aspirations; and two factors of marital integration: Marital Satisfaction and Conjugal Power. The items loading these factors were intercorrelated with the following results: items dealing with the intrinsic satisfactions of work, such as meaningfulness of work, liking for it, control over pace of work, correlated significantly with items indicating satisfaction of both husband and wife; items indicating extrinsic satisfactions of work, such as income, recognition, and job prestige, were not related to items of marital satisfaction. Additionally, there was little relationship between work integration and conjugal power. Finally, mobility aspirations appeared to be determined by wife's dominance and dissatisfaction. This, however, was found to be explained by social class.
Stand When Your Number is Called: An Empirical Attempt to Classify Types of Social Change Agents
Authors: Tichy Noel M. , Hornstein Harvey A.
Published: August 2005

Interviews and questionnaires were administered to a varied group of professional social change agents. A four-category typology of change agent types was developedfrom an inductive analysis of the data. The categorization scheme best accounted for differences in the following areas: personal characteristics, values relative to social change, conceptualizations about what mediates change, change technologies employed, and the settings in which change work is carried out. The four types of change agents which emerged were: (1) the Outside Pressure Type who works to change systems from outside through the application of pressure using such tactics as mass demonstration, civil disobedience, and violence; (2) the Analysis for the Top Type who works primarily with business and government units to improve efficiency and output and employs analytic procedures to develop expert advice; (3) the Organization Development Type who works to improve a system 's problem-solving capabilities through applied behavioral science techniques; and (4) the People Change Technology Type who works to change individual functioning in organizations through such techniques as behavior modification and need achievement.
The Psychology of Removing Group Members and Recruiting New Ones
Authors: Zander Alvin
Published: August 2005

The removal of group members and the recruiting of new ones are central processes in the maintenance of a group, yet they receive little study. Bases for determining who will be expelled and who initiated are stated in the form of propositions. A number of hypotheses are then offered concerning conditions that may cause events to run counter to these propositions.
The Open Field
Authors: Cooper Robert
Published: August 2005

The paper attempts to define an epistemology of process as a basis for the development of expressive and creative action. Five conditions of process are identified-unstructured action, change, projectability, the situation, the abstract field-and their behavioral implications are discussed. Finally, a methodology for the personal use of process is presented.
Jews and Arabs Rehearse Geneva: A Model of Conflict Resolution
Authors: Levi A. M. , Benjamin A.
Published: August 2005

This paper describes a structured model of conflict resolution, illustrated with examples from two workshops. The model stresses the task requirements of conflict resolution as contrasted with current process-oriented models. After defining the conflict and gathering information, participants choose among the options: Influence Attempts, Creating New Solutions, Redefinition of the Conflict, and Gathering More Information, returning to information-gathering and renewed choice until the conflict is resolved. The relative success of the initial 2-day workshops engenders optimism regarding further refinement of the model.
A Study of Situational (Cooperative/Competitive) and Personality ("High" and "Low" Participation) Factors on the Role Enactment of Human Relations Problems
Authors: Chell Elizabeth
Published: August 2005

Individuals were selected according to their participation rates in a large group discussion. The effect of "high" and "low" participation on their performance in a subsequent triadic group problem-solving situation was measured using Bales' Interaction Process Analysis (Bales, 1950). The situation was manipulated by varying the conditions of cooperation and competition under which the individuals interacted. The effect of the interaction between the dimension of personality (participation rate) and the situation was also measured. It was found that there was a significant behavioral difference in the interaction of the "high" and "low" participators; that personality and situationalfactors were important determinants in specified ways of behavioral differences. The implications of this research for training personnel are discussed.
The Utility of a Model: An Application of the Global Matrix
Authors: Coplan Bette S. , Goldman Harvey
Published: August 2005

To what extent are conceptual models useful for describing how organizationsfunction? Utilizing an instrument based on the Global Matrix set forth by Bertram Gross, elementary school principals and teachers in a single state assessed the effectiveness of their systems. The results support the contention that the conceptual model on which the instrument was based does have applicability when applied to educational institutions. The data also provide support for the contention that the instrumentation discriminates between organizations. Further, the utility of the instrument, both theoretical and practical, is discussed.
Measurement of Beliefs
Authors: Buchholz Rogene A.
Published: August 2005

This study assesses two different approaches to measuring beliefs about work as a human activity. The first approach is a whole systems approach that asks for a response to five different concepts of work expressed in paragraphs on a questionnaire. The second approach involves responses to individual belief statements that are then factor analyzed to form the same five dimensions expressed in the paragraphs. The computation of results shows a significant difference in scores between the two methods of measuring beliefs, thus making the question of which method measures "true" belief a crucial one for future research.
Differential Administrative Capacity and Organizational Development: A Kibbutz Case Study
Authors: Billis David
Published: August 2005

This paper presents a discontinuous analysis of organizational development and the part played by administrative capacity considered as a summation of individual attributes. Based on 20 years'study of one kibbutz, it is suggested that there are qualitatively different levels of demand for administrative capacity, which can be identified and which, if they are not in equilibrium with available aggregate supply, cause serious organizational disturbance. In particular, imbalance in the supply-demand equation is presented as an alternative explanation of large-scale defection of members in the case study. Analysis of the career progressions of a number of kibbutz managers supports the contention that the rate of development of administrative capacity varies and that training cannot lift managers through the critical boundaries associated with different strata of work.
The Human Subject: A Study of Individual Experimental Participation
Authors: Skuja Eric , Sheehan Peter W.
Published: August 2005

Intensive analysis of subjects' individual perceptions of an experimental task was conducted in distinctly different contexts of testing. Independent sets of subjects were tested individually in a rapport-inducing context (defined as collaborative) and a traditional context of research engagement (defined as contractual). Collaborative subjects were either known before hand or not known beforehand by the experimenter who tested them. The task was a difficult problem-solving one that allowed subjects to manifest their changing perceptions of the test situation over time. Results indicated marked within-subject variability and intergroup variation in subjects' attitudes to the experimenter and his test procedures. Data highlighted, in particular, the error of typing subjects in terms of well-defined roles or collections of social attitudes. The pattern of interplay between subject and experimenter was multidimensional and suggested the need to redefine the application of the concept of role to the social psychology of the psychological experiment.
The Role of Environment in a Configurational Theory of Organizations
Authors: Shortell Stephen M.
Published: August 2005

This paper refines existing conceptualizations of organizational task environments by distinguishing among environmental complexity, diversity, instability, uncertainty, dependence, and hostility. Based on these concepts, a typology is presented that suggests that certain combinations of environmental dimensions are important for classifying organizations. Further, the various combinations of environmental dimensions are used to specify a configurational theory of organizations by suggesting interaction effects between the various environmental dimensions and internal organizational design. Based on the typology of environmental dimensions and three premises, twelve propositions are derived for empirical testing. The existing literature relevant to some of the propositions is reviewed, the strengths and limitations of the theory are presented, and some implications for organizational research are discussed, particularly in terms of constructing more comprehensive theories of organizations.
An All-Purpose Model for Group Work
Authors: Babad Elisha Y. , Tzur Amos , Oppenheimer Bruce T. , Shaltiel Amnon
Published: August 2005

A comprehensive modelfor the understanding of group work is presented. The model consists of two dimensions, each divided into three categories, creating nine cells. The Type of Operation dimension is divided into Learning, Therapy, and Experience categories, and the Level (or Focus) of Operation dimension into Individual, Interaction, and Group categories. A profile of cells can be sketched for any approach, type of group, process, or goal. Applications of the model in the areas of teaching group dynamics, supervision and training of trainers, analysis of ongoing group work, and in the field of research, are presented.
The Qualities of Leadership: How Male Medical Students Evaluate Their Female Peers
Authors: Frank Harold H. , Katcher Aaron Honori
Published: August 2005

The Bales Group Space Questionnaire, which measures perceptions of dominance, friendliness, and orientation toward task accomplishment, was given to the members of six-person anatomy dissection groups containing one, two, or three women. The medical students were asked to characterize themselves and other group members once at the start of the term and again at its conclusion. Male medical students ranked women relatively low on dominance, regardless of the number of women in a group, both at the start and at the end of the term. Women were ranked as neither highly friendly nor highly unfriendly. There was no effect of time or of group composition on ratings offriendliness. Group composition did affect male perception of women's task orientation. In groups with one woman, women were ranked relatively low on task orientation. In groups with more than one woman, women were equally distributed along the ranks in task orientation. The results suggest that males tend to stereotype women's behavior and exclude them from leadership positions.
Goals and Bureaucratic Decision-Making: An Experiment
Authors: Bozeman Barry , McAlpine William E.
Published: August 2005

The objective of this experiment was to determine how certain attitudes and strategies of individuals impinge on their patterns of choice in a set of controlled decisional contexts representing a bureaucratic decision environment. Of particular interest was a decisional pattern in which the individual strives to maximize individual goals to the detriment of organizational and "mission" goals. The subjects of analysis were 81 undergraduate students who were grouped into teams and asked, after consulting with team members, to make decision choices concerning individual, group, and mission goals. It was hypothesized that variance in individual decisions could be explained by team interaction and psychological attribute variables. It was found that a mission strategy was most likely to be pursued by individuals who were relatively cosmopolitan and uncynical. Team strategies were largely a function of team strategy variables. The attitudinal variables were not particularly useful in predicting variance in an individual goal maximization strategy. An intriguing "wolf in sheep's clothing" phenomenon was observed in which many individuals who were individual goal maximizers professed a mission goal strategy to their team members. This finding indicates that deviousness may be a pervasive behavior even when the gain from deviousness is likely to be minimal.
Black, White, White Gifted, and Emotionally Disturbed Children's Perceptions of the Reality in Television Programming
Authors: Donohue William A. , Donohue Thomas R.
Published: August 2005

Given the general and somewhat contradictory nature of previous research examining children's perceptions of the reality in television programming, this paper attempted (1) to separate the different levels of television content, (2) to determine the extent to which personal experience with specific role and situational stereotypes influence judgments of television's presenta-tions, and (3) to examine a wide range of socioeconomic status (SES) char-acteristics within the context of the same study to facilitate direct compari-sons. The results of the study indicate that lower SES Blacks and emotion-ally disturbed children view specific role stereotypes and general situations as significantly more real than do Whites and gifted children. The implica-tions of these findings relevant to the child's maturation process were explored.
Personality Characteristics and Interracial Contact as Determinants of Black Prejudice Toward Whites
Authors: Foley Linda A.
Published: August 2005

The purpose of this study is to determine how interracial contact affects the attitudes of Blacks toward Whites. The study also delineates the personality characteristics predictive ofprejudice and prejudice changes, and how these characteristics differ between Blacks and Whites. The subjects were 112 male inmates (63 Blacks and 49 Whites) newly admitted to a medium security state correctional institution. Over a period of 1 month every new inmate was requested to answer a series of questionnaires to assess his cognitive complexity, self-esteem, attitudes toward people, and prejudice. Three weeks after his first session each subject was requested to respond to a second measure of prejudice. The data indicate that initially Whites were much more prejudiced than Blacks. The contact situation increased prejudice in Blacks and decreased prejudice in Whites. Within each group positive attitudes toward people in general predicted a decrease in prejudice. This was the only variable which functioned the same for both races. Simple cognitive structure, highly predictive of prejudice in Whites, is predictive of a very low level of prejudice in Blacks. Low self-esteem predicted a decrease in prejudice in Whites but an increase in prejudice in Blacks. Implementation of contact situations without adequate insight into the effects on both races is cautioned against.
Sex Differences in Attitude to Parenthood
Authors: Humphrey Michael
Published: August 2005

Attitudes to parenthood were explored in prospective adopters and ordinary parents by means of a repertory grid technique. Contentment and mother-hood were more strongly associated in the minds of wives than contentment andfatherhood in the minds of husbands. Men (especially when childless) were likely to associate fatherhood with masculinity, whereas femininity and motherhood were conceptually independent in both groups of women. The findings are interpreted as supporting the concept of traditional differences between male and female viewpoints.
The Higher-Order Needs of London Bus Crews: A Two-Factor Analysis
Authors: Gardner Godfrey
Published: August 2005

In a study of London bus drivers and conductors it was found, first,. that Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction was well supported by the analysis of aggregate responses, whereas the individual analysis supported only that half of the theory relating to Motivators. Second, as predicted, lower-order needs (Hygienes) exceeded higher-order needs (Motivators) by three to one. On the basis of educational and cultural trends it was predicted that, compared with older workers, younger workers would show a greater concern for higher-order needs. This was not substantiated. In general, within the two factors there were many discrepant items. It is suggested that the time has now come to use Herzberg's M-H analysis as a way of looking at organizations rather than motivation.
Observations on the Functions of Voluntary Associations, with Special Reference to West African Cities
Authors: Schutz Michael K.
Published: August 2005

The author cites examples of West African voluntary associations (VAs) and discusses the various expressive and instrumental benefits they provide for participants. In categorizing the groups, he treats expressive and instrumental orientations as two separate and variable dimensions. Accordingly, every VA has a value, either high or low, on each dimension. The author offers propositions and empirical evidence regarding the frequency of occurrence and the general nature of the four types of VAs thus generated. Finally, he suggests that these propositions would also apply to social movement organizations, and calls for more efforts to synthesize findings from a number of related areas.
Individual Differences in Participative Decision-Making
Authors: Steers Richard M.
Published: August 2005

This investigation examines the relative contributions of several individual difference factors to the amount of subordinate participation in decisionmaking (PDM) allowed by superiors among a sample of 103 male and female employees. It was found that females as a group are more participative than males and that such sex differences often affect the relation of personality variables to PDM. Moreover, the findings serve to support and extend Vroom and Yetton's (1973) findings concerning individual and situational contributions to PDM by examining such findings for males and females separately.
An Exchange Strategy for the Interface of Community-Based Corrections into the Service System
Authors: Wright Kevin N.
Published: August 2005

Community-based corrections is a new dimension being added to the milieu of correctional devices for the criminal offender. One of the primary purposes of community-based corrections is the delivery of service, aiding in the reintegration of the offender into the community. Organization exchange theory is utilized as the theoretical basis for program implementation, a three-stage model is developed as a planning guideline for the acquisition of needed services, and afinal model is presented which serves an implementation function for the "ideal-type" model presented.
Professional-Nonprofessional Dimensions of Self-Expression in a Professional Organization
Authors: Haynes Karen S.
Published: August 2005

The purposes of this research were, first, to examine the relationship between self-expression in organizational participation and the professional and nonprofessional dimension; second, to replicate Bonjean and Markham's study on a professional organization; and third, to determine the utility of this questionnaire as an administrative tool. This paper is an extension of research, particularly in personality and organization theory, which examines the relationship between individual predispositions and organizational constraints. This empirical investigation is aimed at examining this '`fit" for professional and nonprofessional staff in a professional organization. The questionnaire utilized consists of 24 items which comprise the self-expression measure and 10 behavioral measures and a measure of job satisfaction. The first three hypotheses suggest that there will be significant differences between subgroups on the level of self-expression and the ranking of ideal job characteristics and satisfactions. The remaining 11 hypotheses predict relationships between the level of self-expression and the behaviors of the individual.
Managerial Influence in a Complex Configuration with Two Unit Heads
Authors: Osborn R. N. , Hunt J. G. , Skaret D. J.
Published: August 2005

This exploratory study investigated the impact of managerial influence by joint formal managers in a complex configuration. The vertical influence attempts by the two managers in the configuration interacted when predicting unit performance and suggested that only one of the two should attempt to play an active role in influencing subordinates. There was also an interaction between the lateral relations of the managers which again suggested that only one should stress exchanges with other units. Propositions for future research are provided.