bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Kingdom of Egypt to the Fall of the Middle Kingdom (1678 BC)
Authors: Finer S E
Published: October 2023

‘Tis education forms the common mind, Just as the twig is bent, the tree’s inclin’d; (Alexander Pope, ‘Epistle to Lord Cobham’, 1734) Vntil towards the end of the fourth millennium Egypt decidedly lagged behind Sumer in civilization. During the Late Uruk period in Mesop tamia (c.3300 BC), when cities like Erech and Eridu were arising, the peoples of Egypt were still tribal, living in small and primitive farming villages along the banks of the Nile. Then, near the end of the millennium, Egyptian culture makes a sudden leap. From a line of small villages dotted along the river-bank there emerged-so it would seem-statelets, possibly confedera tions, and then, c.3000, the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under a single monarch. With this began the Archaic age, c.3000-2650, the period of the first two dynasties; and the succeeding dynasties III-VI, which we call the Old Kingdom, survived until c.2150 BC. Late-prehistoric Egypt had come under south Mesopotamian influence: art-motifs, the cylinder-seal, Sumer ian-type boats, mud-bricks and brick buildings are all clearly attested. Yet before the beginning of the Old Kingdom all this had disappeared. In its place the Egyptians had developed their own individual style of writing the hieroglyphs. Monumental architecture sprang up, and arts and crafts broke into flower. A pattern was set that was to last into the Hellenistic, indeed, the early Roman eras.
The Persian Empire
Authors: Finer S E
Published: October 2023

What we do know is mostly derived from literary sources, and most of these are Greek, that is, an enemy account. Recently two Persian archives, the Treasury Tablets and the Persepolis Fortification Tablets have somewhat increased our understanding. Nor is very much claimed for its mode and techniques of government. The Persian Empire is mainly seen by historians as a stepping-stone to some later order: to an increased syncretism of religion and fusion of culture, or to the spread of Hellenistic civilization, or to the creation of the subsequent Iranian states. As to the effects of its rule, most opinions are favourable. It is claimed that most areas of the vast empire enjoyed some two-and-a-quarter centuries of peace under the Achaemenid dynasty, that it treated its subjects’ religious and social institutions with respect, that it was no more repressive than the suppression of open rebellion required it to be, that apart from perhaps the provinces of Babylonia, Egypt, and Phoenicia, the burden of taxation was tolerable, and that, providing the subject population kept the king’s peace and paid their taxes, the Persian yoke was positively benign. It is conveniently contrasted with the unmitigated ferocity and exploitativeness of Assyrian over-rule and the rapacity and extortion of the subsequent Hellenistic monarchies.
The End of the Polis
Authors: Finer S E
Published: October 2023

If it extended, its citizens could not meet together as the Assembly, and if it did not, it fell prey to big consolidated monarchies. There was, one might surmise, a third alternative-confederation-and that was indeed attempted, but the resulting formations failed both tests. They were forced to abandon rule by the Assemblies (in practice, if not in theory) and they were still too weak to preserve their independence. This is not the whole story. Internal development also worked against demokratia. Between external attack and internal decay, the polis as a special form of state disappeared. How this happened requires some knowledge of the events subsequent to Alexander’s victory over Persia. That conquest heralded the Hellenistic Age, which conventionally ends with Octavian’s defeat of Cleopatra at Actium, 31 BC. It has enormous importance for the history of civilization, but nothing like as much for the history of government; effectively, it amounted to giving a somewhat new thrust to absolute monarchy in Asia and Egypt.
The Roman Republic
Authors: Finer S E
Published: October 2023

It must seem redundant, perhaps impertinent even, to seek to justify a place for Rome in a general history of government. Western Europe is the heir to Rome. Rome was the carrier of the culture of the Hellenic world which she incorporated: of Christianity and of Roman law which have shaped western values up to our day; the planter of a civilization of cities, disseminator of the Romance family of languages, author of a literature including political history that, along with the Greek and the Hebrew, provided European scholars, writers, and statesmen with a com mon stock of historical experience and models until the nineteenth century and so we could go on, recalling the Romans’ feats in engineering, in road-building, in monumental architecture, and the like. To praise Rome as the progenitor of the West is, of course, not the same thing as praising the Roman Empire in itsel£ What we have inherited is what we have selected, which means what we have not chosen to discard. And in appraising the Roman Empire in itself scholars are far from unanimous. Herder and Hegel, Marx and Weber, Toynbee and Spengler in their different ways and for different reasons have all been antipathetic.
The Han Empire
Authors: Finer S E
Published: October 2023

Although the Warring States followed a similar pattern of government, they each had different identities. Their administrative arrangements varied, they had their own currency and their own legal codes, and although all spoke versions of Chinese that were more or less related, each had developed its own variant of the script. All these differences were swept away forever when Cheng, the king of Ch’in, completed his conquest of these states in 221 BC. No single man ever, in the entire 3,000 years of Chinese history, per formed so historic a task as he did nor left so great and so indelible a mark on the character of government at any time or in any place in the world. Although he reigned a mere eleven years as emperor, the changes he wrought in China’s institutions were determinative. Shih Huang-ti was a barbarous and cruel megalomaniac of cyclonic energies who forged his newly con quered dominions into one community in the image of his own kingdom of Ch’ in writ large, and all the successor empires built upon and adapted its basic institutional structures. Furthermore, the political model he estab lished-of theunique, tightly unified, centrally directed chung kuo, that is, the world-central kingdom-has inspired every generation of patriotic Chinese down to this day.
The Roman Empire: The Principate,
Authors: Finer S E
Published: October 2023

The end of the Republic and its replacement by ‘the Empire’ is con ventionally ascribed either to 31 BC or to 27 BC. The first date refers to the Battle of Actium by which Octavian, the adopted nephew of Caesar, became the de facto ruler of the Roman world, the second to the constitu tional settlement in which he came to be addressed as princeps, that is, ‘First Man in the State’-hence the term ‘Principate’ to express the nature of the new regime. For two centuries it flourished, but during the third century AD it was badly shaken by barbarian pressure without and civil convulsion within, and after the accession of Diocletian in 284 the appa ratus of government was radically altered. This period is sometimes known as the Late Empire or the Dominate. We left the Roman Republic at the point where Sulla had replaced the ancient constitution by a new constitutional settlement of his own, but to no avail. There followed even more turmoil: bribery and corruption of the electoral process, pressures, coercion, and intensifying civil wars. The terrible tally of assassinations, proscriptions, insurrections, and wars was bought to an end by a dictatorship, that of Octavian, or, as he was to be known, Augustus. His settlement, in 27 BC, proved to be a successful ground-plan for governing the empire for the next 200 years.
Introduction
Authors: Orme Nicholas
Published: October 2023

A glance at a map of Cornwall reveals a land of saints. Churches, parishes, settlements bear their names: St Austell, St Germans, St Ives, St Michael’s Mount. Many other places, though lacking the prefix ‘St’, are called after people who came to be thought of as saints-Advent, Ladock, Probus-or contain a saint’s name in a compound form, like Egloskerry (‘church of Keri’), Landulph (‘church-site of Delech’), and Pelynt (‘parish of Nunit’).
Introduction
Authors: Crook John
Published: October 2023

The cult of saints is one of the most long-lasting features of the Christian Church. From as early as the second century until the present day (despite the local hiatus caused by the Reformation) the belief has persisted that the ‘very special dead’— firstly martyrs, who had died for their faith, and subsequently those recognized as having led exemplary, Christian lives—continued from beyond the grave to exercise an influence on the living; furthermore, being simultaneously present in heaven in spirit, and on earth in their physical remains, they could act as channels of communication between the two realms. This influence was accessible to suppliants especially at the graves of saints and in the corporeal ‘relics’ that they left behind on earth. The subject of this book is the influence of the cult of saintly relics on the architecture of the early medieval churches of the West, and on the development of the particular monuments known as ‘shrines’.
The Physical Setting of Relic Cults up to c.750
Authors: Crook John
Published: October 2023

In the previous chapter I described in detail the development of traditions and beliefs associated with relic cults, and explored the physical requirements for the practice of those beliefs: principally, the need for the faithful actually to touch holy relics, or at least to approach them as closely as possible. We now turn our attention to the way in which those needs found architectural expression in the design of churches, their internal layout (including features such as steps and platforms), and the development of the special monuments known as shrines.
Architecture and the Cult of Saints, from the Ninth to the Early Eleventh Century
Authors: Crook John
Published: October 2023

In the second quarter of the ninth century—more precisely, perhaps, between 820 and 840, a new generation of crypts associated with relics cults made its appearance. These are characterized by the development of the confessiocontaining the saint’s body: no longer a narrow corridor, as in the ring-crypts discussed above, or a small loculus,as found in the corridor crypts, but a larger, more accessible space.
Introduction
Authors: Collins Hugh E L
Published: October 2023

Founded in 1348 in the aftermath of Edward Ill’s remarkable victory at Crecy, the order of the Garter was conceived by its founder as a celebration of the deeds of arms of English knighthood. Encapsulating the highest aspirations of the noble estate, the order set a benchmark for knightly eminence that was to remain throughout the medieval period.
The Diplomatic Role of the Garter
Authors: Collins Hugh E L
Published: October 2023

The maintenance of international relations in the Christian West during the later medieval period was based not upon a single unitary system but on a complex and heterogeneous series of laws and customs, which had evolved out of the convergence of the disparate legal traditions that united the various levels of society.
The Structure of Government: Institutions and Personnel
Authors: Aylmer G E
Published: October 2023

Institutional History has a bad name, for being dull and old fashioned. Yet it would be absurd to start discussing the crown and its servants without some notion of the king’s government, its different branches and their respective functions.

It is a mistake to think of a ministry, a team of government ministers and their supporters, in the modern sense. Great officers of state, other privy councillors, middling and lesser officials were all still individually the king’s servants. None the less, the government of Charles II’s early years, from the time of his return until the mid- or even later 1660s, can reasonably be thought of as a coalition. It was dominated by royalists, both those who had been in exile with the royal family, such as Edward Hyde, Edward Nicholas, and the Marquis of Ormonde, and those who had sat it out at home under the Commonwealth and the Cromwellian Protectorate, like the Earl of Southampton and the Marquis of Hertford.
The Transformation Of European Politics 1763 –1848
Authors: Schroeder Paul w.
Published: October 2023

This is the only modern study of European politics to cover the entire timespan from the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763 to the revolutionary year of 1848. Paul Schroeder's comprehensive and authoritative volume charts the course of international history over this turbulent period, in which the map of Europe was redrawn time and again. Professor Schroeder examines the wars, political crises, and diplomatic opportunities of the age, many of which - the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna and its aftermath - had far-reaching consequences for modern Europe. Professor Schroeder provides a new account of the course of international politics over these years and a major reinterpretation of the structure and operation of the international system. He shows how the practice of international politics was transformed in revolutionary ways, with far-reaching and beneficial effects. The Vienna Settlement established peace by abandoning the competitive balance-of-power politics of the eighteenth century, and devising a new political equilibrium. It created a European consensus on a new political balance with new rules to maintain it, ushering in a uniquely peaceful, progessive period in European international politics.
Napoleon’s Empire and the International System
Authors: Schroeder Paul w.
Published: October 2023

Apoleon’s Empire reached its zenith in 1809; all his later annexations and campaigns really weakened it. This is therefore the point at which to discuss its nature and its impact on Europe. Both subjects are controversial, and include the question of whether it had any lasting impact at all. Thomas Nipperdey begins his magisterial history of nineteenth-century Germany with the words, ‘In the beginning was Napoleon’. With him came Germany’s breakthrough to modernity, bourgeois society, and the strong centralized state. But Nipperdey’s view has been challenged, and Louis Bergeron’s equally authoritative work on French history in the Napoleonic era suggests in its title, L’ Èpisode napoléonien, his belief that Napoleon changed little in the deeper rhythms of French life—demography, social structure, religious, cultural, and intellectual life, and economics. Not only the Empire’s overall results, but also the individual aspects of its putative legacy in France and Europe—modernization, centralization, the rationalization of politics and public life, industrialization and economic progress, advances toward social and legal equality, democracy, nationalism, state-building—remain topics of debate.
Beginning and End, 1812-1813
Authors: Schroeder Paul w.
Published: October 2023

A single continuous theme seems to run through the story from June 1812 to August 1813, starting with the destruction of the Grand Army in Russia and continuing with the formation of a great new coalition to liberate Europe: the beginning of the end of Napoleon’s Empire. For purposes of general history and military history this theme serves reasonably well. In international history, however, the dominant note is discontinuity: the story is one of three successive failures and the changes they brought to international politics. Napoleon’s defeat in Russia was the first and most spectacular failure, but two others, less well known, also affected the emerging pattern of European politics: the failure of the allied effort to win the war in the spring of 1813, and the failure of an Austrian attempt to negotiate a Continental peace. The period 1812-13 therefore involved not only the beginning of the end for Napoleon’s Empire, but also the end of the beginning in the search for a new basis for European international politics, in which two avenues to peace were tried and found wanting.
The Congress of Vienna,1814-1815
Authors: Schroeder Paul w.
Published: October 2023

The Congress of Vienna was supposed to be a brief formal meeting to confirm the Paris peace treaty, fill in some gaps, and tie the pieces of the settlement together. Instead it lasted nine months without ever convening officially, and turned into a marathon of difficult negotiations punctuated by crises. Contemporary observers blamed this either on the congress’s spending too much time on festivities and too little on work, or on the powers being so divergent in their aims that they were barely able to reach a settlement at all and could easily have fallen back into war.
Deceptive Calm and Storms, 1833-1841
Authors: Schroeder Paul w.
Published: October 2023

After the 1830 revolutions a general calm settled over most of Europe, broken only by stormy weather at its opposite ends, the Near East and the Iberian peninsula. Both kinds of weather were misleading. The tranquillity, apparently a sign of stability and peace, actually was more an indication of stagnation and frustration. Yet one quiet progressive development came about in central Europe which changed European politics in the long term far more than the violent conflicts did. As for these conflicts, they made Europe appear to be ideologically sharply divided into two camps and threatened by war-likewise misleading impressions. The contests in the Iberian peninsula, which involved some ideological rivalry among the powers, were never a threat to the system or the general peace. The Near Eastern crises did seriously endanger the European equilibrium and the general peace, but they had little to do with ideology, and when the threat of European war arose, the Near East was not the prime issue.
The Crusade in North-Eastern Europe 1274–1382
Authors: Housley Norman
Published: October 2023

Amongst the memoirs written in response to Pope Gregory X’s plea of 1272 for advice on the crusade, one originated in Moravia. Its author, Bishop Bruno of Olmiitz (Olomouc), was anxious to point out that it was just as important to defend the Church in eastern Europe from attack by pagans and schismatics, as it was to recover the Holy Land; otherwise, wishing to avoid Charybdis, the Christians would fall prey to Scylla. Bruno knew that the Curia had accepted, since the time of the Second Crusade, that crusades should be preached to further the Christian cause in eastern Europe. He also knew that while, in practice, nearly all these crusades had been associated with conquest, the Curia preferred to place crusading of all kinds within a just war framework, and that it was advisable to adopt a defensive stance; this was particularly true in the early 1270s, when the question was one of the relative needs facing the Holy Land and eastern Europe. Bruno therefore took care to enumerate the dangers to the Church in the East: the Cumans who raided Hungary, the Orthodox Russians and their Tatar lords, and the Prussians and Lithuanians who threatened the dioceses of Poland. We shall see that the relations between at least some of these peoples and their Latin Christian neighbours did indeed keep the crusading movement alive in the Baltic region for many decades to come. But viewed objectively, and over a long perspective, Bruno’s attempt to portray eastern Europe as a region just as embattled as the Holy Land was tendentious in the extreme.
The End of the Baltic Crusade 1382–1562
Authors: Housley Norman
Published: October 2023

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Iberia and the Baltic present, from the point of view of the crusades, an interesting study in contrasts. As we have seen, Spanish crusading enthusiasm attained new heights in the conquest of Granada, and went on to find novel channels of expression in both the Old and the New Worlds. By contrast, the Baltic region experienced what one historian has aptly termed ‘the withering of the crusade’. By 1500 crusades had all but ceased to be preached, the Ordensstaat was in the last stages of decay, and the Teutonic Order itself faced a grave crisis. Few would have predicted such developments in 1382, when the Christian states of Iberia were enmeshed in internecine disputes, while the Teutonic Order was flourishing, and its war against Lithuania was regarded by almost all of Catholic Europe as a praiseworthy endeavour. Unlike the other fronts examined in this book, the Baltic crusade had no discernible life after about 1520. In this chapter we shall therefore be looking at the effective demise of a crusading tradition (see maps 13 and 14).
Conclusion
Authors: Russell Conrad
Published: October 2023

The search for the causes of the English Civil War has taken us into a very disparate series of times and places, from the Guildhall buttery in January 1642 to Moreton Corbet (Shropshire) in the 1560s, from the militia in Somerset under Elizabeth I to the Synod of Linlithgow in Scotland under James VI. It is time to ask what all these threads had in common, and how they came to form cords stretching to the King’s raising of the standard at Nottingham in August 1642. The first chapter of this book argued that it was hard to see what all these things had in common, save only the fact that Charles I had to deal with them.
Renaissances and Revolutions: Europe and Italy between Antiquity and Middle Ages
Authors: Jones Philip
Published: October 2023

Italy during the Middle Ages was remarkable as scene of a conflict between two rival systems and principles of government, monarchy and city republic: first of realm (regnum) and republic or city-state, then within city-states of republic and despotism-in contemporary terms government ‘a comune’, ‘a popolo’, or ‘a liberta’ and government ‘a tiranno’, signoria, or principato. It was a singular experience, without parallel since antiquity, without sequel until the modern age. In Europe generally the dominant ideal of government was everywhere princely rule (princeps in republica et respublica in principe) and outside political theory, imbued with Greco Roman thought, the central issue of politics, of liberty and authority, was the balance of power between monarchy and aristocracy (or aristocracy and commons), of constitutional restraints on divinely sanctioned kingship. And so it remained for centuries. Even in Italy itself the struggle of republicanism and principality proved only a parenthesis in the prolonged progress of European monarchy. From the viewpoint of later history it was an episode, an eccentricity, significant less for itself than as sign of a deeper difference, something alien or anomalous in medieval Italy, for some prophetic, for others rather backward-looking, but in any case anachronistic. Whereas for most countries the Middle Ages marked the beginning-or resumption-of a distinct identity, Italy (where Langobardia did not replace Romania) has appeared by contrast a lard of ambiguous character: for Jacob Burckhardt the home of a people both atavistically ancient and precociously modern; for Stubbs a ‘strange borderland’ between ‘dead’ and ‘living history’, leading a ‘double existence’, part antique part medieval, placed in a special relation to Europe by a special relation to the past; for Renan more simply a country without a Middle Age, just antiquity and Renaissance: ‘II n’y a pas eu de moyen age pour l’Italie; ii ya eu decadence de la civilisation ancienne, et renaissance de cette civilisation aux lieux memes OU elle etait tombee en poussiere.’
Church and People c.650–850
Authors: Blair John
Published: October 2023

Minsters interacted with the lay communities around them in a variety of ways. This chapter will trace four rather disparate strands linking monastic to secular life: the mutually influencing traditions of material culture; the cults of saints; the framework within which church dues were paid and pastoral care provided; and the extent to which minsters and laity participated in each others’ devotional and ritual lives. What they all seem to illustrate is the inappropriateness, in the world of early Christian England, of the kind of explanatory model which sees ‘clerical culture’ as something inherently alienated from ‘popular culture’: each strand suggests areas of integration and contact between the lives of ecclesiastics and laity.
The Agrarian Interest
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

Mid-Victorians were less dominated by the aristocracy and landed gentry than their forefathers had been. Equally, they were less subject than later generations to dictation from the upper middle-class gladiators of modern capitalism. Instead, they lived at a time when a variety of social and economic interests contended for mastery, sometimes overtly, often not. In this process, not only were all sections of society changed, but—just as important—the way in which each section was perceived by the others changed also. For none was this more true than those who owned the soil, the men (they were mostly men) who had long piped tunes for others to dance to.
Reform and Electoral Politics
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

In the twenty years before 1865 the cause of franchise reform, though it generated sporadic bouts of ill-coordinated activity, came at times to resemble nothing so much as a corpse on the dissecting table. Its supporters—bereft of influence, cohesion, and staying power—remained rich only in the ability to irritate and to bore. After the collapse of Chartism as a major political phenomenon in 1848 there was no general or effective reform movement. Under Sir Joshua Walmsley, and with occasional support from Cobden and Bright, the Parliamentary and Financial Reform Association organized a strikingly unsuccessful campaign between 1849 and 1852. The announcement in 1848 by Lord John Russell that he no longer thought the reforms of 1832 ‘final’ failed to arouse the nation. Only Westminster seemed at all keen. Some seventy Radical MPs doggedly supported motions brought forward by members like P. J. Locke King aimed at assimilating the county to the more generous borough franchise and introducing the secret ballot. Official bills issued forth from Russell’s Liberal administration in 1852, Aberdeen’s coalition in 1854, Derby’s Tory government in 1859, and Palmerston’s Liberal government in 1860. All sank beneath the waves. Indifference rather than opposition stood in the way. Almost no significant leader was completely opposed. Some, like Russell, were committed. Some, like Derby and Disraeli, hoped to revive party fortunes with superficially bold but practically anodyne proposals. Some, like Palmerston, were at least prepared to take up the question as a flag of truce towards more radical elements. But while a growing body of MPs wanted reform, they did not want it very much and could not agree as to the shape it should take. The nation, however, seemed apathetic. In 1856 Cobden thought one ‘might as well call out for the millennium’. Even the one substantial piece of reform legislation from these years—the Irish Franchise Act of 1850 (which greatly altered the nature of the electorate in Ireland) —was passed, not because of public pressure or official enthusiasm, but because the Great Famine had so reduced the number of voters that something simply ‘had to be done’.
The Evolutionary Moment
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

The characteristics of any past age are revealed not simply by political and social developments, but by the manner in which contemporaries tried to explain their situation in time and place and by the language and concepts in which such explanations were formulated and discussed. In the case of mid- and late Victorian Britain the ambiguous and slippery notion of ‘evolution’ generated perhaps the most striking cluster of concepts around which the governing ideas of the time were put together and assessed. Indeed, the appearance of views of society constructed out of an engagement with certain kinds of evolutionary analysis constitutes a division between the later Victorian period and what had gone before at least as significant as the movement towards electoral democracy or the development of the party system.
The Investment Management Business
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin
Published: October 2023

1.1 Wiley’s Dictionary of Banking defines investment management as a service entailing the management of an investment portfolio on behalf of a private client or an institution, the receipt and distribution of dividends and all other administrative work in connection with the portfolio. These investment ‘accounts’, as they are usually called, may be conducted on either a discretionary basis (in which case the investment manager acts at his own discretion in the management of a portfolio., without referring to the client) or non-discretionary basis (in which case the manager will recommend investment sales and purchases to the client and await the latter’s approval).
Past Cases of Failure in the Investment Management Business
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin
Published: October 2023

1.1 This chapter discusses past cases of failure in the UK investment management industry. In particular, the chapter focuses on the ‘secondary banking crisis’ of the early 1970s and the period 1979–87 during which there were several financial failures.
Summary and Conclusions
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin
Published: October 2023

1.1 This report has examined the role of capital requirements in investor protection. 1.2 The task that we were set was to establish whether capital requirements are an appropriate form of investor protection, and whether the amounts that IMRO has required of its members are correct. In undertaking this analysis, it has been’ necessary to evaluate capital requirements in relation to other forms of investor protection.
Growth and Business Cycles: A Quest for the Right Explanation
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi
Published: October 2023

Very rapid economic growth is perhaps the most important charac¬teristic of the post-war Japanese economy. Although its growth rate in the pre-war period was already among the highest of the developed countries, this accelerated in the post-war era; 3.2% for 1889-1938 as against 6.7% for 1955-88. Fig. 2.1 shows the growth rate of real GNP for Japan in comparison with the United States.
Household Saving
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi
Published: October 2023

The saving rate in Japan has long attracted the attention of econo¬mists-in the 1950s and 1960s as a ‘source’ of rapid economic growth, and then in the 1980s as a ‘cause’ of huge current account surpluses. This chapter considers the household saving rate in Japan. The neoclassical theory actually implies that it is the aggregate saving rate that matters, not the household saving rate. But in the real world, the household saving rate appears to have a life of its own, and in any case broadly determines international differences in the aggregate saving rate.
The Former German Democratic Republic: the Standardized Family
Authors: Wendt Hartmut
Published: October 2023

In spite of all the similarities in what constitutes the family in both the new eastern and the former western parts of today’s Germany, a clear differentiation of characteristics and potentials in family life-styles is bound to be distinguishable, considering the respective social, economic, and cultural as well as political and institutional differences that had existed prior to unification.
Great Britain: the Lone Parent as the New Norm?
Authors: Clarke Lynda , Henwood Melanie
Published: October 2023

In the 1980s there were marked changes in the structure and dynamics of the British family. These changes started in the 1970s and look as though they will continue. Although fertility, the major component of family creation, remained constant over the 1980s, there were dramatic changes in the nature of families. Such changes are not unique to Britain but have occurred in most developed Western countries, certainly in much of the rest of Europe. Revolutionary changes in ideas about birth, marriage, divorce, child-rearing, gender and death have been so dramatic that they have been termed by some the 'Second Demographic Transition’ (Lesthaeghe, 1991).
Switzerland: the Family Neglected by the State
Authors: Fux Beat
Published: October 2023

This chapter summarizes family change, family life and family policy in Switzerland during the 1980s, based on various data sets. As in other European countries, traditional living arrangements retain their importance, especially during the early family-formation phase. The increase of new life forms (pluralization) seems a phenomenon that occurs most of all in earlier stages (e.g. unmarried cohabitation) or in later biographical phases (e.g. lone-parent families). Furthermore, there is little evidence for changes in the intrafamilial division of labour between spouses. However, low extra-marital fertility, a comparatively late first marriage age of men and women, a rapid increase of voluntary childlessness and a rather high rate of part-time employed women are peculiarities of the Swiss case. Some of these trends might be influenced by certain deficiencies in family-related policies that clearly favour marital life forms. In this respect, I try to formulate some tentative impact hypotheses.
Comparing Family Life in the Frame of National Policies: An Introduction
Authors: Kaufmann Franz-Xaver , Schulze Hans-Joachim
Published: October 2023

This is our collective remembrance: forty years ago family life was still an unquestioned part of both social order and individual biographies. In the last thirty years most of that order has changed, if not broken down. This perception is not totally wrong, however, it is highly selective. The 1950s were, in many countries of western Europe, the heyday of the nuclear family as the dominating form of private living, &‘the golden age of marriage&’.
Induced Abortion and Family Forma tion in Europe
Authors: Knudsen Lisbeth B
Published: October 2023

The topic for this chapter is induced abortion as a demographic behaviour with consequences for both nuptiality, fertility, and population growth. Contemporary demographic studies often deal with pregnancy interruption, being performed legally or illegally, as a topic per se, while the demographic consequences of induced abortion, especially on fertility level and population growth, more seem to be objects for study when countries or regions are experiencing heavy changes in the legal status of induced abortion. At present, the superior considerations on population dynamics seems to be heavily influenced by the ageing of populations and the differences among countries as regards life expectancy.
Rural Poverty and Approaches to Poverty Alleviation
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah
Published: October 2023

Poverty alleviation, and its eventual elimination, are central objectives of development. But there remains considerable doubt about how these objectives can be achieved in practice. In the 1990s poverty remains a pervasive problem in many developing countries, and—although by no means exclusively so—it is predominantly a rural phenomenon. In the early 1970s it was widely assumed that the benefits of sustained economic growth would gradually percolate down to the poor; particular programmes targeted on the poor therefore received scant attention. However, during the decade it was increasingly acknowledged that growth in itself may not produce a significant reduction in poverty in the absence of direct programmes of assistance, especially when there is an unequal distribution of land and other assets. Then in the 1980s in many parts of the developing world, the motor of economic growth slowed, exposing still further the extent of poverty and raising with more urgency the question of how best to address and resolve its problems.
Evaluating NGO Performance
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah
Published: October 2023

Any organization dependent upon voluntary contributions attempts to assess the extent to which its goals are being achieved, and to do so as efficiently and openly as possible. Development NGOs are no exception. In fact, both they and their supporters would rate them highly in all these respects, but the benefits of assessment are both broader and deeper than this. To the extent that goals are not being achieved or performance is sub—optimal, the practical lessons can be fed into current decision making, thereby enhancing future performance. Furthermore, if voluntary organizations are able to show that the funds made available to them are well spent, support will tend to be strengthened and funding based on a firmer footing, while, at the same time, criticisms of poor performance can be more substantially met.
The Impact of NGO Poverty-Alleviation Projects: Overview of the Results of the Case-Studies
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah
Published: October 2023

It is widely assumed that NGOs are able to reach and improve the well—being of the poorest who are the subject of NGO assistance. Overall, the sixteen evaluations of NGO projects paint an encouraging picture. Twelve of the sixteen broadly achieved their objectives, and had a positive impact in alleviating poverty, even if only one was clearly successful in achieving all its objectives. In contrast, only two can be said to have failed both to meet their overall objectives and to make headway in reducing poverty. The final two achieved some of their objectives, but fell short in others, with the result that it was not possible to derive a firm assessment of their overall contribution to poverty alleviation.
Zimbabwe
Authors: Riddell Roger C , Robinson Mark , Coninck John De , Muir Ann , White Sarah
Published: October 2023

In relation to a number of key development indicators, Zimbabwe’s record during the 1980s was impressive. The economy grew at an average rate of 3.9 per cent a year, school enrolments rose from 1.3 million in 1980 to 2.9 million in 1989, including an inefold increase in secondary—school places, while small—scale, largely peasant, agriculture flourished, with marketed output from the communal areas expanding twentyfold and rising from 4 to 20 per cent of national marketed output. Clearly, however, all is not well. In 1990 the government announced the inauguration of a structural adjustment programme approved by both the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, aimed at raising and sustaining higher medium— and long—term growth and reducing poverty. Comparatively high average per capita income ($570 in 1992), a highly skewed income and wealth distribution, extensive lush and leafy urban suburbs, and a well—functioning transport system all disguise the extent and depth of poverty and malnutrition which also characterize contemporary Zimbabwe. At the start of the 1990s, over 25 per cent of the labour—force was unemployed, while the majority of formal—sector workers were probably in receipt of sub—poverty wages. In the rural areas, containing 70 per cent of the total population of 10 million, it is estimated that at least 55 per cent of households live in poverty: in many years between 25 and 60 per cent of farming families fail to produce sufficient food to cover their own basic requirements. This is the context in which NGOs operate in Zimbabwe today.
Health and Mortality among the Elderly: Issues for Assessment
Authors: Caselli Graziella , Lopez Alan D
Published: October 2023

In recent years, there has been a substantial literature on every facet of the daily lives of the elderly person. Psychological, social, economic, demographic, health, and even existential issues, have all been dealt with in great detail, seemingly keeping pace with the continual increase in the number of elderly persons and their lengthening life-span.
The Nilotic Prophets and ‘Arum i Mis’: Remembering Leina
Authors: James Wendy
Published: October 2023

Notions of a distinct divine presence have reached the Uduk as 4foreign’ beliefs. It is likely that long before they encountered Islam (and, much later, Christianity), indeed when they were still settled in the Daga region, they had plenty of opportunity to observe the religious rites and practices of various Nilotic-speaking neighbours. Among these were the Nuer, whose eastward movement from the r82os on was partly responsible for the pressures which led the Uduk and some of the other Koman communities to move north wards, or further towards the Ethiopian foothills.
The Sudan Interior Mission and ‘Arumgimis’: Expecting Christ
Authors: James Wendy
Published: October 2023

In 1938 the Sudan Interior Mission secured a foothold at Chali to work among the Uduk. At the time the area had just been trans ferred from the jurisdiction of Kurmuk (then Fung Province) to that of Renk in the Upper Nile Province. This opened the way for the extension of mission education to the Uduk and some of their neighbours like the Komo, as a’ part of ‘Southern’ policy. The Sudan Government from the early years of the century had favoured missions in the South which placed emphasis upon practical edu cation, upon agricultural and industrial teaching and sound basic skills of literacy, rather than missions which concentrated almost exclusive efforts upon religious enlightenment and conversion.
Becoming Ebony Men
Authors: James Wendy
Published: October 2023

Observers and informants alike agree that there has been an enor mous upsurge in the activity of the Order of Ebony Diviners (JJaril) in the Jast two generations or so. Mary Beam and Betty Cridland put it to me when I met them in 1971 that there had been a great increase in ‘witchcraft’ during their time in Chali.
Britain’s Bill of Rights
Authors: Mann F A
Published: October 2023

Blackstone did not know the conception of human or fundamental rights. Quoting Montesquieu he spoke, it is true, of England as ‘a land, perhaps the only one in the universe, in which political or civil liberty is the very end and scope of the constitution.’ This liberty meant ‘the power of doing whatever the laws permit; which is only to be effected by a general conformity of all orders and degrees to those equitable rules of action, by which the meanest individual is protected from the insults and oppression of the greatest.’, And later in his Commentaries he dwells on the personal liberty of individuals which ‘the law of England regards, asserts and preserves’ and which, with the right of personal security and the right of property, constitutes ‘in a peculiar and emphatical manner the rights of the people of England.’ All these rights and their incidence to Blackstone were aspects of the law of nature or of natural law which he treats as the source and origin of the common law.
The Theoretical Approach Towards the Law Governing Contracts between States and Private Foreign Persons
Authors: Mann F A
Published: October 2023

In discussing the theoretical foundations of the law governing State contracts, that is to say, contracts between States (or other international persons) and private persons it is necessary to start from a hypothesis which is both fundamental and elementary. Every contract is necessarily governed by a specific legal order. Or, to put it negatively, an understanding which is not governed by a specific legal system is not a contract. Or, again, it is the law, the legal order or system which confers the quality of a legally binding contract upon the understanding between parties. They may, it is true, agree that their understanding shall be no more than a gentleman’s agreement, but, as we all know, this is unenforceable in law and, therefore, no contract at all. To this day the vinculum juris, the obligatory character of the understanding is the essential prerequisite of a contract.
‘Inviolability’ and Other Problems of the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
Authors: Mann F A
Published: October 2023

The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 scheduled to the Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 (and some similar Conventions) makes much use of the term ‘inviolability’. The premises of the missions are ‘inviolable’ (Art. 22). The archives and documents of the mission, wherever they may be, are ‘inviolable’ (Art. 24). The official correspondence of the mission is ‘inviolable’ (Art. 27, paragraph 2). The person of the diplomat is ‘inviolable’ (Art. 29), the same applies to his private residence, his papers, his correspondence and, in principle, his property (Art. 30).
The Effect in England of the Compulsory Acquisition by a Foreign State of the Shares in a Foreign Company
Authors: Mann F A
Published: October 2023

In Williams and Humbert Ltd. v. W. & H. Trade Marks (Jersey) Ltd., Rumasa SA v. Multinvest (UK) Ltd., [1986] A.C. 368, the House of Lords, in a speech delivered by Lord Templeman and concurred in by Lord Scarman, Lord Bridge of Harwich, Lord Brandon of Oakbrook and (probably) Lord Mackay of Clashfern, appear to decide that if Spain ‘compulsorily acquires’ all the shares in a Spanish company there is no legal principle that would prevent the company, represented by its new directors, from recovering its English assets.
Access to the Living Resources of Exclusive Economic Zones for Land-Locked and Geographically Disadvantaged States
Authors: Vasciannie S C
Published: October 2023

The question of access for LLGDS to living resources in the EEZs of coastal States was a highly controversial one throughout the negotiations at the UNCLOS III. It was also of considerable economic importance, for at the time of the negotiations, over 95 per cent of the world’s marine fish catch was taken within 200 miles of the shore.The purpose of this chapter is to examine the claims and counter-claims of States on this issue and to assess the extent to which the 1982 Convention represents a balanced reconciliation of State interests. In order to place the debate in perspective, however, it is necessary to consider the nature of the international fisheries regime which prevailed in the period before the UNCLOS III.
Land-Locked States and the Question of Access in General International Law
Authors: Vasciannie S C
Published: October 2023

Although the question whether general international law permits land locked States to exercise a right of transit to the sea has stimulated considerable academic debate, it can hardly be regarded as definitively settled. Broadly speaking, opinions range from the position that transit is a natural right for all States without coastlines, to the view that individual land-locked States may only exercise a privilege of passage across neighbouring territory when this is authorized by an existing treaty, a special licence, or on the basis of a local custom. This chapter contains a review of the leading arguments that may be raised on the point and a discussion of the weaknesses inherent in assertions favouring an enforceable right of free passage. It will be suggested that, even at the present time, some doubt must remain as to the status of free transit in general international law.
Bluntness and Bricolage
Authors: Simmonds N E
Published: October 2023

Whatever their differing views on the respective roles of reason and fiat in law, the classical philosophies of law have generally concurred in attaching importance to the determinate and ascertainable character of positive law. For natural law theories, positive law may be seen as a concretization of the more abstract requirements of reason, reducing for the individual the extent of wisdom and judgement that must bridge the divide between the general demands of reason and the decision of specific instances. For theories of a more Hobbesian cast, law is a pure product of will, creating order out of a moral vacuum. But for all such theories, positive law exhibits a degree of certainty and specificity not to be found in the requirements, of reason apart from law: their differences turn on whether law is seen as creating new requirements on conduct, or as channelling and redirecting pre-existing requirements.