bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Double-Blind Clinical Efficacy Study of Pulsed Phonophoresis on Perceived Pain Associated with Symptomatic Tendinitis
Authors: Penderghest Caroline E. , Kimura Iris F. , Gulick Dawn T.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the clinical efficacy of dexametha-sone-lidocaine (DX-L) phonophoresis on perceived pain associated with symptomatic tendinitis. Twenty-four subjects were randomly assigned to a DX-L or placebo phoresis group. All subjects received strengthening, stretching, and cryotherapy. Five double-blind sessions were administered over a 5- to 10-day period, with 24 to 48 hr between sessions. Perceived pain was quantified using a visual perceived pain scale (VPPS) and a punctate tenderness gauge (PTG). Data were collected before stretching, strengthening, and DX-L/placebo phoresis treatments, 1 min after treatment, and 10 min after cryotherapy. There were no significant differences for VPPS or PTG between groups. There was a significant difference between treatment sessions, regardless of group or test, and there were significant decreases in perceived pain between Tests 1 and 3 and between Treatment Sessions 1 and 5. It was concluded that stretching, strengthening, and cryotherapy significantly decreased the levels of perceived pain associated with symptomatic tendinitis regardless of whether the subjects received phonophoresis.
EMG Analysis of the Vastus Medialis/Vastus Lateralis Muscles Utilizing the Unloaded Narrow- and Wide-Stance Squats
Authors: Anderson Ricky , Courtney Carol , Carmeli Eli
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to see if vastus medialis oblique/vastus lateralis (VMO:VL) ratios could be increased by widening the squat stance and if the VMO activity increases with deeper ranges of knee flexion. Fifteen healthy subjects performed unloaded narrow and wide stance squats through three ranges of knee flexion: 30°, 60°, and 90°. The two squat stances were compared using a 2 × 3 ANOVA to see if the wide-stance squat had any significant difference in EMG activity for VMO: VL ratios compared to the narrow-stance squat. The difference in EMG activity of the VMO between the various angles for both squat stances was also compared. The ANOVA revealed no significant differences between the squat stances for VMO:VL ratios but did show the VMO:VL ratios to be significantly higher with increasing knee flexion angles. These findings suggest that the VMO is active throughout the 90° range and that increasing knee flexion angles can elicit greater activity of the VMO relative to the VL.
Rotator Cuff Training for Pitchers
Authors: Powers Michael E.
Published: August 2016

This paper reviews the role of the rotator cuff during two key phases of the pitching sequence and presents a training program for these muscles. The program uses a periodization design consisting of three stages, beginning with a high-resistance/low-repetition eccentric strengthening stage. This is followed by a low-resistance/high-repetition stage for training muscular endurance. The core exercises for these two stages are prone external rotation in the 90/90 position, prone horizontal abduction, side-lying D2 flexion pattern, supine internal rotation in the 90/90 position, prone elevation with 100° of shoulder abduction and external rotation, and standing scapular plane elevation. The final stage of the program uses high-speed functional exercises: 90/90 external rotation, 90/90 internal rotation, D2 PNF flexion pattern, D2 PNF extension pattern, supine plyometric 90/90 internal rotation with a medicine ball, and the “arm whip” through the D2 PNF flexion pattern. The goal of this program is to prepare the muscles for the stresses of pitching and prevent shoulder injuries.
Ultrasound Treatment Does Not Affect Postexercise Muscle Strength Recovery or Soreness
Authors: Plaskett Carrie , Tiidus Peter M. , Livingston Lori
Published: August 2016

Ten volunteers (19-23 years old) performed 9 sets of 12 bilateral knee-extension exercises at 60% 1RM. Following exercise, 4 ultrasound treatments (5-cm transducer head, 1.0-MHz frequency, pulsed mode at 1.0 W/cm2) were applied for 8 min daily to the quadriceps muscle of a randomly selected treatment leg. The placebo leg received similar treatment with the ultrasound apparatus turned off. Knee-extension peak torque values and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) were assessed on each leg prior to exercise and at 20 min and 24, 48, 72, and 96 hr postexercise. Postexercise peak torques declined to 60-70% of preexercise values and returned to normal by 96 hr. DOMS sensation peaked 24 hr postexercise and diminished thereafter. No significant differences in peak torque or DOMS were noted between ultrasound- or placebo-treated legs at any time postexercise. Hence ultrasound, as applied in this study, does not appear to be effective in enhancing postexercise muscle strength recovery or in diminishing DOMS.
In Vivo Assessment of AP Laxity in Healthy Shoulders Using an Instrumented Arthrometer
Authors: Borsa Paul A. , Sauers Eric L. , Herling Derald E.
Published: August 2016

Arthrometric assessment for glenohumeral (GH) laxity is currently unprecedented in orthopedic practice. Clinical evaluation of GH laxity is based on manual tests that lack objectivity and reliability. We have developed an arthrometer that quantifies AP laxity relative to applied load. Forty healthy shoulders were assessed for AP laxity at 67-, 89-, 111-, and 134-N load levels. A factorial ANOVA revealed significant mean (±SD) differences between directions (p <.0001) and between loads (p <.001). Our results demonstrate the quantified relationship between applied directional loads and GH translation in vivo. We determined bilateral symmetry within subjects and demonstrated excellent reproducibility of the device. Frequency distributions for AP laxity revealed a bell-shaped curve, indicating a normal distribution. Anterior laxity was significantly greater then posterior laxity, and it demonstrated better compliance between the selected load levels.
Anatomical and Biomechanical Considerations of the PCL
Authors: Harner Christopher D. , Vogrin Tracy M. , Woo Savio L-Y.
Published: August 2016

This article discusses the anatomy and biomechanics of the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) and PCL reconstructions and their implications for clinical management of PCL injuries. The PCL consists of two functional components, the anterolateral and posteromedial, based on their reciprocal tensioning patterns. The anterolateral has been the focus of single-bundle PCL reconstructions. Recent biomechanical studies have indicated that the posteromedial bundle also plays an important role, and double-bundle PCL reconstructions have also been proposed. The PCL works closely with the posterolateral structures in providing posterior knee stability. The effects of several surgical variables, including graft fixation, associated injuries, and tunnel placement, that can significantly affect the outcome of PCL reconstruction are discussed. With improved knowledge of the PCL, new reconstructive techniques are being developed, offering the potential of more closely replicating the anatomy and biomechanics of the normal PCL and improving clinical outcomes of PCL injuries.
Effects of injury and Reconstruction of the Posterior Cruciate Ligament on Proprioception and Neuromuscular Control
Authors: Safran Marc R. , Harner Christopher D. , Giraldo Jorge L. , Lephart Scott M. , Borsa Paul A. , Fu Freddie H.
Published: August 2016

Proprioceptive deficits have been demonstrated following anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) disruption, but little research exists evaluating proprioception in the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)-deficient and/or -reconstructed knee. We have studied proprioception in PCL-deficient and PCL-reconstructed knees. The following summarizes our protocol and results of proprioceptive testing of kinesthesia and joint position sense in participants with isolated PCL injuries and those who underwent PCL reconstruction. We studied 18 participants with isolated raptures of the PCL and 10 participants who underwent PCL reconstruction. Proprioception was evaluated by two tests: the threshold to detect passive motion (TTDPM) and the ability to passively reproduce passive positioning (RPP). These assess kinesthesia and joint position sense, respectively. We have shown that isolated PCL deficiency in the human knee does result in reduced kinesthesia and enhanced joint position sense. Thus, the proprioceptive mechanoreceptors in the PCL do appear to have some function. We further found that PCL reconstruction significantly improved kinesthesia at 45° of knee flexion, while 110° was not significantly different between the involved and uninvolved knee in both studies.
A Field Test of the Effect of Contextual Variety during Skill Acquisition
Authors: Wrisberg Craig A.
Published: August 2016

Laboratory research in motor behavior has consistently demonstrated higher transfer when practice occurs under conditions of high contextual interference/variety (e.g., Lee & Magill, 1983; Shea & Morgan, 1979). In the present study, an attempt was made to determine whether contextual variety could be easily incorporated into a physical education class setting and whether it produced a significant influence on final skills-test performance. Four practice schedules differing in the amount of contextual variety were administered during a regular college physical education class. Beginning badminton students were matched for skill level and practiced the long and short serves according to their respective conditions at the beginning of each of six class periods. Students monitored each other’s practice sessions without significant alterations in normal class procedures. Conventional skills tests administered at the end of the semester revealed that the shortserve performance of the group receiving the highest level of contextual variety during practice was significantly superior to that of two of the other three conditions. The results are discussed in terms of possible theoretical significance for contextual-interference theory and practical relevance for physical education teachers.
Teacher/Coach Recruits: Background Profiles, Occupational Decision Factors, and Comparisons with Recruits into Other Physical Education Occupations
Authors: Dodds Patt , Placek Judith H. , Doolittle Sarah , Pinkham Kathy M. , Ratliffe Thomas A. , Portman Penelope A.
Published: August 2016

Within a social-systems framework, this study described teacher/coach recruits’ (TCs) personal attributes, sport-participation social situation backgrounds, being influenced by significant others on occupational choice, and other occupational decision factors. TCs were compared on these variables with recruits into other sport-related occupations (ORs). TCs and ORs shared some similar personal attributes but had different gender proportions and high school academic backgrounds. Both groups had extensive backgrounds in sport, but TCs participated more during high school and college. The two groups’ most influential significant others differed, as did their ranked lists of occupational attractors. Other occupational decision factors (age of decision, firmness of decision, career maps) were similar. These results are explained with reference to social-systems theory.
Effects of Assigned versus Participant-Set Goals on Skill Acquisition and Retention of a Selected Shooting Task
Authors: Boyce B. Ann
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effect of three goal-setting conditions on skill acquisition and retention of a selected shooting task. Utilizing a two-stage random-sampling technique, nine classes (N=138 subjects) were assigned to one of three conditions: (a) assigned specific goals, (b) participant-set specific goals, and (c) generalized do-your-best goals. The pretest and five skill acquisition trials were analyzed in a 3×6 (Goal groups × Trials) MANOVA design with repeated measures on the last factor. The procedure for the retention trial resulted in a 3×1 (Goal groups × Trial) ANOVA design. Results indicated a significant groups-by-trials interaction. The follow-up analyses revealed that the two specific goal-setting groups (assigned and participant-set goals) were significantly superior to the do-your-best group during the second, fourth, fifth, and retention trials.
Student Thoughts during Tennis Instruction
Authors: Lee Amelia M. , Landin Dennis K. , Carter Jo A.
Published: August 2016

Thirty fourth-grade students were provided two 30-min lessons on the tennis forehand ground stroke. The students and the teacher were videotaped, and, following each lesson, the students were interviewed using a stimulated-recall procedure. Frequency measures of successful practice trials were also coded for each student during each practice session. Analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between skill-related thoughts and successful performance during class. The findings support the notion that student thoughts are important mediators between instruction and student response patterns.
Scholarly Behaviors of Physical Education Methods Teacher Educators in Ohio
Authors: Mitchell Murray F.
Published: August 2016

This study focused on the behavior of a proportional, stratified random sample of 40 physical education methods teacher educators (PEMTEs) in the state of Ohio, or more specifically, on the professional implications of their scholarly behaviors. The focal questions addressed were (a) how do PEMTEs meet their responsibility to stay current in their professional areas, and (b) what are the professional implications of these efforts? Four specific behaviors were examined as evidence of scholarly behaviors: (a) reading professional journals, (b) writing for publication, (c) attendance at professional conferences, and (d) active involvement in research. Findings were then contrasted to findings from previous studies of physical educators, education professors, and university professors. PEMTEs in Ohio tend to read the professional literature related to physical education without attending to the literature in the broader realm of education. Few of the PEMTEs in Ohio write for publication or are actively involved with research—behaviors shared with other physical educators, education professors, and many university professors. PEMTEs appear to attend more state and national meetings than do other physical educators or other university professors. The extent of involvement at such conferences, however, is unknown. Implications of the behaviors described are discussed, and conclusions are drawn on the basis of the reported data.
Novice and Experienced Children’s Physical Education Teachers: Insights into Their Situational Decision Making
Authors: Graham George , Manross Mark , Hopple Christine , Sitzman Tom
Published: August 2016

In recent years several studies have compared experienced and inexperienced teachers as they teach the same topics to similar groups of children or perform the same planning or observation tasks. This study compares the way 3 novice (NT) and 3 experienced (ET) teachers teach the same content (dribbling) to the same intact classes of children (Grades 3-5). Interviews, field notes, and document analyses were employed to determine how these 6 teachers varied in their planning and teaching. The NTs tended to be more subject-centered. They relied on textbooks and university courses to develop an extensive progression of tasks to present to classes. The lessons of the ETs, in contrast, were more child-centered and tailored to a particular class. The NTs, who tended to be unsure which tasks would succeed, presented more tasks. The ETs, who knew which tasks would be appropriate, devoted more time to fewer tasks and provided a higher percentage of learning cues. The results will be of particular interest to teacher educators; the implications are discussed in the concluding section.
Instructional Effects of Teacher Feedback in Physical Education
Authors: Lee Amelia M. , Keh Nyit C. , Magill Richard A.
Published: August 2016

Feedback is considered an important teaching function and researchers in sport pedagogy have shown interest in verifying this importance to achievement in physical education. This review paper examines the feedback research in physical education and discusses factors which might help explain some inconsistencies. The essential role of teacher feedback in motor-skill learning is questioned.
Examining Congruence among Teaching Objectives, Classroom Behavior, and Student Learning: Feedback for University Professors
Authors: Wandzilak Thomas , Bonnstetter Ronald J. , Mortensen Lynn L.
Published: August 2016

In order for university professors to become more effective at the practice of teaching, they must be provided with accurate, multidimensional feedback on what transpires in their own classes. The Teaching Feedback Model (TFM) is a process that combines the systematic observation of student and teacher behaviors with an analysis of student learning. Based on information provided by the coding of videotaped classroom episodes through a computer program and student learning data, a profile is constructed that informs the teacher whether continuity exists among what is supposed to occur (planning), what actually occurs (doing), and what the student has gained from the class (learning). The purpose of this paper is to present this model in detail and to demonstrate how it is currently being used in college-level physical education theory classes.
Job Analysis of the Knowledge Important for Newly Licensed Physical Education Teachers
Authors: Norback Judith Shaul , Wattay Diane
Published: August 2016

A job analysis was conducted to develop specifications for the physical education assessment of The Praxis Series: Professional Assessments for Beginning Teachers and to support the content relevance of the assessment. An advisory committee consisting of physical education teachers, teacher educators, and administrators worked with measurement psychologists to describe a knowledge domain important for newly licensed/certified physical education teachers to perform their jobs competently. The knowledge areas were judged for importance by a national sample of 815 physical education teachers, administrators, and college faculty. As a result of this survey, 128 knowledge statements were judged as important for newly licensed/certified physical education teachers.
An Ecology of a Secondary School Outdoor Adventure Camp
Authors: Hastie Peter A.
Published: August 2016

The behavioral ecology model was used to examine tasks and accountability in a secondary school outdoor adventure camp. Similar to results in physical education, the teachers held students strongly accountable for accomplishing managerial tasks, whereas accomplishing instructional tasks saw greater variance of performance outcomes. However, in significant contrast to the school setting, there were high levels of task involvement in the absence of any formal accountability. Although students were not given grades for the camp, many students were fully involved in all instructional tasks. The explanation for this is twofold. First, the nature of instructional tasks was such that ambiguity and risk could be manipulated by students to present an optimal level of challenge. Second, the student social system actually drove the instructional tasks system, whereby the students’ social agenda actually encouraged and supported full participation. The implications for teaching physical education are discussed.
Effectiveness of Interactive Video Instruction on Teacher’s Classroom Management Declarative Knowledge
Authors: Sariscsany Mary Jo , Pettigrew Frank
Published: August 2016

Few teaching areas receive greater attention by administrators than classroom management and discipline. Given the importance of managerial skills, how do teachers develop the pedagogical content knowledge and skill to assist in the appropriate selection and application of management techniques? This study was designed to compare the Interactive Video Classroom Management Training Program (IVCMTP), a teacher-directed videotape, and a traditional lecture instructional mode for instructional effectiveness in developing teaching candidates’ declarative knowledge of classroom management. ANCOVA indicated significant group effects (p < .05). Post hoc procedures revealed that the interactive video instruction program group scored significantly higher on a cognitive managerial assessment instrument than the teacher-directed video instruction group, the teacher-directed instruction group, or the control group. An interactive video training program appears to be an effective means for developing classroom management knowledge when compared to more traditional teaching methods.
The Effects of Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting on Bowling Performance
Authors: Boyce B. Ann , Bingham Sarah M.
Published: August 2016

The present study investigated the effect of three goal-setting groups (self-set, assigned, and control) and three levels of self-efficacy (low, medium, and high) on bowling performance of college students (N = 288). The performance/retention trials were analyzed in a 3 × 2 × 10 (Goal Conditions × Self-Efficacy Levels × Trials) ANCOVA design, with repeated measures on the last factor and baseline performance as the covariate. Results of the data analysis revealed a significant main effect for self-efficacy (SE) levels for males and females. Individuals at high and medium SE levels performed significantly better than those at a low SE level. The nonsignificant main effect for goal groups was attributed to the spontaneous goal-setting behavior of the control group. Finally, there was a main effect for trials and planned comparisons indicated that as trials progressed female students improved. Evidence of a performance plateau was present for male students, as they showed marginal improvement across trials.
Tennis Racket Head-Size Comparisons and Their Effect on Beginning College Players’ Achievement and Self-Efficacy
Authors: Pellett Tracy L. , Lox Curt L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 95-in. and 110-in. racket head-sizes in relation to beginning player skills test, daily playing achievement, and self-efficacy over a 13-day tennis unit. Participants (n = 35) were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups within one of two instructional classes. From the analysis of the data, it was concluded that students who used the larger 110-in. head-sized racket attained greater skill test scores and daily practice achievement for the forehand and backhand groundstrokes. In addition, participants using the 110-in. head-sized rackets improved their tennis self-efficacy to a larger degree and reported significantly less negative feeling states when compared to those using the 95-in. headsized racket.
Modifying Teacher Behaviors to Promote Critical Thinking in K–12 Physical Education
Authors: Donnelly Frances Cleland , Helion John , Fry Frank
Published: August 2016

This study examined four physical educators’ teaching behaviors before and after an intervention. The study was conducted over the span of three 15-week academic semesters. Phase 1 of the study involved videotaping the participants’ instruction prior to intervention. In Phase 2, participants were involved in two workshops planned to convey teaching strategies related to promoting critical thinking in physical education. In addition, participants and co-investigators team-taught three sample lessons focused on incorporating teaching behaviors attempting to foster critical thinking. Data collection was completed during Phase 3 by videotaping each teacher during one unit of instruction. A chi-square analysis of post-intervention data revealed that all four teachers’ observed instructional behaviors differed significantly from that expected. Results suggest that the intervention employed during Phase 2 was successful in helping teachers modify their instruction to promote critical thinking in physical education.
Curricula Equity in Required Ninth-Grade Physical Education
Authors: Napper-Owen Gloria E. , Kovar Susan K. , Ermler Kathy L. , Mehrhof Joella H.
Published: August 2016

Physical educators from randomly selected high schools (N = 180) in the AAHPERD Central District were surveyed via telephone regarding their required (9th grade) physical education programs. Four researchers scored the 180 instruments, and each instrument was scored independently with a 96% inter-rater reliability. For the entire sample, 52% of the activity units were team sports, 39% individual sports, 4% dance-gymnastics, and 4% adventure-cooperative-recreational. Of the 180 schools, 71% conducted programs in compliance with Title IX. Of the teachers interviewed, 88% of the females and 30% of the males taught outside their socially accepted areas, although they tended to conduct similar curricula. In general, schools delivered traditional multi-activity programs emphasizing team and lifetime sports, while 25% of the schools had programs with a primary emphasis on competitive, contact, male-oriented team activities. Thus, curricula tended to perpetuate the current socially constructed view of gender and physical activity.
Analysis of an Ongoing, District-Wide Collaborative Approach to Teacher Education
Authors: Sharpe Tom , Lounsbery Monica Fabian , Golden Cindy , Deibler Chris
Published: August 2016

Collaboration among teacher educators and practicing teachers is currently a popular education reform strategy. Two matched undergraduate cohorts, one prepared in a Professional Development School (PDS) collaborative, were followed over a 5-year period to determine the benefits of one collaborative model. Qualitative data were collected across the 2 undergraduate groups (n = 8, n = 6), two cooperating teacher groups (n = 16, n = 12), two public school administrative groups (n = 4, n = 3), and one faculty group (graduate student n = 3, faculty n = 3). Observational data were also collected for each undergraduate cohort, representing practicum, student teaching, and inservice teaching. Qualitative data over the 5-year study period showed trends from apprehension to receptivity and recommitment to the teacher education process for all collaborative participants. While not directly attributable to the collaboration model alone, exposed undergraduates and their students also demonstrated marked changes in select daily practices correlated with effective instruction. Challenges and implications for research on collaborative activities are last discussed.
Investigating the Assumptions of Pedagogy
Authors: Rink Judith E.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to discuss the relationship between learning theories and teaching methodology from the perspective of the researcher and the teacher. All teaching methodologies have their roots in particular learning theories. Teaching methodologies are discussed in terms of the learning theories upon which they are founded. Learning theories are discussed in terms of their assumptions and the issues which divide them. A case is made that researchers need to validate the treatment not only in terms of the methodology the teacher uses but the learning process experienced by the learner. If it is the process which produces particular kinds of learning, then teachers need to be knowledgeable about the assumed learning processes of a teaching method and be able to observe for and teach for that process.
Prediction of Selected Fitness Indicators by Gender, Age, Alienation, and Perceived Competence
Authors: Burkhalter Nancy A. , Wendt Janice C.
Published: August 2016

Alienation from physical education causes students to withdraw emotionally and physically from participation in classes. In addition, belief in one’s competence in physical activity and physical fitness appears to influence both participation in physical activity and fitness levels. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between physical factors (fitness performance and strength measures), psychological factors (alienation from physical education and two types of perceived physical competence), gender, and age in middle school children. Participants in this study were 242 children (138 girls, 104 boys) enrolled in 6th-, 7th-, and 8th-grade physical education classes. Data were collected on alienation from physical education; perceived competence toward physical fitness and toward physical activity; and grip strength, standing long jump, mile run, percent body fat, and body mass index. Using factor scores, a two-step regression procedure revealed that (a) gender and perceived fitness competence were significant predictors (p < .05) of fitness, explaining 41% of the variance, and (b) age, alienation, and perceived physical activity competence were significant predictors of strength, explaining 25% of the variance. Independent of gender and age, the psychological variables of perceived physical competence toward fitness and alienation are related to physical performance. Highly alienated youth were less fit, and children with lower perceptions of physical competence were less fit.
Comparative Effects of Sequential Behavior Feedback and Goal-Setting across Peer-Teaching and Field-Based Practice Teaching
Authors: Sharpe Tom , So Hosung , Mavi Hasan , Brown Seth
Published: August 2016

Based on sequential behavior analysis (SBA) approaches to clinical practice activities (Sharpe, Lounsbery, & Bahls, 1997) and on results from school-university collaboration approaches to teacher education (Sharpe, Lounsbery, Golden, & Deibler, 1999), this study analyzed the effects of different supervisory personnel and practice-teaching settings on the relative effectiveness of SBA feedback and goal-setting practices. Teaching performances of two matched groups of undergraduates (N = 4) were observed. An A-B-A-C multiple baseline design with a treatment reversal across participants was used. The B-phase consisted of school-based practice teaching, the C-phase consisted of peer-based practice teaching, and the multiple baseline represented the differing times in which the same SBA feedback treatment was administered. Results demonstrated substantial improvement in select teacher and student practices in the school-based setting but a limited effect in the peer-based setting. Participant response data provided additional support for school-based activities. This study endorses a collaborative field-based approach to teacher education and contradicts the literature in nonsupport.
Beliefs about Gender Appropriateness, Ability, and Competence in Physical Activity
Authors: Solmon Melinda A. , Lee Amelia M. , Belcher Donald , Harrison Louis , Wells Lori
Published: August 2016

Beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability have been identified as powerful influences on beliefs about competence. The purpose of this study was to investigate the interaction of those two factors on competence beliefs in physical activity. Participants completed a survey about the sport of hockey, watched a video of a specific hockey skill, and then responded to questions about the skill. Males expressed more confidence in their ability to learn hockey than females, but females who perceived the activity to be gender neutral were more confident in their ability to learn hockey than females who believed the activity was predominantly for males. Participants’ explanations of their beliefs about gender appropriateness and confidence shed light on how competence beliefs are affected by perceptions of gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability.
The Emotional Dimensions of a Teacher’s Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Influences on Content, Curriculum, and Pedagogy
Authors: McCaughtry Nate
Published: August 2016

Although teachers’ knowledge of student emotion is not typically integrated into studies of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, this study uses the philosophy of emotion, recent teacher knowledge research, and a case study of one middle-school physical education teacher to illustrate the point that how teachers understand student emotion is inextricably linked to their thinking and decisions about educational content, curriculum, and pedagogy. Data were collected during 4 months of observations and interviews and were analyzed using constant comparison. Three themes are used to show how this teacher’s interpretations of student emotion influenced her selecting, ordering, and formulating of curriculum units, her pedagogical maneuvering during lessons to facilitate learning, and her interactions with individual students and groups of students. The discussion centers on the need to expand current conceptions of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, and the importance of emotional understanding in teaching. Future directions for research into emotion and teaching are suggested.
An Investigation of the Self-Regulation Components Students Employ in the Physical Education Setting
Authors: Kermarrec Gilles , Todorovich John R. , Fleming David S.
Published: August 2016

Research in educational psychology and sport psychology indicates that school achievement depends on students’ capacity to self-regulate their own learning processes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the self-regulation components employed by students in a natural physical education setting. Twenty-three French students, 14 and 15 years old, were videotaped during their regular physical education class as their teachers taught them a new skill. The students then watched a recording of their performance and provided the researcher with a verbal description of their cognitive activity during the lesson. Verbal data were then analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The data revealed that the students employed a 17-component self-regulation model while learning a new skill in the natural physical education context. Three teaching models that emerged for eliciting the identified self-regulation components among students are also discussed.
Motivational Climate, Motor-Skill Development, and Perceived Competence: Two Studies of Developmentally Delayed Kindergarten Children
Authors: Valentini Nadia C. , Rudisill Mary E.
Published: August 2016

Two studies were conducted to examine the effects of motivational climate on motor-skill development and perceived physical competence in kindergarten children with developmental delays. In Experiment 1, two intervention groups were exposed to environments with either high (mastery climate) or low autonomy for 12 weeks. Results showed that the mastery-climate group demonstrated significantly better locomotor performance and higher perceived physical competence postintervention than did the low-autonomy group, although both groups improved in locomotor and object-control skill performance. The second investigation extended the findings of the first by determining that the intervention effects were present 6 months later. In summary, the mastery-climate group showed positive changes in skill development and perceived physical competence, and this positive pattern of change was maintained over time.
An Analysis of the Working Memories of Expert Sport Instructors
Authors: McCullick Bryan , Schempp Paul , Hsu Shan-Hui , Jung Jin Hong , Vickers Brad , Schuknecht Greg
Published: August 2016

A distinguishing characteristic of expert teachers appears to be an excellent memory (Berliner, 1986; Tan, 1997). Possessing an excellent memory aids experts in building a substantial knowledge base relative to teaching and learning. Despite its importance, the memory skills of expert teachers have yet to be investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze the working memories of expert sport instructors. Forty-three expert teachers served as subjects for this study. Each teacher was shown a series of slides depicting play and instructional situations in their respective domains. The test required that the subjects view a slide for 5 seconds and then recall as much as they could from the slide. The audio taped responses were transcribed and then analyzed inductively using Huberman and Miles’ (1995) four stage analysis framework to draw themes and commonalities from the data. The findings revealed three themes of experts’ working memories: (a) voluminous and rich, (b) a dominant order, and (c) include a thorough skill analysis. There is support for Berliner (1986) and Tan’s (1997) contention that experts have excellent memories, arrange their knowledge in a hierarchical manner, and are able to discern the important from the unimportant.
Modified Delphi Investigation of Exercise Science in Physical Education Teacher Education
Authors: Bulger Sean M. , Housner Lynn D.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the critical exercise science competencies and associated instructional methods recommended for inclusion in the physical education teacher education curriculum. The two-round modified Delphi procedure involved the repeated circulation of a questionnaire to a small panel of content experts. The Delphi panel members were asked to rate each questionnaire item in terms of theoretical importance and pedagogical relevance. The data collected during the second round of questioning were employed to provide a final measure of consensus regarding the critical strength of each exercise science competency. The Delphi panel members were also asked to complete an addendum survey concerning their recommendations regarding the most effective instructional methods for the delivery of exercise science content. The results of this process provide a conceptual framework upon which physical education teacher educators can make future curricular decisions in the area of exercise science.
California Secondary School Physical Education Teachers’ Attitudes Toward the Mandated Use of the Fitnessgram
Authors: Ferguson Robert H. , Keating Xiaofen D. , Bridges Dwan M. , Guan Jianmin , Chen Li
Published: August 2016

This study aimed to determine how California secondary physical education teachers perceive the state mandated youth fitness testing for the 5th, 7th, and 9th grades using Fitnessgram. The participants were secondary school physical education teachers (N = 323). A previously validated attitudinal instrument (Keating & Silverman, 2004a) was used to collect the data. The means and standard deviations for each attitude subdomain and the overall attitudes were computed. MANOVA and ANOVA were employed to test the differences in attitudes by demographic and profession-related variables. Teachers’ overall attitudes toward the Fitnessgram were slightly higher than a neutral attitude, indicating slightly positive attitudes on a 7-point Likert scale (M = 4.47, SD = 1.06). The mean scores for the attitude subdomain of cognitive (i.e., usefulness of fitness test results) and the affective (i.e., enjoyment of implementing fitness tests, and enjoyment of using fitness test results) components were 4.25 (SD = 1.38), 4.90 (SD = 1.15), and 4.39 (SD = 1.17), respectively. The data from the study suggested that teachers marginally agreed that the test results were useful and that they somewhat enjoyed implementing the test. Class size and student grade levels taught were important profession-related variables to consider regarding teacher attitudes toward the Fitnessgram.
The Effects of a Body-Focused Physical and Health Education Module on Self-Objectification and Social Physique Anxiety in Irish Girls
Authors: O’Brien Jacinta , Ginis Kathleen A. Martin , Kirk David
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an 8-week body-focused physical and health education module on self-objectification and social physique anxiety (SPA) in a sample of 85 Irish schoolgirls. Classrooms were randomly assigned to receive the experimental module or the standard curriculum. Participants completed pre- and postassessments of the value they placed on objectifying and nonobjectifying physical attributes, along with a measure of SPA. Girls in the experimental condition increased the value they placed on physical health and strength, decreased the value they placed on sex appeal, and showed no change in SPA. Girls in the control condition decreased the value they placed on body weight and physical fitness and experienced a significant increase in SPA. These results suggest that a body-focused module can decrease self-objectification and prevent developmentally linked increases in SPA.
College Students’ Motivation Toward Weight Training: An Application of Expectancy-Value Model
Authors: Gao Zan , Xiang Ping
Published: August 2016

Guided by an expectancy-value model of achievement choice (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000), the relationships among expectancy-related beliefs, subjective task values (importance, interest, and usefulness), and achievement outcomes (intention, engagement, and performance) were examined in a college-level beginning weight training class. A total of 156 students (73 males, 83 females) completed questionnaires assessing their expectancy-related beliefs, subjective task values, and intention for future participation. Their engagement was measured via self-recorded workout log entries in class, and their performance was determined by two skill tests. Results of the study supported the application of the expectancy-value model in the context of a college weight training class. Importance and interest were significant predictors of intention and engagement, whereas expectancy-related beliefs emerged as the only predictor of performance. Males reported higher scores on expectancy-related beliefs and performed better than females.
Task Values, Cost, and Choice Decisions in College Physical Education
Authors: Chen Ang , Liu Xinlan
Published: August 2016

The expectancy-value motivation theory postulates that motivation can be achieved when perceived values in an activity override perceived cost of the activity derived from the effort of achieving. This study was designed to examine types of perceived cost in physical education and the extent to which the cost might affect motivation. Data about attainment, intrinsic, and utility values in physical education were collected using surveys from college students (n = 368) in China. Perceived cost was investigated through open-ended written responses and interviews. Disappointment about the curriculum emerged as a major cost to motivation and lack of student autonomy was identified as a direct demotivating factor. Despite the cost, most of the students (92%) indicated they would, if given a choice, elect to continue physical education for health benefits and broader motivational impact in life, suggesting that strong positive values of physical activity might override the impact of cost. The findings suggest the importance of emphasizing positive values of physical activity in physical education.
Characteristics of PETE Doctoral Level Institutions: Descriptions of Programs, Faculty and Doctoral Students
Authors: Boyce B. Ann , Rikard G. Linda
Published: August 2016

The present study of Doctoral PETE programs provided an extensive description of demographic data which included: (a) doctoral program characteristics, (b) faculty, and (c) doctoral graduates. Several data sets from the academic years of 2005–06 and 2008–09 as well as selected summary data from 1996–97 through 2008–09 were used to make comparisons and identify emerging trends. The number of 23 doctoral programs (2008–09) has decreased slightly compared with the 24 programs in 2005–06. Information on faculty and doctoral student ethnicity revealed that doctoral graduates were more diverse than D-PETE faculty. Almost 90% of doctoral graduates enter positions in higher education. There was a slight increase in the number of doctoral students who matriculated over time. Lastly, our graduates including non U.S. graduates are extremely marketable because of the high demand for pedagogists in higher education.
Teaching Sportsmanship in Physical Education and Recreation: An Analysis of Interventions and Generalization Effects
Authors: Giebink M. Patricia , McKenzie Thomas L.
Published: August 2016

This article reports two related studies designed to examine the effects of three intervention strategies (instructions and praise, modeling, and a point system) on children’s sportsmanship in physical education class and in a recreation setting. Four target boys (mean age 12.3 years) were monitored during 22 physical education class Softball games and during 21 recreational basketball games. In softball, an ABCDA reversal design indicated that while the effects on individual children varied, all three interventions increased sportsmanship and decreased unsportsmanlike behaviors. The improved sportsmanship behavior of the softball class did not transfer to basketball, however, and further interventions were implemented in that setting. Here, an ABAC reversal design revealed that instructions and praise intervention were effective in reducing unsportsmanlike behavior but it had little effect on increasing sportsmanship. In both settings, the point system with contingent back-up reinforcers was the most effective intervention.
Comparison of Academic Learning Time in Physical Education: Students of Specialists and Nonspecialists
Authors: Placek Judith H. , Randall Lynda
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to compare the academic learning time (ALT) of elementary students in physical education classes taught by specialists with those taught by classroom teachers. Physical education classes of 7 specialists and 13 nonspecialists were observed using the revised ALT-PE instrument. The data revealed close similarities within the large categories of context and learner involvement, although interesting differences appeared within the subcategories. No significant difference was found in measures of ALT-PE. The results indicate that although specialists may select more appropriate learning activities, knowledge of content may not be the most significant variable in organizing for maximized student participation and success.
Concerning the Quality of the Development of Knowledge in Sport Pedagogy
Authors: Crum Bart
Published: August 2016

Whereas 10 years ago research on teaching physical education was characterized as a dismal science, recent judgments on the state of the art are rather optimistic. It is argued that this optimism must be guarded. Three research tasks are distinguished after an exposition of subject matter and concern of scientific work on sport pedagogy. A cohesive execution of the three research tasks is accepted as the criterion for the quality of the development of knowledge in the field. The question is raised as to which extent the three tasks are fulfilled in the two main scientific subcultures of sport pedagogy (the West German and the North American). Some support is presented for the thesis: whereas sport empirical work is severely neglected in West Germany, North American sport pedagogical research suffers from a (meta-) theoretical shortage. Finally some suggestions are presented for improving the communication between the two subcultures.
The Effect of Refinement on Student Achievement in a Fundamental Motor Skill in Grades K through 6
Authors: Masser Linda
Published: August 2016

This study investigated whether the teacher behavior of refinement would affect boys’ and girls’ achievement in the standing broad jump across grade levels kindergarten through 6th grade. The study took place in a public school rural setting using intact classes involving 529 students. A nonequivalent control-group design was used for the experiment. All subjects were pretested and posttested. A posttest took place immediately following the experiment and after a time span of 7 months. The posttest scores were analyzed using an analysis of covariance at each grade level. From the analysis of the data, it was concluded that the teacher behavior of refinement did have both immediate and long-term positive effects on student achievement in performing the standing broad jump.