bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Domestic Origins of Peace
Authors: Randle Robert
Published: March 2007

A variety of pressures is felt by the policy- makers of a belligerent actor impelling them to make peace. Internal pressures originate with the legislature, the elites, public opinion, advisers of the policy-makers and the ministries of the government. History provides us with the examples from which we can generalize when peace moves are con strained or permitted by forces within the polity of a belligerent.
China and the United States: A New Phase
Authors: Pye Lucian W.
Published: March 2007

Americans of different interests and different ideological persuasions have consistently idealized elements of China. Creating their own mythical Chinas, they have uniformly been disappointed by events. Now that Nixon has made a new opening toward improving relations with Peking, it is important for the American public to have a realistic understanding of why Peking and Washington at this point in time find it advantageous for their separate national interests to seek a degree of mutual accommodation. Analysis of the Shanghai communique reveals the skillful manner in which Chou En-lai was able to put aside the Taiwan issue as he leads a post-Cultural Revolutionary China in search of greater international security, particularly from a major Soviet military threat. The prime cause of change has been the emergence of a new and complex balance in Asia involving quite incommensurate powers. The key relationship is likely to be the Sino-Soviet confrontation because it is uncertain how the Soviet Union will react to the growth of Chinese power, especially nuclear. Ultimately American policy will depend upon the attitudes and sentiments of the American people about China; and hopefully the American public has been exposed to enough romanticizing about foreign political systems that they will be able to pierce through new attempts at myth-making and help to place U.S.-China relations on a solidly realistic basis.
Congress, the Executive and the Budget
Authors: Fisher Louis
Published: March 2007

During the autumn months of 1972 President Nixon and Congress engaged in a prolonged and bitter struggle over a spending ceiling. The president wanted a limit of $250 billion for fiscal 1973, with complete discretion to cut wherever needed to preserve the ceiling. Congress refused to grant him such broad discretion. This single incident tells one many valuable things about the relative advantages available to the two branches. While factually wide of the mark, the president's offensive against a big-spending Congress proved to be overpowering in the political arena. Congress lacked the capability—and, probably, also the will—to defend itself. The result was a serious collapse in informed and responsible policy making.
The Sources of Money: An Overview
Authors: Adamany David
Published: March 2007

The American system of raising campaign funds does not conform to democratic theory. Money itself has qualities which distinguish it from other kinds of political resources. Few Americans contribute; those that do are disporportionately drawn from the upper socioeconomic classes; and big givers and special interests dominate cam paign financing. Equal citizen influence in politics is thwarted by these patterns. Although most individual and group con tributions divide along the same class and policy lines as divide the two major parties, there are many switch-givers who seek advantages by giving to either party or both. Con tributions tend to flow more readily to executive office candi dates, to powerful congressional figures, to incumbents, to close districts, and perhaps to ideological candidates. Wealthy contenders also have an edge. These imbalances diminish vigorous competitive campaigning, which is necessary to alert citizens to their choices in a democracy. Sweeping con gressional reforms in 1971 and 1974 probably reduce the influence of big contributors and broaden citizen participa tion through the income tax check-off. But they do not address other failures of the campaign financing system, and they may create new imbalances and inequalities of their own.
Report on Committee II
Authors: Freedman James O.
Published: March 2007

Professor Abraham's paper presents con siderable evidence that the American people consider the Judiciary the most effective of the major government insti tutions. One of the committee's questions was why this was so. Two possible reasons are: the Supreme Court has shown a capacity to resolve issues the nation felt should be re solved ; the Court has often met people's expectations better than other government institutions. The committee gave considerable attention to the selection of judges, particularly the criteria for their selection. It devoted some time, also, to issues relating to the organization of judicial resources: whether diversity jurisdiction and 3-judge courts should be abolished, and whether federal judicial salaries should be raised. Surprisingly little time was spent on questions of the proper role of the Supreme Court in American society. Four major themes were the focus of the discussion of federalism: what are the implications of federalism for governmental effi ciency ; would a system placing more authority at the local level result in greater citizen participation; how much is known about how federalism operates; and should govern mental units be designed which are appropriate in scale to the tasks expected of them?
Report on Committee III
Authors: Frug Gerald
Published: March 2007

Political parties have been the traditional means by which the various groups in our society are able to articu late their views and goals; however, there has been a sig nificant decline in the role of political parties in our society. One basic cause has been the primary system. Problems created by reliance on primaries are that this process en courages more extreme candidates and reliance on style rather than program. It is argued in favor of primaries that conflict between Congress and the president is not a bad thing and the primary system is more democratic than the party system. A possible resolution to this debate is the idea of the regional primary. Concerning the separation of powers, there is an increasing tendency of Congress to delegate un checked authority to the Executive branch. Possible solutions to the problem are congressional oversight, unconstitutional delegation of powers, congressional veto, and the power of impeachment. Finally, there is the problem of Legislative effectiveness and the Executive function of planning. Con gress must work as a whole on plans to deal with the country's problems, but this is a difficult change for Congress to make.
The Revolution and the Constitution: Models of What and for Whom?
Authors: Wright Esmond
Published: March 2007

The United States won its independence by war, but without the social upheaval that today usually is associated with "revolution." If the documents of 1776 and 1787 are examined objectively, their value for revolutionary "models" is limited. The units of self-government in 1787 were ready-made, thanks to 150 years of loose and liberal imperial control. The struggle was defended in terms of a parallel: seventeenth-century "Commonwealth Men" against the Stuarts, using familiar English concepts. The emphasis on the separation of powers and the primacy of the legis lature had little to commend itself to the post-1945 republics, where power has been concentrated at the top—personal and charismatic. If "1787" was democracy at all, it was for men only, and then only if they were white and propertied. Nothing was planned either for imitation or for export. But images count in politics and history. Ideas are believed to be transferable and phrases quotable. Throughout the nine teenth century, the United States was seen as a model, however erroneously. Now there are other, cruder models for imitation. It is unlikely that any of these will produce the remarkable—because unique—liberal society that emerged in the United States in and after 1787.
Black Mayors As Urban Managers
Authors: Nelson William E.
Published: March 2007

Black mayors face problems that are fundamentally different from those faced by white mayors because they must contend with constraints on their capacity for leadership not common to big city mayors generally. The heart of their dilemma is that they are, on the one hand, pressured by expectations of high performance, but on the other, handicapped in their ability to live up to these expectations by social, economic, and political factors that rob them of the resources and power they need to be successful in their roles. This paper examines the implications of this dilemma for effective black mayoral leadership. Suggestions are made for steps that might be taken to strengthen the leadership role of black mayors.
Patterns of White Avoidance
Authors: Wilson Franklin D.
Published: March 2007

This paper addresses the issue of whether whites' utilization of alternate forms of schooling is racially motivated. More specifically, an effort is made to determine whether residence in census tract units of varying racial composition influences white outmigration and utilization of nonpublic schools. Results are reported and summarized for sixty-three public school districts serving central cities. It is found that residential populations living within individual school districts differ with respect to the extent of racial selection in residential relocation and nonpublic school utilization, according to region, percentage of public school pupils black, type of district, and implementation of school desegregation programs.
New Hope for Revival of America's Central Cities
Authors: Huth Mary Jo
Published: March 2007

During and after World War II and until fairly recent years, most American cities experienced rapid aging and physical decay, resulting in an exodus to the suburbs of their middle-class residents and in the attendant erosion of their tax bases, which made it impossible to cope effectively with a wide range of social problems. At present, however, there is considerable evidence of a rebirth of our central cities, the single most important factor contributing to this trend being the federal government's enouragement of their economic development. The differential investment and employment tax credits, expanded Economic Development Administration (EDA) and Urban Development Action Grant (UDAG) funding, and related proposals in our new national urban policy promulgated in 1978 are intended to help offset the job and revenue losses resulting from central cities' outmoded manufacturing facilities and transportation systems. Moreover, this new urban policy emphasizes the importance of state governance and tax policies for the well-being of cities. Most experts agree, however, that it takes at least 20 years to effect significant changes in urban development patterns, and the ultimate test of our new urban policy will be the degree of momentum it is able to achieve and sustain over time.
The Shift in Soviet National Priorities to Military Forces, 1958-85
Authors: Lee W.T.
Published: March 2007

This article traces the shift in Soviet national economic priorities from civilian uses, primarily consumption, to support of the Soviet military establishment since the late 1950s. It treats certain methodological issues involved in international comparisons, outlines the methodology used to estimate Soviet defense expenditures from published Soviet economic data, and compares the results with the CIA's estimates before and after the CIA was forced to double its estimates by new information which confirmed my estimates. A brief list of some of the major weapons systems whose development, procurement, and operations have driven the shift in Soviet national priorities from civilian to military uses is provided and the article concludes on the prospects for further increases in the military burden on the Soviet economy in the 1980s.
The United States and Extended Security Commitments: East Asia
Authors: Hinton Harold C.
Published: March 2007

In East Asia and the Western Pacific the United States faces an impressive recent Soviet military (especially naval) buildup, continuing and serious tension in Korea, a Japan that to date has not done much to put itself in a viable defensive posture, and potential for further unrest in Southeast Asia. In the last year or two of the Carter administration, accordingly, a trend begun a decade earlier toward American military disengagement from the region was reversed. The Reagan administration is almost certain to maintain this reversal and to cultivate closer relations with South Korea and Taiwan than did its predecessor, while trying at the same time to establish a strategic relationship of some sort with the People's Republic of China. The purpose of the latter move is, or would be, to help cope with rising Soviet assertiveness in the region. Moscow itself claims—prematurely, to say the least—that the United States, Japan, and China are forming an alliance against it and is especially anxious that the United States and everyone else refrain from transferring modern arms to China.
A Sociopsychiatric Interpretation of Terrorism
Authors: FERRACUTI FRANCO
Published: March 2007

Definitions of terrorism are imprecise and difficult. Even the units of analysis are not uniform, and existing typologies are merely descriptive. Forecasting, however, particularly middle-and long-range, would improve if we could provide a valid theoretical formulation. This would have to be interdisciplinary and should encompass both the idioverse of the terrorist and the universe of the terrorist events. Psychiatric contributions are few and they lack general validity. Violence and death wishes, which translate into fantasy war, are generally accepted characteristics. Four theories are briefly discussed: (1) frustration-aggression, (2) unbalance of the social system, (3) Olson's rational choice, and (4) Marxist theory. A subcultural approach would allow consideration of group and individual factors and would permit some valid policy choices.
The Management of Executive Departments
Authors: DEAN ALAN L.
Published: March 2007

One of the most important aspects of the management of the executive branch of the federal government relates to the organization and administration of the 13 executive departments. Yet there has been little attention given to this aspect of public administration in the literature. If the functions of the government of the United States are to be efficiently executed, it is vital that the executive departments be well conceived, structured, and managed. This means that they should be set up to carry out definable major purposes of the government, the enacting statutes should provide for adequate authority in the secretaries, there should be substantial freedom to adapt the departments to changes in priorities, greater attention should be given to the design and implementation of modern management systems, and reliance should be placed on the career civil servants who alone have the knowledge and continuity to assure efficient and consistent administration. It is likely, however, that there is so little agreement as to how the shortcomings of our departments can be remedied that something like a new Hoover Commission may be required to identify solutions and raise public awareness of the urgency of the situation.
Refugees in Developing Countries and Transnational Organization
Authors: GORDENKER LEON
Published: March 2007

Large-scale refugee flows, typically occurring in developing countries, inspire the formation of transnational networks that pose new issues of policymaking, direction, execution, and legitimacy. Institutional responses to the presence of refugees, often in the poorest and least well-administered areas on earth, comprise reactions at the local, national, and transnational levels, including both intergovernmental and voluntary organizations. These responses produce ad hoc organizational entities to deal with unanticipated difficulties. Even after news of a refugee flow is spread, governments can still adopt an isolating policy but more likely will be forced to turn to such transnational networks for help. In a widely felt political disturbance, the positions of the great powers will have a substantial conditioning effect on the handling of refugees. Whatever the pattern of response, refugees tend to involve the asylum state in transnational networks in order to cope with local repercussions as well as care of those in fight. Later, the emphasis may well shift from emergency to diplomatic networks as efforts are made to find a means of liquidating refugee incidents. The character of these networks is shifting and unpredictable, conditioned by specific circumstances. Nevertheless, the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees and other intergovernmental bodies serve as natural nuclei for expansion. More integrated modes of organization currently are of doubtful utility.
Competition and Health Care Policy: Experience and Expectations
Authors: BROWN LAWRENCE D.
Published: March 2007

Since 1970 federal policymakers have tried to strengthen competition and incentive-based market forces as alternatives to regulation in containing health costs. The effort to stimulate the growth of health maintenance organizations (HMOs) throughout the country has had limited results, and federal plans to promote competition by enacting changes in the health insurance market have so far come to little. Coalitions in some localities have shown growing interest in flexible HMO variants, however, and the intellectual force of the HMO critique of mainstream practices remains strong. Moreover, the federal government has shown new interest in prospective reimbursement of hospitals—a proposal that draws from both HMOs—competition—and hospital rate-setting programs—regulation—the element of prospectivity.
Culture in a Cold Climate
Authors: PRICE CHRISTOPHER
Published: March 2007

Culture has been seen in Britain as a national institution worthy of public expenditure since the nineteenth century, but recent cutbacks in British government spending on the arts have forced the British to reexamine the place of culture in their society. The government wants the arts to raise income from private companies and individuals, but it has not provided any tax incentives for such private support. Private support of the arts in Britain poses several problems. It would blur what has been a clear distinction in the English establishment's mind between the public world of service to the community and the private world of commercial gain; and it tends to encourage popular or traditional arts ventures over innovative ones. In general, British politicians fear the economics of the arts because of its left-wing political potential. The author's parliamentary committee advocates the establishment of a ministry of culture, with national companies obtaining funds directly from the ministry, and with regional arts organizations taking responsibility for the remaining 60 percent of public cultural funding.
Sino-Soviet Relations: What Next?
Authors: WHITING ALLEN S.
Published: March 2007

China's three demands for normalization of Sino-Soviet relations are not likely to win Soviet compliance. Only a modest reduction of the 480,000 Soviet troops opposite China is possible, but not removal of the 125 SS-20 missiles and 60 Backfire bombers, which have regional and global strategic significance. No Soviet concessions on Afghanistan or Vietnam-Kampuchea are expected. Ideology is no longer an issue between Moscow and Beijing as during Mao's time, but conflicts in national interest deadlock negotiations. Meanwhile, increased Sino-Soviet trade and travel reflect improved state relations. A further improvement could serve U.S. interests in Korea, Indochina, and arms control without jeopardizing U.S. and allied security interests elsewhere. Sino-Soviet relations are, however, basically independent of American influence and should not determine Sino-American relations.
Warehouses for People?
Authors: TOCH HANS
Published: March 2007

The impact of congested prisons is not primarily a problem of population density, but of corollaries of crowding such as social instability, lack of programming, and the ascendance of custody goals. Congestion affects staff as well as inmates, and different inmates are differently affected. Some have antisocial tendencies exacerbated; others suffer from mental health problems. Staff subserve custody goals, but subserve them less effectively because social control mechanisms—such as programming and classification—are impaired by crowding. A recent prison riot points to transience and idleness as key preconditions and shows the results of congestion in escalating sequences that prominently include crisis management. The most serious consequence of crowding is warehousing, which creates a prison climate that prevents inmates from serving time in customary ways. It remains to be determined whether this result constitutes disproportionate—hence unlawful—punishment.
Populations, Practices, and Problems in Forensic Psychiatric Facilities
Authors: KERR CHARLOTTE A. , ROTH JEFFREY A.
Published: March 2007

This is a study of the public facilities to which mentally disordered offenders are committed or transferred so that they may be securely confined while simultaneously participating in programs designed for treatment of their mental disorders. The study focuses principally on the nature and characteristics of these facilities: their patient populations, staff, security conditions, treatment programs, and operational programs. We identified and surveyed 231 facilities. The information from the survey, legal research, and site visits to 11 programs has been integrated and used to address four major issues: the types of facilities mentally disordered offenders are institutionalized in for treatment of their mental disorders; the legal, diagnostic, and demographic characteristics of the residents of these facilities; the forms of treatment and levels of staffing available in these facilities; and the common problems faced by facility administrators with respect to facility management, treatment, and release decisions.
French Pique and Piques Françaises
Authors: TOINET MARIE-FRANCE
Published: March 2007

If there is something that can be called anti-Americanism, the French variety goes back a long way, to the end of the eighteenth century, when France hoped that its contribution to American independence would translate into a special relationship. It was never able to achieve this and has never understood its failure. Since then, a very peculiar love-hate relationship has characterized French attitudes toward and dealings with the United States, based on both misunderstandings and conflicting interests. It has varied in different periods and among the various groups of French society. Recently it has been paradoxical to note that Gaullism, whatever its supposed anti-American content, has meant a more serene and mature French attitude toward the United States. A basic source of conflict remains, however, in the cultural area. The French thirst for the universality of its values has resulted in a profound divide between fascination with and rejection of the competitive democratic values that the United States is seeking to project.
The Consequences of Budget Reform for Congressional-Presidential Relations
Authors: THURBER JAMES A.
Published: March 2007

The struggle between Congress and the president over spending and taxing was altered significantly by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Act of 1985. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the impact of these reforms on congressional-presidential budgeting. The analysis answers two questions: What are the major budgetary reforms that have influenced congressional-presidential relations, and what have been the consequences of these changes? The article concludes that the budget reforms have strengthened the congressional role vis-à-vis the president's role in the budget-making process. Macro-budgetary and macro economic trade-offs between Congress and the president are highlighted. In sum, the reforms have made budgeting between the president and Congress more difficult. They have increased the number of budgetary participants, made the budget process more open, forced the president to work more closely with Congress, and allowed Congress gradually to tighten control over executive spending discretion.
Congress, the President, and Military Policy
Authors: DEERING CHRISTOPHER J.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the changing role of Congress and the president in military policy. The argument is that the basic contours of the debate about executive versus legislative control of military policy have changed very little in 200 years, that, nonetheless, the balance of power in that relationship has shifted in favor of the executive, and that that shift is attributable largely to the substantial increase in the size of the standing military establishment under the direct command of the president. As a result, contemporary presidents, regardless of their inclinations, are in a substantially different position from that of their predecessors during the 200-year history of the Constitution.
Eliminating the Federal Budget Deficit Without Recession
Authors: ADAMS F. GERARD
Published: March 2007

The federal government's budget deficit of more than $150 billion, some 3 to 4 percent of gross national product, is widely perceived as a serious problem. This article considers policy for wiping out the deficit without recession. Simulations of the Wharton econometric model show that a tax increase would have some slowing effect on the economy but would not cause a recession. Recognition of the possibilities for monetary stimulus, once the deficit is in hand, suggests that the domestic budget deficit can be eliminated without causing an economic slowdown. On the other hand, fixing the domestic budget deficit does not automatically deal with international trade imbalance, which will require other policies and/or international policy coordination in order to be corrected.
The North as a Multidimensional Strategic Arena
Authors: ARCHER CLIVE
Published: March 2007

Since 1945, the Nordic governments, aware of the increasing strategic importance of their area, have tempered military response with policies favoring restraint and détente and over the years have created their own pattern of security policies. Mr. Gorbachev's New Thinking in foreign policy has affected the Nordic region: some of the states feel less of a threat than before, though new elements of uncertainty have entered the strategic equation. The Nordic states are economically important and have also developed their maritime resources, leading to some jurisdictional disputes. The five countries have had some problems with the institutional framework for their relationships with other West European states. Rapidly changing events on the continent of Europe provide a good opportunity for a reconsideration of relations in the economic as well as military sphere.
The United States, the Changing Europe, and the Nordic Region
Authors: FLYNN GREGORY
Published: March 2007

The United States has adopted a cautious approach toward the changing strategic situation in Europe and the requirements of a new European order. The evolution of the Northern region will reinforce this American predisposition because military shifts will be slower to materialize here than elsewhere in Europe. The countries of the region will be more affected by the dramatic changes in political atmosphere between East and West, which will reinforce a general tension between European and American policy over constructing the new Europe, with the former concentrating more on longer-term possibilities and the latter concerned with nearer-term risks.
Why Distance Education?
Authors: OHLER JASON
Published: March 2007

This article is concerned with these two aspects of distance education: how it can change our approach to learning and how it can change us. Through the eyes of its potential we can navigate the long journey of addressing some of the educational problems that have plagued us since Sputnik and that have increasingly turned the American public into a group cynical about its own value in the world. At the same time, we can see in it our evolution toward a culture whose values, organizational principles, and sense of what it means to be educated and prepared for the tasks of living are undergoing a transformation at the most fundamental levels.
Gains for the United States from Hemispheric Free Trade
Authors: BOEKER PAUL H.
Published: March 2007

If the prospective North American Free Trade Area can be extended to the rest of Latin America and the Caribbean, the United States will gain from increased exports and employment in about the same dimensions as the benefits of free trade with Mexico alone. Ironically, however, the United States should want Latin America to keep its tariffs toward the rest of world low, so that the inefficiency of too sweet a deal for the United States does not create a drag on Latin America's growth. In the long run, the United States earns more from rapidly growing Latin American economies than it would from an oversized margin of preference for U.S. goods in a regional free trade area. The grand Enterprise for the Americas strategy can be successful for the United States and Latin America if it helps consolidate Latin America's historic economic reforms, including its opening to global competition.
Widening Europe: The Dilemmas of Community Success
Authors: LAURENT PIERRE-HENRI
Published: March 2007

The historical process of enlarging the Community of Six to double that number in 1986 was based on the increasing economic dynamism and success of the European Community. With the end of communism, the number knocking at the door has increased, with the countries of the European Free Trade Association leading the way. The legion of issues that are to emerge with the fourth broadening exercise—and subsequent Mediterranean and Eastern European ones—will necessitate substantial institutional changes at a 1996 meeting, but there are questions whether the new entrants will eventually conform to the integration goals of the Single European Act and the Maastricht Treaty.
Foreign Language Policy and Teacher Education
Authors: BIRCKBICHLER DIANE W.
Published: March 2007

Policymaking in American foreign language education is affected by a variety of factors, among them the increasing influence of outside forces such as politicians and business leaders, poor communication between high-level policymakers and practitioners, the paradox of national curricular and standardization efforts and local and state restructuring movements, and the diversity of policies governing teacher education. In view of projected teacher shortages, recruitment efforts need to be expanded and alternate routes to traditional teacher certification need to be explored. The wide diversity in subject-matter and pedagogical courses and experiences required for teacher certification across the fifty states is a matter of grave concern. The efforts of language organizations to create generic teacher education guidelines and language proficiency standards will be instrumental in providing needed leadership and guidance to reform efforts in foreign language instruction. Unfortunately, these reform efforts are being undertaken without the extensive policy and planning discussions needed to ensure that reform responds to future needs rather than to the status quo.
Hong Kong's Response to the Indochinese Influx, 1975-93
Authors: SKELDON RONALD
Published: March 2007

The changing nature of the population flows from Vietnam to Hong Kong between 1975 and mid-1993 is examined in this article. Hong Kong's population is largely a product of refugee movements from China. Over the period under discussion, official policy toward all arrivals, whether from China or from Vietnam, became much more restrictive. The first wave of Vietnamese to Hong Kong mostly consisted of ethnic Chinese. These were relatively quickly recognized as refugees and resettled. The later waves of ethnic Vietnamese have been held in closed camps; those arriving after 1988 have been subject to screening to determine their refugee status. Those screened out are repatriated either voluntarily or forcibly to Vietnam. The outflows from Vietnam can be fully understood only after a comprehensive analysis of the nature of the origin and destination economies and societies. An economic dimension is usually present in supposedly political flows.
The Impact of Crime on Communities
Authors: TAYLOR RALPH B.
Published: March 2007

CT: Current wisdom suggests that high or increasing crime levels make communities decline. Researchers usually translate decline to mean an increasing desire to move or higher actual mobility of residents; weaker attachments of residents to, and satisfaction with, their neighborhood; less local involvement; and lower house values. Empirical research confirms only some of this wisdom. Crime relates as expected to house prices, neighborhood satisfaction, and the desire to move. But research simultaneously suggests that crime neither spurs mobility nor necessarily decreases local involvement. Past research fails to differentiate the impacts of specific crime rates and does not examine impacts of static versus changing crime rates. This article examines impacts of past and changing crime levels on changes in relative house values and vacancy rates in Baltimore, Maryland, neighborhoods in the 1970s. The results reveal that different crimes influence different aspects of the housing market. Past and changing crime rates play roles in ecological transitions of neighbor-hoods. In keeping with the current findings of contingent impacts of racial change on mobility, I suggest that impacts of crime and related problems on neighborhood viability may be contingent on personal, historical, and locale-specific factors.
Less Crime, by Design
Authors: EKBLOM PAUL
Published: March 2007

Design against crime has always existed, but a combination of circumstances has led to its recent takeoff. Design seeks fitness for purpose and involves reconciling conflicting requirements, one of which may be crime prevention. The focus in this article is on design changes to the physical world while acknowledging links with social processes. The aim is to illustrate how design and prevention overlap, not to identify what works. After a review of contemporary schools of design, some of which can be criticized for narrowness and an uncertain empirical base, a broader definition of prevention is proposed that allows less restricted exploration of how different types of prevention employ design. The article then considers the process of preventing crime through design, discussing the special difficulties of designing when offenders can fight back. A wider-ranging look, from an ecological perspective, reveals interesting parallels between design against crime and other fields.
Political Party Formation in Central Europe, 1989-93
Authors: OSTROWSKI KRZYSZTOF
Published: March 2007

The political systems of Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia are again based on traditional democratic institutions: representative bodies and political parties. One obvious conclusion is that the democratic evolution of party systems in Central Europe opened to the people a new range of political choices. Yet while the structure of choices offered by the party systems has been radically transformed, it is not clear whether the structure of the political preferences of the society has been affected. Another question is the influence of the population's political choices upon the composition and attitudes of political elites. These questions are analyzed using data from Poland and other Central European countries. Results of elections in Poland in 1984-93 are presented and related to differences between Polish provinces. The characteristics of voters and political leaders in 100 local communities in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia are analyzed. The conclusion of the article is that party formation at the local level has not yet become crystallized in Central Europe. Voter preferences, however, seem to be stabilizing, a necessary component of democratic party systems.
Changing Ideologies in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
Authors: SANDOLE DENNIS J. D.
Published: March 2007

This article reports on a survey of the views of Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe elites on peace and security in post-Cold War Europe. The findings suggest that there appear to be three distinct meta-cultures developing in the new Europe: one comprises the former Yugoslavian republics (FYug), together with the former non-Soviet members of the Warsaw Pact (NSWP) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); another comprises the neutral and nonaligned (NNA); and the third comprises the former Soviet Union (FSU). The FYug-NSWP-NATO cluster appears to be more flexible—further away from Cold War Realpolitik and closer to an Idealpolitik framework—than are the NNA and FSU. This flexibility has also been suggested by the FYug-NSWP-NATO cluster's appearing to be more in favor of change in existing international mechanisms than are the NNA and FSU. The article concludes with recommendations about how Track 1 governments and international governmental organizations and Track 2 nongovernmental organizations can better integrate their peacekeeping and conflict resolution resources, especially in dealing with current and future Yugoslavias.
Risky Thinking: Irrational Fears about Risk and Society
Authors: FREUDENBURG WILLIAM R.
Published: March 2007

Scientists have made remarkable progress in dealing with technical challenges but not in dealing with society. Given that public concerns have grown, in the face of declining “real” risks, the common if simplistic tendency has been to blame public ignorance or irrationality and to argue that policy decisions should be based on quantitative risk estimates, effectively ignoring public concerns. Such assertions are superficially plausible, but they reflect fundamental misunderstandings of the nature of technological societies, as well as of the reasons behind declining scientific credibility and of actual strengths and weaknesses of risk assessment. Scientific credibility has been undermined not so much by shadowy enemies as by actions of self-proclaimed friends, and there are inherent limitations to the practical usefulness of risk assessment in policy disputes. If proposals for risk-based decision making were actually implemented, they could well lead not to increased credibility for specific technologies but to self-reinforcing losses of credibility for science and technology as a whole.
Can the ADA Achieve its Employment Goals?
Authors: BALDWIN MARJORIE L.
Published: March 2007

One of the main objectives of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is to increase the relative wages and employment rates of persons with disabilities by eliminating employer discrimination. The act implicitly assumes that employer discrimination is the main cause of disabled persons' disadvantages in the labor market, ignoring important differences between this minority group and the groups protected by civil rights legislation in the past. Neither does the law address the underlying sources of employer discrimination against persons with disabilities. Research demonstrates that prejudice is one important source of such discrimination but not the only source. Other factors—namely, informational problems and productivity differentials—also contribute to differences in the employment and wages of disabled and nondisabled workers. Because the employment provisions of the ADA do not take account of these facts, the act provides insufficient assistance to persons with disabilities subject to the most discrimination in the labor market and is unlikely to increase substantially the employment rates of this group.
Wealth Equals Wisdom? The Rockefeller and Ford Foundations in India
Authors: GORDON LEONARD A.
Published: March 2007

Two giants of American philanthropy, the Rockefeller and Ford foundations, have had a complicated history in South Asia. The sources are considerable, but mainly on the grant-giver side, with little attention to the impact of the grants. The Rockefeller Foundation started its grants to India in 1916 and through 1947 worked mainly in the field of medicine. Later it broadened its interests to include agriculture and humanities. It curtailed most of its India interest in 1973. The Ford Foundation entered India in the 1950s. Douglas Ensminger, its representative, became the most powerful foreign representative of the foundation, calling himself a “change agent” and enjoying unusual access to Prime Minister Nehru. He presided over the expansion of Ford Foundation technical assistance, with over 100 foreigners working for it in India by 1970. Thereafter it decided to cut the number of foreigners working in India and change its mode of operation to one of grant giver. The golden age of the foundations was in the 1950s and 1960s, when they played a most important role; thereafter significant changes occurred.
Israel and the Palestinians: Fifty Years of Wars and Turning Points
Authors: GAZIT SHLOMO
Published: March 2007

In 1947, Israel accepted the U.N. partition plan while the Palestinians rejected it and tried to prevent its realization by force. The result was catastrophic for the Palestinians. Following the Six Day War, Israel withdrew from its liberal occupation policy and from its intention to avoid any changes in the administered territories prior to the political negotiations. This created a new reality that made any future political agreement extremely difficult. The 1982 war in Lebanon removed the last territorial base that allowed a Palestinian armed struggle against Israel, while the intifada ripened the necessary conditions for the opening of political negotiations and reaching the Oslo Declaration of Principles. The progress made so far is no guarantee that a settlement can be reached in the foreseeable future. It is now the Israelis who reject a territorial compromise. The political window of opportunity that had been opened in Oslo in 1993 has a limited time frame, which raises serious questions about the next phase of the conflict.
Transitions in Israel's Policymaking Network
Authors: ZALMANOVITCH YAIR
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the transition from the cohesive, highly integrated policy community that governed Israel till 1977 to the beginnings of the scattered, dispersed, loosely integrated policy issue network that we see in Israel today. It provides an overview of the main actors and features of the two networks and traces the course of the demise of one and the emergence of the other. It ends with a look at how the atomization inherent in a loose policy issue network has given rise to the conflicts and uncertainties in Israel's current policymaking environment.
Gambling as a Community Development Quick Fix
Authors: BLEVINS AUDIE , JENSEN KATHERINE
Published: March 2007

As small communities throughout the country felt the loss of federal programs and funding, four gold-mining towns in South Dakota and Colorado turned to the legalization of limited-stakes gambling as a means of economic revitalization. All four used the preservation of their historic Old West images to legitimate gaming, but differences in state legislation resulted in different patterns of development. In Deadwood, South Dakota, many small casinos were established, with most gaming tax revenues going toward the town's historic preservation. In Colorado, fewer but much larger casinos emerged, with the returns for historic preservation available to projects across the state, with the gambling communities of Cripple Creek, Central City, and Black Hawk benefiting little. Retail businesses were cannibalized as gambling became the dominant industry in all four towns. Resident populations and schools experienced little change; most of the change occurred in vehicular traffic, law enforcement, and the utilization of infrastructure.
9. Sociable Groups as Pre-political Behavior
Authors: Feigenbaum Kenneth
Published: March 2007

A purely sociable student group "talked shop," was noncommital on general external issues, will talk about the environment in negative terms if its members are of minority or deprived status. This type of observation hints at more useful and extensive findings that might be obtained by studying natural informal small groups of many kinds, whether or not they develop directly into political institutions.
Administrative Agency Reactions to Court Decisions
Authors: Dror Yehezkel
Published: March 2007

The "rule of law" ideology assumes that administrative agencies are passive objects of court supervision, which probes administrative agency action to see whether it accords with constitutional and legal norms. In fact, administrative agencies can react to court interference with a range of chosen actions.
Decisions Under Uncertainty Rational, Irrational, and Non-rational
Authors: Back Kurt W.
Published: March 2007

The author, Associate Professor in Duke University's Department of Sociology and Anthropology, discusses the diverse approaches to decision theory. He holds that probabilistic, rational decision models are restricted to situations in the middle range of importance and cannot be generalized to life decisions. Irrational models, which take psychodynamic factors into account, remain insufficient to account for the whole range of decision process. A non-rational model is proposed, and its assumptions are shown to underlie a variety of decisions that have been studied. The author thanks David M. Shaw and Ida H. Simpson for many helpful suggestions.
Urban Extension
Authors: Bebout John E.
Published: March 2007

Urban extension involves the application of knowledge b y the university to effect urban change. There are a variety of ways this can be done, including the use of urban agents One of the most important issues to be faced is the problem of values and goals.
Asca (Automatic Subject Citation Alert
Authors: Garfield Eugene , Sher Irving H.
Published: March 2007

Citation indexing serves as the basis for a large-scale person alized reference system offered on a subscription basis by the Institute for Scientific Information in Philadelphia, Pennsylva nia. Dr. Eugene Garfield is President of ISI and Irving Sher is Vice-President in charge of Research and Development.
Problem-Solving in the Realm of Urban Planning
Authors: Contini Edgardo
Published: March 2007

Edgardo Contini draws attention to some of the flaws in the narrow approach to dealing with urban problems that has been taken by many planners and "systems" experts. He introduces some important cautions into thinking about educating those who will in one way or another have considerable scope for "designing" our cities.
The Production of Culture in Science
Authors: Hagstrom Warren O.
Published: March 2007

Hagstrom employs a production perspective to integrate what is known and reveal what is not known about the relationship between the subject matter of scientific specialties and the structure of the research groups. He also compares the structure of science and engineering work groups.
The Interdisciplinary Team in Geriatric Care
Authors: WIELAND DARRYL , KRAMER B. JOSEA , WAITE MARTHA S. , RUBENSTEIN LAURENCE Z.
Published: March 2007

Clinical geriatrics and interdisciplinary team care approaches have coevolved during the past 30 years. It has become an article of faith in geriatrics that the goal of multidimensional health for frail elderly patients is most effectively pursued by the interdisciplinary health care team. Geriatrics team models have recently become increasingly differentiated, following secular changes in the health care system that promote community-based care and research findings supporting the efficacy of team-based geriatric services. This article describes a number of these diverse models and evidence of their efficacy and ventures some thoughts on the position of geriatric teams within the more general emergence of primary, managed care models of health services delivery.