bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Appraisal Processes In Emotion
Authors: Ellsworth Phoebe C , Scherer Klaus R
Published: November 2023

Usually, people’s emotions arise from their perceptions of their circumstances—immediate, imagined, or remembered. This idea has been implicit in many philosophical treatments of emotions (e.g., in Aristotle, Spinoza, and even Descartes and James; see Ellsworth 1994a; Gardiner, Clark-Metcalf, & Beebe-Centa, 1980; Scherer, 2000) and explicit in some (e.g., Hume and Hobbes), and it is the central emphasis of current appraisal theories of emotion. Thinking and feeling are inextricably interrelated most of the time: Certain ways of interpreting one’s environment are inherently emotional, few thoughts are entirely free of feelings, and emotions influence thinking. Reason and passion are not independent domains, or are rarely so. Of course there are exceptions: Brain stimulation, hormones, and drugs can produce emotions without external environmental circumstances, just as they can produce sensations, cognitions, and ideas without external environmental circumstances (Penfield, 1975). The fact that exceptions exist does not mean that there is no rule. The general rule suggested by appraisal theorists is that emotions consist of patterns of perception, or rather interpretation, and their correlates in the central and peripheral nervous systems (see Ellsworth, 1994c; Roseman & Smith, 2001; Scherer, 2001a, 2001b). A further assumption is that emotions are fundamentally adaptive, rather than maladaptive. In order to survive, an organism cannot simply understand its situation; it has to be motivated to do something about it. Many species have solved this problem with a mechanism that triggers fixed action patterns in response to appropriate stimuli. Emotions provide a more flexible alternative. They imply action tendencies (Frijda, 1986) without complete rigidity. Lower organisms respond to stimulus patterns with behavior. Emotions, although they still motivate behavior, “decouple” it from the perception of the stimulus so that reconsideration is possible (Scherer, 1984). Fear creates a tendency to flee, but a person may quickly realize that the threat is directed at someone else (reinterpretation of the event) or that an aggressive stance will intimidate the attacker (reinterpretation of response alternatives). Emotions allow flexibility both in event interpretation and in response choice. Emotions, from this point of view, represent an important evolutionary alternative. The phylogenetic expansion of the cerebral cortex enabled an increasing variety of interpretations, emotions, and behavioral options (see Hebb, 1949).
Introduction: Evolutionary and Cultural Perspectives on Affect
Authors: Rozin Paul
Published: November 2023

Affect is important, understudied, and hard to define. There has been a recent burst of interest in psychology in this area, as evidenced by this volume. In this section of the book, we merge the study of affect, substantially ignored by most of psychology during the twentieth century, with two perspectives, the evolutionary and cultural, which were also substantially ignored by psychology during the past century. As there has been a burst of interest in affect, so has there been in both evolutionary and cultural psychology in the past decade or so. So in this section of this volume, we experience the excitement of a new problem of interest, from two new perspectives. Because all this is very new, there are more questions than answers. Of course, concern about affect and emotion, and in particular their evolution, did not originate in recent times. Perhaps the greatest book that deals with these fundamental issues, Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872/1998), was written in 1872. P. T. Young (1959) also mounted an excellent experimental research program devoted to understanding the role of affect in animal function in the mid-twentieth century. However, in the context of behaviorism, it was more or less ignored and was not integrated into developing experimental psychology. On the surface, combining cultural and evolutionary approaches in one section may seem arbitrary. However, these two approaches have two things in common from the viewpoint of psychology. First, each brings the perspective of another discipline to bear on problems of psychological interest. Second, cultures evolve, so concepts from biological evolution such as variation, selection, and adaptation can be applied. Furthermore, many of the problems of scanty evidence that result from the fragmentary state of evidence of past lives that complicate evolutionary and adaptive accounts in biological evolution are more tractable in the case of cultural evolution. In the past thousands of years, cultures have obligingly left a substantial record of artifacts, particularly writing, that tell us about how things were. Psychology, like all scholarly endeavors, is subject to fads. Technological or conceptual breakthroughs, persuasive leaders, and a host of other factors create high concentrations of effort in certain areas, whereas others languish. This may well be a good model for progress. The possibilities of phenomena to study in psychology are almost limitless, and just as the visual system selects and focuses from the bewildering array of events that impinge on the retina, so we must select and focus on some of the possibilities. We must hope that our judgment causes the most productive and representative phenomena to fall in our “research fovea.” Just as affect, evolution, and culture have been outside of the mainstream of psychology for long, within the modern study of affect, some subareas have been relatively ignored.
Neuroimaging and the Neurobiology of Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Rauch Scott L
Published: November 2023

Over the past decade, neuroimaging research has helped to advance neurobiological models of psychiatric disorders. In this chapter, I review neuroimaging research pertaining to anxiety disorders and interpret it in terms of neuroanatomical models of these diseases. Here the focus is on a subset of disorders for which neuroimaging data have provided a convergent series of results. This chapter necessarily extends previous reviews on the same and related topics (Rauch & Baxter, 1998; Rauch, Shin, et al., 1998; Rauch, Whalen, et al., 1998; Rauch, Shin, & Whalen, in press). Anxiety and fear are normal human emotional states that serve an adaptive function. Anxiety disorders represent one category of psychiatric syndromes (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) that are characterized by maladaptive anxiety symptoms. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by intrusive, unwanted thoughts (i.e., obsessions) and ritualized, repetitive behaviors (i.e., compulsions). In OCD, the obsessions are typically accompanied by anxiety that drives the compulsions; the compulsions are performed to neutralize the obsessions and attendant anxiety. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of few psychiatric conditions for which the etiology is defined. In PTSD, individuals evolve a constellation of anxiety symptoms in the aftermath of an emotionally traumatic event; the cardinal features of PTSD include reexperiencing phenomena (e.g., flashbacks), avoidance (e.g., avoiding situations that remind the individual of the traumatic event), and hyperarousal (e.g., exaggerated startle response). Phobias are characterized by reliable exaggerated anxiety responses to innocuous stimuli or situations. Social phobia (SoP) may entail phobic responses to a range of different social situations; specific phobias (SpP) may entail phobic responses to any of various particular stimuli or situations (e.g., small animals, heights, water, enclosed spaces, etc.). Finally, panic disorder (PD) is characterized by recurrent panic episodes, typically occurring spontaneously, without overt precipitants. Panic attacks entail a rapid escalation to extreme anxiety, accompanied by physical symptoms such as rapid breathing, palpitations, sweating, and dizziness, as well as emotional and cognitive symptoms, such as the feeling that something catastrophic is about to happen or that immediate escape is necessary. Individuals with panic disorder often develop avoidance of places or situations in which they believe panic attacks are more likely to occur or from which escape may be difficult (e.g., crowded or confined places).
Introduction: Emotion and Health
Authors: Cacioppo John T
Published: November 2023

The proposition that emotion is a consequence of ill health is uncontroversial. A voluminous literature confirms that one of the best predictors of overall happiness in adults of all ages is health and physical fitness (Myers, 1992). This body of research further shows that emotions are especially stirred by ill health, chronic pain, fatigue, or threat of death. The underlying mechanisms for the effect of ill health on emotion are less straightforward and more fascinating than the effect itself, however. Maier and Watkins (1998), for instance, review evidence that an infection triggers a centrally orchestrated sickness response, which is mediated by vagal afferents and includes behavioral (e.g., lethargy), autonomic (e.g., fever), and neuroendocrine (e.g., cytokine) components. One’s energy and affect are down when one becomes ill in part because one’s cytokines (e.g., interleukin-1) are up. The mechanisms by which cytokines affect the brain and emotion are also becoming clearer. Cytokines signal through the vagus nerve; they trigger small signal molecules that then diffuse into brain tissue, and cytokines themselves cross the blood-brain barrier. Once in the brain cytokines influence various neurotransmitters that impact moods and emotion, such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine (e.g., Dantzer, Bluthe, Laye, Bret-Dibat, Parnet, & Kelley, 1998; Weiss, Sundar, Becker, & Cierpial, 1989; cf. Sternberg, 2000). The ill health of an individual with whom one is connected can also affect one’s own emotions, which calls forth an entirely different class of mechanisms ranging from cognitive appraisals of the demands of caring for the individual to sympathic and empathic responses to emotional contagion (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1994). Additional details about the various mechanisms by which emotion is a consequence of health can be expected in the coming decades. What they all have in common thus far is the notion that the emotions that result from health or ill health foster adaptive actions, self-regulation, and social coordination. The proposition that emotion can influence health or disease has been more controversial in recent history. Socrates (496–399 B.C.) and Hippocrates (466–375 B.C.), however, regarded emotion as a determinant of health and disease. In the 3rd century B.C., the Greek physician Erasistratos diagnosed a young man’s debilitating attacks as caused by an emotional affliction—lovesickness (Mesulam & Perry, 1972)—and to this day, across the doorway of the building housing one of the first pharmacies in Switzerland, is an inscription that proclaims cures for all but lovesickness. In contrast, for most of the 20th century, “medical” maladies of the ilk suffered by Erasistratos’s patient have been viewed as falling in the realm of mental (see Part 9 this volume) rather than physical health, a view fostered ironically by Sigmund Freud’s seminal work on the role of “psychic determinism” in somatic conversion hysteria.
Emotional Expression and Cancer Progression
Authors: Giese-Davis Janine , Spiegel David
Published: November 2023

Interest in the relationship between emotion and cancer began as far back as Galen’s observation that cancer patients seemed melancholy, a term used for someone who was both depressed and emotionally reserved and nonassertive. More recently, there has been a literature suggesting that cancer patients or those likely to develop cancer are emotionally suppressive, especially of negative emotions such as anger. They have been characterized as the converse of “type A” personalities—hostile and impatient—who are at risk for heart disease. Cancer patients have been labeled as “type C”—unassuming and nonassertive, prone to suppress awareness and expression of their own feelings in the service of making others feel better (Temoshok, 1987), or human shock absorbers. This picture has been further complicated by a popular literature recommending a kind of emotional straitjacket for cancer patients, maintaining a “positive attitude.” The implication is that giving in to fear, anger, or sadness constitutes yielding to the illness, and might actually promote progression of the disease in the body, a distortion of the Cartesian dictum Cogito ergo sum (I think therefore I am) to Senti ergo sum (I feel sick—distressed—therefore I am sick). These popular misconceptions highlight the importance of solid empirical information about the relationship between emotion and cancer, and the delivery of clear messages to the lay public about these findings. Patients are actually struggling to suppress natural reactions to their illness or are avoiding discussion of these emotions with loved ones and physicians, out of fear that they may worsen their condition. Cancer necessarily evokes strong emotions in relation to existential issues, body damage, treatment side effects, loss of abilities, pain, fatigue, and a host of other problems. Research linking coping with these emotions and survival is easily misconstrued in ways that further burden patients. In the current review, we will present a perspective on the associations between emotional state/emotional expression and its relationship to cancer incidence, progression, and survival. This review is not meant to be comprehensive, but is intended to highlight consistent themes, point out statistical and methodological shortcomings, and provide suggestions for future research in this area. Though our initial intention was to review only the cancer progression associations, many of the relevant epidemiological and prospective studies examine hypotheses that involve cancer incidence or onset, as well as progression or mortality, so we present both. Our conclusion is that the most consistent findings from converging sources highlight the importance of two constructs—depression and repression.
The Poetics of Abjection in Beloved
Authors: Raynaud Claudine
Published: November 2023

In Morrison’s Beloved, the evocation of the Middle Passage is no sea yarn.1 A layering of different moments painstakingly brought to the slave daughter’s consciousness, the passage takes the shape of a strangely circular text composed of fragments of “images” that hardly add up to a narrative.2 In between the laconic notations, the textual blanks bear witness to the effort to find words that would translate the visions into language. All the while, for the reader, the text itself represents a thwarted attempt at articulation, the gaps not pauses for breath but real blanks suffocating loct of barred meaning, silences that spell the insistent closeness of chos.
Surviving through a Pattern of Timeless Moments A Reading of Caryl Phillips’s Crossing the River
Authors: Julien Claude
Published: November 2023

If we admit that identity is founded on memory, fictions about the Middle Passage have proved to be the medium where the hurt of being torn away and dispersed can well up from its watery tomb. For example, Alex Haley’s Roots (cliche-ridden as it is with the guilt feelings of liberal America) stands out as a pioneering story, and the mysteries, wonders, mysticism, and nimble sarcasm of Charles Johnson’s Middle Passage have given the full measure of poetic creation in this respect.
The Color of Money: Economic Structures of Race and Gender under Slavery
Authors: Boesenberg Eva
Published: November 2023

In this essay, I shall approach the complexities of “race,” gender, and money under slavery in the American South. Particularly, I want to explore the slaves’ own representation of the nexus between money and gender once they had escaped the masters’ symbolic economy where their place was predetermined, immutable, and ambiguous with regard to gender. Black people deported to North America might have experienced slavery on the African continent, but their commodification in the New World represented a new dimension of dehumanization. Quite literally, freedom and personhood depended on money in a slaveholding economy. The profit motive, which had occasioned the slaves’ transatlantic passages in the first place, was inscribed in the social structures of the “peculiar institution” with startling consistency. Treated as chattel and assigned a cash equivalent, the slaves were depersonalized further by the degree of abstraction inherent in monetary language, which screens contextual relations and reduces vastly different activities, objects, and relations to a common denominator.
The Enigma of the Return
Authors: Gysin Fritz
Published: November 2023

Recent novelistic attempts to deal with a real or imaginative return to Africa more often than not foreground the enigmatic quality of that endeavor. Not only is the path of the return frequently frought with insurmountable obstacles but the ties of African American fictional characters to their African origins are much more ambiguous, precarious, and tenuous than some advocates of Afrocentrism would like us to believe. The problem of direction emerges as a major issue. In contemporary, and especially in postmodern African American fiction, most aesthetically successful “re-memories” are repetitions of the enforced process of emigration from Africa to America. In more theoretical terms, in a majority of novels we witness attempts to return on the level of discourse (narration), such as an intention to go back to the roots, or on the level of text (recit), such as the use of analepsis, while on the story (histoire) level, the spatial, and sometimes even the temporal, direction is forward. When we witness an actual return to the source on the levels of story or text, the attempt stops short of reaching the tautological center of origins, Ellison’s “Blackness of Blackness,” 1 or, if that center is reached, the confusion there calls the whole enterprise into question, and the expected transformation, catharsis, or healing process remains highly enigmatic.
Passages to Identity: Re-Membering the Diaspora in Marshall, Phillips, and Cliff
Authors: Garvey Johanna X K
Published: November 2023

“It appeared she had brought the memorabilia of a lifetime-and of the time that reached beyond her small life-and dumped it in a confused “heap in the room. It expressed her: the struggle for coherence, the hope and desire for reconciliation of her conflicting parts, the longing to truly know and accept herself” (401). This description of the semi-chaos of Merle Kinbona’s room in Paule Marshall’s The Chosen Place, The Timeless People (New York: Vintage, 1969) echoes the museumlike quality of the fictive Bourne Island where the narrative unfolds-a place “where one not only felt that other time existing intact, still alive, a palpable presence beneath the everyday reality, but saw it as well at every turn, often without realizing it. Bournehills .might have been selected as the repository of the history which reached beyond it to include the hemisphere north and south” (402). Written over twenty-five years ago, this novel by an African American woman with familial roots in Barbados explores issues of race, history, and identity that also inform more recent texts about the African diaspora and its roots/routes in the Middle Passage and slavery.
Meaning, Misinterpretations, and Medicine: A cognitive Behavioral Approach to Understanding Health Anxiety and Hypochondriasis
Authors: Salkovskis Paul M , Warwick Hilary M C
Published: November 2023

On an Internet bulletin board, someone reported that ‘‘my psychiatrist has just told me that I am suffering from DSM-IV.” As therapists and researchers working with the problems characterized by severe and persistent health anxiety, we also suffer from DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), not least because it defines health anxiety as the somatoform disorder “Hypochondriasis.” This classification is theoretically misleading, as it diverts attention away from the importance of anxiety and therefore threat, and onto more superficial characteristics of the problem.
Pharmacologic Strategies for Hypochondriasis
Authors: Fallon Brian A
Published: November 2023

Very little controlled research has been conducted on the phannacotherapy of hypochondriasis as a primary disorder. However, the therapeutic nihilism regarding the pharmacotherapy of hypochondriasis that characterized so much of the pre- 1990s has now been replaced by cautious optimism that specific pharmacologic agents may be particularly helpful. Given the paucity of information about the pharmacotherapy of hypochondriasis, this chapter will present what is known, re viewing the extant literature using case reports, small series, and controlled studies.
The Device of Race: An Introduction
Authors: Elam Harry J
Published: November 2023

As our title, African American Performance and Theater History: A Critical Reader, suggests, this anthology explores the intersections of race, theater, and performance in America. The interactions among them are always dynamic and multidirectional. Accordingly, the social and historical contexts of production can critically affect theatrical performances of blackness and their meanings. At the same time, theatrical representations and performances have profoundly impacted African American cultural, social, and political struggles. This book argues that analyzing African American theater and performance traditions offers insight into how race has operated and continues to operate in American society. Significantly, this examination of African American theater and performance history reflects not only on the historical evolution and cultural development of racial representations but also on the continuity and continuum of performance theories and theatrical practices over time. Dramatic tropes, aesthetic and cultural images, artistic agendas, and political paradigms are repeated and revised as the past is continually made present, and the present is constituted in the African American past.
Facial Expressions as Indicators of Appraisal Processes
Authors: Kaiser Susanne , Wehrle Thomas
Published: November 2023

Appraisal theorists following a componential approach, as proposed by Smith and Ellsworth (1985), Frijda (1986), Roseman (1984), or Scherer (1984c), share the assumption that (1) emotions are elicited by a cognitive evaluation of antecedent situations and events and that (2) the patterning of the reactions in the different response domains (physiology, expression, action tendencies, feeling) is determined by the outcome of this evaluation process. In line with this reasoning, several researchers have presented the idea of analyzing facial expressions as indicators of appraisal processes in addition to or as an alternative to verbal report measures (Frijda & Tcherkassof, 1997; Kaiser & Scherer, 1998; Pope & Smith, 1994; Smith & Scott, 1997).
Crossmodal Attention Shifts
Authors: Wright Richard D , Ward Lawrence M
Published: November 2023

What we see may dominate our perceptual world, but objects are seldom only visual. Most environments in which we find ourselves are filled with sounds, smells, touches, and tastes as well as sights. Important environmental events such as the approach of a hungry lion generate information in several modalities. It could be slow visual movement, the sound of rustling tall grass, and perhaps a faint scent of musk; or fast visual movement, a loud roar, and the smell of rotting meat on the breath of the attacking (and too close!) cat.
Parent–Offspring Conflict
Authors: Trivers Robert
Published: November 2023

In early 1971 I decided to work on what I thought of as a biological theory of the family, a theory that would have variables such as sex and age and other relevant parameters and would derive how natural selection was acting on members of the family. There was only one problem: individuals in a family were related to each other, and somehow you had to take this relatedness into account when describing natural selection acting on the participants. I puzzled about the matter for some time and, in my usual style, consulted with advanced graduate students and relevant faculty, but without getting any help.
Deconstructing the Serengeti
Authors: Tappen Martha
Published: November 2023

The expansion of meat-eating by hominids beyond the level of extant apes had repercussions for hominid ecology, anatomy, and social behavior. In recent years many have attempted to develop explicit models of hominid behavior based on the ecological distribution of animal and plant foods in modem African savannas. The modem environments used as analogs by most workers emphasize very dry, very seasonal areas of modem Africa. This has limited our view of the spatial and temporal distribution of available animals. However, the true variety of modem African savannas demonstrates greater variability that would influence meat-eating. In wetter savannas scavenging would be much less predictable, with very high search costs and relatively low returns.
A Comparison of Social Meat-Foraging by Chimpanzees and Human Foragers
Authors: Stanford Craig B
Published: November 2023

Chimpanzees and traditional human foragers are among the few higher primates that actively hunt mammalian prey for a part of their subsistence. Both hunt socially, and meat is a relatively small part of the overall diet for both chimpanzees and most human hunter-gatherers. Most attempts to understand the hunting and meat-eating behavior of chimpanzees have likened these apes to social carnivores, such as wolves and lions. Those species are, however, obligate meat-eaters and, therefore, make hunting decisions daily based on where to find prey and how to capture, not whether to forage for it versus plant foods. A more appropriate comparison is with traditional human foragers of the tropics and subtropics because both hunter-gatherers and chimpanzees forage primarily for plant foods, making decisions about whether to pursue meat on an hourly or daily basis. Seeing both chimpanzees and humans as omnivores that have evolved separate suites of adaptations valuable for foraging, including meat foraging, allows us to pose a number of theoretical questions relating to the ecology of meat procurement. Because the last common ancestor of chimpanzees and modern humans likely resembled a chimpanzee in at least some important ways (Wrangham 1987; Moore 1996), a comparison of the meat-foraging adaptations of the two species should help us understand key behaviors involved in the divergence of the hominid phylogeny as well as the behavioral ecology of the common ancestor.
Historically and Culturally Relative Adult
Authors: Hoare Carol Hren
Published: November 2023

In describing the adult who knows the self as historically and culturally relative, Erikson portrayed a highly sophisticated person, one who thinks at the metacognitive level of abstraction, is knowledgeable about history and cultural differences, and cares to be insightful about and open to other persons and ways of being in the world. Such an adult perceives that he or she lives in the total stream of history, in one unique life history, and in one sociopolitical system that is skewed culturally and era specifically. This is an adult who functions amid a disorienting awareness of distortion, who knows that his or her own way of living and of seeing things is particular to one cultural-societal niche, to one childhood and adulthood in one life, to one upbringing, to one social position, and to the one historical period in which he or she was some how deposited. It is also the adult who is not narrow of mind or so self-centered that he or she cannot place his or her unique self in someone else’s perspective of role, culture, or way of viewing life. Necessarily, this adult understands his or her biases and groomed need for them, all the while renouncing ethnic, racial, class, religious, and historical superiority.
Celtic Initials
Authors: Hendrick Randall
Published: November 2023

The modem Celtic languages are comprised of Irish, (Scots) Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton. These languages pose the fundamental problem for linguistic thought: How can we best explain overlapping patterns of similarity and dissimilarity between languages? One interesting line of explanation is to historicize these pattems. The Celtic languages share a common historical source, and a variety of historical forces have operated to make each one distinct with rich dialectal variety. While the historical perspective has proven productive elsewhere, it is not seriously appealed to as an explanation for the commonalities of word order among the Celtic languages; there is no “Celtic syntax” that correlates syntactic properties with specific non-linguistic aspects of Celtic history. Most linguists see the syntactic similarities as reflections of some “universal” principles or tendencies operative in language more generally. Some of the characteristics of each language might still be given a historical explanation, but the common historical source of the languages is displaced as an explanation for their syntactic similarities. In this way, the pattern of similarity and dissimilarity mentioned above is taken to bear on the question of what is the best way to understand the universal principles or tendencies that languages exhibit. It is in this light that the syntax of the Celtic languages is currently investigated.
Tense and N-Features in Modern Irish
Authors: Guilfoyle Eithne
Published: November 2023

Within the Minimalist framework of Chomsky (1995), NPs check their N-features in the specifier of a functional category by LF at the latest. Several researchers have suggested that at spellout, Irish subjects check their N-features in the specifier of TP, while English subjects check their N-features in the specifier of AgrS, thus accounting for the VSO order of Irish as opposed to the SVO order of English (Bobaljik and Camie 1996, Guilfoyle 1993, Noonan 1994). To this point, however, nobody has proposed an independent motivation for the cross-linguistic difference in the strength of the N-features of Tense and AgrS in the two languages.
Locus Operandi
Authors: Freeze Ray , Georgopoulos Carol
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we hope to provide new motivation for syntacticians to take a closer look at verb initial languages and, in particular, at VOS languages. Surface VOS languages are a distinct verb initial type, differing from VSO languages in many ways and posing different sets of questions. For example, VOS order presents no problem of composing an underlying VP, and many VOS languages are uniformly as left-headed as SOY languages are right-headed. A stronger sense of the properties of VOS languages can serve to round out many theories of syntactic phenomena. Recognition of VOS as a base order might strengthen analyses of VSO as a true (verb initial) base order in its own right, at least for some languages.
Mark Twain and Race
Authors: Fishkin Shelley Fisher
Published: November 2023

In the earliest of his letters that survives to this day, seventeen year-old Sam Clemens wrote his mother from New York in 1853, ‘‘r reckon I had better black my face, for in these Eastern States niggers are [thought to be] considerably better than white people.”1 Sam’s sarcastic quip was clearly an exaggeration: for although free African Americans in the North may have been spared the lash that terrorized their enslaved brothers and sisters in the South, they were nonetheless subjected to countless indignities and humiliations solely for having black skin. It is not surprising that this teenager away from home for the first time spouted the racist views to which he had been exposed since his birth into a slaveholding family in the slave state of Missouri. What is surprising, however, is that this garden-variety knee-jerk racist would eventually go on to upend hierarchies of racial superiority with a daring that could shock even some of his most progressive peers and with a subtlety that would continue to derail his critics nearly a century after his death.
Social Sources of Meaning in Later Life
Authors: Settersten Richard A
Published: November 2023

editors’ introduction Settersten approaches the issue of meaning in the Third Age by examining the extensive literature on the determinants of our values and our goals. There are, of course, many influences, but most important may be those we experience as we participate in our social worlds. We make sense to ourselves as we seek to make sense to others. We feel secure in our ability to make a difference as we witness our effectiveness. We also evaluate ourselves partly on the basis of others’ evaluations of us. We are likely to lose confidence in ourselves should we see ourselves being treated as marginal and irrelevant.
Aging, Place, and Meaning in the Face of Changing Circumstances
Authors: Rowles Graham D , Ravdal Hege
Published: November 2023

editors’ introduction Rowles and Ravdal provide us with a detailed description of our bonds to place and possessions. Should we move from one home to another, as happens often in the Third Age, we may discover that loss of familiar places and objects unsettles us. In the middle of the night we may wake uncertain of our location: uncertain whether we are still where we once lived or have instead been transported to a place that is new and momentarily baffling.
Bringers of Allah: The Druse Elders
Authors: Gutmann David
Published: November 2023

editors’ introduction Two different, though related, issues of meaning are, first, what meanings people give to values and goals and, second, what meanings people give to each other. Gutmann attends to the latter issue. More specifically, he is concerned with how someone who has moved beyond responsibilities for work and family can continue to be socially valued.
Meynert’S Basal Nucleus
Authors: Seitelberger Franz
Published: November 2023

Theodor Meynert (1833-1892) was the first scientist to comprehend brain research as an independent interdisciplinary enterprise, demonstrated by his own fundamental contributions and the prospect of challenging research objectives. Meynert’s important observations and intuitive visions foreshadow modem concepts and amazing recent results in the neurosciences. Meynert was born in Dresden on 14June 1833. His father was a historian, his mother an opera singer. The family moved to Vienna in 1841 and gathered a circle of renowned personalities of art and culture at their home. At school, Meynert showed great love of literature, music, and philosophy; at university after a crisis of maturity he became an enthusiastic student of medicine and developed an interest in the brain. As a student he worked with the excellent histologist Carl Wedl and in the laboratory of Carl von Rokitansky, the founder of modern pathology; the latter accepted him as assistant, furthering his work and professional career decisively. Meynert’s first paper,
Wallerian Degeneration
Authors: Sykes Alan H
Published: November 2023

Augustus Volney Waller was born on 9 November 1816 at Elverton Farmhouse, Luddenham, near the town of Faversham in East Kent, England.1-4 His ancestors had lived in that area for several generations. His father, William Waller (1773-1829), was a gentleman farmer; his mother, Jessie (Eaglestone), has not been traced. He was probably the eldest of seven children, but very few details of the family have survived; he is known mainly through the record of his published scientific papers. When he was young, a short time after the end of the Napoleonic war (1815), and travel through France again became possible, the family moved to Nice, then still a part of Savoy within the Kingdom of Sardinia. His father was said to be in the wine trade but he retained the farm in Kent and visited it frequently up to the time of his death, in December 1829, in Nice, where he was buried.
Romberg’S Sign
Authors: Keppel-Hesselink Jan M , Koehler Peter J
Published: November 2023

One might assume that neurology started as an independent specialty when a chair was founded for Jean-Martin Charcot in 1882. Some 40 years earlier, Moritz Heinrich Romberg (1795-1873) formulated the first blueprint of systematic neurology by publishing a two-volume neurological reference book.1 He formulated the eponymous test in the second edition of that book. Moritz Romberg was born in Meiningen (Thiiringen) on 11 November 1795. After his father’s death he moved to Berlin with his mother. He went to high school and subsequently studied medicine. He graduated in 1817 with a thesis on congenital rickets, providing a classical description of achondroplasia.4 He decided to devote his further studies to nervous diseases.
Curschmann-Steinert Disease
Authors: Bruyn Richard P M
Published: November 2023

Hans Gustav Wilhelm Steinert was born on 10 April 1875 in Dresden. He was the son of a lawyer, Otto Steinert, and his wife, Louise Westen. Virtually nothing is known of his boyhood. He attended the Gymnasium in Dresden from 1884 to 1893, studied medical sciences and philosophy, and subsequently studied medicine in Dresden, Freiburg, Berlin, and Kiel.
Duchenne’S Dystrophy
Authors: Hudgson Peter
Published: November 2023

The use of eponyms in human biology tends to confuse nosologic clarity. The same cannot be said ofDuchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) which was a clear-cut pathological and genetic entity, well before the introduction of recombinant DNA technology. In light of this, the words of Lord Walton in his foreword to the Emerys’ classic study1 of the history of the disease-that DMD remains “an apposite term”-elicits some sympathy. Nevertheless, the historical evidence that DMD may be a rather less than completely “apposite” eponym is accumulating steadily and we owe the Emerys a considerable debt of gratitude for their unique contribution.
Friedreich’s Ataxia
Authors: Koehler Peter J
Published: November 2023

Friedreich’s ataxia is an autosomal-recessive disease with a prevalence of between 1 and 2 per 100,000, characterized by symptoms and signs including progressive ataxia, absent tendon reflexes in the legs, distal impairment of position and vibration sense, Babinski reflexes, and dysarthria. Other signs may be present, such as pes cavus, scoliosis, diabetes mellitus, and cardiomyopathy. In most cases it starts between the age of 8 and 15, the patients becoming wheelchair bound after approximately 14 years. During the nineteenth century it was gradually distinguished from other types of ataxia. Nikolaus Friedreich played a major role in defining the disease.
Introduction
Authors: Heilman Kenneth M , Valenstein Edward
Published: November 2023

Aristotle thought that the mind, with the function of thinking, had no relation to the body or the senses and could not be destroyed. The first attempts to localize mental processes to the brain may nevertheless be traced back to antiquity. In the fifth century B.C., Hippocrates of Croton claimed that the brain was the organ of intellect and the heart the organ of the senses. Herophilus, in the third century B.C., studied the structure of the brain and regarded it as the site of intelligence. He believed that the middle ventricle was responsible for the faculty of cognition and the posterior ventricle was the seat of memory. Galen, in the second century B.C., thought that the activities of the mind were performed by the substance of the brain rather than the ventricles, but it was not until the anatomical work of Vesalius in the sixteenth century A.D. that this thesis was accepted. Vesalius, however, thought that the brains of most mammals and birds had similar structures in almost every respect and differed only in size, attaining the greatest dimensions in humans. In the seventeenth century, Descartes suggested that the soul resided in the pineal. He chose the pineal because of its central location: all things must emanate from the soul.
Aphasic Syndromes
Authors: Caplan David
Published: November 2023

Webster’s Dictionary defines a syndrome as “a number of symptoms occurring together and characterizing a particular disease.” Most people would agree that these two features—symptoms that occur together, and symptoms that characterize a particular disease—are the basic features of a medical syndrome. For instance, the symptoms of cold intolerance, lethargy, deepening of the voice, large tongue, pericardial effusion, carpal tunnel entrapment, and lowered body temperature form (part of) a syndrome. They are all related to disease of a single organ, and they all respond to the same treatment.

Not all the symptoms of a syndrome occur in every individual who has the disease. Not all patients with disease of the organ responsible for the symptoms listed above have all the symptoms on the list. There are individual differences in the occurrence of the features of a syndrome across the population, and understanding the reasons for these differences is an important part of understanding the syndrome.
Agraphia
Authors: Roeltgen David P
Published: November 2023

For a century after Benedikt (1865) applied the term agraphia to disorders of writing, studies of agraphia focused on the relationship of agraphia to aphasia. Ogle (1867) found that although aphasia and agraphia usually occur together, they were occasionally separable. He concluded that there were distinct cerebral centers for writing and for speaking. Because agraphia and aphasia usually occur together, he concluded that the centers were anatomically close together. Ogle’s classification of agraphia included amnemonic agraphia and atactic agraphia. Patients with amnemonic agraphia wrote well-formed, but incorrect letters. Patients with atactic agraphia made poorly formed letters but usually had an element of amnemonic agraphia as well. Ogle’s two types of agraphia might be termed linguistic and motor.

In contrast to Ogle, Lichtheim (1885) proposed that disorders of writing usually were the same as disorders of speech. The exception was agraphia due to disruption of the “center from which the organs of writing are innervated,” which was clinically similar to Ogle’s atactic agraphia. Lichtheim proposed that agraphia and aphasia were similar because the acquisition of writing (and spelling) was superimposed on speech, and therefore utilized previously acquired speech centers. Head (1926) also stressed this relationship. Goldstein (1948) also emphasized two types of agraphia: primary agraphia resulting from disruption of the motor act of writing, and secondary agraphia, resulting from disturbances of speech.
Agnosia
Authors: Bauer Russell M , Demery Jason A
Published: November 2023

Agnosia is a relatively rare neuropsychological symptom defined in the classical literature as a failure of recognition that cannot be attributed to elementary sensory defects, mental de- terioration, attentional disturbances, aphasic misnaming, or unfamiliarity with external stimuli (Frederiks, 1969). Agnosia is most often modality-specific; the patient who fails to recognize material presented through a particular sensory channel (e.g., vision) is successful when allowed to perceive it in another channel (e.g., touch, hearing). Visual, auditory, and tactile agnosias have received the most attention, and will be reviewed here.

One of the most fundamental and difficult questions about agnosia concerns whether it is best thought of as a perceptual or memory impairment. In his classic definition, Teuber (1968) stated that “two limiting sets of conditions: failure of processing and failure of naming . . . bracket . . . the alleged disorder of recognition per se, which would appear in its purest form as a normal percept that has somehow been stripped of its meaning.” Teuber’s definition is significant since it “locates” the agnosias at the intersection of perception and memory, and in fact, seems to imply that “pure” agnosia is a disorder of memory access.
Liberal Anticommunism
Authors: Freedman Lawrence
Published: November 2023

liberalism, as Arthur Schlesinger Jr. explained at the start of 1949, had been ‘‘fundamentally reshaped by the hope of the New Deal, by the exposure of the Soviet Union, and by the deepening of our knowledge of man.’’1 Still in his early thirties, Schlesinger was already a Pulitzer prizewinning historian and a Democratic Party activist. A decade later he became resident intellectual in the Kennedy White House and thereafter its most effective and prolific historian.
Preparation for a Revolution
Authors: Şükrü Hanioğlu M
Published: November 2023

This book is a challenging re-evaluation of the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, a seminal event in the late Ottoman Empire and in the emergence of the modern nation-states in the Middle East and Balkans. Breaking new ground, the book describes how the practical considerations forced the Young Turks to sacrifice many of their plans for social transformation. The book includes extensive new research from archives throughout Europe and the Middle East and will prove indispensable to anyone working on the political, intellectual, and social history of the Ottoman Empire and of the states that were established on its ruins.
Value-Motive Congruence and Reactivity as Determinants of Well-Being
Authors: Zalewska Anna M , Brandstaätter Hermann
Published: November 2023

Well-being is a notion that has been studied by a large number of disciplines. It has been defined in many terms and labeled with many names, including happiness, quality of life, and life satisfaction. Veenhoven (1991) presents a classification of current well-being concepts and underlines that, from an individual perspective, well-being should be measured only subjectively. Subjective wellbeing refers to the question of how much a person likes the life he or she leads. Appraisals of life can be considered in two aspects: an affective aspect (how well a person usually feels) and a cognitive aspect (how a person thinks about the fulfillment of her or his aspirations or needs). The first aspect usually is called happiness, the second life satisfaction. Happiness is considered an emotional state, whereas life satisfaction is related to a cognitive, judgmental process (Lewinsohn, Redner, & Seeley, 1991). Incongruent data about connections between these aspects of well-being are reported (Brandstaätter, 1991; Veenhoven, 1991). Lewinsohn et al. (1991) point out that they may be conditioned by different factors—for example, age influences life satisfaction but not happiness. Well-being can be studied within certain domains (work, marriage, family) or with respect to life as a whole.
The Positive Psychology of Emotional Intelligence
Authors: Salovey Peter , Mayer John D , Caruso David
Published: November 2023

What is this construct, and why has it been so appealing? Emotional intelligence represents the ability to perceive, appraise, and express emotion accurately and adaptively; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate cognitive activities and adaptive action; and the ability to regulate emotions in oneself and others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). In other words, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotion-laden information competently and to use it to guide cognitive activities like problem solving and to focus energy on required behaviors. The term suggested to some that there might be other ways of being intelligent than those emphasized by standard IQ tests, that one might be able to develop these abilities, and that an emotional intelligence could be an important predictor of success in personal relationships, family functioning, and the workplace.