bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MICROBIAL RESPONSES AFTER TWO EXPERIMENTAL OIL SPILLS IN AN EASTERN COASTAL PLAIN ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
Authors: Kator Howard , Herwig Russell
Published: January 2013

Three large transite-sided enclosures, constructed in a tidal salt marsh in southeastern Virginia, were utilized to evaluate the effects of crude oil spillage on selected microbial populations. Unweathered Louisiana crude oil was spilled in one enclosure, artificially weathered South Louisiana crude in another, and the third served as a control. Each enclosure was constructed so as to allow unhampered exchange with tidal flow on the tidal creek side.

Heterotrophic bacteria and fungi, chitinolytic, cellulytic and petroleum-degrading bacterial populations from the tidal creek, and sediments in intertidal, mid- and back-marsh zones were enumerated at selected intervals following the oil spills. Dominant petroleum-degrading and heterotrophic bacterial isolates were selected for taxonomic grouping.

Within several days following the spills, the levels of petroleum-degrading bacteria rose by several orders of magnitude relative to the control enclosure. This differential has been maintained for approximately one year. Plots of the ratio of oil-degrading to heterotrophic bacteria reveal enhancement of the petroleum degrading component of the heterotrophic population. Mean levels of chitinolytic, cellulytic, heterotrophic bacteria and fungi were not statistically different in the oil and control enclosures. The potential significance of these observations is discussed.
THE CHESAPEAKE BAY OIL SPILL—FEBRUARY 2, 1976: A CASE HISTORY
Authors: Roland John V. , Moore Glenn E. , Bellanca Michael A.
Published: January 2013

On February 2, 1976, one of the worst oil spills in recent history occurred in the lower Chesapeake Bay. Approximately 250,000 gallons of No. 6 oil were discharged into the bay after a barge, the STC-101, sank in a storm near the mouth of the Potomac River. The oil contaminated extensive beach and marsh areas on both sides of the bay. Cleanup operations lasted almost a month and the cost approached $400,000. The U.S. Coast Guard estimated that 167,000 gallons of oil were recovered by cleanup crews. The remaining oil is believed to be widely dispersed over large areas of the bay—possibly tied up in fringe marsh grass, buried under sand on the beaches or carried out into the Atlantic Ocean. The heavily-contaminated fringe marsh grasses were cut, leaving the root systems intact, in order to protect the fragile marsh areas. An overall assessment of the environmental damages caused by the spill is almost complete. Estimates of the number of waterfowl killed range from 20,000 to 50,000 birds. Damage to shellfish and other aquatic resources is still under study. Preliminary reports indicate that damages to the environment may not be as severe as initially expected.
EFFECTS OF A CONTINUOUS LOW-LEVEL NO. 2 FUEL DISPERSION ON LABORATORY-HELD INTERTIDAL COLONIES
Authors: Vanderhorst J. R. , Bean R. M. , Moore L. J. , Wilkinson P. , Gibson C.I. , Blaylock J. W.
Published: January 2013

Marine intertidal colonies on concrete substrates were exposed for six months to 0.1 and 0.6 mg/l No. 2 fuel oil (API Ref. Oil III, 38% aromatics). A continuous supply of the fuel oil dispersion was prepared by a mixing-separation apparatus, and nonfloating material was used as the contaminant. Monitoring of No. 2 fuel was by IR analysis of CCl4 extracts. Supplementary analyses were performed by gas chromatography, helium partitioning gas chromatography, and mass spectrometry.

Colonies were obtained by stratified random sampling from an initial 500 field-colonized bricks. Field colonization time was nine months. Replicates of treatment concentrations and controls were studied under constant continuous photoperiod. Initial colonies consisted of approximately 83 species of intertidal plants and animals.

Effects were measured by comparison of species diversity, relative abundance, numbers of species, and individual frequency of occurrence patterns. Species diversity was significantly lower in treated versus control colonies as was the total number of species. Relative abundance was not significantly affected. Individual species frequency of occurrence was significantly reduced in treated colonies; this was especially so for amphipods and decapods. Significant differences were not revealed for any biological parameter between the two treatment concentrations, although data from infrared analysis indicated the two concentrations were, in fact, different.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLATILE HYDROCARBONS IN SOME PACIFIC OCEAN WATERS
Authors: Koons Charles Bruce
Published: January 2013

Recent studies conducted by several investigators indicate that the volatile hydrocarbons in the C4to C8 range, including benzene and toluene, are generally more toxic to marine life than the higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. However, very little data have been published on the distribution of these volatile hydrocarbons in the world's oceans.

During 1974, ocean water samples were collected from tankers along three routes, including: U. S. west coast (San Francisco) to Cook Inlet, Alaska; U.S. west coast (San Francisco) to Panama; and U.S. west coast (San Francisco) to Singapore. One hundred thirty-eight samples were taken near the surface and at a depth of about 10 meters and were analyzed for total volatile (C4_C8) hydrocarbons. For the near-surface samples, a median concentration of 0.33 ppb (by weight) was found; for the −10 meter samples, a median of 0.10 ppb. Some variations in amounts were observed according to the geographic location of the samples. Sampling and analysis methods are briefly discussed.
PHOTO-OXIDATION OF CRUDE OILS
Authors: Nagata Shinichi , Kondo Goro
Published: January 2013

Changes with elapsed time are presented for five kinds of oils that were studied through the analyses of GLC method, where particularly we made an attempt to examine the relationship among specific gravity, viscosity, and the amount of water in oils. Furthermore, we tried to evaluate a few processes of various kinds of changes on the physical and chemical properties of oils such as evaporation, biodegradation, and photo-decomposition. The evaporation process was found to affect mainly paraffins with smaller boiling points, below the number of C12-C13, for 21 days, while due to the action of marine bacteria, normal paraffins were effectively degraded (ca. 50%) after 15 days except for branched ones. Moreover, it was also found that the aromatic hydrocarbons with anthracene ring and heteroaromatic ones, which were not easily decomposed by the processes mentioned above, were fairly decomposed by photo-irradiation for 10 hours.
BIOAVAILABILITY OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS FROM WATER, SEDIMENTS, AND DETRITUS TO THE MARINE ANNELID, NEANTHES ARENACEODENTATA
Authors: Rossi Steven S.
Published: January 2013

Uptake, retention, metabolism, and depuration of diaromatic hydrocarbons by the polychaete, Neanthes arenaceodentata, were examined in experiments utilizing seawater solutions and sediments contaminated with either No. 2 fuel oil water-soluble fractions or radio-labelled naphthalenes. Polychaetes rapidly accumulate 14C-naphthalene (magnification factor = 40X) from solution during short-term exposure (24 hr). Worms slowly released hydrocarbons accumulated during acute exposure down to undetectable levels (<0.05 ppm) within 300 hours after return to clean seawater. 14C-naphthalene accumulated from solution was metabolized by polychaetes, and associated microflora apparently play no role in uptake, release, or metabolism. Analyses of worms held for 28 days in clay-silt sediments artificially contaminated with No. 2 fuel oil (9 μg total naphthalenes/g wet sediment) indicate that naphthalenes were not accumulated by worms at tissue concentrations above 0.1 ppm. Polychaetes likewise failed to accumulate 14C-methylnaphthalene from ingestion of contaminated detritus (10-15 μg 14C-methylnaphthalene/g dry detritus) for 16 consecutive days. These data suggest that petroleum hydrocarbons bound to sediment particles or particulate organic matter are less available to marine worms than those in solution.
DISTRIBUTION OF NAPHTHALENES WITHIN EXPOSED FUNDULUS SIMILUS AND CORRELATIONS WITH STRESS BEHAVIOR
Authors: Dixit D. , Anderson J. W.
Published: January 2013

Fundulus similus was exposed to naphthalene via oral administration, and naphthalene plus alkylnaphthalenes in water. The distribution of these compounds within the organs and tissues of the fish was monitored with time. Turn-over times for these compounds were relatively rapid, particularly in the case of naphthalene administered orally. Accumulation within detoxification (liver) and storage (gall bladder) was expected, but accumulation and retention in the brain were higher than anticipated. Stress-produced behavioral abnormalities may correspond to the content of naphthalenes in the brain and other tissues of the nervous system.
WHAT CONSTITUTES GOOD TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS FOR AN OIL SPILL CLEANUP
Authors: Pearce R. B.
Published: January 2013

It can be a serious mistake to select telecommunications hardware before thoroughly considering the plan of how the cleanup team is expected to react and what it is expected to accomplish. Accordingly, team members need two specific telecommunications systems to enhance the efficiency of their reactiveness. “Operations” systems are needed to keep the on-scene cleanup team synchronized, while “logistics” systems are needed to call up and maintain an orderly flow of support materials, supplies, and equipment. Telephone systems also are essential to maintain contact with authorities and handle public relations matters. However, inasmuch as spills almost never recur in the same locations, telephone facilities for cleanup are generally nonexistent and, hence, such installations are delayed until the cleanup work is well in progress. Types of appropriate telecommunications equipment needed to support a major oil spill operation are listed. In this regard, a case example is cited, namely, the Oakland estuary oil spill of January 1973, in which the telecommunications net supported 80 supervisory team leaders and 50 subcontractors. Current costing of a desirable telecommunications network suggests that the resultant optimization of deployed manpower and equipment could be paid back in the savings of less than one day's cleanup operations at the site of a major oil spill.
OIL SPILL CONTROL IN ALBERTA
Authors: Bohme V. E. , Brushett E. R.
Published: January 2013

Alberta is a major oil-producing region in North America. In excess of one-half billion barrels per year are produced from 10,000 oil wells. Oil and produced salt water are transported through 20,000 miles of pipelines. More than 600 oil and salt water spills per year occur, generally on land.

The Energy Resources Conservation Board is responsible for the administration of the oil and gas industry. The board's policies and regulations relating to spill prevention, oil spill contingency planning, containment and cleanup are broad and flexible to permit industry a relatively high degree of freedom to operate in this area of rapidly-changing technology.

While each company is held responsible for containment and cleanup of its own spills, the board supports the oil spill cooperative concept in spill equipment maintenance, contingency plan preparation and spill response training. Careful containment and cleanup of oil and salt spills will minimize soil and vegetation damage. This, followed by comprehensive evaluation of spill effects, enables implementation of more effective rehabilitation programs.
ADJUSTING AND HANDLING OIL SPILL POLLUTION CATASTROPHE CLAIMS
Authors: DeNoville Ronald C.
Published: January 2013

Large oil spills create claims adjusting and handling problems quite different from those associated with regular claims. The differences are made clear in this paper, which deals with types of claims, the approaches to them, damage assessment, and the future of oil spills adjusting. The resolution of claims in such a way as to be acceptable to both the public and the spiller rests on the adjuster's complete fairness and thorough consideration of all claims.
THE NATIONAL RESPONSE CENTER OF THE U.S. COAST GUARD
Authors: Clow James C.
Published: January 2013

The National Response Center (NRC) was established at U.S. Coast Guard headquarters under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, and is an arm of the Council on Environmental Quality. It is a 24-hour center, providing a toll-free telephone number from any point in the continental United States for reports of oil discharges and discharges of other polluting substances. These reports, which may come from individual citizens, federal, state, or local authorities, or others, are relayed to the appropriate on-scene coordinator (OSC—who may be from any appropriate federal agency) for action under the relevant U.S. Government laws and regulations. The NRC also provides a number of other services and functions related to polluting incidents.
“THE GLOBAL HOPE IS AGROUND”—AN INCIDENT AT SALEM SOUND1
Authors: Mathews Kent W.
Published: January 2013

On February 6, 1978, in the midst of the worst blizzard to hit the Northeast in 100 years, the 682-foot Greek tanker Global Hope with more than 340,000 gallons of oil aboard, dragged her anchor and grounded in Salem Sound, Massachusetts, about 15 miles from downtown Boston. An estimated 83,000 gallons of oil escaped the stricken vessel to be deposited on two of the most historic and picturesque coastlines of Massachusetts. Some 2.4 million dollars were expended from the federal pollution fund in cleanup efforts.

As a result of the storm and the damage sustained by the vessel, unusual strains were placed upon the federal on-scene coordinator (OSC). This paper relates the chronology of events and examines peculiar problems, planning, and response activities of federal on-scene coordination during the incident. In addition, state and federal agency involvement are described relative to the flexibility, ingenuity, and orchestration required to deal with the myriad contingencies which arose during the response to the grounding and the subsequent pollution under the most extreme weather conditions.
THE INTERNATIONALIZATION OF SUPERFUND1
Authors: Vorbach Joseph E. , Ahern Joseph F.
Published: January 2013

This paper examines existing and proposed national regimes—including the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and the proposed Superfund—for compensating persons suffering pollution damage. Also examined are existing public and private international regimes—including TOVALOP and the Fund Convention. In addition, the paper examines initiatives regarding pollution liability and compensation at the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. Finally, drawing on the foregoing analysis, a comprehensive international liability and compensation regime is recommended for persons, both public and private, suffering pollution damage from oil or hazardous substances.
OCCURRENCE OF OIL IN OFFSHORE BOTTOM SEDIMENTS AT THE AMOCO CADIZ OIL SPILL SITE
Authors: D'Ozouville Laurent , Hayes Miles O. , Gundlach Erich R. , Sexton Walter J. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

A diving survey was undertaken during August 1978 to ascertain the vertical and horizontal distribution of oil incorporated into bottom sediments of the bays of Morlaix and Lannion within the Amoco Cadiz spill site of Brittany, France. A total of 80 hand-held, 15-cm-long box cores was taken at 20 stations and analyzed for visual oil content and sedimentary characteristics. Chemical samples also were taken and now are being analyzed.

Preliminary investigation revealed a significant amount of oil incorporated into the bottom sediments within both areas, although the mechanisms of deposition probably were different. Generally higher oil concentrations were found in muddy sediments, sediments containing Lithothamnium, and in samples taken offshore of heavily oiled beaches. The depth of oil penetration was usually less than 7 cm (possibly related to the depth of biological reworking), except in the more porous Lithothamnium sediments, or in those areas close to heavily oiled beaches.

Hand-held box coring techniques are more advantageous than other shipboard methods in that the problems associated with grab sampling are avoided, and complete control is maintained over the sample at all times. In addition, direct observations of bottom sediment variability and visible oil accumulation can be made.
TRAINING TECHNIQUES: TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY'S OIL SPILL CONTROL COURSE
Authors: Payne J. Larry , Lewis R. E.
Published: January 2013

This paper concerns the growth and development of the Oil Spill Control Course offered in Galveston, Texas, through Texas A&M University's Engineering Extension Service. Emphasis is placed on advances in practical educational methodology made by the course during its three and one-half year span. Areas covered include audience analysis techniques, hands-on training, and various simulation devices and scenarios employed during the course. Attention is given to the course's new specially-constructed facility and its capabilities. Finally, the paper briefly discusses the Engineering Extension Service's movement to improve and expand its core oil spill control curriculum.
OIL POLLUTION PREVENTION, CONTROL AND COUNTERMEASURE PRACTICES AT SMALL PETROLEUM FACILITIES
Authors: McCracken W. F. , Charlton T. J. , Freestone F. J.
Published: January 2013

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency sponsored a study of small petroleum production and petroleum products distribution facilities (stripper wells and bulk plants) in four regions of the country, with respect to those facilities' ability to comply with EPA's Oil Pollution Prevention Regulation (40 CFR, Part 112). The four regions covered were Texas/Oklahoma, Louisiana, Penn-Grade, and New England. Field surveys were conducted at a total of 125 individual facilities. The facilities were categorized into generic types, both intra-regional and across-the-board.

Numerous technical problems were identified involving both the facilities' ability to comply with the regulation and the techniques selected by the owners and operators to achieve compliance. The problems and compliance techniques were evaluated for both appropriateness and cost. The problems were also screened and categorized into types most common to all facilities, by facility type and by geographic area. Engineering solutions have been proposed for these most common problems, with emphasis on the most cost effective solutions. For the several generic types of facilities identified, “Generic SPCC Plans” were developed to serve as examples for facilities of the type covered.
OIL SPILL PREVENTION AND CONTROL AT NAVAL SHORELINE ACTIVITIES1
Authors: Hansen Warren G. , Clements Ernest , Lundt Elizabeth A.
Published: January 2013

In response to Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Coast Guard regulations, the United States Navy has undertaken a comprehensive program to minimize the potential for land-based oil spills originating from naval shoreline oil storage and handling facilities. Construction and maintenance projects have been begun to prevent land-based oil spills from occurring or from reaching adjacent navigable waters. These projects were preceded by careful policy development, surveys of existing conditions, and analyses of remedial alternatives. Specifically, the Naval Facilities Engineering Command divisions have assisted shoreline activities in the preparation of oil spill prevention, control, and countermeasures (SPCC), and oil spill contingency plans. Improved spill containment and cleanup technologies, as well as improved personnel training, have contributed greatly to the refinement and upgrading of these plans. SCS Engineers (SCS) has been involved in all phases of compliance with these plans. Plan and manual reviews were supplemented by detailed field surveys and subsequent development of remedial projects to be instituted at all deficient facilities. Based on the preliminary recommendations and design sketches prepared for tank farm sites at San Clemente Island, SCS is now providing design and related services for oil spill prevention and control facilities.
CLEAN CARIBBEAN COOPERATIVE
Authors: Alberts Donald A.
Published: January 2013

A number of oil companies operating in the Caribbean have formed the Clean Caribbean Cooperative (CCC) with the objective of enhancing the capability to promptly and efficiently respond to oil spills which cause, or threaten to cause, pollution damage to beaches, harbors, offshore islands, and waters of the Caribbean. CCC resources are available to respond to spills within the area bounded by the coasts of Central America, South America, and Panama. These resources are designed to be used in remote areas where little or no response capability is in place, as well as to supplement the present capability in certain other areas.

CCC member companies agreed to share the costs of providing a source of materials, equipment, and services to be used in responding to an oil spill incident. Use of the equipment, as well as management of the total response effort, is the responsibility of the company or agency which is taking action to control the spill. The CCC as an organized unit does not engage in joint or collective action in transporting or operating the facilities, arranging for personnel, providing management, or in any way becoming part of the on-scene control activity at the spill site.

Because of the large area of the Caribbean, surface transportation cannot be relied on totally to bring resources to a spill at a great distance from locations where the oil industry and other agencies have oil spill cleanup capability in place. Therefore, the CCC leased a select stockpile of equipment which is kept in readiness for prompt dispatch by air.

Because of the great variation in conditions surrounding an oil spill, control measures cannot be expected to be 100% effective in preventing any damage. However, by rapidly initiating action under a preplanned response system, the ability to avoid or substantially mitigate the effects of an oil spill is greatly enhanced.
PIPELINE AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION SAFETY AND OIL SPILL REDUCTION
Authors: Driscoll William J.
Published: January 2013

Although statistics indicate that about five percent of the nation's oil spill incidents are caused by pipeline breaks, these spills are of such a nature that they cause about 15 percent of the annual total accidental release. Because such spills contribute considerably to the total problem of oil spills, they are the subject of particular attention for the Materials Transportation Bureau (MTB), U.S. Department of Transportation. This agency discharges the department's safety responsibility over all types of liquid pipelines.

Some 225,000 miles of these pipelines transport crude oil, petroleum products, liquefied petroleum gases, anhydrous ammonia, and comparable fluids. The MTB responsibility stems from several legislative acts, including pipeline safety requirements contained in the Transportation of Explosives Act and the Deepwater Port Act of 1974.

The MTB also regulates important aspects of the safe transportation of hazardous materials, including many petroleum products, by highway and rail. These regulations and those applicable to liquid pipelines constitute a tangible, albeit indirect, program providing sanctions against a number of types of discharges. A comprehensive system of rules applicable to surface carriers and container manufacturers is under continuous review and enforced through both criminal and civil penalties.

The problems of hazardous materials transportation by surface means have received renewed attention in recent months. As a result, the prospects are for improved containment of petroleum products in transit, resulting from a more vigorous and consistent compliance program and more extensive research and development of carrying equipment and handling techniques. How this improved compliance program will be achieved is addressed within the context of the recent reorganization of the Materials Transportation Bureau and the bureau's inclusion within the Research and Special Programs Administration of the Department of Transportation and of current legislative initiatives.
TEN-YEAR OVERVIEW OF OIL SPILL CLEAN-UP AT SEA
Authors: White I. C. , Nichols J. A. , Garnett M. J.
Published: January 2013

The aim of this paper is to illustrate, by reference to our experience gained from attendance on-site at major oil spills around the world, that the capability to combat oil on the high seas has improved little over the past ten years. Too often this failure has resulted in considerable areas of shoreline being severely oiled, damage being caused to areas of ecological, fishery, or amenity importance and has necessitated expensive clean-up measures being adopted that have on occasions been more damaging than the oil itself.

The response options available for dealing with oil spills and their limitations are discussed and the importance of a thorough and rapid evaluation to ensure that the response adopted is appropriate to the particular circumstances of the incident is emphasised. Also stressed is the necessity for good contingency planning, organisation and control.
JAPANESE GOVERNMENTAL AND INDUSTRIAL MEASURES FOR THE CONTROL OF MARINE OIL SPILLS
Authors: Funatani Chikao
Published: January 2013

Development of an effective oil spill control system in Japan was spurred by two marine disasters in 1974 which brought about an organizational and physical reinforcement of the nation's capability to respond to oil spills. This paper describes today's legal structure for oil spill control, the organizational concepts used at various levels to provide joint efforts by government agencies and industry, the role of the Marine Disaster Prevention Center which serves as the nucleus of the necessary control operations, and research and development highlights of ongoing Japanese efforts to prevent, control, and clean up oil spills.
AN ONGOING ASSESSMENT OF THE USE OF SPACE TECHNOLOGY IN MONITORING OIL SPILLS
Authors: Croswell William F. , Fedors John C.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Congress has directed NASA to conduct an assessment of the potential use of space technology in the monitoring of oil spills and ocean pollution. As a result, laboratory studies, aircraft missions, and spacecraft studies are underway to perform this assessment with the cooperation of the U.S. Coast Guard, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. Primary emphasis in the space system will be directed toward all-weather remote sensing and surveillance in which the space system would provide information to regulatory agencies for closer investigation with aircraft or ships. Laboratory and aircraft missions will be directed toward understanding and obtaining simultaneous microwave and optical imagery of oil spills on the sea with instruments of potential usefulness in the modeling of the movement of spills, along with detection and surveillance image definition. This paper summarizes the status of these efforts as of late 1978. Initial results of the required assessment should be available by the end of 1979.
A SAFETY ANALYSIS OF THE FOREIGN TANKER BOARDING PROGRAM—JANUARY 1977 THROUGH JUNE 19781
Authors: Ecker William J. , Sancrant Robert J.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard Foreign Tank Vessel Examination Program was given increased emphasis as a result of a series of tanker incidents during the winter of 1976/1977. Foreign flag tank-ships calling at U.S. ports are now examined at least annually to insure that they are in compliance with the general safety control provisions of SOLAS 60, the applicable Load Line Convention, and all applicable U.S. regulations.

During the 18 months from January 1977 through June 1978, more than 3,400 examinations were conducted on more than 1,500 different foreign tank vessels. A comparison of vessel age versus deficiencies revealed that 55 percent of the vessels examined were in excess of 10 years old and they accounted for almost 74 percent of the total deficiencies.

The deficiency data was further tabulated in three six-month periods for vessels registered under the six most frequently examined flags. It showed an improved level of safety, evidenced by a downward trend in the deficiencies per examination during each succeeding period. In short, the apparent rise in the overall level of safety aboard foreign flag tankers calling at U.S. ports is a measure of the success of this program.
METHODS FOR THE SOURCE IDENTIFICATION AND QUANTIFICATION OF OIL POLLUTION
Authors: Frank U. , Stainken D. , Gruenfeld M.
Published: January 2013

Petroleum oil analyses frequently are performed by government and industrial organizations and by academic institutions to identify the source of discharge of oil pollutants and to quantify such oils in water, sediments and tissues. This paper presents a concise review of oil analysis methods used by several U.S. agencies, industrial organizations and standard setting societies. Oil analysis methods published by these organizations are evaluated with regard to their convenience and safety for general laboratory use, ability to yield correct quantification data, and correctness in identifying the presence and source of discharge of petroleum oil pollution. Several procedures also are addressed for isolating individual petroleum fractions and hydrocarbons from environmental samples for the purpose of monitoring for the presence of oil pollution in sediments and tissues.
CONTAINMENT AND RECOVERY TECHNIQUES FOR COLD WEATHER, INLAND OIL SPILLS
Authors: Allen Alan A.
Published: January 2013

The maintenance of an around-the-clock oil spill cleanup service in Alaska offers an unusual opportunity to develop and test a variety of oil spill containment and recovery techniques. The experiences during numerous actual cleanup efforts, together with the results of training exercises on snow, ice, water, and land, provide valuable information for those faced with the potential spillage of oil during cold-weather conditions. Off-the-shelf cleanup equipment and materials can frequently be modified or used in a slightly different mode to achieve effective spill control under subzero temperatures on, in, and beneath ice and snow.

Monitoring the fate and behavior of several types of oil under such real-world conditions also provides quantitative data leading to the development of innovative spill control techniques which emphasize the use of naturally found materials at the site of a spill. Such techniques involve snow berms, cross-river ice cuts, induced ground-surface leaching with snow, various damming and trenching methods, surface flooding, absorption of pooled oil with snow, and the construction of various types of filter fences and diversionary booms.
DIFFICULTIES IN UNLOADING HEAVY OIL FROM DAMAGED BARGES DURING EXTREMELY COLD WEATHER AND ICE CONDITIONS
Authors: Bailey John L.
Published: January 2013

During the severe winter of 1977, five loaded tank barges grounded on a rock in the upper Mississippi River, 42 miles above the confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. The hull of one of those barges was ruptured and approximately 1,000 barrels of its cargo of heavy, black No. 6 fuel oil was subsequently discharged into the river. Because of inadequate action by the owner, the incident became a federal removal activity involving the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, several commercial companies, and several units of the Coast Guard, including the Gulf Strike Team. The closure of the Mississippi River due to heavy ice and ice gorging restricted the availability of necessary equipment, and the extremely low temperatures, often well below zero, sometimes made available equipment inoperative. This paper offers no panacea for dealing with damaged oil barges under these adverse conditions, but does provide a description of the incident so that others in similar situations may assess their problems quickly and plan improved courses of action.
CLEANUP EFFICIENCY OF A FUEL OIL SPILL IN COLD WEATHER
Authors: Schrier Eric , Eidam Carl
Published: January 2013

When the difficulties imposed by the ice and snow conditions and the lack of previous experience with spills in ice-infested waters are considered, the cleanup effort at Buzzards Bay was commendable; roughly 89,000 liters (28 percent) of oil were recovered. Of the cleanup techniques used, shore-based vacuum skimming was most successful. Contaminated ice removal was least successful. Burning of oil pools was not used extensively but showed some promise.

Modifications of the vacuum skimming technique to prevent the vacuum lines from freezing are recommended. In addition, expanded use of burning and the endless rope skimming techniques are recommended for future spills in similar environmental conditions. Only pooled oil should be collected; oil incorporated in ice should be allowed to go to sea. Removal of shorefast ice is not recommended. The Marco and the Lockheed skimmers were not effective at Buzzards Bay, but may be applicable under similar circumstances if modified or used in a stationary position. Adopting the above recommendations could improve cleanup efficiency at future spills; however, further research in modifying existing equipment and development of new equipment for all types of cold climates will be necessary if significant progress is to be made.
BEHAVIOR AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISPERSANTS AT SEA AND AT SHORELINES
Authors: Mackay Donald , Watson Alex , Ng Cecilia , Nadeau Stuart
Published: January 2013

A laboratory experimental program was conducted in which the aims were to investigate quantitatively the factors which influence the effectiveness of chemical dispersants (1) when applied to oil under various open sea conditions, and (2) in modifying the behavior of oil advancing on a shoreline. Open sea conditions were simulated in a previously-devised dispersant effectiveness test apparatus.

The effectiveness of a dispersant was shown to be profoundly influenced by turbulence level. An approach also was made to relating the turbulence level in the apparatus to natural environmental conditions. A simulated shoreline, impacted by waves from a wave generator, was used to examine the behavior of crude oil and No. 6 fuel oil on the shorelines with and without dispersant additions. Wave action caused sand beaches to “filter” dispersed oil from the water column, resulting in enhanced, but possibly reversible, oil penetration. Larger oil particles were observed to capture sand particles and sink. Implications of the results are that in many situations the use of dispersants on oil advancing on shores or even on the shoreline itself could prove advantageous.
DECISION CRITERIA FOR THE CHEMICAL DISPERSION OF OIL SPILLS
Authors: Castle Robert W. , Schrier Eric
Published: January 2013

Chemical dispersion promises to play an increasing role in the control of oil spills in the United States. The question of when and how dispersants are best used to protect the environment is the subject of considerable controversy. This controversy is generated, on one hand, by insufficient understanding of real-world dispersant effectiveness and environmental implications, and on the other, by lack of guidelines by which all relevant factors can be considered together. With time, the first aspect will ultimately be resolved. This paper presents an approach to the second.

While a certain degree of pre-planning and preliminary decisionmaking can be accomplished, ultimate decisions to conduct chemical dispersion should be made on a case-by-case basis. Criteria for determining the acceptability of chemically treating a specific incident include human risk, feasibility and adequacy of physical control and recovery, dispersibility of the oil, logistic considerations, and whether dispersion will achieve a reduction in environmental impacts and interference with water usage. Assessed conservatively, these criteria should provide the basis for sound and acceptable decisionmaking. As knowledge in the use of dispersants improves, the validity of decisions using these criteria is expected to improve.
API/SC-PCO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA 1978 OIL SPILL TEST PROGRAM
Authors: Smith David D. , Holliday George H.
Published: January 2013

Using Alaskan crude in a special offshore test zone authorized by an EPA Research Ocean Dumping Permit, API/SC-PCO generated a series of small oil slicks for testing dispersant application methods and mechanical cleanup equipment in late September 1978. Seven test slicks ranging in volume from 5 to 20 barrels (bbl) were sprayed with low-toxicity dispersants using a helicopter, a crop-dusting monoplane, and two types of boat-mounted spray systems. A Cyclonet 100 centrifugal skimmer was tested on an eighth slick. In addition, a capsule demonstration in which four one-barrel slicks were generated and dispersed provided agencies, media, and the public the opportunity to witness the use of dispersants at close range. The technical and operational testing was supplemented by detailed chemical and biological monitoring studies and by extensive motion picture and air photographic coverage.

Field observations and photographic documentation indicate that: the two dispersants tested dispersed the Alaskan crude; the four dispersant application techniques tested are all viable methods for applying dispersants to oil spills at sea; and, the Cyclonet recovered oil, but the test slick was too small to assess the Cyclonet's probable performance in a major spill situation. This test use of dispersants on oil slicks at sea is a key step toward more effective control and cleanup of spilled oil in the open ocean.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF OIL SPILL CLEANUP: ARE THEY SIGNIFICANT?
Authors: Siva June Lindstedt
Published: January 2013

Clear goals are needed in formulating and applying oil spill response plans whether at the level of the individual company, the oil cleanup cooperative, or the federal or state agency. There are two primary goals which have been considered, and problems arise from the fact that, in practice, these goals may not always be compatible. The goals are: (1) minimize the overall ecological impacts of the oil spill; and (2) remove all visible spilled oil from the environment.

The first goal is based on an ecological rationale, the second on an esthetic one. During actual spill experiences, the second goal has most often been the guiding force behind the response. There are a number of areas of conflict between these two philosophies; but, except in cases where life and limb are threatened, the first goal should be the prime directive in oil spill response. Application of goal (1) is most important in areas of high ecological value. Goal (2) may be applicable under certain conditions in high visibility areas such as beaches.

This paper summarizes the findings of a task force of biologists organized by the Society of Petroleum Industry Biologists; reviews the ecological effects of various oil spill cleanup methods in several different habitat types; notes research needs; and recommends minimum-impact cleanup methods for specific environments.
THE RATES OF TRANSPORT AND FATES OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS IN A CONTROLLED MARINE ECOSYSTEM, AND A NOTE ON ANALYTICAL VARIABILITY
Authors: Gearing Juanita N. , Gearing Patrick J. , Wade Terry , Quinn James G. , McCarty Harry B. , Farrington John , Lee Richard F.
Published: January 2013

In order to predict the chemical behavior of oil spilled in a marine environment, it is necessary to quantify the rates of the different transport mechanisms operating on the oil. At the Marine Ecosystems Research Laboratory (MERL), University of Rhode Island, the fluxes of water and sediment are controlled, making possible accurate budgeting of petroleum hydrocarbons in an environment approximating a temperate estuary.

Four separate laboratories have cooperated in a study on the MERL tanks to which known amounts of water-accommodated No. 2 fuel oil have been added. A preliminary budget has been completed, indicating that the primary loss was to the atmosphere via evaporation. Biodegradation was important for some classes of hydrocarbons and increased with temperature and duration of oil exposure. Particulate material adsorbed hydrocarbons amounting to approximately 15 percent of the oil added to the tanks, and carried them to the sediment where 7–16 percent of the added oil was eventually found. The sedimentary hydrocarbons were depleted in low molecular weight aromatic compounds (up to three rings) relative to the original oil.

An unexpected but valuable result of these studies has been a better understanding of the levels of variability to be expected when naturally inhomogeneous systems are studied by different methods in different laboratories. Variability has been determined for measuring lipids in uncontaminated water (x = 8.2 µg/1; σn–1 = 6.5; one laboratory; 43 samples taken over a period of 8 weeks) and in tank sediments (x = 146 µg/g dry weight; σn–1 = 33.6; two laboratories; 37 samples taken over a period of six months). Comparisons have also been conducted on rates of biodegradation obtained by two different methods (gas chromatographic analyses of water column hydrocarbons with emphasis on the changing ratios of n-alkanes to isopre-noids, and laboratory studies of individual radio-labelled hydrocarbons converted to 14CO2).
COMPARISON OF HYDROCARBONS IN BENTHIC FISH FROM COAL OIL POINT AND TANNER BANK, CALIFORNIA
Authors: Rossi Steven S. , Rommel George W. , Benson Andrew A.
Published: January 2013

Hydrocarbons of rockfish (Sebastes sp.), sanddab (Citharichthys sp.), and sole (Lyopsetta sp.) were analyzed by high resolution glass-capillary gas chromatography, following saponification in methanolic-KOH, extraction by n-hexane, and separation via liquid chromatography. The fish contained a wide range of hydrocarbons, with total concentrations varying from less than 10 µg/g dry weight to values exceeding 100 µg/g DW. Some differences between species were noted: levels of biogenic constituents decreased in the order—sanddab>rockfish>slender sole. Fish collected during the summer exhibited hydrocarbon profiles similar to those taken during winter. Gravid females were characterized by somewhat higher levels of hydrocarbons.

Subtle differences were observed between fish collected near Coal Oil Point, a region of intense natural petroleum influx, and Tanner Bank, an area some 140 km offshore. Mean concentrations of hydrocarbons were elevated in COP fish (53.2 ± 38 µg/g), and many samples demonstrated characteristics of petroleum contamination. These characteristics were not accentuated in gravid females. Animals from Tanner Bank contained lesser amounts of hydrocarbons (x = 27.2 ± 15), with biogenic components often predominating over those of petroleum origin. Most fishes from both areas exhibited unresolved complex mixture (UCM) hydrocarbons. These data, in combination with the absence of petrogenic characteristics among resolvable hydrocarbons, suggest that samples were contaminated by low levels of weathered petroleum. The most abundant hydrocarbon was squalene, which was present in every sample. Synthetic chemicals such as p′, p′-DDE, poly chlorinated biphenyls, and plasticizers were present in nearly all fish samples, indicating the ubiquity of these compounds throughout the continental shelf biosphere. The relevance of these findings to marine pollution monitoring strategies is briefly discussed.
THE INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE, SALINITY, AND SUBLETHAL EXPOSURE TO PHENANTHRENE, A PETROLEUM-DERIVED POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON (PAH), ON THE RESPIRATION RATE OF JUVENILE MUD CRABS, RHITHROPANOPEUS HARRISII
Authors: Laughlin Roy B. , Neff J. M.
Published: January 2013

Laboratory-reared juvenile mud crabs; Rhithropanopeus harrisii, were acclimated to temperature-salinity combinations of 20, 25, or 30°C and 5, 15, or 25 parts per thousand (‰) salinity. Subsequently, they were exposed for 10 days to phenanthrene concentrations of 0, 75, 150, or 300 µg/l (ppb). This gave a complete 3 × 3 × 4 factorial design of the factor combinations. On the tenth day of phenanthrene exposure the respiration rates of the crabs were determined both at steady state with the rearing salinity, and immediately following a move from either 15 ‰ to 5 ‰ salinity (hypoosmotic shock) or 15 ‰ to 25 ‰ salinity (hyperosmotic shock). To a certain extent, all the factors tested affected the respiration rates. An increase in temperature usually caused an increase in the respiration rate, although this was small. The juvenile crabs were tolerant both to a wide range of acclimation salinities, and to osmotic shock under control conditions. However, phenanthrene-exposed animals showed marked changes in respiration rates compared to controls. In most cases, mean respiration rates of phenanthrene-exposed juveniles increased over control rates. However, the specific pattern was largely a function of all three variables tested. The percent body water of phenanthrene-exposed crabs tended to be higher than that of the controls. This may indicate that the phenanthrene-exposed animals had difficulty osmoregulating. The results of this study show that physical environmental factors such as temperature and salinity influence the nature and magnitude of the sublethal physiological response of an estuarine invertebrate to hydrocarbon pollution.
EFFECTS OF NO. 2 FUEL OIL ON CHEMICALLY-EVOKED FEEDING BEHAVIOR OF THE MUD SNAIL, ILYANASSA OBSOLETA
Authors: Hyland Jeffery L. , Miller Don C.
Published: January 2013

Chemically-mediated feeding responses of the mud snail, Ilyanassa obsoleta, were evaluated after exposure to various fractions and concentrations of No. 2 fuel oil in a continuous flow-through seawater system. This type of feeding response involves chemical perception of and movement toward a point source of food followed by feeding through an extended proboscis. To investigate the effects of oil on this behavior, two types of bioassays were employed. In the first, arousal was used as a criterion to document effects on initial perception of food (olfaction or distance chemoreception). This initial phase of the feeding response is particularly susceptible to disruption by oil, with significant inhibition occurring after 48 hours exposure to concentrations as low as 0.015 ppm of an oil-in-water dispersion (OWD) and 0.43 ppm of the water-accommodated fraction (WAF). In the second bioassay, extension of the proboscis was used as a criterion to document effects on subsequent tasting or contact chemoreception. This later phase of feeding is less sensitive to oil, with significant inhibition occurring only after one month exposure to 0.49 ppm WAF, or after 48 hours exposure to concentrations in excess of 1 ppm (1.45 ppm OWD and 5.97 ppm WAF). Other, more obvious effects, including mortality, were observed at these two higher dose levels.

This work illustrates the ability of extremely low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons to impair vital behavioral processes in marine organisms.