bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dr. Gustav Nachtigal in Modern Chad
Authors: Fisher Humphrey J.
Published: April 2010

Gustav Nachtigal is assuredly the most neglected, and the most unjustly so, of the major European travellers in Africa. On February 18, 1869, he set out from Tripoli, travelling southwards towards Bornu, just west of Lake Chad; he re-emerged from the African interior almost exactly five and a half years later, on August 10, 1874, at El-Obeid in what is today the Republic of Sudan. Of this marathon journey, Nachtigal left an account of correspondingly epic proportions, Sahara and Sudan. Published between 1879 and 1889, partly posthumously (Nachtigal died in 1885), the German text totalled some 2,000 pages. This rather daunting length, Nachtigal's somewhat rococo, even Doughty-esque style, and the lack for almost a century of a complete translation into any other language, have not dislodged him from the bibliographies of scholarly books about the area, but they have certainly limited the number of times he appears in footnotes. Yet the range of his interests is encyclopaedic. A qualified medical doctor, whose training had included some study with Professor Rudolf Virchow, one of the fathers of modern anthropology, at Wiirzburg, he had a keen sense of scientific precision in observation and description. He had lived, and practised medicine, for several years in North Africa, chiefly in Tunis, thus gaining a familiarity with at least Muslim Africa, and a command of Arabic. He continued to make his medical skills and supplies as widely available as possibly throughout his travels.
An Itinerary to the Terrestrial Paradise. Early European Reports on Japan and a Contemporary Exegesis
Authors: Elisonas J.S.A.
Published: April 2010

Japan is a land where the lemons bloom. The earth yields three crops a year, and all sorts of animals, birds, and fish abound in this charming country. Water is plentiful – rivers, brooks, springs and hot springs – and there is a well in the large, fruitful, and beautiful garden attached to every house. The houses, made with excellent workmanship of wood, are built close to the ground on account of the windy climate. Their floors are remarkably clean, as they are covered with straw mats on which no shod foot is permitted to tread. There are no locks or bars on the doors.
Private Trade and Elite Privilege. The Trial of Nicolaas Schaghen, Director of Bengal
Authors: McVay Pamela
Published: April 2010

It is common wisdom among the historians of the Dutch East Indies that everyone in the Dutch East India Company engaged in private trade. That is, ‘everyone’ traded in goods supposedly monopolized by the Company and ‘everyone’ abused his or her position to squeeze graft from the Company's trade. It was, supposedly, to get their hands on the private trade and graft that people joined the Dutch East India Company (VOC:Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie)in the first place. But back in the Netherlands the VOC's Board of Directors (theHeeren XVII) objected vociferously to private trade, which drained Company profits and shareholder revenue. To appease theHeeren XVIIback at home, the various Governors-General and Councillors of the Indies (Raad van Indië), who represented theHeeren XVIIin Asia, issued annual placards forbidding private trade while the High Court (Raad van Justitie) carried out infrequent desultory trials for private trade. But these prosecutions were inevitably doomed to failure, so the story goes, because everyone engaged in private trade would ‘cover’ for everyone else.
Institutional Reform and Municipal Government in the Spanish Empire in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Álvarez Francisco Javier Guillamón
Published: April 2010

In order to understand the nature of eighteenth-century Spanish political development, the highest organs of central government (Councils, Boards, Ministries, Secretariats, etcetera), and the organs of regional and provincial government ought to be examined together with institutional practices such as: hacienda (the management of the public Finances or Treasury); fiscalidad (the system of taxation) and fomento (the promotion and protection of public works, buildings, etcetera). The latter is one of the favourite terms of the Enlightenment and represents the government's intention to intervene directly not only in social organization but also in economic activity. Private law (derecho privado) is another aspect that can provide a key to the understanding of family relations and forms of ownership in their interaction with norms of ideological behaviour and implementation. Finally, it is also necessary to analyze the role played by the administrative agents, or civil servants, who manned the state bureaucracy.
V. Indonesian Perceptions of the Colonial Power
Authors: Lapian A.B.
Published: April 2010

The changing cultural climate in Indonesia at the turn of the century can be demonstrated by the story of a young man, Achmad, who graduated from a Dutch senior high school (HBS) in 1899. He was the first native student to pass the final exams at the highest institution of learning (there was none at university level at the time) in Batavia, the capital of the Netherlands East Indies. Another young man had completed the same type of education in Semarang, Central Java, the year before. They belonged to the first generation of Indonesians schooled in Western ideas and thoughts. Indeed Western types of elementary education and teacher training school existed in other parts of the archipelago, but most of them taught in Malay or in the vernacular. Dutch-language schools at a ‘European’ level were reserved for the white section of the colonial society.
VII. The Colonial Tradition in India and Indonesia
Authors: Kumar Dharma
Published: April 2010

‘Given the circumstances facing Indonesian governments in the years 1950–57’, a standard history of Indonesia comments, ‘it is not surprising that the democratic experiment foundered, for there were few foundations upon which representative democracy could be built. Indonesia inherited from the Dutch and Japanese the traditions, assumptions and legal structure ofa police state. The Indonesian masses – mostly illiterate, poor, accustomed to authoritarian and paternalistic rule, and spread over an enormous archipelago – were hardly in a position to force politicians in Jakarta to account for their performance. The politically informed were only a tiny layer of urban society and the Jakarta politicians, while proclaiming their democratic ideals, were mostly elitists and selfconscious participants in a new urban superculture. They were paternalistic towards those less fortunate than themselves and sometimes simply snobbish towards those who, for instance, could not speak fluent Dutch. They had little commitment to the grass-roots structure of representative government and managed to postpone elections for five more years. A plant as rare as representative democracy can hardly grow in such soil.’
VIII. From Middleman Minorities to Industrial Entrepreneurs: The Chinese in Java and the Parsis in Western India 1619–1939
Authors: Dobbin Christine
Published: April 2010

A marked feature of the business and industrial élites of post-colonial India and Indonesia is the dominance within them of minority communities. An Indian government commission in 1965 reported that, of the top 75 business houses which controlled almost half of the non-governmental, non-banking assets in the country, Marwari houses occupied the apex with control of Rs 7.5 billion in assets, followed by the Parsis with Rs 4.7 billion and Gujaratis with Rs 3.8 billion. By 1980 the Parsi Tata group represented the largest industrial house in India, followed by the Marwari Birlas. In Indonesia it is the Chinese who overwhelmingly comprise the business and industrial ĺite. Despite problems with quantifiable data, it has been assessed that the Chinese own, at the very least, 70–75% of Indonesia's private domestic capital and that Chinese business conglomerates such as the Liem and Astra groups dominate medium and large-scale corporate capital.
IX. Industrialisation in India and Indonesia
Authors: Kian Wie Thee
Published: April 2010

About ten years ago Deepak Nayyar, an Indian economist, lamented on the sluggishness of industrial growth in India, which at the time had persisted for more than ten years, since the rate of industrial growth dropped sharply from an average annual rate of 7.7% during the period 1951–1965 to an average rate of only 3.6% during the decade 1965–1975. Seven years later, at a conference on industrialisation in East and Southeast Asia held at the Australian National University, Canberra, Professor Deepak Lai, a distinguished Indian economist teaching at University College, London, and a consultant to the World Bank, expressed a similar disappointment, describing the absolute level of industrialisation in India as well its contribution to per capita growth as disappointing, even dismal compared with the rapid industrial growth of the four East Asian newly-industrialising countries (NICs), namely South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore.
The Long Road to Livorno: The Overland Messenger Services of the Dutch East India Company in the Seventeenth Century
Authors: Barendse René J.
Published: April 2010

The overland communications between Asia and Europe were of crucial importance to the economic and military survival of the East India companies. This applies equally to the English, French and Dutch East India companies - and even to the Portuguese empire.

At some of the most crucial moments of its history, the very survival of the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC) depended on the thin thread connecting it overland to Europe. One of these crises occurred in the mid-seventeenth century when during the first Anglo-Dutch war, English fleets challenged Dutch naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean. Reflecting on the defeat of the British fleets and the near eradication of the English East India Company or EIC's naval presence there in 1654, the Dutch director of Surat commented: ‘We would never have gained such an easy victory if the English had reacted more promptly or had we not received warnings so promptly [tijdig].’ Similarly, the catastrophic defeat suffered at a later date by the French admiral De la Haye is normally attributed to De la Haye's hesitations. Yet is is doubtful whether the VOC would have been able ot assemble a fleet quickly enough to destroy De la Haye's fleet had the VOC not received messages overland.
French Interests in the Levant and Their Impact on French Immigrant Policy in West Africa
Authors: Bierwirth Chris
Published: April 2010

Prior to the Second World War, the French government had been highhanded in its administration of the Levantine Mandates and severe in the treatment of Levantine immigrants in its West African colonies. This imperious behaviour would change abruptly in 1944. As part of their effort to rebuild French power, General Charles de Gaulle and theComité Français de la Liberation Nationak(CFLN) sought to maintain France's longstanding position of diplomatic and cultural influence in the Levant, even after promising Lebanese and Syrian independence. With this in mind, French authorities grew more sensitive to the immigrant connection between Damascus and Dakar. In particular, the CFLN began to understand that complaints by Levantine immigrants inAfrique Occidentale Française(AOF) regarding their treatment by colonial officials had immediate repercussions on the French ‘mission’ in Syria and Lebanon. As a result, in the last year of the war – and at the direct instigation of the CFLN's representative in the Levant – sweeping policy changes were instituted to mitigate the treatment of Levantine immigrants in West Africa in order to restore France's prestige and position in the Middle East.
Gabriel Hanotaux: A Historian in Politics
Authors: Wesseling H.L.
Published: April 2010

The 1944–1945 Yearbook of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in Amsterdam includes a commemorative article written byjohan Huizinga in honour of the French historian Gabriel Hanotaux, who was a foreign member of the Academy from 1913 to 1944. Hanotaux was born on November 19, 1853, and died on April 11, 1944, a few months after his ninetieth birthday. In his commemoration of Hanotaux, Huizinga briefly sketched the life, work and achievements of Hanotaux who was, at that time, a wellknown French historian and politician. Huizinga was very impressed, as becomes apparent from his words: ‘Truly, it is almost unbelievable what this representative of all that is noble and pure in the French has created.’ He concluded his commemoration with a brief consideration of what he called his ‘temporary personal relationship with Hanotaux’.
Mughal India and Central Asia in the Eighteenth Century. An Introduction to a Wider Perspective
Authors: Gommans Jos
Published: April 2010

During the last two decades our historical ideas about the Mughal Empire have considerably altered. This change of attitude is due to two scholarly tendencies both of which have directed attention away from the Mughal court centres of Delhi and Agra. In an effort to illuminate the processes of Mughal decline, one approach has aimed to stress the emergence of eighteenth-century successor states which grew vigorously independent, but still remained under the sacrosanct umbrella of Mughal authority. Many studies of these new political configurations have seriously questioned the cliché de l'époque of a highly centralized Mughal polity, which now to have been faced with numerous limitations and ‘inner frontiers’. The disenchanting practice of permanent sedition and betrayal could never live up to the expectations of the Mughal ideal of harmony and legitimate obedience. In contrast to this view from below, another approach has tried to enlarge the scale by analysing the various ways in which India was incorporated into the world economy of the Indian Ocean. From this point of view Mughal India became the central part of a dynamic world system with various interactions and interdependencies between often highly urbanized and commercialized states.
L'historiographie du centenaire de l'Acte de Berlin (1885–1985). Fils conducteurs d'une commémoration
Authors: Vellut J.-L.
Published: April 2010

Les commémorations se multiplient à plaisir. Mais encore que nos sociétés de la ‘communication’ génèrent à toute occasion des promenades guidées dans le passé, il serait naïf d'y voir pour autant un goût de la connaissance désintéressée ou une aspiration à la vérité. Au contraire, celle-ci est plus souvent malmenée que respectée dans ces manifestations qui visent l'histoire utile’, c'est-à-dire qui pratiquent assidûment le recyclage de l'histoire au profit d'une solidarité de groupe qu'il s'agit de raffermir. Renforcer la cohésion des families idéologiques ou des sensibilites politiques, là est le véritable enjeu des commemorations. Celles-ci constituent done avant tout des terrains d'affrontements. Ceci peut offrir l'occasion d'un approfondissement du savoir, mais là ne se trouve pas le but de l'exercice. Ici e'est la communication qui règne, véritable auberge espagnole où d'authentiques ouvriers de la connaissance se rencontrent aux côtés de discoureurs ou de publicistes au statut plus incertain.
Spanish American Elementary Education Before Independence: Continuity and Change in a Colonial Environment
Authors: Newland Carlos
Published: April 2010

The historiography dealing with the evolution of elementary education in the Spanish American colonial period is relatively abundant. However, a great part of the literature has a regional or national scope, and in general does not give an idea of tendencies or the scale of education, which makes a general evaluation difficult. This paper tries to present such an evaluation based on the available secondary sources, and covers the whole of Spanish America during the century prior to Independence. It attempts to describe concisely both the consolidation of the institutions which had been evolving since the Conquest, and the series of changes which, it concludes, anticipate the educational transformations of the nineteenth century.
Peasantry and the State in Colonial Mexico: A Tentative Comparison with Western Europe
Authors: Buve Raymond
Published: April 2010

Peasants is a blanket term for all those who, one way or another are involved in agrarian activities, be it as a labourer, a herdsman, a sharecropper, a tenant, an independent cultivator or in a combination of two or more of these activities. Besides this, one will have to account for part-time income from migratory labour or economic activities as home industries, petty trade, transport or mining. Many peasant societies are internally stratified into richer peasants, sometimes village élites, middle peasants and their poor brethren. In Western Europe and in Mexico most peasants belonged to the latter category. For them Darnton's conclusion, ‘to eat or not to eat, that was die question peasants confronted in their folklore as well as in their daily lives’ was certainly valid, and, out of necessity, these peasants were often looking for additional land or income. They were, for that matter, mobile.
Small Company Trade and the Gold Coast: The Swedish Africa Company 1650-1663
Authors: Nováky György
Published: April 2010

The Swedish Africa Company (Svenska Afrikakompaniet, SAK) was a chartered trading company which conducted a limited and short-lived trade in the middle of the seventeenth century. Its political and economic significance for Sweden itself was negligible, and in West Africa the Company was one of the smallest and shortest lived of trading companies. At first glance, the SAK appears to be merely a historical curiosity and therefore outside the interest of scientific research. Yet closer examination reveals that the Company was actually quite profitable. An understanding of how t i achieved its success will surely add to our knowledge about European trade in West Africa.
Recent Afrikaner Historiography
Authors: van Jaarsveld F. A.
Published: April 2010

In 1961, when the Union of South Africa became a republic, I wrote in ‘Interpretations and Trends in South African Historical Writing’: ‘The Afrikaner had won the constitutional struggle against the Briton but at the very moment that he was about to reap the rewards of his victory in a new Republic, he stood confronted with the challenge of a non-white majority, threatening to deprive him of his gains […] A national myth has already become established - that South Africa is an innocent nation and the victim of attack in an evil world, and that attempts to solve the racial problem by territorial divisions or separate development are “misunderstood”.’
Some Reflections on Spanish American Constitutional and Political History
Authors: Annino Antonio
Published: April 2010

The road towards the Fifth Centennial Commemoration of Columbus' voyage in 1492 has not been smooth and easy. By engendering discussion in every possible forum, the Latin American political and cultural establishment has succeeded in changing the essence of the Commemoration: no longer is it considered a ‘Discovery’ but rather a ‘Meeting of Two Cultures’. All vestiges of Eurocentrism have been replaced with an emphasis on the contributions of the Amerindians to the history of the continent. On a more general level the commemoration was characterized by a proud de-fence of American as opposed to European history.
Colonialism and Technological Choice: The Case of the Railways of India
Authors: Kerr Ian J.
Published: April 2010

To what extent was technological choice within colonial countries deter-mined by requirements or expectations that emanated from interests located within the metropolitan powers? The quick answer, supported by a number of case studies, is that the colonial connection played a major role. The same case studies, however, demonstrate how complex and nuanced the determinants of particular technological choices in particular colonies at particular times were. Moreover, in recent scholarship many facets of the colonial experience have been subjected to considerable deconstruction such that colonialismquacolonialism has lost, for some at least, explanatory power: colonialism has become a background condition, a playing field for the contingent interplay of competing forces and interests located within a colony, a metropole and elsewhere. Without going that far but also without denying the benefits of the richer, more complex understanding deconstruction has brought this paper emphasizes the importance of colonial regimes and colonial labour processes to the analysis of technological choice in colonial contexts. The building and operation of the railways of colonial India provides the content for the arguments that follow. Colonialism as a structure of command and control will be seen to have been a powerful determinant of technological choice for the Indian railways although never independent of other considerations which included, this paper will argue, an important role for Indian railway labour.
Discussion on Postmodernism in Latin American History
Authors: Vogel H.Ph. , van Wakeren A.I.
Published: April 2010

The wonders of the computer age continue to amaze us. Much of what is purportedly new commands only scant interest, as we zap through inter-space. Sometimes, however, something worthwhile catches the eye and we read attentively. Not too long ago, we downloaded the following thread from the H-LATAM discussion list. The discussion that is reprinted below deals withtheperennial question plaguing historians: how to find the right combination of facts and theory. We hope that our readers will enlighten themselves with this lively debate.
Sources on Pre-1800 Asian History in Portugal and Spain
Authors: Barendse R. J.
Published: April 2010

Let me start these notes with two caveats. First, apart from the many un-published sources on the Iberian involvement in Asia there is also a great number of published sources available. This is in itself a considerable repository of knowledge on Asia. Most of these source publications, though, have appeared in journals that are often riot available outside the Iberian peninsula. Though H. Scholberg, Bibliography of Goa and the Portuguese in India (New Delhi 1982) provides a considerable service to the researcher, a bibliography of Portuguese source-publications is still in urgent need. Second, I should emphasize that for this report I have not been able to look at the Spanish records on the Philippines.
Southeast Asian Studies In The United States After Vietnam
Authors: Frederick William H.
Published: April 2010

In the past five or six years crisis has settled upon Southeast Asian studies in the United States, and among those close to the field professionally it is common to blame the Vietnam conflict and related post-war mentality, the so-called ‘Vietnam syndrome’, for this unhappy circumstance. Thegeneral atmosphere in the United States at the present time makes it difficult to conclude otherwise. We live, on theonehand, ina time of forgetting, when small-town mayors remark, ‘Vietnam? I can't think of anything that concerns me less,’ and profes-sors speak bookishly butnota great deal more eloquently of ‘premeditated amnesia.’ On the other hand, we also come into daily contact with what in large part arethelong-term results of ourVietnam involvement: a highly inflationary economy, confusion in foreign affairs, lingering social and political malaise, and a controversial refugee policy. Little wonder that the vast majority of Americans, for whom the words ‘Southeast Asia’ have come to mean simply Vietnam and possibly Cambodia, prefer to ignore the entire region as much as possible and fortherest seek solace ina feweasy myths and characterizations.
The DeMey van Streefkerk Papers in Minneapolis
Authors: Postma Johannes Menne
Published: April 2010

The James Ford Bell Library at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis has among its various holdings on the history ol European expansion a collection ol papers that emanated Irom the prominent Dutch DeMey van Streefkerk family. The papers were obtained by curator John Parker from the Amsterdam antiquarian firm B.M. Israel in 1958. The documents are all in Dutch and they pertain primarily to plantation affairs ol the Dutch colony of Surinam for the years 1717–1830. Due to the language barrier and the lack of a suitable inventory of the documents, little use has been made ol the papers thus far. Recently, this author has prepared a comprehensive inventory of the collection, which can be obtained from the James Ford Bell Library. The inventory is fourteen pages in length, in condensed print; and, thanks to modern computer techniques, is available in both a catalogue and a chronological listing.
Of Paper and Men: A Note on the Archives of the VOC as a Source for the History of Madagascar
Authors: Ranjeva-Rabetafika Yvette , Baesjou René , Everts Natalie
Published: April 2010

In July 1752, two days after their arrival at a roadstead in Saint Augustine's Bay on the south-western coast of Madagascar, ‘theGreat Island’, two junior merchants of the Dutch East India Company ship Schuylenburch headed for the residence of king Ratsimandresy (Ramanrasse in the Dutch sources). They were Philip Boomgaard and Dirk Westerhoff, responsible for commercial affairs and on a trade mission for the Company. On the way to the king's residence, about two miles inland from ‘Toulier’ (Toliara), they were welcomed by Ramanrasse's son, ‘crovmprince Revenoe’, and they offered him a few gifts they had brought along. However, upon taking a closer look at the presents Revenoe disdainfully threw astring of beads on the ground replying ‘that the Dutch were nothing more than traffickers, and that he expected them upon their arrival to present him with proper gifts just like the British and French traders that frequented his father's court were accustomed to do’.
What is Freedom? Competing Notions of Rights & Responsibilities in the French Caribbean
Authors: Hintjens Helen M.
Published: April 2010

According to Frantz Fanon, decolonisation starts out as ‘a programme of complete disorder’. This idea is interestingly echoed in the Creole expression ‘ce on dezod ka me lod’, which translated means that through chaos comes order. In 1998–1999 Martinique lost 23,000 working days; strikers blockaded the ports of Pointe à Pitre in Guadeloupe and Fort de France in Martinique for several weeks at a time in 1998. Trade unions have built up membership levels of eighty to ninety per cent in hotels and in public administration. In this article we will be examining some of the consequences and causes of new forms of socio-economic action and political protest that have emerged in the French Caribbean since the end of the Cold War. For a long time, the French Caribbean was a haven of relative calm and prosperity in the Caribbean. The Dutch Antilles and Aruba and the British dependent territories (now renamed UK Overseas Territories) have also generally shared this good fortune. Today the relative prosperity of the non-sovereign territories is becoming more marked as independent Caribbean states slip into economic recession and growing poverty, so that their political systems and leaders face an endemic crisis of political legitimacy.
VI. Counterpart Experiences: Indian and Indonesian Nationalisms 1920s–1950s
Authors: Low D.A.
Published: April 2010

India's national day is 26 January; Indonesia's 17 August. They point to a difference. 26 January derives from the Indian National Congress' decision at its Lahore Congress in December 1929 to launch a Civil Disobedience movement against the British Government in India. Jawaharlal Nehru as Congress' President arranged that the first step would be for thousands of Congress rank and file to join together on 26 January 1930 to take the Independence Pledge. This declared that since ‘it is the inalienable right of the Indian people […] to have freedom, […] if any government deprives a people of those rights […] the people have a […] right to […] abolish it […]. We recognise, however, that the most effective way of gaining freedom is not through violence. We will, therefore, prepare ourselves by withdrawing, so far as we can, all voluntary association from the British Government and will prepare for Civil Disobedience.’ From that moment onwards 26 January has been India's Independence Day, though when it was first held India's independence still stood 17 years away. The celebrations have thus come to link post-independent India with the feats of the Indian national movement which for so many years pursued the strategy of civil disobedience, and which, despite a series of intervening fits and starts, is seen to have been crucial to its success. For India the heroics of its freedom struggle lie, that is, in its elon-gated pre-independence past, of long years of humiliating harassment and costly commitment. They are not much associated with the final run up to independence. With the emphasis rather upon the earlier, principally Gandhian years, of protests and processions, of proscriptions and prison, the final transfer of power is not seen, moreover, as comprising a traumatic break with the past, but as the logical climax to all that had gone before. The direct continuities between the pre- and post-independence periodes in India in these respects are accepted as a central part of its national heritage.
Reaction to ‘Decay, Defeat or Renascent Empire?’
Authors: Coates Timothy
Published: April 2010

In my review of Dr van Veen's work, I stated that his lack of archival and other primary sources was ‘inexplicable’. This was a polite way of pointing out what was to me the obvious. If one wants to construct an original thesis that the Portuguese Habsburg kings turned to other investments that they felt would yield greater profit than the Estado da India, the possible proof of tfiat thesis is in the archives in Simancas. By the same token, if one wants to examine the profit and losses in Portuguese Asia, the place to look is the Historical Archives of Goa and the Overseas Archives in Lisbon. There is no substitute for working in the archives and using the very rich published primary literature on the subjects of van Veen's work. His avoidance of these sources and complete lack of any archival work in Spain, Portugal, or India is well, inexplicable.
III. Contrasting Communities: Asian Soldiers of the Dutch and British Colonial Armies in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: de Moor J. A.
Published: April 2010

The Asian soldier in the service of the European trading companies of the Ancien Régime or of the more modern colonial governments has a long history and is a phenomenon which displays some fundamental contradictions. Ever since the Europeans came to the Americas, Asia or Africa, they employed large groups of the indigenes as soldiers, men of many different customs, languages and cultures. By the thousands, inhabitants of the country filled the ranks which European recruiting was unwilling or unable to furnish.
VI. Creating a Colonial Peasantry: India and Java c. 1820-1880
Authors: Bayly C. A.
Published: April 2010

This paper deals in general terms with social change in India between the second decade of the nineteenth century when the British emerged completely dominant in the subcontinent through to the 1870s when the railways, the growth of export trades and new political associations were palpably transforming the Indian Empire. Some suggestions about comparable developments injava will be made at the end of the paper.
IX. Asians Compared: Some Observations regarding Indian and Indonesian Indentured Labourers in Surinam, 1873-1939
Authors: Emmer P. C.
Published: April 2010

The drive towards the abolition of the slave trade at the beginning of the 19th century was not effective until the 1850s. It was perhaps the only migratory intercontinental movement in history which came to a complete stop because of political pressures in spite of the fact that neither the supply nor the demand for African slaves had disappeared.

Because of the continuing demand for bonded labour in some of the plantation areas in the New World (notably the Guiana's, Trinidad, Cuba and Brazil) and because of a new demand for bonded labour in the developing sugar and mining industries in Mauritius, Réunion, Queensland (Australia), Natal (South Africa), the Fiji-islands and Hawaii an international search for ‘newslaves’ started.
XV. Land Tenure Systems and Rural Development in India and Indonesia in the Colonial Period: A Comparative Study
Authors: Suryo Djoko
Published: April 2010

In most studies of land policy in Asian nations, there is general recognition that agriculture is troubled by problems of landownership, particularly in the landlord-tenant relationship. Many observers point out that these are the principal issues confronting agriculture and the peasantry in most Asian countries. Looking at India and Indonesia, there are a number of problems with differing characteristics in the both areas, such as reform in land tenure and rural social structure, production increase and improvement in marketing distribution, and the credit system.
The Missing link: the Views of the Second International School of Thought on Development, Underdevelopment and Dependency
Authors: Michielsen Marc
Published: April 2010

In the long run, no country can avoid capitalism. No matter how bad the condition of the lower classes in a country in which they are defenselessly subjugated to the capitalist mode of production, they would still be worse off in a country that is economically under the spell of capitalist exploitation, whereas the ruling system does not give capitalist production the opportunity to arise; in a country where the population is proletarianized by the usurer, the merchant and by foreign competition, and where this proletariat cannot be absorbed by nascent big industries and cannot be gradually prepared for resistance against capitalism. The example of such a country is nowadays Turkey, and the Philippines will arrive at the same situation if the Spanish regime continues for a long time.
Clio and Clifford Geertz
Authors: Fasseur C.
Published: April 2010

It is now more than 25 years ago that the American anthropologist Clifford Geertz published his well-known bookAgricultural Involution. The processes of ecological change in Indonesia. In this excellently written essay, Geertz to argue that involution rather than evolution had occurred in Java during the past century and a half. This process was said to be responsible for the stagnating development, the depression, on the Javanese countryside which was so easily discernable when Geertz was conducting his field research in East-Central Java during the 1950s within the framework of the so-called Mojokuto project, in which Mojokuto was the equivalent of the American Middletown. In brief, the involution thesis boils down to the theory that as a result of Dutch colonial intervention at the start of the nineteenth centuryJavanese rural society developed a very high degree of social homogeneity, while balancing on the edge of the minimum of subsistence or below it. This society was characterized by the absence of sharp class-differences or a clear social stratification, the presence of ‘shared poverty’ and the necessity, as the island became more and more densely populated, to cut the (rice) cake in smaller and smaller parts.
Dutch Voyage Accounts in English Translation 1580–1625: a Checklist
Authors: Hair P.E.H.
Published: April 2010

This checklist is a by-product of a study of Samuel Purchas' Pilgrimes (1625), a work which makes much use of contemporary accounts of the earliest Dutch trans-oceanic voyages, particularly those to the East. It is well known that the Dutch regularly published accounts of separate voyages, and that the appearance in English translation of many of these separate voyage accounts encouraged English sailors and merchants to follow the Dutch eastwards. Purchas sometimes used existing English translations, whether in print or inmanuscript, but more often used new versions — normally only abridged versions or extracts — made by himself or by an unnamed hack; and Pilgrimes thus contained a number of translations of Dutch voyage accounts previously not available to English readers. Hence the following checklist covers (a) published separate English translations of Dutch voyage accounts, up to 1625; and (b) the versions and summaries of Dutch accounts, and the briefer references to Dutch voyages taken from such accounts (whether derived directly or from intermediate sources) to be found in Pilgrimes.
Labour takes Root; Mobilization and Immobilization of Javanese Rural Society under the Cultivation System
Authors: Blussé Leonard
Published: April 2010

In the production of tropical export crops, the factor labour has always overshadowed the two other factors, land and capital. In the days prior to the mechanisation of agriculture, that is to say, far into the second half of the 19th century, the factor capital almost coincided with labour. “Des bras, des bras, toujours des bras” as the saying went among the planters of the Mascareignes. However, it would be wrong to suggest that before the industrial revolution the relative importance of labour only manifested itself in the production of tropical export crops. There is a revered tradition in economic theory which considers labour to be the only source of wealth. Thus, Karl Marx proposed that the value produced by a labourer above the maintenance level should be designated as surplus value. For him, the control of this surplus lay at the basis of each “mode of production” (his term for a stage of development). Each mode of production was characterised by a specific set of social relations between the labourer, the ruling class that appropriates the surplus value, and the means of production. Labour and the labour process therefore were in his eyes a social phenomenon. One might add they are inherent to the tissue of authorities that constituate any social order.
The Interuniversity Institute for Missiological and Ecumenical Research (IIMO)
Authors: Lagerwerf L.
Published: April 2010

The Interuniversity Institute for Missiological and Ecumenical Research (IIMO) is a Dutch cooperative venture for missiological and ecumenical studies. It was founded in 1969 and is officially recognized by the Minister of Education and Sciences as one of the thirteen interuniversity institutes in the Netherlands.
Research on the 17th century Mission in China and the Chinese Reaction
Authors: Zürcher E.
Published: April 2010

At the beginning of the current academic year (1982–1983) the department of Chinese Studies at Leiden University initiated a research project on the early (17th century) Jesuit mission in China and the Chinese reactions to it.
Untouchability in India through the Missionary's Eye
Authors: Kooiman Dick
Published: April 2010

About one-seventh of the world population lives in South Asia and about one-seventh of this concentrated human mass belongs to the so-called harijans or untouchables. Economically exploited and socially despised, this minority — which actually contains well over 85 million people — has been relegated to the lower fringes of Hindu society. With occupations like sweeping, tanning, midwifery etc. permanently assigned to them, their degradation is further reinforced by the stigma of ritual pollution, which renders them unfit for social contact: untouchable.
The Dutch Colonial Business Elite at the Turn of the Century
Authors: Kuitenbrouwer Maarten , Schijf Huibert
Published: April 2010

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century the Dutch economy experienced a fresh take-off. Up-to-date steamships plied the shipping routes to the Netherlands East Indies; in the Netherlands the network of railways and canals was greatly expanded; modern insurance companies, commercial banks and other financial institutions were founded. The resultant growing need for external capital led to a new legal form of financing, the joint-stock or limited liability company, and the 1870s and 1880s saw the establishment of a relatively large number of newly founded companies of this type. Generally speaking, these companies represented business activities with a long-standing tradition in Dutch economic life: trade, banking and transportation. The economic take-off was also reflected in the growing number of joint-stock companies pursuing economic activities in colonial Indonesia, often with their headquarters in the Indonesian Archipelago itself. According to J. à Campo the number of such newly founded corporations was more than hundred for each year after 1896, reaching its highest level in 1910, when no less than 326 were founded.
Shamanism and Christianity on the Russian Siberian Borderland Altaian Responses to Russian Orthodox Missionaries (1830–1917)
Authors: Znamenski Andrei A.
Published: April 2010

For those historians and anthropologists who study shamanism, Altai represents the ‘motherland’ of this institution. For their inspirations scholars who want to explore ‘classical’ cases of shamanism usually turn to this area, located in south-western Siberia, at the intersection of Russian, Mongolian and Chinese borders. At the same time, many of these scholars, who are concerned with a quest for ‘ideal’ and ‘traditionalist’ shamanism, ignore almost one-hundred years of contacts between native Altaians and the Russian Orthodox mission that considerably affected indigenous culture and ideology. For instance, some Russian anthropologists have stressed that despite Christian activities, natives still clung to their traditional beliefs at the turn of the twentieth century. N.A. Alekseev emphasised the superficial character of native Christianization and stressed the persistence of indigenous religion. In his recent work, Potapov, another prominent Altaian scholar, similarly concluded:
Steamers, Freighting Contracts and Dock-Harbours Reflections on the History of the Java Sea, 1830–1930
Authors: Knaap Gerrit
Published: April 2010

The project about the maritime history of the Java Sea, in which various scholars from Indonesia and the Netherlands have been participating since about 1996, bears the title ‘The Java Sea Region in an Age of Transition, 1870–1970’. From the beginning of the project there has been discussion about the time-span to be covered by the project, especially about the terminal year. Some people feared that the availability of sources would limit the prospects of fruitful research. On the basis of this, it was even proposed to stop at 1945, the date of Indonesia's independence. However, in the end most of the scholars involved agreed that it would be worthwhile to continue to roughly 1970, because then it would be possible to include the first years of theOrde Baruregime and pinpoint its effects on the rehabilitation of ports. Moreover, 1970 was also convenient for the simple reason that it was one hundred years after the year, taken as the starting point, namely 1870. The year 1870 as a point of departure was never the subject of any discussion. Because of the liberalization of the economy, namely the general shift from exploitation by the colonial state to exploitation by private enterprise and the alleged beginning of the so-called Age of Modern Imperialism, which tied the corners of the Archipelago closer together, it was simply accepted. Within the confines of the maritime sector, 1870 was assumed to symbolize the change from wind energy to steam power and a beginning of the improvement of ports. Confidently, the opening up of the Suez Canal in 1869 heralded an intensification of contacts between the Netherlands and the Netherlands Indies.
Unravelling Minangkabau Ethnicity
Authors: Andaya Leonard Y.
Published: April 2010

In the formation of ethnicity the interaction between the views of outside observers and insiders themselves is an important process. The Minangkabau, whose homeland is located in the uplands of central Sumatra, have been a popular source of study because of their matrilineal social organisation and the practice of themerantau, where young Minangkabau men leave the homeland to seek knowledge and fortune abroad. Since the 1970s as a result of the women's movement, there has been a growing number of works focusing on the matrilineal principles which underlie Minangkabau society. Themerantau, too, has often been cited for the dynamism in Minangkabau society which has led to its considerable contributions to the Indonesian state in a number of fields. It is not surprising, therefore, that today the Minangkabau themselves see matriliny and themerantauas primary components in their identity. While these components were present in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they did not play the central role in ethnic identity as they do today. As I hope to show in this paper, there were different historical circumstances in those years which required another approach to ethnic identity.
The Development of Mongol Identity in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Authors: Rossabi M.
Published: April 2010

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed the development of a Mongol identity. The Mongol conquests in the thirteenth century had laid the foundations but had not truly forged such an identity. These earlier events provided, in modern parlance, the cultural memory that eventually served to unify them. However, the Mongol Empire actually revealed the fractiousness of the Mongols and their inability to promote the unity that might gradually have fostered a Mongol identity. As Joseph Fletcher argued, the creation of a supra-tribal identity for nomadic herders has proven to be extremely difficult. The so-called Mongol Empire attested to this predicament, as within two generations it evolved into four separate Khanates, which occasionally waged war against each other. For example, individual Khanates frequently sided with non-Mongols against fellow Mongols. In addition, the military, the quintessential Mongol institution, was not, as the Empire expanded, composed simply of Mongols. Turks, Persians, and even Chinese served in and sometimes led the Mongol armies, contributing to the blurring of Mongol identity.
Maxims of Foreign Policy
Authors: Boot W.J.
Published: April 2010

In the pre-modern period, Japanese identity was articulated in contrast with China. It was, however, articulated in reference to criteria that were commonly accepted in the whole East-Asian cultural sphere; criteria, therefore, that were Chinese in origin.

One of the fields in which Japan's conception of a Japanese identity was enacted was that of foreign relations, i.e. of Japan's relations with China, the various kingdoms in Korea, and from the second half of the sixteenth century onwards, with the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutchmen, and the Kingdom of the Ryūkū.
Putting together North and South: Some Considerations on the Agricultural History of the Americas between Independence and World Economic Crisis
Authors: Meibner Jochen
Published: April 2010

This article is specifically concerned with ‘American’ agriculture between 1820 and 1930. Let me emphasise straight away how unusual and problematic such an approach is. After all, it covers such disparate phenomena as plantation agriculture in the southern states of the US, the Caribbean, or Brazil, rural household economies working at subsistence level in New England or in the highlands of the Andes in South America, extensive cattle farming in the frontier regions of the southern part of South America, in the west of the USA, and in the north of Mexico and so on. The most varied geographical and climatic conditions for agricultural production can be found in the Americas, ranging from the North American plains to the Argentine Pampa, the highlands of the Andes region and Mexico to the coastal regions on the Atlantic and Pacific including the Caribbean. The extension of this subject becomes all the more apparent when we realise how wide the range of changes really was: in the USA, for example, this era is defined by the transition from an agricultural to an industrial society, in agricultural technology from the simple wooden plough to the tractor, and with regard to work systems, to name just one example, the end of slavery.