bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Coupling Paradigm
Authors: Gross Stephen G.
Published: April 2023

This chapter shows how German economists created a powerful paradigm to guide policymakers, by arguing that economic growth was inextricably and inherently coupled with growth in the supply of energy. This coupling paradigm let economists forecast the consumption and production of energy far into the future. Their framework initially reinforced the ideas of Ordoliberalism, that markets and competition were the best method of ensuring low energy prices and thus prosperity. West German economists diverged from American neoclassical economists, who were paying less attention to raw materials as a limit to growth in the 1950s and 1960s. German experts, by contrast, saw energy as a uniquely important input, and this led them to think more critically about energy security and crises. They developed different priorities than their peers in America, where the pursuit of growth trumped all else. Because development remained so tied to energy in German models, and because the nation’s prime energy was increasingly foreign oil, security came to rival growth as a goal.
Coda
Authors: Gross Stephen G.
Published: April 2023

The Coda brings the story of German energy policy up to the present, exploring the continuing conflict between advocates of the old coupling paradigm and the new paradigm associated with Ecological Modernization. While Germany mandated some of the strictest carbon reduction goals in the world and began to phase out nuclear power after Fukushima, it continued to face immense problems in implementing its climate targets. As a result of the persisting power of some conventional elites, who remained wedded to fossil fuels, brown lignite coal continued to dominate electricity production and the nation stumbled into ever greater reliance on natural gas from Russia. Nevertheless, mounting pressure from grassroots actors, new energy experts, and activist politicians managed to push through legislation in 2019 that aimed to phase out lignite coal, while the Russian invasion of Ukraine created a conjuncture of events that promised to reinvigorate a stalled green energy transition.
Born Innocent
Authors: Sullivan Michael J.
Published: April 2023

This book advances a normative argument that vicarious punishment is re-emerging in a variety of state actions resulting in the separation of families and confinement of caregivers. States deny individuals birthright citizenship based on the actions, behaviors, status, or group identity of their parents. Economically disadvantaged and minority citizens suffer the collateral consequences of mass incarceration when the state detains their parents or caregivers. Children in mixed-citizenship status families are experiencing the loss of a parent or caregiver through detention and deportation. The children of foreign fighters are suffering the vicarious punitive effects of denationalization and other state actions targeting their parents for their actions in a conflict zone as an anti-terrorism measure by their former country of citizenship. Vicarious punishment never went away in the case of Indigenous children separated from their families to punish their community for resisting assimilation and the extinguishment of their land claims. Their families continue to suffer from intergenerational trauma and child welfare interventions. Beneath these policy problems and legal issues lie two deeper ethical dilemmas that are the focus of this book. The first question is: What does the state and citizens owe to the individuals it detains, given their ongoing contributions in relationships to dependents? The second is: What does the state and citizens owe to innocent dependents in view of the collateral consequences of their caregivers’ detention, which has so often been influenced by prejudice against disadvantaged minority communities?
Introduction
Authors: Sullivan Michael J.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 1 introduces the problem of holding children responsible for their actions and loyalties of their caregivers. Modern liberal democratic countries prohibit intergenerational punishments like attainder, forfeiture, and corruption of blood for treason. Still, children continue to suffer the consequences of their parent’s actions, behaviors, and legal status. In the criminal justice system, children experience lapses in their parent’s caregiving following incarceration or immigration detention. Citizenship laws and policies provide a number of ways in which children may be ineligible to acquire citizenship at birth based on a parent’s immigration status, national origin, diplomatic status, or questionable allegiances. Proposals to denationalize parents for terrorist affiliations or to deny children citizenship based on their irregular immigration status compound this problem. The author shows how children and other vulnerable persons are suffering from intergenerational punishment directed at their parents, caregivers, and communities.
In Defense of Birthright Citizenship
Authors: Sullivan Michael J.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 3 argues that political communities should not be free to decide whether to deny citizenship, and its substantial protections, to infants based on their parents’ immigration status, actions, or allegiances. Territorial birthright citizenship offers the promise of integration on equal terms with other citizens. In the United States, equal protection of the law for the children of irregular immigrants means a free public education, on the grounds that “legislation directing the onus of a parent’s misconduct against his children” that “does not comport with fundamental conceptions of justice” (Plyler v. Doe 1982, 220). Immigrants who entered a country without authorization as children should not be held culpable for their parents’ immigration violations. Children of irregular immigrants deserve separate consideration for immigration benefits and citizenship apart from citizens’ judgment of their parents’ conduct as irregular entrants or visa overstayers.
The Digital Age: Turbojets and Computers
Authors: Rabinowitz B. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 6 offers a parallel analysis of the mid-twentieth century. It shows how a century later, history seemed to repeat itself. Turbojets, container ships, computer technologies, and satellite communications transformed the world in much the same way as railroads, steamships, the automatic printing press, and the telegraph had one hundred years before. The parallels are striking, from mail to email, mail-order to e-commerce, mass newspapers to satellite news, and ticker tape to automated trading. Not least of which was the analogous rise in global trade and the dramatic push toward economic liberalism. For the second time in history, the compression of time and space radically altered the very texture of human life. And once again, these dramatic changes in interconnectivity seemed to be ushering in a new era of global cooperation and coordination.
Economic Vulnerability: Productive Reorganization and Financial Crises
Authors: Rabinowitz B. S.
Published: April 2023

This section examines how there was a sinister side to the marvels of these new eras. The promise of progress and peaceful interconnectivity would in both eras lead to something much bleaker. Within a couple of decades, the advanced economies would be plagued by spectacular wealth inequalities. Dramatic shifts in production would strike the “heartland” much harder than the urban centers. Changing economies and opportunities would draw migrants, just when global economic shocks were beginning to hit national economies. Global finance’s control over national economic agendas would only magnify the pain caused by all these changes. Collectively, these displacements set off the second half of Polanyi’s “double movement.”
A Model of Taxation and Accountability
Authors: Martin Lucy E. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 4 develops a theory of how and why governments will choose to tax when doing so increases the demands they face from citizens. It develops a formal model of taxation in which a rent-seeking government decides between not taxing, taxing coercively, and seeking a tax bargain. The first version of the model is an autocracy where citizens cannot remove the leader. The chapter then introduces elections to show how the model changes when citizens can vote a leader out of office. While taxation can lead to higher accountability, there are conditions under which governments prefer to extract rents even at the cost of losing office. Critically, while democracy can make taxation more sustainable under certain conditions, it can also have a negative effect on both coercive taxation and tax bargaining, leading to lower taxation overall.
Evidence that Taxation Increases Accountability Demands
Authors: Martin Lucy E. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 5 uses laboratory experiments and Afrobarometer data to show that taxation increases citizens’ political engagement. It shows that a randomized taxation treatment significantly increases willingness to punish low transfers from a leader, even when punishment is costly and has no economic benefit. Additional experiments support the loss aversion mechanism over alternatives like fairness norms. Extensions of the experiments show that the effect of taxation persists, and even increases, when there are additional barriers to punishment, and is most likely to hold for direct taxes. Afrobarometer survey data from 31 countries shows that taxed citizens are more likely to engage in a range of political actions. Combined, this evidence provides strong support for the book’s main assumption: that taxation increases the accountability demands leaders face from citizens.
Taxation, Democracy, and Accountability
Authors: Martin Lucy E. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 6 tests when governments will choose to tax, and when doing so is likely to lead to better governance and lower corruption. It uses cross-national panel data to show that democracy is only strongly associated with higher taxation in higher-income countries. In low-income countries, the effect is null or negative. Democratization is associated with significant decreases in tax-to-GDP ratios in following years. Data from Afrobarometer suggest that tax net is smaller in African democracies. Cross-national panel data shows that taxation is associated with lower corruption. As predicted, taxation has a more pronounced effect on corruption for democracies in which citizens’ demands can translate into policy more easily. Finally, I show that direct taxes have a stronger relationship with corruption than indirect taxes, following the results in Chapter 5.
Conclusions, Reflections, and Avenues for Future Research
Authors: Owolabi Olukunle P.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 8 highlights the book’s important theoretical, conceptual, and empirical contributions to existing literature on colonialism, state-building and long-term development. It also highlights the empirical contributions of tracing the developmental legacies of forced settlement and colonial occupation across multiple colonial empires. The chapter outlines the book’s main conclusions, highlighting the institutional reforms that enabled many—but not all—forced settlement colonies to advance human well-being and postcolonial democratization following the abolition of slavery. Because my research primarily emphasizes the experience of Global South countries that emerged from colonial rule after World War II, the chapter concludes by outlining an agenda for future research on the lasting effects of slavery and colonialism in the Spanish Caribbean, Brazil, South Africa, the southern United States, and other mixed plantation colonies that were excluded from the earlier chapters.
Introduction
Authors: Giroux Valéry , Pepper Angie , Voigt Kristin
Published: April 2023

This introductory chapter provides information about the research project that led to this volume. The authors offer details about their partner organization, the Montreal SPCA, to give a sense of its mission, structure, and range of responsibilities. The chapter describes several practical aspects as well as the “practitioner-driven” methodology underlying the project. The chapter offers some thoughts on which aspects of recommendations offered in Part I of this volume can easily be extended to other shelters and some suggestions on those that may need to be adapted if they are to be suitable for different shelter environments. The authors identify and discuss some of the themes presented, implicitly or explicitly, in the chapters of Part II of this volume. The final section briefly summarizes the practical guidelines included in Part I and the individual chapters that constitute Part II of this collection.
Companion Animal Adoption in Shelters
Authors: Giroux Valéry , Voigt Kristin
Published: April 2023

An important goal of animal shelters is to find adopters for animals in need of a home. Traditionally, shelters have applied strict criteria that screened out applicants. Increasingly, however, shelters are moving toward a so-called open adoption approach, which engages would-be adopters in a conversation to match them with a suitable animal; only rarely should applicants be turned down. This chapter raises two concerns about open adoption. First, the evidence about the positive effects of open adoption is much less conclusive than advocates suggest. Second, open adoption fails to signal the seriousness of animals’ well-being. However, this does not mean that shelters should return to the traditional approach, which screens out good adoptive homes and discriminates against disadvantaged groups. The chapter ends by sketching some suggestions for attenuating the tension between the goal of efficiently finding homes for a maximum number of animals and the objective of challenging dominant speciesist norms in our society.
Standardization of the Rule of Law and Anti-Corruption Clauses in EU Regional Trade Agreements with Developing Countries
Authors: Rabinovych Maryna
Published: April 2023

This chapter explores and explains standardization of the rule of law and anti-corruption chapters across the European Union’s (EU) regional trade agreements (RTAs) with developing countries. It is demonstrated that the EU’s turn to bilateralism in its trade policy after the deadlock of the WTO Doha Round enabled the Union not only to develop a dense network of RTAs with partners worldwide, but also to achieve a significant degree of standardization of definitions, norms, and practices. Using examples from a broad array of EU RTAs with developing countries and their groups, such as Central America, the Caribbean Forum, Vietnam, and Eastern Neighbors, the chapter reveals that reasons for standardization of the rule of law and anti-corruption clauses go beyond the pragmatist logic pertaining to functionalist cooperation and neo-functionalism. The EU is increasingly inclined to integrate its foreign policy instruments and use its RTAs as levers to achieve broader objectives in various policy contexts.
Ethnic Prejudice
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

Using standard measures of ethnic prejudice, such as how victims feel about dining with, marrying, or attending school with ethnic Ingush, Chapter 6 shows that such prejudice among Beslan victims was highly correlated with support for retaliatory ethnic violence but played no role in peaceful political participation. While the possible conversion of ethnic prejudice to retaliatory ethnic violence in the North Caucasus was substantial, the few Beslan victims who consistently offered nonprejudiced responses to survey questions were consistently the least supportive of retaliatory violence. Importantly, the relationship between prejudice and support for retaliatory violence existed independent of the victims’ emotions, including anger and hatred. Prejudice and its harmful ramifications cannot be blamed on the emotional provocation of the violent episode.
Political Alienation and Blame
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

This chapter shows that politically unalienated victims—those who remained proud of Russia after the hostage taking—were more supportive of retaliatory violence and less likely to participate in politics. The finding is corroborated with analysis of related variables such as blame toward political officials, including President Vladimir Putin, and satisfaction with their punishment. Although seemingly undesirable from a normative perspective, political alienation thus provides one of the few links between the post-violence responses of retaliatory violence and political participation and has the normatively desirable “politics not violence” effects. A politically alienated victim has a higher probability than other victims of becoming a nonviolent activist.
Self-Efficacy and Political Efficacy
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

Consistent with voluminous research, this chapter shows that political efficacy is related to political participation. Victims who considered themselves politically informed and considered demonstrating or protesting to be effective mechanisms to address dissatisfaction were more likely to engage in political action. High self-efficacy has more normatively complicated effects that have received less attention in discussions of behavioral responses to violence. While feeling in control and able to solve problems after the tragedy may promote greater physical and mental health and even political activism, self-efficacy after tragedy may also encourage victims to exercise control in illegal or socially undesirable ways, such as supporting retaliatory violence.
A Portrait of Political Activists and Violent Retaliators
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

This chapter tests the findings of Chapters 5 through 10 more rigorously with multivariate analysis and describes their substantive impact. The analysis shows that victims who were at the high end of the scales for anger, political alienation, political efficacy, or political activism before the hostage taking had much higher probabilities of becoming political activists after the hostage taking than victims at the low end of these scales—sometimes four or five times higher. Victims who were at the high end of the scales for prejudice or blaming Chechens had much higher probabilities of supporting retaliatory violence, as did victims at the low end of the scales for political alienation or satisfaction with the punishment of federal officials—sometimes as much as six times higher.
Should Results Apply to Victims in Other Places and Times?
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

This chapter describes how the findings from the small town of Beslan are critical for understanding the numerous populations around the world who are victimized by violence and who also seek to redress their victimization. Most presumably unique features of Beslan are actually relatively common to post-violence contexts or, where uncommon, are not highly relevant to the decisions to retaliate or take political action. Reasonable generalizations include that anger and political alienation from unaccountable governments increase the probability of peaceful political responses to violence, whereas ethnic prejudice and pride in unaccountable governments increase the probability of violent responses.
The American Law Institute at 100
Authors: Ramo Roberta Cooper
Published: April 2023

This chapter offers a personal view of how the work of the American Law Institute (ALI) is accomplished, based upon thirty years of observations by a member and leader of the ALI. It highlights the impact of the governance and culture of the ALI on its work product. The chapter uses examples of important moments in the ALI’s recent history, including debates on the Model Penal Code and the death penalty and the development of the first Restatement of American Indian Law. It also touches on the changing group portrait of the membership with its increasing diversity of gender, race, and professional background and the texture and nuance that diversity of views and experiences adds to the process and the final texts.
Restating the Law in the Shadow of Codes
Authors: DeMott Deborah A.
Published: April 2023

This chapter recounts the American Law Institute’s (ALI’s) history in its formative era (1923–1945), drawing from archival sources to deepen existing accounts of the ALI’s self-definition as an ongoing institution. The history is more complex than it appears in prior accounts because institutional necessities—including funding—as well as multiple contingencies shaped both the ALI and its work. Likewise, the ALI’s signal work in this period, the Restatement, departed in significant ways from its original plan. Generating the revenues requisite to its ongoing existence required that the ALI partner with commercial publishers and, at their urging, separately publish Annotations for each Restatement volume linked to pre-Restatement cases in many states. Grants from the Carnegie Corporation of New York (overall totaling around $43 million in today’s dollars) funded the work requisite to the Restatement itself; funding the separate Annotations required support from more varied sources by the 1930s, including New Deal relief programs that could support indigent lawyers. Substantively, if the Restatement represented a rejection of comprehensive legislative codification as a strategy to rationalize and clarify private law, the end of this era is paradoxical because the ALI emerged as a prominent champion of codification via the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC). Going forward, in addition to a solid financial footing, the ALI’s work required “matters of first importance” to sustain its members’ engagement and justify itself as an ongoing institution, exemplified by the UCC project.
Canon and Fireworks
Authors: Brooks Richard R.W.
Published: April 2023

Two related claims are principally advanced in this chapter. First is that the Restatements of Contracts has achieved the status of a canon on which contemporary legal practice and education has come to rely. This claim falls under the heading reliance on the Restatements. The second claim, falling under the heading reliance in the Restatements, asserts that traditional notions of contractual liability based on reliance have been overshadowed by the Restatements’ canonization of both its bargain theory of consideration and its statements of promissory estoppel. Overshadowed but not excluded, traditional notions of reliance as grounds for contract enforcement and recognition can be found throughout the Restatements. By highlighting these grounds the chapter aims to recover or, perhaps better, reveal the traditional and continuing presence of reliance in the American common law of contract liability.
Conflict of Laws in the ALI’s First Century
Authors: Symeonides Symeon C.
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses the American Law Institute’s (ALI’s) two Restatements of Conflict of Laws. The first one, adopted in 1934 and identified with its highly respected but dogmatic Reporter, Professor Joseph H. Beale, consisted of doctrinally pure but simplistic and inflexible set of rules, which had the propensity to produce arbitrary results. Beginning with the 1960s, courts began evading and then rejecting those rules in a movement known as the choice-of-law revolution and characterized by a strong skepticism against all rules. Drafted during the revolution’s early years and reflecting that skepticism, the Second Conflicts Restatement moved to the other extreme of replacing—rather than repairing—the old rules with open-ended and equivocal lists of choice-guiding factors. Although criticized at the time, this excessive flexibility proved attractive to most courts, enabling them to experiment with new ideas and, over time, to converge around uniform choices in many patterns of cases. The Third Conflicts Restatement, currently in the drafting phase, intends to compress these choices into new “smart” rules, which will be more flexible than those of the first Restatement and less open-ended than those of the Second Restatement. If this effort succeeds, the ALI will have found the elusive golden mean between the two perpetually competing systemic values of certainty and flexibility.
Torts in the American Law Institute
Authors: Goldberg John C.P.
Published: April 2023

The American Law Institute (ALI) has devoted much attention to tort law. This attention has come in different forms. This chapter labels these, respectively: “ALI in the Mode of Appellate Court,” “ALI in the Mode of Law Reform Commission,” and “ALI in the Mode of Think Tank.” These modes can be placed along a spectrum of ambitiousness with respect to law reform. None is unambitious. But Appellate Court Mode is tethered to doctrine, Think Tank Mode is untethered. Law Reform Commission Mode lies somewhere in between. One might suppose that the ALI’s promise—which enables leading academics, in consultation with bench, bar, and others, to undertake long-term, large-scale research projects—resides in work at the more ambitious end of this spectrum. However, based on an admittedly impressionistic survey, the chapter suggests that, in the domain of tort law, the ALI has had important successes when proceeding in the manner of an appellate court, and has courted trouble when operating in the other modes.
A Short History of the Restatement of Restitution and Unjust Enrichment
Authors: Sherwin Emily
Published: April 2023

The restitution Restatements are somewhat unusual in that their primary objective has not been to summarize existing doctrine in an elegant way or to call for doctrinal change. Instead, they have offered and defended a significant theoretical insight into the nature of private law: grounds for legal relief between parties include not only tortious harm and contractual obligation but also unjust enrichment of one party at the other’s expense. This chapter examines the history of restitution and unjust enrichment in the United States, the important role that the American Law Institute’s projects played in that history, American responses over time, and reactions by common law courts and scholars around the world.
Restatements and Realists
Authors: Gordon Robert W.
Published: April 2023

As soon as the American Law Institute’s (ALI’s) “Restatements” of law began to appear in the 1930s, they came under attack from Legal Realists, a new school of skeptical critics of the utility of legal rules to predict legal outcomes. Although the Restatements’ authors were themselves moderate Progressives and law reformers, their product took the form of dogmatic black-letter rules. Realists complained that the Restatements waffled between stating law as it was and as it should be, and, because they ignored social contexts, particular facts, and functional purposes, were without practical value to scholars and practitioners. The ALI could not have accommodated the most radical Realist critiques, but in fact did accommodate and absorb many of the Realist perspectives in its later Restatement projects.
The Temporal Dynamics of Goal Systems
Authors: Huang Szu-chi
Published: April 2023

In this chapter, the author first discusses recent research on the temporal dynamics of goal pursuit, demonstrating how the key drivers of motivation change between early stage, middle stage, and later stage over the course of goal pursuit. The author then discusses how the effects of goal systems can change from one stage to another as a result of these temporal dynamics. For instance, providing multiple (vs. a single) means for goal pursuit would be more motivating early on as it reassures the goal’s attainability but can create decisional costs when offered in the later stage. Similarly, a flexible (vs. fixed) sequencing of steps to a goal is motivating for goal initiation but not for goal completion. Lastly, the author discusses how a goal’s structure, such as dividing an overall goal into multiple smaller subgoals or providing multiple rewards for goal attainment, can also produce temporally dynamic effects on individuals’ motivation. The author completes this chapter with a discussion of some promising directions for future research at the intersection of temporal dynamics and the structuring of goal pursuit.
Extremism and the Extreme Personality
Authors: Szumowska Ewa , Kruglanski Arie W. , Kopetz Catalina
Published: April 2023

Behavioral extremism takes different forms and shapes, including violent extremism, extreme dieting, extreme passion, and extreme infatuations. The authors look at these various behaviors through the lens of the goal systems theory and argue that all cases of extremism stem from motivational imbalance whereby a given need (or a goal serving this need) gains dominance and overrides other basic concerns. The result is an expansion of behavioral options for addressing the prioritized need and engagement in extreme behaviors forbidden under the state of balance. Further, the authors discuss the antecedents of motivational imbalance with a particular focus on individual differences. They argue that some people personify the dynamics of extremism more than others and propose a construct of “extreme personality” to reflect between-person variation in proneness to motivational imbalance. They cite evidence showing that extreme personality predicts manifestations of extremism at different levels: motivational, cognitive, affective, behavioral, and social. They conclude by discussing future research directions.
Balliol
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines Oxford’s teaching methods, its Greats curriculum, and the personalities and intellectual profiles of Austin’s tutors: Cyril Bailey, D. C. Macgregor, D. J. Allan, C. R. Morris, and, most importantly, C. G. Stone. Initially, Austin’s intellectual arrogance caused problems, but short reports written by the Master of Balliol, A. D. Lindsay, allow us to follow Austin’s growing academic maturity and improving performance. By the time he left, he had been awarded the Gaisford Prize for Greek Prose and a Congratulatory First in Greats with alphas on all his papers. The chapter also looks in detail at Austin’s correspondence with the younger of his two sisters about her fantasy school; his friendship with Lewis Masefield; Austin’s participation in the Balliol Players; his musical activities; his first publication; and, most importantly, the two holidays he spent in Germany, and the insights these gave him into the rise of Nazism.
MI14, Marriage, and North African Intelligence
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

On 1 January 1941, Austin began work for GHQ Home Forces in Storey’s Gate, London, but was soon seconded to the German Army section of Military Intelligence (MI14) in a basement of the War Office. This chapter examines the role, structure, and personalities who worked in MI14, and looks at the kind of training and activities Austin was engaged in. Austin’s work was top secret, but Intelligence histories and more personal sources allow us to see that, within less than two months of joining MI14, Austin had a brilliant insight which established his reputation as an outstanding Intelligence officer. He deduced that German forces were going to reinforce the badly beaten Italians in North Africa, and by the time he returned from his wedding and honeymoon in late March 1942, the Germans had begun an advance that would push the British line back 400 miles.
Injury, Scotland, and the Desert War
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

Austin and Jean moved into a flat in Chelsea, and on Wednesday 16 April 1941 a massive bomb exploded behind their building. Austin was not seriously hurt but Jean had to spend five weeks in hospital before returning to college to prepare for Finals. She also discovered she was pregnant. Austin supported her with letters of advice and encouragement, and she went on to get a First. After her exams, they went on holiday to Scotland to introduce Jean to Austin’s parents, and when they returned, Austin went back to working on North African Intelligence. The comparative accuracy of his estimates of Rommel’s losses was a factor which led to the dismissal of the current British leadership in the theatre, and its replacement by the team which would eventually win at El Alamein in late 1942. In early February 1942, Jean gave birth to their first child, Fanny.
The Coming of the Martians
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

In mid-March 1942, Austin was placed in command of the Advanced Intelligence Section, which he nicknamed ‘The Martians’, whose purpose was to gather information for the forthcoming if distant Allied invasion of Europe. The following topics are investigated: the structure of the section; the Intelligence organizations with whom it liaised; the clients to whom it supplied information; and the Martian Reports in which some of this information was disseminated. Most attention, however, is given to the development of a vast spy network in France, particularly in the Caen area, whose purpose was to supply London with information about Hitler’s Atlantic Wall. The chapter ends with Austin’s section drawing up a map of the German coastal defences. When the section conjoined this with another map showing beach topography, the choice of the landing site for D-Day became inevitable.
Norfolk House, Dieppe, and Torch
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

Under Austin’s leadership, the Martians became very efficient, and the section was moved to Norfolk House, St James’s Square, London, and substantially enlarged. The testimony of several people who worked under Austin allows us to examine the qualities of his leadership. A more personal issue is also looked at. Austin had to send Renée a message saying that he has married someone else, and the method he might have used to smuggle this message through to her is investigated. The bulk of the chapter, however, is devoted to the motivation, planning, and execution of the disastrous Dieppe Raid in August 1942, and how much responsibility for this failure the Martians should bear. The chapter ends by looking at the vastly larger and more successful Operation Torch—the Anglo-American landings in North Africa in November 1942—and the Martians’ role in this success.
The Hunt for the V-Weapons
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

In March 1943, two captured German generals in London were overheard discussing long-range rockets secretly developed by the Germans. The British were alarmed and set up a committee under Duncan Sandys to investigate German secret weapons. Initially, nothing significant was found, but in September, an air photographic interpreter in Austin’s section, Peter Conant, was asked to check a report written by a French agent called Michel Hollard. Conant confirmed the presence of suspicious building activity, and reported it to Austin. This chapter then argues that Austin and his colleague Matthew Pryor realized that the Germans were building launch sites for V1 flying-bombs in France, but were unable to persuade the political and scientific establishment of their view. They were only proved to be correct on 1 December 1943, when a V1 was seen on a launcher on the German island of Peenemünde.
War’s End
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

In mid-February 1945, Austin’s section moved from Versailles to Reims, where the German surrender was signed on 7 May. Austin was present, and involved in the celebrations which followed. A few days later, he was sent to Flensburg where a provisional German government had been set up. He was concerned with collecting German documents, interrogating German officers, demobilizing their army, worrying about post-war German resistance, trying to discover details about the Russian Army, and, eventually, winding up the provisional government itself. The remainder of the chapter examines the murder of his colleague, Martin Watkin; the section’s move to Frankfurt; and Austin’s role in ensuring British interests were looked after, as German wartime documents were collected and classified. His war service ends with the award of three medals and his return to civilian life in England.
Sense and Sensibilia
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The first half of this chapter looks at Austin’s celebrated lecture-series, which criticizes the version of the sense-datum theory of perception found in Ayer’s The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge. The section describes Austin’s polemical manner and the lectures’ consequent popularity, and then outlines the lectures’ central criticisms. It is argued that the lectures offer a very effective critique of the argument from illusion, but that their central weakness is they either pay too little attention, or no attention at all, to the power of Cartesian scepticism and scientific arguments against direct realism. The second half of the chapter looks at Austin’s work as a proctor, reviewer, editor, and translator.
Truth and Logic
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The first half of this chapter examines the Austin/Strawson debate about the nature of truth, where Austin argues for a form of the correspondence theory, and Strawson argues for a version of Ramsey’s redundancy theory. It is argued that Strawson got the better of the debate, and that Austin’s unclarity about the link between statements and reality is fundamentally the same problem as his unclarity about the link between words and reality. The second half of the chapter urges that Austin’s view of truth was influenced by the Oxford Realists, and argues that the same applies to his paper ‘How to Talk’ and his abandoned theory of predication.
Final Illness
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

Austin realized he was ill while returning from Scandinavia in early October 1959. Tests quickly showed he had lung cancer, and he went for radiation treatment at the Churchill Hospital in Oxford. The disease, however, spread rapidly: by Christmas he was very ill, and by mid-January it was clear he was dying. Friends called, but the children were not told how sick he was, and his death on 8 February 1960 came as a complete shock to them. The first half of the chapter concludes by discussing the reactions of friends and colleagues to his death, his memorial service, and the obituaries and tributes that appeared in the press and philosophical journals. The second half of the chapter evaluates his achievements, both military and philosophical. Its final conclusion is that, although Austin enjoyed only thirty years of adult life, he had careers of international importance in two largely unrelated fields, and that very few can equal this achievement.
Civilian control of the military in new democracies
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

In this chapter, the authors present their arguments in favor of studying civil–military relations in third wave democracies. Normatively and functionally, civilian control of the military is a crucial institutional prerequisite of the consolidated, “embedded democracy.” For democracy to survive, the power of the armed guardians of state security must be limited by strong institutions of control. Civil–military relations are thus a vital topic for democratization and autocratization studies and international and comparative politics, as well as conflict and security studies. Yet, the importance of the topic contrasts with the scarcity of carefully specified theories and systematic theory testing that would allow to identify the conditions under which elected governments and democratically established institutions succeed or fail in ensuring civilian control of the military. Moreover, studies on civilian control of the military and democracy often fall into the “fallacy of coup-ism,” equating civilian control with the absence of military coups d’état. In contrast, the authors argue that civilian control is best defined as the exercise of the will of the country’s elected leadership over the armed forces: why theories of civilian control should center on civilian leaders as relevant actors who can initiate change in civil–military relations. They argue that the effects of different degrees of civilian control on democratic political regimes should differ by substantive decision-making areas and affect different partial regimes of a democratic regime democracy in different ways. Finally, the chapter briefly introduces the data and explains the structure and contents of the following chapters.
Conceptualizing and theorizing civilian control
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

The chapter lays out a concept of civilian control over the military in new democracies which differentiates and operationalizes five partial areas of civilian control: elite recruitment, public policy, internal security, national defense, and military organization. The theoretical model argues that the establishment of civilian control in new democracies is best explained by the interplay between civilian control strategies and the effects of three sets of conditions that can hamper or facilitate the institutionalization of civilian control: initial conditions, civilian bargaining power, and factors that shape the military bargaining power vis-à-vis civilian authorities. This analytical differentiation allows the systematic integration of an agency-model of civil–military reforms with the institutional and structural explanations that dominate the existing literature. In the remainder of the chapter, the authors discuss the relationship between the survival of democracy and the quality of different partial regimes of the “embedded democracy” on the one hand, and the strength or weakness of civilian control on the other. Two main causal mechanisms link civilian control to the breakdown of new democracies. The first is the supplantment or displacement of a democratic government or regime by the armed forces. The second is the “weak democracy” syndrome, through which the military either partners with civilian elites in the overthrow of democracy or remains a bystander while civilian incumbents move against the democratic order.
Mapping and explaining civilian control in third wave democracies
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

This chapter describes and explains empirical patterns of civil–military relations in 71 democracy spells in 66 third wave democracies in the period 1974 to 2010. The descriptive analysis demonstrates that overall, third wave democracies have been rather successful in ensuring civilian control over Elite Recruitment and Public Policy. In contrast, National Defense and Military Organization exhibit a generally lower degree of civilian control. The chapter also shows that post-communist countries in Eastern Europe and Eurasia started out with comparatively strong traditions of civilian control and registered only moderate changes in levels of civilian control. In contrast, Latin America is the one region in which third wave democracies, on average, had the most difficult initial conditions in terms of civilian control. Despite robust changes in the post-authoritarian period, this still is the region with the lowest average degree of civilian control. In Southern Europe, third wave democracies also inherited weak institutions of civilian control but experienced the greatest change and achieved the highest average degree of civilian control in 2010. The statistical analysis finds that civil society strength and economic development are the strongest predictors of civilian control, both in the aggregate as well as across all five individual decision-making areas. In contrast, initial conditions such as praetorian legacies and military control over the mode and outcome of the democratic transition seem less relevant for explaining civilian successes in establishing civilian control over their militaries when controlling for other factors, at least in the long run.
Reforming civil–military relations
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

The analysis of six cases of successful or failed institutionalization of civilian control in this chapter allows for a systematic tracing of the strategies of political control used by civilians; how they were linked to structural determinants; and how such strategies affected the reform of post-authoritarian civil–military relations. The three successful cases (South Korea, Chile, and Spain) show that there were important differences in the mix of strategies, particularly regarding the early-on prioritization of the role of the defense ministry and an emphasis on the democratic socialization of the military. However, control strategies that played an important role in cases of weakly institutionalized civilian control, such as the co-optation of military elites, were of little importance in the three successful countries. Second, governments in South Korea, Chile, and Spain first emphasized weak strategies but later adopted new, more robust instruments of ensuring the military’s subordination, possible because of the maturing of democratic institutions, the growth of civil societies, and good socioeconomic performance, which strengthened the legitimation of democratic institutions and political authorities. In contrast, the most striking similarity among the three cases of stagnant or weakly institutionalized civilian control (the Philippines, Russia, and Madagascar) was the attempt to personalize and centralize political control by the incumbent president. All three countries had weak civil societies and democratic institutions; a challenging economic environment; and a potential for mass discontent. In all three cases, civil–military relations were mainly dependent on the incumbent’s ability to co-opt elites in various sectors of society.
The effect of civilian control on democracy
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

This chapter addresses the question whether the degree of civilian control is correlated with the survival and breakdown of democracy and democratic quality in the third wave. Multivariate statistical analyses confirm that democratic survival is more likely if civilian authorities achieve a high degree of civilian control of the military. In contrast, where democratic governments lack the effective capacity to rein in the armed forces, the likelihood for a democratic breakdown remains high. To account for effects of weak or declining degree of civilian control on the quality of democracy, we statistically evaluate the relationship between civilian control and different partial regimes of the “embedded democracy.” We find that the overall degree of civilian control is a crucial determinant of political rights and civil liberties. Findings suggest that countries in which the military does not enjoy much political influence and is under the control of the democratically elected authorities do better in ensuring the political rights and civil liberties of their citizens. In contrast, the overall degree of civilian control had no effect on horizontal accountability and electoral integrity, though civilian control over Elite Recruitment has a strong, positive effect on democratic quality of the electoral regime of an embedded democracy. As suggested by extant literature on democratic quality and consolidation, socioeconomic development, measured by the GDP p.c., is the single most powerful predictor of democratic quality across all four partial regimes.