A Global Experiment on Motivating Social Distancing during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Authors: Legate Nicole , Nguyen Thuy-vy Thi , Weinstein Netta , Moller Arlen C. , Legault Lisa , Adamkovic Matus , Adetula Gabriel Agboola , EMMANUEL AGESIN BAMIKOLE , Ahlgren Lina , Akkas Handan , Almeida Inês A. T. , Anjum Gulnaz , Antoniadi Maria , ARINZE Azuka Ikechukwu , Arvanitis Alexios , Rana Kafeel , Badalyan Varduhi , Becker Maja , Bernardo Olivia , Bozdoc Andreea Ioana , Campos Olatz , Desai Kermeka , Meir Drexler Shira , Dursun Pinar , Eudave Luis , Filip Katarzyna , Espinoza Barría Mauricio F , Garcia Elkin Oswaldo Luis , Gialitaki Zoi , Nardelli Giusy , Štrukelj Eva , Hausman Ozery Daphna , Jackson Emily A. , Jimenez-Leal William , Krizanic Valerija , Jurković Anita Penić , Wilson John Paul , Alarcon Monica , udeh.oluchukwu@gmail.com  , Betlehem Ruben , Kushnir Elizaveta , Bravo Olalla Niño , Nauman Rafia , Oosterlinck Marlies , Pantazi Myrto , Pilecka Natalia , Szabelska Anna , van Steenkiste I M M , Maniaci Michael R. , Marcu Gabriela Mariana , Roczniewska Marta , Reyna Cecilia , Kassianos Angelos , Pöntinen Sara Johanna , Ogbonnaya Chisom , Ndukaihe Izuchukwu Lawrence Gabriel , Dalgar Ilker , Özdoğru Asil Ali , Macapagal Paulo Manuel Labalan , Lewis Savannah C , Metin-Orta Irem , Foroni Francesco , Willis Megan , Santos Anabela Caetano , Mokady Aviv , Reggev Niv , Vasilev Martin R. , Nock Nora L , Parzuchowski Michal , Vranka Marek Albert , Braun Kohlová Markéta , Ropovik Ivan , Harutyunyan Mikayel , Wang Chunhui , Yao Xiaohui , Manunta Efisio , Kaminski Gwenael , Findor Andrej , Landry Anais Thibault , Lewis David M. G. , Vásquez Julio Cruz , Ortiz Manuel S , Pronizius Ekaterina , Voracek Martin , Lamm Claus , Grinberg Maurice , Li Ranran , Valentova Jaroslava Varella , Mioni Giovanna , Azouaghe Soufian , ARUTA JOHN JAMIR BENZON R. , Atari Mohammad , Azab Habiba , Bavolar Jozef , Beitner Julia , Beaudry Jennifer L , Cellini Nicola , Chen Sau-Chin , Zickfeld Janis , Moon Karis , KARABABA Alper , Todsen Anna Louise , van Schie Kevin , Vintr Jáchym , Kaliska Lada , Pourafshari Razieh , Geiger Sandra Jeanette , Warmelink Lara , Ross Robert M , Stephen Ian David , Hostler Tom , McCarthy Randy J. , Szala Anna , Grano Caterina , Singh Solorzano Claudio , Kácha Ondřej , Xiao Qinyu , Cárcamo Rodrigo , Zorjan Saša , Tajchman Zuzanna Jagoda , Vilares Iris , Pavlacic Jeffrey Michael , Kunst Jonas R. , Tamnes Christian K. , von Bastian Claudia Christina , Sharifian Mohammad Hasan , Hricova Monika , Kačmár Pavol , Schrötter Jana , Rahal Rima-Maria , Cohen Noga , Zakharov Ilya , Koehn Monica A , Esteban Serna Celia , Calin-Jageman Robert , Krafnick Anthony James , Khosla Meetu , Isager Peder Mortvedt , Urban Jan , Silva Jaime R. , Martončik Marcel , Šakan Dušana , Očovaj Sanja Batić , Kuzminska Anna O. , Đorđević Jasna Milošević , Ferreira Ana , Manley Harry , Zambrano Danilo , Monteiro Renan P. , Zahra Etebari , Musser Erica D. , Dunleavy Daniel J. , Chou Weilun , Godbersen Hendrik , Ruiz-Fernandez Susana , Reeck Crystal , Batres Carlota , Kirgizova Komila , Muminov Abdumalik , Azevedo Flavio , Alvarez Daniela Serrato , Butt Muhammad Mussaffa , Lee Jeong Min , Chen Zhang , Verbruggen Frederick , Ziano Ignazio , Tümer Murat , Dubrov Dmitrii , del Carmen Maria , Aberson Chris , Hubená Barbora , Sacakli Asli , Ceary Chris , Richard Karley , Singer Gage Anthony , Perillo Jennifer Torkildson , Ballantyne Tonia , Cyrus-Lai Wilson , Fedotov Maksim , Du Hongfei , Wielgus Magdalena , Pit Ilse L. , Hruška Matej , Sousa Daniela , Aczel Balazs , Szaszi Barnabas , Adamus Sylwia , Barzykowski Krystian , Micheli Leticia , Schmidt Nadya-Daniela , Zsido Andras N. , Paruzel-Czachura Mariola , Bialek Michal , Kowal Marta , Sorokowska Agnieszka , Misiak Michał , Ortiz Maria Victoria , Correa Pablo , Belaus Anabel , Mola Débora , Muchembled Fany , Arriaga Patricia , Oliveira Raquel Alves , Ribeiro Rafael Ramos , Vaughn Leigh Ann , Abbas Nida , Szwed Paulina , Kossowska Małgorzata , Czarnek Gabriela , Kielińska Julita , Antazo Benedict Guzman , Stieger Stefan , Nilsonne Gustav , Simonovic Nicolle , Taber Jennifer M , Gourdon-Kanhukamwe Amélie , Domurat Artur , Ihaya Keiko , Yamada Yuki , Urooj Anum , Gill Tripat , Čadek Martin , Bylinina Lisa , Messerschmidt Johanna , Adetula Adeyemi , Baklanova Ekaterina , Albayrak-Aydemir Nihan , Kappes Heather Barry , Gjoneska Biljana , House Thea , Jones Marc , Berkessel Jana , Chopik William J. , Çoksan Sami , Seehuus Martin , Khaoudi Ahmed , Bokkour Ahmed , ARABI Kanza AIT EL , Djamai Ikhlas , Adıgüzel Arca , Kocalar Halil Emre , Bundt Carsten , Norton James O'Reily , Papadatou-Pastou Marietta , DE LA ROSA GOMEZ ANABEL , Ankushev Vladislav , Bogatyreva Natalia , Grigoryev Dmitry , Ivanov Aleksandr , Prusova Irina , Romanova Marina , Sarieva Irena , Terskova Maria , Hristova Evgeniya , Kadreva Veselina Hristova , Janak Allison , Schei Vidar , Sverdrup Therese E , Askelund Adrian Dahl , Pineda Lina Maria Sanabria , Krupić Dajana , Collins W. Matthew , Boucher Leanne , Levitan Carmel , Johannes Niklas , Ouherrou Nihal , Say Nicolas , Sinkolova Sladjana , Janjić Kristina , Stojanovska Marija , Stojanovska Dragana , Thomas Andrew G. , Kung Franki Y. H. , Bijlstra Gijsbert , Mosannenzadeh Farnaz , Balci Busra Bahar , Reips Ulf-Dietrich , Baskin Ernest , Ishkhanyan Byurakn , Czamanski-Cohen Johanna , Dixson Barnaby , Moreau David , Sutherland Clare , Chuan-Peng Hu , Noone Chris , Flowe Heather D , Anne Michele , Janssen Steve M. J. , Topor Marta , Fu Cynthia H.Y. , Majeed Nadyanna M. , Kunisato Yoshihiko , Yu Karen , Daches Shimrit , Hartanto Andree , Vdovic Milica , Anton-Boicuk Lisa , Forbes Paul , Kamburidis Julia , Nedelcheva-Datsova Mina , Rachev Nikolay R. , Stoyanova Alina , Marinova Evelina , Schmidt Kathleen , Suchow Jordan W , Koptjevskaja-Tamm Maria , Jernsäther Teodor , Olofsson Jonas , Bialobrzeska Olga , Marszalek Magdalena , Tatachari Srinivasan , Afhami Reza , Law Wilbert , Antfolk Jan , Zuro Barbara , Van Doren Natalia , Soto Jose Angel , Searston Rachel A , Miranda Jacob Francisco , Damnjanović Kaja , Yeung Siu Kit , Krupić Dino , Hoyer Karlijn , Jaeger Bastian , Ren Dongning , Pfuhl Gerit , Klevjer Kristoffer , Vally Zahir , Vargas-Nieto Juan Camilo , Galindo-Caballero Oscar J. , Calderón Pérez Laura , Corral-Frías Nadia Saraí , Frías-Armenta Martha , Lucas Marc Yancy , Torres Adriana Olaya , Toro Mónica , Delgado Grey Javela , Vega Diego , Solas Sara Álvarez , Vilar Roosevelt , Massoni Sébastien , Frizzo Thomas , Bran Alexandre , Vaidis David C. , Vieira Luc , Capizzi Mariagrazia , Coelho Gabriel Lins Holanda , Greenburgh Anna , Whitt Cassie Marie , Tullett Alexa Mary , Du Xinkai , Volz Leonhard , Bosma Minke , KARAARSLAN CEMRE , Sarioguz Eylül , Allred Tara Bulut , Korbmacher Max , Lima Tiago J. S. , Ribeiro Matheus Fernando Felix , Verharen Jeroen , Karekla Maria , Karashiali Christiana , Sunami Nami , Jaremka Lisa M , Storage Daniel , Habib Sumaiya , Hassan Widad , Studzinska Anna , Hanel Paul H. P. , Holford Dawn Liu , Sirota Miroslav , Wolfe Kelly , Chiu Faith , Theodoropoulou Andriana , Ahn El Rim , Lin Yijun , Westgate Erin Corwin , Brohmer Hilmar , Hofer Gabriela , Dujols Olivier , Vezirian Kevin , Feldman Gilad , Travaglino Giovanni A. , Ahmed Afroja , Marko Dafne , Li Manyu , Bosch Jasmijn , Manavalan Mathi , Torunsky Nathan , Bai Hui , Song Xin , Walczak Radoslaw B. , Zdybek Przemysław , Friedemann Maja , Kozma Luca , Dalla Rosa Anna , Alves Sara Gouveia , Correia Rita , Babincak Peter , Baník Gabriel , Rojas-Berscia Luis Miguel , Varella Marco A. C. , Uttley Jim , Beshears Julie , Thommesen Katrine Krabbe , Behzadnia Behzad , Bradford Maria , Geniole Shawn , Silan Miguel Alejandro A. , Vilsmeier Johannes K , Tran Ulrich S. , Morales-Izquierdo Sara , Mensink Michael Craig , Sorokowski Piotr , Groyecka-Bernard Agata , Radtke Theda , Adoric Vera Cubela , Carpentier Joelle , Ishii Tatsunori , Wichman Aaron Lee , Röer Jan Philipp , Ostermann Thomas , Davis William E. , Suter Lilian , Benka Jozef , Bradshaw Emma L , Brownlow Charlotte , Chanal Julien , Costa Sebastiano , Dunn Megan , Ferreyra Cecilia , Ferguson Lisa J. , Gargurevich Rafael , Gugliandolo Maria Cristina , Gunton Lesley-Ann , Paredes Dora Isabel Herrera , Jai-ai Rachadaporn , Khaobunmasiri Sirikon , Khumkom Sakda , Lerche Veronika , Levine Shelby L. , Liga Francesca , Luxon Alexandria , Machin Tanya , Martela Frank , Martin Neil I. , Matos Lennia , Morbée Sofie , Moss Jennifer D. , Neubauer Andreas B. , Nicolotti Matilde , Niemiec Christopher , Ntoumanis Nikos , Papachristopoulos Konstantinos , Quested Eleanor , Rothbaum Alex O. , Ryan Richard M. , Ryan William Shannon , Smit Eline Suzanne , Soenens Bart , Standage Martyn , Thøgersen-Ntoumani Cecilie , Unanue Wenceslao , van Hooff Madelon , Vermote Branko , von Bormann Suparpit M. , Wajanatinpart Piyaorn , Waterschoot Joachim , Wylie Keith , Chartier Christopher R. , Mallik Peter Robert , Urry Heather L. , Buchanan Erin Michelle , Coles Nicholas Alvaro , Basnight-Brown Dana , Moshontz Hannah , Miller Jeremy K. , Zrimsek Miha , Jang Yuna , Jiang Xiaoming , Du Yinkai , DePaola Chloe , Kovic Vanja , Machin Tony , Houston Ralph , Paltrow Tamar , Rahman Tasnim , Schulenberg Stefan E. , Akter Shahunur , Vračar Selena , Tshonda Sarah Suzette , Onie Sandersan , Lins Samuel Lincoln Bezerra , Biberauer Theresa , s.fmodares@yahoo.com  , Habte Redeate , Maturan Princess Lovella Gonzales , Paris Bastien , Parashar Neha , Kiselnikova Natalya , Levy Neil L , van Antwerpen Natasha , Nadif Khaoula , Kurfalı Murathan , Kabir Muhib , Muda Rafal , Rentzelas Panagiotis , Vansteenkiste Maarten , Metz Molly A. , Westerlund Minja , Bialek Michal , Kurfali Merve A. , Forscher Patrick S. , hatami Javad , IJzerman Hans , Barkoukis Vassilis , CHARYATE Abdelilah , Colloff Melissa Fay , Lazarevic Ljiljana , Primbs Maximilian 
Published: May 2021

Finding communication strategies that effectively motivate social distancing continues to be a global public health priority during the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-country, preregistered experiment (n = 25,718 from 89 countries) tested hypotheses concerning generalizable positive and negative outcomes of social distancing messages that promoted personal agency and reflective choices (i.e., an autonomy-supportive message) or were restrictive and shaming (i.e. a controlling message) compared to no message at all. Results partially supported experimental hypotheses in that the controlling message increased controlled motivation (a poorly-internalized form of motivation relying on shame, guilt, and fear of social consequences) relative to no message. On the other hand, the autonomy-supportive message lowered feelings of defiance compared to the controlling message, but the controlling message did not differ from receiving no message at all. Unexpectedly, messages did not influence autonomous motivation (a highly-internalized form of motivation relying on one’s core values) or behavioral intentions. Results supported hypothesized associations between people’s existing autonomous and controlled motivations and self-reported behavioral intentions to engage in social distancing: Controlled motivation was associated with more defiance and less long-term behavioral intentions to engage in social distancing, whereas autonomous motivation was associated with less defiance and more short- and long-term intentions to social distance. Overall, this work highlights the potential harm of using shaming and pressuring language in public health communication, with implications for the current and future global health challenges.