bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Syntheses of Novel 3‐Amino‐2(1H)‐thioxo‐4(3H)‐quinazolinones and Evaluation of Their Immunotropic Activity. Part III
Authors: Nawrocka Wanda , Zimecki Michal
Published: October 2006

The synthesis of two series of derivatives containing the quinazolinone‐4 moiety is described. 3‐Amino‐2(1H)‐thioxo‐4(3H)‐quinazolinone (1) was subjected to reactions with halogenoketones and halogenoaldehydes, leading to the production of the corresponding ketones, aldehydes, Schiff bases, and 6‐oxo‐1,4,5‐thiadiazin[2,3‐b]quinazoline derivatives. Subsequently, 1 was condensed with selected α,β‐unsaturated carbonyl compounds, aldehydes, ketones, acid chlorides, and esters. The compounds were tested for their potential activity in a model of humoral and cellular immune response. The tests showed that the compounds exhibited differential immunotropic activities. Of particular interest is compound 19, exhibiting a strong stimulatory activity with regard to cellular immune response and compound 16 exerting a strong inhibitory action in both types of the immune response.
Über die Geburtswehen einer quantifizierenden Ökologie — der Streit um die Kieler Planktonexpedition von 1889
Authors: Breidbach Olaf
Published: October 2006

In 1889 the Kiel plancton expedition started to perform the first quantitative analysis in marine ecology. The methods performed by this expedition caused an extensive discussion about the suitability of quantitative methods in a study of biological organizations. This discussion outlined the theoretical differences between the two main German schools in zoology: the descriptive morphology as performed by Ernst Haeckel and the analytical physiology as initiated by Emil DuBois‐Reymond. The present study describes the positions of both, the morphology and the physiology, one the one hand, to analyze the theoretical background of the new formed ecological science, and on the other hand, to outline some aspects of the principal situation of the German biology in the late 19th century. These more principal aspects are so more of interest as the discussion initiated by the Kiel plancton expedition extended to a controversy about the theoretical value of the theory of evolution. Implications for the theoretical basis of recent ecology are discussed.
De piscibus et aquatilibus libelli III novi (Zürich 1556) Ein bisher unbeachtetes zoologisches Werk von Conrad Gesner
Authors: Bäumer Änne
Published: October 2006

Conrad Gesner was one of the main representatives of Renaissance‐Humanism. Although having great respect for the knowledge handed down by classical antiquity, he combined his studies of the ancient authors with empirical knowledge obtained by immediate observation of nature. His most famous work was the great „Historia animalium”︁, a comprehense encyclopedia of zoology. Preparing this main zoological work Gesner wrote a small book about fishes „De piscibus et aquatilibus libri III novi”︁ (1556), through which it is possible to gain a deep insight into Gesner's preparatory work and method.
Zwischen Wirtschaft und Wissenschaft — die deutsche Schutzgebiets‐Botanik
Authors: Zepernick Bernhard
Published: October 2006

After the German Empire was founded in 1871 and, in the following years, had obtained colonies an intensive exploration of these territories began. This fact had two reasons: firstly the government as well as business circles were interested in the results of the research and secondly the development of these territories facilitated essentially the exploration of the flora and vegetation and the research in cultivated plants. The impulse for the research came partly from the government, partly from business circles, partly from scientific societies or from individuals. As a governmental institution the Botanical Research Centre for the German Colonies (Botanische Zentralstelle für die deutschen Kolonien) and as an economic institution the Colonial Economic Committee (Kolonial‐Wirtschaftliches Komitee) were founded in Berlin. Governmental botanical research institutes were founded in the colonies, especially the Research Institute for Land Improvement (Versuchsanstalt für Landeskultur) at Victoria (the Cameroons) and the Biological Agricultural Institute (Biologisch‐Landwirtschaftliches Institut) at Amani (German East Africa). At the end of World War I Germany had lost its colonies. But nevertheless Germans still take part in the botanical exploration of the former colonial territories and in the international efforts at protection of its plant world.
Hahn und Meitner, Merton und Matthäus. Zur Namengebung einer deutschen Großforschungseinrichtung
Authors: Weiss Burghard
Published: October 2006

In December 1956, the building of the former Kaiser‐Wilhelm‐Institute for Chemistry in Berlin‐Dahlem where Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann had discovered nuclear fission in 1938 was namedOtto‐Hahn‐Bau der Freien Universität. Simultaneously a bronze plate commemorating the discovery of fission was unveiled. The idea to honour Hahn at the place of his discovery originated from Max von Laue who had come back to Berlin in 1951 to take up directorship of the Kaiser‐Wilhelm‐Institute for Physical Chemistry (nowFritz‐Haber‐Institut). By drawing upon the Laue Papers now in the Archives of the Max Planck Society it is shown that the Hahn ceremony was intended as a political demonstration to foster nuclear research in the western sectors of Berlin where — differing from the Federal Republic of Germany — allied research restrictions were kept in force. Laue's plan for the Hahn ceremony was vigourosly supported by a group of Berlin university professors. Eager to participate in funds provided by the Federal Ministry for Atomic Affairs in 1955 they had composed a memorandum calling for financial support of nuclear research in universities and demanding the foundation of a central research institute disposing of a nuclear reactor. A ceremony recollecting that it was Berlin where nuclear research had originated seemed instrumental. The name of Hahn stood for an academic tradition seemingly uncompromised by nationalsocialism. But Laue's intention to gain greatest publicity possible met the opposition of Hahn and Lise Meitner who had been assigned by Laue to hold the commemorative lecture. The ceremony had to be reduced in scale. Protests which arose about not including Lise Meitner into the honour were met by awarding her an honorary degree of the Free University in 1957 and by joining her name to Hahn's in naming the newly founded nuclear research instituteHahn‐Meitner‐Institut für Kernforschung Berlinin 1959. This case study illustrates the fact already emphasized by Robert K. Merton that scientific honours more than once do not have their ends in themselves but are serving certain needs and purposes of the scientific community.
Körpergefühl und Raumvorstellung: Leonardo und Descartes
Authors: Putscher Marielene
Published: October 2006

“Experience and the conception of the world in science in transition to modern times” is the general subject. There are two different points to be made clear, i.e.

1. That the conception of the world had to be made imaginable by art before it could be taken over by science. The central perspective dates back to about three centuries before the time Descartes developed the co‐ordinate system.

2. Furthermore it should be taken into account that it was first of all due to the lead of the painters (especially in the Italy of the Quattrocento’) that the possibility of making experiences had changed. In a space opened by a perspective view and seemingly thus appearing as measurable even the painted figures acquire a new reality. Due to his anatomic studies Leonardo could treat the natural movement of the figures shown in his paintings.

It was the artists who first of all investigated optics and anatomy before relations could be measured with the aid of scientific methods ami before quantities — instead of qualities — could become the base of unbiased science, as called for by Galilei in 1623.
Die Pansophie des Comenius und der Baconismus der Royal Society
Authors: Schaller Klaus
Published: October 2006

The specific comprehension of the subject of the modern times in the 17th century articulates itself in the pretension to be the master of the world of nature and human beings. This pretension, however, was not longer legitimated in a theological or biblical argumentation, but with the philosophical hint on a special qualification of the human being: knowledge and science. In this view, the philosophical reflections of Francis Bacon of Verulam, which were culminating in the well‐known judgement of the coincidence of knowledge and power, became the very important philosophy of science of the most prominent academy of sciences in the 17th century: The Royal Society of London. This “Baconism” distincted himself strictly from all questions belonging to religion, politics, social or moral problems. This distinction was the reason for its opposition to the “Pansophie” of Johann Amos Comenius, whose main intention was the general reformation of the whole world, including a reform of science, religion and politics. The insistence of Comenius for the social responsibility of science is still up‐to‐date.
Anfänge von Wissenschaft im Kontext der frühmesopotamischen ‘städtischen Revolution’
Authors: Høyrup Jens
Published: October 2006

A theme like “town and science” invites to comparative analysis, and suggests questions like these: Is the urban context a particularly fertile soil for the development of scientific thinking? Or rather the contrary? Is it fertile or barren under specific circumstances? Or does it favour a particular kind of scientific activity?

General answers to such questions can hardly be found; still, they may provide case studies with a guiding perspective. Case studies, on the other hand, may lead to better understanding of the implications of the general questions if not to answers. In the following I therefore try to read the emergence of Mesopotamian mathematics into the context of the “urban revolution” and the rise of states (c. 3300 to c. 2300 B.C.).

Mesopotamian city states appeared in the late fourth millennium B.C., and were eventually absorbed in larger territorial states a thousand years later. Contemporary with the incipient state formation was the creation of a script and of genuine, coherent mathematics. Both were based on earlier accounting techniques, both were used by Temple officials for administrative purposes, and both were marked decisively by this application. At the same time, both presuppose modes of thought which are not produced directly by their application but only as mediated by a school system.

In the mid‐third millennium, an autonomous scribal profession appears for the first time. At the same time emerge the first literary texts and the first “pure” mathematical problems (i.e., problems not directed at or following the pattern of genuine application). It seems as if the scribes, as soon as they were emancipated as a craft, tried out the range of their professional tools.

Neither the use of writing for literary purposes nor the possibility to use numbers for “higher” computation were forgotten when the city states were absorbed in larger social systems. Both, however, were subsumed by the interest of the new territorial state, the former as a means to propagate royal ideology, the latter in the royal administration.

The final section of the article compares this early Mesopotamian development with other instances of the “urban revolution” and with the development of scientific thought in the Ancient Greek city state and in the context of Medieval city communes.
Kleinstadt und Bibliothek in der Frühmoderne. Zu Genese und Struktur der Ratsbibliothek der fränkischen Reichsstadt Weißenburg
Authors: Müller Rainer A.
Published: October 2006

Small town and library in early modern times: Even small German imperial towns in particular were unable to conduct their daily business without maintaining a library with a wide range of excellent and usefull books suitable for employment by the judiciary, the administration, the health‐care services, the church and school system as well as for supporting the interests of the town effectively. It is clear that the municipial council placed high value on the acquisition of the most important works in the field of law, theology and literature treated in school considering the relatively rational manner in which the “Ratsbibliothek” (library of the council) of the imperial town of Weißenburg (Bavaria) took stock of its books in the early modern times (16th to 18th century): this can be seen in the contemporary cataloguing (1600/1745/1829) of the library. Since the library orientated itself pragmatically towards the administrative interests of the town, there was hardly any inclination towards the acquisition of works in the fields of philosophy or poetry. — This study is based on the first edition of the “Beringer‐catalogue” included (1600).
Das Denken über die Großstadt um 1900 Deutsche Stellungnahmen zum urbanen Lebensraum im internationalen Vergleich
Authors: Lees Andrew
Published: October 2006

This essay treats perceptions of urban society by scholars in Europe and America during the years just before and after 1900. It focuses on a series of lectures held in Dresden in connection with a major exhibition on cities and published in 1903 under the title Die Großstadt: Vorträge und Aufsätze zur Städteausstellung, but it also points out the ways in which the ideas expressed in Dresden reflected broader intellectual trends elsewhere. It also emphasizes German acceptance of the big city and willingness to seek forward‐looking solutions for urban problems.
“Mehr Licht, mehr Luft” — wissenschaftliche Hygiene und Stadtentwicklung in Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert
Authors: Rodenstein Marianne , Rodenstein Marianne
Published: October 2006

Since 1870 a group of planners tried to ground urban planning scientifically in economy, engineering and hygiene. It is argued that hygiene as a newly developed natural science provided planners with a lot of good arguments to legitimize a change in the traditional urban planning regulations. These had not been able to prevent the chaotic growth of big cities that resulted in a housing misery, in large block of flats, and in noisy and smelling factories neighboring better class housing.

Hygienic reasoning concerned with sunlight (because of its germ killing capacity), air, and ventilation (to drive away miasma) was transformed into urban planning and, than, stood for lesser hight of buildings, more space between large blocks of flats, and different parts of town for industry and housing. Planning regulations with these ends were often opposed by owners who did not accept the devaluation of their property. Therefore it was not before 1918 that these hygienically motivated planning regulations could be set into practice by a new ruling class.
Kommunalisierung als moderne Antwort auf Durchstaatlichung?. Städtische Hochschulgründungen im späten Kaiserreich: Das Beispiel Frankfurt am Main
Authors: Bruch Rüdiger Vom
Published: October 2006

In the crisis of the modern German “Humboldt‐Universität” within the industrial society some university foundations of the Kaiserreich effected basical reforms. The “Reichsuniversität” Straßburg (1872) influenced the future centralized state university policy in Prussia, according to the “System Althoff”, whereas the local foundation of the University of Frankfurt/Main in 1914 realized the decentral promotion of sciences by the citizens. Jewish donations and interests in making a career, successfully united with middle class social reformers and with massive local interests in founding a university, which based on an already existing, most differenciated scientific infrastructure. The Frankfurt model realized in an excellent manner a schedule of science in and for the city of Frankfurt, the impact of which was a stimulating intellectual climate and an important part of the renovation of the German universities.
Deutsch‐italienische Wissenschaftsbeziehungen im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert — Dimensionen und Perspektiven
Authors: Von Engelhardt Dietrich
Published: October 2006

The scientific interrelationships between Italy and Germany in the 18th and 19th centuries — a hitherto neglected area of research — are discussed in an overview according to the following ten dimensions: language knowledge and translations; reviews and bibliographies; library content; personal contents and correspondance; travel reports and travel guides; diaries and autobiographies; university studies and research sojourns; membership in academies and scientific societies; practical and theoretical resonance; comparisons to other countries. This approach, which has to be concretized in future studies, promises at the same time general insights into the logic of science and its progress.
Venedig und die Wissenschaftssprachen. (30. Symposium der Gesellschaft für Wissenschaftsgeschichte im Deutschen Studienzentrum in Venedig, 20.‐23. Mai 1993)
Authors: Bergdolt Klaus
Published: October 2006

Languages of science, the idioms of learning and teaching, depend on intellectual trends and cultural developments. Their characteristic adaptation and transformation was particularly evident in the Venetian history of mind which influenced — comparable to the humanist circles of Florence and Rome — wide parts of Europe. In the 12th century James of Venice translated Aristotle directly from the Greek originals, thus forming a new scholastic idiom, whereas — in the 14th century — Petrarch attacked the lingua franca of the scholastic researchers, stressing the importance of poetic and rhetoric elements. Scholastic and humanistic languages were regarded as irreconcilable. In the 15th century an approach was enabled by Bessarion and Ermolao Barbaro who accepted Aristotle and natural sciences as humanistic topics. Around 1500 the famous Venetian printing offices spread the specific idioms of science and researching in the European countries.
Die Einheit der Wissenschaftssprache. Einige wissenschaftstheoretische und wissenschaftshistorische Anmerkungen
Authors: Mittelstraß Jürgen
Published: October 2006

Among those conceptions of the history of science which deal with the formation of theories is the concept of the unity of science. This unity is in turn based on the unity of scientific method, the unity of scientific laws and the unity of the language of science. After a systematic explication of modern approaches, historical conceptions of the unity of the language of science are described and analyzed. To these belong first of all the idea of a mathesis universalis and the so called Leibniz program, which leads to the architecture of a Leibniz world.
Die Beschreibung, Erfassung und Deutung des Fremden in der Sprache des Rechts
Authors: Troje Hans Erich
Published: October 2006

The article has three parts. In the first part (A) the author presents three texts from very different times. In the second (B) he develops the analytical differentiation between three grades of strangeness, firstly the friendly strange(r), secondly the hostile strange(r) and thirdly the absolute strange(r). In the third part (C) a general set of techniques of description, comprehension and interpretation of the strange(r) in the language of law is given, and secondly a set of some other techniques specific to the three grades of strangeness is proposed.
Der Kampf gegen den „Schwarzen Tod”︁. Quarantäne und Epidemiebekämpfung der frühen Neuzeit im Mittelmeer aufgezeigt am Beispiel Maltas
Authors: Freller Thomas
Published: October 2006

During early modern period Mediterranean people feared epidemics far more than war and other destructive activities. Where epidemics, especially the plague, struck, all communications broke down and trade just withered away. With the coming of the Knights of St. John in 1530 the Maltese Islands became increasingly important as an international boarding place in the very center of the Mediterranean. Soon the maritime development of the Order's State was enhanced by the high regard in which the Maltese Quarantine System was held by European countries in the 17th and 18th century. The aetiology of plague was then unknown and the restrictive measures adopted by the Maltese Quarantine System too were in accordance with the approved epidemiological practices and theories of the time. This article tries to single out the importance of the Maltese Quarantine as a kind of medical “shield” for the southern European countries.
Das Arabische als Vermittler und Anreger europäischer Wissenschaftssprache
Authors: Kunitzsch Paul
Published: October 2006

The role played by the ‘Arabs’, i. e. the peoples of Arabic‐Islamic civilization, in the transmission and development of the sciences — from Antiquity and into medieval Europe — is well known. In the present contribution it is discussed in which way the ‘Arabs’ formed their own scientific terminology and in which way they contributed to the formation and development of the Western, European scientific terminology. In the translations of scientific works from Arabic into Latin in the middle ages, mainly four ways of rendering the Arabic terminology are observed: simple transliteration; modified Latinized transliteration; literal translation; and free rendering by newly formed or inherited Latin or Greek terms. In the course of time, transliterated Arabic terms were more and more suppressed — though many of them live on among us until today — and supplied by corresponding Western terminology.
Überlieferungs‐ und Verständnisprobleme im medizinischen Latein des frühen Mittelalters
Authors: Fischer Klaus‐Dietrich
Published: October 2006

In most instances, knowledge is passed on through the medium of language. The author tries to demonstrate to what extent the Latin present in early medieval Latin medical treatises failed to fulfill its role as an efficient medium of communication, which factors may account for this failure and how scholars in the middle ages strove to restore sense in texts in various stages of corruption, an attempt that was bound to be unsuccessful in many cases owing to a lack of reliable dictionaries.
Isolde Hausser (7. 12. 1889‐5. 10. 1951), Technische Physikerin und Wissenschaftlerin am Kaiser‐Wilhelm‐/Max‐Planck‐Institut für Medizinische Forschung, Heidelberg
Authors: Fuchs Margot
Published: October 2006

Historical sociobiographic accounts on members of the scientific and technical professions in the years of the Weimar Republic and after, are as yet scarce. This applies notably to women in the scientific community. Having formally been admitted to academic studies at German Universities only in 1908, their claims of wanting to apply their newly gained knowledge and to pursue academic careers were still not unquestioned by society. The social and cognitive integration of “the female” in male dominated science organisation, especially in the natural sciences and their kin fields in industry, remains problematic to‐day.

Isolde Hausser, daughter of the ambitious but little succesful inventor‐entrepreneur Hermann Ganswindt, took her doctoral degree in physics at Berlin University in 1914, then worked as head of a group at a “Telefunken” laboratory for vacuum tubes till 1929, before she became research scientist at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg. There she worked on photoerythemaes and the formation of pigment and discovered the specific action of longwave ultraviolet. She contributed important results to our knowledge on the constitution and the behaviour of organic compounds by modern physical methods. She died of cancer on 5th October, 1951.
Galilei als Methodologe
Authors: Mittelstraß Jürgen
Published: October 2006

Galileo did not develop a systematic methodology but rather a methodical form which represents an essential part of the development of modern scientific thought. Keywords to the methodical form of Galileo's thought are: 1) The geometrization of the sciences (‘mathematization of nature’) ‐ this refers especially to the explication of the methodological priority of a theory of measurement. 2) Argomento ex suppositione, that is, the coupling of the originally proof‐theoretical distinction between analysis and synthesis to elements of a methodology of empirical science. 3) The axiomatic structure of mechanics that corresponds to the modern semantic theory conception and to constructivist conceptions of the philosophy of science. 4) A constructive (or instrumental) concept of experience, which replaces the Aristotelian concept of a phenomenal experience in the construction of physics.
Genetic toxicology studies using saccharomyces cerevisiae
Authors: Zimmermann F. K. , Mayer V. W. , Parry J. M.
Published: October 2006

The use of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae in genetic toxicology testing is discussed. The biology of this unicellular eukaryote allows the study of genetic effects in haploid and diploid cells, and in mitotic as well as meiotic cultures. It is at present a prime organism for the study of eukaryotic molecular genetics and cell biology. The genetic system has been thoroughly analysed, and many different types of genetic end points can be studied by using genetically well‐defined but simple tests. Induction of point mutation has been investigated in a number of strains, both in forward and selective reverse mutation assays. One of the most frequently studied genetic effects has been the induction of mitotic recombination. This test has shown a good response to many mutagens and carcinogens, and must be considered as a repair test since mitotic recombination is inducible by damage inflicted upon the genetic nuclear material. There are basically two types of mitotic recombination. At the intragenic level, recombination between different mutational alterations within the same gene can conveniently be studied by using selective techniques; it is due principally to the occurrence of non‐reciprocal recombination between the two mutation sites and is now called mitotic gene conversion. Another type of mitotic recombination is the classical type of reciprocal crossing‐over. Even though testing by using mitotic crossing‐over and associated processes (cumulatively called mitotic segregation) has been based on non‐selective techniques, there is a considerable volume of testing data. Tests for chromosomal malsegregation leading to aneuploidy are now available, but the number of agents tested is still small. Various important and critical aspects of using different yeast systems are discussed. Metabolic activation in yeast is provided by endogeneous P450 systems, but exogenous activation of various kinds, including that available in host mediated assays, has successfully been used.
Action of a non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drug on gastric mucosa of rats
Authors: Sánchez R. H. , Mucignat M. T. , Salseduc M. M.
Published: October 2006

The simultaneous anti‐inflammatory and ulcerogenic action of non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs is already well known. The present study was carried out to evaluate the possible effect of talniflumate on the gastric system. Different tests and animal models were used. These included the action on normal and pre‐stressed rats, and, in addition, on animals with experimental ulcers or with increased gastric sensitivity through an aggressive factor. In tolerance tests, with or without stress, the lesion index observed with talniflumate was significantly lower as compared with other compounds. Under simultaneous action of an aggressive agent, talniflumate does not differ from saline solution, used as control. The well defined gastric damage (ulceration and hemorrhage) associated with non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs was not observed in talniflumate treatments, while pharmacological effect was conserved.
Effects of polchlorinated paraffins on hepatic, renal and intestinal biotransformation rates in comparison to the effects of polychlorinated biphenyls and naphthalenes
Authors: Ahotupa Markku , Hietanen Eino , Mäntylä Eero , Vainio Harri
Published: October 2006

Polychlorinated paraffins (PCPs), biphenyls (PCBs) and naphthalenes (PCNs) were compared as inducers of drug‐metabolizing enzymes in different rat tissues. Two different chain lengths (C11 or C20) and chlorination degrees (40 or 70% chlorine) of PCPs, two preparations of PCNs (50–70% chlorine), and one PCB preparation (54% chlorine) were used. The compounds were administered intraperitoneally to rats, and the activities of various drug‐metabolizing enzymes were analysed in hepatic and renal microsomes and in the post‐mitochondrial supernatant of the small intestinal mucosa. PCB and PCNs were potent inducers of both hepatic and renal drug‐metabolizing enzyme activities, whereas PCPs produced only minor changes in these activities. When compared with each other, PCNs were somewhat stronger inducers than PCB. The enhancement of enzyme activities in the liver was different from that of the kidney. The maximal induction of aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase was 4.8‐fold in the liver and 7.2‐fold in the kidney, that of ethoxy‐coumarin deethylase 12‐fold in the liver and 53‐fold in the kidney, while the activity of UDP glucuronosyl‐transferase was increased only in the liver (maximally 4.5‐fold). In small intestinal mucosa, there were only moderate changes in the activities of drug‐metabolizing enzymes.
The hazards of cadmium in man and animals
Authors: Winter Hans
Published: October 2006

The health hazards of cadmium have attracted increased attention since the rock‐soil‐plant‐animal‐man relationship became better known, and when it was realized that low doses are cumulative over a very long time and that increasing industrial pollution may endanger the general population. Major sources are mining and smelting, metal coating, welding, incineration of refuse, fossil fuels and use of sewage sludge as fertilizer. Intoxication usually results from ingestion or inhalation, but the pathogenesis is not well understood. With chronic intoxication, the critical organ is the kidney, where one third of the body cadmium may accumulate. Apart from diseases so far recognized in man, a large number of pathological conditions have been produced in experimental animals, including congenital abnormalities, ovarian, testicular and brain lesions, as well as interference with the immune system. Their full significance for man is not yet known. Cadmium plays no useful role in the organism and its intake should be limited as much as possible, although being ubiquitous it cannot be completely eliminated. Legislation for maximum permissible levels in different food items was attempted, but is not workable and is not in the best interest of the consumer. Instead, the whole food basket of the consumer should be monitored to limit weekly intake to prescribed levels. In addition, hygienic measures should be encouraged, including cleaning, peeling or blanching of fruit and vegetables, removal of outer leaves of cabbage and lettuce to eliminate the effects of aerial pollution, discretion in using sewage sludge as fertilizer, washing hands and possibly avoiding excessive consumption of kidneys and livers.
Heavy metals in Tasmanian shellfish 1 — monitoring heavy metal contamination in the Derwent estuary: Use of oysters and mussels
Authors: Cooper R. J. , Langlois D. , Olley June
Published: October 2006

The contamination of an estuary with heavy metals by a single large ore processing plant provided a unique opportunity to assess the use of mussels and oysters as indicators of heavy metal contamination. Field accumulation and depuration experiments, variation of metal content with size and prediction of water movements are described from shellfish surveys covering the Derwent River and adjacent coastal waters. Oysters were found to be suitable for monitoring zinc, cadmium, lead and copper contamination. Mussels were also suitable for monitoring zinc, cadmium and lead, but in this instance were found unsuitable for monitoring copper as the surveys indicate that copper accumulation is suppressed in mussels in a contaminated environment. The rate of accumulation and depuration of metals by oysters and mussels in field trials has been related to the anatomy of the animals and the sequestering of some metals in granulocytes. Uneven metal distribution between gonad and other tissues has been found to cause seasonal variation of heavy metals in oysters.
Origin of mutagenicity of welding fumes in S. typhimurium
Authors: Stern R. M. , Thomsen E. , Anderson M. , Kiel P. , Larsen H.
Published: October 2006

The origin of mutagenicity in S. typhimurium in response to exposure to welding fumes, a complex mixture of metallic oxides and other inorganic compounds, was studied through the quantitative use of the histidine revertant Salmonella microsome test of Ames. Dose‐response experiments and factorial design studies independently showed the mutagenic activity to be due to the presence of soluble Cr(VI). A rate of 65 ± 15 revertants per plate per μg Cr(VI) was found for all fumes produced by the metal inert gas welding of stainless steel. A significantly reduced rate was found for manual metal arc welding fumes. The presence of other metals in low oxidation states (e.g. Fe(0), Fe(II), Al(0)), results in a significant reduction of the Cr(VI), accompanied by a corresponding decrease of the absolute revertant rate per unit fume mass.
Toxicity of alcide
Authors: Abdel‐Rahman Mohamed S. , Gerges Sammy E. , Alliger Howard
Published: October 2006

Alcide is now used as a liquid sterilizer in an ultrasonic cleaner. It is excellent for herpes, fungus of the fingernail, warts and treatment of burn infection. The active ingredients (AI's) in this compound are sodium chlorite (ClO2−) and lactic acid. Studies were conducted to determine the toxicity of Alcide in its liquid and gel forms. The oral lethal doses after 14 days (LD50) in female and male rats were 340 and 292 mg kg−1 (AI), respectively. No mortality occurred during the acute dermal toxicity study. The ocular irritation study in rabbits indicated redness in the conjunctivae within 1 h which became normal after 24 h. The cornea and iris remained without changes during the observation period. The guinea pig sensitization study revealed the occurrence of reversible necrosis after 3 days. On day 11, healing began and was completed by day 15 after the intradermal injection. No significant changes were observed in red blood cell compartments, glutathione levels, hemolysis, methemoglobin and blood chemistry in rabbits treated daily with 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 (gm kg−1) Alcide for 1 month using intact and abraded skin.
Comparison of toxic and transforming effects of ten environment‐related polycyclic hydrocarbons, including benzo [a] pyrene, on Fetal Hamster Lung Cell Cultures
Authors: Emura M. , Richter‐Reichhelm H.‐B. , Schneider P. , Schoch C. , Mohr U.
Published: October 2006

Standardized procedures were developed to compare quantitatively the toxic and transforming effects of ten environment‐related polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's) using early passage mixed cultures of fetal Syrian golden hamster lung cells. Evaluation of toxicity was attempted by applying a linear regression to the relative number of surviving colonies. Transformation data were fitted satisfactorily to the one‐hit model. Used as a monitor compound in each subexperiment, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) showed dose‐related colony reduction (0.01–0.5 μg ml−1). Benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), indeno[1,2,3‐cd]pyrene (IcdP), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF) and benzo[e]pyrene (BeP) were generally colony enhancing at dose ranges up to 1.0 μg ml−1. Fluoranthene (FLT), pyrene (PYR), chrysene (CHR), benzo[ghi]perylene (BghiPL) and benz[a]anthracene (BaA) were neither stimulatory nor inhibitory to colony formation. For transformation induction, BaP was over 14‐fold more effective than BbF, IcdP or BaA. The other PAH's showed no transformation.
Relationship between solubility and hemolytic effects of toxic dusts
Authors: Singh S. V. , Das Ballabh , Rahman Qamar
Published: October 2006

Two varieties of native and chemically treated slate dust were tested in vitro for their hemolytic effects and the extent of silicic acid dissolution in various physiological fluids. The extent of hemolysis was found to be proportional to the degree of dissolution of dust constituents. Membrane lysis by the dust appeared to be prevented by coating it with polyvinyl pyrrolidone, serum proteins and pulmonary lavage lipids. The significance of the findings is discussed.
Initiation/promotion studies with coal‐derived liquids
Authors: Mahlum D. Dennis
Published: October 2006

Fractions derived from solvent‐refined coal‐II (SRC‐II) heavy distillate (HD) were tested for their skin tumor initiating activity. Basic (BF), basic tar (BTF), neutral tar (NTF) and polynuclear aromatic (PNA) fractions were prepared from HD by solvent extraction. These fractions were tested for their initiating activities by applying a single dose to the shaved back of male, CD‐1 mice (Charles River, Portage, MI). Positive control groups were initiated with either dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) or benzo[a]pyrene (BaP). Two weeks after initiation, all mice received twice weekly applications of 5 μg of phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) for a period of 24 weeks. Papillomas were noted and recorded for each animal at the time of PMA application. Heavy distillate and its fractions all showed initiating activity. However, the incidence of mice with tumors, the rate of tumor appearance and the total number of tumors varied with the test material. The tumor responses after initiation with HD, NTF and BTF were similar to that found with BaP, but lower than that with DMBA. Somewhat lower activity was found for BF and PNA. Even lower activity was found with a distillate boiling from 800 to 850°F and no activity was found with a 300 to 700°F distillate. These data are in general agreement with the results of long‐term, skin painting assays, suggesting that initiation/promotion (I/P) may be useful for studying the tumorigenicity of coal‐derived materials.
Pharmacokinetics of methylmercury in sheep
Authors: Kostyniak Paul J.
Published: October 2006

A preliminary study of the pharmacokinetics of methylmercury was performed in sheep after a single intravenous dose of 203 Hg‐labeled methylmercury. Blood samples were taken periodically, and plasma and whole blood 203Hg were determined. Blood and plasma 203Hg concentrations exhibited a biphasic exponential decline. The half‐time for the major component was 14.6 days for plasma 203Hg and 14.1 days for whole blood. There was a uniform distribution of 203 Hg between red cells and plasma throughout the study. A red cell to plasma concentration ratio of 14.9:1 was obtained, with approximately 88% of the 203 Hg in blood associated with the red cell fraction. Both the feces and the wool represented major routes of excretion. Approximately 18% of the dose was present in the wool taken on day 8. This is compared with a total excretion in the feces of 11.5% of the dose over the same time course. The total of 29.5% compares favorably with a reduction of 32.5% in the terminal component of the whole blood curve. Sequential analysis of wool from the root end revealed increasing concentrations of 203 Hg to a peak. Using the first appearance of the 203 Hg label in the wool as a marker to determine the wool growth rate, the 203 Hg in wool shewed an exponential decline with a half‐time similar to that seen for whole blood and plasma. The wool to blood ratio was estimated to be approximately 120:1. Tissue analysis at sacrifice revealed a rather uniform distribution of 203 Hg label in the brain. Somewhat lower levels were observed in the spinal cord and ganglia. Kidney had the highest 203 Hg concentration, and edible muscle had approximately six times the concentration measured in blood. The concentration of 203 Hg was three times higher in bile than in plasma, consistent with the substantial fecal excretion observed. The sheep may be a useful animal model for studying regional deposition of methylmercury in the CNS and mechanisms of methylmercury deposition into hair.
Enhanced intestinal excretion of hexachlorobenzene in rats by intraluminal injection of hexadecane
Authors: Rozman K. , Rozman T. , Greim H.
Published: October 2006

The effect of hexadecane on the intestinal excretion of hexachlorobenzene was studied in female Sprague‐Dawley rats dosed twice with 14C‐hexachlorobenzene at 50 mg kg−1 per os. Injection of 75 mg n‐hexadecane into ligated and unligated segments of the intestine increased concentrations of hexachlorobenzene in intestinal contents by about two‐ or three‐fold in jejunal and ileal segments, and about two‐fold in the cecal—colon segment. The jejunum appeared to be the site of greatest excretion of hexachlorobenzene, followed by the ileum, the cecum and the colon. This order is opposite to our previous data from animals with an undisturbed intestinal passage. The apparently greater excretion of hexachlorobenzene into the small intestine is probably due to its much larger surface area than that of the large intestine. However, the residency time of luminal contents in the large intestine normally exceeds that in the small intestine by about 20–40‐fold, which apparently more than compensates for the difference in relative surface area between small and large intestine. Thus, residency time appears to be a more important factor than surface area in determining the intestinal elimination of hexachlorobenzene. These results with hexachlorobenzene are probably typical of physiological disposition of lipophilic halogenated hydrocarbons generally.
Review of the health effects of methylmercury
Authors: Inskip M. J. , Piotrowski J. K.
Published: October 2006

The study critically reviews recent data relating to the health effects of methylmercury in man and the attendant dose‐response relationships. New data obtained from animal studies, including pre‐ and postnatal exposure, are also examined. The consumption of fish and fish produce represents the major source of methylmercury exposure in the general population. Reported mercury concentrations in fish throughout the world are examined, particularly in the Mediterranean Sea. Here there is limited knowledge of methylmercury intake in critically exposed populations such as fishermen, employees of the fish industries and their families. The measurement of mercury in hair is now regarded as the most useful indicator of exposure but more experimental data are still required to increase the value of this index. The threshold levels of methylmercury in blood, hair and for dietary intake, as estimated by the World Health Organization, have been largely endorsed. However, new information from Japan and Canada suggests the existence of a latency period for some effects, so that the frequency or probability of their occurrence is inversely related to the duration of exposure. Incorporation of such findings would therefore lead to the designation of lower threshold values than are presently recognized. Pregnant women and the fetus have been identified as groups that are at special risk. The fetal blood mercury level is up to twice that of the mother and the sensitivity of both mother and fetus may be higher than in non‐pregnant adults. This should be taken into account when assigning protective threshold concentrations.
Subchronic toxicology of butyl nitrites in mice by inhalation
Authors: McFadden David P. , Maickel Roger P.
Published: October 2006

Mice were exposed by inhalation to n‐butyl, iso‐butyl sec‐butyl or tert‐butyl nitrite in a dynamic airflow chamber 7 h per day for 60 days at concentrations that caused less than 20% fatalities. Under these conditions, body‐weight gain was depressed over the first 30 days by all four compounds, but returned to normal over the final 30 days for all compounds except tert‐butyl nitrite. Spleen weights were increased by all four butyl nitrites, and lung weights were increased by all except sec‐butyl nitrite. Kidney weights were increased by iso‐butyl and sec‐butyl nitrites, but decreased by the tert‐butyl compound. Liver weights were increased by iso‐butyl nitrite exposure and decreased by tert‐butyl nitrite exposure. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that a significant aspect of butyl nitrite toxicity is due to the resultant methemoglobinemia.
Alveolar permeability to protein in rats differentially susceptible to ozone
Authors: Costa D. L. , Schafrank S. N. , Wehner R. W. , Jellett E.
Published: October 2006

Sprague‐Dawley rats susceptible (DS) to NaCl‐induced hypertension suffer higher mortality when exposed daily to 2.0 ppm ozone than do hypertension‐resistant (DR) rats, independent of salt in the diet or systemic blood pressure. To investigate one possible contribution to this differential sensitivity to ozone, alveolar permeabilities to serum albumin were measured both in ozone‐exposed and in control DS and DR rats. Female rats aged 5–7 weeks maintained on a low‐salt (0.4% NaCl) diet were injected intravenously with 125I‐bovine serum albumin and were then exposed to either 2.0 ppm ozone or air for 5 h. After pentobarbital anesthesia, the rats were exsanguinated and their lungs were lavaged in situ with saline. Lavage fluids and blood samples were measured for radioactivity using a Nal‐well gamma counter. The results indicated that while DS and DR control rats have similar pulmonary permeabilities to 125I‐albumin, the lungs of the ozone‐exposed DS animals were 63% (p<0.02) more permeable than those of DR rats exposed to ozone. Sloughing of epithelial tissue, mucous formation and an accumulation of macrophages in the end‐airways were more pronounced among ozone‐exposed DS animals than in DR‐ozone‐exposed rats. This increased damage among DS rats correlated well with the increased protein permeability levels. In similar studies, Sprague‐Dawley (D) rats were more variable in their response to ozone than either inbred strain. However, the results appeared generally more like those of the DS animals, suggesting that the trait selected by inbreeding may have been resistance rather than sensitivity to ozone‐induced lung injury.