bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Describing Multijoint Coordination: Preliminary Investigation with Nonhandicapped, Cerebral Palsied, and Elderly Individuals
Authors: Beuter Anne
Published: August 2016

This paper proposes a computer graphics approach to represent the kinematics of the lower limb during a multijoint coordinated motor task. The methodology is based on automatic digitization by a microprocessor of reflective markers placed on anatomical landmarks and videotaped using a videomotion analyzer and camera. Thus, the investigator can represent complete movement patterns graphically. With joint angles, or the first or second derivative of the angles serving as the coordinates for the three mutually perpendicular axes in R3, the technique gives a point in space corresponding to each time increment as the movement sequence progresses. Using this method, a graphical representation of the position, velocity, or acceleration can be generated in movement space, velocity space, or acceleration space, respectively. A sample of the results of this technique is presented using the movement space of elderly, nonhandicapped, and cerebral palsied individuals as each steps over a low obstacle. The cluster of data points created for each subject are connected to form a three-dimensional graphical representation of the covariation between joint angles. The use of the approach is discussed in relation to future research in neuromuscular coordination using concepts from catastrophe theory. Possible applications for handicapped individuals are mentioned.
Atlantoaxial Instability in Individuals with Down’s Syndrome
Authors: Cooke Robert E.
Published: August 2016

Atlantoaxial Instability occurs in approximately 17% of all persons with Down’s syndrome. Such persons are susceptible to serious spinal cord injury if marked flexion of the neck occurs. Every person with Down’s syndrome should have cervical spine x-rays before performing in certain sports even though the frequency of sports-induced neurological damage is low.
Total Body Mass Centroid and Segmental Mass Centroid Locations Found in Down’s Syndrome Individuals
Authors: DePauw Karen P.
Published: August 2016

This study was undertaken to investigate the total body and segmental centers of mass of individuals with Down’s syndrome. The 40 subjects were divided equally by gender into the following age groups: (a) ages 6 to 10, (b) ages 11 to 18, (c) adult females, and (d) adult males. Data on mass centroid locations were collected through a photogrammetric technique. Frontal and right sagittal-view slide photographs on each subject were digitized and the data logged into a computer program. The program calculated the segmental mass centroid locations and total body center of mass. Differences in total body and segmental center of mass locations were found between individuals with Down’s syndrome (DS) and nonhandicapped individuals. Analysis of the data on the DS children indicated that the mean center of mass location for the total body was within the range reported for nonhandicapped children. The adult DS male and female subjects were found to have a lower total body center of mass when compared to existing data on nonhandicapped adults. It was also found that the segmental mass centroid locations for the head and trunk segment of DS subjects were consistently lower than those found in nonhandicapped individuals. This finding points to an overall lowering of the center of mass found with DS subjects.
Parents: Forgotten Teacher Aides in Adapted Physical Education
Authors: Folsom-Meek Sherry L.
Published: August 2016

The use of parents of handicapped children as support personnel to augment adapted physical education instruction is discussed. Reports in the literature support supplementary instruction by parents to enhance children’s physical and motor development gains. Possible benefits include improvement of students’ motor abilities and fitness levels, enrichment of parent-child relationships, and strengthening of adapted physical education programs.
Exercise Tolerance Level of a Young Child with Congenital Heart Disease Associated with Asplenia Syndrome
Authors: Frazee Richard , Brunt Denis , Castle Robert F.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes the exercise tolerance of a young girl with a congenital heart defect associated with asplenia syndrome. The child was exercised minimally on a treadmill for a period of 10 minutes, during which time heart rate, blood pressure, ECG, and transcutaneous PO2 values were monitored. Due to a small increase in heart rate and a very low PO2 during exercise, it was suggested that some adaptive mechanism had been developed to counteract her cyanotic condition. An optimal increase in hematocrit and hemoglobin levels supported this. No ECG abnormalities were noted. It was concluded that this child should have some, but minimal, involvement in physical education programs despite the severity of her condition.
Children Who Are Clumsy: Five Years Later
Authors: Geuze Reint , Börger Hannelore
Published: August 2016

The aim of the present follow-up study was to assess whether clumsiness persists beyond the age of 12 and to describe the characteristics of motor and other problems, if present. From 62 children studied in 1984, 12 clumsy and 14 control children were reassessed in 1989. Reasons for dropout were a change of address, unwillingness to participate, and exclusion of hyperactive children with clumsiness. The Test of Motor Impairment indicated that at least 50% of the clumsy children were still markedly below the level of normal motor performance. This outcome was also validated by parent and teacher opinions. Persistent problems were not specifically related to one domain of fine or gross motor ability or general coordination. Concomitant problems reported by teachers and parents were lack of concentration and problems in social behavior.
Group Techniques to Facilitate Staff Development Pursuant to IDEA
Authors: Loovis E. Michael , Melograno Vincent
Published: August 2016

Staff development is essential for physical educators who teach students with disabilities in the regular program. In the past, in-service providers were primarily concerned with assessment procedures, curriculum content, and teaching methodology. These same professionals failed to acknowledge the importance of various issues and concerns (e.g., school district policies, procedures, and practices) when planning and conducting staff development. Content covered in this paper includes (a) issues and concerns that affect what teachers learn in staff development programs, (b) use of established group process techniques (Nominal Group Technique and Interpretive Structural Modeling) to identify issues and concerns that influence teachers’ abilities to comply with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and (c) differences between teachers’ and administrators’ perceptions concerning which issues and concerns are important.
A Review of the Neural Basis of Apractic Disorders with Implications for Remediation
Authors: Croce Ron
Published: August 2016

In order to effectively habilitate adults with apraxia and children with developmental dyspraxia, teachers and clinicians must have a sound understanding of the neuromotor basis of movement as well as an understanding of the etiology of this motor disorder. This paper describes the neural basis of apractic disorders from both an anatomical and a neuropsychological framework. Motor control and learning theories are used as a foundation for intervention programming. The functional-based approach espoused in this manuscript emphasizes that educators and therapists provide the individual with apraxia with enhanced polymodal sensory input–tactile, vestibular-proprioceptive, verbal, and visual information–within a context-dependent environment. The literature reviewed in this paper should help practitioners and researchers better understand those problems seen in individuals who have apractic disorders and should assist them in developing more effective motor remediation programs.
People with Disabilities as Subjects in Research
Authors: Reid Greg , Dunn John M. , McClements James
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this paper is to provide guidelines to facilitate the inclusion of people with disabilities as subjects in research. Practical suggestions and ethical issues are discussed. The guidelines are separated into components of the research process: (a) locating and selecting subjects, (b) communicating with caregivers and association personnel, (c) obtaining informed consent, (d) preparing subjects for participation in research, and (e) reporting research results. The guidelines ensure treatment of subjects with dignity and improve research quality.
Impairment of Visual Memory in Children Who Are Clumsy
Authors: Dwyer Catherine , McKenzie Beryl E.
Published: August 2016

In order to evaluate the contribution of visual memory to problems in the development of motor coordination, 9- to 13-year-old boys who were clumsy were tested on a graphic reproduction task under two delay conditions. Their performances were compared with those of control children. Individual geometric patterns were presented as a whole or sequentially, and children reproduced these patterns immediately after the inspection period or after a delay of 15 s. There was no difference in the accuracy of the reproductions of the two groups on immediate recall. After the 15-s delay, the reproductions of children who were clumsy were markedly less accurate, whereas those of the control children were unchanged. Although children who were clumsy completed their reproductions more quickly, there was no correlation between their accuracy scores and response duration. It was concluded that a difference in visual rehearsal strategies may distinguish children who are clumsy from their peers.
Psychological Well-Being in Wheelchair Sport Participants and Nonparticipants
Authors: Campbell Elizabeth , Jones Graham
Published: August 2016

This paper considered (a) the psychological well-being of wheelchair sport participants and wheelchair sport nonparticipants, and (b) the influence of competitive level on the psychological well-being of wheelchair sport participants. Psychological well-being was evaluated by considering mood, trait anxiety, self-esteem, mastery, and individual self-perceptions of health and well-being. Wheelchair sport participants exhibited an iceberg profile of positive well-being with lower tension, depression, anger, and confusion and higher vigor than the sport nonparticipant group. The sport participant group also showed significantly greater levels of mastery and more positive perceptions of their health and well-being than the sport nonparticipant group. International athletes had (a) higher levels of vigor than the national and recreational groups; (b) lower levels of anxiety than the regional and recreational groups; (c) higher levels of self-esteem than the national, regional, and recreational groups; (d) higher levels of mastery than the regional and recreational groups; and (e) more positive perceptions of their well-being than the national, regional, and recreational groups.
Development and Validation of the Children’s Attitudes Toward Integrated Physical Education–Revised (CAIPE–R) Inventory
Authors: Block Martin E.
Published: August 2016

This paper describes the development and validation of the Children’s Attitudes Toward Integrated Physical Education–Revised (CAIPE-R) inventory, an inventory designed to assess attitudes of children without disabilities toward including peers with disabilities in regular physical education. The CAIPE–R inventory includes a description of a student with disabilities, followed by seven statements regarding including a child with disabilities in regular physical education and five statements regarding specific adaptations to a team sport that would foster inclusion. Users respond to each statement on a 4-point Likert scale. Construct validity using factor analysis, internal consistency, and test-retest reliability was determined on a sample of 44 sixth graders. The CAIPE was revised (CAIPE-R) and given to a second set of subjects (n = 208). Results indicated that the CAIPE-R was a valid and reliable instrument for measuring attitudes of children without disabilities toward including children with disabilities in physical education. Preliminary data on children’s attitudes toward including a student with disabilities in regular physical education are also presented.
Teaching Students with Mild Disabilities: What Affects Attitudes of Future Physical Educators?
Authors: Rizzo Terry L. , Kirkendall Don R.
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the association between demographic attributes (gender, age, year in school, experience with students with disabilities, perceived competence in teaching students with disabilities, and academic preparation regarding individuals with disabilities) of undergraduate physical education majors and their attitudes toward teaching students labeled educable mentally retarded (EMR), learning disabled (LD), and behaviorally disordered (BD). Future physical educators (n = 226) were asked to complete the Physical Educators’ Attitudes Toward Teaching the Handicapped questionnaire, and 174 (77%) agreed. Data were collected on the first day of classes of a 16-week semester. Results from forward stepwise multiple-regression procedures showed that perceived competence and academic preparation regarding individuals with disabilities were the best predictors of favorable attitudes in general, and for EMR and LD. Results also showed that for BD, age and year in school were the best predictors of favorable attitudes. Thus, attitudes vary as a function of disabling conditions. The results provide evidence that there is a need to promote positive attitudes toward teaching individuals with disabilities.
The Legacy of Early Adapted Physical Activity Research
Authors: Broadhead Geoffrey D. , Burton Allen W.
Published: August 2016

In this opinion paper, we pose the question whether the current generation of scholars have taken advantage of the rich legacy of early adapted physical activity (APA) research. We believe that this legacy often has been ignored, even though it holds many treasures waiting to be rediscovered. We begin with a brief description of the knowledge base in APA prior to 1980, then evaluate the present recognition of past research contributions. Finally, we recommend how students, professionals, and researchers might be encouraged to take advantage of the vast body of literature in APA and related fields.
Validating a Special Olympics Volleyball Skills Assessment Test
Authors: Downs Steve B. , Wood Terry M.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the validity and reliability of a Volleyball Skills Assessment Test (VSAT) as a measure of volleyball skill and as a predictor of team success in Special Olympics International (SOI) volleyball competition. Test-retest reliability data from 130 SOI volleyball players with mental retardation (101 males and 29 females) in the sixth week of an SOI volleyball training program yielded intraclass reliability coefficients (R) above .80 for all VSAT subtests (forearm pass, spike, set, serve) across gender with the exception of the set test for females (R = .75). Multivariate test battery test–retest reliability, examined using canonical correlation analysis, yielded moderate total redundancy estimates ranging between 62.5 and 66.1%. A high degree of concurrent validity was evidenced when correlating VSAT scores with judges’ ratings of performance on the four skills: r = .93 (r2 = .86) serve, r = .94 (r2 = .88) pass, r = .98 (r2 = .96) spike, and r = .86 (r2 = .74) set. Contingency table analysis, multiple regression, and discriminant function analysis revealed that the predictive validity of the VSAT as the primary determinant for allocating teams to pools of equal ability is questionable.
Assessing the Physical Activity Readiness of Inactive Older Adults
Authors: Cardinal Bradley J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between inactive older adults’ physical activity readiness (based on the Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire [PARQ]) and several biometric, demographic, and physical activity indices. Participants were 181 (91 female, 90 male) inactive 60- to 89-year-old adults (M age = 70.2 ± 6.6 yr.). Self-report measures were completed and body mass index (BMI) and VO2max were estimated. BMI, weight, and VO2max were significantly associated with physical activity readiness. There was no significant association among 10-year age cohort and physical activity readiness. The blood pressure question excluded the largest number of participants (42%). Overall, 45.3% of the participants appeared to be healthy enough to begin a low to moderate physical activity program. Preliminary evidence suggests the PARQ may be a useful method of identifying older adults for whom low to moderate physical activity participation is safe.
Motor Performance of Children with Mild Mental Disabilities after Using Mental Imagery
Authors: Screws Doris Pogue , Surburg Paul R.
Published: August 2016

In order to improve motor performance, mental imagery procedures have evolved over the years with nondisabled subjects. Studies researching the concept of using mental imagery with special populations (Surburg, & Stumpner, 1987; Surburg, 1991; Surburg, Porretta, & Sutlive, 1995) are very few in number. This study examined the efficacy of using mental imagery in developing skill on a motorically oriented task (pursuit rotor) and a cognitively oriented task (peg board) on middle school students with mild mental disabilities (MMD). Thirty subjects were assigned randomly to a physical, imagery, or no-practice control group to perform either a peg board or pursuit rotor task. For each motor task, there was a pretest followed by appropriate treatment regime and a posttest session. The dependent variables were the number of pegs placed in appropriate order for the peg board task and time on target for the pursuit rotor task. Results were that imagery practice enhanced the motor performance of children with MMD on both the peg board (cognitively oriented task) and pursuit rotor (motorically oriented task).
Precompetition Anxiety and Self-Confidence in Wheelchair Sport Participants
Authors: Campbell Elizabeth , Jones Graham
Published: August 2016

This study examined the precompetition temporal patterning of anxiety and self-confidence in wheelchair sport participants. The subjects comprised of 103 male (n = 87) and female (n = 16) wheelchair sport participants who participated at national level or above in a variety of sports. All the subjects completed a modified version of the Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory-2 (CTAI-2) which measured three dimensions of their normal competitive anxiety response (intensity, frequency, and direction), at three time periods preceding competition (1 week, 2 hours, and 30 minutes before). The findings suggest that wheelchair sport participants show a similar precompetition anxiety response to nondisabled sport participants. However, there appears to be some differences, particularly in the intensity of somatic anxiety symptoms experienced and the reduction in self-confidence just prior to competition. The findings also provide further support for the distinction between intensity, frequency, and direction of competitive anxiety symptoms.
The Effects of Wheelchair Camber on Physiological and Perceptual Responses in Younger and Older Men
Authors: Buckley Shelley M. , Bhambhani Yagesh N.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the effects of 0, 4, and 8 degrees camber on the physiological and perceptual responses in younger (19-44 years) and older (45-74 years) sedentary, able-bodied men propelling a wheelchair at 2 kmh. Physiological and perceptual (rating of perceived exertion, RPE) responses were monitored using standardized procedures. Significant increases (p < .05) in oxygen uptake, ventilation rate, and heart rate were observed with increasing camber angle. These values were not significantly (p > .05) different between age groups. Central and peripheral RPE was unchanged as a result of camber angle in either group. Central RPE was significantly higher (p < .05) for the older participants at a camber angle of 8 degrees. It was concluded that the physiological stress increases with camber angle during manual wheelchair propulsion at 2 kmh in younger and older men. The higher perceptual stress in older participants could be due to performance at a higher percentage of their maximum physiological capacity.
Perceived and Actual Basketball Competence of Adolescent Males with Mild Mental Retardation
Authors: Shapiro Deborah R. , Dummer Gail M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived and actual basketball competence for 25 adolescent males, ages 12 to 15, with mild mental retardation. Participants completed a Pictorial Scale of Perceived Basketball Competence and a modified version of the AAHPER Basketball Skills Test for Boys. Consistent with Harter’s (1978) theory of perceived competence, a positive relationship was found between perceived and actual basketball competence for the individual skills of push pass for accuracy (rs = .38, p = .03), jump and reach (rs = .42, p = .02), speed dribble (rs = .21, p = .16), and free-throw shooting (rs = .37, p = .03), and for the combined battery of four skills (rs = .46, p = .01). Issues relating to cognitive development of participants, testing methodology, statistical analysis techniques, and task characteristics serve as possible explanations for the results of this investigation.
Interscholastic Coaches’ Attitudes Toward Integration of Adolescents with Disabilities
Authors: Kozub Francis M. , Porretta David L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to identify issues that may need to be addressed so that adolescents with disabilities are better integrated into interscholastic sports programs. The Coaches Attitude Toward Integration Questionnaire (CATIQ) was developed specifically to survey coaches’ attitudes about including adolescents with disabilities in interscholastic programs. After preliminary reliability checks were made and content validity established, the CATIQ was mailed to a random sample of 397 public school coaches. Results indicated that coaches tend to show agreement with the statement that adolescents with disabilities “have a right to sport opportunities” in interscholastic programs. However, coaches felt inadequately trained to address the needs of individuals with disabilities in integrated interscholastic sports settings.
Academic Learning Time—Physical Education (ALT-PE) of Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities in Regular Victorian Schools
Authors: Temple Viviene A. , Walkley Jeff W.
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to describe the engagement of students with mild intellectual disabilities (MID) and their nondisabled peers (NDP) in regular physical education lessons and to determine whether this varied with gender, grade, or disability. Participants were 24 students with MID and 48 NDP Data on student behavior were gathered using an Academic Learning Time—Physical Education (ALT-PE) systematic observation instrument. Each lesson, including one student with MID and two same-gender NDP, was observed on five occasions (120 total). Data from primary and secondary levels were pooled. A MANOVA with PE Time, PE Engaged, Motor Engaged (ME), and Motor Appropriate (MA) as dependent measures revealed significant main effects for disability and gender. Follow-up analyses disclosed that the only difference between boys and girls was PE Time and that engagement level showed no difference. Students with MID spent significantly less time (p ≤ .01) than NDPs at each level.
Including a Child with Severe Cerebral Palsy in Physical Education: A Case Study
Authors: Vogler E. William , Koranda Patricia , Romance Tom
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to examine an inclusive physical education kindergarten class containing a child with severe spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. An adapted physical educator served as a human resource. Participants were a kindergartner (6 years of age) with severe disability, 20 nondisabled peers (5-6 years of age), an adapted physical educator, and a regular physical educator. The research method was case study. Data were collected periodically by systematic observation and by interview during an 18-week period in the fall school semester. Twenty percent, or approximately one class per week (n = 19) were analyzed that were movement exploration in nature. Results indicated that inclusion classes were highly effective in time engagement and management, and the qualitative nature of inclusion was one of widespread social acceptance and successful motor participation. It was concluded that the use of a people resource model, with an adapted educator, is a highly effective educational practice.
Reliability of a Peak Performance Treadmill Test for Children and Adolescents with and without Mental Retardation
Authors: Pitetti Kenneth H. , Millar A. Lynn , Fernhall Bo
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to compare test-retest reliability when measuring peak physiological capacities of children and adolescents (age = 13.6 ± 2.9 yr) with mental retardation (MR) and their peers (12.0 ± 2.9 yr) without mental retardation (NMR) using a discontinuous treadmill (TM) protocol. Forty-six participants (23 MR = 12 male and 11 female; 23 NMR = 12 male and 11 female) completed two peak performance treadmill tests with 3 to 7 days of rest between tests. Physiological values measured included V̇O2peak (1 $$ min-1 and ml $$ kg-1 $$ min-1), V̇Epeak (1 $$ mhr-1), HRpeak (bpm), and RER (V̇O2 $$ V̇O2-1). Test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .85 to .99 for participants with MR and from .55 to .99 for participants without MR. Test reliability and accuracy in the present study does not appear to differ between the NMR and MR participants.
An Empirical Investigation of Rasch Equating of Motor Function Tasks
Authors: Zhu Weimo
Published: August 2016

To make scores from tests designed for special populations exchangeable, the tests must first be equated on the same scale. This study examined the utility of a Rasch model in equating motor function tasks. Using an existing gross motor function data set and a semisimulation design, an artificial equating and cross-validation sample, as well as two artificial tests, were created. Based on these samples and tests, the accuracy and stability of Rasch equating was empirically determined using a standardized difference statistic. It was found that Rasch equating could accurately equate tests and was generalizable when applied to a cross-validation sample. After equating, tests can be compared on the same scale, and interpretation of cross-test scores becomes possible. In addition, with the conversion table and graph generated from Rasch equating, the application of test equating was demonstrated as simple and practical.
Special Olympics Unified Sports: Changes in Male Athletes During a Basketball Season
Authors: Castagno Karen S.
Published: August 2016

The purpose was to describe the changes occurring in athletes with and without mental retardation (MR) during participation in a Special Olympics Unified Sports program. The method was evaluation research. Participants were 58 males (24 with MR, 34 without MR) in Grades 6-8. Before- and after-program data were collected on the Self-Esteem Inventory (Zigler, 1994), the Adjective Checklist (Siperstein, 1980), the Friendship Activity Scale (Siperstein, 1980), and the Basketball Sports Skills Assessment (Special Olympics, 1992). Athletes (Special Olympics Athletes and Partners) participated in an after-school basketball program for 8 weeks, 1.5 hr per session, three times per week. Dependent t tests revealed that each group scored significantly higher after participation in the program than before on all tests.
Competition for Special Populations: Personal Perspectives
Authors: Miles Bruce H.
Published: August 2016

Competitive opportunities for handicapped or disabled athletes are burgeoning. Different populations have different capabilities. Moderately (MO-MR) and mildly mentally retarded (MI-MR) athletes have unique abilities, and many physical educators, teachers, and volunteers spend countless hours preparing individuals and teams for tournaments and competitions. Two models are presented to assist in assessing MO-MR and MI-MR athletes’ abilities and levels of social functioning. Additionally a hierarchy of motor performance environments is presented. Discussion entails proper placement of athletes in a motor performance environment after ability and social functioning assessments have been completed.
Advocacy and Coordination of Services
Authors: Rainbolt Wanda Jean
Published: August 2016

Adapted physical educators are spending much of their time and energy advocating for the right of all children and youth to a high quality of physical education service delivery and the elimination of attitudinal, aspirational, and architectural barriers experienced by handicapped persons. Prior to the 1960s, lawyers or legal advocates were the ones who would plead the cause for others. Since then, however, three types of advocates have evolved: citizen, professional, and consumer advocates. Adapted physical educators are professional advocates, but they must have an understanding of the other types of advocates. The purpose of this article is to acquaint adapted physical educators with the job function of advocacy, the history of advocacy, and the many roles advocates play.
Evaluation of Toy Preference and Associated Movement Behaviors of Preschool Orthopedically Handicapped Children
Authors: Loovis E. Michael
Published: August 2016

Toy preference and associated gross and fine motor movements of preschool orthopedically handicapped children were evaluated in a free-play situation. Fifteen children between 3 and 5 years of age and representing two separate classes served as subjects. The study was conducted for 7 weeks in the subjects’ classroom. Sessions were scheduled 2 times per week in each class, each lasting 1 hour. Twenty toys were evaluated using a modified version of the procedure developed by the University of Kansas’ Living Environments Group. Measurement of movement behavior associated with toy play involved application of a movement glossary developed by the experimenter. A Wilcoxon two-sample rank test revealed no significant differences for either gender, age, or ambulation (ambulatory versus nonambulatory) in relation to toy preference or nature of movement demonstrated. Analysis revealed that subjects spent considerable time using toys in a manner which did not correspond to their design. It was recommended that orthopedically handicapped children might benefit from learning how to play under the direction of a parent, teacher, or similar individual.
Two Conditions of Uncertainty and Their Effects on Reaction Time of Mentally Retarded Adolescents
Authors: Surburg Paul R.
Published: August 2016

The effects of uncertainty of occurrence and uncertainty of time—use of catch-trials and preparatory intervals—in simple reaction time (RT) trials were investigated with nonhandicapped and mentally retarded subjects. The results showed that: (a) Catch-trials impaired the performance of this task, (b) catch-trials did not differentiate among groups of subjects, and (c) preparatory intervals differently affected RT latencies of nonhandicapped and mentally retarded subjects. Interpretation of findings suggests that the use of catch-trials induced preparation decrements and that preparation decrements may explain in part the poorer RT performance of retarded subjects.
Basic Problems in Motor Learning Research
Authors: Surburg Paul R.
Published: August 2016

Problems encountered by researchers conducting motor learning studies with special populations are the central focus of this paper. The sequence of topical coverage follows a progression that would be encountered by researchers as they develop and conduct research studies. For each problem or issue identified, a suggestion is provided to help researchers cope with these problems. The following topics are examined: development of an appropriate problem, selection of a handicapping condition, determination of dependent variables, utilization of correct experimental protocols, evaluation of project design, and assessment of data.
Hearing Impaired Students in Physical Education
Authors: Schmidt Sharon
Published: August 2016

Unless vestibular etiology exists, the hearing impaired student exhibits no difference in motor performance than other students in the regular physical education class. Physical educators will need to plan and teach lessons which show an understanding of the concomitant language delay that will accompany a hearing impairment. Using sign language and a variety of visual aids as well as monitoring the language level of handouts can make the physical education class highly beneficial for the hearing impaired student.
Problems in Mainstreaming Research: Some Personal Observations
Authors: Karper William B. , Martinek Thomas J.
Published: August 2016

Many issues must be resolved before research on mainstreaming in physical education becomes believable, replicable, and generalizable. Decisions are necessary regarding the standardization of procedures that place atypical students in the mainstream, and clear definitions are needed regarding what constitutes a handicapped student in physical education. Also, agreement is needed on what typifies the makeup of a regular physical education program that serves handicapped students. Additionally, physical education class content and context differs between classes in the same school, making controlled studies nearly impossible to achieve. It is very difficult to select test instruments that are appropriate to both handicapped and nonhandicapped students. Finally, data analysis is a problem because of the unequal numbers of handicapped and nonhandicapped students found in mainstream physical education classes.
Verbal and Visual Instruction in Motor Skill Acquisition for Persons with and Without Down Syndrome
Authors: Maraj Brian K.V. , Li Li , Hillman Rebecca , Jeansonne Jennifer J. , Ringenbach Shannon D.
Published: August 2016

This study examined motor learning in persons with Down syndrome (DS), persons with undifferentiated developmental disabilities (UnDD), and persons without disabilities (ND). Participants were instructed (either by verbal instruction or visual demonstration) to move a cursor to three items displayed on a computer screen. Results indicated that the ND group had superior performances to the other two groups for both instruction conditions. Participants with DS performed the task with both longer response and movement times when instructed verbally. In a transfer condition, results revealed the UnDD group displayed poor transfer, while participants with DS showed positive transfer from visual to verbal protocols. These results provide some evidence that persons with DS may be able to consolidate visual information to facilitate verbal-motor learning.
Boosting of Performance in the Athlete with High-Level Spinal Injury
Authors: Shephard Roy J.
Published: August 2016

Autonomic dysreflexia is a common response to painful stimuli following high level spinal injuries. Loss of normal control of sympathetic reflexes leads to large increases in blood pressure, accompanied by headache and occasional more dangerous sequelae. Although now officially banned, intentional dysreflexia ("boosting") is still exploited by some competitors to gain an unfair advantage. It is thus important to consider physiological mechanisms, consequences for health and performance, and methods of controlling this abuse. Boosters perceive the practice as frequent, performance enhancing, and of low immediate risk. Effective methods of eliminating the practice may include more stringent control of competitors, evaluating and publicizing short-and long-term risks, and countering arguments that boosting is an ethically acceptable method of restoring a normal physiological response.
Impact of Inclusion in General Physical Education on Students Without Disabilities
Authors: Obrusníková Iva , Válková Hana , Block Martin E.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the impact of including a student who uses a wheelchair and is given no direct support in a 4th grade general physical education (GPE) class on students without disabilities. Using an evaluate case study research method, data were collected in the beginning and end of a 2-week GPE volleyball unit from 2 intact elementary school classes using 2 attitude inventories, volleyball skills, and knowledge test. Results indicated no significant class difference in volleyball skill and knowledge acquisitions. Overall, attitudes toward including a student with a disability tended to be positive in both classes. In addition, there was no significant time difference within the classes on either attitude inventory.
The Driving Force: Motivation in Special Olympians
Authors: Farrell Robin J. , Crocker Peter R.E. , McDonough Meghan H. , Sedgwick Whitney A.
Published: August 2016

Special Olympics programs provide competitive sport opportunities for athletes with intellectual disabilities. This study investigated athletes’ perceptions of motivation in Special Olympics. Using Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as a guiding framework to explore athletes’ experiences, 38 Special Olympians (21 males and 17 females) from British Columbia, Canada were interviewed. The data suggested that factors that enhanced autonomy, competence, and relatedness were linked to the participants’ motivation in Special Olympics programs. These factors included positive feedback, choice, learning skills, demonstrating ability, friendships, social approval, and fun. Social support from significant others was a key factor related to participation motivation. There was also evidence for the motivating aspects of extrinsic rewards. Motivation was undermined primarily by conflicts with coaches and teammates.
The Developmental Skill-Learning Gap Hypothesis: Implications for Children with Movement Difficulties
Authors: Wall A.E. Ted
Published: August 2016

Selected research on the learning and performance of physical skills from a knowledge-based perspective provides the introduction for a discussion of the importance of practice in the developmental skill learning process. Recent evidence on the activity deficit hypothesis as well as knowledge-base differences as they relate to children with movement difficulties in physical activity settings provides the basis from which to present the developmental skill-learning gap hypothesis, which contends that as children with movement difficulties grow older, the skill-learning gap between them and their more physically proficient peers widens across instructional, practice, and competitive settings. Implications and suggestions for the learning and instruction of children with movement difficulties conclude the paper.
A Quantitative Approach to Movement Skill Assessment for Children with Mental Retardation
Authors: Yun Joonkoo , Shapiro Deborah R.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the psychometric properties of Ulrich’s (1988) Actual Physical Competence Scale for children with mental retardation. A total of 139 children with MR, 7 to 13 years of age participated. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a multidimensional model of skill assessment captures the motor performance of those with MR more accurately than a unidimensional model. Indices of goodness of fit for the multidimensional model were GFI = .91, RMSEA = .09, (χ2/df) = 2.15, and CFI = .93. Test-retest reliability and internal consistency for the total test battery was ICC = .91 and α = .62, respectively. When evaluating movement skills of children with mental retardation, a multidimensional model incorporating both locomotor and object control skills is recommended.
Assessment of Walking Activity Using a Pedometer and Survey in Adults with Mental Retardation
Authors: Stanish Heidi I. , Draheim Christopher C.
Published: August 2016

This study measured walking activity in 103 adults (65 males, 38 females) with mental retardation (MR) using two instruments. Participants wore a pedometer for seven consecutive days and were administered the NHANES III Physical Activity Survey. The mean weekly step count was 58,321 ± 26,896 and only 21.4% of the participants recorded 10,000 steps/day. There was no association between weekly step counts and walking bouts per week (r = .01) or walking min per week (r = -.01). Only 17.5% of the participants reported engaging in five bouts of MVPA per week totaling 30 min per bout. The percent agreement between participants meeting the recommended 10,000 steps/day and those meeting the recommended 30 min of MVPA five days per week was 68.9%.
Crossmodal Inhibition of Return in Adults with and Without Down Syndrome
Authors: Glazebrook Cheryl , Elliott Digby , Lyons James , Tremblay Luc
Published: August 2016

This study investigated inhibition of return in persons with and without Down syndrome (DS) when visual or verbal cues were used to specify a target in a crossmodal paradigm. Individuals with DS and without DS performed manual aiming movements to a target located in right or left hemispace. The target was specified by an endogenous visual or verbal stimulus. Both groups were significantly slower when responding to the same target as the previous trial when the target was cued in a different modality. Although participants with DS initiated and executed their movements more slowly, they demonstrated a similar pattern of inhibition as people without DS, suggesting that inhibitory processes are functioning normally in persons with DS.
Fitness of Black African Early Adolescents with and Without Mild Mental Retardation
Authors: Onyewadume Ignatius Ugo
Published: August 2016

This study compared the fitness of Black African early adolescents with and without mild mental retardation. Participants included 30 purposively selected early adolescent Black Africans with mild mental retardation aged 11-14 from three schools for children with mild mental retardation in Southern Botswana and 30 randomly selected early adolescents of similar ages without mental retardation. Participants were assessed on a number of standard fitness variables including the Rockport Walk Test. In general, when compared to participants without mental retardation, participants with mild mental retardation exhibited low levels of fitness. Based on study results, the Ministry of Education is called upon to urgently put in place policies and programs that would reverse the low level of fitness among adolescents with mild mental retardation.
Convergent Validity between Two Motor Tests: Movement-ABC and PDMS-2
Authors: Van Waelvelde Hilde , Peersman Wim , Lenoir Mattieu , Engelsman Bouwien C.M. Smits
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to investigate the convergent validity of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC) and the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales – 2 (PDMS-2). Thirty-one 4- and 5-year-old children (mean age 4 years 11 months, SD 6 months), all recruited from a clinical setting, took part in the study. Children were tested on the M-ABC and the PDMS-2 in a counterbalanced order on the same occasion. The results showed that the total scores on the two tests correlated well (rs = .76). However, when the ability of the two tests to identify children with difficulties was examined, agreement between them was low (K = .29), with the PDMS-2 being less sensitive to mild motor impairment in this population. Taken together, these findings suggest that clinicians need to be aware that, although measuring a similar construct, these tests are not interchangeable.
Responsibilities and Training Needs of Paraeducators in Physical Education
Authors: Davis Ronald W. , Kotecki Jerome E. , Harvey Michael W. , Oliver Amy
Published: August 2016

This study describes responsibilities and training needs of paraeducators in physical education. Paraeducators (n =138) employed in 34 midwestern schools received a 27-item questionnaire. Of the 138 paraeducators contacted, 76 responded, resulting in a 55.1% response rate. Only 16% of the total respondents (n = 76) reported receiving specific training in physical education; however, 68 (90%) indicated a willingness to be trained. Less than half (n = 29, 38%) indicated participating in physical education by escorting students, providing cues, and working individually with students. Fewer than eight (28%) of the physical education paraeducators assisted with assessments, shared IEP suggestions, or helped implement behavior modification programs. The most desired training areas included activity modifications, attributes of students with disabilities, and knowledge of motor development.
Physical Performance of Individuals with Intellectual Disability: A 30-Year Follow-Up
Authors: Lahtinen Ulla , Rintala Pauli , Malin Antero
Published: August 2016

Physical performance of Finnish adolescents (33 females, 44 males) with moderate intellectual disability (ID) was studied over a 30-year period. This study is an extension of Lahtinen’s previous work on documenting the performance of individuals with intellectual disabilities over time. This study consisted of analyzing data from a total of four data collection periods (1973, 1979, 1996, and 2003 in which participants ranged in age from 11-16, 17-22, 34-39 and 41-46 years old, respectively). Improvement from early to late adolescence, and decline during adulthood in abdominal strength/endurance, static balance, and manual dexterity were identified. The male adults with ID were moderately overweight (BMI), but the females with ID were obese. The IQ effect was significant on balance and manual dexterity. The gender differences in adulthood were significant, but differences were not noted for Down syndrome when controlling for IQ.
Accuracy of Pedometer Steps and Time for Youth with Disabilities
Authors: Beets Michael W. , Combs Cindy , Pitetti Kenneth H. , Morgan Melinda , Bryan Rebecca R. , Foley John T.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to examine the accuracy of pedometer steps and activity time (Walk4Life, WL) for youth with developmental disabilities. Eighteen youth (11 girls, 7 boys) 4-14 years completed six 80-meter self-paced walking trials while wearing a pedometer at five waist locations (front right, front left, back right, back left, middle back). Trials were video taped to determine actual steps and activity time. Time exhibited a smaller percent error in comparison to steps across locations. Apart from the front left, location had minimal influence on accuracy. The WL demonstrates acceptable accuracy for steps and activity time.
Reliability of Scores from Physical Activity Monitors in Adults with Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Motl Robert W. , Zhu Weimo , Park Youngsik , McAuley Edward , Scott Jennifer A. , Snook Erin M.
Published: August 2016

We examined the reliability of scores from physical activity monitors in a sample of 193 individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) who wore a pedometer and an accelerometer for a 7-day period. There were no significant differences among days for the pedometer (p = .12) or the accelerometer (p = .15) indicating that week and weekend days can be analyzed in a single intra-class correlation (ICC) analytic model. The 7 days of monitoring yielded ICC estimates of .93 for both the pedometer and accelerometer, and a minimum of 3 days yielded a reliability of .80 for both the pedometer and accelerometer. Results indicated that physical activity monitor scores are reliable measures of physical activity for individuals with MS.