bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Use of Transgingival Lag Screw Osteosynthesis in the Management of Alveolar Process Fracture
Authors: Sharma Ashish , Rastogi Sanjay , Shukla Manish , Choudhury Rupshikha , Tripathi Siddhi , Iqbal Jawed
Published: February 2018

The purpose of this study is to check the efficacy of transgingival lag screw osteosynthesis in alveolar process fractures of maxilla and mandible. A single-arm nonrandomized observational study was performed for the treatment of alveolar process fractures of maxilla and mandible. In this study, 20 mixed age group patients with alveolar process fracture were included. All the patients were treated by a 2.0-mm transgingival screw fixation under local or general anesthesia. All the patients were evaluated for fracture stability, anatomical reduction, bone loss and bone resorption of alveolar process, tooth loss, and wound infection at 3 months of follow-up. A simple descriptive statistical analysis was done to evaluate the parameters and it was shown that the treatment of alveolar process fracture with two or three lag screws provides adequate fracture stability and anatomical reduction with no signs of bone loss and tooth loss, and wound infections were noted post lag screw fixation. The study concludes that transgingival lag screw fixation is a suitable alternative for alveolar process fractures in all the age groups and two to three lag screws are generally sufficient to fix fractured alveolar process either under local anesthesia or general anesthesia.
Stress testing of electrically active FlexMEAs with simultaneous electrical recording in fluidic environment: Introduction of a new measurement setup
Authors: Westerhausen Markus , Martin Tanja , Kappel Marcel , Hofmann Boris
Published: February 2018

We present a measurement setup consisting of two fluid-filled pressure chambers to mimic the mechanical stress likely to that of small body movements on biomedical flexible micro-electrode arrays for the analysis of various degradation mechanisms. Our main goal was the simulation of micro-motions in fluid conditions, while maintaining an electric access to the device. These micro-motions would be likely to those occurring in the human body caused by the intracranial pressure in magnitudes of 7-25 mmHg, which translates to a fluid pressure of 9-33 mbar. Furthermore, severe mechanical stress can be administered to the samples under the previously mentioned environment. Therefore, a flexible, polyimide-based sample with various metal test structures was fabricated and analyzed in the presented measurement setup. A comparison of the elongation of the sample’s surface as a function of the applied hydrostatic pressure is given with computer simulations.
Inferring properties of disordered chains from FRET transfer efficiencies
Authors: Zheng Wenwei , Zerze Gül H. , Borgia Alessandro , Mittal Jeetain , Schuler Benjamin , Best Robert B.
Published: February 2018

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a powerful tool for elucidating both structural and dynamic properties of unfolded or disordered biomolecules, especially in single-molecule experiments. However, the key observables, namely, the mean transfer efficiency and fluorescence lifetimes of the donor and acceptor chromophores, are averaged over a broad distribution of donor-acceptor distances. The inferred average properties of the ensemble therefore depend on the form of the model distribution chosen to describe the distance, as has been widely recognized. In addition, while the distribution for one type of polymer model may be appropriate for a chain under a given set of physico-chemical conditions, it may not be suitable for the same chain in a different environment so that even an apparently consistent application of the same model over all conditions may distort the apparent changes in chain dimensions with variation of temperature or solution composition. Here, we present an alternative and straightforward approach to determining ensemble properties from FRET data, in which the polymer scaling exponent is allowed to vary with solution conditions. In its simplest form, it requires either the mean FRET efficiency or fluorescence lifetime information. In order to test the accuracy of the method, we have utilized both synthetic FRET data from implicit and explicit solvent simulations for 30 different protein sequences, and experimental single-molecule FRET data for an intrinsically disordered and a denatured protein. In all cases, we find that the inferred radii of gyration are within 10% of the true values, thus providing higher accuracy than simpler polymer models. In addition, the scaling exponents obtained by our procedure are in good agreement with those determined directly from the molecular ensemble. Our approach can in principle be generalized to treating other ensemble-averaged functions of intramolecular distances from experimental data.
The initial stages of atomic force microscope based local anodic oxidation of silicon
Authors: Kozhukhov A. S. , Scheglov D. V. , Fedina L. I. , Latyshev A. V.
Published: February 2018

In this paper, the initial stages of local anodic oxidation (LAO) process initiated by AFM probe are studied on the wide (∼100μm) terraces of the atomic-smooth Si (111) surface when creating dense array of local oxidation points. The dependence of LAO points height on the value of voltage initiating the oxidation is found to have a pronounced step-like feature with a characteristic period of 0.7 ± 0.1 nm. The presented analysis shows for the first time the realization of the step-layer mechanism of anodic oxide growth on the Si (111) surface.
Tuning perpendicular exchange bias in IrMn/[Co/Pt] and IrMn/CoFe/Co/[Pt/Co] systems with ultra thin Pt layers
Authors: Ying Qin , Yifan Liu
Published: February 2018

As-deposited IrMn/[Co/Pt] systems with ultra thin Pt layers (∼5.0 Å) have no perpendicular exchange bias and exhibit in-plane anisotropy. After perpendicular field-annealing, the perpendicular exchange bias is established and can be tuned by the Co thickness. It is found that the perpendicular exchange bias of IrMn/[Co/Pt] systems with ultra thin Pt layers appreciably surpasses that of the ever reported counterparts which contains relatively thick Pt layers. Perpendicular field-annealing also promotes a perpendicular orientation of magnetization, and a well-defined perpendicular anisotropy is obtained for an intermediate Co thickness. By replacing Co layer adjacent to IrMn with Co60Fe40/Co bilayer, the perpendicular exchange bias is drastically enhanced, and extremely tiny Co60Fe40 can yield a perpendicular exchange bias far superior to that of previously reported IrMn/Co60Fe40/[Pt/Co] system with Co60Fe40 layer of 6.0 Å.
Thickness dependence of the quantum Hall effect in films of the three-dimensional Dirac semimetal Cd3As2
Authors: Goyal Manik , Galletti Luca , Salmani-Rezaie Salva , Schumann Timo , Kealhofer David A. , Stemmer Susanne
Published: February 2018

Low-temperature magnetotransport studies are reported for (112)Cd3As2 films grown on (111)CdTe by molecular beam epitaxy as a function of the Cd3As2 film thickness. All films show Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations. An even-integer quantum Hall effect is observed for films thinner than 70 nm. For the thinnest films, the bulk is gapped and transport at low temperatures occurs only via the gapless, two-dimensional states. The lowest Landau level is reached at ∼10 T, and the longitudinal resistance nearly vanishes at the plateaus in the Hall resistance. The results are discussed in the context of the current theoretical understanding of topological surface states in three-dimensional Dirac semimetals.
A combination of transformation optics and surface impedance modulation to design compact retrodirective reflectors
Authors: Haddad H. , Loison R. , Gillard R. , Harmouch A. , Jrad A.
Published: February 2018

This study proposes a new approach to flatten retrodirective corner reflectors. The proposed method enables compact reflectors via Transformation Optics (TO) combined with Surface Impedance Modulation (SIM). This combination permits to relax the constraints on the anisotropic material resulting from the TO. Phase gradient approach is generalized to be used within anisotropic media and is implemented with SIM. Different reflector setups are designed, simulated and compared for fop = 8GHz using ANSYS® HFSS® in order to validate the use of such a combination.
Does local dynamic stability of kayak paddling technique affect the sports performance? A pilot study
Authors: Hamacher Daniel , Krebs Tobias , Meyer Guido , Zech Astrid
Published: February 2018

During competition, kayak athletes must optimally adapt to environmental factors (e.g. wind, waves) to achieve peak performance. However, the ability to adapt to such perturbations has never been assessed in kayak paddling. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to evaluate the local dynamic stability in sports technique of youth sprint kayak athletes. In a cross‐sectional study, 14 healthy male athletes were recruited from an elite youth sprint kayak squad. During an incremental kayak ergometer test, mean power, heart rates and local dynamic technique stability of hands, arms, trunk and paddle were registered and the association with the athletes 2000 m free‐water times were estimated using mixed models. The 2000 m free‐water performance significantly predicted the paddles (p = .037) local dynamic stability whereas no association was found for the trunk or the upper extremity kinematics. In conclusion, kayak athletes with high‐performance capability over 2000 m paddling depict high local dynamic technique stability. This emphasizes the importance of a stable technique for advanced kayak skills, especially regarding paddling movements.
Securitization outside of the West: conceptualizing the securitization–neo-patrimonialism nexus in Africa
Authors: Ezeokafor Edwin , Kaunert Christian
Published: February 2018

Securitization is arguably the most successful theoretical framework to analyse security beyond the military confines with the nation state as the dominant actor within the international system. Amongst the critical voices, securitization has become the gold standard for analysing emerging challenges, such as migration, terrorism, human security, intra-state and cross-border issues, as well as environmental challenges. Yet, despite its broadening agenda, the framework has also been accused of a Western bias with a Western political context and democratic governance structure at its heart. This article aims to re-conceptualize the framework in a way that suits a non-Western context better, notably by re-conceptualizing the securitization–neopatrimonialism nexus in Africa, which gives us significant new insights into non-Western political contexts. It analyses the securitization processes among the political elites in a neo-patrimonial statehood. It further stretches the conceptualization of securitization into African statehood, characterized by a blurred line between the leader and the state.
The genome sequence and transcriptome of Potentilla micrantha and their comparison to Fragaria vesca (the woodland strawberry)
Authors: Buti Matteo , Moretto Marco , Barghini Elena , Mascagni Flavia , Natali Lucia , Brilli Matteo , Lomsadze Alexandre , Sonego Paolo , Giongo Lara , Alonge Michael , Velasco Riccardo , Varotto Claudio , Šurbanovski Nada , Borodovsky Mark , Ward Judson A , Engelen Kristof , Cavallini Andrea , Cestaro Alessandro , Sargent Daniel James
Published: February 2018

Background

The genus Potentilla is closely related to that of Fragaria, the economically important strawberry genus. Potentilla micrantha is a species that does not develop berries but shares numerous morphological and ecological characteristics with Fragaria vesca. These similarities make P. micrantha an attractive choice for comparative genomics studies with F. vesca.

Findings

In this study, the P. micrantha genome was sequenced and annotated, and RNA-Seq data from the different developmental stages of flowering and fruiting were used to develop a set of gene predictions. A 327 Mbp sequence and annotation of the genome of P. micrantha, spanning 2674 sequence contigs, with an N50 size of 335,712, estimated to cover 80% of the total genome size of the species was developed. The genus Potentilla has a characteristically larger genome size than Fragaria, but the recovered sequence scaffolds were remarkably collinear at the micro-syntenic level with the genome of F. vesca, its closest sequenced relative. A total of 33,602 genes were predicted, and 95.1% of bench-marking universal single-copy orthologous genes were complete within the presented sequence. Thus, we argue that the majority of the gene-rich regions of the genome have been sequenced.

Conclusions

Comparisons of RNA-Seq data from the stages of floral and fruit development revealed genes differentially expressed between P. micrantha and F. vesca.The data presented are a valuable resource for future studies of berry development in Fragaria and the Rosaceae and they also shed light on the evolution of genome size and organization in this family.
Outpatient Antibiotic Stewardship: A Growing Frontier—Combining Myxovirus Resistance Protein A With Other Biomarkers to Improve Antibiotic Use
Authors: Joseph Patrick , Godofsky Eliot
Published: February 2018

Background

The majority of oral antibiotics are prescribed in outpatient primary and urgent care clinics for acute respiratory infections. Effective antibiotic stewardship must include proper prescribing for outpatients as well as for those in a hospital or long-term care facility.

Methods

Major databases, including MEDLINE and the Cochrane Library, were searched for prospective human clinical studies, including children and/or adults published between January 1966 and November 2017 that evaluated Myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA) as a biomarker for diagnosing viral infections as well as both C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin (PCT) as potential biomarkers for identifying and differentiating true bacterial upper respiratory infection (URI) from colonization.

Results

Ten prospective human studies, totaling 1683 patients, were identified that evaluated MxA as a viral biomarker in children and/or adults. Both systematic review articles, meta-analyses, and randomized controlled clinical trials that examined CRP and/or PCT as a biomarker for identifying clinically significant bacterial infections and supporting antibiotic stewardship were identified.

Conclusions

Quick and accurate differentiation between a viral and bacterial respiratory infection is critical to effectively combat antibiotic misuse. MxA expression in peripheral blood is a highly specific marker for viral infection. Combining MxA with other inflammatory biomarkers to test for respiratory infections offers enhanced sensitivity and specificity, forming an excellent tool for antibiotic stewardship in the outpatient setting.
Women, Leadership, and the U.S. Environmental Movement
Authors: McCammon Holly J. , McGrath Allison , Hess David J. , Moon Minyoung
Published: February 2018

This chapter discusses modes of women’s leadership in the US environmental movement over the past one hundred years, expanding the definition of leadership beyond simply the formal head of large environmental organizations. During the early and mid-twentieth century, women-only organizations contributed to broadening the conservation movement, and a diverse set of women’s groups engaged in creating healthier environments in urban areas. Women’s leadership in contemporary environmentalism helped expand the movement by pushing gender, racial, ethnic, and class boundaries. Women became leaders of mainstream environmental groups, led efforts for environmental justice, developed ecofeminism, and participated in direct-action environmentalism. The chapter concludes that examining women’s environmental leadership reveals similarities and differences in women’s leadership over time, women’s ongoing struggles against traditional gender norms, the broad diversity of women leading in the movement, and women’s significant influence on the environmentalism and the environment itself.
How Reputation Matters in International Relations
Authors: Crescenzi Mark J.C.
Published: February 2018

This chapter establishes a theory of reputation’s role in international relations. Using concepts such as learning and information, the theoretical model argues that reputation can impact a nation’s decision about whether to cooperate and negotiate peacefully with another state, or whether, based on that other state’s reputation, to decide to go towar. The chapter contains an historical illustration of the relevance and role of reputation in real-world politics that focuses on Tsar Alexander’s anticipation of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812, and how Napoleon’s past actions in relation to other states influenced Alexander.
Oral and Pharyngeal Cancer
Authors: Rider Jennifer R. , Brennan Paul , Lagiou Pagona
Published: February 2018

This chapter covers cancer of the oral cavity and the oropharynx, which includes the base of the tongue, soft palate, tonsils, and back and side walls of the throat. Many important risk factors for oral and oropharyngeal cancer have been identified, and in 2007 the World Health Organization determined there was sufficient evidence to include human papilloma virus (HPV) type 16 as a cause of these cancers. Tobacco and alcohol remain important modifiable risk factors, but the increasing incidence of HPV-associated tumors is now evident. While these tumors are more amenable to treatment than HPV-negative tumors, they are still a source of considerable morbidity and mortality. Moreover, the lack of a precursor lesion and limited data on efficacy of the HPV vaccine in preventing oral HPV infection are barriers to primary and secondary prevention efforts. Dietary patterns high in fruits and vegetables and low in meats may confer some protection.
Colorectal Cancer
Authors: Keum Nana , Wu Kana , Giovannucci Edward , Hunter David J.
Published: February 2018

Colorectal cancer (CRC), typically adenocarcinoma, arises from epithelial cells lining the large bowel or intestine. Colorectal adenomas are well-established precursor lesions for the majority of CRCs. Relatively uncommon prior to 1900, CRC has become the third most commonly diagnosed cancer, as well as the fourth leading cause of malignant death globally. Modifiable causes are demonstrated by the large variation in incidence across countries, rapid changes in incidence within some populations, and the transition in disease risk for immigrants toward that of the host country in migration studies. A number of lifestyle and dietary factors are now established as convincing or probable causes. In addition, the ability to access and remove adenomas can lower cancer incidence through secondary prevention. Thus, a combination of primary and secondary prevention can greatly lower incidence and mortality from CRC.
Skin Cancer
Authors: Green Adèle C. , Olsen Catherine M. , Hunter David J.
Published: February 2018

Skin cancer is one of the few types of cancer for which exposure to the major carcinogen, solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation, is strongly implicated on the basis of descriptive epidemiologic data alone. There are three major forms of skin cancer considered in this chapter—melanoma, basal cell carcinoma (BCC), and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC)—and each appears to have different causal relations to the pattern and total amount of sun exposure. High-intensity UV exposure and long-term UV exposure appear to be involved differentially in the various skin cancers and their subtypes. Underlying molecular mechanisms are becoming better understood, though many aspects like the cells of origin and the exact roles of intermediate lesions like actinic keratoses and nevi remain unclear. Because exposure of skin to UV radiation is modifiable, skin cancers are substantially preventable.
Breast Cancer
Authors: Tamimi Rulla , Hankinson Susan , Lagiou Pagona
Published: February 2018

Most of the established reproductive risk factors for breast cancer, like age at menarche or parity, are not appropriate for public health intervention. Several lines of evidence, like the associations with birthweight and early exposure to radiation, support an important influence of early-life events on subsequent breast cancer risk. The best established modifiable risk factors for the disease include postmenopausal hormone use, moderate alcohol intake, and adult weight gain. More recently, we have come to appreciate that instead of a single disease, breast cancer is rather a heterogeneous group of subtypes with different etiologies. Yet the wealth of available epidemiologic information can be synthesized into a consistent and testable, albeit still hypothetical, causal model. With our increasing knowledge on the relation between endogenous hormones and breast cancer, and the development of selective estrogen receptor modulators, as well as aromatase inhibitors, chemoprevention will likely become more common in the future.
Endometrial Cancer
Authors: Crous-Bou Marta , de Vivo Immaculata , Lagiou Pagona
Published: February 2018

Lifestyle factors contribute appreciably to endometrial cancer risk, with obesity accounting for over one-third of incident cases in high-income societies. Unlike cervical cancer, which is a model of viral carcinogenesis, endometrial cancer is considered a model of hormonal carcinogenesis, as use of unopposed estrogens postmenopausally and obesity are the best-established risk factors. Endometrial cancer is also the only known malignancy for which cigarette smoking has been shown to confer protection. Risk reduction conferred by current smoking, past oral contraceptive use, childbearing, and physical activity is believed to be mediated by hormones. This may also apply to the increase in risk associated with obesity, which increases peripheral production of estrogens, and with diabetes mellitus. Hence, it should be possible to prevent a substantial fraction of endometrial cancers through lifestyle modification. Pathological classification of endometrial cancer is currently evolving and studies are revealing different molecular subtypes within the same histological groups.
Prostate Cancer
Authors: Wilson Kathryn M. , Mucci Lorelei
Published: February 2018

Prostate cancer is among the most commonly diagnosed cancers among men, ranking second in cancer globally and first in Western countries. There are marked variations in incidence globally, and its incidence must be interpreted in the context of diagnostic intensity and screening. The uptake of prostate-specific antigen screening since the 1990s has led to dramatic increases in incidence in many countries, resulting in an increased proportion of indolent cancers that would never have come to light clinically in the absence of screening. Risk factors differ when studying prostate cancer overall versus advanced disease. Older age, African ancestry, and family history are established risk factors for prostate cancer. Obesity and smoking are not associated with risk overall, but are associated with increased risk of advanced prostate cancer. Several additional lifestyle factors, medications, and dietary factors are now emerging as risk factors for advanced disease.
Minimal Event-Causal Libertarianism
Authors: Franklin Christopher Evan
Published: February 2018

This chapter explains the differences between agency reductionism and nonreductionism, explains the varieties of libertarianism, and sets out the main contours of minimal event-causal libertarianism, highlighting just how minimal this theory is. Crucial to understanding how minimal event-causal libertarianism differs from other event-causal libertarian theories is understanding the location and role of indeterminism in human action, the kinds of mental states essential to causing free action, the nature of nondeterministic causation, and how the theory is constructed from compatibilist accounts. The chapter argues that libertarians must face up to both the problem of luck and the problem of enhanced control when determining the best theoretical location of indeterminism.
Evaluation
Authors: Kellerman Barbara
Published: February 2018

While most leadership experts seem satisfied with the leadership industry, some are not. Some argue that the industry has not only failed to develop better leaders but has made things worse. Whatever the various biases, there’s no question the industry is beset by problems, including some as fundamental as this unresolved question: What is the distinction between a leader and a manager? The matter of metrics is critical to this conversation. For the lack of an obvious yardstick to assess leadership learnings and evaluate leadership programs is one of the reasons both are dealt with haphazardly. There are, of course, some clear successes, most prominently leadership education, training, and development in the American military. The chapter closes with a discussion of how learning to lead in the military stands apart from learning to lead anywhere else in America. For leadership in the military is considered a profession— not an occupation.
Incentivizing Peace
Authors: Tir Jaroslav , Karreth Johannes
Published: February 2018

Civil wars are one of the most pressing problems facing the world. Common approaches such as mediation, intervention, and peacekeeping have produced some results in managing ongoing civil wars, but they fall short in preventing civil wars in the first place. This book argues for considering civil wars from a developmental perspective to identify steps to assure that nascent, low-level armed conflicts do not escalate to full-scale civil wars. We show that highly structured intergovernmental organizations (IGOs, e.g. the World Bank or IMF) are particularly well positioned to engage in civil war prevention. Such organizations have both an enduring self-interest in member-state peace and stability and potent (economic) tools to incentivize peaceful conflict resolution. The book advances the hypothesis that countries that belong to a larger number of highly structured IGOs face a significantly lower risk that emerging low-level armed conflicts on their territories will escalate to full-scale civil wars. Systematic analyses of over 260 low-level armed conflicts that have occurred around the globe since World War II provide consistent and robust support for this hypothesis. The impact of a greater number of memberships in highly structured IGOs is substantial, cutting the risk of escalation by over one-half. Case evidence from Indonesia’s East Timor conflict, Ivory Coast’s post-2010 election crisis, and from the early stages of the conflict in Syria in 2011 provide additional evidence that memberships in highly structured IGOs are indeed key to understanding why some low-level armed conflicts escalate to civil wars and others do not.
An Introduction to Gender and Representation in Latin America
Authors: Schwindt-Bayer Leslie A.
Published: February 2018

In this introductory chapter of Gender and Representation in Latin America, Leslie A. Schwindt-Bayer argues that gender inequality in political representation in Latin America is rooted in institutions and the democratic challenges and political crises facing Latin American countries. She situates the book in two important literatures—one on Latin American politics and democratic institutions, the other on gender and politics—and then explains how the book will explore the ways that institutions and democratic challenges and political crises moderate women’s representation and gender inequality. She introduces the book’s framework of analyzing the causes and consequences of women’s representation, overviews the organization of the volume, and summarizes the main arguments of the chapters.
Women in Presidential Cabinets
Authors: Taylor-Robinson Michelle M. , Gleitz Meredith P.
Published: February 2018

Michelle M. Taylor-Robinson and Meredith P. Gleitz show that the overall representation of women in cabinets has increased significantly since the democratic transition, but women and men tend to be represented in stereotypically gendered cabinet portfolios and women who get appointed look like men in experience, backgrounds, and other qualifications. They identify the main causes of the increase in women’s presence in cabinets as the recent political crises that have led to outsider, leftist, and female (to only a very small degree) presidents who select more women. Additionally, as women are getting more represented in national legislatures and subnational governments, they are more represented in cabinets. The consequences of greater gender balance in cabinets for women’s issues and gender equality programs are minimal. Female cabinet ministers find it difficult to promote women’s issues because they are often in posts with little access to resources or need to implement the president’s priorities instead.
Women’s Representation in Subnational Governments
Authors: Escobar-Lemmon Maria C. , Funk Kendall D.
Published: February 2018

Despite national gains, women’s representation at the subnational level has not increased much over time. In this chapter, Maria C. Escobar-Lemmon and Kendall D. Funk present and analyze original data on subnational legislatures and executives in Latin America. They examine the determinants of women’s representation in legislative and executive office and show that institutions and cross-arena diffusion are key explanations. Escobar-Lemmon and Funk show that women in local executive and legislative offices have worked to promote gender equality and women’s issues and worked to transform political arenas in ways that make them less biased toward women. They do, however, point out some significant challenges for gender equality in subnational politics—women are not getting into local executive offices to the same extent as they are legislative offices, subnational party politics has not been friendly to women, and gender balance is far from assured in local judiciaries and bureaucracies.
Building programs in a Linux environment
Authors: Boudreau Joseph F. , Swanson Eric S.
Published: February 2018

A specific computing technology is commonplace in the ecosystem of modern scientific computing. Elements of this technology, including the linux and OS/X operating systems and the C++ computing language, are introduced, and provide the student with a basis for writing and building programs to solve mathematical and scientific problems that occur throughout the text and most likely throughout a career in the physical sciences. While high-level languages may facilitate computation (or not), they often complicate the build procedure. This chapter discusses the steps involved in the build of simple and more complicated programs and program libraries, the use of external libraries or APIs, and automation of build procedures. Advice is given on mysterious problems in the build and execution of a program, and on the utilities that can be used to elucidate them. Source code management systems are also discussed.
Polymorphism
Authors: Boudreau Joseph F. , Swanson Eric S.
Published: February 2018

Polymorphism is a programming style that is supported by C++ and other languages which allows objects of different classes to be treated in a common way and permits high level abstractions for C++ functions. With proper use, polymorphism can become the basis of robust, flexible code that anticipates future extensions without requiring modification to an existing code base. It underpins a programming style called object-oriented programming, which can be used to manage the complexity of a computing project, and which must be fully understood to function in a modern programming environment. The nuts-and-bolts of polymorphism and object-oriented programming, such as inheritance and virtual functions, are discussed and illustrated with examples from numerical programming.
Nonlinear dynamics and chaos
Authors: Boudreau Joseph F. , Swanson Eric S.
Published: February 2018

Simple maps and dynamical systems are used to explore chaos in nature. The discussion starts with a review of the properties of nonlinear ordinary differential equations, including the useful concepts of phase portraits, fixed points, and limit cycles. These notions are developed further in an examination of iterative maps that reveal chaotic behavior. Next, the damped driven oscillator is used to illustrate the Lyapunov exponent that can be used to quantify chaos. The famous KAM theorem on the conditions under which chaotic behavior occurs in physical systems is also presented. The principle is illustrated with the Hénon-Heiles model of a star in a galactic environment and billiard models that describe the motion of balls in closed two-dimensional regions.
Templates, the standard C++ library, and modern C++
Authors: Boudreau Joseph F. , Swanson Eric S.
Published: February 2018

This chapter is devoted to programming techniques which rely on the C++ template mechanism. This mechanism, which is the basis of a computing style known as generic programming, allows whole families of functions and classes to be easily written. It is described early in the chapter. A host of extremely useful template functions and classes is universally available in the C++ standard library, including container classes (vector, list, set, and map) and algorithms used to sort, shuffle, and otherwise manipulate or query their contents. The chapter closes with an introduction to the newer constructs of modern C++: smart pointers, lambda functions, the auto keyword, range-based for loops, and more. An application to group theory is explored in the exercises.
Introduction
Authors: Schmidt Susanne K.
Published: February 2018

An intergovernmental treaty that has specific aims for cooperation has a very different thrust than national constitutions, which are designed to allow political order and to safeguard individual rights. I argue that the literature in political science on the ECJ is too focused on showing how member states can influence the Court. It overlooks the supranational outcomes that ensue when the Treaty contains policy prescriptions, while being constitutionalized through supremacy and direct effect. Through its case law, the Court provides additions to the Treaty. To demonstrate the importance of judicial policymaking through case-law development and codification, three steps are fundamental to the book’s argument. First, we have to understand both case-law development and the impact of the Court. Secondly and thirdly, we must ask how the ECJ’s case law may make a difference to policymaking at both the European and member-state levels.
Europeanization With and Against the Odds
Authors: Schmidt Susanne K.
Published: February 2018

The extent to which member states still enjoy the autonomy to regulate their society and economy ultimately depends on the way the Court interprets the constraints of the Treaty. As a consequence, the domestic impact of the EU goes beyond the implementation of European secondary law, which Europeanization research focuses on. European case law should take immediate effect in the member states, but the literature in this area expects member states to contain compliance. Chapter 6 contrasts two case studies for markedly different member-state reactions to case law: the German reaction to the Meilicke tax cases and the Irish reaction to the Zambrano case. While the Meilicke case confirms that case law does not generally have a direct impact at the member-state level, the implementation of the Zambrano case by Ireland and other member states shows that member states also implement EU case law in a rule-of-law fashion.
The Europeanization Effects of Case Law
Authors: Schmidt Susanne K.
Published: February 2018

Chapter 7 seeks to summarize what we can learn from different case studies concerning member-state responses to EU case law. Compliance with secondary law requires the implementation of specific policies, but case law cannot make comprehensive policy prescriptions. Instead, it normally prohibits certain member-state policies by declaring them to be in conflict with EU law. There can be no expectation for the one-dimensional impact of case law, I argue. Given that the Europeanization effects of case law have hardly been researched, I give an overview of different responses, structured according to executive, legislative, and judiciary reactions, which are considered alongside the responses from societal actors. In particular, the example of EU citizens’ access to tax-financed social benefits shows how difficult it is for national administrations to translate case-law principles into general administrative procedures.
Biogeography and habitats of carnivorous plants
Authors: Brewer J. Stephen , Schlauer Jan
Published: February 2018

Understanding the processes involved in generating distribution patterns of carnivorous plants requires investigation at multiple scales. Carnivorous plants typically occur in warm or hot and humid or wet climates in subtropical to tropical regions of all continents. Carnivorous plants tend to grow in wet, open, and nutrient-poor habitats. Most carnivorous plants are less tolerant of dry soils than are non-carnivorous plants. The reasons why many carnivorous plants are absent from habitats with nutrient-rich soils remain unclear, but the roles of competition and soil anoxia warrant greater attention. Reduced competition from woody plants (e.g., following fires) contributes to neutral coexistence of carnivorous and noncarnivorous herbs, and there is no evidence to date in support of nutrient-niche partitioning. More studies of interspecific competition are needed to understand better the distribution patterns and drivers of species coexistence of carnivorous and noncarnivorous plants.
Systematics and evolution of Droseraceae
Authors: Fleischmann Andreas , Cross Adam T. , Gibson Robert , Gonella Paulo M. , Dixon Kingsley W.
Published: February 2018

The Droseraceae belongs to the botanical order Nepenthales and comprises three genera: Drosera (sundews) with adhesive traps; and the sister genera Dionaea (Venus’ flytrap) and Aldrovanda (waterwheel plant), each of which evolved snap-traps. Vegetative and generative morphology of each genus are illustrated and interpreted based on phylogenetic evidence. Phylogeny, evolutionary history, and infrageneric classification of Drosera are discussed in light of molecular phylogenetic data, and illustrated with phylogenetic trees and maps of their distribution.
Systematics and evolution of small genera of carnivorous plants
Authors: Cross Adam T. , Paniw Maria , Scatigna André Vito , Kalfas Nick , Anderson Bruce , Givnish Thomas J. , Fleischmann Andreas
Published: February 2018

Carnivory is found in eight additional plant families besides the well-studied and speciose Droseraceae, Lentibulariaceae, Nepenthaceae, and Sarraceniaceae. These include six species-poor or monogeneric families (Drosophyllaceae, Dioncophyllaceae, Cephalotaceae, Roridulaceae, Byblidaceae); the carnivorous genus Philcoxia in the otherwise noncarnivorous, species-rich Plantaginaceae; and at least one species in each of three monocot genera in which carnivory is not a universal trait: Bromeliaceae (Brocchinia and Catopsis) and Eriocaulaceae (Paepalanthus). We review the current knowledge of these nine genera with a focus on their biology, ecology, and evolution. Although the small carnivorous genera are not diverse in terms of species number, they contain some of the most unique, peculiar, and ecologically novel carnivorous plants. The species include plants reliant upon digestive mutualism with insects; a carnivorous epiphyte; and a part-time carnivore.
Functional anatomy of carnivorous traps
Authors: Płachno Bartosz J. , Muravnik Lyudmila E.
Published: February 2018

We review the current knowledge of trap anatomy of carnivorous plants, with a focus on the diversity and structure of the glands that are used to attract, capture, kill and digest their prey and finally to absorb nutrients from carcasses of prey. These glands have diverse forms. Regardless of their structure and origin, they have the same functional units, but there are differences in subcellular mechanisms and adaptations for carnivory. We propose a new type of carnivorous plant trap—a ‘fecal traps—which has unique physiology, morphology, and anatomy for attracting the animals that are the source of excrement and also to retain and use it.
Motile traps
Authors: Poppinga Simon , Bauer Ulrike , Speck Thomas , Volkov Alexander G.
Published: February 2018

We review the biomechanics, functional morphology, and physiology of motile traps. The movements of snap traps in Aldrovanda and Dionaea, motile adhesive traps in Drosera and Pinguicula, and suction traps in Utricularia are driven by active water displacement processes leading to reversible turgor changes of motor cells, irreversible growth, or mechanical pre-stressing of tissues. In some cases, the motion is amplified by the release of elastic energy stored in these tissues. The only known case of a passive motile trapping movement is the ‘springboard’ trapping mechanism of Nepenthes gracilis, in which a rapid vibration of the pitcher lid is actuated by the impact force of raindrops. Open research questions are summarized and future studies are suggested.
Biochemistry of prey digestion and nutrient absorption
Authors: Matušíková Ildikó , Pavlovič Andrej , Renner Tanya
Published: February 2018

Digestion of captured prey and retrieval of nutrients by plants is a central feature of carnivorous plants. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the composition of digestive fluids and the general mechanisms of prey digestion in carnivorous plant genera. Genus-specific features and enzyme regulatory mechanisms are presented that might contribute to the success and efficiency of carnivory in the Caryophyllales. The available evidence for the hypothesis that proteins involved in prey decomposition evolved as a result of a functional shift from defense-related activities is presented.
Biotechnology with carnivorous plants
Authors: Legendre Laurent , Darnowski Douglas W.
Published: February 2018

Several carnivorous plant families have been a source of medicine for centuries in many parts of the world. Research into their active ingredients have revealed that they include naphthoquinones, flavonoids, phenolic acid derivatives, goodyerosides, iridoids, and phenylpropanoids. Many aspects of their industrial production have been optimized, including plant elicitation, plant genetic modification, and plant in vitro culture to limit the collect of wild material. The currently most active biotechnological developments are related directly to their carnivorous nature. These include the heterologous production of therapeutic polypeptides by carnivorous plant secretory glands; and the creation of bio-inspired engineered products based on the snap-buckling mechanism of trap closure of the Venus’ fly trap, the internal nano-structures of the Drosera mucilage, and the physical properties of the slippery zone of the Nepenthes pitcher with applications in the textile, automobile, aeronautics, architecture, and medical industries.
Pitcher-plant communities as model systems for addressing fundamental questions in ecology and evolution
Authors: Miller Thomas E. , Bradshaw William E. , Holzapfel Christina M.
Published: February 2018

Carnivorous plants have close associations with other species that live in or on the plant. Sarracenia purpurea has a particularly large number of inquiline species, many of which are obligates that live in its water-filled leaves. These include a well-studied food web of bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, mites, and Diptera larvae, all of which depend on the prey of the host plant. This model system has been used to address fundamental questions in ecology and evolution, including studies of keystone predation, succession, consumer versus resource control, invasion, dispersal, and the roles of resources and predators in metacommunities. The microecosystem also has been used to understand density-dependent selection, the genetic structure of populations, evolution over climatic gradients, and evolution in a multispecies, community context. In this chapter, the ecology of this potentially mutualistic contained community is explored in the context of its carnivorous host.
Conservation of carnivorous plants
Authors: Clarke Charles , Cross Adam , Rice Barry
Published: February 2018

Approximately 20% of carnivorous plant species are threatened worldwide. Key threats include habitat degradation and loss, altered fire regimes or hydrology, and collection of plants for trade. In most parts of the world, conservation efforts are focused on documenting the threats to species, a necessary precursor to the implementation of conservation strategies and actions. To date, North America is the only region where species-specific conservation actions have been implemented. In southwestern Australia, inappropriate land management practices and urbanization threaten a number of species, whereas in Southeast Asia, Nepenthes pitcher plants are threatened by habitat destruction and collection for trade. Some iconic carnivorous plant species in these two biodiversity hotspots are critically endangered and the need for recovery plans and actions is urgent. There is an equally urgent need for baseline data on the conservation status of carnivorous plant species from other regions, particularly Africa and South America.
Why Study Nonlinear Time Series Analysis?
Authors: Huffaker Ray , Bittelli Marco , Rosa Rodolfo
Published: February 2018

Nonlinear Time Series Analysis (NLTS) provides a mathematically rigorous collection of techniques designed to reconstruct real-world system dynamics from time series data on a single variable or multiple causally-related variables. NLTS facilitates scientific inquiry that emphasizes strong supportive evidence, well-conducted and thorough inquiry, and realism. Data provide an essential evidentiary portal to a reality to which we have only limited access. Random-appearing data do not prove that underlying dynamic process are subject to exogenous inherently-random forces. The possibility exists that observed volatility is generated by inherently-unstable, deterministic, and nonlinear real-world dynamic systems. NLTS allows the data to speak regarding which type of system dynamics generated them. It is capable of detecting linear as well as nonlinear deterministic system dynamics, and diagnosing the presence of linear stochastic dynamics. Our objective is to use NLTS to uncover the structure best corresponding to reality whether it be linear, nonlinear, deterministic, or stochastic. Accurate diagnosis of real-world dynamics from observed data is crucial to develop valid theory, and to formulate effective public policy based on theory.
Cutting to the Bone
Authors: Refslund Bjarke , Wagner Ines
Published: February 2018

The chapter scrutinizes how German and Danish unions are navigating the increasingly integrated slaughterhouse industry, based on a case study of a large Danish multinational slaughterhouse company with operations in both Denmark and Germany. The German slaughterhouse industry is highly affected by increasing fragmentation of production and the widespread use of low-paid workers often posted from Eastern Europe, which the Danish multinational company utilizes to lower its production costs. The Danish slaughterhouse workers’ union was more successful in safeguarding workers’ wage and working conditions and preventing labour market segmentation, while their German peers faced much more precarious work. These differences are explained by the vast differences in the unions’ power resources in the two systems. Danish unions were in a much stronger position in terms of membership, where unionization remains a social custom, with stronger collective agreements and local representation compared with the German union.