bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The effect of managerial distribution of scientific and technical information on company performance
Authors: Orpen Christopher
Published: May 2007

272 scientific and technical personnel working in the R&D departments of 25 firms in the electronics/instrumentation field noted how often their managers engaged in different forms of influencing them to use scientific and technical information originating outside the firm (STI). The firms were classified as either ‘high performers’ or as ‘low performers’ on the basis of their sales growth and return on assets. Managers in the high performing firms were perceived to make significantly more use of the following forms of influence than those in low performing firms; supporting professional visits and continuing education, routing literature and references to scientific and technical staff, directing their staff to use STI and purchasing STI services. There was no difference between the two groups of managers in their perceived use of organizational efforts to increase use of STI, such as changing work and personnel and altering hiring and promotional policies. These findings suggest that company performance can be improved if managers take specific steps to encourage their staff to use STI.
The communicative power of expert systems
Authors: Hughes Sheila
Published: May 2007

‘Expert Systems’ or intelligent knowledge‐based computer systems can be expected to have a considerable impact in the near future on the dissemination and use of technical expertise in practical situations. The potential benefits of such an approach to decision‐making in applied science domains, for example, in anti‐corrosive coating selection, are considerable. This paper argues, therefore, that a premium must be placed on such a system's performance as a communicator.

The structure and behaviour of a classical ‘production system’ are briefly described, and the communicative ability of such a system is analysed. This critical examination of a production system's question‐answering capabilities highlights the inherent restrictions which the structure of this kind of system places on its explanatory and justificatory powers. An outline design for a less inhibitive structure is presented.

It is argued that the form in which the system provides ‘answers’ after the completion of a problem‐solving session, may not yield sufficient appropriate information to the user, and a possible alternative view of a ‘solution schema’ is proposed.
Toward an integrated cognitive model of the inventor/engineer
Authors: Silverman B. G.
Published: May 2007

The ‘intuitive‐complex’ processes of the inventor/engineer are probed in terms of a descriptive model that is being translated into an integrated system capable of automated cognitive functioning. Neither a valid cognitive profile of the innovator nor the Artificial Intelligence (Al) program currently exists. This paper addresses:

1. The long‐term research focus.

2. Research efforts to date that have resulted in first generation versions of each, i.e. profiles and computer programs.

3. The ‘immediate’ payback results to the sponsoring organizations (NASA and the Pentagon) of these efforts in terms of knowledge management aids and recommendations for job and organizational redesigns.

4. Future research directions required to improve our understanding of the inventor's cognitive profile and our ability to apply Al tools to real‐world (fuzzy and ill‐defined) problems.
Knowledge acquisition by computer induction
Authors: McLaren R.
Published: May 2007

The generation of Expert Systems requires that the specialized knowledge of an expert be transferred to a computer system in a form suitable for machine interpretation. In many knowledge domains it is difficult for experts to describe their knowledge in an appropriate form. Where such expert knowledge is difficult to describe it is often possible to obtain good examples of the expert's decisions. Newly emerging computing techniques allow the induction of decision rules from examples; rules which can often effectively model the decision making behaviour of the expert in such situations. The use of such techniques provides a powerful new tool for the construction of Expert Systems.
Interactive expert systems*
Authors: Pelc K. I.
Published: May 2007

The author points out the advantages of using the collective intellect of a group of experts over that of a single expert – combination of disciplines, stimulation of creativity, exploiting intuition. Use of this enhanced problem‐solving capacity must also take into account the negatives – conformity, domination, misunderstandings and indiscipline.

The author discusses three ways of managing groups of experts: treating them as passive suppliers of precise answers to closed questions (as in conventional expert systems), as active idea‐generators responding to openended questions (cf. brainstorming etc.) or, best of all, allowing them to interact constructively either passively or actively depending on the current requirements of the problem‐solving process.

The role of computer technologies is then to facilitate these interactive group processes, for example by holding the stock of ‘hard’ information, or helping the unhindered provision of individual inputs and permitting collective processing of those inputs towards a problem solution, or providing the technology for predicting the consequences of candidate group‐defined solutions. Such assistance would be especially valuable in economic and technological forecasting.
Development and use of organisational climate mapping in Research and Development teams
Authors: Jabri Muayyad M.
Published: May 2007

Team climate is a construct which easily fits with organisational diagnosis and R&D effectiveness and which has been found to be readily acceptable to team leaders. This paper briefly describes the construction and use of an organisation climate instrument which was developed as a diagnostic tool for team climate characteristics in R&D, and a springboard for initiating indepth discussions with R&O team leaders. A system of feedback was developed which comprised a computerized set of plots including (1) CLIMAP (Climate MAPping) intended to depict the individual and aggregate profiles of individual perceptions along relevant climate dimensions. (2) LOCMAT (LOCation MATrix) intended to portray in a matrix form, the location of members relative to each other regarding their perception of team climate and the extent of their agreement/disagreement therewith. The development and use of the instrument and its associated form of feedback is viewed as a potential method for increasing the awareness of team members, project managers and team leaders of their work environment, and as a useful tool for initiating planned change. To date, information has been collected from more than 300 scientific and technical personnel in R&D establishments; amongst these, more specific data have been collected in 18 teams. Implications for management and also for further research are discussed.
R&D in the People's Republic of China
Authors: Huang Y.
Published: May 2007

Since her founding in 1949, China has gone a long way in formulating her own R&D structure and policy. There are successful stories and painful lessons as well. In this paper the author intends to examine the evolution of the Chinese R&D structure and policy; the pros and cons with this structure and policy. And finally how China is at present reforming the structure and policy, and why she is doing so.

Structure and policy are two of the key factors that affect the effectiveness of R&D. With appropriate structure and policy, R&D will not only advance the state of art of science and technology, but also contribute a great deal to the progress of the society and the prosperity of the nation's economy. Therefore, the main theme of the paper will be concentrated on how China could reform her R&D structure and policy so that R&D can play a bigger role in building up China's economy and modernization.
Nature of the R&D/Marketing co‐operation in the design of technologically advanced new industrial products
Authors: Bonnet Didier C. L.
Published: May 2007

Many studies have consistently reported that success in industrial new product innovation is linked with the degree of interfacing between R&D and Marketing in the early stages of the product development process. However, very little evidence of such an interface has been reported in advanced technology firms and the relevant literature provides little empirical material on the matter.

Based on a pilot study of 23 new product projects in ten firms in the U.K. it is argued that, in many instances, firms are missing a fundamental issue in the R&D/Marketing cooperation. Too often, the interface is limited to the identification of general market need for a particular new product idea.

The paper emphasises the fact that the interface should provide the means for an efficient product design procedure between R&D and Marketing. This design link should, in turn, profit both the engineering design of the product and its future marketability. The paper also outlines the advantages and the problems inherent in the exercise and proposes a framework for implementation.
Matching management control systems to product strategies
Authors: McDonough E. F.
Published: May 2007

A framework for management control of new product development projects is presented. Five mechanisms which comprise a management control system are identified. These mechanisms include:—

1. The control climate.

2. Management involvement.

3. Supervision.

4. The selection and socialization of individuals.

5. Organization structure.

These mechanisms are key not only because they have a significant influence on the control of new product development projects, but also because they are amenable to manipulation by management.

It is proposed that there is no one best management control system for all situations. Rather, the management control system that will be most successful is the one that is best suited to a particular product strategy. A discussion of the characteristics of two distinctly different product strategies is presented, followed by a discussion of each of the five control mechanisms mentioned above. Finally, we discuss the integration of each product strategy with its respective management control system.
International Scientific and a New Communication ‐ Old Problems and a New Perspective
Authors: Holden N.
Published: May 2007

The author establishes the point that although English is the major language of scientific and technical communication important work is published in other languages, notably German, Russian and Japanese. The author argues that English‐speaking scientists and technologists are probably unaware of this work to the detriment of technical progress. Presenting evidence that the three traditional cures' are impractical or unworkable (i.e. become pro‐ ficient in foreign languages, wait for effective machine translation or agree on a single scientific communication language) the author recommends a new approach. This is that certainly German and probably Russian should be compulsory but unexamined parts of the scientific educational curriculum, right through the secondary and higher educational stages. He also advocates in a more limited way a new type of course in Japanese in which it is treated more as a code than as a language.
A Taxonomy of R&D Control Models and Variables Affecting Their Use
Authors: Tymon W. G. , Lovelace R. F.
Published: May 2007

This paper provides a discussion of dimensions and variables along these dimensions which are believed to be relevant to the control of R&D. Control models gleaned from the literature are compared and classified into a threedimensional taxonomy of control models. The proposed dimensions and the variables associated with them are:

Focus (i.e. project, related projects, programs);

Technical Effort Measurement (Le. project milestones, program goals, organizational agenda);

Financial Orientation (i.e. expense, capital). Of the eighteen potential control models yielded by the taxonomy, nine were found to be reported in use in the literature.

In addition, the authors hypothesize that organizational history, profitability, structure, task environment, type of research conducted, and hierarchical level of control are important determinants of the type of control employed in organizations. How these factors influence the control variables employed in organizations is hypothesized and discussed.
Government sponsored programmes for international technological exchanges and applied collective research
Authors: Sciberras E.
Published: May 2007

The author sets out to critically reassess the conventional wisdom that, in the high‐tech semiconductor market at least, R&D and innovation demands inter‐firm collaboration and significant government intervention and funding. The hinge of his critique is that arguments for extensive collective work are dominated by technology and underestimate the need of individual firms to put the effect on their competitiveness first when new technology is on the agenda for development. Government sponsored collective agreements may in fact result in loss of competitiveness if they encourage technology inappropriate for market needs. In fact, R&D is not the only important contributor to innovation; licensing‐in an existing technology new to the firm may be an equally effective means of achieving competitiveness.

The author concludes that the value of technical agreements to a firm will differ from industry to industry and from nation to nation, but, whatever the situation, in making the decision whether or not to participate it must be expected a firm will give priority to maintaining its competitiveness.
British Science Parks: Reflections on the Politics of High Technology
Authors: Macdonald Stuart
Published: May 2007

Science parks—high technology property developments associated with universities—have suddenly proliferated in Britain. Local authorities, universities and public sector development agencies are now eager to exploit what seems an obvious way of stimulating high technology industry. Though much of their enthusiasm is a product of self interest, it is justified by arguments that science parks provide conditions conducive to high technology industry's prosperity. These arguments are hard to accept, but then so too is the reasoning that perceives easy and instant benefits from high technology. Such euphoria is in stark contrast to the reality that will probably face many British science parks. Keywords: science parks, high technology, universities, Britain, information flow.
Corporate strategy as a source of ideas
Authors: Wilkinson A.
Published: May 2007

This paper looks at a number of others which bear on the interface between Corporate Strategy and R&D Planning to see if a more systematic approach can suggest a sequence to be followed so that Corporate Strategy can be seen as a source of ideas for R&D.

The purpose of R&D is defined in terms of contributing to the competitiveness of the Company or Business Unit being served. The areas of competition or threats from the external environment are then explored using a model taken from Porter's book ‘Competitive Strategy’. Each area of competition is considered in turn and strategies identified which might enable the company to maintain its competitive edge. Sub‐objectives for the R&D function can then be determined allocating resources and time for their completion.

It is the performance of the R&D function inj fulfilling these sub‐objectives which can be the basis of measuring the effectiveness of R&D.
Lessons from a low‐budget innovation centre
Authors: McMullan W. Ed.
Published: May 2007

In the two years from November 1983 to September 1985, an experimental innovation centre was set up at the University of Calgary to offer services to community ventures by using the existing resources to serve those people developing new ventures in the community. A conservative estimate of $250, 000 worth of resources was leveraged out of an initial operating grant of $20, 000. Outcomes from the first year's operations included $ 1.75 million value added to 50 of 65 community businesses receiving support.

This article places the strategy used at the University of Calgary's Low Budget Innovation Centre with the context of related strategies for supporting new innovative ventures. The history of the centre is reviewed, some lessons drawn, and an operational model formulated.
Medium term planning and control in research organizations
Authors: Croft David , Finlay Paul N.
Published: May 2007

By definition, the processes involved in research involve an element of uniqueness and the exact nature of the end product cannot be predicted with certainty. Thus the means used for planning and controlling organisations for which research is a dominant activity cannot be the same as those for which the activities are repetitive and for which standards can be defined.

This paper describes the differences in planning and control methodology to be expected between process‐oriented and research organisations and reports the results of a survey of the accounting practices of 10 research organisations.
Project evaluation: Externalities must not be disregarded
Authors: Zaidman Beno , Cevidalli Guido
Published: May 2007

While technology assessment is now usually performed at government level, methods proposed in the literature for evaluating single R and D projects by industrial concerns do not generally dedicate sufficient attention to possible externalities.

The authors propose a model for evaluating R and D projects based on the concept of ‘limiting constraints’ imposed by the different organizations or groups of interest with which the company interfaces.
R and D Project Selection and Evaluation: A Microcomputer‐Based Approach
Authors: Jin Xiao‐Yin , Porter Alan L. , Rossini Frederick A. , Anderson E. D.
Published: May 2007

This paper develops microcomputer‐based R and D project selection and project evaluation models. The models use Lotus 1‐2‐3 as a vehicle to provide practical research management support suitable for a developing country. The models are readily adaptable for various R and D management applications.
Developing a Performance Appraisal System
Authors: Barnhart Sara A.
Published: May 2007

Believing that the foundation of any performance enhancement program, productivity improvement effort, or career development program is a sound performance appraisal system, several years ago we formed a task force of line managers whose charge was to design an appraisal system which would be successful in Pfizer Central Research‐US—an organization of approximately 1300 people most of whom are involved in basic research for the pharmaceutical, agricultural, and chemical operating divisions of Pfizer Inc. The system which resulted calls for three different ‘appraisal events’ during the year: a Self‐Appraisal, a Performance Appraisal, and a midyear Progress Review. The task force felt that for the new system to function successfully, it was important that people regard it as important, understand what it is, and feel as comfortable as possible during the three supervisor‐supervisee appraisal discussions. To help insure that these stipulations be met, the new system was announced by the President of the Division, a booklet describing it was written and distributed to all employees, and two training programs (one for supervisors and one for supervisees) were designed and conducted. The full annual cycle has been in effect for two years and the feedback we receive is positive. Now that this component is in place, we see the next logical step to be to move aggressively into designing a more specific approach to career development.
Scientific and technical information transfer for high technology: keeping the figure in its ground
Authors: Davis Peter , Wilkof Marcia
Published: May 2007

The gatekeeper approach to the management of scientific and technical information (STI) is most relevant to companies engaged in product development in a dynamic technological environment (Allen, Tushman, & Lee, 1977). We will argue in this paper that these companies have a choice of how to effectively organize. The organizational structure and processes they implement will have major effects on how STI is transferred as well as the quality of the STI that is disseminated and used. Hence, changing the context within which STI is transferred may be much more effective than improving the efficiency of existing transfer procedures.
The budgeting process for R&D laboratories
Authors: Wilkinson Alan
Published: May 2007

The author had been associated with the writing of a short series of case studies into the process by which companies allocate their R&D budgets to individual departments or projects. A key question became the location of responsibility for determining the objectives of work under‐taken in R&D, and also responsibility for the allocation of resources in R&D.

The cases revealed that decisions were taken by senior R&D managers at one extreme, and by marketing or production managers at the other, but also most often jointly between the functions with different weightings of authority. The parameter most clearly differentiating between the loci of responsibility was the project duration. This led to the development of a two dimensional diagram correlating the expected remaining duration of the project, with the locus of responsibility for its management.

It is expected that this model which fits current practice into a normative framework will enable organizations to review and adjust their present methods of coping with the complexities of R&D budgeting.
The R&D/Production interface in four developed countries
Authors: Bergen S. A. , Miyajima R. , McLaughlin C. P.
Published: May 2007

The relationship between company R&D and commercial performance, if any, is the subject of much discussion and little measurement. One view (Bisio and Gastwirt 1979) is that meaningful quantitative generalisations on the value of R&D to companies cannot be made.

A later study (Bergen 1983) introduced quantitative methods by creating a series of hypotheses. These were tested by scoring related variables and analysing the data for correlations and population differences. The study was confined to one industry to approach like for like comparison as closely as possible.

The results encouraged the extension of the study to include Japan (Bergen & Miyajima 1986) and the USA. The present paper reports on the four country quantitative comparisons. Among other indications, the findings support the view that national culture is an important factor in both methods and results and that there is a correlation between R&D investment and productivity.
R&D project selection: Productivity considerations
Authors: Cook Wade D. , Roll Akov
Published: May 2007

The paper consists of a theoretical discussion of the circumstances justifying the use of R&D to increase the productivity of a firm's manufacturing capability. There are three possibilities: Increase the productivity of existing capacity; re‐equip with purchased existing best‐practice technology; or use R&D to develop new technology.

The choice depends on which of the four following situations exist: 1) When the productivity of existing capacity is well below its potential and is also well below that of the industry's best‐practice; in this case the right strategy is first to bring actual productivity up to potential, and then to consider the purchase of best‐practice. 2) When productivity is well up to potential but is well below best practice; the advice is then to purchase best‐practice. 3) When existing capacity is already best‐practice but productivity is well below capacity; in this case productivity of existing plant should be increased. 4) When existing capacity is bestpractice and productivity is near the maximum; then and only then is R&D to develop new technology justified.

The paper concludes with a brief account of the process to be undergone between the establishment of a case for R&D using the above criteria and, if R&D is undertaken and completed, the retrospective review of its outcome.
The research process & research teams
Authors: Alsop K.
Published: May 2007

The mutual support of a model of the research process and the skills needed in successful teams is described and the practical consequences of this juxtaposition are outlined. These range from recruitment policies on the one hand to the diagnosis and solution of team problems on the other. The paper concludes with brief references to other relevant papers.
Technologically evolving industrial equipment fabricators: their foreign involvement
Authors: Tesar George , Velu Raja
Published: May 2007

In the United States fabrication shops build equipment to client specifications. Once their growth and profitability were closely aligned with those of their clients who were generally the larger firms. Now that most of these clients import their needs from abroad, fabrication shops need to compete on their own in both domestic and foreign markets. In order to help them achieve their goal, we need to have some understanding of their internal development and further identify possible barriers to their foreign involvement. To this end, a conceptual model with several operational and planning variables, to discriminate fabrication shops that service foreign markets from those that do not, is postulated and empirically tested. Policy implications of the study findings are discussed briefly. Limitations of the statistical procedures and possible future work are outlined.
Managing an in‐house R&D service department
Authors: Grainge N. J. , Pearson A. W.
Published: May 2007

The paper reports a study carried out in a large UK industrial R&D establishment which had recognised that queuing for service from support groups was becoming a serious problem.

The main part of the study was carried out on the operations of an analytical department. Interviews were carried out with both ‘servers’ and ‘customers’ at all levels in the organisation. These were supplemented by observations of the actual process by which service was demanded and rendered, and by analysis of records.

The study revealed why the queuing problem arose and the reasons for its undesirable effects. The authors concluded that resolution of the problems is a matter for the organization as a whole, and not merely for servers and customers.

The situation is further analysed in terms of queuing theory. It is argued that improvement could be achieved if a systematic priority allocation system which took into account both urgency and importance were instituted. However, rational scheduling is possible only over a short time horizon, given current human and computing abilities. To achieve optimization over a longer time horizon the authors recommend the development of an expert system incorporating past experience into its knowledge base.
Changes in the field of R&D management over the past 20 years
Authors: Allen Thomas J. , George Varghese
Published: May 2007

Abstract

The purpose of this bibliographic study is to identify trends of interest in the field of the management of technology in the last 20 years. The data used are based mainly on a classification of the topics covered by papers printed in this journal since its first publication in 1970.

On the whole, interest in most of the topics has remained steady, notably in economics of R&D, communication, innovation and creativity. The only notable decrease in interest has been in project evaluation and selection. Relative to their importance, the authors remark that in some areas in which interest has remained steady, such as creativity and innovation, not enough is being done. Areas in which interest has increased include organizational issues, the interface between R&D and production and the impact of information technology. Interest in technology strategy increased over the early part of the review period but has recently declined.

The authors conclude by listing topics which strongly deserve attention by workers in the field. They cite integration of R&D into corporate strategy, organizing for technological flexibility, technology assessment and transfer, speeding up the R&D process, measuring the impact of new information technology, intrapreneurship and defining the role of basic R&D in technology development.
The commerciaIization of stagnant technologies
Authors: Ehretsmann J. , Hinkly A. , Minty A. , Pearson A. W.
Published: May 2007

Abstract

This paper focusses on technologies which have failed to reach the marketplace for reasons which are connected more with the organization in which they were developed than with the technology itself. They are referred to as stagnant technologies.

Such technologies can clearly be exploited via joint ventures; however there can be problems of finding a suitable partner and managing the partnership when one has been found. To overcome such problems a role for a third party is suggested which has been called the catalyst firm. Such a firm can be involved in identifying stagnant technologies, locating a suitable partner, and assisting in the management of the partnership through to commercialization.

This approach is central to the activities of Aprotec, a Manchester‐based company specializing in the development and commercialization of new technologies, which plays the role of the catalyst firm. Experience to date is described in the paper, and a case study is used to show how the approach has been successfully applied in practice.
A current research information system for the management of agricultural research
Authors: Corbett† D. C. M.
Published: May 2007

Abstract

A generalized current research information and costing system for management of an agricultural research programme is described by reference to the Agricultural Research Current Information System (ARCIS) of the Agricultural and Food Research Council of the United Kingdom.
A simulation model of R&D budgeting
Authors: Brockhoff Klaus
Published: May 2007

Abstract

A simple simulation model is developed that allows the testing of alternative heuristic rules for R&D budgeting. Sales‐dependent budgeting, all‐you‐can‐afford budgeting, and budgeting tied to a target rate of product innovativeness are studied. It can be shown that the choice, of the budgeting rules as well as their parameters interact with market diffusion of new products as well as with R&D returns to scale. Thus, budgeting to achieve certain growth or profit objectives has to keep these interactions in mind.
Problems of R&D manpower in India
Authors: Bharol Chowdhry Ram
Published: May 2007

Abstract

Manpower Planning is important in R&D organizations. If one examines the budget of a research institute in any part of the world, one would find that 60–70% of the expenditure is incurred on staff salaries and benefits. Of course, manpower planning is beset with problems. This paper deals with: (i) lack of literature; (ii) scientific manpower statistics; (iii) recruitment; (iv) unemployment of S&T personnel; (v) brain drain; (vi) internal brain drain; and (vii) suggestions.
Technology development in the multinational firm: a framework for planning and strategy
Authors: Contractor Farok J. , Narayanan V. K.
Published: May 2007

Abstract

The authors' purpose is to improve the coupling between technology development and corporate strategic planning in multinational firms by providing a much needed technology planning framework.

The framework, which is developed in some detail, divides the planning process into three stages: technology scanning, strategy development (product level) and implementation (country level). In the first stage an answer is sought to the question, “What technologies (as distinct from businesses) are we, or should we be in?”. in the second, the aim is to develop a strategy for each of the products from the chosen technologies; in the third stage, details of implementation on a country‐by‐country basis are worked out. Although presented as a sequence of three stages, the framework is to be applied iteratively.

The authors argue that technology for all its vital importance to a global company, cannot be treated as a profit centre. This is part of the difficulty in implementing the technology management function, especially in multidivisional and global firms. They believe that use of this framework will make it easier to integrate technology development into the strategic planning process. In addition it will serve to integrate managers from different parts of the company into a formalized technology planning exercise.
Technological experience and the technology adoption decisions in small manufacturing firms
Authors: Lefebvre Louis A. , Harvey Jean , Lefebvre Elisabeth
Published: May 2007

This paper investigates changes in factors bearing on technology adoption decisions in small manufacturing firms. It is hypothesized that, as a firm's experience with technology increases and its technological capabilities grow, the decision process is gradually modified and puts more weight on those factors which are more closely related to the true potential of the technology. An empirical study shows the more innovative firms to have an outward orientation dominated by clients and suppliers, and to pay more attention to the added flexibility brought about by new technology. It is also shown that functional groups within the company play a more important role in the decision‐making process.
The influence of primary task on R&D laboratory evaluation: a comparative bibliometric analysis
Authors: Miller Roger
Published: May 2007

Abstract

After reviewing the various approaches to R&D evaluation, the author concludes that a taxonomic approach combining organizational and bibliometric indicators offers a valid option to assess the quality of research. Fifty‐three laboratories around the world in 17 technical fields were investigated using organizational, publication and bibliometric variables.

A taxonomy of six clusters of laboratories with distinct primary tasks, organizational attributes and outputs emerged. Scientific publications are by‐products of research outputs. Within each cluster of laboratories, a wide range of bibliometric indicators make it possible to identify high and low performers in terms of research quality.

Bibliometric indicators, it is concluded, gain by being associated with comparative organizational assessments to evaluate laboratories with similar primary tasks and scientific fields.
Managing international high technology cooperative projects
Authors: Farr C. Michael , Fischer William A.
Published: May 2007

Abstract

The recent attention given to Strategic Alliances and Technological Partnering, in a variety of commercial and governmental contexts, has grown much faster than our detailed understanding of how such arrangements work. For some time, however, military agencies in the NATO countries have been involved in a number of high‐technology cooperative projects, resulting in the co‐development of new weapon systems. This paper examines fourteen such case studies (six that were relatively successful and eight that were less successful) and attempts to draw lessons from the experiences of these projects.

Among the lessons which are strongly represented in this set of projects are: the importance of insulating the projects from the vagaries of international politics, the need to provide strong project leadership and a forum for partners to work out their differences, and the bestowal of significant authority in the hands of the project manager.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: KILBURN K. D.
Published: May 2007

How to Successfully Keep R&D Projects on Track. By Robert Szakonyi et al. Lomond Publications Inc., 1988, 103 pp, $30.00 or $59.50.
Successful industrial innovation: critical factors for the 1990s
Authors: Rothwell Roy
Published: May 2007

Not only is technology changing rapidly, but the process of the commercialisation of technological change—the industrial innovation process—is changing also. The paper traces developments in the dominant perceived model of industrial innovation from the simple linear ‘technology push’ and ‘need pull’ models of the 1960s and early 1970s, through the ‘coupling model’ of the late 1970s to early 1980s, to the ‘integrated’ model of today. The latter (the 4th Generation innovation process) marked a shift from perceptions of innovation as a strictly sequential process to innovation perceived as a largely parallel process. This shift owed much to observations of innovation processes in leading Japanese corporations. Recent developments indicate the possibilities attainable in the proposed ‘strategic integration and networking’ model, elements of which are already in place. According to this 5th generation model, innovation is becoming faster; it increasingly involves inter‐company networking; and it employs a new electronic toolkit (expert systems and simulation modelling).
Strategy in pharmaceutical R&D: a portfolio risk matrix
Authors: Taggart J. H. , Blaxter T. J.
Published: May 2007

The management of any research‐intensive company must weigh carefully the expenditure on any particular development product with the sales revenues that are likely to be obtained when the new product is introduced to the market. In particular, the technical risk (whether the development product results in a marketable product) and the market risk (whether the new product can be introduced to a suitable market niche where it will generate the required revenues) have to be scrutinised.

This paper sets out to develop an original model by Drews into a methodology for assessing the risk associated with a company's research portfolio. To test a model they had developed, the authors carried out in‐depth interviews with three British pharmaceutical multinational companies, and compared the overall technical/market risk profiles of their respective development portfolios. Some interesting differences between the three were detected in terms of the overall risk profiles, in market risk, and in technical risk. The authors conclude that the matrix described here may be a useful tool in discriminating between the risk levels of the research portfolios of several companies; it may also be useful for plotting the movement of a particular firm's research risk over time.

While this paper concentrates on comparing the portfolios of three pharmaceutical firms at a particular point in time, R&D managers in other industries and other situations may find some evaluative utility in the model.
The new product development process: part 2. Improving the process of new product development
Authors: Barclay Ian
Published: May 2007

This paper describes work on evaluating and improving the New Product Development Process (NPDP). The relevant results of a survey of current practice in NPDP within 149 companies are presented. The development and experimental application, within a commercial company, of a methodology for evaluating and improving the NPDP is also described.
Modeling contribution‐spans of scientists in a field: the case of cochlear implants
Authors: Rappa Michael A. , Garud Raghu
Published: May 2007

This study uses the scientific literature as a source of data to model the contribution‐spans of scientists in the field of cochlear implants. The authors provide estimates of the probability that a scientist will contribute to the field for a given length of time and the conditional probability of a scientist ceasing to contribute to the field after having endured a given number of years. The authors also examine the significance of several variables in explaining the length of scientists' contribution spans.
Competing internationally through multiple innovative efforts
Authors: Lefebvre E. , Lefebvre L. A. , Harvey J.
Published: May 2007

Increasingly, small firms will be required to compete on international markets in order to grow and survive. This paper reports on a study of 86 small manufacturing firms operating in the metal sector. All firms had adopted one or more advanced manufacturing technology and were considered by the Canadian Association of Manufacturers as process innovative. The basic premise of this research was that in order to compete internationally, a small firm had to develop certain innovative capabilities. These capabilities were not only associated to traditional innovative efforts in R&D and process innovation, but also in supportive organizational capabilities in the form of strategic orientation, technological policy, and technological scanning. Results show that, for these small firms, process innovativeness remains an important competitive factor for international competition and that it is often linked to an aggressive strategic orientation coupled to a short term emphasis on efficiency.
The effects of national culture on the theory and practice of managing R&D professionals abroad
Authors: Hoppe Michael H.
Published: May 2007

G. Hofstede's research on ‘Culture's Consequences’ (1980) greatly shaped the discussion of cross‐cultural differences in management theory and practice during the 1980′s. And yet, his 4‐D Model's applicability to the management of R&D laboratories and their professionals worldwide remained in doubt due to the fact that his four dimensions of Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism, and Masculinity were derived from responses of mid‐level IBM employees with lower levels of formal education than those of typical R&D professionals. This paper reports on results of the first comprehensive follow‐up study that (1) show Hofstede's four dimensions to be equally valid for highly educated respondents from 17 Western European countries, Turkey, and the USA, (2) describe significant similarities between the respondents’ work goals and those of R&D professionals, and (3) suggest implications of cross‐cultural differences along the dimensions for the theory and practice of managing R&D professionals abroad.
Perceptions of United Kingdom exporters in transferring technology into the People's Republic of China
Authors: Ball D. F. , Rong Zhang , Pearson A.W.
Published: May 2007

The objective of this study was to identify for UK firms active in transferring technology into the PRC, their perceptions of the market and their clients. The research was progressed by questionnaire and interview. The companies approached were selected on the basis of contracts listed in Chinese government publications and the financial press.

The main findings relate to the lack of awareness in the UK of the role of the Chinese research institutes, the poor quality of Chinese management, the inadequacy of infrastructure and training needed to support the new technology and the absence of problems arising from cultural differences or leakage of proprietary information. The Chinese are eager to obtain new technology although there is some difficulty in identifying suppliers.
Monitoring R&D project costs against pre‐specified targets
Authors: Lewis Colin
Published: May 2007

The monitoring and interpretation of costs incurred during a project against pre‐specified targets is the most common task which R&D managers at all levels have to undertake. Graphical interpretation of such cost and target figures can provide useful feedback as to financial performance.

Spreadsheets provide an ideal environment for the manipulation of figures and production of graphs and, although not widely used, the programming facilities incorporated in such packages also allow for menu driven systems to be developed which can be operated without a knowledge of the spreadsheet's command structure thus greatly widening their area of application.

This article describes some of the elements of such a system and details its ability to automatically produce four specified graphs taken from accountancy, statistical process control and forecasting which have been shown to offer a valuable insight into cost control generally and, it is proposed, within R&D projects in particular.
Foresight studies undertaken by the Ministry of Economic Affairs in the Netherlands
Authors: Reijs Jeske
Published: May 2007

With technology gaining greater recognition as a key factor in the economic performance of a country, foresight studies to identify emerging technologies get more attention. In a lot of countries foresight studies are carried out in order to target national resources to better improve economic competitiveness. This article describes foresight studies done in the Netherlands. Started as an experiment by the Ministry of Economic Affairs in 1989 they are now an integral part of the methods for determining technology policy in the Netherlands.

The ministry defined three objectives for the foresight studies: (a) they must generate information for strategic technology policy; (b) they have to provide SME's with advance information about the possibilities for application of new technologies; (c) they have to stimulate the creation of networks between actors in industry, research and the educational system who are involved in a defined technology area. From six studies done so far (adhesives, chipcards, mecha‐tronics, matrix composites, signal processing and separation technology) the author shows how these objectives were met, which bottlenecks and which opportunities were identified and which activities were set up to exploit the situation in a certain technology area. She concludes that it is essential for the success of the foresight studies to bring together different stakeholders, to create consensus between them on future directions and to commit them to the results.
Assessment of mutually beneficial technology: East‐West perspective
Authors: Tesar George
Published: May 2007

Many firms in the transitionary economies of Central and Eastern Europe are searching for Western partners to assist them with technological development. They are particularly interested in joint ventures, strategic alliances, and management contracts. They feel that rapid infusion of new technology is the fastest way to economic recovery.

The problem is that they do not understand how their level of technology compares to the technology level in Western economies. A significant technology gap exists. This problem is further complicated because managers from transitionary economies do not have appropriate technology assessment processes to assess internal as well as external technologies. This paper reviews this problem and offers some insights on it.
Achieving success in technology alliances: The Rover‐Honda strategic collaboration
Authors: Schill Ronald L. , Bertodo Roland G. , McArthur David N.
Published: May 2007

Dynamic changes within global markets are creating a need for different strategies for firms in the pursuit of competitive advantage. International technology alliances are one mode of organising the acquisition of competitive technologies which is especially important in technology‐intensive industries. However, managers have an especially difficult challenge when trying to deal with problems of high technical risk, frequent changes in technologies, different cultural and managerial styles and perspectives. This article addresses these issues as it examines the planning and implementation of the international technology alliance between Rover and Honda, during the past fourteen years. By most criteria used, this alliance was highly successful, and the article discusses not only the areas of successful technical impact which the alliance had on these companies, but also the insights learned by Rover from the management process of the alliance. It also develops a framework of issues which managers can use to implement and manage international technology alliances.