bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hermogenes On Issues
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: November 2023

A new English translation, with commentary, of the treatise On Issues by Hermogenes of Tarsus (AD C.160-225). The book is intended to make sophisticated theories of argument developed by Greek teachers of rhetoric in the second century AD accessible both to specialist and non-specialist readers. Of interest to scholars of all types of Greek literature.
Translation
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: November 2023

There are many important elements which constitute rhetoric as an art. These have of course been grasped from the beginning and set in order by practice over time, and their practical usefulness, both in deliberative and in judicial contexts and everywhere else, is manifest. But the most important, in my view, is that concerned with division and with demon stration. By this I do not mean the division of kinds into classes, or of wholes into parts; that is another major component of rhetoric, but is not my immediate concern. The present discussion deals with the division of political questions into what are known as heads. This subject is almost identical with the theory of invention, except that it does not include all the elements of invention.
Commentary
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: November 2023

There are many important elements: Hermogenes’ opening reference to rhetoric’s status as an art (TÉXvn, cf. p.4) alludes to the common definition of art as ‘a system of cognitions ordered by practice for some goal advantageous in life’ (in Greek ‘constitute’ and ‘grasp’ are cognates of ‘system’ and ‘cognition’). Although Stoic in origin (SVF i. 21, 2. 30 £; Long and Sedley 1987,1. 259), the formula came to enjoy far wider currency, Quintilian describes it as almost universally accepted (2.17. 41). In Hermogenes its terms have lost the technical sense they had in Stoic philosophy, and the focus of interest has shifted from epistemology to history (‘from the beginning ... over time’). According to standard histories, rhetoric was established as an art in the fifth century by the Sicilians Corax and Tisias (see p. 9 £), but an implicit grasp of its principles was attributed to earlier writers, especially Homer (e.g. Quintilian 10.1. 46; cf. Radermacher 1951, 3-10; Kennedy 1957); in the second century AD Telephus of Pergamum even included issue-theory in his monograph on the 'seeds’ of rhetoric in Homer (PS 189. 2—7).
Illustrations
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: November 2023

In Libanius’ Declamation 44 a general has executed a foreigner who illegally entered the assembly. In doing so he was acting in strict accordance with the law; but the foreigner claimed before his death to have some secret to reveal, and shortly afterwards a tyrant seized power. The suspicion arises that the general was deliberately preventing the disclosure of a conspiracy to which he was party. After the tyrant is deposed the general is prosecuted for complicity; he denies the charge, so the issue is conjecture. The underlying structure of the case is similar to that at Hermogenes *56. 26-57. 11: a killing which pre-empts the disclosure of a conspiracy raises suspicion about the motive behind the killing.
Introduction
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: November 2023

The Tetrarchic age is a crucial period of change and transition in the history of the Roman empire, marking the conventional beginning of the late empire, when the reforms of Diocletian and Constantine established the pattern of government for three hundred years. But the years 284 to 324 also form a logical unit of political narrative, encompassing the genesis, existence, and demise of the tetrarchic experiment itself. The tetrarchy proper, of two Augusti and two Caesars, only functioned from 293 to 306 and ceased entirely once all the rulers held the full rank of Augustus by 3rn, but the period 305– 24 represents the aftermath of Diocletian’s abdication and the disintegration of his system. Only in 324 was the complex multiplicity of rulers, that he initiated, reduced to a single Christian dynasty.
Introduction
Authors: Kingsley Peter
Published: November 2023

This book covers a wide area in space and time, but takes as its starting-point one man who lived well over two thousand years ago. That man was called Empedocles. Empedocles was probably born around the start of the fifth century BC. He was from the Greek colony of Acragas—modern Agrigento—on the south-west coast of Sicily; but he appears to have spent much of his time travelling, as one would anyway expect from ‘seers’ of his type in the world of the ancient Mediterranean and Near East. About when he died, or where, or how, we know nothing. And yet this same man, whose life remains such a mystery to us, was to perform an unparalleled role in seeding the subsequent growth of western culture. Formulated in terms of the later trend for defining separate fields of interest or expertise, his influence made itself felt in philosophy, rhetoric, medicine, chemistry, biology, astronomy, cosmology, psychology, mysticism, and religion. The immensely influential theory of four elements, first presented in western literature by Empedocles, is just one very obvious example.
Aer
Authors: Kingsley Peter
Published: November 2023

If aither was Empedocles’ name for the element of air, what meaning—if any—did he give to the term aer? Since the time of Diels, a century ago, it has been traditional to claim that the word aer occurs five times in the surviving fragments. These need looking at one by one. Line 18 of fragment 17 lists the four elements; but the manuscripts are equally divided between giving aither or aer as the name of the final element alongside fire, water, and earth. Every editor since Diels has put aeros in the text and rejected aitheros. No reason is given, and no reason could possibly be given. This is a splendid example of the way that texts of the ‘philosophers’ continue to be granted a kind of diplomatic immunity from the laws of editorial and linguistic criticism. We have already seen how, as a matter of course, later writers substituted aer for Empedocles’ own use of the term aither when discussing or repeating what he had said. Considering the changes in terminology since Empedocles’ time, the substitution was inevitable; and from the point of view of those later writers it was totally legitimate. As a matter of fact this kind of substitution was not restricted to paraphrases or commentaries: it affected the transmitted texts of early writers as well. Replacement of aither by aer is a well-attested phenomenon in manuscripts.
Death on Etna
Authors: Kingsley Peter
Published: November 2023

There is one final aspect of the Empedocles legend which deserves a few words: its location. When touching on the story about his death in Etna, a recent editor of Empedocles brings to a close a list of groundless arguments for denying it any historical value with the statement that finally, because of the geography of Mount Etna it would have been extremely difficult for anyone to cover the distance to the foot of the mountain, to make the climb of over ten thousand feet, and then to survive the intense heat long enough to approach the mouth of the crater.
‘Not to Teach but to Heal’
Authors: Kingsley Peter
Published: November 2023

The figure of Bolus of Mendes is also helpful in the way that he raises another perhaps even more important issue. As already noted, Bolus’ writings were concerned to a large extent with the occult doctrine of sympathies and antipathies in nature, and in particular with the practical application of this doctrine to the world of plants for purposes of healing, magic, and ritual. The intimate relation between this literary output of Bolus and the ‘Neopythagorean’ plant-books of the first century BC onwards, and in certain circumstances Bolus’ influence on this later Pythagorean literature, are undeniable.
Revenge
Authors: Trapp M B
Published: November 2023

A lecture on the ethics of retaliation, belonging to the same group of ethical-civic discourses as Orr. 3-4, 14-26, and 35-7. The question at issue is introduced and focused by means of a famous poetic quotation (§§ r-2a), and answered through an analysis of the concepts of wronging and being wronged(§§ 2b-5): while the bad man commits (or at least attempts) bad action, and cannot himself be wronged, it is impossible for the good man, in any circumstances, either to commit wrong or to be its victim (i.e. he has no desire of his own to do wrong, no wrong can be done him such as to provoke him, and in any case, he can never succeed in inflicting real harm on another). The remainder of the lecture expands on this conclusion, dwelling first on great examples from history of the ills brought about by reprisal (§§ 6-9), then on the exemplary behaviour of Socrates in the face of the wrongs done him (§ 10).
Prophecy and Human Foresight
Authors: Trapp M B
Published: November 2023

Introduction

This lecture is the last in the main sequence of Maximus’ cosmological-theological discourses; it has close thematic links with Orr. 5, II, and 41, and points of contact also with 8-9 and 2. 10: see Soury (1942, esp. ch. 3) for a discussion that underlines the common ground with 5 and 41, but fails to provide a wholly satisfactory account of the lecture in itself; also Puiggali (19 8 3: 283-304) for a detailed discussion of doctrinal affinities.
Homer the Philosopher
Authors: Trapp M B
Published: November 2023

This lecture returns to the topic of Or. 4, propounding the same understanding of the role and nature of poetry, but concentrating on the single privileged case of Homer. Like Or. 17, it is particularly concerned with the links between Homer and Plato. See the introductions to both Or. 4 and Or. 17 for further discussion.
The Cure for Pain
Authors: Trapp M B
Published: November 2023

This lecture, which discusses a topic related to that of Or. 7, belongs more closely with the psychological-cosmological group than with the items on either side of it, both of which belong to the group dealing with questions of theoretical ethics. Its positioning is perhaps the result of a hasty assumption based on the title: dXvTTca is after all one possible answer to the question (the title of Or. 29).
Diogenes and the Life of the Golden Age
Authors: Trapp M B
Published: November 2023

Another contribution to discussion of Happiness and the Good Life, answering the question posed at the end of Or. 29 with an encomium of one remarkable individual. Diogenes has already been held up for admiration twice, in Orr. 15 and 34, as an instance of virtuous effort in the face of harsh circumstances. Here the emphasis changes, as he is presented as a man who, by the choice of a simple existence, avoided such harshness altogether, and lived instead the kind of life lost to other humans with the end of the Golden Age. § 1 describes the origins and life of the Golden Age with the aid of a Platonic-Aesopic fable, and § 2 the misery and degeneracy of the present; §§ 3-4 compare the two, and imagine the outcome of an invitation to choose between them. § 5, drawing on both pictures, presents Diogenes as one who lived the older form of life in the midst of the newer, and § 6 asserts his consequent superiority over all others, whether ordinary mortals, philosophers, or princes.
Windows on the Truth
Authors: Bosworth A B
Published: November 2023

Few subjects are more paradoxical than the source tradition of Alexander’s reign. The extant histories are late, ranging from three to five centuries after the king’s death; yet they are based for the most part on early material, deriving from the first generation of the age of the Successors. In bulk they are relatively abundant, and sometimes provide a day-by-day narrative of events. However, the interests of the extant authors are very different from those of their primary sources and, for that matter, modern historians. Rhetoric tends to prevail: vivid and uninformative battle descriptions, which focus upon the gruesome and sensational, elaborate set speeches written with all the stock devices of Roman imperial literature, and supposedly pertinent apophthegms, smart comments often quoted without the necessary explanatory context. The rhetoric of the extant sources is complicated by bias in their primary material. The host of contemporaries who described their experiences under Alexander, whether notables such as Ptolemy and Nearchus or comparative nonentities such as Aristobulus, all had their individual perspectives. Their experiences coloured and warped their reportage. Past and present enmities and friendships determined what they omitted or included, and influenced their shaping of events.
Information and Misinformation
Authors: Bosworth A B
Published: November 2023

towards the beginning of the Julian year 324 Nearchus left Harmozeia (Old Hormuz) on the final stage of his Ocean voyage. His first port of call was the richly wooded island of Oaracte (modern Qeshm), where he was entertained by the Persian governor, Mazenes. The reception he received was clearly sumptuous, as befitted the friend of the new despot of the east, and at this provincial court was an exotic refugee. Mithropastes was the son of the disgraced satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia, who had committed suicide after Alexander’s first victory at the Granicus. The father’s failure blighted the prospects of the son, who was exiled to the Persian Gulf, the traditional oubliette for fallen members of the Achaemenid court. After the death of Darius he found his way to Oaracte and applied himself to winning the favour of his new masters, in the hope of reinstatement in civilized lands. With that in mind he recounted strange local traditions which he considered would excite the curiosity of the visitors. In particular he told of the tomb of the eponymous king of the area, a certain Erythras, who was interred at a remote island, some 2,000 stades distant in the ocean, and he claimed to have firsthand knowledge of it.
The Justification of Terror
Authors: Bosworth A B
Published: November 2023

Early in 325 Alexander embarked on one of the most savage campaigns of repression recorded in our sources. It was directed against the Malli (Malavas), an independent people of the southern Punjab. Comparatively short (little more than a week) in duration, it was horrendously violent in execution, and the Malli suffered enormously. After the campaign Arrian refers to them as a remnant, ‘those of the Malli who survived’, and from the narrative it is clear that whole communities came close to extermination. The ferocity of the fighting has always raised eyebrows. For the humanitarian Tarn the campaign was ‘unique in its dreadful record of mere slaughter’, and he had an explanation ready for the aberration: the culprits were the Macedonian troops, who were reluctant to fight and responded by giving no quarter. This raises interesting and important questions. How unique was the Malli campaign? To what extent were the troops unwilling? Why was it necessary to fight in the first place? Tarn’s observations have the merit of focusing precisely on the issue of repression. Much of Arria’s narrative in Books 4-6 is a veritable chronicle of slaughter, punctuated by siege narratives and the mass killing which was the depressing concomitant of capture by storm. It must necessarily have had an effect upon the army, but whether it produced a reluctance to fight is highly debat able. Alexander’s own response also deserves examination. Why did he launch such an atrocious and apparently unnecessary campaign, and why did he harry the civilian population with such uncompro mising ruthlessness?
Writing, Reading, and Democracy
Authors: Hedrick Charles W
Published: November 2023

There is no practice so characteristic of the ancient Athenian democracy as writing. The Athenians of the fifth and fourth centuries BC documented their political habits, activities, and accomplishments almost obsessively. Lists of magistrates, accounts of expenses, resumes of decisions, and many other kinds of political texts were recorded. These texts were written in a variety of media, including perishable materials such as wood and papyrus, as well as on more enduring fabrics, such as ceramic, stone, or metal. Most notably, certain texts were erected in the public space of the city, where all could see them. The number of fifth- and fourth-century Athenian inscriptions which have been preserved to modem times is unparalleled by any other classical Greek state: the Athenian production of public writing differs from others’ by orders of magnitude.
Two New Attic Inscriptions
Authors: Matthaiou Angelos P
Published: November 2023

In this paper, I present two new inscriptionsx which, I believe, touch upon old ·scholarly problems. The architect Dr Manolis Korres prpduced the drawings. (Figs. rn.r-4) of the two inscribed monuments. His contribution to the understanding of the form of the monuments was decisive. Credit for the reconstruction of Kim.on’s monument must go to his long experience and unique knowledge of ancient Greek architecture. Rectangular base of Pentelic marble. Until I 984 it lay in a stone-heap at the north wing of the Propylaea on the Acropolis. Today, it stands in front of the SE comer of the E Porch of the Propylaea by the statue-base of Athena Hygieia.
Europe and Democracy
Authors: Ruschenbusch Eberhard
Published: November 2023

Democracy is that form of government in which all public authority emanates from the demos. The primary meaning of demos is the  people, and thus the meaning of ‘democracy’ is ‘rule  of  the  people’. However, as the great majority of the people do not come under the category of propertied persons, democracy can also mean ‘rule  of  the  poor’. Then, the demos is accused· of avarice and arbitrary licence by its political opponents. According to their point of view, democracy becomes the ‘rule  of  the  mob’.
Accounts and Accountability in Classical Athens
Authors: Davies John
Published: November 2023

This paper is, I hope, appropriate both to salute David Lewis and to exploit afresh the endless riches and (it seems) unfathomable complexities of democratic Athens. It has two focuses, each of them a defining characteristic of that society and of its polity. By ‘accountability’ I mean the intricate and overlapping procedures, summed up in the words euthuna/euthunest11ai and Iogon  didonai, by which classical Athens attempted to ensure that those holding any kind of public position were effectively accountable to the statutory bodies of the community for all acts performed by them in that public capacity, especially but not only acts involving the administration of public monies. How, in a phrase, did they prevent embezzlement and maladministration? The ‘accounts’ of my title therefore have an obvious denotation, viz. the numerous series of public documents from fifth- and fourth-century Athens which come under that generic heading-the Tribute Quota lists, the records of the Treasurers of the sacred monies of Athene and of the other gods, the navy lists, the manumission lists, the poletai lists, etc., etc. As we all know, such documents reveal aspects of the public (and sometimes the private) life of Athens in stupefying detail, and ought therefore to help us to understand how accountability worked in practice.
The Rhetoric of Reciprocity in Classical Athens
Authors: Millett Paul
Published: November 2023

Towards the middle of the fourth century Be, the professional speechwriter lsaios composed a law court speech that has been pre served in its published form as On the Estate of Niko stratos (IV). It was written on behalf of two brothers, Hagnon and Hagnotheos, who were laying joint claim to the estate of Nikostratos son of T’hrasymakhos: a mercenary soldier who had died away from Athens, leaving a substantial fortune of two talents. Competition in Athens to inherit the estate was apparently keen, with at least seven rival claimants (7-10). The brothers based their claim on considerations of kinship, being first cousins of the deceased. Their opponent in court was one Khariadcs, himself a soldier of fortune, who claimed that ikostratos, before his death, had drawn up a will adopting him as son and heir. The speech composed by Isaios was actually delivered on behalf of the two brothers by an unnamed person, who identifies himself as a close friend of the family (1).
Reciprocity and Friendship
Authors: Konstan David
Published: November 2023

Friendship is a relationship that is presumed to involve reciprocity. As an elective association, friendship seems to be predicated on the voluntary exchange of benefits, under written by feelings that are understood to be mutual. while expectations of fair return may sustain an informal ethical code of friendship, acts of friendship are not perceived as obligatory or contractual, and are normal1y outside the jurisdiction of the state, both modern and ancient.
Marcellinus and Illyricum
Authors: Croke Brian
Published: November 2023

According to Cassiodorus (Inst. r.17. 2), Marcellinus was an Illyrian (Ilfyricianus) and this information must be considered accurate. After all, Cassiodorus was familiar with the full corpus of Marcel linus’ work; more importantly, he was in close contact with the Latin-speaking community of Constantinople amongst whom the chronicle found its first readers. Nor is it impossible that in Con stantinople in the late 54os/ early 550s Cassiodorus had actually met Marcellinus, or people who had known him (if the chronicler was now deceased). Yet, even without Cassiodorus’ statement we would be compelled to think Marcellinus an Illyrian simply because he has so much to say about Illyricum in the chronicle; and what he does say is generally of a precise and relatively full nature, suggesting knowledge of local personalities, geography and affairs. Henceforward, the task is to set out the Illyrian back ground and context of the chronicle; first, by defining exactly what area Marcellinus and Cassiodorus understood to be encom-passed by ‘Illyricum’, and then by amplifying and explaining the information in the chronicle in order to discover what Marcel linus’ native region meant to him. His Illyrian background and identity governed the selection of material for his chronicle, shaped the story he told, and reflected his own personal perspective on events in that region.
The Chronicle’s Afterlife
Authors: Croke Brian
Published: November 2023

How quickly after 518, and then after 534, the chronicle of Marcellinus gained popularity and in what circles cannot be determined. It may have attracted the attention of the chronicler and former Ostrogothic courtier Cassiodorus in the 530s although he may only have come across it for the first time in the late 54os/early 550s when he was himself in Constantinople, seeking safety from the continuing war in his native Italy. It was at precisely this time that the chronicle was also being used by Jordanes in his brief history of the world, and especially of the Roman empire, to his own day.Jordanes wrote his Romana, together with a history of the Goths based on that of Cassiodorus, at Constantinople in 550-r.1 It is possible that Jordanes was in Constantinople as early as the 530s when Marcellinus was still alive, and he may even have met him. Certainly their works have some essential features in common. In the Romana]ordanes made considerable use of the chronicle of Marcellinus although he never cites it by name.’ A few years later another writer took Marcellinus’ chronicle as his starting point Gust as Marcellinus had taken Jerome) and continued it to the early 550s. Jordanes may have known this Continuator of Marcellinus too. At any rate, he appears to have used one of the Continuator’s main sources of information. As we have seen (Chapter 7), the work of the Continuator only survives in an incomplete form so it is not possible to tell precisely where it ended. Cassiodorus may also have known this Continuator, although he gives the impression that there were many such chronicles being compiled at the time without identifying any particular one (Inst. r. 17).
Conclusion: Chronicles and Christian Culture
Authors: Croke Brian
Published: November 2023

Like all late antique chronicles, that of Marcellinus was written within a particular social and intellectual context. This study has attempted to define and explicate the different elements which constitute that context: the author’s own background and position in life, his native territory of Illyricum, the city and community of Constantinople in which he lived and worked, the nature of his chronicle as typical of its literary genre, the expectations of author and audience, and the way it has been transmitted to the present. Rather than the traditional understanding of the chronicle as being a product of western Latin aristocratic circles in Constan tinople,1 it has emerged that Marcellinus’ work is really a Byzantine chronicle – in Latin. As a continuation of Jerome, the format of Marcellinus’ chronicle is more akin to Latin chronicles such as that of Prosper. Yet its content, identity, and emphasis have closer affinities with eastern works such as the chronicle of John Malalas. That is, the city whose inhabitants Marcellinus calls the ‘Byzantii’’ (and of whom he was one himself) forms a pivotal focus of the chronicle. The world beyond the city of the Byzantines is described and interpreted from the reference point of the imperial capital. The chronicles of Marcellinus and John Malalas are contemporary and complementary, not mutually exclusive. Both authors were at some time part of the imperial administration, both used official records and public notices, and both subsequently updated their chronicles. There are certainly contrasts between them, not least Malalas’ more extensive narrative, but they possess an identifiable common format and model in the chronicle of Eusebius. Many at Constantinople could, and presumably did, read both chronicles. Indeed, Marcellinus and Malalas could read each other’s works and perhaps did so.
The Integrity of the Analysis
Authors: Meikle Scott
Published: November 2023

Nicomachean Ethics, 5. 5 and Politics, 1 are usually held to be hodgepodges of insights and prejudices, some showing economic precocity, others economic backwardness, social hauteur, and political reaction. Taken together, they are generally thought to lack any serious overall intellectual cohesion. This view is shared by schools of thought which agree on very little else. It is held by those, like Finley, who think Aristotle did no economic thinking at all, and by Barker and his many followers, who think Aristotle did primitive neo-classical economics. The incoherence attributed to Aristotle is entirely a product of misconstruction and oversight. There is a tight organization across both of Aristotle’s discussions which brings them into a theoretical unity whose fundamental principle is the analysis of use value and exchange value, and the metaphysical gulf he opens up between them. The positions he adopts on wealth, exchange, and interest, are arrived at by consistently applying that principle, and the same is true, though in a more devious way, of his accounts of money and trade.
Nature and Commensurability
Authors: Meikle Scott
Published: November 2023

It is difficult to imagine that the economic view of the world, when it came to be formed, could in the end have found an Aristotelian foundation, or even an expression that would have been consistent with the Aristotelian view of the world. Applying Aristotelian metaphysics to the analysis of the chief economic notions use value, exchange value, wealth, money, and exchange does not seem capable of yielding any very more favourable judgements on the worth of commercial values and behaviour than those Aristotle himself arrived at.
Summary of the Eastern Campaigns
Authors: Fraser P M
Published: November 2023

It is not my purpose in this brief chapter to do more than indicate, on the basis of Arrian’s narrative of Alexander’s campaigns, where Alexander is recorded as having founded major settlements, or actual cities, with a brief note also of the circumstances in which this occurred. This introduction will, it is hoped, help the reader to follow the problems that arise in identifying the foundations there after.
Classics Transformed
Authors: Stray Christopher
Published: November 2023

The first book to give a general account of the transformation of classics in English schools and universities from being the amateur knowledge of the Victorian gentleman to that of the professional scholar, from an elite social marker to a marginalized academic subject. The challenges to the authority of classics in 19th-century England are analysed, as is the wide range of ideological responses by its practitioners. The impact of university reform on the content and organization of classical knowledge is described in detail, with special reference to Cambridge. Chapters are devoted to the effects of state intervention, social snobbery and democracy on the provision of classics in schools, and the dissensions within the bodies set up to defend it. The narrative is carried through to the abolition of Compulsory Latin in 1960 and the absence of classics from the National Curriculum in 1988.
Introduction
Authors: Stray Christopher
Published: November 2023

In the National Curriculum promulgated in England and Wales in 1988, no reference was made to classics. Nothing shows more clearly just how marginalized a subject has become which once lay at the heart of English high culture. How are the mighty fallen! But why did they take so long to fall? Might we not have expected an elitist subject centred on the learning of dead languages to have been discarded after the industrial revolution, the emergence of parliamentary democracy, and the triumph of the vernacular? On the contrary, the continuing role of classics as a means to the maintenance of social identities and the exclusion of outsiders for long underpinned its existence as a source of cultural authority. My title refers to the change which took place between 1830 and 1960 in the form this authority took: the high-cultural claims of Victorian Hellenism gave way in the twentieth century to a lower-key disciplinary formation whose symbolic centre of gravity was Latin rather than Greek. The decisive moment in this process was symbolically marked by the abolition of the compulsory Greek requirement by Oxford and Cambridge after the First World War.
The Classical System
Authors: Stray Christopher
Published: November 2023

Early nineteenth-century England witnessed both the consolidation of the power of the bourgeoisie, and the remarkable recovery of authority of classics, which had earlier been subject to mounting criticism. This was no coincidence. As Armstrong puts it, we find ‘a sudden infatuation with classical authors at a point in history when strong group interests appear to be at stake’. Friedrich Paulsen made the connection explicitly in his study of German education: Introduction of Greek as the obligatory subject in the schools was carried out at the same time as the bourgeoisie entered society ... In the nineteenth century, the dukes and princes also had to learn Greek in order not to fall behind in education. These ... are the essential factors which led to the surprising change in the nature of education and the constitution of the schools.
Discipline, Specialism, and Hierarchy: The Realm of Latin, 1920—1960
Authors: Stray Christopher
Published: November 2023

Before 1920 the pervasive and embedded authority of Latin had been overshadowed by the cultural glories of Hellenism. After 1920, how ever, it emerged in its own right as a symbolic exemplar of disciplinary authority in the tripartite system of secondary schooling. This chapter considers both the way this authority was institutionalized, and the wider social and cultural contexts of curriculum content and organization.
The Significance of Imagines
Authors: Flower Harriet I
Published: November 2023

WHY investigate Roman ancestor masks (imagines maiorum)? Or, to put it in a different way, why is the study of imagines of general interest to the student of Roman society and customs? An answer can be found in two ancient texts which reveal the role and significance of imagines in widely differing historical contexts. This chapter offers a reading of Sallust’s version (Jug. 85 = T66) of the speech that Marius delivered as consul in Io 7 BC, and of the senate’s decree condemning Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso in AD 20. Both sources provide explicit and complex evidence about ancestor masks. While showing a glimpse of the situation on two particularly dramatic occasions, these texts also have wide-reaching implications for everyday practices in politics, oratory, and the law. The two passages were written about 60 years apart, and shed light on both Republic and Principate. The information gleaned about the imagines shows two sides of the same coin. Sallust indicates what the imagines meant for a novus consul at his moment of triumph over the traditional office-holding families: the senate’s decree reveals their import for a distinguished nobilis, close to the family of the emperor, at his moment of ruin.
Ancestors and Inscriptions: Elogia and Tituli
Authors: Flower Harriet I
Published: November 2023

AFTER the delivery of the funeral oration in the Forum the family followed the body to the grave outside the city for the burial and its accompanying rites. Traditional regulations quoted by Cicero confirm that in the earlier republican period graves seem to have been family plots, in use over a period of some time (Leg. 2. 22. 55). This is supported by the literary and archaeological testimony for early family burial areas both inside the walls and then spreading along the main roads from the city gates. Such family burial sites were placed to attract public attention and to serve as advertisements for the family’s rank, and perhaps even their politics. This chapter is concerned with the nature of family traditions of memory as preserved in tombs, notably the tomb of the Scipios. Grave inscriptions associated with tombs contained notices of the deceased’s career and of his position within the family group. Such inscriptions provide vital evidence for the basic information about each family member which was considered worthy of record for posterity.
Ancestors at Home: Imagines in the Atrium
Authors: Flower Harriet I
Published: November 2023

MOST modern treatments of the imagines concentrate on their role in the funeral procession. This is seen as their raison d’etre and hence as their main function. In addition, however, the imagines had more common uses in the everyday life of the home. There is ample testimony in our ancient sources that the imagines were often thought of principally as part of a display in the atrium. For this reason it makes perfect sense for a love poet, who is contrasting what he has to offer with the allurements of a rival of ‘noble’ birth, to allude to the imagines in the atrium rather than at a funeral.3 This chapter will explore the most frequent contact with the imagines, whether for the office-holder or the ordinary Roman citizen, which was in the atrium of the Roman aristocratic house. The changing uses of this room will be examined since it was here that the imagines were set up and decorated, sometimes as part of extensive displays of ancestral images in various media.
Introduction
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: November 2023

Since the 1970s some attention has been paid to the history and sociology of bastardy. The importance and interest of the subject is well summed up by Jenny Teichman: The legitimate/illegitimate distinction is situated at a multi-dimensional interface of human institutions and natural facts about human beings. These institutions and natural facts are: sex-reproduction-birth control; kinship-lineage-identity and names; inheritance-property-law; legalitymorality-religion. The interest of the distinction consists precisely in the fact that it is situated at this interface.
The Surveillance of Legitimacy (I): The Process of Legitimation
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: November 2023

Treatments of the organization of bastardy in classical Athens tend, reasonably enough, to be written from a legal or legalistic perspective. Such an approach tends to obscure the important fact that the recognition of an Athenian’s legitimacy was in practice not a simple, unitary event that occurred at a defined and definitive legal moment, but a process that began before birth and continued up to and even beyond the age of majority. In this section we will review in order the key stages in this process of recognition (the Greek term is poiēsis), presentation, and legitimation in a (wouldbe) citizen’s life that led to full phratry and deme membership.
Common Bastardy
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: November 2023

The usual Greek word for ‘bastard’, nothos, appears in our Spartan evidence only once (other than in royal contexts); it has been interestingly suggested that it may not be a Doric word. The single usage is in a passage referring to a campaign in 380: ‘Many were accompanying him [Agesipolis]: fine volunteers from the perioeci [i.e. free non-citizens dwelling around the city of Sparta], aliens from the so-called ‘reared boys’ (trophimoi), and nothoi of the Spartiates, very fine looking, and not inexperienced in the fine things in the city’ (Xenophon Hellenica 5. 3. 9).
Livy’s Representation of the Regal Period
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: November 2023

Dionysius’ preface makes his attitude to the role of the regal period particularly clear. Livy’s preface, although no less revealing, expresses a much less positive evaluation of the role of the regal period in Rome’s history. The very opening of the preface makes it clear that the early part of his history will be a testing point for the plan of his whole work. Livy declines to say whether he thinks it is worth the effort going through the story of the Roman people a primordio, but recognizes that it has been more usual for historians to be drawn to later events because of the greater certainty of the material, or because modern historiography gives greater opportunity to excel one’s predecessors in the art of writing. Even were this literary competition to consign Livy himself to oblivion, the greatness and nobility of his subject will be his consolation. Livy then expands upon this characterization of the early past to give a synoptic vision of Rome’s history, which stretches from exigua initia (slender beginnings) to the present, where she labours under her own size. To counter this idea of demoralization and decline, Livy brings forward his belief that moral corruption set in later at Rome than in any other state, and that the desire for luxury really was a recent development.
Greek Contexts
Authors: Dench Emma
Published: November 2023

Roman discourse is imbued with ‘Greek’ themes, and provides us with an excellent and comparatively familiar example of the complexity of relations between cultures in ancient Italy. Roman literature begins late, and plunges us into a complex cultural world. The earliest Roman literature presupposes knowledge of ‘Greek’ themes, and suggests the great extent to which Greek and Roman thought were linked. There are examples of clearly self-conscious adoptions and adaptations of a specifically Greek world-view. Thus, characters in Plautus make jokes which subvert to humorous effect Greek ethnocentrism which divided up the world into Greeks and barbarians.
Roman Contexts
Authors: Dench Emma
Published: November 2023

Not from such parents as these were born the youth who fouled the sea with Punic blood, and brought low Pyrrhus, and Antiochus the Great, and terrible Hannibal, but the manly offspring of country soldiers were they, taught to tum the clods of earth with Sabellian hoes, and to carry home hewn logs to please their strict mother . . . By the Late Republic, it was common for ancient authors to locate moral excellence both in the past and outside the city of Rome. In Horace’s poem, from which I quote above, contemporary Rome is characterized by sexual and political dissipation, infected by foreign luxury, almost brought to her knees by recent foreign campaigns, her decadence summed up, significantly, by the image of an adulterous matura virgo (‘grown-up girl’). Images of a contrasting, rustic, pristine, masculine Italy abound in literature of the Late Republic and Early Empire, highlighting the immorality of the city.
Questions of Identity amongst the Peoples of the Central Apennines
Authors: Dench Emma
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2, ‘Roman Contexts’, I discussed why, when, and how the Romans began to use the ethnic ‘Sabellus’ to refer collectively to Sabines and Samnites after the Social War. The coinage of the ethnic ‘Sabellus’ was not the only means by which Romans grouped various peoples of the Central Apennines together without distinguishing individual tribes: by the Augustan period, these peoples are taken together in the ancient ethnographical tradition, and are said to share certain moral characteristics, such as bravery. This treatment is unique: no other Italian peoples are grouped together in quite this fashion. Belief in collective identities has been important in modern scholarship too: it has, until very recently, been generally argued, and occasionally even taken for granted that the prehistory of Italy can be understood in terms of large unities, such as an ‘Italic’ community. More specifically, historical collective activity on the part of peoples of the Central Apennines, most notably the Social War, has been explained in terms of the existence of shared ‘objective’ characteristics, such as a ‘Sabellian’ or ‘Sabellic’ character underlying activity in the historical era, apparently maintained without change as an inheritance from a prehistoric community.
Archaeological Prolegomena
Authors: Smith Christopher John
Published: November 2023

This introduction is an attempt to give a brief theoretical basis to an analysis of the material culture of Latium in the early first millennium. It is important to be clear about the nature of the evidence from necropoleis and why it is so predominant, and also to have some approach to the study of ‘things’ as statements about people. The nature of the archaeological record in early Latium changes over time. For the second millennium BC, there are some traces of habitation in caves and fortified settlements, and route-ways for animal pasturage; gradually it becomes more possible to identify sites through ceramic scatters, which can be put into a rough series. During the Final Bronze Age, in Etruscan sites and in the Rome–Alban Hills complex, the necropolis evidence becomes crucial, and it is largely from this that conclusions have to be drawn.
The Late Bronze Age and Latial Period I
Authors: Smith Christopher John
Published: November 2023

To understand how Italian society developed in the various regions, it is essential to gain some perspective on the complex and far-flung pattern on trade and exchange throughout the Mediterranean: the necessity of beginning with the Mycenaean influence in order to understand later periods is stressed by Macnamara (1984; 421). It can be seen that the vigorous activity in the late Mycenaean period, though not necessarily all conducted by Mycenaean Greeks, had a most significant effect on southern Italy and Sicily. The central region of Italy, on the other hand, experienced the trade currents and external influences of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age in varying degrees. Throughout the first half of the first millennium, for instance, Etruscan settlements were much more open to and affected by external influences than Latin settlements, but sites like Tarquinia and Caere lagged behind sites in southern Italy and the Po valley in the Late Bronze Age. The involvement of central Italy and of Latium in the Late Bronze Age was, as far as we can see, minimal.
Latial Period II
Authors: Smith Christopher John
Published: November 2023

The second phase of Latin culture begins around the end of the tenth and carries on into the eighth century. This is also the beginning of the Iron Age, though very little iron is found in Latium before the end of this phase. The period is contemporary with the beginning of Villanovan culture in Etruria, with which Latin culture has clear parallels. In general terms, the period can be seen as one of consolidation. There is increasing wealth and increasing social differentiation. The customary division of the period into IIA and IIB somewhat arbitrarily indicates a point at which Latin civilization ceases to look back to its earliest traditions and begins to look forward to the orientalizing period. It seems undeniable that the development of a full aristocratic society in the eighth century is based on the advances of the ninth century towards stability. These advances grow out of the society described above for Period I.
Latial Period III
Authors: Smith Christopher John
Published: November 2023

In the eighth century the entire Mediterranean was caught up in an accelerated trading network. At its heart was the expansion of the Phoenicians into the western Mediterranean, and the colonial adventure of the Greeks was also a significant stimulus to development. In Chapter 2 it was suggested that the presence of the Mycenaeans on the coast of Italy was a stimulus to the development of ‘urban’ sites, especially in the south and the Po valley. The same process is even more clearly visible in the eighth century, as southern Italy, Etruria, and Campania reacted in varying ways to the presence of Greeks in Italy, and of eastern goods and customs which permitted greater display and greater differentiation between those who could imitate the sophisticated foreign customs, and those who were excluded, at least for a while.
Latium: The Archaeological Evidence
Authors: Smith Christopher John
Published: November 2023

A number of recurring themes dominate the archaeology of Latin sites in the sixth and early fifth centuries; domestic architecture, temple buildings, and votive deposits. There is a notable absence of any secure evidence concerning land use, and it is quite obvious that the houses of which we know represent no more than a small part of the habitations on the various sites. One presumes that they represent the houses of the aristocrats because of their size and permanence, in which case we are ignorant, as so often, of how and where the rest of the populace lived. We may begin with the three sites on the Via Salaria to the north of Rome. Antemnae has a large number of roof-tiles, ceramic ware, copper, and bronze, which seems to represent an increase in the number of buildings and an intense occupation, perhaps the most flourishing period of the city. In addition to the large numbers of buildings seen by Lanciani before the construction of the nineteenth-century fort, some of which may have had upper storeys in clay or rough bricks, there were found cisterns, wells, and a drainage system, which inspire comparison with the drainage of the centre of Rome at a similar period. There may also have been an internal road, part of the network joining the site to Rome. A wall and ditch protected the settlement; the wall may have encircled the site though possibly not of a regular height. An antefix of the Juno Lanuvina type has been attributed to the site and seems to date from the early fifth century, indicating a sanctuary preceding the Hellenistic phase, which is the earliest we know from other evidence.