bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TEACHING CONVERSATION‐RELATED SKILLS TO PREDELINQUENT GIRLS1
Authors: Maloney Dennis M. , Harper Terry M. , Braukmann Curtis J. , Fixsen Dean L. , Phillips Elery L. , Wolf Montrose M.
Published: March 2006

The use of conversation‐related skills by youthful offenders can influence social interactions with adults. These behaviors are also likely to be useful to adolescents after their release from a treatment program (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 343–372). Four girls, aged 13 to 15 yr, residing at Achievement Place for Girls in Lawrence, Kansas, received training on conversation‐related behaviors. A multiple‐baseline design across youths and across behaviors was used. Youth answer‐volunteering in response to questions and three youth nonverbal components (“hand on face”, “hand at rest”, and “facial orientation”) were measured during daily 10‐min sessions with a simulated guest in the group home's living room. Answer‐volunteering was scored each session as the per cent of 13 “secondary” questions that the simulated guest did not have to ask following 10 “primary” questions. The three nonverbal components were scored according to their occurrence during 10‐sec intervals and the resultant scores were averaged per session for an overall appropriate nonverbal score. The girls individually earned points within the home's token economy for participating in each session and additional points were awarded after training if preselected behavioral criteria were achieved for each of the two behavior categories per girl. Some of the training sessions were led by a “teaching‐parent” (specially trained houseparent) while others were led by individual girls. Point consequences were administered by both the teaching‐parent and by the “peer‐trainers”. The average observed rate of answer‐volunteering by the girls during pretraining sessions was 30% for S1, 30% for S2, 23% for S3, and 68% for S4. The average rate of answer‐volunteering during posttraining sessions was: S1 = 92%, S2 = 89%, S3 = 90%, and S4 = 98%. The average nonverbal score during pretraining sessions was 82% for S1, 53% for S2, 60% for S3, and 82% for S4. The average nonverbal score during posttraining sessions was: S1 = 98%, S2 = 98%, S3 = 98%, and S4 = 100%. Videotapes of the sessions were shown in a random sequence to four adults (probation officer, social worker, etc who represented “significant others” for the youths' future success in the community. The adults judged posttraining tapes on the average as more appropriate 100% of the time for S1, 100% of the time for S2, 90% of the time for S3, and 70% of the time for S4. The study demonstrated that training of conversation‐related skills is feasible with predelinquent girls, that the girls can help train each other, and that social validation of the training results is possible.
THE EFFECTS OF ACCESS TO SPECIAL ACTIVITIES ON THE PERFORMANCE IN FOUR CATEGORIES OF ACADEMIC TASKS WITH THIRD‐GRADE STUDENTS1
Authors: Rapport Mark D. , Bostow Darrel E.
Published: March 2006

An ABAB experimental design was used to evaluate the effects of access to recreational activities contingent on the completion of at least 80% of academic tasks assigned daily. Requirements in four task categories (writing, copying words, spelling, and dictionary skills) were specified daily and students were required to complete at least 80% of the requirements in each category correctly in order to participate in daily recreational activities. The procedure produced reliable and educationally important increases in the task performance of all 19 third‐grade students in the study. Most of the difference in the performance of each child between experimental conditions was on the spelling and dictionary tasks, although there were also improvements on the writing and words‐copied tasks for those students showing the greatest overall change in performance. The procedure was easily implemented by the teacher alone, required only materials and equipment typically found in elementary schools, and produced changes in performance important enough to the teacher that she continued to use the basic procedure after the evaluation program was terminated.
SHOPLIFTING PREVENTION: PROVIDING INFORMATION THROUGH SIGNS
Authors: McNees M. Patrick , Egli Daniel S. , Marshall Rebecca S. , Schnelle John F. , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

Shoplifting is one of the most frequent crimes in the United States, yet there is no agreement about effective prevention procedures. Since most prevention strategies are aimed at either increasing public awareness of the severity of the consequences or increasing the threat of detection, procedures that contain these elements were evaluated. Posting signs around a department of a department store pointing out that shoplifting is a crime, etc., partially reduced shoplifting rates. When merchandise that was frequently taken was identified by signs and stars, shoplifting decreased to near zero. Publicity campaigns to inform the public of consequences for shoplifting may produce desirable results, but identifying likely shoplifting targets, which may increase the likelihood of detection, effectively reduces shoplifting rates.
TEACHING PEDESTRIAN SKILLS TO RETARDED PERSONS: GENERALIZATION FROM THE CLASSROOM TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT1
Authors: Page Terry J. , Iwata Brian A. , Neef Nancy A.
Published: March 2006

Little attention has been given to teaching adaptive community skills to retarded persons. In this study, five retarded male students were taught basic pedestrian skills in a classroom. Training was conducted on a model built to simulate city traffic conditions. Each subject was taught five specific skills involved in street crossing in sequence, viz. intersection recognition, pedestrian‐light skills, traffic‐light skills, and skills for two different stop‐sign conditions. Before, during, and after training, subjects were tested on generalization probes on the model and under actual city traffic conditions. Results of a multiple‐baseline design across both subjects and behaviors indicated that after receiving classroom training on the skills, each subject exhibited appropriate pedestrian skills under city traffic conditions. In addition, training in some skills appeared to facilitate performance in skills not yet trained.
AN ANALYSIS OF MULTIPLE MISPLACED PARENTAL SOCIAL CONTINGENCIES1
Authors: Budd Karen S. , Green Donald R. , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

This study analyzed the training of a mother to modify five subclasses of her attention to her young child's noncompliance with instructions, and also displayed the changes in her child's behavior correlated with these events. Training in four subclasses consisted of teaching the mother to withhold various forms of social attention to her daughter's undesired behavior; training in the fifth subclass involved introduction of a brief room‐timeout procedure for noncompliance. The effectiveness of the parent‐training procedure, consisting of initial instructions and daily feedback, was demonstrated through a multiple‐baseline design across the five subclasses of parent behavior. Sequential decreases in the first three subclasses of the mother's social attention to undesired child behavior resulted in incomplete improvements in some child responses; however, a decrease in the fourth subclass resulted in a significant increase in undesired child behavior. Complete remediation of all child behaviors was achieved following the training of a timeout procedure for noncompliance. Postchecks conducted up to 16 weeks later showed that these effects were durable.
OVERCORRECTION: GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE1
Authors: Rusch Frank , Close Daniel , Hops Hyman , Agosta John
Published: March 2006

The present study examined the effects of one component of overcorrection—verbal reprimands—and compared them with the effects of the entire overcorrection procedure. Generalization and maintenance of effects were also evaluated. A combined reversal and multiple‐baseline experimental design was used to evaluate the effect of the various contingencies on the inappropriate searching behavior of a severely and profoundly mentally retarded adult living in a group home. Searching was defined as carefully and thoroughly touching floors, sofas, cabinets, etc. Data were collected by group‐home personnel during three separate observation periods each day of the 115‐day study: before breakfast, after breakfast, and after dinner. Observers also served as experimenters. Following an initial baseline phase, verbal reprimands followed searching behavior during two daily experimental periods in multiple‐baseline fashion. An immediate reduction of searching during experimental periods occurred with the onset of verbal reprimands. No reduction was observed in the third daily observation period, the control session. After a second baseline phase, during which searching behavior was not shown to return to the original baseline levels, overcorrection procedures (washing hands) were instituted. Overcorrection virtually eliminated inappropriate searching during both daily experimental periods. Further, the effects generalized to the daily control session. In a final experimental phase, decreased searching behavior was maintained with verbal reprimands alone.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND GENERALIZATION OF DELAYED IMITATION1
Authors: Garcia Eugene E.
Published: March 2006

An individual's behavior can be identified as imitative if it temporally follows the behavior of another individual and if its topography is controlled by the demonstrated behavior [Baer, Peterson, and Sherman (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1967, 10, 405–416)]. This definition takes into account both temporal and topographical characteristics of the behavior in question. More recent research in the area of imitation has interpreted the temporal component of the above definition differentially by limiting imitation to those topographically similar responses occurring within 3, 5, or 10 sec after a model's demonstration. Yet, Gewirtz and Stingle (Psychological Review, 1968, 75, 375–397) pointed out that much of the imitation seen in young children is not of this immediate nature, but instead occurs sometime after a model's response. They further suggest that this type of imitative behavior can be characterized as a response class and is susceptible to development and modification as a function of consequences delivered to subjects contingent on this type of delayed responding. Four retarded children, three initially imitative and one nonimitative, were individually trained to imitate a number of motor responses in an immediate and a delayed fashion. Immediate imitation was defined as a response similar to a model's demonstration occurring within 5 sec after the model's demonstration; delayed imitation was defined as a response similar to a model's demonstration occurring more than 5 sec, but not more than 25 sec, after the model's demonstration. A reversal (ABAB) design was employed to examine the experimental development of a generalized delayed imitative repertoire. Untrained probe responses were demonstrated to subjects systematically through the ongoing training. Generalized immediate and delayed imitation were observed in each subject; this generalization was restricted to the type of imitation currently undergoing training. This development of a generalized imitation repertoire was observed in each subject. That is, these subjects imitated some responses that had never been specifically trained. More importantly, a training package consisting of prompting, fading, and consequences for delayed imitation functioned to develop generalized delayed imitation. These data exemplify a special case of generalization that was a function of the most recent training history of immediate or delayed imitation. The reversal design demonstrated that imitations of nontrained models were either delayed or immediate, depending upon which form of imitation was currently receiving training. Therefore, for each form of imitation trained, delayed or immediate, a corresponding response class was demonstrated. These data relate to data reported by Garcia, Baer, and Firestone (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1971, 4, 101–112). The association lies in the proposition that there are identifiable boundaries of generalized imitation and that these boundaries are functionally related to previous training histories.
THE ACQUISITION OF PREPOSITIONAL MOTOR RESPONSES IN HANDICAPPED CHILDREN1
Authors: Guralnick Michael J.
Published: March 2006

The acquisition of prepositional motor responses in three handicapped preschool children was analyzed for three pairs of prepositions. Generalization of prepositional knowledge at each stage of acquisition was assessed by a series of probe trials. In addition, an analysis of the control of prepositional responses when objects of the preposition (OP) and direct objects (DO) were relevant cues was conducted. The effect of this object‐cue procedure, as well as a specially devised prompting technique on acquisition, was also determined. Results indicated substantial control by OPs whenever this cue was relevant, but this did not affect acquisition of prepositional concepts when these cues were eliminated. Analysis of the probe data and the prompting technique suggested various ways in which instructional programs for teaching prepositional knowledge to handicapped children could be constructed in a simple and efficient manner.
SELF‐REINFORCEMENT1
Authors: Goldiamond Israel
Published: March 2006

Self‐reinforcement in operant situations generally refers to those arrangements in which the subject delivers to himself a consequence, contingent on his behavior. However, it is noted that the definition of all other types of reinforcement make its delivery contingent on the subject's behavior. What is actually at issue is the agent who defines whether or not the response required for reinforcement has been met. In self‐reinforcement, the subject himself defines this. In the laboratory, this requirement is machine‐defined; in school examinations, it is teacher‐defined; and in many clinical self‐control situations, it is also independently defined. A reinforcement contingency presupposes such independence, absent in self‐reinforcement. Implications for research and practice are discussed and alternative formulations are offered.
THE CHANGING CRITERION DESIGN
Authors: Hartmann Donald P. , Hall R. Vance
Published: March 2006

This article describes and illustrates with two case studies a relatively novel form of the multiple‐baseline design called the changing criterion design. It also presents the design's formal requirements, and suggests target behaviors and circumstances for which the design might be useful.
DEVELOPING POSITIVE SOCIAL‐EMOTIONAL BEHAVIORS: A STUDY OF TRAINING AND GENERALIZATION EFFECTS1
Authors: P.Cooke Thomas , Apolloni Tony
Published: March 2006

Four handicapped children were taught four positive social‐emotional behaviors: smiling, sharing, positive physical contacting, and verbal complimenting, using instructions, modelling, and praise. Rates of these behaviors were shown to increase in four trained subjects using a within‐subject multiple‐baseline experimental design. The generality of the behavior change was investigated by integrating three untrained subjects with the trained subjects in a setting free of adult‐imposed contingencies and through a series of follow‐up observations. Three trained subjects evidenced collateral increases in the generalization setting on at least one other behavior when training in smiling was conducted. One trained subject showed generalization session increases for each behavior when training was conducted to increase that behavior. All three untrained subjects demonstrated increased rates of smiling and sharing when interventions were conducted to increase those behaviors with the trained subjects. There was no appreciable generalization of verbal complimenting by either the trained or the untrained subjects. Both trained and untrained subjects generally maintained their increased rates of smiling, sharing, and positive physical contacting across four weeks of follow‐up observations.
PROCEDURES TO INCREASE SOME ASPECTS OF CREATIVITY
Authors: Glover John , Gary A. L.
Published: March 2006

Instructions, reinforcement (team points), and practice were applied to four behaviorally defined creative behaviors of eight fourth‐ and fifth‐grade students. All four aspects (number of different responses, fluency; number of verb forms, flexibility; number of words per response, elaboration; and statistical infrequency of response forms, originality) were demonstrated to be under experimental control. The procedures also raised students' scores on Torrance's tests of creativity. Application of the experimental procedures may well be practical for classroom teachers.
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN TEACHER GUIDANCE AND CONTINGENT ACCESS TO PLAY IN DEVELOPING PREACADEMIC SKILLS OF DEVIANT PRESCHOOL CHILDREN1
Authors: Rowbury Trudylee G. , Baer Ann M. , Baer Donald M.
Published: March 2006

Token‐mediated access to play and snacks was made contingent on completion of academic tasks in the Baseline Experiment. This contingency produced stable completion rates that were subsequently doubled, and then tripled, for four deviant children in a special preschool. A reversal design demonstrated that the contingency was functional in maintaining the children's rates of task completion. The Guidance Experiment examined the role of a social event, teacher guidance, in the acquisition of task‐completion skills, in a multiple‐baseline‐across‐tasks design (with reversals). The analysis demonstrated that teacher guidance was an important supplement to the token‐mediated contingency in establishing significant increases in task completions for a second group of three deviant children in the special class. The importance of teacher guidance was related to the difficulty level of the children's tasks.
RESEARCH ON THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE IN EXTRA‐THERAPY RESPONDING1
Authors: Koegel RobertL. , Rincover Arnold
Published: March 2006

Many authors have reported that the development of programs for producing durable extra‐therapy responding lags behind the development of programs for producing initial behavior change. In Experiment I, responding was recorded continuously in both the therapy and extra‐therapy settings. The results showed that one child did not generalize to the extra‐therapy setting, but that other children did. However, for the children who generalized, extra‐therapy responding was not maintained. Therefore, in Experiment II two variables affecting the durability of extra‐therapy responding were assessed and found to be influential: (a) the use of partial reinforcement schedules in the original treatment environment; and (b) the presence of noncontingent reinforcers in the extra‐therapy environment. The results suggest that there are two distinct parameters of extra‐therapy responding: generalization and maintenance. A technology for producing durable extra‐therapy responding is discussed in terms of different treatment procedures required for different deficits in extra‐therapy responding.
COMPARING TREATMENT TACTICS WITH A HYPERACTIVE PRESCHOOL CHILD: STIMULANT MEDICATION AND PROGRAMMED TEACHER INTERVENTION1
Authors: Shafto Fay , Sulzbacher Stephen
Published: March 2006

Two treatment tactics, food and praise contingent on appropriate play and varying doses of methylphenidate (Ritalin), were evaluated for their effects on a preschool child's activity changes. In addition, other social, verbal, and academic behaviors were monitored to examine possible side effects of the two treatment tactics. Fewer free‐play activity changes occurred during contingent reinforcement phases while medication had variable effects: increasing attention to tasks but, at higher doses, decreasing intelligibility of speech and responsiveness to mands. The study outlines a replicable model for comparing medication with alternative behavioral strategies to control hyperactivity and enhance skill development.
OBSERVER AGREEMENT, CREDIBILITY, AND JUDGMENT: SOME CONSIDERATIONS IN PRESENTING OBSERVER AGREEMENT DATA
Authors: Kratochwill Thomas R. , Wetzel Ralph J.
Published: March 2006

Graphical and statistical indices employed to represent observer agreement in interval recording are described as “judgmental aids”, stimuli to which the researcher and scientific community must respond when viewing observer agreement data. The advantages and limitations of plotting calibrating observer agreement data and reporting conventional statistical aids are discussed in the context of their utility for researchers and research consumers of applied behavior analysis. It is argued that plotting calibrating observer data is a useful supplement to statistical aids for researchers but is of only limited utility for research consumers. Alternatives to conventional per cent agreement statistics for research consumers include reporting special agreement estimates (e.g., per cent occurrence agreement and nonoccurrence agreement) and correlational statistics (e.g., Kappa and Phi).
ARTIFACT, BIAS, AND COMPLEXITY OF ASSESSMENT: THE ABCs OF RELIABILITY
Authors: Kazdin Alan E.
Published: March 2006

Interobserver agreement (also referred to here as “reliability”) is influenced by diverse sources of artifact, bias, and complexity of the assessment procedures. The literature on reliability assessment frequently has focused on the different methods of computing reliability and the circumstances under which these methods are appropriate. Yet, the credence accorded estimates of interobserver agreement, computed by any method, presupposes eliminating sources of bias that can spuriously affect agreement. The present paper reviews evidence pertaining to various sources of artifact and bias, as well as characteristics of assessment that influence interpretation of interobserver agreement. These include reactivity of reliability assessment, observer drift, complexity of response codes and behavioral observations, observer expectancies and feedback, and others. Recommendations are provided for eliminating or minimizing the influence of these factors from interobserver agreement
ASSESSING AND TRAINING TEACHERS IN THE GENERAUZED USE OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION WITH AUTISTIC CHILDREN1
Authors: Koegel Robert L. , Russo Dennis C. , Rincover Arnold
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the feasibility of developing reliable, valid criteria for measuring and training the skills necessary to teach autistic children. The behaviors of 11 teachers and 12 autistic children were recorded in a series of different teaching situations. Teacher‐training was initiated at different times for different teachers. The results showed: (1) it was possible to assess empirically whether a teacher was correctly using defined behavior‐modification techniques; (2) generally, for any given session, systematic improvement in the child's behavior did not occur unless the teacher working in that session had been trained to use the techniques to a high criterion; (3) all 11 teachers were rapidly trained to use these techniques; and (4) the teachers learned generalized skills effective with a variety of children and target behaviors.
THE RELATIVE EFFICACY OF METHYLPHENIDATE (RITALIN) AND BEHAVIOR‐MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES IN THE TREATMENT OF A HYPERACTIVE CHILD
Authors: Wulbert Margaret , Dries Robert
Published: March 2006

Drug versus placebo effects were contrasted with those of contingency management in the treatment of a hyperactive child. Several criterion behaviors were monitored in two different settings to gauge the breadth and generalizability of drug and behavior‐management effects. Medication and contingency management effects were both found to be situation specific. No interaction effects were found. Accuracy of task performance, amount of eye contact with the experimenters, frequency of repetitive hand movements, and distractible behavior were apparently unaffected by medication (Ritalin versus placebo) within the clinic. A multiple‐baseline design incorporating contingency reversals revealed the reinforcement contingencies to be the crucial variable controlling behavior within the clinic. Medication effects were shown to be significant within the home setting where reinforcement contingencies were not changed. While aggressive behavior decreased as a function of Ritalin, repetitive hand movements increased.
PEER TUTORING AMONG ELEMENTARY STUDENTS: EDUCATIONAL BENEFITS TO THE TUTOR1
Authors: Dineen John P. , Clark Hewitt B. , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

To determine whether tutoring might be academically beneficial to the tutor, this study investigated the acquisition of spelling words by three elementary students in a peer tutoring program. The experimental design allowed a simultaneous comparison of each child's gain in performance on comparable word lists on which the child tutored another child, was tutored by another child, or neither gave nor received tutoring. The children's spelling improved nearly an equivalent amount on those words on which they tutored another child as on the words on which they were tutored; no such change was noted on the words on which they neither gave nor received tutoring. These findings, that peer tutoring is profitable for the tutor as well as the tutee, provide a basis for recommending peer tutoring as one method of individualizing education.
PYRAMID TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS TO USE A CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT “SKILL PACKAGE”1
Authors: Jones Fredric H. , Fremouw William , Carples Steven
Published: March 2006

Three regular elementary teachers were trained in the use of a classroom management “skill package”. Subsequently, each of these three teachers (tier 1 of training) trained three more teachers to use the same skill package (tier 2 of training). Direct behavioral measures of student disruptiveness were taken in the three tier‐1 classrooms and four tier‐2 classrooms, and permanent product measures of student productivity in arithmetic were taken in the three tier‐1 classrooms. Results indicated that student disruptiveness decreased at least as much in the tier‐2 classrooms as in the tier‐1 classrooms. Data also indicated that serving as trainers benefited two of the tier‐1 teachers who profited least from the original training by producing further reductions in disruptiveness in their respective classrooms. Productivity data suggested that use of the “skill package” increased classroom academic output, especially for those students below the median in productivity during baseline. The investigators' time investment in training a tier‐2 teacher was one‐fourth that of training a tier‐1 teacher.
STIMULUS SELECTION AND TRACKING DURING URINATION: AUTOSHAPING DIRECTED BEHAVIOR WITH TOILET TARGETS1
Authors: Siegel R. K.
Published: March 2006

A simple procedure is described for investigating stimuli selected as targets during urination in the commode. Ten normal males preferred a floating target that could be tracked to a series of stationary targets. This technique was used to bring misdirected urinations in a severely retarded male under rapid stimulus control of a floating target in the commode. The float stimulus was also evaluated with nine institutionalized, moderately retarded males and results indicated rapid autoshaping of directed urination without the use of verbal instructions or conventional toilet training. The technique can be applied in training children to control misdirected urinations in institutions for the retarded, in psychiatric wards with regressed populations, and in certain male school dormitories.
THE MODIFICATION OF LEISURE BEHAVIOR IN A HALF‐WAY HOUSE FOR RETARDED WOMEN1
Authors: Johnson Martha S. , Bailey Jon S.
Published: March 2006

A multi‐element baseline design combined with a multiple‐baseline design, was used to investigate the effect of availability of materials, prizes for participation, and instruction on the leisure behavior of 14 mentally retarded women in a half‐way house. A leisure program was conducted on weekday evenings, during which residents could choose to participate in any of six activities offered: puzzles, card games, clay, painting, weaving, and rug making. It was found that instruction in weaving and rug making significantly increased the percentage of residents participating in these activities, and that following instruction, prizes were not necessary to maintain high levels of participation. In contrast, prizes were more effective than mere availability of materials in maintaining participation in the other activities.
STIMULUS FACTORS EFFECTING PEER CONVERSATION AMONG INSTITUTIONALIZED RETARDED WOMEN1
Authors: Wheeler Andrew J. , Wislocki Edith B.
Published: March 2006

The effect of a series of stimulus changes, including attendant present or absent and agent of token reinforcement in a sorting task, on peer interaction among retarded women was examined. Conversation was not differentially directed toward the agent of reinforcement when that agent was a peer, nor did a peer agent increase the overall rate of peer interaction. Peer interaction did increase when no attendant was present, and during the final phase of the experiment, the high rate of peer interaction was maintained while the attendant was faded back into the situation in a series of discrete steps. The procedure was found to be efficient in terms of staff time and did not adversely affect task performance.
SELF‐STIMULATION AND LEARNING IN AUTISTIC CHILDREN: PHYSICAL OR FUNCTIONAL INCOMPATIBILITY?1
Authors: Klier Jolynn , Harris Sandra L.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated whether an observed inverse relationship between self‐stimulation and learning in autistic children is due to a physical inability of the subject to use the same body part for self‐stimulation and task responding, or whether self‐stimulation “distracts” the subject from task responding. Four actively self‐stimulating autistic children were taught two discrimination tasks; one required a response that physically interferred with their self‐stimulation; the other did not. Results were: (a) all subjects responded similarly across both tasks; (b) the three subjects with higher mental age scores learned both tasks without external suppression of self‐stimulation; and (c) none of the subjects showed an inverse relationship between self‐stimulation and learning. The study demonstrated that elimination of self‐stimulation is not a necessary prerequisite for the acquisition of a new behavior in all autistic children.
THE EFFECTS OF A GOOD‐BEHAVIOR CONTRACT ON THE CLASSROOM BEHAVIORS OF SIXTH‐GRADE STUDENTS1
Authors: White‐Blackburn Georganne , Semb Susan , Semb George
Published: March 2006

The effects of a good‐behavior contract on the on‐task behavior, disruptive behavior, daily assignment completion, and weekly grades of four sixth‐grade students were examined in a public school classroom. The contract consisted of presenting the students with a list of good conduct and assignment completion goals and a list of disruptive behaviors coupled with a list of rewards and penalties that could be earned. The rewards and penalties made use of existing facilities and classroom privileges. At the beginning of each morning work period, the teacher negotiated the good‐behavior contract with each experimental subject. During the negotiations, the teacher emphasized student self‐management and encouraged each student to earn a reward by achieving the good‐conduct goals and completing the contract assignments. An isolated work area was provided to allow students the opportunity to remove themselves from their desks for a fixed period of 15 min. At the end of the work period, the teacher determined whether each student earned a choice of reward or penalty dependent on assignment completion and whether the teacher had observed disruptive behaviors. Thus, the contract permitted the student to negotiate the goal behaviors and contingencies with the teacher. Throughout the study, the students were in agreement with the teacher on whether a choice of reward or penalty had been earned. The contract was introduced for different children at different times, constituting a multiple‐baseline analysis. On‐task behavior and daily assignment completion increased, weekly grades were higher, and disruptive behavior decreased when the contract was in effect. Three contrast subjects were selected from the class as model students who consistently produced acceptable assignments and who did not engage in high rates of disruptive and/or off‐task behaviors. When the contract was in effect for the experimental subjects, their performance compared favorably with the contrast subjects, who never received the daily contract. The results demonstrated that the contract was effective within the confines of the facilities and contingencies readily available in a public school classroom setting.
INCREASED PEER‐TEACHING WITH GROUP‐ORIENTED CONTINGENCIES FOR ARITHMETIC PERFORMANCE IN BEHAVIOR‐DISORDERED ADOLESCENTS1
Authors: McCarty Timothy , Griffin Susan , Apolloni Tony , Shores Richard E.
Published: March 2006

Group‐oriented contingencies were applied to increase the arithmetic problem‐solving rates of four behavior‐disordered adolescent residents in a psychiatric hospital. The experiment followed an ABAC reversal design consisting of baseline conditions (A1 and A2), and cumulative (B) and mixed (C) interdependent group‐oriented contingency conditions. Under the cumulative arrangement, the subjects earned five cents for every correctly solved multiplication problem. The same conditions were in effect with the mixed contingency, except that each subject was required to work at least three problems before any subject could earn money. The results indicated consistent increases in the subjects' arithmetic computation rates as a function of the group‐oriented contingencies. Concurrent observations were made across the four conditions of the experiment on four categories of the subjects' verbalizations: antecedent peer‐teaching, consequent peer‐teaching, positive statements, and negative statements. The subjects' rates of antecedent peer‐teaching verbalizations covaried with the group‐contingency‐induced increases in their levels of computation behavior. The majority of the verbalization involved answers to number fact questions or redirecting peers to engage in on‐task activities. The three other categories of the subjects' verbalizations that were observed—consequent peer‐teaching, positive statements, and negative statements—were not found to covary with the subjects' altered rates of computation behavior.
COMPARISON OF EXTINCTION, DRO 0‐SEC, AND DRO 6‐SEC IN THE ELIMINATION OF IMITATIVE RESPONDING UNDER DISCRETE‐TRIAL PARADIGMS1
Authors: Martinez Steve S.
Published: March 2006

Imitative response levels were observed for normal 5‐yr‐old children within a discrete‐trial imitation paradigm. Following imitation training sessions, children were observed under conditions of contingent reinforcement for three experimental sessions. Following the contingent reinforcement phase, children were then observed under reversal conditions for four sessions. A 3 × 4 repeated measures design was employed for observing response decrements under conditions of extinction, DRO 6‐sec, and DRO 0‐sec. The DRO 0‐sec group demonstrated a significantly greater decrement in imitative responding than did the DRO 6‐sec and extinction group. The differences in effects between the two DRO conditions and results from previous studies in which DRO procedures have had little effect in reducing imitative responding, suggest an incomplete understanding of the ways in which DRO procedures may operate.
OBSERVER RELIABILITY AS A FUNCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES OF ASSESSMENT1
Authors: Kent Ronald N. , Kanowitz Jay , O'Leary K. Daniel , Cheiken Michael
Published: March 2006

Three factors characteristic of experimental settings were hypothesized to inflate artifactually the reliability of observational recordings: (a) knowledge by observers of when and by whom their reliability is being assessed, (b) the absence of the experimenter or a monitor to prevent cheating, and (c) computation of reliability within‐ (versus between‐) observer group. Three groups of four observers used a standard nine‐category observational code for disruptive behavior in recording from videotapes of a classroom for 22 days. Analyses revealed considerable increases in average occurrence reliability as a function of the main effects of each of the experimental factors. The specific increases in reliability associated with each of the 12 combinations of the experimental factors are presented for each category of behavior. The possible role of observer‐training procedures and behavioral definitions as determiners of nonartifactual reliability is discussed.
TAKING A CLOSER LOOK: TIME SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT ERROR1
Authors: Powell J. , Martindale B. , Kulp S. , Martindale A. , Bauman R.
Published: March 2006

A person manufactured his in‐seat behavior for 15, 30‐min sessions so that there were three blocks of five sessions where the behavior occurred 20%, 50%, and 80% of the time. Whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time‐sample measures of the behavior were taken and compared to the continuous measure of the behavior i.e., per cent of time the behavior occurred. For interval time sampling, the difference between the continuous and sample measures i.e., measurement error, was: (1) extensive, (2) unidirectional, (3) a function of the time per response, and (4) inconsistent across changes in the continuous measure. A procedural analysis demonstrated that the frequency and duration of behavior are confounded in interval time sampling. Momentary time sampling was found to be superior to interval time sampling in estimating the duration a behavior occurs.
CORRESPONDENCE TRAINING, PRIOR VERBAL TRAINING, AND CONTROL OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR VIA CONTROL OF VERBAL BEHAVIOR
Authors: Israel Allen C. , Brown Margery S.
Published: March 2006

The role of prior verbal training in correspondence training and later verbal control of nonverbal behavior was examined in two groups of Head Start children. One group received correspondence training without prior verbal training, the other with. Essentially no differences were found between the two sequences; thus it seems appropriate to consider the content phases (reinforcement contingent on target verbalization alone) of previous research as control procedures and not a necessary precursor to correspondence training.
A DURABLE RECORDING AND FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Authors: Carroll Patrick J.
Published: March 2006

A durable low‐cost data‐recording and feedback system is described. Data transcribed with a special pen onto a plastic sheet can be removed only with two solvents. These data can be displayed for feedback purposes without fear of destruction.
THE EFFECT OF THE ABSENCE OF CLOSE SUPERVISION ON THE USE OF RESPONSE COST IN A PRISON TOKEN ECONOMY1
Authors: Bassett John E. , Blanchard Edward B.
Published: March 2006

A naturally occurring experiment, in which direct supervision of a token economy in a penal system was removed and re‐instated, is reported. A retrospective analysis revealed that in the absence of close supervision the use of response cost rose dramatically, both in terms of categories of behaviors for which response costs were levied and in the frequency of their use. The return of direct supervision led to a decreased use and an end to the growth of categories of behaviors punished.
ACQUISITION, DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS CONTROL, AND RETENTION OF INCREASES/DECREASES IN BLOOD PRESSURE OF NORMOTENSIVE HUMAN SUBJECTS1
Authors: Elder S. Thomas , Welsh Darleen M. , Longacre Andrew , McAfee Robert
Published: March 2006

The aims of this study of 24 normotensive subjects were: to compare a free‐operant with a discrete‐trials training format; to determine the most effective training procedure by comparing instrumental conditioning with instructional set and a control; to see if both increases and decreases in blood pressure could be brought under discriminative control, and to examine the maintenance of acquired self‐control of blood pressure. A 2 × 3 design was employed in which two trial formats (free operant and discrete trials) were factorially compared with three training conditions (instrumental conditioning, instructional set, and control). Instrumental conditioning was found superior to both the instructional set and control conditions in producing increases and decreases in mean diastolic blood pressure. The free‐operant format led to a greater degree of learned BP control in that subjects were able to increase and decrease their blood pressure by 10% to 15% of basal value and to maintain the blood‐pressure operant after contingent auditory feedback/reinforcement was removed. Training was discontinued when subjects in the other five groups failed to reach criterion after 10 consecutive acquisition sessions.
SOME DETERMINANTS OF THE REINFORCING AND PUNISHING EFFECTS OF TIMEOUT1
Authors: Solnick Jay V. , Rincover Arnold , Peterson Christa R.
Published: March 2006

Some determinants of the reinforcing and punishing properties of timeout were investigated in two experiments. Experiment I began as an attempt to reduce the frequency of tantrums in a 6‐yr‐old autistic girl by using timeout. Unexpectedly, the result was a substantial increase in the frequency of tantrums. Using a reversal design, subsequent manipulations showed that the opportunity to engage in self‐stimulatory behavior during the timeout period was largely responsible for the increase in tantrums. Experiment II was initiated following the failure of timeout to reduce the spitting and self‐injurious behavior of a 16‐yr‐old retarded boy. Using a multiple‐baseline design, the nature of the timein environment was shown to be an important determinant of the effects of timeout. When the timein environment was “enriched”, timeout was effective as a punisher. A conception of timeout in terms of the relative reinforcing properties of timein and timeout and their clinical implications are discussed.
A MULTI‐ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF TEACHER AIDES IN AN “OPEN”‐STYLE CLASSROOM
Authors: Loos Fern M. , Williams Karen P. , Bailey Jon S.
Published: March 2006

Open classrooms with few rules, individualized instruction, and informal class organization present new problems for the application of behavior principles. The effects of three types of teacher aides on student achievement and on‐task behavior were studied. Each was compared with a standard no‐aide condition. Subjects were 54 third graders in two “open”‐style classrooms. The three types of aide, helping adult, disciplinary adult, and helping fifth‐grade aide, were compared in a multi‐element design with a no‐aide control. The helping‐adult aide significantly affected the academic output of the class, when compared with the no‐aide condition. All aide conditions produced more academic work and on‐task behavior than did the standard no‐aide condition.
ALTERING STUDENT RESPONSES THROUGH CHANGES IN TEACHER VERBAL BEHAVIOR
Authors: Broden Marcia , Copeland Glenna , Beasley Alva , Hall R. Vance
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were conducted in a junior‐high special‐education class of eight pupils in an inner‐city school. In the first experiment, the teacher doubled the number of words used by the pupils in answering questions by altering the type of questions asked. In the second experiment, the number of words used by students and the percentage of answers given in complete sentences, increased from less than 5% to approximately 90% when the teacher instructed the pupils to answer in complete sentences and asked another pupil to answer using a sentence if the first one did not do so. In both experiments, a brief return to baseline conditions brought a return to low levels of verbal responding. An analysis of which pupils were called on by the teacher, teacher praise, and in the second experiment the types of questions asked, indicated that these variables were not responsible for the increases in verbal responding.
TEACHING CHILDREN APPROPRIATE SHOPPING BEHAVIOR THROUGH PARENT TRAINING IN THE SUPERMARKET SETTING1
Authors: Barnard James D. , Christophersen Edward R. , Wolf Montrose M.
Published: March 2006

The shopping behavior of three elementary school‐age boys was analyzed and parent‐child interactions assessed for one boy and his mother. Estimates of parent or consumer satisfaction with child shopping behavior were also obtained. The effects of a parent‐mediated treatment package on child behavior were assessed using a multiple‐baseline design. Treatment produced significant increases in appropriate shopping behavior in all three children and parents became increasingly satisfied with improved child behavior. Analysis of data for one mother also revealed that her manner of interacting with her child became more positive.
FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF A PROGRAM FOR TRAINING HIGH AND LOW PREFERENCE PEERS TO MODIFY DISRUPTIVE CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR1
Authors: Sanders Matthew R. , Glynn Ted
Published: March 2006

Although considerable evidence has accumulated regarding the effectivenes of peers as behavior managers, little attention has been directed toward the analysis of components of training programs. Also, it is not known whether high and low preference peers have different reinforcing effects. In this study, a two‐phase peer training program was introduced to five high preference and five low preference peer managers. The Managers were assigned one to each of 10 grade‐four elementary pupils with high rates of disruptive behavior. Peer Training I was composed of instructions to monitor and reinforce target subject behavior on a time‐sample schedule, to record this reinforcement, and to ignore inappropriate behavior in target subjects. Peer Training II introduced, in addition, backup reinforcement for the monitoring behavior of managers. Measures were taken of target subject behavior, antecedent and consequent attention from managers and other peers, monitoring behavior of managers, teacher behavior, and preference ratings of peer managers by target subjects. Significant improvements in target subject behavior occurred following Peer Training I and further improvements occurred following Peer Training II. These changes were paralleled by decreases in the frequency of antecedent and consequent manager attention to problem behaviors, and improvements in the number and accuracy of monitoring checks. Recorded reductions in teacher attention to individual children and to target subjects were not statistically significant. Posttest preference scores improved significantly over pretest scores for low preference managers, while remaining high for high preference managers.