bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rearing Infant Rhesus Together
Authors: Chamove A.S.
Published: April 2008

To analyze the antecedent conditions of the together-together syndrome, 6 subjects were reared in pairs, 6 in pairs separated on alternate weeks, 6 in pairs which changed in composition weekly, 6 in a group of 6, and 6 in individual cages. When tested in groups of 6 during the first year of life and with infants, juveniles, and adults during the second year of life, it was found that (a) self-play and social play increased and self-cling and aggression decreased as an increasing function of the number of rearing partners; (b) social cling was greatest in subjects reared constantly with the same animals, and was independent of the amount of play exhibited by a group.
Variation and Stereotypy in the Displays of Anolis Aeneus (Sauria: Iguanidae)
Authors: Stamps Judy A. , Barlow George W.
Published: April 2008

The reactions of a territorial male lizard (Anolis aeneus) to an intruder were filmed and analyzed. Five displays were given to the intruder: Fanbob, Multibob, Jerkbob, Gorged-throat and Fan. Fanbob consists of the species-specific signature bob and dewlap extension and is the normal display given as a challenge to intruders. Multibob, another bob pattern, occurs when a degree of anxiety is present. It closely resembles the Courtship Bob, so the male is in effect giving an appeasement display while courting a female. Jerkbob is used as an introductory display preceding Fanbob during territorial advertisement. Gorged-throat is a threat display, and Fan may be used instead of Fanbob when inhibitory factors prevent Fanbob from being expressed. Fanbob was analyzed to test whether it fulfills the criteria of the Fixed Action Pattern. The cadence of the signature bob was individual-specific and stereotyped, but other components of Fanbob varied greatly. Among these were presence and absence of introductory movements (related to intruder distance), degree of sideflattening and degree of dewlap extension (related to resident aggressiveness), and height of head during the display. Height and dewlap extension, while necessary and integral components of Fanbob, varied independently, and were correlated with different sets of stimulus and response variables. Fanbob was thus shown to fit none of the criteria of a fixed action pattern.
The Effects of Other Fish On the Reproductive Behavior of the Male Cyprinodon Variegatus (Pisces: Cyprinodontidae)
Authors: Itzkowitz Murray
Published: April 2008

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of both inter- and intraspecific intruders on the reproductive behavior of Cyprinodon variegatus. Field observations suggested that the highly aggressive male Cyprinodon prefer to chase their own species, then Fundulus heteroclitus, followed by Lucania parva and Gambusia affinis last. In a series of laboratory experiments, in which dominant males were given various combinations of uni-specific and hetero-specific groups to chase, strong evidence was produced for the chase preferences predicted from field observations. The effects of intruders on the spawning behavior of the male were also recorded. In the field the female entered the male's territory, spawned an average of four times and then left. A female spent approximately 20 seconds in the male's territory. While other fish did interrupt spawning, only neighboring territorial males actually interfered physically. This interference occurred if the spawning pair ventured too close to the border (approximately seven cm). In the laboratory conspecific intruders significantly reduced both the number of spawns and the total duration of contacting (i.e., a side-by-side position of the pair, occurring just before spawning). These intruders also increased the probability of long spawning intervals following other long intervals. At the same time, intruders caused the pair to produce relatively more short intervals. Thus, when other Cyprinodon males were present, the pair had a tendency to perform a clustering of spawns which was separated by several long intervals. This resembled the field situation in which a female entered, spawned several times and quickly left. This study suggests that the effects of other interacting fish should be considered when analyzing reproductive behavior. The observation of laboratory fish in isolated pairs may produce misleading results as to the evolution and/or maintenance of behavior.
Juvenile Play of the Common Seal Phoca Vit Ulina Vit Ulina With Comparative Notes On the Grey Seal Halichoerus Grypus
Authors: Wilson Susan
Published: April 2008

Juveniles of the common seal, Phoca vitulina, have two kinds of aquatic play : (1) Dyadic play, in which muzzle-to-body and body contact between two animals is combined with exuberant somersaulting movements. The somersaulting behaviour is usually preceded by a contact phase with very little movement. A play bout may end with a period of sustained, almost static contact. (2) Group play, which resembles the normal social haul-out activities, but each activity is repeated several times in a playful manner. Although several animals may be leaping and splashing simultaneously, each animal temporarily orients his play towards one other, whom it may contact briefly. All play by juveniles of the grey seal, Halichoerus grypus, is preceded by each animal of the dyad giving a stereotyped invitation signal, which must be repeated continually by both animals throughout play : each animal in turn lays its head over its partner's back. For the initial phase of play which takes place on the beach, the two animals lie beside one another, each lunging gently at the other's head, in between head-over-back signals. Adolescents may occasionally rear up and lunge at each other in a manner similar to the fighting of adult males. After playing on the beach, the pair may enter the water, where their play is similar to the dyadic play of the common seal. The aquatic somersaulting over one another by two animals in continuous body contact seems to be a pattern not found in these two species in other functional contexts. Common seal group play serves to (i) integrate the individuals into a unified group, and (ii) acquaint individuals. Although grey seals apparently do not have group play, behaviour which is probably functionally analogous was observed, in which the seals became acquainted over a 3-week period in early autumn before any play occurred.
On the Nature of Mother-Infant Interactions in the Guinea-Pig (Cavia Porcellus)
Authors: Fullerton Clare , Berryman Julia C. , Porter Richard H.
Published: April 2008

Two studies concerning the specificity of social interactions between mother and infant guinea-pigs were reported. The first study consisted of a series of time-sampling observations of the social behaviour of 2 litters of young guinea-pigs and their mothers housed in a single cage. In a second series of observations, 2 cohabitant litters were separated from their mothers for a few hours each day and their social interactions noted when they were subsequently individually reintroduced to the 2 lactating females. Although the infants suckled significantly more often from their biological mother in each study, and were more often observed to be near or in contact with their mother as opposed to the other female, there were frequent social interactions between infants and the other female (including suckling). When reintroduced to the 2 adult females, the offspring were indiscriminate in their initial approaches towards the latter and likewise showed no preference for mother vs other female in their following responses. The adult females approached their own offspring more often than the other infants when they were initially placed into the cage. No significant differences were found between subsequent approaches towards, or avoidance of, own vs other offspring, however. It was concluded that a reciprocal loose bond of attachment exists between infant and mother guinea-pig - with the mother being able to recognize her offspring at a distance, while the infant apparently requires proximal cues for identification of its mother. An attempt was made to relate the nature of this bond to the highly precocial state in which guinea-pigs are born and their relative independence of maternal care-taking.
Interaction Between Early Experience and Depth Avoidance in Young Eider Ducks (Somateria Mollissima L.)
Authors: Nyström Mats , Hansson S.B.
Published: April 2008

Speed estimations of eider broods descending into the sea for the first time revealed no hesitation between ground and depth at the shoreline. In a laboratory experiment, however, dark-reared young (N = 10) exhibited strong resistance when pushed from the shallow towards the deep side of a visual cliff apparatus. The same young hesitated in crossing from shallow to deep when lured by playbacks of the female's grock-call. In contrast, differential reactions to depth were absent during free swimming in a water-filled visual cliff. In another experiment, young exposed to a deep texture (N = 21) for 2 to 24 hours revealed significantly more deep choices than a matched group of shallow-exposed (N = 20) and a group of unexposed young (N = 7). Although choice preferences were in line with the type and quantity of early experience, it is concluded that there also exists a predisposition to learn or be acquainted with a near texture faster than a distant one. The problem posed by the conflicting tendencies in nature of remaining proximate to the female versus descending into depth is discussed in relation to the age and predation of the young.
The Dance of the Laysan Albatross, Diomedea Immutabilis
Authors: Meseth Earl H.
Published: April 2008

The behavior of the Laysan Albatross, Diomedea immutabilis, was studied on Midway Island for a total of 11 months on three separate occasions. The courtship dance and agonistic behavior were of particular interest. The Laysan performs many individual postures in its dance but most often these are grouped into four posture sets: Eh-Eh Bow-Stare and Whinny-Head Flick-Rapid Bill Clapper, Air Snap-Bill Under Wing-Sky Snap, Stare-Sky Call, and Head Shake and Whine-Stare-Head Flick-Rapid Bill Clapper. Simultaneous displays of Bill Touch and Bow-Clapper separate individual posture and posture set performances throughout a dance. A dance consists of a beginning, a core, and a usually abrupt ending. Tempo is set by the male in the beginning. A general alternating pattern of Air Snap-Bill Under Wing-Sky Snap and Stare-Sky Call is shown by individual birds such that the Air Snap-Bill Under Wing-Sky Snap of one bird is performed simultaneously with the Stare-Sky Call of the other. Head Shake and Whine-Stare-Head Flick-Rapid Bill Clapper disrupts this pattern which may be restored by modification of display performance by one of the dancers. Only non-breeding birds and pairs breeding for the first time dance. An associative period follows dancing, which is similar to that seen after reunion of the breeding pairs before the egg is laid, and prior to nest exchange. Association in unpaired birds is the first definite indication of the establishment of a bond between them. Males actively defend an area termed the home base, established in earlier visits to the colony. Males solicit passing females from it. Territorial directives change to the nest site after its establishment by the female. Pairs return to the same home base throughout the duration of their bond. Two birds in close proximity on one particular spot necessitates a mechanism negating or reducing aggressive tendencies. Among other functions, it is hypothesized that the dance, and the associative period following, effectively reduce the threshold for attack so that the bond may be continued. The behavior of Laysan Albatrosses in their tenacity for particular sites suggest that, in addition to particular individuals, a bond is made to geographical spots. Association of lowered aggression, indicated by successful dancing and the associative period, with a site may serve to bring the female to the site and perpetuate the bond.
The Behaviour of Males of the Solitary Bee Osmia r uFa (Megachilidae) Searching for Females
Authors: Raw Anthony
Published: April 2008

I. Most O. rufa males make general searches for females near nests and flowers. 2. A few males spend most of their time in the nesting area and defend individual resting places from other males. 3. Males detect females more readily the closer the latter are to nests, but they pounce on other males and insects of similar size as well. 4. Males can mate several times, but females mate only once. 5. The behaviour of O. rufa males searching for females is regarded as intermediate between the general searching of some megachilid species and the territoriality of others.
Predatory Behaviour of Young Turquoise-Browed Motmots, Eumomota Superciliosa
Authors: Smiths Susan M.
Published: April 2008

Nine young hand-reared motmots were tested for their responses to still and moving models of prey. The birds were given two series of cylindrical models. Series A bore various combinations of 4 cues: ink eye, pin eye, neck and motion. The birds responded significantly to every one, but motion was by far the most highly directing cue tested. Series B bore various colours and patterns, both as solidly coloured models and as present only on one third (either middle or end). The results from the solidly coloured models show (a) the birds were not inhibited by any plain colour tested; (b) they tended to ignore a camouflaged model; and (c) they showed strong aversion to a pattern that resembled a coral snake. The results of the coloured section models indicate that motmots are attracted to the dissimilar section only when it is one of the ends. This attraction to the different end, plus the highly directed response to motion, are probably sufficient to enable motmots to take small vertebrates such as lizards quickly and efficiently.
Agonistic Behavior in the Male Northern Elephant Seal
Authors: Sandegren Finn E.
Published: April 2008

At least 10 behavioral elements were involved in aggressive behavior. The frequency of nine of these among five males was determined. High ranking males were involved in more aggressive interactions than those of low rank, but overt fights were very rare. At least six elements of submissive behavior were observed among males and the frequency of these were determined. Submissive display among males (involving female mimicking behavior) effectively inhibited most overt aggression. Erection and maximal size of the proboscis always coincided with dominance and aggression while a small retracted proboscis coincided with the display of subdominance defence and submission. By the shape of the proboscis and no other criteria alone can the mood of the male be read at any moment. It is suggested that the proboscis has evolved mainly as an agonistic display organ. Adult males recognize each other vocally. It is suggested that the criterium for individual recognition is the structure of the pulse and not the number of pulses they emit in the most characteristic of the four distinct vocalizations that were recorded among males (VO 2). The high ranking males were active 11,5% of the day while the low ranking were significantly less active (6,4%).
An Experimental Analysis of the Function of Red-Winged Blackbird Song
Authors: Smith Douglas G.
Published: April 2008

The social role of the male red-winged blackbirds' Ageliaus phoenicetts, advertising song was examined. Territorial male red-wings were captured on their territories and subjected to bilateral sectioning of the hypoglossal nerves where they descend along the trachea. This surgery resulted in males which delivered species atypical songs at the times when they attempted to sing the normal advertising song. A group of control males were captured and treated in the same way as the surgically treated males except the hypoglossal nerves were not sectioned. The following results were obtained: 1) Vocalization altered males were successful in maintaining territories for the remainder of the breeding season. 2) Vocalization altered males were able to mate with females and raise young successfully. 3) Five vocalization altered males returned to the same marsh the following breeding season, one year after the operation and successfully established and maintained territories. It was concluded that the ability to deliver species typical song was not necessary for the establishment and maintenance of a breeding territory under the environmental conditions encountered during these experiments.
Sex Differences in Behavior in a Group of Captive Juvenile Talapoin Monkeys (Miopithecus Talapoin)
Authors: Wolfheim Jaclyn H.
Published: April 2008

Previous laboratory studies have indicated that adult talapoin monkeys show sex differences in behavior which contrast with those observed in most other species of Cercopithecinae. The present study examines sex differences in a group of seven captive juvenile talapoins. Juvenile males were more active, less affiliative, more assertive, and more playful than females. They initiated and participated in all major types of social play, were avoided, and were alone more often than females. Juvenile females were more evasive, less playful, more affiliative, and showed more pronounced preferences for partners of their own sex than did males. Females avoided more often than males and avoided males more often than females. They groomed, were in proximity, and in contact more often than males, and performed these behaviors more frequently with females than with males. These characteristics have also been demonstrated in other juvenile monkeys. They occur in species with high degrees of adult morphological dimorphism where they are in accord with adult behavioral differences. They are also found in squirrel monkeys with low dimorphism and adult differences similar to those in talapoins, and in human beings. Thus they are not necessarily predictive of adult behavioral sexual dimorphism.
Play and Socio-Sexual Behaviour in a Captive Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes) Group
Authors: Savage E.S. , Malick Chris
Published: April 2008

1. Play and socio-sexual behaviors were studied in a captive chimpanzee group composed of three mothers and their offspring. 2. Mother-other infant relationships were more extensive and varied than those reported among wild chimpanzees. These relationships did not affect the motherinf ant bond. 3. Socio-sexual behaviors were regularly directed toward infants by all group members, including other infants. It is suggested that infant socio-sexuality should be viewed not only as a developmental phenomenon, but as an important factor in group interaction patterns. 4. Group play centered around the oldest male infant and two mothers played more with other infants than with their own infants. 5. Patterns of interaction among group members were shown to be heavily dependent on age-sex status. 6. Young infants initially tried to behave toward one another much as they behaved toward their own mothers. The way in which this tendency produced entirely new behavior patterns is discussed.
Changes in the Relationships of Captive Rhesus Monkeys On Giving Birth
Authors: Hinde R.A. , Powell Proctor Linda
Published: April 2008

I) Relationships between captive adult female rhesus monkeys were assessed for 6 weeks before and 20 weeks after birth in terms of proximity, approaches and leavings, grooming and agonistic interactions. 2) Before the births, the mothers-to-be spent more time with (and more time grooming with) related than with unrelated individuals. Responsibility for proximity with unrelated adult females to whom the mother was dominant lay primarily with the mother, but where the other female was subordinate it might lie with either party. Mothers-to-be tended to groom adult females dominant to themselves more than they were groomed by them, and vice versa. 3) Differences between the times that mothers-to-be spent near members of different age/sex/rank classes could not be accounted for in terms of generalizations describing preferences of the mothers for members of those classes nor relative preferences of them for her. 4) After the births, members of all age/sex/rank classes tended to be near (and to groom) mothers more when the infants were on the mothers than when they were off but near her, and to be near the mother more when the infants were off but near than when the infants were off and distant from the mother. Proximity between mother and others tended to become more independent of the position of the baby as it developed. 5) Differences between age/sex/rank classes in time spent near the mother after birth were generally similar to those found before birth. The index for the mother's role in maintaining proximity was predominantly negative. 6) All age/sex/rank categories tended to be near the mother less after the birth than before, especially when the infant was off its mother. The differences disappeared with time. Adult males tended to groom the mother less, and adult females to groom her more, than before birth. 7) Changes in proximity between mother and other from before to after birth can be understood in terms of an increase in the attraction of others to mother and a decrease in mothers' affinity for others.
The Effect of Social Isolation On the Aggressive and Sexual Behaviour in a Cichlid Fish, Haplochromis Burtoni
Authors: Anders Ferno
Published: April 2008

Males of the mouthbreeding cichlid fish, Haplochromis burtoni, were visually isolated from conspecifics for periods of 15 minutes to 12 days. The number of attacks directed at adult conspecifics increased by 2 and 7 hours of isolation but after sufficiently long isolation (12 days) the attack rate decreased. The sexual activity increased after only 15 minutes of isolation. With longer periods of isolation this increase became more pronounced. The aggressive and sexual behaviour were thus differently affected by isolation and this disputes any influence on the reproductive behaviour in general. Shortly after termination of isolation the sexual activity was generally high while the attack rate was low. Throughout the first 30 minutes of contact with conspecifics the attack rate increased while the sexual activity decreased. After the longest periods of isolation, however, the maximal sexual activity tended to occur later (5-15 minutes after the isolation). After isolation periods of 3 and 12 days the increase of the sexual activity lasted a couple of hours while the decrease in the attack rate after 12 days of isolation seemed to persist for several days. The results can be explained in terms of adaptive short-term and long-term incremental and decremental processes in different motivational systems and an attempt is made to relate the results to the biological conditions of the species.
Testing Assumptions of Data Selection in Focal Animal Sampling
Authors: Shapiro D.Y. , Altham P.M.E.
Published: April 2008

In focal animal samples of the social interactions of individuals in groups, the possible variability of behaviour in time poses a problem of proper data selection. Four models are developed to reveal what conditions the behaviour under study must satisfy in order for data from the focal samples of both members of an interacting dyad to be used in estimating one member's partner distribution. The conditions are: the probability with which the subject animal acts on each partner, given that he acts at all, remains constant in time and the subject's overall activity rate remains constant or varies only within certain prescribed limits. If these conditions are not met, an animal's partner distribution should be estimated only from data recorded during his focal samples. The paper provides a means of testing whether a particular set of data conforms to these conditions.
The Social Organization of a Small Captive Group of Eland, Oryx and Roan Antelope With an Analysis of Personality Profiles
Authors: Kiley-Worthington M.
Published: April 2008

The social organisation of a captive herd of 13 eland, 1 adult male roan antelope, and one adult male cape oryx was studied at a limited food resource in a confined area. The importance of a "dominance hierarchy" in controlling relationships between individuals was assessed by comparing rank orders for the performance and receipt of threats and, separately, withdrawals. Correlations between the individual rankings for "threats" and "withdrawn from" was good (p<0.01). This suggests that a "dominance hierarchy" had been established in this group, and it could be assessed by scoring aggression (threats) or avoidance (withdrawals). However, the high number of threats (13.8 per hour) indicates that the dominance hierarchy was not particularly rigid. Other than at the food, there were few interactions related to conflict. The importance of measuring other forms of interaction such as grooming, interest in other animals and displaying to other animals in order to understand group organisation is emphasised. A description of the social organisation of the group in terms of roles is considered. The complexity of relationships between individuals as shown by all these behaviours suggests that neither "dominance" hierarchy, nor roles are adequated for understanding the organisation of the group. A further measure, which is the extent to which individuals are involved in interaction with others (i.e. socially involved) is proposed, and it is found that sub-adults are consistently low on this score, whereas adults vary. Another measure of individual behaviour proposed is the extent to which the animal is a performer or receiver of the various behaviours. These measures are open to criticism, (as are concepts such as "dominance hierarchy" and "roles") on the basis of being unsophisticated blanket terms and therefore mis-leading since they tell little about individual relationships. As a result of the difference between individuals in the various interactions scored, it is clear that the only way to understand the group structure in detail is to draw up personality profiles. This was done using the six types of interactions that were measured. The profiles of the individuals represented in this way confirm their uniqueness even within one age or sex class. Similarities in related animals in several parameters is evident however.
The Behavioural Consequences of Size Variation Among Males of the Territorial Wasp Hemipepsis Ust Ulata (Hymenoptera : Pompilidae)
Authors: Alcock John
Published: April 2008

(I) Some males of the pompilid wasp Hemipepsis ustulata defend territories in the crowns of palo verdes and other trees and bushes located high on the crest of mountain ridges. During the month of May in central Arizona territorial wasps remained at their stations for as many as 5 hr after sunrise; several individuals held the same site for more than two weeks. (2) Many palo verdes were never claimed despite the fact that large numbers of wasps visited trees held by other males and would occupy territories from which resident males had been experimentally removed. (3) Territory owners tended to be larger than non-territorial visitors, atlhough some small males in this highly variable species were able to hold certain territories for 2 or more days. (4) Palo verdes that were on or very close to peaktops along a mountain ridge were preferred territories. Prolonged clashes for possession of a tree were observed only at these sites. When resident males were removed from a number of trees along an ascending ridge, the higher trees were taken by newcomer males more quickly than the lower ones. (5) Relatively large males were found in preferred territories. In general, the closer a territory was to a peaktop, the larger the resident male. Smaller wasps either visited many territories as intruders or they established residence in trees below the preferred peaktop sites.
Wolf Howling and Its Role in Territory Maintenance
Authors: Harrington Fred H. , Mech L. David
Published: April 2008

An experimental study of the role of howling in wolf territory maintenance was conducted in the Superior National Forest, Minnesota. Vocal replies and behaviour of radio-collared wolves in response to human howls were analyzed for eight packs and 10 lone wolves during a 2-year period. Reply rate varied significantly throughout the year. A mid-winter increase was correlated with the breeding season, especially for groups containing breeding animals (alpha male or alpha female). A second, longer increase in reply rate started in midsummer, peaked about August, and declined to a low in early winter. The decline in autumn howling response occurred sooner in a pack whose pups developed faster. Through the year, the howling reply rate was significantly higher among all packs and lone wolves attending prey kills. The more food remaining at a kill, the higher the reply rate was. For wolves separated from their pack, the howling reply rate was dependent on their age and social role. Among adults, only alpha males ever replied alone, and their reply rate, and number of howls per session, exceeded those of other animals. Alpha males sometimes approached during howling sessions, whereas other adults usually retreated. Younger animals replied more often as pups than as yearlings, and then only during their first 7 months, after which they replied little more than most adults. Finally, larger packs replied more often than smaller packs. Specific behaviours noted during howling sessions, including movements away from the howler, indicated that howling was related to interpack agonism. In addition, three of the major factors influencing reply rate also significantly affect the level of agonism toward pack strangers : pack size, social role, and breeding season. The other two factors, kills and pups, are both important pack resources necessitating exclusive occupancy of a site. The high reply rates at sites containing kills or pups constitute strong circumstantial evidence that howling is important in territory maintenance. During howling sessions, wolves usually remained near their original site after replying, or retreated if they remained silent. This difference apparently was related to the problem of avoiding both accidental and deliberate encounters, and to cost/benefit considerations at the wolves' location. Howling was considered most effective in mediating avoidance in two situations : when two packs approached a common area of overlap, and when a pack returned to an area little used for weeks, in which scent posts would have lost effectiveness in deterring strangers. Both scent-marking and howling apparently are important in spacing. However, they differ in their roles and are complementary, with scent-marking being long-term and site-specific, and howling being immediate and long-range. Finally, lone wolves which do not possess territories, rarely replied, sharing the "low-profile" behaviour expected of surplus animals in a territorial population.
A Sampled Randomization Test for Examining Single Cells of Behavioural Transition Matrices
Authors: Rechten Catherine , Fernald Russell D.
Published: April 2008

A Sampled Randomization test for analysing individual cells of behavioural transition matrices is described. The test is compared with two standard procedures by running all three on simulated data. The Randomization test proves roughly as efficient as the X2 test applied to a collapsed matrix; both are more powerful than a test proposed by SLATER & OLLASON (1972). The decisive advantage of the Randomization test lies in its ability to assess the interrelatedness of cell results within a matrix: expected values can be adjusted to show how any mechanism assumed to explain one cell result would affect the rest of the matrix.
Posthatching Effects of Repeated Prehatching Stimulation With an Alien Sound
Authors: Vince Margaret A. , Toosey Frances M.
Published: April 2008

The experiment investigates the domestic chick's response to a sound heard repeatedly before hatching. The stimulus chosen for this was an alien sound found to suppress post-hatching activity: a guinea pig vocalisation. Experimental embryos were exposed on the 20th day of incubation to this sound at half-minute intervals for about one hour, and the embryos' beak-clapping was used as the index of their response. Beakclaps were suppressed by the sound stimulus. During 100 presentations there was evidence of recovery of the response - the activity-suppressing effect waned - but this recovery was unstable and beak-clapping was still suppressed below the initial level when prehatching stimulation came to an end. Control embryos were incubated in the same way, but not exposed to the sound stimulus. After hatching each chick was tested separately under conditions intended to simulate being brooded. Each was exposed to a series of the same calls as those which experimental chicks had experienced before hatching. Three response indices were used: (a) the number of beakclaps in each 30-second trial (b) the number of seconds during which the eyes were open in each trial and (c) the number of vocalisations. Eye-opening was unaffected by the pre-hatching stimulation: in both groups it was maximal at the beginning of post-hatching stimulation and declined rapidly. Beak-clapping fell slightly during stimulation in the control group but the fall became of borderline significance only after stimulation came to an end; in the experimental group it appeared to be unaffected by the sound stimulus. The level of vocalisation differed as a result of pre-hatching experience: in the experimental group it rose slowly from the prestimulation baseline level, reached a peak and then fell, while in the control group it remained at the prestimulus level in all chicks but one. Interpretation takes into account the different effects recorded, considering (a) the three different response indices (b) the suppressing effect of the sound stimulus (demonstrated before hatching) and (c) the known fact that different elements in a response wane (and presumably also recover) at different rates. It is suggested that the "eyes open" results can be understood in terms of an "orientation" reaction which wanes rapidly then recovers under the conditions of post-hatching life. In controls the beak-clapping response after hatching showed something of the activity-suppressing effect of the stimulus whereas this activity-suppressing effect appeared to have waned completely in experimental chicks. In controls vocalisations were not elicited by the stimulus while experimental chicks responded to stimulation by an increase in vocalisations. This increase, however, occurred only after a delay which suggested an initial, brief, recovery of the suppressing effect of the alien sound stimulus.
Invasion of the Forest By an African Savannah Monkey: Behavioural Adaptations
Authors: Kavanagh Michael
Published: April 2008

Tantalus monkeys, a race of the savannah species Cercopithecus aethiops, have invaded the cultivated forest of Bakossi in south-west Cameroon during the last seventy years and become important agricultural pests. The cultivated forest is a new habitat to which they are well adapted by virtue of their eclectic diet, their habit of foraging away from tall trees, their semi-terrestriality, their flexible group size and their cryptic nature. The indigenous related species of the rainforest are less able to exploit the changed habitat, probably because they are insufficiently terrestrial or cryptic and they typically forage among the trees that provide their refuge. As a result of their conflict with the farmers whose crops they raid, the forest tantalus monkeys contrast with conspecifics in the savannah by their less predictable ranging patterns, their quieter call repertoire, a striking and consistent male pattern of vigilance behaviour and their habit of hiding from dogs rather than giving the loud alarm calls that are invariably given where canids are not associated with man.
Predatory Behaviour in Domestic Cat Mothers
Authors: Caro T.M.
Published: April 2008

This study documents quantitatively the change in predatory behaviour of domestic cat mothers as their kittens develop. Predatory behaviour in mother cats was found to decline as that of their offspring increased. Before kittens were 8 weeks old, mothers were more likely to interact with prey if their kittens had not been on the prey for a time; they led in interactions with prey. Kittens were found to show increased rates of predatory behaviour patterns in the presence of their mother. This paper then goes on to examine some of the mechanisms by which mothers are able to bring about such an improvement in their kittens' predatory behaviour. It was found that kittens interacted more frequently and for longer with prey following the mother's bouts. Kittens were more likely to quickly follow another cat on the prey than wait more than 10 seconds. However when siblings only were considered, they were less likely to follow a sibling in less than 10 seconds of it having been on the prey. After the eighth week, kittens attended to prey by themselves more often than would be expected by chance, whereas in the early weeks of exposure to prey, they were more likely to attend to prey while their siblings or their mother was watching prey.
Predatory Behaviour and Social Play in Kittens
Authors: Caro T.M.
Published: April 2008

This study relates changes in social play of kittens to the development of predatory behaviour. Firstly, it documents the development of predatory motor patterns in young cats between the age of 4 and 12 weeks. Correlations between measures of predatory behaviour were found to break down in the 8 to 12 week period of development. Secondly, it examines the development of social play over the same time course. Correlations between some measures of play were also found to break down between 8 and 12 weeks of age. Finally, measures of social play were correlated with measures of predatory behaviour before and after 8 weeks of age. Some measures of play were found to show increased correlations with predatory behaviour as kittens grew older, others were found to show less association with age. It is concluded that these changes in association between measures of play and predation probably reflect a reorganization of play behaviour. Different play patterns appeared to progressively come under separate types of control as kittens developed. Some patterns were becoming controlled by the same factors as those controlling predatory behaviour, others by those factors that control agonistic behaviour. In addition, the relationship between the timing of the onset of social play and predatory behaviour is examined.
Sexual Segregation, Cliques, and Social Power in Squirrel Monkey (Saimiri) Groups
Authors: Leger Daniel W. , Mason William A. , Fragaszy D. Munkenbeck
Published: April 2008

This report presents two studies of captive squirrel monkeys living in mixed-sex social groups: In the first study, we quantified social interaction patterns and spacing in two groups during their regular daily feeding period. Dispersal of food was rapid, owing to the animals' tendencies to drop items on the cage floor, and competitive interactions were infrequent. Adult males and females were spatially segregated, and between-sex interactions were relatively infrequent. Dyadic proximity data indicated that each group contained several cliques of from two to three individuals, usually of the same sex. Members of a clique not only spent more time near each other, but favored the same areas in the cage, even when they were not in proximity. Measures of proximity and agonism were positively correlated. In the second study, the same groups were presented with either one or two bottles of fruit drink, a highly desired, non-dispersible resource, or with one or two bottles of plain water. During water-bottle sessions, between-sex interactions were no more frequent or agonistic than they were in the normative study; in the highly competitive fruit-drink sessions, however, males frequently directed agonistic behavior against females and against each other, and they successfully dominated access to the fruit-drink bottles. In contrast, female agonism was directed mainly toward other females. Our observations suggest that membership in a clique may provide a competitive advantage. In one group, a clique consisting of a mother and her daughter successfully excluded other females from the fruit-drink bottles; in another group, the only females to compete vigorously against males were members of the same clique; after one of the two males in this group was removed, females for the first time made occasional joint attacks on the remaining adult male, and he appeared to become less assertive and successful in competitive tests. We suggest that the social and spatial peripherality of males is not simply the result of coercive exclusion by females, but also reflects a "choice" by males to avoid interacting with females under most circumstances. When male motivation is strong, however, they readily approach females, aggress against them, and assert themselves successfully in competitive interactions, even against a substantial female majority.
Urine-Marking and Caching Behavior in the Wolf
Authors: Harrington Fred H.
Published: April 2008

The relationship between urine-marking and caching was studied in two captive groups of wolves (Canis lupus). It was found that urine-marking never occurred when a cache was stocked, rarely occurred during later investigations if some food was still present, but usually occurred soon after the cache was emptied. The animal marking an empty cache was often not the one which had exploited it. Once an empty cache was marked it received little further attention, as opposed to caches that were empty but not urine-marked. These results suggest that urine-marking may enhance foraging efficiency in wolves by signalling that a site contains no more edible food despite the presence of lingering food odors.
Response of Male Song and Swamp Sparrows To Neighbour, Stranger, and Self Songs
Authors: Searcy William A. , McArthur Patrick D. , Peters Susan S. , Marler Peter
Published: April 2008

We examined the responsiveness of territorial male swamp sparrows (Melospiza georgiana) and song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) to neighbor, stranger, and self songs. In two speaker tests (with two song bouts played simultaneously from separate speakers), male swamp sparrows failed to discriminate between neighbor and stranger songs and between self and stranger songs. In single speaker presentations, male swamp sparrows responded more aggressively to stranger song than to neighbor song and gave intermediate responses to self song. Male song sparrows showed no significant discrimination between neighbor, stranger, and self songs. We hypothesized that male birds may learn what other conspecific songs should sound like by listening to their own songs. In its most stringent form this hypothesis might predict maximal responsiveness to playback of a male's own song. This prediction was not verified for these two sparrow species. There was less of a difference in responsiveness toward neighbor and stranger songs in song sparrows than in swamp sparrows; this result is compatible with the hypothesis that larger repertoires make neighbor recognition more difficult.
Olfactory Preferences of Inbred Mice (Mus Musculus) for Their Own Strain and for Siblings: Effects of Strain, Sex and Cross-Fostering
Authors: D'Udine Bruno , Partridge Linda
Published: April 2008

1. Mice of two inbred strains (C57 BL 6/J and SEC I ReJ) were tested for their preferences for the smells of bedding used by mice of the opposite sex of the same two strains. 2. C57 males and females showed no significant preference between the smell of C57 and SEC and this result was unaffected if the mice were reared by SEC foster-parents. 3. SEC males and females preferred the smell of SEC to the smell of C57 and this result was unaffected if the mice were reared by C57 foster-parents. 4. Males of both strains preferred the smell of non-siblings of their own strain to the smell of siblings. Rearing by foster-parents of the other strain reversed this preference; the males then preferred the smell of siblings. 5. C57 females preferred the smell of siblings to the smell of non-siblings of the same strain and this result was unaffected by rearing by SEC foster-parents. 6. Female SEC showed no significant sibling preferences and this result was unaffected by rearing by C57 foster-parents. 7. The results are consistent with the idea that mice prefer a slight degree of unfamiliarity in the smell of the opposite sex but they also suggest that what was judged as unfamilar differed between the two strains.
Dynamics of Seabird Multispecies Feeding Flocks: Age-Related Feeding Behaviour
Authors: Porter Julie M. , Sealy Spencer G.
Published: April 2008

Multispecies feeding flocks of seabirds were studied in Barkley Sound, British Columbia. The flocks occurred during the post-breeding dispersal of migrant adult and juvenile seabirds. A consideration of comparative foraging success indicated that juvenile seabirds were less skilled at locating and capturing prey. Juveniles did not initiate flocks, were less adept at finding food, and had lower feeding success rates. The juveniles appeared to compensate for these inadequacies by using a different foraging strategy than adults. They increased the amount of time spent feeding and appeared to be more attracted to the presence of other feeding birds. Juveniles were less able to recognize good potential feeding areas and accessible food items. Juveniles had a greater tendency to loaf on the centrally located terrestrial loafing sites, thus increasing their chances of sighting feeding flocks. Our results demonstrated how improved post-fledging survival was achieved for juvenile seabirds feeding in the flocks. Our findings support the interpretations put forth by others to explain delayed maturity, reduced clutches in younger birds and prolonged parental care, all characteristic of seabirds.
The Sound Environment of the Foetal Sheep
Authors: Vince Margaret A. , Armitage Sally E. , Baldwin B.A. , Toner J. , Moore B.C.J.
Published: April 2008

The sound environment of the foetal lamb was recorded using a hydrophone implanted a few weeks before term in a small number of pregnant ewes. It was implanted inside the amniotic sac and sutured loosely to the foetal neck, to move with the foetus. Results differ from those reported earlier for the human foetus: sounds from the maternal cardiovascular system were picked up only rarely, at very low frequencies and at sound pressures around, or below, the human auditory threshold. Other sounds from within the mother occurred intermittently and rose to a high sound pressure only at frequencies above about 300 Hz. Sounds from outside the mother were picked up by the implanted hydrophone when the external sound level rose above 65-70 dB SPL, and the attenuation in sound pressure was rarely more than 30 dB and, especially at low frequencies, usually much less. However, attenuation due to the transmission of sound through the body wall and other tissues tended to change from time to time. It is concluded that the foetal lamb's sound environment consists of (1) intermittent low frequency sounds associated largely with the ewe's feeding and digestive processes and (2) sounds such as vocalisations from the flock, human voices and other sounds from outside the mother.