bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aspectos de la morfología del verbo latino y su relación con el verbo español
Authors: López David E.
Published: July 2017

Las así llamadas lenguas neolatinas o romances son el resultado de un proceso de desarrollo del latín vulgar o latín hablado que, luego de la caída del Imperio romano, fue adquiriendo sus propias características en las diferentes ex colonias hasta convertirse en lenguas independientes. De esta forma surgió el francés, el italiano y el español, entre otras lenguas neolatinas.Si bien cuando hablamos de lenguas neolatinas tratamos de un fenómeno lingüístico nuevo, es observable todavía en ellas la huella profunda de la lengua madre, y esta huella va más allá de aspectos visibles como el léxico o la fonética. Una de las huellas más profundas de la lengua madre se encuentra en la morfología del verbo de las lenguas romances que, en términos generales, conservó con bastante fidelidad el verbo latino, como puede observarse en el caso concreto del verbo españolAKADEMOS, Año 9, Vol. 2, No 25, Julio-Diciembre 2015: 9-42
El lenguaje de los mitos: una revisión idealista de la función simbólica como método de aproximación a la realidad
Authors: Camilot Luigi M.
Published: July 2017

Resulta muy difícil hoy en día encontrar genuino interés por el análisis y estudio, tanto a nivel funcional como estructural, de los mitos y su contenido. Por una parte, creemos que ya se ha dicho todo acerca de esta materia. Con el tiempo, el mito ha quedado reducido, en el mejor de los escenarios, a una mera categoría literaria carente de cualquier sentido trascendente. Por otra parte, hemos perdido la capacidad de comprender el antiguo lenguaje simbólico que fue antaño nuestra lengua madre. La síntesis intelectual que demanda la producción de mitos representa un salto evolutivo gigantesco para la conciencia del hombre, y él debe demandar plena autoría y propiedad de dicha producción, ya que él es el único ser capaz de crear tan rico y complejo producto como lo es el mito. Para comprender el verdadero significado codificado en el interior de siglos y siglos de escritos mitológicos es necesario comprender primero aquel lenguaje en el cual fueron elaborados estos, un lenguaje que va mucho más allá de cualquier código lingüístico, aquel lenguaje que representa nuestra primera forma de existencia: El Lenguaje de los Símbolos.AKADEMOS, Año 10, Vol. 2, No 27, Julio-Diciembre 2016: 61-75
Verzekering & mededinging: de gevolgen van het einde van de Groepsvrijstellingsverordening
Authors: Baak Gerard
Published: July 2017

Verzekering & Mededinging: de gevolgen van het einde van de Groepsvrijstellingsverordening

In dit artikel wordt aandacht besteed aan de Groepsvrijstellingsverordening verzekeringen die op 31 maart 2017 is vervallen. De vraag die zal worden beantwoord, is wat de gevolgen van het verval van de Groepsvrijstellingsverordening zijn voor de toepassing van het mededingingsrecht in de verzekeringssector. Hoewel de keuze van de Europese Commissie gerechtvaardigd lijkt te zijn, resteren nog wel enkele onduidelijkheden, bijvoorbeeld met betrekking tot de opkomst van (samenwerking bij) big data en de afbakening van de relevante markt.
Conceptual correlates of counting: Children’s spontaneous matching and tracking of large sets reflects their knowledge of the cardinal principle
Authors: Shusterman Anna , Cheung Pierina , Taggart Jessica , Bass Ilona , Berkowitz Talia , Leonard Julia A. , Schwartz Ariel
Published: July 2017

The acquisition of counting is a major milestone for children. A central question is how children’s non-verbal number concepts change as they learn to count. We assessed children’s verbal counting knowledge using the Give-N task and identified children who had acquired the cardinal principle (Cardinal Principle Knowers, or CP-knowers) and those who had not (Subset-Knowers, or SS-knowers). We compared their performance on two tests of nonverbal numerical cognition. We report comparable performance between SS- and CP-knowers for matching and tracking small sets of objects up to four, but disparate performance for sets between five and nine, with CP-knowers outperforming SS-knowers. These results indicate that the difference between CP- and SS-knowers extends beyond their knowledge of the verbal number system to their non-verbal quantitative reasoning. The findings provide support for the claim that children’s induction of cardinality represents a conceptual transition with concurrent, qualitative changes in numerical representation.
Une part d’héritage « objectif » du surréalisme au théâtre
Authors: Corvin Michel
Published: July 2017

Ce document examine ce que peut être un héritage surréaliste aujourd’hui. Selon l’auteur, la destruction du théâtre opérée par le surréalisme est productrice, dynamique et créatrice, si bien qu’on ne peut cerner ou évaluer le statut original du théâtre surréaliste qu’en considérant ce qui l’a suivi. L’auteur cherche ainsi chez Handke, Vinaver, Strauss et Schimmelpfennig, entre autres, certaines analogies avec le surréalisme. Ce serait, au théâtre, un legs « objectif » consenti dans les domaines de la fable, du personnage et du dialogue.
La judiciarisation de l’itinérance à Montréal : les dérives sécuritaires de la gestion pénale de la pauvreté
Authors: Bellot Céline , Sylvestre Marie-Ève
Published: July 2017

Partant d’une présentation des perspectives théoriques sur la judiciarisation des problèmes sociaux et de l’espace public, le présent article a pour objet d’exposer les résultats de recherches sur la judiciarisation de l’itinérance à Montréal. Grâce à l’extraction de données à la Cour municipale de Montréal, entre les années 1994 et 2010, ces recherches ont permis d’appréhender l’ampleur et le parcours des contraventions délivrées à la population itinérante montréalaise, en vertu des réglementations municipales. Il s’agira ainsi de présenter l’évolution du recours à la contraventionnalisation, les motifs des infractions, les caractéristiques des personnes judiciarisées, ainsi que le parcours des contraventions, de leur délivrance à l’éventuel emprisonnement du contrevenant pour non-paiement de l’amende. Enfin, l’article cherchera à montrer les effets négatifs de la judiciarisation tant pour les personnes en situation d’itinérance que pour le système pénal dans son ensemble.
(Re)penser l’accès aux espaces intimes en contexte de handicap intellectuel : une question de droit et de participation sociale
Authors: Pariseau-Legault Pierre , Holmes Dave
Published: July 2017

En contexte de handicap, la question de l’accès est constituée généralement de l’éventail des aménagements individuels et collectifs nécessaires afin de faciliter l’occupation d’espaces publics. A contrario, peu de choses sont dites à propos des aménagements possibles et potentiels requis afin de sécuriser l’espace privé des personnes identifiées comme ayant un handicap intellectuel. Ce sont pourtant ces lieux intimes, au sein desquels se développent et se déploient l’identité et l’expression affectives, qui sont susceptibles de contribuer à une reconnaissance plus soutenue de l’identité affective et de la citoyenneté sexuelle de ces personnes. Inspirée par les théories d’Erving Goffman et de Michel Foucault, une analyse phénoménologique interprétative (API) fut réalisée auprès des personnes ayant un handicap intellectuel et de leurs proches aidants afin d’explorer cette situation. Nos constats préliminaires suggèrent l’existence d’un processus de négociation complexe des acteurs, des lieux et des moments nécessaires afin de favoriser le développement de la vie affective et sexuelle. De ce fait, trois modes d’existence semblent cohabiter au sein d’une matrice complexe : la dépossession, l’habitation et l’occupation des espaces de socialisation et d’expression affective. Il est proposé d’aborder cette problématique en tant que dynamique géopolitique intégrant les processus d’exclusion des pratiques sexuelles des espaces privés, leur projection dans des espaces publics et, finalement, la juxtaposition de ces deux sphères, publique et privée dans des espaces mixtes. Nous discuterons enfin des implications de cette réflexion sur la « question de l’accès » et sur les politiques publiques visant à diminuer la discrimination systémique ciblant les personnes identifiées comme ayant un handicap intellectuel.
Le Programme d’accompagnement justice-itinérance à la cour municipale de Montréal (PAJIC) : un tribunal spécialisé ancré dans le communautaire
Authors: Fortin Véronique , Raffestin Isabelle
Published: July 2017

Dans cet article, nous exposons d’abord les objectifs du Programme d’accompagnement justice-itinérance à la cour municipale de Montréal (PAJIC), son histoire et son fonctionnement actuel. Nous traçons ensuite les liens entre ce Programme et la première étude sur la judiciarisation de l’itinérance à Montréal, en soulignant que dans le monde des tribunaux spécialisés, le PAJIC est un programme à part, notamment en raison de sa flexibilité et de son ancrage dans le milieu communautaire. Nous précisons enfin les défis auxquels le PAJIC fait face, en tant que réponse individuelle à la judiciarisation des personnes en situation d’itinérance.
Exemplary Canadians? How Two Canadian Women Remember Their Roles in a Cold War Military Family
Authors: Campbell Isabel
Published: July 2017

This piece examines the constructed memories of the wife and a daughter of an air force subaltern, using oral history interviews to highlight their unique voices and explore their lived realities. Whole life history methodology reveals complexities and contradictions with regard to idealized families, generational differences, and polarized gender roles that might remain otherwise hidden when relying primarily on archival sources. This process peels back the idealized middle-class family of post-war elite proponents and it exposes points of intersection and difference with the historiography of Canadian Cold War families in general, and military families in particular. Their contrasting stories are not intended to represent the thousands of individual military family lives; rather, the reiteration of these oral histories highlights the unique McMillan family stories and reveals how military service, personnel policies, gender, age, class, education, culture, geographic location, place in the family, and individual personality and capabilities played out in their particular lives.
Emily’s Maternal Ideal: Pregnancy, Birth, and Resistance at Kingston Penitentiary
Authors: McCoy Ted
Published: July 2017

The 1850s and 1860s saw the rise of a new women’s prison reform ideology that would shape the next half-century of women’s imprisonment. “Maternalism” was the promotion of femininity as the basis of reform and rehabilitation with accompanying notions of ideal womanhood and appropriate roles for imprisoned women and in the aftermath of a penitentiary sentence. This paper looks at literal motherhood in the penitentiary by examining the experiences of prisoner Emily Boyle. Boyle was pregnant during two separate terms at Kingston Penitentiary. During the first term in 1926, she was paroled so that she could return to Edmonton to give birth. During her second term in 1932, no mercy was extended in consideration of her pregnancy and Boyle began a battle with the Department of Justice over her right to keep her baby within the walls of Kingston Penitentiary. The warden recommended that Boyle be separated from her child and it be sent to the Home for Infants, in spite of the fact that the father was in Edmonton. Boyle resisted this decision, and in fact resisted all penitentiary involvement with her pregnancy and childbirth. She ultimately gave birth in the bathroom of the women’s ward with the assistance of two matrons. When the child was taken away from her, both Boyle and her husband fought the Department of Justice decision on the matter, rallying against the notion that their child was better served by the Children’s Aid Society. The paper examines multiple questions about motherhood and maternalism in the penitentiary’s first century. It argues that maternalism and motherhood were found at cross purposes when balanced with the demands of punishment. Emily Boyle found herself at this intersection, fighting to keep her child in an institution geared towards teaching her to become the ideal mother.
A longitudinal study of the diabetic skin and wound microbiome
Authors: Gardiner Melissa , Vicaretti Mauro , Sparks Jill , Bansal Sunaina , Bush Stephen , Liu Michael , Darling Aaron , Harry Elizabeth , Burke Catherine M.
Published: July 2017

Background

Type II diabetes is a chronic health condition which is associated with skin conditions including chronic foot ulcers and an increased incidence of skin infections. The skin microbiome is thought to play important roles in skin defence and immune functioning. Diabetes affects the skin environment, and this may perturb skin microbiome with possible implications for skin infections and wound healing. This study examines the skin and wound microbiome in type II diabetes.

Methods

Eight type II diabetic subjects with chronic foot ulcers were followed over a time course of 10 weeks, sampling from both foot skin (swabs) and wounds (swabs and debrided tissue) every two weeks. A control group of eight control subjects was also followed over 10 weeks, and skin swabs collected from the foot skin every two weeks. Samples were processed for DNA and subject to 16S rRNA gene PCR and sequencing of the V4 region.

Results

The diabetic skin microbiome was significantly less diverse than control skin. Community composition was also significantly different between diabetic and control skin, however the most abundant taxa were similar between groups, with differences driven by very low abundant members of the skin communities. Chronic wounds tended to be dominated by the most abundant skin Staphylococcus, while other abundant wound taxa differed by patient. No significant correlations were found between wound duration or healing status and the abundance of any particular taxa.

Discussion

The major difference observed in this study of the skin microbiome associated with diabetes was a significant reduction in diversity. The long-term effects of reduced diversity are not yet well understood, but are often associated with disease conditions.
The time-course of broiler intestinal microbiota development after administration of cecal contents to incubating eggs
Authors: Donaldson Erin E. , Stanley Dragana , Hughes Robert J. , Moore Robert J.
Published: July 2017

Background

The microbial populations that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) are known to influence the health and growth performance of the host. Clean hatcheries and machine-based incubation practices in the commercial poultry industry can lead to the acquisition of aberrant microbiota in the GIT of chickens and a very high level of bird-to-bird variation. The lack of microbial profile flock uniformity presents challenges for harnessing and manipulating intestinal bacteria to better serve the host.

Methods

Cecal contents from high or low performing chickens were used to inoculate the surface of eggs prior to hatching and then the initial gut colonisation was monitored and subsequent changes in gut microbiota composition were followed over time. Two different cecal treatment groups were compared to an untreated control group (n = 32). Bacterial communities were characterised using high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing techniques.

Results

Cecal microbiota transfer via egg surface application did not transfer the performance profile of the donors to the recipient birds. One of the cecal inoculations provided a more uniform gut microbiota, but this was not reproduced in the second group with a different inoculum. Development of the intestinal community was reproducible in all three groups with some genera like Lactobacillus showing no change, others like Faecalibacterium increased in abundance slowly and steadily over time and others like Enterobacter were abundant only in the first days of life.

Discussion

The cecal treatment reduced bird-to-bird variation in microbiota composition. Although the high FCR performance of donor birds was not transferred with the cecal microbiota, all three groups, including the control, performed better than standard for the breed. The pattern of microbiota development was similar in all three flocks, indicating that the normal processes of microbiota acquisition largely swamped any effect of the cecal material applied to eggs.
Sensitivity of simulated convection‐driven stratosphere‐troposphere exchange in WRF‐Chem to the choice of physical and chemical parameterization
Authors: Phoenix Daniel B. , Homeyer Cameron R. , Barth Mary C.
Published: July 2017

Tropopause‐penetrating convection is capable of rapidly transporting air from the lower troposphere to the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS), where it can have important impacts on chemistry, the radiative budget, and climate. However, obtaining in situ measurements of convection and convective transport is difficult and such observations are historically rare. Modeling studies, on the other hand, offer the advantage of providing output related to the physical, dynamical, and chemical characteristics of storms and their environments at fine spatial and temporal scales. Since these characteristics of simulated convection depend on the chosen model design, we examine the sensitivity of simulated convective transport to the choice of physical (bulk microphysics or BMP and planetary boundary layer or PBL) and chemical parameterizations in the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with Chemistry (WRF‐Chem). In particular, we simulate multiple cases where in situ observations are available from the recent (2012) Deep Convective Clouds and Chemistry (DC3) experiment. Model output is evaluated using ground‐based radar observations of each storm and in situ trace gas observations from two aircraft operated during the DC3 experiment. Model results show measurable sensitivity of the physical characteristics of a storm and the transport of water vapor and additional trace gases into the UTLS to the choice of BMP. The physical characteristics of the storm and transport of insoluble trace gases are largely insensitive to the choice of PBL scheme and chemical mechanism, though several soluble trace gases (e.g., SO2, CH2O, and HNO3) exhibit some measurable sensitivity.
Tidal cycle control of biogeochemical and ecological properties of a macrotidal ecosystem
Authors: Cadier Mathilde , Gorgues Thomas , LHelguen Stéphane , Sourisseau Marc , Memery Laurent
Published: July 2017

In some regions, tidal energy can be a key factor in the generation of variability in physical and biogeochemical properties throughout the water column. We use a numerical model resolving tidal cycles and simulating diversity in phytoplankton to assess the impact of tidal mixing on vertical stability and phytoplankton community (total biomass and diversity) in a macrotidal sea (Iroise Sea, France). Two different time scales have been considered: semidiurnal and spring/neap tidal cycles. Our results show that the latter is the one primarily influencing the phytoplankton growth conditions by modifying the vertical stratification. During spring tide, the growth is rather light limited, whereas neap tide conditions lead to vertical stabilization and better light conditions in the shallow surface layer. The transition from high to low tidal mixing conditions is thus associated with a total phytoplankton biomass increase (caused by the rapid development of fast‐growing diatoms) and reduced phytoplankton diversity.
Managed aquifer recharge through off‐season irrigation in agricultural regions
Authors: Niswonger Richard G. , Morway Eric D. , Triana Enrique , Huntington Justin L.
Published: July 2017

Options for increasing reservoir storage in developed regions are limited and prohibitively expensive. Projected increases in demand call for new long‐term water storage to help sustain agriculture, municipalities, industry, and ecological services. Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is becoming an integral component of water resources around the world. However, MAR faces challenges, including infrastructure costs, difficulty in enhancing recharge, water quality issues, and lack of available water supplies. Here we examine, through simulation modeling of a hypothetical agricultural subbasin in the western U.S., the potential of agricultural managed aquifer recharge (Ag‐MAR) via canal seepage and off‐season field irrigation. Weather phenomenon in many regions around the world exhibit decadal and other multiyear cycles of extreme precipitation. An ongoing challenge is to develop approaches to store greater amounts of water during these events. Simulations presented herein incorporate Ag‐MAR programs and demonstrate that there is potential to enhance regional recharge by 7–13%, increase crop consumptive use by 9–12%, and increase natural vegetation consumption by 20–30%, where larger relative increases occur for lower aquifer hydraulic conductivity and higher specific yield values. Annual increases in groundwater levels were 7 m, and sustained levels following several years of drought were greater than 2 m. Results demonstrate that Ag‐MAR has great potential to enhance long‐term sustainability of water resources in agricultural basins.
Toward best practice framing of uncertainty in scientific publications: A review of Water Resources Research abstracts
Authors: Guillaume Joseph H. A. , Helgeson Casey , Elsawah Sondoss , Jakeman Anthony J. , Kummu Matti
Published: July 2017

Uncertainty is recognized as a key issue in water resources research, among other sciences. Discussions of uncertainty typically focus on tools and techniques applied within an analysis, e.g., uncertainty quantification and model validation. But uncertainty is also addressed outside the analysis, in writing scientific publications. The language that authors use conveys their perspective of the role of uncertainty when interpreting a claim—what we call here “framing” the uncertainty. This article promotes awareness of uncertainty framing in four ways. (1) It proposes a typology of eighteen uncertainty frames, addressing five questions about uncertainty. (2) It describes the context in which uncertainty framing occurs. This is an interdisciplinary topic, involving philosophy of science, science studies, linguistics, rhetoric, and argumentation. (3) We analyze the use of uncertainty frames in a sample of 177 abstracts from the Water Resources Research journal in 2015. This helped develop and tentatively verify the typology, and provides a snapshot of current practice. (4) We make provocative recommendations to achieve a more influential, dynamic science. Current practice in uncertainty framing might be described as carefully considered incremental science. In addition to uncertainty quantification and degree of belief (present in ∼5% of abstracts), uncertainty is addressed by a combination of limiting scope, deferring to further work (∼25%) and indicating evidence is sufficient (∼40%)—or uncertainty is completely ignored (∼8%). There is a need for public debate within our discipline to decide in what context different uncertainty frames are appropriate. Uncertainty framing cannot remain a hidden practice evaluated only by lone reviewers.
Status Offenses
Authors: Ayers Elizabeth K.
Published: July 2017

Status offenses are non‐criminal infractions that are offenses simply because of the offender's age. In the United States, where the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act (JJDPA) of 1974 created guidelines on how to process youths for their non‐criminal behavior, status offenses still largely fall under the purview of the juvenile justice system. States typically can take three approaches to dealing with status offenders: treatment, deterrence, or normalization. Current research is sharply divided as to whether the deterrence or normalization approach is best.
R
ikers
I
sland
Authors: Vollman Brenda K.
Published: July 2017

Riker's Island houses a large jail complex for the City of New York. While it has been operational since the 1930s, it has grown exponentially since that time. Today the facility houses a variety of inmates and encounters a myriad of problems.
S
witzerland, Corrections in
Authors: Bauch Elisabeth , Endrass Jérôme
Published: July 2017

The best method of ensuring public safety is a widely debated issue among researchers, politicians, and society as a whole. Switzerland uses an approach combining punitive and rehabilitative interventions by its correctional system to address the challenges presented by criminality. In Switzerland, the prison population comprised 87 out of every 100,000 inhabitants in 2012. In that same year, a total of 7,072 people were imprisoned in Swiss correctional institutions and of those 81 participated in an offense related treatment program. In 2013, occupancy rates in Swiss prisons exceeded the maximum, making prison overcrowding one of the most serious problems faced by the correctional system.
S
cared
S
traight
Authors: Petrosino Anthony , MacDougall Pamela
Published: July 2017

Scared Straight is a program that brings juveniles to correctional facilities to interact with inmates. This program is designed to deter future delinquency and crime by juvenile participants by depicting the harshness of prison life. The original program in New Jersey, run by men serving a life sentence at Rahway State Prison, was the subject of an award‐winning documentary that spurred wide interest by jurisdictions in implementing it. Several iterations of the New Jersey program have been implemented, and later versions have been less harsh and more educational. The program became widely popular during the late 1970s–1980s due to its low cost and perceived effectiveness. Subsequent research has shown that Scared Straight and other similar programs are ineffective and likely increase juvenile recidivism rates. Despite this mounting skepticism, however, Scared Straight remains a popular option that local jurisdictions implement in an attempt to address juvenile crime.
Rolland:Descent into Madness
Authors: Bounds Christopher W.
Published: July 2017

Descent into Madnessis a book by Mike Rolland, an inmate at the Penitentiary of New Mexico State Prison (PNMSP) during the riot of 1980. The book includes a foreword written by Mark Colvin, a sociologist, who reviews the historical and social causes that preceded the riot. Colvin presents a theoretical framework for the event by which to understand the lived experiences of the inmate Mike Rolland. Together, Mike Rolland and Mark Colvin lay out the graphic details of how 33 inmates perished in one of America's bloodiest prison riots.
Victim Statements
Authors: Taylor Rae
Published: July 2017

A victim statement is an oral or written statement addressed to a court and given by the victim of a crime after a defendant has been convicted and before sentencing occurs. Victims' rights, implemented at the state and federal levels since the 1980s, have included the right to be heard. The legality of victim statements has been a source of controversy since their implementation. Proponents have argued the importance of victims being heard and having an influence on the outcome of a case. Opponents have argued that any effect these statements have on a judge's sentence is inappropriate, if not unconstitutional.
Protestantism in Prisons
Authors: Kerley Kent R.
Published: July 2017

Religion has been a tool for correctional treatment in nations around the world since the inception of the penal system. In Great Britain and the United States, many of the first penitentiaries were developed by adherents of the Religious Society of Friends (i.e., Quakers). Key figures from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries advocated for prison reforms that included more humane treatment for inmates, as well as opportunities to study religious scriptures as part of the rehabilitation process. This entry is designed to introduce readers to the extensive research literature on Protestant religion in the prison environment.
Risk Assessment
Authors: Arnull Elaine
Published: July 2017

Risk assessment is concerned with two areas of debate – risk and assessment. Risk is a potential outcome which would be perceived as negative, and risk assessment a measurement of the likelihood of that potential outcome. Within social sciences, risk is conceptual, theoretical, and contested, whilst assessment is applied, directly linked to practice, and also hotly debated. Theorizing about risk is interdisciplinary and linked to concepts of post‐modernism and a decline in absolutist explanations. The concept and practice of risk assessment are linked to technological advances that mean large amounts of data can be stored, processed, and analyzed, an interest in particular forms of actuarial evidence, and critiques of managerialism. Risk assessments within criminal justice go to the heart of key moral and theoretical criminological debates about whether the systems should be concerned with welfare or justice and where attribution for behavior, structural factors and effects, and, therefore, responsibility might lie.
Pre‐Sentence Investigation Report
Authors: Morgan Kathryn D.
Published: July 2017

The pre‐sentence investigation (PSI) report is a document prepared by probation officers and used by judges for sentencing purposes in felony criminal cases. It uncovers circumstances that might increase or decrease the harshness of the sentence. Prepared by the probation department for the courts within 30–60 days following conviction, the major goal of the PSI report is to provide objective, factually accurate information to the court for sentencing and other matters related to the disposition of the case. Whether conviction is obtained through plea‐bargaining or trial, the pre‐sentence investigation is often conducted on instructions from the court. It provides a detailed view of the defendant, including his or her background and history. The PSI has several important functions. First, it helps the judge to make an informed decision regarding the sentence. Second, it assists probation officers with monitoring the offender's behavior if he or she is placed on probation. Third, it assists prison officials in prison programming and the parole board with parole release and in supervision decisions.
S
ykes:

T
he
S
ociety of
C
aptives
Authors: Shammas Victor L.
Published: July 2017

Gresham M. Sykes's
The Society of Captives
(1958) had a formative influence on the microsociology of prison life. In this classic of structural functionalism, Sykes develops an internalist account of prison culture in a New Jersey maximum‐security prison. Inmates cluster together to counter the deleterious effects of the
pains of imprisonment
. Prison guards and administrators are only imperfectly able to control the prisoner population because of the
defects of total power
, and checks on custodial authority are the result of inmate resistance and the scrutiny of external society. Inmates fall into
argot roles
, prison‐specific patterns of behavior that run counter to conventional norms. The book has been interpreted by many as supportive of the
deprivation model
of prison culture. Despite the shortcomings of its structural functionalism, the work remains influential on contemporary prison studies.
Women's Prison Association
Authors: Michalsen Venezia
Published: July 2017

The Women's Prison Association (WPA) was founded in 1845 with the goal of improving the conditions of incarceration for women. Hopper Home, the WPA's main building, served as a halfway house, a federal work release facility, an alternative to incarceration program, and finally as a homeless shelter. WPA's services have expanded over the years to address the needs of women under the purview of the criminal justice system living in prison, jail, and in the community. The organization works from the understanding that the needs of women with criminal justice involvement are multifaceted, and are distinct from those of their male counterparts.
Prison Construction
Authors: Costanza Stephen E.
Published: July 2017

Prison construction is a relatively new endeavor in Western history beginning in the early nineteenth century when the first penitentiaries were commissioned, designed, and constructed in both Britain and the United States. Construction of a prison represents a challenging task because a prison is a facility that must deliver both constitutionally guaranteed rehabilitation opportunities as well as state sanctioned punishment to the same general population. The Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) monitors constructions of federal prisons in the United States, while individual states have their own systems for monitoring the construction of state or local penitentiaries. The goals of punishment and rehabilitation are often at odds with one another. As a result, new prison construction is often a source of many controversies, becoming a key issue in public policy during periods when public resources are in short supply.
S
arah
P
owell
H
untington
H
ouse
Authors: Michalsen Venezia
Published: July 2017

Sarah Powell Huntington House is a shelter run by the Women's Prison Association in New York City. The shelter uniquely met the needs of mothers reentering the community after incarceration by providing shelter for homeless individuals until they were ready to reunite with their children, at which point it provided shelter appropriate for families. The shelter became exclusively for formerly incarcerated mothers living with their children starting in 2014.
P
rison
R
ape
E
limination
A
ct (2003)
Authors: Tewksbury Richard , Navarro John C.
Published: July 2017

The Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003 (PREA) was a federal mandate in the United States designed to prevent sexual violence in correctional institutions. Following a unanimous decision by Congress, along with the signature of President George H. W. Bush, this multi‐purposed act made prison rape a nationally recognized issue. PREA established new rules for multiple criminal justice agencies, mandated data collection of sexual assaults in correctional institutions, outlined management of its success, and created federal grant programs oriented towards prisoners and communities. Although PREA appears to date to have accomplished many of its intended purposes, there is limited scholarly research on its effectiveness.
Prohibition
Authors: Grayer Julien
Published: July 2017

While alcohol has had a long history in the United States as a social lubricant, and an important funding source for tax, various controls have been implemented to curb the sale of alcohol. Several distinct waves of the temperance movement in the eighteenth century focused on alcohol as a public health issue. Their efforts culminated in the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, which restricted sale and manufacturing of alcohol and enforcement of such restrictions. Prohibition had been opposed early on, citing infringement on private right to drink. Temperance policies also played a part in the ballooning of prison populations throughout the decade. Prohibition was repealed in 1933 but lived on through various regulatory pieces and arguably also carried implications for drug policy.
Stanford Prison Experiment
Authors: Woodward Vanessa
Published: July 2017

The Stanford Prison Experiment is considered one of the most infamous social experiments in history for its influence on both social psychology and research ethics. Philip Zimbardo, together with his graduate students, designed a mock prison where participants acted as both prisoners and guards. The goal of the study was to observe the effects of a person's environment on behavior and conformity. The study, which was to last two weeks, was terminated after only six days because of the high risks of psychological and physical harm of the participants.
Shaming, Disintegrative and Reintegrative
Authors: Edelman Meredith
Published: July 2017

Shame is a powerful societal tool. Whether shaming is disintegrative or reintegrative, according to the theory of reintegrative shaming, can predict how a person receiving it will react. When it is communicated that an act committed was wrong and one of which respected persons disapprove, yet the offender is a worthwhile human being, this shaming is called reintegrative, and tends to result in less offending and a perception by both offender and victim that the process is fair. When shaming is humiliating and disrespectful of the offender, this is called disintegrative shaming, and tends to be more likely to result in unresolved feelings of shame, which often lead to further breaches of social norms.
Suicide in Prison
Authors: Webb Megan
Published: July 2017

Suicide is a leading cause of death among inmates housed in state prisons across the United States. Research has shown that the inmates most prone to suicide typically are white, male, between the ages of 25 and 34, have been convicted of a property crime, and are serving prison sentences of less than 10 years. Inmates who commit suicide typically suffer from depression or other psychosocial disorders, and have had prior suicidal thoughts or attempts. Prisoner suicide is typically preceded by life events such as new criminal charges, marital or relationship issues, or a conflict with other inmates. The suicide act most commonly involves hanging or overdosing on medications or other drugs. Research regarding the prevention of suicide in prison has advocated for coordination between mental health counselors and correctional staff, use of suicide risk assessment measures, avoiding segregated housing of suicidal inmates, designing cells that make hanging more difficult, and improving communication with correctional staff about suicidal inmates.
Sykes, Gresham
Authors: Klenowski Paul M.
Published: July 2017

Gresham M'Cready Sykes (1922–2010) was a highly regarded academician who helped to legitimatize the disciplines of sociology and criminology, especially as they pertain to crime, delinquency, and punishment. Over the course of his career, he contributed many academic works that would ultimately shape the world's understanding of crime and punishment, especially the inner workings of the prison environment. Most notably, he published two pieces that catapulted him into the ranks as one of the twentieth century's most influential criminologists. These works include a book about that correctional culture within inside prison, entitled
The Society of Captives: A Study of Maximum Security Prisons
, and a coauthored work about juvenile delinquency, entitled
Techniques of Neutralization.
Prison Argot
Authors: Tepperman Alex
Published: July 2017

The study of prison argot can be traced back nearly a century. Early studies, in which academics looked to inmatepatoisfor a window into the culture of the penitentiary, tended only to list prison words and terms in catch‐all compendia, providing little in the way of geographical, temporal, or cultural context. As social scientists engaged more in ethnographic questions and methods, however, the field came to view prison argot as encompassing not only prison language, but also broadly conceived models of behavior and individual expressions of self, based on the cultural ideals conveyed by that language. The present state of academic study into prison argot is less vibrant than in generations past, there being substantially less interest in trying to capture a universal convict mentality. The study of argot roles, however, maintains strong significance in some areas, as scholars continue to develop new perspectives on institutional coping. This entry covers both the meanings and forms of prison argot, as well as the broad changes in the study of argot over the twentieth century. It will provide particular attention to the slow intellectual movement from positivistic, social ecological understandings of argot roles to the highly individualized, symbolic interactionist understandings of present‐day convict life.
Pretrial Detention
Authors: Amber Parker Robin , Viglione Jill
Published: July 2017

Pretrial detention involves the incarceration of an accused individual after arrest has been made, but prior to trial and determination of guilt. Currently in the United States, there are approximately 480,000 individuals in pretrial detention. The court may detain a defendant prior to trial when they are unable to post bail, do not qualify for release on recognizance, or when they impose a potential risk to society. With increasing attention on large jail populations and the associated costs and with research reporting potentially negative impacts of detainment before trial, there is a need to revisit policies surrounding the use of pretrial detention. Current research suggests a number of strategies to improve pretrial decision‐making, including the use of pretrial risk assessments and the reduction of pretrial detention of defendants who are low risk.
SanQuentinStatePrison
Authors: Runell Lindsey Livingston
Published: July 2017

The punitive nature of the criminal justice system in the United States has impacted California prisons in ways that warrant special attention. Historically, California has had one of the largest inmate populations, fueled in part by the exorbitant number of individuals incarcerated at San Quentin State Prison, which maintains the largest death row for male inmates in the country. This entry provides an overview of San Quentin Prison and explores in detail the conditions of incarceration shaped by prison overcrowding, particularly the imprisonment pains experienced by inmates awaiting execution. A crucial part of this discussion includes the ways in which these carceral circumstances have influenced public policies on the death penalty, prison‐based educational programs and prison realignment. It also contributes to literature that frames San Quentin State Prison as a model for inmate rehabilitation and reform.
Shock Probation
Authors: Hanink Peter A.
Published: July 2017

Shock probation is a type of sentence whereby offenders are initially incarcerated only to be released on probation after a short period. This sentence became popular in the 1970s, but has not been used extensively in recent years. Critics of shock probation, over time, came to doubt whether it was effective in reducing recidivism rates.
Terrorism in Prison
Authors: Johnson Ronn , Jacobs Eric , Edgar Max M.
Published: July 2017

For many decades, the majority of the world has had to deal with acts of terrorism. Whether a terrorist act is perpetrated on domestic or foreign soil, incarceration of suspected and convicted terrorists is an important issue. At times, the incarceration is temporary while awaiting trial, and at other times, incarceration is the sentence. Special considerations must be attended to with this population, such as where to incarcerate them, the risk of radicalization of other inmates, and rehabilitation. This entry explores these and other aspects of incarcerating terrorists.
Z
ambia, Corrections in
Authors: Lancaster‐Ellis Karen
Published: July 2017

The historical, social, and political antecedents of Zambia set the stage for the criminal justice system inefficiencies Zambia has continued to experience, particularly with corrections. Those inefficiencies have given rise to abuse, torture, court delays, lack of physical and human resources, overcrowded prisons, increasing crime and criminal offenders, corrupt officials, and high incidences of HIV and tuberculosis. These are only some of the critical issues faced, amid efforts to rehabilitate inmates, reform the criminal justice system, improve prison conditions, and reintegrate offenders into their communities. Despite the intervention of social movements and other NGOs, amended legislation, revised policies, and the ratification of some conventions to observe human rights and dignities, Zambia has not been able to harmonize national laws with the provisions outlined in international instruments and consequently has seen slow progress. This entry highlights these issues against a historical background, which will provide an understanding of the circumstances that give rise to the current situation.
Q
atar, Corrections in
Authors: Amin Dhara
Published: July 2017

The State of Qatar has several prisons and detention centers. Qatar is a Muslim country, which abides by Shari'a law, and has many immigrant prisoners. Although the population of incarcerated individuals is not very high, many rehabilitative and job training programs are provided. There is not a lot of specific information about the correctional system in Qatar that is disclosed.
Secret Detention Practices
Authors: Martin Simone
Published: July 2017

Torture is a habitual practice that occurs within secret detention facilities. This practice, which has existed for centuries, has been used as a form of interrogation and punishment. In the United States, for example, the establishment of secret detention centers in other nations allows federal agents to interrogate terrorist suspects outside the scope of federal domestic courts. Such suspects are no longer entitled to inalienable rights afforded to US citizens. This entry provides an in‐depth analysis of the history of torture, international laws, and human rights treaties related to torture and other secret detention practices. There is a specific focus on the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), the United States' official position on torture and the CAT, the review of Executive Orders established by presidential administrations related to secret detention practices, and evidence‐based research on these practices.
Sex Offender Programs
Authors: Runell Lindsey Livingston
Published: July 2017

The success of current programs designed to manage convicted sex offenders in the United States is largely influenced by laws and policies that shape opportunities for treatment both during and after incarceration. While the primary objective of psychological and behavioral services administered to sex offenders is to help facilitate progress toward rehabilitation, there is some risk that attainment of this goal might be hindered by the stigmatizing effects of incarceration. This entry highlights some of the underlying factors that contribute to this dilemma and also offers recommended ways to improve the effectiveness of sex offender programs. The significance of this inquiry is evident by the fact that collateral consequences of incarceration are exacerbated for individuals who have a criminal record due to past involvement in a sex crime as they are subject to public notification laws which result in housing and employment restrictions.
Self‐Templated Fabrication of CoO–MoO2 Nanocages for Enhanced Oxygen Evolution
Authors: Lyu Fenglei , Bai Yaocai , Li Zhiwei , Xu Wenjing , Wang Qingfa , Mao Jing , Wang Li , Zhang Xiangwen , Yin Yadong
Published: July 2017

Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) plays a key role in energy conversion and storage processes such as water splitting and carbon dioxide reduction. However, the sluggish kinetics caused by insufficient active surface and limited charge transfer hinder OER's wide applications. In this work, a novel self‐templating strategy for the fabrication of composite CoO–MoO2 nanocages with enhanced OER performance is proposed. By designing a nanocage structure and incorporating conductive MoO2 to promote both mass and charge transfer, high OER activity (η = 312 mV at 10 mA cm−2) as well as good stability in the resulting CoO–MoO2 composite nanostructure can be achieved. This versatile synthetic strategy can also be extended to other metals (such as W) to provide greater opportunities for the controlled fabrication of mixed metal oxide nanostructures for electrochemical applications.