bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Standards of Judgment: External or Internal, Personal or Reasonable
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces a different set of concerns about objectivity and law. In it and the next two chapters, I turn from the subject of determinate answers to criteria used within the law to judge people’s behavior. What does someone mean by saying legal standards should be objective? Different issues are embraced by this question, and only confusion can result if the inquiry is not carefully focused. It helps to begin with some of the oppositions that need to be considered: (1) objective (external) versus subjective (internal); (2) objective (criteria based on reasonable persons) versus subjective (personalized criteria); (3) objective (dealing with many situations similarly) versus contextualized (using individualized approaches); (4) objective (dictating results) versus discretionary (leaving much to the judgment of officials); (5) objective (fair) versus arbitrary (or unfair). The simple idea that law is “objective” usually has a flavor of all these senses. Legal rules deal with external acts, they hold people to standards that govern reasonable people, they establish abstract general criteria that seem substantively fair, govern large classes of actions, and constrain officials reaching decisions.
Objectivity in Legal Reasoning
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

This chapter is about reasoning within the law, reasoning employed to interpret and apply law. One critical question is how far such reasoning is objective in the sense of having interpersonal validity. A closely related question is how reasoning within the law relates to other forms of reasoning. The latter question is an extension of last chapter’s inquiry about legal decision and broader sources. I conclude that reasoning within the law is not simply a subcategory of any other form of reasoning. It combines different kinds of reasoning. No particular feature of reasoning within law is distinctively and uniquely “legal,” but the context of legal decision colors the force of reasons that matter. Legal reasoning has substantial interpersonal validity, but reasonable people can disagree about the precise force of reasons and, in close cases, about whether the reasons on one side are more forceful than the reasons on the other. Much can be said about legal reasoning, but in this chapter, I say only enough to support these conclusions. Even in what I do say, I sometimes settle for assertion and explication rather than sustained argument. I am aware that in many respects all I accomplish in the chapter is the statement of plausible accounts, not a convincing showing that opposing perspectives are mistaken.
Reduplication, Linkage, and Mendel’s Second Law
Authors: Darden Lindley
Published: November 2023

As we discussed in 5, in the early days of Mendelism, what is now referred to as the “independent assortment” of two different traits, or “Mendel’s second law,” was not separated from the law of segregation. In 1900, segregation appeared to hold for dihybrid crosses involving two different traits, as well as in the usual monohybrid cases. Mendel’s crosses of yellow tall peas with green short ones, for example, produced ratios of9 yellow tall:3 yellow short:3 green tall:1 green short in the F2• All possible combinations occurred independently.
Introduction
Authors: Ostrer Harry
Published: November 2023

During the summer of 1995, I saw a baby in consultation for evaluation of asymmetry. At birth, his mother suspected that something was wrong because one side of his body was larger than the other. Careful questioning revealed that his blood sugar had been low in the newborn period. His physical examination revealed that he had a large tongue and the ear creases that are characteristic of Beckwith-Wiedeman syndrome (BWS). As a result of this diagnosis, we started a program of ultrasound screening for abdominal masses. At three months of age, a tumor was discovered in his right adrenal gland, which fortunately proved to be a benign adenoma when it was removed.
Selection in a Fluctuating Environment
Authors: Gillespie John H
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will explore some mathematical aspects of natural se lection in a temporally and spatially fluctuating environment. This is an area of population genetics that has received relatively little attention over the years. The reasons for this are complex, but a lack of relevance is certainly not one of them. Population genetics theory is concerned with the evolutionary consequences of fitness differences between genotypes. The fitness of a genotype is a measure of its success in the natural environment. It is clear to even the most casual observer that the environment is in a constant state of flux. It must be the case that fitness differences between genotypes are also in a constant state of flux. Thus, models of selection in a fluctuating environment should be central to that part of population genetics theory that is concerned with natural selection.
Neutral Allele Theories
Authors: Gillespie John H
Published: November 2023

In this and Chapter 7 we will address the scientific issues raised by the observations on molecular variation and the mathematics of selection in a fluctuating environment. This chapter is about the neutralist side of the much-publicized “neutralist-selectionist” debate. The next chapter is about the selectionist side.
Sending My Heart Back Across the Years
Authors: Wong Hertha Dawn
Published: November 2023

Using contemporary autobiography theory, and literary and anthropological approaches, Wong traces the development of Native American autobiography from pre-literate oral, artistic, and dramatic personal narratives through late nineteenth and early twentieth-century life histories to contemporary autobiographies.
The Cost of Competence
Authors: Silverstein Brett , Perlick Deborah
Published: November 2023

In The Cost of Competence Brett Silverstein and Deborah Perlick argue that rather than simply labelling individual women as, say, anorexic or depressed, it is time to look harder at the widespread prejudices within our society and child-rearing practices that lead thousands of young women to equate thinness with competence and success, and femininity with failure.
From Bird land to Broadway
Authors: Crow Bill
Published: November 2023

1950s New York. On the stage at Birdland is Pee Wee Marquette, the 3’ 9” MC, dressed in a zoot suit and loud tie, smoking a huge cigar, and mispronouncing the name of the next act. Pee Wee is just one of the many characters that have made Bill Crow’ s forty years in jazz seem like an instant. In the same key as his acclaimed Jazz Anecdotes, this collection of revealing, hilarious, and sometimes moving stories runs the full gamut of New York’ s nightspots, introducing us along the way to the likes of Dizzy Gillespie, Benny Goodman, Stan Getz, Billie Holliday, Yul Brynner, and Simon and Garfunkel.
The Nature of All Being
Authors: Bradley Raymond
Published: November 2023

In this comprehensive study of Wittgenstein's modal theorizing, Raymond Bradley offers a radical reinterpretation of Wittgenstein's early thought. He argues that the Tractatus presents a view of the world in which possibilities are given an important ontological status. Contrary to most interpreters, Bradley contends that Wittgenstein's ontology is central to his enterprise, and not simply a by-product of certain of his views on language. On Bradley's reading, the Tractatus offers a version of modal realism. He further demonstrates the unexpected existence of deep differences both in content and aims between the logical atomism of Wittgenstein and that of Russell. A unique feature of Bradley's argument here is his reliance on Wittgenstein's notebooks, which he believes offer indispensable guidance to the interpretation of difficult passages in the Tractatus. Bradley then goes on to argue that Wittgenstein's account of modality - and the related notion of possible worlds - is in fact superior to any of the currently popular theories in this area.
Springs Of Action
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: November 2023

In this book, Alfred Mele tackles some central problems in the philosophy of action. His purpose is to construct an explanatory model for intentional behaviour, locating the place and significance of such mental phenomena as beliefs, desires, reasons, and intentions in the etiology of intentional action. Part One comprises a comprehensive examination of the standard treatments of the relations between desires, beliefs, and actions. In Part Two, Mele develops a subtle and well defended view that the motivational role of intentions is of a different sort from that of beliefs and desires. In the final chapter, Mele offers a provocative explanation of how we come to have intentions and elaborates on his earlier work concerning akratic failures of will.
Wanting and Wanting Most
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: November 2023

Wanting or desiring has traditionally occupied a central role in explanations of intentional action. Obviously, we do not do-or even try to do―everything that we want to do. Sometimes an agent’s wants com pete. When that happens, the “strongest” wants prevail―or so it is standardly claimed.
Effective Reasons
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: November 2023

Garden-variety explanations of intentional actions feature reasons. The reasons for which we act-what I shall call effective reasons-are often construed, following Donald Davidson (1980, ch. 1), as belief/desire pairs. This construal, in its standard form, postulates a division of labor between beliefs and desires that is well suited to a common species of intentional action. However, the plausibility of dividing the labor in the standard way is undermined by attention to intrinsically motivated actions-roughly, actions done for their own sakes. In the present chapter, I shall argue that intrinsically motivated actions are done for rea sons, show that this tells against Davidson’s account of the reasons for which we act, and develop an alternative conception of effective reasons that accommodates intrinsically motivated actions. My goal in so doing is further refinement of the belief/desire model of action-explanation outlined in chapter 1.
Intention, Belief, and Intentional Action
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: November 2023

Ordinary usage supports both a relatively strong belief requirement on intention and a tight conceptual connection between intention and intentional action. More specifically, it speaks in favor both of the view that ‘S intends to A’ entails ‘S believes that he (probably) will A’ and of the thesis that ‘S intentionally A-ed’ entails ‘S intended to A’. So, at least, proponents of these ideas often claim or assume―and with appreciable justification.
Adrienne Rich, Emily Dickinson, and the Limits of Sisterhood
Authors: Erkkila Betsy
Published: November 2023

In an essay on Elizabeth Bishop entitled “The Eye of the Outsider” (1983), Adrienne Rich comments on her quest as a young woman writer for a specifically female literary genealogy: “I was looking for a clear female tradition; the tradition I was discovering was diffuse, elusive, often cryptic” (Blood, Bread, and Poetry 125). In part because Rich was looking for a particular kind of women’s writing and in part because of Bishop’s literary reputation as a high modernist poet of wit, objectivity, and formal control, Bishop seemed at once inaccessible and unavailable to Rich as a literary model. “Women poets searching for older contemporaries in that period,” says Rich, “were supposed to look to ‘Miss’ Marianne Moore as the paradigm of what a woman poet might accomplish, and after her, to ‘Miss’ Bishop. Both had been selected and certified by the literary establishment, which was, as now, white, male, and at least ostensibly heterosexual” (125). Rich herself “felt drawn but also repelled, by Bishop’s early work,” finding it “impenetrable: intellectualized to the point of obliquity” (125).
Not Saints, but Healers: Legal Duties of Physicians in the AlDS Epidemic
Authors: Annas George J
Published: November 2023

Albert Camus closes his narrative of The Plague by observing of those who “fought against its terror and relentless onslaughts” that, although they were “unable to be saints,” they refused ‘ ‘to bow down to pestilences, [and strove] their utmost to be healers.” Neither law nor ethics expects sainthood or martyrdom of physicians. Nor can the law force people to be courageous or virtuous. But the law does set a minimum standard of conduct below which physicians cannot fall without risking lawsuits, loss of license, or loss of employment. This chapter explores the legal framework within which physicians must work as healers in the AIDS epidemic, and suggests ways in which the law can reinforce an ethic of professionalism in the face of this modern plague.
The Politics of Fetal Tissue Transplants
Authors: Annas George J
Published: November 2023

Research involving human fetal tissue has been the subject of intense political debate in the United States for two decades, and the use of fetal tissue for transplant continues this controversy in another forum. ‘ Since Roe v. Wade, the federal government has focused public attention on fetal re search by creating panels of experts. For example, in 1974 Congress created the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research and put the formulation of regulations on fetal research first on its agenda. The resulting regulations were reason able, but no federally funded research on either fetuses or in vitro fertilization has been done in the United States, primarily because of the Reagan and Bush administrations ‘ view on the moral status of the human embryo. In this regard, the “right to life” groups may be viewed as the most effective political lobbying “bioethics” groups of the 1980s.
Siamese Twins: Killing One to Save the Other
Authors: Annas George J
Published: November 2023

The separation of Siamese twins with conjoined hearts, while a rare event, has received some ethical and legal discussion. Most of it, unfortunately, has been characterized by fuzzy thinking and flawed analogies. Perhaps this is inevitable. Siamese twins have always seemed bizarre to us. Their very name comes from history ‘s most famous such twins, Eng and Chang Bunker. Born in Siam in 1811, they lived until 1874 and were exhibited around the world by P. T. Barnum. The second most famous are Amos and Eddie Smith, fictional Siamese twins who are the subjects of Judith Rossner ‘s challenging novel, Attachments, and who, in the novel, also spent some time with Ringling Brothers Barnum & Bailey. ture well into the 20th century. Are Siamese twins “monsters” that do not merit the care we routinely provide other infants, or are they two persons, each of which merits care in its own best interests? Can one twin be sacrificed so that the other may be made “human”?
The Erosion of Autonomy in Long-Term Care
Authors: Lidz Charles W , Fischer Lynn , Arnold Robert M
Published: November 2023

In few places in American society are adults so dependent on others as in nursing homes. Minimizing this dependency and promoting autonomy has become a major focus of policy and ethics in gerontology. Yet most of these discussions are divorced from the day-to-day reality of long-term care and are implicitly based on concepts of autonomy derived from acute medical care settings. Promoting autonomy in long-term care, however, is a complex task which requires close attention to everyday routines and a fundamental rethinking of the meaning of autonomy. This timely work is based on an observational study of two different types of settings which provide long-term care for the elderly. The authors offer a detailed description of the organizational patterns that erode autonomy of the elderly. Their observations lead to a substantial rethinking of what the concept of autonomy means in these settings. The book concludes with concrete suggestions on methods to increase the autonomy of elderly individuals in long-term care institutions.
Privacy: Access to Space and Property
Authors: Lidz Charles W , Fischer Lynn , Arnold Robert M
Published: November 2023

When we talk about the right to confidentiality, we are referring to a person’s ability to control access by others to several different facets of her world including space, information, and personally meaningful objects. The protection of privacy is directly related to the protection of the sense of autonomous selfhood.
Amy Beach, Passionate Victorian, The Life and Work of an American Composer, 1867–1944
Authors: Block Adrienne Fried
Published: November 2023

Amy Marcy Cheney Beach (1867-1944), the most widely performed composer of her generation, was the first American woman to succeed as a creator of large-scale art music. Her “Gaelic” Symphony, given its premiere by the Boston Symphony Orchestra in 1896, was the first work of its kind by an American woman to be performed by an American orchestra. Almost all of her more than 300 works were published soon after they were composed and performed, and today her music is finding new advocates and audiences for its energy, intensity, and sheer beauty. Yet, until now, no full-length critical biography of Beach’s life or comprehensive critical overview of her music existed. This biography admirably fills that gap, fully examining the connections between Beach’s life and work in light of social currents and dominant ideologies. Born into a musical family in Victorian times, Amy Beach started composing as a child of four and was equally gifted as a pianist. Her talent was recognized early by Boston’s leading musicians, who gave her unqualified support. Although Beach believed that the life of a professional musician was the only life for her, her parents had raised her for marriage and a career of amateur music-making. Her response to this parental (and later spousal) opposition was to find creative ways of reaching her goal without direct confrontation. Discouraged from a full-scale concert career, she instead found her métier in composition. Success as a composer of art songs came early for Beach: indeed, her songs outsold those of her contemporaries. Nevertheless, she was determined to separate her work from the genteel parlor music women were writing in her day by creating large-scale works—a Mass, a symphony, and chamber music—that challenged the accepted notion that women were incapable of creating high art. She won the respect of colleagues and the allegiance of audiences. Many who praised her work, however, considered her an exception among women. Beach’s reaction to this was to join with other women composers of serious music by promoting their works along with her own. Adrienne Fried Block has written a biography that takes full account of issues of gender and musical modernism, considering Beach in the contexts of her time and of her composer contemporaries, both male and female. Amy Beach, Passionate Victorian will be of great interest to students and scholars of American music, and to music lovers in general.
Population Processes
Authors: Hartnett David C , Keeler Kathleen H
Published: November 2023

Within the prairies, myriad populations of plants, insects, small mammals, and other organisms form distinct levels of organization. The physical forces of weather and fire and the complex networks of species interactions control each species’s structure and dynamics and determine its abundance or rarity. Variation in population dynamics and interactions over time and space determine the distribution and abundance of species, and ultimately the composition and dynamics of entire prairie communities. To the casual observer, plant populations on prairies may seem quite static, like museums containing a diverse collection of specimens that can be seen again and again on repeated visits. Many plant populations, however, are much more analogous to a railway station than a museum, characterized by a constant flux of arrivals and departures. Furthermore, much of the dynamics within prairie plant populations occurs hidden belowground in the pools of seeds and rhizomes, obscuring the true population sizes and their dynamic nature. Even the dominant species that appear to be temporally and spatially stable are not static, but are characterized by significant population flux. The basic processes determining the sizes and dynamics of all populations are birth, death, and migration. The size of a leadplant population in a tallgrass prairie is determined by the balance between additions of new shoots via both seedling establishment and vegetative reproduction and the death of individuals as a result of competition, herbivory, or physical factors such as drought and fire.
Grassland Ecosystem and Landscape Dynamics
Authors: Collins Scott L , Glenn Susan M
Published: November 2023

The primary focus of many ecologists during the first half of the twentieth century was the description and classification of plant communities. Many believed that com munities were distinct, precisely defined assemblages of species. A good community description would allow the observer to name any plant community based on the framework of an idealized vegetation classification. The focus was clearly on similarity. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, observations of variation, cycles, and disturbance provided a spark that stimulated new views on plant community structure and dynamics. Currently, ecological interests have shifted from seeking similarity for the purpose of classification to understanding variability within the context of natural disturbances. As a consequence, these general trends in community ecology certainly reflect the focus of ecological research in prairies. For example, early grassland ecologists believed that fire was a catastrophic and unnatural component in prairies. To some extent, this view developed during the drought of the 1930s, when fires were damaging already overgrazed and eroded prairies. Today, fire is recognized as an important aspect of the natural disturbance regime, especially in mesic tallgrass prairies.
Grassland Management: Ecosystem Maintenance and Grazing
Authors: Wallace Linda L , Dyer M I
Published: November 2023

Grasslands in North America evolved in the presence of a diverse consumer community. The Pleistocene megafauna of the central North American grasslands was a diverse group of herbivores with their associated predators. Following the post Pleistocene extinctions (the cause of which is still hotly debated), the herbivorous fauna of this region was tremendously reduced in diversity (Gould 1991). However, using scouting reports and accounts from early settlers, estimates have been made of the most numerous herbivorous species, Bison bison,prior to the development of European culture throughout North America. These estimates range from 20 to 60 million animals (Larson 1940). In addition to bison, there were large numbers of elk, deer, and antelope as well as small herbivores, ranging from gophers to geese to grasshoppers (Axelrod 1985). Thus even in the absence of the large Pleistocene fauna, the grasslands of central North America still supported large numbers of a diverse herbivore assemblage. The key word here is “diverse.”What is occurring on today’s grasslands in North America? Most of the native large-bodied herbivores are gone, and current management philosophies seek to minimize the presence of herbivores other than domestic livestock. Managers who are in charge of this new landscape now wish to maximize the production of only one herbivore species or, at most, two or three. In addition, because of economic pressures, management practices aim to maximize this production on a finite parcel of land, rather than dealing with large spaces previously utilized by native herbivores prior to European cultural expansion. Are such shifts in land-use patterns significant? We believe so and argue that managers need to understand ecosystem dynamics in grass lands in order to design rational land-use plans themselves. With this information, they can better understand how the herbivores they are producing influence grassland function and their own potential economic productivity on a long-term basis.
The Basic Idea of Persistence
Authors: Hirsch Eli
Published: November 2023

One Important difference between the simple continuity analysis (discussed in Chapter 1) and the sortal analysis (discussed in Chapter 2) comes out when we consider the following question: Can we analyze our concept of a physical object’s identity through time without taking cognizance of what sort of object we are dealing with? Obviously the simple continuity analysis, which makes no reference to sortal differentiations, implies an affirmative answer to this question. That analysis attempts a wholly general and sortal-neutral account of physical persistence, and, as we saw, fails drastically in so doing. A negative answer to the question seems, on the other hand, indicated by the sorta! analysis. The latter analysis is, to be sure, quite general in a sense, since the sortal rule is a single comprehensive formula which is intended to apply to physical objects of all sorts. Evidently, however, we can apply the rule to an object only insofar as we do take cognizance of what sort of object it is, for it is only then that we can properly trace the object under a sortal. Indeed the essential idea behind the sortal rule was that we need to divide objects into different sorts before we can adequately analyze our identity concept.
A Sense Of Unity
Authors: Hirsch Eli
Published: November 2023

Philosophers Have often raised questions about our concept of the unity of a thing. Most typically what is sought is an analysis of what our concept of unity consists in. The answer to this question commonly takes the form of citing various conditions that seem to provide a definition of our judgments of unity. These conditions may be said to constitute our criteria of unity, our criteria of identity.
Constraints On Self-Identity
Authors: Hirsch Eli
Published: November 2023

The Ordinary distinction between ‘‘me’‘ and ‘‘not-me,’‘ between that which does and that which does not lie within the boundaries of a single self, seems at least on first reflection completely inevitable. It is difficult even to understand the suggestion that this distinction might be arbitrary, or that it might legitimately be redrawn in some other way. Here, if anywhere, a ‘‘conventionalist’‘ attitude is likely to strike us as intuitively incredible.
Methodological Considerations in the Utilization of In Situ Hybridization
Authors: Tecott Laurence H , Eberwine James H , Barchas Jack D , Valentino Karen L
Published: November 2023

In situ hybridization is a technique that is generating a great deal of interest among neurobiologists and others interested in genetics, virology, developmental biology, and related disciplines. This method enables the precise localization and identification of individual cells that contain a specific nucleic acid sequence, in a manner analogous to the immunocytochemical localization of cells containing a particular protein. It involves the hybridization of a nucleic acid probe with a specific target nucleic acid within a tissue section. The technique is an extension of liquid-phase hybridization methods, with which it shares many considerations. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the basic technical considerations involved in in situ hybridization and the methods by which they are addressed.
Assessment of Peptide Secretion and Gene Expression Within Individual Cells
Authors: Wise Phyllis M , Scarbrough Kathryn , Chiu Sufen , Larson Gregg H , Weiland Nancy G , Lloyd Jonathan M , Hinkle David A , Cai Aihua
Published: November 2023

We developed the reverse hemolytic plaque/in situ hybridization method to approach several questions regarding peptide secretion and gene expression at the individual cell level.
Alterations in the Theme of the Gift
Authors: Fox Renée C , Swazey Judith P , Watkins Judith C
Published: November 2023

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, as described in Chapter 2, transplant teams were highly aware of the gift-exchange dimensions of organ transplantation, its more than biomedical meaning, and the psychic and social effects of the symbolic power of giving and receiving an organ. They were particularly concerned about the emotional and familial pressures to give an organ from living donors and about how both cadaveric and live transplantations could lead donors, recipients, and their kin to become enmeshed in relationships that were pain fully complicated by their creditor-debtor and anthropomorphic components.
‘‘Made in the U.S.A.”: American Features in the Rise and Fall of the Jarvik-7 Artificial Heart
Authors: Fox Renée C , Swazey Judith P , Watkins Judith C
Published: November 2023

Unlike so many of our pioneers-most recently the Apollo astronauts who visited the moon and returned from their voyages to reflect upon their experience-the artificial-heart recipients never made it back. And because of the incredible physical suffering they endured along the way ... we were unable to learn much from them about what it was like to live without a human heart. How it actually felt to be alive with a mono rhythmic piece of plastic clicking where once the mime-if not the author-of our emotions dwelled is a secret the recipients have taken with them.
Who Shall Guard the Guardians?
Authors: Fox Renée C , Swazey Judith P , Watkins Judith C
Published: November 2023

On an August afternoon in 1986, six members of the University of Utah Medical Center institutional review board (IRB) who had served on the committee during the years that it dealt with the Jarvik-7 heart experiment straggled into a small seminar room. They had gathered, somewhat apprehensively, to talk with us about the IRB’s role in the Barney Clark implant and its aftermath and their views of the experiment more generally.1 It was an occasion that one person likened to a reunion and another to a wake, as it was the first time they had met together since their work on the permanent implant protocols ended with DeVries’ move to Louisville.
Leaving the Field
Authors: Fox Renée C , Swazey Judith P , Watkins Judith C
Published: November 2023

As journeyers into the field, participant observers, and chroniclers, we have been involved in the development of organ transplantation, the artificial kidney, and the artificial heart throughout most of their contemporaneous medical and social history and for many years of our working lives. Since 1951 (RCF) and 1968 (JPS) we have had the privileged opportunity to watch, from the inside, how dialysis and kidney, heart, and liver transplantation, which began as “desperate remedies for desperate patients,” with certain “desperate[ly] hopeless” conditions (Moore 1989, p. 1483), evolved into “nonexperimental,” though far from ordinary, interventions to treat a wide gamut of end-stage diseases. During those years we have seen the range and combinations of different organs trans-planted, the numbers performed, and the array of artificial organs designed increase dramatically, and we have charted at firsthand the early phases of the drive to replace the human heart with a man-made device.
Hans Krebs
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

This comprehensive volume completes Frederic Holmes’s notable and detailed biography of Hans Krebs, from the investigator’s early development through the major phase of his groundbreaking investigation, which lay the foundations upon which the modern structure of intermediary metabolism is built. With access to Krebs’s research notebooks as well as to Krebs himself through more than five years of personal interviews, the author provides an insightful analysis of Hans Krebs and of the scientific process as a whole. The first volume, published in 1991, covered Krebs’s formative years in Germany, his work with Otto Warburg, and his discovery of the urea cycle in 1932. This second volume reconstructs the investigative pathway and the professional and personal life of Hans Krebs, from the time of his arrival in England in 1933 until 1937, when he made the discovery for which he is best known--the formulation of the citric acid cycle. Holmes portrays Krebs’s activity at the intimate level of daily interactions of thought and action, from which the characteristic patterns of scientific creativity can best be seen. Holmes’s fascinating portrait of Krebs integrates the great scientist’s investigative pathways with his personal life. The result is an illuminating analysis of both man and scientist that will be of interest to biochemists and historians of science.
New Moves
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

On November 20, 1934, Hans Krebs and Marjory Stephenson left the biochemistry laboratory with Hans Weil and Rosanne Malherbe, accompanied them to the Registry Office around the corner, and acted as witnesses to their civil wedding. Then they all returned to the laboratory for a sherry party. Afterward the couple took the train to London to have their marriage confirmed in a Swiss Reformed Church. When the pastor found that they had not yet received their marriage certificate through the mail, however, he refused to perform the ceremony. Hans and Rosanne had to live together without the blessing of the church until the certificate arrived and they could return to London and present themselves again in the same church.
Encouragements to Crime
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers utterances that encourage other people to commit crimes. Chapters 4 and 5 dealt with agreements, orders, offers, and threats, which also can constitute forms of encouragement; now mainly address a contrasting class of utterances that are not significantly situation-altering: weak imperatives and assertions of fact. I begin with explicit urgings to commit particular crimes and then turn to kinds of “encouragements” which in some way are less direct.
Offensiveness and Diffuse Harms
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

The communications and reasons for prohibition which I consider in this chapter move in some ways beyond those I have thus far examined. I have concentrated on situations where an utterance leads directly to a harmful act performed by a listener, or threatens the listener in order to obtain property or restrict liberty, or falsely asserts some fact that causes damage. Here, I focus on communications whose harm may not lie primarily in falsity or threat or the risk that a listener will cause a direct injury. The examples I examine briefly are insults, epithets and slurs, pornography, and disclosures of embarrassing private truths. With respect to each, I inquire about the need for legal control, the manner in which language is being used, the expressive value of the utterances, and sensible boundaries of criminal or tort liability.
Reckless and Negligent Risk That One’s Communications Will Cause Criminal Harms
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

The last chapter considered situations in which some social danger lies in the effect a communication is intended to have; here I deal with circumstances in which the speaker does not aim for a crime or similar harmful effect, but makes a communication that generates a substantial risk that such an effect will occur. We can begin with the premise that punishing speech that is reckless as to a particular result cannot constitutionally be easier than punishing otherwise similar speech that is intended to cause the result. Indeed, since the values of speech are more fully implicated when one is not aiming to accomplish an immediate practical result, the requirements for liability should generally be more stringent when all the speaker does is to risk a result. I shall treat a number of related subjects, all on the basic assumption that speech may infrequently be foreclosed solely because of unintended harms its message may cause.
Falsity
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers in a summary way how far the First Amendment precludes liability for statements because they are untrue or insincere. I begin with the assumption that, in general, for claims of value and other matters beyond demonstration as true or false, neither falsity nor insincerity can be the basis of liability. That the government may not penalize falsehoods on these subjects is evident. Though some argument might be made that insincere assertions about values or complex interpretive conclusions should be punishable, insincerity on these subjects will usually be very hard to establish. I assume that insincerity does not deprive assertions about these matters of the First Amendment protection they would otherwise have. When the Supreme Court said in Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. that “there is no such thing as a false idea,”1 it did not quite say that insincere statements of ideas are protected, but it implied that the law has no business reviewing “ideas” in terms of truth or sincerity. Thus I suppose that neither penal nor civil liability can be premised on assertions like “Saluting the flag is ridiculous” or “In the origins of World War II, England was much more to blame than Germany.”2 I shall concentrate on false statements of fact.
God’s Sister: History and Ideology in Valperga
Authors: Lew Joseph W
Published: November 2023

In the early 1790s, Richard Brothers began to announces—to anyone who cared to listens—that he was the “Nephew of the Almighty. “1 The implications of this claim are mindboggling. Who was God’s sibling, and what happened to him or her? Within a Christian tradition, that God should have a brother is almost unimaginable. To cope with the question at all, one must posit an immortal despot who, like the Ottoman sultans, “removes” all rivals for the throne, thus providing a divine precedent for the slaying of Abel by Cain. Conversely, one might recreate a Greek-style cosmology, establishing godly spheres of influence reminiscent of the division of air, sea, and the underworld among Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades.
“The Last Man”
Authors: Johnson Barbara
Published: November 2023

When considering a subject as broad as “the ends of man,” one can only ask oneself: Where to start? Where to start speaking of the end? But on the other hand, isn’t it always from the end that one starts? Isn’t every narrative in fact constructed beginning with the denouement, as every project is constructed beginning with its goal? Isn’t the end precisely that which never ceases to be repeated, which one is never done with? If man is truly, as Derrida says, “that which relates to its end,” he is also that which is never finished with ending. Thus the question would not be to know how to begin speaking of the end, but how to finish speaking of it, how to narrate something other than the interminable death of the penultimate, how to be finished with the end?
Inequality: A Complex Notion
Authors: Temkin Larry S
Published: November 2023

When is one situation worse than another regarding inequality? In some cases the answer to this question can be easily given. We know, for instance, that among equally deserving people a situation where some are worse off than others is worse than one where everyone is equal, in terms of inequality. We also know that among equally deserving people the inequality in a situation would be worse if the gaps between the better- and worse-off were large, than if they were small. Consider, however, a situation where many are better-off, and a few are worse-off. How would the inequality in such a situation compare with the inequality in a situation where a few are better-off and many are worse-off? How would both of these compare with a situation where the better- and worse-off groups were equal in size? It is questions such as these that I shall be addressing in this chapter. As we shall see, these are complicated questions, and ones to which several plausible but conflicting answers might be given.
A Neglected Position?
Authors: Wiggins David
Published: November 2023

Peter Railton has brought about a real clarification of his original essay. The position he holds to have been overlooked is ‘substantive ethical naturalism’ as ‘defended on methodologically naturalist grounds’. Inasmuch as this position is methodologically naturalistic, it arises (as does Railton’s general outlook) from an a posteriori (benign in principle) explanatory approach to morality and its practices. Insofar as the neglected position also qualifies as substantive naturalism (that is, insofar as it turns out that substantive naturalism is the approach that methodological naturalism decides, against my counsel, to recommend towards moral discourse), what it proposes for moral discourse is ‘an interpretation’ of moral, normative and valuational concepts. This interpretation is to be ‘semantical’. But it is to be given in terms of properties or relations that pull their weight within an empirical science. The semantic interpretation offered by substantive naturalism is to be part of an explanatory theory of ‘what is going on’ in the area of moral discourse, and such a doubly naturalistic account of morals will have to rest at some point on a synthetic claim identifying the moral property by which this or that predicate is interpreted with some complex natural property.
Morality, Normativity, and Society
Authors: Copp David
Published: November 2023

This book defends a form of naturalistic and relativistic moral realism. The guiding intuition is that any society needs to be characterized by a social moral code in order to enable its members to live together successfully. According to the “society centred theory”, it follows that certain moral codes are justified. And according to the “standard-based theory” of normative judgment, it follows that corresponding moral propositions may be true. The book also introduces a new perspective on reasons and rational choice.
Jazz
Authors: Collier James Lincoln
Published: November 2023

Praised by the Washington Post as a ‘tough, unblinkered critic,’ James Lincoln Collier is probably the most controversial writer on jazz today. His iconoclatic articles, and his acclaimed biographies of the jazz greats continue to spark debate in jazz circles. With the publication of Jazz: The American Theme Song, Collier does nothing to soften his reputation for hard-hitting, incisive commentary. Questioning everything we think we know about jazz - its origins, its innovative geniuses, the importance of improvisation and spontaneous inspiration in a performance - and the jazz world, these ten provocative essays on the music and its place in American culture overturn tired assumptions and will alternately enrage, enlighten, and entertain.
The Structure of Rugged Fitness Landscapes
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I begin discussing in detail the central conceptual framework of the book: to examine the relation between selection and self-organization, opening with a discussion of the structure of the rugged fitness landscapes underlying evolution. I shall, for the moment, consider such landscapes as fixed in structure. In reality, fitness landscapes deform in response to changes in the abiotic environment and in response to coevolution. In coevolutionary processes, the fitness of one organism or species depends upon the characteristics of the other organisms or species with which it interacts, while all simultaneously adapt and change. A critical difference between evolution on a fixed landscape and coevolution is that the former can be roughly characterized as if it were an adaptive search on a “potential surface,” or “fitness surface,” whose peaks are the positions sought. In coevolution, there may typically be no such potential surface, and the process is far more complex. These more complex situations are deferred to Chapter 6.
Strict Akratic Action: A Paradox of Irrationality
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: November 2023

An adequate explanation of akratic action will preserve the elements of rationality involved in akratic actions without rendering the actions themselves rational. Akratic action is subjectively irrational; that is, it is irrational from the agent’s point of view. For, it is contrary to his own better judgment. Nevertheless, elements of rational explanation apply to akratic behavior. Agents of akratic actions act for reasons. What is potentially puzzling is that the reasons for which they act are not the reasons on which they judge it best to act.
Reverse Racism, Or, How The Pot Got To Call The Kettle Black
Authors: Fish Stanley
Published: November 2023

I take my text from George Bush, who, in an address to the United Nations on September 23, 1991, said this of the U.N. resolution equating Zionism with racism: “Zionism . . . is the idea that led to the creation of a home for the Jewish people and to equate Zionism with the intolerable sin of racism is to twist history and forget the terrible plight of Jews in World War II and indeed throughout history” (New York Times, September 24, 1991, A6). What happened in World War II was that 6 million Jews were exterminated by persons who regarded them as racially inferior and a danger to Aryan purity. What happened after World War II was that the survivors of that Holocaust established a Jewish state, that is, a state centered on Jewish history, Jewish values, and Jewish traditions, in short, a Jewocentric state. What President Bush objects to is the logical sleight of hand by which these two actions are declared equivalent because they are both expressions of racial exclusiveness. Ignored, as Bush says, is the historical difference between them, the difference between a program of genocide and the determination of those who escaped it to establish a community in which they would be the makers, not the victims, of the laws. It is only by thinking of racism as something that occurs principally in the mind, a falling away from proper notions of universal equality, that the desire of a victimized and terrorized people to band together can be declared to be morally the same as the actions of their would-be executioners.
The Law Wishes to Have a Formal Existence
Authors: Fish Stanley
Published: November 2023

The law wishes to have a formal existence. That means, first of all, that the law does not wish to be absorbed by, or declared subordinate to, some other-nonlegal-structure of concern; the law wishes, in a word, to be distinct, not something else. and second, the law wishes in its distinctness to be perspicuous; that is, it desires that the components of its autonomous existence be self-declaring and not be in need of piecing out by some supplementary discourse; for were it necessary for the law to have recourse to a supplementary discourse at crucial points, that discourse would be in the business of specifying what the law is, and, consequently, its autonomy would have been compromised indirectly. It matters little whether one simply announces that the principles and mechanisms of the law exist ready made in the articulations of another system or allows those principles and mechanisms to be determined by something they do not contain; in either case, the law as something independent and self-identifying will have disappeared. In its long history, the law has perceived many threats to its autonomy; but two seem perennial: morality and interpretation. The dangers these two pose are, at least at first glance, different.
The Logic of Mathematical Discovery versus The Logical Structure of Mathematics
Authors: Feferman Solomon
Published: November 2023

Mathematics offers us a puzzling contrast. On the one hand it is supposed to be the paradigm of certain and final knowledge: not fixed, to be sure, but a steadily accumulating coherent body of truths obtained by successive deduction from the most evident truths. By the intricate combination and recombination of elementary steps one is led incontrovertibly from what is trivial and unremarkable to what can be nontrivial and surprising. On the other hand, the actual development of mathematics reveals a history full of controversy, confusion, and even error, marked by periodic reassessments and occasional upheavals. The mathematician at work relies on surprisingly vague intuitions and proceeds by fumbling fits and starts with all too frequent reversals. In this picture the actual historical and individual processes of mathematical discovery appear haphazard and illogical.