bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ten-Year Performance of Eastern White Pine under a Crop Tree Release Regime on an Outwash Site
Authors: Desmarais Kenneth M. , Leak William B.
Published: August 2019

A young stand of eastern white pine aged 38–40 years received a crop tree release cutting reducing stocking to 100 trees/ac. This stocking level reflects the number of stems per acre that would be contained in a well-stocked mature stand at final harvest (20-in. quadratic mean stand diameter). The stand then was monitored for growth and value change. Stems that grew from poletimber to sawtimber size had the greatest rates of annual value change. They also showed the greatest return per square-foot of crown area used. Careful early thinning that removes sawtimber and releases good-quality poletimber capable of vigorous growth can substantially increase stand earnings if markets are available.North. J. Appl. For. 22(2):139–142.
Assessing and Understanding Timber Trespass and Theft Laws in the Appalachian Region
Authors: Mortimer Michael J. , Baker Shawn , Shaffer Robert M.
Published: August 2019

Many forest landowners in the Appalachian region are at risk from timber theft and trespass. State laws within this region provide a confusing assortment of civil and criminal remedies to address such infractions. These heterogeneous laws address timber theft in varying specificityand intensity. A range of interpretations by courts have further impacted the meaning and effectiveness of existing laws. Few current civil and criminal remedies appear to provide sufficient protections for private forest landowners, and review and revision of existing statutory structuresis warranted. Specific areas of focus should include statutes of limitation, the issue of trespasser intent, and the method for ascertaining the landowners' damages.North. J. Appl. For. 22(2):94–101.
Effects of Mounding on Damage by the European Pine Weevil in Planted Norway Spruce Seedlings
Authors: Heiskanen Juha , Viiri Heli
Published: August 2019

The European pine weevil (Hylobius abietis L.) is not found in northern America so far but is the major pest in conifer reforestation in northern Europe. The effects of mounding on pine-weevil damage and growth in planted Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings were studied on two clearcut forest sites in Finland. Three different mounding treatments (spot mounding with or without mixing and inverting) were compared to three unscarified treatments with or without vegetation control (mulch or herbicide). Mounding significantly decreased pine-weevil damage, mortality, and growth losses of planted Norway spruce seedlings even if insecticide was used before planting. Seedling growth and survival were poorest with the heaviest feeding by the pine weevil. After the first growing season, the proportion of gnawed seedlings was higher on unscarified spots (76% gnawed), whereas seedlings on mounded spots had hardly any feeding (1%). Seedling mortality was lower on mounded (1%) than on unscarified spots, where it was higher in 1-year-old (27%) than 2-year-old seedlings (10%). After the second growing season, mortality and proportion of gnawed seedlings increased on both mounded and unscarified spots. The study indicates that mounding can provide an effective method of decreasing pine-weevil damage and improving plantation success.North. J. Appl. For. 22(3):154 –161.
Thoreau, Muir, and Jane Doe: Different Types of Private Forest Owners Need Different Kinds of Forest Management
Authors: Finley Andrew O. , Kittredge David B.
Published: August 2019

We present a three-phase segmentation analysis designed to highlight the heterogeneity of forest ownership values and attitudes toward government control, privacy, and environmental protection held by a sample of Massachusetts private forest owners. This case study explores private forest owner characteristics that are associated with enrollment into Massachusetts' Chapter 61 current-use forest property tax program, which requires a professionally prepared 10-year forest management plan. We suggest the key to increasing landowner participation in forest management programs is to (1) recognize this heterogeneity of the target population, and (2) tailor the program to meet segment specific needs and desires.
A Weed Compaction Roller System for Use with Mechanical Herbicide Application
Authors: Wiese Adam H. , Netzer Daniel A. , Riemenschneider Don E. , Zalesny Ronald S.
Published: August 2019

We designed, constructed, and field-tested a versatile and unique weed compaction roller system that can be used with mechanical herbicide application for invasive weed control in tree plantations, agronomic settings, and areas where localized flora and fauna are in danger of elimination from the landscape. The weed compaction roller system combined with herbicide application generally had greater vegetation control compared with using only herbicide treatments or the unsprayed control. The roller system-herbicide treatment combination showed substantial total vegetation control two growing seasons after application without impacting diameter growth of the crop trees, which supports the need for less frequent entries into the field. The cost of the roller system was approximately $300.00.
Voluntary Best Management Practice Implementation by Nonindustrial Private Forestland Owners in New York City’s Water Supply System
Authors: Munsell John F. , Germain René H. , Bevilacqua Eddie , Schuster Rudy M.
Published: August 2019

Protecting the quality of New York City’s 5,180 square-kilometer surface water storage and supply system is not achieved with extensive regulations or comprehensive filtration, but through voluntarism. With nearly 3,885 square-kilometers of forestland, the importance of fostering forest management that is compatible with water quality is paramount, yet challenging, given that approximately 90 percent of the system’s forestland is privately owned. The objective of this study was to evaluate voluntary best management practices implementation by nonindustrial private forestland owners in New York City’s water supply system. The theoretical constructs of the innovation-decision process model were tested for covariance using data collected from owners and their forestland in New York City’s water supply system. Path analysis indicated that certain types of knowledge predict an owner’s attitude formation or decision to use best management practices, but attitude formation does not always predict their decision. In addition, analysis of variance demonstrated that the implementation of best management practices does not always depend on a nonindustrial private forestland owner’s decision. This empirical result stimulates questions regarding the systemic variables at play in the transition from decision to implementation of forestry practices.
Stand Characteristics and Productivity Potential of Indiana Surface Mines Reclaimed Under SMCRA
Authors: Groninger John W. , Fillmore Stephen D. , Rathfon Ron A.
Published: August 2019

The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) addresses a wide range of environmental concerns. However, its impacts on forest stand development and productive potential have only recently been investigated. We surveyed the vegetation and forest productivity on 22 surfacemine sites throughout the coal-bearing region of Indiana that were reclaimed to forest cover under the provisions of SMCRA 7–14 years prior to sampling. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) were the most widely occurring tree species.Tall fescue and goldenrod were the most widely occurring nonarborescent species. Median site index (base age 50 for black oak) was 30 ft. Although satisfying forest cover stocking requirements for bond release, these reclaimed surface mines almost always displayed a level of productivity farbelow those of native forests typical of this region. Reclamation techniques differing from those used on these study sites are needed to restore forest productivity to surface-mined lands while still complying with SMCRA.
A Comparison of the Arithmetic and Geometric Means in Estimating Stump Diameter, Basal Area, and Volume in Appalachian Hardwoods
Authors: Wiant Harry V. , Brooks John R.
Published: August 2019

The difference between the use of the arithmetic and geometric means for estimation of average stump diameter, stump cross-sectional area and estimated tree volume was investigated using measurements from 739 stumps from an Appalachian hardwood stand located in central West Virginia. Although average stump diameter, cross-sectional area, and tree volumes were statistically different between estimates based on the arithmetic and geometric mean diameter, these differences were of little practical significance. The difference in average stem diameter, cross-sectional area, tree cubic volume, and board foot volume were 0.05 in, 0.01 ft2, 0.45 ft3, and 2.41 bd ft, respectively.
Forest Resource Management in the North: Dealing with a Labyrinth of State Agencies and Authorities
Authors: Ellefson Paul V. , Kilgore Michael A. , Hibbard Calder M.
Published: August 2019

State agencies responsible for the use, management, and protection of forests have increased in number and have become increasingly more diverse in mission and organization. A 2000ߝ2001 assessment of state agencies affecting forest conditions in the North found that such agencies are dispersed over all sectors and levels of state government; a state's lead forestry agency often is only a small piece in the puzzle of state agencies affecting forests; consequences of fragmented state agency responsibility for forests generally are adverse, especially public confusion over agency roles and lack of integrated resource management; and coordination among state agencies affecting forest conditions takes many forms, although its occurrence generally is modest.
Silvicultural Discipline to Maintain Acadian Forest Resilience
Authors: Salonius Peter
Published: August 2019

Clearcut harvesting decreases structural complexity, eliminates old and genetically superior legacy trees, extirpates mature-forest floor vegetation, and creates hot and dry postharvest microclimates. The short-lived, exposure-tolerant, boreal tree species that regenerate in large forest openings are believed to be less able, than the late-successional Acadian species they replace, to adapt to the climate warming expected during the next forest rotation. A strip silviculture design is presented that includes limited canopy opening, “no-traffic” areas, maintenance of “full-cycle” survivors, and programmed return harvest intervals that approximate natural gap disturbance as a means of arresting the further increase of boreal species and restoring Acadian species on the landscape. Within the confines of this silvicultural discipline, two management options are described to accommodate extremes of future energy availability.
Managing the Wildland–Urban Interface in the Northeast: Perceptions of Fire Risk and Hazard Reduction Strategies
Authors: Blanchard Brian , Ryan Robert L.
Published: August 2019

Much of the recent work in reducing wildland fire danger has occurred in the western and southeastern United States. However, high-risk areas do exist at the wildland–urban interface areas in the Northeast and very little work has been done to understand the fire management issues in this region. Therefore, this study used a survey of residents and landowners within the Plymouth Pine Barrens of southeastern Massachusetts to assess community members' perceptions of wildland fire risk and hazard reduction strategies. The research results indicate that residents have a low perception of wildland fire risk but support the use of fire hazard reduction strategies, including prescribed fire, mechanical removal of trees and brush, and construction of firebreaks. Previous experience with wildland fire was a major factor influencing respondents' perception of fire risk. Furthermore, participants' knowledge about specific fuel treatments positively influenced their support for those treatments. Overall, respondents believe that actions should be taken to reduce fire hazard within the study area and would like to be involved in the development of fire hazard reduction plans.
The Impact of Federal and State Income Tax Liabilities on Timber Investments in the Midwest and Northeast
Authors: Smith Nathan R. , Bailey Philip , Haney Harry , Salbador Debra , Greene John
Published: August 2019

Federal and state income taxes are calculated for hypothetical forest landowners in two income brackets across 23 states in the Midwest and Northeast to illustrate the effects of differential state tax treatment. The income tax liability is calculated in a year in which the timber owners harvest $200,000 worth of timber. State income taxes ranged from highs of $13,427 for middle-income landowners and $18,527 for high-income landowners in Maine to no tax burden in New Hampshire and South Dakota. Calculated state and federal income taxes are based on 2004 tax regulations and rates. After-tax land expectation values calculated for a forest landowner in the Northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan illustrate the importance of tax planning on returns to a timber investment. The results support the need for adequate tax accounting.
Timber Harvesting Characteristics on Forest Stewardship Properties and Non–Forest Stewardship Properties in Central West Virginia
Authors: Provencher Matthew A. , McGill David W. , Grushecky Shawn T.
Published: August 2019

A study was conducted in the Elk River watershed in central West Virginia to evaluate the impact of the US Forest Stewardship Program (FSP) on the physical attributes of primary road systems used in timber harvesting operations. On seven properties enrolled in the FSP and on eight non-FSP properties, road systems used for logging within a 5-year period before this study were mapped and measured. Twenty dependent variables relating to residual vegetation, forest road characteristics, erosion, and certain best management practices (BMP) were used to characterize timber harvesting operations that had been conducted on these properties. With the exception of road density and waterbar implementation, analysis of these dependent variables failed to detect any statistical differences among property types. BMPs observed in this study included waterbars, broad-based dips, turnouts, culverts, and inside ditches. Results suggest that landowner objectives may play a role in the use of alternatives to waterbars. Eighty-one percent of BMP practices other than waterbars were observed on stewardship properties. Higher road densities on non-FSP properties were likely caused by road patterns used on forest industry properties.
Using Crown Ratio in Yellow-Poplar Compatible Taper and Volume Equations
Authors: Jiang Lichun , Brooks John R. , Hobbs Gerald R.
Published: August 2019

Linear and nonlinear crown ratio (CR) functions were incorporated into a segmented taper and cubic foot volume function developed for yellow-poplar in West Virginia. The inclusion of a CR variable provided significantly different parameter estimates but only modest improvement in the prediction of upper stem size and volume. Sample trees from the west central region of West Virginia exhibited a larger improvement. The main differences were concentrated in the stem section above 60% of total height.
Nine-Year Response of Hardwood Understory to Organic Matter Removal and Soil Compaction
Authors: Ponder Felix
Published: August 2019

The effects of three levels of organic matter removal (OMR) and three levels of soil compaction (SC) on the development of understory vegetation in a central hardwood forest were evaluated 9 years after treatments were applied as part of a national program of long-term soil productivityresearch. The three levels of biomass removal (OMR) were removal of merchantable boles only (OM0), removal of the whole tree (OM1), and removal of the whole tree plus forest floor (OM2). The three levels of soil compaction (SC) were none (C0), medium (C2), and severe (C2). Weeds were controlledin all plots for the first 2 years. Understory vegetation within 81 7.9-m2 subplots was inventoried by species and quantified into plant groups of woody (trees, shrubs, and woody vines) and herbaceous (annuals, perennials, and grasses) at year 5 (after 3 years of no weed control)and year 9 (after 7 years of no weed control). Vegetation was analyzed for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg). OMR did not significantly affect the overall number of plants over the 5-year measurement period, but there were differences for both woodyvines and grasses, which were highest in the OM0 treatment in 1999, but by 2003, they were not different. There were no differences in plant numbers among plant groups for SC in the 1999 measurement period between treatments for any plant group, but there were significantly fewer trees andwoody vines in the C2 treatments than in the C0 or C1 treatments in 2003; the opposite was true for herbaceous annuals, which were highest in C1 and C2 treatments. Over the 5-year measurement period, only the height of woody vines was significantly affected by OMR, but SC significantly affectedthe height of all plant groups over the 5-year measurement period. Annually, however, trees were tallest in the OM0 and C0 treatment than in OM2 and C2 treatments. The annual height of other plants, excluding trees, was affected only 1 year of 5 by OMR. Fewer trees and shorter trees in thesevere compaction treatment suggest that, in the short term, soil productivity has been affected on the site.
Field Note: Alternative Leader Growth Control for Fraser Fir and Korean Fir Christmas Trees
Authors: Nzokou Pascal , Cregg Bert M. , O'Donnell Jill
Published: August 2019

Excessive leader growth is a challenge for Christmas tree growers who are seeking about 30–35 cm (12–14 in.) shoot elongation for good balance between height and lateral growth. Current cultivation practices include manually pruning leaders to 30–35 cm. In this studywe investigated the use of a growth regulator Ethyl-naphthaleneacetate acid (NAA) and a girdling process using a five-bladed plier (Top-Stop Nipper, Monterey Lawn and Gardens Products, Inc., Fresno, CA) as alternative methods to slow leader growth in Fraser fir (Abies fraseri [Pursh]Poir.), and Korean fir (Abies koreana Wils). NAA applications at rates of 40–160 ml/L reduced the height growth in both Fraser fir and Korean fir. However, in Fraser fir, other morphological parameters such as the leader straightness and bud density were generally adversely affected.The highest rates of 250 and 500 ml/l caused unacceptable reduction in growth and in many cases leader death. NAA applications on Korean fir resulted in significant reduction of leader growth and significantly increased the bud density without negative impact on leader straightness. Partialgirdling of stems was not effective at reducing the leader height in both Fraser fir and Korean fir.
Growth of Northern Hardwoods in New England: A 25-Year Update
Authors: Leak William B. , Gove Jeffrey H.
Published: August 2019

Twenty-five-year results from a study of four stand density levels and three percentages of sawtimber in a beech-red maple-birch-hemlock stand in New Hampshire showed that moderate stand densities of 60- to 80-ft2/ac with 25- to 30-ft2 of sawtimber produced the best growth responses. Ingrowth was dominated by beech, red maple, and hemlock. Treatments with low initial numbers of poletimber stems had well-developed J-shaped or slightly sigmoid diameter distributions after 25 years. Results apply to the first entries into northern hardwood stands ofmoderate vigor and quality.
Short-Rotation Woody Biomass as a Crop on Marginal Lands in Iowa
Authors: Goerndt Michael E. , Mize Carl
Published: August 2019

There is increasing interest in producing woody biomass on marginal lands in Iowa, but there is little information about its economic feasibility. To address this issue, a study was initiated in 1995 to analyze growth of certain fast-growing tree species, clones of hybrids, and selectedclones, which will be referred to as entries, on marginal lands. Three entries, including the “Crandon” clone (Populus alba × Populus grandidentata), the “Eugenii” clone (Populus × canadensis), and silver maple (Acer saccharinum),were established in test plantings on three land types”bottomland, steep slopes, and upland agricultural land”across the state. Trees generally were measured annually. Two types of yield models were developed to predict biomass per hectare over time for the three aforementionedentries. Crandon had the highest rate of biomass production on all land types. Economic analyses were conducted on the three entries, and Crandon produced the highest economic return on all land types.
Ecoregion-Based Local Volume Equations for Appalachian Hardwoods
Authors: Brooks John R. , Wiant Harry V.
Published: August 2019

Local merchantable board foot, cubic foot, and weight equations are developed for six economically important hardwood species in central Appalachia. Equations were based on a simple power function and were fit to volumes from the US Forest Service Forest Inventory Analysis data for West Virginia and parts of Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and Kentucky. Five ecoregions were identified and the volume equations were tested to determine whether differences by ecoregion were statistically significant. Results varied by species, volume type, and ecoregion. Average bias between a single-species region-wide model and specific ecoregion forms ranged from −9.1 to 8.5% for gross board foot volume (International ¼ in.), −3.5 to 9.2% for gross merchantable cubic foot volume, and −9.5 to 16.7% for merchantable drybole weight (pounds).
Evaluation of Tree Seedling Mortality and Protective Strategies in Riparian Forest Restoration
Authors: Keeton William S.
Published: August 2019

Riparian forest restoration can be severely constrained by tree seedling mortality. I evaluated the effects of tree shelters and planting density on herbivory and seedling mortality at a restoration site in the Lake Champlain Basin of Vermont. Eighteen experimental units were established along a 5th-order stream and planted with bare-root seedlings of seven species associated with northern hardwood floodplain forests. Two treatments were applied in a factorial design: shelters versus no shelters and high versus low planting density. Mortality and herbivory data were collected over three growing seasons. Survivorship declined to 56.4% after three growing seasons and varied significantly by species. Planting density, presence/absence of shelters, and their interaction had significant effects on survival, browse, or girdling intensity when tested for all species combined. Browse rates were high (44%), whereas girdling rates were low (3.4%). Both browse (P < 0.001) and girdling (P = 0.022) contributed to seedling mortality. High rates of deer browse on seedlings in shelters were due, in part, to the short height (60 cm) of the shelters, suggesting a need for taller shelters. A large portion (39%) of dead seedlings were neither browsed nor girdled, signaling the importance of other mortality agents. An adaptive approach is recommended to compensate for high seedling mortality and the limited effectiveness of protective devices.
Oak Ecosystem Management Considerations for Central Hardwoods Stands Arising from Silvicultural Clearcutting
Authors: Groninger John W. , Long Michael A.
Published: August 2019

Silvicultural clearcutting was widely used during the late 20th century to regenerate stands on upland sites and achieve timber production objectives within the central hardwood region. As these even-aged stands develop, silvicultural guidelines are needed to address newer management objectives emphasizing oak ecosystem maintenance. The US Forest Service Common Stand Exam procedure (Common Stand Exam Users Guide, 2003, Ver. 1.5.1, US Forest Service, Washington, DC, 87 p.) was modified to assess stand stocking, composition, oak (Quercus) competitive status, and other emerging management concerns. A total of 74 randomly selected upland stands that had been silviculturally clearcut between 1980 and 1990 were sampled across the Shawnee National Forest in southern Illinois. Maples (Acer spp.) and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.) predominated across all landscape positions 15–26 years after stand initiation. Oak (Quercus spp.) trees per acre was related to landscape position and averaged less than 50 trees/ac on the more productive lower slope positions and north aspects. However, when yellow-poplar was present, oaks were in a competitively inferior canopy position regardless of slope position or aspect. Our results show that for sustaining oak ecosystems in this region, management interventions favoring oaks should focus on the most productive sites, where crop tree release would reduce yellow-poplar interference with a sparse oak resource, as well as on less productive sites, where thinning to reduce stocking may be needed to maintain stand health.
Owner Intentions, Previous Harvests, and Future Timber Yield on Fifty Working Nonindustrial Private Forestlands in New York State
Authors: Munsell John F. , Germain René H. , Luzadis Valerie A. , Bevilacqua Eddie
Published: August 2019

Harvesting on nonindustrial private forestland (NIPF) has increased dramatically in recent years, and projections suggest the trend will continue. Working NIPFs in New York State are not immune to this pressure. Managing these stands to supply a sustained yield of high-quality sawtimber into the future is necessary if working NIPFs are to avoid significant timber stock depletion. In large part, this outcome depends on the intentions of owners and productive potential of their stands. Combining these aspects helps assess whether and how sustained-yield management can be achieved. To demonstrate, we present a case study that used Ajzen's (2005) theory of planned behavior to explain sustained-yield management intentions and Fajvan et al.'s (1998) silviculture classification chart to describe potential yield on 50 recently harvested NIPFs in New York. Predictors of an owner's intention were modeled, and intentions and silviculture classifications were cross-tabulated. Nearly all owners plan to manage for a sustained yield of sawtimber, but previous cutting will force most to regenerate or convert to uneven-age management to achieve this goal.
Effects of Stump Diameter on Sprout Number and Size for Three Oak Species in a Pennsylvania Clearcut
Authors: Sands Benjamin A. , Abrams Marc D.
Published: August 2019

In a 2004 clearcut of a former even-aged oak (Quercus) forest, we examined the number and maximum height of stump sprouts for three oak species in east-central Pennsylvania. The greatest number of sprouts was produced by black oak (Quercus velutina) and chestnut oak (Q.montana) as compared with white oak (Q. alba). Logistic regression showed that diameter of stumps was a significant factor in determining the probability of sprouting for black oak, and an inverse relationship between stump diameter and the number of sprouts per stump was foundfor all three species. The number of white oak sprouts peaked in the 10‐20-cm diameter class and declined on larger stumps. The number of black oak sprouts peaked in the 20‐50-cm classes, and trees in the 70‐80-cm class produced the fewest sprouts. The mean annual growthof the tallest sprout on each stump was greater for black oak and chestnut oak than white oak.
Relating Ecological Properties of Habitat Types to Differences in Aspen Stand Structure and Succession for Managing Timber and Wildlife Resources
Authors: Felix Alexandra , Campa Henry
Published: August 2019

Because aspen (Populus spp.) can grow on a range of site conditions, understanding spatial and temporal variability in aspen physiognomy is challenging but critical for developing plans to meet economic and ecological objectives. The objectives of this study were to quantify temporal differences in aspen physiognomy within and among different habitat types (HTs) in Michigan and to recommend how these results could be used to sustain timber and wildlife resources. We spatially defined HT boundaries and investigated ecological differences of aspen in three age classes (20‐29, 50‐59, and >70 years) and five HTs, ranging from xeric sand to mesic loamy soils. HTs characterized by xeric soils supported bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) and oak (Quercus), mesic sandy soils supported the greatest (P < 0.10) conifer cover, and mesic loamy soils supported a thick understory and mixed hardwood species. Timber (pulpwood) volume of stands >50 years differed (P < 0.10) between HTs (58.40‐82.15 m3/ha in the 50-year age class; 77.94‐100.84 m3/ha in the 70-year age class) and was lowest in HTs on extremes of the soil moisture and texture gradient. The results define geographic areas with different potentials for vegetation development, aspen structure, timber production, and wildlife habitat suitability.
New Models for Predicting Diameter at Breast Height from Stump Dimensions
Authors: Westfall James A.
Published: August 2019

Models to predict dbh from stump dimensions are presented for 18 species groups. Data used to fit the models were collected across thirteen states in the northeastern United States. Primarily because of the presence of multiple measurements from each tree, a mixed-effects modeling approach was used to account for the lack of independence among observations. The heterogeneous error variance was described as a function of stump diameter, which allowed for more accurate representation of prediction intervals. Application of the mean response model (fixed-effects parameters only) to independent data indicated an average absolute error between 0.2 and 0.7 in. for most groups. An additional advantage is that random-effect parameters allow the model to be calibrated to local conditions if some additional data are available. An example is provided that indicates the local calibration results in a mean residual value that is closer to zero compared with the mean response model. Efforts in other locales to use stump information to inform dbh predictions can obtain the same advancements by adopting a similar modeling methodology.
Spatial Tree Mapping Using Photography
Authors: Dick Adam R. , Kershaw John A. , MacLean David A.
Published: August 2019

Stem maps describing the spatial location of trees sampled in a forest inventory are used increasingly to model relationships between neighboring trees in distance-dependent growth and yield models, as well as in stand visualization software. Current techniques and equipment available to acquire tree spatial locations prohibit widespread application because they are time-consuming, costly, and prone to measurement error. In this report, we present a technique to derive stem maps from a series of digital photographs processed to form a seamless 360° panorama plot image. Processes are described to derive distance from plot center and azimuth to each plot tree. The technique was tested on 46 field plots (1,398 sample trees) under a range of forest conditions and compared with traditional methods. Average absolute distance error was 0.38 ± 0.44 m, and average absolute azimuth error was 2.3 ± 2.5°. Computed average horizontal accuracy was 0.40 ± 0.42 m, with 85% of measured trees being within 0.5 m of the field-measured tree location.
Oak Forest Composition on Contrasting Soil Types at the Mohonk Preserve, Eastern New York
Authors: Abrams Marc D. , Sands Benjamin A.
Published: August 2019

This research investigated overstory and understory forest composition for 10 sites derived from either shale or sandstone conglomerate parent material on the Shawangunk Ridge in eastern New York. Overstory composition in both soil types was dominated by red oak (Quercus rubra) and chestnut oak (Quercus montana), but the overstory on shale sites was more diverse (14 tree species) and had less oak than sandstone sites (with only 6 tree species). A total of 17 species were recorded as regeneration on shale sites, where seedlings averaged 21,466/ha and saplings averaged 1,833/ha. Dominant seedling on shale sites were chestnut oak (7,100/ha) and red oak (3,583/ha); chestnut oak had significantly more seedlings on shale versus sandstone sites. Saplings on shale sites were predominantly Hamamelis virginiana and Acer pensylvanicum. On sandstone sites, seedlings averaged 6,425/ha (including 2,075 oaks and 2,250 red maple per ha). Sapling numbers for all species were low (1,400/ha) and were mostly red maple. These forests are unique because of the relatively high density of oak seedlings on certain sites and low density of red maple across all sites. This variation in regeneration as well as management strategies to promote additional oak regeneration and canopy recruitment are discussed for these and similar forests.
Logging Business Practices and Perspectives on Harvesting Forest Residues for Energy: A Minnesota Case Study
Authors: Dirkswager Anna L. , Kilgore Michael A. , Becker Dennis R. , Blinn Charlie , Ek Alan
Published: August 2019

Timber harvesting residues, specifically the nonmerchantable tree tops and limbs associated with a commercial roundwood harvest, have the capacity to supply substantial feedstock for energy production. Phone interviews of Minnesota's logging business owners who process residual woody biomass for energy using chippers and grinders were conducted in summer 2008 to characterize their practices on harvesting and processing these residues and to collect qualitative data describing biomass harvesting opportunities and constraints. Minnesota's logging businesses are highly variable with respect to many aspects of woody biomass harvesting, such as preferred tree species, equipment configurations, strategies for collecting and processing residual biomass, and utilization efficiency. Factors cited as having a substantial influence on future biomass harvesting opportunities included the environmental benefits of burning woody biomass over traditional nonrenewable fuels and the potential for biomass harvesting to positively affect wildlife habitat and forest health. Low prices received for delivered wood chips and grindings, high fixed and variable operating costs, and resource uncertainty about future harvesting restrictions due to environmental concerns were cited as important issues that could limit growth in the state's woody biomass harvesting sector.
Cavity Trees, Snags, and Overstory Density in a Riparian Forest in Northeastern Missouri
Authors: Gwaze David , Elliott Anthony
Published: August 2019

Snags and cavity trees are important for wildlife habitat, yet knowledge about their abundance and effects of forest management on these components is lacking for riparian forests. We evaluated the effects of clearcutting with reserves, basal area retention, and no harvest on snags and cavity trees in a riparian forest in northeastern Missouri. We also determined whether the established guidelines for snags and cavity trees in Missouri are being met. Preharvest results indicated that 11.3% of standing trees were snags, and 7% of live standing trees were cavity trees at this site. The proportion of snags was greater in small-diameter trees; however, the proportion of live trees with cavities increased as dbh increased. Preharvest snag density (20.6 trees/ac) and cavity trees (21.2 trees/ac) were well above the current minimum recommendations for wildlife tree retention on bottomland forests in Missouri. Following the harvest and girdling of residual trees >8 in. dbh, the abundance of snags increased, whereas cavity tree densities decreased. If the bottomland hardwood forest is going to contribute habitat of cavity tree-using wildlife, greater attention is needed to retaining cavity trees when harvesting.
Deep Planting Has No Short- or Long-Term Effect on the Survival and Growth of White Spruce, Black Spruce, and Jack Pine
Authors: Paquette Alain , Girard Jean-Pierre , Walsh Denis
Published: August 2019

Although studies in the past have reported that the deeper planting of conifers has no effect on seedling performance, most planting guidelines in use today still recommend that seedlings be planted to the rootcollar. Past studies were mostly observational, used bareroot seedlings, and often reported early results from just one or two depths of planting treatments. Most of the results available regarding planting depth for boreal species are anecdotal, although they are planted by the hundreds of millions every year. The present study reports no short-term (1 year) or long-term (15 to 19 years) negative effect of planting depth on the survival and height and diameter growth of black spruce, white spruce, and jack pine seedlings over three large, replicated experiments in the boreal forest of eastern and northern Quebec (eastern Canada). Four different depth treatments were compared, from manual planting at the rootcollar to the deepest mechanical planting treatment at 10 cm or more, making this the largest, longest-lasting study of its kind. Although, as expected, important differences in growth were present between species, all three commonly planted conifers reacted similarly to the planting depth treatments (no effect). This result can in part be attributed to an almost perfect control of frost heaving in the deepest two treatments. Planting depth effects were assessed using analysis of variance, multiple Tukey honestly significant difference, and uncorrected pairwise one-tailed t-tests to increase the probability of detecting a negative effect. Absolute differences and effect sizes (generally small and often positive with greater depths) were also analyzed.
Effects of Basal Area Factor and Plot Size on Precision and Accuracy of Forest Inventory Estimates
Authors: Becker Peter , Nichols Tom
Published: August 2019

We tested the effects of plot size (0.05-0.30 ac) and basal area factor (BAF) (5-30) on the accuracy and precision of per-acre estimates of tree number, basal area, biomass (all for trees ≥4.5 in. dbh), and sawtimber volume (for trees ≥11.6 in. dbh). Field sampling errors, such as missing in-trees, did not affect our tests. Virtual variable- and fixed-radius plots were randomly located within an artificial matrix of 130 real plots in well-stocked upland hardwood forests of sawtimber-sized trees in the Missouri Ozarks. Inventory parameters were essentially independent of plot size and BAF, whereas their coefficients of variation decreased with plot size and increased with BAF. Thus, our results for random plots agreed with sampling theory, unlike a previous study using concentric virtual plots in West Virginia forests. A very concentrated zone of high tree density around some plot centers apparently caused the biased estimates by concentric plots. Compared with the entire composite forest, inventory means were accurately estimated (to within 5%) and size class distributions were well represented for plots ≥0.1 ac or ≤15 BAF. Our procedures provide a basis for selecting an efficient and cost-effective sampling design suited to forest characteristics and the inventory's purpose.
Distribution of American Beech (Fagus grandifolia) and Beech Scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.) in Michigan from 2005 to 2009
Authors: Wieferich Daniel J. , McCullough Deborah G. , Hayes Daniel B. , Schwalm Nancy J.
Published: August 2019

Beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.) (Hemiptera; Coccidae), an invasive insect associated with beech bark disease, was discovered in 2000 in a localized area of northwest Lower Michigan and one area in the eastern Upper Peninsula. From 2005 to 2009, we surveyed 809 sites in 73 Michigan counties to determine whether American beech (Fagus grandifolia) trees were present and, if so, whether trees had been colonized by beech scale. Beech trees were present in 696 sites in forest, recreation, and residential areas. By 2009, beech scale had infested beech trees in 8 of 15 counties in the Upper Peninsula, 14 of 68 counties in the Lower Peninsula, one of three islands in Lake Michigan, and all three sampled islands in Lake Huron. Colonization of islands more than 20 km from infestations on the mainland suggest that beech scale was likely introduced by humans or birds. Rates of expansion of 12 discrete beech scale populations varied from 3.3 to 14.3 km per year.
Changes in the Fuel Pellet Industry in the Lake States, 2005 to 2008
Authors: Luppold William , Mace Terry , Weatherspoon Antony , Jacobson Keith
Published: August 2019

Fuel pellets are becoming popular for home heating and electrical generation. Although wood residues such as sawdust, chips, and shavings have been a significant fiber feed stock pellet production, paper waste, agricultural residue, and roundwood also can be used. In 2005, 41% of the fiber feed stock used to produce pellets in the Lake States was wood residue, 27% was wastepaper or agricultural residue, and 32% was multiple or unspecified fiber feed stocks. Between 2005 and 2008, the number of wood pellet processing facilities in the Lake States region nearly doubled, and the volume of products manufactured increased by 300%. Facility expansion required an additional 592,000 dry tons of fiber feed stock. Forty-three percent of the additional feed stock was wood residue, 25% was roundwood, 18% was agricultural residue, and 13% was undefined or multiple feed stocks. In 2008, two facilities producing 67,000 tons of pellets were under construction, and four plants slated to produce an additional 600,000 tons of product were in the planning stage. The primary product manufactured in these new or planned facilities will be commercial fuel pellets, and the primary feed stock will be roundwood, harvest residues, and paper and agriculture waste. The potential increase in the demand for lower quality roundwood by these new facilities could replace the declining demand for this material by the paper industry. If the pellet industry continues to expand, it could compete for roundwood used by the fuel chips and pulpwood industries.
Break-Even Benefit/Cost Model: a Useful Tool for Forestry Decision-Making
Authors: Canham Hugh O.
Published: August 2019

Comparing benefits to costs is basic to decision-making. However, in forestry activities, particularly those involving multiple use, evaluating benefits is difficult. The break-even benefit/cost model eases the problem somewhat: it calculates the minimum benefit required for the project to just break even on a discounted basis. Examples are shown for pest control and soil erosion control.

North. J. Appl. For. 3:14-16, Mar. 1986.
A Key for the Forest Service Hardwood Tree Grades
Authors: Miller Gary W. , Hanks Leland F. , Wiant Harry V.
Published: August 2019

A dichotomous key organizes the USDA Forest Service hardwood tree grade specifications into a stepwise procedure for those learning to grade hardwood sawtimber. The key addresses the major grade factors, tree size, surface characteristics, and allowable cull deductions in a series of paired choices that lead the user to a decision regarding tree grade. Subtle grading rules, previously presented as footnotes to the major specifications, are included in the key. It simplifies the process so that the beginner can learn the system quickly, without detailed instruction from experienced tree traders.

North. J. Appl. For. 3:19-22, Mar. 1986.
A 22-Year Study of Stand Development and Financial Return in Northern Hardwoods
Authors: Reed David D. , Holmes Michael J. , Johnson James A.
Published: August 2019

The stand development and financial returns from eight different cutting procedures in northern hardwood stands are evaluated. Stand tables recommended for northern hardwoods by Arbogast and others could be approximated following one or two 10-year cutting periods using light improvement or basal area limit cuts. Total economic return was greatest in the most severe diameter limit cuts (5-, 12-, and 16-in) but achieving these high initial returns may preclude any further returns for an extended period. The 16-in diameter limit cut provided what may be the best combination of total return and even flow of returns over the 22-year study period.

North. J. Appl. For. 3:35-38, Mar. 1986.
Financial Returns from Timber Stand Improvement Investments
Authors: Risbrudt Christopher D. , Pitcher John A.
Published: August 2019

Capital investments in treating stands of upland oaks, northern hardwoods and pines generally show an annual real return on investment of more than 4% on medium and higher sites. The highest returns occurred when precommercial treatments were followed by repeated commercial thinnings until final harvest and regeneration. To achieve maximum returns, timber stand improvement measures should be applied only to the better sites at early ages. The internal rates of return were generally insensitive to changes in volume yield total over rotation or at harvest but were sensitive to small changes in stumpage prices or treatment costs. Standards for precommercial treatments are recommended. North. J. Appl. For. 3:52-58, June 1986.
22-Year Growth of Four Planted Hardwoods
Authors: Stout Susan Laurane
Published: August 2019

Planting of northern hardwood species interests forest landowners and managers who wish to continue growing pure or nearly pure stands of high-value species, enhance old-field conversion to preferred species, or reforest areas where natural regeneration has failed. Little data on planted hardwoods can be found, however. This paper reports on 22 years of growth of a northern hardwood plantation established in 1961 containing red maple, black cherry, sugar maple, and white ash. The data show that plantings of these species can succeed on good sites with weed control over the first few years, protection from animal predators, and close initial spacing. North. J. Appl. For. 3:69-72, June 1986.
A Vegetative Propagation System for Tamarack
Authors: Farmer Robert E. , Foster Heather A. , Bakowsky Olenka , MacDonald Brian , O'Reilly Gwenoth , Reinholt Ronald
Published: August 2019

Greenwood cuttings from greenhouse-produced tamarack seedlings and 3- to 10-year-old tamarack wildlings transplanted from natural stands in north-western Ontario were rooted under mist in peat-vermiculite. Eighty-five percent of cuttings from seedlings rooted; treatment with indolebutyric acid increased number of roots per cutting, but not rooting percent. At 6 weeks after planting, rooting of cuttings from wildlings averaged 66%, and at 12 weeks, 91%. Twelve-week rooting percent of cuttings from individual ortets ranged from 12 to 100, but cuttings from the majority of ortets exhibited 100% rooting. Nearly all rooted cuttings survived overwintering outdoors and initiated normal shoot growth after forcing in mid-winter. The described propagation system is recommended for production of container stock for tamarack plantations. North. J. Appl. For. 3:91-93, Sept. 1986.
Site Damage from Mechanized Thinning in Southeast Alaska
Authors: Sidle Roy C. , Laurent Thomas H.
Published: August 2019

Damage to the site was assessed in a second-growth stand of western hemlock and Sitka spruce on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, after thinning with a Menzi-Muck walking backhoe. The qualitative procedure used to assess disturbance of forest soils with organic horizons is outlined. Almost half of the area in thinning roads received some level of disturbance, but less than 1% of the total thinned area was heavily disturbed (mineral soil exposed) or heavily compacted during felling-bunching operations. Approximately 90% of the leave trees had some stem or root abrasion, although only 5% of these scars were >1 ft2. The most probable infection courts for fungi were split or severed roots, which occurred on 10% of the leave trees. Most soil disturbance, compaction, and root damage was caused by the metal pads on the front legs of the machine, or by abrasion by logs during bunching. North. J. Appl. For. 3:94-97, Sept. 1986.