bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sex in Fungi
Authors: Ni Min , Feretzaki Marianna , Sun Sheng , Wang Xuying , Heitman Joseph
Published: March 2011

Sexual reproduction enables genetic exchange in eukaryotic organisms as diverse as fungi, animals, plants, and ciliates. Given its ubiquity, sex is thought to have evolved once, possibly concomitant with or shortly after the origin of eukaryotic organisms themselves. The basic principles of sex are conserved, including ploidy changes, the formation of gametes via meiosis, mate recognition, and cell-cell fusion leading to the production of a zygote. Although the basic tenants are shared, sex determination and sexual reproduction occur in myriad forms throughout nature, including outbreeding systems with more than two mating types or sexes, unisexual selfing, and even examples in which organisms switch mating type. As robust and diverse genetic models, fungi provide insights into the molecular nature of sex, sexual specification, and evolution to advance our understanding of sexual reproduction and its impact throughout the eukaryotic tree of life.
Uncovering the Mystery of Gliding Motility in the Myxobacteria
Authors: Nan Beiyan , Zusman David R.
Published: March 2011

Bacterial gliding motility is the smooth movement of cells on solid surfaces unaided by flagella or pili. Many diverse groups of bacteria exhibit gliding, but the mechanism of gliding motility has remained a mystery since it was first observed more than a century ago. Recent studies on the motility of Myxococcus xanthus, a soil myxobacterium, suggest a likely mechanism for gliding in this organism. About forty M. xanthus genes were shown to be involved in gliding motility, and some of their protein products were labeled and localized within cells. These studies suggest that gliding motility in M. xanthus involves large multiprotein structural complexes, regulatory proteins, and cytoskeletal filaments. In this review, we summarize recent experiments that provide the basis for this emerging view of M. xanthus motility. We also discuss alternative models for gliding.
V(D)J Recombination: Mechanisms of Initiation
Authors: Schatz David G. , Swanson Patrick C.
Published: March 2011

V(D)J recombination assembles immunoglobulin and T cell receptor genes during lymphocyte development through a series of carefully orchestrated DNA breakage and rejoining events. DNA cleavage requires a series of protein-DNA complexes containing the RAG1 and RAG2 proteins and recombination signals that flank the recombining gene segments. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the function and domain organization of the RAG proteins, the composition and structure of RAG-DNA complexes, and the pathways that lead to the formation of these complexes. We also consider the functional significance of RAG-mediated histone recognition and ubiquitin ligase activities, and the role played by RAG in ensuring proper repair of DNA breaks made during V(D)J recombination. Finally, we propose a model for the formation of RAG-DNA complexes that involves anchoring of RAG1 at the recombination signal nonamer and RAG2-dependent surveillance of adjoining DNA for suitable spacer and heptamer sequences.
Copy-Number Variations, Noncoding Sequences, and Human Phenotypes
Authors: Klopocki Eva , Mundlos Stefan
Published: March 2011

Whereas single-nucleotide polymorphisms and their role in predisposition to disease have been studied extensively, the analysis of structural variants—genomic changes such as insertions, deletions, inversions, duplications, and translocations—is still in its infancy. Changes in copy number, also known as copy-number variations (CNVs), constitute one such group of these structural variants. CNVs are structural genomic variants that arise from deletions (loss) or duplications (gain), and as a consequence result in a copy-number change of the respective genomic region. CNVs may include entire genes or regions of transcribed sequence, or, indeed, comprise only nontranscribed sequences. Whereas the duplication or deletion of a gene can be expected to have an effect on gene dosage, the consequences of CNVs in nontranscribed sequences are less obvious. Here we review CNVs that involve regulatory nontranscribed regions of the genome, describe the associated human phenotypes, and discuss possible disease mechanisms.
Recent Advances in the Genetics of Parkinson's Disease
Authors: Martin Ian , Dawson Valina L. , Dawson Ted M.
Published: March 2011

Genetic studies have provided valuable insight into the pathological mechanisms underlying Parkinson's disease (PD). The elucidation of genetic components to what was once largely considered a nongenetic disease has given rise to a multitude of cell and animal models enabling the dissection of molecular pathways involved in disease etiology. Here, we review advances obtained from models of dominant mutations in α-synuclein and LRRK2 as well as recessive PINK1, parkin and DJ-1 mutations. Recent genome-wide association studies have implicated genetic variability at two of these loci, α-synuclein and LRRK2, as significant risk factors for developing sporadic PD. This, coupled with the established role of mitochondrial impairment in both familial and sporadic PD, highlights the likelihood of common mechanisms fundamental to the etiology of both.
Putting Medical Genetics into Practice
Authors: Ferguson-Smith Malcolm A.
Published: March 2011

This article describes a fragment of history on the growing impact of genetics on the practice of medicine over 50 years, as experienced by a medical geneticist who helped to provide services to patients at risk of genetic disorders. It is a personal account influenced by a fascination with chromosomes that has drawn him into many studies, including sex determination, gene discovery, fetal diagnosis, phylogenomics, and karyotype evolution.
Genetics of Schizophrenia: New Findings and Challenges
Authors: Gejman Pablo V. , Sanders Alan R. , Kendler Kenneth S.
Published: March 2011

The work conducted using genome-wide approaches during the past several years has invigorated the field, and represents the dawn of molecular genetics of schizophrenia. The aggregate data increasingly support a combination of rare and common genetic variation in schizophrenia, a major role for polygenic inheritance, and a genetic overlap of schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders, such as bipolar disorder and autism. The current and upcoming resequencing programs (full exomes to full genomes), in combination with the use of more informative genotyping arrays, will allow a more thorough dissection of the molecular genetics of the disorder. A main challenge for the field is the translation of established genetic associations into a better pathophysiological understanding of schizophrenia.
The Genetics of Atrial Fibrillation: From the Bench to the Bedside
Authors: Xiao Junjie , Liang Dandan , Chen Yi-Han
Published: March 2011

Atrial fibrillation (AF) has become a growing global epidemic and a financial burden for society. The past 10 years have seen significant advances in our understanding of the genetic aspects of AF: At least 2 chromosomal loci and 17 causal genes have been identified in familial AF, and an additional 7 common variants and single-nucleotide polymorphisms in 11 different genes have been indicated in nonfamilial AF. However, the current management strategies for AF are suboptimal. The integration of genetic information into clinical practice may aid the early identification of AF patients who are at risk as well as the characterization of molecular pathways that culminate in AF, with the eventual result of better treatment. Never before has such an opportunity arisen to advance our understanding of the biology of AF through the translation of genetics findings from the bench to the bedside.
Transitions Between Sex-Determining Systems in Reptiles and Amphibians
Authors: Sarre Stephen D. , Ezaz Tariq , Georges Arthur
Published: March 2011

Important technological advances in genomics are driving a new understanding of the evolution of sex determination in vertebrates. In particular, comparative chromosome mapping in reptiles has shown an intriguing distribution of homology in sex chromosomes across reptile groups. When this new understanding is combined with the widespread distribution of genetic and temperature-dependent sex-determination mechanisms among reptiles, it is apparent that transitions between modes have occurred many times, as they have for amphibians (particularly between male and female heterogamety). It is also likely that thermosensitivity in sex determination is a key factor in those transitions in reptiles, and possibly in amphibians too. New models of sex determination involving temperature thresholds are providing the framework for the investigation of transitions and making possible key predictions about the homologies and sex-determination patterns expected among taxa in these groups. Molecular cytogenetics and other genomic approaches are essential to providing the fundamental material necessary to make advances in this field.
The Genetics of Innocence: Analysis of 194 U.S. DNA Exonerations
Authors: Hampikian Greg , West Emily , Akselrod Olga
Published: March 2011

This new analysis of 194 DNA exonerations, representing 171 criminal events, examines the types of evidence and DNA testing that have been used to free the victims of wrongful conviction. The types of DNA testing used to free the innocent parallels the growth of these techniques in forensic science. Short tandem repeat (STR) analysis now prevails (70%), though Y-STR analysis (16%) and mitochondrial testing (10%) are still used when STR analysis is not feasible, and the recently developed mini-STRs have been used for exonerations since 2008 (2.6%). The types of exculpatory evidence included intimate swabs (65%), clothing (53%), hair (13%), fingernail evidence (5%), cigarettes (3%), and other evidence. The most common factor associated with wrongful convictions was misidentification (75%), including misidentification by the victim (65%). False confessions (including admissions and pleas) were obtained in 30% of the cases, and informant testimony (including jailhouse and government informants) was used in 22% of the false convictions. Several types of invalid forensic science testimony were used to wrongfully convict in the 146 trials where transcripts or reliable forensic science data were available for analysis. Invalid testimony included serology (38%), hair comparison (22%), fingerprint comparison (2%), and bite mark comparison (3%). In 43% of the exonerations, the true perpetrator of the crime was identified through postconviction testing.
Regulatory Variation Within and Between Species
Authors: Zheng Wei , Gianoulis Tara A. , Karczewski Konrad J. , Zhao Hongyu , Snyder Michael
Published: March 2011

Understanding how individuals differ from one another and from closely related species is a fundamental problem in biology. Recent evidence suggests that much of the variation both within and between species is due to differential gene regulation. Here we review differential gene regulation focusing on evolutionary-developmental (evo-devo) biology, global comparison of genomic sequences, whole-genome gene expression, and transcription factor (TF) binding profiles. We also explore the relationship between divergence rate of regulatory sequences, coding sequences, and TF binding events using several different measures and discuss their implications in the context of evolution of regulatory networks. Finally, we discuss the current status and future challenges in relating regulatory variation to the divergence across and within species.
Rapid Turnover of Functional Sequence in Human and Other Genomes
Authors: Ponting Chris P. , Nellåker Christoffer , Meader Stephen
Published: March 2011

The amount of a genome's sequence that is functional has been surprisingly difficult to estimate accurately. This has severely hindered analyses asking whether the amount of functional genomic sequence correlates with organismal complexity. Most studies estimate these amounts by considering nucleotide substitution rates within aligned sequences. These approaches show reduced power to identify sequence that is aligned, functional, and constrained only within narrowly defined phyla. The neutral indel model exploits insertions or deletions (indels) rather than substitutions in predicting functional sequence. Surprisingly, this method indicates that half of all functional sequence is specific to individual eutherian lineages. This review considers the rates at which coding or noncoding and functional or nonfunctional sequence changes among mammalian genomes. In contrast to the slow rate at which protein-coding sequence changes, functional noncoding sequence appears to change or be turned over at rapid rates in mammals.
Communicating Genetic Risk Information for Common Disorders in the Era of Genomic Medicine
Authors: Lautenbach Denise M. , Christensen Kurt D. , Sparks Jeffrey A. , Green Robert C.
Published: March 2011

Communicating genetic risk information in ways that maximize understanding and promote health is increasingly important given the rapidly expanding availability and capabilities of genomic technologies. A well-developed literature on risk communication in general provides guidance for best practices, including presentation of information in multiple formats, attention to framing effects, use of graphics, sensitivity to the way numbers are presented, parsimony of information, attentiveness to emotions, and interactivity as part of the communication process. Challenges to communicating genetic risk information include deciding how best to tailor it, streamlining the process, deciding what information to disclose, accepting that communications may have limited influence, and understanding the impact of context. Meeting these challenges has great potential for empowering individuals to adopt healthier lifestyles and improve public health, but will require multidisciplinary approaches and collaboration.
Genetic Defects in Severe Congenital Neutropenia: Emerging Insights into Life and Death of Human Neutrophil Granulocytes
Authors: Klein Christoph
Published: March 2011

The discovery of genetic defects causing congenital neutropenia has illuminated mechanisms controlling differentiation, circulation, and decay of neutrophil granulocytes. Deficiency of the mitochondrial proteins HAX1 and AK2 cause premature apoptosis of myeloid progenitor cells associated with dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane potential, whereas mutations in ELA2/ELANE and G6PC3 are associated with signs of increased endoplasmic reticulum stress. Mutations in the transcriptional repressor GFI1 and the cytoskeletal regulator WASP also lead to defective neutrophil production. This unexpected diversity of factors suggests that multiple pathways are involved in the pathogenesis of congenital neutropenia.
HMGB1 Is a Therapeutic Target for Sterile Inflammation and Infection
Authors: Andersson Ulf , Tracey Kevin J.
Published: March 2011

A key question in immunology concerns how sterile injury activates innate immunity to mediate damaging inflammation in the absence of foreign invaders. The discovery that HMGB1, a ubiquitous nuclear protein, mediates the activation of innate immune responses led directly to the understanding that HMGB1 plays a critical role at the intersection of the host inflammatory response to sterile and infectious threat. HMGB1 is actively released by stimulation of the innate immune system with exogenous pathogen-derived molecules and is passively released by ischemia or cell injury in the absence of invasion. Established molecular mechanisms of HMGB1 binding and signaling through TLR4 reveal signaling pathways that mediate cytokine release and tissue damage. Experimental strategies that selectively target HMGB1 and TLR4 effectively reverse and prevent activation of innate immunity and significantly attenuate damage in diverse models of sterile and infection-induced threat.
Trafficking of B Cell Antigen in Lymph Nodes
Authors: Gonzalez Santiago F. , Degn Søren E. , Pitcher Lisa A. , Woodruff Matthew , Heesters Balthasar A. , Carroll Michael C.
Published: March 2011

The clonal selection theory first proposed by Macfarlane Burnet is a cornerstone of immunology ( 1 ). At the time, it revolutionized the thinking of immunologists because it provided a simple explanation for lymphocyte specificity, immunological memory, and elimination of self-reactive clones ( 2 ). The experimental demonstration by Nossal & Lederberg ( 3 ) that B lymphocytes bear receptors for a single antigen raised the central question of where B lymphocytes encounter antigen. This question has remained mostly unanswered until recently. Advances in techniques such as multiphoton intravital microscopy ( 4 , 5 ) have provided new insights into the trafficking of B cells and their antigen. In this review, we summarize these advances in the context of our current view of B cell circulation and activation.
Nonredundant Roles of Basophils in Immunity
Authors: Karasuyama Hajime , Mukai Kaori , Obata Kazushige , Tsujimura Yusuke , Wada Takeshi
Published: March 2011

Basophils are the rarest granulocytes and represent less than 1% of peripheral blood leukocytes. They are evolutionarily conserved in many animal species, but their functional significance remained an enigma long after their discovery by Paul Ehrlich in 1879. Studies of basophils were hindered by their rarity, by difficulties in identifying them, and by the paucity of useful analytical tools. Because basophils display several characteristics shared by tissue-resident mast cells, they were often considered minor and possibly redundant relatives of mast cells or even blood-circulating precursors of mast cells. However, newly developed tools for their functional analysis, including basophil-depleting antibodies and genetically engineered mice deficient only in basophils, have fueled basophil research and defined previously unrecognized functions of basophils. We now appreciate that basophils play nonredundant roles in acquired immunity regulation, protective immunity to pathogens, and immunological disorders such as allergy and autoimmunity.
Regulation and Functions of the IL-10 Family of Cytokines in Inflammation and Disease
Authors: Ouyang Wenjun , Rutz Sascha , Crellin Natasha K. , Valdez Patricia A. , Hymowitz Sarah G.
Published: March 2011

The IL-10 family of cytokines consists of nine members: IL-10, IL-19, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24, IL-26, and the more distantly related IL-28A, IL-28B, and IL-29. Evolutionarily, IL-10 family cytokines emerged before the adaptive immune response. These cytokines elicit diverse host defense mechanisms, especially from epithelial cells, during various infections. IL-10 family cytokines are essential for maintaining the integrity and homeostasis of tissue epithelial layers. Members of this family can promote innate immune responses from tissue epithelia to limit the damage caused by viral and bacterial infections. These cytokines can also facilitate the tissue-healing process in injuries caused by infection or inflammation. Finally, IL-10 itself can repress proinflammatory responses and limit unnecessary tissue disruptions caused by inflammation. Thus, IL-10 family cytokines have indispensable functions in many infectious and inflammatory diseases.
Immune Response to Dengue Virus and Prospects for a Vaccine
Authors: Murphy Brian R. , Whitehead Stephen S.
Published: March 2011

Dengue virus (DENV) is a mosquito-borne member of the Flavivirus genus and includes four serotypes (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4), each of which is capable of causing dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome. Serious disease can be seen during primary infection but is more frequent following second infection with a serotype different from that of a previous infection. Infection with wild-type DENV induces high-titered neutralizing antibody that can provide long-term immunity to the homotypic virus and can provide short-term immunity (only several months duration) to a heterotypic DENV. The high level of virus replication seen during both secondary infection with a heterotypic virus and during primary DENV infection in late infancy is a direct consequence of antibody-dependent enhancement of replication. This enhanced virus replication is mediated primarily by preexisting, nonneutralizing, or subneutralizing antibodies to the virion surface antigens that enhance access of the virion-antibody complex to FcγR-bearing cells. Vaccines will need to provide long-term protection against each of the four DENV serotypes by inducing neutralizing antibodies, and live, attenuated and various nonliving virus vaccines are in development.
Immunoglobulin Responses at the Mucosal Interface
Authors: Cerutti Andrea , Chen Kang , Chorny Alejo
Published: March 2011

Mucosal surfaces are colonized by large communities of commensal bacteria and represent the primary site of entry for pathogenic agents. To prevent microbial intrusion, mucosal B cells release large amounts of immunoglobulin (Ig) molecules through multiple follicular and extrafollicular pathways. IgA is the most abundant antibody isotype in mucosal secretions and owes its success in frontline immunity to its ability to undergo transcytosis across epithelial cells. In addition to translocating IgA onto the mucosal surface, epithelial cells educate the mucosal immune system as to the composition of the local microbiota and instruct B cells to initiate IgA responses that generate immune protection while preserving immune homeostasis. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of the cellular interactions and signaling pathways governing IgA production at mucosal surfaces and discuss new findings on the regulation and function of mucosal IgD, the most enigmatic isotype of our mucosal antibody repertoire.
Inflammatory Mechanisms in Obesity
Authors: Gregor Margaret F. , Hotamisligil Gökhan S.
Published: March 2011

The modern rise in obesity and its strong association with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes have elicited interest in the underlying mechanisms of these pathologies. The discovery that obesity itself results in an inflammatory state in metabolic tissues ushered in a research field that examines the inflammatory mechanisms in obesity. Here, we summarize the unique features of this metabolic inflammatory state, termed metaflammation and defined as low-grade, chronic inflammation orchestrated by metabolic cells in response to excess nutrients and energy. We explore the effects of such inflammation in metabolic tissues including adipose, liver, muscle, pancreas, and brain and its contribution to insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction. Another area in which many unknowns still exist is the origin or mechanism of initiation of inflammatory signaling in obesity. We discuss signals or triggers to the inflammatory response, including the possibility of endoplasmic reticulum stress as an important contributor to metaflammation. Finally, we examine anti-inflammatory therapies for their potential in the treatment of obesity-related insulin resistance and glucose intolerance.
Mechanisms that Promote and Suppress Chromosomal Translocations in Lymphocytes
Authors: Gostissa Monica , Alt Frederick W. , Chiarle Roberto
Published: March 2011

Recurrent chromosomal translocations are characteristic features of many types of cancers, especially lymphomas and leukemias. Several basic mechanistic factors are required for the generation of most translocations. First, DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) must be present simultaneously at the two participating loci. Second, the two broken loci must either be in proximity or be moved into proximity to be joined. Finally, cellular DNA repair pathways must be available to join the two broken loci to complete the translocation. These mechanistic factors can vary in different normal and mutant cells and, as a result, substantially influence the frequency at which particular translocations are generated in a given cell type. Ultimately, however, appearance of recurrent oncogenic translocations in tumors is, in most cases, strongly influenced by selection for the translocated oncogene during the tumorigenesis process. In this review, we discuss in depth the factors and pathways that contribute to the generation of translocations in lymphocytes and other cell types. We also discuss recent findings regarding mechanisms that underlie the appearance of recurrent translocations in tumors.
HLA/KIR Restraint of HIV: Surviving the Fittest
Authors: Bashirova Arman A. , Thomas Rasmi , Carrington Mary
Published: March 2011

Multiple epidemiological studies have demonstrated associations between the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) loci and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease, and more recently the killer cell immunoglobulin-like (KIR) locus has been implicated in differential responses to the virus. Genome-wide association studies have convincingly shown that the HLA class I locus is the most significant host genetic contributor to the variation in HIV control, underscoring a central role for CD8 T cells in resistance to the virus. However, both genetic and functional data indicate that part of the HLA effect on HIV is due to interactions between KIR and HLA genes, also implicating natural killer cells in defense against viral infection and viral expansion prior to initiation of an adaptive response. We review the HLA and KIR associations with HIV disease and the progress that has been made in understanding the mechanisms that explain these associations.
Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells: Recent Progress and Open Questions
Authors: Reizis Boris , Bunin Anna , Ghosh Hiyaa S. , Lewis Kanako L. , Sisirak Vanja
Published: March 2011

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are specialized in rapid and massive secretion of type I interferon (IFN-α/β) in response to foreign nucleic acids. Combined with their antigen presentation capacity, this powerful functionality enables pDCs to orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses. pDCs combine features of both lymphocytes and classical dendritic cells and display unique molecular adaptations to nucleic acid sensing and IFN production. In the decade since the identification of the pDC as a distinct immune cell type, our understanding of its molecular underpinnings and role in immunity has progressed rapidly. Here we review select aspects of pDC biology including cell fate establishment and plasticity, specific molecular mechanisms of pDC function, and the role of pDCs in T cell responses, antiviral immunity, and autoimmune diseases. Important unresolved questions remain in these areas, promising exciting times in pDC research for years to come.
Follicular Helper CD4 T Cells (TFH)
Authors: Crotty Shane
Published: March 2011

T cell help to B cells is a fundamental aspect of adaptive immunity and the generation of immunological memory. Follicular helper CD4 T (TFH) cells are the specialized providers of B cell help. TFHcells depend on expression of the master regulator transcription factor Bcl6. Distinguishing features of TFHcells are the expression of CXCR5, PD-1, SAP (SH2D1A), IL-21, and ICOS, among other molecules, and the absence of Blimp-1 (prdm1). TFHcells are important for the formation of germinal centers. Once germinal centers are formed, TFHcells are needed to maintain them and to regulate germinal center B cell differentiation into plasma cells and memory B cells. This review covers TFHdifferentiation, TFHfunctions, and human TFHcells, discussing recent progress and areas of uncertainty or disagreement in the literature, and it debates the developmental relationship between TFHcells and other CD4 T cell subsets (Th1, Th2, Th17, iTreg).
The Inflammasome NLRs in Immunity, Inflammation, and Associated Diseases
Authors: Davis Beckley K. , Wen Haitao , Ting Jenny P.-Y.
Published: March 2011

Inflammasome activation leads to caspase-1 activation, which causes the maturation and secretion of pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 among other substrates. A subgroup of the NLR (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat containing) proteins are key mediators of the inflammasome. Studies of gene-deficient mice and cells have implicated NLR inflammasomes in a host of responses to a wide range of microbial pathogens, inflammatory diseases, cancer, and metabolic and autoimmune disorders. Determining exactly how the inflammasome is activated in these diseases and disease models remains a challenge. This review presents and integrates recent progress in the field.
Integration of Genetic and Immunological Insights into a Model of Celiac Disease Pathogenesis
Authors: Abadie Valérie , Sollid Ludvig M. , Barreiro Luis B. , Jabri Bana
Published: March 2011

Celiac disease (CD) is a gluten-sensitive enteropathy that develops in genetically susceptible individuals by exposure to cereal gluten proteins. This review integrates insights from immunological studies with results of recent genetic genome-wide association studies into a disease model. Genetic data, among others, suggest that viral infections are implicated and that natural killer effector pathways are important in the pathogenesis of CD, but most prominently these data converge with existing immunological findings that CD is primarily a T cell–mediated immune disorder in which CD4+T cells that recognize gluten peptides in the context of major histocompatibility class II molecules play a central role. Comparison of genetic pathways as well as genetic susceptibility loci between CD and other autoimmune and inflammatory disorders reveals that CD bears stronger resemblance to T cell–mediated organ-specific autoimmune than to inflammatory diseases. Finally, we present evidence suggesting that the high prevalence of CD in modern societies may be the by-product of past selection for increased immune responses to combat infections in populations in which agriculture and cereals were introduced early on in the post-Neolithic period.
Law and American Political Development
Authors: Brandwein Pamela
Published: March 2011

This article explores a tension in the Law and American Political Development (APD) literature over the conceptualization of an institution. Moving between two fields in mutual exchange—historical-interpretive scholarship on law/courts and scholarship on APD—the article shows how concerns and sensibilities seem to converge yet are also in conflict. The article argues that a misleading opposition between institutions and discourse is a source of that conflict, while revisiting various theoretical frameworks in an effort to overcome that opposition. Recent work on race, law, and development during the Jim Crow era is taken up with the aim of showing how we might think more capaciously about the formal and discursive properties of institutions.
Innovations in Policing: Meanings, Structures, and Processes
Authors: Willis James J. , Mastrofski Stephen D.
Published: March 2011

Research on organizational innovation is challenging given its complex nature. Using Wolfe's (1994) review and critique of the vast innovation literature, we identify some of the key conceptual and theoretical issues within three separate research streams: diffusion, organizational innovativeness, and innovation process. In doing so, we suggest that police researchers should pay more attention to defining and conceptualizing innovation; to testing multiple theories explaining the spread of different innovations across police agencies; to analyzing the structural and cultural bases of diffusion; to examining and comparing the effects of individual, organizational, and environmental determinants on different innovations; and to designing systematic longitudinal studies on the entire innovation process. In addition, we examine some trends and issues related to judging innovations. Our purpose is to provide guidance that will contribute to the development of a coherent and generalizable body of research on police innovations, a field that is currently in its infancy.
Corporate and Personal Bankruptcy Law
Authors: White Michelle J.
Published: March 2011

Bankruptcy is the legal process by which the debts of firms, individuals, and occasionally governments in financial distress are resolved. Bankruptcy law always includes three components. First, it provides a collective framework for simultaneously resolving all debts of the bankrupt entity, regardless of when they are due. Second, it provides rules for determining how the assets and earnings used to repay are divided among creditors. Third, bankruptcy law specifies punishments intended to discourage debtors from defaulting on their debts and filing for bankruptcy. This review discusses and evaluates bankruptcy law by examining whether and when the law encourages debtors and creditors to behave in economically efficient ways. It also considers how bankruptcy law might be changed to improve economic efficiency. The review shows that there are multiple economic objectives of bankruptcy law because the law has very diverse effects. Some of these objectives differ for individuals versus corporations in bankruptcy.
The Conundrum of Financial Regulation: Origins, Controversies, and Prospects
Authors: Snider Laureen
Published: March 2011

This review surveys the origins and development of financial regulation as a concept and as a set of legal (state) and extralegal policies aimed at controlling financial sector activity, specifically stock market exchange. It outlines the basic tools that made financial capitalism possible, the establishment of state regulatory agencies, the cyclical nature of disaster and reform, and struggles over the viability, purposes, and sanctions regulators should pursue. I argue that recent developments, notably globalized trade and the neoliberal policies that states have pursued since the 1980s, have weakened the ability of regulators to take meaningful actions to control the antisocial acts of a financial sector that has grown, literally, too big to fail. Recent evidence indicates that the rate of technological innovations in the financial sector has outpaced the normative capacity of legal and regulatory structures. The review concludes with an examination of the solutions and remedies posed by a range of different scholars across various theoretical positions.
Why Pirates Are Back
Authors: Dawdy Shannon Lee
Published: March 2011

At the dawn of the twenty-first century, we are witnessing the birth of a new pirate age both in international waters, where fights over oil and fish extraction echo colonial wars over silver and slaves, and in the “high seas” of a global information society. This article reviews these fast-growing phenomena and shows how they relate to one another and to a broader proliferation in types of sovereignty, as well as the rebels they engender. Piracy forces open the cracks of legal sovereignties, revealing an intensifying contradiction in what ought to be called neoliberal mercantilism.
The Legislative Dismantling of a Colonial and an Apartheid State
Authors: Moore Sally Falk
Published: March 2011

In the 1960s, social scientists speculated about what the consequence of legal, cultural, and racial pluralism would be in Africa after independence. Now, 50 years later, we know that, though transformed, cultural pluralism remains a shaping force. In Tanzania, from the 1960s on, there was an effort to build equality and national loyalty through socialism. In South Africa, after 1994, there were two major kinds of legislation that rejected the racially divisive past and attempted to repair its damage. One established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission; the other was a cluster of laws that designed a scheme of land reform. Both have been studied by anthropologists. Here, I review the Tanzanian and the two South African instances. The incompleteness and unevenness of what was achieved can be compared with the grand legislative intentions that preceded the law making. This has profound implications for the analysis of social process and for the relationships among the state, its ambitions, and its citizens.
Mass Imprisonment and Inequality in Health and Family Life
Authors: Wildeman Christopher , Muller Christopher
Published: March 2011

In response to drastic increases and enduring disparities in American imprisonment, researchers have produced an expansive literature on the effects of mass imprisonment on inequality in America. We discuss this literature in three parts. First, we consider the obstacles to estimating the effects of imprisonment on individuals and to using those estimates to calculate the macrolevel impact of incarceration. Second, we review existing literature on the effect of mass imprisonment on inequalities in health and family life. Finally, we close by suggesting directions for future research.
The Social Construction of Law: The European Court of Justice and Its Legal Revolution Revisited
Authors: Cohen Antonin , Vauchez Antoine
Published: March 2011

This review explores the social construction of a European rule of law. It runs counter to most legal and political science scholarship which considers such transnational constitutional order to be the direct outcome of the European Court of Justice's judicial fiat in a couple of revolutionary decisions from the 1960s. Drawing from the theory of fields as well as from the sociology of legal professions, the review suggests an alternative account of this legal revolution as embedded in a complex legal and political struggle over the nature and future of Europe.
Durkheim and Law: Divided Readings overDivision of Labor
Authors: Greenhouse Carol J.
Published: March 2011

Recent scholarship on Durkheim draws attention to debates implicating his ideas about law, mainly in The Division of Labor in Society, but also in Professional Ethics and Civic Morals. Division is the better known work, and established readings—otherwise diverse—find in it a thesis about law as the expression of the collective conscience and functioning to maintain community norms. Durkheim's attention to the state in Civic Morals is often read as a continuation of that thesis on law, as if the state were the culmination of collective consciousness. This article reads these works differently, highlighting the discontinuity of states and collective consciousness as the opening for Durkheim's concerns with the moral legitimacy of public authority as well as his efforts to find a subject (literally and figuratively) for the emergent discipline of sociology. The article suggests that current events offer fresh terrain for sociolegal scholars to pursue the implications of Durkheim's insights on law and states, read otherwise.
The Political Science of Federalism
Authors: Bednar Jenna
Published: March 2011

This article highlights political science's interest in the distribution of authority between federal and state governments. The authority boundaries are studied (a) as mechanism design problems, where authority is allocated optimally to achieve social goals; (b) as problems in positive political theory, because the authority distribution creates competitive interests; (c) as an institutional design problem, where the boundaries are maintained by safeguards; and (d) as a complex adaptive system, where the boundaries evolve in response to the interaction of diverse agents. The article concludes with a suggestion that as dynamic models of constitutional evolution develop, reflecting the bottom-up process and the responsiveness to the cultural community, federal constitutional design may transform from optimality studies to feasibility studies.
The Rights of Noncitizens in the United States
Authors: Coutin Susan Bibler
Published: March 2011

Over the past three decades, sociolegal scholarship on the rights of noncitizens in the United States has sought to explain rights and exclusions while incorporating new theory regarding racialization, biopolitics, neoliberalism, risk, and states of exception. Early work in this period distinguished between legal and illegal immigration, with a focus on assimilation, ethnicity, and new ethnic enclaves in the case of the former, and an examination of the relationship between membership and movement in the case of the latter. Large-scale restructurings of the immigration enforcement regime have made the distinction between citizens and noncitizens more important than before. Thus, scholars have coined such terms as “crimmigration” to describe the unprecedented convergence of criminal and immigration law, “rescaling” to refer to shifts from national to local enforcement efforts, and “securitization” to denote the infusion of antiterrorist measures within immigration policymaking.
The Evolving International Judiciary
Authors: Alter Karen J.
Published: March 2011

This article explains the rapid proliferation in international courts first in the post–World War II and then the post–Cold War eras. It examines the larger international judicial complex, showing how developments in one region and domain affect developments in similar and distant regimes. Situating individual developments into their larger context, and showing how change occurs incrementally and slowly over time, allows one to see developments in economic, human rights, and war crimes systems as part of a longer-term evolutionary process of the creation of international judicial authority. Evolution is not the same as teleology; we see that some international courts develop and change, whereas others stay in their same role and with the same low level of activity for long periods of time. The evolutionary approach of this article suggests that building judicial authority evolves through practice and takes time and that the overall international judicial context and developments in parallel institutions shape the development of individual international courts.
Advances in Drug Delivery
Authors: Timko Brian P. , Whitehead Kathryn , Gao Weiwei , Kohane Daniel S. , Farokhzad Omid , Anderson Daniel , Langer Robert
Published: March 2011

In this article, we review critical aspects in the area of drug delivery. Specifically, delivery of siRNA, remote-controlled delivery, noninvasive delivery, and nanotechnology in drug delivery are reviewed.
Mussel-Inspired Adhesives and Coatings
Authors: Lee Bruce P. , Messersmith P.B. , Israelachvili J.N. , Waite J.H.
Published: March 2011

Mussels attach to solid surfaces in the sea. Their adhesion must be rapid, strong, and tough, or else they will be dislodged and dashed to pieces by the next incoming wave. Given the dearth of synthetic adhesives for wet polar surfaces, much effort has been directed to characterizing and mimicking essential features of the adhesive chemistry practiced by mussels. Studies of these organisms have uncovered important adaptive strategies that help to circumvent the high dielectric and solvation properties of water that typically frustrate adhesion. In a chemical vein, the adhesive proteins of mussels are heavily decorated with Dopa, a catecholic functionality. Various synthetic polymers have been functionalized with catechols to provide diverse adhesive, sealant, coating, and anchoring properties, particularly for critical biomedical applications.
Nanowire Solar Cells
Authors: Garnett Erik C. , Brongersma Mark L. , Cui Yi , McGehee Michael D.
Published: March 2011

The nanowire geometry provides potential advantages over planar wafer-based or thin-film solar cells in every step of the photoconversion process. These advantages include reduced reflection, extreme light trapping, improved band gap tuning, facile strain relaxation, and increased defect tolerance. These benefits are not expected to increase the maximum efficiency above standard limits; instead, they reduce the quantity and quality of material necessary to approach those limits, allowing for substantial cost reductions. Additionally, nanowires provide opportunities to fabricate complex single-crystalline semiconductor devices directly on low-cost substrates and electrodes such as aluminum foil, stainless steel, and conductive glass, addressing another major cost in current photovoltaic technology. This review describes nanowire solar cell synthesis and fabrication, important characterization techniques unique to nanowire systems, and advantages of the nanowire geometry.
Nonconventional (Non-Silicon-Based) Photovoltaic Materials
Authors: Unold T. , Schock H.W.
Published: March 2011

Although photovoltaic devices and modules made from crystalline silicon currently dominate the market, many efforts in developing photovoltaics involve the use of alternative materials. Binary and multinary materials with direct band gaps and therefore high absorption coefficients allow for the fabrication of thin-film photovoltaic modules with minimized material use and the possibility for depositing on large areas and alternative substrates such as glass, stainless steel, or polyimide foils. With the great diversity of optoelectronic properties of binary and multinary materials, highly efficient photovoltaic devices fabricated at very low cost are in principle possible. Requirements for efficient photovoltaic devices using nonconventional materials are discussed, and results obtained for photovoltaic devices based on selected binary and multinary materials obtained during the past few decades are summarized.
Recent Developments in Semiconductor Thermoelectric Physics and Materials
Authors: Shakouri Ali
Published: March 2011

Recent advances in semiconductor thermoelectric physics and materials are reviewed. A key requirement to improve the energy conversion efficiency is to increase the Seebeck coefficient (S) and the electrical conductivity (σ) while reducing the electronic and lattice contributions to thermal conductivity (κe + κL). Some new physical concepts and nanostructures make it possible to modify the trade-offs between the bulk material properties through changes in the density of states, scattering rates, and interface effects on electron and phonon transport. We review recent experimental and theoretical results on nanostructured materials of various dimensions: superlattices, nanowires, nanodots, and solid-state thermionic power generation devices. Most of the recent success has been in the reduction of lattice thermal conductivity with the concurrent maintenance of good electrical conductivity. Several theoretical and experimental results to improve the thermoelectric power factor (S2σ) and to reduce the Lorenz number (σ/κe) are presented. We briefly describe recent developments in nonlinear thermoelectrics, as well as the generalization of the Bergman theorem for composite materials. Although the material thermoelectric figure of merit Z [=S2σ/(κe + κL)] is a key parameter to optimize, one has to consider the whole system in an energy conversion application. A rarely discussed but important efficiency/cost trade-off for thermoelectric power generation is briefly reviewed, and research directions for the development of low-cost thermoelectric materials are identified. Finally, we highlight the importance of the figure of merit, Z, beyond macroscale energy conversion applications in describing the microscopic coupling between charge and energy transport in materials.