bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Life at the Top: The Experiences of U.s. National Champion Figure Skaters
Authors: Gould Daniel , Jackson Susan A. , Finch Laura M.
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to better understand the positive and negative aspects of being a national champion athlete, to uncover difficulties encountered in defending a championship title, and to solicit recommendations for achieving and maintaining national champion status. Seventeen U.S. national champion figure skaters who held titles between 1985 and 1990 participated in in-depth interviews. A number of positive and negative experiences were identified. Difficulties encountered in defending a championship were associated with increased expectations and responsibilities, a shift in motivational orientation from chasing to being chased where arousal was increased and interpreted negatively, and athletic injuries and the stress related to those injuries. Recommendations focused on such things as not being afraid to grow and take risks, filtering feedback and advice, not falling into the trap of feeling one has to be perfect, and seeking and utilizing social support.
An Investigation of Two Stress-Management Techniques in a Field Setting
Authors: Maynard Ian W. , Cotton Peter C.J.
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to investigate Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, and Smith’s (1990) contention that stress-management techniques should be matched to the symptoms manifested by performers. Subjects, 20 male collegiate field hockey players, responded to the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) on four occasions prior to an important hockey match. Subjects were then placed in two intervention groups: applied relaxation (somatic anxiety; n = 6) and positive thought control (cognitive anxiety; n = 8). Six additional subjects formed the control group. Subjects completed a 12-week intervention in a field setting. Results suggested that reducing anxiety with a method directed at the performer’s dominant anxiety type is more efficacious. A secondary aim was to further investigate the anxiety-performance relationship using an intraindividual performance measure. Somatic anxiety was found to account for 22% of the variance in field hockey performance. Polynomial trend analyses failed to produce significant relationships between the CSAI-2 subscales and performance.
The Sport of Avoiding Sports and Exercise: A Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Perspective
Authors: Ellis Albert
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to apply the rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) perspective to motivation to begin and continue regular exercise or sport involvement. A basic premise is that exercise and sports avoidance are usually motivated by low frustration tolerance and/or irrational fears of failing. The treatment of exercise and sports avoidance by REBT is multimodal, integrative, and involves the use of cognitive, emotive, and behavioral methods. Cognitive methods include disputing irrational beliefs, learning rational coping self-statements, referenting, and reframing. Emotive methods include the use of strong dramatic statements, rational emotive imagery, shame-attacking exercises, and role-playing. Various behavioral methods such as anxiety reducing assignments, operant conditioning, paradoxical homework, and stimulus control are explained. REBT focuses on helping exercise and sport avoiders find their inhibitory demands and change the demands into healthy preferences while promoting unconditional self-acceptance.
Training Mental Quickness in Beginning/Intermediate Tennis Players
Authors: Singer Robert N. , Cauraugh James H. , Chen Dapeng , Steinberg Gregg M. , Frehlich Shane G. , Wang Ludong
Published: August 2016

The trainability of anticipatory skills for tennis was assessed. Subjects (N = 34) from a beginning/intermediate tennis class were randomly assigned to either a mental quickness or a physical quickness (control) training group. They were tested in three laboratory tennis simulation tasks and three on-court tasks (serves, ground strokes, and volleys) 1 week before and after the 3-week quickness training program. Quickness Training × Gender × Test Session (2 × 2 × 2) ANOVAs with repeated measures on the third factor were conducted. For the laboratory tasks, the mental quickness group made faster decisions in reaction to serves, exhibited faster anticipation times, and showed improved accuracy in predicting serve type and location. No improvements in accuracy were found for the physical quickness group. For filmed match-play situations, the mental quickness group improved reaction times with training and committed fewer response errors. Implications for the design of instructional methods used in dynamic and fast-paced sports are discussed.
Felt Arousal, Thoughts/Feelings, and Ski Performance
Authors: Raedeke Thomas D. , Stein Gary L.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between felt arousal, thoughts/feelings, and ski performance based on recent arousal and affect conceptualizations. An eclectic integration of these perspectives suggests that to understand the arousal-performance relationship, researchers need to examine not only a felt arousal continuum (i.e., intensity or level ranging from low to high), but also a concomitant thoughts and feelings continuum (i.e., ranging from positive to negative). Recreational slalom ski racers completed a self-report measure examining felt arousal and thoughts/feelings prior to several ski runs. Results demonstrated a significant relationship between felt arousal level, thoughts/feelings, and subjective ski performance ratings, but not for actual ski times. In contrast to the inverted-U hypothesis for subjective performance ratings, high felt arousal is not associated with poor performance ratings if it is accompanied by positive thoughts and feelings.
Anxiety and the Ironman: Investigating the Antecedents and Consequences of Endurance Athletes’ State Anxiety
Authors: Hammermeister Jon , Burton Damon
Published: August 2016

This investigation had three primary purposes: (a) investigating whether anxiety has a major debilitating effect on the performance of endurance athletes, (b) assessing whether age or sport-type differences were evident in the precompetitive state anxiety patterns of triathletes and two of their singlesport counterparts, and (c) testing the anxiety–performance hypothesis for endurance athletes using an intraindividual measure of performance. Subjects were 293 endurance athletes recruited from races in the Pacific Northwest. Results revealed that precompetitive anxiety did not impair the performance of endurance athletes. Triathletes were significantly more cognitively and somatically anxious than either runners or cyclists, and older endurance athletes were found to experience significantly less cognitive anxiety than did their younger counterparts. Results did not support the anxiety–performance hypothesis, although a significant negative correlation was found between negative thoughts during the race and performance.
Interpersonal Stress, Performance Level, and Parental Support: A Longitudinal Study among Highly Skilled Young Soccer Players
Authors: VanYperen Nico W.
Published: August 2016

This study of 65 highly skilled young male soccer players (mean age = 16.6 years) employed a 7-month longitudinal design to examine the causal relationship between performance level and interpersonal stress within the team. Particular attention was paid to the moderating effect of parental support. No evidence was found that interpersonal stress within the team was an important determinant of performance level. Rather, a low performance level leads to negative feelings about the social climate within the team. But this is only true under specific circumstances (i.e., when there is a perceived lack of parental support). The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.
Norman Triplett and the Dawning of Sport Psychology
Authors: Davis Stephen F. , Huss Matthew T. , Becker Angela H.
Published: August 2016

Research projects on reaction time, motor learning, and transfer of training, which were conducted in the late 1800s and early 1900s, as well as early attempts to relate personality development and sport, are among the roots of sport psychology. The first experimental research directly involving psychological factors and sport was conducted by Norman Triplett (1898). This paper surveys these early research projects and chronicles Triplett’s life and career.
Nancy Langhorne Astor: Sportswoman Unsung
Authors: Bunker Linda K. , Scruby Frances S.
Published: August 2016

Nancy Langhorne Astor, the first woman member of English Parliament, used sports as an asset in promoting worthy political causes and as a force in advocating women’s health issues. She championed childhood education and through her sponsorship of new facilities and sporting organizations made sports a much more acceptable pursuit for women of her era. Many strident criticisms of her behavior can be dismissed in light of her era’s gender bias against which she was a warrior her entire life. This retrospective study of her life leads to new interpretations of her contributions to her 20th Century world.
Young Women Talking Sports and Careers: A Glimpse at the Next Generation of Women in Sport Media
Authors: Staurowsky Ellen J. , DiManno Jessica
Published: August 2016

As the American public is confronted with a more established female sport presence at all levels, the potential for girls to consider a career in sport media has expanded exponentially. Girls growing up in the age of ‘GRRL Power’ envision themselves as professional basketball players, world champion soccer stars, women who run like the wind, and as sports broadcasters. However, the dawn of a new age has also brought with it increasing complexity with regard to the issues aspiring young women seeking careers in sport media encounter. The overall purpose of this study was to extend the frame of our understanding about gender, sport, and the media by documenting the experiences, concerns, and attitudes of undergraduate females who hope to pursue careers as sports journalists, sports broadcasters, and sport media professionals. Based on interviews with ten undergraduate women, the next generation of women in sport media are more than prepared to take on with confidence, assertiveness, and a great deal of solid professional training the challenges that await them. However, even as undergraduates, these women have had to deal with, and make sense, of sexual objectification and sexism in the workplace. The article concludes with recommendations for how to support young women in their quest to pursue careers in sport media.
Beyond the Racial Binary: Stacking in Women’s Collegiate Softball
Authors: Jamieson Katherine M. , Reel Justine J. , Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

Differential treatment by race has been documented in sport, including the opportunity to occupy specific positions. Few researchers have examined the theoretical fit of stacking in women’s sport contexts. Moreover, the three published studies of stacking in women’s athletics were examinations of positional segregation for white and African American women only. Binary conceptions of race are no longer sufficient to explain the complexity of power relations that are visible through phenomena such as stacking. This study focused on the stacking of four major racial groups in NCAA Division I softball. Based upon the results, we suggest that stacking of racial-ethnic minority women may occur in patterns different from those identified in previous stacking studies.
Collegiate Cross Country Coaches’ Knowledge of Eating Disorders
Authors: Govero Cheryl , Bushman Barbara A.
Published: August 2016

Athletes are at a high risk for eating disorders due to the pressures placed on them by themselves as well as coaches. The purposes of this study were (1) to determine the knowledge level of eating disorders among cross country coaches, (2) to determine their level of confidence in this knowledge, and (3) to determine reported sources of educational resources. Four schools were randomly selected from each NCAA Division I conference (return rate: 48%). A two-part questionnaire assessed sources of information and knowledge of eating disorders. Literature and sponsored programs were the two most common sources of information. For the 30 knowledge questions, coaches indicated their confidence level on a 4-item Likert-type scale. The knowledge of the majority of coaches was relatively high, and those with higher accuracy also had higher confidence. The confidence level and the percent of coaches answering each question correctly were significantly correlated, r=0.56 (p<0.01) but the confidence level and the percent answering incorrectly were not significantly correlated, r=0.24 (p=0.24). There were no significant differences in knowledge scores considering years of coaching (p=0.67) nor were there any significant differences in the scores between males and females (p=0.17). Although the cross country coaches were quite knowledgeable, additional ways to increase knowledge of eating disorders are needed.
Helping Middle School Females Form a Sense of Self through Team Sports and Exercise
Authors: Ference Ruth , Muth K. Denise
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to investigate how involvement in exercise and participation in team sports were related to the multidimension self-perceptions of middle school females. The study was conducted in 2 middle schools with 181 8th-grade females. Instruments used were the Physical Activity Survey and Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children. Results show that participation in team sports was related to four domains of self-perception: social acceptance, athletic competence, scholastic competence, and global self-worth. Informal exercise was related to social acceptance and global self-worth of middle school females. Therefore, it appears that both team sports and exercise may be important in enhancing self-concept in middle school females. Results also show that over half of middle school females in this study participated in three or more team sports during middle school. However, almost half of these students report exercising informally less than three times a week. These results support the increased opportunities of team sports for middle school females.
Performance-Related Injuries and Exercise Orientation of National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I, II, and III Female Collegiate Cross Country Runners
Authors: Thompson Sharon H. , Smith Presley , DiGioacchino Rita
Published: August 2016

A serious commitment to sport and exercise may predispose female athletes to the development of eating disorders. The energy restriction and accompanying menstrual disorders that are often associated with eating disorders may increase female athletes’ injury risks. The purpose of this study was to assess NCAA Division I, II, and III female collegiate cross country athletes’ weekly exercise time, rates of injury, menstrual dysfunction, and subclinical eating disorder risks. A paper-pencil survey was completed by athletes (mean age = 19.64 years) from NCAA Division I (n = 82), Division II (n = 103) and Division III (n = 115) colleges across the United States. Division I athletes spent significantly more weekly exercise time (M = 687.97 minutes) than Division II (M = 512.38 minutes, p = .0007) or Division III (M = 501.32 minutes, p = .0003) athletes. When examining rates of menstrual dysfunction, 23 percent reported amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea. Over 60 percent (64.3%) of the athletes reported a performance-related injury, with the knee being the most commonly injured site. 24 percent (23.7%) of the athletes reported having stress fractures. Scores for subclinical eating disorders for Division I athletes were significantly higher (M = 87.11) than Division III athletes (M = 82.94, p = .0042). Division I female athletes may be at an increased risk of developing subclinical eating disorders compared to those competing in Division II or III. Because early identification of those with subclinical eating disorders prevents the progression to eating disorders, further study is warranted.
The Self-Conceptions and Health Behaviors of Larger Women: Examining the Mediating Role of Affect
Authors: Ebbeck Vicki , Watkins Patti Lou , Levy Susan S.
Published: August 2016

This study examined possible determinants of some of the health behaviors of larger women. Specifically, it was of interest to discern if affect (depression, social physique anxiety) mediated the relationship between self-conceptions (global self-worth, perceived physical appearance) and behavior (disordered eating, physical activity). The investigation was grounded in the model of self-worth forwarded by Harter (1987). A total of 71 overweight or obese women agreed to participate in the study. Data collection involved a researcher meeting individually with each of the participants to record physical assessments as well as responses to a packet of self-report questionnaires. A series of canonical correlation analyses were then conducted to test each of the three conditions for mediation effects outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986). Results suggested that indeed the set of self-conceptions indirectly influenced the set of behaviors via the set of affect variables. Surprisingly, however, involvement in physical activity failed to contribute to the multivariate relationships. The findings further our understanding of how self-conceptions are related to behavior and highlight the value of examining multiple health behaviors in parallel.
Factors Influencing Body Image in Female Adolescent Athletes
Authors: Pritchard Mary E. , Wilson Gregory S.
Published: August 2016

Recent research has noted an increase in body image dissatisfaction among adolescents and adults. One group that seems to be particularly at risk for body image dissatisfaction is female athletes. However, few studies have examined what factors might influence body image dissatisfaction in female athletes. The present study surveyed 146 female high school athletes to determine which factors influence their body image. We found that body image related to several physical and psychological health variables, including physical ailments, negative health habits, stress, fatigue, anger, tension, depression, confusion, negative affect, and use of ineffective coping styles. Finally, several parental health habits related to female body image including maternal smoking and maternal and paternal nutrition habits. In sum, coaches and parents need to emphasize healthy habits, as well as effective coping strategies when dealing with female athletes. In addition, parents must realize the impact they have on their daughter’s body image.
High School Coaches’ Perceptions of and Actual Knowledge about Issues Related to Nutrition and Weight Control
Authors: Overdorf V.G. , Silgailis K.S.
Published: August 2016

Psychologists’ narrations have identified how difficult it is to treat individuals with eating disorders. Moreover, the further the illness has progressed, the greater is the resistance to treatment. Therefore, prevention is critical in reducing the prevalence of these disorders among female athletes. The individuals having the most contact with athletes, and thus constituting the first line of defense against this problem, are coaches. Yet, information about nutrition and proper weight control and how these topics should be properly communicated to athletes is frequently not part of a coach’s training, and consequently may not be part of a coach’s knowledge base. This study was designed to evaluate the perceived versus actual knowledge about nutrition and weight control held by high school coaches of girls’ teams (̲n = 42). Two questionnaires, designed by the investigators, were administered sequentially. The first requested perceptions on various nutritional and weight control issues. The second was a quiz on actual knowledge of nutrition and weight control. Ninety-one percent of the coaches rated their nutrition knowledge as average or above, while only 40 percent had taken any formal classes in nutrition. On the actual quiz, only 14 percent of the coaches knew what percentage of simple carbohydrates should constitute athletes’ diets, while less than half (40%) were able to identify sources of complex carbohydrates. Eleven percent of the coaches thought athletes should have a high protein diet, while almost all of them (80%) believed that muscle is gained by eating proteins. Furthermore, only eight percent were able to identify sources of low fat protein. In regard to issues of weight control, 40 percent of the coaches thought athletes would improve performance by losing weight, 33 percent had impressed on their team the need to lose several times, and 28 percent had spoken to individual athletes about the need to lose weight several times. The predominant method for monitoring weight loss in athletes was visual inspection (37%) rather than actual measurement. Moreover, 77 percent of the coaches thought weight loss had to exceed 15 percent to reflect an anorectic condition, suggesting a possible need for earlier intervention by coaches. Since 82 percent of the coaches incorrectly thought body image distortions occur equally among male and female adolescents, it seems they are unaware of the greater risk for eating disorders among female athletes. While this study represents a small sampling of coaches, the observed lack of congruence between perceived and actual knowledge regarding nutrition and weight control must be addressed if prevention of eating disorders among athletes is to become a reality.
“I Consider Myself an Empowered Woman”: The Interaction of Sport, Gender and Disability in the Lives of Wheelchair Basketball Players
Authors: Hardin Marie
Published: August 2016

This research, involving interviews with elite female wheelchair basketball players, explores how gender and disability intersect in the lives of these athletes. Interviews revealed the integral role athletic identity plays to offset the stigma of disability in their self-identities and in the complex relationships each has with social norms in regard to gender, disability, sport and the body. However, social institutions, including that of adapted sport, reinforce an ableist, sexist ideology that persistently marginalizes these athletes.
Does Commitment Develop in the Same Manner for Male and Female Coaches? An Examination of Personal and Job Characteristic Antecedents
Authors: Turner Brian
Published: August 2016

Over the years, many researchers have examined organizational commitment and how it develops. However, few have looked at differences in antecedents of commitment based on gender. Three hundred and twenty-eight athletic coaches (women = 88; men = 240) from Divisions I (n = 156) and III (n = 172) responded to a questionnaire that measured four bases of organizational commitment (affective [AC], normative [NC], continuance-high sacrifice [CC:HiSac], and continuance-low number of alternatives [CC:LoAlt]) and two specific groups of antecedents (personal characteristics and job characteristics). Differences between male and female respondents were examined to determine if their commitment developed in similar manners. The regression equation with all four job characteristic variables was significantly related to the bases of organizational commitment, cumulatively explaining 37.9% of the variance in females’ NC and 29.6% of the variance in women’s AC; for men, the job characteristic variables explained 30.0% and 24.4% for NC and AC, respectively. In addition, the regression equation with all four personal characteristic variables was significant for CC:HiSac for both male and female coaches. Overall, employer commitment was the job characteristic variable that had the greatest effect on organizational commitment for both men and women.
Career Paths and Advice for Women Wanting to Obtain a Management Position within the Health and Fitness Industry
Authors: Bower Glenna G.
Published: August 2016

While scholars have focused their attention on women working in management positions within several segments of the sport industry, limited research has been done within the health and fitness industry. The purpose of this study provided career path information and advice to women pursuing a management position within the health and fitness industry. The participants were 480female managers who were distributed the Career Paths of Women in Sports Survey in eliciting responses related to their career paths and career advice. Means were calculated for the quantitative data. A three-step content-analytic procedure was used to analyze the qualitative data. The practical information focused on women climbing the ladder from an entry-level position to the management position they are in today. Career advice included, but was not limited to, continuing education, staying up-to-date on certifications, gaining practical experience, networking, and obtaining a mentor.
Developing Effective Mentoring Relationships with Women in the Health and Fitness Industry: Suggestions from the Perspective of the Protégé
Authors: Bower Glenna G.
Published: August 2016

This study introduced mentor characteristics and advancement techniques deemed necessary in developing a successful mentoring relationship with women within the health and fitness industry. The successful mentoring relationship may lead to the advancement of women within leadership positions in the health and fitness industry. The participants included 480 female members of the ACSM Health and Fitness Alliance. The study addressed characteristics of the mentor and advancement techniques. These two areas of inquiry provided implications for female protégés seeking to enter a successful mentoring relationship with a mentor in the health and fitness industry.
The Rhetoric and Ideology Behind Title IX: An Analysis of U.S. Newspaper Editorials, 2002-2005
Authors: Whiteside Erin , Hardin Marie
Published: August 2016

This study explores assumptions about the relationship between sport and gender through a textual analysis of newspaper editorials on Title IX from 2002 to 2005. Through the analysis we found that none of the articles opposed Title IX outright. The arguments in the editorials used a liberal feminist rationale that positioned women and men as equally deserving of civil rights protections and the institution of sports as needing to become gender-neutral to provide those protections. An “oppositional reading” of these editorials from a radical feminist perspective, however, found the assumption that the practice and values of sports are naturally masculine; thus, sports ultimately belong to men. The analysis illuminated the shortcomings of the liberal feminist rhetoric and the need for more radical voices to move women’s sports from a defensive to an empowered position in U.S. culture.
Hyponatraemia in Female Athletes
Authors: Derbyshire Emma
Published: August 2016

Purpose of the Paper

Previous research has evaluated the prevalence and aetiology of hyponatraemia in athletes, particularly for ultra endurance events. However, few papers have focused specifically on the incidence and effects of hyponatraemia in female athletes. The aim of this paper was to review and collate previous research that has investigated hyponatraemia in female athletes and explain how excessive retention of free fluid may influence female performance and health status.

Design/Methodology/Approach

The most up-to-date and pertinent studies within the literature have been included and summated in this review.

Findings

The findings from this overview indicate that women participating in endurance events are particularly susceptible to developing hyponatraemia. It is important that women do not have depleted sodium concentrations prior to an athletic event, hypotonic fluid should not been consumed in excess and carbohydrate solutions (4-8g carbohydrate per 100ml fluid) should be consumed when women participate in intense exercise, lasting for longer than 1 hour. It is fundamentally important that up-to-date rehydration guidelines are imparted to active females and the dangers of over-ingesting fluid need to be emphasized within this vulnerable population.

Originality

This paper gives a concise, up-to-date overview on how hyponatraemia can affect female athletic performance and health status.
“Running in and out of Motherhood”: Elite Distance Runners’ Experiences of Returning to Competition after Pregnancy
Authors: Appleby Karen M. , Fisher Leslie A.
Published: August 2016

Although a few studies on the experiences of mothering athletes have been conducted that investigate issues such a training patterns of elite and non-elite athletes, quality of life issues, and track and field athletes’ return to competition after pregnancy (see Beilock, Feltz, & Pivarnik, 2001; Balague, Shaw, Vernacchia, & Yambor, 1995: Pederson, 2001), none of these capture this experience from a critical feminist perspective. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to use a critical feminist framework to qualitatively explore the athletic experiences of elite distance runners who returned to competition after having children. The results of this study indicated that elite female distance runners who returned to a high level of competition after pregnancy experienced a transformative process as they negotiated their new roles as mothers and integrated this new lifestyle with both the social discourse surrounding motherhood and their own objectives to continue running at an elite level. Implications and theoretical connections between this research and future research are also provided.
Strength-Training as an Alternative Physical Education Pilot Program for Non-Active Middle-School Girls
Authors: Vanata David F. , Patton Beth J.
Published: August 2016

Although opportunities for female adolescents to participate in organized sports and physical activities are readily available, currently observed trends among female adolescents indicate nationwide decreases in physical fitness and involvement in physical education (PE) classes. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of an alternative strength-conditioning PE pilot program among non-active middle-school-aged girls who were not involved in sports. The alternative strength-training PE program met twice weekly for eight-weeks and incorporated exercises using free-weights, exercise balls, resistance bands, and fitness steps. Students participating in this program tailored their workouts to meet their individual interests. Results indicated that girls involved in the alternative program significantly improved from their baseline means scores for cardiovascular and strength measurements. No significant differences in fitness assessments were observed pre/post among the girls involved in traditional PE classes. The present study demonstrates that alternative strength-training PE classes can be effective in improving fitness levels among non-active middle-school-aged female students who are not involved in sports.
Mianne Bagger: A Transitioned Woman’s Efforts for Inclusion in Professional Golf
Authors: Love Adam , Lim Seung-Yup , DeSensi Joy T.
Published: August 2016

The presence of transitioned women in sport is currently a contested issue. Mianne Bagger, a transitioned woman, has been an important figure in developments related to this issue during her efforts to play on various women’s professional golf tours. Using a standpoint perspective, which begins with the assumption that some social locations, such as those of marginalized individuals, are better starting points than others for seeking knowledge, the researchers interviewed Bagger about her experiences. Since she has begun seeking the right to play on various women’s professional tours, a number of golfing organizations have introduced or created “gender policies” regarding who is allowed to participate. While such policy developments may seem on the surface to be progressive measures designed
Reaganism and the Dismantling of Civil Rights: Title IX in the 1980s
Authors: Walton Theresa
Published: August 2016

In the 1980s, Title IX and other civil tights laws faced significant challenges within a political climate of Reaganism and the growing strength of the alliance between the New Right and the Religious Right. In the 1980s two major events impacted all civil rights legislation based on the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The first was the Grove City College v. Bell (1984) Supreme Court decision and the second was the 1987 Civil Rights Restoration Act passed over the veto of President Reagan in 1988. This article examines the public discourse of these events through a critical media reading of mainstream newspaper coverage throughout the 1980s, highlighting the central role of Title IX in the debate over civil rights. This examination highlights the importance of dominant discourse in the enforcement of civil rights laws, as well as in the resulting lack of opportunity development over time.
Performance Level and Sexual Harassment Prevalence among Female Athletes in the Czech Republic
Authors: Fasting Kari , Brackenridge Celia , Knorre Nada
Published: August 2016

This article investigates whether there is a relationship between the sport performance level of female athletes inside the sport (at clubs, competitions, or training events) and outside sport (in family or community settings) and the likelihood that they will be victims of sexual harassment. The study sample consisted of 595 women from the Czech Republic and was divided into three performance groups: elite, non-elite/competing, and exercisers. No significant differences were found between the groups in relation to overall cases of sexual harassment, but when their experiences of sexual harassment inside and outside sport were examined, the picture changed. The chances of being harassed by someone in sport increased with performance level, from 29.7% among the exercisers to 55.2% among the elite-level athletes. However, the highest proportion of women experiencing sexual harassment was seen in the group of the exercises outside of sport (73%). This article discusses the prevalence of sexual harassment in relation to the gender order in Czech society.
The Impact of Sports Participation on Violence and Victimization among Rural Minority Adolescent Girls
Authors: Taylor Matthew J. , Wamser Rachel A. , Sanchez Michelle E. , Arellano Charleanea M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of sports participation and race/ethnicity on violence and victimization among a sample of white, African American, and Hispanic rural-area high school girls. It was hypothesized that girls who participated in sports would report lower rates of violent behavior and fewer incidents of victimization. Using logistic regression and multivariate analysis of variance, evidence for the hypotheses was mixed and appeared to be related to the type of violence and victimization. Sports participants were less likely to engage in general violence and reported less physical and sexual victimization, but did not experience less intimate partner violence victimization. Conversely, sports participants were more likely to engage in verbal and physical reactive violence. While sports participation may have some preventative impact on violence and victimization, this relationship may also be influenced by community characteristics and not a universal outcome.
Features of the Exercise Environment and Body Image: Preferences for Mirror and Standing Positions in the Aerobics Room
Authors: Prichard Ivanka , Tiggemann Marika
Published: August 2016

Study 1 examined the relationships between mirror and standing position preferences in an aerobics room and body image concerns or eating disturbances. Five hundred and seventy-one female aerobics participants completed a brief questionnaire consisting of established measures. Women who did not like mirrors and who preferred to stand at the back of the aerobics room had significantly greater body-image and eating concerns than women who liked mirrors and stood anywhere in the class. Qualitative feedback from four follow-up focus groups of 20 female aerobics participants indicated that mirrors were disliked by some and used as a motivational tool by others (Study 2). The preference for standing at the back of the room centred around not wanting to be watched by other people. Taken together, the results suggest that women’s preferences for mirror and standing positions in an aerobics room may serve as an important indicator of potential body image and eating disturbance.
Living the Spirit and the Dream of NAGWS
Authors: DeSensi Joy T.
Published: August 2016

The Rachel Bryant Lecture Award was established in 1989 in honor of Rachel Bryant, a pioneer and architect in the field of sport for girls and women. Bryant served NAGWS as Executive Director from 1950-1971, providing strong leadership and encouraging futuristic thinking and planning. The recipient of this award is an individual who continues to carry on the spirit of this remarkable woman who gave so much to NAGWS and to the world of girls and women in sport (2010 Rachel Bryant Lecture and Awards Program, p. 2).

The lecture is published in the format in which it was delivered at the NAGWS Rachel Bryant Lecture and Awards Program at the 2010 AAHPERD National Convention in Indianapolis, IN. Written from a very personal perspective, this lecture includes a brief overview of Rachel Bryant’s legacy, the subjectively ‘lived’ sport experiences of the author, concerns regarding the future of girls and women in sport, and the direction NAGWS is taking as an organization.
(SWET)ing for the Summit: A Feminist Cultural-Studies Analysis of Singapore's First Women's Mount Everest Team
Authors: Goh Tan Leng , Kauer Kerrie J.
Published: August 2016

This article is a feminist cultural-studies analysis of Singapore’s first all-female mountaineering team to successfully summit Mount Everest. A feminist cultural-studies approach was used to explore the highly male hegemonic domain of mountaineering and the ways in which the Singapore Women’s Everest Team (SWET) was situated within the sport and their local Singapore culture. Qualitative, face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with six elite-level Singaporean female mountaineers (ages 25 to 39) were conducted by the first author in January 2009, before their attempt to summit Mount Everest. Using inductive analysis and feminist deconstruction, several salient themes emerged from the data: (a) disrupting norms, (b) sexism in extreme sports, and (c) women-centered spaces. The interviewees demonstrated unity as an all-women team as they overcame challenges in their pursuit of climbing Mount Everest. This study attempts to expand the sport studies literature with multicultural and gendered perspectives of female mountaineers.
Becoming a Football Player: Identity Formation on a Women’s Tackle Football Team
Authors: Knapp Bobbi A.
Published: August 2016

People commonly think of only men playing football. Football, however, has also been played by women for many years. Using a feminist interactionist framework, this study examines why women begin to play the game. The research questions that guided this study were: (1) what factors influence women’s decisions to play football? and (2) how do women begin to develop their identities as football players? Data were collected using participant observation over a two-year period and 10 semi-structured interviews. Some of the reasons participants stated for starting to play football were for their love of the sport, a desire to be a part of history, or the physicality of the sport. The women’s abilities and personal characteristics, significant others, and veteran players were crucial in the development of their identities as players. The information obtained could be used to bring more women into the sport.
Predictors of Exercise in Midline and Older Women Based on the Health Promotion Model
Authors: Adams Marlene , McCrone Susan
Published: August 2016

The primary objective of this study was to explore selected variables from the Health Promotion Model to determine their impact on the exercise behavior of women ages 40 and older. The secondary objective was to compare variables in women who exercise and those who do not. A convenience sample of 893 female employees from one large university in the mid-Atlantic region and its surrounding community participated. Participants completed a brief demographic questionnaire and the Exercise Benefits and Barriers Scale (EBBS). Walking was the preferred form of exercise for 50.1 % of women. Those who preferred walking perceived fewer benefits and barriers to exercising. Significant predictors of engagement in the preferred form of exercise were perceived benefits, perceived barriers, and walking as a
Women and the Meanings of Physical Recreation
Authors: Henderson Karla A. , Bialeschki M. Deborah
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this research was to explore the meanings of women’s involvement in physical recreation. Although much has been written about girls’ and women’s involvement in competitive athletics, less is known about the everyday physical involvement of women who are committed to fitness activities, recreational sports, and/or outdoor activities. Data from indepth interviews were collected from 29 participants in physical activity. A process of “constant comparison” was used to develop conclusions about the social psychological meanings of physical recreation. Physical recreation was analyzed in relation to three themes: the setting and structures associated with physical activity, the worth of physical activity, and the means for negotiating opportunities for participation. The gendered meanings associated with physical recreation provided further social psychological and sociological understandings of the recreation choices and multilayered reality of women’s lives.
The Influence of Sport Appropriateness and Image on the Status of Female Athletes
Authors: Riemer Brenda A. , Feltz Deborah L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of stereotyped visual images (pictures) on the friendship status ranking of females in “gender-appropriate” and “gender-inappropriate” sports. The study employed a 2×2×3 (sex × sport × image) ANOVA between subjects design, with tennis and basketball being the “appropriate” and “inappropriate” sports chosen respectively. The visual image was manipulated by having a picture of a stereotypical feminine female versus a stereotypical androgynous female. The control group did not have a visual image. We hypothesized that image would interact with sport appropriateness such that the feminine image would enhance the friendship status of the hypothetical basketball player; whereas the androgynous image would lower the hypothetical tennis player’s status. A “sex-byimage” interaction as well as a “sex-by-sport” trend supported the hypothesis for males; males used the perceived femininity/androgyny stereotype to influence their decision about friendship status.

Over the last two decades, women’s active involvement in sport has increased. For example, since the 1972 passage of Title IX, participation has increased by over 600% for girls in interscholastic school programs (Boutilier & SanGiovanni, 1983). Despite an increase in the sport opportunities available to women, stereotypes about what is socially appropriate influence how females in sport are perceived. Gender-role stereotypes have been identified as some of the influencing factors in the perception of appropriate sports for males and females (Metheny, 1965) and in one’s social status (Coleman, 1961). Avariable which may enhance the perception of appropriate sports for males and females is the addition of a visual image. Duncan & Sayaovong (1990) have suggested that visual images have the ability to reinforce or contradict gender-role stereotypes. The purpose of this study was to determine how visual images may affect the perceived status of female high school athletes in “gender-appropriate” and “gender-inappropriate” sports.
Coincidence-Anticipation Timing
Authors: Meeuwsen Harry J. , Goode Sinah L. , Goggin Noreen L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this experiment was to replicate and extend earlier experiments used to investigate the effect of the motor response, experience with open skills, and gender on coincidence-anticipation timing accuracy. Fifteen males and fifteen females, who were all right-eye and right-hand dominant, performed a switch-press and a hitting coincident-anticipation timing task on a Bassin Anticipation Timing apparatus with stimulus speeds of 4 mph, 8 mph, and 12 mph. Level of experience with open skills was determined by a self-report questionnaire and vision was screened using the Biopter Vision Test. Experience with open skills explained some of the variable error data, possibly supporting a socio-cultural explanation of gender differences. Males performed with less variable and absolute error than females, while performance bias was different for the genders on the two tasks. All participants performed with less absolute error on the 8 mph stimulus speed. The type of task and stimulus speed affected performance variability differently. Based on the task characteristics and these data, it was concluded that optimal effector anticipation is more strongly linked to stimulus speed than receptor anticipation. Future studies will have to confirm this conclusion.
Sex Testing in International Women’s Athletics a History of Silence
Authors: Wackwitz Laura A.
Published: August 2016

This essay chronicles the practice of sex testing in international women’s athletics as it has been portrayed in the print new media from 1966 through 1995. As a medical test officially sanctioned by the International Olympic Committee, sex testing involves examination of a woman’s physical and/or genetic characteristics in order to determine her eligibility for competition. Although sex testing has recently come under scrutiny, the IOC historically has shrouded this practice in a veil of silence. My purpose here is to help lift that veil by drawing into one forum the arguments for and against sex testing, as they have developed in the past thirty years.
Physical Activity among Adolescent Females: Racial Differences
Authors: Bungum Timothy J. , Vincent Murray
Published: August 2016

Purposes of this study included the identification of physical activity (PA) levels, and the types of activity, as well as the determination of racial differences in these factors between African-American (AA) (n=626) and White (WH) (n=226) adolescent females.

PA was measured using a one week recall. Approximately 1/2 of WH and 1/3 of AA female adolescents were sufficiently physically active (Blair, 1992) to produce health benefits. Less than twenty-five percent of study participants met a newly established guideline addressing moderate to vigorous PA (Sallis & Patrick, 1994). Younger adolescents were more active than older adolescents.

Accounting for differences in age and socioeconomic status WH females were more active than AA females. African-American and WH females participated in similar types of activity. Walking was the most frequently cited mode of activity.
Goal Perspectives and Their Implications for an Active and Healthy Life-Style among Girls and Women
Authors: Duda Joan L.
Published: August 2016

Sport and exercise focused research is reviewed stemming from a goal perspective model of motivation. It is suggested that this body of literature provides insight into the variability in physical activity patterns among girls and women. Further, evidence is presented which indicates that differences in the goal perspectives operating in the athletic setting relate to whether female athletic participation is health promotive or health endangering.
Research with and for Women in Sport: The Responsible Researcher
Authors: Humberstone Barbara
Published: August 2016

A discussion of the role of the researcher in the research process is discussed. Evidence is given relative to the integral part that researchers and the sporting culture have in the formation of research conclusions and interpretation. Reflexivity and the social science approach are presented as alternatives to traditional concepts of research.