bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Central and Eastern European migration, post‐World War II to present
Authors: Kaczmarczyk Pawel
Published: January 2013

Although Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) has been recognized as a distinct socioeconomic space since at least the early 1990s, there is neither common understanding nor universal definition of this term. Considering migration patterns for the purpose of this entry we define CEE as the group of former Soviet bloc countries which joined the European Union (EU) in the 2000s (i.e. Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia).
Child labor and migration
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: January 2013

Throughout history developing societies have always been faced with the unavoidable problem of a transient labor force that must travel and relocate in search of economic survival. The migration of peasants and workers is a constant process that uproots families in pursuit of economic subsistence. Among the many tragic circumstances that befall migrant working families is the forced participation of children. Circumstances, such as high poverty and inequality of income distribution are the reasons that child labor is considered and/or practiced.
China and inner Central Asia, 7th–13th‐century migrations
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: January 2013

“China proper” – the region south of the Great Wall to the South China Sea – emerged as an imperial entity in 221BCE. In the north and west it bordered on Inner Asia's three ecologically different segments. The west, the Tibetan highlands and the deserts and steppes north of them, consisted of “population islands” – cities, towns, and oases – inhabited both by highly organized mobile groups and, in the steppes, by pastoral nomadic peoples; from Turkestan's Tarim and Dzungaria basins sedentary agriculture could provision caravans and cities and export cotton as far as China. The north, Mongolia, consisted of deserts which made habitation difficult and which were the arena of the Mongols. The northeast, Manchuria, accommodated sedentary agriculturists and was the realm of the Khitans, Jurchens, and many other nomadic, highly mobile, semi‐sedentary or sedentary groups. Inner Asia comprises the regions east of the Pamirs and south of the Altai Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and includes Tibet, Turkestan, Xinjiang, the Mongolias, Manchuria, and the north of “China proper.” Central Asia stretches from the Caspian Sea to regions north of the Pamirs and west of the Altai and includes Sogdiana, Bactria, Transoxania, Fergana, and other regions. Inner Asia, twice the size of China proper, held a total of perhaps five million people, compared to China's 80 million about 600CE. In China the largest ethnocultural group were the Han, a sedentary agricultural population originally concentrated in the north along the Huang He or Yellow River. The northern “Chinese” rulers had emerged from intermarriage and culturalmétissageand were no Han Chinese, though they were sometimes constructed as such by later official imperial historiography, which was often hagiography.
China: medieval era migrations
Authors: Schottenhammer Angela
Published: January 2013

It is not an easy task to examine migration in medieval China, not only because information is scattered and incomplete, but also because we are confronted with many different forms of migration within, into, and from Chinese territory. More and more specific case studies have only slowly begun to shed more light on the complex issue of migration in Chinese history. This essay can therefore claim to provide only an overview of migrations within the time period under investigation and to draw the reader's attention to certain tendencies. Much more research still has to be done before we have a more thorough insight into all the different forms of migrations in China from around 400 to 1600. We should also be aware that certain forms of migration were, at least to some degree, related to social mobility, clan and elite structures, and the bureaucratic system that appointed officials to places far away from their home prefectures. With this in view, I shall seek to provide a cross‐section of various forms of migration, drawing attention to general tendencies as well as providing several concrete examples for illustration.
China: rural migration
Authors: Wang Fei‐Ling
Published: January 2013

For many centuries, China has had the world's largest population, of which the majority has always lived in the countryside. Traditionally, the Chinese rural population has been largely immobile except for massive involuntary migrations caused by war, invasion, and natural disaster. Sizable voluntary migrations took place from time to time to settle in remote or sparsely populated areas, mostly after civil wars. After the mid‐19th century, Chinese rural migration grew significantly as people moved in search for economic opportunities in an industrializing urban sector. With the exception of the first 30 years following the establishment in 1949 of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Chinese rural migration over the past century has demonstrated a general pattern of moving from villages to cities and towns, from inland provinces to coastal regions, and from economically depressed locales to relatively prosperous areas. As of 2010 the majority of the Chinese population of about 1.4 billion still lives in rural areas, but increasingly many of them are moving to or have already settled in the cities and towns, with or without government authorization and recognition. As China's urbanization continues, it is estimated that the Chinese rural population may, for the first time ever, fall below 50 percent in the next decade.
Chinatowns
Authors: Zhang Kang Qing
Published: January 2013

A Chinatown is a neighborhood outside mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan that has historically been a place of residence for overseas Chinese and a center of distinctly Chinese business, social, and cultural activities. Chinatowns are known literally as “Tang people's street” (Tong Yun Gai) in Cantonese. Chinatowns also have different names for Minnan, Teochew, or Fujianese groups, but the Cantonese “Tong Yun Gai” (Pinyintáng rén jiē) is the most widely accepted term to refer to Chinatowns. The Cantonese people are a dominant subgroup of Chinese pioneer emigrants and refer to themselves as “Tang people” in homage to the Tang dynasty (618–907), the height of Chinese civilization.
Chinese migration since 1368
Authors: McKeown Adam
Published: January 2013

Two of the largest human movements in world history took place in China. The first was the resettlement of over 10 million people in war‐devastated central and northern China during in the first three decades of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The second is the over 110 million inter‐provincial migrants who have traveled to work mostly in the cities and factories of coastal China over the last two decades. The first amounted to 14 percent of the total Chinese population, and the second to nearly 10 percent. But beneath this superficial similarity of massive numbers, these flows were different in both form and context. The recent migrations – a culmination of trends gaining momentum since the late 19th century – have reversed the patterns of frontier migration that dominated Chinese migration for seven centuries. At the same time, they have continued the halting yet consistent trend toward liberalization and reduced government intervention that also characterized the past seven centuries.
Chinese migration, 1949 to present
Authors: Pál Nyíri
Published: January 2013

This entry discusses the main migratory movements within, from, and into the People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949. It does not extend to movements that occurred within ethnic Chinese populations outside the PRC, including Taiwan, Southeast Asia, as well as Hong Kong and Macau before their incorporation into the PRC in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
Circular migration
Authors: Vertovec Steven
Published: January 2013

Around the world, policy‐makers within national and international institutions are currently advocating measures to facilitate the to‐and‐fro movement of migrants between their homelands and foreign places of work. The main idea of these circular migration systems is that such back‐and‐forth migrant could be managed in ways that bring proverbial “win‐win‐win” results: benefits for receiving countries through meeting labor market shortages, for sending countries through guaranteeing remittances for development, and for migrants themselves through offering employment and control over the use of their wages. Circular migration is also being advocated as a potential, or at least partial, solution to a number of problems in relation to contemporary migration.
Co‐ethnic employees
Authors: Hou Feng
Published: January 2013

Co‐ethnic concentration at the workplace is a specific dimension of ethnic economy. Much of the literature on ethnic economies is based on studies of minority groups in large immigrant‐gateway metropolises. Previous studies on ethnic economies have been plagued by “conceptual anarchy” and arbitrariness in their empirical operationalization (Logan et al. 1994; Nee et al. 1994). Specific aspects and forms of ethnic economies are important for developing conceptual clarity and gaining further understanding of the implications of ethnic economies (Waters & Eschbach 1995; Logan et al. 2003). Among such specific aspects, co‐ethnic concentration at the workplace can be precisely measured. The concept provides unique analytical angles to examine the causes and consequences of participating in ethnic economies at the individual level.
Commuting
Authors: Walker Kyle E.
Published: January 2013

Commuting is the act of travel from one's home to one's place of employment. This type of movement is one of the most common forms of human mobility, and is a significant driver of economic activity as it connects workers to their places of employment, linking together and helping define local and regional economies. The nature of commuting in a population, however, is closely linked with the population's social, geographic, and economic contexts.
Concentration camps
Authors: Cohen Marc Buggeln, translated by Paul
Published: January 2013

The term “concentration camp” has a wide range of definitions, and it is at times extremely difficult for historians to draw the line between these and other types of camps and places of internment. In contrast to prisons, inmates in concentration camps are not usually sentenced following regular legal proceedings. Furthermore, camps tend to focus on groups, while inmates in prisons are primarily offenders serving individual sentences. In contrast to prisoner‐of‐war (POW) camps, concentration camps are normally not used to detain regular military personnel, but rather insurgents and civilians classified as enemies of the state. The main purposes of concentration camps are to isolate groups from the rest of society, punish and re‐educate, terrorize, exploit, and sometimes even exterminate prisoners.
Congo (DRC), migration, 1960 to present
Authors: Tshibambe, Germain Ngoie
Published: January 2013

Located in the heart of Africa with an area of 2,345,000 sq km, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) gained independence on June 30, 1960. Between 1958 and 1984 the population of the DRC increased from 13.5 to 30.7 million inhabitants. According to 2008 projections of the United Nations Population Division (UNPD), the population more than doubled to 67,827,000 in 2010, with an annual population growth rate estimated at 3.3 percent from 1990 and 1995 and 2.8 percent between 2005 and 2010 (UNDP 2009). This population is unevenly distributed among different regions of the country, with about 70 percent of Congolese living in rural areas.
Convict labor and migration
Authors: Morgan Gwenda
Published: January 2013

Coerced migration and forced labor of convicted felons has been incorporated belatedly into the history of migration and labor history alongside that of free migrants, slaves, and indentured laborers. Too often in the past historians studied criminal banishment in the context of national histories as an aspect of penology divorced from broader currents of history. Changes in perspective extending backwards in time and across national boundaries have led to the reconceptualization of the subject as imperial in character and global in scope.
Cosmopolitanism and migrant rights
Authors: Morris Lydia
Published: January 2013

A useful preliminary to thinking about immigration law, immigration control, and migrants' rights is to be found in a broader sociological argument about an emergent cosmopolitanism, which characterizes changes in the nature of society and advocates corresponding changes in the discipline of sociology that also have implications for how we think about the law. Ulrich Beck 2006 has been a key figure in related debate, arguing that cosmopolitan forces are transforming the experiential space of the nation‐state and that the “methodological nationalism” which has characterized sociological thinking must give way to an approach that recognizes the “mythic” status of the national state, and the transnational realities that are reshaping our social world. In other words, we must no longer conceive of society as a bounded entity which has its existence within the borders of the nation‐state, but (presumably) rather as a network of social forces and transnational movements which has no clearly delimited geographical home. However, Beck argues against a dichotomizing view that sets the national and the global perspectives in opposition. He favors instead an approach which recognizes the global forces written into national dynamics such that the national and transnational are interlocking and mutually constituting phenomena. The transnational migrant is a key figure in the picture that he paints, provoking “explosive questions” about the rights of noncitizens, and the capacity of the nation‐state to exert control over its borders.
Cross‐cultural bonds
Authors: Couton Philippe
Published: January 2013

International migration necessarily involves cultural encounters: migrants leave their sociocultural environment and settle in a host country endowed with its own complex culture, to which they must adapt. These cross‐cultural encounters can take different forms, resulting in a range of social, cultural, economic, and political formations strongly influenced by historical settings, ideological forces, and local to global trends and events. Though this is not a linear phenomenon, it helps to conceptualize it as a potential continuum, along the lines of the approaches developed to study immigrant incorporation. At one end is the complete disappearance of the culture borne by immigrants, the result of their seamless assimilation into the host society over the course of one or two generations. At the other end is the emergence and persistence of a completely separate and distinct ethno‐immigrant social formation able to sustain the imported culture in all its dimensions (language, religion, food, etc.). Neither of these outcomes is very common, with the vast majority of immigrants to most host countries falling somewhere in between (and usually close to the middle), but cases that fit these extremes do exist, historically and contemporarily.
Cultural and social memory
Authors: Kitzmann Andreas
Published: January 2013

The act of telling stories of the past is central to the experience of immigration and migration. Tales and recollections of the “homeland,” of what was lost and gained, of the trials and success of ancestors and relatives, of individual and collective hopes, dreams and accomplishments are, in part, inseparable from what it means to be an immigrant. Such stories are also articulated in ways beyond words through photographs, keepsakes, artifacts, diaries, home movies, web pages and a myriad of other forms of articulating the past, present and future. Indeed, as Anthony Giddens has noted, among others, life stories are integral to the formation of identity (Giddens 1991: 76). Yet despite the seemingly obvious nature of such observations, the interplay between storytelling conventions, migration, immigration, social and collective memory is increasingly complex. Central to such complexity are the dynamics of globalization, especially as fueled by the swiftly moving currents of media technology, with the Internet and other digital technologies acting as the prime movers of cultural and social memory.
Culture and migration, a critical assessment
Authors: Bâ Saër Maty
Published: January 2013

Across the globe, from the dawn of civilization, migration has defined humanity, definitively and enduringly. Indeed, all human beings have recent or distant forebears who trekked, wandered, or journeyed to novel locations. Additionally, migration as a defining feature of human cultures has remained as compelling in recent times as it was at the beginning of civilization. This point informs and sustains a critical analysis of culture and migration.
Day laborers in the United States
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: January 2013

While no formal definition of day labor exists, it is commonly used to convey a type of temporary employment in labor markets that employ manual workers (frequently and often incorrectly called low‐skill or unskilled labor). Most day laborers in the United States are migrant workers who are forced by economic factors to work in hazardous and undesirable conditions. In the three decades from 1980 to 2010, due to a complex interaction between forces of labor supply and demand, particularly in the United States, the use of day laborers has increased significantly because of companies trying to cut costs and, as a result, swelling migration flows to highly industrialized countries. US labor markets have been under greater and greater pressure to demonstrate more flexibility when it comes to bottom‐line costs. In particular, the construction industry has been a leader in adopting alternative hiring practices, making a shift to using contingent workers hired on an as‐needed basis.
Demographic transformation of populations
Authors: Jones Gavin W.
Published: January 2013

This essay focuses on how migration transforms populations in sending and receiving countries, and more broadly globally. Migration has had major impacts on population size and structure in different localities, districts, and nations over the course of world demographic history, and its impact is continuing today.
Dependency theory
Authors: Omobowale Ayokunle Olumuyiwa
Published: January 2013

In response to modernization theory, which proffered a two‐dimensional explanation for world development within the modern–traditional continuum – with Western countries depicted as modern (rational) and the bulk of the developing countries as traditional and thus underdeveloped – Latin American social scientists, including Ander Gunder Frank, Paul Baran, and Theot&onio Dos Santos 2005 developed dependency theory between 1963 and 1964. According to dependency theory, developing nations are underdeveloped not because of their so‐called primitive or traditional culture but because of their entanglement in unequal and exploitative economic relations in the world capitalist system, which is dominated by the Western world. Describing the world imperialist structure, Ander Gunder Frank explored the “sociology of development” 1971, the “Lumpenbourgeoisie” and “Lumpendevelopment” 1972 in developing countries, and the “centrality of Central Asia” 1992 in early development, especially along the ancient Silk Road (Pieterse 2005).
Deportation of migrants, Netherlands 19th–20th century
Authors: van Eijl Corrie
Published: January 2013

This essay concentrates on deportation – the forced removal of immigrants from state territory – by examining deportation history in the Netherlands. States can regulate migration by restricting the entry and stay of immigrants or by deporting those who do not (or no longer) fulfill the conditions to stay. This case study will demonstrate that deportation was not an easy solution to unwanted or illegal immigration. Deportation was not only costly; it could also be frustrated by understaffed police forces, public resistance, or by unwilling deportees and their countries of origin.
Diasporas and colonization in Classical Antiquity
Authors: Woolf Greg
Published: January 2013

During the early Holocene humans had followed the retreating glaciers and repopulated Europe. The subsequent spread of agriculture westwards and northwards raised population densities across the continent and provided the conditions for complex societies to emerge. Long‐distance exchange can be documented for the Neolithic and Bronze Ages in many commodities, among them spondylus shells, stone axes, amber, and metal ores. Transfers of technology took place too, as is easily documented by the spread of metallurgy and domesticates. Iron working, wagons, coinage, and the potter's wheel all arrived during the first millenniumBCE.
Diasporas: diversity and entrepreneurship
Authors: Montes Krishnan Sharma and Manuel F.
Published: January 2013

Diaspora entrepreneurship has witnessed dramatic and exciting developments in recent years, with successful entrepreneurs in the North expanding their business reach to their home developing countries, bringing along with them capital, technology, and market knowledge. While illustrating the various success stories in this area, this essay emphasizes the diversity among diaspora groups and examines the underlying factors influencing the degree and nature of an expatriate community's contribution to business development in the homeland. It concludes with a discussion of the policy lessons. A broad definition is taken of diaspora entrepreneurs as expatriates who are engaged in entrepreneurial activities in their home countries. While some of them return to set up business in their home country, others undertake or facilitate investment and entrepreneurial ventures while working and residing overseas.
Diasporas: historical and conceptual analysis
Authors: Dufoix Stéphane
Published: January 2013

On September 15, 2010, four students from New York University announced the source code for a new international social network, which they named Diaspora. They regard it as an anti‐Facebook social network: whereas Facebook is an entirely centered network that users cannot really modify and appropriate because of strict control by the site owners, the Diaspora social network is supposed to be more democratic and more open, and to function as a truly multipolar network in which no real center is visible. Its users become actors and contribute to the evolution of the network.
Discrimination and migration: race
Authors: Merenstein Beth Frankel
Published: January 2013

The construction of racial categories and the racism existent in the United States are politically, culturally, and socially related to each other. How groups define themselves, and how groups are defined by others, are very much dependent on the way the racial social structure and racial hierarchy are expressed. At one time, our primarily binary construction (white and black) was due to the kind of racism – overt Jim Crow style – in existence. Currently, the way we see ourselves and the way we define others has as much to do with who is in our surrounding environment as with the larger social structure. In this case, consider California and the differences between San Diego and San Francisco. In the former, a large Mexican and Mexican American population will influence the perceptions and relations between different groups. However, in San Francisco, it is the larger Asian and Asian American community that will likely be influencing the social and political climate there. In this way, we can begin to understand the complex and varied ways in which immigration and migration influence both the social construction of race and the corresponding and related dimensions of racism.
East Africa: migration 1960s to present
Authors: Binaisa Naluwembe
Published: January 2013

East Africa is the region from which genetic models map the earliest human migrations (Liu et al. 2006). The principal countries of East Africa are Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda with a population of 39.8 million, 43.7 million, and 32.7 million respectively (UNDP 2009). Their geography encompasses savannahs, lakes, semi‐arid regions, mountains, and verdant soils and is home to a variety of people whose migration history is intimately linked to this landscape. Their interdependent yet divergent social, political, and economic development is central to the voluntary and forced migration flows that have marked this region (Gould 1995). Four important interventions have directly impacted the dimension and flows of migration within East Africa in the modern era. These are the institutionalisation of nation state boundaries by colonial powers that in many respects erected false boundaries between people of shared ethnicity (Adepoju 1998); the impact of industrialisation and globalization (Skeldon 1990); conflict and environmental crises (Naudé 2010).
ECOWAS and migration
Authors: Afani Ali
Published: January 2013

People, groups, and organizations rarely combine or act in concert if there are no benefits to be drawn from such cooperation. Mutual benefit is the foundation upon which is built most forms of economic cooperation This remains the belief, at least in theory. Regional alliances in the mold of the European Union (EU) or that of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) are far from being a new phenomenon. In fact, the idea of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the brainchild of General Yakubu Gowon, who had chaired the summit, took seed from African political leaders' desire to lay a foundation of some sort of a cooperative and integrative arrangement modeled after the EU (Ogbeidi 2010).
Emancipation from slavery, modern era
Authors: Lago Enrico Dal
Published: January 2013

At the mid‐eighteenth century, slavery was well entrenched in the Atlantic World, being widespread in most of the New World colonies of the European empires, and in substantial areas of Africa. Having steadily progressed in terms of profitability since the 17th century, the colonial slave system of the Americas had reached by then its maturity, yielding immense wealth to the planter elites in the form of cash crops such as, especially, sugar, tobacco, and rice. Yet, in the second half of the 18th century, a combination of factors – chief among them the spread of Enlightenment doctrines of human rights, the beginning of classical political economy based on wage labor, and the upheavals caused by the Age of Revolutions (1776–1825) – led to a sudden end of the colonial slave system, as a number of new countries freed themselves from the European colonial yoke, first and foremost the United States and, more importantly, Haiti – the only example of successful slave rebellion in history; shortly afterwards, also the British and the American Atlantic slave trades met with an equally sudden end (Davis 1984).
Ethnic and national pride
Authors: Couton Philippe
Published: January 2013

Belonging to a well‐defined ethnic or national community can be a great source of individual and collective pride. This strong sense of satisfaction and positive self‐evaluation, as pride is commonly defined, can in turn motivate important social and political movements intent on furthering the interest of the ethnocultural group concerned. Those seeking independence from a larger political unit are among the most visible and widely discussed (prominent contemporary examples include, among many other cases, the nationalist movements in Quebec, Kurdistan, and Scotland) but many pursue different objectives: ethnonational “revival” movements, which usually seek to inject new life into a given culture (and its language, religion, or art) without necessarily pursuing full sovereignty; emancipatory movements, often organized by groups that have been the victims of long‐standing, extreme forms of racial oppression (the vast African diaspora is the primary example); nativist movements intent on homogenizing their society (by limiting immigration or by restricting the rights of minorities, two causes espoused by a number of political parties in Europe and in parts of Asia); extreme movements whose primary motivation is the elimination of those races perceived to be inferior and external to the dominant group (far right nationalist and “white pride” movements are examples).
Ethnic cleansing
Authors: Mulaj Klejda
Published: January 2013

The term “ethnic cleansing” captures the grim reality of a long‐standing historical problem, such as the mass expulsion of ethnic minorities. As a state policy, mass expulsion has been first attributed to the Assyrians, who during the years 883–859BCEand 669–627BCEare reported to have resettled up to 4.5 million people in order to crush their resistance and disloyalty (Bell‐Fialkoff 1996: 7). Prior to the Middle Ages the dynamics of ethnic cleansing were mainly economic: in service of control of alien territories. In the Middle Ages, nonetheless, ethnic cleansing was perpetrated also on religious grounds against minorities who did not subscribe to the established religion (Walling 2000).
Ethnic enclaves and niches: theory
Authors: Chan Elic
Published: January 2013

Ethnic enclaves and niches are concepts developed to understand the economic activities of minority groups. Although they both concern the socioeconomic adaptation of immigrants and ethnic minorities, the two terms originated from separate literatures and are conceptually different.
Ethnicity theory for migration research
Authors: Sezneva Olga
Published: January 2013

Ethnicity is a form of social solidarity. Its distinct feature is the understanding of commonality in terms of shared descent, culture, and the symbolic valorization of “ancestral land.” More broadly, sociologists have characterized it as a subjectively experienced sense of belonging and a mode of creating social groups by drawing boundaries. Ethnicity takes its strength from the emotional commitments people forge in their everyday interactions, and demonstrates its organizational force in shaping categorical identities on the basis of similarity and difference – “us” and “them.”
Europe: migration and settlement, North America and the world
Authors: Miller Mark J.
Published: January 2013

This essay examines the historical expansion of Europe from the 1500s to the 2010s – a five‐century era in which a once marginal, disparate, and fractious continent came to dominate the world political economy. Drawing on historical research on French, British Atlantic, and then US colonization, invasion, and settlement, this examination contributes to an understanding of a unique form of European empire‐building, excluding the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch colonial enterprises, that reached across the Atlantic and beyond, contributing to unique forms of Europeanization at specific phases throughout the period. Focusing on Europe's expansion, the discussion does not take into account the political and economic development outside of Europe that is documented by world historians who validly account for the significance of non‐Western societies, which had been too often neglected in the dominant paradigms.
European Union: enlargement and the free movement of labor
Authors: Krings Torben
Published: January 2013

The EU free movement regime possibly represents “the most open cross‐state movement policy worldwide” (Recchi 2006: 71). European Union citizens have therightto move to any other EU member state and take up residency and employment. However, when eight former socialist countries from Central and East Europe acceded to the EU in 2004 and 2007, most “old” EU‐15 member states restricted access to their labor markets because of concerns that labor mobility from the new member states (NMS) could undermine wages and employment conditions. In spite of these restrictions, and importantly because a small number of EU‐15 countries immediately opened their labor market, enlargement has triggered a new wave of labor mobility in Europe. Since 2004, tens of thousands of mainly young NMS citizens have “gone West.” The often‐lamented “immobile European” appears to be a thing of the past. Before we assess the scale and impact of recent East–West migration, we will first trace the evolution of the EU free movement regime.
Fair trade and migration
Authors: Linton April
Published: January 2013

Does fair trade reduce migration? Yes, but the answer is nuanced. Farmers who are able to sell their produce under fair trade terms are much less likely to leave their farms for urban destinations within their own country. But participation in fair trade and international migration are very compatible strategies because migration is an important way to diversify economic risk. Whether or not farmers or their family members migrate is more influenced by their community's history of migration (or nonmigration) than by fair trade.
Farm laborers, United States and Canada
Authors: Peard Billy
Published: January 2013

Although the term has slightly different meanings in different contexts, the most precise and inclusive definition for a migrant farm worker is “itinerant harvester or planter.” This reflects the reality that virtually all farm laborers in the United States are involved in the labor‐intensive processes found at the beginning or at the end of the growing cycle. As one commentator noted, the term “migrant farm worker” is the commonly accepted terminology because “itinerant” lacks phonetic grace and “seasonal farm worker” erroneously assumes that all seasonal work involves long‐distance travel (Moore 1965: xi). A migrant farm worker is defined by US law as someone “whose employment requires travel that preclude[s] the farm worker from returning to his or her domicile within the same day” (Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Workers Protection Act, codified as 29 USC 1802). Notwithstanding legal definitions, the term is best understood in conjunction with the unique circumstances that led to the current agricultural economy, which manages to feed the nation by employing less than 2 percent of the workforce (Rothenberg 1998: 62).
Film and migration, New Europe
Authors: Higbee Will
Published: January 2013

The term “New Europe” has been used to refer to those nations located in Central and Eastern Europe (including the Balkans) involved in the transformation from communist states to capitalist democracies since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the subsequent dissolution of the communist bloc and former Soviet republics during the 1990s. While it may offer a useful shorthand for politicians, bureaucrats, and journalists seeking to designate the status of accession states and applicants to join an enlarged European Union (EU), the largely rhetorical term “New Europe” is homogenizing in the sense that it denies national, cultural, ethnic, and religious specificities as well as the political tensions that exist between (and in some cases even within) these nations. Such differences arise largely from nation‐specific responses to the postcommunist world on the one hand (Smith & Teague 1999), and the “modernizing” impulses of movement toward membership of the EU on the other (Kurti 1997). In addition to suggesting a fixed perspective of just what constitutes “New” and “Old” Europe, the neologism “New Europe” also presupposes a consensus over the broader question of how we define the history and identity of Europe as a geopolitical entity or imagined community. As a conceptual term, “New Europe” is therefore limited and limiting in virtually all senses: political, historical, sociological, and cultural.
Film and migration, North America and Caribbean
Authors: Block Marcelline
Published: January 2013

From cinema's earliest days, films relating to migration to North America have addressed the history of the United States as a nation of immigrants, the “Mother of Exiles,” welcoming
Film, national cinema, and migration
Authors: Bertellini Giorgio
Published: January 2013

The emergence of motion pictures and the phenomenon of world migrations are profoundly interrelated: their threads span from social and economic history to racial politics and film aesthetics. The historical appearance of moving pictures in the West coincided, in fact, with an increasing network of commercial transactions and movement of goods and peoples that connected industrially developed countries with each other and with underdeveloped ones. Over the past half‐century, migration patterns have followed ever more complicated geographical routes. As such they have more broadly and radically affected contemporary media geography and film poetics even though migrations per se have not had a comparably transformative impact on all national film cultures. Still, the world's film cultures, when read through the lens of migration, reveal overlooked historical junctures and inform fruitful revisionist takes, particularly with regard to national cinemas’ past and future significance.
Gay migration, late 19th century to present
Authors: Aldrich Robert
Published: January 2013

The migration of homosexual men and women cannot be measured as easily as can other forms of human mobility. Almost no countries include questions about sexual orientation in their census data. People with same‐sex urges would often be reticent about revealing their inclinations to public authorities, especially in countries where homosexual acts remain criminalized. Furthermore, the notions of “homosexual” and “gay” are generally accepted as constructed identities, with the labels holding little relevance even for many whose erotic and romantic desires tend towards the same gender.
Germany, migration, 1980s to present
Authors: Limbach Eric H.
Published: January 2013

In 1980 West Germany was still a largely homogeneous society with significant, though relatively small, communities of foreigners, mostly confined to larger cities and comprising around 7 percent of the total national population. Even in the larger cities, the percentage of foreign‐born residents only exceeded 15 percent in Frankfurt and Munich. Many of these foreigners had first arrived in the Federal Republic as contract laborers from southern Europe and Turkey in the 1960s, and had taken advantage of family reunification policies in the 1970s to settle more or less permanently in the country. This proportion of foreign‐born residents within the West German population remained static throughout the 1980s, despite attempts by the federal government to encourage return migration by providing departure bonuses and refunding workers' social security contributions (Chapin 1997). Despite official statements that these foreigners should be considered temporary migrants, the benefits available to them through the West German social welfare system ensured that the majority probably considered themselves to be permanent residents. East Germany, by comparison, had a very small foreign‐born population in 1980, and indeed throughout the decade: around 200,000 laborers from countries like Vietnam and Mozambique, most of whom had little contact with the native population (Bade 2003b).
Global trade and international migration
Authors: Poot Jacques
Published: January 2013

Migration and trade have been interconnected since the dawn of humanity. In order to conduct trade, traders needed to travel; and some traders settled in foreign lands. Moreover, the colonialization of acquired territories necessitated sufficient labor to develop the colonies and often led to willing, or forced, migration which then triggered an exchange of resources and commodities between colonies and the “homelands.” Since the 19th century, migration and trade have been closely‐linked features of global economic integration. Much has already been written about similarities and dissimilarities between globalization in the late 19th and 20th centuries with respect to trade and migration (see, e.g., Williamson 1996). This essay focuses therefore on the situation over the last forty years.
Greek colonization movement, 8th–6th centuriesBCE
Authors: Descœudres Jean‐Paul
Published: January 2013

The importance of the process commonly known as the “Greek colonization movement” is best illustrated by two maps, both showing the Greek‐speaking areas in antiquity: the first at the time the movement was about to start, around 750BCE(Figure 1), the second when it was nearing its completion around 550BCE(Figure 2). Over a period of just 200 years, Greeks expanded from their original homelands (limited to the southern tip of the Balkans, the Aegean islands, the coast of Asia Minor, and Cyprus) to form an almost uninterrupted chain of well over 100 settlements around much of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea , a “fringe woven around the territories inhabited by barbarians,” to use Cicero's words (RepublicII, 4: 9). (See the list in Tsetskhladze 2006: lxvii–lxxiii, to which we can add Dikaia in the northern Aegean [Tiverios 2008: 24–25] and Orikos in the Adriatic [Pseudo‐Scymnus: 442–4], both said to be Euboean foundations.)
Greek migrations and colonies, ancient era
Authors: Tsetskhladze Gocha
Published: January 2013

It is somewhat misleading to use the term colonization for Greek expansion and settlement overseas in the Archaic period. We continue to do so for convenience and for want of any better (or acceptable) term to describe a phenomenon of unprecedented scale (in this period nearly 150 settlements were established in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea). This emigration movement had many sides. Thanks to it the physical and intellectual boundaries were pushed outward to such an extent that Plato could describe the world as extending from the Pillars of Hercules to the River Phasis (Phaedo109b), that is, from the western tip of the Mediterranean to the eastern edge of the Black Sea.
Guest workers policies, East and Southeast Asia
Authors: Lu Melody Chia‐Wen
Published: January 2013

The recruitment and control of migrant labor are integral elements of state developmental strategies in East and Southeast Asia (Athukorala 2006). Many countries in these regions rely on a large number of migrant workers primarily from Asia, while enacting policies to prevent particularly low‐skilled migrants gaining citizenship or long‐term residency status. Hence the term “guest‐worker policies” is used to denote wide‐ranging efforts to prevent migrants who are perceived to possess no advanced skills from becoming citizens or long‐term residents. The People's Republic of China (PRC) is an exception to this, as it continues to apply strict migration controls on its domestic “rural workers” that share similar characteristics with guest‐worker policies in other Asian states. These characteristics are:
Hague Programme on migration
Authors: Afani Ali
Published: January 2013

When people emigrate from less prosperous countries to more affluent regions, their decisions are most often founded on the need to overcome abject poverty and improve their economic standing. Human migration – the act of relocating from one's place of origin to a new destination with the view of temporary or permanent settlement – is no new phenomenon; it has been an integral part of the human experience from time immemorial. Countries of the world enjoy varied degrees of wealth, resources – natural or otherwise – as well as different levels of technological, scientific, and economic development. From such activities grow new family roots, and old ones, which have for generations nourished and sustained family trees, become loose, or are sometimes even completely uprooted. Immigration, while morally and economically sound, does not unfold without posing a significant number of challenges to nations that play host to the new immigrants.
Health and migration: Latin Americans in the United States
Authors: Jochem Fernando Riosmena and Warren C.
Published: January 2013

Latin American immigrants to the United States come from a variety of places and, thus, disease environments. As such, their health profiles differ considerably from those of individuals born in the United States (including those of people of Hispanic descent), though not necessarily in the way one might expect. Although foreign‐born Latinos come from places with arguably less favorable health profiles relative to that of the United States, they exhibit better physical health than US‐born non‐Hispanic whites in many (but not all) measures, especially mortality (Cunningham et al. 2008). This finding is known as the Hispanic Health Paradox (HHP) because Latino immigrants tend to have lower average socioeconomic status, and social class generally has a strong and positive relationship with health (Adler & Ostrove 1999). Despite this (initial) advantage, the health of Hispanic immigrants also seems to worsen with their adaptation to the prevalent values, customs, and behaviors of the host society, a process known as negative acculturation (Lara et al. 2005).
Hippy trails
Authors: Ateljevic Irena
Published: January 2013

The ideology of hippy subculture – a youth movement that arose in the United States during the mid‐1960s, which subsequently spread to Europe – was partly locally produced and partly imported from the East. One invited another. The political conditions of the cold war, McCarthyism, the growing threat and increasingly destructive nature of the atom bomb, and the Vietnam War created fertile ground for the offspring of the depression generation to reject their parents' values of prudence, order, hygiene, and Judeo‐Christian morality. Their ideals were: personal empowerment, cultural and political decentralization, communal living, ecological awareness, higher consciousness (often achieved with the aid of psychedelic drugs), and radical liberal political consciousness (Ray and Anderson 2000). The West was perceived as polluted, and pureness was thought by many to be found in the opposite geographic direction, in the East.
Housing and immigrant communities, United States, 1965 to present
Authors: Painter Gary
Published: January 2013

Immigrants to the United States and their descendants are predicted to reach 82 percent of US population growth in the next four decades (Passel & Cohn 2008). The exponential growth will not be limited to established gateway cities where immigration has typically concentrated; an increasing share will occur in mid‐size metropolitan areas (Frey & DeVol 2000; Massey 2008). Since 2000, for example, the number of new immigrants has jumped by 27 percent in mid‐size US communities, a remarkable contrast to the steady decline in established gateway cities such as New York and Los Angeles. Further evidence is given in Painter and Yu 2010.
Immigrants, voting, and electoral participation
Authors: Gidengil Elisabeth
Published: January 2013

Voter turnout is a key indicator of immigrants's successful political incorporation. Political incorporation is “the process of becoming a part of mainstream political debates, practices and decision‐making … incorporation is generally achieved when patterns of immigrant participation are comparable to those among the native born” (Bloemraad 2006: 6). Voting is the most basic way that citizens have of giving political voice. As such, turning out to vote could almost be considered a necessary characteristic of political incorporation. Voter turnout has been likened to the canary that coal miners used to take down into the pit to warn the miners of impending danger (Putnam 2000: 35). If immigrants are voting at lower rates than their native‐born counterparts, the host societies need to understand why. This essay focuses primarily on Europe and North American immigrant voting and electoral participation.