bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
State Succession in the Framework of Gatt
Authors: Kunugi Tatsuro
Published: April 2006

In the prewar period the principle appeared widely accepted that a new state is not bound by any treaty of its predecessor with the possible exception of a treaty locally connected with its territory. In view of the practice which seems to have changed since then, the appropriateness of this principle as a statement of the general rule is open to question. Some authoritative studies on the practice of several international organizations in relation to state succession indicate a recent tendency to recognize that it is desirable to make provision for the stability and continuity of relationships under general multilateral treaties when new states are formed. A body of the practice of GATT not yet covered by such studies seems to merit special attention mainly for two reasons: first, GATT has developed certain devices whereby both the community interest in maintaining the continuity of multilateral treaty relations and the particular interest of new states in asserting and exercising their freedom as to treaty relations should well be accommodated; and secondly, these devices seem to be susceptible of adoption by other international organizations. The present study seeks to examine how these devices have evolved through the practice of GATT, and attempts an evaluation by pointing out their imperfections as well as notable utility.
Succession to Bilateral Treaties by Seceding States
Authors: Keith Kenneth J.
Published: April 2006

Until recently, the view that new states start life unencumbered by the treaties which applied to their territories before independence has been almost universally and, too often, one might add, uncritically accepted. An exception, often explained away as only apparent, was made for “localized” treaties. And in the past fifteen or twenty years, the case for the continued force of multilateral “lawmaking” treaties has been pressed; this would be a real exception to the general clean-slate rule. Unless a bilateral treaty could be characterized as “localized,” however, the new state, according to the prevailing opinion, was freed of any continuing obligation by the act of becoming independent.
Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
Authors: Gibson Stephen L.
Published: April 2006

The material for this section is compiled by Stephen L. Gibson, attorney in the Office of the Legal Adviser, Department of State.
The Preparations for the Law of the Sea
Conference
Authors: Stevenson John R. , Oxman Bernard H.
Published: April 2006

The United Nations General Assembly has
convened a new Conference on the Law of the Sea.
Its object is to achieve comprehensive agreement
on the international law of the sea. Most if not
all members of the United Nations, as well as
other states, can be expected to attend the
substantive session in Caracas this
summer.
Contemporary Soviet Doctrine on the Juridical Nature of Universal
International Organizations
Authors: Osakwe Chris
Published: April 2006

Whether or not we agree with the statement that international law is
nothing but “international public morality” or, what amounts to the same
thing, that international law is “primitive law” as compared with its
municipal counterpart, we are more likely to agree on the question that
Soviet doctrinal international law1 is nothing but a mirror reflection of
official Soviet governmental and party policies. It is essentially a
“fighting international law” 2 which has often proved a valuable weapon in
the armory of Soviet foreign policy-makers. The zig-zag development of the
Soviet doctrinal approach to the question of international personality in
general, and in particular to the international legal status of
international organizations, vividly demonstrates this fact. We propose to
examine in greater detail just one aspect of the Soviet doctrine of
international law—the concept of secondary subjects of international
law.
The United States—Hungarian Claims Agreement of 1973
Authors: Lillich Richard B.
Published: April 2006

Over a quarter century after most of them arose, an agreement settling claims of the United States against Hungary was signed at Washington on March 6, 1973. Under its terms Hungary will pay a lump sum of $18,900,000 in settlement of the claims of the United States and its nationals arising out of war damage, nationalization of property, and certain financial debts. Like the Rumanian and Bulgarian lump sum agreements of 1960 and 1963, upon which it is modeled, the Hungarian Agreement constitutes a unique development in international claims practice, for it follows the “preadjudication” of most of the claims by the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission (FCSC), a U.S. national claims commission acting pursuant to Title III of the International Claims Settlement Act. Although the claims against the three former Axis satellites now have been settled internationally, other preadjudicated claims under Titles III (Soviet Union), IV (Czechoslovakia), and V (Cuba and China) of the same act still remain outstanding. The present agreement, therefore, merits analysis not only in its own right, but also for what it reveals about the technique of preadjudication and the international claims settlement process generally.
Settlement of Disputes Arising Under the Law of the Sea Convention
Authors: Adede A. O.
Published: April 2006

The basic objective of the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea is to adopt a comprehensive Law of the Sea Convention. From the records of the long preparatory work of the Conference by the UN Seabed Committee and the discussions at both the Caracas and Geneva sessions of the Conference, it is clear that the final product will be a treaty creating new rules of international law and also updating certain traditional ones. In effect, the comprehensive Law of the Sea Convention is intended to establish a new world order in the ocean space.
The Senate Role in Treaty Ratification
Authors: Glennon Michael J.
Published: April 2006

Others, though content that treaties should be made in the mode proposed, are averse to their being the supreme law of the land. They insist, and profess to believe, that treaties like acts of assembly, should be repealable at pleasure. This idea seems to be new and peculiar to this country, but new errors, as well as new truths, often appear. These gentlemen would do well to reflect that a treaty is only another name for a bargain, and that it would be impossible to find a nation who would make any bargain with us, which should be binding on them absolutely, but on us only so long and so far as we may think proper to be bound by it.

The Federalist No. 64 (Jay)
House Approves Proposal Permitting ICJ to Advise Domestic Courts
Authors: Goldklang Jack M.
Published: April 2006

On December 17, 1982, the House of Representatives adopted a resolution supporting an expansion of the advisory opinion jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice. The resolution (H.R. Con. Res. 86) urges the President to explore the appropriateness of establishing a United Nations committee to seek advisory opinions from the ICJ. The committee would act when asked by a national court seeking advice regarding any international law question under the national court’s jurisdiction.
U.S. Fishery Management and the New Law of the Sea
Authors: Burke W. T.
Published: April 2006

The coming into force for the United States and other nations of a law of the sea treaty may affect fishery management in the United States under the Fishery Conservation and Management Act (FCMA) in a number of different ways. This discussion examines some possible ways and focuses particularly upon possible incompatible provisions in terms of the objectives of fishery management, subsidiary standards for management, conservation and allocation measures, the species within United States authority, the allocation of fishery management authority between state and federal governments, transboundary stocks and high seas/fishery zone stocks, enforcement authority and activity, and lastly, the amendment of regulations adopted under the FCMA to conform to the LOS treaty.
The International Hostages Convention and National Liberation Movements
Authors: Verwey Wil D.
Published: April 2006

On December 11, 1979, Anthony C. E. Quainton, Director of the U.S. State Department’s Office for Combatting Terrorism, responded to an inquiry about the International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, in particular its Article 12, by stating that the Convention “does not provide a loophole for members of national liberation movements or anyone else and does not supply a means by which any State Party to the Hostages Convention can escape the prosecute or extradite requirement.”
International Legal Order as an Idea
Authors: Onuf Nicholas Greenwood
Published: April 2006

International law, its masters tell us, is “the vanishing point of jurisprudence.” So must be international politics, and all of international relations, for political theory. The recurrent and directing theme in political theory is the problem of order—how it is provided, maintained, altered, and so on. Order resides in orderly relations, that is, patterned and predictable relations, among people, but is abstracted from those relations as any arrangement of norms and institutions that distributes values among people. Among peoples, political theorists favor the alternative premise that anarchy, not order, reigns. By not existing, international order needs no explaining. Evidence to the contrary can be explained away as anomalous or ephemeral, and therefore not of theoretical interest. From this follows the dominance of concern for conflict and disorder and the paucity of theory in the study of international politics.
Federalism and the International Legal Order: Recent Developments in Australia
Authors: Byrnes Andrew , Charlesworth Hilary
Published: April 2006

The scope of international law steadily widens. In addition to the traditional concerns of direct relations between states such as warfare and diplomatic immunity, it now includes human rights, labor law and environmental policy, which deal with the relations of a state with its own citizens and territory.
The Pacific Salmon Treaty
Authors: Yanagida Joy A.
Published: April 2006

At the “Shamrock Summit” on March 18, 1985, President Ronald Reagan and Prime Minister Brian Mulroney exchanged instruments of ratification bringing the United States-Canada Pacific Salmon Treaty into force. The event ended 14 years of bilateral negotiations, culminating in a treaty that represents a balance of the fishing and conservation interests of four U.S. states, 24 U.S. treaty Indian tribes, one province and one territory.
The International Court of Justice Lives up to its Name
Authors: Briggs Herbert W.
Published: April 2006

The Judgment of June 27, 1986 of the International Court of Justice provides convincing evidence of the high judicial quality of the Court and its Members. The really exceptional wealth of legal issues considered, carefully weighed and balanced, and decided in this case will long be a source of study for international lawyers. The present summary observations can examine only selected issues.
Protecting the Court’s Institutional Interests: Why Not the Marbury Approach?
Authors: Glennon Michael J.
Published: April 2006

A wise prince must rely on what is in his power and not on what is in the power of others.

Machiavelli

The International Court of Justice in Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua confronted a dilemma that paralleled in many ways the one confronted by the United States Supreme Court in the famous 1803 case of Marbury v. Madison. Each dispute confronted a young court that had not yet established its legitimacy; each court faced a powerful, recalcitrant defendant that challenged its right to decide the case; and each therefore seemed to face two equally unpalatable choices: avoiding the case and seeming to admit defeat, or resolving it only to have the judgment ignored. Either choice seemed to entail profound damage not only for the court as an institution but also for the legal system in which it operated.
The Nicaragua Judgment and the Future of the Law of Force and Self-Defense
Authors: Hargrove John Lawrence
Published: April 2006

The most important single consequence of Nicaragua v. United States of America may well turn out to be its impact on the vitality of the law of the United Nations Charter governing force and self-defense. Will the case make it more likely, or less, that that law will become an increasingly effective working part of the international system?
Legal Issues in the Nicaragua Opinion
Authors: Morrison Fred L.
Published: April 2006

The opinion of the International Court of Justice in the Nicaragua case will be of interest primarily because of its general pronouncements on questions of international law. Its impact on the immediate controversy appears slight; the United States Government has strongly indicated its view that the Court lacked jurisdiction over the controversy, has vetoed subsequent proposed Security Council resolutions on the subject, and is appropriating additional funds for the contested activities, without apparent reference to the Court’s decision. This Comment is limited to the general theoretical and legal issues and will not treat the underlying factual issues, the Court’s disposition of the immediate case or the implications of the opinion for the evolution of the dispute.
Innocent Passage and the 1982 Convention: The Influence of Soviet Law and Policy
Authors: Butler W. E.
Published: April 2006

On April 28, 1983, the Soviet Union became the first maritime country of consequence and the largest sea power signatory to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to enact legislation implementing the provisions of that instrument regulating the innocent passage of foreign warships. The stature of the Soviet Union within the framework of the Convention and the policy changes embodied in the 1983 legislation confer a special importance on these new Rules, whose text and interpretation will become a standard emulated by other countries. The present article examines the text of the Rules against the background of previous Soviet legislation, the 1982 Convention and its negotiating history, and the application of the Rules.
The Strasbourg Declaration on the Right to Leave and Return
Authors: Hannum Hurst
Published: April 2006

A small 3-day meeting of international lawyers and other experts was convened by the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France, in November 1986 to consider the current status of the right to leave any country, including one’s own, and to return to one’s country. The approximately 30 participants were from Costa Rica, Egypt, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Morocco, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States and Zambia.
Denial of Liability: Ex Gratia Compensation on a Humanitarian Basis
Authors: Leich Marian Nash
Published: April 2006

On July 3, 1988, the U.S.S. Vincennes, already involved in an exchange of fire with a group of Iranian naval craft (Boghammar boats) in the international waters of the Persian Gulf, shot down an unidentified aircraft that had just departed from the joint military-civilian airfield at Bandar-e Abbas After repeated, unsuccessful efforts by the Vincennes to establish contact with the unidentified aircraft, the captain, believing that his vessel might be attacked within minutes by an Iranian military aircraft sent to assist the gunboats engaged in the surface exchange, ordered the still unidentified aircraft to be fired upon. The aircraft was shot down, and was only afterwards identified as a civil airliner, Iran Air Flight 655. The incident resulted in the deaths of 290 individuals from six nations.
Jan Mayen in Perspective
Authors: Richardson Elliot L.
Published: April 2006

On October 22, 1981, the Governments of Iceland and Norway approved an agreement for the joint management of the resources of the Jan Mayen continental shelf. Incorporating the recommendations of a three-member conciliation commission, the Agreement obviated the need to draw a line demarcating the right to exploit the nonliving resources in the disputed area. The proliferation of boundary disputes during the intervening 7 years makes this an appropriate time to look at the potential benefits of using this approach in other maritime boundary disputes. After reviewing the stages in the resolution of the Jan Mayen dispute and the terms of the Agreement, this essay will discuss other situations in which the joint development approach has been used, the factors affecting its success and some examples of current delimitation disputes where this approach may be applicable.
Sheets v. Yamaha Motors Corp.
Authors: Spiro Peter J.
Published: April 2006

Plaintiff Sheets sought sanctions under Rule 11 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure against defendants, the Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd. (Yamaha Japan) and its wholly owned American subsidiary, Yamaha Motors Corp., U.S.A. (Yamaha U.S.A.), for misconduct in discovery and frivolous insistence that service on the foreign parent be made in conformity with the Convention on Service Abroad of Judicial and Extrajudicial Documents in Civil or Commercial Matters, better known as the Hague Service Convention. Plaintiff had effected service under the Louisiana long-arm statute, which permitted service on the subsidiary as involuntary agent for the defendant parent company in an action arising out of business transacted or tortious conduct occurring in the state. The U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana initially awarded $25,000 in sanctions to the plaintiff. On appeal, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit remanded the decision for further findings by the district court on the grounds for imposing sanctions. The district court held (per Schwartz, J.): in light of the decision of the Supreme Court in Volkswagenwerk Aktiengesellschaft v. Schlunk, involving a state service statute virtually identical to that of Louisiana, the defendants’ failure to waive service under the Hague Convention needlessly increased the cost of litigation and was properly the subject of Rule 11 sanctions.
How Tightly Can Congress Draw the Purse Strings?
Authors: Fisher Louis
Published: April 2006

Of all the revelations emanating from the Iran-contra hearings, the most startling constitutional claim was the assertion that Congress cannot control foreign affairs by withholding appropriations. According to the argument advanced by some administration officials, if Congress prohibits the use of appropriations for foreign policy objectives—as it did with the Boland amendment—the President can nevertheless continue his goals by soliciting funds from the private sector and from foreign countries. If one well dries up, tap another. This theory has profound implications for executive-legislative relations and constitutional government.
U.S. Law Enforcement Abroad: The Constitution and International Law
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F.
Published: April 2006

In recent years, the Congress of the United States has enacted a series of laws criminalizing certain activities committed outside the territory of the United States, even by persons who are not nationals of the United States. The international lawyer would doubtless characterize those laws as assertions by the United States of authority to exercise jurisdiction to prescribe laws on the basis of the principle of “passive personality”—to punish actions directed at the state’s nationals—or perhaps as new applications of principles of universal jurisdiction; one might then examine those laws in the light of recent developments in the international law governing state jurisdiction to prescribe.
UN Police Action in Lieu of War: “The Old Order Changeth”
Authors: Franck Thomas M. , Patel Faiza
Published: April 2006

The United Nations system is an elegant, carefully crafted instrument to make war illegal and unnecessary. To this end, in Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, members are required to “refrain … from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state.”

If such force is used despite that prohibition, the Charter envisages two kinds of military remedies: wars of self-defense and police actions. Article 51 authorizes members to use military force in exercise of the “inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs” in violation of Article 2(4). This provision merely recognizes that the old war system may still be needed until the new system of global policing can secure the peace for all.
Gould, Inc. v. Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co.
Authors: O’Donoghue Mark H.
Published: April 2006

In the course of litigation against an ex-employee, Gould, Inc. (Gould) allegedly learned that its proprietary technical data had been improperly supplied to Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co., Ltd. (Mitsui) and Miyakoshi Machine Tools Co., Ltd. (Miyakoshi), which then used those trade secrets in a joint venture with Pechiney Ugine Kuhlmann, a French state-owned company, and its wholly owned subsidiary, Trefimetaux (Pechiney/Trefimetaux). Gould filed a civil lawsuit against Pechiney/Trefimetaux, together with Mitsui and Miyakoshi, in U.S. district court, alleging violations of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations provisions of the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 (18 U.S.C. §1961-1968 (1988)) (RICO). Gould’s complaint also included claims of unfair competition and unjust enrichment based upon the defendants’ alleged misappropriation of trade secrets. On the motion of Pechiney/Trefimetaux, the district court held that the civil RICO claim should be dismissed because, as “foreign states” under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976 (28 U.S.C. §1330, 1602-1611 (1988)) (FSIA), Pechiney and Trefimetaux were immune from criminal indictment for the acts alleged to have formed the basis for the RICO violation.
Third Legal Advisers’ Meeting at UN Headquarters in New York
Authors: Corell Hans
Published: April 2006

On October 26 and 27, 1992, a meeting was held of the heads of the offices responsible for international legal services of the foreign ministries of the member states of the United Nations—the Legal Advisers. The meeting—the third of its kind—was organized at the invitation of the Legal Advisers of Canada, India, Mexico, Poland and Sweden, and with the assistance of the Legal Counsel of the United Nations, Under-Secretary-General Carl-August Fleischhauer. Thirty Legal Advisers and sixteen of their deputies attended, together with nearly fifty other interested participants. All five colleagues representing the permanent members of the Security Council were present.
Sovereignty and Community after Haiti: Rethinking the Collective Use of Force
Authors: Glennon Michael J.
Published: April 2006

The history of diplomacy has been a history of two competing structural conceptions: sovereignty, the barrier that limits state power, and community values, the collective power that overcomes that barrier. In ages past, when the fault line shifted between sovereignty and community, and cracks began to appear in the old legal edifice governing use of force by sovereign against sovereign or community against sovereign, the leading nations of the world gathered at Westphalia, or Vienna, or Versailles, or San Francisco to clarify the contours of the new order and to formulate, however loosely, a set of rules that would govern the use of force for generations to come—rules that recognized states as equals, rules that prohibited aggression, rules that permitted only defensive force. But not this time.
Haiti and the Validity of International Action
Authors: Reisman W. Michael
Published: April 2006

In December 1990, after decades of dictatorship, the Haitian people overwhelmingly elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as President. Every aspect of the election was monitored by international organizations and confirmed as “free and fair.” Within months, the army, an ill-trained force of some five thousand men, seized power, expelled Aristide, and brutally suppressed popular protest. The Organization of American States and the United Nations Security Council condemned the coup and its aftermath and ordered economic sanctions to dislodge the military. The sanctions failed. On July 31, 1994, the Security Council, acknowledging the gravity of the situation and recognizing that an “exceptional response” was required, passed Resolution 940, authorizing military action. The legality and wisdom of Resolution 940 has been criticized on the following grounds.
Beyond Rio: “Insuring” Against Global Warming
Authors: Stone Christopher D.
Published: April 2006

In 1989 the United Nations General Assembly voted to convene a Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) to be held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, with the highest possible level of participation. One of the major items on the agenda—many maintain, the highest priority—is a treaty to cope with climate change. Toward that end, the Assembly established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee, which was to try to finish drafting an effective framework convention on climate change in time to be signed at the conference.
United States Interests in the Law of the Sea Convention
Authors:   Panel on the Law of Ocean Uses
Published: April 2006

In 1982 the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea adopted a treaty, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, that succeeded in resolving the most fundamental questions of the law of the sea in accordance with three basic principles:

1.

The rules of the law of the sea must fairly balance the respective interests of all states, notably the competing coastal and maritime interests, in a manner that is generally acceptable.

2.

Multilateral negotiations on the basis of consensus replace unilateral claims of right as the principal means for determining that balance.

3.

Compulsory dispute settlement mechanisms should be adopted to interpret, apply, and enforce the balance.
Congress and Cuba: The Helms-Burton Act
Authors: Lowenfeld Andreas F.
Published: April 2006

On March 12, 1996, President Clinton signed the Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (LIBERTAD) Act of 1996, generally known by the names of its principal sponsors as the Helms-Burton Act. The Act is a mixture of codification of existing economic sanctions previously imposed pursuant to executive orders; inducements and promises related to restoration of democracy in Cuba; threats against persons from third countries that do business with Cuba; a new, unprecedented remedy for expropriation; and restrictions on entry into the United States by persons who “traffic in confiscated property” or who are affiliated with such persons by ownership, employment or family. The President had indicated that he would veto the Helms-Burton bill if it reached his desk, and quite possibly it would never have done so, but for the events in the Florida Strait on Saturday, February 24, 1996. On that day, at about 3:15 in the afternoon, two Cessna 337 light planes flown by a Cuban-American organization based in Florida were blown up by missiles launched by MIG–23 and MIG–29 planes of the Cuban Air Force, apparently on standing orders of President Fidel Castro. President Clinton immediately condemned the attack, and by the following Wednesday, he announced that he now would sign the Helms-Burton bill, subject to one compromise to be discussed hereafter.
How American International Lawyers Prepared for the San Francisco Bill of Rights
Authors: Sohn Louis B.
Published: April 2006

Too much has been written lately about the limited approach to human rights at Dumbarton Oaks, the struggle at the San Francisco Conference, and the great flowering of declarations, conventions, covenants and instruments to implement them in the last fifty years. Instead of adding another retelling of these more than twice-told tales, this essay tries to look at the origin of two less known contributions to the law of human rights—the broad nondiscrimination clause which added a more practical meaning to the vague “human rights and fundamental freedoms” phrase; and the bold addition of economic and social rights to the more traditional civil and political rights.
Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
Authors: (Leich) Marian Nash
Published: April 2006

On January 28, 1995, representatives of the Government of the United States and of the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam signed at Hanoi the Agreement Concerning the Settlement of Certain Property Claims and the related Agreement Concerning the Transfer of Diplomatic Properties.
Molecular genetics of growth and Development in Populus (Salicaceae). V. Mapping quantitative trait loci affecting leaf variation
Authors: Wu R. , Bradshaw H. D. , Stettler R. F.
Published: April 2006

We examined the genetic variation of leaf morphology and development in the 2‐yr‐old replicated plantation of an interspecific hybrid pedigree of Populus trichocarpa T. & G. and P. deltoides Marsh. via both molecular and quantitative genetic methods. Leaf traits chosen were those that show pronounced differences between the original parents, including leaf size, shape, orientation, color, structure, petiole size, and petiole cross section. Leaves were sampled from the current terminal, proleptic, and sylleptic branches. In the F2 generation, leaf traits were all significantly different among genotypes, but with significant effects due to genotype × crown‐position interaction. Variation in leaf pigmentation, petiole length, and petiole length proportion appeared to be under the control of few quantitative trait loci (QTLs). More QTLs were associated with single leaf area, leaf shape, lamina angle, abaxial color, and petiole flatness, and in these traits the number of QTLs varied among crown positions. In general, the estimates of QTL numbers from Wright's biometric method were close to those derived from molecular markers. For those traits with few underlying QTLs, a single marker interval could explain from 30 to 60% of the observed phenotypic variance. For multigenic traits, certain markers contributed more substantially to the observed variation than others. Genetic cluster analysis showed developmentally related traits to be more strongly associated with each other than with unrelated traits. This finding was also supported by the QTL mapping. For example, the same chromosomal segment of linkage group L seemed to account for 20% of the phenotypic variation of all dimension‐related traits, leaf size, petiole length, and midrib angle. In both traits, the P. deltoides alleles had positive effects and were dominant to the P. trichocarpa alleles. Similar relationships were also found for lamina angle, abaxial greenness, and petiole flatness.
Morphology and molecular data in phylogenetic fraternity: the tribe wrightieae (Apocynaceae) revisited
Authors: Sennblad Bengt , Endress Mary E. , Bremer Birgitta
Published: April 2006

The monophyly and classification of the tribe Wrightieae of the subfamily Apocynoideae (Apocynaceae) are cladistically investigated. Nine taxa from the Wrightieae sensu Leeuwenberg, nine from other Apocynoideae sensu lato (s.l., including two from the traditional Asclepiadaceae), and two outgroup taxa from the Plumerioideae (Apocynaceae) were scored for rbcL sequence data and morphological data, mainly floral characters, and analyzed using successive weighting parsimony analysis. The Wrightieae sensu Leeuwenberg are shown to be largely paraphyletic, the constituent taxa being dispersed among four monophyletic clades. Previously not suggested relationships indicated by the study are the association of Pachypodium with Funtumia, Holarrhena, and Mascarenhasia and the position of Beaumontia close to Trachelospermum. A reclassification of the Wrightieae is discussed, in which three of the identified clades are recognized as tribes, the Wrightieae sensu stricto (s.s.), the Nerieae, and the Malouetieae. The support for the Wrightieae s.s. is very strong, as evaluated with Bremer support and bootstrap analysis. The Malouetieae are also strongly supported, but the Nerieae less so. Using potential morphological synapomorphies identified in the study, circumscription of the tribes is discussed. A potential pseudogene of rbcL is reported for Beaumontia.
Multiple paternity in fruits of Ipomopsis Aggregata (Polemoniaceae)
Authors: Campbell Diane R.
Published: April 2006

Two different mechanisms can result in multiple paternity within fruits: deposition of a mixed pollen load due to carryover of pollen from flower to flower and multiple pollinator visits in close succession. I investigated the extent of multiple paternity within fruits of Ipompsis aggregata containing from 2 to 14 seeds. A paternity analysis based on ten polymorphic isozyme markers revealed multiple paternity in a minimum of 68% (based on simple paternity exclusion) and up to 100% (based on identification of the most likely father) of the multiseeded fruits. The estimated number of fathers increased with the number of seeds in a fruit, with an average of four sires, and up to nine sires, represented in a single fruit. To explore whether this level of multiple paternity could be explained solely by simultaneous deposition of a mixed pollen load, I constructed a computer simulation model based on previous measurements of movement patterns and pollen carryover by the hummingbird pollinators. Model predictions provided a good match to observed values for number of sires per fruit. Thus, the extensive pollen carryover in this species and consequent mixed pollen loads can explain the high levels of multiple paternity in natural populations.
Phylogenetic relationships among Lactuca (Asteraceae) species and related genera based on ITS‐1 DNA sequences
Authors: Koopman Wim J. M. , Guetta Eli , van de Wiel Clemens C. M. , Vosman Ben , van den Berg Ronald G.
Published: April 2006

Internal transcribed spacer (ITS‐1) sequences from 97 accessions representing 23 species of Lactuca and related genera were determined and used to evaluate species relationships of Lactuca sensu lato (s.l.). The ITS‐1 phylogenies, calculated using PAUP and PHYLIP, correspond better to the classification of Fera´kova´ than to other classifications evaluated, although the inclusion of sect. Lactuca subsect. Cyanicae is not supported. Therefore, exclusion of subsect. Cyanicae from Lactuca sensu Fera´kova´ is proposed. The amended genus contains the entire gene pool (sensu Harlan and De Wet) of cultivated lettuce (Lactuca sativa). The position of the species in the amended classification corresponds to their position in the lettuce gene pool. In the ITS‐1 phylogenies, a clade with L. sativa, L. serriola, L. dregeana, L. altaica, and L. aculeata represents the primary gene pool. L. virosa and L. saligna, branching off closest to this clade, encompass the secondary gene pool. L. virosa is possibly of hybrid origin. The primary and secondary gene pool species are classified in sect. Lactuca subsect. Lactuca. The species L. quercina, L. viminea, L. sibirica, and L. tatarica, branching off next, represent the tertiary gene pool. They are classified in Lactuca sect. Lactucopsis, sect. Phaenixopus, and sect. Mulgedium, respectively. L. perennis and L. tenerrima, classified in sect. Lactuca subsect. Cyanicae, form clades with species from related genera and are not part of the lettuce gene pool.
The induction of soluble peroxidase activity in bean leaves by wind‐induced mechanical perturbation
Authors: Cipollini Donald F.
Published: April 2006

The induction of defense‐related peroxidase (POD) activity in plants occurs in response to many biotic and abiotic stimuli. This controlled greenhouse study was an attempt to provide insight into the nature of the induction of soluble POD activity by noninjurious wind‐induced mechanical perturbation (MP). In a time course study, exposure of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seedlings to daily periods of fan‐produced wind induced a significant and sustained increase in soluble POD activity in primary leaves of 7–9‐d‐old seedlings. In a wind‐gradient study, wind‐induced MP led to increases in soluble POD activity in leaves that were proportionally related to the wind speed experienced by individual seedlings. Wind‐induced MP enhanced soluble POD activity to a degree similar to treatment with 5 mmol/L HgCl2, a potent oxidizing elicitor of POD activity in plants. However, no further increases in POD activity were induced by HgCl2 on plants that were preconditioned with wind‐induced MP. Finally, short periods of brushing‐induced MP enhanced soluble POD activity to the same degree as longer periods of wind‐induced MS, suggesting a greater sensitivity to thigmic stimuli than to seismic stimuli in leaves of bean seedlings. This study illustrates the potential importance of wind and other mechanical stimuli as inducers of POD activity and interacting factors in the elicitation of POD activity by other environmental stimuli.
Galls on the marine red alga Prionitis lanceolata (Halymeniaceae): specific induction and subsequent development of an algal–bacterial symbiosis
Authors: Ashen Jon B. , Goff Lynda J.
Published: April 2006

Gall formation in Prionitis lanceolata is associated with a specific eubacterium (Proteobacteria [alpha subclass], Rhodobacter grouping), which, typical of bacterial symbionts, has not yet been cultivated or isolated in pure culture. This investigation tested the hypothesis that P. lanceolata gall formation was caused by the associated eubacterium using a species‐specific rDNA probe (S‐S‐P.l.sym‐0949‐a‐A‐25) to identify and assay for symbiont presence during consecutive laboratory induction trials. Gall induction was quantified and whole‐cell in situ hybridization used to determine the relative percentage of symbiotic eubacteria in inoculation homogenates. In situ hybridization of symbionts in sections allowed localization and monitoring of this microbe during gall development. Induction trial results indicate a significant correlation between bacterial symbiont presence and gall initiation (P = 0.00005). The gall bacterium comprised the majority of the eubacteria hybridized in laboratory induction homogenates (85–97%), in galls induced in the laboratory and in three algal populations in nature. The evidence presented here demonstrates the causative role of the identified eubacterium in gall induction and formation. This investigation is significant in the application of molecular methods towards understanding the roles of noncultivable marine bacteria in marine algal–microbe interactions.
The tortoise and the hare: choosing between noncoding plastome and nuclear Adh sequences for phylogeny reconstruction in a recently diverged plant group
Authors: Small Randall L. , Ryburn Julie A. , Cronn Richard C. , Seelanan Tosak , Wendel Jonathan F.
Published: April 2006

Phylogenetic resolution is often low within groups of recently diverged taxa due to a paucity of phylogenetically informative characters. We tested the relative utility of seven noncoding cpDNA regions and a pair of homoeologous nuclear genes for resolving recent divergences, using tetraploid cottons (Gossypium) as a model system. The five tetraploid species of Gossypium are a monophyletic assemblage derived from an allopolyploidization event that probably occurred within the last 0.5–2 million years. Previous analysis of cpDNA restriction site data provided only partial resolution within this clade despite a large number of enzymes employed. We sequenced three cpDNA introns (rpl16, rpoC1, ndhA) and four cpDNA spacers (accD‐psaI, trnL‐trnF, trnT‐trnL, atpB‐rbcL) for a total of over 7 kb of sequence per taxon, yet obtained only four informative nucleotide substitutions (0.05%) resulting in incomplete phylogenetic resolution. In addition, we sequenced a 1.65‐kb region of a homoeologous pair of nuclear‐encoded alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh) genes. In contrast with the cpDNA sequence data, the Adh homoeologues yielded 25 informative characters (0.76%) and provided a robust and completely resolved topology that is concordant with previous cladistic and phenetic analyses. The enhanced resolution obtained using the nuclear genes reflects an approximately three‐ to sixfold increase in nucleotide substitution rate relative to the plastome spacers and introns.
The Beginnings of the Modern Turkestanian Theater
Authors: Allworth Edward
Published: April 2006

The pre-Soviet introduction of modern Turkestanian theater, long flatly denied by Communist officials, gave vigorous expression to social and political ideas current among local groups of enlightened private citizens in Western Turkestan just before the outbreak of the First World War. The innovation also strongly affected developments in the state-sponsored dramaturgy which appeared later. This new theater, differing radically from the old folk art, was inaugurated before a responsive audience at Samarkand early in 1914 with a performance of Mahmud Khoja Behbudiy's Padarkush (“The Parricide“).

Padarkush presents the spectacle of a father's willful refusal, despite repeated warnings, to meet specific religious and social obligations by giving his illiterate, adolescent son an education. This fatal error inevitably leads to the parent's violent death and the destruction of his family.
Problems of Soviet Defense Policy Under the New Regime
Authors: Wolfe Thomas W.
Published: April 2006

After Khrushchev was deposed in October 1964, it soon became apparent that his successors were in no hurry to dismantle his handiwork in the field of defense policy or to introduce major military policy innovations of their own. One may surmise that this tendency to mark time was the natural product of succession politics within the new collective leadership arrangement. As in most other major policy areas, Brezhnev and Kosygin no doubt felt the need for a breathing spell while in the process of consolidating their new regime.
The Soviet Concept of the Relationship Between the Lower Party Organs and the State Administration
Authors: Hough Jerry F.
Published: April 2006

To Westerners one of the most confusing aspects of the Soviet administrative system has been the role played by lower officials of the Communist Party. It has long been clear that the top policy decisions are made within the central Party organs, but the relationship between the lower Party officials and the governmental administrators has been obscured by a number of seeming ambiguities and inconsistencies in Soviet administrative theory. The Party apparatus has been assigned the duty of supervising and controlling the state administration, but the mandates and powers of the two hierarchies appear ill-defined and overlapping.
The Comparative Study of Communist Political Systems
Authors: Meyer Alfred G.
Published: April 2006

The intent of this article is to join in the slowly rising chorus of voices expressing dissatisfaction with the methods used so far in the analysis of Communist political systems. I shall argue, perhaps in rather circuitous fashion, that political scientists in the West have failed, by and large, to apply to the Communist world the rich store of concepts developed for the comparative study of political systems and that the concepts that have been used have been applied in ways that are objectionable. If, as is at times maintained, our discipline tends to be provincial or ethnocentric in its methods, this tendency has been most pronounced, perhaps, in the study of Communist systems. As a result, very little work done has been genuinely comparative. The discipline has failed to place the Communist world into any of the several systematic conceptual frameworks it has developed.
Systematic Political Science and Communist Systems
Authors: Sharlet Robert S.
Published: April 2006

I concur with Professor Meyer that Communist area studies must rejoin the main lines of the discipline of political science. An unfortunate methodological separation has existed much too long, a separation that might be figuratively characterized as a “loose, bipolar system,” with Sovietology at one pole and systematic political science at the other. The schism between Kremlinology, deductive reasoning, and, frequently, spectral evidence, on the one side, and scientific concept formation, empiricism, verification, and theory-construction, on the other, must come to an end. Professor Meyer's paper is a contribution toward this objective, both on its own merits and for the critical discussion that it will undoubtedly stimulate.
Pokrovskii's View of the Russian Revolution
Authors: Szporluk Roman
Published: April 2006

Pokrovskii never wrote the three final volumes of Russkaia istoriia s drevneishkikh vremen that were to carry his synthesis from the eve of 1905 to October 1917; and his postrevolutionary survey of Russian history failed to include the October Revolution. On the basis of his articles and lectures, however, it is possible to present a coherent picture of his ideas on the roots, significance, and prospects of the Russian Revolution. This article is concerned with the long-range issues involved in Pokrovskii's evaluation of the Revolution, though he also wrote a great deal on the immediate causes and the actual course of events between 1905 and 1917 and on the subsequent civil war.
Factors in the Recent Decline in Soviet Growth
Authors: Thornton Judith
Published: April 2006

A Polish economist visiting a university campus began his discussion of Soviet growth in the following way: “We may divide Soviet postwar experience into two periods: 1950-58, the period of difficulties of production; and 1958 to the present, the period of the production of difficulties.” The division into two arbitrary periods may give the appearance of sudden change to what were actually continuous trends in the Soviet economy; nevertheless, for purposes of the present discussion I will consider the recent period to be the years of the Seven-Year Plan.
Poems About Poems: Notes on Recent Soviet Poetry
Authors: Dunham Vera S.
Published: April 2006

In view of the extraordinary popularity of many poets in Russia today, the sense of failure expressed by one of them seems surprising:

Boris Slutsky's malaise is not unjustified.
Poets and Poetry in an Antipoetic Age
Authors: Moser Charles A.
Published: April 2006

Historians of Russian literature would nearly all agree that the 1860s, the most radical period of nineteenth-century Russian intellectual life, witnessed a sharp decline in the esteem in which poetry was held, that it began to recover its prestige only in the 1880s, and that it did not fully regain its previous position until the birth of the symbolist movement. At no other time in the history of Russian literature did poetry and “aesthetics” come under heavier assault.
The Formation of the Virgin Lands Policy
Authors: Mills Richard M.
Published: April 2006

Shrouded behind a veil of semisecrecy, the making of policy decisions in the Soviet Union has been a fertile source of endless speculation and research. From time to time, happily, it becomes possible to penetrate rather deeply into the arcana of the process and turn up some illuminating materials. The decision to cultivate the virgin lands is a good case in point, and now the older Western analyses of the politics surrounding that event can be expanded substantially on the basis of information published in recent years.