bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Role Of Neutrophils In The Pathogenesis Of Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Chatham W Winn , Edberg, Jeffrey C , Kimberly Robert P
Published: November 2023

The classical paradigm of the loss of tolerance as a breakdown in the discrimination between self and non-self and as central to the development of autoimmune disease has been challenged by more recent insights into the innate immune system . Rather than positing recognition of non-self as opposed to self as the pivotal event in an acquired immune response, the distinctions between infectious/non-infectious and between dangerous/not dangerous may be the critical elements 3–6. These distinctions, often made by components of the innate immune system7–10, regulate the delivery of a ‘second signal’ to T cells that is required for development of an acquired immune response. Given the central role of innate immunity in this perspective, a re-consideration of the contributions of the neutrophil, as well as those of macrophages and natural killer cells, to autoimmunity and chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis is timely.
Non-Drug Management Of Chronic Pain
Authors: Hamann Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

Pain is a sensation following tissue damage or a sensory experience expressed in terms of tissue damage (International Association for the Study of Pain). In neurophysiological terms, pain is experienced when selected areas in the limbic system, particularly neurones in the cingulate gyrus and related areas of the somatosensory cortex are excited at the same time . Physiologically, this condition arises when nociceptors in peripheral tissues are stimulated, as is the case following trauma in acute pain or in inflammatory pain (nociceptive pain). However, it is not uncommon that excitation of limbic and related somatosensory cortical neurones originate from abnormal, usually damaged, peripheral or central nervous tissue (neuropathic pain) or as the consequence of psychological mechanisms (psychogenic pain). For the individual it does not matter how the typical state of limbic and somatosensory cortex excitation comes about, because the end result is just as unpleasant.
Design Of Trials Involving Clinical End-Points
Authors: Pollard Louise , Kingsley, Gabrielle , Scott David L
Published: November 2023

The primary aim of this chapter is to discuss the design of clinical trials, which use, to assess outcome, clinical end-points such as pain or disease activity. Though the chapter focuses primarily on trials of therapeutic agents in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), the basic principles apply to all types of clinical trials in a variety of rheumatic and other diseases. In recent years, many new drugs and biological treatments have become available for RA. The ongoing stream of new research means that many novel therapies are being developed which need evaluating in well-designed trials.
Clinical Trials With Imaging And Biomarker End-Points
Authors: Freeston Jane , Emery Paul
Published: November 2023

A major goal in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is the prevention of erosive joint disease and therefore the prevention of irreversible functional disability . To achieve this goal in clinical practice, combinations of disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) and, more recently, biologic agents such as those blocking TNF (tumor necrosis factor)-a are used. To fully evaluate the benefit of such drugs, the randomized clinical trial (RCT) is used, which produces the highest level of evidence for or against a certain treatment. The evidence confirms the efficacy of such disease-modifying medication in preventing damage, which has made it unethical to do placebo-controlled trials, and consequently studies have now to be designed to actively compare treatments.
New Biologics: Cytokines
Authors: Curtis Jeffrey R , Moreland Larry W
Published: November 2023

Few milestones have advanced our understanding of disease etiopathogenesis and expanded our therapeutic options as dramatically as the introduction of biologic response modifiers (specifically tumor necrosis factor alpha antagonists) for use in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Engineered to antagonize specific components of the inflammatory process, biologic response modifiers (‘biologics’) have been described as ‘targeted’ therapies to distinguish their mechanism of action from the more non-specific immunosuppression common to small molecules (i.e. disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, DMARDs). Despite continuing uncertainties regarding the triggering event leading to incident RA, blocking even a single component of the downstream inflammatory cascade has proved highly effective in a large percentage of patients to reduce signs and symptoms and to reduce long-term radiographic damage. Although many RA patients derive a significant benefit from use of these agents, not all respond, and for some individuals the durability of response is less than optimal. The state of the art at this time likely represents only the initial foray into an ever-expanding array of strategies that may be useful to achieve control of RA and other inflammatory diseases.
New Biologics: T And B Modulators
Authors: Choy Ernest
Published: November 2023

Untreated, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a disease with high mortality and morbidity1. Disease severity2 and response to treatment3 are important predictors of prognosis. Mortality of patients with persistent synovitis despite treatment by disease modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) is comparable to triple vessel coronary artery disease and Hodgkin’s lymphoma . Although DMARDs reduce inflammation, they rarely abort disease completely. Continued synovial inflammation leads to progressive destruction of the synovial joints. Consequently, disability is common . More effective treatment is therefore needed to improve the prognosis of RA.
Mesenchymal Stem Cells In Arthritis
Authors: Luyten Frank P
Published: November 2023

Recent advances in our understanding of the biology of stem cells have attracted the attention of the biomedical community1–4. Basic scientists and clinicians are moving in concert, trying to bridge the gap from ‘bench to bedside’, and to unravel the biology of stem cell populations in development, growth, homeostasis, and disease. Adult stem cells are found in most adult tissues. Adult stem cells, hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic, are more restricted than embryonic stem cells, although recent findings have revealed the existence, at least in vitro, of adult marrow-derived, pluripotent stem cells (MAPCs) with a differentiation potential close to embryonic stem cells . However, more critical studies directed toward hematopoietic stem cells have disputed the concept of stem cell plasticity, suggesting that experimental artifact or somatic cell fusion may account for some reported observations of plasticity. Animal and human models with appropriate cell tracking and in vivoimaging technologies to explore the biology and therapeutic potential of human stem cells will be vital to advance the field over the coming years . Regardless, cumulative data suggest that precursor cells, residing in ‘niches’ or recruited from circulating stem cells, can participate in tissue homeostasis and repair, but also potentially contribute to disease processes.
The rabbit in continental Europe
Authors: Rogers P M , Arthur C P , Soriguer R C
Published: November 2023

Lagomorphs have lived on the continents of Europe, Asia, and North America since the late Eocene or early Oligocene. Members of both families of Iago morphs have occupied the Iberian Peninsula during that time. The family Ochotonidae, once represented by some 15 species in 5 genera, became extinct Europe (with the exception of Ochotona pus1lla m eastern Russia) at the end of the Pliocene. The Leporidae have been reduced from 7 species in 4 genera to the surviving 3 species in two genera, Lepus and Oryctolagus.
The rabbit in Britain
Authors: Thompson Harry V
Published: November 2023

The fossil record indicates that the European rabbit originated in Iberia (see Chapter 1), died out over much of Europe during the Pleistocene glaciations, and only reappeared in Britain when introduced in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries AD (Veale 1957; Sheail 1971, 1978, 1991). Island or coastal sites were favoured and rabbits flourished on Drakes Island, Devon, in 1135 (Hurrell 1979), on the Isles of Scilly in 1176, on Lundy Island in 1274 and Skokholm Island in 1324. They fetched high prices and were rated as highly as sucking pig (Barrett-Hamilton 1912). In 1389, references to conynges, warrens and ferrets first appeared in the statute book and, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, rabbits were on the menus at great feasts, such as the coronation of Henry IV in 1399, the installation of the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1443 and of the Archbishop of York in 1465.By the sixteenth century rabbits were abundant; the German naturalist Gesner describes them as living in rocky places in Spain, but in open country in England. Rabbits and conies are mentioned several times by Shakespeare. By the early seventeenth century many estates had rabbit warrens and the cony was much valued for providing food and fur; this obtained until late in the nineteenth century, when the import of carcases and skins from Australia reduced the value of the native product, and more efficient agriculture made wild rabbit production uneconomic.
The rabbit in Australia
Authors: Myers K , Parer I , Wood D , Cooke B D
Published: November 2023

Rabbits have been present in Australia since the first European settlement. Five went out with the First Fleet to Sydney in 1788, and numerous rabbits were reported breeding around the houses of the settlement in 1825. In Tasmania in 1827 ‘common’ rabbits were reported as ‘running about on large estates in thousands’. From 1850 onwards their importation increased, with government support, under the stimulus of the numerous acclimatization societies set up to ‘enrich the country and enhance its attractions’. All of the early importations were domestic breeds unfit for Wild existence.
Parasitism and Diseases In Chaetognaths
Authors: Nagasawa Sachiko
Published: November 2023

The early records of parasites from chaetognaths (reviewed by Hyman (1959) and Alvariiio (1965)) consist mainly of isolated descriptive observations. They include protozoans, nematodes, trematodes and cestodes. Dollfus (1960) catalogued all early records of digenetic trematodes from chaetognaths and attempted to classify them on a modern systematic basis. Rebecq (1965) included lists of trematode cercariae found free in the plankton as well as those found in chaetognaths. Weinstein (1972) examined the chaetognath as host and elucidated the relation between the biology of the host and the dynamics of its parasites. Studies by Pearre (1976b, 1979a) were concerned with the physiological effects of larval trematodes on their hosts and on the host population structures and with parasite-induced morphological or behavioural changes in the chaetognaths.
Lichen conservation in Hawaii
Authors: Smith C W
Published: November 2023

Magusson’ s Catalogue of Hawaiian Lichens listed 678 species, 38 per cent of which he considered endemic. Subsequent work suggests that there may be over 800 species present but that the level of endemism is much lower. Only one genus, Ramalinopsis is endemic to the islands and that is monotypic. Though most rocks are volcanic in origin, there are small pockets of coralline limestone on which six lichen species are found very sparsely. Concrete pavements are colonized by a few of these species.
Epilogue
Authors: Swinscow T D V
Published: November 2023

In drawing the Conference to a conclusion I must begin by expressing the thanks of all of us to its organizer, Dr David Galloway. It has attracted many of the world’s leading lichenologists with a special interest in the tropics and some also to whom that region is unfamiliar. As well as organizing it with exemplary precision, he has picked just the right time for it.
Speciation and the evolution of reproductive isolation in the sticklebacks (Gasterosteus) of south-western British Columbia
Authors: McPhail J D
Published: November 2023

Over a century after publication of the Origin of Species (Darwin 1859), what species are, and how they are formed, remain contentious issues in evolutionary biology. This uncertainty poses a problem for anyone attempting a short review of the process of species formation in a specific group of animals: how to discuss speciation without becoming mired in the sometimes subtle philosophical and biological arguments that surround the species concept. The course I have chosen is to ignore issues that do not bear directly on speciation in stickleback. Consequently, this review deals only with the division of single species into two or more species (cladogenesis) and the processes involved in the acquisition of the main biological characteristic of species (reproductive isolation).
Theory I: Hamilton’ s rule and the evolutionary limits of selfishness
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

As a simple but admittedly crude model we may imagine a pair of genes g and G such that G tends to cause some kind of altruistic behaviour while g is null. Despite the principle of ‘ survival of the fittest’ the ultimate criterion which determines whether G will spread is not whether the behaviour is to the benefit of the behaver but whether it is of benefit to the gene G; and this will be the case if the average net result of the behaviour is to add to the gene-pool a handful of genes containing Gin higher concentration than does the gene-pool itself.
Theory II: phenotypic models of sublethal sibling competition
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

Thus far, we have sketched out the unifying concept of inclusive fitness, showing how it prescribes the boundaries of selfishness and altruism with respect to relatedness. Here and in later discussions (especially in Chapter 4 and Chapters 7-10), we shall examine explicit optimality models of sibling rivalry and other conflicts within the family.1 First we look at the relatively mild forms of sibling rivalry, wherein selfishness is expressed as non-lethal skewing of limited resources toward Self, before moving on (in the next chapter) to fatal consequences.
Introduction to sibling rivalry in birds
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

In the biological study of sibling competition, more scientific effort has been devoted to birds than to any other taxon. That bias stems historically from an enduring descriptive natural history tradition, begun and nurtured by true amateur bird enthusiasts (artists, bird-watchers, and other keen observers), substantially pre-dating any theoretical framework. Furthermore, many birds happen to be well suited to the subject by the virtues of being diurnal nesting above-ground where their young can be observed (as opposed to giving birth in subterranean burrows), and various reproductive traits that suit them well to key life-history measurements (e.g. Lessells 1991).
Supply, demand, and defendability
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

Were it not for the great blue heron neighbours, the importance of prey size in promoting egret sibling aggression (Chapter 5) might have been overlooked indefinitely. During regular nest censuses in multi-species colonies, we realized that the heron nestlings were less war-like, not pecking each other and not showing physical evidence of abuse. We began to observe a few great blue heron broods in the hope that interspecific differences might illuminate the egrets’ violence. Two seasons of descriptive data collection confirmed the casual impression. The Lavaca Bay heron nestlings fought only about 5% as frequently as great egrets in adjacent nests (Mock 1985). No heron siblicides were observed directly, and only one case out of 46 censused broods could even be inferred from the presence of wounds.
Sibling rivalry in plants
Authors: Mock Douglas W , Parker Geoffrey A
Published: November 2023

Plants experience sundry ecological competitions and exhibit non-behavioural social relationships that are sculpted by their fundamental immobility. In two general contexts, parental care and sibling interactions, Hamilton’s rule applies broadly and usually requires no assumptions about kin recognition mechanisms (Queller 1989), the players still being in very close proximity to one another, indeed usually physically attached. The main difference between sibling rivalry patterns in plants and those in animals is that botanical resolutions of kin-based conflicts have necessarily been expressed more through a rich proliferation of adaptations in morphology, genetics and life history. For this reason, a brief survey of plant sibling rivalry (written by nonbotanists!) may prove illuminating, although we hasten to acknowledge our debt to the veritable cascade of excellent reviews from which we have borrowed freely (e.g. Kress 1981, Stephenson 1981, Stephenson and Bertin 1983, Charlesworth et al. 1987, Haig 1987,1992a, Lee 1988, Uma Shaanker et al. 1988, Queller 1989, Cheplick 1992)
Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Region
Authors: Oosterbroek Pjotr
Published: November 2023

A review of the present status of biodiversity and conservation throughout six terrestrial areas in the Mediterranean region is presented. Measures of biodiversity, species richness, and taxonomic diversity are compared. Species richness is considered for four vertebrate (birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians), and three insect (lacewings, butterflies, and crane flies) groups. Taxonomic measures were applied to cladograms of nine taxa of amphibians (frogs and newts), scorpions, moths, and crane flies. The six regions included north-west Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Italy, the Balkans, west Asia Minor, and east Asia Minor. A priority list of the six areas using species richness and complementarity targets east Asia Minor as the richest area of biodiversity. The taxonomic indices give different results. In all measures Italy, Iberia and east Asia Minor contain the relictual fauna! elements, with phylogenetically more recent taxa distributed throughout the Mediterranean but predominantly Balkanic or of west Asia Minor in origin. Although this is a preliminary analysis there are clear implications for conservation. Most nature reserves occur in northern European countries rather than the Mediterranean. Among the six Mediterranean areas there is a reasonable number of nature reserves in Iberia and Italy, but both are less than the European average. Conservation is a neglected issue for much of the Mediterranean and, as indicated by the figures on species richness and taxonomic diversity, the Balkans and Asia Minor ought to have conservation action plans as a high priority.
The role and impact of government intervention in Egyptian agriculture
Authors: Moursi T A
Published: November 2023

Since millennia past, government intervention has been a distinctive feature of Egyptian agriculture. The distribution and control of irrigation water was perhaps the raison d’etre of early Egyptian governments. The unique system of basin irrigation that was practised required systematic, orderly, and timely flooding, during the flood period of the Nile River, of the different basins in which the agricultural land was divided. This enabled the soil to acquire and retain adequate moisture to guarantee good growth of the ensuing crops. There was a need for a strong central authority for the proper administration and operation of this important and delicate task. Water control and distribution is still one of the Egyptian Government’s main concerns that purportedly-at least from the viewpoint of state bureau¬ cracy-necessitates an administrative role in the agricultural sector; other economic, social, and political concerns have amplified and spread that role over the years to cover many other activities in that sector. Direct and indirect government intervention in agriculture is regarded as an instrument of economic growth and consequently has always been a major component of national and development policies in Egypt.
The molecular basis of life
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

It seems appropriate to begin a book on theoretical models in biology with a look at some of the theories that have been proposed to explain the origin of life. In one sense, such theories are the simplest of biological models, because in dealing with primitive organisms we need not consider most of the complex properties of higher plants and animals such as intelligence, immunity to infection, the structure and function of organs and muscles, and so on. We can concentrate on ‘ life-forms’ that are simply single molecules possessing only the ability to reproduce.
A spin glass model of the origin of life
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

The model presented in its deterministic and stochastic versions in the previous two chapters deals with primitive biomolecules in a general way. It says very little about their detailed structures, the methods by which they interact, and so 011. The number of mutations allowed in the model is severely limited, and the fitness of each species must be specified in advance, by giving the rate parameters A, Q, and D.
The origin of the genetic code
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

The preceding three chapters have concerned themselves only with the simplest possible primitive biochemical systems. The only constituents of such systems are nucleic acid type molecules whose only function is reproduction, either with or without a complementary intermediary. No mention has yet been made of the other half of the modern genetic cycle: the proteins.
Connectionism
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

Minsky and Papert’ s work on perceptrons (Chapter 18) is widely regarded as having put a wet blanket on research into neural networks for many years, since it shows that perceptrons are severely limited in the sorts of predicates they could handle efficiently. The perceptron theorems, however, apply specifically to networks with an input layer (the retina), a single ‘ hidden’ layer (the subpredicates) and an output layer (the single predicate ;). The weights from the input layer to the layer of subpredicates are fixed, so the only adaptable parts of a perceptron are the weights from the hidden layer to the output cell. Minsky and Papert hypothesized, but did not prove, that adding more hidden layers would not lead to any improvement in the performance of the network.
Unsupervised learning
Authors: Rowe Glenn
Published: November 2023

The neural networks we have considered so far have all required an external teacher to tell them the correct response for each input. The networks learn by adjusting their synaptic weights to make their outputs correspond more closely to that desired by the teacher.
Prototypes and Invariants
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

The role that the concept of prototype has played in contemporary semantics is analogous to that which the concept of Gricean maxims has played in generative grammar. A well-placed witness, James Mccawley (1981: 215), identified this role with the excellent slogan “Grice saves”. In grammar, if there was a conflict between postulated rules and the actual usage, it was assumed that “Grice” could rescue the grammarian: the usage could be accounted for in terms of Gricean maxims. (See Bach and Harnish 1982; for a critical discussion, see G. Green 1983; Wierzbicka 199la.)
Semantic Primitives and Semantic Fields
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

It has often been said that the meaning of a word “depends” on the meaning of the other words in the lexicon (see e.g. Trier 1931). Strictly speaking, I do not believe that this is the case: since the meaning of a word is, as I have been arguing all along, a configuration of semantic primitives for each word, its meaning can (and must) be defined positively, regardless of the meanings of any “neighbouring” words in the lexicon. The meanings of different words can overlap (as Abe overlaps with bed),but both the similarities and the differences can be stated only after the meaning of each word has been identified.
Memory
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter was mainly concerned with ideas or images as bearers of meanings. However, the point was made that they sometimes occur as something less than that, namely as mere data, and that they sometimes occur as something more than that, namely as would-be bearers of truth.1 This chapter and the next one will deal with occurrences of both these further kinds, especially the second kind. For the topics to be discussed in them, Hume’s accounts of memory, belief, and existence, will throw light on the transition from the theory of ideas developed as a psychological analogue of a theory of meaning to the theory of ideas developed as a psychological analogue of a theory of truth and evidence.
Causation: The Gap between Evidence and Belief
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

The second effect of the evidence for a causal inference is the internal impression of constraint that occurs in us when we move along the associative track to its conclusion. That is a difficult topic, and it will be broached in the next chapter. There is another topic which must be taken first, the gap between evidence and belief.
Philosophy of Physics
Authors: Sklar Lawrence
Published: November 2023

The systematic study of the physical world had its orgins in philosophy; two-and-a-half millennia later, the scientific advances of the twentieth century are bringing the two fields closer together again. In this brilliant new textbook, Lawrence Sklar gives a broad overview of contemporary philosophy of physics which readers at all levels, especially students, should find accessible and engaging. Professor Sklar provides a clear and accurate guide to the key topics: the nature of space and time, the problems of probability and irreversibility in statistical mechanics, and, of course, the many notorious problems raised by quantum mechanics. He discusses sophisticated scientific questions, but avoids the use of technical formalism, so that the discussion will be accessible to those without a training in philosophy or physics.
Empiricism about Meanings
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Hume inherited from Locke a certain theory about what it is for a general word to have a meaning, or at least about what makes a general word have one meaning rather than another. According to this theory, what a person means by a given general term depends upon what (kind of) idea he regularly associates it with; and for both philosophers this is linked with the view that all intellectual activities consist in the mental manipulation of ideas.
Of the Academical or Sceptical Philosophy
Authors: Norton David Fate
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of Section V of theEnquiry concerning Human Understanding Hume expresses his admiration for the academical or sceptical philosophy. This species of philosophy has, he says, a clear advantage over all other kinds: by its very nature it protects those who adopt it from the excesses that are characteristic of alternative forms of philosophy.
The Class Paradoxes
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

A paradox in common parlance is an apparently absurd proposition supported by an argument. But I will shift the focus and say that a paradox is an argument from apparently true premisses by apparently valid steps to an apparently false conclusion. Paradoxes fall into three kinds.1 First, there are paradoxes consisting of a sound argument with a true but surprising conclusion, such as Cantor’s argument that a line segment of unit length contains no fewer points than a square whose sides have unit length. Secondly, there are paradoxes consisting of an unsound argument with a false conclusion, where investigation reveals a clear fallacy, such as the well known arguments that 2 = 1.2 Finally, there are paradoxes consisting of an unsound argument with a false conclusion, where investigation reveals no clear fallacy. These paradoxes are known as antinomies. Often their conclusions are clear logical impossibilities, and solving them requires finding a principled reason for rejecting some seemingly obvious premiss or pattern of inference used in the argument. The paradoxes that we shall be concerned with in this book all belong to this third category. The paradoxes that caused the crisis of confidence in the nineteenth century drive to make infinitesimal analysis clear and rigorous arise from the basic theory of classes. There are three major class paradoxes, though many variants of them. These are the Burali-Forti paradox, Cantor’s paradox, and Russell’s paradox.
Incompleteness, and Undefinability of Truth
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Hilbert’s Programme placed formal systems at the centre of foundational research. This work was proceeding apace in the late 1920s in the direction that Hilbert envisaged. Then in 1931 a paper was published by Godel, then only 25, that was to change the landscape of foundational studies permanently. This paper contained a couple of theorems about formal systems of great significance, and presented a new and powerful technique for metamathematics (the study of formal systems). This chapter presents the first of these two theorems, plus a related theorem of Tarski, and then assesses their wider significance. The following chapter then presents the second theorem and assesses its significance.
Mind and Soul
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Philosophers of mind, throughout history, can be grouped into two main classes: introvert and extrovert. Introvert philosophers believe that the way to understand the nature of the human mind is to look within oneself and to pay close attention to the phenomena of introspective consciousness. Extrovert philosophers start from the observable behaviour of human beings and inquire into the criteria by which we ascribe to others mental capacities, states, and activities. In the second millennium we could point to Descartes and Hume as paradigms of the introvert school, and Aquinas and Wittgenstein as illustrating, in diVerent degrees, the extrovert approach. Extroverts look, in the ancient world, to Aristotle as their champion; the
Ethics
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Like most moralists in the ancient world, Augustine bases his ethical teaching on the premiss that everyone wants to be happy, and that it is the task of philosophy to deWne what this supreme good is and how it is to be achieved. If you ask two people whether they want to join the army, he says in the Confessions, one may say yes and the other no. But if you ask them whether they want to be happy, they will both say yes without any hesitation. The only reason they differ about serving in the army is that one believes, while the other does not, that that will make him happy (Conf. X.21. 31).
God
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

In the second book of On Free Will Augustine raises the question ‘How do we know that we derive our origin from God?’ and in answer he develops a structured argument for God’s existence. His interlocutor in the dialogue, Evodius, starts from the position of a simple believer who accepts the existence of God as taught in the Bible. Augustine wants to change this position of mere belief to one of knowledge (DLA 2. 1. 5). His strategy is to build up a hierarchy of beings of diVerent kinds.
Knowledge
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

In the sixteenth century, several factors contributed to make scepticism enjoy a new popularity. The clash between different Christian sects in Europe, and the discovery of peoples across oceans with different cultures and different religions, had as an immediate effect a surge of proselytizing and persecution; but these encounters also caused some reflective thinkers to question the claim of any human system of belief to hold unique possession of the truth. The rediscovery of ancient sceptical works, such as those of Sextus Empiricus, brought to the attention of the learned a battery of arguments against the reliability of human cognitive faculties.
Physics
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

The period at the end of the sixteenth century and the beginning of the seventeenth was one of great importance in the philosophy of the natural world. What had been, up to this point, a single discipline of ‘natural philosophy’ gradually split into two different endeavours: the philosophy of natural science and the science of physics. Both disciplines share a common subject matter, but they have different purposes and operate in different ways. The philosophy of nature seeks an understanding of the concepts we employ in describing and accounting for natural phenomena: concepts such as ‘space’, ‘time’, ‘motion’, and ‘change’. Scientific physics seeks to establish and explain the phenomena themselves, not by a priori reasoning or conceptual analysis, but by observation, experiment, and hypothesis.
Metaphysics
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

It was through the Disputationes Metaphysicae of Francisco Suarez, directly or indirectly, that the metaphysics of the medieval scholastics became known to the philosophers of the early modern age. Suarez was well acquainted with the works of his medieval predecessors, and he summarized their views, codified their positions, and built up his own system by choosing options from the menu that they offer. A summary of the main positions of the Disputationes accordingly provides a good starting point for a consideration of the metaphysics of our period.
God
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

Hegel regarded his system as a sophisticated and definitive presentation of philosophical truths that had been given fluctuating and mythical expression in the world’s religions. In the first half of the nineteenth century the two most important reactions to the Hegelian treatment of religion came from opposite points of the philosophical compass. While Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72) regarded Hegel as excessively sympathetic to religion, Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55) thought him impudently disrespectful of it.
Music and Electro-sonic Art
Authors: Graham Gordon
Published: November 2023

In this paper I want to discuss two questions. First, is electro-acoustic music, music? And, second, how important is the answer we give to this question? Though the term ‘electro-acoustic music’ now has a wide currency, using it to explore this issue is clearly a recipe for confusion, and so I shall use the term ‘electro-sonic art’ instead. The questions thus become: is sonic art the same as music? And does it matter whether it is or not? Or, to put the second question in a slightly different way, is music the whole of sonic art? I shall begin with some reflections on the nature of music.
The management and medical treatments for osteoporosis— now and the future
Authors: Black Alison J , Sandison Rena , Reid David M
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will deal with the management of osteoporosis and the prevention of fracture; we will also consider some of the new therapies under study The prevention of osteoporosis is a very important part of its management. Achievement of a good peak bone mass by increasing weight-bearing exercise in the young and improvements in diet, particularly dietary calcium intake during childhood and adolescence, should reduce the overall burden of osteoporosis. Reduction in smoking, and discouraging excess caffeine and alcohol intakes are also advocated. In the elderly, fall-prevention strategies should be developed in a dual approach to decrease fractures, both by increasing bone strength and decreasing fall frequency. Such approaches should include eyesight tests, safety in the home, and assessments of diuretic and blood pressure tablet use, which could cause dizziness, and considering the issue of hip protectors for the vulnerable. This is discussed in greater detail in other chapters (Table 4.1).
Hobbes’s Early Career
Authors: Malcolm Noel
Published: November 2023

In a volume of the papers of William Cavendish, first Earl of Newcastle, there is a text in English entitled ‘A second most secret instruction Gallo-britanno-batauian, giuen to Fredericke the V. Translated out of Low Dutch into Latine, and diuulged for the most publique good’. This is a translation of a political pamphlet, Altera secretissima instructio Gallo-Britanno-Batava Friderico V data, ex belgica in latinam linguam versa, et optimo publico evulgata, an analysis of the geopolitical position and interests of the Elector Palatine (the German Protestant prince and son-in-law of James I, whose acceptance of the crown of Bohemia from the anti-Habsburg rebels there had plunged Central Europe into war), which was published somewhere on the continent of Europe in 1626.
The Distribution of the Altera secretissima instructio in England
Authors: Malcolm Noel
Published: November 2023

If little is known about the transmission and reception of the Altera secretissima instructio in England, the contents of the text itself help to explain why that is so: here was a pamphlet which, albeit with quasi-satirical intent, openly advocated sedition against the King. No English bookseller could have advertised such a work, and few could have contemplated reprinting it on English soil.¹ Even without its treasonable passages, however, this would still have been a ‘hot’ work for any bookseller to handle. Since the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War, a series of royal proclamations had been issued, in an attempt to suppress unwelcome commentary on the ‘arcana’ of foreign policy.
Other Bodies
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

It is fairly uncontroversial, I think, that we can conceive a person’s behavior and behavioral dispositions, his physical acts and states, his qualitative feels and fields (all non-intentionally described) as remaining fixed, while his mental attitudes of a certain kind—his de re attitudes—vary.1 Thus we can imagine Alfred’s believing of apple 1 that it is wholesome, and holding a true belief. Without altering Alfred’s dispositions, subjective experiences, and so forth, we can imagine having substituted an identically appearing but internally rotten apple 2. In such a case, Alfred’s belief differs, while his behavioral dispositions, inner causal states, and qualitative experiences remain constant.
Mainwaring’s Handel: Its Relation to British Aesthetics
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

John Mainwaring’s Handel  1 has long been familiar to students of the composer as an early (if not always reliable) biographical source. It is generally accorded a place in music history—or, rather, the history of musical scholarship—as the first biography of a musician. One might expect from a pioneer effort in musical biography little more than the usual collection of anecdotes, authentic and apocryphal, that surround the great artist. Mainwaring has not disappointed in this respect. But his work is far from being a mere biographical memoir, containing, as it does, an extended section of critical Observations on Handel’s compositions.2 These Observations embody a critical point of view that owes its existence to developments in criticism and aesthetic theory, characteristic of late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century British thought.
Ars perfecta: Toward Perfection in Musical Performance?
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

The major purpose of this paper is to explore the question, Is there such a thing as the perfect performance of a musical work? Its major thesis is that there is not. That thesis, however, is not advanced de novo, but as the implication or, if not that, then the not unwarranted concomitant of an already developed view concerning the nature of performance in the Western classical music tradition.1 So, before I get to the examination and defense of that thesis, I must acquaint the reader with the theory of musical performance that it has at its heart.
Sibley’s Last Paper
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: November 2023

It is no exaggeration to assert that Frank Sibley’s celebrated paper of 1959, “Aesthetic Concepts,” defined my early work in the philosophy of art between 1966, the year I received my doctorate, and 1973, the year I published my first book, Speaking of Art, which was an extended critique of Sibley’s position. After my Sibley years, my interests turned to what I thought was a neglected topic in the philosophy of art: namely, musical aesthetics.
Wrongness and Reasons: A Re-examination
Authors: Scanlon T M
Published: November 2023

In the beginning,metaethics focused on morality and on motivation. When Hume famously observed that ‘morals…have an influence on the actions and affections,’ the ‘influence’ in question was a matter of motivation, and much of metaethics has been focused on the problem of explaining this influence. This emphasis on the problem of ‘moral motivation’ has not been confined to neo-Humeans. Thomas Nagel’s landmark book, The Possibility of Altruism, was largely devoted to an argument against the Humean position. But he nonetheless presented this argument as an inquiry into the motivational basis of prudence and altruism.
The Humean Theory of Reasons
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: November 2023

This paper offers a simple and novel motivation for the Humean Theory of Reasons. According to the Humean Theory of Reasons, all reasons must be explained by some psychological state of the agent for whom they are reasons, such as a desire. This view is commonly thought to be motivated by a substantive theory about the power of reasons to motivate known as reason internalism, and a substantive theory about the possibility of being motivated without a desire known as the Humean Theory of Motivation. Such a motivation would place substantial constraints on what form the Humean Theory of Reasons might take, and incur substantial commitments in metaethics and moral psychology. The argument offered here, on the other hand, is based entirely on relatively uncontroversial methodological considerations of perfectly broad applicability, and on the commonplace observation that while some reasons are reasons for anyone, others are reasons for only some. The argument is a highly defeasible one, but is supposed to give us a direct insight into what is philosophically deep about the puzzles raised for ethical theory by the Humean Theory of Reasons. I claim that it should renew our interest in the relationship between these two kinds of reason, and in particular in the explanation of reasons which seem to depend on desires or other psychological states.
Human Beings, Human Animals, and Mentalistic Survival
Authors: Robinson Denis
Published: November 2023

The debate over personal identity is a complex one, involving many contrasting views, and ingenious and controversial arguments. But standing back from the complexity, we can see a couple of major and strongly contrasting groupings into which many recently defended views may be seen as falling. At one extreme, we find diverse forms of Psychological Reductionism, and at the other, views we may group under the label ‘‘Animalism’’. Though Psychological Reductionism is (deservedly, I think) more popular, Animalism also has its following, and has fairly recently been given an unusually blunt, succinct, and passionate defense by Eric Olson in Olson (1997).
Metaphysical Compatibilism’s Appropriation of Frankfurt
Authors: Warfield Ted A
Published: November 2023

In discussions of causal determinism, the names ‘‘Compatibilist’’ and ‘‘Incompatibilist’’ are sometimes used in different ways. When focusing on the question of whether causal determinism precludes metaphysical freedom (or ‘‘free will’’ as it is unfortunately often called) a ‘‘compatibilist’’ is one who believes that the truth of causal determinism is consistent with the existence of human freedom and an ‘‘incompatibilist’’ is one who believes that these theses are not consistent. These same labels are also used, in the obvious parallel way, in discussions of whether causal determinism precludes moral responsibility.
Interpreting Behaviour
Authors: McFarland David
Published: November 2023

If my dog wanders into my kitchen while I am cooking, I may interpret its behaviour in a number of ways. If I happen to know that my dog has not been fed that day, I may assume that she is hungry, can smell food, and so is performing behaviour appropriate for a hungry dog. If I know that my dog has been fed, I may assume that the dog wants my company. In reality, I know nothing (for sure) about the dog’s inner workings, but I am, nevertheless, interpreting the dog’s behaviour. I may be interpreting its behaviour in human terms, or I may have learned from experience that, if the dog has not been fed, she behaves in one way in the kitchen, and if she has been fed, she behaves in another way. All dogs are not the same, and I have learned some of the behavioural characteristics of my particular dog.
Context and Logical Form
Authors: Stanley Jason
Published: November 2023

My purpose in this chapter is to defend the thesis that all truth-conditional effects of extra-linguistic context can be traced to logical form.1 But before the import of this thesis can be understood, a few distinctions must be clarified, and some of its opponents introduced.
Aristotle and the problems of method in ethics
Authors: zingano Marco
Published: November 2023

John Burnet’S thesis about the dialectical character of Aristotelian ethics seems nowadays to have become a common view, held by most if not all interpreters. In addition, the dialectical method is now considered Aristotle’s primary method of philosophical investigation: not only his ethics, but also his physics and its branches, and even his theology are taken to be fundamentally dialectical. The sole exceptions recognized are mathematics and logic.
Philosophy, History, Anthropology
Authors: Lloyd G E R
Published: November 2023

There was once a famous quarrel between philosophy and poetry, as to which of the two had the better claim to deliver wisdom. That is no longer a live issue. But a not too dissimilar battle continues to be waged between philosophy, history, and social anthropology. Which of these studies can contribute more to our understanding of the human condition? What should we expect from each and how easy is it to combine their insights? What methods should we use to resolve the question of what, on the one hand, is true of all human beings as the human beings we all are, and what, on the other, must be acknowledged to fall on the side of the culturally variable? Of those three disciplines, the youngest or most recent, social anthropology, is perhaps the most straightforward both in its aims and in its methods, however controversial the results delivered remain. Its remit is the study of contemporary societies, in all their rich variety and complexity, from their kinship systems, economies, and technologies, all the way to their rituals and mythologies and, precisely, their views on the human condition. Modern ethnographic accounts alert us to the almost incredible diversity in belief systems and values. Yet that very variety poses severe problems of interpretation. Ethnographers are generally committed to understanding the societies they study in the societies’ own terms in the first instance, using actors’ categories, as the jargon goes, rather than their own observers’ ones. Yet eventually each society’s ideas have to be translated into the ethnographers’ own terms.