bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PENINGKATAN KEMAMPUAN BEPIKIR KREATIF MATEMATIS SISWA SMP DENGAN PENDEKATAN PROBLEM CENTERED LEARNING
Authors: Desmayanasari Dwi , Prabawanto S , Dasari D
Published: December 2022

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk meneliti perbedaan peningkatan kemampuan berpikir kreatif matematis siswa SMP dengan pendekatan pembelajaran Problem Centered Learning. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kuasi eksperimen dengan desain kelompok kontrol pretes-postes. Subjek penelitian ini adalah siswa kelas VIII di satu SMP di kota Bandung sebanyak 62 siswa. Dalam penelitian ini terdapat dua kelas, yaitu kelas kontrol sebanyak 31 siswa yang memperoleh pembelajaran konvensional dan kelas eksperimen sebanyak 31 siswa memperoleh pendekatan pembelajaran Problem Centered Learning. Instrumen penelitian berupa tes kemampuan berpikir kreatif matematis. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan secara keseluruhan peningkatan kemampuan berpikir kreatif matematis siswa yang memperoleh pendekatan embelajaran Problem Centered Learning lebih baik dari siswa yang mendapat pembelajaran konvensional.
O rozlicznych pożytkach z tykwy
Authors: Wołoszyn Janusz Z.
Published: December 2022

On the numerous benefits of the bottle gourd

The bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), also known as calabash, has been known for thousands of years, both in the Old and in the New World, being without a doubt one of the most useful plants domesticated by humans. The article deals with its numerous applications documented in archaeological and historical sources as well as its various uses still observed in various cultures today. Young gourd fruit can be used as food, but interest in the plant grows considerably when its wall becomes lignified, tough and resistant, and can be processed. Gourds are used primarily to produce all kinds of vessels and containers, musical instruments and a huge variety of utensils. They can be also used in hunting and fishing, turned into rafts and used to teach swimming. In addition, calabashes are known to have been used in traditional medicine and rituals of many peoples. They were and still are used to make ceremonial masks and elements of costumes; and they were an important part of grave goods. Although, in the industrialised world, the significance of the plant is undoubtedly smaller than it used to be, people keep finding new applications for it. Artists turning calabashes into beautiful decorative objects are active in many countries.
Mroczny las mistycznego uwiedzenia srebrzystej Selene
Authors: Janiszewski Paweł
Published: December 2022

The dark forest of mystical seduction of silvery Selene

The article is a study of a passage from Virgil’s Georgics (III 384-394), in which the poet
writes about the seduction of Selene by the god Pan. He lured the goddess of the moon from heavens to a dark forest by means of a white sheep fleece. The tale can be an etiological myth explaining the origins of a magical practice, known from many ancient sources, of bringing the moon to the earth. It is also an archetypal account of evil hidden in a forest. It lies in wait for innocent creatures, “pure” like snow, and has, above all, a sexual connotation. It is symbolised by the wild and lustful god Pan, who has the features of a man and a goat.
Borowo, Borki i Boruty. Szlachta i lasy na Podlasiu w XVI–XVII w.
Authors: Kalinowski Emil
Published: December 2022

Borowo, Borki and Boruty. The nobility and forests in the Podlasie region in the sixteenth–seventeenth centuries

For centuries Podlasie had been one of Poland’s most forested regions. Even its name was sometimes interpreted as a land “under forests”. Apart from the Białowieża Forest in the District of Kamenets, incorporated in 1566 into the new Province of Brest-Litowsk, the most forested area was the region around Bielsk. In addition to ducal (royal) forests, there were also private forests belonging to large noble families, residing mainly in the western part of the region. The aim of the present article is to take a closer look at forests belonging to the nobility as well as the fact that their estates neighboured on forested royal estates throughout the sixteenth century.
The colonisation of these worn-torn lands, begun in the late fourteenth century, occurred largely in forest areas, which had to be cleared to make way for villages and arable land. As settlement developed, numerous border disputes arose. They were particularly frequent in the first half of the sixteenth century, until the land reform carried out at the time. After conflicts, sometimes long-standing, over borders were resolved, there began divisions of forests within groups of villages with the same name / origins of their owners. The disputes also involved heirs to the same village. In order to put an end to them the institution of inhibitio was called upon from the 1650s onwards. As a result of this sorting out of ownership issues, the nobility, especially in the first two interregnum periods, turned to royal forest domains, causing damage in trees and animals. Poaching was hard to control given the limited number of forest guards. As a comparison of court records from Brańsk from 1561 and 1591 has demonstrated, forest cases were part of the everyday reality for petty nobility in the Podlasie region in the sixteenth century.
Incorruptible Nature: The Della Robbia Frames in the Marche
Authors: Sarnecka Zuzanna
Published: December 2022

The present study focuses on the Della Robbia frames created for the altarpieces in the Marche – a largely understudied region of the Italian peninsula. It proposes that the frames of the Marchigian altarpieces were instrumental in establishing the fame of the Florentine artists in the region. Two Della Robbia brothers, both Dominican friars, Fra Mattia (1468– after c. 1532) and Fra Ambrogio (1477–1528), moved to the Marche in the mid-1520s and established a workshop in Monte Santo – present-day Potenza Picena. Whilst the local frames of the Della Robbia altarpieces are invariably covered with coloured vitreous paste, the central scenes are often largely painted in cold polychromy. This artistic choice, likely spurred by technical constraints, meant that fruits, vases with flowers and lions’ heads included in the frames had the potential of capturing the viewer’s attention in a more immediate way than the religious images they encompassed. Furthermore, through the agency of the innovative medium of glazed terracotta and the naturalistic repertoire of motifs, the frames both structured the devotional experience and testified to the endurance of the Della Robbia sculptures. In many instances sections of the glazed frames survived intact to our times whilst the elements modelled in unglazed terracotta had been irretrievably lost or severely damaged. Moreover, as the glazed frames made wide use of the realistic vegetal motifs and of blue and white – the signature colours of the Della Robbia ware – they became the trademark of the workshop in the Marche. From the 1530s, thanks to the use of the moulds, the glazed frames constituted the most accomplished components of the terracotta altarpieces created by anonymous local artisans active in the region after the death of the Della Robbia brothers.
Siła pociągowa armii. Konie i inne zwierzęta w wojsku austro-węgierskim w czasie kampanii karpackiej 1914-1915
Authors: Błachnio Jan
Published: December 2022

Draught power of the army. Horses and other animals in the Austro-Hungarian army during the Carpathian campaign of 1914–1915

The article is devoted to the role of animals (as a means of transport) in the Austro Hungarian army during the Carpathian campaign in 1914–1915. It is based primarily on archival material kept in the Central Archives of Historical Records in Warsaw (group number 321 containing documents dealing with major events relating to one of the units of the 2nd Imperial and Royal Army under the command of Eduard Böhm-Ermolli) and the Viennese Kriegsarchiv (one cardboard box of documents produced by the Management of Field Transports No. 1 in Kraków and three cardboard boxes of files relating to the 3rd Imperial and Royal Army commanded by Svetozar Boroević von Bojna). The main sources are complemented by Austro-Hungarian military regulations.
All this material is used to analyse a wide range of problems associated with the presence of animals in the army. The author demonstrates the scale of the use of horses in military activities in the Carpathian area as well as methods of obtaining animals for military service and dealing with their shortage. He also tackles a variety of matters relating to the functioning of animals in the army, paying particular attention to the feeding of horses. The author establishes the statutory norms for forage portions as well as legitimate possibilities of providing substitutes (thus presenting the real diet of army horses). Another topic tackled in the article is the question of keeping military animals in good health. The author describes the structure of military veterinary services and the number of sick animals in the 3rd Army
"Pomnik nie może upamiętniać...". O dekomunizacji przestrzeni publicznej
Authors: Cembrzyńska Patrycja
Published: December 2022

“A monument may not memorize...”. About the decommunization of public space

As a consequence of the entering into force of the so-called decommunization act (Ustawa
o zakazie propagowania komunizmu lub innego ustroju totalitarnego przez nazwy jednostek organizacyjnych, jednostek pomocniczych gminy, budowli, obiektów i urządzeń użyteczności publicznej oraz pomniki, “Act on the prohibition of propagating communism or other totalitarian regimes by the names of organizational units, commune auxiliary units, buildings, facilities and public utilities as well as monuments”) — Journal of Laws of 2016, item 744, of 2017 item 1389, 2495) relics of communism are removed from public space. Not without controversies. The article focuses on the “monuments of gratitude” commemorating the Red Army and the PolishRussian brotherhood of arms. It outlines the communication crisis in the Polish society after the transformation, shows the conflicts around the communistic monuments in the context of the “replaying the revolution reality of 1989” (to quote Jakub Dąbrowski) and the cleansing of the remains of the People’s Republic. At the same time, it disputes the thesis presented by Dominika Czarnecka in her book „Pomniki wdzięczności” Armii Czerwonej w Polsce Ludowej i w III Rzeczypospolitej (“Monuments of Gratitude for the Red Army in Communist Poland and the Third Republic”) published by the Institute of National Remembrance in 2015. The whole discourse ends with describing of the unrealized project of Grzegorz Klaman, who in response to disputes around the monument of brotherhood of arms in Legnica (removed in 2018 under the decommunization act) created the concept of the anti-monument Shadow.
The Discovery of the True Cross in Jerusalem in 1099: Evidence and Reconsideration
Authors: Dźwigała Bartłomiej
Published: December 2022

The narratives about the discovery of the True Cross in Jerusalem after the crusader conquest differ considerably from one another. Chronicles written under the influence of the Capetian court, papal curia and Normans of the South do not narrate this event, whereas accounts created at the royal court in the Latin Kingdom dwell on the crusaders’ miraculous finding of the relic. An examination of the relationship between these accounts and the legends about Empress Helena leads to the conclusion that the elite of the crusader monarchy wanted to be perceived as successors of the Christian emperors.
The purpose of this article is to analyse chronicle recordings about the finding of the True Cross by the crusaders after the conquest of Jerusalem. It has been shown that the chronicles offer strikingly different accounts. Writings created under the influence of the Capetian dynasty, the Papal curia, or the Normans in southern Italy excluded this event, whereas sources written in the royal court of Latin Jerusalem expanded on the subject of finding the Cross and placed it in the context of establishing the crusaders’ monarchy. The article also analyses the links between these sources with legends about finding the Cross by St. Helen.
The research found that the creating of stories about finding the Cross by the knights in 1099 was meant to place them in the role of heirs of Christian emperors.
Uwagi krytyczne o dokumencie i pieczęci Władysława Hermana
Authors: Nowak Przemysław
Published: December 2022

Critical remarks on the charter and seal of Władysław I Herman

The earliest Polish document to survive as an original has been the object of intensive
research in German and Polish literature since the nineteenth century. It is remarkable that for all this time German scholars knew nothing of Polish research, not even the facsimiles in the Monumenta Poloniae Palaeographica and Album Palaeographicum, published as early as 1907; in 1952/3 Wilhelm Georg Neukam could still publish this charter as ineditum. Equally no Polish historian ever studied this charter in person until my own research, presented here. From the 1820s or 1830s the charter was held in the Reichsarchiv in Munich until it was returned to the Staatsarchiv Bamberg in 1993, where it is now bears the classmark Bamberger Urkunden no. 145. It declares that Prince Władysław Herman, at the request of Gumpon, envoy of the canons and Bishop Rupert of Bamberg, returns to the Church of Bamberg, through bishops Eberhard and Henry, brethren of the church, two golden crosses and rotundae („flabella”), illegally taken from the church, which he had bought back in his land, on condition that the prebends which were promised to him in return for these crosses and his other concessions, be served by vicars who are to pray constantly for the salvation of his soul and that of his kin. This charter, without eschatocol, may be dated between ca. 1095 and June 4 1102 (when Prince Władysław I Herman died). A 98 mm diameter seal is attached sur double queue at the head of the charter, with the obverse facing backwards, depicting a prince sitting on a throne with a sword on his knees. His right hand rests on the hilt, which ends with a round pommel; the left hand is not preserved. The same image is found on the earlier denier of Bolesław II the Generous, of which only two examples survive. No earlier representation of a ruler on a throne with a sword on his knees is known from the coins and seals of Latin Europe. It seems very likely that the coin image was derived from that on the seal, where it is reproduced in more detail. Finally, this motif must belong to the reign of Prince Bolesław the Generous (1058–1076); after the coronation of 1076, the ruler would certainly be depicted as on other royal seals of that time, i.e., in majesty, with a crown on his head, holding the orb and sceptre of kingship.
"Majątek państwa o specjalnym przeznaczeniu". Działalność polskiej spółki kolonizacyjnej Compania Colonizadora del Norte S. A. w latach 1935-1981
Authors: Łuba Joanna
Published: December 2022

,,State resources ring fenced for a specific purpose”. Activities of the Polish Colonial Company Companía Colonizadora del Norte S.A. in the years 1935–1981

The article describes the history of Companía Colonizadora del Norte S.A. The company’s history is much longer than any other colonial company in Poland. Financed by the Polish Government, it was founded in Argentine in 1935. Polish emigrants were to be settled on territory of the Argentine Mission which belonged to the company. The outbreak of World War 2 put paid to these plans and after 1939 no Polish emigrants were to arrive.
By the mid 1950s it became clear that the original aims of the Company could not be realised. In a totally new geopolitical situation, it had become unclear as to who now owned the Company and who had authority over its financial and real estate holdings. Nevertheless, the Company soldiered on over the next few decades up to the 1980s.
The author has accessed previously unresearched sources relating to the Company. Analysing these has enabled her to throw light on the background to its founding and to its operations before 1939. She is also able to describe the political dimensions post 1945 which saw the Company continuing without the aims for which it was originally founded.
The author gives an analysis, based on her findings, as to what body could properly
have claimed to be the rightful inheritor of what remained of Colonizador’s estate. Amongst the contenders could have been the Polish Government in Exile based in London and the Communist Government in Warsaw. It could be argued as to which government morally and legally represented Poland which regained independence in 1918. It could also be argued, the author suggests, that the Polish diaspora in Argentine also had a moral and legal claim to what remained of the Company’s estate. The author has carried out research on the Company’s background in two continents and in three countries. This original research forms an important part of the following article.
Między winą a pomówieniem. Emigracyjna afera szpiegowska z 1838 r.
Authors: Marchlewicz Krzysztof
Published: December 2022

Between guilt and slander. The 1838 spy affair in exile.

In 1838, the English community of Polish refugees from the November uprising witnessed
a scandal related to the disclosure of the collaboration between its three members and the diplomatic agencies of Russia and Austria. The investigation carried out by the refugees revealed names of over a dozen more informers. Contrary to the first accused, these did not admit their guilt and claimed they fell victim to hurtful slander. The article reproduces the circumstances of the spies exposure, as well as the course, methods, and results of the emigrants’ investigation. It shows mechanisms and potential goals of distributing gossip about some of the refugees. Although basing on available sources it is difficult to determine which of the accused did in fact cooperate with the partitioners and which fell victim to provocation or political revenge, the 1838 spy affair allows us yet another perspective on the political life of the Great Emigration.
Plotka i pogłoska w dokumentach carskiej żandarmerii – przejaw lęków, oczekiwań, głodu informacji, walki politycznej i... mądrości ludowej
Authors: Wiech Stanisław
Published: December 2022

Rumour and gossip in the empire in the empire’s gendarmerie — effect of fear, expectation, need for information, political fight, and... folk wisdom

Rumours spread by mouth during the national occupation and problematic communication were very popular and forceful. The Russian gendarmerie analysed gossips attentively and learned from them about social moods, political opinions, expectations, fears, and national aspirations of the Poles. At the same time, they added new life to the rumours, as they were put into Russian and administrative information system. One of the most popular subjects were words of incoming or current war. For instance, during the Russian-Turkey 1877–1878 war there appeared rumours in Poland about regaining independence when a Turk would water his horses in the Vistula, about a Turkish sultan coming to Warsaw and his converting to Catholicism and becoming king of Poland, about 80 thousand Polish-Hungarian troops entering the country with dictator Marian Langiewicz as their leader, about the pope becoming king of Poland, a miraculous appearance of Our Lady of Częstochowa, who proclaimed “journey to Turkey to support Turkish military successes” etc. Because the gendarmerie used gossip as a political tool to bring social uproar, strengthen national bonds, shape political beliefs, discredit state authorities, and spread unfavourable or enemy to Russian interests ideas, rumours and gossips were treated seriously, their authors were investigated, and steps were being taken to fight opposing rumours.
Il Cinquantennio di Ferro di Cluny
Authors: Cantarella Glauco Maria
Published: December 2022

The second half of the twelve century was a terrible period for Cluny: continuous schisms,
mysteries, ciphered narrations, a mysterious killing of one abbot, continuous depositions
of abbots in as part of the schism between Popes Alexander III and Victor IV, and the fact that the last abbot of the century, Hugh IV, was not even a Cluniac monk. This essay examines the course of events, paying attention to the sources and their milieu, belonging mostly to the world of the so-called Plantagenet Empire.
Bishops and the Legitimisation of War in Piast Poland until the Early Thirteenth Century
Authors: Kotecki Radosław
Published: December 2022

In the article the author examines the question of the legitimisation of military activities of the Piasts by Polish bishops in the period preceding the intensification of the autonomisation of the Polish episcopate vis-à-vis the monarch. The question emerges from the recent research into the links between the Church of the Piast era and warfare, which demonstrate that warrelated military activity of prelates was shaped until the 1200s by the rules of public service in line with the model of a state (monarchical) Church. At the same time scholars conducting that research argue that the military duties of the clergy should no longer be viewed as stemming only from being rooted in the political system of the day and the rules of feudal service. The present article provides additional arguments in favour of such a view, with the author also suggesting that the religious dimension of bishops’ wartime service — highlighted in the sources — should not be treated as dictated only by the Church’s pastoral mission or inspired by the crusading ideology. Instead, the author proposes that the bishops’ warfare-related religious activities, especially their efforts to present the monarchs’ military endeavours as having a religious nature, be regarded as an integral part of public service. Such a perspective makes it possible to define the activities of Polish bishops as a phenomenon drawing on models of Carolingian origin and requiring the clergy to place the wars waged by monarchs in a unique context of religious ideas and to build an ideological integrity of the body politic in the face of military actions.
Pulcre et leviter? O przemocy wobec żon i o próbach jej ograniczania w kościelnych źródłach sądowych XV w.
Authors: Biniaś-Szkopek Magdalena
Published: December 2022

Pulcre et leviter? On violence against wives and attempts to limit it in ecclesiastical court sources from the fifteenth century

The article tackles questions relating to marital violence in the Middle Ages. The author points to the fact that in this period a definition of violence of a husband against his wife — if anyone had tried to formulate it — would have sounded different from today’s definition. A man responsible for the woman entrusted to him had to watch her behaviour, instruct her, chasten her and sometimes even use a rod. All this was to be done for the benefit of the woman, who — commonly believed at the time to be more flighty than the man and prone to giving in to evil influences — could, by acting badly, lose her limited chances for salvation. Examples from both the medieval literature and sermons clearly show that wives were supposed to be subordinated to the authority of their husbands, to listen to them and be humble as well as submissive. However, the sources in question speak with the voice of men — the author, on the other hand, asks about sources in which it is possible to hear at least echoes of the voices
of women themselves. Her search has led her to an analysis of court records of the Late
Middle Ages — sources that are underexplored in historiography. In the article the author
analyses eleven oldest volumes of manuscripts left by the Poznań episcopal official (from
1404–1428, kept in the Archdiocesan Archives in Poznań), who on behalf of the diocesan
bishop judged marital cases as part of his jurisdiction. Among the 708 individual suits
the author has indicated 58 cases in which the court tried to resolve the problem of excessive violence in relationships. In all cases the matter did not concern ordinary punishments for wives — which were accepted at the time both by the law and the public opinion — but serious beating often putting the life of the woman at risk (less so the life of the man at risk, for example, of poisoning). The author presents a large group of cases — she points to the reasons why they were brought before the episcopal official, their number in comparison with other marital problems and, finally, judgement formulas used in these special cases by the Poznań consistory.
Agresja szlachty na Mazowszu, w Małopolsce i Wielkopolsce w XVII w.
Authors: Kamler Marcin
Published: December 2022

Aggression of the nobility in Mazovia, Lesser Poland and Greater Poland in the seventeenth century

The study focuses on violence among the nobility as well as between the nobility and peasants in fifteen districts of Mazovia, Greater Poland and Lesser Poland from the late sixteenth until the end of the seventeenth century. The basis for the analysis comprises approximately 12,000 accusations of various kinds of violence (mainly inflicting wounds and killing) recorded in the court registers in each of the analysed districts. The data cover
a period of 110 years. Approximately 7,900 cases concerned scuffles among the nobility,
in approximately 4,400 cases — between noblemen and peasants (in 3,200 cases the perpetrators were noblemen, in 1,200 cases peasants). The author’s comparative analysis of the rise in aggression in each district is based on the average annual number of crimes
committed per 100 km2 of each district. In districts with the biggest population of petty
nobility (mainly in Mazovia and some districts of Greater Poland) the average annual number of acts of aggression among the nobility were several and even dozen or so times higher than in districts with small populations of petty nobility. Aggressive behaviour was to be found not only among the petty nobility in Mazovia (it was known for such behaviour especially in the seventeenth century), but also among the petty nobility in Greater Poland and Lesser Poland. Irrespective of the province of the Crown, members of this group were more inclined to resort to violence in interpersonal contacts than wealthy noblemen.
Acts of aggression between the nobility and peasants were less frequent in districts inhabited by petty nobles; they were more numerous wherever wealthy nobility predominated (in most such districts injuries inflicted by peasants comprised 19–31% injuries between these two groups). In districts dominated by petty nobility peasants were almost equal opponents: in some areas of Mazovia injuries suffered by noblemen at the hand of peasants made up 40–42% of the overall number of injuries between them. What must have been of significance in these cases was a similar economic situation of both these social groups, especially the fact that many nobles worked personally on farms and their living conditions were similar to those of peasants.
Propaganda niemiecka w okupowanej Białorusi (1941–1944)
Authors: Mironowicz Eugeniusz
Published: December 2022

German propaganda in occupied Belarus (1941–1944)
The Germans carefully prepared themselves to govern the conquered regions of the USSR. They used propaganda and terror as instruments of power over the local community. From the very beginning of occupation the inhabitants of Belarus were told that Hitler’s army had come to liberate their nation from the rule of the bloody Stalinist bolshevism. Visual propaganda presented Hitler as a symbol of goodness and honesty, a leader concerned about the nation’s happiness, while Stalin was portrayed as an embodiment of evil, crime and enslavement of millions of Soviet citizens. Pursuing the Third Reich government’s policy, the German propagandists demanded that Belarusians show gratitude for the “liberation” in the form of efficient work and planned deliveries of food supplies and labour. They promised peace and prosperity after the victorious war against the Soviet Union in a Europe of “free nations” led by Adolf Hitler. Huge funds were earmarked for the promotion of the attractiveness of daily life in the Third Reich to encourage Belarusian youth to go there to work in industry, agriculture and as domestic help. The propaganda proved ineffective when it came to provisions and attracting labour to work in the Third Reich. The occupiers were forced to top up the planned but not collected levies by pacifying the areas where the collection was the lowest. Usually these were areas with the most intense activity of the Soviet underground propaganda.
Dwa ostatnie pokolenia Tęczyńskich herbu Topór. Kilka korekt i uzupełnień dotyczących genealogii rodu
Authors: Anusik Zbigniew
Published: December 2022

The last two generations of the Tęczyński family of the Topór coat of arms. Some corrections and additions concerning the family’s genealogy

Research conducted by the author of the article focuses on the representatives of the last two generations of the Tęczyński family of the Topór coat of arms, i.e. children and grandchildren of Andrzej Tęczyński (d. 1588), Voivode of Kraków, and Zofia nee Dembowska (d. 1588), daughter of the Voivode of Belz. The couple had four daughters — Agnieszka (1578–1644), Katarzyna (1581–ca 1640), Izabela (ca 1585––1645) and Zofia (d. 1620), and three sons — Gabriel (1575–1617), Andrzej (1576–1613) and Jan Magnus (1579–1637). In the case of nearly all of them the author adds important details to their biographies or corrects previous findings by other scholars. The most important change concerning the genealogy of the analysed family is the explanation of the family connections of the couple’s eldest son — Gabriel, Voivode of Lublin. The author has established that the daughter Teofila attributed to him by some scholars in fact did not belong to the Tęczyński family (she came from the Tęczyn branch of the Tarło family). In addition, the mother of the Voivode of Lublin’s only daughter, Zofia, was not his first but second wife, Elżbieta, from the princely family of Radziwiłł. Gabriel’s first wife, Barbara, princess of Zbaraż, died heirless a few months after the wedding. Upon her death the
huge estates she had brought to her husband (with the exception of Międzyrzec with adjoining property, which she had granted to her husband before she died) returned to the Zbaraski family. The present author also sheds light on most of the questions concerning the financial situation of the last representatives of the Tęczyński family.
Kultura prawa w późnośredniowiecznej i wczesnonowożytnej Warszawie
Authors: Bartoszewicz Agnieszka
Published: December 2022

Legal culture in late medieval and early modern Warsaw

In the article the author discusses questions associated with legal culture of Old Warsaw burghers in the 15th and first half of the 16th century. She analyses the functioning of German law and operation of institutions governed by it, knowledge of various legal systems on the part of Warsaw burghers, their attitude to court regulations and procedures as well as transformations in this sphere occurring in the late Middle Ages and Early Modern Period. At that time the municipal system of Old Warsaw was based on Chełm Law, supplemented by successive privileges granted by rulers, municipal laws issued by Warsaw councillors as well as instructions and decisions of the Toruń council. However, it is possible to notice a coexistence and interpenetration in the city of various legal systems, with land law being of prime importance.
An analysis of records from town registers, primarily court registers from 1427–1535, has made it possible to conclude that the 15th century and first half of the 16th century were a period of systematic spread of knowledge of law among both city clerks and scribes employed by them. An increasingly important role began to be played by writing and documents used as evidence in court. The 16th century was marked by a clear rise in the stature of the high court of Chełm Law in Toruń and the frequency of appeals brought before it. However, the most important role was played by the monarch’s court — after the incorporation of 1526 of the King of Poland. It is also possible to observe in the analysed sources a clear development of legal terminology used in the records kept by the Warsaw scribes.
Bieda i bogactwo a struktura gospodarstwa domowego w małym mieście: przykład Miechowa w końcu XVIII w.
Authors: Kuklo Cezary
Published: December 2022

Poverty, wealth, and small town household structure: the example of Miechów in the late 18th century

The article is an attempt to define the links between economic determinants (having a house as well as a profession that was placed high in the wealth-related hierarchy of professions), and household size and structure in a small town in Lesser Poland in the late 18th century. The source basis is a census of the population of Miechów carried out in 1790 for the CivilianMilitary Order Commission of the Kraków province.
The socio-demographic life cycle of individuals in Miechów was similar to the lives of
people living in other late feudal towns, with a clear transitional stage of working as servants in someone else’s household (life-cycle servants) as well as men’s attempts to remain heads of their households for as long as possible. House owners lived in larger households (5.1 persons) than people who rented living space from them (3.3 individuals). The differences in the material status of the various families in Miechów were reflected only in their sizes and not in their internal structure. Very well-off families were larger (5.1 individuals) than moderately well-off families (3.9 individuals), not to mention poorer families (3.1 individuals). Female households were always the smallest, encompassing 2–2.8 persons. It is worth stressing the symbolic presence in households of relatives by blood and marriage.
Irrespective of their wealth, Miechów households were clearly nuclear — over 92% of the total. Co-habitation within one household of parents and sons or daughters with their spouses was very rare.
Kraków przedlokacyjny w świetle dokumentu. Bolesława Wstydliwego z 10 maja 1264
Authors: Okniński Piotr
Published: December 2022

Kraków in pre-location period in the light of Bolesław the Chaste’s document dated on 10 May 1264

The article makes a contribution to research into the history of the Kraków settlement
in the period preceding the granting of the Magdeburg Law charter to Kraków in 1257.
The author begins with a detailed critical analysis of the document issued by Bolesław
the Chaste for the Collegiate Church of St. Michael on the Wawel Hill in 1264 and granting the canons an annual income of five grzywnas (marks) of silver from the rent of the chartered city of Kraków. The endowment was to compensate the canons for the losses suffered as a result of the granting of the charter to Kraków in 1257. The Collegiate Church of St. Michael was one of the oldest and wealthiest churches within the Kraków settlement. Bolesław’s diploma suggests that before the granting of the charter to Kraków the church had had at its disposal two butcheries, three plots of land as well as income from an unspecified number of inns in Kraków. Most scholars believe that the property of the church described in the 1264 document had been granted to the canons shortly before the duke’s diploma was issued, during the period of Kraków’s so-called first founding, most likely undertaken in the 1220s by Leszek the White. The present author disagrees with such a view and formulates his own interpretation according to which the property of the church described in 1264 originated in the Early Middle Ages and may have been located outside the city as defined in the charter, within the suburbs of Wawel. Such a conclusion is of great significance to the study of the Kraków settlement and urban relations in the period preceding colonisation under German law.
Niderlandy na trasach staropolskich peregrynantów w XVII w.
Authors: Tygielski Wojciech
Published: December 2022

The Low Countries in the itineraries of Polish travellers in the 17th century

The article is an attempt to reconstruct the way the Low Countries were perceived by Polish travellers on the basis of observations from the 1640s recorded during the journey of Marek and Jan Sobieski by their guardian, Sebastian Gawarecki, and travel impressions of Jan Stanisław and Aleksander Jan Jabłonowski recorded nearly four decades later by their preceptor Jan Michał Kossowicz. In confronting both narratives and attempting to assess their intellectual level, the author notes the differences in the position of the two preceptors in the two travel retinues. Pointing to the similarities between the analysed journeys and the fact that they are relatively well documented by the sources — which also include the fathers’ instructions — he stresses that in both cases the Low Countries were not the final destination of the journey, but served a transit function. He explains that he was prompted to examine the subject by the importance of the region and the dissimilarity between it and Poland-Lithuania.
The diaries have made it possible to document the Polish travellers’ critical opinion of the conditions of travel (poor quality of the infrastructure, including the inns, real dangers, and difficulties on the road and their unpredictability) as well as character traits of the local residents — not very “political” although neat and “fond of paintings”. There was also little respect for the local residential buildings as well as courtly and cultural attractions or even high density of urban buildings (although their solid form was noted). On the other hand the travellers admired the huge fortifications and ports, especially the port of Amsterdam, as well as canals and all kinds of technical innovations and exotic curiosities, which were quite numerous in ports. The Poles appreciated social welfare institutions providing for the poor, the sick and those in conflict with the law, as well as universities — in Leiden and Louvain, with their botanical collections. In addition, they displayed sensitivity to the situation of the Catholics and — invariably — interest in other travellers from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth encountered during their journey.
A separate analysis focuses on the question of sensitivity to works of art and their authors. It is measured by the Polish travellers’ attitude to the person and achievements of Rubens, who is mentioned by name by Gawarecki but not by Kossowicz (although the latter mentions a painting by Anton van Dyck). The inclusion in the analysis of Bartłomiej Nataniel Wąsowski’s travel account as well as the confrontation between the entire material and observations by the Italian traveller Giacomo Fantuzzi have confirmed the Polish travellers’ relatively limited interest in and familiarity with the subject.
Obraz PRL we współczesnym kinie polskim
Authors: Skotarczak Dorota
Published: December 2022

The image of the Polish People’s Republic in contemporary Polish cinema.

The period when Poland was ruled by the communists, shown in contemporary Polish cinema, is certainly far from attractive. The masses live in poverty and only people linked to the powers that be enjoy a better life. They get flats or television sets for their faithful
service. And when they sometimes break the law, nothing is done about it. On the other hand ordinary people are treated like dirt and if they show the slightest sign of disobedience, they are cruelly punished. Nothing can succeed in such a system: loves end tragically, family life is full of conflicts. Only those who survive until 1989 see their fate change. If there are any positive images of those years, they are inevitably linked to those spheres of life which have been successfully protected from the communist government. The judgement about the period as shown in films is decidedly negative.
Plotki i pogłoski na temat bolszewików krążące na ziemiach polskich w latach 1917–1918
Authors: Zackiewicz Grzegorz
Published: December 2022

Rumours about the Bolsheviks circulating in Poland in 1917–1918

In the article the author analyses rumours about the Bolsheviks circulating in Poland during the First World War. In 1914–1917 the phenomenon referred to in the title of the article was of marginal significance and can hardly be captured in the sources. The Bolsheviks’ activities at the time did not generate much emotion in Poland; Lenin and his comrades were known only among the Polish political elites, primarily left-wing elites. A fundamental change in this respect came with the revolution of 1917 in Russia, naturally prompting questions about the reasons why the tsarist state, until recently regarded as powerful, had collapsed. After the Bolshevik coup rumours about Russian communists became common in Poland. Many of them drew directly on conspiracy theories. Particularly characteristic in this respects were anti-Semitic and anti-German motifs. In the last few months of the First World War another very popular rumour in Poland concerned the imminent collapse of Bolshevik rule. It corresponded to a belief — widespread across Europe at the time — that Lenin and his comrades would no longer be able to hold on to power. Worthy of note are also rumours, circulating in 1918, about a rift among the Bolshevik leaders.
Czas kłamstw. Wielka Wojna i cyrkulacja plotek
Authors: Górny Maciej
Published: December 2022

A time of lies. The Great War and circulation of rumours

The First World War was an important stage in the mass spread of information and
modernisation of information distribution. All states involved in the conflict launched
agendas dealing with propaganda and fighting “defeatism” and “disinformation”. Yet
professionalisation did not put an end to the circulation of rumours, which were often
beyond the control of the government and the army. Already at the beginning of the war
mobilisation in several European states was hampered by incredible rumours about secret transports of gold and by omnipresent spymania. Thanks to modern communication rumours spread rapidly from one end of Europe to another. Soon there also emerged rumours about the enemies’ crimes — based on fact but exaggerated by propaganda and with time getting increasingly wild. The author of the article discusses the mechanism of transfer of such rumours in time and space, primarily between the Western and Eastern Fronts of the Great War. He analyses lasting or recurring narratives which emerged after 1914, survived the end of the hostilities and played a role in numerous post-war conflicts over borders in Central and Eastern Europe.
Etyczne aspekty badań nad powojennym podziemiem niepodległościowym
Authors: Mazur Mariusz
Published: December 2022

Ethical aspects of research into the post-war pro-independence underground

There are three research strategies in the studies of the post-war anti-communist underground: objectivist, apologetic and critical. In their context the ethical attitude of historians concerns eight spheres: 1) partisans; 2) the other side of the conflict (that is, communists and their adherents); 3) victims beyond the dominant conflict; 4) the rest of society at the time; 5) contemporary readers; 6) history as a science (scholarly discipline); 7) other historians; 8) themselves. Ethical choices stem mainly from one’s axiology, political views, objectives of one’s pursuit of history as well as scholarly skills. They determine the narrative as well as research results. Apologists and critics resort to manipulation in order to obtain conclusions that are convenient to them. Many still do not see ethical dilemmas owing to the narrowness of their research profile and the failure to acknowledge the existence of problems. When it comes to others, science is helpless.
Locals and outlanders — an outline of the ethnic composition of Wenceslaus II’s Prague court
Authors: Dvořáčkova-Malá Dana
Published: December 2022

Locals and outlanders — an outline of the ethnic composition of Wenceslaus II’s Prague court

The so-called foreigners who were present at Wenceslaus II’s royal court were mainly people of German origin, although even ethnic German origin may have meant that they came from a family which had settled in the Kingdom of Bohemia (as was the case of Jan of Ostrov in all likelihood). Most of them were educated clerics engaged at the court — in the chancellery and as the king’s advisors. Another group, no less interesting, comprised men of letters — lyric poets and authors of epics, who sought royal patronage at the Prague court in the second half of the thirteenth century, thus securing their own livelihood. Thanks to their activities, which reached their peak at Wenceslaus II’s Prague court, they have left us a number of literary works. Although they are written in German, they represent the very oldest works of fiction in Bohemian history, predating even the Old Czech works of literature from the fourteenth century. With the presence of people of both Bohemian and German origin, the beneficial multi-lingual potential of the Bohemian lands is no less interesting. There was a bilingual environment in daily communication at Wenceslaus II’s Prague court: in other words, the individuals in question spoke both Czech and German. It is clear from the concentration of foreigners that this fact must have suited the ruling family, which understood German. This is undoubtedly true of Wenceslaus II, as we know that between the ages of seven and twelve he grew up in Brandenburg, at the Ascanian court of his cousin and guardian, Otto V. Furthermore, Wenceslaus II is named as the author of three German late Minnesang love poems. In addition, Wenceslaus II’s first wife Guta was the daughter of the King of the Holy Roman Empire, Rudolf I from the House of Habsburg, and German would have been her mother tongue. This multilingual trend became gradually stronger in the fourteenth century in written form too, as is evidenced by emerging Old Czech literary works and continuing Latin documents. Latin remained the principal language in the royal chancellery, although with the government of Henry, Duke of Carinthia, for example, German was sometimes used as well. When it comes to court and German literature, however, we should add that although the works produced in Bohemia comprise the oldest ever documents of local fiction, within the context of the development of German court literature, they originated at a time when the zenith had been reached, spreading the farthest to the east.