bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Legislative Accomplishment and Policy Issue Substance
Authors: Lapinski John S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a new measure of legislative accomplishment. To understand lawmaking requires that one move beyond studying political behavior in Congress alone and beyond a complete empirical reliance on roll call votes. Moreover, legislative behavior and legislative outputs must be studied in tandem to gain a proper understanding of the lawmaking process in the United States. Although the idea of studying important lawmaking across time is not controversial, constructing an appropriate measure is not a trivial exercise. The chapter constructs a comprehensive lawmaking data set that provides measures of legislative accomplishment at the aggregate level as well as by specific policy issue areas for a 118-year period. It also explains the construction of Congress-by-Congress measures of legislative accomplishment, including measures broken down by the policy-coding schema.
Chattel Slaves
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the legal and social status of the “basest” chattel slaves—that is, those performing the basest forms of labor, like working in the mines or mills. Chattel slaves had no legal claims to property, either moveable or unmoveable. They also, in theory, had no power over their labor or movement: they performed the tasks that were assigned to them and engaged in no movement that was not mandated by their master or mistress. In practice, this ideal behavior was not necessarily realized: although specific tasks were assigned to slaves, the ways in which they conducted these tasks were within their control, and many slaves (particularly in households with few slaves) were “multitaskers” who presumably had some degree of control over which tasks they did when, and how. That said, to the extent that they did not choose their occupations, and did not own the means or fruits of their production, slaves, at least ideologically, had no control over their labor.
Privileged Metics
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the status group called “privileged metics.” The privileged metic was in various respects superior to his less-privileged peers. Socially, too, privileged metics represented a distinct, higher-ranking status group. The fact that most were likely Greek, unlike the average nonprivileged freed-slave metic, probably granted them additional social standing. Given that any metic granted privileges was (ideologically, at least) being rewarded for services rendered to the city, he was implicitly more favored and more embraced by the citizens of Athens than were “regular” metics—and in some cases, more so than “regular” (that is, not euergetic) citizens.
Disenfranchised Citizens (Atimoi)
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the legal and social status of atimoi. The very word atimos, meaning both “deprived of civic offices” and “deprived of honor,” encapsulates both the degraded political status and the degraded social status of such individuals. How a given atimos was viewed socially likely depended at least in part on the type of offense he had committed (the more egregious the offense, the lower his honor), as well as the type and degree of atimia he suffered: partial versus total, temporary versus permanent, and perhaps especially whether he was atimos automatically or by sentence. State debtors lost their claims to property, whereas other atimoi did not. Atimoi of all stripes had control over their own labor, but their movement was greatly restricted.
Naturalized Citizens
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on naturalized citizens. It argues that although naturalized citizens shared most of the privileges and duties of natural-born citizens in the sacral, political, and military spheres, they differed in a few important respects. For example, at least as early as 427 BCE (and maybe earlier), a naturalized citizen could not hold an Athenian priesthood or any of the nine archonships. His sons, however, faced no limitations on the priesthoods they could hold, provided that they were born from an Athenian citizen mother. Moreover, in ca. 334 BCE certain phratries, probably ones with hereditary priesthoods, became closed to naturalized citizens. Apart from these restrictions, however, the naturalized citizen was nearly indistinguishable from the natural-born citizen in his opportunities for the performance of civic roles. The primary way in which naturalized citizens in Athens were distinguished from natural-born citizens was their social status.
Full Citizens: Female
Authors: Kamen Deborah
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the status of female citizens because female citizenship is sufficiently different from male citizenship to warrant a distinct status category. That is, female citizens are less equal to male citizens than female slaves are to male slaves, female ex-slaves to male, female metics to male, and so on. It distinguishes between different types of female citizens as appropriate. One of the most distinctive attributes of Athenian women is that although they were citizens, they were also under the supervision of a kurios or guardian. As girls, they were under the guardianship of their fathers, and when they married, they entered the guardianship of their husbands. This much is certain, but the precise degree of control the kurios had over women and girls is less clear.
Pursuits of Wisdom
Authors: Cooper John M.
Published: November 2017

This is a major reinterpretation of ancient philosophy that recovers the long Greek and Roman tradition of philosophy as a complete way of life—and not simply an intellectual discipline. The book traces how, for many ancient thinkers, philosophy was not just to be studied or even used to solve particular practical problems. Rather, philosophy—not just ethics but even logic and physical theory—was literally to be lived. Yet there was great disagreement about how to live philosophically: philosophy was not one but many, mutually opposed, ways of life. Examining this tradition from its establishment by Socrates in the fifth century BCE through Plotinus in the third century CE and the eclipse of pagan philosophy by Christianity, the book examines six central philosophies of living: Socratic, Aristotelian, Stoic, Epicurean, Skeptic, and the Platonist life of late antiquity. The book describes the shared assumptions that allowed these thinkers to conceive of their philosophies as ways of life, as well as the distinctive ideas that led them to widely different conclusions about the best human life. Clearing up many common misperceptions and simplifications, the book explains in detail the Socratic devotion to philosophical discussion about human nature, human life, and human good; the Aristotelian focus on the true place of humans within the total system of the natural world; the Stoic commitment to dutifully accepting Zeus's plans; the Epicurean pursuit of pleasure through tranquil activities that exercise perception, thought, and feeling; the Skeptical eschewal of all critical reasoning in forming their beliefs; and, finally, the late Platonist emphasis on spiritual concerns and the eternal realm of Being.
The Socratic Way of Life
Authors: Cooper John M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the Socratic way of life. For Socrates, philosophical reflection and analysis concerning the human good, as well as concerning human deficiencies, dictate a particular way of life. This way of life is, practically speaking, the best for a human being. It is a life in which the practice of philosophical discussion is itself the central activity. Although in principle the best life is one in which we possess and live on the basis of wisdom, in practice the best human life—the best life any actual human being is ever going to live—is the one in which, like Socrates, we constantly and ceaselessly pursue wisdom through philosophical inquiry and discussion. The practically best human life is a life, not of wisdom (sophia), but of philosophy (philosophia), wisdom's love and pursuit.
Stoicism as a Way of Life
Authors: Cooper John M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the Stoic way of life. As a necessary preparation, the Stoic way of life requires extensive study of and practice in philosophical argument and analysis. It also requires constant and conscious reference, as one leads one's life, to philosophical principles and to specific philosophical conclusions, together with the reasoning on which they rest. If true Stoics are to maintain their complete and active grasp of all the complicated philosophical grounds on which their way of life rests, then they must keep up their studies and their practices of discussion, if not in anything like the full-time endeavor that Socrates himself made it, or as an Aristotelian contemplative might do—but still, as a regular part of their lives.
Platonism as a Way of Life
Authors: Cooper John M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the philosophy of Plotinus. It argues that philosophy, and only philosophy, can prepare us adequately for our true life, a life consisting of contemplation of Forms, in self-absorption into Intellect and into Intellect's own origin, the One. Furthermore, this very contemplation, which constitutes both our natural good and our true life, is an exercise of completely achieved philosophical understanding. For Plotinus, and the late ancient Platonists in general, philosophy is the sole road to happiness, and also its very essence. Thus, the Platonist way of life is doubly a philosophical life. The practice of philosophy is the sole necessary means to happiness. Moreover, the highest level of active philosophical understanding is happiness. It is the very essence of happiness.
Truth, Interpretation, and Meaning
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by discussing the work of Alfred Tarski. In the 1930s, Tarski published two articles that became classics. In “The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages” (1935) he defined truth for formal languages of logic and mathematics. In “On the Concept of Logical Consequence” (1936) he used that definition to give what is essentially the modern “semantic” (model-theoretic) definition of logical consequence. In addition to their evident significance for logic and metamathematics, these results have come to play an important role in the study of meaning. The chapter then discusses Rudolf Carnap's embrace of truth-theoretic semantics and the semantic approach of Donald Davidson.
Meaning, Modality, and Possible Worlds Semantics
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with a discussion of Kripke-style possible worlds semantics. It considers one of the most important applications of possible worlds semantics, the account of counterfactual conditionals given in Robert Stalnaker and David Lewis. It then goes on to examine the work of Richard Montague. Montague specified syntactic rules that generate English, or English-like, structures directly, while pairing each such rule with a truth-theoretic rule interpreting it. This close parallel between syntax and semantics is what makes the languages of classical logic so transparently tractable, and what they were designed to embody. Montague's bold contention is that we do not have to replace natural language natural languages with formal substitutes to achieve such transparency. The same techniques employed to create formal languages can be used to describe natural languages in mathematically revealing ways.
Apriority, Aposteriority, and Actuality
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

The conception of logical truth as truth in all models is attributed to Tarski, while the conception of analytic truth as one that can be reduced to logical truths is mainly attributed to Frege. We owe Stalnaker and Lewis for the conception of counterfactual consequence as truth in all “closest” world-states in which the initial set is true. We owe Kripke for the identification of metaphysical necessity, and the clear distinction between necessity and apriority. These advances, sketched in earlier chapters, have changed the face of philosophy. This chapter attempts to extend those lessons by combining the earlier discussions of rigid designation, direct reference, and indexicality with Chapter 5's account of world-states.
The Limits of Meaning
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the relationship between theories of linguistic meaning and theories of language use. This problem—widely known as that of the “semantics–pragmatics interface”—is the focus of intense contemporary investigation. At issue is whether the traditional conception of the relationship between meaning and use can survive. According to that conception, the semantic content of a sentence in context is always a proposition, which, special circumstances aside, is both asserted by utterances of the sentence in the context, and itself the source of whatever subsidiary assertions may result. Problems are posed for this conception, based on a wide variety of expressions, constructions, and uses of sentences. Solutions are sought by comparing semantic analyses defending the traditional account with those challenging it. The chapter defends an emerging conception of the relationship between meaning and use, according to which the meaning of a sentence is a set of constraints on what normal uses of it assert, or express.
The World Wars as Jewish Wars
Authors: Penslar Derek J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates the effect of the mobilization of ideas and manpower on the Zionist movement during the two world wars as well as a smaller international conflict that adumbrated World War II. During World War I, the Zionist movement sponsored the formation of Jewish units for the British armed forces, and although these units' military accomplishments were modest, they had a galvanizing effect on Jewish collective solidarity throughout the western world. A very different type of international mobilization sent thousands of Jews into the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War. Ideologically, these wars were perceived as serving Jewish interests, albeit often conflicting ones such as Zionism, on the one hand, and international socialism, on the other. Operationally, these were, for Jews, international conflicts, involving mass movements of Jews not only as refugees or inducted soldiers but also as volunteer fighters.
Search for Counterparties
Authors: Duffie Darrell
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the modeling of search and random matching in large economies. The objective is to build intuition and techniques for later chapters. After some mathematical prerequisites, it defines the notion of random matching. It then invokes the law of large numbers to calculate the cross-sectional distribution of types of matches. This is extended to multiperiod search, first in discrete-time settings and then in continuous time. The optimal search intensity of a given agent, given the cross-sectional distribution of types in the population, is characterized with Bellman's principle. The chapter then briefly takes up the issue of equilibrium search efforts.
A Simple OTC Pricing Model
Authors: Duffie Darrell
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a simple introduction to asset pricing in over-the-counter markets. Investors search for opportunities to trade and bargain with counterparties, each counterparty being aware that failure to conduct a trade could lead to a costly new search for a counterparty. In equilibrium, whenever there is gain from trade, the opportunity to search for a new counterparty is dominated by trading at the equilibrium asset price. The asset price reflects the degree of search frictions. Under conditions, illiquidity premia are higher when counterparties are harder to find, when sellers have less bargaining power, when the fraction of qualified owners is smaller, and when risk aversion, volatility, or hedging demand is larger. Supply shocks cause prices to jump, and then “recover” over time, with a pattern that depends on the degree of search frictions. The chapter shows how the equilibrium bargaining powers of the counterparties are determined by search opportunities using the approach of Rubinstein and Wolinsky (1985).
The Evolutionary Dynamics of Decision Rule Selection
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This chapter extends the survival-of-the-fittest evolutionary environment to consider the possibility that new political parties, when they first come into existence, do not pick decision rules at random but instead choose rules that have a track record of past success. This is done by adding replicator-mutator dynamics to the model, according to which the probability that each rule is selected by a new party is an evolving but noisy function of that rule's past performance. Estimating characteristic outputs when this type of positive feedback enters the dynamic model creates new methodological challenges. The simulation results show that it is very rare for one decision rule to drive out all others over the long run. While the diversity of decision rules used by party leaders is drastically reduced with such positive feedback in the party system, and while some particular decision rule is typically prominent over a certain period of time, party systems in which party leaders use different decision rules are sustained over substantial periods.
In Conclusion
Authors: Laver Michael , Sergenti Ernest
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter summarizes key themes and presents some final thoughts. This book started with the twin premises that understanding multiparty competition is a core concern for everyone interested in representative democracy and that multiparty competition should be understood as an evolving dynamic system, not a stationary state. Given these premises, it investigated the dynamics of multiparty competition using computational agent-based modeling, a new technology that is ideally suited to providing systematic answers to the types of question we want to ask. This allows the modeling of decision making by party leaders, in what is clearly an analytically intractable setting, in terms of the informal rules of thumb that might be used by real human beings, rather than the formally provable best response strategies used by traditional formal theorists. Whether people use the dynamic model of multiparty competition or some better model of this vital but complex political process, there is no doubt that the computational approach deployed in this book offers vast potential to ask and answer interesting and important questions.
The Valley of the Sun
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the Valley of the Sun. “The Valley of the Sun” was not only an idealized place. It was also a political project, the result of two of the most powerful forces in the postwar American political economy. The first was the ongoing legacy of New Deal policies that sought to fuel the national economy through debt-driven personal consumption. Part of the general postwar economic philosophy historians have labeled “growth liberalism” offered federal loan guarantees to a select population of white Americans choosing suburban living. The resulting “landscape of mass consumption” was plainly evident in Phoenix, both in the huge numbers of homes built after World War II and in the increasing numbers of electrical appliances that filled them. Local efforts to attract these consumers, and the potential capital they embodied, was the second force that created the Valley of the Sun.
Turquoise and Turboprops
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how manufacturing passed agriculture as the Phoenix's largest economic sector. By 1960, manufacturing employed thirty thousand people and generated income of $435 million in Phoenix, compared to fewer than one thousand employees and income of $5 million twenty years earlier. It also remade the landscape. In Phoenix's industrial boom, the “clean” factories of companies located operations outside of Phoenix's traditional industrial areas south of downtown, creating a landscape labeled “industrial garden”—a booster dreamscape in which “neighborhoods and factories, workers and managers, homes and highways were to coexist in a delicate balance.” The demand of “clean” industries for ever increasing amounts of electricity grew at double-digit rates annually from 1950 to 1965. This demand represented not only the manifestations of a new industrial landscape, it also reflected the increasing political power of Phoenix's boosters and others like them across the West within the postwar American political economy.
Modernizing the Navajo
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how a new infrastructure of coal mines and power plants on the Navajo Reservation, and of power lines that stretched across the Southwest, changed the landscape of the Navajo Reservation. The political terms in which this infrastructure took place—terms set largely by the belief held by businessmen from Phoenix and elsewhere that the state should facilitate capital location—shaped this infrastructure's meaning and future. These politics meant that private companies, rather than the federal authorities, mined coal and set it alight. They meant that federal policy focused increasingly on unlocking resources on Navajo land rather than ensuring that employment accompanied development. Moreover, they meant that the power lines leading from Four Corners Power Plant became the main supply for the electricity demanded in Phoenix, rather than primarily being a source of Navajo economic modernization.
Integrating Geographies
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how changes in geography remade space in the Southwest, rendering the Colorado Plateau in many ways the center of the region's economic development. With the construction of Mojave Generating Station, and the expansion of Four Corners Power Plant from 230 megawatts to over 1,000 megawatts in the late 1960s, the landscape of the Colorado Plateau—and specifically the landscape of the Navajo and Hopi Nations—became the broad origin point for most of the electricity used by consumers in the Southwest. Even as this power opened up new possibilities for high-tech manufacturing industries and climate-controlled lifestyles in the region's metropolitan areas, its production increasingly structured and defined the lives of those people living on the Colorado Plateau.
The Living River
Authors: Needham Andrew
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses how The New York Times challenged the long-held claims of Arizona officials that their state was entitled to a portion of the Colorado River by rights, a claim recently upheld by the Supreme Court. The paper also argued that Arizona's attempt to realize those claims endangered the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon itself. Transforming the flowing energy of water into flowing electricity, the Times suggested, was not in the national interest. Such critiques of Arizona's growth emerged in the wake of the Interior Department's development of the Pacific Southwest Water Plan, a plan designed in 1963 to realize Arizona's Colorado River claims. The critiques emerged from several different conservationist groups, but most powerfully from the Sierra Club, which was gradually changing the description of its politics from “conservation” to “environmentalism” and assuming a far more public voice in disputes over the proper use of public lands.
Money, Power, and Sex
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at sexually tinged relationships. It builds on a two-dimensional classification of sexual relationships dependent on their duration (brief or durable) and their breadth (narrow or broad). It adds a new and interesting complication: that the organizational setting in which a sexually tinged relationship occurs significantly affects its meaning, its appropriate economic transaction, and the efforts of third parties to control or suppress them. The chapter stresses the following points: (1) The widespread belief that money corrupts intimacy blocks our ability to describe and explain how money, power, and sex actually interact. (2) The opposite belief—that sex operates like an ordinary market commodity—serves description and explanation no better. (3) The intersection of sex, money, and power does indeed generate confusion and conflict, but that is precisely because participants are simultaneously negotiating delicate, consequential, interpersonal relations and marking differences between those relations and others with which they could easily and dangerously be confused. (4) In everyday social life, people deal with these difficulties with a set of practices we can call “good matches.”
The Purchase of Intimacy
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the question: Under what conditions, how, and with what consequences do people combine monetary transfers with intimate relationships? It suggests that intimate relations involving monetary transfers include a variety of social relations, each marked by a distinctive pattern of payment. First, people routinely differentiate meaningful social relations; among other markers, they use different payment systems to create, define, affirm, challenge, or overturn such distinctions. Second, such distinctions apply to intimate social relations, including those having a sexual component. People regularly differentiate forms of monetary transfers in correspondence with their definitions of the sort of relationship that obtains between the parties. They adopt symbols, rituals, practices, and physically distinguishable forms of money to mark distinct social relations. The chapter shows that when payments within intimate relations become matters of legal dispute, lawyers and judges apply their own differentiating categories, which also turn out to be relational. It explores how this application of categories leads to a problem of translation, as participants in disputes go from categories of everyday life to legal classifications and back.
Intimacy in Economic Organizations
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter moves away from the analysis of economic transactions in intimate relations to studying intimacy within economic organizations. Just as some analysts have feared the commodification of intimacy, others worry about “intimization,” the improper intrusion of intimacy in what are supposed to be efficiency-driven, impersonal organizations. The chapter asks why people worry so much about the presence of intimacy in organizations and reviews the evidence on its actual effects. It argues that while sexual intimacy, friendship, and kinship sometimes do disrupt organizations, they often coexist with organizational effectiveness, or even contribute to it. These three forms of intimacy are singled out not because they are interchangeable or because they mark degrees on some scale of intensity but because differences among them clearly show how the presence of intimacy within economic organizations affects organizational performance.
Caring Everywhere
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter identifies a theoretical and empirical agenda for care investigators, starting with an attempt to specify the concepts of care, intimacy, and work. What exactly do we mean by intimate labors and carework? It then examines the variability of sites where care exists, both paid and unpaid. Within intimate labor, it distinguishes four different sites for personal care: unpaid care in intimate settings, unpaid care in economic organizations, paid care in intimate settings, and paid care in economic organizations such as hospitals, day-care centers, and doctors' offices. These four sites differ significantly in the character and organization of intimate labor. The chapter emphasizes confusions that have arisen in thinking about differences among these four sites.
Pasts and Futures of Economic Sociology
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

Economic sociology has gone through astonishing changes in the past twenty-five years. From a simultaneous critique of, and complement to, neoclassical economics, it has become a rich, self-sustaining field. It has begun to generate or incorporate serious alternatives to neoclassical economics. This chapter mixes an intellectual autobiography with a critical survey of past, present, and future changes in a fast-moving field. It begins with a summary of long-term shifts in the study of economic processes at large. It then takes a closer look at the newly prominent emphases within economic sociology and discusses how those emphases undermine previously dominant presumptions concerning intersections between economic life and interpersonal relations. It illustrates these points extensively by means of recent analyses, including my own, of money. The chapter concludes with a quick survey of other trends within the field.
Ethics in the Economy
Authors: Zelizer Viviana A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter identifies a series of intersections between ethics and economic activity. Despite the frequency with which CEOs speak of ethics and business schools teach courses on the subject, researchers have so far produced no more than scattered findings on how ethical questions actually arise within economic life, how economic actors respond to them, and what effects those responses have on economic performances. The chapter therefore concentrates on identifying salient research questions and then closes with concrete suggestions concerning the sort of inquiries that would produce better answers than are now available. The discussions cover the distinctive properties of ethical codes; how ethical codes arise; how ethical codes produce their effects; what produces violations of ethical codes; and how codes and responses to them affect economic activity.
What Has Worked
Authors: Denison R. Ford
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses approaches that have worked in the past in improving cooperation within species. Taking a multidisciplinary approach, with evolutionary biology at the center, it argues that we need to pay particular attention to tradeoffs. The chapter first considers the Green Revolution, which it claims was based on reversing past natural selection, before looking at past evolutionary arms races and how they have resulted in plants, and even chickens, that compete vigorously with their neighbors for resources, even when that competition reduces their collective productivity. The chapter examines the ideas of Colin Donald and the case of the Australian wheat variety called Drysdale, and solar tracking by leaves. It also explores the tradeoff between the yield potential of a crop genotype and its ability to suppress weeds based on cooperation, group selection as a strategy for crop genetic improvement, and the role of biotechnology in understanding how plants detect crowding.
Physiological Adaptations for Breeding in Birds
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This book is an up-to-date and comprehensive account of research on avian reproduction. It develops two unique themes: the consideration of female avian reproductive physiology and ecology, and an emphasis on individual variation in life-history traits. The book investigates the physiological, metabolic, energetic, and hormonal mechanisms that underpin individual variation in the key female-specific reproductive traits and the trade-offs between these traits that determine variation in fitness. The core of the book deals with the avian reproductive cycle, from seasonal gonadal development, through egg laying and incubation, to chick rearing. Reproduction is considered in the context of the annual cycle and through an individual's entire life history. The book focuses on timing of breeding, clutch size, egg size and egg quality, and parental care. It also provides a primer on female reproductive physiology and considers trade-offs and carryover effects between reproduction and other life-history stages. Each chapter describes individual variation in the trait of interest and the evolutionary context for trait variation. The book argues that there is only a rudimentary, and in some cases nonexistent, understanding of the physiological mechanisms that underpin individual variation in the major reproductive life-history traits, and that research efforts should refocus on these key unresolved problems by incorporating detailed physiological studies into existing long-term population studies, generating a new synthesis of physiology, ecology, and evolutionary biology.
Trade-Offs and Carry-Over Effects
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first reviews the evidence for interactions between life-history stages, centering this around reproduction itself: the intention is to put reproduction in the context of the complete life-cycle. It considers how the wintering and pre-breeding period, including spring migration, can influence reproductive decisions, and in turn how reproductive decisions can influence subsequent post-breeding life stages such as molt, fall migration, and over-winter survival. It looks at the costs of reproduction, simply as a more specific example of general carry-over effects, especially from a mechanistic point of view, with potentially common underlying mechanisms. The chapter argues that short-term energy or nutrient “debts” and resource-allocation trade-offs provide unsatisfactory models for long-term carry-over effects or costs of reproduction; instead, it emphasizes potential “non-resource based” mechanisms.
Conclusions
Authors: Williams Tony D.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter summarizes key themes and identifies four important, overriding concepts that have emerged from this book. First, a common conclusion of many ecological and evolutionary studies is that there are intrinsic differences between individuals such that certain high-quality females lay many, large eggs, with a relatively early laying date, rear large broods, and recruit more offspring, while also having higher future fecundity and survival, thus apparently “avoiding” underlying the trade-offs that would predict negative correlations between these traits. Second, most individuals do not reproduce successfully; rather, the majority of individuals do not reproduce at all, while a few individuals contribute a large proportion of the offspring making up the next generation. Third, at the physiological level, different individuals are likely to adopt very flexible, “individually variable” strategies to deal with the costs and benefits of investment in self-maintenance or offspring when faced with increased workload or increased parental effort. Fourth, reproduction needs to be viewed as only one part of an individual's integrated annual cycle and its complete life-history.
Fluorescence
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at fluorescence. Fluorescence does not make light. This misunderstanding comes in two ways. The first is a common misuse of terms. Historically, bioluminescence was often referred to as phosphorescence, and many people, even biologists, still consider the terms synonymous. Because phosphorescence is closely related to fluorescence, the latter term has joined the party and is also often used synonymously with bioluminescence. While this mislabeling is ubiquitous, it is less pernicious than another misunderstanding, in which, while it is accepted that fluorescence is not bioluminescence, it is still believed that fluorescence makes light. Fluorescence can never make light, it can only take it away. Moreover, fluorescence cannot add more optical energy to the system.
Measuring Light
Authors: Johnsen Sönke
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses light measurement. Conversions between different integrated measurements such as lux and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) can be done if one knows the spectrum of the light. However, in most cases, if one knows the spectrum, there is no need to take integrated measurements, since one can easily integrate the data later. Indeed, although they cannot convert radiance to irradiance, spectra are a central clearinghouse that can be converted into almost every other light measurement. In fact, the benefits of spectral measurements so far outweigh the costs that the best purchase for anyone measuring light is a spectroradiometer. The chapter then explores the use of spectrometers in light measurement, beginning with equipment issues and then going on to specific applications.
Can the Variation Be Explained Away?
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

The success of defending universalist or objectivist theories of moral responsibility rests on a crucial empirical assumption. Specifically, the assumption that under ideal conditions of rationality human beings would come to share considered intuitions about moral responsibility regardless of their physical and social environment. This chapter raises serious doubts about the plausibility of this assumption by examining the origins of these intuitive differences and the psychological mechanisms that underlie them. It reviews recent theories in the evolution of cooperation, which suggest that a wide variety of norms may emerge as a response to the different features of a culture's social and physical environment. It then appeals to theories about the psychology of norm acquisition to argue that variation in norms about responsibility is grounded in cognitive mechanisms associated with emotional responses and intuitions about deservingness. It concludes that it is unlikely that we would ever reach agreement about the criteria of moral responsibility—even under ideal conditions of rationality.
Where Do We Go From Here?
Authors: Sommers Tamler
Published: November 2017

The first part of this book argued for metaskepticism about moral responsibility. This chapter identifies where metaskepticism fits within the philosophical landscape and outlines a framework for how we might proceed if the theory is true. First, it explores the similarities and differences between metaskepticism and other nontraditional and skeptical positions about moral responsibility, focusing especially on the fascinating work of Richard Double. It argues that although no theory can be objectively or universally true, there are principled ways in which we can approach moral responsibility within our own social, cultural, and psychological frameworks. Finally, it lays out a framework for approaching issues of moral responsibility while remaining consistent with the broader metaskeptical thesis.
Learning to See, to Adapt to, and to Value Uncertainty
Authors: Smit Han , Moraitis Thras
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides the reader with a helicopter view of a quantitative value-based framework. A key argument in this book is that volatility is always present. Uncertainty means that today's successful CEOs and their executive teams need to be able to act simultaneously as strategists—that is, designers of corporate strategy—and opportunists—with the ability to grasp opportunities that meet their value criteria as they arise. In essence, this requires the setting of clear strategic goals, but—given the reality of uncertainty—also being willing to revise intended decisions, seeking to continually maximize the organization's options to appropriate value. While uncertainty generally deters investment, executives who reframe their roles as strategic opportunists can actually benefit from uncertainty.
Strategy as Options Games
Authors: Smit Han , Moraitis Thras
Published: November 2017

This chapter develops a framework for assessing the value generated by both the option-like and competitive characteristics of an acquisition strategy. The conceptual approach is based on real options and principles from game theory. It illustrates the approach with an example of how real options and games thinking were used in strategic decision making at a major pharmaceutical company. The method treats an acquisition strategy as a package of corporate real options actively managed by the firm in a context of competitive responses or changing market conditions. This framework can help management answer several questions that are important for a successful acquisition strategy: How valuable are the growth opportunities created by the acquisition? How can we best sequence the acquisition options in the strategy? When is it appropriate to grow organically, and when are strategic acquisitions the preferred route? How is the industry likely to respond, and how will that affect the value of our acquisitions and future targets? The subsequent sections present a series of frameworks to address these questions.
Reconstruction
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates how the reconstruction of Europe's war-destroyed cities served an important additional function, one that was not merely practical. Surely, it was necessary to restore the basic necessities of life. But more than that, reconstruction meant the promise of a better future. This was particularly true in Poland, where people tied the rebuilding of devastated cities to the hope of moving beyond the horror of war and occupation, and of overcoming the enormous losses the country had suffered. The city of Warsaw became a symbol of the devastation wrought by the war in Poland; Warsaw's reconstruction in the second half of the 1940s was to symbolize the country's resolve to rise like a phoenix from the ashes and erase the humiliation of German occupation.
The Impermanence Syndrome
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with Joanna Konopinka's account of her arrival in Wroclaw. Her words illustrate vividly the enormous discrepancy between the actual experiences of Polish settlers and the patriotic appeals of the government, which spoke of the western territories as ancient Polish soil, a land of milk and honey that was to be resettled after centuries and that promised prosperity to all comers. Polish settlers arriving in the western territories were initially struck by a strong sense of foreignness. The land was foreign, and so were the people they met there, Germans and Poles alike. The settlers had left behind the familiarity of their homes and social surroundings only to find themselves in a kind of no man's land that no longer appeared to belong to Germany but was not yet a part of Poland.
Cleansing Memory
Authors: Thum Gregor
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how incorporating the German territories into Poland entailed a large-scale renaming operation. In order for state authorities, the railways and the postal service, the military, and other institutions that had to rely on fixed place names not to descend into chaos, the renaming procedures had to be carried out as quickly as possible. It also had to be implemented systematically and competently in order to avoid the duplication of names and to assure that they would be permanent. Despite these demands, the Polonization of place names began chaotically. In the early days there were no clear instructions or standard procedures for renaming, and even the general principle of restoring former Polish names wherever possible was of little help as long as the archival materials that would supply these historical names were not accessible.
Becoming Yellow
Authors: Keevak Michael
Published: November 2017

In their earliest encounters with Asia, Europeans almost uniformly characterized the people of China and Japan as white. This was a means of describing their wealth and sophistication, their willingness to trade with the West, and their presumed capacity to become Christianized. But by the end of the seventeenth century the category of whiteness was reserved for Europeans only. When and how did Asians become “yellow” in the Western imagination? Looking at the history of racial thinking, this book explores the notion of yellowness and shows that this label originated in the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century scientific discourses on race. From the walls of an ancient Egyptian tomb, which depicted people of varying skin tones including yellow, to the phrase “yellow peril” at the beginning of the twentieth century in Europe and America, the book follows the development of perceptions about race and human difference. It indicates that the conceptual relationship between East Asians and yellow skin did not begin in Chinese culture or Western readings of East Asian cultural symbols, but in anthropological and medical records that described variations in skin color. Eighteenth-century taxonomers such as Carl Linnaeus, as well as Victorian scientists and early anthropologists, assigned colors to all racial groups, and once East Asians were lumped with members of the Mongolian race, they began to be considered yellow. Demonstrating how a racial distinction took root in Europe and traveled internationally, the book weaves together multiple narratives to tell the complex history of a problematic term.
Before They Were Yellow
Authors: Keevak Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how East Asians were seen by medieval travel narrators and missionaries before they became yellow at the end of the eighteenth century. The story begins in 1511, when the Portuguese established a permanent outpost for East Asian trade at Malacca. Persistent rumors of “white” people in the Far East had turned into a reality, as both Chinese and Japanese (as well as Arabs and other East Asians) became a common sight. The “whiteness” of these people was constantly highlighted as a term that described their presumed level of civilization. The chapter considers a number of surviving accounts by merchants and (later) missionaries that are full of references to the whiteness of both Chinese and Japanese natives, including those attributed to Tomé Pires and Duarte Barbosa. It also explores how Western descriptions of East Asian people shifted from calling them white to calling them yellow.
In Search of a Father
Authors: Arnold Klaus J. , Duffy Eve M.
Published: November 2017

In this introductory chapter, the author narrates how he searched for his missing father, Konrad Jarausch, who had died in the USSR in January 1942. After providing a background on Jarausch's nationalism and involvement in Protestant pedagogy, the chapter discusses his experiences during World War II. It then explains how Jarausch grew increasingly critical of the Nazis after witnessing the mass deaths of Russian prisoners of war. It also considers how the author, and his family, tried to keep the memory of his father alive. The author concludes by reflecting on his father's troubled legacy and how his search for his father poses the general question of complicity with Nazism and the Third Reich on a more personal level, asking why a decent and educated Protestant would follow Adolf Hitler and support the war until he himself, his family, and the country were swallowed up by it.
Assessing the City-State Advantage
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether the difference in the activities of representative assemblies in city-states and territorial states had implications for the evolution of public credit. It first develops a basic game theoretic model that demonstrates how both political representation and public credit might emerge as an equilibrium outcome dependent on an underlying cost for representatives of monitoring public finances. It then uses the model to conduct empirical tests in order to identify what factors were correlated with the initial creation of a long-term public debt. Three hypotheses are tested: that access to credit depended on commercial and economic development; that access to credit depended on the presence of representative institutions; and that access to credit depended on the differing underlying conditions in city-states and territorial states. The results show that greater commercial and economic development favored access to public credit.