bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Critical Theory and the Paradox of Discourse
Authors: Box Richard C.
Published: March 2007

The work of public administration theorists who argue for a broader sphere of administrative discretion falls into three broad paradigms: the legitimacy paradigm, the guardian paradigm, and the critical paradigm. Legitimacy theorists argue for recognition within the Constitutional framework, and guardian theorists argue for more discretion for administrators to govern for the uninformed public. Neither view has much practical impact because neither fits American attitudes toward government. The critical paradigm advocates providing citizens with information so they may take action and free themselves from domination by elites. This critical view involves less, rather than more, formal power for professional administrators and puts them at odds with the elected officials who employ them. The paper seeks to determine whether this view of the role of the public administrator accurately portrays the nature of the relationship between citizens and government and whether the public administrator can be an effective agent of change by becoming an information provider instead of seeking greater institutional power.
The Moral Choices of Garbage Collectors: Administrative Ethics from Below
Authors: Rich Wilbur C.
Published: March 2007

This paper uses ethnographic techniques to examine the working behavior of garbage collectors in the Detroit public works department and to assess whether the workplace creates ethical problems. I found several opportunities for ethical dilemmas facing Detroit, Ml, garbage collectors. The current management practice in Detroit's public works department is to make rules without consulting workers. I make a case for collectors' participation in ethics decisions.
Robert Bartels and the History of Marketing Thought
Authors: Shaw Eric H. , Tamilia Robert D.
Published: March 2007

Robert Bartels was one of marketing’s most prolific scholars. His research covered a broad array of marketing topics, including the marketing-as-a-science debate, theory, metatheory, the nature and scope of marketing, credit management, international marketing, comparative marketing, macromarketing, and marketing education, among others. Bartels’s most significant and enduring contribution, however, was his fifty years of ongoing research, from dissertation to last publication, in the area with which his name became synonymous—The History of Marketing Thought. Although not without criticism, no other work provides such a long view of marketing’s past and wide sweep of its subdisciplines. By tracing the history of marketing thought in the twentieth-century American academy, Bartels nurtured the interest in marketing’s heritage and established a common knowledge base for generations of marketing students.
Economic Devopment Policy and Marketing Implications of the Brandt Report
Authors: Watson David M.
Published: March 2007

Global forms on the need to reduce income differences between the rich nations of the north and the poor nations of the south has led to the Brandt report proposal that financial resources be transferred. Neither the creation of markets to monetize economic activity nor mechanisms to share, bear, and shift risks are recognized in the proposal. This article specifies measures necessary to remedy omitted conditions necessary for the market organization that is a prerequisite for economic development of the south.
Marketing Systems in Regional Economic Development
Authors: Layton Roger
Published: March 2007

This article examines the role and impact of marketing in regional economic growth. It suggests that the marketing system plays a pivotal role in determining the rate of increase in per capita income, in broadening the assortment in the market-place, and in the adoption of productivity-enhancing innovations.
The Role of Marketing Processes in Creating Cultural Meaning
Authors: Tharp Marye , Scott Linda M.
Published: March 2007

An overview of the market system as a cultural institution is presented, and the concept of cultural meaning for material artifacts is discussed. The authors propose a system for representing cultural meaning of objects; this system can summarize the convergence of meaning for most material objects across individuals, subcultures, and time.
Cigarette Advertising and Regulation: A Game Theoretical Approach
Authors: Kopp Steven W. , Martin Lawrence W. , Wardlow Daniel L.
Published: March 2007

This article describes the regulatory problems in controlling cigarette advertising and marketing activities and develops a framework employing a game-theoretic approach to create a public policy solution. The model assumes that cigarette advertising has differential effects—primary demand stimulation (of the overall market for cigarettes) and selective demand stimulation (for individual cigarette brands). We first propose a tax on total market sales and then show how this encourages firms to emphasize selective demand stimulation components such that aggregate demand for cigarettes decreases through reduced effectiveness of advertising messages to potential smokers.
Christaller Knew My Father: Recycling Central Place Theory
Authors: Brown Stephen
Published: March 2007

Sixty years ago, the cornerstone of retail location theory was laid down by a German geographer, Walter Christaller. This article summarizes the subsequent central place literature and presents a simple "generational" model of theory development. It contends that the concept's evolution is explicable in terms of Christaller's other, less well-known, theoretical insight, the so-called "tourist" or "resort" cycle.
Impoverished Consumers and Consumer Behavior: The Case of AFDC Mothers
Authors: Hill Ronald Paul , Stephens Debra Lynn
Published: March 2007

This article presents three dimensions of impoverished-consumer behavior-exchange restrictions, the consequences of these restrictions, and coping strategies-in a model developed through literature review. The consumer environment of welfare mothers is then employed to examine the perspective of this model. The article closes with suggestions for welfare reform and a discussion of the broader implications for consumer behavior.
On the Piano Movers' Problem: III. Coordinating the Motion of Several Independent Bodies: The Special Case of Circular Bodies Moving Amidst Polygonal Barriers
Authors: Schwartz Jacob T. , Sharir Micha
Published: March 2007

We present an algorithm that solves the following motion- planning problem that arises in robotics: Given several two-dimensional circular bodies B1, B2, ..., and a region bounded by a collection of "walls, " either find a continuous motion connecting two given configurations of these bodies during which they avoid collision with the walls and with each other, or else establish that no such motion exists. This paper continues other studies by the authors on motion- planning algorithms for other kinds of moving objects. The algorithms presented are polynomial in the number of walls for each fixed number of moving circles (for two moving circles the algorithm is shown to run in time O(n3) if n is the number of walls), but with exponents increasing with the number of moving circles.
On the Elliptic Path of an End-Effector for an Anthropomorphic Manipulator
Authors: Shih L.Y.
Published: March 2007

This paper deals with the problem of an anthropomorphic manipulator with an end-effector traveling along a path whose projection on the rz-plane of a cylindrical coordinate system is an ellipse. The elliptic motion, coupled with an angular movement in the ϕ-direction, provides a smooth transition for motion reversal at both terminal points. To im prove the smoothness of reversal, one may vary the elliptic eccentricity to alter the shape of the path. The analysis reveals that the coordinates along the path may be expressed in terms of ( πt/τ + ζ), where ζ( t) is an unknown function of time to be determinedfor an optimal velocity distribution along the path by minimizing the total energy used by the manipu lation system. The computational technique employed in this paper is to express ζ as a finite series, satisfying the bound ary conditions at two terminal points, with the optimal coeffi cients λn, fn, and kn to be evaluated. For numerical illustra tion, two different values of eccentricity are chosen: one is the smallest value for the problem under investigation, and the other is 0.995 (close to the largest value). The results indicate that the energy optimization is essentially due to λ1 and f 1, which ensures a rapid convergence. The contributions due to kn are usually quite small, while the contributions due to iteration are relatively insignificant.
Dynamic Modeling of a Laminated Composite- Material Flexible Robot Arm Made of Short Beams
Authors: Chalhoub N.G. , Gordaninejad F. , Lin Q. , Ghazavi A.
Published: March 2007

High-precision assembly tasks are often performed by compact industrial robots with small work envelopes. The end-effector positional accuracy of compact robots can be accurately predicted by considering the links of the robot arm as short beams. In this study, a general procedure to derive a dynamic model for a revolute flexible robot arm, which takes into consideration the rotary inertia and shear deformation effects, is presented. Only the last link of the arm is considered to be flexible and assumed to be fabri cated from laminated composite materials.

Hamilton's principle is used to derive the equations of motion. A displacement finite element model based on the Timoshenko beam theory is implemented to approximate the solution. The digital simulation studies predict the deflections at the end effector and examine the combined effects of rotary inertia and shear deformation. Further more, the improvement in the dynamic response of the robot arm resulting from the fabrication of the manipula tor from laminated composite materials is demonstrated.
Instrumented Sensor System Architecture
Authors: Dekhil Mohamed , Henderson Thomas C.
Published: March 2007

Sensor systems are becoming ubiquitous throughout society, yet their design, construction, and operation are still more of an art than a science. In this paper, we define, develop, and apply a formal se mantics for sensor systems that provides a theoretical framework for an integrated software architecture for modeling sensor-based con trol systems. Our goal is to develop a design framework that allows the user to model, analyze, and experiment with different versions of a sensor system. This includes the ability to build and modify multisensor systems and to monitor and debug both the output of the system and the effect of any modification in terms of robustness, efficiency, and error measures. The notion of Instrumented Logi cal Sensor Systems (ILSS) that are derived from this modeling and design methodology is introduced. The instrumented sensor ap proach is based on a sensori-computational model that defines the components of the sensor system in terms of theirfunctionality, accu racy, robustness, and efficiency. This approach provides a uniform specification language to define sensor systems as a composition of smaller, predefined components. From a software-engineering standpoint, this addresses the issues of modularity, reusability, and reliability for building complex systems. An example is given that compares vision and sonar techniques for the recovery of wall pose.
Nonlinear Stability of Hybrid Control
Authors: Doulgeri Zoe , Fahantidis Nikolaos , Paul Richard P.
Published: March 2007

A theoretical and experimental investigation on the stability proper ties of the hybrid control scheme was performed using Lyapunov's theory for both the original scheme, which uses the Jacobian in verse for mapping Cartesian errors to joint errors, and a scheme using the Jacobian pseudoinverse. Both schemes result in position and force controllers that are statically coupled in the task space. Stability analysis shows that the pseudoinverse scheme is asymp totically stable, whereas the inverse scheme may become unstable depending on the manipulator attitude and the environmental stiff ness. In the manipulator workspace, where kinematic instabilities have been reported to exist even away from kinematic singularities, the Jacobian inverse affects negatively the Lyapunov function's posi tive definiteness and the negative sign of its derivative; this effect may become dominant when the environmental stiffness is zero or very low. Experimental results for a 2- and 3-degrees-of-freedom planar manipulator using a PUMA 560 were performed both in free space where stiffness is zero and in contact with a stiff surface. Experi mental results in free space have confirmed the stability properties of the two schemes as predicted by the theoretical analysis and are in agreement with previously reported simulation and experimental results. Experimental results in contact with a stiff wall gave stable results for both schemes.
Children's Mental Musical Organisations as Highlighted by Their Singing Errors
Authors: Brand Eva
Published: March 2007

This research presents a new way of looking at children's musical understanding. Children in the study were asked to independently learn an unfamiliar Zulu song that had been recorded on audiotape. A total of 36 children, aged 6, 9 and 12 years, participated in the study. In each age-group, half of the children were learning to play a musical instrument. Their learning session included singing, making notations and playing a xylophone and drum. They were videotaped and their singing was transcribed and analysed. On the basis of the analysis an in-action mental model was identified, composed of learning strategies and mental musical organisations. Only the latter are presented in this paper. Many of the inaccuracies in the children's singing were found to be embedded in common patterns of musical organisation. Mistakes of this nature occurred in all groups, suggesting that they were not related to age or learning to play an instrument. Examples of children's singing errors are described here to illustrate how the mental musical organisations were identified.
Music and Meaning: An Evolutionary Story
Authors: Tolbert Elizabeth
Published: March 2007

The literature on the evolution of music is quite sparse, and the topic is often mentioned only in passing as part of larger proposals concerning the origin of language and the emergence of modem human cognitive abilities. Although music, no less than language, is a uniquely human behaviour, most evolutionary scenarios either do not mention music at all, or make ethnocentric assumptions concerning the nature of music and its relationship to language, assumptions that are at odds with findings in ethnomusicology concerning the social embeddedness and mutual interdependence of music and language across a wide range of socio-cultural contexts.

This paper attempts to articulate an evolutionarily plausible and socially grounded theory of musical meaning in light of recent proposals concerning the origins of human cognitive abilities. Expanding upon Donald's (1991) suggestion that the capacity for representation evolved prior to the development of language, this paper proposes that music is grounded in a capacity for "mimesis", or motor modelling, and has a social ontology rooted in gesture and preverbal spatio-temporal concepts. Although both music and language evolved from a mimetic capacity, musical meaning retains a distinct link to vocal mimesis through sonic representations of bodily movement and emotional states. This work challenges both structural and cultural accounts of musical meaning by suggesting that music's power is not derived solely from syntactical or semantic referents, arousals and expectancies, or from its indexical relationships to a particular cultural context, but rather through its immediacy as a performance of socio-emotional essence and embodied gesture.
Classical Singers Learning and Memorising a New Song: An Observational Study
Authors: Ginsborg Jane
Published: March 2007

Classically-trained instrumental musicians' practising strategies, and changes in strategy use as expertise develops, have been identified in observational and case studies. Unlike instrumentalists, classically-trained singers perform words as well as music and must therefore use different memorising strategies. The present study aimed to identify these, to compare the extent to which they were used by singers of varying levels of expertise and to assess which strategies were most likely to be effective. Thirteen participants learned and memorised the same song over the course of six 15-minute practice sessions, which were audiotaped. One major finding was that experienced professional singers were not necessarily faster, more accurate memorisers than student and amateur singers, so the strategies they used were not necessarily the most effective. Generally, participants began by practising the music separately from the words and went on to practise words and music together. They began by reading the song from the musical score and went on to practise it from memory once they were confident that they could sing it accurately. Fast, accurate memorisers began memorising earlier and were more likely than slower, less accurate memorisers to count beats aloud during the learning process. This suggests that effective song memorisation requires not only basic musical expertise but also the use of a strategic approach to the memorising task.
The Primary Music Curriculum-Some Ways ahead
Authors: Kendell Iain
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to look briefly at some of the more important factors shaping the music curriculum during the last decade; to provoke discussion about some of the present issues by asking a series of questions; and to suggest some ways in which it might be possible to influence for good the Primary Music Curriculum in the next ten years.
Music Structure and Emotional Response: Some Empirical Findings
Authors: Sloboda John A.
Published: March 2007

Eighty-three music listeners completed a questionnaire in which thev provided information about the occurrence of a range of physical reactions while listening to music. Shivers down the spine, laughter, tears and lump in the throat were reported by over 80(% of respondents. Respondents were asked to locate specific musical passages that reliably evoked such responses. Structural analysis of these passages showed that tears were most reliablN evoked by passages containing sequences and appogiaturas, while shivers were most reliably evoked by passages containing new or unexpected harmonies. The data generally support theoretical approaches to elmotion based on confirmations and violations of expectancv.
Large Telescopes and the Moral Economy of Recent Astronomy
Authors: McCray W. Patrick
Published: March 2007

If they are successfully to carry out a research programme, astronomers need two crucial resources - access to telescopes, and sufficient time allocated on them to make observations and collect data. This paper employs the concept of the `moral economy' - the unwritten expectations and traditions that regulate and structure a community - as an analytical model to examine how astronomers and science managers allocate resources. I use the example of the Gemini 8-Meter Telescopes Project, a recently completed pair of large telescopes in Hawaii and Chile, as a vehicle to explore the moral economy of contemporary astronomy. Paying particular attention to the early years of the project (1987-92), I describe plans to build a new telescope facility for the entire US astronomy community, against the backdrop of the institutional, political and financial forces that shape national and international astronomy. By focusing on the process through which astronomers moved the Gemini telescope project from abstract blueprints and budgets into glass and steel, I examine themes such as access, equity, control and authority in contemporary science.
Towards a Sociology of Measurement:
Authors: Derksen Linda
Published: March 2007

This paper examines an inflammatory subject - `DNA typing' (or `DNA fingerprinting' as it is popularly called) - to show how credible scientific knowledge is produced through the systematic erasure of uncertainty and random variation. This erasure occurs at the levels of measurement and of group processes. I use the history of DNA typing in the United States as a case study to develop a three-fold argument. First, that objective knowledge is achieved through interactions and social processes that erase the actions of the representing subject from the representations made of the natural world. Second, that this set of social processes and interactions includes normative judgements, but that these judgements do not pose a threat to objectivity: instead, they are what constitute objectivity. Objectivity is attained through personal judgements and evaluations of what is good enough to constitute an objective measurement, or judgements of how big or small a deviation must be to count for or against a particular theoretical interpretation. Third, I argue that measurements, the result of the translation of properties of the natural world into numbers, always have a gap or error between the theoretically predicted measurement and the empirically obtained measurement. At some point this error cannot be reduced any further. The final measurement is the outcome of negotiation and interaction between people and nature. I demonstrate that these judgements, evaluations and negotiations take place within a laboratory, when forensic workers construct estimates of measurement error, and also in negotiations among disparate social groups involved in calculating random match probabilities. Scientific and legal disputes about the construction of measurements and measurement standards for DNA profiling began in the late 1980s, and continued for the better part of a decade. In this paper, the protracted controversy provides especially rich materials for examining the social construction of measurement.
Schizophrenia and the Narrative of Enlightened Geneticization
Authors: Hedgecoe Adam
Published: March 2007

In this paper I explore the way in which scientists attempt to construct schizophrenia as a genetic disease using various discursive strategies. These strategies involve: referring back to earlier twin and adoption studies on schizophrenia inheritance; constructing genetic models to allow some rôle for single gene versions of the condition; a cautious and responsible limit on the strength of current research; and the construction of a range of bordering conditions which contribute to the genetic risk of schizophrenia. These various rhetorics produce a `narrative' about schizophrenia which subtly prioritizes genetic explanations, while appearing to allow a rôle for non-genetic factors; I term this the `narrative of enlightened geneticization'. This research has implications for scientific controversies, specifically the way in which critics attack schizophrenia genetics, since many of their points are already incorporated into the narrative. It also contributes to the ongoing debate over the rôle of social science research in the study of geneticization.
Inequality and Scientific Productivity
Authors: Allison Paul D.
Published: March 2007

A new statistic — the modified coefficient of variation - is proposed for measuring the inequality of publication and citation counts. Its advantages include scale invariance, equal sensitivity at all levels of the distribution, allowance for random variation in publication or citation counts, and a close relationship to a probability distribution which fits observed productivity distributions. Also discussed are disciplinary differences in the distribution of productivity and the functional relationship between productivity and its determinants.
Amateurs and Astrophysics: A Neglected Aspect in the Development of a Scientific Specialty
Authors: Lankford John
Published: March 2007

Amateurs have been neglected in accounts of the rise of new specialties In science. This paper examines seven key amateurs and their relationship to the growth of astrophysics over a sixty-year period. These amateurs, five Britons and two Americans, are seen as the risk-takers of the new specialty. They pioneered m the application of photography and the use of reflecting telescopes, and amassed an Important body of observational material in such areas as spectroscopy While they shared most aspects of the discipline with professionals, including access to publications, honours and awards, and the governance of scientific societies, they differed from professionals in significant ways. Because amateurs were free to take risks they sometimes came into conflict with professionals. When this happened differences between the two were magnified. By about 1,90D astrophysics reached a stage where It was no longer possible for amateurs to compete. Neither wealth nor leisure could take the place of specialized training to provide access to increasingly sophisticated technologies.
Participation in Scientific Meetings: A New Prosopographical Approach to the Disciplinary History of Science - The Case of Immunology, 1951-72
Authors: Söderqvist Thomas , Silverstein Arthur M.
Published: March 2007

To handle the enormous amount of sources in modern and contemporary science, the historian can use different quantitative methods, particularly varieties of citation analysis. So far, all these methods have been based on publication data. Taking as its point of departure the fact that meetings constitute a pervasive, yet neglected, aspect of science, this paper introduces analysis of participation in scientific meetings. The strength of this new prosopographical method is illustrated by an analysis of international immunological meetings in the period 1951-72. Frequency of participation in meetings seems to be correlated to professional standing in immunology. By means of cluster analysis of participation data, the subdisciplinary structure and dynamics of immunology can be reconstructed.
Marine Science and the Law of the Sea
Authors: Vanderpool Christopher K.
Published: March 2007

The sociology of science has remained silent on the manner in which international law transforms the structure of scientific communities and the patterns of interaction among scientists. The effect of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on marine science provides an opportunity for exploring the impact of international law on science. The history of the Law of the Sea treaty negotiations and the on-going knowledge generating processes of marine scientific research clearly reveal the political-economic context of international science and provide a basis for future studies in the sociology of science.
Scientists' Understanding of Propositional Logic: An Experimental Investigation
Authors: Kern Leslie H. , Mirels Herbert L. , Hinshaw Virgil G.
Published: March 2007

Seventy-two scientists (psychologists, biologists, and physicists) from a large US midwestern state university completed a questionnaire designed to assess understanding of the principles of formal logic believed by philosophers of science to be essential to theory and hypothesis testing. The questionnaire, in a multiple-choice format, required solutions to problems presented in either abstract (symbolic) or concrete (specific example) terms. Across academic disciplines the participants' performance reflected substantial deficits in the appreciation of straightforward logical propositions. For example, nearly half of the scientists failed to recognize the logical validity of modus tollens, an inferential rule of propositional logic which, from a strictly normative standpoint, has been depicted as the only form of valid conclusive inference in theory and hypothesis testing. The pivotal role of formal logic in philosophical analyses of scientific inference is questioned on empirical grounds.
The Ideology of Science during the Nixon Years: 1970-76
Authors: Fries Sylvia D.
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the expert testimony given before the US Congress during the legislative history of the National Science and Technology Policy, Organization and Priorities Act of 1976, examining in particular the scientific witnesses' appeals for enlarged government funding for basic research and greater influence in the making of federal science policy. The author finds that in the process of arguing for increased support and influence, spokesmen for the nation's science establishment articulated an ideology of science which not only proclaimed the authority of scientific values over other forms of cognition, but sought to advance the authority of scientists over the identification and resolution of societal and political issues. In so doing they challenged the viability of political values essential to the Anglo-American democratic-republican heritage. The paper thus documents not only cultural `élitism', which is not necessarily incompatible with democratic politics, but an anti-democratic ideology as well.
Uncertainty as Symbolic Action in Disputes Among Experts
Authors: Campbell Brian L.
Published: March 2007

Uncertainty in disputes among experts in the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry is examined as symbolic action — that is, for the part that claims concerning the amount of knowledge play in expert debates. It is shown that scientists as experts vary systematically in the arguments they make concerning the amount of knowledge with, in this case, `critics' stating that there is uncertainty and `defenders' making claims for adequate knowledge. The credibility of expert claims concerning the amount of knowledge is demonstrated and explored. The theoretical and methodological importance of the analysis of symbolic action for the political sociology of science is suggested.
A Booming Discipline Short of Discipline: (Social) Studies of Science in France
Authors: Bowker Geof , Latour Bruno
Published: March 2007

This commentary surveys some of the work currently in train in France that reflects on science — its history, its intellectual foundations and its impact. It attempts to impart some coherence to its map of this field, and to correct several Anglo-Saxon misunderstandings regarding the nature of this intellectual activity. It ends with an analysis of the origins of the radical differences in the approach to science in France and in the Anglo-Saxon world, and a plea for more attention to the French work.
The Shaping of Nuclear Weapon System Technology: US Fleet Ballistic Missile Guidance and Navigation: II: `Going for Broke' — The Path to Trident II
Authors: MacKenzie Donald , Spinardi Graham
Published: March 2007

This paper (the second of two Parts) continues the historical case study of the evolution of Fleet Ballistic Missile guidance and navigation technologies by tracing the origins and development of the Trident system. This comprises a new submarine and two different missiles, Trident I (C4) and Trident II (D5), the latter of which is considered to be optimized for the destruction of `hardened' targets such as missile silos and command posts. It thus appears to mark a significant shift from the ultimate retaliatory `counter-city' deterrent (which was the main perceived role of Polaris).

Is Trident II's technology simply the culmination of inevitable technological change, acting as an independent causal factor that itself determines strategy? Or is technological change the consciously intended product of political will? This historical case is used to discuss various analytical frameworks commonly used to explain such developments — `Technology-out-of-Control'; `Soft Determinism'; `Technologists-out-of-Control'; `Politics-in-Command'; and `Bureaucratic Politics'. It is concluded that the material is most consistent with a `Bureaucratic Politics' perspective, but that this unduly favours one set of `factors' in a `seamless web' where the `technical' cannot readily be distinguished from the `social'. Nevertheless, we feel it possible and useful to try to distinguish patterns in this seamless web, and close with a discussion of one such pattern — the `black-boxing' of technical programmes.
Investigating the Social Foundations of Mathematics: Natural Number in Culturally Diverse Forms of Life
Authors: Watson Helen
Published: March 2007

My contention is that `natural number' is a cultural construct, differently formulated in different societies. I argue that the categories adopted by mature language users become evident when one understands that predication leads language users to refer in particular ways and thus determines what kinds of objects their language defines as constituting the universe. I show that English and Yoruba (a West African language) predicate in different ways, and consequently postulate different kinds of objects. This, in turn, produces different constructions of number: how we count depends on how we conceive objects to exist. Yoruba numbers are verbal constructs, not adjectival, as in English; they hold the object to exist in a collective mode, with a particular numerosity. The numeral system begins with aggregates, and then, by a process of subtraction, breaks these down through the concurrent use of bases twenty, ten and five. The number system can thus be shown to be intimately related to the conceptual frame that the linguistic structure lays down.
Understanding Invention as a Cognitive Process: The Case of Thomas Edison and Early Motion Pictures, 1888-91
Authors: Carlson W. Bernard , Gorman Michael E.
Published: March 2007

This paper describes an interpretive framework for understanding the cognitive or mental processes of inventors, and applies this framework to narrating how Thomas Edison developed the kinetoscope, or motion picture. A review of recent developments in the history of technology and cognitive science suggests the need for better conceptual categories for understanding and comparing how inventors approach problems. We show how Edison created a mental model of the kinetoscope from his existing phonograph, and how his assistant William K. L. Dickson (who is often credited with inventing the kinetoscope) developed his own alternative mental model. We further discuss how Edison utilized building blocks or mechanical representations from previous inventions, and what strategies or heuristics he employed. In particular, we examine how Edison divided the project between himself and Dickson. The overall result of applying our framework to this case is to provide a clearer picture of the roles played by Edison and Dickson in this invention. The paper closes with a discussion on the potential relationship between cognitive and sociological approaches to technological innovation.
Sources of Influence on Problem Choice in Brazilian University Agricultural Science
Authors: Velho Léa
Published: March 2007

It has been suggested that agricultural scientists in developing countries are more willing to pursue lines of pure research established abroad, than to work on more applied problems of farm production. This note examines the criteria used by agricultural scientists, working at four Brazilian universities in two distinct subfields, to select research topics. The evidence presented here contradicts this accepted view. On the contrary, Brazilian scientists tend to choose research topics which they perceive to be directly relevant to local agricultural problems.
Basic, Applied and Technological Research:
Authors: Lomnitz Larissa Adler , Cházaro Laura
Published: March 2007

Our purpose in this paper is to offer an historical account of the relationship between basic, applied and technological research, as found in a case study of the Institute of Research in Applied Mathematics and Systems (IIMAS) at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). We found that researchers who have dedicated themselves full-time to the development of technology related to computing science have, in their academic careers, faced a system of evaluation based upon an ideal of basic science: this results in an adverse environment for the development of technological research; and this, in turn, has negative consequences for basic research itself, as the achievements of basic and experimental science cannot be understood nowadays without any active collaboration between technology and theory. The concepts which give rise to the different forms of evaluation at UNAM resulted more from a value-ridden symbolic construction, than from the processes of the actual production of new knowledge.
A Residential Treatment Program for Male Sex Offenders
Authors: Annis Laurence V.
Published: March 2007

The treatment program provided for incarcerated rapists, child molesters and incest offenders committed to Florida State Hospital is described. Multimodal therapy appears most effective-ranging from insight-oriented and behaviour therapies to classes on small engine repair. Treatment modalities are essen tially aimed at (1) establishing preconditions for effective treat ment ; (2) reducing substance abuse; (3) encouraging conformity to appropriate social norms; (4) reducing arousal to inappro priate themes; (5) increasing arousal to appropriate sociosexual themes; (6) enhancing personal adjustment; and (7) increasing social skills.
"Stranger" Child-Murder: Issues Relating to Causes and Controls
Authors: Wilson Paul R.
Published: March 2007

Most industrialised countries are concerned with a perceived increase in the killing of children and adolescents by strangers. Though reliable statistics are lacking the growth of serial murder suggests that more young persons may be at risk than ever before.
Treating the Dangerous Sexual Offender: A Clinical/Legal Dilemma
Authors: French Laurence , Vollmann John
Published: March 2007

The DSO (Dangerous Sexual Offender) offender category involves some of our society's most repulsive deviant acts-rapists/murderers, child molesters, and serial rapists.... consequently, the combination of the severity of these acts coupled with a lack of any clear and effective clinical treatment poses a clinical/legal dilemma. The DSO poses a clinical/custodial enigma in that often these individuals respond well to the custodial environment and that this adaptation is often confused with effective treatment results. As a result of these false positives it is difficult to predict the potential of these clients once they are released back into the general public. This article examines this phenomenon from both the legal and clinicalperspectives.
The Role of Guilt and Its Implication in The Treatment of Criminals
Authors: Czudner Gad , Mueller Ruth
Published: March 2007

There is lack of consensus concerning the role of guilt regarding its therapeutic effect in the professional literature. This article attempts to indicate how guilt focused on the impact of an unfair act on a loved one can serve as an incentive for change in the treatment of criminals. Frequently the professional literature maintains that guiltwith this focus-is incompatible with guilt that focuses on one's self. The authors strongly believe that guilt can serve as a guide to moral action, since guilt reduction can be achieved by altruistic behaviour, which is incompatible with crime.
Aids in Prison: The Social Construction of a Reality
Authors: Berg Bruce L. , Berg Jill
Published: March 2007

This article consists of the presentation of ethnographic material on the creation of a reality concerning AIDS by inmates. The primaryfocus is on the examination of social discourse and how this relates to inmate understandings, beliefs, and definitions for their situation. The narrative reveals that a considerable amount of misinformation, and fractured information is employed to define their situation, and in turn, create a reality regarding AIDS in prison.
Prison Visiting Policies and Practices
Authors: Schafer N. E.
Published: March 2007

Based on empirical evidence that visiting is significantly related to parole success, correctional administrators have begun to view family visits as one component of the rehabilitation process. Several authorities have encouraged correctional institutions to maximize visiting opportunities. Previous studies have noted geographical and architectural limits to such maximization. This article reports the results of a national survey of visiting policies and draws comparisons with surveys reported in 1978 and 1954 to determine the extent to which prisons have increased efforts to make visiting a priority.
Social Change and Crime Rates in Puerto Rico
Authors: Arthur John A.
Published: March 2007

This report examines crime trends and patterns in Puerto Rico and assesses the effects of selected measures of social change in explaining crime on the island using data from the Uniform Crime Reports and the International Police Organization. It is concluded that violent and property crime levels are rising even though property crimes have increased at a faster pace than violent crimes. The data showed that the 1970's were characterized by low crime rates compared to the period after 1980. Burglary, the major property crime for the first 15 years of the period covered, has been replaced in the last two years by larceny-theft, while robbery and aggravated assault are the most frequently committed violent offenses. The results of the regression analysis revealed that overall, the measures of social change were very effective in predicting both violent and property crime rates in Puerto Rico.
Second Wave Evaluation of a Multi-Faceted Intervention for Juvenile Court Probationers
Authors: Elrod H. Preston , Minor Kevin I.
Published: March 2007

This study compares the effects of a multi-faceted intervention for juvenile court probationers with the effects of "standard" probation services. Approximately half of the subjects were randomly assigned to the intervention program (Project Explore) consisting of outdoor adventure, social skills training, and parent skills training components, and the other half were maintained on standard probation. Results indicate that while both groups showed substantial reductions in status and criminal offenses over a two-year follow-up period, there were no significant differences between the groups, suggesting that Project Explore was no more effective than probation services that allow caseworkers close and meaningful contact with clients.
Modem Applications of Traditional Sanctions
Authors: Lund Dennis W.
Published: March 2007

Five case examples of traditional sanctions are presented, as practiced in primitive times and in recent incidents depicting customary law-ways in Cheyenne Indian culture, with Alaskan Natives, and as applied to Micronesian Islanders. Contemporary comparisons of traditional law-ways are made with restitution, reflective justice, forms of banishment, and Beccaria's "Properties of Punishment." Comparisons of modern-day usage of restitution, intensive supervision, house arrest, half-way-in house placement, and weekend jail imprisonment are discussed. A similarity is found between primitive sanctions and current recommendations for "intermediate" penalties to alleviate over crowdedness in prisons and jails and for more appropriate types of punishment.
Correlates of Visitation in a Men's Prison
Authors: Jackson Penny , Templer Donald I. , Reimer Wilbert , LeBaron David
Published: March 2007

The number of visits and the number of visitors of inmates in a men's prison were more numerous with those inmates whose visitors were primarily family members. Visitation was positively correlated with proximity to the prison, which means the home was in Nevada Some suggestions are provided.
Some Aspects of the Welfare State
Authors: Pigou A.C.
Published: March 2007

Diogenes has set itself the task to present to its readers the most recent developments in all important branches of the Humanities. Among the most burning questions in the sphere of contemporary political sciences is the one raised by the almost universal demand for the ‘Welfare State’.

The twentieth-century state owes to man not only order, peace, and justice, it owes him also material well-being. The search for and the study of the means by which public power can provide for such well-being have added an important chapter to the history of political theory and the art of government.

Professor A. C. Pigou has had a decisive part in the genesis of this great intellectual and moral mutation. He is the uncontested master of the new technique. Diogenes is proud and happy indeed to have the privilege of presenting his original and deep thoughts on the idea of the State as the producer of well-being, on the origins of this concept and the methods of its development. These ideas throw new light on the evolution of the great modern states and put a new and efficient tool into the hands of those who strive to understand and explain this evolution.
Quest for the Essence of Language
Authors: Jakobson Roman
Published: March 2007

Since “in human speech, different sounds have different meaning,” Leonard Bloomfield's influential manual of 1933 concluded that “to study this coordination of certain sounds with certain meanings is to study language.” And one century earlier Wilhelm von Humboldt taught that “there is an apparent connection between sound and meaning which, however, only seldom lends itself to an exact elucidation, is often only glimpsed, and most usually remains obscure.” This connection and coordination have been an eternal crucial problem in the age-old science of language. How it was nonetheless temporarily forgotten by the linguists of the recent past may be illustrated by the repeated praises for the amazing novelty of Ferdinand de Saussure's interpretation of the sign, in particular the verbal sign, as an indissoluble unity of two constituents—signifiant and signifié— although this conception jointly with its terminology was taken over entirely from the twelve-hunded-year-old Stoic theory. This doctrine considered the sign (sêmeion) as an entity constituted by the relation of the signifier (sêmainon) and the signified (sêmainomenon). The former was defined as “perceptible” (aisthêton) and the latter as “intelligible” (noêton) or, to use a more linguistic designation, “translatable.”
Women's Work and Economic Crisis: Some Lessons of the Great Depression
Authors: Milkman Ruth , Milkman Ruth
Published: March 2007

An investigation of the impact of the Great Depression on women's paid and unpaid work roles, and the implications of this for their situation in the current economic crisis. The widely accepted notion that women form a "reserve army" which is integrated into the labor market during periods of expansion and expelled with contractions is criticized. While economic expansion draws women into the labor force, it is argued, the sexual segregation of occupations creates an inflexibility in the labor market which prevents their expulsion during a crisis of contraction. Women's unpaid house hold work, however, is an arena where they can be forced to "take up the slack" in the economy during crises.
The Context of Foreign Aid: Modern Imperialism
Authors: Richards Lynn , Richards Lynn
Published: March 2007

Foreign aid is seldom seen by bourgeois economics for what it actually is — one method by which capital and capitalism are internationalized. Bourgeois economists argue over aid's effectiveness in promoting development, while in business and political circles its defenders make the only really telling arguments; that markets and resources are secured, and a climate conducive to world wide private investment is created and strengthened. Those arguments fit quite well into the Marxist concept of imperialism, an analysis of which is in cluded here, while a study of U.S. aid flows from 1958 to 1974 confirms such a hypothesis.