bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gender and intergroup behaviour: Towards an integration
Authors: Williams Jennifer A.
Published: June 2011

While the importance of establishing connections between intergroup behaviour and gender has been recognized by sociologists and feminists, evidence suggests that social psychologists have been somewhat tardy in this respect. Social psychologists who take intergroup behaviour as their focus rarely include the relationship between the sexes within their frame of reference, and often assume that theories and research offer a satisfactory account of the behaviour of both women and men. Furthermore, psychologists whose interests lie in the social and personal implications of being born male or female typically attribute little importance to the fact that this defines membership of unequal social categories. Outlined here are a number of reasons for suggesting that these separate lines of inquiry are in need of integration, and the specific example of social identity theory (e.g. Tajfel, 1978) is used to give substance to this position.
Social identity and equity concerns in intergroup perceptions
Authors: van Knippenberg Ad , van Oers Huub
Published: June 2011

Intergroup perceptions of two groups of nurses in the Netherlands were investigated. The purpose of the study was to test the validity of two partly competing interpretations of intergroup perceptions, i.e. a straightforward application of social identity theory (SIT) and what we called the ‘strategic responses’ approach. The latter approach suggests that descriptions and evaluations of in‐group and out‐group characteristics are given from a strategic negotiation perspective, in which in‐group inputs are relatively accentuated while positive in‐group outcomes are de‐emphasized. With regard to outcomes (rewards and costs) the strategic responses predictions are opposite to those derived from SIT. From the results of the study it appears that predictions pertaining to descriptions and evaluations of input characteristics (practical skills, theoretical insight, interpersonal relations), which can be similarly derived from both approaches, were clearly supported. With regard to outcome characteristics, where the two approaches lead to opposite predictions, each approach turns out to have its own domain of validity. For instance, SIT explains intergroup perceptions of intrinsic rewards, while the strategic responses approach explains perceptions of career prospects and, to some extent, costs (like strain and stress, irregular working hours). In the Discussion it is suggested that SIT may be valid for outcomes which are inherently characteristic of the groups, whereas the strategic responses interpretation applies especially to outcomes which appear to be changeable and which are, therefore, subject to negotiation.
‘Different‘ just means ‘better’: Some obvious and some hidden pathways to in‐group favouritism
Authors: Mummendey Amélie , Schreiber Hans‐Joachim
Published: June 2011

Within the framework of social identity theory (SIT) a field experiment was conducted to test the impact of comparison importance for in‐group as well as for out‐group favouritism. It was predicted that (a) in‐group favouritism would be stronger on dimensions important for the in‐group irrespective of out‐group importance and that (b) out‐group favouritism would be possible on those dimensions important for the out‐group which at the same time are unimportant for the in‐group. Results of a 2 (high vs. low in‐group importance) x 2 (high vs. low out‐group importance) x 2 (social group ‘GRÜNE’/‘SPD’) ANOVA support the assumption in principle. The expected effect of in‐group importance on in‐group favouritism is mitigated by out‐group importance. In addition, interaction effects of ‘social groups’ with each of the other two factors on in‐group favouritism point to the relevance of type of intergroup relations underlying the intergroup comparisons.
Old truths or fresh insights? A study of students' evaluations of proverbs
Authors: Teigen Karl Halvor
Published: June 2011

Proverbs are often criticized for being contradictory and hence not necessarily true. The study examines two sets of contradictory proverbs: one concerned the values or disadvantages of novelty and change; in the other, contradictory pairs were arbitrarily produced through reversals (negations) of a variety of genuine proverbs. Both sets were evaluated by a group of students for quality, and by a parallel group for truth value, and originality (novelty). There were high positive correlations between truth and quality ratings, whereas originality tended to be negatively correlated with the other two. Thus, in this population, truth appears to be the most important criterion of a good proverb. However, truth scores within proverb pairs proved to be uncorrelated, so that a proverbial statement and its negation can both be considered true (or untrue). It is speculated that proverbs may be attractive as traditional (non‐novel) sayings capable of being applied to a variety of new situations.
Sending emotional messages in marriage: Non‐verbal behaviour, sex and communication clarity
Authors: Noller Patricia , Gallois Cynthia
Published: June 2011

Videotaped standard content messages sent by married couples to one another with positive, neutral and negative affect were coded for the presence or absence of specific non‐verbal behaviours on the visual channel. Discriminant analyses were conducted to determine differences related to message type, sex of sender, and marital adjustment level. Results paralleled the findings of an earlier study examining the accuracy of decoding these messages. When sending positive messages, wives used more of the behaviours shown to be associated with positive messages (e.g. smiles), while husbands used similar behaviours (eyebrow raises and flashes) for both positive and negative messages. Thus, it is not surprising that it was particularly for positive messages that females showed the greater encoding skill. When differences by marital adjustment level were assessed for each sex, no differences were found for females on any of the message types. High marital adjustment husbands, however, smiled more on positive and neutral messages, while low marital adjustment husbands used more eyebrow flashes on positive messages. When sending positive messages, high marital adjustment husbands, like wives, used more of the behaviours which discriminate positive messages. Finally, accurate encoders of both sexes were more likely to use the more non‐verbal behaviours associated with the particular message type they were sending than were poor encoders.
Self‐definition and psychological group formation in an ethnic minority
Authors: Ullah Philip
Published: June 2011

Social psychological theories of group formation have traditionally focused on the affective aspects of group behaviour. Group behaviour is thus defined in terms of the attraction members feel towards each other and the group as a whole. More recent approaches have emphasized the role of cognitive variables, such as social categorization, in causing group behaviour. The process through which this might occur has been outlined by Turner (1982, 1984). He suggests that it is the acceptance of a social category as a self‐definition which leads to attraction and group behaviour, via the stereotypic perception of the self and the ingroup. Experimental studies aimed at testing this model have not monitored self‐definitions directly. Instead, comparisons in terms of group behaviour have been made between subjects categorized as belonging to a group and those not categorized. The purpose of the study described here was to investigate self‐definitions more directly. Following Turner, it was predicted that the degree to which a group label is used as a self‐definition would be associated with the degree of group behaviour expressed in terms of that group. This was tested on a sample of people associated with a real‐life low status minority, and thus who would not be expected to exhibit group behaviour if attraction was the major determinant. The prediction was supported, and the results are seen as providing further support for a social identification model of psychological group formation. It is concluded that there is room for further applied and experimental research into the nature of self‐definitions.
The dimensions of positive emotions
Authors: Argyle Michael , Crossland Jill
Published: June 2011

This study was designed to investigate the dimensionality of positive emotions and was run in two parts. In part 1, subjects were given a set of 24 different life‐situations all of which commonly give rise to positive emotions. They sorted the 24 situations into groups on the basis of whether or not they produced similar emotional responses. In part 2 of the study subjects rated each of the 24 situations on 13 emotion scales.

The grouping data obtained in part 1 were submitted to multidimensional scaling (MDS) and returned a four‐dimensional solution. Canonical correlations between the four MDS dimensions and the 13 emotion scales revealed that dimension 1 is best explained by ‘absorption’, dimension 2 by ‘potency’, dimension 3 by ‘altruistic’ and dimension 4 by ‘spiritual’. These correlations were then married to an interpretation of the situations falling high and low on each of the four dimensions, with the following results. Dimension 1 distinguishes internal or private situations from social situations, dimension 2, achievement from leisure situations, dimension 3, social demands from self‐indulgence, and dimension 4, serious from trivial situations. The implications of these findings for the study of emotion are discussed.
The explanation of occurrences and non‐occurrences: A test of the inductive logic model of causal attribution
Authors: Hilton Denis J. , Jaspars Jos M. F.
Published: June 2011

An inductive logic model of the process of causal attribution is outlined and contrasted with existing formulations of the covariational model of the attribution process. It is shown how the definition of causality employed in the inductive logic model can be extended to the explanation of non‐occurrences. Using an elaborated methodology, it is shown that the inductive logic model successfully predicts attributions that may not have been made in previous experiments due to deficiencies in the response format employed. In particular, the inductive logic model is shown to predict some interactional categories of attributional response better than previous models. Finally, the assumptions of the inductive logic model are set in the context of other theories of the attribution process.
Intergroup behaviour, self‐stereotyping and the salience of social categories
Authors: Hogg Michael A. , Turner John C.
Published: June 2011

Recent research (Hogg & Turner, 1985a, b) favours a social identity rather than group cohesiveness analysis of group behaviour and psychological group formation. It is argued that individual behaviour is transformed into group behaviour by the cognitive process of self‐categorization, and that the content of the behaviour depends upon the particular social categorization being employed. The present article examines self‐categorization theory by experimentally varying sex‐category salience for 60 male and 60 female British university students, and monitoring the effects on self‐stereotyping (self‐description in terms of an individual's situation‐specific own‐sex stereotype) and other behavioural and evaluative measures of group behaviour. It was predicted that under conditions theoretically expected to accentuate the salience of sex (intersex collective encounter as opposed to intrasex dyadic encounter), self‐categorization, self‐stereotyping and group behaviour should occur, and that the specific content of this behaviour would be predictable from the nature of the social relations between the sexes. The results revealed that increased salience was associated with self‐categorization and self‐stereotyping, and that under these conditions males were less ethnocentric and experienced higher self‐esteem than females. These findings are consistent with the hypotheses, and thus provide evidence for both self‐categorization theory and the related salience hypothesis upon which the experimental operationalization of salience was based. Suggestions are made for further research.
Self‐esteem and facilitative close relationships: A cross‐lagged panel correlation analysis
Authors: Cramer Duncan
Published: June 2011

A cross‐lagged panel correlation analysis was used to test the Rogerian‐derived hypothesis that self‐esteem is determined by the extent to which a person has a close current relationship which is seen as being characterized by unconditional positive regard, empathy and congruence. The revised Barrett‐Lennard Relationship Inventory and the Rosenberg Self‐esteem Scale were given to 35 female and 27 male students on two occasions separated by 15 weeks. This prediction was statistically supported when these facilitative conditions were summed together but not when they were analysed separately. In addition, the cross‐lagged comparisons between the facilitative conditions suggested that the perception of empathy preceded that of congruence which in turn preceded that of level of regard.
The perceived causal structure of examination failure
Authors: Lunt Peter K.
Published: June 2011

The application of network analysis to the modelling of ordinary perceptions of causality was tested, using the explanations of examination failure reported in Stern & Weiner (1984). Subjects judged the causal interconnections among the set of causes. A network analysis was performed to identify the causal model underlying these judgements. The properties of the network were found to be similar to those predicted by Kelley (1983). Three types of causal role were identified (distal, mediating and proximal). The relationship between causal role in the network and locus, stability and controllability was examined.
Sex differences in perceived competence
Authors: Granleese Jacqueline , Trew Karen , Turner Irene
Published: June 2011

Consideration of the literature on self‐concept indicates the necessity for a multidimensional model of self‐perceived competence. The Perceived Competence Scale for Children (PCSC) was completed by 102 boys and 88 girls aged 11 years. Girls were significantly lower on physical and general competence than boys. Intercorrelations of the PCSC for girls demonstrate significantly stronger associations between physical and cognitive competence, and physical and general competence, than for boys. It is concluded that combining data for boys and girls, as if their self‐construals of competence were similar, does not represent a picture of perceived competence that is necessarily true for either sex.
Helping: The effects of sex differences and locus of causality
Authors: Hope Susan L. , Jackson Howard F. , Avis Michael J.
Published: June 2011

Male and female subjects were presented with four scenarios each involving the subject driving a car and passing a hitch‐hiker requesting a lift. The scenarios were kept constant except for the sex of the person in need of help and the implied cause of their difficulty (i.e. internal or external causality). Three response measures were taken: likelihood of helping, perceived degree of blame and primary emotional response. Results indicated that males were more likely to offer help than females, and male hitch‐hikers were more likely to be offered a lift than female hitch‐hikers regardless of locus of causality. Males were more likely to help females where the implied cause of need was internal than where the implied cause was external, whereas the reverse was found for female subjects. Subjects tended to attribute blame in scenarios depicting a hitch‐hiker of the same sex to a greater degree than in scenarios depicting a hitch‐hiker of the opposite sex. It is argued that neither emotional reactions nor attributions of blame explain adequately the sex differences in helping behaviour. In addition, female subjects' helping judgements were found to be influenced by their primary affective reaction whereas no relationship was found between males' judgements of helping and emotional reaction. These results are discussed with reference to attribution and social identity theories of helping.
Social projection as a function of cognitive mechanisms: Two meta‐analytic integrations
Authors: Mullen Brian , Hu Li‐tze
Published: June 2011

Two meta‐analyses were conducted on the results of previous research examining two distinct species of social projection: under‐/overestimation of consensus, and false consensus. These meta‐analyses were guided by an interest in the relative contributions of cognitive mechanisms and motivational mechanisms to social projection. The following patterns were observed in these meta‐analyses: the majority significantly underestimates its own consensus; the minority significantly overestimates its own consensus; the minority's overestimation is substantially greater than the majority's underestimation; the majority's tendency to underestimate increases, and the minority's tendency to overestimate decreases, as actual consensus increases; estimates of consensus made before behavioural choices are generally larger; estimates of consensus are larger when the consensus estimation question asks for estimation of consensus for one's own group; false consensus effects are significant and of moderate magnitude; false consensus decreases as the difference in the relative size of the majority and the minority increases; false consensus is largest when estimates of consensus are made before choices; and false consensus is largest when the consensus estimation question asks for estimates of consensus for one's own group. Discussion considers the implications of these results for the relative contributions of cognition and motivation to social projection.

I am quite sure that the average man is built just as I am; otherwise, I should not be making this revelation of my inside.

Mark Twain (1908) Something About Repentance.
Better or different? III: The impact of importance of comparison dimension and relative in‐group size upon intergroup discrimination
Authors: Mummendey Amélie , Simon Bernd
Published: June 2011

Within the framework of social identity theory (SIT) two experimental studies were conducted to further explore group members' selectivity in choosing dimensions for intergroup discrimination. Both studies were carried out in a laboratory setting using artificially created social categories. Importance of comparison dimension for the in‐group and that for the out‐group were manipulated independently of each other as within‐subject factors. In line with previous research, the first study tested the following hypotheses using 32 female respondents: (1) in‐group favouritism would be higher on dimensions highly important to the in‐group than on those unimportant to it; (2) in‐group favouritism would be mitigated on dimensions highly important on both in‐ and out‐group; (3) out‐group favouritism would occur on dimensions which are highly important to the out‐group but at the same time unimportant to the in‐group. All three hypotheses were confirmed. The second study added relative in‐group size (minority vs. majority position) as a between‐subjects factor to the experimental design. Respondents were 46 female students. It was predicted that minority members would discriminate in favour of their own group particularly on dimensions important to the in‐group, whereas majority members would favour the in‐group only on dimensions unimportant to the out‐group. The results partially supported our predictions. In addition, more subtle pathways to out‐group discrimination are discussed.
Referent informational influence and group polarization
Authors: Turner John C. , Wetherell Margaret S. , Hogg Michael A.
Published: June 2011

An empirical test of the referent informational influence analysis of group polarization is reported. Referent informational influence theory explains group polarization as conformity, through self‐categorization, to a local in‐group norm which is polarized as a result of the in‐group being located towards an extreme of the salient comparative context or social frame of reference. The experiment adopted a modified form of the risky shift paradigm, in which subjects were identified as risky or cautious individuals or groups for the purpose of four‐person group discussions of risky and cautious choice dilemmas. The most important finding was that, while risky groups shifted towards risk and cautious groups towards caution, risky and cautious individuals showed no shift or actually shifted in the opposite direction from their label. These results are interpreted as providing evidence favouring referent informational influence theory over the persuasive arguments and social comparison/cultural values theories.
The relationship between gender‐related traits and attitudes
Authors: Archer John , Rhodes Clare
Published: June 2011

The relationship between the Bern Sex Role Inventory scales (BSRI), the Attitudes to Women Scale (AWS‐B) and the Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI) was investigated in 149 male subjects. Three methods were used to analyse the data: intercorrelations, stepwise multiple regression of the AWS‐B and HMI on the BSRI, and comparison of the four BSRI gender‐trait categories, divided according to the median split method. The AWS‐B was strongly and negatively related to the HMI, particularly to one of its three subscales, which was attitudinal. The BSRI‐M was also strongly related to the HMI, but not in this case to the attitudinal subscale. A smaller relationship was found between the BSRI‐F and the HMI. Differences between the BSRI categories on the HMI were explicable in terms of the additive combination of the M and F scales. The AWS‐B showed a low but significant correlation with both the BSRI scales, negative with the M‐scale and positive with the F‐scale. This was confirmed by the multiple regression, which also revealed an interaction between the two scales acting in the reverse direction to that predicted by androgyny theory.
Structural consistency in moral judgement
Authors: Cortese Anthony J.
Published: June 2011

Principal axis factor analysis and LISREL were used to test the hypothesis that moral stages form ‘structured wholes’. The data analysed come from a new study of male and female students from three racial groups and also from Colby, Kohlberg, Gibbs & Lieberman's (1983) longitudinal study of moral judgement. These analyses supported the structural‐wholeness hypothesis.
De‐individuation and group polarization in computer‐mediated communication
Authors: Spears Russell , Lea Martin , Lee Stephen
Published: June 2011

A computer‐mediated communication system (CMCS) was used to explore the effects of de‐individuation on group polarization. Reicher (1984) argued that de‐individuating members of a group should increase the salience of group identity and hence normative behaviour, while de‐individuating subjects treated as individuals should have the reverse effect. We extended this idea to the group polarization paradigm and in addition independently manipulated group salience and de‐individuation, which were confounded factors in Reicher's study. It was reasoned that the visual anonymity created by isolating discussants in separate rooms would be de‐individuating compared to seating them together in the same room. At the same time either the subject's group or individual identity was made salient. A computer‐mediated communication system provided text‐based communication for discussants in all four conditions. Assuming that group polarization reflects conformity to a group norm (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher & Wetherell, 1987), we predicted an interaction between the de‐individuation and group salience factors, such that greatest polarization in the direction of a pre‐established group norm would be obtained in the de‐individuated—group condition and least in the de‐individuated—individual condition. This prediction was confirmed. Explanations of the findings in terms of Reicher's earlier study and in terms of self‐attention processes are considered within the general framework of social identity theory. Finally, the relevance of this research to the realm of human communication via computer networks is evaluated.
Lay theories of homosexuality: Aetiology, behaviours and ‘cures’
Authors: Furnham Adrian , Taylor Louise
Published: June 2011

This study set out to investigate the determinants, structure and relationship between lay people's beliefs about the aetiology (causes) of homosexuality, the attitudes to the behaviours of practising homosexuals and efficacy of ‘cures' for homosexuality. Over two hundred and fifty subjects completed a three‐part questionnaire, in which they specified their sexual orientation, personal contact patterns with homosexuals amongst other personal details. A factor analysis was performed on each of the three parts of the questionnaire and an interpretable factor structure emerged which suggested that lay people have an integrated ‘theory’ or schema concerning homosexuality. Lay theories concerning the aetiology, behaviours of, and ‘cures’ for homosexuality were moderately related to demographic variables such as sex, age and education, but strongly related to sexual orientation and contact with homosexuals. These results are discussed in terms of the literature on lay theories in general, and attitudes to homosexuals in particular.
Multidimensionality and the measurement of gender role attributes: A comment on Archer
Authors: McCreary Donald R.
Published: June 2011

This paper examines how the conceptual and psychometric limitations of gender role attribute questionnaires weaken Archer's (1989) contention that correlational analyses demonstrate the orthogonality of gender role attributes, attitudes, and behaviours. An examination of two popular attribute questionnaires (the PAQ and the BSRI) shows that masculinity and femininity are conceptually and operationally defined as instrumentality and expressivity, respectively. This restricted definition means that, although the PAQ and the BSRI may themselves show no association with gender‐related attitudes or behaviour, it is possible that there is such a relationship for attributes other than instrumentality and expressiveness. In addition, the multifactorial structure of the most popular trait questionnaire illustrates a serious psychometric limitation for gender role research, one which obscures further the interpretation of the relationship between the three gender role dimensions. Discussion centres on overcoming these limitations in order to address the multidimensionality of the gender role self‐concept.
The role of stereotyping in system‐justification and the production of false consciousness
Authors: Jost John T. , Banaji Mahzarin R.
Published: June 2011

Although the concept of justification has played a significant role in many social psychological theories, its presence in recent examinations of stereotyping has been minimal. We describe and evaluate previous notions of stereotyping as ego‐justification and group‐justification and propose an additional account, that of system‐justification, which refers to psychological processes contributing to the preservation of existing social arrangements even at the expense of personal and group interest. It is argued that the notion of system‐justification is necessary to account for previously unexplained phenomena, most notably the participation by disadvantaged individuals and groups in negative stereotypes of themselves, and the consensual nature of stereotypic beliefs despite differences in social relations within and between social groups. We offer a selective review of existing research that demonstrates the role of stereotypes in the production of false consciousness and develop the implications of a system‐justification approach.

[T]he rationalizing and justifying function of a stereotype exceeds its function as a reflector of group attributes—G. W. Allport (1958, p. 192).
Stereotypes and prejudice: The Australian experience
Authors: Augoustinos Martha , Ahrens Cheryl , Innes J. Michael
Published: June 2011

Recently, Devine has argued against the inevitability of prejudice perspective, proposing that stereotypes and personal beliefs should be conceptualized as separate cognitive components. The present paper reports on two studies which explore this issue in relation to stereotypes of and prejudice towards Australian Aborigines. In the first study, respondents (N = 165) were asked to give open‐ended responses regarding the cultural stereotype of Australian Aborigines. These responses were then compared to the respondents' level of prejudice towards this social group. Consistent with Devine's predictions, few significant differences emerged between low‐and high‐prejudiced subjects and category descriptions of the stereotype. The second study investigated the extent to which, and the speed with which, high‐and low‐prejudice people endorsed and rejected various components of the stereotype. A response time study in which subjects responded to a list of negative, positive and situational descriptions of the Aborigine stereotype found that subjects high in prejudice were more likely to endorse the negative components, and subjects low in prejudice were more likely to endorse the positive and sociological components of the Aborigine stereotype. This effect also generalized to positive and negative descriptions of Aborigines which were not stereotype‐linked. Response time patterns indicated that high‐prejudice subjects endorsed the negative descriptions significantly faster than low‐prejudice subjects, and low‐prejudice subjects endorsed the positive descriptions significantly faster than the high‐prejudice group. In comparison to high‐prejudice subjects, low‐prejudice subjects took significantly longer to reject positive descriptions than negative descriptions of Aborigines. These findings suggest that cognitive models of stereotype activation are alone insufficient for understanding the conscious processing of stereotype‐linked information more specifically, and in understanding prejudice more generally. Beliefs and the evaluation and affect associated with these beliefs are equally important.
Selective viewing: Cognition, personality and television genres
Authors: Preston Joan M. , Clair Shirley A.
Published: June 2011

Theorists have noted that cognitive processing and personality are essential in explaining television viewing behaviour, but evidence has been difficult to obtain. The present investigation employed a new cognitive‐personality approach to the intriguing question why do we watch what we do? Because self is central to personality, concept of self was measured in addition to concepts of television genres. In two studies, university students rated self and various television genres on several bipolar constructs in a computerized grid test. They also indicated their viewing behaviour for each genre and their viewing hours per week. Indices of congruence between concept of self and concept of each genre (self—other distance scores) were calculated and correlated with genre viewing behaviour. The findings support the conclusion that similarity of constructions of self and genre predicts selective viewing and demonstrate the relevance of viewer's genre concepts and personality to television viewing behaviour.
Gloomy but smarter: The academic consequences of attributional style
Authors: Houston Diane M.
Published: June 2011

The social psychological literature concerning the relationship between attribution and performance has documented the detrimental effects of particular types of attributional pattern on performance, expectancies and mood. The present paper reports three studies in which there was a consistent relationship between attributional style and actual performance. Undergraduate students who tended to attribute achievement‐orientated failure to stable, and to some extent global, causes actually performed well on subsequent academic and ability tasks. These findings are new and constitute a challenge to the prevailing assumptions in the literature.
Anticipated affective reactions and prevention of AIDS
Authors: Richard René , van der Pligt Joop , de Vries Nanne
Published: June 2011

Controlling the AIDs epidemic may depend largely upon health education aimed at adolescents. A number of approaches have been applied to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) preventive behaviour in adolescents, including the health belief model (Becker, 1974), protection motivation theory (Rogers, 1983), and the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1985, 1991). Since sexual behaviour is heavily influenced by emotions, a possible shortcoming of these models is that little attention is given to affective processes. In this study we investigated the role of anticipated, post‐behavioural, affective reactions to (un)safe sexual behaviours in the context of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). The results showed that anticipated affective reactions such as worry and regret predicted behavioural expectations over and above the components of the TPB. The implications for our understanding of adolescent sexual behaviour and for campaigns aimed at the reduction of risky sexual practices will be discussed.
The effects of contextual cues on making occupational and gender categorizations
Authors: Zárate Michael A. , Sandoval Patricia
Published: June 2011

We report one study investigating how persons are categorized when the targets are presented with contextual cues. Using photos of either persons in occupational clothing and in occupational contexts or photos of college students and without distracting stimuli, the response times to verify various group memberships were tested, with the underlying interest of determining how persons are perceived when the persons are clearly members of multiple categories. Consistent with past research, when using rather simplistic photos, women were categorized as women faster than men were categorized as men. With occupational photos, however, women were not categorized as women faster than men were as men, nor were men categorized by occupation faster than were women, contrary to predictions derived from the ‘white male default' (Zárate & Smith, 1990). Rather, for female stereotypic occupations, female targets were classified by occupation faster than were male targets, while for male stereotypic occupations, male targets were classified by occupation faster than were female targets. Across all comparisons, subjects categorized same‐sex targets faster than other sex targets. Results are discussed for their implications for various person perception models.
A comparison of leading theories for the prediction of goal‐directed behaviours
Authors: Bagozzi Richard P. , Kimmel Susan K.
Published: June 2011

A number of attitude theories have been proposed recently to explain behaviours subject to thwarting by internal and external impediments. The present research compares the theory of reasoned action, the theory of planned behaviour, a portion of the theory of self‐regulation, and the theory of trying and performs tests of their ability to predict two actions relatively low in perceived behavioural control: exercising and dieting. Respondents were 142 students who participated in a two‐wave survey over a two‐week period. The results indicate that, while attitudes significantly predicted intentions in all theories, subjective norms lead to intentions only under the theory of trying. Further, the effects of past behaviour were not channelled entirely through attitudes, subjective norms, or perceived behavioural control but rather had direct effects on intentions and subsequent behaviour. When past behaviour was taken into account, it was found that the performance of the target acts were not functions of intentions, and perceived behavioural control failed to predict either intentions or behaviour. Desires had strong direct effects on intentions and mediated most of the impact of attitudes. A number of theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.
Explanation slots as resources in interaction
Authors: Antaki Charles
Published: June 2011

This paper argues that explanations do various things, and that the analyst would do well to look to the explainers themselves, and their audience, to identify just what those things are. As an illustration of the general principle, the paper describes explanations that need to be understood as arising from speakers' construction of each other as being accountable. ‘Explanation slots' can be set up for another speaker by various ways of signalling something problematic in what they do or say (or fail to do or say). Such slots can also be set up for oneself, in which case they serve as markers of one's own behaviour as non‐normative and requiring explanation. To show how this setting up and filling of explanation slots is deployed in the pursuit of local projects at short or long range, I apply the analysis to a sample interaction between a candidate and two interviewers. The promise of the conversation‐analytic approach taken here is that it liberates the researcher from reliance on a priori categorizations of the content of explanations (for example, as causal attributions or self‐serving accounts), and looks instead to the practices of interactants themselves as the grounds for determining their meaning. Moreover, it integrates ‘explanations’ into the fabric of what is happening in the interaction, rather than treating them as free‐standing products of cognitive processing or psychodynamic motivation.
Illusions of well‐being and the repressive coping style
Authors: Myers Lynn B. , Brewin Chris R.
Published: June 2011

Recently, the proposition that it is normal for people to see themselves in illusorily positive terms has been challenged and it has been suggested that this phenomenon may be explained by the contribution of subgroups of overly positive individuals. We investigated this possibility by examining the contribution of repressive individuals, who tend to avoid negative affect, to the illusions of unrealistic optimism and overly positive self‐evaluations. Whereas normal and non‐anxious controls showed no evidence of illusory biases, repressors rated themselves as significantly less likely than the average person to experience negative events, and rated negative words as significantly less descriptive of self than others. These findings support the hypothesis that, in judgements involving negative material, the presence of repressors may be contributing to findings of illusory biases.
Discourse analysis and psychoanalysis
Authors: Parker Ian
Published: June 2011

Discourse analysis presents a challenge to mainstream psychology, but it risks either neglecting individual experience by employing a quasi‐behaviourist notion of ‘blank subjectivity’ or folding back into simple humanism through an appeal to ‘uncomplicated subjectivity’. This paper argues that productive links can be made with psychoanalysis to elaborate an alternative notion of ‘complex subjectivity’ which would provide a better theory of the subject, and so circumvent these problems. Eight aspects of transformative theotetical work that would need to be applied to psychoanalytic writing—a move to a human science frame, a turn to collective phenomena, a shift away from always intentional authorial responsibility, a reading of texts as reconstructions of the past, an attention to researcher subjectivity, an understanding of the text as ‘other’, an emphasis on language in reframing accounts, and a sensitivity to the cultural specificity of analytic vocabularies—are described, and some reflections on method, including a description of the ‘discursive complex’ as an appropriate analytic device, are outlined.
Discourses of ethnic minority identity
Authors: Verkuyten Maykel
Published: June 2011

This article is concerned with the way ethnic minority identity is presented in natural talk. The construction and representation of ethnic categories are studied by analysing discussions held by some ethnically Turkish inhabitants of an inner‐city quarter in Rotterdam. The participants defined their situation within The Netherlands. This definition provided shape and coherence to what was said, and guided the comparisons that were made and the way different categories were presented. It is argued, first, that existing social psychological theories have a restricted and one‐sided view of how people from ethnic minority groups make social comparisons and define themselves because they predominantly focus on status differences. It is shown that the participants construct and cross borders of various categories in defining themselves. Second, it is shown that there is indeterminacy in the dimensions of comparison used for self‐categorization and for the inclusive self‐category in terms of which comparisons are made. Third, it is shown that self‐definition in group terms is unavoidably divisive but not necessarily oppositional.
Social comparison and task prediction: Ability similarity and the use of a proxy
Authors: Smith William P. , Sachs Paul R.
Published: June 2011

It is argued that an important aspect of the self‐appraisal of ability involves a person's prediction of his or her own performance level on untried tasks through acquisition of knowledge about how other people have fared at the task. These others are treated as substitutes for a person's own participation in the task—as proxies. It is further argued that social comparison plays a significant role in both the selection of proxies and the impact of proxy information on task prediction. The first experiment, following earlier research on comparison preference in the context of performance prediction, showed that participants interested in performance prediction chose a proxy who had performed at about the same level as they had on a reference task, while those interested in improving their performances chose to see the performances of someone who had done far better than they on the reference task. The second study indicated that participants made more confident predictions for themselves from a similar proxy's task outcome than from that of a proxy whose ability was unknown to them. Participants predicted they would do worse than a more able proxy and better than a less able proxy, but were less confident in their predictions than were those with a similar proxy. Ratings of usefulness of the proxy followed the patterns of confidence ratings closely.
Some tests of the distinction between attitude and perceived behavioural control
Authors: Trafimow David , Duran Anne
Published: June 2011

Although perceived behavioural control has recently become a popular variable for use in predicting behaviour or intention to behave, it is far from clear that this variable is theoretically distinguishable from attitude. Consequently, we performed some tests of the distinction between attitude and perceived behavioural control. In Expt 1, using participants from an American university, the semantic differential scales that have often been used to measure attitude and perceived behavioural control were submitted to factor analyses. Consistent with the distinction, a two‐factor solution resulted in the attitude and perceived behavioural control items clearly loading on different factors. Further, Expt 2 demonstrated that the attitude factor predicts behavioural beliefs and does not predict control beliefs, but the reverse is true concerning the perceived behavioural control factor. Finally, in Expts 3–5, the beliefs presumed to underlie these two variables were cluster analysed. Consistent with the distinction, and paralleling findings obtained by Trafimow & Fishbein (1995), the order in which participants wrote down their beliefs exhibited significant clustering by belief type.
‘Inclined abstainers’: A problem for predicting health‐related behaviour
Authors: Orbell Sheina , Sheeran Paschal
Published: June 2011

A longitudinal test of the association between motivation to undertake a precautionary health action and subsequent behaviour was conducted on women's uptake of the cervical screening test. A sample of never‐screened women (N = 166) completed measures derived from protection‐motivation theory (PMT; Rogers, 1983). One year later, screening uptake was reliably determined from medical records. While regression analyses demonstrated that PMT variables predicted both motivation to undergo cervical screening and screening uptake, there was, nonetheless, a good deal of inconsistency between protection motivation and screening behaviour. Fifty‐seven per cent of those who indicated they were willing to undergo the test did not do so within a one‐year period. Discriminant analysis was therefore used to test the ability of cognitions specified by PMT to distinguish four patterns of association between motivation and behaviour: inclined actors, inclined abstainers, disinclined actors and disinclined abstainers. While PMT variables could successfully classify the four groups, it was not possible to derive a reliable discriminant function which distinguished between inclined actors and inclined abstainers. The results suggest that PMT provides a useful account of choice motivation but does not address the psychological processes by which intention is translated into action. Recent calls for the development of a social psychology of volition are discussed in the light of these findings.
Comprehending the Scottish caution: Do offenders understand their right to remain silent?
Authors: Cooke David J. , Philip Lorraine
Published: June 2011

Objectives. The Scottish legal system differs from that which pertains in the rest of the United Kingdom, for example, there is no standard police caution to administer to suspects in Scotland. The absence of a standardized caution may result in suspects being presented with a caution which is both semantically and syntactically complex. Over the last 30 years the central role given to an individual's appreciation that he/she has the right to remain silent has diminished when evaluating whether a confession has been obtained fairly. This study examines the extent to which offenders understand the caution and the factors which influence their level of comprehension.

Methods. A Scottish Comprehension of Caution instrument was developed. One hundred convicted young offenders were assessed using this instrument, a short form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised and a range of measures of criminal experience and attitudes.

Results. The overall level of comprehension was low: while 89 per cent claimed to fully understand the caution only 11 per cent were considered to have a complete understanding. Level of understanding was linked to cognitive functioning and not linked to demographic or criminal justice variables.

Conclusions. It is argued that the semantic and syntactic complexity of the caution is a significant barrier to understanding. This may reflect the fact that the archival function of legal language takes precedence over its communicative function.
The Hare PCL‐R: Some issues concerning its use and misuse
Authors: Hare Robert D.
Published: June 2011

The Hare Psychopathy Checklist‐Revised (PCL‐R) and its screening version, the Hare PCL:SV, provide reliable and valid assessments of the traditional clinical construct of psychopathy. They are used widely for research purposes and for making decisions in the mental health and criminal justice systems. They are strong predictors of recidivism and violence in offenders and psychiatric patients, form a key part of current risk assessment procedures, and play an important role in many judicial decisions. However, problems arise when the PCL‐R and PCL:SV are used improperly. In this article I briefly describe these instruments, with emphasis on their use in the criminal justice system. I then discuss some of the concerns I have about their misuse.