bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effects Of Time Harmonics On Various Space Phasor Loci, Harmonic Amplitude Estimation
Authors: Vas Peter
Published: November 2023

If an a.c. machine is supplied by a converter, time harmonics can be present in the voltage, current, and flux linkage waveforms. These are undesirable, since they contribute to extra losses, unwanted torque pulsations and so on. It is possible to obtain information on the harmonic content of these waveforms directly from their space phasor loci. A space phasor locus of a particular quantity (in both the steady-state and the transient state) can be obtained by plotting on the two axes of a reference frame the real and imaginary components of the space phasor quantity (voltage, current, etc.) under consideration. The methods of monitoring these in real time, by using line-to-line or line-to-neutral quantities, was discussed in Chapter.
Electromagnetic transient analysis of the induction motor
Authors: Yamamura Sakae
Published: November 2023

As AC motor control began to shift from classical to modern control with the advent of power electronics, the lack of adequate analytical and control theories for AC motors was the first problem. This prevented full use of the favourable situation created by advances in power electronics. Without adequate theoretical analysis of electromagnetic transient phenomena in AC motors, the inherently superior features of AC motors could not be exploited. In analyzing AC motor transients, the equivalent two-phase machine theory, or two-axis theory (sometimes mistakenly called d-q axis theory), is popular. This theory, however, has not provided an adequate anaytical solution of AC motor transients. AC motors have more windings than DC motors and so their analysis is more complicated than that of DC motors. The equivalent two-phase method reduces the number of phases from three to two, but this is still too many for derivation of analytical solutions of the performance equations. When analysing transients of motor speed control, where electromagnetic transients within the motor and dynamic transients of the driven equipment were mixed together, computers have provided numerical solutions. The former transient was thought to be influenced by the latter. But as will be shown in this chapter, these two transients can be made independent of each other by FAM control of the induction motor.
Transient analysis and torque control of the induction motor
Authors: Yamamura Sakae
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter, various transient-state equivalent circuits were derived. In this chapter, they will be used to analyse the transient response of induction motor torque control, and the results obtained will be put to use to provide a very fast torque response. As was shown in Chapter 3, a constant-magnitude exciting current makes the torque-speed characteristic curves very straight over very wide torque ranges. A constant-magnitude exciting current is the fundamental principle behind FAM control of induction motor torque. This principle, coupled with the pre-excitation, suppresses transients and makes control response very fast.
Electromagnetic Effects
Authors: Gieras Jacek F
Published: November 2023

“The linear velocity of the fundamental harmonic of the MMF travelling wave produced by the primary winding is called the synchronous velocity,

where: T = pole pitch, f = l/T = input frequency, w = 2πf = angular input frequency. The synchronous velocity of a LIM depends on the frequency of the input current and on the pole pitch. It does not depend on the number of poles 2p.
Inverter Drives
Authors: Gieras Jacek F
Published: November 2023

The full capability of LIMs has only been recognized through recent revolutionary advances in power semiconductor technology. For example, the progress in power electronics over the last ten years has led to the replacement of the bipolar transistor with the power metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) and the insulated gate bipolar transistor_ (IGBT). Similar advances in the 1990s are expected to lead to the replacement of the gate-turn-off (GTO) thyristor by MOS-gated thyristor structures. On a longer time scale, silicon-carbide-based power devices have the potential to replace all silicon-based structures. Allied with modern control methods, power semiconductor devices allow manipulation of the characteristics of LIMs, enlarging the field of their applications, and saving energy.
Methods of numerical analysis
Authors: Krawczyk Andrzej , Tegopoulos John A
Published: November 2023

Although the continuous mathematical model gives some essential and meaningful information on the problem considered, what we really need is a numerical result. The qualitative analysis is of limited use if it is not supported by numerical results, and therefore we need to discretize a worked-out continuous model. This procedure creates new knowledge which may be easily understood by a mathematician but may be too difficult for an engineer. Thus, it is important to find an adequate compromise, and at this point we should warn the readers that they will not find here any mathematical proofs and considerations on the stability or convergence of the methods described. What we really want to convey to readers are some hints as to general features of the methods and how they can be applied to eddy current problems.
Treatment on non-linearities
Authors: Krawczyk Andrzej , Tegopoulos John A
Published: November 2023

Although eddy currents mainly exist in conducting materials which are by nature linear in the sense of constant (independent of field) permeability, they can be also analysed in non-linear materials. Indeed, it is quite common for eddy currents to flow in ferromagnetic media, in which case an analysis of their distribution and other integral parameters (power losses, forces etc.) is needed. It should be clearly stated that the problem of non-linearities is much more serious when eddy currents are present than in the static problems. It is especially seen in transient problems where the permeability is dependent on time. What is more, the hysteresis loop has to be then specified for each time-space point. For this reason the hysteresis will not be discussed here. As already mentioned (see Chapter 2) an extensive survey of approaches regarding non-linear materials is given by Stoll (1974).
Numerical methods for systems of equations
Authors: Neittaanmäki P , Rudnicki M , Savini A
Published: November 2023

One approach is to employ direct methods such as Gaussian elimination, which gives the solution of the system in a finite number of operations, to exploit the sparsity structure of the system matrix A. Typical strategies involve the intelligent choice of the numbering of the unknowns, to minimize the band width of the matrix or to obtain special data structures, or special pivoting rules to minimize fill-in in the elimination process. The interested reader should consult the books by George and Liu [1981], Duff et al. [1986] or Pissanetzky [1984].
Nonlinear least-squares
Authors: Neittaanmäki P , Rudnicki M , Savini A
Published: November 2023

Unconstrained optimization, nonlinear least-squares and the solving of simultaneous nonlinear equations together make a particular blend of applied mathematics with broad applications in the numerical solution of inverse, synthesis and optimal-design problems in real life. It is, therefore, pertinent to present these topics in a way which stresses their mutual connection.
Potential equations in electricity and magnetism
Authors: Neittaanmäki P , Rudnicki M , Savini A
Published: November 2023

The use of potential functions provides a very convenient method of solving both static and transient electromagnetic field problems.

A typical problem of electrostatics is formulated as follows.
Synthesis of boundary conditions
Authors: Neittaanmäki P , Rudnicki M , Savini A
Published: November 2023

The problem of identifying the boundary conditions along a part of the boundary of a field region, knowing the conditions on the other part and the values of the potential or the field intensity in a subregion, is often encountered, especially when performing measurements in bodies which are not easily accessible. This usually entails extrapolation of measurement results. In practice we often deal with the problem of the continuation of electric or magnetic field potentials derived from experimental data; that is, we determine the field in the whole domain knowing only the field distribution at a number of sample points in part of the domain.
Subroutine libraries
Authors: Neittaanmäki P , Rudnicki M , Savini A
Published: November 2023

There are number of excellent commercial libraries of mathematical subroutines. Below we list those offering software for optimization, linear and nonlinear least-squares problems, singular-value decomposition, ovenletermined systems of linear equations, systems of nonlinear equations, sparse linear solvers and the finite-element method•
Groundwater flow problems solved by finite elements
Authors: Wood W L
Published: November 2023

described in section 1.7. Appendix 1 shows how the three-dimensional equation can be vertically integrated to give a two-dimensions-in-plan equation suitable for aquifer modelling. This equation is non-linear but further simplifications can be made to make it linear. This chapter gives examples of the solution of groundwater flow problems by finite element methods. There is a general discussion of the solution of the non-linear aquifer equation (Al.18). The linear form using estimated transmissivities can be regarded as a particular case of this.

For the three-dimensional case it is possible to solve for the groundwater flow up to the phreatic surface but this is difficult because the position of this surface is initially unknown. This problem with some simplifying assumptions is discussed in section 7.6. Section 7.7 deals with the solution of the three-dimensional non-linear Richards’ equation representing groundwater flow in the saturated and unsaturated regions up to the surface of the ground.
Boundary integral methods
Authors: Wood W L
Published: November 2023

Boundary integral methods are taken here to mean methods where all or part of the computation is transferred to an integral on the boundary of the region. There is the boundary integral method which is referred to here as the BIM. This is also sometimes called the boundary element method (Latinopoulos, 1986; Grilli, 1989; Latinopoulos and Katsifarakis, 1991) or the boundary integral equation method (Liggett and Liu, 1983). The BIM is described in section 8.2. Sections 8.3 and 8.4 describe two different kinds of problem where boundary integrals are used together with finite elements to cope with regions which are sufficiently large so as to be called infinite.
Prologue
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2023

Why his Finger? Galileo marks the turning point, when the scientific endeavour took a new direction, when scientists—an anachronistic term at the time, of course—rose from their armchairs, questioned the efficacy of the preceding attempts to come to grips with the nature of the world by thought in alliance with authority, and took the first faltering steps down the path of modern science. In the process they rejected untested authority, and while not letting go entirely of armchair speculation and inner contemplation, forged a new, more powerful alliance with the technique of publicly verifiable experimental observation. We see this aspect of Galileo’s finger dabbling in all our current scientific pies. We see it in physics, where it first began to stir; in chemistry, where it found its way at the beginning of the nineteenth century; and in biology, especially since biology ceased being merely a source of wonder during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Evolution
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2023

Life is such a precious thing that for long it was thought to require its own special creation, for how could something so extraordinary and so special emerge spontaneously from lifeless slime? Indeed, what is the crucial component of things that endows them with life? The answers to hugely important questions like these emerged in two waves. There was first the wave of empirical explanation, when observers, most of them naturalists and geologists in the nineteenth century, inspected the outward forms of nature and drew far- reaching conclusions. Then there was the second wave, in the twentieth century, when moles with scientific eyes burrowed below the surface of appearance and discovered the molecular basis of the web of life.
DNA
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2023

Each of us is about a hundred trillion selves. Each of our cells, and there are getting on for about a hundred trillion of them, most of them so small that about two hundred are needed to cover the dot on this i, contains a template for our complete body. In principle—always a dangerously suspicious word—your body shattered into its hundred trillion cells could spawn a hundred trillion yous, each of those new yous shattered again could become a hundred trillion more, and quickly you and your clones would dominate the universe utterly. Fortunately, there are physical and biological constraints that render this fantasy impossible. But even to contemplate the possibility suggests that we know about the cellular nature of life to an unprecedented degree.
Energy
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2023

Either the pulsating biosphere that emerged from inorganic Earth, nor the molecular activity that sustains and propagates it now, could have done so without an influx of energy from the Sun. But what is this thing called energy? The word might spring from everyone’s lips, and a scientist might see it as binding the universe into a comprehensible, living whole; but what is it really? Poets, in their inimitable way, mastered the concept of energy well before it came to the attention of scientists.
Entropy
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2023

Question anyone might forget to ask is why anything happens at all. Deep questions are often thought wrongly to be naive questions; yet deep, seemingly naive questions properly investigated can expose the heart of the universe. That is certainly true of this particular question, for we shall see that by pursuing the answer we are led into a full understanding of the driving force of all change in the world. We shall come to understand the simple events of everyday life, such as the cooling of hot coffee, and we shall see at least the ankle of the explanation of the most complex events of everyday life, such as birth, growth, and death.
Symmetry
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: November 2023

Could it be that beauty is the key to understanding this beautiful world? The Greek sculptor Polyclitus of Argos, who flourished in about 450–420 Bce, laid down the foundations of our current understanding of the fundamental particles when, in his Canon, his guide to aesthetics, he wrote that ‘the beautiful comes about little by little, through many numbers’. Polyclitus wrote of symmetria, the dynamical counterbalance of the relaxed and tensed parts of the human body and the relative orientations of these parts that results in a harmonious whole.
The Vikings
Authors: Crawford Barbara E
Published: November 2023

This is a timely moment to consider the Vikings in the context of Britain, Ireland, and all their surrounding islands. Viking impact has been more usually discussed and analysed from the perspective of individual kingdoms and national entities, such as Anglo-Saxon England, Francia, and recently Scotland (or Alba). However, the Vikings are an international phenomenon; this period of European history is indeed often called the ‘Viking Age’. From the point of view of the Vikings, Britain, Ireland, and the islands were regarded as one maritime complex, giving access to different territories available for exploitation. This complex is geographically very much a part the northern maritime world, and north and east Britain are near neighbours with Scandinavia.
Exchange, Trade, and Urbanization
Authors: Griffiths David
Published: November 2023

The lives of people in Britain and Ireland between 800 and 1100 continued to depend for the most part on agriculture, and the produce of sea, forest, river, and marsh. Throughout the period, the proportion of people living on the land, as opposed to in towns, monasteries, or palaces, remained well over 90 per cent. The number of people who had specialized roles such as in craft, trade, household retinues, holy orders, administrative offices, and military service remained small, but increased over the period. The demands of conspicuous consumption and piety described in the following chapter grew alongside the needs of an increasing apparatus of state power and defence; the obligations between Irish kings and client lords for the provision of large amounts of military equipment and ships to defend the coast, described in the Lebor na Cert (the ‘Book of Rights’, dating to c.1100), are a case in point.
What is the Old Testament?
Authors: Coggins Richard
Published: November 2023

What is the Old Testament? It may seem extraordinary that such a question needs to be put. In fact, much controversy has surrounded both the name ‘Old Testament’ and the contents of the collection so described; and it is clearly important at the very outset to make clear what it is that we are talking about.
What Does it Mean to be Human?
Authors: Coggins Richard
Published: November 2023

‘The proper study of mankind is man.’ So wrote Pope, nearly 300 years ago. His choice of words would be criticized nowadays as sexually stereotyped, but apart from that it might not appear that his aphorism was true when applied to the Bible, which is, after all, a book about God and his relations with humanity. Yet (if not quite in the sense envisaged by Pope) recent biblical studies have been much enriched by the work of anthropologists, whose contributions have brought a different perspective to bear upon the biblical text over against that which has been dominated by historical concerns.
John Clare
Authors: Dawson P M S
Published: November 2023

The editing of Clare ‘s poetry has been a problematic issue from the very beginning of his career as a published poet. The four volumes published in his lifetime-Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery (4 edns., 1820-1), The Village Minstrel (1821), The Shepherd ‘s Calendar (1827), and The Rural Muse (1835)were all editorialized to an extent and in ways that modern readers would consider excessive. Even the selection of their contents (in the case of the first three) was dependent on the approval of Clare ‘s publisher, John Taylor, who also oversaw their correction in terms of spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and often in terms of decorum and decency as well. Taylor also proof-read The Rural Muse, whose contents and title were determined by Mrs Emmerson. The case against Taylor ‘s editing and the motives underlying it has been made by Robinson and Summerfield (1963); the defence by Chilcott (1972) is less than totally persuasive. Clare himself had mixed feelings. At the outset of his career he was uncertain of his qualifications to enter the literary field and grateful for the assistance of advisers for whose taste and knowledge he had great respect. Like most authors at the period he would have expected his publishers to tidy up the more mechanical aspects of his writing, such as spelling, punctuation, and grammar.
Women Poets of the Romantic Period
Authors: Breen Jennifer
Published: November 2023

The cultural status and aesthetic merit of a few women poets in the Romantic period have been discussed in a variety of ways, depending on each critic ‘s theoretical viewpoint as well as on the availability of each woman author ‘s texts.

Most of the women ‘s poetry that was published between 1785 and 1832 was available only in specialist libraries until the publication of Roger Lonsdale ‘s Eighteenth-Century Women Poets: An Oxford Anthology in 1989. Lonsdale reprinted a wide-ranging selection of women ‘s poetry published up to 1800. My subsequent Women Romantic Poets, 1785-1832: An Anthology reprints an innovative selection from the work of twenty-five competent and interesting women poets from the entire Romantic period. My anthology contains biographical and historical notes as well as a useful ‘Introduction ‘. Andrew Ashfield ‘s Romantic Women Poets extends the Romantic period from 1770 to 1838. He provides annotated selections that represent his version of ‘Romanticism ‘ from thirtyfour women poets, but he has reprinted only excerpts from most of his chosen longer poems.
Poetry by Bums, Cowper, Crabbe, Southey, and Other Male Authors
Authors: Rossington Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with poetry by men which contributed significantly to the literary culture of the Romantic period in England and Scotland at the time but has subsequently, with some notable exceptions, been given less attention both textually and critically than that bestowed upon the seven male poets to whom individual chapters are devoted in this volume. For current purposes, it has been convenient to discuss male, non-canonical poetry in one chapter. But it must be acknowledged immediately that such a categorization, which groups together so many obviously different poets, is arbitrary except in the sense (crucial for this volume) that it derives largely from familiar critical taxonomies. Despite such problems of definition, however, there are gains as well as shortfalls in the perspective afforded here. To study these poets, and their female peers, is to gain a heightened awareness of the discrepancy between the still fairly inflexible hierarchy of poetic status amongst the ‘Romantics ‘ which has prevailed in the late twentieth century and the more fluid, embattled state of poetic reputations in the period itself. Furthermore, the modern reader is forced to question the often paradoxically exclusive orthodoxies at work within current definitions of writing at the margins. The chapter ‘s potential scope has necessitated discrimination of various kinds.
Walter Scott
Authors: Robertson Fiona
Published: November 2023

As the most prolific author of his day and the most influential novelist of the nineteenth century, Scott attracted extensive critical commentary for many decades. At the end of the Victorian period, however, his critical fortunes went into apparently irreversible decline. Their recent revival, stimulated by new developments in criticism and theory, has made Scott the focus of some of the most innovative and most illuminating scholarship in contemporary Romantic studies; and this revaluation has important implications for the study of the Romantic period as a whole. The range of Scott ‘s writing is in itself a challenge to narrower notions of Romanticism. He was prolific in all the major modern literary forms: famous first as a poet and ballad collector; a respected literary reviewer and editor; an influential supporter of Scottish theatre and a less influential dramatist; a letter-writer of very high quality and the keeper of one of literature ‘s greatest personal journals; a historian and biographer, most notably of Napoleon; the author of a highly successful series of historical works for children; and, most importantly of all, an innovative writer of historical fiction. The most central of marginalized figures, Scott requires critics to reconsider traditional configurations of the period and its characteristic literary modes.
Fiction of the Romantic Period (Godwin, Wollstonecraft, Bage, Edgeworth, Burney, Inchbald, Hays,and Others)
Authors: Matthews Susan
Published: November 2023

The authors grouped together in this chapter would probably have struck a contemporary as a very odd assortment indeed: Edgeworth and Burney are two of the highest-selling, most respected, and highest-earning novelists of the period, whereas other writers such as Hogg would have been seen as minor figures. The modern sense that Austen, Scott, and, perhaps for the last ten years, Mary Shelley are the most important novelists of the period does not (with the exception of Scott) echo how the period itself saw the novel. Moreover, the separate category of the Gothic novel is in some senses hard to sustain when so many novels contain Gothic elements; works such as Caleb Williams, Maria, or Confessions of a justified Sinner could belong within this category, and many women ‘s novels, including many of Burney ‘s, have strong Gothic elements. This chapter also deals with writers such as Godwin and Wollstonecraft who would not have been thought of primarily as novelists (and who thus also appear in other chapters).
Romantic Gothic
Authors: Garside Peter
Published: November 2023

The Gothic and the Romantic as literary historical terms have rarely stood easily together. When interest in Gothic literature began to revive in the early twentieth century, the mode was largely understood as a subgenre of the novel, at best providing an interesting link between rationalism and Romanticism, though some commentators were more inclined to sense a last gasp of the eighteenth-century sentimental tradition. In the 1960s an influential school of criticism positioned the Gothic rather as a counter-movement to the Romantic, as a kind of obverse or dark side to the latter ‘s optimism and pursuit of the organic and transcendental. More recently, interest in the Gothic has expanded to such an extent that it is sometimes regarded as offering a better site for investigating deep ruptures and divisions underlying the literature of the Romantic period: broadly ‘popular ‘ and relatively open to female writers compared with the allegedly ‘male ‘ and elitist tradition of the main Romantic poets, while at the same time more diverse and lasting in its cultural effects.
For a Theatre of Situations (1947)
Authors: Sartre Jean-Paul
Published: November 2023

The question of freedom, in the philosophical as well as the political sense, was a lifelong preoccupation of Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-80). A philosopher, essayist, novelist, and political activist of the left as well as playwright, he formulated a brand of existentialism which stressed the possibility of choice, however stark, for the individual, in spite of the Bad Faith concealing this possibility from his or her own consciousness. In other words, what Sartre endeavoured to show was man inventing himself through his actions. In the article quoted below in full, which first appeared in La Rue (November 1947), he rejected psychology, i.e. the dramatic element carrying the weight of the past with its constraints on freedom of action, in favour of the borderline situation in which the hero is able to define himself by an existential choice.
Death of a Salesman: A Modern Tragedy? (1958)
Authors: Miller Arthur
Published: November 2023

Undoubtedly the most eminent American playwright since Eugene O’Neill, Arthur Miller (b. 1915) has shown considerable technical variety in his dramatic output, from the Ibsen-type ‘retrospective’ structure of All My Sons (1947), to the nearexpressionism of Death of a Salesman (1949), the quasi-Greek structure, complete with Chorus, of A View from the Bridge (rev. version, 1956), the tightly classical structure of The Price (1968) or the lyrical and dreamlike duet, Elegy for a Lady (1982). Although profoundly American, he has perhaps been appreciated more in Europe than in the United States, at any rate as far as theatrical performance is concerned.
Certain Noble Plays of Japan (1917)
Authors: Yeats William Butler
Published: November 2023

I am writing with my imagination stirred by a visit to the studio of Mr. Dulac, the distinguished illustrator of the Arabian Nights. I saw there the mask and the head-dress to be worn in a play of mine by the player who will speak the part of Cuchulain,1 and who, wearing this noble, half-Greek, half-Asiatic face, will appear perhaps like an image seen in a reverie by some Orphic worshipper. I hope to have attained the distance from life which can make credible strange events, elaborate words. I have written a little play that can be played in a room for so little money that forty or fifty readers of poetry can pay the price. There will be no scenery, for three musicians, whose seeming sunburned faces will, I hope, suggest that they have wandered from village to village in some country of our dreams, can describe place and weather, and at moments action and accompany it all by drum and gong or flute and dulcimer. Instead of players working themselves into a violence of passion indecorous in our sitting-room, the music, the beauty of form and voice all come to climax in a pantomimic dance.
On the Theatre: The Fairground Booth (1913)
Authors: Meyerhold Vsevolod Emilievich
Published: November 2023

The Russian director Vsevolod Emilievich Meyerhold (1874-1942) had been a theatrical innovator long before he was to become the dominant (though never uncontroversial) director in the Soviet theatre of the 1920s and early 1930s. He began his career in 1897 with the Moscow Art Theatre, but broke away from Stanislavsky as early as 1902 to seek out his own defiantly anti-naturalistic path. In his quest for a pure theatricalism unclogged by over-elaborate psychology, Meyerhold looked to older forms of theatre such as the commedia dell’arte, to popular entertainments such as circus and fairground, and to exotic types of performance such as Japanese Kabuki.
A Dramatist’s Notebook (1933)
Authors: O’Neill Eugene
Published: November 2023

I advocate masks for stage crowds, mobs—wherever a sense of impersonal, collective mob psychology is wanted. This was one reason for such an extensive use of them in Lazarus Laughed.In masking the crowds in that play, I was visualizing an effect that, intensified by dramatic lighting, would give an audience visually the sense of the Crowd, not as a random collection of individuals, but as a collective whole, an entity. When the Crowd speaks, I wanted an audience to hear the voice of the Crowd mind, Crowd emotion, as one voice of a body composed of, but quite distinct from, its parts.
Preface and Prologue to The Breasts of Tiresias (1903)
Authors: Apollinaire Guillaume
Published: November 2023

Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918), the half-Polish, half-Italian poet (whose medium of expression was French) is remembered less as a playwright than as a journalist, author and editor of erotica, art critic, and highly influential champion of cubism. His play, The Breasts of Tiresias, mostly written as early as 1903, only had one Sunday matinee performance in Paris during the First World War, in 1917; it never had any significant stage history. Nevertheless, it has come to occupy an important place in the formulation of an anti-naturalistic theory of drama, more for its preface and prologue than for the actual text of the play.
Preface to The Immortals (1920)
Authors: Goll Yvan
Published: November 2023

Born in Alsace-Lorraine of Jewish parentage, lwan (or Yvan) Goll (1891-1950) was raised bilingually and wrote in German and French with equal facility. A poet of distinction in both languages (to which he added English during a wartime stay in the United States), he projected himself in the character of Landless John in his writings and borrowed much of the imagery of his late poetry from esoteric sources. His dramatic output was only a small part of his reuvre, but he represents a link between the French and the German avant-garde as well as a transition point between expressionism and surrealism in the theatre. Familiar with the work of Apollinaire in France-he wrote the latter’s obituary in a German paper in 1919-he was the first German author to use the word ‘surrealism’ (Überrealismus).
The Theatre of Cruelty: First Manifesto (1932)
Authors: Artaud Antonin
Published: November 2023

The life’s work of the French actor, author, designer, director, and —above all—theorist of the theatre Antonin Artaud (1896-1948) bristles with paradoxes. Though confined for many years to mental asylums, he had a committed following among the French intellectual elite. Though only fitfully successful as a stage and film actor, indeed a downright failure as a director —neither of his companies, the Theatre Alfred Jarry (1926-9) and the Theatre de la Cruaute (1935), managed to secure a lasting foothold in the theatrical life of Paris —his posthumous influence both inside and outside France has been immense.
An End to Masterpieces (1933)
Authors: Artaud Antonin
Published: November 2023

One reason for the asphyxiating atmosphere in which we live without possible escape or recourse —and for which we are all responsible, even the most revolutionary among us —is this respect for what has already been written, formulated or painted, what has been given form, as if all expression were not finally exhausted and had not reached the point where things must fall apart if they are to begin again.
The Holy Theatre: Happenings (1968)
Authors: Brook Peter
Published: November 2023

In a long directorial career in theatre and opera, Peter Brook (b. 1925) has experimented with a wide variety of styles both in the classical and the modern repertoire. Beginning before the age of twenty, he has worked professionally with hardly a break-in Britain, where he was a director of the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1962 to 1970, in the United States as well as in Paris, where he established the International Centre of Theatre Research in 1970 and has headed an international company ever since. Leading this group of actors from different traditions, he has attempted to cross all but insurmountable cultural divides with productions in Iran and various parts of Africa. By keeping himself constantly open to fresh ideas, he has not allowed his approach to petrify; his justly famous production of Peter Weiss’s Marat/Sade (1964; see p. 247) managed to combine the seemingly incompatible concepts of Brecht and Artaud.
Letter to a Creative Collaborator (1922)
Authors: Toller Ernst
Published: November 2023

The dramatist and poet Ernst Toller (1893-1939), generally classed as one of the leading German expressionist playwrights, was no ivory-tower writer: his prominent involvement with the uprising in Munich in 1918-19 caused him to be gaoled for four years after the defeat of the revolutionaries by government troops. He wrote the contemporary allegory Masses and Man (1920) as well as three further political plays in prison. The production of Masses and Man at the Berlin Volksb ühne in 1921, while the author was still in gaol, represented a milestone in non-naturalistic staging technique, especially in its bold use of spotlights.
Poetics of the Oppressed (1974)
Authors: Boal Augusto
Published: November 2023

Much of the work of the Brazilian theoretician, director and playwright Augusto Boal (b. 1931) represents political theatre at its most direct and committed —an attempt to abolish the gap between performers and spectators to the greatest extent possible. Imprisoned and tortured for his radical views in Brazil in 1971, he spent many years as an exile in Argentina, Peru, and France. His Forum Theatre in Paris (1978-86) developed improvisational techniques involving the audience, problem-solving games intended potentially to change real-life situations. Boal has also worked professionally in different European countries and in the USA. Returning to Brazil in 1986, he founded the Theatre of the Oppressed Centre in Rio de Janeiro. His book, Theatre of the Oppressed, which combines a series of scholarly essays on the European tradition of dramatic theory with a description of his practical work in Brazil, Argentina, and Peru, has been translated into twenty-five languages.
Political Dynamics: The Feminisms (1986)
Authors: Wandor Michelene
Published: November 2023

The poet, critic, and playwright Michelene Wandor (b. 1940), who has written extensively for the stage, for television and radio (including serial dramatizations of literary classics), is a leading British feminist author. The following excerpt from her book on sexual politics and the theatre, Carry on, Understudies, represents an informed and committed insider’s viewpoint. In Look Back in Gender (London: Methuen, 1987) Ms Wandor dealt with questions of sexuality and the family in postwar British drama. She has also run playwriting workshops, given poetry readings, and edited plays by women.
Dynamics of the Sign in the Theatre (1940)
Authors: Honzl Jindřich
Published: November 2023

Jind řich Honzl (1894-1953) differed from other members of the Prague Linguistic Circle to which he belonged, the group of scholars who from 1926 onwards applied the new science of semiotics to a wide range of subjects including theatre, in that he combined an intimate knowledge of stage practice with theoretical scholarship. A writer, teacher, and editor, he was also a stage director who made his mark in Czech theatrical life, his work ranging from proletarian mass spectacles to surrealist productions; as a theorist, he attempted to reconcile surrealism with structuralism. In 1926 he co-founded the Liberated Theatre, which specialized in avant-garde drama.
The Canterbury Tales
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

The writing of the Canlerbury Tales occupied the last dozen or so years of Chaucer’s life. He probably started work on it in the late 1380s; he died in 1400, and it is not known whether he continued working on it until his death. Within this period, all dates are conjectural, and are discussed separately for each tale in the course of the hook. Two of the talcs, the Knight’s and Second Nun’s, were written at some earlier date, and from time to time early composition has been suggested for a number of the others. Many were probably written before a specific place in the sequence was assigned to them, or a specific teller; the General Prologue need not have been written first, nor need the articulating device of the pilgrimage have given Chaucer the idea of writing a story-collection.
The Wife of Bath’s Tale
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

The Wife’s Tale was probably written specifically for her, displacing the tale now told by the Shipman, which seems to have been originally assigned to her. If it was written all at once, including the digression on friars, it is likely to be close in date both to the Prologue and to the Friar’s and Summoner’s Tales that follow it; the Friar’s interjection at the end of the Prologue and the Wife’s response in her Tale link the two together unusually closely.
The Friar’s Tale
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

Like so many links, the Friar’s Prologue starts by looking backwards, but in this instance it looks beyond the preceding tale to the Wife’s Prologue. It is there that ‘scole-mateere’ of ‘greet difficultee’ is found, packed with ‘auctoritees’ (1272–6). His own tale, he promises, will be very different.
The Summoner’s Tale
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

The Summoner’s Prologue binds firmly together the tales that it links: it continues the quarrel between himself and the Friar, and so prepares the dramatic ground for his Tale. The particular example of antifraternal satire given here, that friars are lodged in the devil’s arse, may possibly be a motif invented for the Summoner. The lines are closely cued by the ending of the Friar’s Tale, where Huberd dispatches his villain ‘where as that somonours han hir heritage’—which is very painful—and adds a prayer that Christ may keep ‘us’ (all the pilgrims, that is, except the Summoner) from hell and ‘the temptour Sathanas’. The Summoner’s response shows Satan equally to be the destination of friars.
The Squire’s Tale
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

The Squire’s Prologue, as Ellesmere and other manuscripts call it, is found as a unit in all the manuscripts that contain it; division into Epilogue and Introduction is editorial. Although Hengwrt and some other manuscripts use it to link the Merchant’s Tale to the Franklin’s, with appropriate changes in the names, the content of the lines strongly suggests that Chaucer wrote it with the Merchant and Squire in mind: it refers back to women’s deceits and it specifies the next teller as an expert on love. The logic of the progression of the link is disguised by its splitting in half. The Host avoids giving details of his own wife’s vices because he is sure his tale-telling would get back to her, so he invites instead a tale of love—that is, one that will offer a contrasting positive view of women. The Squire, as befits both his courtesy and his youth, has to be called on to speak: he does not, in contrast to the cherles, volunteer his services.
The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

The episode of the Canon’s Yeoman is normally divided in modern editions into a Prologue and a two-part Tale. In the first part, the Yeoman recounts his past life; the second part contains his story of a fraudulent alchemist. I shall refer to these two parts as the Life and the Tricks, in the hope that the blatant modernity of the titles will override the false impression, suggested by Ellesmere’s ‘prima pars’ and ‘secunda pars’, that the division must necessarily be Chaucer’s.
The Parson’s Tale
Authors: Cooper Helen
Published: November 2023

All the manuscripts of any significance follow the Manciple’s Tale with the Parson’s, as the first line of the Prologue indicates. The editorial habit of dividing the pair into individual Fragments is due to the inconsistency of the indicators as to the time of day in the prologues of the two tales : it is early morning, ‘morwe’, in the Manciple’s Prologue (IX(H) 15), but four in the afternoon in the Parson’s Prologue—a time confirmed by the calculation Chaucer gives, though most manuscripts specify ten o’clock, the Roman numeral ‘X’ presumably representing a miscopying of ‘IV’ or the tilted medieval form of the Arabic 4. In addition, Hengwrt substitutes ‘Manciple’ in the first line for an erased name. Given the uncertainty of the references to time and place in all the other links, the inconsistencies do not justify disregarding the overwhelming manuscript evidence that the two tales belong together.
Shakespeare’s Theatres and the Evidence of the Texts
Authors: Gurr Andrew , Ichikawa Mariko
Published: November 2023

The nearest thing to copyright protection that operated in Shakespeare’s time was not designed to give authors control over their products. Texts were still thought of principally as manuscripts, unique copies, and the only form of protection that existed was for texts that got into print. Even then the Stationers’ Company, which was responsible for controlling publication in printed forms, in fact served as a monopoly company protected by the government which, in return for its privileged position, did the work of licensing and regulating the 150 or so printers based in London. Printers and booksellers paid fees to register their copy with the company. This gave them a licence to print what and when their judgement of the bookselling market indicated might be profitable. Authors had no say in this process. It was a system designed to control what was printed, and to protect the rights of printers and publishers.
Other Aspects of Shakespearian Staging
Authors: Gurr Andrew , Ichikawa Mariko
Published: November 2023

Everything used to dress and equip the players on the early stages was symbolic. Because resources at the early venues were unpredictable, all the staging had to be flexible and all the properties had to be portable. Every object and item of clothing worked as a signifier. A cloak signified an outdoor location, riding boots indicated a traveller, a night-cap showed someone roused from his bed. Special signifiers augmented the routine signs. A sword in its scabbard made a gentle man, velvet cloth a lady, gold lace a nobleman or woman. A ghost wore a recognizable shroud, ‘antics’ or clowns wore their own distinctly incongruous and old-fashioned suits, Hamlet’s funeral black, Malvolio’s yellow stockings, a lover demonstrating his melancholy by sighing and pulling the brim of his hat down over his face, all these were instant signifiers of mood and plan.
The Three Openings in the frons
Authors: Gurr Andrew , Ichikawa Mariko
Published: November 2023

It is generally agreed that Shakespeare’s playhouses had three entry ways in the frons, i.e. two flanking doors and a central doorway or aperture. The bald direction ‘Enter’ or ‘Exit/Exeunt’ ignores this multiple resource, and any conceptualization of the early staging must identify which of the various openings the players would normally expect to use. The flanking doors were the standard means of entry for most of the characters, and the ways these entry-points were used need to be considered first.

A break between Shakespearian scenes generally begins with the departure of all characters, and the new scene opens with the entrance of other characters. What we will call Postulate A here assumes that the closing exit of a scene and the opening entrance of the next scene are usually made through different doors. Even if the closing exit of one scene and the opening entrance of the next do not overlap, it is certain that the enterers had to be in position behind the opposite door to that used by the exiters, before they complete their exit. If the enterers failed to do so, the scene changes would not flow smoothly.
The Early Staging of Hamlet
Authors: Gurr Andrew , Ichikawa Mariko
Published: November 2023

All theatre is about seeming and pretence. Shakespeare and some of his peers called it counterfeiting, passing false coin on the pretence that it is genuine. Hamlet is largely about that concept of acting as deception, its narrative the pretend performance of an ‘act’ of revenge, in which a play-actor enacts actions that a man might play, unseriously. Through the first half of the play Hamlet himself is constantly exercised to question the seeming and deception surrounding him at Elsinore. In the original staging the element of metatheatre in all that pretence was underlined for the audience from the opening words. The curt exchange between the sentries in the first six lines spoken tells us that it is very late at night (‘’Tis now struck twelve’ ), and that ‘’Tis bitter cold’.
Shakespeare and National Revivals
Authors: Stříbrný Zdeněk
Published: November 2023

This chapter takes us back to the mid-eighteenth century when remarkable movements in continental cultural and political life began, continuing well into the nineteenth century, with most momentous repercussions reaching into our own days. It all started in Germany where the middle classes, despite their religious, political, and economic fragmentation into numerous smaller and larger states, felt strong enough to assert their own culture, differentiating themselves from the aristocratic courts steeped in French tradition. As far as theatres were concerned, the dichotomy between court theatres, which tended to preserve the neoclassical hegemony of French tragedy and comedy, and the German strolling companies with their freewheeling repertoires inherited from the English Comedians, was beginning to dissolve.
Shakespeare behind the Iron Curtain
Authors: Stříbrný Zdeněk
Published: November 2023

The sweeping victories of the Soviet Army and Western Allies over Hitler’s last resistance in 1945 were greeted with enthusiasm all over Eastern Europe. It was not long, however, before it was apparent that Stalin had decided to enlarge and buttress his empire by dictatorial methods. Except for Austria, which managed to achieve neutrality, all East European countries, including East Germany (from 1949 called officially the German Democratic Republic), were turned successively into totalitarian states in which the Communist parties assumed all the decisive power. As early as 1946, Winston Churchill sounded an emotional note of warning in his talk at Westminster College, Fulton (Missouri).
Post-Communist Shakespeare
Authors: Stříbrný Zdeněk
Published: November 2023

The collapse of totalitarian regimes in Eastern Europe by the end of 1989 took very different courses, from the shortest and the merriest ‘velvet revolution’ in Czechoslovakia to the hasty political trials and ghastly televised executions of the Communist dictator and his wife in Romania. A peaceful separation between Slovakia and the Czech Republic had its counterpart in the furious nationalist wars, ethnic cleansings, atrocious racial rapes, and massacres in the Balkans.