bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Value of Practice
Authors: Raz Joseph
Published: October 2003

A view of socially constructed values created and sustained by social practices is examined. In many cases, it may be that the social dependence of evaluative beliefs testifies not to the social construction of value but to the social dependence of access to value. It is argued that if we maintain the view that some values are socially constituted, we do not have to fall prey to the seemingly inescapable conclusion of additional arguments and puzzles that bedevil some theses affirming the social constitution of value. The social dependence of value has nothing to do with the affirmation of social practices as reasons for their own validity. Relevant social practices are sustaining practices necessary for the existence of value.
A Toolkit for Analysing Nonlinear Dynamic Stochastic Models Easily
Authors: Uhlig Harald
Published: October 2003

An extensive treatment is provided of methods that use log‐linear approximations to solve nonlinear dynamic discrete‐time stochastic models. These methods, based on their linear counterparts, have been extensively used in the macroeconomic literature, and Uhlig simplifies, integrates, and compares them. He shows how to log‐linearize the necessary equations characterizing the equilibrium without explicit differentiation, provides a general solution to a linearized system using the method of undetermined coefficients, allowing in particular for a vector of endogenous states, and provides a simulation‐free frequency‐domain method to calculate the model implications in its Hodrick–Prescott filtered version. These methods are easy to use if a numerical package such as MATLAB is available. Examples of the approach taken are presented in an appendix, which looks at Hansen's (1985) real business cycle model for the case of saddle‐point stability (using the Blanchard–Kahn approach) and the case where equilibria may be undetermined; the appendix also describes the MATLAB programs needed to carry out the calculations.
Application of Weighted Residual Methods to Dynamic Economic Models
Authors: McGrattan Ellen R.
Published: October 2003

Many problems in economics require the solution to a functional equation as an intermediate step, and typically, decision functions are sought that satisfy a set of Euler conditions or a value function that satisfies Bellman's equation. However, in many cases, analytical solutions cannot be derived for these functions, and numerical methods are needed instead. Shows how to apply weighted residual and finite‐element methods to this type of problem by illustrating their application to various examples. The first type of problem involves a simple differential equation because the coefficients to be computed satisfy a linear system of equations, and no computer is needed for the solution. Weighted residual and finite‐element methods are then applied to a deterministic growth model and a stochastic growth model—two standard models used in economics; in these examples, the coefficients to be computed satisfy nonlinear systems of equations, which, fortunately, are exploitably sparse if they are derived from a finite‐element method.
The Parameterized Expectations Approach: Some Practical Issues
Authors: Marcet Albert , Lorenzoni Guido
Published: October 2003

Some practical issues are discussed that relate to the use of the parameterized expectations approach (PEA) for solving nonlinear stochastic dynamic models with rational expectations. This approach has been applied widely as it turns out to be a convenient algorithm, especially when there are large numbers of state variables and stochastic shocks in key conditional expectations terms. The first main section of the chapter provides a detailed discussion of some practical issues associated with the algorithm, and of its application. This is done using a set of examples—the Lucas asset pricing model, the simple stochastic growth model, and four variations of the latter, each selected to demonstrate a different issue. The next section describes a FORTRAN program used for implementing the algorithm, and the following one shows how it is applied to and adapted for each example previously presented.
St Paul and the Incarnation: A Reassessment of the Data
Authors: Fee Gordon D.
Published: October 2003

Aletti provides complementary studies on St Paul. Fee offers an exegetical/historical re‐examination of Paul's Christology on the question of Christ's incarnation (and pre‐existence) over against those who either reject or offer a diminished view of these ideas in the apostle's letters. Fee examines four groups of Pauline passages: those that explicitly presuppose the pre‐existence of Christ as the mediator of creation; texts that speak of his ‘impoverishment’ in becoming human; texts that speak of God's sending his Son into the world so as to redeem it; and several passages that emphasize Christ's humanity in a way that seems to presuppose an incarnational Christology. Since Wisdom Christology plays a major role in most versions of Pauline Christology—in support of both traditional and reductive views—a section of this chapter offers a critique of this wisdom analysis.
Romans 8: The Incarnation and Its Redemptive Impact
Authors: Aletti Jean‐Noël
Published: October 2003

Aletti takes up a specific passage, Romans 8: 3–4, and argues that, despite its spare and precise style, these verses do allude to the incarnation. His paper also draws out the redemptive consequences Paul sees in the incarnation.
The Incarnation: The Jewish Milieu
Authors: Segal Alan F.
Published: October 2003

Alan Segal starts by observing that incarnation is not an easy category to fit into native Jewish categories for talking about God. Casting around for adequate precedents, he first examines Plato's conceptions of matter and spirit (along with mortality and immortality). Philo was to use Platonic thought and vocabulary significantly, although he did not breach the line between spiritual and material objects. Philo looked askance at incarnation. Segal then recalls various angelic theophanies and mediation scenes, in which precedents for the Christian conception of incarnation seem better grounded in Jewish literature.
What Does Chalcedon Solve and What Does It Not? Some Reflections on the Status and Meaning of the Chalcedonian ‘Definition’
Authors: Coakley Sarah
Published: October 2003

Sarah Coakley challenges three versions of the meaning of the Chalcedonian Definition of 451: that the Definition merely regulates the use of language about Christ without making any direct affirmations; that the Definition is ‘metaphorical’ in a non‐cognitive sense; that the Definition is ‘literally’ true, even to the point of producing specific, univocal, and empirical assertions that were alien to the fifth‐century authors of the text. She then expounds a forth position that treats the Definition as a ‘horizon’ which sets boundaries about what can and cannot be said of Christ, while remaining open‐ended and apophatic about the mystery of his person.
Nature and the ‘Mode of Union’: Late Patristic Models for the Personal Unity of Christ
Authors: Daley Brian E.
Published: October 2003

Daley observes how contemporary theologians are often puzzled by the language and concepts of later patristic discussions about the person of Christ, especially by the Council of Chalcedon's teaching that he is one hypostasis or persona subsisting ‘in two natures, without confusion, without change, without division, without separation’. This chapter looks again at the significance of this classical christological vocabulary, in the light of an assertion made by the sixth‐century Leontius of Byzantium and echoed by Maximus Confessor and John of Damascus in the centuries that followed: that it is ‘the mode of union, rather than the intelligible structure of nature, which contains the great Mystery of our religion’. After sketching the background and apparent implications of the ancient language of ‘modality’ and of ‘union’, the paper looks more closely at the Christology of these three post‐Chalcedonian writers. It argues that for classical Greek Christology in its later stages, the unity and distinctiveness of Christ as a person, who is at once human and divine, are grounded in the unique way in which the divine and human realities condition and express each other in the historical Jesus of Nazareth. In the light of this ‘relational’ or ‘modal’ Christology, these late patristic authors also present human salvation as the beginning of a new mode of our own natural existence, and a new relationship with the triune that God modelled on that of God the Son.
Was Jesus Mad, Bad, or God?
Authors: Davis Stephen T.
Published: October 2003

Stephen Davis explores the rationality of belief in the incarnation by analysing the argument used by C. S. Lewis and others that Jesus was either ‘mad, bad, or God’. He concludes that this argument does establish the rationality of incarnational faith.
The Self‐Emptying of Love: Some Thoughts on Kenotic Christology
Authors: Evans C. Stephen
Published: October 2003

Stephen Evans defends as religiously powerful and theologically legitimate, a ‘kenotic’ theory of the incarnation, arguing that some kind of divine ‘self‐emptying’ or ‘self‐limitation’ does justice to the NT accounts of Jesus and the claims of Chalcedonian orthodoxy. In particular, the chapter defends recent work by Stephen Davis and Ronald Feenstra, who hold that Jesus may be fully divine even if he divests himself, perhaps only temporarily, of such qualities as omnipotence and omniscience. The possibility of such divesting is implied by a plausible account of the nature of omnipotence developed by Richard Swinburne. Evans also proposes that a decision by God to become incarnated, literally embodied, is best understood as a decision to assume such limitations. In conclusion, the chapter discusses the implications of a kenotic theory for the exalted and glorified Christ, and the question as to whether Jesus, understood kenotically as the incarnate Word, can be personally identical with the pre‐existent second person of the Trinity.
A Timeless God Incarnate
Authors: Leftow Brian
Published: October 2003

Brian Leftow argues that divine timelessness and the incarnation are compatible. He first sketches what it means to say that God is timeless. He then presents two major arguments for holding that divine timelessness is incompatible with the incarnation. With this done, he sets out enough of the orthodox doctrine of the incarnation to let him address the arguments and show how they fail. He concludes that it is prima facie plausible that God can be both timeless and incarnate.
A Word Made Flesh: Incarnational Language and the Writer
Authors: Norris Kathleen
Published: October 2003

Kathleen Norris who deals with incarnational language (in a literary, rather than an exclusively theological sense) and the task of writers.
The Incarnation in Twentieth‐Century Art
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

David Brown discusses how the humanity and divinity of Christ have been presented in twentieth‐century art. Some representative artists are examined: for painting, Bacon, Chagall, Dali, Ernst, Magritte, O’Keeffe, Picasso, Rouault, Spencer, and Warhol; for sculpture, Epstein, Gill, and Moore. Brown concludes not only that the religious and incarnational impulse in modern art is healthier than is commonly supposed, but also that certain non‐Christians have been highly effective in conveying the truth of a doctrine in which they themselves do not believe. Even where this is not so, sometimes the implicit critique that they offer still requires careful consideration on the part of Christian believers. Brown also notes the wide range of means that have been employed to indicate divinity.
The Incarnation in Selected Christmas Sermons
Authors: Shuster Marguerite
Published: October 2003

Marguerite Shuster explores the handling of the incarnation in Christmas sermons from seven twentieth‐century preachers: four Roman Catholic and three Protestant. Her analysis is structured by the issues O’Collins's chapter identified as critical for contemporary discussion. Perhaps surprisingly, almost all his key questions are treated by these preachers in their sermons. Furthermore, the doctrinal material is most often handled in a moving and homiletically satisfying manner. Thus, these examples may prove encouraging for preachers concerned with the viability of doctrinal preaching.
Talking About Routines in the Field: The Emergence of Organizational Capabilities in a New Cellular Phone Network Company
Authors: Narduzzo Alessandro , Rocco Elena , Warglien Massimo
Published: October 2003

The chapter is concerned with two sets of capabilities developed and implemented by a cellular phone network company. One of these capabilities is for the installation of new stations, the other is for maintenance and problem‐solving. These complex examples of capabilities are used in the paper to study the usefulness, limits, and meaning of the treatment of capabilities as bundles of routines. The chapter concludes that effective capabilities certainly do involve the mastery and use of certain routines, and also the ability to do particular and often idiosyncratic things that are appropriate to a particular context. The company studied in this chapter has different operations in different regions, and, therefore, the paper also explores the question of the extent to which capabilities, and practices, are company wide, as contrasted with developing regional‐ or group‐specific idiosyncratic elements, and conclude that the latter are important.
Repositories of Knowledge in Franchise Organizations: Individual, Structural, and Technological
Authors: Argote Linda , Darr Eric
Published: October 2003

Where is knowledge embedded in organizations? The chapter describes results on the persistence and transfer of knowledge in fast food franchises, and presents the results on the productivity of the franchises and on the timeliness of their service. It is shown that the qualitative evidence about where knowledge was embedded in the franchises suggests that knowledge gained from experience at the franchises was embedded in individual workers and in the organizations’ routines, structures, and technologies. It is argued that the fast food franchises were able to realize significant productivity gains in the face of extraordinarily high turnover because a significant component of the knowledge was embedded in the organization's structure and technology rather than in individual employees. Further, embedding knowledge in structure and technology appeared to facilitate the transfer of knowledge across organizations.
Appropriability and the Challenge of Scope: Banc One Routinizes Replication
Authors: Szulanski Gabriel
Published: October 2003

The chapter is concerned with the mechanisms through which routines are made common across a group of related organizations, in this case the member banks of a bank group. The group of banks associated with Banc One has been expanded through acquisition. Banks choose to become members of the group because of the significant financial success that group members continue to have, and because of strong belief that success is due in good part to certain bundles of routines that are used in Banc One operations. At the same time, the philosophy of Banc One admits that individual units should have a certain freedom to accommodate to the particularities of their individual circumstances. The study describes in elaborate detail the process through which a new acquisition of Banc One is taught and learns the basic routines that define the Banc One system.
Limited Inquiry and Intelligent Adaptation in Semiconductor Manufacturing
Authors: Flaherty M. Thérèse
Published: October 2003

The chapter deals with learning and effective control in semiconductor manufacturing. This industry incorporates extraordinarily complex technologies, in which there are many different processes involved, and the interactions across the various processes can easily get ‘out of control’, constituting a major problem in assuring quality of the output. A central problem, therefore, is to be able to quickly spot production aspects that seem to be getting ‘out of control’, to diagnose these problems, and to solve them. The essential aspects of these processes is that the relevant ‘knowledge’ generally is distributed among a number of different people and that certain kinds of experimentation to diagnose and solve a problem can themselves be highly expensive in terms of lost production. The study puts a microscope on these issues, and illustrates the complexities that often are involved in organizational capabilities.
Measuring Competence? Exploring Firm Effects in Drug Discovery
Authors: Henderson Rebecca , Cockburn Iain
Published: October 2003

The chapter explores the role of ‘competence’ in pharmaceutical research. It provides support for the existence of sources of heterogeneity highlighted by the resource‐based view of the firm by showing that the large proportion of the variance in research productivity across firms could be attributed to firm‐specific effects. Drawing on detailed qualitative data about the history of research at each of the firm in the sample, a variety of measures of ‘competence’ was constructed. The result of the analysis suggests that ‘architectural competence’, as captured by indicators of the firm's ability to knowledge integrativity, is positively associated with research productivity. Besides that, it is shown that firms that maintain links to the wider scientific community through the use of publication in the open literature as a criterion of promotion, and firms that manage the allocation of key research resources through collaborative rather than dictatorial processes are significantly more productive in drug discovery.
Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management
Authors: Teece David J. , Pisano Gary , Shuen Amy
Published: October 2003

The chapter tries to conceptualize different forms of competence and relate them to both organization theory and strategic management. A general premise is that organizations embody coherent structures of tasks and competences, with distinctive governance modes, which do not replicate either pure market arrangements or any ‘nexus of contracts’. The authors identify the specificities of each firm in terms of (1) organizational processes (including their operating routines), (2) positions (broadly defined to cover their specific assets, their location along the value chain, and their relationships with suppliers and customers), and (3) paths (i.e. their patterns of change in the former two sets of characteristics). The chapter emphasizes the stickiness over time of distinct organizational capabilities and, thus, also the constraints that the past learning history of the organization puts upon the degrees of discretionality of strategic management. This perspective on organizations and organizational learning clearly shifts the focus of analysis from rather product positioning or ‘clever strategizing’ to the process of problem‐solving and organizational governance, and, dynamically, to competence‐enhancing strategies.
Organizational Capabilities in Complex Worlds
Authors: Levinthal Daniel A.
Published: October 2003

The chapter provides a theoretical framework for the analysis of organizational capabilities, underlining complementarity and interdependence among organizational routines and assets. A crucial consequence concerns what one could call the ‘competitiveness diagnostics’ of corporate performances: precisely because of the (non‐linear) interrelatedness in the contribution of the various organizational traits to overall performances, ‘credit assignment’ is a difficult exercise. Relatedly, in terms of organizational learning, ‘local’ exploration and adjustments are likely to be the rule, since otherwise one is likely to lose any grasp on the relationships between causes (i.e. changes in organizational behaviour) and effects (i.e. changes in revealed performances). But a fundamental corollary of all this is also that organizations are likely to end up stuck into local peaks of the ‘fitness landscape’ (which is, roughly speaking, the mapping between organizational traits and ‘competitiveness’), with low probabilities of exploring radically diverse organizational arrangements.
Introduction
Authors: Laffont Jean‐Jacques
Published: October 2003

The author traces the origins of incentives in the design of political institutions to the works of Adam Smith, the American Federalists, and R. Frisch. The Chicago View of interest group politics is critically reviewed and seen as the background for the modern principal‐agent analysis of political economy. The structure of the book is reviewed and basic concepts of complete and incomplete contracting, asymmetric information, and endogenous coalition formation are introduced.
Toward a Political Theory of the Emergence of Environmental Incentive Regulation
Authors: Laffont Jean‐Jacques
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the choice of economic instruments for environmental policy in the political economy framework of imperfect information and the need to provide incentives for political majorities. Models of command‐and‐control regulation and interest groups competition are presented. These models are then extended to study the impact of the dynamics of re‐election based on campaign contributions.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Laffont Jean‐Jacques
Published: October 2003

This is a very brief chapter summarizing the main themes of the book. The emphasis is on the need to use information economics as a new foundation for political economy.
Evolution of the Most Favoured Nation Principle Up to 1929
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Deals with the international economic system established in the 1860s and its operation until 1929. Section 1 analyses why the most‐favoured nation (MFN) principle emerged. Unconditional MFN treatment came to dominate intra‐European trade by the 1870s, although the USA maintained conditional MFN treatment. Section 2 analyses the growing protectionism between the 1870s and 1914, which undermined the system of non‐discriminatory trade relationships. Section 3 addresses attempts during the 1920s to re‐establish the pre‐1914 system. Section 4 examines the trading relationships between imperial powers and their colonies. Section 5 draws conclusions about the period.
Regionalism Versus Multilateralism During the Uruguay Round
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Deals with the conflict between regionalism and multi‐lateralism during the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. The strengthening of regionalism in Western Europe (Sect. 1) and North America (Sect. 2) during the 1980s is described, and reactions to European and American regionalism are outlined (Sect. 3). Section 4 deals with the collapse of the CMEA and the USSR. Section 5 describes the successful completion of the Uruguay Round, and its role in reinforcing multi‐lateralism and forestalling the spread of regionalism.
Extending the Model
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Surveys extensions to the mainstream models that were introduced in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s: higher dimensionality (Sect. 1), tariffs in the rest of the world (Sect. 2), the terms of trade (Sect. 3), economies of scale (Sect. 4), and technical efficiency and growth (Sect. 5).
Numbers and Geography
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Deals with the fundamental question of what should be the unit of analysis in trade theory, which has been driven in part by difficulty in determining the analytical status of the EU; is intra‐EU trade international or domestic trade? Presents models of the economic determinants of the number of nations (Sect. 1) and the optimum size of nations (Sect. 3). Also addresses the issues of which partners will be selected for RTAs (Sect. 2) and of sub‐regional zones that cover regions of more than one country but not the entire national economies (Sect. 4), as well as other geographical issues.
Western European Integration
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Deals with the process of economic integration in Western Europe since the early 1950s. Section 1 analyses the origins of the EU, focusing on the customs union among the six signatories of the Treaty of Rome. Section 2 deals with the European Free Trade Association. Section 3 examines the three enlargement episodes of 1972, 1981–6, and 1995, which brought the EU up to 15 members. Section 4 analyses the deepening of the EU, centring on the 1992 programme for completing the internal market. Section 5 draws conclusions.
Global Issues
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Section 1 of this chapter investigates whether RTAs have led to increased regionalization of world trade. Section 2 reports on studies using CGE models to identify gainers and losers from the spread of RTAs as opposed to non‐discriminatory trade liberalization. Section 3 draws conclusions, emphasizing that the problem for all empirical work on RTAs is our poor knowledge of elasticities of substitution between imports from different sources.
Why Do Discriminatory Trading Arrangements Exist?
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Addresses the question of why RTAs exist. Section 1 lists four proximate explanations on the basis of the immediate consequences of RTAs. Section 2 draws on the political economy of trade barriers literature to explain RTAs in terms of the impact on various groups with differing degrees of influence over trade policy formation and implementation. Section 3 offers some concluding observations.
Summary and Prospects
Authors: Pomfret Richard
Published: October 2003

Summarizes the book's contents and discusses prospects for the principle of non‐discrimination in the international trading system.
Developing the New Product Design
Authors: Geroski P. A.
Published: October 2003

Explains how from a muddle of product proliferation, emerges a dominant design. It begins by noting the interest that both consumers and producers have to standardize products. Then identifies the idea of a dominant design with that of a ‘consensus good’ and describes how this ‘consensus’ is reached in the market. Illustrations are drawn from several product‐case studies such as typewriters, computer operating systems, video cassette recorders, automobiles, and quadraphonic sound.
Into the Future
Authors: Geroski P. A.
Published: October 2003

Sketches out the basic features of market evolution that follow from the events in the early stages of development. It assesses the advantages and disadvantages of being the first or second mover in a new market. It considers as well, the changing character of the competition once there is a dominant design and the issue of getting locked‐in. It concludes with some remarks on the possible character and origin of the new technology.
The Theory and Measurement of Passive‐Use Value
Authors: Carson Richard T. , Flores Nicholas E. , Mitchell Robert C.
Published: October 2003

An attempt is made to disentangle passive‐use value and contingent valuation and present them in a useful perspective as regards environmental goods. The first part of the chapter provides a theoretical exposition of passive‐use value – defined as value oriented towards the researcher in that it relates to what is potentially observable or estimable. The approach taken differs from earlier definitions that rely on motives. In the second main part of the chapter, six issues are addressed concerning the measurement of total value that are frequently advanced as criticisms of contingent valuation and are thought to be related to passive‐use value. These are commodity valuation; the effect of different means of project provision and payment aspects on the value of goods; resource familiarity; the claim that passive‐use values are an issue only in cases of irreversible changes to unique resources; how to deal with substitutes in a valuation analysis; and the incentive compatibility structures of contingent valuation questions.
Alternatives to the Neo‐Classical Theory of Choice
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: October 2003

The concepts of accuracy and bias in surveys, like that of elicitation of preferences, presuppose that there are true answers to the questions that contingent valuation (CV) studies address. This chapter reviews a body of research that raises doubts about that presupposition; it focuses on two issues in CV methodology: divergences between willingness‐to‐pay and willingness‐to‐accept valuations, and the sensitivity of reported valuations to the elicitation method. Section 6.1 discusses the status of Hicksian consumer theory, and Sects, 6.2 and 6.3 investigate how far the valuations elicited by CV surveys might be expected to differ between willingness‐to‐pay and willingness‐to‐accept formats, and between different elicitation methods if respondents had Hicksian preferences and if survey instruments were unbiased. Section 6.4 considers the possibility that, although respondents do have Hicksian preferences, certain CV survey designs are systematically biased, and Sects. 6.5 and 6.6 look at some non‐Hicksian theories of decision‐making, and draw out their implications for the valuations generated by CV surveys. Sects. 6.7 and 6.8 review the evidence generated by CV and experimental research, and ask whether this can best be explained by Hicksian theory alone, by Hicksian theory combined with hypotheses about bias, or by non‐Hicksian theories; Sect. 6.9 draws some tentative conclusions.
Doubt, Doubts, and Doubters: The Genesis of a New Research Agenda?
Authors: Boyle Kevin J. , Bergstrom John C.
Published: October 2003

The controversy surrounding contingent valuation following the Exxon Valdez disaster and the NOAA Panel report suggests the need for improved CV study designs. Three issues are of importance in CV studies: understanding option price, sorting out non‐use values, and the relationship between willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) and willingness‐to‐accept (WTA) compensation. Progress also demands more research on the types of information respondents commonly use when answering CV questions, as well as resolving issues of how to deal with zero, protest, and misstated responses.
A Psychological Perspective
Authors: Green Colin , Tunstall Sylvia
Published: October 2003

The application of psychological perspectives is crucial to deriving reliable estimates of value in contingent valuation studies. A more elaborate version of the Fishbein –Ajzen model is developed to explore the relationships between beliefs, attitudes, and behavioural intentions. Cognitive beliefs, attitudes, social norms, and awareness are shown to affect responses to CV questions. Also important to the process is the demands of interviewers and respondents in the survey situation.
The Statistical Analysis of Discrete‐Response CV Data
Authors: Hanemann Michael , Kanninen Barbara
Published: October 2003

Economic theory of responses to CV survey questions is developed, set within the framework of the random utility maximization model, which generates statistical models for the survey responses. A number of statistical issues arise in the estimation of economic welfare measures from data on CV responses using the maximum likelihood method. Optimal experimental design procedures are outlined to select the bids to be used in CV surveys. Advanced topics in statistical design and the analysis of discrete choice data are presented.
Patterns of Movement Inclusion and Exclusion in the Four Countries
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

The experience of environmentalism in the US, UK, Germany, and Norway is introduced in detail, with special reference to the relationship between the state and the movement. The history of each country in the modern environmental era is sketched. The movement took a very different form in each country. The oppositional public sphere confronting the state in Germany looks very different from the well‐behaved set of interest groups in the US or the Norwegian organizations that are tightly integrated into government. The shape and fortunes of environmentalism are heavily influenced by the state's orientation to societal interests, which can feature inclusion or exclusion, and be passive or active.
Co‐optive or Effective Inclusion? Movement Aims and State Imperatives
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

Sometimes the inclusion of the environmental movement in the state that has occurred has been genuine, and sometimes it has involved co‐option, i.e. access without real influence. We argue that inclusion can be genuine when the movement's defining interest can be attached to one of the core state imperatives; this explains why the US alone could prove such an environmental success story around 1970. Later in the 1970s, energy crisis meant that environmentalism was kept away from the state's core in all four countries, though there was substantial variation in how this was played out. More recent history reveals environmentalism generally kept away from the core, though there are exceptions (especially in Norway and, later, Germany).
The Dynamics of Democratization
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

Social movements contribute to democracy and democratization. This chapter broadens the focus to democracy within society as a whole, civil society, and the public sphere as well as the state, and the contributions that movements can make to it. The counterintuitive conclusions are that inclusive states can actually be bad for democracy in the society as a whole (even if they look positive when it comes to democracy within the state), while passive exclusion in states such as Germany can promote democracy. States with a prescriptive orientation to civil society, be it on behalf of inclusion or exclusion, stifle movement diversity.
Evaluating Movement Effectiveness and Strategy
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

Evaluates and compares movement strategy and success in influencing public policy within the state when environmentalists act in conventional interest group or in political party fashion. But movements can also influence public policy when they confront the state from civil society. In addition, movements in civil society can take effect more directly by changing the terms of political discourse and political culture, and engaging paragovernmental activity that bypasses the state. In light of these possibilities, guidelines are developed for movements contemplating whether to act within the state, in oppositional civil society, or in both. We show when and how the popular ‘dual strategy’ for movement action can work—and when it cannot.
Bahrain
Authors: Hartmann Christof
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Bahrain since its independence. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Bahrain's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Iran
Authors: Kauz Ralph , Sharoudi Hamid Khosravi , Rieck Andreas
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Iran since 1906. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Iran's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Iraq
Authors: Axtmann Dirk
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Iraq since 1921. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Iraq's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Israel
Authors: Ries Matthias
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Israel since its independence in 1948. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Israel's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary, presidential elections and elections for Prime Minister, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Jordan
Authors: Dieterich Renate
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Jordan since its independence in 1946. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Jordan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Lebanon
Authors: Scheffler Thomas
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Lebanon since its independence in 1941. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Lebanon's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Oman
Authors: Alhaj Abdulla Juma
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on representative political institutions and elections held in Oman. It summarizes Omani political history and development and outlines the evolution of electoral provisions for a Shura and later State Council (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections).
Qatar
Authors: Wadood Sherif
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on representative political institutions and elections held in Qatar. It summarizes Qatari political history and development and outlines the evolution of electoral provisions for a Shura and Municipal Councils (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system).
Syria
Authors: Zisser Eyal
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Syria since its independence. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Syria's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Turkey
Authors: Schüler Harald
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held since the proclamation of the Turkish Republic in 1923. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Turkey's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
United Arab Emirates
Authors: Koch Christian
Published: October 2003

As no national elections and referendums have been held in the United Arab Emirates, the chapter gives an overview of the political institutions and history of the Emirates. The legal provisions governing the activities of the appointed Federal National Council are presented in detail.
Yemen
Authors: Glosemeyer Iris
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in the former two Yemeni states and today's Republic of Yemen. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Yemen's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Kyrgyzstan
Authors: Eschment Beate , Grotz Florian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Kyrgyzstan since 1990. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Kyrgyzstan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Bangladesh
Authors: Ahmed Nizam
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Bangladesh since independence in 1971. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Bangladesh's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
India
Authors: Enskat Mike , Mitra Subrata K. , Singh Vijay Bahadur
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in India since its independence in 1947. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of India's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Myanmar (Burma)
Authors: Frasch Tilman
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Myanmar since its independence in 1948. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Myanmar's political history and outlines the evolution of electoral provisions in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Pakistan
Authors: Zingel Wolfgang‐Peter
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Pakistan since its independence in 1947. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Pakistan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Sri Lanka
Authors: Wagner Christian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Sri Lanka since its independence in 1947. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Sri Lanka's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and constituency level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).