bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pre‐freeze and post‐thaw characteristics on chimerism patterns in double‐unit cord blood transplantation
Authors: Jaing Tang‐Her , Tsay Pei‐Kwei , Lin Tung‐Liang , Yang Chao‐Ping , Hung Iou‐Jih , Wen Yu‐Chuan
Published: December 2008

We analyzed the pre‐freeze and post‐thaw characteristics on chimerism patterns in 20 cases of double‐unit cord blood transplantation. The cord blood units (CBUs) were a 4/6 HLA match or better with recipients and achieved a minimum combined precryopreservation cell dose of 3.7 × 107 total nucleated cell (TNC)/kg. The unit with a higher cell dose was infused first. All evaluable patients engrafted at a median of 18 days. By day 42, neutrophil engraftment was derived from both donors in 63% of cases and a single donor in 37% of patients. By day 100, one unit predominated in 80% of the patients. Higher pre‐freeze TNC and CD34+ cell doses were associated with cord predominance in 67% of patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2009;52:547–550. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Bayesian approach to average power calculations for binary regression models with misclassified outcomes
Authors: Cheng Dunlei , Stamey James D. , Branscum Adam J.
Published: December 2008

We develop a simulation‐based procedure for determining the required sample size in binomial regression risk assessment studies when response data are subject to misclassification. A Bayesian average power criterion is used to determine a sample size that provides high probability, averaged over the distribution of potential future data sets, of correctly establishing the direction of association between predictor variables and the probability of event occurrence. The method is broadly applicable to any parametric binomial regression model including, but not limited to, the popular logistic, probit, and complementary log–log models. We detail a common medical scenario wherein ascertainment of true disease status is impractical or otherwise impeded, and in its place the outcome of a single binary diagnostic test is used as a surrogate. These methods are then extended to the two diagnostic test setting. We illustrate the method with categorical covariates using one example that involves screening for human papillomavirus. This example coupled with results from simulated data highlights the utility of our Bayesian sample size procedure with error prone measurements. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Physigrams: modelling devices for natural interaction
Authors: Dix Alan , Ghazali Masitah , Gill Steve , Hare Joanna , Ramduny-Ellis Devina
Published: December 2008

This paper explores the formal specification of the physical behaviour of devices ‘unplugged’ from their digital effects. By doing this we seek to better understand the nature of physical interaction and the way this can be exploited to improve the design of hybrid devices with both physical and digital features. We use modified state transition networks of the physical behaviour, which we call physiograms, and link these to parallel diagrams of the digital state. These are used to describe a number of features of physical interaction exposed by previous work and relevant properties expressed using a formal semantics of the diagrams. As well as being an analytic tool, the physigrams have been used in a case study where product designers used and adapted them as part of the design process.
Purification of Soybean Phosphatidylcholine Using D113‐III Ion Exchange Macroporous Resin Packed Column Chromatography
Authors: Liu Yuanfa , Shan Liang , Wang Xingguo
Published: December 2008

Ten ion‐exchange resins were compared for their abilities to separate soybean phosphatidylcholine (PC). D113‐III resin was selected for PC purification among ten resins tested. The optimum PC adsorption conditions were: concentration of PC solution, 3 mg/mL; pH of PC solution, 7.5; and adsorption flow rate, 1 mL/min. The optimum PC desorption conditions were: eluent, 95% ethanol aqueous solution; and elution flow rate, 1 mL/min. Under these conditions, the PC content in the product and the amount of product were 94 and 80% (wt.%), respectively, and the D113‐III resin was able to be used at least six times for purifying PC. The adsorption and desorption characteristics were also studied.
Cross‐fostering effect on postnatal development of rat pups exposed to methamphetamine during gestation and preweaning periods
Authors: Pometlová Marie , Hrubá Lenka , Šlamberová Romana , Rokyta Richard
Published: December 2008

There are studies showing that drug abuse during pregnancy may have a long‐term effect on progeny of drug‐abusing mothers. Our previous work demonstrated that prenatal and/or postnatal methamphetamine injections impair maternal behavior. The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of prenatal methamphetamine or stress exposure and postnatal breeding on postnatal development of rat pups. Female rats were injected with methamphetamine (5 mg/kg daily) or physiological saline prior, during and after gestation. Absolute controls did not receive any injections. On postnatal day 1, pups were cross‐fostered so that each mother received some of her own and some of the pups from the mothers with the other two treatments. Pups were weighted daily for the entire lactation period. Postural motor reaction development was examined daily by righting reflex between postnatal day 1 and 12. On postnatal day 15 homing test examining pups' nest‐seeking behavior was performed. On postnatal day 23 rotarod and bar‐holding tests were used to investigate sensorimotor coordination of pups. We demonstrated that prenatal methamphetamine exposure impairs performance of sensorimotor tests (righting reflex on surface and rotarod test). Moreover, the effect of methamphetamine as well as the effect of prenatal stress induced by saline injections was affected by postnatal breeding conditions in sensorimotor tests as well as in the test of homing. Our results support the hypothesis that the variation in rat maternal care could serve as a mechanism for a nongenomic behavioral mode of transmission of traits.
Healthcare responsibilities and conscientious objection
Authors: Cook Rebecca J. , Arango Olaya Mónica , Dickens Bernard M.
Published: November 2008

The Constitutional Court of Colombia has issued a decision of international significance clarifying legal duties of providers, hospitals, and healthcare systems when conscientious objection is made to conducting lawful abortion. The decision establishes objecting providers' duties to refer patients to non‐objecting providers, and that hospitals, clinics, and other institutions have no rights of conscientious objection. Their professional and legal duties are to ensure that patients receive timely services. Hospitals and other administrators cannot object, because they do not participate in the procedures they are obliged to arrange. Objecting providers, and hospitals, must maintain knowledge of non‐objecting providers to whom their patients must be referred. Accordingly, medical schools must adequately train, and licensing authorities approve, non‐objecting providers. Where they are unavailable, midwives and perhaps nurse practitioners may be trained, equipped, and approved for appropriate service delivery. The Court's decision has widespread implications for how healthcare systems must accommodate conscientious objection and patients' legal rights.
Climate drying and associated forest decline in the lowlands of northern Guatemala during the late Holocene
Authors: Mueller Andreas D. , Islebe Gerald A. , Hillesheim Michael B. , Grzesik Dustin A. , Anselmetti Flavio S. , Ariztegui Daniel , Brenner Mark , Curtis Jason H. , Hodell David A. , Venz Kathryn A.
Published: November 2008

Palynological studies document forest disappearance during the late Holocene in the tropical Maya lowlands of northern Guatemala. The question remains as to whether this vegetation change was driven exclusively by anthropogenic deforestation, as previously suggested, or whether it was partly attributable to climate changes. We report multiple palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironment proxies (pollen, geochemical, sedimentological) from sediment cores collected in Lake Petén Itzá, northern Guatemala. Our data indicate that the earliest phase of late Holocene tropical forest reduction in this area started at ∼ 4500 cal yr BP, simultaneous with the onset of a circum-Caribbean drying trend that lasted for ∼ 1500 yr. This forest decline preceded the appearance of anthropogenically associatedZea mayspollen. We conclude that vegetation changes in Petén during the period from ∼ 4500 to ∼ 3000 cal yr BP were largely a consequence of dry climate conditions. Furthermore, palaeoclimate data from low latitudes in North Africa point to teleconnective linkages of this drying trend on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
Selection at 6-PGD locus in laboratory populations ofBactrocera oleae
Authors: COSMIDIS NIKOS , GOULIELMOS GEORGE , ELIOPOULOS ELIAS , LOUKAS MICHAEL
Published: December 2008

We have previously shown that laboratory populations of the olive fruitflyBactrocera oleaecome to equilibrium with allele frequencies at the 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6-PGD) locus markedly different from those of wild populations. In this study, we present new evidence from perturbation experiments in support of the notion that the locus is under selective pressure under laboratory conditions. Eleven populations were started with frequencies at the 6-PGD locus different from the laboratory equilibrium. Over 12 generations, the populations showed a return to the previous equilibrium, indicating a direct and powerful selection pressure on the naturally occurring allozymes of this locus. That is, a marked increase of the F allele followed by a compensatory decrease of allele I. Populations were set up to minimize the effects of associative overdominance, and we discuss the possible influence of this factor. Nucleotide sequence for the 6-PGD F and I alleles revealed two missense mutations at positions 501 and 730 leading to different amino acids among the two alleles.
Pragmatic and semantic constraints on numeral quantifier position in Japanese
Authors: Downing Pamela
Published: December 2008

Japanese, like many other languages, permits numeral expressions to appear in several positions relative to the argument whose number they specify. This article concentrates on just two of the possibilities, the ‘Pre-Nominal’ and the ‘Q-Float’ numeral positions, describing a number of semantic, syntactic and pragmatic differences between them.
Eskimo word order variation and its contact-induced perturbation
Authors: Fortescue Michael
Published: December 2008

Eskimo languages are commonly characterized as displaying rather ‘free’ word order as compared to the major western European languages. Nevertheless, there is in West Greenlandic at least a clearly dominant, pragmatically neutral ordering pattern. Deviation from this – when possible at all – results in specifiable contextual marking (the factors involved will be discussed and illustrated in section 2). In fact, the degree of ‘freedom’ involved may vary considerably from dialect to dialect (and from language to language), also through time and according to register/medium. Specifically I shall be claiming thatnoEskimo dialect is of the purely pragmatically based word order type (lacking a syntactic ‘basic order’) which Mithun claims is typical for polysynthetic languages with inflected verbs that can stand as independent sentences (Mithun, 1987: 323). Unlike the type of language that Mithun describes, which includes (Iroquoian) Cayuga and (‘Penutian’) Coos, for example, I shall argue that West Greenlandic (WG), a highly polysynthetic language, behaves more like Slavic languages in this respect, though the ‘neutral’ pattern there is of course SVO rather than SOV. Much as described for Czech and Russian by the Prague School functionalists, word order in WG seems to reflect the common ‘functional sentence perspective’ whereby – ignoring postposed ‘afterthought/clarificatory’ material – early position in the sentence is associated with given material of low communicative dynamism, whereas later position is associated with new or important material of high communicative dynamism (see Firbas, 1974). This is the reverse of the situation described by Mithun.
The English modal auxiliaries: from lexical semantics to utterance interpretation
Authors: Klinge Alex
Published: December 2008

Like so many others before it, this exposition is of the meaning of the English modal auxiliaries, which are found in utterances conveying modal meanings such as ability, possibility and permission. However, unlike the majority of its predecessors, the present rendering admits to being about more than semantics. With the five central modal auxiliaries, can, may, must, will and shall, the modals for short, as a point of departure, a framework will be formulated to shed light on some central aspects of the immense cotext and context sensitivity involved in the meaning of utterances of sentences containing a modal auxiliary.
Auxiliary inversions and the notion ‘default specification’
Authors: Green Georgia M. , Morgan Jerry L.
Published: December 2008

It is commonly thought that (1) the description of English auxiliary inversions requires a feature with a default value, (2) that non-default values must be stipulated and learned as exceptions and (3) that when languages exhibit different values for a feature in different contexts, learning theory requires grammars to stipulate a default value. Distinguishing two perniciously confused uses of the term DEFAULT enables a demonstration that the first and third assumptions are incorrect. Conseqently, any argument that depends on them is invalid, and the absence in a theory of a mechanism for default-value declarations is not a deficiency. It is then shown that a comprehensive account of inverted structures has to encompass considerably more diversity of structural types than is generally recognized, but is entirely possible in a constraint-based grammar with monotonic multiple-inheritance and no overridable default specifications.
Some linguistic paradoxes
Authors: Collinge N. E.
Published: December 2008

The emphasis on syntagmatic criteria in analysis, especially as interpreted by J. R. Firth (from his 1948 paper onwards) in the phonological aspect of language, has led many scholars, in Great Britain at least, to a disbelief in the adequacy of phonemes alone – or of phonemes aided by such suprasegmental features as intensity, duration and tone – for the tasks of accurate description and powerful theoretical explanation of the operation of a spoken language. Among the fruits of the new emphasis, the studies which are characterized as ‘prosodic’ and ‘polysystemic’, is that treatment of Sanskrit discontinuous retroflexion within words which handles this feature as a prosody operating over a considerable stretch (chain of phonematic units) and being phonetically realized wherever possible, which may be more often than is graphically hinted (Allen, 1951). In this view, apparent historical ‘assimilation’ is trenchantly dismissed: we are not to imagine a shift being induced in one phoneme by another which stands at a distance from it, nor is the first to be spoken of as changing from ‘something it never was’. This, of course, begs the whole historical question; and even if the nature of Indo-European reconstructions is so skeletophonemic that we cannot say with certainty that Skt. ṇ is not the unshifted allophonic reflex of IE /n/ in the relevant positions in the relevant words, nevertheless a phonetic continuation is scarcely likely (e.g. in *plH-nó-). In many cases a different earlier form can be pointed to, attested and unmistakable (e.g. Latin octo before Ital. otto). One cannot lightly oppose a prima facie possibility that ṇ was first one thing and then became another.
On some recent claims in phonological theory
Authors: Householder F. W.
Published: December 2008

In 1962, on the occasion of the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, an article by Morris Halle (1962) appeared in the special issue ofWord, and Noam Chomsky (1964) appeared before a plenary session of the Congress to defend some remarks which had previously been distributed in thePreprints.1These two papers were perhaps intended as a sort of one-two punch to knock old-fashioned linguistics out of the ring; at any rate, on matters of phonology, their claims and assertions, if all wholly true, would tend to make all phonological work impossible on any known lines (curiously, they fail to reveal their own methods).
On the placement of accent in dialogue: A feature of context grammar
Authors: Gunter Richard
Published: December 2008

It is well known that an English sentence may have its accent, or point of greatest prominence, on any of several syllables. This phenomenon has been called SHIFT.1 It is the feature of English that permits us to render such a sentence as The man can see the boy in a variety of ways, as follows:

The man can see the Boy.

The man can SEE the boy.

The man CAN see the boy.

The MAN can see the boy.
A criticism of distinctive features
Authors: Wilson Robert D.
Published: December 2008

The relationship between segment and sound is a central concern of phonology.1 A framework for the definition of this relationship is that of distinctive features - proposed by Roman Jakobson and developed by Morris Halle. This framework may be looked at as having two parts: the substantive and the formal. The substantive is made up of the small number of features which, it is claimed (Halle, 1957: 67 ff.), are all that are necessary for describing all the languages of the world - fifteen by the latest count (Halle, 1964a: 329). The formal consists of a number of concepts which appear to have contributed to the definition of the relationship between segment and sound in transformational theory (Chomsky, 1964: 86). Only incidentally will I be concerned with the substantive part of the framework.
A hierarchical study of neutralization in Kasem
Authors: Callow John C.
Published: December 2008

The grammar of Kasem is being analysed in terms of a hierarchical model (cf. Halliday, 1961; Bendor-Samuel, 1963), the (ascending) levels of relevance to this paper being word, phrase, clause, string, and sentence. (The ‘string’ is the unit which functions in the sentence and consists of a tightly bound sequence of clauses, the non-initial clauses operating under extensive restrictions with respect to their structure. This type of syntactic unit appears to be characteristic of many Gur languages and is often referred to as a ‘series’ or ‘serial construction’. For a recent discussion in some detail of this unit, under the term ‘clause clusters’, see Pike, 1966: 55–78.) At the word level in this hierarchy, a system of categories can be set up to account for the form of every verb word, i.e. so that every verb word can be completely ‘parsed’ or described in terms of these categories. But one of the characteristic features of this system of categories is that there is extensive neutralization between the categories. The question, then, that this paper seeks to discuss is this: are the ambiguities inherent in the verb word resolved within the language as a whole? An answer is here presented which seeks to relate the resolution of the ambiguities to the different levels of the grammatical hierarchy, as set up.
Speculations on performance models
Authors: Fromkin Victoria
Published: December 2008

The publication ofSyntactic Structuresin 1957 stimulated a much-needed re-evaluation among linguists as to the goals of linguistic theory and the nature of language. Part of the discussion which has ensued has centred around the question of linguistic competence versus performance. Competence has been related to performance as ‘langue’ is to ‘parole’. ‘Competence’ thus refers to the ‘underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the speaker-hearer’ (Chomsky, 1965) and ‘performance’ to the way the speaker-hearer utilizes this ‘internalized grammar’ when he actually produces and understands utterances. Despite the continued controversy about this distinction, little can be added to the justifications for it put forth over many decades (cf. Chomsky, 1957, 1964, 1965; Katz, 1964, 1966; Postal, 1966; Sapir, 1933; Levin, 1965; de Saussure, 1916; etc.). Yet there remains much vagueness as to the limits of each and the relationship between the two. For many years the confusion was due to the influence of Bloomfield who centred his attention on the speech act; his aim was the classification of the OUTPUT of performance, i.e. the utterances, and led to no theory about the dynamic process of performance itself (Bloomfield, 1924, 1926, 1927, 1933). While giving lip service to a concern for ‘langue’, his own mechanistic approach negated any possibility for the rules of ‘langue’ to be anything more than lists of recurrent patterns found in ‘parole’. And since he was of the opinion that ‘the physiologic and acoustic description of acts of speech belongs to other sciences than ours’ (Bloomfield, 1926: 153) he did not direct himself to those aspects of ‘parole’ which could explain speech performance.
English prepositions: A stratificational approach
Authors: Bennett David C.
Published: December 2008

In a paper read at the Tenth International Congress of Linguists, Bucharest, 1967 (Bennett, forthcoming), I discussed the question of synonymy within the framework of the stratificational theory of language, taking examples from the area of English prepositions. The present paper has two aims. On the one hand, it incorporates the findings of more recent work on synonymy. Thus whereas, for instance, in the earlier paper two levels of synonymy were distinguished, it now seems necessary to recognize four or possibly five levels. On the other hand, the paper will attempt to set the discussion of synonymy in a wider framework by sketching the outlines of a semological description of English prepositions. To present such a description would be beyond the scope of the paper. I hope merely to indicate the general shape that the description might take. In addition to the remarks on synonymy there will be some discussion of polysemy, componential analysis and idioms. In particular it is hoped that a clear picture will emerge of the relationship between these various areas.
Transformational grammar and the layering of structure in Tamil
Authors: Kandiah T.
Published: December 2008

In each of the following pairs of sentences, the verb in (a) is intuitively apprehended as being related in some significant way to that in (b):
(1) a. The rice grew b. The fanner grew the rice
(2) a. The barge sank b. The storm sank the barge
(3) a. The coconut dropped b. The man dropped the coconut
(4) a. The cart turned b. The driver turned the cart
(5) a. The laws changed b. The Government changed the laws
(6) a. The mourners collected b. He collected the mourners
(7) a. The boat sailed b. The fisherman sailed the boat
(8) a. The meeting began b. The Chairman began the meeting
For transformational grammarians working on English, the delineation of the kind of relationship illustrated here is vital for the achievement of (at least) descriptive adequacy in their analysis of the language. Deeper investigation of the relationship has, however, revealed that concealed beneath its apparent simplicity there are certain highly complicated problems with fundamental and far-rseaching implications for the theory of transformational grammar itself.
Semantic cuisine
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: December 2008

Structural semantics seeks to discover certain relationships among the words in the vocabulary of a language.1This area of linguistic analysis has received relatively little systematic study by most linguists until recently (Gleason, 1962: 86), and the vocabulary has been considered a rather unorganized set of items.
On the interpretation of ‘nonsense strings’
Authors: Fowler Roger
Published: December 2008

Katz's statement of the core of the problem of ungrammaticalness is worth quoting at length:
‘The knowledge that enables a speaker to understand sentences – his knowledge of the rules of the grammar – must be identically the knowledge that enables him to understand semi-sentences, for semi-sentences are understood in terms of their well-formed parts. Moreover, the knowledge a speaker uses to recognize the respects in which a semi-sentence is ungrammatical is also his knowledge of grammaticality: knowledge of the grammatical rules is here employed to discover instances of their violation.…
Aspects of word order and its communicative function in English and German
Authors: Kirkwood Henry W.
Published: December 2008

A study of word order must take account of the different sets of criteria governing the position of elements and the extent to which the one or the other has a bearing on the order of elements in the languages investigated. It must consider whether word order is predetermined by grammatical rule and what measure of freedom is left to the speaker or writer to manipulate word order to conform to the communicative intention. The present study will mainly be concerned with the sentence opening elements and the position of the grammatical subject.
Syllables and redundancy rules in generative phonology
Authors: Brown Gillian
Published: December 2008

This paper is concerned with two topics, the status of the syllable and the scope of redundancy rules, in generative phonology. We begin the discussion by examining material from Lugisu, a Bantu language of eastern Uganda, which will be used as the main language of exemplification. The simple noun in Lugisu is formed by the sequence: determiner, classifier, stem. The determiner is deleted before consonant-initial stems in some syntactic environments (and in isolation; examples 1 and 3, for example, show the sequence: classifier, stem). The first examples are from Meinhof's noun class 3 (Meinhof, 1932) where the determiner is /gu/ 3 and the classifier /mu/.
Some types of ‘phrasal conjunction’ in Russian
Authors: Miller J.
Published: December 2008

In this paper some data from Russian are presented and it is suggested, contrary to the proposals put forward by Lakoff & Peters (1966), that in the deep structure of Russian two types of coordination must be recognized, an ‘and’ type and a ‘with’ type. It is also suggested that the underlying ‘with’ coordinating element may sometimes be realized as i (‘and’) or as s (‘with’), and that the s may derive from an underlying ‘comitative’ case (cf. Fillmore, 1968: 81–83).
Noun pluralization in Brazilian Portuguese
Authors: Brasington R. W. P.
Published: December 2008

§ 1. The purpose of the following account is to show that the morphological rule for pluralization of nouns in Brazilian Portuguese can be simply expressed given (a) a basic representation for morphs which might be said to be ‘independently justified’ by alternations elsewhere in the morphology of the language, and (b) a set of phonological rules operating on and modifying the basic representation, the majority of which again seem to be widely applicable in Portuguese morphophonology.
How useful is the logarithmic type/token ratio?
Authors: Weitzman Michael
Published: December 2008

What has been described as ‘one of the most remarkable (facts) in quantitative linguistics’ is the constancy of the logarithmic type/token ratio. If V denotes vocabulary and N text length, then log V/log N ‘remains sensibly constant for samples of different size from a given literary text’.1
English derivation
Authors: Gunter Richard
Published: December 2008

The word DERIVATION and its cousins DERIVE and DERIVATIONAL are technical linguistic terms. Thus they ought to be models of sober precision. But in fact these words carry several meanings and they have a way of slipping from one sense to another without warning, so that when an author uses a word from this group his meaning is not always unmistakable.
Towards a generative semantic account of aspect in Russian
Authors: Miller J.
Published: December 2008

Two models of generative grammar are now available, the interpretative semantic model and the generative semantic model. The latter model differs sharply from Chomsky's ‘standard model’ in that its base component generates semantic objects, namely predicates and their arguments, whereas the base component of the ‘standard model’ generates syntactic objects, e.g. noun phrases and verb phrases. The interpretative semantic model is essentially the ‘standard model’ to which have been added rules for interpreting surface structures. (For an interpretative account of pronouns and negation, see Jackendoff (1968, 1969). A criticism of Jackendoff's proposals is to be found in Lakoff (1970)). This paper offers an informal account of aspect in Russian which, it will be argued, indicates that the many problems raised by generative semantics must be tackled by any linguist interested in ‘explanatory adequacy’.
Quasi-modals
Authors: Chapin Paul G.
Published: December 2008

In a lengthy footnote to his article ‘Pronominalization, negation, and the analysis of adverbs’ (1970) George Lakoff makes the following interesting observation:

All known selectional restrictions on the occurrence of lexical items are finite in scope. Usually they apply in the same sentence (subject–verb and verb–object selections) and sometimes one sentence away (verb–verb selections; i.e.forcerequires an activity verb in its complement) (160).
Homing in: on arguing for remote representations
Authors: Zwicky Arnold M.
Published: December 2008

Linguistic analysis possesses both an ‘arbitrary’ and a ‘natural’ component – on the one hand, methodological principles and various means of organizing and handling data; on the other, empirical studies aimed at exposing linguistic universals through the detailed analysis of specific languages, cross-linguistic comparison, phonetic studies, psycholinguistic experiments, observation of language acquisition, and other sources of pertinent data. In practice, the arbitrary and natural components are intertwined, and each makes use of methods and results from outside linguistics in a narrow sense: the arbitrary component contains many principles and methods which are not peculiar to linguistics at all, but are rather the common property of scientific investigation, while the natural component refers ultimately to aspects of mental and social organization and physical properties of the vocal tract, many of which are independent of speci-fically linguistic behaviours and abilities.
Like subject verbs and causal clauses in English
Authors: Fodor Janet Dean
Published: December 2008

Perlmutter claimed (Perlmutter, 1968) that the like subject constraint in English is a deep structure constraint. Apart from being a contribution to a theory of filtering devices in natural languages, this claim is of interest because it is based on the assignment of abstract deep structures containing causal clauses which do not appear in surface structure. For example, Perlmutter proposed deriving the sentence:

(1) ( = (7)) I tried to be arrested.

from the deep structures:

rather than from the more conservative:

(3) ( = (9)) I tried [Pro arrest I]

Like other proposed abstract deep structures, (2) brings out the meaning of the sentence; it predicts paraphrase relations between (1) and the sentences:

Perlmutter presented independent evidence for this analysis, but he also used it to explain away what would otherwise have been counterexample to the claim that the like subject constraint holds over deep structures (the ‘deep subject hypothesis’).
Functional sentence perspective in Inga
Authors: Levinsohn Stephen H.
Published: December 2008

The Inga language relies on overt ‘case’ markers, rather than the relative position of, for example, the subject or object elements with respect to the verb, to distinguish the function of each. Since little restriction is thus placed on the order of elements by the syntax, a potential for a large number of permutations results.
Problems with phonological chains
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: December 2008

I. Chains are familiar in diachronic phonology as sets of shifts of the form A>B, B>C, C>D, etc. Well-known examples include the following (cf. Martinet, 1955: Ch. 2):

(I)(a) Grimm's Law: bh>b>p>f

(b) Azores Portuguese: a>doubt:>о>u>y

(c) Great English Vowel Shift: æ>doubt:ēī>ai

(d) Hauteville dialect: ề>doubt:ε>a>doubt:

(e) High German Consonant Shift: d>>ts/s

(f) Latin>Italian: kui>kwi>ki>tfi

Martinet (1952, 1955) gives a ‘functional’ interpretation of this phenomenon, distinguishing between ‘push’ and ‘drag’ chains; King (1969), arguing from a generative point of view, rejects the ‘push’ variety, and considers ‘drag’ chains to be a case of rule simplification.
Old English γ-metathesis and generative phonology
Authors: Hogg Richard M.
Published: December 2008

Postal (1968: 300) writes as follows:

Bloomfield in effect noted the incompatibility of phenomena like … metathesis, dissimilation, etc., with the view of sound change as gradual drift in performance. Instead of admitting that these were counterexamples to the view, he simply appealed to terminology and declared that they were not sound change … But, since these types of changes are as systematic, regular, cross-lexical, etc., as other changes, this terminological attempt amounts to nothing more than the naming of a class of exceptions.
Syntactic change and the autonomy thesis
Authors: Lightfoot David
Published: December 2008

I. Despite much activity, the recent attention paid by generativists to diachronic syntax has led to no significant implications for a general theory of grammar and, from a purely historical viewpoint, has failed to focus on any well-defined concepts of historical change. The papers in this field stand largely in isolation from each other and show few common threads of interest or argumentation; there is little agreement on even the most fundamental concepts. Modern diachronic syntacticians, it is true, have no legacy equivalent to what was handed down to phonologists, and they must do their own pioneering work. This will preclude rapid progress, but it does not explain the current disarray of the field. The fault for that lies in ourselves and is a consequence of a theoretical approach to syntax precisely as barren as that of the neogrammarians.
Some postulates characterizing volitive NPs
Authors: Dillon George L.
Published: December 2008

D. A. Cruse's ‘Some thoughts on agentivity’ (1973: 11–23) makes the useful distinction of [volitive] and [agentive] NPs. Recognizing this difference is the first step in avoiding some of the difficulties encountered by Jackendoff (1972), Fischer and Marshall (1969) and others in their discussion of how an NP is characterized as [volitive] in a clause and how some predicates can characterize an NP in an embedded clause as [volitive]. These discussions have been relatively inconclusive because of the very common assumption that [ ±volitive] or something like it should be represented as a feature of predicates, or predictable from one. If one believes that lexical selectional features are semantic (as McCawley (1968) argues), one arrives at the kind of ‘referential’ criterion for volitivity that Cruse rightly wishes to shun and that other writers have found so dismaying (see e.g. Jackendoff, 1972: 221). The way to avoid this is to suppose that [volitive] is not a ‘feature’ at all, but rather abbreviates an assumption entailed (or ‘presupposed’) by saying certain things. In this way, some sentences can be marked as contradictory, but many will simply seem queer outside of an explicating context, set of special assumptions, and so on. It follows that a great many sentences starred in recent grammatical literature as inherently bad regardless of context ought not to be. We mark: I asked John to be tall.
Greek diglossia and some aspects of the phonology of common Modern Greek
Authors: Warburton Irene Philippaki
Published: December 2008

Two American linguists, Ferguson (1959) and Householder (1962) who have worked on the subject of Greek diglossia from a technical and theoretical point of view have predicted that in the conflict between Katharevousa (K), an artificially created archaic form of Greek and Dimotiki (D), the language based on the vernacular, the latter will finally win.

The debate between the supporters of these two language forms has recently entered a new phase due to the Karamanlis' government decision to recognize the D as the official language and as the medium of all levels of education. The linguistic activity which followed this event falls into three main types.
In defence of single mothers
Authors: Borsley Robert D.
Published: December 2008

In an important theoretical discussion, Sampson (1975) argues against what he terms the ‘single-mother condition’. This is the condition that no node may have more than one mother. It is central to the definition of a tree, as the term is normally understood in linguistic theory. Sampson argues that the condition should be abandoned, and that what he terms ‘semitrees’, graphs in which nodes have more than one mother, should be permitted as representations of linguistic structure.2 He argues for this innovation on the basis of certain anaphoric phenomena. In this note, I want to take a critical look at his argument. I will suggest that the semitree approach to anaphoric phenomena that he sketches is untenable, and hence that these phenomena provide no motivation for an abandonment of the single-mother condition.
Japanese verbs of dress
Authors: Backhouse A. E.
Published: December 2008

IntroductionThis article describes aspects of the semantics of Japanese verbs of dress, first from a contrastive standpointvis-à-visEnglish, and subsequently in terms of their position within the structure of the vocabulary of Japanese. It is hoped that the treatment may draw attention to the semantic interest of this area of the vocabulary in different languages, and to the importance of a hitherto little-described sense relation of oppositeness.
Consistency, markedness and language change: on the notion ‘consistent language’
Authors: Smith N. V.
Published: December 2008

To avoid the triviality of mere taxonomy in which languages are classified by such arbitrary criteria as ‘is/is not tonal’, ‘does/does not have unbounded movement rules’, ‘has prefixes/suffixes’, etc., language typology needs to be able to make implicational statements of the sort usually associated with the name of Greenberg.1For instance, one wants to be able to say of a language not only that it is VSO, but also that it THEREFORE will have prepositions, will place modifying adjectives after rather than before the noun, will put titles before proper names, and so on. Likewise, if a language has the word-order SOV, then an interesting typology should allow one to predict that it willipso factobe postpositional, put attributive adjectives before the noun, etc.
The nature of phonological representation: evidence from breaking in Frisian
Authors: Tiersma Peter
Published: December 2008

A thorough examination of the nature of the phonological portion of the lexicon must address at least two crucial issues. One has traditionally been termed the abstractness controversy, which concerns itself with the issue of the level of representation, or whether lexical entries are at a surface phonetic, phonemic, systematic phonemic, or some other level. The second issue deals with the unit of representation, or whether lexical entries are in the form of morphemes, words, or some of each.
Some functionally motivated rules in Tunisian phonology
Authors: Wise Hilary
Published: December 2008

This paper attempts to account for the existence of two phonological rules (consonant gemination and a type of metathesis) and for the suspension of a third (truncation), all of which occur in very limited grammatical environments. A close examination of these three cases suggests that we must recognize the possibility of phonetically unmotivated morphophonological rules, which can perhaps be explained in functionalist terms: the rules examined here appear to be designed essentially to preserve the canonical forms of sets of morphemes which would otherwise be in danger of clashing with other sets of morphemes in the language. These findings lead us to elaborate on Hooper's (1976) notion of MP-rules (rules which require grammatical information to be given in their structural description), and to question her hypothesis concerning the origins of such rules.
Remarks on transitivity
Authors: Tsunoda Tasaku
Published: December 2008

Hopper & Thompson (1980) is an important contribution on the issue of transitivity, in which they propose that transitivity consists of the following ten semantic parameters:
Prepositional complementizers in Welsh
Authors: Borsley Robert D.
Published: December 2008

A number of languages have what can be called prepositional complementizers, items which look like prepositions and have some of the properties of prepositions but appear in positions in which complementizers appear. In this paper I shall be concerned with Welsh prepositional complementizers and, in particular, with their implications for the analysis of subjectless infinitives. I shall consider the possibility of providing an analysis of the Welsh facts within the government-binding (GB) framework of Chomsky (1981, 1982, 1984), in which subjectless infinitives are clauses. I will argue that GB assumptions preclude a satisfactory account of the data. I will also show that certain facts relating to agreement pose further problems for a GB approach. I will then show that the facts are quite straightforward if one assumes that subjectless infinitives are bare VPs, as argued for Welsh in Borsley (1984a), and that VPs and Ss are members of the same basic category, as proposed in Borsley (1983, 1984b). It looks, then, as if we have some interesting evidence here for these assumptions.
Vowel harmony in Palestinian Arabic: a metrical perspective
Authors: Abu-Salim Issam M.
Published: December 2008

Previous work on vowel harmony (VH) in Palestinian Arabic (PA), particularly Kenstowicz (1981), has shown that this process is more adequately expressed in autosegmental than in linear terms, since the former permits the two otherwise uncollapsible regressive and progressive harmony processes to be stated in a single unified rule. The present study complements that autosegmental analysis. It shows that the autosegmental rule of VH in PA is constrained simultaneously by metrical and segmental boundaries. That is, high front vowels acquire the feature [+round] only if they are dominated by a foot marked [+round] and if they occur within the segmental domain of VH which comprises the stem and the preceding prefixes.
Levels of linguistic variation in Durham
Authors: Kerswill Paul E.
Published: December 2008

Sociolinguistic studies have shown that variation may occur on any of the accepted levels of linguistic analysis. Variation on the phonological level has been the most commonly treated in studies of English from Labov's (1966) New York study onwards. By contrast, it is rather rare that we find studies of morphological or lexical variation (the latter being the variation in the lexical form of words, for example, the Belfast alternation of /Λ/ and /Λ/ in the word foot (L. Milroy, 1980: 118)). However, morphological and lexical variation has been favoured in studies of some other languages, for instance Norwegian (Fintoft & Mjaavatn, 1980; Kerswill, 1985a), Swedish (Thelander, 1982) and Persian (Jahangiri & Hudson, 1982). On the other hand, studies of syntactic and prosodie variation have been altogether much less common (but see Cheshire, 1982; Local, 1982). In spite of differences in emphasis, the various methodologies used have all had the aim of discovering co-variation between linguistic and non-linguistic parameters.
Innovations and neutralizations in the Warlpiri pronominal system
Authors: Bavin Edith L. , Shopen Tim
Published: December 2008

The paradigm functions as a domain for certain processes of change. There can be changes in the number of grammatical categories or in the forms used to represent them. Thus, Benveniste (1968) contrasts change involving only the forms while the system remains the same (‘conservative’ change) with innovations in which there is change in the categories and the oppositions. In this paper, we will discuss both types of change in the Warlpiri pronominal system. Warlpiri is an Aboriginal language spoken in central Australia by about 3000 people. Our research has been carried out at Yuendumu, a remote community 300 km northwest of Alice Springs. While the majority of people in the community (about 750) have Warlpiri as their mother tongue, there are also about 65 non-Aboriginal people who speak English, and a few speakers of other Aboriginal languages closely related to Warlpiri. Although there is limited exposure to English, Warlpiri is the community language at Yuendumu.
Pragmatics and the grammar of anaphora: a partial pragmatic reduction of Binding and Control phenomena
Authors: Levinson Stephen C.
Published: December 2008

The properties of gaps are intrinsically significant in that the language learner can confront little direct evidence bearing on them, so that it is reasonable to assume that they reflect deeper principles of UG, the biologically determined endowment that will be the primary concern for those interested more in the nature of the human mind than in the arrangement of data in the environment (Chomsky, 1982:19.Some concepts and consequences of the theory of Government and Binding).
The Minimality Condition in phonology
Authors: Charette Monik
Published: December 2008

With a few honourable exceptions, phonologists have, until recently, generally assumed the phonological component to be organized along completely different lines from the other components of the grammar. Phonological phenomena were mainly viewed as accidental, language specific, and unprincipled. Whereas some theoretical parallels between syntax and phonology have been drawn (cf. the role of the cycle in both domains and the extensive literature on ordering), there have been few attempts to see if principles of Universal Grammar could be found in phonology as well as in syntax and semantics. Increasingly, however, phonology is now being regarded as a system of principles along with parameters defining the class of human phonological Systems. In such a framework there are no rules of the sort: A → B/C→D. Phonological phenomena result from principles and parameters governing phonological representations and structures present in a particular language. Along these lines, recent work in phonology has suggested that Phonological Form (PF), like the other components of the grammar, is subject to certain fundamental principles. For example, it was proposed by Andersen and Jones in the early 1970s (and pursued by Ewen, Durand and others) that the relations of dependency that determine how syntactic constituents are organized, also determine how segments are grouped together in a given structure. For their part Lowenstamm & Kaye (1982) proposed that a theory of government could account for certain phonological processes such as vowel shortening in closed syllables. Stephen Anderson (1982) and Levin (1985) have proposed that X-bar principles govern the representation of syllables. Specifically, they have proposed that the Rhyme and the syllable as a whole are projections of the syllabic head, the Nucleus.
On the notions of ‘stone’ and ‘mountain’ in Indo-European
Authors: Hamp Eric P.
Published: December 2008

We know a great deal about the Indo-European language family, and we can reconstruct a significant part of its vocabulary and its meaning-structure. Some words are virtual certainties, e.g. the form and meaning of the number ‘seven’, as well as other numerals. Other words are quite beyond confident recovery, both for form and for the notion itself, e.g. ‘good’. As a rule, we may say that in proportion as the lexeme is bound up with semantics that are or have been culturally relative the reconstruction becomes increasingly elusive.