bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Women and language in the ‘Secolo delle donne’
Authors: Sanson Helena
Published: August 2013

This chapter discusses the complex linguistic situation of Italy in the eighteenth century, taking into account its broader implications as well as, specifically, women's relationship with spoken and written language. Throughout the century, Italian continued to be above all a written tool and still had to withstand competition from the dialects and from Latin, both in terms of writing and in the context of schooling. A new front of rivalry opened up with French, which, especially in the highest classes, occupied a privileged role at the expense of Italian, with women in particular often being attacked for indulging in its use. The debates on the education of women that enlivened the Settecento did not overlook the question of language: the Enlightenment re-evaluation of women's role in society, as educators and as citizens, explains the frequent pleas by educationalists and men of letters that the female sex should learn Italian. If, on the one hand, female periodicals and novels allowed women access to written Italian to an unprecedented degree, on the other a large number of female writers, journalists, and translators were able to offer their own direct contribution to language and the literary world.
Knowledge and language ‘for the ladies’
Authors: Sanson Helena
Published: August 2013

Across Europe, as early as the seventeenth century (and even more so in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) women became the target of scientific treatises which aimed to explain new scientific knowledge to an unspecialized audience. Women were the privileged recipients of popularizing works of science and literature, and therefore indirectly contributed to introducing the new philosophers. In view of women's limited education, and their ignorance of Latin, works ‘for the ladies’ became synonymous with something adapted so as to become elementary and easy to grasp. Knowledge ‘for the ladies’ extended also to language, with the production across various countries of grammatical works which claimed to be, according to their titles and prefaces, expressly meant for the female sex. In agreement with the viewpoint that saw women as being incapable of real intellectual efforts, authors of these grammars shunned dry, boring, and taxing ways of learning, in favour of quicker and more pleasant and entertaining ones.
Introduction*
Authors: DAWID PHILIP
Published: August 2013

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the lack of attention to the nature of evidence. It then describes the interdisciplinary research programme ‘Evidence, Inference and Enquiry: Towards an Integrated Science of Evidence’ (generally known simply as the ‘Evidence Programme’), established at University College London in 2004. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Arguing about the Evidence: a Logical Approach
Authors: FOX JOHN
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores ways in which we can be equally rigorous about how to reason about and assess uncertain evidence, using a framework that allows for uncertainty but does not depend on being able to quantify it. It begins by defining what is meant by ‘evidence’ since it has somewhat different interpretations in different fields. It then attempts to develop a unified perspective. The central idea of this unification is that it is based on logic and the patterns of argumentation which are to be seen in deliberations and debates about evidence. The framework does not reject the importance of probabilistic methods for reasoning about evidence but offers a broader perspective which accommodates probabilistic methods when they are practical, and offers an alternative set of methods when they are not.
A Theory of Evidence for Evidence-Based Policy
Authors: CARTWRIGHT NANCY , STEGENGA JACOB
Published: August 2013

Evidence-based policy is all the rage now. But no one knows quite how to do it. Policy questions do not generally fall neatly within any one of our scientific or social science disciplines, where the standards and rules of evidence for the questions studied are fairly clearly delineated. There is by now a variety of guides available on standards of evidence for evidence-based policy. But these focus narrowly on only part of the problem. This chapter lays the foundations for a guide for the use of evidence in predicting policy effectiveness in situ — a more comprehensive guide than current standard offerings such as the Maryland rules in criminology, the weight of evidence scheme of the International Agency for Research on Cancer, or the US ‘What Works Clearinghouse’. The guide itself is meant to be well-grounded but at the same time to give practicable advice, that is, advice that can be used by policy-makers not experts in the natural and social sciences, assuming they are well-intentioned and have a reasonable but limited amount of time and resources available for searching out evidence and deliberating.
In Praise of Randomisation: The Importance of Causality in Medicine and its Subversion by Philosophers of Science
Authors: COLQUHOUN DAVID
Published: August 2013

The job of scientists is to try to distinguish what is true from what is false by means of observation and experiment. That job has been made difficult by some philosophers of science who appear to give academic respectability to relativist, and even postmodernist, postures. This chapter suggests that the contributions of philosophers to causal understanding have been unhelpful. It puts the case for randomised studies as the safest guarantee of the reliability of scientific evidence. It uses the case of hormone replacement therapy to illustrate the importance of randomisation, and the case of processed meat and cancer to illustrate the problems that arise in the absence of randomised tests. Finally, it discusses the opposition to randomisation that has come from some philosophers of science.
Believing the Evidence
Authors: DAVIES JASON
Published: August 2013

The study of ancient religion, partly in response to anthropology, moved in recent decades away from thinking in terms of ‘belief’ to studying ‘ritual’: this has a fundamental effect on how we treat the evidence (or decide what evidence is, and what it is evidence of). This chapter argues that the transition is incomplete and explores some of the deeper implications of thinking in terms of ‘belief’. It argues that these continue to hamper our perspective on ancient religion. The ‘otherness’ of ancient religion does not reside in the ‘rationality’ of their thinking, rather, it is axiomatic (their crediting ritual with power to effect changes in the wider world).
The Schweich Family
Authors: Davies Graham
Published: August 2013

This chapter begins with biographical information about Leopold Schweich and his family. Leopold Schweich must have been born about 1840 and probably came from a Jewish family in Kassel, Germany. In February 1862 he married Philippina Mond (1840–73), a cultured young woman and the sister of Ludwig Mond, who was himself to become a great chemist and industrialist in England. Leopold and Philippina had two children before her early death in 1873, Emil(e) (b. 1865) and Constance (b. 1869). The discussion then turns to Constance Schweich, her marriage, and her benefactions. With her close connections to the Monds it is not at all surprising that Constance Schweich made a benefaction to the British Academy, only perhaps that she was the first to do so. It remains unclear, however, why exactly she wanted to support research into antiquity for the sake of biblical study. An appendix includes letters from Constance Schweich to Israel Gollancz.
Archaeology and the Bible: A Broken Link?
Authors: Davies Graham
Published: August 2013

This chapter, while not losing sight of the Schweich Lectures and their influence, explores some more general issues that are raised particularly by the study of archaeology in connection with the Bible. Rather than examining the full extent of such issues, it examines the changing perceptions over the past century of what (if anything) archaeology can contribute to biblical study. Then it will be possible to ask whether this part of ‘the Schweich project’ still has any value, and if so how it may most fruitfully be taken forward.
Introduction: Plan of the volume
Authors: RICHARD SWINBURNE
Published: August 2013

The theme of this volume is the extent to which humans have a free choice of which actions to perform, and what kind of free choice would make them morally responsible for their actions. This introductory chapter provides an overview of the contributions to this volume.
Gödel’s incompleteness theorems, free will and mathematical thought
Authors: FEFERMAN SOLOMON
Published: August 2013

The determinism-free will debate is perhaps as old as philosophy itself and has been engaged in from a great variety of points of view including those of scientific, theological, and logical character. This chapter focuses on two arguments from logic. First, there is an argument in support of determinism that dates back to Aristotle, if not farther. It rests on acceptance of the Law of Excluded Middle, according to which every proposition is either true or false, no matter whether the proposition is about the past, present or future. In particular, the argument goes, whatever one does or does not do in the future is determined in the present by the truth or falsity of the corresponding proposition. The second argument coming from logic is much more modern and appeals to Gödel's incompleteness theorems to make the case against determinism and in favour of free will, insofar as that applies to the mathematical potentialities of human beings. The claim more precisely is that as a consequence of the incompleteness theorems, those potentialities cannot be exactly circumscribed by the output of any computing machine even allowing unlimited time and space for its work. The chapter concludes with some new considerations that may be in favour of a partial mechanist account of the mathematical mind.
Feferman on Gödel and free will
Authors: LUCAS J.R.
Published: August 2013

This chapter presents a response to Solomon Feferman's discussion in Chapter 6. Feferman is right to dismiss logical determinism perfunctorily, although it puzzled Aristotle and the mediaeval Schoolmen and many people still. Feferman also gives a careful account of the much-criticized Gödelian argument against mechanism. Like many other critics he highlights the assumption that any plausible mechanical model of the mind must be consistent. It is shown that both Feferman's Formalist-Mechanist Thesis I aand the general mechanist thesis are false.
Moral responsibility and the concept of agency
Authors: STEWARD HELEN
Published: August 2013

This chapter argues for the incompatibility of moral responsibility and determinism. The real reason why determinism and moral responsibility are inconsistent is not moral, but metaphysical. The real reason is that determinism is inconsistent with agency, which is a necessary (though not, of course, a sufficient) condition of moral responsibility.
What kind of responsibility must criminal law presuppose?
Authors: DUFF R.A.
Published: August 2013

This chapter argues that the kind of responsibility that we must have, if the enterprise of criminal law and punishment is to be consistent with the demands of justice, is something much more modest, much less metaphysically ambitious, than the ‘ultimate’ responsibility that Strawson so persuasively denies in Chapter 8. If we are to be clear about the kind of responsibility that is relevant to criminal law, we must first be clear about the criminal law itself — about the kind of enterprise that it is, about the aims that it should serve, about the principles that should structure it, and about the conditions it demands of us.
John Arundel Barnes 1918–2010
Authors: BARNARD ALAN
Published: August 2013

John Barnes, an intellectual and a scholar who contributed significantly to the development of theoretical and methodological approaches in both sociology and social anthropology, was a Fellow of the British Academy. Obituary by Alan Barnard.
Gerald Allan Cohen 1941–2009
Authors: WOLFF JONATHAN
Published: August 2013

Gerald Cohen, known as Jerry, was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Thought at Oxford University and then Quain Professor of Jurisprudence at University College London. He was a Fellow of the British Academy whose book Karl Marx's Theory of History: a Defence won the Isaac Deutcher Memorial Prize. Obituary by Jonathan Wolff.
Ralf Gustav Dahrendorf 1929–2009
Authors: CROUCH COLIN
Published: August 2013

Ralph Dahrendorf survived incarceration in a German concentration camp in 1944. He later took degrees in sociology at Hamburg University and the London School of Economics and spent some time as one of Germany's European Commissioners, although he was critical of aspects of the bureaucracy. Dahrendorf was Director of the London School of Economics for ten years and gave the Reith Lectures in 1974. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1977, knighted in 1982 and became Member of the House of Lords in 1993. Dahrendorf retired to Germany. Obituary by Colin Crouch FBA.
Robert Arthur Donkin 1928–2006
Authors: BAKER ALAN R. H.
Published: August 2013

Robin Donkin was an exceptional scholar in the field of historical geography, particularly concerning Latin America and the domestication of plants and animals globally. His early research was on the effect of the Cistercians on medieval landscape, and he held posts at the University of Edinburgh and the University of Brimingham. Donkin then lectured in Latin American geography at the University of Cambridge. He was a Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge and was elected as a Fellow of the British Academy in 1985. Obituary by Alan R. H. Baker FBA.
Simon Frederick Peter Halliday 1946–2010
Authors: ROBERTS ADAM
Published: August 2013

Fred Halliday was a writer, teacher and public intellectual whose work spanned two closely related fields: the post-colonial societies of the Middle East; and international relations. His first major book, published in 1974, was Arabia without Sultans, although he gained a wider readership with Threat from the East?, published in paperback in 1982. In 1975, Halliday was appointed as Fellow of the Transnational Institute in Amsterdam and then, in 1983, he moved to the London School of Economics. He was elected as a Fellow of the British Academy in 2002. Obituary by Adam Roberts FBA.
Peter Edward Lionel Russell 1913–2006
Authors: TAYLOR BRUCE
Published: August 2013

Peter Russell was King Alfonso XIII Professor of Spanish Studies at the University of Oxford 1953–81. He was recruited into the secret service in the mid-1930s and was sent to Spain during the Civil War. On returning to Oxford, Russell joined Military Intelligence and among other duties was responsible for seeing that the Duke and Duchess of Windsor reached the Bahamas safely. He resumed his academic career after the war and quickly established himself as a scholar of exceptional range and dynamism. Influential publications included ‘Don Quixote as a funny book’ MLA 64 (1969), 312–26. Russell was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1977. Obituary by Bruce Taylor.
Maurice FitzGerald Scott 1924–2009
Authors: BLISS CHRISTOPHER
Published: August 2013

Maurice Scott, an outstanding economics scholar associated for most of his career with Nuffield College Oxford, was involved in the revolution in economic thought of the 1960s and 1970s. His major work, A New View of Economic Growth (1989), was coolly received. Scott, who wrote an autobiography, My Life, and a philosophical study entitled Peter's Journey: A Search for the True Purpose of Life (1998), was elected Fellow of the British Academy in 1990. Obituary by Christopher Bliss FBA.
Frank William Walbank 1909–2008
Authors: DAVIES JOHN
Published: August 2013

Frank Walbank, a scholar of ancient Greek history best known for his commentary on Polybios, held the Chair of Latin at Liverpool University and was active in university administration. He was elected Fellow of the British Academy in 1953. Obituary by John Davies FBA.
Donald John Wiseman 1918–2010
Authors: MILLARD ALAN
Published: August 2013

Donald Wiseman, a leading assyriologist, had a distinguished service in the RAF during the Second World War under Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park and later in the Mediterranean as Chief Intelligence Officer. After time working at the British Museum on thousands of cuneiform tablets and as a member of Mallowan's team excavating Nimrud, he took up the Chair of Assyriology at SOAS in 1961. Wiseman, who was elected Fellow of the British Academy in 1969, worked to advance archaeological work in the Near East.
An introduction to the role of labour standards in development* **
Authors: Novitz Tonia , Mangan David
Published: August 2013

This volume aims to generate debate beyond the scope of previous literature relating to the justificatory basis of labour standards, so as to consider alternative ways of understanding their function. In so doing, it considers what this means for the governance of labour markets, whether at local, national, regional, or international levels. It also challenges mainstream assumptions relating to ‘sustainable development’. This introductory chapter first discusses the links between labour standards and development. An overview of the subsequent chapters is then presented.
The very basis of our existence*
Authors: Sjåfjell Beate
Published: August 2013

This chapter focuses on the neglected environmental dimension of sustainable development. It argues that ecological sustainable development as the new law is not only supported by normative necessity but also has a legal basis in the law of the European Union. The political and bureaucratic will to carry through the necessary practical implementation is, however, lacking. This does not affect the validity of the legal basis or that of the obligations flowing from the legal basis. Rather, it indicates a need to keep repeating the message until it gets through. The chapter outlines the legal basis and its implications for the prioritisation between the three dimensions in EU law. It concludes with some reflections on the possible contribution of labour to the necessary transition to sustainable societies.
Corporate social responsibility*
Authors: Villiers Charlotte
Published: August 2013

The potential role of corporations through their corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities in sustainable development is significant for workers and trade unions because sustainable development is widely considered to include recognition of the needs and relevance of labour. CSR might thus be considered to provide an open door for a more participatory role for workers and their representatives, and for achieving better and stronger labour standards. However, this chapter argues that CSR is unlikely to bring about sustainability in this way and is in fact more likely to exclude labour participation. It addresses the links that can be made between CSR and labour rights. It highlights the limitations of CSR, explains why its promises are likely to be unfulfilled, and argues that an alternative approach is required. Workers and trade unions need to collaborate with other social movements to establish a countervailing power to that enjoyed by large corporations. A stronger accountability regime is also required that will ensure real responsibility of corporations for their actions.
Corporate social responsibility meets traditional supervision of fundamental labour rights*
Authors: Tajgman David
Published: August 2013

The International Labour Organisation's 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work prioritised four core labour standards' principles and led to a burst of new ratifications of the international treaties that are the subject of those principles. Ten years on there are important identified gaps in state implementation of the ratified Conventions that are the subject of the four principles. These gaps leave important holes in public policy and legislation. In a number of important substantive areas, these gaps have the effect of leaving it to private actors to figure out what would amount to fulfilling the norms of fundamental labour principle inspired codes of conduct. Inescapably left on their own to figure out approaches, corporate social responsibility (CSR)-respecting enterprises are subject to criticism levelled on the basis of interpretations of these principles given by civil society organisations and labour rights' campaigners. This chapter details this situation. The first part provides the necessary background information. The second part gives concrete examples of how this governance gap raises challenges to implementing CSR initiatives. The third part suggests that, considering the arguable origins of CSR in neo-liberal deregulatory fervour, social dialogue and reform by non-compliant state actors is the only sustainable solution.
Big unions and big business*
Authors: Novitz Tonia
Published: August 2013

This chapter investigates how international framework agreements (IFAs) could assist in securing economic, social, and environmental development objectives. At issue is whether ‘big unions’ and ‘big business’ can secure change, not only at the global level where agreements are easily reached in the abstract, but also at the local level such that development-oriented reforms are actually implemented in practice. It is argued that IFAs, by their very nature, have this potential. They can forge important intersections between the global and the local spheres of deliberation. In so doing, they may give opportunities to workers to identify local issues of economic, social, and environmental concern, and participate in decisions relating to their employer's responses to such concerns. Although there are obstacles that must be overcome, IFAs may well have an impact on development and its sustainability.
Ugaritic Literary Composition
Authors: Pardee Dennis
Published: August 2013

Chapter 1 attempted a rough sketch of the uses of writing at Ugarit and, particularly, of the types of texts that are attested in the alphabetic script and the Ugaritic language. It showed that of the roughly 175 religious texts, only about fifty may be qualified as belletristic; virtually all of these are couched in poetry and all deal with aspects of the divine. It would be impossible to cover all of these texts even superficially in the space allotted, and, instead of flitting from one to another in a selection of these texts, this chapter concentrates on the longest literary composition from Ugarit, the six tablets making up the so-called Baal Cycle.
Introduction
Authors: STRING TATIANA C. , BULL MARCUS
Published: August 2013

This volume is a collection of papers emerging from a symposium held at the University of Bristol in December 2008, entitled ‘Tudorism: Historical Imagination and the Appropriation of the Sixteenth Century’. This introductory chapter begins by recalling the different ways in which the sixteenth century has been positioned in relation to, and has thereby implicitly contributed towards constructions of, the medieval, or Gothic, or premodern, or pre-industrial, or dark-age, or feudal, or primitive, or traditional, depending on one's choice of terminology. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
‘A Great National Heritage’: The Early Twentieth-Century Tudor Church Music Revival
Authors: COLE SUZANNE
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the revival of interest in early English choral music that took place in the first quarter of the twentieth century. It pays particular attention to the religious agendas driving this revival, and to the role of the Tudor Church Music edition, published in the 1920s by Oxford University Press, in promoting this music as a ‘national heritage’ of which all Englishmen could be proud.
The Tudors Reinvented: The Regency and the Sixteenth Century
Authors: PARISSIEN STEVEN
Published: August 2013

This chapter discusses how topicality permitted top-down dirigiste appropriations of the Tudor past: George IV's use of sixteenth-century styling for his coronation, his patronage of Sir Walter Scott, and the mimicking of his portraits of images of Henry VIII.
Twentieth-Century Tudor Design in Britain: An Ideological Battleground
Authors: WOODHAM JONATHAN M.
Published: August 2013

The Tudor era, with its historical associations with English power and influence in the world at large, proved attractive to many consumers for several decades in the twentieth century, particularly in the inter-war years. This chapter discusses the vital roles that new manufacturing technologies and shifts in taste have played in the emergence of a Tudorist design demotic. It also considers why the past held such fascination for manufacturers and consumers.
The Tudors Viewed by French Romantic Artists
Authors: BANN STEPHEN
Published: August 2013

This chapter singles out two features of the cult of British historical themes in French Romantic painting, and focuses on the most prominent of the artists who cultivated such scenes involving Tudors and Stuarts: Paul Delaroche. It argues that the pronounced nineteenth-century French interest in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century English history was a form of displacement, so that Delaroche's painting of the execution of Lady Jane Grey (1834), for example, opened up for the French viewer a space in which to negotiate memories of the Terror within the relative comfort of a more distant and foreign historical moment.
Myth and Memory in Representations of Henry VIII, 1509–2009
Authors: STRING TATIANA C.
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores a portrait of King Henry VIII that has played a key role in sustaining and inflecting received notions of the Tudor age in the post-Tudor period. It argues that almost without exception the Tudorist visual representations of King Henry VIII from the mid-sixteenth to the twenty-first century derive their communicative force from, and were indeed only made possible because of, the existence of an extraordinarily compelling and efficacious point of origin. The portrait of Henry VIII that set this cascade of information, ideas, and associations about the king in motion was the full-length portrait from the Whitehall Mural, painted by Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) in 1537.
Slashing History: The Tudors
Authors: DE GROOT JEROME
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the television series The Tudors (2007–2010). It argues that whilst it pays much lip-service to the Tudor dynasty as a real, historical entity, it is very unconcerned with the actuality; indeed, it strives to take the well-known iconography and to reject it. The series demonstrates to a great degree Tudorism, the fetishisation and commodification of a set of cultural norms, tropes, and ideas. The Tudors is Tudorist because it deals directly with the ways in which historical cliché — particularly surrounding Henry VIII — works in the popular imagination. The chapter considers The Tudors from a variety of perspectives to analyze what the show demonstrates about contemporary engagement with the Tudor period, about the evolution of costume drama more generally, and the ways in which popular cultural history might be engaged with, disrupted, and used by viewers and audiences.
The politics of Porfirian Chiapas, 1870–1914
Authors: Washbrook Sarah
Published: August 2013

This chapter traces the political developments in Chiapas from 1870 to 1914. Until 1891 central state authority remained weak in Chiapas and the state was divided into a number of powerful cacicazgos dominated by military leaders from the Reform, who owed their position to adherence to Porfirio Díaz's Plan of Tuxtepec of 1876. After Díaz's re-election in 1884 there was a gradual alteration in the management of politics away from a strategy of loyalty to the camarilla (political clique) associated with Tuxtepec and towards one of playing competing factions off against one another in order to increase central authority and the power of the national patriarch, namely Díaz. In Chiapas, the first governor charged with implementing the centralizing measures that would undermine the influence of local caudillos was the comiteco Manuel Carrascosa, who took office in 1888. In 1891, Díaz had decided to replace Carrascosa with young Chiapanecan lawyer and científico Emilio Rabasa in the governorship of Chiapas. In 1895 the Oaxacan Colonel Francisco León was chosen by the president to continue Emilio Rabasa's programme of modernization in Chiapas. The most controversial task that he faced during his term in office was labour reform, specifically the issue of debt servitude, which came to be seen by some politicians and investors as contributing to labour shortages in the export sector.
Land privatization and agrarian relations in Chiapas during the Porfiriato
Authors: Washbrook Sarah
Published: August 2013

This chapter considers the agrarian question in Chiapas during the Porfiriato. First, it examines the geographical and financial restrictions faced by rural producers in the state. Second, it analyses quantitative data regarding demography, rural property, investment, output, and labour. Third, it scrutinizes the impact of land legislation and land privatization on rural social relations and agrarian structure. Finally, it addresses historiographical questions regarding the social impact of Porfirian agrarian policy in Chiapas and its role in the Revolution of 1910–20.
Conclusion
Authors: Washbrook Sarah
Published: August 2013

This chapter summarizes the preceding discussions and presents some concluding thoughts from the author. Upon close examination, the Porfirian ‘modernity’ in Chiapas turns out to be, if not a total fiction, a blurred and virtual entity — essentially political and hardly technocratic, personalist more than bureaucratic, authoritarian rather than liberal in the broad sense, underpinned by ‘pre-modern’ ethnic divisions and political institutions, conservative instead of progressive, and, one could say, very ‘traditional’ — an ambiguity which derives not only from the peculiarities and contradictions of Porfirian ideas and practices of modernity, but also, undoubtedly, from the unclear nature of the concept itself and its intimate yet ambivalent relationship to its supposed antithesis, ‘tradition’.
Introduction
Authors: Offer Avner
Published: August 2013

Obesity, which is rising in affluent societies, is bad for health, expensive to treat and stigmatising. Its prevalence is higher in market-liberal societies than in those with a more extensive welfare state. This book explores the hypothesis that obesity is a response to stress, and that market-liberal societies are more stressful due to the greater intensity of economic and social competition, and to lower levels of social protection.
Creative Destruction, Economic Insecurity, Stress, and Epidemic Obesity
Authors: Capehart Kevin W. , Wisman Jon D.
Published: August 2013

The past three decades have witnessed a substantial increase in insecurity and stress as capitalism's creative destruction has become ever-more pervasive. A link between insecurity, stress and obesity is strongly suggested by the negative social gradient of obesity. This chapter begins with a survey of the dominant explanations of the obesity epidemic and their limitations. The second section surveys research that is supportive of a relationship between insecurity, stress and obesity. The third section provides evidence of the rise of insecurity and stress as creative destruction has gathered momentum over the past three decades. The fourth section examines the anomalously stable obesity rates between 1960 and 1980. The fifth section notes evidence of the worldwide relationship between rising insecurity and obesity. The chapter concludes with a reflection that, should the argument be correct, the obesity epidemic may be symptomatic of a social disorder in modern capitalist society.
Obesity: An Evolutionary Perspective
Authors: Dunbar Robin I.M.
Published: August 2013

The brain consumes about 20 per cent of the total energy intake in human adults. Primates, and especially humans, have unusually large brains for body size compared with other vertebrates, and fuelling these is a significant drain on both time and energy. Larger-brained primates generally eat fruit-intense diets, but human brains are so large that a reduction in gut size is needed to free up sufficient resources to allow a larger brain to be evolved, placing further pressure on foraging. The early invention of cooking increased nutrient absorption by around 30 per cent over raw food. Increasing digestibility in this way perhaps inevitably leads to risk of obesity when food is super-abundant, as it is in post-industrial societies. However, obesity has clearly been around for a long time, as suggested by the late Palaeolithic Venus figures of Europe, so it is not a novel problem.
Behavioural Biology and Obesity
Authors: Smith Trenton G.
Published: August 2013

While conventional wisdom holds that excessive body weight is the product of some combination of a high-calorie diet and a sedentary lifestyle, public health measures aimed at these factors have been met with only limited success. This chapter considers the possibility that obesity might be better understood in terms of the biologist's notion that humans and other animals evolved the ability to store body fat as an optimal response to the presence of starvation risk. Evidence from a broad array of disciplines is consistent with this view, including the neuroendocrinology of energy homeostasis, parallels between human and animal fattening behaviour, the effect of stress on dietary intake, population-level studies of the impact of economic insecurity on body weight and international variation in obesity rates.
Spatial Analyses of Obesity and Poverty
Authors: Drewnowski Adam
Published: August 2013

Obesity in the United States is a socio-economic issue. Recent advances in geographic information system methodology can provide a better understanding of the impact of neighbourhood deprivation on access to healthy foods, diet quality and selected health outcomes. Whereas state-level Centers for Disease Control maps are still best known, newer approaches have mapped obesity at different levels of geographic aggregation: county, political district, zip code or census tract. This chapter examines data from the new Seattle Obesity Study, which permits the mapping of dietary behaviours and health outcomes at the property parcel tax level – the finest level of geographic resolution possible. Analysis suggests that food-consumption patterns also show a spatial distribution, broadly following the geographic distribution of wealth and social class.
Subordination, Stress, and Obesity
Authors: Bell Ruth , Aitsi-Selmi Amina , Marmot Michael
Published: August 2013

The distribution of obesity in developed countries follows a social gradient. In developing countries, a similar pattern is emerging as national per capita income rises. The epidemiological evidence runs counter to the popular opinion that being overweight and obesity are matters solely of individual lifestyle choices or genetics. Both are important, but in themselves do not explain the social gradient in being overweight and obesity, to understand which, one needs to look at wider social influences. Evidence from studies including the Whitehall Study of British civil servants indicates that psychosocial factors, including stress, as well as material factors associated with position in the social hierarchy, contribute to the distribution of being overweight and obesity, particularly central adiposity, in the population.
The Transition to Post-Industrial BMI Values in the United States
Authors: Brabec Marek , Komlos John
Published: August 2013

The trend in the BMI values of the United States population has not been estimated accurately because time series data are unavailable and because the focus has been on calculating period effects. This chapter attempts to estimate long-run trends and the rate of change of BMI values by birth cohorts, stratified by gender and ethnicity, beginning with the mid-nineteenth century. The transition to post-industrial BMI values began in earnest after the First World War and, after slowing down during the Great Depression, accelerated with the spread of television viewing. While period effects provide an upper bound when the weight change occurred, birth cohort effects provide a lower bound. In the absence of longitudinal data, both effects need to be considered. Hence, the evidence leads to the hypothesis that transition to post-industrial weights probably started considerably earlier than hitherto asserted.
Obesity under Affluence Varies by Welfare Regimes
Authors: Offer Avner , Pechey Rachel , Ulijaszek Stanley
Published: August 2013

Among affluent countries, those with market-liberal regimes (which are also English-speaking) tend to have the highest prevalence of obesity. The impact of cheap, accessible high-energy food is often invoked in explanation. An alternative approach is that overeating is a response to stress, and that competition, uncertainty and inequality make market-liberal societies more stressful. This chapter reports an ecological regression meta-study that pools 96 surveys from 11 countries, using data collected in the years 1994 to 2004. The fast-food ‘shock’ impact is found to work most strongly in market-liberal countries. Economic insecurity, measured in several different ways, is almost twice as powerful, while the impact of inequality is weak.
Broadening Our Horizons: Towards an Interdisciplinary Prehistory of the Andes
Authors: BERESFORD-JONES DAVID , HEGGARTY PAUL
Published: August 2013

This chapter proposes a new and more coherent interdisciplinary prehistory of the Andes, based firstly on a long overdue re-examination of the relationships between the various regional ‘dialects’ within the Quechua language family; and secondly on a more satisfactory correlation with the archaeological record. The founding principle is that language families necessarily reflect past expansive processes, whose traces should also be clear in the archaeological record. It provides a logic by which to assess correspondences between archaeological and linguistic patterns, on the three levels of when, where, and why particular language expansions occurred. In the Andes, the horizons thus offer the most natural explanations for the major Quechua and Aymara dispersals. With the Incas too late for the time-depth of either family, the Wari Middle Horizon emerges as the most plausible candidate for the first major expansion of Quechua, and not (as per traditional linguistic thinking) of the Aymara family, here tentatively associated with the Early Horizon instead.
On the Origins of Social Complexity in the Central Andes and Possible Linguistic Correlations
Authors: KAULICKE PETER
Published: August 2013

This chapter tackles a number of problems surrounding the emergence and formation of complex societies in the central Andes, principally on the north and central coasts of Peru and their adjacent highlands. While chronology itself will form part of the discussion, there is general agreement in envisaging this process as taking place over a period of some three millennia between c.3000 bc and the beginning of our era. The focus here is on the earlier part of this ‘block’ of time, namely from before 3000 bc to c.1000 bc, or in chronological terms from the Middle Archaic to Middle Formative. The factors that lead to complexity include important changes in social structure and economic systems, but also probable movements and concentrations of populations, against a linguistic background taken into account despite the obvious difficulties in defining it at these time-depths.
The First Millennium ad in North-Central Peru: Critical Perspectives on a Linguistic Prehistory
Authors: LAU GEORGE F.
Published: August 2013

This chapter reviews archaeological evidence for culture change during the first millennium ad in north-central Peru, and its implications for the spread of language(s). Important developments deriving from regional interaction typified the first centuries ad (north-west Ancash), the seventh century ad (Callejón de Huaylas), and the end of the Middle Horizon (across departments). If major language expansions can be pegged to transformations in material style, they should be sought in these periods and areas. Many different Amerindian languages are known from the region (Culle, Mochica, Quingnam, Quechua, Aymara), although most are now extinct. The cultural heterogeneity in north-central Peru during the Early Intermediate Period may indicate considerable time-depth for such linguistic diversity. The subsequent Middle Horizon marks a period of widespread interaction, though varying in nature and impact through time. This elicits issues for future research in the linguistic prehistory of the central Andes.
Cajamarca Quechua and the Expansion of the Huari State
Authors: ADELAAR WILLEM F. H.
Published: August 2013

This chapter defends the hypothesis that Quechua was brought to Cajamarca during the final expansion of the Huari state (ad 800–900). It offers an alternative for the traditional view that Cajamarca Quechua originated on the central coast of Peru, immediately south-east of Lima. Archaic features of Cajamarca Quechua suggest that it became separated from the main body of the Quechua II branch of the family before it attained its present state of internal differentiation. Possibly the least innovative Quechua II dialect spoken today is that of Ayacucho region, where the Huari capital lay. Together this suggests that population movements underlying the existence of present-day Cajamarca Quechua may have originated in the Huari heartland. This association of Quechua II with Huari prompts a reconsideration of the prevalent view that Ayacucho, including Huari, would have been an exclusive stronghold of the Aymaran languages.
Quechua’s Southern Boundary: The Case of Santiago del Estero, Argentina
Authors: DeMARRAIS ELIZABETH
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the far southern boundary of Quechua's spread throughout the Andes. It argues that Quechua reached north-west Argentina in Inka times and that it was widely used during the colonial period as well. The rationale for this argument is based primarily on evidence for (1) the extent of Inka resettlements in Argentina; (2) the nature of Inka relations with local peoples in the far south; and (3) continued use of Quechua under the Spaniards, as described in the documentary sources. Less clear are the precise population movements that brought Quechua speakers initially to Santiago del Estero, as the archaeological record suggests that the Inka frontier lay higher up the slopes in the provinces of Salta, Jujuy, Tucumán, and Catamarca, where the majority of Inka installations are found. The documents reveal that activities of the Spaniards had further, far-reaching consequences for Quechua's presence in the south Andes, and that ultimately Quechua was replaced in most of north-west Argentina by Spanish.
Adomnán’s Plans in the Context of his Imagining ‘the Most Famous City’
Authors: O’loughlin Thomas
Published: August 2013

Adomnán of Iona's work on the holy places of Jerusalem and surrounding regions (De locis sanctis) has been used as a guide to seventh-century Palestine. In particular, its plans of monuments such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre have been used by archaeologists for information about buildings, while their form interests historians of cartography. However, these plans must be read with the book's several purposes in mind. They attempt to harmonize biblical data (and Adomnán's other literary sources) visually. In addition, they project elements of Iona's monastic liturgy into an alien liturgical space. The plans are not simply illustrations to clarify the text but constitute a distinct, parallel text of their own, with elements shown that Adomnán would not have asserted in writing. They indicate that, for Adomnán, there were different orders of verification for written texts and visual materials such as plans.
The Exegetical Jerusalem: Maps and Plans for Ezekiel Chapters 40–48
Authors: Delano-Smith Catherine
Published: August 2013

Drawing for explanation flourished in the medieval West in biblical exegesis. Some Christian and Jewish scholars, holding that the literal meaning of the holy scriptures had to be established before the allegorical and typological meanings could be reached, made good use of visual exegesis. Of the few Christian scholars who attempted a literal interpretation of the notoriously difficult Old Testament book of the prophet Ezekiel, one was Richard of St Victor (In visionem Ezechielis, before 1173) and another was Nicholas of Lyra (Postilla literalis super totam Bibliam,1323–32), who had read Richard's work and also, like him, seen the Jewish scholar Rashi's illustrations for Ezekiel. Both Richard and Nicholas supported their arguments with the plans of Ezekiel's visionary temple and the map that places the temple in its regional context discussed in this essay. Also discussed is the subsequent adaptation of these medieval diagrammatic maps for a quite different readership.
The Imaginary Jerusalem of Nicholas of Lyra
Authors: Smith Lesley
Published: August 2013

Manuscripts and early printed copies of Nicholas of Lyra's influential biblical commentary, the Postilla litteralis et moralis in totam bibliam, were made to include a series of around forty illustrations, mostly in the biblical books of Exodus and Ezekiel, to accompany the sections on the Tabernacle of Moses, Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, and Ezekiel's re-visioning of the Temple. Although they are not present in all copies of the work, it is known that they were planned by Nicholas himself, since he refers to them in the text. This chapter considers possible sources for Nicholas's drawings and diagrams, including Richard of St Victor, and the Jewish commentators, Rashi (whom Nicholas uses as a direct comparison with Christian scholars) and Maimonides. It argues that, far from being mere decoration, the illustrations are meant as an integral part of Nicholas's literal exegesis of the scriptural text.
Virtual Pilgrimages to Real Places: the Holy Landscapes
Authors: Kühnel Bianca
Published: August 2013

This chapter attempts to differentiate between types of monumental representations of Jerusalem, to locate them historically and to explore the reasons for their extraordinary density by deciphering the essentials of their function as mnemonic devices in the framework of medieval devotionalism. Conditioned by historical events such as the Crusades, Franciscan canonization of the Stations of the Cross and the Counter-Reformation, representation of Jerusalem gradually expanded from copies of Christ's tomb in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre to commemorate the Stations of the Cross and other holy places in Jerusalem and the Holy Land. The holy landscapes are multimedia representations: they combine topography and architecture (neutral or reflecting the original) with life-size figural groups and wall painting to identify the holy places. Groups of such representations could form separate sites at a certain distance from settlements, or encompass a city with a network of reproduced loca sancta.
Women on the Edge: The ‘Saletta delle Dame’ of the Palazzo Salvadego in Brescia
Authors: NORRIS REBECCA
Published: August 2013

Form and content give rise to the question of function in the Saletta delle Dame of the Palazzo Salvadego. It is a uniquely decorated space in which frescos cover the four walls, treating the viewer to an all-round vista of the countryside. Mediating between illusion and reality are eight life-size depictions of women in contemporary dress, whom, set in pairs behind a fictive balustrade, focus their attention towards the centre of the room. In the vaulted ceiling are painted musical instruments, suggesting a possible use for this space. The decorative effect is unlike any other room from this period. This chapter explores the imagery of the Saletta and considers its function within the broader context of frescoed Italian Renaissance rooms.