bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Towards the Garden of the Hesperides, 1000 BC–400 BC
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

The impact of contact with the eastern Mediterranean was felt in very different ways within what we now call Italy. Greek culture seeped more slowly into the everyday life of the native peoples of Sicily – Sikans, Sikels and Elymians – than into the life of the peoples of Tuscany and Latium. In Sicily, both the Greeks and the Carthaginians kept themselves largely apart from the native population. Sardinia, rich in minerals, had for centuries been the seat of a lively civilization characterized by the stone towers known as nuraghi, of which many thousands still dot the island; they were surrounded by what seem to have been prosperous villages, firmly rooted in the rich agricultural resources of the island. They began to be built around 1400 BC, but new nuraghi were still being constructed well into the Iron Age. In the Mycenaean era, there had been some contact with the outside world, as eastern Mediterranean traders arrived in search of copper. The wealth of the native elite as far back as the second millennium BC can be measured from the tombs of Anghelu Ruju, near Alghero in north-western Sardinia; these are among the richest to have been unearthed in late Neolithic and early Bronze Age western Europe, and they indicate contact with Spain, southern France and the eastern Mediterranean. The Spanish influence can be traced in the bell beaker jars found at this site. Another Spanish connection was linguistic. The Sardinians left no written records, whether because they did not use writing or because they used friable materials that have failed to survive. But place-names, many in current use, provide suggestive evidence, as does the Sard language, a distinctive form of late vulgar Latin that incorporates a number of pre-Latin words within its many dialects. It appears that the nuraghic peoples spoke a language or languages related to the non-Indo-European language Basque. Thus a Sard word for a young lamb, bitti, is very similar to a Basque term for a young goat, bitin.
Thalassocracies, 550 BC–400 BC
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

The Mediterranean coasts might be expected to serve as the natural limit to imperial expansion by the great powers of the Middle East – the Hittites, Assyria, even Pharaonic Egypt. The Assyrians did occasionally try to browbeat Cyprus into submission, as did the Egyptians, for its resources in timber and metal were too precious to ignore. But no attempt to gain mastery over the eastern Mediterranean matched the Persian conquests in Anatolia and the Levant during the sixth century BC, and the Persian attempt to invade Greece; the defeat of Persia would be celebrated as the greatest Greek victory since the fall of Troy. The achievement was not just military but political, since a great many cities in Greece proper and the Aegean islands collaborated in the struggle against the Persians, and even Syracuse was asked to help (though it fought off a threat from Carthage, possibly instigated by Persia). The Greeks commemorated their triumph by erecting victory monuments such as the bronze serpent from Delphi, now in the Hippodrome at Istanbul; there, they inscribed the names of thirty-one cities that had helped resist the Persians at the great battle of Plataia in 479 BC, and even that list was not complete. A ‘Congress of the Hellenes’ came into existence, and the name of Hellene, originally assigned by Homer to the followers of Achilles, was increasingly understood to refer to a common identity expressed through language, the cult of the gods and style of life. The story that emerged, most resoundingly in the spirited account of these events by Herodotos, was that of the defence of Greek liberty against Persian tyranny. In his play The Persians, performed in Athens in 472, Aeschylus assumed that the future of Hellas directly depended on the fate of his home city: . . . QUEEN ATOSSA : Say where, in all this peopled world, a city of men called Athens lies? LEADER : Far distant, where our Lord the sun sinks and his last effulgence dies. ATOSSA : And this far western land it is my son so craved to make his prey? LEADER : Aye, for if Athens once were his, all Hellas must his word obey. . . .
The Great Sea-change, 1000–1100
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

The rise of Pisa and Genoa is almost as mysterious as that of Amalfi, and the mystery is compounded by the startling success of these cities in clearing the western Mediterranean of pirates and in creating trade routes, sustained by colonies of merchants and settlers, as far east as the Holy Land, Egypt and Byzantium. Pisa and Genoa had strikingly different profiles. Genoa had been the seat of a Byzantine governor in the seventh century, but after that two or three hundred years of quiet descended, savagely interrupted by the sack of the city by Saracen raiders from North Africa in 934–5. It has no obvious resources; it perches by the side of the Ligurian Alps and is cut off from grain-producing plains. The favoured products of its coastline are wine, chestnuts, herbs and olive oil, and it was out of its herbs and oil that Genoa perfected the basil sauce known as pesto, a product that speaks for poverty rather than wealth. Its harbour became adequate by the end of the Middle Ages, after many centuries of improvements, but its ships were best protected from the weather by being beached along the sandy shores to east and west of Genoa itself, and it was there that most of them were put together. Genoa was not a centre of industry, with the exception of shipbuilding. The Genoese had to struggle to survive, and came to see their trading voyages as the key to the city’s survival. As their city grew, so did their dependence on outside supplies of wheat, salted meats and cheese. From these modest beginnings emerged one of the most ambitious trading networks in the pre-industrial world. Pisa looked quite different. The city stands astride the river Arno, several miles from the sea; the final muddy, marshy exit of the river into the sea deprived Pisa of a good port. Its obvious assets lay in the flat fields stretching down to the coast, sown with grain and, closer to the shoreline, inhabited by the sheep that supplied Pisa with wool, leather, meat and dairy products.
Transformations in the West, 1391–1500
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

While the Ragusans benefited from their special relationship with the Turks, the Genoese and Venetians were more cautious in building ties to the Ottoman court. The sultan was anxious not to turn them away, but they viewed the eastern Mediterranean as increasingly dangerous. Difficulties were compounded by occasional arguments between the Venetians and the Mamluk sultans of Egypt, who required ever larger amounts in taxes in order to prop up their regime. The Mamluks were also a regional threat. In 1424–6 they invaded Cyprus and carried away its king, Janus, along with 6,000 captives; a ransom of 200,000 ducats had to be paid before Janus was restored to the throne, and it is said that he never laughed again. In 1444 they besieged Rhodes. In 1460 they supported a claimant to the throne of Cyprus, sending eighty ships against the island, to the horror of Christendom, for no one could understand why James of Lusignan, a bastard, would wish to enlist Egyptian aid in a bid for a throne to which he was not entitled. As Ottoman and Mamluk pressure on these areas became intolerable, the Genoese and their rivals increasingly turned their attention towards the West, buying sugar in Sicily and Spain and grain in Sicily and Morocco. The mid-fifteenth century saw a veritable economic renaissance in Genoa, at first sight against all the odds: the city was still consumed by internal strife, but large segments of the population were able to benefit from trade and investment, and the city boomed. Especially attractive were shares in the new public bank, the Banco di San Giorgio, which eventually acquired dominion over Corsica. The loss of easy access by the Genoese to the alum mines of Phokaia in Asia Minor was compensated by the discovery in 1464 of alum mines on the doorstep of Rome itself, at Tolfa; Pope Pius II described the discovery as ‘our greatest victory against the Turk’. It reduced dependence on ‘the Turk’, and yet it did not reduce dependence on the Genoese, who switched their attention to central Italy, and built a new alum monopoly there.
Holy Leagues and Unholy Alliances, 1500–1550
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

The reshaping of the Mediterranean in the wake of the Black Death was a slow process. In addition to political changes within the Mediterranean, notably the expansion of Ottoman power, events taking place beyond the Straits of Gibraltar would, in the long term, greatly transform the life of those who lived on its shores and in its islands. The opening of the Atlantic had already begun in the decade before plague arrived, with voyages down the coast of Africa to the Canary Islands, and it continued with the discovery and settlement of Madeira and the Azores by the Portuguese in the early fifteenth century. As sugar plantations developed on Madeira, it became possible to supply Flanders and other parts of northern Europe directly from the Atlantic with one of the costly products that had previously been obtained within the Mediterranean. By 1482, with the establishment of a Portuguese fortress at São Jorge da Mina (‘the Mine’) in West Africa, not far north of the Equator, gold was beginning to reach Europe without being channelled across the Sahara and through the Muslim ports of the Maghrib; the opening of this Guinea trade compensated for disappointment at the failure of Ceuta to pay for its upkeep. The Atlantic also became a source of slaves for Mediterranean masters: Canary Islanders, Berbers from the opposite shores of Africa and, increasingly, black slaves carried north from the Mine. Many of these eventually reached Valencia, Majorca and other Mediterranean ports, after passing through Lisbon. Then, with Columbus’s entry into the Caribbean islands in October 1492, Castile also acquired a source of precious metal that was ruthlessly exploited by imposing heavy taxes in gold on the Indians, even though they were supposedly free subjects of the Crown. The Genoese, despite their unpopularity in Spain, installed themselves in Seville and, with royal approval, ran the trans-Atlantic trading operations. At the same time, they turned their hands to finance. Turkish pressure on the Genoese possessions in the eastern Mediterranean increased, and so the Genoese allied themselves more insistently with Spain, the power that seemed best able to stand up to the Turks.
Conclusion: Crossing the Sea
Authors: Abulafia David
Published: November 2020

It is tempting to try to reduce the history of the Mediterranean to a few common features, to attempt to define a ‘Mediterranean identity’ or to insist that certain physical features of the region have moulded human experience there (as Braudel strongly argued). Yet this search for a fundamental unity starts from a misunderstanding of what the Mediterranean has meant for the peoples who have inhabited its shores and islands, or have crossed its surface. Rather than searching for unity, we should note diversity. At the human level, this ethnic, linguistic, religious and political diversity was constantly subject to external influences from across the sea, and therefore in a constant state of flux. From the earliest chapters of this book, where the first settlers in Sicily were described, to the ribbon developments along the Spanish costas, the edges of the Mediterranean Sea have provided meeting-points for peoples of the most varied backgrounds who have exploited its resources and learned, in some cases, to make a living from transferring its products from better-endowed to ill-endowed regions. From within its waters came fish and salt, two ingredients of the much-traded garum sauce of ancient Rome, and the basis for the early prosperity of one of the greatest of Mediterranean cities, Venice. As predicted in the preface, fishermen have not featured prominently in this book, in part because the evidence they have left behind is often very slight, but in part too because fishermen seek what is by definition under the surface of the sea and are less likely to make contact with communities on the opposing shores of the Mediterranean. The great exceptions are within the narrows near Malta, where the Genoese established a colony at Tabarka on the coast of Tunisia between 1540 and 1742 specializing in coral-fishing, and where Tunisian fishermen have now joined Sicilian fleets in the matanza, the great seasonal slaughter of tuna. Even more than fish, which keeps well only after salting or drying, grain has long been the major product carried across the sea, originally grown around its shores or brought down from the Black Sea, but, by the seventeenth century, increasingly of north European origin.
Development of Lipitor
Authors: Li Jie Jack
Published: November 2020

From Sankyo’s experience, Roger Newton and his pharmacology colleagues at Parke-Davis learned that the rat is not a good animal model for cholesterol-lowering drugs because the rat’s liver is able to rapidly compensate for the drop of cholesterol. So, for initial in vivo efficacy studies, Newton’s team chose guinea pigs and divided them into two sets: one normal group and the other a chow-fed group. The pharmacologists then gave different groups of guinea pigs Merck’s Mevacor (lovastatin) as a reference or CI-981 in one of three different doses. When the results were tabulated, Parke-Davis scientists were underwhelmed: not only was CI-981 no better than lovastatin in lowering cholesterol, but it seemed even a little inferior. However, they continued with the animal studies with a higher species—the dog. They used cholestyramine-primed dogs since the plasma cholesterol-lowering effects became more pronounced after the dogs had been fed with the cholesterol-lowering resin. Unfortunately, again in dogs, CI-981 showed LDL-cholesterol–lowering efficacy about the same as that of lovastatin at the doses tested. Upon further scrutiny of the data, the only advantage that the pharmacologists could fi nd was that CI-981 lowered triglyceride levels slightly better (20–40%) than lovastatin in those animal models. In 1988, Mevacor had already been on the market for an entire year. Merck’s Zocor and Bristol-Myers Squibb’s Pravachol were poised to be launched in 1991, and Sandoz’s Lescol would be ready to launch in 1994. In addition, Rhône- Poulenc Rorer’s dalvastatin was at a similar stage as CI-981 in development. Either dalvastatin or CI-981 would have become the fifth of its kind on the market. Parke-Davis believed that they would need differentiation in order to successfully sell its drug. After all, CI-981 had to be different from, hopefully better than, existing drugs, for them to make a good profit. Parke-Davis’s belief that they needed to differentiate CI-981 from existing statins had its root in another Parke-Davis drug, Accupril (quinapril), an ACE inhibitor poised to launch in 1991.
Our Energy Inheritance: Nuclear Power
Authors: Crane Hewitt , Kinderman Edwin , Malhotra Ripudaman
Published: November 2020

Of the various alternatives to fossil energy, nuclear power is the most advanced and the best positioned to become a major source of energy. It is also essentially free of CO2 emissions, and if reducing greenhouse gas emissions is truly the highest concern, then we will have to develop nuclear power. Yet developing nuclear power would also pose challenges in terms of waste disposal, and proliferation of nuclear weapons including the risk of a terrorist organization acquiring such weapons. To some environmentalists nuclear power presents a serious, dilemma. Support or opposition to nuclear power is strongly affected by value judgments as well as lack of disseminated information on questions: What happens if there is leakage of nuclear waste someday? To what extent would people and the world be affected? Would we be trading international security for energy security—does nuclear power increase our vulnerability to terrorist attacks? The mixture of clear benefits with outstanding questions currently allows some nations to embrace nuclear power, some to accept it grudgingly, and still others choose to ignore it. Given its availability and environmental benefits, nuclear is an option that cannot be ignored if we are to tackle the energy problem in a serious way. To assume that we can store and safeguard the waste for thousands of years may be hubris, but we come out in favor of developing nuclear technology in part because we already have to store the legacy nuclear waste that has been generated over the last 50 years. Another 60 or so years of waste will represent a marginal addition to that enormous task, but it would buy us badly needed time to carefully develop other energy sources that do not entail net greenhouse gas emissions. Also, we find that many of the concerns raised against the development of nuclear power are vastly exaggerated. For example, as we describe in this chapter, safe storage of the waste does not require 10,000 years: if we use reprocessing technologies, the remaining waste could be rendered benign in a couple of centuries.
The Dark and Bright Sides of Chemistry in the Movies
Authors: Griep Mark A. , Mikasen Marjorie L.
Published: November 2020

Almost a decade ago we sat down to watch some pure home video entertainment: Clambake, starring Elvis Presley. Halfway through the movie, to our complete surprise, Elvis turned into a chemist! You might say this book began at that moment. In the following pages, we examine the presence of chemistry in one of the most accessible of all cultural products: movies. It has been noted repeatedly in recent years that chemistry is one of the least popularized areas of the hard sciences. When the term “science” is used in popular culture and the media, it often refers to medicine, physics, and biology. Monsters and superheroes, mad scientists and geniuses, aliens and mutants—all spring with ease from these realms. The discipline of chemistry seems by comparison to be underrepresented in cultural depictions, with an appearance harder to trace and an impact less openly acknowledged. Is this perception truly accurate? One need only name names—Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde—to see that this can hardly be the case. From the silent era through today, it is clear that chemistry has always been in the movies. In fact, chemical themes and characters have been capturing the imaginations of audiences for more than a century. They appear in surprising and significant ways and have generated some of the most enduring fictions and motifs in movie history, and thus in the culture at large. In its starring role, chemistry, the transformative science, has been moving us as it changes with the times. More than 1,200 motion pictures were compiled, analyzed, and categorized for this project. The sheer quantity of movies containing some aspect of chemistry was eye-opening. What started out as an exercise in curiosity, casually noting the appearance of chemistry themes through random movie viewing, quickly turned into serious study as the numbers kept rising. Inspired by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) “Science in Cinema” film series, we started making a list. Every summer since 1998 (Zurer 1998), the NIH has screened six films, each dealing with a different medical theme, followed by a short scientific analysis from an NIH researcher working in a relevant field.
Scleral Buckling
Authors: Brinton Daniel A. , Wilkinson Charles P.
Published: November 2020

Inflammatory detachments are usually treated medically. Some serous detachments, such as choroidal hemangioma, respond to photocoagulation or photodynamic therapy (PDT). Selected traction detachments, such as diabetic or post-traumatic detachments, may be cured with intraocular microsurgery (vitrectomy). Radiation therapy is often used for detachments secondary to metastatic tumors. This chapter is confined to the surgical management of rhegmatogenous detachments with scleral buckling. Alternative methods of repair are discussed in Chapters 8 and 9, and the three techniques are compared in Chapter 10. Controversy exists regarding the details of the surgical technique, but surgeons generally agree on the three basic steps in closing retinal breaks and reattaching the retina:… 1. Conducting thorough preoperative and intraoperative 1. examinations with the goal of locating all retinal breaks and assessing any vitreous traction on the retina. 2. Creating a controlled injury to the retinal pigment epithelium and retina to produce a chorioretinal adhesion surrounding all retinal breaks so that intravitreal fluid can no longer reach the subretinal space. 3. Employing an appropriate technique, such as scleral buckling and/or intravitreal gas, to approximate the retinal breaks to the underlying treated retinal pigment epithelium…. If the surgeon follows these basics and applies modern surgical techniques, retinal reattachment may be expected following a single operation in more than 85% of uncomplicated primary detachments, and in more than 95% following additional procedures. The traditional scleral buckle has served very well since the 1950’s. However, more recent developments have produced a more comprehensive menu for retinal reattachment surgery from which the surgeon may select the appropriate procedure for each case. By the turn of the millennium, surveys had demonstrated that scleral buckling alone was no longer the most popular means of repairing uncomplicated primary retinal detachments. Still, it is a valuable technique that is indicated in many situations. Temporary scleral buckling can be performed with scleral infolding, gelatin, or orbital balloon. The term scleral buckling without a qualifying adjective is generally recognized as referring to a “permanent” scleral buckle with the implantation of a foreign material usually made of silicone.
Statistical Methods for Estimating Petroleum Resources
Authors: Lee P.J.
Published: November 2020

This book describes procedures for determining the total hydrocarbon (petroleum) resource or resource potential in a region. Statistical concepts and methods employed in petroleum resource assessment are the subject of the manuscript, extensively illustrated by numerous real case studies. Prof. Lee's computer-aided Petroleum Information Management and Resource Evaluation System (PETRIMES) methodology has been adopted by governments around the world and by major multinational oil companies to perform resource assessment and to predict future oil and gas production. Though this methodology is so widely used, there is no "user's guide" to it, and this book will be the definitive resource for PETRIMES users.
Time-Frequency Representations
Authors: Marks II Robert J
Published: November 2020

The Fourier transform is not particularly conducive in the illustration of the evolution of frequency with respect to time. A representation of the temporal evolution of the spectral content of a signal is referred to as a time-frequency representation (TFR). The TFR, in essence, attempts to measure the instantaneous spectrum of a dynamic signal at each point in time. Musical scores, in their most fundamental interpretation, are TFR’s. The fundamental frequency of the note is represented by the vertical location of the note on the staff. Time progresses as we read notes from left to right. The musical score shown in Figure 9.1 is an example. Temporal assignment is given by the note types. The 120 next to the quarter note indicates the piece should be played at 120 beats per minute. Thus, the duration of a quarter note is one half second. The frequency of the A above middle C is, by international standards, 440 Hertz. Adjacent notes notes have a ratio of 21/12. The note, A#, for example, has a frequency of 440 × 21/12 = 466.1637615 Hertz. Middle C, nine half tones (a.k.a. semitones or chromatic steps) below A, has a frequency of 440 × 2−9/12 = 261.6255653 Hertz. The interval of an octave doubles the frequency. The frequency of an octave above A is twelve half tones, or, 440 × 212/12 = 880 Hertz. The frequency spacings in the time-frequency representation of musical scores such as Figure 9.1 are thus logarithmic. This is made more clear in the alternate representation of the musical score in Figure 9.2 where time is on the horizontal axis and frequency on the vertical. At every point in time where there is no rest, a frequency is assigned. To make chords, numerous frequencies can be assigned to a point in time. Further discussion of the technical theory of western harmony is in Section 13.1.
Mathematical Morphology and Fourier Analysis on Time Scales
Authors: Marks II Robert J
Published: November 2020

Mathematical morphology, used extensively in image processing, tracks the support domains for the operation of convolution and deconvolution. Morphology is also important in the modelling of signals on time scales. Time scale theory provides a generalization tent under which the operations of discrete and continuous time signal and Fourier analysis rest as special cases. The time scale paradigm provides modelling under which a rich class of hybrid signals and systems can be analyzed. We begin with introductory material on mathematical morphology which is foundational to the development of time scale theory. The support of convolution is related to the operation of dilation in mathematical morphology. Mathematical morphology is most commonly associated with image processing. Applications of morphology was initially applied to binary black and white images by Matheron [966]. The field is richly developed [506, 578]. Here, we outline the fundamentals. In N dimensions, let X and H denote a set of vectors or, in the degenerate case of one dimension, a set of real numbers.
Fractures Involving the Orbit
Authors: Kikkawa Don O. , Annunziata Christine C.
Published: November 2020

Orbital and periorbital injury can occur with localized trauma to the eye or in the setting of multiple trauma associated with injury to other vital organs. A reported 16% of major trauma patients have ocular or orbital injury, and 55% of patients with facial injury have associated ocular or orbital injury. In general, the amount of ocular, soft tissue, and bony damage is related to the amount, duration, and direction of force applied to the orbit and face. Nevertheless, orbital injury is common and can be a subtle finding in the context of other facial or life-threatening injuries. Geometrically, the bony orbit most closely resembles a four-sided pyramid consisting of an apex, a base, and four sides: roof, floor, medial wall, and lateral wall. The absence of the orbital floor posteriorly and the inclination of the lateral wall toward the medial wall changes the geometric shape from a four-sided pyramid to a three-sided pyramid at the orbital apex. The bony margin circumscribes the orbital entrance and provides anterior support for the thin bones of the interior walls of the orbit. Rounding of the orbital walls blends demarcation of the superior, medial, inferior, and lateral walls. The entrance measures 40 mm horizontally and 32 mm vertically. The widest portion of the orbital margin lies about 1 cm behind the anterior orbital rim. In adults, the depth from orbital rim to apex varies from 40 to 45 mm. Safe subperiosteal dissection may be accomplished along the lateral wall and orbital floor for 22 mm and along the medial wall and orbital roof for 30 mm. The volume of the orbit is approximately 30 cc. The triangular floor of the orbit serves as the roof of the maxillary sinus. Several areas of thin bone create weak points in the orbital floor that are susceptible to fracture. The thinnest portion is medial to the infraorbital groove and canal, particularly posteriorly, where the medial wall has no bony support. In the posterior aspect of the floor, the infraorbital fissure extends as the infraorbital canal.
Klinefelter Syndrome
Authors: Temple Christine M.
Published: November 2020

Klinefelter syndrome (KS) was first identified by Dr. Harry Klinefelter in 1942 (Klinefelter, Reifenstein, and Albright 1942) in a report of nine tall men with hypogonadism, sparse body hair, gynecomastia, and infertility. The associated chromosome disorder 47XXY was identified several years later (Jacobs and Strong 1959). The full phenotype consists of hypogonadism, low testosterone levels, infertility, gynecomastia, sparse body hair, eunuchoid body habitus, long legs and arm span, and above-average height. However, except for hypogonadism (small testes), which is present in nearly all individuals with XXY, the physical phenotype may be quite variable. In live-born males, KS has an incidence of 1:500 to 1:1,000 (Bojesen, Juul, and Gravholt 2003; Hamerton, Canning, Ray, and Smith 1975; Ratcliffe, Bancroft, Axworthy, and McLaren 1982; Rovet, Netley, Keenan, Bailey, and Stewart 1996), with a further incidence of 1:300 in spontaneous abortions (Hassold and Jacobs 1984). Klinefelter syndrome is the most common of the sex chromosome abnormalities and the second most common chromosomal disorder after Down syndrome. The possibility that incidence is increasing has also been raised (Morris, Alberman, Scott, and Jacobs 2008). Despite this, possibly as a consequence of poor identification, the syndrome has been studied less extensively than, for example, Turner syndrome (45XO) and many other developmental disorders. Boys with KS are generally tall and long-limbed but with increasing height in the population, these characteristics alone are not necessarily distinguishing. Individuals with KS are generally not immediately identifiable, and many cases of KS remain unidentified throughout life. Up to two-thirds of cases may never be identified clinically (Lanfranco, Kamischke, Zitzmann, and Nieschlag 2004). There is no clearly identifiable facial appearance, although mandibular prognathism (a prominent lower jaw and extended chin) is reported on group analysis using radiographic cephalometry (Brown, Alvesalo, and Townsend 1993). Increased genetic screening now means that 10% of cases in the United Kingdom are diagnosed prenatally on the basis of karyotype, with a further 25% of cases diagnosed during childhood (Abramsky and Chapple 1997). However, this means that 65% of cases reach puberty undiagnosed. In Belgium, fewer than 10% of expected cases are diagnosed before puberty (Bojesen et al. 2003).
Neuropsychological Consequences of Sleep-Disordered Breathing
Authors: Janusz Jennifer , Halbower Ann
Published: November 2020

Pediatric sleep disorders have been gaining awareness among practitioners due to their potential for cognitive, behavioral, and somatic effects (Gozal 2008; Moore et al. 2006). Sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) is commonly seen in children and encompasses a range of disorders, in primary snoring to obstructive sleep apnea (Marcus 2000). Sleep-disordered breathing is characterized by partial or complete upper airway obstruction during sleep due to collapse or narrowing of the pharynx. This can result in sleep fragmentation due to brief arousals during the night, as well as disruption or cessation of airflow (Blunden and Beebe 2006; Halbower and Mahone 2006). This chapter describes the neuropsychological and behavioral consequences of SDB, comorbid disorders, and effects of treatment. Sleep-disordered breathing is considered a spectrum of airflow limitation, from mild to severe. For instance, primary snoring (PS), defined as snoring without oxygen desaturation or sleep arousals, is at the mild end of the spectrum. Upper airway resistance syndrome (UARS), in the middle of the spectrum, is characterized by increased negative intrathoracic pressure with sleep arousals and sleep fragmentation but no oxygen desaturations (Bao and Guilleminault 2004; Garetz 2008; Lumeng and Chervin 2008). In obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), at the severe end of the spectrum, there are repeated episodes of blockage of the airway with changes in oxygenation. Obstructive sleep apnea results from a combination of factors, including anatomical obstruction from adenoids, tonsils, or a narrow pharynx, and decreased neuromuscular tone required to maintain airway patency (Arens and Marcus 2004). An overnight polysomnogram (PSG) completed in a sleep laboratory and measuring sleep–wake states, respiration, movement, blood levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and cardiac activity, is considered the “gold standard” for the diagnosis of OSA (American Academy of Pediatrics 2002). The PSG is used to diagnose respiratory events, cardiac changes, and arousals from different sleep states. Respiratory events include obstructive apneas and hypopneas. Obstructive apnea events are episodes of complete airway obstruction, while hypopneas are partial obstructions or airflow limitations (Garetz 2008; Redline et al. 2007).
Finalizing Your Written Work
Authors: Robinson Marin S , Stoller Fredricka L , Constanza-Robinson Molly , Jones James K
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, we guide you through the final stages of completing your written work. Too often novice writers skip this vital stage of writing, thinking that their earlier drafts and revisions are sufficient. But experienced writers know that one last careful review is needed to assure the highest quality of work possible. By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following: ■Identify the different features of effective writing ■ Examine your written work from various perspectives ■ Take systematic steps to improve the quality of your writing ■ Finalize your written work so that it meets the expectations of your target audience As you work through the chapter, the Revising and Editing on Your Own tasks will guide you as you do the following: 18A Prepare to finalize your work 18B Check organization 18C Verify follow-through 18D Eliminate redundancy 18E Maximize conciseness 18F Check tense and voice 18G Correct common errors 18H Review science content 18I Reconfirm adherence to external guidelines 18J Check formatting and overall appearance By the time you consult this chapter, you have most likely revised and edited your work countless times. You have written separate sections, modified them, and then merged them, altering your writing throughout the process in an attempt to fit all the pieces together seamlessly. You have probably lost count of all the changes, large and small, that you have made (or been asked to make) in an effort to perfect your writing. Indeed, for most writers, more time is spent rewriting than writing. In this chapter, we ask you to look again at your written work, but this time as an entire document. Rather than write and rewrite section by section, we ask you to take a step back and reflect on your work as a whole. The goal is to achieve a coherent and fluent piece of writing that reads well from start to finish. To facilitate this process, we have created a checklist of nine items (listed below). We present each item and ask you to review your entire work from the perspective of this item, making changes and improvements as needed.
Gas Laws
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O.
Published: November 2020

Volumes and densities of gases vary significantly with changes in pressure and temperature. This means that measurements of the volumes of gases will likely vary from one laboratory to another. To correct for this, scientists have adopted a set of standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP) as a reference point in reporting all measurements involving gases. They are 0°C (or 273 K) and 760mmHg or 1 atm (or 1.013×105 N m−2 in S.I. units). Therefore standard temperature and pressure, as used in calculations involving gases, are defined as 0°C (or 273 K) and 1 atmosphere (or 760 torr). (Note: For calculations involving the gas laws, temperature must be in K.) Boyle’s law states that the volume of a given mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure. The law can be expressed in mathematical terms: V α 1/P or PV = k at constant n and T Since P×V = constant, problems dealing with P–V relationships can be solved by using the simplified equation: P1V1 = P2V2 Here P1, V1 represent one set of conditions and P2, V2 represent another set of conditions for a given mass of gas. Charles’s law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature. So if the absolute temperature is doubled, say from 300 K to 600 K, the volume of the gas will also double. A plot of the volume of a gas versus its temperature (K) gives a straight line. A notable feature of such a plot is that the volume of all gases extrapolates to zero at the same temperature, −273.2◦C. This point is defined as 0 K, and is called absolute zero. Thus, the relationship between the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales is given as: K = 0°C + 273. Scientists believe that the absolute zero temperature, 0 K, cannot be attained, although some laboratories have reported producing 0.0001 K.
Thermochemistry
Authors: Oriakhi Christopher O.
Published: November 2020

All chemical reactions involve energy changes. Some reactions liberate heat to the surroundings; others absorb heat from the surroundings. The breaking of chemical bonds in reactants and the formation of new ones in the products is the source of these energy changes. Calorimetry is the experimental determination of the amount of heat transferred during a chemical reaction. This measurement is carried out in a device called a calorimeter, which allows all the heat entering or leaving the reaction to be accounted for. This is done by observing the temperature change within the calorimeter as the reaction takes place; if we know how much energy is needed to change the calorimeter’s temperature by a given amount, we can calculate the amount of energy involved in the reaction. The relation between energy and temperature change for the calorimeter or for any other physical object is known as its heat capacity (C), which is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of that object by 1°C (or 1 K). This can be expressed in mathematical terms as: C = q/ΔT where q is the quantity of heat transferred and ΔT is the change in temperature, calculated as ΔT = Tf − Ti. The larger the heat capacity of a body, the larger the amount of heat required to produce a given rise in temperature. The heat capacity of 1 mol of a substance is known as the molar heat capacity. Also, the heat capacity of 1 g of a substance is known as the specific heat . To determine the specific heat of a substance, measure the temperature change, ΔT, that a known mass, m, of a substance undergoes as it gains or loses a known quantity of heat, q. That is: Specific heat (c) = Quantity of heat gained or lost/Mass of substance (in grams)×Temperature change (ΔT) or c = q/m×ΔT The unit of specific heat is J/g-K or J/g°C.
Anxiety Disorders in Adults
Authors: Starcevic, MD, PhD Vladan
Published: November 2020

Using the practical yet comprehensive approach found in the first edition, the author considers each anxiety disorder's clinical complexity while simultaneously using an integrative orientation toward finding clinical solutions. The author considers the presentation of each disorder as it occurs and is treated in the "real world" of clinical practice. Finally, the volume addresses effective therapeutic procedures and recommendations, including pharmacological and psychological treatment approaches. A true "must read" for any psychiatrist interested in anxiety disorders.
Seeking More Information
Authors: Compton Michael T , Broussard Beth
Published: November 2020

As we have discussed in previous chapters, it is very important for people with psychosis and their family members to learn about psychosis and effective treatments. This sort of learning is an important step towards recovery and preventing a relapse. However, seeking information to better understand psychosis can be frustrating at times. The amount of information received from mental health professionals and other sources can be overwhelming. However, aside from this book, very few books focus on first-episode psychosis. When searching the Internet, it is difficult at times to tell the difference between Web sites with correct and helpful information from those that contain opinions and confusing information. This chapter describes the benefits of educating yourself about psychosis and then describes different resources that are available. As discussed in Chapter 7 on Psychosocial Treatments for Early Psychosis, psychoeducation is a type of education that focuses on the topic of mental illnesses. The goal of psychoeducation is to help individuals with a mental illness, and their family members, better understand the illness. If a person understands his or her illness, then he or she will be able to deal with it more successfully. Psychoeducation, for both patients and their families, is an effective form of treatment in itself and an important step in preventing relapse and hospitalization. Research has shown that those who receive psychoeducation are less likely to have a relapse and enter the hospital compared to those who do not receive psychoeducation. The patient’s mental health professional is one of the best sources of information. Do not be afraid to ask him or her to explain more if some piece of information is unclear. Another good idea is to bring a list of questions with you when you meet with the mental health professional to make sure that you leave the appointment with all of your questions answered. Asking questions and getting answers helps you become confident that you understand the next steps. Worksheets provided in Chapters 2 and 9 will help you keep track of information that may be important to share with the mental health professional.
Stigma of HIV and AIDS—Psychiatric Aspects
Authors: Khalife Sami , Soffer Jocelyn
Published: November 2020

Since 1981, when previously healthy young adults were first stricken with a mysterious illness that was eventually described as “a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency” (Gottlieb et al., 1981), understanding of HIV and AIDS, both the in the medical community and general society, has come a long way. There remains, however, an unfortunate degree of stigma that persists since its development in the early days of the illness (Cohen and Weisman, 1986; Cohen, 1987, 1992; Cohen and Alfonso, 1998;Cohen, 2008). Early in the course of this epidemic, as it became evident that the immune deficiency had an infectious etiology and could lead to rapidly fatal complications, many became fearful of the possibility of contagion. An “epidemic of fear” (Hunter, 1990) thus began to develop along with the AIDS epidemic. During the first decade, even many physicians surveyed had negative attitudes toward persons with HIV and AIDS (Kelly et al., 1987; Thompson, 1987; Wormser and Joline, 1989). At the beginning of the HIV epidemic some persons hospitalized with AIDS experienced difficulty receiving even minimally adequate care, including getting their rooms cleaned, obtaining water or food, and receiving proper medical attention. Psychiatric consultations for AIDS patients with depression, withdrawal, and treatment refusal often revealed the heightened feelings of isolation and depression experienced by the patients, in part as a result of the reactions of staff members to their illness, including the palpable fear of contagion. Holtz and coauthors (1983) were the first to describe the profound withdrawal from human contact as the “sheet sign,” observed when persons with AIDS hid under their sheets and completely covered their faces. Thus, since the beginning of the AIDS epidemic, people with AIDS have been stigmatized. They have felt shunned and ostracized by not only medical caregivers but also the general community and even by their own families and friends. In some areas of the world, persons with AIDS have been quarantined because of the irrational fears, discrimination, and stigma associated with this pandemic. In the United States, persons with AIDS have lost their homes and jobs, and some children and adolescents have been excluded from classrooms.
2030
Authors: van Santen Rutger , Khoe Djan , Vermeer Bram
Published: November 2020

Imagine living in 1958, and knowing that the integrated circuit--the microchip--was about to be invented, and would revolutionize the world. Or imagine 1992, when the Internet was about to transform virtually every aspect of our lives. Incredibly, this book argues that we stand at such a moment right now--and not just in one field, but in many. In 2030, authors Rutger van Santen, Djan Khoe, and Bram Vermeer interview over two dozen scientific and technological experts on themes of health, sustainability and communication, asking them to look forward to the year 2030 and comment on the kind of research that will play a necessary role. If we know what technology will be imperative in 2030, the authors reason, what can we do now to influence future breakthroughs? Despite working in dissimilar fields, the experts called upon in the book - including Hans Blix (Head of the UN investigation in Iraq), Craig Venter (explorer of the human DNA), and Susan Greenfield (a leading world authority on the human brain), among many others - all emphasize the interconnectedness of our global networks in technology and communication, so tightly knit that the world's major conflicts are never isolated incidents. A fresh understanding of the regularities underlying these complex systems is more important than ever. Using bright, accessible language to discuss topics of universal interest and relevance, 2030 takes the position that we can, in fact, influence the course of history. It offers a new way of looking forward, a fresh perspective on sustainability, stability and crisis-prevention. For anyone interested in modern science, this book will showcase the technologies that will soon change the way we live.
Concerns
Authors: van Santen Rutger , Khoe Djan , Vermeer Bram
Published: November 2020

When we asked our colleagues to list what they consider the most pressing problems facing our planet today, they came back with a wide range of concerns, including atmospheric pollution, climate change, intensifying security threats, and the need to secure an adequate food supply for all the world’s people. Given that we concentrate in this book on the most crucial of these issues, it is dispiriting that we should still have to begin with the most basic of human needs. In the early twenty-first century, a lack of food, water, and shelter continues to rob tens of millions of people of their lives every year. More than half of all the world’s deaths are attributable to malnutrition. More people die of hunger every year than perished in the whole of World War II. What makes this problem especially distressing is that we know it isn’t necessary. That’s why we give particular prominence in this book to the question of what we should do about it. Once the basic necessities have been taken care of, the next biggest killers are cancer and infectious diseases. And as we grow older, we become increasingly concerned about our reliance on caregivers and the decline in our cognition. Breakthroughs in these fields would enable us to live longer and happier. So that’s the second category of challenges we discuss in this book. The continued existence of the human race is not, of course, guaranteed. The rapid pace of change on our planet requires us to adapt significantly and quickly. We discuss the issues arising from that recognition in a separate part of the book devoted to the sustainability of our Earth. The stability of our society isn’t guaranteed either. Financial crises, explosive urban growth, and armed conflict all have a detrimental effect on our well-being, making this the fourth category of the problems we consider. In our view, the most important issues human beings need to work on are: malnutrition, drought, cancer, infectious diseases, care of the elderly, cognitive deterioration, climate change, depletion of natural resources, natural disasters, educational deprivation, habitable cities, financial instability, war and terrorism, and the infringement on personal integrity.