bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What Justice Entails1
Authors: Muñiz-Fraticelli Víctor M.
Published: December 2012

In The Birthright Lottery, Ayelet Shachar subjects the institution of birthright citizenship to close scrutiny by applying to citizenship the historical and philosophical critique of hereditary ownership built up over four centuries of liberal and democratic theory, and proposing compelling alternatives drawn from the theory of private law to the usual modes of conveyance of membership. Nonetheless, there are some difficulties with this critique. First, the analogy between entailed property and birthright citizenship is not as illustrative as Shachar intends it to be; second, the mechanism of the birthright privilege levy is insufficient for addressing structural impediments to growth; and third, the principle of ius nexi, while an important corrective to currently dominant principles of nationality, will likely have effects both unnecessary and insufficient to correct the injustices that Shachar identifies. In the end, the most significant improvements in the lives of the neediest persons on the planet are more likely advanced through conventional arguments for the lowering of barriers to the circulation of goods, labor, and capital. This shift in attention from opening borders to extending citizenship risks being a distraction from more effective means of addressing the injustices associated with global inequality.
Migration and Equality: Should Citizenship Levy Be a Tax or a Fine?1
Authors: Dumitru Speranta
Published: December 2012

It is often argued that development aid can and should compensate the restrictions on migration. Such compensation, Shachar has recently argued, should be levied as a tax on citizenship to further the global equality of opportunity. Since citizenship is essentially a ‘birthright lottery’, that is, a way of legalizing privileges obtained by birth, it would be fair to compensate the resulting gap in opportunities available to children born in rich versus poor countries by a ‘birthright privilege levy’. This article sets out a defence of three theses. The first states that equality of opportunity is incompatible with, and cannot be achieved in, segregated territories. The second posits that to believe that material equality compensates the injustice of restrictions on movement is to commit a ‘sedentarist mistake’. The third affirms that any citizenship levy, including the egalitarian and non-sedentarist formula I’m proposing, would be better understood as a penalty rather than a tax.
IFLA Centre for Arabic Speaking Libraries: An Update
Authors: Youssef Dina
Published: December 2012

The IFLA Centre for Arabic Speaking Libraries (IFLA-CASL) was set up in 2007. This article provides an update to a paper published in Alexandria in 2009. Since that time, IFLA-CASL has continued its work translating documentation about the IFLA conference into Arabic. The Centre maintains a presence at events in the Arab region and works closely with the Arab Federation of Library Associations and Institutions. In 2011, it cooperated with IFLA HQ to create a workshop to train trainers to deliver IFLA's Building Strong Library Associations programme in Arabic. IFLA-CASL is working with IFLA and UNESCO to monitor loss of cultural artefacts and collections during the Arab Spring. The article includes information about meetings in the Arab region and major ongoing projects.
Antiochos I Soter
Authors: Strootman Rolf
Published: December 2012

Antiochos I Soter was the second king of the Seleucid Empire (b. ca. 323
bce
; r. 281–261, as sole king). He was the son of Seleukos I Nikator and his Iranian wife, Apame, daughter of the Bactrian warlord Spitamenes. The importance of Antiochos' long reign (about 33 years, including his time as co‐ruler) lies in his efforts to consolidate and organize his father's conquests.
Achaemenid Dynasty
Authors: Stronach David
Published: December 2012

The Achaemenid Persian Dynasty begins, strictly speaking, with the accession of Darius I (r. 522–486
bce
) and ends, nearly two hundred years later, with Alexander of Macedon's conquest of Iran in 330. It is traditional, however, to refer to Cyrus II (r. 559–530), who descends from a separate royal line, as the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Accordingly, this entry will not only examine important aspects of the reign of Darius I, as well as key achievements of his successors, but will include essential reference to both Cyrus and his son, Cambyses II (r. 530–522).
Akkad (Agade)
Authors: Foster Benjamin R.
Published: December 2012

Akkad was originally the name of an area and city near the confluence of the Diyala and Tigris rivers in Mesopotamia (Adams 1965; Weiss 1997). The meaning of the word is unknown. After it became the seat of the Sargonic Dynasty around 2300bce, Akkad as a territory expanded to mean northern Babylonia, from north of Nippur to Sippar. The city of the same name is first attested in the late Early Dynastic period, became an imperial capital in the Sargonic period, and was still occupied in the second millennium. By the mid‐first millennium the city's cults had been transferred elsewhere and the former capital was a famous ruin. In modern scholarship, the city is often distinguished from the region by calling it Agade. Its location has not been identified.
Ashur
Authors: Frahm Eckart
Published: December 2012

The city of Ashur (modern Qal'at Shirqat, located 110 km south of Mosul on the right bank of the Tigris River) was the religious, and for much of its history, the political center of the land of Assyria. First and foremost, Ashur was the site of the temple of the god Ashur, Assyria's chief deity, with whom both the city and the country shared their name. From 1903 to 1914, Ashur was excavated by W. Andrae on behalf of the Deutsche Orient‐Gesellschaft (German Oriental Society).
Death (ancient Near East)
Authors: Tatlock Jason R.
Published: December 2012

Ancient writers and religious specialists devised several rituals and theological conceptualizations by which the inhabitants of the Near Eastern world could mediate their shared apprehensions about the inevitable end of life and what might follow it.
Frontiers, ancient Near East
Authors: Grosby Steven E.
Published: December 2012

The category “frontier” refers to the diffusely designated limits of the land of a society, thereby demarcating, with geographical imprecision, that society from its neighbor.
Habiru
Authors: von Dassow Eva
Published: December 2012

The termḫabiru(pl.ḫabirū) denoted a social category, of mutable content and character, in the Middle and Late Bronze Age Near East; it is attested during most of the second millenniumBCEand, eventually, across almost all of the Near East including Egypt.
Hatti
Authors: Beckman Gary
Published: December 2012

Attested already as a local polity in the Old Assyrian merchant records, the designation “Hatti” was adopted by the Hittites from their non‐Indo‐European predecessors in central Anatolia as the name for their state, alternating in later texts with “[Land of] the City of Hattusa.”
Judges, early Israelite
Authors: Wells Bruce
Published: December 2012

The texts of the Hebrew Bible are the primary sources of our knowledge for judges in ancient Israel prior to the Hellenistic period.
Land and landholding, ancient Near East
Authors: Foster Benjamin R.
Published: December 2012

Ownership and possession of land are well attested in Mesopotamian documents from the early third millennium until the fifth centuryBCE, with scattered evidence thereafter.
Nabataeans
Authors: Graf David F.
Published: December 2012

The ethnic “Nabataeans” refers to the Arabs who established a kingdom with a capital at Petra (modern southern Jordan) between ca. 312/11BCEand 106CE.
Parthians, rulers
Authors: Fowler Richard
Published: December 2012

Parthia broke away from the Seleucid Empire in the mid‐third century
BCE
and by the 230s was ruled by Arsaces, who founded a dynasty, the “Arsacids”. By 141
BCE
, Arsacid Mithradates I controlled most of Iran and Mesopotamia, and over the following century the Parthian Empire grew into the most significant power between the Roman Empire and the borders of India and China. It was ultimately overthrown in the 220s CE by the Persian Ardashir, who thus founded the Sasanian Empire.
Proto‐Euphratic, Proto‐Tigridic languages
Authors: Allred Lance
Published: December 2012

Early Mesopotamia was a host to a number of different languages.
Ruler cult, ancient Near East
Authors: Brisch Nicole
Published: December 2012

Ruler cult in the ancient Near East refers to the worship of kings who were deified.
Synchronisms, ancient Near East
Authors: Podany Amanda H.
Published: December 2012

Much of the chronology of the ancient Near East has been reconstructed on the basis of synchronisms: references in ancient texts to events or individuals in contemporary kingdoms or to astronomical events.
Ugarit
Authors: Roche Carole
Published: December 2012

The tell of Ras Shamra, ancient Ugarit, is situated about 10 km north of Latakia on the Mediterranean coast of Syria.
Weaponry, ancient Near East
Authors: Schrakamp Ingo
Published: December 2012

Armies of the Late Uruk to Neo‐Babylonian periods used various hand‐to‐hand, long‐range, and defensive weapons, carriages, cavalry, and siege machinery provided by state‐run armories.
Wisdom literature, ancient Near East
Authors: Hurowitz Victor Avigdor
Published: December 2012

The term “wisdom literature” originates in biblical studies, where it designates the book of Proverbs as well as Job, Ecclesiastes, and the apocryphal Wisdom of Ben‐Sira, all of which are organically related to Proverbs either through shared ideas, vocabulary, and literary forms, or through dialogue with ideas presented in Proverbs.
Human sacrifice, ancient Near East
Authors: Tatlock Jason R.
Published: December 2012

Human sacrifice is a form of ritual killing in which the slayer attempts to engender change at the suprahuman level inhabited by supernatural beings, non‐human forces, and deceased humans though the act of slaughter.
Aegean Sea (Bronze Age)
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

The Aegean Sea lies between Greece and Asia Minor (western Anatolia) and is traditionally known as the Archipelagos in Greek.
Agia Triada in Crete
Authors: Christakis Kostis S.
Published: December 2012

Agia Triada is situated at the western end of the Mesara Plain, 4 km west of Phaistos.
Alkaios of Mytilene
Authors: Mack William
Published: December 2012

Lyric poet, the traditional contemporary of Sappho, Alkaios (active ca. 600
BCE
) was born into a politically involved aristocratic family of Mytilene on Lesbos at a time when power there was hotly contested between rival cliques following the overthrow of the ruling clan, the Penthelidai (Arist.
Pol
. 1311b26, 29).
Amnisos
Authors: Christakis Kostis S.
Published: December 2012

Amnisos is located 7 km east of Heraklion by the sea, at the foot of the Palaiochora hill.
Apoikia(overseas settlement)
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Apoikialiterally means a home far from home, and the word is usually translated as “colony.”
Assiros, Macedonia
Authors: Wardle Ken
Published: December 2012

Excavation at the prehistoric settlement mound (toumba) at Assiros in Greek Central Macedonia by the British School at Athens between 1975 and 1989 has provided important evidence about social organization and agricultural production in this region during the Late Bronze Age, about its connections between Mycenaean Greece and the Balkans, and for the absolute date of the end of the Aegean Bronze Age.
Basileus, Greece
Authors: Haarer Peter
Published: December 2012

Basileusrefers to a position of authority, commonly that of absolute constitutional and hereditary monarchy (traditionally opposed totyrannos, e.g., Arist.EN1160b3, though forced)
Chalandriani on Syros
Authors: Hilditch Jill
Published: December 2012

Chalandriani is a major Early Bronze Age cemetery in the Cyclades, dated to the Early Cycladic II period (2600–2300
BCE
).
Kleisthenes of Sikyon
Authors: Frederiksen Rune
Published: December 2012

Tyrant of Sikyon (ca. 600–570
BCE
), Kleisthenes was winner of the first chariot‐race at the Pythian Games (582; Paus. 10.7.6) and soon after of the race at the Olympic Games.
Corcyra
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Corcyra, the name of which is probably Illyrian, is a large island in the Ionian Sea, located off the coast of northwest Greece.
Dark Age Greece
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

The concept of a “Dark Age” was unknown to the Greeks of historical times, who viewed their distant past as a process of slow progress or decline.
Dorians
Authors: Eder Birgitta
Published: December 2012

The Dorians were an ethnic group, which in the classical period consisted of the population of the eastern and southern Peloponnese (Argolis, Corinth, Megara, Aigina, Lakonia, and Messenia), the islands of the southern Aegean (Crete, Melos, Thera, Anaphe, Astypalaia, and the Dodecanese), and the Carian coast (with Halikarnassos and Knidos).
Dorieus
Authors: Haarer Peter
Published: December 2012

Dorieus (before ca. 520–after ca. 510BCE), so Herodotus (5.39–48) tells us, was the eldest son of the first wife and niece of Anaxandridas.
Eleutherna
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Located in west‐central Crete, Eleutherna occupies a low hill at the northwestern foot of Mount Ida, overlooking the lowland areas that extend towards the Aegean Sea.
Hopletes (Phyle)
Authors: Tully John
Published: December 2012

Hopletes (Ὅπλητες), one of the four tribes of the Ionians ('Ίωνες), with the Aegicoreis, Argadeis/Ergadeis, and Geleontes (Aίγικρεές, Γελέоντες).
Kamares Cave, Crete
Authors: Christakis Kostis S.
Published: December 2012

The Kamares Cave is situated on the south slope of the Mount Psiloritis massif, at an altitude of 1,524 m.
Kameiros in Rhodes
Authors: Bourogiannis Giorgos
Published: December 2012

Kameiros (Kάμειρoς) was the third and smallest of the three ancient cities of Rhodes, occupying the western, mountainous part of the island.
Kastanas in Macedonia
Authors: Jung Reinhard
Published: December 2012

Kastanas is a Bronze and Iron Age tell site (in modern Greek Toumba) located on the left bank of the Axios River in central Macedonia (Greece).
Kato Phana on Chios
Authors: Beaumont Lesley A.
Published: December 2012

Kato Phana was long home to an extra‐urban Apollo cult center, and subsequently from the fifth century
CE
to an early Christian sanctuary.
Kavousi
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Kavousi is the name of a modern village located on the northern coast of eastern Crete.
Kerameikos, Athens
Authors: Alexandridou Alexandra‐Fani
Published: December 2012

Kerameikos, in the northwest of Athens with the Eridanos River flowing through it, was according to Thucydides (2.34) the most beautiful suburb of the city.
Koukounaries
Authors: Georgiou Artemis
Published: December 2012

The site of Koukounaries is located on the northeastern coast of the island of Paros, the second largest island of the Cyclades.
Kynos
Authors: Livieratou Antonia
Published: December 2012

Pyrgos, on the coast of East Lokris, has been identified with the Homeric town of Kynos.
Kythnos
Authors: Alexandridou Alexandra‐Fani
Published: December 2012

The island of Kythnos, in close proximity to Attica, belongs to the western Cyclades islands.
Lerna in the Argolid
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

A prehistoric coastal settlement on a broad and low tell, about 10 km south of Argos and occupied since the seventh millennium
BCE
, Lerna's best‐documented period is the Early Helladic II (2800–2300
BCE
), during which the settlement covered about 1.5 ha.
Menidi in Attica
Authors: Alexandridou Alexandra‐Fani
Published: December 2012

Modern Menidi, situated south of Mount Parnes in Attica, has been identified with the ancient deme of Acharnai, which, according to Thucydides (2.19), was the most populated Attic deme.
Minoan archaeology
Authors: Christakis Kostis S.
Published: December 2012

This is the term for the branch of archaeological science concerned with the civilization of prehistoric Crete (seventh to second millennium
BCE
).
Minotaur
Authors: Christakis Kostis S.
Published: December 2012

A mythical monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man, born of Pasiphae, the wife of Minos, and the white bull that Poseidon sent to Minos.
Mycenae
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

A major site in the Argolid (northeast Peloponnese) that gave its name to the material culture of the Late Bronze Age of central and southern mainland Greece (ca. 1700–1100
BCE
), during which time it became one of the most dominant centers in the Aegean.
Mycenaean society and culture
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

Archaeological excavations in mainland Greece in the last 140 years have yielded a great wealth of Late Bronze Age material evidence (1700–1050BCE), with the vast majority deriving from the thousands of tombs that have come to light.
Mylasa
Authors: Draycott Catherine M.
Published: December 2012

Mylasa is an ancient city of Caria, identified with modern Milas. According to Plutarch (Quaes. Rom. 45), an Arselis of Mylasa helped Gyges seize the throne of Lydia and brought back to Caria the double‐axe of Zeus Labraundos.
Pelasgi
Authors: Tully John
Published: December 2012

Pelasgi, Πελασγοί; a term used by Archaic and Classical Greeks to refer to a variety of groups around the immediate Greek world whose Hellenic identity was problematic.
Perati in Attica
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

An extensive Late Bronze Age necropolis on the southern slopes of the Perati hill to the northeast of the Bay of Porto Raphti in east Attica.
Poseidi in Chalcidice
Authors: Paspalas Stavros A.
Published: December 2012

Situated on a narrow spit on the west coast of Pallene (Chalcidice), Poseidi was, at least from the Archaic period, an extra‐urban sanctuary of Mende (4 km to the east).
Praisos
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

Praisos is an ancient city located in the mountainous heartland of eastern Crete.
Prinias in Crete
Authors: Kotsonas Antonis
Published: December 2012

A Neolithic and Bronze Age site in Crete Prinias was arguably called
Rhizenia
in antiquity.
Prosymna
Authors: Galanakis Yannis
Published: December 2012

An important prehistoric settlement and cemetery in the Argolid (northeast Peloponnese), on the northeastern side of the Argive Plain, about 4 km southeast of Mycenae.
Theopompos of Sparta
Authors: Davies Philip
Published: December 2012

Theopompos, Eurypontid king of Sparta, is unique in being named by Tyrtaios (fr. 5 West), who ascribed to him the conquest of Messenia (in the First Messenian War).
Thermon
Authors: Frederiksen Rune
Published: December 2012

Regional sanctuary to Apollo situated east of Lake Trichonis, 1 km south of modern Thermon in Aitolia, excavated mainly 1897–1908 (Sotiriadis) and 1911–32 (Rhomaios).
Tylissos in Crete
Authors: Christakis Kostis S.
Published: December 2012

Tylissos is situated on the northeast slope of Psiloritis, 13 km southwest of Heraklion. It was excavated by Hazzidakis in 1902–13. Scanty remains of houses suggest occupation of the site since Early Minoan II (2600–2300BCE).
Uluburun shipwreck
Authors: Bachhuber Christoph
Published: December 2012

The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck began in 1984 off the southern coast of. Ten seasons of excavation undertaken by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology have uncovered a site with highly significant implications for Late Bronze Age societies in the eastern Mediterranean.
Zagora
Authors: Frederiksen Rune
Published: December 2012

A town situated on a promontory (Zagora) on the west coast of Andros.
Africa, Byzantine
Authors: Kouroumali Maria
Published: December 2012

The Roman province of Africa became a prefecture for the first time under Constantine I between 332 and 337CE. Geographical knowledge of the continent was limited in Byzantine times.
Aristocracy, Byzantine
Authors: Kouroumali Maria
Published: December 2012

Rank, kinship, lineage, wealth, and power are the defining factors of the aristocracy in every age.
Armenians
Authors: Andrews Tara L.
Published: December 2012

The history of Armenia during Late Antiquity, just as in the Classical period, was largely influenced by its geographical position as a land located between the empires of Rome and Persia.
Asia Minor, Byzantine
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D.
Published: December 2012

Asia Minor, also known metonymically as Anatolia (from the Greek word for “east”), refers to the westernmost peninsula of the land mass of Asia.
Baptisteries
Authors: Rodley Lyn
Published: December 2012

The importance of Baptism as a rite of passage for entrants to the Christian church is such that architectural provision has been made for it since at least the first half of the third century
CE
, when, in Dura‐Europos on the Euphrates River, a canopied bath‐like structure was built in a house that was converted for use as a place of Christian worship.
Basiliscus
Authors: Haarer F. K.
Published: December 2012

Flavius Basiliscus is primarily known for his usurpation of the imperial throne from Zeno (475–6
CE
).
Cavalry, Byzantine
Authors: Dawson Timothy
Published: December 2012

The period from the fourth to seventh centuries
CE
saw a radical transformation in the technology, and hence tactics, of cavalry in the Roman Empire.
Chant (liturgical)
Authors: Lingas Alexander
Published: December 2012

Defined broadly as singing integral to the performance of public (and usually religious) ceremonies, liturgical chant covers a wide range of ancientmusical repertories and practices.
Church architecture
Authors: Rodley Lyn
Published: December 2012

The earliest Christians must have improvised the accommodation of worship, but by the end of the third century
CE
there were purpose built churches in public areas, for Lactantius describes the destruction of one such in Nicomedia in the early fourth century.
Clergy
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

In the New Testament itself there can be discerned the beginnings of the clergy who led the early Christian communities.
Coronation (Byzantium)
Authors: Kouroumali Maria
Published: December 2012

The ritual components of the emperor's coronation in Byzantium developed gradually from the Roman imperial accession ceremony, which included acclamation and shield‐raising.
Diptych
Authors: Papagiannaki Anthousa
Published: December 2012

A diptych is a pair of panels made mainly of Ivory, but also of precious metal, or wood, joined together by hinges, and datable to Late Antiquity.
Dynasty, idea of, Byzantine
Authors: Pazdernik Charles F.
Published: December 2012

It is conventional to speak of as many as six imperial dynasties between the fourth and the seventh centuries
CE
: those of Constantine I; Valentinian I; Theodosius I; Leo I; Justin I, and Herakleios.
Famine and food shortages, Byzantine
Authors: Stathakopoulos Dionysios
Published: December 2012

Little changed between antiquity and the Byzantine era as regards subsistence crises: their causes and effects, and reactions to them, were structurally the same.
Funerary cult, Byzantine
Authors: Moore Sophie V.
Published: December 2012

The majority of the Early Byzantine populations were interred in graves after death in an extended supine position, aligned with their heads to the west and their feet to the east.
Gardens, Byzantine
Authors: Littlewood A. R.
Published: December 2012

Information on Byzantine gardens is scant: archaeological excavations have revealed little other than water‐courses; despite numerous and usually stylized and traditional details, there is no artistic representation devoted solely to a garden; the few literary descriptions are heavily dependent upon classical forebears, either vying with them or copying whatever detail is relevant and, on two occasions, even in the exact words of the original.
Gregory of Nyssa
Authors: Sels Lara
Published: December 2012

Gregory of Nyssa (ca. 335–after 394CE) was one of the great Cappadocian church fathers, together with his brother Basil of Caesarea and his friend and namesake Gregory of Nazianzus.
Harun al‐Rashid
Authors: Decker Michael J.
Published: December 2012

Harun al‐Rashid was born in Ray in northern Iran around 766
CE
; he was the third son of the ‘Abb asid caliph al‐Mahdi (775–85) and a Yemeni slave, Khaizuran.
Henotikon
Authors: Haarer F. K.
Published: December 2012

TheHenotikon(Edict of Union) was a letter addressed by Zeno in July 482 to the churches under the control of the patriarch of Alexandria in an attempt to resolve the differences between the Chalcedonians and miaphysites following the 451 Council of Chalcedon.
Hippodromes
Authors: Rodley Lyn
Published: December 2012

A venue for horse‐ and chariot‐racing, an ancient Greek invention taken up by the Romans (who narrowed it and called it a circus) and maintained in the early Byzantine centuries.
Jewelry, Byzantine
Authors: Loverance Rowena
Published: December 2012

Late Antique and Byzantine jewelry largely followed Greco‐Roman polychrome traditions.
John of Cappadocia
Authors: Whately Conor
Published: December 2012

A high‐ranking east Roman official, John of Cappadocia was born in Caesarea (Cappadocia) around 500
CE
and died after 548 in Constantinople.
Justin I
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

Justin I (r. 518–527
CE
) is reported to have been an Illyrian peasant who made his way to Constantinople in search of a military career.
Leontios (usurper)
Authors: Greatrex Geoffrey
Published: December 2012

Leontios, of Isaurian origin, rose under Zeno (474–491
CE
) to become
magister militum per Thracias
.
Liturgy, Byzantine
Authors: Lingas Alexander
Published: December 2012

Defined broadly as Christian services held within the bounds of the (East) Roman Empire after Constantine, Byzantine liturgy encompasses a host of regional variations on urban and monastic patterns of communal worship celebrated in languages including Coptic, Greek, Latin, and Syriac.
Long Wall (Wall of Anastasios)
Authors: Crow James
Published: December 2012

The Long Wall of Thrace or the Wall of Anastasios was the most celebrated building achievement of the emperor Anastasios I (Haarer 2006: 106–9) and was the last and most monumental Roman barrier wall in Europe.
Magic, Byzantine
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

Magic was a concept that was recognized in Byzantium and deplored.
Maps, Byzantine
Authors: Kominko Maja
Published: December 2012

Byzantine maps – usually drawn without coordinates and scale and with physical features reduced to coastlines and rivers – adapt traditions of ancient geography to a new context.
Maronites
Authors: Wood Philip
Published: December 2012

Now a Catholic Uniate community, mostly living in the northern Lebanon, the history of this group has been rewritten as an eternal Catholic orthodoxy in the aftermath of its union with Rome following the Crusades.
Paul Silentiarius
Authors: Whitby Mary
Published: December 2012

Paul the Silentiary composed a high‐flown verse description(Ekphrasis;1,029 lines) of Justinian I's church of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople, to celebrate its re‐dedication over Christmas 562/3CE, following restoration after a partial collapse of the dome (558) from earthquake damage.
Persecution, religious, Byzantine
Authors: Decker Michael J
Published: December 2012

Unlike the religious bigotry and chauvinism ingrained in Byzantine society and formalized in its laws, Byzantium witnessed relatively few persecutions motivated by faith.
Religion, Byzantine popular
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D
Published: December 2012

“Popular religion” in Byzantium can indicate a range of meanings, depending on one's perspective.
San Vitale
Authors: Rodley Lyn
Published: December 2012

San Vitale in Ravenna is best known for a rare survival of Byzantine imperial portraiture: mosaic panels in the sanctuary depict Justinian I (527–565
CE
) and his empress Theodora. Unlike the other churches of sixth‐century Ravenna, which are basilicas, San Vitale has an octagonal plan, with a dome carried on eight piers, surrounded by a galleried aisle – a “double‐shell” form. The piers are linked by seven pierced niches with two columns each, the remaining side of the octagon open to the apsed sanctuary; a narthex fronts the building. While this scheme may have its roots in the centralized, niched forms of Roman architecture, the immediate source was almost certainly the architecture of sixth‐century Constantinople, where SS. Sergios and Bacchos has a similar structure based on an octagonal core within a square exterior. San Vitale was consecrated in 547/8, seven years after Ravenna had been retrieved from the Ostrogoths, which may explain its strong connections with the capital, but the patron, Julius Argentarius (thought to be depicted in the mosaic, in the entourage of Justinian) was probably based in Ravenna, having commissioned several other churches there. Bishop Maximian, in office at the consecration, is also shown in the mosaic, but in the conch of the apse it is an earlier bishop, Ecclesius (521–532), who presents a model of the church to Christ. Ecclesius also knew the churches of Constantinople, having visited the city in 525, so the metropolitan form may have been planned from the start.
Senate, Byzantium
Authors: Pazdernik Charles F.
Published: December 2012

From the fourth until the seventh centuries
CE
the Senate was notable more for the accumulated wealth, prestige, and experience of its members than for any specific institutional or administrative role within the Roman state. The period witnessed the establishment in Constantinople of a body equivalent to the Senate of the city of Rome and the vast expansion of the senatorial order, in the course of which it was transformed, especially in the east, into a service elite based upon the holding of military and civilian offices dispensed by the imperial court.
Ships, shipping, Byzantine
Authors: Sullivan Denis F.
Published: December 2012

The first distinctively Byzantine war galley was thedromon(“runner”), a product of slow evolution from the late Romanliburna. New design features included full decks to protect the rowers, replacement of rams with above‐water projecting beams (“spurs”) used to destroy enemy oars, and the lateen sail.
Symeon of Emesa (Symeon the Fool)
Authors: Hatlie Peter
Published: December 2012

Symeon of Emesa (fl. ca. 550 or 600CE) is the first attested “Fool for Christ” (salos), a category of Christian saints with a long subsequent history.
Theodora, empress
Authors: Garland Lynda
Published: December 2012

Theodora (ca. 497–548
ce
), wife of Justinian, was, according to Procopius'
Secret History
, the daughter of a bear keeper employed by the Green hippodrome faction in Constantinople (
SH
9.33).
Transport, Byzantine
Authors: Decker Michael J.
Published: December 2012

Transport in Byzantium was generally terrestrial and inevitably involved local transit over distances easily covered by human porters or ox‐carts in the space of a day (30–50 km).
Women,Byzantium
Authors: Garland Lynda
Published: December 2012

With the increasing prominence of Christianity in the fourth century, supported by the conversion of Constantine the Great, options for women evolved throughout the empire while still reflecting both the provisions of Roman law and longstanding customs. Christian values became more widely accepted and, with celibacy and virginity seen as an ideal lifestyle, women increasingly saw a life of chastity as an option.
Aeschines
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Aeschines was born around 390bceand was the son of Atrometos, an Athenian citizen. Aeschines reports that his father was once wealthy enough to pass his time exercising in the gymnasium, but lost his property during the Peloponnesian War and worked as a mercenary.
Aeschylus
Authors: Leão Delfim F. , Fialho Maria do Céu G. Z.
Published: December 2012

Aeschylus (ca. 525/4–456/5bce), son of Euphorion, was born at Eleusis, an important religious center.
Alexander I of Macedon
Authors: Landucci Franca
Published: December 2012

Alexander I of Macedon (died ca. 452bce), also known as the Philhellene (Harp. s.v.Alexandros; schol. Thuc. 1.57.2; Dio. Chrys 2.23), son of Amyntas I, is the first welldocumented king of Macedonia.
Alexander II of Macedon
Authors: Landucci Franca
Published: December 2012

Alexander II of Macedon (ca. 390–368bce), eldest son of Amyntas III and Eurydike, became king in 370 at his father's death (Diod. Sic. 15.60.3; 16.2.4; see Hammond and Griffith 1979: 179–82; Borza 1990: 189–91; Errington 1990: 35–6).
Alphabet, Greek
Authors: Wachter Rudolf
Published: December 2012

The Greek alphabet is a clever adaptation of the standard Semitic alphabet of the first millenniumbce, which was a purely consonantal script of twenty‐two signs: '‐b‐g‐d‐h‐w‐z‐h‐t‐y‐k‐l‐m‐n‐s‐'‐p‐s‐q‐r‐ŝ‐t.
Anaxarchos of Abdera
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: December 2012

An Abderite philosopher of the school of Democritus, Anaxarchos was born around 380bce; Diogenes Laertius gives hisfloruitas the 110th Olympiad (340–337).
Anaxilaos of Rhegion
Authors: de Vido Stefania
Published: December 2012

Anaxilaoswas tyrant of Rhegion, a Greek colony of Chalcidian origin at the southernmost tip of Italy. Conflict existed in the city between the demos and the ancient aristocracy, and between the Chalcidian population and the colonists from Greek Messenia. In this situation Anaxilaos, probably a Messenian hegemon (Strabo 6.1.6), took power as tyrant in 494
bce
(Hdt. 6.23.2; Diod. Sic. 11.48.2). He understood the importance of control over the Strait of Messina (the narrow passage between the eastern tip of Sicily and the southern tip of Calabria), and in particular over the Greek colony of Zankle (on the Sicilian coast), which had fallen under the influence of the Geloan tyrant Hippokrates.
Archidamos
Authors: Stewart Daniel R.
Published: December 2012

Archidamos II (r. ca. 469–427) was the Eurypontid king of Sparta who led his
polis
into war with Athens in 432. He succeeded his grandfather Leotychidas II (Diod. Sic. 11.48.2). He first rose to prominence during the helot revolt of 465/4 (Diod. Sic. 11.63.5–7; Plut.
Cim
. 16.6f).
Architecture, Greek
Authors: Hellner Nils
Published: December 2012

The early development of Greek architecture can be geographically divided into the mainland with the Aegean islands, and Crete.
Boiotian League
Authors: Mackil Emily
Published: December 2012

A scholarly term for the ancient Greek
ethnos
or
koinon
of the Boiotians, the Boiotian League was a state comprising, at most times, all the
poleis
within the region of Boiotia. It displays characteristics of federalism, including double citizenship (of
polis
and
koinon
), organs of government operative at both the local and regional level, and careful divisions of authority and responsibility between them.
Cheirotonia
Authors: Liddel Peter
Published: December 2012

Athenian citizens voted in three ways: at the assembly, voting on decisions, legislation, and the election of certain magistrates was done by cheirotonia, a “show of hands” ([Arist.]Ath. Pol. 61.1); voting on decisions in the courts took place by the casting of ballots (psephophoria: Ath. Pol. 68–9); there was also Ostracism.
Colonization, Greek
Authors: Tsetskhladze Gocha R.
Published: December 2012

Colonization is the generally accepted term applied to Greek overseas settlement in the Archaic period. Although imperfect, and to be treated with reservation, it is the best term we have.
Comedy, Old
Authors: Olson S. Douglas
Published: December 2012

Old Comedy is the term conventionally applied to comic dramas performed at the City Dionysia and Lenaia festivals in Athens in the fifth centuryBCE.
Demades
Authors: Squillace Giuseppe
Published: December 2012

Demades, son of Demeas of the deme of Paiania, was an Athenian politician and orator.
Demagogues
Authors: Liddel Peter
Published: December 2012

The nature of Greek politics meant that politicians, in order to secure their political ascendancy, often appealed to popular interests.
Demosthenes,strategos
Authors: Roisman Joseph
Published: December 2012

The Athenian general Demosthenes (ca. 460–413BCE), son of Alkisthenes, has been called “the greatest general of the fifth century”.
Dionysios I
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Dionysios I (430–367bce) was the son of Hermokritos, tyrant of Syracuse, and son‐in‐law of Hermokrates. He came to power in 406/5 asstrategos autokratorin the war against Carthage that was threatening Syracuse. The main evidence is provided by Diodorus of Sicily books 13–15, reflecting both a pro‐Dionysios (PhilistosFGrH556, Dionysios' official historian) and an anti‐Dionysios (TimaeusFGrH566) perspective.
Ephors
Authors: Scott Andrew G. , Figueira Thomas J.
Published: December 2012

Ephors, literally the “overseers” of Sparta, were a group of five Spartiates (full citizens) elected on an annual basis from the entire citizen body, one of whom gave his name to the year. A Spartiate could only hold the office once.
Epidamnos/Dyrrhachion
Authors: Antonetti Claudia , Matijašić Ivan
Published: December 2012

Epidamnos/Dyrrhachion is a harbor city on the Illyrian coast founded by Corcyra in 626/5
BCE
(Euseb.
Chron
. 97b Helm) with the participation of Corinth (the founder, Oikistes, was the Corinthian Phalios, a descendant of Herakles (Hercules)) and other Dorians (Thuc. 1.24.1–2; Skymn. 435–6).
Eupatridai
Authors: Duplouy Alain
Published: December 2012

The ruling elite and Archaic nobility of Athens is often designated by ancient and modern authors as the Eupatridai.
Gergithes
Authors: Herda Alexander
Published: December 2012

The Gergithes were an indigenous ethnic group in western Asia Minor. In historical times they appeared in four regions:
Hipparchos, son of Charmos
Authors: Berti Monica
Published: December 2012

Hipparchos, son of Charmos, was the first Athenian to be ostracized, in 488/7
BCE
.
Hippias, son of Peisistratos
Authors: Lavelle B. M.
Published: December 2012

There is really nothing about Hippias' early life except for the dubious information (Hdt. 1.61.3) that, although a teenager, his advice was decisive in persuading the exiled Peisistratos to return and take the Tyranny of Athens a third time.
Hippodamos of Miletos
Authors: Gill David W. J.
Published: December 2012

Hippodamos came from Miletos, a city that had been destroyed during the Ionian revolt. Its reconstruction in the decades after the termination of the Persian wars may have inspired Hippodamos, though there is no evidence that he was in any way involved.
Hippokrates, Sicilian tyrant
Authors: Lomas Kathryn
Published: December 2012

Hippokrates, son of Pantares, was one of two brothers who were tyrants of the Sicilian city of Gela from 505 to 491bce.
King's Peace
Authors: Mitchell Lynette G.
Published: December 2012

The King's Peace was an innovative diplomatic strategy, allegedly for creating peace in Greece after nearly fifteen years of war between the Athenians, Boiotians, Argives, and Corinthians on the one hand, and the Spartans on the other.
Kleomenes I of Sparta
Authors: Stewart Daniel R.
Published: December 2012

Kleomenes I (reigned ca. 520–490bce), Agiad king of Sparta, had one of the most influential reigns of any Spartan king, not only presiding over the rise of Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnese but also inadvertently laying the foundations for what would become Athenian democracy.
Kolakretai
Authors: Papazarkadas Nikolaos
Published: December 2012

The Athenian board of the
kolakretai
were extant already in the Archaic period and operated as disbursers of money down to ca.
Kreon, Athenian archon
Authors: Faraguna Michele
Published: December 2012

According to a tradition recorded in the AristotelianConstitution of the Athenians.
Leuktra, battle of
Authors: Beck Hans
Published: December 2012

The battle of Leuktra, a small town in southwestern Boiotia, was fought in the summer of 371bcebetween Thebes and Sparta.
Logographers
Authors: Higbie Carolyn
Published: December 2012

As early as the fifth century
BCE
, as far back as our evidence allows us to go, Greek writers distinguished between those who composed in verse and those who used prose.
Old Oligarch
Authors: Rhodes P. J.
Published: December 2012

This label was first applied, apparently, by Gilbert Murray (1897: 167–9) to the author of theAthenaion politeia(Constitution of the Athenians) preserved among the works of Xenophon, but almost certainly not written by him.
Pasion, Athenian banker
Authors: Shipton Kirsty M. W.
Published: December 2012

Pasion (ca. 430–370bce) owned one of the most successful private Banks in Athens. From humble origins as a Phoenician slave to the bankers Antisthenes and Archestratos, Pasion rose to become one of Athens' wealthiest citizens.
Phormion
Authors: Tuci Paolo A.
Published: December 2012

Phormion was an Athenian general (d. ca. 428bce), son of Asopios (Thuc. 1.64.2) or Asopichos (Paus. 1.23.10), of the deme of Paiania. He was general (strategos) in 440/39, 439/8 (?), 436/5 (?), and from 432/1 to 429/8.
Zeugitai
Authors: Rosivach Vincent J.
Published: December 2012

At Athens, the
zeugitai
(singular
zeugites
) were the next to lowest of Solon's four census groups, which were used to allocate public office.
Antalkidas
Authors: Almagor Eran
Published: December 2012

Antalkidas (d. ca. 367
bce
), alternatively Antialkidas (
IG
V.1.93.15; Philoch. in
FGrH
328 F 149a), was the son of Leon (Plut.
Art
. 21.5).
Pindar
Authors: Fearn David
Published: December 2012

Pindar was a late Archaic and Classical Greek choral lyric poet from Kynoskephalai in Boiotia.
Acta Martyrum
Authors: Dehandschutter Boudewijn
Published: December 2012

The
Acta Martyrum
are documents that figure prominently among the abundant evidence of persecutions of Christians in Antiquity (including pagan evidence as well as Christian sources such as church histories, homilies, and panegyrics) because of their historical value as direct contemporaneous information (
acta sincera
). Chronologically these texts deal with events situated from the middle of the second century
ce
onwards, concentrating on the time of Decius, who is considered to have been the first ruler to have “systematically” persecuted Christians (about 250
ce
), as well as in the period of the “great persecution” inaugurated about 303
ce
by Diocletian.
Adoptionism
Authors: Lavender Earl
Published: December 2012

Adoptionism is a term used by later historians to identify various forms of teachings in the early centuries of Christianity that suggested that Jesus was a mere human being, who, because of his righteous life, was at some point “adopted” as God's son. Closely associated with “dynamic monarchianism,” it was an attempt to explain the relationship of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ in an understandable way.
Aristides
Authors: Kannaday Wayne C.
Published: December 2012

Aristides (ca. early second century
ce
) is reported by Eusebius (
Hist. eccl
. 4.3.2–3) to have been an Athenian philosopher who became devoted to the Christian faith and who, along with Quadratus, addressed to the emperor Hadrian apologetic works defending Christianity.
Athanasius
Authors: Lyman Rebecca
Published: December 2012

As the leading defender of Nicene Christianity in an era of unprecedented imperial patronage and theological conflict, Athanasius (ca.293–373CE) was a tenacious bishop of Alexandria whose career and writings became symbols of the triumph of Christian orthodoxy over emperors or heretics: Athanasiuscontra mundum.
Chiliasm
Authors: Hill Charles E.
Published: December 2012

Chiliasm (or millennialism) in early Jewish and Christian sources refers to belief in a future, temporary kingdom of righteousness to be realized on this Earth before the great day of resurrection/judgment and the distribution of eternal rewards.
Creeds, Christian
Authors: Löhr Winrich
Published: December 2012

After 300cecreeds assumed a growing role for the self‐definition of Christianity as a religious tradition. Like the lists enumerating the books of the Christian Bible, or the growing body of disciplinary canons generated by various councils, they formed part of a general trend toward a more explicit and more precise formulation of Christian norms in Late Antiquity.
Dialogue of the Savior
Authors: Zelyck Lorne R.
Published: December 2012

The final tractate in the third codex from the Nag Hammadi Library contains the incipit and colophon title: the
Dialogue of the Savior
.
Diatessaron
Authors: Johnson Scott Fitzgerald
Published: December 2012

The Diatessaron is a bold and painstaking harmonization of the four Gospels into one narrative (διά τεσσάρων = “through four”) prepared by Tatian (ca.120–173), an “Assyrian” student of Justin Martyr at Rome (Oratio ad Graecos42.10–11).
Diognetus, Letter to
Authors: Kannaday Wayne C.
Published: December 2012

TheLetter to Diognetusranks among the earliest known Christian apologetic works. Written in form as a letter to a ranking Roman official, in content it most nearly resembles a treatise. Curiously, despite its animated advocacy for Christianity, the essay never refers to the name of Jesus or Christ.
Donatists
Authors: Tilley Maureen A.
Published: December 2012

The name “Donatist” was given by their enemies to the followers of Donatus, Christian bishop of Carthage (elected ca. 311).
Eucharist
Authors: Ferguson Everett
Published: December 2012

The Eucharist, a communion of Bread and wine, was the central act of the weekly Christian assembly.
Eustathius of Antioch
Authors: Williams Megan
Published: December 2012

A prolific Christian writer who was Bishop of Antioch during the Council of Nicaea (
see
Nicaea, Council of), Eustathius was a strong supporter of Nicaea's theology and opponent of Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia.
Exorcism
Authors: Garrett Susan R.
Published: December 2012

Exorcism is the ancient practice of expelling demons thought to possess persons or places, using incantations, prayers, or ritual behaviors.
Hairesis
Authors: Meyer Marvin
Published: December 2012

The Greek wordhairesis(plural,haireseis), from which the English wordheresyderives, is a term that referred in the context of the Greco‐Roman world to one or another school of thought.
Hegesippus
Authors: Vaccarella Kevin M.
Published: December 2012

Hegesippus was one of the earliest Christian historians. He lived approximately 110–180ce.
Hippolytus of Rome
Authors: Brent Allen
Published: December 2012

What relationship does the statue of the seated figure, putatively of Hippolytus, at the entrance to the Vatican Library, and the titles inscribed on its plinth, have to the writer, a catalogue of whose works appears in Eusebius of Caesarea (Hist. eccl. 6.22), which is extended further by Jerome (De Viris Illustribus61)?
Logos
Authors: J. Edwards Mark
Published: December 2012

The word
logos
in Greek may signify an account, a discourse, a reckoning, a principle, an argument, a rationale, or the faculties of speech and reasoning.
Lucian of Antioch
Authors: G. Weinandy Thomas
Published: December 2012

Most of Lucian of Antioch's life, writings, and theological positions are shrouded in the shadow of uncertainty.
Mark, Gospel of
Authors: Henderson Suzanne Watts
Published: December 2012

The Gospel of Mark appears second among the four Gospels found in the Christian New Testament.
Minucius Felix
Authors: Kannaday Wayne C.
Published: December 2012

Minucius Felix (early third centuryce) is regarded by some as the most eloquent of the early Christian Apologists.
Montanism
Authors: Trevett Christine
Published: December 2012

The term “Montanism” derives from the name of its founder Montanus and describes a Christian movement of prophesying and reform which began in second centuryceRoman Phrygia. Its earliest Catholic critics called it pseudo‐prophecy, and one anonymous source said that Montanus was a recent convert to Christianity (EusebiusHist. eccl. 5.16.7) (seeEusebius of Caesarea). It goes beyond the evidence to suggest it owed much to Phrygian paganism, though later anti‐Montanist writers said that Montanus was a former priest of Apollo (DidymusTrin. 3.41.3) or a devotee of the cult of Cybele (JeromeEpist. 41.4,to Marcella: “an emasculated man”).
New Testament, Coptic Translations of
Authors: Askeland Christian
Published: December 2012

If Christianity existed among the ethnic Egyptians in the first and second centuries, it did so without leaving any evidence.