bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Seal Carey
Published: May 2021

Seneca’s description of the social dimensions of philosophy, and his use of social background in clarifying and defending his conception of what philosophy is and can be, marks not a retreat from but rather a vindication and extension of the Socratic ideal of philosophy as a critical practice. Seneca does not simply encode social norms in philosophical language, but rather in his writings stages a subtle interplay between the two that shows both how philosophy necessarily takes its beginnings from an existing social world and how philosophy’s scrutiny of that world can yield challenging and unexpected conclusions. Seneca gives us a philosophy that is neither a complacent recapitulation of the given nor an arid abstraction decoupled from social practice, but rather a genuine art of living.
The Decision Problem
Authors: Perrings Charles
Published: May 2021

Chapter 2 reviews key elements of decision theory as applied to the management of environmental resources. It illustrates the principles governing economic decisions generally, especially the equimarginal principle, and shows how these principles guide trade-offs between goods and services consumed by individuals or communities, or between inputs employed by households, firms, or public enterprises. It identifies the elements of decision problems involving constrained optimization, and shows how these elements appear in problems involving the conservation of scarce resources. It also introduces Lagrangian methods for the optimization of constrained decision problems, and provides an initial treatment of the role of discounting in decisions involving time.
Substitutability and the Valuation of Natural Capital
Authors: Perrings Charles
Published: May 2021

Chapter 7 considers the substitutability between produced and natural capital—assets used in the production of goods and services, and between environmental and other goods and services. It shows the ways in which the limits of substitutability are captured in both production and utility functions, and what this means for conservation. The chapter also discusses the relation between substitutability and the value of environmental inputs, using concepts of gross substitutability and complementarity, and the elasticity of substitution. The authors also note that the relative value of environmental inputs is frequently dependent on the environmental conditions under which production takes place.
Poverty, Value, and Conservation
Authors: Perrings Charles
Published: May 2021

Chapter 10 addresses the relation between conservation, income, and wealth, focusing on the problem of biodiversity. It reconsiders the current consensus that poverty alleviation will reduce biodiversity loss. It addresses three dimensions of the problem: the role of income in the demand for natural resources; the empirical relation between income and biodiversity conservation; and the link between wealth, property rights, and the incentive to conserve. The first connects poverty, population growth, and the demand for natural resources. The second shows how biodiversity conservation and per capita income are related. The third connects poverty and property rights. It shows that for rural landholders to have an incentive to conserve their land, they also need to have secure rights. A necessary condition for land conservation to be optimal by the Hotelling principle is that the rights-holder can realize the gains to be had from conserving the resource.
The Active Rise of the United States
Authors: Miller Manjari Chatterjee
Published: May 2021

By the early 20th century the United States was recognized as a great power. This chapter details the rise of the United States to great power status by engaging in behavior that was both active and accommodational of great power norms in Venezuela, Hawaii, and the Philippines. It shows that the United States, in addition to acquiring economic and military power, also had vibrant and contesting narratives about becoming a colonial great power. These narratives, rooted in older ideas about the role and identity of the United States, spoke to the international norm that a great power by definition would assert imperial authority.
Introduction
Authors: Graber Naomi
Published: May 2021

Throughout his career, Weill remained fascinated with the idea of “America,” whether as a foreign country or as a flawed but promising homeland. Using Weill’s engagement with the idea of America and American culture, we can see continuities in Weill’s apparently disjunct career. The fact that Weill valued collaboration on both sides of the Atlantic presents another continuity, but also a problem for scholarly paradigms that, following thinkers like Theodor Adorno, privilege artistic autonomy. This book looks beyond notions of influence and autonomy, and instead employs the idea of cultural transfer to better understand Weill’s transnational and multifaceted career. By looking at Weill in the contexts of the culture and politics of the 1930s and 1940s, it becomes clear that Weill never abandoned his hopes that theatre could provoke and transform audiences.
Weill’s America, America’s Weill
Authors: Graber Naomi
Published: May 2021

The beginnings of Weill’s career coincided with the early days of the Weimar Republic, a period in which Germany experienced remarkable political and cultural changes. Jazz, or at least the idea of jazz, came to symbolize both the good and the bad aspects of America and, more importantly, the “Americanization” of German culture. Weill was ambivalent about jazz. He spoke of it as a source of renewal for German culture, yet the idea of America and the urban alienation it could represent also allowed him critique to that culture. Weill also saw in the United States a potential market, particularly beginning in 1933. However, several factors made it difficult for him to gain a foothold in the United States, including trends in contemporary U.S. modern music circles and the increasing political tension with Germany.
Israel in Egypt
Authors: Graber Naomi
Published: May 2021

Weill’s evolving relationship with his Jewish heritage is apparent in several of his works. Although the pageant The Eternal Road (1937) premiered in the United States, it was conceived with European audiences in mind. Thus, Weill’s score draws on both German and Jewish musical styles and forms in order to prove that—despite Nazi declarations—the two identities were not in conflict. He wrote his first Jewish characters for the mainstream Broadway stage in Street Scene (1947), which explores the place of Jews within a multicultural community. Lost in the Stars (1949) represents the culmination of Weill’s lifelong passion for racial equality, and hearkens back to some aspects of The Eternal Road, aligning it with emergent conceptions and agendas a “Judeo-Christian” community.
Destinations in Mind
Authors: Cassibry Kimberly
Published: May 2021

Destinations in Mind explores how objects depicting distant places helped Romans understand their vast empire. At a time when many sites were written about but only a few were represented in art, four distinct sets of artifacts circulated new information. Engraved silver cups list all the stops from Spanish Gades to Rome, while resembling the milestones that helped travelers track their progress. Vivid glass cups represent famous charioteers and gladiators competing in circuses and amphitheaters, and offered virtual experiences of spectacles that were new to many regions. Bronze bowls commemorate forts along Hadrian’s Wall with colorful enameling typical of Celtic craftsmanship. Glass bottles display labeled cityscapes of Baiae, a notorious resort, and Puteoli, a busy port, both in the Bay of Naples. These artifacts and their journeys reveal an empire divided not into center and periphery, but connected by roads that did not all lead to Rome. They bear witness to a shared visual culture that was not divided into high and low art, but united by extraordinary craftsmanship. New aspects of globalization are apparent in the multilingual place names that the vessels bear, in the transformed places that they visualize, and in the enriched understanding of the empire’s landmarks that they impart. With in-depth case studies, the book argues that the best way to comprehend the Roman empire is to look closely at objects depicting its fascinating places.
Introduction
Authors: Cassibry Kimberly
Published: May 2021

The Introduction addresses the emerging study of Roman souvenirs and establishes a new framework for their analysis. Whereas prior studies have valuably considered the role of Roman souvenirs in curating memory and their relation to modern memorabilia, this book explores how their craftsmanship relates to perceptions of place. The book’s four case studies focus on artifacts that conjure particular destinations through a combination of words and images. These artifacts are simultaneously portable works of art and material texts. They can be held in the hand yet they evoke monumental buildings, cities, frontiers, and roads. They are Roman, Italian, and provincial in their sites of production and use. The book’s interdisciplinary analysis therefore draws on theories of place, globalization, materiality, and multi-sensory experience in order to answer the following question: how did souvenirs allow residents of the Roman empire to be in one place while imagining another?
Pax Transatlantica
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi M.
Published: May 2021

Pax Transatlantica asserts that the recurrent transatlantic crises that have dominated headlines since the end of the Cold War, while not irrelevant, pale when set against the realities of shared interests and goals. It emphasizes three key factors. First, despite inflammatory and dismissive rhetoric, NATO continues to provide a solid security structure for its member states: an institutional framework of a Pax Transatlantica that has stood the test of time by expanding its remit and scope. Second, in a world concerned with the potential effects of trade wars (especially between the United States and China) and the rise of economic nationalism, the transatlantic economic relationship stands apart as the richest, most closely integrated transcontinental economic space on the globe. Third, the book traces the parallel evolution of domestic politics on both sides of the Atlantic with specific focus on the rise of populism. Rather than a sign of transatlantic “drift,” the rise of populism—much like the emergence of so-called Third Way politics on both sides of the Atlantic in the 1990s—is evidence of a closely integrated transatlantic political space. In the end, while it is obvious that the history of the transatlantic relationship—even during the Cold War—was littered with crises, the relationship has endured. Conflicts have illustrated, time and again, the strength of the transatlantic community. The “West,” the book concludes, not only continues to exist. It is likely to thrive in the future.
Politics and Populists
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi M.
Published: May 2021

Chapter 4 examines the transatlantic political space, with special attention to the rise of populism. Particularly since 2016, analysts have been obsessed with the dawn of a new era of post-truth politics and illiberal democracy. Refusing such pessimism, the chapter asserts that the rise of transatlantic populism is part and parcel of the reshuffling of democratic politics after 1989, when labels like “left” and “right” no longer carried the meaning they once had. Moreover, the transatlantic nature of populism—like the rise of the so-called Third Way in the 1990s—speaks volumes of the degree of interconnectivity between Europe and America in the post–Cold War world. While each country’s domestic politics can be idiosyncratic, the “macro” trends have grown increasingly similar in the past three decades. There is, the chapter contends, a transatlantic political space in which ideas resonate and “travel” at increasing speed.
Epilogue
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi M.
Published: May 2021

This chapter provides a brief overview of the aftermath of the 2020 US elections and how the Biden presidency is likely help reshape the discourse and substance of the transatlantic relationship. The chapter, however, also asserts that the end of the Trump presidency will not mean a sudden return to normality because there will continue to be tensions between the United States and Europe on a number of issues from trade to policy vis-à-vis China. Instead the paradoxical coexistence between cooperation and conflict––between substantial common interests and recurrent disagreements––that has characterized the transatlantic relationship since the end of the Cold War is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. Pax transatlantica is likely to thrive for years to come.
Introduction
Authors: Bolens Guillemette
Published: May 2021

The cognitive ability to process kinesic stimuli is nonverbal. Sensorimotor concepts are predictive and operate primarily outside of language. Human beings are able to perform a precise gesture without knowing how to account for it verbally. In literature, verbal artists work with the connections afforded in their language between sensorimotor and verbal concepts. In turn, the act of reading their texts taps into readers’ kinesic intelligence and their ability to connect a verbal concept of movement to a sensorial and motor concept. When writers play with such connections, kinesic humor in literature is liable to be experienced. In such instances, shifts in rhythm, tonicity, and kinesthetic intensity are paramount within readers’ perceptual simulations. While perceptual simulations are the prime trigger of an experience of humor, they generally remain pre-reflective. They can, however, become a focus of reflective attention. The introduction to Kinesic Humor provides a theory for this claim, and substantiates it with preliminary literary examples.
Saint-Simon
Authors: Bolens Guillemette
Published: May 2021

Admired by Stendhal and Marcel Proust, Saint-Simon wrote about his life in Versailles under Louis XIV. His purpose was that of a historian. Yet his style is so striking that it inspired major literary artists. Kinesic intelligence was a vital skill in Versailles, and Saint-Simon was acutely aware of all forms of nonverbal communication. He was also capable of communicating about kinesic interactions—with a sharp sense of humor. This chapter focuses on Saint-Simon’s portraits of the Duke and Duchess of Orléans, and his own intervention in the so-called Intrigue for the marriage of the Duke of Berry. In this episode, dynamic shifts, speed, and haptics (sensations interconnecting touch and kinesthesia) are a focus of attention, as they played a surprising role in Saint-Simon’s vivid experience of this historical moment.
Stendhal
Authors: Bolens Guillemette
Published: May 2021

Stendhal was deeply interested in comedy. Even in such a tragic novel as Le Rouge et le Noir, powerful emotions are interwoven with humorous effects. A remarkable passage of Le Rouge et le Noir stages Julien Sorel interacting with Amanda Binet, a barmaid, and one of her lovers. Kinesic humor is central to this scene in which the complexity of kinesic communication is thematized through Julien’s failure to emulate the swaggering gait, dynamic facial gestures, and kinesic know-how of Amanda’s lover. Stendhal’s style is carefully considered in this chapter in relation to the challenge it represents for translators.
Ovid and Chrétien de Troyes
Authors: Bolens Guillemette
Published: May 2021

Readers’ cultural expectations regarding literary masterpieces can hamper their experience of humor. This chapter studies the passage in Chrétien de Troyes’ Yvain in which the knight’s faithful lion is said to run like a frantic hog. This simile is so surprising that it has generally been ignored not only by medievalists but also by medieval translators of Chrétien’s Yvain. Yet its potential humor is highly significant, as its disruptive quality constitutes an astute response to the already disruptive thrust of Ovid’s legend of Pyramus and Thisbe. The comparative and intertextual approach of this chapter brings together, on the one hand, Chrétien’s romance with its translations in Middle English, Old Norse, and Old Swedish, and on the other hand, Ovid’s seminal legend with its medieval adaptations by Chaucer, Gower, Boccaccio, and the anonymous author of the Old French Piramus et Tisbé. In every work, the dynamics of perception and cognition are central to the plot.
Mutinies in War
Authors: Grint Keith
Published: May 2021

This chapter covers mutinies which occur during the most dangerous times for the establishment: under conditions of war. Theoretically, any collective dissent from a legal order in a military organization is mutiny, and the events over Christmas 1914 along the Western Front in France and Belgium precisely capture this tension, with some calling it a ‘truce’ and others categorically calling it a mutiny—thus ensuring it is not repeated the following Christmas. Next we consider the Russian mutiny of 1917 that, unlike the Potemkin mutiny, occurs in a febrile national context with significant support from the political left. Some of the reverberations of Russia end up in France in 1917, straight after the failed Nivelle offensive, and this also reveals the significance of dashed expectations, as well as the dire consequences of the French state’s response. Within a year the German Navy is convulsed by similar issues, the first time it is crushed because the conditions are inadequate, but the second time, in 1918, against the backdrop of a military catastrophe and political turmoil, it is the mutiny of the German sailors that leads to the toppling of the German state. For the British and Commonwealth armies in France, post 1914, mutinies are rare, but they do occur, and it is serendipity that lends at hand. However, the largest of all British mutinies in wartime occurs in Salerno in 1943, and ironically it is stimulated by loyalty to the regiment, rather than disloyalty to the state.
Mutinies after War
Authors: Grint Keith
Published: May 2021

If mutinies are significant threats to those military parties facing defeat during wars, they are still more dangerous to the victors after the war is ended, when those conscripted for the duration of the war are desperate to return home. This chapter covers three such mutinies: those affecting British forces in 1918 and 1919; those facing Canadian forces in 1919; and finally the mutiny that literally grounded the RAF in 1946 in India and the Far East. The first cases occur in the south of England and France as the First World War is ending, but Churchill in particular was keen to retain both naval and army units to continue the fight against the fledgling Bolshevik regime. What is intriguing about these is just how militant the mutineers were and how the British government treated them with kid gloves, unlike those in the British Foreign Labour units who we meet in chapter 6. For the Canadian army the problem starts in Russia but end up in Wales, as the troops kick their heels waiting to return home and frustrations boil over into gunfights near Rhyl in 1919. Finally, we consider the similar issues prevailing over the RAF in India and the Far East as it becomes clear to the subordinates that they are a long way from home and have little immediate prospect of going home—unless they mutiny.
Fission and Shared Stages
Authors: Ehring Douglas
Published: May 2021

In Chapter 2, a fifth mapping of identity on to fission is considered, one that rejects the assumption that different people cannot shared stages. One variant of this “shared stage” approach is the idea that there are two people all along in fission and these two people wholly share a stage prior to fission. The claimed consequence is that the relation of different stages being stages of a common person and the relation that matters in survival do not diverge from each other in fission. It is pointed out that the relation of being stages of a common person is not the proper analogue—in the framework of temporal parts—of the “identity” of the commonsense proposition that “identity matters.” The proper analogue relation is outlined and the divergence in fission reemerges. An alternate version of the fifth mapping—there are two people all along in fission who only partially overlap prior to fission—does not eliminate this divergence.
Application: The Predicate ‘High Risk’
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Dever Josh
Published: May 2021

This chapter begins to flesh out the theory of de-anthropocentrized externalism, by considering what we should say about AI systems’ use of predicates, such as ‘is a benign lesion’ or ‘will default on a loan’. Introducing Kripke’s seminal causal theory of names, the chapter shows how (and why it’s necessary) to abstract from the theory’s anthropocentric features while still preserving its key features, such as the idea that use of a term should be anchored in a baptismal event and that the term’s reference is passed on from speaker to speaker.
Application: Names and the Mental Files Framework
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Dever Josh
Published: May 2021

This chapter continues the process of anthropocentric abstraction, here concentrating on proper names. Do AI systems use proper names? Using our example of ‘SmartCredit’, it highlights problems concerning how to treat the output of an AI system when some, but not all or most, of the information in its neural network fails to apply to the individual we interpret the output to be about. After giving reasons to think the standard Kripkean theory might not work well here, it suggests an alternative theory of communication about particular entities, the mental file framework, which is more apt for theorizing about AI systems. It then abstracts from the human-centric features of extant theories of mental files to consider how AI might use something like them to refer to particulars.
Application: Predication and Commitment
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Dever Josh
Published: May 2021

The previous chapters have given us ways of thinking about how an AI system might use names and predicates. But language use involves more than simply tokening expressions. It also involves predicating, or asserting, or judging: applying predicates to terms to make a claim. How can AI do that, even granting it can name things and express predicates? This chapter proposes an answer, by melding together two popular theories: the act-theory of propositional content, and teleosemantics. In a now familiar way, it abstracts from human-centric features of extant theories to show how we can understand AI predication.
Four Concluding Thoughts
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Dever Josh
Published: May 2021

The final chapter considers or reconsiders four topics that are important for philosophers coming to terms with AI communication: the fact that AI systems’ goals might change without human intervention and become misaligned with humans’ goals. It is argued that such possibilities make it both particularly important but also particularly difficult to give theories of AI communication. The second topic is the external mind hypothesis: the author considers its relevance for AI systems. The third considers what we can learn about so-called adversarial perturbations, and suggests they can help us reply to the sceptic Alfred from Chapter 2. Finally, the chapter concludes by considering again explainable AI, suggesting that the externalistic perspective offers can help us understand what we can and cannot require of explainable AI systems.
Combinatorial QFT and the Jacobian Conjecture
Authors: Tanasa Adrian
Published: May 2021

The Jacobian Conjecture states that any complex n-dimensional locally invertible polynomial system is globally invertible with polynomial inverse. In 1982, Bass et al. proved an important reduction theorem stating that the conjecture is true for any degree of the polynomial system if it is true in degree three. This degree reduction is obtained with the price of increasing the dimension n. We show in this chapter a result concerning partial elimination of variables, which implies a reduction of the generic case to the quadratic one. The price to pay is the introduction of a supplementary parameter 0≤n′≤n, parameter which represents the dimension of a linear subspace where some particular conditions on the system must hold. We exhibit a proof, in a QFT formulation, using the intermediate field method exposed in Chapter 3.
Fermionic QFT, Grassmann calculus, and combinatorics
Authors: Tanasa Adrian
Published: May 2021

In the first section of this chapter, we use Grassmann calculus, used in fermionic QFT, to give, first a reformulation of the Lingström–Gesse–Viennot lemma proof. We further show that this proof generalizes to graphs with cycles. We then use the same Grassmann calculus techniques to give new proofs of Stembridge's identities relating appropriate graph Pfaffians to sum over non-intersecting paths. The results presented here go further than the ones of Stembridge, because Grassmann algebra techniques naturally extend (without any cost!) to graphs with cycles. We thus obtain, instead of sums over non-intersecting paths, sums over non-intersecting paths and non-intersecting cycles. In the fifth section of the chapter, we give a generalization of these results. In the sixth section of this chapter we use Grassmann calculus to exhibit the relation between a multivariate version of Tutte polynomial and the Kirchhoff-Symanzik polynomials of the parametric representation of Feynman integrals, polynomials already introduced in Chapters 1 and Chapter 3.
QFT on the non-commutative Moyal space and combinatorics
Authors: Tanasa Adrian
Published: May 2021

In this chapter we present the Phi? QFT model on the non-commutative Moyal space and the UV/IR mixing issue, which prevents it from being renormalizable. We then present the Grosse–Wulkenhaar Phi? QFT model on the non-commutative Moyal space, which changes the usual propagator of the Phi? model (based on the heat kernel formula) to a Mehler kernel based propagator. This Grosse–Wulkenhaar model is perturbatively renormalizable but it is not translation-invariant (translation-invariance being a usual property of high-energy physics models). We then show how the Mellin transform technique can be used to express the Feynman integrals of the Grosse-Wulkenhaar model. In the last part of the chapter, we present another Phi? QFT model on the non-commutative Moyal space, which is however both renormalizable and translation-invariant. We show the relation between the parametric representation of this model and the Bollobás–Riordan polynomial.
Quantum gravity, group field theory (GFT), and combinatorics
Authors: Tanasa Adrian
Published: May 2021

This chapter is the first chapter of the book dedicated to the study of the combinatorics of various quantum gravity approaches. After a brief introductory section to quantum gravity, we shortly mention the main candidates for a quantum theory of gravity: string theory, loop quantum gravity, and group field theory (GFT), causal dynamical triangulations, matrix models. The next sections introduce some GFT models such as the Boulatov model, the colourable and the multi-orientable model. The saddle point method for some specific GFT Feynman integrals is presented in the fifth section. Finally, some algebraic combinatorics results are presented: definition of an appropriate Conne–Kreimer Hopf algebra describing the combinatorics of the renormalization of a certain tensor GFT model (the so-called Ben Geloun–Rivasseau model) and the use of its Hochschild cohomology for the study of the combinatorial Dyson–Schwinger equation of this specific model.
Random tensor models—theU(N)D-invariant model
Authors: Tanasa Adrian
Published: May 2021

In the first section we give a briefly presentation of the U(N)D-invariant tensor models (N being again the size of the tensor, and D being the dimension). The next section is then dedicated to the analysis of the Dyson–Schwinger equations (DSE) in the large N limit. These results are essential to implement the double scaling limit mechanism of the DSEs, which is done in the third section. The main result of this chapter is the doubly-scaled 2-point function for a model with generic melonic interactions. However, several assumptions on the large N scaling of cumulants are made along the way. They are proved using various combinatorial methods.
Random tensor models—the multi-orientable (MO) model
Authors: Tanasa Adrian
Published: May 2021

In its first section, this chapter presents the definition of the multi-orientable tensor model. The 1/N expansion and the large N limit of this model are exposed in the second section of the chapter. In the third section, a thorough enumerative combinatorial analysis of the general term of the 1/N expansion is presented. The implementation of the double scaling mechanism is then exhibited in the fourth section. This chapter presents the multi-orientable (MO) tensor model and it follows the review article. This rank three model, having O(N) U(N) O(N) symetry, can be seen as an intermediate step between the U(N) invariant model presented in the previous chapter, and the O(N) invariant model presented in the following chapter. The class of Feynman graph generated by perturbative expansion of MO model is strictly larger than the class of Feynman graphs of the U(N) invariant model and strictly smaller than the one of the O(N) invariant model.
Informalism
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo
Published: May 2021

Informalism comprises the theories that frame the law produced by international organizations in shades of normativity: member states and international organizations are integrated in heterarchical relationships primarily governed by politics; the law created by international organizations belongs to hybrid legal systems; the institutional veil is characterized by degrees of transparency depending on the internal relation of power; the conduct of a member state acting in the institutional forum is alternatively relevant or not relevant as a matter of international law, depending on the internal relation of power. This chapter describes the historical roots of this conceptualization and elaborates why under this perspective the rules of the organizations are considered as a matter of degrees of legality. Afterwards, it describes the flaws of this theory focusing on the law of the international civil service and on global administrative law.
The Dual Legal Nature in Practice
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo
Published: May 2021

This chapter describes the dual legal character of international organizations as discussed in practice and scholarship. It reviews every act mentioned by the International Law Commission in its definition of rules of international organizations: ‘the constituent instruments, decisions, resolutions and other acts of the international organization adopted in accordance with those instruments, and established practice of the organization’. Moreover, it also includes agreements with third parties and judicial decisions, which the Commission mentioned only in the commentary to the articles on the responsibility of international organizations. Additionally, it considers general principles and customary law, not mentioned by the Commission but rules of international organizations nonetheless. The purpose is to present a variety of examples in which the dual legal character is either useful to shed new light on traditional debates or already acknowledged by practice and scholarship.
The Law of Treaties
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo
Published: May 2021

This chapter applies the dual legal nature to the law of treaties. It begins by describing how international organizations were conceptualized in the debates of the International Law Commission and of International Law Institute on the law of treaties. Afterwards it contends that the capacity of an international organization to conclude a treaty is based both on a norm of general international law and on a norm of the internal institutional legal system. This finding is applied to the controversial issue of the position of member states in the treaty concluded by the organization. The dual nature leads to rethinking the role of members within the organizations based on complementarity. It means that member states have an indirect involvement with the treaty concluded only by the organization. For instance, member states’ obligations arise in order to provide the organization with the means to fulfil the obligations of the organization.
Validity and Ultra Vires Acts
Authors: Gasbarri Lorenzo
Published: May 2021

The legal validity of the law produced by international organizations is a vexed issue. This chapter explores how it is affected by the absence of a comprehensive concept of an international organization. The functionalist perspective privileges a notion of ultra vires which refers to acts or actions of an international organization which overstep its attributed competences. Conversely, the constitutional perspective adopts a dynamic interpretation under which it is more difficult to determine the invalidity of a rule. First, the chapter describes how the International Court of Justice adopted an either/or approach based on the two conceptualizations. Afterwards, it applies the dual legal nature explaining how the rules have two parameters of legality, deriving from the international and the internal legal system. This finding is applied to the invalidity of a treaty caused by the violation of a rule and to the respect for customary law.
Introduction
Authors: Park Simon
Published: May 2021

The introduction sets out the methodological approach of this study, which combines book history and literary analysis with methods drawn from sociology, namely, network analysis, valuation studies, and the sociology of professions. It argues for a ‘pragmatics of poetry’ that takes seriously the more practical concerns that poets articulated in their verse and the inventive, and often conflicting, ways in which poets wrote about what it meant to write verse in the period. The introduction also acquaints readers unfamiliar with sixteenth-century Portuguese literature with the writers who will feature most prominently in this study. A concluding section considers how the figure of Orpheus transformed across a set of images and texts from the period concerned in order to illustrate the various issues discussed in the chapters that follow.
What Else Do Poets Want? And How Do They Get It?
Authors: Park Simon
Published: May 2021

This chapter foregrounds poets’ struggles to establish poetry as a service worthy of reward and how they tried to persuade patrons to fulfil their promises and perform their moral duties as wealthy and powerful members of society. The opening sets out what patrons and clients offered each other and how they were conventionally supposed to perceive their obligations to each other. The chapter then proceeds to examine in detail one of the key gifts the poet had to offer: fame. It underlines the material paradoxes of granting fame through poetry and explores the moral restrictions that were imposed on poets, who had the power to confer eternal celebrity on patrons. Poets in Portugal frequently muddied the moral ideals that were supposed to govern patronage relationships and sometimes took poetry from its position as the prize of virtue to peddle it as something like a consumer product. Poets faced a number of practical problems in the arrangement of patronage relations that often left them on the back foot while trying to win favour, but they were inventive in seeking solutions to their problems, for instance by proposing changes to the procedures of writing poetry and receiving rewards, using friends to build relationships and close patronage deals, and framing requests in particular ways to suit the interests and disposition of their chosen patron. These issues are discussed by placing poems in their historical context and by the use of a network visualization of patterns of poetic dedication (included in the Appendix) that points to the interconnectedness of the social circles of the writers discussed.
Imagining Socialism
Authors: Allison Mark A.
Published: May 2021

“Socialism” names a form of collective life that has never been fully realized; consequently, it is best understood as a goal to be imagined. So this study argues, and thereby locates an aesthetic impulse that animates some of the most consequential socialist writing, thought, and practice of the long nineteenth century. Imagining Socialism explores this tradition of radical activism, investigating the diverse ways that British socialists from Robert Owen to the midcentury Christian Socialists to William Morris marshalled the resources of the aesthetic in their efforts to surmount “politics” and develop nongovernmental forms of collective life. Their ambitious attempts at social regeneration led some socialists to explore the liberatory potential afforded by cooperative labor, women’s emancipation, political violence—and the power of the fine arts themselves. Imagining Socialism demonstrates that, far from being confined to the “socialist revival” of the fin de siècle, important socialist experiments with the emancipatory potential of the aesthetic may be found throughout the period it calls the “socialist century”—and may still inspire us today.
Poetic Vanguardism and Political Violence in Capel Lofft’s “Chartist Epic”
Authors: Allison Mark A.
Published: May 2021

In 1839, an economically battered Britain teetered on the threshold of revolution. The neo-Spencean poet Capel Lofft aspired to use his anonymously circulated epic, Ernest; or, Political Regeneration, to send it over the brink. Ernest describes, in sanguinary detail, the growth and eventual triumph of an agrarian-communist insurrection. A charismatic poet leads the revolt, using fiery oratory to inspire his co-conspirators. Because Ernest was clearly intended to galvanize militant elements within the Chartist movement into action—and because its author was alarmingly eloquent—hysteria greeted the epic’s appearance. This chapter’s reading of Ernest traces how Lofft employs vanguardism, the belief that artists can lead the masses in a progressive direction, to allay his own doubts about the viability of popular self-governance. More broadly, it utilizes Ernest, a hybrid of contemporaneous radical social and political thought, as a staging ground to investigate the uneasy comingling of Chartism and Owenite socialism, the two great working-class movements of the first half of the nineteenth century. Lofft’s epic stages several questions with exemplary clarity: is revolution a political event, or the anti-political mechanism by which “politics” is definitively superseded? Are the people the heroes of the emancipatory narrative? Or does the revolutionary leader, rendered sublime by the fervency of his commitment, inevitably eclipse them? Can poetry, a literary mode increasingly defined by its detachment from practical concerns, marshal the rhetorical and conceptual resources of the aesthetic to foster national regeneration?
“What Is to Come After This?”
Authors: Allison Mark A.
Published: May 2021

This chapter engages with Britain’s fin-de-siècle socialist revival by investigating its presiding spirit, William Morris. Morris is revered for inspiring a socialist culture characterized by its fusion of artistic and emancipatory commitments. From the longer perspective that Imagining Socialism affords, however, this synthesis of aesthetics and socialism looks less like an unprecedented development than a change in modalities. Imagining Socialism demonstrates that the aesthetic was constitutive of an important strand of the British socialist tradition; sublimated aesthetic energies underpinned and invigorated a succession of anti-political schemes of communal regeneration. Morris corrected this excessively instrumentalizing tendency by promulgating a highly self-conscious aesthetic of sensuous surfaces. By desublimating socialism’s aesthetic impulse, he fostered an environment in which successful socialist art and literature was finally possible. But despite Morris’s own intentions, this chapter contends, his intercession also conspired to drain socialism of its anti-political vitality. This argument is staged through a thickly contextualized reading of News from Nowhere. In his utopia, Morris employs an erotically saturated style and plot to entice readers to embrace his own vision of Britain’s socialist future. However, this approach sanctions the emergence of a privatized aesthetic ideal that is fundamentally at odds with the nongovernmental utopia of the craft arts that News from Nowhere officially espouses. By desublimating the aesthetic impulse, Morris inadvertently contributed to the dispersal of the vitality and resources that the aesthetic had hitherto lent Britain’s socialist anti-political tradition.
Epilogue
Authors: Allison Mark A.
Published: May 2021

This Epilogue sets the waning of British socialist anti-political aspiration in the context of the literary career of H. G. Wells, on the one hand, and the coalescence of the Parliamentary Labour Party, on the other. In their respective spheres, both Wells and the Labour Party represent a decisive turn toward a statist—and forthrightly political—conception of socialism in the early decades of the twentieth century. Wells, the new century’s most prolific and influential socialist writing in English, shares with his antecedents an abiding preoccupation with the aesthetic dimension of socialism. In stark contrast to his predecessors, however, he self-consciously subordinates this aesthetic impulse to his overmastering vision of an emerging socialist world state. Concurrently, the fledgling Labour Party became a locus for the longstanding debates about how socialism was to be made and what posture the socialist movement should adopt to Britain’s existing political institutions and traditions. These debates were foreclosed by the party’s adoption of a new constitution and party program in 1918, which were drafted by the Fabian socialist Sidney Webb. The constitution includes the famous Clause IV, which affirms the party’s commitment to the collective ownership of the means of production. Labour’s reorganization effectively confirmed that in Britain, socialism would be pursued via the parliamentary road—and that state socialism would be its ultimate institutional goal. Consequently, 1918 provides a symbolic end to the anti-political tradition Imagining Socialism delineates—and of the socialist century that it surveys.
Against Jazz Combo Theories of Meaning and Reference
Authors: Taylor Kenneth A.
Published: May 2021

The “jazz combo theory” captures the common spirit of various theories that reject reference and the “bottom up” approach to the problem of objective representational content. We can imagine the members of a jazz combo initially playing together without any shared musical norms. But they continually adjust to one another until norms emerge and are mutually endorsed. Players start holding one another to these norms, and it’s this that gives the sounds they produce—what would otherwise be mere noise—determinate musical content. Similarly, on the jazz combo theory, what would otherwise be productions of meaningless strings by language users, come to constitute determinate linguistic acts with determinate propositional contents, by virtue of the users adopting, and holding one another to, a shared set of linguistic and discursive norms. This chapter argues that jazz combo theorists overstate the case against reference, although they’re right in stressing the importance of norms and their dependence on social interaction. Jazz combo theorists tend to reject bottom-up approaches, including causal theories, because they take those approaches to be incompatible with the explanatory priority of the sentence and to fail to bridge the supposed gap between cause and norm. A number of conceptual tools are introduced to counter their arguments and to defend the consistency of the dynamic priority of the sentence, the syntactic correlativity of sentences and their constituents, and the semantic priority of constituents.
The Things We Do with Empty Names
Authors: Taylor Kenneth A.
Published: May 2021

This chapter undertakes to apply the previously developed theory of objective representational content to our thought and talk about apparently non-existent objects. It aims to show that we need not construe the referents of singular terms within fiction and within mathematics as possessing bona fide existence (or non-existence) while also providing a robust understanding of our singular representations when we think with such terms. The arguments depend on the trio of distinctions between merely objectual and fully objective linguistic and mental representations; non-veridical and veridical language games; and truth-similitude and literal truth. With these distinctions, the chapter exhibits the explanatory power of a theory on which empty singular terms are merely objectual yet are fundamental to our non-veridical language and thought games, possessing truth-similitude while falling short of literal truth.
Introduction
Authors: Hayashi Brian Masaru
Published: May 2021

The OSS did not use race in their recruitment of Asian Americans. Instead, they used loyalty to determine which Asian American with the necessary linguistic and cultural skills could join the agency. But to understand why the OSS leaders took the risk in bringing in a potential Asian American Trojan Horse one must see race and loyalty as not fixed but fluid social constructions. Using a wide variety of sources scattered across the globe, this chapter shows that Asian Americans had broken through racial barriers as they were tasked with gathering, translating, and analyzing intelligence data, creating propaganda pamphlets and radio programs, conducting hit-and-run operations miles behind enemy lines, and hunting for enemy spies behind Allied lines. Their roles, salaries, and military rank all point to how rapidly loyalty and not race became the primary determinant of employment with and treatment in the Office of Strategic Services during World War II.
Introduction
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf
Published: May 2021

The pharmaceutical industry has produced wondrous scientific advances, but the progress has come at a cost. US prescription drug spending has increased faster in most recent years than other categories of health and now comprises roughly one-sixth of total health expenditures. Rising costs strain already stretched public budgets. Increasing patient out-of-pocket spending for deductibles and coinsurance has created financial difficulties for many individuals and their families, particularly among the sickest patients. The dueling trends of scientific breakthroughs and ever-rising spending present enduring challenges. On its own, rising spending would not be so concerning, but evidence suggests that drug prices often do not reflect the benefits they provide. Thus, there is an imperative to measure the value of prescription drugs and incorporate such measures into drug pricing policies.
The Prescription Drug Market
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf
Published: May 2021

This chapter describes how prescription drug markets deviate from “normal” competitive markets. On the demand side, there is considerable uncertainty in disease prognosis and treatment effects; buyers have much less information than sellers; consumers usually do not pay directly for their prescriptions but rather have health insurance, which protects them from a drug’s full price; and physicians and insurers play a major role in consumer choices. On the supply side, firms are heavily regulated, subject to laws requiring that drugs undergo extensive testing before entering the marketplace. Monopolies are a system feature, designed to incentivize companies to invest in expensive and risky drug discovery by providing the prospect of a big payoff if the investment succeeds. Patents and market exclusivity restrict competition and provide drug developers considerable pricing power. The challenge for policymakers is how to achieve reasonable or fair drug prices in light of these market distortions.