bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Multidirectional Model for Assessing Learning Disabled Students' Intelligence: An Information-Processing Framework
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: April 2006

This article presents an information-processing approach to the assessment of learning disabled students' intellectual performance. The model is based on the assumption that intelligent behavior is comprised of a variety of problem-solving strategies. Its validity rests on experimental findings of Brown (1978), Neisser (1976, 1981), Newell and Simon (1972), and Sternberg (1977, 1978, 1979, 1981), to name a few. Each plane of assessment includes decisions about: (a) the relationship between hypothesis testing and overall performance; (b) the knowledge base which influences strategy development; (c) the ability to coordinate, direct, and organize search strategies; (d) the metacognitive parameters of learning and performance; and (e) the abstracting of problem-solving strategies. Sample “probing” questions are provided to direct assessment procedures. Within each plane, different components are assessed. The article presents an account of child problem solving and illustrates its underlying assumptions with a “thinking aloud” protocol. The model suggests that substrategy behavior may develop independently or within different planes. Finally, conclusions are drawn to direct intervention approaches.
LD and Non-LD students' Opportunities to Learn
Authors: Thurlow Martha , Graden Janet , Greener Jean , Ysseldyke James
Published: April 2006

Seventeen pairs of LD and non-LD students were observed for two school days. While the time allocated to various activities and tasks did not differ for the two groups, LD students received more individual instruction and more teacher approval than non-LD students. LD students also were engaged in five of seven active academic responses for longer periods of time than non-LD students, while non-LD students engaged longer in one academic response than LD students. However, the two groups' total academic responding times did not differ. Across students, only about 45 minutes of active academic responding occurred during a typical school day. Implications of the findings for instruction and special education decision making are discussed.
Current Status of Learning Disability Specialists
Authors: Poplin Mary S. , Larsen Stephen C.
Published: April 2006

The final regulations of PL 94–142 governing the evaluation of children suspected as having learning disabilities do not ensure the inclusion of an LD trained specialist on the evaluation team. Since the final regulations were published in December, 1977, this situation has been a major concern to DCLD. To formally pursue the ramifications of this ruling, the Legislative Committee of DCLD conducted a nationwide study of the status of the LD specialist and the implications of not explicity requiring the presence on the evaluation team of a professional formally trained in LD. The data presented in this editorial suggest that a formal revision of the BEH regulations is required to ensure that those professionals specifically trained to make evaluation decisions about learning disabilities be included on teams evaluating individuals suspected as having this handicapping condition.
Readability of Basal Readers and Workbooks: A Comparison
Authors: Moyer Sandra B.
Published: April 2006

The readability level of instructional materials for learning disabled students is commonly determined by practitioners. In this article, the author stresses the importance of assessing the readability of all instructional materials used with LD students and not merely of basal readers, as is often the case. Moyer's findings indicate that the readability level of workbooks, for example, is considerably higher than that of their companion readers; moreover, the difference between them increases significantly with grade level. The two readability variables, word length and sentence length, were found to contribute differentially to the readability estimates across levels.
LD Youth and Mathematics: A Review of Characteristics
Authors: Cawley John F. , Fitzmaurice Anne M. , Shaw Robert , Kahn Harris , Bates Herman
Published: April 2006

This represents the second in a series of three articles by John F. Cawley and his associates on mathematics and learning disabled students. Based on information gleaned from the literature as well as an extensive data pool collected by the authors, the present article includes an interpretative review of the characteristics of learning disabled youth as they relate to mathematics. The authors delineate the many facets of failure with which the learning disabled youngster is faced. A set of discriminators are specified for identification of certain subgroups of learning disabilities. Finally, the data presented are shown to provide insight into assessment procedures for youth with disabilities in mathematics. The final article in this series on mathematics will appear in the Spring issue of the Quarterly. The focus will be on problem solving and the application of mathematical skills and concepts to “real-life” situations.
LD and Normal Adolescents' Causal Attributions of Success and Failure at Different Levels of Task Difficulty
Authors: Aponik David Allen , Dembo Myron H.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate learning disabled and normal adolescents' causal attributions of success and failure performances on various levels of task difficulty (easy, moderate, difficult). The results indicated that the students' perceptions of the task difficulty levels was a significant determinant of the two groups' differing causal attributions; locus of control was inadequate for explaining the differences in attribution ascribed by the two groups. In many respects, the learning disabled students' causal ascriptions for performance outcomes were similar to those of students classified as failure oriented.
The Effects of Illustrations on the Reading Performance of Learning Disabled and Normal Children
Authors: Harber Jean R.
Published: April 2006

This study examined the effect of three illustration conditions — no illustrations, complete illustrations, and partial illustrations — on the reading performance of learning disabled and normally achieving children. With the effects of chronological age and intelligence test score controlled, illustrations were found to exert a detrimental effect on the learning disabled subjects' performance but a beneficial effect on the performance of normally achieving subjects. Findings are discussed as they relate to the selection and/or adaptation of instructional materials for learning disabled students.
Strategy Transformation in Learning Disabled and Nondisabled Students
Authors: Swanson H. Lee , Cooney John B.
Published: April 2006

In the present study we assessed whether learning disabled and non-disabled children differ in their ability to make strategy transformations. Seven types of strategy transformations were presented on simple arithmetic computation tasks. Nondisabled children were found to be superior in performance on all transformations. Significant ability-group differences emerged on (a) reduction to answer, (b) saving partial results, (c) unit building, and (d) alternative method transformations. Results of strategy-awareness measures suggested that the locus of experimental effects was related to accessing and applying strategy transformations. Three implications of the findings are discussed.
Perspectives on the Education and Training of Learning Disabled Adults
Authors: White Warren J.
Published: April 2006

Adults with learning disabilities often face significant obstacles in their efforts toward leading satisfying lives. In spite of increasing attention toward the education and training of this population of handicapped individuals, little information is available about model training programs, characteristics of the population, and directions for future research and programming. The present article covers each of these major research needs. Among the primary conclusions and issues discussed are the present state of knowledge regarding vocational and social adjustment, postsecondary education options, effective program components, and suggestions for future research.
Performance Instability: An Identifying Characteristic of Learning Disabled Children?
Authors: Fuchs Douglas , Fuchs Lynn S. , Deno Stanley L.
Published: April 2006

The performance instability of learning disabled (LD) and emotionally handicapped (EH) children was compared in two studies. In the first study, 50 LD and 37 EH children were measured on three third-grade reading passages in two ways: (a) they were administered a different reading passage once a week for three consecutive weeks; and (b) they were measured on all three passages in one sitting. In the second study, a subsample of 43 students (24 LD, 19 EH) were measured on instructional level reading passages 28 to 47 times within 18 school weeks. Analyses of covariance were run on a stability index calculated on numbers of (a) words read correctly during each administration of the third-grade reading passages and (b) correct words and errors for the instructional level reading passages. Results indicated no difference between the performance instability of the two groups of subjects. Implications for the diagnosis and treatment of LD and other exceptional students are discussed.
Psychometric Factors Affecting Multidisciplinary Team Identification of Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Furlong Michael J. , Yanagida Evelyn H.
Published: April 2006

Data were examined for 223 pupils in two school districts referred for an initial psychoeducational evaluation because of a suspected learning disability. A multidisciplinary team judged each pupil to be either learning disabled (LD) or non-learning disabled (non-LD). The psychometric profiles of the LD and non-LD pupils were examined through MANOVA and discriminant-analysis procedures. Comparisons across LD status, district, and age variables indicated that only severity of academic underachievement consistently differentiated the LD and non-LD pupils. In addition, in one district the younger LD children were indistinguishable from the younger non-LD children. Comparisons across districts revealed that the LD children's profiles differed despite the use of identical eligibility criteria in both districts. Implications for evaluation of referred students are discussed.
Affective Influences on Learning Disabled Adolescents
Authors: Hiebert Bryan , Wong Bernice , Hunter Margaret
Published: April 2006

This study investigated: (a) differences between learning disabled and normally achieving adolescents regarding academic self-concept and academic expectations; (b) teacher perception of and academic expectation for learning disabled and normally achieving adolescents; (c) parent academic expectations for learning disabled and normally achieving adolescents; and (d) parental stress. Results indicated that learning disabled adolescents had substantially lower academic self-concepts and academic expectations than normally achieving adolescents. Similarly, teachers had negative perceptions of and low academic expectations for learning disabled adolescents. Finally, parents of learning disabled adolescents had lower academic expectations for their children than did parents of normally achieving adolescents for theirs. Reported stress levels, however, did not differentiate between parents of learning disabled and normally achieving adolescents. The research and the practical implications of the results are discussed.
A Comparative Study of Social-Perceptual Ability in Learning Disabled and Nonhandicapped Students
Authors: Gerber Paul J. , Zinkgraf Stephen A.
Published: April 2006

As many learning disabled (LD) students spend a greater part of their school day in regular classrooms, the importance of social/interpersonal abilities becomes of increased concern to both special and regular educators. Despite efforts to provide for administrative and programmatic considerations in the least restrictive environment, emphasis is still focused on academics for the learning disabled student. To date, few formal attempts have been made to address socioadaptive behavior that is crucial to any “mainstreaming” effort. Feasibly, for the learning disabled student, the least restrictive environment may be the least restrictive academically, while presently being the most restrictive socially.
Application of a Group Training Program in Social Skills and Problem Solving to Learning Disabled and Non-Learning Disabled Youth
Authors: Hazel J. Stephen , Schumaker Jean Bragg , Sherman James A. , Sheldon Jan
Published: April 2006

The efficacy of training learning disabled adolescents in social and problem-solving skills was evaluated by conducting a group skill-training program with three sets of youths: learning disabled adolescents attending an alternative high school, non-learning disabled youths attending the same school, and court-adjudicated youths on probation with a juvenile court. The six skills taught as part of the program included: giving positive feedback, giving negative feedback, accepting negative feedback, resisting peer pressure, negotiation, and problem solving in social situations. Training procedures consisted of skill explanation, rationales, modeling, and behavioral rehearsal with feedback.

Skills were trained in a multiple-baseline design across skills. Youth performance of the skills was assessed through behavioral role-play testing using novel, nonpracticed situations. All three groups of subjects showed increased skill levels following training. On the cognitive problem-solving skill, learning disabled adolescents demonstrated only a slight gain when compared to non-learning disabled and court-adjudicated youths.
The Effects of Cooperative Goal Structures and Cooperative Models on LD and Nld Students
Authors: Bryan Tanis , Cosden Merith , Pearl Ruth
Published: April 2006

This study assessed the impact of individual goal structures, cooperative goal structures, and cooperative goal structures combined with exposure to cooperative models on the achievement, interpersonal behavior, and attitudes of LD and NLD students. The results lend some support to the hypothesis that cooperative goal structures, especially following training in cooperative behavior, may help facilitate both the achievement and interpersonal relations of LD and NLD students.
An Intervention Framework for Learning Disabled Students with Communication Disorders
Authors: Spekman Nancy J. , Roth Froma P.
Published: April 2006

This paper presents an intervention framework for the management of communication disorders in learning disabled children. The model is comprised of three major components: communicative intentions, presupposition, and the social organization of discourse. A description of each component is provided along with a review of relevant research. Finally, a set of general instructional guidelines and principles is presented.
Social Interactions of Learning Disabled Children: A Linguistic, Social and Cognitive Analysis
Authors: Bryan Tanis , Pftaum Susanna
Published: April 2006

In analyzing the linguistic, social, and cognitive attributes of the social interactions of learning disabled children, Bryan and Pflaum have raised some questions about the practice of classifying learning disabled on intelligence and academic factors alone. This study examines the language competency of learning disabled children as it relates to social situations demanding interpersonal communication skills. The importance of studying the content and style of the learning disabled child's communication across social situations is stressed.
Maternal Behavior and Family Constellation as Predictors of Social Competence in Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Freund Judith Horen , Elardo Richard
Published: April 2006

The extent to which the social relationship deficits exhibited by some learning disabled children might be associated with parental behavior is largely undetermined. This study is an attempt to analyze a variety of factors related to maternal behavior and family constellations in a learning disabled population. While the study suffers from a small number of subjects, the results provide preliminary data in a research area largely neglected in learning disabilities.
Validity of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery for Learning Disabled Youngsters
Authors: Ysseldyke James E. , Algozzine Bob , Shinn Mark
Published: April 2006

Decision makers in the field of learning disabilities routinely administer a variety of tests; the technical characteristics of such assessment devices are important relative to decision making. The validity of the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery was evaluated with a sample of learning disabled youngsters. In general, the Battery has some convergent validity but little discriminant validity relative to various cluster scores or specific uses. Results are discussed with regard to implications for the field of learning disabilities.
Instructional Environments in Secondary Vocational Education Programs: Implications for LD Adolescents
Authors: Okolo Cynthia M.
Published: April 2006

As increasing numbers of students with learning disabilities and other mild handicaps enroll in secondary vocational education, it becomes imperative for LD teachers to be knowledgeable about the characteristics of these programs and the instructional and behavioral demands students will be expected to meet. In this study, 30 secondary vocational educators were observed for a total of 116 observational sessions to gather data on the instructional environment of vocational education programs. Observational data were collected on curricular content, curricular format, student behavior, teacher behavior, and teacher focus. Differences between the data obtained on exploratory and preparatory programs were analyzed. Results indicate that the two types of programs pose somewhat different sets of demands, and that LD adolescents may require continuing support from the secondary special educator if they are to experience success in these programs.
Vocational and Social Adjustment of Learning Disabled Young Adults: A Followup Study
Authors: Fafard Mary-Beth , Haubrich Paul A.
Published: April 2006

Twenty-one young adults who had received educational services for learning disabilities as young children were interviewed in regard to their adjustment as adults. An interview technique was used to obtain: (a) demographic information, (b) school adjustment information, (c) vocational adjustment information, and (d) social adjustment information. Analysis of the results indicated that the majority of subjects 1) had required additional supportive educational service throughout their schooling; 2) needed vocational assistance; and 3) were often dependent on family support for social activities. The findings are discussed in terms of future investigation with learning disabled adolescents.
Modification of Comprehension Deficits in Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Swanson Lee
Published: April 2006

Three experiments investigated the effects of self-recording, tokens and contingent free time on learning disabled children's reading-comprehension performance. The introduction of self-recording and token reinforcement in Experiment I decreased the percentage of oral reading errors at the child's instructional level, with no concurrent effect on comprehension scores. Results of Experiment II (a combined multiple baseline and changing criterion analysis) suggested that contingent free time and self-recording increased silent independent reading rate but produced only mild increases on comprehension scores. Experiment III found utilization of contingent free time and self-recording to result in substantial comprehension changes. Results of these three experiments support recent findings that only minimal changes occur on comprehension performance when left as an untargeted dependent behavior.
Factors Related to Poor Performance on Memory Tasks in Reading Disabled Children
Authors: Torgesen Joseph K.
Published: April 2006

This research tested the hypothesis that many reading disabled children's failure to apply effective strategies to rote-memory tasks is related to their general lack of reflective knowledge about memory and memory processes, as well as their generally disorganized approach to cognitive tasks. Children identified as good readers, and poor readers with memory difficulties, were asked a variety of questions about memory and memory strategies. Significant differences were found between groups in knowledge of such strategies as rehearsal, ability to generate a variety of different solutions to memory problems, and in the planfulness with which children in the two groups approached real-world memory tasks. The results support the view that many children may fail to learn to read well because they do not manage their intact capabilities efficiently.
Students' Metacognitive Knowledge about How to Write Informational Texts
Authors: Englert Carol Sue , Raphael Taffy E. , Fear Kathleen L. , Anderson Linda M.
Published: April 2006

This study examined LD students' metacognitive knowledge about expository writing and the relationship between this knowledge and writing performance. Thirty students, equally divided among three ability groups (learning disabled, low-achieving, and high-achieving), were interviewed about their metacognitive knowledge about the expository writing process and the role of text organization; subjects also composed two types of expository text (compare / contrast and explanation). When performance levels among the three ability groups were compared, the results suggested that learning disabled students were less aware than high-achieving students of modeled writing strategies, steps in the writing process, strategies for presenting expository ideas, and procedures for selecting and integrating information from multiple sources. Discrepancies between learning disabled and low-achieving writers also emerged in the metacognitive interview in terms of ability to (a) control and regulate the writing process, (b) use organizational strategies or text structures to generate or group ideas, and (c) monitor the quality of texts. When performance on the composition and metacognitive measures was related, the results revealed that the strongest relationship existed between writing performance and the following metacognitive variables: students' awareness of modeled writing strategies, students' knowledge of processes related to monitoring the completeness of text, and students' categorizing abilities. These findings suggest that writing instruction should focus on both the development of students' metacognitive knowledge of the expository writing process and the organizational strategies for generating, organizing, and monitoring expository prose.
A Strategic Intervention for Enabling Students with Learning Disabilities to Identify and Change their Ineffective Beliefs
Authors: Duchardt Barbara Anne , Deshler Donald D. , Schumaker Jean B.
Published: April 2006

This study evaluated the effects of a strategy intervention designed to teach students with learning disabilities (LD) how to understand, identify, discuss, and transform ineffective beliefs. Multiple-probe and control-group designs were employed simultaneously and in combination. The 23 students with learning disabilities who participated in the study were randomly divided into two groups, experimental and control. The BELIEF Strategy, a strategy based on the professional literature, expert advice, and practice, was taught to the experimental group. The multiple-probe design was utilized to demonstrate students' mastery of the BELIEF Strategy. The results indicate that students with LD can be taught to apply the BELIEF Strategy. The control-group design was used to compare the performance of students who learned the BELIEF Strategy to that of students who did not learn the strategy. All analyses indicated that students who learned the strategy performed the strategy steps significantly better and had more knowledge of the strategy than students who did not participate in the instruction. Students reported satisfaction with certain aspects of the training but not with others. The results support the conclusion that students with LD can be taught skills associated with examining present beliefs and specifying new beliefs.
Why Students Learn: The Nature of Teacher Talk during Reading
Authors: Mariage Troy V.
Published: April 2006

This article reports on a study of high- and low-gaining teachers' use of dialogue based on a multicomponent framework of comprehension strategies known as POSSE. Although designed to emphasize reciprocal dialogues between teacher and students, low-gaining teachers appeared to maintain control of much of the discourse. More importantly, consistent patterns of response were found within the high- and low-gaining teachers. High-gaining teachers spent considerably more time scaffolding student responses, modeling reading strategies, encouraging risk-taking, and transferring control of the reading process to students. Low-gaining teachers spent most of their time evaluating students' responses.
Treating Social Skill Deficits in Children with Learning Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis of the Research
Authors: Forness Steven R. , Kavale Kenneth A.
Published: April 2006

Although social skills training or intervention for children with learning disabilities has been widely used in the past 15 years, little systematic synthesis of its effectiveness is available. The current study is a meta-analysis of 53 studies on social skills training completed during this period. The mean effect size (ES) obtained was only .211, with very few differences among teachers, peers, or children themselves who judged effectiveness of training. This relatively modest effect is discussed in relation to other special interventions for children with school learning or behavioral disorders and possible links between learning disabilities and social skills that might account for poor treatment outcome.
Positive Bias in Maintenance of Self-Worth among Children with LD
Authors: Bear George G. , Minke Kathleen M.
Published: April 2006

Despite their significant academic deficits, children with learning disabilities (LD) often maintain favorable feelings of general self-worth. This study examined whether a positive bias in the evaluation of academic work is associated with such feelings. The Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPP-C; Harter, 1985b) was administered to a sample of 84 third graders (42 with LD, 42 normally achieving). During individual interviews a subset of these children explained why they felt they were doing well or poorly. Responses to the interview and to the individual items of the SPP-C showed that most children with LD and normally achieving (NA) children perceived themselves as doing well academically, based largely on feedback on their performance in the classroom. Results support Renick and Harter's (1988) argument that children with LD recognize their specific skill deficits (e.g., forgetfulness and trouble figuring out problems), but do not perceive themselves as being any less smart than their NA peers. Overall, findings indicate the importance of perceived teacher feedback in maintaining positive feelings of self-worth among children with LD.
Self-Organization and Learning Disabilities: A Theoretical Perspective for the Interpretation and Understanding of Dysfunction
Authors: Zera David Aloyzy , Lucian David G.
Published: April 2006

Central nervous system dysfunction is common to most definitions of learning disabilities (i.e., the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, P.L. 101–476 (IDEA), the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD), the Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities (ICLD), although not always explicitly stated. Yet, many practitioners and diagnosticians of learning disabilities (LD) do not have a sufficiently comprehensive understanding of the neurological system to be able to interpret disabling conditions from this view. “Specific” learning disability may be an erroneous concept when one considers the underlying dynamic and recursive interactions within the neurological system. A self-organizing systems (SOS) perspective offers a comprehensive framework for understanding and interpreting the complexity of LD and suggests that classification schema tend to undermine the complex nature of the learning disorder. In this article, self-organizing systems principles are explained, and research is reviewed concerning reading and math disabilities and the roles of language, attention, working memory and executive functioning as they relate to LD. Assessment practices are also considered in light of conceptualizing learning disabilities from a self-organizing systems framework.
Using Teacher-Guided Practice to Help Students with Learning Disabilities Acquire and Retain Social Studies Content
Authors: Hudson Pamela
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the application of effective teaching techniques and instructional sequence, previously found effective in skill instruction (e.g., Rosenshine, 1986a), to social studies lectures. Only the presentation of new material (lecture) and guided practice of the effective teaching instructional sequence was the focus. Techniques used in this phase of the instructional sequence included breaking the lecture into smaller units of information and following each unit of information with student practice and teacher feedback. The results suggest that when effective teaching techniques are used during the presentation (lecture) and guided-practice phase of instruction, students with learning disabilities perform significantly better on unit and maintenance class measures. These findings build on a study conducted by Hudson (1996), in which effective teaching techniques (i.e., student practice and teacher feedback) were successfully used at the prelesson phase of instruction.
Case Study in Reading Disability: An Emergent Literacy Perspective
Authors: Klenk Laura
Published: April 2006

This case study chronicles the development of reading and writing in an eight-year-old student identified as learning disabled. The study is rooted in the forms of multiple theoretical perspectives of literacy, including cognitive science, sociohistorical, and developmental (emergent literacy). The central focus is on the changes in the forms of reading and writing the student employed over the course of one school year, and on changes in her understanding of herself as a reader and writer. Additional information is noted regarding growth in phonemic awareness, acquisition of sight words and conventional spellings, and comprehension and interpretation of stories. The secondary focus of the study is on the search for appropriate assistance to be offered while engaging the child in personally meaningful reading and writing tasks.
Social-Affective Characteristics in Early Adolescents Identified as Learning Disabled and Nondisabled
Authors: Sabornie Edward J.
Published: April 2006

This study examined social-affective characteristics, including loneliness, self-concept, integration, victimization, participation, and teacher-rated social competence across groups identified as either learning disabled or nondisabled. Subjects were students in middle schools, and the pupils with learning disabilities were enrolled in resource room special education programs. Results indicated that the two comparison groups differed significantly on every measure except self-concept. Variable intercorrelations were also different across groups. Moreover, certain linear combinations of scores on the dependent measures accurately classified students into each of the comparison groups. The results are discussed in terms of the need for comprehensive assessment and treatment of students who present social-affective problems in school.
Constructing Educational Possibilities: A Sociolinguistic Examination of Meaning-Making in “Sharing Chair”
Authors: Mariage Troy V.
Published: April 2006

This study investigated how one exemplary teacher and her 10 students with learning disabilities and two students with the dual label of learning disabilities-emotional impairment socially constructed and reconstructed the literacy event of Sharing Chair. Following a free writing period in their personal journal, students were afforded opportunities to share their writing with a student audience and receive feedback in the form of comments and questions from a peer/teacher audience. Sharing Chair was selected because it is believed to foster the development of conversation as a discourse form, serve as a bridge between students' experiences beyond school and the cultural conventions of the literacy community, and afford a number of literate behaviors not typically found in special education classrooms. In Sharing Chair the roles of author and audience member, with their unique rights, duties, and responsibilities, allow participants to be differentially positioned in the discourse. These various discursive positionings, in turn, require students to engage in different literate behaviors. Conversational strategies such as telling stories, actively listening, questioning, and building intertextual links with others were allowed and privileged in this discourse space. This study contributes to emerging research suggesting that becoming literate is one's developing facility with a number of school-based discourses.
Mathematics Reform and Learning Differences
Authors: Grobecker Betsey
Published: April 2006

Reform in mathematics as advocated by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has been met with much criticism by special educators. Specifically, researchers are arguing that NCTM reports have neglected the needs of students with learning differences (LD) by failing to attend to the remedial techniques that have demonstrated effectiveness with this population. However, rather than to dismiss the recommendations made, some of the teaching methodologies have been incorporated in traditional, explicitly based instructional programs. This practice is unfortunate because constructivist theory related to the development of logical-mathematical structures of thought holds a completely different philosophical premise than the information-processing perspective. This article will examine constructivist beliefs regarding the evolution of logical-mathematical thought structures so that its potential in meeting the needs of children with LD can be more honestly evaluated.
Middle School Students' Mathematical Problem Solving: An Analysis of Think-Aloud Protocols
Authors: Montague Marjorie , Applegate Brooks
Published: April 2006

Using a cognitive-metacognitive theoretical framework, this study examined the verbalizations of middle school students as they thought aloud while solving three mathematical word problems. Middle school subjects who had been identified as learning disabled, average achieving, and gifted were given demonstrations and practice in thinking aloud and were then instructed to solve one-step, two-step, and three-step word problems while thinking aloud. A priori categories were developed based on information-processing theory and a cognitive-metacognitive perspective of mathematical problem solving. Verbalizations were coded, and between-group and grade comparisons of the number of verbalizations within categories were conducted. The relationship between type of verbalization and overall performance was also analyzed. The findings support Ericcson and Simon's (1980) view of concurrent verbalization as a technique for assessing cognitive processes and Swanson's (1988) notion that students with learning disabilities may use a qualitatively different approach to problem solving than their nondisabled peers.
What is “Quality” in the use of Technology for Children with Learning Disabilities?
Authors: Larsen Steen
Published: April 2006

Important issues related to quality in the use of technology with children with learning disabilities are discussed. The need for basic pedagogical considerations is stressed, and the impact of the computer on the learning process is introduced relative to the factors of learner control, motivation, feedback types, graphics, and screen design. The use of computer-assisted programs with speech feedback is analyzed relative to children with reading disabilities. Finally, a scheme containing the main considerations related to what constitutes “quality” is presented.
The Dialectic Nature of Technology and Holism: Use of Technology to Liberate Individuals with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Poplin Mary S.
Published: April 2006

Technology, one of the gifts of reductionistic thinking, can be used holistically to liberate students with learning disabilities from many of their struggles with text while they are learning to read and write or to circumvent these struggles entirely throughout their lives if necessary. Technological occupations also offer possibilities for people with learning disabilities. It may well be that using technology in assistive, compensatory, and occupational manners will also produce better readers and writers. Certainly, it can greatly alleviate the problems of not acquiring information about the world while struggling with text.
Calculating Achievement Composite Scores for Regression Discrepancy Models
Authors: Evans Larry D.
Published: April 2006

Regression discrepancy-model equations fail to account for the common practice of obtaining more than one achievement score for a discrepancy area (e.g., reading comprehension). This article presents the equations required to calculate composite achievement scores based upon two achievement scores. Equations to calculate the composite's reliability and correlation with IQ are also given. Calculating composite scores offers a method to combine achievement scores from the same discrepancy area to produce a single standard score that is often more comprehensive and reliable than either individual score, and more suitable for regression equations. Composite scores may not always be necessary in discrepancy assessment, but can help overcome problems with interpretation of regression results.
A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of the Bridge Reading Program for Children at Risk for Reading Failure
Authors: Biemiller Andrew , Siegel Linda S.
Published: April 2006

The effectiveness of an experimental reading program, Bridge, was compared to “Whole Language” reading instruction in two schools in economically disadvantaged areas. The Bridge program uses icons or picture symbols to facilitate print word identification. Children who were predicted to be at risk for reading difficulties comprised the Bridge ( N = 42) and Whole Language ( N = 64) samples. Predictions of at-risk reading status were made using a test of phonemic analysis skills (the Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test), Denkla and Rudel's Rapid Letter Naming Test, and a test of syntactic awareness. The Bridge group performed significantly better on the WRAT Reading test than the Whole Language group at the end of grade 1 and grade 2. The Bridge program appears to be useful for children who are at risk for reading failure.
The Effectiveness of One-to-One Tutoring by Community Tutors for at-Risk Beginning Readers
Authors: Vadasy Patricia F. , Jenkins Joseph R. , Antil Lawrence R. , Wayne Susan K. , O'Connor Rollanda E.
Published: April 2006

One-to-one instruction, while highly desirable for children with the lowest reading skills, is not often available. It could be provided by nonprofessional tutors in the community, however. One aim of this study was to determine whether a one-to-one phonologically based tutoring program that incorporates many features of successful early reading programs and that is delivered by nonprofessional tutors is effective with first-grade students at risk for reading failure. Forty at-risk first graders who did not differ on reading skill prior to the intervention were randomly assigned to one of two groups. The treatment group received 30 minutes of individual instruction from community tutors four days a week for up to 23 weeks. The control group received only the regular reading instruction in their classrooms. The treatment group outperformed the control group on all reading, decoding, spelling and segmenting, and writing measures, with effect sizes averaging .21, .35, .37, and .19, respectively. Differences were significant on only one nonword reading and one spelling measure; however, a second aim was to determine the effects of the tutors' ability to implement the lessons scripted for them. Tutors who implemented the program with a high degree of fidelity achieved significant effect sizes in each early reading skill area assessed. Results support the potential of nonprofessional tutors to supplement early reading instruction, and prevent learning disabilities in at-risk children.
Programmatic Intervention Research: Illustrations from the Evolution of Self-Regulated Strategy Development
Authors: Harris Karen R. , Graham Steve
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this invited article is to provide an example of the evolution of programmatic research in learning disabilities. We first note the four strands of writing research in which we have been involved since the early 1980s, and then address the theoretical and pedagogical groundings of our research in Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD). Over 20 studies involving SRSD have been conducted to date. One of these studies is briefly described, followed by a closer examination of how this study and other previous research led to two subsequent studies. We conclude with an overview of the many research questions and directions that remain in the area of writing, strategies instruction, and the development of self-regulation.
Stress, Depression, and Suicide among Students with Learning Disabilities: Assessing the Risk
Authors: Bender William N. , Rosenkrans Cecilia B. , Crane Mary-Kay
Published: April 2006

In view of the increasing rates of youth suicide, this article reviews the extant research on stress, depression, and suicide among adolescents with learning disabilities (LD) from the risk resilience perspective. These adolescents may be at increased risk of suicide for two reasons: (a) they suffer from increased rates of depression, or (b) the other correlates of learning disabilities (e.g., impulsivity, deficits in social skills, etc.) may predispose them to higher rates of suicide. The data indicate that certain subgroups of adolescents with learning disabilities (i.e., those with nonverbal learning disabilities and/or those who are less academically adept) manifest higher rates of depression. Also, some evidence exists to support an increased risk of suicide among this population. Methodological problems in suicide research are discussed in light of the need for research on suicide and learning disabilities.
Strategy Choice in Solving Arithmetic Word Problems: Are there Differences between Students with Learning Disabilities, G-V Poor Performance and Typical Achievement Students?
Authors: González Juan E. Jiménez , Espinel Ana Isabel García
Published: April 2006

This study was designed to test whether there are differences between children with arithmetic learning disabilities, garden-variety (G-V) poor performance and typically achieving children in strategy choice when solving arithmetic word problems. Using the standard-score discrepancy method (differences between IQ and achievement standard scores), samples were selected of dyscalculic, G-V poor mathematics performance, and typically achieving students. The groups were compared to analyze whether there were differences in their strategy choice when solving arithmetic word problems. No significant differences were found between dyscalculic and G-V children, both groups relying more on backup strategies than the nonimpaired group. Thus, the IQ-achievement discrepancy does not seem to be a relevant criterion for differentiating between individuals with dyscalculia and those with garden-variety poor mathematics performance.
Off-Line Metacognition — A Domain-Specific Retardation in Young Children with Learning Disabilities?
Authors: Desoete Annemie , Roeyers Herbert
Published: April 2006

Off-line metacognition (prediction and evaluation) was assessed in 437 normally intelligent children with or without learning disabilities in grades 2 and 3. Children with specific mathematics learning disabilities were compared with peers with specific reading disabilities, children with combined learning disabilities, age-matched peers and younger children matched at mathematical problem-solving level. Our results indicate that offline metacognition cannot be reduced to a demonstration of intelligence. Moreover, the off-line metacognitive scores of children with reading disabilities were comparable to those of age-matched peers without learning disabilities. Furthermore, significantly lower prediction and evaluation scores were found for children with specific or combined mathematics learning disabilities compared with age-matched peers. In addition, our data showed a different metacognitive profile for children with specific or combined mathematics learning disabilities, not comparable on all aspects to the profile of younger children, as suggested by the retardation or maturational-lag hypothesis. The educational implications of these results are discussed.
Teaching for Understanding with Students with Disabilities: New Directions for Research on Access to the General Education Curriculum
Authors: Morocco Catherine Cobb
Published: April 2006

Research on students with disabilities has only recently begun to investigate the challenges that teachers face when they include these students in standards-based curricula and instruction focused on goals of understanding in complex domains. This article presents the mission and conceptual framework of the REACH Institute, which is engaged in a five-year program of research on teaching for understanding with students with disabilities. The institute is investigating the premise that students with disabilities will improve their understanding when they engage in instruction that reflects a rigorous application of four research-based principles of teaching for understanding: instruction designed around authentic tasks, opportunities to develop cognitive strategies, learning that is socially mediated, and engagement in constructive conversations. In addition to discussing these principles, this overview describes several common features of the institute research strands in social studies, language arts, science, and mathematics, together with emerging themes in the research findings. This overview frames the four articles that follow, each of which describes research on teaching for understanding in a major content area.
Enhancing Student Achievement on Performance Assessments in Mathematics
Authors: Woodward John , Monroe Kara , Baxter Juliet
Published: April 2006

This article is part of a program of iterative research involving students with learning disabilities in reform mathematics classrooms at the intermediate grade levels. The study reports the findings from a larger, yearlong case study focusing on ways to improve problem solving through classwide performance assessment tasks and ad hoc tutoring for students with learning disabilities. The purpose of these interventions was to enhance a student's deeper understanding of mathematics and to develop the kind of strategic knowledge needed to solve complex problems. A quantitative analysis of the results indicate that these two interventions led to demonstrable differences over time and when compared to a limited number of students with learning disabilities who did not receive this kind of instruction. Qualitative analyses of student performance show two distinct trends in the improvement of the students in the intervention group. Findings from this study have implications for special educators interested in mathematical problem-solving instruction, as well as policymakers who are interested in performance assessment.