bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An English Tradition?
Authors: Duke-Evans Jonathan
Published: December 2022

For hundreds of years English people have claimed that fair play is at the core of their national identity. In this book Jonathan Duke-Evans explores the origins of the idea of fair play, tracing it back to the classical world and the Dark Ages, and finding its genesis deep within England’s social structure. Charting its early development through both the tales of chivalry and the stories of popular legend, the book shows how fair play manifested itself in literature, the law, the Christian religion, and the family. It examines the way in which fair play was conceived during the ages of slavery and empire, and it proposes a new account of the birth of modern sport in the encounter between age-old popular games and the Victorian cult of amateurism. Taking in the Scottish, Irish, and Welsh manifestations of fair play, the book offers contrasts and comparisons from cultures all around the world, and suggests new perspectives on the relevance of fair play in the 21st century.
What do we mean when we talk about fair play?
Authors: Duke-Evans Jonathan
Published: December 2022

While “fair play” has other meanings, this book concentrates on its historically central meaning of acting equitably. A number of strands can be distinguished within this concept: these include fair play as courtesy to opponents, as everyone’s right to a chance of success, as sympathy for the underdog, and as refusal to sneak. But the oldest sense of fair play is the refusal to cheat, and this can be seen as the core sense of the phrase. The idea of equality links fair play as not cheating, fair play as courtesy, fair play as giving people a chance, and fair play as sympathy for the underdog, and may indeed be an element in fair play as not sneaking. The rules of organised games may seek to safeguard fair play in three broad ways: by preventing mismatches between players or teams of vastly different abilities (with its recent variant, financial fair play); by reducing the risk of injury; and by penalising attempts to prevent opponents from playing the game as it is meant to be played. Fair play readily lends itself to rhetoric in the interests of ulterior motives. It has frequently been used by liberals to deprecate action against the relatively powerless and by conservatives to insist that inequality is justified as long as all have the same initial opportunities. This raises the question to what extent the idea of fair play as a particularly English or British trait is an ideological construct rather than a description of reality.
Fair play—the history of a phrase
Authors: Duke-Evans Jonathan
Published: December 2022

The term “fair play” emerges in the late 14th century, and already has its modern meaning in the Scottish poet Robert Henryson a century later. By the 1590s “fair play” was well established in the language, with Shakespeare himself a prominent early adopter. For the next couple of centuries “fair play” had a secondary meaning of “free action”, and in some contexts it is not easy to say which was the primary meaning intended. We first find the idea that “fair play” is a particularly English, or British, trait in Daniel Defoe’s writings. This association with being British often goes hand in hand with the idea that the common people in particular live by a code of fair play (in which enjoyment of the spectacle of others fighting was usually an important component). We also first find in the early 18th century the association between fair play and schoolboy culture. After 1800 the analysis is based on the occurrence of “fair play” in periodical literature. The idea that fair play is an English or British trait rose sharply in the second half of the 19th century, but we also find the idea used in new ways: for example, that it requires justice in the way society treats women, the poor, or ethnic minorities. The note of scepticism or even ridicule also becomes more insistent: many writers asserted that a particular situation belied the English or British reputation for fair play, but an increasing number questioned whether that reputation had ever been justified.
Classical perspectives
Authors: Duke-Evans Jonathan
Published: December 2022

The Homeric epics show us a society in which trickery had an important place among the martial virtues celebrated by the poet. The figure of Odysseus, the epitome of metis or cunning, stands at the head of European literature. But it would be a mistake to conclude that the idea of fairness was foreign to Greek culture. The development of organised sport, pioneered by the Greeks, would be inconceivable without rules of fair play, and we find comparable ideas in Greek tragedy and rhetoric in the classical period. The greatest Greek philosophers put fairness at the heart of their analyses of the concept of justice. There was never, however, a cult of fair play in ancient Greece comparable to that which we find in Rome in the 1st century bce, when Virgil and Livy in particular placed the rejection of trickery near the centre of the constellation of virtues that distinguished the Romans from the Carthaginians and the Greeks. There was little or no basis for such smugness in real life, yet the ideal was to prove an enduring one.
Fair play in pre-industrial Britain
Authors: Duke-Evans Jonathan
Published: December 2022

To recognise obligations of fair play to someone one must accept them as in some sense being of equal status. In England from the later Middle Ages virtually all were entitled to call themselves free; distinctions between nobles and commoners were less important than elsewhere; cooperative institutions flourished in town and countryside. Such habits and institutions allowed the idea of fair play to take root. By the early modern period virtually all English people were entitled to the protection of the common law, and six principles which enshrine procedural fair play had emerged: jury trial, open justice, the presumption of innocence, the right to silence, habeas corpus, and the principle that an Englishman’s home is his castle. It was in the 18th century that a kind of fair play began to permeate the political system. The intellectual roots of fair play in politics go back to the ancient ideas of government by consent and of the mixed constitution, which asserted themselves more effectively when religious conflict subsided in the late 17th century. The Church of England only emerged as a force for (comparative) moderation, and hence fairness, with the rise of the Latitudinarians after 1660. Neither the social system, nor the common law, nor the political system, nor the Church can fully explain the existence of the fair play tradition in England; all were heavily influenced by it, however, and the social structure and common law in particular helped to shape the way in which the tradition was to develop.
Conclusion
Authors: Duke-Evans Jonathan
Published: December 2022

In this book the history of fair play, both as a phrase and as a set of assumptions about the way people are entitled to be treated, has been traced over many centuries. Here the book’s main themes and conclusions are set out: the precursors in ancient Greece and Rome, the traditions of epic heroism and medieval chivalry, the flourishing of a popular strand of fair play, the unexpectedly central role of Scotland, the development of the great team games, the widening scope of the obligations of fair play, and the 20th-century decline. The idea that fair play is indeed a British quality does rest on a strong basis, and, while its origins go back deep into the Middle Ages, the reasons why it developed as it did are strongly linked with the—in relative terms—low barriers of status in early modern Britain. The phrase may have come to seem a little passé in recent decades, largely because of the way in which it was appropriated in the 19th and early 20th centuries by elites whose ways of thinking have had their day; but the underlying idea still matters enormously and retains its hold as the world faces new threats in the 21st century.
Lightweight Platonism
Authors: van Inwagen Peter
Published: December 2022

The “Lightweight Platonism” presented in this chapter is an ontology (including a meta-ontology) that is consistent with the theses defended in the earlier chapters. The meta-ontology explicitly rejects the position that finding the theories that best explain certain phenomena (e.g., that this apple and that book, although they are not identical, are identical in color) is a permissible method for ontology. Rather, the proper method for ontology is to see what existential propositions our discourse commits us to (using the methods endorsed by Quine), and to form theories about the nature of the objects in virtue of whose existence those propositions are true. I contend our discourse commits us to the existence of substances and relations and nothing else. “Relations” (understood to include propositions and attributes) are things that can be said or things that can be said of things. Binary relations, for example, are things that can be said of two things.
Aristotle for Women Who Love Too Much
Authors: Hursthouse Rosalind
Published: December 2022

There is scholarly debate over the issue of whether there is goodwill in the friendships Aristotle calls friendships of utility and pleasure as well as in friendships based on virtue. This article argues that there is goodwill in utility and pleasure friendships on the basis of scholarly considerations, but provides further motivation for the view by considering the worldly wisdom in recognizing goodwill in pleasure friendships based on erotic passion. In these relationships, goodwill based on pleasure is often mistaken for the deeper relationship of loving someone ‘for him/her self’, which is only to be found in virtue-friendships. Thus we should be careful not to infer from someone having goodwill towards us—even goodwill for our own sake—that they love us for our character and who we are as people.
Are the Virtues the Proper Starting Point for Morality?
Authors: Hursthouse Rosalind
Published: December 2022

The virtues are an adequate starting point for morality only with the full Aristotelian conception of virtue as a complex and deep character trait (often misunderstood by critics), involving practical wisdom (phronēsis), and distinguishing virtue from strength of will. Right action is what the virtuous person does: this is not a definition, as it has sometimes been taken. Rather, it directs us to the central role of right action done characteristically from virtue and without qualification. It is thus important to emphasize how this kind of characteristically virtuous action is distinguished from right action done from a right decision, but in circumstances of tragic choice, and not virtuous.
Virtuous Action
Authors: Hursthouse Rosalind
Published: December 2022

We should distinguish actions which are virtuous though not done from virtue, from virtuous actions done from virtue, which express not just ideal virtue but ideal practical rationality. How can we relate this to ordinary virtuous action? The virtuous have the right aims as well as pursuing them intelligently, in a way analogous to sound as opposed to merely valid theoretical reasoning; we should recognize this, but be careful not to over-intellectualize what the virtuous understand. Although virtuous actions result from choice and involve acting for a reason, this is consistent with spontaneous action insofar as spontaneous virtuous action is appropriately goal-directed and understood by the agent as such.
Québec’s Subsidized Childcare Network
Authors: Burlone Nathalie
Published: December 2022

This chapter provides insight into the development and implementation of subsidized childcare in Québec. Implemented in 1997, the provincial subsidized childcare network is still in place today. It offers affordable daily single-rate daycare spots available to all Québec children under the age of five, delivered in facilities (Centres de la petite enfance or CPEs) or in a family setting. A unique program in Canada, CPEs have outlived political parties’ terms, withstood policy changes, survived budgetary crises, and adapted to harsh criticisms. Embedded in a new family policy rooted in a philosophy of social investment and collectivization of care work, Québec subsidized childcare programs undoubtedly provided incentives for working parents (mothers especially) by offering a necessary support to families and an increased assistance to low-income families. It has also facilitated family-work balance, promoted child development, and fostered equal opportunities.
Micro-variation in object marking in North Mozambican Bantu languages
Authors: Devos Maud , Guérois Rozenn
Published: December 2022

This chapter investigates micro-variation in object marking in 11 North Mozambican Bantu languages. The investigated parameters include morphosyntactic type of object marking, its status, and its behaviour in (lexical, applicative, and causative) ditransitive constructions. It shows that categorization of languages in a featural typology is not always straightforward. Just as symmetric languages are known to display asymmetric behavior, a detailed investigation of Koti and Shangaji, two closely related languages of the sample, shows that largely asymmetric languages may also display symmetric patches in more or less restricted contexts. The chapter points out the need for more fine-grained descriptions of variation in Bantu languages.
Topicality and object–past participle agreement in Friulian
Authors: De Cia Simone
Published: December 2022

Chapter 12 argues that object–-past participle agreement in Friulian is sensitive to the discourse-pragmatic status of the direct object as given topic or aboutness-shift topic. It occurs in transitive clauses with the in-situ direct object independently of the presence of a resumptive object clitic within the verbal domain. The chapter claims that, in Friulian, v° is endowed with an extra set of phi-features, which probes for the closest c-commanded DP that carries a topic feature. As a result, past participle agreement only takes place with topical in-situ direct objects. If such a goal is not available, the default masculine singular ending surfaces on the past participle, as the Agree operation fails. The correct discourse-pragmatic interpretation of the topical in-situ object is then achieved through Long-Distance Agree between the relevant left-peripheral functional head and the internal object DP.
Object clause indexing in Albanian
Authors: Sonnenhauser Barbara , Widmer Paul
Published: December 2022

In Albanian, the application of a preverbal accusative index, also known as clitic doubling, may appear not only with nominal but also with clausal arguments, a hitherto little-discussed phenomenon. The occurrence of the preverbal object index is at least partly conditional on readiness for individuation of the complement clause and on its information status. Individuation and information status are also involved in the indexing of accusative nominal arguments, which testifies to a system in Albanian that operates across structurally different complement types, treating them alike. The analysis presented in this chapter contributes to more general discussions concerning the syntactic properties of complements.
Linking traits to extinction risk in Odonata
Authors: Rocha-Ortega Maya , Khelifa Rassim , Sandall Emily L. , Deacon Charl , Sánchez-Rivero Xavier , Pinkert Stefan , Patten Michael A.
Published: December 2022

Current species extinction rates are comparable to the five paleontological mass extinction events. To assess risk of species’ extinction, scientists have developed a range of metrics, among them the IUCN threat categorization. Odonates are the most comprehensively assessed insect group (nearly every species) through the IUCN Red List process, yet many species remain categorized as “data deficient.” Species’ ecological and functional traits can help alleviate data deficiencies such as abundance shortfalls in predicting extinction risk. This chapter identifies the commonly studied Odonata traits that may relate to their extinction risk. It summarizes current functional eco-evolutionary perspectives, community resiliency and functional redundancy, and proxies of extinction risk. It proposes a unified framework for predicting Odonata extinction risk from traits that incorporates geographic ranges and environmental data layers, while encouraging the integration of individual abundances, intraspecific variation, biotic interactions, and resolved phylogenies.
Odonata as focal taxa for biological responses to climate change
Authors: Pinkert Stefan , Clausnitzer Viola , Acquah-Lamptey Daniel , De Marco Paulo , Johansson Frank
Published: December 2022

Adaptations to novel climates have been a motor for the evolution of life on Earth, but the human-caused rise of global temperatures is unprecedented in its velocity and many species may not be able to cope with such rapid climatic changes. The most likely scenarios indicate that, until the end of this century, the increase of global temperatures above the pre-industrial levels will be of comparable magnitude as changes since the last glacial maximum (LGM). Species that cannot adapt fast enough to these dramatic changes have to shift their distributions or phenology, or they become locally extinct. How species react depends on a multitude of intrinsic factors, including life history traits, physiological adaptations, and dispersal ability. This chapter first explains why Odonata are an ideal taxon to understand and globally monitor biological responses of both aquatic and terrestrial insects. In addition, it provides an overview of important environmental drivers of contemporary diversity patterns of Odonata. Finally, it reviews literature on range shifts, population trends, and phenological changes in Odonata and discusses the importance of functional traits—not only for predicting how, but also for understanding why, species respond to climatic changes.
Introduction
Authors: Kim H. Yumi
Published: December 2022

In the face of Western imperialist threats in the 1850s, Japanese leaders sought to strengthen the nation by drawing on the latest global scientific and medical knowledge. By the 1880s, this included the introduction of European-influenced psychiatry. Japanese psychiatrists claimed that mental diseases required medical treatment in specialized institutions rather than confinement at home, as had been common practice. But the state implemented no social welfare policies to make new medical services more accessible and affordable to the public. The institution of the family, especially women, thus continued to carry the burden of caring for those considered mad. When women were the ones to fall mentally ill, family served as a crucial set of relationships through which they understood their illnesses. While doctors located the source of affliction in their physiology and reproductive malfunctions, many women narrated their experiences of illness by invoking the relations and language of kinship.
Victims' State
Authors: Hsia Ke-Chin
Published: December 2022

This book offers an integrated account about how late Imperial Austria and the First Austrian Republic responded to the needs of soldiers and their families when they faced adverse consequences of soldiering. It surveys the evolving legal and institutional context from the 19th century to the interwar years as well as the concrete actions taken by public and societal actors in confronting the massive losses in lives, health, and livelihoods during and after the First World War, specifically on the provision of care and welfare for disabled soldiers and dead soldiers’ widows and orphans. Straddling the conventional historiographical divide of 1918, this book argues that the revolutions of 1918 was not all-determining in the realm of social policy and welfare politics in the post-Habsburg Central Europe. Rather, a “social offensive on the home front” was already initiated in 1917 and gained fresh momentum in 1918 and 1919 thanks to the emergence of war victims themselves as an assertive social movement that the new Austrian Republic sought to court and even partner with. This pivotal period in the Austrian warfare-welfare nexus is part of the longer trajectory of how the Austrian state became self-consciously “social” in the age of democratizing mass politics and mass conscription. It is also a story about war and war victim welfare’s key roles in the formation of modern Austrian citizenship and statehood.
The Last-Ditch Effort to Save the Monarchy
Authors: Hsia Ke-Chin
Published: December 2022

The chapter looks at concrete aspects of the Social Ministry officials’ direct welfare intervention. Working consciously as the lead advocate for war victims vis-à-vis the military and other ministries, the ministerial welfare officials sought to build a comprehensive information regime as well as “retail” welfare services. Bureaucratic turf conflicts and severe material shortages, however, made any effort ultimately futile. This chapter shows that state agencies’ jealous hoarding of resources in 1918 added a further layer of scarcity to the shortages already wreaking havoc on the home front. Seen in this light, the effective end of a more or less coherent Imperial Austrian state had already arrived in summer 1918, months before the Monarchy’s final dissolution.
Introduction
Authors: Ghobadzadeh Naser
Published: December 2022

This book articulates a religious rationale for political secularism in the Iranian/shīʿī context. Belief in theocracy has always been the basis of shīʿī political theology, but with the messianic conception of the 12th Imām in the fourth/tenth century, its realisation came to depend on the will and intervention of the divine. As a result, shīʿī leaders, while awaiting the return of the 12th Imām, not only do not have the authority or responsibility to take over the institution of government, but have been forbidden from doing so. For more than 1300 years, the political thought and action of shīʿī religious leaders was shaped by this political theology, formulated in this book as Theocratic secularism. In opposition to orthodox shīʿī theology, a new politico-religious discourse emerged at the initiative of Ayatollah Khomeini in the last decades of the twentieth century, which in this book is referred to as governmental-shīʿism. In sharp contrast to shīʿī orthodoxy, governmental-shīʿism considers the occupation of the government apparatus as the duty of shīʿī religious leaders. In this book, it is argued that governmental-shīʿism was neither the product of a theological transformation of shīʿī orthodoxy nor used as a blueprint to establish the Islamic Republic. Rather, the formation of the Islamic Republic and the clergy’s rise to power led to the birth of governmental-shīʿism and bestowed importance on Khomeini’s doctrine of wilāyat-i faqīh.
The Major Occultation
Authors: Ghobadzadeh Naser
Published: December 2022

This chapter examines the ideas of the founding scholars of Shīʿism and their agreement on several key elements of Shīʿī theology, which are the motifs of theocratic secularism. These elements included the scope of the authority of the ʿulamāʾ, the possibility of forming a Shīʿī ideal government during the Major Occultation, the mode of interaction with jāʾir rulers, and finally the issue of rebellion to overthrow established political systems. It will be argued that none of the founding scholars believed that the Shīʿī religious leaders’ scope of authority extended to the formation of government. They also denounced all the rulers of the Age of Occultation as usurpers, and although the ʿulamāʾ disagreed on the permitted degree of proximity to and cooperation with rulers, none suggested that a non-infallible ruler could ever be recognized as legitimate. This chapter also suggests that rebellion against the ruler and the overthrow of an established political system were not endorsed in Shīʿism because the Shīʿa ruled out the possibility of the formation of a legitimate government without the twelfth Imām and therefore perceived no benefit in overthrowing any given illegitimate government in his absence.
The Creeping Entrance of the Idea of Wilāyat-i Faqīh
Authors: Ghobadzadeh Naser
Published: December 2022

This chapter argues that senior clerical Islamist leaders continued to view the institution of government from within the ideological framework of theocratic secularism, and that the project of governmental Shīʿism was not on their agenda, until the debates of the Assembly of Experts for the Constitution in the summer of 1979. Following the public release of the draft constitution, which did not mention the idea of wilāyat-i faqīh, a number of lower-ranking Islamists entered the constitutional debate and proposed the idea of assigning clerics a special role in the constitution. It is argued that their various suggestions were discordant and displayed no particular coherence or coordination. More important, these proposals made no reference to Khomeini’s doctrine of wilāyat-i faqīh. This chapter seeks to demonstrate that until the summer of 1979, governmental Shīʿism did not emerge as a cohesive politico-religious discourse.
A Menace to the Health of the Country
Authors: Brown Jeremy
Published: December 2022

During the mass immigration of eastern European Jews at the turn of the twentieth century, they were frequently considered not only physically unfit but also carriers of disease. However, data from the New York City Department of Health demonstrated that contrary to the anti-Jewish trope, Jews were actually less likely to die from pandemic diseases like typhoid or pneumonia. The experience of the Jewish immigrant is contextualized with descriptions of the manner in which Italian and Irish immigrants were similarly treated. The Nazis described the Jew as a carrier of infectious disease, a claim that was heard once more during the COVID-19 era. The chapter concludes with a history of the medical treatment of Jewish refugees by the State of Israel.
The Startup Organization
Authors: Ketokivi Mikko , Mahoney Joseph T.
Published: December 2022

This chapter focuses on the governance questions that an organization’s founders face. Focusing on the birth of the organization is important, because founders sometimes assume that questions regarding organization design and governance can be addressed in the months and the years after the founding when the organization has become more established. In stark contrast to this common belief, we propose that there are crucial questions that require the designer’s attention already before the organization’s founding. This chapter addresses both questions that can and should be addressed and are contractible before the founding (ex ante) and those that are subject to various ex post adjustments.
Introduction
Authors: Pilzer Joshua D.
Published: December 2022

This chapter introduces the subjects and key ideas of the book. It briefly introduces the Korean atomic experience and the many historical conditions that have led to the overwhelming quiet of “Korea’s Hiroshima.” It then turns to the possibility of doing ethnomusicology in the overwhelming absence of music, and the radical listening and the openness that this study models as an example of that. I define this version of the anthropology of music as studying culture musically. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the roles that expression and other arts play in the ongoing work of surviving the bomb.
The Baroque Era
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: December 2022

The most common vocal genres during the era, other than opera, were mass, including Requiem and separate mass movements; oratorio, including settings of the Passion; motet and related sacred settings such as the Magnificat and Te Deum; anthem and other Protestant Reformation forms such as the Calvinist Psalm setting and the German Lutheran chorale; cantata; ode; and madrigal. The mass remained the only genre that consistently involved choral forces throughout the era. The oratorio and cantata usually involved chorus during the middle and latter portions of the era but were often exclusively for soloists in the early years. The motet was scored for choral forces in its prima prattica form, but commonly for solo voices (often only one or two voices and basso continuo) in its seconda prattica form. The anthem and related genres, as well as multimovement works such as odes and most Magnificat settings, were often scored for a combination of soloists and chorus. Finally, the madrigal remained a genre intended only for soloists, either singly or in groups.
The Modern Era
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: December 2022

The Modern era began during the early years of the twentieth century when composers felt that the genres, tonalities, scorings, and notational symbols of the Romantic era could no longer satisfy their creative needs. Traditional genres were too confining for new ideas of expression, harmonic language based on functional tonality seemed to be exhausted, additional and unique colors were needed in scoring, and innovative elements of notation were required to manifest revolutionary concepts of communication. Consequently, dramatic changes affected virtually every element of music making. New genres ranged from stage productions that incorporated dance (e.g., Claude Debussy’s Le martyre de saint Sébastien) to vocal chamber music scored for a large ensemble of highly skilled soloists (e.g., Olivier Messiaen’s Cinq rechants for twelve singers). Experiments in new tonalities resulted in the dodecaphonic (twelve-tone) technique, pandiatonicism, bitonality, atonality, and divisions of the traditional chromatic scale into smaller units than half steps. Scorings for uncommon colors included wordless chorus as an orchestral instrument, sprechstimme, numerous percussion instruments, and electronic sounds and instruments. New notation consisted of a wide range of symbols to indicate such performance elements as variations in vibrato, speaking, singing in falsetto, producing the highest or lowest notes possible, yelling, hissing, and whispering. In addition, aleatoric performance became a feature of a number of Modern-era compositions. This is especially evident in passages of indeterminate rhythm within traditionally metered music.
Spinoza's Ethics
Authors: LeBuffe Michael
Published: December 2022

This guide has an introduction and five chapters, one for each of the parts of Spinoza’s Ethics. The Introduction includes background material necessary for productive study of the Ethics: advice for working with Spinoza’s geometrical method, a biographical sketch of Spinoza, and accounts of important predecessors: Aristotle, Maimonides, and Descartes. The chapters that follow trace the Ethics in detail, including accounts of most of the elements in Spinoza’s book and raising questions for further research. Chapter 1, “One Infinite Substance,” covers central arguments of Spinoza’s substance monism. Chapter 2, “The Idea of the Human Body,” follows Spinoza’s detailed metaphysics of ordinary objects, his theory of mind, and his epistemology. Chapter 3, “Striving, Joy, and Sadness,” works from Spinoza’s broad theory of finite activity in the striving to persevere in being to his detailed accounts of human action and passion. Chapter 4, “Bondage to Passion,” emphasizes Spinoza’s formal theory of value, his intellectualism in ethics, and particular claims about value that follow from these commitments. Chapter 5, “The Power of the Intellect,” begins with Spinoza’s criticism of Descartes’s account of our ability to control passion and moves to Spinoza’s own theory, which emphasizes reason, the eternal part of the mind, and human blessedness.
Introduction
Authors: LeBuffe Michael
Published: December 2022

This Introduction includes three sorts of background material necessary for productive study of the Ethics. The first section offers suggestions for working with Spinoza’s geometrical method. The second section is a biographical sketch. It includes accounts of major events in Spinoza’s life, notably his cherem or excommunication from the Jewish community, and information about Spinoza’s works with an emphasis on the interrupted composition of the Ethics. The third section introduces three important predecessors. It describes, first, Aristotle’s theories of substance, the human being, and final causation. Then it turns to Maimonides’s theory of God’s causation, his account of ideas and their objects, and his criticism of popular imagination. Finally, it introduces Descartes’s use of the terminology of substance, attribute, and mode; his theory of will and intellect; and his views about passion and its control.
One Infinite Substance
Authors: LeBuffe Michael
Published: December 2022

This chapter offers detailed accounts of Part 1 of Spinoza’s Ethics. It includes four sections, reflecting four major parts of Spinoza’s argument. The first section concerns Spinoza’s definitions and axioms. Section two includes Spinoza’s initial characterization of substance in the principle of the identity of indiscernibles, the existence of God, and substance monism. From these positions, Spinoza moves to a characterization of finite things. The third section sets out these arguments, which culminate in Spinoza’s defense of determinism and necessity. The fourth section is an interpretation of the Appendix to Ethics 1, in which Spinoza criticizes imaginative theories of teleology and God.
Bondage to Passion
Authors: LeBuffe Michael
Published: December 2022

This chapter offers detailed accounts of Part 4 of Spinoza’s Ethics. It includes four sections, reflecting four major parts of Spinoza’s argument. The first section describes Spinoza’s formal definitions of good and evil in terms of a model of human nature. The second section emphasizes Spinoza’s intellectualism in ethics, which culminates in the claim that the knowledge of God is the highest good, and the relation of this intellectualism to different, strong claims about the value of perseverance in being. The third section concerns Spinoza’s accounts of human society and the state, including his social contract theory. The fourth section presents particular claims about value that Spinoza introduces in Ethics 4, including the dictates of reason and the propositions concerning the free man.
Introduction
Authors: Van De Mieroop Marc
Published: December 2022

Writing: throughout world history from its invention some 5000 years ago until today people using this technology have left behind a massive number of sources for the historian. Yet, it is clear that they did not write down every language spoken across the world. Instead, they consciously selected only a number of languages to do so, sometimes using shared scripts, sometimes with scripts specific for one language only. The topic of this book is to investigate the choices of languages and scripts people made when writing in the long and richly-documented history of the ancient Near East and the eastern Mediterranean, from the invention of script there sometime before 3000 bc to the first centuries of the Common Era. It will show how we can see a radical change from an initial use of a single, cosmopolitan system with its roots in Babylonian cuneiform to one using a profusion of vernacular languages with their own, mostly alphabetic, scripts. It will explore how we can understand the development of the latter in relationship to the cosmopolitan system and the consequences of that shift on the literate cultures of the region.
Imagining the World from Behind the Iron Curtain
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata
Published: December 2022

During the long sixties, powerful political and cultural movements engulfed the world, many of them rooted in transnational exchanges across borders and continents. How did the sixties look in the seemingly isolated Eastern bloc? This book explores this question by centering on young people in Poland and their everyday engagement with a dynamically changing world, from popular media and consumption to counterculture and protest movements. Drawing on archival documents, youth magazines, sex education manuals, and personal testimonies, this book follows jazz lovers, students, hippies, and young rural rebels, delineating both the antiauthoritarian solidarities and the competing visions of transnationalism. This book repositions young people in Eastern Europe, long seen as subjects of an isolationist and totalitarian regime, as active participants of global conversations. The communist state unwittingly facilitated such youth dissent, as Poland’s leaders did not entirely reject international youth culture, be it music, fashion, or new forms of sociability, but selectively incorporated these trends into their official vision of socialist modernity. Ultimately, this book shows how local manifestations of international youth culture shifted worldviews behind the Iron Curtain, creating new ways of self-understanding and a cultural space in which ideas of alternative social and political organization became imaginable.
Window to the World
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata
Published: December 2022

A new genre of youth magazines that covered a range of cultural developments in the West while also building connections between the Second World and the Third World is the topic of this chapter. These magazines were products of a socialist conception of mass culture that combined moderate entertainment with education and knowledge of the world. Through analyzing several youth magazines such as Radar, Around the World, and ITD, this chapter traces the specific ways domestic forms of modernity interacted with international youth culture. It examines youth magazines not as state-produced propaganda but as a site of conversation for different actors, including editors, journalists, censors, and readers. Youth magazines commanded extensive readership in all parts of Poland. Rather than “normalizing” society through creating a socialist culture of consumption, these magazines helped readers imagine themselves as part of a global community beyond the Iron Curtain.
Temples of Wind and Rain
Authors: Pauketat Timothy R.
Published: December 2022

From Mexico to the American Southwest and the Mississippi valley, circular platforms of earth or stone were built to the Wind-That-Brings-Rain during a period of climate change. That same god was also associated with the stars, snakes, chipped-stone daggers, and ocean shells as seen at the great Mesoamerican city of Teotihuacan. People traveled great distances to understand the Wind-That-Brings-Rain and returned home with things and understandings in some ways connected to it. As a result, the artwork, architecture, and artifacts of precolonial peoples thousands of miles apart, from Tula and Tenochtitlan to Paquime, Chaco, and Cahokia, share key attributes. They are the best reasons to suspect that medieval-period Americans journeyed far and wide.
Mesoamerican Cults and Cities
Authors: Pauketat Timothy R.
Published: December 2022

Religious movements are led by visionaries who draw together supernatural powers to advance a cause. In an era of climate change, the Maya, Toltecs, and Huastecs of the ninth century turned to various cults of the Wind-That-Brings-Rain, whose principal temple was circular in shape. Some Maya migrated north into the well-watered land of the Huastecs, the descendants of whom still practice the pole ceremonialism of their medieval-era forebearers. In the meantime, a Toltec horizon spread across Mesoamerica into the Maya heartland, establishing cities such as Tula, Tamtoc, and Chichen Itza as mythical places of origins to which living people returned to become right with the world.
A Place Beyond the Horizon
Authors: Pauketat Timothy R.
Published: December 2022

The survivors of the Pánfilo de Narváez expedition skirted the Pueblo world of the 1500s. Had they turned north up the Rio Grande, they would have met descendants of a momentous medieval-era history defined by climatic forces as much as people. For all intents and purposes, that world began at Chaco Canyon just after the year 800 ce. The Chacoan culture that fluoresced there paralleled the Postclassic era Maya, Toltecs, Huastecs, Caddos, and other Mississippians thanks to the favorable climatic conditions on the Colorado Plateau. The Chacoans were attuned to the animistic forces of their world. Their circular great kivas and tri-wall structures were built during waves of religious change involving the worship of a Wind-That-Brings-Rain god.
America's Theologian Beyond America
Authors: Zhu Victor , Sweeney Douglas
Published: December 2022

This study addresses the subject of Jonathan Edwards’s millennialism from his redemptive-historical vision. By situating him in the Reformation and post-Reformation contexts, taking into consideration his interaction with the intellectual challenges posed by the Enlightenment thinkers, it provides a more nuanced investigation of Edwards’s anticipation of the millennium. His millennialism is neither America-centric nor politically utopian. And he is not the one who originated or advocated the notion of the redeemer nation, as is frequently thought. His vision of the millennium is a Christ-reigning, Judeo-centric, and cosmic kingdom arriving on earth in a distant future. While some of his Protestant predecessors and Puritan contemporaries tended to centralize their own present times and nations, Edwards noticeably decentralized England and New England in terms of time, space, and people. This study sheds new light on the following issues. First, it extensively reviews Edwards’s millennial theology and provides another outlook on his continuity in and departures from the Reformed tradition. Second, it explores Edwards’s artful communication of his Christology in his millennialism. Third, this study highlights the Judeo-centric and cosmic nature as an innovative interpretive key to his millennialism, which provides a useful background to the current debates on Israel and the end times. Finally, this project ventures into two less well-known subjects—Israel and China in Edwards’s millennial vision—in order to revisit his conviction of Israel’s restoration to the Promised Land and his eschatological hope for China and the rest of heathen world.
“Christ in All Things Has the Preeminence”
Authors: Zhu Victor
Published: December 2022

As an artful theologian, Edwards expressed his Christological focus in his millennialism with both literary and typological strategies. He intentionally structured his HWR to communicate his Christocentric concerns in the whole process of the establishment, expansion, and consummation of the millennial kingdom. Edwards applied both a Christological and natural typology to communicate his Christology in the preparation and realization of the millennial kingdom. He was both traditional and innovative in the literary and typological expressions of his Christology. While Edwards was deeply embedded in the Reformed tradition, he often developed an innovative way of expressing his unique and creative insights into Christ’s centrality in his millennialism. In his literary and typological readings of Scripture, nature, and history, Edwards enriched and enlarged the Reformed tradition rather than breaking with it.
Fields
Authors: Seligson Kenneth E.
Published: December 2022

This chapter explores the agricultural adaptations that sustained gradual population growth in the Maya lowlands up through the demographic explosion of the Late Classic Period. At the heart of Maya agriculture is a cultivated field system known as the milpa that incorporates several crops at once. Traditional milpa systems were supplemented by a wide range of land-modification strategies that included extensive terrace networks and wetland raised-field systems. Underpinning these intensification strategies was an in-depth knowledge of all aspects of the natural environment and how they could best sustain growing human populations. Farmers developed intimate understandings of precipitation and growth cycles, plant and animal roles, and soil compositions. They knew which species grew well together at which points of the rainy season, in which types of soils, and with which types of fertilization. The question of how Classic Maya communities sustained such high populations for so many centuries in such a challenging tropical environment no longer perplexes researchers. The multitude of techniques that farmers used to sustainably and efficiently manage food production across the mosaic of lowland microenvironments for over seven centuries are becoming increasingly clear through the application of paleoenvironmental, paleobotanical, and lidar-based analyses.
Looking Forward
Authors: Seligson Kenneth E.
Published: December 2022

The final chapter summarizes the main points discussed in the earlier chapters and brings them together to paint a comprehensive picture of Classic Maya civilization as an environmentally conscious and socio-ecologically adaptive society. The specific natural resource-management strategies developed by Classic Maya communities do not in and of themselves provide specific blueprints for resilience that we can follow today. Most were so successful because they were tailored to individual microenvironments, species, and rainfall patterns. Contemporary Maya communities continue to demonstrate the cultural and socio-ecological resilience that has been a key characteristic of Maya culture since the earliest agroforesters began shaping the lowland landscapes. Just as they have at many points in the past, Maya communities face numerous climatic, ecological, and social challenges in the present. The main factors that have consistently allowed Maya communities to survive through periods of turmoil and transmit cultural practices to succeeding generations are their capacities, abilities, and willingness to adapt to the changing circumstances. Thus, the main lessons we can learn from the Classic Maya are the importance of knowledge, planning, and structural flexibility.
The Historical Context of the Cleisthenian Law about Ostracism
Authors: Węcowski Marek
Published: December 2022

Chapter Four discusses the historical context of the introduction of the law of ostracism in a more general framework of the scholarly debate between those who more traditionally ascribe the Athenian reforms of the late sixth century bc to the political genius of the far-sighted reformer Cleisthenes and the proponents of the hypothesis of the ‘Athenian revolution’ due to the political actions of the politically self-aware demos. It is argued that whereas these are not necessarily true alternatives, one ought in the first place to focus on the original intentions and political plans of Cleisthenes, but also on his personal experience of the political struggles in which he participated in Athens.
The Prisoner’s Dilemma—Ostracism and Competition among Athenian Political Élites
Authors: Węcowski Marek
Published: December 2022

Chapter Five offers a tentative interpretation of the original purpose of ostracism in Athens, namely that Athenian ostracism was in fact a mechanism devised to impose compromise on the main political players of the Athenian political life. Once the preliminary vote proved positive, one or another among the powerful political leaders was doomed to banishment and nobody could feel truly safe. Cleisthenes’ idea was to make the leading Athenian politicians to meet backstage and strike a deal before this happens. They only needed to make a unanimous stand against ostracism during the preliminary vote. But to reach a reliable agreement there must have been a minimum of mutuial trust all year long, which must have kept the temperature of the Athenian political life under (some) control. Accordingly, as long as the mechanism was effective, ostrakophoriai were not implemented, because the initial vote was usually negative. It took extremely intransigent and self-assured leaders (such as Themistocles and Pericles) and/or unusually tense situations (such as the external danger of the Persian Wars) to hold one. To support this hypothesis, the author refers to the theory of the ‘evolution of cooperation’ by the American mathematician and political scientist Robert Axelrod based on the ‘iterated prisoner’s dilemma’ in game theory. By introducing the two-stage procedure of ostracism, Cleisthenes put the Athenian political elites in the position we would identify with the ‘iterated prisoner’s dilemma’.