bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Voparil Chris
Published: December 2021

This concluding chapter outlines the implications of the book’s overall reinterpretation of Rorty’s relation to the classical pragmatists via the lens of reconstruction. After a brief precis of the accounts of Rorty’s relation to Peirce, James, Dewey, Royce, and Addams in the preceding chapters, it revisits several prevalent criticisms of Rorty in contemporary debates to show how a fuller understanding of Rorty’s relation to classical pragmatism helps mitigate the concerns, including his antirealism, reduction of truth to our peers, alleged relativism, and lack of resources to defeat the arguments of the Nazi. It then sketches the broad contours of a post-Rortyan pragmatism free of partisan allegiances and self-protective impulses, animated by creative energies resulting from working through and beyond his challenges to pragmatists to better realize the aims of moral and epistemic growth toward more just and inclusive communities.
For Movement
Authors: Pinzino Mary Ellen
Published: December 2021

Etude 2 expands the material presented in this book on using movement for musicality. It offers guidance in applying movement specifically for momentum and the energy of the line in the classroom or choral rehearsal. The Etude employs movement in a broad variety of musical challenges to propel momentum, capture musical nuance, and improve performance at every level. Songs and professional guidance in this Etude lead directly to use in the classroom or children’s chorus, as well as providing the opportunity for professional development. The teacher can engage in this Etude without children, as needed, in applying movement to music and becoming more confident and competent in using movement to engage in and invite musicality. Insights gained from this Etude can be applied to all levels and repertoire to improve performance of any choral ensemble.
Introduction
Authors: Takim Liyakat
Published: December 2021

The Introduction to this book discusses the significance of an Islamic reformation and how the study aims to provide a new perspective on ijtihad and reformation in the Shi‘i world. The introduction also reviews the literature available on the topic and argues that none of the works on the topic engages the classical and contemporary literature on the subject of reformation in Shi‘ism as this book does. The work also challenges scholars in both the seminaries and universities to review and contribute fresh perspectives on reformation and to undertake conversations around the thematic issues surrounding law, ethics, and reformation in modern times.
Islamic Reformation and the Tools of Ijtihad
Authors: Takim Liyakat
Published: December 2021

This chapter argues that jurists can employ various tools like public welfare and the principle of no harm to either modify earlier legal enactments or formulate new ones. It contends that these devices can provide only partial and temporary amendments to existing legal injunctions. The chapter also examines the role of custom (‘urf) in the reformation process and shows that the Qur’an presumes that its legal rulings will be understood based on prevalent customary practices and values. Contemporary jurists who insist on enforcing earlier edicts are, in effect, validating pre-Islamic Arabian cultural values and imposing them on contemporary Muslims. The chapter also argues that some of the laws that were instituted in a distinct cultural context will have to be revised especially when they encounter a different cultural framework. It also explores how local custom that is endorsed by people of sound mind can legislate laws in today’s diasporic context.
Reason and Ethics and an Islamic Reformation
Authors: Takim Liyakat
Published: December 2021

The fourth chapter argues that the Shi‘i claim that the moral value of an act can be known objectively enables a jurist to deduce new injunctions based on moral rationalist considerations. The chapter also maintains that legal determinations based on rational and ethical considerations can empower a jurist to legislate on topics that are congruent with the views of the people of sound mind. It further demonstrates that disregarding the role of ethics in legal deliberations has led to the inference and issuance of iniquitous statements by the very scholars who uphold the Islamic ethical and legal tradition. In order to make Islamic jurisprudence more ethical, Muslim scholars will have to incorporate principles like justice, dignity, and judgments of reason (‘aql) in their legal deliberations so that these principles play more central and decisive roles in determining how the sources are interpreted and applied.
Adulthood and the Right to Education
Authors: Martin Christopher
Published: December 2021

This chapter argues that holding personal autonomy as a political ideal entails a right to education over a full life, not just childhood. The first section reviews the terms under which autonomy is commonly held to be basic to liberal citizenship and how this justifies an individual right to a basic compulsory education in childhood. The second section argues that the tendency to see this right as applying to childhood only is due to an unduly narrow view of autonomy as a political ideal. Finally, it defends an expanded view of autonomy that justifies a role for education in a good life in media res. This role is held to be sufficiently important enough to warrant extending citizens’ educational rights to include post-compulsory provision.
The Right to Higher Education
Authors: Martin Christopher
Published: December 2021

This chapter aims to show why institutions of higher education should be responsible for securing a citizen’s right to education over a life. It begins by showing how the primary political responsibilities of social institutions in a liberal society are derived from a more basic obligation to promote citizens’ ability to freely (and successfully) pursue the good life. These political responsibilities arise are called liberty-maximizing requirements of justice. It then argues that liberty-maximizing justice warrants the inclusion of higher education as a liberal social institution whose overarching purpose is to the provision of an autonomy-supporting education to all citizens. Finally, it specifies why an autonomy-supporting education requires a specific institution for its provision and why direct access to public knowledge—through the Internet and public libraries, for example—is insufficient for this purpose.
Introduction
Authors: Duncan Stewart
Published: December 2021

This introduction presents the project of the book, to examine the seventeenth-century debate about materialism that began with the work of Thomas Hobbes. Among those who responded directly to Hobbes, the book focuses on Henry More, Ralph Cudworth, and Margaret Cavendish. The introduction and book then look at John Locke’s discussion of materialism in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which draws on and responds to that earlier discussion. A central question for all these philosophers is whether human minds are material. They also consider whether animal minds are material, and whether God is. Other philosophical issues, including theories of substance and of the nature of ideas, are repeatedly involved in the discussion. The relation of these discussions to the work of René Descartes is noted.
Hobbes against Descartes
Authors: Duncan Stewart
Published: December 2021

This chapter looks at Hobbes’s objections to Descartes’s Meditations, focusing on issues connected to materialism. It considers Hobbes’s argument that we have no idea of God, and his associated view that ideas are images which represent by resembling. In the Third Objections, Hobbes does not deny the existence of God, but he does deny that we have an idea of God, and thus undercuts Descartes’s arguments for God’s existence. He thinks we cannot prove the immateriality of the mind, and even suggests that the mind is purely material. The chapter also considers Hobbes’s claim that we have no idea of substance, asking where exactly Hobbes differs from Descartes on this issue.
Locke against Descartes
Authors: Duncan Stewart
Published: December 2021

This chapter considers Locke’s criticisms of Descartes’s views about the mind. Although Locke grants that dualism might be true (i.e., that human beings might have an immaterial mind), he thinks the Cartesian version of that view is false. The chapter focuses on two topics within Locke’s discussion of Descartes’s views: whether we have an innate idea of God, and whether the mind is always thinking. On the first issue, Locke rejects the view of Descartes (and More, Cudworth, and others) that we have an innate idea of God, but also rejects Hobbes’s view that we have no idea of God. On the second issue, Locke opposes Descartes’s view that the mind is always thinking, as well as his related view that thinking is the principal attribute of the mind, and indeed his metaphysical scheme of substance, principal attribute, and mode.
The State of Local Lobbying
Authors: Payson Julia
Published: December 2021

Cities are some of the oldest lobbying organizations in the United States. Because states enjoy such high levels of fiscal and administrative authority over their local units, the vast majority of these advocacy efforts are aimed at state governments rather than at the federal level. This chapter draws from original lobbying disclosure data, interviews, city council documents, and other sources to paint a detailed descriptive picture of the current municipal lobbying landscape in the United States. How did city lobbying emerge in its current form? What are local officials hoping to achieve when they lobby, and how do they allocate their efforts? When do cities lobby as individuals as opposed to coalitions? This chapter introduces expansive new data to provide initial answers to these questions.
How City Lobbyists Bridge Representational Gaps
Authors: Payson Julia
Published: December 2021

This chapter develops a simple theory of intergovernmental lobbying that emphasizes the relationship between cities and their elected delegations. Compared to most interest groups, cities are uniquely dependent on the state and federal officials who are elected to represent them by virtue of their political geography. The quality of this representation should therefore influence the demand for the lobbying. This chapter tests several observable implications of this theory using original panel data on annual city lobbying activity in all fifty states. A series of difference-in-differences designs reveal that municipal officials hire lobbyists in response to a wide array of representational challenges, such as hostile redistricting efforts and flips in the partisan composition of their delegations. The results are broadly consistent with a model of intergovernmental lobbying in which cities use lobbyists to compensate for the representational gaps that sometimes emerge in federal systems.
City vs. State
Authors: Payson Julia
Published: December 2021

This chapter considers how city lobbying affects the overall policy environment from the perspective of the state. While results at the city level suggest that there are individual winners and losers from the lobbying process, this chapter shows how aggregate lobbying trends can systematically bias state transfers toward the interests of high-income cities, making them less progressive on average. At the same time, local officials don’t lobby for funding alone. Through a series of short case studies, this chapter also examines how the lobbying efforts of cities are shaping current policy debates in state legislatures, including preemption battles over minimum wage laws. While difficult to quantify the effects of these activities, taking a more holistic view of city lobbying paints a more nuanced and positive picture about its policy consequences.
Introduction: Why a Social Representations Perspective?
Authors: Contarello Alberta
Published: December 2021

This chapter introduces the social representations perspective that forms the background of the entire volume, presenting the social-psychological gaze (regard psychosocial): the acknowledgment that the knowledge of a social object necessarily requires the mediation of an Alter, a “thirdness.” From this premise, specific ways of studying change and continuity in meaning-making derive, putting change at the forefront as well as concerns about the role of the researcher along the path. After considering these features, the chapter briefly presents the various parts that compose the book and the single chapters. From a social representations stance or from cognate perspectives, several keywords and topics are encountered, both on a theoretical side and with empirical examples, addressing social issues in domains such as health, aging, inequalities, environment, and community.
Social Representations in the Classroom
Authors: Leone Giovanna , Nadler Arie
Published: December 2021

In this chapter, the authors briefly summarize relevant research in two distinct fields of research before suggesting their merging to show how teachers’ help might promote their pupils’ future growth, eventually challenging the current unequal social status quo between advantaged and disadvantaged groups. Two studies, conducted with original research methodology, illustrate the point and conclude with practical suggestions for effective helping relationships in the classroom, underlying the pivotal role of social interactions in fostering the child’s active involvement in relevant social groups. Relaunching and employing the concepts of contingent scaffolding, as a provisional structure of knowledge offered by the adult, the teacher’s capacity of fading, in accordance with the growing capacity of students, and the transfer of responsibilities from teachers to students, the “thirdness” in the knowing process and its potential role in changing existing unequal status quo stands out.
Social Representations, Communication, and the Evolution of Cultures
Authors: Mazzara Bruno M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter suggests that, in order to understand changes in both social representations and culture, we need to focus on their systemic nature and on the role of communication processes. Linking up with a lengthy tradition that enhances the social nature of the human mind, the connections between the Frankfurt School’s legacy, cultural psychology, and the socio-constructionist movement are explored from a mature biological-evolutionary perspective. Considering and extending the idea of complexity from the biological domain to the mental, social, and cultural spheres, the attention shifts from structures to processes. What then becomes relevant is how well living and cultural systems are able to constantly regenerate themselves through structural changes and the establishing of new connections. The author suggests that we consider social representations as “maps” that we need to orient ourselves effectively in the “territory” of knowledge, action, and social relations.
Battles of Ideas Between the Legal and the Legitimate
Authors: Castro Paula , Brondi Sonia , Contarello Alberta
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses how social psychology can offer theoretical contributions for a better understanding of the relations between the institutional and public spheres and how this may impact change in ecological matters. First, it introduces the difference between natural and agreed—or chosen—limits to human action and draws on Sophocles’s Antigone to illustrate this and discuss how legitimacy has roots in the many heterogeneous values of the public sphere/consensual universe, while legality arises from the institutional/reified sphere. Recalling some empirical research in the area of social studies of sustainability, it then shows how a social representations perspective can help us understand the dynamic and interdependent relations between the institutional or reified sphere and the consensual or common sense universe—and their implications for social change and continuity.
Research of the Health, Aging, and Society Laboratory
Authors: Silva Antônia Lêda Oliveira , Tura Luiz Fernando Rangel , Madeira Campos
Published: December 2021

This chapter describes the work being done in North-East Brazil to clarify how social issues are constructed and reconstructed in processes driven by the values, symbols, and patterns that characterize the area’s social and cultural spaces. Aging, but also care, quality of life, and work are studied, analyzing them in the process of their naturalization guided by daily communication and practices. The Lab at the Federal University of Paraiba (UFPB), in Joao Pessoa, also draws on contributions from other areas of Brazil (especially Rio de Janeiro) and focuses mainly on studying the aging process. Its work is guided by principles of interprofessionalization in the field of gerontology, especially in its critical advancements. The Aging Institute founded at the UFPB (the first in the whole country) aims to combine research and a third mission, exploiting the potential of social representations theory for engaged research.
Social Constructionism and Social Representation Theory
Authors: Romaioli Diego , Contarello Alberta
Published: December 2021

This chapter considers how the perspectives of social constructionism and social representations theory can overlap and cross-fertilize more than was once recognized, when the study of change is at stake. This applies particularly to the study of meaning-making through practices and relations via social artifacts. Focusing on those scholars considered to be the main initiators and developers of these two perspectives in social psychology—Serge Moscovici and Kenneth J. Gergen—the authors analyze their works on different levels: meta-theoretical, theoretical, and methodological. Grounding their reasoning on research that they themselves and others have conducted on the two frameworks, mainly on aging in an aging society, the authors call for a further erasure of distinctions between the two. They conclude by suggesting a fruitful future enrichment of the dialogue and a reciprocal cross-fertilization that might overcome nominalistic barriers in the study of social knowledge, particularly where change and continuity are concerned.
The Discursive Format of “Social Warming”
Authors: Mininni Giuseppe
Published: December 2021

This chapter deals with human relationships that currently come up against increasingly overheated communication. Combining the perspective of social representations with that of discursive acts, Giuseppe Mininni relaunches his diatextual approach, placing social psychology at the meeting point between the epistemological axes of cultural, discursive, and critical psychology. Studies on mixed families illustrate the issue. Mixed families seem fundamentally diatextual because their texts are embedded within enunciative contexts animated by multifarious dynamics of perennial change. The author’s analysis shows that these families activate three kinds of social-epistemic rhetoric, focusing on distinction, mediation, and integration. The interplay between the Self and the Other is thus explained, acknowledging the vital impulse toward hybridization. The hyphenated identities produced in mixed families show the Self that the best way to save its own identity may be by strewing it in the Other’s, in an ongoing process of change.
Minors as Living Organ Donors
Authors: Friedman Lainie , Thistlethwaite, Jr J. Richard
Published: December 2021

In 1957, three years after the first successful kidney transplant between identical twin brothers, the Supreme Judicial Court in Massachusetts authorized kidney transplantation between three sets of identical twin minors and approved another two dozen living donor transplants involving minor donors over the next twenty years. Today, minors rarely serve as living solid organ donors, and donation by minors is prohibited in much of the world. In this chapter arguments are made to restrict children from serving as living donors except as a last resort. It is also argued that if one embraces the concept of the living donor as patient, then one would not make an exception for living donation by a minor to his or her identical twin sibling.
The Good Samaritan or Non-Directed Donor
Authors: Friedman Lainie , Thistlethwaite, Jr J. Richard
Published: December 2021

From the outset of kidney transplantation, some living donors were “Good Samaritan” donors—that is, individuals who donated a kidney without a specific recipient in mind. However, non-genetically related donors fell out of favor quickly because the results were no better than deceased donor grafts. As immunosuppression improved and graft outcomes from non-biologically related donors improved, attitudes changed (with greater and earlier support from the public than from transplant professionals and with greater support for spouses then friends then acquaintances, and then strangers). This chapter examines ethical controversies raised by Good Samaritan donors using a living donor ethics framework. It examines the moral justification for permitting living donation by strangers, the ethics of the donor and recipient selection and allocation processes, and whether Good Samaritan donors should be encouraged to catalyze a domino multi-donor-recipient pair chain rather than donate to a single candidate on the waitlist.
Challenging (Organ and Global) Boundaries
Authors: Friedman Lainie , Thistlethwaite, Jr J. Richard
Published: December 2021

The original living kidney paired exchanges (KPE) involved two donors who were ABO- or crossmatch incompatible with their intended recipients but were compatible with the other’s recipient such that they could “swap” kidneys. This chapter examines the ethical issues raised by two novel expansions of KPE: bi-organ (also known as trans-organ) exchange involving a living liver donor (donor-L)-kidney recipient (recipient-K) and a living kidney donor (donor-K)-liver recipient (recipient-L), and global kidney exchange (GKE) between a living kidney donor-recipient pair from a low to middle income country and living kidney donor-recipient pair(s) from a high income country. Although this chapter describes a case report of an ethical bi-organ exchange, bi-organ exchanges and GKE are usually unjust because they challenge the fair selection of donors. Bi-organ exchanges and GKE also raise significant deferential and infrastructural vulnerability challenges that threaten the donor’s ability (autonomy) to provide a voluntary and informed consent.
Doing Without (Arguing about) Desert
Authors: Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter was originally a contribution to a book symposium on Manuel Vargas’ Building Better Beings (2013a), focusing on the revisionist treatment of desert therein. By means of an analogy between morality and sport, it examines some seemingly peculiar implications of Vargas’ teleological and revisionary account of desert. It also considers some general questions of philosophical methodology provoked by revisionary approaches.
No Excuses
Authors: Amaya Santiago , Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

Philosophical accounts of moral responsibility are standardly framed by two platitudes: blame requires (1) the presence of a moral defect in the agent and (2) the absence of excuses. In this essay, this kind of approach is challenged. It is argued that (a) people sometimes violate moral norms due to performance mistakes, (b) it often appears reasonable to hold them responsible for it, and (c) their mistakes cannot be traced to their moral qualities or to the presence of excuses. In the end, the implications for discussions of moral responsibility are discussed.
Précis of Talking to Our Selves
Authors: Doris John M.
Published: December 2021

One of the most unsettling lessons from recent psychological research is that people are routinely mistaken about the origins of their behavior. Yet philosophical orthodoxy holds that the exercise of morally responsible agency typically requires accurate self-awareness. If the orthodoxy is right, and the psychology is to be believed, people characteristically fail to meet the standards of morally responsible agency, and we are faced with the possibility of skepticism about agency. This chapter is derived from Doris’s Talking to Our Selves (2015b), which responds to the skeptical threat by developing an “anti-refectivist” dialogic theory, where the exercise of morally responsible agency emerges through a collaborative conversational process by which human beings, although afflicted with a remarkable degree of self-ignorance, are able to realize their values in their lives.
Introduction
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2021

Chapter 1 explains and motivates the project of advancing an African moral theory, after which it provides an overview of the book. An African moral theory is a basic, comprehensive principle distinguishing right from wrong actions that is informed by mores salient particularly in the sub-Saharan region. It is advanced as a rival to the principles of utility and of respect for autonomy, the primary Western answers to the important question of what all right actions have in common. Part I of the book discusses the meta-ethical issue of how to justify an African moral theory. Part II identifies three major candidates for a moral theory in the African tradition, and argues that one, grounded on communal relationship, is most promising. Part III argues that the relational moral theory does better than the principles of utility and of respect for autonomy at accounting for a wide array of applied controversies.
Reconsidering Ontology’s Relevance
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2021

This chapter and the next are methodological, focused on how to justify a moral theory. Many African philosophers believe that ethical claims follow immediately from ‘external’, metaphysical ones about human nature that must be established first. For example, Kwame Nkrumah maintains that an egalitarian ethic follows directly from a prior physicalist ontology, and Kwame Gyekye contends that his ‘moderate communitarian’ morality is derived from a certain conception of the self. Chapter 2 shows how these and similar rationales fail to clear the ‘is/ought gap’, as it is known in Western meta-ethics, and also how strategies one might use to bridge the gap do not work. It concludes that a more suitable way to defend a moral theory is to argue ‘internally’ to morality by appealing to intuitions, i.e., by determining which comparatively more controversial general principle of right action easily entails and best explains less controversial particular moral claims.
Communal Relationship
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2021

The previous two chapters addressed African moral theories according to which relationality has a merely instrumental status, viz., is good solely as a means to the advancement of either the common good or vital force. Chapter 6 begins to make the case for taking harmonious or communal relationship to be what should be pursued as an end for the African tradition. Drawing particularly on ideas from Desmond Tutu, it provides a detailed reconstruction of sub-Saharan understandings of harmony or communality, and points out that, as the combination of sharing a way of life with others and caring for their quality of life, it is similar to what English-speakers label ‘friendliness’. It also provides reason to reject extant, consequentialist principles according to which such a relationship is a final good (or goal) that is to be promoted, roughly because they cannot ground human rights.
Internationalized Statism
Authors: Thatcher Mark , Vlandas Tim
Published: December 2021

This chapter sets out the analytical framework of ‘internationalized statism’ developed and applied in the book. Although the West is said to be living in an age of internationalized ‘economic (neo-)liberalism’, where capital flows have been liberalized, a ‘new statist’ literature argues that the role of the state has not declined as it adapts and finds novel instruments and forms of action to govern economies. Building on new statist studies, the chapter introduces the concept of ‘internationalized statism’: policies to use foreign states to govern domestic economies. It develops the concept, notably by distinguishing between the extent and form of internationalized statism. It underlines that whilst most political economy studies have focused on private international capital flows, states themselves can use liberalization of financial markets to cross borders, offering new opportunities for policy makers in recipient states to find allies and resources for economic governance Policies towards equity investments bynon-Western Sovereign Wealth Funds (SWFs) offer an empirically and theoretically important example of internationalized statism: SWFs are large and growing; most SWFs are in non-democratic countries; equity purchases offer the potential for overseas influence or control over companies. The chapter then sets out the book’s research design: four country case studies are chosen because of variations in different relevant explanatory factors. It concludes that the concept of internationalized statism contributes to understanding how national policy makers use state economic internationalization to govern their domestic economies.
Understanding Roman London
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

This chapter reviews the theoretical and methodological approaches that have been applied to the archaeological study of Roman London. It explores the role and relevancy of inductive and hypothetico-deductive research methodologies, contrasting the research directions taken by academics and professional fieldworkers. The chapter then describes the evolution of current approaches to stratigraphic excavation, including the pioneering approaches to open-area urban excavation developed by the archaeologists of the Museum of London. Attention is then given to how relative and absolute chronologies are established, giving emphasis to the exceptional importance of both dendrochronology and pottery type-series. A brief review of the research environment concludes by questioning the relevance of ‘Romanization’ as a concept for the study of Roman London. It is explained how the goal of this study is to use the wealth of descriptive documentation now available to understand how and why London changed through time. This justifies the adoption of a more traditional approach to the use of archaeological results to reconstruct historical narrative.
Before London
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

The idea that London had pre-Roman origins is considered, but dismissed for the want of evidence from both within and around the city. The pre-settlement landscape and topography of the region is described, tracing the course and character of the Thames and London’s other rivers including the lost Walbrook. The pre-history of the London basin is summarized, and London’s place in the emerging political landscape of late Iron Age Britain reviewed. It is concluded that the area where Roman London was established lay on the border of earlier polities and that the Thames constituted a boundary zone and relative backwater. The sites of pre-Roman farmsteads within this landscape are identified and described, including important settlements at Bermondsey and Southwark that may have been occupied at the time of the Roman conquest. It is speculated that London gained its Roman name and identity from these pre-Roman farmsteads on the south bank of the river, making it a place of Kent. The city itself was a Roman creation, made possible by the political unification of southern Britain through the force of conquest.
The Roman invasion (c. AD 43)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

The chapter reviews the current state of understanding over London’s origins. Most recent studies have argued that London was built as a trading settlement c. AD 50, but the unpublished results of excavations in the City reveal the outline of a fortified Claudian enclosure. This may be the lost fort that the Roman historian Cassius Dio describes as having been established on the banks of the Thames at the time of the Roman conquest. This new evidence is used to suggest that London was founded in the summer of AD 43 and was the place where the Roman army waited on the arrival of the emperor Claudius, before marching on Colchester. The origins of London Bridge are also reviewed, and the argument that a ford existed at Westminster is dismissed as improbable. This is the most authoritative contemporary review of the circumstances that lead to the creation of London, and the closest that we have to a definitive statement on the birth of the city.
The Boudican revolt (c. AD 60–1)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

London was destroyed in AD 60/61 by British rebels following the Icenian queen, Boudica. This chapter describes the archaeological traces of fire destruction, and reviews the contribution that the archaeological study of London makes to our understanding of the date and course of the revolt. Arguments concerning London’s unusual status are reviewed, and it is suggested that the city remained under the close control of the governor and imperial procurator. The urban community was dominated by an immigrant community with tastes developed on the Rhineland frontier. The absence of any evidence for the involvement of a local land-owning elite in civic affairs is identified as an important peculiarity of political arrangements in London.
Bread and circuses (c. AD 70–80)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

Roman London was enlarged and enhanced in the years immediately following Vespasian’s accession in ways that corresponded with the known ideological goals of the new Flavian regime. As a consequence the city came to be characterized by an imperial architecture of ‘bread and circuses’. This involved the construction of a new amphitheatre for the conduct of games associated with the imperial cult and as the likely site of public executions. Watermills drawing on the latest engineering technology were installed to allow the large-scale preparation of flour to supply local bakeries. Early Flavian investment also involved the creation of new administrative facilities, perhaps including a mansio in Southwark, and new urban districts allowing military and veteran settlement. Cycles of subsequent investment hint at a correlation between building programmes in London and preparations for new campaigns of advance launched on the arrival of new provincial governors.
The urban hinterland
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

The Roman roads radiating from London attracted a series of roadside settlements, suitably distanced to have been stopping points after a day’s slow travel by ox-drawn cart and for cattle drovers. These were also places from which local estates might have been managed and where taxes could be raised at the intersection between urban and rural economies. Whilst the outlines of this road system and settlement network were Claudio-Neronian in origin, it was significantly enhanced in the Flavian period. Several important suburban villas were also established along the banks of the Thames at this time, although the wider landscape contains surprisingly few Roman villas. This was perhaps because of the relative unimportance of local land-ownership to the formation of power within the early town.
Augusta (c. AD 350–80)
Authors: Perring Dominic
Published: December 2021

London’s later Roman defences were enhanced by a series of towers, or bastions, likely to have been built in association with military campaigns in Britain in the 360s. The revived walled city housed important institutions of Roman government, several of which were later described in the Notitia Dignitatum, and was renamed Augusta. This chapter reviews the archaeological evidence for the fourth century city set within its historical context. It also summarizes the uncertain evidence of London’s first Christian communities, and considers the extent to which new institutional arrangements gave rise to new forms of public architecture.
Indian Civil Servants
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

The chapter explores a case study of the 1829 prosecution by the young Charles Trevelyan of Sir Edward Colebrooke, the East India Company’s Resident in Delhi, as a means to illustrate many of the themes covered by the book. The case highlights the distinction between gifts and bribes; social norms that blurred definitions of corruption; the overlap between public and private interests; the reliance of Britons on native agents who could themselves be seen as corrupt; the ‘systems’ of corruption that grew up around powerful officers; the politics of anti-corruption; the role of the press in exposing or vindicating corruption allegations; and the ways in which corruption could be gendered and racialised. Trevelyan went on to help write a report in 1854 which is often seen as the blueprint for the modern civil service, and the interaction of Indian and British affairs is an important theme of the book.
Conceptualising Office
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

The chapter examines what early modern Britons understood by ‘office’ and its relationship with corruption. It adopts a broad definition of office, since the boundary between ‘public’ and ‘private’ office was something worked out during the period 1600–1850, and office in a mercantile corporation such as the East India Company was something of a hybrid. The discussion traces the evolution over the period of the notion of ‘public office’ and highlights a landmark legal case in 1783 that defined misconduct in public office. The second half of the chapter examines the secondary literature on office and seeks to connect work on ‘modern’ conceptions of office, which is often seen as emerging from the 1780s onwards, with research into earlier ideas and practices.
Trust, Standards of Public Office, and Corruption
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

The central contention of this chapter is that the legal and political history of trust is also a history of the development of public office. ‘Trust’ helped to define and restrain the abuse of office in the early modern period. Originally a Roman legal concept, fiduciary trust was designed in the sixteenth century to protect private property rights but came to be applied, in the mid-seventeenth century, to public (and commercial) office to help describe, but also tackle, the abuse of powers exercised by officeholders. By the nineteenth century its standards and criteria had become widely shared norms—so much so, that we have largely forgotten their origins and the cultural factors that shaped their genesis. Trust and ‘breach of trust’ had great discursive power but also had juridical reach.
Interest and Disinterestedness
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores the abuse of trust when an official’s interest conflicted with that of the entrusting power or beneficiary of the trust, or where an agent’s multiple roles conflicted with each other so that the performance of a trust was compromised. Trust and interest were, it is argued, intertwined, since entrusted power demanded disinterestedness. The chapter relates the emergence of the ‘language’ of interest in the seventeenth century to debates about the competing and conflicting interests. Over the period, measures were put in place in both commercial and political office to go some way to separating competing interests and to subordinate the pecuniary self-interests of officials to the trusts from their companies or the public. Long before 1850 ‘conflict of interest’ had become an established lexicon and concept, used to debate, define and tackle corruption in office.
Public Money, Public Accounts, and Accountability
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

Trust carried within it a duty of accountability, not only to show that the trustee acted in the interests of the entrustor or beneficiary but also to account financially for moneys that an entrusted official handled. This chapter examines formal methods of accountability in an age of an expanding state and empire. The chapter highlights the ambiguities over how far officials could, legally and morally, profit from public money in their hands and hence whether ‘abuse’ of public money constituted ‘corruption’. The failures of good oversight in the corporations and both the domestic and imperial contexts are stressed. The analysis then turns to the development and (at times transformative) influence of public accounts committees and commissions, beginning in the mid-seventeenth-century revolution. Throughout, the emphasis is on how long the process of achieving formal accountability took and the slow change of mentalities behind the regulatory innovations.
The Politics of Anti-Corruption
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

As other chapters have made clear, the corruption of politics was a concern of the pre-modern era, especially in relation to political officers. Yet alongside the corruption of politics there was also a very strong politics of corruption. ‘Anti-corruption’ was nearly always political, in the sense of having a political agenda, implicit or explicit, behind it. This chapter argues that these political dimensions need to be recognised more than they have been. The chapter examines the ‘work’ done by the discourse of corruption, underlining its emotive power and its capacity both to challenge political rules and to help define boundaries of legitimate behaviour. The politics of anti-corruption is highlighted in the imperial context through a case study of early eighteenth-century Barbados. The chapter then examines these political functions in relation to the many highly politicised impeachments for corruption, from 1621 to 1806.
Sale of Office
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

The chapter charts a shift in attitudes to the sale of office, from the Jacobean period, when it seems to have been relatively commonplace, to the early nineteenth century, when the practice was formally banned for most offices (except those in the army). This reflected a shift away from the idea of office as personal property towards office as a public duty, and away from the idea of office as generating informal, personal profit beyond the public, formal remuneration decided by the state or corporation. But the shift was a protracted and messy one, with an ongoing contest between different ways of thinking about venality. For some it was a pragmatic issue, often related to customary norms, that did not imperil the morality or the smooth running of the state; for others, it represented an immoral pursuit of self-interest and avarice that posed a dangerous threat to the polity.
Conclusion
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

The chapter summarises key changes between 1600 and 1850 in the concept and practice of corruption and officeholding, and examines the factors pushing for, and restraining, such shifts. The discussion underlines the importance of analysing trust and distrust; of examining the interaction of corruption and anti-corruption; taking a long view of corruption in office; and of combining metropolitan and colonial perspectives. Britain is also placed in a wider context including other European powers and empires, to show some similarities but also interesting differences in pathways. The latter suggest that reform had to be fitted to local contexts and that we need a future comparative research agenda to explore how these shaped varying chronologies, concepts and practices of corruption, anti-corruption, office, and accountability.
Policy Implications
Authors: Knights Mark
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers a short summary of policy implications raised by the book’s historical research. It comments on the speed and nature of change; the importance of context and state formation; the vital role of public deliberation as well as official compliance; the politics of anti-corruption; and the socio-cultural dimensions that frame what constitutes corruption in office. It is argued that policies should be bottom-up and deliberative as well as top-down and formal; that anti-corruption is a protracted, political and contested process which involves personal, institutional and systemic issues as well as extensive public discussion of ethical questions; that rule-change is easier to achieve than culture-change but reform requires both; that the art of governance is a balance between trust and distrust of office-holders, and between formal and informal modes of accountability; and that history is useful in offering data about the process of anti-corruption and influence of the past.
Immigration and the Progressive’s Dilemma
Authors: Holtug Nils
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 considers an influential argument for severely limiting immigration, based on the progressive’s dilemma. According to this argument, immigration leads to ethnic diversity, and ethnic diversity drives down trust and solidarity and so the social basis for egalitarian redistribution. The premise that ethnic diversity drives down trust and solidarity is critically discussed, primarily by reviewing a large empirical literature. It is argued that the evidence is less clear than it is often thought, and that even in studies that do find a negative effect of diversity, it tends to be small. Furthermore, there are a number of ways in which states can moderate any negative impacts diversity may have on social cohesion. Finally, a number of theoretical explanations for why diversity might be expected to drive down trust and solidarity are considered, and it is argued that they do not ultimately support the argument for restrictive immigration policies.
Liberalism
Authors: Holtug Nils
Published: December 2021

Chapter 8 argues that liberal values of freedom and equality not only form the basis for social justice (as argued in Chapter 4), but shared liberal values also provide a social basis for trust, solidarity, and egalitarian redistribution. More specifically, it is argued that shared liberal values have positive institutional, distributive, and direct value effects on social cohesion. Rawls made similar claims, but here a more thorough argument is provided. First, shared liberal values facilitate electoral support for universal, social democratic welfare states, which are conducive to institutional and generalized trust and redistributive solidarity. Second, shared liberal values facilitate electoral support for egalitarian redistribution, where socio-economic equality tends to promote trust and solidarity. And third, shared liberal values have direct value effects, where people who share such values tend to have a more inclusive conception of their in-group, and extend their trust and solidarity to, for example, immigrants.
Multiculturalism
Authors: Holtug Nils
Published: December 2021

Where multiculturalists have argued that shared multicultural values and multicultural policies may form the basis for national unity and secure the allegiance of minorities to the polity and its members, critics have suggested that multiculturalism fractures society and promotes commitments to ethnic in-groups rather than trust and solidarity at the societal level. Based on a review of existing studies, this chapter concludes that multicultural policies do not seem to make much of a difference for these aspects of social cohesion, but that insofar as they do have an impact, it seems to be positive. More importantly, multicultural values seem to have positive direct value effects, not only on out-group trust and solidarity, but also on trust and solidarity in the in-group. Thus, as argued in Chapter 4, multicultural policies are in some cases supported by concerns for equality, and there is furthermore no evidence that such policies are detrimental to the social basis for egalitarian redistribution. In fact, the evidence suggests that states can strengthen social cohesion by engaging in community-building based on liberal and multicultural values.