bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Graduate School
Authors: Schindler Thomas E.
Published: August 2021

This chapter relates how Esther Zimmer began working in bacteriology. At the beginning of September 1944, twenty-one-year old Esther Zimmer set off on a solitary four-day train journey to Palo Alto, California. Soon after arriving she met Edward Tatum, who was so impressed with her understanding of genetics that he invited her to be his teaching assistant in the graduate course in genetics. During the summer between her first and second years in graduate school, Zimmer took two courses in bacteriology taught by Cornelius van Niel. His bacteriology courses inspired a generation of molecular biologists and energized Zimmer’s engagement with bacteria, the model organisms that she would study for the rest of her scientific career. Back at Palo Alto, during the fall of 1945, she prepared the mutant bacterial strains of E. coli K-12 that Joshua Lederberg would use for his breakthrough experiments in bacterial conjugation.
What She Did for Love
Authors: Schindler Thomas E.
Published: August 2021

This chapter reviews the marked asymmetry exhibited by the Lederberg collaboration. After 1958 when he won the Noble Prize, Joshua’s career took off while Esther’s sharply declined. For the awards ceremonies in Stockholm, Esther was demoted to Nobel wife. Coincidentally, 1958 was the year that Rosalind Franklin died, which disqualified her for sharing the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the DNA double helix. Franklin’s exceptional X-ray diffraction micrographs of DNA provided the critical evidence for Watson and Crick’s chemical model of DNA. In 1947, Gerty and Carl Cori were the first scientific couple to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. An exceptional complementarity distinguished the Cori relationship. More often, husband and wife collaborations are asymmetric: for six out of the seven other couples who earned one Nobel Prize, the husband alone received the award. Unlike most of their colleagues, B. O. Dodge congratulated both Lederbergs for achieving together the Nobel Prize.
Introduction
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

This introductory chapter summarizes the book and its division into three parts and numerous chapters. The introduction discusses five themes, beginning with a summary and overview of the book, followed by a similar overview of the halal industry and its market presence. Part I, bearing the title “Shariah Perspectives,” occupies about two-thirds of the book, whereas the other two parts expound halal developments in Malaysia and a select number of other countries. Then follows a review of the roles of culture and what may be customarily considered as harmful and unclean. There is also a brief history of meat eating.
Shariah
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

In addition to a concise review of the meaning and definition of shariah, the chapter introduces the sources of shariah, including the two main types of revealed and rational sources and their subdivisions. The history of shariah (“the way to the watering place,” or “the path to correct guidance, salvation, and relief”) is occupied with scholastic developments and the embodiment of what became known as fiqh, which consists mainly of the practical rules of Islamic law that regulate the daily lives of Muslims. Shariah is a broad concept that is not confined to legal rules but comprises the totality of guidance that God Most High has revealed to humankind, pertaining to the dogma of Islam, its moral values, and its practical legal rules.
Halal and Tayyib Compared
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

This chapter differentiates between two largely concurrent yet also different shariah concepts: halal and tayyib (lit. pure, clean). Both refer to lawful varieties of food, yet tayyib adds the dimension of quality and natural appeal. Tayyib refers to objects, acts, and conduct that are not only permissible (halal, mubah) but also considered to be pure, clean, and wholesome by the people of sound nature. The term invokes people’s approval, often regardless and independently of customary practice. Some foods may be lawful, such as the desert lizard and locusts, yet can hardly be regarded as tayyib. Shariah scholars and halal industry operators are now taking renewed interest in tayyib.
The Prohibited (Haram)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

Almost every aspect of halal is essentially concerned with what is the opposite of halal, namely the haram. Hence, haram is treated in considerable depth and in several sections that deal with the types and grounds of haram, such as manifest harm, filth, intoxication, and unlawful acquisition. Haram may be defined as “all that which the Lawgiver (al-shariʿ) has prohibited in definitive terms, and its perpetrator is liable to a punishment in this world or the Hereafter.” It is thus a binding demand from the Lawgiver in respect of abandoning something, and it is conveyed in a variety of linguistic expressions, as the chapter elaborates.
Haram, Permanence, and Change
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

The principle of istihalah in shariah is concerned with substance transformation, either naturally or through chemical and other forms of intervention. When a forbidden substance is transformed such that it is no longer the same, then so are the rules of shariah concerning it. Thus, when alcohol turns into vinegar through exposure to open air or other chemical processes, istihalah will apply. Istihalah may be characterized as a nonreversible change of a substance to a different substance with differences in taste, color, and odor. The changes that so occur include a change of salient properties and the transformation of impure materials into pure ones. Istihalah can thus be understood as a complete physical and chemical transformation of one substance into another substance.
Necessity (Darurah) and Forgetfulness (Nisyan)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

The rules of shariah make exceptions for cases of necessity when, for instance, one has to take forbidden food in order to save one’s life. But necessity (darurah) has its own set of rules, which this chapter addresses in detail. Briefly, darurah is defined as a situation that entails fear for loss of one’s life, affliction with grave bodily injury, or loss of property and honor with a degree of certainty that arises from one’s knowledge of the situation such that it leaves the victim with no choice for an alternative. The same analysis applies to forgetfulness (nisyan), which is when someone takes forbidden stuff by mistake or due to ignorance. In such a case, the person is exonerated by shariah.
The Recommended (Mandub)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

The recommended (mandub) is the opposite of the reprehensible (makruh). Mandub (also known as sunnah, mustahab, or nafl) denotes an act or conduct that the shariah has recommended, but which is not binding. Certain foods are not only halal but recommendable when taken, such as eating dates for Muslims at breakfast time in Ramadan, or when food combines the qualities of tayyib. To comply with the mandub earns one spiritual rewards, but no punishment is imposed for its neglect. The schools of law have employed a variety of other expressions for mandub, all of which share the basic meaning of recommendable and praiseworthy, albeit with finer distinctions that often consist of sound advice and cultural refinement
Requirements of a Valid Slaughter
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

This chapter expounds the industry practices in halal slaughter that consist of rituals: the recitation of God’s name and a special phrase at the time of slaughter, and also that the slaughterer is a Muslim, and that the animal fulfills certain conditions and is handled in ways that comply with shariah. The rituals of a valid slaughter and its accompanying requirements of sanitation and cleanliness are fairly well known to the halal industry, and mostly correspond with the prevailing practices of many majority Muslim countries. The scriptural rationale of slaughtering is that God Most High has permitted only pure and clean food.
Gray Areas and Doubtful Matters (al-Shubhat, Mashbuh, Mashkuk)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

The term “gray areas” refers to certain intervening (and often undetermined) matters that fall between the halal and haram. The rules of halal and haram are not exhaustive of all situations and animal types. Doubts may arise mainly because of two factors: either the source evidence of the shariah is not free from doubt in respect of meaning or authenticity, or its application to a particular subject or case is uncertain. Some animals (birds, marine creatures, etc.) are not mentioned in the fiqh books, and one is not sure whether they are lawful or otherwise. Items such as gelatin, insulin, and food additives are also doubtful. This chapter examines these and other doubtful situations, and also what should be done when they arise.
The Role of Custom (‘Urf)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

A great number of the shariah rules on halal and haram in foodstuffs relate to the customary practices (‘urf) of people in different regions and continents. The rules of fiqh have often adopted the customary preferences of people that did not violate any of the basic principles of Islam. This chapter examines general custom (‘urf, ‘adah), which is a recognized source of law and judgment in Islamic jurisprudence. It is defined as “recurrent practices that are acceptable to people of sound nature.” Custom represents the people’s convenience, but it is rejected if it is in conflict with a clear injunction of shariah.
Selection (Takhayyur, also Takhyir)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

The principle of selection (takhayyur) allows the mufti and the generality of Muslims to select among the various positions available in the works of the different schools (madhhabs) of Islamic law in reference to particular issues. Sometimes there may be five or six different positions or interpretations available, and Muslims are allowed to select the most suitable to their situation. Takhayyur also applies within the one and the same school when an individual, be it a scholar-jurist or a commoner, opts for a minority or less preferred position that may be available within his or her own school of following.
Fatwa Issuance in Malaysia
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: August 2021

This chapter expounds the fatwa issuance procedures as stipulated in the laws of Malaysia, together with a selection of fatwas that have been issued in response to halal-related issues. Fatwa issuance on matters of permitted and prohibited foodstuffs is entrusted in Malaysia to the state religious authorities, namely the state fatwa committee and the national fatwa committee. Fatwa issuance functions in Malaysia are basically a state matter and are regulated, in turn, under the state enactments, which authorize the state mufti and the sultan to issue and ratify fatwas.
Spiritual Atheist Scientists
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R.
Published: August 2021

Spiritual atheists comprise the smallest subset of atheist scientists in the U.S. and U.K. Unlike modernists (who are not spiritual) and culturally religious atheists (who participate in religion), spiritual atheist scientists construct alternative value systems without affiliating with religious traditions. Many cast spirituality in emotional terms of awe and wonder provoked through scientific understanding of the world, while others frame their spirituality in terms of the dimensions of life that cannot be explained through science. Such constructions of spirituality are consequential for secular spiritual practices. For scientists, these involve scientific work itself, morality in relationships, personal wellness practices, and resources for coping with adversity.
What the Hell, English?
Authors: Okrent Arika , O’Neill Sean
Published: August 2021

This chapter provides an overview of the oddities of the English language. It begins by looking at the poem of Dutch writer Gerard Nolst Trenité and how he spent his career nitpicking defense of his own native language. Nolst Trenité saw that the Dutch language had its own inconsistencies. His complaints about the way his fellow citizens butchered the Dutch language were different from his complaints about English, but they came from the same expectation that language should be a logical, orderly system. The patterns are often overshadowed by what looks like randomness, and there are irregularities everywhere, not just in the spelling system. At every level of language, from spelling to vocabulary to grammar to word order to meaning there are violations of harmony and order. This book is thus a collection of answers to questions about English. It also presents a history of English that explores the tension between logic and habit in language development.
Blame the Barbarians
Authors: Okrent Arika , O’Neill Sean
Published: August 2021

This chapter tells the story of how English got to be the weird way it is, which begins with the Germanic languages and the barbarians who spoke them. During the 5th century, an assortment of them poured across the North Sea, from what is today Denmark, the Netherlands, and Northern Germany, and conquered most of England. After about a century of the Germanic tribes taking over and settling in, the Romans returned. This time it was not soldiers but missionaries who arrived. The monks who came to convert the island to Christianity brought their Latin language with them, and they also brought the Latin alphabet. They set about translating religious texts into the language of the people they encountered, a language that by this time had coalesced into something that was Old English. However, there is another group of barbarians to blame: the Vikings. Their language was similar enough to Old English that they could communicate with the Anglo-Saxons without too much difficulty, and over time their own way of speaking mixed into the surrounding language, leaving vocabulary and expressions behind that do not quite fit the rest of the pattern at the old Germanic layer.
Verb phrase I-topics in German
Authors: Hogoboom Anya , Lee-Schoenfeld Vera
Published: August 2021

German is noteworthy for allowing agentive vPs to front, albeit under very specific conditions. This chapter examines the prosodic requirements for such phrases to front, comparing them with those for fronted lexical VPs as well as with the prosody of unfronted vPs/VPs. The results of a production study are shown, and it is determined that the prosodic condition is identical to the “hat contour” that is more widely, but optionally, used in the language for other contrastive topics, so-called I(ntonation)-topics. This investigation of vP/VP I-topics, which are typically more complex than DP/PP I-topics, sheds light on previously-unknown aspects, such as the fact that the characteristic L*+H (low rising) intonation of the hat contour generally falls on the rightmost nominal in the I-topic. The range of variation in the realization of hat contours is discussed, as well as the key intonational differences between I-topicalization and what we call regular (focus) fronting.
VP-fronting within a movement typology
Authors: Travis Lisa deMena , Massam Diane
Published: August 2021

Van Urk (2015) proposes that the A/A’ distinction doesn’t follow from the landing site of the movement (e.g. Spec, CP vs. Spec, TP), but from the details of the features found in the probes. In this paper, we extend this characterization of movement typology to ‘spinal movement’ (movement of projections along the spine of the syntactic structure), in this case VP movement, proposing that there are A and A’ equivalents to VP movement. We then extend the typology to include a third type of movement, which we label C(ategorial)-movement as it is sensitive to the shared category feature of the extended projection. As expected, this movement has a distinct set of characteristics which follow from the nature of the probe. We close the paper with a discussion of word order more generally (as in Cinque (2005)) and a discussion of how head movement might fit into this typology.
Clause-initial Vs in sign languages: Scene-setters
Authors: Napoli Donna Jo , Sutton–Spence Rachel
Published: August 2021

In our study, we seek to determine for sign languages the conditions under which a predicate can precede all its arguments. We consider data from the sign languages of Australia, Brazil, Britain, the Netherlands, and Sweden, examining interviews (informative dialogues) and narratives (monologues). While pressures of visualization converge to make SOV and SVO the unmarked orders in sign languages for most predicates, existential and presentational predicates may appear in sentence-initial position. In such instances, the predicate is a scene-setter, establishing a broad understanding of how we are to interpret the event we are about to visualize. We argue that pressures of visualization are again at work. Since sign languages are largely iconic – where the articulation itself brings up visual images – there is a stronger pressure for them to align articulation with mental visualization than for spoken languages; the goal of clear communication calls for this alignment whenever possible.
Modifying the Framework
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 3 evaluates the course correction that transition economists took in the mid-1990s to focus on institution-building and away from the idea that market forces would produce needed institutions. Contrary to the initial assumptions of transitional reformers, the chapter demonstrates that the speed of establishment and the stringency of adherence to free market principles were not the main determining factors of successful transition. Rather, levels of foreign direct investment and geographical proximity to European Union markets proved to be far better determinants of economic success than the strictness of a nation’s adherence to the recommendations of international institutions. Inequality increased dramatically during transition, rendering some economic data meaningless. Even in countries with rising GDP per capita, a majority may still have been left behind.
The Mortality Crisis
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 6 considers the roots of the mortality crisis that many postsocialist countries faced in the 1990s and the declining life expectancies that some countries continue to face, while others have increased dramatically. It shows how privatization dismantled socialist health care systems leading to significant deteriorations in health outcomes in some countries and how the privatization of previously state-run breweries and distilleries and deregulation of sales led to increased alcohol consumption. The chapter also evaluates rampant alcohol dependency and abuse as a significant factor in declining life expectancy and increasing mortality rates, and points to the psychosocial stress of transition as a major root cause for alcoholism, cardiovascular disease, and suicide.
Collapse in Fertility
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 7 explores the links between precipitous declines in fertility rates in most countries and the economic, social, and psychosocial changes associated with transition. It shows how the transitional recession introduced a new level of economic uncertainty in postsocialist society, a major factor in family planning. The chapter describes how institutional and social changes influenced women’s individual decisions to delay or forgo childbearing altogether. It also shows how the elimination of robust state incentives for childbearing after 1989 altered the incentive structure for parenthood, while the privatization of child care and kindergartens, key maternal support structures, led to the closure of many. The implosion of maternal support structures, coupled with “refamilization” plans initiated by many postsocialist governments, pushed women out of the workforce, often depriving families of the resources to have a second child. This chapter also cites the growth of individualism and out-migration of young people as key factors for the decrease in fertility rates.
Disappointment with Transition
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 9 introduces and analyzes public opinion data with a specific focus on the Life in Transition survey conducted in 2006. It points out that citizens of the selected postsocialist countries who were surveyed expressed surprisingly high levels of discontent with markets and democracy, high levels of dissatisfaction with the state of politics in 2006, high levels of overall life dissatisfaction, a distinct lack of support for the coupling of a market economy with democracy, and low levels of public trust and social cohesion. This chapter also points out that these public opinion data came as an immense surprise to Western institutions, especially as the survey was conducted before the 2008 financial crisis during a period of relative success for the surveyed postsocialist countries.
Public Opinion of Winners and Losers
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 10 analyzes public opinion data to identify individuals who were more and less likely to support transitional reforms. In the mid-1990s, significant numbers of disaffected Russians indicated a preference for the old Soviet regime when compared to the current regime or a Western democracy, which suggests evidence for a phenomenon termed “red nostalgia.” Public opinion data also suggest that market capitalism is more popular in Central and Eastern Europe, but that many of those who expressed support for reform did it out of self-interest. The beneficiaries of transition—mostly the wealthy, young, educated, urban, and men—were more likely to support markets and democracy than their demographic counterparts. The chapter shows that across the postsocialist world, differences in support for reform are indicative of widespread belief that transition was being led from above, and that political and economic reforms were being imposed on the socialist masses by liberal elites.
Resistance Is Futile
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 14 explains the factors that prevented popular response against the corruption and economic instability brought on by transitional reforms. It points out that neoliberal atomization of social experience, coupled with economic instability, made social and political activism too costly for those who lived on the knife’s edge. The chapter also shows the importance of growing religious, ethnic, and nationalist movements as forging identity groups that were resistant to internal disputes. It further explores the role of mass out-migration in giving those who were dissatisfied with the social or economic conditions in their home country a route for seeking a better life elsewhere rather than engaging in subversive political movements. The speed and severity of the shift, as well as optimistic beliefs about market capitalism, had substantial effects on individuals’ psychosocial understanding of political and social life that prevented them from engaging in alternate political movements.
Disputes over Genomic Science Are Not Partisan
Authors: Hochschild Jennifer
Published: August 2021

In the contemporary United States, most important societal disputes have become politicized, with the result that there are Republican and Democratic positions to which partisans largely adhere. Interestingly, that is not the case for societal uses of genomic science; controversies surrounding genomics are largely nonpartisan, or its uses are not even considered controversial. Chapter 3 demonstrates this unusual pattern by examining American elected officials’ unanimous support for forensic DNA databases and their silence on scientific DNA databases, the lack of partisanship in legislation and funding for genomics research, and the absence of controversy in the courts around genomics.
Hope and Rejection
Authors: Hochschild Jennifer
Published: August 2021

Chapter 5 examines the remaining two cells in the basic framework: “Hope,” about developing social programs separate from genetic influence, and “Rejection,” emphasizing the hubris of both genetic science and social programming. For each viewpoint, this chapter explores arenas within medical and scientific research (including environmental causes of and cures for disease, and personal choice), criminal justice (including predictive models, epigenetics, and environmental or personal causes), and biogeographical DNA testing (largely rejected except through traditional genealogy in both cells). Chapter 5 provides evidence to support both hope about understanding causes of individual or societal problems and policy interventions to solve them, and the conviction that policy interventions will be a waste of time or actually harmful.
Locating the Public in the Basic Framework
Authors: Hochschild Jennifer
Published: August 2021

Relying on two surveys of randomly selected American adults, Chapter 7 first locates the American public within the basic framework’s four quadrants. The surveys—Genomics: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Policies 1 (GKAP 1), and GKAP 2—were conducted in 2011 and 2017, respectively. Both are stratified by race and ethnicity; GKAP 1 includes almost 4,000 respondents and GKAP 2 includes almost 2,000. Survey items address perceptions of genetic influence and levels of technology optimism; in combination, these items enable respondents to be located in the four cells. Chapter 7 then explores demographic characteristics of individuals in particular cells, and views as revealed through coded responses to open-ended questions. Key findings include: about three-fifths of Americans are Enthusiatic; genetics knowledge is associated with Enthusiasm; racial or partisan differences have little impact on quadrant location; the Hopeful and especially Enthusiasts are committed to medical research or to criminal justice; Skeptics are mistrustful and protective of privacy; Rejecters seek withdrawal and self-protection.
Governing Genomics
Authors: Hochschild Jennifer
Published: August 2021

There is no most-compelling approach for governing genomics technologies, There are several possibilities: Governance may be top-down from experts to the public; it may be sideways, through advocacy groups for particular issues; or it may be bottom-up, resulting from an incident or political framing that engages the public. It may, alternatively, not occur much at all, or be dispersed across many separate arena. Many experts see particular genomics arenas as distinct and requiring separate governance structures, while the public mostly sees its possibilities and risks as a unified whole. A further complication is that residents of each quadrant typically prefer different governance structures, although Enthusiasts and the Hopeful, and (separately) Skeptics and Rejecters, agree more than other pairings. Author Jennifer Hochschild explains why she fits more into the Enthusiasm cell than the others. She reasons that excessive caution about what might go wrong makes innovations in societal and individual benefits difficult to achieve, that genomic scientists are ethically sophisticated and capable of learning to mitigate problems, and that concern about risks tends to be abstract and focused on possibilities, whereas benefits tend to be concrete and demonstrable. Nonetheless, however governance moves forward, it will need to monitor possibilities for racial, class, or genetic discrimination.
The Everyday, Circuitry, and Scalability
Authors: Mac Ginty Roger
Published: August 2021

This chapter unpacks two concepts that lie at the heart of the book: the everyday and circuitry. In order to understand everyday peace, it seems sensible to unpack the notion of the everyday and illustrate why the hyperlocal level is relevant to how peace is embodied and enacted. The chapter defines ‘everyday peace’ and discusses the ‘local turn’ in peace and conflict studies before going on to discuss how we might see the local level in comparison with other scales such as the national, the international, the transnational, and all levels in between. It is here that the chapter uses the notion of biological and electronic circuits as a way of explaining the multi-scalar nature of peace and conflict and the messy connectivity between them. In its final substantive part, the chapter considers how everyday peace might be scaled up and thus become more significant than local-level actions and stances. Important here is the notion of scaling out, or the horizontal spread of civility. This leads us to think about how there can be multi-speed and multilevel peace.
Everyday Peace Power
Authors: Mac Ginty Roger
Published: August 2021

The issue of power is central to everyday peace and all other types of peace. The chapter discusses the dominance of orthodox explanations of power that often rest on coercion. It posits that everyday peace is, in itself, a form of power: Everyday Peace Power (EPP). In order to see everyday peace as a form of power, we need to look beyond orthodox explanations of power (‘power over’) and instead see more emancipatory forms of power such as ‘power to’ or ‘power with’. In this view, there are multiple forms of power, and power is an assemblage within which individuals and those on the margins sometimes have agency. This liberating switch allows us to see how everyday pro-peace and pro-social actions, stances, and logics can pave the way for the disruption of violent conflict.
Gender and Everyday Peace
Authors: Mac Ginty Roger
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the gendered nature of everyday peace. It recognises that many aspects of peace, particularly formal peace processes, are dominated by male elites and are shaped by power relationships. The focus of the chapter is on the family as a site of the incubation of civility and everyday peace, helping to tamp down violence and tension, and steering those in their ambit towards sociality and tolerance. Through a mix of examples and concept-building, the chapter investigates mentoring, restraint, and avoidance as ways that families help processes of moderation. There is no intention to romanticise the family as an always benign environment. Families might also be the site of a negative pedagogy that reinforces and normalises conflict and exclusion. The chapter also emphasises the connectedness or intersectionality of the multiple aspects of peace and conflict.
Another Side of the Christian Left
Authors: Brown Amanda
Published: August 2021

Chapter 4 explores how another manifestation of Thurman’s pragmatism—his Christian liberalism—was represented within the Fellowship Church and beyond. Chapter 4 takes a broader look at Thurman’s activism within the scope of the midcentury Christian Left and examines how the characteristic cosmopolitanism and Christian liberalism of the movement thrived within the institution. The chapter also expands on how the Fellowship Church’s values transcended its walls through connections to a dynamic international community of religious liberals as well as through a thriving liberal religious middlebrow book culture via Thurman’s 1949 book, Jesus and the Disinherited. Overall, this chapter emphasizes the timeliness of the Fellowship Church and sheds light on the expressions of religious nonviolence that took shape in the mid-twentieth century.
A Preliminary Account of Honesty
Authors: Miller Christian B.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 2 examines the existing treatments of honesty in the philosophy literature over the past fifty years. In particular, we will see how well they fare with respect to the four desiderata. Then it presents a new approach, at least initially. That approach will end up needing some significant revision, and that will happen in the remainder of this chapter and in the next four. The key component of the new account is that an honest person does not intentionally distort the facts as she takes them to be. This account is applies to cases of lying, misleading, cheating, stealing, promise-breaking, bullshitting, hypocrisy, self-deception, and metahonesty.
Refining the Account
Authors: Miller Christian B.
Published: August 2021

The account of the virtue of honesty developed in chapter 2 is a promising start. But it needs a lot more improvement. One big omission has to do with honest motivation. That is the topic of chapter 4. This chapter looks at a variety of challenges and potential counterexamples. In doing so, it turns to our second desideratum, avoiding counterintuitive results. In particular the chapter focuses on Nazi-at-the-door cases and the case of Huck Finn. It also explores the idea that honesty pertains to distortions of normative as well as descriptive facts, and the sense in which many of the wrong actions we perform also might fail to be honest.
Research on Stealing and Promise-Breaking
Authors: Miller Christian B.
Published: August 2021

The virtue of honesty encompasses lying, misleading, cheating, stealing, and promise-breaking. This and the next chapter look in some detail at research in psychology and related disciplines which bears on how people tend to think, feel, and act in these areas. In this chapter, section 8.1 does some preliminary stage setting to clarify what the central issue will be of these chapters and how psychological research can help to address it. Sections 8.2 and 8.3 then turn to research on stealing and promise-breaking, respectively. These sections will end up being very short, however, since there is just not much work at this point upon which to draw.
Research on Lying and Cheating
Authors: Miller Christian B.
Published: August 2021

The goal of this chapter is to review a sizable chunk of the research on lying and cheating, while not pretending to cover every study. To organize the studies, each section highlights a different kind of measure used in the literature. Thus section 9.1 looks at self-reported behavior and motivation, 9.2 at responses to vignettes, 9.3 and 9.4 at the coin-flipping approach, 9.5 at the shredder data, 9.6 at the dice-rolling approach, 9.7 at the letter-scramble approach, 9.8 at the computer-glitch data, 9.9 at the dots perceptual task, 9.10 at sender-receiver games, and 9.11 at some miscellaneous approaches.
Autonomy
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: August 2021

This chapter relates the philosophical concept of multiple realizability to the physics concept of universality. It discusses and responds to Elliott Sober’s defense of reductionism in the face of multiple realizability. Further, it introduces an important explanatory question (labelled AUT). This asks how systems that are heterogeneous at some micro-scale can exhibit the same pattern of behavior at the macro-scale. It is shown that reductionists do not have the resources to provide a successful answer. Two, related, answers are proposed. One involving Renormalization Group arguments, the other invoking the theory of homogenization.
Brownian Motion
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses the phenomenon of Brownian motion and Einstein’s pioneering arguments that explained various aspects of it. It shows how Einstein presented two arguments that relate directly to the themes of this book. The first is the upscaling or homogenization to effective continuum parameters from correlational structures in representative volume elements at mesoscales. Einstein’s argument is shown to answer the question about autonomy raised in Chapter 2. The second relates to the Fluctuation-Dissipation theorem. This theorem justifies the mesoscale hydrodynamic description of many-body systems and Einstein provided the first statement of the theorem.
An Engineering Approach
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: August 2021

This chapter begins with a discussion of Julian Schwinger’s “engineering approach” to particle physics. Schwinger argued from a number of perspectives that the very theory (Quantum Electrodynamics, for which he won a Nobel prize) was inadequate. Further, he claimed that an intermediate theory between the fundamental and the phenomenological was superior. Such a theory focuses on a few parameters at intermediate or mesoscales that we employ to organize the world. Schwinger’s motivations were avowedly pragmatic, although he did offer nonpragmatic reasons for preferring such a mesoscale approach. This engineering approach fits well with the idea that the introduction of order parameters in condensed matter physics introduced a natural foliation of the world into microscopic, mesoscopic, and macroscopic levels. It further suggests that a middle-out approach to many-body systems is superior to a bottom-up reductionist approach. The chapter also discusses a middle out approach to multiscale modeling in biology.
Conclusions
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: August 2021

This concluding chapter focuses on the philosophical lessons to be had from the discussions in the previous chapters. Specifically, it suggests that one interesting and fruitful way to understand the relation “theory X is more fundamental than theory Y” is through mediated mesoscale modeling. This is in contrast to the kind of direction derivational connections often invoked in the debates about reduction that depend on “in principle” mathematical claims. The hierarchical ordering in terms of this relation of relative fundamentality can be understood in terms of the conception of relative autonomy discussed throughout the book. It highlights the fact that this point of view has its genesis in Einstein’s work on Brownian Motion and specifically in his determination of an effective material parameter and the first expression of the Fluctuation-Dissipation theorem. Finally, it recaps the conception of an engineering, middle-out approach to many-body physics and the physical arguments that certain mesoscale variables should be considered to be natural kinds.
Introduction
Authors: Rafanelli Lucia M.
Published: August 2021

This chapter proposes that we need a new political theory of global politics to guide us in a world increasingly marked by global interconnection, transnational activism on the part of nonstate actors, and political actors that utilize many different means (besides force and coercion) to exert influence on the world stage. The book develops such a theory by examining how justice-promoting intervention (reform intervention) implicates the values of toleration, legitimacy, and collective self-determination. The book then examines how this theory could be put into practice in the real world. Ultimately, the book argues that some reform interventions are morally permissible and may even be morally required. Moreover, we are sometimes morally required to open our own societies to reform intervention. The book presents a vision of conscientious global political contestation in which the achievement of justice everywhere can be the legitimate political concern of people anywhere.
Beyond the State, beyond War
Authors: Rafanelli Lucia M.
Published: August 2021

This chapter argues it is important to move beyond the focus of most scholarship on the ethics of intervention (on states intervening militarily or with other coercive means) and pay closer attention to interventions undertaken by nonstate actors and/or using less adversarial or coercive means. It clearly delineates the boundaries of the category “reform intervention.” It identifies several dimensions along which reform interventions can vary: the degree of control interveners exercise over recipients, the urgency of interveners’ objectives, the costs an intervention poses to recipients, and how interveners interact with recipients’ existing political institutions. It sketches some preliminary ideas on how these variations might affect an intervention’s permissibility. In so doing, the chapter also introduces several real-world cases of reform intervention.
Collective Self-Determination without Isolation
Authors: Rafanelli Lucia M.
Published: August 2021

This chapter addresses the self-determination objection to reform intervention (that it is impermissible because it undermines recipients’ collective self-determination) and argues that a commitment to self-determination doesn’t require (as is often assumed) shoring up the boundaries between different societies. Rather, it requires investing in those political projects—including certain reform interventions—that serve to mitigate both local and international threats to self-determination. The chapter considers three ways in which reform intervention might undermine recipients’ self-determination: by dominating them, by subjecting them to neocolonial power dynamics, or by making their institutions more responsive to interveners’ interests at the expense of recipients’ interests. It identifies which kinds of reform intervention risk undermining recipients’ self-determination in these ways and which don’t. This analysis reveals that reform intervention need not undermine recipients’ self-determination and may sometimes bolster it.
Conclusion
Authors: Rafanelli Lucia M.
Published: August 2021

Having shown that some reform interventions are, all things considered, permissible, and having developed theoretical standards for identifying them, the conclusion argues that these permissible interventions may sometimes be morally required. Any who believe there is a natural duty of justice (to support and promote the establishment of just institutions) that is global in scope should think people are at least sometimes required to engage in reform intervention. The conclusion also argues that following two of the book’s directives—to prioritize interventions that challenge existing and historical power hierarchies and to open up our own societies to reform intervention—could help alleviate the epistemic injustice suffered by those whose ideas about justice are not currently prominent on the global stage.
Some Firsts
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

Although the public lives and history of giraffes have been well recorded in many books, the story of giraffes told in this book would be incomplete without a brief review of how giraffes first entered into the consciousness of those humans who did not live in Africa. They did so via art and literature. The first appearance of giraffes in literature is probably in the Old Testament, but after that, many other authors wrote of them, in particular Pliny the Elder. Their appearance in art begins with rock paintings in southern and northern Africa, and artwork in Egypt over the period 6000 to 3000 BC. More modern images began appearing ~AD 500 in the first texts that dealt with the natural world. Julius Caesar brought the first living giraffe to Europe, followed by Lorenzo de Medici in the thirteenth century. By the late seventeenth century they had disappeared from public view in Europe except as a stellar constellation.
The Antecedents
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

Giraffes are ruminant artiodactyls and their evolutionary origin can be traced back to the origin of the first artiodactyls about 55 million years ago. Their link to the first artiodactyls depended on the discovery and study of giraffe fossils. The first of those were uncovered in India and, later, in North Africa, the latter bringing recognition that the evolution of modern giraffes had occurred in Africa. The study of fossils was supplemented by simultaneous biological and biochemical studies of giraffes. The combination has allowed the creation of lineage of antecedents starting with a Dichobunid that lived in the Eocene era 55 million years ago, through Hypertragulids and Leptomerycidsof the Eocene, to the Gelocids of the Oligocene and early Miocene. The Gelocids can be regarded as the key ancestral family of all ruminant artiodactyls. From Gelocids arose the sister group of giraffes, the Climacoceratids, and also the Canthumerycids from which giraffes evolved.
The Machinery of Digestion
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses the machinery of digestion in giraffes. The shape of the mouth of giraffes, the shape and number of their teeth, the shape and size of their tongue and the arrangement of the muscles of eating are unique and have evolved to be perfectly suited to the task of browsing. Comminution of browse is eased by large volumes of saliva secreted from salivary glands that relative to body mass are small. The digestive tract of giraffes consists of a rumen, reticulum, and omasum in addition to the usual stomach and intestines found in any mammal. The forestomachs are smaller and the small and large intestines are longer than those of grazer-ruminants. The quality, succulence and consistency of browse reduces the need for prolonged rumination. Movement of browse through the rumen-reticulum is fast, and it is likely that a mixture of plant cell contents and saliva, can bypass the rumen via an esophageal groove, and be deposited directly into the stomach. 40% of daily energy (mainly in the form of volatile fatty acids) is provided by microbial fermentation of browse in the rumen, and 60% derives from intestinal digestion mainly of glucose), rather than the reverse as found in grazer-ruminants. Significant fermentation of undigested fiber (mainly hemicellulose) occurs in the large intestine. The combination of digestive processes results in very efficient use of the nutrients and an apparent digestibility of ~85%, which is high. To provide the browse needed to meet daily energy demand giraffes need a home range of ~60 km2.
Exercise in Giraffes
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

Observation of giraffes reveal that they can run at very high speeds (~60 km h–1) for short periods (~5 minutes) but can also run at lower speeds (40 km h–1) for much longer periods. This combination of these two types of exercise capabilities is unusual. Their short periods of high speed running have the characteristics of anaerobic exercise. Analysis of the fiber types in their gastrocnemius muscle, and estimates of the available anaerobic energy sources support that conclusion. Longer periods depend on aerobic exercise and requires an adequate supply of oxygen to the lungs, adequate delivery of oxygen to muscles, and sufficient mitochondria to use oxygen. Despite the limitations of giraffe airway and lung anatomy the respiratory system of giraffes can supply sufficient oxygen. The volume of mitochondria in giraffe muscles far exceeds the volume required for maximum aerobic exercise. The cardiovascular system has evolved to generate high blood pressure rather than the circulation of high blood volumes, but if the maximum cardiac output is combined with an increase in the number of circulating erythrocytes, then oxygen delivery to muscles can match oxygen demand. Metabolic demand for oxygen can be reduced by an increase in running economy through storage of metabolic energy as elastic energy in tendons, and it is likely that because leg tendons of giraffes are long (~2 m) that the requirement for metabolic energy can be reduced by 30–40%.