bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
In vivo MR imaging and spectroscopy using hyperpolarized 129Xe
Authors: Wagshul Mark E. , Button Terry M. , Li Haifang F. , Liang Zhengrong , Springer Charles S. , Zhong Kai , Wishnia Arnold
Published: March 2007

Hyperpolarized 129Xe has been used to obtain gas phase images of mouse lung in vivo, showing distinct ventilation variation as a function of the breathing cycle. Spectra of 129Xe in the thorax show complex structure in both the gas phase (−4 to 3 ppm) and tissue‐dissolved (190‐205 ppm) regions. The alveolar gas peak shows correlated intensity and frequency oscillations, both attributable to changes in lung volume during breathing. The two major dissolved peaks near 195‐200 ppm are attributed to lung parenchyma and to blood; they reach maximum intensity in 5‐10 s and decay with an apparent T1 of 30 s. Another peak at 190 ppm takes 20‐30 s to reach maximum; this must represent other well‐vascularized tissue (e.g., heart and other muscles) in the thorax. The maximum integrated area of the tissue components reaches 30–80% of the maximum alveolar gas area, indicating that imaging at tissue frequencies can be achieved.
Determination of knee joint cartilage thickness using three‐dimensional magnetic resonance chondro‐crassometry (3D MR‐CCM)
Authors: Eckstein Felix , Gavazzeni Antonia , Sittek Harald , Haubner Michael , Lösch Andreas , Milz Stefan , Englmeier Karl‐Hans , Schulte Erik , Putz Reinhard , Reiser Maximilian
Published: March 2007

The objective of this article was to analyze the accuracy and precision with which the quantitative distribution of articular cartilage can be determined in the knee joint using MRI. A three‐dimensional (3D) technique that accounts for the out‐of‐plane deviation of the interface normal in strongly curved joint surfaces (3D MR‐CCM) has been developed for cartilage thickness measurements. Eight cadaveric knee‐joint specimens and six volunteers were imaged using a fat‐suppressed gradient‐echo sequence at a resolution of 2 × 0.31 × 0.31 mm3. Cartilage volumes and topographical thickness maps were obtained and compared with those derived from anatomical sections by image analysis. The deviation of the MR volumes from those of the sections was 1–12%, the coefficient of variation after repositioning ranged from 2.9% (patella) to 8.2% (lateral tibial plateau). Between 60% and 80% of all image points could be attributed to identical thickness intervals, less than 20% deviating by more than 0.5 mm. The intraobserver and interobserver reproducibilities were very high in both the specimens and the volunteers. In the knee joint, 3D reconstructions of the cartilages, and measurements that take into account the out‐of‐plane deviation of the interface normals (3D MR‐CCM), are required.
Disadvantaged Adult Learners: Can Career Counseling Enhance Adult Education Program Effectiveness?
Authors: Champagne Delight E.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to assess the long-term impact of career counseling on the career development of educationally disadvantaged adult education students. Follow-up questionnaires were mailed to former adult students who participated in adult education classes between 1979 and 1982. The former students had been exposed to two treatments, basic education classes plus career counseling and basic education classes without career counseling.

Eleven dependent variables were examined: (a) educational participation, (b) educational certificate attainment, (c) dependence on public assistance, (d) employment status, (e) self-satisfaction, (f) length of employment, (g) employment gains, (h) income, (i) job satisfaction, (j) length of unemployment, and (k) job-hunting confidence. Multivariate Analyses of Covariance revealed that career counseling has a positive impact on some career development variables of educationally disadvantaged adult learners.
Learning Preference Differences Among Adults In Traditional and Nontraditional Baccalaureate Programs
Authors: Loesch Thomas , Foley Richard
Published: March 2007

This study compared the learning preferences, defined as the choice of one instructional situation over another, of adult students in a nontraditional baccalaureate program with those of adults enrolled in a traditional program. The results showed a significant difference between the two groups in terms of the degree to which they preferred to structure their own learning. Adults in the nontraditional program preferred learning situations which they directed themselves, while the other group preferred those which were structured by the teacher. Both groups had a very strong preference for learning through concrete and applied tasks over those which were abstract in nature. Age and gender were not related to learning preferences. The paper recommends how administration, faculty, and students could use learning preference data for such purposes as individual program planning and the selection of teaching strategies.
A Comprehensive Expectancy Motivation Model: Implications for Adult Education and Training
Authors: Howard Kenneth W.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents a comprehensive expectancy model of motivation and its implications for adult education and training. It traces the origins of valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory from its roots in social learning theory, through its early development and classical forms, to recent, more complex models. The proposed model describes expectancy motivation as part of a larger, dynamic process which includes past experience, motivation, effort, performance, reward, and need satisfaction. This model has significant implications for the design, marketing, and delivery of adult education and training, and for improving the transfer of performance from the classroom or training session to the learners practical situation.
Motivational Profiles of Adult Basic Education Students
Authors: Beder Hal W. , Valentine Thomas
Published: March 2007

This study explores the reasons why low-literate adults participate in Adult Basic Education (ABE). A 62-item scale to measure motivations was constructed based on in-depth interviews with learners; the scale was embedded into a questionnaire surveying a broad array of back-ground variables. Questionnaire data were collected by means of face-to-face, structured inter- views from a large random sample (N= 323) of learners currently enrolled in ABE programs in the state of Iowa; a 50%o random subsample was also administered a test of academic ability. Through factor analysis of the motivation items, ten dimensions were identified: (a) self-improvement, (b) family responsibilities, (c) diversion, (d) literacy development, (e) community/church involvement, (f) job advancement, (g) launching, (h) economic need, (i) educational advancement, and (j) urging of others. Cluster analyses based on factor scores revealed six distinct subgroups of students. Implications are discussed.
A Factor Analytic Study of the Adult Classroom Environment Scale
Authors: Langenbach Michael , Aagaard Lola
Published: March 2007

This study explored the factor structure of Darkenwald and Valentine's Adult Classroom Environment Scale (ACES). The Student Ideal form of the ACES was administered to 449 adult students from a variety of educational settings and a factor analysis was performed. All but 15 of the original 49 items loaded clearly with a five-factor orthogonal solution, which only partially supported the seven dimensions proposed by Darkenwald and Valentine. A revised version of the scale was then administered to an additional 287 adult students. A second factor analysis largely confirmed the stability of the five factor solution, although a tentative sixth factor was identified.
Hidden Logic: Reproduction and Resistance In Adult Literacy And Adult Basic Education
Authors: Quigley B. Allan
Published: March 2007

Nonparticipation in literacy/ABE programs is a critical issue that can be illuminated by reproduction and resistance theory. This study attempts to do this by first analyzing the resistance to schooling of characters in ten works of literary fiction, then applying these findings to traditional literacy/ABE programs to determine if these "second chance" programs discourage the participation of some adults. The results suggest that resistance to schooling occurs when there is a values clash, and, since our literacy/ABE programs largely reproduce the values of the dominant culture, they thereby contribute to the resistance of those outside that culture. Recommendations to increase the involvement of resistant adults are also discussed.
The Ecumenical Movement
Authors: Barnes Roswell P.
Published: March 2007

The ecumenical movement is primarily the result of an internal dynamic arising from religious convictions, but it is also in part a response to social forces and historical developments. It is more inclusive than the major Protestant denominations in the American tradition and broader than the organizations which promote co-operation among the churches. The churches are not seeking to establish a monolithic church structure under centralized authority and control. The councils, in which they achieve order and at the same time maintain their freedom, may be suggestive to other institutions which desire to keep freedom and order in balance in modern mass society. Distinctions must be drawn between unity and uniformity, between agreement and mutual understanding. The community of interest among Christians rests primarily on common presuppositions derived from their faith. Intensive study of differences in doctrine and church polity improves mutual understanding and enlarges the areas of agreement. Participation in the ecumenical movement is changing the perspective of American churches with regard to national and world problems. Extensive association in international consultations and specialized agencies dealing with international affairs, in the missionary enterprise, and in interchurch aid and disaster relief corrects provincialism.
The American Tourist
Authors: Waters Somerset R.
Published: March 2007

The world is experiencing a tourism boom, with America in the leading position in total number of tourists and total dollars spent abroad. If measured in terms of per cap ita spending for foreign travel, however, twenty other nations exceed the United States. International travel expenditures for all of the industrialized nations are growing so rapidly that total world travel expenditures will probably exceed $40 billion annually within ten years. Tourism may play the key role in the future in providing the underdeveloped nations with a much needed new source for foreign exchange required for economic development programs.
Provisionality and Finality
Authors: Seabury Paul
Published: March 2007

International conflicts since World War II have shown a decline in the forms and modalities of beginnings and endings which are characteristic of Western war since the seventeenth century. As the custom of declaring war has become apparently obsolete, so the termination of conflicts involves, at best, accord on provisional settlement, in which authoritative action and agreement on a political settlement are set aside. A stress on provisionality rules out "concord" as a basis for peace. As political strategy, peacekeeping works within a narrow time frame. The article explores strategic perspectives on provisional settlements.
The American College: Some Problems and Choices
Authors: Bressler Marvin
Published: March 2007

Americans have traditionally exhibited an abiding faith in the capacity of higher education to advance their personal and social welfare. However, the available empirical evidence on the impact of college is ambiguous. Some important changes occur during the college years but it is difficult to establish the independent influence of education in producing these outcomes. It is conceivable that the poten tial effects of education have been exaggerated. Efforts to develop more imaginative collegiate programs have been both inhibited and fostered by the preoccupation with financial crises and campus governance. The most prominent ideal conceptions of the collegiate enterprise are presented: scho lastic, vocational, action, utopian, consumer, and experiential. The range of these proposals suggests that college is no longer an elite privilege. The implications of newer developments for admission, and "time and motion," are presented, and some classic issues are identified. The importance of con sidering educational reform from a social as well as individual perspective is illustrated and the difficulty of creating a coherent educational philosophy is discussed.
The Use of Force in Foreign Policy by the People's Republic of China
Authors: Whiting Allen S.
Published: March 2007

President Nixon's "journey for peace" to Peking has implicitly modified the image of a Chinese Communist aggressive threat delineated by all previous administrations. However, it has not explicitly redefined the administration's assumptions on the Chinese use of force. This has left considerable confusion and unease among Asian and American audiences who accept the concept of massive Chinese military force being deterred from aggression primarily by American security commitments, bases, and force postures extending from Korea and Japan to India. The nine instances wherein the People's Liberation Army (PLA) has crossed customary borders in hostile array during the past twenty-two years provide prima facie evidence for the conventional image of a potentially expansionist regime contained by American commitments and force. However, closer examination of the use of military force by the People's Republic reveals an entirely different situation whereby the government in Peking, in most cases, deployed the PLA in defensive reaction against a perceived threat. The Chinese use of force primarily for defensive deterrence has remained remarkably consistent over twenty-one years, and considerable continuity may be anticipated for at least the next five years.
The Specific Theory of Academic Freedom and the General Issue of Civil Liberties*
Authors: Van Alstyne William W.
Published: March 2007

Academic freedom has been blurred in law and in popular usage. Its clarification should enable the Supreme Court to grant it explicit protection under the Constitution as an identifiable subset of First Amendment freedoms. Its identification with the professional endeavors of faculty mem bers, moreover, should reduce the tendency of institutions to intrude upon the aprofessional personal liberties of the faculty even while adequately protecting the extramural professional pursuits of the faculty and assuring them of equal protection in their interests as private citizens. Adjustments of standards by the American Association of University Professors, more definitely distinguishing the special accountability of faculty members for the integrity of their professional endeavors from their roles as private citizens, is long overdue.
European Responses to the American Revolution
Authors: Lipson Leslie
Published: March 2007

The American Revolution has influenced Europe in three ways. First came the impact of the Declara tion in creating a new state. This was the earliest occasion when a colony rebelled and asserted its own right to self- government and nation-statehood. In the nineteenth century, Spain and Portugal lost their colonies in Latin America, and the British began the grant of self-government to theirs. Sec ond, the United States was imbued with the philosophy that individuals have rights which are prior to government. Equality and liberty were prized, but equality came first. The effect on those Europeans who opposed the traditional order was overwhelming, as in France in 1789. America's republicanism was a further challenge to the monarchies of Europe. So too was the movement toward democracy which gathered speed after 1830 with the transfer of political power to the masses. Thirdly, the form of government established by the Constitution offered a new model. Although the presi dency was not copied, federalism was an invention which European countries could utilize. By and large, the dualism which marked the evolution of America's Revolution exerted contrary attractions on a divided European society. Hamil ton's image of America was appealing to some Europeans, Jefferson's vision to others.
Structuring the Global System: American Contributions to International Organization
Authors: Jacobson Harold K.
Published: March 2007

There are important connections between the ideals embodied in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution and policies that the United States pursues in the United Nations and other international institutions. The concepts inherent in the American Revolution, the doctrine that government should rest on the consent of the governed, and the doctrine of limited government, could have provided a basis for American involvement in international politics or for American isolation. During the nineteenth century, the latter was followed, except that the United States ex panded its commercial relations with other countries as had been implied in the Constitution. By proposing the League of Nations, Woodrow Wilson attempted to establish an institu tional framework within which American participation in international politics would be consistent with American ideals. A similar effort was made during World War II. The United States was crucial in structuring the world order that emerged. Achievement of American ideals in this world order has proved to be a complex and demanding task: early euphoria yielded to disillusionment. The U.S. now appears to have a more mature understanding of its shortcomings and the importance of other countries' ideals. It has evidenced a willingness to engage in international institutions to attain American ideals in the same way as within domestic institutions.
The American Occupation of Japan— Perspectives after Three Decades
Authors: Scalapino Robert A.
Published: March 2007

The occupation of Japan provided an unusual opportunity for the United States to influence the patterns of political life in a country that was defeated both psycho logically and physically. Under the personal leadership of General Douglas MacArthur, punishment was dealt to "war criminals," thus reducing severely Japan's military establish ment ; a series of economic and political reforms were instituted, resulting in the constitution of 1947 which has not been amended since. With the rise of the People's Republic of China (1949), the Korean War (1950), and the end of the occupation in the early 1950s, the circumstances of the Cold War led to an alliance between Japan and the United States that stressed the importance of Japan's regional defensive strength rather than the demilitarized posture of the occupation years. The occupation was a signal success for its time and purpose. It is likely that Japan will maintain most of the political changes made by the constitution of 1947 and will continue its special strategic and economic relationship with the United States, while at the same time making accommodations with the PRC and other states in the world, with a stress on Asia.
Talking about Death: Patterns of Lay and Professional Change
Authors: Veatch Robert M. , Tai Ernest
Published: March 2007

For the past thirty years, researchers have surveyed attitudes of providers and patients to the disclosure of the diagnosis and prognosis to the dying cancer patient. Though the lay population has expressed the wish to know over time, a change in provider attitudes is apparent: physicians are now more likely to inform their dying patients of the truth than before. This trend is viewed against a number of precipitating factors: changes in perception of the impact of disclosure and changes in the basic ethical norms related to disclosure with new cohorts of younger physicians reflecting these changes. These correlate with changes in underlying social structure brought about in part by the shift to chronic disease as the paradigm for medical care. With increasingly bureaucratized health care delivery, the physician must collaborate with others who may hold different judgments about what ought to be disclosed. Some nurses not only find it right to disclose, but also in their professional interest. In such settings, honesty may be necessary to avoid conflicting messages to the patient. These shifts may signal underlying shifts in the sick role and in the medical professional role with the patient more active and more knowledgeable in medical decisions and the physician serving as a source of information and counsel.
International Education in a Troubled World
Authors: Burn Barbara B. , Perkins James A.
Published: March 2007

The external and internal environment of the U.S. has changed significantly since World War Two. Our military preeminence has vanished, in economic affairs the American model is not valid for other countries, and the U.S. is no longer the scientific leader of the world. Our foreign policy has become much more closely intertwined with domestic issues among which cultural pluralism is important. In an inter dependent world we cannot solve problems independently but must work in concert with other nations. Expertise on the rest of the world is hence needed as never before in government, business, and especially in the universities. But the system for maintaining and strengthening this expertise is jeopardized by the erosion of financial support. Increasingly needed are specialists who combine foreign language and international studies expertise with training in professional fields, and specialists not only on other countries and geographic regions but also on major international issues such as energy and economic development. Paralleling the need for specialists is the need for greater international education for our citizens. This calls for much greater efforts in kindergarten through twelfth grade, in undergraduate studies, in foreign language teaching at all levels, and in adult and community education. The President's Commission directed recommendations on these matters to the federal and state governments, to schools, colleges and universities, and to the public at large. It is hoped that a privately funded national council, the establish ment of which was recommended by the Commission, will assist in seeing that the national needs in foreign language and international studies are met.
Toward an Integrated Approach of Urban Development and Resources Conservation: The Case of Louvain-la-Neuve
Authors: Laconte Pierre
Published: March 2007

In contrast with the overall disurbanization of Belgium, the planning and development of the new university town of Louvain-la-Neuve, in the metropolitan area of Brussels, Belgium, is an attempt to create a high-density-low-rise mixture of urban function in the European urban tradition. Two thousand acres were acquired by the University of Louvain. An eventual population of up to 50,000 is planned. Only the central part of the site is now developed; the remaining portion is being kept as open space. The emphasis is on small groups of town houses and terraced streets. The division of the site into small plots, each developed separately by different architects, has led to both variety and economy. The new town is highly pedestrianized, that is, its road system discourages the use of cars for short trips, and it has a railway station to encourage outward journeys by train. The aim is to develop the "town and gown" interaction found in the old university towns, with a social mix both of university and town, and university and industry. Moreover, a science park for high technology research and development firms is situated close to an industrial research park.
Chapter 9
Authors: Holleb Doris B.
Published: March 2007

Housing, neighborhood, and environmental priorities were transformed in the late seventies by events of the decade. An upsurge in new construction had brought steady, nearly universally diffused improvements in the housing stock. But by 1980, the record high costs of shelter threatened to erode living and housing standards. Rising costs had uneven, inequitable effects. Low-income renters bore the brunt of inflation, while high-income homeowners benefited most from real estate windfalls and a federal, tax-code tilt toward homeownership. The rental stock in mature, northern cities was further decimated by out-migration. The outward trek, selective by race and class, accelerated in the seventies, sharpening neighborhood polarities and isolating minorities and dependent, female-headed households. Scattered, low-density developments also impeded housing, energy, and environmental conservation efforts. Social and demographic changes had fueled an enormous pent-up demand for housing, fed by the huge baby-boom generation and the mushrooming of small, adult households. But as America entered the eighties, the postwar, steady, upward trajectory of change may have passed its peak.
The United States and the World Economy
Authors: BERGSTEN C. FRED
Published: March 2007

The United States has become heavily dependent on the world economy. At the same time, the ability of the United States to dictate the course of international economic activities has declined sharply. Hence the United States is caught in a scissors movement of growing importance, with major implications for the management of both its economy and its foreign policy. As a result, a paradox emerges concerning the conduct of U.S. international economic policy. On the one hand, the growing importance of both exports and imports increases pressures on the United States to pursue a liberal trade and international investment policy. On the other, the growing penetration of its economy by foreign goods often increases the pressure to retreat from such open approaches to international exchange. The advent of new domestic pressures in the 1980s, deriving in large part from slower economic growth and higher rates of unemployment, sharpens this tension. And the budgetary constraints that must accompany any effort to reduce inflation limit further the ability of the United States to pursue its international economic goals. In sum, there are important new international constraints on U.S. domestic policy and equally important new domestic constraints on U.S. international economic policy.
Changing Public-Private Sector Relations: A Look at the United States
Authors: SMITH BRUCE L.R.
Published: March 2007

One of the distinctive elements that accounts for the dynamism and innovative capacity of America's political institutions is the use of private organizations to accomplish public purposes. The nation has found it useful to contract out for services when bureaucratic obstacles thwart new policy objectives. Yet in recent years the country has seemed to lack exactly the qualities of dynamism, vitality, and innovative capacity in the public sector, in business, and in the voluntary sector that we have most cherished. The blame for this, in the view of some observers, rests with the blurring of the boundaries between public and private sectors that has characterized the postwar period. This article explores the paradoxical shift in attitudes on public-private sector relations against the background of contemporary ideological trends. The arguments for either a massive shifting of functions to private contractors or for the federal government to reabsorb major activities now carried out by contractors are equally unconvincing. The problem is to make the present system of shared responsibility among government, business, and the voluntary sector work more effectively, not to experiment with ideological solutions that would rear-range the nation's political and institutional landscapes.
Nuclear Arms as a Philosophical and Moral Issue
Authors: CHURCHILL ROBERT P.
Published: March 2007

Philosophical concern over nuclear armaments raises questions about the logical and conceptual basis for deterrence theory as well as the effects of threats of nuclear annihilation on our common humanity. However, most philosophical concern centers around the morality of nuclear deterrence. It is sometimes thought that the doctrine of just war can provide a moral justification for nuclear deterrence based on threats of massive retaliation. Yet attempts to apply the doctrine of just war lead to a moral dilemma: although nuclear deterrence seems justified as self-defense, there are compelling reasons for concluding that threats of retaliation are immoral. Alternative deterrence policies might be thought to overcome the moral dilemma. However, counterforce strategy and antimissile defense, as recently proposed by President Reagan, must still depend upon immoral threats of retaliation. Proposals for a nonviolent national defense offer a possible solution, and serious attention should be given to claims that nonviolent defense would deter aggression.
Arts Funding: Growth and Change Between 1963 and 1983
Authors: GOODY KENNETH
Published: March 2007

Between 1963 and 1983, not only was there a tremendous growth in the amount of money given to the arts by foundations, corporations, and government, but a substantial shift in the mix of these funds as well. While corporate support has remained a solidly important source, government funding has become increasingly important to the arts as foundation support has become less so. Given the dependence of arts organizations on these sources, the range of focus and purpose of their programs and their expectations for the future are important. A survey of private and corporate foundations and corporate giving programs highlights the hesitation of both of these groups to support artistic projects directly, experimental work, or newly established organizations. Additionally, both foundations and corporations have become more likely to fund administrative projects and arts service organizations. This range of focus of government support is very broad, but the purpose of this funding has been controversial. The short-term future of arts funding does not appear as dim as recently expected, and may bring increases.
Are Polls Accurate?
Authors: ROPER BURNS W.
Published: March 2007

Polls can be and frequently are extremely accurate. They also can be and frequently are grossly inaccurate. Surveys that measure facts, (such as habits or ownership,) tend to be more accurate than surveys that measure opinion, and surveys that measure opinion are, in turn, more accurate than surveys that attempt to measure future intentions. While sampling error is the most commonly given reason for polling error, it is usually the smallest error in a survey. Other reasons for error in a survey include poor timing of the survey, misinterpretation of survey results, and improper context in which a question or question series is asked. The greatest error of all, however, results from question wording. “Yeasay” questions—questions that implicitly suggest that yes is the right answer—produce a consistent bias in results. But many other kinds of error, often of greater magnitude, result from other aspects of question wording. It is far more important in assessing the accuracy of a survey to know the wording of the questions asked than the magnitude of the statistical sampling error.
Empirical Research on the Insanity Defense
Authors: STEADMAN HENRY J.
Published: March 2007

In contrast to the jurisprudential history of the insanity defense, significant empirical research on its use and effects has emerged only in the past decade. The research is organized here around six major questions closely related to the public policy questions that have gained much currency in the wake of the John Hinckley trial. In many instances, the research data sharply conflict with popular notions of who are acquitted by reason of insanity and how long they are hospitalized after acquittal. There is considerable consistency across jurisdictions on the characteristics of acquittees and their recidivism rates, but substantial differences on the length of their detention both across jurisdictions and in different time periods within jurisdictions. Future research, to be productive for both policy and substantive purposes, requires multistate designs with a systemic approach.
Religion and Region in America
Authors: HILL SAMUEL S.
Published: March 2007

A decline in the differences between regions has been occurring in a number of demographic and socioeconomic aspects. Religion is one of several areas in which regional differences persist. Zelinsky's classification of seven religious regions remains standard. Americans migrating from one part of America to another are aware of this, and recent research supports popular perceptions. Migrants have been shown to be more likely to adapt to the level of religious commitment of the new region than to be dislocated by the move. As long as this remains true, migration should not be accompanied by a decline in the distinctiveness of religious regions. The continuing strength of the historically prominent denominations in the several regions is impressive.
Law and Psychiatry: Scandinavia in the 1980s
Authors: ÖJESJÖ LEIF
Published: March 2007

The major policies and practices with regard to the civil and criminal commitment of the mentally ill in the Scandinavian countries during the 1970s and 1980s are described and discussed. Deinstitutionalization, community work, and outpatient treatment within geographically defined sectors have been introduced in all the Nordic countries. At the same time, criminally committed mental patients constitute an increasing proportion of the involuntarily hospitalized population. The special defense of insanity and tests such as McNaughtan are not used in the Scandinavian countries. The handling and disposition of severely mentally ill criminal defendants is closer to the notions of guilty but mentally ill in some U.S. jurisdictions, although in Scandinavia such persons are hospitalized and do not receive penal sentences. Even though forensic psychiatry has come under much criticism, there is still a need for psychiatric evaluations for courts and there is still a need for the provision of mental health treatment, rehabilitation, and follow-up for mentally disordered offenders.
Transnational Migration as a Small Windo on the Diminished Autonomy of the Modern Democratic State
Authors: HEISLER MARTIN O.
Published: March 2007

The presence of large semi-settled foreign populations in Western societies is at once a symptom of and an exacerbating factor in the problematic governance of these states. Domestic and international constraints preclude the reversal of most of the unforeseen and undesirable social, economic, and political consequences that have flowed from the narrowly conceived, short-sighted policies that gave rise to the migrants' presence. The nature of the state in the host societies and the political structures and policy processes that characterize their governments account for the miasma in most of them. The nature of the less modern, less democratic state that typifies the countries of origin contributes to their present and even greater prospective policy binds and the problematic life conditions of many of the migrants. While it is expedient for each of the three classes of actors—receiving states, sending states, and migrants—to nurture the myth of return, learning to live with the resulting indeterminacy presents great challenges to all and may require, in particular, rethinking what modern democratic states are about.
Democracy or Plutocracy? The Case for a Constitutional Amendment to Overturn Buckley v. Valeo
Authors: BINGHAM JONATHAN
Published: March 2007

In the early 1970s the U.S. Congress made a serious effort to stop the abuses of campaign financing by setting limits on contributions and also on campaign spending. In the 1976 case of Buckley v. Valeo, the Supreme Court upheld the regulation of contributions, but invalidated the regulation of campaign spending as a violation of the First Amendment. Since then, lavish campaigns, with their attendant evils, have become an ever more serious problem. Multimillion-dollar campaigns for the Senate, and even for the House of Representatives, have become commonplace. Various statutory solutions to the problem have been proposed, but these will not be adequate unless the Congress—and the states—are permitted to stop the escalation by setting limits. What is needed is a constitutional amendment to reverse the Buckley holding, as proposed by several members of Congress. This would not mean a weakening of the Bill of Rights, since the Buckley ruling was a distortion of the First Amendment. Within reasonable financial limits there is ample opportunity for that “uninhibited, robust and wide-open” debate of the issues that the Supreme Court correctly wants to protect.
Civic Renewal: The City on a Hill Revisited
Authors: FOSLER R. SCOTT
Published: March 2007

The current shift from public to private, and from national to state-local initiative, is the latest in several such swings of the pendulum that can be traced through 350 years of American civic history. Those fluctuations have been sustainable in part because they were guided by important civic values, including a widely shared faith in progress and sense of responsibility. The dilution of those common values and the failure to replace them or to give them contemporary meaning have created a brittleness in the modern texture of community. A potential source of civic renewal lies in the experimentation by states and local communities seeking to improve public services, build consensus, and strengthen regional and local economies. Those efforts are likely to be most successful that supplement the rational techniques of conventional civic reform with a recognition of the importance of personal character and the spiritual dimension in civic life.
Foreign Relations of North Africa
Authors: ZARTMAN I. WILLIAM
Published: March 2007

The North African states—Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya—occupy an island and are therefore preoccupied above all by relations among themselves. Torn between pressures to work together—community—and to distinguish themselves from each other—differentiation—they are caught up with the need to develop a sense of rank and relation among themselves and to carry their competition into the power vacuum of the poorer states that surround them. Although Tunisia and Libya may seek to achieve relations on the model of integration and Algeria may prefer a pattern of central-state dominance, the result is a checkerboard pattern of competition of limited rivalries, preferred by Morocco but played by all. Relations with the Arab and African worlds are determined by the North African states' bids for leadership, their need for support on security issues, and their extension of intra-Maghribi relations onto the two wider fields. The same intra-Maghribi purposes guide North African states' relations with Europe, especially France, and also with the two superpowers.
The Northeastern Triangle: Libya, Egypt, and the Sudan
Authors: MOORE CLEMENT HENRY
Published: March 2007

The Triangle may be viewed as a regional subsystem articulating power relationships between core and periphery. The core can be seen as an unevenly weighted dumbbell consisting of Cairo and Khartoum connected by the Nile. The periphery consists of Libya and the upper reaches of the Nile that escape the control of the Egyptian and Sudanese governments. The challenge to this regional subsystem is that Libya, with help from the other peripherals, might grab the dumbbell. Under modern conditions, established states usually dominate their peripheries, although energetic peripheries can budge inert centers. Two attempted coups against Qaddafi in March 1985 reflected serious dissension within his military establishment. Since then overt U.S. actions against Libya have strengthened Qaddafi's regime at home and in the region. Dysfunctional U.S. policies, coupled with a deteriorating Egyptian economy, could precipitate a Nasserite, anti-American coup in Egypt and dramatic regional realignments.
Anti-Americanism in the Third World
Authors: RUBINSTEIN ALVIN Z. , SMITH DONALD E.
Published: March 2007

Anti-Americanism can be defined as any hostile action or expression that becomes part and parcel of an undifferentiated attack on the foreign policy, society, culture, and values of the United States. This analysis distinguishes four types: (1) issue-oriented anti-Americanism, or a pattern of outbursts directed against the policies of the U.S. government with which a Third World country disagrees; (2) ideological anti-Americanism, involving a more or less coherent set of ideas, frequently related to nationalism, Marxism, or Islamic fundamentalism, that see the United States as the central villain in the world today; (3) instrumental anti-Americanism, or the manipulation of hostility by a government for ulterior purposes, such as mobilizing domestic support or identifying a plausible scapegoat for governmental failure; and (4) revolutionary anti-Americanism, which arises in opposition groups seeking to overthrow a pro-U.S. government and develops as an important ideological tenet of the new regime building mass support.
Foreign Policy Powers of the President and Congress
Authors: FISHER LOUIS
Published: March 2007

The congressional hearings in 1987 concerning the Irancontra affair provided a unique and unusual education for the general public. Month after month, American citizens became privy to how arms were shipped to Iran and funds diverted to the contras in Nicaragua. They learned about the Boland amendment, the Intelligence Oversight Act of 1980, and executive orders that provide the overall framework for covert operations. Witnesses included major cabinet officials, the former White House chief of staff, the flamboyant Colonel Oliver North, two national security advisers, and a host of generals, agency officials, and private citizens. Throughout the hearings, there was learned discussion of constitutional issues, including major Supreme Court cases and the specific powers and responsibilities of Congress and the president. This article focuses on two issues: how foreign policy is shared by the two branches, and how Congress tries to use its power of the purse to control executive activities.
Urban Industrial Transition and the Underclass
Authors: KASARDA JOHN D.
Published: March 2007

Major U.S. cities have transformed industrially from centers of goods processing to centers of information processing. Concurrently, the demand for poorly educated labor has declined markedly and the demand for labor with higher education has increased substantially. Urban blacks have been caught in this web of change. Despite improvements in their overall educational attainment, a great majority still have very little schooling and therefore have been unable to gain significant access to new urban growth industries. Underclass blacks, with exceptionally high rates of school dropout, are especially handicapped. Whereas jobs requiring only limited education have been rapidly increasing in the suburbs, poorly educated blacks remain residentially constrained in inner-city housing. Within underclass neighborhoods, few households have private vehicles, which are shown to be increasingly necessary for employment in dispersing metropolitan economies. The implications of interactions among race, space, and urban industrial change are explored. Reasons for the success of recent Asian immigrants in transforming cities are considered, and policies are suggested to rekindle social mobility in the black underclass.
Human Rights and the U.N. Committee on Crime Prevention and Control
Authors: CLARK ROGER S.
Published: March 2007

Numerous subsidiary organs of the General Assembly and of the Economic and Social Council have played a part in the human rights program of the United Nations. For the first thirty years or so of its life the organization concentrated primarily on the development of normative texts; more recent efforts have emphasized implementation. The United Nations Committee on Crime Prevention and Control has been expanding its role both in the creation of human rights standards in the broad criminal justice area and in endeavoring to implement those standards on the ground. On first exposure, the Committee's main area of activity is a category of civil and political rights, namely, the protection of rights in the administration of justice. Further examination of its work in such areas as the prevention of juvenile delinquency or domestic violence suggests that its role encompasses various aspects of economic, social, and cultural rights as well. The author examines the work of the Committee with the particular aim of increasing its visibility.
The Soviet Economy and the Need for Reform
Authors: GOLDMAN MARSHALL I.
Published: March 2007

Because he was interested in rapid growth, Stalin decided to do away with private forms of economic ownership and the freely formulated prices and markets of the traditional economic system and replace them with state ownership and central planning. This brought some initial growth but considerable distortion of the Soviet economy. There was an overemphasis on heavy industry. Gorbachev in particular came to recognize how misguided such an approach has been, but recognition is not the same as implementation. The essence of his reform is to increase the role of private and cooperative decision making while reducing the role of central planners in decision making and state-owned enterprises. There have been many false starts in this process, and so far the results have not been encouraging. If anything, the real standard of living in the Soviet Union has declined, and Gorbachev's reforms are being blamed for many of these problems.
Why is the Plan Incompatible with the Market?
Authors: POPKOVA-PIJASHEVA LARISSA
Published: March 2007

Central administrative command planning and the market system are incompatible due to (1) the ex ante versus ex post method of pricing in the two systems; (2) the antithetical relation of mandatory instructions and economic freedom; and (3) the inability of state capital to compete successfully with private capital. No in-between construct of a socialist market system is viable. It has to be either plan or market.
Rock Point, A Navajo Way to Go to School: A Valediction
Authors: HOLM AGNES , HOLM WAYNE
Published: March 2007

Roughly two-thirds of school-age Navajo children now attend public schools; roughly a quarter still attend federal schools. Since the mid-1950s, the federal government has put large amounts of money into effecting a shift on the Navajo Reservation from smaller one-community federal schools to larger multicommunity public schools on the Navajo Reservation. The federal schools that remain have become multicommunity boarding schools. The public schools tend to draw students from more Anglo-like, more English-speaking, homes, but these Navajo students and particularly Navajo-speaking students average some years behind state averages. This article is about a Navajo community and school that went back to parental involvement and community control, that went back to the native language and to the community and Reservation as a source of content and curriculum, and that went forward to a more appropriate, more effective education for their children.
State and Local Governments in the International Arena
Authors: FRY EARL H.
Published: March 2007

U.S. state and local governments have become active participants in the global economy as they promote trade, investment, tourism, and technical and cultural exchanges. All 50 states sponsor international programs, and 41 states maintain over 110 offices in 24 countries. More than 1000 cities are also engaged in long-term international activities. Altogether, states and localities are spending hundreds of millions of dollars annually on international projects. The proliferation of subnational government ties beyond America's borders is complicating intergovernmental relations and posing questions of constitutionality, jurisdiction, and propriety. Nonetheless, such grass-roots efforts are vital if the United States is to maintain its economic competitiveness in a complex global arena. Regularized institutional linkages should be established between the federal, state, and local governments, and there should be extensive inter-governmental cooperation in formulating U.S. economic and foreign policy strategies for the 1990s and beyond.