bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Childhoods
Authors: Bame Nsamenang A.
Published: October 2013

The title of this entry is pluralized because “comparative and cross‐cultural analysis reveals a variety of childhoods rather than a single and universal phenomenon”. Similar analysis of adolescence uncovered remarkably different adolescences across regions of the globe that do not correspond to the image of Western adolescence that overwhelms the scientific literature, policy frameworks, advocacy agencies, and childhood institutions. Furthermore, even cursory perusal of the literature and popular culture exposes most, if not all, cultures as handling and treating infants, children, and adolescents as non‐adults. The borders of these developmental stages are blurred, as their limits are framed in and shaped by differing cultural worldviews, epistemologies, and disciplinary lenses. In the face of differing cultural definitions or recognition of the boundaries of childhood, Article One of the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) defines a child as any person who is under the age of 18 years. This presents the end of childhood (itself not universal) as a universally recognized stage of transition into adulthood.
Cognitive Bias
Authors: Feren Laura
Published: October 2013

Cognitive bias is a pattern of mental processes in the human mind, leading to adaptive or maladaptive perceptual distortions and behaviors in particular situations. Cognitive bias can result when people make decisions using heuristics rather than complete rational analyses. Heuristics – a learned process of experience and intuition – are commonly employed to facilitate solutions to complex problems. Heuristics become problematic when they result in incorrect outcomes. In the early 1970s, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman identified two heuristics used to make decisions – the availability heuristic and the representative heuristic – that can lead to errors in thinking. A decade later, their experimental research found that the phrasing or the framing effect of language can influence judgment and problem solving. People choose different options and are vulnerable to errors due to their individual perceptions, distortions, or manipulations of differences. One's own experiences shape one's perception and understanding of the world.
Collective Control
Authors: Wong Stephanie J.
Published: October 2013

The concept of control is defined as an individual's attempt to attain a goal through manipulation of situations or events and through implementation of resources. Western cultures have historically conceptualized control in terms of personal control, or an individual's perception that he or she is able to complete a task or goal based on his or her performance and autonomous behavior. However, many researchers have advocated an expanded view of the construct of control, particularly through a multicultural lens, because it would be more inclusive of a variety of cultures and groups and would capture the complexity of control. Specifically, from a Western perspective, the concept ofcollective controlis a relatively novel conceptualization of control. Understanding this construct may shift the emphasis in research and practice from theself(e.g., self‐control, self‐esteem) to the collective, furthering our understanding of diverse individuals who identify with collective strategies.
Color Language
Authors: Phillips William L.
Published: October 2013

Color language refers to the fact that different languages represent colors differently. For example, W. H. R. Rivers (during his visit to the Torres Straits in late 1890s) found that the Murray Islanders had only three words to represent color in their language (black, white, and red). These persons tended to group together green and blue color tiles, leading researchers to conclude that they could not differentiate the two. Numerous studies such as these led to the idea of linguistic relativity, or the Sapir‐Whorf hypothesis, which, in general, states that language determines our perception.
Color Perception
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

The ways in which people perceive and talk about color have constituted an interesting area of research not only for psychologists, but also for students of language. In particular, researchers have used color language and the perception of color as an arena in which to test the Sapir‐Whorf (linguistic relativity) hypothesis concerning the connection between language and thought. Cultures differ in the language they use to describe color. In classic research on the language of color, Berlin and studied 78 languages, finding 11 terms that constituted a hierarchy of color names across the various cultures.
Concept
Authors: Messer Rachel H. , Kennison Shelia M.
Published: October 2013

A concept is a cognitive category used to classify objects, behaviors, or other entities, based on common attributes or properties. Memory researchers use the word concept to describe a unit of meaning or knowledge that is stored in memory. Researchers have found that concepts are culturally driven and are contained within a specific sociocultural context. For many concepts, a word is used to refer to the concept, such as “dog,” “cat,” “freedom,” or “generosity.” However, some languages may lack words for specific concepts. For example, languages vary in the number of color words. Some languages have only two color words, one to refer to dark‐colored objects and one to refer to light‐colored objects. Some languages contain three color words (e.g., light, dark, and red), and so on. Individuals who are not color blind are generally able to perceive the entire color spectrum, regardless of the words they have to refer to colors.
Confucianism
Authors: Wu Kuang‐ming
Published: October 2013

Confucianism originated with and is based on teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479
bce
). The principles of Confucianism have influenced Chinese politics, education, and philosophy for more than 2,500 years. For example, in Taiwan the birthday of Confucius (September 28) was named a national holiday, “Teacher's Day,” to recognize the Confucian influence. Confucianism stresses the importance of education for moral development – humane relationships, good intentions, and decorum, as well as loyalty and trustworthiness – so that rulers can govern according to virtue rather than coercive laws.
Consumer Culture
Authors: Friedman Monroe
Published: October 2013

This entry discusses antecedents of contemporary consumer concern with commercial offerings in the marketplace by examining the concept of consumer culture and its historical roots in the periods shortly before and after the year 2000. In addition, two empirical studies illustrate how psychologists have taken a cross‐cultural approach to research on this topic.
Conversation Regulators
Authors: C. Fitch Jenelle
Published: October 2013

To sustain interpersonal communication, individuals engage in various regulatory strategies. These strategies can include nonverbal behaviors and conversational interruptions. Within the context of a conversation, an individual might nod, or attempt to mimic his or her conversation partner. Further, one might use various encouragers (e.g., “uh‐huh,” “okay” in English, “hai” in Japanese) to let the partner know that she or he is listening. These encouragers are seen as interruptions.
Coping and Coping Styles
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Wang Canzi
Published: October 2013

Coping refers to cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as stressful. An individual determines whether the situation is controllable and assesses his or her abilities to make effective responses. In other words, coping is using effort to solve personal, situational, and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize, or change conflict or stress. Psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed coping strategies or coping skills. The term coping also means that those strategies were able to reduce stress levels. Furthermore, coping generally refers to reactive coping – that is, the coping response follows the stressor. Coping strategies can be functional or dysfunctional. Functional coping strategies can effectively reduce stress levels, whereas maladaptive (dysfunctional) coping is not helpful to reduce the stress a person perceives. Coping strategies are partly controlled by personality (habitual traits), partly by culture, and partly by the social context – particularly the nature of the stressful environment.
Creativity
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Brown Jonathan R.
Published: October 2013

Creativity can be defined as the ability to bring something new into an old situation, to invent a solution to a problem, or to improve a stagnant life with colors, music, and arts. Creativity is the talent to transcend traditional patterns and implement meaningful new ideas and methods that lead to betterment and progress.
Cross‐Cultural Training
Authors: Dalsky David , Landis Dan
Published: October 2013

Cross‐cultural training involves teaching and learning about the interaction of people with different cultural backgrounds; its typical goal is to prepare a sojourner to be successful in a host country. Trainers are usually educated in the applied social sciences, and trainees could be international company employees, university students who study abroad, or international volunteers in programs such as the Peace Corps. The most complete cross‐cultural training programs include a pre‐departure session, tracking during the sojourn, and a reentry session upon return to a trainee's home country. Often, reentry is more stressful than adjusting to life in a host country even though sojourners may not expect difficulties returning to their home country. If a reentry component is included in the training, it may include reflection activities centered on personal and professional growth during the stay abroad as well as the introduction of a network of others with similar experiences who can offer social support.
Cross‐Cultural Validation
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K. , Sim Catherine Q. E.
Published: October 2013

A central assumption in psychological testing is that, in addition to random error, the observed responses of the test‐takers are caused by both characteristics of the persons taking the test and characteristics of the test items used. In addition, every person–item encounter happens in a specific context, the test situation. As illustrated in, psychological testing essentially employs an inference that is based on a partial inversion of these causal relationships: We try to infer from differences in the responses of the test‐takers to the underlying differences in their personal characteristics or latent traits. To be able to do so, we not only must use the same items2but must also ensure that all other situational characteristics are the same for every test‐taker – the very idea of a standardized test situation. In this way, the influence of items and situational characteristics is held constant and cannot exert a differential influence on the responses. Thus, excepting random error, any differences in the responses must have been caused by differences in the test‐takers’ personal characteristics or latent traits.
Cultural Reaffirmation Effect
Authors: Nguyen Angela‐Minh TuD.
Published: October 2013

The cultural reaffirmation effect refers to the assertion of one's culture in response to an outside culture. This term was coined by, who proposed that bicultural individuals (i.e., those who have internalized two cultures) need to feel secure in their native (heritage, minority, or non‐dominant) cultural identity before they can explore and have contact with the out‐group (i.e., dominant cultural group members). This proposition stemmed from a study she conducted comparing bicultural (i.e., Germans in the United States and Americans in Germany) and monocultural (i.e., Germans in Germany and Americans in the United States) individuals. She found that compared to monocultural individuals, bicultural individuals rated themselves as more similar to their native cultural group, evaluated that group more favorably, and perceived their native group less similar to the dominant group.
Cultural Relativism
Authors: S. Landsman Moshe
Published: October 2013

The concept of cultural relativism was first formulated by the anthropologist Franz. Although he did not use the term, he and his students popularized the concept and it is considered axiomatic in anthropology. As an anthropological concept, cultural relativism contends that an individual's behavior can be understood only within the context of his or her culture. Usually, cultural relativism is contrasted with universalism or ethnocentrism.
Cultural‐Historical Activity Theory
Authors: Hardman Joanne , Mpofu Elias
Published: October 2013

The notion that the activities humans engage in are informed by collective historical experience, interpreted in the context of evolving needs and future possibilities, is as old as mankind itself. Collective culture mediates or shapes human activity, and human activity in its enactment and purposes transforms culture. Both culture and activity have a historical basis in the purposes they serve and in the processes that render them intelligible to social actors. Changes in the goals, purposes, and/or processes necessary to living in a collective culture will lead to transformation of the social actors involved – their roles and identities.
Culture‐Affiliation Hypothesis
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

The culture‐affiliation hypothesis suggests that individuals who are bilingual will tend to embrace the values and beliefs of the culture associated with the language they are using at the time, and that when they switch languages, they switch the cultural values and beliefs that they embrace.
Dawson, John L. M
Authors: Blowers Geoffrey
Published: October 2013

To most of the contributors to this
Encyclopedia
, John Lewis Mervyn Binnie‐Dawson (1930–1987) is probably best remembered for having proposed in 1967 that an organization of like‐minded cross‐culturalists be formed, and for hosting its inaugural meeting in Hong Kong in 1972. By then the group was known as the International Association for Cross‐Cultural Psychology. He became its first secretary‐general and later its president.
Decentering
Authors: Inoue Noriyuki
Published: October 2013

Decentering is the process by which a child becomes capable of considering more than one aspect of an object or situation at a time. Decentering is considered an important developmental process to obtain the ability to understand things from the other side, or other persons’ perspectives. Through decentering, a child develops a better understanding of reality by incorporating not only his or her own perspectives, but also the perspectives seen from other points of view. In Piaget's theory of intellectual development, decentering occurs in the concrete operations stage and is an essential process for subsequent development of abstract concepts.
Decision Making
Authors: Allwood Carl Martin
Published: October 2013

The ability to make decisions is often assumed to be something that distinguishes humans from the rest of nature. Decision making occurs in many forms, and the decision‐making task can be more or less complex, well‐defined, and new to the decision maker. Moreover, decision making, in addition to actually choosing an alternative, usually includes constructing or activating decision alternatives. In this entry the focus is mainly on complex decision making.
Denmark, Florence
Authors: Woolf Linda M. , Hulsizer Michael R.
Published: October 2013

Florence Denmark is a pioneer in both the psychology of women and international psychology. As a scholar, teacher, researcher, leader, and policy maker within psychology, her work has influenced countless individuals and communities around the globe. Her research foci include peace and conflict, culture and ethnicity, prejudice and stereotyping, and gender psychology. Social activism, social justice, and the empowerment of women and other marginalized groups are themes that cut across all of Denmark's writings and endeavors.
Depth Cues
Authors: Phillips William L.
Published: October 2013

Depth cues refer to information in the environment that can be used by the brain to make inferences about the third dimension. This is necessary due to the fact that all visual images (even those perceived in three dimensions) first must fall on the retina (a two‐dimensional structure) before being processed by the brain. Therefore, particular information must exist in the environment that allows for perception of the third dimension. The depth cues that have been studied can be summarized into the following categories: binocular cues, oculomotor cues, motion cues, and monocular (pictorial) cues.
Deregowski, Jan Bronislaw
Authors: Devonis David
Published: October 2013

Jan Deregowski was born in Pinsk, which was then in Poland, in 1933. Between 1960 and 1969 he spent considerable time in Africa, including four years as a fellow at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Zambia in Lusaka.
Developmental Niche
Authors: Molitor Adriana
Published: October 2013

During the 1980s, anthropologist Sara Harkness and psychologist Charles Super conceived of the developmental niche as a theoretical framework that could integrate the disparate perspectives of their respective fields as each attempts to explore human development. The framework offers a multifaceted lens through which to view and understand the ways in which culture structures the experiences of any child – whether that child is a member of a seemingly exotic community from a remote part of the world or is one of numerous research participants from a modern Western society. Super and Harkness explained that at the center of every developmental niche is an individual child with his/her inherited characteristics such as aptitude potentials and temperamental tendencies. In this respect, every developmental niche is unique because its features continually interact with the distinct constellation of qualities specific to any child. Nonetheless, three broad components of a developmental niche surround the child: settings; customs and practices; and caretaker psychology. Other children in a community likewise experience characteristics of these subsystems. Thus, these common elements enable researchers to identify and describe a generalized developmental niche that is shared by at least a segment of children from a particular culture.
Díaz‐Guerrero, Rogelio
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Rogelio Díaz‐Guerrero was born on August 3, 1918 in Guadalajara, Mexico. He died on December 8, 2004 in Cuernavaca, Mexico. Interested in the mainsprings of human behavior and conduct since adolescence, he became a medical student and obtained his M.D. degree at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) in 1943. Concurrently, he embarked upon the study of psychology, pursuing graduate studies at the University of Iowa where he received a master's degree and a Ph.D. in 1944 and 1947, respectively. Research‐oriented and steeped in experimental, developmental, and social psychology, Díaz‐Guerrero was involved in pioneering the development of academic and professional programs in psychology in Mexico. Throughout his career, he held a succession of appointments at UNAM. In recognition of his lifetime contribution, Díaz‐Guerrero was appointed National Emeritus Investigator of the National Council of Science and Technology of Mexico. He was one of the founders of the Interamerican Society of Psychology and the Mexican Society of Psychology, both of which he served as President.
Dispositional Attributions
Authors: Koenig Anne M.
Published: October 2013

Attributions are causal explanations for behavior – why people act the way they do. Attributions can be classified into one of two types based on a dimension of internality. Dispositional attributions are causal factors that are internal to the actor – part of the actor's character, personality, or ability (also often called internal attributions). The other type of attribution is labeled situational.
Diversity
Authors: Berger Lauren K. , Hwang Wei‐Chin
Published: October 2013

The word “diversity” derives from the Latin word
varietas
, meaning variety or differences. There are many different kinds or types of diversity (e.g., race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, age, sexual orientation, disabilities, socioeconomic status, religion, political beliefs, and cultural practices). Historically, there has been considerable debate and many attempts to correct the exclusion and mistreatment of certain groups based on their background. Modern‐day usage of the term diversity is associated with multiculturalism, and the acceptance, inclusion, understanding, and respect of people from different backgrounds. Here, we review the progression of diversity awareness in the United States. However, it is important to note that many countries have undergone similar developments, and that international understanding of diversity issues continues to advance.
Eating Disorders
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Broadwell Rachael M.
Published: October 2013

Eating disorders are characterized by severe disturbances in eating behaviors. The two most common eating disorders in the research literature are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa occurs when an individual refuses to maintain his or her body weight at or above a minimal standard and expresses an intense fear of becoming overweight, a distorted body image, negative self‐evaluation related to body weight and shape, and often denial that there is a problem. Bulimia is characterized by frequent bouts of binge eating, use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors to minimize weight gain, and a negative self‐evaluation related to body weight and shape. These eating disorders occur as a result of various developmental, sociocultural, and biological processes. Research focuses on how these various factors interact and influence a person to develop an eating disorder. There is some evidence that cultural factors are a primary contributor to these disorders.
Eckensberger, Lutz H
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Lutz H. Eckensberger is Professor Emeritus at the University of Frankfurt and the German Institute for International Educational Research. At the German Institute he served as director (1998–2004) and as head of the Department of Culture and Education (until 2007). He completed work for the doctorate in 1970 and his Habilitation in 1973 at Saarland University, and for 20 years was a professor of developmental psychology at the same institution. Eckensberger moved to Frankfurt in 1996. He is a cultural psychologist with interests in environmental psychology, culture and development, cross‐cultural psychology, education, and morality.
Ecological Systems
Authors: Hooper Lisa M. , Crusto Cindy A.
Published: October 2013

An ecological systems approach is an ideal theoretical framework to underpin the development and conceptualization of cross‐cultural psychology research because it allows researchers to consider the dynamic relations between people and the contexts in which they are embedded. Cultural factors – including but not limited to race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religion, socioeconomic status, country of origin, geography, and level of ability – are implicated at every level of human ecology. Ecological systems theory (EST) highlights and points to the unique context and environments in which the individual interacts and which shape development over time. According to and other scholars, the researcher investigating cross‐cultural issues and constructs should account for the multiple contexts (or systems) in which individuals and populations exist.
Effect Size
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

When researchers conduct research that results in statistically significant results, they conclude that the significant effect reflects a high likelihood that the observed behavior is due to a relation between variables of interest rather than to random error. If an investigator assumes that there is an effect (i.e., in terms of null hypothesis statistical tests, the null hypothesis has been rejected), the question becomes one of assessing the size of the effect.
Emic
Authors: Hwang Wei‐Chin , Ting Julia Y.
Published: October 2013

The wordsemicandeticwere originally coined by the linguistic anthropologist. Emic was derived from the term “phonemic,” which refers to the units of sound that are distinctive to a particular language. Etic was derived from the term “phonetic,” and refers to units of sound that are not distinctive to a particular language. Since their original usage, these terms have been modified and used in various ways and by different fields of study.
Emotion Regulation
Authors: Allen Joseph A. , Landowski Nicole B. , Nunnally Charles A.
Published: October 2013

Emotion regulation is the process by which individuals manage their emotions by inhibiting or enhancing their emotional responses. Emotion regulation is not a lack of expression but rather an effort to actively modify the response. According to the dual process model of emotion regulation, regulation occurs at both the collective and individual levels. At the collective level, cultural practices have the ability to encourage and discourage certain psychological processes and experiences. At the individual level, individual preferences, attitudes, personality, and other characteristics impact the way in which persons regulate their emotion.
Emotion
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Humans experience a wide range of affective phenomena and much of it is called
emotion
by researchers and laypersons alike. Emotion is an aspect of our lives that all persons have a lifetime of access to, as well as a lifetime of contemplation of its nuances. Thus it is difficult to arrive at a consensual definition of emotion that encompasses all possible types of emotion and distinguishes it from other affective phenomena. At the same time, researchers need to make explicit their working definitions so they and others can understand what part of the affective world they call emotion.
Empathy
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Defined empathy as “an affective state that stems from the apprehension of another's emotional state or condition and that is congruent with it.” Affectively, empathy enables a person to feel what another person is feeling. Cognitively, empathy makes it possible to adopt another person's point of view or to share his or her perspective in experiencing both the self and the world. Typically, cognitive and affective aspects of empathy occur in tandem, but exceptions can be envisaged. Thus, a detective tracking down a terrorist is attuned to his or her motives and plans, but with little empathetic affect, if any. Empathy is related, but not identical, to sympathy, which is awareness of another person's suffering, combined with the desire to alleviate it, nor to altruism, defined as an intrinsically motivated helpful action for the benefit of the distressed. As put it, “the primary intent of empathy is to understand a person, and the focus of sympathy is the wellbeing of the individual.” Empirically, however, substantial support has accrued for a strong relationship between empathetic feeling and altruistic action.
Equivalence
Authors: Tanzer Norbert K.
Published: October 2013

Equivalence can be defined as the opposite of bias. However, historically these two terms have somewhat different roots and, as a consequence, they have become and remain associated with different aspects of cross‐cultural score comparisons. Bias has become the generic term for nuisance factors that threaten the validity of cross‐cultural score comparisons, whereas equivalence tends to be associated more with measurement level issues in cross‐cultural score comparisons. Both bias and equivalence are pivotal concepts in cross‐cultural research.
Erikson, Erik
Authors: Levy David , Shiraev Eric
Published: October 2013

Erik Erikson (1902–1994), an American psychologist and psychoanalyst, is recognized for his developmental and personality theories. He was born in Germany to a Jewish mother; the name and identity of his biological father are unclear. Erikson received initial training in arts in Baden and then at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute before his immigration to the United States in 1933 after the Nazi Party victory. He worked in America as a clinical practitioner, researcher, professor, and writer. He worked in several universities, including Yale, the University of California at Berkeley, and Harvard. Erikson pursued traditional psychoanalysis and advanced psychology by emphasizing sociocultural influences on individual development.
Ethnic Gloss
Authors: Trimble Joseph E. , Bhadra Madhura
Published: October 2013

An ethnic gloss is an overgeneralization or simplistic categorical label used to refer to ethnocultural groups such as American Indians, Asian Americans, Hispanics, African Americans, and other nationalistic or indigenous groups where unique cultural and ethnic differences found among group members are ignored. An ethnic gloss presents the illusion of homogeneity where none exists, and therefore may be a superficial, almost vacuous, categorization that provides little or no information on the existence of numerous subgroups characterized by distinct lifeways and thoughtways. It is a sorting device that has little to do with the richness and cultural variation within ethnocultural groups that also guides a group member's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Furthermore, use of a broad ethnic gloss to describe an ethnocultural group can generate biased and flawed scientific research outcomes, and may promote stereotypes. Such sweeping references to ethnocultural groups are gross misrepresentations, and use of an ethnic gloss can violate scientific tenets concerning external validity, the ability to generalize findings across subgroups within an ethnic category, and erode any likelihood of an accurate and efficient replication of research results. This entry provides examples of the use of ethnic gloss, and recommendations for more adequate identification and sampling of research participants from diverse ethnocultural groups.
Ethnicity
Authors: Marcelo Ana Kamille , Huynh Que‐Lam
Published: October 2013

Ethnicity is commonly used to distinguish differences in cultural values, beliefs, and traditions among groups from different geographical and/or national origins who may also differ in phenotypic features. The values, beliefs, and traditions that define ethnicity are passed between generations and create unique characteristics of that ethnic group, setting it apart from other groups. The environment shared by ethnic group members, the society that governs it, and the group members themselves affect the way these values, beliefs, and traditions develop and change over time.
Ethnolinguistics
Authors: Lamberghini‐West Alicia
Published: October 2013

Ethnolinguistics, or cultural linguistics, refers to the intermingling of ethnology and linguistics, and is a discipline which studies the relation between language and culture, especially how different cultural groups perceive, interpret, and put reality into words. This scientific field of study involves the branch of anthropology calledethnology, which investigates the social aspects of cultural groups, comparing and drawing distinctions between them; andlinguistics, the scientific discipline that studies language – the systematic study of any language that focuses on its structure (e.g., units, rules that command the association of units).
Evidence‐Based Psychotherapy
Authors: Tanaka‐Matsumi Junko
Published: October 2013

Questions regarding efficacy and effectiveness of psychotherapy have generated empirical research since the publication of call for scientific research on psychotherapy effectiveness. Recent reviews of research findings clearly indicate that psychotherapy is effective and that approximately 75% of those who enter psychotherapy benefit from it. Earlier, pioneered a culturally oriented definition of psychotherapy as a procedure that is sociocultural in its ends and interpersonal in its means practiced within an explicit and implicit cultural context.
Face‐Negotiation Conflict Theory
Authors: Ting‐Toomey Stella
Published: October 2013

The root of the face‐negotiation (FN) conflict theory was influenced anthropological essay “The Chinese Concept of ‘Face’, ” sociological article “On Face‐Work,” and Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson's linguistics monograph “Politeness.” The face‐negotiation conflict theory, developed by Stella Ting‐Toomey in the human communication studies discipline, explains the culture‐based, individual‐based, and situational‐based factors that shape communicators’ tendencies in approaching conflicts. It is viewed as a cross‐cultural conflict communication theory due to its focus on a comparative analysis of how members of individualistic and collectivistic cultural systems handle diverse conflict situations.
Filipino Psychology (
Sikolohiyang Pilipino
)
Authors: Yacat Jay
Published: October 2013

Filipino psychology (
sikolohiyang Pilipino
in Filipino) is the scientific study of psychology derived from the experience, ideas, and cultural orientation of the Filipinos. Virgilio G. Enriquez, considered the father of
sikolohiyang Pilipino
, identified the following as the subject matter of this formal indigenous psychology:
kamalayan
or consciousness, which includes both emotive and cognitive experience;
ulirat
or awareness of one's immediate surroundings;
isip
, which refers to knowledge and understanding;
diwa
, which includes habits and behavior;
kalooban
or emotions or feelings; and
kaluluwa
or psyche, which translates to soul of a people.
Foreign Language Acquisition
Authors: Ju. Chebotareva Elena
Published: October 2013

Among the problems of intercultural communication the issues of
foreign (second) language acquisition
(FLA/SLA) have a special place. People frequently encounter problems in intercultural communication caused by a lack of linguistic resources or communication skills suitable for interacting with speakers of foreign languages. Modern methods of foreign language teaching consider their major goal the formation of intercultural competence.
Foreign Language Effect
Authors: Salmberg Mathilde
Published: October 2013

The foreign language effect refers to a temporary decline in intellectual ability when a person engages in the use of a foreign language, a phenomenon discovered. These authors formulated a hypothesis about a brief cognitive decline while speaking a foreign language based on theories of attention. The models of attention explain that simultaneous performance of two demanding cognitive tasks results in the tasks interfering with each other.
Gender Roles
Authors: Khoury Brigitte , Fayad Yasmine
Published: October 2013

Gender roles refer to the set of behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are more characteristic of one sex than the other in a particular society. Gender role attitudes vary around the world, highlighting the role of cultural and social factors in their formation.
Georgas, James Demetrios
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

James Georgas received the B.S. (1956) and M.S. (1957) from Purdue University, and the Ph.D. in psychology from Loyola University of Chicago (1964). From 1964 to 1969 he was chairman of the psychology department at Pierce College and director of the test development program at the Athenian Institute of Anthropos, both in Athens, Greece. Following two years in Chicago, Georgas returned to Athens, serving on the psychology faculty of Deree‐Pierce College from 1971 to 1981, and then professor of social psychology at the University of Athens, 1981 to 2002, where he is currently professor emeritus. Throughout his career, Georgas has focused his research on the relation between culture and psychological phenomena.
Globalization
Authors: Menon Usha
Published: October 2013

Globalization is generally defined as both a speeding up and an intensification in the interconnectedness between peoples and regions. It involves, therefore, an escalation in the rate at which people, goods, capital, images and ideologies travel across national and cultural boundaries. Several observers view the globalization occurring today as an irresistible and overwhelming force that is fundamentally re‐ordering the human experience of space and time. Thus, the social theorist talked of “time‐space compression” to describe the ways in which advances in modern technology and electronic communications have resulted in time annihilating space, such that people, irrespective of their geographical locations, can share experiences and participate in events at the same instant in time. However, we must remember that in all the hype that surrounds globalization, there remain parts of the world – and this applies to Africa more than anywhere else – that are excluded from global networks; these places are the “black holes” of today's globalized world.
Gratitude
Authors: Naito Takashi
Published: October 2013

Historically, gratitude has played an important role in major religious thought, including that of Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. For example, we find “gratitude to God” in the Bible and in the Koran. In Buddhism, gratitude is important because it indicates the understanding that all people and other beings in the world live interdependently, which is a central doctrine.
Grief Therapy Across Cultures
Authors: Vazquez Carmen Inoa
Published: October 2013

Grief therapy (as distinct from grief counseling) is the application of specific techniques that focus on helping grieving persons identify and resolve conflicts with separation that interfere with resolution of abnormal or complicated grief reactions that continue unresolved through time. Grief counseling, on the other hand, uses focused techniques that facilitate the process of normal or uncomplicated grieving, alleviate suffering, and help the griever to move on to adjustment within a reasonable amount of time.
Guthrie, George M
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

George M. Guthrie was born in Paris, Ontario in Canada on September 3, 1924. Following graduation from the University of Western Ontario in 1946, he went on to complete the Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1949 at the University of Minnesota, where Paul Meehl was his supervisor. He then became a member of the psychology faculty at Pennsylvania State University, where he remained until he retired and became professor emeritus in 1988.
Hall, Edward T
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Edward T. Hall was born in Webster Grove, Missouri in 1914, but grew up in the American Southwest. As a young man in the 1930s, Hall worked on the Navajo and Hopi reservations, building roads and dams with Native American construction crews. In 1942, he earned a Ph.D. in anthropology at Columbia University. The foundation for his lifelong research on cultural influences on space perception was laid during World War II when he served in the U.S. Army in Europe and the Philippines as an officer with an African American regiment. During the 1950s he worked for the Foreign Service Institute teaching intercultural communications skills to foreign service personnel. At this time, Hall developed the concept of “high context” and “low context” cultures. Hall held academic positions at the University of Denver, Bennington College, Harvard Business School, the Illinois Institute of Technology, and Northwestern University.
Heine, Steven J
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Steven J. Heine (b. 1966) completed work for the B.A. in psychology with a minor in Japanese at the University of Alberta in 1989. He subsequently spent two years teaching English in a school in an isolated Japanese town where he was the first foreign worker. His experience in Japan convinced Heine that much of the mainstream psychology he had learned as a student in Canada did not generalize to the Japanese people. This experience led to an interest in the cultural foundations of psychology – a subject he studied at the University of British Columbia upon his return to Canada in 1991.
Heterostereotypes
Authors: Pastor Silvia C. , Fuentes Milton A.
Published: October 2013

Heterostereotype refers to a group's perception of another group's members’ traits, characteristics, or values with a tendency to define others as rigid ethnic characterizations and strong generalizations about group membership. Different national or cultural assumptions can be described as either simple or projected. A simple heterostereotype asserts egocentric statements making claims regarding another group (i.e., “
We think they are
…”). On the other hand, projected heterostereotypes are centered in emotional assumptions of another group's self‐perception or identity (i.e., “
We believe that they think they are
…”). Heterostereotypes suggest more about one's identity than about the stranger, even more than the autostereotype, while the autostereotype, or a group's views about the traits or characteristics of its own members, is more differentiated than the heterostereotype, with dominating positive attributes.
Hierarchical Linear Modeling
Authors: Vauclair Christin‐Melanie
Published: October 2013

Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) is an extension of linear regression analysis that allows analyzing variance in a dependent variable at multiple hierarchical levels. It is known by various names in the literature, such as multilevel analysis (or multilevel modeling), random coefficient model, mixed‐effects model and covariance components model. It is a statistical regression approach that is used when data have a hierarchical or so‐called nested or clustered structure which means that observations at one level of analysis are nested within observations at another level. In cross‐cultural research, the hierarchical structure consists usually of individuals (referred to as level 1 or individual level) who are nested within a specific country or culture (level 2 or country level), which requires a two‐level analysis. The outcome variable is then measured at the individual level and predictor variables can be used at both the individual and country level. A particular characteristic of multilevel modelling is that it takes into account the error associated with sampling at each level (e.g., individuals and countries) of analysis.
Identity Conflict
Authors: Ward Colleen
Published: October 2013

Our current understanding of identity conflict has its roots in theories of psychosocial development and James. Erikson postulated eight stages of ego development, each stage characterized by conflict between two alternatives (e.g., trust versus mistrust, initiative versus guilt). The fifth stage, occurring during adolescence, is defined by the tensions between identity and role confusion. During this period young people ponder questions such as “who am I?” and “how do I fit in?” Those who manage conflict and emerge from this stage with a strong sense of identity are equipped to face adulthood in a mature and confident manner.
Illusions
Authors: Phillips William L.
Published: October 2013

An
illusion
occurs when there is a discrepancy between our perception of a stimulus and the true physical properties of that stimulus as they exist in the real world. An example is shown in Figure 1. The “pop‐out” rectangle appears brighter than the rest of the background, though the light reflecting off the page is physically the same intensity. For this reason, the outline of the rectangle is referred to as a
subjective contour
. Illusions may appear in any modality (sense), and researchers have suggested that they are due in some instances to physiology (such as lateral inhibition) and in other instances to over‐emphasis of depth or size cues.
Immigrants
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji
Published: October 2013

Immigrants are people who leave one country to enter and settle in another – alien individuals or family units, born in a different nation (sending region) and admitted lawfully into a hosting, yet foreign country (receiving region), to which they are not native, for the purpose of establishing a permanent residency or citizenship.
Independent Self‐Construal
Authors: Dean Kristy K.
Published: October 2013

Self‐construal refers to a person's perception of the self in relation to others. A self‐definition that emphasizes one's personal attributes, including traits (e.g., “I am outgoing”), preferences (“I like surrealist art”), abilities (“I am a good listener”), and feeling states (“I get bored easily”) constitutes an
independent
self‐construal. By constructing an identity based largely on one's constellation of stable, internal characteristics, independent self‐construals encourage perceiving the self as consistent across situations and fundamentally different and separate from others, even relationship partners and ingroup members. In this sense, an independent self‐construal involves thinking about “me” in the singular rather than “we.”
Independent Variable
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Psychologists investigate potential changes in behavior as a result of changes in experimental conditions. To do so, they manipulate a variable and create different groups, noting whether the manipulations are associated with any subsequent changes in behavior across groups. The variable that the researcher manipulates is the independent variable. The outcome variable that may change depending on the experimental manipulation is called the dependent variable.
Indigenous Behavioral Health in Eastern Africa
Authors: Mathews Judith R. , Wasanga Christine
Published: October 2013

In Africa, the number of traditional healers far outnumbers Western‐trained doctors by as much as 10:1. In fact, it is estimated that 80% of rural health needs in Kenya are met by traditional healers. This is due in part to long‐held traditions in African communities and in part due to the lack of Western‐trained medical practitioners. Given the low physician:patient ratio, it is important for Western‐trained practitioners to understand and collaborate with traditional healers. With the onset of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Africa, there is even greater utilization of traditional healers. Recognizing this fact, the World Health Organization published a traditional medicine strategy proposing national policies to ensure quality care by traditional healers.
Indigenous Organizations
Authors: Simon Andrew F. , Kayongo‐Mutebi Alice
Published: October 2013

Indigenous organizations are those that represent the culture from which they have emerged. Representation comes in multiple forms. They may be structured in a manner that mirrors the culture's hierarchy, strive toward goals characteristic of the culture, or operate according to procedures consistent with cultural norms. A broad view of the social dynamics in and around indigenous organizations is necessary for understanding, as they are inseparably linked to the history and politics of a region.
Information Processing and Culture
Authors: Dyke, Darci Van , Campbell John , Richard Ferraro F.
Published: October 2013

When we deal with information, we do so in steps. One way to think of this is to picture the process of acquiring, retaining, and using information as an activity called information processing. Information comes from the outside world into the sensory registers of the human brain. This sensory input is processed by various parts of our brain, and some of the information is integrated and enters into consciousness. We usually refer to this information and our awareness of it as perception. We are not consciously aware of most of the things we perceive, becoming aware of them only if we consciously direct our attention to them. When we do focus our attention on this information, it is temporarily stored in our
working memory
.