bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Gaffe-Avoiding Animal or A Bundle of Hypotheses
Authors: Gellner Ernest
Published: November 2023

There are a number of notions of rational behaviour. The most important, and also most readily intelligible, is Zweckrationalitat. Conduct is rational if it is optimally effective in attaining a given specified aim. (Alternative reading: if, in the light of the evidence available to an agent, there is good reason to believe it to be so.) Instrumental rationality contains, as an important part or corollary, the requirement for the efficient use of relevant information. He who wills the end must will the means; information relevant to the choice of most effective means is itself a means, perhaps the most important one. Thus Zweckrationalitat required not merely that one should choose the optimal means, but also that one’s beliefs, in the light of which the means are chosen, should themselves be in some sense optimal, given the data at one’s disposal.
Marxism and, Methodological Individualism
Authors: Elster Jon
Published: November 2023

‘God is the productive forces.’ This joke of Paul Lafargue’s expresses well enough a particular Marxist approach that I shall take issue with in the present chapter. Such an approach involves seeking out the motor forces of history, as well as the stabilizing forces of societies. It uses abstractions such as ‘productive forces’, ‘relations of production’, ‘classes’, ‘state’, or ‘ideologies’ without indicating how these are anchored in individual actions, motivations, and beliefs. According to this view, history is the self-realization of Humanity, of Man rather than of men. Capitalist exploitation and domination are the fact of Capital, which takes precedence in the order of explanation over individual capitals.
Community, Individualism, and Culture
Authors: Badie Bertrand
Published: November 2023

One of the classic distinctions in sociology is that between community and association, between community feeling and individual rationality. It can be found in various forms in analyses of social change which identify community with tradition, and association with modernity. The distinction also informs comparative analyses such as those which compare individualist Western societies with African or Middle Eastern societies that are presented as archetypes of the community model. As with most cliches, there is some truth in this view, and the classifications on which it is based deserve, no doubt, a place in sociohistorical and comparative analyses, now in a process of reappraisal. There are several difficulties related to Ferdinand Tonnies’ initial theoretical construct. In comparative sociology, his theoretical framework poses certain problems of method.
Labour’s Grass Roots
Authors: Seyd Patrick , Whiteley Paul
Published: November 2023

Who belongs to the Labour Party and why? What are their opinions about politics and society, or about the `new model' party of Neil Kinnock? After the electoral debacle of 1983 the Labour leadership embarked on a strategy of modernization in order to win back some of their lost support. The leadership has consistently tried to empower the party members at the expense of the trade unions and the party activists. But this strategy has been a `leap in the dark', since the leadership has had no idea what views party members hold on matters of policy or internal organization. This book publishes the results of the first comprehensive study of party members, examining who they are, why they joined the Labour Party, and discussing their views on activism, the party, and society as a whole. Journalistic accounts of party membership abound with images of unrepresentative extremists and eccentrics. This book replaces journalistic hunches with accurate information on a significant group of actors in the British political process.
Constituent Diplomacy in Federal Polities and the Nation-state: Conflict and Co-operation
Authors: Kincaid John
Published: November 2023

The growing number of international activities undertaken by the constituent governments (e.g. states, provinces, cantons, Länder, republics, municipalities, port authorities) of nation-states, especially federated nations, has raised concerns about the future of the nation-state. The most common concern is that ‘diplomatic’ activity by constituent governments will endanger national unity and international stability. As a recent analysis of economic development policies of US states concluded:
Belgium
Authors: Lejeune Yves
Published: November 2023

Since 1 970 the Kingdom of Belgium has comprised three communities: the French community, encompassing the French-speaking people of Wallonia and Brussels (3.9 million people); the Flemish community, including the Belgian people from Flanders and Brussels who speak Dutch (5.9 million people); and the small German-speaking community, which includes the approximately 66,400 German-speaking Belgians living in the eastern cantons. The Belgian state is also divided into two large regions: the Walloon region, with an area of 16,844 square kilometres, including the area of the German-speaking community (854 square kilometres); and the Flemish region (13,512 square kilometres). All these collectivities are in principle endowed with exclusive powers. There is, furthermore, the region of Brussels-Capital, with nineteen communes (162 square kilometres), and a particular status.
Justice As Impartiality
Authors: Barry Brian
Published: November 2023

Almost every country today contains adherents of different religions and different secular conceptions of the good life. Is there any alternative to a power struggle among them, leading most probably to either civil war or repression? In this important new work of political philosophy, Brian Barry argues that justice as impartiality offers a solution. The follow-up to his prize-winning book Theories of Justice, it offers a contemporary restatement of the Enlightenment idea that certain basic principles can validly claim the allegiance of every reasonable human being.
Justice as impartiality
Authors: Barry Brian
Published: November 2023

If justice as reciprocity is no more than a fragment of a more comprehensive theory of justice, then it behoves us to identify this theory of justice. The present chapter will be devoted to the task of setting out the theory, which I shall call justice as impartiality. This shares with justice as reciprocity its answer to the first question: it says that the motive for complying with the demands of just rules is the desire to behave fairly. But it departs from the criterion for just rules that justice as reciprocity retains from justice as mutual advantage. In place of mutual advantage, it proposes a criterion that is intended to articulate more directly with the motive of behaving fairly. The basic idea here is that just rules are those that can be freely endorsed by people on a footing of equality.
Germany: Challenges to the Old Policy Style
Authors: Esser Josef
Published: November 2023

The Federal Republic’s economic and social system faces immense economic, social, and political demands. These may be encapsulated in phrases like ‘third technological revolution’, globalization of production, and internationalization of markets (triadization versus Europeanization), as well as the integration of East German into West German capitalism. What I want to do here is to analyse the reaction of the German economy to these challenges and to ask if there are dramatic changes of the relationship between the private economy and the state.
Britain: The Spectator State
Authors: Grant Wyn
Published: November 2023

Of the countries studied in this book, Britain is the one in which the transition from the old conception of a ‘national champion’ to that of the international firm has gone furthest. In part, this reflects the fact that rather than developing grands projets, or seeking to influence the structures and strategies of powerful industrial actors, government involvement with national champions in Britain came in the form of lame ducks which brought with them new political problems rather than opening up economic opportunities.
Austria: Has the Federation Become Obsolete?
Authors: Rack Reinhard
Published: November 2023

Article 2 Section 1 of the Austrian federal Constitution states: ‘Austria is a federal state’. A closer look at the Austrian federal Constitution shows that this statement is, at best, a half-truth. Austria is a federal state, but a weak one. Or, to be more precise, a country where the nine states comprising the Republic are not very strong and the federation is almost all-powerful. In Austria, for instance, there is no real power-sharing between the federation (the Bund) and the states (the Länder). Articles 10 to 15, which is where the division of competences between the federation and the states is laid down, very quickly reveal that the federation has received the lion’s share. Practically all that is worth having belongs to the federation. Not only external affairs, money, and the army, but also all civil and criminal law, all police powers, all matters pertaining to trade and industry, almost all traffic competences, mining, forestry, labour legislation, public health, most of education and science, and practically all taxation matters belong to the federation.
The Relative Contributions of Biological and Behavioural Factors in Determining Natural Fertility: A Demographer’s Perspective
Authors: Bongaarts John
Published: November 2023

Although natural fertility has become a fundamental concept in demographic analysis, its definition is still frequently misunderstood. Some of this confusion stems from the fairly widespread but mistaken notion that natural fertility is solely or largely determined by biological factors. While biological factors are indeed crucial determinants of natural fertility, a number of behaviours are also very important (Leridon, 1977). Louis Henry (1972) identified the key role of breastfeeding and post-partum abstinence in lengthening birth intervals and reducing the rate of reproduction. And, of course, the frequency of intercourse affects natural fertility. If one considers overall natural fertility as measured by the total fertility rate, then age at marriage, marital disruption, and remarriage also become non-biological determinants. Behaviour clearly matters, and this paper will examine its role by discussing the relative contributions of biological and behavioural factors affecting natural fertility. More specifically, it will apply a simple reproductive model to quantify the relative effects of biological and behavioural determinants of levels and differentials in natural fertility.
Post-Partum Sexual Abstinence in Tropical Africa
Authors: Walle Etienne Van De , Walle Francine Van De
Published: November 2023

Post-partum taboos on sexual intercourse have been encountered in many countries throughout history. They were once advocated by medical authorities in Europe. The Greek and Roman doctors of antiquity were opposed to sexual relations during nursing, and their opinions were quoted until the nineteenth century. Galen (1951 edn.: 29) thought that the milk of the nursing mother would be spoiled because of the admixture of sperm in the mother’s blood. Soranos and Hippocrates believed that coitus and passionate behaviour provided the stimulus that reactivated menstruation. Prior to the eighteenth century, there was no medical knowledge of the biological effect of breastfeeding on amenorrhoea. Sexual abstinence, not the action of breastfeeding, was thought to delay the return of the menses. This interpretation was still widely held in Europe in the eighteenth century (see, for example, Roussel, 1813, a medical textbook with multiple editions).
Incomplete Data in Event History Analysis
Authors: Little Roderick J A
Published: November 2023

Longitudinal studies are an increasingly popular method of data collection in a wide range of disciplines, including medicine, public health, sociology, economics, and demography. Many of these studies produce data in the form of event histories (Tuma and Hannan 1978), where individuals are followed over a period of time and dates of events are recorded; for example, births or marital changes in a demographic survey, progression of disease in a clinical trial, changes of employment status in an income survey, or pollution episodes in an environmental study. It is now widely recognized that the analysis of data in this form requires the methodology of survival analysis (see e.g. Kalbfleisch and Prentice 1980), and extensions of that methodology to handle recurring events. This chapter discusses problems arising from incomplete data in the analysis of event histories.
Majority Rule, Social Welfare Functions, and Game Forms
Authors: Maskin Eric s.
Published: November 2023

In his classic article, ‘A Possibility Theorem on Majority Decisions’ (Sen 1966), Amartya Sen showed that, in seeking domains of preferences on which the method of majority rule is transitive, one can, in effect, reduce the search to the case of three alternatives and three individuals. More specifically, he identified a condition—value restriction —that is defined for triples of alternatives, and demonstrated that, provided the number of individuals is odd, majority rule is transitive regardless of how individuals’ preferences are drawn from the domain ℛ, if and only if ℛ satisfies value restriction for each triple (hence the reduction to three alternatives). Moreover, value restriction is the necessary and sufficient condition regardless of the number of individuals, and so we have transitivity with n individuals (n odd) for domain ℛ if and only if we have transitivity with three individuals for domain ℛ (hence the reduction to three individuals).
Beveridge’s Social and Political Thought
Authors: Harris Jose
Published: November 2023

When I first began to think about what I might say in the lecture on which this chapter is based, I mentioned to a class of undergraduates that l was taking part in various anniversary celebrations for Beveridge and his report: and it was obvious that most of them were politely puzzled about who Beveridge actually was. It turned out that two had never heard of Beveridge at all: the rest were divided between those who thought he had passed the 1944 Education Act, and those who thought that he had personally introduced the National Health Service. All of them believed that he had been a minister in the Labour Government of 1945.
I Keeping Good Company
Authors: Charkham Jonathan P
Published: November 2023

It matters to all of us that companies should be governed effectively. The prosperity of many associated with the company-whether directly as managers and employers, or indirectly as shareholders, suppliers, and customers-depends on it. In a broader context, how companies are run is a significant factor in the competitiveness of national economies as studies of Japanese management, for example, show. In this fiercely competitive world we cannot judge our own system of corporate governance in isolation; it must bear comparison with the best. This book aims to do just that. In turn, the author describes the system of corporate governance-both the business environment and the particular structures of company organization-in five major industrial countries-Germany, Japan, France, the USA, and the UK. The book establishes two basic principles of good corporate governance: first, that management must have the freedom to drive the enterprise forward; and secondly that it must exercise this freedom within a framework of effective accountability. Charkham shows how these principles are applied in each country-indicating where methods vary and how most countries fall short of the ideal. In addition, the author highlights the UK's strengths and weaknesses and calls for a thorough overhaul of current theory and practice.
The Age of Turbulence: 1937-54
Authors: Nakamura Takafusa
Published: November 2023

The Sino-Japanese War began on July 7, 1937, which began with a con frontation between Japanese and Chinese troops at the Marco Polo Bridge (Lugou-qiao), and expanded into the Pacific War. Before the conflict ended, eight years elapsed, three million souls were lost, and Japan was left devastated after a miserable defeat. The direct and indirect effects of the war on Japan’s economy were profound, undermining the foundations of the national, business, and household economies.
The Local Embeddedness of Transnational Corporations
Authors: Dicken Peter , Forsgren, Mats , Malmberg Anders
Published: November 2023

Although the terminology may be recent, the question of the local embeddedness of transnational corporations (TNCs) has long been a central issue in the debate over the relationship between such organizations and the geographical areas in which they operate. As the geographical extensiveness of TNC activity progressively increased in the decades after World War II a broad consensus developed in much of the critical literature that TNCs were inexorably becoming ‘placeless’ organizations, owing no allegiance to country, region, or local community. They were seen as ‘snatchers’ rather than ‘stickers’, as operators of a metaphorical ‘slash and burn’ policy whereby areas were exploited for their resources (including labour) and then abandoned as the resource became exhausted or as better or cheaper alternatives were identified elsewhere.
The Uneven Landscape of Innovation Poles: Local Embeddedness and Global Networks
Authors: Tödtling Franz
Published: November 2023

Recent changes in industrialized economies and their spatial transformation seem to be of a fundamental and a long-term nature. Some scholars argue that Fordism is transformed into post-Fordism, others observe the emergence of a new long wave of development. As a consequence the spatial system is seen to change dramatically as has been indicated in a ‘break down or reversal of longstanding core periphery structures’ (Aydalot 1984), the ‘emergence of new sunbelt regions’ and of ‘Silicon Landscapes’ (Hall and Markusen 1985) as well as of ‘new industrial districts and spaces’ (Piore and Sabel 1984; Scott 1988). These changes are said to affect not just production but also higher-level functions such as R&D, innovation, and decision-making. In what follows it will be investigated to what extent a move from Fordism towards post-Fordism is changing in particular the landscape of innovation poles in Europe.
Flexible Districts, Flexible Regions? The Institutional and Cultural Limits to Districts in an Era of Globalization and Technological Paradigm Shifts
Authors: Glasmeier Amy
Published: November 2023

Since the early 1980s scholars have been intrigued with small-firm industrial production complexes. The resulting literature has emphasized the viability, flexibility, and longevity of this form of industrial organization (Sabel 1989; Scott 1988; Storper and Walker 1990). In large part this literature was intended as an antidote to large-firm dominance in much scholarly work on regional and international development. With greater reflection, scholars are now beginning to question the efficacy of small-firm production complexes (Sayer 1989; Harrison 1993). They are recognizing that their existence is both time- and sector-dependent, and therefore industrial districts may represent only a limited model of future regional development (Storper and Harrison 1991; Glasmeier 1991).
An Economic Model of Inter-Firm Networks
Authors: Casson Mark , Cox Howard
Published: November 2023

Advocates of networking often commend networks as being more fair and more democratic than alternative organizational forms. This chapter uses the principles of economic theory to show that they are often more efficient too. It examines the conditions under which a network can be expected to emerge as an efficient institutional solution to a co-ordination problem. This means embedding the analysis of inter-firm networks within a more general economic theory of institutional choice. Implementing such an approach makes it necessary to identify the main alternatives to the network and to explain why, under certain conditions, these alternatives are inferior to the network itself. Identifying these conditions allows us to provide an explanation for why international business networks, which linked together an array of independent firms, developed out of Britain in the nineteenth century.
Mixed Mode Operation of Electronic Markets and Hierarchies
Authors: Holland Christopher P , Lockett †Geoff
Published: November 2023

The impact of inter-organizational systems (IOSs) on network structures is analysed from a managerial perspective. The research problem is to explain the role of IOSs in the context of other variables such as asset specificity which have also been shown to partly determine the formation and change of network structures. One attempt at this problem is to apply transaction cost economics. In its simplest form this type of analysis suggests a move towards electronic markets rather than electronic hierarchies. However, this is not supported by empirical evidence from the subject disciplines of industrial marketing, manufacturing strategy, and by certain organization theory research which highlights the importance of integrated supply chains coordinated through hierarchical links. Although electronic markets have been involved in some industries such as travel and grocery, there is clearly a move towards electronic hierarchies, particularly in manufacturing, which have been termed virtual organizations, or vertical integration without ownership. In this chapter it is argued that by considering asset specificity, market complexity, and co-ordination strategy from an individual firm perspective, different forms of business relationships and network structures can be predicted and explained. This represents a broader application of transaction cost economics which includes issues of quality and exogenous changes in markets. The basic premise of electronic markets is that IOSs affect the relative cost structures of markets and hierarchies. This analysis is questioned and an alternative explanation is offered, namely that information technology makes all network structures more efficient and effective. In addition to the well-known market, hybrid, and hierarchy concepts, a mixed mode operation which combines a market element and a hierarchy element simultaneously is identifiable. It is argued that although the mixed mode is a concept independent of information technology, in practice it would be very difficult to manage using only manual systems.
The Bank of England and the Government
Authors: Kynaston David
Published: November 2023

This essay is in five parts. The first (and longest) part traces the shifting balance of power between Bank and government from 1815 to 1988; the second considers some of the attitudes, prejudices, and assumptions that helped to shape the relationship; the third attempts to show some of the ways in which the Bank has sought to influence government economic policy; the fourth deals with the Bank in its role as conscious representative of the interests of the City of London as a whole; and the last part touches on the ‘independence’ debate that marked the run-up to the Bank’s tercentenary.
Clustering and UK Biotechnology
Authors: Shohet Simon
Published: November 2023

The UK biotechnology ‘industry’ comprises two historically distinct industrial strands. The first—the traditional chemical and pharmaceutical industry—has long established roots traceable to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when firms such as Glaxo, Welcome, and ICI were founded. A number of US and continental European firms with UK subsidiaries also fall into this category. In some cases these were established before the Second World War and have since developed significant R & D and manufacturing operations in the UK. The second strand of firms has more recent roots and emerged from the new cell and gene discoveries of the mid and late 1970s. These start-up firms, the dedicated biotechnology firms (DBFs), are making an important contribution to growth of the sector, and represent the largest grouping of such firms in Europe, though smaller and compositionally different from the US sector discussed in Chapter 6.
Management Accounting in Italy Evolution within Tradition
Authors: Barbato Maria Bergamin , Collini, Paolo , Quagli Alberto
Published: November 2023

The evolution of accounting theory in Italy has played a crucial part in the development of management accounting. The relative lack of acceptance of new accounting techniques is largely due to past achievements in accounting theory, both in financial reporting and in cost accounting. Putting modem accounting in a historical and cultural context represents an appropriate way to understand its stages of development and potential future changes.
Managing the Exchange Rate System
Authors: Holtham Gerald
Published: November 2023

The current system of floating exchange rates between major currencies with intermittant ‘management’ by central banks has many critics. Yet the Bretton Woods adjustable peg system operated in a world of extensive capital controls and the overwhelming dominance in the system of a single power and currency, the United States and its dollar. Neither of those two conditions now applies. Capital markets are increasingly open and, while the USA retains hegemony, two other currencies, the Deutschmark and the yen, are important centres of regional currency blocs and are willingly held by money managers internationally. Is there a feasible alternative to the status quo?
The International Origins of Unemployment
Authors: Eatwell John
Published: November 2023

In all G7 countries, long-term trends in unemployment since the War show a distinct break around 1970. The increase in unemployment has been greatest in the major countries of the European Union, with Western Germany experiencing an almost eight-fold increase (from a very low base). Of the major European countries, only Italy had a rellatively small proportionate increase in unemployment, but this was from what was, for the 1960s, a high base. Canada and the USA, both relatively high unemployment countries in the 1960s, have also suffered ‘only’ 50 per cent and 130 per cent increases in average levels of unemployment. Japan’s experience is exceptional, having very low unemployment in the 1960s, and from that low base suffering ‘only’ a 120 per cent increase.
On Trade-Offs between Values
Authors: Lukes Steven
Published: November 2023

I begin with three commonplaces, namely: (a) that values are plural, (b) that plural values may conflict, and (c) that choice between conflicting plural values consists in a trade-off between them. Each of these apparent truisms has, nevertheless, been denied. (a) was denied by Plato, or so at least Aristotle thought when he insisted, against the ‘Platonists’, that ‘of honour, wisdom and pleasure, the accounts are distinct and diverse. The good, therefore, is not some common element answering to one Idea’. Some utilitarians deny it, as indeed do all those ‘monists’ who insist on the descriptive homogeneity of the objects of value. Indeed, its denial used to be a commonplace, but it is so no longer.2 It now seems increasingly to be accepted as obvious that things, or options, or states of affairs may be valuable in ways that cannot be reduced to a single way. As Max Weber (1948 edn.: 147-8) remarked, we have known since Nietzsche that something can be beautiful, not only in spite of the aspect in which it is not good, but rather in that very aspect. You will find this expressed in the Fleurs du Mal as Baudelaire named his volume of poems. It is commonplace to observe that something may be true although it is not beautiful and not holy and not good.
Overseas R&D Activities of Japanese Firms
Authors: Odagiri Hiroyuki , Yasuda Hideto
Published: November 2023

The process of evolution in many industries is characterized by a shift from import substitution to export, from export to the transfer of manufacturing activities abroad, and then to the development of overseas R&D facilities. Although the speed of this evolution has varied widely across industries and across countries, the development of overseas R&D facilities has been generally slow. One reason for this is that systematic R&D efforts by industries started only in the late nineteenth century with, most notably, Edison ‘s laboratory in Menlo Park in the USA and Bayer ‘s of Germany, both of which were founded during the 1880s. The first major US-owned overseas laboratory was founded in 1928 by Kodak in England, but more commonly R&D activity was concentrated in a firm ‘s headquarters ‘ laboratories. However, the expansion of multinationals after the Second World War increased the need for establishing R&D activities in host countries, and many R&D facilities were therefore set up abroad.
A Cultural Theory of Industrial Policy
Authors: Casson Mark
Published: November 2023

The preceding country case studies supply a rich variety of policy experiences to be interpreted. This chapter offers a theory that explains why such a range of industrial policies have been pursued over the last century or more in the various European economies. As in the earlier studies, a broad interpretation of industrial policy is adopted: an industrial policy is any policy designed by government to improve coordination between different sectors of the economy. Coordination is defined here with respect to the political aims of the ruling elite. Industrial policies arc chosen, it is assumed, because they are expected to increase the economic efficiency with which the policy objectives of the elite are achieved.
US Foreign Direct Investment in Electric Utilities in the 1920s
Authors: Hausman William J , Neufeld John L
Published: November 2023

Considerable attention has been devoted to ‘researching the determinants of the growth of multinational enterprise over the last century ‘. Yet much more attention has been devoted to manufacturing, trading, and banking than to public utilities. This is certainly the case for US foreign investment in electric utilities, which has been a relatively neglected topic in the history of multinational enterprise. This is unfortunate for a number of reasons: (1) direct investment in electric utilities comprised a substantial component of US foreign direct investment in the period under study here; (2) these foreign investments were related, albeit indirectly, to an event of momentous significance in US economic history, the stock market boom and crash of the late 1920s; and (3) direct investment in electric utilities has again become a topic of discussion and action in the industry because of political and structural changes in the 1990s both in the USA and abroad. The purposes of this chapter are to establish the quantitative importance of US foreign direct investment in electric utilities, which was especially vigorous in the last half of the 1920s, to identify the businesses that made these investments, and to discuss the structure of these multinational businesses, including the extent to which they could be described as ‘freestanding companies ‘.
Japanese Accounting
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: November 2023

Much has been written about Japanese management practices, production systems and business culture but surprisingly little attention has been given to the development of accounting practices and approaches in modern Japan. Professor Kyojiro Someya, a former president of the Japanese Accounting Association and now Director of the Japan Accounting Research Institute, is one of the most distinguished accounting scholars in japan. In this book he presents an overview of developments under three main headings - Japanese Accounting History, Problems in Financial Accounting, and Cash Flow Accounting. Someya stresses that the focus of his research was shaped by the particular economic and business conditions in Japan. His work on cash flow accounting and fund flow analysis was done in the context of the problems presented by the high inflation in the immediate post war period; the work on financial statements was linked to the need to increase productivity; and his concerns for appropriate international reporting a reflection of the growing economic internationalization of the Japanese economy from the 1960s onwards. In this important and informed collection, Professor Someya also reflects on the broader meaning of accounting information in business and society, its role in business decision making, and the different ways in which it may be organized and presented in different business cultures.
Inventors of the World of Goods
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: November 2023

Inventors have long been associated by historians with industrialization, and connected both with the capital goods sector and large-scale process innovation. Peter Mathias did much to shift the debate on the sources of innovation back to the role of artisan skills, to ‘learning by doing’, and to incremental technical change. While doing so, he still allowed an important place for science in the connections between invention and industrialization. This was not one of direct transfer, but of an intellectual milieu and climate of curiosity. At strategic points, the application of mathematics and measurement as well as scientific method did matter. The mathematical understanding underlying work on clocks, watches, engine work, and mechanical devices affected the development of engineering; scientific method and measurement mattered in experimentation with different types of metals. Mathias emphasized highly specialized skills and their great shortages.
China
Authors: Chai Joseph C H
Published: November 2023

At the heart of China's remarkable economic growth is a new economic system, which has emerged out of radical reforms in virtually all areas of economic activity. Understanding this system is the key to understanding the Chinese economy. This book, the culmination of many years of research in Hong Kong and China, is a comprehensive account of these systemic reforms, as well as of their transferability to other economies in transition. The starting-point of Dr Chai's analysis is a careful examination of the structural elements of China's new economic system, focusing particularly on the decentralization of property rights in both the agricultural and industrial sectors. There follows a detailed analysis of changes in the functional elements of the system: its price and financial mechanism. An assessment of the open-door policy also considers the twin impact of the liberalization of China's foreign trade and foreign investment regimes. Finally, China: Transition to a Market Economy highlights the increasingly important role of the non-state sector in facilitating economic growth and structural transformation.
Human Development in Cuba: Growing Risk of Reversal
Authors: Mehrotra Santosh
Published: November 2023

Cuba is a small, very open economy, and has been so since before the Cuban revolution. Its dependence on trade for both consumption and output has not diminished since the revolution, so that it remains highly vulnerable to external shocks. For thirty years after the revolution it faced a relatively stable external environment, and within the limits of the structural constraints of being a small, open economy, output grew at a remarkable pace, even over the 1980s, when the rest of Latin America faced negative growth. Social indicators improved dramatically. However, whenever external shocks have occurred, output has been adversely affected throughout this century, and the experience of the 1990s has not been contrary to the historical experience of many other small, developing economies. This fact should be constantly borne in mind while analysing the Cuban experience.
The Development of Volkswagen’s Industrial Model, 1967-1995
Authors: Jürgens Ulrich
Published: November 2023

Analysis of the trajectory of Volkswagen1 (VW) between the late 1960s and the mid- l 990s reveals two prominent events: the crisis of 1973/4 and the crisis of 1993/4. Both years mark the end-points of periods of internal crisis, indecision, trial-and-error approaches, and accompanying internal controversies and uncertainty, which were of extended length: from around 1968 until 1974 in the first case, and from around 1988 until 1994 in the second. Both of these periods were basically related to issues of product strategy, that is, to ‘market uncertainty’. These, in tum, affected the firm’s governance structure.
What’s the Point of a Development Strategy?
Authors: Sen Amartya
Published: November 2023

Is a “development strategy” a smart thing to have? It looked like that when development economics was born as a new subject in the late l 940s. A state could do wonders, it seemed, with a well thought-out design of development. Many economists-Nurkse (1953), Lewis (1955), Baran (1957), Leibenstein (1957), Tinbergen (1958), Kindleberger (1958), among others-outlined their respective views of how to get development going. There were, of course, sceptics, too, such as Hirschman (1958), who saw development less as a planned than as a spontaneous process, often emerging from undesigned chaos rather than from designed order. But the balance of opinion in the circle of development economists was very definitely on the side of “strategists” rather than “anti-strategists”.Things have moved on from there. Views have changed. Faith in government’s ability to do good things has dwindled. The increased appreciation of the role of markets over that of governments also tends to make the reliance on public policy and development strategy deeply suspect. Indeed, development strategy has ceased to be an attractive term. It is often seen a.5 the airing of Napoleonic ambitions by a bureaucracy with a solid record of bungling, blundering and botching.
The Development of National Governance Principles in the Netherlands
Authors: Iterson Ad Van
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores how the connections between governance principles, collective actors, and workplace relations have developed in the Dutch busi¬ness system. In order to identify the governance principles (Kristensen, this volume) which regulate the formation and interaction of social groupings in the Netherlands, attention will first be directed to the geographical and socio-economical characteristics of late medieval ‘Holland ‘ and, next, to the early history of the Republic of the Netherlands (seventeenth century) when the rebellious Dutch provinces gained unity and identity in their combat against the Spanish overlordship and the ubiquitous water, and when merchant elites grasped the opportunities offered by expanding over¬ seas trade and the favourable location of the maritime part of the Netherlands.
Competition in Regulated Industries
Authors: Helm Dieter , Jenkinson Tim
Published: November 2023

The UK has pioneered the introduction of competition into previously monopolistic utility industries. Competition has been introduced progressively, starting with BT, and continuing with the gas and electricity industries, where it is to be completed during 1998. In water, competition has so far been restricted to new developments, and it is said that it will be phased in once the initial franchises expire. These radical policy innovations have been controversial, and raise significant generic problems concerned with market design, regulation, corporate strategy and income distribution. The lessons from the UK provide an essential input into liberalization throughout the world, as well as helping to shape the transitional arrangements already in place in the UK. This volume brings together independent experts with the specialist regulators to provide a comprehensive analysis of the issues. The common themes are drawn together in the introduction. The volume will be essential reading for utility companies, regulators, politicians and policy advisors.
Party-Army Relations in China: Retrospect and Prospect
Authors: Joffe Ellis
Published: November 2023

It is axiomatic among observers that in the transition to the post-Deng era, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) will play a pivotal role. This is understandable. Until now, the army has been a central force in Chinese politics owing to the unique Party-army relationship that has existed since the founding of the Communist regime. Although this relationship will change in the near future, the importance of the military will not: they will remain indispensable backers of the new leadership. This is because they command the forces which may be used to determine the outcome of an elite power struggle, displace rebellious local figures, put down a mass uprising or even carry out a coup.
From Handshake to Contract: Intellectual Property, Trust, and the Social Structure of Academic Research*
Authors: Liebeskind Julia Porter , Oliver Amalya Lumerman
Published: November 2023

Academic science is one area of human activity where trust—in the form of scientific credibility—plays an essential role. Indeed, the entire social structure of academic science comprises a network of trust relationships that are built up through personal experiences, through reputation, and through institutional supports. Without these trust relationships, science itself cannot advance. However, this social structure may be altered when the values and interests of its members change. In this chapter, we describe how the increasing commercial value of scientific discoveries in molecular biology has transformed the notion of trust within the academic scientific community, leading to changes in the social structure of this academic field.
The Determinants of Innovation in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
Authors: Wood Eric
Published: November 2023

The role of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the innovation process has become an important component of the policy interest in small firms in the UK (see for example ACOST, 1990) and in the Europe Union as a whole (see European Commission, 1995). The reason for this appears to be the mounting evidence that SMEs, here defined to be firms with fewer than 500 employees, play a vital role in the innovation process. Cohen and Levin (1989) suggest that it is far from clear that large firms are now the most important source of innovations. Recent empirical studies have highlighted the important and growing contribution SMEs have made to total innovation output (Pavitt, Robson, and Townsend, 1987; Acs and Audretsch, 1988, 1991). Mueller (1988) argues that ‘the small or newly-born firm is a primary source of new products and innovations’ (p. 40).
Systems Psychodynamics in the Service of Political Organizational Change
Authors: Neumann Jean E
Published: November 2023

Comprehensive organizational changes normally touch employees’ emotional and political concerns. Employees who lead and implement such changes cope with challenges to their interests by engaging in political activities. Typically, they enact psychological dynamics in the service of overt and covert aims. These dynamics, inherent in social systems change, can be both functional and dysfunctional. However, in particularly messy and confusing situations, psychological dynamics may be so severe that valid political concerns cannot be addressed effectively.
Women, Work, and Children: Behavioural and ldeational Change in the United States
Authors: Rindfuss Ronald R , Brewster karin l. , Kavee Andrew l.
Published: November 2023

Social demographic explanations of fertility behaviour have typically focused on the transition from high to low fertility. Early theoretical statements emphasized the impact of structural factors, including increased child survival, higher educational attainment, urbanization, and a shifting occupational structure (Notestein 1953). However, as the evidence from historical studies and the contemporary developing world accumulated (Coale 1973; Teitelbaum 1975), it became apparent that such structural explanations provided only a partial understanding of the monumental changes taking place in fertility behaviour. The evidence suggested the importance of culture and ideational change; accordingly, these factors have come to assume a more prominent place in social demographic explanations of fertility behaviour over the past two decades or so (Coale 1973; Lesthaeghe 1983; Coale and Watkins 1986; Watkins 1991; Mason 1992; Entwisle et al. 1996).
Patterns of Fertility and Nuptiality in a Fishing Village in Southwestern Tokugawa Japan
Authors: Tsuya Noriko O
Published: November 2023

This study examines patterns of fertility and nuptiality amongst women born in the early nineteenth century in a fishing village called ‘Nomo’ in the southwest island of Kyushu, Japan. Using the local population registers called shūmon-aratame-chō (SAC), we seek to account for the nature of the relationship between childbearing and marriage in the Japanese past. The primary objective of this study is to analyse patterns and characteristics of fertility of cohorts of women through their reproductive years, and nuptiality patterns are analysed here as a major demographic event interrelated to childbearing. Thus, this study does not deal with, nor has enough information to discuss, the marriage and family systems in fishing villages in eighteenth-century Japan.
The Social Science View of Entrepreneurship: Introduction and Practical Applications
Authors: Swedberg Richard
Published: November 2023

The basic argument of this introduction —as well as the rationale for this whole reader —is that the social sciences have a very important contribution to make, not only to the theoretical understanding of entrepreneurship but also to entrepreneurship as a practical enterprise.1 This viewpoint has tended to get lost in the surge of studies in this field, which has characterized the development during the last ten to fifteen years within the business school community. The social sciences, I argue, can provide new and fresh ideas about the theory and practice of entrepreneurship, by looking at innovative business behaviour in other times, in other societies, and in other cultures-and also by looking at entrepreneurship from novel angles and from the perspective of a much wider range of actors than is commonly done.
When a Thousand Flowers Bloom: Structural, Collective, and Social Conditions for Innovation in Organization
Authors: Kanter Rosabeth Moss
Published: November 2023

Innovation consists of a set of tasks carried out at the micro-level by individuals and groups of individuals within an organization. These microprocesses are in turn stimulated, facilitated, and enhanced-or the opposite-by a set of macro-level conditions. Some of these structural and social factors are more important at certain stages than at others. This paper suggests that a dynamic model of innovation is needed which connects the major tasks in the innovation process to those structural arrangements and social patterns which facilitates each. Four major innovation tasks are discussed: (1) idea generation; (2) coalition building; (3) ideal realization; and (4) transfer, or diffusion. The importance of flexibility, breadth or reach, and, particularly, integration are emphasized.
Introduction
Authors: Swedberg Richard
Published: November 2023

Networks in Silicon Valley" the role of industrial networks in Silicon Valley is studied. "Entrepreneurship and Culture: The Case of Freddy; the Strawberry Man" uses an anthropological approach to study entrepreneurship and adds an existentialist twist to the analysis. Ethnic Entrepreneurs, the last article, finally; differs from the others in that it summarizes many years of research on a specific topic: ethnicity and entrepreneurship. The richness of this last article gives a sense of what sustained academic attention can lead to; and it thereby also gives a sense of the kind of empirical sophistication we can look forward to in many other areas, if the current boom in entrepreneurial studies continues.