bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ion selectivity of the anthrax toxin channel and its effect on protein translocation
Authors: Schiffmiller Aviva , Anderson Damon , Finkelstein Alan
Published: July 2015

Anthrax toxin consists of three ∼85-kD proteins: lethal factor (LF), edema factor (EF), and protective antigen (PA). PA63 (the 63-kD, C-terminal portion of PA) forms heptameric channels ((PA63)7) in planar phospholipid bilayer membranes that enable the translocation of LF and EF across the membrane. These mushroom-shaped channels consist of a globular cap domain and a 14-stranded β-barrel stem domain, with six anionic residues lining the interior of the stem to form rings of negative charges. (PA63)7 channels are highly cation selective, and, here, we investigate the effects on both cation selectivity and protein translocation of mutating each of these anionic residues to a serine. We find that although some of these mutations reduce cation selectivity, selectivity alone does not directly predict the rate of protein translocation; local changes in electrostatic forces must be considered as well.
The maximal function and conditional square function control the variation: An elementary proof
Authors: Hughes Kevin , Krause Ben , Trojan Bartosz
Published: July 2015

In this note we prove the following good-

λ
\lambda

inequality, for

r
>
2

r>2

, all

λ
>
0

\lambda > 0

,

δ
∈

(

0
,

1
2

)

\delta \in \big (0, \frac {1}{2} \big )

,
\[
<mml:math xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="upper C dot nu left-brace upper V Subscript r Baseline left-parenthesis f right-parenthesis greater-than 3 lamda semicolon script upper M left-parenthesis f right-parenthesis greater-than delta lamda right-brace less-than-or-equal-to nu left-brace s left-parenthesis f right-parenthesis greater-than delta lamda right-brace plus StartFraction delta squared Over left-parenthesis r minus 2 right-parenthesis squared EndFraction dot nu left-brace upper V Subscript r Baseline left-parenthesis f right-parenthesis greater-than lamda right-brace comma">

C
⋅
ν

{

V
r

(
f
)
>
3
λ
;

M

(
f
)
>
δ
λ

}

≤
ν
{
s
(
f
)
>
δ
λ
}
+

δ
2

(
r
−
2

)
2

⋅
ν

{

V
r

(
f
)
>
λ

}

,

C \cdot \nu \big \{ V_r(f) > 3 \lambda ; \mathcal {M}(f) > \delta \lambda \big \} \leq \nu \{s(f) > \delta \lambda \} + \frac {\delta ^2}{(r-2)^2} \cdot \nu \big \{ V_r(f) > \lambda \big \},

\]
where

M

(
f
)

\mathcal {M}(f)

is the martingale maximal function,

s
(
f
)

s(f)

is the conditional martingale square function, and

C
>
0

C > 0

is (absolute) constant. This immediately proves that

V
r

(
f
)

V_r(f)

is bounded on

L
p

L^p

,

1
>
p
>
∞

1 > p >\infty

, and moreover is integrable when the maximal function and the conditional square function are.
Implications of Big Data for cell biology
Authors: Dolinski Kara , Troyanskaya Olga G.
Published: July 2015

“Big Data” has surpassed “systems biology” and “omics” as the hottest buzzword in the biological sciences, but is there any substance behind the hype? Certainly, we have learned about various aspects of cell and molecular biology from the many individual high-throughput data sets that have been published in the past 15–20 years. These data, although useful as individual data sets, can provide much more knowledge when interrogated with Big Data approaches, such as applying integrative methods that leverage the heterogeneous data compendia in their entirety. Here we discuss the benefits and challenges of such Big Data approaches in biology and how cell and molecular biologists can best take advantage of them.
Specific Populations
Authors: Brandon Anna R. , Shivakumar Geetha , Anderson Elizabeth H. , Lyerly Anne Drapkin
Published: July 2015

It is estimated that more than 500,000 women annually experience a mental illness during pregnancy. Although approximately a third of these women will be prescribed medication, the majority receives no treatment, partly because ethical challenges to including pregnant women in research protocols have impeded studies necessary to establish maternal and fetal effects of medication, appropriate dosing, and the relative risks of undertreated mental illness. Because mental illness is a frequent complication of pregnancy (particularly anxiety and depression), clinicians will be called upon to ethically navigate uncertain treatment recommendations with sensitivity to patient values. The following discussion reviews the history of current guidelines to research with pregnant women, common clinical presentations of women experiencing mental illness in the perinatal context, and relevant ethical frameworks to inform patient care.
Control Shifts via Share Acquisition Contracts with Shareholders (Takeovers)
Authors: Davies Paul
Published: July 2015

This chapter examines the regulatory issues that arise when there is an offer to acquire shares directly from one or more shareholders of a company such that control of that company shifts to the acquirer. It begins with a comparison between control shifts implemented by contract and corporate transactions which produce the same result. It identifies three principal areas where contract may need to be supplemented by takeover-specific rules arising out of the coordination costs of target shareholders, powers of target management, and agency costs of non-controlling shareholders. It then considers how takeover regulation could be fashioned so as to promote efficient and discourage inefficient transfers of control. The chapter concludes by focusing on the choices actually made in four countries: Japan, Germany, UK, and the United States.
Mergers, Acquisitions, and Restructuring
Authors: Coates John C.
Published: July 2015

This chapter examines how mergers, acquisitions, and restructuring are regulated, both within the formal body of corporate law and as that law interacts with other bodies of law such as securities (including listing standards), antitrust, industry-specific regulation, and regulations of cross-border transactions. It begins with an overview of relevant terminology and scope of M&A and restructuring and how they differ from other corporate transactions or activities. It then considers major types of M&A transactions, the core goals of corporate law or governance, and other bodies of law (antitrust, industry-based regulation, regulation of foreign ownership of business, and tax) that give special treatment to M&A and restructuring, and sometimes interact with corporate law and governance. It also looks at laws that constrain M&A transactions and those that facilitate them. It concludes by summarizing empirical research and discussing what variations in types and modes of regulation governing M&A and restructuring transactions imply.
Governance by Institutional Investors in a Stakeholder World
Authors: Hertig Gerard
Published: July 2015

This chapter examines the increased attention paid to stakeholder interests and its economic or, at least, societal impact, and whether giving a new or stronger voice to stakeholders is justified. It first provides an overview of recent stakeholder-oriented reforms and their impact before assessing the merits of giving stakeholders a new or reinforced voice in terms of corporate governance. It then turns to the hypothesis of having institutional investors act as stakeholder representatives as well as the extent to which their ultimate beneficiaries can contribute to institutional investor governance. It also explores whether the ultimate beneficiaries of pension funds can have the option to choose between shareholder and stakeholder-oriented investment strategies.
Temporalities
Authors: Dinshaw Carolyn
Published: July 2015

A prophecy prompts Margery in The Book of Margery Kempe to visit the grave of her confessor Richard Caister in Norwich. Her extreme devotional style, thrusting her into the immediate reality of the divine now, contrasts with the dry chronological and institutional timekeeping of a priest there. This article examines the clash of temporalities involving Margery Kempe: in her narrative world, Margery inhabits a time zone different from the people around her. It describes Margery’s experience before the pietà in Norwich in the context of history and time, past and present, analyzing mysticism’s problematization of the body in time and exploring the potentials of multiple temporalities of queerness. It discusses the realm of queer history, with Margery Kempe, her first modern editor Hope Emily Allen, and the author as its subjects.
Feeling
Authors: McNamer Sarah
Published: July 2015

The past few decades have witnessed a surge of interest in emotion as a subject of study across the disciplines. This has generated important interdisciplinary conversations, opening up new methodologies and new fields, including a field with special relevance to medievalists -- the history of emotion. How can specialists in Middle English literature contribute in more visible and fruitful ways to the history of emotion? This article gestures towards some ways of bridging the disciplinary divide between literature and the history of emotion. It advocates an approach that does not dismiss, but embraces, the "literariness" of literature as a site for the making of emotion in history. It invites Middle English scholars to consider literary texts as scripts for the production of feeling, and it explains how the concepts of performance and performativity can generate new ways of thinking about emotion historically. Finally, it illustrates a method for reading Middle English texts as scripts for the making of emotion in history by analyzing two texts, The Wooing of Our Lord and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in their historical contexts.
Drama as Textual Practice
Authors: Lindenbaum Sheila
Published: July 2015

A popular notion in medieval drama study is that plays can be fully accessed only in the moment of performance. This idea has been challenged only recently. This article proposes a somewhat different line of critical enquiry that focuses not on the text’s performative qualities, but on the literate practices set into motion in the text’s articulation and transmission. More specifically, it considers the skills and procedures that are regularly used by trained professionals not only in their ordinary lines of work but also to drama. It looks at the clerk’s job of copying a great London spectacle into the city’s official books while also doing a great deal of creative work, citing a report by John Carpenter about Henry VI’s entry into London as an example. It also examines late medieval English drama in relation to the English liturgy, as exemplified by Resurrection plays. Finally, the article discusses the Terence revival and translation in England.
Gossip and (un) Official Writing
Authors: Phillips Susan E.
Published: July 2015

In the Prologue to the “Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale,” a loyal servant betrays his master’s closely held secrets as he engages in idle talk. Yet much more is at stake in this scene than the damage that a servant’s idle talk can do to his master; for the Canon’s Yeoman’s gossip does not simply divulge the Canon’s shortcomings, it also illuminates how gossip is fundamental to the narrative experimentation at the heart of this tale. Exploring the many different ways in which gossip functions in English culture during the late medieval period, this article reveals that idle talk acts not just as the transgressive speech of the disempowered, but, more centrally, as the discursive tool of ‘official’ culture, deployed by medieval English poets and preachers alike. It considers the consequences of gossip not only for Chaucerian poetics but also for late medieval pastoral literature, arguing that that idle talk is as central to Robert Mannyng’s exemplarity as it is to Chaucer’s narrative experimentation.
Anukul Chandra Mukerji
Authors: Bhushan Nalini , Garfield Jay L.
Published: July 2015

Anukul Chandra Mukerji (1888–1968) was Professor of Philosophy at the University of Allahabad. His career reflects a preoccupation with the history of philosophy, and his systematic work is always situated both in the Western and Indian philosophical traditions. In the West his work focuses on the philosophy of Kant and Hegel. Mukerji approached Indian idealism through Advaita Vedānta. Mukerji, a specialist in the philosophy of mind and psychology, was a committed naturalist, in that he saw the deliverances of empirical psychology as foundational to an understanding of the mind. He paid close attention especially to the psychologists William James, John B. Watson, and James Ward. Mukerji wrote two substantial monographs: Self, Thought and Reality (1933) and The Nature of Self (1938). In each, Mukerji emphasizes the rational intelligibility of the world and the foundation role that consciousness and self-knowledge play in the edifice of knowledge more generally.
Work and Family in Times of Crisis
Authors: Eby Lillian T. , Mitchell Melissa , Zimmerman Lauren
Published: July 2015

This chapter considers the effects of nonwork crises on the work–family interface. Drawing from Crisis Theory (Caplan, 1961, 1964), we develop a framework to understand how crisis events may affect work and family life over time. In so doing, we examine the short- and long-term work–family outcomes of crisis, and consider potential moderators of the associations between the experience of a crisis event and these outcomes. Next, we apply the framework to a number of exemplar nonwork crises internal and external to the individual and family, including addiction, relationship loss, natural disasters, and military deployment. We conclude by identifying research priorities related to understanding work and family in times of crisis.
Natural Kinds
Authors: Khalidi Muhammad Ali
Published: July 2015

Science posits entities that are neither individuals nor properties but kinds of individuals that share a number of distinct properties. Philosophers have designated them “natural kinds” and have held different views about how to distinguish them from arbitrary collections of individuals. The doctrine of “kinds” or “natural groups” was first explicitly introduced by nineteenth-century philosophers interested in taxonomy or scientific classification and continues to be the subject of lively debate in contemporary philosophy. After canvassing some of the philosophical controversies regarding natural kinds, the article presents two influential contemporary theories of natural kinds: essentialism and the homeostatic property cluster theory. The article goes on to defend naturalism, which is more in tune with the findings of modern science.
Representation in Science
Authors: Suárez Mauricio
Published: July 2015

This article provides a state-of-the-art review of the philosophical literature on scientific representation. It first argues that the topic emerges historically mainly out of what may be called the modelling tradition. It then introduces a number of helpful analytical distinctions and goes on to divide contemporary approaches to scientific representation into two distinct kinds, substantive and deflationary. Analogies with related discussions of artistic representation in aesthetics and the nature of truth in metaphysics are pursued. It is finally urged that the most promising approaches—and the ones most likely to feature prominently in future developments—are deflationary. In particular, a defense is provided of a genuinely inferential conception of representation.
Reduction
Authors: Hüttemann Andreas , Love Alan
Published: July 2015

Reduction and reductionism have been central philosophical topics in analytic philosophy of science for more than six decades. Together they encompass a diversity of issues from metaphysics and epistemology. This article provides an introduction to the topic that illuminates how contemporary epistemological discussions took their shape historically and limns the contours of concrete cases of reduction in specific natural sciences. The unity of science and the impulse to accomplish compositional reduction in accord with a layer-cake vision of the sciences, the seminal contributions of Ernest Nagel on theory reduction and how they strongly conditioned subsequent philosophical discussions, and the detailed issues pertaining to different accounts of reduction that arise in both physical and biological science (e.g., limit-case and part-whole reduction in physics, the difference-making principle in genetics, and mechanisms in molecular biology) are explored. The conclusion argues that the epistemological heterogeneity and patchwork organization of the natural sciences encourages a pluralist stance about reduction.
Science and Non-Science
Authors: Hansson Sven Ove
Published: July 2015

The delimitation of science is often taken to coincide with its demarcation from pseudoscience. That is a much too simplified picture. Science has philosophically interesting borders to many nonscientific endeavors that are not pseudoscience. This chapter begins with a discussion of the historically contingent limits of the English designation “science,” concluding that it is more fruitful to focus on a somewhat wider community of knowledge disciplines that includes not only the sciences but also the humanities. This wider category corresponds closely to the German term Wissenschaft; in English it can be called “science in a broad sense.” It is compared to a series of other human endeavors: practical arts, technology, fine arts, pseudoscience, and religion. Much more can be learned about science from this wide range of comparisons than from a one-sided focus on its boundary to pseudoscience.
Scientific Progress
Authors: Bird Alexander
Published: July 2015

What constitutes scientific progress? This article considers and evaluates three competing answers to this question. These seek to understand scientific progress in terms of problem-solving, of truthlikeness/verisimilitude, and of knowledge, respectively. How does each fare, taking into consideration the fact that the history of science involves disruptive change, not merely the addition of new beliefs to old beliefs, and the fact that sometimes the history of such changes involves a sequence of theories, all of which are believed to be false, even by scientific realists? The three answers are also evaluated with regard to how they assess certain real and hypothetical scientific changes. Also considered are the three views of the goal of science implicit in the three answers. The view that the goal of science is knowledge and that progress is constituted by the accumulation of knowledge is argued to be preferable to its competitors.
Cooperation Drives Competition among Tsimane Women in the Bolivian Amazon
Authors: Rucas Stacey L.
Published: July 2015

This chapter connects work conducted among the Tsimane of Bolivia with others and highlights the value and scope of social capital as a driver of competition among women. It further examines proximate and ultimate levels of causation to understand what forces instigate women to seek relationships with certain individuals and what benefits might be reaped through costly investments in maintenance of social status and networks. In particular, women invest in social resources such as friendships, kin-groups, and social status because they may increase inclusive fitness through higher quantity or quality of offspring. Finally, the chapter connects the ultimate effects with their underlying proximate levels of causation, showing that women view cooperators, helpers, and advisors as more interpersonally attractive. The conclusion offers a robust connection between proximate and ultimate causation effects and helps explain in richer theoretical detail the extent, progression, and complexity of women’s same-sex relationships over evolutionary time.
Facebook Frenemies and Selfie-Promotion
Authors: Guitar Amanda E. , Carmen Rachael A.
Published: July 2015

Human communication has been largely influenced by the global popularization of social network sites such as Facebook over the past decade. From PCs to mobile phones, humans can now communicate in ways never before experienced during our history on Earth; moreover, sites like Facebook are providing a novel platform for engaging in female intrasexual competition. Through cyberbullying, selfies, and Facebook “stalking,” females are engaging in traditional strategies of intrasexual competition (i.e., self-promotion, rival derogation, mate manipulation, and competitor manipulation) in an evolutionarily novel social environment. This chapter examines what is new about social interactions that take place online and what is an artifact of our evolutionary heritage. Additionally, it argues that the self-promoting material that Facebook users post to the site is indicative of underlying fitness; therefore Facebook postings are an example of a modern-day extended phenotype.
The Liturgy
Authors: Jackson Pamela
Published: July 2015

Liturgy, the Church’s public worship, embodies the faith of the Church, and has been drawn on as a source for theology from the early centuries of Church history. This article considers the Church’s theology of the liturgy—how the liturgy functions as vehicle through which God extends his saving action accomplished in Christ to each generation by the power of the Holy Spirit-as well as the relationship between liturgy and theology. It then discusses elements of the outward form of the liturgy and their meaning. Finally, there is consideration of characteristics of Vatican II’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, including its treatment of the nature of the liturgy, the role of the Word in the liturgy, and the relationship between liturgy and conversion.
Modality and Mood in Oceanic
Authors: Lichtenberk Frantisek
Published: July 2015

The Oceanic languages form a subgroup within the Austronesian family. The chapter is a cross-linguistic investigation of several kinds of modality: epistemic, deontic, dynamic, desiderative, and timitive; and also of the realis and the irrealis moods. The modalities are expressed by various means: affixes on verbs, particles associated with verbs, and verbs, which in some cases are not fully-fledged verbs. The timitive modality is a complex category: it simultaneously expresses epistemic modality and apprehension about the possible state of affairs. While the validity of the realis–irrealis distinction has been questioned in some of the general typological literature, the present chapter argues that the distinction is useful in Oceanic, even though there are differences of detail among the languages.
Modality and Mood in Functional Linguistic Approaches
Authors: Aijmer Karin
Published: July 2015

The chapter deals with functional approaches to mood and modality. The focus is on Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) associated with Halliday’s writings, Dik’s Functional Grammar (FG), and the mainly American functional school of Role and Reference Grammar (RRG). The positions taken by these schools can be described as “structuralist-functionalist” in that they propose models relating form to function. It is shown that a layered representation in some form is required to account for the role of mood and modality. Halliday’s interpersonal grammar has been further developed under the heading of Appraisal. It is typical of this and related theories that it emphasizes the similarity between modality and other types of attitudes which can be expressed by language.
The New Woman and Her Ageing Other
Authors: Mangum Teresa
Published: July 2015

This essay focuses on the powerful grip anxieties about ageing had on the increasingly diverse field of texts associated with the New Woman. A number of women poets from the period seem uniquely aware of the potential consequences for single women when they transition from being a ‘young person’ to being a spinster. Novelists of the period emphasized effects of ageing not only as a physical phenomenon, but also as an affective, social, economic, and relational influence that affected a character’s identity and options as profoundly as gender and sexuality. Nowhere is the fear of ageing more prominent than in those novels where New Women characters and plots intersect with late nineteenth-century Gothic fiction, whether the Gothic setting is the urban or actual jungle.
Science and Periodicals
Authors: Shuttleworth Sally
Published: July 2015

Periodicals offer a wonderful guide to the Victorian age, and to the ways in which science entered into the general culture of the time. This study considers a range of different kinds of periodicals, and the diverse ways in which they engaged with contemporary science. Although evolutionary theory was obviously a significant presence, it formed only one part of a complex picture. In the literary-oriented periodicals, for example, we find particular emphasis placed on the ways in which scientific thinking appeared to intersect with the interests of fiction and poetry, whether in theories of selfhood or personal responsibility, or the relations between science and religion. There was also, more generally, a fascination with new inventions, and the possibilities opened up by new technologies, such as the ingenious suggestion for a ‘whispering machine’. Periodicals offer an intricate picture of a society grappling with rapid social and cultural change, charged with the immediacy which comes from their serial and time-bound nature. In their integration of cutting-edge science with the latest fiction or social commentary they established a model we could do well to emulate.
Songwriting Techniques in Music Therapy Practice
Authors: Aasgaard Trygve , Blichfeldt Ærø Stine C.
Published: July 2015

Songwriting in music therapy practice encompasses various techniques whereby clients, children, adults, or older people are assisted, individually or in groups, to create lyrics and music and to perform and/or record their own songs. The most common clinical areas for songwriting in contemporary practice are psychiatry, autistic spectrum disorder, developmental disability, oncology, dementia, and neurorehabilitation. Frequent therapeutic goals are related to validating experiences, externalizing thought, fantasies, and emotions or to develop cognitive skills. Specific goals may not always be clearly defined before the creative process, and client’s needs may emerge as the lyrics and music are created. Songwriting in music therapy is based on methods with defined steps or stages which many different practitioners have tested and refined. This chapter also presents a less directive approach which is based on a loose framework of guidelines.
Music Therapy for Children and Adults who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Authors: Gfeller Kate E.
Published: July 2015

This chapter focuses on music therapy for children and adults who are deaf or hard of hearing. Foundational information on acoustical properties of music and speech and the hearing mechanism is provided. Because this population is diverse on a number of factors, which influence therapeutic needs, this chapter describes differences among clients as a function of auditory profiles (e.g. onset or severity of loss), hearing devices, modes of communication, and cultural affiliation. These factors influence abilities in various functional domains. Music therapy goals and interventions are described in relation to speech and language, auditory training, social integration, and music engagement. Accommodations in the therapeutic environment that optimize hearing and communication guidelines essential to successful therapeutic interventions are discussed.
Music Therapy
Authors: Edwards Jane
Published: July 2015

This chapter outlines the importance of understanding the dynamics of the service context along with the needs of the population being served in order to achieve effective implementation of music therapy programmes. The new music therapist, and the student, must take care to ensure they understand as much as possible about the population, the services, and the wider policy context in the place where they are providing services before translating research findings or the techniques described in case studies to their own developing practice. Music therapy has an emergent evidence base as provided through case reports, expert opinion, randomized controlled trials, and meta-analyses of existing studies. The evidence base points to the effectiveness of music therapy to address a range of needs, particularly in improving communication and social skills.
Information Structure and Discourse Particles
Authors: Grosz Patrick G.
Published: July 2015

Focusing on German as its object language, this chapter explores the interactions between discourse particles (e.g. ja, doch) and information structure. The first half of the chapter explores the traditional idea that discourse particles form a watershed between thematic (old) and rhematic (new) information. Concerning the ‘theme’, it is argued that unstressed elements to the left of discourse particles (in the ‘middle field’ between C0 and the verbal complex) must be aboutness topics. Concerning the ‘rheme’, it is shown that the focus exponent generally has to follow discourse particles. The second half of the chapter discusses current issues relating to the interactions of discourse particles and focus. Specifically, it investigates ‘relational’ discourse particles (e.g. doch and schon), which operate on a contextually salient alternative proposition q, giving rise to a discussion of the potential role that focus may play in the interpretation of such particles.
Coinage and Money in the Roman Rhineland
Authors: Wigg-Wolf David
Published: July 2015

This chapter begins with an overview of the development of the first Roman coins before discussing their presence in most Augustan military bases along the Rhine during the Iron Age. It then considers the numismatic controversy surrounding the battlefield site at Kalkriese, which has been linked with the clades variana, the catastrophic defeat of the Romans in the Teutoburger Forest in AD 9. It also examines the use of Roman prototypes to produce coin imitations; coin supply and traditions of coin use; the role played by coin finds in dating the construction of the ‘Upper German–Raetian limes’; the increase in military pay that came in the form of silver coins during the reign of Septimius Severus; the slow disappearance of silver in Germania Magna beyond the limes; the decentralisation of coin production; and the decline of coinage in the Rhineland. Finally, it explores the reform of the coinage under Diocletian.
Religion, Cult, and Burial Customs in the German Provinces
Authors: Höpken Constanze
Published: July 2015

This chapter focuses on religion, cult, and burial customs in Lower and Upper Germany under the Roman Empire. It first provides an overview of personal religiosity and religious practice, as well as considering the development of the religious system in Roman Germany. It goes on to consider archaeological artefacts with ritual functions, such as vessels and other objects, before it turns to a discussion of magical practice, superstition, amulets, and curse tablets. Finally, this chapter examines differing conceptions of afterlife and attitudes towards superstition and magic in relation to the range of different religious beliefs in Lower and Upper Germany.
Fiscal Crisis and Structural Change in the Late Ottoman Economy
Authors: Birdal Murat
Published: July 2015

This chapter examines institutional change in the Ottoman economy with a focus on its financial crises and subsequent reform attempts. Traditional fiscal institutions functioned well until the late sixteenth century when the state introduced tax reforms and dismantled the traditional tımar system. In the nineteenth century, the administration sought solutions such as the debasement of the coinage and domestic borrowing to finance its deficits. In 1854, the government resorted to foreign borrowing and initiated reforms to improve its financial accounting to gain credibility in foreign markets. After twenty years of borrowing, the Porte defaulted in 1875, and in 1881 signed the Decree of Muharrem, which led to the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration (OPDA). The OPDA era saw unprecedented levels of foreign direct investment and played a pivotal role in the integration of the Ottoman Empire into the world economy.
Energy Gain and the Evolution of Organization
Authors: Tainter Joseph A. , Allen T. F. H.
Published: July 2015

The evolution of complexity is one of the long-standing concerns of historical science, as well as being crucial to understanding the modern world and our future. This chapter explores the connection of complexity to energy gain, energy return on investment, and the energy–complexity spiral. The connection of energy gain to complexity is illustrated by case studies of fungus-farming ants and the Roman Empire. A comprehensive set of propositions explores the relationship of energy gain to complexity, evolution, resource use, system duration, and scarcity and abundance. These propositions can be applied to further research, and provide a framework for developing questions about cultural evolution and resource use. Finally, the relationship of energy gain to complexity is used to explore our future energy use and its relationship to land conversion, environmental damage, and return on alternative energy sources.
Linking the Past and Present of the Ancient Maya
Authors: Ford Anabel , Clarke Keith C.
Published: July 2015

Understanding traditional Maya land use is key to interpreting ancient Maya settlement. The authors link the traditional Maya milpa cycle in use today with a predictive model of ancient settlement patterns through a spatial model for the El Pilar area. The model provides the number of residential units, and therefore population, projected based on the geographic variables of soil fertility, drainage, and slope, while the ethnographic records of maize yields from traditional Maya forest gardening provide the basis for subsistence. By classifying residential units and assuming average family sizes, the authors derive population estimates and ranges for the Late Classic Maya and demonstrate the potential of the milpa cycle to support significant populations at the height of the Maya civilization. Their work shows the value of indigenous strategies to produce food and household needs while conserving the forest, a strategy of potential use today and in the future.
Culture, Power, History
Authors: Wells E. Christian
Published: July 2015

This chapter outlines innovative research directions for an archaeology of global environmental change. It is argued that by triangulating environmental challenges along the axes of culture, power, and history, archaeologists can contribute key evidence about socioecological dynamics that is required for understanding where human societies stand relative to larger cycles. By surveying recent articles in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS), some of the various ways in which archaeologists have contributed to addressing global change problems are explored. The survey reveals that archaeologists are increasingly working as part of interdisciplinary teams to integrate long-term human–environmental data into contemporary ecological modelling efforts by drawing on the related fields of cultural ecology, political ecology, and historical ecology. The chapter also provides an example of this kind of research using a case study that considers Neotropical anthrosols and fire ecology in swidden agroecosystems.
Qualitative Methods and American Political Development
Authors: Galvin Daniel J.
Published: July 2015

American Political Development (APD) research is well positioned to benefit from advances in qualitative methodology. Drawing on those tools and research strategies more regularly and explicitly, this essay argues, should help to foster more cumulative research programs both within the APD community and across related historical-institutional subfields. Reviewing three common modes of analysis found in APD scholarship, this essay suggests that more explicit identification of each study’s main theoretical contributions and empirical limitations should help to promote more healthy debate around matters of evidence and theory and make it easier for the community of scholars to identify areas in which to build on each other’s work and make more incremental, cumulative gains.
Theory of Relations and Universal Harmony
Authors: Mugnai Massimo
Published: July 2015

This chapter discusses Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s philosophical reflections on the theory of relations and universal harmony. It first outlines the scholastic background of the doctrines concerning the ontology of relations. It turns then to Leibniz and his development of a theory of relations based on the ideas of Pierre Du Moulin and Caspar Bartholinus. More specifically, it examines Leibniz’s explicit characterization of the “mental” nature of relations using the Latin word concogitabilitas (co-thinkability), according to which a relation arises when several things are thought of simultaneously. The chapter also considers Leibniz’s views on the nature of relations “outside the subjects,” relational predicates, relational properties and their foundations, and a class of predicates known as extrinsic denominations. Finally, it analyzes Leibniz’s idea of harmony and pre-established harmony.
Leibniz’s Political Vision for Europe
Authors: Beiderbeck Friedrich
Published: July 2015

This chapter examines Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s political vision for Europe, beginning with his views on the Holy Roman Empire and the Peace of Westphalia. It considers how Leibniz viewed Germany’s political and cultural structures and his support for the Reich, along with his thoughts on order, security, and law. It also discusses Leibniz’s modern notion of state and his ideas of territorial power, diplomacy, and international politics; his views on France’s foreign policy under Louis XIV and the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1713/14); and his dispute with Abbé de Saint Pierre over peace and balance of power in Europe. Finally, the chapter looks at Leibniz’s pronouncements on denominational issues and church politics, particularly the presence of Protestants and Catholics in Germany, and his arguments with regards to the House of Hanover and the role played by Great Britain in power politics as a counterbalance to French hegemony.
Perinatal Psychology
Authors: Wenzel Amy
Published: July 2015

Most adults undergo the transition to parenthood, yet there is a great deal of mystery and uncertainty inherent in this period of time. Because the perinatal period is of great interest to scholars and laypeople alike, much research has been dedicated to the psychological, behavioral, physiological, and neurochemical experiences associated with pregnancy and lactation. This chapter identifies key themes in the perinatal literature and future directions for research. An abundance of research has characterized and described the changes that women undergo during the transition to parenthood, the effects of adjustment problems on women and their infants, and interventions to assist women who are experiencing or are at risk for adjustment problems. Future interdisciplinary research is necessary to capture the complex interactions among psychological, behavioral, physiological, neurochemical, and environmental variables that can explain good and poor outcomes associated with pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum adjustment.
Treatment of Partner Aggression in Intimate Relationships
Authors: Salis Katie Lee , O'Leary K. Daniel
Published: July 2015

This article deals with the treatment and intervention of psychological and physical aggression between intimate partners. It first defines the termspsychological aggressionandphysical aggressionand proceeds by discussing the prevalence rates of psychological and physical aggression, along with their impact on couples’ marital functioning and on the mental health of individuals. It then considers which partner may profit from couple interventions, some of the key controversies in the assessment and treatment of partner aggression, and gender differences in impact and injury of physical aggression. It also examines the relationship between psychological and physical aggression in couples and the ethical issues about which couples are appropriate for conjoint therapy. Finally, the article reviews treatment outcome literature and outlines future directions for the field.
The Media and the Fostering of Political (Dis)Trust
Authors: Barthel Michael , Moy Patricia
Published: July 2015

Citizens’ trust in government, a vital component of any functioning democracy, can be affected by media content, but these media effects depend on numerous factors. This chapter first illustrates the normative significance of political trust, then reviews its various conceptualizations and operationalizations. It reviews the key empirical linkages between media and political trust, focusing on differences in medium, modality, presentation formats, and mechanisms of influence. The relationship between media use and political trust is discussed in light of an evolving landscape – one in which the media are no longer centralized, content consumers also produce messages, and media and politics are inextricably linked. The chapter calls for additional research on the effects of new media and emerging political cultures on political trust.
Emerging Adulthood
Authors: Syed Moin
Published: July 2015

Arnett’s (2000) theory of emerging adulthood has been both widely celebrated and strongly criticized. However, it has not yet been closely scrutinized for what it claims to be: “a new theory of development for the late teens though the twenties.” The purpose of this chapter is to take up this scrutiny, evaluating some of the major postulations and criticisms of emerging adulthood in light of the available evidence. In particular, the chapter focuses on three broad claims pertaining to emerging adulthood: (1) that it is a developmental stage, (2) that it is a theory, and (3) that it is nonsense. The analysis presented in the chapter is not meant to resolve the debates in the field but rather to examine the nuance and celebrate the complexity of the questions in order to stimulate further theory and research on the topic.
Ethical Issues in Social Influence Research
Authors: Kimmel Allan J.
Published: July 2015

Social influence researchers encounter a variety of ethical issues in the conduct of their investigations, including those involving deception, privacy, and confidentiality. Facing a growing array of ethical guidelines, governmental regulations, and institutional review, researchers are faced with decisions that often pit the search for scientific knowledge against human welfare. Ethical decisions pertaining to social influence research methodology can have an impact on research participants, organizations, the scientific discipline, and society in general. This chapter surveys ethical issues in the conduct of laboratory, field, online, and applied research; describes remedial efforts (e.g., debriefing) to mitigate adverse research effects; and considers the nature of the ethical review process.
Rest and Activity Resumption Following Concussion
Authors: Iverson Grant L.
Published: July 2015

Rest is a cornerstone of concussion management. Unfortunately, however, there has been very little research on the definition of rest and how long to rest. The purpose of this chapter is to review the rationale for rest and the published research on rest following concussion. It is concluded that too much rest can be counterproductive, and even harmful in some cases. In the absence of specific evidence to guide clinical recommendations, it seems reasonable to recommend a brief period of rest, followed by a gradual return to normal daily routines.
Misothery
Authors: Mason Jim
Published: July 2015

Our worldview is made of animals. Our views of animals determine how we see nature—the living world as well as our part in it. Pre-agricultural peoples were intrigued by animals, their behaviors and powers. In these totemic societies, animals were seen as First Beings, ancestors, and there was a sense of kinship and continuity with the living world. Domestication upends that, and reduces animals from souls and powers to tools and commodities. Agrarian societies invented misothery and other cultural devices to give humans a sense of supremacy and a license to exploit animals and nature. Misothery imposes a negativity in our worldview; we despise too much of the living world—including our own animality, our sexuality, and our bodily functions. This is the root of all alienation.
Black American Muslims
Authors: Mohammed Basheer
Published: July 2015

This chapter examines the views of black American Muslims on a range of political issues. It draws on nationally representative surveys as well as in-depth interviews and focus groups to show the similarities and differences of black American Muslims when compared with other Muslim Americans, other African Americans, and the larger US public. On certain issues, such as how society should view homosexuality, black American Muslims tend to share the social conservatism common among American Muslims. On other issues, such as immigration, black American Muslims have more in common with non-Muslim blacks in the United States than with US Muslims of other racial and ethnic backgrounds. Finally, black American Muslims express more skepticism about the US government’s efforts to combat terrorism than either other US Muslims or other African Americans.
Desistance from Sexual Offending
Authors: Harris Danielle Arlanda , Cudmore Rebecca M.
Published: July 2015

Although it has received comparatively little research attention, the phenomenon of desistance from sexual offending is just as inevitable as the process of desistance from general crime. This article reviews the current state of knowledge regarding how and why men convicted of sexual offenses come to deescalate or desist from such behaviors. Next, it describes the relevant theoretical explanations of desistance and behavioral change that have emerged from both criminology and psychology. Finally, desistance is discussed in light of the impact of current public policies and recently enacted sex offender–specific legislation. Areas for future empirical research and public policy are highlighted.
The Japanese Encounter with and Appropriation of Western Philosophy
Authors: Maraldo John C.
Published: July 2015

The appropriation of Western philosophy in Japan in the Meiji Period came about through a transformation of the Japanese language. It occasioned a new way of articulating thought that allowed Japanese to make philosophy their own, a discipline proper to the ongoing formation of their culture. This process helped redefine Japan’s past intellectual traditions, interpreting them in the light of Western philosophical concepts and problems. “Enlightenment” Scholars like Nishi Amane, Fukuzawa Yukichi, and Katō Hiroyuki created neologisms, altered traditional styles of writing, and introduced concepts new to Japanese tradition. Later philosophers like Inoue Tetsujirō and Inoue Enryō adapted European philosophical categories to recast old traditions and renew them as relevant for a modernized Japan. In their day, much of their terminology and argumentation was exotic and enigmatic, even while their style appears archaic today. A recognizably twentieth-century philosophical idiom had to wait for thinkers like Ōnishi Hajime and Nishida Kitarō.
Ueda ShizuteruThe Self That Is Not a Self in a Twofold World
Authors: Döll Steffen
Published: July 2015

In his phenomenology of self and world, Ueda draws on a variety of sources, both Western and East Asian, both modern and classical, in order to arrive at the concept of the “self that is not a self” in the “twofold world.” This chapter elucidates Ueda’s philosophy by examining his critical evaluations of Descartes, Heidegger, and Nishida, as well as his original interpretation of Zen’s Ten Ox-Herding Pictures. Ueda’s thought, it is shown, is grounded in a specific experience of the world, an experience in which philosophical analysis is complemented by spiritual practice. Philosophy, he holds, is a soteriological enterprise that confronts us with the question of how we are to face the fact that our self is not a self at all, and our world is a twofold one.