bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Consolidation Experiments for Laminate Composites
Authors: Gutowski T.G. , Cai Z. , Bauer S. , Boucher D. , Kingery J. , Wineman S.
Published: March 2007

Consolidation experiments conducted on special prepregs made of constant viscosity oils and aligned graphite fibers are reported. Measurements of the deformation behavior of the fibers in the "drained" state (oil impregnated, but zero pressure in the oil) reveal that, to a first approximation, the fiber network can be modelled as a nonlinear elastic network, and a model based on bending beam behavior is shown to accurately fit the data. Further more, a finite load (> 3 psi) is required to compress the fibers to volume fractions equal to, and above the range of about 0.56 to 0.61. Sample to sample variation, and in a few cases inelastic effects are also noted. Measurements of the permeability of the fiber bundle indicate a strong anisotropy as well as a strong fiber volume fraction dependence. It is shown that the Carman-Kozeny equation gives a good approximation to the axial direction permeability with kxx = 0.7. Compared to this, the transverse permeability is smaller by a factor of 25 or more. Furthermore, the transverse permeability depends upon fiber mo bility. Experiments comparing the measured and predicted values of the "resin" pressure during simulated compression molding show reasonable agreement. Similar experiments for simulated bleeder ply molding show that the theory tends to overpredict the rate of decay of the "resin" pressure if the Carman-Kozeny equation is used. This difference is probably due to a slight fiber rearrangement which unloads the fibers and causes a "log jam" effect. The incorporation of a modified Carman-Kozeny equation which allows Szz → 0 for Vf < 1 yields an excellent fit to the data. The implications of the results are discussed.
Application of Reflection Orthotropic Photoelasticity to Laminated Composites
Authors: Freire J.L.F. , Antonelli R.A. , Dror Y. , Voloshin A.S.
Published: March 2007

The fabrication procedure and evaluation of the mechanical and photomechnical proper ties of a polyester matrix based fiber reinforced material are described here. Two examples of how reflection photoelasticity can be used for analysis of the stress state were discussed. It was shown that the isochromatic fringes in the outside layers were distorted by the adja cent layers due to different fiber directions and that the fringe order can be predicted by finite-element analysis with good accuracy.
Crashworthy Behaviour of Thin-Walled Tubes of Fibreglass Composite Materials Subjected to Axial Loading
Authors: Mamalis A.G. , Manolakos D.E. , Viegelahn G.L.
Published: March 2007

In this paper we report on small scale modelling of fracture mechanisms and large scale deformation of fibre-reinforced composite materials when circular thin-walled tubes are subjected to axial collapse. Contrary to the mechanism of energy absorption in the case of ductile materials, energy absorption for brittle composite materials is achieved by material fragmentation, i.e., the mechanism of fracture dominates the phenomenon rather than the plastic deformation. The effect of composite material properties and the tube geometry on the crashworthy characteristics of the tubular structural components is investigated with the aim in mind of the cost-effective design of structural elements in vehicles.
Corrosion Between a Graphite/Polymer Composite and Metals
Authors: Tucker Wayne C. , Brown Richard , Russell Laureen
Published: March 2007

A graphite/polymer composite material was directly coupled with: 2014 aluminum (bare and hard-anodized), pure grade titanium, 316 stainless steel and monel. Samples were then immersed in natural seawater. The titanium couple was inactive. Stain less steel and monel changed behavior from noncorroding to crevice and pitting corrosion. Corrosion behavior of 2014 aluminum was not changed by the couple. However, blistering occurred on the composite when active corrosion of aluminum occurred. Crystal growth was observed on the composite when coupled with aluminum and with stainless steel.
Characteristics of Acoustic Emission Wave Attenuation in Short Fiber Reinforced Plastics
Authors: Choi Nak-Sam , Takahashi Kiyoshi
Published: March 2007

The attenuation coefficient (α) of acoustic emission (AE) waves was evalu ated for short glass fiber reinforced poly(ethylene terephthalate) (SGFR-PET) as a func tion of fiber volume fraction ( V f) using simulated AE waves. The coefficient α decreased with increasing Vfmore rapidly than expected from a simple linear relation between α and Vf. The effect of wave attenuation was taken into account in a quantitative analysis of the peak amplitude distribution of AE waves which were detected from each zone partitioned in a specimen gage portion. The amplitude distribution which was obtained by the zoning method was compensated for the attenuation loss stated above. The compensated ampli tude distribution was shown to be almost similar in every zone of the specimen. The com pensated amplitudes of AE waves became much larger as the specimen deformation pro ceeded. Consequently, the AE peak amplitude obtained from short fiber reinforced plastics was shown to be considerably influenced by the wave attenuation.
Strain-Relief Inserts for Composite Fasteners -An Experimental Study
Authors: Herrera-Franco Pedro J. , Cloud Gary L.
Published: March 2007

The stress and strain distributions in the vicinity of single-pin lap joints in a glass-epoxy laminate were studied in a combined experimental-theoretical program. One objective was to evaluate the possibility of obtaining significant stress concentration relief through the use of isotropic material inserts. This paper concentrates on some experimen tal results. High sensitivity Moire interferometry was employed to measure surface strains in three directions within the insert ring and in the adjacent composite laminate. Strain rosette equations were then used to obtain maximum shear strains. Measurements were performed for no insert, a hard insert (aluminum), and a soft insert (epoxy) in an isotropic material and in a composite. Stress reductions were observed at bearing and ligament areas for both types of inserts, with the stiffer insert giving the greatest advantage.
Fabrication and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Matrix Composite Materials
Authors: Lim T. , Kim Y.H. , Lee C.S. , Han K.S.
Published: March 2007

Aluminum matrix composite materials containing SiC whisker and Saffil alumina short fiber are fabricated by the direct squeeze infiltration method. Optimum processing conditions for preforms and squeeze casting are suggested. For minimum damage of the reinforcements, the relatively low pressure of 25 MPa is applied.
Automation of Autoclave Cure of Graphite-Epoxy Composites
Authors: Kalra Lokesh , Perry Mark J. , Lee L. James
Published: March 2007

Techniques were developed for control and automation of autoclave cure of graphite-epoxy composites. Heat conduction dynamics of the system were determined on-line before the reaction exotherm began. System parameters were then used for tuning the controller and for developing bounded setpoint temperature profiles for control action. The advantage of this bounded control is the definition of an envelope for cure temperature trajectory that can provide improved process guidance and control compared to on-off automation techniques. Different strategies based on predictive action and early reheating were used to maintain the laminate's temperature so that cure could be carried out in mini mum time without a thermal runaway. Reheating strategies, such as employing a dual heat flux sensor combined with the dimensionless Damkohler number, were used to quickly drive the cure reaction to completion. The automation techniques achieve a balance in avoiding thermal runaway while reducing cure cycle time.
Anelastic Deformation of a Thermoplastic-Matrix Fiber Composite at Elevated Temperature; Part II: Time-Temperature Dependent Matrix Behavior
Authors: Miyase A. , Chen A.W.-L. , Geil P.H. , Wang S.S.
Published: March 2007

The tensile deformation and failure behavior, dynamic mechanical proper ties and creep behavior of PACM-12 (DuPont, poly(bis 4-4' dicyclohexylmethane) n-dodecanediamide), a representative thermoplastic polymer for use as a matrix in ad vanced composites and as an engineering plastic, as a function of processing history are described. Although injection molded PACM-12 fails in a brittle fashion at room tempera ture, completely amorphous PACM-12 is ductile; the difference is attributed to variations in cooling in the interior of the samples due to sample thickness effects. Partially crystal line samples are brittle at room temperature, with all samples being ductile near and above Tg. A master creep curve for the partially crystalline samples can be obtained by horizontal shift alone.
X-Ray Diffraction Investigation of Triaxial Residual Stresses in Composite Materials
Authors: Fenn R.H. , Jones A.M. , Wells G.M.
Published: March 2007

Triaxial residual strains have been measured in a thermosetting resin of the type used in high performance fibre composite materials. X-ray diffraction measure ments were made on fine metal particles accurately positioned within the material. The variation of stresses and strains with the cure temperature and the amount of particulate matter present were investigated. No significant differences were seen in measured strains over a range of metallic particle volume fractions. However, the expected trend of increas ing compressive strains with increasing cure temperatures was not seen and the magni tudes did not coincide with theoretically predicted values. These results are discussed and some explanations are offered to describe the behaviour observed.
Work Values in White South African Males
Authors: Bluen Stephen D. , Barling Julian
Published: March 2007

The factor structure of the Survey of Work Values is examined in a sample of 273 white South African males (M age = 24.4 years). Results indicate the emergence of seven factors (with an eigenvalue > 1.00) as opposed to the six factors of the original instrument. The item composition of the factors also differed in comparison with previous research: the extrinsic work value dimension—Status of the Job—did not emerge as a significant factor in the present study. Cross cultural explanations for this phenomenon are offered.
Performance on the Coordinate Reference System
Authors: Ohuche Nancy M.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study is to explore gender differences in performance on Piagetian tasks of horizontality and verticality. By stratified random sampling, 192 Igbo students, equally represented by age/grade and sex, were randomly selected from primary schools (grades 3 and 5), secondary schools (grades 1, 3, and 5) and universities (aged eight to nineteen) in schools located in the Nsukka Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. Subjects were individually tested on the standard Water Level Task, the standard Vertical Task of drawing posts on a hill, and a newly devised African task of horizontality, the Balancing Task. All three tasks were equivalent in the number and angles of the internal references. General improvement in development was noted for both sexes on all three tasks. Males significantly outperformed females on the Water Level and Balancing Tasks, but not on the Vertical Task. Sex comparisons by age/ grade resulted in two significant comparisons, both on the horizontal tasks at about the onset of puberty. Finally, there was a significantly high correlation between performance on the two horizontal tasks and the vertical task for both males and females, suggesting an integrated cognitive style for both sexes. These results support as well as contradict previous findings on the reference tasks, thereby raising some puzzling questions and highlighting the need for further research.
Patterns of Cultural Transition
Authors: Horowitz Ruth Tamar , Kraus Vered
Published: March 2007

A comparative study of the adjustment of immigrant students from the Soviet Union and from North America to the Israeli educational system reveals distinct differences between the two groups. The differences between the social environments in the countries of origin affect the pattern of adjustment both in school and society at large. Students from North America are age group-oriented whereas students from the Soviet Union are adult-oriented and place strong emphasis on the teacher-student relationship. As the orientation of the Israeli students resembles that of the American immigrant students rather than that of the Soviet immigrant students, the latter are confronted with a situation of dissonance resulting from the inconsistency between their adult-oriented values and the peer group-oriented values of the new environment.
Time to Fight
Authors: Ireland Michael J. , Gartner Scott Sigmund
Published: March 2007

Democratic peace arguments make compelling claims about the importance of regime type for explaining conflict but do not explain the variation in conflict propensity among states that share a common regime type. The authors develop a veto-player approach to capture the effects of executive constraint and argue that in parliamentary democracies, cabinet structure and allies influence states' conflict behavior. A hazard analysis is used to examine the time before a government's first initiation of force in 569 cabinets in 18 countries from the end of World War I to 1990 ( N = 25,238 cabinet months). Results show that minority governments have a smaller hazard for initiating a conflict than either coalition or majority cabinets. However, the likelihood of conflict initiation for coalition and majority cabinets is the same. States with allies are less likely to initiate force. Across states of relatively uniform political culture, institutional measures of constraint effectively predict variation in conflict behavior.
Dependent Industrialization in the World Economy
Authors: Bornschier Volker
Published: March 2007

Recent cross-national studies that analyze the impact of multinational corporations in the world economy on economic growth and inequality in peripheral and core countries have been interpreted as empirical tests of "dependencia" theories. Such a limited interpretation does not fully acknowledge the theoretical approach of some researchers who contributed to the findings. Although several cross-national findings are not at variance with dependencia expectations, at least one finding is. This relates to "dependent industrialization." This article addresses the theoretical and empirical debate that followed a survey of the cross-national research. In the theoretical section dependent industrialization is discussed. The argument is in important ways different from dependencia thoughts, especially concerning the prediction of long-term economic growth. In the empirical section the recent empirical critique is addressed and reanalyses are performed. The findings suggest indirect support for some propositions developed in the theoretical section.
Conceptualizing “War”
Authors: Most Benjamin A. , Starr Harvey
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this discussion is to focus on two problems that appear to have hindered the development of a solution to what Zinnes (1978, 1980) has termed the “puzzle” regarding the war proneness of nations. Specifically, it suggests that scholars who are interested in understanding and explaining international conflict should recognize: (1) While many analysts have focused on factors internal to nations—“national attributes”—as possibly sufficient conditions for war, the existence of such relationships is logically precluded by the way in which analysts have defined wars. (2) While scholars are trained to search for generalizable patterns that hold both through time and across space and often seem to believe that the isolation of such associations is the sine qua non of the systematic analysis of international conflict, simple logic and already existing theory suggest that patterns of that variety may not in fact exist. While neither of these contentions is original or complex, it is argued that a general failure to understand or recognize such rather basic, logical problems has impeded the development of a base of verifiable, replicable, and generalizable knowledge about the causes of international conflict.
The Frequency and Seriousness of War
Authors: Levy Jack S. , Morgan T. Clifton
Published: March 2007

The hypothesis that the frequency of war in a given period is inversely related to its seriousness is operationalized and tested for the modern great power system beginning in 1500. All imperial wars, as well as interstate wars since 1500, are identified and several indicators of the seriousness of war are constructed. It is found that the correlations between the frequency and seriousness of wars are consistently in the predicted direction, of moderate strength, often statistically significant, stable over time, and consistent for a variety of temporal partitions, thus confirming the hypothesis.
Arms Control and Strategic Arms Voting in the U.S. Senate
Authors: Wayman Frank Whelon
Published: March 2007

This article examines the basis of U.S. Senate support for defense spending and arms control from 1967 to 1983. Some of the findings include the following: Those senators still in office at the end of the 1970s voted the same way on SALT II as they had on ABM limitation in the late 1960s, so no long-term change occurred in the senators' positions on these arms control issues. In contrast, the considerable freedom that senators have to stake out a position of their choice on the hawk/dove continuum can be seen in the weak coefficients of determination between a senator's position and those of his or her predecessors and contemporary fellow senator from the same state. As for the military-industrial complex, traces of its influence are, during the 1970s, at best weakly associated with a senator's hawkishness or dovishness. There are indications of a modest effect of defense-related PACs on roll-call voting in the early 1980s. Although this is cause for concern about the future, other evidence in the article undermines belief in the military-industrial complex model.
Third World Arms Production and the Evolving Interstate System
Authors: Rosh Robert M.
Published: March 2007

This study seeks to uncover what causes a Third World country to begin to produce arms, why some Third World countries produce more weapons than others, and the potential consequences of this production. The findings suggest that a Third World country with a large economy, which has achieved a comparatively advanced role in the world economy and which at one time or another has suffered from an arms embargo, is very likely to be producing a relatively large amount of military weaponry. Within each Third World region a few states are now engaging in arms production to pursue upward political, military, and economic mobility. Given that historically the interstate hierarchy has been maintained, in part, through a monopoly over the means of destruction, indigenous Third World arms production may have wide-ranging consequences for the international system. Indeed, this study concludes that Third World arms production could begin to undermine the military hierarchy of the interstate system.
The War Proneness of Alliances
Authors: Oren Ido
Published: March 2007

In the theoretical literature, alliances have been hypothesized to lead to war as well as away from war. This study statistically examines the relationship between the size of alliances and the war proneness of their members. Analyzing data on the war record of 126 major power alliances formed during the period 1816-1980, it is shown that the larger the alliance, the more wars each of its members is likely to be involved in. This result is consistent with, and enhances the credibility of, past empirical research showing that alliance membership affects the expansion of wars rather than their outbreak. This study also explains a puzzle that threatened the validity of past aggregate analyses of the alliance-war relationship: the mysterious reversal of the sign of the relationship around the turn of the twentieth century. The source of the puzzle is demonstrated to have been a failure to think through the theoretical implications of the operationalization of war, not a fundamental change in the nature of the underlying linkage between alliances and war.
Three Men in a Boat, Two Must Row
Authors: Ward Hugh
Published: March 2007

This article deals with the pregame phase of a three-person chicken game in which each player obtains joint gains so long as at least two of the three cooperate. Players have repeated opportunities to commit themselves to noncooperation in the pregame. As observations of others' pregame behavior are made, players may come to perceive their best strategy as commitments, even if they did not initially do so. It is shown that relatively few pregames end with joint gains foregone. Applications to international and domestic politics are suggested.
Technological Innovation, Capability Positional Shifts, and Systemic War
Authors: Rasler Karen , Thompson William R.
Published: March 2007

Based on a model linking ascent prerequisites, relative decline, long-wave dynamics, and systemic war, the relationships among the pace of technological innovation, relative economic position, and naval capability are examined for Britain (1780-1913) and the United States (1870-1980). In both cases, albeit subject to different lag structures, the pace of technological innovation and relative economic position are interrelated and predict to naval capability share. The findings are quite robust and underscore empirically the dependence of a system leader's relative economic and military position on dynamic economic growth and technological leadership.
Presidents, the Use of Military Force, and Public Opinion
Authors: Lian Bradley , Oneal John R.
Published: March 2007

It is conventional wisdom that the public rallies 'round the president when military force is used abroad. Indeed, this belief has encouraged the view that presidents are apt to rattle the saber to divert attention from domestic problems. The rally effect is assessed by measuring the change in the president's popularity following all major uses of force by the United States from 1950 through 1984. Surprisingly, for these 102 cases, the mean change in the president's approval rating is 0%, even among the members of his party. Even well-publicized uses of force during a crisis boost the president's standing only 2%-3% on average. Regression analyses confirm that the rallying effect of a use of force is greater in a crisis and when the action is prominently reported by the media. In addition, rallies are greater when the president enjoys bipartisan support, his initial popularity is low, and the country is not at war or fatigued by war.
Polarization, Polynomials, and War
Authors: Moul William B.
Published: March 2007

Michael Wallace reports a very pronounced curvilinear relationship between a new measure of the polarization of the state system and warfare during 1815-1964. He suggests considerable caution when interpreting the results and urges replication. This is a replication. Given the original cautions, the additional ones made here, and the results of a reanalysis, the conclusion is clear. There is no relationship—linear, monotonic, or nonmonotonic—between polarization and the number, severity, or magnitude of international wars during the period 1815-1976.
Concession Behavior in a Bargaining Game
Authors: Sopher Barry
Published: March 2007

This article reports on an experiment concerned with a two-stage, two-person, simultaneous-demand bargaining game. The focus of analysis is on a prediction for concession behavior in the second-stage game provided by Harsanyi's “risk dominance” principle, which is at odds with the prediction provided by the mixed-strategy equilibrium in the second-stage game. The results of the experiment provide support for the risk dominance prediction, with concessions occurring according to the prediction in 78% of eligible cases, thus outperforming the mixed-strategy equilibrium as a predictor of concession behavior.
Internal Constraints and Interstate Ethnic Conflict
Authors: Carment David , James Patrick
Published: March 2007

Two theoretical orientations, the instrumental and affective, have purported to explain interstate ethnic conflict. This investigation provides an initial assessment of the ability of affective motivations to account for properties of international crises. The point of departure is a review of literature on international aspects of ethnic conflict. This exercise provides a context for comparison of the traits of irredentist and nonirredentist foreign policy crises. International Crisis Behavior Project data from 1945 to 1988 are used to test three propositions about this important type of interstate conflict. Initial results are favorable: crises within irredentist conflicts differ from others with respect to perceived gravity of threat, crisis management techniques, and severity of violence. Two of the differences become greater when internal constraint on a crisis actor's regime is introduced as an interactive variable. The investigation concludes with suggestions for further research.
Presidential Responses to Foreign Policy Crises
Authors: Wang Kevin H.
Published: March 2007

Previous analyses have revealed that since World War II, decisions to use U.S. military force have been more dependent on domestic political factors than on the international environment. This research, however, focuses on the general context of decision making instead of the situational context surrounding presidential decisions to use the U.S. military for policy purposes. The current research frames prior analyses and findings within a rational choice framework of crisis decision making. It assesses the impacts of international and domestic factors on the severity of U.S. responses in international crises from 1954 to 1986. A high expected value for war and “defeats” in previous crises makes the United States more likely to resort to violent crisis responses. Also, U.S. responses are likely to be more severe during high levels of economic “misery,” as presidential elections become more proximate and as the president's partisan control over Congress increases.
Getting to Peacekeeping in Principal Rivalries
Authors: Mandell Brian S.
Published: March 2007

Through the prism of principal rivalries, this article analyzes the barriers to and opportunities for an Israel-Syria agreement and requirements for an Israel-Syria peace treaty. Empirical work on rivalries focuses mainly on origins, characteristics, and capabilities, with little investigation of principal rivalry termination, the role of peace agreements in interrupting rivalries, or the particular challenges confronting intermediaries in intensely competitive and hostile conflicts. Ending rivalries requires sustained engagement and flexible intervenors. Current proposals for multiphased peacekeeping and verification arrangements fall short. A hybrid peacekeeping model, advanced to address this deficiency, accounts for a rapidly changing military environment, maximizes confidence-building momentum, provides redundancy, attracts U.S. support and participation, and generates regional support for the peace process. By participating in a hybrid regime on the Golan Heights, the United States can conserve resources, limit obligations, minimize risks, maximize flexibility, maintain domestic support, attract support from other third parties, and support peace.
Measuring Rivalry Termination, 1816-1992
Authors: Bennett D. Scott
Published: March 2007

The predominant operationalizations of enduring rivalries use a period of time without a militarized dispute to identify the termination of such rivalries. The author argues that this misses the true termination date of most rivalries because it does not identify when the underlying disputed issues in the rivalry are resolved. The author suggests an operationalization that identifies rivalry termination dates based on a combination of the absence of militarized disputes and the use of public documents and statements that show issue settlement. Such an operationalization can result in significant changes in rivalry termination dates. The 1996 version of the Correlates of War militarized dispute data set is used to apply this new measure to Goertz and Diehl's (1995) set of enduring rivalries to produce new termination dates and show that tests of a model of rivalry termination produce different results when applied to this new data set.
Costs and Demands
Authors: Senese Paul D.
Published: March 2007

This research develops the concept of an international system cost as a necessary complement to the domestic cost component generated by Bueno de Mesquita and Lalman in War and Reason, published in 1992. The addition of such a cost to the decision calculus of leaders can persuade them to favor the status quo over the imposition of a likely attainable demand. Evidence is found supporting the significant constraining power of the international status quo as it relates to the dispute proneness of the system. Furthermore, the perception held by the international community about states committing initial acts of aggression varies from its perception of those who have been the targets of such aggression. This situational reality acts to confer dissimilar action costs on the imposition of demands relative to counterdemands.
“Liar, Liar... ”
Authors: Wilson Rick K. , Sell Jane
Published: March 2007

An abstract public goods setting is considered in which individually rational strategies lead to collectively irrational outcomes. Theorists argue that individual reputations can provide an important means for solving repeated versions of that public goods game. Numerous experimental findings also show that preplay communication leads to higher rates of contributions to public goods. The authors investigate whether preplay communication and reputational information aid in solving collective actions problems by using laboratory experimental methods to disentangle the separate effects of both signals and past behavioral information. The results are discouraging. Increased information about the past behavior of subjects, coupled with preplay signaling, decreases levels of contributions to the public good. These results point to how quickly group distrust takes root and the consequences of that distrust.
Sharing the Financial Burden for U.N. and NATO Peacekeeping, 1976-1996
Authors: Khanna Jyoti , Sandler Todd , Shimizu Hirofumi
Published: March 2007

The article examines how NATO and two larger samples shared the U.N. peacekeeping financial burden from 1976 to 1996. Based on the share of gross domestic product devoted to U.N. peacekeeping, there is evidence that the rich nations are assuming a disproportionate burden of peacekeeping in the post-cold war period. This evidence is stronger for NATO than for the two larger samples. When efforts for peacekeeping not financed through the United Nations are included, the disproportionality is even clearer in the 1990s for NATO and the largest samples (accounting for 97% of U.N. peacekeeping support). Problems with alternative peacekeeping burden-sharing measures also are considered. In light of current developments, future patterns of burden sharing are anticipated, with the richer NATO allies assuming ever greater financial burdens of peacekeeping.
War, Casualties, and Public Opinion
Authors: Gartner Scott Sigmund , Segura Gary M.
Published: March 2007

The authors begin the construction of a generalizable theory of casualties and opinion, reexamining the logic employed by Mueller and showing that although human costs are an important predictor of wartime opinion, Mueller's operationalization of those costs solely as the log of cumulative national casualties is problematic and incomplete. The authors argue that temporally proximate costs, captured as marginal casualty figures, are an important additional aspect of human costs and a critical factor in determining wartime opinion. Using Mueller's data on opinion in the Vietnam and Korean wars, the authors find that marginal casualties are important in explaining opinion when casualty accumulation is accelerating, and earlier findings about the importance and generalizability of the log of cumulative casualties as the sole casualty-based predictor of opinion are overstated. Finally, the authors offer some thoughts about other factors that should be considered when building a model of war deaths and domestic opinion.
Partisanship, Macroeconomic Policy, and U.S. Uses of Force, 1949-1994
Authors: Fordham Benjamin
Published: March 2007

Have Democratic and Republican presidents used force more often than members of the other party under some circumstances during the postwar era? This article presents evidence that unemployment and inflation produce differences in the likelihood of a diversionary use of force by presidents from different parties. Because Republicans are more reluctant than Democrats to use potentially inflationary macroeconomic policies to reduce unemployment, they are more likely to use military force than Democratic presidents when unemployment is high. One the other hand, because Democrats are reluctant to employ macroeconomic policies that might control inflation at the cost of increased unemployment, they are more likely to use military force than Republicans when facing high inflation.
Islam and Attitudes toward International Conflict
Authors: Tessler Mark , Nachtwey Jodi
Published: March 2007

This article examines the impact of religious orientation on attitudes toward the Arab-Israeli conflict using survey data from five Arab countries: Egypt, Kuwait, Palestine, Jordan, and Lebanon. Consistent with past research that has demonstrated the structural complexity of religious orientations, the present analysis reveals an empirical distinction between personal and political dimensions of religion in all cases where data are available. The relationship between each dimension and attitudes toward the Arab-Israeli conflict is different, with the same pattern of relationships observed cross nationally. Specifically, support for political Islam is associated with unfavorable attitudes toward a peaceful resolution of the conflict, and personal religiosity and piety are unrelated to attitudes toward the conflict. The consistency of the variable relationships found in the Arab world, in comparison with findings from research based on Western countries, suggests that relationships between religious orientations and political attitudes may be more stable in regions where secularism is less pronounced.
Dimensions of the Political Environment Affecting Children's Mental Health
Authors: Slone Michelle , Lobel Thalma , Gilat Izhak
Published: March 2007

This study investigates the effect of three psychopolitical factors on children's psychological adjustment. The three factors are exposure to political life events, impact assigned to experienced events, and perception of threat. Subjects were 397 Israeli children aged 12-13 sampled from three residential areas, which differed along a religious-ideological axis—West Bank settlements, the Golan Heights, and greater Tel Aviv. All children responded to a political life events scale, a questionnaire battery assessing threat perception and ideological conviction, and the Brief Symptom Inventory. Results for two factors confirm the central hypothesis that the factors will be related linearly to distress, indicating increased distress levels with magnification of perceived impact of political events and perception of threat. A secondary hypothesis that ideology mediates the psychopolitical variables to distress relation was not confirmed. These results have implications for comprehension of political environmental dimensions impairing children's mental health.
Conceptions of Culture and Person for Psychology
Authors: Kashima Yoshihisa
Published: March 2007

This article argues that the current popularity of culture in psychology is likely to continue in the future if the conception of the person that psychologists adopt includes culture as an integral part of human nature. This thesis is illustrated in a brief historical account. Although the current discourse in psychology is marked by a metatheoretical tension between natural and cultural science approaches to mind, a consensus is emerging that assumes a materialist (or physicalist) ontology, a Darwinian evolutionism, and cultural-historical embeddedness of psychological processes and their development in social context. In this emerging consensus, culture is conceptualized as a species-specific property of Homo sapiens, which transmits information not only genetically across generations, but also symbolically between and within generations. Culture is thus integral to the ongoing process of tool use and symbol manipulation. Contemporary issues in the culture-mind relation are discussed against this common background.
Methodological Issues in Psychological Research on Culture
Authors: van de Vijver Fons J. R. , Leung Kwok
Published: March 2007

The extent to which methodological tools can help correct the overemphasis on fact finding and speed up the slow theoretical progress in cross-cultural psychology is analyzed. Two types of contributions to the current predicament are delineated. First, cross-cultural psychologists have created their own partis pris. Second, partis pris have been inherited from mainstream psychology. In the future, most cross-cultural studies will be carried out by researchers who have an interest in cultural variations on specific variables or instruments, whereas the group of researchers who spend their professional lives in cross-cultural psychology will remain small but influential. Methodological issues arising in studies by both groups are described. Important trends are (a) the change from exploration to explanation of cross-cultural differences, which has implications for the design of cross-cultural studies; and (b) the so-far-hesitant usage of recently developed statistical techniques, such as item response theory, structural equation modeling, and multilevel modeling.
Cultural Differences in Self-Evaluation
Authors: Heine Steven J. , Kitayama Shinobu , Lehman Darrin R.
Published: March 2007

The authors investigated compensatory self-enhancement in Japanese and Canadian university students. Research has revealed that when North Americans publicly discover a weakness in one self domain, they typically bolster their self-assessments in another unrelated domain. This effect is less commonly found in private settings. Following a private failure experience on a creativity task, Canadians discounted the negative feedback, although they did not exhibit a compensatory self-enhancing response. In contrast, Japanese were highly responsive to the failure feedback and showed evidence of reverse compensatory self-enhancement. This study provides further evidence that self-evaluation maintenance strategies are elusive among Japanese samples.
The Effects of Extrinsic Factors on Achievement-Oriented Behavior: A Non-Western Case
Authors: Kubany Edward S. , Gallimore Ronald , Buell Judith
Published: March 2007

It has been suggested that the Western conception of intrinsic motivation may be irrelevant among cultures which attach significance to group acceptance. To test this hypothesis, Filipino high school boys in Hawaii were asked to perform a task either in the presence of the experimenter or in anonymous privacy. Pretask instructions implied that striving to do well was highly desirable. As predicted, subjects in the public condition showed more achievement-oriented behavior (greater preference for a moderately difficult task). The results were discussed in terms of a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and in terms of the effects of situational variables upon achievement-oriented behavior.
Motives of Negro Americans Who Aspire to Traditionally Open and Closed Occupations
Authors: Littig Lawrence W.
Published: March 2007

The aspirations of Negro American college students to occupations which traditionally have been open or closed to them were examined as functions of (a) the predominantly middle or working class status of the college attended and (b) individual differences in achievement, affiliation, and power motivation. Among Negro students in a middle class Negro college aspiration to traditionally open occupations was associated with weak affiliation motivation and aspiration to traditionally closed occupations with strong affiliation motivation. Among students attending a predominantly working class Negro college strong achievement motivation and strong power motivation were related to aspiration to traditionally closed occupations. It was inferred that the personality basis for occupational integration may differ as a function of the social class milieu in which the Negro student is functioning at the time he makes occupational decisions. Replication on minorities in other nations is suggested.
Conservatism, East and West
Authors: Eckhardt William
Published: March 2007

A multi-national student survey was administered to about 5000 male university students, aged 22 to 24, by 42 researchers in 18 nations. A self-rated conservatism item in this questionnaire was correlated with 93 other variables in order to compare the pattern of conservatism in the West with that in the East. It was found that both Eastern and Western conservatives generally shared the following variables in common. Affectively, they valued personal conformity and leadership, but not benevolence, and they were optimistic. Behaviorally, they were higher than average in their socio-economic status, and politically inactive. Cognitively, they were less interested in politics, and less internationally curious, interested, and knowledgeable. Ideologically, they were Western oriented, resistant to social change, opposed to marijuana, capitalism, and they held hereditary theories of war and aggression.
The Relationship of Culture Value Orientation Change and Rorschach Indices of Psychological Development
Authors: Papajohn John C. , Spiegel John P.
Published: March 2007

The relation of culture change to psychological stress was investigated in a sample of second generation Greek-Americans undergoing the acculturation process. The sample was subdivided into four sub-groups on the basis of sex and social class (lower class-middle class) and positioned on a continuum of progressive stages of acculturation. The relation of culture change to psychological stress was then examined in each group separately. An objective measure of culture change based on a theory of variations in value orientations and an objective measure of psychological stress based on genetic theory were employed. It was found that the position of a sub-group on the acculturation continuum alone was not related to the degree of stress evidenced in the psychological measure. It was rather the degree to which American value orientations were internalized by members of each sub-group that was related to stress. Intra-group correlations between the measure of culture change and the measure of psychological stress increased in magnitude along the sub-group continuum of progressive stages of acculturation.
Values in the Subjective Culture: A Social Psychological View
Authors: Tanaka Yasumasa
Published: March 2007

Using POLDI (a variation of the semantic differential method) as a measuring instrument, evidence was shown that there is the subtle but real cultural uniquenesses of evaluative criteria despite the over-all consistency in the semantic frame of reference when Japanese and German Ss judged a set of nation concepts. Next, Evaluative Atlases of several critical concepts were constructed on the basis of data collected in 15 language/culture communities by means of multi-lingual semantic differentials, and comparisons were made among the 15 communities. Finally, a plan of intercultural cooperation was proposed, in that the responsibility of social and behavioral scientists is stressed for both making up and executing plans for the engineering of such intercultural cooperation.
Conventional Lecture Versus Discovery Training Methods in The Preparation of Immigrant Bus Conductors
Authors: Smith M. C. , Pearn M. A.
Published: March 2007

Mixed groups of immigrant and non-immigrant trainee bus conductors were given training in the detection of hazards in traffic situations, using two different methods of instruction: a conventional lecture method and a discovery training method. On a test subsequent to training it was found that immigrants' performance approached that of non-immigrants when the test items were of the same level of difficulty as in training, but were significantly worse when the test items were more difficult. Immigrants performed better after training by the conventional method than after discovery training, except when the test items were difficult when the two methods gave similar results. The non-immigrants always did better after discovery training.
The Implicative Meaning of the Greek Concept of Philotimo
Authors: Vassiliou Vasso G. , Vassiliou George
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the implicative meaning of philotimo (or "love of honor"-the highest Greek value, which regulates proper in-group behavior) across milieux within Greece. The antecedent-consequent method of measuring subjective culture was used. The sample interviewed consisted of 740 subjects (47% male and 53% female) 15 to 64 years of age, who were representative of Athens and Thessaloniki (30% of Greece's population). Findings showed that as milieu complexity, education, and social involvement increase, the antecedents and consequents of philotimo change. The direction of change suggests that, when the individual moves from a less to a more highly complex milieu within Greece, his social conduct ceases to be regulated by ingroup norms, and role perceptions become more important. Consequently, philotimo is expressed in terms allowing for more individualized interpretation depending on the social context.
Bilingualism and the Development of Metalinguistic Awareness
Authors: Cummins James
Published: March 2007

Tasks designed to assess children's level of metalinguistic awareness and their ability to evaluate contradictory and tautological statements were administered in Ireland to grade 3 and grade 6 English-Irish bilingual children and control groups of unilingual children matched on IQ, SES, sex, and age. At both grade levels the bilingual children showed a greater awareness of certain properties of language and were better able to evaluate contradictory statements. It is suggested that bilingualism can increase the child's metalinguistic awareness and promote an analytic orientation to linguistic input.
Recognition of Facial Expression in Three Cultures
Authors: Boucher Jerry D. , Carlson Gary E.
Published: March 2007

The results of three experiments show that emotions are accurately identified from facial expressions when (1) American and Malay observers judge expressions of Americans and Malaysians, (2) Malay observers use either a free-response task or a limited-response task, and (3) Temuan aborigine observers judge American expressions. The conclusion is that these results are not readily explained in terms of social learning, and support a theory of universal facial expressions of emotion.
Similarities and Differences in Meaning in Six Cultures
Authors: Herrmann Douglas J. , Raybeck Douglas
Published: March 2007

The present study explores use of multidimensional scaling to cross-cultural investigation involving six cultures and two categories varying in abstractness: animals and emotions. Cross-cultural agreement in the scaling solutions was quite high but highest for the Emotions category. Additionally, the solutions of both categories across cultures revealed details that reflected culture-specific meaning. Thus, the results demonstrate the utility of multidimensional scaling analysis for the cross-cultural investigation of meaning.