bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Differential susceptibility of tree species to oviposition by periodical cicadas
Authors: CLAY KEITH , SHELTON ANGELA L. , WINKLE CHUCK
Published: December 2008

Abstract 1. Periodical cicadas occur widely in deciduous forests of eastern North America and represent the largest insect emergences in the world. Their effects on forest community dynamics, via oviposition damage and root feeding, are potentially great but not well understood. If tree species vary in their susceptibility to cicada oviposition and root colonization, then periodical cicadas may affect ecological interactions among tree species and forest composition.

2. We measured oviposition damage on 63 tree species at 52 sites in southern Indiana, U.S.A. for two broods of periodical cicadas. We compared oviposition damage among different sites, habitats, and tree species. We also measured cicada emergence rates in mature and successional forest habitats and from beneath different tree species.

3. Certain tree species received significantly more oviposition damage than others, and the most and least damaged species were consistent between the two broods. For some species, oviposition damage varied between mature and successional sites. Despite the differences in oviposition rates among species, there was no difference in emergence rates from beneath different tree species, suggesting that initial differences in cicada density among tree species are not maintained through the nymphal life cycle.

4. Cicadas oviposited more at successional sites, but emerged more in mature forest stands, suggesting that successive generations of cicadas represent a shifting mosaic between forests of different ages. As tree species consistently vary in their susceptibility to oviposition damage, periodical cicadas could alter local competitive interactions and therefore affect forest dynamics.
Elevational zonation of afrotropical forest bird communities along a homogeneous forest gradient
Authors: Romdal Tom S. , Rahbek Carsten
Published: December 2008

Aim  This study analyses the distribution and abundance of birds from a forested tropical gradient in order to determine whether elevationally distinct communities are detectable in this habitat.

Location  An avifaunal census was carried out on a single transect within the tropical forest of the Udzungwa Mountains in the Eastern Arc, Tanzania, covering a range in elevation from 300 to 1850 m.

Methods  Two complementary data sets on forest birds were analysed, encompassing (1) data derived from standardized 20‐ha spot‐mapping censuses performed at nine elevations over 175‐m intervals from 400 to 1800 m a.s.l., and (2) all observations of birds binned into 32 data points at 50‐m intervals, from 300 to 1850 m a.s.l. The degree of zonation in the avian community along the elevational gradient was examined using the chronological clustering method, an agglomerative hierarchical clustering method that can be carried out with a range of similarity indices.

Results  The chronological clustering analysis of the data set based on standardized spot‐mapping revealed a clearly defined boundary at c. 1200 m a.s.l., separating lowland from montane communities. Most bird species could be categorized as belonging to one of these two communities. The data set based on all observations revealed a number of potential secondary boundaries, although these boundaries delimited the entire elevational ranges of individual species in only relatively few cases.

Main conclusions  In contrast to previously published studies, we find evidence of an elevational zonation of distinct communities within a seemingly homogeneous habitat. Although similar boundaries have been assumed to arise as a result of vegetational ecotones, or because of interspecific competition, these mechanisms are poorly corroborated. We suggest that the causes of patterns of zonation are not well understood, and that the interplay among species distributions, species richness, and environmental factors needs more consideration. The chronological clustering method is proposed as an appropriate tool for studying these specific patterns.
Long‐term survival despite low genetic diversity in the critically endangered Madagascar fish‐eagle
Authors: JOHNSON JEFF A. , TINGAY RUTH E. , CULVER MELANIE , HAILER FRANK , CLARKE MICHÈLE L. , MINDELL DAVID P.
Published: December 2008

The critically endangered Madagascar fish‐eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides) is considered to be one of the rarest birds of prey globally and at significant risk of extinction. In the most recent census, only 222 adult individuals were recorded with an estimated total breeding population of no more than 100–120 pairs. Here, levels of Madagascar fish‐eagle population genetic diversity based on 47 microsatellite loci were compared with its sister species, the African fish‐eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), and 16 of these loci were also characterized in the white‐tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Overall, extremely low genetic diversity was observed in the Madagascar fish‐eagle compared to other surveyed Haliaeetus species. Determining whether this low diversity is the result of a recent bottleneck or a more historic event has important implications for their conservation. Using a Bayesian coalescent‐based method, we show that Madagascar fish‐eagles have maintained a small effective population size for hundreds to thousands of years and that its low level of neutral genetic diversity is not the result of a recent bottleneck. Therefore, efforts made to prevent Madagascar fish‐eagle extinction should place high priority on maintenance of habitat requirements and reducing direct and indirect human persecution. Given the current rate of deforestation in Madagascar, we further recommend that the population be expanded to occupy a larger geographical distribution. This will help the population persist when exposed to stochastic factors (e.g. climate and disease) that may threaten a species consisting of only 200 adult individuals while inhabiting a rapidly changing landscape.
Global map of the prevalence of symptoms of rhinoconjunctivitis in children: The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Phase Three
Authors: Aït‐Khaled N. , Pearce N. , Anderson H. R. , Ellwood P. , Montefort S. , Shah J. ,   and the ISAAC Phase Three Study Group
Published: December 2008

Background:  Phase One of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) measured the global patterns of prevalence and severity of symptoms of rhinoconjunctivitis in children in 1993–1997.

Methods:  International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood Phase Three was a cross‐sectional survey performed 5–10 years after Phase One using the same methodology. Phase Three covered all of the major regions of the world and involved 1 059 053 children of 2 age groups from 236 centres in 98 countries.

Results:  The average overall prevalence of current rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms was 14.6% for the 13‐ to 14‐year old children (range 1.0–45%). Variation in the prevalence of severe rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms was observed between centres (range 0.0–5.1%) and regions (range 0.4% in western Europe to 2.3% in Africa), with the highest prevalence being observed mainly in the centres from middle and low income countries, particularly in Africa and Latin America. Co‐morbidity with asthma and eczema varied from 1.6% in the Indian sub‐continent to 4.7% in North America. For 6‐ to 7‐year old children, the average prevalence of rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms was 8.5%, and large variations in symptom prevalence were also observed between regions, countries and centres.

Discussion:  Wide global variations exist in the prevalence of current rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms, being higher in high vs low income countries, but the prevalence of severe symptoms was greater in less affluent countries. Co‐morbidity with asthma is high particularly in Africa, North America and Oceania. This global map of symptom prevalence is of clinical importance for health professionals.
Effects of zinc toxicity on sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) plants grown in hydroponics
Authors: Sagardoy R. , Morales F. , López‐Millán A.‐F. , Abadía A. , Abadía J.
Published: December 2008

The effects of high Zn concentration were investigated in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) plants grown in a controlled environment in hydroponics. High concentrations of Zn sulphate in the nutrient solution (50, 100 and 300 μm) decreased root and shoot fresh and dry mass, and increased root/shoot ratios, when compared to control conditions (1.2 μm Zn). Plants grown with excess Zn had inward‐rolled leaf edges and a damaged and brownish root system, with short lateral roots. High Zn decreased N, Mg, K and Mn concentrations in all plant parts, whereas P and Ca concentrations increased, but only in shoots. Leaves of plants treated with 50 and 100 μm Zn developed symptoms of Fe deficiency, including decreases in Fe, chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations, increases in carotenoid/chlorophyll and chlorophyll a/b ratios and de‐epoxidation of violaxanthin cycle pigments. Plants grown with 300 μm Zn had decreased photosystem II efficiency and further growth decreases but did not have leaf Fe deficiency symptoms. Leaf Zn concentrations of plants grown with excess Zn were high but fairly constant (230–260 μg·g−1 dry weight), whereas total Zn uptake per plant decreased markedly with high Zn supply. These data indicate that sugar beet could be a good model to investigate Zn homeostasis mechanisms in plants, but is not an efficient species for Zn phytoremediation.
Involvement of mitochondrial signaling pathways in the mechanism of Fas‐mediated apoptosis after spinal cord injury
Authors: Yu Wen Ru , Liu Tianyi , Fehlings Tara K. , Fehlings Michael G.
Published: December 2008

Activation of the Fas receptor has been recently linked to apoptotic cell death after spinal cord injury (SCI). Although it is generally considered that Fas activation mediates apoptosis predominantly through the extrinsic pathway, we hypothesized that intrinsic mitochondrial signaling could be involved in the underlying mechanism of Fas‐induced apoptosis after SCI. In the present study, we utilized the FejotaTM clip compression model of SCI at T5–6 in C57BL/6 Fas‐deficient (lpr) and wild‐type mice. Complementary studies were conducted using an in vitro model of trauma or a Fas‐activating antibody to induce apoptosis in primary neuronal–glial mixed spinal cord cultures. After in vivo SCI, lpr mice, in comparison with wild‐type mice, exhibited reduced numbers of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)‐positive cells at the lesion, reduced expression of truncation of Bid (tBid), apoptosis‐inducing factor, activated caspase‐9 and activated caspase‐3, and increased expression of the antiapoptotic proteins Bcl‐2 and Bcl‐xL. After in vitro neurotrauma or the induction of Fas signaling by the Jo2 activating antibody, lpr spinal cord cultures showed an increased proportion of cells retaining mitochondrial membrane integrity and a reduction of tBid expression, caspase‐9 and caspase‐3 activation, and TUNEL‐positive cells as compared to wild‐type spinal cord cultures. The neutralization of Fas ligand (FasL) protected against traumatically induced or Fas‐mediated caspase‐3 activation and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and tBid expression in wild‐type spinal cord cultures. However, in lpr spinal cord cultures, FasL neutralization had no protective effects. In summary, these data provide direct evidence for the induction of intrinsic mitochondrial signaling pathways following Fas activation after SCI.
Prefrontal and midline interactions mediating behavioural control
Authors: Fassbender Catherine , Hester Robert , Murphy Kevin , Foxe John J. , Foxe Deirdre M. , Garavan Hugh
Published: December 2008

Top‐down control processes are thought to interact with bottom‐up stimulus‐driven task demands to facilitate the smooth execution of behaviour. Frontal and midline brain areas in humans are believed to subserve these control processes but their distinct roles and the interactions between them remain to be fully elucidated. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we utilized a GO/NO‐GO task with cued and uncued inhibitory events to investigate the effect of cue‐induced levels of top‐down control on NO‐GO trial response conflict. We found that, on a within‐subjects, trial‐for‐trial basis, high levels of top‐down control, as indexed by left dorsolateral prefrontal activation prior to the NO‐GO, resulted in lower levels of activation on the NO‐GO trial in the pre‐supplementary motor area. These results suggest that prefrontal and midline regions work together to implement cognitive control and reveal that intra‐subject variability is reflected in these lateral and midline interactions.
Perception of global gestalt by temporal integration in simultanagnosia
Authors: Huberle Elisabeth , Rupek Paul , Lappe Markus , Karnath Hans‐Otto
Published: December 2008

Patients with bilateral parieto‐occipital brain damage may show intact processing of individual objects, while their perception of multiple objects is disturbed at the same time. The deficit is termed ‘simultanagnosia’ and has been discussed in the context of restricted visual working memory and impaired visuo‐spatial attention. Recent observations indicated that the recognition of global shapes can be modulated by the spatial distance between individual objects in patients with simultanagnosia and thus is not an all‐or‐nothing phenomenon depending on spatial continuity. However, grouping mechanisms not only require the spatial integration of visual information, but also involve integration processes over time. The present study investigated motion‐defined integration mechanisms in two patients with simultanagnosia. We applied hierarchical organized stimuli of global objects that consisted of coherently moving dots (‘shape‐from‐motion’). In addition, we tested the patients’ ability to recognize biological motion by presenting characteristic human movements (‘point‐light‐walker’). The data revealed largely preserved perception of biological motion, while the perception of motion‐defined shapes was impaired. Our findings suggest separate mechanisms underlying the recognition of biological motion and shapes defined by coherently moving dots. They thus argue against a restriction in the overall capacity of visual working memory over time as a general explanation for the impaired global shape recognition in patients with simultanagnosia.
Sodium/bicarbonate cotransporter NBCn1/slc4a7 increases cytotoxicity in magnesium depletion in primary cultures of hippocampal neurons
Authors: Cooper Deborah S. , Yang Han Soo , He Peijian , Kim Eunjin , Rajbhandari Ira , Yun Chris C. , Choi Inyeong
Published: December 2008

Growing evidence suggests that pharmacological inhibition of Na/H exchange and Na/HCO3transport provides protection against damage or injury in cardiac ischemia. In this study, we examined the contribution of the sodium/bicarbonate cotransporter NBCn1 (slc4a7) to cytotoxicity in cultured hippocampal neurons of rats. In neurons exposed to extracellular pH (pHo) ranging from 6.2 to 8.3, NBCn1 protein expression increased by fivefold at pH < 6.5 compared to the expression at pHo7.4. At pHo6.5, the intracellular pH of neurons was ∼1 unit lower than that at pH 7.4. Immunochemistry showed a marked increase in NBCn1 immunofluorescence in plasma membranes and cytosol of the soma as well as in dendrites, at pHo6.5. NBCn1 expression also increased by 40% in a prolonged Mg2+‐free incubation at normal pHo. Knockdown of NBCn1 in neurons had negligible effect on cell viability. The effect of NBCn1 knockdown on cytotoxicity was then determined by exposing neurons to 0.5 mmglutamate for 10 min and measuring lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release from neurons. Compared to normal incubation (pHo7.2 for 6 h) after glutamate exposure, acidic incubation (pHo 6.3 for 6 h) reduced cytotoxicity by 75% for control neurons and 78% for NBCn1‐knockdown neurons. Thus, both controls and knockdown neurons showed acidic protection from cytotoxicity. However, in Mg2+‐free incubation after glutamate exposure, NBCn1 knockdown progressively attenuated cytotoxicity. This attenuation was unaffected by acidic preincubation before glutamate exposure. We conclude that NBCn1 has a dynamic upregulation in low pHoand Mg2+depletion. NBCn1 is not required for acidic protection, but increases cytotoxicity in Mg2+‐free conditions.
Size of sampling unit strongly influences detection of seedling limitation in a wet tropical forest
Authors: Kobe Richard K. , Vriesendorp Corine F.
Published: December 2008

Seedling limitation could structure communities, but often is evaluated with sampling units that are orders of magnitude smaller than mature plants. We censused seedlings for 5.5 years in five 1 × 200‐m transects in a wet Neotropical forest. For 106 common species (≥ 10 seedlings in a transect), we calculated prevalence (occurrence of ≥ 1 newly emerged seedlings per sampling unit) at 1 m2 and at 1 m × mature crown diameter units by aggregating adjacent quadrats. For most species, prevalence was 2–25% at 1 m2, but 20–92% at mature crown scales. Increased prevalence arose from broadly distributed seedlings within transects, with unoccupied segments generally shorter than crown diameters. At the landscape scale, 69% of 301 species were locally rare (< 10 seedlings) and only 16% were represented in all transects (maximally separated by 2.4 km). Nonetheless, for more common species, much lower estimates of seedling limitation at mature crown scales suggest weaker influence of seedling limitation on community dynamics than previously assumed.
Concordance between Gleason scores of needle biopsies and radical prostatectomy specimens: a population‐based study
Authors: Kvåle Rune , Møller Bjørn , Wahlqvist Rolf , Fosså Sophie D. , Berner Aasmund , Busch Christer , Kyrdalen Anne E. , Svindland Aud , Viset Trond , Halvorsen Ole J.
Published: December 2008

OBJECTIVE

To study the concordance between the Gleason scores of needle biopsies and radical prostatectomy (RP) specimens in a population‐based registry, to clarify whether the concordance depends on the annual number of RP specimens assessed in the pathology unit, and to identify preoperative clinical factors that predict upgrading from a Gleason score of ≤6 in the biopsy to ≥7 in the RP specimen.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Through the Cancer Registry of Norway, we identified 1116 patients with available Gleason scores from biopsy and RP specimens. Concordance was evaluated using the κ coefficient, and predictors of concordance were assessed in univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

The Gleason scores were identical in biopsy and RP specimens in 591 of the 1116 (53%) patients. The biopsy‐based Gleason score more often under‐graded (38%) than over‐graded (9%) the RP‐based Gleason score. Pathology units that examined >40 RP specimens annually had a higher concordance between the Gleason score in the biopsy and RP specimen than did lower‐volume units. The rate of upgrading from a Gleason score of ≤6 in the biopsy to ≥7 in the RP specimen increased with increasing preoperative prostate‐specific antigen serum levels, and with increasing intervals between biopsy and RP.

CONCLUSIONS

The concordance in Gleason score between biopsy and RP was highest among the pathology departments that regularly evaluated RP specimens. Careful consideration of clinical factors and biopsy grading might improve the identification of patients considered as suitable for active surveillance.
Bacille‐Calmette Guèrin induces caspase‐independent cell death in urothelial carcinoma cells together with release of the necrosis‐associated chemokine high molecular group box protein 1
Authors: See William A. , Zhang Guangjian , Chen Fanghong , Cao Yanli , Langenstroer Peter , Sandlow Jay
Published: December 2008

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the ability of bacille‐Calmette Guèrin (BCG) to induce caspase‐independent cell death and release the necrosis‐associated chemokine high molecular group box protein 1 (HMGB1) from urothelial carcinoma (UC) cells; a correlative clinical trial determined if BCG treatment resulted in increased urinary levels of HMGB1.

PATIENTS, MATERIALS AND METHODS

The human UC cell lines 253 J and T24 were pretreated with apoptosis inhibitors, exposed to BCG, and cell viability and ultrastructural changes measured. HMGB1 levels were assessed in cell culture supernatant after BCG treatment. The expression/function of HMGB1 receptors on the UC cell lines was determined by reverse transcription‐polymerse chain reaction and the ability of exogenous HMGB1 to activate nuclear factor (NF)‐κB signalling assessed. An HMGB1 enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure HMGB1 levels in urine obtained from BCG‐treated patients.

RESULTS

Inhibition of apoptotic pathways failed to inhibit BCG‐induced cell death in UC cells. Electron microscopy showed BCG‐dependent ultrastructural changes consistent with cellular necrosis. BCG exposure resulted in a binary increase in cell culture supernatant levels of HMGB1. UCs expressed multiple HMGB1 receptors. Treatment of UCs with HMGB1 activated NF‐κB. In the clinical setting, six of seven patients had increased urinary levels of HMGB1 at 24 h after BCG treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

BCG causes direct cytotoxicity in a subpopulation of UC cells. This cytotoxicity is caspase‐independent and associated with ultrastructural changes and cellular protein release (HMGB1), characteristic of necrosis. Urinary levels of HMGB1 can be elevated in patients after BCG treatment. The expression and function of HMGB1 receptors in UC cells, coupled with the known role of HMGB1 on the host immune response, suggest a role for necrosis and HMGB1 release in the antitumour effect of BCG.
Concomitant repeated intravesical injections of botulinum toxin‐type A and laparoscopic antegrade continence enema; a new solution for an old problem
Authors: Kajbafzadeh AbdolMohammad , Mahboubi Amir Hassan , Payabvash Seyedmehdi
Published: December 2008

OBJECTIVE

To report our experience of treating bladder and bowel dysfunction in children with myelomeningocele, with simultaneous laparoscopic antegrade continence enema (LACE) and repeated intravesical injection of botulinum toxin‐type A (BTX‐A).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Six girls and 14 boys (mean age, 8.7 years) with myelomeningocele were included in this study. All patients had received one or two intravesical injection(s) of BTX‐A, but had persistent fecal incontinence or constipation despite improved urinary symptoms. We performed a two‐port laparoscopic appendicostomy, immediately after repeated intravesical injection of BTX‐A, through a V‐shaped skin flap at McBurney’s point. The stoma was finally covered by a quadrilateral skin flap, using the ‘VQ’ technique. The degree of urinary incontinence and bowel dysfunction were determined in each patient, and conventional urodynamic studies were performed 4 months after each injection.

RESULTS

All patients were followed‐up for a mean (range) of 19.1 (14–33) months. Urinary continence improved significantly after the first injection, and remained constant after repeat injections. The maximum detrusor pressure, bladder compliance and capacity improved significantly (P < 0.001) compared with baseline. Interestingly, the simultaneous intravesical BTX‐A injection/LACE procedure significantly improved all urodynamic variables compared with the values obtained after the last BTX‐A injection alone. The laparoscopic procedure was well tolerated, and 19 (95%) children were nappy‐free at the final follow‐up. Only two patients had stoma stenosis, and one patient had minor stoma leakage.

CONCLUSION

Concomitant repeat intravesical injection of BTX‐A and LACE can effectively manage bladder and bowel dysfunction in children with myelomeningocele. The procedure may further contribute to improve bladder urodynamic function, as effective evacuation of the bowel provides more room for bladder distension.
Urokinase‐plasminogen‐activator receptor expression in disseminated tumour cells in the bone marrow and peripheral blood of patients with clinically localized prostate cancer
Authors: Thomas Christian , Wiesner Christoph , Melchior Sebastian W. , Schmidt Folke , Gillitzer Rolf , Thüroff Joachim W. , Pfitzenmaier Jesco
Published: December 2008

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the expression of urokinase‐plasminogen‐activator receptor (uPA‐R) in disseminated tumour cells (DTC) in bone marrow (BM) and peripheral blood (PB) of patients with clinically localized prostate cancer before radical prostatectomy (RP), and to assess the associations with pathological variables and prognosis.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In all, 52 patients (47 with clinically localized cancer and five with benign prostatic hyperplasia, BPH, as controls) were prospectively enrolled. BM and PB samples were drawn before surgery. DTC were enriched using a commercial system, cytokeratin (CK) 8/18 was used to detect DTC, and uPA‐R expression was detected by dual‐immunostaining of the DTC. The final pathology of the RP specimen was compared with the results of immunostaining. Follow‐up was initiated to detect tumour relapse (defined as a prostate‐specific antigen (PSA) level of ≥0.2 ng/mL).

RESULTS

Overall, there was expression of ‘CK + uPA‐R’ in 60% of the BM and in 19% of the PB specimens. Expression of this marker in BM was most significantly increased in those with unfavourable Gleason scores (P = 0.004), followed by high‐risk cancer (P = 0.005). The relative risk for CK + uPA‐R expression in the BM was 3.1 times higher in high‐risk than in low‐risk prostate cancer. No relevant expression rates were detected for PB. In the control group, no patient showed CK or uPA‐R expression in BM or PB. The PSA‐recurrence free survival was significantly lower in patients with CK + uPA‐R‐positive BM cells (P = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

In this pilot study, the preoperative detection rate of CK + uPAR expression in BM of patients with prostate cancer increased with Gleason score and in those with high‐risk disease. All patients with a later PSA relapse had had uPA‐R expression in their DTC from the BM. DTC with uPA‐R expression was an adverse prognostic factor for prostate cancer.
Safety and efficacy of inhaled insulin (AERx® iDMS1) compared with subcutaneous insulin therapy in patients with Type 1 diabetes: 1‐year data from a randomized, parallel group trial
Authors: Moses R. G. , Bartley P. , Lunt H. , O’Brien R. C. , Donnelly T. , Gall M.‐A. , Vesterager A. , Wollmer P. , Roberts A.
Published: December 2008

Aims  Assessment of the long‐term safety and efficacy of liquid inhaled insulin via AERx® insulin Diabetes Management System (iDMS) in a basal/bolus treatment regimen of adults with Type 1 diabetes.

Methods  Patients were randomized 2 : 1 to prandial inhaled (n = 205) or subcutaneous (s.c.) (n = 99) insulin, plus one/two daily injections of neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin for 12 months. The primary endpoints were pulmonary function tests (PFT) and baseline changes in chest X‐rays at 12 months. Safety and efficacy assessments were measured at regular intervals.

Results  PFTs after 12 months were comparable between the groups, except for reduced per cent of predicted carbon monoxide lung diffusing capacity with inhaled insulin (difference: –2.03%, P = 0.04) occurring after the first 3 months and then stabilizing. There were no apparent treatment differences in chest X‐rays. Overall risk of hypoglycaemia [risk ratio (RR) 1.02, P = 0.83] and adverse events were comparable between groups. Risk of nocturnal hypoglycaemia was higher in the inhaled group (RR 1.58, P = 0.001). Cough [10% (inhaled); 3% (s.c.)] tended to be mild in nature. Inhaled insulin was non‐inferior to s.c. insulin for change in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) after 12 months [difference 0.18% (CI 95%–0.04; 0.39)]. At trial end, mean laboratory measured fasting plasma glucose was lower in the inhaled group (inhaled 9.2 mmol/l; s.c. 11.7 mmol/l; difference: –2.53 mmol/l, P < 0.001).

Conclusions  The safety and efficacy results in this trial were similar to those reported with other inhaled insulins; however, inhaled insulin using AERx® iDMS requires further optimization to reduce nocturnal hypoglycaemia before it has comparable safety and efficacy to s.c. insulin aspart.
The effect of a cognitive or motor task on gait parameters of diabetic patients, with and without neuropathy
Authors: Paul L. , Ellis B. M. , Leese G. P. , McFadyen A. K. , McMurray B.
Published: December 2008

Aims  To compare gait parameters of older people with diabetes and no peripheral neuropathy (DM) and people with diabetes and diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) and to investigate the effect of a secondary motor or cognitive task on their gait.

Methods  Thirty subjects were recruited: 15 with DPN (mean age 69 ± 3.0 years) and 15 with diabetes and no neuropathy (70 ± 2.9 years). The temporal and spatial parameters of gait were determined using the GAITRite walkway. Subjects undertook four walks: under normal walking conditions (single task); four times while simultaneously undertaking an additional motor task, carrying a tray with cups of water (dual task); and four times whilst undertaking a cognitive dual task, counting backwards in sevens. This arithmetic task was also completed sitting.

Results  For all gait variables, there was a statistically significant difference between the groups. Subjects with DPN walked more slowly and with smaller steps compared with those with DM. In general, the secondary task had a significant and adverse effect on the gait parameters and this effect was greater for those with DPN in both absolute and relative terms. Both groups had poorer arithmetic ability when walking compared with sitting.

Discussion  Patients with DPN have different gait parameters to diabetic patients without neuropathy. Problems with divided attention when walking were more evident in the DPN group and may increase their risk of falls.
A global study of relationships between leaf traits, climate and soil measures of nutrient fertility
Authors: Ordoñez Jenny C. , Van Bodegom Peter M. , Witte Jan‐Philip M. , Wright Ian J. , Reich Peter B. , Aerts Rien
Published: December 2008

Aim  This first global quantification of the relationship between leaf traits and soil nutrient fertility reflects the trade‐off between growth and nutrient conservation. The power of soils versus climate in predicting leaf trait values is assessed in bivariate and multivariate analyses and is compared with the distribution of growth forms (as a discrete classification of vegetation) across gradients of soil fertility and climate.

Location  All continents except for Antarctica.

Methods  Data on specific leaf area (SLA), leaf N concentration (LNC), leaf P concentration (LPC) and leaf N:P were collected for 474 species distributed across 99 sites (809 records), together with abiotic information from each study site. Individual and combined effects of soils and climate on leaf traits were quantified using maximum likelihood methods. Differences in occurrence of growth form across soil fertility and climate were determined by one‐way ANOVA.

Results  There was a consistent increase in SLA, LNC and LPC with increasing soil fertility. SLA was related to proxies of N supply, LNC to both soil total N and P and LPC was only related to proxies of P supply. Soil nutrient measures explained more variance in leaf traits among sites than climate in bivariate analysis. Multivariate analysis showed that climate interacted with soil nutrients for SLA and area‐based LNC. Mass‐based LNC and LPC were determined mostly by soil fertility, but soil P was highly correlated to precipitation. Relationships of leaf traits to soil nutrients were stronger than those of growth form versus soil nutrients. In contrast, climate determined distribution of growth form more strongly than it did leaf traits.

Main conclusions  We provide the first global quantification of the trade‐off between traits associated with growth and resource conservation ‘strategies’ in relation to soil fertility. Precipitation but not temperature affected this trade‐off. Continuous leaf traits might be better predictors of plant responses to nutrient supply than growth form, but growth forms reflect important aspects of plant species distribution with climate.
CSR in SMEs: do SMEs matter for the CSR agenda?
Authors: Morsing Mette , Perrini Francesco
Published: December 2008

In this paper we argue that the collective grandness of small business is often underestimated in CSR research and policy‐making. We emphasize the importance of understanding the contexts and the ways in which small‐ and medium‐sized companies engage in CSR and how they differ from multinational companies. We suggest that it might be that researchers and practitioners are asking the wrong questions in their ambitions to prove ‘the business case for CSR’. Perhaps we should rather focus on the ‘how’ and the ‘with what impact’ questions to understand better the SME engagement in CSR.
A ‘business opportunity’ model of corporate social responsibility for small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises
Authors: Jenkins Heledd
Published: December 2008

In their book ‘Corporate Social Opportunity’, Grayson and Hodges maintain that ‘the driver for business success is entrepreneurialism, a competitive instinct and a willingness to look for innovation from non‐traditional areas such as those increasingly found within the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda’. Such opportunities are described as ‘commercially viable activities which also advance environmental and social sustainability’. There are three dimensions to corporate social opportunity (CSO) – innovation in products and services, serving unserved markets and building new business models. While small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs) have traditionally been presented as non‐entrepreneurial in this area, this paper demonstrates how SMEs can take advantage of the opportunities presented by CSR. Using data from 24 detailed case studies of UK SMEs from a range of sectors, the paper explores the numerous CSR opportunities that present themselves to SMEs, such as developing innovative products and services and exploiting niche markets. There are inevitable challenges for SMEs undertaking CSR, but by their very nature they have many characteristics that can aid the adoption of CSR; the paper explores these characteristics and how the utilisation of positive qualities will help SMEs make the most of CSOs. Integrating CSR into the core of a company is crucial to its success. Using the case studies to illustrate key points, the paper suggests how CSR can be built into a company's systems and become ‘just the way we do things’. There are a number of factors that characterise the CSO ‘mentality’ in an organisation, and Grayson and Hodges's book describes seven steps that will move a company in the direction of a ‘want to do’ CSO mentality. This paper adapts these steps for SMEs, and by transferring and building on knowledge from the 24 detailed case studies, it develops a ‘business opportunity’ model of CSR for SMEs.
Values that create value: socially responsible business practices in SMEs – empirical evidence from German companies
Authors: Hammann Eva‐Maria , Habisch André , Pechlaner Harald
Published: December 2008

Socially responsible business and ethical behaviour of companies have been of interest to academia and practice for decades. But the focus has almost exclusively been on large corporations while small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises (SME) have not received as much attention. Thus, this paper focuses on socially responsible business practices of SME entrepreneurs or owner–managers in Germany. Based on the assumption that decision‐makers in SMEs are the central point where all business activities start, members of a German entrepreneurs association were approached in the course of a qualitative and quantitative survey. They were asked to assess in what way their social responsibility is expressed in specific management practices towards selected stakeholder groups. These practices in turn were assumed to result in perceived positive reactions of the respective stakeholders and subsequently to positively influence the firm's financial performance, i.e. cost reductions and increase in profits. In the paper, a research model is presented that elaborates the relationship between an SME executive's social responsibility and the value creation of a firm, i.e. whether (personal) values create (economic) value. It was found that socially responsible management practices towards employees, customers and to a lesser extent society have a positive impact on the firm and its performance. As such, values can create additional value.
Some Asymptotic Results on Generalized Penalized Spline Smoothing
Authors: Kauermann Göran , Krivobokova Tatyana , Fahrmeir Ludwig
Published: December 2008

The paper discusses asymptotic properties of penalized spline smoothing if the spline basis increases with the sample size. The proof is provided in a generalized smoothing model allowing for non-normal responses. The results are extended in two ways. First, assuming the spline coefficients to be a priori normally distributed links the smoothing framework to generalized linear mixed models. We consider the asymptotic rates such that the Laplace approximation is justified and the resulting fits in the mixed model correspond to penalized spline estimates. Secondly, we make use of a fully Bayesian viewpoint by imposing an a priori distribution on all parameters and coefficients. We argue that with the postulated rates at which the spline basis dimension increases with the sample size the posterior distribution of the spline coefficients is approximately normal. The validity of this result is investigated in finite samples by comparing Markov chain Monte Carlo results with their asymptotic approximation in a simulation study.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SOLO PATROL IN POLICING A LIBERAL SOCIETY: A RESPONSE TO JOHN BLUNDELL
Authors: Bailey Roy
Published: December 2008

Police deployment strategies have a direct bearing on the general relationship with the public. In this article, the author reviews the research and argues that not only is routine deployment of officers in pairs wasteful of finite resources, it can lead to increased alienation from the public.
MARKET FAILURE: A FAILED PARADIGM1
Authors: Booth Philip
Published: December 2008

The concept of ‘market failure’ is often used to justify government intervention. Here, the author asks whether the concept is sufficiently meaningful for it to be used to make policy judgments.
RISE OF THE THERAPEUTIC STATE: NEW CHALLENGES FOR TWENTY‐FIRST‐CENTURY MEDICINE
Authors: Evans Tim
Published: December 2008

In recent history, the politics of health has drifted inexorably towards a paradigm in which it is the responsibility of the state rather than of individuals to manage their health. What were once considered private health matters for individuals are now attributed with society‐wide importance. This has given rise to a strident ‘therapeutic state’ which pays obsessive interest in its citizens’ eating, drinking, smoking, exercise and sexual habits. However, many of the therapeutic state's own recommendations are poorly evidenced and doctrinaire. The lack of accountability and adverse incentives which creeping state intrusiveness brings will ultimately disconnect the health system from the needs of citizens and treat their personal information with inexcusable carelessness.
THE OVERTAKING OF THE POLITICIANS: A LIBERTARIAN REFLECTS ON THE STATE OF THE BRITISH HEALTHCARE DEBATE
Authors: Micklethwait Brian
Published: December 2008

This paper examines the evolution of the healthcare debate in Britain since the publication of the author's groundbreaking 1991 paper, ‘How and How Not to Demonopolise Medicine’. While politicians remain cautious about publicly endorsing radical change, socialism's demonstrable failure to deliver results has changed the intellectual climate such that there is growing support for applying free‐market ideas to the sector. The easy availability of information about competing treatments and service providers on the internet will also undermine the rationale for moribund statist systems like the National Health Service.
REALITIES OF HEALTH POLICY IN NORTH AMERICA: GOVERNMENT IS THE PROBLEM, NOT THE SOLUTION
Authors: Skinner Brett J.
Published: December 2008

Healthcare systems in North America are sometimes criticised as being expensive or socially irresponsible relative to comparable systems in OECD (Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development) countries or regions. These perceived health system failures are often mistakenly attributed to greater private sector involvement in the delivery of medical care or the provision of medical insurance in Canada and the USA. However, the exact nature and scope of state involvement in the healthcare sector in Canada and the USA is also often misunderstood and underestimated. This paper presents a fact‐based context for evaluating health policy in North America.
Corruption and Anti‐Money‐Laundering Systems: Putting a Luxury Good to Work
Authors: SHARMAN J.C. , CHAIKIN DAVID
Published: December 2008

Systems of laws, regulations, and institutions developed to counter money laundering provide powerful tools for fighting corruption. Currently, however, the potential benefits anti‐money‐laundering (AML) systems can provide in fighting corruption go largely unrealized, especially in developing countries. This mismatch poses a puzzle: Why are developing countries failing to best capitalize on their expensive AML systems by using them to fight corruption? The article is built on three core claims. The first claim is that it is logical to use AML systems for anti‐corruption purposes because of a pronounced overlap in the standards required for each and the rising costs of the former. The second section demonstrates specifically how AML systems could significantly augment anti‐corruption efforts, focusing on the importance of financial intelligence, asset confiscation, and international cooperation. Finally, although powerful outsiders have successfully diffused AML systems among developing countries, a lack of “ownership” in the latter explains why these systems are often established only as tokens to enhance international legitimacy and reputations.
CSF biomarker profile and diagnostic value in vascular dementia
Authors: Paraskevas G. P. , Kapaki E. , Papageorgiou S. G. , Kalfakis N. , Andreadou E. , Zalonis I. , Vassilopoulos D.
Published: December 2008

Background and purpose:  The differential diagnosis between vascular dementia (VD) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) or mixed dementia (MD) is not always easy in clinical practice. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers tau protein in its total (τT) or hyperphosphorylated at threonin‐181(τP‐181) form and beta amyloid peptide 1–42 (Aβ42) alone and their combinations to investigate their diagnostic value in the discrimination between VD and AD or MD.

Methods:  The above CSF biomarkers were determined in duplicate and blind to the clinical diagnosis by double sandwich, enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) commercial kits (Innogenetics, Gent, Belgium) in 92 AD patients, 23 VD patients, 17 patients with MD and 68 controls.

Results:  Alzheimer’s disease and MD showed increased levels of τT, τP and reduced levels of Aβ42 as compared with the controls. The best discrimination between VD and AD or MD was achieved by the combination of all three biomarkers, correctly classifying ≥85% of patients, either in the form of a discriminant function or in the form of the τT × τP‐181/Aβ42 formula.

Conclusions:  Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers may be a useful adjunct for the discrimination between AD/ MD and VD in every day clinical practice.
Successful treatment of refractory generalized myasthenia gravis with rituximab
Authors: Lebrun C. , Bourg V. , Tieulie N. , Thomas P.
Published: December 2008

Objective:  Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune neuromuscular disorder for which current therapies carry a high risk of side‐effects and may be insufficient in stabilizing the clinical status. Many therapeutic options can be ruled, such as thymectomy, corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, methotrexate, intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) or less frequently plasmapheresis must be ruled.

Methods:  We followed prospectively six patients with MG who presented with a poor response to two or three lines of immunosuppressive conventional drugs associated with oral corticosteroids. All but one were acetylcholine receptor negative and three were anti‐MuSK positive. IVIg did not improved the neurological status and all patient required high doses of cholinesterase inhibitors.

Results:  Rituximab was introduced with a mean follow‐up of 1.5 years (375 mg/m2, days 1, 8, 15, 28 during the first month and then one dose every 2 months). After 2 years of follow‐up, all patients stopped corticosteroids and tapered off cholinesterase inhibitors from 60 to 180 mg/day without severe infectious events.

Conclusion:  Rituximab, a chimeric IgG k monoclonal antibody that target CD20 is used for the treatment of relapsing/refractory CD20 positive low‐grade non‐Hodgkin’s lymphoma and other autoimmune neuromuscular diseases. Four previous short reports have described a good response of MG associated with lymphoma with rituximab. It appears to be a promising and effective drug for the treatment of MG without lymphoma, with a substantial benefit to the clinical status and good tolerability.
The legal construction of the social security system of the Republic of Kosovo
Authors: Arastey Sahún Ma Lourdes , Vallejo Pilar Rivas
Published: December 2008

Abstract  Following the international community's unsuccessful attempts to broker an agreement between Serbia and Kosovo, the territory of Kosovo controversially declared independence on 17 February 2008. This article provides a description and analysis of the social protection system immediately after the declaration of independence. In the aftermath of conflict, and faced by enormous economic difficulties, Kosovo's society could not expect a complete restoration of the social security system. To date, the United Nations Mission has committed itself to building a minimum legal framework, seeking to give answers to main and essential challenges. But the core structure of the social security system is yet to be laid. Nonetheless, in a complex situation such as that of Kosovo, the realization of a social protection framework must be seen as an essential mechanism for reconstruction and peacekeeping.