bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On Osmotic Pressure against an Ideal Semi-permeable Membrane
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

To approach the subject of osmotic pressure against an ideal impermeable membrane, consider first a vessel filled with any particular fluid divided into two parts, A and B, by an ideal surface, MM. Let a certain number of individual molecules of the fluid in A, any one of which we shall call D (the dissolved substance), be endowed with the property that they cannot cross the surface MM (the semi-permeable membrane); but let them continue to be in other respects exactly similar to every other molecule of the fluid in A and to all the molecules of the fluid in B, any one of which we shall call S (the solvent), each of which can freely cross the membrane. Suppose now the containing vessel and the dividing membrane all perfectly rigid. Let the apparatus be left to itself for so long time that no further change is perceptible in the progress towards final equilibrium of temperature and pressure. The pressures in A and B will be exactly the same as they would be with the same densities of the fluid if MM were perfectly impermeable, and all the molecules of the fluid were homogeneous in all qualities; and MM will be pressed on one side only, the side next A, with a force equal to the excess of the pressure in A above the pressure in B, and due solely to the impacts of D molecules striking it and rebounding from it.
On some Type-specimens of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera in the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art
Authors: Grimshaw Percy Hall
Published: June 2019

The paper dealt with fifty-two species of butterflies and nineteen of beetles, the type-specimens of which had been discovered by the author in a collection purchased by the University of Edinburgh from M. Dufresne of Paris in the year 1819, and afterwards transferred to the Museum of Science and Art. In the case of the butterflies, the species referred to were described by Godart in the Encyclopédie Méthodique, while the beetles belonged to species described by Olivier in the same work, and also in his Histoire Naturelle des Insectes—Coléoptères, published about the same time. By the comparison of these original specimens with others in the Natural History Collections at the British Museum the author has been enabled to clear up many points in synonymy, etc., which have for nearly eighty years remained doubtful and obscure. The most important results of the investigations may be summarised as follows:—One of the beetles has been found by Mr Gahan, of the British Museum, to be the type of a new genus, which is characterised in the present paper, while the specimen upon which it is founded is probably unique; it has been found necessary to rename one species of butterfly and one beetle; errors in synonymy have been corrected in the case of nineteen species; and eight species hitherto wrongly placed have been referred to their proper genera.
The Eliminant of a Set of Quaternary Quadrics
Authors: Muir Thomas
Published: June 2019

1. The “dialytic” method of elimination, in the case of more than one variable, is not without its drawbacks, as most mathematicians know. The requisite derived equations are not always easily obtained, the difficulty being due as often to the existence of too many as of too few; and, when this has been got over, it not unfrequently happens that the order of the resulting determinant is alarmingly high, and unaccompanied by any hope of a successful guess as to the character of the extraneous factor. The discoverer's original paper affords sufficient testimony of this, and very little has been done since its appearance to put matters on a sounder footing. The most noteworthy improvement, due to Cayley, is more interesting theoretically than practically, his main object being the detection of the extraneous factor when there is an over-plus of equations. Nothing, indeed, will be found more conducive to an understanding of the limitations of the method than a careful comparison of the application of this process of Cayley's to the problem of eliminating x, y, z from the three ternary quadrics

with Sylvester's original treatment of the same problem, and the latter especially as commented on in footnotes by the author himself.

2. The want of definiteness in the mode of arriving at the exact number of derived equations is not without its compensating advantage, as it leaves that scope for the exercise of ingenuity which is half the charm of mathematical work.
Note on the Reducing Power of the Living Animal Tissues
Authors: Harris David Fraser
Published: June 2019

The following demonstration of the avidity for oxygen on the part of the living animal tissues was made incidentally while I was injecting the gelatine and soluble Berlin-blue mixture (Ranvier) into the blood-vessels of cats and rabbits in preparation of histological material. It is a fundamental fact that living cells must have oxygen continually supplied to them; the tissues crave oxygen, and will take it from any substance within their reach capable of yielding it (the inspiratory phase of the internal respiration). Normally the HbO2 yields it—the gas reaching the cells via the lymph. The left external jugular was chosen, and opened the instant the chloroformed animal's heart ceased to beat: thus, though the animal was “dead” as a whole, its tissues were alive for varying periods thereafter.

The fluid traversed heart and lungs before reaching the aorta and arterial circulation. On cutting up the organs I thought the injection must have “failed” in certain organs, for the kidneys and liver were markedly pale—pale green—and in some of the divisions of the portal vein the gelatine seemed uncoloured or “bleached” white. The lungs were of a deep blue; and such organs as brain and eye were blue, while there was no loss of colour where the fluid and the blood had mixed in the vessels (in a case in which the blood had not been first washed out of the vascular system). Here we had clearly a case of de-oxidation of the deep blue ferric ferrocyanide (Berlin or Prussian blue) to the pale green or almost colourless ferrous ferrocyanide, which, however, underwent re-oxidation on exposure to the air, for the blue colour returned progressively in from ten minutes to twenty-four hours after.
Hæmatoporphyrinuria and its Relations to the Origin of Urobilin
Authors: Harris David Fraser
Published: June 2019

The chief pigment of normal urine is known as urobilin (seeing that this name indicates a relation to “bile,” “urochrome” would be a better term, not connoting any view as to genetic relationship). The name for the chromogen “urobilinogen” would become “urochromogen.” Other pigments are or may be present in normal urine, e.g., the indigo-blue pigment whose ancestor is intestinal indol, and “uroerythim” genetically related, it is believed, to skatol, while, according to some physiologists, traces of “pathological urobilin” (which, might be better called para-urochrome) and even of hæmatoporphyrin are recognisable in healthy urine.

Certainly, in some morbid urines, urohæmatoporphyrin has been the chief pigment replacing urobilin, while, in a few very rare ones, a pigment allied to it, but, according to M'Munn, less de-oxidised, has appeared. This substance, like urobilin and urohæmatoporphyrin, is a proteid-free, iron-free pigment, as yet unnamed. I propose to call it meio-de-oxyhæmatoporphyrin. Urobilin is amber-coloured, urohæmatoporphyrin makes the urine of orange tint, while the rarer ally gives it a deep port-wine colour: urines containing this last do not decompose for many weeks.

I lately encountered meio-de-oxyhæmatoporphyrin in the urine from a case of rare skin-disease, Dermatitis herpetiformis bullosa. Both these hæmatoporphyrins have absorption-spectra resembling that of alkaline hæmatoporphyrin, and each, on the addition of strong sulphuric acid, is changed to the characteristic two-banded acid-hæmatoporphyrin.
On a Differential Method for Measuring Differences of Vapour Pressures of Liquids at one Temperature and at Different Temperatures
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

§ 1. Apparatus for realising the proposed method is represented in the accompanying diagram. Two Woulffe's bottles, each having a vertical glass tube fitted air-tight into one of its necks, contain the liquids the difference of whose vapour pressures is to be measured. Second necks of the two bottles are connected by a bent metal (or glass) pipe, with a vertical branch provided with three (metal or glass) stopcocks, as indicated in the diagram. Each bottle has a third neck, projecting downwards through its bottom, stopped by a glass stopcock which can be opened for the purpose of introducing or withdrawing liquid. The upper ends of the glass tubes are also connected (by short india-rubber junctions or otherwise) with a bent metal pipe carrying a vertical branch for connection with a Toepler mercury air-pump. This vertical branch is provided with a metal stopcock. The vertical branch of the pipe fitted into necks of the two bottles is also connected to the air-pump as indicated in the drawings.

§ 2. To introduce the liquids, bring open vessels containing them into such positions below the bottles that the necks project downwards into them. Close the glass stopcocks of these lower necks, open all the other six stopcocks, and produce a slight exhaustion by a few strokes of the air-pump. Then, opening the glass stopcocks very slightly, allow the desired quantities of the liquids to enter, and close them again.
On the Geometrical Investigation of the Circular Functions of 3θ and 5θ
Authors: Anglin A. H.
Published: June 2019

1. Let the <PAB be θ, where P is a point on the arc of a semicircle described on AB of which O is the middle point. Then making

<OPC = <OPA, the <PCB = 3θ.

Since the triangles APC, OPC are similar, we have

We shall express each of the ratios sin 3θ/sin θ, cos 3θ/cos θ, etc., as a function of AC/OC.
Notes on some Earthquakes in India
Authors: Inglis J. W.
Published: June 2019

On 5th July we had the pleasure of listening to the paper on the “Calcutta Earthquake” of 12th June 1897, by Mr Heath, B.A.

It occurred to me that the Royal Society might be pleased to have a narrative account from one of its Fellows, by following up the subject. There is nothing scientific in this paper, and it is brevity itself; at the same time it may be interesting, as the facts are from personal experience of some earthquakes during my residence in India of nigh quarter of a century.

Mr Heath observed casually that a portion of the spire of the (Episcopal) Cathedral at Calcutta had fallen, and from the news papers I read that many of the public buildings, such as the High Court of Judicature, the Museum, and many others, were badly injured. If any one would like to see photographs of these buildings before injury took place, I thought it might be of interest to place my albums at the disposal of the President; so that, after the meeting is over, I could, if required, turn up the pages—

But, to my subject.

After the lapse of forty-one years, I read in a paper recently that the centre of the volcanic disturbance which has caused so much destruction in different parts of Bengal is definitely ascribed to a spot in the Bay of Bengal. I have always hoped that an experience which I had many years ago might some day be made clear: that pleasure, I think, I have at last attained.
Chairman's Opening Address
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

The President, on opening the Session, stated that—

At the statutory meeting, held on 23rd November 1896, the President was appointed (with power to name a substitute) to represent the Society at the British Association Commission on a National Physical Laboratory.

At a meeting of Council on 7th May last, the President and Dr Murray were appointed members of the Consultation Committee in connection with the proposed Catalogue of Scientific Literature.

At a meeting on 21st May 1897, Dr Murray, Dr Traquair, and Mr Cadell of Grange were appointed to represent the Society at the International Russian Congress at St Petersburg, and Principal Talmage was subsequently added to the above-mentioned representatives.

Professor D'Arcy Thompson, a member of our Council, was reappointed a Commissioner to report on the aspects of the Seal Fishery in Behring's Straits, and on its international relations.
A Short Note on the Disturbance of the Magnetical and Meteorological Instruments at the Colaba Observatory during the Earthquake of 12th June 1897
Authors: Moos N. A.
Published: June 2019

The four instruments, the traces of which are examined, are the declination, horizontal force, and vertical force magnetographs, and the barograph. The instruments being not seismological, the following discussion of the character of the disturbance, based upon the traces of these instruments, must obviously be regarded as an attempt at explanation, and as an attempt only. Colaba, it appears, was situated well outside the area of perceptible shaking, and the distance of the Observatory from the centre of disturbance, whether suboceanic or otherwise, was sufficiently large to render the disturbance as it reached Colaba very feeble, and yet it was just sufficiently strong to leave some record of its peculiar characteristics. All traces have been enlarged about two and a half times, but the exact time and measurements have been derived from the original traces.
Note on the Axes of Symmetry which are Crystallographically possible
Authors: Marshall Hugh
Published: June 2019

In a “Mémoire sur la déduction, d'un seul principe, de tous les systèmes crystallographiques avec leurs subdivisions,” by Axel Gadolin, there is given a proof that, if we assume the law of rational indices, only digonal, trigonal, tetragonal, and hexagonal axes are possible with crystals. This proof is adopted by Groth in the last edition of his Physikalische Krystallographie, 1895. The proof which I shall now give, although somewhat similar in general principle, is decidedly simpler than that of Gadolin. It is assumed in the former that an axis of symmetry is necessarily a possible edge or zone axis, and that there are possible edges perpendicular to any axis of symmetry, i.e., that the plane to which it is normal is a possible face. These general propositions are not, so far as I am aware, to be found in text-books, although tacitly assumed in certain cases, and a proof of them, as also of two similar ones concerning planes of symmetry, is therefore indicated here before treating the main problem.
On the Derivation of the Curves of Vowel Sounds by means of Microscopical Research of their Phonograms
Authors: Boeke J. D.
Published: June 2019

For about seven years I have been, engaged upon the investigation of the impressions made by vowel sounds on phonograph cylinders.

The close accordance of my results with those of Prof. L. Hermann of Königsberg and Dr Hugo Pipping of Helsingfors, though obtained by widely different methods, showed, 1st, that the method by which I obtained my results, although much simpler and easier to manage than those of the above-mentioned investigators, yields, nevertheless, very satisfactory results; and 2nd, that the same vowel sounds are formed almost exactly in the same manner by persons of different age, sex, and nationality.

In the only scientific paper which, till now, I have published on this subject, in 1891, only the vowel a (as in hard) was treated in a somewhat elaborate manner, but since then I have applied my method to other vowels as well.

As I have altered my method of research a little in the course of time, it may be useful to give a somewhat detailed description of my present mode of procedure.
On the Fourierian Analysis of Phonographic Tracings of Vowels
Authors: Lloyd R. J.
Published: June 2019

It is a great advantage and satisfaction to work from curves taken by the phonograph itself, because it is then possible to reproduce and verify by actual hearing the sound supposed to be represented by given curves. This ought always to be done, even with the phonograph, and the slightest change of timbre should be carefully noted; for the given curve represents not really the original sound, but the sound given back by the phonograph. Every plate or membrane vibrates more readily and strongly to some pitches than to others, and in a composite sound it is almost inevitable that some of its elements are recorded with more, and others with less, than their original relative force. Different vibrators hence yield quite different-looking phonograms for the same sound. In vowels it seems fortunately to happen that considerable changes in the relative force of the component vibrations may occur without altering the vowel. It is the pitch of the components which matters; and that is not altered by an efficient vibrator. Assuming a knowledge of the methods by which the record dug vertically into the phonographic cylinder is displayed horizontally for examination and analysis, we note that a satisfactory Fourierian analysis demands a sufficient number of measurements.
On the Thermodynamics of Volta-contact Electricity
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

§ 1. Let X and Y be two metals, of which X is electrically positive to Y in the Volta-contact series for dry metals, and make an incomplete circuit of them as indicated in the diagram, with X and Y metallically connected at an interface J, and free surfaces II, KCC exposed, with ether or air, or any gas or insulating fluid, between them. Let CC be a movable slab of the Y-metal, resting frictionlessly on a fixed surface KK of the game metal. If left to itself the movable slab would, in virtue of electric attraction, as we shall see, oscillate on the two sides of the middle position in which the whole of its upper surface is opposite to II. We shall suppose it held by applied force F in any position, or moved, or allowed to move, from any one position to any other, at our pleasure.

§ 2. Suppose now our apparatus to be given with no excess of either electricity above the other, and to be insulated in air or ether at a distance from all other bodies great in comparison with its own dimensions, and with no electrified body near enough to it to produce sensible electrification through influence. Every part of the X-surface will be found positively and every part of the Y-surface negatively electrified, provided each surface is of perfectly uniform Volta-quality throughout its extent; but the electric surface-densities of the opposite electrifications will be everywhere exceedingly small, except in and near the portions of II and CC closely opposed to one another.
On the Electrolysis of Ethyl Potassium Diethoxysuccinate
Authors: Brown Crum , Bolam H. W.
Published: June 2019

The method of electrolytic synthesis of dibasic acids described by Crum Brown and Walker has hitherto been found to be applicable to dibasic acids of the formula CnH2n (COOH)2 whether normal or with side chains, and to camphoric acid, which is no doubt a saturated cyclic compound. In all other cases which have been tried the anion is oxidised and broken up.

One of us long ago found that this was the case with tartaric acid, and in 1894 v. Miller and Hofer showed that when the salts of monobasic hydroxy-acids are electrolysed the anion is oxidised and broken up. They showed that this is the case also with methoxyacetic acid, so that it would appear that the replacement of H by ORʹ, where Rʹ is an alkyl, leads to the same destruction of the anion as does the replacement of H by OH. We examined ethoxysuccinic acid, and found that here also no ethereal layer is formed on the electrolysis of the ethyl potassium salt.
Note on the Passage of Water and other substances through Indiarubber Films
Authors: Lundie R. A.
Published: June 2019

Indiarubber has come to be so nearly synonymous in popular language with waterproof that it seems almost as much of an impertinence to inquire whether it really is so, as it would be to ask whether lead is heavy or iron strong. The question, however, came before me in a practical shape; and I have made out some facts, in attempting to answer it, which may be of interest.

A water-bed is simply a hollow indiarubber mattress, capable of being filled with water and secured by metal screws. Such beds are largely used in the treatment of paralysed and feeble patients; and it is well known to nurses and others who have much to do with them that they need every now and then to be filled up in order to keep them comfortable. I first became acquainted with this fact in the course of medical work at the Longmore Hospital, where there are always many of them in use. Every three months or so a considerable quantity of water needs to be added to each of them, because it becomes so slack that the patient sinks through the cushion of fluid and rests on the solid mattress below, at the points where pressure is greatest. It seemed to me that this circumstance was worth inquiring into. Is it simply due to stretching of the material, or is there an actual transudation through the indiarubber? As I could get no answer to the question from people or from books, I determined to interrogate Nature for myself.
On the Theory of Archimeric Segmentation and its bearing upon the Phyletic Classification of the Cœlomata
Authors: Masterman A. T.
Published: June 2019

In a recent paper embodying the results of my work upon Actinotrocha, I was led to suggest a theory of the segmentation of cœlomate animals, the essential features of which were as follows:—

1. There can be demonstrated, in the morphology of the Cœlomata, two distinct types of segmentation—(a) a primitive or archimeric type, having in its constitution certain evidences of a radial origin, and (b) a secondary or metameric segmentation, superposed upon the former and bearing evidence of a bilateral origin.

2. A certain number of the Cœlomata retain, under varied disguise, the archimeric segmentation throughout life, together with a number of other primitive characters in common. These groups, being genetically allied, may be conveniently classified in one division, for which the name Archi-cœlomata is proposed.

3. In the truly segmented animals, such as the Annelida, Arthropoda, and Eu-chorda, the bilateral or metameric segmentation ⟨of the posterior archimeric segment⟩ tends to completely replace the archimeric. In at least two of these groups there has been an independent evolution of metameric segmentation.

In attempting to bring forward facts in support of this theory, one may approach the subject from three stand-points.

(A.) Firstly, an attempt may be made, by general reasoning, to construct a hypothetical ancestor of the Cœlomata as a group. In this way may be obtained a schematic outline of an organism possessing each system of organs in its most archaic condition.
Symmetrical Solution of the Ellipse-Glissette Elimination Problem
Authors: McLaren Lord
Published: June 2019

The publication of Mr Nanson's paper on the glissette elimination problem (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 158) has led me to make a further investigation of this interesting point, with the result that the general eliminant is expressed in the form of a single symmetrical bordered determinant. I shall first give the solution for the case where the tracing-point is on the axis of the ellipse, and then extend it to the general case.

I. Case of the Tracing-point on the Elliptic Axis.

The equations for the centre of the generating ellipse as tracing-point are—

For a point in the line of the major axis, if r be the distance of the tracing-point from the centre, we have

whence, by squaring each side,

By addition,
On Nernst's “Osmotic Experiment” and a Definition of Osmotic Pressure
Authors: Brown Crum
Published: June 2019

In vol. vi. of the Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie (1890), pp. 16–36, Nernst demonstrates the relation between the osmotic pressure of a given solution of N in A and the difference of concentration of two solutions of A in B, the one made by shaking up B with A and the other by shaking up B with the solution of N in A; where A and B are two liquids miscible with each other, but not in all proportions, as, for instance, water and ether, and N a substance soluble in A but not in B. Immediately after this paper, Nernst describes (l.c., pp. 37–40) an osmotic experiment in which the “semipermeable membrane” is a layer of the liquid B held in its place by capillarity. Through this layer no N can pass, because N is insoluble in B, but A will pass from what we may call the A side, on account of the concentration gradient, the layer of B containing more A dissolved in it on the A side than on the solution side. At the same time a pressure is developed on the solution side equal to the osmotic pressure of the solution of N.

So far as the diffusion of A through the layer of B from the A side to the solution side is concerned, Nernst's experiment can be shown without fixing the layer of B. In the form exhibited to the Society, A is water, B phenol, and N calcium nitrate.
The Multiplication of an Alternant by a Symmetric Function of the Variables
Authors: Muir Thomas
Published: June 2019

(1) As is well known, the simplest form of alternant is

and the problem of multiplying it by any symmetric function of a, b, c, d, … has been in a manner fully solved.

(2) When the symmetric function is linear in each of the variables—that is to say, when it takes any of the forms Σa, Σab, Σabc, ….—the result is an alternant got from the multiplicand by increasing the last index, the last two indices, the last three indices, …. respectively by 1. Thus, writing for shortness' sake five variables only, we have

This was first established in 1825 by Schweins in his Theorie der Differenzen und Differentiale, p. 378; but it is also barely possible that it was known to Prony in 1795 (see Journ. de l'Ec. Polyt., i. pp. 264, 265), and Cauchy in 1812 (see Journ. de l'Ec. Polyt., x. pp. 49, 50).

(3) When the symmetric function is non-linear, the result takes the form not of one alternant, but of an aggregate of alternants. These cannot be so readily specified, but the mode of obtaining them can be made clear without any difficulty. Let us take the case of the function Σa3b the multiplicand being ∣a0b1c2d3∣.
Note on a Persymmetric Eliminant
Authors: Muir Thomas
Published: June 2019

1. The fact that the eliminant of the set of five equations

is, as shown by Professor Schoute, the persymmetric determinant

implies a linear relation connecting every three consecutive s's. As a matter of fact it is not difficult to see that we have

and from these, by elimination of λ1λ2, λ1+λ2, we obtain the result just mentioned.
On the Linear and Vector Function
Authors: Tait
Published: June 2019

Three years ago I called the attention of the Society to the following theorem:—

The resultant of two pure strains is a homogeneous strain which leaves three directions unchanged; and conversely.

[It will be shown below that any strain which has three real roots can also be looked on (in an infinite number of ways) as the resultant of two others which have the same property.]

As I was anxious to introduce this proposition in my advanced class, where I was not justified in employing the extremely simple quaternion proof, I gave a number of different modes of demonstration; of which the most elementary was geometrical, and was based upon the almost obvious fact that

If there be two concentric ellipsoids, determinate in form and position, one of which remains of constant magnitude, while the other may swell or contract without limit; there are three stages at which they touch one another.

[These are, of course, (1) and (2) when one is just wholly inside or just wholly outside the other (that is when their closed curves of intersection shrink into points), and (3) when their curves of intersection intersect one another. The whole matter may obviously be simplified by first inflicting a pure strain on the two ellipsoids, such as to make one of them into a sphere, next considering their conditions of touching, and finally inflicting the reciprocal strain.]

But the normal at any point of an ellipsoid is the direction into which the radius-vector of that point is turned by a pure strain; so that for any two pure strains there are three directions which they alter alike. (These form, of course, the system of conjugate diameters common to the two ellipsoids.) This is the fundamental proposition of the paper referred to, and the theorem follows from it directly.
On the Restoration of Co-ordinated Movements after Nerve Section
Authors: Kennedy Robert
Published: June 2019

It is now well known that after reunion of a divided nerve by means of suture, function may return sooner or later, and that not only does this restoration of function imply simple return of sensation and of the capacity of making voluntary movements, but the re-establishment of complete localisation of sensation and of co-ordination of movements. When it is remembered that the individual nerve fibres are supposed to be paths between well-defined centres and peripheral endings, it is clear that so perfect a restoration of function is in many respects remarkable. Thus, in coapting a divided nerve, it is not likely that this can be effected with so great accuracy, that the corresponding ends of the divided nerve fibres can be brought into apposition. It is more likely that in coapting the nerve, most of the ends of the nerve fibres which are brought into contact are ends which do not correspond; and thus it would be expected that in the reunited nerve new paths for the nervous impulses would be established. And yet, despite this complexity of structure and of function, the reunited nerve seems to be as capable as before the division of subserving its functions.

In suturing divided nerves, care is usually given to secure that the two segments are approximated as nearly as possible in their old relationship. Thus, the perfect recovery of localised and co-ordinated function might be due to a majority of the fibres being thus placed in a position for union as before the division to take place.
On the Anatomy of Prosthecocotyle torulosa (Linstow) and Prosthecocotyle heteroclita (Dies.)
Authors: Fuhrmann O
Published: June 2019

In the Report on the Entozoa collected by H.M.S. “Challenger” Dr O. von Linstow described two new tapeworms, which he named Tetrabothrium torulosum and T. auriculatum. The resemblance of the head of T. auriculatum with that of Prosthecocotyle Forsteri described by Monticelli seemed to me to indicate that the Tetrabothrium described by Linstow probably belonged to the genus Prosthecocotyle.

Through the kindness of Sir John Murray, I received from the British Museum the original specimens for inspection, for which I wish to express here my warmest thanks. The following lines give the results of my examination; but before entering upon the description, let me say something on the systematic position of these two animals. As I have already remarked, Prof. Monticelli has rightly erected a new genus named Prosthecocotyle for the tapeworm Tœnia Forsteri, Krefft. To this genus belongs, besides P. Forsteri, other parasites of birds which have been placed in the genera Tœnia, Tetrabothrium, Amphoterocotyle, Bothridiotœnia, Bothriocephalus. According to my researches the following species belong to the genus Prosthecocotyle:—

1. P. Forsteri (Krefft), (syn. Tœnia Forsteri, Krefft), from Delphinus Forsteri (Gray) and Delphinus delphinus, L.

2. P. Monticellii, Fuhrmann (syn. Tœnia erostris, ex parte, Bothridiotœnia erostris, var. minor, Lönnberg), from Fulmarus glacialis, L.

3. P. umbrella, Fuhrmann, from Diomedea sp. (?).

4. P. torulosa (Linstow), (syn. Tetrabothrium torulosum, Linstow), from Diomedea brachyura, Temm.
Bulletin d'histoire urbaine
Authors: Espinas Georges
Published: June 2019

Une collection de Documents, textes et mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de Cannes et de sa région, dirigée par M. Hubert Dhumez, nous présente pdur son premier fascicule Les chartes de franchise et actes d'habitation, par M. R. Aubenas. Les campagnes de Provence, si prospères au début du xiv8 siècle, de 1290 à la fin du premier tiers du xv° siècle, connurent, en raison des troubles, intérieurs., des « dévastations inouïes » qui finirent par les « transformer en déserts ». Alors, souverain et seigneurs s'attelèrent à une immense tâche de reconstruction, de remise en culture des terres délaissées, de repeuplement des villages abandonnés. De là, avec l'accomplissement d'un travail extérieur, l'apparition de nouvelles formes sociales, — les aiïrèrements2, — la conclusion de contrats favorables aux agriculteurs, l'octroi de chartes de franchises devant empêcher l'exode des habitants, et des chartes de peuplement, d'où les actes d'habitation. Les immigrés viennent des régions transalpines et liguriennes.
Madness
Authors: Quinton Anthony
Published: June 2019

Madness is a subject that ought to interest philosophers; but they have had surprisingly little to say about it. What they have said, although often interesting and important, has failed to penetrate to the properly philosophical centre of the topic. They have concerned themselves with its causes and effects, with its social and ethical implications, but they have said little that is useful or definitive about what it is in itself. Preoccupied with its accidents, they have failed to engage with its essence.
Metaphors We Live By
Authors: Cooper David E.
Published: June 2019

Aside from aperçus of Kant, Nietzsche, and of course, Aristotle, metaphor has not, until recently, received its due. The dominant view has been Hobbes': metaphors are an ‘abuse’ of language, less dangerous than ordinary equivocation only because they ‘profess their inconstancy’.
Dishonesty and the Jury: A Case Study in the Moral Content of Law
Authors: Tur Richard
Published: June 2019

It must be considered that a man who only does what everyone of the society to which he belongs would do is not a dishonest man.

A lack of confidence in the ability of a tribunal correctly to estimate evidence of states of mind and the like can never be sufficient ground for excluding from enquiry the most fundamental element in a rational and humane criminal code.
Philosophy, Language and the Reform of Public Worship
Authors: Warner Martin
Published: June 2019

When I studied the Scriptures then I did not feel as I am writing about them now. They seemed to me unworthy of comparison with the grand style of Cicero (Augustine, III, 5).

As for the absurdities which used to offend me in Scripture, … I now looked for their meanings in the depth of mystery (sacramentorum) (Augustine, VI, 5).
The Right to Strike
Authors: Locke Don
Published: June 2019

Only a fool would attempt to discuss the morality of strikes in twenty-five pages or less, and even he will fail. For one thing he can be sure in advance that whatever conclusions he might come to will be ridiculed as outrageous, prejudiced or self-serving by one party or the other. There is, in particular, the accusation that the attempt to discuss in moral terms what is essentially a political issue, is itself an exercise in bourgeois politics disguised as morals, their morals but not ours. But there is also, and more worrying to my mind, the sheer complexity of the issues. This complexity is, however, simply unmanageable in the space available, and I have gone instead for the simple story, in the hope that the essentials will stand out that much more clearly. Whether I have got the right essentials, whether the elegance of the picture compensates for its lack of realism, is something that will have to emerge.
Philosophy in the Nuclear Age
Authors: Paskins Barrie
Published: June 2019

I have chosen this title to set myself the task of commenting on the practice of philosophy in the light of my work as a philosopher in a university postgraduate department of war studies. I shall begin with some general remarks on how we are to understand ‘philosophy’, then discuss a neglected one-sidedness in the commentary which philosophers have attempted on such topics as the problems of the nuclear age.
The Phylogeny and Classification of Rhynchonelliformea
Authors: Carlson Sandra J. , Leighton Lindsey R.
Published: June 2019

It is a great understatement to say that our knowledge of morphologic, stratigraphic, and paleobiogeographic variation among brachiopods has expanded enormously over the past 35 years. The number of brachiopod genera discovered and named since 1965 has more than doubled the approximately 1700 genera described in Part H of theTreatise on Invertebrate Paleontology(Williams and others, 1965). 4827 genera and subgenera named as of 1995 are listed in Doescher (1996); it is likely that over 5000 exist by now. Some are certain to be reevaluated as synonyms, but we have no reason to believe that this would apply to most new genera. This remarkable increase in raw data required a thorough reexamination of the phylogenetic relationships and higher-level classification of the group, encouraged largely by the revision of Part H of theTreatise, initiated in the late 1980s by Alwyn Williams.
Biomineralization in Brachiopod Shells
Authors: Cusack Maggie
Published: June 2019

Biominerals are produced in all five kingdoms. Calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate are the most abundant biominerals performing many functions including protection and skeletal support. The phylum Brachiopoda is divided into three subphyla: Linguliformea, Craniiformea, and Rhynchonelliformea (Williams et al., 1996). The Linguliformea possess inarticulated phosphatic valves. Articulation is also lacking in the calcitic valves of the Craniiformea while the calcitic valves of the Rhynchonelliformea are articulated. The paired valves of the brachiopod shell are one of the earliest examples of biomineralization. The existence of different mineral regimes and shell ultrastructures within the phylum makes the brachiopods ideal candidates for the study of biomineralization. The formation of brachiopod valves is an example of organic controlled mineralization, a term introduced by Lowenstam (1981) to describe biomineralization which is under genetic control via specific organic material controlling the precipitation and formation of the biomineral. In organically induced biomineralization (Lowenstam, 1981), organic molecules provide a nucleating surface on which mineral precipitates. Such precipitation continues as long as the solution is saturated with respect to the mineral ions. Stromatolite formation is an example of organically induced biomineralization. In brachiopod shell formation, organic molecules are not solely involved in nucleation. By binding to specific crystal faces, organic molecules inhibit growth along certain crystal axes and enhance growth in other directions, influencing the growth and formation of organically controlled biominerals. Finally, organic molecules inhibit biomineral growth. Thus, a suite of organic molecules is involved in brachiopod shell formation, their spatial and temporal presentation resulting in the formation of species-specific valves.
Earth History Change: The Pacemaker of Evolution
Authors: Lieberman Bruce S.
Published: June 2019

Paleobiogeography is the discipline that aims to uncover correlations between Earth history (geological and climatic) change and evolution by focusing on how biotas evolve across geographic space. Phylogenetic biogeographic methods applied to fossil taxa, especially those methods based on a modified version of Brooks Parsimony Analysis, have shown potential for uncovering the relationship between Earth history change and evolution. Two processes have an important role in shaping the evolution of biotas across geographic space: these are vicariance and geodispersal. Approaches to biogeographic analysis in the fossil record have uncovered evidence linking some of the key episodes in the history of life, including the Cambrian radiation, to the major geological changes that were occurring at the time. They also have shown that in different time periods with different Earth history signatures the corresponding evolutionary and biogeographic signatures are different. Promising new areas in paleobiogeography include expanded application of phylogenetic approaches and the use of Geographic Information Systems.
Diversification of a New Atlantic Clade of Scleractinian Reef Corals: Insights from Phylogenetic Analysis of Morphologic and Molecular Data
Authors: Budd Ann F. , Smith Nathan D.
Published: June 2019

Recent molecular analyses of the traditional scleractinian suborder Faviina have revealed a new Atlantic clade of reef corals, which disagrees with traditional classification. The new clade contradicts long-held notions of Cenozoic diversification being concentrated in the Pacific, and of Atlantic species bearing close evolutionary relationships with Pacific species. In the present paper, we outline an approach for integrating molecular, morphologic, and fossil data, which will allow future examination of the timing and phylogenetic context of the divergence of the new Atlantic clade. Our analyses are preliminary and focus on 17 genetically characterized species within the new Atlantic clade. The molecular dataset consists of 630 base pairs from the COI gene and 1143 base pairs from the cytB gene. The morphologic dataset consists of 25 traditional morphologic characters (86 states) in 57 species (23 extant and 32 extinct). Phylogenetic analyses are first performed separately on the molecular and morphologic (extant taxa only) datasets. Subsequent phylogenetic analyses involve adding fossil taxa to the morphologic dataset and performing a combined analysis for extant taxa.

The results of both molecular and morphologic phylogenetic analyses disagree with traditional classification. They also disagree with each other, indicating the two datasets provide different phylogenetic signals and are informative at different taxonomic levels. Molecular trees for the mitochondrial genes analyzed have higher bootstrap support for deeper nodes in the tree; morphologic trees have higher bootstrap support near branch tips. The addition of fossils to the morphologic dataset does not improve resolution within phylogenetic trees, but it does indicate that all of the major subclades within the new Atlantic clade originated prior to middle Eocene time. The pulse of origination associated with Plio-Pleistocene faunal turnover involved speciation within well-established clades. Examination of the geographic distributions of the taxa within each of the four resulting trees indicates that the origin of the Brazilian reef coral fauna involved more than one separate dispersal event or that the fauna may be descended from a larger Mio-Pliocene Atlantic (Caribbean to Brazil) species pool, portions of which have subsequently become extinct. Because of the complex nature of scleractinian evolution (involving possible hybridization), we advocate using a phylogenetic approach that compares multiple independent datasets, including datasets that are currently being developed for new microstructural characters.
The Biogeography of Madagascar: Where to Turn when the Fossils aren't there
Authors: Yoder Anne D.
Published: June 2019

The biogeography of Madagascar is a subject of deep fascination due both to its long isolation from other land masses and to its intrinsic geological complexity. Here, I describe the geological and biological idiosyncrasies of Madagascar, as well as some of the methods that can potentially be applied toward understanding the present distribution of Malagasy mammals, their ancestral origins, and the mechanisms by which they came to occupy Madagascar. Given the potential enormity of the subject, this contribution is provided more in the spirit of provocation than explanation.
Deep Time Paleobiology: Stromatolites–A Key to Decoding Primitive Ecosystems on Earth and Beyond
Authors: Allwood Abigail C.
Published: June 2019

Finding the beginning of Earth's fossil record is a long-standing palaeontological challenge arising from the quest to understand the origin of life. Research in recent years has necessarily focused on determining the existence (or otherwise) of fossils in the Early Archaean rock record. Nonetheless, despite numerous reports of microfossils(?) and stromatolites, consensus on the existence of life in the Early Archaean has been elusive (e.g. Moorbath, 2005). However, new techniques and approaches are allowing more confident interpretation of the Archaean fossil record, and the nature of the earliest biosignatures can be used to inform our understanding of emergent ecosystems on Earth and perhaps on other terrestrial planets.

Evidence is mounting that microbial ecosystems may have had a firm foothold as early as ~3.5 Ga (Tice and Lowe, 2004; Schopf, 2006; Hofmann et al., 1999; Allwood et al., 2006, 2007b; Westall et al., 2006; Westall and Southam, 2006). Significantly, there is now also evidence that the Early Archaean record may not be as meager and cryptic as previously thought. For example, the 3.43 Ga Strelley Pool Chert of the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia contains kilometer-scale tracts of a fossilized stromatolite (microbial?) reef (Allwood et al., 2006, 2007b) and provides a large suite of evidence that is consistent with life's existence. Moreover, the rapidity with which the Strelley Pool reef established itself on a newly-submerged landmass suggests that life was well established by that time, waiting in the wings in planktonic form until conditions favored sessile biofilm formation. The rich vault of information in such rocks as the Strelley Pool Chert may shed light not only upon life's antiquity, but also on the nature of early organisms and ecosystems, the environments that nurtured them, the processes that aided preservation of biosignatures and the palaeontological approaches needed to interpret them. This in turn will be a valuable guide in the search for—and interpretation of—ancient microbial biosignatures in the geologic record of other planets or moons.
The Fossil Record of Plant Physiology and Development—What Leaves Can Tell Us
Authors: Boyce C. Kevin
Published: June 2019

Plants provide unmatched opportunities to evaluate long debated evolutionary patterns in terms of the detailed biology of the fossil organisms. Leaves serve here as an example of how those advantages can be exploited. Over the history of vascular plants, three important transitions in leaf evolution—the origin of laminate leaves, the progressive loss of seed plant morphological diversity, and the evolution of more angiosperm-like leaves—also represent major shifts in leaf development and physiology. These transitions often occurred in parallel in different lineages, such as the evolution of marginal growth in each of at least four independent origins of laminate leaves during the Devonian and Carboniferous. Each also entailed dramatic reorganizations of leaf hydraulics. For example, the length of the finest distributary vein order varies from up to tens of centimeters down to hundreds of microns in successive groups of dominant seed plants. Angiosperms impose an additional trend upon these patterns with the evolution of their uniquely high vein densities. Vein density strongly influences and can provide a proxy for other physiological characteristics, such as assimilation and transpiration rates. The large increase in transpiration capacity accompanying the evolution of angiosperm leaf traits may even play an important role in feeding precipitation and thereby altering local climate.
Viewing Paleobiology Through the Lens of Phylogeny
Authors: Sumrall Colin D. , Brochu Christopher A.
Published: June 2019

Phylogenetic systematics is the dominant form of taxonomy for most biologists, vertebrate paleontologists and to a lesser degree invertebrate paleontologists. Taxonomies are based strictly on evolutionary relationships with traits of organisms such as morphology and sequence data, being used as evidence for relationships. Two types of taxa are recognized - species that may be monophyletic or paraphyletic and clades that must be monophyletic. The phylogeny is an hypothesis of relationships that can be used to illuminate many areas of paleobiology including: unsampled morphology from incompletely preserved organisms, temporal distribution of taxa, and evolutionary patterns and mechanisms. Consequently, an understanding of phylogenetic assumptions, experimental design, and language are critical for the incorporation of phylogenetic taxonomies into larger studies of paleobiology.