bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Direct assessment of social behaviour from videotape recordings
Authors: Gillingham P. R. , Griffiths R. D. P. , Care D.
Published: July 2011

A number of frequency and duration measures, and also general ratings, were made to assess specified aspects of interpersonal behaviour. These were taken from videotape recordings of interviews, or informal conversations, involving psychiatric patients. The frequency and duration measures were found to have high inter‐rater reliability. Pearsonian correlations were in the range of 0$88–0$99. The general ratings were less reliable (0$42–0$86).

The patients were divided into two groups. The first were patients whose major difficulties were interpersonal problems. The second contained patients with other psychiatric problems. Comparisons between these groups revealed a number of significant differences in the behavioural frequency and duration measures. Significant differences were also found in the general ratings, but there were disagreements between the two raters which made the interpretation of these differences difficult.

When, within the interpersonal problem group, informal conversations were compared with formal interviews, it was found that subjects spent longer looking at the other person during the conversations. No other differences were evident. The implications of the results for social skills research are discussed.
Effect of audience on the acquisition and extinction of avoidance
Authors: Dua J. K.
Published: July 2011

Five groups of subjects were given training in the acquisition and extinction of an avoidance response (button‐press). The conditioned stimulus (CS) was a tone and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) was shock. Subjects in first group were tested alone (alone group), subjects in second group were tested while an audience waited outside subjects' room (aud‐out), in another group subjects had audience facing them during acquisition (acq‐aud), in fourth group subjects were trained alone during acquisition but had audience facing them during extinction (ext‐aud), and the last group of subjects were tested in the presence of an audience both during acquisition and extinction (acq‐ext‐aud). It was found that the effect of an audience during acquisition was to inhibit acquisition and the effect during extinction was to quicken extinction of avoidance. Results are discussed in terms of drive, anxiety‐reduction, and evaluation apprehension hypotheses.
A report on the psychological test results of battering parents
Authors: Hyman Clare A.
Published: July 2011

The short form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Cattell's 16PF test have been given to patients attending the National Advisory Centre on the Battered Child (NSPCC) and in the case of the personality questionnaire the results compared to non‐battering control adults' scores.

The intelligence levels of battering parents conform to normal expectation although there is a non‐significant trend to marginally lower than normal results especially in verbal tests.

The 16PF test reveals immature impetuosity on the part of the mothers as a main finding and introversion in the fathers. The relevance of these findings to battering is discussed.
Psychoticism and thinking
Authors: Woody Erik , Claridge Gordon
Published: July 2011

In view of evidence linking psychosis with high creative ability, an attempt was made to evaluate the relationship between thinking abilities and personality traits. Tests of divergent thinking and convergent thinking were administered, along with the Eysencks' Personality Questionnaire, to 100 university students. The hypothesis that ‘psychoticism’ is related to divergent thinking was strongly confirmed. The hypothesis that psychoticism would be related inversely to speed in a convergent‐thinking task was rejected. No evidence was found for any relationship between extraversion‐introversion or neuroticism‐stability and either thinking style.
An investigation into disordered adolescents by means of the Brook Reaction Test
Authors: Heim A. W. , Unwin S. M. , Watts K. P.
Published: July 2011

Three groups of psychologically disordered male adolescents were matched with controls for age and intelligence, on a one‐to‐one basis. Group a (n = 83) comprised delinquents, this designation being determined by a history of at least one court conviction. All of these were in borstals or approved schools. Group b (n = 65) were delinquent‐and‐disturbed: these too had had at least one court conviction and, in addition, they were having psychiatric treatment. Members of group b were also in institutions: these included psychiatric hospitals and prisons, as well as borstals and approved schools. Group c (n = 41) consisted of “disturbed‐only” youths: they had had no convictions but were receiving psychiatric treatment. Each group covered a very wide range of intelligence.

All the subjects took the Brook Reaction Test, the aim of the inquiry being to ascertain whether this test differentiates (scored blind) between the experimental groups and their controls. Significant differentiation was found on the following Brook indices: (1) Number of points gained on questionable responses; (2) type of questionable response given; (3) sexual responses; (4) pattern of interests. In all six groups richness of interests proved to be associated with high intelligence.
Attitude change during behavioural treatment of sexual inadequacy
Authors: Whitehead Antonia , Mathews Andrew
Published: July 2011

Attitudes towards “self” and “partner” were studied in couples undergoing three different behavioural treatments for sexual inadequacy: systematic desensitization with counselling; guided practice with counselling; and practice with minimal counselling. Factor analysis of semantic differential scales identified five components ‐ general evaluation, anxiety, and three factors relevant to sexual evaluation designated as “loving”, “sexually attractive” and “easy to arouse”. Differences in derived factor scores were found which related to sex of rater, identity of complainant, and treatment received; with the treatment combining guided practice with counselling being followed by significantly greater attitude changes.
Visual interaction and speech patterning in remitted and acute schizophrenic patients
Authors: Rutter D. R.
Published: July 2011

Previous research has suggested that schizophrenic patients sometimes show abnormal patterns of visual interaction and speech. Several important questions remain, however, and the present study was designed for two purposes: to examine the behaviour of remitted patients; and to follow up a suggestion that acute patients show abnormalities only in personal encounters. Three groups of subjects, remitted schizophrenic patients, acute schizophrenic patients, and a control group of psychiatrically normal chest patients, took part, and each subject held two conversations with a nurse, one about a ‘personal’ topic and one about a ‘neutral’ topic. Unexpectedly, the remitted and acute groups were both found to behave normally, in both conversations. Taken together with previous evidence, the findings thus confirmed that acute schizophrenic patients respond situation‐specifically and sometimes behave normally, but no further interpretation of the data was possible since the manipulation of topic did not have the expected effects.
Encoding in senile dementia and elderly depressives: A preliminary study
Authors: Larner Stuart
Published: July 2011

Forty‐seven subjects (19 elderly dements, 18 elderly depressives, 10 elderly physically ill) were given a continuous false recognition technique (FRT) in a test battery including a measure of short‐term memory and the Kendrick Synonym Learning Test. Results were analysed according to signal detection theory and interpreted in terms of an encoding breakdown. Depressives were found to be characterized by conservative error‐free performance whereas the demented made more errors, partly because of their more liberal criterion and partly because of their greater loss of encoding characteristics.

From these results, an optimal cut‐off score was chosen for differential dignosis using the FRT. This was shown to hold more promise than the SLT in discriminating between dementia and depression.
Affiliative behaviours among soldiers during war‐time
Authors: Teichman Meir
Published: July 2011

This study analyses the development of social interaction in a non‐combat military unit, which was stationed in a war‐zone during the October 1973 Middle East war. Like previous studies it points out that interpersonal relationships in military units stationed in war‐zones are characterized by informal and intimate relations. However, this study brings into focus the stages preceding the formation of intimacy. Following Schachter's emotional comparison theory and Foa's theory of interpersonal resources it was hypothesized that (a) first patterns of affiliative behaviour to occur among soldiers would be the exchange of information, which would help them to clarify the threatening situation; and (b) as time elapses exchanges of particularistic resources would take place. As predicted, the first exchange pattern to occur was of non‐particularistic resources ‐ information. Exchanges of particularistic resources (friendship, affection, support) emerged only at a later stage. An approach which proposes a sequence of motivations underlying affiliation is presented and discussed.
Speech patterning in recently admitted and chronic long‐stay schizophrenic patients
Authors: Rutter D. R.
Published: July 2011

Several writers have suggested that schizophrenic patients show unusual formal, or non‐content, patterns of speech. For reasons of methodology, none of their findings is easy to interpret, and important questions remain unanswered. In particular, we do not know how schizophrenic patients behave in free conversation, how their behaviour with another patient may differ from their behaviour with a psychiatrically normal partner, whether they show consistency across encounters, nor whether patients recently admitted to hospital differ from chronic long‐stay patients. The first study was designed to examine the first three questions, by observing recently admitted schizophrenic patients in two free dyadic conversations, one with a schizophrenic partner and one with a psychiatrically normal partner, and comparing them with three control groups: depressive patients; patients suffering from neurotic or personality disorders; and psychiatrically normal chest patients. Consistently across their two encounters, schizophrenic subjects were found to behave similarly for the most part to all three control groups. The second study went on to examine the fourth question, by comparing recently admitted and chronic long‐stay schizophrenic patients, and revealed no differences between the two groups. The investigation is discussed in the light of previous research, and it is suggested that a critical variable may be the setting and nature of the encounter in which the schizophrenic patient takes part.
The Credit‐Incentive System: Motivating the participation of patients in a day hospital
Authors: Liberman Robert Paul , Fearn Clarence Haven , DeRisi William , Roberts Johnie , Carmona Monica
Published: July 2011

The Credit‐Incentive System, a modified token economy, is a means of motivating the participation of day hospital patients in therapeutic activities through the use of contingent rewards. Credits are earned by patients for engaging in a wide variety of prosocial tasks and activities and can be spent for coffee, a free lunch, special time with professional staff, recreational events, and time off from the treatment centre. The receipt of credits is accompanied by social approval and recognition from the staff and other patients. Evaluations have shown that the credit system doubles the participation rate of patients in a partial hospitalization programme. The system also enhances group cohesiveness, provides practice and feedback for cognitive re‐integration, and offers opportunities for learning self‐management. The results of two experiments suggest that the symbolic and social rewards mediated by the credits are the most important components of their effectiveness.
Resistance to temptation as a function of the duration of self‐verbalization
Authors: Fry P. S.
Published: July 2011

The study compared the effects of three self‐verbalization procedures on children's responses in a resistance to temptation test. Seventy‐eight children were assigned to self‐verbalization treatments involving overt speech, covert speech and a combination of both. Subsequently they were encouraged to engage in self‐verbalization procedures as modelled by the experimenter. Subjects were categorized as being high or low self‐verbalizers based upon the duration of their self‐verbalization. They were then placed in a resistance to temptation test involving play with a forbidden toy and measures of latency were recorded. As hypothesized, high self‐verbalizers showed higher latency scores than did low self‐verbalizers. The efficacy of using a combination of overt and covert speech in self‐verbalizations was demonstrated. The findings clearly implicate the self‐regulatory and therapeutic role of (a) self‐verbalization; and (b) duration of self‐verbalization. Applications for child development are discussed.
Behavioural correlates of social anxiety
Authors: Daly Sandra
Published: July 2011

High school students' scores on a paper‐and‐pencil test of social anxiety were correlated with talking, eye contact and gesturing behaviours during a 10‐min videotaped interview. Results showed that high anxious subjects talked less while listening to instructions. They also held the gaze for less total time and in bouts of shorter duration while they were talking; while they were listening, they were significantly more variable in their average bout duration. Within‐group variability suggested that non‐verbal behaviour should be analysed according to individual rather than group differences.
Eye‐contact in dyads: A test of the Independence Hypothesis
Authors: Lazzerini A. J. , Stephenson G. M. , Neave H.
Published: July 2011

Rutter et al. (1977) reported that for a wide range of ‘looking’ data, collected independently, the amount of eye‐contact observed could be accounted for by using a ‘chance’ formula, which assumed independence of Looking on the part of each subject in a dyad. This Independence Hypothesis was tested more rigorously by running a computer simulation, generating ‘eye‐contact’ by chance alone. It was impossible to distinguish between this and eye‐contact observed in one of the experiments by Lazzerini & Stephenson (1975) employed by Rutter et al. (1977). Hence, there is no reason to doubt that the subjects' Looks are in fact independent.
Accuracy in self‐perception: The ‘fallacy of personal validation’
Authors: Hampson Sarah E. , Gilmour Robin , Harris Paul L.
Published: July 2011

Previous studies have found that subjects rate randomly selected astrological statements as highly accurate descriptions of themselves and this has been held to show a ‘fallacy of personal validation’. Three experiments are reported which investigate possible explanations. Subjects do not appear to accept such statements because of demand characteristics or social desirability effects. Evidence is presented to support an alternative hypothesis: subjects can distinguish true from false personality descriptions and perceive astrological statements as accurate descriptions of most people including themselves.
Personality similarity and the development of friendship: A longitudinal study
Authors: Duck Steven W. , Craig Gordon
Published: July 2011

Currently equivocal findings on personality similarity and attraction can be clarified if ‘personality’ and ‘acquaintance’ are recognized as essentially generic concepts rather than single entities. A ‘filtering’ process is proposed to account for longitudinal acquaintance development where ‘personality’ has several different and successive places and where different measures of personality are sequentially appropriate tests of the personality‐friendship relationship. A study is reported where 40 previously unacquainted subjects completed three different personality tests and then reported sociometric choices at different points of developing acquaintance (1 month; 3 months; 8 months). Whilst similarity on the CPI mediated sociometric choices at none of these points, similarity on Allport‐Vernon Study of Values predicted choices only at Time 2 (P < 0.01), and the Reptest only at Time 3 (P < 0.01). Results are discussed in terms of systematic test of models of partner's personality in acquaintance and it is suggested that a search not for the correct measure of personality but for the relative place of each measure in developing acquaintance will lead towards the resolution of several existing ambiguities in the attraction literature.
Memory and intelligence following spontaneously arrested congenital hydrocephalus
Authors: Richardson John T. E.
Published: July 2011

This study describes two cases of spontaneously arrested congenital hydrocephalus whose educational progress appears normal. They were found on examination to have a reduced performance IQ, but a normal verbal IQ. They showed a significant impairment in immediate free recall, which was specific to the secondary memory component. It is concluded that congenital hydrocephalus may produce an organic disorder which manifests itself in later life as an impairment of verbal memory.
The effects of post‐transgression remorse on perceived aggression, attributions of intent, and level of punishment
Authors: Schwartz Gary S. , Kane Thomas R. , Joseph Joanne M. , Tedeschi James T.
Published: July 2011

The actions of two boys were described as they used a rope to trip a little girl. In a 2 × 2 design the post‐transgression verbal responses of one of the boys (expression of remorse or pleasure) and the severity of harm done to the girl (slight or severe) were manipulated. The perceptions, attributions of responsibility, and degree of punishment assigned to the transgressors were affected by both factors. Expressions of remorse softened the perceived aggressiveness of the verbal boy, reduced the degree of intent attributed to him, lowered the probability associated with the predicted likelihood of repeating the action, and lightened the punishment assigned to him. A contrast effect occurred on perceived aggression with the silent boy perceived as more aggressive in the remorse condition and less aggressive in the condition in which the verbal boy expressed pleasure in hurting the little girl. These results support the view that perceived aggression implies antinormative conduct and is associated with blame and retribution. Post‐transgression responses such as expressed remorse or guilt may be learned as suggested by Aronfreed (1968) as a way of mitigating punishment for doing harm to others. The fact that remorse seems to work in lessening the negative reactions of others suggests that such behaviour is usually rewarded.
A possible ideal underlying interpersonal descriptions
Authors: Benjafield John , Pomeroy Edward
Published: July 2011

Benjafield & Adams‐Webber (1976) suggested that people organize their interpersonal judgements so that the number of positive judgements (P) and the number of negative judgements (N) are in the golden section ratio (i.e. P/(P+N) & 0·62). The present study tested this hypothesis in a highly rigourous way by requiring subjects to generate the full range of P/(P+N) ratios from 0·00 to 1·00 in an interpersonal judgement task. The results were that mean P/(P+N) ratios were within 0·01 of the golden section for both male and female subjects, and male and female targets.
Leisure skill programming for severely and profoundly handicapped persons: State of the art
Authors: Wehman Paul
Published: July 2011

The purpose of this paper was to (1) review the current research available in leisure skill programming for severely and profoundly handicapped persons; (2) summarize the gaps in knowledge and point to new programming directions in recreation skill development; and (3) outline leisure skill competencies which teacher trainees must develop. In reviewing the leisure skill studies which have been conducted over the past seven years, a descriptive analysis of subject characteristics, teaching procedures, response measures, and generalization/maintenance strategies in each study was provided. The principle areas which were then identified for future programming included recreational skill sequences, self‐initiated free play and toy preference evaluation. A statement of 15 recreation programming competencies was devised as a set of guidelines for preparing teacher trainees in leisure skill programming.
Spurious and actual improvement in the treatment of preoccupying thoughts by thought‐stopping
Authors: Leger Lawrence A.
Published: July 2011

Two clients troubled by preoccupying thoughts were treated by a version of thought‐stopping described by Wolpe (1969) which has been infrequently reported so far. The frequency of spontaneous intrusive thoughts as they occurred within sessions was found to be a useful measure of clinical outcome, but it is suggested that careful control and definition of variations in procedure is necessary in order to eliminate spurious results. Treatment was found to produce an improvement which was maintained at follow‐up.
The analysis of interactions in experiments on the specificity of schizophrenic thought disorder: A reply to Phillips
Authors: Heather B. B. , McPherson F. M. , Sprent P.
Published: July 2011

Phillips (1977) has criticized the investigation of statistical interactions in a series of related papers concerned with the specificity hypothesis of schizophrenic thought disorder. In a discussion of these criticisms, some are accepted and some rejected. However, when the relevant data are reanalysed by a correct method for the investigation of nominated interactions, the specificity hypothesis is broadly supported. A new finding to emerge from the reanalysis is that, in two experiments where level of ‘difficulty’ of constructs was controlled, the specificity effect appears much reduced or non‐existent when intensity scores are employed while remaining intact for consistency scores.
Floor apportionment and gaze in conversational dyads
Authors: Beattie Geoffrey W.
Published: July 2011

This study sought to determine whether gaze performs a floor‐apportionment function in conversation by analysing the relationship between the presence or absence of gaze at the ends of speaker turns and the duration of the succeeding switching pauses. The presence of gaze did not lead to a significant increase in the incidence of short switching pauses (≤0.5 sec), moreover significantly more immediate speaker‐switches were found when gaze did not occur. There were also significantly more immediate and short latency responses to questions terminating without gaze than with gaze. Questions terminating with gaze were judged to be more difficult than questions without gaze. No evidence for a floor‐apportionment function of gaze was obtained.
Reactions to flattery as a function of self‐esteem: Self‐enhancement and cognitive consistency theories
Authors: Colman Andrew M. , Olver Kevin R.
Published: July 2011

Male subjects who had previously scored either very high or very low on a self‐esteem scale were interviewed about personal characteristics, biographical details, social activities, etc. They then received, via closed‐circuit television, flattering or neutral character assessments which were apparently based on their performance in the interviews. A highly significant interaction (p<0.001) showed that whereas the subjects of high self‐esteem responded with far greater liking for the evaluator in the flattery than in the neutral condition, those of low self‐esteem somewhat preferred the neutral evaluator. These findings provide clear‐cut support for the cognitive consistency theory regarding reactions to flattery, but do not rule out a concomitant though weaker self‐enhancement effect.
Sex differences in ‘fear of success’ among British students
Authors: Weinreich‐Haste Helen
Published: July 2011

Using a measure derived from Horner's studies of ‘fear of success ’, the attitudes of three groups of British undergraduates towards success and failure were investigated. The results indicate ambivalence towards success and failure among both sexes, but neither the numerical analysis nor the kinds of responses indicated much of the overt sex‐stereotype‐based ‘fear of success’ found in the earlier American studies. Both sexes indicated some disillusionment with the ‘success ethic’. Males showed somewhat greater anxiety about failure.
Small group ecology revisited: Personal space and role differentiation
Authors: Roger D. B. , Reid R. L.
Published: July 2011

The effects of role differentiation on personal space were investigated in four‐man groups. The subjects were 128 Royal Marine recruits (mean age 18.67 years; S.D. 1.59), and personal space scores were obtained by measuring distances between chairs after a problem‐solving session. Ordinary members sat closer to leaders than to non‐leaders, a finding that was reflected in both areal and linear analyses. Distribution of non‐leader seating position vis‐à‐vis the leader was not different from chance. Distance scores in the groups were positively correlated with simulated interaction distance scores, obtained by means of doll placements.
Levels of arousal in the premenstrual phase
Authors: Asso Doreen
Published: July 2011

The inconsistent findings of studies of physical and psychological changes throughout the menstrual cycle are reviewed in terms of three different forms of arousal ‐ behavioural, autonomic, cortical. The review indicates that the premenstrual phase is characterized by increased levels of behavioural and of autonomic arousal. The nature of premenstrual changes in cortical arousal is unclear. It is suggested that differentiation and measurement of the various aspects of arousal throughout the cycle may lead to better understanding of the processes underlying the reported changes and of the practical implications of such information.
A study of work behaviour in a psychiatric rehabilitation unit
Authors: Watts Fraser N.
Published: July 2011

A rating scale developed by Griffiths (1973) was used to assess four separate areas of the work behaviour of patients in a psychiatric rehabilitation unit. Assessments were made at an early and a late stage of rehabilitation.

The ability of ratings on this scale to predict resettlement at work was confirmed in a prospective study. The scale was also used to provide information about four separate areas of work behaviour. Social relationships provided the strongest predictor of resettlement in employment, response to supervision and enthusiasm predicted only in psychotic patients; task competence failed to predict. Changes in work behaviour during rehabilitation, and the relationships between self‐reported attitudes and work behaviour were also examined.
The social ecology of intelligence in the British Isles
Authors: Lynn Richard
Published: July 2011

Data are presented to show that there are differences in mean population IQ in different regions of the British Isles. Mean population IQ is highest in London and South‐East England and tends to drop with distance from this region. Mean population IQs are highly correlated with measures of intellectual achievement, per capita income, unemployment, infant mortality and urbanization. The regional differences in mean population IQ appear to be due to historical differences which are measured back to 1751 and to selective migration from the provinces into the London area.
Organizational factors and participation in committees
Authors: Chell E.
Published: July 2011

Previous studies of group dynamics have shown that in laboratory situations individuals can be labelled as high, low or medium participators. Moreover, it appeared that high participators tended to dominate the group, have more influence and contribute more in terms of attempted solutions (Bales, 1953; Barber, 1966; Chell, 1976). Was this an artifact of the laboratory situations or can these particular dynamics be applied to field groups?

Data were collected from joint consultative committees in five organizations. Groups were divided into high, medium and low participators and it was predicted that if high participators were dominating then they would make more lengthy speeches and would thus have a higher average speech length than medium or low participators. Total number of utterances of each participant of each meeting was correlated with his average speech length. The hypothesis received substantial support. It seems that the division of groups into high, medium and low participators is meaningful.
Psychopathy and personality: The dimensionality of self‐report and behaviour rating data in abnormal offenders
Authors: Blackburn Ronald
Published: July 2011

Factor analyses of personality test data in two samples of offenders admitted to psychiatric security hospitals yielded two higher order factors identified as psychopathy or antisocial aggression versus conformity, and social withdrawal versus sociability. One sample was also rated for ward behaviour by nursing staff, and similar factors emerged from the behaviour rating data. The self‐report dimension of psychopathy correlated significantly with the corresponding rating dimension at the time of admission and, for medicated subjects only, with ratings obtained 2 years later. Cross‐media convergence of the withdrawal dimension was not found at the time of admission, but for unmedicated subjects, initial self‐reports correlated significantly with the equivalent rating dimension as assessed 2 years later. The two dimensions therefore appear to measure meaningful behavioural dispositions. While they define the same dimensional space as neuroticism and introversion‐extraversion, they appear to provide a more appropriate framework for classification within this population of offenders.
The effects of social reinforcement on dominant and dependent mildly intellectually handicapped school‐leavers
Authors: Burton A. , McGregor H. , Berry P.
Published: July 2011

The aim of this study was to replicate Exline & Messick's (1967) study of eye‐contact interview behaviour with college students on a group of mildly intellectually handicapped students. Twenty subjects (mean CA 14·02 years, SD 0·45 years, mean IQ 72·0, SD 7·6) attending a metropolitan school for the mildly mentally handicapped were classified as dominant or dependent by teacher ratings and sociogram analysis. They were given large or small amounts of reinforcement for eye‐contact when interviewed by their teacher. Although the study failed to replicate some of Exline & Messick's findings, results indicated a feedback rather than reward model in explaining the effects of social reinforcement on eye‐contact in interviews. Implications for communication training for such intellectually handicapped students is discussed.
Autonomic activity in subjects reporting changes in affect in the menstrual cycle
Authors: Slade Pauline , Jenner F. A.
Published: July 2011

The paper reports a failure to find differences in autonomic activity in different phases of the menstrual cycle in subjects studied despite their reports of changes in affect.
Towards a more social social psychology?
Authors: Taylor Donald M. , Brown Rupert J.
Published: July 2011

Social psychology has been criticized by several American and European writers for being too individualistic in its treatment of social behaviour. The various positions appear to focus on two major issues. First, that at the empirical level, the individual rather than the group has been the focus of research. Second, that individually oriented theories must give way to a new level of theorizing emphasizing group processes. Our own position is that the first type of criticism is entirely justified but that the second is somewhat misleading. The position is illustrated by reference to recent group‐oriented theories of Tajfel and Moscovici.
Social psychology: Social or psychological?
Authors: Semin G. R. , Manstead A. S. R.
Published: July 2011

It is argued that the difficulties inherent in present‐day social psychology stem largely from the fact that insufficient consideration has been given to the psychological properties of social behaviour. An analytic distinction between nomic, idiosyncratic and reconstructive aspects of social behaviour is introduced and used to show that what is typically revealed in experiments is not the operation of psychological processes, i.e. the different ways in which individuals discover, apply and otherwise use the rules regulating everyday social life in pursuing their own purposes. Rather, it is argued that such investigations reveal merely the shared rules regulating behaviour in the situation under investigation, due to the fact that the experimental situation tends to enforce the operation of nomic models, thereby eliciting behaviour which does no more than reflect the sources of regulative influence working in experimental episodes. It is further argued that this emphasis on nomic social behaviour, together with a failure to distinguish between the social and psychological levels of analysis in social behaviour, leads to inferential dilemmas. A method (the thought experiment) is offered as a means of detecting the operation of nomic models. It is contended that once the nomic aspects of social behaviour are identified, it will be possible to study the psychological processes employed in utilizing rules. While the study of nomic aspects of social behaviour is seen as necessary, it is argued that different methodologies need also to be adopted in order to establish a psychologically informative social psychology.
Assessment interviewing in clinical psychology
Authors: Shapiro M. B.
Published: July 2011

The relative specificity of the structure of psychological traits has presented the clinical psychologist with a very difficult problem; it means that generalized test procedures are of limited use. This paper suggests: (1) that the interview presents one way of beginning to solve this problem, and (2) that the findings of psychological research may provide the means of arriving at a distinctive style of valid interviewing for assessment purposes. This style has two main features: (1) it facilitates self‐exploration and self‐disclosure and (2) it maximizes the accuracy of the information obtained. An outline of some of the research findings is presented; some of the methodological problems are discussed; and a brief example is given.
The temporal relationship between hostility and depressed mood
Authors: Blackburn Ivy M. , Lyketsos G. , Tsiantis John
Published: July 2011

Nineteen depressed in‐patients were studied in a follow‐up design for 8 weeks or until discharge, using three depression scales and a hostility questionnaire. It was hypothesized within a cognitive theory of depression that, self‐rated hostility being a measure of negative thoughts and attitudes, changes in hostility would precede mood changes. Analysis was by contemporaneous and cross‐correlations between mood and hostility measures. High intercorrelations were obtained among the mood ratings which decreased significantly over time, as did two of the four hostility measures.

The hypothesis was confirmed by the cross‐correlations between nurses' mood ratings and intropunitiveness and direction of hostility. The cross‐correlations with Beck and Hamilton scales supported the hypothesis at a non‐significant level.
Expressed emotion: A review
Authors: Kuipers Liz
Published: July 2011

Expressed emotion refers to emotional aspects of speech for which ratings have been derived. In the relatives of discharged schizophrenic patients, these ratings are predictive of outcome suggesting the importance of social and family factors on the prognosis of schizophrenics living with their families. The development, measurement and current use of the concept are discussed.
The structure of delinquent values: A repertory grid investigation
Authors: Heather Nick
Published: July 2011

Two experiments are reported, employing repertory grid technique and designed to test predictions derived from Matza & Sykes' (1961) account of the relationship between delinquent and conventional values. These predictions were confirmed. In addition, following the demonstration of equivalence in the structure and content of value systems in delinquents and non‐delinquents, certain differences between the groups were observed, which were eventually attributed to delinquency rather than socio‐economic status. On the basis of the results, a two‐component structural hypothesis of delinquent values is advanced. Implications for theories of delinquency are discussed and directions for further research suggested.
Two non‐reactive field experiments on stealing from a ‘lost’ letter
Authors: Farrington David P. , Knight Barry J.
Published: July 2011

Two non‐reactive field experiments were conducted to study factors influencing stealing. The subjects were people in the streets of London who picked up a stamped, addressed, unsealed, apparently lost letter, containing a handwritten note and in most cases also a sum of money. Experiment 1 employed a 2×2×2 between‐subjects factorial design, varying the amount of money (20p or £1), the form of the money (cash or postal order) and the apparent victim (an old lady or a higher class male). Ten letters were dropped in each of the eight conditions, and a further 10 in each of two control (no money) conditions. Stealing was greatest with cash and the higher class male victim, but did not vary significantly with amount of money. In Expt 2, larger amounts of money were used, and the apparent victim in each case was the old lady. Twenty letters were dropped in each of three conditions, control (no money), £1 and £5 in cash, and stealing did vary significantly with amount of money. In both experiments, younger people were more likely to steal, as were those who put the letter in pockets or handbags after picking it up.
Some conceptual difficulties with the term ‘schizophrenia’ An alternative model
Authors: Slade P. D. , Cooper R.
Published: July 2011

The term ‘schizophrenic’ is used in two distinct ways: namely to describe a particular type of illness and also as a label for the person suffering from this illness. If we concentrate on the ‘illness’ conception of schizophrenia it readily becomes apparent that its definition and nature varies somewhat from one proponent to another. Added to this is the problem that the major conceptions of schizophrenia are based on disjunctive concepts.

The basic argument of this paper is that while all clinical conceptions of schizophrenia have assumed the existence of a disease‐entity syndrome, no attempt has ever been made to test its logical alternative: namely a random‐symptom model. Some data will be presented which are at least compatible with this alternative and some of the theoretical implications spelt out.
Activity, depression, medication and performance on the Revised Kendrick Battery
Authors: Kendrick Don C. , Moyes Isabel C. A.
Published: July 2011

A theory for the cognitive assessment of the elderly has been previously reported (Kendrick, 1972), in which it was predicted that normal and depressed subjects would not differ on cognitive tests unless ‘pseudodementia’ was indicated. Recent studies involving the Revised Kendrick Battery have led to a modification of the theory. The theory now has to take into account the effects of activity and medication, the former enhancing performance, the latter decreasing it. The previous studies (Kendrick & Post, 1967; Kendrick, 1972), have been re‐examined and explanations given for the differences found between studies.
Perceptions of and reactions to stressful situations: The utility of a general anxiety trait
Authors: Lazzerini A. J. , Cox T. , Mackay C. J.
Published: July 2011

In a number of studies Magnusson & Ekehammer (1975 a) have hypothesized three or four situationally specific anxiety factors. This paper replicates their work but reveals the presence of a general anxiety trait (independent of situational influences) which accounts for five times as much variance as situational factors. The influence of the situation on anxiety is considerably less than Magnusson & Ekehammer have supposed, and is minimal compared with the utility of a general anxiety trait.
The Criss‐cross Categorization Effect in intergroup discrimination
Authors: Brown Rupert J. , Turner John C.
Published: July 2011

The effect of criss‐crossing two dichotomous social categorizations on intergroup discrimination is studied. One hundred and thirty‐nine 12–13 year old schoolchildren were randomly assigned to five categorization conditions: one simple, division into one ingroup and outgroup; and four crossed, half the ingroup members by one division are outgroup members by a second division and vice versa. Simple subjects rated ingroup and outgroup members; crossed subjects rated members of both ingroups and either simultaneous members of one ingroup and outgroup, or one outgroup and ingroup, or both outgroups, or everybody. Ingroup members were rated more favourably than outgroup members (P < 0.025), this effect varying with experimental condition (P < 0.025). In group bias was found with crossed but not simple categorization and was greatest when members of both ingroups were compared to members of both outgroups. Bias was non‐significant when crossed subjects rated everybody. The significance of the data for earlier work and the explanation of social categorization effects in intergroup behaviour is discussed.
The buddy system: A method for generalized reduction of inappropriate interpersonal behaviour of retarded‐psychiatric patients
Authors: Matson Johnny L. , Zeiss Robert A.
Published: July 2011

Previous research has suggested a strategy for training social skills in chronic retarded‐psychotic patients, but has not demonstrated extensive generalization or maintenance of gains. This study varied the standard training procedure (e.g. Bellack et al., 1976) in an attempt to improve generalization and maintenance. First, training involved instructions, modelling, role‐playing, and feedback with daily problem situations rather than preselected, pre‐written scenes. Second, each of the two patients treated served as a partner for the other; each patient monitored the other's behaviour and provided reinforcement, information and feedback to the ‘buddy’ (directly in the living environment). The procedure was effective in teaching appropriate social behaviours on the ward as well as in therapy sessions. Post‐checks, taken 6 weeks after the conclusion of the treatment, indicated that improvements were maintained.
Speech rate as a measure of short‐term variation in depression
Authors: Teasdale John D. , Fogarty Sarah J. , Williams J. Mark G.
Published: July 2011

Experimental investigation of the state of depression is at present hindered by the lack of simple, objective, repeatable measures of components of the state. Covariation between self‐report measures of affect and a simple measure of speech rate was investigated in a series of studies of both clinical and normal subjects, using single‐case and group designs. Slowing of speech was significantly and substantially correlated with self‐reports of increased unpleasant affect in certain situations. This suggests that the speech measure may usefully reflect a behavioural component of a state of retarded‐type depression.
Development of a picture‐preference measure of thought disorder
Authors: Rudzinski Donald , Auld Frank
Published: July 2011

In order to create a test of thought disorder which would measure the whole range of thinking disturbances and which would be free of influence by factors irrelevant to thought disorder, the authors devised a 31‐item picture‐preference scale. For each item the subject is asked to choose between a picture representing absurd, illogical or regressive thinking, and a picture representing better controlled and more adaptive thinking. Each of the items, shown by slide‐projector, is exposed for 10 s. The sample included 70 consecutively admitted psychiatric in‐patients and 151 adults who were not patients. The mean score of the patients is significantly higher than the mean of the non‐patients. We also found a significant correlation (r = 0·38) between the thought‐disorder scale and a summation of the ratings on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale that are relevant to thought disorder. Those patients whom the interviewer rated as showing thought disorder have significantly higher scores than the other patients (t = 3.49, d.f. = 68, P <0.001). Finally, we found a significant correlation, r = 0.26, between the scores on the Picture‐Preference Test of Thought Disorder and scores on the psychotic tendencies scale of the Differential Personality Inventory, among the psychiatric patients.
A simple, bias‐free method for scoring attitude scale responses
Authors: Monk Andrew F. , Eiser J. Richard
Published: July 2011

When an individual rates his agreement with a series of statements, which have been divided, on the basis of any conventional scaling method, into two groups expressing more and less favourable viewpoints on an issue, one can estimate the likelihood that he would prefer any of the more favourable to any of the less favourable statements. It is argued that the resulting preference measure P(A) has advantages over conventional scoring procedures in that is provides a measure of attitude which is unconfounded by response bias.
Consistency and self‐enhancement: Coexistent or mutually exclusive?
Authors: Aitkenhead Marilyn
Published: July 2011

It is suggested that neither the need for self‐consistency nor the need for self‐enhancement operates alone within an individual and that both may mediate a subject's reaction to an evaluation. In order to test this hypothesis, low, medium and high self‐esteem subjects were given either positive, neutral or negative feedback. Evidence for both needs was found, the dominant one varying according to which aspect of the subject's reaction to the feedback was being assessed. This supports the coexistence hypothesis, with low self‐esteem subjects attempting to partially satisfy both needs rather than to sacrifice entirely satisfaction of either one.
A normative appraisal of erotic fantasies in women
Authors: Talbot R. M. R. , Beech H. R. , Vaughan M.
Published: July 2011

Sixty‐seven women completed a questionnaire investigating sexual behaviour. The results were found to be comparable to those reported in American samples. Over 60 per cent reported erotic fantasies, most commonly involving reliving a previous experience or of being overpowered or raped. The fantasies were most likely to occur during masturbation and the initial stages of intercourse and were used to create or increase sexual excitement.