bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cultural Similarities and Variations in Guided Participation
Authors: Rogoff Barbara
Published: November 2023

Most research on the zone of proximal development, scaffolding, and adult child interaction has involved middle-class parents and children in North America and Europe. How, then, do the interactional processes observed in research with such samples relate to the broader spectrum of child-rearing practices around the world? How do observations made in nonindustrial societies or in other cultural communities in Europe or America compare and extend the theory? My use of the term culture indicates the organized and common practices of particular communities in which children live ( which may differ from those of children’s nations).
Explanations of Cognitive Development Through Social Interaction: Vygotsky and Piaget
Authors: Rogoff Barbara
Published: November 2023

Part III discusses speculations and research on the role of social interaction in the cognitive development of individual children. What do children gain from social interaction, and under what circumstances? What aspects of social interaction contribute to children’s advances? What is the significance of variations in social interaction, such as whether partners are adults or peers, the extent of their expertise, their authority or equality relative to the children, and the extent to which partners share in decision making? Are there differences in the role of social interaction depending on the age of the child? These questions were addressed by Vygotsky and by Piaget, and they came to rather different conclusions.
Evidence of Learning from Guided Participation with Adults
Authors: Rogoff Barbara
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines research on the consequences of children’s interactions with adults for their cognitive development. In the routine and recurrent interactions between adults and children are many thousands of opportunities for guided participation in solving everyday problems. We tend to overlook the numerous, implicit everyday opportunities for children to gain understanding and skills of the world around them.
Social Psychology as Social Instincts
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

While publications before 1908 dealt with social-psychological topics, the origin of American social psychology is commonly associated with the publication of two introductory textbooks in 1908-Edward Ross’s Social Psychology: An Outline and a Source Book, and William McDougall’s Introduction to Social Psychology. These books are radically different in their scope and subject matter, and each represents a very different approach to the discipline. Ross’s book reflects the sociological perspective and stresses the influence of imitation and invention.
Social Psychology as Social Interaction
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

Although British and French social theories were major influences in the development of social psychology in America, these perspectives were considerably modified to fit the new milieu when they crossed the Atlantic. However, there were also currents of thought that were inherently rooted in the American experience. Unlike Europe, where the individual’s place in the social order was more a product of birth than opportunity, people in America were assumed to be active agents with unlimited physical and social potential striving to establish their identity and master their environment.
Group Processes
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

In 1924, Floyd All port distinguished psychological social psychology from the socio logical approach by stating that The study of groups is, in fact, the province of the special science of sociology. While the social psychologist studies the individual in the group, the sociologist deals with the group as a whole. He dis cusses its formation, solidarity, continuity, and change. (p. 10) If this distinction had been accepted, it might have served as a useful division of labor, but social trends during the 1930s brought the study of small groups into the forefront and eventually into the domain of psychology. For a short period after World War II, the study of groups was the major area of social psychology, surpassing the study of attitudes as the most researched topic.
Cognitive Social Psychology
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, American psychology underwent what has subsequently become known as the “cognitive revolution” (e.g., Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956; Miller, Galanter, & Pri bram, 1960; Neisser, 1967). Although many major psychologists, such as Gordon All port, Edward C. Tolman, and Kurt Lewin, maintained a cognitive perspective even during the heyday of behaviorism, cognitive psychology came to be seen as the most useful and most legitimate approach to psychology in general. While interpretations vary about the specific nature of this revolution, there is a consensus that psychology shifted away from a preoccupation with overt behavior toward a perspective that at tempts to explain behavior in terms of mental processes, such as attention, memory, masoning, and information processing (see Baars, 1986; Gergen, 1989a; Kessel & Bevan, 1985).
Postmodernism
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

The development of an alternative social psychology occurred within the context of the radical politics and liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s (see Hen riques, Hollway, Unwin, Venn, & Walker dine, 1984). It began with a call for a social psychology that was relevant to people’s lives and was applicable to the pressing social problems confronting contemporary culture. It also included a critique of established theory and practice and the political message that traditional social psychology, by its uncritical acceptance of existing social relations, tends to promote and maintain the status quo.
Experimental Tests of the Evolutionary Theory of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R
Published: November 2023

There are two ways to test a scientific theory: test its assumptions or test its predictions, corollaries, and consequences. The latter is preferable, since it effectively tests not only the assumptions of a theory, but also the cogency of the deductive reasoning used to derive the theory’s corollaries once its assumptions were adopted. This chapter begins with experimental tests of those assumptions of the evolutionary theory of aging that can be regarded as specific to the theory and empirically contingent. Some of the empirically contingent assumptions of the theory are general to a vast range of biological research and will not receive any attention here.
Comparative Biology of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R
Published: November 2023

The comparative method is the classical basis for testing evolutionary hypotheses concerning natural selection. One need look no farther than Darwin’s (1859) Origin of Species for ample illustration of this point. And the comparative method continues to be used by evolutionary biologists in the present day, although now with a profound increase in sophistication (e.g., Clutton-Brock and Harvey, 1979; Huey, 1987). Nonetheless, comparative biological reasoning has come under considerable attack (e.g., Gould and Lewontin, 1979), especially its frequent, blithe assumption of adaptive excellence, if not perfection. On the other hand, it would be inconceivable for biologists, particularly evolutionary biologists, to treat all patterns of interspecific differentiation as if natural selection need not have played any material role.
An Evolutionary Perspective on Organismal Theories of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R
Published: November 2023

The physiological mechanisms of aging have been the primary focus of gerontological research. Up until the late 1970s, the study of these mechanisms usually proceeded as if knowledge of such mechanisms were all that was required to understand aging fully (vide Comfort, 1979). In this respect, gerontology was typical of much reductionist physiological research. But unlike other physiological research, the field of gerontology could not use the concept of “function,” which provides the implicit underpinning of most physiological investigations. On the other hand, the concept of “pathology,” which might at first seem an appropriate replacement for function, could hardly be stretched to cover the dramatic association between reproduction and aging in semelparous salmon and monocarpic plants, as indeed the discomfort of gerontologists with such cases illustrates (e.g., Kirkwood and Cremer, 1982).
An Evolutionary Perspective on Cellular and Molecular Theories of Aging
Authors: Rose Michael R
Published: November 2023

In this chapter cellular and molecular theories of aging will be evaluated in terms of evolutionary research on aging. Again, this will not constitute a review of such theories simply on their own merits, as their proponents would have them judged. Rather, the intent is to evaluate theoretical proposals and salient experimental results within the framework developed in Chapters 1-5. Most important, this framework is incompatible with the idea that there can be any such thing as an absolute physiological cause of aging. An additional point that should be made is that a huge amount of empirical material in cellular and molecular gerontology has little theoretical significance, at least at present.
The Prepresidential Eisenhower
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H
Published: November 2023

The convictions and preferences Eisenhower brought to the White House derived from his reflections during a long and varied prepresidential career. With much broader experience in military and foreign affairs than any twentiethcentury U.S. president, he developed strong opinions about the meaning of national security and how best to achieve it, the hierarchy of American interests and the threats to them, the requisites of national and international leadership, the nature of war, and even the future of civilization. As a consequence, he shared many of the fundamental premises of the Truman administration, in which he was actively involved. But, as foreshadowed in the previous chapter, he disagreed sharply with others, and was personally frustrated by the short-comings in consistency and implementation. Eisenhower’s preexisting beliefs and core values provided a framework for but did not determine the New Look strategy. He instituted, managed, and responded to a policy-making process that drew heavily on his bureaucratic expertise and ensured consideration of situational factors-both foreign and domestic. What Eisenhower believed prior to becoming president, nevertheless, and what he felt and thought influenced how he interpreted the world around him and acted to shape it.
The Sino-Soviet Threat
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H
Published: November 2023

Eisenhower would have conducted a reappraisal of the Sino-Soviet threat even if Stalin had lived. As already discussed, he had formed definite views about the Soviet Union over the years before taking office. Stalin’s death in March, however, broadened the range of questions. Would his successors modify Stalin’s objectives and methods? How would the growing Soviet nuclear stockpile affect the military threat? How serious were other aspects, such as subversion and political warfare? What were the vulnerabilities of the Soviet bloc? The questions were examined in intelligence estimates, the Jackson Report on psychological warfare, the Solarium exercise, conferences of U.S. ambassadors, reports of Soviet experts (especially Bohlen), and meetings of the NSC Planning Board. In seven months, this process produced the consensus on the threat from the Soviet bloc embodied in NSC 162/2.
The Eisenhower Legacy
Authors: Bowie Robert R , Immerman Richard H
Published: November 2023

The decade of the 1950s was a formative period for U.S. security policy, when the strategic context of the cold war was transformed by the coming of mutual nuclear plenty. Truman’s last three years in office were preoccupied with this prospect and its implications, and Eisenhower’s entire tenure with adjusting to its emergence under new Soviet leaders. The response of President Truman to the prospective Soviet nuclear capacity, as embodied in NSC 68, was a major reappraisal of the Soviet threat, U.S. objectives to counter it, and appropriate means of pursuing them. Its growing nuclear capability, NSC 68 argued, would embolden the Soviet Union to take much greater risks in executing its expansionist “design”; by 1954 (later 1953) its capacity for a crippling surprise nuclear attack was expected to make that a year of peak danger. To counter this threat the U.S. objective had to be to achieve before that time preponderant power through a massive U.S. and NATO military buildup, especially in conventional forces; the purpose was not only to deter or defeat Soviet aggression but also to induce retraction or “rollback” of Soviet power and a basic change in the Soviet system. The analysis of NSC 68 seemed to be vindicated by the Korean mvas10n.
Role of Prefrontal Cortex in Delay Tasks: Evidence from Reversible Lesion and Unit Recording in the Monkey
Authors: Fuster Joaquin M
Published: November 2023

It is a well-established fact that the prefrontal cortex plays a critical role in the temporal organization of behavior, that is, in the order and timing of behavioral acts. It is not clear, however, precisely what that role is. A plausible hypothesis is that it has to do with what I have called the mediation of cross-temporal contingencies (Fuster, 1985), in other words, the integration of behavior in accord with sensory information that is not present at the time of the action: Information that was present in the recent past, or information that is expected to be present in the near future.
The Contribution of Frontal Lobe Lesions to the Neurobehavioral Outcome of Closed Head Injury
Authors: Levin Harveys. , Goldstein Felicia C , Williams, David H , Eisenberg Howard M
Published: November 2023

The physical proximity of the sphenoid wing to the orbitofrontal region and marked shearing effects in this area (Holbourn, 1943) predispose the frontal lobes to focal lesions after closed head injury (CHI). Utilizing a contusion index that reflects the size and depth of contusions, Adams and coworkers (1980) studied the brains of 151 patients who sustained fatal injuries. As depicted in Table 17-1, the index values were largest for the frontal lobes, followed closely by the temporal lobes.
Superconductivity
Authors: Isihara A
Published: November 2023

The fascinating phenomenon of superconductivity was discovered by Kamer-lingh Onnes in 1911 when mercury was cooled to around 4 K. That was a long time ago, but the basic mechanism for superconductivity started unfolding only in the 1950s. Finally, in 1957 Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer gave a satisfactory explanation for this phenomenon. However, the discovery of an unusually high-Tc. superconductor by Bednorz and Muller in 1986 has caused a complete change of the general view on superconductivity because it is no longer limited only to very low temperatures. It is even more fascinating than previously thought, and its industrial application is now conceivable.
Liquid Crystals
Authors: Isihara A
Published: November 2023

It has been known since approximately one hundred years ago that certain liquids exhibit peculiar crystal-like anisotropy while maintaining fluidity. They are called liquid crystals although they are not crystals but rather anisotropic liquids. Today some thousands of liquid crystals have been identified. They are liquids, either molten or dissolved, consisting of anisotropic molecules with various orientational or spatial ordering. Due to the presence of several new phases that are between solids and liquids and to relations with phase transitions in other systems, they are attracting strong attention. In addition, their temperature-or field-sensitive phase changes are utilized industrially for display devices.
Controversies in retrospect
Authors: Mayr Ernst
Published: November 2023

No one who has not witnessed it himself can imagine the confusion and dissension that characterized the views of the evolutionists in the pre­ Synthesis period. That we ever got out of this confusion, and that the major step happened so rapidly during the so-called Evolutionary Synthesis, seems almost a miracle. In order to place on record how one pre-Synthesis evolutionist became modernized, the editors of Oxford Surveys in Evolutionary Biology suggested to me that I should present ‘a somewhat autobiographical account of how and why your views were formed and changed during your career, and how your own experience and ideas reflect the changes in evolutionary biology during this time.
The War Escalates
Authors: Harrison Selig S
Published: November 2023

Andropov’s search for a diplomatic escape from Afghanistan was paralleled by a policy of resisting military escalation. Two leading military historians who differ concerning many aspects of the war, David C. Isby and Mark Urban, agree that his objective was to minimize casualties and to scale down operations while seeking a negotiated settlement. The mission of Soviet forces during the Andropov period was limited to holding key urban centers, maintaining the channels of communication between them, and interdicting resistance supply lines from base camps in Pakistan. The truce in the Pansjer valley had made this mission easier by allowing unimpeded access for military units and supply caravans to Kabul. In contrast to the two major division-level offensives of 1982 in the Pansjer region and in Herat, Soviet offensives during 1983 were confined to battalion and regiment-level attacks, accompanied by the scattered aerial bombing of resistance strongholds. Andropov continued to resist escalation following the collapse of the Geneva negotiations in June. However, the resistance groups, encouraged by stepped up aid from Washington and Islamabad, soon launched an offensive of their own that gained in intensity as the year progressed. The impact of the offensive was limited, but the prospect of increasingly well-equipped resistance operations led to accelerating pressures in Moscow for a reappraisal of Soviet policy.
The Long Winter
Authors: Cordovez Diego
Published: November 2023

In politics and diplomacy people often say things that are later systematically misquoted or distorted. John F. Kennedy never said that he was a Berliner, and Harold Macmillan did not say “You’ve never had it so good.” But the fact that such eminent statesmen, whom I greatly admire, had been misrepresented did not diminish my annoyance when I was accused, time and again, of having said that 95 percent of the settlement was ready. What I did say in an interview with my good friend Iftikhar Ali of the Gorbachev gave the armed forces a green light to proceed with a series of ambitious offensives that began in late May with the largest assault ever made against resistance bases in the Kunar valley, a key resistance staging area near the Pakistani border. He also agreed to upgrade the level of Soviet military leadership in Afghanistan. One of the Red Army’s most celebrated heroes, General Mikhail Zaitsev, then serving as commander of Soviet forces in Germany, was transferred to the Afghan front. Significantly, though, while Zaitsev had a free hand to try more aggressive tactics, Gorbachev did not authorize sending more troops, with the exception of several thousand additional spetznaz forces. Moreover, he accompanied the policy of carefully calibrated escalation during 1985 and 1986 with growing diplomatic flexibility designed to test American readiness for a settlement.
“Bleeders,” “Dealers,” And Perestroika
Authors: Harrison Selig S
Published: November 2023

Mikhail Gorbachev was skeptical from the very beginning about Leonid Brezhnev’s Afghan adventure. In 1980, it will be recalled, he objected to stepped-up defense spending for the war at the expense of domestic economic needs. Visiting Canada in 1983, he told his official host, Agriculture Minister Eugene Whelan, that the war was “a mistake.” It was not surprising, therefore, that Gorbachev ordered a secret Politburo reappraisal of Afghan policy in April 1985, only a month after he took power upon the death of Konstantin Chernenko. “The Politburo conducted a hard and impartial analysis of the situation,” he recalled later. “We started even at that time to seek a way out.”Gorbachev carefully prepared the ground for disengagement during 1985 and 1986. As he consolidated his power, his pursuit of a negotiated settlement became progressively more determined. Initially, however, confronted by hard line opponents in the Politburo who still believed in a military victory, Gorbachev coupled his diplomatic initiatives with a policy of limited military escalation. “From the very beginning, he knew he wanted to get out,” said Aleksandr Yakovlev, his principal foreign policy adviser. “But the military-industrial complex pressed him to try this, try that. They were getting many benefits from the war. He let them do some of the things they wanted to do, but it’s not true, as some have said, that he himself wanted to try for a military decision.”
The Slow Thaw
Authors: Cordovez Diego
Published: November 2023

On June 20, 1985, we started the fourth round of negotiations at the Palais des Nations. Yaqub was described by the press as “cautiously optimistic” when he left Islamabad airport. I said on my arrival in Geneva that we were entering a new phase in the diplomatic process that would involve essentially the completion of the legal instruments that would make up the settlement. Raymond Sommereyns and I had prepared four draft instruments, an operation that had not proved very difficult because we had already submitted two drafts (on noninterference and on the interrelationships) at the previous round. We “lifted” the two other (on refugees and on guarantees) from the famous “single” text that we had been drafting since the beginning of the Geneva negotiations. I was somewhat concerned that Dost might-rightly-point out that nobody had asked me to prepare four documents. When we met in my office on July 19 he seemed, however, to be in a very good mood. He brought me a box of Cuban cigars and said that in preparing the four documents I had shown to be, “as always,” ahead of all of them.
Models to Mud
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

In the early 1980s, primatologists began to get an intellectual grasp on how ecology has shaped primate behavior. Two seminal papers by Richard Wrangham, a well-known primatologist whose major research interest is chimpanzees, pulled the comparative data that had accumulated for primates together with evolutionary and ecological theories. Many of the principles had been identified before for ungulates, birds, and bats,2 but Wrangham was the first to apply them to primates in any cohesive way, developing a model that served as a theoretical blueprint for an entire generation of field research.
Reproductive Strategies of Pteridophytes
Authors: Cousens Michael I
Published: November 2023

Pteridophytes include the Psilotales, (Psilotum and Tmesipteris), Sphenophyllales (Equisetum), Lycopodiales (Lycopodium, Selaginella, and Isoetes), and the fern orders Ophioglossales (Botrychium and Ophioglossum), Marattiales, Filicales, Salviniales, and Marsileales. The cardinal points of the pteridophyte life cycle are the meiotic production of spores by the sporophyte and the mitotic production of gametes by the gametophyte. Meiosis initiates the gametophyte generation and the fusion of mitotically formed gametes initiates the sporophyte.
Prologue Peeling an Apple
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

I am sitting in my kitchen peeling an apple. In my right hand I hold a paring knife and in my left hand the apple. The knife has a blade and a handle. The blade has two working parts, the long sharp edge we slice with and the sharp point. The earliest knifelike form I know of goes back about two million years, to Africa. It is a rounded flat stone with an edge chipped sharp. No point is present; that was a long time in coming. The handle of my paring knife is wood, and it is attached to an extension of the blade. The idea of an explicit knife handle is probably not more than a few hundred-thousand years old; a separate handle other than stone is much newer. My knife’s handle is fastened to the blade with rivets. The fastening idea is a profound one and probably began with lashing or tying things together. Fasteners make possible compound inventions composed of simple parts. The blade of my knife is no longer stone. It is steel, a material that first made its appearance a few thousand years ago. These are just some of the stories held in my right hand.
Novice Invention and a Problein-Based Diary
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

The curtains in my living room have a safety pin in the center because they do not quite close. To use a safety pin for this purpose is a minor act of invention, and the result becomes a potential ingredient for a larger act of invention. My wife Gloria is sprouting some seeds in a tray next to another window. The sill is not wide enough to hold the tray, so she has moved a step stool to the window and balanced the tray between the stool top and the sill. She then has pulled out the curtain to wrap it around the stool, pinning it closed with a safety pin. In so doing, she has created a miniature greenhouse between the curtain and the window. Notice that this act of invention builds upon the first, using the safety pin to close a curtain. In many ways we invent every day. People are inventive but they do not normally think of themselves in that light. One thing we want to do in this book is to draw out and systematize those inventive tendencies already present in each of us.
Transformational Heuristics
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

My tool kit is spread out in front of me: awl, knife, chisel, saw, file, rasp, among other rusty tools. History tells me that these tools arose at very different times for undoubtedly quite diverse purposes. None theless, my interest in invention has taught me that different forms often exhibit striking similarities. I’m wondering if that might be true for the devices in my tool kit also? Let’s now engage in some freewheeling mental play in the form of thought experiments that attempt to organize hand tools. The underlying element of organization, the tooth, does its work by acting as a wedge; and as the tooth-wedge is transformed, it gives rise to a family of tools.
A Material World
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

I can remember as a child experiencing a great thrill when a family friend gave me an arrowhead. Its flint texture and rough shape held the secrets of history in a way that my metal arrowheads did not. Using a flint-tipped arrow, I could easily imagine hunting buffalo, but the fantasy just wasn’t as rich with commercial metal-tipped arrows.
The Art of Containment
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

I’m looking at a tea bag. It contains ground up tea and has a string handle. Not all the secrets of invention are hidden here, but we can abstract more than one important idea. Indeed, a very important class of inventions consists of those forms that contain or hold things. Let’s examine some underlying principles of containment and holding inventions. As we discover and abstract these principles, we will find important generalizations that show surprising relations and linkages among forms of containment. We begin with tea bags, move to a cooking pot and generalizations on it, then to clothing storage and retrieval, and finally to highly sophisticated forms of containment, the cartridge and prefabrication.
A Comparison of Methods for Assessing Genetic Variation in Plant Conservation Biology
Authors: Schaal Barbara A , Leverich Wesley J , Rogstad Steven H
Published: November 2023

The existing levels of genetic diversity and the maintenance of these levels of diversity are major issues in conservation biology. Genetic diversity became an issue when Frankel (1970) postulated that genetic variation is essential for the long-term survival of endangered species. Genetic variation is a necessary prerequisite for any future adaptive change or evolution; presumably, species that lack adequate genetic variation are at greater risk of extinction. In terms of conservation, maintenance of genetic variation is essential if populations are to be successfully reintroduced in the wild or introduced to new habitats.
Metchnikoff’s Early Embryology
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

As Metchnikoff wrote in 1869, apparently not without some patriotic sentiments, “The first scientific basis of embryology, that is, the history of animals’ development was founded by the former St. Petersburg academicians, Pander and von Baer ( l, AC, p. 254). In 1817, Christian Pander described the trilaminar structure of the earliest incubated chick embryo stage (2). According to his description, at the twelfth hour, the embryo consisted of two separate layers: an outer layer that was thin, smooth, and transparent, which he named the serous layer, and the inner layer that was thicker, granular, and opaque, which he named the mucous layer. Between these two layers appeared a third, where blood vessels were formed, which he named the vessel layer.
Metchnikoff’s Embryological Studies after 1872
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

After 1872, Metchnikoff radically changed his intellectual goals and methods of his embryological studies. Correspondingly, he altered the range of his scientific objectives. If in the previous period he regarded any problems of phylogenetic reconstruction as, at best, an application that added little in the pursuit of comparative embryology’s proper goals, he now considered metazoan phylogeny (especially the problem of multicellular origin) as the decisive aspect of comparative embryological studies.
The Problem of Evolution in Metchnikoff’s Works
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

Whenever Metchnikoffreflected on the history of the phagocytosis theory, he always stressed that it had originated in his early studies of invertebrate comparative embryology. That research had focused on the question concerning the phylogenetic fate and ontogenetic role of amoeboid mesodermic cells as well as on a related phenomenon-intracellular digestion. However, there is no self-evident link between the phenomenon of intracellular digestion and the concept of a specialized protective system. In fact, the very idea of a special defensive activity in a host was novel and not easily compatible within the traditional view of ontogeny as the self-revelation of an organism’s “nature” (i.e., the expression of the organism’s underlying plan). In this perspective, the healing forces of an organism were regarded not as the expression of a special protective mechanism, but as the immediate manifestation of the organism’s integrity (its “nature”), whose very essence was thought of as a self-establishing and self-supporting wholeness.
Metchnikoff’s Emerging Concept of Inflammation
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

Three broad avenues of scientific inquiry merged in Metchnikoff’s phagocytosis theory: (a) the embryological definition of mesodermal origin, structure, and function,(b) an intellectual infrastructure of evolutionary dynamics applied to the organism, and (c) the emerging concepts of parasite-host interactions on a pathological level. We have considered the first two problems; now we must turn to the third problem, specifically the inflammatory reaction to microbial pathogens, whose investigation became Metchnikoff’s primary arena of study (1).
The Phagocytosis Theory and Its Reception
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

Metchnikoff’s theory of active defense by phagocytes was novel not only in assigning a new function to these cells but also in offering a revolutionary concept of immunity. Competing theories were all passive as labeled by Ernst Sauerbeck in a 1909 summary, The Crisis in Immunity Research (1), in which various other hypotheses of the period were also considered. Pasteur’s depletion theory (2), the retention theories of M. von Nencki (3) and M. A. Chauveau (4) —and their physicochemical variants—as well as lingering forms of mithridatic theory each viewed the pathogen as acting autonomously in the process of immunization. This in contrast to Metchnikoff’s “active” theory of a responive host accounting for the immune state.
Epilogue: From Metaphor to Theory
Authors: Tauber Alfred I , Chernyak Leon
Published: November 2023

Metchnikoff’s achievement may be viewed on many levels, but we have focused on what we perceive as the fundamental reorientation he accomplished in our concept of organismic integrity. Specifically, the issue centers on the intellectual horizon of self-protection. In this respect, we view Metchnikoff as the first who shifted the ques-tion of protective forces from a metaphysical formulation to a scientific program, based on a well-prepared theoretical foundation. This theory had a radically altered orientation in its metaphysical construction, for the Metchnikovian concept of organism was a totally new view of integrity. We must now schematically define this metaphysical novelty.
Introduction: The Proper Relation of Morality to Politics
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

Several years ago I wrote a book about the proper role of the judiciary particularly the federal judiciary, and especially the Supreme Court of the United States-in adjudicating constitutional issues.1 In that book I assumed that there can be right answers-and wrong ones, too-to questions of morality. (I was concerned principally with questions of political morality. I argued that judges should play a relatively large role in the effort to locate the right answers to constitutional questions, understood as an important species of questions of political morality). That assumption was-and remains-controversial, however, and so I decided to put the assumption in question.
A Critique of the Liberal Political-Philosophical Project
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I conclude that the relation between morality and politics envisioned by liberal political philosophy is impossible to achieve. I base this conclusion on a critical examination of the political philosophies of three liberal thinkers—John Rawls, Bruce Ackerman, and Ronald Dworkin—whose work has been prominent, among other places, in the academic setting in which I teach: the American law school. (Both Ackerman and Dworkin are academic lawyers. Rawls, of course, is a philosopher). None of these three philosophical liberals has succeeded in portraying a politics that is neutral or impartial among the basic differences—in particular among the competing conceptions of human good—-that constitute the moral dissensus of our pluralistic society. Of course, it is possible that eventually someone will succeed where Rawls, Ackerman, and Dworkin have failed.
Breaking Law: The Problem of Conscientious Disobedience
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

I want to make a special appeal to soldiers, national guardsmen and policemen: Brothers, each one of you is one of us. We are the same people. The campesinos you kill are your own brothers and sisters When you hear the words of a man telling you to kill, remember instead the word of God, “ Thoushalt not kill.” God’s law must prevail. No soldier is obliged to obey an order contrary to the law of God. It is time for you to come to your senses and obey your consciences rather than follow out a sinful command. As I’ve remarked, in politics, and therefore in law, moral discourse often runs out-for the time being, at least-before agreement is reached, before consensus is achieved, especially in a society as mor ally pluralistic as our own.
Introduction
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

For a century, the “neuron doctrine” has been the basis for our concepts of the organization of the nervous system. Formulated in 1891, it finally ended a debate that had lasted for half a century, and demonstrated that the cell theory applies to the cells of the nervous system. Ramón y Cajal was the main architect of the neuron doctrine, but in fact it was the culmination of intensive studies of the nervous system by many European scientists during the nineteenth century. Its introduction stimulated a vigorous debate that fashioned most of the basic terminology of the neuron that we use today. Furthermore, the neuron doctrine became the core around which concepts of the functional organization of the brain have been developed to the present time.
From the Beginnings to the Cell Theory
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

The struggle to understand the neuron as a cell began with the earliest microscopical investigations of body tissues. As always in science, the state of knowledge depended on the state of development of the instruments. The first microscope was a mechanical device with a compound lens and an eyepiece, which Robert Hooke of London in 1665 used to observe the outlines of cells in slices of cork.
Kölliker Gives In
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

Liddell (1960), in his account of the history of this period, refers to Deiters as the “forgotten histologist.” This might have been true of his person, because of his early death, but it seems not to have applied to his work. Not only did Schultze ensure the publication of the monograph, but Kölliker was there, keeping a watchful eye on the field. During the r85os and 1860s, his Histology went through five editions, charting the development of the new discipline at a rate of better than a new edition every four years.
The Revolutionary Method of Golgi
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

The studies described thus far, from Purkinje’s first glimpse of nerve cells to Gerlach’s networks, were largely carried out in central Europe, by academic researchers trained and working in the main university centers. In deed, we can contain most of them within an area bounded by Berlin in the north, Bern in the south, Bonn in the west, and Breslau in the east an area falling within a circle of diameter of no more than 700 kilometers (see map, Fig. 11).
A Neuron Theory Begins to Take Form: His, Forel, Nansen
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

During the r88os, the debates on the structure of the nerve cell continued in the universities of Europe. Then, in r 886, came definitive pronouncements by two well-known authorities, Wilhelm His of Leipzig and August Forel of Zürich, followed shortly by supporting evidence from an unsuspected quarter, a young anatomist in Norway named Fridtjof Nansen. Each of these moved the subject away from the preoccupation with unseen networks and set it squarely on the path toward the concept of the nerve cell as an independent cellular entity.
The Synapse and the Growth Cone
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

Although anatomists by the r 8gos could agree that nerve cells are separate units and interact by contacts, it left many unanswered questions. Two questions in particular aroused great interest. One was the nature of the contacts between neurons made by axons and dendrites. Another was proof that the axon and dendrites of a neuron grow out from the cell body during development. It was recognized that these questions were not only important for understanding the nature of the nerve cell as a unit and the way nerve cells interact but also constituted critical tests of the validity of the theory itself.
Audition and the Central Nervous System
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

The history of the anatomy of the ear and the parallel development of theories of hearing were examined in Chapter 8. Although the present chapter also deals with the auditory system, its emphasis is on the role of structures in the central nervous system. These include the auditory pathways, their brainstem nuclei, and the auditory cortex. Figure 9.1 presents a diagram from 1920 showing these structures.
Theories of Emotion from Democritus to William James
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines a number of theories of emotion, beginning almost 2,500 years ago with those of the Ancient Greeks and ending at the close of the nineteenth century with the theories of William James and Carl G. Lange (1834–1900). Among the topics considered are the notions of Frarn;ois-Xavier Bichat, and the revolutionary ideas of Charles Bell and Guillaume-Benjamin-Amand Duchenne de Boulogne (1806-1870) on the muscles of emotion. Charles Darwin’s highly influential theories about how the emotions evolved and are controlled are also examined in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Luebbert Gregory m.
Published: November 2023

Three political-economic regimes emanated from the transition to rule by popular mandate in Western Europe-liberal democracy, social democracy, and fascism. This book is about their origins. The three regimes came into existence and stood as clear alternatives during the years between the two world wars. They were, above all, responses in politics and in the labor market to the demands of the working classes. Before 1914, workers’ quest for political and economic rights remained circumscribed and the working class challenge remained manageable. In much of Western Europe, it became unmanageable with the collapse of traditional barriers to working-class power in 1919.
Cleavage Structures and the Failure of Liberal Movements in Late Nineteenth-Century Europe
Authors: Luebbert Gregory m.
Published: November 2023

For such parties, gaining dominance required the establishment of parliamentary sovereignty, where it was not inherited, and the creation of an adequate mass base within the middle classes. The latter was, of course, often the key to the former. Indeed, if a liberal movement could not establish such a base, it would, as in Denmark in the 1860s and in Germany in the 1870s, lose its interest in advancing the authority of the legislature. By examining the specific historical moments at which liberal parties failed to establish parliamentary sovereignty or an adequate electoral base among the middle classes, we will develop a better understanding of the forces that handicapped them.
The Organization of Workers: Liberal and Aliberal Societies Compared
Authors: Luebbert Gregory m.
Published: November 2023

The greater coherence of labor in aliberal societies was rooted in its prewar formation. This higher level of class organization was apparent before the war in both political competition and trade union organization. It followed from the lack of allies in government, in parliament and in electoral competition and, more indirectly, from the divisions within the middle classes whence the atmosphere of hostility and absence of allies eventuated. Com pared with what appeared in liberal societies, the result was a decidedly higher level of party and trade union organization and penetration of working-class life.
Social Democracy and Fascism
Authors: Luebbert Gregory m.
Published: November 2023

Fascism was distinguished from traditional dictatorship in equally fundamental ways: the complete suppression of representative institutions; its closer approximation of totalitarianism and greater intolerance of dissent and opposition; its commitment to popular mobilization in the service of the state and its rejection of the negative legitimacy of mass apathy; its total extirpation of socialism and reorganization and subordination of the working classes; its rejection of liberal economic and political dogma; and the primacy of politics over markets. This more totalitarian model reflected the higher level of mobilization that fascist, in contrast to traditional, dictators confronted.
Conclusion: Class Alliances and Transition to Mass Politics
Authors: Luebbert Gregory m.
Published: November 2023

What I have presented in my study is a structuralist argument. Liberal democracy, social democracy, and fascism were alternatives in the sense that they constituted the historically known range of outcomes in interwar Western Europe. They were also alternatives in the sense that they derived from different levels of liberal success and different patterns of labor participation in politics and organization in the labor market before 1914, rested on different interwar class alliances and balances of class power, adopted fundamentally different responses to the economic crises of the twenties and thirties, and, above all, were not moral equivalents.
Accretion Of Differentiated Planetesimals To The Earth
Authors: Taylor1 S R , Norman M D
Published: November 2023

It is argued here that the Earth and the other planets of the inner solar system accreted predominantly from volatile-depleted planetesimals that were already differentiated into metallic cores and silicate mantles. Metal-sulfide-silicate partitioning seems to have been present in the early dust components of the solar nebula, prior to chondrule formation, and proceeded efficiently during growth of planetesimals and accretion of the planets. Metal-sulfide-silicate equilibrium was thus mainly established at low pressures within relatively small planetesimals. Rapid core-mantle separation in the Earth of precursor metal and silicate makes their reequilibration at higher pressures less likely. Thus, the trace and minor element composition of the mantle and core will reflect the low pressures and oxygen fugacities of the small precursor bodies, rather than the megabar pressures of the deep terrestrial mantle. In this model, core formation on Earth was not a catastrophe affecting a fully formed planet, but more likely occurred during accretion of the previously differentiated planetesimals. Since metal-sulfide-silicate equilibrium was accomplished predominantly at low pressures, troilite will be the main accreting phase for sulfur, which thus remains a viable candidate for the light element in the Earth’s core.
Impact of Genetic Variation in Individuals: Clonal Phenotypes Other than Cancer
Authors: Ferrell Robert E
Published: November 2023

The idea of somatic mutations affecting the phenotype of an individual, but not being transmitted to offspring has been most thoroughly explored with respect to cancer. The recognition that the majority of tumors were clonal in origin contributed to acceptance of the view that cancer is a genetic disease at the cell level. A major goal of cancer genetics has been and continues to be the identification of the primary genetic events involved in cellular transformation, and to understand how these changes contribute to the malignant phenotype. That the pathway to transformation involves several genetic events is generally accepted and has been elegantly demonstrated in the molecular verification of Knudson’s two-hit hypothesis in retinoblastoma and Wilm’s tumor. The uninhibited clonal expansion of a somatically altered cell in retinoblastoma, as well as other tumors, simplifies the genetic analysis by providing a relatively large amount of tissue for biochemical and molecular studies. This led to the recognition that while susceptibility to retinoblastoma is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, the retinoblastoma phenotype is recessive at the cellular level. These studies also revealed that normal somatic recombination is a major mechanism by which cellular homozygosity occurs in retinoblastoma and Wilm’s tumor, and that somatic events leading to homozygosity or hemizygosity for a mutant allele could be a mechanism for the phenotypic expression of any recessive mutation at the single-cell level.