bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Users
Authors: Swift Ellen
Published: November 2020

Artefact design is not neutral, but is aimed, whether consciously or not, at different categories of users, as explained in Chapter 1. This chapter will explore design intentions as they relate to different user-groups in more detail, investigating some of the ways artefacts function to construct and maintain social categories, and also how these categories may be resisted or questioned by users. Firstly, we will examine how artefact design relates to the Roman life course, through an exploration of the motifs on finger-rings and the social categories of men, women, and children. Secondly, Roman attitudes to leftand right-handedness may be examined in relation to various items. Thirdly, we will examine some particular types of boxes and their methods of opening, artefacts in which cultural knowledge potentially impacts upon the facility with the objects may be used. In each case, we will consider how the design features may include or exclude certain users and what the implications are for a wider understanding of both Roman social practice, and the role of artefacts in enacting and reproducing social norms and behaviours. Finger-rings, among other personal artefacts, are scaled to a specific part of the body, and through this feature they provide an opportunity to examine how artefacts may have been designed for particular categories of people. Users will need rings with an appropriate diameter that is large enough to fit a particular digit, yet not so large that it risks becoming lost. Finger sizes of course vary according to age and sex, and so provide an opportunity to examine objects designed specifically for women, children, and men. We will focus here on those finger-rings displaying a central motif (usually engraved, although sometimes in relief, or occurring as a modelled form), which exist in large numbers. Most are oval in shape, and they are found in a wide range of sizes, from 9 to 27mm in inner horizontal diameter. Many are gem-set rings, and the gem iconography that they display was remarkably consistent across the Roman Empire, consisting of a range of popular themes such as the principal deities and/or their attributes, personifications, mythological scenes, animals, portraits, and objects.
Best Laid Plans: An Archaeology of Architectural Anomalies in Bronze Age Crete
Authors: Cunningham Tim
Published: November 2020

Approaches to Minoan architecture (Graham 1962; Preziosi 1983; Hitchcock 2000; Shaw 2009, 2015; Letesson 2009; McEnroe 2010) have focused on its positive qualities, and since Evans’s excavations in the early years of the twentieth century the perceived modernity of Minoan architecture has been manifest both in scholarly discourse (Farnoux 1993; Schoep 2010: 222) and in popular representations in various media. Sophisticated, delightful, and above all planned—for while bull-leaping, labyrinths, and even kingship have all come under sceptical scrutiny, the existence of a Daedalus, at least as the personification of the creative genius of Minoan architecture, has been tacitly accepted. Any argument over the idea that Minoan architecture was designed, and furthermore designed with goals well appreciated today (e.g. maximizing light and air circulation, controlling for privacy, providing aesthetic pleasure) tends to be over the degree to which such planning can be demonstrated or proven from the existing evidence. That the goal itself, designed or planned building, was likely to have been desirable or effective is not usually questioned. Likewise, there are signs of civic or town planning, to the extent of a conceptual order imposed on the built form, implying an abstract higher level authority controlling private or lower level space, or at least the needs of the town superseding those of the individual structures within (Cunningham 2001; Buell 2014; see also chapter 9). And again, while we may disagree over the extent or penetration of such authority, or the appropriateness of the terminology, the idea that town planning might have had a deleterious effect on social bonding is rarely, if ever, considered. This is interesting, since in studies of architecture and town planning in modern times, at least since the 1960s and 1970s, it has become increasingly clear that planning towns and buildings is extremely hard and that even the best intentioned, most competent, and well-supported efforts not only often fail but regularly have the opposite effect as was intended.
The Middle Minoan Slipway for Ships at the Kommos Harbour, and Harbour Development in Prehistoric Crete
Authors: Shaw Joseph W.
Published: November 2020

Revealed at Kommos in 1985, in Southern Crete, was a long, narrow strip of slab paving, dating to a Middle Minoan (henceforth MM) period. It is laid out east–west, and was found below the central courts of superposed MM II Building AA, MM III Building T, and Late Minoan (henceforth LM) III Building P—thus predating them (Shaw and Shaw 2006). At that time the impression was that the pavement was likely a ‘walkway’ for processions, like those found, especially in MM palatial west courts, in Crete (Driessen 2009; Shaw 2015: 14–17). The walkways sometimes connected building groups, as in the case of Malia. At the time of its discovery, the one at Kommos appeared like an appropriate part of what was to become a palatial site, marked by the Minoan Elite architectural style (Shaw 2015). However, now, some years later and after further consideration, this identiﬁcation must be questioned: while most often MM in origin, walkways can be common at any MM palatial site, but only one such pavement is known at Kommos. Also, walkways occur most often on ﬂat expanses such as the West Courts of palaces. That at Kommos stretches in a straight line towards the water edge, and with a constant slope to and from the water. Such a path might even be more useful for sliding ships to and from the water. But most important, in the case of the example at Kommos, there are shallow gaps, 0.15–0.20 m wide, built into the slab pavement every 2.40 m on centre. Seven such gaps are preserved, labelled 1–7, of which ﬁve (2–5, 7) are clearly intentionally aligned. Moreover, outside of Kommos, in Crete, the only walkway with gaps, among the dozens of walkways known, is in the Theatral Area at Phaistos, where the three gaps marked with asterisks are so narrow that they were probably simply drains, if they actually had a purpose.
Biosafety Categorisations and Containment Levels
Authors: William Tong C. Y.
Published: November 2020

The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (COSHH) classifies biological agents into four categories (Hazard Groups) according to an approved list by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Biological agents are bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi that can cause harm to human health, usually due to infection, although some are toxic or can cause an allergy. The approved list is relevant to risk assessment for work with biological agents and the application of appropriate control measures. Hazard Group 1 agents are not considered to pose a risk to human health, while Hazard Group 4 agents present the greatest risk. The principle of the categorization is laid down by the Advisory Committee on Dangerous Pathogens (ACDP) based on the following (see also Table 13.1): ● the likelihood that it will cause disease by infection or toxicity in humans; ● how likely it is that the infection would spread to the community; and ● the availability of any prophylaxis or treatment. The ACDP only considers the risks to human health when deciding appropriate classification. Some listed agents can also cause disease in animals (zoonoses) and have also been assigned a hazard classification under the Specified Animal Pathogens Order (SAPO). In allocating human pathogens to a hazard group, no account is taken of particular effects on those whose susceptibility to infection may be affected, for example, because of pre-existing disease, medication, compromised immunity, pregnancy, or breastfeeding. Type 2 polio virus has been reclassified from Hazard Group 2 to Hazard Group 3 to bring the UK in line with the expectations of World Health Organization’s global polio eradication programme. This reclassification also applies to attenuated type 2 polio viruses once this component is no longer used as part of the trivalent polio vaccine. Zika virus has been reclassified from Hazard Group 3 to Hazard Group 2 as there is substantial evidence that while it can cause human disease, this is generally mild. It is also unlikely to spread to the community from the laboratory. COSHH regulations specify four containment levels for activities which involve working with biological agents.
Skin and Soft Tissue Infections
Authors: Ghani Rohma , Fhogartaigh Caoimhe Nic
Published: November 2020

Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) can be sub-divided based on the anatomical structure(s) affected from superficial to deep. Impetigo affects children more commonly than adults, starting as a macule of erythema and evolving into vesicles that rupture, leaving a golden crusted appearance. Fever and systemic signs are absent. It is highly transmissible and children should be excluded from school until exposed lesions have resolved. Folliculitis is a superficial infection presenting with small papules or pustules on an erythematous base around a hair. Fever and systemic signs are absent. If extension into deeper tissues occurs a dermal abscess (‘boil’ or ‘furuncle’) may occur, and several lesions may coalesce into a ‘carbuncle’. Deeper infection may cause discomfort, fever, and systemic upset. Any hair-bearing area may be affected, but sites most commonly affected include the face, scalp, axilla, inguinal area, thighs, or eyelid (‘stye’), and may be associated with shaved or occluded skin. Cellulitis is rapidly spreading erythema of the skin associated with pain, swelling, fever, and systemic features such as nausea and malaise. It may be seen as a complication of tinea pedis, superficial abrasions, or insect bites, venous insufficiency, lymphoedema, chronic ulcers, and diabetes. It is almost always unilateral and bilateral cellulitis is extremely rare and should prompt consideration of an alternative diagnosis. The Eron grading system can help guide treatment and admission decisions: ● Class I: the patient has no signs of systemic toxicity and no uncontrolled comorbidities. ● Class II: the patient is either systemically unwell or systemically well but with a comorbidity such as peripheral vascular disease, chronic venous insufficiency, diabetes, or obesity, which may complicate or delay resolution of infection. ● Class III: the patient has significant systemic upset such as acute confusion, tachycardia, tachypnoea, hypotension, or unstable comorbidities that may interfere with a response to treatment, or a limb-threatening infection due to vascular compromise. ● Class IV: the patient is septic or has life-threatening infection such as necrotizing fasciitis.
Exanthemata
Authors: William Tong C. Y.
Published: November 2020

An exanthem (or exanthema) is a widespread skin rash accompanying a disease or fever. It usually occurs in children as part of a common systemic childhood viral infection, but can also occur in adults and can be caused by bacterial infections, toxin or drug reactions. An enanthem (or enanthema) is a rash that occurs in the mucous membrane, typically in the mouth, as the result of the same disease process of an exanthema. Because the presence of a rash is a very striking feature, historically, several of the commonly seen febrile illnesses associated with rash have been recognized and named in numerical order. There are various things to look out for when assessing a patient with exanthema. These can include the type and evolution of the rash, as well as contact, vaccine, drug, sexual, and travel history. ● Type of rash: ■ maculopapular; ■ vesicular; ■ petechial. ● Evolution of the rash: ■ prodrome, if any; ■ date of onset of fever; ■ date of onset of the rash; ■ progression of the rash (e.g. starting location and spread); ■ other associated features (e.g. conjunctivitis, lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly). ● Contact history: ■ history of contact with anyone with febrile or rash illness; ■ recent local outbreaks, if any; ■ contact with other vulnerable individuals before and after onset of illness (for infection control purposes). ● Vaccine history: ■ recent history of any vaccination; ■ previous vaccination history (particularly MMR and varicella); ■ timing of these vaccines and number of doses. ● Drug history: ■ including antibiotics given for the illness. ● Sexual history: ■ always consider this in any patient. ● Recent travel history: ■ record timing and location; ■ history of insect bites. A good description of the rash can help in narrowing down the possible causes. The commonly seen rashes can be maculopapular, vesicular, or petechial. Maculopapular rash can be further categorized into subtypes. These include: ● morbilliform—a red rash which is measles-like, two to ten mm in diameter, and which merge to form confluent patches.
Ophthalmology
Authors: Sundaram Venki
Published: November 2020

Ophthalmology principally aims to prevent visual loss, restore visual function, and relieve ocular discomfort. The majority of the pathology can be directly visualized and thus requires proficient ocular examination techniques and visual recognition skills. Another distinguishing aspect of ophthalmology is the overlap between medical and surgical conditions. Common systemic diseases such as diabetes and hypertension have ocular features, and diseases involving every organ of the body can have ocular manifestations. A thorough medical knowledge is paramount, as is the ability to collaborate with other medical teams. Intraocular surgery for conditions such as cataract is technically challenging, as ocular tissues are so delicate. It therefore requires high levels of fine hand–eye coordination. As an ophthalmologist, you will be faced both with acute eye conditions, some of which are sight-threatening and require prompt diagnosis and management, and with chronic conditions, which require monitoring and treatment for many years. You will be exposed to patients of all ages, from premature babies to the elderly, so good communication with a wide range of patient groups and their families is essential. Patients often say that what they fear most is losing their sight. Therefore, empathy and support for patients with debilitating visual impairment are imperative. The questions in this chapter will test your knowledge of acute emergency ophthalmic presentations and the understanding and interpretation of ophthalmic examination, as well as ocular conditions that have systemic associations. In addition, questions relating to ophthalmic risk factors, communication, and probity are included. Eye problems can be daunting to many medical students and doctors. Through practice in examining patients and recognizing key conditions, confidence can be gained in how best to manage these patients and, importantly, when to refer them to other specialties. Ophthalmology incorporates a unique and appealing mix of medical and surgical conditions. It is a rapidly advancing specialty with recent significant advances in diagnostic and therapeutic options. It also provides an opportunity for a good work–life balance.
SBAs for the Final FRCA
Authors: Whymark Caroline , Junkin Ross , Ramsey Judith
Published: November 2020

Prepare with confidence for the Final FRCA with this dedicated guide featuring 300 original single best answer questions (SBAs) covering the whole breadth of the RCOA basic and intermediate curricula. SBAs correspond to the Royal College of Anaesthetist’s units of training, so candidates can focus their revision in each sub-specialty area, such as paediatrics, neuroanaesthesia, and pain management. Individuals can track their progress, identify gaps in their knowledge, and target their ongoing revision as needed, assured that chapters cover all aspects of the curriculum as required for the exam. A final mock chapter allows candidates to rehearse for real exam conditions. Written by a team of consultant anaesthetists and active educators, these original and high-quality questions have been developed over years of clinical experience and critical incidents as well as the authors' own revision courses. Each question is accompanied by detailed answers, explanations, and further reading. This invaluable resource also includes advice on SBA technique making this the only guide you need for SBAs in the Final FRCA Written Paper.
Chronic pain
Authors: Whymark Caroline , Junkin Ross , Ramsey Judith
Published: November 2020

To pass the written part of the FRCA, candidates must achieve the pass mark for the SAQs and the MCQ/ SBA papers combined. Therefore, doing particularly well in one paper, or one area, can compensate for another in which you have scored poorly. The 30 SBA questions is an area that candidates commonly find difficult. There is a feeling these questions are unjust and that it is impossible to second guess the examiners and choose the correct option. They feel further punished that four marks are awarded for each correct answer or lost for an incorrect choice. While this reflects the fact that four answers have been eliminated in the course of choosing the best answer, candidates often state it is an unfair ‘all or nothing’ way to mark these questions. They can commonly narrow the choice down to a final two options but report finding it difficult to then choose between them. They receive no credit having successfully eliminated three of the options and cite the SBA element as being the reason they failed the examination. These comments however are not supported by examination success data published by the RCoA. The pass rate for this paper was consistent at around 70% before and after the introduction of the SBA component in September 2011. We believe the concepts behind the SBAs are misunderstood by many. When asked to write a SBA question, candidates inevitably produce a five- part A to E multiple choice question but with only one correct answer. The finer points of SBA questions are lost among quickly written revision aids containing what the authors believe to be examination standard questions, when often they are not. Further, because SBAs are a relatively new element to the FRCA there is a limited bank of questions, and a highly restricted number in the public domain. Both these factors make practice of these questions difficult. Part of exam success is practice of the technique and question type in advance. We believe the practice of SBAs is an area to which candidates do not give enough attention.
The Optimism of Absence: An Archaeology of Displacement, Effacement, and Modernity
Authors: Mullins Paul R.
Published: November 2020

In the 1960s Edward J. Zebrowski turned the razing of Indianapolis, Indiana into a compelling show of forward-looking community optimism illuminating the power of displacement. When Zebrowski’s company toppled the Knights of Pythias Hall in 1967, for instance, he installed bleachers and hired an organist to play from the back of a truck as the twelve-storey Romanesque Revival structure was reduced to rubble. Two years later, the ‘Big Z’ hosted a party in the Claypool Hotel and ushered guests outside at midnight to watch as the floodlit building met its end at the wrecking ball (Figure 12.1). Zebrowski’s theatricality perhaps distinguished him from the scores of wrecking balls dismantling American cities, but his celebration of the city’s material transformation mirrored the sentiments of many urbanites in the wake of World War II. The post-war period was punctuated by a flurry of destruction and idealistic redevelopment in American cities like Indianapolis just as the international landscape was being rebuilt from the ruins of the war. In 1959 the New York Times’ Austin Wehrwein (1959: 61) assessed the University of Chicago’s massive displacement in Hyde Park and drew a prescient parallel to post-war Europe when he indicated that ‘wrecking crews have cleared large tracts, so that areas near the university resemble German cities just after World War II’. Indeed, much of Europe was distinguished less by ruins and redevelopment than demolition and emptied landscapes removing the traces of warfare that states wished to reclaim or efface; in the United States, urban renewal likewise took aim on impractical, unappealing, or otherwise unpleasant urban fabric and the people who called such places home (see also Ernsten, Chapter 10, for this process associated with the policies of apartheid in Cape Town). These global projects removed wartime debris and razed deteriorating prewar landscapes, extending interwar urban renewal projects that embraced the fantasy of a ‘blank slate’ as they built various unevenly executed imaginations of modernity. However, many optimistic development plans in Europe and the United States alike were abandoned or disintegrated into ruins themselves, simply leaving blank spaces on the landscape. Consequently, the legacy of urban renewal and post-war reconstruction is not simply modernist architecture; instead, post-war landscape transformation is signalled by distinctive absences dispersed amidst post-war architectural space and traces of earlier built environments.
Introduction to Computational Economics Using Fortran
Authors: Fehr Hans , Kindermann Fabian
Published: November 2020

Introduction to Computational Economics Using Fortran is the essential guide to conducting economic research on a computer. Aimed at students of all levels of education as well as advanced economic researchers, it facilitates the first steps into writing programs using Fortran. Introduction to Computational Economics Using Fortran assumes no prior experience as it introduces the reader to this programming language. It shows the reader how to apply the most important numerical methods conducted by computational economists using the toolbox that accompanies this text. It offers various examples from economics and finance organized in self-contained chapters that speak to a diverse range of levels and academic backgrounds. Each topic is supported by an explanation of the theoretical background, a demonstration of how to implement the problem on the computer, and a discussion of simulation results. Readers can work through various exercises that promote practical experience and deepen their economic and technical insights. This textbook is accompanied by a website from which readers can download all program codes as well as a numerical toolbox, and receive technical information on how to install Fortran on their computer.
Patient Focus
Authors: Metcalfe David , Dev Harveer
Published: November 2020

As a junior doctor, you are constantly pulled in different directions by multiple competing interests. These include those of your immediate bosses (possibly multiple consultants, a registrar, and an SHO), Educational Supervisors (Clinical Supervisor, Foundation Programme Director), fellow FY1 doctors, other healthcare professionals (nurses, physiotherapists), ancillary services (laboratory, radiology), patients’ relatives, representatives of the Trust (infection control, human resources, information technology), and many others. In amongst all of these is a patient, if not many, for whom all of these individuals are also working. It will not come as a surprise that Good Medical Practice (2013) states early on that you must ‘make the care of your patient your first concern’ and ‘treat patients as individuals and respect their dignity’. In addition, Good Medical Practice requires that you: ● listen to, and respond to, their concerns and preferences ● give patients the information they want or need in a way they can understand ● respect patients’ right to reach decisions with you about their treatment and care ● support patients in caring for themselves to improve and maintain their health. One challenge is when patients reach decisions that are contrary to the best available medical advice. The archetypal case in point is that of a Jehovah’s Witness at risk of life- threatening haemorrhage but refusing a blood transfusion. In such cases, remember that: ● you should never assume what someone’s beliefs are just because they come bearing a particular religious label. It is always right to ask the patient what they believe and what they will accept under different circumstances. For example, some Jehovah’s Witnesses will accept cell salvage and some blood substitutes ● seek advice early, particularly if the stakes are high (e.g. active bleeding). Your own seniors (SpR, consultant, etc.) and the on- call haematology team are good places to start. They may direct you to other resources that you might contact (with the patient’s consent) such as the Jehovah’s Witnesses’ Hospital Liaison Committee ● document all conversations (with the patient and colleagues) carefully ● ultimately, an adult patient with capacity has the right to refuse treatments— however much you disagree and even if this ultimately results in their death.
What Courses and Outcomes are Possible in Schizophrenia?
Authors: Glatt Stephen J. , Faraone Stephen V. , Tsuang Ming T.
Published: November 2020

Kraepelin described one of the core features of schizophrenia to be its progres­sively worsening course with little chance of recovery. In contrast, mood dis­orders were thought to have an episodic course with good functioning between bouts of mania and depression, and a relatively good outcome. The ensuing dec­ades of research have painted a more complex picture of the course and outcome of schizophrenia. Most notably, in contrast to Kraepelin’s bleak outlook, a fair number of individuals can more or less successfully recover from schizophrenia. Dr Manfred Bleuler, son of Dr Eugen Bleuler, reported a 20- year follow-up of over 200 individuals with schizophrenia excluding those who had either died or shown little psychiatric stability over the previous 5 years. Bleuler noted that one in five patients had recovered to normal levels of social functioning and were free of psychotic symptoms. Furthermore, one in three patients had a relatively good outcome. Thus, while patients still experienced hallucinations and delu­sions, they showed only mild problems in social functioning and very few visible behavioural problems. These results are quite remarkable given that the study was completed prior to the discovery of antipsychotic medications.Dr Luc Ciompi was able to follow nearly 300 patients for as long as 50 years after hospitalization. Using Bleuler’s categories of outcome, Ciompi found 27% of the patients to be fully recovered, 22% to have mild symptoms, 24% to have moderately severe symptoms, and 18% to have severe symptoms. Nine per cent of the sample had an uncertain outcome. A progressively worsening, gradual, and serious onset was seen in about half of the affected individuals, while a sudden or acute onset of illness with little or no problems in premorbid func­tioning was found for the rest of the sample. About half of the individuals with schizophrenia had a continuous course of illness, and the remainder had an episodic course. In addition, an episodic course was more likely among patients with acute onset. Acute onset and episodic course were both associated with better long- term outcome.A study performed by Dr Ming Tsuang and team, known as the Iowa 500 study, followed 186 individuals with schizophrenia, 86 with bipolar disorder, and 212 with major depressive disorder for 35– 40 years.
How Can Affected Individuals and Their Families Cope with Schizophrenia?
Authors: Glatt Stephen J. , Faraone Stephen V. , Tsuang Ming T.
Published: November 2020

It can be overwhelming to deal with the schizophrenia, either personally or as someone who cares for or about an affected individual. One may also be over­whelmed by trying to digest all the facts that we have shared here about this highly complex disorder. As scientists, we too find it overwhelming to lament how much we still don’t know, and how to use what we do know to make real change for affected individuals. But having the facts at hand gives some sense of control. It is important, then, to clarify at this stage what affected individuals and their families can do to cope with the disorder, both day to day and in an emergency. Affected individuals learn to cope with schizophrenia symptoms by trial and error. When they have a worsening of symptoms, they may learn to seek hospital admission rather than resist it. Over time they learn that stopping or changing medication leads to a relapse of positive symptoms. They may be able to adjust the dose of drugs to avoid severe side effects, yet maintain a level that prevents symptom flare- ups. Clearly, not all individuals with schizophrenia can do this. Nearly half of indi­viduals with schizophrenia who are treated on an outpatient basis fail to take their medication; the relapse rate is high among such patients. Patients should be under continuous supervision by their psychiatrist during drug therapy. Even if they discover how to adjust the drug dose, they should share and discuss these experiences with their psychiatrist and not attempt to make changes on their own. If the patient finds it difficult to remember to take tablets, long- acting injections of medication are available; one injection works for an average of 2– 4 weeks. Patients should faithfully follow their doctor’s prescription and receive the in­jection regularly; with time this can be adjusted as needed. The family has an important role to play in reminding patients to take medicine regularly or to visit the doctor for injections. This is particularly true if the indi­vidual becomes reluctant to follow doctor’s orders and relapse seems imminent.
Creation Ex Nihilo: Something from Nothing
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: November 2020

Every civilization in the history of humanity has had its myth of creation. Humans have a deeply rooted and seemingly insatiable desire to understand not only their own origins but also the origins of other things around them. Most if not all of the myths since the dawn of man involve some kind of higher or supernatural beings which are intimately related to the existence and functioning of all things in the Universe. Modern man still holds a multitude of different views of the ultimate origin of the Universe, though a couple of the most well represented religions, Christianity and Islam, maintain that there was a single creator responsible for all that we see around us. It is a predominant belief in Catholicism, accounting for about one-sixth of humanity, that the Creator achieved full creation of the Universe out of nothing – a belief that goes under the name of creation ex nihilo. (To be fair, not all Catholics believe this, but they ought to if they follow the Pope.) Postulating a supernatural being does not really help explain reality since then we only displace the question of the origins of reality to explaining the existence of the supernatural being. To this no religion offers any real answers. If you think that scientists might have a vastly more insightful understanding of the origin of the Universe compared to that of major religions, then you’d better think again. Admittedly, most scientists are probably atheists (interestingly, more than 95% in the United Kingdom) but this does not necessarily mean that they do not hold some kind of a belief about what the Creation was like and where all this stuff around us comes from. The point is that, under all the postulates and axioms, if you dig far enough, you’ll find that they are as stumped as anyone else. So, from the point of view of explaining why there is a reality and where it ultimately comes from, being religious or not makes absolutely no difference – we all end up with the same tricky question. Every time I read a book on the religious or philosophical outlook of the world I cannot help but recognize many ideas in there as related to some ideas that we have in science.
Computers and Society
Authors: Baecker Ronald M.
Published: November 2020

The last century has seen enormous leaps in the development of digital technologies, and most aspects of modern life have changed significantly with their widespread availability and use. Technology at various scales - supercomputers, corporate networks, desktop and laptop computers, the internet, tablets, mobile phones, and processors that are hidden in everyday devices and are so small you can barely see them with the naked eye - all pervade our world in a major way. Computers and Society: Modern Perspectives is a wide-ranging and comprehensive textbook that critically assesses the global technical achievements in digital technologies and how are they are applied in media; education and learning; medicine and health; free speech, democracy, and government; and war and peace. Ronald M. Baecker reviews critical ethical issues raised by computers, such as digital inclusion, security, safety, privacy,automation, and work, and discusses social, political, and ethical controversies and choices now faced by society. Particular attention is paid to new and exciting developments in artificial intelligence and machine learning, and the issues that have arisen from our complex relationship with AI.
Computers in medicine and health care
Authors: Baecker Ronald M.
Published: November 2020

As with the chapter on learning, we begin our discussion of health applications by examining influential early visions of the possible role of computers in improving health care and medicine. We then look at the great variety of roles played by current digital technologies in this field. We first consider the online availability of health information. There are two possible sources: one from respected centres of expertise, the other from consumers of medical care, that is, patients, who in working together form what may be viewed as communities of care. There is strong evidence that people are using these online medical resources to become more intelligent guardians of their own health and to support themselves when seeking help from physicians. Next, we examine the care improvements promised by personal health and electronic medical records. Progress here has been disappointingly slow; we shall discuss the mix of technical, cultural, administrative, interpersonal, and financial reasons for the sluggishness in development and deployment. Two particularly interesting cases of medical information are data dealing with adverse drug reactions and interactions, commonly known as adverse drug events (ADEs), and the use of big data and social media in epidemic surveillance and control, by which we are becoming better equipped to indicate, predict, and track outbreaks of disease. Computers have made a huge impact on medical education through the development of human body simulators. There also continue to be more and more advanced uses of technology embedded within the human body, either to augment the functioning of organs or to replace body parts that no longer work, which could possibly result in bionic people or androids in the future. We shall present some examples indicating the pace at which these technologies are developing. Recent advances in understanding the human genome have enabled a new form of medicine called precision medicine. The goal is to use genetic screening of patients to enable more specific treatments than were hitherto possible. Precision medicine also enables what some call designer babies. We shall introduce policy and ethical issues raised by this concept.
Introduction
Authors: Brittenham Claudia
Published: November 2020

The vessel might seem an unproblematic category. Vessels are, after all, essential to human survival. They are necessary to contain water, to cook, to store food and goods for future use. Nearly all societies have made and used them; indeed, clay vessels, or their fragments, are one of the principal kinds of archaeological data that give us empirical access into distant worlds of the past. A good proportion of ancient art in museum collections around the world consists of things we would categorize as vessels. Such ubiquity makes vessels central to many kinds of historical investigation. Archaeologists rely on quantitative surveys of durable potsherds to answer questions about chronology, population, trade, and the function of particular spaces, while close attention to the iconography on vessels furnishes important documentary evidence about many aspects of ancient society. Yet as the essays in this volume demonstrate, such approaches by no means exhaust the perspectives that vessels may offer on ancient societies. Many vessels—and assemblages of vessels— were in their own time sites of considerable intellectual power, smart and sophisticated commentaries on the very categories that they embody. On closer examination, the category of the vessel is complex. A vessel is defined not only by its shape, but also by its function, by the presumption that it contains something, though that something may be concealed when the vessel is in use and is not always easy to reconstruct from the archaeological record. But what about a Greek rhyton, a drinking horn with an opening at the bottom, so that liquids poured into one end stream out the other? What about an unused vessel that never held its intended contents; a Maya chocolate pot, broken and then repaired in a way that is no longer watertight; or a thin and fragile gu cup from a Chinese tomb, the form so attenuated that it could never be used? “Is it really a vessel?” is perhaps the least interesting question we can ask about these objects. As Richard Neer argues in his essay in this volume, for us as much as for the ancient Greeks, the value of the category “vessel” might lie precisely in its openness.
When Pots Had Legs: Body Metaphors on Maya Vessels
Authors: Brittenham Claudia
Published: November 2020

A body is a vessel. A vessel is a body. This metaphor frequently proved irresistible to ancient artisans, yet the conceptual work that it did varied greatly across time and space. A Moche stirrup-spouted vessel in the shape of a human head, perhaps a portrait of a specific individual, is by no means the same as a Protocorinthian aryballos where an elaborately coiffed female head tops the swelling curves of the oil flask beneath (for more on body metaphors in Greek ceramics, see Richard Neer’s essay in this volume). Neither is like a ritual wine beaker in the shape of a fantastical bird, every inch of its cast bronze surface patterned with symmetrical masks.3 But morphology is not meaning. Saying that a vessel is shaped like a body is where the inquiry must begin, not where it ends. In this chapter, I trace the shifting meanings associated with the body metaphor in Maya pottery from the city of Tikal, located in modern Guatemala. Between 300 and 800 CE, there were at least three moments when lids adorned with human heads caused vessels to be read as bodies. Vessels became a medium of fruitful dialogue with the past, as each iteration of the theme clearly drew on previous precedent, but used it to radically different ends. What began as a relatively unpopular adjunct to a predominant world of animal body metaphors on clay serving dishes before 400 CE became a satisfying way to integrate foreign forms in succeeding decades and the key touchstone in a pair of archaizing vessels made out of precious jade centuries later. Within this chain of associations, the bodies invoked became increasingly specific, their meanings more and more politically charged. It is surprisingly difficult to write about an individual vessel in isolation. Bound by the constraints of function and tradition, each vessel is an entry into a series of similar objects. Much of the interest—and what makes the examples here so distinctive—is in the way that they play on the existing constraints and conventions of their genre, eking new meaning out of small but conceptually significant changes in decorative program. Getting at how this is accomplished means paying close attention to each individual vessel, while also thinking about series, context, assemblage, interaction, and intended contents.
Practice and Discourse: Ritual Vessels in a Fourth-Century BCE Chinese Tomb
Authors: Hung Wu
Published: November 2020

Supposedly articulated by Confucius himself (ca. 551–ca. 479 BCE), this tightly knit political rhetoric provides a logical context for understanding the intrinsic relationship between qi (vessel, insignia, instrument) and li (ritual, rite, propriety), a central concern of Rujia 儒家—the School of Confucians—in the second half of the Eastern Zhou, from the fifth to third century BCE. The idea that vessels store essential ritual codes is stated more plainly in the Book of Rites: “The round and square food containers fu 簠 and gui 簋, the stand zu 俎, and the tall dish dou 豆, with their regulated forms and decoration, are the vessels (qi) embodying ritual propriety (li).” One of the major intellectual forces at the time, Rujia developed the notion of li on two fronts: as a principal concept in its political, moral, and aesthetic teachings, and as specific rules governing different kinds of ritual performances, including the use of ritual vessels and other ritual paraphernalia on special occasions. Accordingly li is applied to two major aspects of human lives: ceremonies and related practices; and social conventions—primarily those of law, human relations, and morality—that govern the working of society at large. These two aspects overlap. In the idealized society envisioned by Eastern Zhou Confucians, ceremonies and ritual vessels reflect and regulate human relationships and thus determine legal and moral standards. In this sense a bronze or pottery vessel can embody ritual codes and social principles. Whereas the Confucian theory of li has been a central subject in modern scholarship on traditional Chinese philosophy, the Confucian discourse on qi has received much less attention. To those who study Eastern Zhou material and visual culture, this lack is related to another overlooked issue concerning the relationship between discourses and practice: In what way were Confucian ritual writings, especially those on ritual vessels and procedures, connected to actual ritual performance? This question is not general but specific and historical because the predecessors of Rujia arose from ritual specialists, and many of its members carried on this profession in the late Eastern Zhou and even the Han. This is why Confucian ritual texts are often practical guides to conducting ritual affairs. How can we connect these writings to contemporary ritual objects, tombs, and other ritual structures found through archaeological excavations?
Introduction
Authors: Albarella Umberto , Dobney Keith
Published: November 2020

In terms of human–animal relationships, pigs are perhaps one of the most iconic but also paradoxical domestic animals. On the one hand, they are praised for their fecundity, their intelligence, and their ability to eat almost anything, but on the other hand, they are unfairly derided for their apparent slovenliness, unclean ways, and gluttonous behaviour. In complete contrast, their ancestor (the wild boar) is perceived as a noble beast of the forest whose courage and ferocity has been famed and feared throughout human history. The relationship of wild boar and pig with humans has been a long and varied one. Archaeological evidence clearly shows that wild boar were important prey animals for early hunter-gatherers across wide areas of Eurasia for millennia. During the early Holocene, however, this simple predator–prey relation evolved into something much more complex as wild boar, along with several other mammal species, became key players in one of the most dramatic episodes in human history: the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture, involving the domestication of plants and animals. From that moment, wild boar turned into pigs and became much more than mere components of human subsistence strategies. They were key entities in the complex cultural development of some human societies around the world and played an important role in the history of human dispersal. Interestingly, the consumption of pork also became (and still remains) perhaps the most celebrated, and widespread, case of dietary proscription. In terms of their relationships with humans, pigs are victims of their own success. Even more than wolves, they are highly adaptable and generalized omnivores, which means that they have a range of possible relationships with humans that is perhaps wider and more complex than for most other animal species. In fact, the biology and behaviour of pigs present a number of special challenges to their study, in addition to offering opportunities to further understand aspects of human history. The concept of this book grew out of an international workshop, entitled ‘Pigs and Humans’, held over the weekend of 26–28 September 2003, at Walworth Castle, County Durham, UK.
Wild boar and domestic pigs in Mesolithic and Neolithic southern Scandinavia
Authors: Rowley-Conwy Peter , Dobney Keith
Published: November 2020

In Mesolithic and Neolithic southern Scandinavia, Sus is often the animal found most commonly on archaeological sites, and it undoubtedly formed a major part of the meat diet throughout the prehistoric period. Unfortunately, it is difficult to ascertain whether this meat comes from wild boar (Sus scrofa) or domestic pigs (Sus scrofa f. domestica), as archaeologists have only the bones to go on when seeking to determine the status of the animals they study. This contribution will examine bones from a series of sites, most in Denmark but some also in Sweden. Three main areas will be considered. First, Mesolithic animals will be discussed. These are universally regarded as wild boar, and the effects of the rising sea level and consequent fragmentation of their populations will be examined. Second, Danish Neolithic and later domestic animals will be discussed; these could either have been domesticated in Denmark from local wild boar, or could have been introduced from outside along with exotic agricultural items such as wheat or sheep. Third, we will consider Middle Neolithic animals from the Swedish island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. Wild boar were almost certainly not present on Gotland during the Mesolithic, and the animals must therefore have been introduced by human agency. However, opinion is divided as to whether they were domestic pigs, wild boar introduced to found a hunted population, or a crossbred or feral population. The sites to be examined are listed in Table 7.1. The various sites have been excavated at various times over the last century or so. Some were published shortly after being excavated, but others had to wait many years for publication. Excavation quality has certainly varied, but we believe this will probably not have exerted a major influence on the results we present. Our work is based on the mandibles, and these are large and robust. They are unlikely to be overlooked during even poor-quality excavations, and they survive better than many other parts of the skeleton. Samples are therefore unlikely to be biased either by recovery of preservation. In grouping sites by period, for example ‘Early Mesolithic’, we are certainly conflating sites of somewhat different ages.