bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Brachymesophalangia of digit five in ten populations
Authors: Garn Stanley M. , Fels Susan L. , Israel Harry
Published: February 2006

Brachymesophalangia, involving both reduction in length and increase in breadth of a middle segment was studied in the fifth digital ray in over 10,000 radiographs from ten countries. Population frequencies increase systematically from samples of European origin through to South American Indians and Asiatics. Lack of relationship between delayed appearance of ossification centers and brachymesophalangia of digit five in areas of protein‐calorie malnutrition indicates that nutritional delay is not a cause of brachymesophalangia though this trait, associated with size reduction of other digits and metacarpals, may be selectively advantageous where reduced body size is adaptive.
A study of ABO blood groups of the people of Ladakh
Authors: Bansal Inderjit Singh
Published: February 2006

The ABO blood groups of 90 Buddhists and 60 Muslims of Ladakh are reported. They do not differ from one another by the Chi‐square test. Among both religious communities, which do not intermarry, blood‐type B is the most common. Comparisons with some Mongoloid and some neighboring groups do not reveal great differences in frequencies at the ABO locus.
The significance of primate paleontology for anthropological studies
Authors: Simons E. L.
Published: February 2006

The correct use of taxonomic names must become widespread if a clear understanding of primate paleontology is to exist among anthropologists. Physical anthropologists are urged to acquire genuine competence in the paleontology, systematics, and taxonomy of mammals. Examples are given of improper taxonomic procedure and of the perpetuation of invalid names. The need for a stable and correct nomenclature of the primates is emphasized. The importance of examining actual fossil specimens is stressed. The taxonomy of the Hominoidea is discussed and a summary of invalid names in current use is given. Recently discovered fossils from Oligocene strata in the Egyptian Fayum are figured and the pertinence of these to the origins of higher primates is suggested.
Dimensions of a comparative biology of primate groups
Authors: Kummer Hans
Published: February 2006

The possible contributions of a comparative study of primate social organization to anthropology are many. Such a study may elucidate the repertory of motivational and organizational raw materials present among primates; it may show us the forms of society that have evolved from this raw material; it may show us the kinds of inhibitions and functional readjustments of phylogenetically old motivations that lead to the types of societies found among primates. These general aims are based upon analysis of specific primate groups. The analysis of a primate group as a functioning system leads to consideration of the anatomy and physiology of groups, the reasons for differences in types of groups, the ontogeny of a group, environmental modifications of types of groups, and the evolution of the adaptive function of groups.
Perspectives and prospects
Authors: Washburn S. L.
Published: February 2006

The study of the nonhuman primates offers great opportunities for the development of an experimental anthropology. Whether one is concerned with variations in sutures, in locomotor patterns or the distribution of genetic polymorphisms, study of the nonhuman primates may offer clues. Whether one is interested in adaptation to desert, to tropic heat, or to cold, the nonhuman primate offers a far greater range of variations than man. For many problems they are the laboratory animals of choice, and their exploitation is necessary if we are ever to have an experimental physical anthropology. Interest in the nonhuman primates brings us into touch with many other sciences, as has been shown at this symposium. But I would particularly stress how it strengthens the relations of the parts of anthropology. The social system, communication, learning, these problems are important to all of anthropology, and the study of evolution, and particularly of our nearest relatives, has much to offer to the understanding of man and his behaviors.
Age dynamics of persistent transverse lines in the tibia
Authors: Garn Stanley M. , Schwager Patricia M.
Published: February 2006

Among 246 adult subjects persistent transverse radiopaque lines at the distal aspect of the tibia were observed in 30% of women and 14% of men aged 25 to 50, and 14% of women and 8% of men aged 51 to 86. Measured from the distal end of the tibia, it was clear that the persistent transverse lines had been laid down in infancy and childhood rather than during puberty. There was evidence that the age‐associated decrease in transverse lines was due to cortical remodeling both endosteally and subperiosteally.
Australopithecine dental dimensions in a contemporary population
Authors: Keene Harris J.
Published: February 2006

Two unrelated American negro males with extremely large teeth are described. The maximum reported values for Australian aboriginal mesiodistal crown diameter are exceeded in 8 out of 16 tooth groups. The majority of the negro dental measurements either exceed or lie between the mean values given in the literature for Australopithecus and Paranthropus. This casts doubt on the concept that a distinct morphological gap separates fossil from contemporary man.
The oldest primate endocast
Authors: Radinsky Leonard B.
Published: February 2006

The endocranial cast of Tetonius homunculus, a 55 million year old tarsioid primate, is primitive in having relatively large olfactory bulbs and small frontal lobes, but remarkably advanced for an Early Eocene mammal in its voluminous occipital and temporal lobes. Expansion of occipital and temporal cortical regions of the brain suggests improvement in visual and auditory function, which may have been an important factor in the Early Eocene radiation of the primates.
The occurrence of the septal perforation of the humerus in three non‐human primate species
Authors: Benfer Robert A. , Tappen Neil C.
Published: February 2006

Evidence is presented concerning the occurrence of the coronoid‐olecranon perforation of the humerus in three species of Old World monkeys. Significant relationships are found to exist between the occurrence of the perforation and smaller minimum midshaft diameters of humeri, younger ages, and more protruding processes of ulnae. A possible explanation for perforated coronoid‐olecranon septums is advanced. The olecranon process of the ulna is found to project relatively more from the shaft in young individuals than old individuals. Since the protrusion of this process is positively correlated with the occurrence of the septal perforation, it is suggested that the articulation of the point of the ulna causes resorption of the coronoid‐olecranon septum. With advancing age, the contact is broken, and the perforation is filled in. Since significant correlations are shown for the occurrence of the perforation and the size of the humerus, even for an adult sample, it seems probable that the robustness of the humerus is an inhibiting factor in the occurrence and maintenance of the perforation. In larger humeri, it is possible that the point of the ulna cannot cause complete resorption, and resorption would be more likely to cause a perforation in humeri with thinner coronoid‐olecranon septums. Because extreme extension of the elbow always forms an angle considerably less than 180° between the axes of the shafts in the humerus and the ulna in these monkeys, it is strongly indicated that hyperextension of the elbow joint beyond 180° is not a primary cause of the septal perforation when it appears in man.
The distribution of haptoglobin and transferrin types in northeast New Guinea
Authors: Baumgarten A. , Giles Eugene , Curtain C. C.
Published: February 2006

This paper reports haptoglobin testing of 2,029 serum specimens and transferrin typing of 1,911 specimens obtained from villages representing a wide range of environments and cultures in the Markham River Valley region of northeast New Guinea. The haptoglobin gene frequencies ranged from 90.0% to 61.4% for Hp1 and the frequency of the transferring gene Tfc ranged from 94.9% to 71.5%. Other transferrin genes present were TfD1 and, in low frequency, TfB Lae. Overall, no apparent correlations were found between the frequencies of these genes and altitudes, languages or distances of the villages studied up the valley. It was felt that the arguments put forward earlier emphasizing the role of genetic drift in determining gene distribution in New Guinea could be also applied to explain the distribution of the haptoglobin and transferrin genes in the Markham River Valley.
The distribution of hair of the lower limb in white and Negro males
Authors: Setty Laurel Raymond
Published: February 2006

Four types of distribution of terminal hair of the lower limb are recognized. These types are pedo‐cruro‐femoral, cruro‐femoral, pedo‐femoral and femoral. These are correlated with the types of distribution of terminal hair of the upper limb, and their incidence is reported. In addition, three hair patterns of the leg are named and described.
The skin of primates. XXXVIII. The skin of the red uacari (Cacajao rubicundus)
Authors: Perkins E. , Arao T. , Uno H.
Published: February 2006

The skin of the red uacari (Cacajao rubicundus) is characterized by distinctive traits. Pigmentation of both the epidermis and dermis in juvenile animals resembles a similar condition recorded in adult Callithricidae. Extensive capillary sinuses pervade the upper dermis of the face, ears, forehead, and frontal scalp. Hederiform nerve endings are common in the face and scalp, as are papillary nerve endorgans in the volar friction surfaces; both are reactive for specific and pseudocholinesterase. A general diminution in size of hair follicles and a retarded generative cycle contribute to the phenomenon of “baldness” in the forehead and scalp of mature animals. Apocrine glands are quantitatively diminished over the dorsum. Eccrine sweat glands, confined to the palmar and plantar friction surfaces, are poorly differentiated; all secretory cells contain glycogen.
Distribution of blood groups among Indians in South America. VI. In Paraguay
Authors: Matson G. Albin , Sutton H. Eldon , Swanson Jane , Robinson Abner
Published: February 2006

This paper on the distribution of hereditary factors in the blood of Indians in South America, reports the results of tests made on samples procured from Paraguayan Indians. Specimens from putatively full‐blood persons were obtained from the following tribes: 88 Chamacoco, 36 Moro, 85 Chulupi, 207 Lengua, 100 Toba, 20 Yam Lengua, and 51 Guayaki, These 587 Samples were tested for factors in the A‐B‐O, M‐N‐S‐s, P. Rh‐Hr, Lutheran, Kell‐Cellano, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd, and Diego systems. Serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins. He molysates, prepared from whole blood, were tested for hemoglobin types. The results are presented on appropriate tables as number and per cent of phenotypes for the various blood group antigens and their calculated allele frequencies. Locations of the populations from which blood samples were procured are listed on the tables and shown on a map (fig. 1).

Of the 587 samples all except two Chamacoco belonged to group O. High frequencies are reported generally for M, s, P, R1 (CDe), R2 (cDE), k (100%) and Fy alleles in Paraguayn Indians. Low frequencies were generally reported for N, S, r (cde) and R° (cDe) alleles. There was a wide variation in frequencies for Di, Jk, and haptoglobin Hp1. All tested for transferrins were classified as Tf C and all contained hemoglobin (A) as a major component. The following antigens were completely absent: Mia, Vw, p, Pk, ry (CdE), K, and Le1.

Most notable is the unusual distribution of hereditary blood antigens among the Guayaki and Moro. The Guayaki had 100% P1 and Fya; they were higher in R° (cDe), R1 (CDe), and Jka; and lower in R2 (cDE) and Hp1 genes than other Indians; and Di was absent. The Guayaki differed from the other Indians also in having fair skin. The Moro were lower in the P1 and Jk gene frequencies than is usually found in Amerinds, and the Di gene was absent. The Chamacoco also had an exceptionally low frequency for the P1 gene (0.261).
Occipital hair whorl as a racial criterion: A critical assessment
Authors: Bhalla Vijender , Kaul Samvit S.
Published: February 2006

Reports on the incidence of single clockwise occipital whorls as opposed to double and counterclockwise whorls reveal no consistent geographical pattern. Earlier workers arrived at different conclusions. While Bernstein ('25b) and Schwartzburg ('27) suggested a dominant inheritance of counter‐clockwise whorls, others like Winchester ('58) and Montagu ('63) believed the clockwise condition to be dominant. In the light of these and some other studies, Scheinfeld's ('56) remarks that chance factor in prenatal development may influence dominance, seem appropriate. The results of present study indicate that clockwise and anti‐clockwise conditions show inconsistent variation which may be the result of change element rather than any specific mode of distribution. Two groups from India: 164 Pandits of Kashmir, pre‐dominantly Caucasian and 95 Tibetan refugees, predominantly Mongoloid are contrasted. The incidence of a single clockwise whorl among Pandits is 67%, whereas among Tibetans it is 78%. A review of other populations studied shows greater variance within than between the so‐called major racial stocks.
Alizarin and tetracycline binding by bone mineral
Authors: Myers Howard M.
Published: February 2006

The nature of alizarin combination with bone is thought to be a chelation with a divalent cation on the surface of the crystal. Reactions of alizarin with bone mineral and apatite, rather than with intact bone, have been demonstrated by several investigators. In vitro titration indicates that a positive divalent or trivalent ion is capable of chelating with alizarin. Aluminum and iron form the strongest chelates, but calcium, magnesium, barium, etc. are capable of reacting. Not only does bone mineral, such as hydroxyapatite, combine with alizarin, but such other calcium‐containing salts as calcium fluoride also bind the dye.

The structure of alizarin that reacts with the metal ion appears to require a hydroxyquinone as the ligand. The presence of a second hydroxy group on the ring in the 2 position, or in almost any other position on the ring, facilitates the binding of the ligand to the apatite. This makes the dihydroxy molecules far more effective at low pH, and it is to this family of compounds that alizarin belongs. Alizarin red S is simply the placement of asulfonic acid group on the ring to get additional ionic structure, in order to make it soluble in water. A variety of isomers of alizarin have been studied, and all are capable of reacting with bone mineral on the same molar basis. In fact, removal of the unsubstituted ring of alizarin to form dihydroxy‐naph‐aquinone produces a dye still capable of reacting with apatite. The ratio of the moles of napthaquinone bound to those of anthraquinone may be explained by the relative sizes of the two dye molecules.

It has been shown that phosphate competitively replaces alizarin, and that its presence in solution will prevent alizarin attachment to the surface of apatite. This result can be interpreted to mean that both the alizarin and the phosphate tend to occupy the same site when they are being adsorbed onto the surface.

Tetracyclines, while more complex in structure, appear to have a binding mechanism to apatite which resembles that of alizarin.
Tetracycline bone labeling in anatomy
Authors: Frost Harold M.
Published: February 2006

Tetracyclines are deposited in vivo at centers of active bone formation, and can be seen by fluorescence microscopic examination of undecalcified bone sections. With this marker, the rate of bone formation at the level of the osteon can be measured, and is taken to indicate the speed of bone formation at the level of the osteoblast. When the number of bone‐forming centers is then counted, it becomes possible to compute: (1) the number of new centers initiated per unit time, which number is taken to indicate the number of new osteoblasts created from the osteoprogenitor cell (mesenchymal cell) pool; (2) the rate of bone formation averaged over the whole sample, which is the form of protein anabolism characteristic of bone.

Therefore the tetracycline‐labeling technique permits the quantitative analysis of skeletal growth, as well as the maintenance of the mature skeleton, in terms of tissue dynamics and cell population dynamics. Of major importance in the design of future studies is the frequent finding that abnormalities in the rate of bone formation over the whole tissue may be the opposite of abnormalities in the rate of bone formation at the level of the osteoblast. This situation can exist because osteoprogenitor cell behavior can – and frequently does – produce major changes in the total number of functional osteoblasts, changes which do not correlate with changes in the behavior of individual osteoblasts.
The use of metallic implants in the study of facial growth in children: Method and application
Authors: Björk Arne
Published: February 2006

On the basis of experience gained over a number of years, an account is given of the technique for insertion of the implants, the radiographic method, and the graphic procedure for preparation of growth tracings. Small pins of hard tantalum are hammered into the bone under local analgesia with a pencil‐shaped instrument, in the tip of which the implant is placed. No surgical exposure is necessary. Because of remodeling resorption of the bone and eruption of the teeth, the implants can be placed only in certain places in the maxilla and mandible.

In implant studies it is necessary to observe a high level of reproducibility in positioning the head in the cephalostat. An X‐ray cephalostat with a built‐in image intensifier has been designed which enables the position to be monitored by televison.

In the graphic procedure, drawings of the arches from dental casts are incorporated in tracings of profile radiographs; the paths of eruption of the teeth and development or the arches can then be examined with the metallic implants as references.
Distribution of hereditary factors in the blood of Indians of the Gila river, Arizona
Authors: Matson G. Albin , Burch Thomas A. , Polesky Herbert F. , Swanson Jane , Sutton H. Eldon , Robinson Abner
Published: February 2006

This paper reports the distribution of blood groups, A‐B‐H secretors, haptoglobins, transferrins and hemoglobin types among Indians of the Gila River Valley in Arizona. Specimens were procured from the following putative full‐bloods: 909 Pima, 37 Papago, and 124 Maricopa; and from the following known mixed‐bloods: Pima‐Papago 134, Pima‐Maricopa 26, Pima‐Other Indian 41, Pima‐Caucasian 33. These 1304 samples were tested for factors in the A‐B‐O, M‐N‐S‐s, P, Rh‐Hr, Lutheran, Kell‐Cellano, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd and Diego blood group systems, and for additional blood factors (Wra), Doa, Vel, Yta, Coa, Gya, Sav, and L. W. Serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins. Hemolysates, prepared from whole blood, were tested for hemoglobin types. The results are presented on appropriate tables as number and per cent of phenotypes for the various blood group antigens and their calculated allele frequencies. Locations of the populations from which blood samples were procured are shown on a map (fig. 1). Tests made by earlier workers on the blood of Arizona Indians and related tribes are presented for comparison and discussed.

The usual high frequencies for allele O reported in Amerinds was found among the putatively full‐blood Gila Indians; the 124 Maricopa presented the maximum frequency of 1.000.

High frequencies were reported generally for M, s, P1, R1 (CDe), R2 (cDE), k (100%) Fy, and Doa alleles. Low frequencies were reported for N, S, r (cde), R° (cDe), fy, Le1w and Dia (Pima only).

There was a wide variation in frequencies for jk, and Hp1, and there were 17 Transferrin Tf B1C observed in 270 Pima samples tested. All the remaining were classified as Tf C except two Tf B;C from mixed‐bloods.

All samples tested for Vel, Yta, Coa, Sav, and Hemoglobin (A) showed the maximum frequency (1.000) for their genes.

The following antigens were completely absent: Lua, Mia, Vw, Mta, p, Pk, ry (CdE), K, and Wra.

The results of this study suggests that the Papago tribe presents fewer genes of non‐Indian origin than the Pima, and the Maricopa least of the three populations.
The oxygen cost of breathing in man: Effects of altitude, training, and race
Authors: Mazess Richard B.
Published: February 2006

The oxygen cost of breathing was determined by an open‐circuit method with voluntary hyperventilation over a wide range of volumes. In 11 lowland residents the oxygen cost (ml/1 STPD) of extra ventilation (BTPS) was 3.3 ml/1 at sea level and 2.1 ml/1 after 16 days at 4000 m; the corresponding cost for ventilation STPD was 4.2 ml/1 at altitude and 4.1 ml/1 at sea level. In acclimatized persons at altitude, including both native Indian and European residents, the cost of breathing varied from 2.5 to 3.7 ml/1. On the average, the cost of breathing for acclimatized subjects was 3.1 ml/1 (BTPS), only slightly lower (5 to 10%) than that for lowlanders at sea level. This relatively higher cost with acclimatization, though still lower than at sea level, may reflect pulmonary congestion concomitant with altitude sojourn. Group differences in the cost of breathing could not be ascribed to athletic training, racial background, or permanent altitude residence, nor was there a difference of cost during quiet seated hyperventilation versus cost during free wheel bicycle pedalling. Individual, group, altitude, and acclimatizational differences in the cost of breathing could affect oxygen intake at rest and work, as well as the regulation of ventilation.
Hominid evolution in northwest Africa and the question of the north African “Neanderthaloids”
Authors: Briggs L. Cabot
Published: February 2006

The North African evidence bearing on hominid evolution is summarized and reviewed in relation to its industrial associations and apparent chronological order. Three tacit suppositions of the past and their effects on taxonomy and thinking in evolutionary anthropology are examined, namely the concepts of a single and unique origin of Man, of the inherent and essential, distinction between physical and spiritual Man, and of physical resemblance as absolute proof of relationship. The consequent confusion and looseness of application which have characterized hominid taxonomy, especially concerning the term Neanderthal and its derivatives, are examined and discussed primarily in relation to the so‐called Neanderthals of northern Africa.

It is suggested that the Atlanthropus remains may represent not one but two hominid varieties. Further it is argued that none of the North African remains are demonstrably related to the European Neanderthals and that some at least of them seem clearly unrelated. In conclusion it is suggested that the hominid remains from Ternifine, the Littorina Cave (Casablanca), Témara, Rabat, Jebel Irhoud and Tangier may represent links in a North African chain of hominid evolution which developed locally and remained independent of all external influence during the period covered by those specimens.
Association between discontinuous cranial traits
Authors: Hertzog Keith P.
Published: February 2006

The associations of discontinuous variants (accessory ossicles, parietal foramina, and fronto‐temporal articulation) at seven circumparietal sites were tested by deriving chi‐squares and contingency coefficients for each pair of sites in 366 crania (N=732 sides) of the Morton collection, divided into six geographic racial subsamples. Seventy‐four of 85 race specific coefficients were positive and 25 of these were significant at the 0.05 level, while 11 of the 15 total sample coefficients were significant at the 0.01 level. Considerable racial variation was exhibited in the number and pattern of associations. Associations between adjacent sites were higher than those between non‐adjacent sites. This neighborhood pattern of associations is discussed with reference to a model in which many of the factors which produce these discontinuous variants operate on a regional scope, encompassing several neighboring sites, with overlapping of the regions affected by different factors.
Climatic influence on the skeletal nasal aperture
Authors: Wolpoff Milford H.
Published: February 2006

Abstract Climate is thought to be one of the factors affecting the distribution of nasal form as represented by the breadth and height of the skeletal nasal aperture. A model of nasal function is developed to predict influences on the skeletal nasal dimensions by selection acting upon the external nasal passage and aperture. Cranial series from Alaska and Australia, each series representing a climatic continuum from warmer and moister conditions to cooler and drier conditions, verify the predictions. These data suggest conditions for testing hypotheses about human variation.
Population frequencies and altered remodeling mechanisms in normal medullary stenosis
Authors: Garn Stanley M. , Davila Gail H. , Rohmann Christabel G.
Published: February 2006

As shown in 2065 women aged 18 to 45 years from seven countries of Central and North America, the population frequency of normal medullary stenosis ranges from under 2% to nearly 7%. In this condition, endosteal apposition may begin in infancy and continue through the fourth decade with a compensatory reduction in the rate of subperiosteal apposition, leading to an approximately normal cortical cross‐sectional area contained in a smaller subperiosteal envelope.
A note on the olduvai clavicular fragment
Authors: Oxnard Charles E.
Published: February 2006

Certain features of the Olduvai clavicular fragment have been examined in the light of data already existing on the form of the clavicle in primates. Although similar to that of modern man, the fragment exhibits features which suggest that its function may have differed somewhat from that of the clavicle in man. The new information correlates well with that obtained from the fragmentary Sterkfontein scapula.
Elemental bone iron in the Anasazi Indians
Authors: Zaino Edward C.
Published: February 2006

Excavation of a pithouse village of Anasazi Indians occupied during Pueblo II (A. D. 900‐1100) near Littlefield, Arizona, uncovered 14 adult, children and infant burial sites.

Iron measurements were made of samples of bone and the sand surrounding the bones at each burial site.

Iron in the bones were found to be equivalent to present day normal values. Iron content in the sand surrounding the bones was low and no relationship was noted between the bone iron and the sand iron.

These findings are probably valid only for regions where there is good skeletal preservation.

The findings support the concept that the diet of these prehistoric Anasazi Indians was nutritionally adequate.
Mutation and selection — a quantitative evaluation
Authors: Brues Alice M.
Published: February 2006

A quantitative comparison of gene frequency change by mutation, selection, and mutation and selection combined, demonstrates that even when the mutation rate is quite high (1/10,000 per generation), and favorable selection almost imperceptibly small (.0025 per gene per generation) selection becomes the principal force changing gene frequency as soon as the new gene has reached the level of 4%.
Observations on mid‐tertiary hominoids Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus
Authors: Prasad K. N.
Published: February 2006

Detailed palaeontological analyses of the hominoids of the Miocene indicate the occurrence of forms belonging to Pongidae and Hominidae. Of these, Sivapithecus (Pongidae) with three contained species and Ramapithecus (Hominidae) with two distinct species can be recognized. These two families Pongidae and Hominidae were sufficiently well defined and distinct by the late Miocene about 14 million years ago. The author has discussed in brief the status of a few interesting finds of Sivapithecus and Ramapithecus based on the study of the originals preserved in India and America.
The frequency of appearance of transverse lines in the tibia in relation to childhood illnesses
Authors: Gindhart Patricia Schwager
Published: February 2006

The hypothesis that transverse lines of increased density in growing bones are caused by illnesses and other traumas of childhood was investigated using tibial x‐rays and medical records of 107 boys and 94 girls in the Fels longitudinal series. There is not a one to one relationship between even severe illnesses and line formation. The frequency of appearance of lines at each age interval, one month through fourteen years, was calculated for both sexes separately and combined, in order to show periods of maximum formation. That transverse lines are “growth arrest” lines which cause ultimate growth retardation was discounted since no significant difference in finally attained adult stature was noted between heavily and lightly lined subjects.
Roentgenographic and direct measurement of femoral cortical involution in a prehistoric Mississippian population
Authors: van Gerven Dennis P. , Armelagos George J. , Bartley Murray H.
Published: February 2006

Recent roentgenographic studies suggest that periosteal apposition adds femoral cortical bone faster than it is lost by endosteal involution, so that cortical bone area increases with age. A comparison was made of direct and roentgenographic measurements of femoral cortical bone using femora from 23 females and 20 males of a prehistoric Mississippian population dated at A.D. 1540–1700. The comparison revealed that significant errors existed in the technique of radiographic measurement (p<0.000001), in estimating male and female cortical thickness (p<0.000001), and the changes in thickness with age (p<0.000001). There was no significant interaction of the variables: age, sex, and method.

The errors arose partly from the inability of the roentgenograph to reveal clearly endosteal porosity, and partly in the assumption that the medial and lateral cortical wall thickness would be representative of the mean cortical thickness.

The reduction in cortical thickness (11.3% males and 29.3% females) with age as measured directly is comparable with loss in modern populations.
Distribution of transferrin phenotypes in selected troops of Kenya baboons
Authors: Buettner‐Janusch John , Olivier Thomas J.
Published: February 2006

The distribution of transferrin alleles in a group of common baboons, Papio cynocephalus of East Africa, was determined after starch gel electrophoresis of plasma and autoradiography of electrophoretograms. Three alleles, TfA, TfB, and TfC, were found, in agreement with results previously reported. The frequencies of these alleles are TfA = 0.276, TfB = 0.515, Tfc = 0.209. The difference between the frequencies reported here and those reported by Buettner‐Janusch (1963 Folia Primat., 1: 73–87) for the same species (TfA = 0.205, TfB = 0.332, Tfc = 0.463) is significant. Transferrin of P. cynocephalus contains four residues of sialic acid per molecule of transferrin, as determined by electrophoresis and autoradiography of plasma treated with neuraminidase.
A statistical study of the multivariate structure and race‐sex differences of American White and Negro fetal skeletons
Authors: Choi Sung C. , Trotter Mildred
Published: February 2006

The techniques of factor analysis and discriminant analysis have been applied to 21 measurements of 115 fetal, American White and Negro skeletons. It was found that the factor patterns of the race‐sex groups are similar and that two factors describe approximately 85% of the total variance of the multivariate structure of the skeleton. Discriminant analyses showed that differences between the sexes are more marked than those between the races. A function was obtained by which the sex of fetal skeletons may be classified.
ABO blood groups, PTC tasting and dermatoglyphics of Tibetans at Chandragiri, Orissa
Authors: Patel S.
Published: February 2006

ABO blood groups and PTC taste tests determined on 230 Tibetan refugees, and finger print patterns of the 184 males among them, indicate their essential Asiatic Mongoloid affinity.
An atypical Bronze Age mandible from Żerniki Górne, Poland
Authors: Biggerstaff Robert H.
Published: February 2006

The unusual anatomical features of a Bronze Age mandible are described. Of particular interest were the shelf‐like ridges which were located approximately midway along the rami. These ridges probably formed the insertion areas for the masseter muscles. Of two possible explanations presented to account for the unusual morphological variations, the more likely is the congenital absence of the superficial portions of the masseter muscles. However, an alternative explanation is presented suggesting the presence of shortened superficial portions of the masseter muscle which could explain the contour of the shelf.
Demographic structure of a primitive population: A simulation
Authors: MacCluer Jean W. , Neel James V. , Chagnon Napoleon A.
Published: February 2006

A stochastic computer simulation model has been used to study the demography of the Ya̧nomamö Indians of Venezuela and Brazil, whose social organization is typical of many primitive societies. It has been found by simulation that perhaps one third of all Ya̧nomamö marriages involve individuals related as first or second cousins, and that more than 16% of all males must leave their villages to find wives, in spite of a strong preference for village endogamy. In the process of validating and experimenting with the model, we discovered (1) the role of sibship size in determining a man's ability to obtain wives; (2) the variability in frequency of cousin marriages through time; and (3) the importance of wife trading in assuring that few men complete the reproductive period without having married at least once. In addition, we strengthened our impressions, gathered from ethnographic data, that the Ya̧nomamö are an expanding population.
Vertesszöllös and the Presapiens theory
Authors: Wolpoff Milford H.
Published: February 2006

The Presapiens theory, suggesting completely separate lineages leading to Neandertals and to Homo sapiens, has recently received a number of setbacks. However, the discovery of two hominids at Vertesszöllös could be corroborating evidence. The teeth of the first individual were described as those of Homo erectus, as were most features of the second, represented by an occipital. The two main characteristics used to support the Homo sapiens classification of the second individual are the long lambda‐opisthion chord and the high cranial capacity, based on a regression using the lambda‐opisthion chord. However, the real position of lambda is obscured by the presence of wormian bones, and the regression used to predict capacity was derived from a sample with more Neandertals than Homo erectus specimens. A comparative treatment of the morphological features and recalculation of the regression suggests that separating the occipital from Homo erectus is not justified. Other evidence indicates Homo erectus specimens as big as Vertesszöllös 2. It is unlikely that two hominid lineages occur in the Mid‐Pleistocene.
Social dominance and reproductive behavior in male rhesus monkeys
Authors: Suarez Brian , Ackerman D. R.
Published: February 2006

Altmann's model describing the relationship of social dominance to breeding behavior in some non‐human primate species has been tested using data from the Cayo Santiago rhesus colony. Although some of the model's assumptions are clearly not met by field observations, a good fit is often found for groups containing relatively few sexually mature, non‐pregnant females. It is suggested that genetic change could be rapid under conditions described by this model. It is estimated that a “beneficial mutation” could spread through all the breeding males in as little as six generations regardless of group size. The speed at which an allele can spread through the group is discussed in terms of the mean length of female receptivity.
Trends in the Evolution of the Pongid Dentition
Authors: Skaryd Suzanne M.
Published: February 2006

The question investigated in this paper is whether long‐range, parallel trends in evolution can be sustained in divergent though closely related lines. This study examines fossil and recent pongid dentitions, testing the hypothesis of the existence of certain trends in the pongid dental evolution. These are: reduction of the cingulum in both upper and lower molars; morphological and metrical reduction in third molars; mesial movement of the metaconid; buccal shifting of the hypoconulid; and alteration of the Dryopithecus groove pattern. More broadly the study tests conclusions of a previous study concerning parallelism of trends in the hominoid dentition. The results of reduction of the cingulum, reduction of the third molar, and alteration of the occlusal pattern on the lower molars support the theory that similar, long‐term trends can operate in the evolution of divergent, though closely related lines. They also demonstrate that morphological resemblances between two forms are not certain proof of recent divergence.
The operational meaning of maturity criteria
Authors: Garn Stanley M. , Poznanski Andrew K. , Nagy Jerrold M.
Published: February 2006

The fact that specific radiographic criteria represent different proportions of attained maturity in males and females, in individuals of different geographical origin, in undernourished as opposed to over‐nourished subjects and in genetic or chromosomal extremes together indicates the operational complexity of “skeletal maturity” and indicates the need to separate those aspects of skeletal development that are not sex‐hormone dependent from those whose timing is directly dependent upon gonadal status.
The measurement of skeletal maturity
Authors: Murray James R. , Bock R. Darrell , Roche Alex F.
Published: February 2006

A new approach to the measurement of skeletal maturity has been described. This was applied to the distal end of the femur in boys aged one month to four years. It is planned to extend this study to girls and to other ages and sites and to other bones in the knee area. The study began with the testing of reported indicators of skeletal maturity in respect of replicability, validity, discrimination and universality. As a result, seven qualitative graded indicators and three quantitative ratios were selected for further investigation. Maturity scores based on each qualitative indicator can be estimated using parameters from a simple probit analysis with chronological age as the independent variable. The statistical factors that influence the usefulness of these indicators have been discussed. The quantitative indicators investigated appear very useful as measures of maturity although some are redundant. The planned extension of the present study should allow the formulation of an appropriate model for the measurement of skeletal maturity by combining qualitative and quantitative data.
A consideration of factors underlying the selection of methods in the assessment of skeletal maturity
Authors: Malina Robert M.
Published: February 2006

The assessment of skeletal maturity is basically a method. How one makes this assessment or what one does with the assessment is dictated by the research and/or clinical problem at hand. A variety of methods have been suggested for the assessment of skeletal maturity, although the two most commonly used are the inspectional and bone specific approaches. Several of the proposed methods are considered, with primary emphasis upon the problems, factors, and/or alternatives related to the choice of one method over another.
Use of the Greulich‐Pyle “Atlas of skeletal development of the hand and wrist” in a clinical context
Authors: Anderson Margaret
Published: February 2006

Assessments of the relative maturity of individual children have been widely used to improve estimations of future growth as well as in evaluations of physiological disorders. Skeletal age (Hand) has been the most commonly used method for these estimations.

In the clinical use of skeletal ages, certain problems are inherent regardless of which standard is selected. One of these is the method of reporting so that the cliniciam may learn of the normal variation at each age as well as the operational error of the specific assessor. Another problem lies in the proper clinical interpretation to be put upon significantly variant skeletal age readings in infancy, in childhood, or in adolescence. A third problem arises in limiting the use of skeletal ages which are read from areas which are involved with osseous pathology. And fourthly, a child's level of maturity is not static throughout his growing years; even with no change in therapeutic regime, marked shifts in relative maturity have been often noted.

The wealth of experience which has now been acquired with the Greulich‐Pyle standard is not the least of the advantages in using the Hand for the assessment of skeletal age. The 30 centers in this small area of the body, however, may be harmonious in development or may vary in “maturity” by as much as three years in a single hand. The problems then are: Which centers best represent the individual child? Which centers are most closely related to growth? Is growth in the hand and accurate index of the growth in other areas of the body? In total stature? The clinical assessment of future growth may best be made from a consideration of the whole child: his size, his physical characteristics, and his skeletal age, as well as the pattern of change‐with‐age in each of these.

These problems will be discussed with illustrations drawn from the longitudinal Growth Study at this institution.
Tanner‐Whitehouse and Greulich‐Pyle skeletal age velocity comparisons
Authors: Fry Edward I.
Published: February 2006

Longitudinal velocity measurements of Tanner‐Whitehouse (TW) and Greulich‐Pyle (GP) skeletal ages have been determined for 233 Hong Kong Chinese orphanage children. When skeletal age is compared to chronological age (CA) the resulting ratio TW/CA or GP/CA has been titled a Tanner. Tanner values range from 0.74 to 1.26 for the GP/CA calculations and from 0.73 to 1.45 for the TW/CA calculations. The mean Tanner value was much higher for TW velocities (X = 1.19). Age to age variability in velocity is large by either system and generally girls vary more than boys.
Bone age: Its contribution to the prediction of maturational or biological age
Authors: Mellits E. D. , Dorst J. P. , Cheek D. B.
Published: February 2006

The bone age of normal children was determined by both the method of Wilkins and the method of Greulich and Pyle. In boys, the mean of the difference between the bone age and the chronological age was significantly greater than zero with the Wilkins method but not with the Greulich and Pyle method.

In normal children of both sexes, bone age determined by the Greulich and Pyle method proved to be an important component in equations designed to assess progress along the pathway of growth (Biological Age). These equations combine information concerning body growth, cell growth and body composition. Bone age determined by the Wilkins method, however, was not a significant component in such equations.

Biological age equations that include the Greulich and Pyle bone age have been applied to children with a number of diseases that affect growth. In comparison to chronological age, biological age was advanced in obese girls and retarded in boys with both severe congenital heart disease and pituitary dwarfism. Following seven months of therapy with human growth hormone, the latter group showed evidence of catch up growth.
Single versus serial assessment of skeletal age: Either, both or neither?
Authors: Maresh Marion M.
Published: February 2006

Assessments of skeletal age are a valuable adjunct to the clinical evaluation of physical maturity but are more meaningful when considered in relation to chronological age, especially over time, than as separate entities.

Data on 51 girls from the Child Research Council study series gave a correlation coefficient of 0.51 between skeletal age (SA) at menarche and chronological age (CA) at menarche — a value in close agreement with data reported from other studies. With a range in SA of 11.58 to 14.89 years, these data were examined further for changes in SA related to timing of adolescence. SA was greater than CA in each of the nine girls whose menarche occurred between 10.5 and 12 years of age. SA was equal to CA in one girl, greater than CA in eight girls and less than CA in 11 girls with menarche between 12.15 and 13.4 years. Of the 22 girls with menarche after 13.5 years, one had SA = CA at 14.89 years and the other 21 all had SA less than CA. An r of 0.84 was calculated between the values of CA minus SA at menarche and CA at menarche. Similar relationships were found between SA and CA at age of maximum increment in growth in height for these girls and for 53 boys in the study series.

Longitudinal data for height, weight and SA for four boys and five girls demonstrate the problems of prediction of the timing of adolescence and of adult size from skeletal ages in the childhood years.
Skeletal growth in school children: Maturation and bone mass
Authors: Mazess Richard B. , Cameron John R.
Published: February 2006

Skeletal growth and development was evaluated in 322 white children (age 6 to 14) using three different methods: (1) 125I photon absorptiometry, (2) compact bone measures on radiographs, and (3) Greulich‐Pyle skeletal age from hand‐wrist radiographs. Bone mineral content, measured by photon absorptiometry, increased at an incremental rate of about 8.5% each year. Skeletal age was a poor predictor of skeletal status, i.e., bone mineral content (14% error), and did not decrease the predictive error substantially more than did chronological age. Gross morphology (height and weight) was in fact a better predictor of bone mineral content than were skeletal age, chronological age, and radiographic morphometry. Skeletal age deviations were correlated with deviations in body size. A bone mineral index was devised which was independent of body size and this index was also independent of skeletal age. Skeletal age is imprecise (3 to 6 months error) and the range of variation in normal children (13 months) overlaps the maturational delay of the malnourished and diseased. The difficulties in using skeletal maturation are discussed and it is suggested that particular maturational indices be used which better indicate skeletal growth than does a composite skeletal age.
The value of an assessment of skeletal maturity in orthodontic diagnosis
Authors: Broadbent B. Holly , Golden William H.
Published: February 2006

The diagnosis of an orthodontic case includes not only an assessment of present structure and function but estimates of the extent to which further natural growth is to be expected. This natural growth may assist manipulative treatment; its absence may indicate a need for surgical correction. Estimates of facial growth potential, while not precise, are assisted greatly by assessments of skeletal maturity.