bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chiefly and Shamanist Landscapes in Mongolia
Authors: Humphrey Caroline
Published: October 2023

The Western idea of ‘the landscape’ arises from objectification and is closely related to practices such as painting, map-making, song, and poetry. The secular, appreciative gaze is certainly not unknown among the Mongols. But it was historically intermittent and was inspired by non-Mongol kinds of representation, such as Manchu maps, Chinese and Russian landscape painting, or the ‘genre’ scenes in Tibetan religious paintings. In Mongolian culture itself landscapes are more in the nature of practices designed to have results: it is not contemplation of the land (gazar) that is important but interaction with it, as something with energies far greater than the human. The Mongols do not take over any terrain in the vicinity and transform it into something that is their own. Instead, they move within a space and environment where some kind of pastoral life is possible and ‘in-habit’ it. That is to say, they let it pervade them and their herds, influencing where they settle, when they move, and what kinds of animals they keep. However, this is not a pre-reflective or spontaneous existence, but one recognizing human choice and agencies, which are conceived as interrelated with and subordinate to the agencies attributed to entities in the land. Thus the Mongols choose to avoid forests and narrow ravines, preferring wide-open steppes, where the land is before them in a limitless expanse. But the most featureless plain has its gentle curves, or bushes, or marshy patches, and even such entities are credited with powers of some kind. I shall use the word ‘landscape’ to designate the ways in which these energies are envisaged, or, to put this another way, to describe the concepts by which social agencies constitute the physical world.
Relating to the Country in the Western Desert
Authors: Layton Robert
Published: October 2023

At the time I conducted eleven months’ fieldwork in the region ofUluru (Ayers Rock, Australian Western Desert) between 1977 and 1979, half a century had passed since colonization by pastoralists had irrevocably changed the indigenous way of life. Uluru itself had been subject to tourism for twenty years. East of Uluru lay cattle stations while to the west and south, the Petermann and Musgrave Ranges were former Aboriginal reserves which once again belonged to their traditional Aboriginal owners since passage of the Northern Territory Land Rights Act in 1976. One of the purposes of my research was to obtain evidence for a land claim on Uluru and Katatjuta (the Olgas). Much of this claim was unable to proceed because the Federal Government transferred ownership to the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service before the claim came to court. Surrounding areas were none the less granted to the claimants and title to the Park area was returned to its traditional owners in 1985. The senior men and women with whom I worked were already young adults when they first came into lasting contact with White people. During their adult lives, however, they have seen their way of life transformed in many ways. Although men still hunt regularly, imported flour has largely replaced the wild vegetable foods, traditionally gathered by women, which once provided 80 per cent of the diet. Children are born in hospital rather than in the bush, a change which has created major difficulties for maintaining personal affiliation to the land. Life on settlements has curtailed some ceremonies, while the introduction of motor vehicles has greatly expanded the opportunities for maintaining ceremonial links between communities.
The Language of the Forest: Landscape and Phonological Iconism in Umeda
Authors: Gell Alfred
Published: October 2023

It might seem odd to raise the question of linguistic iconicity—the diagram-like or mimetic attributes of language—in the context of a work on landscape and culture. But I hope to show that my choice of subject-matter is not as arbitrary as it might appear, and that there may be, indeed, an intimate relationship between the cultural factors shaping the phonology of certain natural languages, and the particularities of the landscape setting within which the speakers of these languages live. My thesis is that people who live in dense, unbroken jungle, such as the New Guinean peoples I shall discuss, speak languages that are unusually rich in phonological iconisms, and that this association between forest habitats and iconic languages can be theoretically accounted for. Phonological iconisms are instances in which there are interpret able relationships between speech sounds or articulatory ‘gestures’, and the semantic meanings conveyed by words in speech.
Fundamentals in the Liberal Constitutional Tradition
Authors: Kommers Donald p. , Thompson W J
Published: October 2023

In recapitulating the essentials of the liberal constitutional tradition, we are faced at the outset with severe problems of definition. We could, for example, spend much of our time clarifying the concept of a ‘tradition’. What constitutes a tradition? How and when do ideas or practices evolve into a tradition? Is a tradition the same as an ideology? We shall pass on these questions, because for present purposes it is more important to focus on the meaning of liberal constitutionalism. Yet here too we face problems of definition. The focus of this volume is constitutionalism, and the assumption seems to be that we all adequately grasp what this term means. But Walter Murphy has suggested, and we agree, that ‘without a clear definition, the term “constitutionalism” is an invitation to debate about ghosts or, to shift the metaphor, to enter a trackless verbal swamp’.1 The fog thickens when we add the specification ‘liberal’, in so far as the adjective suggests that there may be different kinds of constitutionalism.
Constitutional Developments in the Netherlands: Towards a Weaker Parliament and Stronger Courts?
Authors: Scheltema Michiel
Published: October 2023

In 1983 a completely redrafted Constitution came into force in the Netherlands. The old Constitution, dating from 1815, had been amended several times—the amendments of 1848 were the most important ones—but a complete revision had never been under taken before. During the process of rewriting the document, issues of substantive constitutional importance had been under discussion. Some issues had been given special attention, such as the introduction of some kind of referendum, the need for judicial review of Acts of Parliament—not existing in the Netherlands—and the introduction of elections for the mayors of cities and towns to replace the existing system of appointments by the Crown.
Implementing the Spanish Constitution
Authors: Perales Ascensión Elvira
Published: October 2023

In 1992 the Spanish Constitution, drawn up in 1978, celebrated its fourteenth birthday—quite a short life-span, but one which has brought about considerable changes in the socio-political sphere and a reaffirmation of the meaning of the Constitution, which was almost certainly not foreseeable during the iter constituyente (constitutional process). It is not the aim of this chapter to undertake an in-depth analysis of the Constitution, nor of its evolution. Rather, the more important aspects of its development will be outlined, on the one hand highlighting the extent to which the constitutional brief has been fulfilled and on the other demonstrating the incidence of change in the Constitution itself.
The Relevance of Western Models for Constitution-Building in Poland
Authors: Sokolewicz Wojciech
Published: October 2023

Occupied during the Second World War, Poland was reborn within a much-altered territory and with its sovereignty limited by the USSR: the state was dependent on its eastern neighbour politically, ideologically, and economically. The permanence of dependence on the USSR was guaranteed by the Communist Party, which bore the name of the Polish Workers’ Party until 1948 when, having absorbed a number of members of the essentially social democratic Polish Socialist Party, it was renamed the Polish United Workers’ Party. Over the decades until 1989, the Communists had the decisive influence over the exercise of state power; its constitutional framework was shaped according to their political strategy and sometimes even tactics.1 Starting from 1947, all political opposition was banned and persecuted by law among other measures.
Introduction
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

Langkawi Island (Pulau Langkawi) is situated about thirty miles off the west coast of Malaysia, just south of the Thai border. Some of the most vivid images from beginning my fieldwork there in 1980 are of the many everyday occurrences for young women inside a Malay house. Being left to look after a small baby during the daytime; taking a midday meal of rice and fish on the floor of the kitchen with my foster family; being sent to make the coffee when unexpected visitors arrive; the intense heat of houses in the middle of the day; the quiet, easy familiarity of the cooler evenings when friends and neighbours drop by for a chat and a betel quid.
The Substance of Kinship and the Heat of the Hearth
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

At the end of the last chapter I described how the person is both individual and multiple. Each body is the container of a sibling set. The semangat of the person is part of a seven-member set which may in fact be likened to the parts of the body. The person also has a symbolic sibling placenta which is buried in the ground at birth. Persons and their bodies have a multiple identity and this is conceived in terms of the relation of siblingship.
Introduction
Authors: Hooghe Liesbet
Published: October 2023

The European Union is a puzzle for most observers because it seems to defy traditional categories of governance cast in the language of nation-state politics or international collaboration (Wallace 1989; Wallace 1990; Sbragia 1993; Bulmer 1994; Peterson 1994). It is set to take decisions in a wide range of areas which directly affect public and private interests in the Union, and in that respect it seems to resemble national states more than international organizations (Lodge 1989; Schmitter 1992a). However, compared to national states, it has extremely limited means to exert political rule. Yet, it is expected to get these resourceful entities on its side, which are potent alternative centres of authority on their own; that is a formidable challenge, because member states have distinctly different institutions, practices, and patterns of interest representation moulded by distinct trajectories of state-building. No emerging national state had to deal with such powerful and diverse alternative loci of authority (Marks and McAdam 1993; Marks 1995a). The central task is therefore, time and again, how policy-makers can develop a coherent common policy at the European level, and yet give attention to the variation in political practice, institutions, and players in the member states.
Europe and Cohesion Policy-Making in the Flemish Region
Authors: Rynck Stefaan De
Published: October 2023

This chapter deals with the structural funds policies in the Belgian region of Flanders during the last ten years. The four areas that have received European support are compared in an attempt to delineate the impact of the European Community on territorial restructuring and on the nature of the policy process. Territorial relations during the 1980s in Belgium were in a state of rapid transformation. Nowhere in Western Europe has the national government been weakened to the same extent. This weakness, together with the incubation stage of the new regional authorities, created an excellent window of opportunity for all actors, including the European Commission, to shape territorial relations, and to have an impact on policy-making. The comparative analysis of intergovernmental relations in the four cases presented here allows an analysis of whether or not the Commission has indeed been capable of exploiting the opportunity. Also, the research design permits an investigation of whether the European Commission has succeeded in giving shape to partnership structure in a top-down manner, or whether its influence has been much more contingent on local circumstances. In the latter instance, a varying pattern of intergovernmental relations can be expected in the different cases.
The European Union, Cohesion Policy, and Subnational Authorities in the United Kingdom
Authors: Bache Ian , George Stephen , Rhodes R A W
Published: October 2023

This chapter describes and analyses the relationship in the United Kingdom between subnational authorities, central government, and the European Union (EU) after the 1988 reform of the structural funds. It pays particular attention to the partnership arrangements introduced for administering EU regional policy, which formed part of the European Commission’s concept of cohesion policy discussed in the Introduction to this volume. We also consider the development of regional associations and the implementation of the additionality principle, both of which were of significance for the UK following the 1988 reform.
Forecasting and Testing in Co-integrated Systems*
Authors: Engle Robert F , Yoo Byung Sam
Published: October 2023

This paper examines the behaviour of forecasts made from a co-integrated system as introduced by Granger (1981), Granger and Weiss (1983) and Engle and Granger (1987). It is established that a multi-step forecast will satisfy the co-integrating relation exactly and that this particular linear combination of forecasts will have a finite limiting forecast error variance. A simulation study compares the multi-step forecast accuracy of unrestricted vector autoregression with the two-step estimation of the vector autoregression imposing the cointegration restriction.
Peasant Farming in Tanzania, 1969–1983
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

In 1976 Tanzanian coffee farmers were receiving 44 per cent of the world price, as compared with 76 per cent in Kenya. The imposition of a windfall coffee tax combined with the changes in relative prices against exports brought about by macroeconomic policies meant the little of the windfall directly accrued to peasants. There were, however, profound changes in the peasant economy during the period of our analysis, which we will argue, in Part III, were attributable to macroeconomic performance, and hence indirectly to the coffee boom.
Public Policy and the Economy since 1900
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

This is a comprehensive account of British economic policy since 1900, covering both macro and micro issues and making full use of recent research, drawing on documents made available under the 30-year rule which reveal the formulation of policy through the 1950s. Broadly chronological in its approach, it offers both a coherent analysis and a clear narrative description of policy-making through the century. It is structured in such a way as to give due weight to the various influences on policy: institutional aspects (such as the changing role of policy-making ministries), political debate, and economic theory.
The Market and Increasing Yields
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

Observation of industrial economies brings forth the frequent existence of increasing yields: whether it concerns the effects connected with research, the size of equipment, or the cumulative production already attained. Hence the interest in exploring the operation of the simple model in Chapter 2 when firms, instead of offering a single job, offer several, the new receipts of the marginal job increasing or decreasing in relation to the number of jobs already taken. This interest can be justified by analysis, which will confirm the economist’s intuition and show that, under certain conditions, the presence of increasing yields may make the market converge towards inefficient stable states. The study of the dynamics of the labour-market in the presence of increasing yields shows that its evolution depends on the crossing of two hypotheses, one concerning the jumps of scale, the other the circulation of information.
The Creating of Skills
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

This chapter, using a particular case, takes up a major question: how can the very operations of an institutional structure (in this case, a market) give birth to a new structure (in this case, two markets)? The particular case examined is a labour-market in which all the workers are unskilled. At the outset, there is then just one labour-market. However, when certain workers are employed by certain firms, they can acquire technicians’ skills. As the firms have the choice between systems of organization calling for either workers or technicians, a second labour-market of variable size is liable to appear. Depending on history, the economy will use the whole of its human resources, transforming into technicians all the workers capable of being so, or will ensnare itself in a final state rendering a greater or lesser fraction of its human capital unproductive.
The Founding of Unions
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

Considering the importance of the role played by the labour unions in matters of employment, there is no reason to be surprised at the rapid development which micro-economic analysis of union behaviour has experienced (Farber 1986). The research has especially concerned the models in which the size of the union is predetermined, the aim being to explore the influence of union goals and the nature of wage and employment negotiations. Even in the more recent texts treating the size of the union as a variable, the models bring together a single enterprise and one set of workers and place themselves within the static framework of contracts theory.
Government and the Enterprise Since 1900
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

A chronological account of industrial policy This book surveys governmental industrial policy in Britain from 1900 to the early 1990s, exploring the perennial concern of governments to improve the efficiency and the competitiveness of British industry. Organized chronologically, it focuses on the formation of policy-making, and policy implementation, according to the ideas and beliefs that have dominated during the century. Thus industrial policy is traced through time of war and recession, through the building of the welfare state and times of growth, and through stagflation, economic liberalism, and deindustrialization. The constant theme of the book is the attempt by all governments to achieve the objectives of high growth, low unemployment, and international competitiveness. An examination of the effects of government ideologies Dr Tomlinson reveals both the microeconomic context of industrial policy, and microeconomic effects of these policies. The emphasis is on the formation of policy according to the ideology of the political party in power. Tomlinson also deals with the capacity of each government to carry out its policy, and the ways in which this capacity may be limited by economic constraints, or by the institutions through which industrial policy is implemented. Detailed case studies The focus of the book is on British industry, although in parts Tomlinson uses a comparative perspective to set British policy in the world context, most notably during the chapter on the 1980s. The book ends with two case studies, the industries of cotton and cars, to illuminate the policy explored in the previous chapters. Tomlinson concludes that the British government has continuously found an acceptable industrial policy problematic.
Real Price Rigidity
Authors: Andersen Torben M
Published: October 2023

The distinction between real and nominal price rigidities is important. The present chapter develops a number of explanations of why real prices are rigid, while the issue of nominal rigidities is dealt with more intensively in the following chapters. The explanations of nominal rigidities developed in the subsequent chapters may also be translated into explanations of real price rigidities, but not the other way around. Hence it is most natural to start out with models of real price rigidities. The starting-point is dynamic models of price-setting firms, and we first consider the implications that inventory holdings have for price adjustment. Then in Section 4.3 we dynamize the demand side by introducing the idea of customer markets, implying that customers are attached to suppliers because it is costly to shift between suppliers. A related idea of asymmetric responses on the part of consumers to upward and downward price changes is analysed in Section 4.4 under the heading of ‘Kinked Demand Curves ‘. Finally, Section 4.5 addresses the possibility that collusion between firms in a dynamic setting may cause real price rigidities.
The Economic History of Italy 1860—1990
Authors: Zamagni Vera
Published: October 2023

This book gives a full account of the economic and social history of Italy since unification (1860), with an introduction covering the previous period since the Middle Ages. The Economic History of Italy represents a scholarly and authoritative account of Italy's progress from a rural economy to an industrialized nation. The book makes a broad division of the period into three parts: the take-off (1860-1913), the consolidation in the midst of two wars and a world depression (1914-47), and the great expansion (1948-1990). Professor Zamagni traces the growth of industrialization, and argues that despite several advanced areas Italy only became an industrialized nation after the Second World War, and that during the 1980s the South was still clearly behind the rest of the country. Zamagni analyses data both from a macroeconomic position, in looking at the growth of the finance sector, or the role of the State, and from a microeconomic position when she draws conclusions from the changing population structure, or from the actions of individual businesses. Professor Zamagni reveals that even though the population more than doubled during this time the level of national income rose 19-fold, to move Italy from a peripheral status in Europe to a central position as a prosperous country. A central theme of the book is Professor Zamagni's argument that the Italian economy has been successful not by any great individuality of its own but by being flexible enough to incorporate the successes of other countries: Japan's integrated business network, for example, or Germany's financial structure. She places the industrialization of Italy in the international context by comparing Italy's GDP and other measures of prosperity at different times to the USA, Japan, the UK, France, and Germany. The book is based on original field-work by the author, and the many detailed but small-scale studies existing in Italian. Quantitative trends are described in more than 70 tables of data, while the book provides appendices containing chronologies of main events in various sectors and biographies.
Resources, Deprivation, And Poverty
Authors: Nolan Brian , Whelan Christopher T
Published: October 2023

Poverty is a notoriously ill-defined term, both in common usage and in academic application. Empirical research on poverty has to deal first of all with the ambiguities and confusions associated with the term and concept: what is it that one is actually trying to measure? It then has to address the problem that the various approaches to measuring poverty that are used in practice may not adequately implement the underlying concept: they may not correctly identify those one would wish to call ‘poor’. Despite the attention poverty statistics receive from policy-makers and the broader public, there is remarkably little consensus among social scientists on how best to measure the condition. In this book our aim is to identify and address key problems with the ways in which poverty has generally been conceptualized and measured in relatively rich countries. The core issue is how to define and measure poverty in such countries in a way that is valid, meaningful in the context, and valuable for policy-making.
The State and the Family
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne
Published: October 2023

In a number of industrialized countries, on the assumption that fertility remains at or close to present levels, populations will start to decline, in some cases quite rapidly in the near to medium future. Many governments are alarmed by this prospect, especially since it goes hand in hand with a further and acute ageing of the population. From the fears in the 1930s about population and family decline, to the fears in the 1970s about over-population, and contemporary talk of `family-friendly' policies, governments' attitudes towards and interventions in family policy have changed considerably. What is today referred to as family policy differs widely from the first forms of government support before the Second World War. This book argues that demographic changes have been a major force in bringing population and family issues on to the political agenda. The decline in fertility, the increase in divorce rates and lone-parenthood, and the entry of women into the labour force have all reduced the relevance of systems of state support aimed at traditional families. From this perspective, the author examines the changes that have affected families over the past 100 years, and the policies that have been adopted by different governments in response to these changes. Data from twenty-two industrialized countries is used to provide an original analysis of legislation, initiatives, and measures aimed at better supporting families. The book assembles arguments from demography, sociology, and economics to explain population policies, their origins and aims. It shows that despite major similarities across countries in the ways family policy has evolved, and in the ways governments have viewed and supported families, there are major dissimilarities shaped by country-specific events, ideologies, and circumstances. It concludes by drawing a typology of models of family policy bases on these inter-country differences.
The Expansion of State Support for Families
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne
Published: October 2023

With the return to peace, new economic and political conditions emerged, and favoured a major expansion of state support for families. In contrast to the scattered measures of the pre-World War II period, the post-war policy of governments towards families was to be characterized by the universality of its support and the comprehensiveness of its coverage. It was the golden era of the welfare state. It is this change in the governments ‘ policy which is now examined for the three decades following the end of the war, up to the mid-1970s. The analysis begins with an examination of the changes in the demographic, social, and economic environment of families, which were to provide the new bases for an expanded state support for families. The cases of family allowances and maternity benefits are then examined in more detail. Despite the persistence of significant inter-country differences, this period witnessed a certain convergence across countries in the provision of state support for families. For citizens, the new political order meant the end of wartime sufferings, and hopes of a better future. Improved standards of living were expected, and with it a more active role for governments as welfare providers. They were now expected to provide citizens with an insurance; an insurance that there would be no return to the pre-war economic depression, or to wartime deprivation. For governments, the new political order also meant new ideologies. In particular, there was a commitment - at least in Europe - to repair the damages of the war, and to give citizens a new sense of security and prosperity.
The Intergenerational Distribution of Resources and Income in Japan
Authors: Mason Andrew , Teh Yoke-Yun , Ogawa Naohiro , Fukui Takehiro
Published: October 2023

There are two distinct ways in which the term intergenerational distribution of income is applied. In some instances it is used to describe the relative lifetime economic status of successive generations. In a country such as Japan, rapid economic growth ensures that the material standard of living of current generations substantially exceeds that of previous generations. And, if rapid growth continues, future generations will be considerably better off than those living today.
The Main Bank System
Authors: Teranishi Jura
Published: October 2023

There is no single agreed definition of the term ‘main bank’, but in cases where a number of banks have made loans to a particular firm, it generally refers to the bank that has a particularly long and continuous record of business relations with the firm and has advanced the largest loans. In some cases a comprehensive range of business dealings, including shareholdings and directorships in the firm, and handling its pensions and financial settlements, are considered the characteristics of a main bank. Currently many firms in Japan have this sort of special relationship (though not always of the same type) with their ‘main bank’, and the arrangement is said to serve a variety of beneficial functions with regard to monitoring the firm, spreading associated risks, and so on.
The Food-Control System and Nōkyō
Authors: Kawagoe Toshihiko
Published: October 2023

In the shadows of Japan’s striking post-war economic recovery is the agricultural sector, which has been left behind in a state of backwardness. A variety of regulations that date back to the war years remain in force, and structural adjustment has been slow to get off the ground, with the result that high levels of protection have allowed inefficient production to persist. Thus, there has been little objective discussion of the so-called Japanese system of agriculture, and in such discussion as has taken place, Japanese agriculture has inevitably been regarded in a negative light. A range of problematic issues has been highlighted as the features that have marked out Japanese post-war agriculture, particularly in the period since the onset of high-speed economic growth. These include the small size of farms and the trend to part-time farming, the government’s wide-ranging regulations and generous protection of agriculture, Japan’s low level of self-sufficiency in food, and the powerful agricultural co-operative organization.
Japan’s Present-Day Economic System: Its Structure and Potential for Reform
Authors: Okuno-Fujiwara Masahiro
Published: October 2023

Japan’s present-day economic system is often called the ‘Japanese economic model’. This is because many people, whether they are aware of it or not, regard this system as very different from those of Europe and America, particularly the US system. The characteristic features of labour-management relations in Japan, such as long-term fixed employment, pay by seniority, and internal promotion; the features of the financial markets such as the preference for indirect funding and the main bank system; the characteristics of relations among firms, such as subcontracting and keiretsu alignments; the weakness of small shareholders, their power undermined by the practice of crossholdings of shares as well as boards comprised almost exclusively of internally promoted directors; government-enterprise relations, such as the liberal use of administrative guidance and the unique status of industrial associations run by ex-Ministry officials-these are frequently described as special characteristics of the Japanese economic model, and are rarely seen in other countries.
Quantitative Aspects of Tokugawa Economy
Authors: Miyamoto Matao
Published: October 2023

Akira Hayami lays out in the introduction to this volume the broad historical specifics of the socioeconomic system of Tokugawa Japan, in which he sees the emergence of an “economy-minded society.” What kind of macroeconomic performance was produced in that process? We have only extremely limited data for macroeconomic figures of the Tokugawa period, so it is very difficult to get an accurate grasp of the details of Japan’s economic development, but we are able to obtain a general picture from the fragmentary data.
The Second Demographic Transition in Western Countries: An Interpretation
Authors: Lesthaeghe R
Published: October 2023

The direction of Western family changes since the 1960s is well known. During the initial phase, roughly between 1955 and 1970, there were three major components of change. First, the already upward divorce trend accelerated considerably. Second, the baby boom came to an end. Fertility declined at all ages and marriage durations simultaneously. These trends coincided with the contraceptive revolution, based on new hormonal contraceptives and the rediscovery of the intra-uterine device. Third, the decline in ages at marriage, which had started between 1880 and 1920 in most Western countries, stopped. Instead, the proportion of marriages occurring before the age of 25 dropped considerably. Near the end of the 1960s, several countries also experienced a temporary increase in shotgun marriages: premarital sex had been on the increase throughout the 1960s, and contraceptive protection in such relations was not yet efficient enough. In most countries this feature disappeared during the early 1970s. In others, a problem of teenage pregnancy persisted.
Economic Develc)Pment And Social Opportunity
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

When the subject of development economics emerged as a distinct field of study, shortly after the second world war, it appeared to be something of a bastard child of growth economics. Some influence other than growth economics was clearly involved in the origin of development economics, but it was not altogether clear what form this influence had taken. In one respect at least, the offspring did not differ from what could be expected from a genuine ‘son of growth economics’, namely an overarching preoccupation with the growth of real income per head.
India Ani China
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

‘An’ the dawn comes up like thunder outer China ‘crost the Bay!’ This is n’t politics, but Kipling on nature, on the road to Mandalay. However, following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the political perceptions of many activists in India began to match this arresting description of the coming dawn from China. Comparison with China and the lessons to be learned from its experience became staple concerns in Indian politics.
Well Beyond Liberalization
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

A tiger in a cage adorned the cover of the informative survey of the Indian economy that The Economist published on 4 May 1991. The Indian economy was then in deep trouble, and the special report began with a crisp diagnosis: ‘The future of India looks more threatened than for many years’. The analysis put much of the blame for India’s economic predicament on its ‘ever-proliferating bureaucracy’ and its ‘licence raj’, and expressed the dialectic hope that with the election then due, ‘the new government will immediately face a fiscal crisis’ and as a consequence it ‘might-just might--:-start a reappraisal of the economic role of government that is so long overdue’. The events that ushered in the economic reforms after the new elections did not depart very far from that scenario.
Poland
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal
Published: October 2023

The history of socialism in Poland is one in which the Communist Party’s attempts to introduce Soviet style orthodoxy repeatedly met significant resistance. In the face of clear challenges to its authority the party granted a variety of concessions which served to reduce the sacrifices that Polish consumers were called upon to make in support of the process of rapid industrialization. Thus socialism in Poland had been submitted to a series of reforms which meant that by 1989 the organization of the economy departed significantly from the model of central planning.

The most critical challenges to the party originated from labour which used strikes to protest against price increases on basic consumer products. This helped to determine the direction that economic reforms took in Poland. In particular, workers gained very significant powers of economic decision-making through the creation of worker management committees. This tradition of worker self-management is one of the prominent features of the Polish economy which has had important consequences for the direction that was taken during the transition since 1989.
Comment
Authors: Stephens John D
Published: October 2023

Kevin Grier’s chapter advances our understanding of the determinants of economic growth in advanced capitalist countries by bringing together hypotheses from the literatures in economics and political science and subjecting them to rigorous empirical tests. As Grier correctly argues, past literature in economics has ignored the type of institutional variables of interest to political scientists such as collective bargaining systems, union strength, and party composition of government, while the political scientists fail to control for the basic economic variables such as investment, growth of the labour force, or initial level of economic development. Both economists and political scientists have been unimaginative, or unsophisticated in their statistical analyses.
A Model of a Corporatist Economy with Increasing Returns
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

To summarize the ideas presented in the last chapter, consider a model economy with a few industrial sectors, the number of which we set to two for illustrative purposes. Call them sector 1 and sector 2. Each sector produces one good, so that the product market is made of two goods, good 1 and good 2. Assume that there are many entrepreneurs in both sectors; we can, however, normalize their number to unity in both sectors in order to make the exposition simple. At this level of generality we may think that each firm is owned by one individual, who is both the entrepreneur and the consumer of the model economy.
The Pholela Health Centre:Understanding Health and Disease in South Africa through Community-Oriented Primary Care (COPC)
Authors: Tollman Stephen M , Kaak Sidney L , Kaak Emily
Published: October 2023

The Pholela Health Centre, located in rural Natal, South Africa, was established in April 1940. To grasp its significance, even then, the socio-political circumstances prevailing in the country must be appreciated.
Refugee Women, Violence, and HIV
Authors: Long Lynellyn D
Published: October 2023

Seroprevalence studies among refugees migrating to the US suggest that they have relatively low HIV rates, equal to or lower than their countries of origin (Black, 1993; Tawil, 1990; Refugee Policy Group, 1989). These data, however, may not be representative of the majority of refugees who do not immigrate to a third coun try but remain in some of the poorest countries in the world and in regions that continue to be beset by conflict. While such studies are critical for dispelling myths of refugees as a special risk group, they do not portend the future for those in situations of conflict. The full health and psychological consequences of recent conflicts in Liberia, Somalia, Sudan, the Gulf, and Bosnia-in the time of AIDS-cannot yet be comprehended, much less quantified (Herdt and Lindenbaum, 1992).
Urban-Rural Differentials in HIV/STDs and Sexual Behaviour
Authors: Carael Michel
Published: October 2023

Heterosexual transmission has accounted for about three quarters of the estim ated 13 million human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections in adults world wide. In the 1990s, this mode of transmission continues to grow in importance (WHO/GPA, 1993). The HIV/AIDS pandemic was initially centred in urban loca tions. Rural HIV and STD prevalences have generally been found to be much lower than urban prevalences, with some noticeable exceptions. In the developing world, except Latin America, the majority of the population is rural. In the absence of any specific data from rural areas in most countries, HIV projections so far have assumed rural rates to be five to ten times lower than urban rates (Chin, 1991; Anderson et al.,1991; Mertens et al.,1994). However, in the ten years fol lowing the recognition of the HIV epidemic, additional empirical data on the levels and dynamics of HIV transmission and sexual risk behaviours are begin ning to nuance the picture. There is now a general perception that several types of HIV epidemics are probably co-occuring at different rates across different groups, in different areas of the same country, making assessment of the current dynamics problematical (Piot et al.,1990).
Measuring the Returns to Education
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

The relation of education to a young person’s economic well-being and satisfac tions later in life has long been recognized by most families. After considerable neglect, education has also come into its own among economists as crucial to the dissemination of knowledge with the reawakening of the field of economic growth, due largely to the combination of theory with empirical tests, and to a spreading recognition that the results deal with the questions chat really matter. Knowledge for development has also become a central theme for many economic development agencies (e.g. World Bank, 1998).
Human Capital, Endogenous Growth Models, and Economic Development
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

In the new endogenous growth models. as well as in the Solow models augmented with human capital, human resource development through education is central to the growth proce s in ways that will be considered more explicitly in this chapter.
Tracing the Impacts of Education on Development: A Summary
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

This chapter is an overview of the main impacts of human resource development through education on development that appear in the complete model. It draws on the preceding chapters to summarize the conclusions reached and identifies the equations that were selected from those tested, which are then programmed as part of the final model for use in interactive simulations. It also describes the internal working of the education sector which is part of the complete model, and variables related to its efficiency, as well as other aspects that were not germane to the sectors but are necessary for the interactive simulations.
The International Role of the Deutsche Mark
Authors: Frenkel Jacob A , Goldstein Morris
Published: October 2023

In 1948, when the D-mark was created as part of Germany’s monetary reform, its international role was negligible. Starting essentially from scratch after the war, it had none of the characteristics that one typically associates with an international currency, and thus presented no competition for the dominant reserve currencies of the day (the US dollar and the pound sterling). Along with other European currencies, it did not become convertible (even for current account transactions) until the late 1950s. The International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) Annual Report first mentions the D-mark as a reserve currency only in 1972.
An Overview
Authors: Messere Ken
Published: October 2023

This book derives from a series of articles written mostly in 1993 and published in various numbers of Tax Notes International during 1994 and 1995. To facilitate comparisons between countries, articles were written in a standardized form based largely on the framework established by Joseph Pechman in his book Comparative Tax Systems: Europe, Canada and Japan (Tax Analysts, 1987). To accommodate new tax policy preoccupations additional sections were added on fiscal deficits, administrative and compliance costs, and the effect of taxation on labour supply. The standardized format is reproduced in the skeleton provided before the list of contents. These articles were substantially revised by the authors in the light of a number of comments received and they were updated as far as time and space constraints permitted.
Canada
Authors: Bird Richard M , Perry, David B , Wilson thomas A
Published: October 2023

Over the last decade, the Canadian tax system has undergone its most drastic change since the income tax reform of 1971-the mundane reality that emerged from the political process following the classic statement of the ‘comprehensive tax base’ approach in the Carter Commission Report of 1966. Apart from a series of changes attempting to adapt to the inflationary environment of the late 1970s and early l 980s—most of which were later reversed—and continued recourse to tax incentives for a variety of policy reasons, no fundamental changes were made in federal income taxes until the mid-1980s, when Canada joined the worldwide move towards lower rates and broader bases. This second wave of major tax reform culminated-at least temporarily-in 1991 with the introduction of Canada’s version of a VAT, the Goods and Services Tax (GST), to replace a federal manufacturer’s sales tax that had been in place since 1923.
Italy
Authors: Castellucci Laura
Published: October 2023

After the enactment of the basic tax reform of 1973—4, and through the 1980s until the beginning of the 1990s, the Italian tax system underwent a process of rationalization, simplification, and, to some degree, of convergence towards something like a typical ‘European tax system’, whatever that may be. During this period direct taxes grew more than indirect ones and became the most important source of revenue. Among direct taxes the personal income tax consolidated its position as the pillar of the system (in 1989 revenue from direct taxes was for the first time higher than that of social security contributions). The number of personal income tax rates was reduced and to a level that now corresponds more to that of other European countries. The average tax burden reached that generally prevailing in Europe, while in the 1990s the increase in tax revenue was unusual in the context of OECD Europe, being around 4.5 percentage points over the period 1990-3, of which 3.5 percentage points were reached in the last two years. From the point of view of tax collection no one can deny (and no one does) the ‘success’ of the basic reform of the 1970s and of the subsequent adjustments. From the conventional equity and efficiency points of view, evaluations can diverge as indicated later in the presentation of specific topics.
The Netherlands
Authors: Kam Flip De
Published: October 2023

In 1994, public expenditure in the Netherlands amounted to Gld348 billion, or 58.5 per cent of GDP. Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, the claim of the public sector on national income nearly doubled. This strong expansion of public outlays was not caused by increasing exhaustive expenditures. In fact, these have for many years been on a level comparable to that in the USA. The expansion of the public sector in the Netherlands was caused almost solely by strongly rising transfer payments to families, and growing interest payments on public debt.
Education, Fertility, and Child Survival: Unravelling the Links
Authors: Cleland John , Kaufmann Georgia
Published: October 2023

It is widely accepted that education affects fertility and mortality. The education mortality link has been enshrined in the UNDP’s Human Development Index, which takes indices of both as key components of an overall level of development (UNDP 1990). Despite the statistical strength of these associations, however, the nature of the relationships is still far from perfectly understood.

The major purpose of this paper is to discuss the contributions that intensive methods of investigation, and particularly those of an anthropological nature, have made and can make to illuminate the effects of education on demographic outcomes. Nevertheless, it is prudent to precede this discussion by reviewing the knowledge that demographers have already assembled. More focused, smaller-scale investigations are best used in conjunction with a thorough understanding of the nature of the statistical evidence. As we shall see, the latter provides many clues to identify the more fruitful avenues to pursue.