bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inflation in Chile and Argentina
Authors: Bailey Norman A.
Published: March 2007

There is a newly-respectable school of economics which claims that a little inflation is a good thing and necessary to sustain a high rate of economic growth. It has not even been deterred by the experience of the recession of 1958, by which time normal market forces had been tampered with to such an extent that the United States was treated to the novel and startling spectacle of continued inflation in the midst of a downturn in the productive sectors of the economy. These same economists view inflation not only as a good thing in the developed, industrialized nations, but as practically a necessity in the underdeveloped countries. They thus give aid and comfort to those elements in the underdeveloped areas which are attempting to find an easy solution to the problem of industrial growth, a problem which took the advanced countries many decades and much work and social upheaval to solve.
Margarita Island, Exporter of People
Authors: Alexander C. S.
Published: March 2007

Margarita Island, Venezuela, located at the southeastern corner of the Caribbean, has been exporting people to mainland Venezuela for over 450 years (Fig. 1). However, over the years the reasons for the migration and the character of the migrants have changed. Within a few years of the island's discovery in 1498, some of the aboriginal inhabitants, the Guayquerí Indians, moved to the mainland. Perhaps this was the result of a falling out with the Spaniards. Others became loyal allies of the Spaniards and accompanied them as auxiliary troops in the Spanish invasions of the mainland. About 1550, some Guayquerí began to move from Margarita into areas along the Paria-Cumaná coast which, as the result of Spanish invasions and slave raids, had lost much of their native Indian population. Eventually, the Guayquerí remaining on the island were almost entirely absorbed into themestizopopulation of Margarita. The islanders —Margariteñosnow — continued migrating to the mainland.
The Changing Role of the Military in Latin America
Authors: Lieuwen Edwin
Published: March 2007

“A new Latin America is rapidly emerging” — this has been the message of many Hispanic-American social scientists. The traditional order, under which a landed aristocracy, a praetorian military caste, and a Catholic church hierarchy monopolized power, wealth, prestige, and influence, is crumbling. Society is in a state of upheaval; politics is being revolutionized; the economy is undergoing a fundamental transformation; new institutional forms are reshaping the environment.

The extent and intensity of change among the various Latin-American countries has been uneven. At one extreme is Mexico whose “new look” strikes nearly all contemporary observers. Meanwhile, neighboring Nicaragua still lives in the nineteenth century. Despite their distinct identities, however, all the Latin-American states have felt the impact of fundamental shifts in the recent world environment.
Charles Lyon Chandler: A Forgotten Man of Inter-American Cultural Relations
Authors: Avenius Sheldon H.
Published: March 2007

“The Time seems to be excellent for promoting close relations I with Latin America,” Franklin Roosevelt wrote Charles Lyon Chandler on February 15, 1936. For Chandler, the most simpático of all simpáticos, his entire active life was the time for the promotion of inter-American relations. As a consular official, author, agent of the Southern Railway, foreign trade manager of the Chemical Corn Exchange Bank of Philadelphia, agent for the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, and college professor, Chandler vehemently and persistently furthered the cause of inter-American understanding and cooperation. Hundreds of his speeches, articles, and his pioneer book also bear witness to his devotion to panamericanismo, as do the honors bestowed upon him by Brazil, Chile and Colombia. Though Chandler's many activities established his place as a precursor and chief prophet of modern inter-American cultural relations, pursued by private corporations, foundations and government agencies, he has not as yet received a just share of the credit accorded those who started the movement for increased cultural appreciation between North and South America. He remains today a splendid example of the forgotten man.
The Second Four-Year Plan of Venezuela
Authors: Hassan M. F.
Published: March 2007

Development planning in Venezuela began in 1959 as a result of the changes in the economic conditions and in the political situation that occurred in 1958. In that year, on January 23, Pérez Jiménez government was deposed after 10 years of military rule. A provisional government was established and elections were held December 7, 1958 with Rómulo Betancourt (Democratic Action Party) winning a near majority (49%) of votes for Presidency. A coalition government of the Democratic Action party (AD), Democratic Republic Union party (URD), and the Christian social party (COPEI) was established according to a pre-election agreement among these parties.

The economic conditions also changed in 1958. Until that year Venezuela was able to achieve a high rate of economic growth (see Table I) and to accumulate considerable foreign exchange that prevented balance of payments crises such as those which interrupted economic development in other countries.
El Panamericanismo de Samuel Guy Inman
Authors: Diezcanseco Alfredo Pareja
Published: March 2007

Por una coincidencia afortunada para ese vínculo, firme y tenue a la vez, hecho de la substancia del aire y de la duración de un tiempo sin fragmentos, que suele establecerse entre el lector y el autor no conocido personalmente, empiezo a escribir estas notas al alño cabal, día y mes exactos, de haberse extinguido la vida espiritualmente rica y laboriosa del profesor Inman.

Lo llamo profesor, no exactamente porque hubiera ejercido la cátedra, sino en el sentido de aquella relación filial que la palabra posee con la idea mayor de maestro, relación, por cierto, nada frecuente hoy en las rutinas académicas. Maestro, pues, de formas antiguas, totalidad edificante, entrega de la inteligencia y el corazón a causas nobles y a discípulos contados más allá de la lista de clase.
Introduzindo Uma Ciência Nova, a Tropicologia
Authors: Pinto Estevao
Published: March 2007

Sao vários os geógrafos e cientistas sociais modernos para quem o determinismo geográfico não explicaria as atitudes econômicas, religiosas, políticas dos grupos humanos: conseqüência de complexa simbiose entre o habitat e as estruturas sociais. Essa orientação sociológica, antropológica, ecológica é, de modo mais específico que a dêsses geógrafos e cientistas sociais a de Gilberto Freyre, quando, v.g., referindo-se as questões concernentes à projetada reforma agrária, no Brasil, chama a atenáão para o fato de que, em país tropical como êste, constituí a monocultura latifundiária “urna verdadeira perversão do seu destino natural” (o “agrário diversificado”), devendo, a política social a ser seguida nesses países reduzir ao mínimo “as sub-áreas, puramente rurais, de monocultura” (outrora latifundiárias) e estender “sôbre essas sub-áreas atividades e populações, que de rurais passassem a urbanas” (ou melhor, de “lavouras imperiais” passassem a ser, “tanto quanto ecolõgicamente possível”, áreas de produção diversificada e de atividades mistas como as agro-pastoris). Se a técnica, —acrescenta Gilberto Freyre,— permite maior produtividade, cabe à “estrutura sócio-econômica medir o teor das necessidades humanas”.
Indigenism and Racism in Mexican Thought: 1857-1911
Authors: Stabb Martin S.
Published: March 2007

That indigenismo — in the sense of a sympathetic awareness of the Indian by social scientist, essayist, and creative writer – came into full flower in the two decades following the Mexican Revolution is amply confirmed by the most cursory survey of Mexican intellectual and artistic activity of this period. Interest in the Indian and in his halfbrother, the mestizo, is well-attested by the activities of José Vasconcelos as Minister of Education during the early twenties; by the appearance of Vasconcelos’ popular essays, La raza cósmica (1925) and Indoiogía (1927); by the anthropological and ethnological investigations of Manuel Gamio and Alfonso Caso, by the strikingly nativist orientation of the graphic arts; and finally, by the creation of the Indianist novel in the thirties.
The Brazilian Law Student: Background, Habits, Attitudes
Authors: Scheman L. Ronald
Published: March 2007

The data concerning Brazilian law students presented in this article are the result of a survey made by the author ini 1960 while studying the judiciary system of that country. The objective of the survey was to identify those students favorably disposed toward the judiciary and to examine their social and economic background. In the process, however, a large amount of data of a more general nature was collected. Besides significant variations between different universities, Catholic and state, and the various economic groups, the data provide an empirical examination of the results of the process of selection for higher education in Brazil and the economic groups from which the student is drawn. Some information concerning the students’ attitudes toward politics was also gathered.
La Novela Reciente en Chile
Authors: Guerrero Leoncio
Published: March 2007

La literatura chilena ha tenido, desde sus comienzos, tendencia a lo narrativo, a la anécdota. Lo comprueban La Araucana, de Ercilla; el Arauco Domado, de Pedro de Oña; el Cautiverio Feliz, de Pineda y Bascuñán, y tantos otros documentos epopéyicos.

La novela, ya como género independiente, ha tenido cultivadores desde el principio de la nacionalidad. Don José Victorino Lastarria abre el camino con un llamado a los intelectuales de la época exhortándolos a mirar a su alrededor y a coger los temas que la historia, la leyenda y la vida les ponían a su alcance. Así comprendieron que en el propio medio había un rico venero literario que era perentorio elaborar.
Panamanian Students' Orientations toward Government and Democracy
Authors: Goldrich Daniel
Published: March 2007

Despite all the warnings that the Latin-American masses are aroused and demanding social justice, there is little empirical data demonstrating it although there are a few research reports suggesting the lack of validity of the general proposition, in some significant situations. For example, one survey report indicates that even with the rise of the militant, radical peasant leagues in northeast Brazil, the general rural populace has hardly any formulated opinion about nationalism or the Cuban Revolution. This absence of opinion suggests that the people are not yet either sufficiently agitated or aware of the relevance of government and politics in their lives for social revolution to emerge.
Quelques Poetes Haitiens de la Jeune Generation
Authors: Lubin Maurice A.
Published: March 2007

Notre Anthologie panorama de la Poésie Haitienne parue en 1950 s'est arrêtée à cette date. Depuis, a vu le jour une collection de poètes. Nous n'avons pas la prétention de les connaître tous, ni d'en faire un recensement complet. Nous voulons, dans cette étude, présenter quelques-uns d'entre eux, sans distinction de sexe, essayant de fixer l'époque à laquelle ils appartiennent ainsi que les particularités de leurs oeuvres.

Près de quinze ans durant, le monde entier a connu bien des bouleversements, crises politiques, troubles sociaux, mais progrès technique d'une portée jamais égalée. Fréquents aussi sont les conflits de travail. Le capital finit par comprendre qu'il lui faut composer et faire un meilleur sort au travail qui a désormais son programme de revendications et son porte-parole avec les syndicats et les organisations ouvrières.
Estados Unidos, México y el machismo
Authors: Paredes Américo
Published: March 2007

Entre las figuras mexicanas más discutidas resalta el macho, el superhombre del vulgo. Ha sido preocupación de sicólogos, sociólogos, filósofos, historiadores, poetas y hasta folkloristas. Algunos, como el folklorista Vicente T. Mendoza, lo han explicado como fenómeno causado por el clima, o tendencia heredada por los mexicanos de los andaluces. Por otra parte, muchos otros comentadores le han dado al machismo explicaciones basadas en las teorías de Freud. El machismo —se nos dice— tiene sus orígenes en la Conquista, cuando Hernán Cortés y sus conquistadores llegan a México y violan a las mujeres de los aztecas. De este acto de violencia nace el mestizo, quien odia y envidia al padre español y desprecia a la madre india —en ambos casos como resultado de sus complejos edipales.
EL estudiantado de la Universidad de la Habana en la Política Cubana, 1956-1957
Authors: Suchlicki Jaime
Published: March 2007

Los estudiantes de la Universidad de la Habana, al igual que los de la mayoría de las universidades latinoamericanas, se han caracterizado por su participación en la política nacional. En la etapa independentista, a finales del siglo pasado, la Universidad de la Habana se convirtió en el centro de agitación contra España. El 27 de noviembre de 1871 la colonia ordenó el fusilamiento de ocho estudiantes de medicina acusados de haber profanado la tumba de un militar español. De las filas estudiantiles surgieron los dirigentes de la guerra de independencia. El propio José Martí, a edad muy temprana y siendo aún estudiante, comenzó a luchar por la libertad de su patria. Martí, con su prédica constante, hubo de unir a sus compatriotas conduciéndolos a la guerra emancipadora contra España.
El Mestizaje de la Economia
Authors: Terry Fernando Belaúnde
Published: March 2007

La economía monetaria que nos trajo la conquista ha sido, evidentemente, uno de los más importantes aportes de la cultura occidental. Mas seríamos ciegos si pensáramos que ese sistema ha significado una solución óptima para todos nuestros múltiples y complejos problemas.

Su impotencia se manifiesta cuando observamos que, de las mil quinientas capitales de Distrito, mil doscientas carecen de agua, desagüe y fuerza motriz, faltándoles carretera de acceso a la mitad de esos centros administrativos básicos. El Perú construye caminos para automotores desde hace más de cuarenta años y, en tan dilatado lapso, no ha logrado intercomunicar sus centros vitales. La economía y la finanza europeas, por sí solas, no han dado con la solución.
Characteristics of Latin American Political Thought
Authors: Martz John D.
Published: March 2007

In few areas of the world are the role and contribution of the intellectual elite more significant than in Latin America. Its membership has historically been in the forefront of major political and social movements, and there has been somewhat less of the distaste for politics and public responsibility than is often found elsewhere. Leading intellectuals are widely respected and nationally prominent, enjoying a degree of prestige that is scarcely exceeded in any other region. Thepensador—sometimes likened to the eighteenth-centuryphilosophe— has been intimately involved in major political movements from colonial times to the present.
La Alianza Para el Progreso
Authors: Krause Walter
Published: March 2007

… un vasto esfuerzo, sin parangón en magnitud

y nobleza de intención …

Presidente Kennedy

En enero de 1961, un nuevo gobierno tomó posesión en Washington. Ese nuevo gobierno tenía que confrontar muchos problemas: una molesta recesión en la economía interna y un ominoso déficit en la balanza de pagos en su comercio exterior — para mencionar solamente dos de los más importantes y urgentes problemas económicos de ese momento. También había dificultades en el frente político internacional: en Laos, en Berlín, en el Congo, en Cuba, etc.

A medida que pasaban las semanas, los puntos difíciles del escenario mundial seguían en los titulares de los diarios. La Cuba de Fidel Castro, por su proximidad a Estados Unidos, constituía un caso especial de irritación. El régimen cubano adelantaba su revolución en casa, pero no paraba allí. Pues además de pinchar persistentemente a este país (EE. UU.), el régimen parecía decidido a llevar su mensaje a otras partes de la América Latina. Allí, en un ambiente de descontento con el status quo y verdaderas ansias por lograr “mejor suerte”, el ambiente se hallaba propicio, supuestamente, a escuchar el mensaje y quizás a actuar.
Historical and Cultural Sources of Spanish Resistance to Change
Authors: Worcester Donald E.
Published: March 2007

The Spanish attitude toward change and powerful resistance to it evolved from a number of sources. Some of these are shared with other nations, while some are peculiar to Spain. Two of the main streams of Western civilization, for example, were those represented by Athens and Sparta, and we sometimes forget that the latter has occasionally been cherished as much as the former. The Athenian tradition implies creativity and change, and it stresses freedom of thought and speech and action, and a hatred of tyrants. The Spartan code stresses duty, responsibility, discipline, and makes for a slow changing, uncreative society and an aristocratic government. These two attitudes toward life have had their opponents and adherents throughout the history of the West.
The Socialist Republic of Chile
Authors: Thomas Jack Ray
Published: March 2007

By Latin-American standards, Chile has enjoyed a remarkably stable government. Yet, there have been significant intervals of political unrest marked by violence and internal disorder. At both the beginning and the end of the nineteenth century, Liberals and Conservatives clashed in bloody battles, opening wounds that festered for many years. In the early decades of the twentieth century, the military revolted three times in the space of eight years (1924-1932) in order to promote social reform. Marmaduke Grove Vallejo figured prominently in these events, first as a participant in the January uprising of 1925, later as an opponent of the dictatorship of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, and finally as a leader of the military forces that overthrew the government of Juan Esteban Montero Rodríguez and established the Socialist Republic of Chile.
Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo's Historia General y Natural—First American Encyclopedia
Authors: Turner Daymond
Published: March 2007

On May 7, 1532, the Consejo de Indias wrote to the King-Emperor Charles, the First of Spain, and Fifth of the Holy Roman Empire:

Gonzalo Hernández de Oviedo, resident of Hispaniola, has had the care and inclination to write of affairs of the Indies; he offers to carry forward his work if he is given some salary towards the expense of collecting material and maintaining a clerk. It appears appropriate that it be included in the Chronicle of Spain. He displays more ability than anyone over there. It would be well to order him to examine all those lands where he has not been and to send the reports to this Council in order that here they may be edited and incorporated in the Chronicle and he should be given an annual subsidy.
Trayectoria del movimiento de reforma universitaria en Chile
Authors: Barrera Romero Manuel J.
Published: March 2007

El movimiento de la juventud estudiantil, que alrededor de 1920 apareció en la mayoría de los países latinoamericanos, se presentó bajo distintas formas en cada uno de ellos. Esta nueva generación persiguió no sólo la reforma de la Universidad. Se trató más bien de una actitud que, desdeñado las viejas estructuras sociales, luchó por otras nuevas. La juventud planteó una renovación de América Latina. Esta actitud tomó forma y contenido determinado en Chile.
The Institutionalisation of the Mexican Revolution
Authors: Calvert Peter
Published: March 2007

“This period [1928-1934] between the murder of Obregón and the election of Lázaro Cárdenas is most perplexing,” wrote one of the most perceptive foreign observers of the Mexican scene some years ago. “If it were possible to discover what had taken hold of the leadership of Mexico in those debased and clouded years, it would illumine much of Mexican history.”

What are the reasons for perplexity? Basically, they are two: that the events of this period do not seem to fit the generally accepted view that the history of Mexico from 1910 to the present day forms one grand panorama of historical evolution called the Mexican Revolution, and that the only explanation that has been offered of why they do not seems inherently improbable. The view that the Mexican Revolution is a coherent whole we owe principally to the Mexicans themselves and to sociologists who see revolutions in general and the “Great Revolutions” in particular as social rather than political events.
Religious Sectarianism in the Sertão of Northeast Brazil 1815-1966
Authors: Gross Sue Anderson
Published: March 2007

Sectarian religious groups in Brazil, not of Afro-Brazilian origin, have been formed primarily in the backlands of the Northeast. There they have flourished during two approximate time periods, 1815 to 1840 and 1870 to the present. This paper will examine the religious groups of the Brazilian backlands as social phenomena.

The locale of the sects, the backlands sertão, is both a geographical and cultural subregion of the Northeast. The latter area is generally defined as comprising the states of Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Sergipe, Alagôas, and northern Bahia. Geographically the sertão is an area subject to recurrent drought, lying back of fertile coastal plains from Salvador in Bahia to Natal in Rio Grande do Norte, touching the coast in Ceará, and again retreating inland in Piauí.
Project “Xoc” Some Keys to Maya Hieroglyphics
Authors: Lacombe Charles , D'Obrenovic Michel
Published: March 2007

Project “Xoc” is an attempt to discover new keys to Maya hieroglyphics, using readily available source material. “Xoc” is the Maya word for “count”; the authors found that counting the progression of days in the Maya calendar forward and backward numerous times led to their first stage of discovery. The Maya use of hieroglyphics in the ceremonial and secular calendars was pointed out by Bishop Diego de Landa in his Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán, written during the 1560's. Landa's book was lost for three hundred years, but in the century since it was rediscovered, other scholars have expanded his findings to the point that the Maya calendar use of hieroglyphics is well understood.

The hieroglyphic text is another matter. Scholars are generally agreed that the codices deal with astronomy and agriculture and that any text, if and when deciphered, would deal with those fields only, rather than in the broad spectrum of Maya life.
Explotación y aculturación indígena en la cuenca Amazónica
Authors: Garcés Joan E.
Published: March 2007

Desde el momento mismo de la conquista y establecimiento de los españoles en el Nuevo Mundo ha sido de importancia singular el problema de la aculturación de la población indígena. En la primera mitad del siglo XVI se planteó una amplia discusión doctrinal con profundas consecuencias prácticas, en la que fueron agentes activos centrales las más altas instancias políticas y administrativas del Estado español coetáneo, desde el Consejo de Indias a la persona del propio Monarca, encontrándose en el origen de las más importantes decisiones de orden legislativo adoptadas por la Corona, con sus momentos culminantes en la Junta de Burgos, mandada reunir por Fernando III de Aragón en 1512 para estudiar expresamente la problemática humana e ideológica (en la época esencialmente religiosa) de los indios americanos, y en las Leyes Nuevas de 1542 promulgadas por Carlos V bajo la immediata influencia del “grupo de presión” del que era figura prominente el dominico Bartolomé de las Casas.
Multi-National Enterprises and Latin American Integration: A Sociopolitical View
Authors: von Lazar Arpad
Published: March 2007

The main purpose of this article is to outline and discuss the role and potential importance of multi-national enterprises in the process of Latin American integration. As such it is essentially a reflection upon work done at the Institute for Latin American Integration (INTAL) by the author, and upon the opinions and impressions gathered through conversations and interviews with businessmen, politicians, técnicos, and public and private personalities from many Latin American countries during 1966 and 1967. It is a compilation of viewpoints and major assumptions, and its main purpose is to open up the field for further discussions and research—indeed, to serve in this manner as a future guideline in action programs. Finally, it should be said that this paper reflects the style of thinking as well as the prejudices that its writer, a political scientist, has brought with him.
Alberdi y la capitalización de la Argentina
Authors: de Gandía Enrique
Published: March 2007

La Constitución reformada de 1860 dejó a Buenos Aires, nuevamente, sin capital. La Constitución de 1853 había convertido a Buenos Aires en capital de la república; pero los reformadores de 1860, como es sabido, tuvieron sus razones para postergar la señalación de una ciudad como capital del país. El estudio de estas razones corresponde a otras páginas. Aquí consignamos la protesta, la indignación de Alberdi. Sus principales escritos que se refieren a este hecho aparecieron entre 1875 y 1877. Tienen la valentía de costumbre. Son la voz del hombre que había propuesto a Buenos Aires como capital, que la había visto convertida en cabeza de la nación y, de pronto, encuentra otra vez al país sin capital, como en tiempos de Rosas. Mitre y Sarmiento, según Alberdi, habían sido los culpables de este retroceso. Los dos habían sido el azote de la nación y de Buenos Aires. La reforma reaccionaria de 1860 había restaurado el régimen económico con que Rosas había despotizado y empobrecido al pueblo de Buenos Aires durante veinte años. Rosas había vuelto el país al tiempo de los virreyes. Florencio Várela había demostrado que Rosas había restaurado el sistema virreinal.
Caudillismo: An Interpretive Note
Authors: Beezley William H.
Published: March 2007

The history of Man is marked by recurrent autocratic rule. In fact, autocracy in its various guises is perhaps the most prevalent form of political authority in history. Latin America has suffered autocratic rule as has the rest of the world; but while the genus is autocrat, the species, caudillo, is almost unique to nineteenth-century Latin America (more specifically, Spanish America). To understand the distinctive qualities of the caudillo, as opposed to any other kind of autocrat, one must examine the historical matrix of nineteenth-century Latin America and the cluster of cultural values that at once limited and provided opportunities to persons in the society. The question becomes one of interaction between the temporal and cultural circumstances, and the variable of choice of action by men.
Warren G. Harding and The Dominican Republic U.S. Withdrawal, 1921-1923
Authors: Grieb Kenneth J.
Published: March 2007

When it assumed office in 1921 the Harding administration found itself confronted with the problem of arranging the withdrawal of American troops from the Dominican Republic. Terminating the American presence in that country was part of the administration's policy of improving relations with Latin America, and both Warren G. Harding and Charles Evans Hughes were strongly committed to this goal. They believed that abandoning armed intervention in favor of advice and counsel would foster good will in Latin America and ultimately benefit the United States by enabling it to garner the trade and support of the region. The president and secretary of state also contended that such a policy could stabilize the area and thereby render the military interventions of the past unnecessary. Thus withdrawal from the Dominican Republic was part of a larger policy.
The American Revolution and Latin America: An Essay in Imagery, Perceptions, and Ideological Influence
Authors: Smith Robert Freeman
Published: March 2007

In 1929 the British scholar, Cecil Jane, published his classic,Liberty and Despotism in Spanish America. In it he wrote:

The War of Independence was neither anti-Spanish nor non- Spanish. It was not the outcome of the spread of ideas recently imported from Europe or of some sudden awakening of political life, produced by the reception of eighteenth-century philosophic theories or by such events as the successful revolt of the English colonies in North America and the French Revolution [Jane, 1966: 81].

Instead, Jane (1966: 79) argued that the War of Independence was an attempt to realize the most deeply felt ideals, “which were derived not from any external sources, but from the very hearts of the people.” Similarly he argued that the political conceptions of Spanish Americans were (and continued to be) Spanish, not Anglo-Saxon, and he strongly suggested that the example of the British North Americans exerted little if any influence on the Spanish Americans of the nineteenth century. Jane (1966: 111-112, 168-172) also attacked with thinly veiled contempt the idea that the salvation of Latin America lay in emulating England or the United States.
Labor-Industrial Conflict and the Collapse of Uruguayan Democracy
Authors: Handelman Howard
Published: March 2007

During the 1960s and early 1970s, the collapse of civilian democracies in several of Latin America's most socioeconomically developed nations and the rise of highly institutionalized, repressive regimes raised serious questions about the nature of political development and political decay in that region. Neither advanced social indicators (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay), nor an extensive, modern-industrial economic sector (Argentina, Brazil), nor a sustained period of representative government (Chile, Uruguay) seemed to be guarantees of continued civilian-democratic rule. Indeed, scholars such as Guillermo O'Donnell have suggested that the nature of economic growth and industrialization in Latin America—most notably in the “Southern Cone”— had resulted in increased class conflict, intense political strains, and the rise of bureaucratic-authoritarian (B-A) regimes.
Latin America and the World Economy: Some Observations on External Indebtedness and the International Monetary System
Authors: Ferrer Aldo
Published: March 2007

Since 1973 most of the Latin American countries have experienced deterioration in their balance of payments due to the economic recession in the industrial countries and the oil price increases. The consequent adjustment process has called for stricter regulation of domestic demand and new advances in import substitution. Adjustment was less painful due to access to private financing in the international capital markets which, however, produced a sharp increase in the external debt.

This article does not propose to review the recent patterns of external payments, already extensively analyzed in the periodic reports of the UN Economic Commission for Latin America, the International Monetary Fund, and in other studies. Rather, it will attempt to emphasize some long-term changes in the world economy and in Latin America that influence the international participation of the region. It is in this context that the adjustment process of the balance of payments and the external debt should be evaluated.
Incumbency and Electoral Turnover in Latin America
Authors: Dix Robert H.
Published: March 2007

In contemporary Latin America whenever there are successive free elections turnover tends to occur at every opportunity. That is, incumbent parties or coalitions seldom win; if they do, they almost invariably show diminished electoral support compared to that of the previous election.

The frequency of incumbent defeat seems especially remarkable in view of the traditionally strong Latin American presidency. The history of some Latin American countries has been replete withcontinuismo(the perpetuation of a president or regime in office through manipulation of formal constitutional procedures). Even in those polities with a record of frequent adherence to constitutional norms, the president has tended to be “strong,” at least compared to other governmental institutions, such as legislatures, courts, and state or local governments. Unsatisfied with the term “presidential,” in the North American sense, Jacques Lambert calls Latin American governments “regimes of presidential dominance” (Lambert, 1967).
Malnutrition, Public Policy, and Agrarian Change in Guatemala
Authors: Brockett Charles D.
Published: March 2007

Widespread malnutrition persists in Guatemala despite substantial economic growth since 1960. Indeed, there was a deterioration in the living standards of many (for example, the Indians in the Western highlands) even prior to the destruction caused by the government's pacification campaigns of the early 1980s. Chronic and widespread malnutrition has not been the result of just “natural causes”; to the contrary, it is the intent of this study to document that Guatemala's extraordinarily high level of malnutrition is the result of structural transformations and public policy, as well as demographics.

This argument has been documented best, in a Central American context, by two excellent works on El Salvador. Durham (1979: 21-51) presented a thorough analysis that demonstrates that land scarcity has not been primarily the result of a high rate of population growth (although that certainly contributes) but, instead, of increasing land concentration.
Mexico: The Impact of the 1968 Student Protest on Echeverría's Reformism
Authors: Shapira Yoram
Published: March 2007

A great many of the political initiatives of Mexico's President Echeverría were responses to stimuli generated directly by the university community's behavior during the 1968 student government crisis. Prior to this 1968 confrontation, student activism had a marginal “nuisance effect”; since then, however, it has risen to political prominence in Mexico.

The following discussion focuses on establishing a casual relationship between student protest and Echeverría's reformism. It will begin with a possible framework for the student protest movement within the national political context in terms of structural-functional concepts. To that part pertains also the section dealing with protagonists' tactics in the confrontation—i.e., principal student measures to organize, communicate demands and mobilize support, and the government countermeasures aimed at discrediting the students' protest and reducing the effectiveness of their dissent. Issues concerning the link between the 1968 events and the reform policies of the Echeverría administration will be noted.
Health and Environmental Problems: The Role of the Border in El Paso-Ciudad Juárez Coordination
Authors: Richard Bath C.
Published: March 2007

El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, share a common border divided by the channeled and weakly flowing Rio Grande. The twin cities, with a combined population of over a million, are located in a valley between two mountain ranges. They share a common air shed, mutual sources of water supply, and the ever-present threat of disease which, of course, does not recognize the artificial national boundary dividing the two cities.

How have the sister cities and their respective governments at the local, state, and federal levels attempted to solve their common health and environmental problems? This paper will briefly review the efforts to resolve and to solve common health and environmental problems between the two cities. What is necessary at the outset is some type of analytical framework to better understand the relations between the two cities.
Personalization of Power in an Elected Government: Eric Williams and Trinidad and Tobago, 1973-1981
Authors: Parris Carl D.
Published: March 2007

An article written for my forthcoming book on Trinidad and Tobago argues that the events of 1969-1970 in Trinidad should be seen as a result of a process of delegitimization—both personal and systematic—and that the public declaration by Trinidad and Tobago's prime minister of his intention to resign as political leader of the governing party was an attempt to arrest that process. My argument is that the attempt failed, and that by December 1973,

The leader of the People's National Movement and Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago had come full circle. In 1956 the business community, the established churches and some elements of the East Indian community were opposed to his ascendency in the political system. By 1973, it was these elements that were urging him to stay [Parris, forthcoming].
A Trudeau Decade: Canadian-Latin American Relations 1968-1978
Authors: Ogelsby J.C.M.
Published: March 2007

Pierre Elliot Trudeau became leader of Canada's Liberal Party and Prime Minister of Canada in April 1968. Almost immediately he promised an effort to take new directions in Canada's external relations. One of the regions he focused attention on was Latin America (Dobell, 1972: 115).

That Trudeau was interested in Latin America appears natural for an intellectual raised in Quebec. There has long been a certain sympathy with the concept of latinité. French-Canadian intellectuals often believed that they had much in common with Latin Americans, because of their religions or cultural heritage, and felt a pull from that region even if they had never visited it. Trudeau had been editor of a leading Quebec journal, Cité Libre, and that journal occasionally had editorial comment on events in Latin America. Indeed, Trudeau established his position on political involvement in the Inter-American system in that journal and he has not wavered from that position since then (Octobre 1964; and his recent statement in International Canada, 1976).
Rio de Janeiro at the Turn of the Century: Modernization and the Parisian Ideal
Authors: Needell Jeffery D.
Published: March 2007

The last two decades or so have seen academic interest in urban Latin American history mature to the point where questions of cultural realities have taken on greater complexity and importance. For reasons bound up with the socioeconomic factors usually studied first, the period between 1870 and 1930 seems fated to be especially attractive. That was the period, after all, when the neocolonial order came of age and, with it, the cultural possibilities born of greater wealth, a larger leisure class, an urban way of life in the expanding port and administrative centers, and the greater access to European cultural models through travel and luxury imports.
Debt, Macro Policy and State Intervention: The Next Phase for Latin America
Authors: Cline William R.
Published: March 2007

In 1982-83 Latin America experienced a depression which rivaled that of the 1930s. Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declined by 1% in 1982 and by 3.3% in 1983. Per capita income fell 10% below 1980 levels. The proximate cause of this depression was the crisis produced by external debt.

By 1984 several countries in the region began to show signs of recovery from the severe recession and external-sector crisis. Economic growth rebounded to 2%, and the larger countries achieved impressive improvements in external balances. Brazil's total exports grew sharply, as did Mexico's non-oil exports. In 1985 growth has surged ahead in Brazil and Mexico although falling commodity prices have placed new strains on the smaller countries (and weaker oil prices, as well as erosion in domestic policy, have undermined Mexico's external position).
The Beagle Channel: Confrontation and Negotiation in the Southern Cone
Authors: Garrett James L.
Published: March 2007

At the Vatican, on 2 May 1985, representatives of Chile and Argentina signed a treaty to end the Beagle Channel dispute, the last major territorial conflict between the two nations. The treaty was a tribute to the professionalism of the negotiators of both countries as well as of the Vatican mediators, and it represented a major foreign policy triumph for President Raúl Alfonsín, head of Argentina's democratically-elected civilian government. Alfonsin's position on key issues, such as sovereignty over the islands within the channel, contrasted sharply with those of his military predecessors. According to Vatican officials, it was Alfonsin's flexibility that laid the groundwork for resolution of the issue (New York Times, 1984a). Chilean willingness to accede to fundamental Argentine demands was also crucial to resolution.
Nicaragua: Soviet-Cuban Pawn or Non-aligned Country?
Authors: Valenta Jiri
Published: March 2007

It is now six years since the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) toppled the regime of Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle. Even today, the nature of the FSLN - its road to power, its political complexion and orientation, and its objectives - remains the subject of heated debate. Some still argue that the Sandinista regime is a nationalistic, non-aligned, although radical, Third World government. Others emphasize the Marxist-Leninist overtones characterizing its seizure and consolidation of power, its foreign relations, and its efforts to introduce socialist transformation to Nicaraguan society.

Basically, there are two exaggerated views of Nicaraguan foreign policy: one depicts Nicaragua as a communist pawn of Moscow and Havana; the other views Nicaragua as a classical non-aligned Third World nation. Neither school of thought reflects the complex reality of Nicaraguan politics and foreign policy.
U.S.-Mexican Groundwater Problems: Bilateral Prospects and Implications
Authors: Mumme Stephen P.
Published: March 2007

Obscured amid the headline issues of illegal aliens, drug smuggling, and the Mexican petroleum bonanza, yet another controversy is nascent in U.S.-Mexican relations the dispute over common groundwaters underlying the frontier zone. This dispute, with roots in the recent salinity accords of 1973, emerges as the latest phase in the long history of water resource controversies exacerbating problems between the two nations.

Until recently, the history of U.S.-Mexican water relations had been one of preoccupation with the capture and distribution of shared surface waters. The present dispute thus marks a distinctive evolution in bilateral relations. Moreover, just as the groundwater issue is new, it also points to the complexity of the transboundary ecology and the special problems of interdependence. Only since World War II, for instance, have the full implications of the area's groundwater hydrology been appreciated with respect to such matters as quality, distribution, and movement.
Rethinking US Interests in the Western Hemisphere
Authors: Lowenthal Abraham F.
Published: March 2007

The Countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, and consequently their relations with the United States, have changed considerably during the past 25 years. Latin American and Caribbean nations are more populous, urban, industrialized, organized, and assertive than they were a generation ago. Even in a period of extensive economic difficulty, Latin America's nations are today more prosperous than in 1960. Most are better integrated into the world economy and are much more involved in international politics.
Latin America and World Problems: Prospects and Alternatives
Authors: Urquidi Victor L. , Sanchez Vincente , Terrazas Eduardo
Published: March 2007

This article will serve as a commentary on the future of Latin America and on some possible alternatives for the problems facing it while taking worldwide issues and problems into account. It does not claim to formulate or reformulate existing theories on the management and dynamics of the global crisis that threaten the world today. It will, however, go into the premises on which our thinking is based and the various levels of distinction used in approaching these global problems.

The basic premise is that the relationship of man in society with nature has progressively deteriorated. Man is an integral part of nature, a fact that is increasingly being ignored. As society has increased in complexity and extent, there has been a growing alienation between man and the natural system of which he is a part. This has resulted in a series of crises between man and nature in areas such as the environment, food, energy, population, and so on, which are only different facets of the global crisis.
Religion and Politics, Politics and Religion: An Introduction
Authors: Levine Daniel H.
Published: March 2007

Religion and politics have depended on and influenced one another since the origins of what we know as Latin America. Their relation is both mutual and multifaceted; mutual because religion and politics have evolved together over the years, taking material and symbolic support from one another, and multifaceted because it embraces interinstitutional conflict and accommodation (e.g., the “church-state” relations which dominated earlier scholarship) as well as more subtle and elusive exchanges whereby religious and political orders gave legitimacy and moral authority to one another. In this process, religious notions of hierarchy, authority, and obedience reflected and reinforced the pattern of existing social and political arrangements to such an extent that the two orders often seemed indistinguishable.
The Christian Left in Latin American Politics
Authors: Dodson Michael
Published: March 2007

After decades of neglect, interest in the political significance of Latin American Catholicism increased sharply in the late 1960s when it began to appear that the Church might have unimagined potential for promoting social change, particularly in a continent plagued by social upheaval and political instability (Drekonja, 1971: 59-65). In both word and deed, the postconciliar Church manifested a changing social orientation which entailed open involvement in political issues on behalf of the poor. In fact, by August 1968 and the convening of the Council of Latin American Bishops (CELAM) in Medellín, Colombia, the Church seemed to be changing its social and political attitudes so profoundly that reports of a revolutionary Church began to accompany discussions of the political situation in Latin America. Since Medellín, an important literature has evolved from efforts to understand this change in Latin American Catholicism.
Women Religious, the Poor, and the Institutional Church in Chile
Authors: Gilfeather Katherine Anne
Published: March 2007

The Church in Chile, in its efforts to reach and evangelize the poor, crippled by a gradually diminishing clergy, has over more than a decade come to place extraordinary emphasis on the presence of religious personnel in marginal urban and rural areas. This pastoral priority has induced considerable numbers of religious women to leave their original works (especially education) to take part in the direct apostolate in marginal areas, while the majority of foreign religious women who have recently arrived have opted to follow their example.
Salvation through Christ or Marx: Religion in Revolutionary Cuba
Authors: Crahan Margaret E.
Published: March 2007

Unlike churches in the rest of Latin America, those in Cuba did not embark at the outset of the 1960s on a period of liberalization and innovation in theology, pastoral forms, lay participation and political strategies. Rather, the coming to power in 1959 of a revolutionary government and the initiation of substantial societal restructuring reinforced conservatism within the churches. Strong challenges to the legitimacy of the government by the churches from 1959 through 1961 were not effective due largely to institutional limitations and their identification as bulwarks of prerevolutionary structures. Hence, in spite of a marked increase in participation and contributions, the churches' counterrevolutionary stance had limited impact. Contributing to this was the exodus of many religious activists to the United States and Spain, and a turning in upon themselves by the churches which came to serve as refuges from change.