bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Predicting long‐term carbon sequestration in response to CO2 enrichment: How and why do current ecosystem models differ?
Authors: Walker Anthony P. , Zaehle Sönke , Medlyn Belinda E. , De Kauwe Martin G. , Asao Shinichi , Hickler Thomas , Parton William , Ricciuto Daniel M. , Wang Ying‐Ping , Wårlind David , Norby Richard J.
Published: March 2015

Large uncertainty exists in model projections of the land carbon (C) sink response to increasing atmospheric CO2. Free‐Air CO2 Enrichment (FACE) experiments lasting a decade or more have investigated ecosystem responses to a step change in atmospheric CO2 concentration. To interpret FACE results in the context of gradual increases in atmospheric CO2 over decades to centuries, we used a suite of seven models to simulate the Duke and Oak Ridge FACE experiments extended for 300 years of CO2 enrichment. We also determine key modeling assumptions that drive divergent projections of terrestrial C uptake and evaluate whether these assumptions can be constrained by experimental evidence. All models simulated increased terrestrial C pools resulting from CO2 enrichment, though there was substantial variability in quasi‐equilibrium C sequestration and rates of change. In two of two models that assume that plant nitrogen (N) uptake is solely a function of soil N supply, the net primary production response to elevated CO2 became progressively N limited. In four of five models that assume that N uptake is a function of both soil N supply and plant N demand, elevated CO2 led to reduced ecosystem N losses and thus progressively relaxed nitrogen limitation. Many allocation assumptions resulted in increased wood allocation relative to leaves and roots which reduced the vegetation turnover rate and increased C sequestration. In addition, self‐thinning assumptions had a substantial impact on C sequestration in two models. Accurate representation of N process dynamics (in particular N uptake), allocation, and forest self‐thinning is key to minimizing uncertainty in projections of future C sequestration in response to elevated atmospheric CO2.
Long‐term decrease in the response of midlatitude stations to high‐speed solar wind streams in 1914–2000
Authors: Martini D. , Mursula K. , Orispää M. , Linthe H.‐J.
Published: March 2015

We investigate geomagnetic activity at two high‐latitude, two midlatitude, and two low‐latitude stations of the northern hemisphere and find that the increasing trend of geomagnetic activity in 1914–2000 is considerably lower at the two midlatitude stations (Niemegk and Fredericksburg) than at low‐ or high‐latitude stations. As Niemegk occupies a specific position among geomagnetic stations, serving as the standard station for the K/Ak index derivation, it is crucial to understand the origin and long‐term characteristics of this difference. We show here that geomagnetic activity at the studied midlatitude stations is relatively stronger in the declining phases of the 1 and 2 first solar cycles (15 and 16) than elsewhere, leading to the smaller long‐term trend. We also find that the latitudinal differences in the trends are strongly dependent on local time, being considerably larger in the dawn sector. These differences can be explained by the relatively stronger contribution of high‐speed streams to geomagnetic activity at the particular range of midlatitudes, compared to the stations at lower and higher latitudes.
Low‐salinity water off West Luzon Island in summer
Authors: Yan Yunwei , Wang Guihua , Wang Chunzai , Su Jilan
Published: March 2015

Low‐salinity water with two cores is found off West Luzon Island in the South China Sea (SCS) during summer. A series of salinity observations and model results show that the low‐salinity water begins to appear in June, reaches its lowest salinity in September, and disappears after October. Rainfall associated with the summer monsoon impinging on the Philippine mountain ranges plays an important role in the formation of the low‐salinity water, while upward Ekman pumping of high‐salinity subsurface water caused by the strong winter monsoon is important for its disappearance. Variation in mixed layer depth is responsible for the formation of the two cores of the low‐salinity water, while advection also contributes. The study further demonstrates that the low‐salinity water has considerable interannual variability associated with El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO): during the summer of the decaying year of an El Niño, an anticyclonic wind anomaly occurs in the SCS. The anticyclonic wind anomaly is associated with a northeasterly anomaly south of 18°N, reducing precipitation and causing salting of the low‐salinity water off West Luzon Island. The situation is reversed during the summer of the decaying year of a La Niña.
Annual sea level variability of the coastal ocean: The Baltic Sea‐North Sea transition zone
Authors: Passaro M. , Cipollini P. , Benveniste J.
Published: March 2015

The annual cycle is a major contribution to the nontidal variability in sea level. Its characteristics can vary substantially even at a regional scale, particularly in an area of high variability such as the coastal ocean. This study uses previously validated coastal altimetry solutions (from ALES data set) and the reference ESA Sea Level Climate Change Initiative data set to improve the understanding of the annual cycle during the Envisat years (2002–2010) in the North Sea‐Baltic Sea transition area. This area of study is chosen because of the complex coastal morphology and the availability of in situ measurements. To our knowledge, this is the first time that the improvements brought by coastal satellite altimetry to the description of the annual variability of the sea level have been evaluated and discussed. The findings are interpreted with the help of a local climatology and wind stress from a reanalysis model. The coastal amplitude of the annual cycle estimated from ALES altimetry data is in better agreement with estimations derived from in situ data than the one from the reference data set. Wind stress is found to be the main driver of annual cycle variability throughout the domain, while different steric contributions are responsible for the differences within and among the subbasins. We conclude that the ALES coastal altimetry product is a reliable data set to study the annual cycle of the sea level at a regional scale, and the strategy described in this research can be applied to other areas of the coastal ocean where the coverage from the tide gauges is not sufficient.
Shift of anammox bacterial community structure along the Pearl Estuary and the impact of environmental factors
Authors: Fu Bingbing , Liu Jiwen , Yang Hongmei , Hsu Ting Chang , He Biyan , Dai Minhan , Kao Shuh Ji , Zhao Meixun , Zhang Xiao‐Hua
Published: March 2015

Anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) plays an important role in the marine nitrogen cycle. The Pearl Estuary, a typical subtropical estuary characterized by hypoxia upstream and high loads of organic matter and inorganic nutrients caused by anthropogenic activities, has received extensive attention. In this study, anammox bacterial community structures in surface sediments along the Pearl Estuary were investigated using 16S rRNA and hydrazine oxidoreductase (HZO) genes. In addition, abundance of anammox bacteria in both water and surface sediments was investigated by quantitative PCR. Obvious anammox bacterial community structure shift was observed in surface sediments, in which the dominant genus changed from “Candidatus Brocadia” or “Candidatus Anammoxoglobus” to “Candidatus Scalindua” along the salinity gradient from freshwater to the open ocean based on 16S rRNA gene and HZO amino acid phylotypes. This distribution pattern was associated with salinity, temperature, pH of overlying water, and particularly C/N ratio. Phylogenetic analysis unraveled a rich diversity of anammox bacteria including four novel clusters provisionally named “Candidatus Jugangensis,” “Candidatus Oceanicum,” “Candidatus Anammoxidans,” and “Candidatus Aestuarianus.” The abundance of anammox bacteria in surface sediments, bottom and surface waters ranged from 4.22 × 105 to 2.55 × 106 copies g−1, 1.24 × 104 to 1.01×105 copies L−1, and 8.07×103 to 8.86×105 copies L−1, respectively. The abundance of anammox bacteria in the water column was positively correlated with
and
, and negatively correlated with dissolved oxygen, although an autochthonous source might contribute to the observed abundance of anammox bacteria.
Effects of lateral nitrate flux and instream processes on dissolved inorganic nitrogen export in a forested catchment: A model sensitivity analysis
Authors: Lin Laurence , Webster Jackson R. , Hwang Taehee , Band Lawrence E.
Published: March 2015

The importance of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in controlling nitrogen dynamics in streams is a key interest of ecologists studying dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) export from watersheds. In this study, we coupled a stream model with a terrestrial ecohydrological model and conducted a global sensitivity analysis to evaluate the relative importance of both ecosystems to nitrogen export. We constructed two scenarios (“normal” and high nitrate loads) to explore conditions under which terrestrial (lateral nitrate flux) or aquatic ecosystems (instream nutrient processes) may be more important in controlling DIN export. In a forest catchment, although the forest ecosystem controls the nitrogen load to streams, sensitivity results suggested that most nitrogen output from the terrestrial ecosystem was taken up by instream microbial immobilization associated with benthic detritus and retained in detritus. Later the immobilized nitrogen was remineralized as DIN. Therefore, the intra‐annual pattern of DIN concentration in the stream was low in fall and became high in spring. Not only was instream microbial immobilization saturated with the high nitrogen load scenario, but also the net effect of immobilization and mineralization on DIN export was minimized because nitrogen cycling between organic and inorganic forms was accelerated. Overall, our linked terrestrial‐aquatic model simulations demonstrated that stream process could significantly affect the amount and timing of watershed nitrogen export when nitrogen export from the terrestrial system is low. However, when nitrogen export from the terrestrial system is high, the effect of stream processes is minimal.
Linking bed morphology changes of two sediment mixtures to sediment transport predictions in unsteady flows
Authors: Waters Kevin A. , Curran Joanna Crowe
Published: March 2015

Flume experiments were conducted to measure bed morphology adjustments in sand/gravel and sand/silt sediment mixtures during repeated hydrographs and to link these changes to sediment transport patterns over multiple time scales. Sediment composition and hydrograph flow magnitude greatly influenced channel morphology, which impacted sediment yield, hysteresis, and transport predictions. Bed load yields were larger and more variable for the sand/silt mixture, as gravel in the sand/gravel sediment inhibited grain entrainment, limited bed form growth, and acted to stabilize the bed. Hysteresis patterns varied due to bed form and surface structure adjustments, as well as the stabilizing effect of antecedent low flows. Using half the data set, a dimensionless fractional transport equation was derived based on excess shear stress. Dimensionless reference shear stresses were estimated in two ways: as bulk values from all transport measurements and by applying a separate limb approach in which values were estimated for each limb of each hydrograph. For the other half of the data set, transport predictions with the separate limb approach were more accurate than those from six existing transport equations and the fractional relationship applied with bulk reference shear stresses. Thus, hydrograph limb‐dependent dimensionless reference shear stress links changing bed morphology and sediment transport, providing a parameter to improve transport predictions during individual flood events and in unsteady flow regimes. This approach represents a framework with which to develop site‐specific transport relationships for varying flow regimes, particularly in cases where detailed bed morphology measurements are not feasible and heterogeneous sediment complicates bed structure over time.
Potential accumulation of contaminated sediments in a reservoir of a high‐Andean watershed: Morphodynamic connections with geochemical processes
Authors: Contreras María Teresa , Müllendorff Daniel , Pastén Pablo , Pizarro Gonzalo E. , Paola Chris , Escauriaza Cristián
Published: March 2015

Rapid changes due to anthropic interventions in high‐altitude environments, such as the Altiplano region in South America, require new approaches to understand the connections between physical and geochemical processes. Alterations of the water quality linked to the river morphology can affect the ecosystems and human development in the long term. The future construction of a reservoir in the Lluta River, located in northern Chile, will change the spatial distribution of arsenic‐rich sediments, which can have significant effects on the lower parts of the watershed. In this investigation, we develop a coupled numerical model to predict and evaluate the interactions between morphodynamic changes in the Lluta reservoir, and conditions that can potentially desorb arsenic from the sediments. Assuming that contaminants are mobilized under anaerobic conditions, we calculate the oxygen concentration within the sediments to study the interactions of the delta progradation with the potential arsenic release. This work provides a framework for future studies aimed to analyze the complex connections between morphodynamics and water quality, when contaminant‐rich sediments accumulate in a reservoir. The tool can also help to design effective risk management and remediation strategies in these extreme environments.
Spatiotemporal decomposition of solute dispersion in watersheds
Authors: Riml Joakim , Wörman Anders
Published: March 2015

Information about the effect of different dispersion mechanisms on the solute response in watersheds is crucial for understanding the temporal dynamics of many water quality problems. However, to quantify these processes from stream water quality time series may be difficult because the governing mechanisms responsible for the concentration fluctuations span a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. In an attempt to address the quantification problem, we propose a novel methodology that includes a spectral decomposition of the watershed solute response using a distributed solute transport model for the network of transport pathways in surface and subsurface water. Closed form solutions of the transport problem in both the Laplace and Fourier domains are used to derive formal expressions of (i) the central temporal moments of a solute pulse response and (ii) the power spectral response of a solute concentration time series. By evaluating high‐frequency hydrochemical data from the Upper Hafren Watershed, Wales, we linked the watershed dispersion mechanisms to the damping of the concentration fluctuations in different frequency intervals reflecting various environments responsible for the damping. The evaluation of the frequency‐dependent model parameters indicate that the contribution of the different environments to the concentration fluctuations at the watershed effluent varies with period. For the longest periods (predominantly groundwater transport pathways) we found that the frequency typical transport time of chloride was 100 times longer and that sodium had a 2.5 times greater retardation factor compared with the shortest periods (predominantly shallow groundwater and surface water transport pathways).
Prediction in ungauged estuaries: An integrated theory
Authors: Savenije Hubert H. G.
Published: March 2015

Many estuaries in the world are ungauged. The International Association of Hydrological Sciences completed its science decade on Prediction in Ungauged Basins (PUB) in 2012 (Hrachowitz et al., ). Prediction on the basis of limited data is a challenge in hydrology, but not less so in estuaries, where data on fundamental processes are often lacking. In this paper, relatively simple, but science‐based, methods are presented that allow researchers, engineers, and water managers to obtain first‐order estimates of essential process parameters in estuaries, such as the estuary depth, the tidal amplitude, the tidal excursion, the phase lag, and the salt water intrusion, on the basis of readily obtainable information, such as topographical maps and tidal tables. These apparently simple relationships are assumed to result from the capacity of freely erodible water bodies to adjust themselves to external drivers and to dissipate the free energy from these drivers as efficiently as possible. Thus, it is assumed that these systems operate close to their thermodynamic limit, resulting in predictable patterns that can be described by relatively simple equations. Although still much has to be done to develop an overall physics‐based theory, this does not prevent us from making use of the empirical “laws” that we observe in alluvial estuaries.
Biology, Development, and Human Systems
Authors: Lickliter Robert , Honeycutt Hunter
Published: March 2015

Biology has genetic, epigenetic, developmental, ecological, and evolutionary components. In addition to the scientific fields contributing to biology the philosophy of science also frames the field. As is the case with all the sciences, progress in biology depends on advances in theory building, empirical research, and modeling. Development, as one of the central processes of biology, has been the focus of both empirical and theoretical attention for centuries. Research techniques and methods used in biology to study development have evolved dramatically over the past several decades, generating a wealth of detailed empirical data. Metatheoretical frameworks, theories, and modeling have likewise advanced, calling into question established interpretations and assumptions about development, including the relation between genotype and phenotype, the nature and extent of heredity, the links between development and evolution, and the biological bases of behavior and cognition. In this chapter, we review the history and current status of biology's view of development and discuss the broader implications of this view for a psychobiological systems view of human development.
Neuroscience, Embodiment, and Development
Authors: Marshall Peter J.
Published: March 2015

The chapter begins with a broad introduction to the concept of neuroscience as a different level of analysis, initially working from an account of how classical cognitivism resulted in a neglect of neuroscience in psychology. The emergence of developmental cognitive neuroscience is then considered and current theoretical perspectives in this area are briefly outlined. One key emphasis of the chapter is the embodied nature of development, which is considered here to be an essential part of any theory of developmental cognitive neuroscience. The argument is made that embodiment has the potential to reframe the ways in which neuroscience data are considered in relation to other kinds of data. However, important developmental features of this reframing are currently underspecified, and in the final part of the chapter it is suggested that a relational developmental systems perspective provides one way forward. The implications of this approach for forging a new biologically inspired direction for developmental science are profound, and are discussed in more detail toward the end of the chapter.
Developmental Psychopathology
Authors: Cummings E. Mark , Valentino Kristin
Published: March 2015

In the past 30 years the field of developmental psychopathology has emerged as a highly influential approach to understanding human development, including both normal development and the development of psychopathology. This chapter begins with a consideration of the definition of the field, the gaps it addresses in the study of child psychopathology, theoretical assumptions about the nature of human development, and its relation with other disciplines such as developmental science. The key conceptual components of developmental psychopathology are then examined. These include a dynamic, process‐oriented perspective on the development of psychopathology, the notions of developmental pathways and resilience, and the importance of considering both risk and protective factors. Another conceptual component is that the evaluation of what is considered disordered or adaptive must take into account the context in which the pattern occurs–for instance, the family and community. The implications for prevention, intervention, diagnosis, and classification are also discussed. We close with a consideration of new directions and emerging themes in the field.
Reflections on Cognitive Development
Authors: Liben Lynn S. , Müller Ulrich
Published: March 2015

This chapter begins by describing a fundamental way in which the study of cognitive development has changed between the publication of the first edition of the
Handbook of Child Psychology
in 1946 and of the volume on cognitive processes contained in this edition of the
Handbook
. Early scholars often tried to catalogue which specific, isolated cognitive process accounted for which particular cognitive outcome, whereas contributors to the latest volume reflect a relational‐systems framework that approaches cognitive processes within broader biological and sociocultural contexts. Several themes run through the volume chapters including the importance of symbols; the power and pervasiveness of inferential or logical processes; connections between cognition and emotion; and the importance of diversity with respect to both individuals' own characteristics and surrounding culture. The chapter closes with a précis of each of the individual chapters contained in the volume.
Brain and Cognitive Development
Authors: Stiles Joan , Brown Timothy T. , Haist Frank , Jernigan Terry L.
Published: March 2015

This chapter presents a unified model of neurocognitive development beginning with the differentiation of the first neural cells and extending through the emergence of complex thought and behavior. It draws on the latest data from neurobiology, multimodal brain imaging, and cognitive neuroscience to construct a developmental model of the emergence of the human neurocognitive system from the dynamic interaction of diverse biological and experiential factors. The chapter begins with brief descriptions of the major methods for interrogating questions about brain‐behavior relations focusing primarily on neuroimaging technologies. The next section provides an overview of anatomical brain development beginning in the prenatal period and extending through adolescence. The third section represents the heart of this chapter using data from three major cognitive domains to explore principles that underlie the development of brain‐behavior relationships. The targeted domains are visuospatial processing, cognitive control, and language. The final sections present a synthesis of data from earlier sections offering a neurocognitive perspective on the nature of brain‐behavior relationships, and reflections on new trends and future directions for research in cognitive neuroscience.
The Development of Social Understanding
Authors: Carpendale Jeremy I. M. , Lewis Charlie
Published: March 2015

Understanding others is an essential aspect of being human. We review research and theory on the development of a range of skills constituting social understanding beginning in infancy with gaze‐following and gestures such as pointing. Given the importance attributed to false belief understanding in preschoolers, we review accounts of this development as well as criticism of these theories. Such debates now extend to current claims that even infants understand others' false beliefs, raising questions about preconceptions of the nature and origins of social awareness. The later developing social skills we turn to next remain relatively neglected in this literature. We discuss contributions from neuroscience for understanding social cognitive development such as neuroimaging and research on mirror neurons. There are many links between social cognition and children's social relations and, in particular, we focus on the key role of language in social cognitive development. We also review ways in which social understanding may influence social conduct and this is linked to the issues of trust and deception, as well as cooperation and moral development. Throughout, we highlight ways that research traditions are influenced by worldviews or preconceptions about the nature of mind, meaning, and knowledge, and emphasize the interconnections between social understanding and all other aspects of human life.
Cognitive Development and Culture
Authors: Gauvain Mary , Perez Susan
Published: March 2015

Cognitive development occurs in cultural context. This chapter describes the complex and multifaceted connection between culture and cognitive development and how it unfolds over ontogenesis. Sociocultural theory, which is unique in its focus on cognitive development in relation to culture, provides the conceptual foundation of the chapter. Following discussion of the historical foundations of contemporary research on culture and cognitive development, we describe how culture has been studied in psychological research, the importance of a developmental approach for understanding culture–cognition connections, and some considerations in studying the sociocultural basis of cognitive development. The capacities that human beings have that underlie participation in culture are discussed, including current understanding of relevant neural functioning and brain maturation and the social‐cognitive capabilities through which children learn from others. To illustrate the defining role of culture in human cognition, we describe empirical research in four areas of development: memory, executive functions, spatial cognition, and problem solving. General conclusions on theory and research about culture and cognitive development are offered along with suggestions for future research.
Atypical Cognitive Development
Authors: Pennington Bruce F.
Published: March 2015

This chapter reviews current key questions, issues, and findings in the study of atypical cognitive development, as well as the history of earlier research on this topic. Key questions include (1) How general versus specific are the processes of cognitive development and individual differences in cognition? (2) What is the etiology of cognitive development and individual cognitive differences? (3) How do these etiologies act on structural and functional brain development? (4) How malleable are developmental and individual cognitive outcomes? and (5) How similar are the answers to these four questions in youth and aging? A key issue that runs throughout the chapter is the role of nature versus nurture in the development of physical and psychological forms. The resolution to this issue is found in the principles of probabilistic epigenesis, constructivism, and complex systems that self‐organize to yield emergent properties. The chapter describes a multilevel, interdisciplinary approach that is needed to understand atypical cognitive development. Besides behavioral and cognitive development, these levels include (a) etiology (genetic and environmental influences and their interplay) and (b) brain mechanisms. Specific examples of atypical cognitive development are described to illustrate these levels of analysis and to address key issues. These examples include (a) amblyopia, (b) orphanage rearing, (c) three genetic syndromes that produce intellectual disability (i.e., Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and Williams syndrome; (d) early treated phenylketonuria; and (e) developmental dyslexia. The chapter concludes with a summary of current answers to the five key questions and implications for future research.
Psychoneuroendocrinology of Stress
Authors: Gunnar Megan R. , Doom Jenalee R. , Esposito Elisa A.
Published: March 2015

Developmental psychology is rapidly becoming a neuropsychobiological field concerned with understanding how the genes we are born with, the experiences we have that modify gene expression, and the physiological responses in our brains and bodies all come together to write the story of our lives. Nowhere is the importance of a multilevel, multidisciplinary, genes‐to‐society perspective more apparent than in the study of stress and its role in development. This chapter focuses on a key stress‐mediating system, the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenocortical (HPA) axis, its development and regulatory processes, its effects on brain systems involved in emotion and cognition, and its interactions with other stress‐mediating systems. The normative development of theHPAaxis is described, along with the role of temperament as a moderator of stress responding and stress effects. The majority of the chapter summarizes evidence that theHPAaxis plays a role in the biological embedding of experience during development, including questions about developmental plasticity and developmental programming in relation to poverty, prenatal stress, parental loss, risky family environments, and maltreatment. The role of theHPAaxis in developmental psychopathology is also discussed. Future directions and fruitful areas of research are considered with each topic.
Relationships, Regulation, and Early Development
Authors: Thompson Ross A.
Published: March 2015

The influence of early parent–child relationships on the development of self‐regulation has yielded a rich research literature on socialization. This chapter broadens that view by discussing early relational influences on two processes relevant to regulation: developing biological systems and emerging representations of the social world. Concerning the first, research on fetal programming, developing stress neurobiology, molecular gene–environment interaction, and behavioral epigenetics underscores the influence of early adversity and the social buffering of stress, mediated by caregiving relationships, on developing reactivity and self‐regulation. Concerning the second, developmental social cognition research and studies of relationship‐based mental representations highlight the importance of social experience for developing understanding of human mental states and motivation, cooperation and fairness, and other constituents of developing self‐regulation. A discussion of the development of emotion regulation follows that emphasizes the value of a multilevel analysis of developmental processes of self‐regulation that integrates behavior, biology, representation, and relationships. Finally, directions for future research are identified.
Children and the Law
Authors: Lamb Michael E. , Malloy Lindsay C. , Hershkowitz Irit , La Rooy David
Published: March 2015

In this chapter, we review the developmental science of “Children and the Law” and our understanding of the diverse and broad array of cognitive, social, and emotional factors that developmental scientists have studied. To allow children to participate as fully as their abilities allow in legal decisions affecting their lives, it is important to understand their capabilities and strengths, as well as their cognitive and social limitations. We review the developmental science that provides an appropriate evidence base to thus improve decision‐making and outcomes for children and families within many aspects of the legal system. Since the previous edition was published in 2006, research has become increasingly “convincing” to nonpsychologists because basic laboratory research has been complemented by methods that have clear ecological validity, yielding findings that are better understood, accepted, and applied in legal contexts. This knowledge thus permits scholars to offer useful suggestions to practitioners and foster a more complete understanding of developmental processes. We first review the developmental trajectories in the principal domains of development known or likely to affect children in legal contexts—neurophysiological development, memory and suggestibility, cognitive development, language development, social and emotional development, and the development of social relationships with parents and peers. Secondly, we turn attention to the implications of normative developmental processes for children in a variety of legal contexts—investigative interviews with alleged victims, witnesses, and suspects, as well as for those children who are the focus of actions in family and dependency court. The chapter ends with an examination of the key questions to which researchers should turn their attention to further our understanding and practices concerning children and the law.
Aggressive and Violent Behavior
Authors: Eisner Manuel P. , Malti Tina
Published: March 2015

This chapter reviews research and theory on the development of aggressive behavior and violence from childhood to adolescence. We also summarize and discuss research on correlates, risk factors, markers, causal mechanisms, and consequences of aggressive behavior and violence. Due to space constraints, our review focuses on more recent developmental research and theoretical advancements in the past decade. In the introductory section, we present definitions and dimensions of aggression across development. Then we discuss current theories on adaptive and maladaptive functions of human aggression, and we identify cross‐cutting theoretical issues. Next, we describe subtypes of aggression, clinical classification, and measurement issues. Then the empirical literature related to the epidemiology of aggression from infancy to adolescence is reviewed, with a focus on normative developmental change and stability. The subsequent sections review the biological, individual, and socialization processes that are related to the development of aggressive behavior and violence. Lastly, we review macro‐level comparative research on aggression and violence. Finally, we discuss challenges in current research and identify areas for future research.
Children at School
Authors: Crosnoe Robert , Benner Aprile D.
Published: March 2015

In schools, children develop the human capital that they will need for socioeconomic attainment, participate in ongoing interactions with adults and other children that will shape their future social and emotional development, and are socialized into the prevailing norms and values of their communities, cultures, and the larger society. As such, schools are an important piece of the developmental ecology, one that is also a major focus of policy, practice, and intervention. This chapter, therefore, explores the significance of schools in child development. It begins with a discussion of key themes in developmental research on schooling, including the place of schools in major theories, the developmental effects of schooling, and the links between schooling and inequality. Next, it explains how schools are societal institutions, structurally organized to facilitate tangible cognitive, academic, and vocational skills among children and to grant key academic credentials. This discussion is followed by a description of schools as developmental contexts, interpersonally organized to shape human interaction and socialization and to influence social and emotional development. These two sides of schooling are brought together in the final section of the chapter, which discusses how schools can be viewed more holistically using several specific examples of controversy in educational policy, such as desegregation and high‐stakes testing. Throughout the chapter, we discuss future directions of research and the translation between research and practice.
Children at Work
Authors: Staff Jeremy , Mont'Alvao Arnaldo , Mortimer Jeylan T.
Published: March 2015

In this chapter we consider childhood employment in a life course perspective. We seek to understand how family background, childhood experiences and orientations, and macrolevel changes (e.g., economic shocks such as the Great Recession) influence the timing of entry into the world of work and the characteristics of first jobs; how childhood and adolescent work experiences are linked to school achievement, other work activities, and problem behaviors; and the potential long‐term consequences of early involvements in paid work for health and well‐being, as well as engagement and success in work, school, and family. The chapter is divided into three parts: In the first part we discuss research on the correlates and consequences of youth work in the United States, highlighting four major perspectives on this topic. In the second section, we review the literature on child and adolescent employment in an international context, discussing some major themes in this diverse literature. Our goal here is not to provide an exhaustive review of this literature, but instead to highlight some of the unique situations that young workers in developing countries face as they leave school and enter the labor market. In the final section, we discuss potential areas of new research on youth employment, such as the impact of the global recession on child and youth work in both the United States and worldwide, further examination of how different types and qualities of work relate to children and adolescent outcomes, and more studies that consider diverse trajectories of school and work involvement during the early occupational career.
Authenticity
Authors: Grayson Kent , Corciolani Matteo
Published: March 2015

An authentic market offering is something that is sold in the marketplace, and whose market value is based wholly or partly on a belief that the offering has a particular kind of real, truthful, or genuine connection with something that is important or special to the consumer. Judgments of authenticity are inherently subjective. One kind of authenticity relates to whether the market offering has a factual and physical link with something important to the consumer. For example, an article of clothing may be deemed authentic because a celebrity actually wore it. Another perceived factual connection that influences perceptions of authenticity is between personality and behavior. For example, a product may be deemed authentic because it reflects the true personality of a company's founder. Products that are unique and/or consistent over time are also more likely to be viewed as reflecting the company's true personality. A second kind of authenticity relates to whether the market offering physically resembles something valuable to the consumer. Here, the connection is not physical but is perceptual. This meaning of authenticity is frequently used when describing replica art objects and facsimiles of brands and products.
Bricolage
Authors: Garlitz Dustin
Published: March 2015

Bricolage is a type of construction achieved by using whatever materials are at hand, or the act of creating something from a diverse range of available materials. More generally, bricolage essentially stands for do‐it‐yourself, and in the field of contemporary consumer studies it can be thought of a theoretical foundation of do‐it‐yourself (
DIY
) culture. The individual who practices bricolage is known as a bricoleur, and is regarded as a sort of Jack‐of‐all‐trades.
Dandyism
Authors: Bonazzi Michele
Published: March 2015

The term “dandyism” refers to a British cultural movement of the late nineteenth century, within the Victorian era. It was a doctrine of elegance, finesse, and originality which was primarily concerned with language, sophisticated manners, and dress. An aphorism coined by the writer Gabriele D'Annunzio, one of the leading representatives of the Italian movement, perfectly sums up its essence: “living life as a work of art.” For that reason, “being dandy” became an expression not only of sophisticated dress, but of a proper lifestyle that expressed itself in every aspect of existence, such as attitude and personal tastes, and was superior from the point of view of social and cultural capital. This way of life was driven by a determination to stand out from the stereotype of the ordinary bourgeois man, and its aim was to rise above social conventions and the common way of thinking. In this sense, the dandy played a leading role in the society of its time, as an actor on a theater stage, shocking the audience with his eccentric and provocative style.
de Certeau, Michel
Authors: Desjeux Dominique
Published: March 2015

One of Michel de Certeau's great virtues was the attention he paid to other people, as Luce Giard reminds us in the book she edited in 1987, a year after his death. This is reflected in his work through a never ending search for otherness, his quest for an invisible presence. De Certeau was one of the great experts on mysticism, and his quest was close to that of earlier mystics in their constant search for the hidden presence of God. Himself a Jesuit, he followed the spiritual exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola, by which adherents apply prudence with respect to illusions, discernment of the meaning of life, and liberation of the self as a means of being more available to others. These characteristics are often also demanded of a social science researcher. They are that much more effective in de Certeau's work in that they are associated with physical and intellectual mobility.
Infotainment
Authors: Langman Lauren
Published: March 2015

One crucial aspect of modern life has been concern with broader events and people who live in social worlds beyond our local community or nation. Thus news, information about the people and events outside our limited range, has become a commodity that is provided by organizations and consumed by audiences. Given populations that are highly individualistic and segmented by class, gender, level of education, race, ethnicity, or religion, there are a vast number of sources of information, from the more general and typically serious “hard news” outlets that provide carefully researched information about economics, government, major political events, crises, and natural disasters that impact on people's lives, to those that supply lighter, “soft news” and celebrity gossip.
Las Vegas
Authors: Borer Michael Ian
Published: March 2015

The dominant image of Las Vegas is still connected to the mega casino‐resorts on the neon‐infused Strip. As Las Vegas has grown in population, so has its offerings for entertainment and consumption beyond gambling. Most Strip venues provide visitors and locals with restaurants by celebrity chefs and nightclubs featuring celebrity
DJs
.
Nike
Authors: Riegel Viviane
Published: March 2015

The name Nike comes from the Greek goddess of victory. Nike's brand logo is the Swoosh, created by Carolyn Davidson, a graphic design student at Portland State University. In addition to the Nike and Jordan brands, wholly owned subsidiaries include Converse (athletic and lifestyle footwear, apparel, and accessories), Hurley (action sports and youth lifestyle footwear, apparel, and accessories), and Nike Golf (since 1996, when Tiger Woods became a Nike spokesperson). The company's mission statement is: “To bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world.”
High Bulk Electron Mobility Diketopyrrolopyrrole Copolymers with Perfluorothiophene
Authors: Mueller Christian J. , Singh Chetan R. , Fried Martina , Huettner Sven , Thelakkat Mukundan
Published: March 2015

The question of designing high electron mobility polymers by increasing the planarization using diffusive nonbonding heteroatom interactions in diketopyrrolopyrrole polymers is addressed in this. For this, three different diketopyrrolo[3,4‐c]pyrrole (DPP) derivatives with thienyl‐, 2‐pyridinyl‐, and phenyl‐flanked cores are copolymerized with an electron‐rich thiophene unit as well as an electron‐deficient 3,4‐difluorothiophene unit as comonomer to obtain diverse polymeric DPPs which vary systematically in their structures. The crystallinity differs significantly with clear trends on varying both flanking unit and comonomer. The optical gap and energy levels depend more on the nature of the flanking aryl units rather than on fluorination. Additionally, the charge transport properties are compared using different methods to differentiate between interface or orientation effects and bulk charge carrier transport. In organic field effect transistor devices with very high electron as well as hole mobilities (up to 0.6 cm2 V−1 s−1) are obtained and fluorination leads to a more pronounced n‐type nature in all polymers, resulting in ambipolar behavior in otherwise p‐type materials. In contrast, space‐charge limited current measurements show a strong influence of the flanking units only on electron mobilities. Especially, the elegant synthetic strategy of combining pyridyl flanking units with difluorothiophene as the comonomer culminates in a record bulk electron mobility of 4.3 × 10−3 cm2 V−1 s−1 in polymers.
Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Poly(sulfanilic acid)‐Based Triblock Copolymer
Authors: Murugesan A. , Meenarathi B. , Palanikumar S. , Kannammal L. , Anbarasan R.
Published: March 2015

A triblock copolymer consists of sulfanilic acid, tetrahydrofuran and ε‐caprolactone was synthesized and characterized by various analytical techniques such as Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy, UV–vis spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, field emission scanning electron microscopy, gel permeation chromatography and conductivity measurements. The percent relative humidity (RH) of poly(sulfanilic acid) (PSA; P1), poly(sulfanilic acid)‐g‐poly(tetrahydrofuran) (PSA‐g‐PTHF; P2), and poly(caprolactone)‐block‐poly(sulfanlic acid)‐g‐poly(tetrahydrofuran)‐block‐poly(ε‐caprolactone) (PCL‐b‐PSA‐g‐PTHF‐b‐PCL; P3) were tested at different temperatures. This study infers that the cationically charged polymers exhibited excellent percent RH.
Delignification of intact biomass and cellulosic coproduct of acid‐catalyzed hydrolysis
Authors: Soleimani Majid , Tabil Lope G. , Niu Catherine
Published: March 2015

The kinetics of acid‐catalyzed hemicellulose removal and also alkaline delignification of oat hull biomass were investigated. All three operational parameters namely, catalyst concentration (0.10–0.55 N H2SO4), temperature (110–130°C), and residence time (up to 150 min) affected the efficiency of hemicellulose removal, with 100% of hemicellulose removed by appropriate selection of process parameters. Analysis of delignification kinetics (in the temperature range of 30–100°C) indicated that it can be expressed very well by a two‐phase model for the crude biomass and also for the hemicellulose‐prehydrolyzed material. The application of acid‐catalyzed prehydrolysis improved the capacity of lignin dissolution especially at lower temperatures (30 and 65°C) and accelerated the dissolution of lignin. This acceleration of delignification by prehydrolysis was possible at all levels of temperature in the bulk phase; however, results were more significant at the lower temperatures in the terminal phase. © 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 61: 1783–1791, 2015