bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Consequences of Political Support
Authors: Dalton Russell J.
Published: May 2009

This chapter first discusses the potential theoretical consequences of political support. It examines the individual consequences of distrust on patterns of political participation, compliance to the rules of government, and allegiance to the government. Distrust in politicians but support for the democratic ideal stimulates calls for policy reforms, and this contributes to the recent history of democratic institutional reforms in the U.S. states and cross-nationally.
2 Citizen Participation and Deliberative Governance: The Problems of Knowledge and Complexity
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This chapter turns to citizen deliberation — understood to be the normative core of civic engagement — and outlines it's worrisome decline in Western democratic societies. It does this by way of asking if most citizens can meaningfully deliberate policy issues in the modern age of complexity. And if they cannot, should we be talking about a more participatory, deliberative form of democracy? Pointing to various practical experiences, the question is answered affirmatively, but the difficulties involved in extending participation are underscored. After discussing the implications of contemporary theories of citizenship and governance for participation, the chapter concludes by arguing that there is nothing obvious or straightforward about participation. In important ways, it has to be facilitated, even nurtured.
3 Citizens and Experts in Deliberative Democracy: From Theory to Experimentation
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines deliberative democratic theory and various deliberative experiments that can inform it. It illustrates how these efforts pose questions of expertise and complexity that have yet to be adequately taken into account. Deliberative democratic theory, largely abstract and impractical, has mainly neglected — if not ignored — these problems and their implications. At the same time, a parallel body of experimental research is shown to have usefully worked out practical deliberative designs. While these contributions generally recognize the need for expertise, they too have failed to move beyond the standard understandings of expertise which has long hindered citizen participation. Emphasizing the expert-citizen relationship, the discussion points to the need to bring both of these theoretical and practical pursuits together in a more fruitful interaction.
4 Deliberative‐Analytic Policy Inquiry: Postempiricist Practices
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

Moving beyond the traditional conceptions of value-neutrality and context independence that have dominated the epistemology of the policy sciences, this chapter offers a social constructivist interpretation of real-world practices. Introducing the constructivist perspective, it presents an alternative dialectical understanding of knowledge and its relation to practical reason in policy deliberation. Here the postempiricist expert, as deliberative policy analysis, is posited as an interpretive mediator operating between the available analytic frameworks of social science, particular policy findings, and the differing perspectives of the public actors, both those of policy decision-makers and citizens.
6 Public Policy as Social Construct: Multiple Meanings in Sustainable Development
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This chapter demonstrates the ways in which policy is more fundamentally a sociopolitical construct than technical/instrumental tool, as it is approached in much of policy science. Employing a constructivist sociology of knowledge, the discussion illustrates the ways in which a policy is a product of multiple realities and, as such, is as much a matter for interpretive analysis as it is techno-empirical assessment. To clarify the theoretical position, the second half of the chapter demonstrates the point through the political struggle over sustainable development in environmental policy. Beyond technical knowledge, the case points to how policies are socially experienced — in particular, how they supply citizens with the social sense of collective participation in mutual ventures with fellow members of their own communities.
7 Policy Advice as Storyline: Narrative Knowledge and Expert Practices
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This chapter emphasizes the relation of narration to practical reason and the giving of good reasons. Not only does the explication demonstrate how policy narratives relate to factual information, but also to group identities and collective action. Offering an example of the use of narrative story-lines in climate change policy research, the chapter closes with a discussion of the concept of validity as understood in narrative analysis.
9 Deliberative Empowerment: The Cultural Politics of Discursive Space
Authors: Fischer Frank
Published: May 2009

This chapter takes up the design of deliberative fora. It begins by introducing the influential theory of ‘empowered participatory governance’ put forward by Fung and Wright, which is seen to focus mainly on procedural and material factors. It argues that enabling participation requires more attention to the underlying social conditions necessary for participatory deliberation to work. Drawing on contributions from postmodern cultural politics, as well as experiences from participatory research, democratic structures and procedures are seen to offer an opening for participatory empowerment, but cannot in and of themselves ensure authentic deliberation. Deeper political and social-psychological factors related to the intersubjective aspects of participation are involved as well. The argument is illustrated through a several theoretical and practical contributions, including a more detailed analysis of the ‘People's Planning Campaign’ in Kerala, India.
1 Introduction
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

Arendt is often considered to be one of the leading writers on political non-violence. She was the theorist of political speech as action and claimed on numerous occasions that violence was mute and brought the death of politics. However, her writings on war and violence are more subtle and important than have been originally thought. The vast secondary literature on Arendt is sophisticated and broad but it has underestimated this engagement with war by equating war with brute violence and focussing on those passages in which she does indeed exclude violence from being properly political. Pulling together the threads of violence and war in Arendt's writing suggests that her treatment of the subjects is as illuminating as the classical sociology tradition and more compelling than some of the more recent work in the political theory of war.
4 The Boomerang Effect: On the Imperial Origins of Total War
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

This chapter looks at Arendt's historical analysis of a form of war that still shapes the contemporary world. In particular, the chapter assesses her farsighted and prescient claim that late 19th-century wars of imperial conquest helped sow the seeds of 20th-century total war in Europe. The implications are potentially great for how we might think through the social and political processes unwittingly unleashed by various forms of violence, including so-called ‘small wars’. Arendt's writing on imperialism and European total war also reveal some of the flaws in conventional military history and strategic studies which has understood these practices as unrelated. Arendt points us toward relationships that are much closer to Clausewitz's more fundamental insight about war as a social process that transcends the nation-state. Moreover, Arendt may have been the first to articulate what today we call ‘blowback’ and she termed the ‘boomerang effect’.
7 Beyond Strauss, Lies and the War in Iraq: A Critique of Neoconservatism
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

Arendt articulated the dangers of moralism in the political realm that avoids realist cynicism. She is better placed to challenge the neoconservative vision of international affairs, ideological conviction, and their relationship to democratic society. Reading Arendt against Leo Strauss suggests that the fundamental problem with neoconservative ideology concerns its understanding of the place of philosophy in the public realm, the relationship between political thought and practice, ideas, and action. This sheds light on contemporary neoconservative claims about the power of ideas to change the world (through the invasion and occupation of Iraq), and widespread, but misguided, claims about their propensity to condone political lies. There is always a temptation to lie in politics because the lie is an intervention into the common world. This is only made worse by ideological thinking. Neoconservatives may be experts at selling wars but seem less adept at winning them.
8 The Humanitarian Condition? On War and Making a Global Public
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

This chapter contrasts Arendt's writing with Jürgen Habermas who has argued that humanitarian intervention is justified, in part, because it places international relations on the path toward cosmopolitan society, a global public realm. Habermas has unwittingly — and perhaps surprisingly — endorsed a model of global political founding that has something in common with Machiavelli's notion of politics and violence being two sides of the same coin. Habermas envisages a political end, a global public; ‘humanitarian’ war is endorsed as a means to make it. Arendt's judgement is more sobering. Her account of founding and political freedom foregoes the temptation to reduce politics to a relationship between ends and means. She held a deeply ambivalent view of the concept of and justifications for political action based on ‘humanity’. Her thought was rarely couched in what she took to be the rather abstract and even dangerous language of humanitarianism.
Conclusions
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: May 2009

Arendt's apparent exclusion of violence from politics — her definitionally-enforced distinction — actually linked politics and war together in a historically and conceptually rich relationship. She criticized the dominant Western traditions of social and political thought for borrowing their models of politics from the realm of organised violence, of command and obedience. But it is her political thought that is deeply influenced by the enduring significance of war. It may be necessary now, more than ever, to learn how to think with Arendt, a time that has delivered us moral and political catastrophes, which while not exceeding her day, strongly resemble and are directly linked to those she directly confronted. Postcolonial conflicts, revolutions and occupations, wars of annihilation and crimes against humanity, anti-Semitism, Islamophobia, and accusations of Islamo-fascism — these are among the social forces relating and separating peoples and states through organised violence.
Entering the Agon
Authors: Barker Elton T. E.
Published: May 2009

This book investigates one of the most characteristic and prominent features of ancient Greek literature—the scene of debate or agon, in which with varying degrees of formality characters square up to each other and engage in a contest of words—and sets out for the first time to trace its changing representations through Homeric epic, historiography and tragedy. Combining literary dialogic theory with sociological approaches towards structure, it makes the claim that debate is best understood in relation to an institutional framework, in which issues of authority and dissent are variously set out and worked through. Intersecting with key recent scholarship, it shows that the Homeric poems establish, and scrutinize, the assembly as an institution which accommodates dissent, in line with an understanding of epic narrative as foundational; that the historians' marginal status as writers in an oral culture manifests itself in their representing debate as a challenge to the utility of public institutions; and that tragedy marks the formal institutionalization of dissent in its adversarial structure with an onus on speaking back, which offers a new way of thinking about tragic politics in terms of the process by which dissent is enacted and managed. This book demonstrates not only the fundamental importance of debate to these genres, but also the ways representations of debate construct an agonistic mentality which intersects with and informs the broader cultural construction of a citizen community.
Prologue
Authors: Barker Elton T.E.
Published: May 2009

This chapter introduces the book's subject, methodology, and aims. Noting limitations in scope and tendency towards abstraction of previous studies, it considers the broader institutional context for debate and examines its various manifestations in texts. Three arguments are proposed: that debate plays a critical role in both oral and written narrative (epic and historiography) and drama (tragedy); that debate is best thought of in terms of the due management of disagreement; and that its textual representations reproduce an agonistic mental horizon among its many audiences. In making these claims, the introduction draws on the cultural analysis of competition and debate by G. Lloyd, J.-P. Vernant and others, the theory of structuration by the political theorist A. Giddens, which stresses the activity of people working within social structures to enact them, and M. Bakhtin's dialogic approach, which analyses the dynamic between the narrator's voice and those of his characters.
Introduction: founding dissent
Authors: Barker Elton T.E.
Published: May 2009

This section introduces the twin chapters on Homeric epic, the Iliad and Odyssey. Its methodological basis for comparison derives from J. Foley, who proposes using the idea of resonance—the process by which formulae evoke a wider epic tradition and, in turn, resonate through each and every particular instance—to explore inter-poetic rivalry. It identifies scenes of debate through a lexical study of the term ‘agora’ and its associated formulae, on the basis of which the assembly may be regarded as an arena in which the relationship between the leader and his people is examined, questioned and forged. While other studies have compiled lists of attributes of the assembly, however, this section draws attention to the performativity of the text-how debates work in context and develop over the course of the narrative—which may help to account for the often commented absence of a clear polis structure in either poem.
1 Challenging authority in the assemblies of theIliad
Authors: Barker Elton T.E.
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines representations of debate in the Iliad. Focusing on scenes of assembly among the Achaeans, it argues that dissent is made institutional as the poem unwinds: Achilles establishes the precedent for challenging the king in the opening act; subsequent episodes in books 2 and 9 explore possibilities for dissent by not relying on Achilles' individual performance but working within the institution of assembly he set up; the assembly of book 19 reflects on the Iliad's achievement by replaying tensions between Achilles and Agamemnon. This hypothesis is tested by considering two other groups who hold assemblies, the Trojans and gods, both of whom prioritize authority over dissent. Diverging from previous attempts to locate an emerging civic framework in the Iliad, this study argues that the poem does not represent a ‘ready-made’ system of institutions but, as a foundational narrative, initiates a process towards enacting them from its beginning.
3 Herodotus' Odyssean enquiry
Authors: Barker Elton T.E.
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses Herodotus' enquiry into a war between east and west in the wake of the Iliad, but shows that debate is represented in a quite different manner. While shown to cherish the values of freedom, the Greeks' pursuit of self-government happens in spite of the assembly, which is dominated by self-interest and fraught with division; it is the Persians who, though lacking a comparable civic framework, are represented as conducting the most formal debates. Building on the recent suggestion (by J. Marincola) that Herodotus' narrative shares many affinities with the Odyssey, this chapter reassesses the extent and nature of its dialogism on the basis that it reworks a peculiarly Odyssean exposure of the inadequacies of public debate. The author's challenge to debate acts as a lure for eliciting authority for his own enquiry, which can transcend the lack of an inter-political framework that so hampers the Greek coalition.
5 Speaking back in Sophocles'Ajax
Authors: Barker Elton T.E.
Published: May 2009

This chapter tackles head-on the problem of the double agon in the play's second half, as Teucer and the Atreidae argue over Ajax's body, and interprets it as part of a strategy that emphasizes spectating and speaking back. Points of contact with the Iliad demonstrate this shift in perspective from the hero to those looking on, as first Odysseus is installed as a spectator of Ajax's Achilles-like dialogue with Athena, Ajax's men articulate their concerns, and Tecmessa, though only a slave, speaks back like an Andromache. This process culminates in Teucer's defence in the agon, as Sophocles stages a battle of words not for Achilles' arms, but for Ajax's memory. In this the Chorus play a key role by turning to Odysseus, showing their progress from dependants to autonomous subjects in the agon and prefiguring the role of the Athenian audience, as judges within a fully realized institutional arena.
Introduction
Authors: Fulda Bernhard
Published: May 2009

This introductory chapter underlines the importance and originality of the book as a contribution to our understanding of the fate of Weimar democracy. It reflects on the connection between media consumption and electoral behaviour, and challenges previously held assumptions about the role of the press in the political process. It provides a discussion of the difficulties of using newspapers as a historical source, and of the methodological problem of assessing something as complex as media effects. It summarizes key historical debates on the rise of Nazism, and places them in the context of media theory.
The ‘Unpolitical’ Press: Provincial Newspapers around Berlin, 1925–8
Authors: Fulda Bernhard
Published: May 2009

How did the average German learn about politics? The decentral, fragmented nature of the German newspaper market meant that the great majority of contemporaries derived political information from a local paper. This chapter gives a broad sweep of controversial issues as portrayed in a sample of provinical newspapers around Berlin in the period 1925–8. It shows that even in self‐professed ‘unpolitical’ newspapers ideological news coverage was the norm. At the same time, this book demonstrates that overt press support for particular candidates or parties did not have a significant effect. Only where alternative sources of information, like a competing newspaper of a different political orientation, did not exist could the press excert a noticeable electoral impact. The chapter gives new evidence for the regionality of German politics, and helps to explain the tensions between countryside and metropolis.
War of Words: The Spectre of Civil War, 1931–2
Authors: Fulda Bernhard
Published: May 2009

The final years of the Weimar Republic were dominated by two factors: the economic crisis with its surge in mass unemployment; and the development of the Nazi party into a mass movement. How did politicians respond to the challenges of a media democracy? This chapter studies the intensive news coverage of political violence, and examines the increasingly authoritarian nature of government press management. But even at this point, the Nazi press was unsuccessful in attracting a wider readership. So why did voters choose to support the Nazis? This book demonstrates that the economic crisis as such was insufficient in mobilizing voters to vote for the NSDAP. Rather, press presentation of increasing Communist violence and the perceived threat of civil war, together with the media image of an indecisive government, turned the Nazis into an attractive choice for voters desperate for decisive action.
Conclusion
Authors: Fulda Bernhard
Published: May 2009

This final chapter recapitulates the various effects of Germany's partisan press on journalists, politicians, civil servants, and the wider public by drawing on the findings of media science. It emphasizes the role of the press in providing contemporaries with a slanted picture of parliamentary democracy, which led to a political climate favourable to all anti‐democratic parties. The press helped to bring about Hitler, and with Hitler the end of press freedom. But with or without Hitler, it argues, the end of press freedom was coming in the early 1930s anyway.
Freedom of Speech in a Globalized World
Authors: Grimm Dieter
Published: May 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of the meaning of freedom of speech, focusing on freedom of expression and freedom of the media. It argues that despite its importance, freedom of speech is not an absolute right since it can harm other liberties or protected interests. The chapter then considers freedom of speech under globalized conditions. It cites the problem of identifying the exact boundary between legitimate public discourse and objectionable speech. It also addresses the question whether the global challenges involving free speech require global answers in the law.
Autonomy and Hate Speech
Authors: Baker C. Edwin
Published: May 2009

This chapter describes the rationale that a full protection theory of free speech — a theory based on respect for individual autonomy — would give for protecting hate speech. It then notes that such a rationale will be unpersuasive to many if the harms associated with a failure to outlaw hate speech are as great as often suggested — most dramatically, if the failure to prohibit makes a substantial contribution to the occurrence of serious racial/ethnic violence or genocide. The chapter then attempts to outline what empirical evidence would be needed to support this conclusion and gives reasons to doubt that this evidence has been or will be forthcoming. Still, given the horrendous nature of the harm, caution suggests not taking the risk. That is, the risk may justify prohibiting hate speech given its possible role in causing these consequences. In response to this last point, however, the chapter gives reasons to believe that the attempt to prohibit hate speech is more likely to exacerbate the risk of unacceptable outcomes than to generate the benign opposite. Thus, the argument ends in accepting the theoretical reasons for giving First Amendment protection to hate speech.
Wild-West Cowboys versus Cheese-Eating Surrender Monkeys: Some Problems in Comparative Approaches to Hate Speech
Authors: Heinze Eric
Published: May 2009

All European states prohibit some form of hate speech. U.S. law fundamentally precludes such bans. Euro-American comparisons can shed light on debates about hate speech, but little attention has been paid to comparative methodology. In view of the political and symbolic importance of free speech, the trans-Atlantic divide inevitably invites cultural comparisons. It is important to avoid drawing broad conclusions about deeper Euro-American differences based solely on black-letter norms. Unduly broad extrapolation from formal norms can lead to problems of essentialism and ahistoricism. Attention is paid in this chapter to the balance between formalist and realist jurisprudence as a pathway into constructive comparisons.
Criminalizing Religiously Offensive Satire: Free Speech, Human Dignity, and Comparative Law
Authors: Reichman Amnon
Published: May 2009

This chapter considers the question of whether satire that ridicules a religious figure or the core tenets of a religious belief should receive different constitutional protection than that afforded to political satire. It examines two possible models that seek to resolve the tension in principle: the U.S. model, under which freedom of speech enjoys pre-eminence; and the Israeli model, that protects human dignity as the principal value. In outlining the Israeli approach, the chapter analyzes an Israeli case that led to the first criminal conviction for the violation of an act prohibiting the publication of material calculated to outrage religious sentiments. It then addresses some normative and institutional features that separate the U.S. and the Israeli approaches. Moving beyond comparative legal analysis, the chapter puts forward the hypothesis that the source of the difference in jurisprudence arises at least in part out of a different cultural perception regarding the core meaning of ‘speech’ or ‘expression’s in these two jurisdictions. Drawing upon this cultural understanding, it is suggested that perhaps it is passion, not merely reason, that organizes the realm of public discourse. The chapter concludes with a brief comment on the possible limits of relying on foreign sources in some (passion-based) cases.
Homophobic Speech, Equality Denial, and Religious Expression
Authors: Leigh Ian
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the legal regulation of religiously-motivated speech that is critical of same-sex behaviour. The ‘Culture Wars’ have now reached Europe and are being played out in claims, on the one hand, that full equality on grounds of sexual orientation requires the punishment of homophobic speech and, on the other hand, that religious freedom requires the freedom to offend or to be exempted from emerging societal norms concerning equality. Contrasting judicial decisions in the UK, Canada, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Sweden, and recent UK legislation (Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008) suggest different ways in which this clash of values can be mediated. The chapter critically evaluates these in the light of the European Convention on Human Rights.
Endorsing Discrimination Between Faiths: A Case of Extreme Speech?
Authors: Finnis John
Published: May 2009

The question whether government and law can discriminate between different religious faiths (or their adherents as such) is given a resounding affirmative answer by a unanimous Grand Chamber (seventeen judges) of the European Court of Human Rights in Refah Partisi (No. 2) v Turkey (2003), upholding the dissolution of the largest political party in Turkey's legislature on the grounds that, as a dominant member of the governing coalition, it intended to introduce sharia law either for everyone or as part of a plural system of laws for citizens of different faiths. For sharia, the court held, is inherently incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights and the conceptions of democracy and the rule of law which the Convention enshrines. That is, shariah (‘which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by [a] religion’ and ‘is stable and invariable’) would be incompatible with human rights, democracy and the rule of law even if adopted democratically and without threats of force. This ruling in Refah in turn grounds the same Court's decision in Sahin v Turkey (2005), upholding the prohibition of the wearing of head scarves in universities in Turkey. And Sahin is, inconspicuously but clearly enough, at the foundation of the House of Lords' decision in R (Begum) v Denbigh High School Governors [2006] UKHL 15, [2007] 1 AC 100. This chapter argues that despite its unpersuasive reasoning (in which essential premises such as those displayed in Sahin and Refah are never sufficiently articulated), Begum was rightly decided, and that — especially in relation to immigration — it is neither extremist, nor a case of extreme speech to propose discrimination analogous to that endorsed by the Strasbourg Court in those cases.
The Terrorism Act 2006: Discouraging Terrorism
Authors: Choudhury Tufyal
Published: May 2009

The UK's Terrorism Act 2006 makes it an offence for a person to publish statements that directly or indirectly encourage or induce a person to the commission, preparation, or instigation of acts of terrorism. These new ‘encouragement offences’ constitute a significant restriction on the exercise of the fundamental right of free expression. Its threat to free speech arises not only from specific prohibitions and prosecutions but also the wider chilling effect on expression. This chapter examines the potential contribution the new offence might make to the government's desired aim of preventing violent radicalization. It looks at the efficacy of the legislation in two respects: firstly, the role that the impugned statements play in the radicalization process; and, secondly, the potential for the criminalization of such statements to be counter-productive and undermine the government's broader counterterrorism strategy. It is argued that radicalization is largely a private process. Public statements that encourage acts of terrorism may contribute to this process but are not central to it. Furthermore, the provisions in the legislation that aim to proscribe such statements are drafted with a degree of breadth and vagueness that increases the risks of the legislation becoming counterproductive. The uncertainty surrounding the scope of the new offences and the discretion needed to enforce the legislation in a climate of distrust and fear between parts of the Muslim community and public institutions will reinforce perceptions of discrimination and unjust enforcement of counterterrorism laws, which in turn will undermine the broader counterterrorism strategy.
Radical Religious Speech: The Ingredients of a Binary World View
Authors: Savage Sara , Liht Jose
Published: May 2009

This chapter outlines key ingredients of Islamist radical religious speech and the social psychological needs to which they appeal, particularly among second and third generation young Muslims living in Europe and Britain. Key structural features of Islamist radical religious speech include: a three-part narrative, promoting low levels of complexity, rhetorical strategies, the closed way in which the belief system is organized, and the ‘rationalistic’ word-based emphasis. The chapter discusses the social psychological tendencies to which the extreme speech appeals: self-definitional uncertainty among young Muslims, intensified perceptions of ingroup and outgroups, and perceptions of the world-wide status hierarchy that is deemed unstable and liable to change (post 9/11). Extreme speech is most powerfully ‘activated’ under totalist group conditions.
‘On the Internet, Nobody Knows You're a Nazi’: Some Comparative Legal Aspects of Holocaust Denial on the WWW
Authors: Fraser David
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines some legal responses to the dangerous phenomenon of Internet-based Holocaust Denial. Legal regulations in Canada and Australia provide two frameworks under which Holocaust Denial can be outlawed. Canada has chosen to proceed by way of complex analyses of the content of the ‘speech’ and its reception by an intended audience. Australia, conversely, has adopted a legal framework which examines the possible adverse impact of the ‘speech’ on an identified victim group. What unites the two, and the aspect which is perhaps most troubling from a variety of perspectives, is a distinct rejection of any claim that the Holocaust actually happened, as an underlying normative basis for legal regulation. The chapter concludes that a political decision that denial of the Shoah is a malum in se approach would be preferable.
Expanding Holocaust Denial and Legislation Against It
Authors: Whine Michael
Published: May 2009

Holocaust deniers and the media they use are changing as a consequence of developing technologies and international political developments. Neo-Nazis have now been joined by the government of Iran, which incorporates denial as an element in its foreign policy strategies, and some Arab states and radical Islamists. Deniers' arguments are also developing, from outright denial to trivialization and inversion. International agreements between states have noted the need for better Holocaust education as well as more effective legal instruments and now half the states of the European Union criminalise denial. The 2007 European Common Framework agreement will now force member states to legislate against Holocaust denial if it is promoted in a manner that is threatening, abusive, or insulting if they do not have legislation that permits such punishment. While some European states prosecute Holocaust denial vigorously, the evidence suggests that better education might provide a more effective long term remedy against extremists who seek to rewrite history and undermine democracy.
Europe in Question
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

Direct democracy has become an increasingly common feature of European politics with important implications for policy‐making in the European Union. The no‐votes in referendums in France and the Netherlands in 2005 put an end to the Constitutional Treaty, and the Irish electorate caused another political crisis in Europe by rejecting the Lisbon Treaty. This book explains how voters decide in referendums on European integration. It develops a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding referendum behaviour and presents a comparative analysis of EU referendums from 1972 to 2008. To examine why people vote the way they do, the role of political elites and the impact of the campaign dynamics, this books relies on a variety of sources including survey data, content analysis of media coverage, experimental studies, and elite interviews. The book illustrates the importance of campaign dynamics and elite endorsements in shaping public opinion, electoral mobilization and vote choices. Referendums are often criticized for presenting citizens with choices that are too complex and thereby generating outcomes that have little or no connection with the ballot proposal. Importantly this book shows that voters are smarter than they are often given credit for. They may not be fully informed about European politics, but they do consider the issues at stake before they go to the ballot box and they make use of the information provided by parties and the campaign environment. Voters are thus more competent than commonly perceived.
2 A Theory of Referendum Behaviour
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

This chapter lays out a theoretical framework for understanding referendum behaviour. The core component of the theory is a model of voting behaviour, which outlines how attitudes shape vote choices, influenced by the information that voters receive from political parties and other elites. The framework highlights first that differences in political interest among individuals also lead to diverse patterns of voting behaviour and second, that the campaign context shapes electoral outcomes. Politically aware voters base their vote choice on more sophisticated decision criteria and intense campaigns lead to more issue voting. These two aspects of referendum behaviour ‐ individual‐level differences and campaign effects ‐ are examined in a comparative analysis of EU referendums in the subsequent chapters.
3 A Comparative Analysis of Voting Behaviour
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents a comparative analysis of voting behaviour in 19 EU referendums held in Denmark, France, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Spain between 1972 and 2008. It relies on statistical analysis of survey data from these referendums to evaluate the theoretical framework presented in Chapter 2. The results reveal the influence of attitudes towards European integration, partisan loyalties and feelings about the government on voters' decisions. They also highlight that voters differ in their voting behaviour depending on their level of interest in and knowledge of politics. Voters who are more politically aware are more likely to rely on their attitudes towards European integration when deciding in EU referendums compared to voters who pay less attention to politics.
5 Framing Effects in Referendums: Experimental Evidence
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

The purpose of this chapter is to examine how different ‘frames’ influence individual vote choices in referendums. Framing effects occur when people's responses to an issue depend on how it is portrayed. Since referendums require voters to decide on issues that are often relatively unfamiliar, framing effects are generally very decisive. This chapter relies on survey experiments to examine two types of framing effects in two (hypothetical) referendums on joining the single currency and ratification of the Lisbon Treaty. First, it explores the influence of party endorsements on partisan and non‐partisan voters. Second, it examines the effect of describing different consequences of voting yes or no on vote choices. The findings show that government endorsements have a significant effect on attitudes towards referendum proposal, but that this effect is mediated by partisanship. Consequences frames also have a substantial effect: when negative consequences of the no‐vote are highlighted, people are more likely to favour a yes‐vote, whereas a negative emphasis on the consequences of the ballot proposal leads people to say no.
7 From No to Yes: The Danish and Irish Referendums on the Maastricht and Nice Treaties
Authors: Hobolt Sara Binzer
Published: May 2009

In this case study chapter, four critical referendums are examined in greater detail: the two Danish referendums on the Maastricht Treaty and the two Irish referendums on the Nice Treaty. In both cases, the initial no‐votes were overturned in a second vote. This chapter ask the question: why did some voters change their minds? These case studies trace the dynamics of elite behaviour and public opinion formation during the course of the campaigns. Through in‐depth analyses of newspapers, campaign material, opinion polls, and interviews with key actors in the campaign, this chapter gives a rich description of political behaviour in the campaigns leading up to the referendum votes. This chapter provides a detailed analysis of how differences in the political environment — and specifically the information disseminated by political elites — influenced the behaviour of citizens in these referendums on European integration.
3 Public Sector Research and Industrial Innovation in Norway: A Historical Perspective
Authors: Gulbrandsen Magnus , Nerdrum Lars
Published: May 2009

This chapter analyses the historical role of public research organizations for industrial growth and innovation in Norway, and the changes in this role over time. Public research organizations include research institutes and higher education institutions, and the chapter goes back in time to the 19th century. Like many other countries, Norway has a large number of research institutes involved in innovation, and these organizations have an equally long history as higher education institutions. Public sector research has co-evolved with the national industrial structure, and institutes and universities have played central roles in developing high technology sectors and activities as well as in modernizations of traditional industries.
4 Policies for Path Creation: The Rise and Fall of Norway's Research-Driven Strategy for Industrialization
Authors: Wicken Olav
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the role of public policy in creating a new path in the Norwegian economy. It argues that the policy to support industrial R&D from the 1960s was part of a strategy to establish a R&D intensive industrialization. This was the main motivation for the introduction of a public policy for industrial research, and as long as this policy was accepted there was to be a long-term growth in public support for industrial R&D. When path creation was no longer a central part of policy making, the industrial research based strategy collapsed. This is seen as a factor behind the relatively low R&D intensity in the Norwegian economy compared to other Nordic countries like Sweden and Finland.
7 The Development of the Norwegian Petroleum Innovation System: A Historical Overview
Authors: Engen Ole Andreas
Published: May 2009

This chapter addresses the development of the Norwegian Petroleum Innovation System. While the initial phase of the petroleum development of Norway in the 1960s was characterized by an absorptive capacity of receiving new technology, the building of Norwegian competence in the 1970s and 1980s was, in certain respects, directly shaped by public policy so that participatation could occur. With the Condeep design it became possible to speak of an independent Norwegian petroleum industry. In the R&D system of Norway, petroleum education and research were introduced at several levels. Due to new cost-efficient technologies introduced in the 1990s, we may say that the adjustment was concluded by the beginning of 21st century. The Norwegian oil and gas actors perceived themselves ready to participate fully in the international system of energy producers.
9 The Biotechnology Industry in Norway: A Marginal Sector or Future Core Activity?
Authors: Grønning Terje
Published: May 2009

The prevalence of successful biotechnology firms has long been associated with the existence of national or regional agglomerations of the biotechnology firms themselves and partners such as large corporations, universities, research institutes, and venture capital firms. It is, however, acknowledged that such agglomeration trends may be most closely associated with medical biotechnology. This chapter examines ninety-three firms that may be classified as biotechnology-related firms in Norway. While there is indeed a great preoccupation with medical biotechnology in Norway, the survey shows that two other distinct traits are present: a concentration of firms focused on diagnostics and related fields, and a focus on marine biotechnology. In a path dependency perspective, these foci may be explained at least in part by the existence of knowledge bases and market opportunities within chemistry based reagents and fish oils respectively, which were present from the times prior to the advent of modern biotechnology. The chapter contributes to the theories on capabilities of individual firms and agglomeration of different firms and other organizations, and suggests that foci on such niches as those which are prevalent in Norway may function with more disperse geographical distribution patterns as compared to cases described in existing literature.
10 Slow Growth and Revolutionary Change: The Norwegian IT Industry Enters the Global Age, 1970-2005
Authors: Sogner Knut
Published: May 2009

This chapter concludes that although the Norwegian IT industry has been lacking in export success for the last thirty years, it has been important for the development of the Norwegian economy. Several IT companies have been on the verge of international breakthroughs, but have been stopped by rising costs and guided by national opportunities. The rise of the important oil-sector has been both a hindrance through rising costs, and an opportunity as a market, for the Norwegian IT industry. Specialised products for national markets rather than general mass-market products have become the norm for the Norwegian IT industry. This development had to a remarkable degree been associated with continuity in terms of organizations and people. The firms these people and organizations have been attached too, however, have experienced turbulence, bankruptcy, and change, making the whole development from 1970 until today a seemingly messy and problematic affair. But this has really been a period of IT industry growth, and in the end the national development is reasonably successful.
12 The Technical-Industrial Research Institutes in the Norwegian Innovation System
Authors: Nerdrum Lars , Gulbrandsen Magnus
Published: May 2009

This chapter analyses the role of technical-industrial research institutes for industrial innovation in Norway. Using statistical data and a survey among firms, it is shown that there are many different types of interaction between institutes and firms. In addition to R&D and technical services, the institutes are a significant source of skilled manpower for firms. Three central roles for the institutes are highlighted: they are a learning partner for industry, they help increase absorptive capacity, and they constitute a flexible repository in the innovation system by helping firms in peak periods and by reducing the pressure on universities through assisting in teaching and supervision.
Statistical Description and Evolution of Reactive Gas Systems
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

This chapter begins by presenting a statistical definition of state and transport parameters of non-equilibrium flows, starting from the concept of distribution function. It then describes the evolution of the system with the Boltzmann equation and with the macroscopic conservation equations. The various types of intermolecular collisions, elastic, inelastic, reactive are taken into account in the collisional balance of the Boltzmann equation and expressions of the corresponding collision frequencies are given. In the appendices, some results on molecular interaction potentials and details on collisional processes are presented, as well as a few elements of tensorial algebra.
Transport and Relaxation in Quasi-Equilibrium Regimes: Pure Gases
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

This chapter expands the distribution function of a pure gas in a series of a small parameter representing the ratio of the collisional time to a reference flow time; this is the so-called Chapman-Enskog method. Zero order and first order solutions are discussed, corresponding to isolated and non-isolated media respectively. The zero order solutions are related to the Euler equations and the first order to the Navier-Stokes equations. Transport terms such as viscosity and conductivity coefficients, included in these equations are determined for pure gases in equilibrium at zero order (WNE solution) and approximate expressions are also proposed. More details are given in the appendices on collisional integrals, orthogonal bases used in the expansions, equation systems, collisional models, and relaxation equations.
Transport and Relaxation in Non-Equilibrium Regimes
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

For cases where the zero order distribution function is out of equilibrium, the Chapman-Enskog method may also be applied (SNE solution). This chapter analyses Navier-Stokes equations, including specific transport terms and relaxation and/or kinetic equations. Examples of vibrational non-equilibrium gases are developed. The case of dissociating gases is examined and the interaction between vibrational relaxation and chemical kinetics is particularly pointed out. Thus, the chemical dissociation rate constants are modified and the relaxation equations take the dissociation and the recombination into account. Particular points are examined in the appendices, such as the computation of various specific transport terms and parameters characteristic of the vibration-dissociation interaction.
Generalized Chapman–Enskog Method
Authors: Brun Raymond
Published: May 2009

This chapter develops a generalized Chapman–Enskog method (GCE method), which is valid whatever the regime may be, in equilibrium or not. The first order solutions are modified and include WNE and SNE solutions. Applications are then proposed for vibrationally relaxing gases and for reactive gas mixtures. General expressions for transport terms and conservation equations are obtained, and a general method for describing all types of non-equilibrium flows is proposed. Particular situations or processes are also examined such as the boundary conditions for the Boltzmann equation (accommodation), free molecular flows, and hypersonic regimes. Finally, the approximate BGK method and the computational DSMC method are briefly described.