bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cortical Development and Schizophrenia
Authors: Price Jack , Roberts Gareth W
Published: November 2023

At first sight, the idea that the development of the cerebral cortex might be of more than passing relevance to schizophrenia seems unlikely. Schizophrenia typically emerges during the third decade of life, well after the major events that mould the cerebrum are complete. Moreover, the symptoms and deficits which characterise the disorder persist throughout life for many sufferers. Nonetheless, the “neurodevelopmental hypothesis”, as elaborated in the previous chapter, has become pre-eminent. Partly, this reflects a growing body of data consistent with the hypothesis; partly, it reflects the growing dissatisfaction with older hypotheses and the perceived need for a “paradigm shift” that might release research into new, profitable areas. Nonetheless, we must not be deceived; the neurodevelopmental hypothesis as cunrently expounded is scientifically weak. The hypothesis, to quote Waddington (l 993), “takes as the primary event [in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia] changes in utero that disrupt the development of fundamental aspects of brain structure and function and that might produce the typical symptoms some two decades later, perhaps only after functional maturation or completion of other, associated, systems or processes”. Some would consider that a brave statement given the inconclusive nature of the evidence concerning the “primary event”. It also illustrates the weakness of the hypothesis: it accommodates many experimental findings, and it is difficult to conceive of an experiment whose outcome could refute it. This vagueness reflects the fact that we are all feeling our way in a diffi cult field, and the hypothesis, despite its breadth and shortcomings, at least encourages the gathering of diverse findings in the hope that a credible story might emerge. This chapter is written in the same spirit. Though it is not yet possible to describe the pathogenesis of
Wound assessment
Authors: Wardrope Jim , Edhouse June A
Published: November 2023

History: How? Where? When? Tetanus, allergy, medical illness, medications. Examination: Wound size, type, depth, other features. Integrity and function of other structures (especially nerves and tendons). Investigations: X-ray for fractures/foreign bodies/deep structure penetration.
Changes Of Urinary Sediment Caused By Drugs
Authors: Fogazzi Giovanni B , Ponticelli Claudio , Ritz Eberhard
Published: November 2023

Several drugs can cause urinary sediment changes. In several instances, these changes do not have clinical implications, whilst on other occasions they may indicate renal pathologies. In the latter case, the analysis of the urinary sediment is often a clue to the correct diagnosis. Therefore, the physician should be aware of the urinary changes which can be induced by drugs. A variety of drugs may cause transient crystalluria, in isolation or in conjunction with other urinary abnormalities (Table 5.1). The factors usually favouring the formation of crystals within the tubular lumina are overdose, dehydration or hypoalbuminaemia, which increases the fraction of unbound drug which is ultrafiltered by the glomerulus [1, 2].
Cervical spine injuries
Authors: Currie David G , Ritchie Ewan , Stott Stephen
Published: November 2023

In victims of trauma, the head and neck should be considered as a single unit. The forces responsible for head injuries also cause injuries of the cervical spine and the two conditions are commonly associated. In one autopsy series of 312 fatal road traffic accidents, 10% had combined head and cervical spine injuries. In unconscious head-injured patients who have been injured in falls or road traffic accidents there is a 5-10% risk of a coexisting cervical spine injury.
Mental disorder and violence
Authors: Bullard Henrietta
Published: November 2023

The relationship between mental disorder and violence is complex and the assessment of risk is difficult and imprecise. Although there is an association between mental disorder and violence, the risk of violence in those with mental disorder is dependent on a number of variables including the type of disorder, the nature and severity of the illness, the influence of co-morbidity with drug and alcohol misuse, the history of any previous violence, and the effectiveness of treatment and management. Clinicians are poor at predicting future violence and are accurate in no more than one out of three cases (Gunn 1993). This high rate of false-positive assessments must result in the restriction of the liberty of individuals who do not pose a risk. Actuarial methods of assessing risk are based on unchanging empirical data and do not help the clinician to predict the probability of a violent outcome without considering dynamic variables, such as the patient’s willingness to be supervised, his compliance with medication, co morbid substance-misuse and his response to treatment (Buchanon 1999).
Non-accidental injury of children
Authors: Emond Alan
Published: November 2023

Children have been victims of violence since ancient times, and in all societies (Finkelhor and Dziuba-Leatherman 1994). Violence has been perpetrated against them in every conceivable manner: physically, emotionally, by sexual exploitation, through neglect, and by enforced labour. Exposure and infanticide have been near universal forms of child abuse over the years, allowing many societies to ensure that only healthy newborns survive. This freedom for parents to kill defective or unwanted babies continued in some parts of Europe until the nineteenth century. In 1885, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children reported the ways in which London children were battered: by boots, crockery, pans, shovels, straps, ropes, thongs, pokers, fire, and boiling water.
Primary Hereditary Nephropathies
Authors: Tryggvason Karl
Published: November 2023

Congenital nephrotic syndrome (CNS) is defined as proteinuria leading to clinical symptoms such as edema soon after birth, especially at the age limit of 3 months (Rapola et al. 1992; Mauch et al. 1994). Most CNS have a genetic basis and poor outcome. Recent extensive progress in molecular genetics and biology has given new insight into the molecular basis of these diseases.
Disorders of Tubular Transport
Authors: Geller David S , Devonald Mark A J , Karet Fiona E
Published: November 2023

The advent of molecular genetic analysis has had a major impact in advancing our understanding of renal homeostatic mechanisms, because techniques permitting gene discovery and identification of the genetic basis of Mendelian monogenic disorders have provided a novel set of physiologic tools.
Genetic Syndromes with a Renal Component
Authors: Sandford Richard , Woolfson Robin G
Published: November 2023

Inherited defects in haemoglobin synthesis result in sickle cell disease and thalassaemia, and these conditions can occur alone or in combination. The heterozygote states have few clinical implications but homozygotes have profound anaemia, which is more severe in thlassaemia where dyserythropoiesis is greater.
The Genetics of Glomerulonephritis and Systemic Disorders Affecting the Kidney
Authors: Powis Stephen H
Published: November 2023

The last decade has brought a revolution in our understanding of the genetic basis of inherited diseases. This has arisen from major advances in the technology of DNA analysis and in the statistical approaches used to analyse family-based genetic studies.
Welfare economics and economic evaluation
Authors: Tsuchiya Aki , Williams Alan
Published: November 2023

It is said that there are two ‘competing views’ on economic evaluation in health care (see Brouwer and Koopmanschap (2000) for a critical overview). One is often seen as the ‘theoretically correct’ approach, that is based more firmly within the theory of welfare economics, whilst the other by comparison as some practical but not well formulated collection of rules of thumb. Another way to stylize the two approaches may be that although the first of the two may appear to have closer ties with accepted theory, it is less relevant to the particular context and background of health care resource allocation, where the objectives of the players do not entirely agree with those upheld by standard theory, whilst the second approach tries to reflect specific concerns of the health care sector.
The role and estimation of productivity costs in economic evaluation
Authors: Sculpher Mark
Published: November 2023

It has been recognized for some time that public sector investment decisions may have important implications for how individuals are able to allocate their time and, consequently, for the value of that time. Many cost-benefit studies have, therefore, sought to estimate how public sector projects might change how individuals spend their time, and to reflect the value of these changes within the calculus of the appraisal. Health care interventions and programmes influence the amount of time individuals are able to devote to the full range of leisure and working activities that are of value to them and to society more generally. As a branch of public sector appraisal, economic evaluation in health care has, therefore, attempted to reflect the value of changes in patterns of time allocation.
The biology of the macrophage
Authors: Ross J A , Auger M J
Published: November 2023

The macrophage is the major differentiated cell of the mononuclear phagocyte system. This system comprises bone marrow monoblasts and promonocytes, peripheral blood monocytes and tissue macrophages. Macrophages are widely distributed throughout the body, displaying great structural and functional heterogeneity. They are to be found in lymphoid organs, the liver, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, central nervous system (CNS), serous cavities, bone, synovium and skin, and participate in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes.
Macrophages in rheumatoid arthritis
Authors: Bresnihan B , Youssef P
Published: November 2023

Rheumatoid arthritis (R A), with a prevalence rate of between 0.3 and 1.5 per cent, is an important cause of disability and morbidity (Wolfe, 1968). The onset of symptoms may occur at any age, with a peak between 40 and 60 years (Harris, 1997). Women are affected about three times more frequently than men. Usually, the onset is insidious and gradual over weeks to months. A more acute form, developing over days, occurs in about 15 percent. The most prominent initial symptoms are usually stiffness, pain and swelling of several joints. The joints most frequently involved early in the course of the disease are the small joints of the feet and hands, usually in a symmetric distribution, with gradual progression to the larger joints of the upper and lower limbs and, often, the cervical spine and tempero-mandibular joints. The clinical course may be severe and progressive in some, mild and self-limiting in a small minority, or intermediate with gradual deterioration in most. Ultimately, the functional outcome will depend mainly on the degree of matrix degradation that occurs in cartilage and bone. Other characteristics of RA. usually seen in more severe disease, include subcutaneous nodules and vasculitis, and manifestations which may affect the heart, lungs and nervous system.
The discovery of sumatriptan and a new class of drug for the acute treatment of migraine
Authors: Humphrey Patrick P A
Published: November 2023

Successful innovative drug discovery in the pharmaceutical industry depends on several critical factors, which are often overlooked in this age of information overload and anticipation of immediate success from harnessing the new technologies. First, it is important to select an appropriate, prevalent, feasible disease target for which there are no good existing therapeutic agents. Secondly, it is important to have some degree of rational understanding of the disease pathophysiology itself in order to help identify a specific drug target, usually a transmitter receptor protein or enzyme. Thirdly, an adequate amount of biological and chemical resource needs to be allocated to the research discovery process with a commitment to the long term.
Clinical pharmacokinetics of the triptans: what are the important clinical issues?
Authors: Millson David
Published: November 2023

The clinical development of an increasing number of migraine-specific 5-HT1B/1D agonist triptans with enhanced liphophilicity (TELs), relative to the first drug of this class sumatriptan, and with a range of different metabolic, pharmacokinetic and receptor affinity profiles, provides the potential for critically different clinical profiles. This review, based on publications, regulatory submissions (FDA) and data on file provided by all the relevant pharmaceutical companies gives a pharmacokinetic framework, identifying where clinically relevant changes in exposure may adversely affect tolerability and safety (Tables 8.1, 8.2).
Pharmacodynamics of triptans
Authors: Saxena Pramod R
Published: November 2023

The triptans belong to a class of drugs known as 5-HT1B/1D, previously 5-HT1-like or 5-HT1D receptor agonists’. The frst of this class, sumatriptan, is a signifcant advance in migraine therapy. Several new triptans are on the market (zolmitriptan, rizatriptan, and naratriptan), while others (eletriptan, almotriptan, frovatriptan, and donitriptan) are in clinical development (Fig. 9.1).
Rizatriptan: clinical update
Authors: Torres Gerardo
Published: November 2023

Rizatriptan (MAXALT®) is a novel 5-HT1B/1D receptor agonist for the acute treatment of migraine, which received approval for marketing in the United States, Europe, and other countries worldwide in 1998. The drug is available in two oral dosage strengths of 10 mg and 5 mg, with 10 mg being the recommended primary dose in most countries. In addition to conventional tablets, rizatriptan is also available in a rapidly dissolving wafer formulation that can be taken without liquids. The wafer provides convenience of administration, and may be of utility in patients who have difficulty in swallowing a tablet due to migraine-associated nausea.
Efficacy and tolerability of rizatriptan 10 mg in migraine: experience with 70 527 patient episodes
Authors: Göbel Harmut , Heinze Axel , Heinze-Kuhn K Atja , Lindner V
Published: November 2023

Migraine is the commonest headache disorder encountered in clinical practice. Around 25% of women and 9% of men are affected. More than half of these patients complain of severe or very severe headache and of significant limitation of their social and work activities, some being confined to bed by the attacks. Patients therefore prefer drugs with a short onset time when selecting medications to treat attacks.
Experience with eletriptan
Authors: Jackson Neville
Published: November 2023

Eletriptan (Relpax?) is a potent and selective 5-HT1B/1D agonist that has been developed as an oral therapy for the acute relief of migraine symptoms. Specifcally, eletriptan was designed with the potential for high clinical efficacy and a rapid onset of action and the drug exhibits improved pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties compared with oral sumatriptan. This review will summarize the current data relating to the pharmacological and pharmacokinetic profile of eletriptan and provide an overview of the current clinical experience with eletriptan.
Which triptan for which patient?
Authors: Tfelt-Hansen Peer
Published: November 2023

From a clinicians point of view there is no doubt that the introduction of triptans, the first one being sumatriptan, is a major breakthrough in the treatment of migraine. Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) have demonstrated the efficacy of triptans in the treatment of migraine1,2. RCTs should be regarded as scientific experiments that cannot answer all clinical questions, and from RCTs with triptans there is not enough evidence to answer the question: which triptan for which patient? In clinical practice the choice among triptans will, therefore, be based on a mixture of evidence from RCTs and clinical experiences with these drugs.
The Framig 99 survey III: therapeutical behaviour of migraineurs
Authors: Lucas C , Lantéri-Minet M , Leroy L
Published: November 2023

Objective: Framig 99 is a cross-sectional epidemiology survey on migraine that was performed in France in 1999. Framig 99 (III) focuses on the therapeutical behaviour of migraineurs.
Triptan plus NSAID with a long half-life: increase of efficacy and reduction of headache recurrence in acute migraine
Authors: Göbel Hartmut , Heinze Axel , Heinze-Kuhn Katja , Zumbroich Vera
Published: November 2023

Triptans have been proved to be effective and well-tolerated drugs for the treatment of acute migraine attacks. Whereas the onset of action is rapid, however, a certain percentage of patients—ranging between 20% and 40% in studies depending on the kind of triptan used—report headache recurrence1,2. Headache recurrence is defined as a return of migraine headache of at least moderate intensity within 24 h of the first—effective—treatment of a migraine attack.
The triptans in clinical practice: discussion summary
Authors: Goadsby Peter J
Published: November 2023

The session began with three overview lectures, the first presenting direct headto-head comparisons (Goadsby), the second comparing triptans by a large metaanalysis (Ferrari), and the third offering a personal perspective of the place of triptans in clinical practice (Tfelt-Hansen). These presentations generated a number of questions from the audience. The issue of how the sustained pain-ree data were analysed was discussed. It was commented by Dr Ferrari that these had been done without subtraction of the placebo response because of a number of methodological considerations, including difficulties with considering placebo recurrence.
New aspects of bone biology
Authors: Vernejoul Marie-Christine de , Marie Pierre J
Published: November 2023

Bone is formed of an abundant calcified extracellular matrix. This tissue serves three main functions: mechanical, protective for the vital organs, and metabolic as a reserve of ions, especially calcium and phosphorus. Bone tissue undergoes continual renewal in order to maintain the mechanical competence of the bone matrix. This remodeling is performed by two cell types: osteoclasts which resorb calcified matrix and osteoblasts which synthesize new bone matrix. Both cell types interact during bone remodeling, a process that allows continuous renewal of the bone matrix. In adult human bone the bone remodeling cycle lasts approximately three months. About one million bone remodeling units are present in the human skeleton and are activated sequentially. The remodeling sequence starts with a first phase of activation, which corresponds to osteoclast differentiation. The second phase corresponds to resorption by osteoclasts of ancient matrix, which lasts about 15 days. Then comes the reversal phase: osteoblast precursors start filling the resorption cavity. This coupling process between resorption and formation is dependent on the release from the ancient matrix by osteoclasts of local factors that are able to stimulate proliferation and/or differentiation of osteoblasts. Osteoblasts will then synthesize and mineralize the new bone matrix. This sequence leads to the maintenance of bone mass and to an equilibrated balance between resorption and formation during adulthood.
Osteitis fibrosa, osteomalacia, and mixed bone lesions
Authors: Felsenfeld Arnold J , Torres Armando
Published: November 2023

To fully comprehend renal osteodystrophy today, it is important to appreciate its long and interesting history. Because the primary focus of this chapter is not a historical review, it is necessary to provide a selective, personal perspective of historical studies. It should also be emphasized that until the late 1960s, descriptions of renal osteodystrophy were in patients who had never received dialysis and thus were not exposed to potential modifying factors such as aluminum or increased calcium delivery during dialysis. Aluminum exposure produced a form of osteomalacia not previously observed in the azotemic patient and the improved calcium balance produced by dialysis may have modified the bone disease either directly by increasing serum calcium or indirectly by the suppression of parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Medical therapy in pre-dialysis chronic renal failure
Authors: Coen Giorgio
Published: November 2023

Renal osteodystrophy is an alteration of bone tissue from the structural, functional, and metabolic point of view, generally reaching its maximum expression in the patient on maintenance dialysis. However, it is commonly known that the metabolic disturbances leading to bone lesions start early in the course of chronic renal failure and in some cases they may reach their full manifestation in end-stage renal failure, already before the start of dialysis. Therefore there is a wide possibility of preventive intervention and also of treatment, in the conservative stage of chronic renal failure (CRF). Prevention and treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism and of renal osteodystrophy may probably have the advantage of saving the patient later, under dialysis treatment, from severe forms of the disease, and avoiding the need of parathyroidectomy. However, several aspects of the most appropriate preventive treatment are still open to debate.
The supply-side effects of tobacco-control policies
Authors: Jacobs Rowena , Gale H Frederick , Capehart Thomas C , Zhang Ping , Jha Prabhat
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines whether tobacco-control policies will have a detrimental effect on countries’ economies, in particular on employment, and examines the impact of supply-side interventions. For the majority of countries, even stringent tobacco-control policies will have either a minimal impact or no net impact on total employment, as money that would formerly have been spent on tobacco tends to be spent on other goods and services. However, for a handful of tobacco-exporting countries that are not diversified, falling demand for tobacco would result in job losses, although such transitions would be gradual. Supply-side policies, such as price supports and quotas, provide incentives to grow tobacco, but their net impact on retail price, and hence consumption, is small. Given high demand and the presence of alternative suppliers, policies such as crop diversification or buy-outs are largely ineffective in reducing the supply of tobacco or its consumption. Nevertheless diversification, placed within broader rural development programs, can help meet the transition costs of the poorest farmers. Ultimately, the most effective supply-side policy may be to focus on reducing the demand for tobacco, and to allow supply to respond to slow changes in demand.
The design, administration, and potential revenue of tobacco excises
Authors: Sunley Emil M , Yurek.Ji Ayda , Chaloupka Frank J
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the design and administration of tobacco excise taxes. With respect to design, the issues reviewed here include the choice of tobacco products to excise, the treatment of imports, and the choice of specific taxes (based on quantity) versus ad valorem taxes (based on value). We also briefly discuss the impact of smuggling on tax revenues. With respect to tax administration, the issues discussed here include the use of registration and licensing to facilitate administration, bonding, physical control of tobacco products, and the use of tax stamps. Finally, the revenue-generating potential of higher cigarette taxes is examined. Using data on tax revenues, tax rates, and prices, we calculate that an increase in cigarette taxes of 10% globally would raise cigarette tax revenues by nearly 7%, with relatively larger increases in revenues in high-income countries and smaller, but sizable, increases in revenues in low-income and middle-income countries.
The Healing Arts
Authors: Downie R S , Calman Kenneth C
Published: November 2023

Medicine and the arts have in common a concern for all aspects of people’s lives. This delightful anthology celebrates the many ways in which they interact. Robin Downie has mixed together a rich concoction of poems, stories, prose extracts, music, paintings, and drawings which illustrate the fundamental issues of birth, life, and death. From reviews of the hardback edition The best presents are often those you want to buy for yourself and part with only grudgingly. The Healing Arts falls headlong into this class. New Scientist This book is really much better than any anthology has a right to be… remarkably handsome: large format, good paper, spacious layouts, colour plates, and photographs… but the most striking aspect is the quality and variety of the selected items, and the way in which they flow and are mutually reinforcing’ Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London ‘a splendid anthology … Downie’s anthology is interesting, varied … and fun to dip into’ The Lancet Here’s some cultural diversion for anyone on the mend from the surgeon’s knife or fighting illness, or indeed for the hypochondriac. Read Betjeman on nurses, Larkin on ambulances, and C S Lewis on grief. And more in the same vein’ Focus … a delightful collection of poetry, essay, and musical score, punctuated by carefully selected drawings and paintings. It is undoubtedly a delightful gift for almost anyone in medicine, and a goodly number outside the profession. British Journal of Anaesthesia He has compiled a beautiful and inspiring collection of poems, drawings, paintings, cartoons, music and excerpts from books and journals to give pleasure, to heal and inform, and to “stretch the imagination, deepen the sympathy and enrich perspectives” … It superbly fulfills Downie’s goal of bringing pleasure, stretching the imagination, and deepening sympathy. I strongly recommend it to those of you who value the arts and have some association with the medical profession. The Medical Humanities Review This book is a gem which will have wide appeal…. It breaks new ground in using art, prose and poetry to explore interactions between medicine and the arts. Journal of Medical Ethics
Last Things
Authors: Downie R S
Published: November 2023

The themes of death, dying, and mourning have inspired the greatest art. There is so much material that it was convenient to organize it into three sections: attitudes to death, suffering and dying, funerals and mourning. The variety of attitudes and the range of feelings involved are a reflection of the inescapability of these events for us all. It must be noted, however, that our reactions to death are not always sad or despairing; humour of all kinds can be provoked by death. Indeed, that is one way in which the fear of death can be overcome. But the richness, the complexity, and the simplicity of the passages must be allowed to speak for themselves.
Evidence-based prognosis of vascular dementia: survival and rate of cognitive decline
Authors: Chui Helena Chang , Mack Wendy , Varpetian Arousiak , Mungas Dan
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, the literature review was based on a systematic Medline search for the period 1985–2000. Key words included dementia, vascular dementia, multi-infarct dementia, mortality, morbidity, cognition, survival, neuropsychology, longitudinal, hypertension, diabetes, and vascular risk factors.
Histopathology
Authors: Munoz David G
Published: November 2023

The original concept of multi-infarct dementia was easy to grasp; infarcts resulted in the loss of cerebral tissue, which either because of its critical location or sheer accretion of subclinical deficits led to the clinical manifestations of dementia. However, evidence has progressively accumulated indicating that vascular lesions can damage the brain without producing infarcts.
Genetics of vascular dementia
Authors: Markus Hugh S
Published: November 2023

Several rare Mendelian traits arising from a single gene defect have been described in which stroke and vascular dementia are prominent features. These diagnoses should be considered in the differential diagnosis of any young patient presenting with vascular dementia, or a middle-aged adult who lacks the usual risk factors, particularly in the presence of a family history of early onset stroke or dementia.
Behavioral and psychological symptoms in vascular cognitive impairment
Authors: Rockwood Kenneth , Shea Catherine
Published: November 2023

Psychological and behavioral problems are common in vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). They arise not only from cerebrovascular lesions, but also from coexisting medical and neurological problems, pre-existing psychiatric illnesses, and drugs.
Cognitive patterns
Authors: Desmond David W
Published: November 2023

Thus, if cerebrovascular disease does produce a distinctive cognitive pattern, it may be most readily identified among patients with cerebrovascular disease who are less severely affected and do not meet operationalized criteria for dementia, such as those with mild Vascular Cognitive Impairment (Hachinski 1994).
Neuropsychological differentiation of Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia
Authors: Sachdev Perminder S , Looi Jeffrey C L
Published: November 2023

The diagnosis of dementia depends on the demonstration of decline in a number of cognitive domains from baseline levels of functioning. What differentiates AD from VaD clinically is the nature of onset and progression of these deficits, the pattern of cognitive impairment, and evidence from history and neuroimaging of the presence of cerebrovascular disease considered to be of etiological significance.
Neurochemical markers
Authors: Sjögren Magnus , Blennow Kaj , Wallin Anders
Published: November 2023

Changes in the brain tissue that are evoked by vascular mechanisms are major causes of dementia. The clinical syndrome that results from such changes is called vascular dementia (VaD).
Clinical trials in vascular dementia
Authors: Marler John
Published: November 2023

Vascular dementia is a disease process with presymptomatic, prodromal, and active states. Each state provides a different opportunity for clinical intervention and a different challenge for clinical trial methodology.
Tooth wear: aetiology, prevention, clinical implication
Authors: Shaw Linda
Published: November 2023

Tooth wear is a relatively common problem and the source of many patient complaints. It is not a new phenomenon, but has received more attention in recent years. The type of tooth wear, its distribution, prevalence, and aetiology varies widely across populations and age ranges. However, the recent emphasis on tooth wear and its prevention is probably due to a combination of factors; we have an ageing population with increasing life expectancy, who remain dentate for longer, and who have greater expectations of dental care. At the other end of the age range, there is a cohort of young people who, possibly because of lifestyle factors, experience quite extensive tooth wear.
Oral health promotion and policy
Authors: Sheiham Aubrey , Watt Richard
Published: November 2023

Oral diseases are important public health problems. They are very prevalent and their impact on both society and the individual are significant. Pain, disability, and handicap from oral diseases are common, and the costs of treatment are a major burden to health care systems (Table 15.1). The causes of dental diseases are known and the conditions are largely preventable. On the basis of those criteria, oral and dental diseases are a public health problem. Furthermore, inequalities in oral health are a problem; disadvantaged and socially excluded population groups suffer higher rates of disease than their more affluent contemporaries. The move towards an evidence-based approach to treatment and prevention has highlighted the limitations of conventional dental health education. Those limitations and the expansion of concepts on health promotion has lead to a wider recognition that there is a need to adopt a more progressive approach to prevention.
The Ascendancy Of The Mercian Kings
Authors: Stenton F M
Published: November 2023

The fifty years which ended with the resignation of Ine in 726 interrupt the general course of English history. During the first three-quarters of the seventh century the English kingdoms south of the Humber had been tending to develop into a primitive form of confederacy under a common overlord. The supremacies of Edwin, Oswald, and Oswiu of Northumbria foreshadowed a kingdom of all England, and only an unsuccessful battle prevented Wulfhere ofMercia from bringing Northumbria under an overlordship which was already effective throughout the south. For the next half-century no English king was able to establish more than a local ascendancy. There was, much fighting in this period. Individual provinces passed by war from one king to another, the younger members of a dynasty occasionally rose against its head, and the entertainment of exiles was a fertile source of trouble.
Youth in the Third Reich
Authors: Peukert Detlev
Published: November 2023

During the twelve years of the Nazi state three separate age groups passed through adolescence, that is the years between the fourteenth and eighteenth birthdays. Each group had its own distinctive experiences. Those whose adolescence fell in the years 1933-6 had already had important, formative experiences before the Nazi seizure of power. They were in the front line for incorporation into the Hitler Youth and the so-called Volksgemeinschaft (racial community) of the Third Reich. They had also experienced the economic crisis of the early 1930s and were therefore quite receptive to the benefits offered by the rearmament programme (particularly after 1935-6), as well as to the ideas of Fuhrer staat (leadership state), with its promise of an end to ‘party squabbles’, and of the ‘restoration of national greatness’.
Social Outcasts in the Third Reich
Authors: Noakes Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Of all Nazi atrocities, the extermination of the Jews has, rightly, commanded the most attention from historians and the general public. But this understandable preoccupation with the horrors ofNazi anti-Semitism has led people to overlook the fact that the Jews formed only one, albeit the major, target in a broad campaign directed against a variety of groups who were considered to be ‘alien to the community’ (gemeinschaftsfremd), and who often were defined in biological terms. Only recently have historians begun to focus their attention on this hitherto neglected sphere of Nazi policy and action.
Dynamic of Destruction
Authors: Kramer Alan
Published: November 2023

On 26 August 1914 the world-famous university library in the Belgian town of Louvain was looted and destroyed by German troops. The international community reacted in horror - ‘Holocaust at Louvain’ proclaimed the Daily Mail - and the behaviour of the Germans at Louvain came to be seen as the beginning of a different style of war, without the rules that had governed military conflict up to that point - a more total war, in which enemy civilians and their entire culture were now ‘legitimate’ targets. Yet the destruction at Louvain was simply one symbolic moment in a wider wave of cultural destruction and mass killing that swept Europe in the era of the First World War. Using a wide range of examples and eye-witness accounts from across Europe at this time, award-winning historian Alan Kramer paints a picture of an entire continent plunging into a chilling new world of mass mobilization, total warfare, and the celebration of nationalist or ethnic violence - often directed expressly at the enemy’s civilian population.
Local Bolshevism
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M
Published: November 2023

The Bolsheviks in Tashkent were cut off (except by wireless) from the outer world; in February or March 1919, however, General Dutov, who held the railway north of Tashkent, was forced to retire and the line was opened up giving communication with Moscow. The authorities in Moscow were becoming alarmed at events in Turkestan. In these early days of the revolution, in out of the way parts of the country, there was not much opportunity of finding efficient leaders, and the early revolutionaries in Turkestan were men of little education or capability.
On To Bokhara
Authors: Bailey Lt.-Col. F M
Published: November 2023

MY plan of action in Bokhara was as follows: I had secret letters from Noyev to two people in Bokhara, one was a Russian named Tisyachnikov, and the other to a rich Sart, Arif Khoja. I wished that only one person should know who I was, and that this secret should be kept so that I could continue to keep in touch with the counter-espionage and Cheka people of Kagan. I wished to establish contact with Tisyachnikov or Arif Khoja and through one of these to obtain an interview with the Amir. The Amir spoke French, having been in the Corps de Page, at the Tsar’s Court. I was told that it was not impossible to attend at an audience and I thought that ifl could manage this, a word in French to the Amir, which would not have been understood by anyone present, might have led to a more private interview. I hoped to start with Tisyachnikov and only use Arif Khoja as a second string ifTisyachnikov happened not to be there or for any reason could not help. The essential thing was that onlyone man should know about me. Apart from danger to myself, should the Bolsheviks learn who I really was, there was the safety of Noyev who had given me these most dangerous letters.
In the Beginning
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

Although some of the earliest civilizations had rules about diet, and the curative virtues of different foods, the study of nutrition arguably began late in the sixth century BC. It was about this time that the Greek philosophers first pondered such fundamental issues as what happens to food during digestion, and how the tissues of the body are assembled. Chief among these scholars was probably Alcmaeon, a member of the Pythagorean school in Croton, a Greek colony in the south of Italy. He laid it down that good health could be achieved and maintained only through an equilibrium between what went in and what came out, and that an imbalance, reflected by obesity or emaciation, led to disease.
Paradigm Postponed: the Tardy Arrival of Vitamins
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

It may have been Jonathan Pereira who first articulated doubts about the doctrine of Liebig and his successors in Germany that proteins, carbohydrates, and fats – ‘the dietetic trinity’ – afforded (allowing for minerals) all the nutrition that the human frame demanded. Pereira was born in London in 1804, the scion of a respected Sephardic family. He served an apprenticeship in pharmacy and surgery, acquired a broad knowledge of chemistry, lectured on the subject and on materia medica at the London Hospital, and published three influential books while continuing to work as a surgeon. In the last of these, A Treatise on Food and Diet, he questioned Liebig’s dogma and enunciated his own principles of nutrition, including especially the absolute need for a varied diet, which must include both vegetables and fruit. Pereira might have taken his conclusions further, had he not died prematurely in 1853.
The Quarry Run to Earth
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: November 2023

The physicist Max Planck, who discovered that radiation travels in packets, which he called quanta, and thereby shattered the smug perfection of classical physics, is remembered also for a much-quoted utterance. New concepts in science, he reflected, gain acceptance not when the sceptical majority is at last won over by the evidence, but when they die off and are replaced by a new generation whose opinions have not yet hardened. This is really only a half-truth, but certainly scepticism is deeply embedded in the scientific process. A departure, therefore, that threatens to overturn the prevailing intellectual structure of a field of knowledge – what the philosopher Thomas Kuhn termed ‘a paradigm shift’ – must pass through the fire of doubt, even hostility, before it can supplant the accepted wisdom.
Finding a Proper Place For Human Rights
Authors: Parekh Bhikhu
Published: November 2023

The language of human rights is increasingly acquiring the status of a universally understood and accepted mode of moral communication. Violations of human rights in any part of the world are widely denounced, vigorously investigated by journalists, and used to embarrass and shame governments including those that systematically ignore them in practice and sometimes do not even see their point. Oppressed and marginalized groups turn to them in the firm belief that this is the most effective way to draw attention to their grievances and seek their redress.
The New Global Slave Trade
Authors: Koh Harold Hongju
Published: November 2023

It was in the Codrington Library of All Souls, Oxford, that I sat six years ago, thinking about the origins of the modern international human rights movement. In researching that subject, I became fascinated by the work of such nineteenth- century activists as Henri Dunant of the International Committee of the Red Cross, Christian peace activists, such as America’s William Ladd and Elihu Burritt, who promoted public international arbitration and permanent international criminal courts, and most of all by William Wilberforce of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society.
Displacement in Zion
Authors: Rose Jacqueline
Published: November 2023

One news item, out of the stream of disturbing news that pours daily out of Israel–Palestine, particularly caught my eye in these past weeks. It was the story of Maayan Yaday and her husband who were hauling their packing cases into their new home in the tiny settlement of Nezer Hazani just as Ariel Sharon was making his announcement that he was planning to make Gaza ‘Jew free’. Five years ago, Maayan Yaday had been Croatian and a Catholic, but with a fervour made all the more intense by Sharon’s ‘betrayal’, she insisted that this was her land: Israel and not Palestine: ‘Now I am a Jew,’ she stated, ‘I understand that this is our land.’ What struck me in this story was not, however, the somewhat surreal nature of that claim, but the misplaced energy with which she defended it.
Sleepiness
Authors: Horne Jim
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, I mentioned that the cortex is unable to switch off and rest to any marked extent, outside sleep. On the other hand, many brain structures below the cortex, largely controlling vital body functions and common to all mammals, continue to function fairly normally throughout sleep, as in wakefulness. Unlike the cortex, most if not all of these areas seem neither to sleep nor to need it, even though they may influence sleep in one way or another. They tell us little about the purpose of sleep—but rather, how it is regulated.
chapter XXI
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

IT was a bright moonlight night. Not thinking it likely that we should obtain any more sleep, I determined to start at once, and take advantage of the weather. Desiring Radford and Osman, who had been aroused by the reports of my revolver, to saddle the horses, we set off in the direction of Sileh Zela, a town which contains 3000 houses, and a barracks which will hold at a pinch 1500 soldiers.

Sileh Zela stands in the centre of a natural basin, the hills which form its sides being at a distance of six or seven miles from the town. A small rising ground near the principal street is occupied by the ruins of an old citadel. A stream runs through the heart of the city. The soil in the neighbourhood is very rich; corn abounds throughout the district. The inhabitants do not seem to have suffered from the famine which a few years ago so depopulated the Angora district.
chapter XXIII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THE following morning the servant of the house in which I was lodging entered the room and observed that a Zaptieh corporal, or Onbashee, who had escorted us into the town on the day of my arrival, wished to see me.

“Tell him to come in,” I said. In a few minutes the

river, its banks set fast with ice and hoar-frost, glittered in the distance, and reflected the rays of a midday sun.

Large stacks of wood had been piled up near the stream. The timber had been cut in the forests above the town, and been floated down the river to Tokat. It is chiefly used for smelting copper, the Government having some smelting works in the neighbourhood. According to my informant, they were established thirty years ago by a German; after his decease they had been bought by the Turkish authorities.

The Caimacan thought that he had accompanied the battalion far enough. Drawing a little on one side, we let the soldiers pass us. The standard-bearer waved his flag, the old major saluted by lowering the point of his sword as he rode past, and with the words, “Go in safety, God be with you. We shall meet in Erzeroum,” we parted.
chapter XXVII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

I WAS thinking of calling upon the Italian lady when Mohammed, running into my room, informed me that the governor was actually coming in person to call upon me, and that it was a great honour; for some time before this the Khedive’ s treasurer had passed through Sivas, and Issek Pacha had not deigned to visit him, but had conversed with the Egyptian from the street.

“See what a great man you are, Effendi!” said the delighted Mohammed. “The equal of a Pacha too! fortunate is my fate that I have been assigned to you as a servant!”

The governor drove up to the door in a vehicle which very much resembled a brewer’s dray. It was the only carriage of any sort or kind in Sivas. This fact alone added considerably to the Pacha’s importance in that town. He was a corpulent man, and required a great deal of pushing at the hands of his two attendants to make him pass through the doorway of the carriage; two steps enabled the person inside the vehicle to descend to the ground,
chapter XXXVIII
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

THERE are 800 houses or about 4000 inhabitants in Kemach, and barley is very plentiful throughout the district, the price for the maintenance of my five horses not exceeding sevenpence per day.

This town had been visited by an English traveller about five years previous; whereas no Englishman, so far as I could learn, had been in Divriki or Arabkir in the memory of the oldest inhabitant.

The Caimacan, who informed me about my compatriot having been in Kemach, was very curious to learn my opinion about the impending war; and when I told him that I believed England would remain neutral, remarked,
chapter LXV
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

I STARTED early the following morning en route for Ardahan, a Turkish fortress about forty-two miles from Kars. The road was good for the first three hours, but then became very bad. We rode over some mountains covered with deep snow, and halted for the night in a small village called Molla Hassan, inhabited by Kurds. A Turkish major had recently inhabited the room assigned to us. He had intended remaining there for some time; but the insects proving too much for him, he had taken up his abode in a Turkish village near Kars.
chapter LXIX
Authors: Burnaby Frederick
Published: November 2023

MY journey was over. A few weeks after my return to London, war was declared by Russia against Turkey. In the opinion of Her Majesty’s Government, this was a most iniquitous and unnecessary step on the part of the Tzar. Her Majesty’s Government did not conceal its views about the matter. The Earl of Derby, in a despatch to Lord A. Loftus, dated May 1st, 1877, made use of the following expressions:-