bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Economics Is Not Enough: The “Old Model” of Cap and Trade
Authors: Raymond Leigh
Published: May 2017

This chapter describes the “old” model of cap-and-trade policy design that largely controlled emissions trading policy from its origins in the 1970s through the 1990s, under which emissions trading programs were adopted reluctantly, and “grandfathered” emissions allowances to current emitters at no cost. It also describes some important events starting in the 1990s that helped lay the groundwork for the sudden switch to auctions in RGGI, including: greater attention to allocation rules by political actors, new precedents such as spectrum rights auctions and severance taxes on some nature resources, new political and economic pressures from electricity deregulation, and the emergence of “public benefit” charges and programs to improve energy efficiency for consumers. In addition, this period saw the emergence of new polluter pays and public ownership normative frames in the context of emissions allowances. At the same time, the chapter documents how these initial changes were insufficient to successfully promote allowance auctions in the development of two prominent cap and trade programs: the initial phase of the EU ETS from 1998-2005, and the NOx Budget emissions trading program from 1994-2005.
Normative Reframing and the RGGI Revolution
Authors: Raymond Leigh
Published: May 2017

This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the multi-year design process leading to the implementation of the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) in 2008. It considers the question: How did RGGI’s policy designers succeed in auctioning virtually all of the program’s emissions allowances, wheresimilar efforts to promote auctions failed? After reviewing the limits of existing explanations of RGGI’s decision to auction allowances that are grounded in the interest group politics model, the chapter offers a detailed analysis of the RGGI design process to demonstrate the central role of the new public benefit model in making auctions politically viable. Public and private accounts confirm the prominence of this new normative framing for auctions from the very beginning of the process, and its influence over the political choice to make this policy change.
Other Applications of the Public Benefit Model and Normative Reframing
Authors: Raymond Leigh
Published: May 2017

After RGGI’s implementation in 2008, a series of political set backs led some to declare cap and trade “dead.” This chapter rejects the asserted demise of cap and trade, arguing that the public benefit model for climate policies offers the best hope for political progress. The chapter reviews post-2008 climate policies, noting thatdespite a few prominent failures,cap and trade with auction has become the most common approach to addressing climate change. In addition, the chapter documents how three policies—the EU ETS, California’s cap and trade program, and RGGI—used the public benefit frame to resist political challenges and strengthen their emissions goals. The chapter then describes additional potential applications for the public benefit model, including carbon tax policies and the new Clean Power Plan regulations promulgated by the U.S. EPA in 2015. As uses of the public benefit frame expand, the chapter notes, a key question for the future will be what types of policy designs will be perceived as “fitting” with the norms that constitute the frame. Finally, the chapter discusses how normative framing could improve the ability to understand and predict other sudden policy changes beyond the topic of climate change.
Conclusion
Authors: Raymond Leigh
Published: May 2017

This chapter reviews the theory of normative reframing that is at the heart of the book’s explanation for sudden policy change, and the evidence of normative reframing’s role in the unprecedented policy shift toward auctioning emissions allowances from 2008-2015. It then offers some concluding thoughts on the wider implications of the expansion of auctions since RGGI, and the theory of normative reframing for climate and environmental policymaking, as well as for understanding sudden policy change in general. In particular, the chapter concludes that the choice of how to distribute benefits from future climate policies will be the most important factor determining the political success of those policies, and that policies such as cap and trade with auction using public benefit framing remain the most promising policy option going forward.
Overcoming Miserly Processing: Detection, Override, and Mindware
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

This chapter unpacks the logic of heuristics and biases tasks in terms of the tripartite model of mind developed in Chapter 2. There are three requirements for success on tasks. First, the necessity of overriding Type 1 processing must be detected. Second, the mindware that allows the computation of more rational responses needs to be available. Third, cognitive capacity is needed in order that override and simulation activities can be sustained. This chapter stresses that the presence of mindware, detection of the need for override, and sustained override capability are not just three separate categories of cognitive requirements, but are intertwined in important ways. The dependencies among the three categories are described. For example, mindware overlearning facilitates detection. A taxonomy of thinking errors is described. Three different types of miserly processing and two different kinds of mindware problem are distinguished. Normative responding on most tasks is multiply determined, however, because of the dependencies between mindware, conflict detection, and override. The taxonomy and framework developed in this chapter forms the basis for our Comprehensive Assessment of Rational Thinking (CART).
A Framework for the Comprehensive Assessment of Rational Thinking (CART)
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

Based on the taxonomy of errors discussed in Chapter 3, Chapter 4 outlines a positive framework for assessing rational thinking using the CART. Ten subtests of the CART are classified as having heavy processing requirements compared to knowledge requirements. Four subtests of the CART are classified as having heavy knowledge requirements compared to processing requirements. Two domains of the CART thinking—probabilistic and statistical reasoning and scientific reasoning—have process and knowledge stressed to an equal extent. Four of the subtests of the CART measure the ability to avoid contaminated mindware. Four thinking dispositions that are supplemental and not part of the total score are also assessed on the CART. The twenty subtests of the CART collectively assess aspects of epistemic rationality (such as the tendency to show incoherent probability assessments; the tendency toward overconfidence in knowledge judgments; and others) as well as aspects of instrumental rationality (such as the tendency to show inconsistent preferences because of framing effects; the tendency for decisions to be affected by irrelevant context; and others).
Probabilistic and Statistical Reasoning
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 5 begins a series of chapters that describe subtests of the CART. In this chapter, the Probabilistic and Statistical Reasoning subtest is described. The reason for each of the task-types chosen for this subtest is discussed. The skills tapped by this subtest include: the ability to avoid probability matching tendencies and instead choose a maximizing strategy; the ability to avoid the gambler's fallacy; the ability to properly assign probabilities to conjunctions; the ability to assess sensitivity to base rates; the ability to assess sensitivity to sample size considerations; and the ability to see regression to the mean as an explanation of performance changes. A large study of this subtest is described and correlations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions are presented, as well as correlations with some other subtests of the CART.
Scientific Reasoning
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

In this chapter, the Scientific Reasoning subtest is described. The reason for each of the task-types chosen for this subtest is discussed. The skills tapped by this subtest include: covariation detection; falsification tendencies in the four-card selection task; understanding the logic of converging evidence; the ability to avoid drawing causal inferences from correlation evidence; the tendency to accurately assess the likelihood ratio by processing P(D/~H); and the tendency to use control-group reasoning. A large study of this subtest is described and correlations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions are presented, as well as correlations with some other subtests of the CART.
Avoidance of Miserly Information Processing: Indirect Effects
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 7 discussed four subtests that are direct measures of the avoidance of miserly processing on the CART. Chapter 8 discusses how the CART also contains six other subtests that assess the ability to avoid suboptimal thought patterns that arise indirectly from miserly thinking tendencies. Three of those subtests assess an important component of axiomatic utility theory: the ability to avoid being affected by irrelevant context when decision-making. The three subtests that measure the ability to avoid this tendency are: the Framing subtest, the Anchoring subtest, and the Preference Anomalies subtest. Three other subtests are described in this chapter. The avoidance of myside bias is a fundamental component of performance in most discussions of rational thinking. We used our original version of an Argument Evaluation subtest to measure this component of rational thinking. The ability to avoid overconfidence is measured on the CART by the Knowledge Calibration subtest. Finally, the Rational Temporal Discounting subtest assesses the ability to pass up an immediate reward for a delayed larger one. The history of each subtest is described, as well as a large study of each subtest in which correlations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions are examined.
Probabilistic Numeracy, Financial Literacy, Sensitivity to Expected Value, and Risk Knowledge
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

This chapter focuses on a set of subtests of the CART that are more knowledge dependent than are the subtests discussed in the previous chapters. Although these subtests do have processing requirements, successful performance on them is much more dependent on the presence of specific declarative knowledge. The subtests of the CART discussed in this chapter are: the Probabilistic Numeracy subtest; Financial Literacy and Economic Knowledge subtest; Sensitivity to Expected Value subtest; and the Risk Knowledge subtest. The history of each subtest is described, as well as a large study of each subtest in which the reliability and correlations with cognitive ability are examined.
The Dispositions and Attitudes of Rationality
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

This chapter describes the thinking dispositions of rationality, which in the CART are assessed by supplemental measures. These thinking dispositions help to contextualize the scores on other components of the CART. However, they are not scored as part of the CART itself. Rather, they were developed to serve as useful supplements to the CART subtests. They provide clues as to which underlying mechanisms are involved when suboptimal thinking is taking place. The CART contains four thinking disposition scales that reflect relatively disparate domains of cognitive regulation: the Actively Open-Minded Thinking scale; the Deliberative Thinking scale; the Future Orientation scale; and the Differentiation of Emotions scale. The history of each subtest is described, as well as a large study of each subtest in which correlations with cognitive ability are examined. Correlations among these scales themselves are reported.
Associations among the Subtests: A Short-Form CART
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 12 describes a large-scale study of the short-form version of the CART. The short-form is composed of 11 of the 20 subtests and can be completed in less than two hours by most subjects. The short-form CART includes both the Probabilistic and Statistical Reasoning and the Scientific Reasoning subtests, as both are at the core of most definitions of rational thinking. All four subtests that directly tap the avoidance of miserly processing are included in the short form. The Probabilistic Numeracy subtest is included in the short-form CART because it is statistically quite potent for the amount of time that it takes. All four subtests assessing contaminated mindware are included in the short-form. Chapter 12 reports the results of a study of short-form performance involving 372 subjects. Reliabilities of all the subtests are reported, as well as correlations with cognitive ability and the Actively Open-Minded Thinking scale. Correlations among all the subtests are reported as well as a principal components analysis of the subtests.
The CART: Context, Caveats, and Questions
Authors: Stanovich Keith E. , West Richard F. , Toplak Maggie E.
Published: May 2017

This chapter contextualizes the CART within the broader literature on cognitive ability assessment and critiques the CART, pointing out certain caveats and cautions that follow from its status as a beta (or early prototype) version of a rational thinking assessment. The chapter discusses the relation of the CART to other related instruments in the literature. The relation of the CART to the Great Rationality Debate in cognitive science is discussed. Within-subtest reliability is discussed, as is the CART’s overall structure. The reasons for omitting certain heuristics and biases tasks are explained. The chapter examines some limitations on its use. Coaching effects are discussed.
Introduction
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

A brief introduction to voice leading practice is provided, including a thumbnail history and two definitions of voice leading. The chapter discusses the role of rules in the art of composition and considers three questions that can help evaluate the utility of any rule. The chapter ends with a description of the plan of the book, Voice Leading: The Science behind a Musical Art, including brief descriptions of the content of each chapter.
The Canon
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

A brief review is provided of sixteen core traditional rules of voice leading as formulated in the late Baroque period. These rules are typically taught as part of the core theory curriculum in conservatories and schools of music.
Sources and Images
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

An introduction to the perception of sound is given, with special emphasis on topics useful for understanding the organization of music. The chapter covers essential concepts in acoustics and auditory perception, including basic auditory anatomy and physiology. Core concepts are defined such as vibrational mode, pure tone, complex tone, partial, harmonic, cochlea, basilar membrane, resolved partial, auditory image, auditory stream, acoustic scene, auditory scene, and auditory scene analysis.
Principles of Image Formation
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

An explanation is given for how the auditory system assembles resolved partials to form auditory images. A key concept in this process is the harmonic sieve. Two auditory principles are introduced: harmonicity and toneness. The chapter discusses why certain kinds of timbres are better suited to creating musical lines than others, and why musical lines are best constructed using pitched rather than unpitched sounds. Finally, the chapter explains the “middleness” of middle C.
Preference Rules
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

The six auditory principles described in chapters 4, 5 and 6 are used to provide the basis for a detailed explanation of the core rules of voice leading. In presenting this explanatory account, several novel preference rules arise that are not found in past writings on voice leading. These novel rules amount to theory-generated predictions. If the perceptual theory is correct and if past composers regarded the goal of perceptually independent musical lines as worthwhile, then we might expect composers to write in a manner consistent with these novel rules. Indeed, that’s what we find: music written by past composers proves to be consistent with the new preference rules predicted by the perceptual theory.
Types of Part-Writing
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

Four additional perceptual principles are described that are occasionally linked to the practice of voice leading: onset synchrony, limited density, timbral differentiation, and source location. Composers appear to treat these additional principles as compositional “options” that shape the music-making in perceptually unique ways. It is suggested that the reason why these four principles are often ignored is that they easily conflict with other goals that composers commonly pursue. Other goals include the goal of ensemble balance, lyric intelligibility, harmonic clarity, and rhythmic uniformity. Depending on which auxiliary principles are followed, different textures arise—such as the distinction between homophonic and polyphonic part-writing. It is proposed that different textures, like close harmony, tune-and-accompaniment, and pseudo-polyphony, represent different combinations of concurrent musical goals.
Embellishing Tones
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

Chapter 9 discusses embellishing tones—such as passing tones, suspensions, and appoggiaturas. Embellishments can serve a number of functions, including adding dissonance, creating or heightening expectations, drawing attention to neighboring structural tones, or simply adding interest to a musical texture. However, this chapter focuses on how the presence of embellishing tones can contribute to the perceptual independence of concurrent voices. It is shown that embellishing tones are deployed in ways consistent with five different techniques for enhancing voice independence.
The Feeling of Leading
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

A distinction is made between part-writing and voice leading. Even though music may exhibit correct part-writing, the music may nevertheless sounds like it is meandering aimlessly: voice leading adds the sense of tending, yearning, resolution, or momentum that contributes to the feeling of music “going somewhere.” Research on melodic expectation is summarized. When the music fails to conform to expected voice movements, the music is likely to evoke a wandering or purposeless quality. Predictability transforms good part-writing into good voice leading. Predictability is increased when musical patterns follow the norms and clichés of established styles. Familiarity with a given musical work also increases predictability. For unfamiliar works, predictability is increased when music makes use of recurring or imitative figures, themes, or motives.
Chordal-Tone Doubling
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

The arcane rules of chordal-tone doubling are considered. For more than two centuries, there have been competing sets of doubling rules and an ongoing controversy about which rules are “correct.” This chapter reviews the most careful empirical studies that have addressed this topic. The results show that the competing sets of rules predict virtually identical outcomes, and so it matters little which rule set is used. Nevertheless, one set of rules is expressed in a way that is more consistent with the underlying auditory principles.
Direct Intervals Revisited
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

The Direct or Hidden Intervals rule has a special status in the voice-leading canon. It offers two lessons. First, the direct intervals rule provides a logical link between three perceptual principles (harmonic fusion, semblant motion, and pitch proximity). The rule provides the glue that establishes a logical interconnection between the various rules of in the voice-leading canon. Said another way, the direct intervals rule points to the unity of the traditional part-writing rules. Second, perceptual experiments testing this traditional rule will lead us to question whether listeners hear nominally four-part harmony as truly evoking four independent lines. This observation leads us to consider possible hierarchical organization of auditory streams—which is the topic of the next chapter.
Ear Teasers
Authors: Huron David
Published: May 2017

This chapter addresses the “what for” question regarding voice leading. Experiments show that listeners perceive adding streams to a texture as pleasurable. At the same time, increasing the textural density makes it more difficult for listeners to parse an acoustic scene. This chapter suggests that the brain rewards itself for successfully parsing scenes and that the evoked pleasure is proportional to the scene’s complexity. Inspired by the concept of the brain teaser, this phenomenon is dubbed ear teasing. In addition to explaining why passages constructed according to voice-leading principles would be heard as sounding better, ear teasing also provides a plausible explanation of the preference for reverberant musical sounds (in contrast to speech) and stereo reproduction (in contrast to mono).
Heat and Severe Weather
Authors: Lockwood Alan H.
Published: May 2017

A hotter climate means there will be more heat waves and heat-related illnesses, such as heat exhaustion and heat stroke, the leading causes of weather-related death in the US. Without mitigation, annual world-wide heat-related deaths may exceed 225,000 by 2050. Heat will spawn more extreme weather events such as severe thunderstorms, and tornadoes. Although the number of hurricanes may not increase, the moisture-laden air and warmer oceans will make those that do form more intense and deadly.
Climate Change, Agriculture, and Famine
Authors: Lockwood Alan H.
Published: May 2017

Hotter weather and higher atmospheric CO2 levels will have profound effects on plants. Crops such as corn and soybeans, have critical temperature thresholds above which yields fall precipitously. High CO2 levels will foster the growth of many weeds over crops, threatening yields. Stimulated growth and release of ragweed allergens will threaten hay fever sufferers and asthmatics. The nutrient content of many crops falls in a high CO2 environment. As crop yields fall, prices rise, and undernutrition increases, particularly among children who fail to develop normally who, as a result, may not achieve normal intelligence. In many nations, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, childhood undernutrition already approaches 50%. Feeding the increasing population of the world may become problematic.
Air Pollution, Air Quality, and Climate Change
Authors: Lockwood Alan H.
Published: May 2017

The effects of climate change on air quality are difficult to model due to the large number of unpredictable variables. Hotter temperatures favor ozone production. Higher atmospheric water content may blunt this effect in some regions. Higher levels of natural volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as terpenes from plants, are likely to act synergistically with anthropogenic VOCs to favor ozone production. Droughts increase wildfire risks that produce particulate pollution and carbon monoxide, a VOC involved in ozone production. Some models predict increased ozone concentrations in many urban settings. Future revisions of National Ambient Air Quality Standards, a process driven by politics and science, should consider these effects.
Protecting Health
Authors: Lockwood Alan H.
Published: May 2017

In public health terms, primary climate change prevention means reducing emissions of greenhouse gases and secondary prevention refers to adaptation to climate change. Renewable energy sources depending on the sun, wind, and water power must replace the use of fossil fuels. The IPCC has identified heat, undernutrition, and food and water-borne illnesses as the health domains at greatest risk on a warming world. These are also the domains where the greatest opportunities for the effects of mitigation and adaptation exist. Planning for the future and allocating appropriate resources are critical for success. Compare Florida, where the governor banned the term climate change and plans for the future are often aspirational, to the Netherlands where massive public works projects protect the Dutch from the sea. Education, research, and political will must be guided by evidence-based decision-making if future generations are to enjoy good health on a hospitable planet.
Learning from the Impossible
Authors: Moro Andrea
Published: May 2017

Understanding the nature and the structure of human language coincides with capturing the constraints which make a conceivable language possible or, equivalently, whether there are impossible languages at all. The chapter focuses on syntax, the capacity to generate potentially infinite sentences from a fixed limited set of words: ever since Descartes this has been considered the fingerprint of human mind. Modern syntax has allowed a mathematical approach to this domain.
The Unreasonable Sieve
Authors: Moro Andrea
Published: May 2017

The regularities expressed by sentences are not guided by meaning as it is clear by jabberwoki or by contradictory statements. These regularities are rather governed by structural restrictions which need to be explored on a par with other laws of nature. Unveiling these restrictions is in fact a step toward understanding language acquisition since they must precede linguistic experience in children.
The Inverse Thunderstorm
Authors: Moro Andrea
Published: May 2017

Since language structure is obviously not specifically designed to facilitate communication the question of the origin of the restriction on possible languages emerges. This constitutes a major problem for we may not be able to reconstruct the selective pressure which generated them. Historical parallels are investigated where brain activity was thought to be
Introduction
Authors: Myler Neil
Published: May 2017

This chapter introduces the two major puzzles posed by possession sentences: the too-many-meanings puzzle and the too-many-(surface)-structures puzzle. The too-many-meanings puzzle is that languages often use the same construction to speak of having a car, having a sister, and having brown eyes, amongst other things, despite these relations being notionally distinct. The too-many-surface-structures puzzle is that languages differ radically in the argument structure used to convey the same possessive meanings. The chapter goes on to lay out the theory of the architecture of the grammar assumed in the main body of the book, and sketches how that architecture gives rise to a solution to both puzzles. A particularly important facet of this solution is the idea that a head which introduces a thematic role in the semantics might fail to take a specifier in the syntax, causing the relevant role to be saturated higher in the structure (Wood 2015)—a circumstance this book refers to as delayed gratification, and which turns out to be commonly attested in the typology of possession sentences. The core predictions of the present approach are presented. A concluding section summarizes the structure of the rest of the book.
Previous Approaches to Predicative Possession: A Guide for the Perplexed
Authors: Myler Neil
Published: May 2017

This chapter aims to summarize previous approaches to the too-many-meanings puzzle and the too-many-surface-structures puzzle, providing a uniquely detailed and up-to-date appreciation of recent literature on possession. It begins by setting out the scale of the puzzles by examining functional-typological work. The second section introduces the standard generative approach to the too-many-surface structures puzzle, which I refer to as the Freeze/Kayne tradition. This approach, associated with Freeze (1992) and Kayne (1993) (but with antecedents going back much earlier), proposes that the vast surface diversity in possession constructions is to be derived via movement from one or two underlyingly identical structures. The third section looks at extensions of and reactions to the Freeze/Kayne tradition. In the fourth section, various approaches to the too-many-meanings puzzle are discussed, much of it from the formal semantics literature. The main conclusions of this overview are (i) that the Freeze/Kayne tradition is correct to treat HAVE and BE as two realizations of the same element; but (ii) some of the surface differences among possession constructions involve real underlying differences in argument structure; and (iii) the meaning of possession sentences does not come from HAVE and BE themselves, but from other elements in the structure.
Building and Interpreting HAVE Sentences
Authors: Myler Neil
Published: May 2017

This chapter extends the analysis to HAVE sentences, arguing that HAVE is the form that BE takes when it is combined with a transitive Voice head. This approach correctly predicts the various readings exhibited by have in English and by HAVE verbs in other languages, including non-possessive uses such as causer HAVE, experiencer HAVE, and engineer HAVE. Cross-linguistic variation in the availability of such readings is discussed in terms of variation in how BE is spelled out. The analysis successfully extends to languages with more than one transitive HAVE verb, as is shown by a case study from Icelandic (based on Myler, Sigurðsson, and Wood 2014).
Extending the Typology I: Predicativization
Authors: Myler Neil
Published: May 2017

Stassen (2009) points out a set of possession constructions in which the possessee appears as the predicate in a copular construction. In these constructions, the possessee appears to be marked by a derivational morpheme, often an adjectivalizer or nominalizer. An example is the English –ed in contexts like John is blue-eyed. Stassen dubs this phenomenon Predicativization. In this chapter, I show that Predicativization cannot be related to more familiar types of HAVE or BE construction by movement, further undermining the Freeze/Kayne tradition. This is shown via a detailed analysis of the –yoq suffix in Cochabamba Quechua, in which Delayed Gratification plays a key role. Drawing on and amending ideas from Nevins and Myler (2014, submitted), the chapter then lays out a detailed typology of Predicativization structures cross-linguistically. The main parameters of variation in this typology are (i) the category of the Predicativizing morpheme itself, (ii) the size of the nominal substructure it selects, (iii) whether it requires modifier, and (iv) whether or not the modifier can be phrasal.
Extending the Typology II: The WITH-Possessive
Authors: Myler Neil
Published: May 2017

This chapter sketches an analysis of WITH-Possessives. It is argued that the analysis of Levinson (2011) is correct in its essentials, and that Levinson’s approach can be broadened to account for other subtypes of possession structure beyond temporary possession. A comparison of the Icelandic WITH-Possessive with similar constructions in Bantu languages reveals an interesting difference. While the Icelandic WITH-Possessive is semantically restricted in a way that suggests that Icelandic með ‘with’ retains its comitative semantics in possessive contexts, Bantu WITH-Possessives are not restricted in this way. I analyse the Bantu situation as a case of grammaticalization, understood as a subtype of reanalysis along the lines of Roberts and Rousseau (2003).
Conclusions and Prospects
Authors: Myler Neil
Published: May 2017

This chapter begins by giving a brief overview of the arguments made in the main body of the book. It then examines prospects for extending the approach to other constructions that involve HAVE and BE beyond possession, including aspectual auxiliary constructions and existential constructions. After discussing some other open questions, the chapter concludes by highlighting that the findings of this book force us to adopt a certain view of the place of thematic roles in the architecture of the grammar: thematic roles are not features assigned to particular positions by the syntax, but instead constitute (part of) the meaning of certain syntactic terminal nodes, and are relevant only in the semantic component.
Introduction
Authors: Sarokin David , Schulkin Jay
Published: May 2017

If one accepts the conventional wisdom that information is power—and there is no reason not to accept it—then our Information Age is really the Age of Power. Even in view of the slipperiness of such terms (both ‘information’ and ‘power’ are hard to define), it is abundantly clear that new information tools have multiplied human capabilities many times over. Information spurs participation in new forums and more active engagement in existing ones. It drives commerce, empowers the disenfranchised, promotes participation, creates opportunities (of both noble and crass varieties), and results in new societal arrangements between information haves and information have-nots....
Introduction: Is Environmentalism Failing?
Authors: Dauvergne Peter
Published: May 2017

This chapter begins with a question that at some point just about every environmentalist asks themselves: “Is environmentalism failing?” In some respects and on some measures, environmentalism has been – and remains – a highly influential social movement. Nonetheless, the earth is clearly in a full-blown crisis as agricultural pollution, biodiversity loss, chemical contamination, climate change, deforestation, desertification, freshwater loss, ocean acidification, plastic waste, and transboundary pollutants continue to worsen. Why is environmentalism failing at this global scale? To begin to answer this question this chapter surveys the forces of global “unsustainability,” sketches the diversity of environmentalism, and defines the parameters of the book’s central organizing concept of “environmentalism of the rich,” taking great care to explain what qualifies – and what doesn’t. The chapter concludes by mapping out how the 11 chapters ahead fit into (and build) the book’s full analysis.
By No Means Pleasant
Authors: Dauvergne Peter
Published: May 2017

This chapter surveys the ecological and political history of the South Pacific island of Nauru after 1798 – a microcosm of the globalization of unsustainability. In the 1900s Nauru became a major source of high-grade phosphate fertilizer, especially for Australia and New Zealand. The history of phosphate mining in Nauru illustrates how deeply colonial and postcolonial forces can disrupt sustainability even in places far from the centers of power, and how over generations these disruptions can build into an ever-greater crisis. At the height of Nauru’s phosphate boom in the mid-1970s average income of the Nauruan people was the second highest in the world. But this wealth was an illusion, as Nauru was being strip-mined with little planning for a future without phosphate. Today, Nauru’s economy is in tatters, and with hardly any phosphate left it is now serving its former colonizer Australia as a detention camp for asylum seekers who had been hoping to reach Australia.
Consuming the Earth
Authors: Dauvergne Peter
Published: May 2017

The ecological footprint of humanity, as this chapter documents, is now over 1.5 times higher than the earth’s capacity to regenerate renewable resources and assimilate waste. This crisis is worsening as the biological integrity of ecosystems continues to decline and as the global ecological footprint continues to rise (with per capita footprints rising in most countries). This chapter documents some of the accompanying ecological costs of rising rates of unsustainable consumption for forests, oceans, freshwater, soils, species, and the global climate. More than half of the world’s tropical forests have been cleared since 1950, with loggers, ranchers, and plantation owners continuing to clear millions of hectares a year. The global climate is warming, glaciers are melting, and ocean currents are shifting. And each day another 10 to 500 species (of the earth’s 8–9 million species) are going extinct.
The Rise of Environmentalism
Authors: Dauvergne Peter
Published: May 2017

Chapters 7–11 explore why environmentalism is failing to make more headway against the global forces of unsustainability analyzed in chapters 1–6. Chapter 7 sets up the analysis by reviewing the global history of the environmental movement, highlighting the diversity of thought across cultures and time. Diversity characterizes contemporary environmentalism, from environmental justice movements in Africa to environmentalism of the poor in Asia to anti-capitalism in Latin America to conservation in North America. This diversity remains a source of strength and environmentalism is best thought of as a “movement of movements.” Around the world protests continue to rage; communities continue to rise up; radical organizations continue to fight capitalism; and, as the Goldman Prize reminds the world, individual environmentalists continue to win local battles. Still, over time the mainstream of environmentalism has increasingly come to reflect the values of those with money and privilege, supporting policies and prescriptions that arise primarily out of moderate Western environmentalism: conserving wildlife and natural settings; sustaining productive yields; improving eco-efficiency; and reducing pollution for prosperous citizens.
Mindbombing the Wealthy
Authors: Dauvergne Peter
Published: May 2017

Despite the dangers and risks, as this chapter demonstrates some international NGOs are continuing to challenge oil, mining, and timber companies with confrontational, direct-action campaigns. Chapter 10 opens with the story of the Greenpeace campaign against oil drilling in the Arctic, once again demonstrating the courage and conviction of “eco-warriors,” to use the phrase of Greenpeace founder Bob Hunter. Yet, as this chapter also reveals, Greenpeace is increasingly turning to social media activism, employing humorous videos to call on consumers to boycott well-known brands, such as Kit Kat, Barbie, and Head & Shoulders. In response, some brand manufacturers and retailers, including Nestlé, Mattel, and Procter & Gamble, have discontinued contracts with a few suppliers (such as ones caught clearing tropical forests to produce cardboard or grow oil palm). What Greenpeace is telling consumers is a “victory,” however – such as getting Mattel to package Barbie in a different box – is revealing of how limited eco-consumerism is as a force of global environmental reform.
Conclusion: The Allure and Illusion of Riches
Authors: Dauvergne Peter
Published: May 2017

This final chapter consolidates the book’s arguments and findings into a reflection on the limits and dangers of environmentalism of the rich. Policies and programs are producing gains, especially on per product efficiency measures. But these gains are not aggregating into global solutions. Efficiencies are lost as firms reinvest savings to stimulate even higher levels of unsustainable consumption. Regulatory successes are lost as firms substitute new products and increase exports into countries with lower standards. Certification benefits are lost as investors and buyers shift to new sectors and locations. The growing dominance of environmentalism of the rich risks deluding consumers – and even committed environmental activists – into thinking of capitalism and consumerism as solutions, rather than root causes of unsustainability. As this chapter concludes, if the goal is global sustainability, the mainstream environmental community cannot simply ignore the problems of inequality and consumption.
Logics: The Fundamentals of Memetic Participation
Authors: Milner Ryan M.
Published: May 2017

This chapter introduces the fundamentals of memetic media. It traces the (imperfect) connections between conceptualizations of memes as cultural replicators and the mediated texts that have come to bear the name in pop cultural parlance. It then outlines five fundamental logics central to memetic participation. Memetic media are unique for their multimodality (their expression in multiple modes of communication), reappropriation (their “poaching” of existing texts), resonance (their connections to individual participants), collectivism (their social creation and transformation), and spread (their circulation through mass networks). These logics persist beyond individual texts, and are lynchpins for public conversations occurring across mediated contexts.
Vernacular: Everyday Expression in the Memetic Lingua Franca
Authors: Milner Ryan M.
Published: May 2017

This chapter focuses on the social dimensions of memetic practices, arguing that the memetic lingua franca is a vernacular premised on the creative transformation of expressions that have come before. In this way, memetic participation depends on the interrelations of fixed premise and novel expression. Just as spoken conversations are “prepatterned” by norms, tropes, and colloquialisms, memetic conversations are prepatterned by the expressions others have produced before. The chapter then outlines the vernacular creativity required in memetic conversation, emphasizing the collective standards guiding that creativity. Memetic expression is simultaneously influenced by and influences collective conversations. Because of this reciprocity, vernacular creativity is susceptible to the jargons, marginalizations, and antagonisms inherent to all collective conversations. Ultimately, memetic conversations are vibrant, if imperfect.
Voice: Pop and Populism in Public Commentary
Authors: Milner Ryan M.
Published: May 2017

This chapter argues that memetic media carry the potential for polyvocal public voice, even given their everyday antagonisms. Focusing on mediated conversations surrounding the Occupy Wall Street movement, it addresses tensions between populism and pastiche when popular culture is part of public commentary. Vernacular creativity can be utilized for collective civic talk, as participants create, circulate, and transform memetic media in the name of critique, discussion, and argument. Memetic logics, grammar, and vernacular underscore a system of assertion and response, of point and counter-point as public participants contribute their expressive strands to vast public debates. Even if individual contributions are ambivalent and factionist, memetic media can indeed facilitate vibrant polyvocal participation, and our public conversations are stronger when they do.
Conversation: Cultural Participation and the Culture Industries
Authors: Milner Ryan M.
Published: May 2017

This chapter argues that memetic participation complicates the culture industries that remain at the heart of public life. It assesses the ambivalent relationship between collective participation and individual expression, especially when age-old gatekeepers intertwine with new means of sharing information. It focuses on the complex relationship between collectivism, publicity, and fame in memetic media, as well as on concerns about commercialism and authenticity in a seemingly open media ecology. The tapestry of conversation afforded by memetic media is part new precedent and part established infrastructure. Memetic media intertwine with established culture industries; ambivalent network gatekeeping enables both restrictive commercial control of mediated participation and conversations open enough to cast doubts on the credibility of information. In this way, memetic media exhibit new potentials and old tensions.
Conclusion: The World Made Meme
Authors: Milner Ryan M.
Published: May 2017

Once in class—with the Photoshopped picture of Kanye West interrupting Martin Luther King, Jr. (figure 1.1) on the screen behind me—I asked my students to define internet meme. There was the usual desk staring and head scratching, until a student in the back spoke up. “It’s like … a nationwide inside joke,” she said. Her unconventional definition inspired chuckles. But as the hours wore on, I realized its poignancy. Like inside jokes between friends, internet memes—the multimodal texts created, circulated, and transformed by countless cultural participants—balance the familiar and the foreign. And like inside jokes, internet memes are at once universal and particular; they allow creative play based on established phrasal, image, video, and performative tropes. The difference, of course, is the scale of these inside jokes. Assessing that scale, this book has charted the vibrancy that emerges when expressive strands become interactional threads, which in turn weave vast cultural tapestries. In the end, ...
Introduction
Authors: Perzanowski Aaron , Schultz Jason
Published: May 2017

This chapter observes two trends: the rise of the digital marketplace as the result of technological development and the decline of ownership due to aggressive intellectual property laws, restrictive contractual provisions and technological locks. Admittedly, the market offers consumers a choice between ownership and more conditional, impermanent access to goods, but because of the asymmetric information possessed by consumers and retailers or IP rights holders, consumers frequently cannot make informed decisions. This leads to the loss of control over the goods they purchase; more importantly, the lack of ownership rights has serious implications for cultural preservation, innovation and consumer autonomy. The rest of the book unfolds by detailing how consumers and IP rights holders contend for control over physical and digital goods in various areas.
Property and the Exhaustion Principle
Authors: Perzanowski Aaron , Schultz Jason
Published: May 2017

This chapter outlines the conceptual framework for the rest of the book by describing the basic principles of personal and intellectual property law. The default rules of ownership used to define the purchasers’ rights, allowing for resale, lending, gifting and many other forms of transaction by the consumer. Now, with the rise of the digital economy, consumer rights are defined through licenses, which impose various restrictions on consumers’ disposition of their digital goods. Among the traditional rules of ownership, the exhaustion principle is particularly important for mediating the tension between intellectual property holders and consumers. Exhaustion is the notion that an IP rights holder relinquishes some control over a product once it sells or gives that product to a new owner. IP rights holders have resisted exhaustion at nearly every turn, and the licensing model allowed them to infuse new vigor into their resistance.
Copies, Clouds, and Streams
Authors: Perzanowski Aaron , Schultz Jason
Published: May 2017

This chapter outlines three major transformations in how consumers acquire copyrighted content, and the gradual erosion of ownership rights that accompanied them. Historically, copyrighted works were distributed through tangible copies. In the early 2000s, the first transformation took place through the rise of digital downloads. Second, remote cloud storage allowed consumers to access remote copies through high-speed data connections. The third major shift, to subscription streaming services, is now underway. With each step in this progression, consumers have sacrificed permanence and stability for lower prices and convenience. More importantly, copyright law has failed to keep up with the development of these new technologies. Copyright law has focused on the copy/work distinction to delineate the rights of copyright holders and consumers, but the traditional tangible copy is disappearing from the marketplace.