bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
COMPREHENSIVE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Authors: Henning Tom , Perkins K. Tim , Stankovich Gary
Published: January 2013

Resources at the scene of an oil spill involve a significant number of response personnel, equipment, and support materials. The current practice of using single resource management during oil spill emergencies is ineffective and extremely time-consuming. This form of resource tracking results in the overtaxation of the resource status unit (RESTAT) and does not give the operations section the best opportunity to make tactical decisions based on the location of available resources. The recent use of comprehensive resource management as part of the incident command system (ICS) (Oil Pollution Act of 1990, 1990) with strike teams and task forces for the deployment of personnel and equipment during an industry-led National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) (Incident Command Systems, Fire Publications, no date) exercise provided an opportunity to implement a more efficient and effective system for the deployment and tracking of resources.

The deployment of strike teams and task forces greatly reduces the number of resources to be tracked and provides the operations section with a more realistic view of available and assigned resources. This results in better allocation of resources to more effectively manage the tactical priorities of an incident. In addition, the tasks of the cost control and food services units are made simpler by a more accurate picture of on-scene resources and personnel.
MONEY WELL SPENT OR MONEY JUST SPENT? THE NEED FOR INTEGRATED COST ACCOUNTING DURING SPILL RESPONSE1
Authors: Sheehan Daniel F.
Published: January 2013

Responding to a significant oil spill is a logistical and organizational challenge for both the public and private sector. Significant organizational improvements have occurred as a result of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90). One of the challenges that continues to exist is the ability to keep track of both physical and fiscal resources. Many large oil companies and other organizations have plans in place that are capable of spending resources at a rate in excess of $5 million per day. Federal expenditures and commitments during a large spill could easily approximate the same amount. The task of keeping track of both public and private expenditures could be facilitated if there were preagreement on the need for format, detail, and frequency of summary accounting data. The hypothesis is that this would help control resource management and create a disciplined environment within the construct of the unified command structure.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM-BASED POLLUTION RESPONSE ASSET TRACKING SYSTEM (RATS)
Authors: Stahovec Joseph G.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Navy's Supervisor of Salvage (SUPSALV) Response Asset Tracking System (RATS) was developed to provide enhanced safety and logistics support, improve worldwide contingency planning capabilities, and increase operational responsiveness through automated tracking of oil spill containment and recovery equipment. RATS's worldwide tracking capability is accomplished by combining Global Positioning System (GPS) technology with VHF and INMARSAT-C transmission links. The system allows the equipment's position to be automatically overlaid on digitized mapping systems and nautical charts. The application of GPS-based RATS technology to oil spill containment and recovery scenarios greatly enhances “command and control” and operational effectiveness.
DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS IN FIELD TRIALS AND IN OPERATIONAL RESPONSE
Authors: Lunel Tim , Wood Peter , Davies Louise
Published: January 2013

The North Sea field tests described in the paper have provided a quantitative data set on dispersant efficiency that can be used to calibrate laboratory dispersant tests. Comparisons of efficiency figures from the EXDET, IFP, Swirling Flask, and WSL tests with the field dispersant efficiency figures indicate that the WSL test comes closest to replicating the observed dispersion, in terms of both the percentage of oil dispersed and the oil droplet size of the dispersion.

This paper, with the accompanying presentation in the Sea Empress session of the conference, demonstrates that a combination of quantitative field tests and the WSL test can be used to guide responders in decisions of whether to use dispersants in response to an oil spill. The WSL test and the field trials indicated that dispersants were likely to be effective against both the Forties Blend crude oil and the weathered oil. These predictions were confirmed by the successful dispersant operation at the Sea Empress incident.
THE SAN RAFAEL DE LAYA OIL SPILL: A CASE OF CLEANUP AND REMEDIATION IN VENEZUELA
Authors: Correa Manuel , Padrón Elizabeth , Petkoff Irene
Published: January 2013

In November 1994, a 16-inch pipeline rupture resulted in a spill of about 10,000 barrels of crude oil extending on 4 hectares of agricultural land, including part of a freshwater lagoon. The spill was contained 2 kilometers away from the accident by a dike constructed across the lagoon during the first response operation. Oil cleanup activities included a bioremediation process (land farming) where harrowing, water irrigation, and fertilization of contaminated soil were applied Physical removal qfthe oil with sorbents, booms, and pads, aswell as a drum skimmer, were used to dean up and restore the lagoon. Laboratory tests reported mat total crude oübiodegrodation rates were stabilized within 2 months, with a mean total hydrocarbons degradation of 80%.
A METHOD OF EXPOSING FISH TO WATER-ACCOMMODATED FRACTIONS OF OIL
Authors: Blenkinsopp Sandra , Sergy Gary , Doe Ken , Wohlgeschaffen Gary , Li Ken , Fingas Mervin
Published: January 2013

The purpose of this study was to determine how to expose rainbow trout to water-accommodated fractions (WAF) from oil, for 96-hour acute lethality testing. Oxygen levels and WAF loss were monitored for a variety of exposure, aeration and fish loading density combinations. Aeration is needed, but the normal aeration rate (NAR) of 6.5 ± 1 mL air/L test solution/minute can be reduced to 1/10 NAR. Also, open and loosely sealed bags with an NAR exhibited a 90% WAF loss in the first 24 hours, compared with a 30% WAF loss by loosely sealed bags with 1/10 NAR. The latter method is therefore preferred for the static exposure of rainbow trout to WAF.
OIL SPILLS IN THE CHESAPEAKE BAY (1985-1994)
Authors: Balch Bradley N.
Published: January 2013

U.S. Coast Guard data show a clear upward trend in oil spills in Chesapeake Bay. From 1985 through 1994, there were approximately 1,313,218 gallons of oil spilled. Pipelines accounted for 37% of the total spill volume. 71% of the total amount of oil spilled during the 10-year period was diesel or no. 2 fuel. The average size of a spill in the 1- to 99-gallon range decreased annually from 1989.
AREA CONTINGENCY PLANS AS ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
Authors: Attaway Stephen , Bauer Kent , Davis Matthew
Published: January 2013

Electronically published contingency plans offer solid advantages over paper plans. Careful preplanning is needed to realize these advantages. By developing a simple, inexpensive method, Marine Safety Office San Francisco ensured a successful transition to electronic publishing.
A BRIEF COMPARISON OF U.S. AND JAPANESE OIL SPILL RESPONSE POLICIES
Authors: Benedict Traci , Hicks Mike , Masaki Setsuko
Published: January 2013

This paper provides a brief overview of United States and Japanese oil spill response regulations with respect to the impact that regulations have on actual response effectiveness.
MEXUS PLAN: MEXICO/UNITED STATES BILATERAL RESPONSE PLAN
Authors: Whiting Daniel
Published: January 2013

The Agreement of Cooperation Between the United States of America and the United Mexican States Regarding Pollution of the Marine Environment by Discharges of Hydrocarbons and Other Hazardous Substances, signed in Mexico City in 1980, provides the foundation for cooperation in response to pollution incidents that pose a threat to the waters of both countries. Under the 1980 agreement, the MEXUS Plan identifies the joint response team, defines the role of the on-scene coordinator, provides a mechanism for rapid incident notification, designates joint operations centers, and lists communications protocols that would be needed to coordinate the response to pollution incidents affecting both countries.
A BOUNTY OF BOUNDARY LINES
Authors: Burns Lieutenant Commander George H. , Laws Chief Marine Science Technician Shane M. , “Ben” Benson C. A.
Published: January 2013

Significant inconsistency of boundary lines delineating the jurisdiction of various federal, state, and local agencies unnecessarily complicates oil spill planning and response by increasing the number of stakeholders in these processes. Planning gaps also occur in border areas as agencies concentrate their attention on risks more central to their zones. Compounding these problems is the location of some boundaries that are drawn precisely where the risk of a big spill is highest. More consistent and closer alignment of federal boundary lines and responsibilities is needed nationwide to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of spill planning and response.
SAN JACINTO RIVER INCIDENT: ARMEGEDDON VISITS HOUSTON
Authors: Leonard Joseph J.
Published: January 2013

In October 1994, southeast Texas experienced some of its worst flooding ever. Near Houston, the raging waters of the San Jacinto River caused a pipeline to rupture, spilling vast quantities of gasoline. When this gasoline found an ignition source, the river became a devastating conflagration. The Coast Guard immediately activated its incident command system (ICS) with a unified command to direct response activities. Lessons learned following the San Jacinto River incident will improve future response activities and serve as the foundation for the adoption of the National Interagency Incident Management System (which includes the ICS) by the Coast Guard and the state of Texas.
TECHNOLOGY AND INTERACTIVE SOFTWARE FOR OIL SPILL PLANNING AND RESPONSE
Authors: Kitz Carl G. , Szerlog Michael J. , Hyde Sean M.
Published: January 2013

EPA Region X has combined the immense storage capacity of CD-ROMs with interactive software to develop a user-friendly tool to provide quick and easy access to digital information for use by oil spill response teams. These CD-ROMs, created specifically for spill planning and response, provide responders with hypertext links and powerful search capabilities allowing uncomplicated access to response information, regulations, nationally recognized standards, and area maps. This format enhances response time by reducing the time needed to access critical information and the volume of materials carried to the site by responders.
CRISIS MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE: A TECHNOLOGY APPROACH
Authors: Perkins K. Tim , Stankovich Gary J.
Published: January 2013

In the event of a major incident with crisis potential, time is of the essence. The situation and factors affecting the outcome must be rapidly determined, courses of action assessed, and decisions of strategy and tactics quickly made. At the same time, the process of gathering, displaying, and documenting information must be effectively managed. The crisis management software discussed here provides a technical solution to many of the obstacles that inhibit effective management of the event. The software provides a management process and all supporting materials to gather and display facts and assess impacts. It provides user-friendly prompts of potential crisis issues and suggests a list of appropriate actions, while documenting all decisions.
OSIMS: OIL SPILL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Authors: Douligeris Christos , Collins John , Blanco R. , Jacobs J. , Baca Bart
Published: January 2013

The oil spill information management system (OSIMS) is an integrated information management tool providing a graphical interface to a database of spill-related data and models. OSIMS combines the utility of a geographic information system (GIS) with the intelligence of a decision support system (DSS), and provides worldwide access through World Wide Web (WWW) technology.
Proving Dispersants Work
Authors: Gugg Paul M. , Henry Charles B. , Bridgeman Todd , Glenn Stephan P. , Buie Gregory W. , Austin Meredith L.
Published: January 2013

Growing acceptance of dispersants as a front line oil spill response tool is due in large part to the availability of reliable scientific effectiveness measurements. This paper examines the procedures known as Specialized Monitoring of Advanced Response Technologies (SMART) that determine if dispersant chemicals are having the desired effect of causing small droplet formation and dispersal in the water column. Response decision makers will benefit from the discussion of monitoring protocols, the visual and empirical indicators of dispersion, and the equipment used to derive this data. Proof of SMART feasibility and utility is provided in the form of case histories, data, and photographs from recent exercises and two actual dispersant response operations.
Emulsification of Crude Oil: A New Equation and Governing Parameters
Authors: Tasaki Ryo , Ogawa Akihiro
Published: January 2013

Through the differentiation of a formula defining the water content ratio, a water-in-oil emulsification equation for crude oil is derived to include the effects of evaporation loss and entrained water with time. The equation reveals that emulsification is governed by two fixed parameters (related to the evaporation process) and four free constant parameters. The presentation of water content ratio versus evaporation ratio is found to be useful for understanding the emulsification process. The free constant parameters are selected to fit the numerical solutions to the measured values obtained in flume tests on six types of Middle East crude oils.
Research Leading To Revisions In Epa's Dispersant Effectiveness Protocol
Authors: Venosa Albert D. , Sorial George A. , Richardson Teri L. , Uraizee Farooq , Suidan Makram T.
Published: January 2013

The current EPA protocol for testing the effectiveness of dispersants in the laboratory—the Swirling Flask Test—is fraught with difficulties because it has been found to give widely varying results in the hands of different testing laboratories. The objective of this study is to develop an understanding of the factors most responsible for this lack of reproducibility. Once that objective has been accomplished, the protocol will be modified to achieve better reproducibility in the hands of multiple laboratories. To accomplish the objective, fractional factorial experiments were conducted to determine which factors have the greatest impact on the variance of the method. Such factors as oil type, mixing speed, settling time, dispersant type, flask type, and operator were evaluated systematically and in a statistically rigorous manner. In addition, since the calibration curve used for analyzing the oil concentration dispersed in the seawater solution may also be a major source of variability, a systematic evaluation of the way such measurements are made was conducted (such as comparing various types of instruments and evaluating the variance due to operator vs. that due to the instrument per se). Instruments evaluated were the spectrophotometer, diode array detector, and gas Chromatograph with a flame ionization detector. Results from these experiments to date have indicated that the factors most responsible for the lack of reproducibility of the method are mixing speed, settling time, and the type of flask in which the test is conducted. This has led to a redesign of the flask used in the test, which is characterized as being baffled and having a stopcock located at the bottom of the flask to prevent remixing of the dispersed oil mixture when transferring to the extraction vessel. The paper discusses the design of the new flask and the important experiments leading to the refinement of the protocol to reflect a more accurate simulation of mixing and dispersion in the open sea.
Design and Implementation of a Mesocosm Experiment On The Environmental Consequences of Nearshore Dispersant Use
Authors: Lessard Richard R. , Aurand Don , Coelho Gina , Fuller Chris , McDonald Thomas J. , Clark Jim , Bragin Gail , Jamail Robin , Steen Alexis
Published: January 2013

In April 1998 the first full-scale oil spill experiment was run at the Coastal Oilspill Simulation System (COSS) Facility in Corpus Christi, Texas. The facility contains nine 110-foot long, eight-foot deep wave tanks for simulated nearshore or intertidal habitat experiments. Features include an adjustable 2-foot tidal range, variable flow rate, and random wave capability. Sediment can be added to create bottom habitat and to develop an intertidal “shoreline.” The project compared the ecological effects when oil is allowed to strand on the beach to the effects when dispersed oil is present in very shallow areas. Untreated and dispersed weathered Arabian Medium crude oil was released in three tanks each. Two other tanks served as controls. The fate and effects of the oil or dispersed oil were evaluated over ten days using caged marine species and detailed hydrocarbon chemistry. The tests were successfully completed, demonstrating the facility's impressive potential for similar experiments. Preliminary data analyses indicate that water column effects of dispersed oil were not significantly different from those of untreated oil, and the use of dispersant led to a clear reduction in shoreline accumulation of oil.
Evaluation of Bioaugmentation for Remediation of Petroleum In a Wetland
Authors: Simon Mark A. , Autenrieth Robin L. , McDonald Thomas J. , Bonner James S.
Published: January 2013

The primary goal of this research was to evaluate the performance of two commercial bioaugmentation products for their ability to enhance bioremediation of petroleum in a wetland. Additional treatments included inorganic nutrients, and an oiled control (intrinsic). The experiment used a controlled application of oil to reduce heterogeneity normally associated with spilled petroleum. The experimental design incorporated full replication and interspersion of treatments in a block design. The first-order biodegradation rate coefficients for the total target saturate and total target aromatic hydrocarbons showed no significant differences between treatments. Comparison of first-order biodegradation rate coefficients for individual hydrocarbon target analytes also showed no differences between the treatments. Although not statistically significant, one of the commercial bioaugmentation products did show consistently higher biodegradation rates for individual target analytes. Comparison of first-order biodegradation rate coefficients for the control treatment showed biodegradation rates comparable with those obtained in previous studies conducted at the site. This research study and the previous studies conducted at the site demonstrate bioremediation can be effective in removing petroleum from the environment. However, further research is necessary to optimize treatment strategies and to increase the understanding of the processes that contribute to bioremediation of petroleum in a wetland.
Laboratory Assessment of Bioremediation Products Under Freshwater Conditions
Authors: Haines John R. , Venosa Albert D. , Holder Edith L. , Miller Karen M.
Published: January 2013

The recovery and transportation of petroleum and petroleum products creates the potential for spillage of these materials into the environment. Bioremediation is a recently applied technology for clean up after a petroleum spill, and a protocol for evaluating bioremediation products in marine systems has been instituted. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) undertook this research to extend the protocol to freshwater systems, and to validate the protocol by examining commercial products for effectiveness in the laboratory.

EPA's shake flask protocol developed for marine systems was adapted for this work. Commercial products were applied per manufacturer's recommended dosage. All flasks received weathered Alaska North Slope oil at 5 g/L. The test flasks contained the commercial products with an inoculum developed from freshwater sources unless the product contained microbes. The control was an oil degrading inoculum in Bushneil Haas (Difco) medium. Triplicate flasks for each treatment were sacrificed on days 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28. Most-Probable-Numbers of alkane and aromatic hydrocarbon degraders were measured. The microbiological populations degrading alkane and aromatic hydrocarbons increased up to four orders of magnitude for all products except one. The original inoculum contained approximately 103 cells/mL of alkane degraders and 104 cells/mL of aromatic degraders. Oil analysis over the experimental period revealed differences in oil degradation among the products. After 28 days alkane reduction was 98% for the Bushnell-Haas control and 94% for Product A. Aromatic reduction was 53% in the control and up to 66% for product A. Product B was similar in alkane reduction but less effective with aromatics. Product C was ineffective in reducing either class of compounds. Product D reduced alkanes 37% and aromatics 47%. Oxygen uptake and CO2 production were high for the control and Products A and B, but low for Products C and D. The protocol was able to demonstrate clear differences among products and thus was deemed successful for evaluating product performance.
Natural Recovery Reduces Impact of the 1970 Arrow Oil Spill
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Wohlgeschaffen Gary D. , Tremblay Gilles H. , Vandermeulen J. H. , Mossman D. C. , Wilson J. E. H. , Doe Kenneth G. , Jackman P. M. , Prince R. C. , Garrett R. M. , Haith C. E.
Published: January 2013

In 1970 the tanker Arrow ran aground releasing 2,000 m3 of Bunker C crude oil along 300 km of Nova Scotia's coastline, of which only 10% was subjected to cleanup, the rest was left to degrade naturally. Sediment and interstitial water collected in 1993 and 1997 from Black Duck Cove in Chedabucto Bay, a representative untreated site, showed that the remaining residual oil has undergone substantial biodegradation. The environmental significance of this intrinsic remediation process was assessed with a battery of microscale biotests: CYP1A and mixed function oxygenase induction in winter flounder, Amphipod Survival, Echinoid Fertilization, Grass Shrimp Embryo-Larval Toxicity, Microtox® Solid-Phase and 100% Tests. While much oil remains in the sediment (426–12,744 ppm), results of the biotests show that it is of low toxicity and habitat recovery is evident from the level of benthic diversity.
Technology of Oil Spill Treatment and Accelerated Rehabilitation of Swampy Soil
Authors: Kurchenko Alexander
Published: January 2013

As a result of Vosei-Golovnye pipeline break and consequental oil spill (Russia, Komi Republic) in 1994 about 80 hectares of the earth surface were contaminated, major part of which represents swampy soil. In the period of oil spill liquidation works, an original technology of swampy soil treatment and recovery was designed. The technology process of oil spill treatment and swampy soil rehabilitation includes 5 stages. 1st stage: oil spill containment by creating dikes of earth. 2nd stage: removal of gross oil concentrations on treated sections with the assistance of specially constructed drags. After the second stage residual oil concentration are not less than 250,000 mg/kg of peat cover. 3d stage: residual oil concentrations are hosed off by high pressure water. After the treatment is completed the oil concentration is reduced to 50,000–60,000 mg/kg of peat cover. 4th stage: cutting out 3 to 5 cm of peat cover polluted by oil and oil slime recovery on sections under cleaning. The oil concentration is reduced until the parameters which make possible normal vegetation of plants. 5th stage: biological recultivation during of which the recultivated sections are sowed with plants typical for this swampy region.
Historical Overview of Oil Spills from All Sources (1960–1998)
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt
Published: January 2013

This poster session gives an overview of oil spill statistics on oil spills of at least 10,000 gallons (34 tonnes) that have occurred worldwide over the last 20 years. Included are: the annual amount of oil spilled from different source types as well as in total, and the number and amount of oil spilled by size range. The data indicate that in any one year, the total amount of oil spilled depends largely on the incidence of catastrophic spills. While the frequency of smaller spills under 100,000 gallons (340 tonnes) greatly exceeds those of spills of over 1 million gallons (3,400 tonnes), the total volume of these smaller spills represents only a fraction of one catastrophic spill. While tanker spills have often gotten more media coverage, the amount of oil spilled from these vessels is often less than that spilled from pipelines, storage tanks, and other facilities.
A Logistical Response to the Grounding of the M/T Shogun1
Authors: Masterson Joseph Scott , Hilton Jerome Harrison
Published: January 2013

On November 6, 1997, the M/T Shogun ran aground off the coast of Rota, an island in the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands. The resulting successful salvage response, which lasted 9 days, prevented the occurrence of a major oil spill in a pristine island environment. The response was managed by a Unified Command established under the Incident Command System (ICS) and consisted of the responsible party, U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands Emergency Management Office (EMO). Logistical problems, which can be directly attributed to the remote location of the island, were identified and ultimately drove almost every aspect of the response. The Logistics Section, however, repeatedly found solutions to these problems allowing the Unified Command to mount a successful response. This poster presentation seeks to display the remoteness of Rota's location, the logistical difficulties encountered during the response, and the methods used by the Unified Command to successfully overcome them.
The Statistical Analysis of Manual Removal of Stranded Oil Spills: Lessons Learned from Oil Spills Caused by the Russian Tanker Nakhodka
Authors: Shikida Asami
Published: January 2013

In 1997, the Russian tanker Nakhodka, weighing 13,157 tons, sank off in the Japan Sea reportedly causing an oil spill. The oil spill had a serious impact on the shoreline environment. The purpose of this poster is to present a method to estimate the number of workers needed to clean the shoreline with maximum efficiency and minimum redundancy. In this study the parameters of manual oil removal are estimated and the framework in which those parameters work is explained. The results show that the amount of oil removed in a day correlates with the cumulative amount of oil removed up to that day and the number of people engaged in cleaning up on that day. The equation predicting the amount of oil is: S = 13.4827 E − 0.03874 C + 38458.1525 R2 = 0.918, F (2,34) = 192.28,p<0.01where S = the amount of oil removed in a day (liter), E = the number of people engaged in cleaning up on that day, C = the cumulative amount of oil removed up to that day (liter), R = correlation coefficient, F = degree of freedom. With this equation, the total amount of stranded oil that can be collected on a certain day and the number of people necessary to remove the spilled oil at the most efficient rate can be estimated. One can also calculate the optimal number of workers for the task.
Managing a Public Affairs Co-Op1
Authors: Diehl William J. , Prince Michael
Published: January 2013

An effective public affairs effort during a crisis is of paramount importance, both in disseminating accurate information and in shaping a positive public perception of the response effort. Good crisis managers take a proactive role preparing, staffing, and testing a media plan. The state of Michigan has had success in its media plan by establishing a Joint Public Information Team (JPIT) consisting of federal, state, and local agencies. This paper is an overview of how the state recruits members, defines jobs, and equips a JPIT. It gives the history of how the JPIT got started and discusses how its lead agency, the Michigan State Police, Emergency Management Division (MSP/EMD) keeps members motivated to participate. The poster presentation will be a series of handouts containing the details of how the MSP/EMD established the JPIT. This overview with the handout should be helpful to any organization establishing a JPIT.
Risk and Hazard Communication In The Marine Oil Transportation Environment
Authors: Cantwell Vincent , Mille Gerry E.
Published: January 2013

An important element in the prevention of marine oil spills, accidents, and injury, is the effective communication of the risks and hazards present. Risk and hazard communication is typically accomplished through the application of labels, signs, markers, graphics, color codes, and through other warning or alarm devices. The type, size, physical characteristics, content, and placement of risk and hazard communication devices is directly related to the utility, persistence, and effectiveness of the intended message. The precise selection of words, phrases, and characters directly impacts the intelligibility and comprehension of the risk or hazard being identified. Confidence and compliance levels of those to which the message is directed, are also affected by poorly designed, worded, or placed visual and audible signals.

Regulations requiring or defining the content of risk communications do not adequately account for these factors. Risk and hazard communications are further complicated by cultural factors. Current trends in vessel construction and manning will only exacerbate these issues. Guidelines have been published for hazard and risk communication devices, equipment, and marine systems. This guidance should be used to evaluate and improve risk and hazard communication however possible. The goal of risk and hazard communication should be to promote or support Situation Awareness, (SA). Education should be conducted in the proper interpretation, application, and maintenance of communication devices.
Fast Oil Spill Team: A Medium-Size Oil Spill Response Centre
Authors: Lamy Andre , Leroy Louis-Michel
Published: January 2013

The Mediterranean Sea is a very sensitive zone; it is a virtually closed sea with an important economic and environmental pressure. ELF Aquitaine has decided to create its own oil spill response team called FOST (Fast Oil Spill Team) and its design makes it unique. This paper discusses the main innovations of this centre and describes materials available there, and also presents the partnership established between ELF Aquitaine and the Marseille batallion of the Marins Pompiers (Marine Emergency Services).
Reducing Trajectory Modeling Response Time In Texas
Authors: Martin Robert D. , Solis Ruben S. , Reid Robert O. , Howard Mathew K.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill trajectory models are one of the few tools that can help response teams stay ahead of an oil slick, but the process of trajectory modeling requires many time-consuming steps. Hydrodynamic modeling, used to generate the current forecasts required by trajectory models, can consume hours of operator and computer run-time. The Texas General Land Office and the Texas Water Development Board have automated the daily operation of hydrodynamic models to produce current forecasts for two Texas bays. Each midnight, computers running the hydrodynamic models for Galveston Bay and Corpus Christi Bay download the latest water level measurements from a real time tide gage network. The models use this data to produce a 2-day forecast of the currents for the two bay systems. In the event of a spill, the trajectory modeling team retrieves the recently generated current forecasts for immediate input to the trajectory model. Model automation saves two hours in computer run-time alone for these two bays. Along similar lines for the offshore environment, Texas A&M University is developing an automated gridded wind forecasts and a wind-driven, shelf circulation (spectral) model to predict near-surface current patterns and velocities along the inner Texas shelf on an operational basis.
Transitional Dynamics—From Ship Fires To Pollution Response Ops
Authors: Leonard Joseph J. , Gibeault Carl L.
Published: January 2013

Ship fires are a rare occurrence, or at least they are supposed to be! In the Houston area, there were five significant ship fires from April 1997 to March of 1998—the most anyone can remember. Three of these occurred since November, and two of these are worth reviewing to look at the organization and strategies developed to mitigate the events. Also of interest is how the event transitioned from the emergency response phase of fire suppression operations to the ongoing mitigation phase of pollution response operations. The M/V Stolt Spirit fire occurred on 11 November 1997, when afire started in the engine room during bunkering operations. Response resources battled the conflagration for over 54 hours before finally bringing the stubborn fire under control. The M/V Katania fire occurred on 9 March 1998, when a Class-? cargo fire was discovered during loading operations. Response forces battled this fire for over 14 hours before bringing it under control. Both of these fires had many similarities, including many of the same response personnel. Due to legal constraints, there were no comprehensive lessons learned from the Stolt Spirit fire, but many responders who worked both fires ensured that some of the problems noted on the first incident were not repeated. Success can be measured in various ways, but one key to that success is the implementation of a Unified Command to develop response objectives, mitigate the incident, and meet their various jurisdictional requirements.
1998 Shoreline Conditions in the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Zone in Prince William Sound
Authors: Page David S. , Gilfillan Edward S. , Stoker Sam W. , Neff Jerry M. , Boehm Paul D. , Little Arthur D.
Published: January 2013

After the March 24, 1989 grounding of the Exxon Valdez and the release of 258,000 barrels of Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude oil into the marine environment of Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska, a number of scientific studies were conducted from 1989 to 1998 to assess the fate and effects of the spill. These included the 1990–1991 shoreline ecology program (SEP), which detected little measurable impact of the spill, except at certain heavily oiled sites. In 1998, these 1990 and 1991 studies were updated. The 1998 study found spill small remnants from originally heavily oiled sites represent a minute fraction of the total PWS shoreline area. Any isolated deposits of remaining oil residues from the spill generally were found at the top of the tidal zone and highly weathered and therefore in a form and location unavailable and non-toxic to biota. Between 1991 and 1998, the concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons at the “worst case” sites studied decreased dramatically. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations measured at these sites in 1998 were at least three times lower than the effects range-low (ER-L) sediment toxicity threshold values of 4,022 ng/g for total PAH. Mussels sampled at heavily oiled “worst case” sites in 1998 also had dramatically lower tissue PAH concentrations compared with samples taken in 1993, indicating low bioavailability of any hydrocarbons present and thus low risk to biota. Natural interannual variability in the structure of the biological infaunal communities is the largest, most consistent signal observed in this study, not any residual oil spill effects. The results of statistical analyses of the data (ANCOVA) indicated no continuing oiling effects in 1998. Consistent differences were observed between oiled and unoiled reference sites, but they were significant in only one analysis. These differences were unrelated to differences in the total PAH present among sites. Any observed differences are more likely related to the fact these “worst case” oiled sites were not selected in an unbiased, random manner.
Modeled Exposures To Freshly Spilled Crude Oil
Authors: Thayer Evan C. , Tell Joan G.
Published: January 2013

Understanding initial oil spill responder's exposures is essential for planning purposes and a safe operation; however, there is little relevant information in the literature. Potential oil components of concern include hydrogen sulfide and benzene.

This paper uses three dispersion models to evaluate and discuss these potential responder health exposures. Key parameters addressed include the effects of the thickness of the spill and the component concentration in the crude oil. Determination of the amount of time needed for site concentrations to fall below the relevant health guidelines is an important outcome. Model results are compared with available exposure data in the literature. Implications for response planning are discussed.
Beyond Natural Resource Damage Assessment: A Navy/State of Washington Oil Spill Restoration Partnership
Authors: Davis Dale A. , Smith Dean C. , Doty Dan
Published: January 2013

Money from oil spill natural resource damage claims in Washington State is used primarily to fund environmental restoration and enhancement projects, but all parties liable for oil spills in the state are invited to propose and perform resource restoration projects in lieu of monetary compensation. As a result of numerous oil spills from Naval vessels and facilities in Washington and the high probability of future spills, Naval Base Seattle developed a comprehensive restoration program that lists potential restoration projects for Navy facilities throughout Washington, and supports restoration opportunities for non-Navy trustee properties. The program has evolved into a collaborative restoration planning effort between the Navy and Washington natural resource agencies to identify and prioritize restoration opportunities to be applied in the event of future Navy spills. To date, three restoration projects have been approved as compensation for five spills into Puget Sound from Naval vessels, and are considered highly successful by both the Navy and the state. This approach results in substantial savings for state agencies, restoration projects that are implemented quickly and efficiently, and environmental education and awareness for Navy personnel.
Some Thoughts On Salvage Operations During Oil Spills1
Authors: Buie Gregory W.
Published: January 2013

Recent casualties have caused response planners, spill managers, underwriters, and government authorities to closely examine the role of salvage operations in the successful resolution of actual or potential spill events. The integration of salvage operations with oil spill response operations remains somewhat ill defined in the post-OPA 90 NIIMS based ICS response system. The responses to the Buffalo 292 and Buffalo 286 oil spills demonstrated that a coordinated, well-conceived, and professionally executed salvage operation can be conducted within the ICS framework. A similar response management model was used during the successful emergency lightering of the grounded tankship Overseas Valdez. These operations spotlighted the efficacy of the maritime community's implementation of the Vessel Response Plan (VRP) requirements of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the successful integration of salvage operations into the incident command system, and the benefits of prompt access to computerized damage stability and residual strength calculation programs.
Tidal Inlets—A Major Hurdle to Effectively Protecting Sensitive Coastal Resources
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Montello Todd M. , Schrader Robert J. , Levine Edwin A.
Published: January 2013

Along much of the coastline of the United States, the most abundant sensitive coastal resources, such as salt marsh and mangrove ecosystems, occur within estuaries located landward of tidal inlets. Therefore, a protection strategy that could prevent oil spilled on the open ocean from passing through the inlets during flood tides would effectively protect these resources. Because of wave conditions and strong currents (2–3 kts common), inlets present a most difficult protection scenario requiring excellent scientific understanding and operational skills.

With the result of the Anitra oil spill in 1986, the NJDEP realized that the inlet protection strategies that had been proposed were not feasible. Based on previous experience for over two hundred tidal inlets in California and Florida, the NJDEP sponsored a project to devise protection strategies for the 13 inlets on the coast of New Jersey. The field team, which had backgrounds in geomorphology, environmental concerns, and response operations, devised the final strategies based on the following hierarchy of controls: (1) physical processes in the inlet; (2) protection priorities; and (3) probable effectiveness of response. The final strategies included boom positioning, probable oil movement, and other key elements. Special emphasis was placed on collection points, which were visited to determine access, habitat type, and boom deflection angles (and type). Inlets were classified according to degree of difficulty and expense of the response, and the most difficult ones were flagged for special concern. Strategies were devised and signed off on in the field, with significant input from local spill responders. A successful field test, which applied boom deflection and containment, was carried out in one of the typical inlets. Only through the combination of good scientific data, experience with years of on-scene operational know-how, field assessments, and refinement through field testing can effective strategies be developed to overcome one of the most difficult hurdles in successful oil spill protection. These strategies are designed as an educated starting point of operations to be modified according to the specific needs at the time of the incident.
Interaction Between Oil and Suspended Particulate Matter In The Yukon River
Authors: McCourt James , Shier Larry
Published: January 2013

A literature search and laboratory study were conducted to predict the amount of oil, if any, that would be removed by oil-solid interaction from the surface slick of a pipeline spill onto the Yukon River. Samples of Alaska North Slope crude oil and river water were shaken under various conditions and allowed to settle. The solid particles that sank were withdrawn and any oil associated with the solids was extracted and quantified. From the results, the most important factors affecting the oil-solid interaction process were mixing energy and temperature, and to a lesser degree oil volume and settling time. A reasonable estimate for oil loading on the suspended solids during a spill would be on the order of 0.1 g of oil per g of solid.
Co-Operative Planning Approach: A South-West Atlantic Frontier Exploration Area
Authors: Taylor Peter Mark , Olleveant Andrew , Spink John , Osborne Mike , Onder Ali
Published: January 2013

Oil industry alliances bring benefits in various fields, including emergency planning. The benefits will include consistency in oil spill response plans and procedures, plus potential cost savings. Government, organisations and groups involved will appreciate a single and comprehensive consultative process. Time and money will be saved, plan formats will be consistent and there will be less scope for confusion. Partnership building will be stronger and more effective. This paper will use a case study of cooperative oil spill contingency planning in the south-west Atlantic to illustrate these points.

The Falkland Islands archipelago lies in the south-west Atlantic, approximately 400 km east of the tip of the South American mainland. In 1996 the Falkland Islands Government (FIG) undertook its first round of oil exploration licensing and awarded acreage. Four of the successful operating companies formed the Falklands Operators Sharing Agreement (FOSA). This co-operation extended to a number of areas, including a joint approach to oil spill contingency planning.

Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) worked with FOSA to produce a generic oil spill contingency plan, to function for all the companies and differ only in its emergency contact section. The contingency planning process closely followed the guidelines promulgated by the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA, 1991) and the International Maritime Organization (IMO, 1995). A key factor was liaison with groups on the Islands and interfacing with the new Falkland Islands national oil spill contingency plan, which this paper will introduce.
Partnering for Improved Marine Safety and Environmental Protection
Authors: Wischmann Steve , Snyder Mike , Johnson Eugene
Published: January 2013

On February 3, 1998, a Quality Partnership Agreement was signed between the United States Coast Guard and the Spill Control Association of America (SCAA). The partnership was expanded on July 16, 1998 to include the Association of Petroleum Industry Cooperative Managers (APICOM). The three groups agreed that the objectives for this partnership are to improve the effectiveness of oil spill response operations and to further sound risk management during these operations. Through this partnership, the private sector response community and the Coast Guard will have an opportunity to develop a program of structured, informal, and cooperative processes that will examine issues that could be improved upon to maximize marine safety and environmental protection.

This paper will discuss the history of spill response over the last 30 years in order to frame the current relationship between the Coast Guard and the response industry. In particular, issues of mutual concern to the Coast Guard, SCAA and APICOM that may be studied through the partnership will be introduced.
Regulatory Differences: Freight Ship and Tank Ship Pollution Response Preparedness1
Authors: Salerno Brian M. , Dreyfus Nathalie
Published: January 2013

There is an ancient maritime adage that says “a collision at sea can ruin your whole day.” While that is undoubtedly as true today as it ever was, the modern mariner would likely express a similar opinion about oil spills. This paper is about how the shipowner's degree of preparedness affects the quality of his response once his day has been ruined by an oil spill—or a potential spill.

The authors will compare two responses to potential major oil spills associated with vessel groundings. These occurred in the same geographic area, approximately 1 year apart, and involved many of the same government and industry responders. The primary difference between the two cases is vessel type: one vessel was a freight ship, which posed a significant pollution threat due to the quantity and location of its fuel, while the other was a laden tank vessel. Because the spill response planning requirements of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 differ for freight ships and tank vessels, the quality of the owners' environmental response preparedness varied dramatically. The fact that these two cases occurred in the same geographic area is significant only because it tends to highlight the differences in response planning as a function of vessel type, while at the same time limiting the effect of other potential response variables. The focus of the paper is not bound by the geography of the case examples. The authors contend that the same preplanning requirements in effect nationally for tank vessels are also needed for freight ships which pose a substantial threat to the environment, and advocate national and/or international regulatory changes to close the preparedness gap.