bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dredging to Reduce Asbestos Concentrations in the California Aqueduct
Authors: Jones Jeanine , McGuire Michael J.
Published: February 2018

Floodwater draining areas with serpentine deposits in the California Coast Range near Coalinga have carried sediment containing chrysotile asbestos in concentrations of up to 2.6 percent by weight into the California Aqueduct. The state of California Department of Water Resources used commercially available equipment to dredge the asbestos‐laden sediment from a 10‐mi (16‐km) portion of the aqueduct to determine whether removal of sediment is a feasible means of controlling concentrations of asbestos in the water. It was found that thorough dredging essentially eliminated the resuspension of asbestos fibers in water flowing through the dredged reach of the aqueduct, and asbestos concentrations in the dredged reach were not statistically different from the upstream background levels. Dredging to control asbestos makes a significant difference in water quality for the small domestic water systems that are supplied by the California Aqueduct.
Protection of Waterlines Traversing a Hazardous Waste Landfill
Authors: Kovacik Thomas L. , Moline Donald M. , Munn Paul F.
Published: February 2018

Water plant intake lines for the city of Toledo, Ohio, pass through a privately operated hazardous waste disposal site. Safeguards were negotiated with the operators of the disposal site to protect the intake lines from possible contamination. The waterline security agreement described in this article was accomplished outside of regulatory processes since there were no specific federal, state, or local regulations covering such a situation. The agreement with the landfill operators includes design requirements and safeguards that provide for an estimated 60 to 6000 years of advance warning of contamination, based on the range of clay permeability, if an unlikely leak travels toward the easement from the hazardous waste storage cells.
Water Conservation and Management in Barrow, Alaska
Authors: Pollen Michael R.
Published: February 2018

Barrow Utilities and Electric Coop Inc. (BUECI) operates the northernmost municipal potable water treatment system in the United States. Using a desalination plant with a complex pretreatment system to correct a bewildering array of water quality problems under severe environmental constraints, BUECI provides for the treatment and distribution of potable water to the arctic community of Barrow, Alaska.
Water Conserving Landscapes Show Impressive Savings
Authors: Nelson John Olaf
Published: February 2018

In 1985, the North Marin (Calif.) Water District conducted research to compare the use of water, labor, fertilizer, fuel, and herbicide for traditional landscapes and for water conserving projects. Although the dollar savings attributed to fuel and herbicide were small, results showed that considerable savings could be achieved by the use of a water conserving landscape design: an annual savings of $75 per dwelling unit in a condominium or townhouse development. The reduction in water and labor costs accounted for more than 80 percent of the total savings. A strong correlation was found between the perimeter of the turf and water use, indicating that turf perimeter may be the best parameter for defining a water conserving landscape.
Public Attitudes Toward Water Conservation
Authors: Flack J. Ernest , Greenberg Joanne
Published: February 2018

Consumer attitudes toward water conservation were surveyed in seven northeastern Colorado communities to determine whether relationships exist between (1) attitudes and type of community or (2) attitudes and socioeconomic variables. The water conservation alternatives presented to these users included metering, price increases, restrictions on water use, restrictions on lawn size, controls on population growth, and reuse of treated wastewater for cotable purposes. Preferences for development of additional water supplies were also included in the survey. All but one of the conservation alternatives, reuse for drinking purposes, were favored by more than half of the respondents. Consumers in communities with lawn watering restrictions were more willing to install water‐saving devices or to change landscaping than were consumers in unrestricted communities. Respondents who were metered strongly favored meters, and, to a lesser degree, flat‐rate customers preferred the flat rate. Metered users also favored price increases, whereas flat‐rate users did not. Restrictions on population growth were preferred more strongly by rural and flat‐rate consumers than urban and metered consumers. Respondents with less than a high school education or earning incomes of less than $15 000 per year more often opposed the various water conservation alternatives. In addition, retired or disabled persons did not approve of such alternatives as price increases or installation of water‐saving devices.
Estimating the Health Risks of Radon in Drinking Water
Authors: Cothern C. Richard
Published: February 2018

By combining information about the occurrence, transport, exposure, and health effects of radon in drinking water, it has been estimated that over a period of 70 years (the average lifetime in the United States), between 2000 and 40 000 lung cancer fatalities are caused by inhalation of natural radon released from US public water supplies. The average concentration of radon in these water supplies generates a lifetime risk of about 1 in 10 000, the highest level of risk allowed for any contaminant currently regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Reducing the levels of radon in drinking water, which would significantly lessen the risks to health, has been found to be feasible by either aeration or treatment with granular activated carbon.
Applying Economic Principles to Small Water Systems
Authors: Clark Robert M.
Published: February 2018

As a discipline, economics is often misunderstood in the water supply field. Economies‐of‐scale, i.e., increasing unit costs with decreasing capacity, is a prevailing characteristic of water supply technology, and small utilities that serve fewer than 10 000 persons account for more than 80 percent of community water suppliers in the United States. In addition, many small utilities are privately owned and must request rate increases from public utility commissions. Price inelasticity of demand also has a special relevance for water users. An understanding of economic principles and concepts is necessary for the proper management of small water systems as well as large ones.
Using Peaking Factors to Update Water Rates
Authors: Hasson David S. , Ovard David G.
Published: February 2018

This discussion addresses how the Salt Lake County (Utah) Water Conservancy District uses peaking factors to determine water rates for its wholesale customers and users of large amounts of water. The district monitors, measures, and updates peaking factors annually to determine cost‐of‐service water rates and control overall system peak demands.
Testing of Alum Recovery for Solids Reduction and Reuse
Authors: Bishop Mark M. , Rolan A. T. , Bailey Tom L. , Cornwell David A.
Published: February 2018

Alum recovery has recently gained more attention because many water utilities need to improve their sludge handling and disposal practices. As part of an overall sludge management program, alum recovery can reduce the amount of solids and allow for reuse of the recovered alum as a coagulant. It also has other potential uses such as phosphorus control at wastewater treatment plants.
Committee Report: Research Needs for Alum Sludge Discharge
Authors:   Sludge Disposal Committee
Published: February 2018

Because much of the research related to alum sludge discharge has been done outside the water supply field, this report provides a more detailed summary of the existing research than might normally be given. A three‐pronged approach is taken in this report, detailing (1) research on the environmental effects of alum sludge discharge, (2) current regulations, and (3) identification of research needs. The committee believes that significant research must be completed before alum sludge discharge practices can be supported or eliminated.
Chlorine Dioxide Woes in California
Authors: White George C.
Published: February 2018

This letter describes problems faced by water suppliers in California using chlorine dioxide treatment systems. Concerns about potential danger to dialysis patients prompted the California State Department of Health to shelve chlorine dioxide until evidence is available that will allow it to establish a concentration limit on chlorine dioxide and other alternative disinfectants in water entering dialysis water treatment systems.
The Survival of Father Rhine
Authors: Deininger Rolf A.
Published: February 2018

A fire at a chemical manufacturing plant near Basel, Switzerland, in November 1986 released tons of toxic materials into the vital Rhine River, killing hundreds of thousands of fish and affecting other aquatic life. Although the response to the accident was not immediate, Europeans were well prepared. The plume of contamination was systematically monitored as it descended past Germany and France to the Netherlands. Drinking water utilities were prepared to shut down intakes, if necessary, because the Rhine water is pretreated and allowed to settle for days in wells before final treatment and distribution. Actual damage from the spill was thus limited, and the river recovered within a week of the accident. Water utilities in the United States are advised to take comparable precautions if supplies from similar industrialized river basins are used.
Point‐of‐Use Treatment for Turbidity Removal in a Municipal System
Authors: Greve Daniel F. , Fultz Randy L.
Published: February 2018

Point‐of‐use treatment was evaluated as a method for providing water in compliance with federal regulations to consumers served by unfiltered transmission mains in Sheridan, Wyo. The study reviewed current regulatory requirements relative to point‐of‐use treatment and point‐of‐use technologies and equipment for turbidity removal. A pilot‐test was conducted to evaluate the potential of point‐of‐use devices to provide a reliable and economical means of meeting regulatory requirements. The results of the pilot program together with the evaluation of regulatory requirements indicated that point‐of‐use treatment is not a feasible means of providing potable water to taps on the Sheridan municipal system upstream of the water treatment plant.
Point‐of‐Use and Point‐of‐Entry Treatment on Long Island
Authors: DeFilippi John A. , Baier Joseph H.
Published: February 2018

A home demonstration project with point‐of‐use and point‐of‐entry devices on the North Fork of Long Island, N.Y., showed that this type of water treatment is applicable in areas where development is not intensive and where homes are served by individual wells. Because control and monitoring of point‐of‐use and point‐of‐entry systems are the key to protecting public health, these systems should not be allowed to evolve without regulation.
Replacement Rules for Water Mains
Authors: Walski Thomas M.
Published: February 2018

Decisions about whether to replace water mains are usually based on engineering judgment. Some quantitative rules for water main replacement have been developed based on a comparison of replacement costs with the costs of breaks. The formulas presented in this article represent an improvement in that they include the costs caused by leakage and inoperative valves.
Using Elevated Storage and Off‐Peak Pumping to Control Energy Costs
Authors: Aptowicz Bruce S. , Weintraub Norman G. , Zitomer Charles
Published: February 2018

Faced with a declining customer base, increasing operations costs, and increasing capital and financing requirements, the Philadelphia Water Department devised a five‐year financial management plan to trim costs. One aspect of the plan included the control of energy expenses through the use of off‐peak pumping and elevated storage. One year after the program was implemented, the department achieved a savings of $2 million—in spite of increases in electrical rates.
Modeling the Propagation of Waterborne Substances in Distribution Networks
Authors: Liou C.P. , Kroon J.R.
Published: February 2018

In the planning and control of water quality in distribution systems, it is useful to know the time history and eventual spatial distribution of waterborne substances in the network. The work described here addresses the hydraulic aspects of modeling the propagation and eventual distribution of waterborne substances in general distribution networks. An example demonstrates the usage of such a model. Computer graphics are employed to present the simulation results.
Frequency‐of‐Occurrence Monitoring for Coliform Bacteria in Small Water Systems
Authors: Pipes Wesley O. , Mueller Karolyn , Troy Marleen , Minnigh Harvey A.
Published: February 2018

The effectiveness of Clark's presence–absence (P–A) test was compared with that of the membrane filter (MF) technique during an evaluation of the frequency‐of‐occurrence approach to microbiological monitoring of water systems. Results showed no significant difference between the fractions that were positive by the two methods. Major changes in the microbiological quality of the water were detected with equal frequency by the P–A test and the MF method and were detected more readily by the frequency‐of‐occurrence parameter than by the average MF coliform count.
Technical Note: The Formation of Chlorate From the Reaction of Chlorine and Chlorite in Dilute Aqueous Solution
Authors: Singer Philip C. , O'Neil William K.
Published: February 2018

The results of the study described in this technical note confirm the conclusions of Werdehoff and Singer (Jour. AWWA, 79:9:107 [Sept. 1987]) that chlorate is the principal product of the reaction between chlorite and chlorine in oxidant‐demand‐free, dilute solution at pH 7.
Fish Story
Authors: Massarelli Stanley M.
Published: February 2018

The author of this letter feels that home water treatment units are a feasible alternative for compliance with the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in small and medium sized utilities, and that the groups involved in the controversy over such devices are being inflexible in their positions. He feels that the Water Quality Association should relax its rigid anti‐regulatory position if it plans to further the case of point‐of‐entry devices for SDWA compliance.
An Overview of Filtration
Authors: Letterman Raymond D.
Published: February 2018

The 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act require the US Environmental Protection Agency to promulgate national primary drinking water regulations specifying criteria to determine which systems using surface water sources would be required to use filtration equipment. The agency is also developing criteria designed to assure that filtration is satisfactorily practiced if it is required. Many of the thousands of unfiltered surface water supplies in the United States will be required to install some form of filtration technology. This article defines filtration and describes how the design and operation of a filtration system are related to the required performance and the quality of the water to be treated.
Regulation at the Customer's Tap
Authors: Reinert Robert H.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the problems, both legal and practical, of water utilities being regulated at the tap by the US Environmental Protection Agency. As the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) amendments are now written, the point at which the water supplying utility will be regulated (the treatment plant or the tap) is ambiguous. At what point in the distribution system a utility's liability ends is also discussed.
Surface Water Supplies and Health
Authors: Craun Gunther F.
Published: February 2018

Rivers, streams, lakes, and reservoirs have long been important sources of drinking water. In the past, these sources were often heavily contaminated by sewage discharges and, unfortunately, were also important in the transmission of communicable diseases such as typhoid and cholera. With improvements in sewage disposal practices, development and protection of water sources, and water treatment, outbreaks of waterborne disease are less frequently reported, and drinking water becomes a less important route of transmission of communicable disease. In the United States, the incidence of waterborne disease is low but waterborne outbreaks continue to occur. Outbreak statistics are reported in this article, and information is presented on the causes of these outbreaks, especially in surface water systems.
Mitigating Third‐Party Effects
Authors: Pratt Kevin B.
Published: February 2018

Water transfer proposals in the state of Colorado involve lengthy hearings in water court to determine the adverse effects on traditional users, usually irrigators of farmland, weighed against the benefits of a “higher” use, usually municipal water supplies. Available water for the growing cities along the eastern flank of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains is frequently located far from the cities themselves, and the potential for damage affects not only farmers but also small towns that are dependent on an agricultural economy. Minority shareholders in water entities seek to prevent immediate damage to crops as a result of a transfer and, at the same time, to retain or increase the value of their shares in the water rights for potential profitable transfer at a later date. This article details the legal basis used in a recent decision to protect the conflicting interests of a transferor and the objectors to the transfer. Many issues were resolved by compromise; others were deferred for future rulings.
Protecting Social Values in Western Water Transfers
Authors: Metzger Philip C.
Published: February 2018

Western states are beginning to face the economic and social challenges involved in transferring water from agricultural use to municipalities and industries. Because massive water development projects are not likely to be undertaken in the future, wise water management entails providing the legal tools to permit water to be shifted to areas of greatest need at the least harm to traditional agricultural users. Coping with these transfers requires, in many instances, changes in existing prior appropriation water laws. For example, efforts to promote more efficient use of water on farmlands should be accompanied by provisions to allow the sale of salvaged water. This article discusses such scenarios for protecting the social and economic interests of rural areas in the context of growing urban water demands.
Survey of Residual Aluminum in Filtered Water
Authors: Letterman Raymond D. , Driscoll Charles T.
Published: February 2018

This article reports results of a survey of water utilities in the United States that use alum as a coagulant and have measured the concentration of total aluminum (Al) in their filtered water. Survey results suggest that effective removal of particulate matter minimizes residual Al levels, especially when raw water contains elevated concentrations of total Al. Results further indicate that lime used for pH adjustment following filtration may be an important source of residual Al.
Twinning: Utility Pairing
Authors: Calixte John M. , Sanchez Hildreth
Published: February 2018

The St. Lucia Central Water Authority, a struggling utility on a rapidly developing island in the Caribbean, paired with the Wessex Water Authority (WWA) of the United Kingdom to solve its engineering, accounting, and managerial difficulties. Guidance from the WWA allowed the St. Lucia authority to become a self‐sufficient, solvent operation.
Compliance Monitoring
Authors: Smith Darrell B. , Herman Lyle D. , Oppenheimer Joan A. , Trax John R. , Marrocco Fred A. , Epton Michael A.
Published: February 2018

This roundtable discussion focuses on the Safe Drinking Water Act compliance monitoring requirements the USEPA will establish during the next couple of years and the effect of these requirements on public water utilities and certified laboratories.
Disposal of Radium Removed From Drinking Water
Authors: Norman A. Hahn
Published: February 2018

Installing treatment technology to remove radium isotopes from drinking water is a problematic option for water utilities endeavoring to comply with federal radium standards promulgated in 1976 because of the long‐term uncertainties of disposing of wastes containing radium. Wisconsin and Illinois have investigated and prepared guidelines for the disposal of such wastes. The author outlines this available guidance and describes the need for federal and state regulatory authorities to more closely consider disposal options and concerns to ensure more orderly enforcement of the drinking water standard for radionuclides.
Encrustation Misconceptions Ironed Out
Authors: Rossum John R.
Published: February 2018

In response to an earlier article in the Journal American Water Works Association (“Concepts of Well Cleaning,” May 1988), the author of this letter clarifies what he considers to be misconceptions concerning the chemistry of encrustation in wells.
Effects of Conservation on Daily Water Use
Authors: Shaw Douglas T. , Maidment David R.
Published: February 2018

Mandatory restrictions on outdoor water use and water rationing were implemented in stages in Corpus Christi, Texas, during the course of a regional drought lasting through most of 1984. This article gives a methodology for separating the effects of conservation on daily water use from concurrent effects of weather and seasonal variation, enabling a quantitative estimate of the conservation restrictions to be made. It is shown that the restrictions reduced water use by an average of 29 mgd, compared with a peak water‐use rate of about 100 mgd. Subsequent implementation of more stringent restrictions resulted in little additional savings because water use had already decreased to winter base levels. It is also shown that the residual effects of conservation extended through 1985, even after the restrictions were lifted.
Biological Nitrification in Covered Reservoirs Containing Chloraminated Water
Authors: Wolfe Roy L. , III Edward G. Means , Davis Marshall K. , Barrett Sylvia E.
Published: February 2018

Nitrification occurred in two covered finished‐water reservoirs in Southern California following a change from free chlorine to chloramine disinfection. The proliferation of autotrophic ammonia‐oxidizing bacteria was suspected to be the cause. Adverse water quality effects caused by the nitrification episodes included a rapid decline in the total chlorine and total ammonia‐nitrogen residuals and elevated levels of nitrite and heterotrophic plate count bacteria. As a result, the reservoirs were taken out of service and breakpoint‐chlorinated. This article examines the conditions leading to the development of nitrification in reservoirs containing chloraminated water, along with the measures that can be used to control the process.
Resistance of Bacterial Subpopulations to Disinfection by Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: Berg James D. , Hoff John C. , Roberts Paul V. , Matin Abdul
Published: February 2018

Deviations from first‐order inactivation of microorganisms are commonly observed during disinfection. These have been attributed to aggregation, decreasing concentration of disinfectant, or biological heterogeneity. The phenomenon, however, has not been properly investigated. During this study, chemostat‐grown and batch‐grown populations of Legionella pneumophila and Escherichia coli were dosed with chlorine dioxide (ClO2) to achieve an initial concentration of 0.75 mg/L. Results indicate that a resistant fraction of cells survives in the absence of aggregation and with a constant ClO2 residual. The resistance is a phenotypic characteristic that can be manipulated by altering the antecedent growth environment. Growth rate and temperature were important determinants of the size of the recalcitrant population.
Reflections on “Reflections”
Authors: Bendix Gilbert G. , Meyer Norcliffe
Published: February 2018

This letter questions per capita water use data which appeared in an article titled “Financing Strategies for Small Systems” (Journal AWWA, August 1988). According to the author, monthly water consumption of 8,400 gallons per customer is unrealistic; a more realistic figure would be half of that.
Building Public Confidence
Authors: Smith Tracy , Kutchins Kay , William Y. Klett
Published: February 2018

In this panel discussion, members discuss the importance of public information efforts in building public confidence in the quality of its drinking water.
An Improved Method for Corrosion‐Rate Measurement by Weight Loss
Authors: Reiber Steve , Ferguson John F. , Benjamin Mark M.
Published: February 2018

A modified version of the American Society for Testing and Materials machined‐nipple technique is presented. The simplified hardware is suitable for sampling large numbers of coupons simultaneously, providing a more accurate statistical analysis of corrosion variation and measurement precision. New coupon handling and retrieval procedures simplify test surface preparation and improve reproducibility.
Physicochemical Aspects of Particle Removal in Depth Filtration
Authors: Tobiason John E. , O'Melia Charles R.
Published: February 2018

The objectives of this work were to include chemical effects in the fundamental theories that describe the deposition of particles in granular media filters, to test the theories experimentally, and to use these results in assessing requirements for effective filtration and the capabilities of the process. In particular, the effects of changes in solution chemistry on the deposition of relatively large or non‐Brownian particles are examined. Such particles are large enough, typically with diameters greater than 2–3 μm, that their transport is not significantly affected by Brownian diffusion.
Human Resources in the Water Industry
Authors: Symons James M. , Jensen Robert G. , McKee J. P. , Shierry Robert S. , Harmon Rick , Kirner John
Published: February 2018

This discussion took place June 20, 1988 at the American Water Works Association annual conference in Orlando, Florida. The covered topics include students' lack of knowledge about water industry careers, advancement opportunities and retention of present employees, affirmative action and equal opportunity, and content of college engineering curriculum.
The Computer as Negotiator
Authors: Sheer Daniel P. , Baeck Mary Lynn , Wright Jeff R.
Published: February 2018

Gaming‐simulation methods have been successfully applied to problems of water resources management. In addition, computer‐aided negotiation exercises are increasingly being used to help address the complex political and institutional issues that surround the allocation of scarce water during crises. Methods used by the authors and their experiences are discussed.
Demand Management Factors in Residential Water Use: The Southern Arizona Experience
Authors: Billings R. Bruce , Day W. Mark
Published: February 2018

Two models of residential water demand were run with data from three water utilities in the Tucson, Ariz., metropolitan area to estimate the response of water use to variations in price, household income, and a variety of socioeconomic and climatic variables. The study covered a period when all three utilities experienced substantial reductions in residential water use. All three utilities examined imposed availability‐of‐service charges, and the largest utility used increasing‐block rates and seasonal rates. Because of disagreement in the literature about the proper specification of price under these conditions, demand models were estimated using both the traditional average‐price variable and the marginal price plus rate premium. Estimated long‐term price elasticities for the combined time‐series‐cross‐section models averaged ‐0.72, and they varied depending on model specification and time period. Individual demographic district elasticities were also estimated. Several principles of conservation pricing and other aspects of demand management for water utilities are discussed.
Forecasting Demand and Measuring Price Elasticity
Authors: Weber Jack A.
Published: February 2018

The basic tools of economics and statistics are applied to water‐demand forecasting and price‐elasticity measurement by the East Bay Municipal Utility District, Oakland, Calif. Little expertise is required to produce good forecasting results with time‐series models, which can also yield meaningful elasticity estimates if price increases are significant and the data are sufficiently disaggregated. Pooled time‐series and cross‐sectional models are more demanding in their structure and data requirements but often provide better estimates of the impact of price variables than simple time‐series analyses.
Effects of Preoxidation With Ozone on Water Quality: A Case Study
Authors: Grasso Domenic , Walter J. Weber , DeKam John A.
Published: February 2018

An integrated pilot‐ and full‐scale study was conducted to evaluate the effects of ozone on water quality in several different treatment schemes. It appeared that low dosages of ozone (0.75 mg/L) increased levels of total organic carbon, but the effect leveled off at higher ozone concentrations (1.5 mg/L). Ultraviolet absorbance, however, was observed to decrease with increasing ozone dosage. No correlation was found between ozone dosage and turbidity reduction. Although the reduction in trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) generally increased immediately after single‐stage application of ozone, overall THMFP reduction for two‐stage ozonation was shown to decrease with ozone concentration for several phases of experimentation, especially when softening followed ozonation or when chlorination was conducted at high pH levels.
Developing System Head Curves for Water Distribution Pumping: A 500‐gpm pump puts out 500 gpm. Right? Wrong? Well, maybe. It depends on the system head curve.
Authors: Walski Thomas M. , Ormsbee Lindell E.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses cases in which water use near pump stations needs to be taken into consideration and illustrates how to use a pipe network model to determine a system head curve for those conditions. System head curves can be improved by consolidating water users at a single node, or, for more complex distribution systems, by using a water distribution model to determine system heads.
System Curves and Pump Selection
Authors: Hirrel Timothy D.
Published: February 2018

For many water distribution systems, pumps are an integral component necessary for providing adequate customer service. Although pump selection involves different disciplines, it should be the responsibility of the water system engineer to define the hydraulic specifications for distribution system pumps. Defining the hydraulic specifications for a pump requires a thorough understanding of pump operation as well as the requirements and limitations of the distribution system. System curves have been an instrumental element in the development of pump specifications. Although system curves provide a convenient graphical representation of the head required from a pump for a given flow, the application of such curves has hidden pitfalls.
A Laboratory Study of the Leaching of Lead From Water Faucets
Authors: Gardels Marvin C. , Sorg Thomas J.
Published: February 2018

Twelve faucets, representing various designs, materials of construction, and manufacturers, were studied in the laboratory to develop additional information about the leaching of lead and other metals from common kitchen faucets. It was found that new cast‐brass faucets could contribute lead to drinking water in excess of the proposed no action level of 10 μg/L. Also, 60–75 percent of the lead leached from a faucet appeared in the first 125 mL of water collected from the faucet. After 200–250 mL of water had flowed, 95 percent or more of the lead had normally been flushed from the faucet. Determining the maximum lead concentration from a faucet requires that both cold and hot water sides of the faucet be sampled and that the samples be no larger than 100–125 mL.
AWWA Secrets Revealed
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Mr. Mannion urges energizing and reforming the sections to help remove an obstacle between AWWA and the achievement of its potential in the coming decade.
The AWWA Lead Information Survey: A Final Report
Authors: Frey Michelle M.
Published: February 2018

In June 1987 AWWA surveyed utility members who had initiated preliminary monitoring for lead in their distribution systems in anticipation of federal regulatory action on lead. The Lead Information Survey (LIS) requested information on water quality, current corrosion control treatment practices, and results of any preliminary monitoring conducted up to that date. This article presents overall trends indicated by the LIS regarding compliance capabilities of large water suppliers to meet lead‐control requirements proposed in 1988 by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). In addition, corrosion control practices of the industry are reviewed. It is important to note that the data were collected prior to the proposed lead rule and that the survey provides only a limited glimpse of the total water industry. As more information becomes available on the ability of corrosion control measures to affect lead levels in drinking water, the validity of the trends outlined in this article should be reevaluated.
Florida Reuse Project Claimed to Be First
Authors: Bizier Paul A.
Published: February 2018

In the May JOURNAL, Boyle Engineering Corp is credited for receiving the Grand Conceptor Award for the Conserv 1 project–“the first in the state to reuse municipal wastewater to irrigate a crop intended for human consumption.” However, since completion of plan improvements in 1984, the city of Auburndale, Fla., has been utilizing municipal wastewater effluent to irrigate a 100‐acre citrus grove. The facility was designed by Chastain‐Skillman Inc. and Mr. Bizier describes the operation of the plant.
The Water Industry in the world Marketplace
Authors: Rouse Michael
Published: February 2018

This discussion on the effect of the world marketplace on the water industry took place June 21, 1989, during AWWA's Annual Conference in Los Angeles, California. Topics covered include privatization, Common Market changes, world market competition, and water treatment and supply in Third World countries.
Minimizing THM Formation During Control of the Asiatic Clam: A Comparison of Biocides
Authors: Cameron Guy N. , Symons Janies M. , Spencer Stephen R. , Ma Julius Y.
Published: February 2018

In many parts of the United States, water utilities with highly organic source waters and long source water transmission lines are troubled by Corbicula fluminea, the Asiatic clam. The traditional method of control, free chlorination, often can no longer be used because of the formation of excessive amounts of trihalomethanes (THMs). This study compared the effectiveness of six biocides for controlling the juvenile Asiatic clam. Of the six, monochloramine was found to be the best for controlling the juvenile clams without forming THMs.
Effect of Temperature and pH on the Toxicity of Monochloramine to the Asiatic Clam
Authors: Cameron Guy N. , Symons James M. , Bushek David , Kulkarni Rajendra
Published: February 2018

The Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) has become a pest to many users of freshwater transmission systems. Monochloramine has been suggested as a biocide because it is effective and the formation of trihalomethanes is low (see the article on page 53 of this issue). Flow‐through aquariums, a laboratory incubator, and a pilot‐scale pipeline were used to show that monochloramine concentrations between 1 and 10 mg/L effectively killed juvenile clams over a wide range of water temperatures, with mortality increasing significantly with temperature. The reduction in clam mortality as water temperature decreases can be overcome by corresponding increases in biocide concentration. An equation is provided that predicts the kill that would be achieved at a given biocide residual and water temperature. The pH did not affect the efficacy of the biocide.
Membrane Softening: A Treatment Process Comes of Age
Authors: Conlon William J. , McClellan Stuart A.
Published: February 2018

In 1976, a Florida‐based equipment manufacturer conceived the idea of using modified reverse osmosis membranes instead of lime softening to treat waters with low total dissolved solids. The authors of this article assess the progress made over the last 10 years in the field of membrane softening technology, concluding that the process is competitive with conventional treatment but cautioning that it should be evaluated on a case‐by‐case basis. The contention that membrane softening is worthy of consideration is supported by historical records of existing membrane softening plants, successfully completed pilot studies, and acceptance by regulatory agencies.
Effects of Ultrafiltration Membrane Composition
Authors: Laîné Jean‐Michel , Hagstrom James P. , Clark Mark M. , Mallevialle Joël
Published: February 2018

In a study of the dead‐end ultrafiltration (UF) of an untreated surface water, the effects of different membrane materials and molecular‐weight cutoffs (MWCOs) were evaluated in terms of the removal of total organic carbon (TOC) and turbidity, the development of permeate flux, and the flux recovery after backflushing. Removal of TOC was about 40 percent, independent of the membrane MWCO values investigated. Turbidity removal greater than 98 percent was found for all membranes tested. The rate of flux decline and the magnitude of flux recovery were, however, found to vary significantly, dependent primarily on the type of membrane material. The study showed that a large fraction of organic matter found in surface water should pass through typical UF membranes and that one of the primary technical considerations in using these membranes should be the selection of membrane material.
An Open Letter to John Q.
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Mr. Mannion asks the public to remember, despite all that has been recently said and printed about the safety of local drinking water, the essential point is that water provided by the local utility generally is the safest, most healthful beverage a person consumes. The public can also expect and count on their water supplier to undertake every practicable measure to ensure the quality and safety of the water delivered to the tap.
Evaluating the Onda Mass Transfer Correlation for the Design of Packed‐Column Air Stripping
Authors: Staudinger Jeffery , Knocke William R. , Randall Clifford W.
Published: February 2018

A crucial parameter for predictive modeling of the performance of packed columns is the mass transfer rate. An initial screening identified the Onda mass transfer correlation as the most promising predictive model available. The study described here sought to quantify the accuracy that can be expected with the Onda correlation, based on a test data base that was established using 10 literature‐reported, pilot‐scale investigations and that involved 11 different volatile organic chemicals and 4 basic packing types. The correlation predicted the transfer rate constants within an average standard deviation of 17 percent (437 data points), corresponding to a ±30 percent accuracy value for design purposes based on 90 percent confidence limits.
The Ohio River Oil Spill: A Case Study
Authors: Clark Robert M. , Vicory Alan H. , Goodrich James A.
Published: February 2018

The spill of diesel oil fuel in January 1988 raised a number of technical, legislative, and administrative issues—such as assessing long‐ and short‐term environmental damage, evaluating regulations regarding oil tanks, and examining spill response procedures. An important research need is the development of computer models that can better predict the travel time and the concentration of contaminants should a spill occur.
Household Odors Associated With the Use of Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: Hoehn Robert C. , Dietrich Andrea M. , Farmer William S. , Orr Margaret P. , Lee Ramon G. , Aieta E. Marco , Wood Delmer W. , Gordon Gilbert
Published: February 2018

In recent years, reports have indicated that the use of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) instead of chlorine as a preoxidant during water treatment is somehow related to the production of offensive odors at customers' homes and businesses. These odors were described by terms such as “kerosenelike,” “cat‐urine‐like,” and “strong chlorinous.” Attempts to isolate and identify the odor‐causing compounds in water samples taken from treatment plants and homes were unsuccessful. Suggestions from others that the offensive odors were in some way related to the presence of new carpeting in homes and businesses provided the basis for additional experiments. The principal conclusions derived from the study are that the strong chlorinous odors are caused by ClO2 itself, whereas the kerosenelike and cat‐urine‐like odors are products of gas‐phase reactions between ClO2 liberated from the water and organic substances in the air inside the customer's residence.
The Confused, The Frustrated, and The Oblivious
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Mannion, executive director of AWWA, sees three utility attitudes toward the US Environmental Protection Agency regulatory program. The confused find the regulatory scene unsettled and wait for clear, final directions. The frustrated, who tend to be informed, struggle to balance the costs and benefits of regulations. The oblivious do not believe that what they have heard about the regulatory program will apply to them. Mannion proposes three courses of action: First, the industry must commit itself to actively pursue the production of water of the highest possible quality. The industry cannot wait for final answers to every technological issue; it must act now with what is known. Second, the industry must participate more actively and effectively in the regulatory process. Third, the industry must communicate more fully and effectively with the public.
Integrating Water Conservation Into Total Water Management
Authors: Maddaus William O.
Published: February 2018

Today's political, environmental, and economic climate makes reliance on structural solutions for additional water sources with no consideration of demand management virtually impossible. A history of US water demand management from the 1960s through the 1980s is given, including the late 1980s US Environmental Protection Agency vetoes of water supply projects. For the 1990s, the federal government appears to be gearing up for an expanded role in establishing national water conservation policy and regulations. The experience of the past 10 years shows that water demand can be tempered. The challenge is to fully integrate the findings on demand management into long‐range water supply planning. As an integrated approach to water supply planning and methods to save water are implemented, the goal should be to develop practicable water conservation measures with accurate data on potential water savings and to set up long‐term monitoring programs to collect and confirm data on actual water savings.
Dam Renovation: From Investigation to Repair
Authors: Bernard Erik M.
Published: February 2018

Utilities and dam owners should properly maintain dams and design repair programs to maximize the structure's service life. Bridgeport Hydraulic Company in southwestern Connecticut has undertaken a comprehensive renovation program to identify and schedule necessary repairs to each of its 21 concrete gravity dams, all of which were built in the early part of this century. Renovation efforts at two BHC dams are described, from initial investigatory work to final design and construction. Determination of the cause of concrete deterioration and of the general repair approach at each dam is discussed. In addition, the author summarizes the factors that affect which renovation approach is selected.
Operator Evaluation of Small Systems
Authors: Gollnitz William D. , Kittle Barbara
Published: February 2018

Preliminary evaluations of small surface water treatment systems can and should be performed by system managers and operators before a consulting engineer is hired. System evaluations can be aided by conducting literature searches at local libraries and universities to get a better understanding of the potential problem facing the utility, by reviewing and comparing the design of the treatment system in question with those of neighboring systems treating water of similar quality, by performing system simulations using models of varying complexity, and by conducting evaluations in the treatment plant using different coagulants and coagulant aids.
A Simple Membrane Filter Method to Concentrate and Enumerate Male‐Specific RNA Coliphages
Authors: Sobsey Mark D. , Schwab Kellogg J. , Handzel Thomas R.
Published: February 2018

The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a simple membrane filter method for concentrating and enumerating F‐specific coliphages in raw and finished drinking water with a view to using these phages as a viral indicator. The method developed was field‐tested by determining the concentrations of F‐specific coliphages in several source waters and comparing them with concentrations of fecal indicator bacteria. The results suggest that the new membrane filter method for enumerating F‐specific coliphages should be useful for assessing fecal contamination of natural and treated waters. Additional studies are needed to determine whether these coliphages are reliable indicators of enteric viruses in water.
Cancer Risk Assessment: Importance of Identifying Mechanisms of Action
Authors: Bull Richard J.
Published: February 2018

The process by which regulatory standards are established for drinking water contaminants is based on extrapolating animal toxicity data to humans using a standard mathematical model. The assumptions and judgments involved introduce a relatively high degree of uncertainty and conservativeness into both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the process. Setting standards based on knowledge of specific mechanisms of carcinogenicity would decrease the uncertainty involved in risk assessment. Understanding these mechanisms is necessary for arriving at the most appropriate mathematical construct for calculating more rational standards.
Assessing Ozonation Research Needs in Water Treatment
Authors: Singer Philip C.
Published: February 2018

Numerous utilities are considering the adoption of ozone as an alternative oxidant and disinfectant to chlorine. This article reviews the chemistry and applications of ozone in drinking water treatment and evaluates the important issues that still need to be addressed by research. Subjects discussed include organic and inorganic by‐products, disinfection with ozone, biological treatment, the use of ozone as a coagulant aid, and multistage ozonation.
Risk Communication in Los Angeles: A Case Study
Authors: Shovlin Marjorie G. , Tanaka Sandra S.
Published: February 2018

The communication program of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) has been largely informational—messages have historically been passed from the utility to the public without citizens being involved in any substantive way in decisions about water quality issues. In 1985, however, when LADWP made plans to construct an aeration tower to strip contaminants from groundwater without notifying the community in the immediate vicinity of the proposed site, there was a public outcry. Many lessons were learned from this experience, including the importance of public participation in the early planning stages of a project, the advantages of providing as much information as possible to the public, and the recognition that risk judgments are often based on factors other than the degree of hazard.