bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Plane wave solution for elastic wave scattering by a heterogeneous fracture
Authors: Nakagawa Seiji , Nihei Kurt T. , Myer Larry R.
Published: June 2004

A plane-wave method for computing the three-dimensional scattering of propagating elastic waves by a planar fracture with heterogeneous fracture compliance distribution is presented. This method is based upon the spatial Fourier transform of the seismic displacement-discontinuity (SDD) boundary conditions (also called linear slip interface conditions), and therefore, called the wave-number-domain SDD method (wd-SDD method). The resulting boundary conditions explicitly show the coupling between plane waves with an incident wave number component (specular component) and scattered waves which do not follow Snell’s law (nonspecular components) if the fracture is viewed as a planar boundary. For a spatially periodic fracture compliance distribution, these boundary conditions can be cast into a linear system of equations that can be solved for the amplitudes of individual wave modes and wave numbers. We demonstrate the developed technique for a simulated fracture with a stochastic (correlated) surface compliance distribution. Low- and high-frequency solutions of the method are also compared to the predictions by low-order Born series in the weak and strong scattering limit.
Characterization of matched piezoelectric transducer bars
Authors: Cugnet Boris , Assaad Jamal , Hladky-Hennion Anne-Christine
Published: June 2004

To aid the design of linear arrays, it is quite important to have a detailed understanding of the elementary transducer behavior. These transducer bars must be backed and matched. The aim of this work is to characterize and to optimize layers that are used to match such transducer bars. In order to show the influence of these layers, the acoustical (acoustical power, far-field directivity pattern), electrical (electrical impedance) and mechanical (displacement field) parameters of the transducer are computed using the finite element method. Numerical studies of several transducers with different ideal matching layers which satisfy the one-dimensional criterion are presented and carefully analyzed. These studies show the existence of parasitic modes in the desired operating band of the transducer, due to shear wave propagation in the matching layer. A simple choice criterion of the matching material suggesting no parasitic mode in the desired operating band of the transducer bar has been defined. This criterion is given by W<λS/2, where W is the width of the transducer and λS is the shear wavelength of the matching layer at the working frequency. Finally, experimental results of a matched transducer bar are successfully compared with numerical ones.
Challenges of Modeling Ocean Basin Ecosystems
Authors: deYoung Brad , Heath Mike , Werner Francisco , Chai Fei , Megrey Bernard , Monfray Patrick
Published: June 2004

With increasing pressure for a more ecological approach to marine fisheries and environmental management, there is a growing need to understand and predict changes in marine ecosystems. Biogeochemical and physical oceanographic models are well developed, but extending these further up the food web to include zooplankton and fish is a major challenge. The difficulty arises because organisms at higher trophic levels are longer lived, with important variability in abundance and distribution at basin and decadal scales. Those organisms at higher trophic levels also have complex life histories compared to microbes, further complicating their coupling to lower trophic levels and the physical system. We discuss a strategy that builds on recent advances in modeling and observations and suggest a way forward that includes approaches to coupling across trophic levels and the inclusion of uncertainty.
Atmospheric New Particle Formation Enhanced by Organic Acids
Authors: Zhang Renyi , Suh Inseon , Zhao Jun , Zhang Dan , Fortner Edward C. , Tie Xuexi , Molina Luisa T. , Molina Mario J.
Published: June 2004

Atmospheric aerosols often contain a substantial fraction of organic matter, but the role of organic compounds in new nanometer-sized particle formation is highly uncertain. Laboratory experiments show that nucleation of sulfuric acid is considerably enhanced in the presence of aromatic acids. Theoretical calculations identify the formation of an unusually stable aromatic acid–sulfuric acid complex, which likely leads to a reduced nucleation barrier. The results imply that the interaction between organic and sulfuric acids promotes efficient formation of organic and sulfate aerosols in the polluted atmosphere because of emissions from burning of fossil fuels, which strongly affect human health and global climate.
Flexibility in Algal Endosymbioses Shapes Growth in Reef Corals
Authors: Little Angela F. , van Oppen Madeleine J. H. , Willis Bette L.
Published: June 2004

The relation between corals and their algal endosymbionts has been a key to the success of scleractinian (stony) corals as modern reef-builders, but little is known about early stages in the establishment of the symbiosis. Here, we show that initial uptake of zooxanthellae by juvenile corals during natural infection is nonspecific (a potentially adaptive trait); the association is flexible and characterized by a change in (dominant) zooxanthella strains over time; and growth rates of experimentally infected coral holobionts are partly contingent on the zooxanthella strain harbored, with clade C–infected juveniles growing two to three times as fast as those infected with clade D.
Stomatal Development and Pattern Controlled by a MAPKK Kinase
Authors: Bergmann Dominique C. , Lukowitz Wolfgang , Somerville Chris R.
Published: June 2004

Stomata are epidermal structures that modulate gas exchange between a plant and its environment. During development, stomata are specified and positioned nonrandomly by the integration of asymmetric cell divisions and intercellular signaling. The
Arabidopsis
mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase gene,
YODA
, acts as part of a molecular switch controlling cell identities in the epidermis. Null mutations in
YODA
lead to excess stomata, whereas constitutive activation of
YODA
eliminated stomata. Transcriptome analysis of seedlings with altered
YODA
activity was used to identify potential stomatal regulatory genes. A putative transcription factor from this set was shown to regulate the developmental behavior of stomatal precursors.
The Acquisition of Exogenous Algal Symbionts by an Octocoral After Bleaching
Authors: Lewis Cynthia L. , Coffroth Mary Alice
Published: June 2004

Episodes of coral bleaching (loss of the symbiotic dinoflagellates) and coral mortality have occurred with increasing frequency over the past two decades. Although some corals recover from bleaching events, the source of the repopulating symbionts is unknown. Here we show that after bleaching, the adult octocoral
Briareum
sp. acquire dinoflagellate symbionts (
Symbiodinium
sp.) from the environment. Uptake of exogenous symbionts provides a mechanism for response to changes in the environment and resilience in the symbiosis.
A Microdomain for Protein Secretion in Gram-Positive Bacteria
Authors: Rosch Jason , Caparon Michael
Published: June 2004

Gram-positive bacteria face unique challenges in generating biologically active conformations for their exported proteins because they lack a dedicated compartment for folding secreted polypeptides. We have discovered that protein secretion by way of the general secretory (Sec) pathway in the important human pathogen
Streptococcus pyogenes
proceeds through a single microdomain. Unlike other mechanisms for asymmetry involving the Sec pathway, proteins destined for secretion are targeted to a single locus distal to either cell pole that has specialized to contain the Sec translocons. This subcellular organization may represent a paradigm for secretion common to other Gram-positive pathogens with profound implications for pathogenesis.
Crystal Structure of the Long-Chain Fatty Acid Transporter FadL
Authors: van den Berg Bert , Black Paul N. , Clemons William M. , Rapoport Tom A.
Published: June 2004

The mechanisms by which hydrophobic molecules, such as long-chain fatty acids, enter cells are poorly understood. In Gram-negative bacteria, the lipopolysaccharide layer in the outer membrane is an efficient barrier for fatty acids and aromatic hydrocarbons destined for biodegradation. We report crystal structures of the long-chain fatty acid transporter FadL from
Escherichia coli
at 2.6 and 2.8 angstrom resolution. FadL forms a 14-stranded β barrel that is occluded by a central hatch domain. The structures suggest that hydrophobic compounds bind to multiple sites in FadL and use a transport mechanism that involves spontaneous conformational changes in the hatch.
Toward Heisenberg-Limited Spectroscopy with Multiparticle Entangled States
Authors: Leibfried D. , Barrett M. D. , Schaetz T. , Britton J. , Chiaverini J. , Itano W. M. , Jost J. D. , Langer C. , Wineland D. J.
Published: June 2004

The precision in spectroscopy of any quantum system is fundamentally limited by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation for energy and time. For
N
systems, this limit requires that they be in a quantum-mechanically entangled state. We describe a scalable method of spectroscopy that can potentially take full advantage of entanglement to reach the Heisenberg limit and has the practical advantage that the spectroscopic information is transferred to states with optimal protection against readout noise. We demonstrate our method experimentally with three beryllium ions. The spectroscopic sensitivity attained is 1.45(2) times as high as that of a perfect experiment with three non-entangled particles.
Self-Assembled Hexa-
peri
-hexabenzocoronene Graphitic Nanotube
Authors: Hill Jonathan P. , Jin Wusong , Kosaka Atsuko , Fukushima Takanori , Ichihara Hideki , Shimomura Takeshi , Ito Kohzo , Hashizume Tomihiro , Ishii Noriyuki , Aida Takuzo
Published: June 2004

An amphiphilic hexa-
peri
-hexabenzocoronene self-assembles to form a π-electronic, discrete nanotubular object. The object is characterized by an aspect ratio greater than 1000 and has a uniform, 14-nanometer-wide, open-ended hollow space, which is an order of magnitude larger than those of carbon nanotubes. The wall is 3 nanometers thick and consists of helical arrays of the π-stacked graphene molecule, whose exterior and interior surfaces are covered by hydrophilic triethylene glycol chains. The graphitic nanotube is redox active, and a single piece of the nanotube across 180-nanometer-gap electrodes shows, upon oxidation, an electrical conductivity of 2.5 megohms at 285 kelvin. This family of molecularly engineered graphite with a one-dimensional tubular shape and a chemically accessible surface constitutes an important step toward molecular electronics.
A Process for Controlling Intracellular Bacterial Infections Induced by Membrane Injury
Authors: Roy Deepannita , Liston David R. , Idone Vincent J. , Di Anke , Nelson Deborah J. , Pujol Céline , Bliska James B. , Chakrabarti Sabyasachi , Andrews Norma W.
Published: June 2004

Strategies for inhibiting phagolysosome fusion are essential for the intracellular survival and replication of many pathogens. We found that the lysosomal synaptotagmin Syt VII is required for a mechanism that promotes phagolysosomal fusion and limits the intracellular growth of pathogenic bacteria. Syt VII was required for a form of Ca
2+
-dependent phagolysosome fusion that is analogous to Ca
2+
-regulated exocytosis of lysosomes, which can be triggered by membrane injury. Bacterial type III secretion systems, which permeabilize membranes and cause Ca
2+
influx in mammalian cells, promote lysosomal exocytosis and inhibit intracellular survival in Syt VII +/+ but not –/– cells. Thus, the lysosomal repair response can also protect cells against pathogens that trigger membrane permeabilization.
PET Pictures
Authors: Kevles Bettyann Holtzmann
Published: June 2004

Picturing Personhood
Brain Scans and Biomedical Identity. by Joseph Dumit. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2004. 265 pp. $59.50, £39.95. ISBN 0-691-11397-1. Paper, $19.95, £12.95. ISBN 0-691-11398-X.

Dumit explores the development of positron emission tomography scans and the effects these images have had on how we think about our minds.
Pedestrian crashes: higher injury severity and mortality rate for light truck vehicles compared with passenger vehicles
Authors: Roudsari B S , Mock C N , Kaufman R , Grossman D , Henary B Y , Crandall J
Published: June 2004

Introduction:During the last two decades changes in vehicle design and increase in the number of the light truck vehicles (LTVs) and vans have led to changes in pedestrian injury profile. Due to the dynamic nature of the pedestrian crashes biomechanical aspects of collisions can be better evaluated in field studies.

Design and settings:The Pedestrian Crash Data Study, conducted from 1994 to 1998, provided a solid database upon which details and mechanism of pedestrian crashes can be investigated.

Results:From 552 recorded cases in this database, 542 patients had complete injury related information, making a meaningful study of pedestrian crash characteristics possible. Pedestrians struck by LTVs had a higher risk (29%) of severe injuries (abbreviated injury scale ⩾4) compared with passenger vehicles (18%) (p = 0.02). After adjustment for pedestrian age and impact speed, LTVs were associated with 3.0 times higher risk of severe injuries (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.26 to 7.29, p = 0.013). Mortality rate for pedestrians struck by LTVs (25%) was two times higher than that for passenger vehicles (12%) (p<0.001). Risk of death for LTV crashes after adjustment for pedestrian age and impact speed was 3.4 times higher than that for passenger vehicles (95% CI 1.45 to 7.81, p = 0.005).

Conclusion:Vehicle type strongly influences risk of severe injury and death to pedestrian. This may be due in part to the front end design of the vehicle. Hence vehicle front end design, especially for LTVs, should be considered in future motor vehicle safety standards.
Comparative performance of playground surfacing materials including conditions of extreme non-compliance
Authors: Gunatilaka A H , Sherker S , Ozanne-Smith J
Published: June 2004

Objective:A recent case series study found that only 4.7% of 402 playgrounds in which arm fractures occurred in Victorian schools complied with the recommended 20 cm depth of tanbark. Tanbark depths at fall sites varied between 0–27 cm and the mean was 11.1 (5.0) cm. The purposes of the present study were to (1) measure impact attenuation properties of shallow and compacted depths of tanbark; (2) validate laboratory measurements with in situ data; (3) compare impact attenuation properties of compacted tanbark with an Australian manufactured rubber based surface material; and (4) study the impact performance of rubber and tanbark hybrid surfacing.

Methods:A standard test headform was dropped on tanbark and rubber surfaces in a laboratory setting to measure peak impact deceleration and head injury criterion (HIC) values. Variations in surface depth ranged from 2 cm–20 cm (tanbark) and 2 cm–9 cm (rubber). Drop height ranged from 0.5 m–2.5 m.

Results:Peak deceleration and HIC increased with increasing drop height and decreasing surface depth. Laboratory measurements at depths less than 8 cm overestimated peak deceleration and HIC values compared with in situ playground measurements. Impact attenuation of a 9 cm thick bilaminate rubber material was comparable to that of an 18 cm depth of compacted tanbark. Rubber-tanbark hybrid surfaces showed improved impact attenuation over individual surfaces.

Conclusions:Compacted tanbark of depth less than 8 cm is ineffective in attenuating playground falls, resulting in excessive impact deceleration and HIC values. Shallow and compacted tanbark found in many Victorian school playgrounds poses a high risk for severe head injury. This calls for stricter enforcement of playground surface depth compliance.
Are medical societies developing a standard for gun injury prevention?
Authors: Longjohn M M , Christoffel K K
Published: June 2004

Context:Following heightened gun violence in the 1990s, many medical societies in the United States adopted policies on the topic.

Objective:Identify points of firearm violence policy agreement among large medical organizations.

Design:Fourteen national medical societies—clinical focus, demonstrated interest in gun injury prevention, >2000 members—were selected for policy review in 2002. Policies were categorized on areas covered and items within these.Consensus areaswere addressed by ⩾7/14 societies.Consensus itemswere included by ⩾7/14 societies, shared itemsby 5–6.

Results:There were fiveconsensus areas: access prevention, gun commerce, research, public education, and clinical counseling. There were fourconsensus items: restricting gun access by enforcing existing laws, restricting access to all guns at the point of sale, restricting access to handguns at the point of sale, and creating a national database on gun injury and death.Shared itemspromote violence prevention, clinical education on risks of guns in the home, treating guns as consumer products, restricting gun access to children, bans on automatic weapons, and promoting trigger locks.

Conclusions:Large medical societies in the United States agree on key approaches for reducing gun injury mortality and morbidity. Future research will be needed to track the evolution of this emerging standard for physician action, which now includes the consensus areas and items. It promises to be, in effect, a medical standard of care for gun injury prevention. The United States experience may be useful to others working on gun injury prevention.
Parental perceptions regarding mandatory mouthguard use in competitive youth soccer
Authors: Pribble J M , Maio R F , Freed G L
Published: June 2004

Objective:To understand factors that influence parental perceptions regarding mandatory mouthguard use in competitive youth soccer.

Setting and subjects:A web based survey of parents whose 8–14 year old children participated in outdoor competitive youth soccer during the fall of 2002. Questions focused on: previous injury, education provided, dentist/physician recommendations, and parental perceptions of mouthguard use.

Main outcome measure:The outcome variable was parental agreement with the statement “mouthguards should be mandatory for competitive youth soccer”. Logistic regression and χ2were performed using STATA 8.0.

Results:Altogether 120 parents participated. The children had a mean (SD) age of 11.8 (1.5) years and 48% were female; 14% wore mouthguards and 11% suffered orofacial injuries. Nineteen percent of parents reported receiving educational material from the youth soccer organization. Although 92% of parents believed that mouthguards were effective in reducing orofacial injuries, only one half agreed that mouthguards should be mandatory. Thirty percent of respondents reported that their dentist/physician recommended mouthguards for competitive youth soccer. Logistic regression showed that dentist/physician recommendation and parental female gender were independently associated with parental agreement for mandatory mouthguard use (odds ratio 2.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2 to 7.3; odds ratio 3.0, 95% CI 1.1 to 6.5).

Conclusions:Few athletes wear mouthguards during competitive youth soccer. Health care professionals in this study did not capitalize on the apparent influence they have on parental beliefs regarding mouthguard use. Efforts are needed by both health professionals and soccer organizations to educate parents about orofacial injuries and mouthguard use in competitive youth soccer.
Community based prevention programs targeting all injuries for children: Table 1
Authors: Spinks A , Turner C , McClure R , Nixon J
Published: June 2004

Objective:Community based models for injury prevention have become an accepted part of the overall injury control strategy. This systematic review of the scientific literature examines the evidence for their effectiveness in reducing all-cause injury in children 0–14 years of age.

Methods:A comprehensive search of the literature was performed using the following study selection criteria: community based intervention study; children under 14 years; outcome measure was injury rates; and either a community control or an historical control was used in the design. Quality assessment and data abstraction were guided by a standardized procedure and performed independently by two authors. Data synthesis was in tabular and text form with meta-analysis not being possible due to the discrepancy in methods and measures between the studies.

Results:Thorough electronic and library search techniques yielded only nine formally evaluated community based all-cause child injury prevention programs that have reported actual injury outcomes. Of these nine studies, seven provided high level evidence where contemporary control communities were used for comparison; the remaining two used a pre and post-design or time trend analysis where historical data from the community were used as the comparison. Only three of the seven studies with contemporary control communities found significant effect of the intervention; the two studies without controls noted significant reductions in injury rates after the intervention period.

Conclusion:There is a paucity of research from which evidence regarding the effectiveness of community based childhood injury prevention programs can be obtained and hence a clear need to increase the effort on developing this evidence base.
A population based investigation of head injuries and symptoms of concussion of children and adolescents in schools
Authors: Willer B , Dumas J , Hutson A , Leddy J
Published: June 2004

Objective:To examine the incidence of head injury and symptoms of concussion among children at school and to determine the relationship of age, gender, and cause to incidence rates.

Design:Incident reports involving head injury for schools in the Province of Ontario, Canada during the year 2000 were evaluated.

Participants:The population base for the schools represented was 1 372 979 children aged 6 to 16.

Setting:95% of schools in the province of Ontario, Canada participated in the injury reporting system.

Main outcome measures:A head injury was defined as any injury to the head that came to the attention of a school official. Head injuries accompanied by symptoms of concussion became a secondary outcome measure.

Results:There were 11 068 unduplicated head injury reports for the year 2000 of which 1861 qualified as producing signs or symptoms of concussion. Young children were more likely to have a head injury than older children, but slightly less likely to experience concussive symptoms. The primary cause of injury to young children was falls. Older children were more likely to receive head injuries and symptoms of concussion from sports activities.

Conclusions:Overall rate of injury (3.98 per 100 children) was consistent with previous studies using prospective injury reporting systems. Probability of a head injury with symptoms of concussion among schoolchildren was only 1.9% for boys and <1% for girls during the course of their school years. There is ample justification for prevention efforts in schools.
Unsupervised firearm handling by California adolescents
Authors: Miller M , Hemenway D
Published: June 2004

Objective:Relatively little is known about the behavior of adolescents around firearms. The present investigation was undertaken to estimate the proportion of community-residing adolescents who report that they have ever handled a gun without adult knowledge or supervision.

Methods:A random digit dial interview was conducted with 5801 California adolescents as part of the California Health Interview Survey. Respondents were asked whether they have ever held a gun and whether they have ever done so without adult knowledge or supervision. Study design and population weights were applied to these data. In addition, adolescents’ reports about the most recent unsupervised handling incident were coded to ascertain what they were doing with the gun as well as with whom and where the incident occurred.

Results:One third (33%) of California adolescents report that they have handled a firearm; 5% report that they have done so without adult knowledge or supervision. Half (49%) of all unsupervised handling involved shooting and only 11% occurred in the respondent’s home. Several demographic variables (being male, African American, living in a rural area) and risk behaviors (smoking, drinking, being the victim of a gun related threat), as well as having a gun in the home and parents not knowing the adolescent’s whereabouts in the afternoon were each associated with unsupervised gun handling.

Conclusions:Unsupervised gun handling is associated with other health risk behaviors. Unsupervised gun handling typically involves shooting the gun and usually occurs with friends, away from the home.
Tobacco and transition: an overview of industry investments, impact and influence in the former Soviet Union: Table 6
Authors: Gilmore A B , McKee M
Published: June 2004

Objectives:To quantify the contribution the tobacco industry has made to foreign direct investment (FDI) in the former Soviet Union (FSU) as an indicator of its political and economic leverage; to explore the impact this has had on production capacity and tobacco control in the region.

Design:Data on industry investment and its impact on cigarette production capacity were collated from industry journals, reports, and websites. Data on total FDI were obtained from the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development.

Results:By the end of 2000, transnational tobacco companies (TTCs) had invested over US$2.7 billion in 10 countries of the FSU. Tobacco money as a proportion of FDI varies from 1% to over 30% in Uzbekistan. Cigarette production capacity in the factories receiving investments tripled from 146 to 416 billion cigarettes per annum and the TTCs’ market share has increased from nothing to between 50–100% in the markets in which they invested. Findings suggest that the effectiveness of national tobacco control measures corresponds broadly to the nature of the political and economic transition in each country and the size of industry investment, which is determined in part by the political context. Thus more effective measures tend to be seen in democratic states with smaller or no industry investments while the least effective measures are seen in highly centralised, one party states with high levels of industry investment or those with limited governmental capacity.

Conclusions:The entry of the TTCs at a time of major political and economic change left the FSU particularly vulnerable to industry influence. This influence was enhanced by the industry’s significant contribution to FDI, their ability to take over existing state monopolies in all but the largest countries, and the lack of democratic opposition.
The effectiveness of workplace smoking cessation programmes: a meta-analysis of recent studies
Authors: Smedslund G , Fisher K J , Boles S M , Lichtenstein E
Published: June 2004

Objective:Using meta-analytic procedures, we compare the effectiveness of recent controlled trials of worksite smoking cessation during the 1990s with a previous meta-analysis of programmes conducted in the 1980s.

Data sources:ABI/Inform, BRS, CHID, Dissertation Abstracts International, ERIC, Medline, Occupational Health and Safety Database, PsycInfo, Smoking and Health Database, SSCI, and Sociological Abstracts.

Study selection:Controlled smoking cessation interventions at the workplace with at least six months follow up published from 1989 to 2001 and reporting quit rates (QRs).

Data extraction:Two reviewers independently scanned titles/abstracts of relevant reports, and we reached consensus regarding inclusion/exclusion of the full text reports by negotiation. A third reviewer resolved disagreements. Two reviewers extracted data according to a coding manual. Consensus was again reached through negotiation and the use of a third reviewer.

Data synthesis:19 journal articles were found reporting studies conforming to the study’s inclusion criteria. Interventions included self help manuals, physician advice, health education, cessation groups, incentives, and competitions. A total of 4960 control subjects were compared with 4618 intervention subjects. The adjusted random effects odds ratio was 2.03 (95% confidence interval 1.42 to 2.90) at six months follow up, 1.56 (95% CI 1.17 to 2.07) at 12 months, and 1.33 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.87) at more than 12 months follow up. Funnel plots were consistent with strong publication bias at the first two follow ups but not the third. In Fisheret al’s 1990 study, the corresponding ORs were 1.18, 1.66, and 1.18.

Conclusions:Smoking cessation interventions at the worksite showed initial effectiveness, but the effect seemed to decrease over time and was not present beyond 12 months. Compared to the Fisher (1990) analysis, the effectiveness was higher for the six month follow up. Disappointingly, we found methodological inadequacies and insufficient reporting of key variables that were similar to those found in the earlier meta-analysis. This prevented us from determining much about the most effective components of interventions. It is advisable for researchers conducting studies in the future to report data on attrition and retention rates of participants who quit, because these variables can affect QRs.
The effectiveness of tobacco sales ban to minors: the case of Finland
Authors: Rimpelä A H , Rainio S U
Published: June 2004

Objective:To evaluate the effects of the 1977 and 1995 tobacco sales bans on tobacco acquisition of minors.

Design:Biennial nationwide postal surveys (adolescent health and lifestyle survey, AHLS) in 1977–2003; annual classroom surveys (school health promotion survey, SHPS) in 1996–2003.

Setting and participants:Entire Finland—12, 14, 16, and 18 year olds (AHLS, n  =  80 282); eighth and ninth graders (14–16 year olds) (SHPS, n  =  226 681).

Main outcome measures:Purchase of tobacco from commercial sources during the past month, purchase from different commercial (shop, kiosk, other outlet) and social sources, ease of buying tobacco, overall acquisition of tobacco products, daily smoking, tobacco experimenting.

Results:Decrease in tobacco purchase from commercial sources was small and short term after 1977 but large and permanent after 1995: purchase rate among 14 year old smokers diminished from 90% to 67% in 2003, 16 year olds from 94% to 62%. Purchases in shops decreased most (14 year olds: from 39% to 14%; 16 year olds: from 76% to 27%); purchases in kiosks less. An increase was observed in obtaining tobacco from other outlets and friends (social sources). Only 2–3% of 14–16 year old smokers used commercial sources exclusively when obtaining tobacco. Daily smoking began to decrease after 2001, following an earlier decrease in those experimenting. No changes were observed among age groups not targeted by the ban.

Conclusions:Legislation appears to have permanently changed tobacco sales practices and decreased purchases from commercial sources. Social sources need to be taken into account when controlling access to tobacco. Sales bans should be accompanied by other health promotion measures.
Airway disease risk from environmental tobacco smoke among coffeehouse workers in Turkey
Authors: Fidan F , Cimrin A H , Ergor G , Sevinc C
Published: June 2004

Objectives:To examine the effect of ETS exposure on respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function and to compare workers in coffeehouses to those in other occupations in order to assess the risk of respiratory illness in this occupation.

Design:Cross sectional study.

Setting:The study area consisted of the three metropolitan districts of the city of Izmir, Turkey. 86 coffeehouses and 80 other small scale shops which had no known respiratory risk factor, located in the same area, were taken as the study group.

Subjects:207 workers were assessed.

Main outcome measurements:Subjects answered a questionnaire about demographic and working characteristics, respiratory symptoms, and smoking behaviour. Physical examinations and spirometric measurements were carried out at the workplaces.

Results:There was a significant increase in respiratory symptoms in coffeehouse workers. Working in a coffeehouse showed a significant risk for chronic bronchitis (odds ratio (OR) 4.3). In coffeehouse workers, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) decreased 5.1%, forced vital capacity (FVC) 3.4%, FEV1/FVC 1.6%, peak expiratory flow (PEF) 6.45%, and forced expiratory flow (FEF25) 7.2%, FEF5010%, and FEF25–759.8%. Among workers who were described as having an “airway disease”, coffeehouse workers were significantly greater in number. When age, body mass index, and smoking behaviour were controlled, working in a coffeehouse was strongly associated with “airway disease” compared to other workers (OR 5.35, 95% confidence interval 2.41 to 11.87).

Conclusions:Workers in coffeehouses showed significant increases in respiratory symptoms and decreased pulmonary function. All workers need to gain an awareness of these occupational risks and working conditions should be improved immediately.
Community tobacco control leaders’ perceptions of harm reduction
Authors: Joseph A M , Hennrikus D , Thoele M J , Krueger R , Hatsukami D
Published: June 2004

Objective:To investigate community tobacco control leaders’ attitudes toward harm reduction approaches to tobacco use, in order to assess benefits and risks associated with these strategies.

Design:Cross sectional design involving qualitative outcomes from nine structured focus groups.

Subjects:47 community tobacco control leaders in Minnesota working in the areas of public policy, clinical treatment of nicotine dependence and youth development participated.

Outcome measures:Participants discussed definitions of harm reduction; benefits and risks of harm reduction methods; and how funds for tobacco control research and programmes should be allocated.

Results:Results indicated inconsistency about the definition of harm reduction: most groups included a broad range of strategies that extended beyond those typically referenced in the scientific literature. Many participants stated that harm reduction might be beneficial, particularly for smokers who could not or would not quit. However, most also expressed concern about a number of risks, including delivering a mixed message about tobacco, inadvertently benefiting the tobacco industry, and causing unanticipated negative health effects. Participants were inclined to suggest public policy measures (for example, smoking bans, increased taxes) as means for reducing harm.

Conclusions:Results indicate that even among tobacco control leaders there is a need for common terminology to describe harm reduction approaches and that public policy approaches to harm reduction are considered more dependable than strategies that involve pharmaceutical treatment or rely on the tobacco industry, such as product modification.
The cost effectiveness of pharmacological smoking cessation therapies in developing countries: a case study in the Seychelles
Authors: Gilbert A R , Pinget C , Bovet P , Cornuz J , Shamlaye C , Paccaud F
Published: June 2004

Objective:To examine the incremental cost effectiveness of the five first line pharmacological smoking cessation therapies in the Seychelles and other developing countries.

Design:A Markov chain cohort simulation.

Subjects:Two simulated cohorts of smokers: (1) a reference cohort given physician counselling only; (2) a treatment cohort given counselling plus cessation therapy.

Intervention:Addition of each of the five pharmacological cessation therapies to physician provided smoking cessation counselling.

Main outcome measures:Cost per life-year saved (LYS) associated with the five pharmacotherapies. Effectiveness expressed as odds ratios for quitting associated with pharmacotherapies. Costs based on the additional physician time required and retail prices of the medications.

Results:Based on prices for currently available generic medications on the global market, the incremental cost per LYS for a 45 year old in the Seychelles was US$599 for gum and $227 for bupropion. Assuming US treatment prices as a conservative estimate, the incremental cost per LYS was significantly higher, though still favourable in comparison to other common medical interventions: $3712 for nicotine gum, $1982 for nicotine patch, $4597 for nicotine spray, $4291 for nicotine inhaler, and $1324 for bupropion. Cost per LYS increased significantly upon application of higher discount rates, which may be used to reflect relatively high opportunity costs for health expenditures in developing countries with highly constrained resources and high overall mortality.

Conclusion:Pharmacological cessation therapy can be highly cost effective as compared to other common medical interventions in low mortality, middle income countries, particularly if medications can be procured at low prices.
Moving East: how the transnational tobacco industry gained entry to the emerging markets of the former Soviet Union—part I: establishing cigarette imports
Authors: Gilmore A B , McKee M
Published: June 2004

Objectives:To identify British American Tobacco’s (BAT) reasons for targeting the former Soviet Union following its collapse in 1991 and the initial strategies BAT used to enter the region.

Design:Analysis of tobacco industry documents held at the Guildford BAT archive.

Results:Desire to expand to new markets was based in part on the decline in old markets. The large population, proximity to China, scope to expand sales to women and, in Central Asia, a young population with high growth rates made the former Soviet Union particularly attractive. High consumption rates and unfilled demand caused by previous shortages offered potential for rapid returns on investment. A series of steps were taken to penetrate the markets with the initial focus on establishing imports. The documents suggest that BAT encouraged the use of aid money and barter trade to fund imports and directed the smuggling of cigarettes which graduated from an opportunistic strategy to a highly organised operation. In establishing a market presence, promotion of BAT’s brands and corporate image were paramount, and used synonymously to promote both the cigarettes and the company. The tobacco industry targeted young people and women. It used the allure of western products to promote its brands and brand stretching and corporate imagery to pre-empt future marketing restrictions.

Conclusions:BAT used the chaotic conditions in the immediate post-transition period in the former Soviet Union to exploit legislative loopholes and ensure illegal cigarette imports. Governments of countries targeted by the tobacco industry need to be aware of industry tactics and develop adequate tobacco control policies in order to prevent the exploitation of vulnerable populations. Marketing restrictions that focus on advertising without restricting the use of brand or company promotions will have a limited impact.
Moving East: how the transnational tobacco industry gained entry to the emerging markets of the former Soviet Union—part II: an overview of priorities and tactics used to establish a manufacturing presence
Authors: Gilmore A B , McKee M
Published: June 2004

Objectives:To explore how British American Tobacco (BAT), having established cigarette imports, responded to the opportunities for investment in cigarette manufacturing in the former Soviet Union (FSU).

Design:Analysis of documents held at the BAT archive in Guildford, UK.

Results:Considerable priority was attached to investing in the FSU. This led BAT to undertake a major organisational change and to intense competition to acquire assets. BAT used flawed economic arguments to persuade cash starved governments that its investment would reap economic rewards. It offered excise advice that disadvantaged governments while benefiting BAT, confused issues over pricing, and avoided competitive tendering. BAT targeted agriculture ministries, using its expertise in leaf production to differentiate itself from other potential investors. It subverted the principles of corporate social responsibility to promote itself as a business partner. BAT’s task was made easier by the naivety of post-Soviet governments and by the international financial organisations’ support for rapid economic reform. The latter permitted tobacco transnationals to penetrate markets before effective competitive tendering processes had been established, giving them the opportunity to minimise prices and establish monopolies.

Conclusions:Many of the arguments employed when penetrating post-Soviet markets were highly misleading but governments lacked expertise to realise this. There is a need to build tobacco control capacity in transition economies, within and outside government, to ensure that governments are better informed of the true economic and health impacts of tobacco. Rapid transition from socialist to market economies without establishing regulatory institutional structures may be dangerous when investing companies use business practices that fall short of international standards.
Smoking behaviour and toxin exposure during six weeks use of a potential reduced exposure product: Omni
Authors: Hughes J R , Hecht S S , Carmella S G , Murphy S E , Callas P
Published: June 2004

Objective:To determine smoking behaviour, acceptability, and toxin exposure when smokers switch to the potential reduced exposure product—Omni cigarette.

Design:12 week randomised, crossover study of Omni versus own cigarettes.

Participants:19 light/ultralight and 15 regular smokers.

Outcomes:Cigarettes/day, smoking topography, craving, withdrawal symptoms, urinary cotinine plus its glucuronide (total cotinine), nicotine plus its glucuronide (total nicotine), and carcinogen metabolites (4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol plus its glucuronides and 1-hydroxypyrene).

Results:When switched to Omni, smokers smoked the same number of cigarettes/day, smoked Omni cigarettes less intensely (total puff volume  =  −11%) and had slightly lower total cotinine (−18%) levels than their own cigarettes, but had a slightly greater carbon monoxide boost/cig (+21%). Craving and withdrawal ratings were similar with Omni and own cigarettes. Carcinogen metabolite levels were somewhat but not significantly lower with Omni. About half of smokers rated Omni as better for their health and about two thirds stated it was weaker and worse tasting than their own cigarettes.

Conclusions:Although Omni may be an adequate behavioural and pharmacological substitute for traditional cigarettes, it may not decrease carcinogen exposure and may increase carbon monoxide. Replications with larger sample sizes and longer follow up are needed. These results indicate the need for regulation of reduced exposure and reduced risk claims.
Smoking, social class, and gender: what can public health learn from the tobacco industry about disparities in smoking?: Figure 1
Authors: Barbeau E M , Leavy-Sperounis A , Balbach E D
Published: June 2004

Objective:To discover how the tobacco industry considers social class and gender in its efforts to market cigarettes in the USA, particularly to socially disadvantaged young women.

Methods:A systematic on-line search of tobacco industry documents using selected keywords was conducted, and epidemiological data on smoking rates reviewed.

Results:The two largest cigarette manufacturers in the USA consider “working class” young adults to be a critical market segment to promote growth of key brands. Through their own market research, these companies discovered that socially disadvantaged young women do not necessarily desire a “feminine” cigarette brand.

Conclusions:Considering the tobacco industry’s efforts, alongside the persistent and growing disparities in cigarette smoking by social class, and the narrowing of differences in smoking by gender, it is concluded that additional tobacco control resources ought to be directed toward working class women.
Reducing tobacco addiction through tobacco product regulation
Authors: Henningfield J E , Benowitz N L , Connolly G N , Davis R M , Gray N , Myers M L , Zeller M
Published: June 2004

Tobacco product regulation has the potential to help reduce tobacco attributable disease by reducing the toxicity of these products and by reducing the prevalence of tobacco use and addiction
GASP: picking off the pack of lies
Authors: Farren C
Published: June 2004

GASP is celebrating 25 years tackling Big Tobacco’s packs of lies!
An Innovative Fatigue Method in Single-Lapped Mixed Composite Joints
Authors: Lin Wei-Hwang , Lin Chih-Hsun , Jen Ming-Hwa R.
Published: June 2004

The aim of this work is to systematically investigate the mechanical properties of single-lapped mixed, i.e., bolted and bonded and riveted and bonded, composite joints subjected to tension-tension (T-T) cyclic loading by using the new model grips in comparison with that by conventional MTS grips. A system of devices to measure clamping force is disclosed. The U.S. patented new model grips are introduced and manufactured to conduct cyclic tests and generate empirical results, highlighted as follows. Through the parametric study we find that the obtained fatigue strength and life of the mixed joint by MTS grips are larger than that by new model grips, i.e., the real values are over-estimated by MTS grips. Our data by new model grips are correct. The bolted and bonded joint is found to be stronger than the riveted and bonded joint mainly attributed to the features of respective mechanical fastening. The mixed joint of cross-ply adherend is more resistant to cyclic loading than that of quasi-isotropic adherend. Additionally, the overlap length and clamping force are two dominant factors in fatigue strength and life. The increase in overlap length of a mixed joint will increase the fatigue strength and life until an asymptotical value is approached. Similarly, the increase of clamping force will result in a rigid joint to possess more resistance to cyclic loading.
Finite Element Analysis of Low-Velocity Impact Damage of Stitched Laminates
Authors: Chen Gang , Li Zhengneng , Kou Changhe , Gui Liangjin
Published: June 2004

In this work a 3D dynamic finite element method was developed to calculate and study the low-velocity impact damage characteristics of stitched laminates. It was found that through-thickness reinforcement in the form of transverse stitching can significantly improve the resistance to delamination of composite laminates in low-velocity impact. Analytical predictions show that the area of delamination of stitched laminates is about 15% less than that of unstitched laminates, and the numerical results are comparable with the test results. It is shown that this method is very efficient.