bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Modeling Viability of Fish Populations: An Overview
Authors: Wood Chris C
Published: November 2023

A fish is a poikilothermic, aquatic chordate with appendages (when present) developed as fins, whose chief respiratory organs are gills and whose body is usually covered in scales (Berra 2001). Allowing for a few exceptions, fish are classified in three phyla comprising about 25,000 species (Nelson 1994). Although not as rich in species as plants or invertebrates, fish account for about half of all vertebrate species (the subject of Parts III to VI of this book). Fish lineages are over 400 million years old (Carrol 1988), and fish occur in virtually all aquatic habitats on Earth. Marine species are found from tropical reefs to sunless abyssal plains; freshwater species may occur in frozen arctic lakes or as resting stages in ephemeral desert ponds; others are diadromous, negotiating both marine and fresh-water habitats at different life history stages. Slightly less than half (41%) of fish are freshwater species, but these live in only 0.01% of the Earth’s visible water (Horn 1972). From a modeling perspective, fish exhibit life histories that span most of those encountered in vertebrates, enough to tax even the flexibility of RAMAS. Longevity ranges from a few months in some cyprinodonts to more than a century in some rockfishes (Sebastes). Most fish lay eggs, but ovovivipary and vivipary occur in some taxa so that fecundity (in the sense of litter size) spans at least seven orders of magnitude; for example, the basking shark and the manta ray produce only one to two “pups” per year, whereas the ocean sunfish and greasy grouper may produce 300 million eggs.
Modeling Amphibians and Reptiles: >An Overview
Authors: SjöGren-Gulve Per
Published: November 2023

Population viability analyses of amphibians and reptiles are few but will probably increase greatly in the future due to improved computer software and more case studies that highlight useful modeling approaches for a variety of species. In this section, six case studies provide examples of how population viability analyses (PVAs) of amphibians and reptiles can be implemented with different data sources, varying uncertainty in the data, and various management questions and conservation problems. They illustrate how the PVA process reveals uncertainties and needs of complementary data collection, as well as suggest management actions and further investigations (Akşakaya and Sjögren-Gulve 2000, Burgman and Possingham 2000). Reptiles and amphibians have a wide variety of life histories (e.g., Spellerberg 1982, Stebbins and Cohen 1995, Pough et al. 2001), of which this overview and the section’s case studies cover just a small sample. Two of these case studies are on amphibians (Griffiths, Chapter 25 on great crested newt; Hatfield et al., Chapter 26 on Houston toad), and four are on reptiles (Breininger et al., Chapter 27 on eastern indigo snake; Brook and Griffiths, Chapter 28 on frillneck lizard; Berglind, Chapter 29 on sand lizard; and Chaloupka, Chapter 30 on green sea turtle). However, the modeling approaches of these studies may be relevant for other taxa in similar situations. This overview provides a brief, but not exhaustive, review of published PVAs of amphibians and reptiles.
Florida Key Deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium): Effects of Urban Development and Road Mortality
Authors: Lopez Roel R
Published: November 2023

Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) are the smallest subspecies of white-tailed deer in the United States and are endemic to the Florida Keys on the southern end of peninsular Florida (Hardin et al. 1984). Due to uncontrolled hunting, Key deer numbers were estimated to be less than 50 by the 1940’s (Hardin et al. 1984). As a result, increased law enforcement and the establishment of the National Key Deer Refuge (NKDR) in 1957 provided protection for the deer and its habitat. Currently, Key deer occupy 20 to 25 islands within the boundaries of the NKDR with approximately 75% of the deer population occupying two islands: Big Pine and No Name keys (Lopez 2001) (Figure 40.1). Since 1960, urban development and habitat fragmentation have threatened the Key deer’s recovery (Lopez 2001). For example, between 1968 and 1998 the human population on Big Pine and No Name increased nearly 10–fold (Monroe County Growth Management Division 1992). In addition to a loss of habitat, increase in urban development is of particular concern because highway mortality accounts for the majority of the total deer mortality (Hardin 1974, Folk 1991). For example, over half of all road mortalities occur on US 1, the only road linking the Keys to the mainland (Lopez 2001). Safe and expedient evacuation during hurricanes depends on the level of service or traffic on US 1. In 1995, Monroe County authorities imposed a building moratorium due to the inadequate level of service on the US 1 segment servicing Big Pine and No Name keys. In an effort to improve the level of service and lift the building moratorium, highway improvements such as intersection widening and adding a third lane northbound (traffic direction toward the mainland) have been proposed (Calvo 1996, Lopez 2001).
Sindh Ibex(Capra aegagrus blythi) in Kirthar National Park, Pakistan: Sensitivity of a Habitat and Population Model
Authors: Yamada Kuniko , Ansari Mahboob , Harrington Rhidian , Morgan David , Burgman Mark A
Published: November 2023

Ibex are found in most high elevation and relatively extensive arid-zone mountain ranges in Pakistan, occurring at altitudes up to 3350 m. The Sindh ibex, Capra aegagrus blythi, is restricted to parks, reserves, and remote areas near Karachi in southern Pakistan. It is a large game animal and the most common native ungulate in Kirthar National Park (KNP) (Edge and Olson-Edge 1990) and has a high public profile not only among the locals but also among overseas trophy hunters. The curving horn of adult males may grow to over 102 cm in length (Roberts 1997). The ibex population in KNP is largely or completely isolated from other populations of the subspecies in Pakistan. The animals are closely associated with the mountain ranges, and they venture to lowland terrain only rarely, usually when they are moving between ranges. Ibex form loosely connected groups that focus around springs and other freestanding water sources within the mountain ranges. Their main requirements seem to be precipitous crags, which are safe from direct disturbance because the terrain is inaccessible to domestic goats and shepherds. Ibex are able to climb or descend vertical rock cliffs, especially when they are threatened (Roberts 1997). Ibex have experienced pressures of hunting, human encroachment on habitat, and overgrazing of habitat by domestic livestock (Edge and Olson-Edge 1990), and the total population of ibex in KNP decreased to as few as 200 before legal protection was introduced in 1967 (Roberts 1997). Schaller (in Edge and Olson-Edge 1990) estimated the density of animals within patches of habitat in 1972 and 1973 to be between 3.3 and 4.1/km2. Protection has resulted in significant increases in the population since 1971 (Mirza and Asghar 1980).
A New Raising Mystery
Authors: Postal Paul M
Published: November 2023

At issue inter alia was the superficial clausal status of the highlighted DPs, hereafter the pivot DPs. Principal works involved include Bach (1977), Bresnan (1976), Chomsky (1973, 1981), Lightfoot (1976), and Postal (1974, 1977). Under the view defended in Postal (1974, 1977) and a bit in Postal and Pullum (1988), the pivot DPs were in one aspect of the structure of such sentences subjects of the complement clauses but in another aspect of that structure objects of the main clause. Under the view advocated in Chomsky (1973), the pivot DPs were exclusively subjects of the complement in every relevant structural aspect. Other positions are logically possible; for example, Pollard and Sag (1994: chapter 3) claim that the pivot DPs in (1) are exclusively main clause objects.
Junk Reasoning 1: If It Doesn’t Follow Automatically, Then It’s Pretty Much Got to at Least Virtually Follow, and If Not, Don’t Worry; It Is Still Unquestionably Natural
Authors: Postal Paul M
Published: November 2023

There follow a few entirely random quoted examples of the usages in a. Chomsky ([1955], 1975a: 566) “And it will also automatically give ‘no improvement was for seen by anyone’ as the passive of case (h), thus eliminating one discrepancy in what appears to be a simple and intuitively correct manner.” Chomsky (1965: 104) “First of all, it accounts automatically for the restriction of passivization to Verbs that take Manner Adverbials freely.” c. Postal (1972b: 221) “This could be an automatic consequence of a higher trigger cyclic formulation .”
The California Professor As Teacher
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

If ever there was a period during which Robert was happy, those were his California years of the 1930s, I would think. It was the time in which he single-handedly created, in Bethe’s words, “the greatest school of theoretical physics that the United States has ever known. More than any other man he was responsible for raising American theoretical physics from a provincial adjunct of Europe to world leadership. The majority of the best American theoretical physicists who grew up in those years [the 1930s] were trained by Oppenheimer at one stage of their lives.” It was also the time in which he made important research contributions, to quantum electrodynamics, nuclear physics, and astrophysics. I shall first sketch his role as teacher, thereafter his further research.
The Institute Prior To Oppenheimer’s Arrival
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

In the early 1950s, Oppenheimer, then director of the Institute, commissioned Mrs. Beatrice Stern (1895-1987) to write the Institute’s early history. During 1955-1957 she interviewed a number of people, including me. In 1964 she had completed a 700-page typed manuscript, “A History of the Institute for Advanced Study, 1930-1950,” which has never appeared in print because Robert felt that some of the material was too personal to be made public. I understand why he thought so but have never considered it a reasonable position, particularly because that document is well written and contains quite valuable information on the origins and early years of one of the most important American institutions of higher learning. Since I find this material so interesting-I own a copy of the manuscript-I thought it would be fitting to use it for giving at this point a few glimpses of the Institute’s history up to the time that Oppenheimer took over as director. I shall go easy on personal matters, which would cause no raised eyebrows anyway, since the persons involved are all deceased by now. I may also note that in 1980 the Institute has published a book, A Community of Scholars, published by Princeton University Press.
In Which Oppenheimer Is Elected Director Of The Institute And Chairman Of The General Advisory Committee
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

In October 1945, the chairman of the Trustee Committee on selection wrote his first letter to the members of the faculty, reading in part:
Further On Oppenheimer the Man
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

In chapter 9 I referred to Bethe and Weisskopf for an account of Oppenheimer’s role as leader of the Los Alamos enterprise. As repeatedly stated, since I had not been there myself, I do not feel competent to form a personal judgment of that role. I am further constrained because reminiscences by others on science at Los Alamos are of course restricted by rules on classified information as they existed at the time those recollections were written down. That last restriction does not, however, apply to the numerous reminiscences of Oppenheimer’s personality, not only by physicists but also by others. Moreover, I am in a position to confront those readily with my own memories of the years immediately after the war. What follows next is therefore an excerpt of others’ observations of Oppenheimer the man in Los Alamos.
Insider In Exile
Authors: Pais Abraham
Published: November 2023

Shortly after the hearing, Oppenheimer told a reporter that he was looking forward to returning to the “cloistered life of abstract slants.” Said by an ambitious man of expansive interests yearning to change-or at least impressthe world, who had been enjoying a life as a government insider and an internationally recognized celebrity, this was surely posturing.
The Sources of Narrative Medicine
Authors: Charon Rita
Published: November 2023

Medicine has grown significantly in its ability to diagnose and treat biological disease. Doctors can be proud of their ability to eradicate once fatal infections, prevent heart attacks, cure childhood leukemias, and transplant failing organs. But despite such impressive technical progress, doctors often lack the human capacities to recognize the plights of their patients, to extend empathy toward those who suffer, and to join honestly and courageously with patients in their struggles toward recovery, with chronic illness, or in facing death. Patients lament that their doctors don’t listen to them or that they seem indifferent to their suffering. Fidelity and constancy seem to have become casualties of the cost-conscious bureaucratic marketplace. Instead of being accompanied through the uncertainties and indignities of illness by a trusted guide who knows them, patients find that they are referred from one specialist and one procedure to another, perhaps receiving technically adequate care but being abandoned with the consequences and the dread of illness.1
Telling One’s Life
Authors: Charon Rita
Published: November 2023

I have had in my practice for many years a now 89-year-old African American woman with hypertension, breast cancer, spinal stenosis, insomnia, and uncontrollable anxiety. She lost her husband to congestive heart failure, her son to lung cancer, and a granddaughter to a hit-and-run accident near Jones Beach. For years, she took Librium for her nerves, unwilling to enter psychotherapy and unable to really talk about the source of her anxiety. She has considered her-self sickly ever since she fell off a horse as a girl on a farm in South Carolina. I realized that her great-grandfather must have been born into slavery.
Close Reading
Authors: Charon Rita
Published: November 2023

Narrative medicine makes the case that narrative training in reading and writing contributes to clinical effectiveness. By developing narrative competence, we have argued, health care professionals can become more attentive to patients, more attuned to patients’ experiences, more reflective in their own practice, and more accurate in interpreting the stories patients tell of illness. The last chapter gave us some specific terms and concepts with which to sharpen these arguments: health professionals have to learn to hear the body and the self telling of illness, in whatever forms, dictions, and discourses they find themselves giving utterance to their reality. If patients’ reports do not limit themselves to answers in our reviews of systems, then we must be prepared to comprehend all that is contained in the patient’s words, silences, metaphors, genres, and allusions. Listening and watchful clinicians must become fluent in the tongues of the body and the tongues of the self, aware that the body and the self keep secrets from one another, can misread one another, and can be incomprehensible to one another without a skilled and deft translator.
“Radical Feminist” as Label, Libel, and Laudatory Chant: The Politics of Theoretical Taxonomies in Feminist Linguistics
Authors: Mcelhinny Bonnie
Published: November 2023

Robin Lakoffs book Language and Womans Place (LWP) (1975) is one of the earliest, most influential, and most widely discussed contributions to feminist linguistics, but the question of how to place it within the larger context of feminist theory is far from straightforward.
What Does a Focus on “Men s Language” Tell Us about Language and Womans Place?
Authors: Kiesling Scott Fabius
Published: November 2023

In an editor’s note to the journal article that eventually became Robin Lakoff’s Language and Womans Place (LWP) (1975), Dell Hymes wrote: “A focus on women brings to light an aspect of language in social life that has its counterpart for men. … “Men’s language’ needs study too” (Lakoff 1973: 79).
The New (and Improved?) Language and Place of Women in Japan
Authors: Matsumoto Yoshiko
Published: November 2023

In Japan recently, I had an encounter that brought into focus for me how Language and Womans Place (LWP) (1975) illuminated Japanese women’s language. A forty- or fifty-year-old Japanese woman, who had concluded from overhearing my conversation that I was a linguist, suddenly approached me to inquire if she could ask me a question about contrastive linguistics. She expressed the view that women had been discriminated against in Japan on account of the categories of onna kotoba (women’s speech), otoko kotoba (men’s speech), and keigo (expressions of respect, honorifics), which force speakers to choose a specific register or form of speech. She also thought that Japanese was peculiar in this regard and that this peculiarity was responsible for the sexual harassment and domestic violence that she had suffered. She had confirmed with her American friends that women and men were treated equally in the United States, and she attributed this to the absence of such gender-based linguistic distinctions in English.
A Tale of Good and a Tale of Evil
Authors: Avise John C
Published: November 2023

This book is about humankind’s recent attempts, using recombinant DNA technologies, to modify the genetic makeup of living organisms. It describes how scientists have learned to isolate and transfer DNA from one species to another, generate clonal (genetically identical) copies of individual genes and sometimes whole organisms, and otherwise exercise godlike influences over the hereditary material of microbes, plants, and animals, including humans. Using a case-history format, this book traces the rise of genetic engineering during the latter part of the twentieth century, addressing both the good and the bad of dozens of genetic engineering projects initiated to date. This empirical track record reveals many of the triumphs and disasters of genetic engineering, its amazing feats and some blazing defeats, and the field’s beauty marks and its blemishes both small and large. The two stories in this opening chapter—one the happy narrative of a successful little genetic engineering venture, the other a chronicle of sheer madness—serve to introduce the book’s style and format, as well as to illustrate the wide range of potential societal outcomes when humans attempt to seize control of life’s genetic reins.
Engineering Microbes
Authors: Avise John C
Published: November 2023

Microbes have supplied more than just the molecular tools and the conceptual inspiration for genetic engineering (appendix), they also have been harnessed to manufacture some of the most lucrative commercial products that have emerged to date from the GM industry. This chapter provides several examples. First, however, the usual meaning of gene “cloning” in the context of microbial genetic engineering should be made clear. In microbes, gene cloning (the production of “carbon copies” of a particular segment of DNA) typically is accomplished when genetic engineers insert a foreign gene into plasmids, which are tiny circular pieces of DNA that reside within bacterial cells. When the GM bacteria then do what comes naturally (divide and multiply asexually), they automatically clone the transgene as well as their own native DNA. As we shall see, genetic engineers often use such GM bacteria and their purposefully cloned transgenes to produce commercial quantities of various proteins of pharmaceutical or industrial importance.
Fields, Forests, and Streams
Authors: Avise John C
Published: November 2023

Not content to tinker only with traditional agricultural crops and domestic animals, bioengineers are venturing farther afield to genetically alter a variety of plants and animals from forests, meadows, and aquatic habitats. Some of these GMOs blur the distinction between cultivated and uncultivated, or between domesticated and wild, but these transgenic creatures and organismal clones, however categorized, represent further evidence of the wide range of taxa, as well as traits, that can be genetically manipulated using recombinant DNA methods. The extension of genetic engineering beyond factories, croplands, and barnyards raises many additional hopes and fears, especially with regard to the environment. Might genetic engineering experiments “in the wild” invite ecological disasters? Or, at the other possible extreme, could some of the new genetic discoveries and GM products actually help the planet to recover from insults of earlier technological endeavors (such as energy extraction, mining, farming, and commercial fishing) that often generated toxic wastes or otherwise damaged natural ecosystems? Most of the contemplated GM projects relating to the environment are only in the early phases of research and development, so definitive answers to such questions will take some time to emerge from direct experience. In the meantime, given the general dearth of critical scientific evidence in this neophyte field, plausible arguments pro and con can be made regarding many prospects for outdoor genetic engineering. As is typical of GM technologies applied to nature, simple solutions can be elusive, and case-by-case analyses are required.
Opening The Surgeon and the General
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

One day in 1898 General Leonard Wood, an American military governor of occupied Cuba, stood up abruptly from his desk and hit his head on a low-hanging chandelier. He was badly stunned for a few minutes and developed a large bump on his skull, but otherwise thought nothing of the incident.
Making a Harvard Doctor
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

September 1891. He was a lonely outsider in sweltering Boston, trudging the streets, checking his map at every corner, trying to find a place to stay. Brother Ned’s old boarding house was already full. When he went to the not yet open Harvard Medical School for advice, all he got were a few recommendations from the caretaker. ‘I must have walked about 10 miles and climbed 1000 feet of stairs … I have not accomplished much more than to get a pretty good composite picture of a land lady whose name is legion and whom I do not admire. It seems to me I never saw so many people before who were all utter strangers & its most depressing.’
Making an American Surgeon
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

Where did you start after medical school? Newly minted doctors needed first jobs and clinical experience to complete their training. Hospitals needed staff. By the end of the nineteenth century, the hiring of recent graduates to do stints as hospital house physicians had become systematized. They worked for very low or no wages either as ‘externs,’ living outside the hospital and usually treating outpatients, or as ‘interns,’ or ‘residents,’ who lived in the institutions and were on call to treat the patients on the wards. Thus, Dr Harvey Cushing began his career by living and working at the Massachusetts General Hospital in 1895 as an intern.
A Window on the Brain
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

The Atlantic crossing afforded Cushing a week off, time to relax, recover, get some sea legs, eat, drink, write, reflect, and socialize. As soon as he boarded the old Cunard liner Servia, he began his travel diary: ‘I shall apparently be alone with a few books, some tobacco, my thoughts, and some pretty keen regrets at throwing up the J.H.H.’ Then the first of his notes and letters to Kate: ‘These Cunarder people are so nice and courtly and have such nice voices and never get annoyed like the Americans.’
Opening the Closed Box: The Birth of Neurosurgery
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

‘If it’s to be a bad summer I’ll send Kate home. I’ve got work to do.’ Thus Harvey had written his father before his wedding. By a ‘bad summer’ he meant the heat of Baltimore which drove out everyone who could possibly leave the city. The Cushings coped with the heat that first summer by wearing very few clothes at home. ‘I think we rather enjoyed it, tho’ we didn’t know each other very well, did we Peaches, then?’ Harvey reminisced a few years later, ‘And you tho’t I had no sense of humor – which I hadn’t.’
The Bottom of the Box: Interrogating the Pituitary
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

The assistants and students who worked for Cushing were always pleased when the Chief invited them to his home. ‘Mrs. Chief’ was a warm, gracious hostess and served a perfect tea. Remarkably, Cushing himself often failed to appear, having been tied up at the hospital or in the lab. A young Bostonian, John Homans, who had been sent to train with the man Harvard considered to be America’s most promising surgeon, recalled, ‘I had never seen anyone work like Cushing before, and found it difficult to believe that he could enjoy life on this basis His pace never varied, unless it became accelerated.’1 Kate longed for the old days when she could look forward to having her husband home for tea and conversation.
Adieu America: Cushing Goes to War
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

Cushing took a rare holiday in early August 1914, a few days salmon fishing in Canada with a group that included one of his house men, Elliott Cutler. While they were gone a war broke out in Europe: Germany and Austria-Hungary against Russia, France, and the British Empire. Harvey later joked about how the world fell apart when he went on vacation.
An American Surgeon at Passchendaele
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

Hazebrouck, France, 3:10 AM, June 7, 1917. Harvey Cushing, billeted with a French family, is jolted awake by the largest manmade explosion there has ever been. British engineers have detonated more than a million pounds of high explosive in tunnels under the German lines at Messines Ridge, near Ypres. The noise is heard one hundred and fifty miles away in London.
Johnson and Boswells: Chief and Harem
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

Everyone who worked with Cushing knew how he would respond to his son’s death. ‘Dr. Cushing will hide it all behind a mask,’ Elliott Cutler told Madeline Stanton. ‘No one will ever see it. Therefore all the worse.’ The mask he put on was almost impenetrable and permanent. The Cushings repressed their grief much more thoroughly than the Oslers had after Revere’s death. The hundreds of letters and telegrams of condolence Harvey and Kate received have all but disappeared from their files. Cushing’s papers are completely silent about the immediate after-math of the accident. Harvey never mentioned Bill again to his colleagues.
Sprinting to the Tape
Authors: Bliss Michael
Published: November 2023

Had he seen the soul? What amazing experiences Harvey Cushing must have had as a brain surgeon! The man who drilled into people’s heads, tapped their spirits, gazed on their minds, cut into their psyches, reconfigured their consciousness – what profound reflections the surgeon-artist-writer, who all his life had been interested in every- thing, might have had to share with the world! Did he have insight about the meaning of the mind – thoughts on the meaning of life? What would he say about the meaning of his own life – his achievement as the world’s first brain surgeon – and about the modern miracles he wrought daily in his operating room? What was the spiritual, metaphysical, transcendent, existential significance of it all? During his lifetime the press gradually lionized Cushing as the prototypical brain surgeon which, of course, he was — and he was probably more in demand within the American medical world than any other figure.
Life
Authors: Reynolds David S
Published: November 2023

Walt Whitman Was Born on May 31, 1819 IN THE LONG ISLAND village of West Hills, some fifty miles east of Manhattan. He was descended from two branches of early American settlers, English on his father’s side and Dutch on his mother’s. His paternal ancestors included Zechariah Whitman, who came to America from England in the 1660s and settled in Connectioncut. Zechariah’s son Joseph moved across the sound to an area near Huntington, Long Island, where he became a farmer and local official. He gained large land holdings that came to be known as Joseph Whitman’s Great Hollow. His descendants acquired even more land and established a five-hundred-acre farm that became the Whitman family homestead. In the late eighteenth century his property was overseen by Nehemiah Whitman and his colorful wife Phoebe (better known as Sarah), who spit tobacco juice and swore liberally as she barked commands at the slaves who worked the land.
Popular City Life, Culture, And Politics
Authors: Reynolds David S
Published: November 2023

“REMEMBER,” WHITMAN ONCE SAID, “THE BOOK [ Leaves of Grass] arose out of my life in Brooklyn and New York from 1838 to 1853, absorbing a million people, for fifteen years, with an intimacy, an eagerness, an abandon, probably never equalled.”1 He produced what he called “the idiomatic book of my land” by listening attentively to his land’s many idioms.2 As the ultimate democrat, Whitman wanted his verse to reflect popular tastes, urban experience, and democratic politics. At the same time, he saw clearly the deficiencies of each. Poetry was Whitman’s way of transforming images from everyday life so that readers would discover America’s highest potential. If, as he once said, his poetry was “a great mirror or reflector” of society, it was a mirror in which America saw itself artistically improved.
Epidemiology of Brain Injury
Authors: Kraus Jess F , Mcarthur David L
Published: November 2023

Injury has been the fourth leading cause of mortality in the United States for the past 50 years and is the foremost cause of death among persons aged 1–44.12 In 2001, 157,078 persons died of acute traumatic injury in the United States—a rate of 55 per 100,000 persons per year. This number is only 6460 fewer than the total number of persons who died from stroke in the same year.59 Injury is the most rapidly increasing cause of death in developing countries, resulting from the combination of increased urbanization and motor vehicle use, along with reductions in deaths due to infectious diseases.23 From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, for example, injury fatalities increased 600% in Mexico, 450% in Thailand, 243% in Venezuela, and 200% in Chile.89 Proportional mortality rates from injury in Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania range as high as 10%.4,6,9,19,46,60,64,89 For most developing countries, the mortality rate from injury is substantially greater than the rate in the United States.
Medical Complications of Head Injury
Authors: Voelker Joseph L , Wilson Alison M
Published: November 2023

A significant part of the morbidity produced by cerebral injury comes in the form of medical complications. The brain, through autonomic, hormonal, and biochemical mechanisms, influences most of the body’s organ systems. This finely tuned control may be markedly disrupted by trauma to the central regulatory areas. In caring for headinjured patients, it is important that the resulting derangements in organ system function be recognized and treated. This chapter presents an overview of several medical complications that may develop following head injury.
Complications of Spinal Cord Injury
Authors: Volshteyn Oksana , Mcdonald John W
Published: November 2023

The epidemiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) has been studied extensively over the past three decades. The most accurate epidemiological data are derived from the database of the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center (NSCISC), established in 1973. To date, 25 federally funded Model Spinal Cord Injury Care Systems have contributed information to this SCI database, which contains nearly 23,000 cases of traumatic SCI.81 The estimated annual incidence of traumatic SCI injury in the United States is ∼40 cases per million population, with ∼11,000 new cases each year. The estimated prevalence is ∼270,000 persons. Over the past decade, new trends in the etiology of SCI have emerged: a decrease in motor vehicle accidents (40.9%) and increases in violence (21.6%) and falls (22.4%). Nearly 60% of injuries occur in persons under age 30. The male: female ratio is 4:1.81 Table 15.1 shows the distribution of neurological level and severity of injury.
Zygapophysial Joint Trauma
Authors: Bogduk Nikolai
Published: November 2023

The zygapophysial joints are paired synovial joints formed between the neural arches of consecutive vertebrae. Five pairs are represented in the lumbar spine and six pairs in the cervical spine. Each joint is formed by the articulation of an inferior articular process with the superior articular process of the next vertebra (Figs. 17.1 and 17.2). Each process is lined by articular cartilage, and the joint is enclosed in a fibrous capsule lined with synovial membrane. Ventrally, the capsule is formed by the ligamentum flavum. The joints contain intra-articular inclusions, the most prominent of which are fibroadipose meniscoids located at the superior and inferior poles of each joint.
Occupational and Use-Related Mononeuropathies
Authors: Miller Timothy M , Aminoff Michael J
Published: November 2023

Occupational and use-related mononeuropathies cause significant morbidity. Although the full impact of these syndromes is difficult to assess, the major consequences of carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) alone provide some insight. The prevalence of CTS in the general population is 2% to 3%. In comparison to other work-related injuries and illnesses, median days away from work are highest for CTS. The average worker undergoing carpal tunnel surgery requires 27 days off work, and the estimated cost of carpal tunnel surgery in the United States is $2 billion.
High-Altitude Neurology
Authors: Baumgartner Ralf W
Published: November 2023

In the past decades, the number of persons who choose to spend time at high altitude for leisure activities has considerably increased. Ascent of unacclimatized persons to high altitude may lead to neurological dysfunctions such as high-altitude headache (HAH), acute mountain sickness (AMS), high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE), and ataxia of stance. High-altitude headache and AMS are common complications and have become public health problems. In contrast, HACE is rare, but potentially fatal.
Lightning Injuries
Authors: Cherington Michael
Published: November 2023

Lightning is one of nature’s powerful traumatic forces. Cloud-to-ground lightning flashes have peak currents of 20,000 to 40,000 amps at hundreds of millions of volts and can reach temperatures as high as 60,0000F. Researchers in the early twentyfirst century have provided evidence that lightning is associated with the intense release of X-rays, electrons, and gamma rays.30 With its enormous energy, extreme temperatures, electromagnetic clout, and explosive blast effects, it is not surprising that lightning is responsible for much human, environmental, and property damage. According to data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, between 1959 to 1994 lightning was responsible for over 3000 deaths and 10,000 casualties.25 The actual numbers are very likely to be higher because over 50% of lightning casualties go unreported.
Anthropometric assessment
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

Subsequently, a number of publications made recommendations on specific body measurements for characterizing nutritional status, standardized measurement techniques, and suitable reference data (Jelliffe, 1966; WHO, 1968; Weiner and Lourie, 1969). Today, anthropometric measurements are widely used in the assessment of nutritional status, at both the individual and population levels. One of their main advantages is that anthropometric measurements may be related to past exposures, to present processes, or to future events (WHO, 1995).
Laboratory assessment
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

Laboratory assessment is used primarily to detect subclinical deficiency states, but also to confirm a clinical diagnosis. It has become increasingly important with the growing emphasis on preventive medicine, as it provides an objective means of assessing nutritional status, independent of emotional and other subjective factors. The procedures can supplement other methods of nutritional assessment — for example, dietary, clinical, and anthropometric assessment — enabling specific nutritional problems to be more readily identified.
Assessment of calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium status
Authors: Gibson Rosalind S
Published: November 2023

Calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus are the major mineral components of the body. The distribution of these elements in the body compartments of a 70-kg reference man is shown in Table 23.1. All three minerals occur in combination with organic and inorganic compounds. Calcium and magnesium also exist as free ions and phosphorus as phosphate in circulation. They have two major roles: structural components in bone and soft tissues, and regulatory agents in body fluids.
1842 To 1856: The Early Years In Tübingen
Authors: Krebs Harald , Krebs Sharon
Published: November 2023

Josephine Lang and Christian Reinhold Köstlin were married—twice—in Stuttgart on 29 March 1842. The first ceremony, performed by Köstlin’s father in the Protestant Spitalkirche, took place at 10:00 a.m. The bridal party and guests then drove to the Catholic church where, in deference to the bride’s faith, a second ceremony was held by a priest. Lang had three bridesmaids: Köstlin’s half-sister Adelheid, her own half-sister Meta, and one of Köstlin’s cousins (Mimi Köstlin, a singer who later frequently performed Lang’s songs and to whom she dedicated op. 23). Since Köstlin’s mother and stepmother were both deceased, the responsibility for most of the festivities fell to his Aunt Wilhelmine. It is from her diary that we learn the above details about the wedding.
Mental Retardation Associated with Dysmorphology, Growth Retardation, or Overgrowth
Authors: Smith Moyra
Published: November 2023

Mental retardation associated with facial dysmorphology, congenital malformation, and growth retardation or overgrowth may be due to gene dosage imbalance. Extra copies of genes may result from the presence of an extra chromosome, e.g., trisomy 21. Dosage changes may also result from the presence of an extra chromosomal segment or from loss of a chromosomal segment. Contiguous gene syndromes are disorders where dosage changes in a number of genes that map within a chromosomal segment are thought to play a role in producing the characteristic clinical features of the syndrome. Syndromes characterized by mental retardation, growth retardation, and dysmorphology may also result from defects in specific single genes.
Nonsyndromic Mental Retardation, Autism, and Language Deficits
Authors: Smith Moyra
Published: November 2023

Mental retardation is categorized as syndromic ifit is associated with clinically recognizable physical, neurological, or biochemical features. In non-syndromic or nonspecific mental retardation, significant developmental delay and mental retardation represent key features and distinct dysmorphic features as well as neurological and metabolic abnormalities are absent. The distinction between syndromic mental retardation and non-syndromic mental retardation is, however, not as clear-cut as it may seem. Following identification of genes for non-syndromic forms of X-linked mental retardation, investigators who undertook detailed phenotypic analysis in patients with defects in a specific gene often found subtle but distinct clinical abnormalities. In some instances, patients with a specific gene defect had associated biochemical abnormalities or specific MRI findings. Furthermore, it has become clear that different mutations in a particular gene may have different consequences. Some may lead to syndromic mental retardation, while others lead to nonsyndromic mental retardation (Prints et al. 2002).
Establishing a Diagnosis and Determining Etiology in Developmental Delay and Mental Retardation
Authors: Smith Moyra
Published: November 2023

Developmental disabilities occur in 5%-10% of the pediatric population (Shevell et al. 2000). Deficits may exist in a single domain or across several domains. Included within the spectrum of developmental disabilities are global developmental delay, isolated speech and language delay, motor delay, cerebral palsy, pervasive developmental disabilities, and profound primary and sensory impairments such as deafness and blindness. Determining specific etiology in childhood developmental delay has implications for management. These include medical follow-up, prognosis prediction, and recurrence risk estimation. An important goal of the diagnostic evaluation is to ensure that appropriate rehabilitative services are arranged.
Genetic Epidemiology of Infectious Disease
Authors: Duggal Priya , Beaty Terri H
Published: November 2023

Genetic epidemiology is a hybrid science that combines the tools of genetics and epidemiology to identify the role genes play in controlling susceptibility to complex diseases—diseases that have both genetic and environmental causes. Traditional medical genetics has focused primarily on single-gene traits and has successfully identified causal mutations controlling many phenotypes that follow the transmission patterns first outlined by Gregor Mendel. Mendelian diseases can be autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, Xlinked dominant, or X-linked recessive (with varying levels of incomplete penetrance possible) but are typically rare in the population (see glossary). Epidemiology, the methodologic science of public health, has conventionally focused on the study of more common diseases in an effort to identify factors that control the distribution of disease at the population level. The science of epidemiology evolved through the study of infectious diseases, and traditionally there has been little consideration of host genetic factors controlling susceptibility. During the last quarter of the twentieth century, however, genetic epidemiology emerged as a field that applies the principles of genetics to complex diseases, which generally cluster in families suggesting some genetic component but do not behave in a purely Mendelian fashion. Unlike the traditional single gene diseases, a complex disease is most likely to reflect effects of one or more genes (that may interact with each other) and the environment, and there is typically some degree of etiologic heterogeneity.
Laboratory Analysis of Genetic Variation
Authors: Yeager Meredith , Welch Robert A , Chanock Stephen J
Published: November 2023

Recent technical and computational advances have dramatically accelerated the pace of laboratory analysis in the field of genetics. Historically, genotyping projects were small in scope and typically included analysis of a handful of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in a candidate gene. The SNPs were often chosen because of known or putative function (e.g., in an amino acid–altering or promoter region) or on the basis of suggestive or corroborating laboratory data. However, in a matter of a few years, the horizon has changed dramatically; thousands of SNP markers can now be tested efficiently in large population-based studies.
MHC Class I and Related Genes
Authors: Stephens Henry A F
Published: November 2023

Class I human leukocyte antigens (HLA) are highly polymorphic (see EBI=EMBL, 2007). A central issue in modern immunology is what forces have driven this variability. In the early 1990s, evidence emerged that one of the most common HLA class I molecules in African populations (HLA-B53) appeared to provide some degree of protection against severe life-threatening complications of malaria (Hill et al., 1991; see also chapter 24 in this volume). One implication of this work was that considerable microbial selective pressure has influenced HLA class I variability in different populations. However, much of the subsequent evidence for HLA class I associations with infectious diseases has come from the field of viral immunology. Here, the urgent need to develop vaccines against newly emerging infections such as HIV-1 (see chapter 19) has focused attention on how immune response genes determine initial infection and the subsequent course of disease after exposure to pathogens.
MHC Class II and Related Genes
Authors: McNicholl Janet M , Jensen Peter E , Boss Jeremy M
Published: November 2023

The MHC class II antigen-processing pathway plays a central role in the adaptive immune response to microbial pathogens as the mechanism through which ligands are generated for recognition by CD4+ helper T cells. CD4+ helper T cells are activated by recognition of short peptide antigens stably bound to MHC class II molecules expressed on the surface of specialized antigen-presenting cells (APC), such as dendritic cells. Activated CD4+ T cells are required to generate high-affinity antibody responses through their capacity to interact with antigen-specific B cells to promote isotype switching, somatic mutation of immunoglobulin genes, and the generation of memory B cells. Through cytokine production and direct activation of dendritic cells, CD4+ T cells also promote the induction of CD8+ cytolytic T-cell responses. Moreover, helper T cells mediate delayed-type hypersensitivity effector mechanisms by recruiting and activating macrophages and other components of the innate immune system. By controlling antigen recognition by CD4+ T cells, MHC class II proteins (e.g., the HLA-DR, -DP, and -DQ molecules), together with co-factor and accessory MHC molecules (e.g., HLA-DM and -DO and the invariant chain) and transcription factors (RFX and CIITA), have a profound impact on all the major effector mechanisms employed in adaptive immune responses.
Immunoglobulin Fc and Related Receptor Genes
Authors: Croker Jennifer A , Kimberly Robert P
Published: November 2023

Immunoglobulin Fc receptors (FcRs), members of the immunoglobulin gene superfamily, are membranebound glycoproteins that function in the immune system by coupling antibodies to effector functions in a cell. The different FcRs, while each interacting with the constant (Fc) region of an antibody (Ab), may bind to ligand with different affinities. Each FcR utilizes partiallyoverlapping, aswellasdiscrete, signalingmechanisms to elicit cellular immune responses, including phagocytosis, degranulation, endocytosis, immunecomplex clearance, Ab-dependent cell cytotoxicity, and transcriptional regulation of cytokine and chemokine expression (Daeron, 1997). Clinically, genetic variants found in several of the FcRs have been implicated in several inflammatory, rheumatic, and autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and vasculitis (Croker and Kimberly, 2005). Recent data also implicate FcR function in susceptibility to infection, particularly inpatients with inflammatory or autoimmune diseases (Kimberly et al., 1988, 1998; Hughes et al., 2004).
Tumor Necrosis Factor and Related Genes
Authors: Gallagher Grant , Moraes Milton O , Anaya Juan-Manuel
Published: November 2023

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) region spans four loci: lymphotoxin a (LTA), lymphotoxin b (LTB), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and leukocyte-specific transcript 1 (LST1). Much is known about the functions of the products of three of these genes—LTa, LTb, and TNF. The fourth gene has been relatively ignored since its discovery in the early 1990s. The most studied gene product is the cytokine is TNF (also known as TNF-a), which is produced largely by monocytes, macrophages, and T cells (Correa & Anaya, 2001). TNF is synthesized as a 26-kDa membrane protein, which is cleaved to produce its soluble 17-kDa form. TNF is a pleiotropic and proinflammatory cytokine that displays a wide range of biological activities regulating normal functions such as hematopoiesis, morphogenesis, lipid metabolism, and endothelial function and has several local effects, including protection against infections. However, TNF overproduction can lead to severe tissue damage, organ failure, and occasionally death.