bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Ecumenical, Interdisciplinary, and Integrating Specialization Program in Pastoral Counseling in East Central Europe
Authors: Tomcsányi Teodóra , Török Gábor , Csáky-Pallavicini Roger , Ittzés András , Sallay Viola , Martos Tamás , Török Péter
Published: February 2018

Pointing out the similarities and differences between pastoral counseling and pastoral psychology, our study presents the goals, curriculum, characteristics, and novelty of a specialization program in pastoral counseling established at a historic moment in Hungary—after the end of the communist dictatorship. On the one hand, we describe a university-level ecumenical, interdisciplinary, integrating specialization program in pastoral counseling which is offered at the graduate level through the cooperation of secular and ecclesiastical institutions of higher learning and which takes into account the differences of historical and cultural conditions between East Central Europe and the West. On the other hand, we present an effectiveness study of the program in which we measured, with the help of an instrument developed by our research group, changes in students' pastoral counseling competence (N=55). In the longitudinal study ‘person-centeredness’, ‘non-directiveness’, ‘assuming responsibility for the process’, ‘ability to handle spiritual issues’, ‘recognition of competence boundaries’ showed significant increase. The results prove that students’ practical helping competence developed significantly, and our findings correspond to the goals of the educational program. We also discuss the strengths and limitations of the specialization program as well as its social significance.
Considering Adaptive and Maladaptive Versions of Unmitigated Communion: Part Two
Authors: Bassett Rodney L. , Aubé Jennifer
Published: February 2018

As a follow-up to previously published studies (Bassett & Aubé, 2012), a questionnaire was given to a fairly heterogeneous group of individuals. The questionnaire contained scales measuring the following: parenting style, grace orientation, self-esteem, resilience, tendencies toward jealousy, and body image. The goal was to determine if these measures connected with two versions of unmitigated communion (i.e., self-sacrifice in close relationships) in ways that made conceptual sense and provided construct validity for a measure new measure of these two versions of unmitigated communion (UC-self, UC-other). Consistent with the conceptual model behind this measure of self-sacrifice, it was found that UC-Self connected with various forms of dysfunction while UC-Other simply connected to the emotional and cognitive aspects of empathy.
Embodied Integration
Authors: Devers Erin E.
Published: February 2018

Approaches to the integration of psychology and Christian theology in a college classroom often focus on the cognitive component. “Embodied integration” refers to the idea that bodily states precede and inform cognition and thus are an integral part of the process of integration. Three pedagogical examples are described that include features of an embodied integration approach: physiological arousal, moving from specific cases to general ones, moving from concrete examples to abstract ones, and cognitive dissonance. The role of embodiment as an approach to theology and the overall implications of this approach to pedagogy are discussed.
Negative Views of Parents and Struggles with God: An Exploration of Two Mediators
Authors: Exline Julie J. , Homolka Steffany J. , Grubbs Joshua B.
Published: February 2018

Could a negative view of one's mother or father be related to struggles with God? If so, what mediating variables might explain this connection? We conducted two studies to examine these questions, one with a broad-based internet sample (n = 471) and one with undergraduates (n = 236). Both studies confirmed that seeing one's mother or father as cruel was associated with two types of divine struggle: anger toward God and concern about God's anger or disapproval toward the self. A cruel God concept largely mediated the link with divine struggle in Study 1. In Study 2, a multiple mediation procedure identified two distinct mediators: not only a cruel God concept but also a sense of instability or anxiety about abandonment in one's perceived bond with God. These results complement other theoretical and empirical work that connects experiences with parents with perceptions and emotions regarding God.
The Efficacy of a Manualized Group Treatment Protocol for Changing God Image, Attachment to God, Religious Coping, and Love of God, Others, and Self
Authors: Rasar Jacqueline D. , Garzon Fernando L. , Volk Frederick , O'hare Carmella A. , Moriarty Glendon L.
Published: February 2018

This study compared the efficacy of a manualized group treatment protocol on God image and attachment to God to a manualized Christian Bible study and a waiting list control group in a sample of undergraduate college students attending a Christian college. Thirty students were randomly assigned to one of the treatment conditions and assessed with measures of God attachment, God image, religious coping, and general spiritual outcomes. It was hypothesized that significant God image and attachment change would occur among the God image treatment group participants only. In addition, it was hypothesized that significant religious coping and spiritual outcome change would occur within both groups compared to the waiting list control group. The results supported significant spiritual outcome changes in both groups but no significant God image/attachment change or religious coping change. Feedback from group participants informed how manualized God image/attachment protocols may be modified in future research to improve outcomes for young college-age Christian participants.
Moral Intuitions and Attitudes toward Gay Men: Can Moral Psychology Add to Our Understanding of Homonegativity?
Authors: Rosik Christopher H. , Dinges Laura J. , Saavedra Noe
Published: February 2018

In the present study, we surveyed university students (n = 183) to determine if the inclusion of moral intuitions as described in Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) would aid in the explanation of two types of homonegativity toward gay men. After accounting for demographic variables, social desirability, and intrinsic religiousness, results of hierarchical multiple regression procedures indicated that the inclusion of moral intuitions improved prediction of both traditional and modern forms of homonegativity, although this occurred through differential emphases on specific moral foundations. Our findings suggest that the more participants regarded the individual rather than the group (e.g., family or society) as the focus of moral concern, the less likely they were to evidence either type of homonegativity. MFT appears to provide the sexual prejudice literature with a means of understanding the motivational schema of Christian and other conservatives in less derogatory terms than have heretofore been examined. This can enhance the study of homonegativity and the public policy that flows from it.
A Psycho-Biblical Response to Death Anxiety: Separation and Individuation Dynamics in the Babel Narrative
Authors: Cantz Paul , Castle Mirel
Published: February 2018

Compared to other biblical narratives, the well-known account of the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11: 1–9) has been underrepresented in the psychological analysis of the Bible. Although the Babel narrative has conventionally been understood as a tale cautioning against the perils of rebelling against authority, on the one hand, and as an explanatory legend concerning the origins of linguistic and societal diversity, on the other—in this paper we maintain that the psychological relevance of the Babel narrative runs substantially deeper than what is to be found in these standard interpretations, and in fact offers interpretations, offering a sophisticated solution to the universal condition of death anxiety. Since the development of the Western mental health establishment has been largely underwritten by Classical Greek attitudes and values, the Hebraic worldview has been suppressed if not completely ignored within the development of psychoanalytic metatheory. The Greek myths of Phaëton and Icarus are examined to illuminate the contrast between the Classical Greek and biblical views of rebelliousness and individuation as it relates to assuaging death anxiety. Once interpreted through Hebraic optics, the Babel narrative can be appreciated as a story wherein a loving Deity (father figure) acts according to the best interests of His children (the Multitude), facilitating their emotional maturity and psychological individuation and consequently providing the space to mobilize their death anxiety into a vitalizing, life-affirming sense of self.
Humbling Yourself before God: Humility as a Reliable Predictor of Lower Divine Struggle
Authors: Grubbs Joshua B. , Exline Julie J.
Published: February 2018

Personality factors such as low agreeableness and psychological entitlement are often highly predictive of spiritual struggle. Our aim was to examine trait humility as a potential predictor of lower levels of divine struggles—struggles focused on emotions or ideas about God. Specifically, we proposed that humility would correlate negatively with two forms of divine struggle: anger at God and religious fear and guilt. To test these hypotheses, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis with undergraduates (160 men, 152 women). Results indicated that humility was indeed negatively related to both forms of divine struggle. For anger at God, both in general and in reaction to a specific event, these findings were very robust, maintaining significance even when other related personality factors (e.g., psychological entitlement, agreeableness, trait anger) were held constant. For religious fear and guilt, humility was only marginally significant when controlling for such variables. In sum, humility does appear to function as a trait-level negative predictor of divine struggles.
Intellectual Humility and Reactions to Opinions about Religious Beliefs
Authors: Hopkin Cameron R. , Hoyle Rick H. , Toner Kaitlin
Published: February 2018

Intellectual humility, a recognition of the fallibility of one's own views and an openness to changing those views when warranted, is a construct with roots in philosophy that is only now beginning to receive attention from psychological scientists. We focus on intellectual humility in the domain of religious belief and conduct an initial test of the hypothesis that the influence of religious beliefs on evaluations of written opinions about religious matters is moderated by intellectual humility. We find that our ad hoc measure of intellectual humility in the religious domain is best characterized in terms of four correlated dimensions, allowing for focused tests of our hypothesis. We find some support for the hypothesis. Individuals with strong religious beliefs who are low in intellectual humility in the religion domain, regardless of dimension, react more strongly than their high humility counterparts to written opinions regarding religious beliefs—both opinions that support and contradict their own beliefs. Ancillary analyses show a moderate curvilinear relation between strength of religious beliefs and intellectual humility in the religion domain, with lower humility accompanying stronger views in favor of and against religious beliefs.
On Earth as it is in Heaven: Healing through Forgiveness
Authors: Griffin Brandon J. , Lavelock Caroline R. , Worthington Everett L.
Published: February 2018

In this article, we hypothesize that health outcomes associated with forgiveness, if it is received from God, others, or oneself or if it is granted to others, foreshadow the eschatological regeneration of Christians. Over a decade of scientific inquiry supports a working model that integrates forgiveness, health, and Christian (primarily Reformed) theology. To support this model, we examined studies, reviews of scientific literature, and theological sources to adduce relevant evidence according to four areas of forgiveness—by God, others, or oneself and granted to others. We thus identify domains in which God's promise of forgiveness and Christians’ ministry of forgiveness to others might be associated with improved mental and physical health outcomes. In this way, the healing effects associated with forgiveness ultimately function as a glimpse of God's redemptive plan for humankind.
Supporting Pastoral Psychology in China: Methods and Principles
Authors: Ting Rachel Sing-kiat , Dueck Alvin
Published: February 2018

Although the psychology and counseling profession is rapidly emerging in socialist China, practicing pastoral psychology in China is still a recent trend in various religious settings. Since 2004, Fuller Graduate School of Psychology has been involved in empowering pastoral counselors in China. Over the years, we have related to over 200 pastoral counselors in China in the context of local seminars, intensive workshops and classes, conferences, and international exchanges. In this essay, we will report on the recent developments in formal pastoral psychology in China. Secondly, we will review the needs of pastoral care and challenges encountered in empowering pastoral psychologists in China. We responded to these challenges with bilingual classrooms, multi-cultural input, a collectivist orientation, theological diversity, and peer supervision. The approach was guided by a peaceable psychology model which integrates Christianity with the Chinese virtues or principles: guanxi (relational), xuji (modesty), huzhu (reciprocity), and youjiaowulei (inclusiveness).
Theology for Better Counseling: Help from within the Wesleyan-Holiness Theological Tradition
Authors: Holeman Virginia T.
Published: February 2018

Theological themes are embedded in many presenting problems, and religious clients may ask counselors to help them understand how their spiritual and/or religious life relates to their problems. Such requests involve the art of theological reflection. This article presents a model for theologically reflective counseling using examples from Wesleyan-holiness theology.
Utilizing the Serenity Prayer to Teach Psychology students about Stress Management
Authors: Campbell Elizabeth L.
Published: February 2018

This paper is a response to requests from Christian psychologists for subject-specific class activities that integrate Christianity and psychology. Although Christian/psychology integration is highly valued by many as an overarching pedagogical goal, few examples are available of how to achieve such integration in specific class activities. This paper describes an example of a subject-specific, Christian/psychology integration class activity by utilizing the serenity prayer to teach psychology students about stress management. The activity is described for the purpose of justification and replication. Conclusions and future directions are also discussed.
Religious and Spiritual Diversity Training in Clinical Psychology Doctoral Programs: Do Explicitly Christian Programs Differ from Other Programs?
Authors: McMinn Mark R. , Vogel Michael J. , Hall M. Elizabeth Lewis , Abernethy Alexis D. , Birch Ryan , Galuza Timofey , Rodriguez Jacqi , Putman Kathryn
Published: February 2018

The American Psychological Association (APA) accredits several explicitly Christian doctoral programs in clinical psychology. To what extent do these programs offer training in religious and spiritual diversity that students may not receive at other APA-accredited programs? A total of 353 students from 5 explicitly Christian programs were surveyed using the same questionnaire used in a more general national sample of APA-accredited doctoral programs a year previously. Students in explicitly Christian programs reported receiving more training in religious and spiritual diversity and more training in advanced competencies regarding religious and spiritual issues in professional work than students in the general sample of APA-accredited programs. At the same time, students in explicitly Christian programs reported receiving less training in ethnic/racial and socioeconomic diversity than students in other programs. Diversity training implications are considered.
Delight or Distraction: An Exploratory Analysis of Sabbath-Keeping Internalization
Authors: Bailey Karl G. D. , Timoti Arian C. B.
Published: February 2018

Internalization of religious motivation is associated with increased subjective well-being. However, much of the work on internalization focuses on widespread, low-cost religious practices. We propose that distinctive, high-cost, and meaningful Christian practices, such as Sabbath keeping, may be related to the internalization of religion—and thus increased well-being—when they occur within a community. Using a factor-cluster approach to develop an instrument to measure the internalization of Sabbath keeping among Seventh-day Adventists, we found a positive relationship between deeper internalization and higher subjective well-being. Importantly, the relationship between internalization of Sabbath-keeping practice and well-being was only weakly meditated by a more general measure of religious internalization, suggesting separate contributions of internalization for distinctive high-cost practices and widespread low-cost practices.
Relational Commitment as a Mediator of Religiousness to Marital Quality
Authors: Mitchell Joel C. , Edwards Keith J. , Hunt Scott B. , Poelstra Paul
Published: February 2018

This study examined the relationship between religiousness, relational commitment, and marital quality, proposing that relational commitment would act as a mediator in the relationship between religiousness and marital quality. Using a causal step approach to testing mediation, zero-order correlates demonstrated significant relationships among all 3 variables. In examining the mediating effects of relational commitment, full mediation for religiousness on marital quality was determined by using a sequential regression analysis. Therefore, religious individuals who had higher levels of relational commitment to their spouses experienced greater marital quality than those who had lower levels of relational commitment. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed.
Effects of Narcissism and Religiosity on Church Ministers with Respect to Ethical Judgment, Confidence, and Forgiveness
Authors: Cooper Marjorie J. , Pullig Chris , Dickens Charles
Published: February 2018

Narcissism has been negatively correlated with better ethical judgment. Intrinsic (I)—but not extrinsic—religiosity has been positively associated with better ethical judgment. We hypothesize that these relationships also hold for Christian church ministers. Therefore, this study of church ministers was undertaken to determine the effects of religiosity and narcissism on the ethical judgment of ministers confronted with 10 different ethical scenarios. To test our hypotheses, we surveyed 2,490 Protestant church ministers and received 488 usable surveys. Results indicated that intrinsic religiosity—but not extrinsic personal (Ep) or extrinsic social (Es) religiosity—had significant positive effects on ethical judgment, participants’ confidence in their ethical judgment, and participants’ willingness to forgive. Ep, in contrast, had significant negative effects on ethical judgment and willingness to forgive, while Es had a significant negative effect on confidence. Narcissism overall had a negative effect on ethical judgment and was found to interact with intrinsic religiosity such that the effects of narcissism were mitigated in the presence of high levels of intrinsic religiosity.
Forgiveness as a Catalyst for Psychological, Physical, and Spiritual Resilience in Disasters and Crises
Authors: Worthington Everett L. , Griffin Brandon J. , Toussaint Loren L. , Nonterah Camilla W. , Utsey Shawn O. , Garthe Rachel C.
Published: February 2018

In this conceptual article, we argue that some people are resilient in the face of disasters while others are not. Resilience may necessitate forgiveness—of perpetrators of interpersonal harms (e.g., Rwandan Genocide in 1994); of inadequate responder assistance (e.g., Hurricane Katrina); or in situations where community members perceive themselves as victims of offense by virtue of their group affiliation, although they themselves were not actually harmed (e.g., survivors of school shootings). Victims may experience unforgiveness toward others in human-caused disasters and may deal with unforgiveness toward God in natural disasters. Forgiveness may be an effective response to disaster-related injustices that promotes resilience. We used a meta-analysis of forgiveness interventions and an empirical study of awareness-raising campaigns on college campuses to estimate the effects of forgiveness on public health, public mental health, relationships, and spirituality across society after disasters. We advocate for forgiveness as one of many potential resilient responses. Specifically, forgiveness could potentially transform unforgiveness into a stronger sense of purpose and improved social relations.
Relational Spirituality and Forgiveness of Intergroup Offenses
Authors: Mcelroy Stacey , Choe Elise , Westbrook Charles , Davis Don E. , Van Tongeren Daryl R. , Hook Joshua N. , Placeres Vanessa , Espinosa Tiffany
Published: February 2018

Many religious individuals use forgiveness to cope with interpersonal offenses. There has been much work on religion/spirituality and interpersonal forgiveness, but little theory or research has focused on religion/spirituality and intergroup forgiveness. The current study extends a model of relational spirituality to the context of intergroup forgiveness. Undergraduates (N = 166) identified an intergroup offense and completed measures of religious commitment, personality, relational spirituality, and forgiveness. After controlling for personality and religious commitment, appraisals of relational spirituality predicted additional variance in forgiveness of an intergroup offense. This study extends the literature on religion/spirituality and forgiveness to the intergroup context.
Anxious and Avoidant Attachment to God Predict Moral Foundations beyond Adult Attachment
Authors: Njus David M. , Okerstrom Katrina
Published: February 2018

Van IJzendoorn and Zwart-Woudstra (1995) and Shaver and Mikulincer (2012) have proposed that adult attachment patterns are related to moral decision-making. We explore the relationship between attachment to God (ATG) and the 5 moral foundations proposed by Haidt and Graham (2007)—care/harm, fairness/reciprocity, ingroup/loyalty, authority/respect, and purity/sanctity. Data from 306 adult subjects, who completed measures of adult attachment, ATG, and the 5 moral foundations, were collected online. Results revealed that attachment to God accounted for significant levels of variability in all 5 foundations above and beyond the variability accounted for by adult romantic and best friend attachment. ATG avoidance was negatively related to the care, fairness, authority, and purity foundations, while ATG anxiety was positively related to the in-group loyalty and authority foundations. Our results suggest that those with insecure attachment patterns—in this case regarding God as an attachment figure—have different moral foundation profiles.
Aspiring to Lead: An Investigation into the Interactions between Self-Esteem, Patriarchal Attitudes, Gender, and Christian Leadership
Authors: Mason Christopher , Mason Karen , Mathews Alice
Published: February 2018

Self-esteem has been linked to almost every aspect of people's lives including their leadership aspirations. This study tested the relationship between self-esteem, gender, and leadership aspirations and examined the potential interaction effect of patriarchal attitudes. Studies have found that women report lower levels of self-esteem than men. Men and women attending Christian bible colleges have reported differences in self-esteem compared to the general population, with male Christian bible college students reporting the highest levels of self-esteem (Bredfeldt, 1991). in the current study, we sought to replicate Bredfeldt's (1991) findings of gender differences in self-esteem among Christian men and women using a contemporary sample of 112 Evangelical Christian seminary students who completed the same measure of self-esteem used in the Bredfeldt study along with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. In addition, we examined the interaction between self-esteem, leadership aspirations and patriarchal attitudes. Although we found no differences in self-esteem between Christian men and women, our results supported the importance of self-esteem in determining leadership aspirations. However, the nature of the relationship between self-esteem and leadership aspirations was meaningfully affected by patriarchal attitudes and this effect differed by gender. Implications for the future of church leadership are discussed.
A Gratitude Intervention in a Christian Church Community
Authors: Uhder Jens , McMinn Mark R. , Bufford Rodger K. , Gathercoal Kathleen
Published: February 2018

This field experiment examined the effects of a gratefulness intervention in the context of a Christian church congregation. Two Christian congregations with comparable demographic and socio-economic characteristics were enrolled and assigned to the experimental and comparison conditions. The gratitude intervention was developed collaboratively with church leaders. Though within-subject effects were found for psychological well-being, spiritual well-being, life satisfaction, positive and negative affect, daily spiritual experiences, and favorable views of psychology and interdisciplinary collaboration, the comparison group showed similar increases to the intervention group. Thus, the effects of the gratitude intervention were supported within but not across groups. No significant changes occurred on measures of interpersonal engagement. This research represents the first quasi-experiment to study a gratitude intervention within a faith congregation. In spite of methodological limitations, it highlights the potential benefit of gratitude interventions designed in collaboration with clergy.
Perspectives regarding Motivations for Adoption by Christian Adoptive Parents: A Qualitative Study
Authors: Firmin Michael W. , Pugh Kelley C. , Markham Ruth L. , Sohn Valerie A. , Gentry Emily N.
Published: February 2018

This qualitative phenomenological research study was conducted through semi-structured interviews with 21 self-described practicing Evangelical Christian families who have both biological and adopted children. The participants in the study shared numerous common elements pertaining to their shared perspectives. Here, we present the results specifically related to the reported motivations of the parents for adopting children. Findings included theological motivations to adopt (i.e., perceived biblical mandate, perspective of ministry, concepts of spiritual adoption, views towards God's blessings) and a perspective that some romanticize the nature of adoption. We discuss various theological and spiritual implications of the findings in the context of biblical teachings to care for orphans and show love to underserved populations. The results also are related to research literature addressing the stress often reported by parents who adopt children.
Early Trauma as a Predictor of Burnout and Social Network Structure in Mission Workers
Authors: Wilkins Ashley M. , Eriksson Cynthia B. , Pickett Candace Coppinger , Barrett Justin L.
Published: February 2018

Research has established that adverse experiences in childhood are far-reaching. Attachment persists into adulthood, impacted by internal structures that make sense of relational experience. Dunbar (1993) has estimated that humans maintain approximately 150 personal relationships, structured in concentric rings of decreasing intimacy within the active social network. However, no literature exists examining the relationship among adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), adult attachment dynamics, and social networks. Relational mission workers (N=84) completed a self-report questionnaire. Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that, after controlling for Extraversion, ACEs and Global Anxiety attachment were significant predictors of the size of the innermost social network ring, and ACEs predicted the change in ratio between the innermost social network ring and the social network as a whole. Interpersonal, internal factors, such as attachment style, and experiential, external factors, such as ACEs, can impact the structure and size of an individual's social network.
Spirituality in the Workplace: Practices, Challenges, and Recommendations
Authors: Loo Mark Kam Loon
Published: February 2018

Spirituality in the workplace has become an organizational behaviour issue in Canada. As 75% of Canadians indicate a religious affiliation, and as immigration and foreign worker programs lend themselves to an increasingly diverse workforce, there is a growing concern for Canadian employers to meet employees' spirituality needs. Further, evolving spirituality definitions demand a study to help organizations better serve employee needs. This research seeks to identify the types and extent of spirituality accommodation in Canadian organizations. Based on an extensive literature review and analysis of employer practices pertaining to spirituality needs, this study constructs four categories of spiritual practices: traditional religion, new age, community service, and creativity. The findings show significantly higher accommodation for creativity and community service than for traditional religion and new age practices. This paper proposes four recommendations to help managers manage spirituality ethically and equitably.
Who's Your Daddy? Family Structure Differences in Attachment to God
Authors: Murunga Maurice S. , Limke-McLean Alicia , Wright Ronald W.
Published: February 2018

Recent research has demonstrated that individuals' relationships with God are attachment-based. However, research has not yet investigated differences in attachment to God by parents' marital status. Thus, the goal of the present study was to examine these links. To do so, 288 undergraduate students completed measures assessing family structure, attachment to fathers, attachment to mothers, and attachment to God. Results suggest support for the correspondence theory of attachment to God (i.e., individuals project their attachment to parents onto their attachments to God) for participants with married parents. In contrast, the compensation hypothesis (i.e., individuals seek relationships with God to fulfill unreliable relationships with parents) was supported for participants with divorced parents.
Hypnotic Aspect of Religious Experiences
Authors: Matheson George
Published: February 2018

Hypnosis is a curious phenomena which has captured the interest and imagination of individuals and cultures for centuries. This article presents it as a perspective from which to analyze religious events. Initially, the reader is acquainted with the history of hypnosis; then, with the present state of the science. Several religious experiences are considered, showing that the hypnotic element might explain some of the phenomena. Finally, some implications of an hypnotic aspect in religious events are considered.
Counseling and the Clergy: Perceptions of Roles
Authors: Clark Stephen A. , Thomas Arthur H.
Published: February 2018

Two separate studies were undertaken simultaneously, in an effort to clarify the nature of the perceptions which clergy have regarding their counseling roles. In the first study a pastoral counseling survey (PCS) was developed to assess the actual role perceptions held by clergy. The PCS was shown to be a reliable and effective instrument for measuring role perceptions. The second study tested the hypothesis, suggested in the literature on counseling and pastoral counseling, that the clergy's role perceptions might be related directly to two variables: theological position (liberal-conservative) and counseling training. The PCS was administered to clergy representing liberal and conservative denominations in a four-state area of the midwest. Both variables were upheld statistically. Liberal and conservative, and more and less trained clergy, held different counseling role perceptions.
Toward the Development of a Christian Psychology: Personality
Authors: Koteskey Ronald L.
Published: February 2018

This is the fourth in a series of articles placing various areas of psychology in a Christian perspective. First, the major approaches to personality are considered. The psychoanalytic and behavioristic approaches are seen as emphasizing the animal-like aspects of human personality, while humanistic and cognitive approaches emphasize the similarity of humans to God. Then personality is placed in a Christian perspective. Humans are seen as being similar to animals in terms of physical beings, sensation, learning, and biological motivation, They are also seen as being similar to God in terms of spiritual being, perception, cognitive processes, and cognitive motivation. Humans are also unique in that they have sinned and have the potential for salvation. Finally, some issues in the measurement of personality are discussed.
Toward the Development of A Christian Psychology: Adjustment and Maladjustment
Authors: Koteskey Ronald L.
Published: February 2018

This is fifth in a series of articles placing various areas of psychology in a Christian perspective. First, adjustment is defined as being like God, and maladjustment as being unlike God. Physical disorders, learned responses, underlying conflicts, sin, immaturity, or demon possession may result in maladjustment, may keep a person from being like God. Physical methods of therapy, behavior therapy, psychotherapy, salvation, discipleship, or the casting out of demons may then be the corresponding methods of readjustment or therapy.
Some Bible Families Examined from a Systems Perspective
Authors: Rogers Martha L.
Published: February 2018

A brief overview of systems theory is provided with examples of major aspects of systems such as boundary, adaptability and specialization, decider subsystem and feedback loop functioning, and priorities or goals. Ways in which systems can malfunction are then described. Several Bible families' narratives are then analyzed from a systems perspective; these include Lot's family as an example of a malfunctioning system, Abigail and Nabal as an example of a system with one major dysfunctional component, Abram and Sarai as an example of a system that clearly grew in competence and spirituality, and, finally, Priscilla and Aquila are seen as an optimally operating system. It is concluded that a systems model could provide a basis for studying Bible family narratives as “background” of the total “gestalt” of Scriptures, from which basic principles permitting healthy development can be derived. A more comprehensive view of the meaning of biblical “foreground.” or specific injunctions regarding management of family life, would then become possible.
Reflections on the Task of Integration
Authors: Rambo Lewis R.
Published: February 2018

This article is a response to the six articles on the integration of psychology and theology which comprise this issue. The article is divided into three parts. Part I consists of specific reactions to each of the articles. Part II is a brief overview of three modes of integration. Part III outlines some of the issues and trends which emerge in the six articles and includes projections about the future of the integration task.
Psychological Separation-Individuation and Spiritual Reunion
Authors: Talley Joseph E.
Published: February 2018

It is the primary purpose of this article to elucidate the interplay between psychological and spiritual development. Specifically, this is an effort to examine the relationship between the psychological process of separation-individuation as it is defined by psychoanalyst Margaret Mahler and spiritual reunion as it is portrayed by Paul Tillich. The views of St. Paul concerning spiritual union are also contrasted to Tillich's perspective and explored in light of Mahler's description of the early mother-child “symbiosis.” Finally, the sense of spiritual “estrangement” as defined by Tillich is compared to the sense of “separation anxiety” as conceptualized by Mahler.
Assumptions and Parameters for Developing Christian Psychological Systems
Authors: Timpe Randie L.
Published: February 2018

Serious attempts to integrate psychology and theology have increased both in frequency and quality during the latter half of the past decade. Crucial to this activity is specification of assumptions, both about the Bible and Christian experience, and the nature of system-building. While there is a general consensus on the central assumption of the Creatorship, Lordship, and Sustainership of Christ, considerable variability exists regarding peripheral but, nevertheless, important assumptions. This variability contributes to the varieties of Christian psychologies. These peripheral assumptions are given special consideration.
Assertive Behavior in A New Testament Perspective
Authors: Moy Arthur C.
Published: February 2018

As a rule of Christian behavior, the expression “turn the other cheek” has been overly used and sometimes too broadly applied. Many Christians have the impression that they are to weakly submit in the face of any opposition or demand. The present article, however, contends that it is biblical for Christians to react with appropriate and responsible assertive behavior in such situations. First, assertive behavior is seen in examples from the New Testament. Secondly, assertive behavior is viewed in the context of New Testament teachings. Finally, the application of assertiveness in the Christian context must go beyond the popular sense. Christians must exercise a radical assertiveness or temperate assertiveness depending on the need.
Training Christian People Helpers: Observations on Counselor Education
Authors: Collins Gary R. , Tornquist Lawrence M.
Published: February 2018

How should counselors be trained? This issue has concerned professionals for many years but interest in counselor education has increased with the proliferation of training models, the appearance of new training programs, and the increased public acceptance of counseling. This article reviews several present approaches to counselor training, summarizes some current trends in counselor education, and proposes a people helper training model. This model begins with the Bible, is strongly based in psychological knowledge and techniques, and emphasizes professional, pastoral, peer, psychological-apologetic, public, and preventive aspects of people helping.
Judgment and Decision Models within the Christian Presuppositional System
Authors: Norman Kent L.
Published: February 2018

Only after a system of moral and ethical values has been established can viable models of judgment and decision making be designed. Such models may then be used to either prescribe how a decision should be made or describe the behavior of decision makers. This article suggests ways in which the Christian presuppositional system may affect a decision model's parameters and mathematical form in terms of (a) the utility of objects and events, (b) the relative importance of information, (c) the way in which uncertainty is resolved, and (d) the goal of the decision maker as indicated by the particular dimension selected for optimization. In each case, Christian presuppositions define the criteria used to validate the model in terms of God's absolute laws and precepts. Other presuppositional systems rely on relative criteria based on biological, psychological, or sociological dimensions. Without the absolutes of God the Father, the work of Jesus the Son, and guidance through the Holy Spirit, models of judgment and decision are arbitrary at best and incomplete or inconsistent in the main. The Christian faith reconciles our own finite value system with the ultimate criterion system — God's laws.
Moral Development and the Forgiveness of Sin
Authors: Spidell Steven , Liberman Dov
Published: February 2018

It is the purpose of this article to contribute to the dialogue between religion and morality by examining the Christian conception of forgiveness of sin (an aspect of the doctrine of justification) as interpreted by individauls at each of Kohlberg's stages of moral development. The thesis of this article is that justification is a developmental process as well as a un [temporal event in the individual's life. At each higher stage of moral development one becomes increasingly aware of the scope of sin. In order to accommodate this growing realization, individuals at different stages of moral development turn to different ways of interpreting the doctrine of justification. However, it is maintained that only at Stage 7 docs one come to full understanding of one's inability to achieve forgiveness by one's own deeds and thus turn to God in a posture of faith alone, realizing that such forgiveness can come solely from him.
Cognitive Styles and Word versus Spirit Orientations among Christians
Authors: Hsieh Theodore T. Y.
Published: February 2018

Christian college students classified as either Word or Spirit-oriented through a questionnaire were tested with the Rod and Frame Apparatus. Word-oriented subjects were found to be field-independent and Spirit-oriented subjects to be field-dependent in their perceptual style. No sex difference on field-dependence or independence was found within either the Word-oriented or the Spirit-oriented groups, but a significant difference in sex distribution of Word or Spirit-orientation was found. Socialization and sex role expectation effects in the churches and implications for these findings and further studies were discussed.
Biblical Authority and Christian Psychology
Authors: Crabb Lawrence J.
Published: February 2018

In order to integrate the insights of psychology with the revealed truth of the Bible, we need to clearly understand and state our position on ultimate authority. It is possible for Christian psychologists to affirm the authority of the Bible within the context of a position on revelation which in fact undermines the authority they affirm. In this article, the concern is to suggest that the nature of God's revelation to man argues for holding to biblical revelation as the final arbiter in all our integration efforts.
The Authority of Scripture and the Unity of Revelation: A Response to Crabb
Authors: Breshears Gerry , Larzelere Robert E.
Published: February 2018

Crabb has provided us with a good discussion of the implications of the central importance of the authority of Scripture for an evangelical Christian perspective of psychology. However a careful distinction must be made between the authority of the Scripture itself and of conclusions based on Scripture. Otherwise, the unity of revelation may be sacrificed. The closer our conclusions are to the revelational data and the more data they explain, the more authoritative they will be. An alternative model is illustrated with apparently contradictory conclusions about spanking of children.
Religious Experiencing: A Phenomenological Analysis of a Unique Behavioral Event
Authors: Malony H. Newton
Published: February 2018

This article proposes a paradigm for understanding religious experience which is based on the S-O-R model of stimulus-response psychology. Religious experience is similar to other higher order experiences in that it includes organismic processing which mediates between a stimulus and a response. All three components (stimulus, organism, response) are necessary for these types of experiences to occur. In religious terms, God-Faith-Work (S-O-R) go together. This paradigm is discussed in terms of the thesis that religious experience is, however, distinct from other experience in both a qualitative and a quantitative sense. The object to which the organism responds in religious experience is trans-empirical and is thus perceived to be quite different from mundane reality. This is its qualitative distinction. The attitude toward and the feelings about such a reality are more encompassing and more intense than toward other stimuli. This is its quantitative distinction. Thus, a transactional and a phenomenological understanding provide a basis for a fuller perspective on this common human experience.
An Analysis of Correlates of Perceived Positive and Negative Prayer Outcomes
Authors: Henning Grant
Published: February 2018

Ninety-nine prayer instances voluntarily recalled by 10 religious persons were examined for the relation between perceived binary outcome (i.e., answered, un-answered) and thirteen independent prayer variables. Independent variables included size of prayer group, vowing, claiming biblical promises, fasting, thanksgiving, agonizing, authoritativeness, repetition, self-other benefit, perceived will of God, urgency, acting on outcome, and seeking cleansing. Nine of these variables showed significant relatedness to positive outcome and were rank-ordered for contribution to positive outcome. Personal characteristics of sex and nationality of the person praying were examined for correlation with reported prayer behaviors. Finally, the thirteen independent variables were regressed on binary outcome by means of stepwise multiple regression analysis to ascertain cumulative contributions to variance in prayer outcome. Acting on outcome and thanksgiving were found to contribute most to outcome variance.
The Influence of Freud's Hermeneutic of Suspicion on the Writings of Juan Segundo
Authors: O'Donnell James G.
Published: February 2018

In 1970, Paul Ricoeur published his book, Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. In this book Ricoeur attempted a deeper interpretation of Freud's analysis of individual and cultural psychic transformation. The fundamental insight offered by Ricoeur was that a much richer reading of Freud is obtained by regarding psychoanalysis as an unmasking, demystifying hermeneutic of suspicion rather than as the traditional reading of psychoanalysis would suggest, a system of energetics without hermeneutics. Ricoeur's insight was adopted by Juan Segundo, who made this idea of a “hermeneutic of suspicion” the basis of his theological method. In this article, the author describes some of the essential features of that method in order to show its dependence on Freud's analysis of psychic and cultural transformation. Such a description of the foundation of Segundo's method should afford a better insight into the whole thrust of liberation theology and its insistence that the primary task of theology today is to develop a critical awareness of the false consciousness, the alienation and domination of our times which keeps the oppressed enslaved and prevents the evolution of a new humanity and a new society. In the last section of this article, the author argues that even though Segundo's theology tends toward secularism, nevertheless, by its affirmation of the ultimate significance of our lives in this world, it has been an occasion of undeniable enrichment of contemporary theological ferment, and as such merits the openness on the part of other forms of theology that makes dialogue possible.
The Tension between Psychology and Theology: The Etymological Roots
Authors: Kemp Hendrika Vande
Published: February 2018

The author asserts that one source of the tension between psychology and Christian theology lies in the historical anthropological debates concerning the relationship between spirit and soul. The author summarizes first some of the various meanings of the term psyche since its origins in classical Greek and traces this ambiguity through the nineteenth century. The development of the term psychology is also summarized, demonstrating that its denotative and connotative meanings have become increasingly divergent. This has resulted in “psychology without a soul.” an accurate descriptor of much nineteenth century and most twentieth century psychology. The initial theological reaction to this “new” psychology was the differentiation of “biblical psychology,” side-by-side with the “psychological novel” and depth psychology, which remained ensouled.