bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
10. Law, Constitutions, and Federalism
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines how laws, constitutions, and federalism provide structure to the context of political life. It first considers the importance of constitutions in determining the basic structure of the state and the fundamental rights of citizens that they establish before asking whether the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is Western-centric. It then explores different ways in which states may attempt to realize justice in applying the law, with particular emphasis on differences between Islamic and Western practice. It also discusses the importance of constitutional courts, the ways that the institution of federalism contains the powers of the state and manage diverse societies, and consociationalism as an alternative approach to managing such diversity. Finally, it comments on the increasing legalization of political life.
11. Votes, Elections, Legislatures, and Legislators
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines some of the central issues associated with voting and electoral systems, along with the functions of legislatures. It begins by discussing the two paradoxes of voting. First, the huge number of citizens in any modern state means that no individual’s vote is likely to make the difference between two or more choices, making it potentially ‘irrational’ for any individual to bother to vote at all. Yet votes make democracy possible. The second voting paradox concerns the difficulty of relying upon votes to determine the objective preferences of the public. The chapter proceeds by considering measures that aim to establish quotas to increase gender equality in legislative recruitment. It also describes different types of legislatures and the internal structure of legislatures. Finally, it analyses trends in the backgrounds of legislators in various countries, specifically focusing upon the criticism that they constitute a ‘political class’.
12. Political Parties
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: August 2020

This chapter deals with political parties: why they emerged, how they can be classified, what functions they perform, how they interact, and what challenges they are facing today. One of the paradoxes about democracies is that there is almost a unanimous consensus about the indispensability of political parties. On the other hand, the benefits of being a member of a political party are bound to be minuscule compared to the costs of membership. Thus it is irrational for people to join parties. They should only form (small) interest groups. The chapter first provides a historical background on the development of political parties before discussing their functions, such as legitimation of the political system, structuring the popular vote, and formulation of public policy. It then considers different types of political parties as well as the characteristics of party systems and concludes with an analysis of the problems facing political parties today.
14. Civil Society, Interest Groups, and the Media
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the concept of civil society, along with interest groups and the media. It first provides a background on the evolution of civil society and interest groups before discussing corporatism. In particular, it examines the ways in which civil society responds to state actors and tries to manoeuvre them into cooperation. This is politics from below. The chapter proceeds by considering the notion of ‘infrapolitics’ and the emergence of a school of ‘subaltern’ studies. It also explores the role of the media in political life and the impact of new communication technologies such as the Internet and mobile phones on politics. Finally, it evaluates some of the challenges presented by new media to civil society.
15. Democracies, Democratization, and Authoritarian Regimes
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on democracies, democratization, and authoritarian regimes. It first considers the two main approaches to analysing the global rise of democracy over the last thirty years: first, long-term trends of modernization, and more specifically economic development, that create preconditions for democracy and opportunities for democratic entrepreneurs; and second, the sequences of more short-term events and actions of key actors at moments of national crisis that have precipitated a democratic transition — also known as ‘transitology’. The chapter proceeds by discussing the different types of democracy and the strategies used to measure democracy. It also reviews the more recent literature on authoritarian systems and why they persist. Finally, it examines the challenges that confront democracy in the face of authoritarian revival.
19. Security and Insecurity
Authors: Lawson Stephanie
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines traditional concepts of security and insecurity in the realm of international politics. It first considers Thomas Hobbes’s account of the state of nature and the emergence of the power politics approach to security as worked out by Hans Morgenthau and his successors. It then discusses the evolution of security thinking through to the end of the Cold War, ideas about collective security as embodied in the United Nations and the nature of security cooperation in Europe through NATO. It also explores some pressing security challenges in the post-Cold War period and the broadening of the security agenda to encompass more recent concerns ranging from environmental security to energy security and the notions of ‘human security’ and ‘responsibility to protect’. Finally, it analyses the ‘global war on terror’ and especially how the 9/11 attacks affected the discourse on security and insecurity.
21. International Organizations in Global Politics
Authors: Lawson Stephanie
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the nature of international organizations and their role in global politics. It first explains what an international organization is before discussing the rise of international organizations from a historical perspective, focusing on developments from the nineteenth century onwards. It then considers the major intergovernmental institutions that emerged in the twentieth century and which have made significant contributions in shaping the global order, including the League of Nations and its successor, the United Nations. It also looks at non-governmental organizations and concludes with an analysis of ideas about social movements and global civil society, along with their relationship to the contemporary world of international organizations.
3. Objectivity and Values
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on a key debate in the philosophy of social science: whether it is possible to separate facts and values in social science research. It first considers normative and empirical theory in political research before discussing the ways in which the values of the researcher influence the research process. It then examines Thomas Kuhn’s arguments concerning paradigms and how they change through scientific ‘revolutions’, along with their implications for the possibility of value-free social inquiry. It looks at an example of how the notion of ‘paradigm’ has been applied to a specific area of inquiry within politics: the study of development. It also compares Kuhn’s paradigms with Imre Lakatos’ concept of ‘scientific research programmes’.
7. What is Data?
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: August 2020

This chapter considers the main types of data used in Politics and International Relations, as well as the main criteria by which to judge whether the data collected is good or not. It first describes the steps involved in the process of thinking about what data or evidence is relevant to answering a research question before discussing the importance of addressing issues of validity and reliability in research. Some of these issues are illustrated by referring to recent attempts to measure corruption, a major topic of interest in Politics and International Relations. The chapter also examines the issue of case selection as well as the collection of qualitative and quantitative data using methods such as interviewing and observation. Finally, it analyses the so-called ‘big data’ revolution in data collection and analysis, and provides a data quality checklist.
11. Surveys
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the principles of survey research as well as the issues and problems associated with different stages of the research design process. In particular, it examines questionnaire design, sample design, and interviewing techniques, along with the common sources of error that affect survey research and what can be done to try and avoid or minimize them. Although surveys have several weaknesses, they are widely used in political research to investigate a wide range of political phenomena. They combine two things: obtaining information from people by asking questions and random sampling. When done well, surveys provide an accurate and reliable insight into what ordinary people think about politics and how they participate in politics. The chapter considers the elements of a survey that need to be addressed, namely: questionnaire design, measurement error, sampling design, sampling error, and interview mode.
15. Quantitative Analysis: Description and Inference
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: August 2020

This chapter deals with quantitative analysis, and especially description and inference. It introduces the reader to the principles of quantitative research and offers a step-by-step guide on how to use and interpret a range of commonly used techniques. The first part of the chapter considers the building blocks of quantitative analysis, with particular emphasis on different ways of summarizing data, both graphically and with tables, and ways of describing the distribution of one variable using univariate statistics. Two important measures are discussed: the mean and the standard deviation. After elaborating on descriptive statistics, the chapter explores inferential statistics and explains how to make generalizations. It also presents the concept of confidence intervals, more commonly known as the margin of error, and measures of central tendency.
16. Patterns of Association: Bivariate Analysis
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the principles of bivariate analysis as a tool for helping researchers get to know their data and identify patterns of association between two variables. Bivariate analysis offers a way of establishing whether or not there is a relationship between two variables, a dependent variable and an independent variable. With bivariate analysis, theoretical expectations can be compared against evidence from the real world to see if the theory is supported by what is observed. The chapter examines the pattern of association between dependent and independent variables, with particular emphasis on hypothesis testing and significance tests. It discusses ordinary least squares (OLS) regression and cross-tabulation, two of the most widely used statistical analysis techniques in political research. Finally, it explains how to state the null hypothesis, calculate the chi square, and establishing the correlation between the dependent and independent variables.
1. Theories of European Integration
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines a number of theories of European integration. It first considers the intellectual predecessors of the first attempts to theorize European integration, focusing in particular on the functionalism of David Mitrany, the federalism of Altiero Spinelli, and the ‘federal-functionalism’ of Jean Monnet. It discusses neofunctionalism and intergovernmentalism, along with liberal intergovernmentalism, and the fact that while theorizing European integration has moved on significantly from these early approaches, much of what followed was either framed by this debate or developed as a rejection of it. The chapter then introduces postfunctionalism as a more recent rival theory that helps explain the greater political controversy surrounding integration in the period following the Maastricht period, and particularly during the 2010s.
2. Theories of EU Governance
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines theories of European Union governance. As European integration progressed, the academic focus began to shift from explaining the integration process to understanding the EU as a political system. As such, EU scholars increasingly drew on approaches from the study of domestic and comparative politics. This chapter surveys a number of approaches that focus on the EU as a political system. These approaches are quite varied and include new institutionalism, governance, and policy network approaches. At the end of the chapter attention is turned to some of the overall characterizations of EU governance that also offer valuable insights: supranational governance; new intergovernmentalism; and differentiated integration.
3. Theorizing Consequences
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter brings together what have usually been presented as separate ‘consequences’ of European integration. First, it examines Europeanization: the process through which domestic politics and polities are changed by their engagement with the EU. Second, it considers three literatures that capture contemporary challenges to integration: a new domestic politicization of the EU; the rise of Euroscepticism; and a questioning of whether the EU is experiencing disintegration. Third, a continuing challenge for the EU has been its democratic legitimacy, and rising Europeanization is linked to questions of legitimacy of the EU amongst the public. This chapter deals with these interrelated phenomena: the EU’s impact on its member states and the issues arising.
5. From the End of the War to the Schuman Plan (the Late 1940s to the Early 1950s)
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter charts the long history of plans for European unity, from the end of the Second World War to the Hague Congress, the Cold War, the Schuman Plan, and the Treaty of Paris. It also considers European federalism and the practical reasons why some moves to European unity found favour with the new governments of the post-war period: the threat of communism and the emergence of the Cold War; the so-called German Problem; and the need to ensure adequate supplies of coal for the post-war economic reconstruction. As a solution to these intersecting problems, Jean Monnet, came up with a proposal that paved the way for the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community. The chapter examines Monnet’s proposal, national reactions to it, and the negotiations that led to the creation of the first of the European communities.
7. The First Years of the European Economic Community (the 1960s and into the 1970s)
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the first years of the European Economic Community (EEC). It describes the early 1960s as a period of apparent success for the supranational elements within the EEC, noting the rapid progress made towards the creation of both a common market and a common agricultural policy. The chapter also examines the crisis sparked by France’s decision to boycott meetings of the Council of Ministers in response to proposals for a more supranational method of funding the EEC budget; the impact of this crisis on the process of European integration; the so-called Luxembourg Compromise; and the Hague Summit. It concludes by discussing the EEC’s expansion of its membership at the start of the 1970s, as well as its first moves towards an Economic and Monetary Union and a Common Foreign and Security Policy.
10. From Amsterdam to Lisbon (2000–09)
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the new strategy adopted in March 2000 by a special European Council in Lisbon to make the European Union (EU) more competitive, culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Lisbon. The Amsterdam Treaty had scarcely entered into force before further Treaty reform emerged on the agenda. Throughout the year 2000, a new intergovernmental conference met to address outstanding institutional issues that had not been settled at Amsterdam. It concluded in December 2000 with the longest European Council in history, which led to the Treaty of Nice. The chapter first considers the Nice Treaty, before discussing the Lisbon Strategy, the European Security and Defence Policy, the Constitutional Treaty, the issue of enlargement, the European Parliament (EP), and the nomination of a new European Commission. It ends with a discussion of the Treaty of Lisbon.
11. The EU in Crisis (2009–19)
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the crises that dominated the period after the Lisbon Treaty was adopted in 2009: first, the eurozone crisis that began in 2009 and threatened the existence of the single currency; second, the refugee crisis that unfolded from 2015 as large numbers of refugees fled an intensifying war in Syria and attempted perilous crossings of the Mediterranean Sea; third, Britain’s decision to leave the EU, which followed a referendum on membership in 2016; and finally, the challenge of populist politics in the EU, with reference to the emergence of governments led by or including populist parties in Hungary, Poland, and Italy. The chapter then considers other developments during this period, including elections to the European Parliament (EP) in 2014 and 2019, a further enlargement to include Croatia in 2013, and the launch of the ‘Europe 2020’ strategy. It also looks at the United Kingdom’s adoption of a series of measures that raised doubts about its future relationship with the EU.
17. Organized Interests
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the so-called organized interests, whose interaction with the formal European Union (EU) institutions is a central component of the EU’s decision-making process. The term ‘interest group’ refers to a range of organizations outside of the formal institutions that seek to influence decision making. They provide a link between state actors and the rest of society, also known as ‘civil society’. The chapter first considers the general growth of interest group activity at the European level before discussing the types of group that try to influence EU policy making and the forms of representation open to interests. It then explores the strategies and tactics that interest groups use to try to influence the different institutions. Finally, it analyses the issue of regulating interest group access to the EU institutions.
20. Economic and Monetary Union
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the various attempts to create the economic and monetary union (EMU), which first became an official objective of the European Community (EC) in 1969 but was achieved only thirty years later. The chapter first provides a historical background on efforts to create the EMU, including long-standing debates between France and West Germany on its design, before discussing the launch of the single currency, the euro, and its subsequent progress up to and including the eurozone crisis in the late 2000s. On the eurozone crisis, it considers both the short-term efforts at crisis management and the long-term reforms that were implemented in an attempt to prevent further crises. Finally, it considers some of the explanations for and critiques of EMU, including critiques of the responses to the eurozone crisis that have been offered by various academic commentators.
22. Environment and Climate
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the evolution of the European Union’s (EU) environmental policy. The environment is a relatively new policy area of the EU. It was not officially created until 1973 and acquired a sound legal basis in the Treaties only with the passage of the Single European Act (SEA) in 1987. When the EU was established, environmental issues were low on the political agenda. However, they have become increasingly important at both national and European levels, and there is now a comprehensive environmental policy at the EU level and the EU has developed a reputation as an environmental leader in international environmental diplomacy, especially on climate change. The chapter first explains the main drivers for the development of the EU’s environmental policy, before discussing recent developments, and some of the major issues of current concern. It concludes by evaluating the theoretical leverage of the key integration theories for explaining and critiquing this policy sector.
24. Trade and Development Aid
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the European Union’s (EU’s) external trade relations in the context of the wider framework of global trade agreements, along with its related policies on development aid, particularly with the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) states. It first looks at the history of the EU’s trade and development aid, before discussing its contemporary external trade and development policies. It explains the workings of the common commercial policy, considers disputes within the World Trade Organization (WTO), especially with the United States, and explores the EU’s trading relationship with developing countries and near neighbours in the context of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). It then considers theoretical explanations of the EU’s external trade and development aid policies, as well as criticisms of such policies. Analysis of the EU’s external economic relations brings to the fore a number of theoretical themes, such as the tension between nationalism and supranationalism, the complexities of bargaining within multiple international forums, and the dominance of particular ideas across different forums.
25. Common Foreign and Security Policy
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Parker Owen , Bache Ian , George Stephen , Burns Charlotte
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the European Union’s (EU’s) Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). It tells the story of increasing co-operation between member states on foreign policy matters, first with European Political Co-operation (EPC) and, since the 1990s, with CFSP and a Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). The chapter highlights the internal dynamics and external events that drove the member states towards such co-operation and considers the most recent example of such efforts: the 2017 attempt to create a system of permanent structured co-operation (PESCO). However, it is noted that the EU remains far from having a truly supranational foreign policy and there remains a reluctance from member states to push much further integration, given states’ keen desire to remain sovereign in this area. Finally, the chapter considers the EU’s status as a ‘power’ in international relations, noting that it has diminished in important respects since 2003, but remains an important economic power.
2. The Nineteenth-Century Roots of Theoretical Traditions in Global Political Economy
Authors: Watson Matthew
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on the historical origins and the subsequent intellectual lineage of the three core theoretical positions within contemporary global political economy (GPE): realism, liberalism, and Marxism. ‘Textbook GPE’ privileges nineteenth-century understandings of political economy when discussing the pre-history of its own field. This helps explains GPE's treatment of feminist scholarship within the textbooks; feminism remains largely marginalized from textbook GPE, presented as something of a postscript to avoid accusations of it having been omitted altogether rather than being placed centre stage in the discussion. The chapter then looks at how the nineteenth-century overlay operates in textbook GPE. To do so, it makes sense to concentrate in the first instance on the issue that did most to divide nineteenth-century economists: namely, the free trade policies resulting from the general ascendancy of laissez-faire ideology. The most celebrated of the critics, Friedrich List, is treated much more as a dependable authority figure in GPE than he is in the history of economic thought. Indeed, in textbook GPE, the disputes between realist and liberal positions is very often presented initially through an account of List's work, despite the pre-history of liberalism being much the longer of the two.
3. Cooperation and Conflict in the Global Political Economy
Authors: Aggarwal Vinod K. , Dupont Cédric
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the problems of collaboration and coordination in the global political economy. It first identifies situations that might require states to work with each other to achieve a desired outcome. It then turns to a focus on basic game theory as an analytical tool to tackle the nature of collaboration and coordination efforts. International cooperation can help to address three typical problems associated with the process of global economic integration: a temptation to free ride, an inhibiting fear, and a need to find meeting points in situations where collaboration will produce differing costs and benefits to governments. Different types of problems associated with the process of global integration call for different solutions to address these three typical problems, ranging from the provision of binding rules to facilitating mechanisms. A country's need for international cooperation depends on its sociopolitical structure as well as on the structure and flexibility of its economy. Finally, the chapter considers how institutions might play a role in enhancing the prospects for cooperative behaviour.
5. The Evolution of the Global Trade Regime
Authors: Trommer Silke
Published: August 2020

This chapter details the history, politics, and recent trends and challenges of the multilateral trade system. The twentieth century witnessed a remarkable emergence of international institutions, and nowhere was their impact greater than in international trade. Following decades of depression and war, a global trading regime was initiated with the creation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947, which expanded steadily in both scope and membership through the twentieth century and culminated in the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. Underpinned by the philosophy that open markets and non-discriminatory trade policies promote the prosperity of all countries, and issued with a powerful dispute settlement mechanism, the WTO has been hailed as the most prominent example of cooperation between countries. At the same time, however, the WTO has been subject to internal and external criticism and now faces a number of difficulties.
7. The Globalization of Production
Authors: Thun Eric
Published: August 2020

This chapter addresses the globalization of production. Although companies have been investing abroad for centuries, the most recent era of globalization has created an unprecedented range of possibilities for global firms to reorganize and relocate their activities. The chapter analyses how advances in transportation and technology allow a firm to divide up a global value chain — the sequence of activities that lead to the production of a particular good or service — and how these decisions create new opportunities and challenges for both companies and the societies within which they operate. It first reviews the rise of global production and the forces that have led to dramatic increases in foreign direct investment (FDI) and outsourcing. The central questions for any firm involved in global production involves how to govern the value chain and where to locate different activities. The chapter then provides a framework for understanding these issues and the implications of the various choices. It also applies these concepts to the case of East Asia, particularly China.
10. The Logics of Economic Globalization
Authors: McGrew Anthony
Published: August 2020

This chapter provides a systematic account of the causes of economic globalization. Within the global political economy (GPE) literature, economic globalization tends to be more precisely specified as ‘the emergence and operation of a single, worldwide economy’. This assists its measurement by reference to the intensity, extensity, and velocity of worldwide economic flows and interconnectedness, from trade, through production and finance, migration to information and data. Understood as a historical process, the concept of economic globalization also infers an evolving transformation or evolution in the organization and operation of the world economy. The chapter then reviews the principal theories of economic globalization, drawing upon the GPE literature. It develops a multi-theoretic account of economic globalization which captures its structural, conjunctural, and contingent causal factors. The chapter also demonstrates how this multi-theoretic framework is relevant to understanding the current crisis of economic globalization. It considers whether, in the aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis, this crisis is the precursor to a period of accelerating deglobalization.
11. Globalization’s Impact on States
Authors: Hay Colin
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses globalization's impact on states. There is no topic more controversial in the field of global political economy than the impact of globalization on the accountability, autonomy, capacity, and sovereignty of the nation state; and the controversy has only intensified since the onset of the global financial crisis. Arguably, the democratic character of governance in contemporary societies is at stake in such debates. The chapter reviews the extensive controversy that surrounds such questions, focusing attention on the principal mechanisms in and through which globalization is seen to impact upon the nation state and the empirical evidence that might either substantiate or question the existence of such mechanisms. It also provides a detailed assessment of the case for and against the globalization thesis, examining the extent to which global economic integration might be seen to restrict the parameters of domestic political autonomy. Moreover, the chapter differentiates between the politics of globalization and the globalization of politics. It concludes by considering the complex and sometimes paradoxical relationship between globalization, democracy, and the nation state.
Democracies and Authoritarian Regimes
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,

United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,...
2. Defining Democracy
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Why define democracy 16

Conceptualizing democracy 17

Models of democracy 29

Conclusion 34

Key Questions 35

Further Reading 35

‘Democracy’ and ‘dictatorship’ are familiar concepts. We generally think we know one when we see one. Sweden, Germany, and the United States, for example, are quite clearly democratic. And North Korea and Turkmenistan are unequivocally authoritarian. But how should we think about Hungary, Poland, or Venezuela? Should they be considered democracies? Do the political dynamics in these countries meet the minimum requirements of democracy? What are the minimum requirements of democracy?...
3. Defining Autocracy
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Totalitarian regimes 37

Contemporary approaches to disaggregating autocracy 40

Blended regimes and changes over time 48

Conclusion 49

Key Questions 50

Further Reading 50

In Chapter 2, we defined democracy and identified the key characteristics of democratic regimes. In this chapter, we turn our attention to the other side of the political ledger and delve into the world of authoritarianism. Even a casual scan of international news headlines—filled with stories on Russian President Vladimir Putin’s latest feats, China’s rise, and Turkish President Erdoğan’s consolidation of power—reinforces the notion that today’s autocrats are resurgent. After a turbulent decade following the end of the Cold War, many authoritarian regimes have regained their footing and grown bolder and more capable of dealing with dissent....
4. Dysfunctional Democracies and Hybrid Systems
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Mapping the terrain 53

Defective democracies 55

Diminished dictatorship 57

The spread of hybrid regimes 62

Conclusion 67

Key Questions 68

Further Reading 69

Thinking exclusively in terms of the opposition between democracy and authoritarianism threatens to trap democratic theorists within the two assumptions that this opposition implicitly contains: first, that when an authoritarian system collapses, democracy will naturally arise by default; and second, that if democracy fails to develop, authoritarian forces must be to blame … the truth is that today authoritarianism survives best in the no-man’s land between democracy and authoritarianism. (Ivan ...
5. The Consequences of Democracy and Authoritarian Regimes
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Key themes 72

Regime type and conflict 74

Regime type and terrorism 78

Regime type and economic performance 81

Regime type and quality of life 86

Regime type and corruption 89

Regime type and repression 92

Conclusion 94

Key Questions 94

Further Reading 95

So far we have focused on defining different types of political systems. We discussed how to distinguish democracy from autocracy and the rising prevalence of ...
6. The Durability of Autocracy
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Authoritarian constituents and their role in stability 102

Authoritarian survival strategies 107

Other sources of authoritarian durability 114

Conclusion 120

Key Questions 121

Further Reading 121

Many authoritarian regimes in power today have been around for decades. The People’s Action Party, for example, has controlled Singapore since its independence in 1965. The Chinese Communist Party has been in power for even longer, approaching nearly seven decades of rule. And the monarchy in Oman has governed for more than two hundred years. Of course, not all authoritarian regimes have this staying power. Cambodia’s Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge ruled for only four years. Similarly, the Turkish military’s reign in the 1980s lasted just three years. This variation in longevity raises the question: what makes some authoritarian regimes more durable than others?...
7. Authoritarian Instability and Breakdown
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

What factors increase the risk of autocratic breakdown? 124

Elite divisions and defections 124

Youth bulge 129

Electoral fraud 132

Natural disasters 134

External factors 135

Conclusion 140

Key Questions 141

Further Reading 141

Forecasting the failure of authoritarian regimes is difficult. Many long-standing and seemingly stable autocracies have unraveled in a matter of weeks. No one predicted, for example, that the ...
8. Autocratic Transitions
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Pathways of authoritarian regime transitions 143

Top-down paths to regime breakdown 143

Bottom-up paths to regime breakdown 149

Trajectories of authoritarian regime change 155

Pathways of authoritarian leader transitions 156

Conclusion 159

Key Questions 160

Further Reading 160

In Chapter 7, we identified the factors that political science research shows increase the risk of authoritarian breakdown. For political observers and policy analysts, knowing that factors such as economic decline, elite divsions, and youth bulges raise an autocracy’s risk of breakdown is useful because it helps us focus our analytic attention on the factors that matter most. However, only understanding the triggers of instability tells us relatively little about ...
9. Cultural, Social, and Historical Drivers of Democracy
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Cultural drivers of democracy 168

Social and historical drivers of democracy 177

Conclusion 185

Key Questions 186

Further Reading 187

Some observers of Russian politics assert that democracy is unlikely to take root in Russia. They point to the country’s lack of positive historical experience with democracy and the population’s long-held preference for order and strong, decisive leadership. Likewise, some political analysts have argued that democratic decline in Turkey—which accelerated after a failed coup attempt against Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in 2016—is unsurprising. These observers posit that Turkey’s lack of experience with democracy, the prevalence of Islam, and Turkish appreciation for a strong military create ‘cultural’ preferences that are inhospitable for democracy. But perhaps the most frequently trotted out socio-cultural argument about (the lack of) democracy occurs in reference to Islamic culture in the Middle East. Many commentators have suggested that Islamic traditions and ‘Arab exceptionalism’ (or historical and economic forces specific to Arab societies, where Muslims constitute a majority) reinforces authoritarianism and precludes democracy (...
10. Economic Drivers of Democracy
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Economic development 189

Role of a middle class 193

Role of organized labour 195

Changes in beliefs and values 198

Economic inequality 199

Economic growth 203

Clientelism 204

Conclusion 207

Key Questions 208

Further Reading 209

Wealthy democracies do not become dictatorships. This assertion—backed by robust empirical support—has been a pillar of our contemporary understanding of democracy and dictatorship (...
14. Changing Patterns of Democratic Backsliding and Breakdown
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

Democratic backsliding and breakdown 274

The rise of authoritarianization 275

Signposts of the slow dismantling of democracy 277

Case studies on authoritarianization 281

Russia 282

Turkey 285

Implications of authoritarianization 288

Conclusion 289

Key Questions 290

Further Reading 290

In Chapter 13, we discussed the rise of ...
15. Conclusion: The Future of Democracy
Authors: Kendall-Taylor Andrea , Lindstaedt Natasha , Frantz Erica
Published: August 2020

The future of democracy 292

Implications of an authoritarian resurgence for the global order 297

Key themes of the book 300

This book has covered a large body of research on democracy, autocracy, and democratization within the context of contemporary global dynamics. One of the key messages to emerge is that democracy is under threat. Mounting problems within a number of long-lived democracies—many of which we have discussed in this book—have raised questions about democracy’s future. Concurrently, we appear to be returning to a period of intense ideological competition between democracy and authoritarianism. China’s rise is challenging Western hegemony and many now see Beijing as an increasingly viable alternative to the democratic West. As the strategic competition between democracies and authoritarian powers like China and Russia has intensified, levels of democracy across the globe have plateaued and possibly declined....
1. Interconnections between science and politics
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the complex and multifaceted relationship between science and politics. Although science and politics each follow a distinct logic and pursue distinct objectives, they are inextricably connected to one another. On the one hand, science influences political debates, by drawing attention to certain problems and providing necessary justifications for political action. On the other hand, political dynamics, including political values and power relations, structure the conduct of science. The chapter highlights the different aspects of the co-production of science and politics, in the framework of international environmental debates. An increasing number of studies on global environmental governance suggest that science and politics are co-produced. As they shape each other, it is impossible to understand one without considering the other. Political interactions are partly based on available knowledge, and scientific production is a social practice that is conditioned by its political context.
4. Non-state actors
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter focuses on non-state actors in global environmental governance. Non-state actors, such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs), corporations, and transnational networks, play an increasingly significant role in global environmental politics. Some of them, such as Greenpeace and Shell, became well known by communicating directly with the public or consumers. Others, such as the Indigenous Peoples' International Centre for Policy Research and Education or the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, are less visible to the wider public but no less influential. The scope, diversity, preferences, methods of engagement, and contributions of non-state actors to global environmental governance are often overshadowed by a focus on state actors. The chapter sheds light on how non-state actors engage in global environmental governance and highlights how they shape the political landscape in this field.
5. The tragedy of the commons and sovereign rights
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter assesses the rights governing access to globally shared natural resources, such as fish stocks, deep seabed minerals, and clean air. The international system is based on the principle of national sovereignty, which says that each state has absolute, perpetual, and exclusive rights within its national territory. This construction does not, however, match ecological realities. There is a stark contrast between states' territorial divisions and the biosphere's ecological connectedness. The chapter explores this tension and its relationship to decision-making in natural resource management. How can sovereign states manage the earth's resources if they are fragmented in separate territories that overlap complex ecosystems? This question is often approached using the ‘tragedy of the commons’ metaphor. When the metaphor is applied to the global commons, two main policy options emerge. The first is a coordinated approach building on the notion of a ‘common heritage of humankind’. The second policy option is a decentralized approach based on states' sovereign rights.
6. Development and the environment
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter addresses environmental protection and economic development. These two policy objectives are at once contradictory and complementary; they cannot be considered separately as one necessarily affects the other. The chapter adopts a historical approach and studies how interactions between these two policy objectives have been understood since the early 1970s. To do so, it first introduces three different views — systemic, liberal, and structural — on how environmental protection and economic development interact. It goes on to assess the resonances of each of these views in key global instruments adopted in the last 50 years: the 1972 Stockholm Declaration, the 1987 Brundtland Report, the outcomes of the 1992 Rio Summit, the 2002 Declaration of the Johannesburg Summit, and the 2012 Rio Declaration. One of the main conclusions of the chapter is that a liberal understanding of the relationship between environmental protection and economic development has been gaining increased prominence over time.
7. International institutions
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter looks at intergovernmental organisations and international regimes. As several environmental problems have transnational implications, governments have been eager to establish international institutions to address these problems collectively. In the aftermath of the landmark 1972 Stockholm Summit on the Human Environment, states created several international institutions specifically dedicated to environmental protection. Over time, and in keeping with broader trends in global politics, these institutions have begun to interact with institutions that specialize on other topics. The chapter then tracks international environmental institutions' development and impacts over time. It also considers how international environmental institutions exhibit differing levels of autonomy, before going on to look at the interactions between international institutions, in particular the dynamics of synergy and conflict between them. Finally, the chapter studies the literature on actual or planned reforms to the institutional architecture for global environmental governance.
8. Policy instruments and effectiveness
Authors: Morin Jean-Frédéric , Orsini Amandine , Jinnah Sikina
Published: August 2020

This chapter introduces several debates surrounding the effectiveness of global environmental governance. These debates are closely linked to the choice of policy instruments states make within international regimes. These public policy instruments include regulations, administrative standards, scientific indicators, financial targets, and accounting practices, among others. Whereas international institutions frame the general norms, principles, and rules for tackling environmental problems, instruments provide the toolbox of policy mechanisms that actors in global environmental politics use to implement those norms, principles, and rules. In some cases, the choice of instruments is made at the international level and applied in exactly the same way by a group of states. In other cases, the choice of policy instruments is left to the discretion of states, who can then choose among different alternatives to fulfil their international commitments. The chapter then explains the modalities, diffusion, and political effects of these policy instruments. Although the concept of policy instruments may appear technical and neutral, it shows how instruments can actually shape, modify, and even undermine global environmental politics.