bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Oil Spill Preparedness for Polar Bears in Alaska
Authors: Majors Lee , Miller Susanne , Jensen Shannon
Published: August 2014

Oil spill response in the Alaska Arctic can be difficult. Responding to marine mammals which inhabit this area is even more challenging. One of these marine mammals is the polar bear which was listed as a threatened species in 2008. Recognizing the need for improved capabilities, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Alaska Zoo, and Alaska Clean Seas have been working together to improve the capabilities in Alaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has developed the Oil Spill Response Plan for Polar Bears in Alaska which identifies the resources available and response strategies. The Alaska Zoo led an experiment to determine the best method to remove oil from a polar bear hide and conducted a limited test on one of the polar bears at the zoo. Agreements and contracts have been put in place and equipment designed, constructed, and staged on the Alaska North Slope for polar bear response. During the annual North Slope Mutual Aid Drill in 2013, Alaska Clean Seas developed a short scenario to test these capabilities and identify additional improvements. The poster will describe these efforts for continued improvements for oil spill response in the Alaska Arctic.
Novel Electro-Optic Imaging Technologies for Day/Night Oil Spill Detection
Authors: Allik Toomas H. , Dixon Roberta E. , Ramboyong Lenard V. , Roberts Mark , Soyka Thomas J. , Trifon George , Medley Lori
Published: August 2014

Joint program between the U.S. Departments of the Interior and Defense to bring knowledge, expertise and military, low-light level and hyperspectral imaging technologies to remote oil spill detection. Program emphasis is to determine remote infrared imaging techniques for the quantification of oil spill thickness. Spectral characteristics of various crude oils in the SWIR (1–2 microns), MWIR (3–5 microns) and LWIR (8–12 microns) were measured. Analysis of laboratory data and Deepwater Horizon hyperspectral imagery showed the utility of the SWIR region to detect crude oil and emulsions. We have evaluated two SWIR wavelengths (1200 nm and 1250 nm) for thickness assessment. An infrared, 3-color imager is discussed along with field tests at the BSEE's Ohmsett test facility.
PROBABILISTIC LONG RANGE FORECAST SYSTEM FOR OIL SPILL TRAJECTORIES IN THE GULF OF BISCAY (SPAIN)
Authors: Cárdenas Mar , Abascal Ana J. , Castanedo Sonia , Guanche Yanira , Méndez Fernando J. , Medina Raúl
Published: August 2014

The increasing number of accidental oil spills has motivated the development and implementation of operational oceanography systems (OOS) to help in the decision process during oil spill emergency situations. Currently, most of the national and regional OOS have been setup for short-term (up to 5 days) oil spill forecast. However, recent accidental oil spills such as Prestige in Spain (2002) or Deep Horizon in Gulf of Mexico (2010), have revealed the importance of having larger prediction horizons (up to 30 days) in regional-scale areas.

In this work, we have developed a stochastic methodology based on the combination of clustering algorithms and Markov chains of first order to provide medium term (15–30 days) probabilistic oil spill forecasts. The method encompasses the following steps: (1) classification of representative atmospheric patterns using clustering techniques (PCA and k-means [1]); (2) determination the transition probability matrix associated with the Markov chain. The element of the transition matrix (pij) represents the probability of moving from a cluster “i” to a cluster “j” in one time step. In case an accident occurs, the Markov chain provides through the transition probability matrix, the evolution of ocean-atmospheric conditions during the forecasting period; (3) this result is used to force TESEO Lagrangian transport model [2] which allows the characterization of trajectories in probabilistic terms during the forecasting period.

The methodology has been applied in the Gulf of Biscay (Spain) to simulate the evolution of oil slick observations and drifter buoys gathered during the Prestige accident. The cumulative probability maps have been compared with these data (oil slicks observations and drifter data), showing that actual trajectories are consistent with the probability of contamination obtained. Results seem promising and we expect to reduce uncertainty by incorporating autoregressive logistic models to help improving the possible evolution of the ocean-atmospheric conditions. A detailed description of the methodology, application and validation will be shown in the presentation and in the final paper.
An example of good practice in oil spill preparedness during exploration drilling in West Africa 2013
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: August 2014

In June 2013, Tullow Cote d' Ivoire Exploration (TCIE) and its partners Anadarko and Petroci undertook an exploration drilling campaign in Block CI-103 22 kilometres South West of Abidjan, Cote d' Ivoire. This poster illustrates the good industry practice carried out by TCIE during the drilling campaign with regard to oil spill preparedness.
For Response Planning: Predicted Environmental Contamination Resulting from Oil Leakage from Sunken Vessels
Authors: McCay Deborah French , Reich Danielle , Michel Jacqueline , Etkin Dagmar , Symons Lisa , Helton Doug , Wagner John
Published: August 2014

An evaluation was made of the amounts and types of oil potentially released from sunken vessels in U.S. waters, where oil would be transported, how rapidly it would reach sensitive resources, and magnitudes of impacts on surface water and shorelines. Oil spill modeling was performed as part of a screening analysis to identify those sunken vessels of highest risk for environmental and socioeconomic impacts, with the expectation that those identified will be subject to more detailed analysis. The modeling provides estimates of the locations of oiling, as well as areas of water surface, lengths of shoreline, and volumes of water exposed above potential effects thresholds (oil thickness or concentrations). We developed regression models of the resulting indices of oil impacts as a function of spill volume, allowing for predictions of water surface area, shoreline extent, and water volume affected for any potential (partial or entire) release volume from the sunken vessel. We ran RPS-ASA's SIMAP model in probabilistic mode, i.e., long-term wind and current records were sampled at random and model runs performed for each of 200 selected spill dates and times. The model results provide a statistical description of the probabilities and potential locations and magnitudes of oil-related impacts. This consequence analysis may be used to assign priorities for potential salvage of sunken vessels based on relative risk. The resultant analysis may be used by decision-makers to evaluate response needs, such as response equipment capacities, timing of deployment required to protect sensitive resources, and possible time windows and areas for dispersant use.
Critical Shear Stresses of Sunken Oils
Authors: Watkins Charles , Jobin Olivia , Kinner Nancy , Ballestero Thomas , Thomas Neil W. , Nothnagle Robert
Published: August 2014

As observed in several recent cases (e.g., DBL-152, Enbridge-Kalamazoo), under certain circumstances, spilled oil can sink to the bottom of a water body. Once on the bottom, the oil can move or even remobilize into the water column. The critical shear stress (CSS) is used to accurately predict the movement of sunken oil along and off the bottom. Unfortunately, shear stress has only been measured for one sunken oil (Hibernian Crude API = 34). The Coastal Response Research Center (CRRC) at the University of New Hampshire (UNH) has an annular flume equipped with high-definition cameras and an acoustic velocimeter that can be used to estimate CSS by measuring the instantaneous, three-dimensional water current velocities at which sunken oils move and erode as visible oil droplets. The results reported are for an Alberta bitumen, tested at temperatures between 5° and 28°C in freshwater.
Biogeochemical controls on biodegradation of MC252 crude oil in coastal wetland systems
Authors: Rodrigue Matthew , Pardue John H. , Elango Vijai , Jackson Andrew
Published: August 2014

The persistence and fate of MC252 oil as well as the presence of nutrients and their effect on biodegradation were studied in both an oil-contaminated marsh and a nearby oil-contaminated mangrove site near Port Fourchon, Louisiana as well as a second marsh site in Barataria Bay adjacent to Bay Jimmy. High-resolution nutrient profiles were obtained at different locations at each site during winter and summer using dialysis samplers. Areas of sulfate depletion were observed in the top 20 cm of dialysis samplers in the Fourchon marsh and mangrove sites. When sulfate depletion was observed, it was accompanied by an increase in the ammonia and/or phosphorous concentration signifying an anoxic zone in the sediment. This anoxic zone was found more frequently in summer sampling compared to winter sampling. Flux chamber were installed at each site to capture evolved CO2 to determine if carbon from the MC252 oil was being mineralized at each site. Carbon derived from oil and carbon derived from indigenous organic matter was differentiated using the stable carbon isotope ratio. d13C signatures of the bulk soil, root matter, and soil with roots removed were measured at depth to compare contaminated sites to nearby inland sites with little to no oil contamination. A d13C signature of −24.8 ± 0.8 ‰ was observed in the bulk soil of the contaminated shoreline site in the Port Fourchon Marsh while an adjacent uncontaminated inland bulk soil sample had a d13C signature of −17.3 ± 0.8 ‰. d13C signatures were measured for sample before and after being washed with a hexane acetone solvent which removed oil. The signature of the samples became less negative after being washed with the solvent. To supplement the field findings, a laboratory microcosm study was performed to observe the effects of adding nutrients to a wetland soil/water/oil mixture. The study focuses on 5 different treatments: natural attenuation, sulfate amended, ammonia amended, sulfate and ammonia amended, and a killed control. A second set of microcosm experiments were conducted in triplicate under aerobic conditions along with a kill control sample. There was no observed degradation in the anaerobic microcosm experiments for any of the treatments during the time of the study. Aerobic microcosm results are still pending. Of particular interest are petrogenic PAHs (i.e, C1-phenanthrenes, C2-dibenzothiophenes, and C3-dibenzothiophenes) since there is little information in the peer-reviewed literature on the effectiveness of biostimulation in marsh systems.
Marine Well Containment Company: An Industry Collaboration Advancing Deepwater Well Containment Technology & Readiness Efforts
Authors: Dulisse Carmine
Published: August 2014

Following the Deepwater Horizon incident in 2010, Marine Well Containment Company (MWCC) was formed to provide enhanced well containment equipment and response capabilities for operators drilling in the deepwater U.S. Gulf of Mexico. Today, MWCC is comprised of 10 member companies: Anadarko, Apache, BHP Billiton, BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, Hess, Shell and Statoil; all member companies are part of a long-term solution committed to being continuously ready to respond to a deepwater well control incident in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. MWCC's interim containment system (ICS) – available for use since February 2011 and maintained in a state of readiness should it be needed – is the result of unprecedented industry collaboration and enhances previous response capabilities. The ICS not only represents key technological advancements in well containment for MWCC's members and industry, it also paved the way for allowing new permits to be issued after the drilling moratorium. Today, over 100 drilling permits cite the MWCC system. As part of its commitment to keep pace with its member's needs, MWCC is building on current capabilities and enhancing technology of the ICS by constructing the expanded containment system (ECS). This presentation will include an update on the containment capabilities provided by the ECS – which represents an investment of more than $1 billion by MWCC's members. The ECS can operate in depths up to 10,000 feet and has the capacity to contain up to 100,000 barrels of liquid per day (and handle up to 200 million standard cubic feet per day of gas). Delivery of the ECS has already begun in 2013. Additionally, at members' request, MWCC recently introduced a new, smaller 10k psi capping stack that was designed for deepwater installations where well casing and riser systems are closely spaced. It is the latest example of the evolution of containment technology and ongoing enhancements to the MWCC system. The creation of MWCC is an important milestone for industry, and the delivery of new equipment and services – such as the ECS – by MWCC is a direct reflection of the company's mission to be the leader in deepwater well containment in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. As the industry continues to evolve – whether through deeper water depths, greater pressures or other areas – MWCC is committed to working collaboratively and advancing technologies to keep pace with our members' needs.
Generating a Visual Effects Analysis for the Deepwater Horizon Endangered Species Act Biological Assessment
Authors: Coley Travis , Odell Jessica , Anderson Doug
Published: August 2014

Although species expertise, professional judgment, and scientific literature pave the way for making determinations of effects, the vastness of the Deepwater Horizon Incident response inspired a systematic approach. The United States Coast Guard (USCG) Endangered Species Act Biological Assessment (BA) for this response began with the development of ecological models for each of the listed species potentially affected by the response. These models are tabular and connect individual strands of logic, referred to as effects pathways, which relate a potential cleanup activity to the anticipated species response. Effects pathways cannot be used alone, as they are inherently isolated and independent of any response action data. To bring the effects pathways into the context of the actual cleanup effort, a forensic geographically aware action record was generated. This record was primarily built using prescriptions for cleanup, known as Shoreline Cleanup Recommendations (STRs), Incident Command System (ICS) Forms, and Best Management Practices (BMP) Checklists. The combination of effects pathways and the action record was completed using table joining techniques. The anticipated species responses to actions were then used to create a series of heat maps. These show the accumulation of species responses along the landscape based on temporal components of activities, such as frequency and intensity. These maps provide a visual means of consuming the vast occurrences of the response to facilitate the effects analysis of the BA.
Biodegradation of Oil and Dispersed Oil by Arctic Marine Microorganisms
Authors: McFarlin Kelly , Leigh Mary Beth , Perkins Robert
Published: August 2014

As oil exploration and shipping routes expand in Arctic regions, the potential for oil to enter these cold water environments increases. Therefore it becomes important to understand how the indigenous Arctic microbial community will respond to oil. Arctic seawater was incubated with Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude oil to detect the presence of known petroleum degrading microorganisms and to assess how the baseline microbial community changes with inputs of ANS and ANS dispersed with Corexit 9500. Surface seawater was collected from the Chukchi Sea in near shore (Barrow, AK) and offshore (Hanna Shoal Study Area) environments to provide an indigenous consortium of microorganisms. Incubations were conducted at the temperature of the ocean at the time of collection (-1°C and 4°C), with minimal nutrient addition and sampled at 5, 10 and 28 days. To determine the baseline microbial community, seawater was collected from varying water depths within the Hanna Shoal Study Area. All seawater samples were filtered (0.2 μm) and frozen (–80°C) for DNA extraction. Pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA genes provided taxonomic information to identify microbes that are present in near shore and offshore marine environments and microbes that grow in response to oil or chemically dispersed oil. The indigenous Arctic marine microbial community was found to shift in response to the presence of oil and dispersant, providing an indication of the identity of oil degraders.
Oil Spill Simulants Workshop Process and Outcomes
Authors: DeCola Elise G. , Robertson Tim L. , Robida Jeremy , House Brian , Pegau W. Scott
Published: August 2014

In March 2013, a high-level workshop of national experts was held to consider the potential permitting and use of oil simulants in U.S. waters to improve oil spill response planning and operations. The workshop was the culmination of a six-month workgroup process that brought together researchers and responders with knowledge and experience in oil spill response, research and development, spill modeling, and regulatory oversight.

While nationally focused, the project was spearheaded by Alaska, where stakeholders and regulators had recognized the need for a simulant material to support research and development, testing spill response technologies, and training responders for Arctic and sub-Arctic spill response. The workshop yielded a strong consensus that there is a need for simulants to facilitate advances in oil spill response technologies, research and development, and training. There was also agreement that the current permitting regime is uncertain and untested, that a pilot project was needed to test the potential to permit an oil simulant release, and that there was a need to include oil simulants in the national response framework.
Quantitative Determination of Microbial Oil Degradation and Of Oil Absorption by a New Oil-Binding System in a Baltic Sea Mesocosm Experiment
Authors: Haehnel Janne , Jeschek Jenny , Schulz-Bull Detlef E.
Published: August 2014

In this study, a novel oil-binding system for marine application was developed within the joint research project “BIOBIND” (“Airborne clean-up of oil pollution at sea with biogenic oil binders”). The system's components include oil-absorbing solids, made of biogenic and biodegradable wood-fiber, that can be dropped from an aircraft and subsequently recovered either at sea or along the coast. The binder-based system was tested together with oil-degrading microbial communities previously isolated from coastal water samples of the Baltic Sea. In a first attempt at a meso-scale setup, mesocosms containing different combinations of seawater, oil binders, crude oil, and oil-degrading bacteria were established. These experiments sought answers to the following questions: (1) How does the microbial community isolated from the Western Baltic Sea react to oil entries? (2) What happens to the crude oil? (3) How efficient is the oil absorption capacity of the developed binders? Microbial activity was monitored by measuring the oxygen, phosphate, and ammonia contents of the mesocosms. Weight loss of the whole crude was estimated using a gravimetric method. In one of the mesocosms, the selected inoculum degraded around 25 % of the added crude oil. In another, in which the absorption efficiency of the oil binders was examined, more than 98 % of the crude oil was absorbed. Further molecular details on the fate of the oil were obtained using gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector and mass spectrometry to quantify alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, respectively; both were efficiently degraded by the selected inoculum. The oil absorption and oil-degrading capabilities of a system consisting of oil binders and oil-degrading microbial communities at the meso-scale was shown. These promising preliminary tests recommend its further development for use in responding to small- and medium-size oil spills in near-coastal shallow-water areas.
Best Practices for Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Technique (SCAT) from Recent Incidents
Authors: Tarpley John , Michel Jacqueline , Zengel Scott , Rutherford Nicolle , Childs Carl , Csulak Frank
Published: August 2014

The Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Technique (SCAT) process, from initial reconnaissance, to generation of Shoreline Treatment Recommendations (STRs) and signoff, is an integral part of oil spill response operations. It is and should remain flexible and scalable based on spill conditions. Several challenging spill responses have contributed to the continuing evolution of the SCAT program. This review examines best practices and unique applications for the SCAT process, coordination within the Incident Command System (ICS), field implementation and tools, and data management. While the basic SCAT process remains the same, the detailed steps can vary greatly from spill to spill. STRs and incident specific forms may be required, additional review procedures for documents and shorelines may occur, endpoints and signoff can become extremely complex, intermediate plans may be generated to manage complexity, and various regulatory consultations may be necessary. Within the ICS, the SCAT program is typically part of the Environmental Unit under the Planning Section, but requires close coordination with the Operations Section. The use of SCAT- Operations Liaisons (both as having Operations on SCAT teams during surveys and as having SCAT team members work with Operations during actual cleanup) is a best practice to improve coordination and treatment effectiveness throughout the response. Field forms, data collection tools, and SCAT staff roles are evolving. The trials of electronic data collection with field computers continue; use of imagery, GPS, and GIS are ever increasing and necessary; and the roles and coordination of various types of field monitors/observers during cleanup operations need to be carefully defined. SCAT team members need to be well-trained, and field calibration should occur regularly within and among teams. SCAT data management now requires dedicated staff and computer data management systems in all but the smallest of spills. The need for high quality data, rapid analysis, and generation of useful products to a varied audience is becoming the expected standard. However, with these expectations come new procedures and specialized skills. QA/QC of field data is critical to all evaluations and products. Specialized databases have become robust enough to handle the most complex SCAT data and output requirements, and GIS tools can quickly generate a variety of necessary map products for multiple users. These functions require skills not found with typical SCAT field team members. In this paper, we will examine some of the recent advances and unique applications to the SCAT process.
USING EXERCISES AS A SOURCE OF OIL POLLUTION RESEARCH IDEAS
Authors: Vocke William T.
Published: August 2014

Advancing the state of the art in oil pollution prevention and response requires the identification of missing elements and developing research to fill in the gaps in information. Researchers rely on a wide range of methods to identify new areas for study. Previous research frequently identifies new questions that could not be addressed at the time, or were outside the scope of the study. Lessons learned during response to real events also provide valuable insights. However, Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) and Homeland Security Exercise Evaluation Program (HSEEP) exercises are often overlooked as a source of new ideas for research.

Exercises are widely used to identify emergency response capabilities, to test equipment, practice response protocols, and to train personnel in their duties. This paper presents a review of selected After Action Reports (AARs) from PREP and HSEEP oil spill exercises to determine the extent that new research ideas could be gleaned from the information and the extent that research opportunities were identified.

This paper also addresses factors that limit the utility of exercises for identifying research needs. These limiting factors include the exercise purpose, exercise design, evaluation criteria, and after action reporting protocols. Practical suggestions on approaches to considering research needs during the exercises are provided.
Implementing Lessons Learned for NOAA's Emergency Response Division
Authors: Tarpley John , Drury Alice , Helton Doug
Published: August 2014

NOAA's Office of Response and Restoration Emergency Response Division (ERD) is committed to continually improving their response capabilities to hazardous material releases that affect life, property and natural resources. One way of achieving this is by capturing and implementing Lessons Learned from spills and exercises. Following an incident, the ERD reviews their contributions and actions to an incident via an internal “Hotwash” using a standard template, followed by documenting the results in an incident-specific report. Twice a year the Lessons Learned Team (LLT) reviews all incident hotwash reports from the previous period and identifies specific action items to address issues/problems that arose during the recent spill responses. The LLT reviews the action items and assigns a rating for importance, difficulty to implement, and time it would take to implement. These action items are also rated on their importance to improving the overall effectiveness of the ERD to respond to spills. The LLT generates an evaluation report of action items, which is submitted to the ERD's management for determination of whether these action items will be pursued, and if so, how assigned. Health and safety items are implemented immediately. Other items are incorporated into the ERD's Operational Plan and assigned a lead and due date, generally within six months to one year. Using this process has increased confidence in staff that the division has the capability to capture significant issues, effectively manage corrective actions into direct implementation, and improve response products and support capabilities.
Global Oil Spills and Oiled Wildlife Response Effort: Implications for Oil Spill Contingency Planning
Authors: Morgan Andrew David , Shaw-Brown Katherine , Bellingham Ian , Lewis Anna , Pearce Mitch , Pendoley Kellie
Published: August 2014

Over the last century there has been a significant increase in the number and size of oil spills to the marine environment due to the global proliferation of oil and gas extraction as well as the number of tankers and other maritime transport infrastructure associated with increased production. Efforts have traditionally been focussed on containment and deflection of oil rather than responding to wildlife. The present study examines total oiled wildlife effort in response to maritime spills for 286 recorded globally. Between 1910 and 1961 there was an average of 1.23 ± 0.43 incidents per year, spilling an average of 114,062 ± 352,512 tonnes of oil per year. These averages increased to 3.83 ± 2.65 events with 123,277 ± 166,735 tonnes of oil spilt per year from 1962 to 1990, and again, from 1991 to 2012 to 6.50 ± 5.17 events with 164,299 ± 290,655 tonnes of oil spilt per year. Offshore platform and tanker spills have accounted for 37% and 27% of this total, respectively. Of the 104 recorded instances where wildlife interactions occurred (40%), spill volume was not related to the total number of animals caught, oiled or pre-emptively; however, it was related to the number of carcasses collected. A lack of planning for Oiled Wildlife Response (OWR) was identified as a contributing factor exacerbating the impact of a spill on wildlife and for resourcing a response. Inadequacies within operator and government contingency planning, to prepare for and sustain a wildlife response for extended periods, can be overcome by using a mobilisation model that integrates wildlife carer networks, government regulatory agencies and operator resourcing via an independent coordinating organisation consisting of a small group of personnel highly experienced and trained in maritime operations and marine science with access to a network of persons with experience in responding to wildlife and their handling, treatment and rehabilitation.
Development of Field Stabilization Program to Enhance Survival of Seabirds During Oil Spill Response
Authors: Anderson Nancy L.
Published: August 2014

Particularly during large or remote spills, transportation of oiled animals to a primary care center where they can receive medical care can take more than half a day. The primary goal of developing a Field Stabilization (FS) program is to provide initial medical care as quickly as possible after capture in order to increase survival. A secondary benefit is the ability to organize the transportation of birds to primary care centers to avoid overwhelming limited space and personnel resources.

To meet these goals FS programs must be mobile, flexible and scalable. Personnel, equipment and shelter need to be located near sites where birds are being recovered. Depending on the size of the spill, multiple FS sites may be required. The numbers and locations may need to change overtime. Therefore a modular design is desirable. This talk will provide an overview of one FS program and information to consider when adding FS to an existing oil spill response program.
Resilience in the Aftermath of The Gulf Of Mexico Oil Spill: An Academic-Community Partnership to Improve Health Education, Social Support, Access to Care, and Disaster Preparedness
Authors: Lichtveld Maureen Y. , Arosemena Farah A.
Published: August 2014

The Gulf of Mexico oil spill affords a unique opportunity to examine resilience from a transdisciplinary, systems perspective. In 2011, the National Research Council (NRC) in its publication “Building Community Disaster Resilience through Private-Public Collaboration” recommended research that results in quantitative risk and outcome markers, projects which strengthen community resilience, and to document best practices. Although the ecological impacts of oil spills are widely studied, the full picture displaying the impact on population health is a lesser-explored area. Disasters, both natural and technological, can result in both short-term and long-term stressors. Tulane University Transdisciplinary Research Consortium for Gulf Resilience on Women's Health (GROWH) and the Gulf Region Health Outreach Program (GRHOP) community engagement and community health navigation projects are examples of evidence-based interventions using trained community health workers (CHWs) to address NRCs recommendations by 1) assessing adherence to prenatal care and postpartum and infant health outcomes, 2) building bridges between health systems and communities – working to improve the relevance, acceptability, and accessibility of health services, 3) increasing access to occupational and environmental health specialists, and 4) improving the ability of Gulf Coast communities to withstand and recover from a disaster.
Arctic Oiled Wildlife Response: Exploring Potential and Limitations
Authors: Nijkamp Hugo , Sessions Saskia , Blanc Philippe , Autret Yannick
Published: August 2014

The Arctic is an extremely vulnerable area for oil pollution. Because of global warming and the resulting retreating ice, new economic shipping and Exploration & Production activities are likely to develop in the coming years and decades. Both governments (e.g. Arctic Council) and the oil industry (e.g. Arctic Response Technology Joint Industry Programme) are preparing for increased oil spill response capabilities in the Arctic region, and are looking to join forces for more efficiency and effectiveness.

In connection to oil spill response planning in the Arctic both onshore and offshore, attention should be given to oiled wildlife response preparedness in this region. The Arctic is characterized by unique ecosystems and biodiversity, either marine or terrestrial, with a large proportion of migratory species. So although species diversity is assumed to be low compared to other regions, Arctic wildlife is very sensitive to the effects of oil pollution. Additionally the Arctic is a remote and extreme area for setting up a wildlife response in the framework of an oil spill response.

This paper explores what the limitations of an Arctic oiled wildlife response would be (physical/logistical, health & safety, environmental monitoring, ecosystems understanding, biodiversity data, sensitivity mapping, etc.), and identifies how current gaps in response preparedness could be filled. Special emphasis is laid on investments into the capabilities of specialised responders and their equipment, including creation of a specialised Arctic Wildlife Response Strike Team.
Tidal Flat and Sand Beach Remediation: Choosing Remediation Techniques to Speed Ecological Recovery of Habitats Still Impacted 20 Years after the Gulf War Oil Spill
Authors: Minter Thomas G. , Hale Jason A. , Cormack Christopher D. , Cotsapas Linos , Michel Jacqueline
Published: August 2014

After nearly 20 years of limited natural recovery following the Gulf War oil spill, surveys were conducted in 2009-2010 to identify where oil has persisted and ecological recovery has been slow along the Arabian Gulf coastline of Saudi Arabia. In 2011-2013, large-scale remediation projects were executed on 3 locations totaling 155 hectares of tidal flats and sand beaches to speed ecological recovery. Targeted remediation techniques were used as tools to meet the following goals: 1) increase suitable habitat for grazers and burrowing infauna; 2) reduce total petroleum hydrocarbon levels; and 3) improve physical processes (drainage) and reduce associated stressors such as ponding. Three principal techniques were developed and utilized along sheltered and moderately exposed tidal flats: 1) tilling of oiled sediments using tines (rake) or disc harrow attachment, followed by manual removal of remaining surface oil; 2) complete physical removal and disposal of the surface or cohesive subsurface oiling layers; and 3) tilling areas contained within berms while flooded to liberate liquid oil that was subsequently recovered by skimming/vacuuming. The first technique was considered appropriate when there was a well-defined gradient between hardened surface oiling and lightly oiled subsurface sediments, within sandy tidal flats, and where sediment conservation was a priority. This technique resulted in 20% additional oiled surface residue cover, which was removed manually. Resulting sediment loss was minimal. Goals 1, 2 and 3 were met. The second technique was preferred when there was a dry cohesive oiled layer either on the surface or beneath a layer of clean sand and where sediment conservation was not a priority. Excavation of oiled sediments resulted in high sediment loss by physical removal; however, goals 1 and 2 were clearly achieved. Additional re-grading including possible sediment replacement was required to achieve goal 3. The third technique was considered the optimal method when there was a high level of subsurface liquid oiling within tidal flats, and if sediment conservation was a priority. Goal 1 was achieved by breaking up surface barriers. To achieve goals 2 and 3, multiple tilling passes were required to liberate and remove liquid oil. Monitoring results show that while oil levels varied across remediated sites, a trend in reduction was common throughout. Short- and long-term ecological responses are being monitored.
TROPICS: 30-year Follow-up and Analysis of Mangroves, Invertebrates, and Hydrocarbons
Authors: Baca Bart , Rosch Eric , DeMicco Erik D. , Schuler Paul A.
Published: August 2014

TROPICS (TRopical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems) has been the seminal study on trade-offs for Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) for dispersant use in tropical ecosystems. The study began in 1983/84 with the identification of suitable tropical island sites in Bahia Almirante, Bocas del Toro, Panama that contained mangrove, seagrass and coral habitats in close enough proximity to establish three 30m X 30m test sites. Controlled releases of Prudhoe Bay crude oil (dosed at 1L/m2) and Prudhoe Bay crude oil pre-dispersed with Corexit 9527 (to maintain 50 ppm water soluble fraction), were introduced into the Non- dispersed oil (Site O) and the Dispersed oil (Site D) sites, respectively, for 48 hours. A nearby Reference site (Site R) was not treated with oil/dispersed oil. Treatments were designed to simulate a realistic oil spill in adjoining mangrove, seagrass, and coral habitats.

Following exposure and removal of oil, sites were studied periodically over 30 years for relative effects of dispersed and non-dispersed oil in coral, seagrass, mangrove, and invertebrate populations, as well as hydrocarbon presence. Early research focused on short- and mid-term effects compared to the Reference site (R), while later work focused on long-term effects and ecosystem recovery. In general, researchers found that Site O exhibited more overall long-term ecosystem disruption than Site D, and that Site D had recovered quickly to Site R and baseline levels.

In November 2013 (29 years after oil and dispersed oil exposure), the TROPICS sites were re-visited under a grant provided by Clean Caribbean & Americas. Researchers collected data on mangroves, mangrove invertebrates, and hydrocarbons. The density of mangrove trees at Site D had remained at Site R and baseline levels. Site O, which had experienced early die off of trees, followed by peak production at 10 years (far in excess of Site R and baseline levels), exhibited a decline dominated by small trees. Mangrove snails and oysters increased sharply at Site O after the spill, but declined over 10-20 years. Sites D and R maintained gradual invertebrate increases during this time.

This paper focuses on research from the November 2013 visit and draws on previous observations and TROPICS papers on overall ecosystem disruption and recovery as it pertains to the NEBA for nearshore dispersant use in tropical marine ecosystems.
Addressing the Uncertainty and Requirements for Oil Spill Response Consultations
Authors: Benggio Bradford , Scholz Debra , Anderson Dave , Dillon Joseph , Masson Greg , Nelson Lindy , Odess Daniel , Petras Elizabeth
Published: August 2014

In the United States (U.S.), oil spill response planning, preparedness, and response requirements are dictated primarily by the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, a regulation that implements the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the Clean Water Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act. At the planning stage, these regulations require the development of national, regional, and local response capabilities and promote overall coordination among responders. During a spill, these capabilities are utilized by the Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) to analyze whether response actions are likely to impact protected resources. The consultation process required under Federal statutes, charges the FOSC to consult with Federal, state, Tribal entities, and other Federal agencies to determine potential effects of response actions during an incident and to develop strategies to avoid, minimize, and mitigate those effects (40 CFR § 300.135(j); § 300.305(e); and § 300.322(a), 1994). Consultations should continue until response operations are concluded and may continue after operations are complete.

Four key regulatory mandates that require an FOSC to initiate consultation during a response include:Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended requires consultation with US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) on federally listed species and designated critical habitats;Magnuson-Stevens Act requires consultation with NMFS on any action that may affect Essential Fish Habitats;National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended requires Federal agencies to consult with states, federally recognized tribes, and other stakeholders on potential impacts to historic and cultural resources; andTribal Consultations under Executive Order 13175 – Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments when federally recognized Indian Tribes and their interests are affected by a response.

Consultation is also required under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act when Native American burial sites, human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, or items of cultural patrimony are identified on Federal or Tribal lands during a response and no pre-consultation plan of action has been developed.1

Consultation requirements are not universally understood, leading to uncertainty and inconsistencies across the response community and Trustees regarding when to initiate and how to conduct the consultations. This paper discusses the Federal consultation requirements and identifies areas of possible uncertainties in the consultation process throughout the pre-spill planning, response, and post-response phases of an incident. This paper will suggest resolutions and recommendations to further enhance the consultation process by the Federal spill response decision-makers and planning bodies.
Ecological Connectivity in Northeastern Gulf of Mexico – The Deep-C Initiative
Authors: Coleman Felicia C. , Chanton Jeffrey P. , Chassignet Eric P.
Published: August 2014

The Deepwater Horizon blowout injected massive quantities of carbon in the form of crude oil and gas into the otherwise oligotrophic northeastern Gulf of Mexico. This sudden and unprecedented event dramatically affected ecosystem function, reverberating throughout the physical, chemical, and biological realms. Characterizing the acute and chronic effects of the spill set the stage for the Deep-C Consortium's focus on the geomorphologic, hydrologic, and biogeochemical settings that influence the distribution and fate of oil and its impact on the ecology in the region. Detecting the chemical constituents of oil and the decay rates and by-products of biodegradation has enhanced our qualitative and quantitative accounting of “missing” oil and allowed the assessment of the sensitivity of marine organisms to specific compounds. The delayed response of oil-eating microbes created lags in carbon biodegradation that allowed ecological damage to occur. Microbes themselves appear to serve as conduits delivering petroleum-based carbon to marine food webs. While this carbon appears at the other end of the trophic spectrum — in deep-sea animals either actually or virtually unknown to science — the levels measured in their tissues are relatively low, which begs the question, “Does oil exposure affect their life history and general health?” To address this question and predict the long-term ecological effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, we are incorporating historical and newly-derived data into linked food web-earth system models that can forecast how spills impact ecological and economic communities, including human health. This approach also provides a powerful tool for identifying data gaps that require our attention, and assessing the influences of hydrocarbon releases on biological productivity in the Gulf of Mexico ecosystem.
ADVANCEMENTS IN UNDERWATER OIL DETECTION AND RECOVERY TECHNIQUES
Authors: Elliott James E. , DeVilbiss David
Published: August 2014

The marine salvage and commercial diving industries have increasingly been sought out to prevent oil spills from submerged shipwrecks, and to detect and recover spilled oil below the surface once a subsea spill occurs. In recent years, underwater oil recovery techniques have advanced from predominantly surface-supplied diver installed vacuum or pumping systems in relatively shallow waters to the use of saturation diving systems and remotely operated vehicles at greater depths. Underwater oil detection technologies have advanced permitting the detection of spilled oil in the water column, on the bottom and in the subsurface. For oil trapped within a sunken shipwreck, neutron backscatter technology has been successfully applied to locate oil inside the ship. Additionally, the International Maritime Organization, U.S. Coast Guard and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration have published regulations, guidance and studies in the past five years in an effort to improve submerged oil detection and recovery operations. This technical paper will provide an overview of the regulatory framework, basics of underwater oil spill response operations and an analysis of recent technological advances available to detect and recover oil at depth. Multi-beam sonar, real-time mass spectrometry, saturation diving systems, diver-operated recovery systems, and remotely operated vehicle systems will be discussed. Recent case studies will frame the presentation of advances in subsea oil detection and recovery equipment. Finally, conclusions and recommendations will be presented to further advance submerged oil detection and recovery efficiency and effectiveness.
Incorporating Well Control Support Functions into a Broader Oil Spill Response Organization
Authors: Schnapp Kelly Lynn , Leonard Joseph , Drieu Michael , Rogers Bryan
Published: August 2014

This paper seeks to better prepare the oil spill response community for incorporating well control into a response organization, based on conditional considerations rather than long and firmly held assumptions. Techniques used to control a well, after a blowout, are more closely related to technical well drilling and control activities rather than to operations intended to address oil in the environment. When oil is released from a well in the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), response organizers need to consider various factors influencing the organization that may exist at the time. These include a working knowledge of well control by response leadership; strength of responder relationships; and response complexity (to include authority, stakeholder and public expectations). This is particularly true when incorporating the well control support function in the oil spill response operational planning processes, usually facilitated by the Incident Command System (ICS). Within the last three years, complex well control operations were uniquely incorporated into response organizations during two Government Initiated Unannounced Exercises (GIUEs) and during the DEEPWATER HORIZON incident. Three options will be presented. Considerations for incorporating well control into a response organization will be presented using the case studies noted previously and by comparing similar lessons learned from the salvage industry in the late 1990's. Options presented help demonstrate that response organization flexibility is key to a successful response. This paper seeks to illuminate options surrounding placement of well control within an incident command structure based upon unique incident situational realities.
TIDAL INLET PROTECTION STRATEGIES (TIPS) FIELD GUIDE FOR SHORELINE PROTECTION
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Castle Robert W. , FitzGerald Duncan M. , Dubach Helen (Chapman)
Published: August 2014

Tidal inlets are complex systems that provide pathways for oil to enter sheltered and typically environmentally sensitive bays, tidal flats, and wetland complexes. Because of their dynamic nature, attempts to protect these features from oil spills have not always been successful historically, often due to a lack of understanding of how the inlet system operates and where protective actions may be practical. This Field Guide has been prepared to assist oil spill planners and responders to better understand how tidal inlets function and where conditions may exist that permit control actions.

Improving understanding of how tidal inlets work can help ensure that realistic expectations and appropriate tactics and equipment are available for deployment locations where they have some potential for success. During a response operation, the Field Guide can be used to ensure that available resources are put to best use and that decision makers select practical strategies based on the environmental conditions at the time. The Field Guide provides separate stepwise approaches for preplanning activities and for response decisions.