bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Making a Difference?
Authors: Copeland Ian R.
Published: June 2020

In Malawi as elsewhere, several NGOs recruit fee-paying “volun-tourists” drawn to a seductive fusion of service and adventure. This chapter considers one such organization—World Camp, Incorporated—and its use of musical strategies during residencies that take place in primary schools and conclude with student-led performances. The efficacy of World Camp’s public health interventions is a matter of considerable ambivalence. In wedding biomedical lyrical content to locally legible musical forms, students enact a hybridized genre with the potential to subvert autochthonous models of knowledge circulation. Volunteers, meanwhile, perceive their students’ performative capabilities through a romantic prism of endemic musicality, an interpretive move that elides the complexity of local praxis and rehashes racial tropes. Ultimately, this chapter argues that volunteers’ reception of their students’ performances completes a circuit of semiotic validation, reifying outsiders’ sense of altruism and perpetuating a model of humanitarian intervention with compromised regard for local impact.
Mobutu’s Ghost
Authors: Ndaliko Chérie Rivers
Published: June 2020

Both environments of mass uncertainty and emergent efforts at radical social change inspire calls for the arts to “get the word out.” Yet the distribution of information is inseparable from the distribution of resources, and the logics of broadcast are inherently colored by the politics of patronage. Moreover, the audiences addressed by such media are not open-ended, democratic masses but rather distinct publics constituted by the very forms of discourse chosen by the works: gender roles are consolidated around songs addressed either to men or women, political preferences swayed through the promotion of certain celebrities, ethnic identities unified or exacerbated via the use of different languages, and so on. However widely it spreads, distribution is never even nor unbiased; it is always colored by processes of disparity.
Mice, Cows, and Real Rwandans
Authors: Brower Lowell
Published: June 2020

As an alternative to NGO- or state-initiated arts, this chapter explores traditional oral performance genres mobilized by Kinyarwanda-speakers from DR Congo resettled in a Rwandan refugee camp. Storytellers and poets find ways to unite their communities, obliquely re-narrate their histories, endure amid “emergency conditions,” and assert their agency in an environment otherwise bent toward defining them as passive refugees and victims. Close linguistic attention to the moments and manner in which these stories and poems are performed reveals that oral traditions are not simply sources of automatic authenticity in which to couch development messages, but rather the very means by which substantive demands for development can be articulated and promulgated. Like any other foreign intervention, arts projects initiated amid humanitarian crises would do best to begin by listening to local voices.
Introduction
Authors: Plank Geoffrey
Published: June 2020

The introduction highlights the distinctiveness of the Atlantic as the least-navigated temperate ocean in the medieval and early modern period. When Europeans first crossed the Atlantic in the eleventh century, they faced no deep-water competition from indigenous Americans or Africans, but maritime supremacy did not easily translate into power on land. The introduction examines the Norse colonization of Greenland and attempted colonization of Newfoundland to illustrate the military challenges Europeans faced across the Atlantic. Compared to subsequent colonists, the Norse were unusually isolated. After encountering indigenous American military resistance, they abandoned their colony on Newfoundland. The Europeans who crossed the ocean in the late fifteenth and sixteenth century had larger ships to ferry and supply people and maintain communications, but even with these advantages, colonists depended on indigenous American trading partners and military allies in order to survive.
Ships
Authors: Plank Geoffrey
Published: June 2020

Chapter 1 analyzes military influences on the design of ships. The chapter begins with various accounts of initial indigenous American and African responses to European sailing ships. Though the reactions varied, enduring legends developed in many places associating ships with profound power. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, all European sailing ships, including merchant vessels, were potential instruments of war. Endemic violence on the sea required merchants to arm themselves. Northern European sailing vessels were challenged by rowed galleys arriving from the Mediterranean, inaugurating new forms of combat at sea. To facilitate defense and for attacks on other vessels, ship designers raised and covered decks, built castles in the fore and aft, moved the rudders to the rear of the ships, dispensed with rowers, increased the size of their vessels, and eventually installed heavy guns. The chapter closes with specialization of European warships in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The Birth of the Trio
Authors: Friedwald Will
Published: June 2020

After Cole worked a series of gigs with Shuffle Along producer Flournoy Miller, a local restaurant owner hired him to bring a group to the Swanee Inn, which could accommodate only three musicians. Cole formed his first trio with guitarist Oscar Moore and bassist Wesley Prince. Moore suggested naming the group after Old King Cole and his Fiddlers Three. From 1937 to 1940, they enjoyed success in Los Angeles and made recordings very early for a series of commercial transcription services. After spending most of 1940 in Hollywood, they expanded in 1941, performing from Chicago to New York. They made their first real commercial recordings for Decca in 1940 and 1941 and were increasingly heard on the radio. Interest in the Trio was about to bubble over; as Nat later put it, “For seven years we knocked around, until something happened.”
Years of Stardust, Night Lights, and Fear of the Dark
Authors: Friedwald Will
Published: June 2020

The late 1950s was perhaps the busiest portion of Cole’s career: in 1957, he concentrated mostly on film and TV work. The Nat King Cole Show had expanded to a half-hour slot, but even though the program was top-rated in most markets, NBC was not able to find a sponsor for it, and Nat reluctantly pulled the plug on it in December 1957. The next year, 1958, he made more than half a dozen full albums and dozens of singles, among them, his first album in Spanish, Cole Español. This was so successful that he spent much of 1959 touring in Latin America: in one week in Brazil, he played to nearly a quarter million people in stadiums and other venues. This was also the year Nat and Maria adopted their only son, Kelly Cole.
Seeing Clearly
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas
Published: June 2020

Many of us, even on our happiest days, struggle to quiet the constant buzz of anxiety in the background of our minds. All kinds of worries—worries about losing people and things, worries about how we seem to others—keep us from peace of mind. Distracted or misled by our preoccupations, misconceptions, and, most of all, our obsession with ourselves, we do not see the world clearly—we do not see the world as it really is. In our search for happiness and the good life, this is the main problem. But luckily there is a solution, and on the path to understanding it, we can make use of the rich and varied teachings that have developed over centuries of Buddhist thought. This book explores the central elements of centuries of Buddhist philosophy and practice, explaining how they can improve life and teach us how to live without fear. Mining important texts and lessons for practical guidance, it provides a guide to the very practical goals that underpin Buddhist philosophy. After laying out the basic ideas, the text walks readers through a wide range of techniques and practices we can adopt to mend ingrained habits.
Contentious Compliance
Authors: Conrad Courtenay R. , Ritter Emily Hencken
Published: June 2020

Do international human rights treaties constrain governments from repressing their populations? Government authorities routinely ignore their international obligations, and countries with poor human rights records join international treaties and yet continue to violate rights. Contentious Compliance presents a new theory of treaty effects founded on the idea that governments repress as part of a domestic conflict with potential or actual dissidents. By introducing dissent actions like peaceful protests, strikes, boycotts, or direct violent attacks on government, Contentious Complianceimproves understanding of when states will violate rights-and when international laws will work to protect people. Formal theory and extensive data analyses show that when political leaders have the highest incentives to repress-namely when political leaders receive large benefits from retaining power and domestic courts are relatively poor at constraining the executive-human rights treaties alter the structure of the strategic conflict between political authorities and potential dissidents, significantly decreasing government repression and increasing the likelihood of mobilized dissent actions.
Three Lives and Astrobiology
Authors: Mix Lucas
Published: June 2020

This chapter explores the concept of life across traditions, from science to philosophy to theology. The term “life” covers at least three constellations of meaning or life-concepts: biological life, internal life, and rational life. Biological life shares traits with all cellular life on Earth (archaea, eubacteria, and eukarya). Internal or conscious life shares subjective interiority with humans. Rational life shares intellect with all minds that can distinguish truth from non-truth. These three lives possess different origins, extents, and futures. The chapter then identifies three distinct “hard problems of life” relating to the origin and extent of biological organization, consciousness, and reason: moving from non-life to life, from life to sentience, and from sentience to rationality. The Drake equation, the Fermi paradox, and the anthropic principle provide concrete examples in astrobiology.
What Are Extremophiles?
Authors: Mariscal Carlos , Brunet T.D.P.
Published: June 2020

This chapter studies the concept of an extremophile. In the 1970s, R. D. MacElroy coined the term “extremophile” to describe microorganisms that thrive under extreme conditions. This hybrid word transliterates to “love of extremes” and has been studied as a straightforward concept ever since. The chapter then delineates five different ways to think about extremophiles, concluding that the concept is especially prone to the vagueness and arbitrariness that plague other biological categories, since it unavoidably involves debatable assumptions about life's nature and limits. These five concepts are, briefly, human-centric, at the edge of life's habitation of morphospace, by appeal to statistical rarity, described by objective limits, and at the limits of impossibility for metabolic processes. Importantly, these concepts have coexisted, unacknowledged and conflated, for decades. Confusion threatens to follow from the wildly varied inclusion or exclusion of organisms as extremophiles depending on the concept used. Under some conceptions, entire kinds of extremophiles become meaningless. Ultimately, since people's understanding of how life works is shaped by what people take to be its extremes, clarifying extremophily is key for many large-scale projects in biology, biotechnology, and astrobiology.
Earth, Life, Space
Authors: Billings Linda
Published: June 2020

This chapter discusses how the scientific search for evidence of extraterrestrial life has affected people's conception of the terrestrial biosphere. Austrian geologist Eduard Suess originated the term “biosphere” in 1875, describing Earth's biosphere as the area of the planet that supports life. With a deeper understanding of the history and nature of the terrestrial biosphere, the community of scientists engaged in space science and exploration recognizes the possibility of other biospheres beyond Earth. As a result, the quest to find evidence of extraterrestrial life has affected people's conception of the biosphere, the way they think about their home planet and their place on it, and their perspective on the possibility of extraterrestrial biospheres nearby and far away. Indeed, astrobiology, planetary exploration, and exoplanet science have made significant contributions to this changing understanding.
The New Protest #Journalism
Authors: Richardson Allissa V.
Published: June 2020

Chapter 3 introduces the 15 activists who are interviewed for the book. They fall into five broad groups: (1) the Black Lives Matter activists; (2) the “Day 1’s”; (3) the Masters of Agitprop; (4) the Bards; and (5) the Rogues. The Black Lives Matter activists were leaders who self-identified as members of the formal organization. The Day 1’s were the frontline protestors of Ferguson who believed their actions galvanized the movement. The Masters of Agitprop were the creatives who used art as propaganda for the movement. The Bards provided the soundtrack to the movement, blending hip-hop, poetry, and prose to spread news. Lastly, the Rogues were associated loosely with all of these groups, but refused to be labeled Black Lives Matter activists for a variety of reasons.
#WorkWoke
Authors: Richardson Allissa V.
Published: June 2020

Chapter 5 offers a personal account of the author’s brushes with police brutality to frame a broader discussion about the rise of the parallel #SayHerName movement in 2015. The author illustrates how activists have channeled their rage against inequitable systems into social movements, which are often labors of love. The activists explain how their ancestors’ work fuels them to continue to bear witness, even in increasingly polarized times.
#BeforeYouWatch
Authors: Richardson Allissa V.
Published: June 2020

Chapter 6 presents a social media analysis of the activists’ timelines that reveals an incredible reliance upon smartphones to create and distribute breaking movement-related news. This chapter explores the gift and the curse of these devices for today’s freedom fighters. It also outlines six steps in activist media production going from (1) observation to (2) discussion on to (3) authentication of potential news stories and then to (4) production, (5) publication, and finally (6) agitation throughout various counterpublics.
Reconstructing History
Authors: Striedter Georg F. , Northcutt R. Glenn
Published: June 2020

This introductory chapter describes the book’s general approach and underlying philosophy. The authors adopt a definition of biological homology that recognizes the hierarchical nature of biological organization and allows for any aspects of a character to change over the course of evolution. The only essential homology criterion is that the characters in question must have been retained from a common ancestor, rather than having evolved independently in multiple lineages. These fundamental ideas are discussed in the context of related concepts, notably “field homology” and the homology of cell types and developmental pathways. Although it is easy to get tangled up in questions about the homology or non-homology of individual characters, the book’s main concern is the evolution and natural history of entire organisms and the lineages to which they belong.
The Origin of Vertebrates
Authors: Striedter Georg F. , Northcutt R. Glenn
Published: June 2020

Some time in the Ediacaran or early Cambrian period, the first vertebrates emerged. Compared to the invertebrate chordates, early vertebrates were active predators, rather than suspension feeders. This change in behavior was facilitated by several major morphological innovations, including pharyngeal muscles that pump water through the pharynx, vascularized gills, paired image-forming eyes, a complex vestibular apparatus, lateral line receptors, taste buds, and a well-developed olfactory system. Early vertebrates also evolved several new brain regions, notably the telencephalon and the midbrain. Developmentally, most of these innovations were linked to the emergence of two novel embryonic tissues, namely placodes and neural crest. Although these tissues and their adult derivatives did not evolve “out of nothing,” they represent genuine innovations that contributed substantially to the evolutionary success of the vertebrate lineage.
The Invasion of Land
Authors: Striedter Georg F. , Northcutt R. Glenn
Published: June 2020

Basal stem tetrapods were fully aquatic but spent time at the water surface breathing air, which was useful at the end of the Devonian, when aquatic oxygen levels were low. After the Devonian, early tetrapods became fully terrestrial, at least as adults. This transition involved major changes in the musculoskeletal system for locomotion and the evolution of new modes of feeding. Aerial vision required changes in the eye but then allowed for high-resolution vision over long distances. In contrast, the lateral line systems are useless in air and were lost in fully terrestrial tetrapods. The brains of early tetrapods were relatively simple, possibly simplified through a process called paedomorphosis. The telencephalon’s main function in early tetrapods was to inhibit or disinhibit the lower brain regions. Later tetrapods diverged into extant amphibians and amniotes. Within the amphibian lineage, anurans evolved a tympanic ear, which increased their ability to hear airborne sounds.
Introduction
Authors: Washburne Christopher
Published: June 2020

Latin Jazz: The Other Jazz explores various theoretical framings that serve as the primary avenue through which to approach a number of case studies. These frames, broadly speaking, include the central tropes and social forces at play at the core of Latin jazz music making. They include the dynamics of intercultural exchange, the discursive practices associated with genre contestations, and the social forces involved in canonization. The beginning of the book maps out the various social terrains associated with Latin jazz and transparently demonstrates the author’s particular biases, assumptions, and hypotheses. It connects how broader issues of economics, nation, race, and ethnicity are uniquely tied to various sonic manifestations and performance practices of Latin jazz throughout the twentieth century. The book then narrows its focus for each of the following chapters, highlighting historical moments, individual musicians, places, and events that have played key roles in the trajectory of this music.
Why Call It Latin Jazz? Afro-Latin Jazz, Afro-Cuban Jazz, Cubop, Caribbean Jazz, Jazz Latin, or Just . . . Jazz
Authors: Washburne Christopher
Published: June 2020

This chapter explores how Latin jazz is positioned and named and the primary discursive contestations associated with the genre. What is focused on in particular is how musicians exert agency by manipulating generic boundaries as a negotiative tool. With a focus on two prominent bandleaders as case studies, Arturo O’Farrill and Ray Barretto, discursive strategies embodying a complex of subjectivities are explored and serve as a lens into the fundamental political undergirding of intercultural production. What becomes apparent is that self-conceived notions held by musicians concerning how to label and perform this music prove to be neither static nor terminal in nature but rather must be imagined as mobile, fluid, and changeable, always strategic, and at times even seeming fickle. What is revealed is the pendular, self-positioning discourse that makers of this music engage in, in order to navigate through and strategically position themselves within this at times adversarial milieu. The politics of place, nation, class, economics, and race as well as the complex historical relationships inform their fluid dance of genre imaginings.
The Long Reach of Self-Control
Authors: Baumeister Roy F. , Vonasch Andrew J. , Sjåstad Hallgeir
Published: June 2020

Abundant evidence suggests that people exert self-control as if the exertions consumed a limited energy resource, akin to the folk notion of willpower. After exerting self-control, subsequent efforts at self-control are often relatively feeble and unsuccessful. The state of low willpower is called ego depletion. Studies on ego depletion have shown effects on intelligent thought (which is impaired during ego depletion), decision-making (depleted persons shift to more superficial ways of choosing, or prefer to avoid making choices), and passivity (depleted people become more passive). The psychological processes of self-regulation and ego depletion are linked to physical energy, as indicated by evidence that hunger makes people more short-sighted, and that food intake tends to counteract ego depletion. Depletion increases in response to interpersonal conflict, poor sleep, and confronting uncertainty. In daily life, good self-control is linked to avoiding problems and temptations, low stress, and higher happiness.
Exploring the Roles of Emotions in Self-Control
Authors: Scarantino Andrea
Published: June 2020

Self-control has been understood since Ancient Greece as reason winning in the battle with emotion. This is an idea that contemporary “divided mind” accounts of self-control take for granted, assuming that emotions are a threat to one’s ability to do what one judges best, all things considered. This historically influential picture neglects the emotions’ potential as tools for self-control. This chapter argues that emotions can help self-control by virtue of how they motivate, by virtue of how they feel, and by virtue of how they evaluate the self. At the same time, each of these three channels can also lead emotions to undermine self-control. Thus, whereas a “divided mind” account recommends fostering self-control by preventing emotions from interfering, the author recommends fostering self-control by developing affective strategies that harness the distinctive powers of emotions to work for self-control rather than against it.
The State in North Africa
Authors: Martinez Luis
Published: June 2020

Ever since independence, revolts and riots in North Africa have structured relations between society and the state. While the state has always managed to restore order, the unexpected outbreak of the Arab Spring revolts has presented a real challenge to state stability. Taking a long-term historical perspective, this book analyses how public authorities have implemented policies to manage the Maghreb’s restive societies, viewed at first as ‘retrograde’ and then as ‘radicalised’.
National cohesion has been a major concern for post-colonial leaders who aim to build strong states capable of controlling the population. Historically, North African nations found colonial oppression to be the very bond that united them, but what continues to hold these communities and nation-states together after independence? If public interest is not at the heart of the state’s actions, how can national loyalties be maintained? Luis Martinez analyses how states approach these questions, showing that the fight against jihadist groups both helps to reconstruct essential ties of state belonging and also promotes the development of a border control policy. He highlights the challenges posed by fragile political communities and weak state instruments, and the response of leaders striving to build peaceful pluralistic nations in North Africa.
Introduction
Authors: Elliott Kamilla
Published: June 2020

Adaptation studies in the humanities has grown exponentially as a field since 1990, and many new theories have been brought to bear on it in the twenty-first century. Even so, adaptation scholars continue to view the field as theoretically lacking. For most, the problem of theorizing adaptation is that scholars are using the “wrong” theories, a problem to be remedied by using the “right” theories, although what the “right” theories are continues to be contested, even in an age of theoretical pluralism. This introduction inaugurates the book’s investigation of how and why the ways in which theorization has been practiced in the humanities generally has been wrong for adaptation studies particularly and offers an overview of the ways in which the chapters aim to redress the dysfunctional relationship between theorization and adaptation in the humanities.
The Rhetoric of Theorizing Adaptation
Authors: Elliott Kamilla
Published: June 2020

“Refiguring Theorization” shifts from macroscopic historical and theoretical metacriticism to microscopic analyses of rhetoric. Theorizing adaptation has unfolded not only at the level of books, chapters, articles, and reviews but also at the level of sentences, phrases, words, and pieces of words. Analyzing relations between parts of speech governed by the laws of grammar makes clear that some problems of theorizing adaptation lie within the systems and structures of rhetoric itself. A microscopic study of rhetoric takes larger discourses to pieces not only to understand their workings but also as a prelude to constructing new discourses of theorizing adaptation. Rhetoric’s conjoined persuasive and aesthetic functions render it particularly resonant for pondering the relationship between theoretical discourses and aesthetic practices, with potential for refiguring that relationship. Figurative rhetoric (or figuration) is central to this endeavor, providing a variegated, adaptive rhetoric with potential to forge new ways of thinking, speaking, and writing about adaptation, theorization, and their relationship to each other.
The origins of Nazi persecution and victimization of neuroscientists in Germany, Austria, and Poland
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A.
Published: June 2020

Beginning with even some famous neuroscientists in the nineteenth century anti-Semitism prevented professional promotions and left Jews as outsiders. This included Oppenheim, Flatau, Freud, Liepmann, Weigert, Lewandowsky, Edinger, and others. The specialties of neurology and psychiatry in the first place were fringe areas in which Jews could gravitate and build careers in a field others shunned. But pervasive and insidious discrimination existed in most German and Austrian universities, and Jewish neuroscientists were rarely made department chairs or institute heads. In some instances independent hospitals or clinics in larger cities such as Berlin or Vienna could be headed by Jews, but this became increasingly rare and these dreams were shattered at the onset of the Nazi era. Even as heads of some independent hospitals Jewish neuroscientists faced intolerable degrees of hatred and roadblocks, but persevered and contributed heavily to the growth of neuroscience.
“Three generations of imbeciles are enough”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A.
Published: June 2020

Eugenic principles originated in the nineteenth century, along with the related subject of racial hygiene. Eugenics became popular globally, not just in Germany, and was seen as a solution to society’s problems of poverty, crime, and mental illness. Neuroscientists flocked to eugenics, but long before that they helped popularize scientific racism by espousing ideas about smaller skull sizes in so-called “inferior” races. Even famous neuroscientists of the nineteenth and early twentieth century became staunch eugenicists, including Forel, Möbius, Anton, Lundborg, Lennox, and Foster Kennedy. Thus, it isn’t surprising that leading up to the Nazi era, neuroscientists were some of the biggest proponents of forced sterilization and even euthanasia programs as negative eugenics measures to rid society of unwanted elements, including neurologic and psychiatric patients who were seen as “burdens.” Notably, not all neuroscientists believed in eugenic measures on these patients, with some calling for “exoneration of the feebleminded.”
Gleichschaltung and “de-Jewification” in German university neurology departments
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A.
Published: June 2020

In at least 26 instances of “non-Aryan” neuroscientist dismissal, their replacements were involved in racial hygiene consequences such as aiding the vehement forced sterilization program, euthanasia of neuropsychiatric patients, or collection of brain tissue and research on these expendable victims. The hardest-hit departments were in the major German cities, especially Berlin, where both the university and multiple smaller hospitals and institutes were decapitated and where Jews had been directors prior to the Nazi power seizure. University neurology departments in Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Bonn, Heidelberg, and Breslau were also heavily incapacitated by dismissals. Those who took over the positions of dismissed neuroscientists were often members of not only the Nazi party, but multiple subsidiary agencies, such as the SS, SA, and others, likely reflecting deeper commitment to Nazi ideology. Six known “Aryan” neuroscientists emigrated from Germany, reflecting the fact that support of the regime was neither mandatory, nor the only solution.
Forced sterilization under the NazisPreventing people with neuropsychiatric disorders from polluting the German gene pool
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A.
Published: June 2020

The first negative eugenic measure passed by the Hitler regime in July 1933 was the forced sterilization law, which primarily targeted neuropsychiatric patients with “feeblemindedness,” schizophrenia, and epilepsy. Also included were Huntington’s chorea, bipolar disorder, and alcoholism, along with other congenital defects. The law was based on a prior Weimar Germany draft that was never enacted. Although Germany was late to enact a sterilization law, it was more rapidly implemented and executed than in other countries. In 12 years of the Nazi regime, 400,000 people were forcibly sterilized. The hypocritical execution of the law, supposedly foolproof because of the use of “hereditary health courts” and appeals courts, resulted in people of lower socioeconomic background being preferentially affected, and also in non-hereditary forms of diseases (e.g., symptomatic epilepsy) being included. Most in German neuroscience also seemed unconcerned with the 0.5% mortality rate of sterilization procedures, resulting in at least 2000 deaths.
“Beautiful mental defectives” and “lovely idiots”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A.
Published: June 2020

Some German and Austrian neuroscientists, instead of condemning the patient murder, actually saw a great opportunity in the euthanasia programs. The opportunity was for scientific research on a scale that would never have been possible without the murder programs. The brain parts of these murdered “beautiful defectives” would be used during and long after the war in scientific publications, largely containing mere pathologic descriptions or regarding hereditary causes of neurologic disease. Brain transfer networks existed based on individual scientific interests of neuropathologists at various German institutes; thus, a symbiotic relationship can be seen in the neuroscientists’ desire for scientific material and research funding, which fueled and further intensified the killers’ desire to eliminate patients. The lack of humanity and ethics by Hallervorden, Ostertag, and others regarding this indirect collaboration in killing is striking, as is their lack of repentence or informing future generations about the unethical provenance of the “material.”
Just “rabbits”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A.
Published: June 2020

Neuropsychiatric patients were also subjected to various experiments during the euthanasia programs. The unethical experiments ranged from photography using restraints, to inducing hypoxic or hypercarbic states in epileptics to monitor electroencephalographic changes, to exposing children to hypoxia to induce seizures, to inoculating spinal fluid with monkey fluids to transmit a potential multiple sclerosis-causing viral agent, and tuberculosis experiments. These “expendable” patients were loaned from local mental institutions, and some died during the experiments. Results were published in scientific journals and continued to be cited as legitimate experiments long after the war. The individual scientists did not face any sanctions for the unethical experimental designs. Justifications given were that the patients were demented and couldn’t experience pain, or that the experimenter was in the vacuum chamber with the children. But the experiments violated 1931 Weimar guidelines and the Hippocratic Oath, even if formal ethical restrictions were not standardized at the time.
“Washing the black sheep white again”
Authors: Zeidman Lawrence A.
Published: June 2020

The first postwar period (1945–50) consisted, importantly, of the Nuremberg Medical Trial and formation of the Nuremberg Code for medical ethics. During the initial period most collaborator neuroscientists, even those involved in patient selection for euthanasia, escaped largely unscathed. The latter faced temporary career setbacks but re-emerged in the next decade professionally. The second period (1950–70) included a seminal event, the Hallervorden Affair, which pertained to the 1953 International Neuropathology Conference in Lisbon. Former Dutch neuroscientist resistor Rademaker and the Dutch delegation withdrew when they found out Hallervorden was presenting, leading to Hallervorden and Spatz’s withdrawal but only after fiery correspondence on both sides of the argument. Some collaborator neuroscientists continued to support sterilization, and even spoke against victims’ rights. Overall, only three of 25 (12%) of collaborators ever publicly repented for their involvement in Nazi programs, suggesting against an ability to rehabilitate for this directly involved group.
A.S. Byatt’s Biological Reason
Authors: Hanson Clare
Published: June 2020

Chapter 2 places A.S. Byatt’s four-volume novel sequence the Quartet in the context of Michel Foucault’s The Order of Things, a frequent point of reference for her fiction. It traces her engagement with the question of genetic determinism, which she reads through the lens of a debate between Noam Chomsky and Jean Piaget, and her exploration of alternative theories of ‘soft inheritance’. It notes her interest in neo-Darwinian theories of sex (especially those of John Maynard Smith) and her awareness of the problematic imbrication of these theories with current social assumptions, especially in a period just on the cusp of second-wave feminism. It also considers her reflections on changes in scientific methodology, from the origins of botany in the taxonomy of Linnaeus to present-day awareness of anthropogenic climate change.
Empires of Antiquities
Authors: Melman Billie
Published: June 2020

Empires of Antiquities is a history of the rediscovery of the imperial civilizations of the ancient Near East in a modern imperial order that evolved between the outbreak of the First World War and the decolonization of the British Empire in the 1950s. It explores the ways in which near eastern antiquity was redefined and experienced, becoming the subject of imperial regulation, modes of enquiry, and international and national politics. A series of globally publicized spectacular archaeological discoveries in Iraq, Egypt, and Palestine, which the book follows, made antiquity material visible and accessible as never before. The book demonstrates that the new definition and uses of antiquity and their relations to modernity were inseparable from the emergence of the post-war international imperial order, transnational collaboration and crises, the aspirations of national groups, and collisions between them and the British mandatories. It uniquely combines a history of the internationalization of archaeology and the rise of a new “regime of antiquities” under the oversight of the League of Nations and its institutions, a history of British attitudes to, and passion for, near eastern antiquity and on-the-ground colonial policies and mechanisms, as well as nationalist claims on the past. It points to the centrality of the new mandate system, particularly mandates classified A in Mesopotamia/Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan, formerly governed by the Ottoman Empire, and of Egypt, in the new archaeological regime. Drawing on an unusually wide range of materials collected in archives in six countries, as well as on material and visual evidence, the book weaves together imperial, international, and national histories, and the history of archaeological discovery which it connects to imperial modernity.
Prehistories for Modernity
Authors: Melman Billie
Published: June 2020

Chapter 7 considers the discovery, after the First World War, of the prehistoric Near East and explores its far-reaching impact on discourses on the origins of humans, their migrations, and the migration of civilizations, on time and its scale, and the relationship between recorded history and prehistory. The chapter focuses on two sites of excavations: the Middle and Lower Stone Age hangouts of the Wadi al-Mugharah on Mount Carmel in Palestine, situated near the developing town of Haifa, and the late Neolithic Tell Arpachiyah in northern Iraq, bordering Mosul. Both engendered considerable scholarly, popular, and political attention, and both demonstrate the variety and scope within prehistory and its immense stretch, covering at least 500,000 years. Near Eastern prehistory relativized senses of time, dwarfed history, and contested biblical narratives and temporality. The chapter examines the excavations in the Carmel caves against the backdrop of mandatory development policies and modernization. It demonstrates how discoveries of rich Palaeolithic tool cultures spurred comparisons between modern humans and hominins. It sets the representations of Neanderthals in broader debates on prehistoric people and their humanity, paying special attention to the attitudes of prehistorians such as Dorothy A. Garrod who conducted the Carmel excavations and Jacquetta Hawkes, a popularizer of prehistory in her poetry and autobiographical writing on prehistoric women. Neolithic Arpachiyah, too, spurred analogies by its excavators, chiefly Max Mallowan, between prehistoric and contemporary Mesopotamia and the multi-ethnic population of the newly independent Iraq, and of Syria.
The Road to Alexandria, the Paths to Siwa
Authors: Melman Billie
Published: June 2020

Chapter 10 examines the rediscovery, between the early 1920s and the 1950s, of the Graeco-Roman Near East, particularly Egypt. It considers the writings and activities of archaeologists, explorers, modernist writers, and journalists, who experienced and represented Near Eastern remnants of a Hellenism associated with the short-lived world empire of Alexander the Great and its Ptolemaic successors. After briefly considering writings on Graeco-Roman Transjordan, the chapter looks at the imagining and representations of Ptolemaic Alexandria, focusing on the writings of E. M. Forster, Mary Butts, Henry Vollam Morton, and a host of British, American, and Egyptian intellectuals, authors, and explorers. These authors perceived and experienced modern Alexandria as a Greek rather than an Egyptian city and comprehended it by invoking a cosmopolitan Graeco-Roman past. Alexandria served as a launching board to revivals of Alexander’s travels in Egypt’s Western Desert, to the oasis of Siwa, reputed place of his deification. The chapter traces re-enactments of classical texts on Alexander, as a form of appropriation by repetition and interpretation, of an imperial Graeco-Roman past. It demonstrates how imperial visions and itineraries were coupled with technologies of mechanized mobility in the desert in specially developed desert automobiles, iconized as emblems of imperial mobility and modernity. It thus showcases the relationship between the rediscovery of antiquity, technologies, and imperial defence. These are illustrated in the activities of explorer and military man and physicist Ralph Alger Bagnold. Some of the writings examined here expand beyond the formal end of British rule in the Near East, indicating the persistence of British imperial presences in the region immediately before and after the formal end of empire.
Property Rights: A Re-Examination
Authors: Penner J. E
Published: June 2020

Ranging over a host of issues, Property Rights: A Re-Examination pinpoints and addresses a number of theoretical problems at the heart of property theory. Part 1 reconsiders and refutes the bundle of rights picture of property and the related nominalist theories of property, showing that ownership reflects a tripartite structure of title, the right to immediate, exclusive, possession, and the power to licence what would otherwise be a trespass, and to transfer ownership. Part 2 explores in detail the Hohfeldian theory of jural relations, in particular liberties and powers and Hohfeld’s concept of ‘multital’ jural relations, and shows that this theory fails to illuminate the nature of property rights, and indeed obscures much that it is vital to understand about them. Part 3 considers the form and justification of property rights, beginning with the relation an owner’s liberty to use her property and her ‘right to exclude’, with particular reference to the tort of nuisance. Next up for consideration is the Kantian theory of property rights, the deficiencies of which lead us to understand that the only natural right to things is a form of use- or usufructory-right. Part 3 concludes by addressing the ever-vexed question of property rights in land.
The Campaign of Ipsus
Authors: Wheatley Pat , Dunn Charlotte
Published: June 2020

The growing fears of the other Successors over the burgeoning power of the Antigonid dynasty, which was impinging on their own kingdoms, led to the formation of a coalition aimed at removing the Antigonids from power. The actions of the coalition eventually culminated in the battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, which proved to be a watershed in the history of the Diadochoi. This chapter discusses the preliminaries to the battle, the location, and manoeuvring of the participants, and provides analysis concerning the merits of their strategies. Antigonus Monophthalmus was killed during the battle, and Demetrius became the sole king of the fragmented Antigonid domains.
Adaptation Genomics in Urban Environments
Authors: Perrier Charles , Caizergues Aude , Charmantier Anne
Published: June 2020

The field of urban ecology has provided many fascinating examples of organisms that display novel biological features in urban environments compared to natural habitats. Quantitative genetics provides a framework that can be used to investigate whether this phenotypic differentiation between urban and natural habitats is adaptive and is the result of heritable changes in response to divergent selection. New generation sequencing tools offer unique opportunities to expand our understanding of the genes and genetic mechanisms implicated in evolution in urban environments. This chapter first reviews quantitative genetics studies investigating the mechanisms of evolution in the city. It then reviews pioneering genomic studies that have shed light on the genes and genetic mechanisms implicated in urban microevolution. The authors discuss how further use of cost-effective high-resolution genomic approaches may improve the comprehension of both genomic and epigenomic mechanisms implicated in such evolution. Finally, the chapter provides an overview of how the integrated use of quantitative genetics, field experiments, and genomics could expand our knowledge of the processes leading to urban evolution.
Adaptive Evolution of Plant Life History in Urban Environments
Authors: Gorton Amanda J. , Burghardt Liana T. , Tiffin Peter
Published: June 2020

Many of the environmental factors that shape selection on plant life-history traits, including temperature, water availability, growing-season length, nutrient availability, and biotic community, differ between urban and rural environments, as well as within urban environments. Therefore, we might expect that plant life-history traits are of central importance to plant adaptation to urban environments. While the study of adaptive evolution of plant life-history traits in urban environments is in its early stages, those studies that have been conducted provide clear evidence for adaptive divergence between urban and rural plant populations in plant life-history traits related to phenology, fecundity, and dispersal. This chapter reviews the existing studies that provide a foundation for understanding the adaptation of plant life histories in urban environments, and also point to directions of potentially fruitful further research.
Who We Are, What We Do, and How Many of Us?
Authors: Richter Klaus
Published: June 2020

The chapter shows how territorial fragmentation interacted with displacement to create hitherto unimaginable forms of population policies. It explores the constellation of expulsion, border changes, and repatriation policies and its impact on the self-perception of state-builders, majorities, and minorities, whom the war had left demographically as well as socially thoroughly transformed. The chapter concludes that the interaction of displacement and territorial fragmentation opened up spaces for policies of national empowerment as population was turned into a variable that could be engineered through mobility and citizenship policies. The experience of responses to wartime displacement served as a blueprint for the targeted population policies of the 1920s. The chapter also shows how these policies interacted with the League of Nation’s minority-protection regime, which rested on the assumption that minorities first and foremost had to prove loyalty to ‘their’ states.
Awakening the Hinterland
Authors: Richter Klaus
Published: June 2020

This chapter traces how the ripple-like effects of territorial fragmentation entirely reconfigured the relationship of Baltic Sea ports with one another and with their respective hinterlands. Whereas many localities across Europe declined as a consequence of the disruption of established trade networks, some, such as the Polish port of Gdynia, experienced an astonishing boom, and others, such as Kaunas and Danzig, were thoroughly transformed. Here one group’s loss was the other group’s gain. The chapter explores how liberals on the one hand and supporters of ‘statism’ on the other negotiated highly specific, state-centred national economies based on cooperative systems that worked almost exclusively through members of the titular nations. It argues that both the construction of Gdynia and the annexation of Klaipėda were crucial and successful components in strategies of what was deemed an ‘emancipation of foreign trade’.
Conclusion
Authors: Richter Klaus
Published: June 2020

The conclusion provides an outlook on the role of authoritarian coups and of policies designed to respond to the challenges of the Global Depression in consolidating fragmentation. It argues that the economic, scientific, and social developments outlined in the previous chapters culminated in policies that fully rejected the international project of the pre-war liberal order’s recovery. The catastrophic impact of the Great Depression on East Central Europe made it easier for German revisionists to emphasize the alleged failure of Polish and Baltic projects to integrate their territories. The chapter concludes that interwar political responses to the challenges of fragmentation yielded two seemingly contradictory results: they consolidated East Central Europe’s territorial order at a structural level, but the high frequency of status changes meant that further changes always remained a possibility. The chapter ends with an outlook on the legacy of interwar fragmentation for post-Cold War East Central Europe.