bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Proposal for a Universal Definition of Cerebral Infarction
Authors: Saver Jeffrey L.
Published: August 2008

Background and Purpose—

Cerebral infarction is a leading cause of disability and death worldwide but has no uniform international definition.

Summary of Review—

Recent diagnostic advances have revised fundamental concepts in cerebral and cardiac ischemia. Cardiologists, already possessed of a nosologic framework distinguishing myocardial infarction from unstable angina on the basis of tissue state, promulgated a new “universal” tissue definition of myocardial infarction incorporating insights afforded by assays of cardiac troponin, a serum biomarker exquisitely sensitive to myocardial injury. Concurrently, vascular neurologists proposed a new tissue, rather than time, criterion to distinguish transient ischemia attack from cerebral infarction, responding to perspectives provided by diffusion MRI and cerebral blood volume CT, imaging biomarkers highly sensitive to neuronal injury. To complete this conceptual realignment, vascular neurology must now advance a clear, uniform, and operationalizable tissue definition of cerebral infarction. This review proposes cerebral infarction be defined as brain or retinal cell death due to prolonged ischemia. This definition categorizes both pannecrosis and neuronal dropout (“complete” and “incomplete” infarcts in classic neuropathologic terminology) as cerebral infarcts. Making the presence of any neuronal or glial cell death essential yields a definition of cerebral infarction that has high relevance to patients, physicians, and policymakers; is more easily applied in clinical practice; fosters action in acute care; harmonizes with myocardial ischemia classification; and focuses diagnostic evaluation on the cause of brain ischemia and the occurrence of end organ injury.

Conclusions—

The term cerebral infarction should be used when there is evidence of brain or retinal cell death due to cerebral ischemia.
Calf Circumference Is Inversely Associated With Carotid Plaques
Authors: Debette Stéphanie , Leone Nathalie , Courbon Dominique , Gariépy Jérôme , Tzourio Christophe , Dartigues Jean-François , Ritchie Karen , Alpérovitch Annick , Ducimetière Pierre , Amouyel Philippe , Zureik Mahmoud
Published: August 2008

Background and Purpose—

The association of carotid atherosclerosis with body composition and fat distribution is poorly understood. We aimed to test the cross-sectional association of carotid plaques and common carotid artery intima-media thickness with calf circumference (CC), representing peripheral fat and lean mass, and with waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio, 2 markers of abdominal obesity.

Methods—

The study was performed on 6265 subjects aged ≥65 years recruited prospectively from the electoral rolls of 3 French cities. Ultrasound examination and anthropometric measures were performed according to a standardized protocol.

Results—

Carotid plaques were less frequent with increasing CC, the ORs for the second, third, and fourth quartile of CC compared with the first quartile being 0.98 (95% CI, 0.84 to 1.15), 0.85 (95% CI, 0.72 to 1.01), and 0.71 (95% CI,:0.58 to 0.86;
P
for trend=0.0002), respectively, independently of age, gender, body mass index, and other vascular risk factors. There was an opposite and multiplicative effect of CC and waist-to-hip ratio on the frequency of carotid plaques (55.1% of individuals in the fourth waist-to-hip ratio quartile and the first CC quartile had carotid plaques, against 31.8% in the first waist-to-hip ratio and the fourth CC quartile). Mean common carotid artery intima-media thickness was larger with increasing waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, and CC, but the association with CC disappeared after adjusting for body mass index.

Conclusion—

The present study shows, for the first time, an inverse relationship between carotid plaques and CC. Although this needs to be confirmed in other populations, it may suggest an antiatherogenic effect of large CC.
Contribution of Obesity and Abdominal Fat Mass to Risk of Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attacks
Authors: Winter Yaroslav , Rohrmann Sabine , Linseisen Jakob , Lanczik Oliver , Ringleb Peter A. , Hebebrand Johannes , Back Tobias
Published: August 2008

Background and Purpose—

Waist circumference has been shown to be a better predictor of cardiovascular risk than body mass index (BMI). Our case-control study aimed to evaluate the contribution of obesity and abdominal fat mass to the risk of stroke and transient ischemic attacks (TIA).

Methods—

We recruited 1137 participants: 379 cases with stroke/TIA and 758 regional controls matched for age and sex. Associations between different markers of obesity (BMI, waist-to-hip ratio, waist circumference and waist-to-stature ratio) and risk of stroke/TIA were assessed by using conditional logistic regression adjusted for other risk factors.

Results—

BMI showed a positive association with cerebrovascular risk which became nonsignificant after adjustment for physical inactivity, smoking, hypertension, and diabetes (odds ratio 1.18; 95% CI, 0.77 to 1.79, top tertile versus bottom tertile). Markers of abdominal adiposity were strongly associated with the risk of stroke/TIA. For the waist-to-hip ratio, adjusted odds ratios for every successive tertile were greater than that of the previous one (2nd tertile: 2.78, 1.57 to 4.91; 3rd tertile: 7.69, 4.53 to 13.03). Significant associations with the risk of stroke/TIA were also found for waist circumference and waist-to-stature ratio (odds ratio 4.25, 2.65 to 6.84 and odds ratio 4.67, 2.82 to 7.73, top versus bottom tertile after risk adjustment, respectively).

Conclusions—

Markers of abdominal adiposity showed a graded and significant association with risk of stroke/TIA, independent of other vascular risk factors. Waist circumference and related ratios can better predict cerebrovascular events than BMI.
Good Laboratory Practice
Authors: Macleod Malcolm R. , Fisher Marc , O'Collins Victoria , Sena Emily S. , Dirnagl Ulrich , Bath Philip M.W. , Buchan Alistair , van der Worp H. Bart , Traystman Richard , Minematsu Kazuo , Donnan Geoffrey A. , Howells David W.
Published: August 2008

Background and Purpose—

As a research community, we have failed to demonstrate that drugs which show substantial efficacy in animal models of cerebral ischemia can also improve outcome in human stroke.

Summary of Review—

Accumulating evidence suggests this may be due, at least in part, to problems in the design, conduct and reporting of animal experiments which create a systematic bias resulting in the overstatement of neuroprotective efficacy.

Conclusions—

Here, we set out a series of measures to reduce bias in the design, conduct and reporting of animal experiments modeling human stroke.
The Stature and Body Mass of Mexicans in the Nineteenth-Century United States
Authors: Carson Scott Alan
Published: August 2008

Data taken from nineteenth-century American prison records reveal that the statures of Mexicans born in Mexico declined, whereas the statures of Mexicans born in the United States increased. The body mass indexes of both Mexicans born in Mexico and in the United States, however, remained approximately constant throughout the nineteenth century. The evidence suggests that even though the two groups shared a common background, their biological living conditions differed markedly.
Estimating Spatial Variability in Atmospheric Properties over Remotely Sensed Land Surface Conditions
Authors: Bertoldi Giacomo , Kustas William P. , Albertson John D.
Published: August 2008

This paper investigates the spatial relationships between surface fluxes and near-surface atmospheric properties (AP), and the potential errors in flux estimation due to homogeneous atmospheric inputs over heterogeneous landscapes. A large-eddy simulation (LES) model is coupled to a surface energy balance scheme with remotely sensed surface temperature Ts as a key boundary condition. Simulations were performed for different agricultural regions having major contrasts in Ts, canopy cover, and surface roughness z0 between vegetated/irrigated and bare soil areas. If AP from a single weather station in a nonrepresentative location within the landscape are applied uniformly over the domain, significant differences in surface flux estimation with respect to the LES output are observed. The spatial correlations of AP with the fluxes, the land cover properties, and surface states were examined and the spatial scaling of these fields is analyzed using a two-dimensional wavelet technique. The results indicate a significant local correlation of the spatial distributions of the air temperature Ta with the sensible heat flux H, the specific humidity q with the latent heat flux LE, and the wind speed U with z0. These relationships can be described by a general linear form, suggesting that a simple regression relation may be applicable for most agricultural landscapes to estimate spatially variable AP fields. A simple yet practical method is proposed using remotely sensed observations and the land surface scheme, based on general linear expressions derived between Ta and H, q and LE, and U and z0. The method is shown to reproduce the main spatial patterns of AP and to reduce potential errors in local and regionally averaged heat flux estimation. This approach is recommended when only local weather station observations are available.
A Continuum of Sudden Stratospheric Warmings
Authors: Coughlin K. , Gray L. J.
Published: August 2008

The k-means cluster technique is used to examine 43 yr of daily winter Northern Hemisphere (NH) polar stratospheric data from the 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40). The results show that the NH winter stratosphere exists in two natural well-separated states. In total, 10% of the analyzed days exhibit a warm disturbed state that is typical of sudden stratospheric warming events. The remaining 90% of the days are in a state typical of a colder undisturbed vortex. These states are determined objectively, with no preconceived notion of the groups. The two stratospheric states are described and compared with alternative indicators of the polar winter flow, such as the northern annular mode. It is shown that the zonally averaged zonal winds in the polar upper stratosphere at ∼7 hPa can best distinguish between the two states, using a threshold value of ∼4 m s−1, which is remarkably close to the standard WMO criterion for major warming events. The analysis also determines that there are no further divisions within the warm state, indicating that there is no well-designated threshold between major and minor warmings, nor between split and displaced vortex events. These different manifestations are simply members of a continuum of warming events.
The Role of SST in the East Pacific Warm Pool in the Interannual Variability of Central American Rainfall
Authors: Karnauskas Kristopher B. , Busalacchi Antonio J.
Published: August 2008

Satellite- and gauge-based precipitation and sea surface temperature (SST) are analyzed to understand the role of SST in the east Pacific warm pool (EPWP) in the interannual variability of Central American rainfall. It is shown that, during the rainy season following the mature phase of an El Niño event, an anomalously warm EPWP can cause a rapid enhancement of the eastern Pacific intertropical convergence zone (EP ITCZ), which directly leads to a positive rainfall anomaly over Central America. Moreover, the timing and amplitude of the SST-enhanced EP ITCZ depends on the persistence of the El Niño event. The longer the equatorial SST anomaly persists, the longer the EPWP is subject to anomalous shortwave heating, and thus the stronger (and later) the subsequent SST enhancement of the EP ITCZ. The implications for regional climate monitoring and predictability are explored; potential predictability of seasonal rainfall is demonstrated 4 months in advance using an SST-based index designed to capture the essence of the above-mentioned mechanism.
The Moist Static Energy Budget of a Composite Tropical Intraseasonal Oscillation in a Climate Model
Authors: Maloney Eric D.
Published: August 2008

The intraseasonal moist static energy (MSE) budget is analyzed in a climate model that produces realistic eastward-propagating tropical intraseasonal wind and precipitation variability. Consistent with the recharge–discharge paradigm for tropical intraseasonal variability, a buildup of column-integrated MSE occurs within low-level easterly anomalies in advance of intraseasonal precipitation, and a discharge of MSE occurs during and after precipitation when westerly anomalies occur. The strongest MSE anomalies peak in the lower troposphere and are, primarily, regulated by specific humidity anomalies.

The leading terms in the column-integrated intraseasonal MSE budget are horizontal advection and surface latent heat flux, where latent heat flux is dominated by the wind-driven component. Horizontal advection causes recharge (discharge) of MSE within regions of anomalous equatorial lower-tropospheric easterly (westerly) anomalies, with the meridional component of the moisture advection dominating the MSE budget near 850 hPa. Latent heat flux anomalies oppose the MSE tendency due to horizontal advection, making the recharge and discharge of column MSE more gradual than if horizontal advection were acting alone. This relationship has consequences for the time scale of intraseasonal variability in the model.

Eddies dominate intraseasonal meridional moisture advection in the model. During periods of low-level intraseasonal easterly anomalies, eddy kinetic energy (EKE) is anomalously low due to a suppression of tropical synoptic-scale disturbances and other variability on time scales shorter than 20 days. Anomalous moistening of the equatorial lower troposphere occurs during intraseasonal easterly periods through suppression of eddy moisture advection between the equator and poleward latitudes. During intraseasonal westerly periods, EKE is enhanced, leading to anomalous drying of the equatorial lower troposphere through meridional advection. Given the importance of meridional moisture advection and wind-induced latent heat flux to the intraseasonal MSE budget, these findings suggest that to simulate realistic intraseasonal variability, climate models must have realistic basic-state distributions of lower-tropospheric zonal wind and specific humidity.
Ground-Based Passive Microwave Profiling during Dynamic Weather Conditions
Authors: Knupp K. R. , Coleman T. , Phillips D. , Ware R. , Cimini D. , Vandenberghe F. , Vivekanandan J. , Westwater E.
Published: August 2008

Short-period (1–5 min) temperature and humidity soundings up to 10-km height are retrieved from ground-based 12-channel microwave radiometer profiler (MWRP) observations. In contrast to radiosondes, the radiometric retrievals provide very high temporal resolution (1 min or less) of thermodynamic profiles, but the vertical resolution, which declines in proportion to the height above ground level, is lower. The high temporal resolution is able to resolve detailed meso-γ-scale thermodynamic and limited microphysical features of various rapidly changing mesoscale and/or hazardous weather phenomena. To illustrate the MWRP capabilities and potential benefits to research and operational activities, the authors present example radiometric retrievals from a variety of dynamic weather phenomena including upslope supercooled fog, snowfall, a complex cold front, a nocturnal bore, and a squall line accompanied by a wake low and other rapid variations in low-level water vapor and temperature.
Equity and Expectancy Considerations in Stakeholder Action
Authors: Hayibor Sefa
Published: August 2008

An “interest-based” view of stakeholder action—a view that stakeholders act against organizations to safeguard or promote their own interests—underlies much research in stakeholder theory. In this article, the author uses two motivation theories—equity theory and expectancy theory—to address the general research question, “What are the conditions under which stakeholders will take action against an organization?” Doing so allows for a more explicit elaboration of an interest-based approach to understanding stakeholder action. Applying these theories, the author develops propositions concerning the conditions that are likely to precipitate stakeholder sanctions directed at a focal organization and develops a basic framework for understanding when such stakeholder action is likely. Finally, the author discusses the theoretical and practical implications of this work.
Parolees’ Physical Closeness to Social Services: A Study of California Parolees
Authors: Hipp John R. , Jannetta Jesse , Shah Rita , Turner Susan
Published: August 2008

This study examines the proximity of service providers to recently released parolees in California over a 2-year period (2005-2006). The addresses of parolee residences and service providers are geocoded, and the number of various types of service providers within 2 miles (3.2 km) of a parolee are measured. “Potential demand” is measured as the number of parolees within 2 miles of a provider. Although racial and ethnic minority parolees have more service providers nearby, these providers appear to be particularly impacted based on potential demand. It is also found that the parolees arguably most in need of social services—those who have spent more time in correctional institutions, have been convicted of more serious or violent crimes in their careers, or are sex offenders—live near fewer social services, or the providers near them appear impacted.
Correlation Between Physico-Mechanical and Free Volume Properties of Gaur-Gum Filled Polyurethane/Polymethyl Methacrylate Biodegradable Composites
Authors: Kumar H. , Ranganathaiah C. , Siddaramaiah
Published: August 2008

This study reports characterization of polyurethane/polymethyl methacrylate (PU/PMMA, 50/50) Semi-Interpenetrating Polymer Network (SIPN) prepared by in-situ polymerization, and filled with different weight percent (wt%) of natural polymer, Gaur-Gum (GG). These are characterized for density, tensile strength and percentage elongation at break. Positron annihilation lifetime measurements have also been carried out to measure the free volume of these composites. The results show good correlation between free volume content of the composites with the mechanical properties. These natural polymer-filled composites were subjected to biodegradation using a specific microorganism, Aspergillus niger. The influence of A. niger on composites has also been studied. The results show that the weight loss of the specimens exposed to A. niger media increases with increase in gaur gum in the composite. Interestingly the weight loss of GG-filled composites seems to be more than the quantum of GG incorporated which is a clear indication that degradation of PU/PMMA system is responsible for the weight loss.
Transverse Impact Damage and Energy Absorption of Three-Dimensional Orthogonal Hybrid Woven Composite: Experimental and FEM Simulation
Authors: Lv Lihua , Bohong Gu
Published: August 2008

This article presents transverse impact behavior of 3D orthogonal Twaron ®/glass hybrid woven composite both in experimental and FEM simulation. The transverse impact behaviors of the 3D woven composite along warp and weft direction were tested with a modified Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus. The load—displacement curves and damage morphology were obtained to analyze the energy absorptions and impact damage mechanisms of the composite under different impact velocities. A unit-cell model based on the microstructure of the 3D woven composite was established to determine the composite deformation and damage when the composite impacted by a hemisphere-ended steel rod. Incorporated with the unit-cell model, a elasto-plastic constitute equation of the 3D woven composite and the Critical Damage Area (CDA) failure theory of composites have been implemented as a User Defined Material law (VUMAT) for ABAQUS/Explicit. The FEM calculated load—displacement curves, impact deformations and damages are compared with those in experiment. The good agreements of the comparisons prove the validity of the unit-cell model and user-defined subroutine VUMAT. This manifests the applicability of the VUMAT to the design of the 3D orthogonal woven composite structures under other impulsive loading conditions.
Making Matters Worse
Authors: Kapucu Naim , Van Wart Montgomery
Published: August 2008

Catastrophic disasters require additional leadership capabilities because extreme events overwhelm local capabilities and damage emergency response systems themselves. Therefore, leaders at all levels must adapt and rebuild the response system, even while they are addressing the pressing needs of the disaster itself. Leaders can minimize or maximize the effects of the trigger event(s) by their actions and competence in dealing with this especially difficult set of overlapping and, frequently, even inconsistent tasks. This case studies the effects of the Katrina—Rita hurricanes on New Orleans and systematically examines how poor leadership—lacking a series of critical competencies required in extreme conditions—can maximize catastrophic events.
A Network Model of Expertise
Authors: Nunn Robin
Published: August 2008

In this article, the author proposes a dynamic, interdisciplinary, network conception of expertise that differs from conventional static, linear conceptions. Using a range of graphic images, the author propose specific visualizations of this network conception of expertise. First, he discusses attempts to pin expertise down in a definition. Then he considers the network of notions from which expertise emerges. The author briefly describes representative nodes in the network, such as experience and excellence. He concludes with the view that there is no need to compromise the many existing conceptions of expertise by forcing them into a false common ground. Instead, he shows that existing accounts of expertise can be better understood by viewing them as connected parts of a complex network.
Sexual Harassment in Organizational Context
Authors: Chamberlain Lindsey Joyce , Crowley Martha , Tope Daniel , Hodson Randy
Published: August 2008

This study sheds light on the organizational foundations of sexual harassment. The authors evaluated a theoretical model underscoring the influence of worker power, workplace culture, and gender composition using unique data derived from the population of English-language, book-length workplace ethnographies. The authors used ordered and multinomial logistic regression to test whether organizational explanations vary in their capacity to predict three distinct forms of sexual harassment: patronizing, taunting, and predatory conduct. The findings reveal that organizational attributes influence not only the presence of workplace sexual harassment but also the specific form in which it manifests. The result is a more conceptually refined model of sexual harassment in organizational context. The authors conclude with a discussion of the contribution of this study to sociological explanations of sexual harassment, including linkages to more recent qualitative work underscoring its complexity, and with implications for policy in light of current workplace trends.
Historical Change, Technological Innovation, and Continuities of Gender in Three Occupations
Authors: Erickson Karla A.
Published: August 2008

The author reviews Matthew Desmond's study of risk in firefighting, Gary Alan Fine's study of weather forecasting, and Kevin Borg's study of the history of auto mechanics, identifying common themes related to the production of masculinity in a postindustrial economy, the negotiation of specialized knowledge and expertise, and finally the reproduction of social inequality against a backdrop of technological innovation.
Runt Redux
Authors: Heery Edmund
Published: August 2008

Over the past 20 years, human resource (HR) management has emerged as a major field of social science inquiry dealing with the employment relationship. In this review article, the author considers the nature of this significant field, arguing that it is marked by contention rather than a coherent program of work informed by shared theory and assumptions. Contention in HR management can be seen in divisions over the subject matter of the HR field, forms of explanation, normative positions, and understandings of the public role of HR scholars.
Failure of Stitched Composite L-Joints Under Tensile Loading — Experiment and Simulation
Authors: Wood Michael D.K. , Liyong Tong  , Quantian Luo  , Xiannian Sun  , Katzos Anthony , Rispler Adrian R.
Published: August 2008

This article presents an experimental and numerical investigation into the influence of transverse stitching on failure of composite L-joints under tensile loading. Six unstitched and six stitched L-joint specimens were manufactured and tested under quasi static tensile loading. It was observed that the average measured failure load and the associated crosshead displacement for the stitched L-joint specimens are increased significantly compared to those for the unstitched specimens. Full 3D and 2D plane strain finite element (FE) models were developed to simulate both stitched and unstitched L-joints with an implemented stitch element. The load—displacement curves and results predicted via FE models compare favorably with the experimental results. For the stitched L-joints, it is shown that the observed delamination in the elbow region of the flange can be modeled by using a softening model for epoxy layer.
Crystallization Behavior of PP in Composites with EPDM and a Surface Modified Nano-Calcium Carbonate
Authors: Gu Ju  , Jia Demin  , Luo Yuanfang  , Lin Xiaodan  , Cheng Rongshi
Published: August 2008

A modified nano-CaCO3 (RCCR) was prepared by mixing the stearic acid treated nano-CaCO3 (CCR) with organic agent containing —OH, —COOH, and C=C groups and it was then melt compounded with polypropylene PP and Ethylene-propylene-diene mischpolymer (EPDM) to prepare PP/EPDM/nano-CaCO 3 composites. The effects of RCCR on the crystallization behavior of PP in the composites were studied by DSC. The crystal type structure of PP in the composites was studied by X-ray diffraction and polarized optical microscope (POM). It was found that RCCR acts as a nucleating agent. It initiates PP crystallizing at higher temperature, and lowers degree of crystallinity and crystal size, and induces the formation of β crystallite. RCCR in collaboration with EPDM can obviously increase the content of β crystallite. Isothermal crystallization studies reveal that the activation energy of PP in PP/EPDM/RCCR is lower than that of PP/EPDM/CCR.
Quasi-Static Tip Positioning of Multi-Segmented IPMC for Micro-Manipulation following Euler—Bernoulli and Pseudo-Rigid Body Model
Authors: Bandopadhya Dibakar
Published: August 2008

In this article a kinematic model of multi-segmented ionic polymer metal composite (IPMC) patches has been proposed for micro-manipulation under moisture conditions. Pseudo-rigid body modeling and Euler—Bernoulli approach has been followed to get the end-tip position of the segmented patches. Kinematic modeling is carried out after constituting the homogeneous coordinate transformation considering it as a serial link multi-DOF manipulator. The motion of patches is restricted as planar in 2D. Simulation has been undertaken for single and two patches of IPMC to demonstrate the tip positioning of the segmented IPMC patches for different sequences of input voltage. The experiment is conducted for a single segment of IPMC to validate simulation results. It is observed that experimental results match the simulation results precisely.
The Comparison of Organoclay with Respect to Silica on Properties of Natural Rubber Nanocomposites
Authors: Hakim R.N. , Ismail H.
Published: August 2008

Effects of organoclay loading (organophilic modified montmorillonite with octadecylamine) in comparison to silica loading on the curing characteristics, tensile properties, thermal stability, and morphology of natural rubber (NR) nanocomposites were studied. Organoclay loading from 2 to 10 phr and silica with 10 and 30 phr loading were used as fillers in this study. The NR/organoclay nanocomposites were compounded using two roll mills and cured at 150°C. The results indicate that the tensile strength and tensile modulus reach maximum at 8 phr of organoclay but elongation at break and thermal stability increase with increasing organoclay loading. Tensile strength, tensile modulus, and elongation at break increase with increasing amount of silica from 10 to 30 phr. Overall results show that organoclay filled NR nanocomposites exhibit shorter processing time and higher tensile properties than silica filled NR nanocomposites. The enhanced properties are due to the homogenous dispersion of individual silicate layers in NR matrix, which is evidenced from the X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results.
Elastic Constants of Uniaxially Fiber-Reinforced Composites with Degraded Interphase
Authors: Upadhyay P.C. , Lyons Jed S.
Published: August 2008

Aboudi's micromechanics based unit cell model for the effective elastic properties of two-phase composites has been extended to three-phase composites to include the effect of an interphase coating. Instead of Aboudi's displacement approach, a cell-stress approach associated with complimentary energy has been employed. Effective elastic constants of three-phase composite, with degraded interphase coating, have been calculated for the graphite/epoxy composite system. The effect of the degree of degradation of the coating interphase has been found to be significant for the transverse Young's modulus, shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio. The axial shear modulus and Poisson's ratio are also affected. The axial Young's modulus is, of course, not affected.
Hygrothermal Effect on the Compressive Strength of Uniaxial Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites
Authors: Upadhyay P.C. , Lyons D.W. , Wayne W. Scott
Published: August 2008

Effect of temperature, moisture, and temperature and moisture combined (i.e., hygrothermal) on the compressive strength of four types of uniaxially fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites (PMCs) have been evaluated using the theoretical model [12] of fibers microbuckling as the cause of failure under compression. The purpose is to show the severity of reduction in compressive strength of PMCs caused solely due to plasticization of the matrix, when the geometrical and material imperfection factors, which are almost unavoidable and cause further reduction in strength, are not incorporated and accounted for in the analysis.
The Role of Income Inequality in a Multivariate Cross-National Analysis of the Digital Divide
Authors: Fuchs Christian
Published: August 2008

This article is subject to the following research question: Is the role of income inequality in comparison to other factors an element that influences the digital divide? Eleven variables providing data on 126 countries are analyzed using multivariate regression to identify which of them influence Internet usage to what extent. The used data on 126 countries refer to the year 2005. The results show that income inequality measured by the Gini coefficient is an important influencing factor besides per capita income, the degree of urbanization, and the level of democratization. The results question reductionistic digital divide approaches that analyze information inequality via focusing on a single variable (such as technology or markets). Access to ICTs is shaped by the interaction of socioeconomic, political, cultural, social, and technological factors. These results cast doubt on technological determinism, economic reductionism, and linear trend projection in the digital divide debate. Digital divide causes are complex.
Working On the Impossible
Authors: Penn Helen
Published: August 2008

This article discusses the complexities of aid-giving using the example of early childhood policies in Namibia. It supports a critical view of aid processes and of World Bank endeavours in particular. Using an analysis of the World Bank funded education sector-wide improvement plan (ETSIP) in Namibia and three Namibian local case studies, it shows how the local circumstances of young children and their parents are ignored in order to fit in with donor preconceptions, and how senior officials come to adopt those views. It argues that universally derived policies on early childhood development are misapplied, and poverty and inequality are ignored in the search for technocratic solutions.
Appropriate Pupilness
Authors: Kofoed Jette
Published: August 2008

The analytical focus in this article is on how social categories intersect in daily school life and how intersections intertwine with other empirically relevant categories such as normality, pupilness and (in)appropriatedness. The point of empirical departure is a daily ritual where teams for football are selected. The article opens up for a microanalysis of everyday practices at the margins and at the core of what this article terms `pupilness'. The concept of intersectionality is suggested as a useful analytical tool to understand the multiple activities of pupils in everyday school life. The concept is applied to an analysis of the particular selection of teams and to practices of inclusion and exclusion. The understandings and practices within this ritualistic selection mingle with and lend meaning to wider relationships.
Alexander Crichton on the psychopathology of the passions
Authors: Charland Louis C.
Published: August 2008

Alexander Crichton (1763—1856) made significant contributions to the medical theory of the passions, yet there exists no systematic exegesis of this particular aspect of his work. The present article explores four themes in Crichton's work on the passions: (1) the role of irritability in the physiology of the passions; (2) the manner in which irritability and sensibility contribute to the valence, or polarity, of the passions; (3) the elaboration of a psychopathology of the passions that emphasizes their physiological form rather than meaningful content or connections; and (4) the insistence that medical science ought to ignore ethical and other `moral' psychological and social aspects of the passions.
On unsafe ground: the practices and institutionalization of Danish psychiatry, 1850—1920
Authors: Møllerhøj Jette
Published: August 2008

The aim of this paper is to characterize the efforts of late nineteenth-century Danish psychiatrists to have their field recognized as a discipline in its own right, and their fight to be accepted as practitioners of science, following common scientific standards of exactness and proof. This struggle took place on two fronts: with colleagues in the somatic branches of medicine, and also with lay people and the general public. According to the psychiatrists, laymen persistently contested psychiatry's legitimacy in diagnosing and treating mentally ill patients. Criticism of its scientific objectivity made it difficult for psychiatry to gain respect on an equal footing with other branches of medicine.
Electrotherapy and mental illness: then and now
Authors: Gilman Sander L.
Published: August 2008

Today electrotherapy has reappeared as a therapy of choice for the treatment of depression and other forms of mental illness. It had de facto vanished from allopathic medicine from the 1920s to the end of the century. The debates about electrotherapy mirror the question of whether mental illness was somatic and to be treated by somatic means or psychological to be treated with psychotherapy. Sigmund Freud's move from an advocate to an opponent of electrotherapy is exemplary for a shift in attitude and the decline of electrotherapy. With the re-somaticization of mental illness over the past decades has come the reappearance of somatic therapies such as electrotherapy.
The provision of mental health services in England for people over 65 years of age, 1970—78
Authors: Hilton Claire
Published: August 2008

The twentieth century saw an increasing number of people living into old age, and consequently a higher prevalence of age-related chronic degenerative brain disorders. By 1971 the mental hospitals were almost half full with people over 65 years of age. Thus plans to close the mental hospitals meant that the development of community mental health services for older people was a necessity. Although there was a multi-disciplinary focus on the care of older people, the lead in service development was largely taken by psychiatrists, both individually and through the Group for the Psychiatry of Old Age at the Royal College of Psychiatrists.
`Essay on a classification of different genera of insanity' by J. Baillarger (1853)
Authors: Berrios G.E.
Published: August 2008

Less well known than some of his contemporaries, Jules Baillarger (1809—90) tends to be celebrated by `who said it first' writers as the man who assisted the `birth of bipolar disorder'. This view is based on the anachronistic claim that Baillarger's `insanity with a double form', Kraepelin's `das manisch-depressive Irresein', Leonhard's concept of Bipolarität and DSM-IV's `Bipolar I and Bipolar II' Disorder somehow constitute an incremental approximation to the same `disease'. Baillarger is important because he was a high profile conceptual interlocutor in the great 19-century debates on hallucinations, hypochondria, language disorders, General Paralysis of the Insane, cretinism and goitre. Classic Text No. 75 is a translation of Baillarger's important 1853 paper on the classification of madness, and it is a good illustration of the popular method of top-to-bottom psychiatric taxonomy. Written before psychiatrists felt the need to conceal the theoretical nature of the exercise behind a farrago of `empirical evidence', it shows how hidden assumptions govern the way in which the boundaries of mental disorders are actually drawn.
From Meehl to Fast and Frugal Heuristics (and Back)
Authors: Katsikopoulos Konstantinos V. , Pachur Thorsten , Machery Edouard , Wallin Annika
Published: August 2008

It is difficult to overestimate Paul Meehl's influence on judgment and decision-making research. His `disturbing little book' (Meehl, 1986, p. 370) Clinical versus Statistical Prediction: A Theoretical Analysis and a Review of the Evidence (1954) is known as an attack on human judgment and a call for replacing clinicians with actuarial methods. More than 40 years later, fast and frugal heuristics—proposed as models of human judgment—were formalized, tested, and found to be surprisingly accurate, often more so than the actuarial models that Meehl advocated. We ask three questions: Do the findings of the two programs contradict each other? More generally, how are the programs conceptually connected? Is there anything they can learn from each other? After demonstrating that there need not be a contradiction, we show that both programs converge in their concern to develop (a) domain-specific models of judgment and (b) nonlinear process models that arise from the bounded nature of judgment. We then elaborate the differences between the programs and discuss how these differences can be viewed as mutually instructive: First, we show that the fast and frugal heuristic models can help bridge the clinical—actuarial divide, that is, they can be developed into actuarial methods that are both accurate and easy to implement by the unaided clinical judge. We then argue that Meehl's insistence on improving judgment makes clear the importance of examining the degree to which heuristics are used in the clinical domain and how acceptable they would be as actuarial tools.
In Defense of National Character
Authors: Smith Robert J.
Published: August 2008

The concept of national character has a long and disputed history, serving at one time as a meeting point for anthropology and psychology, later as a signpost for the parting of the ways. Cultural anthropology has traditionally given ontological priority to culture over the individual and to values as relative over universal; psychology has increasingly pursued the reverse. Current trends in cross-cultural psychology—employing a biological trait ontology assessed via English language constructs at the individual level, and aggregated questionnaire responses at the cultural level—have furthered this universalist tradition, unlike research linking national character with sociocultural conditions. These data sources remain frozen in their respective tracks, related only by `undynamic' correlations. Their (premature) message has heralded the demise of national character, inadvertently paving the way for international character, mirroring methods, models, concepts, and values overwhelmingly Western in orientation, and nicely paralleling on-going economic globalization.
Shallow Reductionism and the Problem of Complexity in Psychology
Authors: Brattico Pauli
Published: August 2008

In his recent book The Mind Doesn't Work That Way, Fodor argues that computational modeling of global cognitive processes, such as abductive everyday reasoning, has not been successful. In this article the problem is analyzed in the framework of algorithmic information theory. It is argued that the failed approaches are characterized by shallow reductionism, which is rejected in favor of deep reductionism and nonreductionism.
`Mind as Feeling' or Affective Relations?
Authors: Boag Simon
Published: August 2008

Andersonian realism is a determinist, empiricist position that acknowledges the important distinction between qualities and relations. However, Anderson's `mind as feeling' thesis, proposing that the mind's qualities are emotional, is problematic since it fails to account for `feelings' themselves. O'Neil's (1934) alternative relational account of affects, in conjunction with Maze's (1983) theory of instinctual drives, provides a coherent platform for developing a comprehensive realist account of affects. In discussing the relation between affects, cognition and motivation, affects are viewed as drive-evaluative phenomena, and `feelings' are known bodily states arising in conjunction with motivationally driven environmental evaluations. The role that affects play in a revised desire/belief model of behaviour explanation is discussed.
Perception and Management of Tuberculosis Symptoms in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Authors: Sagbakken Mette , Frich Jan C. , Bjune Gunnar A.
Published: August 2008

Management of early tuberculosis (TB) symptoms and adherence to medical treatment are main challenges in controlling TB. The aim of this study is to explore how symptoms of TB are perceived and managed, from the onset of symptoms and during the course of treatment, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. We conducted a qualitative interview study, including 50 in-depth interviews and 2 focus groups, with TB patients, their relatives, and health personnel. We found that a patient's perceptions and self-treatment of early symptoms could cause diagnostic delay. Stigma associated with TB and public health services made many patients approach private clinics, causing further delay. Both private and public clinics often labeled and managed symptoms according to lay explanatory models. Lack of adequate knowledge about TB's etiology and cure caused patients to continue relating to symptoms by reference to their own understanding. This affected patients' ability to manage TB and its treatment.
Patients, Practitioners, and Paradoxes: Responses to the Cuban Health Crisis of the 1990s
Authors: Jenkins Tania M.
Published: August 2008

Twenty-one respondents in Havana, Cuba, were interviewed for the purpose of understanding the challenges facing the Cuban health care system since the 1990s and the individual solutions that have been proposed to these challenges. Three major shortages were identified: a lack of medication, a lack of medical supplies, and a lack of medical professionals. Consequently, informal coping mechanisms, such as the black market and using personal connections, were a common way of overcoming the difficulties associated with these shortages. Beyond this, however, Cuban health care has experienced a unique fusion of medical traditions, such that now biomedicine and complementary and alternative medicine not only coexist in Cuban society but actively collude together to respond to the increasing demands for health services in light of waning supplies of medication and medical supplies. As a result, Cuba has managed to survive its most difficult health crisis since the beginning of the Revolution.
Effective Elastoplastic Damage Mechanics for Fiber Reinforced Composites with Evolutionary Partial Fiber Debonding
Authors: Ju J.W. , Ko Y.F. , Ruan H.N.
Published: August 2008

A micromechanical two-level elastoplastic evolutionary damage model is proposed to predict the overall transverse mechanical behavior and interfacial damage evolution of fiber-reinforced ductile matrix composites. Progressive partially debonded cylindrical isotropic long fibers are replaced by equivalent orthotropic yet perfectly bonded elastic cylindrical inclusions. Up to three interfacial fiber debonding damage modes in two dimensions are considered. The effective elastic moduli of five-phase composites, composed of a ductile matrix, randomly located yet unidirectionally aligned cylindrical fibers, and equivalent (damaged) cylindrical fibers, are derived by using a micromechanical formulation. In order to characterize the overall transverse elastoplastic damage behavior, an effective yield criterion is derived based on the statistical ensemble-area averaging process and the first-order effects of eigenstrains upon overall yielding. The proposed effective yield criterion, together with the overall plastic flow rule and the hardening law, constitute the 3-D analytical homogenization framework for the estimation of effective elastoplastic damage responses of metal matrix composites containing both perfectly bonded and partially debonded aligned cylindrical fibers randomly located in the matrix. Further, the Weibull's probabilistic function is employed to describe the varying probability of progressive partial cylindrical fiber debonding. The proposed micromechanical elastoplastic damage formulation is applied to the transverse uniaxial and varied stress ratios of transverse biaxial tensile loading to predict the various stress—strain responses under the plane-strain condition. Efficient computational algorithms are also presented to implement the proposed elastoplastic damage model. Finally, comparison between the present predictions and available experimental data and other simulations are performed to illustrate the potential of the proposed framework.
Finite Strain Micromechanical Analysis of Rubber-like Matrix Composites incorporating the Mullins Damage Effect
Authors: Aboudi Jacob
Published: August 2008

A model for hyperelastic rubber-like materials that includes the Mullins damage effect has been incorporated with a finite strain micromechanical analysis for composites with periodic microstructures. As a result, it is possible to predict the response of fiber-reinforced rubber-like matrix composites, including the Mullins effect, from the knowledge of the character and properties of the constituents and their volume ratios. This is expressed by the establishment of macroscopic constitutive equations that govern the behavior of the damaged composite undergoing finite deformations. The reliability and accuracy of the micromechanical prediction are demonstrated by comparisons with the response of four types of porous materials that are subjected to axisymmetric loading for which exact solutions can be established during loading, and with finite-difference solutions which are valid in both loading and unloading. Next, a master damage function that controls the Mullins effect of a monolithic (unreinforced) hyperelastic material is established from experimental data. This hyperelastic material and its associated damage function are employed to characterize a rubber-like matrix reinforced by continuous nylon fibers. The predicted responses of this composite to transverse normal, transverse shear, axial shear and off-axis loadings are shown.