bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
دعاء في مناسبة عقد الزواج
Authors: Schaper Donna
Published: January 2015

أيّها الأصدقاء الأعزّاء، والأخوة في الله، لقد اجتمعنا اليوم لنشهد عقد قران هذين الصديقين اللذين اختارا
أن يؤسّسا رسميًّا أسرةً.
وباسم الربّ نبارك لهما هذا الزواج، داعين الله أن تتأصّل هذه العلاقة على الإخلاص والحبّ الراسخ
المتبادل؛ تحميها القوّة والشجاعة، ويحفّها الودّ والاحترام، فينعم الزوجان بالسعادة أبد الدهر. أيّها
الزوجان، أمامكما حياة الفرح والحزن؛ حياة مليئة بالنعم والنضال، والربح والخسارة.
أيّها الأصدقاء، ندعوا الزوجين أن يُخلصا ويضحّيا لبعضهما البعض، في سبيل حبّهما، أسوتهما في ذلك هو
يسوع الذي هو حاضر بيننا اليوم.
ندعو الزوجين إلى أن يعيشا في حياتهما، حياة العطاء والكرم تجاه العالم كما يدعون الله جميعًا لذلك.
دعونا ندعو الله أن يعينهما على تنفيذ العهد الذي أخذاه على نفسيَهما اليوم، ويوفّقهما للقيام بواجباتهما.
وأن يمنحهما البصيرة لاختيار أمر الله في حياتهما.
يا ربّ أنت الكريم الدائم، أعنّا على أن نعيش تحت أمرك، وبتوحّد مع الروح القدس. أنت الله الواحد
الأحد، نحمدك يا ربّنا لرحمتك الحانية علينا، والرعاية الدائمة، المتجلّية في حياة المسيح، ونحمدك لما
منحتنا من الفرحة والاستقرار الغامرَين، هِبةً منك وهديّةَ حبّ لبعضنا البعض.
يا ربّ وفِّقهما لخدمة بعضهما، واحفظهما بحفظك، وأنزِل عليهما رحمتك، وتفضّل عليهما برضاك، ووفّقهما
للإخلاص لبعضهما في الحياة الدنيا وفي الآخرة.
ربّنا اجعل، بروح القدس، هذين الزوجين يقترنان في الزواج المقدس، ويتّحدان على قلب وروح رجل واحد،
ليعيشا بإخلاص وسعادة وسلام. وارزقهما من كلّ الطيّبات التي أعددتها لمن أخلصوا لك حياتهم يا ربّ.
سلام من الله عليكم، سلام لا ينتهي، يرحم به قلوبكم وعقولكم، سلام يذكّركم بعلم الله ورحمته وبركاته.
هو الخالق الحيّ الرازق، إنّا لله وإنا إليه راجعون. آمين يا رب العالمين.
مثاليّة العلاقة بين الأجيال في الأديان المختلفة: الأسرة في الإسلام أنموذجًا
Authors: Abdul Khabir Ali Rameema Arafat
Published: January 2015

يتناول الكاتب في هذا البحث العلاقة بين الأجيال، من المنظور الديني، من خلال نموذج الأسرة في الإسلام، مركزا على العلاقة المثالية التي دعا إليها الدين في هذه القضية. كما يبحث الباحث في ماهية العلاقة الأسرية في التعاليم الإسلامية، سواء من خلال علاقة الآباء بالأبناء، وثنائية الحقوق والواجبات، أوعلاقة الأبناء بالآباء، مقتبسا لذلك بشواهد من الكتب المقدسة، والقرآن الكريم على وجه التحديد.
نظرة الإسلام إلى الأولاد
Authors: Abdus Salam Sameh
Published: January 2015

تتناول هذه الورقة حقوق الأولاد من المنظور الإسلامي، في جميع مراحل نمو الأولاد، موضحا الأحكام الشرعية والحكمة وراء هذه الحقوق، مثل: حق الرضاعة، حق الحضانة، حق التربية والتوجيه، وحق العدل بين الأولاد. ثم تطرق الكاتب لحقوق الأولاد في الغرب، وتطبيقات القوانين الوضعية في هذا المجال، كما قدم لمحة موجزة عن المواثيق الدولية المختلفة المتعلقة في هذا الشأن.
الأسرة المسلمة المهاجرة وتحدّيات الاندماج الاجتماعيّ والثقافيّ
Authors: Ghabara Faouzi
Published: January 2015

يتناول المقال وضع الأسرة المسلمة المهاجرة في البلدان الأوربية. يركز الكاتب، عبر رصد التطورات التي طرأت في واقع تلك الهجرة، والتحديات التي تواجهها في السعي للاندماج في المجتمعات الجديدة. يخلص الكاتب إلى أن الأسرة المسلمة المهاجرة استطاعت أن تفرض نفسها، بفضل ثقافة التعايش والاندماج وقبول الآخر، والإسهام في تأسيس لنموذج "إسلامي أوروبي"، له خصوصياته وقابل للحياة.
التفاعل بين الأجيال واستراتيجيا التواصل الثقافيّ
Authors: Ben Mbarek Ali
Published: January 2015

يبحث الكاتب في هذه الورقة العلاقة بين الأجيال، مركزا على الإشكاليات المتعلقة في هذا الموضوع، من زوايا مختلفة. كما يتناول الباحث الجدل القائم حول القضية، بين نظرتين مختلفتين: الأولى تركز على " الصراع بين الأجيال"، والثانية تتبنى " التفاعل بين الأجيال"، ليخلص إلى إيجاد حل تواصل إيجابي بين الأجيال، يقوم على أساس "ثقافة التواصل بين الأجيال"، وثقافة الحوار. والمسؤولية في هذا الجانب ملقاة على عاتق النظم التربوية في المجتمع، مثل : الأسرة، والمؤسسات التعليمية.
Collection of Change Management Models – An Opportunity to Make the Best Choice from the Various Organizational Transformational Techniques
Authors: Kazmi Syeda Asiya Zenab , Naarananoja Marja
Published: February 2015

Present day’s crucial corporate competition proving the real time presence of ‘Darwin’s theory - Survival of the fittest’ in the global industrial scenes. Consequently, the managers are pressed hard to take smart steps for organizational continuous improvement. The above causes organizational chaos, since humans have the innate habit to resist the change.

The article suggests the logic over the change leader’s selection of the best suited transformational criteria from the variety of change management models for smart organizational transformation process. The study results support the selection of ADKAR Model being one of the best to deal with the OSUVA case conditions due to having an ability to highlight the problem areas at each change process stage through barrier point identification perspective.
Board of Directors and Remuneration in Indonesian Banking
Authors: Endraswati Hikmah , Suhardjanto Djoko , Krismiaji
Published: February 2015

This research examines the effect of commissioner and remuneration committee characteristics on the remuneration in the banking sector of Indonesia. Using a sample of 18 banks for the fiscal year that ends on December 31 2006 through 2012, this study finds evidence of negative impact of gender and number of meeting on the remuneration. With respect of size as a control variable, this study proves a positive impact on the remuneration.
The keynesian system: fiscal and monetary policy guidelines
Authors: Hiç-Birol Özlen , Hiç Gencer Ayşen
Published: February 2015

In this article we shall try to establish the guidelines of the Keynesian fiscal and monetary policies. In order to better understand the Keynesian macroeconomic system it is necessary to go briefly over the Classical economics in the pre-Keynesian period and the fiscal and monetary policies based on those analyses. While principally dwelling on the Keynesian macroeconomic system and the fiscal and monetary policies based on this system, we think we have some grounds about the significance of the subject. Firstly, the Keynesian analyses keep holding the balance of power in the theoretical field even in the post-Keynes era, and constitute the foundation of the macroeconomic textbooks. Secondly, despite the economic conditions of these days which have gone through many changes, and the emergence of anti-Keynesian views, the governments and monetary authorities (Central Banks) both in Europe and in the States, still implement – cautiously– fiscal and monetary policies in accordance with the Keynesian principles. In effect during Reagan era in the States and M. Thatcher in Britain, policies under the influence of Monetarism had been applied, however, since inflation was not prevented and there was an increase in unemployment, these policies were forsaken and moderate Keynesian policies were implemented low-key. But criticisms coming from both Monetarists and particularly New Classical economists forced fundamental methodological and assumptive changes in Keynesianism since the ‘80s; the school that emerged in the USA is called the New Keynesian Economics, in England the Post-Keynesian Economics.
Boron Oxides, Boric Acid, and Borates
Authors: Schubert David
Published: January 2015

Nearly always occurring bonded to oxygen, boron is naturally present everywhere on the earth, including in rocks, soils, and natural waters. However, large borate mineral deposits are rare. Only a few of the more than 200 known borate minerals, including borax, kernite, ulexite, and colemanite, are primary sources of industrial borates. These minerals are extracted in California and Turkey, and to a lesser extent in South America, Russia and Asia.

Major industrial borate products include boric acid, borax pentahydrate, borax decahydrate, anhydrous borax, and boric oxide. Beneficiated colemanite and ulexite ores are also used in some applications. Specialized industrial borates include sodium, potassium, ammonium, barium, and zinc borates. Physical properties and nomenclature systems of borates are reviewed.

Borates have many industrial uses. The largest one is the manufacture of glass, including energy saving insulation fiberglass and borosilicate glasses. Other uses include the manufacture of ceramics, building products, house wares, consumer electronics, fertilizers, alloys, magnets, lubricants, and adhesives.

Boron is required by all plants and is necessary for growth and fruiting. For this reason, boron fertilizers are routinely applied throughout the world where soils are deficient in order to improve crop yields. Boron at high levels can also inhibit bacteria, decay fungi, and insects, providing the basis for their use in the protection of wood‐based building products. Environmental, health, and safety aspects of borates are reviewed.
Microbial Transformations
Authors: Michels Peter C. , Khmelnitsky Yuri L. , Rich Joseph O.
Published: January 2015

Practical applications of microbial biotransformations to organic synthesis of a wide range of important commercial chemicals is reviewed. Specific examples of recent advances in industrial applications of biocatalysis and drug metabolite production are highlighted. Major types of chemical reactions efficiently catalyzed by microbial catalysts are summarized and reviewed, with specific examples of biotransformations applied for important synthetic processes. An emphasis is given to specific practical aspects of conducting microbial transformations, providing guidelines for successful technical implementation of synthetic reactions catalyzed by microorganisms. Covered topics include selection and handling of microbial catalysts, miniaturization and automation of microbial culture screening, and application of modern experimental techniques for analysis of microbial reactions. Additional focus is placed on formulation of microbial reaction systems to achieve optimal performance and yields, and general approaches to biotransformation scale‐up.
Microarrays
Authors: Taylor Richard F.
Published: January 2015

Microarrays are analytical devices that utilize a platform technology for the performance of hundreds to thousands of individual reactions or assays simultaneously. These include nucleic acid probe enzyme, and immunoassays for the detection and analysis of DNA, RNA, proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids; and to study the interactions of biomolecules with drugs and with other bioactive agents. The basic components of a microarray are the substrate, active layer containing receptors, and the detection probe. Microarrays can be characterized using a number of parameters. These include density, regularity, and receptor purity and reactivity. Fabrication methods are detailed and included is information on the various substrates used and substrate activation, array spotting, andin situsynthesis. Applications discussed in detail include genomic analysis, expression analysis, and diagnostics. Micorarrays are complex to use and costly to manufacture, but this will change within the next ten years with increasing applications.
Dependence of plasmaspheric hiss on solar wind parameters and geomagnetic activity and modeling of its global distribution
Authors: Kim Kyung‐Chan , Lee Dae‐Young , Shprits Yuri
Published: January 2015

Accurate knowledge of the global distribution of plasmaspheric hiss is essential for the radiation belt modeling because it provides a direct link to understanding the radiation belt loss in the slot region. In this paper, we study the dependence of hiss activity on solar wind parameters and geomagnetic activity indices using Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms hiss measurements made from 1 July 2008 to 30 June 2012 based on a correlation analysis. We find that hiss amplitudes are well correlated with the preceding solar wind speedVSW, interplanetary magnetic field (IMF)BZ, and interplanetary electric field (IEF)EYwith delay times of 5–6 h forVSWand 3–4 h for IMFBZand IEFEY, while the best correlation with the geomagnetic indices,AE,Kp, andSYM‐H, occurs at a delay time of 2–3 h forAEandSYM‐Hand 3–4 h forKp. Of the solar wind parameters, the dawn‐to‐dusk component of IEFEYyields the best correlation with the variation of hiss wave. More interestingly, the global distribution of hiss waves shows a significant dependence on theVSWand IMFBZ: the most intense hiss region tends to occur at prenoon sector for a more southward IMFBZ, while the tendency is opposite with increasingVSW. This implies different origins of hiss activity. Also, we employ an artificial neural network technique to develop models of the global distribution of hiss amplitudes based on the solar wind parameters and geomagnetic indices. The solely solar wind parameter‐based model generally results in a higher correlation between the measured and modeled hiss amplitudes than any other models based on the geomagnetic indices. Finally, we use the solar wind parameter‐based model to investigate hiss activity during storm events by distinguishing between coronal mass ejection‐driven storms and corotating interaction region‐driven storms. The result shows that in spite of the differences in the behavior of solar wind parameters between the two storm groups, the different types of storms lead to the similar evolution of hiss waves in overall appearance even though the detailed behavior of hiss activations are different.
Stable “Waterbelt” climates controlled by tropical ocean heat transport: A nonlinear coupled climate mechanism of relevance to Snowball Earth
Authors: Rose Brian E. J.
Published: January 2015

Ongoing controversy about Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth events motivates a theoretical study of stability and hysteresis properties of very cold climates. A coupled atmosphere‐ocean‐sea ice general circulation model (GCM) has four stable equilibria ranging from 0% to 100% ice cover, including a “Waterbelt” state with tropical sea ice. All four states are found at present‐day insolation and greenhouse gas levels and with two idealized ocean basin configurations. The Waterbelt is stabilized against albedo feedback by intense but narrow wind‐driven ocean overturning cells that deliver roughly 100 W m−2 heating to the ice edges. This requires three‐way feedback between winds, ocean circulation, and ice extent in which circulation is shifted equatorward, following the baroclinicity at the ice margins. The thermocline is much shallower and outcrops in the tropics. Sea ice is snow‐covered everywhere and has a minuscule seasonal cycle. The Waterbelt state spans a 46 W m−2 range in solar constant, has a significant hysteresis, and permits near‐freezing equatorial surface temperatures. Additional context is provided by a slab ocean GCM and a diffusive energy balance model, both with prescribed ocean heat transport (OHT). Unlike the fully coupled model, these support no more than one stable ice margin, the position of which is slaved to regions of rapid poleward decrease in OHT convergence. Wide ranges of different climates (including the stable Waterbelt) are found by varying the magnitude and spatial structure of OHT in both models. Some thermodynamic arguments for the sensitivity of climate, and ice extent to OHT are presented.
Quantifying the impacts of an updated global dimethyl sulfide climatology on cloud microphysics and aerosol radiative forcing
Authors: Mahajan Anoop S. , Fadnavis Suvarna , Thomas Manu A. , Pozzoli Luca , Gupta Smrati , Royer Sarah‐Jeanne , Saiz‐Lopez Alfonso , Simó Rafel
Published: January 2015

One of the critical parameters in assessing the global impacts of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) on cloud properties and the radiation budget is the estimation of phytoplankton‐induced ocean emissions, which are derived from prescribed, climatological surface seawater DMS concentrations. The most widely used global ocean DMS climatology was published 15 years ago and has recently been updated using a much larger database of observations. The updated climatology displays significant differences in terms of the global distribution and regional monthly averages of sea surface DMS. In this study, we use the ECHAM5‐HAMMOZ aerosol‐chemistry‐climate general circulation model to quantify the influence of the updated DMS climatology in computed atmospheric properties, namely, the spatial and temporal distributions of atmospheric DMS concentration, sulfuric acid concentration, sulfate aerosols, number of activated aerosols, cloud droplet number concentration, and the aerosol radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere. Significant differences are observed for all the modeled variables. Comparison with observations of atmospheric DMS and total sulfate also shows that in places with large DMS emissions, the updated climatology shows a better match with the observations. This highlights the importance of using the updated climatology for projecting future impacts of oceanic DMS emissions, especially considering that the relative importance of the natural sulfur fluxes is likely to increase due to legislation to “clean up” anthropogenic emissions. The largest estimated differences are in the Southern Ocean, Indian Ocean, and parts of the Pacific Ocean, where the climatologies differ in seasonal concentrations over large geographical areas. The model results also indicate that the former DMS climatology underestimated the effect of DMS on the globally averaged annual aerosol radiative forcing at the top of the atmosphere by about 20%.
Chlorophyll a reconstruction from in situ measurements: 1. Method description
Authors: Fründt B. , Dippner J. W. , Waniek J. J.
Published: January 2015

Understanding the development of primary production is essential for projections of the global carbon cycle in the context of climate change. A chlorophyll a hindcast that serves as a primary production indicator was obtained by fitting in situ measurements of nitrate, chlorophyll a, and temperature. The resulting fitting functions were adapted to a modeled temperature field. The method was applied to observations from the Madeira Basin, in the northeastern part of the oligotrophic North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre and yielded a chlorophyll a field from 1989 to 2008 with a monthly resolution validated with remotely measured surface chlorophyll a data by SeaWiFS. The chlorophyll a hindcast determined with our method resolved the seasonal and interannual variability in the phytoplankton biomass of the euphotic zone as well as the deep chlorophyll maximum. Moreover, it will allow estimation of carbon uptake over long time scales.
Mechanisms of convective cloud organization by cold pools over tropical warm ocean during the AMIE/DYNAMO field campaign
Authors: Feng Zhe , Hagos Samson , Rowe Angela K. , Burleyson Casey D. , Martini Matus N. , de Szoeke Simon P.
Published: January 2015

This paper investigates the mechanisms of convective cloud organization by precipitation‐driven cold pools over the warm tropical Indian Ocean during the 2011 Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Madden‐Julian Oscillation (MJO) Investigation Experiment/Dynamics of the MJO (AMIE/DYNAMO) field campaign. A high‐resolution regional model simulation is performed using the Weather Research and Forecasting model during the transition from suppressed to active phases of the November 2011 MJO. The simulated cold pool lifetimes, spatial extent, and thermodynamic properties agree well with the radar and ship‐borne observations from the field campaign. The thermodynamic and dynamic structures of the outflow boundaries of isolated and intersecting cold pools in the simulation and the associated secondary cloud populations are examined. Intersecting cold pools last more than twice as long, are twice as large, 41% more intense (measured with buoyancy), and 62% deeper than isolated cold pools. Consequently, intersecting cold pools trigger 73% more convection than do isolated ones. This is due to stronger outflows that enhance secondary updraft velocities by up to 45%. However, cold pool‐triggered convective clouds grow into deep convection not because of the stronger secondary updrafts at cloud base, but rather due to closer spacing (aggregation) between clouds and larger cloud clusters that form along the cold pool boundaries when they intersect. The close spacing of large clouds moistens the local environment and reduces entrainment drying, increasing the probability that the clouds further develop into deep convection. Implications for the design of future convective parameterization with cold pool‐modulated entrainment rates are discussed.
Variational Lagrangian data assimilation in open channel networks
Authors: Wu Qingfang , Tinka Andrew , Weekly Kevin , Beard Jonathan , Bayen Alexandre M.
Published: January 2015

This article presents a data assimilation method in a tidal system, where data from both Lagrangian drifters and Eulerian flow sensors were fused to estimate water velocity. The system is modeled by first‐order, hyperbolic partial differential equations subject to periodic forcing. The estimation problem can then be formulated as the minimization of the difference between the observed variables and model outputs, and eventually provide the velocity and water stage of the hydrodynamic system. The governing equations are linearized and discretized using an implicit discretization scheme, resulting in linear equality constraints in the optimization program. Thus, the flow estimation can be formed as an optimization problem and efficiently solved. The effectiveness of the proposed method was substantiated by a large‐scale field experiment in the Sacramento‐San Joaquin River Delta in California. A fleet of 100 sensors developed at the University of California, Berkeley, were deployed in Walnut Grove, CA, to collect a set of Lagrangian data, a time series of positions as the sensors moved through the water. Measurements were also taken from Eulerian sensors in the region, provided by the United States Geological Survey. It is shown that the proposed method can effectively integrate Lagrangian and Eulerian measurement data, resulting in a suited estimation of the flow variables within the hydraulic system.
Probabilistic precipitation rate estimates with ground‐based radar networks
Authors: Kirstetter Pierre‐Emmanuel , Gourley Jonathan J. , Hong Yang , Zhang Jian , Moazamigoodarzi Saber , Langston Carrie , Arthur Ami
Published: January 2015

The uncertainty structure of radar quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) is largely unknown at fine spatiotemporal scales near the radar measurement scale. By using the WSR‐88D radar network and gauge data sets across the conterminous US, an investigation of this subject has been carried out within the framework of the NOAA/NSSL ground radar‐based Multi‐Radar Multi‐Sensor (MRMS) QPE system. A new method is proposed and called PRORATE for probabilistic QPE using radar observations of rate and typology estimates. Probability distributions of precipitation rates are computed instead of deterministic values using a model quantifying the relation between radar reflectivity and the corresponding “true” precipitation. The model acknowledges the uncertainty arising from many factors operative at the radar measurement scale and from the correction algorithm. Ensembles of reflectivity‐to‐precipitation rate relationships accounting explicitly for precipitation typology were derived at a 5 min/1 km scale. This approach conditions probabilistic quantitative precipitation estimates (PQPE) on the precipitation rate and type. The model components were estimated on the basis of a 1 year long data sample over the CONUS. This PQPE model provides the basis for precipitation probability maps and the generation of radar precipitation ensembles. Maps of the precipitation exceedance probability for specific thresholds (e.g., precipitation return periods) are computed. Precipitation probability maps are accumulated to the hourly time scale and compare favorably to the deterministic QPE. As an essential property of precipitation, the impact of the temporal correlation on the hourly accumulation is examined. This approach to PQPE can readily apply to other systems including space‐based passive and active sensor algorithms.
North American precipitation isotope (δ18O) zones revealed in time series modeling across Canada and northern United States
Authors: Delavau C. , Chun K. P. , Stadnyk T. , Birks S. J. , Welker J. M.
Published: January 2015

Delineating spatial patterns of precipitation isotopes (“isoscapes”) is becoming increasingly important to understand the processes governing the modern water isotope cycle and their application to migration forensics, climate proxy interpretation, and ecohydrology of terrestrial systems. However, the extent to which these patterns can be empirically predicted across Canada and the northern United States has not been fully articulated, in part due to a lack of time series precipitation isotope data for major regions of North America. In this study, we use multiple linear regressions of CNIP, GNIP, and USNIP observations alongside climatological variables, teleconnection indices, and geographic indicators to create empirical models that predict the δ18O of monthly precipitation (δ18Oppt) across Canada and the northern United States. Five regionalization approaches are used to separate the study domain into isotope zones to explore the effect of spatial grouping on model performance. Stepwise regression‐derived parameterizations quantified by permutation testing indicate the significance of precipitable water content and latitude as predictor variables. Within the Canadian Arctic and eastern portion of the study domain, models from all regionalizations capture the interannual and intraannual variability of δ18Oppt. The Pacific coast and northwestern portions of the study domain show less agreement between models and poorer model performance, resulting in higher uncertainty in simulations throughout these regions. Long‐term annual average δ18Oppt isoscapes are generated, highlighting the uncertainty in the regionalization approach as it compounds over time. Additionally, monthly time series simulations are presented at various locations, and model structure uncertainty and 90% bootstrapped prediction bounds are detailed for these predictions.
Estimating freshwater flows from tidally affected hydrographic data
Authors: Pagendam D. E. , Percival D. B.
Published: January 2015

Detiding end‐of‐catchment flow data are an important step in determining the total volumes of freshwater (and associated pollutant loads) entering the ocean. We examine three approaches for separating freshwater and tidal flows from tidally affected data: (i) a simple low‐pass Butterworth filter (BWF); (ii) a robust, harmonic analysis with Kalman smoothing (RoHAKS) which is a novel approach introduced in this paper; and (iii) dynamic harmonic regression (DHR). Using hydrographic data collected in the Logan River, Australia, over a period of 452 days, we judge the accuracy of the three methods based on three criteria: consistency of freshwater flows with upstream gauges; consistency of total discharge volumes with the raw data over the event; and minimal upstream flow. A simulation experiment shows that RoHAKS outperforms both BWF and DHR on a number of criteria. In addition, RoHAKS enjoys a computational advantage over DHR in speed and use of freely available software.
Evaluating observational methods to quantify snow duration under diverse forest canopies
Authors: Dickerson‐Lange Susan E. , Lutz James A. , Martin Kael A. , Raleigh Mark S. , Gersonde Rolf , Lundquist Jessica D.
Published: January 2015

Forests cover almost 40% of the seasonally snow‐covered regions in North America. However, operational snow networks are located primarily in forest clearings, and optical remote sensing cannot see through tree canopies to detect forest snowpack. Due to the complex influence of the forest on snowpack duration, ground observations in forests are essential. We therefore consider the effectiveness of different strategies to observe snow‐covered area under forests. At our study location in the Pacific Northwest, we simultaneously deployed fiber‐optic cable, stand‐alone ground temperature sensors, and time‐lapse digital cameras in three diverse forest treatments: control second‐growth forest, thinned forest, and forest gaps (one tree height in diameter). We derived fractional snow‐covered area and snow duration metrics from the colocated instruments to assess optimal spatial resolution and sampling configuration, and snow duration differences between forest treatments. The fiber‐optic cable and the cameras indicated that mean snow duration was 8 days longer in the gap plots than in the control plots (p < 0.001). We conducted Monte Carlo experiments for observing mean snow duration in a 40 m forest plot, and found the 95% confidence interval was ±5 days for 10 m spacing between instruments and ±3 days for 6 m spacing. We further tested the representativeness of sampling one plot per treatment group by observing snow duration across replicated forest plots at the same elevation, and at a set of forest plots 250 m higher. Relative relationships between snow duration in the forest treatments are consistent between replicated plots, elevation, and two winters of data.
Sodium Channels
Authors: Lampert Angelika , Stühmer Walter , Waxman Stephen G
Published: January 2015

Excitable cells, such as neurons or cardiomyocytes, communicate with each other via action potentials. This fast change in membrane voltage is initiated by the rapid opening of voltage‐gated sodium selective channels, of which to date nine subtypes are known (Nav1.1–Nav1.9). These large membrane spanning proteins undergo gating changes on a timescale ranging from milliseconds to minutes. Depolarization past threshold leads to activation and sodium ions flow into the cell. Within milliseconds the inactivation particle blocks the pore, current flow is interrupted and the channel is fast inactivated. Channels need to recover from fast inactivation at negative potentials to be able to reopen anew.

Recent data on crystal structures shape our 3D picture of sodium channels and mutagenesis studies help understanding their structure–function relation. Sodium channels are major regulators of membrane excitability and play an important role in pain, arrhythmias and muscle diseases, and subtype‐specific blockers have been currently developed.

Key Concepts

The fast upstroke of the action potential (AP) is initiated by the opening of voltage‐gated sodium channels (Navs).

Navs are large transmembrane proteins consisting of four homologous domains (DI–DIV).

Each domain consists of six transmembrane segments S1–S6, which form a voltage sensor (S1–S4) and parts of the pore module (S5–S6).

The domains are connected by intracellular linkers. The DIII–DIV linker contains the inactivation particle.

Upon depolarization, Navs open quickly, sodium ions flow into the cell, and within milliseconds, fast inactivation occurs.

Slow inactivation happens on a much slower timescale (seconds to minutes) and involves other parts of the channel protein.

Recently, crystal structures of bacterial sodium channels have helped explicate the changes in 3D structure that accompany gating.

Navs are involved in the generation of pain, arrhythmias and myopathies (among others).
Adenoviruses
Authors: Echavarría Marcela
Published: January 2015

Adenoviruses (AdVs) are non‐envelopedDNAviruses that can cause a wide range of clinical manifestations including respiratory, gastrointestinal and ocular, as well as hepatic, renal and disseminated diseases. Outcomes can range from mild and self‐limited to severe life‐threatening conditions and death. Higher morbidity and mortality is observed with certain AdVs serotypes and among immunocompromised patients. AdVs are capable of evading the immune response and they can produce persistent or latent infections. Therefore, reactivation can occur during immunosuppression. Conventional and molecular methods are used for diagnosis, although the last ones are more sensitive and can be used for quantification. Antivirals, such as ribavirin and cido‐fovir, are used in some patients, especially stem cell transplant recipients. AdV vaccine against serotypes 4 and 7 is available forUSmilitary recruits. Early diagnosis of AdVs infections is critical for patient management and infection control measurements.

Key Concepts

Adenoviruses can cause a variety of clinical manifestations because of high number of serotypes and their wide cell tropism.

The implementation of molecular methods for adenovirus diagnosis has increased their awareness in the clinical setting as severe and emerging pathogens.

AdV serotypes are defined by neutralisation and haemagglutination assays using specific antisera.

Adenoviruses are very stable and highly resistant to inactivation at room temperature.

Adenovirus species C can establish a latent infection in lymphocytes of the tonsils and adenoid tissue.

Clinical manifestations depend on the host and the serotypes involved and can affect the respiratory, gastrointestinal or ocular tract and the liver, kidney or nervous central system.

Severe infections and fatal cases are more frequent in immunocompromised patients such as stem cell transplant recipients.

Adenovirus diagnosis in blood requires the use of molecular methods.

An oral attenuated live adenovirus vaccine against serotypes 4 and 7 is available for US militaries to prevent respiratory disease.
Phosphoryl Transfer Reactions
Authors: Hengge Alvan C
Published: January 2015

Phosphoryl transfer is the name given to the chemical process of the transfer of the phosphoryl group (PO3) from a phosphate ester or anhydride to a nucleophile. Nucleophilic attack by water on a phosphate monoester gives the hydrolysis product inorganic phosphate. This net dephosphorylation reaction is the process catalysed by phosphatases. Although the reaction is thermodynamically favourable, it has a very high kinetic barrier, making the uncatalysed hydrolysis of phosphate esters extremely slow. The opposite process, the formation of phosphate esters, is termed phosphorylation and is accomplished in biological systems by kinases. The balance between phosphatase and kinase activities in biology serves to regulate the phosphorylation level of many enzymes and other proteins in the cell, forming an important regulatory mechanism that is found throughout the biological world.

Key Concepts

The post‐translational phosphorylation levels of proteins are regulated by the complimentary actions of phosphatases and kinases.

The uncatalysed hydrolysis of phosphate esters has a very high kinetic barrier, making phosphatases among the most efficient enzymes known.

The various families of phosphatases use different catalytic machinery and mechanisms to carry out phosphate ester hydrolysis.
XenopusEmbryo: Mesoderm Induction
Authors: Dale Leslie , Wardle Fiona C
Published: January 2015

During early embryogenesis, the three germ layers, mesoderm, endoderm and ectoderm, must form in the correct positions for normal development to proceed. In the amphibian embryo, mesoderm is induced from cells of the marginal zone, at the equator of the spherical embryo, by signals emanating from the vegetal region. Later, during gastrulation, mesoderm is further patterned by signals from the dorsal organiser. Here, we review our current knowledge of mesoderm formation, highlighting the importance of the transforming growth factor‐beta (TGF‐β) family of extracellular signalling molecules in mesoderm induction and the role of maternal factors in activating these molecules. We also discuss mechanisms of limiting induction to the marginal zone by TGF‐β inhibitors in the animal hemisphere, the role of FGF signalling in maintaining the mesoderm and the role of BMP and BMP antagonists in patterning mesoderm during gastrulation.

Key Concepts

Mesoderm is induced to form from marginal zone cells of theXenopusembryo in response to signals secreted from the vegetal hemisphere.

Mesoderm is induced by members of the Nodal/Activin sub‐family of the transforming growth factor‐beta (TGF‐β) family of secreted signalling factors.

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family members maintain mesoderm.

Mesoderm induction is limited to the marginal zone of the embryo by TGF‐β signalling inhibitors expressed in the animal region.

Maternal transcription factors, such as VegT and β‐catenin, activate expression of TGF‐β genes.

Mesoderm is further patterned during gastrulation through both activation and inhibition of BMP signalling.
Cytomegalovirus Infections in Humans
Authors: Griffiths Paul D , Lumley Sheila
Published: January 2015

Cytomegalovirus (
CMV
) is a herpes virus that causes severe disease in the immunocompromised because virus replication is normally held in check by cell‐mediated immune responses in patients with past infection. Patients receiving immunosuppressive drugs to allow allo‐transplantation, patients with
AIDS
(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) or foetuses with immature immune responses are therefore at risk of developing
CMV
end‐organ disease. A high viral load is required for
CMV
end‐organ disease to develop. Ganciclovir is a potent inhibitor of
CMV
replication and can be used either for prophylaxis or for pre‐emptive therapy (administering the drug when
CMV
is detected in the blood). Both of these strategies effectively control
CMV
end‐organ disease in transplant patients. Three new drugs have recently completed phase II clinical trials (maribavir, brincidofovir and letermovir). Phase
II
studies of prototype
CMV
vaccines have recently published encouraging results, suggesting that
CMV
infection may ultimately be preventable by means of universal immunisation.

Key Concepts

CMV viraemia precedes CMV end‐organ disease.

Prompt treatment of CMV viraemia prevents end‐organ disease.

The probability of end‐organ disease is non‐linear with respect to viral load.

This threshold relationship is seen also in babies with congenital CMV infection and hearing loss.

Prompt treatment of congenital CMV infection can reduce the risk of progressive hearing loss.

Quantitative viraemia biomarkers can be used to assess the potency of antiviral drugs in humans.

These same biomarkers can be used to determine if vaccine given pre‐transplant can help control CMV replication post‐transplant.

Although clinically silent, CMV infection is associated with excess mortality in the general public.

Universal immunisation has the potential to provide health benefits greater than appreciated at present.
Rabies: Virus and Disease
Authors: Nadin‐Davis Susan A
Published: January 2015

This article summarises the current literature on rabies and the aetiological agents responsible for this disease, which includes all members of the
Lyssavirus
genus, of which rabies virus (
RABV
) is the prototype species. Members of the orders Chiroptera and Carnivora serve as maintenance reservoirs for all recognised lyssavirus species and knowledge of the diversity, evolution and geographical range of these viruses is continually improving. Many mammalian species, including humans, are susceptible to spill‐over infections from the maintenance hosts. Despite the availability of efficacious prophylactics, once clinical signs develop, the disease is almost invariably fatal. Effective rabies control requires elimination of the disease from animal reservoirs. In developed countries, parenteral dog vaccination and oral vaccination of wildlife have effectively controlled rabies in many regions but socioeconomic factors limit the application of similar measures in many developing countries where the vast majority of human cases are reported. Better understanding of disease pathogenesis and host immune responses is sought in efforts to develop effective therapeutic interventions.

Key Concepts

Rabies is a neurological disease that can affect almost all mammals and is almost invariably fatal once clinical signs develop.

Rabies is caused by all members of the
Lyssavirus
genus, bullet‐shaped neurotropic viruses with small RNA genomes, which are normally transmitted in virus‐laden saliva through bites.

The vast majority of human rabies cases are the result of exposure to rabid animals.

Prevention of human disease is undertaken by a regimen of timely post‐exposure prophylaxis.

Distinct
Lyssavirus
species and variants thereof are maintained in dogs in many developing countries and by several wildlife species including foxes, skunks, raccoons, raccoon dogs, mongooses, jackals and many species of bats throughout much of the world.

Through a series of viral–host interactions, rabies virus (RABV) has evolved mechanisms that maintain the neural network required for its propagation and spread within the infected host while avoiding clearance by the host's immune system.

Knowledge of the diversity of the
Lyssavirus
genus is steadily expanding with increased surveillance and development of molecular tools to enable rapid characterisation of new isolates.

Current vaccines and biologicals are ineffective against the more diverse members of the genus, thereby indicating that novel reagents with broader efficacy may be required for future disease control.

Ultimately, control and eradication of rabies will require elimination of the disease from animal reservoirs through the application of efficacious and cost‐effective methods of animal vaccination.
Marine Communities
Authors: Snelgrove Paul
Published: January 2015

Marine communities are collections of organisms within an area of the ocean that interact with one another more than with other such collections. These organisms may span from microbes to seaweeds to large animals, but their composition changes drastically with habitat. Intertidal environments along the shoreline support low diversity but often high abundances of organisms adapted to highly variable environmental conditions. In contrast, the deep ocean, which is devoid of sunlight and where temperature and salt content vary little, supports low abundances of a high diversity of life. Sediments cover much of the seabed, creating the largest habitat on Earth in area, whereas the thousands of metres of water above the bottom create the largest habitat by volume. Coral reefs, which occur only in shallow tropical waters, support the most species dense habitat in the ocean and possibly on the planet. Highly productive transition zones between land and sea such as salt marshes, mangroves and seagrasses often provide nursery areas for adjacent coastal species. Nonetheless, many coastal habitats face multiple pressures from human activities and already show rapid change.

Key Concepts

Marine communities differ among habitats spanning from low‐diversity intertidal communities adapted to highly variable environments to species‐rich deep‐sea communities that live in far less dynamic environments.

Intertidal communities are the best‐studied marine community because of their ease of access and relative simplicity.

Estuarine habitats, where freshwater and seawater mix, often support high productivity and complex habitats such as mangroves and salt marshes that are important nurseries for a community of juvenile fishes and invertebrates.

Coral reefs are highly diverse and productive habitats but human activities threaten reef communities in many parts of the world where coral reefs are in sharp decline.

Scientists have sampled only a tiny fraction of the deep ocean and the potential for new discoveries of species and processes remains very high.
Lung Development
Authors: Havrilak Jamie A , Shannon John M
Published: January 2015

Early respiratory development begins with the specification of the lung cell fate, followed by the emergence of lung buds from the ventral foregut endoderm. The respiratory tree is then elaborated through branching morphogenesis, and proliferation and differentiation of specialised cell types along the proximal–distal axis produces airways and alveoli, respectively. Lung development is orchestrated through crosstalk between the epithelium and the mesenchyme; morphogenesis and differentiation of the lung relies on diffusible signalling molecules that cross tissue layers to activate a complex network of transcription factors to drive development. Significant progress has been made in understanding the molecular regulation of lung morphogenesis through paracrine signalling pathways and transcription factors essential for lung development.

Key Concepts

Following specification of respiratory progenitor cells that are committed to the respiratory lineage, the lung buds emerge from the ventral foregut endoderm and subsequently elaborate the pulmonary tree through branching morphogenesis.

Reciprocal interactions between the epithelium and the mesenchyme govern lung organogenesis and are mediated by diffusible factors.

Critical signalling pathways known to be involved in lung development include Fgfs, Shh, Wnts, RA and TGF‐β superfamily. These factors are diffusible and act as means of communication and instruction between the tissue layers to drive development.

The lung comprises specialised cell types that function to protect the lung, secrete surfactant or allow for gas exchange.
Cucurbitaceae (Vine Crops)
Authors: Kousik Chandrasekar S , Levi Amnon , Wehner Todd C , Maynard Donald N
Published: January 2015

The Cucurbitaceae or vine crop family is a distinct family without any close relatives and includes many important vegetables such as cucumber, melon, watermelon, squash, pumpkin and gourds. Plants within Cucurbitaceae consist of 95 genera classified into 15 tribes. Cucurbits are trailing or vining tendril‐bearing annual plants. The plants are mostly monoecious with separate male and female flowers and require various insect, especially bees for pollination. The fruit come in various shapes and sizes, of which the pumpkin plants produce some of the largest known fruits among flowering plants and are often used in contests. Gourd fruits are used for preparing food, making musical instruments, containers and other decorative pieces. Watermelon is considered the most popular among the cucurbits whose delicious fruit are widely consumed throughout the world.

Key Concepts

Cucumber, watermelon, melon, pumpkin, squash and gourds belong to the family Cucurbitaceae.

Cucurbits are mainly trailing or vining tendril‐bearing annual plants.

Cucurbit plants are mostly monoecious, that is, they have separate male and female flowers.

Pumpkin plants produce some of the largest know fruits among flowering plants.

Watermelon is the most popular cucurbit and its delicious fruits are consumed worldwide.

The red pigment responsible for watermelon flesh colour is an anticancer agent. Watermelon fruit have more lycopene than tomato.

Bottle gourds are considered to be some of the earliest domesticated plant species.
Segmental Duplications: A Source of Diversity, Evolution and Disease
Authors: Catacchio Claudia R , Chiatante Giorgia , Anaclerio Fabio , Ventura Mario
Published: January 2015

Genome mutations represent a source of variability on which selective pressure acts: negative changes are purged from the populations, whereas positive and neutral changes may be fixed. Segmental duplications (
SDs
) in the human genome trigger mutations such as structural rearrangements (duplications, deletions, inversions and translocations), thus playing a crucial role in human disease and genome evolution. Several human diseases (genomic disorders) are caused by non‐allelic homologous recombination (
NAHR
) between highly similar
SDs
, as well as gene‐containing
SDs
were crucial to survival and adaptation of human species during evolution. Moreover, both from a pathological and an evolutionary point of view, SDs represent critically important regions for acentric fragment rescue during neocentromerization process. In this light, disease and evolution can be considered as ‘two sides of the same coin’, where the coin represents the
SD
‐mediated chromosomal rearrangements.

Key Concepts

Segmental duplications (SDs) create variability in human genome.

Mediating non‐allelic homologous recombination (NAHR) segmental duplications mediate chromosomal unbalance.

Duplicated genes may show pattern of expression different from ancestral gene.

Segmental duplications are the remains of ancestral pericentromeric regions.

Neocentromere can generate at loci where ancestral centromere were located.