bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
BBC World Service
Authors: Mytton Graham
Published: September 2017

The → international radio station with the largest global audience and the one with the best‐known name, the BBC World Service, began as the Empire Service on shortwave in 1932. Today, while most of its estimated weekly audience of 188 million (all figures given here are for 2009) continue to rely on direct transmission on shortwave and medium wave from the BBC's own transmitters, it is also available via satellite, on mobile phones, on the → Internet, and through hundreds of local radio stations in countries around the world (→ Radio Technology). BBC World News, a global → television service in English, is funded and organized separately. Organized within the World Service itself are TV services in Arabic and Persian. On radio, the World Service broadcasts in English and 31 other languages.
Behavioral Norms: Perception through the Media
Authors: Shah Dhavan V. , Rojas Hernando
Published: September 2017

Social norms entail learned expectations of behavior or categorization that are deemed desirable, or at least appear as unproblematic (Sherif 1936) for a specific social group in a given situation (→ Social Norms). Mass media have been found to help shape → perceptions of behavioral norms (→ Observational Learning; Media and Perceptions of Reality). These perceptions are consequential for health behaviors, social and sexual practices, democratic participation, and a range of other outcomes.
Bertelsmann Corporation
Authors: Becker Jörg
Published: September 2017

Bertelsmann Corporation, with headquarters in the small northern German city of Gütersloh, is one of the largest multinational media, information, and consulting corporations worldwide (→ Media Conglomerates), with a turnover of almost 20 million euros and about 100,000 employees (all figures here are for 2006). If the size of the company is assessed on the basis not of annual turnover but of its credit rating with banks, then for many years Bertelsmann has been the world's largest multinational information concern, as (unlike many US companies) it has been debt free for a long time.
Black Feminist Media Studies
Authors: Keeling Kara
Published: September 2017

Black feminist media studies is a growing body of scholarly work that looks at the intersection of media, race, and gender, with a specific focus on women of African descent. This field of research most often designates scholarship produced in the United States or Europe that explores the ways that film, television, broadcast and print news, and new media (and, less often, radio) produce messages and ideas about women of African descent and the possible ways in which these representations influence political, economic, and cultural structures in society (→ Feminist and Gender Studies).
Bona Fide Groups
Authors: Kramer Michael W.
Published: September 2017

The bona fide group construct grew out of a concern over the external → validity and generalizability of studies conducted on zero‐history, laboratory groups. More than just a focus on studying naturally occurring groups, a bona fide group perspective focuses on characteristics of naturally occurring groups that do not exist in laboratory groups (→ Experiment, Laboratory). The first conceptualization of this by Linda Putnam and Cynthia Stohl (1990) emphasized that naturally occurring (bona fide) groups have stable but permeable boundaries, are interdependent with the immediate context, and have links between the boundaries and context. So unlike artificially created groups, in bona fide groups, group membership frequently changes, the group's internal dynamics are influenced by the external environment, and its members are influenced by their simultaneous membership in other groups. For example, an ad hoc committee frequently experiences membership changes as personnel are reassigned, is interdependent with the administrator who convened the group and with other groups who provide it with resources, and is affected by the divided loyalties of its members as they balance their involvement in the ad hoc committee with other departmental and social groups.
Book
Authors: Amert Kay
Published: September 2017

The book is a durable vehicle for words and images and often is a central artifact in cultures with the written word. Those produced in the era before the advent of printing are unique “manuscript” books that were made by hand (→ Printing, History of). The book became the first mass medium, and conventions for its presentation shaped those of later media. It can be distinguished from other printed and electronic media by the substantial length of its texts and by the diversity of its content, which ranges from the worldly and practical to the poetic and sublime. Because books both comprise and safeguard the working memory of humanity, they are inherently conservative at the same time as they announce what is new. Thus the book is a complex artifact: it reveals the personal, social, and cultural values of a period, and it can be “read” in a variety of ways (→ Typography).
Branding
Authors: Gelbrich Katja
Published: September 2017

The term “branding” is used for the identification of offers (products and services). Etymologically, the origin of the word can be found in the branding of cattle. Initially, the spectrum of meanings was closely restricted to the pure act of naming. In the course of time, a more tailored definition of branding was suggested: integrated and harmonized use of all marketing mix instruments with the aim of creating a concise, comprehensive, and positively discriminating brand image within the relevant competitive environment (→ Image; Marketing). However, this all‐embracing concept is not clearly distinguishable from brand management. Hence,
another definition
situated between these two extremes has become widely accepted: the so‐called magic triangle of branding. The triangle has the following three sides: brand name, trademark (for example, a logo), and product design and packaging. It is the task of branding to balance these three sides so that they position a brand uniquely (see also Aaker 1991; Aaker & Joachimsthaler 2000; → Brands).
Broadcast Journalism
Authors: Conway Mike
Published: September 2017

Broadcast journalism extends news to radio and television. The first broadcast journalists came from other media including newspapers, news and photo magazines, theater newsreels, motion pictures, documentary films, and radio (→ Television News), and the mix of media influenced the development of broadcast journalism. For example, job titles came from newspapers (reportersandeditors) and from motion pictures (directorsandproducers), along with some original coinages (such asanchor).
Broadcast Journalism
Authors: Conway Mike
Published: September 2017

Broadcast journalism took news off the page and extended it to → radio and → television in the mid‐twentieth century. The first broadcast journalists came from other media including newspapers, news and photo magazines, theater newsreels, motion pictures, and documentary films. The development of radio and → television news was greatly influenced by the funding model chosen by different nations, with the most popular being a yearly tax or fee system (Great Britain, Canada, Germany) or an advertiser‐supported system (United States).
Bureaucracy and Communication
Authors: Cheney George
Published: September 2017

In his monumental work
Economy and society
, Weber (1978, 1st pub. 1922), explained bureaucracy both in terms of principles of societal order and with respect to its place in the modern world. In seeking to answer the fundamental question “How do we understand un‐coerced obedience?” Weber examined the history of societies and empires ranging from ancient China to the United States, arguing that kernel elements of the bureaucratic form could be seen in record‐keeping on personnel at least 5,000 years ago. More important, Weber developed his three
ideal types of authority
and, by extension, organization from that historical survey and comparative analysis. In that sense, it is appropriate to speak of the ways bureaucracy arose through cultural patterns and experience (Crozier 1964). The authority types and their corresponding organizational manifestations are: charismatic authority (and the corresponding organizational type of a religious sect), traditional authority (and monarchy), and legal‐rational authority (and bureaucracy).
Business Discourse
Authors: Carl Walter J.
Published: September 2017

Studies of business discourse examine how the work of a business institution gets accomplished through talk and texts. Academic and practitioner interest in business discourse has emerged in a social context where business institutions, notably corporations, have a powerful presence in the world. Close attention to business discourse is predicated on the following suppositions: that people spend a significant portion of their lives in business institutions, that this work gets accomplished primarily through talk and texts (especially as managers and in a knowledge economy), and that there are better and worse ways to practice discourse. The study of business discourse is international and approached from multiple disciplines and perspectives, including various forms of → Discourse Analysis – such as → action‐implicative discourse analysis, discursive psychology, and critical discourse analysis – conversation analysis and ethnomethodology, organizational communication, management theory, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, genre analysis, ethnography, and narrative analysis.
Benjamin, Walter
Authors: Jordan Matthew
Published: September 2017

Walter Benjamin was a German philosopher and social theorist who lived from 1892 to 1940. A prescient critic, he wandered at the margins of traditional academic disciplines, but his influence on communications research has continued to grow. Like the Frankfurt School scholars whose circles he moved in, Benjamin's career as a thinker began just as an ascendant mass culture threatened to radically alter traditional forms of media, culture and sociability (→ Critical Theory). Yet his perspective was, in the words of his friend Theodor Adorno, all his own. His writings foreshadowed later scholarly work on → cinema → aesthetics → medium theory and → consumer culture, among many other areas.
Cartoons
Authors: Lent John A.
Published: September 2017

Cartoons can be simply described as humorous drawings, separated into political or editorial, which use → caricature, humor, and satire to comment on current affairs and influence → public opinion, and social or gag, which poke fun at daily life and its problems or merely illustrate jokes. Although political cartoons normally are found in daily → Newspapers, where they often support editorial views, they have also appeared in → magazines, on → Television, and as broadsheets and → posters. Gag cartoons typically are in general interest magazines, some of which (e.g.,
Saturday Evening Post, Collier's, Esquire
, and
New Yorker
in the US) were famous for them, and in cartoon/humor periodicals (most notably, the long‐lived
Punch
of the UK and
Mad
in the US).
Chile: Media System
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: September 2017

Chile is a country of over 16 million people, lying along the southwest coast of South America. Becoming independent from Spain after 1810, Chile evolved as a republic with strong democratic traditions, until a major coup in 1973. The development of media in Chile has been unique in its region, principally because of the following interregnum of dictatorship from 1973 until 1988, which accelerated the adoption of neo‐liberal policies. By the mid‐2000s, although it still had a local press duopoly like its neighbors, Chile's degree of commercialization and of foreign ownership in radio, in free as well as pay television, and in related telecommunication services, notably the Internet, set it apart from the conventional model in the region of local family oligopolies.
Chile: Media System
Authors: Sinclair John
Published: September 2017

Chile is a country of over 16 million people, lying along the southwest coast of South America. Becoming independent from Spain after 1810, Chile evolved as a republic with strong democratic traditions, until a major coup in 1973. The development of media in Chile has been unique in its region, principally because of the dictatorship from 1973 until 1988, which accelerated the adoption of neo‐liberal policies. By the end of the 2000s, although it still had a local press duopoly like its neighbors, Chile's marked degree of commercialization and of foreign ownership in radio, in free as well as pay television, and in related telecommunication services, notably the Internet, set it apart from the conventional model in the region of local family oligopolies.
Cinema
Authors: Polan Dana
Published: September 2017

Provisionally, we can define cinema as on‐screen (and even large‐screen) presentation of moving images that have been pre‐recorded photo‐chemically on some support (most often, strips of celluloid).
Classroom Management Techniques
Authors: Plax Timothy G.
Published: September 2017

Classroom management refers to teacher behaviors which “produce high levels of student involvement in classroom activities, minimal amounts of student behaviors that interfere with the teacher's or students' work, and efficient use of instructional time” (Emmer & Evertson 1981, 342). Studies continually reveal a significant relationship between time spent on the subject content and student learning (Berliner 1988). Making time for learning, also called “allocated time,” is an important goal of classroom managers. Further, effective classroom managers find ways to ensure that students spend sufficient time on specific learning tasks, also known as “engaged time” or “time on task.” Finally, in order to maximize learning outcomes, classroom managers must set up the conditions in such a way that students' time on task is success oriented (Woolfolk 2001).
Classroom Power
Authors: Roach David
Published: September 2017

Social influence is inherent in the process of classroom instruction. Interpersonal power, as social influence, is a relational phenomenon and is defined “as an individual's potential to have an effect on another person's or group of persons' behavior” (Richmond et al. 1980, 38). It is a teacher's job to communicate and to have an effect on students' behavior and learning. Typically, teachers use power to help students learn, to keep students on task, to foster appropriate interactions between teacher and student and between student and student, to encourage students to stop antisocial or anti‐productive behaviors, to encourage students to engage in pro‐social and productive behaviors, etc. Notably, students exert interpersonal power in the classroom as well. Student communication, actions, and reactions have an influence on teachers and on other students.
Cognitive Science
Authors: Bailenson Jeremy N. , Fox Jesse
Published: September 2017

Cognitive science is the study of mind, and is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses psychology (→ Psychology in Communication Processes), philosophy, computer science, education (→ Learning and Communication), neuroscience, anthropology, and linguistics. The intellectual origins of the field can be traced back to the 1950s, when researchers first began to use formal mathematical representations and computational structures to model theories of mind (→ Cognition). Cognitive science became an “official” field in the late 1970s; in 1976, the first issue of the journalCognitive Sciencewas printed, and the first meeting of the Cognitive Science Society took place in 1979.
Communication as an Academic Field: Latin America
Authors: Martín‐Barbero Jesús
Published: September 2017

In Latin America communication studies started during the late 1960s, and were characterized by two very different conceptions. On the one hand, there was the
functional paradigm
, from the United States (where many Latin American professors had been trained), which related the study of communication to the
diffusion of innovations
, and which was part of a development policy primarily for the rural sector (→ Functional Analysis; Diffusion of Information and Innovation). On the other hand, there was the
theory of dependence
, developed by Latin American economists and sociologists, which asserted that mass communication was part of the process that included the domination Latin American countries had to put up with (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories; Dependency Theories).
Communication as an Academic Field: USA and Canada
Authors: Eadie William F.
Published: September 2017

There is general agreement that the communication discipline, as we know it today, began in the US. There is, however, a degree of disagreement as to how to trace the origins of the discipline. Arguably, the organizational roots of the communication discipline could be divided into
two traditions
: the “speech” tradition and the “journalism” tradition. Both traditions can be linked to the development of academic departments in US universities as they began to turn away from a single approach to higher education and to diversify and specialize. The development of land‐grant public institutions after 1862 opened up higher education to students from a much wider range of economic backgrounds than before. This, along with a commitment to serve agricultural and technological interests, created a demand for specialized areas of study and thus spurred the creation of academic departments.
Communication: Definitions and Concepts
Authors: Cobley Paul
Published: September 2017

The Latin root of “communication” –communicare– means “to share” or “to be in relation with.” Through Indo‐European etymological roots, it further relates to the words “common,” “commune,” and “community,” suggesting an act of “bringing together” (→ Communication: History of the Idea).
Communication Law and Policy: Europe
Authors: Azurmendi Ana
Published: September 2017

The first newspapers were published in Europe in 1605:
Nieuwe Tijdinghen
in Antwerp and
Relation
in Strasbourg, both published as weeklies (→ Newspaper, Antecedents of; Newspaper, History of). Soon afterwards, more newspapers appeared in several European cities, until in 1650 the first daily newspaper was printed in Leipzig, Germany. Censorship and license were the key legal restraints on newspapers under the absolute monarchies of Europe (→ Censorship). The 1662 Licensing of the Press Act in England was the first media regulation. In the nineteenth century, dynamic movements of ideas, the consequent political changes, and technological improvements contributed to the emergence of the European press as we know it today (Chapman 2005), with precedents such as the
Daily Telegraph
in Britain (1855),
Le Petit Journal
in France (1863), and the news agencies Havas in France (1835), Wolff in Germany (1849), and Reuters in Britain (1851).
Communication Law and Policy: North America
Authors: Gower Karla K.
Published: September 2017

North America consists of 23 countries, including the United States, Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean Island nations, and Central America. The continent also encompasses several territories and possessions such as Greenland. The United States dominates the region, especially in the area of communication law and policy, with Canada next in line. Except for Cuba, all of the countries in the region are democracies, with most of the legal systems based on the US system, English common law, or French civil law. All of the countries have constitutions that protect the right of freedom of expression. The extent of the right in practice, however, varies. In the 2014 Freedom House classification regarding freedom of the press, 13 of the countries are free (56.5 percent), 7 are partly free (30.5 percent), and 3, Cuba, Honduras and Mexico, are not free.
Communication Management
Authors: Brønn Peggy Simcic
Published: September 2017

For some, communication management is a special way of managing; for others it is the steering of all communications in the context of the organization; for yet others it is the same as → Public Relations (PR), i.e. managing communication itself. This entry features the second approach, i.e., communication management as the steering of all communications in the context of the organization (→ Organizational Communication; Corporate Communication).
Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968
Authors: Simonson Peter , Peters John Durham
Published: September 2017

The international history of communication and media studies has yet to be written. To this point, most histories have been national, with the bulk of attention devoted to North America and western Europe. These emphases are not unwarranted, for the field established itself first on either side of the North Atlantic, was disseminated outward from there, and with a few notable exceptions remains best established in those regions today.
Communication Modes, Asian
Authors: Zhang Yan Bing
Published: September 2017

Communication in its simplest form refers to the ongoing process of sharing and understanding meaning (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts; Communication: History of the Idea). Many intercultural communication problems stem from the different ways that messages are composed, transmitted, and interpreted. Human beings depend on a variety of philosophical, social, psychological, and institutional standards or criteria of conduct to arrive at reasonable, appropriate, and meaningful modes of communication. Asia is very heterogeneous. Each Asian culture has its unique philosophical traditions, ethics, and morals for appropriate social behaviors and conduct. Confucianism, however, is one of the most prevalent practices in Asian cultures. Although communication is unique within each Asian culture, systematic similarities in communication (e.g., indirect, implicit, polite, and formal communication) have been observed across the Asian cultures (Gao et al. 1996).
Communication Modes, Western
Authors: Baldwin John R.
Published: September 2017

An understanding of values and worldviews can greatly inform our understanding of the modes of both face‐to‐face and mediated communication in the so‐called western world. The terms “eastern” and “western” are problematic. Stevenson (1994, 178), for example, classifies Japanese media systems under his rubric of Western mass media. However, for want of alternatives, these terms will be used in this essay.
Communication Professions and Academic Research
Authors: O'Donnell Penny
Published: September 2017

Despite a common interest in communicative activity, mass communication professionals and communication scholars have long been at odds with each other. Scholars argue that media performance can only be enhanced by professionalization of the workforce and the self‐knowledge generated from systematic, criteria‐based analysis and assessment. They have also systematically criticized a great deal of mass media content since its origins. Conversely, communication professionals tend to disagree not by engaging in debate with scholars but rather by simply ignoring their work: the vast majority of academic literature from communication studies and cognate disciplines goes unread by media practitioners (Walker 2000). This is not to say that journalists and other media professionals are anti‐intellectual. Rather, as sociologist Max Weber argued in 1918, problems arise in understanding a key media occupation like political journalism because the special talent, or what he called the “genius,” of journalists is rarely acknowledged, much less understood (Weber 2001). Consequently, wide discrepancies arise between practitioner and academic accounts of media practice, performance, and change.
Communication Technology and Development
Authors: Hudson Heather E.
Published: September 2017

Information is critical to the social and economic activities that comprise the development process. Communication technology as a means of sharing information is not simply a connection between people, but a link in the chain of the development process itself (→ Development Communication → Technology and Communication). In general, the ability to access and share information can contribute to the development process by improving:
Communication Technology Standards
Authors: Hawkins Richard
Published: September 2017

Communication technology standards are technical specifications that enable technological components from different suppliers to work together within a given communication system. Some standards refer to the physical interfaces between network and terminal equipment. Others refer to logical elements expressed in algorithms and embodied in software. In digital systems, many standards involve both physical and logical elements: a standardized physical interface is supported by standardized software elements. Standards are essential to telecommunication, broadcasting, and computer networks. More recently they have become crucial elements in the integration of digital networking and services environments.
Communicator Style
Authors: Nussbaum Jon F.
Published: September 2017

Communicator style has been conceptualized by Robert Norton (1978, 99) “to mean the way one verbally and paraverbally interacts to signal how literal meaning should be taken, interpreted, filtered, or understood.” Norton was influenced by well over 2,000 years of scholarly writings concentrating upon speech, linguistic, and writing styles, by the soft magic skills of magicians (Norton 1981), and by such prominent social scientists as Leary (1957), Schutz (1958), Bales (1970), and Sandell (1977), all of whom mentioned or alluded to communication styles within their theoretical writings. Perhaps he was most influenced by the work of Bateson (1972) and those scholars and therapists who belonged or were in some way connected to the “interactional view of human behavior” (Wilder & Weakland 1981).
Community Media
Authors: Kivikuru Ullamaija
Published: September 2017

The concept of community media is understood as referring to small media institutions, often specifically to radio stations established in the so‐called developing countries. These media have become ever more popular in recent years. However, the history of the concept is considerably older and more complicated (→ Development Communication; Rural Development; Radio for Development).
Consensus‐Oriented Public Relations
Authors: Burkart Roland
Published: September 2017

Consensus‐oriented public relations (COPR) is a concept for planning and evaluating → Public Relations (PR). Especially in situations with a high chance of conflict, companies and organizations are forced to present good arguments for communicating their interests and ideas – in other words, they must make the public understand their actions (→ Corporate Communication; Crisis Communication). Therefore, in the viewpoint of COPR, understanding plays an important role within the PR management process (Burkart 2004).
Control and Authority in Organizations
Authors: Barker James R.
Published: September 2017

Although scholars take differing perspectives on the purposes and functions of control and authority, the definitions of these two terms are quite clear. In an organization, to “control” means to constrain work processes, human activity, and environmental events so that the organization creates value. That is, a refrigerator‐manufacturing business must control work processes so that it can produce refrigerators that work correctly. The company must control human activity so that the production staff actually gets the refrigerators produced on time, and the company must control the flow of new technology from the environment so that it can incorporate new innovations into its production.
Conversation Analysis
Authors: Beach Wayne A.
Published: September 2017

Conversation Analysis (CA) is a primary mode of inquiry for understanding how people talk with one another in everyday casual encounters, as well as in more specialized institutional settings involving bureaucratic representatives (e.g., medical, legal, educational, corporate, government). Research materials are naturally occurring audio and video recordings, and carefully produced transcriptions, of a broad range of interactions comprising the social worlds of diverse speakers, relationships, activities, and events. Examples are: telephone conversations and face‐to‐face interactions among family members, friends, acquaintances, and service providers such as telephone emergency hotlines; interactions among young children, parents, and daycare providers; patient–provider interactions (→ Doctor–Patient Talk); news and broadcast interviews (→ Broadcast Talk). Giving priority to recordings and transcriptions is based on the recognition that detailed features and contingencies of interactional events cannot be intuited, nor adequately reconstructed, through field notes, interviews, or other forms of self‐reported information. Interactions that are “naturally occurring” are those that would take place whether or not a recording device were present, and are not significantly influenced by researchers prompting the origination, content, or length of the social occasion.
Co‐Orientation Model of Public Relations
Authors: Verčič Dejan
Published: September 2017

Public relations (PR) is a strategic management function responsible for cultivation of good relations between an organization and its strategic constituencies (stakeholders and publics; → Stakeholder Theory; Grunig 2006). The ultimate goal of → Public Relations is social harmony. The co‐orientation model of public relations assumes that organizations prefer harmony to conflict and that they can use communication for that purpose (→ Organization–Public Relationships; Consensus‐Oriented Public Relations).
Co‐Orientation Model of Public Relations
Authors: Verčič Dejan
Published: September 2017

Public relations (PR) is a strategic management function responsible for cultivation of good relations between an organization and its strategic constituencies (stakeholders and publics; → Stakeholder Theory; Grunig 2006). The ultimate goal of → public relations is social harmony. The co‐orientation model of public relations assumes that organizations prefer harmony to conflict and that they can use communication for that purpose (→ Organization–Public Relationships; Consensus‐Oriented Public Relations).
Corporate Communication
Authors: Cornelissen Joep P.
Published: September 2017

Perhaps the best way to define corporate communication is to look at the way in which the function developed in companies. Until the 1980s, professionals responsible for communication within their organizations had used the term →  “public relations” to describe communication with stakeholders (a term still used in academic circles across the world). This public relations (PR) function, which was tactical in most companies, largely consisted of communication to the press. When other stakeholders, internal and external to the company, started to demand more information from the company, communication professionals within organizations subsequently started to look at communication as being more than just PR. The roots of the new corporate communication function started to take hold. This new function came to incorporate a whole range of specialized disciplines including → corporate design (→ 
Design
), corporate → advertising, employee or internal communication, issues and crisis management (→ Issue Management; Crisis Communication), → media relations, investor relations, change communication, and → public affairs. An important characteristic of the new function was that it consolidated a range of communication disciplines and expertise into a single corporate communication or corporate affairs department. This department has a single mandate that is focused on the organization as a whole and on the important task of how an organization is presented to all its key stakeholders, both internal and external (→  Stakeholder Theory).
Cross‐Media Production
Authors: Domingo David
Published: September 2017

Mainly used to refer to news, cross‐media production is the coordinated reporting of events in several media outlets (press, radio, television, websites, mobile apps). The concept can also apply to other media products systematically designed for and delivered in different media formats. Practitioners and scholars use the term
convergence
to refer to the process of developing cross‐media strategies in newsrooms.
Cross‐Ownership
Authors: Edge Marc
Published: September 2017

Cross‐ownership of media occurs when a person or company owns outlets in more than one medium (i.e., → newspapers, → radio, and → television) in the same geographical market. It is a business strategy driven by advances in technology and also a public policy issue due to concerns over increased concentration of ownership (→ Media Policy). Cross‐ownership is aimed at achieving economies of scope across multiple media. Costs may be reduced through the “synergy” of sharing of staff and content between outlets in different media, and revenues may be increased through the sale of multimedia advertising packages.
Cultural Studies: Feminist Popular Culture
Authors: Arthurs Jane
Published: September 2017

The question of what counts as “feminist popular culture” arises from an engagement with foundational debates within → cultural studies as to the primary site for cultural reproduction and contestation (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). These debates are reflected in the competing definitions of → “popular culture” that circulate in the literature, namely: (1) the ideological products of mainstream commercial culture addressed to the mass audience, (2) an alternative, negotiated culture based on a “lived” sensibility of subordination and marginalization, and (3) an oppositional culture developed through the political consciousness necessary for a radical critique of the status quo (→ Critical Theory).
Culture and Communication, Ethnographic Perspectives on
Authors: Carbaugh Donal
Published: September 2017

Studies of culture have been conducted in a variety of productive ways in several academic fields; one might say the same about studies of communication, while also saying as much for ethnographic studies (→ Cultural Patterns and Communication). Adding this variety, that is, all three of these, together can create an unwieldy assortment of theories and research reports. Saying something about them all would be a difficult task, indeed. However, examining a subset of these that stand at the nexus of all three concerns, that is, identifying studies of communication that highlight cultural variability, and do so ethnographically, is a more manageable pursuit, and one that this entry undertakes, with special attention to intergroup and intercultural dynamics. It will be shown that this type of study has provided a very detailed and deep look at actual intercultural encounters.
Czech Republic: Media System
Authors: Köpplová Barbara , Jirák Jan
Published: September 2017

The Czech Republic is located in the central part of Europe, with over 10 million inhabitants, Czech as the main official language, and a two‐chamber parliamentary system. The state was founded after the split of former Czechoslovakia in 1993, which had belonged to the Soviet bloc after World War II. The current media system, established and developing since 1989, can be characterized as a liberal, pluralistic system operating within the framework of constitutionally guaranteed freedom of expression. The media in the country operate in a market‐driven environment with no or very limited regulation regarding both content and ownership. Audiovisual media operate within a dual system of both public‐service media and private (mostly commercial) broadcasting. The system is close to the so‐called “democratic corporatist model” (Hallin & Mancini 2004). The typical characteristics of the system are a high level of both horizontal and vertical concentration of ownership, with wide influence of foreign owners, especially in print media (→ Concentration in Media Systems); a strong tendency toward commercialization (with a remarkable shift toward → tabloidization and → infotainment); a comparatively weak and politically dependent position of public‐service media; and dynamic development of Internet media.
Communication as an Academic Field: Iran
Authors: Mowlana Hamid
Published: September 2017

Communication studies in Iran is a hybrid field combining both the western and Islamic traditions. In its Islamic context, it focuses on a process of
tabligh
or propagation rooted in Islamic theology, philosophy, rhetoric (→ Rhetorical Studies), poetics, → linguistics, and speech. It deals with the traditional channels of communication peculiar to Islam and especially Iran, such as the mosque, Friday congregations, bazaar, and public gatherings in such places as the
husseinieh
,
hey'at
, and
doreh
. The mosque serves not only for daily prayers but also for spreading news and opinion and as a forum for political decision‐making. This form of communication, called
khutbah
, is largely based on the Islamic tradition of combining political and religious discourse. (→ Communication Modes: Muslim)
Deliberativeness in Political Communication
Authors: Wessler Hartmut
Published: September 2017

Deliberativeness denotes a specific quality of political communication that centers around argumentative exchange in a climate of mutual respect and civility. Empirically, deliberativeness is a variable feature of political debate or discussion. From a normative point of view, the standard of deliberativeness can be used to evaluate political communication processes and settings, and to suggest possible ways to improve them. Deliberativeness has been studied in very different communicative settings, including parliamentary debate (Steiner et al. 2004), news media content and television talk shows (Ferree et al. 2002; Wessler & Schultz 2007), online discussion forums (Price et al. 2002), civil society organizations (Ryfe 2002), as well as everyday political talk among citizens (Mutz 2006). When deliberative discussion is not confined to arcane settings, such as decision‐making behind closed doors, or private settings, such as the family, it is also called public deliberation or public discourse (for an overview of the empirical literature, see Delli Carpini et al. 2004; Ryfe 2005).
Dependency Theories
Authors: Straubhaar Joseph
Published: September 2017

Even after they formally become independent, many developing countries still depend on the industrialized world for many resources, including technology, financing, models, and even media content, such as films or television programs. This is a structural legacy of imperialism, with which many countries with former colonies have struggled. Only a few countries have completely overcome it (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories).
Development Communication: Asia
Authors: Dissayanake Wimal
Published: September 2017

Development and communication in Asia is a vast and complicated topic for two main reasons. First, Asia comprises a substantial portion of the earth's land mass and population. Second, the direction as well as the velocity of economic development in Asian countries varies profoundly. Economists have divided Asia into five categories, including Japan, People's Republic of China, East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. The term “East Asia” here refers to the newly industrialized economies of Hong Kong, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan. South Asia consists of Afghanistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam form Southeast Asia. This categorization is premised not necessarily on topography, but on such important economic variables as per capita income, structure of the economy, openness to trade, engagement with the imperatives of globalization, and policy directions.
Development, Gender, and Communication
Authors: Steeves H. Leslie
Published: September 2017

Development communication addresses issues of gender in a variety of ways. Communication projects designed to address social problems, such as health, agriculture, population, nutrition, education, democracy, and other topics, may either target women or consider gender as a way of understanding the social context in which the issue might be best addressed (→ Development Communication Campaigns). In addition, → development communication also refers to the way that → development discourse communicates particular assumptions made about groups of people, such as women and men, as responsible for social problems and subsequent change. The history of development communication has transitioned from no attention to women, to a recognition of women in development (WID), to gender and development (GAD), to more recent concerns raised that are pertinent to global feminism.
Developmental Communication
Authors: Nussbaum Jon F. , Fisher Carla L.
Published: September 2017

In the last two decades of the twentieth century, communication scholars began to adopt a perspective that recognizes the dynamic and evolving nature of behavior. Termed “developmental” or “life‐span” communication, this approach mirrors its sister disciplines, psychology and sociology, in the study of change across time. Communication scholars became interested in this perspective after the 1979 National Communication Association, led by Carl Carmichael and Robert Hawkins, included a caucus on communication and aging (Nussbaum & Friedrich 2005). Just over 10 years later, notable scholars including Nikolas Coupland, Howard Giles, John Wiemann, Jon F. Nussbaum, and Mark Knapp responded to this surge of interest with a summer conference, a Fulbright International Colloquium, and numerous books that not only showcased a developmental approach to communication scholarship but illuminated the need to more fully appreciate change when examining communicative behavior (Nussbaum et al. 2002; Nussbaum & Friedrich 2005). To date, developmental communication research – with interdisciplinary studies in relationships, media effects, entertainment, education, and health – has produced invaluable knowledge on the individual, relational, and societal levels of how communicative behavior changes over time. Developmental communication has become an increasingly important part of the communication discipline.
Emic vs Etic Research
Authors: Lindlof Thomas R.
Published: September 2017

Derived from anthropological research,
emic
and
etic
describe two broad approaches to analyzing language and culture. The emic–etic duality has influenced the ways in which fields as diverse as personality psychology, consumer behavior, organizational science, and intercultural communication study cultural systems. The terms also refer to distinctive research strategies, particularly in the context of ethnographic fieldwork (→ Field Research).
Fourth Estate
Authors: Thussu Daya Kishan
Published: September 2017

The term “fourth estate” has been used to refer to the press since at least the early 1800s. It has become shorthand to denote the role of the public media as a pillar on which the smooth functioning of a democratic society rests, together with the other three estates – legislative, executive, and judiciary. A free press is also a counterbalance to these powers, a watchdog guarding the public interest, and providing a forum for public debate – a public sphere – that underpins the processes of democracy.
Free Flow of Information
Authors: McAnany Emile G.
Published: September 2017

The free flow of information has been a key policy as well as a political aspect in the US government's approach to → international communication since World War II. There has often been a conflation of the term between a principle of democratic governance found in many national constitutions and United Nations agencies' charters (→ UNESCO), and the political principle of promoting free trade status to the export of news and entertainment content across national boundaries (→ Cultural Products as Tradable Services). The historical review of the term “free flow of information” made by Schiller (1981) showed that the US Associated Press (AP) news agency had for decades before World War II argued against the European cartel of British, French, and German → news agencies that controlled the dissemination of international → news. At the end of World War II, the US emerged as the dominant economic and military power and began to promote the free flow policy as a universal principle of democracy for other nations. The US was among those nations that proposed and approved the inclusion of rights to free speech and information flow in the United Nations charter. As the Cold War got started in the late 1940s, the issue of free flow took on a whole new character, making it into an enduring political factor that included both the issue of government control of information and the export of news and entertainment to other countries.
Fundraising
Authors: Kelly Kathleen S.
Published: September 2017

Fundraising is an organizational function and high‐demand occupation unique to nonprofits, or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Although the term
fundraising
sometimes is used to describe the act of raising capital for for‐profit businesses, and fundraising is conducted to finance electoral campaigns for government positions, the function is identified most commonly with raising gifts for charitable nonprofit organizations. Thus, this entry concentrates on what most accurately can be called “philanthropic fundraising.”
Gender and Journalism
Authors: de Bruin Marjan
Published: September 2017

Gender and journalism became a popular area of study in the mid‐1990s when gender in media studies gained recognition as a powerful variable defining feminine and masculine roles and behavior and structuring everyday life and work. Earlier feminist media studies had paid attention to women in journalism and their peculiar position in a male‐dominated professional world with strong preconceptions about women journalists (Van Zoonen 1994). The growing realization that culturally determined gender role expectations exert influence led to the conceptual shift that added a
gender
perspective to journalism studies. Despite being common for years in gender studies (→ Feminist and Gender Studies), this perspective had not fully entered some fields such as media studies or organizational studies.
Germany: Media System
Authors: Wilke Jürgen
Published: September 2017

Germany is the most populous country in Europe, with 81million inhabitants. Since 1990, it has been a federal republic consisting of 16 states. Until then the country had been separated into two states as a result of World War II (1939–1945). Next to the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), established in the western occupational zones, there existed the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the territory of the former Soviet zone of occupation. Through reunification in 1990, five new federal states were added.
Grassroots Media
Authors: Brooten Lisa
Published: September 2017

Grassroots media are small‐scale, developed by and accessible to members of a local community or group, and conceptualized as a key tool in the process of social change (→ Community Media). They have developed out of concerns with problematic representations of women and other marginalized peoples in mainstream media, as well as limited → access to the media and political participation for marginalized groups, especially women, around the world. Women's movements worldwide have thus worked to develop grassroots media that are conceptualized and based locally and that operate very differently from mainstream commercial or state‐run media. The goals of feminist grassroots media are varied, but generally involve the desire to strengthen the self‐confidence of women and other marginalized peoples, and to empower them to challenge, change, and take charge of the media and their representations. Another increasing concern encouraging the development of grassroots media in the era of global capital is the protection and preservation of local cultures and cultural diversity.