bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interface Design Considered as Failure Analysis
Authors: Hewett Thomas T.
Published: January 2012

This paper explores some of the implications of comparing interface design with engineering design, arguing that such a comparison has typically been more misleading than fruitful. The problem, however, lies not in the comparison but in the fact that the model of engineering design most often used is an idealized one which is not representative of the actual history of the process of engineering design. When engineering design is viewed from a more realistic perspective it can be seen that design failures are both inevitable and instructive. Similarly, it can be seen that interface design, human factors, and psychology in general are very often informed more by analysis of failure than by success.
Target Size, Location, Sampling Point and Instructional Set: More Effects on Touch Panel Operation
Authors: Beringer Dennis B.
Published: January 2012

Accuracy of input using touch panel devices is affected by a number of variables which include device type, target size, and target location. It was also hypothesized that instructional set should influence performance. A screening experiment using a central-composite design (CCD) was conducted to further examine the effects of target position and size upon accuracy of the touch input. Results suggest that error for right-handed users is least near the resting position of the hand (lower right corner of display) and that shortest response times could also be obtained there. Variations in size were more likely to affect error in the y axis and quadratic effects were present. It was also found that although instructions requiring higher precision of input from the operator did not substantially affect bias error, they did produce a reduction in variable error. It is recommended that for applications having established key input areas, positions along the lower and right-hand borders of the control/display unit should be used to minimize activation time and error. Use of the lower border exclusively can accomodate users with either a right-hand or left-hand preference. Some comments are also provided on the limitations which bound the interpretation of results in several studies and inferences thus drawn.
Human-Computer Interface Quality: Part 1–Process or Product?
Authors: Schwalm Robert C.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes an on-going project to study and improve human-computer interface quality. The purpose of the project is to identify and acquire the tools and job aids needed to support high-quality human-computer interface (HCI) design. The objective is to integrate these tools in a cohesive, formal design process. The design process, supported by a suite of integrated tools, will create a design environment that promotes designer effectiveness and productivity and ensures the design of high-quality user interfaces. Formalizing the HCI design process and integrating the support tools are necessary tasks because user interface quality is not yet directly quantifiable. Quality of process is the best predictor of quality of product.

This paper specifically describes efforts to define and measure human-computer interface quality. This paper also presents the results of a survey of human factors specialists to identify and prioritize the tools and job aids needed to be more effective and more productive in the design of high-quality user interfaces. Finally, the paper briefly addresses the need for a formalized HCI design process and integration of supporting tools and job aids.
Target Acquisition Performance Using a Head Mounted Cursor Control Device and a Stylus with Digitizing Tablet
Authors: Spitz Gabriel
Published: January 2012

The ability of users to control cursor movement by tilting and nodding their head from side to side and front to back was examined in the present study. Ten non-handicapped subjects performed a target acquisition task with a head-based cursor control device and a stylus with a digitizing tablet. A similar pattern of acquisition times was found for both devices, with the stylus based performance being about 2.5 times faster than head based performance. Acquisition time with both devices was significantly affected by target size and movement amplitude and could be well described by Fitts law. Acquisition times were also affected by target location. For the head-based control device it took subjects significantly longer to position the cursor in the horizontal axis than in the vertical axis, while for the stylus forward movement of the hand (up on the display) took longer. Several interpretations for these results as well as some practical implications are provided.
Comparing Touchscreen to Speech Input in the Control of a Simple Batch Process
Authors: Valk Mary Ann
Published: January 2012

Thirty subjects used a process control simulation to make six batches of ice cream each, using touchscreen input three times and speech input three times. Touchscreen and speech inputs were statistically compared for time to task completion, process control related errors, wrong input mode errors, input-device-related errors, total errors, and opinions about preferences and feelings of control.

A touchscreen is the recommended operator input device for control of simple batch processes, based on the results of this experiment.
Consumer Products and Cumulative Trauma Disorders
Authors: Frank Alan S. , Drury Professor Colin
Published: January 2012

This panel focuses on the relationship between consumer products and CTD. Between the ages of 18 to 64, more people are disabled from musculoskeletal problems than any other category of disorder. Many of these disabilities are Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTD). They result from frequent, extreme joint movements and forces.

CTD's develop with the use of many different products. Computer terminals are often associated with Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS), one type of CTD. However common household products have also been associated with CTD's. Knives, commonly found in kitchens, are also used in the meat packing industry. When used in an industrial setting, such knives are associated with CTD's. Scissors are used in the garment industry. Under conditions of high frequency use, they are associated with CTD's. Many power tools, used by both professionals and amateurs, are inappropriately used for high frequency tasks. Finally, recreational products have long been associated with injuries such as Tennis Elbow and Golfer's Elbow. The panel will discuss attributes of such products that create the potential for a CTD type injury. In addition, the panel will discuss how recreational and work activities interact to aggravate CTD's.

The discussion will include the costs, in terms of medical expenses and lost productivity, and the prevention. Special attention will be paid to the design of products and work places to reduce the incidence and severity of such disorders.
Human Factors and Engineering Design High School Summer Workshop
Authors: Gill Rick , Dingus Thomas
Published: January 2012

Enrollment trends and demographics predict that the US will experience a shortfall of over 500,000 engineers within the next twenty years. The engineering community, industry and academia alike, must work together to develop programs that will motivate young men and women to pursue technical careers. The purpose of this paper is to review an annual two week high school summer workshop developed by the University of Idaho College of Engineering. Each summer selected high school students live on campus for two weeks and attend specially developed engineering classes on topics such as Engineering Mechanics, Computer Aided Design, and Human Factors and Engineering Design. Working in teams of 3 to 4, the students utilize these newly developed skills in order to solve a challenging real-world human factors engineering design problem. Student fees for the 1990 workshop were $350 which included room and board as well as university registration for two semester credit hours. Industrial and private donations helped to defray the instructional cost and to offer significant scholarship support. Student response to the workshop has been overwhelmingly positive. Suggestions for developing similar programs at other Universities are offered.
How Much Time do Educators Actually Spend Teaching?: (The Measurement of Faculty Productivity)
Authors: Serger Caroline M. , Freivalds Andris
Published: January 2012

The measurement of white collar productivity is a difficult task. This paper demonstrates one approach in defining the workload for university faculty. Even though they are educators, only 27% of their time is spent teaching or advising students (1.4%). Most is spent for research (45.4%) or service work (26.2%). Unfortunately, the usefulness of the workload model is reduced because of poor estimates of time by the faculty and the high variability found between faculty member workload estimates.
The Human Factors of Strategic Behavior
Authors: Moray Neville , Hart Sandra G.
Published: January 2012

This Panel will discuss concepts, plans and recent research into the nature of strategic behavior. Strategic behavior is defined as behavior, typical of “real” tasks, where the operator has considerable freedom to chose different ways of performing a set of tasks each of which is a component of his or her overall goal. The overall aim of the Panel will be to define the prerequisites for a program of research in this area.
Panel Discussion of “HRA — Where Shouldst Thou Turn?”: A Controversial View
Authors: Schurman Donald L.
Published: January 2012

The area of Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) has become increasingly important as both the nuclear industry and other high-technology industries have become conscious of the need for risk management and risk analysis. Techniques for performing and validating HRA should clearly be subjects of Human Factors Test and Evaluation attention. However, these issues have received less attention than they probably deserve from the Human Factors Society, despite the key contributions to the field of such HFS Test and Evaluation Group members as Dr. Alan Swain and Dr. David Meister.

Issues that should be of interest to the HFS membership were recently raised in a white paper, recently published in “Reliability Engineering and System Safety” as an editorial. This editorial, titled “HRA — Where Shouldst Thou Turn?”, was written by Mr. Ed Dougherty, an HRA practitioner. The editorial takes to task (“pillories”, might not be too strong a term) almost every major technique and method for HRA currently in use, including his own. In addition, he castigates the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission attitudes and philosophies toward HRA use. Due to the controversial nature of the editorial, the journal editor, Dr. Apostolaikis, provided an opportunity for response to some fifteen practitioners/theorists of those mentioned. Some of these responders included such HFS members as Alan Swain, David Woods, Barry Kantowitz, Thomas Ryan, and Jens Rasmussen. However, these responders had no chance to review each others responses, nor has Mr. Dougherty had any opportunity to respond to the responses.
Regression Modeling of Spinal Forces during Constrained Lifting Postures
Authors: Hamrick Christopher A. , Gallagher Sean , Love Arnold C.
Published: January 2012

Back injuries are the leading cause of lost work time in the U.S. coal mining industry. Miners frequently perform labor in constrained postures, namely stooped and kneeling, due to low seam heights. This work uses regression models coupled with a biomechanical model to predict forces and torques in the spine during lifting tasks performed in constrained postures. Twelve males performed tasks consisting of symmetric lifting, asymmetric lifting, symmetric lowering, and asymmetric lowering. Independent variables included posture (stooped or kneeling), height of lift, and weight of lift. Dependent variables included estimates of spinal compressive forces, spinal shear forces, and torques about the spine. Regression models were developed which predicted the spinal loads based upon the statistically significant independent variables and interactions. These regression models can be used to estimate spinal loads during actual lifting tasks, and these loads can be compared to known limits to determine the relative risk associated with a particular task. In this way, the models can be used to better design manual materials handling tasks that are performed in restricted postures.
The Role of Arm and Body Posture in Force Exertion
Authors: Haslegrave Christine M.
Published: January 2012

Little information is available in the literature on postures adopted for forceful tasks, particularly in industrial jobs such as maintenance where operators may be working in awkward or confined spaces. The present study was undertaken to show the effects of work location and reach distance on posture, and to identify factors which determine the choice of posture. The results have shown that the posture of the arm and shoulder is critical in the transmission of high forces, and involves the use of various postural strategies to maintain the stability of the joints of the arm.
Total Quality Management within a Navy Organization: Assessing the Transformation Process
Authors: McDaniel Delora M. , Culbertson Amy L. , Diamond Tom L. , Doherty Linda M.
Published: January 2012

A quiet revolution is taking place in the way American industries are conducting business. Since 1980, when NBC aired its white paper If Japan Can… Why Can't We?, businesses across the nation have begun to look at their productivity in a new light. Both public and private sector organizations are attempting a transformation of their business operation from a traditional perspective to a quality oriented perspective. Literature is explored which clearly supports organizational assessment as part of an organizational transformation. The Survey of Organizational Climate was administered to a Navy headquarters organization involved in implementing Total Quality Management (TQM). Survey procedures, results and discussion are presented.
Social Influence and Preference of Direct-Manipulation and Keyboard-Command Computer Interfaces
Authors: Wogalter Michael S. , Frei Richard L.
Published: January 2012

Direct-manipulation and command-based computer interfaces have each found their own following among microcomputer users. This study explores some of the differences between these two groups of computer users. Participants completed a questionnaire that requested their microcomputer usage and ownership, usage and preference of various command methods and pointing devices, the microcomputers most of their friends use, the microcomputer they would be most willing to purchase next, and their preference for several models of microcomputers. The results showed that participants preferred pointing devices (e.g., mouse) compared to other input methods (e.g., arrow keys) regardless of their prior usage. They tended to use an interface similar to that of their friends' and they reported greater willingness to purchase a computer with an interface similar to the one they most often use. In general, the results suggest that social influence and interface familiarity are important factors in determining which interface people choose to use. Being surrounded by others who use a similar computer interface eases the burden (in terms of effort, time, and expense) of obtaining relevant computer information. An implication of this work is that these variables may hinder approval and acceptance of improved computer interface designs offered by human factors specialists.
The Effect of Law and Training on All-Terrain Vehicle Riders' Safety-Related Behaviors
Authors: Foley James P. , Lehto Mark R.
Published: January 2012

A field study of ATV operators was conducted in 1988 and 1989. Observations and interviews of riders in six states determined the effect of law and training on rider behaviors. In areas where helmet use was mandatory, use increased by a factor of 15.2 over areas where it was not mandatory. Training was found to increase helmet use by a factor of 4.3, independently of the law effect.
Measure of Work Performance Decrement Due to Respirators
Authors: Zimmerman Neil J. , Eberts Cindelyn , Salvendy Gavriel , McCabe George
Published: January 2012

Possible work decrements caused by respirator usage were examined. A battery of physical, cognitive and psychomotor tasks were used to investigate the effects of respirator wear on twelve subjects. A repeated measures experimental design was used to study the effects of three types of respirators: a disposable dust mask, an air purifying half-mask and a full-face airline. Performance while wearing a mask was compared to the control condition without a respirator. The psychomotor task test methods appear to be the best indicators of respiratory effects on work performance decrement. A steadiness task showed a 31% decrement for the full-face respirator. The One-Hole Test, which includes a number of measurement variables, indicated an average movement time decrement of 16%. The other One-Hole Test indicators also showed decrements, but were lower and not statistically significant. The results from the physical work task of bicycle riding indicated approximately a 10% increase in oxygen consumption with the half and full face masks, supporting previous physiological findings. The results indicate that the respirators did not significantly affect the performance of cognitive tasks. In general, respirators can be shown to produce an increase in oxygen consumption for physical tasks and decrements in psychomotor performance with regard to hand movement speed and steadiness.
Human Factors Design of an AIDS Prevention Pamphlet
Authors: Wiklund Michael E. , Loring Beth A.
Published: January 2012

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) can be contracted by persons who are transfused with blood that contains by HIV the AIDS virus. As a result, in addition to testing all blood for the AIDS virus, blood collection organizations have sought ways to prevent individuals from giving blood if they (1) know that they carry the virus or (2) are at high risk of carrying the virus by virtue of their behavior. In this paper, we discuss how we followed a human factors approach to the design of a pamphlet that uses plain English and pictographs to encourage high-risk individuals to exclude themselves from the donation process. To develop the pictographs, we followed an iterative design process that involved user testing of 69 alternative designs, leading to a final set of 13 pictographs. Twenty subjects participated in the tests from which we concluded that subjects preferred the more representational pictographs; pictographs employing a cartoon or line drawing style.
The Effects of Raised Lane Markers on the Accident Involvement of Older and Alcohol-Impaired Drivers
Authors: Shinar David , Fell James C.
Published: January 2012

Raised lane markers have been installed in several segments of roadways in the U.S. in order to improve the conspicuity of roadway delineation, and provide drivers with additional non-visual feedback when crossing lanes. These improvements may be most beneficial to visually impaired drivers: older drivers and alcohol intoxicated drivers. To assess these effects, a special study was conducted using the national Fatal Accident Reporting System (FARS). The relative proportions of alcohol intoxicated and older drivers involved in fatal crashes on roadways with raised lane markers was compared to the proportion of alcohol impaired and older drivers involved in fatal crashes on roadways without the raised markers. The role of visual conspicuity was assessed by contrasting the effects of nighttime vs. daytime, and wet vs. dry roads. Despite the extensive data base, no effects of raised lane markers were found on the probabilities of involvement in fatal crashes of either alcohol intoxicated or elderly drivers. These results do not preclude benefits of raised markers for less severe accidents.
Drivers as Decision Makers at Rail-Highway Grade Crossings
Authors: Lerner Neil D. , Ratte' Donna J.
Published: January 2012

A recent review of driver behavior at rail-highway crossings (Lerner, Ratte', and Walker, 1989) revealed a number of decision making problems faced by motorists as they negotiate the area of an at-grade crossing. It was also noted that many in the safety community hold an unsympathetic and counterproductive “blame the victim” attitude and an apparent double standard in interpreting driver actions. Without denying the responsibility of the driver in vehicle-train collisions, this paper argues that there are important human factors issues that contribute to driver error in decision making. Fourteen such factors are identified and discussed and implications for rail-highway safety are considered.
Pre-Flight Risk Assessment in Emergency Medical Service (EMS) Helicopters
Authors: Shively Robert J.
Published: January 2012

The EMS industry has been the subject of several television and newspaper articles (Harvey and Jensen, 1987) which emphasized the negative aspects, (e.g., fatal accidents and high accident rates), rather than the life saving services performed. The accident rate of the EMS industry is five times as high as that of other civil helicopters. This high accident rate coupled with the dramatic rise in the number of programs (from a single service at its inception in 1972 to over 180 today, Spray, 1987), prompted the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) to study the accidents that occurred between May 11, 1978 and December 3, 1986 (NTSB, 1988). The NTSB report concluded that “Sound pilot judgment is central to safe flight operations.” They further stated that “… factors unique to EMS helicopter operations—such as the influence of the mission itself, program competition, and EMS program management perspectives—can drastically influence pilot judgment during the EMS mission.” One of the most difficult decisions that a pilot must make is whether to accept or decline a mission. A pre-flight risk assessment system (SAFE) was developed at NASA-Ames Research Center for civil EMS operations to aid pilots in making this decision objectively. The ability of the SAFE system to predict risk profiles of missions was tested at an EMS operator. The results of this field study demonstrated the the usefulness of SAFE was highly dependent on the type of mission flown.
Workstation Design for ATC Systems
Authors: Benel Russell A. , Adams Louis M.
Published: January 2012

Developing a workstation for the next generation Air Traffic Control system (AAS) represents a significant design challenge. Not only are a large number of potentially conflicting requirements identified for this workstation, but several unique features of those requirements exacerbate the potential problems. For example, a large (20 × 20 inch) CRT is the primary visual display. This must move to both an inline and wraparound console configuration. The system must accommodate a large range of user sizes and be acceptable to approximately 16,000 air traffic controllers. A team of controllers has participated in the iterative design effort through reviews, demonstrations and hands-on evaluation. The key feature of all design activities is the narrowing of alternatives as the design approaches production release. This paper addresses this process and suggests how this process may be managed to ensure a satisfactory outcome.
Decision Making in an Emergency: When Information is not Enough
Authors: Wheeler William A. , Bolton Patricia A. , Sanquist Thomas F.
Published: January 2012

An emergency, whether in a nuclear power plant, a stock brokerage house, or a battlefield, requires rapid and appropriate decision making. Making a decision under the stress and confusion of a rapidly changing environment requires the availability of information. Before an emergency, sophisticated systems ensure that decision makers have as much information as possible. After an emergency, these same decision makers often complain that they did not have the information they needed to make good decisions. Analysis of simulated and actual emergencies suggests that adequate information is frequently available to the decision maker. The perception of a need for more and better information must be based on something other than the information itself. Our analysis of several such systems suggest that the inherent characteristics of modern, sophisticated information and communications systems may degrade decision making effectiveness during an emergency in three ways: (1) through decreasing the confidence decision makers have in the accuracy of information provided; (2) through self-reinforcement of information in “looped” systems; and (3) through artificially biasing the information provided the decision maker. This report presents the results of a study and link analyses of decisions made during simulated emergencies involving complex systems. The implications of our findings for the design of emergency management systems will be discussed in the following presentation/paper.
Verbal Protocols as a Research Tool in Human Factors: Panel Discussion
Authors: Deffner Gerhard , Snyder Harry L. , Bittner Alvah C. , Rhenius Detlef , Sanderson Penelope M.
Published: January 2012

Verbal protocols have been used for many years in different research contexts, but there still is no clear consensus about the validity of the technique and methods for maximizing validity in an applied setting; how to standardize the collection and analysis of protocols; and last but certainly not least, whether the resulting data is worth the effort.

This panel discussion is a companion to a symposium at this conference which presents empirical studies and human factors applications of verbal protocol techniques. The panel will focus in more depth on issues raised in that earlier session, with the goal of providing guidance for practical applications of the technique.
Human Factors in the Maintenance and Inspection of Aircraft
Authors: Shepherd William T.
Published: January 2012

Recent accidents and incidents in the world-wide air carrier industry have highlighted the role of aircraft maintenance and inspection in aviation safety. However, aviation human factors research in the past has focused almost exclusively on aircrew and air traffic controller activities. It has become clear that aviation safety relies on a complex interplay of specialists in various disciplines not the least of which are the technicians who diagnose and repair aircraft and their systems. Maintenance technicians are typically members of large industrial organizations subject to problems that beset similar service-oriented industries. Competitive and time pressures abound as well as problems related to selection, training, work environment, job performance aids, and communication. The performance of these specialists is critically bound up with activities of others such as equipment and system designers, technical publication authors, and training providers. The purpose of this symposium is to explore some of the issues which appear to be crucially related to human performance in aircraft maintenance and inspection. The FAA has embarked on a multi-year research program to identify areas where human factors knowledge can lead to significant improvements in safety and to develop or synthesize this knowledge where appropriate.

The first paper (Dr. William Shepherd) will overview some of the maintenance human factors issues of today and the future as well as the research program currently underway at the FAA's Office of Aviation Medicine. The three remaining papers will describe some of the specific activity being conducted within this program. Dr. James Taylor will describe his research related to the organizational psychology of the airline maintenance system. His paper addresses issues of worker-management and inter-department communication along with a variety of “socio-technical” considerations. Dr. Colin Drury will describe the results of an extensive maintenance and inspection task analysis that has been conducted at numerous airline maintenance sites. Dr. William Johnson will present the results of an analysis of industry needs related to the application of new technology to maintenance training.

Dr. Johnson will also present the evolving specifications for an expert system based maintenance training intelligent tutoring system. The integration of the latter three papers will demonstrate that the overall FAA maintenance research program is studying the organization, the job and the person.
Some Pragmatic Issues of Measurement
Authors: Enderwick Thomas P.
Published: January 2012

The pragmatic issues in this paper are varied. The topics cover the users of human factors measures, various ways of how we report human factors findings, and a suggested approach for assessing the operator's contribution to system performance.
Human Factors Measurement: Nature, Problems, and Strengthening
Authors: Bittner Alvah C.
Published: January 2012

The nature, problems, and strengthening of human factors measurement are considered in this report. Eight HF problems are identified that center on the multifaceted concerns of its specialists and the divergent goals of its researchers and practitioners. Five steps are offered for overcoming these problems: (1) Development of comprehensive models of individual-system performance; (2) Development of models of group-system performance; (3) Encouragement of individual- and group-system model development, validations, and comparisons by the HFS; (4) Encouragement of reports of operational systems development with emphases on validations of laboratory results by the HFS; and (5) Encouragement of methodological studies by the HFS.
Cognitive Task Analysis for the Real(-time) World
Authors: Schlager Mark S. , Means Barbara , Roth Chris
Published: January 2012

As part of a review and evaluation of the Federal Aviation Administration's air traffic control (ATC) training program, we tested whether cognitive task analysis techniques could help identify the knowledge, skills, and strategies used by proficient controllers, at a level appropriate for deriving instructional objectives. Our approach involved modifying commonly-used methods (e.g., interviews and think-aloud protocols) for use in a real-time, real-world task domain. Expert controllers were videotaped performing realistic ATC scenarios. We then elicited “play-by-play” analysis of the scenario from other expert controllers and retrospective protocols from the subjects. Other techniques were used to obtain convergent data on controllers' knowledge representation and organization. The methodology was successful in describing several cognitive components of ATC expertise that had previously defied explication at a level of detail appropriate for instruction. We discuss briefly training implications and other ways in which we have used the data.
Analyzing the Cognitive Demands of Problem-Solving Environments: An Approach to Cogntive Task Analysis
Authors: Roth Emilie M. , Woods David D.
Published: January 2012

We describe an approach to cognitive task analysis that utilizes two mutually reinforcing analyses. One analysis focuses on building a description of the cognitive demands imposed by the world that any intelligent agent would have to deal with (a model of the cognitive environment). The second analysis, conducted in parallel, is an empirical investigation of how practitioners, both experts and less skilled individuals, respond to the task demands (a performance model). We then discuss how a cognitive simulation can support a cognitive task analysis.
The Effectiveness of Aeronautical Decisionmaking Training
Authors: Diehl Alan
Published: January 2012

Several programs have been developed and tested to reduce the frequency of aircrew decisional errors. “Aeronautical decisionmaking” (ADM) materials are intended to enhance the judgment abilities of the individual aviators. A review of six empirical ADM studies reveals that such programs reduced the frequency of pilot errors from 8 to 46 percent. The use of such materials by a large commercial operator resulted in a 54% decrease in their accident rate.
Knowledge Engineering for Hypertext Instructional Systems
Authors: Gordon Sallie E. , Lewis Vicki
Published: January 2012

Hypertext is increasingly being used in training and education to provide an alternative (non-linear) presentation format for both verbal and graphic information. While hypertext provides a very flexible format for structuring information, this flexibility itself can lead to information that is structured in a vague or inconsistent form. We suggest that hypertext system designers perform “knowledge engineering” just as AI system designers do. This includes acquiring some body of knowledge in a systematic fashion, determining the global structure to be imposed on the information, and then using explicit algorithms to structure the information into hypertext form. This paper contains two separate but complementary components that address the latter two processes. First, we describe certain features and issues specific to instructional applications of hypertext, and provide some suggestions for structuring the system to accomodate those features. We then present an algorithm for engineering hypertext information, the Cluster Coherence Algorithm. While the algorithm was developed specifically for instructional applications, it is also relevant and applicable to other types of hypertext and hypermedia systems.
Adoption of ATM Technology by Elderly Users
Authors: Smither Janan Al-Awar , Braun Curt C. , Smither Robert D.
Published: January 2012

Technological innovations have a potential to enhance the lives of older individuals by allowing them to maintain their independence or to be minimally dependent on various types of assistance. Many of these innovations could also help ease the load on social service agencies and on caregivers to the elderly. However, we find that a large number of older individuals resist using these technologies. This paper looks at one of the most prevalent consumer technologies, the automated teller machine (ATM), and investigates the characteristics affecting its adoption by elderly consumers. The characteristics, which were explored by means of a survey, included demographic, psychological, and attitudinal variables. Findings from this study revealed that fewer elderly used ATM technology and that users and nonusers differed in their mechanical reasoning ability, sociability, and a number of attitudinal variables.
User Assessment of Standard and Reduced-Size Numeric Keypads
Authors: Loricchio David F. , Lewis James R.
Published: January 2012

As technology improves, portable computers become smaller and more compact. A clear design challenge is to provide a system that is as compact as possible without degrading system usability. The keyboard is still the primary input device for compact computers. Previous research has indicated that reduced key spacing adversely affects skilled typing. Therefore, a portable computer system should provide a keyboard with full-sized keys in the primary typing area. The purpose of this study was to determine if reducing key size and spacing adversely affects the usability of a numeric keypad. Skilled keypad operators compared a standard-size numeric keypad to two keypads that had reduced center-to-center key spacing. One of these keypads achieved its reduction primarily by reducing the key spacing. The other reduced both key size and spacing. (Note that the small changes in key size and spacing have little effect on the overall device dimensions of a numeric keypad.) Operators typed numbers faster with and preferred the standard keypad over the keypad with both reduced key size and key spacing. If a numeric keypad is offered as part of a portable computer, every effort should be made to provide full-sized keys. If reduced key spacing is unavoidable, wide keys are preferable to narrow keys.
A Comparison of Touch Interface Techniques for a Graphical Windowing Software Environment
Authors: Montaniz Frank , Mack Robert
Published: January 2012

This paper reports a behavioral evaluation of touch interface techniques intended for use with highly interactive, graphical, windowing software environments, previous research (Mack and Lang, 1989), indicated that touch interface techniques can produce levels of task performance in such environments comparable to that obtained using conventional mouse pointing devices. In the Mack and Lang study, touch interactions emulated mouse techniques such that single and double taps (contact and lift-off), and tap, hold and drag corresponded to mouse clicks and double-clicks, and dragging with the mouse. While the results were encouraging, problems with the touch techniques remain. The purpose of this study was to compare two alternatives to direct mouse emulation for controlling the interpretation of touch interactions using a stylus or finger as input devices. This study also evaluated two touch-tailored interface techniques: gesture-based commands and pop-up (display) keyboard. Finger performance improved to levels comparable to those for stylus when an alternative protocol for controlling interaction modes was employed. Gestures led to performance comparable to conventional menu bar and pull-down menu techniques. The pop-up keyboard significantly slowed performance.
Effect of Hypertext Cue Presentation on Knowledge Representation
Authors: Happ Alan J. , Stanners Sharon L.
Published: January 2012

One important element of hypertext design is the presentation of the hypertext cue. This study compared learning relationships about animals in an oriental zodiac using one of two online, hypertext presentation styles and printed text. In one hypertext condition, the cues were embedded in the text; in the other condition, the cues were located in the margins. A control condition contained unrelated study materials. The database on the zodiac consisted of a multiple hierarchy. Two measures of learning were used. Reaction time before and after a brief study period was used to assess knowledge about the relationships among animals in the zodiac. Participants' ability to correctly reproduce the underlying model of the zodiac in the database using a card sorting task was used to assess the degree to which they learned the underlying model. Analysis of variance revealed a significant interaction between learning (pre- and post-study period) and presentation condition (hypertext embedded in text, hypertext in the margin, printed text, unrelated text material). An analysis of the results of the card sort data revealed that participants more accurately reproduced the underlying model after study with hypertext, regardless of the location of the cue, than with text. The results are discussed with respect to the design of hypertext information and the need for future research.
Development of a Multisensory Nonvisual Interface to Computers for Blind Users
Authors: Vanderheiden Gregg C. , Boyd Wesley , Mendenhall John H. , Ford Kelly
Published: January 2012

The advent of graphic-based display environments such as those found on the Macintosh, Windows, OS/2 Presentation Manager, and XWindows, has the potential for providing barriers for individuals with visual impairments, particularly those who are blind. The problems stem from three factors. First, the information being displayed on the screen has shifted from a character-based format that was stored in an ASCII text buffer to a pixel-based format. This makes it much more difficult for screen reading software to determine what characters are on the screen. Second, text-based systems used a single font and relatively few attributes (bold, underline). On the graphic displays, text can assume a very large variety of sizes, fonts, and attributes (bold, underline, italic, crossed out, etc.). When these font changes or attributes contain information, they complicate the process of presenting information via speech or braille. Third, the advent of the graphics-based system has led to much more widespread incorporation of graphic elements, such as charts, diagrams, and pictures, within the text.

The new systems also introduce a number of advantages or opportunities for individuals with severe visual impairments or who are blind. Both the consistency of the human interface among applications and the use of system tools in the display process hold the potential for providing access to a broader range of applications for persons who are blind, if an effective human interface to these operating systems can be developed.

The Systems × project is using a multi-sensory approach to explore techniques for providing an effective and efficient interface to graphic-based by people who are blind. A prototype system, dubbed “Systems 3,” has been developed which uses speech input/output, the keyboard, and a virtual tactile tablet to allow individuals to access both text and graphic elements in the system. Using the prototype, individuals who are completely blind have been able to use a Macintosh computer, access and read text documents, and handle simple to moderate graphic elements such as bar charts. A series of research studies is now ongoing to test the limits of the access and to quantify the relative efficacy of various approaches to providing a nonvisual interface to these graphic-based operating environments.
Safe and Healthy VDT Workplace Design: Is there a Scientific Basis? Are Standards Effective? Are Regulations Appropriate?
Authors: Thompson David A.
Published: January 2012

VDT workplace design is increasingly becoming the subject of ordinances and regulations around the country. Several political jurisdictions have adopted regulations for state, county, and municipal facilities, including California. Suffolk County in New York was the first to adopt regulations applying to private industry, but these were somewhat controversial and were rejected by the courts. Now, San Francisco has also passed an ordinance to regulate VDT workplaces for all public and private organizations, and the city is busily gearing up to meet its requirements. The bill was hammered out by both business and labor representatives and is designed to be not invalidated by the courts (although it may be challenged). If it stands, it will be the first in the nation to do so–and is being closely watched by many other political jurisdictions throughout the country as a model.

Because HFS played the major role in developing the ANSI Standards (ANSI HFS-1988) for VDT workplace design, and because these Standards are increasingly incorporated into regulations and ordinances (including the San Francisco VDT Worker Safety Ordinance) we have a continuing professional interest in this whole process. Moreover, we may have an obligation to advise on the technical and psychosocial contents of the broad range of guidelines, standards, and regulations now under consideration around the United States. Our professional training and experience naturally positions us as a Society in an assessment role concerning their ergonomic appropriateness for a given target population.

Each member of the panel, according to their specialty, will present his or her views on:

(1) The sufficiency of existing scientific knowledge related to VDT workplace design; what else needs to be known; and why; (2) The effectiveness of ergonomic or human factors engineering standards in accomplishing proper and timely VDT workplace redesign; (3) The appropriateness of regulations to accomplish suitable VDT workplace design changes.

Their separate views will reflect their particular training and experience, and may or may not reflect the position of their differing constituencies: industry, federal safety and health, academia, and the VDT worker.
An Evaluation of Stress on Nuclear Plant Operators Due to Requalification Examinations
Authors: Desaulniers David R. , Pelton Richard M. , Sutthoff Anne B.
Published: January 2012

Individuals licensed to operate U.S. commercial nuclear power facilities are required by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to pass a periodic requalification examination in order to maintain their license. In a recent NRC survey, these examinations were cited by the nuclear industry as a significant source of stress on operators. The potential for undue stress to threaten the validity of the requalification examination prompted the NRC to conduct a study to identify the specific sources of stress, their impact on the examination process, and potential methods of reducing the stress. The methodology of this study, which involves interviews, examination observations, and questionnaires, is described in detail. The results and conclusions from this study, which will be considered with respect to modifying the examination process, will be presented when made publicly available.
Task Analysis of Remote Afterloading Brachytherapy Cancer Treatment
Authors: Callan James R. , Kelly Richard T. , Gwynne John W. , Muckler Frederick A. , Schoenfeld Isabelle
Published: January 2012

Remote afterloading brachytherapy is a type of cancer treatment that positions radioactive isotopes near tumors to control radiation dose and minimize exposure to medical personnel. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission has received reports of misadministration attributed to human error and has therefore initiated a project to determine causes. This paper describes the first portion of this project, a function and task analysis. A representative group of hospitals were visited to determine how devices are used in clinical practice. Data were collected to assess treatment functions, tasks, and steps. From this analysis, critical factors were identified to guide subsequent human factors evaluations. User interfaces, operating procedures, staff training and qualifications, and organizational practices are to be assessed during the remainder of the project.
Job Conditions and Intentions to Quit
Authors: Cohen William , Sanders Katherine J. , Smith Michael J.
Published: January 2012

Higher quitting rates and concerns with satisfaction and commitment are common in resort industries. A field study at a large mountain resort was conducted to assess the degree to which specific job conditions influenced stress, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and assessment of occupational alternatives, and how these in turn, influenced intentions to quit. Specifically, it was thought that job demands, supervisory style, pay satisfaction, role conflict, and training issues would influence psychological stress levels, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment which would affect intentions to quit. A questionnaire assessing these constructs was given to 440 full-time employees of a ski resort. Two hundred usable questionnaires were returned. Path analysis was used to assess the model. Results showed that supervisory style, prolonged static work postures, high levels of workload, and role conflict were predictors of psychological stress. Role conflict, psychological stress, and job satisfaction were significant predictors of organizational commitment, and organizational commitment was indeed negatively linked to intent to quit. The strongest predictors of intentions to quit were job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Subsequent analyses attempted to differentiate between levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction as well as between seasonal and year round employees using additional job condition variables which were not included in the original path analysis. This group of additional variables included the Work Environment Scales, and other job conditions such as repetitiveness, task significance, skill utilization, departmental cooperation, and job security. Staff support, autonomy, job involvement, and task clarity were found to significantly discriminate between low, medium, and high levels of both satisfaction and organizational commitment. Several of the additional job condition variables differentiated between employment type (seasonal vs. year round), thus implying that these other job conditions may influence employee ITQ through the mediating constructs of organizational commitment and job satisfaction.