bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Influence of High School Size on Dropout Rate
Authors: Pittman Robert B. , Haughwout Perri
Published: March 2008

The impact of high school size on dropout rate was investigated using the school data of the High School and Beyond Study of the National Center of Educational Statistics. Information from 744 public, comprehensive high schools was employed to test a model depicting a direct influence of school size on the diversity of academic offerings and on the school social climate, as well as an indirect effect on dropout rate. The findings indicated that potential links between school size and dropout rate were almost totally attributable to the social climate, particularly those elements dealing with student participation and the severity of the problem environment. These results imply that one outcome of school consolidations which seemingly has been given little attention is that it may increase early school leaving.
Lessons From the Wall Chart
Authors: Ginsburg Alan L. , Noell Jay , Plisko Valena White
Published: March 2008

In 1984 the wall chart of State Education Statistics broke the historic silence on reporting state-by-state comparisons of student performance. Prior to its release, chief state school officers and the education establishment had been protected from disclosure of poor performance by the states in education. The wall chart, by laying out the facts in straightforward detail, exposed our national shortcomings in education and focused attention on the states where much of education policymaking takes place. This article reports on the history of the wall chart, addresses the criticisms that followed its release, and assesses its impact. It goes on to propose recommendations for improving the usefulness of state-by-state rankings. The insights it offers on designing state education comparisons may be particularly helpful as the nation and states undertake the expansion of the National Assessment of Educational Progress to report on student performance at the state level.
A Contingent Valuation Approach to Measuring the Benefits of Preschool Education
Authors: Escobar Colette M. , Barnett W. Steven , Keith John E.
Published: March 2008

It is difficult to quantify and value many of the benefits of education. This paper illustrates the use of contingent valuation to obtain more complete estimates of the economic value of difficult-to-measure benefits of preschool education for handicapped children and presents a general approach for the use of contingent valuation in cost-benefit analysis of educational programs. Data for the illustration were obtained by surveying parents of children with handicapping conditions enrolled in preschool special education programs in Iowa. The survey was conducted jointly by the Department of Economics and the Early Intervention Research Institute at Utah State University. Results indicated that the contingent valuation method produces plausible results which are consistent with basic predictions of economic theory. Implications for policymaking and directions for further research are discussed.
State Efforts to Reform Schools: Treading Between a Regulatory Swamp and an English Garden
Authors: Timar Thomas B. , Kirp David L.
Published: March 2008

Since 1983, education has risen to the top of many states’ policy agendas. The level of state policy activity is unprecedented in the history of American education. While states have assumed responsibility for educational policymaking, little is known about the effects of various reform policies or strategies associated with their implementation. The authors argue that the current reform effort which aims at educational excellence will fail unless the policy culture shifts the strategic focus from regulation and compliance monitoring to mobilization of institutional capacity. This article examines reform strategies of three states—Texas, California, and South Carolina—and how those strategies relate to reform outcomes.
Comprehensive Educational Assessment for the States: The Duplex Design
Authors: Bock R. Darrell , Mislevy Robert J.
Published: March 2008

A design for educational assessment is proposed that serves multiple purposes within a state school system but requires no more class time than a conventional achievement test. For individual students, it provides scaled proficiency measures suitable for guidance and certification at varied levels of attainment. For classrooms, schools, or larger units, it can supply from the same data detailed group-level measures for monitoring progress in curricular objectives, for evaluating instructional methods or materials, and for secondary research studies. Graphic displays for reporting both the individual-level and group-level results are illustrated. The design can be linked to performance tests to establish external validity or to scales of national measures, such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress, to allow between-state comparisons.
Methodological, Measurement, and Conceptual Problems in the Study of Instructional Leadership
Authors: Murphy Joseph
Published: March 2008

During the past 10 years a good deal of attention has been devoted to examining the role that school administrators play in improving learning outcomes for students. One theme that has received considerable emphasis is the instructional leadership dimension of administrative activity. In this article a comprehensive review of the research in the area of instructional leadership is provided. I report on progress that has been made in overcoming first generation research difficulties in this area, describe some of the more deep-rooted conceptual difficulties that have been less amenable to resolution, and analyze problem areas in the study of instructional leadership that have heretofore received little scrutiny. For purposes of organizational clarity, weaknesses in the studies of instructional leadership are grouped under the three headings of methodological, measurement, and conceptual problems. Within these three areas, particular attention is devoted to analyzing problems that emerge from (a) relying on a job analysis approach to defining instructional leadership, (b) failing to adequately consider both the micro and macro level contextual aspects of leadership, and (c) attributing causality to persons rather than organizational conditions.
Administrative Leadership in Policy Review and Evaluation
Authors: Starratt Robert J.
Published: March 2008

The conventional paradigm of the policy process is that state or federal level legislators and agency heads set policy; agency bureaucrats write the guidelines and specifications; administrators at various levels down to the building level administrators implement the policy initiative; research specialists in program and policy implementation evaluation assess the effects of the policy and report back to those who set the policy. This paper argues that administrators at the state, district, or building level should review and evaluate policy, thereby joining their perspectives to and enriching the conversion between the policy setting and policy evaluating communities.
Combining Academic and Vocational Courses in an Integrated Program to Reduce High School Dropout Rates: Second-Year Results From Replications of the California Peninsula Academies
Authors: Stern David , Dayton Charles , Paik Il-Woo , Weisberg Alan , Evans John
Published: March 2008

This paper reports results from the first two years of an effort in 10 high schools to replicate the California Peninsula Academies. The Academy model combines the core academic curriculum with technical instruction in a particular occupational field. Local employers representing that field participate in various ways. The program is intended to improve school performance of students who would otherwise be likely to drop out. Evidence presented here indicates that Academy students generally have compiled better grades and more course credits than students in comparison groups at the same high schools. At three sites in particular, Academy students have consistently out-performed comparison groups in the first two years.
Professional-Patron Influence on Site-Based Governance Councils: A Confounding Case Study
Authors: Malen Betty , Ogawa Rodney T.
Published: March 2008

Case studies of site-based governance councils in Salt Lake City, Utah, provided the basis for testing whether building-based councils with broad jurisdiction, formal policymaking authority, parity protections, and training provisions actually enable teachers and parents to exert substantial influence on school policy. Despite the existence of these highly favorable arrangements, teachers and parents did not wield significant influence on significant issues in these decision arenas. Other factors, notably the composition of the councils, the relative power and role orientations of principals and professionals, norms of propriety and civility, the nature of district oversight and support, a congenial culture, and stable environment intervened to transform policymaking bodies into auxiliary units, convert teacher-parent parity to principal-professional control, and maintain rather than alter the influence relationships typically and traditionally found in schools. The implications of this research for those who advocate site-based governance as a potent reform strategy are discussed.
Culture and Education Policy: Analyzing Values in State Policy Systems
Authors: Wirt Frederick , Mitchell Douglas , Marshall Catherine
Published: March 2008

Reference to values in education policy studies is commonplace, but close analysis is never done. This article provides behavioral definitions of four basic values—quality, equity, efficiency, choice—that render them amenable to quantitative analysis. The concept of culture is offered to explain policy behavior, specifically the meritocratic, egalitarian, and democratic cultures within our national culture. These value definitions are applied—via content analysis—to state education codes in Illinois and Wisconsin to demonstrate how policy choices are moved by different cultures. The results also demonstrate evidence for Elazar’s “political culture” concept. The conflict and complementarity inherent in these values are also discussed.
Symbolic Validation: The Case of State-Mandated, High-Stakes Testing
Authors: Airasian Peter W.
Published: March 2008

Because the wisdom and likely effects of educational innovations rarely are established before their adoption, the innovations must seek their legitimacy in nonempirical sources. This paper uses the example of the rapid rise of state-mandated, high-stakes testing programs to suggest that proposed innovations find their way into practice by virtue of their potency as symbols of prevalent value orientations in the wider culture. Thus, innovations undergo a type of consensual, symbolic validation that determines their acceptability. State-mandated, high-stakes testing programs have gained widespread popular support in the quest for heightened educational standards because they symbolize order and control, desired educational outcomes, and traditional moral values.
How Effective Are Voluntary Plans With Magnet Schools?
Authors: Rossell Christine H.
Published: March 2008

This study compares the desegregation effectiveness of voluntary plans with magnet schools to mandatory reassignment plans with magnet schools in a sample of 20 school districts. The analysis suggests that a magnet school plan based primarily on voluntary transfers will produce greater long-term interracial exposure than a mandatory reassignment plan with magnet components. This is probably due to the greater white flight from the mandatory plans. Thus adding magnet schools to a mandatory reassignment plan does not make it competitive with a voluntary plan.
Financing the Education of At-Risk Students
Authors: Levin Henry M.
Published: March 2008

Students who are considered to be at risk of educational failure because of their social and economic origins represent about one third of all elementary and secondary enrollments. This article explores the financial requirements for bringing these students into the educational mainstream so that they are academically able. First, it provides an elaboration on the rising demography of at-risk students and the deleterious consequences to the economy and society of failing to meet their educational needs. Second, it summarizes the evidence on the payoffs to educational investments in at-risk students and finds that benefits are well in excess of costs. Third, it evaluates criteria for determining the financial requirements for addressing educational needs of at-risk students and suggests that additional spending of about $21 billion a year (about 10% of present elementary and secondary expenditures) may be appropriate. Finally, it reviews the roles of federal, state, and local governments and the private sector in providing the additional financial and other resources needed to succeed.
School Finance and the Economics of Education: An Essay Review of Major Works
Authors: Fox James N.
Published: March 2008

This essay reviews major publications from the field of school finance. It also covers prominent studies from aspects of the economics of education that are closely related to the field of education finance. The paper includes reviews of articles, research studies, and textbooks, focusing primarily on work published in the 1980s. Issues discussed include the theoretical concepts that undergird the field of school finance, practical alternatives for raising and distributing education funds, and allocation of resources to enhance equity and efficiency in education. Specific topics covered include teacher compensation, measuring equity, inputs and outputs in education, cost of education indices, municipal overburden, education decision making, the importance of time in learning, and school productivity. The essay closes by noting the increasing sophistication of both education policy makers and researchers. The author argues that more penetrating questions by policy makers are stimulating more enlightened and enlightening studies by researchers. The insights from these studies, he suggests, are likely to help improve the American education enterprise.
Geographic Mobility and Student Achievement in an Urban Setting
Authors: Ingersoll Gary M. , Scamman James P. , Eckerling Wayne D.
Published: March 2008

Geographic mobility has long been suspected to have a negative impact on student achievement and adjustment. Urban schools, in particular, are subject to highly mobile subpopulations whose contribution to overall district performance can be a source of serious policy concerns. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of geographic instability on student achievement among elementary, middle, and secondary school students in an urban setting. Academic achievement of four groups of mobile children were compared to achievement levels of a stable student population. The results of the analyses show a nearly uniformly negative impact of geographic mobility on student achievement; the most negative effects of geographic mobility were found at earlier grade levels. At the same time, the size of the mobile population diminished as the students grew older.
Using Reform: Conceptualizing District Initiative
Authors: Firestone William A.
Published: March 2008

This paper explores the phenomenon of district use of state reform. Past research suggests that local districts will comply minimally with mandates and respond to inducements with varying degrees of opportunism. Active use entails anticipating state responses or doing more than the state requires. Evidence is presented to illustrate that active use does exist. Existing research suggests that active users have the will and the capacity to respond positively. Will comes from a dominant coalition that believes it can set its own agenda and sees the reforms as ways to meet its own ends. Capacity comes through the formation of a temporary system that effectively manages key change functions and linkages with local schools.
What Educational Indicators? The Case for Assessing the School Context
Authors: Oakes Jeannie
Published: March 2008

A number of current federal and state efforts are attempting to create education indicator systems in the hope that these systems will improve the monitoring of the condition of education, inform policy decisions, and provide better accountability mechanisms. This article argues that the valid and useful indicator systems will include assessments of school context as well as of student outcomes. Context indicators can be used to monitor schooling resources and processes; they may help forestall educators’ tendency to narrow their programs in order to “look good” on limited outcome measures; and they can provide information about the context in which particular outcomes are achieved. A review of the schooling literature suggests three general constructs that can serve as grounding for developing school context indicators: access to knowledge, press for achievement, and professional teaching conditions.
Educational Reform in the 1980s: Explaining Some Surprising Success
Authors: Murphy Joseph
Published: March 2008

In this article, issues of success and failure of Wave 1 reform initiatives are explored. The paper begins with a review of the financial, political, and organizational factors that are often used to support the position that the types of reform measures common in the early and mid-1980s are likely to result in few substantive improvements. Next, the argument is made that the educational reform recommendations have been more successful than anticipated. Finally, some speculations as to the reasons for this unexpected outcome are presented. Particular attention is given to the changing nature of the conditions upon which claims for failure were predicated.
Nontraditional Recruits to Mathematics and Science Teaching
Authors: Kirby Sheila Nataraj , Darling-Hammond Linda , Hudson Lisa
Published: March 2008

This paper focuses on nontraditional training programs that train recruits for mathematics and science teaching. These recruits include recent college graduates with degrees in mathematics or science, individuals in science-related fields who are retiring or who want to make a midcareer switch to teaching, and teachers who initially prepared to teach in areas other than mathematics or science. We find that not all programs are equally effective and that the quality and intensity of preparation make a difference in how well prepared recruits feel to teach. Our study also indicates that, for all their promise, nontraditional teacher preparation programs cannot fully overcome other attributes of teaching that make recruitment and retention of teachers difficult.
Policy Choices for AIDS Education in the Public Schools
Authors: Eckland Jane D.
Published: March 2008

Policy problems presented by the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic are many, and decisionmakers in education face a number of issues, including admittance of children with AIDS, testing of employees for the virus, as well as issues relating to the provision of information about AIDS to students. Education about the routes of transmission and about measures for preventing the transmission of AIDS certainly constitutes the most promising type of education for curbing its spread. The problem addressed here involves the issue of local control of educational subject and content. Two alternatives, local control versus a state mandate for AIDS education, are presented. Criteria against which the alternatives may be weighed are generated, and an analysis is conducted which evaluates each alternative against the criteria for choice. A benefit-cost analysis is included.
Estimating the Economic Worth of a 5th-Year Licensure Program for Teachers
Authors: Lewis Darrell R.
Published: March 2008

Planning and the development of teacher education have suffered for lack of information relative to the efficiency effects of selecting alternative program designs. This article (a) identifies a conceptual framework wherein teacher education costs and benefits can be comprehensively described, valued, and linked for analytic purposes, (b) presents some benchmark data from a newly developed 5th-year licensure program, and (c) examines a number of alternative assumptions for illustrating some of the problematic issues inherent in examining this question from the perspectives of both students and society.
Linking Schools and Social Services: The Case of Child Abuse Reporting
Authors: Zellman Gail L.
Published: March 2008

Coordination of schools and child protective services (CPS) agencies on child abuse reporting is required by law because school staff are mandated to report suspected maltreatment to CPS agencies. National data reveal that school staff generally comply with the reporting mandate. Although school district policy and resource limitations reinforce compliance with the reporting laws, CPS agency policies designed to limit reports and to focus resources on the most serious cases are inconsistent with district policies. As a result, school staff reports may be greeted with annoyance and rejection. The implications of this apparent conflict for child protection and for other coordination efforts are discussed.
Teacher Support for Career Enhancement Initiatives: Program Characteristics and Effects on Work
Authors: Smylie Mark A. , Smart John C.
Published: March 2008

This article examines the critical issue of teacher support for career enhancement initiatives, focusing specifically on merit pay and career ladder programs. It presents the findings of an empirical study that examines the relationships between program characteristics and effects on work variables and teacher support of and opposition to these programs. The findings reveal that teacher support of and opposition to both programs is strongly associated with perceived effects on different dimensions of work. Of particular importance are effects on professional working relationships with other teachers. These findings underscore incongruities and tensions between merit pay and career ladder programs and beliefs and practices that characterize and govern teachers’ work. Implications for the continued development of merit pay, career ladder, and other teacher career enhancement initiatives are explored.
Class Size and Student Achievement: Research-Based Policy Alternatives
Authors: Odden Allan
Published: March 2008

This article is about policy related to class size and student achievement. Class size is an ongoing education policy issue that ebbs and flows over time. Class size reductions have been proposed recently in many states and enacted in a few. This article reviews the literature on class size and student achievement and suggests policy alternatives. It has four sections: First, some introductory comments are made to set subsequent comments about class size policy into a broader context; second, the research on class size and student achievement is presented; third, the policy implications of this research are developed; fourth, a short summary of policy recommendations is provided.
Doing More in the Same Amount of Time: Cathy Swift
Authors: Peterson Penelope L.
Published: March 2008

This article examines the perspectives and practice of elementary mathematics teaching of Cathy Swift, a second-grade teacher in a low-SES school in a large California city. Cathy’s mathematics lessons are smoothly and swiftly-paced lessons in the tradition of effective teaching for basic skills. Yet from her perspective, Cathy is implementing a “new” mathematics program connected with the state-level Mathematics Framework. Cathy’s view of the state policy is through her textbook, one of several approved by the state, and through district-level ABS materials developed specifically for low-SES schools. The ABS model includes components of content coverage, pacing, mastery testing and reteaching, maximizing students’ time on task, and use of direct instruction. To these, Cathy has added new elements-using manipulatives, using partner and group work, and emphasizing problem solving. Exploration of Cathy’s perspectives and practice reveals powerful effects of knowledge and beliefs, tangled influences of layers of policy, and multiple uncertainties and conflicts.
A Conflict of Interests: The Case of Mark Black
Authors: Wilson Suzanne M.
Published: March 2008

In this paper, the author describes the case of a teacher, Mark Black, as he struggles to adapt to the calls for the reform of teaching in California. Drawing on a set of interviews and observations that are part of a larger study (see Cohen, Ball, and Peterson in this volume), the author explores how Mark enacts the curriculum of Real Math, the textbook that his school district recently adopted. Through the lenses of his beliefs about the nature and structure of mathematical knowledge, his beliefs about how students best learn mathematics, and his beliefs about his role as a teacher, Mark transforms the innovative textbook into a more familiar, traditional elementary mathematics curriculum. The author discusses four real and perceived constraints that influence Mark’s ability to enact the curricular policy proposed by the Framework and argues that teachers are themselves learners who need to be supported and nurtured as they try to change their practice.
Shedding Light on the Dark Side of Teacher Moonlighting
Authors: Raffel Jeffrey A. , Groff Lance R.
Published: March 2008

To date, research has emphasized the dark side of teacher moonlighting, linking moonlighting to teacher alienation and attrition. Research in Delaware, however, indicates that although some moonlighters were “reluctant” and would have quit if their income were increased, a majority were “willing” and would have continued to moonlight even if their salaries were increased enough to replace moonlighting income. Differences in the motivations, type of moonlighting position, job satisfaction, life impacts, and job search activity between willing and reluctant moonlighters are reported. A constructive model of moonlighting, with related policy implications, is proposed to balance the dominant constraining view.
Work Design, Role Conflict, and Role Ambiguity: The Case of Elementary and Secondary Schools
Authors: Bacharach Samuel B. , Bamberger Peter , Mitchell Stephen
Published: March 2008

This paper examines four sets of work design variables with respect to their relationship with role conflict and role ambiguity in elementary and secondary schools. The findings suggest that managerial strategies appropriate for minimizing role conflict are not necessarily those appropriate for minimizing role ambiguity, and that the determinants of role stress in elementary schools are somewhat different from the determinants of role stress in secondary schools. The findings also suggest that, in contrast with some of the assumptions of recent school restructuring efforts, in elementary and secondary school organizations, managerial strategies that reflect professional ethos may have no impact on teacher-reported role conflict and role ambiguity. Indeed, the findings suggest that in secondary schools, certain managerial strategies which run counter to professional ethos may in fact reduce organizational role conflict and ambiguity. Policy implications for elementary and secondary schools are discussed.
Analyzing State School Policymaking: An Arena Model
Authors: Mazzoni Tim L.
Published: March 2008

Case study findings on the politics of public school choice in Minnesota are used to explore an arena perspective on how state governments might legislate controversial school restructuring initiatives. The initial conceptual model, which posits a shift from the subsystem arena to the macro arena as being fundamental to policy breakthroughs, proved to be too narrow. It ignored the innovative potential of the commission arena and particularly the leadership arena. Minnesota findings suggest that it is in the latter arena where strategically placed lawmakers can exploit their power resources to exert significant leverage on restructuring legislation for American public schools.
The Effect of Undergraduate Student Loans on the Decision to Pursue Postbaccalaureate Study
Authors: Weiler William C.
Published: March 2008

Previous research on the demand for graduate study has not focused on the effect of undergraduate indebtedness on individual decisions to pursue a graduate degree. In this article, a modified version of the approach typically used to analyze the transition from high school to college is used to study this effect. Estimates indicate that the level of undergraduate debt is not a significant factor in determining a student’s choice of whether to enter the labor market or continue his or her education. However, this result is subject to qualifications related to the way choices facing students had to be specified, given available data.
The Worsening Shortage of College-Graduate Workers
Authors: Bishop John H. , Carter Shani
Published: March 2008

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projections of occupational employment growth have consistently underpredicted the growth of skilled occupations. BLS currently projects that professional, technical, and managerial jobs will account for 44.5% of employment growth between 1988 and 2000, while we project they will account for 70% of employment growth. Between March 1988 and March 1991 these occupations, in fact, accounted for 87% of employment growth. The BLS’s projections of the supply/demand balance for college graduates have also been off the mark—predicting a surplus for the 1980s when, in fact, a shortage developed, and relative wage ratios for college graduates rose to all-time highs. We project that the supply of college educated workers will grow more slowly during the 1990s and that there will be a continuing escalation of wage premiums for college graduates.
Sources of Teacher Supply: Some New Evidence From Indiana
Authors: Kirby Sheila Nataraj , Grissmer David W. , Hudson Lisa
Published: March 2008

This article is a first step in identifying the diverse sources of teacher supply, the magnitude of the flow form each source, and the characteristics of the teachers that enter or reenter from each source. The analysis uses data on all full-time teachers in Indiana from 1965 to 1988, as well as a survey of new hires in 1987–1988. Our data suggest that experienced teachers (both returning and migrating) have constituted an important source of supply—at present they account for almost 60% of all new hires. Inexperienced teachers appear to be delaying entry into teaching—they have become increasingly older over time, with over a third of them being 35 years old or older. These findings have important implications for teacher recruiting in the future as retirements increase and the reserve pool begins to shrink.
Chapter 1 Evaluation: Progress, Problems, and Possibilities
Authors: Clayton Constance E.
Published: March 2008

The 1988 reauthorization of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act Chapter 1 legislation introduced several significant changes in both program and evaluation features, many of which have benefited students and schools in the School District of Philadelphia. However, some provisions of the legislation, and the accompanying regulations, have unintended consequences which are hampering efforts to provide the best possible program for students. This article addresses the implementation of schoolwide projects in Philadelphia, discusses some of the conceptual problems which exist in interpreting results of those programs, and offers suggestions for alternative assessment methods. As a result of the 1988 reauthorization, schoolwide projects have increased from 37 sites in 1988–1989 to 103 for the 1991–1992 school year. This expansion has occurred because of positive results in test scores and report card grades and because of the satisfaction expressed by school staffs and communities at having the flexibility to design a program tailored especially for the needs of their own students.

Problems with the current legislation, as noted in the article, have stimulated the following attempts at solutions: how to discern which schools are in need of program improvement, how to ensure that schools with successful programs have the opportunity to continue implementing them, how to determine the intent of program improvement, and how to find alternatives to standardized testing. Finally, the article offers suggestions for alternative ways to use standardized test data, as well as performance-based measures of student learning.
Modifying Chapter 1 Program Improvement Guidelines to Reward Appropriate Practices
Authors: Slavin Robert E. , Madden Nancy A.
Published: March 2008

New accountability guidelines have helped to focus educators on the outcomes of Chapter 1 programs, but they may also be rewarding counterproductive practices. They may discourage early interventions, such as preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade programs, which increase the baseline for later gains. They may reward retentions, which significantly increase apparent normal curve equivalent (NCE) gains. They may focus teaching on narrow, easily measured objectives. This article proposes an alternative approach to Chapter 1 accountability which rewards schools for reducing the number of students who fail to meet minimum standards on broad-based, appropriate tests. Retained or untested students would be counted as not meeting minimum standards. Program improvement services would be greatly increased and made available to all Chapter 1 schools. Advantages and problems of this system are discussed.
Upping the Stakes: Using Gain Scores to Judge Local Program Effectiveness in Chapter 1
Authors: Davis Alan
Published: March 2008

Since 1978, the national evaluation and reporting system for Title I/Chapter 1 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act has depended upon a norm-referenced evaluation system to determine the effectiveness of compensatory education programs funded under the act. For a decade, policy directives urged caution in interpreting local results and encouraged use of additional indicators. Since 1988, legislative amendments have required that the national evaluation system serve, without adjustment or interpretation, to identify individual school projects in need of improvement. In this article I argue that the system is technically unsuited for this purpose. Problems with regression and measurement error are illustrated with empirical data. Policy should encourage the use of multiple indicators of program quality at the local level, including applied performance tests and process indicators.
Models for Identifying Chapter 1 Schools for Improvement
Authors: Ligon Glynn
Published: March 2008

Current Chapter 1 regulations for identifying schools in need of improvement are appropriate and useful; however, alternatives do exist for improving those regulations. Chapter 1 might move more toward a national test or national Chapter 1 norms, or, alternatively, toward more local control, with juries setting standards and assessing them. This article critiques current uses of normal curve equivalent scores (NCEs) with standardized tests and describes a range of alternative methodologies for identifying schools in need of improvement.
The Dilemma of Chapter 1 Program Improvement
Authors: Heid Camilla A.
Published: March 2008

Chapter 1 has been effective in raising the achievement level of students it served, but it has not been effective in closing the gap between Chapter 1 students and their more advantaged peers. The revised Chapter 1 contains specific provisions that relate to program improvement. However, the setting of minimum standards for program improvement, along with the dilemma between the negative connotation of being identified as in need of program improvement and its positive intent, has resulted in unanticipated outcomes that do not advance the Chapter 1 program improvement effort.
Chapter 1 Program Improvement: Cause for Cautious Optimism and a Call for Much More Research
Authors: Stringfield Sam , Billig Shelley H. , Davis Alan
Published: March 2008

The program improvement provisions of the Hawkins-Stafford Amendments to Chapter 1 rest on the optimistic premise that school-level accountability pressures directed at Chapter 1 will lead to higher academic achievement for educationally disadvantaged students. Although the legislation may be unrealistic in assuming that improvement is primarily an act of will, it correctly focuses on the school as the appropriate unit for change. Principals of over 200 schools identified for program improvement in three states were surveyed to determine local responses to the new provisions. Over two-thirds of responding schools had begun to implement programmatic changes. Fully 84% supported the legislative provisions. Research is called for to study the effects of the legislation and to provide additional options to low-performing schools.
Education Reform in the Trenches: Increased Academic Course Taking in High Schools With Lower Achieving Students in States With Higher Graduation Requirements
Authors: Clune William H. , White Paula A.
Published: March 2008

Increased academic course taking was a major goal of the education reforms of the 1980s, and increased graduation requirements were the most common change in state policies. This study analyzes transcript data on changes in course taking among graduates of high schools enrolling mostly lower achieving students in four states adopting high graduation requirements during the 1980s. The changes that occurred must be counted at least a moderate success. Average credits per student increased in all academic subjects, and the level of difficulty of these courses also increased. Science was the biggest gainer of the 1980s, with growth primarily in beginning academic courses such as physical science, earth science, and chemistry I. The usefulness of the kind of data reported in this article to policy-making and the difficulty of collecting such data strongly support the need for systematic indicators of course taking coded by level of difficulty and disaggregated by administrative unit (nation, state, district, school).
Principals’ Instructional Leadership and School Performance: Implications for Policy Development
Authors: Heck Ronald H.
Published: March 2008

Currently, many districts and states are pursuing reforms that focus on holding principals accountable for school performance. While effective schools research has established that strong principal leadership affects school academic achievement at least indirectly, this relationship is more complex than originally thought. Personnel decisions about principal effectiveness made by educational policymakers or lay-controlled school site councils should be made only after careful consideration of research on the relationship between principal instructional leadership and school outcomes. This article presents data from a study to determine whether principal instructional leadership is predictive of school outcomes and discusses the implications of the research for developing school improvement strategies.
Grade Retention and School Adjustment: An Explanatory Analysis
Authors: Reynolds Arthur J.
Published: March 2008

Although grade retention remains a controversial educational practice, the accumulated research indicates that retention has negative and often harmful effects on academic achievement and other educational outcomes. This study tested the effects of early grade retention on reading achievement, mathematics achievement, teacher ratings, and perceived competence in Grade 4 for 1,255 low-income, mostly Black children. Results indicated that 20.4% of the sample were retained from kindergarten to Grade 3, a rate much higher than the national average. Longitudinal analysis of a good-fitting model of retention indicated that retention had mixed effects on children’s school adjustment at Grade 4. Retention had substantially negative effects on cognitive achievement in reading and mathematics, with both effects over twice the size reported in many previous studies. Retention was unrelated to teacher ratings of school adjustment but positively affected children’s perceived school competence, particularly for early-retained children. Analyses of a matched control group of 200 promoted children yielded similar results, but effects were even larger than those in the total-group analysis. The findings of this study do not support grade retention as an educational practice with children at risk.
Educational Leverage From a Political Necessity: Implications of New Perspectives on Student Assessment for Chapter 1 Evaluation
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: March 2008

This article describes new developments in the fields of learning theory, assessment, and the politics of national and state assessment and shows how these developments, along with the application of modern assessment and evaluation methodologies, could be used to address some longstanding problems with Chapter 1 evaluation. Specific attention is paid to linking classroom and school improvement with Chapter 1 Program Improvement.
Evaluating Effectiveness: A Comparison of Federal Expectations and Local Capabilities for Evaluation Among Federally Funded Model Demonstration Programs
Authors: DeStefano Lizanne
Published: March 2008

The scenario of a federal funding source mandating the conduct and reporting of program evaluation activities has become increasingly prevalent in education over the last two decades. Using the distinction between signaling ( Zucker, 1981 ) and charged use ( King & Pechman, 1984 ), this article examines the issues that arose when a particular set of federally funded model demonstration projects, secondary/transition projects funded by the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services, were obligated by federal initiative to improve the amount, quality, and use of evaluation. These issues are organized into two areas: (a) the nature of federal expectations and need for evaluation data and (b) the extent of local capabilities to meet those expectations and provide evaluative data. Regulatory and methodological implications of the discrepancy between federal expectations and local capabilities are discussed.
Notes: Achievement Tests and Elementary ESOL Exit Criteria: An Evaluation
Authors: Abella Rodolfo
Published: March 2008

This evaluation examines the process through which the Dade County Public School’ limited English proficient (LEP) students are “exited” (i.e., classified as language proficient) from the English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) Program. Five hundred LEP students participated in the evaluation. The results indicate that student who exit the ESOL program tend to perform successfully in regular classroom settings. Additionally, the Stanford Achievement Test discriminates between LEP and non-LEP student performance on language-related components of the test. Nevertheless, questions were raised about the appropriateness of using achievement test results to exit students from ESOL.
A Performance Evaluation System for Professional Support Personnel
Authors: Stronge James H. , Helm Virginia M.
Published: March 2008

The evaluation of educators has focused historically on classroom teachers, although the last decade brought additional attention to the evaluation of principals and superintendents. This note presents a performance evaluation system designed for evaluating professional support personnel (e.g., counselors, deans, librarians). A conceptual framework for the system is provided, including recommended steps in evaluating support personnel and emphasizing both goal and improvement orientations. Finally, while the evaluation system is designed for professional support personnel, system characteristics that may be generalizable to other education professionals are discussed.
Middle School Ability Grouping and Student Achievement in Science and Mathematics
Authors: Hoffer Thomas B.
Published: March 2008

This paper analyzes the effects of middle school ability grouping on cognitive achievement in mathematics and science. In contrast to most previous research on tracking, this analysis compares outcomes in grouped and nongrouped schools. The hypotheses tested here are, first, that ability grouping raises the aggregate level of student achievement and, second, that ability grouping achieves this end by increasing the learning of all students. Comparing average student achievement growth from the seventh to the ninth grades in grouped and nongrouped schools shows that overall gains from ability grouping in either subject are negligible, controlling for differences in student social background and initial levels of achievement. Comparing the achievement growth of nongrouped students and high- and low-group students shows that high-group placement generally has a weak positive effect while low-group placement has a stronger negative effect. Ability grouping thus appears to benefit advanced students, to harm slower students, and to have a negligible overall effect as the benefits and liabilities cancel each other out.
The Effects of a Career-Ladder Program on School Organizational Process
Authors: Ebmeier Howard , Hart Ann Weaver
Published: March 2008

Work redesign has recently gained attention as a possible solution for widely perceived deficiencies in the educational system. Two such strategies, reward and work structures, are often suggested as alterations in teachers’ work lives that can have a positive impact on their professionalism and ultimately the lives of children. These concepts are often included in state-sponsored career-ladder plans. The purpose of this paper is to present the findings of an investigation into the impact of such a career-ladder system on outcome measures widely suggested as intermediate indicators of school effectiveness and teacher satisfaction. Data were collected from 12 schools that had implemented a career-ladder program characterized by alternative reward and work-structure incentives and 12 matching schools where such programs were absent. Survey items tapped teachers’ and students’ opinions about school-process behaviors suggested by school-effectiveness and work-redesign literature as important for overall school and teacher health. Intermediate outcome data—on motivation, self-concept, academic futility, self-reliance, and school norms—were also collected to assess possible effects on students. Two results emerged from the data. First, when widely accepted school organizational processes are measured, the career-ladder program clearly demonstrates a positive impact on teachers and to a lesser extent on schools. Second, the career-ladder program had a differential effect on teachers at various stages of experience. Midcareer and new teachers felt more positive about the measured organizational processes within their schools than their counterparts in non-career-ladder schools. The results of this study support the utility of the work-design concept
Applying Employee Involvement in Schools
Authors: Mohrman Susan Albers , Lawler Edward E. , Mohrman Allan M.
Published: March 2008

This article explores the applicability of employee-involvement approaches to the management of schools. Three approaches are described for organizations in general and then applied to schools in particular. We conclude with a discussion of the design issues facing schools if they were to consider a comprehensive employee-involvement strategy as a means to improve their performance.
The Impact of Racial and Ethnic Segregation on the Achievement Gap in California High Schools
Authors: Rumberger Russell W. , Willms J. Douglas
Published: March 2008

This study examines the extent and impact of racial and ethnic segregation in California high schools during the 1988–1989 school year. We find that racial and ethnic segregation is widespread in California and that the extent of segregation varies widely among ethnic groups and among the six largest school districts. We also find significant differences in achievement levels across school districts and across schools within school districts, even after adjusting for differences in the background characteristics of students. The analysis suggests that segregation can, but does not always, lead to achievement differences across schools and among ethnic groups.