bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Before Sunrise
Authors: Llewellyn Karl N
Published: November 2023

The time approaches when you will put on fresh raiment, and shake the dust of these halls off your feet, and go down into the marketplace. When you have done that, you will have little time for thinking. Having ceased to be a child, you will cease to think as a child, you will, I take it, put away these childish things. Your mind will be on doing; if it should wander there will be no lack of hooks to drag it back. So that it may not be out of place before you go to stop for a moment, to look over, a little, what this profession is to which you go. What is the lawyer and his relation to the life about him? What is the part he plays in this society? Perhaps, too, you will pause with me over some of the things a lawyer does, some of the opportunities which come to him, some of the responsibilities he carries.

And I suppose that the first and the outstanding thing is that the lawyer is not popular. I think he never has been popular. I strongly suspect that there have never been laws or lawyers too heartily approved by the lay population they professed to serve. Certainly radicals have never loved them. “The first thing we will do is to hang all the lawyers”; and lawyers, and records, have been cast for burning since there have been such things as revolutions. Nor does such disapproval rest among the reds. The healthy spirited men of many ages have lifted up their clubs to bring them down upon the lawyer’s skull.
Neuroanatomy : Draw It to Know It
Authors: Fisch Adam
Published: November 2023

If you can’t draw it, you don’t know it: that was the rule of the late neuroanatomist William DeMyer, MD. Yet books do not encourage us to draw and redraw neuroanatomy. Neuroanatomy: Draw It to Know It teaches neuroanatomy through step-by-step instruction of how to draw neuroanatomical pathways and structures. Its instructive language is highly engaging. Users draw neuroanatomical structures and pathways in several steps so they are remembered and use mental and physical mnemonics to demonstrate difficult anatomical rotations and directional pathways. Anatomical pictures and radiographic images accompany the diagrams to clarify spatially challenging features; relevant synonyms are listed to avoid inter-text confusion; inconsistencies in the neuroanatomy literature are highlighted to mitigate frustration; and historical and current accounts of neuroanatomical systems are presented for perspective. Many neuroanatomy textbooks are great references, but fail to provide a working knowledge of neuroanatomy, and many neuroanatomy handbooks provide bedside pearls, but are too concise to be fully satisfactory. This instructional workbook teaches a comprehensive, but practical approach to neuroanatomy; it includes references where necessary but steers users toward key clinical features. Most importantly, Neuroanatomy: Draw It to Know It instructs the reader to draw and redraw the anatomy and teaches an active approach to learning.
Interin Measures And Dismissal Under The 2006 Icsid Rules 93
Authors: Lamm Carolyn B , Pham, Hansel T , Giorgetti Chiara
Published: November 2023

The increased recourse to ICSID arbitration in recent years made several provisions of the ICSID Arbitration Rules ripe for reform. Between 1995 and 2005, the number of pending ICSID cases jumped from 5 to 113—a 22-fold increase. Since 2001, there have been approximately twenty-five new ICSID cases each year. According to former ICSID Deputy Secretary-General Antonio Parra, however, “[w]ith the deluge of new cases, there came new criticisms of process, and calls for greater efficiency and transparency.”
An Examination Of The Draft Award Circulation Provision
Authors: Coe Jack J
Published: November 2023

As has been expertly discussed elsewhere, the United States’ Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) program has for many years relied upon a succession of model texts as a basis for pursuing investor protection with prospective treaty partners. In the most recently published Model BIT, there are a number of provisions that reflect both experience under the NAFTA Chapter Eleven and developments within the investorstate arbitration docket in general. Some of the new provisions are largely substantive, such as those that attempt to clarify the content of governing law. As important as those substantive refinements are likely to be, it may well be the subtle and not so subtle changes in the Model’s procedural initiatives that will have the greater impact. One such provision is embedded in Article 28, which in relevant part requires tribunals in certain settings to circulate draft awards to the disputants. Though one finds a rough analogue in WTO practice, the Model’s draft award provision6 remains
What The Explosion Of Investor-State Arbitrations May Portend
Authors: Menaker Andrea J
Published: November 2023

Much has been said and written about the exponential increase in the number of bilateral investment treaties (BITs) as well as investment chapters in free trade agreements (FTAs) concluded over the past decade or so. Not surprisingly, along with the increase in the number of BITs, there has been a corresponding increase in investor-state arbitrations. Although it is very difficult to generalize about the implications of the increase in investor-state cases on the future of BITs, this chapter will offer some comments on the effect, if any, this development may be having both on states’ continued willingness to enter into BITs, and also on the content of the BITs that may be negotiated in the future.
Investment Treaties Between Developed States
Authors: Dodge William S
Published: November 2023

Since 1959, when Germany concluded the first Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) with Pakistan, the paradigmatic investment treaty has involved a developed country on one side and a developing country on the other. Early BITs provided for state-to-state dispute resolution. But after the establishment of the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) in 1966, BITs began to permit direct claims by foreign investors. In a departure from customary international law, investors were not required to exhaust domestic remedies in the host state’s legal system before bringing claims to arbitration. The reason for allowing direct claims was simple—foreign investors from developed countries did not trust the courts of developing countries.
The Effect Of Bits On The International Body Of Investment Law
Authors: Park William W
Published: November 2023

As investment arbitration has exploded in recent years, arbitral tribunals have been tasked with resolving a number of novel dilemmas, both theoretical and pragmatic in origin, and both procedural and substantive in nature. Not least among these dilemmas has been the proper scope and application of the near-ubiquitous requirement in modern investment treaties that host states provide fair and equitable treatment to covered investments or investors. One feature of this debate that has gained particular significance over the last several years has concerned the existence and nature of the relationship between the various fair and equitable treatment (“FET”) provisions contained in bilateral investment treaties (“BITs”) and the minimum standard of treatment of aliens contained in general international law. In many ways, these are perhaps among the two most salient standards in the entire pantheon of investment protection and, as such, a discussion of the relationship between them seems the most appropriate means of approaching this chapter’s topic: namely, the impact of BITs on the evolution of international law.
The Rise Of The Corporation
Authors: Ribstein Larry E
Published: November 2023

Chapter 3 showed that the general partnership was designed for the most intimate firms, in which parties were willing to be liable for the firm’s debts and therefore wanted default rules such as equal management, financial rights, and easy dissolution. When the Industrial Revolution created a need for bigger firms, they needed a different legal structure, which turned out to be the corporation. The corporation has been said to have made the large firm possible,133 and even to have enabled the West to outpace Eastern civilizations that were the first to develop advanced mercantile economies.134 The conventional wisdom is that the Industrial Revolution displaced the partnership as the basic business structure.
Preventing Extremism
Authors: Sunstein Cass R
Published: November 2023

Suppose that a nation seeks to prevent (unjustified) extremism. What might it do? I consider three possible answers here. The first, favored by many conservatives, is traditionalism. The second involves consequentialism. The third, prominent in the American founding, involves checks and balances; a system of freedom of expression and a diversity of views are part and parcel of that idea. We can associate these three responses with three people: Edmund Burke, Jeremy Bentham, and James Madison. I devote the most attention here to checks and balances, because that approach seems most interesting and most productive both in ordinary life and in the political domain.
Hamdan and the Military Commissions Act of 2006
Authors: Sulmasy Glenn
Published: November 2023

The military commissions as ordered by the president in November of 2001, and modified to a limited degree by the Pentagon, remained in place during the following five years. The “detainees” were still held at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, and public support for the commissions continued to erode. Although several successful challenges to parts of the commissions occurred in federal district courts, circuit courts, and even the Supreme Court in Rasul and Hamdi, the holdings did not directly impact the military tribunals themselves. That all changed with the case of Salim Hamdan. By the spring of 2006, not a single military tribunal had been conducted at Guatanamo. Over 700 detainees remained on the naval base in the Guantanamo Bay Detention Center in a state of legal limbo; many of them had been detained without charge since 2001 or early 2002. The military commissions, while still “operating,” remained bogged down in civil litigation, and the political branches were still unwilling to commit to any real “change.” International criticism of the tribunals increased dramatically throughout 2005 and 2006. Although used throughout U.S. history and lawful in most respects, the current military commissions had not been implemented well.
Emersonian Transitions
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

Though Emerson was susceptible to acute despair about the moral, political, and intellectual condition of American citizens, he is more often remembered for his optimism about their capacity to be something more than docile. Drawing on his more expansive essays, this chapter traces a tentative trajectory from docility to individuality. For Emerson, this trajectory begins in private life. It begins, specifically, with the disruption of complacent, habitual perception and belief by means of aesthetic receptivity, friendship, and conversation, and by the private cultivation of certain habits of mind that awaken us from complacency and help us discover our capacity for self-authorship. In chapter six, I show that Emerson thinks these habits of mind indispensable to responsible citizenship. The present chapter is, however, devoted mostly to private disruptions, culminating in the private activity of responsibility-taking. Readers interested only in an explicit treatment of Emerson’s theory of citizenship should therefore skip to the next chapter.
The Burdens of Citizenship
Authors: Zakaras Alex
Published: November 2023

This conclusion has three parts. In the first, I attempt a more systematic treatment of the idea of complicity, using elements drawn from my readings of Emerson and Mill. Second, I respond to the suggestion, defended by some of the most eloquent interpreters of individuality, that individuality is, in fact, inimical to political participation and association. In doing so, I try to further clarify the relationship between individuality and political engagement. Finally, I return to three important objections—concerning elitism, neutrality, and civic solidarity—that deserve more focused attention.

I have argued that citizens of democratic societies find themselves complicit in the injustices committed by their governments. I have also described individuality as a way of extricating oneself from such complicity. But what exactly does “complicity” mean? To say that I am complicit in the actions of another is, first of all, to say that I am an accomplice in those actions. It is to say, more importantly, that I share responsibility for those actions. An analysis of complicity begins, therefore, with the idea of responsibility itself. How, then, do I become responsible? And how serious is the moral and political responsibility incurred through democratic complicity? This book has already suggested answers to these questions; my intention here is to try to develop these answers somewhat more systematically.
How Innovation Occurs
Authors: Patry William
Published: November 2023

American economist Robert Solow, who won the Nobel Prize in 1987 for his work on growth models, calculated that approximately four-fifths of the growth in output per worker in the United States is attributable to technological progress. The figure is higher now as much of Solow’s work covered the decades before his award. Viviane Reding, European Commissioner for Information Society and Media stated in a November 2008 speech that information and communication technology (ICT) is
shaped by educational, professional, and social crises: The History of Law Student Pro Bono Service
Authors: Adcock Cynthia
Published: November 2023

The first formal law school pro bono program1 was created in 1987 when the faculty of Tulane Law School, led by Dean John Kramer, instituted a pro bono graduation requirement of 20 hours. But law student pro bono service is much older. Law students have provided free legal assistance to the poor for over 100 years, very often for no credit or pay. The first recorded volunteer law student group dedicated to helping the poor was a law club at the University of Pennsylvania, which created a “legal aid dispensary” in 1893 (Reed 1928:217). “Modern” legal education was less than 20 years old.
Antecedents
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

It must be pointed out again that the modern-day Latin American trust is based on U.S. trust law, which in turn is derived from English law. Furthermore, as we examine in this chapter, the English trust derived, directly or indirectly, from the Roman fideicommissum and the fiducia. Therefore, the study of trusts must commence with the Roman antecedents. The antecedents provide elements to understand the nature and characteristics of the Latin American trust.
Securitization in Latin America
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

Given the voluminous amount of material that exists with respect to securitization in general, especially in the United States, this chapter will concentrate on the aspects or the subjects that are relevant to Latin America. You will find a brief explanation of many aspects from a Latin American perspective. The countries with the most experience are Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina (in order of importance), although there are securitizations in all Latin America.
Types of Latin American Trusts
Authors: Malumian Nicolas
Published: November 2023

The trust is a flexible concept of changeable characteristics. Although the U.S. law has no special classification of trusts, it permits different forms that lend themselves to classification. Scholars distinguished between discretionary trusts, participation trusts, active and passive trusts, express trusts, implicit trusts, executed trusts, resulting trust, and constructive trusts, among others. The classification made in Latin America by scholars and by the statutes and regulations is different from the one in the United States. A description of the different kinds of trusts in Latin America and their particular characteristics follow.
Thoreau’s Pencil
Authors: Baron Dennis
Published: November 2023

One defender of the pencil against the encroaching computer is Bill Henderson. Henderson is no countercultural terrorist hermit like Ted Kaczynski. He is a mainstream literary figure, director of the Pushcart Press, which showcases some of the best American contemporary short stories, essays, and poems. Yet Henderson has a problem with technology: he doesn’t like computers. In 1993 Henderson founded the Lead Pencil Club, a place where like-minded people could express their dislike of the new technology and celebrate the good old ways of writing.
Everyone’s an Author
Authors: Baron Dennis
Published: November 2023

Reading and writing may be two of the basic three Rs in American education, but schools have always emphasized reading over writing, no doubt because there have always been more consumers than creators of text, more readers than writers. But thanks to the internet, that gap may be narrowing dramati- cally. Each new stage in the history of writing technologies tends to expand the authors club, and the digital explosion seems to have opened that guild up to something approaching universal membership, at least so far as the universe of computer users goes. On the internet, everyone’s an author, every scrap of prose a publication.
Interrogation and Treatment of Detainees in the Global War on Terror
Authors: Jackson Dick
Published: November 2023

Interrogation is at the core of the legal debates regarding the al Qaeda and Taliban members detained by the U.S. government after the inception of the Global War on Terror (GWOT) in October 2001. The desire to obtain timely and accurate intelligence from captured terrorists drove the discussion, from the fall of 2001 to late 2008, when Supreme Court cases, legislation, and policy developments restored specific law of war standards to the U.S. military’s treatment and interrogation of detainees. In the interim, the military (with substantial policy direction from the leadership of the U.S. Department of Defense, the U.S. Department of Justice’s office of Legal Counsel [OLC], and the White House) essentially abandoned its long-standing reliance on law of war treaties and principles applicable to international armed conflict as the base-line for the treatment of detained terrorists, in favor of a narrowly drawn legal position that allowed the U.S. government to selectively use aggressive interrogation and treatment techniques that did not comport with the time-tested law of war standards traditionally applied by the military to all of its detainees. Although the change in approach to the application of the law of war was resisted at every level by the military legal community, some of the aggressive interrogation and treatment techniques adopted for these terrorists were able to migrate to the field and resulted in mistreatment of detainees in several instances [despite the efforts of many Judge Advocates in the chain of command]. It is only in the last three years that those standards of treatment have been restored and reinforced for military personnel engaged in GWOT.
Incarnational Social Thought in its Intellectual Context
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

So far we have considered incarnational theology entirely from an internalist point of view, as though it were merely a rebound off an earlier eschatology. But it was also one aspect of a mid-century doctrine of positivist liberalism whose main ethos, so far from being religious, was by implication secular. It may be helpful to consider this wider intellectual context, however sketchily, approaching it from scientific, philosophical, and literary angles in turn. In so doing, it will be necessary to rely extensively on the researches of the many scholars who have recently tackled this multi-faceted, mid-century phenomenon.
Gladstonian Liberalism: the Last Days of Atonement
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: November 2023

No one was more distressed by the eclipse of Bishop Butler than William Gladstone. He is alleged to have fulminated at the time of the Oxford University Commission that dropping Butler from the syllabus would be worse than the loss of four colleges, though he did not specify which ones. Gladstone had, of course, been reared an evangelical, but had suffered a reaction at Oxford, where he was dismayed by the extremism of the St Ebbes set under Bulteel. Like many other sons of evangelical businessmen coming of age round about 1830, he detested the growing influence of the pentecostalists and prophesiers, and he considered evangelicalism’s scope for ‘private judgment’ altogether too anarchical-too ‘individualising’ — for a period of revolutionary alarms. He not only ceased to be an evangelical, but became a lifelong and devoted member of its antithesis, the High Church. Yet for all his attachment to the historic and corporate Church as an institution, he clung fervently to the central tenets of moderate evangelicals: providence, sin, conversion, conscience, Atonement, salvation, and Judgment. Moreover, they were to inform his entire approach to political action.
Evidence of Inception Ceremonies in the Twelfth-Century Schools of Paris*
Authors: Spatz Nancy
Published: November 2023

The inception ceremony, the act by which a new master joined the guild or universitas of masters, is an integral part of the history of the origins of the University of Paris. Rashdall based his account of the rise of the university on the guild of masters’ gradual development from an informal fellowship of men with common professional interests into a full-fledged legal corporation, a corporation modelled after other professional guilds and religious confraternities. An examination of two incidences of early incep-tion ceremonies, the inceptions of Gerald of Wales in law in 1179, and Stephen Langton in theology c.1180, will prove the existence of the guild of masters prior to the de jure incorporation of the university in the thirteenth century.
The Educational Organization of the Augustinian Canons in England and Wales, and their University Life at Oxford, 1325–1448
Authors: Forde Simon
Published: November 2023

Among the major orders of the late medieval Church, the educational organization for the Carmelite Friars and the Regular Canons of the Rule of St Augustine (the Austin Canons)2 alone remains largely unstudied. This study considers the latter of these two. Although the focus here falls primarily on those Austin Canons who were educated at the University of Oxford, it will be necessary to place this in the context of various other elements in the Canons’ education, namely their novitiate training, almonry schools, and libraries. We shall also outline how the Order attempted to enforce the various statutes relating to higher education and how it endeavoured to maintain and improve standards.
The Person and the Act
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

That is, suicidal persons and suicidal acts will now be compared with others of the same kind; and let us look first at suicidal persons. Since the records are still highly imperfect it will be best to start in the particular on which data are least equivocal, sex.
Spain from 1931 to the Present
Authors: Balfour Sebastian
Published: November 2023

The proclamation of the Second Republic on 14 April 1931 was greeted with jubilation in the streets and squares of Spain. The new regime ushered in the first genuine democracy in Spain. In a country hitherto ruled by an oligarchy of notables, a privileged and largely intolerant clergy and an oppressive military establishment, the Republic promised modernity and social justice. Its supporters had high expectations. For the landless labourers of the South, it augured much-needed agrarian reform that would redistribute land and raise their pitiful living standards. For industrial and service workers, it promised better wages, union rights, and more bargaining power. For many others, the Republic meant sweeping social and cultural reform: it would extend rights to minorities, recognize the claims for autonomy of historic regions, educate and empower ordinary people.
The History of Government From the Earliest Times
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

No one has hitherto had the breadth of imagination and intellectual boldness to describe and analyse government throughout recorded history and throughout the world. This unique study of government is the culmination of the work of the late S. E. Finer, one of the leading political scientists of the twentieth century. Ranging over 5,000 years, from the Sumerian city state to the modern European nation state, five themes emerge: state-building, military formats, belief systems, social stratification, and timespan. The three volumes examine both representative and exceptional polities, and focus on political elites of different types. Empires, Monarchies, and the Modern State (Books Four and Five) opens with Tokugawa Japan and thence reviews the evidence of Ch'ing, Ottoman, and Mughal Empires, before turning to facets of the re-creation, `modernization', and transplantation of the European state model. It concludes with the synoptic review of `Pathways to the Modern State'. Professor Finer's cogent descriptive analysis offers both an invaluable reference resource and an exhilarating journey across time and space.
Alliance Cohesion And Peaceful Change In Nato
Authors: Tuschhoff Christian
Published: November 2023

Nearly a decade after German unification and the demise of the Soviet Union, it has become commonplace to note that NATO has not disappeared as a result of these fundamental changes in the European balance of power, notwithstanding the predictions of neo-realist scholars.1 Less attention has been paid, however, to the failure of neo-realist theory to account for NATO’s cohesion during the cold war despite the rise of German power in the 1950s and 1960s. Alliances have often broken apart because the balance of power within them altered, but this pattern of alignment and realign ment changed after the Second World War. Although the balance of power shifted from core NATO members France and Great Britain to a newer member, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), NATO not only per sisted but its cohesion grew and its mutual defence commitments were strengthened.2
Beyond the Frontiers: Karl Bryullov and Aleksandr Ivanov
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

Tropinin, Venetsianov, and the majority of Venetsianov’s students never travelled abroad. However, ever since 1716, when Peter the Great had first dispatched fourteen young Russians to Italy and Holland to study their respective arts and crafts, Russian artists had frequently been sent to Europe as part of their education. Initially the system was erratic, with artists being selected and sent at the whim of the Tsar or another member of the Imperial family. However, the procedure became more routine when the Academy of Arts began to award travel scholarships to the winners of the annual gold medal competition.
History of Universities
Authors: McLaughlin R Emmet
Published: November 2023

Volume IX of History of Universities contains the customary mix of learned articles, book reviews, conference reports, and bibliographical information, which makes this annual publication such an indispensable tool for the historian of higher education. The present volume carries a wide range of articles which cover the early history of Europe's universities, as well as their later development. As usual, the authors and contributors are drawn from all parts of the western world, giving the yearbook a decidedly international flavour. Of particular note is the article by the American historian of theology, R. Emmet McLaughlin, on the role of the medieval university in preparing the ground for the Reformation.
The King and the Court
Authors: Harriss Gerald
Published: November 2023

The advice books presented the ideal of royal governance from the viewpoint of subjects. They postulated a ruler whose political will was attuned—through nurture and counsel—to the common good of the realm. Yet in practice the king had a will and interests of his own, which were not necessarily in harmony with those of his subjects. The tensions between the king’s private and public capacities often came to the fore in the context of the royal household and court, which was at once his domestic environment, the arena for the display of majesty, and the channel for his political will. In the broad perspective of state formation the late medieval court was in transition from the small, mobile, military household of the earlier Middle Ages to the hierarchical palace establishments of the later ‘Court Society’, which constituted the hub of the absolutist state. In our period such linear development is less discernible than the court’s reﬂection, chameleon-like, of the character and policy of each monarch. While its prime purpose was to exalt the king’s majesty through ritual and magniﬁcence, it could at times epitomize chivalric prowess, religious piety, and political harmony, or indulgence, scandal, and faction. It both implemented and manipulated the king’s will. I shall consider in turn its domestic organization and ﬁnance, its function as the source of royal governance, and its role as a religious and cultural centre.
English Dictionaries for Foreign Learners: A History
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

This is the first history of dictionaries of English for foreign learners, from their origins in Japan and East Asia in the 1920s to the computerized compilations of the present. Monolingual dictionaries for foreign speakers were a revolutionary development at their outset, and now represent a coming-together of intellectual, technological and commercial forces almost unequalled in book publishing. As the author shows, the early history of EFL dictionaries was research-driven, arising directly from research in linguistic theory and language pedagogy; now it is user-driven, determined by what users require or are thought to require. The pioneering dictionaries were the work of individuals. Current dictionaries are the products of huge databases manipulated by sophisticated processing, as publishers strive to share an immense and constantly growing global market. The book has both a thematic and a chronological structure. Three chapters describe the historical sequence over a period of some sixty years. These alternate with chapters dealing with phraseology, computers and corpus linguistics, and research into dictionary users and uses - three subjects central to the development of ELT dictionaries over the last thirty years. Dr Cowie examines the way in which availability of massive computing power has transformed the recording and analysis of current speech, and shows how the growth of research into the users and uses of dictionaries has led to developments both in ELT lexicography and method. This readable and non-technical account is directed both at professionals in applied linguistics and English language teaching, and at lexicographers, but it will interest and fascinate everyone concerned with the analysis of English and faced with the challenge of recording of the subtelties of its grammar and meaning.
The New Zealand Spoken Component of ICE: Some Methodological Challenges
Authors: Holmes Janet
Published: November 2023

New Zealand linguists have been involved over the last eight years in planning and collecting data for a number of different written and spoken corpora of New Zealand English. These include the Wellington Corpus of New Zealand English (WCNZE) with its one million word written and one million word spoken components, and the New Zealand contributions to the International Corpus of English (ICE) Project, which involved a total of one million words composed of representative extracts of written and spoken New Zealand English. This paper describes some of the methodological problems encountered in collecting material for a spoken corpus of New Zealand English, including the issue of who counts as a speaker of New Zealand English, the problems of collecting data in particular categories, and the procedures put in place to process collected data. The idea of collecting a Corpus of New Zealand English had been discussed by New Zealand linguists since the mid-1980s. A number of New Zealand linguists had been using corpora in their research into vocabulary (Kennedy, 1991; Bauer and Nation, 1993), and the expression of speech functions such as quantity (Kennedy, 1987), causation (Kennedy and Fang, 1992) and certainty (Holmes, 1982, 1983). They were very aware of the valuable resources which had been made available by the Brown Corpus of American English in the early 1960s, the LOB Corpus of British written English in 1987, and the LUND Corpus of British spoken English in 1980. In 1987, after much debate about design and methodology, linguists at Victoria University began collecting data for the Wellington Corpus of Written and Spoken New Zealand English. Hence, when Sidney Greenbaum proposed that an International Corpus of English should be gathered (1988), it seemed sensible to ensure that New Zealand linguists also collected material suitable for inclusion in that corpus.
Interaction of Discourse Structure with Explicitness of Discourse Anaphoric Noun Phrases
Authors: Passonneau Rebecca J
Published: November 2023

Centering is a processing model that relates the local utterance-by utterance context, inference, and discourse anaphoric reference. As such, it potentially serves as a point of departure for a general theory of language use. However, its predictive force has been restricted to a small class of speech act constituents: unstressed or reduced forms of third-person definite pronouns. One question for extending centering is, how does local utterance processing relate to the global discourse context? Another open question is, how does centering interact with the global context in con straining the surface form of referring expressions other than pronouns? These are empirical questions. I present the results of two empirical studies directed at these larger questions.
Politeness Phenomena in England And Greece
Authors: Sifianou Maria
Published: November 2023

Politeness is crucial to successful communication and is consequently of great interest to those who study language and its social context. This book presents the first application of Brown and Levinson's ground-breaking theoretical work in a full-length comparative case-study. Maria Sifianou draws her data from a variety of sources, including literature (particularly drama), questionnaires, and personal observation. She attempts to discover the principles underlying social interaction in both intracultural and intercultural contexts, and discusses the extent to which the concept of politeness is common to different cultures. She argues that politeness is conceptualized differently and thus manifested differently in the two societies under study: Greeks tend to use more `positive' politeness devices than the English, who prefer more `negative' devices. Positive politeness is more closely related to friendliness, negative politeness to formality. Dr Sifianou's analysis illustrates and supports the general claim that, despite popular stereotypes, there can be no objective verification for the view that one nation is more polite than another.
Computational Approaches to the Lexicon: An Overview
Authors: Atkins B T S , Levin Beth , Zampolli A
Published: November 2023

Computational lexicology and lexicography, as the name implies, is a field with close links to other disciplines, in particular computer science, theoretical and computational linguistics, and theoretical and practical lexicography. It is a subject which over the past twenty-five years or so has acquired a personality of its own, with its own growing group of specialists and its own body of literature. Researchers in this new field come from all the contributing disciplines, as reflected, for instance, in the authorship of this volume, which offers a broad perspective on the work being done in the principal areas of activity, ranging from relevant aspects of linguistic theory, through the reusability of lexical resources, to machine-assisted dictionary compiling.
A Parser for Text c:orpora
Authors: Hindle Donald
Published: November 2023

For the many types of linguistic research that look to naturally occurring text as the central reflection of our knowledge of language, an effective parser would be an enormously useful tool. By parser, I have in mind a computer program that can provide a syntactic description of natural language text. The utility of such a tool would stem from its ability to recognize, from a stream of words, the syntactic relations in which the words participate, having disambiguated part of speech, discovered the root form of words, and resolved structural ambiguities. With the currently extensive (and rapidly increasing) set of machine-readable corpora available for research, an effective text parser would enable a wide-ranging search for examples of phenomena of interest, and would allow us to explore a range of questions that hand searching and intuitions cannot begin to pose.
Logical Grammar
Authors: Sampson Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

It is generally accepted by linguists and philosophers of logic that the surface or formal grammatical structure of natural-language texts does not correlate perfectly with the logic of the texts. Sentences have a “logical grammar” or “underlying grammar” (linguists such as Noam Chomsky have used the phrase “deep structure” in the same or a closely related sense) which clashes in some respects with the surface grammar of the sentences. The term “functional grammar” is also used in contrast to “formal grammar”.
Change, Chance, and Optimality
Authors: Mcmahon April
Published: November 2023

This book is about how languages change. It is also a devastating critique of a widespread linguistic orthodoxy. April McMahon argues that to provide a convincing explanation of linguistic change the roles of history and contingency must be accommodated in linguistic theory. She also shows that theoretical work in related disciplines can be used to assess the value of such theories. Optimality Theory, or OT as it is usually called, dominates contemporary phonology, especially in the USA, and is becoming increasingly influential in syntax and language acquisition. Having set out its basis principles, Professor McMahon assesses their explanatory power in analysing language change and its residues in current phonological systems. Using cross-linguistic data, and drawing comparisons with other theories inside and outside linguistics, she shows that OT is incapable of accounting for language change, without the addition of rules and an appreciation of chance and historical contingency that would then undermine its theoretical underpinnings. OT relies on innateness and needs to discuss the origins of allegedly genetically-specified features. The author considers the nature and evolution of the human language capacity, and demonstrates a profound mismatch between the predictions of evolutionary biology and the claims for innateness made in OT.
Optimality in a Complex World: Additions and Extensions
Authors: Mcmahon April
Published: November 2023

Kager (1999: 187) sums up the arguments for Optimality Theory from the previous chapter in his claim that OT is ‘conceptually superior’, on the basis that his account of syncope in Southeastern Tepehuan, for instance, requires only constraints, whereas a classical derivational analysis would also need rules. That is, ‘we find that a rule-based analysis uses excessive machinery to achieve effects that an OT analysis attributes to a single interaction’ (Kager 1999: 188). Of course, if it were really a question of ‘excessive machinery’ on one hand and straightforward ranking and evaluation involving straightforward constraints on the other, there would be no contest. And indeed, there are some phonological phenomena which seem amenable to OT analysis in just this way; specifically, metrical and prosodic processes, including Kager’s Southeastern Tepehuan case, fall regularly into this category. These are just the areas of phonology which were analysed, pre-OT, in a way most closely resembling OT: they often reflect cross-linguistic variation of small sets of units, with a restricted set of distributional options, and are relatively unaffected by complex morphophonological alternations.
Essays on Time-Based Linguistic Analysis
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this volume is to make easily available a representative selection of Charles-James N. Bailey's views on linguistic theory. Several previously published papers have been extensively revised and updated for the collection, which also contains two new chapters. The collection is flanked by a new Prologue and Epilogue, and the whole is preceded by Peter Mühlhäusler's Introduction which offers a critical appraisal of Professor Bailey's contribution to the field. In the Prologue the author discusses the rationale for a Developmentalist, or time-based, framework for the scientific analysis of languages; in the Epilogue he laborates a new approach to historical linguistics. These initial and final chapters reflect the volume's twofold emphasis on time-based analysis both in descriptive (multi-dialectal) analyses of languages and in historical analysis. For historical analysis Professor Bailey contrasts his approach with the current paradoxical practice of employing static models that exclude a time parameter - an approach which he characterizes as 'synchronic-idiolectal'. In doing so he offers explanations for matters which have not previously been accounted for in a satisfactory way: why and when languages change, the disruptive effects of language contact in triggering important kinds of change and the role of markedness in complex changes. Concentrating on the sound system and syntax of English, he presents a time-based model with rules for generating highly complex, multiphased phenomena which have been, until now, impervious to linguistic analysis.
Conceptualizing Dialects as Implicational Constellations rather than as Entities Bounded by Isoglossic Bundles
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

There are no grounds for thinking that the pursuit of dialectology with isoglossic approaches and in terms of the word geographies and similar productions that in the past have eventuated from this approach will ever tell us more than the little that they already have about human language, about the way languages vary, or finally-the ultimate goal-about human nature. The disproved assumptions and theoretically barren models and methods of the past have never surmounted the discrediting arguments that have been lodged against them (see further on). For such reasons, I will be advocating a change in approach during the coming years. Before saying briefly what sorts of change I will argue for, let me note that the data already gathered and to be gathered in dialectological research are a treasure which offers the theory of language and the theory of man far greater benefits than can be derived from cartological displays. The manner in which I think these data could be more profitably collated during the coming years of research is a purely linguistic one that befits our roles as linguists, as I will explain. Preliminary thrusts in this direction have, it should be noted, already contributed substantially to our understanding of the structure of language and its transpersonal use and provided analyses for problems in dialectology not amenable to other means of dealing with these data-including cartographic portrayals.
Research on Singaporean English
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T
Published: November 2023

Although it is difficult to be precise about exactly when research on SgE commenced, the first book on the subject was published in 1974: Tongue, The English of Singapore and Malaysia. The work, which is ‘designed for the general reader and not for the specialist’ (p. v), includes a wide range of features typical of the local variety of English. However, it is unfortunate that one of the chapters is entitled ‘Some Frequent Sub-Standard Forms’ which he claims (p. lll) are ‘found, generally speaking, in the language of the less well-educated members of society but adopted by educated people when communicating with the latter and sometimes among themselves for humorous effect’. Actually, many of these forms occur in the speech of the highly (English-medium) educated in informal situations, e.g. the use of discourse particles, especially la(h) and a(h), and some of them even in quite formal situations, e.g. omission of be as copula or auxiliary, variation in the use of prepositions. There is no suggestion in Tongue’s book that SgE is in any sense a continuum and that there is system in the occurrence or nonoccurrence of certain features. Despite these reservations, however, Tongue deserves credit as a pioneer and the book is a valuable source of examples. Furthermore, Tongue makes some interesting comments on the development of this localized variety and on the legitimacy of such varieties.
Substratum or Bioprogram?
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T
Published: November 2023

The figures given in Chapter 7, based on Ho’s careful analysis of her data, certainly do not give the impression of random variation and suggest that Bickerton’s bioprogram cannot be totally ignored when looking at the acquisition of a second language. A comparison of the findings for past tense marking with Bickerton’s results is given in Table 8.1. Ho’s investigation is based on a corpus of 8,725 past-reference verbs. Bickerton’s survey is based on 1,000 verbs each in a decreolizing situation in Guyana and Hawaii (cf. Bickerton 1981:164–5).
Verbs of Movement: Come/Go, Bring/Take, Send, Follow, and Fetch
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T
Published: November 2023

These verbs are discusssed in the above order according to their degree of frequency. It would not have been feasible to make a quantitative investigation of the use of come and go as the number of tokens is extremely high.
Jespersen’ s Cycle Revisited: Formal Properties of Grammaticalization
Authors: Kemenade Ans Van
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I present a description and analysis of the rise and fall of multiple sentential negation in English. The cyclic development identified by Jespersen (1917), in essence a case of grammaticalization, can be traced in detail, with the proviso that in English multiple sentential negation is attested rather earlier than has been generally assumed.
Polarity Items in Romance: Underspecification and Lexical Change
Authors: Martins Ana Maria
Published: November 2023

Features play a central role in the Minimalist version of the Principles and Parameters model of grammar. Under Minimalist assumptions, the only elements available to the computational system for human language (CHL) are features and objects constructed from them, namely lexical items and syntactic objects of greater complexity formed through successive application of operations of CHL Acquiring a language, then, would involve at least constructing lexical items (by assembling in a principled way features from a presumably universal set) and refining CHL in one of the possible ways (cf. Chomsky 1998). Assuming a view of grammatical change as closely related to language acquisition (see Pintzuk, Tsoulas, and Warner in this volume), we will expect grammatical change to correlate to the acquisition tasks at work in fixing a language: making a particular choice of parameter values and lexicon. The change I will be concerned with is a change in the featural make-up of a certain kind of lexical items, namely polarity items. Since features are what feed the operations of CHL, this lexical change has, as expected, significant grammatical effects.