bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Methods Used to Kill Fish: Field Observations and Literature Reviewed
Authors: Robb D H F , Kestin S C
Published: January 2023

This paper reviews the impact on fish welfare of a wide range of slaughter methods used commercially around the world. Because the end result of the slaughter is a food product, and because of the well-known relationship between an animal's welfare and subsequent meat quality, the effects of the slaughter methods on the quality of the flesh are also reviewed where possible. Fish slaughter methods are incredibly diverse, but fall into two broad categories: those that induce loss of sensibility slowly, and those that achieve this rapidly. This paper shows that, in general, the methods that induce loss of sensibility over a long period of time tend to impinge more on the welfare of the animal and are detrimental to the overall quality of the carcass. Methods that cause a rapid loss of sensibility result in the best welfare, providing that they are carried out correctly. They may also produce the highest quality product from the stock offish.
Philosophical Debate on the Nature of Well-Being: Implications for Animal Welfare
Authors: Appleby M C , Sandøe P
Published: January 2023

There has been much consideration of well-being in philosophy, especially of human well-being, which contributes to our understanding of animal welfare. Three common approaches to well-being are presented here, which map approximately onto three possible ideas about animal welfare. Perfectionism and other forms of ‘objective list’ theories suggest that there are various values that should be realised or various things that an individual ought to have for his life to be a good life. In the case of humans, this is based on the concept of human nature. This approach is reflected in two ideas about animal welfare: first, that animals should live natural lives (which includes consideration of an animal's nature or ‘telos’), and second, that welfare is concerned with functioning or fitness of animals. The two other approaches are subjective: in other words, they relate solely to the mental processes of the subject. The first, desire fulfilment, suggests that well-being is defined by the satisfaction of desires or preferences. The other, hedonism, states that well-being is the presence of pleasant mental states and the absence of unpleasant ones. These two approaches are both relevant to the idea that the welfare of animals relates solely to their feelings. That idea corresponds most closely to hedonism, so it may be that preferences are most relevant in helping to reveal feelings. However, it is sometimes implied that satisfaction of preferences is itself part of feelings. It would also be possible to maintain, as in the desire fulfilment approach to human well-being, that animal welfare consists of preference satisfaction itself. These possibilities need to be more clearly distinguished. Arguments for and against each approach to well-being are presented, so that scientists may be more aware of the strengths and weaknesses of their own ideas about animal welfare.
The Influence of Auditory Stimulation on the Behaviour of Dogs Housed in a Rescue Shelter
Authors: Wells D L , Graham L , Hepper P G
Published: January 2023

This study explored the influence of five types of auditory stimulation (human conversation, classical music, heavy metal music, pop music, and a control) on the behaviour of 50 dogs housed in a rescue shelter. The dogs were exposed to each type of auditory stimulation for 4 h, with an intervening period of one day between conditions. The dogs ‘ position in their kennels (front, back), their activity (moving, standing, sitting, resting, sleeping), and their vocalisation (barking, quiet, other) were recorded over 4 h at 10 min intervals during each condition of auditory stimulation. The dogs’ activity and vocalisation were significantly related to auditory stimulation. Dogs spent more time resting and less time standing when classical music was played than when any of the other stimuli were played. Exposure to heavy metal music encouraged dogs to spend significantly more of their time barking than did other types of auditory stimulation. Classical music resulted in dogs spending significantly more of their time quiet than did other types of auditory stimulation. It is suggested that the welfare of sheltered dogs may be enhanced through exposure to appropriate forms of auditory stimulation. Classical music appears particularly beneficial, resulting in activities suggestive of relaxation and behaviours that are considered desirable by potential buyers. This form of music may also appeal to visitors, resulting in enhanced perceptions of the rescue shelter's environment and an increased desire to adopt a dog from such a source.
The Effect of Contact with Conspecifics and Humans on Calves' Behaviour and Stress Responses
Authors: Raussi S , Lensink B J , Boissy A , Pyykkönen M , Veissier I
Published: January 2023

In this study, we analysed the effects of social and human contact on calves ‘ behaviour and stress responses. We also measured the effect of this contact on calves ‘ reactions to novel conspecifics and novel humans. Sixty-four calves were housed either alone or in pairs and received either minimal human contact or ‘additional’ human contact (stroking and talking). At six, 10 and 14 weeks of age, the behaviour of the calves was recorded in their home pens. Calves were then tested in an unfamiliar arena either alone, with an unfamiliar calf, or with an unfamiliar man, and in a Y-maze with one arm leading to a calf and the other to a man. An adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) challenge was performed in order to assess chronic stress responses. Compared with individually housed calves, pair-housed calves were more active and made fewer contacts with their neighbours when in their home pens; they were also less active in the arena, spent more time near the calf in the Y-maze, and had lower Cortisol responses to ACTH. Calves that had received additional human contact interacted more with the man in the arena and had lower mean heart rates than those that had received minimal contact. This study confirmed that calves feel a need for social contacts and that pair-housing can lower the stress felt by calves separated from their conspecifics. Additional contact from stockpersons increases calves ‘ likelihood of approaching humans but cannot compensate for their lack of social partners. Hence, when calves are separated, the duration of the separation should be limited, and visual and physical contact with other calves should be provided.
Outline of a Risk Assessment: The Welfare of Future Xeno-Donor Pigs
Authors: Dahl K , Sandøe P , Johnsen P F , Lassen J , Hansen A Kornerup
Published: January 2023

The welfare of transgenic animals is often not considered prior to their generation. However, we demonstrate here how a welfare risk assessment can be carried out before transgenic animals are created. We describe a risk assessment identifying potential welfare problems in transgenic pigs generated for future xeno-donation of organs. This assessment is based on currently available information concerning transgenic animal models in which one or more transgenes relevant to future xeno-donation have been inserted. The welfare risk assessment reveals that future xeno-donor pigs may have an increased tendency toward septicaemias, reduced fertility and/or impaired vision. The transgenic animal models used in generating hypotheses about the welfare of xeno-donor pigs can also assist in the testing of these hypotheses. To ensure high levels of welfare of transgenic animals, analogous risk assessments can be used to identify potential welfare problems during the early stages of the generation of new transgenic animals. Such assessments may form part of the basis on which licenses to generate new transgenic animals are granted to research groups.
Stability of Breeding and Non-Breeding Groups of Golden-Headed Lion Tamarins(Leontopithecus Chrysomelas)
Authors: De Vleeschouwer K , Leus K , Van Elsacker L
Published: January 2023

In Callitrichid primates, offspring remain in their natal group beyond the age of sexual maturity, increasing the group's inclusive fitness by cooperatively rearing their siblings. Contraception of the dominant female in these groups may alter the associated costs and benefits of this cooperative rearing in such a way that offspring themselves attempt to breed when a period longer than the normal inter-birth interval of one year has elapsed. Contraception of the dominant female may also induce changes in socio-sexual interactions between group members, which can lead to increased aggression after a short period. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of aggression in 16 captive groups of golden-headed lion tamarins(Leontopithecus chrysomelas)under three conditions: 1) no contraception used; 2) contraception used and offspring younger than one year present within the group; and 3) contraception used and all offspring in the group older than one year. We found that the probability of aggression occurring in the groups was best predicted by logistic regression models containing the factors ‘group size ‘ and ‘overall proportion of males ‘ or ‘number of sons ‘. Aggression was more likely in larger groups with a high proportion of males or a large number of sons. This effect was significantly stronger for groups in which all offspring were older than one year. Absence of dispersal opportunities and differences in male and female reproductive strategies may explain the observed patterns. The increased instability of large non-breeding groups presents a problem when using long-term contraceptive methods and should be taken into account when making decisions on the most suitable population-control procedures.
The Effects of Early Separation on the Dairy Cow and Calf
Authors: Flower F C , Weary D M
Published: January 2023

Most dairy producers believe that early separation of the cow and calf is necessary for reproductive efficiency, to minimise health problems and to improve the ease of milking. In addition, many consider that it is less distressing for both animals if separation occurs earlier rather than later. In this paper we review the welfare and production effects of early separation on the cow and calf. Research has shown that the cow's immediate behavioural response to separation from the calf increases with increased contact with the calf, but other work has shown that cow health and productivity are positively affected by the presence of the calf. Calf response to separation also increases when the calf spends more time with the cow, but there are long-term benefits of prolonged contact in terms of sociality, fearfulness and future maternal behaviour. Health, weight gain and future productivity are also improved when the calf is allowed to spend more time with the cow.
Adrenocorticotrophin-Induced Stress Response in Captive Vicunas (Vicugna Vicugna) in the Andes of Chile
Authors: Bonacic C , Macdonald D W , Villouta G
Published: January 2023

The vicuna is mainly used in two ways: wild captured, shorn and returned to the wild; or wild captured and maintained in captivity as part of a programme of sustainable use in the Andes of South America. Farming of wild vicunas has hitherto involved no assessment of their welfare. In this study we measured a set of basic blood parameters in order to characterise baseline values in captivity, and we then characterised adrenal cortical responsiveness using an ACTH challenge. The ACTH challenge is widely used for assessing neuroendocrine responses to stress and is now increasingly being applied to studies of wild animals’ welfare. Five male vicunas were injected with exogenous ACTH and their responses compared with those of a control group injected with placebo. Behavioural and haematological changes were monitored. Injection of ACTH produced a 4.5-fold increase in cortisol concentration within 1 h. Total white blood cell count almost doubled in less than 5 h. The neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio also changed, with a decrease in lymphocytes and an increase in neutrophils, suggesting that the neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio was affected by the ACTH challenge. Packed cell volume increased from 40% to 44%. Observations of individual vicunas during sampling revealed no discernible behavioural differences between treated and control animals; however, animals that had higher initial baseline cortisol concentration made more attempts to escape, and vocalised more during handling, regardless of whether they were treated with ACTH or placebo. The results reveal the different blood parameter levels associated with stress in different species and highlight the hazard of interpreting stress levels in one species on the basis of measures calibrated in another. We provide calibrated reference values for future studies of stress in vicunas.
The Physiological Impact of Wool-Harvesting Procedures in Vicunas (Vicugna Vicugna)
Authors: Bonacic C , Macdonald D W
Published: January 2023

A current programme of wildlife utilisation in the Andean region involves the capture of wild vicunas, their shearing, transport and, in some cases, captive farming. The effects of these interventions on the physiology, and thus welfare, of wild vicunas are unknown. As a first step to quantifying and thus mitigating any adverse welfare consequences of this harvest, we measured the immediate and longer-term physical and physiological effects of capture, shearing and transport. A sample of juvenile male vicunas was captured. Six were shorn at the capture site, six after two weeks in captivity, and the remaining seven animals were kept as controls for 39 days. In general, vicunas showed changes in blood glucose, packed cell volume, cortisol, and neutrophil:lymphocyte ratios within 4-6 h following capture. Creatine kinase was also affected by capture and transport, showing a peak plasma level 24 h after capture, which was followed by a peak plasma level of aspartate aminotransferase four days after capture and transport. After 12 days in captivity, all of the vicunas showed physiological parameters close to expected baseline values for the species. We could detect no differences in physiological parameters between animals that were captured, sheared and transported and those that were only captured and transported. Similarly, we could detect no differences in most responses of vicunas between those sheared after 12 days in captivity and a control group held under similar conditions but from which blood was sampled without shearing. A further comparison between animals sheared immediately after capture and animals sheared after 12 days in captivity revealed that creatine kinase levels were higher in the former group. During transport prior to release back into the wild, only minor injuries (lip bleeding and limb contusions) and a significant increase in rectal temperature were observed. Our results provide a basis for recommendations to improve the welfare of vicunas during the wool harvest, and provide baseline and stress-response data to serve as reference points for further studies of vicuna welfare.
Stockmanship and Farm Animal Welfare
Authors: Boivin X , Lensink J , Tallet C , Veissier I
Published: January 2023

Human factors (attitudes, personality traits, self-esteem, job satisfaction) strongly determine our behaviour towards animals, animal production and animal welfare. Recent studies have emphasised positive human contacts as indicators of a stockperson's positive attitude towards animals and towards animal welfare in general. Stockmanship can be improved by careful selection of people and/or by training. However, little is known of the biological basis of the effect of stock handling procedures on the welfare of animals. The animal's perception of the stockperson (based both on emotional responses and cognitive aspects such as anticipation, recognition and categorisation), and the existence of sensitive periods in an animal's life, need to be explored in more depth, especially under farm conditions. We need to consider the complexity of human behaviour (eg husbandry practices, balance between positive and negative interactions, predictability, controllability) and its effect on animal welfare from the animal's point of view throughout its whole life. This paper identifies the importance of positive human contacts for both animals and stockpeople, and highlights the challenge to maintain such positive contacts despite the trend in modern agriculture to increase the number of animals per stockperson. This requires better knowledge of animal genetics, socialisation to humans during sensitive periods, and management of the social group. We emphasise the ethical importance of the human-animal relationship in the context of farm animal welfare and productivity.
On-Farm Assessment of the Effect of Management and Housing Type on Behaviour and Welfare in Dairy Cattle
Authors: Haskell M J , Rennie L J , Bowell V A , Wemelsfelder F , Lawrence A B
Published: January 2023

There is a trend toward increasing intensification in dairy farming in the United Kingdom. In particular, there is concern over systems in which cows are housed throughout the year, as the behavioural restriction implicit in these systems is associated with poor welfare in other species. The aim of this on-going project is to determine how this affects the behaviour and welfare of dairy cattle. A range of behavioural, physical and health measures are being used to assess cow welfare on about 40 commercial British dairy farms. Initially, five farm types were identified from analysis of returns from a farmer questionnaire. Milk production level and housing type were the principal factors explaining variation in farm type. The sample groups are: high-, mid- and low-production cubicle-housing units, mid-production straw-court units, and cubicle-housing high-production zero-grazing units. Observations will take place over three winter housing periods (2000/01 to 2002/03), with recording on each unit taking five days. Our main hypothesis is that the behavioural and physical responses of ‘at-risk’ younger cows provide a sensitive indication of farm-level ‘stress’. Cows are marked according to age, and the feed-face videotaped continuously to record feeding time and social interactions. Temporal organisation of behaviour will be analysed using fractal mathematics and qualitative assessment approaches used in a human interaction test. Cow cleanliness, condition score, response to a novel object and the incidences of lameness and leg injury are recorded, and building quality is assessed. Ultimately, multivariate methods will be used to test our underlying hypothesis and to assess effects of housing and production type on behaviour and welfare. This analysis may identify key objective measures of welfare for use in farm assurance schemes.
Influence of Sample Size and Experimenter on Reliability of Measures of Avoidance Distance in Dairy Cows
Authors: Waiblinger S , Menke C
Published: January 2023

In the present study we evaluated the influence of different sample sizes and different experimenters on the reliability of measures of avoidance distance (AD) at farm level. On 29 dairy farms the AD of 55-100% of the cows was assessed by two different experimenters (E1 and E2). For both experimenters the herd median of AD (ADME) and the percentage of animals that could be touched (Touch%) were calculated. The reliability between experimenters was assessed by Spearman rank correlation coefficients. To assess the influence of sample size on reliability of AD, the tested animals were randomly divided into two halves (H1 and H2), and ADME and Touch% were calculated for both halves and correlated with each other, with total ADME and total Touch%, and with the behaviour of the milkers. All measures of AD were highly correlated between experimenters (ADME rs= 0.86; Touch% rs= 0.81). On farms with a higher value for ADME, however, some discrepancy was found between experimenters in ADME and Touch%. Smaller sample size reduced the number of significant correlations with milkers’ behaviour. AD of H1 and H2 correlated only moderately (rs= 0.38-0.43). In sum, smaller sample size reduced reliability and validity. Between-observer reliability of AD was relatively high, but there may be some observer influence. Further investigations are necessary to optimise the measures.
Subjective and Objective Assessment of Pain and Discomfort Due to Lameness in Dairy Cattle
Authors: O'Callaghan K A , Cripps P J , Downham D Y , Murray R D
Published: January 2023

Pain experienced by lame cattle is often masked by their instinctive stoicism, leading to delayed detection and treatment of lameness. This paper investigates the usefulness of posture scoring during locomotion and the evaluation of daily activity levels as indicators of pain and discomfort resulting from lameness in dairy cattle. In this study, 345 lactating cattle were observed over a seven-month winter housing period. The posture of each cow was scored twice weekly using a subjective five-point numerical rating scale. Daily activity levels were measured objectively using pedometers. The effect of lameness on behaviour was addressed. Increased posture scores were associated with the presence of foot lesions (P < 0.001) and with reduced daily activity levels (P < 0.001). In comparison to sound cows, lame cows showed lower daily activity levels (P < 0.001). These results improve understanding of pain-related behaviours in cattle, and such an approach may assist future development of welfare assessment systems.
Selection of Parameters for On-Farm Welfare-Assessment Protocols in Cattle and Buffalo
Authors: Winckler C , Capdeville J , Gebresenbet G , Hörning B , Roiha U , Tosi M , Waiblinger S
Published: January 2023

On-farm welfare-assessment protocols should be based on valid, reliable and feasible indicators which reflect the animal's state in the context of the housing and management system. This paper focuses on the selection of parameters for cattle and buffalo from welfare research, from assessment protocols used in different European countries and from the literature. Three groups of parameters are described: (1) parameters which can readily be included, such as lameness, injuries, body condition score, cleanliness, getting up/lying down behaviour, agonistic social behaviour, oral abnormal behaviours, human behaviour toward the animals and measures of the animal-human relationship; (2) parameters which require more information on reliability, such as indicators of good welfare and housing factors; and (3) parameters which are regarded as important but so far lack reliability in most countries, such as the incidence of clinical diseases and mortality.
Differences in the Expression of Genes in Lame and Normal Broiler Chickens Identified by Subtraction Hybridisation
Authors: Butterworth A , Reeves N A , Knowles T G , Kestin S C
Published: January 2023

In the UK, broiler chickens are normally slaughtered at about six weeks of age when they weigh approximately 2.2 kg; this contrasts with the growth of an ‘unimproved’ traditional strain of bird such as a White Sussex, which would weigh about 800 g at the same age. Lameness, characterised by abnormal gait, posture and impaired walking ability, can be prevalent in these rapidly growing birds and has been highlighted as a major welfare concern. It is during the later stages of rearing, when the bird is becoming heavy and may be achieving weight gains of over 50 g per day, that lameness begins to have an economic and welfare impact on the flock and to compromise the behaviour of large numbers of birds. A study was carried out to identify potential differences in the expression of genes between groups of lame and normal broiler chickens using subtraction hybridisation. The first group comprised lame birds with measurable gait abnormalities, and the second group comprised sound (not lame) birds. Both populations came from within the same flock. After extraction of mRNA and creation of cDNA, subtractive hybridisation was performed to eliminate genetic sequences common to both populations. The resultant DNA was separated and presented for sequence data analysis and comparison with a large sequence database. Some examples of the subtracted sequences detected are given, and the potential significance of these sequence differences at the individual and group level is discussed.
Assessing Animal Welfare in a Strictly Synchronous Production System: The Mink Case
Authors: Møller S H , Hansen S W , Sørensen J T
Published: January 2023

Most on-farm welfare assessment systems have been developed for use in dairy and pig farms. These production systems are non-synchronous, in the sense that the same processes occur continuously throughout the year. Animal welfare during most or all phases of production may therefore be assessed at any time of the year, except for some effects of season. Many domesticated farm animals such as sheep, goats, deer and mink are seasonally synchronised in their production, in the same way as were their wild ancestors. A comprehensive welfare assessment system including animal-based indicators for these species must therefore take an entire production cycle into consideration. This can be illustrated by a welfare assessment protocol developed and tested by the Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences (DIAS) for mink production. The DIAS concept is based on indicators from four sources: the system, the system's management, animal behaviour, and animal health. An advantage of seasonality is that the measurement of welfare indicators can be optimised and standardised in terms of age/season and sample size, making reliable results relatively cheap to obtain. Furthermore, there is ample time to plan the requisite interventions. A disadvantage of seasonality is that the entire herd may have been at risk when a welfare problem is disclosed by direct animal-based indicators; for example, the entire herd may have been exposed to a social grouping causing bite marks, which can be observed at pelting. Based on observation of the social grouping, this can be corrected before fighting and biting occurs. Based on observation of the bite marks, corrections are postponed until next season. Welfare assessment intended for decision support in a synchronous production system should therefore include a higher proportion of early indicators based on the system and management, in order to prevent the development of potential welfare problems involving the entire herd. The assessment of animal-based indicators may be relatively cheap and more reliable in synchronous production compared to non-synchronous production, and these indicators are therefore given high priority as they reflect the welfare resulting from the corrections made based on indirect system and management indicators.
Evaluating possible indicators of insensibility and death in cetacea
Authors: Butterwortt A , Sadler L , Knowles TG , Kestin SC
Published: January 2023

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) currently uses imprecise indicators of death to evaluate the welfare consequences of whaling. A recent independent meeting of animal welfare scientists proposed a series of tests to determine the states of sensibility/insensibility/death of whales. As a precursor to assessing these tests in the field, conjoint analysis was used to evaluate expert opinion and to identify tests deemed most suitable for establishing insensibility and death. The results of this study indicated that experts considered measurement of breathing rate, cardiac activity, coordinated swimming and ocular temperature to be among the most useful for determining that animals were not dead. Furthermore, experts considered that judgements that an animal was dead should be made only after application of a series of different tests. The tests identified may be valuable for assessing stranded whales or animals taken as part of whaling operations.
Long-term detrimental effects of tooth clipping or grinding in piglets: a histological approach
Authors: Hay W , Rue J , Sansac C , Brunel G , Prunier A
Published: January 2023

The needle teeth of piglets are often cut shortly after birth to prevent damage to littermates and the sow's udder. This practise is, however, contested because the pain it inflicts to piglets may counterbalance its benefits. The purpose of this experiment was to assess the consequences of tooth resection over the subsequent days and weeks by histological examination. Two techniques were compared: tooth clipping with clippers, and tooth grinding with a rotating grindstone. Twenty piglets received each of three treatments (one treatment per half-jaw): clipping, grinding, and control (teeth left intact). Four piglets were slaughtered at each of the following stages: 3, 6, 13, 27 and 48 days after tooth resection. Their teeth were then collected and prepared for histological examination. The analysis revealed that both clipping and grinding induce lesions such as pulp cavity opening, fracture, haemorrhage, infiltration or abscess, and osteodentine formation. Wost of these effects appeared sooner and were of greater magnitude after clipping than after grinding. Because most of the observed histological alterations are known to cause severe pain in humans, it is likely that tooth resection — even when achieved through grinding — induces severe pain in piglets. Thus, the rationale of this practice should be re-evaluated.
Housing conditions affect self-administration of anxiolytic by laboratory mice
Authors: Sherwin CM , Olsson IAS
Published: January 2023

Tests of emotionality conducted outside the home-cage show that rodents from standard laboratory housing are more anxious than animals from enriched housing; however, it is not known if this also indicates increased anxiety within the home-cage. We used a novel method, recording the self-administration of a psychoactive anxiolytic, to examine home-cage anxiety levels of laboratory mice (three per cage) in Standard (n = 10 cages), Unpredictable (n = 10 cages) and Enriched (n = 6 cages) housing. The mice were given a choice of drinking either non-drugged water or a solution of the benzodiazepine Midazolam. There was a significant effect of housing on the proportion of total fluid consumed from the bottle containing Midazolam solution (P = 0.02). Mice from Standard and Unpredictable cages drank a greater proportion than mice from Enriched cages. This indicates that mice from the Standard and Unpredictable laboratory caging may have been experiencing greater anxiety than mice from the Enriched cages. There was also a significant effect of bottle position (P = 0.002). Mice from the Standard and Unpredictable cages drank a greater proportion of total fluid from the bottle containing Midazolam solution when this was toward the rear of the cage rack, ie in a location that was less susceptible to extraneous disturbance. Monitoring self-administration of psychoactive drugs as a method of welfare assessment could be applied to a wide variety of housing conditions, husbandry practices, or experimental procedures that putatively induce negative mental states. The major finding is that standard cages for laboratory rodents may induce greater anxiety than enriched cages. This is discussed in terms of animal welfare and the validity of data from animals housed in minimalistic environments.
Effects of the addition of sand and string to pens on use of space, activity, tarsal angulations and bone composition in broiler chickens
Authors: Arnould C , Bizeray D , Faure JM , Leterrier C
Published: January 2023

Fast-growing broiler chickens use pen-space heterogeneously and have low activity levels, related in part to leg problems. The aim of this study was to test the effects of the addition of string and sand trays to rearing pens on the use of space, levels of activity and leg problems. Broiler chickens were reared in 12 pens (40 birds per pen). Drinkers and feeders only were present in the six control pens (C group), whereas the six other pens were enriched (E group) with two sand trays and string. Behaviour was recorded by scan and focal sampling on days 2-3, 13-14, 23-24 and 34-35. Bodyweight, the occurrence of tarsal deformities and the composition of tibiotarsi were measured on day 37. Chickens from the E group spent more time and stood more often in the area enriched with sand than did the g group birds. ghickens in the E group foraged in the sand throughout the rearing period, and their foraging activities were greater than those of the C group birds. They had little interest in the strings. Locomotor activity during standing bouts was enhanced in the E group on days 2-3 only. Bodyweight at day 37, the occurrence of tarsal deformities and the composition of tibiotarsi were not significantly different between groups. These results indicate that sand could attract chickens into areas that are usually rarely used, which may reduce problems resulting from their heterogeneous distribution. However, the results also indicate the difficulty of stimulating locomotion.
Disruptive effects of standard husbandry practice on laboratory rat social discrimination
Authors: Burman OHP , Mendl M
Published: January 2023

Elements of husbandry procedures, such as handling, may disrupt rodent social behaviour. Such effects may be contingent upon the familiarity between individuals and upon the quality and quantity of the disruption. We investigated this issue using laboratory rats. We placed 36 rats into groups of three. At the point of group formation, and at 24 h, 7 days and two weeks afterwards, individuals received one of three treatments: ‘handling’, exposure to novel conspecific ‘urine’, or ‘control’ (undisturbed), for a duration of either 5 or 15 mins. We used a social recognition test to measure the ability of the rats to recognise the urine of group members of increasing familiarity following the implementation of these treatments. The ‘control’ treatment did not appear to disrupt social recognition. The 5 min ‘urine’ treatment appeared to disrupt recognition only when the rats had received the briefest experience of the ‘familiar’ urine (5 mins). The 5 min ‘handling’ treatment, however, appeared far more disruptive, with an apparent disruption of social recognition even when familiarity with the urine donor was high (eg 7 days of group housing). Both the ‘handling’ and ‘urine’ treatments appeared more disruptive when presented for an increased duration (15 mins). There was also some evidence that increased experience of the handling procedure might reduce its disruptive effect. The results of this study have several implications for the welfare of laboratory-housed rats, and these are discussed.
Applying animal learning theory: training captive animals to comply with veterinary and husbandry procedures
Authors: Young RJ , Cipreste CF
Published: January 2023

Animals within zoo environments are learning continuously: they learn signals that predict when food is going to arrive or that the presence of a certain person means that something unpleasant may happen. They may learn to control their environment and caregivers: for example, they may learn that if they perform a particular behaviour (eg repetitive behaviour) they will receive a reward (ie food or attention from a caregiver). Using standard operant conditioning and classical conditioning techniques we can easily modify the behaviour of animals in zoos. Animals can be trained to comply with almost all minor veterinary procedures and examinations, such as injection, the measurement of heart rate, the cleaning of teeth and the treatment of superficial injuries. Compliance can be achieved using standard animal learning abilities without the need for punishment type I (ie physical punishment) or immobilisation (chemical or physical). In this paper we discuss how we apply learning theory to such procedures, the dangers associated with such programs (eg injury to the trainer) and the benefits (eg the treatment of large endangered animal species without the use of anaesthetic drugs). Additionally, we briefly discuss the selection and management of animal trainers. The methods we describe here are equally applicable to laboratory, farm and pet animals. Finally, as with all management processes applied to animals, a written policy on animal training needs to be produced by any institution training animals.
A scoring system to evaluate physical condition and quality of life in geriatric zoo mammals
Authors: Föllmi J , Steiger A , Walzer C , Robert N , Geissbühler U , Doherr MG , Wenker C
Published: January 2023

The decision to perform euthanasia in geriatric zoo mammals is usually a highly complex procedure involving ethical, medical, emotional and sometimes political factors. However, subsequent necropsies show that the pathological changes of organs and/or the musculoskeletal system are often already advanced. Therefore, we hypothesise that euthanasia is often delayed to the detriment of the animal's welfare. The purpose of this study was to facilitate and establish an initial, objective, decision-making framework for the euthanasia of geriatric zoo mammals. A scoring-system to assess the physical condition and quality of life in ageing zoo mammals is presented, based on retrospective and prospective investigation of 70 geriatric zoo mammals in five European zoos. Medical records and necropsy reports were studied in retrospective cases. Symptoms were monitored and recorded in prospective cases. Radiographic investigations under general anesthesia or at necropsy were performed additionally. A significant association between symptoms and pathological findings revealed that 36.9% (n = 24/65) of examined animals (n = 41/65) had pathological alterations to the musculoskeletal system and 26.2% (n = 17/65) suffered from neoplasia. Based on the individual reports, 28 veterinarians from different fields of veterinary medicine concluded that these animals had mild to severe pain, discomfort and a significantly reduced quality of life, thus strongly reducing welfare. The proposed scoring system includes all of these factors and offers a simple and reliable tool to support decision-making for euthanasia in geriatric zoo mammals.
Effects of feeding enrichment on the behaviour and welfare of captive Waldrapps (Northern bald ibis) (Geronticus eremita)
Authors: Vargas-Ashby HE , Pankhurst SJ
Published: January 2023

One of the contributing factors leading to the development of serious foot problems such as bumblefoot (pododermatitis) in captive birds is an abnormally sedentary lifestyle. This study investigated the effects of feeding enrichment on the activity levels of a captive colony of seven Waldrapps or Northern bald ibis (Geronticus eremita) at Tilgate Nature Centre in Sussex. After the introduction of a simple and inexpensive feeding enrichment device, the proportion of time the ibis spent inactive on perches was significantly reduced, with a corresponding increase in the proportion of time allocated to active behaviours such as walking, flying and foraging on the ground. Feeding enrichment, over the longer term, also resulted in a significant reduction in levels of aggression between individuals within the colony. The scope of this study is limited by the relatively small sample size, but nevertheless the findings suggest that the use of feeding enrichment for captive Waldrapp ibis has a number of beneficial effects.
Short as well as long transport duration can affect the welfare of slaughter pigs
Authors: Werner C , Reiners K , Wicke M
Published: January 2023

Attention to the welfare of animals during slaughter transport and lairage at the abattoir is important not only to consumers, but also to the meat production industry. Inadequate transport conditions can result in higher animal mortalities and meat quality problems after slaughter of such animals. In the present study the development of mortality rates both during and after the transport of slaughter pigs, and the incidence of pathological findings, was investigated. It could be shown that the percentage of animals which died during transport and in lairage clearly decreased between 1999 and 2003. This improvement was due mainly to the reduction of animal losses in the summer season where the highest losses over the investigated years occurred. Considering the duration of the transport it could be shown that not only very long (8 h), but also short journeys (1 h) can affect the welfare of animals with increased mortalities and pathological findings during the veterinary inspection at the slaughterhouse, particularly in the summer season. The results presented indicate that the tightening of European animal welfare legislation concerning loading, transport, unloading and lairage of slaughter pigs improved mortality rates and the incidence of pathological findings. Another reason could be a reduction of the percentage of stress susceptible pigs in the porcine population. However, until now the regulations on animal welfare during pig slaughter transport focused only on long-term journeys; the results presented show that short journeys can also affect the welfare of the animals.
Is sodium fluoroacetate (1080) a humane poison?
Authors: Sherley M
Published: January 2023

Sodium fluoroacetate (1080) is widely used for the control of vertebrate pests in Australia. While the ecological impact of 1080 baiting on non-target species has been the subject of ongoing research, the animal welfare implications of this practice have received little attention. Literature relevant to the humaneness of 1080 as a vertebrate pest control agent is reviewed in this paper. Previous authors have largely concentrated on the perception of pain during 1080 toxicosis, giving limited attention to other forms of distress in their assessments. Authors who suggest that 1080 is a humane poison largely base their conclusions on the argument that convulsive seizures seen in the final stages of 1080 toxicosis indicate that affected animals are in an unconscious state and unable to perceive pain. Other authors describe awareness during seizures or periodic lucidity that suggests central nervous system (CNS) disruption cannot be assumed to produce a constant pain-free state. Some literature report that 1080 poisoning in humans is painless and free of distress, but this is contradicted by other clinical studies. Using available data an attempt is made to reassess the humaneness of 1080 using the following criteria: speed and mode of action, appearance and behaviour of affected animals, experiences of human victims, long-term effect on survivors, and welfare risk to non-target animals. It is concluded that sodium fluoroacetate should not be considered a humane poison, and there is an urgent need for research into improving the humaneness of vertebrate control methods in Australia.
Aversion to carbon dioxide stunning in pigs: effect of carbon dioxide concentration and halothane genotype
Authors: Velarde A , Cruz J , Gispert M , Carrión D , de la Torre JL Ruiz , Diestre A , Manteca X
Published: January 2023

Aversion to the dip-lift stunning system and to the inhalation of 70 and 90% carbon dioxide was assessed in 18 halothane-free (NN) and 14 heterozygous halothane (Nn) slaughter weight pigs using aversion learning techniques and behavioural studies in an experimental slaughterhouse. Pigs were subjected to the treatments individually. When the dip lift system contained atmospheric air, the proportion of pigs that entered the crate voluntarily increased on subsequent days, indicating that pigs habituate to the stunning system. Based on the number of attempted retreats, for the first descent into the well with atmospheric air, Nn pigs were more reactive than NN pigs. On repeating the descent, Nn pigs showed greater habituation to the procedure. When the pit contained (either 70 or 90%) carbon dioxide, the time taken to enter the crate and the incidence of pigs that attempted to retreat increased on subsequent days, indicating aversion to the carbon dioxide concentrations. The aversion was higher when the stunning system contained 90 as opposed to 70% carbon dioxide due possibly to increased irritation of the nasal mucosal membranes and more severe hyperventilation. Conversely, a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide increased the time to loss of posture and, therefore, lengthened the perception of the aversive stimulus till the animal lost consciousness. These results suggest that stunning with carbon dioxide is not free from pain or distress. The degree of aversion depends on the carbon dioxide concentration. Therefore, if higher concentrations of carbon dioxide are recommended for rapid induction of anaesthesia, it needs to be assumed that this may be more aversive to pigs.
Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007
Authors: Carter E
Published: January 2023

The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2007 have now been approved by the UK Parliament and came into force on the 1st October 2007. The Regulations cover all farmed animals in England and have been made under the Animal Welfare Act 2006. The 2007 Regulations replace the previous Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations 2000 (as amended), and additionally Part I of the Agriculture (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1968 has been repealed. The changes bring farmed animal legislation into line with the Animal Welfare Act 2006.
The effect of diet change on the behaviour of layer pullets
Authors: Dixon G , Nicol CJ
Published: January 2023

Frequent diet change has been identified as a risk factor for feather pecking in commercial flocks but the mechanism underlying this association is not known. In this experiment we simulated a commercial change of diet between high quality (HQ) 19% protein, and low quality (LQ) 15% protein, diets. Twelve pairs of birds were fed both diets simultaneously for 38 days to determine whether clear preferences for the diets existed. A further 12 triplets of birds were fed either HQ or LQ diets for 38 days to examine any absolute effects of quality on behaviour. The remaining triplets received, on day 29, either a LQ to HQ diet change (n = 12 groups) or an HQ to LQ diet change (n = 12 groups). Half of the groups in these diet change treatments received oregano oil as a potential ‘masking’ agent to disguise the diet change. No dietary preferences were detected and there were no absolute effects of diet on behaviour. Diet change provoked significant increases in beak-related activity. Specifically, affiliative pecking (allopreening directed towards comb or beak) was increased after diet change. Masking the diet reduced the effects of diet change. Injurious pecking remained at low levels throughout the experiment and was not affected by diet change, but the relationship between affiliative pecking and subsequent injurious pecking requires further investigation.
The effect of duration of manual restraint during blood sampling on plasma cortisol levels in calves
Authors: G G Stilwell , de Carvalho R C , Lima MS , Broom DM
Published: January 2023

Many studies on stress and pain rely, solely or mainly, on plasma Cortisol assessment. Confounding factors, such as handling, may cause a release of Cortisol making the interpretation of the results difficult. We looked at the influence of duration of restraint on the plasma cortisol levels of one-to-two month old calves. Forty-three calves were divided into four groups according to the interval between restraint and blood sampling: i) Group 0, immediate blood-sampling; ii) Group 0.5M, half a minute restraint; iii) Group IM, one minute restraint and iv) Group 2M, two minutes restraint. The only increase in plasma cortisol, compared with all the other groups, was seen with blood sampling after two minutes of restraint. This study provides evidence to suggest that cortisol released as a result of handling stress is not evident if blood sampling is carried out within one minute of restraining calves.