bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Kings & Prophets
Authors: Grottanelli Cristiano
Published: November 2023

The nature and meaning of kingship has been hotly debated by anthropologists and scholars of religion since the middle of the last century, and the richness of this topic is by no means exhausted. In this fascinating book, comprising a series of published and unpublished essays, Grottanelli focuses on the subject of kingship in the ancient world. The essays explore the ways in which centralized state power, as epitomized by the sacred king, encounters other oppositional forms of power, such as those possessed by prophets, tricksters, and women. Grottanelli’s special concern is the way in which mythic narratives and other forms of religious discourse both reflect this tension and play a role in the historic struggles between these competing forms of power. As the first book-length presentation of the work of a brilliant and innovative thinker, this book should hold great interest for scholars across a variety of disciplines, including religious studies, anthropology, and classics.
The Societal Effect in the Strategies of French and German Machine-Tool Manufacturers
Authors: Maurice Arndt Sorge Marc
Published: November 2023

Research and theory about comparative advantage in societies or national economies have tended to neglect some of the most important factors: work organization; the skills and knowledge of the work force and the way these are developed; the relations of producers to clients, suppliers, and other organizations or institutions; and the nature of entrepreneurial dispositions or strategies. Since the 1970s, however, we have seen an increasing number of international comparisons covering these factors, particularly, comparisons conducted by what Rose ( 1985) has called the Aix Group to denote the group of scholars located at the University at Aix-en-Provence. Following the larger Franco-German comparison by Maurice, Sellier, and Silvestre (1977, 1982), the Aix Group’s primary tenet has been that similar or near-identical industrial goals in similar task environments can be achieved in ways that are substantially different concerning work organization, human resources, and industrial relations. An organizational unit’s societal context explains why units adopt and maintain different patterns, which prevail without regard for different industrial goals and contexts (e.g., the nature of products and production technology, size of units, dependence, regional location).
National Specificities and the Context of Change: The Coevolution of Organization and Technology
Authors: Dosi Giovanni , Kogut Bruce
Published: November 2023

The chapters in this book present a wide range of evidence that the organizing of work varies considerably among countries. Country variations are historically persistent; in the language of Midler and Charue (Chap. 9), they have the characteristic of “irreversibility.” The challenge posed by these studies is to understand to what extent the historical persistence in the variation of national organizing principles explains the long-term differentials in the income and growth of countries. Whereas differences in organizing principles among countries tend to persist for long periods of time, economic leadership has proven to be historically cyclical. To a large extent, the chapters in this book are a discussion of the relative decline of the United States and the organizing principles of mass production, and the rise of Japan and Germany that are advancing on the strengths of quality production. The historical record suggests a cycle of divergence in the performance of countries due to the introduction of new organizing heuristics, followed by a gradual convergence due to the diffusion of these heuristics across borders (Boyer 1988; Kogut 1991).
Witnesses Through History
Authors: Petersen Rodney L
Published: November 2023

An awakened interest in the Apocalypse can be discerned in the Carolingian Age with Bede “the Venerable “ (c. 673-735), whose commentary on the book of Revelation evinces historical movement under apocalyptic symbolism. Together with Ambrosius Autpertus (d. 778 or 781), Bede carries us forward to the sharpened historical and polemical exegesis associated with apocalyptic thought in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The question of the identity of our two witnesses placed within a firm temporal framework will take on a new liveliness in the period ahead.
Identification or Representation
Authors: Petersen odney L
Published: November 2023

Like Hans Hut, Melchior Hoffman (c. 1495-1543/4) was another highly successful lay preacher of Reformation times. As Hut had been successful in carrying the Anabaptist message to south and central Germany, so Hoffman was largely responsible for helping to transmit the Anabaptist movement from southwest Germany into and throughout northwestern Europe. Together with Milntzer and Hut he exerted a wide influence among Anabaptists in central Europe and seems to have made more of the prophecy of the adventual witnesses than perhaps even Hut or Milntzer. Furrier by trade but called by the Spirit to be a prophet, Hoffman was won to the Lutheran cause by 1522. He became an itinerant evangelist and was supported at various times by the guilds in Dorpat, merchants of Scandinavia, the East Frisian chancellor Ulrich von Domum, and even by Frederick I, king of Denmark.
Introduction
Authors: Murphy Frederick J
Published: November 2023

The Biblical Antiquities of Pseudo-Philo retells the Hebrew Bible from Adam to the death of Saul. Its retelling is quite free and extensive. It does quote the biblical text at times, but more often it paraphrases, condenses, summarizes, omits material, and adds much that has little or no corresponding material in the Bible. Many of the additions take the form of speeches, prayers, and conversations among the characters.
Pseudo-Philo as Narrative
Authors: Murphy Frederick J
Published: November 2023

Most students of the Pseude pigrapha have been trained as biblical scholars, so developments in the study of the Pseude pigrapha should be viewed in light of similar developments in biblical studies. Although the Bible has long been the object of “literary criticism,” that criticism has been fairly narrow until recently. It has concentrated on such matters as isolation of sources, investigation of smaller units within the text, use of tradition, biblical quotations and allusions, and genre. Concerns of literary critics from other fields were not prominent.1 Recent years have witnessed growing interest in a wide range of approaches to the Bible, including many varieties of literary criticism. New studies are constantly appearing, even in the most traditional journals and presses, applying to Scripture methods of criticism developed for non-biblical literature.
From Adam to Joseph: Biblical Antiquities 1–8
Authors: Murphy Frederick J
Published: November 2023

These initial chapters, which depend on Genesis, serve three main goals: to locate Abraham and his progeny in a “human geography” through genealogies, to contrast righteous Abraham with sinful humanity, and to set the stage for the Exodus.1 The two versions of the Creation in Genesis 1-2 are omitted. Pseudo-Philo reverses the order of the genealogies from Genesis 4--5. LAB 1 recapitulates Genesis 5 and LAB 2 does the same for Genesis 4. By this reversal, humanity’s positive side is presented before the negative. The genealogy of chapter 1, which names Adam’s descendants through Seth, does not contain much editorial comment. It culminates in Noah’s birth. The genealogy in chapter 2 offers several editorial comments showing that various evils originated in Cain, the first murderer, and his descendants. By presenting humanity’s positive side first, Pseudo-Philo suggests humanity’s potential before detailing its failures. This pattern, potential for good followed by failure, is repeated several times in Pseudo-Philo. It is related to the plot’s structure noted in the previous chapter: Israel’s potential for living at peace with God is portrayed before its failure to realize that potential is recounted. Chapters 3-8 tell the story of humanity from the Flood to Israel’s descent to Egypt. The chapters stress humanity’s sinfulness, Abraham’s refusal to join in their wickedness at the tower of Babel, the subsequent election of Abraham and his seed, and the migration of Abraham’s progeny to Egypt.
From Samuel to David: Biblical Antiquities 49–65
Authors: Murphy Frederick J
Published: November 2023

As in the Bible, Samuel is a transitional figure between the time of the judges and the period of the monarchy. Pseudo-Philo’s concern for leadership is very much to the fore in these chapters. Saul is paradigmatic for the bad leader, and David represents the potential for model leadership. As the book now stands, David’s reign is not described, so his leadership abilities remain potential.
Major Characters: God, Humanity, Israel, Leaders, Other Major Figures
Authors: Murphy Frederick J
Published: November 2023

Most of the material in the next three chapters can be found scattered throughout the commentary of chapters 3 through 9. This chapter and the following ones do not repeat that analysis. They rather pull together the various strands of the narrative to arrive at a generalized picture of characters (this chapter), themes (chapter 11), and reflections of the author’s real world (chapter 12). In most cases, the listing of passages that support a certain interpretation is illustrative rather than exhaustive. The full effect of the points made in these three chapters can be appreciated only in combination with the detailed investigations of the preceding chapters.
Major Themes
Authors: Murphy Frederick J
Published: November 2023

Just as plot, character, point of view, literary style, and so on are intimately tied together in this work, so the themes discussed here are closely bound up with the characters analyzed in the previous chapter and with the plot analyzed throughout this book. Topics broached here are relevant to Pseudo-Philo’s characterizations, and significant themes that are not discussed here are the focus of attention in our treatment of characters and in the narrative analysis. This chapter is not the last word on Pseudo-Philo’s themes but is meant to give some appreciation of the topics most interesting to Pseudo-Philo, as a general entree to the work.
The Dissenters: Melville and Brownson
Authors: Versluis Arthur
Published: November 2023

In his classic study Melville’s Quarrel with God, Lawrance Thompson wrote that it would be more appropriate to call Melville a “descendentalist” than a transcendentalist, a witticism that manifests a deeper truth than one might expect: The turn which his life had taken translated him from a transcendentalist and a mystic into an inverted transcendentalist, an inverted mystic. To this extent, then, he was consistent, in spite of all his concomitant inconsistencies, to the very end of his life. Like his own Captain Ahab, he remained a defiant rebel, even in the face of death.
Patterns in Literary Religion: The Orient and the Second Cycle of Transcendentalism
Authors: Versluis Arthur
Published: November 2023

In his book Recollections and Impressions, Octavius Brooks Frothingham the first historian of Transcendentalism and a participant as well-said of his friend Samuel Johnson: “He was a Transcendentalist-that is to say, he believed in the intuitive powers of the mind.”1 Despite the inadequacy of this definition, intuitionism does link Emerson, Thoreau, Alcott, Frothingham, Johnson, Weiss, Clarke, Peabody, Child, and many Transcendentalists, for they all thought intuition capable of penetrating the world’s religious traditions. In Emerson and Thoreau, this intuitionism resulted in a remarkable fusion of literature and religion, but in late Transcendentalism it resulted in Unitarian Transcendentalism, universal religion, and anthropotheism, each of which represented the transformation of early Transcendentalism by means of the dogma of “progress” or “universal evolution.”
Conclusion
Authors: Versluis Arthur
Published: November 2023

Although in this survey of Transcendentalism and the Orient, I have sketched the connections between the various writers and traditions or currents of thought, I have not generalized much about the Transcendentalists and the East. In this conclusion, therefore, I will speak more generally, not only about Emerson and Thoreau and the late Transcendentalists, but also about the influences of Transcendentalist Orientalism that attempt, as Emerson put it, to cast “the very oldest of thoughts ... into the mould of these new times?”1 As I suggested earlier, Emerson and Thoreau could well be seen as the peaks in the Transcendentalist landscape, particularly in regard to Transcendentalist Orientalism. No one else even approaches their intuitive positive Orientalism among the Transcendentalists, early or late. Thoreau was a natural ascetic and influenced by Alcott’s Pythagoreanism, but he was deeply affected by his readings of Asian scriptures. A surveyor, a builder, and a farmer, Thoreau worked with what was at hand, and his assimilation of Eastern teachings was revealed simultaneously in his her mitage at Walden, his vegetarianism, his ethical purity, and his imaginative life. By contrast, Emerson was much more a visionary. Though the analogy is in some ways inadequate, Raphael’s depiction of Aristotle and Plato comes to mind, for Thoreau’s hand, like Aristotle’s, pointed out toward the world before him, whereas Emerson’s, like Plato’s, pointed up toward the Transcendent. Thoreau was the one who more clearly ignored the values of the world, whereas Emerson, some have argued, returned to being a member of the social elite.2 But in fundamental ways, Emerson and Thoreau were in agreement.
The Epistemology of Beliefs and the Epistemology of Degrees of Belief
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2023

Consider two questions. What propositions are egocentrically rational for you to believe? With what confidence is it egocentrically rational for you to believe a proposition? Each concerns a question of egocentric epistemology. Answering the first requires an epistemology for beliefs, answering the second an epistemology for degrees of belief.
Rhetorical Strategies in Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God and Narrative of the Late Massacres in Lancaster County
Authors: Lemay J A Leo
Published: November 2023

Addressed especially to the unregenerate, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God attempts to bring its audience to the conversion experience.1 It has the usual Puritan sermon structure: Text, Doctrine, Reasons, and Uses.2 Infamously the most effective imprecatory sermon in American literature, it outdoes (in my opinion) Father Arnall’s hellfire-and-damnation sermon in James Joyce’s Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man. Jonathan Edwards achieves extraordinary tension and suspense by brilliant rhetorical strategies. The increasing immediacy of person, time, and place throughout Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God explains much of its escalating emotional appeal.
“The Two Hands of God:” Pneumatological Christology in the Orthodox Tradition
Authors: Colle Ralph Del
Published: November 2023

The Irenaean title of this chapter intentionally suggests that the work of God in the world is best understood when both the Son and the Spirit are given their proper due. The neglect of one or the other attentuates the divine economy in the faith of the church and allows Christian praxis to fall into one of two extremes: either to claim an identity without relevance or to be relevant without an identity. These two unnecessary options, decried by Jurgen Moltmann in another context,1 are especially applicable when christology is devoid of pneumatology or pneumatology is no longer anchored in christology.
“Beyond Neo-scholasticism:” The Spirit-christology of David Coffey
Authors: Colle Ralph Del
Published: November 2023

By examining the work of David Coffey, a secular priest of the Archdiocese of Sydney (Australia), we continue to follow the development of the same themes within the particular trajectory of neoscholasticism that was reviewed in the previous two chapters. We have attempted to discern a pattern in the work of Scheeben, Mersch, de la Taille, Donnelly, and Rabner, which when taken collectively provide the necessary building blocks for the construction of Spirit-christology within the broad scholastic tradition of Roman Catholic theology and one that is compatible with the pneumatological christology of the Orthodox tradition. Coffey, for his part, accepts the basic correctness of these theologians ” innovations in the theology of grace and pneumatology, especially as these point to the priority of the Holy Spirit in the divine inhabitation.
Spirit-christology: Dogmatic Issues in Trinitarian Perspective
Authors: Colle Ralph Del
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will attempt to provide a perspective on the model of Spirit-christology that is an alternative to what we have thus far examined. By stepping outside of the circle of Roman Catholic neoscholastic thought, we hope to test the viability of Coffey ”s model against the concerns of other contemporary theologians and in light of biblical and patristic precedents for it. We shall then tum, in the final chapter, to a critical evaluation of the project in general. The relationship between New Testament pneumatology and christology is best assessed in light of the debate, begun with D. F. Strauss, that ensued regarding the priority of the Jesus of history or the Christ of faith for Christian religious experience.
Spirit-christology: Evaluation and Assessment
Authors: Colle Ralph Del
Published: November 2023

In the course of this study we have charted a very specific path in our investigation of Spirit-christology as a contemporary dogmatic christological model. By beginning with a critique of the Latin trinitarian tradition exercised by Eastern Orthodox theology, there immediately surfaced a number of dogmatic problems that the Western model was required to address if its own pneumatology was to develop in comparison with that of the East. This led to an examination of the developments within Roman Catholic neo-scholasticism that resolved these issues as a necessary step in order from within that tradition to construct a viable Spirit-christology. As we have seen, this entailed theological argument in favor of a proper mission of the Holy Spirit, a theology of grace that gave priority to uncreated grace as a prerequisite to a real relation between the divine persons and created reality, and a theology of anointing that situated the role and function of the Holy Spirit in christology in relation to that of the divine Son. Each of these steps ensured that Spirit-christology would maintain and even deepen the integrity of the Christian trinitarian confession.
From Colony To Superpower
Authors: Herring George C
Published: November 2023

The Oxford History of the United States is the most respected multi-volume history of our nation in print. The series includes three Pulitzer Prize-winners, a New York Times bestseller, and winners of prestigious Bancroft and Parkman Prizes. From Colony to Superpower is the only thematic volume commissioned for the series. Here George C. Herring uses foreign relations as the lens through which to tell the story of America's dramatic rise from thirteen disparate colonies huddled along the Atlantic coast to the world's greatest superpower. A sweeping account of United States' foreign relations and diplomacy, this magisterial volume documents America's interaction with other peoples and nations of the world. Herring tells a story of stunning successes and sometimes tragic failures, captured in a fast-paced narrative that illuminates the central importance of foreign relations to the existence and survival of the nation, and highlights its ongoing impact on the lives of ordinary citizens. He shows how policymakers defined American interests broadly to include territorial expansion, access to growing markets, and the spread of an "American way" of life. And Herring does all this in a story rich in human drama and filled with epic events. Statesmen such as Benjamin Franklin and Woodrow Wilson and Harry Truman and Dean Acheson played key roles in America's rise to world power. But America's expansion as a nation also owes much to the adventurers and explorers, the sea captains, merchants and captains of industry, the missionaries and diplomats, who discovered or charted new lands, developed new avenues of commerce, and established and defended the nation's interests in foreign lands. From the American Revolution to the fifty-year struggle with communism and conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, From Colony to Superpower tells the dramatic story of America's emergence as superpower--its birth in revolution, its troubled present, and its uncertain future.
The Origins of Activism, 1950-1963
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

On October 12, 1958, before 30,000 people, the President of the United States, Dwight Eisenhower, laid the cornerstone of the Interchurch Center, the permanent home of the National Council of Churches at 475 Riverside Drive in New York City. The outdoor ceremony, on land donated by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., directly across the street from the “Cathedral of Protestantism,” Riverside Church, was a moment charged with symbolism, partly obvious, partly hidden. The presence and active participation of President Eisenhower suggested strongly the powerful cultural role the National Council and the Protestant churches it represented continued to play in American life. This moment was almost a classic manifestation of the “civil religion” of the nation in operation. A long procession of robed clerics and academicians, which formed at Riverside Church and then moved slowly to the construction site a block away, “read like a Who’s Who of American Protestantism.” At the back of the ceremonial platform fluttered large varicolored banners representing thirty-seven Protestant and Eastern Orthodox denominations, almost all members of the National Council of Churches. The presence of the ecumenical movement overarching those denominations seemed almost palpable. It was, one observer noted, “the largest gathering [to date] to pay tribute to the developing solidarity of Protestant and Orthodox churches in the United States.”
The Black Manifesto and Its Aftermath: The End of an Era
Authors: Findlay James F
Published: November 2023

In 1968 the United States experienced terrible internal discords over racial issues (new ghetto rebellions and seeming threats to public safety posed by radical groups like the Black Panthers) and over the war in Vietnam (the aftermath of the Tet offensive, which included Lyndon Johnson’s surprise decision not again to seek the presidency). Once again people felt the personal shock of assassinations of national leaders (Martin Luther King, Jr., in April and Robert Kennedy in June). And in July, during the national convention of the Democratic party in Chicago, police beat dozens of demonstrators in the streets, as television news cameras recorded the spectacle. “The whole world is watching,” chanted young people as they were clubbed to the ground. And the world looked on, aghast. Yet throughout this year there were small groups in the churches and elsewhere who struggled to discover or invent new ways to transcend terrible events like these. In race relations these efforts sometimes led, ironically, to further explosions.
The Pantheon: One Divinity, Many Names
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

The Hindu religious tradition has its roots in the cultures of the tribal aboriginals, the Dravidians, who settled in the Indus valley, sometime before 2000 B.c., and the Aryans, who invaded and conquered North India about 1500 B.c. These traditions have become so inextricably blended that their historical origins are often difficult to determine. Religious beliefs and practices vary by locale and caste. In this chapter I will outline the main sources and components of Hindu theology and describe Khalapur shrines as background for the description of the worship of the Rajput women in Khalapur.
Sita’s Daughters: A Profile
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

It was a dreary winter morning, the skies were gray, and a cold drizzle turned the streets into slippery mud when Chand, a middle-aged, childless wife commenting on Radha’s suicide, described her drab existence as “the festival of the world.” Chand had been married over 20 years, so her hopes for children had long since passed. Her husband was still attached to a particularly dominating widowed mother. Once Chand said that she was waiting for her husband, already in his 40s, to “grow up” and assert his authority in household affairs. Because of her sterility, Chand was one of the most unfortunate women we knew, yet she was hearty, humorous, and cheerful.
Towards Equality
Authors: Minturn Leigh
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter I will place the information of my study in regional, national, international, and theoretical context. I will also suggest some topics for future research. The International Decade of Women, sponsored by the United Nations, began in 1975. In connection with this effort to improve women’s status, all U.N. members were asked to prepare reports on the status of women in their countries. The Indian government’s report, prepared by some of India’s most prominent women scholars, was published in December 1974 (Towards Equality, 1974). The sources of information used to prepare Towards Equality were: (a) basic documentary sources such as census records providing demographic data, (b) special studies on literature prepared at the request of the report’s authors by scholars and specialists in the field, and (c) firsthand information from tours to different states and territories, empirical studies and discussions with specialists. In this chapter I will utilize relevant information from Towards Equality to place the information of my study in a state and national context. Whenever possible I use demographic information with comparable census figures for Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), the state in which Khalapur is located, as the comparison base.
The Question of Genre
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

What then is, or was, the gospel of Mark? What kind of text would it have been seen to be, either by its author or by its first readers and auditors? We are speaking of what most literary critics refer to as the problem of “genre,” though personally I should have preferred “type” or “kind,” or even Lewis’s Latin “genus” (which could be conveniently contrasted with “species”). Be that as it may, the history of discussions of literary genres is a long one, and the nature and significance of literary genre remain matters of debate. What follows merely sketches one view of these questions.
How to Show That Mark Is a Hellenistic “Life”
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

How do we establish that Mark’s written gospel would have been perceived by contemporaries as a “life”? The problem is complicated by the fact that the ancients themselves did not delineate bioslvita as a genre. However, since (as we have observed) they also did not always take their “rules” too seriously, that may be less of a disadvantage than it at first appears. At least it relieves us of the temptation to try to read the written gospels against an alleged standard or prescription. The fact remains: whether the ancients delineated biography or not, they clearly did recognize some books as bioi or vitae, just as most modems with out a scrap of literary theory in their heads can perfectly well recognize a “western.” How did they do it?
Some Characteristics of Oral Composition
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

What were (and are) the characteristics of oral style? What marks the compositions by which orality transmits what is important? In this part of our study we shall not be bound by the criteria of time, place, and social level that limited us when we considered Mark’s genre. Genres exist and are significant in particular milieus, and milieus, by their nature, imply temporal, spatial, and social boundaries. Our present concern is with the characteristics of oral discourse. Therefore any composition is relevant to that concern if it involves oral discourse: that is to say (accepting Zumthor’s description) if “transmission and reception at least are carried by voice and hearing” (Oral Poetry, 23).
Mark and Oral Transmission
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

In Charles Williams’s novel Descent into Hell there is an amusing moment when the hero Charles Stanhope, a poetic dramatist, reflects on the impossibility, or at least the unlikelihood, of explaining his work.

There was a story, invented by himself, that The Times had once sent a representative to ask for explanations about a new play, and that Stanhope, in his efforts to explain it, had found after four hours that he had only succeeded in reading it straight through aloud: “Which,” he maintained, “was the only way of explaining it.”
Oral Characteristics of Mark’s Style
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

We have examined the ways in which Mark’s structure is typical of works styled for oral transmission. In our preliminary comments on oral style, however, we noticed a number of oral characteristics other than structural. We commented on orality’s penchant for narrative rather than proposition, for the concrete and visual rather than the abstract, for hyperbole rather than balanced observation, and for confrontation rather than dialogue. Let us now look at some of Mark’s material in the light of these considerations.
Conclusions: Mark in Its Setting
Authors: Bryan Christopher
Published: November 2023

Was Mark written to be read aloud? Everything suggests that the answer to that question must be yes. Mark was designed for oral transmission—and for transmission as a continuous whole—rather than for private study or silent reading. When we examined Mark’s structural arrangements, again and again we found ourselves dealing with broad thematic effects that would emerge naturally in the course of a performance of the whole, but that can hardly emerge otherwise. Subsequent examination of the details of Markan style, and even his use of Scripture, all reinforced this impression. Nonetheless, the proof of this particular pudding must be in the eating. Will Mark work as we say it would? According to a number of critics, that was exactly how Mark did work, when performed by a competent professional actor who knew how to interpret and use the opportunities it gives. This is how Janet Karsten Larson described a performance by the British actor Alec Mccowen:
Begetting on Margin: Adultery and Surrogate Pseudomarriage in Hinduism
Authors: Doniger Wendy
Published: November 2023

The bottom line on sex and marriage in the dharmasiistras(the Hindu texts of religious law) is that neither the husband nor the wife should ever have sex with anyone else. But this rule was, in some cases, more honored in the breach than in the observance. The husband was tacitly allowed to have sex with other women in various circumstances, and the wife was allowed to have sex with another man in one particular circumstance: the levirate or niyoga(literally the “appointment” of the woman to be impregnated by a man who is not her legal husband). Each of these forms of non marriage serves to define, as well as to challenge, the boundaries of “normal” marriage. Let me begin with adultery. In India it is always assumed that the eternal adulterous triangle consists of the woman, her husband, and her lover-not the woman, her husband, and his mistress (the basic configuration of French comedies).
Transformation and the Righteous Dead
Authors: Himmelfarb Martha
Published: November 2023

The boundaries between gods and mortals were not always clearly marked in the Greco-Roman world. Wandering prophets such as Apollonius of Tyana or Alexander of Abonuteichos were considered gods on the basis of the wonders they performed, and, perhaps, their teachings. The great philosophers were sometimes considered divine by their followers because of their wisdom and virtue. Nor are wonder worker and philosopher entirely separate categories, as the depictions of the mythic figure of Pythagoras show.1 The crossing of the boundary between human and divine was institutionalized in the routine promotion of Roman emperors to godhood on their deaths, although it is clear that this process was not taken seriously by everyone.

Thus there were several different paths human beings could travel to earn the epithet “divine.” While the examples just offered reserve divinization for a tiny elite, the ritual found in the Mithras Liturgy ( PGM IV.475-829), offered a somewhat more accessible route to godhood. Anyone who was willing to undertake the elaborate ritual and recite the words dictated there could become immortal. At the culmination of an ascent to heaven in which he saw the order of the heavens and the gods, the initiate could describe himself thus in greeting the beautiful and fiery god Helios: “Since he has been born again from you today, [he] has become immortal out of so many myriads in this hour according to the wish of god the exceedingly good ... “ (PGMIV.646--47).2 The Chaldean Oracles too offer a ritual for ascent intended to achieve immortality, although the Oracles’ learned combination of Platonism and magic must have limited their appeal.
“Fundamentalism”: Objections from a Modern fewish Historian
Authors: Harris Jay M
Published: November 2023

In recent years it has become quite trendy to extend the term fundamentalism from its original Protestant context to include a wide variety of religious and political phenomena. Fashionability aside, we must ask ourselves what this extension accomplishes. Does the term illuminate diverse cultural phenomena and allow them to be understood better, by virtue of calling attention to other human manifestations of essentially the same thing? Or does the term obfuscate, leveling important distinctions that must be maintained if we are to understand the world about us?
Family, Early Career, and Start in Politics
Authors: Harris Edward M
Published: November 2023

Even in the case of the most important figures in antiquity, the information we possess about their early lives is scant at best. We do not know the year of birth for many famous people, and little is told to us about their education and early activities. Occasionally we are fortunate enough to have a few anecdotes about the childhood and youth of a prominent figure, but these too must be treated with great caution. Anecdotes are often transmitted orally for several generations before being written down and are thus subject to all the changes that this kind of source works on its material. The ancient historians themselves took little or no interest in the early lives of great men and tended instead to direct their attention primarily to battles and political events, which they felt to be the true subject matter of history. Biographies were written about remarkable individuals, but these were almost invariably com posed many years after the deaths of their subjects by writers who often had much the same sources as scholars today have. Consequently, these biographies rarely add much to our meager stock of information. When they do contain matter that is not found in other sources, it is unlikely to be the product of painstaking research. Rather, it is most probably a fiction invented by an imaginative biographer, who, frustrated by the paucity and dullness of the sources available to him, took the liberty of inventing sensational details.
Peace at Last
Authors: Harris Edward M
Published: November 2023

The Attic orators paint a dismal picture of Athenian politics. Their speeches over flow with stories of bribery, deceit, perjury, treason, and murder. Speakers in the Assembly hire themselves out to foreign powers, magistracies are bought and sold like merchandise in the agora, innocent men are condemned to death on flimsy charges, and ambassadors conspire with the enemy to destroy Athens’ allies. In deed, if one were to believe everything one reads in their speeches, one might well come to the conclusion there was not one honest politician in all of Athens. Among the masterpieces of this sordid genre are the accounts of the Peace of Philocrates given respectively by Aeschines and Demosthenes.
Decline and Exit
Authors: Harris Edward M
Published: November 2023

In the last phase of his career, Aeschines made a series of attempts to play a major role once again on the Athenian political scene, only to find himself repeatedly upstaged by Demosthenes. But Demosthenes’ triumphant performance in the Assembly did not bring Athens victory over Philip in the battlefield. In 338 the Athenians and their Greek allies suffered a crushing defeat at Chaeronea, which put an end to Demosthenes’ hopes of pushing Philip back to his homeland behind Mount Olympus. Looking back in 330 on the events leading up to Chaeronea, Demosthenes charged Aeschines with standing in the way of his plans and working hand in hand with Philip to promote Macedonian aims. Aeschines retorted that he always had Athenian interests at heart. Had the Athenians followed his advice, he countered, they would never have suffered the ignominious defeat at Chaeronea. Were Aeschines’ criticisms of Demosthenes’ policies justified? Did his own proposals represent a patriotic alternative, or were they merely obstructionist measures, aimed at furthering Philip’s ambitions?
Social Cohesion, Social Capital, and Health
Authors: Kawachi Ichiro , Berkman Lisa
Published: November 2023

An important task for the emerging field of social epidemiology is to identify the collective characteristics of communities and societies that determine population health status. Ever since Durkheim, social scientists have recognized that society is not simply the sum of individuals—that the factors which determine population well-being cannot be reduced to individual risk factors.
Affective States and Health
Authors: Kubzansky Laura , Kawachi Ichiro
Published: November 2023

Growing evidence suggests that the social environment, including conditions experienced in the family, neighborhood, and workplace, can influence health (Taylor et al. 1997). The question remains, How can social conditions that are external to the individual get inside the body to influence health? One pathway is through emotions and the physiological, cognitive, and behavioral responses they evoke.
Health Behaviors in a Social Context
Authors: Emmons Karen M
Published: November 2023

The impact of health behaviors on chronic disease morbidity and mortality is well known. The recent Harvard Report on Cancer Prevention concluded that two-thirds of all cancer deaths can be linked to modifiable behaviors, such as smoking, diet and obesity, and lack of exercise (Colditz et al. 1996).
Toward a New Social Biology
Authors: Brunner Eric J
Published: November 2023

Many categories of morbidity and mortality exhibit an inverse social gradient. In the United Kingdom there are higher death rates in lower social classes for almost all major causes, including deaths due to most cancers, circulatory diseases, many infectious diseases, and accidents and violence (Drever and Whitehead 1997).
Key Features of Indian Society: What Is to Be Explained
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

What follows is an extremely summarized, rudimentary introduction to Indian society and culture, for the benefit of those who are unacquainted with South Asia. As in any analysis, the facts selected are constituted and shaped in part by my theoretical assumptions. I will focus on the core attributes of Hinduism, the caste system, patterns of political-economic dominance, and three sets of important cultural ideas: purity, sexual asceticism, and auspiciousness.
Cultural Codes and Rituals: II
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

As we have seen, the realms of purity and impurity strongly emphasize human agency and responsibility. Indian village culture seems to also be engrossed with notions of auspiciousness and inauspiciousness; it is analytically useful to view this preoccupation as a way of objectifying concerns about contingency. While such objectification does not eliminate forces that are beyond people’s control, it is a means of both expanding the sense of human agency and of providing social and psychological mechanisms for coping with contingent forces.
Conclusions
Authors: Milner Murray
Published: November 2023

This chapter has two purposes: first, to acknowledge some limitations of this mode of analysis; second, to recapitulate and reorganize the major arguments.
Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Archeology has provided a history of Greek lands which far antedates any written records and (at least in the usual view) long before the arrival of the historical Greeks of IE speech. Refinements in archeological techniques in general and in dating techniques in particular continue to appear; augmented by new finds, these have given us an increasingly detailed picture of the pre-Greek civilizations of the area and of the IE incursions which overwhelmed them. The subject is complex, and continues to unfold; only the barest notice can be given here. The inhabitants of neolithic Greece were a component of the Old European (Paleo-European) society which did not, despite its name, cover all of Europe by any means. Furthermore, far from being homogeneous, it was made up of several similar culture complexes, dating from the 7th millennium Bc; as of say 5000 BC the Greek peninsula and islands (including Crete) were occupied by peoples belonging to one of these subvarieties, known as the Aegean. Their closest cultural kin occupied the Danube and Dnieper valleys, the southern half of Italy, and Sicily. These neolithic cultures reached a high level of sophistication and complexity, as demonstrated by their sizable agricultural villages and towns (containing as many as a thousand structures) with multi-room, two-to foustorey dwellings, painted walls, and furniture; the remarkable variety of shapes and designs of their pottery, with elegant decorations in polychrome and other techniques; rich male and female ritual attire; copper, bronze, and gold metal­ lurgy; craft specialization; prominent female deities; and so on.
Lengthening and Shortening of Vowels in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

The simplification of various consonant groups containing a nasal or liquid is attended by lengthening of the preceding vowel; for these see the treatment of consonant groups (203, 227-8). 2. Long vowels were shortened in prehistoric G before a nasal or liquid plus consonant (a corollary of Osthoff’s Law), so regularly before VT, as in pple. -yvovTE<; ‘knowing’ nom.pl. from “-yvw-VTE<;, or Dor. e-yvov ‘they understand’ 3Pl.aor. from “e-gno-nt.1 But long vowels arising later by contraction or analogy were not affected, such as nµwvTE<; contract pple., </>EpWVT<XL 3Pl.subj.mid. A long vowel becomes short before another vowel in various dialects. This does not apply to all vowels, and most commonly affects 71 before o or win Att.-Ion. So {3acnN:wv ‘of kings’ gen. pl. from {3cxuiX. wv (as still in Hom.), Att. ewe; ‘dawn’ from an earlier form something like Hom. we;. When the second vowel is short it may be lengthened, resulting in what is known as quantitative metathesis. This is peculiar to Att.-Ion., and most uniformly manifested in Att.: vEw<; gen. of vcxvc; ‘ship’ (cf. Hom. vr,oc;); PEW<; ‘temple’ (cf. Hom. vr,oc;, Dor. vaoc;); A.Ewe; ‘people’ < X.r,oc; (Hom. has the non-Ion. X.aoc;); {3cxuiX.Ew<; from {3cxuiX.ijoc; gen.sg. (Hom.).
Syncope in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

Syncope is not a conspicuous feature of G historical phonology, unlike its role in L (73-4), but there are more than a dozen clear cases of it. For example: PIE “lewdh-‘go’ gives G forms which are suppletive to epxoµOt.L: fut. eA1:v­ uoµ0t.L, ‘Attic perfect’ eA Av00t. (444). The expected aor. would be ijAv0ov, infin. eA.v01:’iv; these occur, but are sparsely attested next to syncopated Mov and eM€tP. PIE “kuno-H1dont-es (or else, within the history of G, “kuno-odont-es) ‘dog­ teeth’ (the two projections at the base of the point of a hunting spear) > G KPWOOPTE<;. PG “esse/o-fut. of “es-‘be’ shows expected G froms like fooµOt.L ISg., fo6µ1:00t. 1pl., but 3sg. E<JTOI.L takes the place of expected E<JETOI.L. (The latter actually occurs in Hom.)
Contraction of Vowels in Greek
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

The Greek loss of intervocalic “y (192) and “h (from “s, 172), and the much later loss of intervocalic “w (in those dialects which lost it, 189) produced every sort of vowel sequence. The readiness of these sequences to contract varied: contraction was most extensive in the sequences resulting from the loss of “y and “s. There are dialectal and chronological differences, however, which were furthermore crosscut by levelings and distractions at all periods. The complications are discussed in Greek grammars, descriptive as well as historical, and need not be repeated in detail here. There seem to have been four discernable periods of vowel contraction, with different rules. The earliest, of PIE date, favors the first vowel, so ““-o-es nom.pl. of o-stems, and “-0-01 dat.sg. ditto > PIE “-os, “-iry. This does not concern us here. The remaining three are, in chronological order: Wackernagel’s Law (87); the usual Attic (and other mostly post-Homeric) contractions (items 1-5); and ‘grammatical contraction’ (item 6).
Contraction of Vowels in Latin
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

The principal source of vowel sequences for contraction was the loss of intervocalic “-y- (192), but “-h- and “-w-were sometimes lost between like vowels. Some compounds of de-, pro-, and co-built to words beginning with a vowel show contraction. 1. LIKE VOWELS contract to the corresponding long vowel. So L tres ‘three’ < “treyes (G rpe’ic;, Ved. trtiyas); copia ‘abundance’ < “ko-opiii; nemo’no one’ < “nehemo; nfl beside nihil (but see 159). The diphthong ae absorbs a following e or i: “pray-emiom (emo) > praemium ‘gain’; “pray-xafiyo (habeo) > “praehibeo > praebeo ‘hold out to, offer’. (Earlier disappearance of the h would have given xprayabeo > xpriibeii) 2. UNLIKE VOWELS. L i, u do not contract before a following unlike vowel: “tenwis ‘thin’ > tenuis (three syll.); “mone-way > monuf’I warned’ (66. 5). Likewise “ftni-yo ‘limit’ (denom. to finis) > ftnio (three syll.). But bfgae pl.tant. ‘team (of horses)’ < “biugii-< “dwi-yugii-, and the matters discussed in 68, suggest that forms like ftniunt and perhaps even ftnio are analogical distractions.
Vowel Gradation – Ablaut
Authors: L.Sihler Andrew
Published: November 2023

no. The term ablaut is German for ‘sound variety’ or the like. The purely English synonym gradation was once more common than it is nowa­ days (though the prevailing terminology still speaks of ablaut grades). Apophony (Fr. apophonie) has never been favored by more than a few important scholars writing in English. All three terms refer to the same feature of PIE phonology and its reflexes in the IE daughter languages, namely a pattern of vowel alternations. Ablaut is conspicuous in the interrelations of Greek forms such as 1rfroµ0tL ‘fly’, 1rorr, ‘flight’, 1rrepov ‘wing’ (root "pet-) and also in Sanskrit, Baltic and Slavic, and the Germanic languages (where such things as NE drive, drove, driven; skim, scum; and white, wheat are traceable to it). In Greek the inherited patterns have been analogically extended, leveled, and other­ wise confused; in Latin such disturbances were likewise very extensive, and moreover were coupled with regular sound laws which effaced the original patterns. Thus, for example, the PIE alternation "ew ∼"ow∼ "u is a transparent embodiment of the basic alternating framework ("e∼"o∼ 0) when followed by "w. This remains transparent in Greek ev∼ov∼v and Go. iu∼au∼ u, but in Latin the pattern was first denatured by an Italic sound law (61) into "ow, "ow, "u, and by a later L sound law (61.2) further to ii, ii, ii, in which no similarity to the basic pattern e∼ o∼0 can be detected. Amid this ruin, L established alternations of its own invention.