bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Adjusting EU Consumer Protection Mechanisms to the Needs of Private Actors: Collaborative Consumer Protection and the Ex Ante Avoidance of Conflict
Authors: Kawakami Mark
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The European Union's increasing stake in regulating private relationships - as evidenced by instruments such as the Consumer Rights Directive - could, contrary to its stated objectives, lower consumer confidence in the internal market and in its national courts. The average consumer, possibly discouraged by the flaws of the EU-prescribed judicial remedies and the limited enforcement measures available to them, could instead opt for an entirely different framework, which would allow them - for better or for worse - to avoid conflicts ex ante, thus reducing their reliance on the courts.

Résume: La volonté croissante de l'Union Européenne de réguler les rapports privés - telle qu'elle s'illustre au travers d'instrument tels que la Directive relative aux Droits de consommateurs - pourrait, contrairement à l'objectif annoncé, diminuer la confiance des consommateurs, non seulement au sein du Marché intérieur, mais aussi vis-à-vis des tribunaux nationaux, en particulier lorsque le cas contient une dimension européenne ou transnationale. Le consommateur ordinaire pourrait, peut-être par découragement face à la complexité de ces recours nationaux et ces mesures d'application européanisés, privilégier plutôt un cadre complètement différent qui lui permettrait, pour le meilleur comme pour le pire, d'éviter d'avoir uniquement à se fier des tribunaux nationaux.

Zusammenfassung: Die zunehmende Beteiligung der Europäischen Union auf dem Gebiet des Verbraucherschutzes - beispielsweise in Form der Richtlinie über die Rechte der Verbraucher - könnte, entgegen ihrer eigentlichen Ziele, das Vertrauen des Verbrauchers sowohl in den Binnenmarkt als auch in die nationalen Gerichte schwächen. Dies gilt insbesondere, wenn der Verbraucher sich mit europäischen oder grenzüberschreitenden Problemen konfrontiert sieht. Eine mögliche Folge könnte sein, dass der durchschnittliche Verbraucher, entmutigt von der Komplexität der europäisierten nationalen Rechtsmittel und Durchsetzungsmechanismen, einen Weg einschlägt, der einen Rechtstreit insgesamt vermeidet - mit allen damit verbundenen Vor- oder Nachteilen.
Belgian Perspective on Rainy Sky S.A. and Others (Appellants) v. Kookmin Bank (Respondent)
Authors: Waelkens Johanna
Published: April 2022

Abstract: In Belgian law, a subjective interpretation of contracts prevails: the common intention of the parties is the vital criterion that governs the construction of agreements. In England the system is more objective, which means the meaning which the document would convey to a reasonable person predominates in matters of contractual interpretation. However, an in-depth analysis of the case Rainy Sky S. A. and others v. Kookmin Bank shows that, in practice, the two systems are more alike than might seem at first sight.
Public Supervision over Private Relationships: Towards European Supervision Private Law?
Authors: Cherednychenko Olha O.
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The rise of public supervision over private relationships in many areas of private law has led to the development of what, in the author's view, could be called 'European supervision private law'. This emerging body of law forms part of European regulatory private law and is made up of contract-related conduct of business rules that are cast as public supervision standards and are enforced by public authorities through administrative law means. The development of European supervision private law puts under pressure the leading role of private law and civil courts in setting standards of behaviour in private relationships and raises many important issues concerning the future of European private law, in particular, contract law. This article explores the origins and main characteristics of European supervision private law, with emphasis on the financial services field. It also underlines the need for conceptualizing the relationship between European supervision private law and traditional private law using the contract governance approach.

Resumé: L'accroissement du contrôle public des relations privées dans de nombreux domaines du droit privé a conduit au développement de ce que, d'après l'auteur, on pourrait appeler 'le droit privé européen de la supervision'. Cette catégorie émergente du droit forme une partie du droit privé réglementaire européen et est constituée de règles de conduite relatives aux contrats qui sont désignées comme normes de supervision publique et sont appliquées par les autorités publiques au moyen de règles de droit administratif. Le développement du droit privé européen de la supervision exerce une pression sur le rôle prépondérant du droit privé et des cours et tribunaux civils en fixant des normes de conduite dans les relations privées et soulève de nombreuses questions importantes concernant l'avenir du droit privé européen, en particulier, le droit des contrats. Cet article examine les origines et les caractéristiques principales du droit privé européen de la supervision, en mettant l'accent sur le domaine des services financiers. Il souligne également le besoin de conceptualiser la relation entre le droit privé européen de la supervision et le droit privé traditionnel, par l'approche de la question de la gouvernance dans les contrats.
Refusal to Deal, Abuse of Right and Competition Law in Electronic Markets and Digital Communities
Authors: Rodríguez de las Heras Ballell Teresa
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Economic activity is today to a great extent, totally or partially, developed in the electronic realm. Commercial transactions are more and more frequently concluded within electronic markets and other trading platforms, supplementing or even entirely replacing traditional negotiating channels and marketplaces. Likewise, non-commercial activities and professional and social interaction increasingly take place in digital spaces from P2P systems to social networks. These closed, network-based and community-building platforms compete with each other for gaining and retaining users, clients or participants. With such a purpose, electronic markets and platforms may be tempted to impose exclusivity obligations to ensure a minimum efficient scale or adopt leveraging and exploitative practices. At the same time, for certain disclosed reasons or merely on an arbitrary basis, platforms' managers may refuse to accept the application of a user or the offer of a business entity willing to join the network and become a member. As a premise, it can be argued that the electronic market is so exercising the right to run business activities, decide whom to deal with, and on which commercial conditions, under the free enterprise principle. Notwithstanding, such a refusal to deal can entail an abusive exercise of right ignoring constitutional principles and involve in practice an anticompetitive exclusionary behaviour resulting in market foreclosure or an effective social marginalization of the user, especially in the case of excessive concentration, market dominance or even essential facilities. Therefore, private autonomy in dealing with decisions, specifically in refusing admission, has to be carefully examined under public policy principles, considering, in particular, the specific features of the 'electronic markets' market' and the rules of the digital economy.
Speculation on the Operation of Succession Regulation 650/2012: Tales of the Unexpected
Authors: Carruthers Janeen M. , Crawford Elizabeth B.
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article considers the possible effects on the estates of UK nationals and/or assets situated in the United Kingdom of Regulation (EU) No. 650/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council on jurisdiction, applicable law, recognition and enforcement of decisions, and acceptance and enforcement of authentic instruments in matters of succession and on the creation of a European Certificate of Succession ('Rome IV'), which will apply to the succession of persons who die on or after 17 August 2015. It seeks to demonstrate that the decision by the United Kingdom not to opt in to Rome IV does not mean that such persons and property will be unaffected by the Regulation and to show by hypothetical scenarios how Rome IV may have an effect beyond the limits of compliant EU Member States.

Resumé: Le présent article traite des effets possibles sur le patrimoine des ressortissants du Royaume Uni et/ou sur les biens situés au Royaume Uni du Règlement (UE) No 650/2012 du Parlement européen et du Conseil relatif à la compétence, la loi applicable, la reconnaissance et l'exécution des décisions et l'acceptation et l'exécution des actes authentiques en matière de succession et à la création d'un 'Certificat successoral européen' ('Rome IV') qui s'appliquera aux successions de personnes décédées le ou après le 17 août 2015. Il tente de démontrer que la décision par le Royaume Uni de ne pas adhérer à Rome IV ne signifie pas que de ces personnes et ces biens ne soient pas concernés par le Règlement et à montrer, par des scénarios hypothétiques, comment Rome IV peut avoir des conséquences au delà des limites imposées par les Etats membres de l'UE.

Zusammenfassung: Der vorliegende Beitrag untersucht die möglichen Auswirkungen der Verordnung (EU) Nr. 650/2012 des Europäischen Parlaments und des Rates über die Zuständigkeit, das anzuwendende Recht, die Anerkennung und Vollstreckung von Entscheidungen und die Annahme und Vollstreckung öffentlicher Urkunden in Erbsachen sowie zur Einführung eines Europäischen Nachlasszeugnisses ('Rom IV'), die auf den Erbfall bei Personen, die an oder nach dem 17. August 2015 sterben, Anwendung finden wird, auf Immobilien von aus dem Vereinigten Königreich stammenden Staatsangehörigen und/oder Vermögen, das sich im Vereinigten Königreich befindet. Er soll demonstrieren, dass die Entscheidung des Vereinigten Königreichs gegen ein Opt-in zu Rom IV nicht bedeuted, dass sich die Verordnung auf den erwähnten Personen- und Vermögenskreis nicht auswirken wird. Weiter soll mittels hypothetischer Szenarien gezeigt werden, wie Rom IV möglicherweise über die Grenzen der EU-Mitgliedstaaten, in denen die Verordnung in Kraft tritt, hinaus Auswirkungen haben wird.
Goodwill Compensation after Termination of a Franchise Contract: Comparative Perspectives on Cour de Cassation 23 October 2012 (No. 11-21.978)
Authors: Baeck Joke , Hartlief Ton
Published: April 2022

Abstract: In the case decided by the French Cour de Cassation on 23 October 2012, a franchisee invoked the rules on unjustified enrichment to claim compensation for loss of clientele (also referred to as 'goodwill compensation') resulting from the termination of the franchise contract. The Cour de Cassation dismissed the claim of the franchisee, stating that the rules on unjustified enrichment may not be invoked if the alleged enrichment of the defendant and the alleged impoverishment of the claimant find their justification in the execution or termination of a contract entered into by the claimant and the defendant. The following reports examine how this case would be resolved in seven other European jurisdictions - Belgium, Estonia, Germany, Ireland and the United Kingdom, Italy and the Netherlands - as well as under the Draft Common Frame of Reference. The overall conclusion is that all the examined jurisdictions are reluctant to allow an unjustified enrichment claim for loss of clientele after termination of a franchise contract. However, in almost all the examined jurisdictions, legal scholars and courts seem to look for alternative ways to grant a franchisee, under certain conditions, a goodwill compensation after termination of the franchise contract, e.g. by applying the specific statutory rules concerning commercial agency by way of analogy to franchisees.

Résumé: S'étant vu notifier la fin de son contrat de franchise, un franchisé avait invoqué les règles de l'enrichissement sans cause pour obtenir du franchiseur une indemnité pour perte de clientèle. Dans son arrêt du 23 octobre 2012, la Cour de cassation française rejette cette demande, en statuant que « les règles gouvernant l'enrichissement sans cause ne peuvent être invoquées dès lors que l'appauvrissement et l'enrichissement allégués trouvent leur cause dans l'exécution ou la cessation de la convention conclue entre les parties ». Les rapports suivants examinent comment cette affaire serait résolue dans sept autres juridictions européennes - en Allemagne, en Belgique, en Estonie, en Irlande et au Royaume-Uni, en Italie et aux Pays-Bas - ainsi que selon les règles du Projet de cadre commun de référence. La conclusion générale est que toutes les juridictions examinées sont réticentes à accorder au franchisé, sur le fondement de l'enrichissement sans cause, une indemnité pour perte de clientèle après la cessation du contrat de franchise. Toutefois, dans la plupart des juridictions examinées, des auteurs et des juges cherchent des solutions alternatives pour accorder au franchisé, sous certaines conditions, une indemnité pour perte de clientèle après la cessation du contrat de franchise, notamment en appliquant les règles spécifiques du contrat d'agence commerciale par analogie au contrat de franchise.
The European Law of Contractual Penalties
Authors: Pasa Barbara
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Debate in Europe has sought to clarify whether the term 'contractual penalties' could be interpreted, in a system-neutral meaning, as an 'agreed sum to be paid for non-performance' (or 'stipulated payment for non-performance') in order to accommodate common law systems, which have traditionally resisted the notion of penalty as a punitive civil sanction. This article looks at contractual penalties as a standard repertoire of tools used to encourage parties to perform and to deter them from breach of contract, as well as to calculate loss and damages in advance, rather than as a penalty to punish the debtor at fault for breach.

Résumé: Le débat en Europe a tenté de clarifier la question de savoir si le terme 'clauses pénales' pourrait être interprété, dans un sens neutre, indépendant de tout système, comme une 'somme convenue due en cas de non-exécution' (ou 'paiement stipulé pour non-exécution') afin d'accommoder les systèmes de common law qui se sont traditionnellement opposés à la notion de pénalité en tant que sanction civile punitive. Cet article considère les clauses pénales comme un répertoire standard d'outils utilisés pour encourager les parties à exécuter leurs obligations et les dissuader de rompre le contrat, ainsi que pour calculer d'avance les pertes et les dommages, plutôt qu'une pénalité visant à punir le débiteur pour rupture de contrat.
Liability of a Mother Company for Its Subsidiary in French, Belgian, and English Law
Authors: Demeyere Siel
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Multinational enterprises can go unpunished for acts, even amounting to human rights violations, that are committed in developing countries. Because the subsidiary has committed these acts, the mother company itself escapes liability. In this article, we will analyse how one can nevertheless react against acts of subsidiaries abroad. We will study the possibility of liability in tort and the grounds for piercing the corporate veil in French, Belgian, and English law. We then make a comparison with the economic unity argument in competition law. As these arguments are based on French, Belgian, and English law, we will first shortly discuss how the application of such laws can be ensured and how jurisdiction of courts within the EU can be established.

Résumé: Des entreprises multinationales peuvent rester impunies pour des actes, élevants à des violations des droits humains, qui sont commis dans des pays à développement. Parce que c'est la filiale qui a commis ces actes, la société mère elle-même n'est pas responsable. Dans cette contribution, on analyse comment on peut réagir contre des actes d'une filiale à l'étranger. On étudie la responsabilité extracontractuelle et les bases pour lever le voile social en droit français, belge et anglais. Après, on fait une comparaison avec l'argument d'unité économique en droit de concurrence. Comme tous ces arguments sont basés sur le droit français, belge et anglais, on discute d'abord brièvement comment on peut assurer qu'un de ces lois soit applicable et qu'un tribunal européen soit compétent.
The Interplay between Public and Private Enforcement in European Private Law: Law and Economics Perspective
Authors: Weber Franziska
Published: April 2022

Abstract: European private law is enforced by different mechanisms and tools that vary between sectors and countries. Some countries, like Germany, may have a strong private law enforcement tradition. In others, such as Scandinavian countries, public law has historically been prevalent. Some countries may be more prone to criminal law enforcement than others. These differing traditions impose a particular challenge on the European legislator that occasionally legislates with the goal of harmonizing law enforcement throughout Europe. From an economic perspective, the threat of enforcement is regarded as guiding people’s behaviour or, more particularly, providing incentives to obey the law. In this exercise, different mechanisms vary in their suitability. This article focuses on three mechanisms – private, administrative, and criminal law enforcement – and displays their economic strengths and weaknesses. Ultimately, different mechanisms need to interact to provide an appropriate enforcement response. These mixes will, furthermore, look differently depending on the country in question. This article will first set out the goals and incentives of the different law enforcement models and of the stakeholders involved. It then analyses how these parameters relate to the traditional choice between public and private law enforcement. The British financial sector is sketched as one of the few examples where a ‘hybrid’ enforcement mechanism that shows elements of both private and public laws is used.
The Subtle Europeanization of Contract Law: The Case of Directive 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices
Authors: Djurovic Mateja
Published: April 2022

Abstract: 2015 marks the tenth anniversary of Directive 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices. Ever since its adoption, the effects of this directive on contract law have remained unclear. The ambiguity has primarily been caused by the separation between the law on unfair commercial practices and contract law that the directive introduced. In this article, I argue that despite the existence of this formal partition, Directive 2005/29/EC on Unfair Commercial Practices has, indeed, influenced and shaped contract law. In such manner, the directive has proven to be a subtle but powerful instrument aimed to contribute to the process of Europeanization of contract law.

Résumé: En 2015 nous fêtons le dixième anniversaire de la Directive 2005/29/CE sur les pratiques commerciales déloyales. Depuis son adoption, les effets de cette directive sur le droit des contrats sont restés ambigus. Cette ambiguïté découle principalement de la séparation introduite entre le droit sur les pratiques commerciales déloyales et le droit des contrats par la directive elle-même. Dans cet article, je soutiens que, malgré l’existence de cette partition formelle, la directive 2005/29/CE sur les pratiques commerciales déloyales a, en pratique, influencé et modifié le droit des contrats. De cette manière, la directive s’est avérée être un instrument subtil, mais puissant, au service du processus d’européanisation du droit des contrats

Zusammenfassung: Im Jahr 2015 feiert die Richtlinie 2005/29/EG über unlautere Geschäftspraktiken ihren zehnten Geburtstag. Seit ihrer Verabschiedung bestehen allerdings auch Unsicherheiten hinsichtlich ihrer konkreten Auswirkungen auf das Vertragsrecht. Diese beruhen im Wesentlichen auf der durch die Richtlinie eingeführten Differenzierung zwischen Lauterkeits- und Vertragsrecht. In diesem Artikel werde ich darlegen, dass die Richtlinie 2005/29/EG über unlautere Geschäftspraktiken – trotz dieser formalen Unterscheidung – auch das Vertragsrecht maßgeblich beeinflusst und geformt hat. Die Richtlinie hat sich insoweit als subtiles, aber wirkungsvolles Instrument erwiesen, welches einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Europäisierung des Vertragsrechts geleistet hat.
Tenancy and Right to Housing: Private Law and Social Policies
Authors: Martínez-Escribano Celia
Published: April 2022

Abstract: As far as the right to housing is a programmatic rule in the European Union (EU) and national regulations of tenancy are related to housing, social housing policies can be carried out through tenancy law. In fact, tenancy rules have traditionally been mandatory in the European context to protect tenants as the weak party of the contract, with little room for the freedom of will, due to the risk of abuses from landlords. However, an excess of protection for tenants could infringe property as a fundamental right of landlords, even though it is based on social purposes. At this point, the key issue is to find the balance between imperative rules protecting tenants and the freedom of will. This study explores the role of tenancy in connection to the right to housing in some European countries by comparing the rules related to the duration of the contract and the rent as basic elements for tenants.

Résumé: Étant donné que le droit de l’habitation est un principe programmatique dans le cadre de l’Union Européenne et que les droits nationaux du bail sont liés à l’habitation, les politiques sociales en matière d’habitation pourraient être développées par l’intermédiaire de la réglementation du bail. En fait, le droit du bail a été traditionnellement régulé par normes impératives en Europe afin de protéger le preneur, qui est considéré être la partie faible au contrat, tout en laissant très peu d’espace pour l’autonomie des volontés, afin de prévenir le risque d’abus dans le chef des bailleurs. Mais la protection excessive des preneurs pourrait porter atteinte au droit de propriété comme droit fondamental des bailleurs, même si cette protection a une finalité sociale. Sur ce point-là, la question essentielle est trouver l’équilibre entre les règles impératives destinées à protéger les preneurs et l’autonomie des volontés. Cette étude explore le rôle du bail par rapport au droit de l’habitation dans quelques pays Européens en faisant une analyse comparative des règles relatives à la durée du contrat et du loyer comme éléments essentiels pour les preneurs.
The Constitutionalization of European Private Law: Gateways, Constraints, and Challenges
Authors: Reich Norbert , Cherednychenko Olha O.
Published: April 2022

Abstract: It seems to be undisputed today that the harmonization of private law in Europe cannot take place without taking fundamental rights into account. Yet many questions still exist as to how and to what extent EU and national private law can and should be influenced by fundamental rights enshrined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. This contribution aims to explore gateways to the EU constitutionalization of private law, constraints thereon, and challenges posed thereby, with a particular focus on contract law in the consumer, employment, and financial services context. After a methodological introduction explaining the special nature of the fundamental rights protection in the EU legal order (s. 1), the authors develop a general framework within which the EU constitutionalization of private law takes place (s. 2). Subsequently, they proceed to examine the fundamental rights scrutiny of EU law and national laws within the scope of EU law (s. 3), the interpretation and application of EU law and national law within its scope in conformity with fundamental rights (s. 4), as well as the controversial concepts of the positive obligations to protect fundamental rights in private relationships (s. 5) and the direct horizontal effect of fundamental rights (s. 6). The contribution concludes with some final observations (s. 7).
In the Name of Effective Consumer Protection and Public Policy!
Authors: Sørensen Marie Jull
Published: April 2022

The European Court of Justice (ECJ) has established that under certain circumstances national courts have an obligation, ex officio, to apply specific consumer protection provisions. This article presents a model derived from the argumentation for this obligation in ECJ case law. The model consists of four steps that include the specific ideas behind consumer protection provisions as well as the interaction between the principle of effectiveness and principle of equivalence. It is found that the principle of effectiveness is stretched very long and is often not set aside by the ‘rule of reason’. It is also found that the ECJ is open to the idea of regarding consumer protection provisions as (European Union (EU)) public policy rules which seems to challenge the traditional principle of equivalence. Based on the findings, the author elaborates on the concept of a European public policy doctrine.
The Walls Have Fallen, Run for the Keep: Insolvency Law as the New Company Law for Third Parties
Authors: Lindemans Gillis
Published: April 2022

In Kornhaas, the European Court of Justice (CJEU) held that a German ‘wrongful trading’ action falls within the scope of the Insolvency Regulation and that its application to companies incorporated in another Member State (in accordance with the Insolvency Regulation) does not infringe the freedomof establishment. The Court expressly distinguished the Kornhaas case from precedents in which it did find a violation of the freedomof establishment. This judgment is reassuring for Member States looking to protect the interests of creditors against the externalities created by companies. Pursuant to the Kornhaas judgment, Member States can be relatively confident that the measures of creditor protection they adopt fall outside the scope of the freedom of establishment, as long as these measures do not directly relate to the company’s incorporation. This will be the case for most provisions of insolvency law, given that they necessarily become relevant only after the company has been formed. Moreover, the strength of such provisions is that they apply to all companies having their centre of main interests in the relevant Member State’s territory. Seen from that perspective, the CJEU has in Kornhaas endorsed a kind of a real seat theory in insolvency law, the very theory it has unsettled in company law.
Swedish Case Note on the Penalty Clause Decisions by the UK Supreme Court
Authors: Ramberg Christina
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The UK Supreme Court has recently decided two interesting cases on harshremedies for breach of contract (the penalty doctrine). I will give approximate-descriptions of the cases and compare the outcome in the UK Supreme Courtwith the likely outcomes and reasonings as if the cases were tried by the SwedishSupreme Court. My conclusion is that the outcomes would be similar. The reasoningswould differ slightly, but not much. The applicable types of sources of law, however, differ considerably.
Consequences of the European Succession Regulation in European Property Law
Authors: Martínez-Escribano Celia
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Regulation nº 650/2012 harmonizes conflict-law rules in succession law. As far as succession provokes the acquisition of property rights for heirs and legatees, the Regulation is not only focused on succession law, but it has to deal also with property law issues. The nature of rights in rem and the requirements and effects of records of property rights are excluded from the scope of application of the Regulation [Art. 1.2. k) and l)]. But the uniform application of the Regulation in all Member States requires a common interpretation of such issues, same concepts and categories, as well as common boundaries between property law and succession law in national regulations, including recording issues. According to it, the purpose of this study is to analyse the implications of the Regulation in property law and, in short, how EU law indirectly affects this field as a contribution for the construction of European Property Law.

Résumé: Le Règlement nº 650/2012 harmonise les règles de conflits de lois en droit des successions. Dans la mesure où une succession entraîne l’acquisition de droits de propriété pour les héritiers et légataires, le Règlement ne se concentre pas seulement sur le droit des successions, mais il doit traiter aussi de questions de droit de la propriété. La nature de droits réels et les exigences et effets d’inscriptions de droits de propriété sont exclus du domaine d’application du Règlement [Art. 1.2. k) et l)]. Or l’application uniforme du Règlement dans tous les Etats membres nécessite une interprétation commune de telles questions, des concepts et catégories semblables, de même que des limites communes entre le droit de la propriété et le droit des successions dans les réglementations nationales, y compris les questions d’inscription. Partant de là, l’objectif de cette étude est d’analyser les implications du Règlement en droit de la propriété et, en bref, de montrer comment le droit de l’UE touche indirectement ce domaine en contribuant à la construction du Droit européen de la Propriété.
Compensation for Drug-Related Injuries
Authors: Urho Matti
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to answer the following question: What are the qualifications required of a viable compensation scheme for drug-related injuries in the future? To answer this question the no-fault systems in four Nordic states are examined and compared to other systems fully or partially arranged on no-fault principles in Europe and outside Europe. Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland all operate similar no-fault schemes with minor differences. (The fifth Nordic Country, Iceland, is not operating a separate drug insurance scheme, but drugs are dealt under the general product liability regulations and that is why Iceland is not discussed in this context.) These schemes have helped avoid expensive and time-consuming court proceedings usually required when liability law is applied. By examining especially the viability and qualifications of the Finnish compensation scheme operated over the past 30 years some key qualifications for an optimal scheme can be identified. The conclusions drawn then are that this kind of a no-fault compensation system could well be recommended across the EU for an alternative mechanism for resolving drug-related injury compensation cases. For a future compensation model the author proposes a mix of the Nordic, the Japanese and the French models.

Résumé: L’objectif de cet article est de répondre à la question suivante: Quelles sont les qualifications requises d’un régime viable d’indemnisation pour blessures liées à l’usage de médicaments dans l’avenir? Pour répondre à cette question, nous examinons les régimes basés sur l’absence de faute dans quatre pays nordiques et les comparons à d’autres systèmes entièrement ou partiellement basés sur des principes d’absence de faute en Europe et à l’extérieur de l’Europe. La Suède, la Norvège, le Danemark et la Finlande utilisent tous des principes similaires d’absence de faute, avec des différences minimes. Ces régimes ont permis d’éviter les procédures judiciaires coûteuses et longues qui sont généralement nécessaires en cas d’application du droit de la responsabilité. En examinant spécialement la viabilité et les qualifications du régime finlandais d’indemnisation appliqué pendant 30 ans, on peut identifier quelques qualifications- clé pour un régime optimal. Selon les conclusions qui ont pu alors être tirées, cette sorte de régime d’indemnisation basé sur l’absence de faute pourrait être préconisé à travers l’Europe comme mécanisme alternatif permettant de résoudre les cas d’indemnisation de blessures liées à l’usage de médicaments. Pour des modèles futurs d’indemnisation, l’auteur propose une combinaison des modèles nordique, japonais et français.
The Legal Meaning of Smart Contracts
Authors: De Caria Riccardo
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article investigates the legal dimension of smart contracts. In particular, it reviews their existing definitions in some of the main laws enacted and scholarly articles published to date, proposes its own version, to then move on to consider to what extent new legal categories are warranted to deal with this apparently totally new way of making legally binding agreements. It concludes by providing some final remarks with regard to relevant legal categories and attempts to advance a number of solutions to the legal questions raised by the application of smart contracts.

Résume: Le présent article étudie la dimension juridique de contrats intelligents. En particulier, il passe en revue leurs définitions qui se trouvent dans certaines des lois essentielles promulguées et dans des articles académiques publiés jusqu’à présent, il propose sa version propre, et considère ensuite dans quelle mesure de nouvelles catégories juridiques sont justifiées pour traiter cette manière apparemment tout à fait nouvelle de passer des accords juridiquement obligatoires. Il conclut par quelques remarques finales concernant des catégories juridiques importantes et tente d’apporter certaines solutions aux questions juridiques soulevées par l’application de contrats intelligents.
Force Majeure and Excuses in Smart Contracts
Authors: Tjong Tjin Tai Eric
Published: April 2022

Abstract: A classic legal problem is whether breach of contract may give rise to a remedy. Under common law this is discussed under the doctrine of excuses. Its civil lawequivalent is the attributability of causes of non-performance of an obligation, and its converse, force majeure. Despite the variety of approaches in various jurisdictions, the general outlines are roughly equivalent as far as translation into smart contracts is concerned: the main issue is what is the cause of non-performance and whether this cause can be attributed.

Smart contracts can deal with the general outline of this structure, but may in practice only approximate the refinement that contract law offers. Themain problems are: determining the actual cause of the non-performance by means of automated oracles or the smart contract on its own (without relying on human judgment), dealing with multiple causality and impediments due to the creditor, determining attributability of the cause of non-performance. Smart contracts may offer no more than an approximation of the detailed rules of contract law, by hard-and-fast rules. This may suffice for certain categories of contracts, but may need additional effort to obtain a closer approximation of contract law rules where larger interests are concerned. The related doctrine of withholding performance is similarly difficult to realize appropriately in smart contracts. As regards hardship or unforeseen circumstances, it is best to disallow this in smart contracts,which leaves open the questionwhether partiesmight go to court for relief. The reliance on oracles furthermore opens a weakness to the automatic performance of smart contracts, due to possible liability of oracles for perceived incorrect assessment.
Mergers, Extraterritorial Jurisdiction and Convergence of EU and US Law
Authors: Akhtar Zia
Published: April 2022

Competition law is structured with the objective of attaining consumer welfare maximization and the efficiency of the market. This is to achieve a perfectly competitive market with concentrations on price, quality, and innovation of products and services. The legislative practice of the EU is aimed at harmonization and it can be compared to the US, which was the first country to establish the ‘effects doctrine’ involving foreign companies. The benefits and problems of extraterritorial assertion of jurisdiction on merger cases needs to be demonstrated in a global market because the mergers extend the anti-competitive effects to other parts of the world, externally from where they originate. This article will identify the advantages and disadvantages of extraterritorial jurisdiction on merger control, and the convergence of US and EU approaches with the intention of setting out a framework to decrease the legal conflicts between antitrust regimes in order to avoid the costs of multiple notifications.
Towards a New Era for the Legal Profession
Authors: Bugatti Laura
Published: April 2022

The article discusses the regulatory trends and new challenges that the legal profession is currently facing in Europe. To show the complexity and specificity of the professional phenomenon, this article opens with an overview of the main dominant theory – constructions on professions in sociology – followed by analysis of the economic theories of regulation, with particular regards to the public interest and private interest theories. The analysis suggests that the lens through which the professions may be perceived can be different, if not opposite, and as a consequence, the rationale for professional services regulation might be very distant. Starting from the specific EU position towards the application of the competition law in the professional sector, this article provides a comparative analysis of the current legal profession regulations across Europe, considering rules affecting entry restrictions, as well as some restrictions on conduct. This article suggests that the European legal profession is gradually moving from a professional-independence approach to a consumer-centric perspective, even if several forms of alternative resistance are still in place, as the Italian experience shows. In view of the comparative analysis conducted, this article claims that the paradigm of professionalism is not condemned to succumb to commercialism; instead it seems to have hybridized its nature in favour of a new model of regulation, able to promote market competition and innovation without, however, renouncing professionalism and its core values.
Why MiFID & MiFID II Do (not) Matter to Private Law: Liability to Compensate for Investment Losses for Breach of Conduct of Business Rules
Authors: Wallinga Marnix
Published: April 2022

The role of enforcement by civil courts of the Markets in Financial Instruments Directive (MiFID) and MiFID II conduct of business in contributing to retail investor protection is often overlooked at the EU level. The EU legislator, primarily, focuses on the harmonization of public enforcement by supervisory authorities through administrative law means. However, it can be argued that the (relative) lack of attention for judicial enforcement through private law means does not do justice to this enforcement avenue. This article, therefore, explores the potential of judicial enforcement through holding investment firms liable to pay damages on the basis of national private law to contribute to retail investor protection. The aim of the article is to establish the extent to which retail investors can invoke the MiFID and MiFID II conduct of business rules and, thereby, benefit from these rules in claiming damages. The article will argue, in the first place, that MiFID and MiFID II leave intact the freedom of Member States and civil courts to shape the effect of a breach of the conduct of business rules contained therein on a firm’s private law liability to pay damages. However, that does not mean that the MiFID and MiFID II conduct of business rules are of no relevance to a firm’s liability on the basis of national private law. The article will show that the private law regimes of the Netherlands, England & Wales, and Germany contain distinct avenues of judicial enforcement of the MiFID and MiFID II conduct of business rules through private law liability, which can significantly contribute to retail investor protection.
The Regulation of Online Reviews in European Consumer Law
Authors: Narciso Madalena
Published: April 2022

Most consumers consult online reviews before entering a contractual relation. Online reviews are written feedback or a rating left by consumers on a good or service they have experienced. Online review mechanisms are designed and controlled by online platforms. From a legal perspective, online reviews can be perceived as pre-contractual information: they tackle information asymmetries between businesses and consumers and they shape consumers’ contractual will. However, online reviews are often unreliable: they are not representative of all consumers’ opinions, they can be vitiated by biases or they can be faked in order to increase a business’ reputation. These issues can be detrimental to consumer protection, since online reviews can mislead consumers and hinder their trust in the market. Additionally, these issues raise questions regarding the recent role of online platforms as gateways to consumer information, their responsibility in assuring online review mechanisms’ reliability and how prepared European consumer legislation is for the platform economy. Even though the European legislator has not explicitly regulated online reviews so far, it has demonstrated interest in doing so, having had characterized unreliable online reviews as a threat to consumer protection. Furthermore, the regulation of contractual information has been one of the European Union’s main concerns in consumer law, which means that the existing regulatory framework can be applicable to online reviews. This article explores online reviews’ relevance for private law by determining to what extent existing European consumer Directives apply to them, focusing particularly the E-Commerce Directive and the Unfair Commercial Practices Directive.
L’évaluation du DCFR au regard de la problématique de la perte de chance et de la causalité alternative
Authors: Joisten Céline
Published: April 2022

The Draft Common Frame of Reference is an academic instrument for the harmonization of private law between EU States and was drafted in 2006 by the Study Group on a European Civil Code and the Research Group on Existing EC Private Law (the ‘Acquis Group’). Beyond its aim of a future European Civil Code, the DCFR is an academic work which provides a comparative analysis of private law between EU countries and it is also an example for future and current national reform of private law. This essay analyses chapter 6 of the DCFR which concerns ‘Non-contractual liability arising out of damage caused to another’ and, more specifically, the area of loss of chance and alternative causation. On the first hand, DCFR tries to harmonize the controversial area of loss of chance as an independent form of damage, one can however conclude that the aim of the DCFR is not reached. On the other hand, concerning alternative causation, the DCFR distinguishes two situations, the ones where multiple potential authors caused a damage to one victim, and the ones where multiple potential authors caused a damage to multiple victims. The solution adopted for each situation is different from the one adopted by the Principle of European Tort Law (PETL), which is another project of harmonization concerning torts specifically.
The Modernization of European Consumer Law (Continued): More Meat on the Bone After All
Authors: Loos Marco B.M.
Published: April 2022

This article discusses to what extent the final text of the Modernization Directive ultimately delivers on the promises of the Communication ‘A New Deal for Consumers’ regarding the modernization and better enforcement of European consumer protection rules. In particular, I will discuss the provisions regarding individual and public enforcement of EU consumer law and go into the matter of dynamic pricing and online choice architecture. Specific attention is paid to online market places: which information duties apply and with whom does the consumer conclude a contract? The directive also introduces additional rules regarding the consumer’s right of withdrawal, and some simplifications for the position of the trader. I conclude that the Modernization Directive indeed does deliver on the New Deal’s promises, albeit that a further modernization of EU consumer law is still needed to keep it fit for the 2020s.
Judging for Utopia: Climate Change and Judicial Action
Authors: Graver Hans Petter
Published: April 2022

When we speak of judges who judge for Utopia, we speak about judges today who pursue a better world through their judging. In this contribution, it is argued that a judiciary that is actively engaged in making the world a better place is good for society, also from a legal point of view. Since the most urgent call for utopian law and utopian judging today is on the issue of climate change, litigation in this field forms the main case for discussion. Controversial issues of utopian judging arise when there is disagreement in society over the direction the judiciary is taking, or when the judiciary is taking a separate way from the legislator or the executive power. In such situations, utopian judges may come under criticism for judicial activism or excessive judicial review. It is submitted here that disagreements and differences are, however, not something that should be avoided; they drive the system forward in the exercise of checks and balances. Climate change litigation is an example where there is a need for this today.
Civil Courts as Constitutional Courts: Polity-building through private law in Europe
Authors: Mak Chantal
Published: April 2022

What can and should be the role of national civil courts in a European private legal order? This article explores the courts’ position against the backdrop of experiences in the ‘failed’ projects envisaging a European Civil Code and a European Constitution. It is held that rather than aspiring to find a lasting settlement in such static foundational texts, which courts should interpret and apply, the more dynamic interaction of national and European sources and institutions should be embraced. Descriptively, civil courts’ contributions can be accounted for in terms of ‘hybridization’, insofar as their judgments merge elements of EU law with rights and remedies under national private laws in a deliberative process that transcends national and European boundaries. Normatively, it is submitted that civil courts may be considered to perform a constitutional task insofar as they contribute to a dynamic process of polity-building in Europe.
Neither Persons nor Things: The Changing Status of Animals in Private Law
Authors: Bernet Kempers Eva
Published: April 2022

The summa divisio between the person and the thing lies, traditionally, at the very basis of European private law. In a growing number of European jurisdictions however, provisions have been introduced in the Civil Code that differentiate between animals and other legal things or objects. Even though it is certain that these provisions do not vest animals with a form of legal personality similar to that of humans or corporations, it has been noted that the new legal status may influence the way animals are being addressed in other areas of private law and can sometimes even be construed as limiting the rights of persons. Perceived as such, the special status of the animal challenges the traditional dichotomy between the person and the thing, giving rise to a category that lies in between.
Safeguards against Takeover after Volkswagen – On the Lawfulness of such Safeguards under Company Law after the European Court’s Decision in “Volkswagen”
Authors: Werlauff Erik
Published: April 2022

This article analyses the significance of the European Court’s decision on the effects of the rules on the free movement of capital on the takeover safeguards in Volkswagen AG for restrictions on the right to vote, ownership ceilings, division into A and B share classes, increased majority requirements etc. in listed companies, and the implications which the decision has for the state’s participation in private companies