bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multinational Corporations
Authors: De George Richard T.
Published: January 2015

This article is a broad overview of ethical issues faced by multinational corporations. The issues fall into three classes: those concerning the proper norms to apply; those that arise from the differential in power between large multinationals and less developed countries, and those that result from the absence of adequate international institutions and law that restrain corporations in many national contexts. Nonetheless, companies of integrity can avoid the ethical pitfalls.
Organizational Moral Distress
Authors: Mills Ann E. , Werhane Patricia H.
Published: January 2015

Moral distress has been identified at the individual level and defined as the anguish a person may experience faced with a situation in which the individual knows the right thing to do but is prevented from doing it by institutional constraints. In this article, we take a broader approach and apply the idea of moral distress to the organizational level. We call this concept organizational moral distress. Organizational moral distress is, in part, the distress one or more organization stakeholder groups experience because of a misalignment between the operational values of an organization and what an organization says it endorses.
Practical Reasoning
Authors: Walton Douglas N.
Published: January 2015

Practical reasoning is a species of goal‐directed reasoning based on knowledge of the circumstances of an individual case, and directing an agent to a specific course of action. Typically, the agent must decide between alternative courses of action that are possible, take into account possible side effects and conflicting goals, and decide either to act or to do nothing. Practical reasoning is a defeasible form of reasoning that is subject to critical questions depending on the circumstances. The agent will also need to take into account that there may be more than one means available.
Risk
Authors: Brinkmann Johannes , Hoffman W. Michael , Aarset Magne
Published: January 2015

In everyday language, people perceive risks as possibilities of loss or harm. Rather than using such synonyms, it is more helpful to understand risk by key criteria and variables, often in contrast to different antonyms: measurability of risk, manageability of risk, insurability of risk, attributability of risk, voluntariness of risk, and justifiability of risk. These aspects are often interdependent. There is almost an inflation of business risk management checklists, and there are less and more complex lists and models. All lists seem to contain four basic steps for proper risk management procedure: risk identification, risk evaluation, risk control and financing, and taking a risk related decision. Risk ethics also represents a ubiquitous core of “holistic” risk governance, together with risk communication. Questions might focus on exposure to risk – and, importantly, if there is a duty to search for information or if there exists a right to be provided information. The ethical acceptability of risk taking and risk exposure depends on good answers to such questions.
Securities and Exchange Commission
Authors: Sack Robert J.
Published: January 2015

The Securities and Exchange Commission was established in response to the financial crises of the 1930s. Its two‐part mission is to police the securities markets in the United States and to encourage capital formation by maintaining public confidence in the market for stocks and bonds. That mission contains an obvious contradiction and requires a careful balance: an aggressive approach to its policing mission might well raise questions in the minds of market participants as to the fairness of the larger market; failure to police aggressively might well raise the same question. Some argue that an efficient market provides its own police mechanism, and the SEC's rules and regulations get in the way of capital formation. Nonetheless, the financial community – and the Congress – have concluded that the pressures of the market place will tempt some companies and managers to go beyond their personal ethics and that a legitimatized restraining authority serves the interests of all.
socioeconomics
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: January 2015

Neoclassical economics assumes people have self‐serving goals and seek them rationally. Socioeconomics shows that people have self‐serving goals, but those are in constant conflict with their social commitments and moral sensibilities. And, people's choices of means are always deeply affected by values.
Welfare Economics
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: January 2015

Welfare economics is the study of decision‐making with the aim of enhancing
social
welfare, in contrast to an
individual's
happiness or a
firm's
profit. This subject should be of value to government (since government is meant to be an agency for promoting social welfare); to an individual who is not committed solely to enhancing his or her own happiness; or even to the “enlightened” firm or business corporation that seeks not only to increase its profit but also has some commitment to the general well‐being of society. Welfare economics has two main concerns: (i) the abstract problem of deciding what constitutes social welfare; and (ii) the more mundane one of deciding how to choose between projects, taxation schemes, industrial regulation, environmental policy, and so on, given some agreed‐upon notion of social welfare. The most influential position has been a utilitarian one – however, it has been criticized. This analysis looks at Vilfredo Pareto's Pareto Optimality and Arrow's impossibility theorem; and it recognizes the place of welfare economics in the economist's repertoire.
Sustainability
Authors: DesJardins Joseph
Published: January 2015

As used in environmental and economic settings, the concept of sustainability is traced to the 1897 United Nations' Brundtland Report, “Our Common Future,” which focused on long‐term strategies that might help nations achieve economic development without causing excessive environmental damage. The Brundtland Report offered what has become the standard definition of sustainable development: “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Beginning with this report, the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development has guided much of the world's thinking about global economic growth and development.

Three dimensions of sustainability are implicit within this definition. First, there is an economic component that concerns allocating resources to meet human needs. Second, there is a systemic component that concerns the productive capacity, or functional integrity, of the productive system itself. Third, there is an equity component that is concerned with the distribution of resources across generations. These three dimensions of the definition of sustainability have given rise to three criteria by which economies, institutions, and social practices are evaluated as sustainable. Sustainable practices must (i) meet real human needs, (ii) not jeopardize the functional integrity of the biosphere, and (iii) not deny future generation an equal opportunity to meet their own needs.
U
nited
S
tates, Business Ethics in the
Authors: Hess David
Published: January 2015

This article provides an overview of the development of business ethics in the United States, including the cultural context, how regulation has pushed its development, and its current status as an academic field. This article also provides an overview of three major business ethics cases in the United States: Johnson and Johnson and the Tylenol Crisis, Enron, and Nike and Sweatshop Labor.
Care Ethics
Authors: Koehn Daryl
Published: January 2015

This article considers the key tenets of the ethics of care and this ethic's applicability to business. Both strengths and weaknesses of a care ethics are considered.
Unintended Consequences
Authors: Koehn Daryl
Published: January 2015

This article considers the nature and types of unintended consequences and the challenges they pose for ethical thinking about business policies and deeds.
Alliances and Entrepreneurship
Authors: Reuer Jeffrey J.
Published: January 2015

This article considers entrepreneurial alliances, or collaborations undertaken to foster entrepreneurship. Comparisons are made between entrepreneurial alliances and other forms of collaborations, and key theoretical issues that must be deal it with for entrepreneurial alliances are highlighted. We consider the financial context of entrepreneurial alliances and how these collaborations might have long‐term implications for the growth and development of entrepreneurial ventures.
Disruptive Innovations
Authors: Ahuja Gautam , Toh Puay Khoon
Published: January 2015

Disruptive innovations refer to technologies that introduce a different, and often initially inferior, performance package from the mainstream technology but manage to gain dominance over and displace the superior technology in the market. The key idea and the irony underlying this phenomenon is that the new technological trajectory, created by the disruptive technology that supersedes the old one, is actually initially poorer in terms of performance attributes valued by traditional customers.
Entrepreneurial Resourcefulness
Authors: Bradley Steven W.
Published: January 2015

Resourcefulness is a term often used to describe entrepreneurs, but its dimensions and measurement as a research construct in the entrepreneurship literature are still in development. Drawing from related work in entrepreneurship, sociology, and psychology, resourcefulness in the entrepreneurship context is defined as learned behavioral, financial, and social repertoires for dealing with problems, especially those of novelty, in the pursuit of an opportunity. The construct is compared and contrasted to related constructs and areas for research and application are identified.
Entrepreneurship
Authors: Chrisman James J. , Holt Daniel T.
Published: January 2015

Entrepreneurship refers to acts of organizational creation, renewal, or innovation that occur within, or independent of, an existing organization where corporate entrepreneurship refers to the entrepreneurial activities occurring within the boundaries of an existing organization. As entrepreneurship is explained, we summarize the current debate that has centered on whether entrepreneurship is reserved for activities that involve innovations or should encompass all acts of organization creation, whether innovative or imitative. Further, we explain how the strategic decisions and subsequent actions involved in entrepreneurship differ from the strategic decisions and actions of mature, stable organizations.
Family – Power, Experience, and Culture (
F
‐
PEC
) Scale
Authors: Holt Daniel T. , Pearson Allison W.
Published: January 2015

The family – power, experience, and culture (F‐PEC) scale, which was developed to measure family influence, is described. The three factors of family influence that are measured include (i) power, the influence the family has on governance and management of the firm; (ii) experience, the information knowledge, judgment, and intuition that come through successive generations; and (iii) culture, the alignment of the family's goals and with the firm's goals. Along with the scale's description, the theoretical debate regarding the definition of a family business is summarized along with the evidence that has accumulated regarding the F‐PEC's reliability and validity.
Internal Corporate Ventures
Authors: Garrett Robert P.
Published: January 2015

Internal corporate ventures (ICVs), entrepreneurial initiatives that originate within a corporate structure and are intended from inception as new businesses for the corporation, are frequently used by established companies as a means to achieve competitive advantages or to overcome poor prospects in their core businesses. While independent units, ICVs nonetheless operate within a larger organization context, and so they face an environment much different from independent start‐ups. It is difficult to measure ICV performance using objective indicators because many financial indicators are inappropriate for measuring new ventures, and because the parent corporation may adopt accounting methods that make it difficult to understand the true costs and revenues of ICVs. Top management support coming from the corporate parent has been found to be a strong indicator of ICV performance, and venture autonomy and parent‐venture relatedness may also play important roles. Avenues for future exploration on the topic of internal corporate venturing are suggested.
Knowledge Spillovers and Strategic Entrepreneurship
Authors: Audretsch David B.
Published: January 2015

Knowledge spillovers provide a source for the development of entrepreneurial opportunities; however, in many cases there is a knowledge filter that hinders the development of new knowledge into entrepreneurial activity. Therefore, knowledge spillover entrepreneurship acts as a conduit for allowing new knowledge to reach its market potential in the face of knowledge filters. The presence of entrepreneurial‐induced spillovers provides a key component for regional and metropolitan growth and economic development.
Leadership, Entrepreneurial
Authors: Covin Jeffrey G. , Slevin Dennis P.
Published: January 2015

Entrepreneurial leadership is a social influence process intended to facilitate the discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities. By contrast, entrepreneurial management is more appropriately conceptualized as a style, process, or system of operating through which entrepreneurial resources are identified, acquired, configured, and/or deployed in the interests of facilitating the discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities. Entrepreneurial leadership can be exhibited in any form of enterprise including, for example, profit‐seeking and not‐for‐profit organizations, small sole proprietorships to large global corporations, and recently founded ventures to mature business organizations. Such leadership can also be exhibited before a venture's operating organization has been formally created. Entrepreneurial leadership is not the sole responsibility of any given individual or set of individuals. Rather, entrepreneurial leadership can be exercised throughout the organizational hierarchy by managers and non managers at any organizational level. Finally, entrepreneurial leadership is frequently evident in the actions of venture founders as well as established firm CEOs. However, other units of analysis beyond the individual – such as teams, organizational subunits, and entire organizations – can also exhibit entrepreneurial leadership.
Location Effects on Entrepreneurial Ventures
Authors: Coombs Joseph E.
Published: January 2015

The implications of location for a range of entrepreneurial decisions and outcomes are investigated. The tendency toward industry clustering is highlighted. Pros and cons of a clustering approach to location are identified, together with both positive and negative outcomes from clustering. A range of examples from different industries are cited. Priorities are established for future research in this area.
Social Entrepreneurship
Authors: Kickul Jill R. , Griffiths Mark D. , Gundry Lisa K. , Bacq Sophie
Published: January 2015

Social entrepreneurship as a phenomenon in society and a subject of scholarly research is examined. The critical role of social entrepreneurship in addressing shortcomings both of the private sector and the public sector is highlighted. An attention curve to capture patterns in the attention given to social issues and their solutions, or the market for “good”, is presented. The importance and role of bricolage as a catalyst of social change is explored. Attention is also devoted to the concept of catalytic innovations and their importance is affecting substantive social change. Characteristics of catalytic innovators are identified. A number of priorities are established for research streams in social entrepreneurship.
Venture Philanthropy
Authors: Miller William M.
Published: January 2015

The concept of venture philanthropy is explained. Emphasis is placed on making investments that help address vexing social problems, and hence venture philanthropy is connected to social entrepreneurship. The importance of a strategic approach to such investments is highlighted. Metrics for use throughout the strategic investment process are identified and discussed. Focus is placed on metrics as they relate to defining inputs, outputs and, most importantly, impact. Challenges in measuring outcomes or returns are explored. Key trends in the emergence of venture philanthropy are noted.
Career Counseling
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

Career counseling helps individuals arrive at decisions about their careers. Organization‐based counseling includes career planning workshops, individual counseling, and outplacement. Some evidence shows that those who received counseling from trained counselors and followed the advice reported better outcomes than those in similar circumstances who did not receive counseling.
Employee Engagement
Authors: Schaufeli Wilmar B.
Published: January 2015

Engagement refers to the extent to which employees feel vigorous and enthusiastic, and are involved with, committed to, and passionate about their work. It goes beyond mere job satisfaction and differs from workaholism, which is characterized by a compulsive drive. Employee engagement is fostered by job resources and leads to positive job‐related attitudes and behaviors, health and well‐being, and superior job and business‐unit performance. It can be increased by HRM‐strategies such as job (re)design, leadership development, training, and career development.
Flexible Employment Arrangements
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

Flexible employment arrangements are a major component of a wider interest in flexible working. Flexible employment typically addresses contract, working hours, and geographical flexibility. These forms of flexible employment have grown in most countries in recent years, driven partly by organizations' search for cost‐effectiveness and a concern to meet customer needs and partly by a desire among employees for a balance between work and life outside work. Along with other forms of work flexibility including reward and functional flexibility, employment flexibility can form part of a flexible workforce strategy that seeks to differentiate between staff whose contribution is more or less central to organizational effectiveness. However, debates continue about how to define this centrality.
The Science and Practice of Goal Setting
Authors: Latham Gary P. , Locke Edwin A.
Published: January 2015

Specific high goals lead to higher performance than easy goals, no goals or even urging people to do their best. The higher the goal the higher the performance, given ability, commitment, feedback, and resources. Goals are effective because they give people direction, they increase effort and persistence, and they cue people on strategies to attain them.
Human Capital
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

Human capital consists of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics of employees that can result in positive outcomes. It can be acquired through recruitment and selection or developed through training. While there is evidence that greater human capital is associated with higher performance, it is best viewed as a necessary but not sufficient requirement that needs to be set alongside policies and practices to enhance motivation and opportunity to contribute. As the value of human capital will vary across types of employees, a case has been made for appropriately differentiated practices of human capital investment.
HRMas a Profession
Authors: Watson Tony J.
Published: January 2015

It is reasonable to recognise human resource managers as members of an occupation. It is much less straightforward, however, to regard the occupation as a profession. This is in spite of the attractiveness of the “professional” label to occupational leaders and spokespersons, who see the label as a provider of social status and legitimacy. At the heart of the traditional notion of the profession is the claim that practitioners prioritize ethically‐based service to clientsin societyover the furthering of corporate or business interests. If they are involved in corporations at all, professionals have high relative autonomy with regard to the corporation's managers. But this principle clashes with the fact that HR managers are typically employed precisely to serve corporate managers, and to further the purposes of the corporation for which they work. In the past, it was often thought that professions could provide a counter‐balance to the societal influence of capitalist corporations. More recent studies of “professional” organizations see them differently: as knowledge‐based occupations competing with other occupations to benefit their members. The efforts of HRM occupational leaders to embrace the label of professionalism has therefore required them to rethink the nature of “a profession” to produce a new concept of professionalism which incorporates a primary commitment to the interests of employing organizations. Where principles of traditional professionalism may continue to be adopted by HRM specialists is with regard to, first, overseeing HR education and training and, second, contributing to public debates about changing employment practices in society.
Conflict at Work
Authors: Needle David
Published: January 2015

Conflict is seen as an inevitable consequence of the employment relationship and includes more obvious manifestations such as strike action and more latent forms such as absenteeism and even sabotage. Conflict can occur at interpersonal, intra‐organizational, and inter‐organizational levels although, the focus in HR has been on collective and individual forms of conflict and dispute. The former has tended to focus on pay and conditions and the latter on issues of inequity and personal grievance. There are however serious problems in measuring the extent and identifying causes of conflict. Key developments include the decline of strikes and the shift from collective to individual forms of conflict. The shift has been associated with sector changes, changes in legislation, and government policy, changes in trade union membership and power and the increased sophistication of HR policies and practices. There is some debate about the extent of the shift from collective to individual conflict and indeed whether there is a relationship between them. Mechanisms exist at both national and organizational level to deal with conflict in most countries, although the policies and practices
vary with variations in the institutional context.
Smoke‐Free Work Environment
Authors: Manning Michael R.
Published: January 2015

A smoke‐free work environment results from organizational policy prohibiting smoking within all company premises.
The Analysis of
HR
Departments and the Contribution of
D
avid
U
lrich
Authors: Sparrow Paul
Published: January 2015

This article analyzes the contribution made by Dave Ulrich to debates about the structure of
HR
departments. It reviews the main developments in his thinking, both before and after the original specification of the key components needed within an
HR
structure. It discusses associated concepts such as
HR
architecture and
HR
delivery models. It outlines some of the proposed mechanisms, and those components of the model that have been most strongly picked up by practice. Finally, it lays out the different ways in which the success of the model might be evaluated.
Workplace Bullying
Authors: Hoel Helge , Einarsen Ståle
Published: January 2015

The phenomenon of workplace bullying refers to repeated exposure to unwanted negative acts, be it personal or work‐related, and of a predominantly psychological nature, and where there exists a power imbalance between the protagonists. Although bullying may take on different forms, for example, targeted behavior against one or more individuals, or arising from a dispute or conflict between two parties, its presence is associated with negative outcomes for targets in terms of detrimental effects on health and wellbeing, sometimes also affecting observers or third‐parties. In turn, bullying affects organizations through increased involuntary turnover and absenteeism and reduced productivity, among other organizational outcomes, altogether imposing substantial costs on organizations and society. Although prevalence rates are seen to vary considerably across jurisdictions, sectors, occupations and organizations, no single organization can consider itself bully‐proof. Where risk factors are considered, individual vulnerabilities are being played down, with organisations instead encouraged to focus on factors associated with the work‐environment and thus open to intervention by the organization. As prevention against bullying, many organizations have introduced policies although their effectiveness is uncertain. As a response to formal complaints of bullying, organizations are advised to carry out investigations conducted by impartial investigators.
Job Satisfaction
Authors: Meier Laurenz L. , Spector Paul E.
Published: January 2015

Job satisfaction is a person's overall evaluation of his or her job as favorable or unfavorable. Both personal characteristics such as traits and situational characteristics such as work stressors affect people's job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is related to many factors that are important for human resource management, such as performance, counterproductive behavior, turnover, and employee health.
Psychological Contract
Authors: Conway Neil
Published: January 2015

The psychological contract is regarded as a major construct for understanding employee well‐being and behavior. It has been defined as an individual's beliefs, shaped by the organization, regarding terms of an exchange agreement between the individual and their organization. Research on the psychological contract has grown exponentially in the last 20 years and it has also received considerable practitioner interest. Psychological contract breach is the most important idea within psychological contract theory in terms of explaining employee well‐being, attitudes, and behavior. Researchers have, however, documented wide‐ranging critiques and challenges to the psychological contract. While there has been some impressive empirical support for the psychological contract, the components of the psychological contract concept are disputed and methods typically used to examine psychological contracts are limited, casting doubt over the value of the evidence base and how psychological contracts should be managed. Nevertheless, none of the critics recommend abandoning the psychological contract and the challenges can be viewed as opening up a rich research agenda for future studies.
Personnel Selection
Authors: Schmitt Neal
Published: January 2015

Personnel selection in human resource management represents an attempt to identify constructs related to effective job performance and to identify or construct and validate measures of these constructs. The measures are used to assess the knowledge, skills abilities, and other characteristics of job candidates judged to be relevant to job performance. The article discusses the nature of the job performance to be predicted, the nature of the human characteristics typically measured, and the methods in which these characteristics are measured. Strategies of validating these measures are also discussed as well as the results of such validation efforts.
Absenteeism
Authors: Johns Gary
Published: January 2015

Absenteeism is the failure to report for scheduled work. Organizations are interested in absenteeism because of its cost, while scholars are interested because it indicates something essential about the nature of employees' attachment to the organization. There is no dominant theory of absenteeism, in part because the surface similarity of the behavior masks a wide variety of causes. However, several “models” of absenteeism can be posited to reflect this assumed causal diversity. These models implicate demographics, health, deviant tendencies, economic motives, competing demands, withdrawal from aversion, and social influence as causes or correlates of absence. The deviance model has dominated management approaches to absence. As a result, punishment and discipline systems are the most common methods of controlling absence. Used alone, they are not especially effective because of negative side effects and because few employees are actually punished since few exhibit excessive absence. More effective are multiple consequence systems that punish extreme offenders but reward good attenders. Job enrichment, flextime, and employer‐sponsored fitness programs have been shown to reduce absence, as have self‐management and feedback programs that teach employees to regulate their own attendance behavior.
Assessment Centers
Authors: Thornton George C.
Published: January 2015

Assessment centers (ACs) involve multiple assessors observing candidates' behavior relevant to job‐related dimensions in multiple simulation exercises to enhance talent management processes such as selection, promotion, early identification of management potential, diagnosis of developmental needs, and training performance competencies. The method has been proven valid, fair, and cost effective in countries around the world.
Developing Globally Competent Executives/Managers
Authors: De Cieri Helen L. , Dowling Peter J.
Published: January 2015

The development of globally competent managers refers to organizational strategies and programs which equip managers with the flexibility on an organizational and sociocultural level to operate across national boundaries.
Forced Distribution Method of Performance Evaluation
Authors: Jacobs Rick
Published: January 2015

The forced distribution method of performance evaluation derives its name from the fact that those responsible for providing evaluations, the raters, are “forced” to distribute ratings for the individuals being evaluated into a “prespecified” performance distribution.
Mentoring Programs and Coaching Initiatives
Authors: Clutterbuck David
Published: January 2015

The terms mentoring and coaching are frequently used interchangeably—or, from another perspective, confused with each other.
Outplacement
Authors: Mark Lengnick‐Hall , Andrea Neely
Published: January 2015

Outplacement is the process by which a terminated employee seeks reemployment with the assistance of the former employer (Lee, 1991). Outplacement services offered to terminated employees traditionally include departure assistance, personal support, career and personal assessment, job search, marketing counsel, and administrative services. When employees have access to higher levels of outplacement services, they are more likely to be reemployed and have higher salaries than those with lower levels of outplacement services (Westaby, 2004). Trends in outplacement services suggest firms are trying to obtain reemployment of former employees with fewer services and tighter outplacement budgets (Martin and Lekan, 2008).
Profile‐Matching Selection Procedures
Authors: Schmitt Neal
Published: January 2015

Profile matching involves matching the scores of an individual to some target profile. Matching indices are complicated by the fact that profiles can differ in both shape and level. Profile matching requires that individual scores be reliable and relatively uncorrelated.
Associations Of International Management Scholars And Specialists
Authors: Vodosek Markus
Published: January 2015

Associations of international management scholars and specialists advance the interests of their members through a number of different activities including the publication of journals and the organizing of conferences. The largest associations include the Academy of International Business and the International Management Division of the Academy of Management.
Attitudes
Authors: Talaei Amirreza , Kwantes Catherine T.
Published: January 2015

Work attitudes are evaluations of an employee's job and work environment. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are two of the most globally studied work attitudes. Antecedents and consequences of work attitudes vary across cultural contexts. For example, extrinsic job characteristics such as job security and pay are positively related to job satisfaction across collectivistic cultures, whereas intrinsic job characteristics such as recognition and autonomy are more strongly related to job satisfaction in individualistic countries. Consequences of work attitudes also vary across cultures. Normative commitment has been found to be a better predictor of job outcomes in collectivist contexts because of the strong emphasis on social ties and obligations whereas affective commitment is a more powerful predictor of job outcomes in North America. Other than culture, socioeconomic factors also affect employees' work attitudes. In developed countries individuals have the possibility to choose between different types of organizations and the type of the work they would like to do and as a result they would experience higher job satisfaction. On the other hand, in less developed countries continuance commitment would be observed because of the fewer choices individuals have and their obligation to do jobs that are not so satisfying for them.
Biculturalism
Authors: Fitzsimmons Stacey R.
Published: January 2015

A bicultural person is someone who has internalized two cultures (Brannen and Thomas, 2010). Biculturalism is a specific case of the more general construct of multiculturalism, referring to individuals who have internalized twoor morecultures. Some researchers use the term “biculturalism” in place of the more general “multiculturalism” as multiculturalism is often associated with societal‐level diversity. This passage briefly explains schema and identity approaches to defining biculturalism, bicultural identity integration dimension, and work‐related outcomes of biculturalism.
Brand
Authors: Brexendorf Tim O.
Published: January 2015

The study of brands and brand management has historically attracted a great deal of interest and has led to diverse interpretations of the term brand among academics and practitioners. A broad, holistic definition of a brand blends and integrates the company, the competitive, and the consumer perspectives of brands. From this perspective, a brand can be defined as a firm's intangible strategic asset and sustainable value system linked to a name, term, symbol, design, or any other feature that adds value to (or subtracts value from) the firm's offerings and supports the buyer and user experiences in such a way that they perceive it as relevant, unique, and distinct; matches their needs more closely than those of other firms; and they feel a strong attachment or enduring relationship toward it.
Cross‐Cultural Management
Authors: Zellmer‐Bruhn Mary E. , Yu Lingtao
Published: January 2015

Cross‐cultural management involves efforts to lead and participate in effective interaction among workers, managers, clients, suppliers, and organizational partners from cultures around the world. A key challenge associated with this is that individuals from different regional and national contexts differ in culture and language. Therefore, understanding, managing, and sometimes adapting to cultural differences, as well as searching for and capitalizing on similarities, are essential skills for working across borders. Culture refers to assumptions, values, beliefs, practices, and institutions associated with and distinguishing particular societies. Managers working across cultures face differences in values, practices, and languages that affect peoples' expectations, understanding, and behaviors, thereby influencing workplace norms and behaviors. This entry summarizes key aspects of management affected by cultural differences, identifies trends in cross‐cultural management and discusses implications in terms of skills and competencies required for effective cross‐cultural management.
Environmentalism and Corporate Sustainability
Authors: Kennedy Steve , Whiteman Gail
Published: January 2015

Environmentalism refers to the advocacy of the conservation and restoration of the natural world. It may be considered as a broad philosophy or ideology of a political, ethical, and social movement concerned by the degradation of the natural environment because of human activity. Its modern conceptualization is rooted in the time of the industrial revolution (circa 1750–1850) and has developed through debates concerning both the intrinsic value of nature and the limits to growth imposed by scarcity of natural resources. Concerns of climate change among others have seen environmentalism become mainstream, with the related sustainable development dominating international agendas.

Business has now taken the helm of the discourse through a combination of societal pressure, a shift in power away from governments, and an emergence of environmental market‐based solutions. Engaged in “New Corporate Environmentalism” business is seeking to balance its drive for profit with ecological goals. A current paradox of increasing efforts but continued failure to stop environmental degradation, however, indicates that a more holistic approach is needed refocusing efforts on dealing with planetary boundary processes.
Expatriate
Authors: Mol Stefan T.
Published: January 2015

Expatriates are employees who take on a temporary work assignment in a foreign country for their organizations. After defining the term expatriate, this entry chronologically describes and critically discusses the various phases of the expatriate life cycle, starting with recruitment and selection, before continuing with predeparture/on‐assignment training, expatriate success, compensation, serial expatriation, and repatriation. In addition to discussing the managerial implications of each of the phases of the expatriate life cycle, this entry also critically considers the research implications of investigating a group of employees who may have nothing in common other than the fact that they have been sent by their organizations to a country other than their own.
Exploration and Exploitation
Authors: Drogendijk Rian , B. Holm Desirée
Published: January 2015

We examine the dynamic of exploitation and exploration in international networks for companies that enter new foreign markets. While exploitation is related to experiential learning in closed networks and incremental internationalization, exploration refers to disruptive learning in open networks and more risky international expansion. We illustrate exploitation and exploration in foreign market entry with a case description and conclude that the dynamic between these processes is in‐built in market entry and the related changes of network structure.
Finance
Authors: McNett Jeanne M.
Published: January 2015

Finance is broadly understood to be concerned with the management of money and is divided into three areas, personal, corporate, and public. International finance becomes complex because of major external financial forces that vary among countries, such as fluctuating currency values, currency exchange controls, taxation, inflation, and interest rates. Firms encounter these forces as they move money across national borders.
Followership
Authors: Carsten Melissa K. , Uhl‐Bien Mary
Published: January 2015

Followership is defined as the beliefs, characteristics, and behaviors that followers bring to the leadership relationship and how they affect leadership and organizational outcomes. Research on followership has evolved from treating followers as an ineffectual and obedient mass, to investigating how followers contribute to the leadership process. This article on followership explores both research‐and practitioner‐based models of followership and considers the ways in which followership research has changed over the past two decades. Given that followership is a fairly new area of research within leadership, we also explore how both research and practice can continue to add to our definition and understanding of followership.
Gross Domestic Product
Authors: MacKenzie Douglas W.
Published: January 2015

Gross domestic product (GDP) provides an imperfect estimate of economic conditions in different nations. Various statistical methods have been developed to improve the accuracy ofGDPin assessing economic performance. Alternative measures of economic performance have been developed, butGDPis still a leading measure of national economic performance.
Inflation
Authors: Bryla Pawel
Published: January 2015

Inflation is a process in which the general level of prices in an economy rises, which means a decline of the value of money. Inflation may be explained by an incorrect monetary policy of the central bank (monetary theory of inflation), excessive aggregate demand compared to production capacities (Keynesian theory of inflation), and by an increase in production costs which is independent of the aggregate demand for goods (â€
∼
cost‐pushâ€™ theory of inflation). The negative effects of inflation largely prevail, and they are strongly amplified if the inflation is high and not anticipated. The costs of inflation include: (i) distortion of the informative function of prices; (ii) an inefficient management of money holdings (â€
∼
shoe‐leather costsâ€™); (iii) additional effort to service economic processes (â€
∼
menu costsâ€™); (iv) arbitrary redistributions of wealth; (v) uncertainty impeding long‐term decisions; and (vi) unfavourable changes in the balance of payments.
Leadership
Authors: Dickson Marcus W. , Biermeier‐Hanson Benjamin
Published: January 2015

This article provides an overview of leadership within the management field by presenting a historical overview of leadership research alongside a discussion of the current state of the literature. Early research focused on traits and behaviors. The subsequent introduction of contingency‐based leadership theories was a critical juncture that continues to inform our thinking today, where there are four dominant perspectives: relational leadership, information‐processing, evolutionary/biological, and transformational or authentic leadership. These current perspectives are outlined here and limitations to the existing literature are discussed. It concludes with a brief description of several emerging research areas within the field.
Moral Hazard
Authors: Kuznetsova Olga
Published: January 2015

In economic theory, moral hazard is an inconvenience or disadvantage that may be caused to a person or organization by the actual or potential disregard of moral implications of behavioral choices on the part of another person or organization. The article introduces the notion of moral hazard and illustrates its manifestations.
Religion
Authors: Cafferky Michel E.
Published: January 2015

Religion may be one of the most powerful influences on business in some cultures, yet talking about religion in the context of business activities is often socially unacceptable. Some religious practices have a direct impact on choices that managers, employees, and customers make in their work life. Five of the world's major religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism) illustrate the religious roots that affect management, employee, and customer behaviors. Historically organized religions have exhibited ambivalence toward business activities. Several points of tension can be experienced by believers who desire to integrate their religious faith while they work in the marketplace.
Size
Authors: Soh Christine , Carr Chris
Published: January 2015

This article defines micro, small‐, medium‐, and large‐sized firms using definitions from European, United States, and Asian laws. Micro, small, and medium firms are highly instrumental in the economic growth to a country as they make up the majority of a country's landscape and they have potential to grow into large firms. The difference between the types of firms and factors contributing to the growth in firm size are illustrated to depict the differences between firm sizes.
Subsidiary
Authors: Leih Sunyoung
Published: January 2015

A subsidiary is defined as a company controlled by a holding company (a multinational enterprise (MNE)) and situated outside the home country of the MNE. Scholars have identified various functions of subsidiaries, including supporting the parent company's sales or production, conducting research & development, and an entrepreneurial role in terms of developing capabilities. Increasingly, research in subsidiaries is focusing on the entrepreneurial role and has found factors such as a subsidiary's strategic mandate to be antecedents of the fostering of entrepreneurship in subsidiaries.
Change Management
Authors: Robey Daniel
Published: January 2015

Change management is a necessary ingredient in successful IT‐initiated organizational change. This article discusses the reasons why change can be difficult, the key roles in managing change, and the positive reframing of political disagreements as opportunities for stakeholders to learn new skills.
Innovation and Information Technology
Authors: Rose Gregory M.
Published: January 2015

Innovation in the domain of information technology (IT) refers to innovation within a set of objects that facilitate the acquisition, storage, processing, and delivery of information. There are three main categories of IT innovations: service, base, and process. Innovation takes place in an ecosystem. When innovation in one type spurs innovation in another, the phenomenon is known as order effects. Specific to the adopting actor, IT innovation can be classified on a continuum from incremental to radical. Two characteristics identify the degree of radicalness of innovation: novelty and uniqueness. Where there is a high barrier to learning in order to innovate, the innovation is more radical and less incremental. Uniqueness of an innovation is the extent to which the innovation can be substituted by a previously understood innovation. If no earlier innovation can act as an effective substitute for new innovation, that innovation is relatively radical.
Supply Chain Management
Authors: Klein Richard
Published: January 2015

Supply chain management (
SCM
) encompasses the organizational processes, routines, and workflows facilitating the “upstream” acquisition of goods and services and “downstream” delivery of goods and services to customers.
Metrics for Assessment of Information Systems
Authors: Slaughter Sandra A.
Published: January 2015

Measures (or metrics) quantify aspects of Information Systems (IS). This article describes the purposes of metrics for IS assessment and identifies the different types of IS metrics. IS metrics are grouped into four categories including internal performance, growth and learning, user/client perspective, and business contribution. The article concludes by describing various approaches to implementing IS metrics in organizations.
Business Intelligence and Analytics
Authors: Power Daniel J. , Sharda Ramesh
Published: January 2015

A business intelligence system is a data‐driven decision support system. Managing data is especially important for business intelligence and analytics. Data warehouses, marts or data‐driven decision support systems are intended to help managers transform data into information and knowledge. Routinely data is moved from source systems to a decision support data store. Some comparison reports include external data on competitors or other relevant data. Analytics refers to quantitative analysis of data. There are three components of business analytics: i) descriptive analytics, ii) predictive analytics and iii) prescriptive analytics. Besides statistical analysis techniques, data mining is the key component of predictive analytics. Data mining is a process of analyzing large amounts of data to identify data content relationships. Cloud computing and “Big” data are changing business intelligence and analytics. Columnar data bases let analysts work with data from web logs and other nonrelational data sources.