bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Playing with Fire
Authors: Della Rocca Michael
Published: April 2014

Hume is not a rationalist. This paper attempts to explain why by examining Hume’s argument in Treatise 1.3.3 from his separability principle to the denial of that hallmark of rationalism, the Principle of Sufficient Reason. The surprising source of Hume’s anti-rationalism reveals that his argument against rationalism is even stronger than has generally been appreciated and that only a rationalist such as Spinoza who embraces a strong form of monism is in a position to avoid the force of Hume’s argument. This special resiliency against Hume’s argument may help to explain some of Hume’s invective against Spinoza in Treatise 1.4.5.
Spinoza and the Philosophy of Science
Authors: Schliesser Eric
Published: April 2014

This chapter argues that the standard conception of Spinoza as a fellow-traveling mechanical philosopher and proto-scientific naturalist is misleading.1 It argues, first, that Spinoza’s account of the proper method for the study of nature presented in the Theological-Political Treatise points away from the one commonly associated with the mechanical philosophy. Moreover, throughout his works Spinoza’s views on the very possibility of knowledge of nature are decidedly skeptical. Third, in the seventeenth-century debates over proper methods in the sciences, Spinoza sided with those who criticized the aspirations of the physico-mathematicians like Galileo, Huygens, Wallis, and Wren who thought the application of mathematics to nature was the way to make progress. In particular, he offers grounds for doubting their confidence in the significance of measurement as well as their piecemeal methodology. Along the way, this chapter offers a new interpretation of common notions in the context of treating Spinoza’s account of motion.
Jonson’s English Grammars
Authors: Lambert Jean
Published: April 2014

Jonson’s English Grammar was printed posthumously in the 1640 Folio of his complete works. As the sole extant version of a project that was clearly unfinished it is intriguing, raising questions, for example, concerning Jonson’s authorial motivation and the critical response to the work in the seventeenth century. This chapter considers Jonson’s expressed purposes in writing the grammar of his native language and its scholarly reception within the context of the contemporary awareness of an emerging need for a grammar of vernacular English that would standardize use and establish its status alongside other European languages. It shows that despite Jonson’s negative assessment of his achievements and his acknowledging the difficulties of the task, Jonsonian English was regarded predominantly as a model for vernacular standards, Jonson as a prominent grammarian. His taking on this scholarly challenge made a major historical contribution to the production of an English vernacular grammar. It also illuminates our understanding of the early modern cultural preoccupations associated with this important venture.
Jonson and Space
Authors: Sanders Julie
Published: April 2014

This is an essay about the making of space in Jonsonian drama. Redeploying spatial theory (in particular the work of Henri Lefebvre and Michel de Certeau) to think about Jonson’s practice of linking place with meaning, it considers the playwright’s work for both amphitheatrical and indoor playhouses, as well as the ways he deploys character and the resonant space of the offstage to engage audiences with the spaces, actual and conceptual, evoked by his drama. Plays discussed range from the early The Case is Altered and its depiction of a craftsman’s workshop as well as its offstage evocation of the court, the Every Man plays and their use of recognizable London locales, through the major comedies—Volpone, Epicene, The Alchemist, and Bartholomew Fair—to later engagements with the ways in which a sense of subjectivity is both produced by and produces space in The Devil is an Ass, The New Inn and The Magnetic Lady.
Natural Language Processing for Educational Applications
Authors: Burstein Jill , Sabatini John , Shore Jane
Published: April 2014

When building applications for educational settings, Natural Language Processing (NLP) researchers should give serious consideration to the educational problem spaces for which an application is intended. This chapter discusses contexts in which NLP applications can support major educational problem spaces. The chapter first outlines these problem spaces, and then discusses how existing applications have addressed different aspects of each educational problem space, setting the stage for researchers to consider new opportunities.
Ethos and Community
Authors: Horrell David G.
Published: April 2014

Paul saw himself as apostle to the Gentiles, and his mission consisted in founding communities of believers in cities across the Roman Empire. This chapter first outlines recent scholarship on the nature of these communities, considering their character, socio-economic composition, and likely meeting places, and asks in what sense we should consider them ‘Pauline’ communities. Suggesting that Paul’s letters may be seen as instruments of community formation, the chapter then turns to examine the kind of ethos Paul hoped these communities would embody, and the ways in which scholars have studied what is generally labelled Paul’s ‘ethics’. In terms of the broad contours and moral principles that shape this ethic, it is suggested that a primary focus is on corporate solidarity ‘in Christ’. Despite Paul’s emphasis on the distinctiveness and purity of the Christian communities in the midst of a ‘sinful’ and hostile world, it is also important to notice how far Paul’s ethical instruction exhibits points of common ground with both Jewish and Graeco-Roman ethics, and how far Paul himself calls for a stance of ‘doing good to all’. Finally, ‘other-regard’ is proposed as the second meta-moral principle in Paul’s ethics, a stance grounded in the example of Christ, whose self-giving for others forms the paradigm to which believers should conform.
The Deutero-Pauline Letters in Contemporary Research
Authors: MacDonald Margaret Y.
Published: April 2014

The chapter begins with a discussion of the preoccupation with authorship in the study of the disputed Pauline epistles. The concept of pseudepigraphy is defined and the recent scholarship on the relationship between the undisputed and disputed letters is examined, pointing to a move away from a distinction between an 'authentic' Paul and a 'false' deutero-Paul. The chapter explains how the reinforcement of the authority of Paul's fellow workers in the disputed Pauline epistles has been central to theoretical constructs of a Pauline school and pays particular attention to the comparison between the Pauline school and philosophical schools in the ancient world. With respect to eschatology, the realized eschatology of Colossians and Ephesians is compared to 2 Thessalonians with its exclusive interest in the parousia as a future event. The relationship between eschatology and the interest in Paul's martyrdom which has emerged in recent scholarship on 2 Timothy is examined. Discussions of community organization and household codes are informed by recent scholarship on Gender, Early Christian Families, and Paul and Empire.
Dyscalculia
Authors: Butterworth Brian , Varma Sashank , Laurillard Diana
Published: April 2014

Recent research in cognitive and developmental neuroscience is providing a new approach to the understanding of dyscalculia that emphasizes a core deficit in understanding sets and their numerosities, which is fundamental to all aspects of elementary school mathematics. The neural bases of numerosity processing have been investigated in structural and functional neuroimaging studies of adults and children, and neural markers of its impairment in dyscalculia have been identified. New interventions to strengthen numerosity processing, including adaptive software, promise effective evidence-based education for dyscalculic learners.
Individual Differences in Basic Arithmetical Processes in Children and Adults
Authors: LeFevre Jo-Anne , Wells Emma , Sowinski Carla
Published: April 2014

This chapter describes the four main sources of individual differences in arithmetic that have been identified through research with children and adults. Numerical quantitative knowledge invokes basic cognitive processes that are either numerically specific or are recruited to be used in quantitative tasks (e.g. subitizing, discrimination acuity for approximate quantities). Attentional skills, including executive attention and various aspects of working memory are important, especially for more complex procedures. Linguistic knowledge is used within arithmetic to learn number system rules and structures, specific number words, and in developing and executing counting processes. Strategic abilities, which may reflect general planning and awareness skills, are involved in selecting procedures and solving problems adaptively. Other important sources of individual differences include automaticity of knowledge related to practice, experiences outside school, and the specific language spoken. Suggestions are made for further research that would be helpful in establishing a full picture of individual differences in arithmetic.
Arithmetic Learning in Adults
Authors: Zamarian L. , Delazer Margarete
Published: April 2014

Neuroimaging has significantly contributed to our understanding of human learning by tracking the neural correlates underlying the acquisition of new expertise. Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) suggest that the acquisition of arithmetic competence is reflected in a decrease of activation in frontal brain regions and a relative increase of activation in parietal brain regions that are important for arithmetic processing. Activation of the angular gyrus (AG) is related to fact learning, skilled retrieval, and level of automatization. fMRI investigations extend the findings of cognitive studies showing that behavioural differences between trained and untrained sets of items, between different arithmetic operations, and between different training strategies are reflected by specific activation patterns. fMRI studies also reveal inter-individual differences related to arithmetic competence, with low performing individuals showing lower AG activation when answering calculation problems. Importantly, training attenuates inter-individual differences in AG activation. Studies with calculation experts suggest that different strategies may be used to achieve extraordinary performance. While some experts recruit a more extended cerebral network compared with the average population, others use the same frontoparietal network, but more efficiently. In conclusion, brain imaging studies on arithmetic learning and expertise offer a promising view on the adaptivity of the human brain. Although evidence on functional or structural modifications following intervention in dyscalculic patients is still scarce, future studies may contribute to the development of more efficient and targeted rehabilitation programmes after brain damage or in cases of atypical numerical development.
Development of the numerical brain
Authors: Kaufmann Liane , Kucian Karin , von Aster Michael
Published: April 2014

This article focuses on typical trajectories of numerical cognition from infancy all the way through to adulthood (please note that atypical pathways of numerical cognition will be dealt in‘Brain Correlates of Numerical Disabilities’). Despite the fact that developmental imaging studies are still scarce to date there is converging evidence that (1) neural signatures of non-verbal number processing may be observed already in infants; and (2) developmental changes in neural responsivity are characterized by increasing functional specialization of number-relevant frontoparietal brain regions. It has been suggested that age and competence-related modulations of brain activity manifest as an anterior-posterior shift. On the one hand, the recruitment of supporting frontal brain regions decreases, while on the other hand, reliance on number-relevant (fronto-)parietal neural networks increases. Overall, our understanding of the neurocognitive underpinnings of numerical development grew considerably during the last decade. Future research is expected to benefit substantially from the fast technological advances enabling researchers to gain more fine-grained insights into the spatial and temporal dynamics of the neural signatures underlying numerical development.
How Counting Leads to Children’s First Representations of Exact, Large Numbers
Authors: Sarnecka Barbara W. , Goldman Meghan C. , Slusser Emily B.
Published: April 2014

Young children initially learn to ‘count’ without understanding either what counting means, or what numerical quantities the individual number words pick out. Over a period of many months, children assign progressively more sophisticated meanings to the number words, linking them to discrete objects, to quantification, to numerosity, and so on. Eventually, children come to understand the logic of counting. Along with this knowledge comes an implicit understanding of the successor function, as well as of the principle of equinumerosity, or exact equality between sets. Thus, when children arrive at a mature understanding of counting, they have (for the first time in their lives) a way of mentally representing exact, large numbers.
How Informal Learning Activities Can Promote Children’s Numerical Knowledge
Authors: Ramani Geetha B. , Siegler Robert S.
Published: April 2014

Before children begin school, there is a wide range of individual differences in children’s early numerical knowledge. Theoretical and empirical work from the sociocultural perspective suggests that children’s experiences in the early home environment and with informal number activities can contribute to these differences. This article draws from this work to hypothesize that differences in the home explain, in part, why the numerical knowledge of children from low-income backgrounds trails behind that of peers from middle-class backgrounds. By integrating sociocultural perspectives with a theoretical analysis of children’s mental number line, the authors created an informal learning activity to serve as an intervention to promote young children’s numerical knowledge. Our studies have shown that playing a simple number board game can promote the numerical knowledge of young children from low-income backgrounds. The authors discuss how informal learning activities can play a critical role in the development of children’s early maths skills.
Figuring Out Children’s Number Representations
Authors: Towse John N. , Muldoon Kevin , Simms Victoria
Published: April 2014

This chapter explores how numbers are represented amongst children in different cultures, and shows how this can enrich our understanding of mathematical cognition. It focuses on two specific, related topics: the representation of multi-digit numbers and the scaling of a mental number line. The authors consider whether linguistic differences in number structures directly influence children’s understanding of place value. They also consider whether cross-cultural and developmental differences in the quality of children’s mental representations of number are direct influences on mathematical skill. Together, these two topics allow us to consider evidence for the existence of cross-cultural difference in mathematics and investigate factors that might underlie them. The authors propose that whilst the interpretation of data needs to proceed cautiously, valuable insights can be gained from relevant research.
The Classification and Cognitive Characteristics of Mathematical Disabilities in Children
Authors: Geary David
Published: April 2014

Children in the bottom quartile of mathematics achievement are at high risk for underemployment in adulthood. These children include the roughly 7% of students with a mathematical learning disability (MLD) and another 10% of students with persistent low achievement (LA) that is not attributable to intelligence. The poor mathematics achievement of children who compose groups of MLD and LA students appears to be related to one or several deficits; specifically, (1) a delay in the development and poor fidelity of the system for representing approximate magnitudes; (2) difficulty mapping Arabic numerals, number words, and rational numbers onto associated quantities; (3) poor conceptual understanding of some arithmetic concepts; (4) developmental delay in the learning of mathematical procedures; and (5) difficulty committing basic arithmetic facts to or retrieving them from long-term memory. Children with MLD also have concurrent working memory deficits that exacerbate their mathematics-specific deficits and delays.
Primitives and Non-primitives of Numerical Representations
Authors: Tzelgov Joseph , Ganor-Stern Dana , Kallai Arava , Pinhas Michal
Published: April 2014

Primitives of numerical representation are numbers holistically represented on the mental number line (MNL). Non-primitives are numbers generated from primitives in order to perform specific tasks. Primitives can be automatically retrieved from long-term memory (LTM). Using the size congruency effect in physical comparisons as a marker of automatic retrieval, and its modulation by intrapair numerical distance as an indication of alignment along the MNL, we identify single-digits, but not two-digit numbers, as primitives. By the same criteria, zero is a primitive, but negative numbers are not primitives, which makes zero the smallest numerical primitive. Due to their unique notational structure, fractions are automatically perceived as smaller than 1. While some specific, familiar unit fractions may be primitives, this can be shown only when component bias is eliminated by training participants to denote fractions by unfamiliar figures.
Information Structure in Sign Languages
Authors: Kimmelman Vadim , Pfau Roland
Published: April 2014

This chapter demonstrates that the Information Structure notions Topic and Focus are relevant for sign languages, just as they are for spoken languages. Data from various sign languages reveal that, across sign languages, Information Structure is encoded by syntactic and prosodic strategies, often in combination. As for topics, we address the familiar semantic (e.g. aboutness vs. scene-setting topic) and syntactic (e.g. moved vs. base-generated topic) classifications in turn and we also discuss the possibility of topic stacking. As for focus, we show how information, contrastive, and emphatic focus is linguistically encoded. For both topic and focus constructions, special attention is given to the role of non-manual markers, that is, specific eyebrow and head movements that signal the information structure status of constituents. Finally, aspects that appear to be unique to languages in the visual-gestural modality are highlighted.
Teaching the Professional Singer
Authors: Boyce-Tillman June
Published: April 2014

This chapter details what is involved in teaching to meet the needs of the professional singer. In working with professional singers, the teacher assumes a slightly different role from that appropriate to dealing with beginning and developing students and amateurs. Here, the teacher is more of a senior adviser. The chapter begins with a discussion about what defines someone as a professional singer. Following this, it explores the many facets of life as a professional singer, and the teacher’s role in guiding singers through this lifestyle. Topics covered include auditions, training to meet professional demands (vocal, linguistic, musical, acting, and movement skill requirements), preparing for performances, performing, rehearsing, maintaining vocal health, dealing with performance anxiety, and managing a career.
Singing and Emotion
Authors: Coutinho Eduardo , Scherer Klaus R. , Dibben Nicola
Published: April 2014

In this chapter the authors discuss the emotional power of the singing voice. The chapter begins by providing an overview of the process of externalization of emotions by the human voice. Then, the authors discuss some fundamental determinants of emotional expression in singing, namely the ‘emotional script’, the artistic interpretation, and the singer’s affective state. Next, they describe the manner in which expressed emotions are encoded in the voice by singers and recognized by listeners, and compare it with vocal expression in everyday life. Finally, they identify various methodologies that can enhance understanding of the physiology of vocal production and the acoustic cues fundamental to perception and production of expressive sung performance. The authors propose that the knowledge gained from application of these methodologies can inform singing practice, and that interdisciplinary approaches and cooperation are central aspects of a fruitful and sustainable study of the expressive powers of the singing voice.
People Beginning Sexual Experience
Authors: Salzman Todd A. , Lawler Michael G.
Published: April 2014

This chapter discusses sex and the beginning of sexual activity. It develops a theory of virtue and virtue ethics which focuses more on the character of the sexual agent than on the acts the agent does. A virtuous character learned in a community of origin, it is argued, will impel a person to acts of sexual virtue and avoidance of acts of sexual vice. Three virtues are advanced as primary for virtuous sexual activity: love, justice, and chastity. Also considered is the relationship between the phenomenon of cohabitation and marriage, and nuptial cohabitation, that which is premised on the commitment to marry, is presented as a first step on a journey that will eventually end in the cohabiting couple’s marriage. The chapter concludes by proposing for cohabiting couples a period of ritual betrothal sanctioned and guaranteed by the community in which they are expected to learn virtue.
The Construction of Gender in the New Testament
Authors: Conway Colleen M.
Published: April 2014

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the theorists who have shaped gender analytical work on the New Testament, especially the application of gender theory in classical studies. It then concentrates on gender analyses on New Testament writings that demonstrate the differing approaches of masculinity studies, queer theory, and intersectional analysis. The primary focus is on gender construction in Paul’s letters and the canonical gospels, with additional discussion of symbolic and metaphorical uses of gender in other writings of the New Testament. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of future directions for gender criticism.
Hinduism
Authors: Bose Mandakranta
Published: April 2014

In confronting questions of the origin of existence, asserting belief in an ultimate spiritual source of phenomena, and striving for a relationship between it and human beings, Hindu theology identifies sexuality as a valid and necessary explanation. Both on the theogonic plane and the worldly, Hindu thought associates sexuality with gender, but treats the latter as a fluid identity rather than natural and essential, viewing it as a product more of the will than of physiology, an ever-present but negotiable perception, since it can be willed into altered states. This is illustrated both by the myths of Hinduism and by its devotional cultures. Observing the evolution of Hindu theology, its major traditions, and its worship practices chronologically, this chapter demonstrates why and how sexuality and gender may serve as keys to understand Hindu spirituality.
Desire and the Body in the Patristic Period
Authors: Kuefler Mathew
Published: April 2014

The period between the third and fifth centuries CE was crucial for the development of Christianity not least for ideas about desire and the body. Patristic writers hoped for the elimination of sex and sexual desire among Christians, encouraging the renunciation of sexual activity, marriage, and family life. Monasticism and men’s self-castration were among the varied means by which to achieve that renunciation, the former encouraged by the Church Fathers and the latter discouraged. Marriage was permissible if couples engaged only in procreative sex with each other, and married only once. Other types of sexual behaviour, including what we would call homosexuality, were condemned. Gender difference was also reinforced in this period and earlier notions of a genderless ideal in Christianity were mostly abandoned, through the strengthening of traditional public lives for men and private lives for women.
The Predecessors of Ashʿarism
Authors: Bin Ramli Harith
Published: April 2014

Prior to the rise of the Ashʿarism in the ninth century as the dominant Sunni theological tradition utilizing the approach of dialectical theology (kalām), a number of theologians such as Ibn Kullāb, al-Muḥāsibī and al-Qalānisī attempted a spirited defence of traditionalist doctrine through engagement withkalāmdiscourse. As affirmers of the eternity of distinct divine attributes (ṣifātiyya, ahl al-ithbāt) against the more radical monotheism of the Muʿtazila, they shared key tenets with their traditionalist brethren. However, as in the case of their successors the Ashʿarites, these early attempts to formulate a systematic and rationalist Sunni theology provoked hostility from Hanbalites who saw such endeavours as ‘innovations’ to the original doctrines of Islam. This chapter summarizes research on these theologians over the past decades, situating them within the context of wider developments, but also shedding light on the unique aspects of their theological teachings.
Sufi Theological Thought
Authors: Nguyen Martin
Published: April 2014

This article discusses Sufism’s engagement with scholastic theology and the development of theological doctrines that are distinctive to particular traditions within Sufism. In respect to the former, attention is paid to how Sufi texts addressed, explicitly and implicitly, major questions such as the nature of God, the soul, cosmology, theodicy, prophecy, soteriology, and eschatology. Issues of special importance to Sufi worldviews, such as walāya/wilāya (‘friendship with God’) and miracles are also covered. In regards to distinctive Sufi doctrines, the article examines various understandings of the states and stations of the Sufi path (ṭarīqa) as well as notions of experiential knowledge (maʿrifa), divine union and encounters, oneness of being (waḥdat al-wujūd), and love (maḥabba, ʿishq). Also addressed are the mystical refigurations of notable religious personalities such as the Prophet Muhammad and Iblīs. The article closes with a brief look at socially deviant renunciant movements that develop in response to the institutionalization of Sufism.
Ḥanbalī Theology
Authors: Hoover Jon
Published: April 2014

The Ḥanbalīs, as the most consistently traditionalist of the Sunnī law schools, had a disproportionate impact on the development of Islamic theology by providing a unified voice againstKalām. Many Ḥanbalīs rejectedKalāmreinterpretation (taʾwīl) of anthropomorphism in the Qurʾān and Hadith and took a non-cognitive approach that affirmed God’s attributes without inquiring into their meaning or modality (bi-lā kayf). In the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, Abū Yaʿla, Ibn ʿAqīl, and Ibn Jawzī adoptedKalāmviews to varying degrees but faced stiff opposition from within their own Ḥanbalī ranks. In the fourteenth century Ibn Taymiyya also rejectedKalāmtheology but sought to interpret the meanings, although not the modalities, of God’s attributes to accord with his unique vision of God’s perpetual creativity. Ibn Taymiyya’s theological ideas were further developed by his student Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya and adopted by the Wahhābīs in the eighteenth century.
Patterns in American Elections
Authors: Mayhew David R.
Published: April 2014

On U.S. electoral history, a good deal of research and experience has accrued since the ‘realignments’ interpretation kicked in half a century ago. Illuminating work has come from political science, economics, sociology, and history. Perspectives on other countries have weighed in. New concepts and measures have been introduced. Today, the American record looks quite different than it did in the 1960s. In a discussion of pattern and cause, six topics need to be highlighted: economic conditions, national security crises, race, long-term parity between the parties, short-term homeostasis, and personal incumbency advantage.
Rhetoric and Law
Authors: Enos Richard Leo
Published: April 2014

The formalization of procedures and the codification of laws that would reach their height and sophistication in the Roman Empire were already under development in the Roman Republic. In addition to being a period of rapid legal development, especially in the refinement of judicial procedures, the Republic was also a period in which law was an intensely rhetorical activity. Advocates, who were often instructed in oral and literate rhetoric through training in declamation by sophists, recognized that persuading both jurors and public audiences was a way of securing legal verdicts and political influence. The “influences” that led to stable, inscribed laws were often the consequence of extensive argument, deliberation, and, on occasion, warfare. Roman forensic rhetoric, both oral and literate, was thus a dynamic activity in interpreting, arguing, and making law as well as a source of political power in the Republic.
Rhetoric and Epic
Authors: Hall Jon
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines the influence of rhetorical education on the stylistic development of epic poetry in ancient Rome, focusing in particular on the works of Ovid (Metamorphoses) and Lucan (Civil War) (although the role of rhetoric in Virgil’s Aeneid is also briefly discussed). As both ancient and modern commentators have noted, training in rhetorical declamation at school seems to have fostered in Roman students the use of stylistic tropes, figures, and mannerisms that can also be discerned in the verse of Ovid and Lucan. These figures include hyperbole, paradox, and the formulation of clever sententiae, elements frequently designed to engage the intellect as much as the emotions. Although such devices often complement the artistic aims of these poets, their prevalence points to a complex and fascinating interaction between rhetoric and epic composition, producing a subgenre sometimes labeled rhetorical epic.
The Elocutionary Movement in Britain
Authors: Goring Paul
Published: April 2014

This chapter surveys the rhetorical treatises and associated cultural practices that constituted the elocutionary movement—a strand within rhetoric that flourished in eighteenth-century Britain and placed particular emphasis upon delivery (actio, pronuntiatio). It places the movement in relation to other contemporary schools of rhetorical thought (neoclassical, belletristic, and new rhetoric) and shows the selectivity with which its exponents drew upon classical rhetoric. It considers sociohistorical matters—including typical preaching practices of Anglicans and Methodists—as factors that gave the movement currency, and it shows how elocutionary ideas were spread not only through print culture but also through public lectures. Rhetoricians addressed include Hugh Blair, John Mason, Thomas Sheridan, John Henley, Michel Le Faucheur, James Burgh, and Gilbert Austin.
Rhetoric and Philosophy
Authors: Potkay Adam
Published: April 2014

The once standard account of rhetoric’s relation to philosophy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was that philosophy rejected eloquence as an instrument of deceit and a source of error, and rhetoric accepted the standards of the new philosophy, placing a premium on perspicuity and probable arguments. This account has been complicated, in recent scholarship, by three counter-claims. First, empiricist philosophers like David Hume and John Locke, far from precluding eloquence, employ the tropes of rhetoric not only in their style but, more fundamentally, in their very science of mind, depicting perception and belief as processes involving transference and persuasion. Second, philosophers sometimes admired the figurative eloquence of earlier eras. Third, philosophers and rhetoricians sought to account for the origins of tropes in their speculative histories of primitive culture, with an understanding that the underlying passions that motivate primitive and irrational beliefs are ineradicable elements of human nature.
Rhetoric and Law
Authors: Goodrich Peter
Published: April 2014

A product of eighteenth-century Enlightenment thought, the modern New Rhetoric was frequently highly hostile to the forensic uses of persuasion. Legal advocacy was variously depicted as chicanery, dissimulation, and playing to the pit. It has consequently been a somewhat homeless subdiscipline in conflict with the line, rule, and compass of precedent conceived as the reason of law. Two consequences ensue. First, modern legal rhetoric has cohabited with, and developed as an aspect of, numerous other subdisciplines, ranging from communication studies to critical legal studies and from law and literature to law and psychoanalysis, semiotics, and film. Second, technological change, the plethora of new media, and the pervasive role of images in the expanded domains of law’s social presence have forced a return to the analysis of rhetorical delivery (actio), of the figures and images of forensic advocacy and dissemination in the variable sites of legally mediated social conflict.
Rhetoric and Presidential Politics
Authors: Campbell Karlyn Kohrs , Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: April 2014

This chapter argues that the public’s understanding of the US presidency is shaped in part by the rhetorical genres that have been conventionalized by this institution, including the inaugural address, the State of the Union address, veto messages, the de facto line item veto, pardon messages, impeachment rhetoric, war rhetoric, rhetoric responding to crisis, national eulogies, and farewells. These genres of presidential rhetoric can be clustered into three broad categories, depending on the degree of freedom with which the president acts: those in which the president acts unilaterally; genres that take exception, invite cooperation with the legislative branch, or assert the right of the executive to act in domains in which the Constitution gives another branch specific powers; and those in which the Congress has greater control over the rhetorical situation than does the president.
Rhetoric and Argumentation
Authors: van Eemeren Frans H.
Published: April 2014

This chapter explains that argumentation theory is a hybrid discipline because it requires a multidisciplinary, if not interdisciplinary, approach that combines descriptive and normative insights. The chapter points out that modern argumentation theorists give substance to the discipline by relying either on a dialectical perspective, concentrating on the reasonableness of argumentation, or on a rhetorical perspective, concentrating on its effectiveness. Both the dialectical and the rhetorical perspective are interpreted in ways related to how they were viewed by Aristotle, but in modern argumentation theory the relationship between rhetoric and dialectic, captured in Aristotle’s term antistrophos, is lost. The chapter argues that this relationship, which is to be considered crucial to a full-fledged argumentation theory, has been recovered in extended pragma-dialectics with the help of the theoretical notion of strategic maneuvering.
Rhetoric and Deconstruction
Authors: Miller Paul Allen
Published: April 2014

Rhetoric as a practice is associated throughout the Platonic corpus with the sophists and is opposed to philosophy defined as the pursuit of truth. Jacques Derrida, in his deconstructive reading of the opposition between speech and writing in the Phaedrus, demonstrates that Plato himself deconstructs the opposition between rhetoric and philosophy through the deployment of philosophy’s initial, constitutive trope, Socratic irony, as figured by the duplicitous pharmakon. The result of this deconstruction is that rather than philosophy and sophistry being mutually exclusive alternatives, each becomes a moment within the other that can never be fully sublimated.
Rhetoric and Feminism
Authors: Glenn Cheryl , Lunsford Andrea A.
Published: April 2014

Until recently, women have been neglected as subjects of scholarly interest in rhetorical studies. Though women were writing and speaking, they have not, for the most part, been considered rhetors per se. This chapter traces the relationship of rhetoric to feminist movements (first-, second-, and third-wave feminism), demonstrating the multiple ways feminism and rhetoric have come to establish a mutually enhancing relationship. The chapter locates four means through which feminist rhetoricians enact social, academic, and political change: resistant rereadings of treatises from the rhetorical canon; recovering and recuperating female-authored texts and performances; constructing feminist theories and rhetorical practices; and extrapolating theories from texts not usually thought of as rhetorical. This summary demonstrates that scholars of rhetoric and writing studies have been riding the waves of feminisms, struggling to resist, resee, and reshape the rhetorical tradition in ways that admit, embrace, and celebrate women and feminist understandings.
Rhetoric and Social Epistemology
Authors: Code Lorraine
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines the place and effects of rhetoric in social epistemology, taking its point of entry from the rhetorical strategies implicit in Rachel Carson’s landmark book, Silent Spring, and showing how the assumptions of rhetorically neutral epistemology are contested in the new social epistemologies of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. When place and epistemic subjectivity claim a constitutive part in hitherto dislocated inquiry, rhetorical strategies claim a new legitimacy.
Rhetoric and Race in the United States
Authors: Royster Jacqueline Jones
Published: April 2014

This chapter views rhetoric and race as intricately entwined forms of symbolic action that function within specific ecosystems defined by social, political, and cultural hierarchies. The discussion links three basic questions: How does race filter and inform views of rhetorical action as a dynamic human endeavor? Conversely, how does rhetorical action filter and inform views of race as a dynamic instantiation of ways of being and doing? What happens at the convergence of the two when a sociocultural practice (rhetoric) meets a sociopolitical concept (race) within a specific sociohistorical context (e.g., the United States)? The primary assertion is that this analytical approach moves us beyond what is mainly a recognition of race rhetorics toward a deeper and broader understanding of their ways, means, impacts, and consequences.
Gene-by-Environment Mouse Models for Mood Disorders
Authors: Razzoli Maria , Bartolomucci Alessandro , Carola Valeria
Published: April 2014

Much of the impact of genes on mood disorders likely depends on interactions between genes and the environment. Recent studies demonstrating an interaction between specific genes and life stressful events (early and/or adult) in the modulation of several mood disorders (e.g., serotonin transporter and brain-derived neurotrophic factor genes) have compelled researchers to incorporate information about adverse environmental experiences into the study of genetic risk factors; these same gene-by-environment (G×E) interactions have been identified in mouse models. Notably, G×E not yet described in humans (e.g., serotonin 1A receptor gene) have been uncovered, providing helpful indications to discover similar interactions in humans. Accurate knowledge of the modality of expression of gene-by-stress interaction may help design prevention protocols aimed at identifying susceptibility to mood disorders on the basis of genetic predisposition and exposure to environmental stressful conditions, thus providing patients with appropriate pharmacological and psychological support.
Complex Trait Genetics and Population Genetics in Psychiatry
Authors: Gelernter Joel
Published: April 2014

Nearly all behavioral traits, ranging from personality traits such as neuroticism to schizophrenia and autism, are genetically influenced. With only minor exceptions, all are genetically complex—meaning that inheritance is not simply dominant or recessive or sex-linked, but follows more complex patterns indicative of more complex mechanisms. Most risk variants identified to date have only small effects on risk, and, in most cases, many risk variants at many risk loci interact with environmental factors to produce the phenotype. Such complexity has led to great challenges in increasing our knowledge of the inheritance of behavioral traits. Recent methodological advances have provided an improved set of tools that has led to advances in our understanding of the genetic influences on a range of behavioral traits. This chapter examines some of the issues involved that tend to make this a difficult problem and some of the solutions now being employed to approach those problems.
Dancing Angels and Princesses
Authors: Meftahi Ida
Published: April 2014

Linking twentieth-century discourse on dance to the staged body, this chapter presents a genealogy of Iranian “national dance” (raqs-i milli) in light of the biopolitics of the national(ist) stage of the Pahlavi era (1925–1979) in Iran. Through the process of heteronormalization of the stage, the transvestite bachchah raqqas and zanpush of the preexisting popular minstrel setting (mutribi) was eliminated from the early twentieth-century modernist-nationalist stage because it embodied an ambiguous sexuality that did not match the ideals of “modern” Iran. Instead, an educated and professionalized female national dancer with balletic moves and a controlled performance of sexuality performed the ego-ideal of modern Iranian women onstage. Often depicted as an angel or a Persian princess, this new female construct enacted the narratives of the nation on the prestigious “national(ist)” stage of the Pahlavi period.
Ballet and Whiteness
Authors: Fisher Jennifer
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines the history and practice of skin color prejudices in the ballet world, especially as they relate to conceptions of “whiteness.” The ethnic roots of ballet (Kealiinohomoku) and Africanist influences on George Balanchine, which led him to invent a new kind of classicism (Dixon Gottschild), are considered, as is the dance world’s reception of these topics. It is suggested that Balanchine might have been a strong force for the integration of ballet had he not been limited by his racially hidebound context. It is also suggested that ballet might always be “the kingdom of the pale” unless the ballet world moves beyond superficial ways of seeing.
Crossing the Seas of Southeast Asia
Authors: Larasati Diyah
Published: April 2014

This chapter rearticulates the study of female citizenship and the transmission of dance among the Islamic communities of the Sama and Bajau of Southeast Asia. The research examines how indigenous people’s aesthetic practices have been shared, distributed, and passed down through internal genealogical alliances, as well as through transmission in public, internationalized space. The traditional, genealogical transmission of these practices has been disrupted and challenged by post-9/11 antiterrorism laws, which affect border crossings. Examining regulation and its consequences for society by examining the body, its geopolitical mapping, and its interconnected cultural policies among the Sama and Bajau, this research also contributes to the mapping and theorization of diaspora, the politics of memory, and “the performance of culture” to understand how the aesthetic of dance is transmitted and protected as cultural knowledge, as well as its mobility across and through the fluid borders formed by the state’s law in Southeast Asia.
Dancing Jews and Jewesses
Authors: Rossen Rebecca
Published: April 2014

In the 1930s, “Jewish dance” emerged in the United States as a category that drifted between ethnic and modern dance. Although some Jewish choreographers were able to transcend their ethnicity through the universalism of modern dance, others, like Belle Didjah and Dvora Lapson, were ghettoized by their overtly Jewish characterizations of Hasidic Jews or exotic Jewesses. Despite their exclusion from modern-dance history, Didjah and Lapson identified with modern dance, reinvented cultural traditions and rituals for the stage, and used the solo form to imagine expanded roles for women. Although some of their dances emphasized Jewish difference over assimilation, they aimed to make a place for Jewish expression on the American concert stage, and to expand possibilities for constructing Jewish-American identities through a mode of performance that was both ethnic and modern.
Medicaid
Authors: Grogan Colleen , Andrews Christina M.
Published: April 2014

Medicaid’s intergovernmental design with a generous federal matching rate and substantial state discretion has fostered gradual but steady expansions of the program over time. Gradual growth creates a favorable political environment in which each expansion creates a political constituency for Medicaid—among provider groups and enrollees—who then fight against retrenchment. Yet, as program expenditures continue to increase, especially during fiscally distressed times, the partisan divide over the future direction of Medicaid becomes more stark. These are the political dynamics that will define how states struggle with the Affordable Care Act (ACA) Medicaid expansion and also how states attempt to provide long-term care financing and services under their Medicaid programs.
Workers’ Compensation
Authors: Boden Leslie I. , Spieler Emily A.
Published: April 2014

This chapter describes the history and current status of workers’ compensation programs in the United States. Workers’ compensation, the oldest social insurance system in the United States, was designed to provide medical and cash benefits to people with work-related injuries and illnesses while protecting employers from liability. Primarily established state by state, these programs vary significantly among jurisdictions. The chapter explores several disturbing themes: the failure of these systems to provide benefits for many occupationally caused injuries and illnesses; the questionable adequacy of benefit levels; confusion and humiliation of applicants; and the recurring political issue of fraud. The chapter also briefly describes the relationship of workers’ compensation programs with other disability and health insurance systems, employment relations, and workplace safety regulation. It closes with questions about the future of workers’ compensation in the United States.
Private Health Insurance
Authors: Morone James A.
Published: April 2014

This article explores the development, the present condition, and the likely future of private health insurance in the United States. It emphasizes the three kinds of fragmentation that mark American health care: scattered oversight, multiple risk pools, and inchoate government. I pay special attention to the health-care challenges we face, the persisting patterns of inequality, and the important but limited reforms introduced by the Affordable Care Act.