bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Measuring and Sampling Runoff from Flat Lands
Authors: Willis G. H. , Laflen J. M.
Published: February 2008

A system for measuring and sampling runoff was devised for use on nearly level lands by joining a Parshall flume and a Geib multislot divisor in series. The collected sample is pumped from a sump into above‐ground storage tanks that have a capacity of 12 inches of runoff. The system remains functional even with drainage ditches at near capacity. Samples collected by the system were representative of the runoff water entering the system with regard to their silt and clay content and the concentration of added nitrate and endrin during the various flow rates and sediment concentrations tested.
Wisconsin's Shoreland and Flood Plain Protection Program
Authors: Wood Donald F.
Published: February 2008

The State of Wisconsin has undertaken a bold program of regulating shoreland and flood plain uses in an attempt to overcome certain water resource problems. The program is too new to have its effectiveness evaluated. Nonetheless, in future years the program's success and shortcomings deserve considerable attention by all persons concerned with water resource management. (Key words: Management; regulation; flood plain; shoreland)
Quality of Waters From Playas on the Southern High Plains
Authors: Lotspeich Frederick B. , Hauser Victor L. , Lehman Oliver R.
Published: February 2008

An estimated 2.5 to 3.0 million acre‐feet of runoff water accumulate annually in playas on the Southern High Plains. This large water resource should be developed for more intensive use; however, past lack of knowledge about its quality has impeded progress. Thirteen playas were sampled over an area extending about 100 miles from northeast to southwest and covering two major soil types. The water from playas contained less salts than ground water and was of excellent quality for irrigation. Nitrate contents were less than 1.0 mg/1 in nearly all playas. Nitrogen fertilizer applied to farmland added little, if any, nitrate to the surface runoff water. Suspended solids contained in playa waters were high and variable but were substantially reduced by settling in deep reservoirs protected from wind and wave action.
Runoff Volume Prediction From Daily Climatic Data
Authors: Knisel Walter G. , Baird Ralph W. , Hartman Monroe A.
Published: February 2008

A two‐soil‐moisture‐reservoir model is developed to improve the estimate accuracy of a runoff‐volume‐prediction model. Soil moisture accounting in the two reservoirs is an intermediate step to runoff prediction. A decay‐type function describes the moisture depletion between days of rainfall. The moisture depletion constant in the function varies by season with soil moisture, pan evaporation, and mean daily temperature. The runoff‐prediction equation relates runoff to rainfall and soil moisture at the beginning of the storm. Computed runoff volumes are compared with values observed on a 3‐acre native grass‐meadow watershed for an 11‐year period. Accumulated computed amounts for the period agree within 1% of the accumulated observed amounts.
Recurrence Intervals Between Exceedances of Selected River Levels: 2. Alternatives to a Markov Model
Authors: Mcgilchrist C. A. , Woodyer K. D. , Chapman T. G.
Published: February 2008

In a study of the probability of exceedance of a selected stage for daily maximum water levels, exponential and gamma models can be shown to be more realistic than the Markov model described in the first paper of this series. The important differences are in the tails of the distributions, and the estimate of the expected recurrence interval is affected little by the choice of model. Confidence limits for the mean recurrence interval are, in fact, somewhat wider for the exponential model than for the Markov model. It is shown that the general relationship between the expected recurrence interval and the return period for the annual maximum series depends on the choice of model.
Assessing upland reservoirs using a daily flow model
Authors: Young George K. , Somers William P. , Pisano William C. , Fitch William N.
Published: February 2008

A procedure is given for analyzing multisite upland reservoir storage for water supply at a downstream point. Synthetic monthly streamflow for six sites replicates mean, standard deviation, and lag correlation coefficient of historic data; a matrix of spatial correlations interrelates the sites. Factors translate flow to seven reservoirs operated in two modes and one use point. The Thomas‐Fiering formula, using lag‐one correlation and coefficient of variation of historic daily flows and a random gamma variable, converts monthly flow to daily supply at the use point. Results comprise probabilistic analyses of deficiencies and reservoir performances. Results of a study of the Washington, D. C., requirements for 1985 indicate that six upland reservoirs reduce the duration of a deficiency occurring once in a hundred years and that a smaller volume of nearby storage is an alternative or can be used for standby. Results indicate that sophisticated operation of upstream reservoirs should enhance recreational values while concurrently satisfying supply requirements at Washington.
Installation and field calibration of neutron‐scatter equipment for hydrologic research in heterogeneous and stony soils
Authors: Rawitz Ernest
Published: February 2008

The commonly used methods of access tube installation and neutron depth probe calibration were impractical in the stony soils of an agricultural watershed in eastern Pennsylvania. Modification of a portable power‐driven drilling machine made it possible to drill straight boreholes to a depth of 24 feet through the soil and the underlying shale beds. Backfilling oversize holes around the access tubes with fine soil material gave satisfactory results. Reasonable correspondence was found between calibration curves from heterogeneous, stony sites and more precise data obtained at a site with alluvial, stone‐free soil derived from the stony residual soils upstream. The field calibration curves were roughly parallel to the calibration curve supplied by the manufacturer of the probe but were displaced upward by approximately 4000 counts per minute. Use of the factory calibration curve would be adequate for determining relative changes in soil moisture content but would result in serious error if used for calculating the absolute moisture content.
Unsteady Flow in a Reservoir‐Conduit System
Authors: Yu Yun‐Sheng , Gray Mack H.
Published: February 2008

The one‐dimensional method of solution computes successfully the instantaneous average displacement, velocity, and acceleration of fluid in the pipe and the water depth in the reservoir when a valve at the end of the conduit is suddenly opened. Measurements of the instantaneous average fluid displacement in the pipe for different values of B/D (reservoir diameter to pipe diameter) agree very well with the computed values. For a specific inlet geometry and a given value of the ratio of pipe length to pipe diameter, the lumped inertial parameter decreases as B/D increases and reaches a minimum value as B/D becomes infinity. The neglect of the inertia of fluid in the reservoir in computing the unsteady flow characteristics is justifiable if B/D is larger than 90 and L/D much larger than 0.47.
A Stochastic Model of Monthly Reservoir Storage
Authors: Venetis C.
Published: February 2008

The sequence of the reservoir content {ZT} is considered a stochastic process periodic in time (discrete time in months) with discrete state space. Expressions giving the limiting distributions for each month are derived, based on the assumption that the standardized series of the river flows constitutes essentially a first order autoregressive process which can be approximated by a finite Markov chain. A simple numeric example illustrates the application of the theory of monthly storage to practical problems.
Applicability of Current Theories of Flow in Leaky Aquifers
Authors: Neuman Shlomo P. , Witherspoon Paul A.
Published: February 2008

The applicability of current theories of flow in leaky aquifers has been investigated using new analytic and numeric solutions. In general it has been customary to use one or both of the following assumptions: (1) storage in the aquitards is negligible, and (2) drawdowns in the unpumped aquifers remain zero. At small values of time the first assumption amounts to neglecting the effects of leakage completely. Errors introduced in this way can become significant when the β factor of Hantush exceeds 0.01. It appears that β may exceed 0.1 in many field situations. At large values of time, neglecting drawdowns in the unpumped aquifers can also lead to serious errors unless the transmissibilities of these aquifers are significantly greater than that of the pumped aquifer. In addition present methods of analyzing leaky aquifers usually rely only on drawdown data from the pumped aquifer. In our opinion such an approach is not sufficient to characterize a leaky system; current methods of analyzing field data from leaky aquifers need to be improved.
Separation of Rainfall Excess from Total Rainfall
Authors: Scully David R. , Bender Donald L.
Published: February 2008

Twenty‐seven unit hydrographs from the Ralston Creek basin in Iowa are used to develop a general dimensionless unit hydrograph. A dimensionless unit hydrograph procedure is used with excess rainfall rates to synthesize historic hydrographs of Ralston Creek. The distribution of the excess rainfall for five‐minute intervals is obtained when the computed storm hydrograph compares favorably with the historic storm hydrograph. Infiltration loss rates are obtained by separating excess rainfall rates from total rainfall. Infiltration loss rates are found to vary directly with the rainfall intensity and to be practically independent of time. It is suggested that surface detention is responsible for the increase in infiltration loss rates during heavy bursts of rainfall. Most water in surface detention is slowly released to direct runoff from its temporary storage when the rainfall moderates or stops.
A Combined Control‐Metering Section for Gaging Large Streams
Authors: Brown Harry E.
Published: February 2008

Two stream gaging stations of new design were constructed and tested on the Beaver Creek pilot watershed in Arizona. The gage provides a stable stage discharge relation with sufficient precision for long‐term hydrologic investigations. The control surface is a concrete slab 15 feet wide with a 6‐inch triangular lip built into the downstream edge. Flow is metered on the concrete surface near the upstream edge of the slab. Capacity of the gage is in excess of 1000 cfs; field ratings up to 705 cfs are presented.
An estimation of wind effects on dispersion in wide channels
Authors: Wu Jin
Published: February 2008

The longitudinal dispersion coefficient in a wide channel is calculated under various combinations of streamflow and wind conditions. The effect of wind, which produces drift currents in the stream, on dispersion has hitherto been neglected. The results obtained here, especially the difference in dispersion coefficients obtained under upstream and downstream wind conditions, may partially explain the wide scatter of field data. This difference further indicates the importance of choosing the ejection site on the basis of the prevailing wind conditions and of considering environmental conditions beyond stream factors alone.
Measurement of Columbia River flow time from Hanford Reactors to Astoria, Oregon—Summer 1966
Authors: Hanson Peter J. , Forster William O.
Published: February 2008

Chromium‐51 induced in the Hanford production reactors was used to measure Columbia River flow times between the reactors and Astoria, Oregon. This opportunity came during the summer of 1966 when all reactors were inoperative for the first time in 22 years. Chromium‐51, introduced into the river as chromate anion (51CrS) tends to remain in solution, thus providing a suitable water‐mass tracer. The complex inverse relationship of flow time to volume discharge is seen in our values of 12 days flow time from the reactors to Astoria, Oregon, during an average discharge of 290,000 cfs and 19 days flow time at a low volume discharge of 130,000 cfs. Such short travel time could be critical in the event of an accidental release into the river of extremely hazardous levels of radioactivity.
A note on the equation of ground‐water flow
Authors: Madsen Ole S.
Published: February 2008

Since the paper by DeWiest [1966] the correct form of the storage coefficient has been discussed. However, Cooper [1966] pointed out an inaccuracy in DeWiest's derivation and found an expression for the storage coefficient equal to the one originally given by Jacob [195O]. Using an approach slightly different from Cooper's and not restricting the compression of the soil to be vertical only, we have derived a governing equation 1 equivalent to Cooper's [1966] equation 20, thus joining the supporters of Jacob's form of the storage coefficient. For the present investigation the starting point is

urn:x-wiley:00431397:media:wrcr585:wrcr585-math-0001
where qr is the velocity relative to the soil grains of a barotropic fluid

urn:x-wiley:00431397:media:wrcr585:wrcr585-math-0002
The time derivative is taken following the soil grains, which have the absolute velocity

urn:x-wiley:00431397:media:wrcr585:wrcr585-math-0003
and based on the assumption of linearly elastic materials

urn:x-wiley:00431397:media:wrcr585:wrcr585-math-0004
Infiltration Rates as Affected by Desert Vegetation
Authors: Lyford Forest P. , Qashu Hasan K.
Published: February 2008

Infiltration of water into two soils measured at radial distances from the stems of paloverde (Cercidium microphyllum) and creosote bush (Larrea tndentata) were found to average nearly three times greater under plants than in the openings. Bulk density was lower and organic matter content was higher in topsoil under plants than in the openings.
Geohydrologic interpretations of a volcanic island from environmental isotopes
Authors: Davis George H. , Lee Chang Kun , Bradley Edward , Payne B. R.
Published: February 2008

Isotopic analyses of ground waters collected from 1966 through 1968 on Cheju Island, Republic of Korea, have proved helpful in interpreting the general hydrologic relations and in developing a model of the ground‐water flow system in the permeable volcanic rocks of the island. Comparison of tritium and stable isotope (D‐18O) contents provided a basis for a model of the ground‐water flow regimes. Time variability of these isotopes determined by repeated samplings provided the basis for estimates of mean residence time of ground waters, ranging from about 2 to 9 years. Although the results are only approximate because simplified models were used, they can be of substantial assistance in planning further hydrologic investigations and appraising the feasibility of ground‐water development.
Hydrodynamic instability of miscible fluids in a vertical porous column
Authors: Bachmat Y. , Elrick D. E.
Published: February 2008

A series of experiments have been conducted at a constant temperature on the intrusion of salt from a reservoir containing a fixed volume of solution into an underlying long vertical column of porous material, initially saturated with pure water and sealed at the bottom. The variation with time of the salt concentration in the reservoir was measured for different types of porous materials, different initial concentrations, and different mechanical treatments of the solution. The experimental results, substantiated by the theoretical analyses, indicate that the main contributor to the influx of salt into the porous material is the convective dispersion arising from the onset of horizontal variations of the salt concentration and of the vertical velocity component. The rate of this process is governed by a characteristic time

where ρU and ρL are the initial densities in the reservoir and in the porous material, respectively; K is the hydraulic conductivity of the porous material with respect to the liquid initially saturating it; and H is a characteristic head of the solution. Approximate expressions have been derived for the rate of decrease of the salt concentration in the reservoir, for the influx of salt into the porous material, and for the advances of the salt front within it.
A finite element solution of the one‐dimensional diffusion‐convection equation
Authors: Guymon Gary L.
Published: February 2008

The one‐dimensional diffusion‐convection equation has been widely used to describe approximately the transient motion of a subset of particles in river flow or porous media flow. An equivalent variational principle to the governing partial differential equations of motion is given, and a finite element solution is developed requiring only approximations in the space domain. The solution is applicable to a wide variety of field problems because it can account for a variety of boundary conditions. Additionally, the solution is not dependent upon constant parameters of motion over the entire domain of interest.
Runoff from Watershed Models
Authors: Black Peter E.
Published: February 2008

Iconic watershed models were used under a rainfall simulator to determine the nature of the hydrograph response to depth of surface storage medium, model slope, drainage pattern, and drainage density. Tests were made with carefully selected sponge material to represent soil under varying degrees of saturation. Results show, as reported elsewhere, that geomorphic features have little or no effect on the hydrograph when there is surficial saturation, but that under less than saturated conditions these watershed characteristics do materially affect hydrograph parameters.
Mechanism of Rapid Filtration in a Uniform Filter Bed
Authors: Craft T. F. , Eichholz G. G.
Published: February 2008

A radiotracer study has been carried out with cesium‐137 labeled vermiculite particles to study the pattern of removal in a deep sand filter under rapid flow conditions. Sized sand and anthracite were used as bed media, and suspended particles were sized between 1 and 120 microns. By comparing the activity ratios in the upper bed levels, curves were obtained relating the filter coefficient to particle size and bed pore sizes. By analyzing the curves in relation to the various theories proposed to account for filter action, it was shown that interstitial sieving was the dominant mechanism down to a nominal pore‐particle ratio of 4. Below this ratio, van der Waals forces were shown to be adequate to explain residual removal effects, and the effective range of these forces was calculated.
Flume Studies of the Sediment Transfer Coefficient
Authors: Coleman Neil L.
Published: February 2008

Flume experiments show that in open channel flow the sediment transfer coefficient increases with distance from the channel bed, reaching a maximum value at a distance from the bed equal to about 20% of the flow depth, and then tends to remain at a constant value up to the water surface. The experiments also yield evidence indicating that the sediment transfer coefficient is larger for larger particle sizes.
A Diurnal Distribution Function for Daily Evaporation
Authors: Fleming P. M.
Published: February 2008

Some deterministic mathematical models of hydrologic processes require an approximate diurnal distribution of evaporation. The problem of estimating the diurnal distribution of evaporation rates is examined when only total daily evaporation is given. Two cases are considered, clear days and cloudy days, and nondimensional distribution functions are developed for each case. Application of the distribution functions requires a knowledge of the time of sunrise and daylength. Operating rules to decide which distribution function to employ are given in terms of alternate data, sunshine hours, solar radiation, and daily evaporation. The preliminary nature of the results is emphasized.
Saline Groundwater Resources of the Conterminous United States
Authors: Feth J. H.
Published: February 2008

Saline water is arbitrarily defined as water containing more than 1000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids. Saline ground water is known to underlie about two‐thirds of the 48 states. Locally, aquifers yield saline ground water in profuse quantities, some of which is used by industry, particularly for cooling. Generally, however, saline water has been considered a nuisance. In this report it is dealt with as a resource, especially for the future. Forty chemical types of mineralized ground water were recognized, but sodium chloride dominates the occurrences and is almost the only type found where concentrations exceed about 20,000 mg/l. The occurrence and hydrologic properties of saline water aquifers deserve much more study than they have had.
Freshwater Bubbles: A Possibility for Using Saline Aquifers to Store Water
Authors: Moulder E. A.
Published: February 2008

Saline aquifers appear to have promising storage capabilities for freshwater supplies. Such aquifers would be a practical alternative to surface water reservoirs in areas where natural reservoir sites are scarce or where evaporation might consume a substantial part of the water stored. A single experiment in Virginia more than 20 years ago shows that a substantial amount of freshwater injected into the saline aquifer can be recovered. Environmental factors that affect water recovery are dispersion and mixing at the fresh‐saline water interface, reshaping of the interface because of density differences of the fluids, and groundwater movement in the saline aquifer system. Investigators have shown mathematical approaches to estimating the first two factors. Available data indicate that the third factor may be significant. Feasibility studies of storage facilities should include evaluation of at least these three factors.
Sources of Dissolved Carbonate in an Aquifer Free of Carbonate Minerals
Authors: Pearson F. J. , Friedman Irving
Published: February 2008

Water from 14 wells in the Magothy aquifer, Long Island, New York, was sampled for chemical analysis and C13/C12 ratio measurements of the dissolved carbonate. The Magothy is essentially free of carbonate minerals and contains water whose chemistry is controlled by the chemistry of the atmospheric precipitation that recharged the aquifer. Wells near the recharge area have δC13 values of −25‰ and total carbonate contents corresponding to a PCO2 of about 4×10−3 atmosphere, showing that the carbonate here is derived from the soil zone. Downgradient, the total carbonate doubles, but the δC13 values remain more negative than −18‰. The dissolved carbonate increase is due in part to carbonate mineral solution but results largely from oxidation of lignite in the aquifer by oxygen dissolved in the water.
Flow Cell System for Miscible Displacement Experiments
Authors: Yoo Sun‐Ho , Kirkham Don
Published: February 2008

The use of a continuous graphic recording system for flow component measurement in miscible displacement experiments is described. This system measures and continuously records radioactive tracer concentrations of effluents of miscible displacement columns. The recordings are needed breakthrough curves. The use of the system obviates fraction collectors.
Quasilinearization and the Identification of Aquifer Parameters
Authors: Yeh William W‐G. , Tauxe George W.
Published: February 2008

A new computational procedure based on observations at observation wells is presented to solve the problem of identifying aquifer parameters. This new procedure (quasilinearization), originally developed by Bellman and Kalaba, is an effective way to convert the observations directly to aquifer parameters. The procedure is advantageous because it involves neither curve plotting nor graphical matching. It makes full use of the ability of the modern high speed digital computer to integrate a system of ordinary differential equations with given initial conditions. The parameters to be identified are the storage coefficient and transmissivity in a confined aquifer system.
Hydrodynamics and Hydrocarbon Occurrences, Surat Basin, Queensland, Australia
Authors: Hitchon Brian , Hays John
Published: February 2008

The decision whether to continue petroleum exploration of a sedimentary basin when only marginally attractive oil and gas discoveries have been made is a difficult one, which can be assisted by the application of an appropriate fluid flow model. The pertinency of the Tóth‐Freeze‐Witherspoon model has been proved in the western Canada sedimentary basin and is now applied to the less explored Surat basin. The Surat basin consists of a narrow north trending trough filled with Paleozoic strata overlain by a thick, broad cover of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, the whole forming a topographic feature bounded on the north and east by the Great Dividing Range and drained toward the southwest by the Darling River system. Hydraulic head maps and cross sections indicate that hydrocarbon accumulations are associated with quasistagnant portions of discharge areas in which flow is vertical with respect to the bedding, the result being increased salinity of the formation waters caused by membrane filtration and consequently conditions more favorable for the disaccommodation and subsequent accumulation of hydrocarbons. Although the detailed delineation of favorable areas in the Surat basin is difficult with the data presently available, the concepts and approach applied in this paper may be of value to those seeking hydrocarbon accumulations in sedimentary basins throughout the world.
Supplemental Irrigation with Stream Water Contaminated by Acid Mine Drainage
Authors: Terkeltoub Richard W.
Published: February 2008

Many streams in the Appalachian coal producing region, which could furnish supplemental irrigation water, are polluted with acid mine drainage. They consequently contain much greater trace metal concentrations and have lower pH than do nearby streams that carry only agricultural drainage. Nevertheless, supplemental irrigation of barley plants grown in a greenhouse with acid mine water was as beneficial to plant growth as supplemental irrigation with deionized water. The capacity of the soil to buffer pH and adsorb trace metals apparently counteracts the properties of acid mine water, which are detrimental to plant growth. Furthermore, the agricultural quality of a field often flooded with acid mine water has been maintained by adding lime to offset the reduced pH. Thus under certain soil conditions and management practices, acid mine water can be used for supplemental irrigation.
Steady State Well Flow Theory for a Confined Elliptical Aquifer
Authors: van der Ploeg R. R. , Kirkham Don , Boast C. W.
Published: February 2008

A theoretical and exact solution is presented for steady saturated flow to a fully penetrating well in an elliptical confined aquifer; the aquifer is considered isotropic and homogeneous. The potential and stream functions for a number of different‐shaped aquifers and well locations are developed by starting with a general solution to Laplace's equation and using a modified Gram‐Schmidt method. Flow tables are presented for a number of geometries. For example, the tables show that a well 6 inches in diameter, located in the center of an elliptical aquifer with a ratio of minor to major axis of ½ and a major axis 1000 feet long, provides 0.857 as much discharge as a well located on the major axis of an elliptical aquifer seven‐eighths of the way from the center to the edge. The variety of geometries considered enables one to predict the well discharge for aquifers that approach the shape of an ellipse. Flow net examples are presented.
Seawater Intrusion in Layered Aquifers
Authors: Collins Michael A. , Gelhar Lynn W.
Published: February 2008

Seawater intrusion beneath a semipervious layer in a two‐layer coastal aquifer system is described. Freshwater can occur beneath the aquitard because of the head losses induced by upward flow through the semipervious layer. A steady state Dupuit model is formulated to predict the piezometric head variation landward of and above the intruding seawater. Exact solutions are given for the landward head variation, but a numerical solution is necessary for the zone above the intruding seawater. The mathematical model is compared to experimental results of a Hele‐Shaw model study of Long Island, New York. The analysis provides reasonable predictions of the shape of the interface between freshwater and seawater, but the location of the toe of the seawater wedge is inadequately described, apparently because of regional flow conditions on the island that are not simulated in the analysis.
Application of a Local Similarity Concept in Solving the Vertical Subsurface Flow Problem
Authors: Drake Ronald L. , Peterson Celeste P.
Published: February 2008

A technique is described for solving various problems in continuum mechanics through the application of similarity transformations when all the requirements for the application of such transformations are not satisfied. The transformed equations usually involve a stray time variable that is interpreted as a system parameter. When this parameter is properly interpreted, the solutions of the transformed systems are very good numerical approximations for the solutions of the original systems. The advantages of considering the transformed systems are usually two‐fold: numerical solutions can be obtained with less computer time, and qualitative analysis of the transformed systems is usually easier than that of the original systems. The problems discussed in this paper include certain previously published results and some new results obtained for the nonlinear Fokker‐Planck equation in which the vertical movement of soil moisture under the influence of gravity is described.
Evaluating Alternative Techniques Floodplain Mapping
Authors: Wolman M. Gordon
Published: February 2008

A variety of techniques is available for providing information on the frequency and extent of flooding in river valleys. These techniques include the use of physiography, pedology, vegetation, occasional floods, regional floods of selected frequency, and flood profiles and backwater curves. Preliminary estimates of costs suggest that these range from a low of $1–4/mile of channel to a high of $400–1000/mile of channel. All estimates of flood hazards and damages contain significant uncertainties deriving from the variability and uncertainty of the estimates of hydrologic, hydraulic, and social phenomena. An accelerating demand for information coupled with recognition of the inherent element of judgment in any determination of flood or damage zones suggests additional emphasis on the adoption of different mapping techniques appropriate to the needs of different locations.
Correlogram Analysis Revisited
Authors: Wallis J. R. , Matalas N. C.
Published: February 2008

Consideration of the Hurst coefficient h offers new insight into the interpretation of observed correlograms for streamflow sequences. Autoregressive models, for which h = ½, cannot reproduce the structures of those correlograms. The structures are symptomatic of long‐term persistence as indicated by observed values of h being greater than ½. The tendency has been to test a sequence for independence, and if the hypothesis of independence is unacceptable, then (1) the generating process for the sequence is approximated by a short memory process, and (2) variations in the high lag serial correlation coefficients are ascribed to chance. If indeed the sequences are generated by long memory processes, then the powers of most independence tests are low for short records. Consequently, correlograms may be useful indicators of long‐term persistence when more formal tests give contrary results.
Snow Distribution in Relation to Solar Radiation on Two Swiss Pre‐Alp Watersheds
Authors: Meiman James R. , Remmenga E. , Keller H.
Published: February 2008

The differences in the water equivalent of snow on 15 transects at mid‐March are closely related to estimated differences in potential solar beam radiation. Only slight improvement results from refining the radiation estimates to account for shading, clouds, and diffuse and reflected radiation. For 1967‐1969, 79% of the variance is associated with estimated global radiation. The results suggest that estimates of solar radiation can be useful for extrapolating snowpack water equivalent measurements over watersheds in which differential ablation is the chief cause of areal variation.
Equilibrium temperatures of water surfaces as related to air temperature and solar radiation
Authors: Dingman S. Lawrence
Published: February 2008

Equilibrium temperature Te is the water surface temperature at which net energy exchange to the atmosphere is zero. Since heat loss rate is a function of (Tw − Te), where Tw is the actual water surface temperature, the concept of equilibrium temperature is useful in predicting water temperatures. By selecting a set of equations to describe the heat exchange processes at the surface, one can produce curves of heat exchange rate (excluding shortwave radiation) versus (Tw − Ta), where Ta is air temperature. These curves can be approximated by linear functions. The slopes q and intercepts Qo of these curves are in turn linear functions of wind speed for a specified set of weather conditions (clear and low humidity or cloudy and high humidity). Specifying these weather conditions, wind speed, air temperature, and net incoming solar radiation QR, one can calculate q and Qo and compute the equilibrium temperature as Te = [(QR − Qo)/q[ + Ta. This relation provides a simple yet general means of calculating Te and can be used to investigate time variations of Tw in response to meteorologic conditions.
Application of stream order numbers to the Merrimack River Basin
Authors: Walsh Fraser
Published: February 2008

This study shows that the Merrimack River basin is a Horton river basin. An amendment to the Scheidegger ordering system is proposed, based on the length of stream source segments. These amended orders can be used to identify incorrectly mapped sources and to identify which junctions in a single Scheidegger order have longer than average sources upstream.
Symposium on Planning and Design of Groundwater Data Programs: Introduction
Authors: Johnson A. I.
Published: February 2008

‘Planning and Design of Groundwater Data Programs’ was the subject of a symposium presented on December 8, 1970, during the National Fall Meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco, California. The symposium was sponsored by the Groundwater Committee, Section of Hydrology, American Geophysical Union.

Over the past decade groundwater has become an increasingly more important part of the total water resources system. The increased need and use of groundwater have produced a growing awareness of the complexity of groundwater investigations and increased interest in improved management of aquifer studies, as well as in management of the groundwater resource as a whole. Economic and technical requirements have focused attention on the need for specific criteria for the planning and design of data collection networks as a part of broad groundwater resource programs. With those trends in mind, the Groundwater Committee believed the subject symposium was timely in not only presenting some scientific contemplation and research results presently available but also in stimulating future study of this subject.
Proposed criteria for design of a data collection system for groundwater hydrology in California, 1970–2000
Authors: Dutcher L. C.
Published: February 2008

Design of a groundwater data collection system requires the recognition of several important concepts. (1) Groundwater is not an isolated resource; precipitation and surface water are important boundary conditions and water quality is an essential parameter. (2) Most groundwater data are not transferable; thus the network must be based on unique programs for each basin. (3) Data needs must relate to the anticipated stress on the basin, and stress should be related to time, both lag time in the response to hydrologic stress, and lead time needed by management. (4) Cost of data is related to data density and accuracy so program design must consider levels of funds. (5) The relatively small time variability and pronounced spatial variability of the environmental factors necessitates major emphasis on the appraisal of areal units. (6) The parametric data needed for completing areal investigations at several levels of study are based on physical, hydrologic, and chemical heterogeneity coefficients derived for each basin. (7) Ultimately the complexity of the water use and the resulting changes of the system, in relation to the undeveloped state, will be such that first generation models of the groundwater basin can no longer supply answers to the intricate and complex questions needing answers. A management model of each heavily stressed basin will be needed to ensure that data collection programs fulfill the requirements imposed by the economic, political, legal, social, and hydrologic constraints.
Use of linear programing for estimating geohydrologic parameters of groundwater basins
Authors: Kleinecke David
Published: February 2008

Simulation models of groundwater basins require estimates of geohydrologic parameters, such as permeability and storage capacity. In present practice these parameters are initially guessed at and later adjusted by trial and error to improve the models' ability to simulate some known portion of the water history. It has been suggested that this process might be reversed to deduce geohydrology directly from the historical record. This suggestion was tested against a basin studied earlier by the California State Department of Water Resources. The fitting criteria used gave rise to linear programing formulations, which were solved from the basin data. The approach shows promise in that about one‐third of the basin parameters were evaluated, but further development is required. It is believed that historical records, although apparently overdetermining the system of equations, actually underdetermine the system because of redundancy effects. The approach appears to offer the best known method for estimating the effective aquifer depth.
Surrogate modeling
Authors: Meyer Charles F.
Published: February 2008

To improve the accuracy and completeness of a data base is expensive. Mathematical models and digital computer simulation techniques make a quantitative evaluation of the worth of improving the data base possible by empirical sensitivity analysis. Triangular and log triangular error distributions have been found suitable for Monte Carlo experiments to investigate the effect of different degrees of data accuracy.
Surface water temperature and ice regimes of Georgian Bay
Authors: Webb Michael S.
Published: February 2008

Data from 38 airborne radiation thermometer (Art) surveys of Georgian Bay (a part of the Laurentian Great Lakes system) over a 4‐year period have been used to determine the areal patterns of surface water temperature and their seasonal variation. Although the limited observational period makes the resulting maps tentative, nevertheless definitive patterns have emerged. Of particular interest are the marked control of surface water temperature by water depth and the influx of cool surface water from Lake Huron during July and August. Ice is found on Georgian Bay from about mid‐December through to late April; the areal extent showed wide year to year variation with the maximum area ranging from 40 to 90% of the whole.
Best one step ahead prediction in hydrology
Authors: Wallis James R.
Published: February 2008

Recent papers suggest that stochastic one step ahead prediction is an important growth field in hydrology; two examples of this viewpoint are papers by Rao and Kashyap [1971] and Carlson et al. [1970]. More specifically, it is beginning to appear that ‘best one step ahead prediction’ is to be equated to the quasi objective procedure developed by Box and Jenkins for other purposes. For the uninitiated let me state that the Box and Jenkins procedure is a recipe that one can follow if one wishes to choose a specific model from the domain of autoregressive integrated moving average models (ARIMA) (p, d, q). Even if we are to set aside all of the technical problems relative to selecting objective criteria, small sample biases, seasonal and diurnal variability, and what might best be called the type 2 error fitting problem, there are still philosophical and evaluation problems connected with applying this approach to short‐term hydrologic forecasting.
Role of subsurface flow in generating surface runoff: 1. Base flow contributions to channel flow
Authors: Freeze R. Allan
Published: February 2008

The importance of the subsurface response of watersheds has been vastly underrated in most studies of watershed behavior, both in a quantitative sense and in a generic sense. The mechanism of base flow generation and the nature of watershed response in base flow dominant streams are examined with a deterministic mathematical model that couples three‐dimensional, transient, saturated‐unsaturated subsurface flow and one‐dimensional, gradually varied, unsteady channel flow. The channel flow model uses the single step Lax‐Wendroff explicit technique to solve numerically the full shallow water equations. The subsurface flow model uses the line successive overrelaxation technique to solve numerically the Jacob‐Richards diffusion equation. The results of the simulations on a hypothetical basin suggest a wide variability in watershed response under the influence of variations in rainfall properties, antecedent moisture conditions, and saturated and unsaturated subsurface hydrogeologic properties. This evidence for a wide range of watershed response functions leads to the development of a healthy skepticism toward black box rainfall‐runoff correlations, the concept of basin linearity, and the rationality of hydrograph separation.
Prediction of spring runoff
Authors: Baker Donald G.
Published: February 2008

A high correlation was found between the precipitation that fell when soils were frozen (defined as the ‘cold period’) and the early spring runoff in eight of 10 watersheds in southern and central Minnesota. The cold period precipitation thus becomes a useful tool in predicting early spring runoff amounts in those areas where soils freeze. Results also indicated that cold period precipitation can be entirely accounted for by runoff and sublimation (or evaporation). Additions to the soil water reserves need not be called on to satisfy an accounting of the disposal of the ‘cold precipitation.’ This runoff prediction method has the advantage of simplicity once the linear regression equation for a watershed is calculated. The method requires only the measurement of soil temperature and precipitation at one station in each watershed.
Theory of flow in unconfined aquifers considering delayed response of the water table
Authors: Neuman Shlomo P.
Published: February 2008

A new analytical model is proposed for the delayed response process characterizing flow to a well in an unconfined aquifer. The present approach differs from that of Boulton [1954b, 1963, 1970] and Boulton and Pontin [1971] in that it is based only on well‐defined physical parameters of the aquifer system. Therefore it provides a possible physical explanation for the mechanism of delayed water table response and eliminates the conceptual difficulties encountered with Boulton's theory of ‘delayed yield from storage above the water table.’ Contrary to prevailing belief the process of delayed response in a homogeneous anisotropic phreatic aquifer can be simulated by using constant values of specific storage and specific yield without recourse to unsaturated flow theory. The results suggest that, in the absence of significant infiltration at the ground surface, compressibility may often be a much more important factor than unsaturated flow above the water table. Current methods of analyzing field data from unconfined aquifers do not usually consider compressibility. The present theory shows that such methods are limited in their application to relatively large values of time.
Rainfall‐runoff regression with logarithmic transforms and zeros in the data
Authors: Kilmartin R. F. , Peterson J. R.
Published: February 2008

When some zeros occur in a data matrix to be used in a log‐log regression analysis, the data require the addition of a ‘small increment’ to make the transformation of the zeros feasible. If this increment is <1.0, the logarithm takes on negative values that, when they are squared, may have as much weight in the variance computations as the nonzero data, or more. The use of 1.0 as an increment is suggested, since log 1.0 = 0.0 and zero would have the desired weight of a null variate in both the variance computations and the regression relation. In a multilag rainfall‐runoff regression for the San Lorenzo River at Big Trees, California, increments of 1.0 added to all variates resulted in significant improvements in the standard error of estimate and the coefficient of multiple determination in comparison to results with an increment of 0.001 added to only the zero variates.
Social accounting system for evaluating water resources
Authors: Dinius S. H.
Published: February 2008

A rudimentary social accounting system has been developed that is shown to be applicable to actual data. Methodology is suggested for a technique that can ultimately within one comprehensive framework systematically catalog all surface water in terms of social value, recognize the periodic increases and decreases in the water quality of each area, and provide a basis for evaluating alternative water use programs in terms of social and human welfare. The development of the system would involve defining a socially oriented quantifying unit, identifying the pollution factors and the water users, and designing a method to translate the hardship of the polluting factors on the water users in terms of the quantifying unit. Accounting statements are shown that can report the status of pollution at specified dates as well as pollution changes over time.
Use of production functions to evaluate multiple use treatments on forested watersheds
Authors: O'Connell Paul F. , Brown Harry E.
Published: February 2008

Preliminary production functions are identified for alternative land treatments on Beaver Creek watersheds in northern Arizona. These treatments are designed to increase water yield within a multiple use framework that includes timber, wildlife habitat, herbage, recreation, sediment, and environmental quality. Total, average, and marginal economic concepts are used to demonstrate the most efficient way to manage an area for one output. Even without price information, a range of ‘best’ input combinations can be identified. To determine how an area can be managed for multiple products in the most efficient way, product‐product functions were developed for water, timber, and herbage for five strip cutting alternatives. These functions indicate the supplementary, complementary, and competitive outputs obtained from a given expenditure. To account for the dynamic nature of production in the National Forests, outputs and costs were evaluated over a 90‐year period.