bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Magnetic relaxation in spheromaks using
spectral expansions in cylindrical geometry
Authors: HUA, DANIEL D. , FOWLER T. KENNETH , MORSE EDWARD C.
Published: July 2002

Abstract. A code has been developed to study self-organization in spheromaks
using the Galerkin method in which the magnetic and velocity fields appearing
in the incompressible dissipative MHD equations are expanded in a spectrum of
Chandrasekhar–Kendall eigenstates of the curl. The ultimate goal is to apply the
Galerkin method in actual spheromak geometry to calculate turbulence levels and
associated transport. The present work employs the straight-cylinder approximation,
known to give a good representation of internal ideal MHD modes in spheromaks
and applied here to resistive tearing modes. Our main result to date is a
demonstration that the Galerkin method can exhibit tearing island formation with
only a few states in the spectrum. Example quasilinear calculations are presented
for a decaying spheromak and for a spheromak created by gun injection.
Nonrelativistic motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field
Authors: McKINSTRIE C. J. , TURANO E. J.
Published: July 2002

The nonrelativistic motion of a charged particle in the electromagnetic
field of a
plane wave is studied. New analytic solutions of the equation of motion
are found
that manifest the dependence of the period of the particle motion on the
wave amplitude.
Three-wave coupling and parametric decay of kinetic Alfvén
waves
Authors: VOITENKO Yu. M.
Published: July 2002

The dynamic equation and coupling coefficient of the three-wave
interaction among
kinetic Alfvén waves (KAWs) are derived by use of plasma kinetic
theory. Linear
and nonlinear effects of finite ion Larmor radius are kept for arbitrary
value of the
‘kinetic variable’ κ=k⊥ρi.

The parametric decay KAW→KAW+KAWis investigated
and the threshold amplitude for decay instability in a Maxwellian plasma
is
calculated. The growth rate of decay instability varies as
k2⊥ in both limits κ2[Lt ]1

and κ2[Gt ]1. The main tendency of KAWs is towards nonlinear
destabilization at
very low wave amplitudes
Bk/B0[lsim ]10−3.

Two applications concerning KAW dynamics in the
magnetosphere and in the solar corona show that three-wave resonant interaction
among
KAWs may be responsible for the turbulent character of their behaviour,

often observed in space plasmas.
Coincident changes in four components of the North Sea ecosystem
Authors: Pearce K.F. , Frid C.L.J.
Published: July 2002

An analysis of species composition of the zooplankton, macrobenthos (two stations) and demersal fish from Northumberland (north-west North Sea) are reported. The four time-series show synchronous changes in species composition. While some of these changes coincide with changes in climateological variables, others do not. The degree of synchrony implies that either all the time-series are responding to a single set of extraneous forcing factors, or that food chain links, rapidly translate the signal through all ecosystem components.
Description of growth in the tropical cuttlefish Sepia elliptica using muscle tissue
Authors: Martínez P. , Moltschaniwskyj N.A.
Published: July 2002

The mantle muscle tissue of cuttlefish is predominantly made up of circular muscle fibres which run around the body. This circular muscle tissue is divided into discrete blocks by radial fibres, which run perpendicular to the main axis of the body. Growth of mantle muscle tissue was described in the tropical cuttlefish Sepia elliptica by examining muscle block size and the density and size distribution of muscle fibres. Changes in these variables were assessed in juvenile and adult cuttlefish. Generation of new muscle fibres, both within new and existing muscle blocks, occurred as animals grew across the size range. Anterior muscle blocks were smaller than muscle blocks in the middle and posterior regions of the mantle, suggesting that new blocks were generated anteriorly. Muscle blocks were also created in the middle and posterior regions by division of existing large blocks into small blocks by generation of circular and radial muscle fibres. The examination of cuttlefish muscle growth dynamics provided an alternative way of assessing cephalopod growth mechanisms.
Psammechinus miliaris egg homogenate as a model to investigate Ca2+-release mechanisms
Authors: Genazzani Armando A. , Wilson Heather L. , Galione Antony
Published: July 2002

The sea urchin egg has proved a reliable and robust system for measuring intracellular calcium release in response to three independent mechanisms: inositol 1,4,5 trisphosphate, cyclic ADP-ribose and the recently identified molecule, nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP). These calcium release mechanisms have been studied in homogenates of Lytechinus pictus and Spongylocentrotus purpuratus, which are two sea urchin species located off the west coast of the USA. A new calcium-release model from a species of sea urchin present off the coasts of Britain, Psammechinus miliaris is characterized and described. Although the Ca2+-release characteristics in this species do not differ from those of the other two sea urchin species, it may provide a more economical and convenient model for European scientists.
Feeding of small whiting (Merlangius merlangus) in the central and southern North Sea
Authors: Singh-Renton S. , Bromley P.J.
Published: July 2002

The stomach contents of 899 whiting, Merlangius merlangus (Pisces: Gadidae), from the central and southern North Sea, were analysed. Crustacea and fish comprised 90% on average by weight of the food observed. Crustacean prey sizes usually ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 g. The mean daily consumption of a common invertebrate prey, Crangon crangon, was estimated to be 0.1 g for a whiting weighing 150 g.
Reproductive traits of Gobius niger (Teleostei: Pisces) following a salinity stress: is it really a sedentary lagoon species?
Authors: Pampoulie C. , Priour F. , Bouchereau J.L. , Rosecchi E. , Crivelli A.J.
Published: July 2002

In 1993, a 100-y return-time flood brought about major hydrological changes in the Vaccarès Lagoon (Rhône Delta, France). Four years after the floods, Gobius niger had disappeared from the lagoon. Only the fall in salinity can explain this change. Reproductive traits in 1993 and 1994 were compared to determine the choices this species takes to improve its fitness in such unfavourable conditions. Evidence suggesting that G. niger is not a sedentary lagoon species is also discussed.
Ciliates and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in the marginal ice zone of the central Barents Sea during spring
Authors: Jensen Frank , Winding Hansen Benni
Published: July 2002

Diversity and biomass of ciliates and heterotrophic dinoflagellates were analysed at six stations on a south–north transect (mimicking a time span of months in the biological succession during the Arctic spring–summer) from open water through drift ice and into fast ice (72°30′N 76°32′N) during spring 1993 in the open Barents Sea. A pycnocline was observed beneath the sea ice at 40–50 m. A diatom spring bloom beneath the ice with chlorophyll-a maximum >10 μg l−1 and a diverse protozoan community with a peak biomass of 34 μg C l−1 was associated with this bloom. Maximum biomass of tintinnids (1 μg C l−1), athecate dinoflagellates (8 μg C l−1) and thecate dinoflagellates (26 μg C l−1) were found associated with the chlorophyll-a maximum in the upper 10 m of the water column beneath the sea ice at the northern stations. In contrast, the protozooplankton community was dominated by naked ciliates at the southern open water stations. Here chlorophyll-a was low (<1 μg l−1) and the maximum biomass of protozooplankton was 10 μg C l−1 of which naked ciliates accounted for >50%.

Cell sizes and estimated carbon content of cells >11 μm, as well as depth by depth biomass of 12 species/types of naked ciliates, 12 tintinnids, 12 athecate dinoflagellates and 24 thecate dinoflagellates, are presented. The community of naked ciliates was dominated by Strombidium spp. and Strobilidium spp., the tintinnids were dominated by Parafavella spp., Ptychocylis, Leprotintinnus, Acanthostomella and Tintinnopsis. The very small gyro-/gymnodinoid cells and Gyrodinium cf. spirale dominated the athecate dinoflagellates and the thecate dinoflagellates by the heterotroph Protoperidinium spp. generally accounted for the major part of the protozooplankton biomass along the transect. The Margalef diversity index revealed lowest diversity of ciliates and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in the open water and higher at ice-associated stations. The overall diversity was coupled with prey availability in terms of food concentration, but already saturated at 0.1 μg chlorophyll-a l−1.
Records of deep water chondrichthyan fish caught on long-line in the Rockall Trough
Authors: Clarke M.W.
Published: July 2002

A number of chondrichthyan fish species were caught on long-line in the Rockall Trough (north-east Atlantic) in 1997, which are first records for this area; Raja hyperborea, Raja kukujevi and Raja fullonica. The occurrence of R. hyperborea, usually found in colder boreal waters appears to be temperature related. The presence of the deep water squaliform shark Centrophorus uyato in the area was also confirmed and several species were caught at previously undocumented depths.

The Rockall Trough is an extension of the North Atlantic deep environment (Mauchline, 1990). A long-line survey was undertaken in August 1997 on the eastern and southern slopes of the Rockall Trough (Figure 1), fishing gear and procedures are described by Connolly (1997). Identifications were undertaken by means of several texts (Compagno, 1984; Whitehead, et al., 1984; Stehmann, 1997). The specimens described below were lodged in the National Museum of Ireland (NMI) and the Hamburg University Zoological Museum, Germany (ZMH). Depth ranges, positions and catalogue numbers of the specimens described are given in Table 1.
The Jesus-Tradition in Acts
Authors: STRANGE W. A.
Published: July 2002

The infrequent use of the Jesus-tradition in Acts is seldom noted, but it has implications for the use of the Jesus-tradition in early Christianity. It is widely assumed that the Jesus-tradition served to justify and to legitimate changing Christian belief and practice. However, the church in Acts does not normally seek justification for its practices or beliefs from the teaching or example of Jesus. The assumptions of gospel criticism about the function of the Jesus-tradition need to be tested against the observable phenomena of the one writer whose interest spanned the life of Jesus and the life of the church.
Induction of surface fluidity in Trichinella spiralis larvae
during penetration of the host intestine: simulation by cyclic AMP in
vitro
Authors: MODHA J. , ROBERTS M. C. , KENNEDY M. W. , KUSEL J. R.
Published: July 2002

The lateral diffusion (DL) properties of the
fluorescent lipid probe 5-N (octadecanoyl) aminofluorescein (AF18)
inserted into the surface of muscle-stage larvae of Trichinella spiralis
were investigated by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. AF18 was
not free to diffuse laterally in dormant larvae, and this remained unchanged
after larval activation in vitro with trypsin and bile. However,
a significant increase in surface fluidity of the probe was demonstrated
(%R = 74·5; DL = 11·5 × 10−9
cm2/sec) when larvae invaded intestinal epithelial tissue
following oral infection of mice. Membrane-permeant photoactivatable caged
cyclic AMP was used to analyse the putative mechanism responsible for this
increase in lateral diffusion in the parasite surface. Although incubation
of larvae with 1–50 μM caged cAMP had no effect on surface
fluidity, incubation with 100 μM caged cAMP induced a substantial
increase in the lateral mobility of AF18 (%R = 64·3; DL
= 8·3 × 10−11 cm2/sec) immediately
following photo-activation of the caged messenger. This induced fluidity,
however, was transient and the larval surface reverted to immobility within
15 min. These observations constitute the first reported measurement of
the fluid properties of the surface of intracellular parasites, the first
demonstration of the parasite surface fluidity altering as a result of
host cell invasion and the first indication of a mechanism underlying changes
in surface fluidity in parasitic helminths.
Excretory–secretory products of Trichobilharzia ocellata

and their modulating effects on the internal defence system

of Lymnaea stagnalis
Authors: NÚÑEZ P. E. , MOLENAAR M. J. , LAGEWEG W. , LI K. W. , DE JONG-BRINK M.
Published: July 2002

Excretory–secretory (E–S) products, released by Trichobilharzia
ocellata

cultured in vitro, were assessed for their modulatory

effects on the internal defence system of the freshwater snail, Lymnaea
stagnalis.

E–S products were concentrated

and fractionated using high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and bacterial
clearance

activity of haemocytes was

taken as a parameter for the internal defence system. Two main fractions
of E–S products

were produced by T. ocellata,

a low molecular fraction (low MW) and a high molecular fraction (high MW),
weighing

approximately 2 kDa and 40 kDa,

respectively. Stage-dependent release of E–S products by transforming
miracidia and mother

sporocysts was indicated by

the difference in proportions of these two fractions, which varied over
time. After a

culture time of 0–33 h, the smaller

fraction was prominent whilst E–S products released between 33 and
72 h consisted of a

higher proportion of the high

MW fraction. After a culture of 72–96 h, lower and comparable quantities
of both

fractions were produced by the same

batch of cultured parasites. Assaying the 2 fractions released during 0–33
h revealed

that the high MW fraction had a

suppressing effect on the bacterial clearance activity of haemocytes from
juvenile snails

and the low MW fraction activated

haemocyte activity. Combined fractions obtained during 0–33 h had
an activating effect

on haemocyte activity but fractions

separated from media collected at 33–72 h culture had a suppressing
effect on the bacterial

clearance activity of the

haemocytes. The combined E–S fractions from the 72–96 h incubation
had no effect on

haemocyte activity. The present

study shows that T. ocellata modulates the internal defence system
of L. stagnalis by

actively interfering with haemocyte

function. MALDI-MS analysis of the low MW fraction revealed several components
ranging

from 450 to 1600 Da.

Although it is as yet not clear which factor is responsible for the activating
effect

it is supposedly a peptide as it is pronase-sensitive

and resistant to TFA and acetonitrile.
The kinetics of immunological responses to microfilariae in

a murine host: experimental and mathematical studies
Authors: RHODES C. J. , FOLKARD S. G. , BIANCO A. E. , ANDERSON R. M.
Published: July 2002

We present a mathematical model which is used to interpret the

dynamics of the immunological response of a mouse host

to infection with the filarial worm Onchocerca lienalis. The

model mimics changes in worm burden over time post-infection

and after reinfection and its behaviour provides a good description of

experimental results. Measured production of T-cells and eosinophils

is also compared with the predictions of the model. Our results show

that the immune response

mechanism proposed on the basis of experimental results, involving

CD4+ T-cells and eosinophil destruction of the

parasite, is supported by the insights gained from the mathematical

model. Also, using the parameters estimated to describe

the primary infection dynamics, the degree of acquired immunity to

secondary infection is also well described by the

model. Our analysis highlights the importance of obtaining

quantitative measures of the many rate parameters involved

in even the simplest interpretations of immunological responses to

parasitic infection.
Induction of protective immunity and modulation of

granulomatous hypersensitivity in mice using PIII, an

anionic fraction of Schistosoma mansoni adult worm
Authors: HIRSCH C. , ZOUAIN C. S. , ALVES J. B. , GOES A. M.
Published: July 2002

This study was performed in order to define Schistosoma mansoni

antigens that are able to function as modulator agents

in the granulomatous hypersensitivity to parasite eggs in BALB/c

and C57BL/6 mice. A fraction of S. mansoni, designated

PIII, derived from adult worm antigen preparation (SWAP) was obtained using

anion-exchange chromatography on an

FPLC system. Immunization of mice with PIII in the presence of

Corynebacterium parvum and Al(OH)3 as adjuvant

induced an immune response in these animals as determined by ELISA and

spleen cell proliferation assays against S.

mansoni antigens SEA, SWAP and PIII. In addition, PIII caused a significant

degree of protection against a challenge

infection in immunized mice as observed by the decrease on worm burden

recovered from the portal system. We also

showed that PIII profoundly inhibited the vigorous anamnestic granulomatous

response to eggs in the liver and lungs.

This suppression correlated with a significant decrease in granuloma

size. From these results we conclude that the PIII

preparation contains antigens that can mediate protective anti-parasite

immunity and downregulate granulomatous hypersensitivity to

S. mansoni eggs.
Expression of a single dimeric membrane-bound

acetylcholinesterase in Parascaris equorum
Authors: TALESA V. , ROMANI R. , GRAUSO M. , ROSI G. , GIOVANNINI E.
Published: July 2002

A single form of cholinesterase was detected in the parasitic nematode

Parascaris equorum and purified from a low-salt

Triton X-100 extract of whole animals by affinity chromatography on an

edrophonium–Sepharose matrix. Based on gel-filtration chromatography,

sedimentation analysis and SDS–PAGE, such a cholinesterase is an

amphiphilic globular (G2)

dimer (125–129 kDa, 6·1 S). It includes some hydrophobic

domain other than phosphatidylinositol, which gives auto-aggregation,

detergent interaction and also anchors the molecule to the cell membrane.
The

enzyme, probably functional

in cholinergic neurotransmission, is an acetylcholinesterase showing a

fairly low substrate specificity with thiocholine

esters. Electrostatic interactions seem to play a major role in the catalytic

activity. Studies with inhibitors gave complete

inhibition with 1 mM eserine, low sensitivity for procainamide
and

for tetra(monoisopropyl)pyrophosphortetramide as

well as higher inhibition with edrophonium chloride and

1,5-bis(4allyldimethylammoniumphenyl)-pentan-3-one dibromide. The enzyme

also showed excess-substrate inhibition with acetylthiocholine. No

cross-hybridization occurred

between the gene(s) encoding acetylcholinesterase in P. equorum

and ace-1 from the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis

elegans. The expression of a single cholinesterase form in P.

equorum, unusual in free-living nematodes, could be due to

parasitic life adaptation with resulting reduction of locomotor activity.
Role of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) secreted by parasitic
nematodes on the growth of the cell line from epithelial
origin HT29-D4
Authors: HUBY F. , MALLET S. , HOSTE H.
Published: July 2002

The excretory–secretory (E–S) products of the parasitic nematodes Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Nematodirus battus
were found to modify the in vitro proliferation of the tumorous colic HT29-D4 cell line of epithelial origin. A
characteristic feature of these E–S products is the presence of a high level of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, the
biological significance of which remains unclear. To determine a possible role of AChE on cell growth, the enzyme was
purified from E–S products using edrophonium chloride. Purity was confirmed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis,
using silver and Karnovsky stains, before assessing its effects on cell proliferation. The purified AChE was incorporated
at different concentrations in a culture medium of HT29-D4 cells. A mitogenic effect was shown for low concentrations
(0·1–14 units). By contrast, an inhibitory effect was noted at high concentrations (35–1400 units). Furthermore, polyclonal
antibodies were prepared and depletion of AChE in E–S products by immunoprecipitation or affinity chromatography
resulted in a partial or total disappearance of the stimulatory effect of cell growth. Thus, the results from this in vitro study
suggest a modulatory role for AChE secreted by nematode parasites on the proliferation of epithelial cells of the host.
Exposure of sows to Ascaris suum influences worm burden
distributions in experimentally infected suckling piglets
Authors: BOES J. , COATES S. , MEDLEY G. F. , VARADY M. , ERIKSEN L. , ROEPSTORFF A. , NANSEN P.
Published: July 2002

This paper reports on the influence of maternal exposure to Ascaris suum on worm burden distributions in experimentally
infected piglets. In the first study, sows were inoculated before and during gestation (6 months, long-term exposure) with
10000 A. suum eggs twice weekly. In a second study, sows were inoculated during gestation only (3 months, short-term
exposure) with increasing doses of eggs (10000–40000 eggs twice weekly). Helminth-naive sows served as controls in both
studies. The third study used the same design as the short-term exposure study, but piglets from exposed and control sows
were cross-suckled within 4 h of birth before colostrum uptake. All piglets were inoculated 2 or 3 times with 50 A. suum
eggs on days 4 and 7 (and 14) after birth, and left with the sows. At 10 weeks of age all piglets were necropsied, and liver
lesions and worm burdens were recorded. Surprisingly, in piglets born to long-term exposed sows, the prevalence of A.
suum infection and the mean worm burden were significantly higher than those in piglets from control sows. In contrast,
neither worm burdens nor prevalence were significantly different between piglets from short-term exposed sows compared
with their controls. In the cross-suckling experiment, 67% of piglets suckling control sows harboured worms at slaughter,
compared with 15%of piglets suckling exposed sows. Maximum likelihood analysis of worm burden distribution and the
degree of parasite aggregation showed 3 distinctly different types of overdispersed distributions: worm counts in piglets
from control sows, in piglets from short-term exposed sows and in piglets from long-term exposed sows. When the worm
burden data were analysed including the cross-suckled piglets by biological mother, it appeared that the control and short-term distributions converged and that only the long-term exposure was significantly different. Overall, the degree of
parasite aggregation in piglets infected with A. suum decreased with exposure of the sows. A non-linear relationship was
observed between prevalence of infection and mean worm burden, which was different for piglets from exposed and
control sows, and similar to relationships of this type that previously have been found in human A. lumbricoides infections.
It was concluded that in porcine A. suum infections maternal exposure alters the distribution of worms in their offspring,
in which the duration of exposure appeared to be an important influence. The results of the cross-suckling further suggest
that maternal factors, e.g. antibodies, are transferred via colostrum.
Development of patent Ascaris suum infections in pigs
following intravenous administration of larvae hatched in vitro
Authors: JUNGERSEN G. , FAGERHOLM H.-P. , NANSEN P. , ERIKSEN L.
Published: July 2002

The normal tissue migration of Ascaris suum in the pig host involves larval development in the liver accompanied by
considerable pathological changes. The vast majority of larvae that reach the small intestine are later expelled by unknown
mechanisms. We show that when migration through the liver is bypassed by inoculation of pigs with an intravenous dose
of larvae hatched in vitro, the larvae not only complete migration and return to the small intestine, but they also seem to
have a greater chance of survival to adulthood. This technique offers new possibilities for studies on specific lung
involvement in protective immunity, provides valuable information for the understanding of self cure by larval expulsion,
and adds to our understanding of the evolution of migration of Ascaris larvae in tissues.
Parasitological indicators of onchocerciasis relevant to
ivermectin control programmes in the Amazonian focus of
southern Venezuela
Authors: VIVAS-MARTÍNEZ S. , BASÁÑEZ M.-G. , BOTTO C. , VILLEGAS L. , GARCÍA M. , CURTIS C. F.
Published: July 2002

In the previous paper it was concluded that those aged [ges ] 15 years of both sexes could comprise the indicator group for
rapid epidemiological assessment (REA) of onchocerciasis in the Amazonian focus. This paper explores relationships
between community microfilarial (mf) prevalence, intensity, and nodule prevalence in 20 Yanomami communities, that
would allow identification of REA methods in the region. The mean nodule ratio (prevalence of nodules/prevalence of
mf) was 0·54 when onchocercomata in the indicator group were considered. The Spearman correlation coefficient between
mf and nodule prevalence was 0·686 (P = 0·001). Palpation of nodules had 92% specificity and 32% sensitivity when
compared to skin-snipping for the diagnosis of onchocerciasis. The predictive value positive increased from 75% to 81%
when the indicator group was used. A microfilarial prevalence > 75% in this group would be indicative of hyperendemic
status in the village, between 30 and 75% of mesoendemicity, and < 30% of hypoendemicity. For the assessment of
infection intensity, biopsies may be taken from the iliac crest for all endemicity levels. Five of the hyperendemic villages
surveyed in this work had a community microfilarial load (CMFL) greater than 10 mf/skin snip; the remaining 5 had a
CMFL between 5 and 9. These levels of infection merit high priority ivermectin treatment. In Latin America, communities
at both moderate and severe risk are included in mass chemotherapy programmes (i.e. when mf prevalence is
over 20%). Roughly, a nodule prevalence in the indicator group > 10% would suggest a community mf prevalence
> 20% with a sensitivity of 85% and a specificity of 71%. A multiple linear regression model of the arc-sine transformed
mf prevalence in the village (all ages) on nodule prevalence in those aged [ges ] 15 years and altitude of the village explained
72% of the variance. The model combining nodule and altitudinal information had a sensitivity of 92% and a specificity
of 71% in comparison to an estimated mf prevalence of 21% or more. It is suggested that the usefulness of the REA
methods proposed be assessed in other areas of the Amazonian onchocerciasis focus.
On a Purported Error About the Doctrine of Double Effect: A Reply to Sophie Botros
Authors: Kaufman Whitley R. P.
Published: July 2002

In a recent edition of the journal Philosophy, Sophie Botros asserts that modern ethical theorists have badly misunderstood the role of the Doctrine of Double Effect, turning it into a device by which to prohibit actions which are deemed impermissible; whereas the true function of the Doctrine is rather one of justifying actions. In my reply, I argue that Dr Botros has misunderstood the Doctrine: that its ‘prohibitive’ and its ‘justificatory’ roles are merely two sides of the same coin, since its function is to decide for a given action whether it is permissible or impermissible. Furthermore, Dr Botros has misconstrued the essential contribution of the DDE is not the balancing of good results against bad ones, but the quite different position that the crucial moral distinction is between intended and merely foreseen results.
Is There a Right to be Wrong?
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: July 2002

Freedom of belief is one of the entrenched values in modern society. Interpreted as the right not to be coerced into believing something, it is surely correct. But most people take it to mean that there is a right to false belief, a right to be wrong. People think that freedom of thought is a good thing, and this must include the freedom to make mistakes. It is also often thought that making mistakes is a life-enhancing and essential part of personal development. I argue that these ideas are false. Beginning with an examination of the basic good of truth, and making comparisons with other goods like health and friendship, I argue that there is a duty to believe only the truth, which thus logically excludes the right also to believe falsehood. I distinguish between the strict wrongness of false belief and the fact that, because of our epistemic limitations, we are not always to be blamed for our false beliefs. Even in the case of those beliefs which are involuntary, there is no right to have them if they are false, even though we are not to be blamed for having them. The right to be wrong, I conclude, is a modern myth.
What Relativism Isn't
Authors: KNORPP, JR. WILLIAM MAX
Published: July 2002

Introduction

There is an enormous amount of confusion about what relativism is. In this paper I aim to take a step toward clarifying what it is by discussing some things that it is not — that is, by distinguishing it from some other views with which it is often confused or conflated, such as nihilism and scepticism. I do this primarily because I think that the question of the character of relativism is interesting in itself. A clearer characterization of relativism would also be important instrumentally, however, as before we can accurately assess relativism we must have a clear idea of what it is. The secondary aim of this paper, then, is to function as a prolegomenon to an assessment of relativism. The tertiary aim of the paper is to make a few observations about the view which most clearly stands opposed to relativism, the view which I will call ‘objectivism.’ Because relativism is often confused with views like fallibilism and pluralism, objectivism often finds itself unjustly associated with views like infallibilism and political authoritarianism. (If this paper had a subtitle, it would be: ‘And What Objectivism Isn't.’) Although it is not the point of this paper to criticize relativism, I should make it clear that it began as a part of an anti-relativistic project, and, although anti-relativism is not necessarily objectivism, I should perhaps make it clear that I am more than a little sympathetic to the latter type of view.
‘to avoyd the present stroke of death:’ Despotical Dominion, Force, and Legitimacy in Hobbe's Leviathan
Authors: Tarlton Charles D.
Published: July 2002

The logic of Leviathan is formally made to derive commonwealth and the rights of sovereignty (the obligations of subjects, read the other way around) from an elaborate process beginning in the physiology of human perception and passions, through language and reason, into the state of nature (the war of all against all) and, finally, under the direction of the laws of nature, to a collective and formal resignation of all their natural rights to create an absolute sovereign. This process of ‘instituting’ the sovereignty stamps the resulting sovereign with legitimacy. Early in the Second Part of Leviathan, however, Hobbes moves to attach all the rights and legitimacy of that instituted sovereignty onto what he calls ‘Despotical Dominion’, the power created when a conqueror exacts a promise from the conquered on pain of immediate death. The result is to translate all that Hobbes has said about sovereignty in general into a defence of the legitimacy of this crude force and violence. The whole of Leviathan's political argument is coloured, then, by this strategy and the best reading of it turns out to be the oldest one—that it is a defence of tyrannical power.
Value of the initial stimulus dose in right unilateral
and bifrontal electroconvulsive therapy
Authors: HEIKMAN P. , TUUNAINEN A. , KUOPPASALMI K.
Published: July 2002

Background. The outcome of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is affected by the placement and
dose of the stimulus. In general, the ECT dose can be selected either by the dose-titration method
(on which the measured seizure threshold level is based), or the method of predetermined dose (e.g.
the age-based dosing and the fixed high dose method).

Methods. Seizure thresholds were measured in 50 patients with right unilateral (RUL) and in 30
patients with experimental bifrontal (BF) ECT stimulus. The ECT dose (mC) of the age-based
dosing was calculated by multiplying the age (years) by 5·0 (age method) or 2·5 (half-age method).
The fixed high dose was set to 378 mC.

Results. The seizure thresholds had only a moderate correlation with the age of the patients. The
methods based on the predetermined dose would have led us to give patients with the lowest seizure
thresholds in the RUL ECT group very high stimulus doses, up to 12 (age method) or 15 (fixed high
dose method) times the individual seizure threshold. In contrast, the RUL ECT patients with the
highest seizure thresholds would have received low stimulus doses down to 1·5 times (half-age
method) the initial seizure threshold. In the BF ECT group the-age based dose would have been
similarly dependent on the initial seizure threshold level.

Conclusion. The use of the dose-titration method is recommended, because it is the only method
that allows for the individual selection of ECT stimulus dose relative to the seizure
threshold.
Not an age of depression after all? Incidence rates may be stable over time
Authors: PAYKEL E. S.
Published: July 2002

In an important paper in this issue Murphy et al. (pp. 503–512) report on incidence rates for
depression over 40 years in the Stirling County Study. Incidence rates remained stable, contrary to
most evidence that is principally based on prevalence or retrospective lifetime prevalence. Incidence
rates were only a little higher in women than in men.

Incidence rates are assuming increasing importance in psychiatry as they do in other areas of
epidemiology. Prevalence rates are complex, depending not only on incidence of new cases of the
disorder, but its persistence, and in a recurrent disorder, recurrence. Incidence rates are unbiased
by these factors, a particularly valuable attribute when considering risk factors. In depression,
development and widespread use of antidepressants, newer patterns of care, and in the opposite
direction, increased urbanization with its accompanying social pressures, could have produced
considerable changes in outcome in the last 40 years. Changes in enumerated prevalences alone
could reflect changed length of episodes and rates of recurrence, so giving a misleading picture as
to what has happened to the disorder.

The Stirling County Study is one of the classics of epidemiology. Its originator, Alexander
Leighton, is an author of the present paper with his wife, Jane Murphy, who has directed the study
since the mid-1970s. Representative community samples were studied cross-sectionally in 1952,
1969 and 1992, and the previously studied samples restudied on follow-up at the later points. The
design enables a separation of period effects, involving all subjects at one time point, from cohort
effects. In this study similar temporal stability of prevalence has been found (Murphy et al. 2000b)
to that now reported for incidence.
Herman Wekker (ed.), Creole languages and language
acquisition. (Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs,
86.) Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1996. Pp. vi, 205. Hb DM118.00.
Authors: Schwegler Armin
Published: July 2002

This slender, neatly typeset volume contains a
selection of the papers presented at an international three-day
workshop on creole languages and language acquisition,
held at the University of Leiden in 1990. Entitled “The
logical problem of language acquisition,” the workshop
set out to investigate the acquisition of parts of the
grammar by children and adults. The purpose of the Leiden
gathering was to bring together linguists from essentially
two fields (language acquisition theory and pidgin/creole
studies) in order to “solve the ‘logical problem
of language acquisition’ from as many perspectives
as possible” (p. 6).1 The central issue
examined during the workshop was whether the specific circumstances
of the genesis of a creole language have implications for
theories of language acquisition in general. Conversely,
the organizers and participants hoped that their discussions
would shed new light on the early history of existing creole
languages.
REGIONAL DIVERSITY IN THE LATER RUSSIAN EMPIRE
Authors: Saunders David
Published: July 2002

WERE tendencies in the direction of regional difference in the later Russian Empire outweighing tendencies in the direction of homogeneity? In view of the fact that the empire fell apart in 1917, it looks as if the emphasis ought to be on difference. A good case, however, can also be made for homogeneity. I shall therefore be proposing that the regions of the Russian Empire occupied a more or less constant position on an imaginary `divergence–coalescence spectrum'. Admittedly, the contest between divergence and coalescence ceased to be equal during the First World War and the empire collapsed. This imbalance, however, turned out to be temporary. The empire re-emerged under a new name at the end of 1922 and for sixty-nine years thereafter occupied more or less the same place on the divergence–coalescence spectrum that it had occupied before it collapsed. So I shall be arguing that, except under extreme duress, the empire was stable. It is this stability I wish to draw to your attention. One's natural inclination is to think of the later Russian Empire as a hotbed of change. I have argued in a recent article that the inclination should be resisted in analyses of work-patterns. I shall argue today that it should also be resisted in the field of regional diversity. To make the case, I shall divide what I have to say into three parts, the first on divergence, the second on coalescence and the third on the First World War.
Brahe, looking for Kepler
Authors: Edelman Shimon
Published: July 2002

Arbib, Érdi, and Szentágothai's book should be a required reading for any serious student of the brain. The scope and the accessibility of its presentation of the neurobiological data (especially the functional anatomy of select parts of the central nervous system) more than make up for the peculiarities of the theoretical stance it adopts.
The trade-off between frequency of intercourse and sexual partner accumulation may reflect evolutionary adaptations
Authors: Brody Stuart , Breitenstein Caterina
Published: July 2002

The adaptive trade-offs between long- and short-term matings may be mediated or at least reflected partially by the trade-offs between the relative reinforcement obtained through a greater frequency of intercourse (typically greater among cohabitants) versus a greater frequency of partner change. The differing correlates of each approach and meshing with the Sexual Strategies Theory of Gangestad & Simpson are discussed.
Interscale interactions in cortical neural networks
Authors: Liljenström Hans
Published: July 2002

This commentary focuses on how the large-scale cortical dynamics described in Nunez's target article are related to various phenomena at different scales, both spatial and temporal, in particular, how the brain dynamics measured with EEG could relate to (i) experience and mental state, (ii) neuromodulatory effects, and (iii) spontaneous firing and autogenerated electromagnetic effects.
Conceptual coordination bridges information processing and neurophysiology
Authors: Clancey William J.
Published: July 2002

Information processing theories of memory and skills can be reformulated in terms of how categories are physically and temporally related, a process called conceptual coordination. Dreaming can then be understood as a story-understanding process in which two mechanisms found in everyday comprehension are missing: conceiving sequences (chunking categories in time as a higher-order categorization) and coordinating across modalities (e.g., relating the sound of a word and the image of its meaning). On this basis, we can readily identify isomorphisms between dream phenomenology and neurophysiology, and explain the function of dreaming as facilitating future coordination of sequential, cross-modal categorization (i.e., REM sleep lowers activation thresholds, “unlearning”).

[Hobson et al.; Nielsen; Solms; Revonsuo; Vertes & Eastman]
Emotion, cognition, and free representation
Authors: Mac Aogáin Eoghan
Published: July 2002

The representation of events, in primates at any rate, is a separate process from their emotional evaluation. The same holds for cognitive evaluation. Here too representation and evaluation are separate operations. Acknowledging the symmetry leads to the notion of free representation.
Idealized human mating strategies versus social complexity
Authors: Perper Timothy , Cornog Martha
Published: July 2002

Gangestad & Simpson present an idealized model of human mate strategies based on rational economics and genetics that elides most social constraints on human sexuality. They do not deal with observable complexities of courtship nor with ambiguities in short- and long-term mating. The model successfully explicates a narrow set of premises, but cannot yet explain complex sexual behavior.
Novel concepts of sleep-wakefullness and neuronal information coding
Authors: Marczynski Thaddeus J.
Published: July 2002

A new working hypothesis of sleep-wake cycle mechanisms is proposed, based on ontogeny and functional/anatomic compression of two stochastic neuronal models of information coding that complement each other in a key/lock fashion: the axonal arbor patterns (AAP – “hardware”) and the neuronal spike interval inequality patterns (SIIP – “software”).

[Hobson et al.; Nielsen; Revonsuo; Solms; Vertes & Eastman]
Did ancestral humans dream for their lives?
Authors: Revonsuo Antti
Published: July 2002

The most challenging objections to the Threat Simulation Theory (TST) of the function of dreaming include such issues as whether the competing Random Activation Theory can explain dreaming, whether TST can accommodate the apparently dysfunctional nature of post-traumatic nightmares, whether dreams are too bizarre and disorganized to constitute proper simulations, and whether dream recall is too biased to reveal the true nature of dreams. I show how these and many other objections can be accommodated by TST, and how several lines of new supporting evidence are provided by the commentators. Accordingly TST offers a promising new approach to the function of dreaming, covering a wide range of evidence and theoretically integrating psychological and biological levels of explanation.
Cognitive success and exam preparation
Authors: Elton Matthew
Published: July 2002

Evolution is not like an exam in which pre-set problems need
to be solved. Failing to recognise this point, Clark & Thornton
misconstrue the type of explanation called for in species learning
although, clearly, species that can trade spaces have more chances
to discover novel beneficial behaviours. On the other hand, the
trading spaces strategy might help to explain lifetime learning
successes.
Irresistible environment meets immovable neurons
Authors: Foss Jeffrey
Published: July 2002

Quartz & Sejnowski's (Q&S's) main
accomplishment is the presentation of increasing complexity in the
developing brain. Although this cuts a colorful swath through current
theories of learning, it leaves the central question untouched:
How does the environment direct neural structure? In answer,
Q&S offer us only Hebb's half-century-old suggestion once
again.
Persistent pain: Trim the branches or fell the tree?
Authors: Gracely Richard H.
Published: July 2002

In patients with pain characterized by a painful focus and
allodynia, the painful symptoms arise from altered central processing
that is initiated and subsequently maintained by persistent input from
nociceptive afferents. Treatments directed at this normal consequence
of persistent input are inherently limited. The most efficacious
treatments will target the pathology, the various sources of ongoing
nociceptor input. [blumberg et al.; coderre & katz; dickenson]
Long-term potentiation: Does it deserve attention?
Authors: O'Mara Shane M. , Commins Sean , Gemmell Colin , Gigg John
Published: July 2002

Shors & Matzel's target article is a
thought-provoking attempt to reconceptualise long-term potentiation
as an attentional or arousal mechanism rather than a memory storage
mechanism. This is incompatible with the facts of the neurobiology of
attention and of the behavioural neurophysiological properties of
hippocampal neurons.
Stress, LTP, and depressive disorder
Authors: Reid I. C. , Stewart C. A.
Published: July 2002

Preoccupation with LTP as a putative memory mechanism may
have retarded the consideration of pathological modulation of synaptic
plasticity in clinical disorders where memory dysfunction is not a
primary feature. Encouraged by Shors & Matzel's review,
we consider the relationship between stress, synaptic plasticity, and
depressive disorder.
Old ideas, new mistakes: All learning is relational
Authors: Ohlsson Stellan
Published: July 2002

Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, not of input/output
mappings. The distinction between statistical and relational learning,
as Clark & Thornton define those terms, is not useful because
all human learning is relational. However, prior knowledge
does influence later learning and the sequence in which learning tasks
are encountered is indeed crucial. Simulations of sequence effects
would be interesting.
Why computation need not be traded only for internal representation
Authors: Stufflebeam Robert S.
Published: July 2002

Although Clark & Thornton's “trading
spaces” hypothesis is supposed to require trading internal
representation for computation, it is not used consistently in that
fashion. Not only do some of the offered computation-saving strategies
turn out to be nonrepresentational, others (e.g., cultural artifacts)
are external representations. Hence, C&T's hypothesis is
consistent with antirepresentationalism.
More mathematics: Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence
Authors: McCollum Gin
Published: July 2002

Although the idea that cognitive structure changes as we learn
is welcome, a variety of mathematical structures are needed to model
the neural and cognitive processes involved. A specific example of
bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence is given, building on a formalism
given elsewhere. As the structure of cognition changes, previous
learning can become tacit, adding to the complexity of cognition and
its modeling.
Conceptualizing a sunset ≠ using a sunset as a discriminative stimulus
Authors: Slater Carol
Published: July 2002

Glenberg offers two different accounts of embodied
conceptualization. The first fails in cases where no direct bodily
interaction is possible. The second fails in cases where the object
in question cannot serve as a discriminative stimulus; moreover,
it yields inappropriate content even in cases where it can be applied.
Glenberg's disregard for the conceptual agenda set by the social
world is also disquieting.
Local attractor dynamics will introduce further information to synchronous neuronal fields
Authors: Wright J. J.
Published: July 2002

Simulations and analytic considerations show that
synchronisation occurs in delay neural networks at the surrounds
of externally driven sites. In the synchronous fields, network
transmission has a static transfer function and H(X|R,C) is minimal. But when autonomous local states with attractor dynamics
develop in the network, H(X|R,C) is not minimized.
Physiological realism may therefore require some modifications
in application of coherent infomax.
Physiological antagonism between endogenous CCK and opioid: Clinical perspectives in the management of pain
Authors: Noble Florence , Maldonado Rafaël , Roques Bernard P.
Published: July 2002

Numerous mediators are involved in both the control and the transmission of nociceptive messages, and several lines of research have been developed in the management of pain. Complete enkephalin- degrading enzyme inhibitors, which produce naloxone-reversible analgesia in all tests where morphine has been found to be active, remains the most promising way. CCK compounds, especially the CCKB antagonists also may be interesting drugs. Indeed, they are able to strongly potentiate the antinociceptive effects of the opioids. [dickenson, wiesenfeld-hallin et al.]