bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Analysis of Shells Under Internal Pressure
Authors: Reuter Robert C.
Published: March 2007

Laminated, alternate-ply cylindrical shells of finite length are analyzed using the Donnell equations and classical laminated shell theory. Separate solutions are obtained for shells with an even and an odd number of layers as necessitated by the two different types of mechanical coupling involved. Integration constants are evaluated for free end conditions. Numerical results presented are focused on lamina stresses in the principal material directions resulting from the separate influences of uniform internal pressure, a uni form temperature change and a linear temperature change profile that is skew-symmetric with respect to the middle surface of the shell, and their sensitivity to the total number of layers in the shell. Simplified, algebraic expressions for the thermal stress resultants are derived for the two tempera ture change profiles.
Three-Dimensional Inelastic Finite Element Analysis of Laminated Composites
Authors: Griffin O.H. , Kamat M.P. , Herakovich C.T.
Published: March 2007

A three dimensional theory based on Hill's orthotropic yield criterion and the incremental flow theory of plasticity is proposed for the inelastic response prediction of laminated composites. Techniques for including nonlinear hardening of orthotropic materials via unidirectional Ramberg-Osgood coef ficients as well as temperature dependent plasticity and first and second order nonlinear thermal expansions are presented. Results confirm the importance of including such effects in composite materials.
Major Tribunal Decisions in 1999
Authors: Coulthard Amanda
Published: March 2007

Federal industrial relations in 1999 were marked by a continuing increase in the role played by the ordinary courts. This not only demonstrates the willingness of the parties to turn to the courts for assistance in resolving industrial disputes, but also reflects the increasing complexity and juridification of our industrial relations system. The diminished capacity of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission to arbi trate and the increased devolution of responsibility for industrial relations outcomes to the parties were also highlighted in decisions of the commission. In other key decisions, limitations on the tactics that can be used in the enterprise bargaining process were examined.
Wages and Wage Determination in 1999
Authors: Buchanan John , O'Keeffe Shannon , Bretherton Tanya , Arsovska Betty , Meagher Gabrielle , Heiler Kathryn
Published: March 2007

In 1999 wages in Australia continued to be set in a context ofstrong economic growth and increasing inequality. While employers at enterprise level generally held the upper hand in wage setting, employers as a group showed little interest in taking responsibility for system-wide innovation and renewal in the wages system. In the course of the year a number of challenges emerged to the upward trajectory of inequality in general and neo-liberal policies in particular. Important as these developments were, they did not seriously unsettle the ensemble of inequitable practices and policies that have underpinned economic development. These themes emerge from a consideration of the key developments in wages and wage determination in 1999. The article begins by considering the major political and economic developments of relevance to wage issues during the year. An overview is then provided of wage outcomes and key policy developments at national and state levels. This is followed by consideration of how these issues have been handled in leading industrial sectors. Particular attention is devoted to the problem of pay equity. The significance of changing workplace and labour market structures for wage determination is then considered. The paper concludes by noting the importance of understanding wages and wage determination in the context of larger circuits of consumption and investment. Without such an understanding too much policy and analytical attention is devoted to the more visible elements of the wage system and too little to the key forces shaping contemporary wage and employment structures.
How Do Women Fare in Internal Labour Markets? Evidence from the Australian and British Banking Industries
Authors: Buttigieg Donna , Walsh Janet
Published: March 2007

Substantial ambiguity surrounds the effect of internal labour markets on the employment position of women. Drawing on data from a large-scale survey of bank employees in Australia and Britain, this paper examines the extent of gender differ ences in career progression within two internal labour markets. The results indicate that tbe promotional experiences of female and male employees were very different. Altbough women were able to achieve promotion, they had to conform to more stringent, performance-based criteria than did their male counterparts. Indeed, what appeared to be important for male career progression was the degree of attachment to the organisation. Finally, the paper bigbligbts a range of structural as well as proce dural impediments to promotion for female employees within the two organisations.
A Collective Catastrophe: Productivity Maximisation and Workplace Bargaining in the Australian Coal Industry
Authors: Bowden Bradley
Published: March 2007

Since 1987 Australian trade unions have endorsed productivity-based bargaining at the workplace level. In doing so, their general expectation has been that enhanced productivity would lead to higher wages and more profitable enterprises. In addition, by embracing what were seen as management's legitimate interests, unions sought to establish new collaborative relationships with employers. This article argues that the application of such principles to the Australian coal industry has resulted in a catastrophe for all concerned. While workplace reform in this industry has resulted in dramatic gains being achieved in terms of productivity and total output, this extra product simply added to world oversupply, driving down prices and increasing the pressures for further 'reforms'. This experience demonstrates the problems in evaluating industrial relations outcomes at a workplace level. For, while from an enterprise perspective productivity maximisation seems to be a rational response to increased competition, at an industry level a relentless drive by all producers for productivity improvements may appear as an act of collective madness, in which every competitor acts to fuel further cost and price reductions.
Trade Unions and Their Relationship to Power in Hong Kong
Authors: Fosh Patricia , Carver Anne , Chow Wilson W. , Sek-Hong NG , Samuels Harriet
Published: March 2007

This article explores views on the future for the trade unions' legal framework in the new Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China. Key players in industrial relations were interviewed at the time of the transition and differing views on possible changes in the trade unions' framework and its enforcement and on questions of trade union autonomy and control were elicited. Interviewees' views were related to their expected relationship to tbe incoming administration. The article concludes by considering the effect of those legal changes relevant to trade unions that have taken place in the region since the transition.
Work and the Family— Queensland's New Approach
Authors: Werner Stephanie
Published: March 2007

The new Industrial Relations Act 1999 (Qld) (hereafter 'the Act') provides the legislative basis for significant reform of labour market regulation in Queensland. An important dimension of this reform is an attempt to acknowledge and accommodate the role of family responsibilities of workers, both expanding the definition of family to include gay and lesbian partnerships and extending access to benefits to long-term casual workers, a group not previously recognised in this area.
The Changing Role of the Supervisor
Authors: Gilmour Peter , Lansbury Russell D.
Published: March 2007

The supervisor has traditionally been portrayed as a "marginal" figure, standing between the workers and the management. He has also been at the centre of conflict in industrial relations. This study reveals, however, that the role of the supervisor is becoming more complex and varied than was pre viollsly the case. There are also considerable differences between "old-style" and "new-style" supervisors in their career orientations, role perceptions, assumptions about people and industrial attitudes. Changes in work and organi zation have generally raised the level of social and technical skills required by the contemporary serpervisor.
Australian Trade Unions in the Context of Union Theory
Authors: Howard W.A.
Published: March 2007

Trade union theory has a long history and a considerable quality, but it has rarely seemed to touch on the nature of Australian unions of the 20th century. While the unions of the late 19th century may have been a response to con ventional stimuli, those of the 20th have seemed to arise out of the needs of the industrial relations machinery, rather than to satisfy worker demands.

The Australian trade union can be regarded in general as an institution called into existence by a bureaucratic mechanism (the arbitration system) to enhance the functioning of that mechanism. Unions generally have not succeeded in carving out for themselves an industrial role that is independent of the arbitral system, and the efforts they have made in this direction have not been sustained. The trade union dependence on the arbitral system suggests that predictions about union behaviour derived from international experience may be based on quite irrelevant premises.
Over-Awards: Bargaining at Plant Level in Australia
Authors: Sutcliffe Paul , Gardner Margaret
Published: March 2007

The diversity of inter- and intra-plant relativities is confirmed by examining the earnings data from three plants (two engineering and one printing). The interrelationship between earnings structure and the plant bargaining processes is then discussed, using Brown's framework for analyzing earnings. Two basic features of bargaining are considered—the bargaining unit and the bargaining areas. It is concluded that the interaction of the bargaining unit and areas affects the level and distribution of earnings in accordance with the criteria employed by the controlling party.
Patterns of Industrial Relations Research in Australia
Authors: Gurdon Michael A.
Published: March 2007

Trends in industrial relations research in Australia over the past twenty years, particularly as reflected in the pages of The Journal of Industrial Relations, are examined. A comparison with parallel developments in American research interests is presented so as to better elicit the evolving local pattern. This comparison reveals a number of surprising gaps in Australian research. A common problem uncovered in both countries is a certain lack of imagina tion and innovation in the subject matter of research as a consequence of being towed in the wake of public policy. Although research practices will, of necessity, follow the headlines, it is argued that there is also need for a less "pragmatic", less status quo oriented strand of research. Such research would attempt to trace the underlying premises of the industrial relations system, a by-product of which, in addition to producing work of long-term theoretical significance, might be the ability of researchers to influence public policy. The role played by the major journals in the field will be of great importance if this development is to be encouraged.
Work, Life and the Pursuit of Happiness: A Study of Australian Industrial Workers
Authors: Hedley R. Alan
Published: March 2007

Debate about the meaning of work raises the additional question of what kind of relationship people establish between their work and non-work lives. This paper examines three options from which 1468 Australian shop-floor workers were asked to choose: (1) complete separation of work and non-work activities; (2) spill-over of work into non-work functions; and (3) spill-over of non-work into work. Analysis reveals the relationship between these choices and how satisfied workers are with their jobs and their lives. While the work spill-over orientation is weakly related to job satisfaction, none of the work-non-work perspectives is significantly related to satisfaction with life. The paper concludes by returning to the question of the meaning of work and how important work is in the pursuit of 'the good life'.
General Limitations on the 'Right to Fire' in New Zealand
Authors: Geare A.J.
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the development in the limitations imposed on employers' right of dismissal in New Zealand from the time when only the common law restrictions applied, through the first ineffectual statutory limitations, to the current situation. The paper analyses the current statutory protection against unjustifiable dismissal with reference to recent Arbitration Court decisions, discussing its implications, achievements and shortcomings.
Industrial Militancy among Elite Workers in High Technology Industries: Victorian Power Station Operations
Authors: Teicher Julian
Published: March 2007

The industrial relations processes of the Latrobe Valley are possibly best known for the lengthy State Electricity Commission of Victoria maintenance workers strike of 1977. This paper examines a less well known but potentially more significant stop page, which involved a partial withdrawal of labour by power station operators in June 1980. The significance of this stoppage is twofold. It highlights the vulnerability of employers in technologically advanced industries to industrial action by small groups of elite workers. Further, it brings into focus an unusual aspect of inter-union eonflict. In this case, the operators attempted to use a particular union as a vehicle to achieve conditions superior to those generally prevailing in the Commission. Analysis of the causes of this dispute leads to the general conclusion that such occur rences are likely to be repeated given that the settlement failed to address more than the symptoms of the underlying problem.
Legislation Prohibiting the Closed Shop in New Zealand: Its Introduction and Consequences
Authors: Harbridge Raymond , Walsh Pat
Published: March 2007

Since 1936 a post-entry closed shop has prevailed in all registered private-sector trade unions in New Zealand. In 1983 the then National government passed highly contro versial legislation prohibiting all forms of union security or employment preference clauses. Most unions suffered neglible membership losses in the first six months of voluntary unionism. The chief exceptions were a small group of unions whose mem bership comprises a high proportion of female and part-time workers dispersed throughout numerous workplaces. For the majority of unions, recruitment of new members proved to be a greater problem than the retention of old. The effects upon levels of industrial conflict were more substantial, as unions acted quickly to preserve their closed shop in defiance of the legislation. In December 1984, the newly elected Labour government introduced legislation to Parliament restoring a post-entry closed shop system.
Comparative Wage Justice
Authors: Provis Chris
Published: March 2007

At present comparative wagejustice is unpopular and largely undefended, but critics generally conflate different versions of the doctrine. A core version is that identical jobs should be paid equally. Extended versions advocate proportional payment of different jobs and maintenance of established relativities. These claims have immediate policy importance in their own right, but they also bear on wider views, including views about collective bargaining and industry unions. Comparative wagejustice can be defended on philosophical grounds derived from the classic principle of justice that equals should be rewarded equally and unequals in proportion to their differences. Even so, comparative wage justice is not an absolute requirement. It can be outweighed by countervailing factors. The extended versions are, however, more likely to be outweighed than the core version.
Work Incentives and the Efficiency of Internal Labour Markets
Authors: Thompson A.G.
Published: March 2007

The general scepticism among economists about the efficiency of internal labour markets is based on the assumption that internal labour markets improve workers' security, which has automatic adverse effects upon work incentives, offsetting any 'instrumental' advantages of internal labour markets. The central importance of this issue has not been perceived by internal labour market theorists. Failure to address the issue adequately has prevented internal labour market theory from distinguishing an efficient from an inefficient internal labour market. To refute the assumption of an automatic trade-off requires examination of the relevance of some underlying economic parameters in the analysis of worker motivation. Worker incentives in internal and competitive labour markets differ fundamentally, requiring different analytical tools. Effective motivation in internal labour markets is positive, long-run, and influenced by worker preferences, and may result in higher work effort than found in competitive markets. For developing countries the implications may be especially significant, since internal labour markets may be more likely in developing economies.
Exploitation at $1,000 per Week? The Mudginberri Dispute
Authors: Kitay Jim , Powe Rod
Published: March 2007

The Mudginberri dispute attained national significance and resulted in the first fines against a trade union for many years and a massive damages judgment. It became a symbol for one possible direction that could be taken by Australian industrial relations: greater legal regulation, direct bargaining between employers and employees and reduced trade union power. It was, however, unusual in the strong support given to the employer by the workers and by the state government and may not presage a major offensive against trade unionism.
Labour Flexibility Strategies and Management Style
Authors: Horstman Bob
Published: March 2007

The Australian labour flexibility debate lacks a rigorous analytical framework and concentrates on substantive rather than process issues. Part of the analytical framework can be provided by distinguishing the strategic management objectives of 'qualitative,' 'quantitative' and 'cost' labour flexibility. One of the important process issues currently lacking in the debate is the choice of management style in developing labour flexibility. The assumption that a 'constitutional' management style is inconsistent with qualitative flexibility is shown as mistaken in the light of recent British experience. Also mistaken is the assumption that deregulation is a necessary condition for flexibility. While the development of qualitative flexibility does not require the replacement of constitutional styles or deregulation, it does have three necessary conditions. First is the breakdown of fragmentations in internal labour markets. This can be assisted by integrated personnel and industrial relations policies. Second is a 'new realist; 'strategic' unionism. Finally management attitudes will need to be modified and greater attention given to management training.
Six Years of the Accord: An Assessment
Authors: Lewis Philip E.T. , Spiers David J.
Published: March 2007

For six years the Accord has been the cornerstone of the Australian Government's economic strategy. It has taken many different forms and has displayed considerable adaptability. An assessment of the success of the Accord is important not only for Australia but because of its implications for macro-economicpolicy generally. It may be that the Australian experience has a much wider effect on discussions of appropriate policy formation in other countries. Recent developments in award restructuring have implications for micro-economic policy also. In this paper the evidence regarding the impact of the Accord is assembled and critically evaluated. The general conclusion is that the Accord has had very important beneficial effects on employment and industrial relations. This supports the view that incomes policy is a viable instrument for economic policy.
Award Restructuring in the Australian Banking Industry
Authors: Manning Haydon
Published: March 2007

Under the auspices of the 'second tier' of the 1987 wages system, the Australian Bank Employees Union (ABEU) and the major private banks agreed to abandon assump tions which had, for seventy years, underpinned industry awards. By the 1980s the Bank Officials (1963) Award was unable to address changing skill requirements or resolve the dilemma of career blockage. To the average customer the face of banking changed dramatically during the 1980s, but less obvious were changes to the nature of work, skills and career prospects for the average bank employee. By guaranteeing yearly wage increments and promotion based on seniority, the traditional award promised security and career-oriented employment for male employees. By the mid-1980s the majority of bank employees were women, part-timers were increasing, promotion opportunities were declining and a case could be advanced that wages failed to reflect the new 'selling skills' demanded of many employees. Wage rates linked to jobs, the content of which had altered considerably in the previous twenty years, added to the unreality of the award. Accordingly, award restructuring aimed at addressing these changes through the introduction of job evaluation and performance-based promotion was undertaken. Based upon the Hay methodology, the new system, at least in theory, would offer promotion and salary increments only on the basis of merit.
Genuine and 'Post-modern' Industrial Demands: The State Public Services Federation Decision and Federal Tribunal Practice
Authors: Kollmorgen Stuart , Harvey Jonathan
Published: March 2007

This article examines the requirement of 'genuineness' in industrial demands—the doctrine established by the High Court, the manner in which the requirement has been interpreted and applied by the Australian Industrial Relations Commission, and the actual and likely future impact of recent developments upon federal tribunal practice. The commission has, as a matter of practice, considered that the service and subsequent rejection of a log of claims involving inflated, ambit demands through the mechanism of the 'paper dispute' was adequate to form the basis of a statutory and constitutional industrial dispute unless there was extremely clear evidence that the log constituted a mere device to attract federal jurisdiction. The result has been that genuineness has not been argued as a crucial issue before the commission in more than a handful of cases in the past decade. The High Court's re- examination of the genuineness requirement undertaken in cases placed before it during 1993 is unlikely to have a dramatic impact on the traditional doctrinal position. On a practical level, however, genuineness has subsequently been raised as a crucial issue on a far more regular basis, and certain changes to commission practice have been necessitated, first, because of perceived tightening of the require ment and, second, because legislative change has reduced the ability of employers to challenge commission jurisdiction on other bases.
A Matter of Skill: The Revival of Apprenticeship in Early Twentieth-Century NSW
Authors: Shields John
Published: March 2007

The survival of apprenticeship in modern Australian industry represents a marked contrast to the institution's virtual disappearance in many other industrial capi talist countries. This article considers one specific historical conjuncture that appears to have figured decisively in the institution's survival in New South Wales, namely, the formative period of state industrial regulation and award making between 1902 and 1914. At the close of the nineteenth century, the custom of formal or indentured apprenticeship had virtually ceased to exist in New South Wales, yet by 1914 it had become compulsory for male juniors in virtually every recognized trade in the state. Drawing on evidence from three key male-dominated trades (carpentry andjoinery, type-composing and engineering), this article pro vides a multifaceted explanation for this dramatic revival. It argues the explana tory inadequacy of each of three main hypotheses on the survival of apprenticeship posited in the existing literature, namely the technicist/onskilling, the deskilling and the social constructionist/reskilling theses. In particular, it challenges the feminist-social constructionist contention that apprenticeship survived as a form of ritual servitude, as an exclusionary device imposed unilaterally on unwilling employers by craft unions and 'captive' industrial tribunals. The case study evidence indicates that the revival owed far less to arbitral imposition than to bilateral negotiation and agreement between unions and organized employers. In this sense, the institution's survival is attributable, in large part, to employers' ongoing need for genuine skill. The main focus of employer resistance was not to the compulsory apprenticeship, but to union attempts to limit apprentice employ ment in those areas of craft production where deskilling had occurred or was occurring. It is only there that compulsory apprenticeship can be said to have amounted to either a union-imposed form of ritual servitude or an employer device for junior labour exploitation.
Why do Unions form Peak Bodies? The Case of the Barrier Industrial Council
Authors: Ellem Bradon , Shields John
Published: March 2007

Despite the long history and continuing importance of peak union bodies in Australian industrial relations, there have been very few attempts to analyze, let alone theorize about, their development. This omission in the literature is particu larly striking in relation to the origins of such bodies. Those rare treatments that do examine the formation of peak union bodies are unsatisfactory; most either assume that such forms of unity are inevitable or point to external causes in a rather mechanistic way. We propose a model of peak union formation that com bines internal and external processes, emphasizing the connection between them. We argue that for any group of unions to form a peak body, a state of internal equilibrium must exist between the unions concerned, and that these unions must also be presented with a clear external threat or opportunity. The model is used here to explain the origins of one of the oldest continuous local peak bodies in Australia, the Barrier Industrial Council, but we suggest that the model has a general applicability.
Shipowners, Stevedores and Foremen: Divergent Management Attitudes to Waterfront Labour in the 1950s
Authors: Sheridan Tom
Published: March 2007

The causes of alleged inefficiencies in Australian stevedoring have attracted controversy since the early years of the century. This paper looks at management's attitudes to labour in the 1950s. It suggests that shipowner' blinkered attitudes towards human resources in the ranks both of junior management and of casual wharfies bestowed on future decades a lasting legacy of suspicion and resentment. The paper also points to important differences in attitude not only vertically. between the three management echelons of shipowners; stevedores and foremen, but also horizontally between those firms tightly controlled by cartelized shipping lines and the single, independent firm renowned for its superior effciency. Senior shipping managers making strategic labour policy decisions adopted an authori tarian attitude to labour. They refused either to negotiate with the union or to allow their stevedoring managers to make any significant labour decisions. Paradoxi cally, however, their anxiety to keep their vessels moving led them constantly to undercut their line managers' authority by making unofficial ad hoc concessions to individual gangs of wharfies. Further, resenting what they interpreted as attacks on precious managerial prerogative, they simultaneously fought to nullify the efforts of the federal regulatory agency, which was seeking to maintain waterfront discipline and to support the hard-pressed stevedoring foremen. Such attitudes presented an almost total contrast with those of the nation's most efficient stevedoring entrepreneur who tried to get the best out of wharfies through sympa thetic supervision, and who consequently placed prime emphasis on the key role played by foremen.
Unions, Conflict and the Dilemma of Co-operation
Authors: Peetz David
Published: March 2007

This paper seeks to address a number of questions concerning the impact of workplace accommodation, coiflict and power on employees' attitudes and be haviour towards unions. Union 'co-operation' with management is not necessarily a recipe for union decay. Industrial action may promote union recruitment, but by and large this depends on whether the outcome of the dispute is favourable to the employees concerned. Importantly, industrial action does not preclude generally co-operative perceptiorls of union policies; employees' interest in seeing 'co operative' union behauiottr is not a search for compliance with management's agenda. Overall, there is little to suggest that increased micro-level collaboration between managers and unions explains the decline in Australian union density in recent years, although union problems in responding to 'direct relations' strate gies in weakly organized workplaces are partly behind that decline. There is, moreover, still a considerable distance to go before it could be said that there is widespread evidence of high and increasing levels of co-operatioiz and 'closelless' between management and employees.
Who Gets Minimum Wages?
Authors: Richardson Sue
Published: March 2007

There have been rising levels of inequality in the earnings distribution in some OECD countries (principally the English-speaking ones), together with stub bornly high levels of unemployment in many others. Australia has shared in the increases in earnings inequality and persistent unemployment. The increasing earnings inequality has led to renewed interest in the usefulness of legally binding minimum wages as an instrument for redressing it. The high unemployment has led to a renewed interest in removing restrictions on what employers must pay, in the hope that this will increase employment. This paper provides the first detailed examination of the low- wage group in Australia and its standing in the distribution of household equivalent income. It finds that low-wage workea s are varied in their socioeconomic characteristics. They are not typically new entrants to the labour force. They look very like all wage earners in their age distribution. A majority work full-time and are married; 40 per cent have dependent children. Most live in lower income households, but many do not. A cut in low wages that focuses on those around the Australian Industrial Relations Commission minimum would be regressive. The circumstances necessary to make the gain to the unemployed exceed the losses to low-wage workers who have a low income appear to be quite implausible.
Delegate Structures and Strategic Unionism: Analysis of Factors in Union Resilience
Authors: Alexander Michael , Green Roy , Wilson Andrew
Published: March 2007

This article examines the pattern of union membership decline in Australia using the 1995 Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey data set (AWIRS 95), including the panel of surviving workplaces drawn from the 1990 survey. It confirms recent studies that suggest that the decline is more or less comprehensive, but points to some diversity in the longitudinal findings. In particular, the article tracks the growth of delegate structures in the previous five years in unionised workplaces, employee attitudes to unions, and the much slower rate of derline associated with 'active unionism', While it has been argued, not least by Joe Isaac (1958), that workplace organisation tended to 'atrophy' under compulsory arbitration, there is no automatic process by which it will correspondingly flourish under more decentralised bargaining arrangements. The AWIRS 95 findings suggest that the future of unions will be determined by a range of factors, which include their ability to build and co-ordinate delegate networks and hence the role of the state in providing legislative support for workplace organisation and fair wages. We argue that this, not a return to centralised wage restraint, sbould be the focus of strategic unionism.
Who Are These Marchers?
Authors: Jenkins Robin
Published: March 2007

A questionnaire was applied to a representative sample of a British and a Danish Easter march in 1965. Many of the questions were identical with ones asked of national samples in Poland, Norway, and France on another project. The analysis compares the distributions of responses from the five populations, and concludes that Easter marchers are on the whole both more knowledgable about foreign affairs, and more absolutist in their attitude to social change than are the national samples.

Most of the marchers are socially disequilibrated; and the knowledge, attitude, and aggression consequences of this social position are worked out with reference to the data. The marchers are found to consist of absolutists and gradualists whose social cosmolo gies are very different.

It is concluded that co-operation between absolutists across national boundaries will be more fruitful than attempts at co-operation between absolutists and gradualists within their own nations.
The Functions of Economic Sanctions: a Comparative Analysis
Authors: Hoffmann Fredrik
Published: March 2007

This article studies economic sanctions in their political context, from the point of view of the sanctioning powers. The point of departure here is the question: why does a nation in a given political situation select precisely economic sanctions and not one of the other theoretically possible modes of reaction (stretching from absolute passivity to the declaration of full war) ?

The article is then based on two case studies: the decision made by the League of Nations to apply sanctions against Italy in 1935, and the decision of the British Govern ment to apply sanctions against Rhodesia in 1965. The League-decision is explained as the outcome of a set of fallacious, legalistic theories about how the international system functions. The decision of the British Government is interpreted as an 'escape' from a political cross-pressure situation.

Finally, the contention is formulated that, for political reasons, the probability of successful sanctions is fairly low.
The Anatomy of Imperialism: The Case of the Multinational Mining Corporations in Peru
Authors: Brundenius Claes
Published: March 2007

This article studies the functioning and the changing character of imperialism and how it affects the people subjugated to it. This is done through an historical analysis of the mining sector of a so-called underdeveloped country, Peru.

The study shows the details of the methods of exploitation of modern multinational corporations, and demonstrates the intimate links existing between the 'national' bourgeoisie in Peru and foreign capital. In light of recent developments in Peru, including the massacre of 25 mining workers by Peruvian police and troopers, the conclusion is drawn that liberation from the yoke of imperialism in Peru must depend on the strength of the working class alone and on the future possibility of its leading the exploited sectors of the Peruvian people in a socialist revolution.
European Security and Cooperation: A Skeptical Contribution
Authors: Galtung Johan
Published: March 2007

The article discusses European security and co operation under the headings used under the name of 'baskets' in Geneva: security, co-opera tion and free flow of persons and ideas. As to security: the argument is that no arms race can be understood without an analysis of the under lying conflict formation, and that the East-West conflict formation for most practical purposes has withered away. It was about hegemony over Eastern Europe, which was transferred from the western powers to the Soviet Union after the Second World War, but the West has gotten accustomed to this because (1) there is a shift of generations and (2) under the heading of 'co operation' western capitalism has once more been permitted to penetrate into Eastern Europe. As to co-operation: this pattern of trade and co-opera tion is analyzed and seen as highly asymmetric and essentially compatible with the interests of Western capitalism: export of capital and tech nology, import of raw materials and to some ex tent (from Yugoslavia) raw labor. Reasons for this pattern are to be found in some fallacies in marxist thinking, not only in the ways this think ing is put into practice in Eastern Europe. As to free flow of persons and ideas: the article argues that this will be very difficult for Eastern Eu ropean countries to agree to, because it would destroy the important reward of being permitted to travel to the West by making travel too easy. Moreover, the socialist countries would be afraid of massive criticism from their leftist youth, and this would also work against the interests of elites in the capitalist countries by threatening the present pattern of co-operation. As a conclusion, it is pointed out that the present pattern of co operation should be changed, and that the posi tive sign in the present development is that Eu ropean detente now has come so far that it should be possible to discuss the type of problems men tioned in the present article in a rational manner for the benefit of both East and West and the developing countries.
The National World Picture
Authors: Nelund Claus
Published: March 2007

Nation-building has been a major project of the European peoples since the days of Christopher Columbus. We have now come to an end in this effort, insofar as we have orga nized and grouped the peoples of the earth into sovereign nation states within one single organization, the United Nations. Thus we have literally created a new frame of reference for the peoples of the earth, ourselves included. According to this frame of reference — the national world picture — we see ourselves and any other person as a member of a given nation, and we see this nation as a member of the family of nations. We may define special relations to other persons and our nation may have special relations to other nations according to special interests: but the major grouping — the national world picture — survives across these groupings. In the present paper we investigate this world picture from the point of view of the individual, to see whether it can be a tool available for us to direct and implement concerns for peace and human affairs. Our conclusion is a negative one: the national world picture represents a distortion of reality and an obstacle to peace.
Mirror Images in Americans' Perceptions of Nations and Leaders during the Iranian Hostage Crisis
Authors: Johnston conover Pamela , Mingst Karen A. , Sigelman Lee
Published: March 2007

The 'mirror image' — the tendency for citizens to attribute the opposite qualities to their own and a competitive nation — is studied through analysis of public opinion in the United States shortly after the onset of the Iranian hostage crisis in late 1979. The questions addressed in this study are (1) how quickly mirror image thinking can be activated, (2) whether mirror images apply to the leaders of nations as well as the nations them selves, (3) what types of traits play the most prominent role in mirror imagery, and (4) what factors predispose people to think in mirror image terms. Analysis reveals that mirror images were very common just one month after the seizure of the American hostages, that they were more commonly focused on the nations (Iran and the U.S.) than on the leaders of the nations (President Carter and Ayotollah Khomeini), that they Nere most often evaluative rather than simply descriptive, and, perhaps most interestingly, that they were expressed most frequently by more highly educated and more knowledgeable people. Discussion centers on the interpretation of these findings, especially the latter.
The Cost of Vigilance in Israel: Linking the Economic and Social Costs of Defense
Authors: Seliktar Ofira
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the extent of the gun-butter tradeoff in Israel and to assess the level of public support for such a tradeoff. It was found that the extent of the gun-butter tradeoff is very considerable, both in terms of direct cuts in social and welfare spending and the less direct losses in opportunity costs.

Because of the 'self-defense' nature of the Arab-Israeli conflict, it has often been argued that Israeli public support for such a tradeoff is continuously high. However, an analysis of the demands articulated by Israeli protest movements reveals that there are important limitations on the level and direction of popular support for the tradeoff. First, social protest groups have increasingly criticized the tradeoff and demanded a reallocation of resources to reflect more closely the social rather than the military need of the country. Second, the Peace Movement groups have undermined the 'package deal' perception of the defense budget, introducing the notion that part of the defense spending, especially on the West Bank, is somewhat of a 'colonial' burden rather than a legimate 'self-defense' expenditure.
Review Essay : The United Nations Study of Disarmament and Development: an Overview
Authors: Hovstadius BO , Wangborg Manne
Published: March 2007

World military expenditure is currently believed to exceed $500 billion annually. Tens of millions of people — according to some estimates 50-60 million — around the world are directly or indirectly dependent on the military sector.

What would, in this situation, the economic consequences of global disarmament be? And how could less developed countries become the main beneficiaries of possible savings? These are the key quesions in a research project under the auspices of the United Nations which this article seeks to illuminate.

A number of contributions to the project conclude that it is not economic conversion problems which block disarmament. How large an addition disarmament might contribute to international economic aid depends on how sizable the military expenditure reduction would be and what proportion of the savings were allocated to economic aid. In some of the reviewed alternatives, the addition would be highly marginal, while in other hypothetical scenarios it would grow to the projected size of present aid transfers by the year 2000, if not as early as 1990.
Constitutions, Covenants, and Charters: an Analysis of Decision Rules in International Organisations
Authors: Freeman John R. , Cannizzo Cynthia A.
Published: March 2007

Issues of constitutional design are fundamental to the study of international organisations, and the North-South debate has given such issues increased prominence and interest; witness the recent debates on the structure of the International Fund for Agricultural Development. Our understanding of how nations design covenants and charters is limited, however.

The economics literature offers us insights into how to conduct more rigorous analyses of the constitutional questions facing diplomats and legal specialists. The paper illustrates the usefulness of incorporating that literature in the study of one of the classic constitutional issues, namely, the desirability of unanimity rule. Buchanan and Tullock's Generalised Economic Theory of Constitutions is used to refine some well-known analyses of unanimity. A rational construction for the choice of unanimity rule is developed, and the false dichotomy between majoritarianism and unanimity is illuminated. In turn, more complete explanations for the policy choices of particular governments are constructed and important insights into the UNCTAD voting impasse are gained.
Proxy Intervention in Civil Wars
Authors: Dunér Bertil
Published: March 2007

Military intervention in civil wars by smaller states has often been interpreted as a sign of the increasing importance of indirect intervention as a means of foreign policy: the smaller intervening states are seen to have acted as the proxy of a major power. The Angola conflict in particular has been cited in this connection, and Cuba is often said to have intervened on behalf of the Soviet Union. Other examples have also been mentioned. However, it is not always clear what characterizes a proxy in this sense. This article tries to identify relevant criteria, and argues that a reasonable definition of a proxy relationship must be formulated in terms of power. Some of the instances of intervention by proxy mentioned in the literature are then examined in the light of this definition. In none of these is it possible to demonstrate that the intervening state actually acted as proxy for another. This conclusion may be the result of defective instruments of analysis, but it may also reflect the fact that interventions by proxy have not actually taken place.
The Nuclear Era: Perception and Reality- a Century Apart?
Authors: Jacobsen Carl Gustav
Published: March 2007

The world today harbors some 60,000 nuclear warheads, most of which dwarf the Hiroshima bomb; six acknow ledged nuclear powers; two presumed nuclear powers; 40 states capable of acquiring nuclear arsenals within ten years; amidst arms trade practices that provide ever-easier access to sophisticated delivery vehicles, fighter-bombers and cruise missiles. The spiralling trends towards ludicrous levels of nuclear redundancy and proliferation are fueled by a complex amalgam of economic, technological, and psychological factors. Analysts dwell on arms race theories, action-reaction models, the demands of 'leadtime' and 'worst case' concepts and requirements, the lure of new technologies, inter-service lobbying, bureaucratic politics, and the dynamics of vast and ensconced military-industrial complexes. The present analysis, however, focuses on a less appreciated but vital factor, namely the mind-set of the protagonists. The weaponry may belong to the 21st century; the decision-makers are socialized and formed by 19th century molds. The Brezhnev Doc trine is but an extension of the views of Nicholas the First, and owes nothing to Karl Marx. The Reagan Administration's new Latin American doctrine mirrors the biases and inclinations of Lloyd George and Clemenceau, not those of Plato. And this is the single most important reason why the nuclear steamroller has enjoyed, and will enjoy, such free reign.
Non-Violence and the Strike Movements in Poland
Authors: Modzelewski Wojciech
Published: March 2007

Strikes which occurred in the summer of 1980 in Poland, leading to the establishment of independent trade unions and extensions of civic freedoms, are analyzed as a successful revolutionary reform achieved through non-violent means. In 1980, mass strike actions turned out to be an effective example of a fight without the use of violence, and thus should be assessed from the point of view of the theory of non-violent action. Resulting changes could not be attained within official politics and/or methods of coercion. Processes which occurred in Poland in 1980 indicate therefore a way in which non-violent protests can be effectively employed for a deep transformation of a political system.

In this paper both factors responsible for bloody repressions of violent riots/uprisings taking place before 1980 and factors which facilitated non-violence in 1980 are analyzed, together with some consequences of the pre-1980 protest.