bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comparative immunohistochemical expression of p63 in human cholangiocarcinoma and hepatocellular carcinoma
Authors: Ramalho Fernando S , Ramalho Leandra NZ , Della Porta Livia , Zucoloto Sérgio
Published: April 2006

Background:  p63 helps regulate differentiation and proliferation in epithelial progenitor cells. Its expression is often higher in malignant tissue compared with normal tissue, and poorly differentiated carcinomas often show a larger number of p63‐positive cells than well‐differentiated tumors. The aim of the present study was to investigate the immunohistochemical expression of p63 in human cholangiocarcinomas (CC) and hepatocellular carcinomas (HCC).

Methods:  Sixteen cases of CC and 37 cases of HCC were selected for the present study. Paraffin‐embedded sections were submitted to immunohistochemical double‐staining to identify p63 and cytokeratin 19.

Results:  p63 was diffusely expressed in 100% of CC, while it was negative in all HCC. In addition, cytokeratin 19, a marker for hepatic progenitor cells, was colocalized in all p63‐positive cells.

Conclusions:  The nuclear immunostaining for p63 in all CC cases indicates that the p63 protein can act to promote neoplastic growth in bile duct epithelium, but it is not important for hepatocellular carcinogenesis. Co‐localization of p63 and cytokeratin 19 in CC cells suggests that CC may be derived from undifferentiated progenitor cells (hepatic oval cells). Furthermore, p63 can be useful in the differential diagnosis between CC and HCC in biopsy samples.
A very low toxic agent induces apoptosis and reduces growth of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells
Authors: Schumacher Guido , Scheunert Sylvia , Rueggeberg Anne , Bachem Max G. , Nussler Andreas K. , Spinelli Antonino , Mukhopadhyay Tapas , Pratschke Johann , Neuhaus Peter
Published: April 2006

Aim:  To examine the efficacy on growth inhibition of 2‐methoxyestradiol (2‐ME) on human hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro.

Methods:  Hep3B, SK‐Hep1, and PLC/PRF/5 cells were used. Proliferation assays using 2‐ME should show a dose‐dependent reduction of cell number. Different staining methods in cells derived from human hepatocellular carcinoma and normal human hepatocytes were performed to demonstrate possible tumor specific induction of apoptosis. FACS‐analysis was done to confirm the induction of apoptosis after treatment with 2‐ME.

Results:  A reduction of the cell number of 90–98% was observed in all cancer cells after treatment with 2 µmol 2‐ME. The mechanism of action appeared to be induction of apoptosis. Normal human hepatocytes were unaffected by 2‐ME. The most sensitive cell line to 2‐ME, SK‐Hep1, showed an up‐regulation of the p53 and p21 proteins.

Conclusions:  2‐Methoxyestradiol appears to be highly effective in reducing tumor growth in vitro in human hepatocellular carcinoma. It may be tumor specific and applicable for clinical trials.
Atopic eczema: what's new?
Authors: Möhrenschlager M , Darsow U , Schnopp C , Ring J
Published: April 2006

Atopic eczema (AE) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease characterized by recurrent intense pruritus and a typical age‐related distribution of skin lesions. Several new aspects with regard to the pathogenetic background as well as strategies for prevention, diagnosis and treatment of AE have emerged. There are ongoing studies on genetic susceptibility loci, as well as environmental and nutritional factors associated with an increase or a decrease of AE lesions. The atopy patch test is now available for identification of allergens in aeroallergen‐triggered AE. New topical therapies, such as the calcineurin inhibitors, have broadened the therapeutic armamentarium substantially. In order to increase knowledge and coping strategies, patient education programs have been launched.

Learning objective  Upon completing this paper, the reader should be aware of new developments in AE, especially on nomenclature, prevention strategies, diagnostic tests, as well as therapeutic options.
Reactive Oxygen Species and Autonomic Regulation of Cardiac Excitability
Authors: DANSON EDWARD J. F. , PATERSON DAVID J.
Published: April 2006

Sympathetic hyper‐activity and diminished parasympathetic activity are a consequence of many primary cardiovascular disease states and can trigger arrhythmias. Emerging evidence suggests that reactive oxygen species (ROS) including nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite may contribute to cardiac sympathovagal imbalance in the brainstem, peripheral neurons, and in cardiomyocytes since all experience increased oxidative stress as a result of cardiac disease processes and aging. This article reviews the roles of ROS in autonomic dysfunction and arrhythmia. In addition, novel research directed toward finding targets for modulating sympathovagal balance in cardiac disease is discussed.
Structural and Optical Properties of Highly Nd‐Doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet Ceramics from Alkoxide and Glycolate Precursors
Authors: Mathur Sanjay , Shen Hao , Veith Michael , Rapalaviciute Rasa , Agne Thomas
Published: April 2006

Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) nanopowders doped with high neodymium (Nd) content (3 at.%) were synthesized by the sol–gel processing of (i) alkoxide precursors and (ii) metal chelates formed by complexing the cations with polyethylene glycol. A stoichiometric YAG composition was obtained following both procedures; however, the agglomeration of particles was significantly higher in glycolate synthesis, which shielded residual organics from oxidation (elemental analyses). Distribution of Nd3+ ions in the YAG matrix, as shown by the absorption of pump energy and photoluminescence spectra of Nd:YAG ceramics, was more homogeneous in alkoxide‐derived powders. The segregation of Nd centers in the glycolate‐derived sample was supported by the precipitation of a crystalline Nd2O3 phase (X‐ray diffraction) during sintering. High‐resolution absorption spectra (4I9/2(1)→4F9/2(1)) of the powders showed that a higher absorption cross‐section of glycolate‐derived powders is due to Nd3+–Nd3+ ion pairing, which leads to the quenching of photoluminescence. Owing to the better dispersion of optically active centers, the photoluminescence signal was found to be substantially enhanced in alkoxide‐derived Nd:YAG ceramics.
Enhanced Elution of Sperm from Cotton Swabs Via Enzymatic Digestion for Rape Kit Analysis*
Authors: Voorhees Jessica C. , Ferrance Jerome P. , Landers James P.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT: This report describes development of a method for enhanced cell elution from cotton swabs. The method exploits an enzyme mixture for digestion of the cotton to remove intact cells, and can be utilized in conjunction with or to circumvent conventional differential extraction (DE). Samples digested with Aspergillus niger cellulase yielded sperm cell recoveries (18±3.5%) similar to conventional DE buffer (23±7.8%) while providing intact epithelial cells. Storage time affected the concentration of enzyme required for optimal sperm cell recovery, with longer times requiring increased cellulase concentrations. Cellulase from A. niger yielded a twofold enhancement in sperm cell elution over buffer alone, and preliminary testing of higher activity cellulases from Trichoderma reesei and Trichoderma viride showed even greater enhancement. These results indicate that cellulose‐digesting enzymes enhance the release of sperm and epithelial cells from a cotton swab over buffer alone, providing for efficient DNA analysis.
Internal transport of seeds by migratory waders in the Odiel marshes, south‐west Spain: consequences for long‐distance dispersal
Authors: I. Sánchez Marta , J. Green Andy , M. Castellanos Eloy
Published: April 2006

Waders (Charadriiformes) undergo particularly long migratory flights, making them ideal vectors for long‐distance dispersal. We present a study of dispersal of plant seeds by migratory waders in the Odiel saltworks in south‐west Spain. This is the first field study to demonstrate excretion of viable seeds by waders. Viable seeds of Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum (Aizoaceae), Sonchus oleraceus (Asteraceae) and Arthrocnemum macrostachyum (Chenopodiaceae) were frequent in pellets and faeces of redshank Tringa totanus, spotted redshank Tringa erythropus, and black‐tailed godwit Limosa limosa during spring and autumn migrations, but less frequent during winter. Another 11 seed types were recorded at low density. More intact M. nodiflorum seeds were present in redshank faeces than in their pellets, but seeds extracted from pellets were more likely to germinate. More S. oleraceus seeds were transported per redshank pellet in spring, but more redshank migrated through the area in autumn. The distributions of the plants transported are consistent with an important role for long‐distance dispersal by waders. M. nodiflorum and S. oleraceus are introduced weeds in the Americas and Australasia, and dispersal by birds may contribute to their rapid spread. Although S. oleraceus is generally thought to be wind‐dispersed, birds may be responsible for longer distance dispersal events.
Effects of Surface-Roughness Geometry on Separation-Bubble Transition
Authors: Roberts Stephen K. , Yaras Metin I.
Published: April 2006

This paper presents measurements of separation-bubble transition over a range of surfaces with randomly distributed roughness elements. The tested roughness patterns represent the typical range of roughness conditions encountered on in-service turbine blades. Through these measurements, the effects of size and spacing of the roughness elements, and the tendency of the roughness pattern toward protrusions or depressions (skewness), on the inception location and rate of transition are evaluated. Increased roughness height, increased spacing of the roughness elements, and a tendency of the roughness pattern toward depressions (negative skewness) are observed to promote earlier transition inception. The observed effects of roughness spacing and skewness are found to be small in comparison to that of the roughness height. Variation in the dominant mode of instability in the separated shear layer is achieved through adjustment of the streamwise pressure distribution. The results provide examples for the extent of interaction between viscous and inviscid stability mechanisms.
A Numerical Investigation of Boundary Layer Suction in Compound Lean Compressor Cascades
Authors: Song Yanping , Chen Fu , Yang Jun , Wang Zhongqi
Published: April 2006

This paper is focused on the numerical investigation of boundary layer suction (BLS) via a slot on the suction surfaces of two compound lean compressor cascades with large camber angles as well as a conventional straight compressor cascade for comparison. The objective of the investigation is to study the influence of boundary layer suction on the performance of compound lean compressor cascades, thus to discuss the possibility of the application of boundary layer suction to improve their performance. An extensive numerical study has been carried out under different spanwise lengths, different axial positions of the slots, and different suction flow rates. The results show that the total loss of all three cascades is reduced significantly by boundary layer suction, and the largest reduction occurs at the highest suction flow rate. The axial locations of the slot have little effect on the total loss of the three cascades, which means the slots are opened within the optimal axial range in this case. The slot opened along the full span is the best one to obtain the largest reduction in total loss for all three cascades due to the alleviation of flow separation in the corner between the endwall and the suction surface. Moreover, the flow turning is increased, and pressure rise at the rear of the passage is recovered along the whole blade height via boundary layer suction along the full span, enhancing the working range of the highly loaded compressor cascades.
Global Mineralogical and Aqueous Mars History Derived from OMEGA/Mars Express Data
Authors: Bibring Jean-Pierre , Langevin Yves , Mustard John F. , Poulet François , Arvidson Raymond , Gendrin Aline , Gondet Brigitte , Mangold Nicolas , Pinet P. , Forget F. , Berthé Michel , Bibring Jean-Pierre , Gendrin Aline , Gomez Cécile , Gondet Brigitte , Jouglet Denis , Poulet François , Soufflot Alain , Vincendon Mathieu , Combes Michel , Drossart Pierre , Encrenaz Thérèse , Fouchet Thierry , Merchiorri Riccardo , Belluci GianCarlo , Altieri Francesca , Formisano Vittorio , Capaccioni Fabricio , Cerroni Pricilla , Coradini Angioletta , Fonti Sergio , Korablev Oleg , Kottsov Volodia , Ignatiev Nikolai , Moroz Vassili , Titov Dimitri , Zasova Ludmilla , Loiseau Damien , Mangold Nicolas , Pinet Patrick , Douté Sylvain , Schmitt Bernard , Sotin Christophe , Hauber Ernst , Hoffmann Harald , Jaumann Ralf , Keller Uwe , Arvidson Ray , Mustard John F. , Duxbury Tom , Forget François , Neukum G.
Published: April 2006

Global mineralogical mapping of Mars by the Observatoire pour la Mineralogie, l'Eau, les Glaces et l'Activité (OMEGA) instrument on the European Space Agency's Mars Express spacecraft provides new information on Mars' geological and climatic history. Phyllosilicates formed by aqueous alteration very early in the planet's history (the “phyllocian” era) are found in the oldest terrains; sulfates were formed in a second era (the “theiikian” era) in an acidic environment. Beginning about 3.5 billion years ago, the last era (the “siderikian”) is dominated by the formation of anhydrous ferric oxides in a slow superficial weathering, without liquid water playing a major role across the planet.
Applied physiology of tennis performance
Authors: Kovacs M S
Published: April 2006

Competitive tennis play requires a combination of the major physiological variables; however, the specifics of these variables have yet to be determined appropriately. General strength and flexibility training have been suggested as being beneficial for performance and injury prevention, yet specific guidelines are lacking. This paper provides a review of specific studies that relate to competitive tennis, and highlights the need for tennis-specific training as opposed to generalised physical training. It identifies specific studies that support the premise that tennis has physiological requirements which need to be understood when designing training and research programmes.
Identification of a Novel C5L2 Variant (S323I) in a French Canadian Family With Familial Combined Hyperlipemia
Authors: Marcil Michel , Vu Hai , Cui Wei , Dastani Zari , Engert James C. , Gaudet Daniel , Castro-Cabezas Manuel , Sniderman Allan D. , Genest Jacques , Cianflone Katherine
Published: April 2006

Objective—

A functional acylation stimulating protein (ASP) receptor, C5L2, has been recently identified in ASP-responsive cells. Impaired ASP-mediated triglyceride synthesis has previously been described in a subset of hyperapolipoprotein B/familial combined hyperlipidemia subjects.

Methods and Results—

DNA sequencing of C5L2 coding region in 61 unrelated probands identified a heterozygous variant (G968→T) in 1 subject, resulting in Ser323→Ile substitution in the carboxyl terminal region. This variant was not detected in 2176 additional chromosomes by restriction fragment length polymorphism or fluorescence polarization genotyping. Eight family members of the proband were identified with one altered (+/−)C5L2 allele. Nine other family members had the wild-type (+/+)C5L2 sequence. The abnormal allele was associated with increased plasma triglyceride, plasma cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, apolipoprotein B and ASP. Of 23 subjects tested in cell-based ASP bioactivity assays, those with C5L2(+/−) variant (n=2) had a 50% reduction in ASP-stimulated triglyceride synthesis, glucose transport and marked reduction in maximal binding (B
max
). By contrast, a C5L2(+/+) family member responded normally, as did hyperapolipoprotein B normal ASP subjects compared with C5L2(+/+) controls (n=6).

Conclusion—

The S323I variant may alter C5L2 function and might be one molecular basis contributing to familial combined hyperlipidemia.
Adipocyte Differentiation-Related Protein Promotes Fatty Acid Storage in Cytosolic Triglycerides and Inhibits Secretion of Very Low–Density Lipoproteins
Authors: Magnusson Björn , Asp Lennart , Boström Pontus , Ruiz Michel , Stillemark-Billton Pia , Lindén Daniel , Borén Jan , Olofsson Sven-Olof
Published: April 2006

Objective—

We investigated the role of adipocyte differentiation-related protein (ADRP) in triglyceride turnover and in the secretion of very low–density lipoprotein (VLDL) from McA-RH7777 cells and primary rat hepatocytes.

Methods and Results—

An increase in the expression of ADRP increased triglyceride accumulation in cytosolic lipid droplets and prevented the incorporation of fatty acids into secretable triglycerides, thereby reducing the secretion of triglycerides as well as of apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) and apoB-48 VLDL. The ability of ADRP to block the secretion of apoB-100 VLDL1 decreased with increasing quantities of fatty acids in the medium, indicating a saturable process and emphasizing the importance of sequestering of fatty acids for the effect of ADRP on VLDL secretion. Knockdown (small interfering RNA) of ADRP decreased the pool of cytosolic lipid droplets but increased only the secretion of apoB-48 VLDL1. Additionally, there was an increased flow of fatty acids into β-oxidation.

Conclusions—

ADRP is essential for the accumulation of triglycerides in cytosolic lipid droplets. An increase in ADRP prevents the formation of VLDL by diverting fatty acids from the VLDL assembly pathway into cytosolic triglycerides, whereas a decrease of the protein increases the sorting of fatty acids to β-oxidation and promotes the secretion of apoB-48 VLDL1.
Cardiac Tamponade and Superior Vena Cava Syndrome in Lung Cancer
Authors: Gowda Ramesh M. , Khan Ijaz A. , Mehta Nirav J. , Gowda Mamatha R. , Hyde Phyllis , Vasavada Balendu C. , Sacchi Terrence J.
Published: April 2006

A combination of pericardial effusion with cardiac tamponade and superior vena caval syndrome is an unusual first presentation of carcinoma of lung, although cardiac involvement is often a late finding in widespread malignancy. Clinical identification can be difficult ante-mortem. Accurate diagnosis and prompt intervention are necessary to prevent adverse outcomes. Decisions regarding treatment must take into account the clinical presentation and echocardiographic findings. Echocardiography-guided pericardiocentesis with catheter drainage and/or pericardial window is the primary treatment strategy of choice for most large or hemodynamically significant effusions. New cardiac symptoms or classic findings of cardiac tamponade should prompt aggressive investigation. We present a case of adenocarcinoma of the lung that initially presented as pericardial effusion with tamponade and superior vena cava syndrome. The patient had all the clinical features of tamponade such as pulsus paradoxus, tachycardia, elevated jugular venous pressure, hypotension, and electrical alternans on surface electrocardiography. The findings were confirmed on echocardiography and computed tomography of chest, both of which allowed for rapid confirmation of the presence of an effusion and compression of the superior vena cava. The existing literature on the subject is succinctly reviewed.
The statistics of identifying differentially expressed genes in Expresso and TM4: a comparison
Authors: Sioson Allan A , Mane Shrinivasrao P , Li Pinghua , Sha Wei , Heath Lenwood S , Bohnert Hans J , Grene Ruth
Published: April 2006

Background

Analysis of DNA microarray data takes as input spot intensity measurements from scanner software and returns differential expression of genes between two conditions, together with a statistical significance assessment. This process typically consists of two steps: data normalization and identification of differentially expressed genes through statistical analysis. The Expresso microarray experiment management system implements these steps with a two-stage, log-linear ANOVA mixed model technique, tailored to individual experimental designs. The complement of tools in TM4, on the other hand, is based on a number of preset design choices that limit its flexibility. In the TM4 microarray analysis suite, normalization, filter, and analysis methods form an analysis pipeline. TM4 computes integrated intensity values (IIV) from the average intensities and spot pixel counts returned by the scanner software as input to its normalization steps. By contrast, Expresso can use either IIV data or median intensity values (MIV). Here, we compare Expresso and TM4 analysis of two experiments and assess the results against qRT-PCR data.

Results

The Expresso analysis using MIV data consistently identifies more genes as differentially expressed, when compared to Expresso analysis with IIV data. The typical TM4 normalization and filtering pipeline corrects systematic intensity-specific bias on a per microarray basis. Subsequent statistical analysis with Expresso or a TM4t-test can effectively identify differentially expressed genes. The best agreement with qRT-PCR data is obtained through the use of Expresso analysis and MIV data.

Conclusion

The results of this research are of practical value to biologists who analyze microarray data sets. The TM4 normalization and filtering pipeline corrects microarray-specific systematic bias and complements the normalization stage in Expresso analysis. The results of Expresso using MIV data have the best agreement with qRT-PCR results. In one experiment, MIV is a better choice than IIV as input to data normalization and statistical analysis methods, as it yields as greater number of statistically significant differentially expressed genes; TM4 does not support the choice of MIV input data. Overall, the more flexible and extensive statistical models of Expresso achieve more accurate analytical results, when judged by the yardstick of qRT-PCR data, in the context of an experimental design of modest complexity.
A factor analysis model for functional genomics
Authors: Kustra Rafal , Shioda Romy , Zhu Mu
Published: April 2006

Background

Expression array data are used to predict biological functions of uncharacterized genes by comparing their expression profiles to those of characterized genes. While biologically plausible, this is both statistically and computationally challenging. Typical approaches are computationally expensive and ignore correlations among expression profiles and functional categories.

Results

We propose a factor analysis model (FAM) for functional genomics and give a two-step algorithm, using genome-wide expression data for yeast and a subset of Gene-Ontology Biological Process functional annotations. We show that the predictive performance of our method is comparable to the current best approach while our total computation time was faster by a factor of 4000. We discuss the unique challenges in performance evaluation of algorithms used for genome-wide functions genomics. Finally, we discuss extensions to our method that can incorporate the inherent correlation structure of the functional categories to further improve predictive performance.

Conclusion

Our factor analysis model is a computationally efficient technique for functional genomics and provides a clear and unified statistical framework with potential for incorporating important gene ontology information to improve predictions.
Systematic Comparison of the T7-IVT and SMART-Based RNA Preamplification Techniques for DNA Microarray Experiments
Authors: Wilhelm Jochen , Muyal Jai Prakash , Best Johannes , Kwapiszewska Grazyna , Stein Maria Magdalena , Seeger Werner , Bohle Rainer Maria , Fink Ludger
Published: April 2006

Background: Small biological samples obtained from biopsies or laser microdissection often do not yield sufficient RNA for successful microarray hybridization; therefore, RNA amplification is performed before microarray experiments. We compared 2 commonly used techniques for RNA amplification.

Methods: We compared 2 commercially available methods, Arcturus RiboAmp for in vitro transcription (IVT) and Clontech BD SMART™ for PCR, to preamplify 50 ng of total RNA isolated from mouse livers and kidneys. Amplification factors of 3 sequences were determined by real-time PCR. Differential expression profiles were compared within and between techniques as well as with unamplified samples with 10K 50mer oligomer-spotted microarrays (MWG Biotech). The microarray results were validated on the transcript and protein levels by comparison with public expression databases.

Results: Amplification factors for specific sequences were lower after 2 rounds of IVT than after 12 cycles of SMART. Furthermore, IVT showed a clear decrease in amplification with increasing distance of the amplified sequences from the polyA tail, indicating generation of smaller products. In the microarray experiments, reproducibility of the duplicates was highest after SMART. In addition, SMART-processed samples showed higher correlation when compared with unamplified samples as well as with expression databases.

Conclusions: Whenever 1 round of T7-IVT does not yield sufficient product for microarray hybridization, which is usually the case when <200 ng of total RNA is used as starting material, we suggest the use of SMART PCR for preamplification.
The Truths of a Slippery World: Poetry and Tyranny in Sidney's Defence
Authors: Stillman Robert E.
Published: April 2006

Against the “presentism “ of current criticism linking theDefence'suniversalizing epistemology to the absolutism of Soviet-style propaganda, this study historicizes Philip Sidney's poetics as a consciously constructed vehicle of political liberation. TheDefence'sepistemology is recontextualized as a governing body of assumptions about the nature of knowledge that Sidney derived from the revival of natural law theory among an intellectual elite closely associated with the late Philip Melanchthon — the so-called Philippists — and the proponents of tyrannomachist political philosophy. Poetry's preeminence, Sidney maintains, derives from its serviceability in freeing us from the sovereignty of self-love and self-loving sovereigns.
Psalm Culture in the English Renaissance: Readings of Psalm 137 by Shakespeare, Spenser, Milton, and Others
Authors: Hamlin Hannibal
Published: April 2006

Psalm 137, “By the Waters of Babylon we sat down and wept, “ one of the most widely known biblical texts in Renaissance England, provided consolation for spiritual and political exiles, as well as giving Shakespeare, Spenser, and Milton language in which to express such alienation — language especially powerful for poets, since the psalm troped alienation as the inability to sing. The Psalm's closing cry for vengeance, seen as un-Christian by some, was used as a call to arms by polemicists on both sides of the English Civil War. This study examines a range of translations, paraphrases, commentaries, sermons, and literary allusions that together reconstruct a biblical text as it was interpreted by its Renaissance readers.
The Calvo and Drago Doctrines
Authors: Hershey Amos S.
Published: April 2006

Among the subjects scheduled for
discussion at the third Pan-American conference,
which met at Rio de Janeiro during July and
August, 1906, was a resolution that the second
peace conference at the Hague be requested
to

consider whether and, if at all, to what
extent, the use of force for the collection of
public debts is admissible.
The Function of Private Codification in International Law
Authors: Root Elihu
Published: April 2006

The increasing frequency of arbitration and the pressure for a regular court of international justice composed of permanent judges, have given new emphasis to the demand for what is called the codification of international law.

The process and the result intended to be described when the term codification is applied to international law involves something very different from the codification of municipal law. The codifier of any part of the law of a nation finds the law with which he is to deal already in existence and authenticated. It may be confused in form and apparently unrelated in its parts: it may be scattered through the statutory enactments of many years and the declarations of a multitude of judicial decisions; the codifier may have to struggle with difficult questions of apparent inconsistency, of doubtful repeal, of obscurities in expression calling for interpretation and construction, and with conflicts of judicial opinion; but the expressions which he considers all come from the same law-making power. Somewhere in the mass of material is to be found the final expression of legislative will, the controlling decision of the courts, and when these are found everything inconsistent with them may be rejected as repealed or overruled. The codifier's task is to find what the rules really are; to put them in due relations to each other under appropriate heads in accordance with some systematic scheme of arrangement; to bring order out of confusion; to furnish a methodical statement of the results of his researches which may make the law plain to the people who live under it and may relieve countless lawyers from the necessity of going through the same wearisome process of inquiry in each separate case. When the work is complete, if it is acceptable, the legislative power of the state puts its stamp of approval upon it and resolves any doubts or uncertainties by its acceptance of the codifier’s conclusions. It may indeed be that the research of the codifier and the clearer view presented by a systematic arrangement will have revealed inadequacies of expression, incongruities, and omissions in the existing law, but, as to these, the suggestions of the codifier for remedying the defects discovered will be accepted or rejected by the single fiat of the legislative body which enacts the code.
Military Espionage
Authors: Halleck Henry Wager , Davis George B.
Published: April 2006

Military espionage has been regarded from time immemorial, in all countries and among all nations, as a military offense of great criminality. Its penalty is death by hanging. This is the common law of war. Some nations have by orders, decrees or municipal laws, defined what constitutes this offense and provided for the trial and punishment of the offender. It should be observed, however, that espionage, being an offense at the common law of war, punishable by death in a particular mode, a spy may be executed without any municipal law on the subject, and that municipal laws, in regard to espionage, are binding only upon the state which makes them; they form no part of the international code.
The Hankow-Szechuan Railway Loan
Authors: Wang Ching-Chun
Published: April 2006

The Hankow-Szechuan loan controversy, which has just been closed by the final ratification of the loan agreement, is typical of the numerous loan questions in China. In order to understand the meaning of the different phases of this controversy, two points must be borne in mind — that a foreign railway loan in China is entirely different from what it would be in the United States, and that the creditors in advancing their capital to China are induced by other than purely commercial motives. In the United States a railway loan is understood to be a commercial transaction between two parties, either private or public; in China it is regarded as a “ treaty ” between the Chinese Government and many other governments. No matter how a loan is made and who makes it, it invariably becomes mixed up with politics in the end. Loans are concluded only after much tedious diplomatic negotiations. Promises and “ undertakings,” which might have been made years before under exceptional circumstances, often play a more important part in determining the terms of the loan than the merits or demerits of the loan itself.
The History of the Department of State
Authors: Hunt Gaillard
Published: April 2006

In previous papers of this Journal I have shown that the Department of State was created to manage not only the foreign affairs of the government, but such domestic executive business as did not naturally fall under the war and treasury departments; and in addition it has performed certain temporary or occasional duties some of which have passed to other departments and some of which are still under its jurisdiction. In the natural expansion of the business of the government the tendency has been to transfer from the Department all those duties which are purely domestic, and those which have been thus transferred will now be considered.
The American Consular Service
Authors: Carr Wilbur J.
Published: April 2006

The consular service of the United States has been for a long time the object of a great deal of criticism, some of which unfortunately has been well founded but much has been due to imperfect acquaintance with the legitimate functions of consuls and, therefore, to lack of ability to judge accurately of their shortcomings. It is of interest to note that of recent years the criticism has been for the most part confined to our own country, while from the people of other nations our consuls have received unstinted praise for their activity and efficiency, and our system has been frequently held up abroad as a model after which to reorganize some of the older European systems the virtues of which it has been the custom of our people to extol. But while it is true that in many respects our consuls have shown themselves the equals if not the superiors of the consuls of other nations, the fact remains that our service has been uneven in point of efficiency; there has been no satisfactory organization; little care has been exercised in the selection of persons for appointment; and the salaries and equipment have been far from adequate. Repeated attempts to correct these defects have been made during a period dating almost from the beginning of the government, but, with the exception of the improvements made in 1856, all these attempts have failed largely because they lacked the support of any considerable public sentiment.
Convention Relative to the Opening of Hostilities
Authors: Stowell Ellery C.
Published: April 2006

The convention as drawn up is substantially the same as the proposition submitted by the French delegation — and that proposition follows in the main the text adopted by the Institute de Droit International at its meeting at Ghent (September, 1906), when the whole subject was carefully discussed.
Recommendation for a Third Peace Conference at the Hague
Authors: Scott James Brown
Published: April 2006

The First Conference of 1899 was an experiment for which there were precedents, although there was perhaps no single precedent like it in all respects. Congresses or conferences have been familiar since the Congress of Westphalia, which may be said to mark the conscious beginning of modern international relations, and at various times conferences or congresses have been called, usually at the end of war, to settle the terms of peace.
The North Atlantic Coast Fisheries Arbitration
Authors: Lansing Robert
Published: April 2006

The Arbitral Tribunal of the Permanent Court at The Hague, by its award of the 7th of last September, in the case of the North Atlantic Coast Fisheries, brought to a close a controversy which in its various phases has been an almost constant source of vexatious dispute between the United States and Great Britain for the past seventy years.

A treaty, granting exceptional rights, such as that which this Tribunal was called upon to consider, is peculiarly susceptible to different interpretations as the course of time brings new conditions not contemplated by its negotiators. The relations of the parties are changed. A liberty which at the date of the treaty was considered indispensable may become worthless, while one which was deemed insignificant may in years assume a place of vital importance to the beneficiaries under the grant. This change of conditions and of the value of rights has been especially true of the liberties acquired by the United States for its inhabitants under the first article of the Treaty of October 20, 1818.
Francis Lieber
Authors: Root Elihu
Published: April 2006

This year, 1913, is the fiftieth anniversary of a very important event in the history of international law ― the adoption and enforcement by the American Government of the code of rules governing the conduct of armies in the field, which is known to the American army as General Orders No. 100, of 1863. It happens that without any intention to create a coincidence the seventh annual meeting of the American Society of International Law is appointed and we are met here, exactly fifty years after the twenty-fourth day of April, 1863, when President Lincoln promulgated that famous order. It seems appropriate for this Society at this time to celebrate the event by paying honor to Francis Lieber, the author of the instructions embodied in the order.
The Real Monroe Doctrine
Authors: Root Elihu
Published: April 2006

I ask your attention for a few minutes to some observations upon the Monroe Doctrine. If I am justified in taking your time it will be not because I say anything novel, but because there is occasion for restating well settled matters which seem to have been overlooked in some recent writings on the subject.

We are all familiar with President Monroe’s famous message of December 2, 1823.
Alpheus Henry Snow (1859-1920)
Authors: Brown Scott James
Published: April 2006

In the death of Mr. Alpheus Henry Snow in New York City on August 19, 1920, the American Society of International Law has lost a friend of long standing and a valuable co-worker. Mr. Snow had been a member of the Society since the first year of its organization in 1906.
The Appam Case
Authors: Coudert Frederic R.
Published: April 2006

The arrival of the fine British passenger vessel Appam at Newport News on January 31, 1916, in charge of a German prize crew and with about four hundred and fifty British subjects, passengers and sailors, including the Governor of Sierra Leone and some other prominent officials, not only created a picturesque situation, but raised some very important problems of international law.
Tort at International Law
Authors: Wise Jennings C.
Published: April 2006

It is not too much to say that the municipal law of every civilized state
recognizes certain rights as belonging to every individual, including the right to property, the violation of which constitutes a tort. Municipal law also very generally recognizes certain duties as attached to every individual the breach of which, coupled with consequent damages to another, is a tort. Thus, a tort is sometimes defined as a private or civil wrong or injury, and sometimes as the breach of a legal duty.
The Question As to the Legality of the Ruhr Occupation
Authors: Schuster Ernest J.
Published: April 2006

The question as to the legality of the Ruhr occupation is partly a question of fact and partly a question of law. It is common ground that the measures taken by the French and Belgian troops in the Ruhr valley could not have been authorized by the Treaty of Versailles if the Reparation Commission had not found as a fact that there had been “ voluntary default”(manquement volontaire) on the part of Germany. The question as to whether or not such voluntary default had in fact taken place is not one of those which under Sec. 13 of Annex II to Part VIII of the treaty requires a decision to be taken by a unanimous vote, and as the decision on that point was actually taken by a majority of three to one, the discussion as to the legality of the measures taken in consequence of such decision must proceed on the footing that “voluntary default” on the part of Germany had been established to the satisfaction of the Reparation Commission. The fact that Sir John Bradbury, the British representative on the Commission, gave an adverse vote cannot, however, be left out of consideration,as it proves that at least one eminent expert who, as the representative of his country, was bound to do his best to secure the payment of reparations from Germany, was of opinion that no voluntary default on Germany's part had been proved. The doubt thus thrown on the fact on which the application of sanctions depended ought to have been an additional reason for the utmost care in the endeavor to apply only such sanctions as were clearly provided for by the Treaty of Peace. I propose to show in the following pages that if that care had been applied the occupation of the Ruhr valley would not have taken place.
When Does Title to Prize Pass?
Authors: Herzog Sol A.
Published: April 2006

“ The whole constitution of prize courts, taken in connection with the conclusive effect of their sentences . . . and the exercise of their functions, being admittedly a belligerent right, is an anomaly in jurisprudence.. . . Hence it is that while its authority is derived exclusively from one nation, and that a belligerent, it passes a conclusive sentence on the title to property belonging to another, and that a neutral state, whose only appeal in the last resort is through diplomatic inference to the justice of the sovereign of the captor.”
Neutralization as a Movement in International Law
Authors: Graham Malbone W.
Published: April 2006

Writers on the history of the law of nations, in dealing with neutralization as an accepted practice, have seldom given a satisfactory account of the development of the ideas underlying this unusual phenomenon in international law. They have, in general, been inclined to treat it in a rather
fragmentary manner; merely to note in passing certain scattered instances as of minor importance and to devote their major attention to the more outstanding occasions on which the European Powers have settled some given problem by the use of the formula of neutralization. It is thus rendered
exceedingly difficult to form an objective appraisal of the ideological forces back of the movement, or effectively to analyze and weigh the constituent elements entering into it. In consequence, the movement has for the most part escaped scientific evaluation.
Extraterritoriality in China
Authors: Denby Charles
Published: April 2006

At the Conference on the Limitation of Armaments at Washington in 1921 one of the subjects considered at the request of the Chinese delegation was a proposal that the Western Powers give up their extraterritorial rights in China. This led to the adoption by the conference at its ninth meeting on November 29th of a declaration that the Western nations “ are prepared to relinquish extraterritorial rights when satisfied that the state of Chinese laws, the arrangement for their administration and other considerations warrant them in doing so.” This was doubtless a great gratification to the Chinese delegates, but the foreigner in China may have experienced less satisfaction at the menace therein involved to a system which tens of thousands of foreign residents in China regard as the sine qua non of their welfare.
Changes in the Conception of War
Authors: Wright Quincy
Published: April 2006

The phrase “ outlawry of war” has come into current usage during the past few years. It has appeared in a resolution submitted to the United States Senate,1 in speeches by Presidents of the United States2 and in a draft treaty submitted by the Council of the League of Nations to its members.3As giving focus to a widespread popular demand for the elimination of war, the phrase doubtless has propaganda value, but some of its legal implications seem to invite examination. Thus, if we are called on to “ outlaw war,” that is, applying Bouvier's definition, to put war out of the protection of the law, we must assume that war is now within the protection of the law, that it is legal to make war. In fact, in Senator Borah's resolution of February 13, 1923,4 we read in the preamble:
Diplomatic Prerogatives of Non-Diplomats
Authors: Vollenhoven C. van
Published: April 2006

The third item on the first list of subject-matters taken up for further
consideration by the League of Nations Committee of Experts for the
Progressive Codification of International Law (Geneva, April 8,1925) reads:
"Diplomatic privileges and immunities." It is to be hoped and expected that
the committee, in considering a problem as old as international law itself,
will not feel satisfied with clinging to conceptions and solutions of
by-gone centuries, but will endeavor to give them, within the frame-work of
post-war international law, a new stamp.
The Outlawry of War
Authors: Wright Quincy
Published: April 2006

In the October,1924, number of this Journal the writer examined the changes in the conception of war since the middle ages with the conclusion that under present international law “acts of war” are illegal unless committed in time of war or other extraordinary necessity but the transition from a state of peace to a “state of war” is neither legal nor illegal. A state of war is regarded as an event, the origin of which is outside of international law although that law prescribes rules for its conduct differing from those which prevail in time of peace. The reason for this conception, different from that of antiquity and the middle ages was found in the complexity of the causes of war in the present state of international relations, in the difficulty of locating responsibility in the present regime of constitutional government, and in the prevalence of the scientific habit of attributing occurrences to natural causes rather than to design. It was recalled, however, that the problem of eliminating war has gained in importance while the possibility of solving it through the application of law has improved with the development of jural science. Thus efforts have been made to eliminate war(1) by defining responsibility for bringing on a state of war,(2) by defining justifiable self-defense, and(3) by providing sanctions for enforcement.
The Application of Soviet Laws and the Exception of Public Order
Authors: Habicht Max
Published: April 2006

One of the most controversial rules of private international law is the exception of public order, the rule not to enforce foreign laws which are contrary to the fundamental conceptions of the law of the state having jurisdiction. There is no country in which this exception has not played an important rôle in the refusal to enforce foreign laws, and numerous writers have discussed the importance and difficulties of the exception of public order. Its problems had been thoroughly studied before the World War by many authorities on private international law, among others by Bustamante, Fiore, Kahn, Klein and Pillet, without a uniform solution having been reached. When, after the war, the states began to reestablish their international relations, the exception of public order began anew to play its rôle in the courts the world over, and to put the same difficulties before the judges dealing with cases of conflict between domestic and foreign laws.
Relative Authority of International Law and National Law in the United States
Authors: Potter Pitman B.
Published: April 2006

The relations existing in the various states of the world, and particularly in the various states of Europe and America, between international law and municipal law, or, as it might better be called, national law, have been made the subject of several studies in recent years. In view of the probable necessity for many years yet to come of relying for the development and application of international law upon national legislatures, courts, and executive or administrative officials, in the absence of any adequate system of international legislatures, courts, and executive officials, this borderland between international law and national law deserves the most thorough attention. But the attention given to the way in which international law is enforced by national courts, the way in which international treaties are supplemented by national statutes, and to other similar phases of the general subject, has led to some neglect of the central question in the problem, or, at least, has not afforded an adequate answer to that question. It is the purpose of this paper to state this question as it has arisen in cases tried in American courts, to attempt to find the proper solution for it, and to compare that solution with ruling case law on the point in the United States.