Plastics, General Survey
Authors: Elias Hans‐Georg 
Published: February 2004

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction1.1.Polymers1.1.1.Fundamental Terms1.1.2.Nomenclature1.2.Plastics1.2.1.Fundamental Terms1.2.2.Designations1.3.History of Plastics1.4.Economic Importance2.Molecular Structure of Polymers2.1.Constitution2.1.1.Homopolymers2.1.2.Copolymers2.1.3.Branched Polymers2.1.4.Ordered Chain Assemblies2.1.5.Unordered Networks2.2.Molar Masses and Molar Mass Distributions2.2.1.Molar Mass Average2.2.2.Determination of Molar Mass2.2.3.Molar Mass Distributions2.2.4.Determination of Molar Mass Distributions2.3.Configurations2.4.Conformations2.4.1.Microconformations2.4.2.Conformations in Ideal Polymer Crystals2.4.3.Conformations in Polymer Solutions2.4.4.Unperturbed Coils2.4.5.Perturbed Coils2.4.6.Wormlike Chains3.Polymer Manufacture3.1.Raw Materials3.1.1.Wood3.1.2.Coal3.1.3.Natural Gas3.1.4.Petroleum3.1.5.Other Natural Raw Materials3.2.Polymer Syntheses: Overview3.2.1.Classifications3.2.2.Functionality3.2.3.Cyclopolymerizations3.3.Chain Polymerizations and Polyeliminations3.3.1.Thermodynamics3.3.2.Free‐Radical Polymerizations3.3.3.Anionic Polymerizations3.3.4.Cationic Polymerizations3.3.5.Ziegler–Natta Polymerizations3.3.6.Copolymerizations3.4.Polycondensations and Polyadditions3.4.1.Bifunctional Polycondensations3.4.2.Multifunctional Polycondensations3.4.3.Polyaddition3.5.Polymer Reactions3.5.1.Polymer Transformations3.5.2.Block and Graft Formations3.5.3.Cross‐Linking Reactions3.5.4.Degradation Reactions4.Plastics Manufacture4.1.Homogenization and Compounding4.2.Additives4.2.1.Overview4.2.2.Chemofunctional Additives4.2.3.Processing Aids4.2.4.Extending and Reinforcing Fillers4.2.5.Plasticizers4.2.6.Colorants4.2.7.Blowing Agents4.3.Processing5.Supermolecular Structures5.1.Noncrystalline States5.1.1.Structure5.1.2.Orientation5.2.Polymer Crystals5.2.1.Introduction5.2.2.Crystal Structures5.2.3.Crystallinity5.2.4.Morphology5.3.Mesophases5.3.1.Introduction5.3.2.Types of Liquid Crystals5.3.3.Mesogens5.3.4.Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Polymers5.3.5.Thermotropic Liquid Crystal Polymers5.3.6.Block Copolymers5.3.7.Ionomers5.4.Gels5.5.Polymer Surfaces5.5.1.Structure5.5.2.Interfacial Tension5.5.3.Adsorption6.Thermal Properties6.1.Molecular Motion6.1.1.Thermal Expansion6.1.2.Heat Capacity6.1.3.Heat Conductivity6.2.Thermal Transitions and Relaxations6.2.1.Overview6.2.2.Crystallization6.2.3.Melting6.2.4.Liquid Crystal Transitions6.2.5.Glass Transitions6.2.6.Other Transitions and Relaxations6.2.7.Technical Methods6.3.Transport6.3.1.Self‐Diffusion6.3.2.Permeation7.Rheological Properties7.1.Introduction7.2.Shear Viscosities at Rest7.2.1.Fundamentals7.2.2.Molar Mass Dependence7.2.3.Concentrated Solutions7.3.Non‐Newtonian Shear Viscosities7.3.1.Overview7.3.2.Flow Curves7.3.3.Melt Viscosities7.4.Extensional Viscosities7.4.1.Fundamentals7.4.2.Melts7.4.3.Solutions8.Mechanical Properties8.1.Introduction8.1.1.Deformation of Polymers8.1.2.Tensile Tests8.1.3.Moduli and Poisson Ratios8.2.Energy Elasticity8.2.1.Theoretical Moduli8.2.2.Real Moduli8.2.3.Temperature Dependence8.3.Entropy Elasticity8.4.Viscoelasticity8.4.1.Fundamentals8.4.2.Time–Temperature Superposition8.5.Dynamic Behavior8.5.1.Fundamentals8.5.2.Molecular Interpretations8.6.Fracture8.6.1.Overview8.6.2.Theoretical Fracture Strength8.6.3.Real Fracture Strength8.6.4.Impact Resistance8.6.5.Stress Cracking8.6.6.Fatigue8.7.Surface Mechanics8.7.1.Hardness8.7.2.Friction8.7.3.Abrasion and Wear9.Electric Properties9.1.Dielectric Properties9.1.1.Relative Permittivity9.1.2.Dielectric Loss9.1.3.Dielectric Strength and Tracking Resistance9.1.4.Electrostatic Charging9.2.Electrical Conductivity9.3.Photoconductivity10.Optical Properties11.Polymer Composites11.1.Introduction11.1.1.Overview11.1.2.Mixture Rules11.2.Filled Polymers11.2.1.Microcomposites11.2.2.Molecular Composites11.2.3.Macrocomposites11.3.Homogeneous Blends11.3.1.Thermodynamics11.3.2.Plastification11.3.3.Rubber Blends11.3.4.Plastic Blends11.4.Heterogeneous Blends11.4.1.Compatible Polymers11.4.2.Blend Formation11.4.3.Toughened Plastics11.4.4.Thermoplastic Elastomers11.5.Expanded Plastics12.Waste Disposal