bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Experimental realization of open magnetic shielding
Authors: Gu C. , Chen S. , Pang T. , Qu T.-M.
Published: May 2017

The detection of extremely low magnetic fields has various applications in the area of fundamental research, medical diagnosis, and industry. Extracting the valuable signals from noises often requires magnetic shielding facilities. We demonstrated directly from Maxwell's equations that specifically designed superconductor coils can exactly shield the magnetic field to an extremely low value. We experimentally confirmed this effect in the frequency spectrum of 0.01–10 000 Hz and improved the electromagnetic environment in a hospital, a leading hospital in magnetocardiograph study in China.
Multi-scale habitat associations of the black-footed rock-wallaby in north-western South Australia
Authors: Ruykys Laura
Published: May 2017

Context Research on species’ habitat associations is strengthened if it combines coarse-grained landscape data with finer-scale parameters. However, due to the effort required to measure fine-scale parameters, studies on threatened species that unite these two scales remain relatively rare. Aim This study aimed to undertake a multi-scale analysis of the habitat association of the threatened Petrogale lateralis (MacDonnell Ranges race) in the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) Lands, South Australia. Method Analyses were conducted at four spatial scales: (1) across the Central Ranges IBRA Region (regional scale); (2) on hills in the APY Lands at which P. lateralis is extant and extinct (site scale); (3) at ‘core’ and ‘non-core’ areas within those hills (hillside scale); and (4) at rocky refuges. The maximum entropy approach through the software MaxEnt was used for the analysis at the regional scale. At the remaining scales, fieldwork was used to collect, and regression modelling to analyse, data. Key results At the regional scale, presence was associated with slope and geology. At the site scale, aspect, rock abundance and habitat type are likely to have facilitated animal persistence at extant sites. At the hillside scale, the aspect, vegetation type and rock complexity of core areas are likely to have contributed to their higher use. Size, exposure and accessibility were significant predictors of the use of rocky refuges. Conclusions All four spatial scales yielded novel information on the habitat associations of P. lateralis, supporting previous researchers’ suggestions that habitat modelling should be conducted at multiple spatial scales. Implications The study exemplifies the utility of combining MaxEnt modelling with fieldwork-derived data. The results may have conservation implications for this threatened race, and may also provide a model for other studies of faunal habitat associations.
The wisdom of crowds for visual search
Authors: Juni Mordechai Z. , Eckstein Miguel P.
Published: May 2017

Significance

Simple majority voting is a widespread, effective mechanism to exploit the wisdom of crowds. We explored scenarios where, from decision to decision, a varying minority of group members often has increased information relative to the majority of the group. We show how this happens for visual search with large image data and how the resulting pooling benefits are greater than previously thought based on simpler perceptual tasks. Furthermore, we show how simple majority voting obtains inferior benefits for such scenarios relative to averaging people’s confidences. These findings could apply to life-critical medical and geospatial imaging decisions that require searching large data volumes and, more generally, to any decision-making task for which the minority of group members with high expertise varies across decisions.
Entropic forces drive self-organization and membrane fusion by SNARE proteins
Authors: Mostafavi Hakhamanesh , Thiyagarajan Sathish , Stratton Benjamin S. , Karatekin Erdem , Warner Jason M. , Rothman James E. , O’Shaughnessy Ben
Published: May 2017

Significance

Secretion of neurotransmitters and hormones depends on membrane fusion, accomplished by a cellular fusion machinery whose core components are SNARE proteins. Several vesicle-associated v-SNAREs form SNAREpin complexes with target membrane-associated t-SNAREs, but how they cooperate to catalyze fusion is unknown. Using highly coarse-grained simulations, we found that steric interactions spontaneously organized SNAREpins into circular clusters, expanded the clusters, and forced membranes together. These are entropic effects, reminiscent of cooperative transitions in solutions of rod-like molecules. The rate of fusion was controlled by the number of SNAREs, because more SNAREs generated greater entropic forces. Given ∼70 v-SNAREs available per synaptic vesicle, entropic cooperativity among SNAREpins may underlie the sub-millisecond timescale of neurotransmitter release.
Dynamic microtubules regulate cellular contractility during T-cell activation
Authors: Hui King Lam , Upadhyaya Arpita
Published: May 2017

Significance

T-cell activation is an essential event in the adaptive immune response to fight against infections. T cells were recently shown to be mechanosensitive, and to exert forces actively on the opposing antigen-presenting cell during activation. However, the molecular basis of force generation by T cells is poorly understood. Here, we report a molecular mechanism that involves the T-cell microtubule (MT) and actomyosin cytoskeletons, which interact through Rho GTPase activity. Our study highlights the role played by the MT cytoskeleton in regulating actomyosin-generated forces, which play a key role in T-cell activation.
Exclusion of alternative exon 33 of Ca
V
1.2 calcium channels in heart is proarrhythmogenic
Authors: Li Guang , Wang Juejin , Liao Ping , Bartels Peter , Zhang Hengyu , Yu Dejie , Liang Mui Cheng , Poh Kian Keong , Yu Chye Yun , Jiang Fengli , Yong Tan Fong , Wong Yuk Peng , Hu Zhenyu , Huang Hua , Zhang Guangqin , Galupo Mary Joyce , Bian Jin-Song , Ponniah Sathivel , Trasti Scott Lee , See Kelvin , Foo Roger , Hoppe Uta C. , Herzig Stefan , Soong Tuck Wah
Published: May 2017

Significance

To directly address in vivo significance of the altered Ca
V
1.2 channel property arising from alternative splicing, we generated Ca
V
1.2 exon 33-specific knockout (exon 33
−/−
) mice. Here, we showed that the exclusion of alternative exon 33 altered Ca
V
1.2 biophysical property, leading to greater
I
Ca
density. This increase in current density induced prolongation of ventricular cardiomyocyte action potential duration, and the cardiomyocytes exhibited increased early afterdepolarizations and autonomous action potentials—hallmarks of arrhythmias. In vivo, exon 33
−/−
mice had increased occurrences of premature ventricular contractions, tachycardia, and lengthened QT interval. As such, exclusion of exon 33 of the Ca
V
1.2 channel is proarrhythmogenic. Although failing human hearts had greater inclusion of exon 33, it is unclear whether the inclusion is compensatory, neutral, or damaging.
Structural basis for spumavirus GAG tethering to chromatin
Authors: Lesbats Paul , Serrao Erik , Maskell Daniel P. , Pye Valerie E. , O’Reilly Nicola , Lindemann Dirk , Engelman Alan N. , Cherepanov Peter
Published: May 2017

Significance

Spumaviruses are being developed as vectors for gene-therapy applications, but how these retroviruses select genomic locations for integration remains unknown. Here we use X-ray crystallography to visualize the interaction between the spumaviral GAG protein and a nucleosome. We show that this interaction is essential for the observed distribution of spumavirus integration sites in various human cell types. Thus, despite stark differences in the mechanistic details of spumavirus and orthoretrovirus replication strategies, both retroviral subfamilies depend on their structural proteins to locate optimal integration sites.
Shelterin components mediate genome reorganization in response to replication stress
Authors: Mizuguchi Takeshi , Taneja Nitika , Matsuda Emiko , Belton Jon-Matthew , FitzGerald Peter , Dekker Job , Grewal Shiv I. S.
Published: May 2017

Significance

Genome organization affects many critical nuclear functions. Notably, the nuclear periphery has emerged as a specialized compartment for the regulation of transcription, replication, and DNA damage repair activities. Here, we find that cells carrying a mutation in the broadly distributed DNA-binding protein Sap1 experience replication stress and genome instability and undergo a genome reorganization featuring new contacts between chromosome arms and telomeres. These prominent new interactions are mediated by the Taz1–Shelterin telomere protection complex and include specific chromosome arm regions containing replication origins bound by Taz1. Our findings uncover an unexpected role for Shelterin in mediating genome reorganization in cells undergoing replication stress.
Globalism and cultural tensions
Authors: Li Mo , Albakry Mohammed
Published: May 2017

Based on a corpus of 200 articles from the People’s Daily and the People’s Daily Overseas Edition collected from 2010 to 2012, we examined the representation of English, applying framing theory (Chong & Druckman, 2007). The results indicate four dominant frames shared by both newspapers: exclusion/oppression, warfare/protection, yardstick/benchmark, and bridge/needs. Both papers perceive the English language as a resource while constructing a Chinese identity fundamentally in competition with a Western identity reinforced by the English language. However, while both papers project the image of China as a unified, benign country proud of its linguistic and cultural heritage, the Overseas Edition seems more conscious in representing China as a motherland in need of protection from the threatening socio-cultural force of English. The article seeks to contribute to the growing body of research on language and identity in China, English and globalization, and the perception of English in the expanding circle.
Discursive and pragmatic functions of Latin em
Authors: Gómez Luis Unceta
Published: May 2017

The Latin particle em, mainly attested in Archaic Latin, is the apocopated form of eme, the imperative of the verb emere ‘to take, acquire, purchase’. The traditional understanding of this element has been that of a secondary interjection. This interpretation, however, presents a number of problems that can be traced to the lack of a pragmatic perspective. In a corpus as old as the comedies of Plautus (c. 254–184 bc), em seems completely grammaticalized and paired with procedural meanings. This paper offers an in-depth analysis of the various discursive and pragmatic functions of em, mainly addressee-oriented and used to regulate the communicative exchange, and compares this Latin unit with similar ones in certain modern languages. In this way, this study not only helps us better understand the procedural meanings of this particular unit, but also offers a diachronic perspective of pragmaticalization phenomena.
Constituent order in directives with stative verbs in Latin
Authors: Cabrillana Concepción
Published: May 2017

This paper considers constituent ordering in monovalent and bivalent constructions of two Latin stative verbs – sum ‘to be’ and fio ‘to become’ – when they appear in directives, assessing the degree of speaker-addressee interaction. We use Risselada’s classification of the different subtypes of directives based on the extent to which compliance with what the speaker expresses is obligatory. The findings reveal that, given (i) the difference in the number of arguments and in semantic content of monovalent and bivalent structures, and (ii) the incidence of modality (declarative/directive), the order of constituents different in each case. Furthermore, tendencies in constituent patterns are more uniform when expressions are more prototypically directive, although not in a wholly scalar way. Hence, the peculiarities or deviations observed require specific explanations, such as the structure of “world-creation”, the kind of proposal made, or the existence of expressions with different degrees of lexicalization.
Res Gestae Divi Augusti
Authors: de la Villa Jesús
Published: May 2017

This paper analyzes the word order of the Greek text of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti and compares it with the word order of the original Latin version. This comparison shows that the predominant word order in the Greek text largely coincides with the basic patterns previously proposed for literary texts. Second, that there is a high degree of coincidence between the word order patterns of the Latin and the Greek versions of this text. However, there are discrepancies in a number of cases. These discrepancies are analyzed in detail and some explanations are proposed for them.
Calling translation to the bar
Authors: Orlando Daniele
Published: May 2017

This paper proposes a comparative analysis of the translation errors made by prospective legal translation trainees, with a special focus on the (mis)use of legal terminology and phraseology. The investigation relies on the data produced and collected within a wider empirical study on the translation problems faced by a cohort of translation graduates with no specialisation in legal translation on the one hand, and a cohort of linguistically-skilled lawyers with no translation-related qualifications on the other, who translated the same criminal law document from English into Italian. The translation errors made by the two cohorts have been classified on the basis of the categories proposed by Mossop (2014) and assessed following the severity scale devised by Vollmar (2001). The Translation Quality Index (cf. Schiaffino and Zearo 2006) thus obtained has allowed for the ranking of the participants in the five quality levels identified for legal translation by Prieto Ramos (2014). The findings of the quantitative and qualitative analyses of errors are also traced back to the participants’ translation process by triangulating data from the different collection methods used within the empirical study, i.e. screen recording, keystroke logging and questionnaires, with particular reference to time and reference material use. The specific design of this investigation, which considers the participants’ prior education as additional variable, allows for the identification of a possible correlation between the different backgrounds of the translators and the quality of their translations, with general consequences on the conceptualisation of legal translation competence and effective training.
Use of Morphological and Physiological Indices to Characterize Life History Diversity in Juvenile Hatchery Winter‐Run Steelhead
Authors: Larsen Donald A. , Middleton Mollie A. , Dickey Jon T. , Gerstenberger Ryan S. , Brun Chris V. , Swanson Penny
Published: May 2017

Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss exhibit significant life history plasticity, including variation in freshwater residence time, age of smoltification, and maturation that are influenced by exceeding specific thresholds in size or body energy stores. Fish that do not reach minimum thresholds for smoltification or exceed thresholds for maturation may “residualize” in freshwater. Understanding life history diversity is important in steelhead hatchery programs. The objective of this investigation was to characterize life history diversity in Hood River, Oregon, hatchery winter‐run steelhead prior to release. We used both morphological and physiological indices to assess degree of smoltification in both sexes and maturation in males. Smoltification was categorized by measuring size, visual smolt index, and gill Na+/K+‐ATPase activity. All females were determined to be immature. Male reproductive development required histological staging of testes. Other indices of maturation—including gonadosomatic index, plasma 11‐ketotestosterone, and pituitary fshb and lhb and testis ifg3 and amh gene expression—were also employed, with varying degrees of success. Five phenotypes were described: (1) immature male and female parr; (2) precociously mature male parr; (3) male smolts in early to mid‐spermatogenesis that are likely to spawn after <1 year in the ocean; (4) males that might have attempted maturation, but failed; and (5) immature male and female smolts that could mature after >1 year in the ocean. Over three brood years, we estimated that 3–4% of the population could potentially residualize due to failure to smolt or precocious male maturation, 1–12% could mature after <1 year in the ocean (one salt male), and 84–95% could mature after >1 year in the ocean (two to three salt males and females). Based on previous studies conducted in the Hood River basin, the residualism rate estimated for this hatchery population is lower than that of naturally rearing Hood River steelhead.

Received November 2, 2016; accepted February 14, 2017 Published online May 11, 2017
Masked primes evoke partial responses
Authors: McBride Jennifer , Sumner Petroc , Husain Masud
Published: May 2017

Backward-masked primes presented outside conscious awareness can affect responses to subsequently presented target stimuli. Differences in response times have been used to infer a pattern of sub-threshold activation and subsequent inhibition of motor plans associated with the primes. However, it is unclear whether competition between alternative responses is fully resolved in the brain or whether activated responses can begin being executed before the final decision to act has been made. Here, we investigate the dynamics of responses evoked by masked primes using a continuous measure – voltage change in force-sensing resistors simultaneously in both hands. Masked primes produced the predicted pattern of motor activation and subsequent inhibition of the primed response. There is no evidence that the effects of masked primes interact with spatial compatibility (e.g., Simon) effects, suggesting separate mechanisms underpinning these effects. Moreover, masked primes evoked partial motor decisions – measurable at the effectors as small amounts of erroneous response – which were usually rapidly corrected. Together, these errors and fast corrections question the ‘sub-threshold’ nature of responses evoked by masked primes and provide important constraints on models of decision-making.
The mechanics of microtubule networks in cell division
Authors: Forth Scott , Kapoor Tarun M.
Published: May 2017

The primary goal of a dividing somatic cell is to accurately and equally segregate its genome into two new daughter cells. In eukaryotes, this process is performed by a self-organized structure called the mitotic spindle. It has long been appreciated that mechanical forces must be applied to chromosomes. At the same time, the network of microtubules in the spindle must be able to apply and sustain large forces to maintain spindle integrity. Here we consider recent efforts to measure forces generated within microtubule networks by ensembles of key proteins. New findings, such as length-dependent force generation, protein clustering by asymmetric friction, and entropic expansion forces will help advance models of force generation needed for spindle function and maintaining integrity.
Mechanically patterned neuromuscular junctions-in-a-dish have improved functional maturation
Authors: Happe Cassandra L. , Tenerelli Kevin P. , Gromova Anastasia K. , Kolb Frederic , Engler Adam J.
Published: May 2017

Motor neuron (MN) diseases are progressive disorders resulting from degeneration of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), which form the connection between MNs and muscle fibers. NMJ-in-a-dish models have been developed to examine human MN-associated dysfunction with disease; however such coculture models have randomly oriented myotubes with immature synapses that contract asynchronously. Mechanically patterned (MP) extracellular matrix with alternating soft and stiff stripes improves current NMJ-in-a-dish models by inducing both mouse and human myoblast durotaxis to stripes where they aligned, differentiated, and fused into patterned myotubes. Compared to conventional culture on rigid substrates or unpatterned hydrogels, MP substrates supported increased differentiation and fusion, significantly larger acetylcholine (ACh) receptor clusters, and increased expression of MuSK and Lrp4, two cell surface receptors required for NMJ formation. Robust contractions were observed when mouse myotubes were stimulated by ACh, with twitch duration and frequency most closely resembling those for mature muscle on MP substrates. Fused myotubes, when cocultured with MNs, were able to form even larger NMJs. Thus MP matrices produce more functionally active NMJs-in-a-dish, which could be used to elucidate disease pathology and facilitate drug discovery.
Maternalist and Community Politics
Authors: Reese Ellen , Breckenridge-Jackson Ian , McCoy Julisa
Published: May 2017

This chapter explores the history of maternalist mobilization and women’s community politics in the United States. It argues that both “maternalism” and “community” have proved to be highly flexible mobilizing frames for women. Building on the insights of intersectionality theory, the authors suggest that women’s maternal and community politics is shaped by their social locations within multiple, intersecting relations of domination and subordination, as well as their political ideologies and historical context. The chapter begins by discussing the politically contradictory history of maternalist mobilization within the United States from the Progressive era to the present. It then explores other forms of women’s community politics, focusing on women’s community volunteerism, self-help groups, and community organizing. It discusses how these frames have been used both to build alliances among women and to divide or exclude women based on perceived differences and social inequalities based on race, nativity, class, or sexual orientation.
Movement Emergence and Resource Mobilization
Authors: Van Dyke Nella
Published: May 2017

This chapter explores women’s movement emergence, and the role of organizations, leadership, and coalitions in women’s mobilizations. It begins by discussing the factors that influenced the emergence of the first and second waves of feminist organizing. The chapter also presents debates around organizational structure within the women’s movement and the contributions that both informal and formal organizations make to women’s movement mobilization and success. The next section examines the important roles that women have played as leaders in a range of movements, critical in mobilizing support, developing movement strategies and frames, and sustaining women’s mobilizations over time. Finally, the chapter discusses factors facilitating women’s coalition formation, and the social movement communities of which these coalitions are a part. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of how future research can further increase understanding of how resources, organization, and leadership influence the dynamics of women’s mobilization.
Inside the State
Authors: Banaszak Lee Ann , Whitesell Anne
Published: May 2017

This chapter focuses on women’s activism within government, particularly in national and state legislatures, as well as in the government bureaucracies at the national and state level. It begins by defining women’s activism in these arenas, and then discusses whether the type of activism of these groups fits with the understanding of activism in the social movement literature, drawing connections to issues of substantive and descriptive representation. A second section introduces the different tactics and strategies that these insider activists might utilize. The chapter then examines insider activists within the bureaucracies and legislatures separately, summarizing current understandings of insider activism in each branch and highlighting how institutional forms might influence their activism. We also analyze various definitions of women insider activists in detail, discussing how definitional differences might lead to different conclusions about the roles these women play. Finally, the chapter points to some directions for future research.
Female Empowerment and the Chain of Command: Women in the U.S. Military
Authors: Sanford-Jenson Tiffany , Kohlman Marla H.
Published: May 2017

The U.S. military has garnered considerable scrutiny over how successfully it has incorporated women into full participation. With the formal infusion of women into the Armed Services in the last half of the twentieth century, scholars have begun to examine women’s military experiences as they have entered into new occupational roles, putting women ever closer to controversial combat-related work. Accompanying these increased career opportunities are age-old risks reported in the civilian workplace, including the increased likelihood of harassment, rape, discrimination, subjugation, and other types of gender-based inequality. This chapter provides a detailed synthesis of myriad social movement experiences for women in the military as they have sought to define new roles and participate more fully in the all-volunteer forces. Specifically, the chapter examines sexist practice, combat inclusion, sexual victimization, expansion of reproductive health care, veteran’s benefits, and legal avenues for women’s social movements both in public and private spheres.
What Can Political Science Learn from Economics?
Authors: Jackson Matthew
Published: May 2017

This chapter is one of six in this book in which a leading scholar from another field is interviewed about network science. These scholars bring to bear the perspective and experience of their fields, as well as insights about how network science integrates with questions that tend to be of interest to political scientists. They have knowledgeable and unique perspectives on the potential intellectual contributions that political scientists can make using network science approaches.
Portfolio-Maximizing Strategic Voting in Parliamentary Elections
Authors: Cox Gary W.
Published: May 2017

This chapter reviews work on portfolio-maximizing strategic voting in parliamentary systems. It first offers a typology of strategies, sorting them into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories. This helps organize the literature and identify gaps. It then considers the equilibrium levels of portfolio-maximizing voting. Taking a game-theoretic perspective (where most of the literature takes a decision-theoretic approach) helps clarify how much strategic voting should be expected and also the interconnections between different varieties of strategic behavior. Finally, the chapter reviews the empirical evidence on the incidence of portfolio-maximizing voting, concluding with some thoughts on fruitful ways forward for future research.
Ecological Sampling Methods for Studying Everyday Situations
Authors: Wrzus Cornelia , Mehl Matthias R.
Published: May 2017

This chapter reviews existing and emerging methodologies for the ambulatory assessment of real-world situations. It distinguishes between first-person/subjective and third-person/objective approaches and provides research examples for each reviewed ecological assessment method. The chapter opens with a discussion of why it is important to assess situations directly in daily life. The following two main sections review approaches for (a) the first-person assessment of real-world situation experiences and perceptions, such as experience sampling and daily diary approaches, and (b) the third-person assessment of objective real-world situation cues, such as naturalistic observation and mobile sensing. Finally, the chapter provides a methodological discussion of the cue-perception interplay and highlights potential future directions in the study of everyday situations.
Performance Feedback in Organizations and Groups
Authors: Greve Henrich R. , Gaba Vibha
Published: May 2017

Organizational change in response to performance below the aspiration level has become a very active research topic in organizational learning. It uses the ideas of performance feedback theory, which in turn is based on the process of problemistic search in the behavioral theory of the firm. Similar processes have also been studied at the individual level using ideas from goal-setting theory. In this chapter, we review work on performance feedback at the organization level, note some parallels to work at the individual level, and discuss the potential for new research on performance feedback at the group level. Our goal is both to summarize recent achievements and to point to a significant gap in the literature, with the potential for much fruitful research.
The Emergence and Development of the International Intellectual Property System
Authors: Ricketson Sam
Published: May 2017

This Chapter identifies and describes the principal features of the international arrangements for protecting intellectual property rights (IPRs) in countries other than those of their originator or creator. In the case of national or regional IP laws, these connections are readily identifiable. At the international level, however, they are less obvious, and many gaps and inconsistencies arise. Nonetheless, the Chapter argues that a ‘system’ for the international recognition and protection of IPRs is still clearly discernible and can be described. It begins with a brief account of the objectives of that system and its principal organizing principles, and then moves to consider its principal actors and the means by which its protection is achieved, namely through a series of international conventions or treaties of varying content and particularity. The Chapter concludes by noting a number of pressures, both internal and external, to which the system thus comprised is subject.
Cooperative and Competitive Mothering
Authors: Sokol-Chang Rosemarie I. , Burch Rebecca L. , Fisher Maryanne L.
Published: May 2017

Mothers face a novel situation compared to other human roles. While there are benefits in cooperating with others for shared resources, there are simultaneously benefits in competing for one’s own gains. Moreover, infants pose unique challenges to mothers, requiring extended provisioning and protection. Women cooperate and support each other to benefit the group and in particular their children; however, mothers may benefit from competing for limited resources that directly impact on them and their children and, hence, engage in indirect reproductive competition. The quandary for mothers becomes whether they should cooperate or compete with other mothers, especially when resources related to reproduction and child care are in limited supply. We review literature on cooperative breeding and allomothering, present literature on women’s reproductive competition, and explore limitations on investigating cooperation or competition. We then bring cooperation and competition together and address how mothers follow both strategies, concluding with suggestions for future work.
The Acquisition and Use of Causal Structure Knowledge
Authors: Rottman Benjamin Margolin
Published: May 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to how humans learn and reason about multiple causal relations connected together in a causal structure. The first half of the chapter focuses on how people learn causal structures. The main topics involve learning from observations versus interventions, learning temporal versus atemporal causal structures, and learning the parameters of a causal structure including individual cause-effect strengths and how multiple causes combine to produce an effect. The second half of the chapter focuses on how individuals reason about the causal structure, such as making predictions about one variable given knowledge about other variables, once the structure has been learned. Some of the most important topics involve reasoning about observations versus interventions, how well people reason compared to normative models, and whether causal structure beliefs bias reasoning. In both sections the author highlights open empirical and theoretical questions.
Causal Mechanisms
Authors: Johnson Samuel G. B. , Ahn Woo-kyoung
Published: May 2017

This chapter reviews empirical and theoretical results concerning knowledge of causal mechanisms—beliefs about how and why events are causally linked. First, it reviews the effects of mechanism knowledge, showing that mechanism knowledge can override other cues to causality (including covariation evidence and temporal cues) and structural constraints (the Markov condition), and that mechanisms play a key role in various forms of inductive inference. Second, it examines several theories of how mechanisms are mentally represented—as associations, forces or powers, icons, abstract placeholders, networks, or schemas—and the empirical evidence bearing on each theory. Finally, it describes ways that people acquire mechanism knowledge, discussing the contributions from statistical induction, testimony, reasoning, and perception. For each of these topics, it highlights key open questions for future research.
Singular Causation
Authors: Danks David
Published: May 2017

Causal relations between specific events are often critically important for learning, understanding, and reasoning about the world. This chapter examines both philosophical accounts of the nature of singular causation, and psychological theories of people’s judgments and reasoning about singular causation. It explores the content of different classes of theories, many of which are based on either some type of physical process connecting cause and effect, or else some kind of difference-making (or counterfactual) impact of the cause on the effect. In addition, this chapter examines various theoretical similarities and differences, particularly between philosophical and psychological theories that appear superficially similar. One consistent theme that emerges in almost every account is the role of general causal relations in shaping human judgments and understandings about singular causation.
Cognitive Neuroscience of Causal Reasoning
Authors: Operskalski Joachim T. , Barbey Aron K.
Published: May 2017

The era of functional neuroimaging promised to shed light on dark corners of the brain’s inner workings, breathing new life into subfields of psychology beset by controversy. Although revelations from neuroscience provide the foundation for current views on many aspects of human cognition, there continue to be areas of study in which a mismatch between the questions asked by psychologists and neuroscientists renders the implications of neuroscience research unclear. Causal reasoning is one such topic, for which decades of cognitive neuroscience findings have revealed a heterogeneity of participating brain regions and networks across different experimental paradigms. This chapter discusses (i) three cognitive and computational models of causal reasoning (mental models, causal models, and force composition theory), (ii) experimental findings on causal judgment and reasoning using cognitive neuroscience methods, and (iii) the need for a multidisciplinary approach to understanding the nature and mechanisms of causal reasoning.
Planning and Control
Authors: Osman Magda
Published: May 2017

For the best part of 30 years, the most influential theoretical and empirical work examining control-based decision-making and planning behaviors has largely neglected the importance of causality. Causal relations are essential for capturing the structural relationship between events in the world and individuals as they coordinate their actions toward anticipating (planning) and then managing (control) those events. Causal representations are the mental form by which individuals are able to simulate future events resulting from actions aimed at reaching a goal (planning), and maintaining that goal (control). The aim of this chapter is to examine the unsung work in planning and control that brings the role of causal relations and causal representations into the fore, and to speculate what the future research horizons for both might look like.
Causality in Decision-Making
Authors: Hagmayer York , Fernbach Philip
Published: May 2017

Although causality is rarely discussed in texts on decision-making, decisions often depend on causal knowledge and causal reasoning. This chapter reviews what is known about how people integrate causal considerations into their choice processes. It first introduces causal decision theory, a normative theory of choice based on the idea that rational decision-making requires considering the causal structure underlying a decision problem. It then provides an overview of empirical studies that explore how causal assumptions influence choice and test predictions derived from causal decision theory. Next it reviews three descriptive theories that integrate causal thinking into decision-making, each in a different way: the causal model theory of choice, the story model of decision-making, and attribution theory. It discusses commonalities and differences between the theories and the role of causality in other decision-making theories. It concludes by noting challenges that lie ahead for research on the role of causal reasoning in decision-making.
Causality and Causal Reasoning in Natural Language
Authors: Solstad Torgrim , Bott Oliver
Published: May 2017

This chapter provides a combined overview of theoretical and psycholinguistic approaches to causality in language. The chapter’s main phenomenological focus is on causal relations as expressed intra-clausally by verbs (e.g., break, open) and between sentences by discourse markers (e.g., because, therefore). Special attention is given to implicit causality verbs that are argued to trigger expectations of explanations to occur in subsequent discourse. The chapter also discusses linguistic expressions that do not encode causation as such, but that seem to be dependent on a causal model for their adequate evaluation, such as counterfactual conditionals. The discussion of the phenomena is complemented by an overview of important aspects of their cognitive processing as revealed by psycholinguistic experimentation.
Formalizing Prior Knowledge in Causal Induction
Authors: Griffiths Thomas L.
Published: May 2017

Prior knowledge plays a central role in causal induction, helping to explain how people are capable of identifying causal relationships from small amounts of data. Bayesian inference provides a way to characterize the influence that prior knowledge should have on causal induction, as well as an explanation for how that knowledge could itself be acquired. Using the theory-based causal induction framework of Griffiths and Tenenbaum (2009), this chapter reviews recent work exploring the relationship between prior knowledge and causal induction, highlighting some of the ways in which people’s expectations about causal relationships differ from approaches to causal learning in statistics and computer science.
Voice Management and the Older Singer
Authors: Davidson Jane W. , Murray Lynne
Published: May 2017

This chapter explores the vocal ecology of older singers, focusing on three categories of singers: the professional and/or successful soloist who is approaching the end of a singing career; the amateur chorister; and the community singing group participant. It provides an overview of the physical impacts of vocal aging, and addresses also how personality traits can affect a person’s attitude toward aging and his or her ability to manage the effects of vocal aging. Being—or becoming—a singer in this phase of life offers a range of cognitive insights and challenges to the singer and the singing teacher. Through case studies of five singers, and data from a community choir averaging 85 years old, the chapter examines teaching strategies that can be used to ensure that singers can be supported and encouraged to continue to receive the psycho-social and physical benefits of singing, no matter what their age.
Law and Economics of Evidence
Authors: Sanchirico Chris William
Published: May 2017

The legal field of evidence concerns how deductions regarding acts and circumstances are or should be made from testimony, documents, and other presentations, whether proffered by interested parties or uncovered by the factfinder’s own investigation. This chapter describes the portion of the academic literature on legal evidence that employs mathematical/economic modeling. It begins by reviewing the four main mathematical/economic approaches: pure probabilistic deduction, omission models, endogenous cost signaling, and correlated private information. Then it discusses the application of mathematical/economic analysis to several specific evidentiary rules, including character evidence, hearsay, privileges, proof burdens, and penalties for evidentiary misconduct.
Settlement and Trial
Authors: Daughety Andrew F. , Reinganum Jennifer F.
Published: May 2017

This chapter provides a brief review of selected settlement bargaining models in some areas where new work is developing and where additional work is likely to yield further important results. The focus is on what might be thought of as the environment of the settlement negotiation process, where bargaining failure generally results in trial; this perspective is used to organize the work discussed. The chapter considers the impact on settlement and trial of procedural strategies such as motions for a preliminary injunction, permissive joinder, and discovery and disclosure; pre-trial investments, either by the parties themselves, or by third parties; and the delegation of bargaining authority to the plaintiff’s attorney.
Regulatory Decision-Making and Economic Analysis
Authors: Cuéllar Mariano-Florentino , Mashaw Jerry L.
Published: May 2017

The economic analysis of regulation is a broad topic, with implications for environmental protection, communications and technology policy, public health, immigration, national security, and other areas affecting risk and welfare in society. This chapter covers only a portion of the relevant ground, focusing on the following essential topics: First, what do we mean by “economic analysis” and what do we mean by “regulation”? Second, why has this topic become an important one, not only the United States, but in most advanced democracies? Third, why is economic analysis and regulation a contested, even contentious, aspect of modern regulatory activity? Finally, and most important, how is economic analysis structured into regulatory decision-making, and how might existing arrangements evolve over time?
Choice of Law and Conflict of Laws
Authors: O'Hara-O'Connor Erin
Published: May 2017

This chapter explores the contribution of law and economics to conflict of laws, including choice of law, personal jurisdiction, and judgment recognition and enforcement. Consistent with developments in the literature, the majority of discussion focuses on choice of law, or how best to allocate sovereign authority over governing law when private disputes involve people or events that span multiple states or nations. The tension between private and state interests and the contributions of jurisdictional competition are considered, as is state incentives to cooperate, harmonize, and/or reciprocate in each of the substantive areas covered. Both federalism and international relations issues are briefly discussed.
The Future of Law and Economics
Authors: Becker Gary S. , Posner Richard A.
Published: May 2017

This exchange between Judge Posner and Professor Becker — two founding fathers of our discipline — was composed almost three years ago, but the perspective and wisdom of this exchange remains most relevant to this day. Since then, Professor Becker has died; Judge Posner has added a brief remembrance of Becker at the end of this exchange.
Experimental Economics and the Law
Authors: Holt Charles , Sullivan Sean P.
Published: May 2017

Experimental economics finds an analytical foothold in at least three archetypal areas of legal scholarship and practice. First, it can be used to explore the functioning of legal institutions, such as settlement bargaining, jury deliberation, and alternative dispute resolution. Second, it can be directed to the study of legal doctrines, such as those relating to proper-ty-rule liability, damages doctrines, and the negligence standard. Third, it can contribute to the practice of law, for example, by informing how the presentation of probabilities is handled at trial, or how damages claims or other complicated legal theories are demonstrated to the trier of fact. This article illustrates the current achievements and future role of experimental economics in shaping law and legal analysis in each of these three broad subject areas. Starting with a brief primer on the theory and methodology of experimental economics, the article goes on to discuss some important topics within each broad area of application. It focuses on general findings, areas for development, and opportunities for innovation and growth. The unifying theme of this discussion is a versatile relationship between experimental economics and legal analysis broadly construed.
Social Psychology and the Law
Authors: Mueller Pam , Nadler Janice
Published: May 2017

Research in psychological science, specifically social psychology, has challenged many of the law's assumptions about human behaviour. Traditionally, these challenges have focused on a fairly narrow range of legal processes involving courtroom evidence and decision making. Thus, social psychologists have examined problems and processes such as pre-trial publicity, interrogations and confessions, juror and jury decision making, and the like. In the related field of cognitive psychology, important contributions from research in memory regarding eyewitness testimony and eyewitness identification have led to greater scrutiny and occasionally expert testimony at trials. This article discusses findings from some of the traditional intersections of law and social psychology, many of which focus on courtroom processes and procedures. It also explores the ways in which more recent findings in social psychology inform debates about legal issues such as punishment, discrimination, morality, mens rea, and remorse, as well of out-of-court processes such as negotiation and dispute resolution.
Evolutionary Law and Economics
Authors: von Wangenheim Georg
Published: May 2017

This article examines the use of evolutionary theories in law and economics. It begins with a discussion of the concept of evolution. It then explains the central ideas of three central evolutionary approaches in law and economics: the neo-institutional approach, microeconomic models, and the idea of competing jurisdictions. Neo-institutionalist approaches provide a bouquet of arguments which may be used to explain the evolution of law. Microeconomic approaches driven by demand for, and supply of legal rules as well as their interactions with social norms and technological evolution may provide such models, but, since these models are based on Markov processes and thus on stochasticity, they may only describe and predict expected values of legal change. As a consequence, explanations of specific legal variations cannot be traced back to specific elements of these evolutionary theories in law and economics. This caveat persists even if one would extend the models to allow for co-evolution of jurisdictions partly driven by comparative lawyers' research. Nevertheless, the said microeconomic approaches may still be useful for normative evaluations of differences in the law: If the frameworks of legal evolution in jurisdictions differ, the theory may offer arguments for why the evolution in one or the other will tend towards a more desirable outcome (for example efficiency). One should however always be aware that these theories can only make statements on tendencies of evolution, not on specific legal changes. The same caveats apply in an even stronger way to the use of (evolutionary) theories of inter-jurisdictional competition.