bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
State‐mandated accountability as a constraint on teaching and learning science
Authors: Wood Terry
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of state‐mandated policy, emphasizing control through performance‐based instruction and student test scores as the basis for determining school accreditation, on the teaching and learning of science. The intended consequence of instigating the rational theory of management by one state is to improve their current level of student literacy. However, some contend that the implementation of the policy has results that are not intended. The identification of the tension between the intended and unintended results of centralized policy making is the basis for examining a specific case in which the rational model is implemented. One hundred and sixty‐five seventh‐grade science students and four teachers are participants in the study. Qualitative analysis is the research methodology used as a means to provide detailed information about the contextual nature of the classroom processes. The intention is to identify and describe features of the behavior setting that influence the behavior of the teachers and their students. Three assertions generated during the field work were: Teachers redefine the goals of science instruction as the acquisition of facts and isolated skills, teachers alter their usual instructional behavior to implement uniform instructional procedures, and the teacher/student classroom interaction constrains students' opportunities to learn science. The implications of the study indicate that the state‐mandated policy has results that are in opposition to the intended results. Instead of improving the practices of teachers, the implementation of the policy constrains and routinizes the teachers' behavior, causing them to violate their own standards of good teaching. They feel pressured to “get through” the materials so students will score well on tests. The classroom interaction is structured in such a way as to inhibit students from asking questions of their own. As a result, students' opportunity to express curiosity and inquiry—central processes in scientific thinking—are constrained. These unintended consequences of the implemented state policy, instead of improving science teaching and learning, continue to reduce science instruction to the literal comprehension of isolated facts and skills.
An experimental test of an extended discretion laboratory approach for university general biology
Authors: Leonard William H.
Published: October 2006

This was an experiment to test the extended discretion laboratory approach (ED) versus a guided‐inquiry (GI) approach for teaching biology in a university setting. It had previously been found productive in a high‐school setting. The approach provides considerably less specific procedure for the students to follow than did a guided‐inquiry approach and required relatively high independence. Four hundred sixty‐nine students taking university introductory biology were randomly assigned to using either the ED learning approach or one characterized as guided inquiry for one semester. Three measures were taken to verify that instructional treatments followed the two approaches. All indicated qualitative and quantitative differences between ED and GI approaches in the direction predicted by the operational definitions. The criterion variables were (1) student scores on a multiple‐choice laboratory exam, (2) student scores on laboratory reports, and (3) student scores on six laboratory quizzes given during the semester. The only criterion variable which showed significant differences between groups (laboratory‐report scores) also showed significant group‐by‐instructor interaction. The hypothesis of no difference therefore stood unrejected for all criterion variables. Since the ED approach appears to produce equivalent learning gains in understanding of biology laboratory concepts compared to a guided‐inquiry approach, this approach should still be considered for laboratory teaching, because it purports to train for discretionary use of resources during instruction in addition to the conventional development of laboratory concepts.
Gender and science achievement: A reanalysis of studies from two meta‐analyses
Authors: Becker Betsy Jane
Published: October 2006

Data from 30 studies of the magnitude of gender differences in science achievement previously examined in two separate reviews were synthesized using modern methods for meta‐analysis. Two meta‐analysis methodologies were used: analyses of effect sizes (standardized mean differences) and vote‐counting estimation procedures. Analyses revealed that magnitudes of gender differences in science achievement varied according to the subject matter under study. Males showed significant advantages in studies of biology, general science, and physics, but significant differences were not found for studies of mixed science content, and geology and earth sciences, or in a single study of chemistry. However, in all cases the numbers of effects examining each subject‐matter area were quite small (seven or less). Also, studies which had focused on gender differences evidenced larger gender differences than other studies. Other possible predictors of the magnitudes of gender differences, such as grade level of the subjects and test length, did not account for significant amounts of variation among these study outcomes. Consequently, they also did not provide as strong an explanation of the patterns of gender differences as did subject matter and focus on gender.
Directed‐inquiry approach to learning science process skills: treatment effects and aptitude‐treatment interactions
Authors: Germann Paul J.
Published: October 2006

The directed‐inquiry approach to learning science process skills and scientific problem solving [DIAL(SPS)2] was developed to help high‐school students gain the critical thinking skills required to solve problems in the biology lab. This curriculum integrated several learning strategies into a single approach: advance organizers, the learning cycle, concept maps, Vee diagrams, a focusing strategy, and writing. Two general questions were addressed. First, was the DIAL(SPS)2 treatment more effective than a conventional treatment? Second, was there evidence of an aptitude‐treatment interaction? Four high‐school biology classes taught by this investigator were used to test the DIAL(SPS)2 curriculum. Scheduling of students involved ability grouping. To test the curriculum in the most rigorous way, the experimental group consisted of average ability students and the comparison group consisted of above‐average students. Both the groups were pretested in August and posttested in May. In the intervening time, the experimental group received the DIAL(SPS)2 treatment while the comparison group received a more traditional approach. Analysis of covariance revealed that the DIAL(SPS)2 curriculum had no significant effect on the learning of science process skills or on cognitive development. Aptitude‐treatment interaction analyses revealed an interaction of DIAL(SPS)2 treatment and cognitive development.
An evaluation of the use of analogy, simile, and metaphor in science texts
Authors: Gilbert Steven W.
Published: October 2006

Teaching materials with extensive analogies, similes, and metaphors were written for two high‐school biology units. Their effect on learning and attitude was assessed by a comparison to students using a literal version of the same text. Little was found to support the contention that the use of these systems increases student achievement, and there was some indication that they may have a negative effect on student attitudes.
The contribution of science locus of control orientation to expressions of attitude toward science teaching
Authors: Haury David L.
Published: October 2006

Science locus of control (SciLOC) orientation is examined as a predictor of attitudes toward science teaching among 104 preservice elementary school teachers. SciLOC orientation refers to beliefs people hold regarding their personal efficacy, or ability to influence the outcome of events, in situations where decisions or actions require either the application of scientific knowledge or the use of reasoning skills associated with scientific thinking. A causal model that links such beliefs to attitudes toward science teaching was formulated and tested in this study. Multiple regression analysis demonstrates that 46% of the variance in attitudes toward science teaching expressed by subjects in the sample studied can be explained by SciLOC orientation. Path analysis of the proposed causal model accounts for 57% of the variance in expressed attitudes and 11% of the variance in SciLOC orientation. These results are interpreted as evidence that SciLOC orientation is a major contributor to attitudes expressed toward science teaching among preservice elementary teachers, with the major contributors to SciLOC orientation remaining to be identified. A troublesome relationship between expressed attitudes and academic performance in college science is also noted.
Enlist micros: Training science teachers to use microcomputers
Authors: Baird William E. , Ellis James D. , Kuerbis Paul J.
Published: October 2006

A National Science Foundation grant to the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) at The Colorado College supported the design and production of training materials to encourage literacy of science teachers in the use of microcomputers. ENLIST Micros is based on results of a national needs assessment that identified 22 compentencies needed by K–12 science teachers to use microcomputers for instruction. A writing team developed the 16‐hour training program in the summer of 1985, and field‐test coordinators tested it with 18 preservice or in‐service groups during the 1985–86 academic year at 15 sites within the United States. The training materials consist of video programs, interactive computer disks for the Apple II series microcomputer, a training manual for participants, and a guide for the group leader. The experimental materials address major areas of educational computing: awareness, applications, implementation, evaluation, and resources. Each chapter contains activities developed for this program, such as viewing video segments of science teachers who are using computers effectively and running commercial science and training courseware. Role playing and small‐group interaction help the teachers overcome their reluctance to use computers and plan for effective implementation of microcomputers in the school. This study examines the implementation of educational computing among 47 science teachers who completed the ENLIST Micros training at a southern university. We present results of formative evaluation for that site. Results indicate that both elementary and secondary teachers benefit from the training program and demonstrate gains in attitudes toward computer use. Participating teachers said that the program met its stated objectives and helped them obtain needed skills. Only 33 percent of these teachers, however, reported using computers one year after the training. In June 1986, the BSCS initiated a follow up to the ENLIST Micros curriculum to develop, evaluate, and disseminate a complete model of teacher enhancement for educational computing in the sciences. In that project, we use the ENLIST Micros curriculum as the first step in a training process. The project includes seminars that introduce additional skills: It contains provisions for sharing among participants, monitors use of computers in participants' classrooms, provides structured coaching of participants' use of computers in their classrooms, and offers planned observations of peers using computers in their science teaching.
Evaluation of a model science teacher education program
Authors: Krajcik Joseph S. , Penick John E.
Published: October 2006

This study assessed the effectiveness of one science teacher education program designed to be a model program. The study provided evidence that preservice science teacher education can have a very positive effect on the development of preservice science teachers into effective practicing teachers. Thirty program graduates completed a pilot version of the 1985 National Survey of Science and Mathematics Education providing information on course objectives, teaching strategies, equipment use, time allocation, and textbook use. The responses of program graduates were compared to the responses of a select national sample of teachers. All teachers in the comparison group were from programs in the Search for Excellence in Science Education, Presidential Award winners, recognized as outstanding state science teachers, employed as department chairs, or actively involved in the development of science curriculum. Analysis of the responses indicated that both program graduates and comparison group teachers had similar course objectives and teaching strategies, used materials and equipment a similar amount of time, and allocated class time in similar ways. In another component of the study, students of 37 program graduates completed a questionnaire that assessed their attitudes toward science teachers, science classes, and the study of science. Analysis of attitudinal data from their 2871 students indicated that students of program graduates generally had positive attitudes. For instance, 89% of the students perceived their science teacher as asking questions and 80% perceived their science teacher as letting them ask questions. In general, the data are in stark contrast to the images obtained from National Assessment efforts.
High school students' problem‐solving performance on realistic genetics problems
Authors: Slack Susie Johnston , Stewart Jim
Published: October 2006

Problem solving is recognized as a valuable educational experience in science. Thus genetics, essentially a problem‐solving science included in almost all high school biology courses, offers a fruitful area for studying student problem‐solving performance. The research reported in this article describes the performance of 30 high school students solving 119 problems generated by the computer program GENETICS CONSTRUCTION KIT (Jungck & Calley, 1985). Solving GCK problems requires students to plan experiments, generate and interpret data, and reason from effects (phenotypic data) to causes (genotypic data). Research data consisted of transcribed audiotapes of students thinking aloud as they solved problems and computer printouts of initial data and sequence of crosses. Transcripts were analyzed for common actions and comments made during the problem‐solving process in terms of initial data redescription and interpretation, hypothesis generation, cross data redescription and interpretation, solution synthesis, and solution confirmation. This study was done in an effort to add to the understanding of student problem‐solving strategies and to develop a model of student performance—a model that when combined with a model of expert performance may serve as a basis for improving genetics instruction.
Supplemental instruction in chemistry
Authors: Lundeberg Mary A.
Published: October 2006

This study was designed to measure some effects of supplemental instruction in chemistry. Supplemental instruction is a peer‐led cooperative learning program that encourages students to develop conceptual understanding by articulating both understandings and misconceptions in a think‐aloud fashion. Supplemental instruction was offered three hours weekly outside of class and lab time for students in four classes of General Organic and Biological Chemistry. Over a two‐year period 108 students volunteered to participate in this program; 45 students did not participate. As measured by final grades in chemistry and responses to a questionnaire, supplemental instruction was effective in increasing students' achievement in chemistry. Further research is needed to determine the in‐depth effects of supplemental instruction on students' learning, problem solving, and self‐esteem.
Children's conception of changes in the state of matter: From liquid (or solid) to gas
Authors: Stavy Ruth
Published: October 2006

This research examines children's (ages 9–15) conception of changes in the state of matter from liquid or solid to gas, as well as their understanding of the reversibility of this process. Children were tested for their ability to conserve matter, its identity, and its weight in tasks using evaporation of acetone and sublimation of iodine. It was found that children who recognized weight conservation in one of the tasks did not necessarily recognize the same in the second task. Students believed that gas has no weight, or that gas is lighter than the same material in its liquid or solid state. In addition, students who recognized weight conservation were not always aware of the reversibility of the process. Until the age of 12 specific perceptual input from the task (e.g., color) dramatically influenced students' responses to the conservation of weight task. The relationship between children's intuitive ideas about matter, as observed in this study, and their logical ability to conserve weight, as observed in this study, is discussed.
Three studies of factors affecting the attitudes of blacks and females toward the pursuit of science and science‐related careers
Authors: Hill Oliver W. , Pettus W. Clinton , Hedin Barbara A.
Published: October 2006

This study involved the development of an instrument, the Science Career Predictor Scale (SCPS), which assesses seven factors thought to be involved with science career choices: teacher/counselor encouragement, participation in science‐related hobbies and activities, academic self‐image, science‐related career interest, parental encouragement and support, the perceived relevance of mathematics and science, and mathematics and science ability. This instrument was administered to a sample of 522 middle and high school students, and a sample of 185 students from an historically black university, and the effects of such factors as sex, race, personal acquaintance with a scientist, and type of community (rural or urban) on the above‐mentioned variables were ascertained using a multivariate analysis of covariance with age as the covariate. A separate study on a sample of 81 high school students looked at race and gender differences in critical thinking abilities as measured by the Watson‐Glaser Critical Thinking appraisal, and how these abilities correlated with scores on the Science Career Predictor Scale. These studies produced several significant findings. Female subjects did produce significantly lower scores on the career interest factor. Black students actually had significantly higher science‐career preference scores than their white counterparts. However, blacks scored significantly lower on the measure of critical thinking ability. Across both races and both sexes, however, the major factor affecting science‐related career decisions appears to be personal contact with a scientist. The implications of these findings are discussed, along with possible strategies for increasing the participation of these groups in science.
Building an organized knowledge base: Concept mapping and achievement in secondary school physics
Authors: Pankratius William J.
Published: October 2006

Direct teaching of problem‐solving methods to high school physics students met with little success. Expert problem solving depended upon an organized knowledge base. Concept mapping was found to be a key to organizing an effective knowledge base. The investigation of the effect of the degree of concept mapping on achievement was the purpose of this study. Six intact high school physics classes, taught by this investigator, took part in the study. Two classes were control groups and received standard instruction. Four classes received six weeks of concept‐mapping instruction prior to the unit under study. Two of these four classes were the low‐level treatment group and were required to submit concept maps at the conclusion of the instruction. The other two classes were the high‐level treatment group and were required to submit concept maps at the beginning and at the conclusion of the unit under study. One class from each treatment group took a pretest prior to instruction. An analysis of the posttest results revealed no pretest sensitization. A one‐way analysis of covariance indicated a significant main effect for the treatment level at the p < 0.05 level. A pair of single‐df comparisons of the adjusted treatment means resulted in significant differences (p < 0.05) between the control group and the average of the treatment means as well as between the two experimental groups. It can be concluded that for this sample (upper‐middle‐class high school physics students) mapping concepts prior to, during, and subsequent to instruction led to greater achievement as measured by posttest scores.
Representational systems used by graduate students while problem solving in organic synthesis
Authors: Bowen Craig W.
Published: October 2006

Graduate students taking a course in synthetic organic chemistry were asked to think aloud while solving several synthesis tasks. Analysis of the protocols indicated that subjects used different types of representations while problem solving. Subjects constructed solutions and communicated them through seven systems: Verbal, Pictorial, Methodological, Principles‐Oriented, Literary, Laboratory‐Oriented, and Economic. Beyond the Pictorial and Verbal systems, the most often used system was Methodological in nature—subjects believed the purpose of organic synthesis is to apply rules in a proper order until the task is solved. Subjects considered utilizing other systems of representation if they judged their results to be ambiguous when based on the Methodological system.
Intentions of science teachers to use investigative teaching methods: A test of the theory of planned behavior
Authors: Crawley Frank E.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to explore the utility of the theory of planned behavior for predicting the behavioral intentions of teachers enrolled in the Institute in Physical Science, an EESA, Title II program funded by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. In particular, the study investigated three determinants of teachers' behavioral intentions (BI) set forth in the theory of planned behavior, namely, attitude toward the behavior (AB), subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC). The behavior of interest in this study was the intention of teachers in grades 5/6 or 9/10 who were enrolled in the Institute to use 50% of the activities and investigations completed in the program with students they would teach during the next school year. Data were collected from 50 elementary and secondary teachers. Simple and hierarchical regression analyses were used to determine the relative contributions of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (and their interactions) to the prediction of behavioral intention. Results of this study indicated that attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control made significant contributions to the prediction of behavioral intention. Examination of the data blocked on external variables revealed attitude toward the behavior to be the single most important predictor of behavioral intention. Intent to perform the behavior appears to be totally under the control of most teachers, with little need for social support and with ample resources and sufficient opportunities available to perform the behavior.
The effects of microcomputer‐based laboratory exercises on the acquisition of line graph construction and interpretation skills by high school biology students
Authors: Adams D. Daryl , Shrum John W.
Published: October 2006

Effects of microcomputer‐based laboratories and level of cognitive development on tenth‐grade biology students' ability to construct and interpret line graphs was investigated. Fortysix students enrolled in general biology classes at a rural high school volunteered to participate in the study. These students were administered instruments to assess level of cognitive development and line‐graphing ability. Ten students that scored between zero and three and ten students that scored between six and ten on the graphing assessment were chosen to participate in the study. The 20 students were then assigned to either experimental or conventional groups to achieve a matched design with relation to gender and line‐graphing ability. Statistical analysis of the data indicated no effect due to instructional method on graph‐interpretation abilities. An instructional effect was demonstrated for graph‐construction tasks (p < 0.10) with the conventional group outperforming the microcomputer‐based laboratory group. Effect sizes of −1.01 and 0.48 were found for graph‐construction and ‐interpretation skills, respectively. Effects related to cognitive development were indicated with those students classified as high cognitive development outscoring those classified as low (p < 0.10) This was true for both graph‐construction and graph‐interpretation tasks. No two‐way interactions were found.
Twelfth‐grade biology pupils' opinions on interventions of man in nature: Agreement, indifference and ambivalence
Authors: Dreyfus Amos , Roth Zvi
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to assess the degree of ambivalence of the attitudes of twelfth‐grade biology pupils in Israel towards interventions of man in nature. A questionnaire was designed in which the pupils were confronted with arguments of different levels of potential relevance (personal, global, and philosophical), three against and three in favor of each of eight “interventions of man in natural processes.” The pupil was requested (a) to rate each argument independently and (b) to “vote,” as if in a public committee, for or against each technology. The degree of ambivalence–‐measured, for each item, by means of Kaplan's (1972) semantic differential half scales–‐was the degree to which the pupils agreed to both positive and negative arguments. Although clear majorities of pupils voted in favor of all the “interventions,” three main patterns of responses were found: general agreement, indifference, and ambivalence. These patterns were characterized in terms of (a) the mean ratings of the arguments, (b) the differences between mean positive and negative “personal” ratings, (c) the percentages of favorable votes, and (d) the degrees of ambivalence. It was shown that pupils were able to appreciate arguments against a certain technology even in cases of strong personal feelings in favor of the technology (high ambivalence). The development of such an ability may be one of the main objectives of science education in a STS context.
Cooperative learning and group educational modules: Effects on cognitive achievement of high school biology students
Authors: Watson Scott B.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of cooperative learning and Group Educational Modules (GEM) on the achievement of high school biology students. GEM materials are self‐instructional packets designed for use with groups of biology students. Cooperative learning is a classroom learning environment in which students work in small, mixed‐ability groups toward a common goal. A 2 × 2 factorial design was used in this study. The independent variables considered included (1) participation of students in the GEM project, and (2) use of cooperative learning techniques including heterogeneous grouping and group incentives. The dependent variables for all treatment groups were scores on the instrument developed for this study. A total of 11 teachers with 36 classes and 715 students were included in this study. All teachers involved covered the same general subject matter during the study period. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used as the data analysis procedure. Significant differences were found in the achievement of students using GEM materials and those using traditional instructional approaches. The use of cooperative learning also produced significant differences when compared to traditional classroom structures.
The determinants of grades three to eight students' intentions to engage in laboratory and nonlaboratory science learning behavior
Authors: Ray Brian D.
Published: October 2006

Data were collected from students in grades three to eight (N = 377) in order to identify the determinants of their intentions to perform laboratory and nonlaboratory science activities. Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action was used as the basis for the study. The theory posits that the immediate determinant of behavior is intention. Intention is determined by the weighted attitude toward the behavior and the weighted subjective norm. Attitude toward behavior and subjective norm are determined by combinations of beliefs, evaluations, and motivations to comply. Cores of salient beliefs related to attitude toward laboratory and nonlaboratory behaviors and cores of salient beliefs related to subjective norm for laboratory and nonlaboratory behaviors were identified. Hypotheses generated from the theory were confirmed. Attitude toward behavior and subjective norm explained significant amounts of variance in behavioral intention for both laboratory and nonlaboratory behaviors. Attitude toward behavior had a greater relative weight than subjective norm for both laboratory and nonlaboratory. The correlations between adjacent constructs in the theoretical model were significant in all cases.
Reliability and concurrent validity of a measure of critical thinking skills in biology
Authors: McMurray Mary Anne , Beisenherz Paul , Thompson Bruce
Published: October 2006

The present study investigated the utility of 52 items, selected from a readily available item pool developed for instructional purposes, when the items are used to measure critical thinking abilities of biology students. The items yield scores that have reasonable internal consistency reliability. Furthermore, analyses involving ACT, Watson‐Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, and Group Embedded Figures Test scores also suggest that the critical thinking test items have good concurrent validity. Thus, the measure may be useful in both science instruction and future research regarding critical thinking phenomena.
Effects of novelty‐reducing preparation on exploratory behavior and cognitive learning in a science museum setting
Authors: Kubota Carole A. , Olstad Roger G.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between (a) novelty and exploratory behavior, (b) novelty and cognitive learning, and (c) exploratory behavior and cognitive learning in science museums. Sixty‐four sixth‐grade public school students participated in a posttest‐only control group design. The control group received a treatment designed to decrease the novelty of a field trip setting through a vicarious exposure while the placebo group received an informative but not novelty‐reducing treatment. Both groups then visited the field site where they were videotaped. Statistical analyses were conducted on both dependent variables with socioeconomic status and academic achievement as covariates, novelty‐reducing preparation as the independent variable, and gender as moderator variable. Exploratory behavior was shown to be positively correlated with cognitive learning. Significant differences were detected for exploratory behavior. For both dependent variables, gender by treatment group interaction was significant with novelty‐reducing preparation shown to be highly effective on boys but having no effect on girls.
Children's views concerning phase changes
Authors: Bar Varda , Travis Anthony S.
Published: October 2006

This article reports on answers by children (Grades 1–9) to oral and written questions concerning the phase change from liquid to gas. The development of concepts was followed, proceeding from concrete to abstract ideas. Difficulties in the application of abstractions were found, and participants were frequently misled where a choice of possible correct answers was given. Many students were found to experience difficulties in problem solving even though they may have had the necessary level of knowledge. These findings lead us to emphasize the importance of explaining specific situations and experiences using clear and relevant models to suit the discussion. To this end, a number of suggestions are made for minimizing misunderstandings and enhancing understanding.
Elementary school teachers' beliefs about and perceptions of elementary school science, science reading, science textbooks, and supportive instructional factors
Authors: Shymansky James A. , Yore Larry D. , Good Ronald
Published: October 2006

This article is a report of elementary school teachers' beliefs about and uses of text material in science. Survey results from 522 K‐8 teachers from 299 schools in the United States, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands were analyzed along three dimensions: teacher attitudes toward teaching of reading in science; teacher beliefs and understanding about models of reading, factors influencing science reading and reading skills; and teacher use of various teaching strategies. Results suggest that teachers do not see reading science as different from any other narrative material. And though most agreed to the importance of having students do activities to support and enhance the use of text material, responses suggest that covering topics is still a concern for most elementary teachers.
A cross‐age study of student understanding of the concept of diffusion
Authors: Westbrook Susan L. , Marek Edmund A.
Published: October 2006

This study examined 7th‐grade life science students, 10th‐grade biology students, and college zoology students for understanding of the concept of diffusion. Responses from 100 students from each grade level were randomly selected for data analysis. Each student responded to a test packet consisting of a biographical questionnaire, two Piagetian‐like developmental tasks, and a Concept Evaluation Statement (CES). The CESs were used to measure the students' understandings of the concept of diffusion. None of the 300 students across the three grade levels exhibited complete understanding of the diffusion concept. There was no appreciable difference among the grade levels in sound or partial understanding, misconceptions, or “no understanding.” An analysis of the misconceptions exhibited by the college sample showed that many of the misconceptions could be traced to a misapplication of scientific terminology.
Classroom and community influences on youths' perceptions of science in a rural county school system
Authors: Charron Elisabeth H.
Published: October 2006

This qualitative, descriptive study presents several dimensions of students' science perceptions in Grades 1–12 in a rural county school system, and relates the pupils' viewpoints to school and nonschool experiences, and to the views of local adults. The students' perceptions of science are also used as a basis to explore three issues that were raised by school administrators and teachers in the community of study, and that have general bearing in science education. These issues are (a) the need for articulation of school science offerings across grade levels; (b) the need for the science program to make connections with locally held ideas and values; and (c) the need for the science program to be comprehensive and accurate, reflecting science professional's thinking, and yet retaining sensitivity to local viewpoints.
Cognition in scientific and everyday domains: Comparison and learning implications
Authors: Reif Frederick , Larkin Jill H.
Published: October 2006

An analysis and comparison of everyday life and the domain of science reveals significant differences in their goals and in the cognitive means used to attain these goals. Students' lack of awareness of these differences can lead to pervasive learning difficulties in their study of science. Thus many students (a) have erroneous conceptions of scientific goals, (b) import goals and ways of thinking which are effective in everyday life but inadequate in science, and (c) devise ways of thinking ill suited to science. Additional complications arise because science taught in schools often differs both from actual science and from everyday life. Students' learning difficulties are thus increased because scientific goals are distorted and scientific ways of thinking are inadequately taught. The preceding analysis suggests some empirical investigations and instructional improvements.
Understanding models and their use in science: Conceptions of middle and high school students and experts
Authors: Grosslight Lorraine , Unger Christopher , Jay Eileen , Smith Carol L.
Published: October 2006

Thirty‐three 7th‐grade mixed‐ability students and 22 11th‐grade honors students were interviewed about their conceptions of models and their use in science. Three analyses are presented in order to: (1) portray the character of students' spontaneous answers; (2) examine the criteria students use to decide whether specific items are models or not; and (3) describe how different general levels of understanding models reflect different epistemological viewpoints. Four experts were also interviewed for purposes of comparison. We found that students in both groups have conceptions of models that are basically consistent with a naive realist epistemology. Thus, they are more likely to think of models as physical copies of reality that embody different spatiotemporal perspectives than as constructed representations that may embody different theoretical perspectives. As student ideas become more sophisticated, however, they increasingly include the fact that models are designed for particular purposes, especially to help communication. All of our experts expressed ideas consistent with a constructivist framework, drawing a distinction between abstract and physical models and articulating ways that models are used for the construction and testing of ideas. Our findings suggest that students need more experience using models as intellectual tools, more experience with models that provide contrasting conceptual views of phenomena, and more discussions of the roles of models in the service of scientific inquiry.
Textbook use and the biology education desired state
Authors: Gottfried Sandra S. , Kyle William C.
Published: October 2006

This microethnographic study investigated the use of textbooks in six high school biology teachers' classrooms. Purposeful sampling techniques identified three textbook‐centered (TC) teachers and three multiple‐reference (MR) teachers. Composite profiles of TC and MR teachers and their classroom environments were constructed using data collected during classroom observations. The data were categorized and analyzed using the Project Synthesis “desired state” and “actual state” categories and descriptors as a framework (Harms & Yager, 1981). Thus, this study sought to ascertain if the nature of teachers' textbook use reveals relationships between factors indicative of the biology education “desired state” or “actual state” criteria. TC biology classrooms aligned with the actual state criteria in over 95% of the data entries. MR biology classrooms aligned about equally with the actual state and desired state criteria. Regardless of textbook orientation, teachers did not utilize desired state criteria in the process of evaluating student performance. Factors other than textbook orientation appear to align with desired state criteria. Identified factors include (a) the curricular goals espoused by individual teachers, (b) the instructional strategies used to implement the curriculum, and (c) the teacher's commitment to professional development. Preservice and in‐service education must enhance teachers' ability to formulate goals consistent with desired state criteria in science education, develop appropriate strategies to implement those goals, and understand the need for continuing professional development.
Accelerating the development of formal thinking in middle and high school students II: Postproject effects on science achievement
Authors: Shayer Michael , Adey Philip S.
Published: October 2006

A one‐year lag was found between the effect of an intervention intended to promote formal operational thinking in students initially 11 or 12 years of age and the appearance of substantial science achievement in the experimental groups. A one‐year lag was also reported on cognitive development: Whereas at the end of the two‐year intervention the experimental groups were up to 0.9σ ahead of the control groups, one year later the differential on Piagetian measures had disappeared, but the experimentals now showed better science achievement of even greater magnitude. Although the control groups showed normal distribution both on science achievement and cognitive development, the experimental groups showed bi‐ or trimodal distribution. Between one‐half and one‐quarter of the students involved in the experiment in different groups showed effects of the order of 2σ both on cognitive development and science achievement; some students appeared unaffected (compared with the controls), and others demonstrated modest effects on science achievement. An age/gender interaction is reported: the most substantial effects were found in boys initially aged 12+ and girls initially 11+. The only group to show no effects was boys initially aged 11+. It is suggested that the intervention methods may have favored the abstract analytical learning style as described by Cohen 1986.
Understandings and misunderstandings of eighth graders of five chemistry concepts found in textbooks
Authors: Abraham Michael R. , Grzybowski Eileen Bross , Renner John W. , Marek Edmund A.
Published: October 2006

The research reported in this study was designed to answer three questions: (a) What misconceptions do eighth grade students have concerning the chemistry concepts from their textbooks. (b) How is reasoning ability related to misconceptions concerning chemistry concepts. (c) How effective are textbooks in teaching an understanding of chemistry concepts? Five chemistry concepts were used in the study: chemical change, dissolution, conservation of atoms, periodicity, and phase change. Problems concerning the five concepts were given to 247 eighth‐grade students in order to assess the students' degree of understanding of chemistry concepts and to identify specific misconceptions. Two pencil‐and‐paper Piaget‐type tasks were used to assess intellectual level. A comparison of intellectual level and scores on the chemistry concepts showed moderate correlations. However, the small number of formal operational students in the sample makes these results inconclusive. A study of the level of understanding of the five chemistry concepts and the nature of the misconceptions held by students indicate a general failure of textbooks to teach a reasonable understanding of chemistry concepts.
Factors in life science textbooks that may deter girls' interest in science
Authors: Potter Ellen F. , Rosser Sue V.
Published: October 2006

In order to examine factors that may deter girls' interest in science, five seventh‐grade life science textbooks were analyzed for sexism in language, images, and curricular content, and for features of activities that have been found to be useful for motivating girls. Although overt sexism was not apparent, subtle forms of sexism in the selection of language, images, and curricular content were found. Activities had some features useful to girls, but other features were seldom included. Teachers may wish to use differences that were found among texts as one basis for text selection.
A cluster analysis of high school science classroom environments and attitude toward science
Authors: Myers Raymond E. , Fouts Jeffrey T.
Published: October 2006

This study provides a test of a theory which suggests that student perceptions of their classroom environment affect their attitudes toward science. Using the statistical technique of cluster analysis, 27 high school science classes were divided into three distinct clusters which were most distinguishable by the amount of involvement, affiliation with students, teacher support, order and organizations, and innovative teaching strategies. One of the clusters provided a classroom environment which was significantly different from the other two and the students in that environment had more positive attitudes toward science. The dimensions of the classroom environment which make a difference are those which teachers may develop and change in order to enhance the science attitudes and, possibly, the science achievement of their students.
The influence of an intensive in‐service workshop on pedagogical content knowledge growth among novice chemical demonstrators
Authors: Clermont Christian P. , Krajcik Joseph S. , Borko Hilda
Published: October 2006

This study examined the influence of an intensive chemical demonstration workshop on fostering pedagogical content knowledge growth among science teachers identified as novice chemical demonstrators. The two‐week summer workshop was designed around four training elements considered important to effective teacher in‐servicing: theory, modeling, practice, and feedback. Clinical interviews served to probe various aspects of novice demonstrators' pedagogical content knowledge prior to and after the workshop. The interview protocols were analyzed using the methods of taxonomic, componential, and theme analysis. Differences in pre‐ and postworkshop clinical interview responses suggested growth in novices' representational and adaptational repertoires for demonstrating fundamental topics in chemistry. This growth was reflected in the increased number of chemical demonstrations and demonstration variations on each of the target chemical concepts that the novice demonstrators discussed after the in‐service intervention. Their interview responses also suggested an increased awareness of the complexity of several chemical demonstrations, how these complexities could interfere with learning, and how simplified variations of the chemical demonstrations could promote science concept understanding. The research findings suggest that science teachers' pedagogical content knowledge in chemistry can be enhanced through intensive, short‐term in‐service programs.
Linguistic content analysis: A method to measure science as inquiry in textbooks
Authors: Eltinge Elizabeth M. , Roberts Carl W.
Published: October 2006

A method using linguistic content analysis was developed to assess the degree to which science was portrayed as a process of inquiry within a high school biology textbook series. Linguistic content analysis is a method of encoding textual data by categorizing key words and identifying the relationships among these words. The encoded textual data were analyzed using logistic regression techniques. The measure developed for the study was shown to be highly reliable and valid. In the textbook series studied, the frequency of the portrayal of science as a process of inquiry increased from 1956 to 1965, then showed a pattern of decline in 1977 and 1985. The results further indicate that the frequency of portrayal of science as a process of inquiry was higher in introductory chapters of the textbooks and in chapters dealing with the topic of genetics and lower in chapters dealing with leaf structure. The frequency of the portrayal of science as a process inquiry was also higher at the beginning of chapters and at the beginning of paragraphs.