bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Lost History of the Ninth Amendment
Authors: Kurt T Lash
Published: September 2009

The Ninth Amendment has had a remarkably robust history, playing a role in almost every significant constitutional debate in American history, including the controversy over the Alien and Sedition Acts, the struggle over slavery, and the constitutionality of the New Deal. Until very recently, however, this history has been almost completely lost due to a combination of historical accident, mistaken assumptions, and misplaced historical documents. Drawing upon a wide range of primary sources, most never before included in any book on the Ninth Amendment or the Bill of Rights, this book recovers the lost history of the Ninth Amendment and explores how its original understanding can be applied to protect the people's retained rights today. The most important aspect of this book is its presentation of newly uncovered historical evidence which calls into question the currently presumed meaning and application of the Ninth Amendment. The evidence not only challenges the traditional view regarding the original meaning of the Ninth Amendment, it also falsifies the common assumption that the Amendment lay dormant prior to the Supreme Court's “discovery” of the clause in Griswold v. Connecticut . As a history of the Ninth Amendment, the book recapitulates the history of federalism in America and the idea that local self-government is a right retained by the people. This issue has particular contemporary salience as the Supreme Court considers whether states have the right to authorize medicinal use of marijuana, refuse to assist the enforcement of national laws like the Patriot Act, or regulate physician-assisted suicide. The meaning of the Ninth Amendment has played a key role in past Senate confirmation hearings for Supreme Court justices and the current divide on the Court regarding the meaning of the Ninth Amendment makes it likely the subject will come up again during the next set of hearings.
One The Enigmatic Amendment
Authors: Kurt T Lash
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of the important role played by Justice Arthur Goldberg in one of the most famous decisions of the 20th-century Supreme Court, Griswold v. Connecticut. It then considers the New Deal Court's reversal of a broad spectrum of constitutional doctrines from roughly 1937 to 1941. The modern restoration of unenumerated rights is then discussed.
Three Debating the Ninth Amendment
Authors: Kurt T Lash
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers the events surrounding the ratification of the Ninth Amendment. Topics covered include James Madison's 1791 Speech on the Bank of the United States, redrafting of Madison's original bill of rights, Roger Sherman's draft bill of rights, and Madison's speech opposing the First Bank of the United States.
Five The Eleventh Amendment as a Retained Right of the People
Authors: Kurt T Lash
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on the Eleventh Amendment. The amendment represented the first act of popular sovereignty under the new Constitution, and it demanded that federal courts respect the rule of strict construction promised by the Federalists and declared in the Bill of Rights. The history recounted in this chapter provides important independent support for the idea that the founding generation understood “the people” of the Ninth and Tenth Amendments to refer to the sovereign people in the states—people who had delegated away important powers with the adoption of the Constitution, but who nevertheless retained their sovereign existence after 1787. This understanding of retained sovereignty included important assumptions about the proper construction of delegated federal power, including the delegated power of federal courts.
Eight Slavery and the Impact of the Fourteenth Amendment
Authors: Kurt T Lash
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the use of the Ninth Amendment in the years preceding the Civil War and the potential impact of the Reconstruction Amendments, particularly the Fourteenth Amendment. It seeks to reconcile the principles informing the original Constitution with the new more libertarian principles of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments.
Introduction
Authors: Hahn Robert A. , Inhorn Marcia C.
Published: September 2009

This introductory chapter describes the book's four sections: 1) Anthropological understandings of public health problems, 2) Anthropological design of public health interventions, 3) Anthropological evaluations of public health initiatives, and 4) Anthropological critiques of public health policy. It then surveys underlying premises of the discipline of anthropology; outlines basic methods of anthropology in public health; and describes some of the challenges of incorporating anthropological approaches within public health institutions and public health practice.
Developing Countries in the WTO Legal System
Authors: Trachtman Joel P. , Thomas Chantal
Published: September 2009

With contributions from some of the leading experts in international trade, law, and economics, this book looks at the positioning of developing countries within the WTO system. The chapters address some of the most pressing issues facing these countries, while reflecting on Robert E. Hudec's book, Developing Countries in the GATT Legal System. Hudec argued against preferential and non-reciprocal treatment for developing countries. He did so on the basis of a combination of economic, political, and legal insights that persuasively demonstrated that non-reciprocal treatment would not benefit developing countries. It is a testament to Hudec's legacy that his analysis is still the object of scholarly discussion more than twenty years later. The first part of this book evaluates the general situation of developing countries within the WTO. The second part examines market access and competition law within these countries. Lastly, it discusses the special arrangements these countries have with international financial institutions, the developing country's capacity to litigate, and an analysis of the country's level of participation in WTO dispute settlements.
Dysfunction, Diversion, and the Debate Over Preferences
Authors: Dunoff Jeffrey L
Published: September 2009

Robert Hudec's Developing Countries in the GATT System makes at least two important contributions to the trade literature. First, it provides an authoritative history of the debate over preferential treatment for developing states. Second, it offers an influential analysis of the effects of preferences. Hudec rejects the conventional wisdom that preferential treatment disserves developing states because a policy of reciprocity would produce greater concessions from developed states. He argues that, given the economic disparities between developed and developing states, reciprocity by developing states is unlikely to produce greater access to developed state markets. This chapter explores what we know about preferences and how we know it. It also explores whether juxtaposing alternative methodological approaches can suggest a progressive research agenda designed to enhance our understandings of how preferences work and, in particular, their effects on developing states.
Asymmetry in the Uruguay Round and in the Doha Round
Authors: Ostry Sylvia
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers the unintended consequences of the Uruguay Round, focusing on the issue of asymmetry. A number of case studies by the World Bank demonstrate both the capacity deficit in poor countries and the heavy costs of implementation. There was very little participation by the African countries in the Uruguay Round because of both the lack of personnel in Geneva delegations and the lack of coordination and expertise at home. There is still serious weakness in domestic coordination mechanisms among a number of ministries; this institutional deficiency is not confined to the poorest countries but affects many developing and transition economies as well. Finally, there is little, if any, coordination between Geneva and the home country.
Winners and Losers in the Panel Stage of the WTO Dispute Settlement System
Authors: Hoekman Bernard , Horn Henrik , Mavroidis Petros C
Published: September 2009

Most research on the role of developing countries in the WTO Dispute Settlement (DS) system has focused on their propensity to participate as complainants, respondents, and third parties. Much of this line of research has sought to examine claims that developing countries are underrepresented as complainants and/or overrepresented as respondents in the DS system. This chapter examines whether the outcomes with regard to legal claims differ between developing and developed countries. It employs a dataset describing various aspects of the DS system that have been compiled under a World Bank project to take a first cut at exploring what the experience to date suggests regarding this question. The objective underpinning the assembly of the dataset was to systematically compile information on various aspects of the DS system, in order, inter alia, to facilitate assessment of its implications for developing countries.
Justice, the Bretton Woods Institutions, and the Problem of Inequality
Authors: Garcia Frank J
Published: September 2009

The Bretton Woods Institutions and the WTO are the preeminent international institutions devoted to managing international economic relations. This mandate puts them squarely in the center of the debate concerning development, inequality, and global justice. While the normative analysis of the WTO is gaining momentum, the systematic normative evaluation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund is comparatively less developed. This chapter contributes to that nascent inquiry. How might global justice criteria apply to the ideology and operations of the Bank and Fund? Political theory offers an abundance of perspectives from which to conduct such an analysis; this chapter focuses on Rawls's theory of justice as fairness adapted to international institutions by the author in connection with the WTO and extend it to the remaining “legs” of the Bretton Woods “stool”. It asks what difference it would make for the Bank and Fund if an explicit global justice framework informed their international lending activities.
Unanticipated Gains
Authors: Small Mario Luis
Published: September 2009

Social capital theorists have shown that inequality arises in part because some people enjoy larger, more supportive, or otherwise more useful networks. But why do some people have better networks than others? This book argues that the answer lies less in people's deliberate “networking” than in the institutional conditions of the churches, colleges, firms, gyms, and other organizations in which they happen to participate routinely. This book introduces a model of social inequality that takes seriously the embeddedness of networks in formal organizations, proposing that what people gain from their connections depends on where those connections are formed and sustained. The model is illustrated and developed through a study of the experiences of mothers whose children were enrolled in New York City childcare centers. As a result of the routine practices and institutional conditions of the centers—from the structure of their parents' associations, to apparently innocuous rules such as pick‐up and drop‐off times—many of these mothers dramatically increased their social capital and measurably improved their wellbeing. Yet how much they gained depended on how their respective centers were organized. This book identifies the mechanisms through which childcare centers structured the networks of mothers, and shows that similar mechanisms operate in many other routine organizations, from beauty salons and bath houses to colleges and churches. The book makes a case for the importance of organizational embeddedness in the study of personal ties.
2 Suspiciousness of Experimenter's Intent
Authors: McGuire William J.
Published: September 2009

Three stages in the life of an artifact are (a) ignorance of its existence, (b) coping with the artifact, and (c) exploiting it for what it can tell us about human behavior. This chapter focuses on the subject's suspicions of the experimenter's intent, with special emphasis on strategies for recognizing, coping with, and exploiting this source of artifact.
5 Demand Characteristics and the Concept of Quasi-Controls
Authors: Orne Martin T.
Published: September 2009

Here, the assumption is that many subjects who volunteer for research participation have a tendency to play the role of the “good subject” (an ironic term) who is both highly sensitive and responsive to inadvertent task-orienting cues (demand characteristics). Quasi-control procedures can be used to identify sources of artifacts, and there is a discussion of how drug (pharmacological) research might serve as a model for the psychological experiment.
22 Blind and Minimized Contact
Authors: Rosenthal Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of the blind contact strategy for psychological research. It then proposes that if we could eliminate experimenter-subject contact altogether it would seem that we would then also eliminate the operation of experimenter expectancy effects.
Section introduction
Authors: Evans Stephen M. , Nyengaard Jens R.
Published: September 2009

Most neuroscientists would accept that neurons and synapses form the fundamental building blocks for information processing in the central nervous system. Although this is a somewhat simplified view, since it neglects the subtle interaction between other elements of the nervous system such as glial cells and the local microenvironment, it is not unreasonable to assume that perturbations in their number will be involved in the pathophysiology of both disease and normal development. This chapter describes the basic principles of number estimation with a series of examples and exercises to help explain the methodology.
Unbiased morphometrical techniques for the quantitative assessment of cells in primary dissociation cultures
Authors: Schröder H , Nyengaard J. R. , Selberis W , Lain E , Keller A , Köhler C , Witter B
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents a neuroscientific study using a primary neuronal dissociation culture in which it was necessary to obtain reliable data as to whether the induction of potentially toxic conditions would: (1) affect the total number of neurons, that is, the number of neurons that express the marker protein microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2); (2) affect the expression of certain markers in the cultured neurons, namely, the number of neurons that express a4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit protein; and (3) affect the co-expression in neurons of different nAChR proteins or phosphorylation markers. Using immunocytochemical or immunofluorescent protocols, it was possible to answer these questions on a quantitative level.
Developing and validating complex behavioural outcome measures
Authors: Shain Rochelle N. , Perdue Sondra , Piper Jeanna M. , Holden Alan E.C. , Champion Jane , Newton Edward R.
Published: September 2009

Interventions developed to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) have typically focused on changes in discrete behaviours. However, simple behaviours alone may not be directly related to risk of infection. This chapter examines the types of behavioural measures commonly used, and explores the development of complex measures. It considers the utility of each with reference to data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that have utilized both biological and behavioural measures.
Unpacking the ‘black box’: the importance of process data to explain outcomes
Authors: Wight Daniel , Obasi Angela
Published: September 2009

Many of those who advance criticisms of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) conclude that RCTs of social interventions are rarely, if ever, appropriate. However, it should be possible to combine the strengths of a randomized approach with the ‘theory-driven’ or ‘realistic’ approach that has been advocated by Pawson and Tilley. The essence of this approach is to base the outcome evaluation on a thorough understanding of the process of the intervention and to complement it with the collection of good process data, in particular using Pawson and Tilley's formula: ‘Outcomes = Mechanism + Context’. In short, an unintelligible intervention, or ‘black box’, has to be unpacked. This is illustrated through two RCTs currently under analysis in Scotland and Tanzania. Following an outline of the projects, this chapter discusses four key intervention factors that can be of critical importance in interpreting outcome evaluations. These factors are: (1) the extent and quality of intervention delivery; (2) the mechanism; (3) the context; and, (4) the response of the target group. Finally, the chapter considers some key problems with process evaluations and how process and outcome data can be integrated.
Generalizability of trials and implementation of research into practice
Authors: Grosskurth Heiner , Kumaranayake Lilani
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers a wide range of issues relating to the generalizability of effective interventions. It begins by looking at factors that determine the extent to which the observed effects in a randomized trial can be generalized to other populations. It proposes suggestions to increase generalizability at the design stage. Because populations are heterogeneous, repeat trials in different environments are often required. However, as trials are expensive, the use of computer modelling has been suggested as an alternative to explore likely intervention effects in other populations. The options and limitations of this strategy are discussed. Translating research results into policy and practice is not straightforward. Various strategies towards achieving this objective are considered, including cost-effectiveness analysis. The last two sections of the chapter are concerned with the practicalities of scaling up an intervention and with aspects of sustainability.
Primary defects in lysosomal enzymes
Authors: Winchester Bryan G.
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of the molecular genetics of lysosomal enzyme deficiencies. It then discusses the relation of mutations to the structure and function of lysosomal enzymes, and genotype/phenotype correlation in groups of neuronal storage disorders.
Defects in activator proteins and other soluble proteins of the lysosome
Authors: Macheleidt Oliver , Kolter Thomas , Sandhoff Konrad
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses enzymatically inactive proteins that play a part in two areas of endosomal-lysosomal membrane lipid metabolism. Some are involved in binding and transfer processes that assist lysosomal sphingolipid catabolism and others appear to regulate cholesterol transport from these acidic compartments back to the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These activator-mediated processes are of physiological relevance since defects in activator function can lead to fatal human diseases.
Simple non-mammalian systems
Authors: Pearce David A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of proteins associated with lysosomal storage diseases and their orthologues in model organisms. It then discusses studies of orthologous proteins associated with lysosomal storage diseases; biogenesis and trafficking to the lysosome; proteins associated with disease and with lysosome biogenesis and their orthologues in model organisms; and studies of orthologous proteins implicated in disease that are involved in lysosome biogenesis.
Pathogenic cascades and brain dysfunction
Authors: Walkley Steven U.
Published: September 2009

Lysosomal diseases begin quite simply as single gene mutations that affect the function of one protein. This protein may be an enzyme critical in the degradative action of the lysosomal system or in the processing and/or trafficking of such enzymes to the lysosome. The pathophysiological consequences in brain ultimately play out as an expanding cascade involving multiple substrate accumulation and widespread, but variable, impact on different types of neurones and glia. In some cases these changes may actually appear as regenerative, as seen in the new growth of dendrites and formation of synaptic connections in Tay–Sachs disease, but which more likely lead to inappropriate connections and neuron dysfunction. This chapter discusses the pathogenic cascade in brain; the why, where, and what of storage; the cellular consequences of storage; and functional assessment of brain.
Geostatistical methods for mapping environmental exposures
Authors: Cressie N.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses statistical methods for mapping environmental exposures. The chapter proceeds as follows. Section 10.2 presents a study of particulate matter to motivate the need to map environmental exposures. Section 10.3 discusses approaches for obtaining exposure estimates at specific locations based on so-called ‘naive’ and smoothing methods. Section 10.4 describes geostatistical methods. Section 10.5 illustrates ordinary kriging while Section 10.6 describes a fully parametric hierarchical modelling approach that was recently developed in a geostatistical context.
Ecological correlation studies
Authors: Richardson S. , Monfort C.
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews some current issues relating to studies commonly known as ‘ecological studies’, with particular reference to the context of geographical epidemiology. The chapter proceeds as follows. Section 11.2 discusses the problem of model specification and interference between individual and aggregated level. Section 11.3 investigates issues relating to the sensitivity of aggregated level regression coefficients and to the specification of the spatial structure for the unmeasured confounders, and presents an illustrative study concerning childhood leukaemia. Section 11.4 provides a concluding discussion.
Disease mapping: a historical perspective
Authors: Walter S. D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the history of disease mapping over the past two hundred years. Topics discussed include the early development of cartography, disease maps in the 19th century, disease maps from 1900–90, developments since 1990, and mapping in the 21st century.
Investigating the genetic association between diabetes and malaria: an application of Bayesian ecological regression models with errors in covariates
Authors: Bernardinelli L. , Pascutto C. , Montomoli C. , Gilks W.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes a Bayesian hierarchical model and applies it to a new dataset on insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) prevalence among 18-year-old males born in Sardinia between 1936 and 1973, using malaria prevalence in 1938–40 as the ecological covariate. It shows how to deal with the potential bias associated with using such a proxy by extending the Bayesian model to allow for covariate measurement error. It provides a method for choosing the hyperprior distributions for the spatial variation parameters of the model, and discusses the sensitivity of the results to different choices.
Do cancers cluster?
Authors: Alexander F. E. , Boyle P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses the issue of cancer clustering with particular reference to childhood leukaemia. Clustering is a poorly defined concept in medical literature. A distinction must be made between the notion of the individual cluster — corresponding to an excess number of cases in one small area, around one infrequent point source or subject to one source of environmental pollution — and the concept of a general tendency of cluster. It is shown that childhood leukaemia displays a general tendency to cluster at place of diagnosis, but the magnitude of extra-Poisson variation is generally small and may only be identified when large datasets are analyzed.
Current status: six established major risk factors – and low risk
Authors: Stamler J. , Neaton J. D. , Garside D. B. , Daviglus M. L.
Published: September 2009

This chapter has two interrelated purposes: to update information on the six established major coronary heart disease–cardiovascular disease (CHD–CVD) risk factors, their impact and importance, singly and especially in combination; and to highlight the decisive role of low risk, that is, favourable findings for all major risk factors — decisive for individuals and for populations. Evidence based on huge body of research amassed over many years and from many scientific disciplines testify to the strength of the relationships of the established major risk factors to coronary risk. Adverse diet is pivotal among the risk factors and plays a primary and overwhelming role in the causation of epidemic CHD and CVD.
Blood pressure and the burden of coronary heart disease
Authors: Lawes C. M. M. , Hoorn S. Vander , Law M. R. , Elliott P. , MacMahon S. , Rodgers A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents estimates of blood pressure distributions by age, sex, and world region to estimate the burden of coronary heart disease (CHD) attributable to raised blood pressure worldwide in the year 2000. It summarizes work produced for the WHO Global Burden of Disease 2000 study and the World Health Report 2002, which included estimates of the burden of disease attributable to a variety of risk factors including blood pressure.
Exercise versus heart attack
Authors: Morris J. N.
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews evidence on the link between physical activity and the prevention of coronary heart disease (CHD). Studies show that adequate aerobic exercise in leisure time, which is habitual and ongoing, and the training and improved cardiorespiratory fitness and performance this produces, confer substantial protection against the occurrence of CHD in middle-aged and elderly men. The total death rate is also lowered. This is the case whatever the risk status of the men with respect to other factors. Recommendations for public health practice are presented.
Strategies of prevention: the individual and the population
Authors: Rose G.
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews two strategies for preventing coronary heart disease. The individual or clinical approach seeks to identify and help those in whom an amalgam of genetic susceptibility and unhealthy lifestyle indicates unusual risk, but the public health approach seeks changes in those features of the population's behaviour or environment which are held responsible for the overall incidence rate. Thus, the individual strategy is a rescue operation for individuals in need, whereas the population strategy is a radical attempt to deal with the underlying causes.
Primary prevention of high blood pressure
Authors: Elliott P. , Stamler J.
Published: September 2009

Raised blood pressure (BP) is a major risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD) and the major risk factor for stroke. It is one of the most important underlying risk factors for cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in the world today, ranking above tobacco in estimates of the worldwide attributable burden of mortality. This chapter reviews the risks of premature mortality and increased morbidity associated with raised BP, and the risk factors that lead to raised BP in individuals and populations. It then addresses how this knowledge can inform preventive strategies to reduce the population burden of BP-related diseases.
Intervention in high risk groups: hypertension
Authors: Sever P. S. , Poulter N. R.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the treatment of hypertension for preventing cardiovascular disease. Topics covered include early trials, unresolved issues in drug treatment, benefits of more contemporary drugs over standard therapy, overview and meta-analyses to date, optimal combinations of antihypertensive therapies, thresholds and targets for antihypertensive drug therapy, and concomitant therapy.
Environmental measurement and modelling: geographical information systems
Authors: Briggs David
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a general introduction to the measurement and modeling of environmental exposures for environmental epidemiological studies, with specific reference to the use of geographical information systems (GIS). It provides an introduction of the general principles of the use of these techniques, and various examples and references.
Biological monitoring
Authors: Nieuwenhuijsen Mark J. , Droz Pierre
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a general introduction to biological monitoring of exposure in occupational and environmental epidemiological studies. It describes models that could be used for the assessment and strategies for biological monitoring, including issues that need to be taken into account. It provides various examples and references.
Evaluating according to purpose and resources
Authors: Coombes Yolande
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on the need to strengthen the evidence base for health promotion. It argues that this process can be done incrementally, from small-scale process evaluations through to larger evaluation. It suggests a backwards approach to evaluation, starting with the question “Why are we evaluating?” in order to guide us to the nature and scope of the evaluation that should be undertaken.
Evaluating the dissemination of health promotion research
Authors: Lewando-Hundt Gillian , Al Zaroo Salah
Published: September 2009

The dissemination of health promotion research to policymakers, practitioners, and users is essential to bridge the gaps between research policy and practice. This chapter begins by examining the definitions of dissemination. It then looks at how research is disseminated into policy and practice and to users. It considers the barriers to dissemination and identifies ways of overcoming them. Finally, the chapter discusses ways of evaluating dissemination.
Neuronal plasticity after stroke
Authors: Nudo Randolph J. , Eisner-Janowicz Ines
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins by reviewing the sequence of events that results in neuronal injury after stroke. It then reviews the advantages and disadvantages of various animal models used to model stroke and ischemic cortical injury. It considers the relationship of various aspects of behavioral assessment and the understanding of post-stroke plasticity and recovery. After a brief review of the organization of the motor cortex, the chapter reviews the evidence that neurophysiological and neuroanatomical plasticity occurs after cortical injury, emphasizing the role of postinjury behavior in the modulation of injury-induced changes. The cellular and synaptic basis for postinjury plasticity is briefly reviewed. Finally, the role of the intact hemisphere in recovery of function after unilateral cortical injury is discussed.
Adaptive plasticity and sensory substitution in the cerebral cortex
Authors: Rauschecker Josef P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers adaptive plasticity which allows experience-based cortical expansion within a modality if used as a model for the cross-modal plasticity accompanying the loss of a sense. This plasticity is shown through auditory and somatosensory activity in occipital cortex in blind subjects. Hebbian principles are thought to be the underlying mechanism of this reorganization.
Activation of the visual cortex by Braille reading in blind subjects
Authors: Merabet Lotfi B. , Amedi Amir , Pascual-Leone Alvaro
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes imaging studies showing responses to tactile and auditory stimuli in the occipital cortex in blind subjects. TMS, sensory deprivation, and further imaging techniques are employed to describe the functionality of, and possible mechanisms behind, this cross-modal plasticity.
Confounding
Authors: Elwood J. Mark
Published: September 2009

Confounding is the most challenging issue in the interpretation of studies. This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part defines confounding and shows what effects it can produce. The second part deals with how confounding can be controlled. The third part considers some further applications of the logic of confounding. Self-test questions are provided at the end of the chapter.
Chance variation
Authors: Elwood J. Mark
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the effects of chance variation that can be assessed by applying statistical tests. It is divided into three parts: the application of statistical tests and confidence limits to a simple 2 x 2 table; applications to stratified and matched studies, and to multivariate analysis; and life-table methods for the consideration of the timing of outcome events in a cohort study or intervention study. Self-test questions are provided at the end of the chapter.
Moral decision-making and the brain
Authors: Churchland Patricia Smith
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses the question of whether we can have thought without biology. Developments in neuroscience and cognitive science have made it possible to formulate a rough hypothesis concerning the neurobiology of ‘in-control’ brains, and the respects in which it differs from that of ‘not-in-control’ brains. This hypothesis must be framed in terms of a parameter space, the dimensions of which are specified in terms of neurobiological properties, especially of the prefrontal cortex, the limbic system, and the brainstem. As a consequence, ‘in control’ can be characterized neurobiologically as a volume within that parameter space. This provides a framework for further research on planning, decision-making, evaluation, and choice in nervous systems.
A case study of neuroethics: the nature of moral judgment
Authors: Roskies Adina
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes one particular neuroethical project in more depth, in order to provide a glimpse of what a neuroethical analysis might look like and the kinds of issues that such an analysis might engender. It characterizes in some detail a body of empirical results from neuroscience, and considers the implications of trying to integrate such knowledge into our social and ethical frameworks. It argues that moral belief or judgment is intrinsically motivating and that, in judging morally, one is automatically motivated to act in accordance with one's judgment.
Engineering the brain
Authors: Foster Kenneth R.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the ethical issues raised by new technologies that allow investigators to monitor and control the brain, and how they are distinctive from those raised by other medical technologies, such as genetic testing. It begins with a brief review of some new technologies that have emerged from neuroscience. These devices are intended to stimulate selected regions of the brain or peripheral nervous system for therapeutic purposes, or, more recently, as brain-computer interfaces to allow the brain to exchange information with the outsideworld through direct recording of potentials measured by means of electrodes implanted in the motor cortex, or placed on the surface of the head.
Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain: an ethical evaluation
Authors: Steven Megan S. , Pascual-Leone Alvaro
Published: September 2009

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a neuroscientific technique that induces an electric current in the brain via application of a localized magnetic field pulse. The pulse penetrates the scalp and skull non-invasively and, depending on the parameters of stimulation, facilitates or depresses the local neuronal response with effects that can be transient or long lasting. While the mechanisms by which TMS acts remain largely unknown, the behavioral effects of the stimulation are reproducible and, in some cases, are highly beneficial. This chapter reviews the technique in detail and discusses safety as the paramount ethics issue for TMS. It further examines the ethical arguments for and against neuroenhancement with TMS and how the framework for acceptable practice must differ for patient and non-patient populations.
Human Studies of Sleep and Off-line Memory Reprocessing
Authors: Stickgold Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the relationship between sleep states and memory for a visual search task. Results show that both NREM sleep and REM sleep are involved in off-line memory processing. In more recent work, it was found that Stage 2 sleep was related to memory for a recently learned finger tapping task.
Roles of Early and Late Nocturnal Sleep for the Consolidation of Human Memories
Authors: Born Jan , Gais Steffen
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the degree of memory processing following the first half of the night (the bulk of which is deep NREM sleep) compared to the memory processing in the second half of the night (which is composed mostly of REM sleep). It compares the memory for various types of acquired tasks after these two time intervals, and shows that declarative or episodic material is enhanced after a session of NREM sleep, while procedural/implicit or emotional material is not. On the other hand, memory for procedural/implicit and emotional material is enhanced after a session of REM sleep, but not after NREM sleep. The role of neuroendocrine and neurotransmitter processes is examined.
Role of Rem Sleep in Brain Development and Plasticity
Authors: Mirmiran Majid , Ariagno Ronald L.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the role of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in early brain development. Existing data suggest that REM sleep deprivation (REMD) in infants may retard brain growth and synaptic plasticity. The chapter also reviews past findings and provides an interesting hypothesis about the possible role of REMD in the development of depression.
Cerebral Correlates of Memory Consolidation During Human Sleep: Contribution of Functional Neuroimaging
Authors: Peigneux Philippe , Laureys Stevan , Cleeremans Axel , Maquet Pierre
Published: September 2009

The brain dynamics in humans can be explored using a wide variety of non-invasive neuroimaging techniques: electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), single photon emission tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This chapter focuses on the contributions of PET and fMRI. It concentrates on two main topics. First, the pattern of regional brain activity during sleep is consistent with the mechanisms described in animals at the microscopic systems level for the generation and maintenance of sleep states. This aspect is important because if sleep processes are similar in humans and in animals, the links between sleep and memory processes described in the latter are potentially valid in the former. Second, far from being fixed and stereotyped, regional brain function during sleep is modulated by the individual experience acquired during the previous waking period. The chapter presents evidence that these experience-dependent changes in regional brain activity are related to the amount of learning achieved by the subjects prior to sleep and also depend on the material to which the subjects have been exposed. These experiments provide the first experimental evidence in humans for a link between learning, as measured by behavioral methods, and the activity of neuronal populations during sleep.
Maintenance and Modification of Firing Rates and Sequences in the Hippocampus: Does Sleep Play a Role?
Authors: Buzsáki György , Carpi Daniel , Csicsvari Jozsef , Dragoi George , Harris Kenneth , Henze Darrell , Hirase Hajime
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of a two-stage model of memory trace formation. It then discusses the similarity of long-term firing rates and co-activation in the waking and sleeping brain, the impact of experience in a novel environment on firing patterns in subsequent sleep, homeostatic maintenance of firing rates, and downstream effects of cortical activity during sleep.
Recent Evidence of Memory Processing in Sleep
Authors: Pavlides Constantine , Ribeiro Sidarta
Published: September 2009

It has been hypothesized that sleep, and more specifically rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, plays a role in brain plasticity and memory consolidation. Although the initial evidence in support of this hypothesis was indirect or anecdotal, recent experimental evidence showing a direct link between sleep and information processing has been forthcoming. This evidence is derived from a wide variety of sources including behavioral, electrophysiological, and molecular studies. This chapter briefly reviews evidence from the former, then discusses recent molecular studies. It presents a model of how sleep may act to consolidate memories acquired during wakefulness.
Theoretical underpinning for the use of sibling studies in life course epidemiology
Authors: Strully Kate W , Mishra Gita D
Published: September 2009

Siblings can have a great deal in common (e.g., parents, genes, early life home env1ironments, etc.), but they are also distinct individuals with unique personalities and physical traits. This chapter discusses how researchers can use similarities and differences across siblings to investigate questions of life course epidemiology. First, it discusses how sibling fixed effects models may help deal with residual confounding from unobserved family-level factors. Second, it discusses how behavioural genetics approaches can help unravel genetic heritability from environmental determinants of health. Finally, it explains genetic linkage studies in which researchers use siblings' DNA information to learn more about the effects of chromosomal regions and genes. When considering each of these strategies, the chapter reviews the relevant literature and discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the particular methods.
Random effects models for sibling and twin-based studies in life course epidemiology
Authors: Ripatti Samuli
Published: September 2009

This chapter introduces statistical methods for twin and sibling studies using random effects models. The classic twin study begins from assessing the variance of a trait (called a phenotype by geneticists) in a large group, and attempts to estimate how much of this is due to genetic effects (heritability), how much appears to be due to shared environmental effects, and how much is due to unique environmental effects — events occurring to one twin but not another. This chapter shows how three families of random effect models, random effects models for normally distributed traits, generalized linear mixed models for binary and count data, and frailty models for survival data may be used for modelling variances in longitudinal, or life course setting. The methods are illustrated using data from The Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. The appendix provides the R and Winbugs codes that are used in the analyses.
Family-based studies applied to the influence of early life factors on cardiovascular disease
Authors: Lawlor Debbie A , Leon David A
Published: September 2009

There is good evidence that associations exist between fetal and other early life factors and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) that can be replicated in a range of settings. These associations provide the evidential basis for the developmental origin of CVD in humans, which posits that susceptibility to CVD in later life is importantly influenced by the nature of the in utero, infant, and childhood environment. However, much of this evidence is from cohort studies of unrelated individuals, and it has been argued that these associations may be explained by confounding by genetic variation or uncontrolled aspects of the environment. This chapter describes how family-based studies, including twin, sibling, and intergenerational studies demonstrate the potential of family-based studies in throwing light on the developmental origins of CVD.
Epistemic Normativity
Authors: Grimm Stephen R.
Published: September 2009

Among contemporary epistemologists, the most prominent way to make sense of epistemic evaluations is in teleological terms. On this way of looking at things, a belief earns positive marks just to the extent that it seems to promote or in some way bring about things with intrinsic epistemic value. By focusing on the role that the notion of intrinsic epistemic value plays in these accounts, this chapter argues the majority of these views are flawed. The chapter then turns to Sosa's version of the view, which escapes some of these problems but only by leaving out the deontological force of our epistemic evaluations. The chapter then develops a proposal of my own, which seems to avoid these problems.
The Trivial Argument for Epistemic Value Pluralism, or, How I Learned to Stop Caring about Truth
Authors: Brogaard Berit
Published: September 2009

Relativism offers a nifty way of accommodating most of our intuitions about epistemic modals, predicates of personal taste, colour expressions, future contingents, and conditionals. But in spite of its manifest merits relativism is squarely at odds with epistemic value monism: the view that truth is the highest epistemic goal. The argument from relativism to epistemic value pluralism may be called the trivial argument for epistemic value pluralism. In this chapter the argument is formulated and three possible ways to refute it are examined. It is then argued that two of these are unsuccessful and the third, which involves denying that there are genuinely relative truths, is defended.
Evaluation of public health brands: Design, measurement, and analysis
Authors: Evans W. Douglas , Blitstein Jonathan , Hersey James C.
Published: September 2009

Brand equity is the higher order construct that captures the effects of commercial and public health brands on outcomes. This chapter focuses on the effects of brand equity on individual health behaviour, but effects on upstream outcomes are important topics for future research. Brand equity mediates the effects of message exposure on consumer choice and health behaviour.
Case studies of youth tobacco prevention campaigns from the USA:Truthand half-truths
Authors: Farrelly Matthew C. , Davis Kevin C.
Published: September 2009

For decades cigarette companies have successfully harnessed the power of branding to transform a simple product into a powerful tool that projects a complex set of images and personality traits to its user. Beginning with California's large-scaled anti-smoking campaign in 1990 — the first in twenty years — tobacco control efforts began to counter and deconstruct cigarette brand imagery. In 1998, the Florida ‘truth’ campaign extended earlier efforts by California and Massachusetts to counter tobacco brands by developing a tobacco control brand aimed at youth and intended to take market share away from cigarette brands. Evidence shows that tobacco countermarketing campaigns are effective in reducing youth and adult smoking, and emerging literature suggests that the brand value or equity of youth tobacco counter brands adds value to the campaigns. However, branding in tobacco countermarketing campaigns remains uncommon.