bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Visual Perceptions under Modern Conditions
Authors: Lythgoe R. J.
Published: November 2015

The paper describes how certain topical problems of practical illumination strike a physiologist. Controlled investigations on the level of illumination, on the general illumination and on glare are described. The evidence is, on the whole, in favour of a high illumination without extremes of contrast. It is easy to find experimental evidence of improvement in vision when the illumination is raised to high values or when the worst forms of glare are eliminated. Modern practice aims at an illumination giving low contrast and with a minimum of glare. It may not be possible to justify the practice on experimental grounds but general considerations are in its favour. When contrasts are small the eye demands a higher general level of illumination than when strong contrasts are present. Although it is convenient to separate quantity and quality of light in controlled investigations there is probably a biological link between them. Some aspects of the colour of artificial illuminants are considered.
Planning for Daylight
Authors: Walsh John W. T.
Published: November 2015

This paper summarises the progress which has been made during recent years, particularly as regards the predetermination of daylight factors and international agreement on a standard of inadequacy for daylighting. The use of the “no-sky line” as a measure of inadequacy is described.

In planning for such buildings as large blocks of offices or multiple dwellings in built-up areas, it is pointed out that there are two fundamental matters to be considered, viz., the drafting of building regulations to secure a share of daylight for every building in the area and the designing of buildings to make the best use of this daylight. The development of an island site on a cruciform plan possesses considerable advantage from the point of view of daylight. Windows must be of adequate height. The access of direct sunlight to buildings is of great importance and the erection of balconies immediately above window heads should be avoided. The paper concludes with a series of recommendations.
The Colour of Fluorescent Lamps
Authors: Harrison W.
Published: November 2015

The relation between the spectral distribution and colour rendering quality of illuminants is discussed with particular reference to the spectral distribution differences which can be experienced with white fluorescent lamps.

Because of the subjective nature of colour appreciation, factors such as colour preferences and colour contrasts are of great importance in fluorescent lamp colour design.

The respective functions of chromaticity co-ordinates and spectral band measurements are indicated. The colour of a fluorescent lamp itself can be accurately specified by its C.I.E. co-ordinates, and tolerances of any desired magnitude can readily be fixed. For an adequate specification of the colour rendering quality, however, it is necessary that the spectral distribution be known.

Eight spectral-band and chromaticity co-ordinate data are given for the principal phosphors employed in fluorescent lamps. A brief survey of the colours of natural daylight and incandescent light is included.

Reasons are given favouring the design of fluorescent lamp colours for general lighting service on the purple side of the black body locus, as evidenced in the Warm White and Natural lamps.

Recent developments in the application of fluorescent lamps to colour matching include fluorescent lamps with approximately 6,500deg.K black body spectral distribution and mixtures of blue fluorescent and incandescent light.
The Manufacture of Lighting Glass
Authors: Holmes J. G.
Published: November 2015

The constitution and properties of glass are discussed with reference to the requirements of a light-transmitting material for use in lighting fittings, and the principal processes of manufacture are briefly described. The optical principles of light control by reflection and by refraction are compared, and data given for the reflecting, refracting, diffusing, and absorbing properties of glass, including coloured glass. Some indication is given of the precautions to be taken in design and construction of lighting fittings using glass components.
Floodlighting
Authors: Ackerley R. O.
Published: November 2015

Floodlighting is defined as “the lighting, usually by projection, of the whole of a scene or object to a level considerably greater than that of its surroundings.” The paper deals mainly with the application of floodlighting out of doors with particular reference to the spectacular floodlighting of buildings. Satisfactory floodlighting depends on effective light control and the equipment used must, therefore, be well designed optically so that the engineer can choose from a range of equipment a unit appropriate to any normal requirement of beam shape and length of throw. Floodlighting equipment has to operate in all weathers and often in relatively inaccessible positions. It must, therefore, be robust, watertight, capable of dissipating the heat from the lamps and easy to maintain. The application of such equipment in an installation involves consideration of factors which are as much artistic as physical. The determination of the direction from which the main floodlighting should be directed involves consideration of the angle from which the object is most likely to be viewed as well as the nature of any architectural features and the depth of shadow they will cast. It often involves compromise on account of the practical limitations imposed by the facilities available. Supplementary lighting can be used to emphasise special features, to introduce highlights or to fill in gaps in the main lighting caused by local obstructions. The level of illumination required depends upon a number of factors including the function of the building. Coloured light sources can sometimes be used with advantage.

After analysing a typical installation in some detail, possible fields of floodlighting are discussed in the paper including the lighting of gardens, fountains, etc., as well as more utilitarian industrial applications.
Long Linear Light Sources
Authors: Einhorn H. D.
Published: November 2015

A new concept which should facilitate the calculation of illumination from long linear light sources is proposed and a general theory of the infinite linear source is given.

The errors incurred when applying infinite source relations to finite layouts are assessed for three types of sources.

How the results of this analysis can be applied to practical design tasks is shown in a few examples of fluorescent lamp layouts.
The Revealing Power of Street Lighting Installations and its Calculation
Authors: Harris A. J. , Christie A. W.
Published: November 2015

This paper extends the work of Waldram and others on the revealing power of street lighting installations. It is shown that values of revealing power, approximating closely to the true values, can be calculated from the mean pedestrian illumination Em and the road surface luminance B. Curves are given showing this approximate revealing power as a function of the two quantities B and B/Em. The curves may be used to find the revealing power to any desired accuracy for any type of installation by a simple calculation of averages. The broad effects of changes in the lighting installation may also be understood with the aid of these curves.
The Measurement of Sector Flux
Authors: Einhorn H. D. , Ackerman K. R.
Published: November 2015

“Sector Flux” is a new concept proposed for the theoretical treatment of long linear sources, such as fluorescent lamps mounted end to end. Its measurement is discussed and a method employing parallel mirrors is described.

This treatment permits prediction of the light distribution from linear installations, based on measurements made on a single fitting in the laboratory.
The Lighting of Shipyards
Authors: McCulloch J. S.
Published: November 2015

For examining the artificial lighting of a shipyard, the requirements are divided into those of: (i) Interior lighting, (ii) Lighting of outside areas, and (iii) Lighting of building berths.

The sequence of operations in shipbuilding is shown on a chart and a description is given of the type of work carried out in various shops concerned with the preparation of material for the building of the ships on the berths. Typical lighting installations are described and the recommended illumination values are stated.

In addition to the workshops, the working area of a shipyard consists of large outside areas and the problems which have arisen in providing artificial lighting for these areas are discussed.
Two Frontiers of the Lighting Art
Authors: Logan H. L.
Published: November 2015

This paper discusses criteria for artificial lighting derived from the study of the distribution of light of optimum natural fields of view, and explains the use of these criteria in practical design procedure including the application of environmental colour on an engineering basis. These ideas are then extended to cover their application to standards of visual comfort, and to the design of lighting fittings, and their use in installations to produce balanced brightnesses that are acceptable to the majority of people. In this connection the most recent work of the “Q and Q” Committee of the American I.E.S. is reviewed.
Flicker Discomfort in Relation to the Lighting of Buildings
Authors: Collins J. B. , Hopkinson R. G.
Published: November 2015

An experimental investigation of discomfort due to flicker in lighting installations has been conducted. Most of the experiments were on a full scale with the whole field of view undergoing fluctuation of illumination. The work has shown that the flicker problem in well-engineered installations is not a serious one, and only affects a small proportion of the population. Wide variations in flicker sensitivity have been found, and it has been established that small differences in frequency produce large differences in flicker sensation. Flicker may be more readily perceived in a large area of moderate luminance, for example a white drawing board, than in a small area of high luminance, for example a bare fluorescent lamp. Apart from obviously faulty auxiliaries or lamps, the most likely cause of flicker in fluorescent discharge lamp installations fed from a 50-cycle A.C. supply is the presence of a 50-cycle component superimposed on the normal 100-cycle wave-form.
Street Lighting in a Large London Suburb
Authors: Durbridge Alan T.
Published: November 2015

At the conclusion of the War in 1945 the Harrow Urban District Council (Middlesex) was faced with the much overdue task of providing efficient and modern public lighting throughout the district. The district (population 225,000) is mainly residential with a number of shopping areas. The paper describes the method adopted by the local authority in solving the problem and traces the progress to date of a “Five year plan.” The financial aspect is also examined.
Home Lighting
Authors: Young Arthur H. , Misselbrook C. J.
Published: November 2015

This paper reviews developments in domestic lighting from 1928 to the present and endeavours to show some possible lines of future progress. The large range of materials used in the manufacture of lighting fittings designed for the domestic market is discussed.

The problems of lighting various rooms in the home are considered and the possible reasons for the lack of interest in fluorescent lighting are analysed. Suggestions for the developments necessary before fluorescent lighting can be introduced successfully into the domestic lighting field are made. A plea is made for an approvals system to be applied to lighting fittings designed and sold for domestic use to ensure adequate safety.

British, Continental and American practice is compared and the need for better collaboration between lighting engineers and architects is stressed.
Light and Colour in Daily Life
Authors: Strange J. W. , Hewitt H.
Published: November 2015

The paper makes a general review of lighting conditions to-day and points out the need for a greater diversity in lighting levels and brightness, in direction, and in colour. Much valuable information of an analytical nature has been revealed by academic studies made during recent years, but it is proposed that a parallel approach should be made along practical lines, guided by observation and imagination.

It is suggested that useful lessons can be learnt from the lighting techniques used in the theatre to produce visually interesting scenes, as these techniques can make an important contribution to experimental methods, particularly in providing variation of lighting levels and colour.

Some observations are made on the economics of artificial light, and it is shown that unduly large costs are involved in providing control over the distribution of light; such control could be simpler and less costly.

Finally, an examination is made of the reaction of the general public to the wider choice of light sources now available, and a plea is made for a more adventurous use of coloured light.
A Method of Evaluating Seeing Distances on a Curved Road and its Application to Headlight Beams in Current Use
Authors: Jehu V. J.
Published: November 2015

A method is described by which direct seeing distances can be evaluated when two vehicles meet on a curved road at night. The method is a development of that already used to determine seeing distances from vehicles when they meet on a straight road. It has been applied to three headlighting systems in current use, the modern British beam, the symmetrical European beam, and the single-lamp meeting beam representing earlier British practice.

Considering meetings on both straight and curved roads, it is shown that in some circumstances the modern British system is better than the symmetrical European system, and that in others the order is reversed. The modern British system is almost always better than the European in revealing the important nearside object, and seeing for all object positions is considerably better during the early stages of a meeting on a curved road, when the observer is on the inside of the bend. This result is important, because the conditions closely resemble those of open-road driving with the meeting beam, a frequent occurrence on roads when oncoming vehicles are anticipated. Taking into consideration also the fact that the modern British system is the less susceptible to vertical misaim, it is concluded that it is the better suited to actual road conditions.

A comparison of the modern double-lamp British system with its predecessor, the single-lamp system, shows that on narrow roads, both straight and curved, the differences between the systems are generally small for all object positions. During the later stages of the meeting, however, recovery from the minimum seeing condition is consistently more rapid with the single lamps, for objects in the driyer's own traffic lane.
Lighting and Architecture
Authors: Baines G. Grenfell , Hogg A. L.
Published: November 2015

This paper underlines the implications of the now widely-accepted fact that lighting design is an integral factor in architectural design. Post-war lighting developments and a number of lighting schemes are reviewed and successes and failures are discussed. Fittings designs are also examined. The practical problems of architect-engineer collaboration are discussed. The paper concludes with some suggestions on future design developments and possible lines of joint action between lighting engineers and architects.
A Note on Calculations of Disability Glare, Veiling and Contrast
Authors: Waldram J. M.
Published: November 2015

The effects of disability glare and veiling are shown in a new method of plotting object and background luminance, suited to their graphical calculation. The conspicuousness of objects not near the threshold can be estimated by the differences in apparent brightness which they present under the conditions considered.
25 Years of Stage Lighting Equipment
Authors: Bentham F. P.
Published: November 2015

The intention of this paper is to describe the development of stage lighting equipment (dimmers and control excluded) in Britain during the past 25 years, and to indicate the forces which have been and are at work to produce this development. The effects of stage design and economics are considered. The great difference between British and German practice, and the lesser difference between British and the United States practice, are outlined. The post-war influence of the New York theatre on lighting layouts in London's West End is described (without enthusiasm) and contrasted with the happy isolation which financial stringency has ensured to the amateur and little theatre movements.
The Role of Lighting in the Search for Better Interiors-Some Techniques
Authors: Durrant D. W.
Published: November 2015

Lighting may be analysed into three components—basic light, focal light and sparkle—each with variables of quantity, quality and colour. The paper discusses the relative importance of these components in particular installations, their effects on the emotions, and the lessons which can be learned from 'theatrical' lighting; it also discusses those factors which tend to restrict the wider use of imaginative lighting and reviews practice overseas.
A Proposed Luminance Basis for a Lighting Code
Authors: Hopkinson R. G.
Published: November 2015

Lighting codes in terms of levels of illumination incident on the visual task have served a valuable purpose for over fifty years. When based on sound principles, they are still valid for the lighting on the work. The lighting of the building interior, however, should not have to be constrained by the lighting on any specific visual task, and should be planned in relation to the design of the whole building. Experiment and observation show that the degree of satisfaction given by lighting is regulated by the brightness pattern in the visual field. Good lighting requires selective illumination on the work, together with an environment free from excessive brightness and glare. The relation between the work lighting and the building lighting should properly be developed in terms of apparent brightness, and an outline is given of the research programme necessary for this purpose. Meanwhile an interim stage is proposed for a lighting code to be based on existing knowledge of visual comfort in relation to brightness distribution in the visual field.
Designing for Quality in Lighting
Authors: Hewitt H. , Kay John , Longmore J. , Rowlands E.
Published: November 2015

Early in 1964 the Society's Technical Committee appointed a panel on 'Quality in Lighting' to investigate those elements in lighting which contribute to the visual quality of an interior. The early work of the panel was linked with the appraisal work being carried out at that time by the C.I.E. Committee E-3.1.1.3 (Agreeable Luminous Environment). This work of appraisal has been developed considerably in Great Britain both by individual workers and by the panel, and the present paper gives an account of the organisation and usefulness of these subjective studies. This paper is in effect a report on progress by the Quality Panel of which the authors are the members. After identifying the significant aspects of quality and showing how they contribute to the total effect, the paper examines the roles of the architect and lighting engineer, and suggests a process of cooperation which would eventually lead to more comprehensive methods of design. This process is then demonstrated by means of a design exercise.
Artificial Daylight Sources
Authors: Henderson S. T.
Published: November 2015

Many attempts have been made to produce artificial lighting equivalent to natural daylight for the purposes of visual colour work, the success of the new sources varying with the availability of lamps (incandescent, fluorescent and gas discharge) and with the accuracy of measurements on sunlight and daylight. Standardisation began with the definition of CIE Illuminants A, B and C, and as a result of much recent measurement, standard daylight distributions have lately been proposed. British Standard Specifications adopt some of these, and a fluorescent tube is now made to conform to the 6500°K distribution. The measurement of colour rendering of such sources is discussed, and numerous spectral distribution curves given for standard sources, equivalent black bodies and fluorescent tubes made to simulate various phases of daylight.
Median Nerve Somatosensory Evoked Potentials Recorded with Cephalic and Noncephalic References in Central and Peripheral Nervous System Lesions
Authors: Ulas Umit Hidir , Özdag Fatih , Eroglu Erdal , Odabasi Zeki , Kutukcu Yasar , Demirkaya Seref , Gökçil Zeki , Hamamcioglu Kemal , Vural Okay
Published: November 2015

Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP) to electrical stimulation of the median nerve by using cephalic and noncephalic references were studied to detect the generator sources of short latency evoked potentials in 29 patients with cerebral, brainstem, spinal and peripheral nerve lesions.

Patients were divided into six groups according to the localization of their lesions: group 1: cortical and subcortical lesions, group 2: basal ganglion lesions, group 3: pons and mesencephalon lesions, group 4: diffuse cerebral lesions, group 5: cervical cord lesions, group 6: brachial plexus lesions. Potentials were recorded using cephalic and noncephalic references after median nerve stimulation.

Evidence obtained from patients suggested the following origins for these short latency SSEPs: P9 may arise in brachial plexus, P11 in dorsal basal ganglions or dorsal column, P13 and P14 in the nucleus cuneatus and lemniscal pathways, N16 in subthalamic structures and most likely mid and lower pons, N18 from the thalamus and thalamocortical tract, and N20 from primary somatosensory cortex.
EEG Does Not Predict Response to Valproate Treatment of Aggression in Patients with Borderline and Antisocial Personality Disorders
Authors: Reeves Roy R. , Struve Frederick A. , Patrick Gloria
Published: November 2015

Previous investigations of the role of EEG in predicting response of aggressive patients to valproate therapy have yielded mixed results. In this study of borderline and antisocial personality disorder patients hospitalized with aggressive behavior, EEGs were obtained prior to treatment with valproate. Eight of 22 (36.4%) patients subsequently responsive to valproate had nonepileptiform EEG abnormalities, while 5 of 20 (25%) patients not responsive to valproate had nonepileptiform EEG abnormalities. Although more of the valproate responders than nonresponders had EEG abnormalities, the presence of nonepileptiform EEG abnormalities was not a statistically significant (X2 = 0.213, df = 1, p = 0.64) predictor of valproate response in personality disorder patients with aggression.
Dietary Approaches to the Control of Vitamin A Deficiency: An Introduction and Overview
Authors: Underwood Barbara A.
Published: November 2015

As a public health problem, deficiency of vitamin A occurs when the habitual intake of bioavailable vitamin A is too little to meet physiological needs under prevailing conditions. Needs are increased during growth periods and when frequent infections cause inefficient utilization of the vitamin. Historical records and recent experience document that improved dietary intake, even when most vitamin A activity comes from provitamin A carotenoids, can correct the problem, especially when such diets contain adequate fat and the subjects are relieved of heavy worm infestation. An epidemiologic evaluation of the entire food chain, consisting of production, procurement, processing, and consumption, provides the framework for selecting suitable dietary approaches. These approaches include homestead food production, centrally or home-based fortified foods, and educational approaches promoting dietary diversification and modification of preparation practices to conserve the vitamin and render it more bioavailable. Even agricultural approaches that select and propagate germ plasma from varieties with increased micronutrient density can be utilized, including, in the future, genetic modifications to increase micronutrient density of vegetable and staple crops. Usually a mixture of intervention strategies will be most effective, particularly when social marketing accompanies efforts to increase consumer acceptance and compliance. Where the ecological and economic context prohibits dietary approaches, or where acute deficiency necessitates an immediate therapeutic response, distribution of vitamin A supplements is needed until suitable food-based approaches become feasible.
Application of Biotechnology to Improving the Nutritional Quality of Rice
Authors: Datta Swapan , Bouis Howarth E.
Published: November 2015

This paper summarizes research to date on improving the nutritional characteristics of rice by using biotechnology, including efforts to produce β-carotene in the rice endosperm, to introduce a heat-stable phytase gene, and to increase iron concentration. The results obtained using biotechnology are compared with the results of breeding research by conventional techniques. Based on this comparison, the following lessons are drawn as to the potential usefulness of biotechnology in providing more nutritious food staples: (1) It must be established that plant-breeding is more cost-effective than alternative interventions. This is apparently the case, in large measure because of the multiplier effects of plant-breeding, over time and space, as compared with supplementation and fortification. (2) There must be aspects of breeding for which biotechnology is superior to conventional techniques. For rice, this is the case for adding β-carotene-related and heat-stable phytase genes. For increasing mineral concentration, conventional breeding techniques work as well and may be applied more quickly. (3) For those aspects of the plant-breeding strategy for which biotechnology is superior to conventional breeding, it must be established that there are no serious negative agronomic consequences; that consumers will accept any changes in the colour, taste, texture, and cooking qualities; and that the characteristic being added will result in a measurable improvement in the nutritional status of the malnourished target population. The conditions under lesson three, in particular, have yet to be firmly established. However, it is important not be overly cautious, in view of the potentially enormous benefits to the poor.
A Comment on how the Nutritional Impact of Agricultural Innovations can be Enhanced
Authors: Smitasiri Suttilak
Published: November 2015

The potential of agriculture still is not sufficiently appreciated by the nutrition community. The marriage of agriculture and nutrition in developing countries has been rare and often unsuccessful. There have been compelling reasons to find relatively quick ways to reduce malnutrition without treating the underlying causes. Thus, national and international nutrition leaders have focused their attention on medically oriented approaches. To many nutrition workers, improving nutrition through food-based approaches is a good idea in theory, but it is not feasible in terms of implementation. More emphasis should be placed on programmes and policies that involve non-staple plant foods, especially fruits and vegetables. For the poor, the cost of animal and fish products is simply too high. Micronutrient-rich vegetable sources are well within their purchasing power.

Education and promotion are essential elements for successful food and nutrition interventions. Agricultural innovations will be transferred more effectively and will have enhanced nutritional impact if researchers in agriculture, food policy, and nutrition can also be change initiators and catalysts for better implementation, along with governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, and intended beneficiaries. Education and promotion do not always reach the more disadvantaged, who are often not well integrated into community power structures, which makes it difficult for them to participate in community activities. A special intensive programme for the poor is often necessary. It is very important that all involved work towards the same goals and use a common set of indicators in achieving change. A “decision-development-dissemination” framework is proposed for enhancing the nutritional impacts of agricultural innovations.
Nutrition, Health, and Economic Development: Some Policy Priorities
Authors: Bhargava Alok
Published: November 2015

Most developing countries face different resource and infrastructural constraints that limit their economic growth. Nutritional deficiencies, poor environmental conditions, and inadequate educational infrastructure hamper children's learning, which is critical for the future supply of skilled labor and hence for economic development. There is a need to assign priorities for resource allocation among nutritional, health-care, and educational policies. This paper draws implications from several studies using data from less developed countries within a multidisciplinary framework. It concludes that iron supplementation of pregnant women and access to family-planning services are likely to enhance maternal and infant health. Where iodine deficiency is endemic, iodized salt is important for preventing cognitive damage to the fetus. Higher intakes of protein and micronutrients such as iron are important for children's physical growth, morbidity, and learning. Improved sanitation and vaccines against infections will prevent loss of vital nutrients. Investments in educational infrastructure, including adult literacy programs, are beneficial for children's cognitive development. Nutrition and health policies based on long-term considerations will lead to a well-trained labor force enabling non-resource-rich developing countries to escape from poverty traps.
Food-Fortification Program in Morocco
Authors: Mokhtar Najat , Belhadj Houda , Kress Daniel , Zerrari Abdelouahed , Chaouki Noureddine , Aguenaou Hassan
Published: November 2015

The Kingdom of Morocco launched the flour and oil fortification stage of its National Micronutrient Program in December 2000. The vitamin A (oil) and iron (flour) fortification components of the program are based on the 1994 and 1996 national and regional surveys, which showed that 38% and 40.6% of children under five years of age, respectively, were iron and vitamin A deficient. Morocco is following the example of many countries that fortify their salt with iodine and flour with iron, folate, and/or B vitamins. In addition, it is innovative in including vitamin A–fortified oil in its pioneering fortification program, the first in North Africa. This paper concerns the advocacy and consensus-building components in support of iron, vitamin B, and folatefortified flour and for vitamin A–fortified oil (iodized salt began in 1996). As part of its efforts to implement a sustainable food-fortification strategy, the Ministry of Health has already launched a series of activities. The selection of flour and oil to fortify is based on food-consumption patterns. Hydrogenated cooking oil was identified as a good vehicle for fortification because it is centrally processed and over 90% of households use it daily for a variety of cooking purposes. Oil is an excellent fortification vehicle for vitamin A because it is a fat-soluble vitamin. Flour was identified as a good vehicle for iron fortification because 95% of households use it as the main ingredient in bread. The entire population consumes centrally processed flour, even households that also use homemade flour. This is because about one million metric tons of centrally processed flour are subsidized by the Government, at a savings of at least 50% compared with nonsubsidized flour. One innovation of the program is to launch fortification for the general public at the beginning of Ramadan, a month-long religious period, when oil and flour consumption increase significantly.
The Promise of Biotechnology in Addressing Current Nutritional Problems in Developing Countries
Authors: Khush Gurdev S.
Published: November 2015

To meet the nutritional needs of a rapidly growing world population, which is likely to reach 8 billion by 2030, 50% more food grains with higher and more stable yields must be produced. Biofortification is considered the most effective way to increase micronutrient intakes. It is low cost and sustainable and does not require a change in eating habits or impose recurring costs. A research project to improve the iron and zinc content of rice was initiated at the International Rice Research Institute in 1992. Several experimental lines of rice with increased iron and zinc content have been produced. in another experiment rices with β-carotene have been produced. Other experimental efforts aim at raising the micronutrient content in wheat, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, and beans. Maize with improved amino acid balance is being grown in several African countries.
Acceptability of Community-Based Growth Monitoring in a Rural Village in South Africa
Authors: Faber Mieke , Phungula Michael A. S. , Kvalsvig Jane D. , Benadé A. J. Spinnler , Young Helen
Published: November 2015

In rural areas, a lack of infrastructure often limits the promotion and implementation of community-based nutrition activities. Growth monitoring can potentially provide a platform for the promotion and implementation of community-based nutrition activities, provided that the growth-monitoring program has a high coverage. The aim of this study was to determine the acceptability of a community-based growth-monitoring project in terms of child attendance and maternal attitude. The study was done in a mountainous rural village that lacks health facilities in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Attendance registers from 1996 to 2000 were used to determine the attendance ratio, coverage, adequacy of growth monitoring, and frequency distribution of the age of participating children. In 2001, focus group discussions were used for the qualitative assessment of maternal attitudes. The community-based growth-monitoring project had an estimated coverage of 90%, at least 60% of these children were covered adequately, and attendance was equally distributed over one-year-interval age categories for children aged five years and younger. Community-based growth monitoring can therefore provide a suitable platform for the promotion and implementation of community-based nutrition activities.
Lessons from Successful Micronutrient Programs Part II: Program Implementation
Authors: Deitchler Megan , Mathys Ellen , Mason John , Winichagoon Pattanee , Tuazon Ma Antonia
Published: November 2015

National programs for vitamin A supplementation and iodization of the salt supply were launched and sustained with high (but not universal) coverage in most of the countries studied. Iron programs (requiring daily or weekly supplementation, in contrast to vitamin A), which were distributed mainly through antenatal care, had lower coverage and acceptance. Constraints to supplementation were supply, awareness of health staff and communities, and (for vitamin A) insecurity with phasing out of the national immunization days, which have been a major vehicle for distribution. Administration to women postpartum becomes even more important and needs greater coverage. Iodized salt programs have expanded well, with good interagency collaboration and local management, supported by legislation (which may need strengthening); constraints remain in terms of too many salt producers, inadequate quality, import issues, and prices. More integrated, multifaceted programs are needed, with priority to developing and implementing fortification—especially in finding effective ways to ironfortify rice. Data are lacking, with fewer surveys once programs start, constraining monitoring and program control and adaptation. Nonetheless, interventions appear to have gone to scale remarkably successfully.
A Public Health Framework for Chronic Disease Prevention and Control
Authors: Robles Sylvia C.
Published: November 2015

Chronic noncommunicable diseases are leading causes of death and disability in many developing countries. Several low-income countries lack mortality and morbidity data and do not yet know their burden of noncommunicable diseases. Cost studies are scarce, but in middleincome countries such as those of Latin America and the Caribbean, the cost of illness not only represents much of the direct costs of medical care, but also has an impact on family disposable income. Studies have reported that in low-resource settings, given incomplete health coverage and partial insurance, out-of-pocket expenses are high. Persons with chronic conditions, in many instances, have to forego care because of their inability to pay. Poverty and chronic noncommunicable diseases have a two-way interaction. These conditions warrant attention from poverty-reduction programs. Evidence shows that to have an impact on the burden of chronic diseases, action must occur at three levels: population-wide policies, community activities, and health services. The latter includes both preventive services and appropriate care for persons with chronic conditions. A public health approach embodies a systems perspective, containing the continuum of prevention and control, from determinants to care. In this framework it is critical to identify and address interactions and interventions that connect between and among the three levels of action.
Advancing Human Nutrition without Degrading Land Resources through Modeling Cropping Systems in the Ethiopian Highlands
Authors: Amede Tilahun , Stroud Ann , Aune Jens
Published: November 2015

Food shortage in sub-Saharan Africa is generally considered a function of limited access to food, with little thought to nutritional quality. Analyzing household production of nutrients across farming systems could be valuable in guiding the improvement of those systems. An optimization model was employed to analyze the scenario of human nutrition and cropland allocation in enset ( Enset ventricosum)/root crop-based and cereal-based systems of the Ethiopian Highlands. The type and amount of nutrients produced in each system were analyzed, and an optimization model was used to analyze which cropping strategies might improve the nutritional quality of the household using existing resources. Both production systems were in food deficit, in terms of quantity and quality of nutrients, except for iron. The energy supply of resource-poor households in the enset/root crop-based system was only 75% of the recommended daily dietary allowance (RDA) of the World Health Organization (WHO), whereas resource-rich farmers were able to meet their energy, protein, zinc, and thiamine demands. Extremely high deficiency was found in zinc, calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin C, which provided only 26.5%, 34%, 1.78%, and 12%, of the RDA, respectively. The RDA could be satisfied if the land area occupied by enset, kale, and beans were expanded by about 20%, 10%, and 40%, respectively, at the expense of maize and sweet potato. The cereal-based system also had critical nutrient deficits in calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin C, which provided 30%, 2.5%, and 2% of the RDA, respectively. In the cereal system, the RDA could be fully satisfied by reducing cropland allocated to barley by about 50% and expanding the land area occupied by faba beans, kale, and enset. A shift from the cereal/root crop-dominated system to a perennial-enset dominated system would decrease soil erosion by improving the crop factor by about 45%. This shift would also have a very strong positive impact on soil fertility management. However, any policy suggestions for change in cropland allocation should be done through negotiations with households, communities, and district stakeholders.
Donated Fortified Cereal Blends Improve the Nutrient Density of Traditional Complementary Foods in Haiti, but Iron and Zinc Gaps Remain for Infants
Authors: Ruel Marie T. , Menon Purnima , Loechl Cornelia , Pelto Gretel
Published: November 2015

This research assesses whether fortified cereal blends such as corn-soy blend (CSB) or wheat-soy (WSB) blend can significantly contribute to improving the quality of the diet of infants and young children 6 to 23 months of age. A series of participatory recipe trials was conducted to assess current complementary feeding practices in the Central Plateau of Haiti and to develop new, improved recipes by using a combination of locally available ingredients and foods and donated fortified cereal blends. Our findings show that it is feasible to improve the nutritional quality of complementary foods in poor rural areas of Haiti, using locally available ingredients and fortified cereal blends. Significant improvements in the concentrations of vitamin A could be obtained by including acceptable and affordable amounts of locally available vitamin A-rich foods such as pumpkin or eggs. Only preparations using CSB, however, could achieve the recommended concentrations of iron and zinc in complementary foods, and even this was achievable only for 12- to 23-month-old children. For infants, and especially those between 6 and 8 months of age, the high requirements of 7.7 mg of iron and 1.6 mg of zinc per 100 kcal of complementary foods could not be met, even with a combination of fortified CSB and other locally available, acceptable, and affordable foods. The same was true for the zinc density of complementary foods among 9- to 11-month-old children, which could not be achieved even with fortified CSB. Thus, in this population, fortified cereal blends were key to achieving the recommended iron and zinc densities of complementary foods for children 12 to 23 months of age, but they were not sufficient for infants. Complementary approaches, such as improving the availability, access, and intake of animal-source foods or the use of home fortification techniques (using spreads, sprinkles, or dispersible tablets), are needed to ensure adequate iron and zinc density of complementary foods for infants younger than 12 months in resource-constrained environments such as rural Haiti.
Nutritional Status of Adult Santal Men in Keonjhar District, Orissa, India
Authors: Bose Kaushik , Chakraborty Falguni , Mitra Kapil , Bisai Samiran
Published: November 2015

Background

Although tribal people constitute a sizable proportion of India's population, there is little information on their anthropometric and nutrition status.

Objective

The present study was undertaken to study the anthropometric characteristics of adult Santal males. It also attempted to evaluate their nutritional status based on body-mass index (BMI) and mid-upper-arm circumference (MUAC).

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted of adult (aged > 18 years) male Santals, a tribal population of Keonjhar District, Orissa, India. A total of 332 Santals from five villages (Gourshinga, Kashibera, Kumunia, Majhisahi, and Sonatangri) in the Anandapur Region of Keonjhar District were included in the study. These villages are located approximately 150 km from Bhubaneswar, the provincial capital of Orissa. Anthropometric measurements, including height, weight, and MUAC, were performed according to a standard protocol. Nutritional status was evaluated on the basis of internationally accepted cutoff points of BMI and MUAC.

Results

The mean height, weight, MUAC, and BMI of the men were 162.5 cm, 51.7 kg, 23.7 cm, and 19.6 kg/m2, respectively. The prevalence of undernutrition (chronic energy deficiency [CED]) based on BMI was 26.2%; 3.3%, 3.9%, and 19.0% had grades III, II, and I CED, respectively. According to MUAC cutoff points, the prevalence of undernutrition was 33.7%.

Conclusions

The level of undernutrition among adult Santal males was high. Appropriate nutritional intervention programs should be implemented immediately.
The International Growth Standard for Preadolescent and Adolescent Children: Statistical Considerations
Authors: Cole T. J.
Published: November 2015

This article discusses statistical considerations for the design of a new study intended to provide an International Growth Standard for Preadolescent and Adolescent Children, including issues such as cross-sectional, longitudinal, and mixed designs; sample-size derivation for the number of populations and number of children per population; modeling of growth centiles of height, weight, and other measurements; and modeling of the adolescent growth spurt. The conclusions are that a mixed longitudinal design will provide information on both growth distance and velocity; samples of children from 5 to 10 sites should be suitable for an international standard (based on political rather than statistical arguments); the samples should be broadly uniform across age but oversampled during puberty, and should include data into adulthood. The LMS method is recommended for constructing measurement centiles, and parametric or semiparametric approaches are available to estimate the timing of the adolescent growth spurt in individuals. If the new standard is to be grafted onto the 2006 World Health Organization (WHO) reference, caution is needed at the join point of 5 years, where children from the new standard are likely to be appreciably more obese than those from the WHO reference, due to the rising trends in obesity and the time gap in data collection between the two surveys.
Risk Factors for Moderate to Severe Anemia among Children in Benin and Mali: Insights from a Multilevel Analysis
Authors: Ngnie-Teta Ismael , Receveur Olivier , Kuate-Defo Barthelemy
Published: November 2015

Background

Anemia currently affects 2 billion people throughout the world. Although the immediate causes of anemia among children are known (including malnutrition and infections), the importance of contextual determinants and their relationships with individual effects have rarely been explored.

Objective

To identify anemia risk factors at the individual, household, and community levels among Beninese and Malian children, using simple and multilevel regression methods.

Methods

An analysis was undertaken of nationally representative data collected in 2001 in Benin (n = 2,284) and Mali (n = 2,826) by the Demographic and Health Surveys. Sixteen potential risk factors for anemia were considered at the individual, household, and community levels. Comparative analyses were carried out using simple and multilevel logistic regression models.

Results

Simple and multilevel logistic regression analyses yielded broadly similar results. Risk factors for moderate to severe anemia included incomplete immunization, stunted growth, recent infection, absence of bednet, low household living standard, rural residency (Mali), low maternal education, and low community development index (Benin). In addition, multilevel analysis indicated a clustering level of anemia in communities (intraclass correlation) of 14% and 19% in Benin and Mali, respectively.

Conclusions

Risk factors for child anemia appeared at all three levels (individual, household and community). Community-level clustering seemed to be low. Therefore, interventions to address anemia need not be village- or region-specific. Identifying a successful and replicable program is now a priority in child survival endeavors. It is likely that such a program would include a focus on improving immunization coverage, increased bednet usage, and reduced protein–energy malnutrition.