bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Materials evaluation and teacher autonomy
Authors: Reinders Hayo , Lewis Marilyn
Published: March 2014

This chapter investigates the role of materials evaluation in developing teacher autonomy. Staff in a university self-access centre were asked to apply an evaluative framework written by the authors to a random selection of study materials in order to establish how appropriate the materials were for independent study, so that decisions around the adaptation and future purchasing of materials could be made. The teachers’ personal reflections of the evaluation process were also recorded and these showed the positive effects of involving teachers in decisions that had previously been made for them.
Language education for law professionals
Authors: Northcott Jill
Published: March 2014

Increasing globalisation has led to English becoming the lingua franca of international legal practice requiring L2 legal professionals to develop high level skills in English thus creating significant challenges for language educators who may not have a background in law. This article provides an overview of language education for L2 legal professionals. Developments and practice in English for Legal Purposes (ELP) viewed within English for Specific Purposes (ESP) are presented to provide a model focusing on the interrelated dimensions of learner context, methodology and teacher background. I acknowledge the contribution of genre studies in providing pedagogical descriptions of written legal language and stress the need for further ethnographic investigation to identify and describe relevant oral legal genres.
The language and communication of jury instruction
Authors: Heffer Chris
Published: March 2014

Systems of justice based on lay juries are meant to ensure a close link between the law and the community it serves: jurors represent the values of the community and these are fed back into the legal system. However, juries can only arrive at legally fair decisions if they have managed to understand and apply the law relating to the case. Yet legal systems in common law countries have paid scant attention to whether legal instructions delivered by the judge are actually conveyed effectively to the jury. This chapter considers the process of jury instruction from linguistic and communicational perspectives. It draws a key distinction between ‘jury instructions’, or the legal texts produced by judicial committees and delivered by judges, and ‘jury instruction’, or the process of communicating the relevant law to a specific jury in the context of a specifictrial. While the comprehension of specific instructions can be improved by rewriting them in plain English, the overall process of instruction requires much more radical revision if we want to ensure that lay juries will bring in true and just verdicts which reflect both the law and the values of the community.
Approaching questions in forensic authorship analysis
Authors: Grant Tim
Published: March 2014

This chapter demonstrates diversity in the activity of authorship and the corresponding diversity of forensic authorship analysis questions and techniques. Authorship is discussed in terms of Love’s (2002) multifunctional description of precursory, executive, declarative and revisionary authorship activities and the implications of this distinction for forensic problem solving. Four different authorship questions are considered. These are ‘How was the text produced?’, ‘How many people wrote the text?’, ‘What kind of person wrote the text?’ and ‘What is the relationship of a queried text with comparison texts?’ Different approaches to forensic authorship analysis are discussed in terms of their appropriateness to answering different authorship questions. The conclusion drawn is that no one technique will ever be appropriate to all problems.
Consciousness, Motivation, and Emotion
Authors: Faw Bill
Published: March 2014

This paper examines some nervous system mechanisms involved in consciousness, motivation, and emotion. We begin with preliminary thoughts on the relationships between various meanings of consciousness: having phenomenal experiences, being aware of objects and situations, and wakefulness. Then we look at a key issue in ‘emotional consciousness,’ specifically whether it is part of basic consciousness mechanisms or merely one ‘channel’ through which we have conscious content. At the end of the chapter are diagrams which present many of the brain-stem, sub-cortical and cortical areas referred to in the text. The diagrams of ‘your brain on numbers’ can be especially helpful in differentiating cortical areas.
Motivation and Emotion
Authors: Bickhard Mark H.
Published: March 2014

This chapter outlines dynamic models of motivation and emotion. These turn out not to be autonomous subsystems, but instead are deeply integrated in the basic interactive dynamic character of living systems. Motivation is a crucial aspect of particular kinds of interactive systems — systems for which representation is a sister aspect. Emotion is a special kind of partially reflective interaction process, and yields its own emergent motivational aspects. In addition, the overall model accounts for some of the crucial properties of consciousness.
Awareness of Emotions
Authors: Peper Martin
Published: March 2014

From a neuropsychological perspective, awareness of emotions is a complex function involving several components (perceptual decoding and conceptualization, memory and attention, and psychophysiological responses). Pathological conditions of the nervous system as well as certain experimental procedures in healthy persons may induce dissociations of these components. It is suggested that perceptual awareness of an emotional stimulus requires a correct stimulus identification as well as input monitoring. Awareness of experiential qualities is a more global function involving integration of interoceptive information, formation of emotional schemas or concepts, and recall of episodic memory of past emotions. Perceptual awareness of internal or external stimulus events can be defined and measured by means of psychophysical methods. Experiental qualities, however, are difficult to assess in a reductionist/physicalist framework.
Negative quantifiers in Hungarian
Authors: Kiss Katalin É.
Published: March 2014

This paper derives the properties of Hungarian se-pronouns from independently motivated assumptions, among them an adjunction theory of Q-raising allowing both left- and right-adjunction. Se-pronouns are identified as negative polarity quantifiers not conveying any negation, licensed by the negative particle. Based on results of Surányi (2006a,b), se-pronouns interpreted universally are analyzed as universal quantifiers, whereas se-pronouns interpreted existentially are analyzed as Heimian indefinites bound by existential closure. Universal and existential se-pronouns have different word order possibilities. The former, targeted by Q-raising, are left- or right-adjoined to NegP (either to the NegP dominating PredP, or to the NegP dominating FocP). Right-adjoined quantifiers participate in the free PF-linearization of postverbal constituents. Existential se-pronouns can be left in situ in the verb phrase, or can be focus-moved into Spec,FocP. The scope interpretation of se-pronouns is determined by the Scope Principle. The particle sem is analyzed as a negative polarity item, a minimizer to be preceded by nem, or to be fused with it.
Polarity particles in Hungarian
Authors: Farkas Donka F.
Published: March 2014

This paper proposes an account of the distribution and role of a set of particles in Hungarian dubbed `polarity particles’, which include igen `yes’, nem `no’, and de `but’. These particles occur at the leftmost edge of a class of assertions uttered as reactions to an immediately preceding assertion or polar question. It is argued that they express two sets of features typical of the class of reactive assertions they occur in, one set encoding the polarity of the asserted sentence, and the other encoding the relation of the asserted sentence to the immediately preceding utterance. The discussion is set against an explicit approach to context structure and to assertive and polar questioning speech acts that draws on a number of pre-existing proposals in the literature.
Ablative causes in Hungarian
Authors: Rákosi György
Published: March 2014

In this paper, I discuss the grammar of ablative causes in Hungarian, and the ensuing ramifications for the general treatment of cause PPs in anticausative constructions. I argue that ablative causes are more diverse than they are generally assumed to be. In particular, a distinction must be made between what I call low ablative causes, which are licensed by anticausative predicates, and high ablative causes, which are not lexically governed and can appear with agentive predicates, too. Assuming a particular extension of Reinhart’s (2000, 2002) Theta System, I analyze the former as adjuncts that bear thematic specification. As such, they are of the same grammatical type as other optional participant phrases, which I have discussed in Rákosi (2006).
Morphology or phonology?
Authors: Siptár Péter
Published: March 2014

This paper discusses the issue of the Hungarian infinitive suffix that has as many as eight surface shapes occurring in the various inflected forms of the infinitive. The final conclusion is that the issue is best treated in terms of morphology (allomorph selection) and not in terms of morphophonological rules/constraints involving segment insertion and deletion, respectively. The bulk of the discussion is couched in Optimality Theoretic terms but an alternative treatment by Rebrus and Kálmán (2009) is also summarized and tentatively accepted in the final part of the paper. However, their alternative solution only serves to fill in the gaps left by the specific OT implementation proposed here: the general conclusion reached in this paper is not thereby undermined.
Adpositional preverbs, chain reduction and phases
Authors: Surányi Balázs
Published: March 2014

This paper develops a syntactic account of two types of adpositional preverb constructions in Hungarian that explains their special behavior, including their mixed argument/adjunct properties. It is maintained that in neutral clauses both types of preverbs come to occupy a position left-adjacent to the verb by XP-movement of an adpositional phrase. Apart from yielding a regular overt movement chain, Chain Reduction (Nunes 1999, 2004), applying in the mapping to PF, may also reduce the copy of the PP left-adjacent to the verb to its adpositional head. Morphosyntactic reanalysis of the reduced copy makes it possible to realize the lower copy of the PP-chain overtly, either as a partial copy or as a full double, depending in part on the morphological status its head. Drawing on the assumption that Chain Reduction applies at the phase level, the paper accounts for the complex pattern of the (non-)availability of these spell out forms in various positions of the clause.
This paper explores the syntax of two classes of preverbs in Hungarian, illustrated in (1) and (2) below.1 As is characteristic of verbal particles in Germanic and lexical verbal prefixes in Slavic, both classes systematically enable the verb to combine with a modifier phrase that appears to be an argument, whose morpho-syntactic form is restricted by the choice of the particle. Both types of preverbs apparently alter the argument structure of the verb: the modifier phrases display properties that render them similar to arguments. One way in which they consistently behave as adjuncts, however, is that their co-occurrence with the prefixed verb is invariably optional, see (1b), (2b). In what follows I will be referring to these elements agnostically as ‘quasi-arguments’ whenever their argument structural status is irrelevant to the discussion, or yet to be determined.
Power and politeness
Authors: Tiisala Seija
Published: March 2014

The power structures in northern Baltic Europe in the Middle Ages can be studied through the correspondence between the Swedish authorities and the Hanseatic Councils. The letters were written in three languages: Latin, Low German and Swedish. Low German was the dominant language in the correspondence from the fifteenth century onwards. The aim of the paper is to examine the ways in which power relationships are manifested, including choice of language, conventional expressions of politeness, use of laudatory adjectives when addressing the recipient, use of adverbs to express deference or hedging, and elaborations in orthography.

Medieval letter-writing followed models described in various instruction books called summae dictaminis. These reflect the hierarchy of medieval society by classifying senders and recipients of letters according to their social position, and giving instructions for address of one group by another. The European tradition of rules for letter writing can be traced back in an unbroken line to the Roman Empire, and in spite of certain local differences most rules concerning the form of the letter and expressions of politeness were shared all over the continent.
Writing grammars for the community
Authors: Kadanya James Lokuuda
Published: March 2014

A language is a living soul to a community, a source of dignity and prestige for all people. Once it dies, the whole community dies. A written grammar can support a community by encouraging the use of a community language. Sometimes, however, grammars are ways that outsiders "mine" a local community for the outsiders' benefit, leaving the community of speakers with nothing. This paper discusses the need for linguistic grammars from the perspective of the community in which the language is used. Arguments for including local concerns in grammar writing are presented. One approach to writing a grammar that will serve the needs of linguists and the community is partnership. University professors, field linguists, retired field workers and others can work with local linguists to write grammars that will truly meet the needs of all.
From parts of speech to the grammar
Authors: Munro Pamela
Published: March 2014

Making dictionaries is a vital aid to completing a full grammatical analysis of a language, particularly if the dictionary requires the specification of the part of speech for each entry. English (or “universal”) parts of speech may not be relevant in all languages, as can be shown by structural comparisons of “adjectives” in San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec vs. Chickasaw and of “adpositions” in San Lucas Quiaviní Zapotec (and Mixtec) vs. Chickasaw. Each language will present its own structurally determined inventory of parts of speech, relevant for its own grammatical facts. Thus, discovering the actual parts of speech of a language is a critical part both of dictionary making and of grammar writing. These aspects of linguistic analysis are crucially interconnected.
A typology of good grammars
Authors: Rice Keren
Published: March 2014

Writing a grammar is an exhilarating and exhausting experience. All grammars must meet high expectations. This paper reports on a study of qualities sought in grammars based on a survey of reviews of grammars. The study reveals that linguists expect a grammar to be comprehensive, clear, and accessible to all. It should also contain careful argumentation and a wealth of data that is appropriate, authentic, and meticulously checked. Writers of grammars must ask themselves a variety of questions before they begin, including what the goal of the grammar is, who the audience for the grammar is, how much time there is to write the grammar, and what the language reveals about its grammar. The paper then discusses and evaluates specific examples of good grammars of various types.
Making faces with computers
Authors: Pike Graham , Brace Nicola , Turner Jim , Kynan Sally
Published: March 2014

Knowledge concerning the cognition involved in perceiving and remembering faces has informed the design of at least two generations of facial compositing technology. These systems allow a witness to work with a computer (and a police operator) in order to construct an image of a perpetrator. Research conducted with systems currently in use has suggested that basing the construction process on the witness recalling and verbally describing the face can be problematic. To overcome these problems and make better use of witness cognition, the latest systems use a combination of Principal Component Analysis (PCA) facial synthesis and an array-based interface. The present paper describes a preliminary study conducted to determine whether the use of an array-based interface really does make appropriate use of witness cognition and what issues need to be considered in the design of emerging compositing technology.
Distributed processes, distributed cognizers and collaborative cognition
Authors: Harnad Stevan
Published: March 2014

Cognition is thinking; it feels like something to think, and only those who can feel can think. There are also things that thinkers can do. We know neither how thinkers can think nor how they are able to do what they can do. We are waiting for cognitive science to discover how. Cognitive science does this by testing hypotheses about what processes can generate what doing (“know-how”).This is called the Turing Test. It cannot test whether a process can generate feeling, hence thinking — only whether it can generate doing. The processes that generate thinking and know-how are “distributed” within the heads of thinkers, but not across thinkers’ heads. Hence there is no such thing as distributed cognition, only collaborative cognition. Email and the Web have spawned a new form of collaborative cognition that draws upon individual brains’ real-time interactive potential in ways that were not possible in oral, written or print interactions.
Information and mechanical models of intelligence
Authors: Quilici Gonzalez Maria Eunice
Published: March 2014

The impact of new advanced technology on issues that concern meaningful information and its relation to studies of intelligence constitutes the main topic of the present paper. The advantages, disadvantages and implications of the synthetic methodology developed by cognitive scientists, according to which mechanical models of the mind, such as computer simulations or self-organizing robots, may provide good explanatory tools to investigate cognition, are discussed. A difficulty with this methodology is pointed out, namely the use of meaningless information to explain intelligent behavior that incorporates meaningful information. In this context, it is inquired what are the contributions of cognitive science to contemporary studies of intelligent behavior and how technology may play a role in the analysis of the relationships established by organisms in their natural and social environments.
Radical Empiricism, Empirical Modelling and the nature of knowing
Authors: Beynon Meurig
Published: March 2014

This paper explores connections between Radical Empiricism (RE), a philosophic attitude developed by William James at the beginning of the 20th century, and Empirical Modelling (EM), an approach to computer-based modelling that has been developed by the author and his collaborators over a number of years. It focuses in particular on how both RE and EM promote a perspective on the nature of knowing that is radically different from that typically invoked in contemporary approaches to knowledge representation in computing. This is illustrated in detail with reference to the modelling of several scenarios of lift use. Some potential implications for knowledge management are briefly reviewed.
Methods and procedures in sign language acquisition studies
Authors: Baker Anne E. , van den Bogaerde Beppie , Woll Bencie
Published: March 2014

Sign language acquisition is a relatively new field and is still developing its own good practice. This paper gives an overview of the most common procedures in research design, choice of subjects, transcription and documentation. The paper concludes with a brief overview of the chronology of development of sign languages.
Transcription of child sign language: A focus on narrative
Authors: Morgan Gary
Published: March 2014

This paper describes some general difficulties in analysing child sign language data with an emphasis on the process of transcription. The particular issue of capturing how signers encode simultaneity in narrative is discussed.
Distributed cognition: A methodological note
Authors: Kirsh David
Published: March 2014

Humans are closely coupled with their environments. They rely on being ‘embedded’ to help coordinate the use of their internal cognitive resources with external tools and resources. Consequently, everyday cognition, even cognition in the absence of others, may be viewed as partially distributed. As cognitive scientists our job is to discover and explain the principles governing this distribution: principles of coordination, externalization, and interaction. As designers our job is to use these principles, especially if they can be converted to metrics, in order to invent and evaluate candidate designs. After discussing a few principles of interaction and embedding I discuss the usefulness of a range of metrics derived from economics, computational complexity, and psychology.
Thinking in groups
Authors: Gureckis Todd M. , Goldstone Robert L.
Published: March 2014

Is cognition an exclusive property of the individual or can groups have a mind of their own? We explore this question from the perspective of complex adaptive systems. One of the principal insights from this line of work is that rules that govern behavior at one level of analysis (the individual) can cause qualitatively different behavior at higher levels (the group). We review a number of behavioral studies from our lab that demonstrate how groups of people interacting in real-time can self-organize into adaptive, problem-solving group structures. A number of principles are derived concerning the critical features of such “distributed” information processing systems. We suggest that while cognitive science has traditionally focused on the individual, cognitive processes may manifest at many levels including the emergent group-level behavior that results from the interaction of multiple agents and their environment.
Distributed learning and mutual adaptation
Authors: Schwartz Daniel L. , Martin Taylor
Published: March 2014

If distributed cognition is to become a general analytic frame, it needs to handle more aspects of cognition than just highly efficient problem solving. It should also handle learning. We identify four classes of distributed learning: induction, repurposing, symbiotic tuning, and mutual adaptation. The four classes of distributed learning fit into a two-dimensional space defined by the stability and adaptability of individuals and their environments. In all four classes of learning, people and their environments are highly interdependent during initial learning. At the same time, we present evidence indicating that certain types of interdependence in early learning, most notably mutual adaptation, can help prepare people to be less dependent on their immediate environment and more adaptive when they confront new environments. We also describe and test examples of learning technologies that implement mutual adaptation.
Web Search engines and distributed assessment systems
Authors: Heintz Christophe
Published: March 2014

I analyse the impact of search engines on our cognitive and epistemic practices. For that purpose, I describe the processes of assessment of documents on the Web as relying on distributed cognition. Search engines together with Web users, are distributed assessment systems whose task is to enable efficient allocation of cognitive resources of those who use search engines. Specifying the cognitive function of search engines within these distributed assessment systems allows interpreting anew the changes that have been caused by search engine technologies. I describe search engines as implementing reputation systems and point out the similarities with other reputation systems. I thus call attention to the continuity in the distributed cognitive processes that determine the allocation of cognitive resources for information gathering from others.
Speech transformation solutions
Authors: Kanevsky Dimitri , Basson Sara , Faisman Alexander , Rachevsky Leonid , Zlatsin Alex , Conrod Sarah
Published: March 2014

This paper outlines the background development of “intelligent” technologies such as speech recognition. Despite significant progress in the development of these technologies, they still fall short in many areas, and rapid advances in areas such as dictation are actually stalled. In this paper we have proposed semi-automatic solutions — smart integration of human and intelligent efforts. One such technique involves improvement to the speech recognition editing interface, thereby reducing the perception of errors to the viewer. Other techniques that are described in the paper are batch enrollment, which allows the user to reduce the amount of time required for enrollment, and content spotting, which can be used for applications that have repeated content flow, such as movies or museum tours. The paper also suggests a general concept of distributive training of speech recognition systems that is based on data collection across a network.
Use of signalling nouns in a learner corpus
Authors: Flowerdew John
Published: March 2014

Signalling nouns are nouns which have cohesive properties across and within clauses. A signalling noun is potentially any abstract noun the full meaning of which can only be made specific by reference to its context. Examples of nouns which can function as signalling nouns are attitude, assistance, difficulty, endurance, process, reason, result etc. Signalling nouns in discourse are closely associated with nominalisation and are problematic for learners. Based on a corpus of argumentative essays written by Cantonese L1 learners of English, this paper presents a taxonomy of error types and frequency data of the different error types in the use of signalling nouns. The paper then compares the average number of signalling nouns used per essay with grades awarded to the essays, on the one hand, and the numbers of signalling noun errors according to grades, on the other. In both cases there is a significant correlation. The findings confirm the intuitive idea that the use of signalling nouns adds to the overall coherence of a text.
Lexical cohesion: Corpus linguistic theory and its application English in language teaching
Authors: Mahlberg Michaela
Published: March 2014

Cohesion is generally described with regard to two broad categories: ‘grammatical cohesion’ and ‘lexical cohesion’. These categories reflect a view on language that treats grammar and lexis along separate lines. Language teaching textbooks on cohesion often follow this division. In contrast, a corpus theoretical approach to the description of English prioritises lexis and does not assume that lexical and grammatical phenomena can be clearly distinguished. Consequently, cohesion can be seen in a new light: cohesion is created by interlocking lexico-grammatical patterns and overlapping lexical items. A corpus theoretical approach to cohesion has important implications for English language teaching. The article looks at difficulties of teaching cohesion, shows links between communicative approaches to ELT and corpus linguistics, and suggests practical applications of corpus theoretical concepts.
Mining defining contexts to help structuring differential ontologies
Authors: Malaisé Véronique , Zweigenbaum Pierre , Bachimont Bruno
Published: March 2014

In this paper, we present an experiment dealing with corpus-based construction of “differential ontologies”, which are organised according to semantic similarity and differential features. We argue that knowledge-rich defining contexts can be useful to help an ontology modeller in his task. We present a method, based on lexico-syntactic patterns, to spot such contexts in a corpus, then identify the terms they relate (definiendum and genus or “characteristics”) and the semantic relation that links them. We also show how potential co-hyponyms can be detected on the basis of shared words in their definiens. We evaluate the extracted defining sentences, semantic relations and co-hyponyms on a test corpus focusing on childhood and on an evaluation corpus about dietetics (both corpora are French). Definition extraction obtains 50% precision and recall of approximately 40%. Semantic relation identification reaches an average of 48% precision, and co-hyponyms 23.5%. We discuss the results of these experiments and conclude on perspectives for future work.
Terminology and the construction of ontology
Authors: Gillam Lee , Tariq Mariam , Ahmad Khurshid
Published: March 2014

This paper discusses a method for corpus-driven ontology design: extracting conceptual hierarchies from arbitrary domain-specific collections of texts. These hierarchies can form the basis for a concept-oriented (onomasiological) terminology collection, and hence may be used as the basis for developing knowledge-based systems using ontology editors. This reference to ontology is explored in the context of collections of terms. The method presented is a hybrid of statistical and linguistic techniques, employing statistical techniques initially to elicit a conceptual hierarchy, which is then augmented through linguistic analysis. The result of such an extraction may be useful in information retrieval, knowledge management, or in the discipline of terminology science itself.
The first steps towards the automatic compilation of specialized collocation dictionaries
Authors: Wanner Leo , Bohnet Bernd , Giereth Mark , Vidal Vanesa
Published: March 2014

Collocation dictionaries are essential in specialized discourse for understanding, production, and translation. Especially translation, which is often undertaken by professionals who are not specialists of the field, is in need of dictionaries with detailed syntactic and semantic information on lexical and semantic links between terms. However, collocation dictionaries are hardly available for general, let alone specialized, discourse. The manual compilation of collocation dictionaries from large corpora is a time consuming and cost-intensive procedure. A (partial) automation of this procedure recently became a high-priority topic in computational lexicography. In this article, we discuss how collocations can be acquired from specialized corpora and labeled with semantic tags using machine-learning techniques. As semantic tags, we use lexical functions from the Explanatory Combinatorial Lexicology. We explore the performance of two different machine-learning techniques, Nearest Neighbor Classification and Tree Augmented Bayesian Classification, testing them on a Spanish law corpus.
The language of neofeudal corporatism and the war on Iraq
Authors: Graham Philip , Luke Allan
Published: March 2014

Beginning from recent critical work on globalisation, many critical scholars have extended the analytic vocabulary of ‘advanced’, ‘fast’ and ‘postmodern’ capitalism to explain the geopolitics of the Iraq War. This article offers a counterclaim: that current geopolitical economy can be more usefully characterised as a form of neofeudal corporatism. Using examples drawn from a 300,000 word corpus of public utterances by three political leaders — George W. Bush, Tony Blair, and John Howard — we identify and explicate defining characteristics of this system and how they are manifest in political language about the invasion of Iraq.
War rhetoric of a little ally
Authors: van Dijk Teun A.
Published: March 2014

In this paper we examine some of the properties of the speeches by former Prime Minister José María Aznar held in Spanish parliament in 2003 legitimating his support of the USA and the threatening war against Iraq. The theoretical framework for the analysis is a multidisciplinary CDA approach relating discursive, cognitive and sociopolitical aspects of parliamentary debates. It is argued that speeches in parliament should not only be defined in terms of their textual properties, but also in terms of a contextual analysis. Besides an analysis of the usual properties of ideological and political discourse, such as positive self-presentation and negative other-presentation and other rhetoric devices, special attention is paid to political implicatures defined as inferences based on general and particular political knowledge as well as on the context models of Aznar’s speeches.
Construing and constructing others
Authors: Snyder Mark , Klein Olivier
Published: March 2014

When individuals (as perceivers) hold expectations about other people (as targets), they can elicit from these targets behaviors that are consistent with their expectations, even if these expectations are independent of the target’s real characteristics. In this paper, we consider the role that this phenomenon, known as behavioral confirmation, plays in shaping the social perceptions of perceivers, targets, and outside observers. As well, we address the value of laboratory research on behavioral confirmation for understanding the dynamics and outcomes of social interactions in naturally occurring settings. Building on these considerations, we then examine the role of behavioral confirmation phenomena in shaping intergroup relations, with particular reference to delineating conditions in which such phenomena serve to preserve these relations. Based on this analysis, we suggest that dyadic confirmation phenomena are likely to occur in naturally occurring settings and may contribute to the maintenance and perpetuation of social stereotypes and societal structures.
How to do things with logical expressions
Authors: Hilton Denis , Villejoubert Gaëlle , Bonnefon Jean-François
Published: March 2014

We argue that logical expressions in human language enable speakers to perform particular acts as well as stating propositions which may be true or false. We present a conversational action planning model of co-ordinated reasoning, which we use to predict choice of logical expressions in situations in which two people co-operate in the face of risk and uncertainty. We first show how this model predicts preferences for formulations of conditional directives where a principal instructs an agent on how to behave in a hypothetical situation. Second, we show how this model accounts for choices of quantity and probability expressions that express risk, in situations where a professional advises a client on her options. We conclude that the pragmatic signals encoded in human logical vocabulary can facilitate the co-ordination of social interaction through aiding mutual recognition of intentions on joint projects where collaboration is likely to create value.
Attributions and peer harassment
Authors: Graham Sandra
Published: March 2014

Attribution theory is used as a conceptual framework for examining how causal beliefs about peer harassment influence how victims think and feel about themselves. Evidence is presented that victims who make characterological self-blaming attributions (“it must be me”) are particularly at risk of negative self-views. Also examined is the influence of social context, particularly the ethnic composition of schools and classrooms. It was found that students who were both victims of harassment and members of the majority ethnic group were more vulnerable to self-blaming attributions. In contrast, greater ethnic diversity, that is, classrooms where no one group was in the majority, tended to ward off self-blaming tendencies. Studies of peer harassment are a good context for examining one of the main themes of the special issue, which is how the social context (e.g., peer groups, ethnic groups) influences the way individuals think and feel about themselves.
Self processes in interdependent relationships
Authors: Rusbult Caryl E. , Kumashiro Madoka , Stocker Shevaun L. , Kirchner Jeffrey L. , Finkel Eli J. , Coolsen Michael K.
Published: March 2014

This essay reviews theory and research regarding the “Michelangelo phenomenon,” which describes the manner in which close partners shape one another’s dispositions, values, and behavioral tendencies. Individuals are more likely to exhibit movement toward their ideal selves to the degree that their partners exhibit affirming perception and behavior; exhibiting confidence in the self’s capacity and enacting behaviors that elicit key features of the self’s ideal. In turn, movement towards the ideal self yields enhanced personal well-being and couple well-being. We review empirical evidence regarding this phenomenon and discuss self and partner variables that contribute to the process.
Experiencing contingency and agency
Authors: Nadel Jacqueline , Prepin Ken , Okanda Mako
Published: March 2014

Precursors of inferential capacities concerning self- and other- understanding may be found in the basic experience of social contingency and emotional sharing. The emergence of a sense of self- and other-agency receives special attention here, as a foundation for self-understanding. We propose that synchrony, an amodal parameter of contingent self-other relationships, should be especially involved in the development of a sense of agency. To explore this framework, we have manipulated synchrony in various ways, either by delaying mother’s response to infant’s behaviour, disorganizing mother’s internal synchrony between face and voice, freezing the partner in a still attitude, or on the contrary maximizing synchrony through imitation. We report results obtained with healthy and clinical populations that are supposed to be at the beginning of basic experiences concerning the ownership of their actions: infants of 2 months and 6 months, low-functioning children with autism and MA matched young children with Down Syndrome. Our results support the idea of a two-step process linking understanding of self to understanding of other and leading on to form the concept of human beings as universally contingent entities.
The social construction of the cultural mind
Authors: Gergely György , Csibra Gergely
Published: March 2014

How does cultural knowledge shape the development of human minds and, conversely, what kind of species-specific social-cognitive mechanisms have evolved to support the intergenerational reproduction of cultural knowledge? We critically examine current theories proposing a human-specific drive to identify with and imitate conspecifics as the evolutionary mechanism underlying cultural learning. We summarize new data demonstrating the selective interpretive nature of imitative learning in 14-month-olds and argue that the predictive scope of existing imitative learning models is either too broad or too narrow to account for these findings. We outline our alternative theory of a human-specific adaptation for ‘pedagogy’, a communicative system of mutual design specialized for the fast and efficient transfer of new and relevant cultural knowledge from knowledgeable to ignorant conspecifics. We show the central role that innately specified ostensive-communicative triggering cues and learner-directed manner of knowledge manifestations play in constraining and guiding selective imitation of relevant cultural knowledge that is both new and cognitively opaque to the naive learner.
The debate on truth and reconciliation
Authors: Verdoolaege Annelies
Published: March 2014

This article gives an overview of a large part of contemporary TRC literature. Hundreds of publications have appeared on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. With a view to proper academic reflection it would be useful to classify this literature. Various classificatory criteria could be used. In this text a topical perspective is taken, so the TRC literature is subdivided on the basis of the thematic focus of the author. Perspectives on the SA Truth Commission have many different thematic interests, such as legal, religious, political, psychological, anthropological and linguistic. This paper tries to bring some cohesion and meaningful organization to this multitude of books, articles and dissertations. Within each thematic category representative examples are pointed out. Finally, reference is made to some lacunae and overlaps which are evident from looking at the body of TRC literature. As a result, this article can be seen as an investigation into the characterizing features of the debate on the TRC.
The role of narrative in personality psychology today
Authors: McAdams Dan P.
Published: March 2014

Over the past 25 years, narrative theories and methods have helped to revitalize the discipline of personality psychology by providing new tools and concepts for discerning the inner patterning and meaning of human lives and by helping to recontextualize personality studies in terms of culture, gender, class, ethnicity, and the social ecology of everyday life. This article (a) briefly traces recent historical developments in personality psychology as they relate to the increasing influence of narrative approaches; (b) describes a three-tiered conceptual framework for understanding personality in terms of dispositional traits, characteristic adaptations, and life stories; and (c) illustrates one important research program on life stories in personality — studies of the redemptive self.
Dialogue in a discourse context
Authors: Herman David
Published: March 2014

Building on recent studies of speech and thought representation in narrative fiction (Fludernik 1993; Herman 2002; Palmer 2004; Thomas 2002), this essay outlines the advantages of forging interconnections between narrative theory and a range of disciplinary frameworks concerned with talk — including literary theory, linguistic pragmatics, discourse analysis, gender studies, and research on socially distributed cognition. Using Virginia Woolf’s 1927 novel To the Lighthouse as a case study, the essay first explores general theoretical and interpretive issues raised by scenes of talk portrayed in the novel. Then it zooms in on one chapter that centers around a communicative encounter between two characters. This scene both illuminates and is illuminated by research on socio-communicative practices in general. Further, the scene requires a rethinking of modernist narrative construed as a privileging of characters’ interiority over the concrete social and material environments in which they think, act, and communicate. Hence an interdisciplinary approach to scenes of talk like Woolf’s not only necessitates a reconsideration of key ideas in literary studies, but also suggests new directions for narrative theory after the second cognitive revolution.
The narrative negotiation of identity and belonging
Authors: Kraus Wolfgang
Published: March 2014

The present article discusses the need for a narrative approach within current identity theory and insists on the importance of an appropriate selection when it comes to a specific approach. It is argued that the most adequate theoretical relationship can be established to a poststructuralist and deconstructivist narratology. This understanding leads to a focus on narrativity and to the performative construction of identity. The question of belonging facilitates further elaboration on the various aspects of identity. Again, narrativity is proposed as a theoretical and methodological approach for analysis. Here situational self-positioning and positioning by others are seen as central in the negotiation of belonging. Particular emphasis is placed on small narratives and on positioning within the discursive situation.
Applied ethnopoetics
Authors: Blommaert Jan
Published: March 2014

Ethnopoetics is a form of narrative analysis designed, initially, for the analysis of folk stories and based on an ethnographic performance-based understanding of narrative emphasizing that meaning is an effect of performance. It offers opportunities for analyzing ‘voice’. The ways in which speakers themselves organize stories along indexical patterns of emphasis, focus, super- and subordination and so on. As such, it is a potentially very useful tool for tracking ‘local’ patterns of meaning-making in narrative. I argue that ethnopoetics could be productively applied to data in which different systems of meaning-making meet — a condition that defines many important service-providing systems in globalizing contexts. Asylum applications in Western Europe are a case in point, and examples will be used from that domain, but the potential usefulness of such an applied ethnopoetics stretches into many other types of service encounters in which crosscultural storytelling is crucial.
Does linguistic explanation presuppose linguistic description?
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: March 2014

I argue that the following two assumptions are incorrect: (i) The properties of the innate Universal Grammar can be discovered by comparing language systems, and (ii) functional explanation of language structure presupposes a “correct”, i.e. cognitively realistic, description. Thus, there are two ways in which linguistic explanation does not presuppose linguistic description.

The generative program of building cross-linguistic generalizations into the hypothesized Universal Grammar cannot succeed because the actually observed generalizations are typically one-way implications or implicational scales, and because they typically have exceptions. The cross-linguistic generalizations are much more plausibly due to functional factors.

I distinguish sharply between “phenomenological description” (which makes no claims about mental reality) and “cognitively realistic description”, and I show that for functional explanation, phenomenological description is sufficient.
A question of relevance
Authors: Weiß Helmut
Published: March 2014

Data from natural languages (in contrast to, say, the results of psycholinguistic experiments) are still a major source of evidence used in linguistics, whether they are elicited through grammatical judgments, as in generative linguistics, or by collecting samples, as preferred in typology. The underlying assumption is that data are alike in their value as evidence if they occur in natural languages. The present paper questions this assumption in showing that there is a difference in the naturalness of languages because languages like German or English have originally emerged as secondarily learned written languages, that is they once were languages without native speakers. Although they are nowadays acquired as first languages, their grammars still contain inconsistent properties which partly disqualify standard languages as a source of evidence.
What counts as evidence in historical linguistics?
Authors: Fischer Olga
Published: March 2014

The main aim of this paper is to establish the position of historical linguistics in the wider field of linguistics. Section 1 centres on the immediate and long term goals of historical linguistics. Section 2 discusses the type of data that play a role and looks at tools to be used for the analysis of the data. It also addresses the question whether the explanation of the data should be in terms of grammar change (as advocated by formalist linguists) or language change. This latter point automatically leads to the question as to what type of grammatical model or theory the historical linguist should work with, and more particularly, in how far the innate, syntacto-centric generative model is adequate for studying grammar change (Section 3). This is followed by a brief conclusion in which a semi-independent position for the historical linguist is advocated.
Automatic extraction of terminological translation lexicon from Czech-English parallel texts
Authors: Cmejrek Martin , Curín Jan
Published: March 2014

We present experimental results of an automatic extraction of a Czech-English translation dictionary. Two different bilingual corpora (119,886 sentence pairs computer-oriented and 58,137 journalistic corpora) were created. We used the length-based statistical method for sentence alignment (Gale and Church 1991) and noun phrase marker working with regular grammar and probabilistic model (Brown et al. 1993) for dictionary extraction. Resulting dictionaries' size varies around 6,000 entries. After significance filtering, weighted precision is 86.4%for computer-oriented and 70.7%for journalistic Czech-English dictionary.