bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Date of the Adversus Nationes
Authors: Simmons Michael Bland
Published: October 2011

Beginning with Conrad Orelli's Arnobii afri disputationum adversus gentes libri vii in 1816 and continuing to the present, modern scholars have not reached a consensus concerning the date in which Arnobius of Sicca Veneria wrote his Adversus nations in seven books. The suggested dates of the work have ranged from ad 295 to 320. Most historians and classicists who have studied the work in any detail are usually content with the general chronological designation of either before, during, or after the Diocletianic Persecution. Jerome's Chronicon is the earliest of the five writings in which Arnobius is named. This chapter shows that Arnobius began to write the Adversus nations no earlier than the last quarter of ad 302, and finished book 7 before the persecution had ended, and thus sacrifice was a contemporary issue, probably sometime during the first half of 305.
Introduction
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

In the late eighteenth century, the European continent was recovering from the effects brought about by Khmelnitsky's massacres. Literature was not spared from this violence. Books and publications were destroyed, and writing was forced to come to a halt. Only a few books were left to serve as material evidence and as a reference of the time before the start of the nineteenth century. The work featured in this chapter is said to be one of the earliest to have an Eastern Yiddish form. This, as would be expected, is about the time of the massacres and the strife and oppression they caused. The publication had no indication of any date or time when it was written, but its structure spoke for the time it represented due to its structure and form.
The Emergence of Common Eastern Yiddish (Proto-Standard Yiddish)
Authors: Kerler Dov-Ber
Published: October 2011

The continuous modernization was literally the constant production of new and fresh features and concepts. Grammatical reconstruction and future-tense auxiliary are some examples of these. The different regional dialects in Eastern Yiddish languages have produced an entirely new literature language, springing forth to become the modern and contemporary text. They further paved the way to new frontiers in Yiddish literature. This chapter discusses the most important and significant components of morphological and morpho-syntactic changes that can be seen as milestones during this area, particularly those of the late eighteenth-century Eastern Yiddish. Some of these include the diminutive features of morphological patterns, abstract noun formation, pronominal adjectives, possessive pronouns, and the preterite, among others. It is a very extensive and broad field, about which there is yet a lot more to discover.
The Candid Conte: Candide ou lʼoptimisme
Authors: PEARSON ROGER
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Candide, which is considered to be Voltaire's longest and funniest story. Some have even considered it to be the best of all the possible contes. Candide is an important work of Voltaire. Most of Voltaire's literary ingredients that have been previously used in his past works are all used in the Candide, making it difficult for writers to surpass the standards set by this story.
Fules Supervielle, Gravitations (1925/1932)
Authors: Scott Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Jules Supervielle's poems and the prevailing prosody of displacement found in his poetry. The chapter also examines the different Superviellean strategies employed by Supervielle in his poems. Once again, the elements of rhythm, metre, and scansion are discussed and examined within the context of Supervielle' Gravitations and his other poems. In addition, this chapter looks into the differences between Perse and Supervielle through the difference of the forms of free verse they employ.
Conclusion
Authors: Scott Clive
Published: October 2011

Abstracts and keywords to be supplied
Gender and Language: The Womanly Woman and Manly Writing
Authors: BIEDER MARYELLEN
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the reception of women's writing, the way in which they are read as conforming to or violating the contemporary construction of gender. The reclassification of women's writing from an implicitly inferior ‘not-male’ to an androgynous ‘manlike’ reaches beyond the obvious examples of the mid-century Getrudis Gómez de Avellaneda and the late-century Pardo Bazán to other women as well. This chapter also examines attempts by Pardo Bazán, Concepción Gimeno de Flaquer, and other women to renegotiate the separate spheres of gendered writing and to claim for some women the neutral status of poeta. Poetry is the only form of creative authorship that can be designated with a neutral term in Spanish, since the single word conflates the two genders and can thus serve to name either a female or a male poet.
Gender and National Identity: The Novel in Nineteenth-Century Spanish Literary History
Authors: BLANCO ALDA
Published: October 2011

This chapter charts the critical tradition's transformation of women as subjects of writing and reading into objects of blame and their subsequent exclusion from the text of literary history. That women should be the ones to bear the burden of blame should come as no surprise. However, to invoke misogyny alone as an explanation of José Montesinos's indictment of the woman reader is not enough. Misogyny cannot explain a critical tradition which, from the outset, relentlessly, and maybe even obsessively, inscribed the figure of woman into its discourse as its object of blame. Rather, the chapter suggests that by mapping out the discursive underpinnings of the ideological project of Spanish literary scholarship with relation to gender, one can begin to elucidate the original nexus that forged its construction.
Woman as Language in the First Series of Galdós's Episodios nacionales
Authors: UREY DIANE FAYE
Published: October 2011

The First Series of Benito Pérez Galdós's Episodios nacionales marks a new era in Spanish literary history. Written between 1873 and 1875 these ten ‘historical novels’ helped pave the way for the tremendous rise of the novel in the late 19th century. Their immense popularity was a major contribution to the formation of an enthusiastic reading public in Spain. Although they have often been considered thinly fictionalised, they also display an acute awareness of the equivocal relationships between language and world, fiction and history. Galdós's first Episodios nacionales constantly reveal paradoxes that question the ability of language to mean. They effectively demonstrate how traditional approaches to historical discourse or the realist novel lead only to the repetition of the same unsatisfactory, if not trite, conclusions about the individual and the world. In fully half of Galdós's seventy-eight novels women characters are protagonists, and they serve as central figures in nearly all of them.
Introduction
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

L24 constitutes the only fragment where ‘la condition de l'homme’ is directly named. Moreover, the Recueil original clearly shows that Blaise Pascal wrote each term with a capital letter, a point which all editors have ignored. The lack of any subordinate clauses leaves the fragment open ended: each of the nouns is open to interpretation, an activity in itself which indicates man's corruption. Thus, the combination of these factors leads one to look elsewhere in the fragmentary text for examples where the terms inconstance, ennui, and inquiétude are more fully developed. The patterning of L24 should also be considered. It has been well established that the word order and patterning play an essential stylistic role in the Pensées. This book shows in many respects how the terms depicting restlessness, inconstance and inquiétude, are closely related to one another, but also how both nouns point toward ennui and ennui refers back to them.
Inconstance
Authors: Hammond Nicholas
Published: October 2011

Inconstance occurs the least number of times in the Pensées of the three nouns which appear in L24. Situated as the final word, it offsets the structural symmetry of the fragment, thereby drawing particular attention to it. The scarcity of the use of inconstance in other fragments serves to highlight its significance in those passages where it appears in a prominent position. A major context in which inconstantia traditionally appears is in its contrast to the Stoic and neo-Stoic conception of constantia. The theme of inconstancy, of the changeability of all earthly things is one which recurs throughout writings known to Blaise Pascal. As Philippe Sellier has clearly shown, the Bible, especially Psalms 101 and 136 and St Augustine's commentaries on them, were a major source of inspiration to Pascal. In them, through the repetition of the Latin terms inconstantia and instabilitas, the mutability of human life is contrasted with the constancy of God.
A Stricken Place: The Condition of American Public Television
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

American public television approached 1995 in the knowledge that the Republican Party now controlled Congress and, in the shape of Representative Newt Gingrich, would be asking some difficult questions about federal support for the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and thus in part for the whole system. It approached the coming storm in a particularly ill-prepared way. Much of its difficulties were obviously not of its own making. The decline of the public sector was by this date a universal phenomenon. In the United States, almost uniquely, there was no profound guiding theology. Localism was built into the structure of public broadcasting from its inception. Public television was never meant to have the significance and centrality of public broadcasting in other countries. This condition was a deliberate act of political vandalism. In short, much of the public broadcasting community was in denial, shackled to its own ways of seeing.
The Ceremony of Innocence: A Conclusion about the Condition of Public Service Broadcasting
Authors: Tracey Michael
Published: October 2011

The most obvious evidence of troubled times is the stark fact that governments, in country after country, have introduced new policies which at a minimum make life difficult for the public broadcaster. Equally worrying is the case when public broadcasters act as gravediggers to their own funeral by acknowledging in almost welcoming terms that their share of total viewing will inevitably dwindle. The decade prior to the publication of this book was, for the reasons already explained, truly awful for the public broadcasting community. A conclusion then can be drawn about the new communications. Its very nature constitutes a fundamental taking apart of that sense of the collective which is a precondition for the continuity of public service broadcasting. It is a concept which is perhaps better ‘felt’ than articulated. A sense of the corrosive influence of the main currents of popular culture and a broadband culture can and will do nothing but encourage these tendencies.
Introduction
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter begins by setting out the purpose of the book, which is to describe the experience of viewing visual fiction and the way in which this experience is created by the interaction between fiction and viewer. It proposes that cognitive and perceptual processes are intimately linked with emotional processes within a functionally unified psychosomatic whole. Because visual fictions are experienced in time, a description of the interaction between cognition and emotion will be concerned with temporal flow. The theories and models for describing the flow of experiences must be brought together from several disciplines: film theory, first and foremost; and general aesthetics, narrative theory, neuroscience, physiology, and cognitive science. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Fiction, Symbolic Simulation, and Reality
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

A recurrent problem in aesthetics and theories of fiction and representation in art (whether literature, art, or film) is the status and validity of representation itself. Are representations true or false? Are fictions lies? Are images illusionistic in a pejorative sense if they try to convey a three-dimensional effect on a two-dimensional screen or canvas? What are the relations between metaphors and literal meaning? Are films just imaginary signifiers, as argued by Metz? This chapter shows that many of these intricate problems are easy to understand in the context of our mental makeup. It deals, in particular, with the ecological conventions moulding our visual experience. It discusses the way in which fiction is symbolic simulation, and the way in which evaluations of the reality-status of given phenomena are often represented as emotional tones.
Intentions, Will, Goal, Consciousness, and Humanness
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: October 2011

This chapter first describes the way in which some phenomena, such as flexibility, intentionality, free will, and empathy, play an important role in the understanding of what humanness is, and also shows the way in which humanness is often described negatively, as something lacking, in non-human figures of fiction such as robots and monsters. It then describes some essential features in the cognitive constitution of man's mental model of himself and this model's importance for understanding the structure of the canonical narrative. The description is compared to psychoanalytical models such as the ‘mirror stage’. The chapter goes on to analyse the way in which models of non-humanness in many film genres are used not only for representing negatively evaluated phenomena, but also to represent social and superhuman phenomena. It concludes with an analysis of the role of repetition in narration.
‘Preparatives to Love’: Fiction as Seduction in Eliza Haywood's Amatory Prose
Authors: Ballaster Ros
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the fiction of Eliza Haywood. Haywood's romances of the 1720s and 1730s bring us closer to the conventions of domestic fiction. The woman writer is here identified with her suffering, silenced heroines, rather than privileged because of her distance from them. However, Haywood's deployment of the trope of the masquerade reveals a continued interest in the heroinizing of artifice and fictional duplicity.
Paradise Lost: Subtext and Supertext
Authors: Fisch Harold
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that the manifest intention of Paradise Lost from the beginning and to its sequel in Paradise Regained is to relate the story of ‘Man’s First Disobedience’ as that which ‘brought Death into the World’, and which would only be set right by the redemptive sacrifice of ‘one greater Man’ who would make good the sin of Adam. Nevertheless, the other narrative which sees the story of Adam and Eve in its Old Testament context as something in between historical fable and moral exemplum is also present as a counterplot.
The Poetics of Incarnation
Authors: Fisch Harold
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that Blake’s ‘interpretations’ of the Bible tend to be visions in the sense of arrested scenes. It is thus not surprising that his most memorable reinventions of Bible scenes and poems are to be found in his actual paintings rather than in literary narrative. The numerous Gospel scenes which Blake painted or engraved at different times add up to something like a systematic exegesis of those texts. Indeed, taken together, his drawings, engravings, and water-colours contain a reading of the Bible — its narratives, poems, and prophecies — more extensive and detailed than that to be found in any other English poet or painter.
Epilogue
Authors: Ekirch A. Roger
Published: October 2011

The punishment of transportation was considered an innovative step in the administration of justice in Britain, as it appeared to be the perfect intermediate punishment between capital punishment and lesser sanctions such as whipping and branding. It became an alternative to the existing punishment system, as it removed threatening criminals from society without resorting to the death penalty or imprisonment. Transportation offered social peace by sending criminals far away and without endangering traditional freedoms. It removed criminals from society and shifted the punishment policy away from deterrence and exhibitions of physical suffering. Transportation was criticized by some people who beleived that deterrence should be the prime purpose of punishment and they stated that it was a poor substitute for public penalties.
Calvert v. Calvert Multiple adultery and bigamy, 1698–1710
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

There is a peculiarly brutal and exploitative quality about gender relations in the period 1680 to 1720, which is amply reflected in the case illustrated in this chapter. Violence, perjury, rape, and obsessive promiscuous sexuality are the hallmark of this age, when gender relations were on the turn, when women were at last beginning to assert themselves, and when contractual theories were starting to spread even into domestic relations, modifying the patriarchal power of parents and friends and raising the aspirations for the happiness of children. For a while, however, this period of conflicting values led to extremes of behaviour patterns, all of which are exhibited in rich detail in the unedifying story of the Calverts, Beau Feilding, and the Duchess of Cleveland.
Cadogan v. Cadogan The lady and the parson, 1777–1794
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

In this case, a lawsuit in the ecclesiastical courts during the period 1795–6 was bitterly fought, but the outcome was inevitable. Lord Cadogan won his case, thus gaining three victories: the first in the Court of King's Bench against Cooper; the next against his wife in the London Consistory Court, where Sir William Scott delivered a ‘long and elaborate judgment’; and the third in the Court of Arches, to which Mary, his wife, vainly appealed the verdict. He then used these three sentences to support a successful private bill in the House of Lords for full divorce from Mary, with freedom to remarry. As a result of the Act of Divorce, Mary lost her husband, any right of access to her children, and any claim to dower or jointure after Lord Cadogan's death, which occurred in 1807, for, since the marriage was annulled, so was any settlement for her widowhood that went with it.
‘Rhodesians Never Die’
Authors: Godwin Peter , Hancock Ian
Published: October 2011

This book tells the story of how White Rhodesians, three-quarters of whom were ill-prepared for revolutionary change, reacted to the ‘terrorist’ war and the onset of Black rule in the 1970s. It shows how internal divisions — both old and new — undermined the supposed unity of White Rhodesia, how most Rhodesians begrudgingly accepted the inevitability of Black majority rule without adjusting to its implications, and how the self-appointed defenders of Western civilization sometimes adopted uncivilized methods of protecting the ‘Rhodesian way of life’. This account is based on archival research and personal interviews. It sets out to tell the story from the inside and to incorporate the diverse dimensions of the Rhodesian experience. The book suggests that the Rhodesians were more differentiated than has often been assumed and that perhaps their greatest fault was a capacity for self-delusion.
Urban Rivalry
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

The impression has perhaps been given that the regents of the voting towns acted as a monolithic political bloc within Holland, but this is far from the truth for, quite apart from rivalry between states and stadhouder, the political life of the province was deeply affected by conflict between the towns. Within a broad political consensus centring on the protection of the privileges — and thus the power — of the oligarchies, and support for the trading and manufacturing economy, there existed long-term, perhaps even structurally determined, tensions and conflicts of interest between the voting towns of Holland. Looming over all the tensions and rivalries between the towns was the problem of Amsterdam. The relative size and wealth of this town made it at one and the same time the obvious leader of the Holland towns and difficult to assimilate within a system based in principle on equality between the towns.
The Influence of Holland
Authors: Price J. L.
Published: October 2011

Holland's effective power within the Dutch Republic was much greater than this formal position might suggest. The size of its population, its wealth, and perhaps also its internal cohesion, gave Holland a predominance in the 17th century. Most strikingly, the Advocate or raadpensionaris of Holland was for long periods the effective head of the government of the Republic, and even during the times of political dominance by the princes of Orange remained necessarily a major figure in national politics. Through the manipulation of its financial strength, Holland was able to become, not the one province among many which was all that the formal political system allowed. The financial supremacy of Holland within the Dutch Republic is shown clearly by the official quota-system drawn up by the States General to determine the share of generality expenditure to be borne by each province.
Technical Change on the Frontier
Authors: ADELMAN JEREMY
Published: October 2011

In the late 19th century Argentina and Canada were land-rich and labour-poor economies. Production was organized to use abundant land extensively and scarce labour intensively. Without new tools that allowed rural workers to cultivate more land, staple economies could not take advantage of their reserves of cheap land. Machinery was as instrumental in expansion as land reserves and labour migration. This chapter explores the diffusion of new mechanical devices facilitating the expansion of the wheat frontier. The pattern of mechanization on the pampas and the prairies exemplified two paths of frontier development. Distinct sets of property relations led to particular evolutions in the factor markets. Factor markets in turn conditioned the pace and direction of mechanization.
Jurists' Critique: Evolution of the Affective Family
Authors: Wagner William G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses a moral and utilitarian critique of the patriarchal family, in that the family is to be defined as a union of individuals with individual rights and mutual obligations and not bounded only by marital and parental authority. It also presents the ongoing changes in the affective family.
The Limits of Legislative Revision
Authors: Wagner William G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses complications on providing legislative reform because of differences in ideology and interests that brought about varied means of approaching legal problems. It also presents the formation of the Civil Code Commission, which was tasked to draft a new civil code.
Conclusion Ends and Beginnings
Authors: Wagner William G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter provides a conclusion on the effects of the revisions made to family, property, and inheritance law in Imperial Russia.
Goths and Romans before the Huns
Authors: Heather P. J.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the territory under Gothic domination during the fourth century. Thanks to the efforts of Romanian and Soviet archaeologists, over 3,000 Gothic settlements are known and 150 have been investigated. This chapter shows that the Goths' power is spread over an area between the Danube and the Don. It also looks at the culture that emerged during the second half of the third century, when the Goths were establishing themselves in the area, which eventually flourished during the fourth century.
Pannonians and Thracians the Origins of Conflict 453–473
Authors: Heather P. J.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the start of the conflict between the two Gothic groups: the Amal-led Goths that settled in Pannonia and the Thracian Goths. It describes each Gothic group, before identifying the main cause of the conflict: the advancement of the Amal-led Goths into Illyricum. Emperor Leo provided the Amal-led Goths with good agricultural land and the Thracian Goths with subsidy that was seven times more than that which he gave to the Amal-led Goths. The peace between these two Gothic groups was not to last; 12 months after the death of Emperor Leo the balance of power was shattered.
Nationalizing Military Supply
Authors: Brown Howard G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the changes in military supply administration in France during the French Revolution. The analysis reveals the relative importance of military and political factors in the state's progress towards a nationalized and over-centralized supply administration. This chapter suggests that centralization and rationalization were natural by-products of modernization and that they facilitated a more efficient transfer of resources from civilian to military ends. This process led to the growth in state elites' control over all aspects of military administration during the period between 1792 and 1794.
The Return of Interest Groups
Authors: Brown Howard G.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the return of interest groups in the French government following the adoption of the Constitution of year III. The war effort was one of the most important conflicts among the state elites. From the Thermidorian Convention to the Consulate, various factions challenged the government's war aims and its methods for pursuing them. This chapter suggests that the changes in military control and administration brought about by the French Revolution stemmed largely from conflict over state power.
Introduction
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter explains the coverage of this book, which is about the history of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) in West Germany. This book investigates what combination of human error, structural failure and adverse environmental conditions was to blame to the party's untimely end. This is the first in-depth study of post-war West German Communism to be published in England, and it is also the first general account based on the party's internal files.
From Coalition to Opposition The Parliamentary Politics of the Kpd
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses parliamentary politics of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) in West Germany. The KPD was able to assume some legislative positions and lingered on in a number of Landtage and local parliaments, but in an obstructive rather than constructive role, demonstrating the Communists' fundamental opposition to the West German state. It argues that the process of KPD marginalization was a combination of self-destruction from within and ostracism from without.
The ‘Battlefield on the Shop-Floor’ Factory Groups, Works Councils, and Trade Unions
Authors: Major Patrick
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the success of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) in gaining support from the labour class through factory groups, works councils, and trade unions. The KPD enjoyed most political leverage on the shop floor in the works councils from 1945 to 1948, however, this was effectively boxed in Allied legislation. This resulted in the withdrawal of support for KPD works councillors and union officials. In addition to this, the transfer of the high politics of the Cold War to the shop floor consumed the KPD's socio-economic kudos.
‘A Nation of Beggars’?
Authors: Kerr Donal A.
Published: October 2011

This is the first full account of the role of the Irish Catholic Church in the Great Famine of 1846 and its aftermath. The author shows how the Famine and the subsequent evictions led to rural violence and a spate of assassinations culminating in the murder of Major Mahon, which the local parish priest was accused of inciting. Savage denunciations followed in press and parliament. In conjunction with the belief that Pope Pius IX had blessed the struggle of oppressed nationalities, many priests became involved in the run-up to the Young Ireland Rebellion. These years also saw a sharpening of religious tension as Protestant Evangelicals made an all-out effort to Protestantine Ireland. The author has charted how the Famine and the violence soured relations between the Church and State and ultimately destroyed Lord John Russell’s dream of bringing a golden age to Ireland.
Conflicts and Resolutions: Protestant Missioners, Archbishop Cullen, and the Synod of Thurles, 1849–1850
Authors: KERR DONAL A.
Published: October 2011

By 1849, after the catastrophic Famine, the Young Ireland rebellion, the renewed Coercion Acts, the botched Encumbered Estates Act, and the collapse of the plan for Catholic endowment, Russell’s claim to understand and govern Ireland better was open to question. His failure damaged his own party’s belief in him as an expert on Ireland. In 1850, important changes took place in Ireland, within the Catholic Church, and in Russell’s own relations with Catholics that rendered a resumption of his plan for Catholic endowment or any other major reform more difficult. Meanwhile, althoguh there was some contradiction between Clarendon’s outburst against the bishops for interfering in national affairs and his own willingness to appeal to the pope, he was determined that the scheme should go ahead with as much approval as possible; and the chances of success, he believed, were good.
Success and Failure? Whigs and Ultramontanes
Authors: KERR DONAL A.
Published: October 2011

With the fall of Russell’s government, the departure of Clarendon, and the death of Murray, relations between the Irish Catholic Church and the British government entered a new phase. Leadership passed into more conservative hands. In government, Derby, regarded by Irish Catholics since the 1830s as a bitter enemy, became prime minister; Eglinton, whose amendment of the Diplomatic Relations Act had rendered it unacceptable to the pope, replaced Clarendon as lord lieutenant. The death of Murray left the way open for Paul Cullen to carry through his reforms, his ambitious educational schemes, and his Ultramontane policies. On May 1852, Cullen became archbishop of Dublin. He was also made perpetual Apostolic Delegate, which confirmed him as the head of the Irish church.
‘The Most Useful Corps for the Nation…’:The Maréchaussée
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses maréchaussée, the most useful corps in Europe in the 16th century. The maréchaussée began to acquire jurisdiction over civilians on January 25, 1536 when François I issued the Edict of Paris. The Criminal Ordinance of 1670 by Louis XIV further extended this jurisdiction by including burglary and popular disorder, though it sought to limit abuses by bringing cas prévôtal under a degree of supervision by the local royal présidial court.
‘The Most Efficient Way to Maintain…Tranquillity’: Gendarmes in Napoleonic France
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the importance of gendarmes in maintaining tranquility in Napoleonic France. Napoleon Bonaparte believed that gendarmes were of much more use than mounted men in mountainous districts and those regions broken up by rivers and other natural barriers.
Variations: Elsewhere
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: October 2011

This chapter compares and contrasts developments in Europe. It discusses the various elements which helped foster the origin of and developments in the Italian and German lands. The maréchaussée had become a national force under the ancien régime when a dynamic minister took on the potential of the disparate companies all over the kingdom and acted upon the occasion of concern regarding beggars and vagrants. The development of gendarmerie forces elsewhere had different causes and these include dissatisfaction of the rulers and the people with the existing police structures.
Spiritual Warriors
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the distrust between Quakers and the clergy. Suspicion and hatred between churchmen and Quakers were provoked by the doctrinal views of Friends, clear refusal to accept church authority, and the Quaker challenge to the legitimacy of tithe payments. Quakerism carried in its train more than aggressive proselytizing in the parish and disrespect of clerical authority.
Conclusion
Authors: DAVIES ADRIAN
Published: October 2011

This chapter summarizes the preceding discussions. It examines the extent to which Friends in Essex conformed to the pattern of the development of the sect described by Quaker historians and others who have studied the evolution of sectarian groups. It studies the social consequences of religious belief. It concludes that Quakers were not marginal and isolated people. Indeed, the sect had a big impact not only upon members, but more widely by encouraging a greater tolerance of diversity in early modern society.
The Compilation of the Dublin Collection
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

The value which students from Fr. Hugh Ward, John Colgan, and Archbishop James Ussher to Revd Charles Plummer and James Kenney have consistently put on the Lives of the Dublin collection has not been based on a textual or critical examination of their relationship to the other collections. For twelve entire texts and fragments of a thirteenth, a comparison will reveal precisely what contribution thc redactor made to his texts. With the Lives of Irish saints SS. Columba, Malachy, Lawrence, and Senán, comparisons show that the redactor made no substantial changes at all. For the remaining twelve Lives in the collection, one is less well placed to assess his work, but the inevitable uncertainty need not be a disabling factor. In two cases — St Mochoemóc and St Declán — no comparisons can be made, for these Lives are peculiar to the D-collection; the style of the redactor is apparent throughout both of them. Although Irish Lives are known for both, these too are only translations of the D-texts.
The Milieux of the Later Collections
Authors: Sharpe Richard
Published: October 2011

There is no parallel in the later collections to the grand literary design conceived and executed by the redactor of the Dublin collection. By the thirteenth century, throughout Europe, the trend in hagiography was for legendaries to grow larger, but for the vitae in them to be cut shorter and made less detailed, less specific. While the Legenda Aurea became a best-seller among abbreviated legendaries, everywhere Irish saints' Lives were being reduced to potted versions for easy reading. Between the work of the redactor of D and the compilation of the later collections, there was a considerable change in the literary expectations brought to the saints' Lives. It is possible that there was a marked change of taste soon after the completion of the D-collection, or that the later collections were produced for an entirely different audience in a different social context. Whatever the reason, the Lives of what we might call Phase VI are generally disappointing.
‘Living Water’
Authors: Christian David
Published: October 2011

This book is a study of the social, economic, and political role of vodka in 19th-century Russia. Since the ‘Green Serpent’ first appeared in 16th-century Muscovy, it has played a vital part in Russian life. Vodka became an essential part of Russian working-class celebrations, whether personal, religious, or commercial. Trade in vodka redistributed wealth upwards through Russian society over several centuries. Indeed, Russia's status as a great power was underpinned by it: by the 19th century, it generated one-third of government revenue — enough to cover most of the costs of the vast army. The dependence on vodka of both people and state endured into the Gorbachev era. However, despite vodka's key role in Russian history, and the complex network of corruption associated with it, the subject has been ignored by most historians until now. This study concentrates on an important transitional era in the history of vodka: the early 19th century. During this period, vodka taxes played the role that salt taxes had played in the ancien régime in France. The abolition of the tax farm in 1863 should be seen as one of the most important of the ‘Great Reforms’ of the 1860s, an era which, in many ways, parallels the glasnost of the 1980s.
Road to Divorce
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

Despite the infamous divorce of Henry VIII in 1529, subsequent moral, political, and religious attitudes ensured that until 1857, England was the only Protestant country with virtually no facilities for full divorce on the grounds of adultery, desertion, or cruelty. Using a mass of transcribed legal testimonies, taken from hitherto unexplored court records, this book uncovers the means by which laity and lawyers reformed the divorce laws, and offers insights into our ancestors' changing views about what makes a marriage. Using personal accounts in which witnesses speak freely about their moral attitudes towards love, sex, adultery, and marriage, it reveals the full and complex story of how English men and women have contrived to use, twist, or defy the law in order to deal with marital breakdown.
General Introduction
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

This chapter provides a broad introduction to the history of divorce, providing a background on non-separating and non-divorcing society, family history, models of legal change, the legal system, and evidence used. It sets the study from the Reformation, which reintroduced legalised divorce into Europe, up to the late twentieth century, with the rise of divorce as a commonplace event. The core of study lies between the Restoration of the Anglican Church and its canon law jurisdiction in 1660 and the passage of the first divorce law in 1857. The book identifies and explains the laxity and ambiguity of the English laws of marriage which endured up to 1753, and the extraordinary strictness of the laws of separation and divorce until 1857. It traces the tentative evolution of moral values about relations between sexes in England, and the shift from concepts of patriarchy to those of sexual equality.
The Law and Custom of Marriage
Authors: Stone Lawrence
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the law and custom of marriage. The second section discusses modes of courtship. There were three modes of courtship in early modern England, each of which was characteristic to one of three groupings that divided the population. The third section looks at customary unions and concubinage. Some scholars of the family believe that in the early modern period, more especially in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, considerable numbers of English men and women lived in a condition of customary concubinage, illegal according to the law of church or state but recognised by the neighbourhood.
Peace and the New World Order
Authors: Edwards Jill
Published: October 2011

With the end of World War II in sight, Republicans in Spain began to concert their efforts to engage international support for their cause. In the United States, Rep. John Coffey had tried unsuccessfully before to get Congress on record in support of an immediate break with Francisco Franco. With the Yalta Conference imminent, the new United States Secretary of State, Edward Stettinius, had many considerations to bear in mind in relation to future policy towards Spain, though little time to consider any of them. The main difficulty in formulating a coherent post-war foreign policy towards Spain which would be acceptable to public opinion arose from war-time propaganda run by the Office of War Information. As peace approached, little underlined the differences in Spanish policy between Britain and the United States more clearly than their diametrically opposed requirements of Argentina.
San Francisco and Postdam
Authors: Edwards Jill
Published: October 2011

The spring and summer of 1945 brought government changes on both sides of the Atlantic while at the same time the post-war settlement was thrashed out at international conferences. Franklin D. Roosevelt's death at the end of April brought to the presidency Harry S. Truman, a man unknown internationally. Delegates to the San Francisco conference went along reluctantly with the general anti-Spanish feeling and supported Mexico's motion to exclude Spain, ruled by Francisco Franco, from the United Nations. Behind the scenes, diplomats expressed strong reservations in the light of the Soviet Union's renewed interest in the question. One of the distinct elements of the United States foreign policy towards Spain concerns the views of military planners, who understood the strategic importance of the Iberian peninsula. The fact that the strategic importance of the Iberian peninsula was already on the table partly accounts for the reluctance of Britain to support the general condemnation of Spain when the United Nations was formally established at the end of October 1945.
Battle Lines
Authors: Edwards Jill
Published: October 2011

Taunts from the Senate, damaging to President Harry S. Truman's claim that he would not tolerate religious persecution in Spain, led him to call for a study of the problem. The ensuing report estimated that there were around 25,000 Protestants in Spain. An estimation following World War I had put the numbers of Christians in Hungary, where persecution had met little response from the American government, at approximately eight million Roman Catholics, four million Greek Orthodox and Uniates, and four million Protestants. Truman's genuine anguish over the plight of the Spanish Protestants was compounded by the fact that persecution of Protestants in Spain was closely connected with the persecution of Freemasons. Truman's freemasonry, in which he followed the pattern of many previous presidents, could be proudly flaunted, but not in relation to Catholicism, from which the Democratic party drew an essential proportion of its vote. This chapter discusses the right of association versus trade and commerce in Spain, Britain, the United States, and other countries in Europe, as well as the status of trade unions and international labour.
Social Security in Developing Countries: What, Why, Who, and How?
Authors: Burgess Robin , Stern Nicholas
Published: October 2011

This chapter aims to help clarify some of the problems and issues raised by attempts to understand and alleviate the deprivation and fragility associated with the lives of so many people. It explains what social security means and defines the term with respect to objectives for developing countries. The chapter determines why the State should be involved in social security and investigates various general reasons for intervention that may be relevant to entities other than government. It examines arguments concerning market failure and income distribution that arise within the standard economic theory of policy and then looks more widely at questions concerning rights of individuals, at notions of State obligations, and at the concept of standard of living and the role of the State in improving it. The chapter further poses the question of who should carry responsibility for social security.
Social Security in the SADCC States of Southern Africa: Social-Welfare Programmes and the Reduction of Household Vulnerability
Authors: Richard Morgan
Published: October 2011

This chapter premises that the greatest single factor now affecting the development and effectiveness of social-welfare policies and programmes in the Southern African Development Co-ordination Conference (SADCC) States is the external one of South African military aggression and promotion of military/economic destabilization. It reviews social-service policies and programmes in the post-independence SADCC States, discusses the discernable impact of these programmes using health indicators of welfare, and then looks at the characteristics of the main target groups for these programmes: the poor and vulnerable. The chapter presents case studies of State responses to external welfare-threatening events that occurred in the 1980s in two countries, one relatively at peace (Botswana) and one thoroughly subjected to war conditions (Mozambique). Some generalized conclusions from these studies and the review as a whole are drawn for the prioritization and design of welfare policies in the region.
Language, Rhetoric, and the Communication of Ideas
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart
Published: October 2011

One of the first major problems that Adam Smith addressed in the Rhetoric was that of language. Smith believes that the parts of speech should be studied in an analytical manner, and that the development of the means of communication reveals important features of human nature, most notably with regard to the role of analogy, the capacity for classification, abstraction, and reflection. Smith's interest in language effectively illustrates his own preoccupation with grammar. Having disposed of the issues of language and style, Smith then proceeded to consider the forms of discourse that were employed in the communication of ideas through the medium of the spoken or written word. In Smith's view, all examples of the written word could be reduced to four broad types: the poetical, the historical, the didactic, and the oratorical. Smith also claimed that existing ‘systems’ of rhetoric showed a preoccupation with figures of speech.
David Hume: Economic Writings
Authors: Skinner Andrew Stewart
Published: October 2011

Adam Smith endeavoured to link philosophy, history, and economics as part of the grand plan announced in the closing pages of the first edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and repeated in the advertisement to the sixth and last edition of that work. But when we take the Treatise of Human Nature in conjunction with the Essays, it becomes apparent that the outlines of the model had already been established by David Hume. Hume identified ‘action, pleasure and indolence’ as essential to human happiness but in practice placed most emphasis on the first. This chapter also examines Hume's views on self-interest and the pursuit of gain, self-interest and constraint, historical dynamics and the exchange economy, and international trade. Hume's use of history in his economic writings is also discussed.
Responsible Government
Authors: LUCAS J. R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses two strands of argument that underlie our ideal of responsible government: the responsibility of office and the need for all to share responsibility for what their government does. Those who govern undertake special responsibilities, and their performance can be judged on the basis of the task they have undertaken. It is a difficult task: decision-making takes time, and often calls for exceptional ability, and it needs to be done disinterestedly in circumstances where it would be very easy to allow considerations of self-interest to creep in. The main aim of this kind of argument is to ensure that government is good government: if all decisions are responsibly taken, then there will be reasons for them, which even if not the best of all possible reasons will be faceable reasons, and so the decisions are likely to be reasonably unbad.
An Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics
Authors: McCall Storrs
Published: October 2011

While it is not easy in quantum mechanics to construct a picture in space and time, the branched model provides both a picture and an explanation of some of the features of quantum mechanics that have up to now resisted attempts to understand them. This chapter focuses on the interpretation of quantum mechanics through the branched model. The branched interpretation is an interpretation, not a new quantum theory, and does not replace the elegant theoretical apparatus of state vectors and operators in Hilbert space that are used to calculate and predict quantum probabilities. The interpretation is via the concept of probability, this concept having both a theoretical and an ontological aspect.