bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Behavioral responses of unrelated adult male rhesus monkeys familiarized and paired for the purpose of environmental enrichment
Authors: Reinhardt Viktor
Published: June 2005

An attempt was made to pair ten unrelated, adult male rhesus monkeys that had been kept in single cages for several years. Potential companions were first given the opportunity to establish clear‐cut rank relationships (unidirectional fear‐grinning and/or withdrawing) during a 5‐day period of noncontact familiarization. Only then were they paired in a different double cage. Rank relationships were confirmed within the first 6 minutes after pairing without the occurrence of any biting and fighting. A total of four physical aggressions (slapping) were observed in all five dyads during 5 hours of observations on the first 5 days after pairing. It was concluded that the establishment of clear‐cut rank relationships prior to pairing was instrumental in this extremely low incidence of aggression.
Evidence of gene flow between Sulawesi macaques
Authors: Ciani Andrea Camperio , Stanyon Roscoe , Scheffrahn Wolfgang , Sampurno Bohedi
Published: June 2005

A pilot field study was conducted in Sulawesi (Indonesia) to assess the status of macaque populations on the island. Wild and captive animals were sampled, mainly in border areas between presumed different species. The five species investigated were Macaca maurus, M. tonkeana, M. hecki, M. nigrescens, and M. nigra, for which morphological and gene frequency data suggested the presence of hybridization zones. Some individuals within these zones showed intermediate or mosaic morphology between parental forms. These individuals also had intermediate gene frequencies for most of the polymorphic systems investigated. Karyotypes were identical in all species, and no cytogenetic barrier to hybridization existed between species. A review of the recent literature also provided evidence for hybridization between Sulawesi macaques. Clinical frequencies in both morphological and biomolecular traits perhaps can be best explained by the operation of gene flow between the various forms of macaques on the island. However, additional data are necessary before current classification schemes are revised. The unique opportunity and need of further study of Sulawesi macaques for a range of evolutionary questions is emphasized.
Features of meat digestion by captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Milton Katharine , Demment Montague
Published: June 2005

The pronounced carnivory of many human populations contrasts sharply with feeding habits of other Hominoidea. Of extant great apes, only chimpanzees (Pan spp.) actively seek out vertebrate prey, but meat is only a minor portion of their diet. Some accounts suggest that wild chimpanzees digest prey inefficiently. To investigate the capacity of chimpanzees to digest meat, feeding trials were carried out on three captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) using a fixed amount of nonpurified diet with and without a predetermined amount of boned cooked chicken. The results showed no significant differences in the rate of passage of digesta and digestion of diets with and without chicken. Meat ingestion did not change the nitrogen (N) concentration of feces or the total amount of N defecated. Visual inspection of fecal matter showed no evidence of undigested meat. Taken together, the results indicate that chimpanzees are able to digest meat of the type and quantity consumed during these trials.
Orangutan activity budgets: Monthly variations and the effects of body size, parturition, and sociality
Authors: Mitani John C.
Published: June 2005

The activity budgets of individual orangutans were investigated at the Kutai Reserve, Indonesia. Activity profiles within and between individuals were compared to examine monthly variations in feeding patterns, potential energetic constraints imposed by large body size and parturition, and the costs of sociality. Animals showed monthly changes in travelling, feeding, and resting patterns. Monthly increases in travelling and feeding were associated with marked reductions in the time spent resting. Inter‐individual variations in activity budgets did not exist among animals of the same age‐sex class. Activity patterns differed, however, as a function of age and sex. Adult females and subadult males travelled and fed significantly longer than an adult male. Parturition had predictable effects on activity; one female reduced her feeding and travelling immediately following parturition. Adult male orangutan sociality appears to be limited by travel costs. Associations with females forced a male orangutan to travel significantly more compared with periods in which he was solitary. The male did not lose an appreciable amount of time feeding when accompanying a female.
Seasonal weight changes in male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)
Authors: Bernstein Irwin S. , Weed James L. , Judge Peter G. , Ruehlmann Thomas E.
Published: June 2005

Adult male rhesus monkeys lose weight during the breeding season and regain it during the nonbreeding season. The annual pattern of maximum weight gain just prior to the onset of breeding resembles the seasonal “fattening” seen in squirrel monkeys, but the period of weight gain is less discrete. The magnitude of weight change is less in younger males, in that sexually immature males gain weight in both seasons, but significantly less during the breeding season. Females do not lose weight during the breeding season. Post hoc analyses revealed no significant correlations between male testosterone levels, dominance ranks, weights, or weight changes. The heaviest animals as juveniles were predictably the heaviest as adolescents. The timing of seasonal changes in testosterone did not correlate with the timing of changes in weight; weight losses followed the rise in testosterone, and weight gains continued until early in the breeding season after testosterone levels had already begun to rise. It is suggested that seasonal hormonal changes may influence activities in individuals and that changes in the activities of particular group members may alter the activity patterns of other group members. This alteration of activity patterns due to group influences on individuals as well as individual influences on the group may explain why hormonal regulation of seasonal weight appears to be indirect and why individuals (juveniles) experiencing no seasonal hormonal changes nonetheless show differences in activity patterns and seasonal weight changes.
Pronucleus formation following in vitro fertilization of oocytes recovered from a gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) with unilateral endometrioid adenocarcinoma of the ovary
Authors: Huntress S. L. , Loskutoff N. M. , Raphael B. L. , Yee B. , Bowsher T. R. , Putman J. M. , Kraemer D. C.
Published: June 2005

A 33‐year‐old, nonreproductive female gorilla was scheduled for ovariohysterectomy after diagnosing endometrioid adenocarcinoma of the right ovary; the contralateral ovary appeared small and inactive. Follicular recruitment and maturation were stimulated on the left ovary using human menopausal gonadotropin and human chorionic gonadotropin therapy. Three oocytes were recovered and inseminated using a thawed epididymal semen sample collected postmortem and cryopreserved. At 18 h postinsemination, one ovum was fertilized, the second showed evidence of polyspermia, and the third was unfertilized; no further embryonic development was observed. These results demonstrate that viable oocytes can be salvaged from a nonreproductive gorilla using a human exogenous gonadotropin treatment protocol and fertilized in vitro using cryopreserved/thawed epididymal gorilla semen.
Comments on oral grooming by patas monkeys, including a comparison with rhesus macaques
Authors: Starkey Jocelyne , Loy James , Novak Melinda , Goy Robert
Published: June 2005

Observations of the motor patterns used by patas monkeys during allogrooming indicate that this species uses oral movements much more than previously believed. Compared to rhesus macaques, patas show more mouthpicks and licks, and fewer handpicks. Despite behavioral and anatomical evidence for good precision gripping, patas usually remove debris from a partner's fur orally rather than manually.
Free‐ranging Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): I. Body size, proportion, and allometry
Authors: Turnquist Jean E. , Kessler Matthew J.
Published: June 2005

This paper presents comprehensive baseline data on body size and proportion of 661 (315 male, 346 female) free‐ranging Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) ranging in age from 24 hours to 25 years. All animals were born and raised in the free‐ranging colony on Cayo Santiago, and exact ages were known for all. Tabular data from this cross‐sectional study are provided to enable comparisons with data from laboratory, wild, and other captive populations of rhesus monkeys, as well as with other species. Despite the extensive literature on rhesus monkey behavior and biology, to date published accounts of its morphometrics have been limited to only a few measurements from animals of unknown age, small sample sizes, or caged colonies. Results of this study showed a distinct intraspecific pattern for body proportions throughout the life cycle. Relative linear increases in overall body proportions of maturing animals appeared to be from greatest to least in the trunk, hindlimb, and forelimb, respectively. Within the limbs, allometric scaling appeared to be fastest in the proximal segment and slowest in the distal segment. Males and females differed in the duration of growth, and gender dimorphism was associated primarily with differences in size rather than proportion. Although the primary purpose of this paper is to present numerical data on the Cayo Santiago colony, the results are compared with previous studies of both laboratory and free‐ranging rhesus monkeys.
Free‐ranging Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): II. Passive joint mobility
Authors: Turnquist Jean E. , Kessler Matthew J.
Published: June 2005

Recent studies on the effects of caging on joint mobility and the correlations between joint mobility and use of the extremities have pointed out the need for baseline values that are readily available in the literature. This report provides normative data on the passive mobility of the major joints of free‐ranging Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). The sample in this cross‐sectional study is large (661 animals including 315 males, 346 females), and it spans the entire age spectrum (24 hours to 25 years) of the population. Included are data on motion in the sagittal plane at six joints: shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle. Results indicated that passive joint mobility changes in a nonlinear fashion throughout the life cycle. The apparent rapid decline in mobility from birth through puberty parallels rapid changes in body size and proportions in young animals. Joint mobility is relatively stable in prime‐age adults, whereas it is generally more restricted in older monkeys. Both genders follow a similar pattern, but timing differs somewhat. Although the primary purpose of this paper is to present numerical data on the Cayo Santiago population, the results are compared with previous, more limited studies of both captive and free‐ranging rhesus macaques.
Dermatoglyphic patterns and pattern intensities of the genus Cacajao (Cebidae, platyrrhini) with observations on interspecific and subspecific differentiation
Authors: Newell‐Morris Laura , Wienker Thomas F. , Elias Kate
Published: June 2005

Palmar and plantar dermatoglyphic pattern types, area and total pattern intensities (API and TPI), and pattern intensity (PI) profiles are presented for the South American genus Cacajao of the subfamily Pitheciinae. The data are based on prints from 41 bald‐head uacaries (C. calvus), 9 white bald‐head uacaries (C. c. calvus), and 15 black‐head uacaries (C. melanocephalus). In each extremity, loops of differing orientation were the most frequent pattern type; whorls were dominant at palmar interdigital (I) area 3 in C. calvus and at both I3 and I4 in C. melanocephalus. Open fields characterized the palmar thenar and plantar proximal hypothenar, thenar, calcar, and I3 and I4. There was little evidence of significant sexual dimorphism as assessed from PI values. The genus displayed significant asymmetry at palmar I3 (P⩽0.001) and plantar distal hypothenar (P⩽0.004). There were significant group differences between C. calvus and C. c. calvus in the palmar thenar API and plantar TPIs. The combined bald‐head sample of C. calvus and C. c. calvus differed from C. melanocephalus in API of palmar I4 and plantar distal thenar, I2, and distal hypothenar (marginally), and in plantar TPIs. In PI profiles, C. melanocephalus departed from the pattern shared by C. calvus and C. c. calvus in both palmar and plantar interdigital areas. As a genus, the uacaries have markedly low plantar TPI values relative to palmar values (palm‐sole index > 195). Of eight comparison cebid genera, only Chiropotes, another pitheciine genus, approximated these values.
Patas monkey copulations: One mount, repeat if necessary
Authors: Loy James
Published: June 2005

Early, anecdotal reports of patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) sexual behavior suggested that these primates were series‐mount copulators. In 1975, limited evidence was presented in favor of single‐mount copulations as the species‐typical pattern for patas. The situation remained confused, however, as indicated by statements in a recent review article. This paper adds to our knowledge of patas sexuality by presenting quantitative data on the copulatory behavior of two additional adult males. Both males usually gave pelvic thrusts to intravaginal ejaculation once they had mounted a female and gained intromission. Mounts without ejaculation were clearly failed attempts at copulation, rather than segments of a stereotyped series‐mount pattern. All of the available quantitative data indicate that the species‐typical mating pattern for patas monkeys is copulation in a single mount.
Toward a comparative socioecology of the genus Macaca: Different dominance styles in rhesus and stumptail monkeys
Authors: De Waal Frans B. M. , Luttrell Lesleigh M.
Published: June 2005

Captive studies can make a unique contribution to primate socioecology by documenting species‐typical social dispositions under controlled conditions. Recent theories seek to connect the dominance relationships, group cohesiveness, and feeding ecology of primates. The present study explores the first two aspects by comparing the social organization of rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and stumptail monkeys (M. arctoides). Data were collected over a period of eight years, with five different methods, on three well‐established captive groups in identical environments. The groups were found to share one characteristic: a clear‐cut, linear formal dominance hierarchy as expressed in teeth‐baring displays. The two main study groups (one of each species) differed significantly, however, with respect to nine of eleven behavioral measures. In addition to a previously reported higher frequency of reconciliation in the stumptail group, this group showed (1) more frequent but less severe aggressive behavior, (2) greater symmetry of contests, (3) greater social tolerance, (4) more nonagonistic approaches, and (5) more allogrooming. The differences can be summarized as a contrast in dominance “style,” with the stumptails having a more relaxed style and placing greater emphasis on social cohesion than the rhesus monkeys. An egalitarian attitude was also reflected in approach behavior: contacts in the rhesus group were mostly initiated by dominants, whereas contacts in the stumptail group were initiated independent of rank. Comparisons with a second rhesus group, and with published reports, suggest that while some of the observed differences are probably representative of the two species, considerable intraspecific variation does exist, and a more comprehensive program of comparative studies is needed.
Hormonal effects of early rearing conditions in the infant rhesus monkey
Authors: Champoux M. , Coe C. L. , Schanberg S. M. , Kuhn C. M. , Suomi S. J.
Published: June 2005

Mother‐reared and nursery‐reared rhesus monkeys were evaluated during the first month of life to assess the effects of early rearing on endocrine status in infancy. Plasma cortisol and growth hormone (GH) levels were measured in two conditions: (1) basal and (2) 30 min following removal from either the mother or the nursery. Nursery‐reared infants had lower basal GH levels and higher cortisol levels than did mother‐reared infants. Both GH and cortisol levels rose significantly following separation and reached similar levels in the mother‐reared and nursery‐reared infants. Mother‐reared animals exhibited higher GH levels in response to a pharmacological GH‐stimulation test. Thus nursery rearing of primate infants significantly affected the baseline secretion of two important endocrine systems, but did not appear to alter markedly the acute endocrine response to a psychological stressor.
Sires influence fetal death in pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina)
Authors: Sackett Gene P.
Published: June 2005

Computerized colony records were used to identify dams and sires whose reproductive histories while breeding in harem groups indicated high or low risk for producing fetal deaths. The monkeys were then singly caged and bred within and between risk conditions during 24‐ to 72‐hour matings. Although the low‐ and high‐risk sires did not differ in ability to achieve conceptions, the results revealed that reproductive history predicted subsequent fetal death rates, and sires made a substantial contribution. Overall, high‐risk sires had a 4.86 times higher relative risk of producing fetal death than low‐risk sires. Compared with this figure, high‐risk dams had only a 2.64 times higher risk for fetal death than low‐risk dams. The male effect was most evident in comparisons of between‐ and within‐risk matings. Females with excellent reproductive histories experienced a threefold increase in fetal deaths when mated with high‐risk males, whereas females with poor reproductive histories experienced almost a 50% reduction in fetal deaths when mated with low‐risk males. The results show that male factors beyond fertility need to be considered when examining the causes of reproductive failure in captive primates.
Population dynamics of hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) in Assam, India
Authors: Choudhury Anwaruddin
Published: June 2005

Data are presented on group size, composition, and reproduction of several hoolock gibbon groups studied in different areas of Assam, India, between 1986 and 1988. Presence of fewer young than reported in earlier studies signals a grim future for these gibbons unless strict conservation measures are undertaken.
Time budget of caged rhesus monkeys exposed to a companion, a PVC perch, and a piece of wood for an extended time
Authors: Reinhardt Viktor
Published: June 2005

The present investigation assesses the percentage of time that rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) are kept occupied by a more complex cage environment. Sixty animals were continuously exposed for at least 1.5 years to a compatible companion for social interaction, a suspended plastic pipe for perching, and a branch segment for gnawing. The behavior of the partners of each pair was recorded for 60 minutes when the animals were not distracted by human activities. Individuals spent an average of 23.5% of the time interacting with the companion, but only 10.4% with the plastic pipe and 4.8% with the branch segment. Differences were statistically significant. Females were socially more active than males. Subadult animals (3.5–4 years) used both inanimate objects significantly more than did adult animals (9–30 years). It was concluded that (1) a compatible companion, a suspended plastic pipe, and a loose branch segment remain effective stimuli for caged rhesus monkeys after more than 1 year of exposure and (2) a compatible companion is of greater stimulatory value–particularly for adults–than are inanimate objects.
Hand preferences in captive gorillas, orang‐utans and gibbons
Authors: Olson David A. , Ellis Jane E. , Nadler Ronald D.
Published: June 2005

Hand preference was assessed in 12 gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), 13 orang‐utans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii), and 9 gibbons (Hylobates lar) by using a floor retrieval task and a mesh retrieval task. Hand preference was also assessed in 8 gorillas and 8 orang‐utans by using a task involving the unfastening of a hasp. A bipedal requirement during testing (mesh retrieval task) facilitated detection of hand preferences. A significant left‐hand preference was found for the gibbons with 6 of 6 gibbons preferring their left hand on the mesh retrieval task. Similarly, a significant right‐hand preference was found for the gorillas with 10 of 12 gorillas preferring their right hand on the mesh retrieval task. The data for the orang‐utan suggest a bimodal distribution on all tasks. Since the gibbon and gorilla in the wild engage in bipedal locomotion more frequently than the orangutan, one possible interpretation for these results correlates the degree of bipedal behavior of a species in its natural environment with its readiness to exhibit a unilateral population‐level hand preference.
Formal biting in stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides)
Authors: Demaria C. , Thierry B.
Published: June 2005

Form and function of a specific kind of biting were studied in a captive group of stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides) composed of 1 adult male and 10 females. Behavior patterns were recorded with all occurrence and scan sampling techniques. Formal biting consisted of slowly gripping with teeth a part of the body of an apparently willing partner, most often the forearms, lips, or eyebrows. It may occur either following an agonistic interaction or outside the context of aggression. Such biting was directed from dominants towards subordinates, and appeared especially frequently between individuals having frequent agonistic interactions. It is concluded that this behavior represents a ritualized interaction expressing formal dominance between partners.
Promiscuity in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus)
Authors: Small Meredith F.
Published: June 2005

The mating behavior of female Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) has been called “promiscuous” because females mate with multiple males in rapid succession. The data presented here, based on a 9 month study of a semifree‐ranging colony, supports the idea that females do indeed mate indiscriminately and at a high rate. Five hundred six copulations were recorded for 21 females during the breeding season, and 358 of these copulations occurred when females were in extended estrous cycles. As the days that females spent in estrus increased, either because they had longer cycles or more cycles than some other females, the number of different male partners also increased. There was no association between mating behavior and either male–female friendships or male care of infants born the following birth season. Promiscuity cannot be explained by selection to confuse paternity. There is also no evidence that females exchange copulations for support or affiliation. Female Barbary macaques mate with multiple males because males are unable, or are unwilling, to stop them.
Sudden short‐term increase in mortality of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) due to leopard predation in Amboseli National Park, Kenya
Authors: Isbell Lynne A.
Published: June 2005

A substantial increase in mortality, due mainly to predation, occurred during 1987 in a population of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) studied from 1977 to 1989 in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. It has been shown that vervets moving into new and unfamiliar habitats are more at risk from predation. However, this does not entirely explain the increase in predation in 1987 because predation decreased after 1987 while movement into new areas continued. An increase in leopard alarm calls relative to previous years in four of five groups, and an association between disappearances and leopard alarm calls given by vervets in the same four groups, suggest that leopards, a main predator of vervets, accounted for the increase in mortality. The vervets' increased vulnerability to leopard predation in 1987 did not appear to be related either directly or indirectly to continued habitat deterioration because 1) mortality rates after 1987 decreased to pre‐1987 levels and 2) the vervets' behavior did not appear to change to make them more vulnerable than in previous years. The increased vulnerability appeared to be due in part to an increase in the presence of leopards. However, it is unclear why predator presence temporarily increased.
Mixed flocks and polyspecific associations: Costs and benefits of mixed groups to birds and monkeys
Authors: Terborgh John
Published: June 2005

This review examines the diversity of avian mixed foraging flocks with the goal of relating the conclusions to primate polyspecific associations. Mixed associations are considered as adaptations for achieving an optimal balance between predator protection and feeding efficiency. In open habitat, predator and prey are able to detect each other at a distance and feeding competition is low, especially in species that subsist on a homogeneously distributed food supply. These conditions favor large groups of variable composition. In closed habitats, predators attack at close range, so early warning alarm systems are at a premium. Feeding competition is often intense because food resources such as fruit, flushing leaves, and nectar are spatially concentrated. Since feeding competition is generally less between than within species, these conditions favor mixed associations composed of small numbers of several to many species, and the evolution of elaborate early warning systems to thwart predators. The primate polyspecific associations that have been studied to date share characteristics with the closed habitat model while exhibiting some important distinctions. Primate associations are made up of integral troops, not individuals, implying high incremental costs of joining. These costs, plus a paucity of ecologically compatible combinations of species, seem to limit primate polyspecific associations geographically to regions in which the presence of monkey‐eating raptors provides a strong incentive for aggregation.
Mechanisms promoting stability in mixed Saguinus mystax and S. fuscicollis troops
Authors: Norconk Marilyn A.
Published: June 2005

Mixed‐species troops composed of two species of tamarin monkeys, and rarely other ceboids, occur throughout much of western Amazonia and are notable for their long‐term stability. This study identified several variables that appeared to promote mixed‐species troop cohesion and yet maintained spatial segregation between species. Three variables enhanced in terspecific spatial segregation: differences in support use, vertical stratification, and interindividual spacing. In contrast, early morning vocalizations and well‐coordinated movement patterns contribute to cohesion within a mixed‐species troop. The combination of these variables may help explain how two congeneric species accommodate one another with little apparent interspecific aggression.

The exact nature of benefits and costs to each individual in a mixed troop is still elusive; however, a comparison of population densities of sympatric and allopatric tamarins suggests that population growth of one partner (Saguinus fuscicollis) is enhanced in the presence of a congeneric species.
The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in prosimian primates
Authors: Kappeler Peter M.
Published: June 2005

The four major hypotheses advanced to explain the evolution of sexually dimorphic characters invoke sexual selection, natural selection, allometry, and phylogenetic inertia. In this paper, each of these hypotheses is examined for its usefulness in explaining the inter‐specific variation in sexual size dimorphism among prosimian primates. Data on body weight and the degree of sexual dimorphism were obtained for 32 prosimian and 95 simian species. Although prosimians exhibited significantly less sexual dimorphism than simians, there was nevertheless significant variation in dimorphism among them. The degree of sexual dimorphism in prosimians did not show significant variance at any taxonomic level, but the majority of variance occurred within genera. Thus, sexual dimorphism in size among prosimians is probably not constrained by phylogeny at the generic level and above. There was no significant correlation between body size and the degree of sexual dimorphism in prosimians, suggesting the absence of an allometric effect. Similarly there was no relationship between body size and sexual dimorphism among simians in this size range. This result suggested that the expression of sexual dimorphism may nevertheless be influenced by absolute size. In prosimians, inter‐specific differences in sexual dimorphism were not correlated with variance in male reproductive success. It is suggested that speed and agility of males, rather than size and strength, might have been favored by intra‐sexual selection in most prosimians. It seems also plausible that the relative monomorphism of most prosimians, especially in the Lemuriformes, might be a result of increased female size favored by natural selection. Consideration of all natural and sexual selective pressures that affect size in both sexes separately is required to understand the adaptive function and evolution of primate size dimorphism.
Ecogeographic size variation among the living and subfossil prosimians of Madagascar
Authors: Albrecht Gene H. , Jenkins Paulina D. , Godfrey Laurie R.
Published: June 2005

The living Malagasy prosimians and their recently extinct subfossil relatives include about 20 genera and 8 families that can be considered one contemporenous fauna. They exhibit morphological, behavioral, and ecological differences comparable to living anthropoid primates. This diversity is matched by the equally varied topography, climate, and vegetation of Madagascar. To investigate habitat‐related size variation, skull lengths of wild‐caught adults were used to compare sizes of closely‐related conspecific and congeneric “sister taxa.” More than 1,550 museum specimens were examined representing virtually all known forms of extant and subfossil Malagasy prosimians. A total of 98 pairwise, sister‐taxa comparisons among 76 different taxa from six broadly defined ecogeographic regions revealed a consistent pattern of size variation: (1) the smallest Malagasy prosimians inhabit the semiarid forests, bush, and thickets of the South; (2) next largest are those from the dry deciduous forests of the West and the humid but seasonal forests of the Sambirano; (3) larger yet are those from humid tropical and secondary forests of the East; and (4) the largest of all are the extinct forms of the central highlands that lived in what was probably a savanna‐bush‐woodland mosaic in the past but is now grasslands devoid of living prosimians. Taxa from the extreme North are more variable in size (small, intermediate, or large), which may reflect the mixture of local habitats in northern Madagascar. The ecogeographic size differences may be adaptive responses related to the carrying capacity of local environments such that smaller‐sized species are favoured where the resources they exploit are more limited. Field observations on behavioral thermoregulation, home range size, and population densities offer some support for this hypothesis. Ecologically induced size differences among local populations were probably one factor in speciation events leading to the modern diversity of the Malagasy primates.
Gonadal dysgenesis with X‐monosomy in a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis)
Authors: Reyes Francisco I. , Osborn Russell G. , Fuller Gene B. , Hobson William C. , Greenberg Cheryl R. , Ray Manoranjan , Thliveris James A. , Faiman Charles
Published: June 2005

A 3‐year‐old female cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) was found to have inappropriately high circulating immunoassayable follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels compatible with primary gonadal failure. Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism was confirmed by the findings of persistently high serum gonadotropin levels by both LH bioassay and FSH and LH radioimmunoassays and low levels of serum estradiol. In addition, circhoral gonadotropin pulsatility and an exaggerated response to a gonadotropin‐releasing hormone challenge were demonstrated. Both FSH and LH coeluted in a single peak on gel filtration column chromatography. Clinically, the animal showed the following features of Turner syndrome: small body size, sexual underdevelopment, gonadal streaks with absent follicles, and a chromosomal constitution of 41,X. A similar case has been reported previously in a rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Considering the fetal and live birth prevalences in humans of aneuploidy in general and X‐monosomy in particular, one would predict that this chromosomal aberration underlies a high number of pregnancy failures in nonhuman primates.
Esterase D in Brazilian Saguinus midas niger—results and comparison with previous studies in Anthropoidea
Authors: Barroso Carmem M. L. , Schneider Maria P. C. , Sampaio Maria I. C. , Salzano Francisco M.
Published: June 2005

Four esterase D (ESD) phenotypes, presumably resulting from the segregation of three alleles with moderate polymorphic frequencies, were observed in a sample of the black handed tamarin, Saguinus midas niger, from the northern Amazonian region (Brazil). Previous surveys in the non‐human Anthropoidea indicate that the ESD locus is polymorphic in at least 4 of the 19 taxonomic entities listed.
Teeth emergence in wild olive baboons in Kenya and formulation of a dental schedule for aging wild baboon populations
Authors: Kahumbu P. , Eley R. M.
Published: June 2005

Teeth emergence schedules are presented from analysis of 95 wild olive baboons Papio anubis (age range 2–120 months) and compared to recently published results for wild and captive yellow baboons (P. cynocephalus; Phillips‐Conroy and Jolly: American Journal of Primatology 15:17–29, 1988). Age at emergence of M1 (20.5 months males, 19.5 months females), I1 (32.5 and 33.5 months) and I2 (40.0 and 39 months) of olive baboons was earlier than in the wild yellow baboons and similar to captive yellow baboons. However, the later emerging teeth were delayed considerably relative to the captive animals and were similar in age of emergence to those of wild yellow baboons. Considerable variation in age of emergence occurred in the later emerging teeth especially among males. Regression analysis of dental scores with age demonstrated differences between olive baboons and captive yellow baboons but not between olive baboons and wild yellow baboons. Combined data on dental scores for wild yellow, olive, and hamadryas baboons provide schedules of AGE (months) = {SCORE – 11.79} ÷ 0.4405 and AGE (months) = {SCORE – 11.24} ÷ 0.4797 for males and females, respectively, which may be used for aging wild baboons. Full permanent dentition in wild baboons is predicted to occur over 1 year later than in captive animals.
A bar code scoring system for behavioral research
Authors: Forney Karin A. , Leete Allison J. , Lindburg Donald G.
Published: June 2005

A data collection method using lap‐top computers and bar codes was developed and used in behavioral research. The studies involved several common sampling methods and a variety of study subjects. Advantages and restrictions of the system are discussed. Overall, we found bar code technology to increase both efficiency and accuracy of behavioral data collection.
Possible antipredator behavior associated with river crossings by proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus)
Authors: Yeager Carey P.
Published: June 2005

Proboscis monkeys' (Nasalis larvatus) river crossing behavior was examined as a potential behavioral response to predation threat. N. larvatus' major predator at the Tanjung Puting National Park in Kalimantan Tengah, Indonesia, appeared to be the false gavial (Tomistoma schlegeli), a crocodilian. An adolescent female proboscis monkey was captured and drowned by a false gavial during this study. The monkeys crossed the river at its more narrow points, with several individuals or groups crossing simultaneously. Increased vigilance prior to crossing and leaping as far across the river as possible were also observed. Proboscis monkey groups often associate at their sleeping sites at the river's edge. A potential function of these associations may be to allow groups to synchronize their movement with other groups during river crossings.
Group fusions and minimum group sizes in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)
Authors: Isbell Lynne A. , Cheney Dorothy L. , Seyfarth Robert M.
Published: June 2005

Six unequivocal cases of group fusion occurred between 1984 and 1988 in a declining population of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. In each case, the remaining group members abandoned their territory and joined a neighboring group shortly after the group lost its penultimate adult. Because the number of juveniles did not appear to influence the timing of fusion, only adults (both males and females) appear able to maintain vervet groups as cohesive units. After examining the relative contributions of adults and juveniles to groupliving, we infer that intergroup competition may be more important than predation avoidance in determining the timing of fusions.
Effects of 17‐hydroxyprogesterone caproate (17‐OHPC) administration to pregnant squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis)
Authors: Aksel S. , Yeoman R. , Hazelton J. , Williams L. , Abee C.
Published: June 2005

Poor reproductive performance of the squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis) in captivity and a relative progesterone (P) deficiency in pregnancy have been reported. Since premature births may contribute to pregnancy wastage, we attempted to measure the effectiveness of 17‐hydroxyprogesterone caproate (17‐OHPC) treatment of pregnant squirrel monkeys to prevent early deliveries. Based on clearance studies of nonpregnant animals, 25 mg of 17‐OHPC was administered at 6‐day intervals to a test group of 31 pregnant monkeys while the control group of 29 received saline. Venous blood was obtained at 6‐ to 12‐day intervals for measurement of 17‐hydroxyprogesterone (17‐OHP), P, 17‐B estradiol (E), and androstenedione (A), and dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels by radioimmunoassays. The treated group had a significant increase in serum 17‐OHP (P < 0.001), P (P < 0.01), and DHEA (P < 0.05) levels compared to controls. The numbers of live births, stillbirths, or neonatal deaths did not differ significantly between groups. Although 17‐OHPC administration appeared to increase P and 17‐OHP levels, this did not alter the duration of pregnancy nor delay the onset of labor. A significant fall in 17‐OHP, P, and E levels was observed 6–12 days before delivery.
The costs of infant carrying in captive cotton‐top tamarins
Authors: Price Eluned C.
Published: June 2005

Marmosets and tamarins have a communal rearing system in which all group members help to care for the twin infants characteristic of this family of primates. Helpers are likely to incur time and energy costs by contributing to infant care. Predictions that cotton‐top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) helpers would change their behavior when carrying infants because of reduced mobility and/or a need for increased vigilance were tested in a captive colony. Tamarins carrying an infant spent significantly less time feeding, foraging, moving, or engaging in social activities such as grooming than they did when not carrying. Frequencies of scratching, autogrooming, and scent marking were significantly reduced in carriers, suggesting that their mobility was reduced. However, carriers were significantly less likely to be vigilant (measured by direction of gaze) than when not carrying. Further observations showed that carriers spent more time in concealed areas than they did when not carrying and were probably therefore adopting a cryptic strategy to reduce predation risks to themselves and to infants. These results demonstrate that tamarin helpers pay costs by carrying infants. Some possible compensating benefits are indicated.
Interactions between lar gibbons and pig‐tailed macaques at fruit sources
Authors: Whitington Claudia L.
Published: June 2005

Interactions are reported between white‐handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) and pig‐tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, in which gibbons selected ripe fruit from sources before macaques arrived on 4 occasions during June and July of 1989. The macaques foraged near gibbons or from shared fruit sources during 13% of gibbon observation time. Gibbons made their presence known in fruit trees when macaques approached on 3 occasions and macaques did not enter fruit trees occupied by gibbons. An aggressive interaction is reported in which a single white‐handed gibbon vigorously excluded 22–28 macaques from a rare and valuable fruit tree (Sandoricum koetjape). The observations suggest that exploitative and interference competition may exist between these species.
Laterality in quadrupedal and bipedal prosimians: Reach and whole‐body turn in the mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) and the galago (Galago moholi)
Authors: Dodson Deanna L. , Stafford Donna , Forsythe Chris , Seltzer Charles P. , Ward Jeannette P.
Published: June 2005

Lateral preferences in food reaching and whole‐body turning were assessed in 24 prosimian primates: 16 galagos (Galago moholi) and 8 mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus). Reach and turn preference in the galago were examined using a single testing procedure; separate procedures were used to evaluate reach and turn preferences in the mouse lemur. The motoric requirements for both species were 1) reach into a Plexiglas container with a single hand for a food item and 2) execution of a whole‐body rotation about the long axis of the body. Twenty‐three of the subjects tested had a reach preference (15 right, 8 left preferent) and 22 a turn preference (1 right and 21 left preferent). No correlation between the direction of reach and turn preference was found for either species; however an association between right reach preference and female gender was found for the galagos. A species difference in the strength of lateralization was found, with the more bipedal species, the galago, more strongly lateralized in both measures. This result supports the hypothesis that the assumption of upright posture was an important factor in the phylogenetic development of primate lateralization.
Territorial behavior in Southeast Asian langurs: Resource defense or mate defense?
Authors: Van Schaik Carel P. , Assink Peter R. , Salafsky Nick
Published: June 2005

Between‐group antagonism or territoriality in primates may serve two different but compatible functions: resource defense or mate defense. Females are expected to be involved more strongly in the first, males in the second. The resource defense hypothesis predicts that home range overlap should decrease as defensibility and population density increase, and that females should be involved in hostile between‐group interactions. The mate defense hypothesis predicts that between‐group relations should be hostile and that males should take the primary role in antagonistic encounters. In a comparative study of 12 populations of 6 Presbytis species in Southeast Asia, we found support for the mate defense hypothesis; only males produce loud calls, between‐group antagonism is entirely a male affair, and neither defensibility nor population density determine spatial exclusivity or the level of antagonism. We discuss the differences between our findings and traditional interpretations of territorial behavior.
Behavioral sampling in the field: Comparison of individual and group sampling methods
Authors: Fragaszy D. M. , Boinski S. , Whipple J.
Published: June 2005

Sampling decisions affect the efficiency and reliability of data collection, and the appropriateness of the data for analyses of group and individual behavior. We evaluate the correspondence between interval sampling of individual behavior at high temporal density (focal interval sampling) with interval sampling of group behavior at lower density (group scan sampling) in two field studies with neotropical primates, capuchins and squirrel monkeys. The two methods provided consistent estimates of population means and variance for activity profiles, foraging activities, and height above ground. The correspondence between mean values with the two methods was greater when group sampling included individual identities than when a nominal scoring scheme was used. A group scan method (without identification of individuals) can be used alone when information is needed within a brief time, such as initial description of activity budgets of a population. Although individual identities take time to learn, data sets in which the individual is the unit of analysis provide several other kinds of analytical possibilities. We recommend use of a mixed sampling regime containing both of these elements (focal and group sampling) as a good way to minimize the time costs of data collection and as a means to evaluate reliability of data collection by a solo observer.
Patterns of hand and mouth lateral biases in bamboo leaf shoot feeding and simple food reaching in the gentle lemur (Hapalemur griseus)
Authors: Stafford Donna K. , Milliken Garrett W. , Ward Jeannette P.
Published: June 2005

Lateralized feeding behaviors of 7 wild‐born and 6 captive‐born Hapalemur griseus sp. were evaluated in two conditions, simple food reaching and species‐typical bamboo foraging. Gentle lemurs were found to have the strongest lateral hand preference in simple food reaching of any prosimian species yet studied. However in this small sample, population‐level lateralization was not found: 5 preferred the right hand and 8 the left. The movement pattern used by hapalemurs when feeding on bamboo leaf shoots was categorized into four components: PULL IN, COUNTERFORCE, TURN, and FEED IN. Lateral hand bias was scored for all four components and lateral mouth preference was scored for the two components that involved the mouth (COUNTERFORCE and FEED IN). Strong positive correlations were found between hand preference in the most lateralized components of shoot eating (TURN and FEED IN) and simple food reaching. This suggests that the gentle lemurs' species‐typical bamboo feeding behavior may contribute to the exceptionally strong hand preference for simple food reaching seen in this species. There were negative correlations between the component measure of shoot feeding that required strength (COUNTERFORCE) and the components that required manipulation (TURN and FEED IN). Within the COUNTERFORCE and FEED IN components, mouth preference and hand preference were positively associated in a manner that suggested one side of the mouth was preferred for removing the shoot and the other side for mastication. Asymmetrical dental wear may provide a means of dating behavioral lateralization in ancestral species. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hierarchical complexity of combinatorial manipulation in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)
Authors: Westergaard Gregory Charles , Suomi Stephen J.
Published: June 2005

The purpose of this study was to examine the hierarchical complexity of combinatorial manipulation in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Two experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1 capuchins were presented with an apparatus designed to accommodate the use of probing tools. In Experiment 2 the same capuchins were presented with sets of nesting containers. Five of the ten subjects used probing tools and seven subjects placed objects in the containers. The capuchins' behavior reflected three hierarchically organized combinatorial patterns displayed by chimpanzees and human infants. Although the capuchins sometimes displayed the two more complex patterns (“pot” and “subassembly”), their combinatorial behavior was dominated by the simplest pattern (“pairing”). In this regard capuchins may not attain the same grammar of manipulative action that has been reported for chimpanzees and young human children. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.