bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Changes in housing in Guatemala following the 1976 earthquake: With special reference to earthen structures and how they are perceived by disaster victims*
Authors: Bates Frederick L. , Killian Charles D.
Published: December 2007

This paper reports on what has happened to earthen structures in 26 Guatemalan communities studied over a 4‐year period since the 1976 earthquake. The data were obtained from three waves of personal interviews with 1472 randomly sampled household heads. The results show that adobe, which was the primary housing material before the earthquake was heavily damaged in that event. As a consequence the number of adobe structures and of other earthen structures has been drastically reduced. The people of Guatemala individually and because of agency housing programs have abandoned adobe as a building material and turned to concrete block and wood.

Surviving earthen structures have not been improved substantially and remain with largely the same structural features as before the earthquake. The greatest improvement is in the use of comer posts or columns in the walls but most of these are made of untreated crude logs or lumber, subject to rot and termite damage. Little information on aseismic housing seems to have spread either within the earthquake area or in the unaffected areas surrounding it. A program to spread information on how to use adobe in aseismic designs needs to be conducted along with one to assist citizens to aquire the resources necessary to improve the earthquake vulnerability of houses.
Recovery following the South Italian earthquake, November 1980: Two contrasting examples
Authors: D'Souza Frances
Published: December 2007

Recovery and reconstruction in two communities following the South Itallan earthquake is described and differences are related to factors such as pradisaster development levels, relief decisions made during the emergency phase, the kind of material aid received, local leadership and economic opportunities. The combination of appropriate aid and effective leadership appears to a potent force for recovery.
The ‘who’ and ‘what’ of training far disaster relief
Authors: Taylor Alan J.
Published: December 2007

This paper defines the various levels within government, the voluntary agencies and the community which might benefit from training and makes suggestions as to where the emphasis should be placed. It points out that training programmes should be designed to meet the expressed needs of a particular group of trainees as well as be related to the current or potential disaster situation.
An outbreak of scurvy in Somali refugee camps*
Authors: Magan Ahmed M. , Warsame Mohamed , Ali‐Salad Abdi‐Kamal , Toole Michael J.
Published: December 2007

Between June and October 1982, an outbreak of scurvy occurred in the refugee camps of Somalia. An epidemiologic investigation eventually detected more than 2,000 cases. The outbreak came at a time when the relief programme had been well established and the general health status of the refugees had otherwise stabilized. We report on 72 of the cases. Joint pain of the lower extremities and gingivitis were prominent features in the majority. Hemorrhagic phenomena were not observed and no deaths occurred. The outbreak primarily affected the poorer refugees who were unable to purchase locally available Vitamin C‐containing foods. This outbreak demonstrates the vulnerability of a large population of displaced persons who are dependent on imported relief supplies for survival.
The 1934 floods in Tabriz, N. W. Iran
Authors: Melville C.P.
Published: December 2007

The disastrous floods of July 1934 in Tabriz are examined in the context of the history of floodinginthe city, which is crossed by a dry stream bed liable to sudden Inundation by mountain torrents from the southeast. Few details of past events have survived, suggesting that relatively little significance has been attached to them. Typically, flood dykes were inadequately maintained. This neglect, combined with a radical alteration in urban topography after 1925, when broad straight avenues were constructed through the old heart of the city, led to serious losses from flooding twice in 1929 and again in 1934. Enhanced perception of the flood risk finally found expression in the adoption of large scale engineering measures to mitigate future events, including strengthening protective dykes and widening the river channel through the city. These works have reduced vulnerability to flooding from river overflow. No long‐term detrimental Impact of the 1934 flood has been observed. Some of the physical and social parameters that have influenced the vulnerability of Tabrizinthe past continue to be present both there and elsewhere in Iran, and they may be characteristic also of other regions with comparable natural environments or in a similar stage of socio‐economic development.
The tragedy of Kampuchea
Authors: Kiljunen Kimmo
Published: December 2007

This paper, abstracted from the final report of the Kampuchea Inquiry Commission, analyses the population losses in Cambodia prior to 1979 and goes on to describe some of the unwanted side effects of the international relief programmes in both Thailand and in Kampuchea. The paper concludes that various opposition movements to the present Vietnamese backed regime in Kampuchea have been strengthened by international aid.
The Pyrenees earthquake of 1660: Effects in France
Authors: Vogt Jean
Published: December 2007

Until 1975 or so, scientists' knowledge of the major earthquake of 1660 in the Pyrenees (in Bigorre) was largely restricted to the meagre information repeated in the classical catalogues. Useful material published in local learned journals was mostly unknown, and has only been unearthed and interpreted since 1976, when two year's work of analysis was started for the “Projet Sismo‐tectonique” in France. During and since that project, further routine work necessary for the revision of the historical seismicity of France, has brought to light a new wealth of information from archive sources. This new knowledge, at least from the French side, is used as the basis for a brief macroseismic review of the event north of the Pyrenees, putting forward proposals for the isoseismal lines. Emphasis is placed on the number and quality of the sources, some of which are quoted for evidence of major rockfalls in the meizoseismal region and the wide extent of the felt area, as far north as Salnt‐Maixent in Poitou.
Emergency centers in Israel: A small community organizes to cope with war related crises*
Authors: Chetkow‐Yanoov Benyamin , Guttmann Merle , Reisner Nurit , Rubin Adele
Published: December 2007

This paper focuses on community‐wide emergencies caused by war‐related events in Lebanon at the beginning of June 1982. Mobilization for the “Peace for Galilee” campaign began on Friday, 4th June. Overnight, families were disrupted, husbands and sons were in danger, and within 24 hours there were notifications of casualities and deaths. Families in crisis became a widespread phenomenon.

In Herzlia, as in many other communities, a new service – the Emergency Center – emerged under the auspices of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and the Municipality. The authors describe this process of getting organized, the populations served, how the Center was staffed, the role of citizen volunteers, and the types of interventions used to help vulnerable families as well as soldiers home on leave. Stress is placed on the unique type of short‐term co‐operation achieved between social workers of the local Department of Social Welfare, the staff of the Department of Community Services (especially its Volunteer Bureau), the local liason officer of the Israel Defence Force, the municipal government, and public‐spirited volunteers. Mention is made of conditions which made possible the activation of such a service within hours, of the Center's capacity to serve all segments of the population, and of how it was deactivated within a few weeks when the emergency ended.

On the basis of lessons learned from this experience, the paper ends with a number of specific recommendations. The authors hope that such innovative forms of crisis‐intervention will become part of the helping technology widely available at the community level in future years.
The hazard of forest fires in southern France
Authors: Wrathall James E.
Published: December 2007

The annual hazard of fire in the forest, maquis and garrigue of southern France is related both to the fragile nature of the Mediterranean ecosystem and to man's activities. The Mediterranean vegetation is adapted to withstand the aridity of the summer months, but the combination of high temperatures, low precipitation, critical soil‐moisture levels and occasional bouts of strong winds (mistral) desiccate the vegetation cover and create conditions in which outbreaks of forest fires are inevitable. Although the annual incidence and impact of forest fires are related to the occurrence of extreme weather conditions they are also exacerbated by depopulation of the remoter rural areas, the spread of urbanization and the growth of tourist facilities in the more accessible coastal zones, and above dl by man's carelessness. This article reviews the factors affecting the nature and severity of forest fires and discusses the attempts being made to prevent and control forest fires in the Mediterranean zone of southern France
A review of poliomyelitis epidemics in Jamaica: The immunization policies and socio‐economic implications
Authors: Ashley Deanna , Bernal Richard
Published: December 2007

The prevalence of communicable diseases in the English speaking Caribbean has declined considerably over the last two decades, creating a false sense of security and complacency in implementing continuous preventive measures such as immunization.

Poliomyelitis is one such case in paint. The last case of paralytic poliomyelitis was reported in Jamaica in 1969. Then twelve years later, in May 1982, the Ministry of Health announced the outbreak of poliomyelitis in the parish of St. James, caused by the Type I virus.

This paper traces the history of epidemics of poliomyelitis in Jamaica from 1954 to 1982, the Government's policies and strategies for immunization and demonstrates that preventive intervention through immunization is cheaper and preferable to crisis management caused by epidemics. The evaluation of the social and economic costs of the 1982 poliomyelitis epidemic in Jamaica provides conclusive evidence in support of preventive intervention.
Landfill gas – a potential environmental hazard
Authors: Parker Alan
Published: December 2007

Methane derived from the decomposition of organic material contained within a landfill may escape beyond the site boundary where it can pose an explosion or fire hazard. Methods are described to prevent die occurrence of such lateral gas migration. Problems due to the accumulation of gas in buildings, erected on landfill sites, have occurred and techniques are now available to overcome these at some sites. However, it is recognized that at other sites, redevelopment should not be allowed to take place on die grounds of safety.
Rainfall and flooding in the Guayas river basin and its effects on the incidence of malaria 1982–1985
Authors: Cedeño Jorge E. Moreira
Published: December 2007

Inasmuch as health is at cross purposes with illness, suffering, disability and death, it is clear that all measures that are adopted with foresight to reduce the repercussions of natural disasters have consequences for health
Brief description of the effects on health of the earthquake of 3rd March 1985 – Chile
Authors: Ortíz Mario Reyes , Roman Mario Reyes , Latorre Alejandro Vial , Soto Juan Zamorano
Published: December 2007

Chile is one of the most seismically active countries in the world. Earthquakes are periodic phenomena that test the quality of construction, as well as the capacity of the population to adapt to sharp changes in socio‐environ‐mental conditions.

Experience in this regard has demonstrated the desirability of being prepared, at the institutional level and at the level of the general population, to carry out investigations and to begin measures to cope with these catastrophes, in order to reduce damage and the interruption of normal life to a minimum.

In this paper some general aspects of the social and health impacts of the earthquake of 3rd March 1985 are examined. The shock affected the central area of Chile which contains 61% of the total population.

The earthquake occurred at 19:50 hours on Sunday, 3rd March, and was of magnitude 7.8. Recorded personal losses included 180 dead and 2,575 injured, and around 200,000 damaged or destroyed dwellings. The destruction also affected the infrastructure of the public services, such as energy, road, telecommunications and water supply, giving rise to an emergency in the provision of assistance.

Special reference is made to the effects, on the health care infrastructure, drinking water supply and, less important, on the behavior of some communicable intestinal diseases that are highly endemic in the area under study.
Indigenous responses to drought in sub‐Saharan Africa*
Authors: Fleurett Anne
Published: December 2007

Drought is a frequent occurrence in contemporary sub‐Saharan Africa, and the existence of periodic drought can be documented over hundreds of years. As a consequence of the routine rainfall shortages that affect them, agricultural and pastoral societies have developed a number of social institutions and mechanisms for bridging temporary food production shortfalls caused by drought. Drawing on the literature and field data from southeastern Kenya, this paper discusses a number of regular indigenous responses to short‐term drought in sub‐Saharan Africa. Changes in these patterns in the present day are also discussed. It is concluded that market‐based responses are now the most important strategies, but that traditional institutions remain significant and contribute to the viability of drought‐affected societies.
Information systems and needs assessment in natural disasters: An approach for better disaster relief management
Authors: Guha‐Sapir Debarati , Lechat Michel F.
Published: December 2007

The paper addresses the issue of information in disasters relief. It begins by establishing the need for planning and systematic organization in disaster action, in order to produce a long term effect on the vulnerability levels of communities. Information is introduced as a key element in any phase of disaster management. The different informational needs are described by phases; information types and possible sources are briefly described. The organizational network of information collection is presented and the immediate need for research in this field is emphasized.
Hunger, poverty and food aid in Sub‐Saharan Africa: Retrospect and potential
Authors: Green Reginald Herbold
Published: December 2007

Frustrations and failures will continue to mount if we do not immediately summon the courage to revise the ways we think and take action–as well as maintaining essential services to support life and health … Saving hundreds of thousands … who are at risk of dying from malnutrition or infection is an immediate imperative. But it must be only one stage in the progress toward other activities, and one element in the truly comprehensive approach…

The main intent of this paper is to explore aspects of the nature and evolution of poverty in Sub‐Saharan Africa with special reference to food and hunger and their interaction with macro‐economic policy. An attempt is made to outline the overall context within which food aid needs to be used in order to have a greater developmental impact. Following an Introductory Section I, Section II provides a sketch map of how recession and lagging food production – with cyclical weather crises superimposed – affect the human condition of poor people. Section III reviews die interaction between “standard” IMF stabilization and World Bank structural adjustment strategies and poverty/hunger. Improvements in the design of stabilization and adjustment programmes, and of the inter‐relationship with them of emergency programmes, can be identified. A number turn on the broadened and more innovative or catalytic use of food aid. Section IV reviews aspects of facing a continuing series of emergencies and of designing life support programmes to facilitate rehabilitation of the households directly affected as well as of the national economies. From this base it explores a series of elements in achieving renewed development. The concluding Section seeks to explore the strengths, limitations and potentials of food aid in the context set by the previous sections. The standard criticisms of food aid appear to be overstated and/or to relate to particular modalities or approaches rather than to anything intrinsic. A number of criteria for improving the effectiveness of food aid – especially in respect to rehabilitation, recovery and renewed development – are set out.
Needless disaster
Authors: Ashall C.
Published: December 2007

A soundly conceived and well executed programme of multi‐disciplinary research has allowed the evolution of modern locust control on a sound scientific basis. What is still required, if further disaster is to be avoided, is the exploitation of those results by carefully recruited cadres of anti‐locust personnel in those countries where locusts are important, both to the countries themselves and to the countries likely to receive those locusts if not properly controlled.
Responses to natural and man‐made hazards in Borno, Northeast Nigeria
Authors: Kolawole Are
Published: December 2007

This is a study of the responses of the people of eastern Borno to the twin hazards of drought and of an irrigation project stranded by the recent low level of Lake Chad. The environmental awareness of the people has been much influenced by access to information, particularly radio. There was a perceptual dissonance; drought is discerned as a natural act of God, but lake recession is seen as man‐made. There is also a gap between responses perceived as appropriate and actual responses consequent on the constraints imposed by the process of modernization, notably the introduction of the South Chad Irrigation Project (SOP). Traditional response mechanisms involving the norm of reciprocity, the use of community resources, agricultural adaptations and sharing have become relatively insignificant in Borno. These are being replaced by emigration, lake floor cultivation and household diversification
The San Salvador earthquake of 10th October 1986
Authors: Bommer Julian , Ledbetter Stephen
Published: December 2007

The authors carried out an nvestigative mission to San Salvador between 20th October and 3rd November 1986, under the auspices of the Earthquake Engineering Field Investigation Team (EEFIT). The mission was funded by Rendel Palmer & Tritton and the Science and Engineering Research Council.
Medical supplies management in the cholera epidemic in Somalia 1985
Authors: Helde Lutz E.
Published: December 2007

In March/April 1985 a cholera epidemic of explosive speed affected a population of 45,000 newly arrived refugees in the town of Hargeysa in the North‐West region of Somalia. Seven hundred and sixty one people were killed by the disease within ten days. Great efforts were made on regional, national and international levels in order to reduce mortality and to control the spread of the disease, and large amounts of relief supplies were immediately flown into the country from various aid organizations and governments. This paper describes the supplies management during the operation, with an emphasis on the mobilization of supplies from abroad and from the capital into the emergency area. Recommendations are offered for the organization of medical supplies during cholera outbreaks. The author worked during the epidemic as co‐ordinating secretary for relief supplies in Mogadishu.
Community evacuation following a chlorine release, Mississippi
Authors: Duclos P. , Sanderson L. , Thompson F.E. , Brackin B. , Binder S.
Published: December 2007

On 7th September 1986, four miles north of Collins, Mississippi, a train transporting chlorine derailed. Two cars ruptured and gas escaped. As a result, 100 families were evacuated. To study the evacuation process, we conducted person‐to‐person interviews with sixty‐two families staying in the evacuation center. Only 52.5% of the families received their first directive to evacuate directly from police or other officials. Delays in evacuating tended to be shorter when people were warned by the police and were told the reason for evacuating. Lack of personal transportation and preexisting health problems resulted in delays in evacuation. Concerns about evacuation included fear of looting, lack of a place to go, lack of transportation, difficulty in moving with children and elderly persons, and the need to take care of pets. One third of the interviewees reported feeling panic. Community evacuation procedures would be improved if: (1) officials contact all households directly; (2) the warning message addresses people's concerns; and (3) transportation is provided.
The recovery of schools from earthquake effects: Lessons from Mexico City
Authors: Gratton Vivian G. , Thier Herbert D. , Arjonilla Elia , Melgar Rosa
Published: December 2007

Much work has been done to prepare schools and institutions for the immediate effects of earthquakes and other disasters. This paper looks at the preparation needed for medium to long term recovery from the physical and psychological effects of earthquakes. Colegio Madrid, a school of 3,000 students that suffered major damage in the September 1985 Mexico City earthquake serves as the focus of this study. The experiences and actions of faculty, staff, students and parents at this school provide lessons for not only schools, but all institutions and communities which may face the prospect of reconstructing themselves following a disaster.
Disaster Mitigation: Strong Houses or Strong Institutions?
Authors: DUDLEY ERIC
Published: December 2007

Though this is primarily afield report on the March 1987 earthquake in Ecuador, I will also argue that agencies interested in reconstruction in the wake of disasters need to help build indigenous institutions prior to disasters.
Valtellina Landslide and Flood Emergency, Northern Italy, 1987
Authors: ALEXANDER DAVID
Published: December 2007

This report describes the progress of the landslide and flood emergency that occurred in Valtellina, in the northern Italian Alps, during July and August 1987. For the authorities, the critical problem was one of controlling the rise of a large lake impounded on the River Adda by landslide debris that threatened to breach catastrophically, releasing a major floodwave. Several lessons can be learned from the way in which the emergency was managed. First, helicopters played a critical role in evacuating survivors and moving supplies around the disaster area, but there was scope for better co‐ordination of operations. Secondly, high levels of private car ownership allowed greater flexibility in designing mass evacutation plans for threatened communites, but such high personal mobility proved difficult to control in order to ensure public safety. In future, education programmes could be used to help people appreciate the dangers of driving during periods of great natural hazard risk. Thirdly, the Valtellina disaster coincided with a change of national government, including substitution of the Minister of Civil Protection. This led to a policy vacuum, sub‐optimal decision making and erosion of public confidence in political leaders. Landslide‐dammed lakes represent a widespread but rather unpredictable hazard: they therefore require flexible emergency repsonse, but not without decisive leadership.
The Scandinavian Earthquakes of 22 December 1759 and 31 August 1819
Authors: WOOD ROBERT MUIR
Published: December 2007

The two largest known pre‐1850 Scandinavian earthquakes are the 22 December 1759 Kattegat event (located at 57.7°N‐11.1°E) and the 31 August 1819 Nordland event (located at 66.4°N‐14.4°E), the latter being the largest north European near‐shore earthquake of the past few centuries. The 22 December 1759 event caused minor damage to buildings (MMIVII) on either side of the Kattegat in Northern Jutland and in the Swedish province ofBohuslän, and was felt up to 600 km away. The 31 August 1819 earthquake caused widespread damage (MMIVIII) to stone components of wooden buildings in the sparsely populated region of Nordland Norway, as well as very extensive rockfalls, liquefaction phenomena and a remarkable variety of disturbances in fjords and in the sea. The earthquake was felt throughout northern Scandinavia over distances of up to 800 km.
Practical Experience with the Management of a Cholera Outbreak in a Refugee Camp in Eastern Sudan, 1985
Authors: SØRENSEN EIGIL , DISSLER KLAUS
Published: December 2007

From May to November 1985 most refugee camps in Eastern Sudan were affected by cholera. This article summarizes the experience from the refugee camp Wad Sherife with the emphasis on the practical aspects of management of cholera in a refugee context. Paramedical personnel from the refugee community were used to a great extent both in curative and preventive measures. The home visitors played an important role in the early detection of the cases and in trying to prevent the spread of cholera in the camp. A total of 1793 cases were admitted during a three month period. The results show a case fatality rate of 1.8%. A significantly higher number of women were affected in the age group 15–44. As seen in other refugee camps in Eastern Sudan, there was a relatively high intravenous fluid consumption with an average of about 6 litres in adults.
The Food and Nutrition Surveillance Systems of Chad and Mali: The “SAP” After Two Years
Authors: AUTIER PHILIPPE , D'ALTILIA JEAN‐PIERRE , DELAMALLE JEAN‐PIERRE , VERCRUYSSE VINCENT
Published: December 2007

The “Systèmes d'Alerte Précoce” ‐ the SAPs ‐ of Chad and Mali have been in operation since April 1986. Their purpose is to forecast (or more realistically, detect as early as possible) food shortages in the drought‐prone areas of each country. They are based on a multidisciplinary strategy, taking into account all relevant phenomena, from meteorology to nutritional status, and are implemented through the governmental networks. The present experience shows that, compared with the devastations due to famine and the cost of emergency food aid, they are not that expensive and they seem sustainable over the long term.

“Faultless” prediction is not yet the rule, but several procedures permit progressive improvement in the ability of the systems to analyse and interpret.

This paper explains the functioning process of the SAPs and presents several operational results. Additionally, it covers innovative concepts that have proved to be successful, such as the “participative information network”.
Diet and Nutrition during Drought‐An Indian Experience
Authors: RAO N. PRALHAD
Published: December 2007

In 1987 India experienced one of the century's worst droughts with two‐thirds of its sown area receiving ‘scanty’ or ‘deficient’ rainfall. Delayed rains in some parts, though to some extent they relieved the water scarcity, did not brighten the prospects of agricultural production. In order to assess the diet and nutritional situation of the vulnerable population in the severely affected areas, rapid surveys were undertaken by the National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, in five States of the country, namely Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa and Gujarat, during the months of October‐December 1987. Results obtained during the current surveys are compared with the dietary situation observed in earlier droughts in the 1960s and 1970s, and it is concluded that the widespread hunger and its consequences encountered in earlier droughts could be averted, due mainly to the better food security and distribution mechanisms now available in the country.
A Case Study of Social Behaviour in a Natural Disaster: The Olivares Landslide (Spain)
Authors: LUIS JOSE , GARCIA GONZALEZ , VICTORIA MARIA , PARRA SORIANO
Published: December 2007

The modern sociological literature on disasters highlights the fact that many of the ideas about human behaviour in disasters which were long considered as valid, are wrong. The main discovery is based on the fact that situations of crisis increase people's moral principles and capability of response. This paper illustrates some of these ideas, in a case study of a village which was struck by a natural disaster in the north of Granada (Spain) in 1986. The population's attitude revealed a huge potential of resources that were underestimated by professionals of disaster management. The analysis shows that it is necessary to bring civil protection systems and the population's capability of response into close harmony.
Rapid Post‐Disaster Community Needs Assessment: A Case Study of Guatemala After the Civil Strife of 1979–1983
Authors: MARGOLUIS RICHARD A. , FRANKLIN ROBERT R. , BERTREND WILLIAM F. , SELLERS THOMAS A.
Published: December 2007

Disaster assessment and assistance activities are often hampered by organizational problems which diminish the effect of these efforts on the people they are intended to help. Inefficient targeting of relief causes reduced coverage of needy populations and inflated costs. In order to ensure that the most needy populations receive appropriate types and amounts of assistance, collection of assessment data must be at the lowest possible administrative unit. In addition, it is essential that disaster assessment be a dynamic process in which follow‐up activities monitor possible changes in vulnerability and need in the targeted populations.

This paper presents a method for post‐disaster rapid needs assessment at the community level. Indigenous numerators are used to collect data with which communities are served and ranked according to need. Qualitative and quantitative methods are incorporated to provide rapidly a centralised database with which relief organizations can accurately target specific communities for assistance.
Squatters' Nightmare: The Political Economy of Disasters and Disaster Response in Zambia
Authors: MULWANDA MPANJILWA PIUS
Published: December 2007

Despite the frequency with which disasters occur, very few if any third world countries have developed elaborate disaster mitigation networks. Most commonly, governments in these countries focus their attention on disaster relief rather than disaster mitigation and preparedness. It is the contention of this paper that apart from the political and economic instability which will result from government apathy, lack of sensitivity to the question of disasters and disaster preparedness will result in untold suffering for the millions of our people who live on the urban margins and who are the most exposed to the dangers of disasters. This paper is about disasters and disaster response in Zambia.
Disease Surveillance and Control After a Flood: Khartoum, Sudan, 1988
Authors: WOODRUFF BRADLEY A. , TOOLE MICHAEL J. , RODRIGUE DANIEL C. , BRINK EDWARD W. , MAHGOUB EL SADIG , AHMED MAGDA MOHAMED , BABIKAR ADAM
Published: December 2007

Following a flood in Khartoum, Sudan, emergency disease surveillance was implemented to monitor the health status of the population. Simple, symptom‐oriented case definitions for diarrheal disease, measles, respiratory disease, malaria, and jaundice were included on the report form used to collect daily counts of outpatients in a sample of both temporary and permanent clinics located in areas of the city most affected by the flood. Data collected from major teaching hospitals allowed comparison of pre‐ and post‐disaster levels of morbidity and mortality. In addition, special surveys collected information unobtainable from health facilities. Sentinel clinic surveillance data indicated that diarrheal disease accounted for the greatest number of clinic visits, while malaria was the second most common reason for seeking medical attention. Malaria blood smear surveys showed that the parasitemia prevalence ranged from 11% to 19% in the general population and from 21% to 46% among febrile clinic patients. Hospital admission data demonstrated an increase in morbidity from diarrhea and malaria in August 1988, when compared to previous months and August of the previous year, although it is uncertain whether this increase was due to the flood. Nutrition surveys demonstrated that 23% of young children were moderately or severely undernourished, with substantial variation by area of the city. No major outbreaks of communicable disease were detected in the 4 weeks after the flood. Disease surveillance provided data useful in identifying public health problems, setting priorities, targeting interventions and controlling rumors. Disease control measures taken by the Ministry of Health included provision of potable water, standardization of medical care, and distribution of immunizations, oral rehydration salts, and vitamin supplements to children.
Health Assessment of the 1985 Flood Disaster in Puerto Rico
Authors: DIETZ VANCE J. , RIGAU‐PEREZ JOSE G. , SANDERSON LEE , DIAZ LYDIA , GUNN ROBERT A.
Published: December 2007

In Puerto Rico, during October 1985, tropical storm Isabel caused widespread flooding, landslides, and collapsing of bridges. A maximum of 180 persons died, including an estimated 127 at a landslide where the majority (78%) of deaths resulted from traumatic injury. Approximately 3,000 homes were damaged with 4,400 persons temporarily displaced into 44 shelters. A shelter surveillance system was established to monitor 19 acute and chronic conditions in 28 shelters during a 5‐week period. Trend analysis trends of selected reportable communicable diseases in the general community revealed no changes attributable to the disaster in the 12 most severely affected municipalities. In these municipalities, the number of persons using the scheduled outpatient clinics after the disaster decreased significantly, but the mean daily number of emergency room visits did not show significant change. Analysis of surveillance data showed that no infectious disease outbreaks had occurred in the shelters. The post‐impact health consequences resulting from this widespread flooding were minimal. Even so, disease surveillance remains essential for efficacious resource allocation and prevention strategies.
From Emergency to Social Security in Sudan – Part I: The Problem
Authors: DUFFIELD MARK
Published: December 2007

This is the first part of a two‐part article which stresses the need to move away from short term emergency measures to a more general system of social security. A weakness in much of the thinking on food security in Sudan is its conception of a normally self‐provisioning peasantry which is pushed into distress only as a consequence of exceptional external conditions. Food catastrophes are therefore seen as, essentially, temporary phenomena requiring emergency interventions. This article proposes a different view: that the commercial development of Sudan has engendered a crisis of subsistence synonymous with the collapse of indigenous support systems, the spread of absolute poverty and the erosion of the country's resource base. In the North this situation has come about through economic means and in the South through war. The spread of absolute poverty and the resulting vicious struggle for scarce resources cannot, however, be separated from the decay in governance. Part I of the article attempts to establish the interconnections between these elements and thereby to indicate the problems which a system of social security would have to overcome. Part II will examine the institutional consequences of the crisis, namely the imposition of a donor‐led system of social security.
The Vulnerability of Small Island States to Sea Level Rise: The Need for Holistic Strategies
Authors: LEWIS JAMES
Published: December 2007

There is uncertainty about climate change and its socioenvironmental implications, but the vulnerability of small island states to hazardous events is likely to become increasingly significant. It will not be a normally benign sea that rises but the incidence of storms and cyclones can be assumed to increase with tropical sea‐surface temperatures. The proportional socioeconomic impact of tropical cyclone disasters makes these of crucial significance to small islands and small island states. Sea‐defences are of little use (and may not be feasible at all) against the damage caused by tropical cyclones and some sea‐surges. Social and economic adjustments are also required to parallel erosion control; and disaster preparedness “longstops” must be further developed as a matter of urgency. Apparently small measures must not be displaced by images of ultimate, massive catastrophe; adjustments may serve other functions in society as well. International and bilateral measures are required to take account of migration and“ecological refugees” and national administrations may require modification to take appropriate account of this most crucial of environmental phenomena.
Floods and Livestock in Bangladesh
Authors: JABBAR M.A.
Published: December 2007

The effects of monsoon floods on livestock in terms of death, loss of livestock feeds, distress sales of livestock and their consequences for livestock owners were assessed using data derived from a survey of 1000 households in nine districts conducted after the 1984 floods. The results show that there were very few deaths due to drowning during the floods but there were large number of deaths after the floods due to disease and hunger caused by loss of animal feeds. Floods contributed to increased distress sales of livestock, land and other assets. Floods worsened the already serious draught power problem making it difficult for many farmers to plant winter crops on time and in adequate quantity, thereby adversely affecting output. In general, floods exacerbated the livestock related problems which are quite serious even under normal conditions. The post‐flood relief/rehabilitation programmes included very few of these problems, if at all. In reality, the solution to these problems should be sought within the framework of overall longterm agricultural and livestock development policies and programmes.
Natural Disasters: A Framework for Research and Teaching
Authors: ALEXANDER DAVID
Published: December 2007

Natural disasters are defined in this paper by relating the impact of extreme geophysical events to patterns of human vulnerability. Hazard perception is shown to be a factor that limits the mitigation of risk. The historical development of disaster studies is traced and five different schools of thought are identified. The current International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) is evaluated critically with regard to its potential for unifying the disparate strands of knowledge and its scope as a vehicle for education.

A pedagogical framework for disaster studies is presented. Time and space provide valuable unifying factors, while the subject matter can be differentiated according to the continua and dichotomies that it presents. In disaster studies as in other branches of higher education, an ecocentric approach is preferable to a technocentric one, as many of the poorer nations of the world, which are most afflicted by natural catastrophe, will have to rely for mitigation on maintaining their ecological sustainability, instead of depending on sophisticated technology. Valuable insights into the impact of environmental extremes on mankind are gained from the study of disasters as human ecology.
The Resilience of Households to Famine in El Fasher, Sudan, 1982–89
Authors: PYLE ALISON S.
Published: December 2007

This paper examines issues related to famine resilience and describes the results of a survey of households who migrated from famine affected rural communities in Northern Darfur to the provincial capital, El Fasher, in western Sudan. It reveals that asset wealth did not enhance household resilience to famine; rather, the data indicate that households who reportedly practiced more numerous survival strategies before migrating to El Fasher were on the whole able to stay longer in their villages before migrating. The data also suggest that some households might have been better able to endure the deteriorating rural conditions by participating in intra‐communal practices of sharing resources. An additional issue influencing the timing of migration to El Fasher is previous familiarity with the economic opportunities in the provincial capital.
Composite Indicators for Famine Early Warning Systems
Authors: KHAN M. MAHMUD , MOCK NANCY B. , BERTRAND WILLIAM B.
Published: December 2007

Traditional famine early warning systems use a host of indicators to predict food crisis situations, from rainfall and increased rate of marketing of household durables to the behavior of birds and animals. Although many of these indicators are valid in general, limited understanding of the sensitivity and specificity of the distress signals makes food crisis prediction a highly subjective exercise. In order to make the system more effective and credible, we need to identify a limited number of ‘composite’ indicators, which naturally summarize most relevant food‐related information contained in the specific predictors of food crisis. Considering the chronology of the food production and consumption chain, three composite indicators specific to three different stages of the chain have been identified. The satellite data based Normalized Deviation of Vegetative Index (NDVI), prices of major food grains, and malnutrition rates are found to be correlated not only with the quality and quantity of inputs of this process but also with the final outcome. Both NDVI and price data are widely used as important predictors of food crisis by famine warning systems. What we have demonstrated is that improved sensitivity of the indicators is likely to be due to their inherent capability of summarizing information from various specific measures. Child malnutrition rates also summarize inputs and outputs of the food consumption process very effectively, and therefore should be able to predict community level food crisis in an efficient manner. The empirical results confirm this conjecture by showing that malnutrition rates can predict food crisis probability three months into the future with a high degree of specificity. The use of ‘composite’ indicators not only simplifies the problem of aggregation, but is also likely to yield forecasts that are highly specific and sensitive.
The Mortality Experience of Kurdish Refugees Remaining in Turkey
Authors: KNELLER ROBERT W. , INGOLFSDOTTIR KRISTIN , REVEL JEAN‐PIERRE
Published: December 2007

A survey of one of the camps still holding refugees from Iraq who crossed into Turkey in the spring of 1991 showed that the majority of the population was under 15 years of age and that increased mortality occurred during the first 30 days after the refugees left their homes in Iraq. Infants, young children, and the elderly suffered the highest mortality, with infant mortality rates (IMRs) over the first month of the crisis approximately 18–29 times the MR in Iraq in the late 1980s. Still unexplained is a greater than two‐fold excess mortality among males compared with females. Other demographic and health findings are also reported.
The Effects of Flooding on Residential Property Values in Three New Zealand Communities
Authors: MONTZ BURRELL E.
Published: December 2007

Research on the effects of natural events on property values has focused primarily on experiences in the United States and has shown that these impacts must be evaluated in the context of both the hydrologic regime and local urban economic situations. It remains unclear if these relationships exist with different flood regimes and under different institutional arrangements. The research reported here analyzes the impacts of flooding on property values in Paeroa, Te Aroha, and Thames, New Zealand. The results indicate different experiences in the three communities, but suggest several common trends. Each community has distinct housing submarkets that exhibit different housing value characteristics, independent of hazardousness, which may either mask or exaggerate flood‐related impacts. In addition, initial local impacts of events vary, but eventually differences in flooded and non‐flooded properties decrease. Thus, at least over the long term, hazardousness is not a factor in housing value differentials.
Food as an Instrument of War in Contemporary African Famines: A Review of the Evidence
Authors: MACRAE JOANNA , ZWI ANTHONY B.
Published: December 2007

Famine is conventionally portrayed as a natural disaster expressed in terms of food scarcity and culminating in starvation. This view has attracted criticism in recent years as the political, legal and social dimensions of famine have become more clearly understood. This paper draws upon these criticisms to understand the particular conditions of famine creation in conflict situations. Following an examination of six contemporary African famines, it is suggested that the use of food as a weapon of war by omission, commission and provision has contributed to the creation of famine in recent decades. Despite the optimism for peace engendered by the demise of the Cold War, the momentum for conflict would seem to be sustained by internal factors, including economic and environmental decline, political instability and ethnic rivalry. Within these conflicts, the strategic importance of food is likely to remain central. This study highlights the need to link concerns with food security and public health to those of development, human rights and international relations.
Economic Effects of Riverbank Erosion: Some Evidence from Bangladesh
Authors: HOSSAIN MOAZZEM
Published: December 2007

In this paper I investigate some of the economic effects of riverbank erosion in Bangladesh. The study was conducted in one village over the period 1979–89. Between these dates the village lost almost 20 per cent of its farmland to riverbank erosion. This resulted in a loss of more than 50 per cent of crop income (at 1989 prices). About 45 per cent of households were affected during the period. It appears, however, that there is little understanding among the relevant government agencies and non‐governmental organisations of the severity of riverbank erosion in Bangladesh. This article aims to provide, therefore, some basic information on the various economic effects of this natural hazard.
The Bangladesh Cyclone of 1991: Why So Many People Died
Authors: Chowdhury A. Mushtaque R. , Bhuyia Abbas U. , Choudhury A. Yusuf , Sen Rita
Published: December 2007

Living with natural disasters has become a way of life in Bangladesh. On the night of 29 April 1991 a severe cyclonic storm, accompanied by tidal surges up to 30 feet high, battered the coastal areas of Bangladesh for 3–4 hours. Thousands of people were killed and property worth billions of dollars was destroyed. After the cyclone, several studies, using epidemiological and anthropological methods, looked at the impact of the cyclone. It was estimated that over 67,000 people lost their lives. Women, children and the elderly were much more at risk and so were those from the socio‐economically disadvantaged section of the population. Cyclone shelters were few in relation to need but proved very helpful in saving lives. At least 20 per cent more deaths would have occurred in the absence of these shelters. The article documents impressive improvements in Bangladesh's‐ability to cope and makes recommendations for the future.