bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cross‐Tabulation
Authors: Dass Mayukh
Published: December 2010

When we are interested to determine how two or more categorical variables are linked in a study, cross‐tabulation is one of the initial approaches to consider. In a cross‐tabulation, we create a table similar to that of a frequency distribution, but here, we merge the counts of different values of two or more variables. In other words, a cross‐tabulation table is a way to present the frequency distribution of two or more variables concurrently. The cross‐tabulation table is also known as a
contingency table
and can be between two variables (bivariate cross‐tabulation) and three variables (three‐variable cross‐tabulation). From the managerial perspective, cross‐tabulation is useful in providing information on how the values of the two variables are related, which cross‐classification is most selected by the respondents, and how these cross‐classifications are different from each other.
Multicollinearity
Authors: Franke George R.
Published: December 2010

Predictor variables that are highly correlated provide little independent explanatory ability. This pattern is known as
multicollinearity
or simply
collinearity
. Collinearity increases the variances of the regression coefficient, so that they may (i) have theoretically implausible magnitudes or signs; (ii) vary substantially with small changes in the sample of observations or the set of predictors; and (iii) be individually nonsignificant even though they explain significant amounts of variance overall. One indicator of collinearity is correlations of above 0.8 or 0.9 between predictor variables. Another is high
R

2

s from regressing each predictor
x

i

on all the other predictors The inverse of the unexplained variance,

, is known as the
variance inflation factor (VIF)
. A VIF ≥10 indicates potentially harmful collinearity. Condition indices (CIs) – functions of eigenvalues of the scaled predictor variables – in combination with the variance proportions of the standard errors of the regression coefficients associated with each CI are especially useful indicators. Treatments include combining or omitting predictors, or constraining coefficients in theoretically justifiable ways. Ridge regression and structural equation modeling may reduce problems that occur with ordinary multiple regression. Model development and data collection procedures are often found to be the best remedy for collinearity problems.
Unobserved Heterogeneity
Authors: Arora Neeraj
Published: December 2010

In marketing, it is important to recognize differences between individuals, or heterogeneity. When observables such as consumer demographics are used to investigate any patterns in the data via a model, we call it
observed heterogeneity
. The remaining unaccounted heterogeneity in model parameters is called
unobserved heterogeneity
. A limitation of a model that ignores heterogeneity is that it is highly restrictive – marketers like to segment the market based on interpersonal differences in price sensitivity, product feature (e.g., low fat, high fuel efficiency) sensitivity, and brand preference. Ability to accurately characterize unobserved heterogeneity requires multiple observations for each unit of analysis. Common contexts involve syndicated data available for most packaged goods and conjoint analysis (ratings and choice‐based) data, where the very purpose of the experiment is to uncover the heterogeneity in relative importance of product features across the population of interest. Recent innovations in computing power and Bayesian simulation‐based methods of model estimation have significantly simplified our ability to estimate models with unobserved heterogeneity.
Customer‐Satisfaction Research
Authors: Mittal Vikas
Published: December 2010

It is well understood that customer satisfaction is a key factor determining the profitability of a firm. Thus, firms routinely conduct customer‐satisfaction research to measure the satisfaction and repurchase intentions amongst its customer base. They also measure attribute‐level performance to identify key drivers of overall satisfaction. This article describes the state of the art in customer‐satisfaction research, and provides guidance on how to design a customer‐satisfaction study for maximum business impact. For instance, in addition to surveying current customers, firms should also conduct a survey of prospective and past customers. Similarly, multivariate analysis can be used to glean important insights such as determining attribute importance, and linking customer satisfaction to behavioral and financial metrics.
Consumer Acculturation
Authors: Peñaloza Lisa
Published: December 2010

Consumer acculturationis defined as the general process of adaptation by consumers in the marketplace. Its scope is broad, in examining social and market learning and interaction at individual, family, community, societal, and transnational levels. Consumer research challenges include distinguishing consumption practices with and among groups and calibrating change; while marketing challenges center on learning to serve consumers of various cultures and address them in ways sensitive to relations between groups. The issue is to better understand the role of business in separating, uniting, legitimizing, and excluding groups of people, as tailoring products and services to the mainstream advances its dominance, even as targeting groups outside a cultural mainstream enables their members to reproduce vital cultural patterns and meanings and thrive. Carried further, acculturation research can provide insight into the identity and vitality of nations by generating insight into the nature of consumer and marketer relations and the role of markets in drawing upon and reproducing difference. Challenges in public policy entail effectively dealing with the tendency of one group to restrict the language and cultural expressions of others who are “different” in developing more inclusive service provision. The entry closes with suggestions for further research.
Subcultures
Authors: Kozinets Robert V.
Published: December 2010

Contemporary consumer culture consists of subcultures that provide meanings and practices that significantly structure the identities, relationships, and behaviors of consumers. These subcultures are closely related to countercultures and often serve as the source of countercultural images and identities. Their countercultural images and identities are often absorbed by the advertising, entertainment, and marketing industries, and eventually become popularized. In consumer research or consumer cultural studies, subcultures have been related to a variety of different consumption activities. The use of the term
subculture
has been criticized as overly deviant, ambiguous, and overextended; however, many consumer researchers still find the concept useful. A number of related concepts have been developed, such as subcultures of consumption, communities of consumption, brand communities, and microcultures. The term deals with an ambiguous, dynamic, and important social phenomenon. It is also linked to important bases of literature. As long as lifestyle, differentiation, self‐transformation, and small group identities continue to be important aspects of contemporary consumer culture, the concept of subcultures will continue to be both needed and useful.
Social Class
Authors: Crockett David K.
Published: December 2010

Social classes are groupings across society, broadly recognized by members of that society, involving inequalities, or certainly, differences in such areas as power, authority, wealth, income, prestige, working conditions, lifestyles, and culture. In contemporary consumer culture, social class provides insight into how people consume rather than what they consume. Although the number of social class groups varies across societies, most include at least three hierarchically arranged groups.
Social Networks
Authors: Goldenberg Jacob
Published: December 2010

Networks play an important role in a wide and varied set of social and economic situations (e.g., job opportunity dissemination, non‐centralized market trade innovation adoption). This body of literature can be classified into two research themes: (i) network formation; and (ii) information dissemination over networks. One of the most interesting properties of network research is that researchers in a wide range of fields work on similar problems, using similar definitions, and obtain coherent results on networks dynamics. In the last two decades, social science research has advanced understanding of global network properties, with discoveries related to general properties, including scale‐free structure, small worlds, clustering, and short paths. More recently, we have seen considerable efforts invested by scholars in different fields in understanding how these properties emerge, and identifying the local rules of behavior that lead to these structures. In this article, this field is briefly covered with emphasis on marketing related topics.
Persuasion
Authors: Herzenstein Michal
Published: December 2010

Persuasion is an active attempt to change beliefs, attitudes, preferences, or behaviors. The extent of persuasion is measured by changes to the above (measured before and after the persuasion attempt). This article focuses on various approaches to persuasion. Cognitive approaches suggest that persuasion will take place if cognitive processing, conscious or unconscious, has occurred. Affective approaches, on the other hand, posit that people act on their emotions and they will be motivated to maintain their positive emotion and avoid experiencing negative emotions. Motivational approaches claim that persuasion happens when people wish to be persuaded. For example, most people like to appear consistent in what they think, say, and do, so they will change their attitudes to fit their past behavior. Self‐persuasion approaches try to understand how persuasive communications induce people to think more extensively about the brand or advocated position, because such elaboration leads to strong attitudes. Finally, social influence approaches lay down several principles that appeal to deeply rooted human drives and help in changing people's behaviors. In brief, persuasion can be attained in various ways, and choosing the proper appeal is crucial. Communicators wishing to move people in their direction should seek out the right time and place to put the right approach to use with their target audience.
Consumer Categorization
Authors: Loken Barbara
Published: December 2010

Consumer categories include both taxonomic categories (e.g., product and brand categories) and goal‐derived categories (e.g., “ways to chat with my friends”). The properties of consumer categories are similar to other types of categories studied in psychology. For example, consumer category members have graded structure; they vary in their prototypicality or how good an example they are of the category. They also exhibit flexibility in membership and representation, and the various consumer characteristics (such as mood, expertise, and culture) and category differences (e.g., broad versus narrow categories) influence flexibility. Consumers also use categories to generate inferences about new category members (e.g., a new brand extension) and revise their beliefs about the category on the basis of information about the new category members. Subtypes or subgroupings of categories are also frequently generated by consumers and sometimes developed by marketers to differentiate product types. Consumer characteristics (e.g., satiety) and marketing characteristics (e.g., assortment and number of category members) influence how consumers develop categories, how much they like category members, and the product choices they make.
Childhood Socialization and Intergenerational Influences
Authors: Moore Elizabeth S.
Published: December 2010

This article provides a brief overview of the topic of childhood socialization and intergenerational influences in consumer behavior. Current knowledge of intergenerational influences remains grounded in a relatively small research base, leaving many intriguing questions still to be addressed.
Consumer Brand Loyalty
Authors: Oliver Richard L.
Published: December 2010

The concept of brand loyalty is reviewed from a theory‐based applied perspective based on a growing body of work in the academic community that has only recently found its way into nonacademic works. Although other conceptualizations have been suggested, a four‐phased model is used here as a guiding framework whereby loyalty is viewed as consisting of intermediate steps with distinct markers. Each of the stages, namely, cognitive, affective, conative, and action inertia, is defined, explained from a conceptual perspective, and entertained as a potential vulnerability to switching incentives. This framework is augmented with the addition of social support referred to as
community
. Lastly, the role of satisfaction in loyalty formation is explored in addition to the relationship between loyalty and profit.
Variety‐Seeking
Authors: Drolet Aimee , He Daniel
Published: December 2010

Variety‐seeking is a common consumer choice strategy. This article reviews several reasons why consumers variety‐seek. Consumers seek variety for biological, utilitarian, and psychosocial reasons. In addition, this article reviews several moderators of consumers' tendency to vary their choice‐making. In particular, this article considers both situational and person‐specific factors that influence the amount of variety consumers will choose.
Consumer Creativity
Authors: Burroughs James
Published: December 2010

Creativity (the production of novel and effective outcomes) occurs widely in consumer behavior. It is used for both expressive purposes, and to solve everyday consumption problems. Creative consumption is the product of multiple, confluent factors, some of the more important of which include analogical reasoning, domain knowledge, risk taking, and intrinsic motivation. Finally, creativity is a process that moves through stages of exploration, fixation, incubation, and insight. Creativity remains an important but underdeveloped issue in our field.
Consumer Well‐Being
Authors: Ahuvia Aaron , Scott Crystal , Bilgin Elif Izberk
Published: December 2010

Measures of consumer well‐being have expanded from an early reliance on GDP per capita to a more balanced focus on multiple indicators of well‐being including subjective indicators such as happiness and life satisfaction. Among the very poor, increased overall levels of consumption have been shown to increase well‐being. But among the nonpoor, increased income and consumption has little long‐term impact on happiness. However, consumer well‐being among the nonpoor can be increased by increased savings and increased spending on charitable contributions, memorable experiences (rather than physical objects), and activities that support closer social relationships. Regardless of a person's actual spending levels, mental habits that focus on getting and spending (i.e., materialism) are negatively associated with well‐being. Marketing has been criticized for, among other things, increasing materialism. But it also has defenders who point out its role in organizing production to meet consumer needs.
Possessions and Self
Authors: Belk Russell
Published: December 2010

Possessions are central to our sense of self. For better or for worse, our possessions help to tangibilize our past, our present, and perhaps our future. They may even provide a type of immortality when they remain attached to our identity after our death. Shallow materialism has been found to be harmful, but there is another sense in which our treasured possessions provide a focus of attachment in an age of otherwise disposable consumption. Possessions also provide a sense of stability and continuity in our lives. And our relationship with possessions is seldom just a person–thing relationship, but rather a person–thing–person relationship as they connect us to, remind us of, and announce something about us to various other people in our lives. This article also addresses various special meanings of possession, including coproduction, brand tribes and brand images, counterfeits, cool objects, shared possessions, and possessions as gifts.
Attitudes
Authors: Herr Paul M.
Published: December 2010

A brief history of the attitude construct is provided, with special attention to key conceptual developments. A functional approach is taken, and the ability of attitudes to predict behavior and persuasion is noted. The recent focus on implicit attitudes is discussed, with an examination of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) as well as more recent developments.
Cross‐Cultural Psychology of Consumer Behavior
Authors: Koo Minkyung , Shavitt Sharon
Published: December 2010

This chapter reviews the major cultural constructs of individualism/collectivism, independent/interdependent self‐construal, and analytic‐holistic thinking, and the cognitive processes and behaviors associated with these distinct cultural categories. It also reviews the implications of these distinctions for processes and outcomes relevant to the consumer context such as preferences, judgments, decision making, purchase behavior, and the persuasiveness of advertising appeals.
Motivation and Goals
Authors: Baumgartner Hans , Pieters Rik
Published: December 2010

Consumer motivation deals with the question of why consumers do the things they do. We review prior research on consumer motivation, focusing on the central role played by goals in consumer behavior. We first discuss structural aspects of goals, including need hierarchies and typologies of values, hierarchical means‐end conceptualizations of product‐self relationships and goals, and a classification of purchase motives. We then describe the dynamics of goal pursuit, considering both goal setting and goal striving. Traditionally, these two processes have been viewed as conscious processes in which people deliberately select a goal and then strive to attain it. More recently, research has shown that goal pursuit can also occur without conscious awareness, and both conscious and nonconscious goal pursuit are considered.
Consumer Expertise
Authors: Eisenstein Eric M.
Published: December 2010

Consumer expertise has been an inconsistent topic of research in marketing, with a small set of papers that have explored the effects of expertise on various phenomena that are integral to consumer decision making. Studies both within marketing and in cognate fields have challenged the very notion of expertise, claiming that experts are no better than novices in making accurate decisions. Other studies conclude that there are bona fide experts, and attempt to characterize the conditions under which expertise will develop. Within marketing, research suggests that there are both benefits and costs associated with acquiring expertise within a product domain. The major benefits of expertise include superior memory for product‐related facts and attributes, faster ability to assimilate schema‐consistent knowledge, and faster, more accurate, decision making. Costs of expertise include the possibility of increased overconfidence and a reduction in ability to spontaneously recognize a change in the underlying schema governing the category, as well as reduced ability to integrate schema‐inconsistent facts. Taken as a whole, the evidence indicates that genuine expertise does exist, and that on balance, it is beneficial.
Choice Models
Authors: Seetharaman Seethu
Published: December 2010

Choice models are used to explain and predict how consumers choose among multiple alternatives, usually brands within a product category (such as ketchup and laundry detergent). The most popular one is the multinomial logit (MNL) model, which has been used in numerous marketing research applications. The article starts with a discussion of the MNL, explicitly discussing least squares and maximum likelihood techniques that are used to calibrate the model, as well as hypothesis tests and measures of model fit.

The IIA problem associated with the MNL model is discussed. This leads to a discussion of the multinomial probit (MNP) model, the second most popularly used choice model in Marketing, which alleviates some of the concerns arising out of the IIA problem. Estimating the MNP model, which does not have an analytical closed form (as does the MNL), requires simulation methods. Two popularly used simulation techniques, the frequency‐based simulator and the smooth recursive conditioning (SRC) simulator, are discussed in detail.

Lastly, the article briefly discusses some alternative choice models (generalized extreme value (GEV), nested logit, Batsell and Polking) that also relax the IIA restriction of the MNL model, while also yielding closed‐form choice probabilities.
Opportunities and Challenges in Social Marketing
Authors: Andreasen Alan R.
Published: December 2010

Social marketing had dual origins in the late 1960s – real world family planning applications on the practical side and intellectual ferment in the “broadening” academic movement emanating from the Northwestern marketing group. The decades since have seen ever‐widening applications, rethinking of fundamental propositions and a recognition that downstream targets – those exhibiting problematic behaviors – often need opportunities and abilities to act. The latter require attention to what are termedupstreamtargets of social marketing campaigns. The mainstreaming of social marketing in recent years has yielded a range of consumer research insights but has provoked rethinking of fundamental definitions of marketing that would be applicable across social and commercial settings. Several fundamental and practical research issues at the macro‐ and microlevels should occupy the field's attention in coming years.
Brand Community
Authors: Dholakia Utpal M. , Algesheimer René
Published: December 2010

Brand communities offer the promise of a marketing program that is synergistic with the intrinsic motivations, interests, and empowerment of contemporary consumers. Widely applicable and increasingly used by mainstream consumers across a range of product and service categories, they represent avenues for marketers to generate a range of positive outcomes for the firm in cost‐effective ways. For consumer researchers, brand communities are venues to study a host of psychological and social issues. In this article, we elaborate on this concept by providing a definition of brand community, introduce and elaborate on different types of brand communities, and examine the consequences of consumer participation in them.
Self‐Regulation
Authors: Vohs Kathleen D. , Fishbach Ayelet
Published: December 2010

This article discusses the role of self‐regulation in consumption. Drug and alcohol abuse, overeating, sexual improprieties, underachievement, insufficient exercise, Internet and videogame addictions, violence, and crime all involve some degree of self‐regulation failure. We parse the literature on self‐regulation motivational versus social‐cognitive inputs to self‐regulation. Research stemming from the limited resource model of self‐control, regulatory focus theory, goal systems theory, counteractive self‐control theory, and balancing versus highlighting is detailed.
The Role of Schemas in Consumer Behavior Research
Authors: Flaherty Karen E. , Mowen John C.
Published: December 2010

Consumer behavior researchers have frequently employed schema theory as the theoretical underpinning of their investigations. A schema is a cognitive structure in memory representing a person's knowledge of a stimulus, which can include people's perceptions of themselves, other people, products, roles and occupations, and the situations they face. The article discusses the types of schemas, the effects of schemas, and their use as a theoretical underpinning of consumer behavior research efforts. The article concludes with ideas for future research on the role of schemas in the investigation of the factors that influence consumer behavior.
Consumer Aspects of International Marketing
Authors: Dimofte Claudiu V.
Published: December 2010

The emergence of global consumption patterns and the complexity involved in dealing with the still remaining national differences attest to the importance of consumer research in international marketing. When considering the relevant conceptual and theoretical perspectives, the emic‐etic juxtaposition should be carefully assessed in order to ensure the validity of subsequent findings and their relevance to corporate strategy. At the same time, when thinking about the practical aspects of assessing and satisfying consumer needs across the globe, issues such as the appropriate operationalization of constructs and the achievement of measurement equivalence across multinational samples should be at the center of international marketing research. Finally, the extensive literature on topics such as consumer ethnocentrism/cosmopolitanism, the country‐of‐origin effect, and global branding is informative to both academics and practitioners in suggesting that, despite local specifics, the global consumers' behavior is governed by universal psychological processes and cognitive biases.
Consumers' Need for Uniqueness
Authors: Ruvio Ayalla A.
Published: December 2010

Consumer's need for uniqueness is defined as an enduring personality trait driving individuals to pursue dissimilarity by acquiring, using, and disposing of products and brands in an effort to develop a distinctive self‐ and social‐image. It was conceptualized as a three‐dimensional construct including creative choice, unpopular choice, and avoidance of similarity. Studies substantiated its relationships with a variety of consumption behaviors.
Integrated Marketing Communication
Authors: Kitchen Philip J. , Burgmann Inga
Published: December 2010

The role of marketing communications in advanced economies can hardly be underestimated. The sheer volume of media communications alone is staggering, and its effects are continuous. The aim of this article is to extensively review the literature of the provoking concept – Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC). Secondly, it elaborates on issues related to implementation of IMC from both an agency and a client perspective.

A period of this transformation is evident here, documenting the movement by companies and agencies from an emphasis on stand‐alone traditional elements of communication – such as advertising for example, to where all elements of communication or promotion areintegrated. Such integration is driven by technological advancement, media fragmentation, market demassification, and competitive pressures. The recency of the phenomenon and its widespread global adoption is remarkable and stems from changing practitioner activities in the late 1980s to its current global status. The development process and the effects of such integration are discussed here.
Subliminal Advertising
Authors: Grimes Anthony
Published: December 2010

This article provides a brief definition, explanation and historical review of the concept of subliminal advertising.
Historical Overview of Advertising Promise
Authors: Jančič Zlatko
Published: December 2010

The contribution is intended to provide a detailed disclosure of certain well‐known and especially lesser‐known periods in the history of advertising. Thus, we can offer a comprehensive insight into this interesting social phenomenon. The focus of the paper is the ever‐changing concept of advertising promise that represents a basic foundation of any advertising strategy. We researched 10 eras of advertising promises that appeared in the known history. The first two eras deal with the advertising history of preindustrial society. The next six eras cover the best‐researched part of modern advertising. The last two eras represent contemporary trends and directions for a possible future change in advertising promise development. It is hoped that this article has proposed a new contribution to the literature in this otherwise less‐researched field of advertising theory. The main findings of this author's research can be characterized firstly as the establishment of a notion that advertising is not the exclusive product of capitalism and industrial society and secondly, that advertising has faced a constant crisis throughout history. In order to survive and to be effective, it has to demonstrate its permanent and inherent creativity. The article concludes with the dilemma of whether advertising has completed its full circle or whether there is a whole new world of opportunities ahead.
Unconscious Advertising Effects
Authors: Moorman Marjolein
Published: December 2010

Most traditional advertising effect models are based on the premise that advertising is attended to and processed consciously. However, recent neuroscientific research shows that most information is unconsciously attended to, processed, and stored in memory. The concept of unconscious processing is very interesting for an advertising landscape that is challenged by a growing amount of messages being sent and the declining consumer attention rates.
Copy Test Methods to Pretest Advertisements
Authors: Pechmann Cornelia , Andrews Craig
Published: December 2010

We define advertising copy testing, describe the major copy test methods using case examples, discuss each method's strengths and limitations, and identify areas of debate. The case examples were selected based on the authors' direct experiences and the methodological rigor of the methods. We define advertising copy testing as a quantitative and qualitative marketing research method that is used to pretest advertisements where numerical data on effects is collected and statistically analyzed. We discuss three copy test methods that apply the principles of sound copy testing that were developed by US advertising agencies, which require that the methods (i) be relevant to the objectives, (ii) have agreement about the use of results, (iii) use multiple measurements, (iv) be based on a model of human response, (v) consider multiple exposures, (vi) test comparably finished executions, (vii) control the exposure context, (viii) define the relevant sample, and (ix) demonstrate reliability and validity. To this list, we add (x) take baseline (i.e., pre‐exposure) measurements and/or use control groups, because this reflects sound and generally accepted research standards. Our three case examples of sound copy test methods come from the US National Youth Anti‐Drug Media Campaign, the US Federal Trade Commission, and the ARSgroup, a major copy test firm.
Viral Marketing on the
I
nternet
Authors: Eckler Petya , Rodgers Shelly
Published: December 2010

Viral marketing includes a broad range of online word‐of‐mouth strategies aimed to encourage peer‐to‐peer communication about a brand. The origination of this tactic dates back to 1996 and has gained increased popularity since then. Unique to viral marketing is its focus on the message (vs the product) and emotional (vs informational) appeals. Viral marketing has unique benefits and drawbacks. Advantages include reduced cost of promotion, increased credibility, increased visibility, decreased interruption, and improved format flexibility. Disadvantages include reduced control of the marketer, increased reliance on consumers' motivation, and increased risk of negative reactions.
Advertising Effectiveness
Authors: Kacen Jacqueline J.
Published: December 2010

Advertising is any paid, mediated form of communication from an identifiable source designed to persuade the receiver to take some action. The majority of advertising is brand‐oriented, designed to persuade a target audience to respond favourably toward the advertised product, that is, to cause a change in beliefs, attitudes, and intentions in such a way as to motivate purchase. Advertising achieves effectiveness by generating mental processes in consumers that influence their beliefs and associations about the brand, enhance brand desirability and lead to purchase. Traditionally, advertisers have viewed these mental processes in terms of a hierarchy of effects in which consumers move from brand awareness to brand knowledge to brand conviction and finally to purchase. The process is not automatic. To be effective, advertising must be carefully planned and executed.
Brand Equity
Authors: Kacen Jacqueline J.
Published: December 2010

Brands have long been recognized as important intangible assets that generate sales and profits for companies. The concept of brand equity represents the valuation of a brand above and beyond its current financial “book” value. Brand equity takes into account the strength of consumers' attachment to the brand (brand loyalty), associations and beliefs people have about the brand (brand image), and the brand's ability to generate greater cash flows, now and in the future, compared to other brands in its market. Brand equity captures the added value that accrues to a product from its distinct name, symbol, design or mark and that enhances the appeal of the product beyond its measured attributes and functional purpose. The concept of brand equity is at the core of understanding how companies achieve competitive advantages and superior profitability.
Luxury Brands Versus Other Brand Categories
Authors: Ilias Kapareliotis
Published: December 2010

Luxury brands are nowadays being incorporated into our everyday lives. They deal with different aspects of conscious and unconscious consumption, different cases of consumption, or different cases of demand. Luxury brands are the evolution of other brand categories related to special products, or to special distribution channels. Moreover, luxury brands not only evolve the brand management process but evolve also the consumers lives attitudes and ways of thinking.
Sponsorship and Event Marketing
Authors: Quester Pascale G.
Published: December 2010

The last three decades have witnessed an increased interest in sponsorship and event marketing as brand managers understood the unique potential of such activities in reaching consumer markets. In this article, we define sponsorship and event marketing and retrace their evolution over time. We then review the literature in relation to the impact of sponsorship on consumers and then examine the management aspects of both sponsorship and event marketing. We identify a threat common to both activities, namely, ambush marketing, when competitors of sponsors aim to derive similar benefits by suggesting an association with an event, and provide some indication for the sort of strategies that can best prevent such undesirable outcomes. Additional benefits that can be derived from sponsorship and event marketing are subsequently identified. Despite a lack of empirical research, there are many aspects of both activities that can be successfully leveraged by sponsors and event organizers. Finally, the future of sponsorship and event marketing is discussed in the conclusion section of this article.
Electronic Public Relations
Authors: Panopoulos Anastasios P.
Published: December 2010

A relatively new but powerful communication channel for public relations activities is the Internet. Electronic public relations compose the digital challenge for organizations worldwide. The adoption of Web 2.0 technologies and especially the wide use of social networks over the Internet enable the creation and maintenance of long‐term relations. Public relations practitioners are becoming increasingly involved in electronic public relations activities such as the launch of web sites, the monitoring of blogs and social networks, the support of e‐voting activities, the creation of e‐mails and e‐newsletters, and so on. That is why the dialogic approach with the stakeholder public is suggested for a two‐way symmetrical communication to be achieved. The main principles underlying electronic public relations are web attractiveness, usefulness of information, ease of use, conservation of users, generation of return users, and a dialogic loop comprising the framework for a true dialogic communication. Public relations practitioners should also try to secure compatibility and alignment between digital and physical worlds to achieve the organization's overall public relations' objectives. Finally evaluation of electronic public relations activities should be made to record and improve the effectiveness of public relations' practitioners' digital actions.
A Review of Ethnic Identity in Advertising
Authors: Sierra Jeremy J. , Hyman Michael R. , Heiser Robert S.
Published: December 2010

Published research on ethnic identity in advertising differs by underlying theoretical framework, measurement type (i.e., single‐item measure vs multi‐item scale), study design (i.e., experiment vs survey), and diversity of respondent sample. A meta‐analysis indicates that ethnic identity effects are higher for atheoretical studies that relied on single‐item measures, experimental designs, and less diverse samples. For ethnically resonant ads, attitudes toward both actor(s)/model(s) and the ad moderate brand attitudes. Overall, ethnic identity influences several commonly studied attitudinal and purchase‐intention outcomes.
Advertising Message Appeals
Authors: Royne Marla B.
Published: December 2010

Advertising appeals are the connection between the emotion or the cognition and the consumer's response to the ad. This article briefly discusses the difference between rational and emotional advertising, and when an advertiser might choose one appeal over another.
Opportunity Identification
Authors: Robben Henry
Published: December 2010

We discuss the process of opportunity identification, the first phase in new‐product development. Whereas many sources assume it is the generation of ideas that is most difficult, it appears that selecting the most promising among them is the key issue. The probability of choosing the most viable ideas (or opportunities, or strategic options) increases with using predefined, relevant criteria. Such criteria should follow from a company's product strategy or product innovation charter.

We present and discuss a systematic way of assessing new opportunities, based on four criteria. These criteria are business opportunity, feasibility, competitiveness, and leverage. Recent research suggests that business opportunity and feasibility are most important in judging strategic options ex‐ante, whereas competitiveness is a good predictor ex‐post.
Accelerated Product Development
Authors: Langerak Fred
Published: December 2010

Accelerated product development is a competitive strategy that seeks to reduce the development cycle time of new products. However, there has been little theoretical advancement and empirical model testing in the identification of the conditions under which cycle time reduction is appropriate, the organizational characteristics and practices that accelerate product development, and the precise manner by which cycle time reduction affects project outcomes. Since cycle time reduction has become widely accepted as a key element in managing new‐product development, this contribution organizes and integrates the literature on accelerated product development. Specifically, we argue that the antecedents associated with shorter development cycle time are well known, but that there are inconsistencies with respect to the contextual applicability of cycle time reduction, and contradictory empirical evidence for its alleged merits in achieving lower development costs, better product quality, and greater chance of new‐product success. We attribute these inconclusive results to methodological differences in measurement approach, trade‐offs in cycle time reduction, and the hidden costs of accelerated product development. Moreover, we discuss that it is essential to take the new product's window of opportunity into account while investigating the outcomes of accelerated product development. For scholars, we provide a theoretical foundation for rigorous, empirical research. For practitioners, we list the merits of cycle time reduction, describe the situations in which it is appropriate, and delineate ways how interventions can be applied.
Launch Strategies
Authors: Talke Katrin , Hultink Erik Jan
Published: December 2010

Decisions made during the launch phase are recognized as important drivers of new‐product performance. At the same time, a new‐product launch is often the single most costly step in the new‐product development process. This launch phase also involves large risks as this stage is often the make‐or‐break point for a product's life cycle. The present article summarizes the extant knowledge on successful launch strategies. It starts by discussing the differences between strategic and tactical launch decisions, and then it presents how different launch strategies are related to new‐product performance. Subsequently, we discuss some important antecedents of successful launch decisions, such as the corporate mind‐set and a firm's market orientation. A successful launch strategy should not only focus on the final customer but it should also target other stakeholders in the firm's environment, such as suppliers, competitors, and the sales force. We identify several of these important stakeholders and show how these potential diffusion barriers can be successfully addressed during the launch phase of a new product.
Leadership Roles in Product Development
Authors: Griffin Abbie
Published: December 2010

While the R&D invention effort in a firm involved in the overall innovation process is typically led by an industrial inventor, the political acceptance process by a champion, and the formal new‐product development process by a project manager or implementer, some projects are driven by an innovator: an individual who drives all three processes of invention, project acceptance, and implementation. This article reports how the individuals who gravitate toward each of these four specialists roles differ in their motivations, personality, and capabilities, as well as both in the tasks they undertake and the way they work. Thus, each should be managed differently.
New‐Product Forecasting
Authors: Kahn Kenneth B.
Published: December 2010

New‐product forecasting represents the endeavor to come up with a meaningful estimate on which to guide new‐product development and product launch decision making. There are numerous forecasting techniques available, which can be organized into three categories such as judgmental techniques, quantitative techniques, and customer/market research techniques. No single technique is found to be the best, indicating the need for careful application of techniques in appropriate situations. Using a well‐structured new‐product forecasting process also appears to result in a greater propensity for new‐product forecasting success. This emphasizes that new‐product forecasting goes beyond technique application into process management.
Organizing for Innovation
Authors: Blackburn Richard
Published: December 2010

To organize for innovation involves top management in a series of coordinated decisions about a number of different organizational characteristics. The decisions will be influenced greatly by the nature of the competitive environment and the type of innovation demanded by that environment. The interpretation of that environment will be greatly influenced by the nature of the firm's corporate culture as will the firm's goals, strategies, structures, technologies, systems, and people. An open and trusting culture tends to be supportive of innovation. There are a variety of structural options available depending on how management wishes to resolve a variety of different innovation tensions.
Lead Users
Authors: Franke Nikolaus
Published: December 2010

Lead users are valuable external sources for companies seeking ideas and concepts for radical innovations. The need to systematically transcend the company's internal resources when innovating, particularly at what is called thefuzzy front endof the innovation process, is highlighted in the literature on open innovation.Lead usersare defined as members of a user population who display two key characteristics: first, they anticipate relatively high benefits from obtaining a solution to their needs – may innovate as a result; and second, they are at the leading edge of important trends in a given marketplace – and thus experience specific needs far earlier than many users in that marketplace. These lead users are able to provide direct input in new‐product development tasks and have often developed prototypes of new‐product solutions for themselves or for their communities. The “lead‐user method” is a managerial tool that allows companies to benefit from the creative potential of lead users. Usually it is described as comprising four phases: (i) the start phase, (ii) the identification of major needs and trends, (iii) the identification of users leading those trends, and (iv) the lead‐user workshop, in which concepts are designed.
Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Striukova Ludmila
Published: December 2010

Covering the main areas of intellectual property, patents, design rights, trademarks, copyright, and trade secrets, this article places the topic of intellectual property rights in its wider economic and social context. In particular, this article covers companies efforts to protect copyrighted data (with DRM) and strategies that companies use to create value from patents.
V
oice of the
C
ustomer
Authors: Gaskin Steven P. , Griffin Abbie , Hauser John R. , Katz Gerald M. , Klein Robert L.
Published: December 2010

The
Voice of the Customer
(VOC) is a process for capturing customers' requirements. It produces a detailed set of customer wants and needs, which are organized into a hierarchical structure, and then prioritized in terms of relative importance and satisfaction with current alternatives. There are four aspects of the VOC – customer needs, a hierarchical structure, priorities, and customer perceptions of performance. VOC studies typically consist of both qualitative and quantitative market research steps. They are generally conducted at the start (or “fuzzy front end”) of any new product, process, or service‐design initiative to understand better the customer's wants and needs. The VOC can be also be a key input for new‐product definition, Quality function deployment (QFD), or the setting of detailed design specifications. The VOC process has important outputs and benefits for product developers. It provides a detailed understanding of the customer's requirements, a common language for the team going forward in the product‐development process, key inputs for the setting of appropriate design specifications for the new product or service, and a highly useful springboard for product innovation. As may be seen in the examples presented, gathering the VOC is an extremely important part of the new‐product development process. It forms a solid basis for design and marketing decisions from concept development through product launch.