bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Notes on Ramapithecus, the earliest known hominid, and Dryopithecus
Authors: Pilbeam David
Published: February 2006

Recent paleontological analysis of the Higher Primate subfamily Dryopithecinae shows that fossils in this group can be referred to two genera, Ramapithecus and Dryopithecus. Ramapithecus is known from India and East Africa in Late Miocene or Early Pliocene time (about 14 m. years ago). The remains of Ramapithecus resemble closely the equivalent parts of the later Hominidae and contrast with those of the Pongidae. It is concluded that Ramapithecus is the earliest known hominid, some 5 or 6 times older than the oldest Pleistocene hominids. Dryopithecus is a pongid and contains as subgenera (Dryopithecus), (Proconsul), and (Sivapithecus). Probably part of (Proconsul) is ancestral to the chimpanzee and part to the gorilla, while part of (Sivapithecus) is ancestral to the orang‐utan.
Distribution of hereditary blood groups among Indians in South America. III. In Bolivia
Authors: Matson G. Albin , Swanson Jane , Robinson Abner
Published: February 2006

Blood samples were procured from the following populations of putatively pure Indians in Bolivia: 503 Aymará from the Altiplano and Yungas, 30 Chama, 11 Tacana, 14 Chácobo, 109 Itonama, 67 Moré, and 27 Sirionó from the Beni and lowland rainforest. Erythrocytes from these 761 specimens were tested for antigens in the A‐B‐O, M‐N‐S‐s, P, Rh‐Hr, Lutheran, Kell‐Cellano, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd, and Diego systems, and for the Wright agglutinogen.

The serum samples were tested for haptoglobins and transferrins; and hemolysates were prepared and examined for hemoglobin types. Results of these tests are presented as phenotypes and calculated gene frequencies on appropriate tables. A map is included to show the locations of the populations from which blood samples were obtained.

Frequencies are generally high for the O gene, it being the only gene of the ABO system which appears in the Chama, Chácobo and Sirionó. The presence of A1, A2 or B genes in the Bolivian Indians is interpreted as being most probably of caucasoid introduction.

Excepting the Sirionó the frequencies are high for M and low for N genes as is usual for Amerinds, the M gene being the only one detected in the Chama. The s gene frequency in high and the S low except in the small isolated Chácobo population in which S gene frequency is extremely high for Amerinds. Inbreeding and perhaps genetic drift in this small isolate may account for this aberrancy from normal.

The Bolivian specimens presented the high frequencies for genes R1 (CDe) and R2 (cDE) and the low frequencies for genes r (cde) and R0 (cDe) usually observed in American Indians.

The Lua factor was observed in only one of 120 Aymará at Santa Fe in the Yungas. The Lua factor, when observed in Amerinds, suggests foreign introduction of the responsible gene.

Fya gene frequencies are consistently high and excepting the Aymará and Chama so also are Jka frequencies.

Frequencies for the Diego (Dia) factor vary from 3.70% in 27 Sirionó to 73.33% in 30 Chama.

No K, Mia, Vw or Wra antigens were demonstrable in the Indian blood samples from Bolivia.

Phenotypes and calculated gene frequencies for haptoglobins and transferrins are presented.

All Bolivian Indian bloods tested electrophoretically contained only hemoglobin (A) as a major component.
Bone density, breaking force and leg muscle mass as functions of weight in bipedal rats
Authors: Saville Paul D. , Smith Robert
Published: February 2006

Femur density, femur breaking force and muscle weight on the hind limbs of normal and bipedal rats have been measured. The bipeds had more muscle on the hindlimbs than controls. Increasing muscle mass was associated with increasing femur density and breaking force. It is concluded that weight bearing influences bone density and breaking force through muscle mass.
The skin of primates. XXXII. The Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)
Authors: Montagna W. , Machida H.
Published: February 2006

Somewhat similar to that of the Lorisidae, the skin of the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) has some outstanding peculiarities.

The absence of melanotic melanocytes from the thin epidermis and dermis, the near absence of a papillary body from the dermis, the large grouping of hair follices, and the association of one apocrine gland for each group of hair resemble the characteristics of the skin of the Lorisidae.

The presence of gigantic sebaceous glands in the upper lip forming the labial gland, the very large meibomian glands in the eyelids, the presence of an ill‐defined cholinesterase‐reactive nerve end‐organ at the base of epidermal ridges in the friction surfaces, and the wide and saccular eccrine glands with one type of secretory cells are peculiar to the skin of the tarsier.
Statistical techniques for sex and race determination. Some comments in defense
Authors: Giles Eugene
Published: February 2006

A recent critique (Birkby, '66) of the multivariate discriminant function approach to determination of sex and race from skeletal material is examined from the point of view of the new evidence put forward by Birkby and the ultimate validity and use of such statistical techniques in human osteology.
Morphological analysis and age in the permanent dentitions of young American Indians
Authors: Morris Donald H.
Published: February 2006

Approximately two hundred permanent dentitions of young American Indians are inspected in an attempt to assess the effect of proband age on the relative usefulness of the dentition for morphological analysis. The technique used is to compare the number of observations that cannot be made on a dentition of a certain age with the number that could be made on a dentition in perfect condition. This is done for one‐year age groups, 13 through 21 years, represented in the sample.

The data do not support the idea that morphological loss is as strongly dependent upon age as one might expect. It is suggested that function may be more important than age in obliterating the finer dental morphology.
A comparative study of the distribution of hair of the hand and the foot of white and Negro males
Authors: Setty Laurel Raymond
Published: February 2006

Hair patterns of the dorsum proper of the hand and foot are similar in occupying comparable anatomical positions. The more extensive hair patterns have a higher incidence in whites than in Negroes. And digital hair is more frequently absent on the lateral side of the hand and foot than on the medial side.
Numerical variation of the presacral vertebral column in three population groups in North America
Authors: Bornstein Philipp E. , Peterson Roy R.
Published: February 2006

A total of 1,239 skeletons from among Mongoloid, Caucasoid and Negroid population groups in North America was examined for variations in the number of presacral vertebrae. The overall incidence of variation was 11%; 6% with 23 and 5% with 25 presacral vertebrae. Differences in total variation among the three groups were not significant, but differences in the incidence of 23 and 25 presacral vertebrae among the groups were highly significant. Numerical vertebral variation occurred in 11% of both sexes, but with males having a higher frequency of 25 presacral vertebrae and females having a higher frequency of 23 presacral vertebrae. The incidence of the specific variation of 23 or 25 presacral vertebrae was not significantly different among the males of the three groups studied, whereas 23 presacral vertebrae were found significantly more often in the Negroid females. Numerical variation of vertebrae was not associated with age. The data strongly support the conclusion that the total frequency of variation in the number of presacral vertebrae is a specific characteristic of any particular population group and that there is a tendency in all population groups toward an increase in number in males and a decrease in number in females.
Developmental communalities of homologous and non‐homologous body joints
Authors: Garn Stanley M. , Rohmann Christabel G. , Blumenthal Thomas , Kaplan Claire S.
Published: February 2006

Reducing 4970 center‐ and sex‐specific correlations for age at appearance of postnatal ossification centers to 15 mean values of r representing homologous and non‐hmologous inter‐limb and intra‐limb joint segment communalities, it was shown that homologous joint segments in different limbs (hand‐foot, elbow‐knee, shoulder‐hip) showed systematically higher developmental communality than intra‐limb non‐homologous joints, and these in turn exceeded mean r values for inter‐limb non‐homologous joint segments.
Bone breaking stress as a function of weight bearing in bipedal rats
Authors: Smith Robert E. , Saville Paul D.
Published: February 2006

The effect of bipedal stance on the breaking stress in compression of rat femora is investigated as a function of animal weight. It is shown that the breaking stress is a linear function of body weight, bone density and specific calcium content of the femur. In all cases investigated, bipedal femora are shown to have a higher breaking stress than controls. It is concluded that there is a continuous change in the quality as well as the quantity of bone in the rat femur with age and that the increased strength of bone material found in bipedal animals compared to controls as well as large animals as compared to small ones, cannot be explained on the basis of bone mineral content alone.
The need for a better means of recording pathological bone proliferation in joint areas
Authors: Rogers Spencer L.
Published: February 2006

Osteological materials studied by anthropologists frequently involve abnormal bone accmulation in joint regions, a condition frequently described as “arthritic.” In describing such materials it is suggested that terms implying diagnosis be avoided and a greater emphasis be given to the physical description of specimens. This is advocated in part because of current confusion in pathological nomenclature pertaining to this area and in part because diagnosis of bone pathologies frequently requires technical facilities beyond the scope of initial anthropological review. A more thorough descriptive analysis of such conditions than heretofore customary is suggested and a proposal is included for a terminology which describes in gross details the proliferative conditions commonly encountered, ranging from a simple “lipping” to complete ankylosis with advanced accumulation of bone tissue external to the normal articular surfaces.
The skin of primates. XXXIII. The skin of the angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarensis)
Authors: Montagna W. , Machida H. , Perkins E. M.
Published: February 2006

The general behavior, locomotion, and body from of the angwantibo resemble those of Loris and Nycticebus. Its skin, however, is similar to that of Pottos and Galagos; singular among the similarities is the occurrence of alkaline phosphatase‐positive dendritic cells in the epidermis. The presence of elongated, sausageshaped end‐organs in the mucocutaneous region, the absence of arrector pili muscle, and the absence of alkaline phosphatase in the hair follicle nerve end‐organs are distinctive features of angwantibos. These animals have a well‐formed, complete nictitating membrane, thereby differing from all other primates studied.
The ultrastructure of Mississippian and Archaic Indian bones from various soil and drainage conditions
Authors: Shackleford John M.
Published: February 2006

Indian bones from Mississippian and Archaic periods were examined by the techniques of electron microscopy and electron diffraction. Specimens of all ages containing intact mineral constituents showed numerous areas in which the apatite crystals exhibited typical periodic banding as seen in hard tissues of recent age. Diffraction patterns from the same areas verified the morphological appearance. Phosphotungstic acid stained, decalcified sections exhibited collagen fibrils with typical periodic banding regardless of age or soil conditions. In specimens of Archiac age there were a greater number of “poorly preserved” areas as compared with bones from Mississipian excavations. In these areas the collagen appeared to be degraded and the apatite crystals were randomly oriented. No attempt to quantitate the age changes was made in view of the inherent limitations of the method of investigation.
The annual reproductive cycle of the Barbary Ape (Macaca sylvana) in Gibraltar
Authors: MacRoberts Michael H. , MacRoberts Barbara R.
Published: February 2006

Data collected in Gibraltar demonstrate that Macaca sylvana has both a sharply demarcated mating and a sharply demarcated birth season. The mating season begins in November and may last until March. Births occur between May and September, gestation being of five or six months' duration.

The annual reproductive cycle of the Japanese macaque is strikingly similar to that of the Barbary Ape. Matings occur in both areas in the fall, a period of decreased daily temperature and day length. The mating season begins with an increase in rainfall in Gibraltar and with a decrease in rainfall in Japan.

From the data presented it seems probable that decreasing day length is the most important ecological factor in the timing of the onset of mating in Barbary Apes and in Japanese macaques.
Craniostenosis: A review of the etiology and a report of new cases
Authors: Bennett Kenneth A.
Published: February 2006

The inspection of the skeletal remains of over 1000 individuals recovered largely from Southwestern archaeological excavations has revealed 16 cases of premature craniosynostosis. Recent research indicates that this condition results extrinsically from a primary malformation of the cranial base. The premature closure of one or another of the sutural areas is a specific symptom of this malformation.
Frequency of the musculus palmaris longus studied in vivo in some Amazon Indians
Authors: Machado Angelo B. M. , Di Dio Liberato J. A.
Published: February 2006

The frequency of the Musclus palmaris longus was studied by observing its tendon in vivo in 379 Amazon Indians belonging to the following tribes: Tucano, Tariana, Tiriyo, Desana, Piratapuya, Macu and Arapaso. The muscle was not observed in 14 individuals (3.7% ± 1.0) either unilaterally or bilaterally and in 24 of 758 limbs (3.1% ± 0.6). No statistically significant difference was observed in the frequency of the muscle among the different tribes. Bilateral absence was significantly more frequent than the unilateral one; absence in females was more frequent than in males.

The frequency of palmaris longus agenesis in Amazon Indians agrees with reported values for Negroids and Mongoloids and is considerably lower than that generally reported for the Caucasoids.
The biological race concept as a research tool
Authors: Baker Paul T.
Published: February 2006

In present day research in human biology, the validity of the concept of biological race rests on its utility as a research tool. The methodology of this research into human biological variability is a multidimensional application of the comparative method, utilizing, as one dimension, genetic distance. The body of this paper suggests two generalizing principles for the establishment of genetic distance. Genetic distance may occur due to physical or temporal isolation or in conjunction with environmental differences. A brief analysis of the fifteenth century human populations examines the relationship between these principles and presently used racial taxonomic systems. It is concluded that race may be defined operationally as a rough measure of genetic distance in human populations and as such may function as an informational construct in the multidisciplinary area of research in human biology.
Regeneration in transplanted epiphysectomized humeri of rats
Authors: Koskinen Leena , Koski Kalevi
Published: February 2006

Subcutaneous transplantation between 5‐day‐old littermates of non‐inbred rats was used to study the regeneration following partial or total removal of the proximal epiphyseal cartilage of the humerus. More than 200 transplants were followed for periods ranging from 2 to 60 days. No regeneration occurred after a complete epiphysectomy, while a partial regeneration took place in many of the partially epiphysectomized transplants, insofar as the growth plate appeared to be functional for a period of time, but no epiphysis developed.

Observations on the early activity of the periosteum and on the fate of the articular cartilage of the transplants were made and compared to findings reported in the literature.

The absence of regeneration found in the present study was comparable to that found in earlier studies on the mandibular condyle.
Shortened fifth medial phalanges
Authors: Hertzog Keith P.
Published: February 2006

A radiographic study was made of the left fifth medial phalanges of 200 Philadelphia Negro and 96 Chinese children. Twelve cases of abnormal shortening of this bone (defined, for the present, as less than half the length of the fourth medial phalanx) were found in the Chinese sample, while none were found in the Negroes. This trait, brachymesophalangy 5, in general seems to be characterized by short but well proportioned diaphyses and cone‐shaped epiphyses with very early union. Population surveys reported in the literature indicate that this trait is considerably more common in Mongoloid and American Indian populations than in Whites or Negroes. The mode of inheritance of this genetic trait is uncertain, but present evidence indicates that it may be a simple autosomal recessive.
Hemoglobin, glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphogluconate dehydrogenase and adenylate kinase polymorphism in Moslems in Iran
Authors: Bowman James E. , Ronaghy Hossain
Published: February 2006

Starch‐gel electrophoresis of blood samples from 322 Moslems in Shiraz, Iran was performed for hemoglobins, glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphogluconate dehyrogenase, and adenylate kinase. Rh blood types were also studied in a similar population. The only abnormal hemoglobin found was hemoglobin D; the estimated allele frequency for D was 0.006. The glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase electrophoretic pattern of erythrocytes was predominnately the B phenotype in unaffected Moslems; a similar phenotype was found in leukocyte extracts of two G6PD deficient males. The A glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase band was found in low frequency in this non‐African population. Allele frequency estimates of phosphogluconate dehydrogenaseB and of adenylate kinase2 were comparable to those found in Europeans and in their descendents and were unlike those of aboriginal African populations. The Rh allele frequencies were: R1, 0.508; R2, 0.161; R0, 0.055; and r, 0.264.
Experimental studies in human tooth wear: I
Authors: Brace C. L. , Molnar Stephen
Published: February 2006

The construction of a machine called CANIBAL which is capable of simulating the actions of the human mandible during chewing is reported. Powered by an electric motor, a cam activated rocker arm assembly transmits force by means of wires to each point on the mandible where muscles would be attached. A separately adjustable cam, rocker arm, directional pulley and wire represents each muscle. Models of dental arches cast in dental stone or other materials can be mounted and subjected to extended wear. With different cam settings, wear patterns can be produced which resemble those seen on various fossil and living human dental arches.
Cross‐ethnic variation in dental, sensory and perceptual traits: A nonmetric multibivariate derivation of distances for ethnic groups and traits
Authors: Guttman Ruth , Guttman Louis , Rosenzweig K. A.
Published: February 2006

The central concern of this paper is to illustrate how four apparently unrelated classes of variables — dental, perceptual, ethnic origin, and other — can be comprehended within a single parsimonious space, even though some of the measures were qualitative, others quantitative. Thirty‐five hundred Israeli villagers of varied ethnic origin were examined on several aspects of oral epidemiology, a battery of tests relating to estimation of number, and miscellaneous traits, including eye colour, tasting PTC, tongue rolling, etc. Significant differences between the six Jewish groups — Yemen, Cochin, Kurdistan, Libya, Berber, and Djerba — were found in the scores of most variables.

By the use of the Smallest Space Analysis, distances were established between the different ethnic groups which took into account the complex interrelations in each of 3,500 individual subjects of all 45 categories of 16 variables. A three‐dimensional model of the interrelations between the ethnic groups and the trait categories was constructed from the 45 sets of coordinates which resulted from the iterative computer procedure. The ethnic group pairs at greatest distance from each other were found to be Kurdistan:Cochin, then Kurdistan:Djerba, followed by Djerba:Yemen.

It is suggested that multivariate analyses of the type presented here, and including interrelations between genetic markers, anthropometric and behavioral variables, would deepen our understanding of the present structure and possible backgrounds of populations of diverse origins.
Blood group genetic variations in inhabitants of West New Guinea, with a map of the villages and linguistic groups of South West New Guinea
Authors: Simmons R. T. , Gajdusek D. C. , Nicholson M. K.
Published: February 2006

The paper reports the blood group genetic variations found in 1479 individuals, mainly of 17 cultural and linguistic groups, in the ABO, MNS and Rh blood group system. The blood samples consisted of 913 from groups in the south, 422 from the Central Highlands region, and 144 from the northeastern part of the country near Lake Sentani and the Cyclops Mountains.

The results of all surveys in West New Guinea in which the ABO, MNS and Rh blood groups were determined have been tabulated.

Wide variations in gene frequencies were found for A, B, n, S, R1 and R2. No example of subgroup A2 was detected. Remarkably high values for A of 0.36 and 0.41 were found in the Sarmi and Wakde of the northern area. The frequency of B reached an unusually high value of 0.3938 in the Mulia region of the Western Dani (central area), while in other Dani populations B values were also relatively high. In the Sarmi region in the north B was 0.335 in the Baudji and 0.02 in the Wakde.

The n frequencies were all high with values reaching 0.97–0.98 in southern, central and northern areas. S of MNS varied from 0 to 50% in phenotype values; however, in the central area and in parts of the northern area the S gene was absent, or present only in very low values. The genotype mS was found in Samarckema and in Pionier‐Bivak natives of the Mamberamo region (northern area).

Values for R1 reached 0.996 in Asmat (southern area), 0.980 in Dani, Baliem Valley, Pyramid (central area), 0.98 in Martewar, Ferkami, Teba and 0.99 in Takar and Mamberamo (northern area). The phenotype RH0 was found only twice, and then in Sentani (northern area). The gene Rz was detected in three southern series, in two central series, and in two northern series. Rh0(Du) variants of “high‐grade” and “low‐grade” were found in northern and in southern series.

Possible reasons for the wide gene frequency variations found in the same linguistic group, in different groups in the same area, and in all the indigenous peoples of the southern, central and northern areas are discussed.

A comprehensive map of South West New Guinea showing all linguistic groups and the sites in 1963 of all villages is appended to the paper. This map covers one of the areas whose blood groups are reported in the paper, but includes many more villages and linguistic groups than those from which bleedings were obtained.
Evolutionary aspects of primate locomotion
Authors: Napier J. R.
Published: February 2006

Both neontological and phylogenetic studies are necessary to interpret primate locomotion. Reference to palaeoprimatology and palaeocology, for instance, will lead to a fuller understanding of the roots of such gaits as the vertical clinging and leaping of Tarsius, Indri and Propithecus.

Evolutionary trends in posture and locomotion are discussed. The postural trend has been towards maintenance of trunk verticality and the locomotor trend towards an increasing dependence on the forelimbs among arboreal primates. Three stages are recognized in the phylogenetic course of arboreal locomotor adaptation: Stage A. Vertical clinging and leaping; Stage B. Quadrupedalism; Stage C. Brachiation.

The role of prehensility of the hand in the evolution of locomotor types is discussed in relation to forest morphology and, in particular, to stratification. Finally a scheme of evolution, set in the framework of ecology, for Old World Monkey groups is presented.
Protein variations and primatology
Authors: Barnicot N. A. , Jolly C. J. , Wade Patricia T.
Published: February 2006

We summarize work based on electrophoretic screening for protein variation within and between primate species. We consider serum proteins—albumins, haptoglobins, transferrins—and red cell proteins—carbonic anhydrases, hemoglobins. Using hemoglobin, cytochrome‐c, and fibrinopeptides as examples, we discuss the value of using molecular data, i.e. protein structures, in evolutionary studies and in primatology.
Comparative spectrophotometry of skin colour with EEL and photovolt instruments
Authors: Garrard G. , Harrison G. A. , Owen J. J. T.
Published: February 2006

A study has been made of the comparability of the two reflectance spectrophotometers, EEL and Photovolt, which have been most widely used for measuring variation in human skin colour. From samples of Negroes, Indians, and Europeans measured with both instruments various conversion equations have been calculated using a “least squares” method.
Transverse lines in long bones of prehistoric California Indians
Authors: McHenry Henry
Published: February 2006

Radiopaque transverse lines (lines of arrested growth, Harris's lines) were counted on X‐rays of the distal end of 102 adult femurs from prehistoric California Indian populations representing three archaeological Horizons. The sample from Early Horizon has the highest frequency of lines, the Middle Horizon the next, and the sample from Late Horizon has the lowest frequency of lines. These differences are statistically significant. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Indians improved and broadened their subsistence economy from Early to Late Horizon. It is concluded that the differences in the frequency of lines among the three California Indian populations probably are associated with differences in morbidity and/or nutritional status of the people. If this hypothesis is correct, then frequency distribution of transverse lines represents a valuable tool for the paleopathologist and the archaeologist.
Density of fresh and embalmed human compact and cancellous bone
Authors: Blanton Patricia L. , Biggs Norman L.
Published: February 2006

This investigation was undertaken to determine the densities of fresh human compact and cancellous bone, with its marrow constituents intact, and compact and cancellous bone taken from embalmed cadavers. The density of 107 bone specimens was determined on the basis of the weight and volume of each specimen. Mean density results were: (1) fresh compact bone, 1.85; (2) fresh cancellous bone, 1.08; (3) embalmed compact bone, 1.85; and (4) embalmed cancellous bone, 1.09. Embalming did not appear to have altered the density of either compact or cancellous bone. It was observed also that the densities of several bone specimens taken from the same area of one bone varied greatly.
Secular trend in height and weight within old American families at Harvard, 1870–1965. I. Within twelve four‐generation families
Authors: Damon Albert
Published: February 2006

Among 85 members of 12 Old American families in which four generations were measured at Harvard, there were 12 fathers, 24 sons, 30 grandsons, and 19 great‐grandsons. Mean birthdates for the four generations were 1858, 1888, 1918, and 1941, and mean ages when measured were 21.9, 19.0, 18.9, and 18.8 years. There was a significant increase in height between generations I and II (2.63 cm, p<0.02), a smaller rise (1.14 cm, not significant) to generation III, and no rise at all to generation IV. Weight rose negligibly until generation III and then increased 1.9 kg (not significant) to generation IV. The ponderal index, height/\documentclass{article}\pagestyle{empty}\begin{document}$ \sqrt[{\rm 3}]{{{\rm weight}}} $\end{document}, rose slightly to generation III, then fell significantly (p<0.02) in generation IV to its original value in generation I. These findings confirm other indications that the secular increase in height has ended among economically‐favored Americans. Weight, on the other hand, may still be increasing.
Alizarin red in the study of the apposition and resorption of bone
Authors: Hoyte D. A. N.
Published: February 2006

Alizarin red is given intraperitoneally in dosages of 50–200 mg per kg. It then stains visibly only one generation of bone. Its deposition is studied in gross specimens and in undecalcified sections, and is controlled by comparison with serial decalcified sections.

Apposition of white bone can be followed in relation to red bone on periosteal surfaces (where it presents appearances corresponding to different growth rates), on endosteal surfaces, in osteons, and in the interstitial compaction of cancellous bone. Red surfaces may be sites of deposition, stasis, or resorption. Measurements may be made from red lines, provided microscopic control is available.

Removal of red bone always implies resorption. It is closely correlated with the presence of osteoclasts in control sections and with areas of surface pitting grossly. Resorbing surfaces may be precisely delimited by studying a graded series of animals. Whole surfaces or zones of stained bone are seen to “drift” toward other situations, undergoing resorptive dissolution or consolidating anew as they move relative to the newer layers.

The usefulness of the dye lies in its simplicity of administration, its ready visibility, and in the fact that its persistence in bone enables the fate of areas of bone to be followed over long periods. The preparation of undecalcified sections is a problem common to many other techniques.
Chloro‐s‐triazines as markers and fixatives for the study of growth in teeth and bones
Authors: Goland Philip P. , Grand Nicholas G.
Published: February 2006

Cyanuric chloride (2,4,6‐trichloro‐s‐triazine) and dichloro‐s‐triazinyl Procion M (Imperial Chemical) dyes and colorless compounds covalently bond or covalently cross‐link with H‐active functional groups in tissues including enamel, dentin, and bone. By cross‐linking, chloro‐s‐triazines make irreversibly insoluble in situ various exogenous or endogenous components, which are lost or artifactually diffused by other methods of fixation. Cyanuric chloride (0.5%) and N‐methyl morpholine (1%) in anhydrous methanol provide an excellent cytologic fixative, with N‐methyl morpholine or other suitable tertiary amines serving as “quaternizing” catalysts and HCl acceptors.

Highly permeable Procion M dyes were used topically as freshly prepared 5–10% aqueous solutions; 2% solutions in 5% dextrose were also given intravenously at a dosage level of 200 mgm/Kgm. Since topically applied dyes stain irreversibly, they can be employed as markers for the study of various pathophysiologic processes associated with the tooth and periodontal apparatus; that is, for the study of growth and development. Given intravenously, these dyes permanently mark incremental lines and zones of growth in tooth and bone; the markers persist during processing and decalcification of the specimens. Vinyl‐sulfonyl Remazol (American Hoechst) and other, classes of reactive dyes were also used as permanent markers.
Procion dyes as matrix markers in growing bone and teeth
Authors: Prescott Gerald H. , Mitchell David F. , Fahmy Hassan
Published: February 2006

Twelve mono‐ and dichloro‐s‐triazinyl dyes were selected to ascertain the vital‐staining characteristics of these dyes, to evaluate the toxicity, and to establish an optimal rate of doseage for use with several animal species. In addition to these dyes (also known in the dye industry as Procion compounds), tetracycline hydrochloride and a hematoporphyrin derivative were also studied. the experimental animals used were mice, rats, rabbits, cats, dogs, and monkeys. The agents were given in a single dose or multiple doses at selected time intervals, after which the experimental animals were sacrificed and the tissue removed for examination. The tissues were examined grossly and with various microscopic methods, and after being placed in clearing solutions for various time periods. The dyes selectively stained bone, dentin, and cementum, which were being formed at the time of administration. Certain dyes have marked advantages over others, not only in staining characteristics but also in toxicity and fluorescence.
Normal craniofacial skeletal growth of the rat
Authors: Cleall J. F. , Wilson G. W. , Garnett D. S.
Published: February 2006

Growth of the craniofacial structures in the rat was studied with a vital‐staining technique. The study was designed to determine the amount and direction of growth in the midsagittal region. A group of 44 male Long Evans rats weighing 90 gm ± 5 gm were given intraperitoneal injections of bone‐marking agents. These injections consisted of terramycin, alizarin red S, trypan blue, and terramycin, plus alizarin red S, at 0, 3, 15 and 36 days after attainment of the standard starting weight. Cephalometric radiographs were made at the time of each injection. The rats were sacrificed at 66 days.

Serial undecalcified sections were cut in the midsagittal plane at 80 μ. Certain anatomical landmarks were located on each section, coordinated, and plotted; a calibrated microscope stage and graduated eyepice were used. Specific areas of interest were photographed in color, with single‐frame exposures, on 16 mm moving film. The specific growth sites were then analyzed on a Vanguard Motion Analyzer by measuring the separation of the individual bone marks.
Growth of bones as revealed by implant markers in animals
Authors: Sarnat Bernard G.
Published: February 2006

Implantation of screws, pegs, wires, or other material as markers has been of value during the last 200 years in the serial study of growth of bones. With this direct method, for a given period, the increase in distance between implants on either side of an endochondral growth center or suture can be readily determined. In contrast, the relatively constant position of two or more implants within a single bone can be utilized to establish the pattern of peripheral apposition and resorption. When radiopaque implants are used in combination with serial roentgenography, not only the amount but also the rate, periods of activity and relative direction of growth may be determined. This indirect method obviates reoperating or killing the animal to measure the distance between implants. Some of the problems in the use of these methods are that (1) growth occurs in more than one plane, (2) the implants may not remain where inserted into the bone, (3) the implants may not be in a plane parallel to the X‐ray film, and (4) the distance between the implants and the film may not be constant. (Abstract previously published Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 27: 236, September, 1967).
Microdensitometric analysis for study of skeletal growth and aging in the living subject
Authors: Israel Harry
Published: February 2006

Microdensitometric analysis of a radiographic image of mineralized tissue offers information on the morphologic characteristics of the specimen examined. The use of microstructure (such as individual trabecula of bone) and macrostructure (such as Harris lines of arrest) as in vivo bone markers allows for assessment of gross skeletal changes in nondestructive fashion. This technique is also applicable to the study of the interrelationship of tooth and bone. In addition, microdensitometry offers precise information on the fine structure of bone as regards the trabecular elements. This technique is applicable in determining the size and quantity of trabeculae, their persistence over long periods of time, and the factors responsible for change or lack of change in trabeculae during growth and aging.
Natural markers in bone growth
Authors: Lee Marjorie M. C.
Published: February 2006

Three features in the long bones, shown by radiograms, have been used as markers for the study of bone growth.

Transverse lines of arrested growth. Radiograms of six long limb bones from 1,576 individuals were investigated for clearness and persistence of these lines. Both ends of tibia and fibula showed very high frequency of suitable lines for markers, possibly also the distal end of femur and radius.

Notches in the base of second and fifth metacarpal bones. Measurements of growth from apex of the basal notch to the ends of the shaft were performed on serial hand radiograms. The proportion of growth from distal and basal ends averaged 87:13 in the second and 80:20 in the fifth metacarpal bones.

Nutrient canals. The initial point of ossification was determined by a prolongation of the nutrient canal intersecting the central axis of the medullary cavity. The proportion of growth from that point to distal and basal ends of the shaft averaged 68:32 and 64:36 for the second and the fifth metacarpal bones, respectively. These values are significantly different from the measurements obtained from the notches.
Genetic structure of a population of Valparaiso. II. Distribution of two dental traits with anthropological importance
Authors: Pinto‐Cisternas Juan , Figueroa Hernán
Published: February 2006

The frequency of Carabelli's cusp (27.24%) and shovel‐shaped incisors (45.72%) were determined in a sample of students from the city of Valparaíso. These values are intermediate between those found in Caucasian and Mongolian populations. A sexual dimorphism was observed for shovel‐shaped incisors; the relation of this trait to a socio‐economic index and occlusal type is indicated. Carabelli's cusp is found to vary with the number of foreign ancestors of an individual and his or her ABO blood group and color vision. There is also evidence that Carabelli's cusp serves better as an ethnic marker in a mixed population such as ours than does shovel‐shaped incisors. This is thought to be due to the less complicated genetic basis of the former. It is also shown that the two traits are independent in their expression.
The skin of primates. XXXVI. The skin of the pigmy marmoset — Callithrix (=Cebuella) Pygmaea
Authors: Perkins Edwin M.
Published: February 2006

The pigmy marmoset — Callithrix (= Cebuella) pygmaea Spix — is the second detailed study of the members of the family Callithricidae. It is closely allied to the red‐mantled tamarin — Saguinus (=Tamarinus) fuscicollis illigeri Spix — and shares some of its characteristics with both Prosimii and Anthropoidea. The epidermis and dermis contain moderate numbers of concurrent, melanotic melanocytes. The dermis is rich in elastin. Hair follicles grow in groups of three or four over the general body surface, and one apocrine gland is associated with each grouping. Arrectores pilorum muscles are well developed. On the ventral ulnar wrist are sinus hairs associated with apocrine glands. Most hair follicles have nerve end‐organs around them that are reactive for acetylcholinesterase and alkaline phosphatase. There is a large aggregation of sebaceous glands in the suprapubic region. The large sebaceous glands in the eyelid, face, and external genitalia are surrounded by cholinesterasereactive nerves. Apocrine glands are found over most of the hairy skin except the brow, scalp and back; a large grouping of them is present in the sternal region. Only the secretory coils of apocrine glands in the external genitalia are invested with butyrylcholinesterase‐rich nerves. Eccrine glands are confined to the volar surfaces of the pes and manus. They have dark cells with abundant glycogen and clear cells with neither glycogen nor PAS‐reactive material. The nerves around the eccrine secretory coil are reactive only for acetylcholinesterase.
A study of the A1A2BO blood group system and ABO(H) secretion in six endogamous groups of Punjab
Authors: Seth Swadesh
Published: February 2006

2,596 Aroras and 2,629 Khatris comprising six endogamous groups of the Punjabis have been studied for A1A2BO blood groups and secretion of ABO(H) group specific substances. The values of chi‐square and the genetical difference (G2) among these groups do not show statistically significant differences in these groups regarding the genetical characters studied. There is a closer affinity between Beri and Bunjahi on the one hand and Uttaradhi and Dhakhandian on the other and also between Uttaradhi and Khukhran; Dhakhandian and Sareen show a great difference among themselves as well as with other groups. The comparison of ABO blood group distribution and secretor factor among the different populations of India show that the distribution is similar among the North Indians.
On the groove configuration of mandibular molars: The unreliability of the “dryopithecus pattern” and a new method for classifying mandibular molars
Authors: Biggerstaff Robert H.
Published: February 2006

The long‐used qualitative nomenclature for the cusp‐groove pattern of lower molars, and the definition applying to it, was investigated and found to be unsatisfactory for the repetitive classification of lower molars. Moreover, developmental grooves per se were found to represent the results of highly variable environmental phenomena and therefore their use cannot be justified as an evolutionary determinant. A simple, but effective classification for lower molars, based on cusp size, cusp number, distal fovea, and distal marginal ridge was presented.
An analysis of the ABO blood group clines in Europe
Authors: Livingstone Frank B.
Published: February 2006

With estimates of the fitnesses of the genotypes and selection by incompatibility for the ABO locus which seem reasonable given the state of knowledge, a computer model has been developed to replicate the clines of the A and B genes in Europe. With a fitness change in the BB and BO genotypes of as little as 0.5%, the differences in the frequencies in East and West Europe can be maintained at equilibrium. Appreciable changes in the amount of migration does not affect the equilibrium frequencies in the two areas significantly, while with no selection through incompatibility the equilibrium frequencies were changed about 5%.
Sex differences in the growth of the human bony pelvis
Authors: Coleman William H.
Published: February 2006

The study of individual patterns of longitudinal growth of the bony pelvic complex reveals the following findings concerning the sex differences in the growth of the bony pelvis.

(1) The patterns of growth show the same individual variability and male‐female overlap as the adult configuration of pelves.

(2) The sex differences in the adult bony pelvis cannot be attributed to the differential response of one bone to sex hormone.

(3) Sex differences develop from complicated variations in rates and direction of growth of local areas of the pelvic complex.

(4) The superior functional division of the bony pelvis shows only one notable sex difference — the sexual dimorphism of the directional growth of the anterior one‐half of the iliac crest.

(5) The inferior functional division of the bony pelvis shows numerous local areas of sexually dimorphic growth, but the major sex differences result from the greater lateral migration of the ischia.

(6) Of the regions showing definite sexual dimorphism in growth, the pelvic inlet and sciatic notch are the more variable because of their dependency on two separate anatomical systems for their final adult morphological configuration. The subpubic angle and length of the superior pubic ramus are directly associated with only one anatomical system, the enlargement of the pelvic cavity, thus, they show less variability and more definitive sex difference.
Dental chipping in Aleuts, Eskimos and Indians
Authors: Turner Christy G. , Cadien James D.
Published: February 2006

Analysis of dentitions belonging to 324 prehistoric and protohistoric Aleuts, Eskimos and northern Indians, all of whom were regularly meat‐eaters, reveals a significant difference between Eskimos and Aleut‐Indians for a little known type of tooth wear. This wear is characterized by severe crushing and/or flaking of the crown surface of one or more teeth (termed “pressure‐chipping”). It occurs chiefly in dentitions of high arctic Eskimos of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, and significantly less often in the teeth of Kodiak Island Eskimos, Aleuts and northern Indians. Sex differences do not exist but pressure‐chipping occurs significantly more often in adult (21–x years) than in non‐adult (0–20 years) Eskimos. The exact mechanism(s) responsible for pressure‐chipping is unknown, although ethnographic accounts of Eskimo eating habits suggest that crushing of hard substances such as bone was involved. The severity of this wear could have contributed to the selection for, or preservation of, large and complex crowns in high arctic Eskimos. Pressure‐chipping is offered as evidence favoring the view that tooth size (longevity) may have had in the past some adaptive value.
Paleodemography of India and Ceylon since 3000 B.C.
Authors: Kennedy Kenneth A. R.
Published: February 2006

Biological and cultural adaptations of prehistoric man in South Asia are surveyed against the background of geological‐climatic‐biotic changes occurring within Pleistocene and post‐Pleistocene times. The earliest human remains discovered thus far in the Indian sub‐continent are skeletons associated with Late Stone Age (Mesolithic) cultural materials. These series and those associated with subsequent cultural horizons (Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Harappan, Iron Age and Early Historic) are reviewed in terms of their suitability for palaeodemographic study. In South Asia this kind of research is best approached through the analysis of local sites where skeletal material is available and where reconstruction of ancient ecological settings is feasible. Three cases are presented: (1) population displacement and mobility in the pre‐Vedda and Vedda biological continuum in Ceylon; (2) influence of changing nutritional factors upon the pathology of jaws and teeth for the Late Stone Age skeletal series from Langhnaj; (3) causes of death at Mohenjo‐daro, with a discussion of the undue emphasis in the anthropological literature upon trauma and neglect of significant attempts to discern causes of death where these are relevant to pathology and to specific ecological adaptations.
Dental mutilation and associated abnormalities in Uganda
Authors: Pindborg J. J.
Published: February 2006

In 1966 during a dental survey of four districts in Uganda — Acholi in the north, Bugisu in the east, and Kigezi and Toro in the southwest — 1169 Africans were examined. In the sample from Kigezi District 11.9% of the Bakiga tribe showed a form of dental mutilation consisting of the filing away of the mesial angle of the upper central incisors. In the sample from Acholi District 16.1% of the Acholi tribe showed abnormal conditions related to the ritual extraction of the primary canines. Extraction of the lower permanent incisors was seen occasionally in the Acholis (8), Batoros (1) and Bugisus (3).

Removal of the primary canines is attributed to a belief that infantile fever originates from these teeth. Because the primary canines were removed in a crude fashion, malformation, non‐eruption or premature eruption of the underlying permanent canines resulted.