bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
CLEANUP OF AN OIL SPILL INTO GROUND WATER AT WILLIAMSPORT, PENNSYLVANIA—A CASE HISTORY
Authors: Villaume James F. , Herre Bernard H. , Voykin Dale P.
Published: January 2013

During 1977, more than 75,000 gallons of No. 2 fuel oil leaked into the ground from a 100,000-gallon storage tank at Pennsylvania Power and Light Company's Williamsport Combustion Turbine and Substation Site, located about 1,000 feet from the Susquehanna River in a highly industrialized area.

Pumping from drilled wells was the preferred method of recovery. To limit the extent of the spill and collect the oil, ground water was artificially drawn down at several points. The clean water from the bottom of the drawdown-recovery wells was discharged to a storm sewer; the oil-water mixture from the top was passed through a gravity separator. The separator underflow was returned to ground through an abandoned drill hole.

The initial oil recovery rate was 1,000 gallons/day, dropping to 100 gallons/day after three months, for a total of almost 45,000 gallons recovered after nine months. Average recovery costs were about $2.50/gallon.

The overall success of the cleanup effort is considered good, although attempts to establish an unattended operation had to be abandoned. Major problems encountered include an influx of sludge and sediment into the wells, chronic pump failures, and numerous restrictions to drilling, which shows that standard practices can not be applied routinely in every case.
ARE PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AN IMPORTANT SOURCE OF MUTAGENS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT?1
Authors: Payne Jerry F. , Maloney Robert , Rahimtula Anver
Published: January 2013

We have now established that the aromatic hydrocarbon hydroxylase enzyme system for activation of hydrocarbons to mutagens (and carcinogens) is present in all phyla of marine animals common to the coastal northwest Atlantic. Enzyme activity has been shown to increase in all fish species on exposure to petroleum but induction has never been observed in any invertebrate. Further studies have also been carried out on the relation between induction, hydrocarbon metabolism, and mutagen-carcinogen activation by fish liver enzymes. The Ames strains of bacteria sensitive to both frameshift and base pair substitutions have been used for mutagenesis testing. Of several different types (12) of crude and refined petroleum hydrocarbons assessed to date, only used engine oil has been observed to be mutagenic and this mutagenicity is increased in fish induced for AHH by petroleum. Evidence suggests that the mutagenic principal(s) in used engine oil is derived from gasoline combustion and thus only circumstantially related to petroleum pollution. The belief that oil-spill-derived hydrocarbons could be a primary source of mutagenic activity in the marine environment is argued.
C15+ HYDROCARBONS IN THE SEDIMENTS OF THE NEW YORK BIGHT
Authors: Koons Charles B. , Thomas James P.
Published: January 2013

The purpose of this study was to document the distribution and abundance of C 15+ hydrocarbons in sediment samples taken from the Hudson River, the New York Harbor, and across the continental shelf to the continental rise. Collection of 35 of these samples took place in 1975–76 using a multiple corer, a bottom grab, or the submersible Alvin. Materials obtained from these areas were considered representative and included dredge spoils, sewage sludge, and sediment from both the Deepwater Dumpsite 106 on the continental rise and the comparatively cleaner sea floor of the continental shelf beyond the apex of the New York Bight.

Total C15+ hydrocarbons are most abundant (3000–6000 parts per million) in areas highly impacted by man—harbor sediments and dredge spoil and sewage sludge disposal areas. Values from the continental shelf are lower (80 ppm) and values from the continental rise are the lowest (40 ppm). Gas chromatographic traces clearly distinguish the hydrocarbons in the dredge spoil and sewage sludge sediment samples from the hydrocarbons found in sediment samples relatively free of sludge or spoil materials.
PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS IN THE NORTH SEA
Authors: Grahl-Nielsen Otto , Westrheim Kjell , Wilhelmsen Svein
Published: January 2013

Since May 1976, a number of water samples have been collected from various areas in the North Sea. Most of the samples were taken at 1 m depth, but samples were also obtained from depths down to 100 m by the use of a specially-developed water sampler. The analysis was carried out by capillary gas chromatography with a mass spectrometer as detector. By selected ion monitoring, the petrogenic hydrocarbons naphthalene, phenanthrene, and dibenzothiophene as well as their alkyl derivatives were detected. The results show that the level of non-volatile petroleum hydrocarbons in the waters of the North Sea is very low indeed. A short residence time thus keeps the standing stock of petroleum hydrocarbons below the detection limit.
A LEGAL OVERVIEW OF CLEANUP OPERATIONS
Authors: Evans James A.
Published: January 2013

Who must act when an oil spill occurs? What are the legal risks involved? The government can act to clean up a spill. What are the incentives to have owners clean up? What happens if an owner cleans up someone else's oil; can the costs be recovered? What is an oil spill cooperative? What legal forms do they take? There are a number of common elements in most cooperatives. What reliance is placed on oil spill cooperatives under the law? What is the legal risk when oil spill cooperatives are used? What are the combined powers of landlord and government when oil spills are involved? All the powers of government and landlord are brought together. The law and regulations are pervasive. What are the obligations when an oil spill occurs onshore?
NATIONAL STRIKE FORCE RESPONSE IXTOC I BLOWOUT—BAY OF CAMPECHE
Authors: O'Brien J. L.
Published: January 2013

During the summer of 1979, the Bay of Campeche experienced the world's largest oil spill incident when the Petroleos Mexicanos (Pemex) exploratory well Ixtoc I had an uncontrolled oil well blowout. This paper will address how the U.S. Coast Guard's (USCG's) National Strike Force (NSF) became involved in the incident. A detailed account of the NSF equipment utilized on the spill will be offered. This account will include the deployment, operation, and recovery methods employed. An explanation of equipment malfunction and failures suffered will be included as part of the article. The paper will address the logistics of moving the equipment and personnel to the site and will identify the contingency plans deployed to ensure continued operation of the USCG skimming barrier system for the duration of deployment. It will discuss the organizational concepts employed on the incident and the thought processes used in developing the overall containment and recovery game plan in conjunction with other on-scene forces and Pemex authorities. As a result of this deployment, several refinements and modifications were made to the USCG Open Water Oil Containment/Recovery System to improve overall performance and capabilities.

The author served as a technical advisor to the Government of Mexico during part of the incident and was the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) for the USCG National Strike Force response efforts at the well site.
DOME'S PETROLEUM STUDY OF OIL AND GAS UNDER SEA ICE
Authors: Dickins David F. , Buist Ian A. , Pistruzak William M.
Published: January 2013

The main cleanup of an oil spill originating from a late-season oil well blowout in the Beaufort Sea would take place in the spring. It is at this time that the oil trapped in and under the ice would surface to accumulate in melt pools on top of the ice.

To tie all the previous work on oil migration an in-situ burning together, Dome Petroleum Ltd. undertook a major oil spill experiment during the winter of 1979/80 in the Beaufort Sea. The objective of this field experiment was to determine the efficiency of burning as a countermeasure and to optimize burning techniques for oil and gas released from a Beaufort Sea blowout under ice.

The experiment took place in three phases, approximately 8 kilometres offshore from McKinley Bay in the Beaufort Sea, in first-year ice. Approximately 19 cubic metres of crude oil was discharged under the ice in conjunction with gas (air). This oil surfaced in the spring in pools thick enough to burn. Some 80 percent of the oil discharged was removed from the marine environment.
MEREDOSIA OIL TERMINAL—THE ILLINOIS RIVER FLOODS A TANK FARM
Authors: Tanos A. E.
Published: January 2013

Rising waters on the Illinois River during April 1979 caused breaks in the levee near Meredosia, Illinois. The swollen river flooded 10,000 acres of farmland, as well as the asphalt storage tank farm of the Meredosia Oil Terminal. The 35 tanks within the terminal included several multimillion gallon tanks of hot asphalt, as well as those containing the diesel fuel for the heating system. The floodwater reached a depth of 12 feet and the hydrostatic pressure of the rising waters lifted the diesel fuel tanks and toppled them. Thousands of gallons of oil spilled from the vents at the top of the tanks, or from the broken pipelines at their bases. A westerly wind moved the oil out over the flooded farmland.

The terminal operator's resources were depleted after long efforts to prevent the levee breaks. The spill-ctonainment dike around the tank farm was underwater, so several thousand feet of floating containment boom was brought in to surround the tank farm. A Marco Class self-propelled skimmer was flown in by the U.S. Coast Guard Strike Force. However, inspections on the second day revealed that much of the oil had diffused out over the floodwater and did not appear to be recoverable. Response forces concentrated on the spilled oil within the tank farm and the potential of teh toppled and floating tanks. After 3 days of cleanup, a brief, violent storm blew oily debris back to the terminal from across the lake. Now a massive debris recovery effort was begun in addition to the oil recovery. Cleanup efforts continued for 51 days, until by June 4, 1979, the floodwaters had dropped below the tank farm's spill-containment dike.
BIODEGRADATION OF A CHEMICALLY DISPERSED CRUDE OIL
Authors: Cretney W. J. , Macdonald R. W. , Wong C. S. , Green D. R. , Whitehouse B. , Geesey G. G.
Published: January 2013

The n-alkane fraction of Prudhoe Bay crude oil dispersed with Corexit 9527 disappeared rapidly from the water column directly beneath a seawater surface slick contained by an enclosure. Biodegradation appeared to be more important than nonbiological volatilization or photooxidation processes. Extracellular polysaccharides, synthesized by floc-forming bacteria, accumulated in the water column of the enclosures during n-alkane degradation. The study demonstrates the possible usefulness of Corexit 9527 in accelerating the conversion of this crude oil fraction by the indigenous microflora of coastal marine waters.
A COMPREHENSIVE MODEL FOR OIL SPILL SIMULATION
Authors: Torgrimson Gary M.
Published: January 2013

The On-Scene-Spill Model (OSCM) is a portable, interactive, environmental simulation system for the rapid modeling of pollutant trajectories in the marine environment. Inputs to the OSSM include the physical locations of the spill, coastal outlines, bathymetry, oceanographic and meteorological observations, and other environmental data. The output from this model consists of both Calcomp and printer graphics, summaries of initialized data, and checkpoint files. The user can request detailed information about data and model parameters. Typical initialization setup time is about 3 hours.

The model can be run in different modes depending on the data bases used, including a climatological mode to assess long-term transport, a tactical mode to assess short-term transport, and a receptor mode. It allows the user to utilize variable time and space scales to resolve the physical transport processes, consistent with available data. This is accomplished by the use of multiple embedded submodels in the main model.
IXTOC I OIL SPILL—THE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PROGRAM AND ECOLOGICAL IMPACT
Authors: Woods E. G. , Hannah R. P.
Published: January 2013

On June 3, 1979, the Ixtoc I well blew out in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico. Before the well was capped on March 23, 1980, approximately 3.3 million of the estimated 140 million barrels (bbl) of spilled oil impacted the South Texas coast. This event activated U.S. response and cleanup activities that are authorized and organized under the National Contingency Plan (NCP). A formal plan to assess damage from waterborne pollutants did not exist before this spill. Therefore, an ad hoc committee with representatives from private institutions, industries, universities, and state and federal agencies with primary responsibilities or interest in resource protection was formed to develop the scientific approach and management structure for the damage assessment plan that was developed during this crisis situation.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the formation of an ad hoc interagency damage assessment organization, to outline the concept and goal of the comprehensive Ixtoc I Damage Assessment Program, and to describe the implementation of the monitoring phase of this program. The paper also offers specific recommendations for future damage assessment endeavors.
EFFECTS OF THE IXTOC I OIL SPILL ON THE INTERTIDAL AND SUBTIDAL INFAUNAL POPULATIONS ALONG LOWER TEXAS COAST BARRIER ISLAND BEACHES
Authors: Thebeau Larry C. , Tunnell John W. , Dokken Quenton R. , Kindinger Mary E.
Published: January 2013

Pre-spill (August 4 to 11, 1979) and post-spill (September 24 to 29, 1979) sampling of intertidal and subtidal infaunal populations along lower Texas coast sandy beaches was conducted to determine the impact of the Ixtoc I oil spill. Transects sampled between the Rio Grande and Port Aransas produced 52 species of macroinfauna primarily dominated in abundance and diversity by polychaetes and haustoriid amphipods. Analyses revealed visible, though not significant, decreases in pooled intertidal population densities and significant reductions in pooled subtidal population densities. Numbers of species did not significantly change. Population density changes may have been caused by Ixtoc I impact, tropical depression/storm beach erosion, seasonal fluctuations, beach cleanup techniques, or a combination of these.
SHORELINE OIL TWO YEARS AFTER AMOCO CADIZ: NEW COMPLICATIONS FROM TANIO
Authors: Gundlach Erich R. , Berné Serge , D'Ozouville Laurent , Topinka Jerry A.
Published: January 2013

The latest in a series of joint Franco-American surveys of the Amoco Cadiz (233,000 tons; March 17, 1978) spill site was conducted during May and June 1980. The purposes of this survey were to determine remaining surface oil, buried oiled sediment, oil incorporation in interstitial water, and recovery of attached macroalgae.

Oil was found to persist primarily as tar blotches and black staining along exposed rocky shores and as oil-contaminated (indicated by surface sheen), interstitial water in previously heavily oiled, sheltered tidal flats. Less commonly, oil was present as asphalted sediment and oil-coated rocks in sheltered embayments. The cleaned marsh at Ile Grande remained significantly damaged from the oil; however, both upper and lower marsh grasses showed some recovery. At another marsh, no recovery occurred in uncleaned, heavily oiled areas. On sheltered rocky shores, heavily oiled algae showed rapid recolonization by Fucus; however, Ascophyllum noaosum-dominated areas showed less recovery.

The Tanio oil spill on March 7, 1980 (7,000 tons lost) impacted 45 percent of the Amoco Cadiz spill site and severely complicated further differentiation of Amoco Cadiz oil in many areas. In total, 197 kilometers (km) of shoreline were impacted; 45 km were heavily oiled. Nine weeks after initial impact, Tanio oil occurred as patches of heavy oil along sheltered and exposed, rocky shores. Sand beaches and tidal flats were generally free of oil. Several hundred soldiers continued to pressure spray dispersants and water to clean up oiled areas, even in high wave energy and isolated localities.
IT IS TIME TO REDEFINE A HARMFUL QUANTITY OF OIL
Authors: Leek W. R. , Blevins H. J. , Loftin S. D.
Published: January 2013

During the early 1970s, when Congress required the President to define a harmful quantity of oil, very little was known about the effects of oil discharged into the marine environment.

As a result, a very limiting definition of what constitutes a “harmful quantity” of oil was written into regulatory law. Since then, both government and industry have found that this well-intentioned definition suffered from a very significant deficiency. The definition set forth a “sheen test,” which defined as harmful any quantity of oil which can be seen on the surface of water. Because any quantity of oil spilled on water—even a drop or two—will cause a visible sheen, the reporting procedures set out in the regulations required massive paperwork for both government and industry, even when only miniscule amounts of oil were spilled.

The purpose of this paper is to suggest that a proper period of time has elapsed, and sufficient data has been gathered, to permit the regulations to be made more realistic without any harm to the public interest. A secondary benefit from a better regulatory reporting requirement would be increased productivity for professionals in government and industry, if these workers were freed from unnecessary paperwork and allowed more time for preparations necessary to deal with more significant problems relating to potential oil spills.

Supporting this position is the petroleum industry's multimillion dollar program developed in the last decade that determined that small spills have at most a negligible impact on the marine environment.

The authors of this paper hope that redefining of “harmful quantity of oil” will represent one step to use the manpower devoted to energy matters in this country more effectively and efficiently, thereby freeing workers from unnecessary paperwork on minor issues and allowing them to concentrate on the more serious and promising energy matters that must be dealt with in this decade.
DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING OF A WEIR BOOM FOR OIL RECOVERY AT SEA*
Authors: Wilson H. B.
Published: January 2013

A combined oil containment and recovery system based on a weir boom principle has been designed and developed for high-rate oil spill recovery at sea. A full-scale research prototype system was tested at the Ixtoc I well blowout site in November 1979 by courtesy of Petroleos Mexicanos. The test results have shown that the system design target, specifically to recover 7,500 tonnes of oil or mousse per day per unit in conditions up to sea state 5, with winds up to force 5 on the Beaufort scale, significant wave heights up to 3 metres, and wave periods in the range of 3 to 12 seconds, is achievable.

The work has been carried out by the British Petroleum Company with support from the Norwegian and British Governments.
NEW DIRECTIONS IN NAVY SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING
Authors: Yaroschak Paul J.
Published: January 2013

Under the new National Spill Contingency Plan, Navy officials will serve as On-Scene Coordinators (OSCs) for spills from Navy vessels and facilities. This has required a restructuring of the Navy's response organization and has placed increased emphasis on the training of Navy OSCs. The biggest problem has been, and continues to be, the rotation of personnel within the Navy. A number of actions are being taken to mitigate this fact-of-life problem.
OFFSHORE OIL SPILL EQUIPMENT EVOLUTION IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA—A SYSTEMS APPROACH?1
Authors: Onstad Lindon A.
Published: January 2013

Exploration of outer continental shelf (OCS) lands off Southern California has been expanding at a rapid rate for the past two years. Lease Sales 48, 53, and 68 have provided the impetus for this rapid development. The Bureau of Land Management has predicted several spills in excess of 1,000 barrels will occur as a result of these sales and subsequent exploration activities. Legitimate concerns have been raised by federal, state and local governments as well as numerous citizen groups concerning the ability of industry to respond adequately to a major offshore oil spill.

As a result of these concerns, the California Coastal Commission has ordered a study and evaluation of the California Oil Spill Cooperatives with an objective of ensuring they will possess an adequate response capability. Concurrent with this study, the U.S. Coast Guard and the Interior Department's Minerals Management Service have entered into a Memorandum of Understanding concerning review of oil spill plans and equipment in OCS waters. With expanding geographic areas to cover, the cooperatives have begun to purchase new state-of-the-art equipment in hopes of satisfying the regulatory agencies and concerned groups.

This paper examines the process of the federal government, state of California and industry in upgrading oil spill response capability in waters offshore southern California. The process is shown to have occurred systematically with a view toward the response system rather than individual pieces of equipment. Recommendations to California concerning acceptance of federal guidelines, joint reviews and use of dispersants are discussed.
OIL SPILL ON NORTHERN SHORELINES: AN EVALUATION OF SOME OPTIONS DEALING WITH THIS PROBLEM
Authors: Sendstad Erling , Sveum Per
Published: January 2013

Three options for dealing with oily debris from oil contaminated shorelines are studied. It is shown that bunker oil does not affect plant life but does kill the invertebrates in the contaminated supralittoral zone. A non-sticky soil surface can be established if treated with a sorbent.

Oily debris picked up by hand, composted with sorbents, and conditioned with fertilizers showed a decrease in total oil content of approximately 60 percent after 400 days. The addition of sorbents gave approximately the same rate of biodegradation, whereas the addition of fertilizer alone had a less beneficial effect on oil biodegradation.

The use of sorbents did not affect the generation of leachate water from the compost piles. The oil content in the leachate was between 20 and 40 milligrams per liter. Seaweed in the oily debris decomposed rapidly. The volume of the piles was reduced by about 50 percent. Total oil content was approximately constant in the compost piles. The rapidly decomposing seaweed made it difficult to keep the compost piles in an aerobic state.

Oily debris mixed with lime (CaO) produced a dry material. The lime volume required was approximately equal to the oil volume in the debris. Even after this treatment, some oil and other organic components were released with the leachate. The process of mixing lime into the oily debris was very unpleasant for the workers and posed a severe working-environment problem.
OHMSETT TESTS OF TRUCK-MOUNTED VACUUM SYSTEMS FOR OIL SPILL RECOVERY1
Authors: Gates Donald C. , Corradino Kevin M. , Senftner William R.
Published: January 2013

Two recent test programs at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) examined two different vacuum systems. The first program, performed in September 1980, tested a vacuum truck fabricated by Coleman Environmental and Pollution Control Equipment Co., Inc. and a Vactor 2045 air conveyor system made by the Peabody Myers Company. The vacuum truck produced an average oil recovery rate of 2.4 cubic meters per hour (10.6 gallons per minute) and an oil recovery efficiency of 18 percent. Results confirmed the prevalent belief that this type of equipment is well suited for use in thick slicks (i.e., above 60 millimeters). The addition of skimmer attachments to the hose end increased recovery efficiency without affecting oil recovery rate. The air conveyor tests resulted in an average oil recovery rate of 4.4 m3/hour (19.4 gpm) and a recovery efficiency of 61 percent. The air conveyor worked well, particularly with thinner slicks. The independent variables incorporated into the first test program included slick thickness, test oil viscosity, blower speed, length of the recovery hose, the height of the suction hose end above the slick, and use of skimmer attachments.

The second test program, performed in August 1982, extended the investigations of the initial program, adding a more viscous test oil, debris, and a different skimming attachment for the hose end. Also included were tests to confirm results of the first program. The truck used in the second program was another vacuum truck made by Coleman Environmental and Pollution Control Equipment Co., Inc. The standard vacuum truck yielded an average oil recovery rate of 5.0 m3/hour (22 gpm) with an average oil recovery efficiency of 51 percent. This was over nine different phases, each phase studying the effect of a different combination of variables. Skimming a higher viscosity test oil in the range of 11.2 centipoise (cp) to 318 cp caused an increase in oil recovery rate and recovery efficiency. The addition of a skimming attachment increased recovery efficiency and decreased oil recovery rate. Tests with debris confirmed the necessity of keeping debris away from the hose end.
FIRST GERMAN OIL SPILL HANDBOOK FOR HAMBURG HARBOR
Authors: Spengler Dirk-Uwe
Published: January 2013

Motivated by two greater oil spills in 1981 and 1982 with total cleaning costs of about $11 million, the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg developed in 1983 a complete oil spill contingency plan with a detailed environmental sensitivity map. This book concerns the Elbe River inside the boundaries of Hamburg and, of course, the harbor region, which covers about 87 km2. The contingency plan is called Ölunfall—Handbuch (Oil Spill Handbook). It starts with general remarks about the physical and chemical characteristics of oil. Especially, there are lists of imported and exported crude oil and oil products in the Hamburg Harbor complete with lists of important parameters for combating the effects of these oils and products. This is followed by chapters dealing with the behavior and characteristics of oil after a spill, and the classification and identification of oil. Some analytic methods for in situ measurements are listed. Safety measures during combating actions are followed by a general discussion of combating methods such as various booms, skimmers, pumps, chemicals, and interim depots.

Simulations and experiments were carried out to get better knowledge of the hydraulic conditions and to enable predictions, especially in the streamed harbor basins. The contingency plan details the notification and mobilization of the command team of the government environmental agency, the mainly scientific support teams, and the private action team.

Environmental sensitivity maps have been developed to help the command team identify priority areas for maximum effort for combating actions. The system includes 18 general profiles, which describe the location of beaches and quays in Hamburg with a sensitivity scale from 2 to 10 with respect to the cleanup possibilities in oil spills. The maps also show if combating has to be done only from the water side, where there are ramps and cranes for loading ships with equipment, and prepared places for OSC containers. Most important are the areas of ecological significance marked by symbols of the types of birds, plants, fish and benthos with symbols for the time of year they will be there. Finally, 162 points are designated for which special recommendations are given for combating actions, including remarks about needed facilities, staff, and times to arrive.
A COMPUTERIZED INFORMATION SYSTEM ON CRUDE OILS
Authors: Krutz Michael , Krutz Hildegard
Published: January 2013

In cooperation with the German Federal Environmental Agency, a one-year investigation was made by the Institute for Water Research in Dortmund to collect physical and ecological information on 200 crude oil species. Data of primary interest were the composition of crude oils, the boiling points of their refinery fractions, their pour points, densities, viscosities, surface tensions, and flammabilities, and the dependence of these parameters on temperature and weathering. Biodegradability data and specification of cleanup methods for the different types of crude oils give efficient support to oil spill emergency authorities.

For fast and easy retrieval, data are stored in an IBM 4341/3031 computer as a substructure of the already operational “Databank on Harmful Substances,” which is an information system on physical, chemical, and ecological properties of 20,000 chemicals, developed in cooperation with the German Federal Environmental Agency.
IDENTIFICATION AND INITIAL RECOVERY OF JET A FUEL FROM THE GROUND UNDERLYING A TANK FARM AT PALM BEACH INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT
Authors: Ries Kenneth M.
Published: January 2013

A recent surface fuel spill incident by tank overflow at a 220,000 gal above-ground airport tank farm led to a single monitoring well installed at the request of the state. This well disclosed previously spilled Jet A fuel at the water table, 5 ft below grade. Eight monitoring wells averaging 7 ft deep were completed in 3 days, revealing a surprisingly confined pool of fuel in fine sand estimated at 24,000 ft2 but with over 30 in. of fuel in some wells. Monitoring wells 40 ft away showed a complete absence of fuel. Leaking from underground piping was tested and eliminated as a possible source. Above-ground spills, it was concluded, were insufficient as a source. Inventory records failed to show any losses. Gas chromatic analysis of the product confirmed that it was Jet A, and therefore not JP-4 from an abandoned Air Force fuel main. The source of fuel was concluded as primarily from the practice of daily fuel tank sumping to the ground, which ceased in 1974. Significantly, the spill was 10 years old and had not moved.

Initial recovery was by slotted drum, later replaced by a 70 ft by 3 ft trench to the water table, gravel backfilled. Recovery of product only, without water pumping, was by an electrical chemical metering pump, continuously, at the rate of product flow to the trench, averaging 23 gal per day.

Investigations of groundwater quality in nearby monitoring wells by the state agency failed to show any hydrocarbons, analyzed down to 5 parts per billion. The closest water well, 1,800 ft away, showed no contamination.

Bench scale testing demonstrated that monitoring well fuel thickness overstates fuel thickness in the ground, and that trenches concentrate fuel thicknesses like monitoring wells.

Tight cost control was maintained, with monitoring wells costing under $50 each, a recovery trench under $2,000, and recovery pumping under $1,000. By-product recovery revenue has offset some recovery costs.
MANAGEMENT OF THE UNIACKE G-72 INCIDENT
Authors: Gill S. D. , Bonke C. A. , Carter J.
Published: January 2013

During the evening of February 22, 1984, the Uniacke G-72 gas well being drilled 150 nautical miles off Halifax, Nova Scotia, by the semisubmersible drilling rig, Vinland, under contract to Shell Canada Resources, blew out of control, emitting gas and condensate at an estimated rate of 300 bbl per day. During the following 10 days while Shell was assembling personnel, vessels, and equipment for reboarding the rig and initiating well control procedures, a comprehensive environmental monitoring program was put in place. An air, slick, and water column sampling program was initiated to provide information on the physical and chemical properties of the condensate. This paper describes the primary findings of the program that involved the coordination of government, area petroleum operators, and consultants.
SEASONAL RESPONSE OF SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA TO OIL
Authors: Alexander Steve K. , Webb James W.
Published: January 2013

Salt marsh plots located in Galveston Bay, Texas, were treated with oil during November and May, the respective periods of declining and increasing growth for Spartina alterniflora. Four oils (Arabian crude, Libyan crude, No. 6 fuel, and No. 2 fuel) were applied to plots in four ways: no oil (control), 1 liter (L) on sediment, 1.5 L on sediment and lower portions of S. alterniflora, and 2 L on sediment and entire S. alterniflora surfaces. Live plant biomass and residual oil in sediment were determined periodically after oil treatment.

Season did not influence S. alterniflora response to oil when applied to sediment and lower plant portions. In these cases, plant response was similar after November and May applications, with a reduction in live plant biomass observed only for No. 2 fuel oil. Season did influence S. alterniflora response to oil when applied to entire plant surfaces. Completely covering the plant typically caused a longer reduction in live plant biomass after the May application. Again, No. 2 fuel oil caused the greatest decrease in live plant biomass. Long-term effects on live plant biomass were observed through 12 months for No. 2 fuel oil and for complete plant coverage in May, but results of these observations were not related to high concentrations of residual oil in sediment. We believe that long-term effects were the result of initial adverse effects on roots, which slowed plant recovery.
FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES ON THE TOXICITIES OF OILS TO MANGROVES
Authors: Hoi-Chaw Lai , Meow-Chan Feng
Published: January 2013

Field and laboratory studies on the toxicities to mangroves and associated biota of undispersed and chemically dispersed oils are being conducted in Malaysia. Results to date show the following: Most of the oils, both undispersed and dispersed, affect mainly the young Avicennia with heights less than 180 cm in the field. Toxicity to older saplings is less acute. There appear to be few differences in the impact of oils on Avicennia saplings due to tide. When the toxicities of dispersed and undispersed Arab light crude were compared, the following observations were made: most tests show either no significant differences between undispersed and dispersed oils or that undispersed crude is more toxic than dispersed crude, while a small percent show that dispersed crude is more toxic than undispersed crude. When the toxicities of oil types, namely bunker C, Malaysian crude, and Arab light crude, to the saplings were compared, it was found that bunker C was the least toxic, followed first by the Arab light and then the Malaysian crudes. Growth of the commercially important tiger prawn introduced into a flowthrough system four months after an oil spill appeared normal. These animals compared well with those reared in oil-free tanks and those cultured in situ in ponds. Most of the mortality of saplings was probably due to passive surface deposition as well as active uptake. The main accumulation site was leaf tissue as evidenced by GC analysis.
OIL SPILL POLLUTION: THE NORTH SEA EXPERIENCE OF COOPERATIVE MEASURES
Authors: Side Jonathan , Herd Charles , Grogan Wells
Published: January 2013

The North Sea is a relatively small yet intensely used area, rich in various resources. It is bounded by six highly industrialized states and contains the world's busiest shipping channel. It exemplifies the problems of control and management of marine resources, in particular in relation to oil pollution. This paper summarizes major sources of hydrocarbon pollution in the North Sea, discussing the levels and different types of oil pollution arising from different activities.

The international and regional conventions bearing on hydrocarbon pollution in the North Sea are documented with reference to some recent comments on the adequacy of the existing legal regime. Initiatives to improve and develop scientific and technical knowledge and cooperation among North Sea states are examined. Specific measures to establish arrangements for monitoring and remedial action in the event of an oil spill are discussed. The paper also describes the implementation of MARPOL 73/78 for the North Sea, documents European Economic Community responses to oil pollution, and, finally, discusses the most recent initiative, the International North Sea Conference (November 1984) that will address the complex problem of oil pollution in the North Sea.
THE VALUE OF NATURAL RESOURCE PROTECTION PLANS UNDER ACTUAL SPILL CONDITIONS
Authors: Sutherland G. Bruce
Published: January 2013

Since 1979 the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality has cooperated with other resource agencies to develop plans to protect natural resources from oil spills. At present, protection plans have been completed for each of Oregon's three major deepwater estuaries.

Recent large spills in two of the three planning areas have given the state an excellent opportunity to evaluate the usefulness of these plans. Although the two incidents were very different, the protection plans proved to be highly valuable in both situations for similar reasons. First, standardized maps showing resources greatly facilitated communications and response activities. Second, agreed-upon protection responses had been identified for important sensitive resources, allowing decisions to be made smoothly without lengthy interagency discussions. Finally, information in the plans provided a sound basis for predicting spill movement and resource impacts to arrange appropriate protection and cleanup measures.

The people and agencies involved in both spill responses found the plans invaluable not only during the initial crises but throughout the entire response effort. The State of Oregon intends to proceed with further planning to update and refine present plans and develop spill response plans for other coastal areas.
OFFSHORE OIL PRODUCTION IN THE BALTIC SEA: A COASTAL SENSITIVITY STUDY
Authors: Webb Caroline L. F.
Published: January 2013

The Schwedeneck-See oilfield is the first offshore exploration and production operation to be developed in German waters. Due to the close proximity to the shore of the two fixed and unmanned production platforms, there is a strong emphasis on protective and preventive measures against pollution damage to the heavily used beaches and nearshore waters.

This paper reviews the important features of a sensitivity study and shoreline mapping project conducted as part of the contingency arrangements for coastal protection along 62 km of the Baltic Sea. “Sensitive areas” were identified according to coastal use, and areas of risk highlighted on the basis of oil spill trajectories. The main shore types were classified on a scale from 1 to 10 in terms of potential vulnerability to oil spill damage and anticipated difficulties for access and cleanup operations.
NETTING OF VISCOUS OIL
Authors: Delvigne Gerard A. L.
Published: January 2013

Nets are used in oil pollution control activities to separate the oil and water, or as a more easily manageable alternative to impermeable barriers. The threat of oil leakage through nets is inherent to their use. Tests were performed in a laboratory flume, resulting in an empirical equation relating the leaking rate through a net to the oil viscosity, relative net-water velocity, and mesh size. The influence of turbulence and waves was also examined. Indications are given for useful net applications for corralling an oil slick with an unmoored vertical floating net, protecting specific areas with vertical moored nets, and using trawl nets for oil recovery.
ALASKA CLEAN SEAS: MEETING RESPONSE NEEDS FOR 1987 AND BEYOND
Authors: Shafer Richard V.
Published: January 2013

The Alaska Clean Seas organization's spill countermeasures research program continues, with recently completed or ongoing projects addressing spill response chemicals, shoreline habitat protection, bubble barriers, water jet barriers, in situ combustion equipment, and under-ice oil detection. Lack of petroleum exploration activity in the Bering Sea has brought about a decision to place response equipment dedicated for that area in long-term storage. Training schedules have also been adjusted because of reduced activity, but program quality is being maintained. Participating companies continue to enjoy an excellent spill safety record in Alaska, and Alaska Clean Seas has not been required to take part in any actual spill cleanup operations.
UNITED KINGDOM MARINE POLLUTION CONTINGENCY PLANNING—A REVIEW OF THE LAST TWO YEARS
Authors: Stacey Michael L.
Published: January 2013

A report presented two years ago at this Conference described United Kingdom marine pollution contingency planning and a number of changes that had been identified. Progress has been made in these areas and further areas for change have been identified. Responsibility for dealing with marine pollution has been centralized in a Marine Pollution Control Unit, and to this has now been added responsibility for Her Majesty's Coastguard as well as for marine casualties around the U.K., with authority vested in one post—Director, Marine Emergency Operations. Work on developing contingency plans for bulk chemical spills also has begun and some research effort has been redirected from oil spill problems to this area.
OIL POLLUTION RESPONSE ARRANGEMENTS IN AUSTRALIA: THE GOVERNMENT VIEW (INCLUDING AN UPDATE ON DISPERSANT TESTING)
Authors: Brodie Donald
Published: January 2013

Australia has an extensive and varied coastline and 25 major ports. While marine traffic density is significantly less than in North America and European waters, the potential for oil spills nevertheless exists. In 1973, the Australian National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil was established. Its aim was to provide all the elements of a contingency plan designed to respond to oil pollution from ships. The plan brought together the resources of the federal and state governments and the oil industry. A unique funding arrangement, based on the “polluter pays” principle, was established to maintain the currency of the plan. This paper discusses the continuing development of the national plan, its equipment philosophies and training programs. It also discusses in some depth the tests being carried out on dispersants. Multispectral scanning is a comparatively new science in the Australian scene and trials have taken place to develop its use in oil spill operations. Today the Australian government believes a comprehensive set of operational and administrative arrangements exists to respond to the threat of marine oil spills.
A HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL DISPERSANT GUIDELINES FOR ALASKA
Authors: Conway Michael A.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Dispersant Guidelines for Alaska, Cook Inlet Section, were implemented on August 6, 1986, when the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Coast Guard, and Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation signed a Memorandum of Agreement. State and federal agencies, private industry, commercial fishermen, and environmentalists had to work together toward this achievement. Without this cooperative effort, there would be no planning for effective dispersant use in Alaska as a spill control method.
THE EFFECTS OF OIL AND CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OIL ON NATURAL PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITIES
Authors: Scholten M. , Kuiper J.
Published: January 2013

The effects of various crude oils and chemically dispersed oil on natural phytoplankton communities were tested in several experiments using marine mesocosms. Elevated algal biomass concentrations were found in most of the experiments, despite the long-term inhibition of primary productivity per unit chlorophyll. This result is due to reduced grazing upon algae as a consequence of oil-induced mortality of copepods or bivalves. A rapid succession from a diatom-dominated algae community to one dominated by microflagellates can be observed after an oil spill, owing to the more rapid exhaustion of silicate. If silicate is not being exhausted, a prolonged abundance of diatoms is observed. Treatment of oil with dispersant generally will aggravate effects, because of high dissolved oil concentrations in the water.
M/V ALVENUS: ANATOMY OF A MAJOR OIL SPILL1
Authors: Alejandro Anthony C. , Buri Jack L.
Published: January 2013

At 12:36 p.m. on July 30, 1984, the United Kingdom tank vessel Alvenus grounded with catastrophic structural failure in the Calcasieu River Bar Channel about 11 nautical miles south-southeast of Cameron, Louisiana, creating the largest oil spill from a ship ever encountered in the Gulf of Mexico. The vessel's hull buckled and fractured vertically on both the port and starboard sides and across the tank tops in way of its No. 2 port, center, and starboard cargo tanks. Between July 30 and August 4, 1984, the Alvenus discharged approximately 2.7 million gal of viscous Venezuelan Merey and Pilon crude oil into international waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Attempts to contain and recover the oil at sea were rendered ineffective by rough seas and the magnitude of the spill. A well-defined 75-mile slick of oil traveled west from the Alvenus for over 100 miles, arriving on Texas beaches on August 3 and 4 between the town of Gilchrist, and San Luis Pass at the west end of Galveston Island.

Beach cleanup crews were reasonably prepared for the massive influx of oil and were able to remove the oil with only minimal environmental damage. Sensitive inland estuaries were spared by a combination of chance (the oil passed inlets during ebb tides) and prestaged booms. However, economic damage was great, since Galveston's resort beaches were heavily oiled during the height of the tourist season. Damage to the vessel was extensive and estimated at $4.9 million by the vessel's owner. Loss of cargo was estimated at approximately $1.7 million at $26.00 a barrel.

The Coast Guard and cleanup crews encountered a major problem when a large portion of the slick approached the shoreline, absorbed suspended solid particles, and sank in the nearshore surf zones at Galveston Island. No effective method of collecting the oil in the submerged state was discovered. Cleanup crews had to wait until the oil beached itself, a process that took several weeks
MARINE DISPERSANT PROGRAM FOR LICENSING AND RESEARCH IN SAO PAULO STATE, BRAZIL
Authors: Araujo Rosalina P. de A. , Momo Katia , Gherardi-Goldstein Elenita , Nipper Marion Grosze , Wells Peter G.
Published: January 2013

The State of São Paulo has established a program for research on and for licensing of chemical dispersants. The basic factors adopted for evaluation and approval of these products were their composition, efficiency (or effectiveness) and toxicity. Various methods for evaluation have been tested; the Warren Spring method was chosen due to its greater repeatability, rapidity, and lower cost. The U.S. EPA toxicity evaluation procedure with Artemia nauplii was chosen for licensing the products, due to its relative simplicity and repeatability. (A new assay procedure, intended to replace the Artemia test, was initiated with a regional shrimp and is progressing as a research program.) A linked composition/efficiency/toxicity licensing procedure has been developed.
THE KAPODISTRIAS GROUNDING AND OIL SPILL CAPE RECIFE, SOUTH AFRICA
Authors: Lord Desmond A. , Kerley Graham I. H. , Randall Rodney M. , Reddering Jacobus S. V. , Schumann Eckart H. , Bricknell William E. , Rowe Sidney
Published: January 2013

In July 1985, a Panamanian registered bulk carrier, the Kapodistrias ran aground off Cape Recife, South Africa with just over 900 m3 of oil on board as fuel. Some oil was lost to the sea at various stages during the attempted salvage operation. Wind and wave action drove a part of this oil into Algoa Bay, to within 10 km of St. Croix Island which is an important breeding area for jackass penguins (Spheniscus demersus). The effect of oil on the penguin population and the action taken is discussed, as are the immediate uptake and subsequent depuration of hydrocarbons in locally occurring shellfish. No other major environmental damage occurred.

Despite the relatively small size of the spill (500 m3 over 15 days), a significant effect on seabirds was observed, indicating that the influence of an oil spill depends not only on the amount of oil spilled but also on the sensitivity of the environment affected.