bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE ACCOUNTANT-HISTORIANS OF THE INCAS
Authors: Yeakel John A.
Published: June 2017

The quipu was the ingenious, knotted-string device utilized throughout the Incan empire for recording data within the decimal system. Although quipu experts have often been thought of as managerial or governmental accountants, the writings of the early chroniclers of Peru reveal that quipu specialists were more than accountants. Quipucamayocs were also the historians of the Incas.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF GROUP ACCOUNTING IN THE UNITED KINGDOM TO 1933
Authors: Edwards J. R. , Webb K. M.
Published: June 2017

The publication of consolidated accounts is an early example of innovative financial reporting procedures being introduced by U.S. companies before they were adopted in the U.K., where Nobel Industries (1922) is generally cited as the first holding company to prepare economic entity based financial reports. This paper produces evidence which shows that the publication of consolidated accounts, by British companies, began at least as early as 1910. Our research nevertheless confirms the generally held view that U.S. developments occurred earlier, and we explore a range of possible explanations for this phenomenon.
SPIRALING UPWARD: Auditing Methods As Described By Montgomery And His Successors
Authors: Myers John H.
Published: June 2017

Audit emphasis this century has swung away from chasing entries through the books to values being “fairly presented” and then back again. Now, however, what was “chasing entries through the books” has become “verifying internal controls.” This verification is primary evidence that statement values are fair, and comparison of values to “things themselves” is corroborative evidence. Thus, auditors have not gone around in a circle, but in a radically changing environment they have spiraled upward. These conclusions are drawn from a review of the nine editions of Montgomery's Auditing published through 1975 and from the two editions which Montgomery prepared of the Authorized American Edition of Dicksee's Auditing.
THE EVOLUTION AND CURRENT STATE OF FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS AND STANDARDS IN THE NONBUSINESS SECTOR
Authors: Figlewicz Raymond E. , Anderson Donald T. , Strupeck C. David
Published: June 2017

This article presents a condensed history of significant post 1900 developments in nonbusiness financial accounting practices and standards, and highlights some of the major issues in the recent increase in interest and activity in nonbusiness accounting. It includes consideration of federal, state, and local government units along with various types of nongovernmental nonbusiness entities. The initial section of the article traces both the development of fund accounting techniques and the discovery of their inadequacies. Next, the article discusses developments in standard-setting and the search for a sound theoretical foundation. Finally, it presents a current profile of nonbusiness accounting. The article implies that nonbusiness accounting can no longer be treated as a secondary consideration. The nonbusiness sector is a major component of the environment that requires sound financial accounting and reporting standards and practices.
ACCOUNTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER MINES: THE DEVELOPMENT OF COST ACCOUNTING
Authors: Vent Glenn
Published: June 2017

This study found evidence which supports the thesis that cost accounting techniques evolved rapidly during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The cost accounting system employed by the leading mines of the Comstock Lode during the 1870's is compared to a system used in the Cripple Creek district of Colorado during the first decade of the twentieth century. The cost accounting techniques of the mining industry appear to have developed rapidly during this period from crude to sophisticated systems.
A CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW OF THE AUTHORITATIVE LITERATURE ON INTERPERIOD TAX ALLOCATION: 1940–1985
Authors: Rayburn Frank R.
Published: June 2017

In this paper, the authoritative literature is reviewed chronologically to trace the development of interperiod tax allocation from its inception in the early 1940s to late 1985. The study reveals an evolution from acceptance of either the liability, deferred or net-of-tax methods of partial allocation to the deferred method of comprehensive allocation. The FASB's recent endorsement of the liability method of comprehensive allocation suggests a major theoretical shift from accounting policy followed since 1967.
CAPITAL MAINTENANCE: A NEGLECTED NOTION
Authors: Gellein Oscar S.
Published: June 2017

This paper traces in descriptive fashion some of the developments of thought about capital maintenance during this century. The adverse consequences of neglecting the subject are mentioned after a basic review of the concepts. Contrasts among the theories from the United Kingdom and Ireland, Canada, Australia and other countries are also made.
THE SCOTTISH ENLIGHTENMENT AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF ACCOUNTING
Authors: Mepham Michael J.
Published: June 2017

This article outlines the lives and background of the main writers who were active in the 18th century period of ‘Scottish Ascendancy’ in accounting texts. The impressive publications produced by this group are detailed and the question of why this phenomenon should have occurred in Scotland is considered. It is suggested that the Scottish Ascendancy in accounting texts can be considered as part of the achievements of the Scottish Enlightenment and as complementary to the more renowned works in economics, law and philosophy, which are generally recognized as an important component of that movement.
ACCOUNTING “REVOLUTIONS” IN JAPAN
Authors: Someya Kyojiro
Published: June 2017

Japan's rise from a feudalistic economy to a position as a leading industrial power is a result, in part, of two revolutionary changes in its accounting structure. The first change came during the latter part of the nineteenth century as part of the Meiji Government's program of modernization. Various political, economic, and cultural institutions were adopted from the West, among them the double-entry method of bookkeeping; this method gradually replaced very unsatisfactory traditional methods. The second change came after World War II, when the Allied Command set as its objective the destruction of the Zaibatsu-dominated industrial structure and its replacement with a democratic economy, in which industrial capital is accumulated through the participation of investors in a free stock exchange. Such a change demanded a shift in emphasis from stewardship-oriented financial reporting to investor-oriented financial reporting.
THE IRONY OF “THE GOLDEN AGE” OF ACCOUNTING METHODOLOGY
Authors: Mouck Tom
Published: June 2017

Developments in accounting methodology during the 1960s are contrasted with concurrent developments in philosophy of science. The 1960s was a decade characterized by the widespread adoption of “the scientific method” in accounting methodology. The same decade was characterized by the degeneration of any semblance of consensus among philosophers of science regarding the nature of scientific inquiry. The irony of these incongruous but simultaneous developments is highlighted with the intent of weakening the current atmosphere of uncritical reverence for science and “the scientific method” in accounting research. A more contemporary (and more open) view of science — the postempiricist view — also is discussed.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING IN GERMANY: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS
Authors: Coenenberg A. G. , Schoenfeld H. M. W.
Published: June 2017

During the second half of the nineteenth century, managerial accounting development in Germany was based on micro-economic theory. In the twentieth century, the emphasis shifted to techniques and later to determination of “true cost”, resulting in a highly developed system that had a major impact on other European countries. The major difference between the German developments and those in the USA is the separation of cost (consumption/utilization of physical resources) from expenses. After WWII, interest centered on cost theory based on limitational rather than substitutional production functions. Gutenberg demonstrated various cost adaptation patterns as managements responded to output changes and created a sophisticated theory using indirect rather than direct output/cost relationships. This theory is little know in the USA and might stimulate theory research, particularly in the area of activity costing.
INCOME SMOOTHING IN ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS LITERATURE PRIOR TO 1954
Authors: Buckmaster Dale
Published: June 2017

The origin of income smoothing in literature has been attributed to different authors in recent years. However, the attributions have been made based on research using a simple analysis of the term “income smoothing”. This study considers the modern concept of income smoothing rather than simply the term itself. Using this approach, income smoothing is either explicitly or implicitly recognized and discussed in literature long before the aforementioned authors. A lack of awareness has been the primary reason for modern income smoothing research overlooking the earlier literature on the subject. This awareness can be ascribed to weak citation analysis. Therefore, researchers should be more cautious in how they use citation analysis.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE TOWN OFFICER (1791–1815): THE EARLIEST AMERICAN TREATISE ON MUNICIPAL ACCOUNTING?
Authors: Wenzel Loren A. , Tonge Stanley D. , McMickle Peter L.
Published: June 2017

Recent research has produced the earliest known treatise on Accounting written by an American. Samuel Freeman's The Town Officer [1791] is significant in that it recommended double-entry fund accounting for municipalities. The paper analyzes and compares Freeman's objectives of “a plain and regular Method” to modem municipal accounting concepts as articulated by the GASB. Additionally, the entries and the accounts recommended by Freeman are analyzed and compared to modern municipal accounting evidenced in current textbook material. These analyses show The Town Officer to be a significant contribution to accounting literature not only for its 1791 publication date, but also for the similarity of its content to present day municipal accounting objectives and requirements.
EVOLUTION OF CONCEPTS OF MINORITY INTEREST
Authors: Clark Myrtle W.
Published: June 2017

The FASB is currently addressing issues related to accounting for minority interest as a part of the “entity project”. Decisions regarding the measurement and financial statement presentation depend upon the determination of the fundamental nature of minority interest. Alternative views describing the nature of minority interest rely upon alternative equity theories of consolidation. This paper traces the evolution of concepts of minority interest from the early 1900s to the present. The evolution is placed in perspective vis-a-vís the development of relevant corporate theories of equity.
THE CELY SHIPPING ACCOUNTS: ACCOUNTABILITY AND THE TRANSITION FROM ORAL TO WRITTEN RECORDS
Authors: Hooper Keith
Published: June 2017

The records of a voyage from London to Bordeaux during 1486–87 are reviewed. The voyage was the first of a regular pattern of trading voyages conducted on behalf of the Cely family who traded English wheat and wool for Bordeaux wine. This family were fifteenth century London merchants whose accounts and other papers are held by the London Public Record Office. Secondary sources are used to show that by the late fifteenth century many English merchants were attracted to overseas trade, which despite considerable risks, offered the prospect of a good return.

The paper illustrates some features of medieval accounting, especially the problem of accountability and control, when direct oversight was not possible. The expansion of English shipping and overseas trade was accompanied by the development of written records and the replacement of oral systems of accountability common in feudal England.
VOLUNTARY DISCLOSURE IN A NINETEENTH CENTURY AMERICAN CORPORATION: THE DEMISE OF MANAGERIAL INFORMATION AS A SIGNIFICANT ELEMENT OF FINANCIAL REPORTING
Authors: Michael Rodney R.
Published: June 2017

In a report issued in 1994, the Jenkins Committee advocated the integration of managerial statistics, which could be used to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of a firm's management, into financial statements. This study traces the development, and subsequent demise, of similar managerial information within the financial statements of the Quincy Mining Company in the nineteenth century. Two contemporary models for financial disclosure are developed for comparative purposes and it is concluded that the Quincy Mining Company intentionally restricted the information available to shareholders. By clarifying the disclosure practices of a single firm in an unregulated environment, this study provides insights to the origins of modern financial reporting.
EVOLUTION OF PROFESSIONAL ENFORCEMENT IN TEXAS: AN EXAMINATION OF VIOLATIONS AND SANCTIONS
Authors: Harston Mary E. , Welch Sandra T.
Published: June 2017

The purpose of this paper is to examine the enforcement of the Texas Rules of Professional Conduct (Rules) from 1946 to 1978. This period encompasses the early regulation of the Texas accounting profession after the passage of the Texas Public Accountancy Act (Act) in 1945. The Act and accompanying Rules remained in effect until 1979, when the Texas legislature enacted new accountancy legislation which inaugurated a more regulatory era.

Results indicate that enforcement of the Rules of Conduct was a process evolving over time as both the state and professional political systems impacted the behavior of the Texas State Board of Public Accountancy. During the period under study, internal professional competition between certified public accountants and non-certified public accountants surfaced as a substantial explanatory factor behind rule promulgation and enforcement. Violators differed from non-violators in level of education, type of training, and type of practice. In total numbers, certified public accountants were subject to more hearings and sanctions than non-certified public accountants. However, in accordance with expectations, the public accountants received a disproportionate share of alleged violations and sanctions. Violations implying practice incompetence and those impairing professional integrity were subject to more severe disciplinary actions, but the Board heard more competitive behavior allegations than those involving malpractice.
DEFINING AUDITORS' RESPONSIBILITIES
Authors: Young Joni J.
Published: June 2017

This paper explores the efforts of the audit profession to dominate definitions of their roles and responsibilities throughout the last two decades. The paper considers alternative definitions of these roles and responsibilities as forwarded by others and the justifications and defenses provided by auditors to legitimize their conceptions of these matters.
INCOME TAX ALLOCATION: THE CONTINUING CONTROVERSY IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Schultz Sally M. , Johnson Roxanne T.
Published: June 2017

The appropriate means of accounting for income taxes on financial statements has been among the most hotly debated and frequently recycled issues of the past 50 years. This retrospective account begins with the issuance of the first professional standards during the 1930s and 1940s, and illustrates how theoretical arguments, developed in professional and academic journals during the 1950s, were subsequently recycled and revised during later decades. The problems that led to reconsideration of the deferred tax issue by both the APB during the 1960s and the FASB during the 1980s and 1990s are discussed, as are the solutions offered by these standard setters.
THE DAWNING OF THE AGE OF QUANTITATIVE/EMPIRICAL METHODS IN ACCOUNTING RESEARCH: EVIDENCE FROM THE LEADING AUTHORS OF THE ACCOUNTING REVIEW, 1966–1985
Authors: Fleming Robert J. , Graci Samuel P. , Thompson Joel E.
Published: June 2017

This study documents changes that took place in The Accounting Review during 1966–1985 compared with earlier 20-year periods, 1926–1945 and 1946–1965. The comparisons are based on examining the articles published in The Accounting Review and written by its leading authors (i.e., those authors who published the most articles). The article considers topics, research methods, financial accounting subtopics, citation analyses (including influential journals, articles, books, and authors), length, author background, and other items. This study shows that The Accounting Review evolved into a journal with demanding acceptance standards whose leading authors were highly educated accounting academics who, to a large degree, brought methods and tools from other disciplines to bear upon accounting issues.
ANSON O. KITTREDGE: EARLY ACCOUNTING PIONEER
Authors: Romeo George C. , Kyj Larissa S.
Published: June 2017

Leafing through early accounting journals from the last two decades of the 19th century, accounting historians and enthusiasts piece together the history of accountancy in the U.S., yet pay little attention to the editors of these journals who at times almost single-handedly willed their existence, clearing the road for modern accounting journals. Anson O. Kittredge, who was probably the most outstanding and influential editor of the 19th century, was also an author, teacher, CPA examiner, innovator, practitioner, and organizer.
BUILDING THE CANADIAN CHARTERED ACCOUNTANCY PROFESSION: A BIOGRAPHY OF GEORGE EDWARDS, FCA, CBE, LLD, 1861–1947
Authors: Richardson Alan J.
Published: June 2017

George Edwards was a key figure in the creation of the modern institutional structure of accounting in Canada. He worked to implement a vision of accountancy as a profession rather than a business. This was reflected in his commitment to accounting education, to the restriction of entry to the CA profession to those who passed a test of competency, and to his desire to demonstrate the social and ethical value of accounting. He was president of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Ontario, president of the Dominion Association of CAs, and president of the Society of Cost Accountants of Canada. He created one of the major Canadian public accounting firms (Edwards, Morgan & Co.). His contributions were recognized through awards such as the Commander of the Order of the British Empire, an honorary degree from Queen's University, and life memberships in the Institutes of Chartered Accountants of Alberta, Ontario, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. This biography examines his role in shaping the federal/provincial structure of the accounting profession, the development of university-based accounting education programs, the separation of the management and the financial accounting professions, the communications strategies of the profession, and his contributions to government and bank accounting.
RAYMOND J. CHAMBERS' CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF ACCOUNTING THOUGHT
Authors: Al-Hogail Abdulmalik A. , Previts Gary J.
Published: June 2017

Raymond J. Chambers was an internationally recognized scholar, influential theorist, as well as an important contributor to the study of the history of accounting thought. He was an advocate of the needs of financial statement users. He investigated what users, not accountants, considered important and what in fact was relevant to their decision-making. He challenged existing theoretical propositions which he believed were only rationalization of current practices. He argued that the lack of a rigorously developed theory of accounting led to contradictory and less relevant accounting practices. In his theory of continuously contemporary accounting (CoCoA), he demonstrated with logic and evidence that only an accounting system based on market selling prices is relevant to users' evaluation and decision-making process. Chambers dedicated a significant amount of his most recent work to his Thesaurus [1995] and to the origins and developments of conventional accounting. He endeavored to refute the widely held assumption that cost-based accounting is a superior rule. Besides launching Abacus in 1965, his works, Accounting, Evaluation and Economic Behavior [1966] and An Accounting Thesaurus [1995] are among Chambers' notable contributions to the accounting literature.
BECOMING PROFESSIONAL: CHINESE ACCOUNTANTS IN EARLY 20TH CENTURY SHANGHAI
Authors: Xu Yin , Xu Xiaoqun
Published: June 2017

This paper examines the experience of Chinese accountants transforming themselves into a profession during the early 20th century. It delineates how the experience was shaped by an intersection of economic development, the political culture and the nationalist movement in semi-colonial Shanghai. Chinese accountants responded to the daily manifestations of these larger historical forces by combining their professional self-interests with a nationalist agenda and by adapting to the changing political environment. The history and legacy of this experience provides a point of reference for observing the re-emergence of the accounting profession in China since the end of the Maoist era.
THE IMPACT OF WORLD WAR II ON COST ACCOUNTING AT THE SPERRY CORPORATION
Authors: Fleischman Richard K. , Marquette R. Penny
Published: June 2017

The impact of World War II on cost accountancy in the U.S. may be viewed as a double-edged sword. Its most positive effect was engendering greater cost awareness, particularly among companies that served as military contractors and, thus, had to make full representation to contracting agencies for reimbursement. On the negative side, the dislocations of war, especially shortages in the factors of production and capacity constraints, meant that such “scientific management” techniques as existed (standard costing, time-study, specific detailing of task routines) fell by the wayside. This paper utilizes the archive of the Sperry Corporation, a leading governmental contractor, to chart the firm's accounting during World War II. It is concluded that any techniques that had developed from Taylorite principles were suspended, while methods similar to contemporary performance management, such as subcontracting, emphasis on the design phase of products, and substantial expenditure on research and development, flourished.
ACCOUNTING TECHNIQUES IN KOREA: 18TH CENTURY ARCHIVAL SAMPLES FROM A NON-PROFIT ASSOCIATION IN THE SINITIC WORLD
Authors: Jun Seong Ho , Lewis James B.
Published: June 2017

Little is known about pre-1900 East Asian accounting techniques. A double-entry method of accounting may date from the 11th century in Korea, but extant commercial ledgers are no older than 1854. However, extensive accounts of cooperative associations survive from the early 18th century. The Mun Clan Association accounts are examined to reveal their organizing principles and accuracy. The accounts demonstrate a highly accurate system that was intermediate between single-entry and double-entry accounting. While they are not from a commercial house, the accounts display sophisticated bookkeeping techniques designed to maximize rationality within a Confucian moral economy.
THE CREATION OF THE INSTITUTE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA: THE FIRST STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INDIGENOUS ACCOUNTING PROFESSION POST-INDEPENDENCE
Authors: Verma Shraddha , Gray Sidney J.
Published: June 2017

This paper applies the theoretical framework proposed by McKinnon [1986] to the creation of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) which represented an important change to the accounting system in India post-independence. The development of the ICAI is categorized into three phases: source, diffusion, and reaction. Intra-system activity, trans-system activity, and the socio-economic and political environments are shown to influence all stages of the change. Within these phases, the paper focuses on the involvement of the state in the development of the ICAI, credentialism and the importance of the title “chartered,” the disciplinary powers of the ICAI, and the issue of mutual recognition and reciprocity with foreign professional accounting organizations.
EARLY BOOKS ON INVESTING AT THE DAWN OF MODERN BUSINESS IN AMERICA
Authors: Thompson Joel E.
Published: June 2017

The purpose of this study is to enhance understanding of early investment practices and the role financial and other information played in those practices. The primary method employed is to examine early books on investing published in the U.S. Early authors described stock market operations including manipulations of security prices by the bulls and the bears. Their solution to this manipulation was to educate investors and provide company information, mostly through directories and manuals. This study shows that financial and other information was thought by the authors to be critically important at the time that the securities markets were first called upon to provide capital to the railroad industry, the first modern business in America.
“THE BEST BRAINS OF THE PUBLIC ACCOUNTING WORLD”: THE RESTRICTED MEMBERSHIP OF THE ARMY ACCOUNTANCY ADVISORY PANEL, 1942–1945
Authors: Cobbin Phillip E.
Published: June 2017

The events threatening to engulf Australia as the Japanese imperial forceS continued their push through southeast Asia caused enormous concern for the Department of the Army as civilian and uniformed staff struggled to cope with large increases in manpower and expenditure responsibilities. The department moved, in January 1942, to create an expert panel of accountants to provide advice with a view to overcoming these problems. This paper focuses uniquely on a small group of individuals brought together for their expertise in accounting drawn exclusively from the practitioner ranks of the Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia. The paper draws attention to the fact that, while several of those invited to serve had “inside” knowledge and experience during World War I (1914–1918), only those holding the designation of chartered accountant were invited to participate, seemingly ignoring the great potential available from the wider profession of the day.
OUTLIERS IN THE PROFESSIONAL PROJECT OF VICTORIAN PUBLIC ACCOUNTANCY: DAVID SOUTER ROBERTSON, CHARTERED ACCOUNTANT
Authors: Lee Thomas A.
Published: June 2017

The first and most specific purpose of this paper is to contrast the private and public lives of a founder of modern public accountancy to illustrate the ambiguity of an outlier in the history of a professional project. A second and more general purpose is to use the founder's personal history to identify archival issues in biographical accounting research. A historical outlier such as Scottish Chartered Accountant David Souter Robertson (DSR) demonstrates how research of the professional project of Victorian public accountants is enhanced by the inclusion of private as well as public aspects of their lives. Set in the context of the early British public accountancy associations and unsuccessful outliers among their members, the study of DSR focuses on his insolvency at a time when the newly formed associations were facing the issue of setting ethical standards to cope with unsuccessful outliers in their professional projects. The case of DSR illustrates specific problems facing accounting biographers when accessing public archives of the Victorian period.
OBJECTIVES OF FINANCIAL REPORTING, ABORIGINAL COST, AND POOLING OF INTERESTS ACCOUNTING
Authors: Nurnberg Hugo
Published: June 2017

Through the years, pooling of interest accounting was criticized as contrary to the decision usefulness objective of financial reporting and potentially misleading to stockholders and creditors, the assumed principal users of financial reports. This paper does not dispute those criticisms. It demonstrates, however, that there were some very good reasons for permitting pooling accounting for certain business combinations when the method was developed in the 1940s. At that time, the basic objectives of financial accounting encompassed stewardship and decision usefulness for multiple users, including public utility regulators and public policy makers. Pooling accounting developed in part to satisfy the information needs of public utility regulators who favored aboriginal (original historical) cost to determine the utility rate base; additionally, it was favored by public policy makers who sought lower utility rates (prices) to foster social and economic goals.
EXAMINING FRANK ADAIR JR. AS AN AFRICAN AMERICAN CPA PIONEER: A HISTORICAL NOTE
Authors: Hollingsworth Keith
Published: June 2017

In 1932, Frank Adair Jr. achieved his Certified Public Accountant (CPA) status as the sixth African American CPA in the US and only the second in the Deep South. Although his active professional career was brief (5 years), it typifies not only the difficulty experienced by an African American achieving this designation in the Jim Crow South, but also the factors that were necessary for such an achievement to occur in that time period. First, Adair Jr. practiced in a dynamic and vibrant segregated business community. Second, he was educated at a black college. An African American who wanted to stay in the Deep South would have had no other option. Third, he benefitted from a strong professional mentoring relationship that enabled him to forge his career path. Inadvertently, Adair Jr. was omitted from the 1990 NABA report of the first one hundred African American CPAs. This historical note seeks to correct that omission.
O. TEN HAVE (1899–1974)
Authors: Van Seventer A.
Published: June 2017

Onko ten Have's contribution to the literature on accounting history is especially important because of the otherwise scant coverage of the accounting development in the Low Countries during the 17th and 18th centuries. Other writings of this little-known Dutch author include a study of the life and work of Stevin and essays on general history of accounting. Ten Have's writings reflect his strong interests in economics, statistics, and related fields. He deserves to be ranked with the leading Continental accounting historians of his time.
SOME INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF COST ACCOUNTING
Authors: Wells M. C.
Published: June 2017

The influence of engineers on the development of cost accounting in the closing decades of last century has been well recognized. The influence of economists, the retarding effects of an obsession with industrial secrecy, and some curious effects of competition and the lack of it have not been fully explored. These matters are examined in this paper, together with some of the consequences of the efficiency movement, as seen in the costing system developed by Alexander Hamilton Church. The strengths and weaknesses of present-day cost accounting are related to this early period of development.
AN EMERGING CONCEPT OF INCOME PRESENTATION
Authors: Kiger Jack E. , Williams Jan R.
Published: June 2017

This article reviews the development of income presentation found in the authoritative accounting pronouncements since 1941. During this period, within the historical cost reporting model for presentation of income, emphasis has shifted from the all-inclusive concept of net income and the current operating performance concept to a hybrid approach which substantially incorporates the two concepts.
THE ACCOUNTANT'S RESPONSIBILITY FOR DISCLOSING BRIBERY: AN HISTORICAL NOTE
Authors: Brief R. P.
Published: June 2017

In the late nineteenth century The Accountant reported on a case where the auditors looked at the mattery of bribery “straight in the face” and disclosed the illegal payments in the audit certificate. However, subsequent discussion of the accountant's responsibility for disclosing bribery in an 1899 lecture, “Secret Profits,” showed that there was no unanimity of opinion on the accountant's responsibility in this area. The problem is obviously a continuing one.
THE AIA'S SPECIAL BULLETIN SERIES AND ITS EARLY GUIDANCE ON TAX ISSUES RELATED TO DEPRECIATION, 1920–1929
Authors: Lang Teresa Kay , Heier Jan Richard
Published: June 2017

When the final state ratified the 16th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1913, levying taxes directly on individual incomes became a reality and opened up expanded taxation on businesses. For example, the supporting legislation allowed for the deduction of wear and tear on equipment as a business expense based on the service lives. Unfortunately for the tax preparer, there was no clear meaning of wear and tear and the interpretation of the of service lives in the legislation. With little or no guidance to CPA tax preparers and their clients, it was inevitable that Bureau of Internal Revenue examiners would question returns with such deductions. To help its members to understand better, the new law and the ever-increasing complexity of accounting issues related to it, the American Institute of Accountants began to publish the Special Bulletin Series in January 1920. Many of the answers present in the Bulletins between 1920 and 1929 solved accounting and tax problems in ways still used nearly a century later.
DONALDSON BROWN (1885–1965): THE POWER OF AN INDIVIDUAL AND HIS IDEAS OVER TIME
Authors: Flesher Dale L. , Previts Gary John
Published: June 2017

Donaldson Brown developed the expanded Return on Investment (ROI) measure, or DuPont formula, in l914. However ROI was not Brown's only contribution to financial management. His dealer ten-day reporting system was widely and rapidly adopted throughout the auto industry. His ideas to support a variety of forecasting and planning techniques supported decentralized corporate management and his pricing processes were cutting-edge developments that others tried to emulate. Flexible budgeting at General Motors, frequently unrecognized, also was in place during his financial administration in the early l920s.

ROI remains Brown's most prominent contribution and the technique achieved status as a dominant approach to financial management in industrial corporations by the l950s. As a national standard-of-performance measure, it was supported by varying sources including the American Management Association as well as in the teaching materials of academics, especially Robert N. Anthony of the Harvard Business School. The impact of these forms of dissemination led to ROI being adopted eventually at the Ford Motor Company when its previously autocratic centralized style of Ford family management was replaced by a team known as the Whiz Kids, led by Harvard Business School alumnus Robert McNamara and a former GM vice president, Earnest Breech. This paper asserts the significance of the innovations developed by Brown as being among the most important of those initiated in 20th century corporate America, and thus among the most important in the development of 20th century accounting and financial management thought.
PREPARING AN ACCOUNTING PROFESSIONAL: THE ARTICLES OF CLERKSHIP (1892–1897) OF GEORGE OLIVER MAY
Authors: Flesher Dale L. , Previts Gary J.
Published: June 2017

George O. May, one of, if not ‘the’ leading spokesman for the American Institute of CPAs for most of his lifetime, was the product of British education and an articled clerkship. This paper reviews the features and information about May's clerkship (indentureship) articles, including aspects of what is now called professional responsibility. Also mentioned are selected highlights and sources related to his career in public accounting, including his ‘cameo’ role at the l904 World Congress of Accountants in St. Louis where he participated with prominent leaders of the emerging United States CPA community, including Staub, Sterrett, Montgomery, and Sells, as well as his countrymen Pixley and Dickinson [Official Record, p. 164].

This study of George O. May's preparation provides details about a relatively unnoticed chapter in the career of an individual who was among the first group of inductees, in l950, along with William A. Paton and Robert H. Montgomery, to the Accounting Hall of Fame at The Ohio State University. Additionally, May's clerkship requirements are indicative of the role of professional responsibility in the decade before the turn of the twentieth century.
REGULATORY, ACCOUNTING AND BUSINESS PRACTICES CONCERNING THE SUTLER AT FORT ABERCROMBIE, DAKOTA TERRITORY
Authors: Bowlin William F. , Herda David N.
Published: June 2017

This study explores the accounting and business practices of a fort sutler on the western frontier in the mid-19th century and how these practices were regulated by the U.S. Army. The fort sutler operated a store on the Army post with the permission of the fort commander. The sutler had sole authority to sell certain items to soldiers on the post. He sold items that soldiers desired but were not provided by the Army. Although the sutler's store was a civilian operation, he played an important role in supporting soldiers stationed on the frontier and enhanced the effectiveness of frontier military operations. This research reviews and summarizes relevant military regulations of the period in addition to documentary evidence emanating from Fort Abercrombie (North Dakota) to learn more about the accounting and business operations of this important figure of the American frontier.
SYMBOLIC VERSUS SUBSTANTIVE REGULATORY DISCLOSURE REQUIREMENTS: THE CASE OF FORD MOTOR COMPANY IN THE EARLY 1900s
Authors: Becker D'Arcy , Orwig Marcy , Pernsteiner Aimee
Published: June 2017

Companies have used accounting-related standards and regulations to disseminate useful information to stakeholders and decision-makers for the past century. These requirements can be categorized along a continuum from useful and important on one end (substantive) to completely irrelevant on the other (symbolic). This paper follows disclosures from 1904–1924 by Ford Motor Company made in compliance with a 1903 annual report law in the State of Michigan. Results show that the regulation was somewhat symbolic from the standpoint of the State of Michigan, as demonstrated by the lack of information required and the inability to make comparisons or verify the information. However, it was also somewhat substantive from the standpoint of members of the general public, as evidenced by newspaper reports of lawsuits during the time.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TOTALS COLUMN ON THE COMBINED BALANCE SHEET FOR STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE 20th CENTURY
Authors: Kinnersley Randall L.
Published: June 2017

This study examines the historical development during the 20th century of the totals column reported on the financial statement that reported assets, liabilities, and equity for all funds of state and local governments (SLGs) within the United States. This research documents the evolution of accounting standards that addressed the totals column. SLG accounting professionals and standards-setters debated whether it was appropriate for SLGs to report a combined totals column throughout the century. The totals column was optional or forbidden in some reporting standards. Other SLG standards permitted a totals column, but always with reservation. A consolidated totals column was never acceptable until Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) Statement 34. Statement 34, issued in 1999, required SLGs to report all primary government funds in a single consolidated totals column on a new Statement of Net Assets. The Statement of Net Assets was the first time users were able to assess the financial position of the SLG primary government in a single consolidated column. This study provides the historical developments that led to this major revision in SLG financial reporting.
THE OLDEST GERMAN BOOKKEEPING TEXT
Authors: Inoue Kiyoshi
Published: June 2017

This article brings to light the neglected contribution of Grammateus, the author or Ayn New Kunstlich Buech (A New Skill Book) which, although basically a mathematics text, contained a section on bookkeeping in the style of Paciolo's Summa. His work is analyzed to prove the technical competence and the historical nature of the bookkeeping system which he propounded. In order to substantiate the conclusions, the full translation of the first edition (1521) is included in modern English.
STANDARD COSTING AND SClENTlFlC MANAGEMENT
Authors: Hallbauer Rosalie C.
Published: June 2017

Many have suggested that scientific management had a direct influence on the development of standard costing. This paper examines the relationship between these concepts in broad terms. While it is concluded that no direct relationship exists between scientific management and standard costing, the existence of an indirect relationship is acknowledged. Scientific management does not require any specific type of accounting system and standard costing does not require a certain type of management organization to operate. However, certain reports developed for the scientifically managed enterprise, when added to the germs of standard costing that existed, expedited the evolution of standard costing.
GEORGE WASHINGTON AS AN ACCOUNTANT
Authors: Cloyd Helen M.
Published: June 2017

George Washington's interest in bookkeeping began in 1747 when at the age of 15 he started his first ledger and lasted until his death in 1799. His bookkeeping records span a period of fifty years. This manuscript reveals a unique side to President Washington's personality and recounts his inherent desire for accuracy and honesty in all dealings.
ACCOUNTING IN THE BIBLE
Authors: Hagerman Robert L.
Published: June 2017

This paper traces several accounting concepts in the Bible. In particular, the Bible discusses the objectives of accounting, internal control procedures and managerial accounting topics. This paper links the Bible to current accounting thought.
THE EVOLUTION OF APB OPINION NO. 17 ACCOUNTING FOR INTANGlBLE ASSETS; A STUDY OF THE U.S POSITION ON ACCOUNTING FOR GOODWILL
Authors: Andrews Wesley T.
Published: June 2017

The paper traces the development of the current valuation concept of goodwill from 1900 to 1970, when the present position was articulated. The paper suggests that there may be alternative bases for goodwill valuation and concludes that additional research is needed on the subject.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUDITING STANDARDS IN AUSTRALIA
Authors: Gibson Robert W. , Arnold Roger
Published: June 2017

The development of auditing standards in Australia occurred in three phases. The primary professional initiatives have come from the Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia.

The first phase was marked by F. E. Trigg's presentation to the Australian Congress on Accounting in 1948. In this work Trigg relied heavily on English practice and thought.

The second phase was largely a period of inactivity so far as auditing standards were concerned because of concern for other matters of greater urgency.

The third phase was marked by the adoption of American ideas and, partly in response to continuing criticism of accounting, a commitment to the continuing review of auditing standards.
THE ACCOUNTING RECORDS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY
Authors: Baladouni Vahé
Published: June 2017

The rather extensive and complex collection of accounting and related materials of the East India Company may be viewed in four distinct periods. Paradoxically, the first period (1600–1663) is marked by an absence of account books. The second period (1664–1697), however, provides us with a near-complete set of books. The maintenance of three separate sets of accounting records distinguishes the third period (1698–1712) when three East India Companies (London, English, United) were operating simultaneously. From around 1712 until final liquidation of the Company in 1858 - fourth and last archival period - record keeping assumed certain features of modern accounting.
NOTE ON THE FIRST RECORDED AUDIT IN THE BIBLE
Authors: Davis Harry Zvi
Published: June 2017

According to an early commentary on the Bib e, Joseph is the first auditor of accounting records in the Bible.
RECALLING GEORGE OLIVER MAY AND ME
Authors: Paton William A.
Published: June 2017

A recollection of the author's contacts with his friend George Oliver May. These personal insights provide an added dimension to the previous article, “May and Paton: Two Giants Revisited,” authored by Henry Francis Stabler and Norman X. Dressel.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF PROPERTY AND DEPRECIATION ACCOUNTING IN MUNICIPAL ACCOUNTING
Authors: Potts James H.
Published: June 2017

Generally accepted accounting principles require the exclusion of permanent property and the non-recognition of depreciation in most governmental funds. Although this issue was settled in the early 1930s fervent debate continued as to the merits of this practice from 1895 to around 1925. Several prominent accountants argued for the inclusion of permanent property and the recognition of depreciation in governmental funds during this earlier period.
“THREEFOLD BOOKKEEPING” BY MATTHÄUS SCHWARZ
Authors: Inoue Kiyoshi
Published: June 2017

In 1518, when nothing but Paciolo's “Summa” had been printed in the world of bookkeeping, Matthäus Schwarz, who was a bookkeeper of the Fuggers, wrote a manuscript on bookkeeping known as “Threefold Bookkeeping.” This manuscript showed an illustration of three kinds of bookkeeping methods, of which the first and second methods aroused the most interest and research in ways of comparison with one another. This paper will attempt to show how the first and second methods are an integrated part of and incorporated into the third method of “Threefold Bookkeeping” system as a whole: and to exemplify the superiority that “bookkeeping in practice” has to “bookkeeping in text.”
Editorial
Authors: Narváez Agudelo Aura Elvira
Published: June 2017

Se presenta el editorial del v81n1 2017
THE PARTICIPATION OF THE LOCAL ORTHODOX CHURCHES IN THE PREPARATORY PROCESS OF THE HOLY AND GREAT SYNOD – PREREQUISITE FOR THE RECEPTION OF ITS DECISIONS
Authors: IONIȚĂ Viorel
Published: June 2017

In this paper, the author emphasises the preparation, the proceedings and the reception process of the Holy and Great Council, that is one of the most complex radiographies of the Orthodox Church evolution out of a late Middle Ages to the present postmodern challenges. All these challenges have shown that the identity of the Orthodox Church is ensured through her faith transmitted through the Orthodox worship, which is the written expression of the Holy Tradition.
“De la metáfora náhuatl: la construcción de la divinidad en dos textos sahaguntinos”
Authors: C. Zinni Mariana
Published: June 2017

Fecha de recepción: 17 de agosto de 2012.Fecha de aceptación: 20 de mayo de 2013. En este trabajo me interesa analizar la noción de dios/teútl en dos textos sahaguntinos en tanto que construcción metonímica para propiciar un entendimiento doctrinal profundo entre dos mundos hermenéuticos distintos: el cristiano y el nahua. El objetivo de tal construcción será intentar una evangelización más eficaz, promover una conquista y ordenación de los esquemas cognitivos ajenos, por medio de la concreción de metáforas inéditas. Propongo estudiar una reactualización del concepto de “mimesis por adecuación”; revisar la intervención de Sahagún y, así, pensar un espacio semántico abierto y peligroso para pre-decir -o decir por primera vez-- en una situación de evangelización.
Animal Learned Genetic Cognition and the Limits of Anthropomorphic Approach
Authors: AVALYAN Rima , DJIDJIAN Robert
Published: June 2017

This article discusses the cognitive function of instincts in animal world. The undertaken research demonstrates that the formation of individual’s ability for a certain (complex) action requires having a corresponding specific inborn genetic capacity – the scheme of instinct for that action. Using anthropomorphic approach and the critical verification of its application, authors of this article have revealed the elementary inborn cognitive capacities lying at the basis of the main types of animals’ learned behavior. Special attention is given to the inborn mechanism of animal learning by imitation. The suggested conception of the schemes of instinctive behavior is applied to the analysis of the level of cognitive skills that could be achieved by exercising and training.