bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Archaeology
Authors: Whitley James
Published: February 2013

This article emphasizes that no ancient artefact can speak to people in isolation; rather, one has to consider the ‘patterns’ of occurrence, and the dialogue they establish with other forms of evidence, such as textual evidence. The artefacts people have are partly determined by the decisions of archaeologists, and so is the knowledge of the context in which they were discovered. Archaeology is a particular form of historical enquiry. However, what the word ‘archaeology’ actually entails in the field of Hellenic studies is far from clear. There are three areas of ambiguity: the range of material objects that archaeology examines; the question of whether ‘classical archaeology’ is a distinct sub-discipline, an archaeology apart; and the question of the spatial and temporal scope of archaeology within the field of ‘Hellenic studies’.
Diplomacy
Authors: Scott Hamish
Published: February 2013

The era of the French Revolution, and specifically the later 1780s and 1790s, saw the modern meanings first of “diplomatic” and then “diplomacy” become established in the political lexicon. A century before, when the Maurist monk Jean Mabillon wrote De re diplomatica (1681), his masterpiece devoted to the science of documents and the historical method, the term still retained its traditional meaning: relating to the study of diplomas or other documents. At this period the peaceful conduct of relations between states was known as “negotiations” (négociations ), a term which long continued to be employed. During the later eighteenth century, however, the terms “diplomatic” and “diplomacy” took on their present-day meaning both in French and in English. The Irish political journalist and British MP, Edmund Burke, did most to make the word familiar to Anglophone readers. In the Annual Register for 1787 he wrote of “civil, diplomatique [sic] and military affairs,” while a decade later, in one of his celebrated Letters on a Regicide Peace, he spoke of the French regime's “double diplomacy.” By shortly after 1800, the term was becoming established.
Revolution
Authors: Rapport Michael
Published: February 2013

This article describes many facets of the French Revolution. The French Revolution introduced parliamentary government to France, but it was only “an apprenticeship in democracy,” the first step towards modern, democratic politics, not its consummation. François Furet has controversially argued that the values and practices of democracy were not definitively embedded in France until the consolidation of the Third Republic in the 1870s, which he describes as “the French Revolution coming into port.” A continuing focus of research, therefore, are the ways in which the people entered politics outside the formal processes, namely in the dramatic expansion in civil society, which had been developing since the mid-eighteenth century, but which in the Revolution flowered with the collapse of censorship, empowering a wide cross-section of French society.
Development of Comparative Law in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria
Authors: Schwenzer Ingeborg
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview both of the development of comparative law as a field of research, and of its impact on legal changes in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. It focuses on the development of comparative law in the field of the law of obligations. The second section deals with the long nineteenth century. The third section considers the golden age of comparative law, which covers the period of the Weimar Republic. The fourth section discusses the ‘dark age’ of the 1930s and the first half of the 1940s. The fifth section describes recovery and post-war developments until the end of the cold war. The final section focuses on attempts to unify the law and on new approaches to comparative law which have gained in importance in the course of the Europeanization of private law.
Comparative Law and Comparative Knowledge
Authors: Jansen Nils
Published: February 2013

Methodological investigations should abstain from normatively imposing one's own epistemological interests on others. This article analyses different forms of comparison and comparative knowledge in order to clarify these ideas. Two lessons may be particularly important for the comparative lawyer. First, historical linguistics reminds other comparative disciplines not to be content with judgments of similarity. Unearthing genetic relations between different systems may add considerably to comparative knowledge. The second lesson concerns the conceptual and theoretical structure of tertia comparationis. Of course, lawyers have always been aware of the fact that comparison may entail the necessity of developing suitable instruments for neutrally describing the legal systems compared. But compared to practitioners of comparative religion or comparative history, lawyers have made relatively little progress in this regard.
Comparative Law and the Islamic (Middle Eastern) Legal Culture
Authors: Mallat Chibli
Published: February 2013

This article examines comparative law in Islamic legal culture. The first section discusses the comparative framework in Islamic law and civilization. The second section describes the rule of law in the prism of the legal profession. The third section discusses the notions of public and private in issues such as constitutions, contracts and torts, and family law. A millennium and a half after the Islamic revelation, unrest and violence associated with the Islamic/Middle Eastern world make one wonder, from a comparative perspective, whether West and East are not on a collision course precisely because of their diametrically opposed concepts of law. On the Western side, law is associated with nation-states and their territory; on the Islamic/Middle Eastern side, law is dominated by the personal dimension, defined on the basis of religion and even sect within that religion.
Comparative Law and Religion
Authors: Berman Harold J.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the link between comparative law and religion. The first section examines the scholarly literature on interrelationships of comparative law and religion, which is skimpy, to say the least. The second section examines religious influence on diverse families of law. The third section looks at the impact of civil religions on law. The fourth section discusses religious dimensions of law. The fifth section considers the relationship between world law and world religion.
Comparative Law and Socio-legal Studies
Authors: Riles Annelise
Published: February 2013

The article begins by describing some shared ancestral figures of both comparative law and socio-legal studies, and the conundrums they have left to both fields. It then turns to the divisions between socio-legal studies and comparative law. It qualifies this account of disciplinary division with a description of two important areas of research — non-European comparative law and legal pluralism. The discussion describes the new rapprochement between the fields, and outlines a series of foci of active debate. These include the nature of legal pluralism under conditions of globalization, the character of legal culture, the causes and prospects of legal transplants, and the consequences of legal harmonization. From this point of view, the article outlines a number of points of general agreement between comparative lawyers and socio-legal scholars in hopes that the debate on these particular points can now be put to rest.
Comparative Property Law
Authors: Van Erp Sjef
Published: February 2013

The number of studies in comparative property law has recently been growing as a result of efforts to harmonize, or unify, certain aspects of property law in areas crucial for international business transactions. Increasing regional and global economic integration has led to a growing awareness that the divergence of legal rules may lead to inefficiency and raise transactions costs. In Europe the four economic freedoms (free movement of goods, persons, services, and capital), laid down in the treaty establishing the European Community, have a growing influence on property law. Comparative property law, once considered to be fairly static, is turning into an increasingly dynamic field of law. This is to a considerable degree a consequence of European and global economic integration, and the resulting legal integration. The national property laws, whether belonging to the civilian or the common law tradition, will all be affected by this change.
Comparative Criminal Law
Authors: Dubber Markus D.
Published: February 2013

The first section of this article describes criminal law's parochialism. The second section discusses the histories and functions of comparative criminal law. The third section discusses selected topics in comparative law, such as punishment theory, victims, jurisdiction, the principle of legality, an analysis of criminal liability, and general principles of criminal liability. The last section discusses comparative criminal law in context. The discussion notes that comparative criminal law is best seen as one way to gain critical distance from a given system of criminal law by placing it within a larger context.
Music and meaning
Authors: Cross Ian , Tolbert Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of theories of meaning that have been, and that may be, applicable to investigating music, particularly its cognitive dimensions. Some theories have had more impact on the scientific exploration of music's significance than others, which have been unduly neglected. Theoretical and empirical research into musical meaning is still at an early stage within the cognitive sciences; it is important that multiple perspectives on meaning in music, particularly those emerging from the study of music in non-Western contexts, are taken fully into account in future explorations of musical meaning within the cognitive sciences.
The neurobiological basis of musical expectations
Authors: Trainor Laurel J. , Zatorre Robert J.
Published: February 2013

This article explores how the auditory system processes incoming information and generates perceptual representations that allow it to make predictions about future sound events from past context, and how music appears to make use of this general processing mechanism. It focuses on expectation formation in auditory cortex because this is where the most research has been done, but there is also evidence for prediction mechanisms at subcortical levels and at levels beyond sensory areas. The article presents a framework for thinking about the neurological basis of expectation and prediction in musical processing using selected examples.
Disorders of Musical Cognition
Authors: Stewart Lauren , Kriegstein Katharina von , Bella Simone Dalla , Warren Jason D. , Griffiths Timothy D.
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of case studies of acquired disorders of musical listening. Like any cognitive faculty, music is multifaceted, and the identification of the neural basis of any complex faculty must proceed, hand in hand, with an elucidation of its cognitive architecture. The past decade has seen an evolution in the theoretical models of musical processing, allowing the development of theoretically motivated instruments for the systematic evaluation of musical disorders. Such developments have allowed reports of musical disorders to evolve from historical anecdotes to systematic, verifiable accounts that can play a critical role in contributing to our understanding of the cognitive neuroscience of music.
Musical potential
Authors: McPherson Gary , Hallam Susan
Published: February 2013

An ongoing controversy persists regarding the extent of individual variability in musical potential and the extent to which observable differences in acquiring musical skills result from social contexts that facilitate learning, genetic factors, or interactions between the two. This article outlines key elements of these debates and considers how ‘musical potential’ has been assessed. It argues that what children are born withenablesrather thanconstrainswhat they will eventually be able to achieve. While a range of generalized abilities may come into play when learning music, a host of environmental and personal catalysts work in combination with teaching and learning processes to develop particular types of talent. These talents form the basis of the many professional, amateur, and informal forms of meaningful engagement that individuals can have with music.
The role of the family in supporting learning
Authors: Creech Andrea
Published: February 2013

Powerful images of musicians' parents have been immortalized in accounts of the lives of many iconic figures in Western music. Parents have been depicted as exerting enormous influence on their children's musical development, as in the cases of Mozart, Clara Schumann, and, more recently, Yehudi Menuhin and Jacqueline du Pré, to name but a few. At the other end of the spectrum are exceptional accounts of musicians who attained high levels of expertise and musical intelligence without parental support, as in the case of Louis Armstrong. This article considers these ‘intermediaries’ and suggests ways in which parents may most constructively support their children's musical development.
The role of the institution and teachers in supporting learning
Authors: Welch Graham , Ockelford Adam
Published: February 2013

This article discusses how learning and teaching in music are shaped by processes outside the individual, not least because of the influences of group membership (allied to age and gender), performance expectations and practices, and professional and institutional cultures. The process of individual induction into the characteristics of a particular musical culture by teachers and institutions influences the formation of identities in music, for better or for worse, at least in terms of dominant models within the culture. Indeed, the development of music teachers themselves can be seen within an activity system, i.e. the teacher's understanding of their role is developed both by informal personal reflection of the experience of performance and their own learning, and, more systematically, through their own induction process by attendance at a specialist, pedagogically focused institution.
Emotion in music performance
Authors: Juslin Patrik N.
Published: February 2013

There are several features that we have come to expect from an expert performance: technical mastery, confidence, originality, flexibility, and a true understanding of the musical style. Yet the feature that both performers and listeners appear to regard as the most important is that the performer is expressive. The most-loved artists are commonly the ones that are able to express and evoke emotions in listeners. Previous studies have mainly concerned how performers express emotions, and this article focuses on this question. The article first provides working definitions of key concepts (e.g. expression, communication), and considers how performers conceive of these issues. It then reviews up-to-date evidence on how performers express emotions. Finally, the article proposes directions for future research.
Musical improvisation
Authors: Ashley Richard
Published: February 2013

Musical improvisation is, to many in the Western world, an activity shrouded in mystery. Most listeners are familiar with some genres of music in which improvisation is a commonplace, such as rock and other popular styles, jazz, or perhaps ‘ethnic’ musics – that is to say, composed or improvised ‘traditional’ musics falling outside the typical Western canons. Therefore listeners are aware that many musicians can, and routinely do, produce novel musical utterances in real time. The question for most them is ‘How is improvisation carried out?’ With this formulation of the question, musical improvisation becomes a suitable topic for psychological investigation, focusing on cognitive, physical, and interpersonal processes, and on the musical structures on which these processes operate. This article seeks to bring together the literature on musical improvisation that will be of interest and benefit to those wishing to know more about it from a cognitive perspective.
Choosing to hear music
Authors: Sloboda John , Lamont Alexandra , Greasley Alinka
Published: February 2013

A substantial amount of music listening in contemporary Western society is deliberately chosen. This article reviews what is known about the psychology of self-chosen exposure to musical performances of others (recorded or live). The research reviewed is organized by the functional niche that the music is chosen to be part of. Six main niches appear in the literature. These are travel (e.g. driving a car, walking, using public transport); physical work (everyday routines such as washing, cleaning, cooking, and other forms of manual labour); brain work (e.g. private study, reading, writing, and other forms of thinking); body work (e.g. exercise, yoga, relaxation, pain management); emotional work (e.g. mood management, reminiscence, presentation of identity); and attendance at live-music-performance events as an audience member. Within these niches, four recurring functions of self-chosen music use are also identified: distraction, energizing, entrainment, and meaning enhancement.
Music in performance arts
Authors: Cohen Annabel J.
Published: February 2013

This article considers the psychology of music in the contexts of performance arts, in particular the arts of the moving image, drama, and dance. Research in the psychology of music far exceeds psychological research in any of the other arts. Within music psychology, research on the role of music in film and television constitutes a small but vibrant subdomain. The growing research on the psychology of film music reveals that the role of music in the context of other performance arts is amenable to psychological investigation. Similar progress can be envisioned for a psychology of music in theatre and dance, where foundations are fortunately beginning to emerge.
Peak experiences in music
Authors: Whaley John , Sloboda John , Gabrielsson Alf
Published: February 2013

Musical-peak experiences are a significant component of the lives of many people. They are powerful, valued, have lasting effects, and – for some – are a reason for continued engagement with music. This article highlights research on the peak experience, emphasizing literature focusing on music-specific peaks. After outlining four studies fundamental to the study of peaks in music, a section discusses precursors to peaks and proposed differences between those who have achieved peaks and those who have not. A section on the cognitive, perceptual, emotional, and physical phenomena associated with peak experiences is thenfollowed by an investigation on the after-effects of peaks. Next, a section discussing methodologies for the investigation of musical-peak experiences highlights the possibilities and difficulties of this work. Finally, a brief section summarizes the contents of the article and looks towards the future of research in this field.
Musical identities
Authors: MacDonald Raymond , Hargreaves David J. , Miell Dorothy
Published: February 2013

This article presents a number of key themes relating to the concept of musical identities. It provides a definition of identity, with a discussion of why identity is a timely topic for consideration. The article then presents an overview of a series of studies investigating musical identities of jazz musicians. These highlight the utility of qualitative techniques, and in particular focus-group and semi-structured interview methods, for understanding how professional musicians construct their identities in relation to both their musical activities and wider psychological and cultural issues. The article looks next at how theories of motivation and the self can help to explain some of the behavioural aspects of musical identities. It provides evidence that children's self-concepts, and in particular their levels of confidence (both of which are related to musical identities), can influence the rate of musical development and musical achievement, drawing briefly on a study which compares the views of pupils, parents, and teachers about what it is to be ‘good at music’.
The effects of music in community and educational settings
Authors: Hallam Susan , MacDonald Raymond
Published: February 2013

This article reviews the literature that has explored the ways in which music may have benefits beyond those associated with our enjoyment of active engagement or listening in community and educational settings. It outlines developments in community music, considers research that has assessed its impact, explores the way in which music has been used to attain educational aims beyond those relating to music education itself, and considers issues and findings relating to the use of background music when studying.
Processes of music therapy
Authors: de lʼEtoile Shannon
Published: February 2013

This article reviews behavioural, psychoanalytic, and humanistic music therapy. It then discusses Neurologic Music Therapy (NMT), the Rational–Scientific Mediating Model (R–SMM), and the Transformational Design Model (TDM). NMT techniques address cognitive, sensory, and motor dysfunction resulting from disease of the human nervous system. NMT theory is founded in a neuroscience model of music perception, known as the R–SMM, which explains how music functions as a mediating stimulus. The R–SMM provides clear guidelines for conducting research regarding music's therapeutic effects. A supplemental model is needed, however, to assist the clinician in translating research findings from the R–SMM into everyday practice. TDM meets this need by providing a systematic, step-by-step approach to designing, implementing, and evaluating clinical interventions.
Beyond music psychology
Authors: Ockelford Adam
Published: February 2013

This article argues that music psychology overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including music education, therapy, ethnomusicology, and music theory and analysis. There are tensions in each case, but benefits too for those who are prepared to explore with an open mind. Ultimately, however, music psychology cannot be extended beyond the boundaries of its epistemological box, always granted that the sides are flexible and subject to change: indeed, such movement is likely to come about through the influence of adjacent disciplines.
Where now?
Authors: Hallam Susan
Published: February 2013

This article draws together the emerging themes from across all sections of the book. The first theme concerns the power of music, the second the way that modern technology has enhanced music's influence through increasing access and enabling individuals to listen to the music of their choice at any time or place. Subsequent themes relate to our understanding of basic perceptual and cognitive processes, and music as language, communication, and interaction. A key issue is the need to take greater account of culture and context, with more research being undertaken in non-Western cultures. The article concludes with a consideration of methodological advances and the need for those from different disciplines with an interest in music psychology to work more closely together.
What is Chinese about Chinese psychology? Who are the Chinese in Chinese psychology?
Authors: Hong Ying-yi , Yang Yung Jui , Chiu Chi-yue
Published: February 2013

The two-pronged objectives of this article are firstly to engage Chinese psychology researchers in a critical examination of the assumptions about Chineseness in their enquiry, and secondly to suggest an expansion of the research agenda for Chinese psychology to include the psychology of Chinese identity. Chinese psychology has different meanings depending on how it is translated into Chinese. This article reviews several possible referential meanings of the term Chinese psychology, and discusses how identity politics plays a role in the debates over the term's referential meaning and influences the choice of the criteria that are used to evaluate the validity of knowledge about Chinese psychology. The goal of this article is to invite Chinese psychology scholars to reflect on the political matrix that underlies identity politics in the discipline, on the political forces that shape their definitions of Chineseness in their enquiry, and on the intellectual consequences of their identity choices.
Understanding reading disability in the Chinese language: from basic research to intervention
Authors: Ho Connie Suk-Han
Published: February 2013

Reading disability has been studied for over a century in countries using alphabetic writing systems. It is estimated that around 3% to 5% of the school population in any Western country has a reading disability, which is described as a severe and persistent difficulty in reading and spelling not a result of any apparent intrinsic or extrinsic causes. Delayed and inappropriate intervention often results in learning, emotional, and behavioural problems in children. This article first provides a review of research literature on reading disability in alphabetic languages and then introduces the characteristics of the Chinese writing system. It highlights some research projects on Chinese reading disability; and explores how these findings may be applied to the identification of and intervention for Chinese children with reading disability. It concludes that a well-planned and systematic research in reading disability is essential for developing effective evidence-based identification and intervention approaches for children with reading disability.
Chinese bilingualism
Authors: Cheung Him , Yap Foong-Ha , Yip Virginia
Published: February 2013

Bilingualism is by no means a simple phenomenon. When it involves Chinese it is complicated further because of the huge geographical spread of Chinese communities around the globe. Bilingualism is better seen as a multi-parameter, socio-political-linguistic phenomenon, the processing and final results of which may not, and should not, be directly compared to those of the ‘standards’ produced by native speakers. This article discusses three aspects of Chinese bilingualism. First, it illustrates the cognition and neuro-cognition of language as well as general processing in bilingual people who speak Chinese as either their dominant or subordinate language. Second, it examines young children's acquisition of Chinese (Mandarin or Cantonese) together with another language in different contexts. Third, it looks at language use at a pragmatic level in a bilingual population under broad sociolinguistic contexts, discussing sociocultural factors that impact on the bilingual's verbal behaviour.
Chinese children learning mathematics: from home to school
Authors: Ni Yu-Jing , Chiu Ming Ming , Cheng Zi-Juan
Published: February 2013

Chinese students have excelled in many international assessments of mathematics achievement (e.g. Programme for International Student Assessment [PISA] and the Third International Mathematics and Science Study [TIMSS]), thereby drawing great interest from researchers, educators, and policy makers inside and outside the Chinese community. This article draws upon three strands of research (developmental, instructional, and social-psychological) cutting across three different levels (societal/cultural [macro, nation], institutional [meso/micro, family, classroom], and individual [nano]) to examine the ingredients that have shaped the mathematics achievements of Chinese students. This article traces the early numerical development of Chinese children before considering learning and instruction in Chinese mathematics classrooms. Apart from exploring the broader sociocultural contexts in which the Chinese way of learning and teaching mathematics is rooted and supported, it also depicts a profile of Chinese students' achievements in mathematics against these backgrounds. Broadly, this article helps to understand Chinese students' mathematics achievement and its contexts.
Approaches to learning and teaching by the Chinese
Authors: Kember David , Watkins David
Published: February 2013

There is a common perception that Chinese students have a tendency towards rote learning. Rote learning has been associated with a surface approach to learning, which is normally envisaged as less desirable than a deep approach, particularly in higher education. Abundant research into approaches to learning has shown that such an approach to learning should lead to poor learning outcomes. However, in spite of the negative perceptions of rote learning, there is now much evidence that Chinese students in a number of countries outperform their Western counterparts in international comparisons of educational achievement. This article describes various Chinese approaches to learning that have evolved over a period of time and further takes on how the teachers play their role in the process of Chinese learning. It states that there is evidence of Chinese teachers showing a high level of pastoral care for their students, particularly outside the classroom.
How unique is Chinese emotion?
Authors: Yik Michelle
Published: February 2013

This article reviews theoretical and empirical advances achieved in the study of Chinese emotion during the last decade, with an overriding purpose of addressing the question: What is universal and what is unique about Chinese emotion? Several research themes have been pursued in the past decade in studying Chinese emotion. This article focuses on four of those themes. First, it seeks to explore questions on how emotion is described and structured among the Chinese. Related to that interest, it discusses how the study of emotion can benefit from the use of a circumplex model; second, it reviews research on self-conscious emotions, including shame, guilt, and pride in Chinese subjects; third, it summarizes research on emotional responding, including facial expressions; and last, it examine the socialization of emotions. Furthermore, this article summarizes the evidence so far offered in the debate between the universality thesis and the culture-specific thesis of emotion.
Default Semantics
Authors: Jaszczolt Kasia M.
Published: February 2013

The objective of Default Semantics is to model utterance meaning as intended by the Model Speaker and recovered by the Model Addressee. The constructs of model interlocutors are adopted in recognition of the view shared by Grice and the neo-Griceans that a theory of meaning should focus on general mechanisms which underlie the composition of meaning in conversation, including those mechanisms that make use of conventions, heuristics pertaining to rational human behaviour, which explain the shortcuts that addressees take through laborious inferential process of meaning recovery. This chapter discusses the following: primary meaning without the syntactic consent, merger representation and its contributing sources, compositionality of primary meanings, incremental processing, and default vs. inferential components of merger representation.
Lexical-Functional Grammar
Authors: Asudeh Ash , Toivonen Ida
Published: February 2013

Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG) is a theory of generative grammar. The goal is to explain the native speaker's knowledge of language by specifying a grammar that models the speaker's knowledge explicitly and which is distinct from the computational mechanisms that constitute the language processor. This chapter is organized as follows. Section 15.2 discusses the two syntactic structures posited by LFG: constituent structure (c-structure) and functional structure (f-structure). LFG distinguishes between formal structures and structural descriptions that well-formed structures must satisfy. The structural descriptions are sets of constraints. A constraint is a statement that is either true or false of a structure. Section 15.3 provides an overview of the most important sorts of constraints. Section 17.4 explains how c-structure and f-structure are related by structural correspondences. Section 17.5 describes the Correspondence Architecture. Section 17.6 considers some recent developments in LFG.
Optimization Principles in the Typology of Number and Articles
Authors: de Swart Henriëtte , Zwarts Joost
Published: February 2013

Optimality Theory (OT) is a fairly recent development within linguistics. It exploits the opposition between a drive for economy (favouring ‘simpler’ expressions over more complex ones) and a drive from reflecting differences in meaning in the form. All rules are soft, and can be violated if necessary to satisfy rules that are considered more important in the language and are ranked higher in the grammar. This chapter illustrates the essence of such an approach with a typology of plural morphology and chapter use. The goal is not to give a complete overview of how these grammatical categories are expressed cross-linguistically but rather to demonstrate how certain patterns of variation can be understood from the theoretical perspective of OT. The core question addressed is: what is the best way for the speaker to convey in his or her language information concerning singular/plural distinctions, definiteness, and discourse reference in the nominal form? The chapter is organized as follows. Section 22.2 develops a simple model and tests how it accounts for part of the cross-linguistic data. Sections 22.3 and 22.4 deal with extensions that enlarge the empirical coverage and open up a wider perspective.
Neo-Gricean Pragmatic Theory of Conversational Implicature
Authors: Huang Yan
Published: February 2013

This chapter assesses the neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of conversational implicature, and is organized as follows. Section 24.1 discusses the classical Gricean theory. Section 24.2 presents the neo-Gricean pragmatic theory, focusing on the dualistic model put forward by Horn and the Trinitarian model posited by Levinson. Sections 24.3–24.5 examine the role played by the neo-Gricean pragmatic theory in effecting a radical simplification of lexicon, semantics, and syntax.
Medicine in Western Europe
Authors: Cook Harold J.
Published: February 2013

This article encourages discussion of the multiplicity of sometimes rapidly changing practices that have always surrounded the maintenance of health and the treatment of illness. It points to one of the ways in which some medical activities in Western Europe were channelled in ways unlike most other regions of the world: the legal form of a ‘corporation’ has grown rapidly in the past millennium, making many informal social institutions into self-conscious and stable bodies. This article shows the ‘medicalization’ of life as an indication of the power of collective expertise in the service of the state. Medicalization was possible due to the expansion and proliferation of corporate bodies and professional organizations, which continued to protect the interests of their members. Medical activities organized around corporate bodies have shaped the recruitment and expenditure of effort and resources so as give rise to a kind of official medicine that has furthered the development of political economies and populations.
Death
Authors: Strange Julie-Marie
Published: February 2013

This article assesses the usefulness of shifting notions of ‘good death’ and discusses the reasons for histories of death pitching science and religion in opposition. It examines the key actors in death scenarios, probing the material culture surrounding death, disposal, and mourning and, more recently, exploring histories of emotion in relation to dying and bereavement. It demonstrates the complex relationship between social and professional organizations, individuals and families. The history of death suggests a linear chronology whereby a sacred and community-centred culture eventually gave way to a privatized and sanitized culture of death. This article explores the legitimacy of this chronology and its implications for understanding attitudes to death in the past.
Historical Demography and Epidemiology: The Meta-Narrative Challenge
Authors: Mooney Graham
Published: February 2013

Demography and epidemiology tend to analyse human processes in the aggregate. This article illustrates that definitions of demography and epidemiology provide some understanding of how they are typically used in medical history. The influence of demographic and epidemiological transition theories is discussed. The article mentions that extensive research into fertility behaviour in the past has dismantled many aspects of demographic transition and reveals that epidemiological transition has proved more durable in the face of empirical testing, but it is nonetheless problematically hidebound to a narrative of progress and modernization. This article also focuses on the complicated relationship between migration and health and is considered crucial for understanding patterns of population growth, health, and illness. Finally, it outlines some of the ways that innovative research on life-course experiences and famine demography has shaken the trees of long-held medical historical assumptions.
Health, Work, and Environment: A Hippocratic Turn in Medical History
Authors: Sellers Christopher
Published: February 2013

The changing ways in which human surroundings interact with human bodies have yielded some of the field's most innovative scholarship. These developments reflect trends in health and medicine from the late twentieth into the early twenty-first centuries. This article concentrates on a few representative areas where this intermeshing of socio-cultural with Hippocratic history has proven especially fruitful. It begins with the changing consideration of industrial health history. It discusses that fuller range of social and political contexts and contingencies have shaped the recognition and control of the industrial hazards and have brought new depth and realism to our understanding of the health history of industrial workplaces. The assertions and conclusions about worker influence on the outcome of struggles over occupational health have helped generate greater interest in just how workers themselves perceived and experienced these ailments.
History of Science and Medicine
Authors: Müller-Wille Staffan
Published: February 2013

This article explores what both historians of medicine and historians of science could gain from a stronger entanglement of their respective research agendas. It first gives a cursory outline of the history of the relationship between science and medicine since the scientific revolution in the seventeenth century. Medicine can very well be seen as a domain that was highly productive of scientific knowledge, yet in ways that do not fit very well with the historiographic framework that dominated the history of science. Furthermore, the article discusses two alternative historiographical approaches that offer ways of thinking about the growth of knowledge that fit well with the cumulative and translational patterns that characterize the development of the medical sciences, and also provide an understanding of concepts such as ‘health’ and ‘life’.
Women, Health, and Medicine
Authors: Marland Hilary
Published: February 2013

Research into women's engagement with medicine as sufferers, patients, and active agents in promoting care and services concentrate most insistently upon the various branches of medicine. The agency of medical practitioners in shaping treatment and creating or restricting options for care and women's interactions with psychiatry has attracted considerable attention. Interactions and agency constitute the core theme of this article. The article also considers specialization and sites of practice focusing on the feminist writings of the 1970s through to more reflective revisionist forms of analysis. This article draws examples chiefly from those contexts responsible for delivering the bulk of historical writing in this field though the interaction of women and medicine in colonial contexts has also been a remarkably productive field of scholarship in recent years.
Oral Testimony and the History of Medicine
Authors: Fisher Kate
Published: February 2013

This article surveys the historiographical trends in medical history that have fostered the rise in the use of oral history. It discusses different approaches that serve to bring individual experiences and human agents into the historical frame, humanizing our understanding of the national and international institutions, professions, governments, and organizations that shape medical history. Oral history reveals the clinicians behind changing medical treatments and the personal experiences behind patient populations or epidemiological trends. This article argues, however, that oral history needs to do more; rather, it should aim to chart and explore the relationship between the structures of medicine and human experience. Furthermore, it discusses that oral testimony does not document the past, but is an individual's interpretation of it; historians therefore need to interrogate it as such, exploring why people remember in certain ways, what is forgotten or misremembered, and what such memories mean for the present.
Technical Introduction
Authors: Rennie Andrew , Lipton Alexander
Published: February 2013

This article begins with a brief discussion of how the current global credit crisis differs from previous ones, specifically in the form of the underlying relationship between borrowers and lenders, and then sets out the purpose of the book, which is to provide an overview of the complex and relatively novel area of mathematical modelling. Given the fact that mathematics entering into the analysis of credit risk was contemporaneous with unprecedented growth in the credit markets and thus preceded the crash, it is not surprising that many view mathematics as the cause of the crisis. It is argued that, despite the inevitable shortcomings of each mathematical model used, mathematics was not the cause of the current difficulties.
Marshall‐Olkin Copula‐Based Models
Authors: Elouerkhaoui Youssef
Published: February 2013

This article, which shows that the Marshall–Olkin model can be a viable alternative to the standard Gaussian copula, is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces the Marshall–Olkin model. Section 3 derives the copula function of default times. Section 4 studies the aggregate default distribution. Section 5 discusses the model calibration. Section 6 compares Marshall–Olkin with the Gaussian and t-copula, and Section 7 uses the Marshall–Olkin copula to reproduce the correlation skew in the collateralised debt obligation market.
Contagion Models in Credit Risk
Authors: Davis Mark H. A.
Published: February 2013

This article gives an account of mathematical techniques for credit risk models where there is contagion between the obligors, i.e., default of one party either directly causes default of other parties or (more commonly) changes other parties' risk of default. Section 2 starts with a general discussion of joint distributions and copulas, mainly to point out that ‘contagion’ is in some sense already built into the copula concept. Section 3 gives a general formulation of the reduced-form model and a taxonomy of models distinguishing between factor, frailty, and contagion models. Section 4 gives some background information about Markov processes, Markov chains, and phase-type distributions as required for the subsequent sections. Section 5 discusses four simple but effective Markov chain-based models with applications in counterparty risk and credit risk for inhomogeneous and homogeneous portfolios. Sections 6 and 7 develop the ‘subsidiary themes’ mentioned above. Section 8 returns to the further development of the Enhanced Risk homogeneous portfolio model, introduced in Section 5.4, in the light of these themes.
Credit Value Adjustment in the Extended Structural Default Model
Authors: Lipton Alexander , Rennie Andrew
Published: February 2013

This article develops a methodology for valuing the counterparty credit risk inherent in credit default swaps, and presents a multi-dimensional extension of Merton's model (Merton 1974), where the joint dynamics of the firm's values are driven by a multi-dimensional jump-diffusion process. Applying the Fast Fourier Transform and finite-difference methods, it develops a forward induction procedure for calibrating the model, and a backward induction procedure for valuing credit derivatives in 1D and 2D. Jump size distributions of two types are considered, namely, discrete negative jumps (DNJs) and exponential negative jumps (ENJs), and showed that, for joint bivariate dynamics, the model with ENJs produces a noticeably lower implied Gaussian correlation than the one produced by the model with DNJs, although for both jump specifications the corresponding marginal dynamics fit the market data adequately. Based on these observations, and given the high level of the default correlation among financial institutions (above 50 per cent), the model with DNJs, albeit simple, seems to provide a more realistic description of default correlations and, thus, the counterparty risk, than a more sophisticated model with ENJs.
Quantitative Aspects of the collapse of the parallel banking system
Authors: Batchvarov Alexander
Published: February 2013

This article describes the rise and fall of the parallel banking system based on securitisation. In essence, the parallel banking system emerged as a result of de-regulation and disintermediation, and led to a period of very high and, in retrospect, unsustainable, leverage. Its development was facilitated by the creation of new financial instruments (notably credit default swaps and collateralised debt obligations). Instead of keeping loans on their books, banks and other financial players were originating them, bundling them together, slicing into tranches, and selling these tranches to other investors, such as pension funds, insurers, etc., with different and complementary risk appetites. While this system supported the real economy for a long time – especially consumer, real estate, and leveraged finance – it contributed to the build-up of leverage in the global capital markets and subsequent worldwide crisis.
Tablets as Artefacts, Scribes as Artisans
Authors: Taylor John H.
Published: February 2013

This article aims to capture some major trends in the study of tablets as artifacts and provides examples from the collections of the British Museum. It provides insights into the study of clay tablets as objects with their own story, focusing on Mesopotamian cuneiform. It describes how the ready availability of high-quality images of the objects and a holistic approach integrating study of inscriptions with that of the vehicles of their textual expression have opened the way to a deeper understanding of cuneiform culture.
Accounting in Proto-Cuneiform
Authors: Englund Robert K.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the accounting methods in proto-cuneiform during the archaic period. It discusses the importance of archaic numerical and metrological systems as elements of social control and explains the use of accounting method in writing by providing examples drawn from grain administration archives. The proto-cuneiform administrative documentation can be divided into the two major bookkeeping types known from later periods in Babylonia, namely into primary and secondary documents.
Levels of Literacy
Authors: Veldhuis Niek
Published: February 2013

This article evaluates the levels of cuneiform literacy in ancient Mesopotamia. It explains that cuneiform writing is a flexible and versatile system that offered both an efficient tool for mundane communication and recording purposes and an intricate symbolic system that invited ancient scholars to explore and research its representational potential. It explains the distinctions among functional literacy, technical literacy, and scholarly literacy and addresses the issue of the acquisition of literacy through education.