bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Farm Size and Rural Communities: Some Economic Relationships
Authors: Marousek Gerald
Published: July 2016

Although American agriculture has been adopting new technology for more than 100 years, the rate of adoption has greatly accelerated in recent decades. This technological revolution has resulted in important changes in rural America. Mesthene [12] points out the impact of technological change on society; Donaldson and Mclnerney [6] examine the impact of machinery technology on agricultural adjustment.

When farms increase in size and decrease in number, employment opportunities in agriculture are reduced [1]. This change, in turn, affects the viability of towns in farming areas, as shown by Heady and Sonka [8] and by Hamilton, Peterson, and Reid [7]. Changes in agricultural technology, in farm size, and in farm-oriented towns have major economic and social effects on rural communities. Beale [2] documents recent demographic changes and Brinkman [3] discusses the impact on the rural sector of transition to an urban society.
Regional Acreage Response by Quarter for Fresh Tomatoes: An Example of the Use of Mixed Estimation
Authors: Hammig Michael D.
Published: July 2016

The study reported was motivated by a USDA study to develop complete quarterly models of supply and demand for a selected set of fresh salad vegetables. The acreage planted component enters recursively into both the acreage harvested and yield relations used in many of these models. Consequently, predictions of acreage planted are instrumental in predicting total supply and resulting market equilibrium solutions.

In modeling acreage planted over relevant seasons within four regions, various sources of information can be brought to bear. Obviously, data series on past plantings, costs, and prices provide the foundation of statistical estimation of an acreage response model. However, additional information from previous studies, economic theory, and subjective judgment on the part of the researcher also can be incorporated into the model through the use of the mixed estimation technique developed by Theil and Goldberger [8].
Rates of Return to Agricultural Research and Extension in the Southern Region
Authors: White Fred C. , Havlicek Joseph
Published: July 2016

The interregional transfer of agricultural research results has long been recognized by sociologists and economists [10, pp. 524–526]. The first major economic study in this area was reported in 1957 by Griliches [7]. However, many economists have failed to account for this type of transfer in estimating rates of return for agricultural research investment at the state level. A possible explanation for the failure to account for this transfer is that many analyses at the state level are modeled after national studies. Though researchers estimating a national rate of return may not feel a need to account for interregional transfers, these transfers clearly cannot be ignored at the state or regional levels. Latimer and Paarlberg [9] and Bauer and Hancock [2] estimated aggregate production functions for states and had difficulty finding a statistically significant relationship between research expenditures within the state and agricultural output. Bauer and Hancock finally estimated a lagged relationship that is in conflict with other conceptual and empirical models. Latimer and Paarlberg concluded that research is so pervasive that there are no measurable differences in levels of farm income attributable to differences in research inputs by states [9, p. 239]. More recently, Bredahl and Peterson [3] examined the differences in rates of return to cash crops, dairy, poultry, and livestock research among states. These estimates are appropriate if agricultural research results are limited by state boundaries. The interregional transfer of agricultural research results needs to be taken into account in estimating the returns to agricultural research at a regional level.
Food Stamp Program Effects on Availability Of Food Nutrients for Low Income Families In the Southern Region of the United States
Authors: Scearce W. Keith , Jensen Robert B.
Published: July 2016

The food stamp program, as enacted into law in 1964, was intended to improve the diet of low income households, but whether the program resulted in a nutritional improvement remains a controversial question. Several studies have evaluated the nutritional impact of the food stamp program on participant households. In general, the study findings do not conclusively resolve the question of nutritional improvement for participant families. Studies of California families showed some nutritional improvements among food stamp recipients in comparison with nonrecipients [7, 8]. A study in Pennsylvania showed no nutritional improvements, except in temporary periods of cash shortage [9].
Application of Price Elasticities To Farm Policy Analysis: Reply
Authors: Stennis Earl A. , Bateman W. Lanny
Published: July 2016

Huang's comment on our article in a recent issue of this journal [2] points out two ideas that could have been more clearly stated. We will reply to his comments in the order in which they appear.

First, our illustration of the two approaches to examining the market was to demonstrate how economic theory could be used to show the importance of the world market to producers of cotton and soybeans. One approach separates the total market into domestic and export components. We pointed out that the elasticity estimates used for the domestic (—.35) and export (—1.76) markets and the production data for 1976 give a total elasticity estimate for the U.S. of -.98 if the world elasticity is -.5. The other approach (the primary subject of Huang's comment) uses a single world market and illustrates how the U.S. affects or is affected by it. Use of the second approach gives a U.S. elasticity of —1.0 when the world elasticity is —.5. It was not our intention to compare the two approaches as to consistency of estimate, although the example may have implied such an argument. Given the same data base and consistent methods in estimating the separate demand functions, the results should be similar.
Issues Involved in Formulating A Structures Policy for U.S. Agriculture
Authors: Walker Neal
Published: July 2016

On March 12, 1979, Secretary of Agriculture Bob Bergland issued a call for a full-scale national dialogue on the structure of American agriculture. According to USDA, “Reaction to the speech has been widespread and, in the main, highly positive.” The main factor contributing to this “widespread highly positive” response has been the ambiguity of the subject matter. Farmers, along with special interest groups of all types and persuasions, have eagerly jumped on the structures bandwagon to blame/praise one or more particular aspects of agricultural structure for all the evils/blessings currently within their fields of vision. This broad range of comments and opinions on structure can be attributed to the extreme extent to which the structure of agriculture pervades and is interwoven with the national economy and society in general. Unfortunately, some unreasonable expectations apparently have also emerged concerning which of agriculture's ills can be alleviated via a structures policy. The aim of this article is to attempt to give some perspective to the structures issue.
Food and Agriculture in the 1980s: The Implied Research Priorities
Authors: Eddleman B. R. , Purcell Joseph C.
Published: July 2016

Several factors arose during the post-World War II era and particularly the 1970-1980 decade which had a great impact on the U.S. food and agriculture system—including forestry, fiber, and related activities. They include (1) the increasing interdependence among the basic industries of agriculture and forestry and other sectors of the domestic and world economies, (2) the emergence of a technology highly dependent on petroleum and petrochemicals accompanied by increasing dependence of the U.S. on foreign sources of petroleum, the cartelization of major foreign crude oil suppliers under OPEC, and an increased vulnerability to worldwide political unrest, (3) the rapidly expanding export market for farm food and feed commodities and the reliance on farm commodity exports to help offset a growing deficit in international trade, (4) the rapid commercialization and industrialization of the food and agriculture sector, and (5) the increasing social awareness and demands for improved environmental quality and human health that led to public regulations affecting the food and agriculture system.
Optimum Number and Location of Manufacturing Milk Plants to Minimize Marketing Costs
Authors: Beck Robert L. , Goodin J. Don
Published: July 2016

Historically, the manufacturing milk sector has been treated as the residual segment of the dairy industry. Milk for fluid consumption has always had first claim on Grade A milk production and any excess milk has been available for manufactured products. The pricing system for milk reflects the dependence on manufactured products as the residual outlet for excess milk. On-farm quality standards for production are lower for manufacturing milk and thus the farm price is lower. The proportion of whole milk produced as manufacturing grade milk is declining as producers shift to Grade A production. The decline in supply has been accelerated to some extent also by the upgrading of on-farm quality standards in recent years. Many small producers left the industry rather than make the necessary expenditures to upgrade on-farm facilities. In addition, the movement of Grade A milk into the expanding fluid milk markets in the South has resulted in a declining quantity of excess Grade A milk. Consequently, there is excess processing capacity in the manufacturing milk sector.
Forecasting South Carolina Tomato Prices Prior to Planting
Authors: Wells Gary J.
Published: July 2016

South Carolina producers supply tomatoes on a national scale during an approximately five-week market window centered in June. This market window follows a six-month period dominated by Florida production and to a lesser extent Mexican exports. Even though South Carolina is the major East Coast supplier of tomatoes during its market window, the success or failure of South Carolina marketings depends on the stage set by Florida and Mexico. That is, the price level obtained by South Carolina producers for their tomatoes tends to be influenced by the volume of tomatoes delivered to market prior to South Carolina's harvest. South Carolina, Florida, and Mexico serve many of the same markets (i.e., Northeast terminal markets). As a result, the influence of the volume prior to South Carolina's harvest on the state's average tomato price can be used to provide farmers with a price estimate before planting. Specifically, a model is constructed to forecast the average spring tomato price received by South Carolina producers. This forecast must be available to producers by mid-February if it is to serve as a decision-making tool.
A Model of Weekly Price Discovery for Florida Celery
Authors: Shonkwiler J. Scott , Pagoulatos Emilio
Published: July 2016

Considerable attention has recently been paid (Rhodes, Tomek and Robinson) to the various alternative mechanisms for discovering prices of agricultural products. Alternative mechanisms include organized markets and auctions, individual price negotiations, group bargaining, supply-demand estimation pricing, and formula pricing. One such price discovery mechanism is currently employed by the Florida Celery Exchange, a voluntary marketing cooperative which represents all major Florida celery producers in setting prices. The role and performance of the Exchange in influencing weekly Florida celery harvesting and pricing decisions are of particular interest because the Exchange's price-fixing activities represent, at least a priori, a departure from the traditional competitive price determination process.
Small Farm Polyperiod Planning Model For Developing Economies
Authors: Allison John R. , Epperson James E.
Published: July 2016

Farm planning in developed economies has reached the sophistication level of involving static and dynamic annual or polyperiod decision models. These models or frameworks range from unadorned linear programming to dynamic systems utilizing interdependence among time spans. Goal or criterion decisions range from unrestricted global profit maxamization to local profit comparisons restricted by risk and other considerations.

Systematic farm planning from the micro to the macro level is common in developed economies because of widespread knowledge of the planning tools and the availability of low-cost computational facilities. The potential increase in profits on large commercial farms makes the use of these planning tools profitable whether the farm unit bears the total cost or Extension Services or lending institutions subsidize their use.
The Profitability of Agricultural Customers for Commercial Banks in the Southeast
Authors: Hardy William E. , Moore Michael W.
Published: July 2016

Changes which have occurred in the U. S. agricultural and economic environments over the past few years have important implications for the financing of agriculture. Increased dependence on purchased inputs, coupled with inflation in all areas, has placed added emphasis on the need of farmers to secure capital to fund their operations. A parallel concern is the ability and willingness of financial institutions to supply adequate financing.

Commercial banks have a dominant position in the total agricultural market and as a result farmers are dependent on them (Melichar and Waldheger). Because of this dependence and for the health of the agricultural economy, commercial banks must continue to supply adequate amounts of funding. If banks are to do this, they must continue to perceive agricultural lending and relationships with agriculturally oriented customers as being consistent with their own profitability goals. Our research results indicate the relative importance and profitability associated with agricultural customers in comparison with other customers.
Implementation of new Conservation Programs and the Need to Respond to Changing Market Conditions
Authors: Ogg Clayton W. , Heimlich Ralph E.
Published: July 2016

Under new federal programs, soil and water conservation practices are relied upon to make a major contribution to the control of nonpoint sources of water pollution. Economic efficiency is to be considered in selecting these practices. Although only an experimental program funding of $50 million has been appropriated, $400 million of Rural Clean Water Program funds in 1980 were authorized. The program is to be administered by the Secretary of Agriculture with the concurrence of the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. Because its implementation may eventually necessitate major land use changes and capital investments as part of 5- to 10-year contracts with farmers, we examine how soil conservation plans can incorporate potential changes in market prices of crops.
The Impact of New Industry on County Government Property Tax Revenue
Authors: Henry Mark , Lambert Kathy
Published: July 2016

The attraction of new industry is an ongoing concern for most local officials. Generally, local officials are aware of the private sector benefits of new jobs and income. Attention is beginning to be paid to secondary private sector impacts such as the effect of new industry on local wage rates and the problems associated with in-migration of labor to fill new jobs. Borts and Stein (Chapter 9) give a theoretical discussion of these issues.

In addition researchers and policy makers are interested in the development of models that estimate the impact of new industry on local government expenditures and revenues. Many computerized versions of local fiscal impact models are reviewed in a recently published text (Burchell and Listokin, pp. 345-59). The popularity of these models is understandable because of the potential benefits to be derived from accurate forecasts of local fiscal impact. For example, a community can determine the magnitude of a tax incentive it can offer to industry and still maintain a positive fiscal impact for local government. Zoning laws can be written to encourage land use patterns that will be efficient from the public sector's perspective if the public expenditures and public revenues associated with alternative land use patterns can be predicted. Finally, local areas may be able to demonstrate to state government that a large-scale industrial project will benefit the fiscal position of the state but be a burden to the local fiscal balance.
Time Varying Parameters with Random Components: The Orange Juice Industry
Authors: Ward Ronald W. , Tilley Daniel S.
Published: July 2016

The assumption of nonstochastic parameters has long been recognized as restrictive to the solution of many marketing problems and to economic modeling in general. Parameter variation historically has been treated with the use of nonstochastic adjustments through interaction variables and the use of proxy dummy and trend variables. Though these empirical techniques in many cases give reasonable results, they presuppose that the researcher can specify the nature of the parameter change. In fact, it may not be obvious that random parameters are part of the estimation problem. Furthermore, specification of structural shifts in parameters is usually difficult. Comparison of parameter changes through techniques such as grouping of data and using various F-tests is most often dependent on the criteria for grouping (Maddala, p. 390–404). Also, the procedure fails to identify the dynamic path of adjustments that must have occurred when various F-tests indicate that parameters have changed. Other approaches to determining structural shifts in parameters may require elaborate search procedures. To limit the extent to which the search is required, restrictive assumptions about many of the parameters are sometimes made (Simon).
Estimating Linear Probability Functions: A Comparison of Approaches
Authors: Debertin David L. , Pagoulatos Angelos , Smith Eldon D.
Published: July 2016

A linear probability function permits the estimation of the probability of the occurrence or non-occurrence of a discrete event. Nerlove and Press (p. 3–9) outline several statistical problems that arise if such a function is estimated via OLS. In particular, heteroskedasticity inherent in such a regression model leads to inefficient estimates of parameters (Amemiya 1973, Horn and Horn). Moreover, without restrictions on the conventional OLS model, probability estimates lying outside the unit (0–1) interval are possible (Nerlove and Press). Goldberger and Kmenta suggest two approaches for alleviating the heteroskedasticity problems inherent in the OLS regression model. Logit analysis will also alleviate heteroskedasticity problems and ensure that estimated probabilities will lie within the unit interval (Amemiya 1974, Hauck and Donner, Hill and Kau, Horn and Horn, Horn, Horn, and Duncan, Theil 1970).
Typology and Policy for Small Farms
Authors: Tweeten Luther , Cilley G. Bradley , Popoola Isaac
Published: July 2016

The trend toward larger and fewer farms has alarmed many persons who view the small farm as an integral part of American society. Advocates of the small farm have called for policies to halt the continuing decline in the number of small farms in the United States. In evaluating the merits of potential policies, understanding the composition of small farms in the U.S. is critical.

Appropriate public policy would be very different if small farms were operated solely by households with substantial off-farm income and who need no public assistance, solely by households pursuing an alternative to urban-industrial society's lifestyle and who want no public assistance, or solely by households who are aged and disabled and who want and need public assistance to avoid absolute deprivation.
Implication of Recent User Charge Legislation for Barge Transportation of Agricultural Commodities
Authors: Binkley James , Shabman Leonard
Published: July 2016

The view that the navigable waters of the United States should be toll free originated in the colonial period of U.S. history, and became explicitly stated federal policy in the 1884 Rivers and Harbors Act (Ashton et al.). At that time public expenditures for waterway improvements were small and the freight transportation industry was dominated by railroads. Therefore, public policy promoted water transportation as an inexpensive means of encouraging competition for the railroads.

Since the early years of this century public expenditures for improvements of the waterways have risen while water, motor, air, and pipeline transportation have become effective competitors for the railroads. The conditions which justified a toll-free waterway policy changed, but the policy was not altered. Though every president since Franklin Roosevelt has recommended that Congress levy a charge on inland waterway users, legislators have been reluctant to implement such charges.
A Model of Weekly Price Discovery for Florida Celery: Comment
Authors: Updaw Nelson J.
Published: July 2016

In their article entitled, “A Model of Weekly Price Discovery for Florida Celery,” Shonkwiler and Pagoulatos provide an analysis of the pricing power of the Florida Celery Exchange, a marketing cooperative that represents all of that state's major celery producers. In their description of the activities of the Exchange, the authors cite several factors which indicate that Florida celery producers may have the ability to raise prices above levels that would prevail in a competitive U.S. celery market. Such factors include a market share of approximately 40 percent and a marketing allotment program which has prevented other producers from entering the industry since 1965. Shonkwiler and Pagoulatos then proceed to estimate the weekly demand faced by the Exchange and conclude, on the basis of the point estimate of an own-price elasticity, that the prices charged over the period 1972-1978 are inconsistent with those that would have been charged by a profit-maximizing monopolist. This conclusion leads them to state that the Exchange is socially beneficial because, they claim, it has provided price stability and market information without raising prices much above competition levels.
Food Stamps: Program Parameters and Standards of Living for Low-Income Households
Authors: Brown Mark , Johnson S. R.
Published: July 2016

The food stamp and other assistance programs for low-income households require continual adjustment if some form of equity across time is to be achieved. For this reason, cost-of-living adjustments and related mechanisms for reflecting changes in prices and the economic status of the target populations have been used in formulae for computing the food stamp bonus and other welfare transfers.
Costs of Operating a Computerized Trading System for Slaughter Lambs
Authors: Russell James R. , Purcell Wayne D.
Published: July 2016

Recent interest in thin markets and rapidly advancing technology has focused increased attention on electronic marketing (Henderson et al.; Russell; Schlei), with particular emphasis on computerized trading systems. Decreased costs of access and increased reliability of computer hardware, software, and communication systems are increasing the likelihood that computerized trading systems will be a viable marketing alternative.
Interregional Competition in the U.S. Swine-Pork Industry: An Analysis of Oklahoma's and the Southern States' Expansion Potential
Authors: Williams Joseph E. , Meyer Steve R. , Bullock J. Bruce
Published: July 2016

During the past few years, considerable interest has been expressed by swine producers, pork packers, and processors concerning the potential for expanding Oklahoma's swine-pork industry, even though the state's largest hog slaughtering facility has ceased operation. The study described herein was undertaken to satisfy these interests. The general objective was to identify the conditions necessary for and the limits to the expansion of Oklahoma's swine-pork industry. Due to the national scope of the model, similar information concerning other regions is also made available. The objective was addressed through a series of sub-objectives that dealt with the determination of expansion potential under various exogenous conditions.
Energy Substitution in the Gulf Of Mexico Shrimp Fishery
Authors: Kim Dae K.
Published: July 2016

Since 1973, the U.S. economy has shifted from a position characterized by abundant and low-cost energy to one of rising energy prices and fragile energy supplies, periodically threatened by an unstable foreign political environment.
Energy-Related Input Demand by Crop Producers
Authors: Kliebenstein James B. , McCamley Francis P.
Published: July 2016

Energy use in U.S. production of food and fiber is extensive and has increased rapidly. A threefold increase occurred from 1940 to 1970 (Carter and Yonde). Food and fiber production accounted for about 13 percent of the total energy consumed in the U.S. in 1980 (Duncan and Webb). Of the total energy use in food and fiber production, farm level production directly consumes about 21 percent (U.S. Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry).
Community Economics: A Simulation Model for Rural Development Planners
Authors: Woods Mike D. , Doeksen Gerald A. , Nelson James R.
Published: July 2016

Rural areas and small towns are facing new challenges as their economies grow and develop. The population influx to nonmetropolitan areas has brought new and increasing demands for community services. Preliminary 1980 census figures indicate that nonmetropolitan counties increased by about 15 percent, whereas metropolitan counties increased by about 9 percent from 1970 to 1980 (Beale).
Water Resources Management: Policy Economics for an Era of Transitions
Authors: Shabman Leonard A.
Published: July 2016

Prior to the last decade, federal water-project construction programs dominated water policy. These programs continue, but at a reduced level of funding, and the nation now is denning a new agenda of water resources issues to include water quality management and water allocation. Economists engaged in studies of water resources policy, and who seek to influence the direction of policy through research, teaching, and extension will find these exciting times.
Methods for Evaluating Economic Efficiency in Agricultural Marketing
Authors: Kilmer Richard L. , Armbruster Walter J.
Published: July 2016

An economically efficient allocation of resources maximizes consumer and producer surpluses. It can be shown that under perfectly competitive conditions, an efficient allocation of resources will evolve. It may be the global welfare optimum, but for a given set of conditions, consumer and producer surpluses can be maximized.
Computer-Assisted Instruction for Financial Management
Authors: Babb Emerson M.
Published: July 2016

This paper describes computer-assisted instruction for financial management which can be used to supplement an undergraduate course or to update training of persons in agribusiness. It is used to review principles of financial management, to illustrate analytical techniques, and to provide practice in the use of financial concepts and techniques. The material covered is similar to that found in traditional textbooks. Student evaluations of the software were fairly positive, but teaching effectiveness needs to be measured.
Misspecification in Simultaneous Systems: An Alternative Test and Its Application to a Model of the Shrimp Market
Authors: Lea J. D. , Shonkwiler J. S.
Published: July 2016

Concern over the effects of public policies based on misspecified econometric models motivates interest in a procedure to test, diagnose, and improve the specification of models that have been estimated with three-stage least squares. A test of system-wide specification based on Hausman's specification test is employed in a test of the a priori restrictions placed on the parameters of a structural model of the U.S. shrimp market. The null hypothesis of proper specification is rejected. After diagnosis via a comparison of unrestricted and restricted reduced forms and respecification, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected.
Supply and Demand for Married Female Labor: Rural and Urban Differences In the Southern United States
Authors: Alwang Jeffrey , Stallmann Judith I.
Published: July 2016

This study examined the supply of and demand for married female labor in the southern United States. Special attention was given to differences in labor force participation, labor supply, and quantities of labor supplied and demanded across rural and urban areas. Once state effects were accounted for, decisions to change participation were found not to vary by urban-rural designation. Differences in demand were fully captured by an intercept shifter and the variations in hours supplied by married females between urban and rural areas. Labor supply varied greatly with the effects of key determinants (number of children, work force experience, family income) being strongly different in rural areas. Different policies are needed to promote female labor supply in rural areas as opposed to urban areas.
The Structure of Citizen Preferences for Government Soil Erosion Control Programs
Authors: Jordan Jeffrey L. , Elnagheeb Abdelmoneim H.
Published: July 2016

The 1990 Farm Bill contains several measures concerning soil erosion caused by U.S. farmers. Data from a nationwide survey of people conerning their attitudes toward agriculture were used to examine the structure of respondents' preferences for government support-policies to combat soil erosion. Estimates of the influence of socio-economic and demographic variables on policy preferences were computed using a multiple-indicator model. Results show more support for the regulation of soil erosion, including laws and fines, than for government financial support.
The Adequacy of Trucking Service Supplies for Produce: Trends in the 1980s
Authors: Beilock Richard , Dunton William , Kepler Paul
Published: July 2016

Over 90 percent of interstate produce movements are by truck. In recent years, concerns have been raised regarding the adequacy of motor carrier services. Reasons for these concerns include the possibility of increased costs or service erosions resulting from relaxed economic regulations, an eroding road infrastructure, increasing congestion, more stringent safety regulations, demographic trends suggesting the onset of an increasingly severe driver shortage, and declines in rail capacity devoted to produce haulage. In this study, trends in the adequacy of trucking services for trucking during the 1980s was examined employing data sets developed by the USDA regarding haulage from five growing areas to six metropolitan areas across the United States, and a case study based on over 9,000 interviews with drivers hauling Rorida produce, conducted between 1982 and 1989. The results of the study suggest that there have been no erosions in service adequacies.
Measuring Use Value from Recreation Participation
Authors: Whitehead John C.
Published: July 2016

Recreation demand studies have traditionally utilized a two-step valuation method, estimating conditional recreation participation probabilities and then intensity of use decisions. These two steps of analysis are combined to estimate the use value of natural resource recreation sites. The purpose of this paper is to provide a method by which use value can be estimated solely from the participation decision. The one-step resource valuation method allows estimation of use values from coefficients of the logistic regression recreation participation equation. The benefits of the method are the reduced data and effort required to value natural resource areas.
An Optimal Control Framework for Inter-regional Dairy Policy Analysis
Authors: Tanjuakio Rudolfo V. , Gempesaw Conrado M. , Elterich G. Joachim
Published: July 2016

An eleven-region stochastic coefficient econometric model was estimated and used in an optimal control framework to evaluate the effectiveness of the dairy price support program and marketing orders in reducing and stabilizing government purchases of dairy products. The results showed significant pressure on the reduction of the support price both in the presence and absence of Class I differentials. The optimal control model also showed that the drop in price support levels did not dramatically alter the regional distribution of milk production.
The Commission on Food Marketing: Implications for Food Industries in the South
Authors: Farris Donald E.
Published: July 2016

About three and a half years have passed since the National Commission on Food Marketing published its findings on organization and competition in the food industries. This has been sufficient time to observe some of the impact of the study. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the future changes in the food industries against the background of the Commission findings and conclusions.

There has been some confusion about the nature and role of the National Commission on Food Marketing compared with that of the National Advisory Commission on Food and Fiber. To make sure there is no confusion concerning the Commission discussed in this paper, the distinction will be reviewed briefly.
Regional and Sectoral Effects of Competition for Wheat Transportation
Authors: Wright Bruce H.
Published: July 2016

Increased competition from barges and trucks for wheat traffic has caused rail charges for transporting wheat to decline relative to those for flour. Some flour milling centers now find themselves in an uneconomic location. The development and consequences of truck-barge-rail competition for wheat transportation is discussed in terms of the development of a differential between rates for wheat and flour. A spatial model that isolates the effects of these changes in rates for analysis is presented and the implications of the results are discussed as they pertain to various sectors and regions of the wheat-flour economy.
An Essay on Federal-State Research Programs in Agricultural Economics: Needs and Prospects for the Future In Agricultural Marketing
Authors: Manley William T.
Published: July 2016

A very cursory review of our agricultural economics literature shows a history of concern in our profession about the effectiveness of our research efforts. And, concern and criticism follow us to the present day. Certainly, there are no simple answers to the questions that face us. The question for discussion cannot be elaborated on in an authoritative and summary fashion. Though more modest in scope, the question before us is part of a much broader question of where are we and what should we be doing in agricultural research. This broad question was posed by the Senate Committee on Appropriations in 1965. We recall that the level of concern was such that USDA and the Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges arranged for a special 12 member USDA-SAES task force to study and report on the situation. Their comprehensive report, entitled “A National Program of Research for Agriculture” (Report of a study sponsored jointly by an Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges and USDA, Oct. 1966) is testimony to the monumental nature of the assignment.
Federal-State Research Programs in the Economics of Agricultural Production - - Needs and Prospects for the Future
Authors: Sundquist W. B.
Published: July 2016

This paper is concerned with research priorities, future directions in production economics research, and organizational problems for the Federal-State cooperative research effort. The topic of foreign development and trade is an important one for production economists. However, the emphasis of this paper is “production economics in our domestic commercial agriculture.” In terms of the perspective and scope of this specific subject, several related matters should be considered.
Federal-State Research Programs in Rural Economic Development - - Needs and Prospects
Authors: Bird Alan R.
Published: July 2016

A joint task force of researchers from state agricultural experiment stations and the U.S. Department of Agriculture has completed a report entitled “Rural Development and the Quality of Living.” This report is an attempt to express the collective judgment of individual scientists and research administrators in regard to the research questions that need to be answered, some evaluation of present efforts, the adequacy of present facilities, and to suggest changes in research to meet present and future needs. The Task Force looked at these twin goals of research: (1) Raise the level of living of rural people, and (2) improve community services and the environment.
An Evaluation of Research Needs for Agricultural Economists
Authors: Hildreth R. J. , Robinson Roland R.
Published: July 2016

An attempt will be made to indicate: (1) the future needs for social scientists, in general, and agricultural economists, in particular, for research in the land-grant institutions and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, (2) the location of these needs for agricultural economists, and (3) the types of research activities that are gaining in relative importance in the social sciences. The quantitative and qualitative information presented should provide some guidance in locating professional research workers where they are most needed.

Let us examine the present and prospective allocation of social scientists among the various areas of research activity, as well as the relative importance of these areas.
Regional Markets for Agricultural and Food Products: Needed Research
Authors: Blakley Leo V.
Published: July 2016

Implicit in the subject of regional markets is the inference that they deserve more attention in research than they have been given in recent years. Based in large part on cheap energy for transportation and production, the economy has reflected increased regional specialization in production for a national (or international) market. Concurrently, there has been a disinter-mediation of many of the regional differences in consumer wants and preferences because of the increased mobility of the population and the exposure of all persons to the same mass communications material. These factors have contributed to an emphasis on the national market, in contrast to the regional market in both research and the popular press.
Discussion: Regional Markets for Food and Interregional Competition: Implication for Southern Agriculture
Authors: Myers Lester H.
Published: July 2016

A comprehensive discussion of research and interregional competition logically includes three major components: (1) a review of the overall need for the research results and a clear delineation of the differences in information requirements across types of clientele; (2) a description of the characteristics of the needed research methodology, as related to the specific clientele needs; and (3) the resulting data requirements, consistent with both the methodology and with the research objectives. Furthermore, in addressing a research-oriented audience, there should be emphasis on identifying “bottlenecks” that currently exist either in developed methodology or data bases, or both. Of course, the idealistic objectives are to stimulate the assembled audience, first, to return home with an enthusiasm for developing new and more appropriate analytical methods; and, second, to begin lobbying for better and more extensive public data resources.
An Economic Examination of an Integrated Pest Management Production System with a Contrast Between E-V and Stochastic Dominance Analysis
Authors: Musser Wesley N. , Tew Bernard V. , Epperson James E.
Published: July 2016

Agricultural economists have long recognized pest populations as common property resources, and, as such, pest control through chemical pesticide application involves a tradeoff between increased crop yields and reduced environmental quality (Carlson; Regev et al.). Integrated pest management (IPM) attempts to minimize this tradeoff by substituting pest information and management skills for chemical pesticides. In part, IPM involves monitoring pest populations in order to utilize beneficial biological interactions. Weather patterns, stage of crop growth, and natural biological enemies of pests are among the factors included in IPM. In addition, entomologists have extended the integrated control concept to include selective rather than nonselective pesticide application that is applied only when pest populations exceed the “economic threshold” level (Hall and Norgaard). In an earlier economic analysis of IPM, Hall concluded that the major advantages of IPM are: (1) a substantial reduction in overall pesticide use, (2) no significant reduction in profits, (3) no significant loss of yields, (4) an overall reduction in pest management costs, and (5) a reduction in risk for the producers.
Economic Impacts of the 1981 Agricultural Act and the 1981 Tax Act on Texas High Plains Farmers
Authors: Richardson James W. , Nixon Clair J. , Smith Edward G.
Published: July 2016

During 1981 two major pieces of legislation were passed that will greatly influence the economic welfare of farmers in the United States. First to be passed was the Economic Recovery Tax Act, and second was the Agriculture and Food Act. These two laws will likely have significant impacts on commercial farmers throughout the next decade.
Analysis of Economic Emergency Loan Allocations and Credit Market Expansion
Authors: Gunter Lewell , Smathers Webb M. , Ingram Michael C. , Dubman Robert
Published: July 2016

The Economic Emergency (EE) loan program, administered by the FmHA, was created by Congress in 1978. The primary purpose of the program was to provide credit to farmers who were unable to obtain credit from normal lenders due to economic stress. Over six billion dollars of EE loans were extended nationally during fiscal years 1978 through 1981. This paper examines the allocation of EE loans at the state level and the expansionary effect of the program on farm credit markets. Empirical evidence is provided that EE funds were allocated to states consistently with the general criteria cited in the development of the EE program and that the EE program expanded farm credit markets rather than displacing loans from other sources.
Technological Change and the Productivity Slowdown in Field Crops: United States, 1939-78
Authors: Thirtle Colin G.
Published: July 2016

In the past four decades, productivity in United States field crops has been transformed by the mechanical and fertilizer revolutions. Since input data are typically not available by crop, most investigations of productivity have been at the aggregate level. This paper develops a simultaneous equation, partial adjustment model of the demand for inputs, which generates estimates of the technical change parameters for wheat, corn, soybeans, and cotton. These estimates allow comparisons of the factor saving biases in technical change, leading to a novel test of the induced innovation hypothesis and the suggestion that the productivity slowdown may yet affect agriculture in the United States.
Market Failure in Multiphase Electric Power Development for Agricultural Irrigation
Authors: Tew Bernard V. , Broder Josef M. , Musser Wesley N. , Centner Terence J.
Published: July 2016

The adoption of multiphase electric power for electric irrigation has been limited in an area characterized by extremely rapid expansion of irrigated acreage despite production cost advantages. Theoretical and empirical evidence of failure in the existing market for multiphase power development are presented. Alternative development mechanisms are presented and discussed.
Financial Analysis of a Proposed Large-Scale Ethanol Cogeneration Project
Authors: Hanson Gregory D.
Published: July 2016

Financial analysis of an ethanol/electricity cogeneration plant indicates a rapid payback of investment and a high internal rate of return. This is primarily because cogeneration of steam for generation of electricity and biomass conversion to ethanol results in increased engineering efficiency compared to alternative ethanol alone production processes. Economic sensitivity testing included alternative price levels, interest rates, capacities, costs, and a “stand alone” case with no federal government excise tax subsidies. Supply and price analyses suggest the procurement of locally produced feedstock in Alabama and surrounding states is feasible. The robustness of the economic analysis provides support for consideration of ethanol cogeneration as a currently feasible strategy to utilize excess agricultural production capacity.
The Estate Tax Provision of the 1981 Economic Recovery Tax Act: Which Farmers Benefit?
Authors: Lowenberg-DeBoer J. , Boehlje Michael D.
Published: July 2016

This analysis used simulation to compare the cost of intergenerational transfer of farm estates under the pre-1981 tax rules and the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) provisions. ERTA reduces transfer costs for almost all the estates considered. Large estates tend to benefit more than small estates if they qualify for use valuation or if they are large enough to be affected by the reduction in tax rates. ERTA does not create new forces for change in U.S. agriculture, but it tends to strengthen the tendency toward larger farm size and favor those who already own farm resources.
A Stochastic Programming Analysis of the Farm Level Implications of Soil Erosion Control
Authors: Segarra Eduardo , Kramer Randall A. , Taylor Daniel B.
Published: July 2016

This paper analyzes the effects of uncertain soil loss in farm planning models. A disaggregated approach was used because of an interest in examining the impact of probabilistic soil loss constraints on farm level decisionmaking. A stochastic programming model was used to consider different levels of probability of soil loss. Traditional methods of analysis are shown to consistently overestimate net returns.
Agribusiness Simulators for Management Training
Authors: Babb Emerson M.
Published: July 2016

This paper describes four agribusiness simulators which can be processed on a microcomputer for use in undergraduate and extension teaching. The simulators model the environment in which supermarket chains, farm supply centers, and cooperative and proprietary grain elevators compete for business. Instruction manuals, user's manuals, and a diskette are distributed for each simulator. Each diskette contains programs to enter and edit team decisions, to process decisions and print reports, and to create graphs of team performance. The simulators can be used to teach financial management concepts and techniques, as well as economic principles.
Financial Risk in Cotton Production
Authors: Wilson Paul N. , Gundersen Carl E.
Published: July 2016

Risk analysis continues to emphasize price and yield variability as the principal components of the decisionmaker's risk environment. This research demonstrates the relative importance of financial risk for a representative cotton farm in Arizona. For highly leveraged operations, financial risk may account for 70 percent of the total risk faced by the producer. Implications for future risk analysis are discussed in light of these findings.
Establishing Linkages Between Economic Theory and Enterprise Budgeting for Teaching and Extension Programs
Authors: Bradford G. L. , Debertin D. L.
Published: July 2016

Accounting techniques of farm enterprise budgeting are rarely linked to the axioms of static production theory and to capital theory. This paper illustrates how certain linkages may be established. Particular attention is given to handling problems of scale economies, optimal output levels, replacement of durable inputs, inflation, and technological change. Estimates in an illustrative budget are linked to specific points on average cost curves. Budgeting for representative farm situations is compared to budgeting for specific situations.
Assessing the Impacts of Technology on Southern Agriculture and Rural Communities
Authors: Ghebremedhin Tesfa G.
Published: July 2016

Technology has made U.S. agriculture one of the world's most productive and competitive industries. Farmers have already witnessed the dramatic results of two major technological eras in agriculture. The mechanical era from 1920 to 1950 allowed farmers to make the transition from animal-powered agriculture to engine-powered commercial agriculture.