bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Epidemics and the Geography of Disease
Authors: Dobson Mary
Published: November 2023

Throughout human history, successive epidemics and devastating pesti lences have punctuated and scarred the populations of the world. Of the four horsemen of the Apocalypse, Pestilence has struck humankind with the sever est blows. The Black Death of the mid-fourteenth century, one of the most dra matic episodes of all times, killed in a few years at least one-quarter or one-third of the population of the known world. During the Great Plague of 1665-6, over 100,000 Londoners died, and, at the height of the epidemic, there were as many as 6,000 deaths per week. Between the fourteenth and the eighteenth centuries, some 50 million Europeans are believed to have died as a direct result of plague, as the epidemic periodically tracked its way across the world from east to west.
Town and Gown: The Relationship of Trinity College and Dublin, 1592-1641
Authors: Boran Elizabethanne
Published: November 2023

In Stubbs’s history of Trinity College it is related that for the entire period during which it was being built-well over a year-there was a total absence of rain except at night. Stubbs is in fact quoting from Fuller who, we are told, had heard of the tale from ‘certain persons then resident in Dublin’. The story was designed to show that the foundation of Trinity College Dublin was a divinely inspired plan which had received God’s imprimatur in this rather unlikely fashion. However, the corollary of the incident is of more importance. Mahaffy, quoting the myth, proceeds to suggest that ‘this historically incredible statement is of real value in showing the feelings of the people who were persuaded of it. The great interest and keen hopes of the City in the founding of the College are expressed in this legendary way.’
A Female Educationalist in the Age of the Enlightenment: Princess Dashkova and the University of St Petersburg
Authors: Tishkin G A
Published: November 2023

In the very centre of St Petersburg, on Nevsky Prospect, there is a monument to the Empress Catherine II, who stands out among Russian rulers as a remarkable figure. The sculptor’s idea was to illustrate one of Catherine’s many gifts—her ability to find talented and wise associates to rely upon. Their bronze figures are placed round the pedestal, as if supporting the Empress. Among the nine famous diplomats, generals and admirals, there is a woman—Princess Y. R. Dashkova (1743-1810). Placing Dashkova in such close proximity to the Empress was no overestimation of her importance on the part of the sculptor. She was a truly remarkable woman. A poet, her contemporary, wrote that her ambitions were most striking and not typical of the women of that time, and even embraced the desire of ‘becoming a member of the [proposed] Council of State’.
‘A fungoid assemblage of buildings’: Diversity and Adversity in the Development of College Architecture and Scientific Education in Nineteenth-Century South Kensington*
Authors: Forgan Sophie , Gooday Graeme
Published: November 2023

H. G. Wells, an early student at the Royal College of Science in South Kensington, described his Alma Mater in crushing terms: ‘a fungoid assemblage of buildings, without visible centre, guiding purpose or directing brain’. Written long after his days there, when Imperial College could indeed describe itself as the Charlottenburg of London, one has to conclude that Wells could not resist the temptation to pay off old scores. Indeed he was an untypical witness, and his career there came to an unhappy end. Nevertheless his criticisms direct our attention towards the apparently unplanned and incoherent nature of the South Kensington group of buildings, housing a disparate set of institutions (in particular the Royal College of Science and the City and Guilds Central Institution), which were eventually forged together to form Imperial College in 1907.3 There is thus a story to be told about the role of science within an emerging system of higher education which is inextricably entwined with the narrative of how a particular district in London came to be developed as a site for scientific colleges and for museums.
John Phillips, ‘Geologist-Astronomer’, and the Origins of the Oxford University Observatory, 1853–1875*
Authors: Hutchins Roger
Published: November 2023

In 1839 apparent disaster struck the University of Oxford’s work in astronomy. The position until then had been that, having no observatory or proper instruments with which to teach in the 1760s, the Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Thomas Hornsby, had petitioned the Trustees of Dr John Radcliffe’s will to provide an observatory for the University’s use. This they did by 1774, the Radcliffe Observatory (universally known as ‘the Oxford Observatory’) and instruments remaining the property of the Trustees. A board of dons, churchmen, and politicians elected the Professor from nominations put forward by the University Chancellor. He was then simultaneously appointed Radcliffe Observer by the Trustees after consultation with the University, they having taken independent advice if they wished. In 1839 a careless decision and decisive reaction caused a rift between the University and the Radcliffe Trustees. Apparently without consulting the Trustees, the University appointed a mathematician, George H. S. Johnson (who was not an astronomer), to the Savilian chair. Without consulting the University, the Trustees promptly appointed the very capable Manuel J. Johnson to be their Observer, and withdrew the use of the Radcliffe Observatory from the University and its Professor. The new Professor found himself without the use of instruments or observatory. He resigned in 1842. It was to be thirty years before anything was done to remedy the plight of astronomy within the evolving science structure of the University.
From Extension Centre to University: The Development of Non-Traditional Education at Auburn University in Montgomery, 1936-1967*
Authors: Fair John D
Published: November 2023

The Proliferation of public institutions of higher education in urban centres of the United States during the 1960s is well known. It was especially evident in states with large or burgeoning populations, such as New York where the acronyms of CUNY and SUNY abounded, or California where a veritable empire of new four-year state institutions emerged. There were branch campuses of major universities, up-grades of old state teacher colleges, autonomous regional schools, and hundreds of new junior and community colleges. In the American South, growth was especially evident in the states of North Carolina, Florida, and Texas where economic prosperity coincided with a major population and industrial movement to the Sun-Belt.2 Even in Alabama, traditionally backward in education and agrarian in outlook, these transformations were evident. The Wallace era of the 1960s witnessed an unprecedented growth in the number and size of institutions of higher education. The most notable of these changes, coinciding with Alabama’s newfound urban status, occurred within the University of Alabama where a fundamental restructuring resulted in the elevation of satellite extension centres established earlier in the century to full-blown universities.3 In the capital city of Montgomery this undertaking involved a transferral of governance to Auburn University, the state’s principal land-grant institution, and the construction of a new campus. But the fundamental character of the new institution, Auburn University at Montgomery (AUM), was shaped by its experience as an extension centre where a non-traditional form of education was designed to meet the peculiar needs of an urban clientele.
Book Reviews
Authors: Spatz Nancy
Published: November 2023

This is an unusual work, as indeed has been all the work of these two authors in partnership. Historians of the philosophy of science, their investigation is essentially epistemological. Their aim was to study the attitudes, preoccupations, and vocabulary of the medical profession in its various guises, through a study of the language used in the corpus of medieval medical texts.
Portraits from French Courts
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

French legal structures, as well as English ones, left records of suicide. But the French structures were more complicated and so left them in a different pattern. Political decentralization had allowed a mass of local jurisdictions to survive, and these mostly kept old procedures which used no records. So in France the black hole is vast, its character only to be inferred, once more, from occasional points on the perimeter where more literate jurisdictions tried to draw cases in. These were of two main categories. A few jurisdictions originally seigneurial, or quasi-seigneurial, did come to make registers for special reasons, and in imitation of procedures seen elsewhere. More important, from the thirteenth century, royal justice was increasingly on the watch for dubious verdicts in the old courts, to be re-heard. When this happened, especially when verdicts reached one of the courts of Parlement, records could be excellent.
Portraits from Letters of Remission
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: November 2023

The study of French medieval suicide through Letters of Remission faces a logical obstacle. A Letter of Remission, by definition, declared its beneficiary not guilty. Issued on a suicide’s behalf it must prove he was not a suicide. So these letters should, in principle, be no exception to the obscurity intrinsic to suicide in French legal documents. That they are is due to acknowledged peculiarities in the milieu which gave them birth. They were issued by the Court of Requests, the organ of Parlement nearest to the king, source of both the law and the grace which could suspend it. While it would go too far to say the Masters of Requests were arbitrary in granting remission, they were in principle above the law. Lucky for beneficiaries then, lucky for historians now; for, contrary to the ostensible logic of their existence, some letters do record real, deliberate suicides.
Introduction
Authors: Carr Raymond
Published: November 2023

The hands of a generation of scholars, particularly of Spanish scholars, now freed from the intellectual constraints of Francoism, the history of Spain has undergone a process of revisionism. This process can be seen as a rejection of any treatment of Spain as an exceptional case. It should be studied as one would study the history of any other major European country. That Spain should have been held to be an exceptional case is not surprising. Alone among the nations of Western Europe large areas of its territory had been occupied by non-European, non-Christian Islamic rulers since the eighth century. The Christian Reconquest (Reconquista) was a long process ending only in 1492 when the last Moorish kingdom of Granada fell. For Richard Ford, who published his great Handbook for Travellers in Spain in 1844 after travelling himself some 2,000 miles over the country, the Moorish occupation had left an abiding legacy, especially in Andalusia.
Liberalism and Reaction 1833–1931
Authors: Carr Raymond
Published: November 2023

The trickle of tourists who visited Spain in the 1830s professed to have discovered a country that had escaped the materialism of bourgeois Europe, preserving the human values of a traditional society that the advanced industrialized countries had lost. Ruled by what the British minister described as ‘ragamuffins of the first order, bragging coxcombs, indifferent pupils of second rate actors of the Theatre FrarnÇaise’, such a society was deemed incapable of progress. Yet the professed aim of the native political elite, by the constitutions which it imposed on the country, was to convert Spain into a liberal parliamentary monarchy which would give power to the men of property and intelligence, seen as the advance guard of economic and social progress.
Overview
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

The fate of government throughout the entire world was galvanized, between 1500 and 1776, by two technological advances—firearms, especially artillery, and the ocean-going sailing-ship—and the union of these two in what were effectively "floating castles enveloped by all-round batteries of quick-firing guns'?
The ‘Modern State’
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

he sixteenth century forms the watershed in the political development of Europe and via Europe, of the entire world, for Europe is the birthplace of the modern state. Here, in short compass, a number of diverse developments came to reinforce one another.
The Legacy of the French Revolution
Authors: Finer S E
Published: November 2023

(T he French Revolution is the most important single event in the entire “.L history of government. The American Revolution pales beside it. It was an earthquake. It razed and effaced all the ancient institutions of France, undermined the foundations of the other European states, and is still sending its shock-waves throughout the rest of the world. In the eyes of its admirers it is an epic, a drama of heroic proportions, full of colour and passion. To others it is a murderous catalogue of bloody insurrection, hysterical mob violence, sadism, judicial murder, and wholesale massacres.
Introduction
Authors: Wallander Celeste A , Haftendorn, Helga , Keohane Robert o.
Published: November 2023

International institutions play important roles not only in economic or environmental issue-areas, but also where threats or use of military force occur. Some of these institutions are alliances, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) during the cold war; but others, such as the arrangements embodied in chapters 6 and 7 of the United Nations Charter, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), are designed to manage conflict among their members. That is, they are security management institutions. In this volume we argue that the institutional dimensions both of alliances and security management institutions are important, and often overlooked.
Introduction
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

Russian attitudes towards Western Europe underwent radical change in the nineteenth century. The official line towards Europe was heavily revised as a result of international tensions and internal disorder. At the same time, the Russian intelligentsia developed and expounded sophisticated views on the West, which greatly influenced Russia’s self-image. Within the intelligentsia, the divide between Westerners and Slavophiles evolved, adding a further dimension, and the issue of nationalism became one of the major concerns of the century. This complex relationship between Russia and Western Europe influenced both the production and the interpretation of the arts.
The Downtrodden and Destitute: Vasily Perov
Authors: Gray Rosalind P
Published: November 2023

In the eighteenth century, poverty was rarely made the central issue in a Russian work of art. Various foreign artists working in Russia occasionally hinted at cases of impoverishment, such as the Frenchman Le Prince with his Lemonade Seller of 1765 (see Chapter 3). However, on the whole, the destitute were rarely depicted, and when they were it was as staffage in a landscape painting, where they served simply to populate a given setting.
Sleepless Souls
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

Sleepless Souls is a social and cultural history of suicide in early modern England. Self-murder was regarded as a heinous crime in Tudor and Stuart England, and was subject to savage punishments. Those who committed suicide had their property forfeited to the crown, and their bodies were denied Christian burial and desecrated. In Georgian England suicide was in practice de-criminalized, tolerated and even sentimentalized. Michael MacDonald and Terence R. Murphy, using a wide variety of contemporary sources, especially local records, trace the causes of this dramatic change in attitude. They analyse suicide within its contemporary context, relating shifts in opinion and practice to the complex framework of life in early modern England. Political events, religious changes, philosophical fashions, conflicts between centre and localities, and differing class interests all played their part. The authors' focus on the trauma of death by suicide uncovers the forces that were reshaping the mental outlook of different English classes and social groups. Their detailed and scholarly exploration of the `crime' of self-murder thus provides a history of social and cultural change in English society over three centuries.
The Medium and the Message
Authors: MacDonald Michael , Murphy Terence R
Published: November 2023

The phenomenal growth of the periodical press and the continuing spread of literacy after 1700 transformed the hermeneutics of suicide, just as they affected almost every other aspect of social and cultural life. The proliferation of daily and weekly newspapers and monthly reviews created a new mode of communication. Oral tradition and communal rituals played a diminishing role in popular culture and reading became increasingly important. Pat Rogers rightly remarks that the rise of the periodical press ‘affected the way in which people constructed the world around them’. It greatly broadened the spatial and social horizons of its readers. It brought them news of events that occurred all over the country, particularly in London, and it publicized new attitudes and ideas far more effectively than pamphlets or the pulpit. It helped form political consciousness and exposed provincial readers of every social rank to the values and opinions current in London society. It also carried news of suicides to a vast audience of readers and enabled them to form their own judgements about them. The rituals of judgement and burial were eclipsed as the chief means by which people learned of suicides and asssessed their significance.
Capital Accumulation and Long-Term Economic Dynamics
Authors: Baranzini Mauro
Published: November 2023

The post-Keynesian Kaldor-Pasinetti model belongs to the so-called field of comparative static analysis; the reason for this classification may be found in the fact that this model describes a situation where all variables expand at the same positive rate (equiproportional growth) and where the ratios among variables remain constant, so that, year after year, the relative strength of the socio-economic classes remains the same, both in terms of income and wealth. Within this model the propensities of classes to save and to consume and the technological factor (as expressed by the capital/output ratio, K/Y) remain constant; and the requirements for a steady-state growth from one period to another determine the equilibrium value of the endogenous variables of the model. This does not mean that within this framework the problem of capital accumulation and long-term relationships among classes is not considered, in particular with reference to the saving propensities of classes. However, in general, the model gives more emphasis to the long-term relationships among the variables than to the true dynamic factor.
Hans Degen, 1936. On the Danish Translation of Adam Smith and Contemporary Opinion Concerning It
Authors: Larson (1938) Henrietta M
Published: November 2023

When the father of political economy in the year 1776 published his famous work, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, there had not yet appeared any Danish work that deserves to be mentioned in the history of economic thought as a link in the development which economic theory had gone through in the later centuries.
Shrinking, Colonialism, and the Wildman
Authors: Clark Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

The previous two chapters elaborated upon the consequences of ‘contact’ and pacification presented in Chapter 2, and examined and displayed the historical trajectory of colonialism in Pangia through the discourses of the missions and administration. These chapters set the scene for a more in-depth consideration, initiated with the analysis of the Kongono cult, of Wiru responses to development and Christianity. Undue emphasis on the discourses and practices of kiaps and missionaries tends to deny agency to the colonized, glossing over the entanglements and misunderstandings between Europeans and Wiru that produce the particular characteristics of colonial and colonized culture.
Renouncing the Stone
Authors: Clark Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Many Highlands anthropologists have pointed to the ways in which ‘valuables are used to articulate social relationships’ (Merlan and Rumsey 1991: 228), acknowledging that ‘things’ can have revelatory qualities (ibid.; M. Strathern 1990). But apart from the ‘first contact’ period, little attention has been paid to the ways in which Highlanders conceived of relationships to Europeans through valuables, or to what such things as money revealed about the colonial situation
Introduction
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

This book traces the history of monolingual English dictionaries for foreign learners from their origins in the vocabulary-control movement of the 1920s and 1930s to the appearance of the large-scale, computerized compilations of the late 1980s. Monolingual learners’ dictionaries (MLDs) —also called English as a Foreign Language (or EFL) dictionaries—are now worldwide in their diffusion, and represent a coming-together of intellectual, technological, and commercial forces scarcely equalled in present-day lexicography. The advanced-level works which we shall chiefly focus on, and which dominate the current market, cater to a constantly rising demand for English, a global appetite which explains the intensity of competition among the major publishers involved, and has helped to promote the development, since the early 1980s, of large-scale text corpora and sophisticated processing tools geared to dictionary production (Sinclair 1987d, 1991; Ooi 1998; Rundell 1998).
The Survey Parser: Design and Development
Authors: Fang Alex Chengyu
Published: November 2023

Automatic parsing aims at the decomposition of a sentence into its syntactic constituent structures, so that the relations between words and groups of words are clarified. It is a process deemed essential as a help in understanding the sentential meaning. It is also the first step towards a reversed process whereby a natural language sentence can be automatically constructed according to the specification of abstract semantic meanings. The best example to demonstrate the application of parsing is multi-lingual machine translation. A sentence in Language A is first of all parsed to help to arrive at its semantics, which are then formalized and finally represented as a corresponding sentence in Language B. Success in parsing will represent a major breakthrough in natural language processing. Nearly all the major universities around the world host research teams working on different approaches to parsing. Britain alone boasts research teams in this area at Cambridge, Edinburgh, Leeds, Nottingham, Sheffield, Sussex, and York. Despite efforts in the past 50 years or so, however, ‘the state of the art in parsing general English by computer is but primitive’ (Black et al., 1993: 2). In 1990-2, three experiments were carried out on eleven rule-based parsers, which subsequently produced a success rate of only 33 per cent on naturally occurring sentences (cf. Black et al., 1993). The increasingly popular stochastic approach (Fujisaki, 1984; Garside and Leech, 1985; Atwell, 1988; Briscoe and Carroll, 1991; Fujisaki et al., 1991; Magerman, 1994), despite its advantage over the rule-based approach, suffers from incorrect analyses, especially in the attachment of constituent structures (cf. Briscoe and Carroll, 1991). SPATTER, a probabilistic parser, achieved a 78 per cent crossing-brackets score,1 and yet only about 35 per cent of the parses exactly matched the human annotations for those sentences (Magerman, 1994: v). Some systems try to remedy these parsing problems through man-machine interactions, but this usually proves too costly. The TOSCA Parser developed at the University of Nijmegen, Holland, for instance, requires considerable manual pre-editing of the input text in order to reduce parsing times and ambiguities.
Computer-Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Levy Michael
Published: November 2023

So far the development of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has been fragmented. The points of departure for CALL projects have been enormously varied, and when the projects have been written up, they rarely refer to those that have gone before. Michael Levy addresses this shortcoming, setting CALL work into a context, both historical and interdisciplinary. He is the first person in the field to consider CALL as a body of work. He also aims to identify themes and patterns of development that relate contemporary CALL to earlier projects. The author goes on to explore how CALL practitioners have conceptualized the use of the computer in language teaching and learning. He achieves this through a detailed review of the literature, and through the results of an international CALL survey, where key CALL practitioners from 18 countries respond to questions on aspects of CALL materials development. Drawn from this rich source of information on actual CALL practice, Michael Levy analyses and expands on a tutor-tool framework. He shows this to be of value for a better understanding of methodology, integration of CALL into the curriculum, the role of the teacher and learner, and evaluation.
Non-derivational Phonology Meets Lexical Phonology
Authors: Booij Geert
Published: November 2023

A proper theory of phonology has to provide at least the three subtheories listed in (1):

(1) (i) a theory of the nature of phonological representations

(ii) a theory of the form of phonological generalizations

(iii) a theory of the organization of phonology as part of the grammar

Autosegmental phonology, Prosodic Phonology, and the theory of Feature Geometry are examples of theories that deal with (aspects of) the nature of phonological representations.

The issue of how to express phonological generalizations has become one of the foci of recent phonological research. The basic ingredients of the classical SPE approach, and of Lexical Phonology in its standard form, are rules and derivations. We now observe a shift to constraint-based approaches such as Constraints-and-Repairs Phonology (Paradis 1988–9) and Harmonic Phonology (Goldsmith 1990; 1993), in which both rules and constraints play a role, and Optimality Theory (OT). In the latter theory, rules have been completely abolished in favor of a hierarchy of constraints, and there is no derivational, serial computation of the correct phonetic form of a word (Prince and Smolensky 1993). In another approach, Declarative Phonology, rules have been replaced with stative, declarative statements that express well-formedness constraints that apply conjunctively (Coleman 1995).
Extrasyllabic Consonants in Polish: Derivational Optimality Theory
Authors: Rubach Jerzy
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the treatment of extrasyllabic consonants in two frameworks: Derivational Theory (DT) and Optimality Theory (OT). The choice of Polish as the source of data has been made for several reasons. First, Polish has a rich system of extrasyllabic consonants. Second, their distribution is complex in the sense that they are not limited to some special position in the word. Third, they interact with assimilation rules, in particular with Final Devoicing, Regressive Assimilation and Progressive Devoicing. Each of these facts puts Polish in the position of an interesting language, since, as I explain below, languages have typically rather restricted systems and simple strategies for dealing with extrasyllabic consonants.
Not Chance but Choice: Criteria in Corpus Creation
Authors: Engwall Gunnel
Published: November 2023

Both structuralists and generativists study the linguistic system as a whole: the structuralist by looking for patterns in linguistic phenomena, the generativist by first examining the language user’s competence. However, the fact that the linguistic system, or ‘langue’ as Saussure termed it, is virtual means that it cannot be studied directly. Instead both structuralists and generativists have to study the actualization of ‘langue’, that is ‘parole’ (discourse or performance).
Encoding a Corpus in Machine Readable Form: The Approach of the Text Encoding Initiative
Authors: Johansson Stig
Published: November 2023

If we compare speech with a conventional written transcript (as we find it, for example, in Studs Terkel’s The Great Divide: Second Thoughts on the American Dream, New York: Avon Books, 1989), we see that the text must have gone through a transformation. It is neatly divided into words, sentences, and paragraphs. There is no trace of pauses in mid sentence, hesitations, background noise, etc. Occasional uses of italics and non-standard word forms give a hint of the original spoken delivery, but the spoken realization is largely lost. Such a text is a successful adaptation to the written mode (and Studs Terkel does indeed acknowledge the main transcriber, who ‘has revealed transcribing as an art form’, p. xv), whereas a transcription closer to the original might be unbearable, except to a linguist interested in the peculiarities of speech.
Starting where the Dictionaries Stop: The Challenge of Corpus Lexicography
Authors: Fillmore Charles J , Atkins B T S
Published: November 2023

How does the dictionary description of a word measure up to the facts that may be discovered about it in an electronic corpus? Does access to a large corpus help the lexicographer to give an accurate, comprehensive, and intelligible account of what the word means and how people use it? Does such a corpus provide facts relevant to the dictionary senses of a word which go beyond what lexicographers have found? If so, is it possible to incorporate the new facts within the constraints of traditional approaches to word meaning and usage? These are the questions addressed in this chapter.
Introduction
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

This book is an investigation into the relationship between some morphological and syntactic changes which took place between Old English (OE) and early Modern English (ModE). Extensive changes in morphology occurred in late OE and in Middle English (ME); in particular, the old system of case marking was nearly completely swept away. This drastic reduction of case marking has usually been seen as responsible for many syntactic changes. This book will focus on four major syntactic changes which have been treated by some observers as results of the loss of case marking morphology, and will evaluate the evidence concerning some changes in grammatical relations which have been attributed to the reduction of case marking.
An Overview of Old English Syntax
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

Before examining the grammar of the verbs which later underwent a change in case assignment and/or grammatical relations, it is necessary to make some general observations about OE syntax. Only those aspects of OE syntax relevant to the changes examined in this study will be discussed here. The facts which are of particular interest to us mainly concern case marking and constituent order, since changes in these two systems are usually assumed to have triggered reanalyses of grammatical relations. Accordingly, section 2.1 is a discussion of case marking in OE. Section 2.1.1 covers the case marking of the objects of monotransitive verbs in OE, while section 2.1.2 discusses the case-marking patterns found with ditransitive verbs. Section 2.2 is devoted to some relevant facts concerning the possible orders of major constituents in OE. These are discussed in some detail, because there is considerable disagreement about how constituent order is to be dealt with in OE, and the topic has been the focus of a good deal of attention. In order to evaluate the competing theories, it is essential that certain empirical questions be clarified. In particular, it is important to look closely at the question of how different constituent order was in main and subordinate clauses, and this is reflected in the separation of these two clause types into separate sections.
The Development of the Experiencer Verbs
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

The loss of case distinctions detailed in Chapter 5 has generally been agreed to have played an important role in the history of the experiencer verbs in English. Two changes are commonly seen as having been triggered by the syncretism of nominative, accusative, and dative case in the nominal system: (1) the loss of the ‘impersonal’ constructions, in which there was no nominative NP, and (2) the replacement of object Experiencers by subject Experiencers with verbs such as like in constructions in which the Theme had been in the nominative case in OE. In this chapter, we will look at how these verbs developed in ME, with a view to evaluating the role of changes to case marking in the loss of the ‘impersonal’ constructions. The facts presented in this chapter will put us in a position to evaluate, in the next chapter, different hypotheses about the effects of the changes to the case-marking system on these constructions.
Explaining the Demise of the Preposed Dative Experiencer
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter, I described the development of nominative Experiencers with verbs which formerly took non-nominative Experiencers, and the disappearance of PDEs. In this chapter, we will look at how these facts tie in with ideas about the role of the loss of case marking in the loss of the PDE verbs. The most widely held view about the disappearance of PDEs is that this was a syntactic reanalysis, triggered by changes which took place in the case-marking system. There is disagreement, however, about the precise role to be attributed to the loss of case marking.
Changes in Passives: Verbs with More than One Object-like Argument
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

We have seen in the preceding chapter that all single objects generally began to be treated the same for the purposes of passivization by the beginning of the thirteenth century. This was true whether or not another argument was present in the form of a prepositional phrase, except that there is some evidence that indirect passives linger a bit longer when the second argument is a PP, and some fixed expressions with indirect passives persist until about the beginning of the fourteenth century. I have argued that the shift to direct passives did not involve a change in grammatical relations, but only in case marking. Matters are very different, however, when the second argument was an NP or a clause. The introduction of what I have called ‘recipient passives’, in which the Recipient of a ditransitive verb appears in the nominative case, occurred much later and clearly involves a change in grammatical relations: what was earlier analysed as a bare indirect object becomes analysed as a direct object.
Conclusion
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

In this book, I have investigated the interaction between the loss of case marking distinctions and some syntactic changes involving the experiencer verbs and passives. I have concentrated on four syntactic changes: (1) the loss of ‘impersonal’ constructions (ones with no nominative NP), (2) the reassignment of grammatical relations with ‘personal’ verbs such as like, (3) the appearance of what I have called ‘direct’ passives, that is, ordinary passives of verbs which formerly had dative objects, as opposed to the older passive which retained dative case marking, and (4) the appearance of ‘recipient’ passives, in which the Recipient is made the subject of the passive of a ditransitive verb. In this chapter I will review the most import ant findings of this investigation and discuss their implications for our understanding of how syntactic change is implemented.
Proto-Dravidian*?
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Applying the usual procedures of comparison and reconstruction to Dravidian, we can set up on definite grounds the following phonemes for Proto-Dravidian: 0.1. Since long vowels contrast with the corresponding short vowels in all the Dravidian languages, a phoneme of length marked /-/ can be set up for Proto-Dravidian.
Constraints, Causation, and Change
Authors: Mcmahon April
Published: November 2023

According to Haspelmath (1999: 22), ‘ ... a linguist who asks “Why?” must be a historian.’ In certain phonological frameworks, notably Lexical Phonology, the trend towards seeing purely synchronic, distributional factors as the key to understanding grammars, which was so prevalent in the early days of generative phonology, is now being supplemented, or even replaced, by a search for the roots of synchronic phenomena in the history of the language involved: in a sense, introspection is being challenged by retrospection. The question is how far Optimality Theory is or should be in line with these developments, and with associated attempts to model and explain sound changes.
Introduction
Authors: Mettinger Arthur
Published: November 2023

Yes, I cannot help still believing in two lovers who wished to get married, who were ready to take each other on for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health. She loved him and she would have taken him for better or for worse. As far as she had gone, she took him for worse. It brought about her death.
“Antonymy,”: Scope and Delimitations
Authors: Mettinger Arthur
Published: November 2023

In studies such as the present one it is customary to give a critical survey of all the work that has been done so far in the respective field of research. To do so with regard to antonymy1 would, however, lead to a monograph with a tide like Antonymy: the history of a term and a concept in philosophy, rhetoric,2 logic, and linguistics, including lexicography, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, and text-linguisticsand clearly go beyond the scope of this book. Moreover, Gsell (1979) can be regarded as a valuable source of information on the treatment of antonymy up to the mid-seventies, with special emphasis on Romance studies; the chapter on ‘Nichtstrukturelle Ansätze’ (Gsell 1979, 24-34, with a discussion of works by Ch. Bally, C. K. Ogden, M. Peter, 0. Ducháček, L. Guilbert, J. Pohl) is of special interest as it demonstrates some of the ideas “structuralist” semanticists such as Eugenio Coscriu and John Lyons drew upon when formulating their theories.3 In line with the growing interest in linguistic semantics in the sixties and seventies antonymy has been given its place in handbooks on linguistics (e.g. Lyons 1968, 460 ff.), semantics proper (e.g. Leech 1974, Lyons 1977, Viehweger et al.1977, Palmer 1981, Kastovsky 1982b, Cruse 1986),4 and lexicology (e.g. Fomina 1978, Agricola and Agricola 1979, Hansen et al.1982, H. Schmidt 1985, Lipka 1990), and a vast number of articles connected with the topic has been and is still being published.
Central Oppositeness of Meaning: Analyses
Authors: Mettinger Arthur
Published: November 2023

This chapter is dedicated to the presentation of analyses performed on lexical items presented in the 1972 edition of Roget’s Thesaurus of English words and phrases.The choice of Roget’s Thesauruswas motivated by the assumption that investigating part of the lexical material contained in a ‘conceptual dictionary’ (Lyons 1977, 300; sec also Lipka 1990, 38 f.) would provide the investigator with a greater variety of phenomena demanding an explanation than any alphabetically arranged dictionary of antonyms would have done—an assumption that has, I hope, turned out to be correct. It must be admitted, of course, that Roget’s Thesauruscontains a number of lexical items that are hardly used in contemporary English; in view of the sememic basis of analysis as outlined in the previous chapters, however, this is not really a major problem.
Central Oppositeness of Meaning: Some Further Issues
Authors: Mettinger Arthur
Published: November 2023

Lyons (1977) points out that morphologically unrelated pairs of opposites in English are outnumbered in the vocabulary by such morphologically related pairs as ‘married’: ‘unmarried’, ‘friendly’ : ‘unfriendly’, ‘formal’· “informal’, ‘legitimate’ ‘illegitimate’, etc. In each case the base-form of one member of the pair is derived from the base-form of the other by the addition of the negative prefixes un-or in-.(Lyons 1977, 275 [my emphasis]) Thus the English prefixes un-, dis-,and non-have often been referred to as “negative prefixes” (e.g. by Funk (1971, 1986), Stein (1971), Kastovsky (1982b)); they have been described in connection with ‘affixal and non-affixal negation’ (Tottie 1980, 101) or as instances of ‘präfixale[r] (morphematisch gebundene[r]) Negation im Englischen’ (Welte 1978, 186). H. Schmidt (1985, 58) regards cases such as anständig.:: unanständig, artig: unartig, gerecht: ungerecht, sportlich: unsportlich, Ruhe; Unruhe, Schuld Unschuld,etc. as ‘Gegensatzwörter mit gesonderter lexikalisierter Anzeige der Polarität bei nur einem Partner’ and points out: Gerade für diese Gruppe bestehen z.T. Zweifel an der Auffassung der Partnerwörter als Antonyme [im weiteren Sinn (A.M.)].
Substratum or Universals?
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T
Published: November 2023

Bickerton’s ‘bioprogram’ hypothesis (Bickerton 1981) was greeted with a good deal of adverse criticism, e.g. Aitchison (1983), Holm (1982), Le Page (1983). Much of the ‘Open Peer Commentary’ following Bickerton (1984a) is also highly critical, e.g. Seuren (1984:208): ‘Bickerton’s argument for “biological determination of linguistic properties” (Section 4.0) suffers from factual incorrectness as well as tendentious and often fanciful analyses.’
To Be or Not to Be: Variation in Be Occurrence
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T
Published: November 2023

One of the distinctive syntactic features of Black English Vernacular (BEV) is the variable use of be. Among the more detailed studies on variation in the copula in BEV are Labov (1969, 1972), Wolfram (1969, 1974), and Baugh (1980). Perhaps the best-known work in this area is Labov’s (1969) ‘Contraction, Deletion, and Inherent Variability of the English Copula’. In this article, Labov argues that the deletion of be is largely a result of phonological processes. After the present tense full forms of be in constructions such as he is, they are have been contracted, the remaining ‘s and “re are deleted. However, deletion does not apply to ‘m as ‘there are phonological processes which operate upon final [z] and [r] in BEV, but not upon final [m]’ (Labov 1969:721). He further states that ‘wherever SE [standard English] can contract, NNE [non-standard Negro English] can delete is and are, and vice versa; wherever SE cannot contract, NNE cannot delete is and are, and vice versa’ (Labov 1969:722). This analysis lends support to the hypothesis that BEV does not have creole origins, but is in fact a ‘dialect’ of English and has an underlying copula.
The Acquisition of Past Tense
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T
Published: November 2023

The acquisition of the tense-aspect system of a language by speakers of another language is often problematic, even if the languages are related. For example, English sentences with verbs in the simple past tense are often the appropriate translations of German sentences with a compound verb form which is structurally similar to the English present perfect, such as when an adverb of time occurs: English: She saw him yesterday. German: Sie hat ihn gestern gesehen She has him yesterday seen. With languages as far apart genetically and typologically as English and Chinese, the acquisition of the English tense-aspect system obviously presents considerable problems for the speaker of a Chinese-language background. It has been claimed, e.g. by Lyons (1977:687), that Chinese is among the languages which do not have tense but which grammaticalize aspectual distinctions. On the other hand, Comrie (1976:58) states that in Chinese (Mandarin) ‘the verbal particle -le indicates perfective aspect and relative past time reference’. Later (p. 82) he explains that ‘in many cases the use of -le is optional ... but when it does occur -le indicates a past perfective situation’. In any case, Chinese is among those languages which do not mark tense or aspect on the verb itself by morphological means.
The Repetition of Verbs in Singaporean English
Authors: Mian-Lian Ho , Platt John T
Published: November 2023

The use of verbal repetition is a particularly interesting feature of Singaporean English. Ho has divided this repetition into six categories: I Verbal repetition where a verb may be uttered twice or a few times, e.g. blink blink, wait wait wait, etc. II Verbal repetition with and, e.g. calculate and calculate. III Repetition of phrases, e.g. quickly learn quickly learn, sell finish take again sell finish take again, etc. IV Repetition of phrases with this/that, here/there, up/down, e.g. buy this buy that, look here look there, run here run there. V Onomatopoeic reduplication. VI Repetition to show emphasis in SgE, where very often in SgE stress and intonation would be used. Table 10.1 shows the number of informants who used repetition of verbs (Types I to IV) and the frequency of such repetitions according to the educational attainment of the informants.
Null Subjects in Middle English Existentials
Authors: Williams Alexander
Published: November 2023

In Early Middle English (II50-1250) as in Old English (850-1150), the expletive pronoun there (per, pear, etc.) is often missing from existential sentences in which it could grammatically occur, as it is missing from (1). (2) comes from the same text as (1), but here the expletive is pronounced.
From OV to VO in Swedish
Authors: Delsing Lars-Olof
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I present new data on the change from OV to VO in Old Swedish and Early Modem Swedish. Like several other languages (see e.g. Pintzuk 1991 on English and Hróarsdóttir 1999b on Icelandic), Swedish goes through a stage where there is variation in the surface word order of the verb and its object(s). My investigation shows that during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries both OV and VO word orders are possible. The Swedish data indicate that the choice between OV and VO is not arbitrary, but to a large extent dependent on the form of the object.
Verb Movement in Slavonic Conditionals
Authors: Willis David
Published: November 2023

A striking feature of the historical development of the morphosyntax of a number of Slavonic languages is the reanalysis of what were once inflected conditional auxiliaries as uninflected conditional-mood markers. Such a development has taken place in East Slavonic (Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian), Slovak, Lower Sorbian, Slovene, Macedonian, and to some extent also in Serbian.’ The details of the development vary among the different languages. In Slovak, for instance, the conditional marker co-occurs with the perfect tense, and a form of agreement has been reintroduced; in others it co-occurs with the former past participle alone. The purpose of this chapter is to examine some of the asymmetries between the conditional auxiliary and other auxiliaries in two historical varieties of Slavonic in the hope of moving towards an account of why the loss of an inflected conditional auxiliary should be a feature of Slavonic. The chapter begins (§14.2) by examining the conditional in Old Church Slavonic, a language whose morphosyntactic rules for the conditional may resemble those of the Slavonic parent language. The conditional auxiliary in Old Church Slavonic is traditionally termed a semi-enclitic.