bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Striking the balance: a chicken meat producer's view
Authors: Hopley P. T.
Published: June 2019

We are now trading in a world market and it is vital we are aware of the chicken meat production systems and ethics employed in other European and third world countries. All these countries have generally a lower cost of production than the United Kingdom. The strength of the United Kingdom industry is the level of efficiency and biological performance and we must be careful not to load excessive additional cost onto our industry by the introduction of onerous welfare legislation. One of the major points of difference between the United Kingdom and the rest of the world is that of stocking density. In the United Kingdom stocking density is laid down in the ‘Codes of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock — Domestic Fowls’. The pace of change within the industry has made this single figure approach obsolete. Industry bodies, such as the British Poultry Meat Federation and the National Farmers' Union, have an important rôle in representing producers' views to Government and consumers. We need more concentration and funding on research and finding solutions, and less on ever more ways of measuring problems.
The producer's view — ruminants
Authors: Lowman B.
Published: June 2019

Ruminant producers blame almost equally supermarkets and Government for welfare legislation for many reasons but mainly because legislation incurs additional administrative and policing costs. All of these are eventually paid for by the producer, increasing their production costs but not those of their overseas competitors. There is little doubt that the final responsibility for legislation lies with each of us as individual consumers. A significant factor influencing our view of animal welfare is our upbringing, associating ‘nice animals’ with similar feelings to ourselves. However, such instinctive principles are generally forgotten when we are asked to pay a premium for them in the supermarket. Hence the main activators of welfare legislation are the ‘evangelical few’. Supermarkets claim that the demands they impose on their suppliers are simply a reflection of their customers’ demands. However another reason is to allow supermarkets clearly to differentiate their ruminant products to encourage consumers through the door but it has been difficult for them to pass on a premium to their suppliers for meeting tighter specifications for which the consumer will not pay a premium. This dilemma has recently reached breaking point in the pig industry with the ending of the Malton pig contract. To move farm animal welfare forward requires a firm basis of ‘systems’ welfare research which would also act as an effective vehicle for technology transfer to producers. Nevertheless, the main dilemma, our reluctance as consumers to pay for high welfare products, will continue to restrict progress. If, however, high welfare systems could be shown to improve product eating quality for which consumers will pay a premium, developments in animal welfare will be rapidly and willingly accepted by producers.
Quality assurance
Authors: Simpson B. M.
Published: June 2019

A description is provided of the development of quality assurance in the Scottish beef and lamb industry during the period 1988-98. The contributions of many organizations and individuals are explained and three essential development phases are identified: setting the standards, gaining commitment from the industry and establishing independent credible assessment procedures. While Scotland has achieved some economic advantage, the author acknowledges that much has still to be done to reward all participating sectors.
Rôle of research in the formulation of ‘rules’ to protect the welfare of farm animals during road transportation
Authors: Cockram M. S. , Mitchell M. A.
Published: June 2019

This paper explains how research can contribute to an understanding of the welfare issues associated with transportation and the value of basing legislation to protect the welfare of animals on scientific evidence.However, it also indicates the limitations of existing research methodology and identifies where research can make a clear contribution to the amendment of existing legislation. The research should accurately reflect commercial practice and should focus upon the provision of readily transferable technological improvements and relevant legislation that will optimize both welfare and productivity. Research into the effects of transport on the welfare of animals involves the investigation of a multicomponent process which can potentially affect the welfare of animals in many ways. The research should identify and quantify those components of transport environments and practices which constitute a major risk to the welfare of animals and determine the optimum conditions for transportation based upon matching the conditions and procedures to the animals’ biological requirements. A range of different measurements have been made to evaluate the responses of farm animals to transportation. Physiological and biochemical variables should be selected to reflect responses or disturbances in the major homeostatic systems influenced by transport environments and practices. The value of the different measurements is strengthened by an understanding of the action and functional significance of the responses. Animal welfare legislation should be based upon sound scientific evidence relating to the animals’ physiological and behavioural requirements and their interaction with their immediate environment. Nowhere is this more important than in animal transportation.
Information and technology transfer in farm animal welfare
Authors: Goddard P. J.
Published: June 2019

Considerable information is available on which to base practical recommendations for enhanced animal welfare. There is evidence of a reasonable flow of information between researchers, farmers, producers' organizations, legislators and the public, although more readily assimilated forms of information are required. New approaches to welfare assessment may allow the public to evaluate production systems in a more balanced way. As the urbanization of society increases, the rôle of education becomes more important to provide information about the reality of on-farm practices. Increasing use will be made of information technology to implement technological advances. Using interactive methods of on-farm assessment of welfare and decision support tools, it would seem possible to engage the producer to a greater extent in the process of improving standards. Measures of public willingness to pay for enhanced welfare provide valuable information about the utility value of animal welfare, influence the views of politicians and producers and ultimately determine production systems.
Metabolic Consequences of Increasing Milk Yield – Revisiting Lorna
Authors: Reynolds C. K.
Published: June 2019

Nearly 50 years ago, a cow named Lorna achieved notoriety by producing nearly 50 kg of milk daily during measurements of her energy metabolism in a calorimeter at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Energy Metabolism Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland (Flatt, Moore, Hooven and Plowman, 1965; Flatt, Moe, Munson and Cooper, 1969). In the intervening period genetic selection in dairy cattle has produced huge increases in average milk yield, as well as changes in overall conformation, udder characteristics, and body size and structure (Hansen, 2000).
Optimising Milk Composition
Authors: Lock Adam L. , Shingfield Kevin J.
Published: June 2019

During recent decades, the UK dairy industry has had to adjust to the introduction of milk quotas in 1984, the deregulation of milk markets in 1994, and accommodate changes in the demand for dairy products. The combination of these factors, in addition to Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and Foot and Mouth disease, and a fall in milk price has inevitably resulted in a restructuring of the industry, but also reinforced the need for all sectors of the industry to respond to the prevailing economic climate and changes in consumer preferences.
Metabolic responses of muscle to exercise
Authors: Essén–Gustavsson B
Published: June 2019

Muscle is a tissue with a great plasticity due to the fact that it is composed of fibres having different contractile and metabolic properties. In horses, muscle metabolic responses to exercise are studied by taking biopsies from the gluteus medius muscle. Histochemical stains are used to identify slow contracting type I fibres and fast contracting type IIA and type IIB fibres and to evaluate fibre areas, capillary supply, oxidative capacity, glycogen and lipid content in a muscle. Biochemical analyses of substrates, metabolites and enzyme activities are performed either on a whole piece of muscle, on pools of fibres or on single fibres of identified type.

All fibres contain glycogen whereas lipid is mainly found in type I and type IIA fibres that have smaller cross–sectional areas and a higher oxidative capacity than type IIB fibres. Large variations can be seen in metabolic profile between and within fibre types. The most common muscular adaptation to training is an increase in oxidative capacity, capillary density and an increase in the type IIA/IIB ratio. The order of recruitment of fibres during most types of exercise is from type I to type IIA and type IIB.

The higher the intensity of exercise, the faster is the breakdown of glycogen. After racing (1640-2640m), and after high intense treadmill exercise, concentrations of lactate and inosine monophosphate (IMP) are increased in the muscle and concentrations of glycogen, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) decreased. Extremely low ATP and high IMP concentrations especially in some type II fibres are observed after racing.

After exercise of low intensity and long duration glycogen and triglyceride stores in muscle are utilised, amino acid metabolism is enhanced and protein degradation may occur. After submaximal treadmill exercise to fatigue and after endurance rides glycogen is degraded and depletion occurs mainly in type I and type IIA fibres.

Fibre type composition, substrate sources and differences in metabolic properties among fibres and the extent to which fibres are recruited are all factors that influence the metabolic responses of muscle to exercise. Biochemical analyses on whole muscle must be interpreted with caution since large variations in metabolic response to exercise occur among different fibres.
Muscle morphology heterogeneity: control, significance for performance and responses to training
Authors: Rivero J L L
Published: June 2019

The skeletal musculature of the horse is highly developed and adapted to match the animal's athletic potential. More than half of a mature horse's body weight comprises skeletal muscle and the total muscle blood flow during maximal exercise represents 78% of total cardiac output. Exercise requires the co–ordinated application of many different body systems under the control of the nervous systems. Metabolites and oxygen reach skeletal muscle fibres via the respiratory, cardiovascular and haematological systems. The muscle fibres produce energy in the form of ATP that, via the contractile machinery, is converted into mechanical work. The structural arrangements of the musculoskeletal system provides the means with which to harness this energy to move the horse's limbs in a characteristic rhythmical pattern that is well established for each gait.

Equine skeletal muscle is considerably heterogeneous and this diversity reflects functional specialisation and is the basis of its adaptive plasticity. Cellular and molecular diversity of equine muscle and the response of this tissue to exercise and training have been studied extensively over the past 30 years.
The mechanics of equine locomotion: a review of progress in our understanding of the mechanical basis of locomotor performance and disease
Authors: Burn J F
Published: June 2019

In this chapter we will review how the principles of mechanics can be used to address scientific questions relating to equine performance and disease.

Performance can be defined in terms of fundamental qualities or at an applied level. Energetic efficiency, speed, acceleration, endurance capacity, stability, and manoeuvrability, are recognised as fundamental selection pressures in the evolution of terrestrial locomotion. These contribute individually or in combination to performance in a particular sport. Whereas the capacity to achieve the highest value of the outcome measure for a particular sport might be used as an overall measure of performance however, it is more useful for the purpose of scientific investigation to consider performance in terms of more fundamental quantities. The overall aim is generally to relate locomotor form (morphology), function (movement), and environmental factors to fundamental measures of performance.

Size (indicated by body mass) has an important effect on the form of the locomotor systems of terrestrial animals.
The putative reward function of equine stereotypic behaviour
Authors: Hemmings A J , McBride S D , Smith N C
Published: June 2019

A review of physiology and behaviour–based studies on the function of stereotypic behaviour indicates contradiction and inconsistency within the literature. By considering appropriate neurochemical data alongside an existing model of motivation (Hughes and Duncan, 1988), a greater understanding of the function of stereotypy may be gained. The Hughes and Duncan model (1988), described stereotypies as highly motivated appetitive behaviours performed repeatedly in an environment where consummatory goals are denied. Moreover, appetitive behaviours activate reward circuitry such as the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens and are thus considered to have a reward value associated with their performance (Carr, 2002; Jones et al., 1990). Stress induced sensitisation of reward circuitry may result in appetitive ‘stereotypies’ having increased reward value, perhaps becoming consummatory in their own right. In such a scenario, stereotypic behaviour could function as a coping tool, allowing the animal to counter the effects of an aversive environment.
Equine neutrophil elastase 2A concentrations in tracheal wash preparations and synovial fluid as a potential objective marker for inflammatory airway and joint diseases in horses
Authors: Dagleish M P
Published: June 2019

Neutrophil elastase (NE), a powerful proteolytic enzyme found within the primary cytoplasmic granules of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN), is capable of degrading almost any component of the extracellular pulmonary matrix and forms part of the cells’ armoury against invading microbes (Crystal, 1996; Haslett, Savill and Meagher, 1989). It is essential during inflammation for diapedesis and migration to extravascular compartments (Henson and Johnson, 1987), oxygen independent bactericidal activity and the remodelling of damaged tissues (Ganz, Metcalf, Gallin and Lehrer, 1987) and is crucial for health as an absence results in increased susceptibility to pyogenic infections which, if untreated, are eventually fatal. Mature PMN contain a finite amount of NE (Campbell, Silverman and Campbell, 1989) which can only be synthesized during development within the bone marrow, especially the pro–myelocyte stage (Fouret, duBois, Bernaudin, Takahashi, Ferrans and Crystal, 1989).

PMN are often the first white blood cells to be attracted to an inflamed and/or infected area within the body and can persist there due to their role in remodelling damaged tissue.
Development and application of modern breeding technologies to the horse
Authors: Allen W R
Published: June 2019

The application of modern breeding technologies to the practical breeding of horses has accelerated worldwide over the past two decades in all breeds and types of horses except the Thoroughbred. Artificial insemination (AI) with fresh extended semen is used routinely on most stud farms with considerable improvements in efficiency, fertility, disease control and management costs. The ability of cooled semen to retain high fertility for 24-48 hours enables its widescale shipment within and between countries by modern transport methods. Even the use of deep frozen semen is increasing rapidly, in conjunction with a single fixed–time insemination in relation to gonadotrophininduced ovulation. The wide scale use of the ultrasound scanner to monitor follicular development and ovulation has markedly improved diagnosis of the optimum insemination time, with consequent improvements in conception rates. However, repeated scanning examinations at intervals of only 4-6 hours in order to carry out insemination of frozen-thawed semen after, rather than before, ovulation is illogical and inefficient.
Effects of airway inflammation, ozone and exercise on the pulmonary antioxidant capacity of the horse: A war of nutrition
Authors: Deaton C
Published: June 2019

Within the body there is continual production of entities known as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). These include radical derivatives of oxygen that contain at least one unpaired electron and include species such as the superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. ROS also include nonradical derivatives of oxygen that are capable of oxidising biomolecules such as hydrogen peroxide, ozone and nitrogen dioxide. ROS are formed from processes such as the respiratory burst of phagocytes and from mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, so production is often increased by situations that elevate oxygen utilisation such as exercise. ROS may also act as “signalling” species within the body. Controlled production of ROS is therefore essential for normal cellular function and health, especially with respect to the functioning of the immune system. However, uncontrolled production of ROS can result in cell damage and death, the induction and propagation of inflammation and DNA damage. Thus, the body has evolved intricate and elaborate enzymatic and non–enzymatic antioxidant defences to control and buffer excess ROS production. In situations where the antioxidant defences are overwhelmed either due to their depletion, malfunction or simply due to excessive ROS bombardment, oxidative stress and oxidative damage are likely to occur.
Equine forages and grassland management
Authors: Bax J , Lane G P F
Published: June 2019

There are about 900,000 horses kept in the UK for leisure and a further 65,000 kept professionally (British Horse Society, 2003). Altogether about 800,000 ha are utilised for grazing and feeding horses, making the equine industry the second largest in the UK land based sector, after agriculture. The purpose of this paper is to review the present information on the management of grassland for horse grazing and for conserved forage, to identify some current issues and to postulate some areas for future research and development.

Maximizing the contribution made by grazing to the nutrition of the horse is a reasonable goal if economy is the main priority. Even if this is not the case, horses have a need to satisfy their natural instinct to graze. The deterioration of poorly managed grassland associated with equine enterprises is well documented (Odberg and Francis–Smith, 1976, and Judd et al., 2001). Horse grazing differs from grazing by cattle and sheep, in particular in the way that they select species and in the spatial pattern of their grazing.
The challenge of attracting and retaining sponsorship in eventing
Authors: Bowden L , Walsh R
Published: June 2019

Eventing is a very expensive sport to organise and run and relies heavily upon sponsorship funding to enable it to remain financially viable. This research is concerned with the challenges that events face in attracting and retaining sponsorship and what can be done to address these problems, resulting in a clearer understanding of what makes a successful sponsorship. Fourteen interviews were conducted with both event organisers and sponsoring companies, as well four people who are considered to be knowledgeable about sponsorship within the equine industry, to ensure that a balanced view of the issues was gained. The research found that the industry suffers from a culture of patronage with some companies sponsoring eventing for altruistic reasons. They see sponsorship as a way of raising public awareness and of building goodwill with their customers by being seen to put something back into a sport that their customers care about. Sponsors commented that sponsorship impresses people and gives them an idea about the values of the company and where it is positioned within the industry. They saw the sponsored event as an opportunity for them to entertain clients, customers, press and other business professionals, often in very beautiful surroundings. As eventing attracts more AB and C1 competitors and spectators than any other sport, it can offer sponsors an opportunity for highly targeted marketing to a sector of the population who are acknowledged to be difficult to reach via traditional advertising. Sponsors are interested in getting value for money from their sponsorship, and they expect to be dealt with in a professional manner. Event organisers need to demonstrate clearly how the sponsorship will benefit the company and ensure that they meet all of the sponsors’ business objectives. Sponsors expect to have name and brand awareness delivered to their target audience at the event, thus organisers must ensure that this happens by providing good branding opportunities. In order to gain the maximum benefit from the sponsorship, the sponsoring company needs to promote and publicise the sponsorship as much as possible by integrating it across their whole marketing strategy. This can be a great advantage to the event organiser as it raises the profile of the event. Events at the top end of the sport were found to have good sponsorship deals in place and the organisers said that they did not need sponsorship to make their events viable. However, the smaller events at grassroots level are only viable if sufficient sponsorship can be found. One interviewee suggested that these small events need to target smaller local companies who could benefit from raising their public profile in the local area. The event organisers interviewed feel undervalued by British Eventing, the sport’s governing body, and think that British Eventing could do more to support event organisers in attracting and retaining sponsorship. This is particularly crucial at grassroots level, because without sponsorship these events are not financially viable.
Meal frequency and stereotypic behaviour in stabled horses
Authors: Cooper J J , Johnson S , McCall N , Davidson N
Published: June 2019

Locomotor stereotypies such as weaving and nodding are commonly observed as pre–feeding activity in stabled horses (Cooper, McDonald and Mills, 2001), whilst oral activities such as crib–biting and woodchewing may be associated with the post–feeding period (McGreevy and Nicol, 1998) particularly in horses fed a low–fibre concentrate (Nicolet al., 2002). In this study, we investigated the effect of increasing the number of meals of concentrate whilst maintaining the same daily concentrate intake, on the behaviour of stabled horses with particular reference to stereotypic activities such as weaving and crib–biting. The study was carried out on a working equestrian yard with stables for up to 50 horses.

A pilot study was used to record incidence of stereotypic behaviour and to select subjects for the main study. In this, the behaviour of 30 warm–blooded horses was recorded during their morning (0830h) and afternoon (1630h) concentrate meals. Each meal consisted of 0.5kg of a commercial feed, mixed with 1kg of soaked sugar beet pulp and 0.5kg of chopped hay and straw mixed in a bucket.
The effect of odour on the autonomic status of the horse
Authors: Boyle N , Clarke L , Geering R
Published: June 2019

It is well established that the equid olfactory system is highly sensitive. It has been suggested that there is an intimate link between the sense of smell in the horse (Williams, 1995) and the fight and flight response, which is mediated by the autonomic nervous system (Marlin and Nankervis, 2002), thus affecting the heart. In humans, it has been demonstrated that lavender can have a pronounced impact on heart rate variability (Saeki, 2000) but it is not yet know whether the autonomic nervous system of the horse can be influenced by odour. It is the aim of the study to determine the effect of odour on the autonomic status of the horses.

Eight geldings were used in the study and the electrical activity of their heart was assessed using the “Polar S810” telemetric system before and during the presentation of either pig faeces or lavender to the horses’ nostrils. The experiment was conducted over a two–day period so that their response to both odours could be determined.
Gender differences in equine visuo–spatial ability
Authors: Murphy J , Waldmann T , Arkins S
Published: June 2019

Visuo–spatial ability has been defined as the mechanism that allows individuals to keep track of their changing spatial relationships as they move through their environment (Farrell and Robertson, 2000). In many species, moderate to large differences in visuo–spatial ability have been reported between genders, with superior visuo–spatial ability being reported in males of all species investigated to date (Masters and Sanders, 1993). There is an acknowledged preference among trainers and owners toward male horses in several disciplines of equitation. While this preference for male horses may be partially explained by physical differences, visuo–spatial ability is important in many aspects of equitation. The objective of this study was to determine if visuo–spatial ability differed between male and female horses.

Visuo–spatial ability was investigated in a sample of 62 horses (males* = 34 and females = 28) at two equestrian centres using a novel test and test apparatus. The apparatus and test procedures required the horses to use elements of spatial awareness and the ability to differentiate elements of distance and depth perception to complete a series of six tests.
Effects of dietary lipids on the erythrocyte morphology of ponies
Authors: Horne C , Clark L , Geering R
Published: June 2019

Many dietary oils have used in equine feeds primarily to improve joints and coat. Studies in rats have demonstrated the importance of dietary lipids in maintaining the normal discoid shape of the erythrocyte (Escadero et al., 1998). It is not yet known whether the addition of lipids to the diet can change the physiology of equine erythrocytes. The aim of this study was to identify the effects of sunflower oil (SF), green–lipped mussel oil (GLM), linseed oil (LN) and soya oil (SY) on erythrocyte shape and tendency to form rouleauxs in the horse.

Two New Forest ponies of similar age and weight and on clinical screening were used in the study. They were fed either the control diet (C) of silage ad libithum or the control diet plus 50ml of either SF, GLM, LN or SY. Bloods were taken prior to the start of dietary manipulation and at the end of the two–week experimental period.
Inhibition of equine cyathostomes to glucosinolate hydrolysis products
Authors: Brett L , Rossiter J , Clarke L , Geering R
Published: June 2019

Cyathostome nematodes have become the central focus of concerns related to internal parasites of horses due to their pathological and persistent effects on the growing and mature horse (Murphy and Love, 1997). Current anthelmintic treatments have, however, led to resistance and alternative control measures are required. Glucosinolate hydrolysis derivatives have a wide range of biological activities, and have previously been shown to inhibit root nematodes (Brown and Morra, 1997). The aim of the study was to examine whether cyathostome nematode eggs could be inhibited by glucosinolate hydrolysis products.

An in vitro egg hatch assay was set up using eggs extracted from the faeces of naturally infected horses (Kassai, 1999). The egg suspension (containing approximately 100 eggs) were incubated with nine different concentrations (range: 20-10,000 ppm) of the glucosinolate hydrolysis products (allyl isothiocyanate (C), allyl nitrile (N) and phenethyl isothiocyanate (P). A control was set up in which water replaced the hydrolysis product. The number of eggs and larvae were counted using an inverted microscope. Statistical differences between treatments were assessed using General Linear Model, ANOVA.
Nutrient digestion and faecal excretion of three coarsely mixed diets in ponies
Authors: Chaudhry A S
Published: June 2019

Adequate feeding of a horse is essential to help sustain its health and performance in different situations. Traditionally, horses are fed hay or grazed grass without or with grains plus supplements or compound feeds. However, the practice of feeding horses varies greatly in the UK depending upon the workload of a horse, co-location of the owner and the seasonal variations mainly due to the weather and the availability of pasture or hay. Although many complete feeds are also available commercially, their nutritive values do vary and thus they may not suit a horse. Therefore, there is a need to formulate nutritious diets that are palatable for a horse and cost-effective for the owner. It is also imperative to prepare diets that are more completely digested to minimise faecal contamination the environment. This study compared the suitability of three coarsely mixed diets to improve digestion and reduce excretion in adult ponies.
Relationship between crude protein intake and water intake in forage based equine diets
Authors: Hyslop J J
Published: June 2019

As a result of the need to excrete the waste products of protein catabolism in urine, increases in protein intake have been associated with increases in water intake in poultry (Bailey, 1990), in pigs (Brooks and Carpenter, 1990) and in ruminants (Agricultural Research Council, 1980). Whilst there is only very limited data available to support a similar relationship in horses (Meyer, 1987) it is believed that increases in protein intake in equines also result in greater water consumption when high protein diets are fed (Lawrence, 1998). The objective of the current study was to examine the relationship between crude protein intake and water consumption when forage based diets were offered ad libitum to individually fed ponies. Six mature Welsh–cross pony geldings with a mean liveweight (LW) of 281 kg (s.e.d. 0.89) were individually housed in pens bedded with wood shavings and used in a changeover design experiment consisting of two 21-day periods.

Six mature Welsh-cross pony geldings with a mean liveweight (LW) of 281 kg (s.e.d. 0.89) were individually housed in pens bedded with wood shavings and used in a changeover design experiment consisting of two 21-day periods.
Genetic variation within and among animal populations
Authors: Hill W.G. , Zhang X.-S.
Published: June 2019

Factors that influence variability between and within populations at levels ranging from the molecular to quantitative traits are reviewed. For quantitative traits, models of how levels of variation are determined and how they change have to be based on simplifying assumptions. At its simplest, variation is maintained by a balance between gain by mutation and loss by sampling due to finite population size. Rates of response in commercial breeding programmes and long-term selection experiments are reviewed. It is seen that rates of progress continue to be high in farmed livestock, but not in race horses, and that continuing responses have been maintained for 100 generations in laboratory experiments. Hence variability can be maintained over long periods despite intense selection in populations of limited size. The potential role of conserved populations is reviewed, and it is suggested that their role is unlikely to be as a useful source of variation in commercial populations but mainly to preserve our culture and to fill particular niches.
Managing populations at risk
Authors: Woolliams J.A.
Published: June 2019

The procedures outlined by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) guidelines for managing small populations at risk are reviewed. These cover identification of breeds at risk, prioritising and deciding upon actions, managingin vivopopulations at risk, and managing gene banks of cryoconserved material.
Managing genetic resources in selected and conserved populations
Authors: Villanueva B. , Pong-Wong R. , Woolliams J.A. , Avendaño S.
Published: June 2019

Managing the rate of inbreeding (ΔF) provides a general framework for managing genetic resources in farmed breeding populations. Methods for managing ΔF have been developed over the last five years and they allow the attainment of the greatest expected genetic progress while restricting at the same time the increase in inbreeding. This is achieved by optimising the contribution that each candidate for selection must have to produce the next generation. The methods take into account all available performance and pedigree information and use Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (BLUP) estimates as a predictor of merit. Importantly, these tools give at least equal, but more often more gain than traditional selection based on truncation of BLUP estimated breeding values when compared at the same ΔF. Deterministic predictions for the expected gain obtained with optimised selection with ΔF restricted are now available. The optimisation tool can be also applied in a conservation context to minimise ΔF with restrictions to avoid loss in performance in valuable traits. Information on known quantitative trait loci or on markers linked to them can be incorporated into the optimisation process to further increase selection response. Molecular genetic information can also be incorporated into these tools to increase the precision of genetic relationships between individuals and to manage ΔF at specific positions or genome regions.
The value of genome mapping for the genetic conservation of cattle
Authors: Williams J.L.
Published: June 2019

Molecular markers can be used to explore the diversity present in livestock populations. In cattle the diversity among breeds, revealed using molecular markers, is greater than the within breed diversity. Therefore both at the phenotypic and genetic level breeds form discrete populations, which could be used to conserve maximum diversity in the species. The best way to conserve breeds is to ensure their commercial utility; therefore selection of breeds for commercially advantageous phenotypes should be encouraged. Gene mapping studies suggest that, even for complex traits, there may be very few genes involved in controlling variation in the phenotype. Therefore selection for a particular trait does not necessarily affect the genetic base of the population, other than at the genes under selection. This seems to be the situation in the Hereford breed, where the phenotype has changed considerably over the past 50 years, while blood group data suggests that the genetic base of the population has not been greatly affected. Genome mapping approaches allow first the chromosomal location and ultimately the genes controlling traits to be identified. This information provides DNA markers for favourable alleles at trait genes that can be used in selective breeding programmes to improve breeds for a range of traits. Work on double muscling in Belgian Blue cattle has shown that a single gene, myostatin, can be responsible for an extreme phenotype, so selection for double muscling potentially only affects diversity around this gene. However, the examination of the phenotypes associated with this gene in other breeds suggests that genes in addition to myostatin are involved in the development of the extreme phenotype. Thus information on single genes is too narrow to be of value in making conservation decisions. With the current state of knowledge genetic information can aid the choice of individuals to use for breeding and for conservation of diversity, but the information should be used with caution and in conjunction with additional information, such as pedigree, phenotype or function data.
The integration of cloning by nuclear transfer in the conservation of animal genetic resources
Authors: Wells D.N.
Published: June 2019

Cloning mammals from somatic cells by nuclear transfer has the potential to assist with the preservation of genetic diversity. An increasing number of species have been successfully cloned by this approach; however, present methods are inefficient with few cloned embryos resulting in healthy offspring. In those livestock species that have already been cloned, it is clearly feasible to use cloning to preserve endangered breeds (e.g. the last surviving Enderby Island cow). The opportunity exists to recover oocytes from these cloned heifers and use frozen Enderby Island sperm from deceased bulls for in vitro fertilisation and thus, expand the genetic diversity of this breed. Where there exists an adequate understanding of the reproductive biology and embryology of the species concerned and adequate sources of females to supply both recipient oocytes and surrogates to gestate the pregnancies, intra-specific nuclear transfer and embryo transfer can be utilised. However, when these requirements cannot be met, as is common for most endangered species, cloning technology invariably involves the use of inter-species nuclear transfer and embryo transfer. Even in intra-specific cloning the source of oocyte for nuclear transfer is an important consideration. Typically, cloned animals are only genomic copies of the founder if they possess mitochondrial DNA which differs from the original animal. Different maternal lineages of oocytes both within and between breeds significantly affect cloning efficiency and livestock production characteristics. Cloning should not distract conservation efforts from encouraging the use of indigenous livestock breeds with traits of adaptation to local environments, the preservation of wildlife habitats or the use of other forms of assisted reproduction. Whilst it is often difficult to justify cloning in animal conservation at present, the appropriate cryo-preservation of tissues and cells from a wide selection of biodiversity is of paramount importance. This provides an insurance against further losses of genetic variation from dwindling populations, disease epidemics or even possible extinction. It would also complement the gene banking of gametes or embryos and can be performed more easily and cheaply. Future cloning from preserved somatic cells can reintroduce lost genes back into the breeding pool. With greater appreciation of the heritable attributes of traditional livestock breeds there is the desire to identify superior animals within these local populations and the genetic loci involved. Through clonal family performance testing, nuclear transfer can aid the selection of desirable genotypes and then the production of larger numbers of embryos or animals for natural breeding to more widely disseminate the desirable traits. With the identification of alleles conferring desirable attributes, transgenesis could be utilised to both improve traditional and industrial livestock breeds. This further emphasizes the importance of preserving global farm animal genetic resources.
A UK conservation success story: Longhorn cattle, a case study
Authors: Henson E.L.
Published: June 2019

The Longhorn cattle breed has a long and prestigious history, dating back prior to the livestock pioneers of the 18th century. It was, for a period, the improved breed of choice in the Midland Counties. But the breed gradually fell from favour and, by the early 1970s, only 6 significant Longhorn herds remained in the UK. However, the Longhorn was one of many rare breeds to benefit from the growth of the rare breeds movement in the 1970s, led by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust. A number of factors have helped the breed to recover, including: an active breed society providing registrations and analyses based on these, promoting the breed, organising sales and shows and providing an important social framework for breeders and supporters; creation of a semen bank; niche marketing of meat and hides and the use of the breed in conservation grazing.
Equine passports and the National Equine Database – current situation and future prospects
Authors: Graham Suggett R H
Published: June 2019

Since 2002 Government and the equine industry have been in partnership to develop a National Equine Database (NED) to provide a central source of reliable information on horses and ponies bred, owned or registered in the United Kingdom. NED will provide both buyers and breeders with a one–stop–shop access to a horse or pony's name, ID (Identification) number, breed, sex, colour, height and pedigree together with performance, evaluation and grading results. NED's other benefits are that it will help to provide more accurate information on the size and shape of the equine industry and assist with equine welfare in that owners, and eventually keepers, will be traceable (when used in conjunction with microchipping) with regard to abandoned and badly–treated equines. NED's existence will also demonstrate the UK's compliance with EU passport legislation which was the trigger for the development of the partnership. The capital development and initial running costs are being met by Defra. Thereafter, NED will have to be self-funding from the sale of data. Defra will continue to make a financial contribution in respect of the up-keep of the data required to administer the passport and disease surveillance and control schemes. PIOs (Passport Issuing Organisations) are mandated under the four sets of UK passport legislation to provide the core data required for the database and breed societies, stud books, competition disciplines and other responsible bodies will supply verified pedigree, performance, evaluation and grading (PPEG) information on a voluntary basis.
Laminitis and grass carbohydrate levels
Authors: Longland A.C.
Published: June 2019

The term laminitis literally means ‘inflammation of the laminae’ and is a potentially crippling disease of the equine foot. The laminae are interlocking projections which connect the hoof wall to the pedal bone within the foot, effectively suspending the weight of the animal within the hoof capsule. During a laminitic attack, the laminae become damaged to varying degrees, and their ability to connect the pedal bone to the hoof wall may be compromised; the degree to which this occurs depending upon the severity of the attack. In severe cases, the bond between hoof wall and pedal bone may be so weakened, that the pedal bone rotates downwards and may penetrate the sole of the foot. Some animals respond well to treatment, other less so and a proportion require euthanasia. Once horses have had a laminitic attack, even if successfully treated, they are likely to suffer from reoccurrence of the disease.
In vivo foregut digestion of protein from 6 fibre feeds in horses using the mobile bag technique
Authors: Moore-Colyer M. J. S. , Drogoul C. , Julliand V.
Published: June 2019

It is now widely recognised that feeding high levels of cereal-based concentrate feeds to horses can precipitate episodes of colic, laminitis and developmental orthopaedic disease. However, when feeding performance horses or fast-growing young stock, particularly Thoroughbreds, traditional feeding regimes still persist whereby animals are fed high-cereal, low-fibre diets. When considering the knowledge to-date on the digestibility and availability of crude protein, this feeding regime is not surprising as previous work by Gibbs et al (1988 and 1996) and Potter et al (1992), have reported that the large intestine was the major site for crude protein degradation in hay. Protein is held within the cell wall matrix in fibre feeds and is fermented by microbes to NH3, which may be subsequently processed in the liver to urea, recycled or excreted via the urine. Moreover, a high proportion of the protein passing through the ileo-caecal junction is excreted with the faeces as intact microbial protein and therefore is unavailable for metabolic purposes in the horse.
Offering concentrates either before, with or after forage and its effect on digesta passage rates and mean retention times in ponies given either oat straw or grass haylage as a basal forage
Authors: Hyslop J. J.
Published: June 2019

Most mature horses and ponies in the UK are given restricted amounts of concentrate and forage diets in order to avoid excessive nutrient intake and obesity, usually in a number of small meals per day. One practical question often asked by horse owners relates to the timing of concentrate feeding relative to the timing of forage provision. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of feeding concentrate meals either before, with or after forage when either oat straw or grass haylage was offered as the basal forage. Actual dry matter intakes and diet digestibility values from this study have been published previously (Hyslop, 2004). This summary details the effects of offering concentrates either 2 hours before, along with or 2 hours after forage provision on digesta passage rates and mean retention times in mature ponies.

6 mature Welsh-cross pony geldings (mean LW 298 kg: s.e. 16.2) were individually housed and used in an eight treatment, 6 x 4 partially balanced incomplete block design experiment consisting of four 21 day periods.
The effect of group size on proximity relations in pre weaned foals kept in a commercial stud environment
Authors: Done E J , Randle H , Counsell T
Published: June 2019

The Stud Book Returns of racehorse breeders to Weatherbys Group Ltd. in 2003 recorded 16,008 live foals in England, Scotland, Wales, the Irish Republic and Northern Ireland; the same organization estimates the U.K. racehorse population to be 40,000 (Defra, 2004). The link between diminished equine well-being and social isolation (where physical segregation from conspecifics is regarded as preventing the expression of instinctive social behaviour) is well documented (e.g. Fraser, 1992, ). The negative consequences of social deprivation during the primary socialization period have been studied in adult equines; these include fear responses when presented with novel stimuli, generalized fear-induced aggression and stereotypic behaviours (Fraser, 1992, ; McGreevy et al., 1995b, . The manifestation of ‘a normal behavioural repertoire’ is widely viewed as an indication of well-being (Hurnik et al., 1985, ). The acquisition of typical equine behaviour occurs in a socialization period that involves close contact with conspecifics (e.g. identification through olfactory investigation and reciprocal maintenance behaviours such as allo-grooming).
Personal space requirements of mares versus geldings (Equus caballus): welfare implications and visual representation of spatial data via Spatial Web diagrams)
Authors: Morgan N. , Randle H.
Published: June 2019

Increasing numbers of mares are competing at elite levels, and are recognised as being crucial to the production of high calibre sport horses. The management strategies utilised to look after horses affect their welfare and performance. By its very nature the domestication of horses has resulted in their confinement and also in major alterations to their natural social group structure. Most domestic pasture groups comprise mares and castrated males (Van Dierendonck, Sigorjonsdottir and Thorhallsdottir, 2002) and in the absence of a mature stallion are non-reproductive (Boyd and Kieper, 2002). Many equine behaviour studies have been directed at improving welfare and performance, but few centre on Personal Space Requirements (PSR). This study examines whether equine PSR varies between gender. Human personal space (PS) is defined as ‘the geographical component of interpersonal relations’ (Gifford, 1983) and its invasion is shown to cause instantaneous physiological stress (increased blood pressure and heart rate) and longer-lasting psychological stress (anxiety and tension), particularly when individuals can only endure exposure to stress passively (Sawada, 2003).