bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hip protector compliance among older people living in residential care homes
Authors: Cryer C , Knox A , Martin D , Barlow J
Published: September 2002

Objectives:To estimate the compliance rates for the use of hip protectors among people living in residential care homes.

Population/setting:People aged 65 years and over living in residential care homes with 20 or more beds in East Kent, south east England.

Methods:Seventeen homes with the highest historical frequency of hip fractures were selected. All residents were offered SAFEHIP hip protectors. Care staff recorded daily hip protector compliance on diary cards over six months. Compliance rates were estimated from the number of sessions (morning, afternoon, evening, night) that a person wore hip protectors.

Results:A total of 153 (51%) out of 299 residents agreed to wear hip protectors The 24 hour compliance rate for those who were issued with hip protectors and wore them at least once was 29%: 37% in the daytime and 3% at night. Daytime compliance rates reduced from 47% for the first month, to around 30% for months 5 and 6.

Conclusion:This study highlights the problems of persuading older people living in residential care homes to wear hip protectors. They have been shown to prevent hip fracture in nursing home (high risk) populations, and a recent trial showed their effectiveness in a mixed geriatric population. People living in residential care homes are also at greater risk of falling and fracturing than their counterparts living in the community. Initiatives to prevent hip fracture within residential care homes are also justified.
Trends in road injury hospitalisation rates for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people in Western Australia, 1971–97
Authors: Cercarelli L R , Knuiman M W
Published: September 2002

Objective:To examine trends in road injury hospitalisation rates for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people in Western Australia.

Methods:Data from the Western Australian Hospital Morbidity Data System for the years between 1971 and 1997 were analysed. Poisson regression models were fitted to determine whether the trends were significant.

Results:The rate of hospitalisation due to road injury for Aboriginal people (719.1 per 100 000 population per year) over the time period examined was almost twice as high as that for non-Aboriginal people (363.4 per 100 000 population per year). Overall, the results showed that while hospitalisations from road injury involving non-Aboriginal people have been decreasing by 6.7% per three year period since 1971, the rates of hospitalisation for Aboriginal people have been increasing by 2.6% per three year period. Both of these trends were statistically significant. The alarming increasing trend observed for Aboriginal people was more pronounced in males, those aged 0–14 years and over 45 years, and for those living in rural areas.

Conclusions:As the rates of road injury for Aboriginal people are higher than for non-Aboriginal people, and are also following an increasing trend, road safety issues involving Aboriginal people need to be addressed urgently by health and transport authorities.
Drinking histories of fatally injured drivers
Authors: Baker S P , Braver E R , Chen L-H , Li G , Williams A F
Published: September 2002

Context:About 30% of drivers killed in crashes have high blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) of 0.10+ g/dl. There is a question about whether these drivers primarily are problem drinkers who chronically drink and drive—the so-called hard core drinking drivers.

Objective:To investigate drinking histories of fatally injured drivers in relation to their BACs.

Design and participants:Retrospective cohort study of 818 fatally injured drivers who were included in the 1993 National Mortality Followback Survey (a national sample of US deaths in which next of kin were interviewed) and whose BACs were recorded by the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, a census of US traffic deaths.

Main outcome measure:Problem drinking indicators.

Results:At least one indicator of potential problem drinking, primarily heavy drinking, was reported for 68% of drivers with very high BACs (0.15+ g/dl), 41% with BACs of 0.10–0.14 g/dl, 32% with BACs of 0.01–0.09 g/dl, and 7% with zero BACs. Spouses provided more credible responses than other relatives: they were more likely to report at least occasional drinking and driving among deceased drivers with high BACs. For the most direct signs of problem drinking (described as a problem drinker during the last month of life or frequently driving after having five or more drinks), spousal reports suggested the prevalence of problem drinking among drivers with very high BACs was 22% (having both indicators), 32% (frequently driving after having five or more drinks), 44% (described as problem drinker), or 57% (having either indicator).

Conclusions:Drivers with BACs of 0.10+ g/dl were far more likely than sober drivers to be described as having markers of problem drinking. However, many did not have indicators suggestive of problem drinking. In addition to programs focused on repeat offenders or problem drinkers, countermeasures such as sobriety checkpoints that target a broader spectrum of drinking drivers are appropriate.
Recording of community violence by medical and police services: Figure 1
Authors: Sutherland I , Sivarajasingam V , Shepherd J P
Published: September 2002

Objectives:To determine the extent to which community violence that results in injury treated in emergency departments appears in official police records and to identify age/gender groups at particular risk of under-recording by the police.

Methods:Non-confidential data for patients with assault related injury treated in the emergency departments of two hospitals in one South Wales city (Swansea) during a six month period were compared with data relating to all recorded crimes in the category “Violence against the person” in the police area where the hospitals were located.

Results:Over the six month period a total of 1513 assaults were recorded by Swansea emergency departments and the police (1019, 67.3% injured males and 494, 32.7% injured females). The majority of these assaults (993, 65.6%) were recorded exclusively by emergency departments; 357 (23.6%) were recorded only by the police and 163 (10.8%) were recorded by both emergency departments and the police.

Equal proportions of males (67.3%) and females (67.5%) injured in assaults were recorded by both emergency departments and the police, but men were more likely to have their assault recorded exclusively in emergency departments (odds ratio (OR) 2.1, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7 to 2.7) while women were more likely to have their assault recorded exclusively by the police (OR 2.5, 95% CI 2.0 to 3.2).

There were no significant relationships between exclusive emergency department recording and increasing age (OR 1.0, 95% CI 0.9 to 1.2), exclusive police recording and increasing age (OR 1.1, 95% CI 1.0 to 1.2), or between age and dual recording (OR 0.9, 95% CI 0.8 to 1.0).

Conclusions:Most assaults leading to emergency department treatment, particularly in which males were injured, were not recorded by the police. Assaults on the youngest group (0–10, particularly boys) were those least likely to be recorded by police and females over age 45, the most likely.

Emergency department derived assault data provide unique perspectives of community violence and police detection.
Underestimates of unintentional firearm fatalities: comparing Supplementary Homicide Report data with the National Vital Statistics System
Authors: Barber C , Hemenway D , Hochstadt J , Azrael D
Published: September 2002

Objective:A growing body of evidence suggests that the nation’s vital statistics system undercounts unintentional firearm deaths that are not self inflicted. This issue was examined by comparing how unintentional firearm injuries identified in police Supplementary Homicide Report (SHR) data were coded in the National Vital Statistics System.

Methods:National Vital Statistics System data are based on death certificates and divide firearm fatalities into six subcategories: homicide, suicide, accident, legal intervention, war operations, and undetermined. SHRs are completed by local police departments as part of the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports program. The SHR divides homicides into two categories: “murder and non-negligent manslaughter” (type A) and “negligent manslaughter” (type B). Type B shooting deaths are those that are inflicted by another person and that a police investigation determined were inflicted unintentionally, as in a child killing a playmate after mistaking a gun for a toy. In 1997, the SHR classified 168 shooting victims this way. Using probabilistic matching, 140 of these victims were linked to their death certificate records.

Results:Among the 140 linked cases, 75% were recorded on the death certificate as homicides and only 23% as accidents.

Conclusion:Official data from the National Vital Statistics System almost certainly undercount firearm accidents when the victim is shot by another person.
Laboring in the Factories and in the Fields
Authors: Ortiz Sutti
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  Since 1980, studies of the wage labor process have been centered mostly on three topics: the new international division of labor, control over the labor process, and “flexibilization” of production. Anthropologists have contributed rich studies about modes of control and about how these modes are linked to social relations within the work place and workers' communities of origin. They have explained how and why market segmentation can be a powerful tool of control some of the time, whereas at other times it can enhance tensions. Anthropologists have also contributed by transforming stylized models into models centered on actors with social and class identities and with ambivalent expectations and aspirations. However, they have neglected to integrate their findings with those from the literature on labor migrations and job search. They also have neglected to consistently examine contracts and hiring practices, two major tools of labor control. Although anthropologists have been attentive to paradigms about global restructuring of industries, they have often disregarded an intermediate level of analysis: the relationship of producers and industries to relevant actors in their respective regional labor markets, and how producers and industries structure local labor markets. A spatial portrayal of labor markets will facilitate comparative studies about the impact of industrial restructuring and correct possible biases.
Discourse Forms and Processes in Indigenous Lowland South America: An Areal-Typological Perspective
Authors: Beier Christine , Michael Lev , Sherzer Joel
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  In indigenous lowland South America there are several discourse forms and processes that are shared by groups of people of distinct genetic linguistic affiliations; this leads us to posit this large region, which we label greater Amazonia, as a discourse area, a concept that parallels the notion of linguistic area. The discourse forms and processes we examine are ceremonial dialogue, dialogical performance, templatic ratifying, echo speech, ceremonial greeting, ritual wailing, evidentiality, speech reporting practices, parallelism, special languages, and shamanistic language use. We hypothesize that in lowland South America, discourse is the matrix for linguistic diffusion, i.e., that linguistic areas emerge within discourse areas. What we propose then is a discourse-centered approach to language change and history, parallel to a discourse-centered approach to language structure and use. Our survey includes a plea for a careful archiving of recorded and written materials dealing with lowland South American discourse.
Weber and Anthropology
Authors: Keyes Charles F.
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  This article is about the influence of the work of the German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) on English-speaking anthropologists. Although Weber does not figure prominently in the history of anthropology, his work has, nonetheless, had a profound influence on anthropological methodology and theoretical thinking on the relationship between religion and political economy. The “interpretive anthropology” first developed by Geertz has roots in Weber's “interpretive sociology.” Bourdieu's “theory of practice” is also strongly Weberian in character. The anthropological study of religion, and particularly the debate over the foundations of this field between Geertz and Asad, is reconsidered in light of Weber's sociology of religion. His comparative study of the ethics of the world's religions and particularly the “Weber thesis” about the relationship between religion and the development of bourgeois capitalism are shown to have been the foundation for a large body of anthropological research on religion and political economy in societies in which the major world religions have been long established. The essay ends with a suggestion that Weber's work on politics and meaning merits reexamination in light of contemporary anthropological interest, derived from Foucault, in power and knowledge.
Street Children, Human Rights, and Public Health: A Critique and Future Directions
Authors: Panter-Brick Catherine
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  This review presents a critique of the academic and welfare literature on street children in developing countries, with supporting evidence from studies of homelessness in industrialized nations. The turn of the twenty-first century has seen a sea change of perspective in studies concerning street youth. This review examines five stark criticisms of the category “street child” and of research that focuses on the identifying characteristics of a street lifestyle rather than on the children themselves and the depth or diversity of their actual experiences. Second, it relates the change of approach to a powerful human rights discourse—the legal and conceptual framework provided by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child—which emphasizes children's rights as citizens and recognizes their capabilities to enact change in their own lives. Finally, this article examines literature focusing specifically on the risks to health associated with street or homeless lifestyles. Risk assessment that assigns street children to a category “at risk” should not overshadow helpful analytical approaches focusing on children's resiliency and long-term career life prospects. This review thus highlights some of the challenging academic and practical questions that have been raised regarding current understandings of street children.
Energetics and the Evolution of the GenusHOMO
Authors: Aiello Leslie C. , Wells Jonathan C. K.
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  The genus Homo as represented by Homo ergaster (= early African Homo erectus) is characterized by a pattern of features that is more similar to modern humans than to the earlier and contemporaneous australopithecines and paranthropines. These features include larger relative brain sizes, larger bodies, slower rates of growth and maturation, dedicated bipedal locomotion, and smaller teeth and jaws. These features are phenotypic expressions of a very different lifestyle for the earliest members of the genus Homo. This paper considers the energetic correlates of the emergence of the genus Homo and suggests that there were three major changes in maintenance energy requirements. First, there was an absolute increase in energy requirements due to greater body size. Second, there was a shift in the relative requirements of the different organs, with increased energy diverted to brain metabolism at the expense of gut tissue, possibly mediated by changes in the proportion of weight comprised of fat. And third, there was a slower rate of childhood growth, offset by higher growth costs during infancy and adolescence. These changes, as well as energetic requirements of reproduction and bipedal locomotion, are considered in a discussion of one of the major transitions in adaptation in human evolution, the appearance of our own genus.
The Upper Paleolithic Revolution
Authors: Bar-Yosef Ofer
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  The transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic is considered one of the major revolutions in the prehistory of humankind. Explanations of the observable archaeological phenomena in Eurasia, or the lack of such evidence in other regions, include biological arguments (the role of Cro-Magnons and the demise of the Neanderthals), as well as cultural-technological, and environmental arguments. The paper discusses issues of terminological ambiguities, chronological and geographical aspects of change, the emergence of what is viewed as the arch-types of modern forager societies, and the hotly debated and loaded issue of modern behavior. Finally, the various causes for the Upper Paleolithic revolution are enumerated, from the biological through the technocultural that relies on the analogy with the Neolithic revolution.
African Presence in Former Soviet Spaces
Authors: Fikes Kesha , Lemon Alaina
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  This review traces accounts of African presence in the former USSR that are available in or have been cited primarily in English; many sources on this topic published in the USSR were strategically intended for Western consumption. This review tracks repetitions of tropes that link certain kinds of “blackness” to “Africa”: It observes that treating blacks in the USSR as “displaced” confirmed Soviet humanitarianism, and produced and managed anti-Western/anticapitalist forms of Soviet nationalism and federalism. We scrutinize the ways accounts of African presence use evidence of “race remnants” that implicitly position black bodies as subjects of racial dissolution and/or cultural assimilation. This leads us to question the possibility of narrating African presence in contexts ruled by logics that wed spatial displacement/placement to racial impurity/purity. More broadly, the review addresses the utility of ideals of displaced racial communities within African diasporic criticism.
The Politics of Archaeology in Africa
Authors: Shepherd Nick
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  “Africa is various,” writes Kwame Anthony Appiah in defiance of the Eurocentric myth of a unitary and unchanging continent. The politics of archaeology in Africa has been no less marked by variety. Yet, underlying this multiplicity of historical experience are a number of common themes and ideas. This review traces the engagement between archaeology and politics in Africa through an exploration of these common themes: first, as a colonial science in the context of European conquest and the subjugation of African people and territories; second, in the context of colonial administration and the growth of settler populations; third, in the context of resistance to colonialism and a developing African nationalism; and fourth, in a postcolonial context, among whose challenges have been the growing illicit trade in antiquities originating in Africa, and (in the past two decades) the decline in direct funding for departments of archaeology in universities and museums.
Migrant “Illegality” and Deportability in Everyday Life
Authors: De Genova Nicholas P.
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  This article strives to meet two challenges. As a review, it provides a critical discussion of the scholarship concerning undocumented migration, with a special emphasis on ethnographically informed works that foreground significant aspects of the everyday life of undocumented migrants. But another key concern here is to formulate more precisely the theoretical status of migrant “illegality” and deportability in order that further research related to undocumented migration may be conceptualized more rigorously. This review considers the study of migrant “illegality” as an epistemological, methodological, and political problem, in order to then formulate it as a theoretical problem. The article argues that it is insufficient to examine the “illegality” of undocumented migration only in terms of its consequences and that it is necessary also to produce historically informed accounts of the sociopolitical processes of “illegalization” themselves, which can be characterized as the legal production of migrant “illegality.”
The Anthropology of Online Communities
Authors: Wilson Samuel M. , Peterson Leighton C.
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  Information and communication technologies based on the Internet have enabled the emergence of new sorts of communities and communicative practices—phenomena worthy of the attention of anthropological researchers. Despite early assessments of the revolutionary nature of the Internet and the enormous transformations it would bring about, the changes have been less dramatic and more embedded in existing practices and power relations of everyday life. This review explores researchers' questions, approaches, and insights within anthropology and some relevant related fields, and it seeks to identify promising new directions for study. The general conclusion is that the technologies comprising the Internet, and all the text and media that exist within it, are in themselves cultural products. Anthropology is thus well suited to the further investigation of these new, and not so new, phenomena.
An Inconstant Profession: The Anthropological Life in Interesting Times
Authors: Geertz Clifford
Published: September 2002

[Figure: see text]

▪ Abstract  I give an overall view of anthropology and of my career within it over the past fifty years, relating them to changes in the world in general during that time. All lessons are implicit, all morals unstated, all conclusions undrawn.
Toward an Anthropology of Democracy
Authors: Paley Julia
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  Anthropologists, through their ethnographic method, relationships with people outside of formal and elite political institutions, and attention to alternative worldviews, bring to the study of democracy an examination of local meanings, circulating discourses, multiple contestations, and changing forms of power that is rare in the scholarly literature on democratic transitions, which has largely focused on political institutions and formal regime shifts. This review brings together the writings of ethnographers working in a wide variety of settings to generate lines of inquiry and analysis for developing an anthropology of democracy.
The Intersections of Identity and Politics in Archaeology
Authors: Meskell Lynn
Published: September 2002

▪ Abstract  This paper traces the conjunction of two interrelated epistemic phenomena that have begun to shape the discipline since the early 1990s. The first entails theorizing social identity in past societies: specifically, how social lives are inscribed by the experiences of gender, ethnicity, sexuality, and so on. The other constitutes the rise of a politicized and ethical archaeology that now recognizes its active role in contemporary culture and is enunciated through the discourses of nationalism, sociopolitics, postcolonialism, diaspora, and globalism. Both trends have been tacitly shaped by anthropological and social theory, but they are fundamentally driven by the powerful voices of once marginalized groups and their newfound place in the circles of academic legitimacy. I argue that our disciplinary reticence to embrace the politics of identity, both in our investigations of the past and our imbrications in the present, has much to do with archaeology's lack of reflexivity, both personal and disciplinary, concurrent with its antitheoretical tendencies. The residual force of the latter should not be underestimated, specifically in regard to field practices and the tenacity of academic boundaries.
IN SEARCH OF THE UNICORN: THE ONAGER AND THE ORYX IN THE ARABIC ODE
Authors: Stetkevych Jaroslav
Published: September 2002

In its rahīl section the classical (pre-Islamic and Mukhadram) qasīdah may have images, or "stories" of quite specific animals, the wild ass/onager and the wild bull or cow/oryx, conforming always to very formalized appearance and behavior. Structurally, they are integrated into the qasīdah as similes of the journeying poet's she-camel/nāqah. The purpose of the present article is first of all to define the two animals, the onager and the oryx, as acting agents in the rahīl structure and "story" and, once defined, to reach deeper, beyond their separateness, in order to uncover their implicit coalescence into a composite, syncretic imaginary, and ultimately symbolic, figura of the unicorn. The essential characteristic of this "revealed" Arabic unicorn is that it has no other existence than its existence in the poem/qasīdah, within which, however, it simultaneously continues to be a simile, a metaphor, an allegory, and a symbol—all this aside from being one of the fields of glory of Arabic descriptive poetic art.
OF SECRETS AND MIRAGES IN IBN QUZMĀN
Authors: Corriente
Published: September 2002

The text of Ibn Quzmān's Dīwān, mainly preserved in a unique Eastern MS, still contains passages that defy interpretation, in spite of several consecutive editions by Nykl, García Gómez and Corriente, either because of the copyist's inability to handle Andalusi items that were subsequently distorted, or on account of our own ignorance of the Andalusi lexicon and semantics, or of certain allusions made by the poet to minor social and historical events. In Dr. Jareer Abu-Haidar's recent book, Hispano-Arabic Literature and the Early Provençal Lyrics (Curzon, 2001), he has included a former paper of his with proposals to improve the edition and the understanding of some of those passages in ways that have met our approval in some cases, but not in most of them. When these cases of rejection of his proposals are analyzed, the reasons beyond their presumed weaknesses seem to lie either in his failure to accept that Ibn Quzmān intended to write in the local dialect, and not in any kind of debased or simplified Classical Arabic, or to acknowledge that he used a slightly modified Arabic metrical system, into which any reading proposal must fit. Nevertheless, Abu-Haidar's remarks have been a positive contribution towards a better understanding of Ibn Quzmān's text, which is of paramount importance to the whole subject of medieval Arabic stanzaic poetry.
Low Temperature Synthesis of Porous Nanocrystalline TiO2 Thick Film for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells by Hydrothermal Crystallization
Authors: Zhang Dongshe , Yoshida Tsukasa , Minoura Hideki
Published: September 2002

A crack-free porous thick film of TiO2 has been fabricated by coating aqueous mixed paste of nanocrystalline TiO2 powder and TiCl4 and treating it by steam in an autoclave at a temperature as low as 100 °C. The added TiCl4 was hydrolyzed and crystallized into rutile TiO2 to “glue” the TiO2 particles. Dye-sensitized solar cell based on this material achieved a high conversion efficiency of 6.23% under illumination by a filtered Xe lamp equivalent to 1 sun intensity.
Production of Hydrogen Peroxide from Carbon Monoxide, Water, and Oxygen over Alumina Supported Amorphous Ni Catalysts
Authors: Ma Zhonglong , Jia Rongli , Liu Changjun , Mi Zhentao
Published: September 2002

A novel amorphous Ni catalyst supported on alumina has been developed for the production of hydrogen peroxide from carbon monoxide, water, and oxygen. The experimental investigation confirmed that the promoter/Ni loading ratio and the preparation conditions show a significant effect on the activity and catalytic lifetime. Among all the catalysts tested, the Ni–La–B/Al2O3 catalyst with 1:15 molar ratio of La/Ni, dried at 120 °C, shows the best activity and lifetime for the production of hydrogen peroxide.
Preparation of Cr-Doped TiO2 Thin Film of P-type Conduction for Gas Sensor Application
Authors: Ruiz A , Cornet A , Sakai G , Shimanoe K , Morante J R , Yamazoe N
Published: September 2002

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) could be doped with as much as 8.7 atom% Cr by means of a sol-gel method. XRD analysis revealed that the powder of Cr (8.7 atom%)-doped TiO2 calcined at 500 °C consisted of small crystallites ascribale to anatase structure. The thin film of doped TiO2 (70 μm) at this composition was found to behave as a p-type semiconductor on exposure to CO and NO2 in air: it responded to dilute NO2 with a sharp decrease in electrical resistance.
Micropatterned HeLa Cell Culture on PEG Monolayer-Coated Glass Substrates
Authors: Nishizawa Matsuhiko , Takahashi Atsushi , Kaji Hirokazu , Matsue Tomokazu
Published: September 2002

The micropatterns (∼5 μm) of HeLa cells were maintained for more than 4 days on a glass surface modified by the corresponding pattern of a covalently attached polyethylene glycol (PEG) monolayer, even in the presence of serum proteins.
Tributylphosphine-catalyzed Acylation of Alcohol by Active Ester Directed toward Effective End-capping of Pseudorotaxane Consisting of Ammonium Group and Crown Ether
Authors: Kihara Nobuhiro , Nakakoji Naohisa , Takata Toshikazu
Published: September 2002

According to the results of a model study using benzyl alcohol, pseudorotaxane with terminal hydroxy group on the axle was acylated with S-2-pyridyl 3,5-dimethylthiobenzoate in the presence of tributylphosphine to produce rotaxane in 85% yield. Optically active [2]rotaxane and [3]rotaxane were readily synthesized by this method.
Synthesis and Properties of [2.2]Paracyclo- and [2.2](1,4)Naphthaleno-(3,6)carbazolophanes
Authors: Tani Keita , Matsumura Koh , Hori Kazushige , Tohda Yasuo , Takemura Hiroyuki , Ohkita Hideo , Ito Shinzaburo , Yamamoto Masahide
Published: September 2002

[2.2]Paracyclo(3,6)carbazolophane (1a) and [2.2](1,4)naphthaleno(3,6)carbazolophane (1b) were prepared. The structures of 1a and 1b were characterized by 1H NMR. X-ray analysis of 1a revealed that the carbazole ring extremely deviates from the conjugated plane. Electronic spectra of 1a and 1b showed the broadening and bathochromic shift compared with the references.
Cross-Country Differences in Intergenerational Earnings Mobility
Authors: Solon Gary
Published: September 2002

International studies of the extent to which economic status is passed from one generation to the next are important for at least two reasons.

First, each study of a particular country characterizes an important feature of that country's income inequality. Second, comparisons of intergenerational mobility across countries may yield valuable clues about how income status is transmitted across generations and why the strength of that intergenerational transmission varies across countries. The first section of this paper explains a benchmark measure of intergenerational mobility commonly used in U.S. studies. The second section summarizes comparable empirical findings that have accumulated so far for countries other than the United States. The third section sketches a theoretical framework for interpreting cross-country differences in intergenerational mobility.
Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: September 2002

This paper argues that to restore the link between economic history and modern India, a different narrative of Indian economic history is needed.

An exclusive focus on colonialism as the driver of India's economic history misses those continuities that arise from economic structure or local conditions. In fact, market-oriented British imperial policies did initiate a process of economic growth based on the production of goods intensive in labor and natural resources. However, productive capacity per worker was constrained by low rates of private and public investment in infrastructure, excessively low rates of schooling, social inequalities based on caste and gender and a delayed demographic transition to lower birthrates and the resultant heavy demographic burden placed on physical capital and natural resources.
The Theory of the Firm as Governance Structure: From Choice to Contract
Authors: Williamson Oliver E
Published: September 2002

The propositions that organization matters and that it is susceptible to analysis were long greeted by skepticism by economists. One reason why this message took a long time to register is that it is much easier to say that organization matters than it is to show how and why. The prevalence of the science of choice approach to economics has also been an obstacle. As developed herein, the lessons of organization theory for economics are both different and more consequential when examined through the lens of contract. This paper examines economic organization from a science of contract perspective, with special emphasis on the theory of the firm.
Retrospectives
Authors: Ekelund Robert B , Hébert Robert F
Published: September 2002

This feature addresses the history of economic words and ideas. The hope is to deepen the workaday dialogue of economists, while perhaps also casting new light on ongoing questions. If you have suggestions for future topics or authors, please write to Joseph Persky, c/o Journal of Economic Perspectives, Department of Economics (M/C 144), University of Illinois at Chicago, 601 South Morgan Street, Room 2103, Chicago, Illinois 60607-7121.

Until recently, the standard story line in history of thought textbooks was that a triumvirate of British and Continental writers established demarcation between classical economics and neoclassical economics in the early 1870s. The authors raise two objections to this potted history. The first is that the tools of neoclassical economics were invented earlier. Recent work has demonstrated that the tools of neoclassical analysis were widely available across Europe well before 1870. The notion that neoclassical economics experienced a tripartite immaculate conception around 1870 cannot stand. The second objection is that the method of neoclassical economics was invented later. As it stands, the legend undervalues the key contribution of Alfred Marshall, who put an indelible stamp on neoclassical economics by defining the appropriate method of economic inquiry. When we refer to neoclassical economics today, we usually mean the collection of tools of economic knowledge available to (and invented by) Marshall, channeled and directed into uses dictated by Marshall's view of economic science. Yet as we shall see, Marshall had an eminent predecessor in method as well, in the person of Jules Dupuit.
The effects of mental context reinstatement on children's accounts of sexual abuse*
Authors: Hershkowitz Irit , Orbach Yael , Lamb Michael E. , Sternberg Kathleen J. , Horowitz Dvora
Published: September 2002

Forensic interviewers guided 46.4‐ to 13‐year‐old alleged victims of sexual abuse to recall the context in which the reported incidents had taken place. A comparable group of 50 alleged victims were interviewed using an interview protocol that was identical except that the mental context reinstatement (MCR) techniques were not included. MCR did not increase the total number of event‐related details reported, but it did lead children to reported proportionally more details (55% versus 46%) in response to invitations rather than focused prompts. Such information is more likely to be accurate. MCR had an especially powerful effect on the youngest children (4‐ to 6‐year‐olds) studied. The results suggest that non‐suggestive contextual cues may indeed be useful in forensic interviews. Published in 2001 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The effect of postevent information on adults' eyewitness reports
Authors: Sutherland Rachel , Hayne Harlene
Published: September 2002

The present experiment examined the conditions under which adults' reports of an event are influenced by information encountered after the event occurred. Adults were exposed to neutral, leading, and misleading postevent information about a target event 24 hours after that event. Twenty‐four hours after exposure to postevent information, participants were first asked a general, open‐ended question (free recall test procedure) and were then asked a series of specific questions. Some participants were asked to select their response from two possible alternatives (recognition test procedure) and some participants were required to generate their own answers to the same questions (directed recall test procedure). The nature of the original information, the nature of the postevent information, and the specificity of the questioning procedure influenced the number of correct responses and the number of misleading errors that participants made. These findings have important implications for interviewing adult witnesses. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The role of perceptual elaboration and individual differences in the creation of false memories for suggested events
Authors: Drivdahl Sarah B. , Zaragoza Maria S.
Published: September 2002

Witnesses who are exposed to false or misleading information in the course of an investigation are often asked follow‐up questions designed to elicit more detailed information about the alleged objects/events. The results of the present study showed that pressing witnesses to elaborate on the perceptual characteristics of suggested events increased false memory for these events. Specifically, participants who were asked about the perceptual details of suggested events (e.g. their location, physical appearance, etc.) were much more likely to later claim they ‘definitely’ remembered witnessing the fictions events than participants who were exposed to the same suggestions but were not probed about additional perceptual details. In addition, the present study examined the role of individual difference variables in susceptibility to suggestion. The results showed that scores on the Tellegen Absorption Scale (but not the Dissociative Experiences Scale and the Creative Imagination Scale) were correlated with susceptibility to false memory in this paradigm. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Commonsense beliefs and the identification of familiar voices
Authors: Yarmey A. Daniel , Yarmey A. Linda , Yarmey Meagan J. , Parliament Lisa
Published: September 2002

Two experiments are reported in which participants attempted to reject the tape‐recorded voice of a stranger and identify by name the voices of three personal associates who differed in their level of familiarity. In Experiment 1 listeners were asked to identify speakers as soon as possible, but were not allowed to change their responses once made. In Experiment 2 listeners were permitted to change their responses over successive presentations of increasing durations of voice segments. Also, in Experiment 2 half of the listeners attempted to identify speakers who spoke in normal‐tone voices, and the remainder attempted to identify the same speakers who spoke in whispers. Separate groups of undergraduate students attempted to predict the performance of the listeners in both experiments. Accuracy of performance depended on the familiarity of speakers and tone of speech. A between‐subjects analysis of rated confidence was diagnostic of accuracy for high familiar and low familiar speakers (Experiment 1), and for moderate familiar and unfamiliar normal‐tone speakers (Experiment 2). A modified between‐subjects analysis assessed across the four levels of familiarity yielded reliable accuracy‐confidence correlations in both experiments. Beliefs about the accuracy of voice identification were inflated relative to the significantly lower actual performance for most of the normal‐tone and whispered‐speech conditions. Forensic significance and generalizations are addressed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Ecological and person‐oriented aspects of metacognitive processes in test‐taking
Authors: Kleitman Sabina , Stankov Lazar
Published: September 2002

This study examines critical aspects of both the ecological and the person‐oriented accounts of observed biases in confidence judgements on tests of cognitive abilities. These biases reflect metacognitive processes involved in test‐taking. According to the ecological approach, poor realism of confidence judgements is due to the nature of the items included in general knowledge tests (test‐driven biases). The person‐oriented approach, however, argues that biases in confidence judgements may be due to a general self‐monitoring trait. The present study employed the ‘de‐biasing’ procedure proposed by Juslin (1994) for the selection of general knowledge test items, and used a newly developed geographical knowledge test suitable for the Australian population. Two other cognitive tests (Raven's Progressive Matrices and Line Length) were administered in order to determine whether there is a consistency in confidence ratings across diverse tasks. Statistical procedures traditional to both approaches‐calibration curves and factor analysis ‐ were employed. The results, with minor qualifications, support both perspectives. The study found a separate confidence factor, indicative of a self‐monitoring trait. Two other potential metacognitive factors (i.e. ‘expectation’ and ‘evaluation’, corresponding to self‐assessment/planning and self‐evaluation) could not be separated from accuracy and speed measures. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Drawing and showing: helping children to report emotionally laden events
Authors: Wesson Michaela , Salmon Karen
Published: September 2002

This study examined the effectiveness of drawing and re‐enactment as means of facilitating children's verbal reports about emotionally laden events. Sixty children, aged 5 and 8 years, were interviewed about times when they had felt happy, sad and scared in one of three interview conditions; drawing, in which they were asked to draw and tell, re‐enactment, in which they were asked to re‐enact and tell, or verbal, in which they were simply asked to tell. For children of both age groups, drawing and re‐enactment enhanced the amount of information reported relative to a verbal interview. Further, drawing and re‐enactment elicited a greater number of items of descriptive information than did the verbal interview. The possible mechanisms underlying these findings and their implications for interviewing children in clinical contexts are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The discrimination of graphical elements
Authors: Hollands J. G. , Spence Ian
Published: September 2002

A model is proposed to account for how people discriminate quantities shown in pie charts and divided bar graphs (i.e. which proportion is larger, A or B?). The incremental estimation model assumes that an observer sequentially samples from the available perceptual features in a graph. The relative effectiveness of sampled perceptual features is represented by the spread of probability distributions, in the manner of signal detection theory. The model's predictions were tested in two experiments. Participants took longer with pies than divided bars and longer with non‐aligned than aligned proportions in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, participants took longer with divided bars than pies when graphs were of unequal size. Generally, graphical formats producing longer response times incurred a greater time penalty when the difference between proportions was reduced. These results were in accordance with the model's predictions. Implications for graphical display design are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A computerized test of speed of language comprehension unconfounded by literacy
Authors: May Jon , Alcock Katherine J. , Robinson Louise , Mwita Christina
Published: September 2002

A computerized version of the Silly Sentences task developed for use with children is found to be equivalent to the pencil‐and‐paper version from the SCOLP test with UK undergraduates, and is usable by a sample of young UK children. Because the sentences are presented aloud instead of being written, the computerized test is not affected by literacy skills. Translated into Kiswahili, the task was used in Tanzanian schools, despite the absence of an electricity supply and a very different cultural background. The decision latencies had a test–retest reliability of 0.69 over 5 months, and were independent of age and baseline decision speed. The task appears appropriate for longitudinal studies, including those in developing countries. Given its simplicity and the correlations with the original SCOLP version of the task, it may also be useful in studies on literate adults. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Watching the birdie watching you: eyewitness memory for actions using CCTV recordings of actual crimes
Authors: Woolnough Penny S. , MacLeod Malcolm D.
Published: September 2002

In this paper we describe a method of assessing eyewitness performance for actual crimes that could prove a valuable addition to more traditional experimental and field‐based approaches to the study of eyewitnessing. We present the findings of the first reported attempt to assess the accuracy of information contained in police statements given by eyewitnesses to actual criminal episodes using CCTV as a means of verification. Employing the criterion of using only those items that could be verified against CCTV recordings (largely action details), both victims and bystanders from eight incidents of assault were found to be highly accurate in their accounts (96% accurate). These results are discussed in terms of what they might indicate about the relationship between arousal and eyewitness performance and how they compare with laboratory and other field‐based approaches to the study of eyewitness memory. In addition, we consider some of the methodological, technological and practical constraints associated with this novel approach and its possible future applications to the study of everyday memory as well as memory for unusual events. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Matching the faces of robbers captured on video
Authors: Henderson Zoë , Bruce Vicki , Burton A. Mike
Published: September 2002

Recent research has shown that unfamiliar face matching from both high‐ and low‐quality closed circuit television video images to photographs is highly prone to error, even when viewpoint and expression are matched as closely as possible. The current experiments made use of a filmed, staged reconstruction of a bank raid that was captured on CCTV and on high‐quality broadcasting video. Experiment 1 tested the ability of members of the public to match actors captured on CCTV to photo‐spreads containing similar‐looking distractors. Further experiments, each testing different groups of subjects, investigated matching ability using both high‐quality photographs (Experiment 2) and broadcast‐quality video material (Experiment 3). Experiment 3 also investigated the effect of disguising hairstyle, and varied whether or not the target was present in the photo line‐up. The results of these experiments confirm those of previous work, that matching the identity of unfamiliar faces is highly fallible, even when high‐quality footage is used. Experiments 4 and 5 tested matching ability using two‐alternative forced‐choice and single‐item verification tasks. Performance remained highly error‐prone even with the simplest question asked. The legal implications of the results are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Auditory substitution of vision: pattern recognition by the blind
Authors: Arno P. , Vanlierde A. , Streel E. , Wanet‐Defalque M.‐C. , Sanabria‐Bohorquez S. , Veraart C.
Published: September 2002

Pattern recognition in a computer environment was investigated in 6 early blind and 6 blindfolded sighted subjects using auditory substitution of vision. Subjects had to scan visual patterns displayed on a PC screen by moving the pen of a graphics tablet, which lead to corresponding displacements of the cursor on the screen. A small screen area centered on the pointer was then translated into sounds according to a visual‐auditory transcription code. Subjects were trained to learn this code during 12 one‐hour sessions. Performance of both groups significantly increased with practice. This indicates that mental representations of visual patterns can be acquired through the auditory channel, even in the absence of visual experience. Moreover, blind subjects performed significantly better than sighted subjects did. This could be interpreted as a result of partial compensation for their loss of vision. Pattern recognition in a computer environment is thus possible using a fairly natural vision‐to‐audition coding scheme. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.