bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Absolutism
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

From an absolutist perspective, psychological constructs are the same across cultures, and measurements of constructs reflect quantitative, not qualitative, differences. Thus, depression in one culture would be the same as depression in all cultures. According to this perspective, cross‐cultural issues play a very small role in the interpretation of research or in the discussion of constructs. This viewpoint contrasts with the perspectives ofrelativism, which posits that any given construct is particular to a single culture, anduniversalism, which asserts that constructs have universal underpinnings but are displayed differently depending on cultural context.
Accommodation and Assimilation
Authors: Padakannaya Prakash
Published: October 2013

The terms
accommodation
and
assimilation
were coined by Jean Piaget (1896–1980), a Swiss developmental psychologist well known for his theory of intellectual or cognitive development. His theory is concerned with how intellectual potential develops as one matures biologically and through experiences.
Acculturation
Authors: Nguyen Angela‐Minh TuD.
Published: October 2013

Acculturation is a type of culture change that occurs when individuals from different cultures come into contact. This culture change can take place at the individual or the group or cultural level. Although group‐level acculturation has been the focus of anthropological studies, individual‐level acculturation is of greater interest to psychologists.
Achievement Motivation
Authors: Inoue Noriyuki
Published: October 2013

Achievement motivation refers to the psychological tendency to aim at success, develop goals for achievement, and pursue goals for success. People with high achievement motivation tend to work toward achieving goals and regulating their behaviors according to the goals. In contrast, people with low achievement motivation do not pursue goals or do not have goals that they desire to achieve.
Adolescence
Authors: Gibbons Judith L.
Published: October 2013

A wealth of studies has revealed cross‐cultural differences and similarities in the life stage of adolescence, defined by the World Health Organization as the second decade of life. Recent research has focused on brain growth and plasticity during adolescence, identity development, adolescents' relationships with families and peers, gender differences in development during adolescence, adolescents' engagement in school, work, and civic activities, psychological and physical health during adolescence, adolescents' wellbeing and positive development, adolescents' use of the media, and adolescents in difficult circumstances.
Aggression
Authors: Zwolinski Jennifer
Published: October 2013

Aggression is behavior intended to cause physical or psychological injury or harm. Specifically, an act is aggressive if the aggressor intended to cause harm, the target perceives the act as harmful, and others consider it aggressive according to community norms.
Ainsworth, Mary Dinsmore Salter
Authors: Rutherford Alexandra
Published: October 2013

Mary D. S. Ainsworth is well known for her methodological, empirical, and theoretical contributions to the study of infant attachment. With her colleague Barbara Wittig, she devised the famous laboratory procedure called “the Strange Situation.” In this procedure, developed during her tenure at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, infants are carefully observed over several brief periods when their mothers are present, then absent, and then return. Ainsworth's research with the Strange Situation revealed reliable individual differences in infant behaviors that were correlated with ratings of maternal sensitivity to a number of infant cues during the first three months of life and to later patterns of attachment. These findings led to the widespread use of the Strange Situation as an efficient method of classifying infant‐parent attachment patterns.
Altered States of Consciousness
Authors: Ward Colleen
Published: October 2013

In the simplest terms altered states of consciousness (ASCs) are those states that are recognized by an individual or by external observers as being substantially different from one's general state of awareness and responsiveness to the external environment. In contrast to the active, mentally alert state that defines “normal” waking consciousness, altered states are characterized by diffuse attention, non‐logical thought, and a focus on sensory experiences.
Animism
Authors: Drescher Christopher F.
Published: October 2013

Although the idea of animism dates to early philosophers and scientists such as Stahl, Hume, Zenophanes, Tiedemann, Froebel, Comte, Sully, and Rasmussen, the modern conceptualization of animism is generally credited to the British anthropologist seminal workPrimitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. The concept has also been explored by sociologists (e.g., Emile Durkheim), anthropologists (e.g., Margaret Mead), and psychologists (e.g., Jean Piaget). Given the lengthy history and multidisciplinary use of the term “animism,” it is not surprising that several different definitions of the term have emerged.
Anthropology of Knowledge
Authors: Allwood Carl Martin
Published: October 2013

The anthropology of knowledge (AoK) is a multi‐disciplinary research orientation that deals with reproduction and change of human understanding in different types of social and cultural contexts. AoK sees understanding as located in a broad social naturalistic context and all types of understanding are studied: Western, non‐Western, scientific, religious, and everyday. This is in contrast to much of the sociology of knowledge or science studies where mainly scientific or at least Western understanding is focused. Central disciplines in the AoK are social anthropology, psychology, and the cross‐disciplinary research area of cognitive science.
Applied Behavior Analysis
Authors: Dogan Rebecca K. , Mathews Judith R.
Published: October 2013

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is “the science in which tactics derived from the principles of behavior are applied to improve socially significant behavior and experimentation is used to identify the variables responsible for the improvement in behavior”. Building on basic research (“experimental analysis of behavior”, EAB) and incorporating previous animal research (most notably by I. P. Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner) defined seven dimensions of ABA.
Azuma, Hiroshi
Authors: Kaji Akiko
Published: October 2013

Hiroshi Azuma is a Japanese psychologist whose broad knowledge in the field of psychology has influenced many Japanese psychologists who are interested in cross‐cultural psychology. Many have cited his numerous publications both in Japanese and English. His areas of expertise include developmental, educational, cultural, and cross‐cultural psychology, and educational technology.
Bartlett, Sir Frederic Charles
Authors: Brucato Gary , Hogan John D.
Published: October 2013

Frederic Bartlett was born in Stow‐on‐the‐Wold, Gloucestershire, England, in 1886. Despite his pronounced intellect, his formal education was impeded by a long early bout of pleurisy. In 1914, at the age of 28, he completed a degree in Moral Sciences at St. John's College, Cambridge, intent on a career in anthropology.
Bateson, Gregory
Authors: Sullivan Gerald
Published: October 2013

Gregory Bateson was born in 1904 into one of the most distinguished of British academic families. His father William, a leading biologist and authority on variation within species, brought the work of Gregor Mendel into British biology and coined the term “genetics.” Both the elder and younger Bateson knew the work of Samuel and Butler's contention that Darwin's theory of evolution, while stimulating, lacked an appreciation of mind or consciousness and that creatures with consciousness learn some elements of life so well that these elements become not only habitual but also largely unconscious.
Belief Systems
Authors: Tuli Kailish
Published: October 2013

Belief systems are something like the foundations of human convictions on which thinking, mental mapping, and conceptualization are based. Beliefs are the hard core of our thinking, concept formation, and understanding of the world around us. These are often unchangeable or resistant to change. A person holding any belief may become hyper‐convinced of its veracity, making it impossible to change the belief. Beliefs become the guiding light and perceived rationality for the person who holds them and form in various areas of human thought. A belief system is the collection of mutually supportive beliefs held by the person, and beliefs constitute what called a subjective element of culture.
Berry, John W
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Manita Jessica , Northart Dayna
Published: October 2013

John W. Berry, Professor Emeritus of psychology at Queen's University, is an influential pioneer in cross‐cultural psychology
Bond, Michael Harris
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: October 2013

Michael Harris Bond (b. 1944) has made a distinguished contribution to the field of cross‐cultural psychology over the past four decades. After completing his first degree at the University of Toronto in his native Canada, he achieved his doctorate at Stanford University and undertook a post‐doctoral fellowship at Michigan State University. After a three‐year stay at Kwansei Gakuin University in Japan, he obtained an appointment as lecturer at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, where he eventually became Professor of Psychology, remaining there for 35 years. He subsequently held a post as Chair Professor of Psychology at Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Campbell, Donald T
Authors: Gregerson Mary
Published: October 2013

The global influence of scientific and theoretical psychologist Donald T. Campbell (1916–1996) spanned psychology, sociology, philosophy, biology, and anthropology. As a laboratory scientist, Campbell's work on visual perception centered on the influence of context, whether cultural or through experience, strongly supporting perception as contextually relative and not universal. He co‐authoredEthnocentrism: Theories of Conflict, Ethnic Attitudes, and Group Behavior, which described a large scale study determining that discriminatory behaviors and attitudes are nearly universal. As a theoretical epistemologist, Campbell was a leading authority on cross‐cultural design of scientific investigations, championing social influences on measurement and experimentation.
Carpentered‐World Hypothesis
Authors: Phillips William L.
Published: October 2013

The carpentered‐world hypothesis was put forward by to predict differences in susceptibility among different cultures to several geometric line illusions (the Müller‐Lyer Illusion, the Ponzo Illusion, and the Sander Parallelogram Illusion).
Central Asian Psychology
Authors: Feigenbaum Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Psychology in Central Asia can serve as a good example of the aphorism of Hermann Ebbinghaus: Psychology has a long past and a short history. The long past is the folk psychology of Kyrgyzstan and the nomads of Central Asia. The short history is the major borrowings from Russia. For much of the twentieth century the Central Asian republics were under the domination of Russia or the Soviet Union. The republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan were part of the Soviet Union from the 1920s until 1990.
Chess, Stella
Authors: Devonis David C.
Published: October 2013

Stella Chess, daughter of Russian immigrants, was born in New York City in 1914. Her parents set an example of intellect and independence and encouraged her to take on challenges. She entered medical school at New York University in 1935 and, after an encounter with Lauretta Bender, the pioneering child psychiatrist and head of the child psychiatric services at Bellevue Hospital, made child psychiatry her specialty. After graduation in 1939, she married fellow psychiatrist Alexander Thomas, forming an inseparable partnership with him. Dissatisfied with the way in which Freudian theory had become unidimensional in finding the cause for all pathology in parenting, they began a long‐term study of infant and child behavior, the New York Longitudinal Study, in 1956, to examine the relation between caregivers and children. This resulted in a large amount of data which their colleagues Herbert Birch and Margaret Hertzig made tractable for statistical analysis. From this analysis emerged Chess and Thomas's central achievement, the concept of infant personality or temperament.
Cognitive Averaging
Authors: Miller Richard L. , Stastny Bradley J.
Published: October 2013

Research by Judith Langlois and her colleagues has demonstrated that people's preferences for attractive faces exist well before the effects of socialization from parents, peers, and media. In fact, humans form a clear preference for attractive faces during infancy. Some researchers have suggested that this preference for attractive faces is the result of an innate template that provides a domain‐specific beauty detection module. However, others suggest that people's preferences develop as a function of cognitive averaging, a domain‐general information processing mechanism that allows us to average across exemplars within a category.
Cole, Michael
Authors: Serpell Robert
Published: October 2013

Born in 1938 and raised in the United States, Michael Cole had early formative experiences in experimental laboratory studies of human learning under the mentorship of William Estes at Indiana University (Ph.D. 1962). He then spent a year as a post‐doctoral student at Moscow University in Russia (1962–1963) under the guidance of Alexander Luria, who provided an introduction to the work of Lev Vygotsky. In the 1970s, Cole edited and co‐edited English translations of some of both these authors' key publications. From 1966 to 1969 he held an appointment at the University of California, Irvine, and from 1969 to 1978 at the Rockefeller University, New York. At Rockefeller he founded (1971) the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition (LCHC), which attracted a wide spectrum of cultural and cross‐cultural researchers from around the world. The base of LCHC moved with Cole to the University of California, San Diego in 1978, where it became an increasingly Internet‐mediated resource for international conferencing, as well as spawning, in 1994, the multidisciplinary journal
Mind, Culture and Activity
. The various listserv‐supported discussions known as “XLCHC and other discussions grouped under the XFAMILY electronic umbrella” and the journal have afforded influential fora for the “substantial international scholarly community which takes a serious interest in study of mind as a cultural‐historical process of human development” (
http://lchc.ucsd.edu/mca
). Since 1979, Cole has been professor of communication, psychology and human development at the University of California, San Diego.
Compliance
Authors: J. Hovee Mark
Published: October 2013

Many people from various cultural backgrounds can relate to the psychological construct of
compliance
from an early age. Such conditioning has been virtually embedded in our DNA in terms of familial and educational rules and expectations. Children typically learn to defer to the guiding hand of their parents and teachers to a considerable degree, despite marked variance between authoritarian and passive forms of adult governance. Compliance, as understood in the social psychology literature, is individual behavior driven by the desire to gain some kind of reward, or actions taken to avoid punishment.
Conflict Resolution
Authors: Gire James T.
Published: October 2013

Conflict is a very pervasive phenomenon occurring in literally all societies and at all times. It appears to be an inevitable byproduct of the interdependence needed to create groups. It is not surprising that we find ourselves in conflict with our family members, neighbors, and pretty much everyone with whom we have had more than a momentary contact. Conflict is not unique to the modern era. Some of the earliest written and oral accounts contain descriptions of various types of conflict including political, military, and economic disputes that have had, at times, devastating consequences on the world at the time and beyond. It appears that advances in technology have been paralleled by advances in conflict, both in scope and complexity. Unfortunately, the ability to manage these conflicts has failed to keep pace with technological advancement. The world is replete with national and international wars; legal systems are overburdened with litigation; serious quarrels and disagreements abound among dating and married couples; and employers and employees seem to be locked in seemingly intractable conflicts. Not surprisingly, researchers, and indeed society in general, have devoted a lot of effort, time, and resources to enhance our understanding and management of conflicts.
Conformity
Authors: Neto Félix
Published: October 2013

Researchers have long recognized that behavior in social situations is both a function of the characteristics of the individual involved (his or her attitudes, values, personality characteristics), as well as the characteristics of the stimulus configuration surrounding them (the setting, the number of other people present, their relationships). In an attempt to assess more precisely the forces that arise from the social milieu, devised an experimental situation in which he studied the susceptibility of individuals to social pressures for conformity.
Confucian Work Dynamism
Authors: Borg, Mark B.
Published: October 2013

Many studies have analyzed the relationship between culture and economic development.
Construct Bias
Authors: van de Vijver Fons J. R.
Published: October 2013

Bias can occur in the context of comparative studies and refers to the presence of nuisance factors. If scores are biased, their psychological meaning is not the same in the different groups studied. Bias is not an inherent characteristic of an instrument, but arises in the application of an instrument in at least two cultural groups. As a consequence, an instrument is not inherently biased but may become so when an investigator compares scores from specific cultural groups.
Construct Inequivalence
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Measurement of a construct or a concept across cultures can be difficult because of differences in the way a concept is viewed in different groups or because of limitations in the measurement process itself. When measurements are comparable across cultures, construct invariance holds. When psychologists cannot measure a given construct comparably across cultures, comparisons may not be meaningful; in such a case, a state of construct inequivalence will hold.
Context Differentiation
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

One of the major functions of culture is to ascribe meaning to context – the nature of interactants, the physical setting, the events that occur – so that norms are generated that provide guidelines for how members think, feel, and act in those contexts. These norms are essential to avoid social chaos, maintain social coordination, and produce efficiency in effort. In some cultures, for instance, fathers are held in positions of higher status and authority than mothers; in others this is not the case, and fathers and mothers share status on a more egalitarian basis. Norms, therefore, of behaving with one's father vary greatly depending on the type of culture one was raised in, and are based on the meanings afforded to that social role (i.e., context).
Correlational Research
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Correlational research permits investigators to spot reliable associations among variables. Researchers use a variety of statistical approaches to analyze correlational data, including the traditional Pearson Product‐Moment Correlation and extending to highly sophisticated techniques such as structural equation modeling, factor analysis, and regression analyses.
Counterfactual Thinking
Authors: Pope Jay W.
Published: October 2013

Counterfactual thinking refers to the tendency for people to imagine alternative outcomes to events that have actually occurred. It is also informally known as “if only …” thinking, owing to how people imagine how things might have turned out differently “if only” they had behaved slightly differently or if the antecedent circumstances were minimally different.
Cultural Adaptation
Authors: Goforth Anisa N.
Published: October 2013

Cultural adaptation refers to both a dynamic process by which an individual responds to a new cultural environment and to an outcome of an individual's acculturation. Immigrants relocating to a new culture will undergo the process of acculturation, which is characterized by the extent to which an immigrant will maintain his or her ethnic cultural practices and/or participate in the cultural practices of the host culture. This process includes keeping the cultural customs, traditions, and values of one's old culture as well as learning the customs and traditions of the new culture. It is a process that involves learning and unlearning of cultural practices.
Cultural Assimilator
Authors: Hankton Umieca N. , Bastien Gilberte , Johnson Laura R.
Published: October 2013

A cultural assimilator is a method of experiential education designed and used to facilitate an individual or group's ability to understand and function in a different cultural context. As the United States began to experience growth in cultural diversity and an increase in day‐to‐day contact among individuals from different cultural backgrounds, Fielder, determined it would be important to expose individuals from one culture to the values, attitudes, and behaviors of other cultures. The method developed to facilitate this learning experience is known as the cultural assimilator. A well known technique in cross‐cultural psychology, the cultural assimilator assesses an individual's awareness and knowledge of cultural differences. The cultural assimilator also provides an assessment of the extent to which an individual understands the impact of operating in an unfamiliar cultural context. Cultural assimilators vary in design and usefulness.
Cultural Competence
Authors: Lonner Walter J.
Published: October 2013

Cultural competence (alternatively:cross‐cultural competence,interculturalormulticultural competence, and various other terms, such ascultural sensitivity) is a psychological construct usually understood to consist of a set of attitudes, knowledge, and skills that together form a personal attribute that facilitates smooth and effective communication and interaction with people who are culturally and linguistically different. Through socialization experiences, education, and training, cultural competence consists of a diverse, yet highly related, constellation of specific factors. Empathy, openness or flexibility, perspective‐taking, tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty, high self‐efficacy, self‐moderation and emotion regulation, and other components are believed to be paramount in describing individuals who are culturally competent. The ability to maintain a high degree of respect and a nonjudgmental stance is also often cited as a characteristic of culturally competent persons.
Cultural Decoding Rules
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Just as cultures have display rules that govern the management and modification of emotional expressions, they have cultural decoding rules that govern the management of emotional
perception
.
Cultural Frame Switching
Authors: No Sun
Published: October 2013

Cultural frame switching refers to the phenomenon of shifting from one cultural mindset to another as a result of recent exposure to a cultural prime. Biculturals shift their interpretive frames based on which of their cultures was most recently activated, whether they are primed with iconic images of a culture, symbols such as language, or group‐based stereotypes. Primed biculturals exhibit responses to subsequent measures (e.g., causal attribution, values, group identification, personality traits) that match those of typical monocultural individuals in prior cross‐cultural research. For example, used cross‐cultural finding that European North Americans project emotions egocentrically (e.g., perceive one's own emotional state as being experienced by others) and Asian North Americans project emotions relationally (e.g., perceive emotions in others that are relationally linked to one's own emotional state, for instance perceiving fear in others when one experiences anger) to show that Korean Americans primed with American cultural icons responded as typical White Americans would on a measure of emotion projection (e.g., more egocentrically), yet responded as typical Koreans in Korea would when primed with Korean cultural icons (e.g., more relationally).
Cultural Psychology
Authors: Valsiner Jaan
Published: October 2013

Cultural psychology is a sub‐part of general psychology that is built on the axiom that all human cognitive, affective, and behavioral forms of existence are regulated by socially constructed meanings. From that starting point cultural psychology overcomes the limitations of behavioral and cognitive traditions in psychology, restoring the study of higher – intentional – psychological processes to the center of psychological science. It has developed extensively since the 1980s and is currently integrating different sub‐fields of psychology (developmental, social). It is a transdisciplinary scholarly project building relations between psychology, anthropology, sociology, and history. Its methodological orientation is that of qualitative analyses, with quantitative methods allowable only if proven conceptually adequate and not eliminative of the phenomena under study.
Cultural Theory
Authors: Ng Reuben
Published: October 2013

The premise of cultural theory (CT) conflicts with the aggregate approach of culture positing that differences exist across countries on dichotomies such as individualism–collectivism and tightness–looseness. In contrast, CT argues that culture is dynamic.
Culturally Adapted Treatment
Authors: Hwang Wei‐Chin
Published: October 2013

The term culturally adapted treatment refers to the modification and tailoring of services for people of different backgrounds. Because of access, utilization, and mental health outcome disparities among ethnic minorities, the term has traditionally referred to the adaptation of services for underserved ethnic populations in the United States. However, the term has also been applied to adapting services for other forms of diversity (e.g., gender, age, sexual orientation, and specific clinical issues).
Culturally Sensitive Psychotherapy and Culture Analysis
Authors: Dwairy Marwan
Published: October 2013

Psychotherapeutic approaches developed in the individualistic, liberal societies of the West. They share one assumption: that the individual is an autonomous entity directed by intra‐psychic constructs and processes. The Western view is that, when a person experiences psychological disorder, psychotherapy can restore psychological functioning. This assumption does not always prove true among people who live in collectivist cultures, where the self is collective rather than autonomous. In such cultures individuals are not autonomous, and are psychologically dependent upon their family or tribe. The self is interdependent, and needs, attitudes, and values are collective rather than personal. Wellbeing is based on familial support that is conditioned on submissiveness to collective values and norms. Psychological distress is typically associated with intra‐familial conflicts rather than intra‐psychic ones.
Culture‐Bound (or Culturally Salient?)
Authors: López Irene , Ho Avril
Published: October 2013

An established body of research has documented the role of culture in mental disorders and notes that culture not only shapes the experiences and symptomatology of disorders, but is a key factor in the organization and clustering of symptoms. As a result, disorders across cultures can be composed of an array of symptoms that do not easily or directly correspond to the disorders listed in the North American nomenclature of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM). To account for such difficulties, the DSM‐IV‐R has a glossary titled “culture‐bound syndromes” that lists 25 of the most frequently studied experiences (see Table 1). These experiences are defined as recurrent patterns of abnormal behaviors and distressing experiences that are “bound” to particular populations or regions, which may or may not be associated with specific DSM diagnoses.
Dai, Bingham
Authors: Rose Anne C.
Published: October 2013

Was a Chinese‐born theorist and therapist who practiced in China and the United States. He combined Western ideas about culture and personality with Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist teachings. As a resident of the American South from World War II on, he explored the psychology of racial identity and contributed to the landmark legal case
Brown v. Board of Education
(1954).
De Vos, George A
Authors: Feren Laura
Published: October 2013

George Alfphonse De Vos (1922–2010) was Professor Emeritus of Anthropology and pioneer in cultural psychology and ethnic identity studies at the University of California, Berkeley. He earned international recognition for his groundbreaking research of cultures and personality studies, interpersonal and economic exploitation, psychological anthropology, and the cross‐cultural application of psychological tests such as the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
Decoding
Authors: Padakannaya Prakash
Published: October 2013

The term decoding refers to the recoding process of print (orthography) to speech sounds (phonology) while reading. Reading involves decoding (mapping between orthography and phonology) and comprehension processes. Although comprehension is a higher‐order, culture‐independent general cognitive process, decoding is a more basic cognitive process concerned with phonological recoding of orthographic units of a language. The specific mechanism and the ease with which decoding is performed depends on the characteristic features of the specific writing system used in a particular culture.
Dementia
Authors: Trottier Kaylee , Reckow Jaclyn , Ferraro F. Richard
Published: October 2013

TheDiagnostic and Statistical Manual(DSM‐IV‐TR) of explains dementia as the development of multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment and at least one additional impairment in executive functioning – aphasia, apraxia, or agnosia. Memory impairment, often an early symptom, develops in individuals with dementia as a decreased ability to learn new material and/or forgetting previously learned material. Cognitive impairments must be due to physiological effects of a general medical condition, effects of a substance, or combined etiologies. Disorders considered dementia are differentiated by their etiologies (e.g., dementia of the Alzheimer's type, vascular dementia, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, dementia due to head trauma), but share symptom presentation. Age is the greatest risk factor for dementia, as evidenced by increased prevalence rates with age; approximately 1.4–1.6% of individuals aged 65–69 years and 16–25% of individuals over the age of 85 have a diagnosis of dementia.
Dependent Variable
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

In an experiment, an investigator manipulates an independent variable to see whether the manipulation leads to changes in responses as measured through the dependent variable, the outcome measure in an experiment. Sometimes in non‐experimental research that involves regression analysis, a variable to be predicted might be referred to as a dependent variable, even when no causation is implied.
Depression
Authors: Stewart Sunita M.
Published: October 2013

Depression is a chronic disorder associated with significant morbidity and mortality, and likely to become the second most debilitating disease worldwide by 2020. As defined by theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM‐IV), depression is the persistent presence over a period of at least two weeks of at least five of nine of its cardinal symptoms: depressed mood and anhedonia (of which at least one must be present), clinically significant weight gain/loss or increase/decrease in appetite, sleep disturbance, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness or of excessive guilt, decrease in concentration, and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide. Culture can influence numerous processes interfacing with this disorder, including symptom presentation, prevalence, utilization of services, and selection of and response to treatment.
Dimensions of Culture (Geert H. Hofstede) – Overview
Authors: Keith Kenneth
Published: October 2013

In his landmark 1980 book
Culture's Consequences
, Dutch psychologist Geert H. Hofstede described a framework of cultural dimensions that has become the hallmark of much cross‐cultural research.
Dimensions of Culture (Shalom H. Schwartz) – Overview
Authors: Niu Jianghe , Bell Callimarie , Zagumny Matthew J. , Rahman Hartini Abdul , Reid Laura M.
Published: October 2013

Israeli psychologist Shalom H. Schwartz has theorized, in a framework of cultural dimensions, that there are seven cultural value types (
affective autonomy, egalitarianism, embeddedness, harmony, hierarchy, intellectual autonomy, and mastery
).
Direct Control
Authors: C. Fitch Jenelle
Published: October 2013

Described four types of control orientations: direct, indirect, proxy, and collective. In understanding each of these types, Yamaguchi proposed that at the value level of each type were the ideas of autonomy and social harmony.
Disability
Authors: Johnson Ebonee T. , Dent Gitchel W. , Mpofu Elias
Published: October 2013

Disability is a diverse phenomenon. There is no one understanding or perspective that can capture the complexities of disability. However it is understood though, disability is a global experience. According to the World Health Organization, disability is a multidimensional phenomenon that affects a significant portion of the global population. Definitions of disability have evolved over time both within and across cultural settings, as has the range of areas of human functioning to which disability applies. In Western societies for instance, disability has historically been associated with physical impairment, and only more recently with limitations in normative activities of daily living within typical environments. The defines disability in terms of activity restrictions and participation limitations. This model understands disability as a complex interaction between a person with a health or psychological impairment and his or her physical and sociocultural environment. Thus, the current understanding of disability emphasizes human functioning. An impairment, in and of itself, does not necessarily result in a disability.
Distortions of Diagnostic Judgment
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Assignment of a psychiatric diagnosis is based upon a complex interpersonal transaction in which a diagnostician's professional training, experience, and skill are applied to the detection of signs and indications of a specific mental disorder in a person who is typically experiencing distress, discomfort, and helplessness. In the ideal case, this determination is construed as an inference from the observations and communications gathered, subject to minimal distortions, if any. In actuality, the attainment of veridical psychiatric diagnosis across all populations and diagnostic categories was an ambitious and elusive goal throughout the twentieth century. By this time, substantial advances in formulating and applying rules of diagnosis have been made, exemplified by the changes in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manualsof the American Psychiatric Association from the first to the current fourth edition, the development of observational rating and self‐report symptom scales, and the improvement of interviewing procedures. Nonetheless, problems with the validity of diagnostic judgment persist – a continuing task for the mental health professions throughout the world is to reduce errors and distortions.
Diversity Education in Psychology
Authors: MacDonald Don
Published: October 2013

Psychologists work with clients who represent a wide array of global cultural and subcultural identities. Applied psychologists must learn how to effectively serve such a diverse clientele, and research psychologists will produce more valid outcomes and processes by accounting for multicultural effects in their studies. Efforts to provide services become problematic when psychologists attempt to make sense of clients’ worldviews solely through their own cultural lens. This is particularly the case when it results in a lack of understanding of differing cultural viewpoints. Regardless of psychologists’ roles, multicultural understanding and skills are not intuitive; preparation programs and psychological organizations have professional and ethical responsibilities to educate psychologists about diversities.
Doi, Takeo
Authors: Kaji Akiko
Published: October 2013

Takeo Doi was a Japanese psychiatrist born in Tokyo, Japan in 1920. He graduated from the Schools of Health Science and Medicine at the University of Tokyo in 1942 and became a dermatologist. He was drafted to military service during World War II. After the war, he worked at St. Luke's International Hospital in Tokyo as an internal medicine doctor. At the time the hospital served as an American military hospital. Doi was allowed to use the library, containing American journals, including a journal of internal medicine. He learned about the ideas of psychosomatic illness and psychoanalysis while reading articles in the library. After Doi had worked as an internal medicine doctor for four years, the director of the hospital recommended that he become a psychiatrist. He followed this recommendation, applied for a scholarship to study in the United States and obtained fellowships at the Menninger School of Psychiatry from 1950 to 1952.
Draguns, Juris G
Authors: Chin Eugene , Drescher Christopher F. , Johnson Laura R.
Published: October 2013

Juris G. Draguns is a pioneer in international psychology and cross‐cultural research. Overcoming geographical and language barriers, he has collaborated with researchers from nations such as Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Israel, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Poland, Russia, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Throughout his career he has lectured in five different languages and taught internationally at the University of Mainz in Germany; Lund University in Sweden; East‐West Center in Hawaíi; Flinders University of South Australia; National Taiwan University in Taipei; University of the Americas‐Puebla in Cholula, Mexico; University of Latvia and Baltic Russian Institute, both in Riga; and the Pennsylvania State University in the United States.
Dreams
Authors: Richmond Lee Joyce
Published: October 2013

Possibly no subject in psychology has been more elusive yet more examined than dreams. Interest in dreams is as ancient as the beginning of humankind and as modern as present day studies in neuroscience. The cause of dreams, the content of dreams, and the meaning of dreams have been studied in all cultures using the belief systems and tools available at the time. Dreams are commonly believed to affect waking behavior.
DSM‐IV‐TR: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Manita Jessica
Published: October 2013

The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM), published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), is used for clinical, research, and educational purposes. The focus of the DSM is on diagnostic codes for psychological disorders and on medical record keeping. The DSM is also used for communication of information to governmental agencies, private insurers, and the World Health Organization (WHO). The DSM is now in its fourth edition. In 1952, the first edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐I) was recognized as the manual of mental health categorization. It developed as a variant of the “Mental Disorders” section of the sixth edition of the World Health Organization's
International Classification of Diseases
(ICD).
Egalitarianism
Authors: Bell Callimarie , Zagumny Matthew J.
Published: October 2013

Egalitarianism is a philosophical doctrine that describes a belief in human equality. Egalitarianism, commonly contextualized in political, social, and economic affairs, advocates the reduction of inequalities among individuals in social realms such as work, legal systems, gender issues, and wealth. Justice and fairness are commonly associated with egalitarianism stemming from multiple studies in political philosophy.
Ekman, Paul
Authors: Rich Grant J.
Published: October 2013

Paul Ekman was born February 15, 1934 in Washington, DC. His mother committed suicide when he was 14, and Ekman reported that this led to his desire to become a psychologist. He attended the University of Chicago from 1949 to 1952, and received his B.A. from New York University in 1954. He completed the Ph.D. at Adelphi University in 1958. He served in the U.S. Army Medical Corps from 1958 to 1960, as chief psychologist at Fort Dix, New Jersey, and became a first lieutenant. In 1972 he became a professor of psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, where he remained until 2004. Ekman married Mary Ann Mason, the past dean of graduate studies (2000–2007), and professor at the School of Law at the University of California‐Berkeley. They have two children.
Emotion Antecedents
Authors: Hwang Hyi Sung , Matsumoto David
Published: October 2013

Emotion antecedents refer to the events or situations that trigger or elicit an emotion. They are also known as emotion elicitors or emotion triggers. Research suggests that the underlying psychological themes that elicit emotions are the same across cultures, but that the specific content of the events can be different across cultures.
Emotion Recognition
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Emotion recognitionrefers to the ability of humans to identify emotional states. Most of the research in this area has focused on the ability of humans to recognize the emotional states of others, primarily through facial expressions of emotion. Charles Darwin suggested that expressive behaviors associated with emotion are the residual actions of more complete behavioral responses. Facial and vocal expressions are part of those actions, and occur in combination with other bodily responses – postural, gestural, skeletal muscle movements, and physiological responses. This perspective suggests that different emotions are associated with specific, unique facial configurations, and that each facial configuration occurs because it complements the behavioral response associated with the aroused emotion. Thus, we express anger in our faces by furrowing the brow and tightening the lips with teeth displayed because these actions are part of an attack response; we express disgust with an open mouth, nose wrinkle, and tongue protrusion as part of a vomiting response. Facial expressions are part of the coordinated response involving multiple systems.
Emotion Response System Coherence
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Emotions have been defined as
transient, bio‐psycho‐social reactions to events that have consequences for our welfare and potentially require immediate action
(see entry on
Emotion
). They are biological because they involve bodily responses. They are psychological because they involve specific mental processes required for elicitation and regulation of response and affect. And they are social because they are often elicited in interactions, and have meaning to those interactions. (We use the word “social” here in the broadest sense in relation to our evolutionary history, which includes interactions not only with other humans, but also with other living beings, such as snakes, bears, wild pigs, etc.)
Emotions, Basic
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

The notion of basic emotions has its roots in the writing of Darwin, who suggested that a certain set of emotions were biologically based, adaptive, and seen across phylogeny. Although Darwin's ideas were challenged for many years, they were bolstered by the first systematic evidence documenting the universality of facial expressions of emotion in what are known as the
universality studies
(see entry, in this
Encyclopedia
). Today there is strong evidence for the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, and surprise to be classified as basic emotions. The universality of the facial expressions of these emotions serves as one of the strongest foundations of cultural and cross‐cultural psychology.
Enculturation
Authors: Nguyen Angela‐Minh TuD.
Published: October 2013

Enculturation is cultural socialization or transmission, or the learning of the norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors of a cultural group.
Enriquez, Virgilio
Authors: Navarro Atoy M.
Published: October 2013

Virgilio Gaspar Enriquez was a Filipino psychologist, considered the father ofsikolohiyang Pilipino(Filipino Psychology), who advanced indigenous psychology in the Philippines. Born in Bulacan on November 24, 1942, he was the youngest child of Arsenio Enriquez and Rosario Gaspar. Enriquez finished his elementary education at the Espiritu Santo Parochial School and his secondary schooling at Colegio de San Juan de Letran. He earned his B.A. in philosophy at the University of the Philippines (UP) in 1961. Two years later, he joined the UP Department of Psychology as a faculty member. In 1965, Enriquez was among the few academics teaching psychology in the Filipino language. He took graduate studies at Northwestern University in the United States, where he obtained his M.A. in psychology in 1970 and Ph.D. in social psychology in 1971.
Environmental Psychology
Authors: Fitch Jenelle C.
Published: October 2013

According to Canter and,
environmental psychology
is an area of psychology that examines the interrelationships and interactions of “human experiences and actions with pertinent aspects of the socio‐physical surroundings.
Ethics in Cross‐Cultural Psychology
Authors: Beck Stephanie , de Merode Janet
Published: October 2013

Cultural differences can create ethical dilemmas among health professions working across cultures. Values, spiritual beliefs, customs, styles of communication, and views of roles and responsibilities take shape within the particular histories of communities and nations. These concerns in turn impact the legal, ethical, and moral standards of particular cultures. For instance, multiple values and procedures engrained in Western psychologists may be defined or understood differently in Eastern cultures. Differing interpretations can lead to ethical dilemmas for Western psychologists working in Eastern cultures, and for Eastern psychologists working in Western cultures. In psychology, five broad areas emerge for considering differences in values and protocols when operating in a cross‐cultural context: competence; informed consent; confidentiality/privacy; diagnosis/treatment; and international testing.
Ethnography
Authors: Priya Kumar Ravi
Published: October 2013

A paradigm shift in social sciences in the 1960s produced recognition among psychologists of the importance of culture in understanding and explaining human behavior and experiences. Ethnography has acquired an interesting place in psychological research in a variety of areas, including research with the goals of exploring cultural meanings of selfhood, wellbeing, identity and other experiences that may be culturally unique and rendered intelligible only within the specific sociocultural context.