bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of Observability, Mood States, and Workload on Human Handling Errors When Monitoring Aircraft Automation
Authors: Niederée Ute , Jipp Meike , Teegen Uwe , Vollrath Mark
Published: October 2012

An increasing level of automation changes the role of human operators also in the flight deck. Herewith, communication and coordination efforts between humans and automation gain importance as communication breakdowns may cause serious incidents and accidents. To ensure successful communication, it was proposed, on the one hand, to enhance the observability of automation. On the other hand, researchers analysed the impact of inter- and intraindividual differences in affect and mood states on the interaction. Within this study, it was investigated whether an experimental manipulation of the automation’s observability and workload in addition to interindividual differences in mood states impacted human errors in handling automation. Therefore, 24 participants monitored aircraft automation and, more specifically, whether the automation succeeded in keeping the aircraft’s pitch angle within certain boundaries and whether the aircraft engines functioned as expected. Data analyses revealed significant effects of the automation’s observability and of the participants’ level of positive mood and extraversion on the number of handling errors. The handling errors were considered an indicator for communication breakdowns as they were caused by the automation insufficiently informing the human on its actions. The results highlight the need to focus on the automation’s observability when designing highly automated systems especially in safety-critical domains and on further analysing the effects of mood states on human-automation interaction.
Emotional Responses to Trouble Events on a Train-Driving Simulator
Authors: Wada Kazushige , Ueda Mayuko
Published: October 2012

We explored emotion and error in encounters with trouble events on a railway-driving simulator. Forty train drivers participated in this experiment, carrying out four simulations including a total of 12 trouble situations (three “troubles” in each course). We measured emotional responses and actions taken for those troubles. It was shown that emotions evoked by trouble encounters could be described by three factors and classified into four groups based on factor scores. Furthermore, the error rate of the fourth group, in which emotion was evoked strongly, was higher than in the other groups. These results suggest that in critical situations, emotion is strongly evoked and increases the chance of error.
A controlled field study of situation awareness measures and heart rate variability in emergency handling teams
Authors: Sætrevik Bjørn
Published: October 2012

Five second line emergency handling teams within hydrocarbon energy industry were studied while they performed a scripted training scenario. To have the same knowledge as the team leader was used as an objective index of situation awareness (SA). Self-assessment of performance proved a poor indicator of objective SA. Objective SA varied according to team membership, but not according to roles in the team. Heart rate variability correlated with some objective SA measures, but not with self-report measures of SA.
Patterns in Mining Haul Truck Accidents
Authors: Drury Colin G. , Porter William L. , Dempsey Patrick G.
Published: October 2012

To help develop ergonomics audit programs for mining, one source of data on both work tasks and their failures is accident reports. These are available in most industries and are often used in human factors engineering, but typically to justify and evaluate interventions rather than to provide task details and failure mechanisms. Because fatal accidents in particular contain considerable detail resulting from thorough follow-up investigations, they are thus a useful starting point for analysis. A set of 40 detailed fatal accident reports for mining haul truck accidents were analyzed to develop repeating patterns of accidents. This paper examines the accident patterns found from the initial sample, the refined pattern analysis developed from a subsequent larger sample, and the task analyses used later to help develop valid audit programs.
Human Reliability Analysis for Computerized Procedures, Part Two: Applicability of Current Methods
Authors: Boring Ronald L. , Gertman David I.
Published: October 2012

Computerized procedures (CPs) are an emerging technology within nuclear power plant control rooms. While CPs have been implemented internationally in advanced control rooms, to date no U.S. nuclear power plant has implemented CPs in its main control room. Yet, CPs are a reality of new plant builds and are an area of considerable interest to existing plants, which see advantages in terms of easier records management by omitting the need for updating hardcopy procedures. The overall intent of this paper is to provide a characterization of human reliability analysis (HRA) issues for computerized procedures. It is beyond the scope of this document to propose a new HRA approach or to recommend specific methods or refinements to those methods. Rather, this paper serves as a review of current HRA as it may be used for the analysis and review of computerized procedures.
A Model of Operator Interaction with Field Procedures: Insights for Computer-Based Procedures
Authors: Le Blanc Katya L , Oxstrand Johanna H
Published: October 2012

Paper-based procedures (PBPs) are used to manage human performance in the nuclear power industry both in the field, and in the main control room. Though PBPs are viewed as a necessary tool to guide operators through complex tasks, limitations in paper-based systems may increase operator workload and contribute to errors. Plans to upgrade aging plants with digital equipment and wireless technology may present an opportunity to enhance procedures by migrating them to computer-based systems. These computer-based procedures (CBPs) have the potential to enhance human performance by integrating plant status information and automating many tasks (e.g., place-keeping). CBPs have been explored for more than 30 years for use in the main control room; however their actual deployment in the US nuclear plants is yet to be realized. Currently, the Idaho National Laboratory and participants from the nuclear industry are collaborating on a research effort aimed at identifying requirements for CBPs used by field operators. This paper describes the first step in that effort: a qualitative study and the development of a Model of Procedure Usage.
Improving Public Response to Disaster Warnings: A Discussion Panel
Authors: O’Brien Marita A. , Bass Ellen J. , Bliss James P. , Cooke Nancy J. , Kalsher Michael J. , Mayhorn Christopher B.
Published: October 2012

Stories about substantial human and property losses caused by natural disasters made headlines in 2011 throughout the U.S. and around the world. Many of these stories described problems with the disaster warnings themselves as well as with human responses to these warnings, both of which may have increased the number of casualties. Although human factors research has made significant contributions to the design of product warnings in general, studies focused specifically on disaster warnings and associated responses are sparse (Cooke & Winner, 2007). Furthermore, disseminating warnings and supplemental information to guide decision making by the general public is increasingly challenging due to the rapid adoption of heterogeneous mobile technologies, particularly those providing Internet access. These technologies facilitate access to even more information during these time-sensitive situations, but the information may not be presented in ways that support effective decision-making. In this panel, we will discuss opportunities for human factors research to improve the public’s preparation and response to disaster warnings. Panelists will discuss their research on individual differences in warning design and response, training effects on warning response, social media and emergency communications, communication and coordination among ad hoc disaster response teams, and decision making by weather forecasters. From these discussions, we hope to identify research areas with high potential for short-term impact.
Controller Response Times to Surface Safety Alerts
Authors: Kopald Hunter D. , Smith Elida C. , Stevens Ronald K.
Published: October 2012

To ensure that Air Traffic Control Tower-based surface safety systems are designed to appropriately take into account human response time, it is critical to understand controller responses in situations that are within the controller’s operational envelope (i.e., situations that the controller would be expected/trained to handle as part of the job) but that are expected to elicit response times longer than those that would be expected in more typical air traffic control situations. This paper describes the conduct and results of a Human-in-the-Loop (HITL) simulation in which participant controllers were exposed to one of two air traffic control situations within the operational envelope and their responses to a surface safety alert were measured. The results of this HITL simulation indicated the right tail-end of controller response behavior (defined as the time it takes a controller to detect the alert, make a decision about how to resolve the situation, and issue corrective instruction to a pilot) as around 13 seconds, which is almost twice as long as was measured in previous studies capturing controller response behavior in typical air traffic control situations.
Application of Scaled World Model for Usability Testing of Fall Arrest System in Residential Construction
Authors: Angles Joseph , Trochez Gabrielle , Nakata Akiko , Smith-Jackson Tonya , Hindman Daniel
Published: October 2012

Falls from heights in residential construction continue to be a leading cause of fatalities and severe injuries. Field studies are difficult to implement in residential construction, because companies are hesitant to allow observers on site to collect data while tasks are being conducted. Use of scaled world models has been recommended for experimental contexts that require high levels of ecological validity as well as internal (control) validity . In this project, we explored several attributes to design a scaled world model of residential roofing that would support controlled trials to evaluate usability and to conduct load testing, in a realistic setting. Features of the scaled world model were selected to support validity and ease-of-measurement while participants conducted roofing tasks. Several validity constraints were explored, including ecological, structural, psychological and process validity. Possible in-lab roofing task attributes were discussed and heuristic guidelines for scaled world models were provided. Lastly, an example of a scaled-world model was assembled to test the fall arrest system. The design team continues to develop the model, which will be reviewed by residential roofing experts for realism and accuracy.
Widening the Net of HSI in the Army Acquisition Process
Authors: Savage-Knepshield Pamela , Larkin Gabriella Brick , Morris Anthony , Mares Anna , Burns Cheryl , Garrett Lamar , Davis James
Published: October 2012

While industry has typically benefitted from considering human system integration (HSI) throughout the product development cycle, a unique set of challenges exist in the context of military acquisition that has prevented its early and late consideration in the cycle. Early input is critical for identifying capability gaps and potential error- or problem-prone feature implementations. This panel, comprised of multidisciplinary practitioners and researchers from the Army Research Laboratory, discusses methods they have trialed to integrate HSI processes into early-stage system design decisions, and the challenges and lessons that they have learned along the way. These panelists draw from their varied areas of expertise ranging from the design of aviation and ground vehicles to Soldier-worn protective gear and from small weapons to command and control systems to reveal critical factors and insights that are generalizable across a wide range of products and industry sectors, as well as those that warrant further investigation.
Using SMEs During Initial Development of Small UAS Concept of Operations
Authors: Kancler David E. , Malek David A.
Published: October 2012

This paper describes a project which was aimed at collecting information and identifying system specifications and requirements from subject matter experts (SMEs) to better understand current small unmanned aircraft systems (SUAS) missions, capabilities, and expected payload (e.g., sensor or weapon) employments. These SME interviews were intended to help provide an initial, exploratory step toward the development of a Concept of Operations (CONOPS) for use among government, state and private sectors interested in the implementation of a SUAS. A particular challenge to the researchers was the varied backgrounds and focal areas of the SMEs. This paper details the interview process, results, challenges, and benefits associated with categorizing, implementing, and integrating findings from SME interviews in an emerging and dynamic topic area (SUAS).
Interface Design for Unmanned Vehicle Supervision through Hybrid Cognitive Task Analysis
Authors: Macbeth Jamie C. , Cummings M. L. , Bertuccelli Luca F. , Surana Amit
Published: October 2012

While there is currently signiﬁcant interest in developing Unmanned Aerial Systems (UASs) that can be supervised by a single operator, the majority of these systems focus on Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) domains. One domain that has received signiﬁcantly less attention is the use of multiple UASs to insert or extract supplies or people. To this end, MAVIES (Multi-Autonomous Vehicle Insertion-Extraction System) was developed to allow a single operator the ability to supervise a primary cargo Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) along with multiple scouting UAVs. This paper will detail the development of the design requirements generated through a Hybrid Cognitive Task Analysis (hCTA) and the display that resulted from these efforts. A major innovation in the hCTA process in this effort was the alteration of the traditional decision ladder process to speciﬁcally identify decision-making tasks that must be augmented with automation.
Towards a Methodological Framework for HMI Readiness Evaluation
Authors: Jander Hans , Borgvall Jonathan , Ramberg Robert
Published: October 2012

The aim of this study is to define and evaluate a methodological framework for human-machine interaction (HMI) readiness evaluation in system development for complex, high risk, and task-critical environments. The long-term objective is to establish a HMI readiness evaluation framework for environments with these characteristics, in this specific case HMI development for fighter aircrafts. Based on literature studies a series of interviews were conducted to identify shortcomings of current practices and methods, and define requirements for an enhanced methodology. The results were further explored during facilitated workshops with HMI subject matter experts. The overall result is a methodological framework based on triangulation of many already established evaluation methods and techniques, combined with a set of measurable HMI criteria. Inspired by risk management practices, the result of the proposed methodology is presented in a HMI assessment matrix. This matrix is proposed to form the basis of the HMI evaluation and assessment.
A Team-Oriented Framework for Human-Automation Interaction: Implication for the Design of an Advanced Cruise Control System
Authors: Goldman Claudia V. , Degani Asaf
Published: October 2012

We describe a teamwork framework to design human-automation interactive systems. Human automation interactions have been primarily considered as supervisory systems in which communication is seen as unidirectional. As systems become more complex, sophisticated, and autonomous, the opportunity for bidirectional cooperation between the human and machine becomes feasible and advantageous. To better understand bidirectional cooperation and develop computational tools we draw on concepts from philosophy, social psychology, human factors, and artificial intelligence to define “team” and understand the requirements for efficient team interaction. We define several team properties such as mutual support, mutual commitment, machine transparency (state, behavior, control) and user transparency (state, intent, action) and responsiveness as a way to analyze and guide the design of human-machine interactions. We illustrated the applicability of the approach using a generic model of a full speed range adaptive cruise control and show the potential of this type of cooperative approach to human- machine interaction.
Applying Modeling and Simulation to Predict Human Injury due to a Blast Attack on a Shipboard Environment
Authors: Jacobs Brigid , Young Lee Ann , Champion Dr. Howard , Lawnick Mary , Galarneau Dr. Michael , Wing Vern , Krebs Dr. William
Published: October 2012

Computer models simulating blast effects on ship personnel are needed, but thus far, development of models has focused on simulating blast effects on ship structure and equipment. Thus, capability gaps exist in predicting the type and severity of injuries from surface or underwater weapon impact, estimating medical response requirements, and determining outcomes of patients. The Human Injury & Treatment (HIT) model addresses these gaps. Algorithms are utilized for scoring the type and severity of injuries predicted, using a variety of existing and developing injury models. Additional algorithms determine the post-injury level of incapacitation by evaluating how a physical impairment can impact performance of a task. A manning model simulates movement of personnel aboard the ship (Young, Allen, & Minks, 2011). It functions iteratively with the Tactical Medical Logistics (TML+) code, a medical response model predicting resource utilization and patient outcomes (Mitchell, 2004). Impact: HIT will help the Navy and commercial maritime interests anticipate medical response requirements resulting from blast attacks to a ship, and understand the impact of personnel loss on the crew’s ability to perform damage control.
Evaluation of the Nij Neck Injury Criteria with Human Response Data for Use in Future Research on Helmet Mounted Display Mass Properties
Authors: Parr Major Jeffrey C. , Miller Michael E. , Bridges Nathaniel R. , Buhrman John R. , Perry Chris E. , Wright Nathan L.
Published: October 2012

Technological advances have enabled components to be added to Helmet Mounted Displays (HMDs) that provide increased pilot capability. Future Air Force fighter aircraft are being developed to incorporate added technologies that could result in heavier and bulkier HMDs. The added weight and center of gravity changes to the pilot’s helmet ensemble from these additional components place the neck at an increased risk of injury during ejection. This paper outlines a preliminary research methodology studying the human neck response data from the Air Force Research Laboratory’s extensive human impact testing database using the Nij criteria as an evaluative tool. Initial results are presented.
An Analysis of Static, Dynamic, and Saltatory Vibrotactile Stimuli to Inform the Design of Efficient Haptic Communication Systems
Authors: Roady Trey , Ferris Thomas K.
Published: October 2012

The sense of touch is uniquely well-suited for displaying certain types of information, such as navigation instructions and some high-level messaging. As part of a line of research in developing a vibrotactile communication system to support person-to-person tactile messaging over a network, the present study examines the effectiveness and efficiency of three types of vibrotactile signal presentations for communicating spatial patterns. Participants identified spatial patterns presented statically (one or multiple locations vibrating at once), via non-overlapping dynamic sequences of presentations, and via saltatory presentations which induced the “apparent motion” tactile illusion. Signal complexity and presentation duration were also varied. The results suggest that both response time and accuracy are strongly dependent on the presentation method utilized, with static and saltatory presentations outperforming dynamic presentations. With more complex signals, the relative benefit of saltatory presentations appears to increase. These results have implications for the design of tactile display signals of varying degrees of complexity, and will inform the continued development of the vibrotactile communication system.
Assessing Posture in Surgery: Video Sampling of Microsurgery
Authors: Yu Denny , Frischknecht Adam , Green Cooper , Kasten Steven , Armstrong Thomas J.
Published: October 2012

Prolonged static work postures and posture constraints imposed by surgical equipment may increase the risk of musculoskeletal pain and discomfort in surgeons. Four surgeons were video recorded performing live microsurgery and a work sampling methodology was used to quantify their upper body postures, investigating the proportion of static and dynamic postures, and compare surgeon postures to the postures found in laboratory studies. Surgeons were found assuming flexed postures in their neck, shoulder, elbow, and back. Most of the procedure consists of static postures where movement greater than 10 degrees per second was not frequently detected in our sampling. Of the four surgeons, one surgeon was found on average to have lower neck flexion than the other three. Further investigation showed the surgeon looking through the microscope at a distance to assume a more upright neutral posture. Identifying surgeon work postures is a key step to understanding how to reduce musculoskeletal pain and discomfort.
Motor skill acquisition in a virtual world by older adults: Relationships between age, physical activity, and performance
Authors: LaPorte Landon , McLaughlin Anne Collins , Whitlock Laura A. , Gandy Maribeth , Trujillo Amanda K.
Published: October 2012

Increased age and physical activity both affect motor learning (Colcombe & Kramer, 2003). However, it is unknown how differences in age and changes in daily physical activity affect motor skill acquisition and performance in a virtual world, where feedback on motor actions is offered visually via the software. Using a Nintendo Wii interactive gaming console (IGC), we examined motor skill acquisition in a virtual world for older adults ranging from the young-old (65-79) to the oldest-old (over 80), taking into account their daily reports of physical activity. Multi-level modeling will be used to determine how physical activity and age differences interact to predict success in the motor skill acquisition of a complex movement that results in an object throw in the virtual world. Analysis of results is in progress.
Using Discrete Event Simulation to Model Multi-Robot Multi-Operator Teamwork
Authors: Gao Fei , Cummings Missy
Published: October 2012

With the increasing need for teams of operators in controlling multiple robots, it is important to understand how to construct the team and support team processes. While running experiments can be time consuming and expensive, the use of simulation models is an alternative method. In this study, we built a discrete event simulation model that represents multi-robot multi-operator teamwork. Preliminary results show that the model can generate performance measures consistent with experimental results.
I’d Like to Introduce You to My Desktop: Toward a Theory of Social Human-Computer Interaction
Authors: Gerritsen David , Gagnon Kyle , Stefanucci Jeanine , Drews Frank
Published: October 2012

Entire industries have grown up around the physiological, cognitive, and economic demands of technology on users, but there is little research into the specific psychological processes and implications of the social function of human-computer interaction (HCI), especially when the computer is programmed to mimic human norms. To understand this issue better, it is necessary to find the limits of what HCI with social capacity means. The Computers are Social Actors paradigm, or CASA (Reeves & Nass, 1996) began this exploration. We begin by replicating aspects of a study on acts of reciprocity toward a computer (Fogg 1997), then we consider the role of agreeableness in the number of favors a human performs for a computer. Finally, we examine individual differences in styles of altruism and if a strange computer is treated similarly to an unknown human. We hypothesize a) that a helpful computer elicits more favors than an unhelpful computer, b) that high agreeable people are more generous to a software agent than low agreeable people, and c) that a positive correlation exists between the number of favors performed for a computer and an individual’s trait of reciprocal altruism. Data analysis of 54 participants shows that the helpfulness of the computer is not significantly correlated to the number of favors performed for it, that agreeableness has a negative correlation to number of favors performed when the computer is helpful, and that reciprocal altruism is negatively correlated to the number of favors performed for a computer. A discussion of the possible limitations and implications of the research follows.
Something Smells Phishy: Exploring Definitions, Consequences, and Reactions to Phishing
Authors: Kelley Christopher M. , Hong Kyung Wha , Mayhorn Christopher B. , Murphy-Hill Emerson
Published: October 2012

One hundred fifty-five participants completed a survey on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk that assessed characteristics of phishing attacks and requested participants to describe their previous experiences and the related consequences. Results indicated almost all participants had been targets of a phishing with 22% reporting these attempts were successful. Participants reported actively engaging in efforts to protect themselves online by noticing the “padlock icon” and seeking additional information to verify the legitimacy of e-retailers. Moreover, participants indicated that phishers most frequently pose as members of organizations and that phishing typically occurs via email yet they are aware that other media might also make them susceptible to phishing scams. The reported consequences of phishing attacks go beyond financial loss, with many participants describing social ramifications such as embarrassment and reduced trust. Implications for research in risk communication and design roles by human factors/ergonomics (HF/E) professionals are discussed.
Level of Automation Effects on Situation Awareness and Functional Specificity in Automation Reliance
Authors: Smith Adam G. , Jamieson Greg A.
Published: October 2012

This work investigated the relationship between task performance and situation awareness ( SA) at different levels of automation (LOA). The conventional wisdom is that routine performance improves with level of automation but that the consequences of automation failure become more severe. This has been characterized as a routine-failure trade-off, However, recent research indicates that the trade-off is subject to unknown contextual factors in addition to the level of automation. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the human operator’s SA may impact whether the trade-off between performance under routine and failure conditions is always tenable. The current study therefore aimed to i) provide evidence to support or refute the trade-off and ii) to identify possible extenuating factors. The results generally supported the existence of the routine-failure trade-off, though the strength of this finding was tempered somewhat by operators’ apparent selective disuse of higher level automation which limited the effective range of LOA tested. We interpreted that the SA collection method made the goal of SA maintenance explicit and in doing so encouraged operators to preferentially reallocate attention away from other system goals. Thus, the functional structure of the task seems to affect whether the routine-failure trade-off occurs in a given instance.
Exploring Strategy Use in a Multiple-Task Environment: Effects of Automation Reliability and Task Properties
Authors: Dan Chiu Shun , Cullen Ralph H. , Rogers Wendy A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: October 2012

Automated aids are often provided to assist human operators in multitasking, high-workload situations. Introducing automation can reduce task demands and improve human performance. If the automation is not perfectly reliable, operators have to strategically operate the system along with automated aids. As a part of an experiment investigating attention allocation and automation, 60 participants’ subjective strategy reports were analyzed to understand how task properties (e.g., frequency, criticality) and automation reliability affect operators’ strategy use. Given different levels of automation reliability, participants developed both automation-dependent and automation-independent strategies to accomplish the tasks. Some strategies (i.e., following a pattern) were significantly correlated with overall task performance. Top performers expressed preferences for different strategies compared to worst performers. This study provided insights into how operators naturally develop and use strategies when interacting with automation.
Voluntary Task Switching Patterns in Everyday Tasks of Different Motivational Levels
Authors: Hardy Megan , Gillan Douglas J.
Published: October 2012

In everyday settings people frequently perform multiple tasks within brief periods of time, typically called multi-tasking, task switching or task interleaving. Experimental studies of these effects typically involve an external cue or interruption to signal that the participant must switch. In contrast, in real world task interleaving the person doing the task frequently initiates the switch (e.g., Czerwinski, Horvitz, & Wilhite, 2004). Why an individual decides to make a voluntary task switch is largely an unexplored topic; the present study was designed to investigate motivational factors in switching tasks. Participants were allowed to switch freely between three tasks of different levels of interest and frustration – playing a game, searching letter for the letter “e” in nonsense text, and reading about human factors psychology. After the session, they rated the tasks on scales of interest and frustration. The results suggest that the level of frustration produced by the task is a stronger motivator for switching tasks than is interest in the task.
Examining the Picture Superiority Effect in Prospective Memory, Including the Factors of Age and Attention Load
Authors: Fink Nicole , Goodwin Meghan , Jewell Nicholas , Kohn Spencer , Pak Richard
Published: October 2012

Numerous studies have demonstrated the existence of the picture superiority effect (i.e. better memory for pictures than words) in retrospective memory, but the examination of whether the picture superiority effect exists in prospective memory has been severely underrepresented in the literature, and is thus the current focus of this paper. Additionally, we seek to examine if there are differences in ongoing task and prospective memory task performance between age groups (i.e. old and young) and under different loads of attention (i.e. single and divided). We hypothesize that pictures will promote spontaneous retrieval, which will be exhibited by high and stable performance in the picture (not word) conditions across both divided and non-divided attention tasks and equivalent prospective memory performance by younger and older adults in the picture, not word conditions.
Perceptions of Instructors on Student Training in a Jet Aircraft: A Preliminary Qualitative Analysis
Authors: Winter Scott R. , Kirschner Jennifer E. , Leib Steven M. , Fanjoy Richard O.
Published: October 2012

A Midwestern university recently incorporated a very light jet aircraft into its training curriculum for the professional pilot degree. This model varies considerably from the traditional pilot training program in an academic setting. It also presented new challenges and human factors issues for the four instructors who completed training with these low time pilots. This qualitative study used a phenomenological approach to gather the perceptions, issues, and experiences of the instructor pilots working with the first cohort of 22 students to complete a 10-hour familiarization course in a very light jet. A longitudinal survey and a final face-to-face interview were used to gather instructor perceptions across the length of the program, provide recommendations, and summarize lessons learned that could be applied to future training environments. Preliminary findings indicate that instructors anticipated students would be most comfortable with operating procedures and use of the avionics. Instructors believed students would be most challenged by the crew environment, descent planning, and the speed of the jet.
Fault Diagnosis with Multi-State Alarms in a Nuclear Power Control Simulator
Authors: Ragsdale Austin , Lew Roger , Dyre Brian P. , Boring Ronald L.
Published: October 2012

This research addresses how alarm systems can increase operator performance within nuclear power plant operations. The experiment examined the effect of two types of alarm systems (two-state and three-state alarms) on alarm compliance and diagnosis for two types of faults differing in complexity. We hypothesized three-state alarms would improve performance in alarm recognition and fault diagnoses over that of two-state alarms. We used sensitivity and criterion based on Signal Detection Theory to measure performance. We further hypothesized that operator trust would be highest when using three-state alarms. The findings from this research showed participants performed better and had more trust in three-state alarms compared to two-state alarms. Furthermore, these findings have significant theoretical implications and practical applications as they apply to improving the efficiency and effectiveness of nuclear power plant operations.
Reading While Driving: A Study on Drivers’ Strategies of In-Vehicle Task Initiation
Authors: Liang Yulan , Horrey William J. , Hoffman Joshua D.
Published: October 2012

In spite of increased public awareness and an ever-growing body of research, driver distraction remains an important safety concern. Reading text while driving may be especially detrimental by imposing both visual interference and extra cognitive demand on drivers. However, in most cases, drivers do not passively respond to such a task, they actively decide when to perform the task. The current study investigated drivers’ strategies with respect to the initiation of text reading when faced with fluctuations in driving demand. Text messages were made available to participants shortly before the vehicle entered an area with increased driving demands ( demand zone). Participants were asked to read the message before the end of the trial, but were free to decide when and how to read the messages. We manipulated the type of driving demand (baseline; three levels of high demand—narrow lane, pace clock, and ultimate [narrow + pace clock]), format of text (no message; paragraph; parsed), and the distance from start of message to the demand zone (near; far). The results showed that in most cases drivers started to read the text message before or in the demand zone even though they would have enough time to complete the task after passing the area. Nonetheless, task initiation time (measured from the appearance of the message to the drivers’ first glance to the display) increased when driving was demanding compared to the baseline condition. It suggests that drivers may be sensitive to transitions from low to high demand when initiating secondary tasks, however are not discouraged from such activities when demands are already elevated.
A Driving Simulator Study Examining Phone Dialing with an iPhone vs. a Button Style Flip-Phone
Authors: Reimer Bryan , Mehler Bruce , Donmez Birsen , Pala Silviu , Wang Ying , Zaho Nan , Olson Kirsten , Wenzel John , Coughlin Joseph F.
Published: October 2012

A simulation study compared 36 young adult drivers’ task completion time, eye behavior, and driving performance while dialing a flip-phone with tactile pushbuttons and an iPhone which provides a touch screen interface. Participants who often use a traditional manual button phone completed the dialing task faster when using the flip-phone compared to touch screen users using the iPhone. Females using the flip phone had the highest percentage of time spent with eyes on the road. Females were also less likely to exhibit glances greater than 2 seconds in duration with both phone types and particularly with the flip-phone. Some advantages may exist in a traditional tactile manual interface in terms of the percentage of time drivers kept their eyes on the road.
Real-Time Detection of Drowsiness Related Lane Departures Using Steering Wheel Angle
Authors: McDonald Anthony D. , Schwarz Chris , Lee John D. , Brown Timothy L.
Published: October 2012

Drowsy driving is a significant factor in many motor vehicle crashes in the United States and across the world. Efforts to reduce these crashes have developed numerous algorithms to detect both acute and chronic drowsiness. These algorithms employ behavioral and physiological data, and have used different machine learning techniques. This work proposes a new approach for detecting drowsiness related lane departures, which uses unfiltered steering wheel angle data and a random forest algorithm. Using a data set from the National Advanced Driving Simulator the algorithm was compared with a commonly used algorithm, PERCLOS and a simpler algorithm constructed from distribution parameters. The random forest algorithm had higher accuracy and Area Under the receiver operating characteristic Curve (AUC) than PERCLOS and had comparable positive predictive value. The results show that steering-angle can be used to predict drowsiness related lane-departures six seconds before they occur, and suggest that the random forest algorithm, when paired with an alert system, could significantly reduce vehicle crashes.
Evaluation of Sounds for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles Operating at Low Speed
Authors: Pollard John K. , Guthy Catherine , Hastings Aaron , Stearns Mary D. , Garay-Vega Lisandra ,   U.S. Department of Transportation
Published: October 2012

Electric vehicles (EV) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), operated at low speeds may reduce auditory cues used by pedestrians to assess the state of nearby traffic creating a safety issue. This field study compares the auditory detectability of numerous synthetic sounds for hybrid and electric vehicles operating at a low speed. The sample includes pedestrians who are sighted and legally blind, independent travelers, with self-reported normal hearing. The test site has the acoustic characteristic of an urban area with a typical ambient noise level of approximately 58-61 dB (A). Dependent variables include proportion of detection and detection distance. Synthetic sounds tested, that resemble those of an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle, produce similar detection distances as the actual ICE vehicle tested for a 6 mph constant speed operation. In some instances, synthetic sounds designed according to psychoacoustic principles were detected much sooner than the reference ICE vehicle tested. Synthetic sounds that contain only the fundamental component of combustion noise, but lack the harmonics and other high-frequency characteristics of an actual ICE were relatively ineffective, with their detection distances being only about half of those of an ICE vehicle.
Lane Specific Dilemma Zone Warnings at Signalized Intersections
Authors: McIntyre Scott , Gugerty Leo , Link Drew , Zimmerman Karl , Tolani Devendra , Huang Peter , Pokorny Robert
Published: October 2012

This simulator experiment compares driver behavior in the Dilemma Zone (DZ) on a 4-lane divided highway using three types of warnings of impending traffic signal end of green to no advance warning (control). The DZ occurs when onset of a yellow signal occurs at a temporal interval before an intersection such that stopping or proceeding through the intersection has roughly equal perceived risk. Two of the systems allowed lane specific warnings and one did not. Sixty-nine participants drove a total of 45 minutes in the right lane of on a multilane highway with 36 intersections. On approach to 10 of the intersections, participants were placed in the DZ. For 6 other intersections drivers (still in the right lane) were exposed to a warning not intended for them but for a driver behind them in the left lane. Participants in all warning conditions received warnings 1.5 s or 3.0 s in advance of the end of green. Drivers in all of the advanced warning conditions stopped at the DZ intersections significantly more often than control condition drivers. When stopping at intersections, drivers given an advanced warning decelerated more gradually than those that had no warning. One exception was when drivers misinterpreted the left lane warning as intended for them and therefore decelerated rapidly to stop at the intersection.
Evaluating the Impact of Grade Crossing Safety Factors through Signal Detection Theory
Authors: Yeh Michelle , Raslear Thomas , Multer Jordan
Published: October 2012

The purpose of this effort was to apply signal detection theory to descriptively model the impact of five grade crossing safety factors to understand their effect on driver decision making. The safety factors consisted of: improving commercial motor vehicle driver safety through federal regulations, increasing locomotive conspicuity with alerting lights, increasing locomotive conspicuity with reflectors, increasing sight lines, and improving warning device reliability. We estimated d’ and β for eight warning devices associated with each safety factor using data from the Federal Railroad Administration’s Highway-Rail Grade Crossing Accident/Incident database and Highway-Rail Crossing Inventory. We also calculated ω2 for each safety factor and device type to examine the reliability of each independent variable on grade crossing safety. The analysis indicated that the first four safety factors listed above were generally equally effective in improving grade crossing safety. Warning device reliability (which pertained to active warning devices only) still contributed to improvements in grade crossing safety, but the effects were more muted. Grade crossing devices (and particularly active warning devices) are an important safety tool because they increase drivers’ inclinations to stop, and this bias to stop has a greater impact than improving the driver’s ability to detect the train.
Investigating Improper Lane Changes: Driver Performance Contributing to Lane Change Near-Crashes
Authors: Fitch Gregory M. , Hankey Jonathan M.
Published: October 2012

We investigated the contributing factors that led to the lane change near-crashes recorded in the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study using a case-crossover experimental design. Drivers’ visual behavior and vehicle control were compared across a sample of lane change near-crashes and matched baselines. Baseline lane changes were sampled if they occurred prior to the near-crash, had a similar maneuver as the near-crash (including direction and speed), occurred within ± 2 hours from the time of day, occurred in similar light conditions, occurred on a similar day of the week (weekday vs. weekend), occurred on a road that had a similar number of lanes, had a similar placement of surrounding vehicles, and were made by the same driver. A total of 18 lane change near-crashes and 33 baseline lane changes were identified. Left lane change near-crashes appear to have resulted in part because drivers tended to slow down at the start of the maneuver and were less likely to use their rearview mirror. Right lane change near-crashes appeared to have occurred because of more aggressive maneuvering, infrequent turn signal use, and because drivers were less likely to look over their shoulder. Deficiencies in judging the distance and approach rate to adjacent vehicles, as well as circumstances in the environment, may also have played a contributing role.
Drivers’ Visual Behavior During Backing Tasks: Factors Affecting the Use of Rearview Camera Displays
Authors: Heckman Genevieve M. , Kim Robyn S. , Lin Sherry , Rauschenberger Robert , Young Douglas E. , Lange Robert
Published: October 2012

In-vehicle rearview camera displays may soon be required in all new vehicles as a means of providing drivers with increased capability to monitor the area directly behind the rear bumper. The present work extends findings reported by Kim et al. (2012) by conducting more in-depth examinations of drivers’ eye movements to rearview camera displays during backing. Drivers performed a series of backing maneuvers on a closed test course in a vehicle equipped with one of three rearview camera displays (in-mirror (IMD), small console (SD), or large console (LD)) or no display (ND). Drivers wore a head-mounted eye tracker, and eye movements were evaluated with particular focus on four areas-of-interest: the rearview camera display, the rearview mirror, and the two side mirrors. In the present paper, the proportion of time spent gazing at the rearview camera display was evaluated as a function of display location, the type of backing maneuver, and driver age. Gaze durations were longest for the IMD relative to the two console displays, for drivers 18-39 years old compared to older drivers, and when drivers backed into a parking stall between two parked cars relative to other types of backing maneuvers. The age and task factors operated independently of display location.
The Accuracy of Drivers’ Judgments of the Effects of Headlight Glare on Pedestrian Recognition at Night
Authors: Whetsel Stephanie A. , Stafford Ashley A. , Rosopa Patrick J. , Tyrrell Richard A.
Published: October 2012

In response to consumer complaints of being disabled by modern headlighting technologies, several recent studies have assessed whether drivers accurately assess the extent their ability to see is degraded by headlight glare. This research has suggested that drivers can overestimate the extent to which glare from headlights degrades their ability to see relatively simple stimuli. The present studies extended this research by quantifying the accuracy with which drivers judge that glare interferes with their ability to see pedestrians at night. In Experiment 1, 21 participants judged their ability to see a roadside pedestrian in two clothing configurations and with three intensities of glare present. In Experiment 2, 65 new participants responded to a roadside pedestrian in the same conditions. On average, participants overestimated the distance at which they would see a pedestrian by a factor of more than three. Interestingly, the participants’ overestimates were significantly greater when the pedestrian wore a retroreflective vest. The participants judged that headlight glare would have a larger effect on their ability to see a pedestrian who was not wearing retroreflective material than for a pedestrian who wore a retroreflective vest.
Experimental Evidence for the Field of Safe Travel
Authors: Smith Kip , Källhammer Jan-Erik
Published: October 2012

Regression analysis of driver ratings of alerts issued by an in-vehicle active safety system during a field operational test identified contextual factors that influence driver acceptance of system alerts. A nominal characterization of pedestrian location and two quantitative measures of pedestrian motion predict more than 60% of the variability in driver ratings and do not interact. This finding is empirical support for the classic notion of the field of safe travel (Gibson & Crooks, 1938).