bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
By a Lady
Authors: Shoemaker Nancy
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyzes sea captain's wife Mary D. Wallis's Life in Feejee: Five Years Among the Cannibals, By a Lady (1851) to illustrate how she challenged the double standard of gendered respectability in her own society by claiming the credentials to speak about Fijians' moral inequities. On its surface, Life in Feejee is formulaic in its awe for sublime scenery, lurid fantasies of cannibal feasting, and hopes for Christian redemption. On a deeper level, Wallis's book endures as one of the most highly regarded sources for nineteenth-century Fiji history. Since Life in Feejee had origins in Wallis's private journals, presumably she initially wrote with only herself and intimate acquaintances as audience. However, as a published book, Life in Feejee became useful to others—people in her own time and historians, who would later appreciate her careful recordkeeping of events and personages. For her contemporaries, Life in Feejee's advocacy of the missionary cause sounded a call to arms for changing Fijian culture through foreign intervention. More profoundly, the example Wallis set of a bold and knowing woman conducting a kind of personal conquest in Fiji offered readers an entry point into questioning and reframing their own society's rules surrounding gendered propriety.
This Hell upon Earth
Authors: Shoemaker Nancy
Published: May 2020

This chapter details Salem merchant John B. Williams's frustrated efforts to live up to the legacy of Salem's mercantile culture. Though money was what Williams wanted from Fiji, he valued money not for its purchasing power but as a symbol of his success in business. He hoped that a fortune reaped in Fiji would command respect by demonstrating his superior commercial acumen to the people of Salem, a city renowned for having produced some of the nation's earliest millionaires. The speculations at the heart of American commercial expansion could generate extraordinary returns one day and ruin a person the next. Even if failure was endemic, Williams anguished over the cause of his. He was trapped between two competing cultural values. He believed that self-made wealth would earn him others' esteem, but to exhibit blatant self-interest was despicable. Although Williams never achieved his objective in Fiji, his actions bore consequences for others. More than any other American, Williams influenced the islands' history. Whereas David Whippy sought foremost to protect the foreign enclave at Levuka, Williams belonged to a vast, global economy in which his self-interest constituted one tentacle.
The Strategic Logic of Nuclear Monopoly
Authors: Avey Paul C.
Published: May 2020

This chapter presents a framework to account for conflict in nuclear monopoly. It begins by outlining the benefits and costs of nuclear use in nuclear monopoly for the nuclear weapon state (NWS). This establishes the strategic environment that the nonnuclear weapon state (NNWS) confronts. NNWS leadership can act so long as it believes that the costs of nuclear use for its nuclear-armed opponent outweigh the benefits of nuclear use relative to conventional military alternatives. The more militarily capable the NNWS is relative to the NWS, the more the former must limit its behavior. As a result, wars in nuclear monopoly will tend to occur when the NWS has a large conventional military advantage. In all confrontations, the NNWS will highlight strategic factors that inhibit nuclear use and, when necessary, seek to reduce the benefits and raise the costs of nuclear use for the NWS.
Progress or Pipe Dream?
Authors: Hughes Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter examines how and why city governments have taken it upon themselves to set ambitious greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction targets. More importantly, it raises the question of whether and how this shift in city leaders' ambitions and commitments can lead to meaningful, locally led reductions in GHG emissions. Urban climate change mitigation is a wicked problem, one steeped in complexity and uncertainty. Unsurprisingly then, the empirical evidence of progress in urban mitigation shows an uneven landscape of successes and failures. While there have been good strides in understanding why cities are acting and the kinds of cities that seem to be making more progress than others, people know much less about how city governments go from climate change ambitions to reshaping the urban landscape in their image. The ambitions and leadership of cities are generating optimism for climate change solutions despite political swings and recalcitrance at other levels of government. However, without an understanding of whether and how city governments can make good on these commitments, such optimism remains largely unfounded. People must then go beyond assessments of the motivations and challenges cities face in their work to reduce GHG emissions and give greater attention to the processes and strategies that repower cities.
The Means Behind the Methods
Authors: Hughes Sara
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses how New York City, Los Angeles, and Toronto have used the three governing strategies—institution building, coalition building, and capacity building—to support their efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Each strategy reduces key sources of uncertainty that arise when taking up the new and challenging issue of climate change mitigation. The governing strategies facilitate action on climate change and channel resources to the effort. In this way, the strategies underpin and support governance for climate change mitigation regardless of the particular mode of governing or source of emissions being targeted. These strategies have manifested in different ways: while New York City and Toronto have focused on building stakeholder coalitions invested in and informing city government programs, Los Angeles has focused more on mobilizing voters willing to support ballot initiatives.
Prospects and Consequences of Repowering Cities
Authors: Hughes Sara
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter highlights the book's major findings and explores the remaining challenges and tradeoffs inherent in today's locally led climate change agenda. While the cities have made demonstrable progress on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, they are now facing the challenge of scaling up their efforts as new targets for 2030 loom. The chapter then discusses ways the cities can and are using the governing strategies to do this: by building participatory decision-making institutions, building capacity for climate “smart” governance, and expanding and stabilizing the coalition for climate change mitigation. However, the need for a “big tent” approach to climate change mitigation to make the citywide changes necessary for reducing GHG emissions 80 percent increases the complexity of interests and challenges of coordination. The scope of a viable urban climate change coalition may ultimately set the limits of a locally led mitigation agenda.
Prefigurative Politics of the Umbrella Movement
Authors: Chow Alex Yong Kang
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses how the Umbrella Movement was an instance of prefigurative politics. Prefigurative politics refers to political actions or movements in which political ideals are experimentally realized in the “here and now,” in which activists attempt to construct aspects of the ideal society envisioned in the present, rather than waiting for them to be realized in a distant future. It means that political principles are embodied in current behavior, not put on hold until the time is deemed right for them to be deployed. Analyzing the everyday culture of the seventy-nine-day occupation through the lens of prefigurative politics, the chapter then shows two salient dynamics that propelled and fractured the movement. First, occupiers built an alternative urban commons that embraced equality, sharing, and solidarity in everyday life, envisioning a utopian socioeconomic order different from the existing one in Hong Kong. Second, throughout the movement, occupiers and leaders struggled with the idea and practice of leadership. The predicament of ambivalent, ambiguous, and fragmented leadership in what some protesters deemed a “leaderless” movement led to indecision at several critical junctures of the movement.
The Spectrum of Frames and Disputes in the Umbrella Movement
Authors: Law Wing Sang
Published: May 2020

This chapter highlights the importance of how the key campaign groups of the Umbrella Movement contested each other through their efforts of “framing” the movement in different ways so as to realize their competing visions of social mobilization. The Umbrella Movement was basically not a battleground between old and new conceptions of identity; rather, the subject matter was, throughout the process, democratic reform. Having said that, no one can take the Umbrella Movement out of the bigger context of ideological contestation happening over the years and how these contestations affected the prodemocracy cause. The Umbrella Movement was indeed overshadowed by an intense struggle for symbolic power, which might not help to organize the movement in a conventional sense. In other words, underneath the common quest for genuine direct election, a battle of anti-elitism was played out according to the populist logic that allowed its adherents to always play taboo breakers, going against political correctness. Disputes over framing and strategies went hand-in-hand with a subterranean campaign against the elites alleged to be gaining personal benefits by being part of the social movement industry or political establishment. The elites were reframed to be worse enemies than the regime in power instead of someone holding different judgments about tactics and action choices. Such an anti-elitist battle deepened the “culture of distrust” in Hong Kong.
Protest Art, Hong Kong Style
Authors: Ho Oscar
Published: May 2020

This chapter presents a photo essay featuring protest art during the Umbrella Movement. One of the most outstanding achievements of the Occupy Movement was its artistic creation during the occupation, inside and outside of the occupied zones. The movement triggered an unprecedented outburst of creative expressions, turning the occupied zones into giant theaters and galleries that provided new definitions of political/community art. Outside the occupied zones, there were also countless images, texts, and animations delivered via websites, e-mail, and Facebook. The adaptation of popular culture not only created commonly identified images and values, but it also generated a sense of humor with a touch of cynicism, which is typical of Hong Kong's pop culture. Starting at the turn of the century, when street protest became a common activity in Hong Kong, a new concept called “happy confrontation” was invented. This was a belief that political confrontation could be undertaken in a celebrative mode and that street demonstrations could take the form of a carnival. Of course, there were people who disagreed with such a concept, especially for the Umbrella Movement, which was full of hardship, conflicts, and brutal attacks. Nevertheless, throughout the occupation, such humor and cynicism could be easily found, especially at Mongkok.
Taiwan’s Sunflower Occupy Movement as a Transformative Resistance to the “China Factor”
Authors: Wu Jieh-min
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the Sunflower Occupy Movement which broke out in March of 2014, shaking Taiwan's political landscape and its relations with China. The Sunflower Movement was a culmination of resistance to China's political influence and to the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) government's democratic careening. It arose from a changing political atmosphere and a wave of interconnected social protests in preceding years. Ultimately, it was a rare transformative event in which powerful collective action ruptures the structures confining a country. “Structures” here refers to two kinds of structure that constrain the space of individual and collective action but also induce action within this space: the structure of political rules, and that of ideology. This popular upsurge brought about tremendous impact, not merely transforming the political landscape of Taiwan but also diverting the political direction of the country from the KMT's pro-China policy, thus interrupting the course of a decade-long Chinese Communist Party (CCP)–KMT cooperation.
Hong Kong’s Turn toward Greater Authoritarianism
Authors: Sing Ming
Published: May 2020

This afterword addresses how the prodemocracy community and activists have been besieged by the battle of defending Hong Kong against the perceptible erosion of its freedoms and its turn to greater authoritarianism. The Umbrella Movement of 2014 in Hong Kong shocked the world and captured global attention. Indeed, the movement has been hailed by many in the world, as so many Hong Kong people had the courage to challenge bluntly the largest dictatorial regime on earth for democracy. That said, the democracy movement has hit a bump, with Beijing not budging on democratization. What is worse, Beijing and the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) government have patently tightened their control over Hong Kong's freedoms and genuine electoral contestation in the aftermath of the movement. Soon after the termination of the Umbrella Movement, Beijing doggedly stuck to its hardline policy on Hong Kong by dramatically raising the political cost for those challenging its suppression of Hong Kong's democratization. To pre-empt another large-scale Occupy Movement, Beijing and the HKSAR government have also curbed Hong Kong's press freedom and academic freedom.
Christian Visionary or Muslim Prophet?
Authors: Green-Mercado Mayte
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyzes the relationship between prophecy and the delineation of the contours of Morisco identity after the forced conversion of Muslims in the Kingdom of Castile that began as a result of the rebellion of Granada in 1499. The uprising was sparked by the intervention of the archbishop of Toledo, Francisco Ximenez de Cisneros. The arrival of the archbishop in Granada in the summer of 1499 quickly saw the forced conversion of “elches,” former Christian converts to Islam. This had taken place in contravention of the Granada Capitulations that regulated the rendition of the Muslim Naṣrid Kingdom to Ferdinand and Isabella after its final conquest on January 2, 1492. The conversion of “elches” was met with the resistance of the Muslim populations in the city of Granada, which then extended to the countryside.
“The Grand Morisco Conspiracy”
Authors: Green-Mercado Mayte
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyzes the most significant Morisco rebellion plot in the kingdoms of Valencia and Aragon after 1570. It highlights Morisco agency in their dealings with the Ottomans. This chapter also traces the circulation of the vizierial letter among some Morisco communities of Aragon and Valencia and analyzes its content alongside the testimonies of a Morisco spy for the Inquisition named Luis Moreno. Between 1576 and 1583 Moreno warned the inquisitors about a plan to take up arms that had been devised by members of several prominent Morisco families of Aragon, in conjunction with other wealthy Morisco families of Valencia. Moreno's accounts to the inquisitors reveal the existence of rifts and fractures within Morisco communities.
Prophetic Fabrications of a Morisco Informant
Authors: Green-Mercado Mayte
Published: May 2020

This chapter presents prophecy as a broader political discourse deployed outside the Morisco community for strategic purposes. In this sense, prophecy reveals itself as a language of negotiation and diplomacy. This chapter also centers on the career of a man by the name of Gil Perez, a Morisco double agent who acted as informant of the inquisitors of Zaragoza and spy for the Morisco communities of Aragon and Valencia. His story reveals a great deal about the socioreligious functions of prophecy among the Moriscos who identified as Muslims, and the ways in which prophecies were deployed as political discourses. The Gil Perez affair often has been discussed as a curious case of a Morisco rogue.
Prophecy as Diplomacy
Authors: Green-Mercado Mayte
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on the period immediately before the expulsion of Moriscos that occurred from 1601 to 1605. It examines several attempts by the Moriscos to secure help from Henry IV of France for an uprising planned for the Kingdoms of Valencia and Aragon. This chapter traces communications between the French and the Moriscos and captures the moment of agony when the Moriscos were banished from their homes and sent off to unknown lands with the expulsion decrees of 1609 and 1610. It also analyzes the incident of the ringing of the Bell of Velilla, which was considered a miraculous occurrence that spread to Italy and France. The ringing of the bell anticipated an imminent threat to Spain, that the Moriscos of Aragon and Valencia were going to rebel.
The Past and Future of Japanese Intelligence
Authors: Samuels Richard J.
Published: May 2020

This chapter measures the Japanese intelligence community against likely shifts in the security environment, technological change, and the costs of intelligence failure. It reviews dynamics and speculations about the future of the Japanese intelligence community. The chapter also concludes that “having power over much but insight into nothing” can have devastating consequences. The Japanese intelligence and security communities have each experienced a kind of imbalance. During its imperial expansion Japan had great power but limited insight, and during the American century it had greater insight but much more limited power. The failure to strike an effective balance between power and insight has come at great cost to Japan and to its neighbors, no less than it has to its ally the United States, during its own imperial moment.
Crisis and Cooperation
Authors: Robb Thomas K. , Gill David James
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses events in Malaya and Korea, which, when viewed together, help explain progress toward closer cooperation throughout the Asia-Pacific. The United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand slowly developed elements of strategic cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region following crises in Malaya and Korea between 1948 and 1951. The extent of cooperation varied between states and rarely reflected purely strategic concerns. Whereas New Zealand supported the United Kingdom in the Malayan Emergency, the United States and Australia were initially far more cautious in offering assistance. Although the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand did support the United States in the Korean War, their efforts also reflected attempts to build closer strategic relations, generate diplomatic capital, and restrain their superpower ally from escalating the conflict. In both instances, all four states held different assumptions about the causes and management of conflict. Divergent national interests therefore weakened a coherent and united response to the Communist challenge from the Western powers.
Good in a Crisis?
Authors: Conn Steven
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses how business schools have responded to periods of economic crisis—or have not. What is striking is how business schools seem to have been remarkably untroubled by any of the economic crises the nation has endured since business schools opened for business. Whether in the 1930s, in the 1970s, or at the beginning of the twenty-first century, there has been a collective shrugging of the shoulders inside most business schools. That nonresponse helps one understand that many at business schools and the business leaders with whom they interacted defined “crisis” in a different way. For them, the crisis was one of public relations—how to make business look better when it had lost the confidence of so many Americans—not one of what business had done to lose that trust.
Same as It Ever Was
Authors: Conn Steven
Published: May 2020

This chapter explores what has changed and what has stayed the same in business schools across the United States. On the one hand, the growth of the finance economy since the 1980s has meant that what goes on in business schools has aligned more perfectly with the corporate world than at any other time in the preceding century. Shareholder value became the mantra chanted in classrooms and boardrooms. On the other hand, business schools continue to evade the ethical issues raised in and by the business world, and they have avoided much by way of accountability for what they teach. The chapter then explains that two more things have changed over the last few decades. The first involves the erosion of the democratic impulse of American higher education. The second change is the growing influence of business-school thought on the way universities do their own business.
A Charitable Revolution in an Age of Commerce
Authors: Davis Adam J.
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter provides an overview of medieval hospitals. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, hundreds of hospitals and leper houses were founded all over Europe to care for the poor, sick, and vulnerable, and these new charitable institutions received broad support from townspeople, merchants, aristocrats, and ecclesiastics. That these “houses of mercy” were often located in the heart of urban centers, at major points of circulation, and near areas of economic exploitation reflected the degree to which they were easily accessible, highly visible, and thoroughly enmeshed in the local society and economy. As an institution, the medieval hospital was not conceived primarily in medical terms but rather functioned in a variety of ways, including as a religious house, a hostel, a shelter, a retirement home, or a temporary place for physical rehabilitation and convalescence. This book's study of the emergence of hospitals in Champagne casts new light on the nature of religious charity during Europe's first great age of commerce. It demonstrates that far from eroding the power of the gift, the new commercial economy infused charitable giving and service with new social and religious meaning and a heightened expectation of reward.
Hospital Patrons and Social Networks
Authors: Davis Adam J.
Published: May 2020

This chapter argues that the highly commercial environment of thirteenth-century Champagne infused pious giving with even greater meaning, particularly bequests made to a charitable institution like a hospital, which had as its central mission the performance of the works of mercy. During the course of the thirteenth century, during which the number of bequests to traditional Benedictine monastic houses declined, the scale of giving to hospitals actually increased. The range of people from different social classes making charitable bequests also expanded, reflective of what one might term the growing democratization of charity. As compared with donors to monastic houses, however, lay donors to hospitals placed less emphasis on intercessory prayer and requested anniversary masses in exchange for donations less often than donors to monasteries. Instead, hospital donors focused on the performance of the works of mercy, which, in the economy of salvation, they viewed as the most efficacious form of currency. Those making bequests to hospitals were also frequently guided by pragmatic considerations. Some donors had a family connection to a hospital, with a relative working there whom they wished to help. Others made bequests as an entry gift to a hospital, or with the expectation that they might one day wish to join the hospital's religious community. The chapter then focuses on the patrons of Champagne's hospitals and interrogates what these hospitals meant to them.
Introduction
Authors: Peterson Janine Larmon
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter begins by describing the cult of a layman in Cremona, Italy, named Albert of Villa d'Ogna (d. 1279). Albert was a humble wine carrier and a local saint who could have lapsed into obscurity if not for Franciscan chronicler Salimbene de Adam's famous description of him and the dogged efforts of his community to canonize him, which resulted in a seventeenth-century canonization process. According to his contemporary Salimbene, Albert was a wine porter but also a drunk sinner. The bishops of Cremona, Parma, and Reggio promoted his devotion although his supposed miracles were false and “deceptive.” Salimbene's ire at the fact that bishops allowed his veneration without papal authorization reveals two points of contention about the construction of sanctity in late medieval Italy. The first was what criteria should assess holiness and the relative weight of each factor when assessing “true” or “false” sanctity. The second was about the process of sanctification and how it should occur. This book is about those citizens of the Italian peninsula in the late Middle Ages who created and promoted Albert's cult and who continued venerating him regardless of papal authorization or the disparagement of institutional insiders like Salimbene. It is about the people who did the same for roughly thirty other saints, some of whom individually faced excommunication or collectively faced interdict for their choice of holy patrons.
Tolerated Saints
Authors: Peterson Janine Larmon
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses “tolerated saints.” Tolerated saints achieved local veneration, but could have been subject to derision, such as that which Salimbene de Adam directed toward Albert of Villa d'Ogna. In other instances, such as those of Facio of Cremona (d. 1271) or Henry of Bolzano (d. 1315), disapproval came in the form of rejected canonization inquiries, although communities continued to venerate these saints without fear of reprisal. These so-called tolerated cults serve as a foundation for investigating the two intrinsic issues with which the papacy and communities were wrestling, namely, how and by whom sainthood should be conferred. Ultimately, the number and variety of unofficial tolerated saints demonstrates how communities privileged their own experience of the postulant saint, their understanding of the signs of sanctity, their needs as a community, and their right to determine who was worthy of sainthood.
Holy Heretics
Authors: Peterson Janine Larmon
Published: May 2020

This chapter looks at “holy heretics.” In these cases, inquisitors condemned a person as a heretic first and later communities decided the individual was holy. The expanding role of inquisitors and their zeal in fulfilling their duty led to many condemnations in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Yet when a sentenced individual did not conform to the expectations of how he or she should behave, it was possible for communal consensus to transform heretics into saints. While a saint became a heretic when inquisitors contested communal veneration, the reverse occurred when communities challenged inquisitorial decrees: a heretic became a local saint. In this process, these communities not only rejected inquisitorial authority but also, since inquisitors served as papal agents, by extension rejected the papacy's authority to determine sanctity and heresy. Such overt contestation occurred under certain conditions. Members of a community had to perceive an individual as suffering from unjust persecution. Once onlookers achieved a majority consensus, they had to express a rejection of the inquisitorial sentence by some kind of devotional practice.
Methods of Contesting Authority
Authors: Peterson Janine Larmon
Published: May 2020

This chapter studies the methods that individuals and communities used to thwart popes and their agents. Bishops, civic officials, and devotees often fought hard to keep a saint's cult viable once a majority reached consensus that the person was holy. In some notable cases, they did not fear inquisitors and rejected their authority. Muzio di Francesco of Assisi, an antipapal rebel in the early fourteenth century, purportedly remarked, “I would not fear sentences of excommunication and interdict, any more than I would fear the tail of a donkey.” This evidently was a popular saying in late medieval Italy, for it echoed testimony from inquisitorial deponents in Bologna given twenty years prior. This blasé attitude toward papal authority was expressed through citizens routinely contesting inquisitors, who represented papal authority. Sometimes it took the form of riots and physical violence. In cases of disputed saints who were facing possible condemnation, individuals often sought legal means to beat the system instead, in a process which can be defined as oppositional inquisitorial culture. The chapter also considers two other methods, canonization inquiries and questioning legitimacy, through which various members of a community colluded to challenge inquisitorial authority on a larger scale and protect local saints' cults.
For the Benefit of Souls
Authors: Palmer James A.
Published: May 2020

This chapter focuses on private family chapels. Well known as an effort to claim status through public memorialization, the establishment and operation of such chapels was also legible in terms of pious economy, stewardship, and the virtues of good governance. Enhancing the prestige and memory of their lineages, they also created a mechanism by which earthly coinage could be exchanged for the spiritual currency of prayer, which was both desirable and easily transferable. Its production generated social status, and its strategic circulation enabled prominent Romans to bind themselves to one another and to render their political community more resilient to the instabilities of daily life. Chapel patrons projected an image of themselves as leading members of a rightly ordered society based on a just economy that was at once terrestrial and spiritual. As with the management of lineage patrimony in testaments, the establishment and maintenance of a chapel combined economic virtue with a clear performance of the virtues of good government.
The Houses of Women
Authors: Palmer James A.
Published: May 2020

This chapter assesses the instantiation of the spiritual economy on the Roman landscape in the form of women's houses. Some were home to widows and unmarried daughters of Roman citizens; others were the dwellings of female paupers of Christ, female pilgrims, and other foreigners unified both by piety and the need to survive. Women living collectively in Rome came to their ways of life by a variety of paths, but the repetition of the form of female communality points to something held in common, a shared stake in a mode of life characterized by a particular understanding of female virtue. That virtue made women important agents within the realm of the spiritual economy and important elements in the ideological program of Roman elites. They were, in a way unique to them, simultaneously virtuous governors entrusted with the management of lineage resources and objects of governance who were themselves carefully managed. The commonalities between the women of prominent citizen families and foreign women living lives of collective piety suggest that at the level of everyday life Rome's political elite made their claims of virtue not only to the communal civic community of which they were clearly a part but also to the greater Roman community that contained it, the world of daily, neighborhood life that thus constituted the city's true political society.
The Long Shadows of Vilna
Authors: Subotić Jelena
Published: May 2020

This chapter turns to the Baltics. It focuses in particular on the case of Lithuania, the country with the highest numbers of both prewar Jewish populations and Jewish victims in the Holocaust in the Baltic region. Lithuania is also the country that has most aggressively pursued a strategy of memory conflation, by which the Holocaust and the Soviet occupation of Lithuania are considered, together, as a “double genocide” and not as distinct historical events with their own tragic trajectories and consequences. Lithuania has also been at the helm of a creative use of post-World War II architecture of international justice, where the state is prosecuting individuals for genocide—not for the Holocaust, but for the “genocide” of Soviet occupation. This chapter begins with the overview of the Holocaust in the Baltic states, then describes Holocaust remembrance practices in the Baltics during Soviet communism, and finally analyzes postcommunist strategies aimed at explicitly using the legal and political structure designed to deal with crimes of the Holocaust to instead criminalize the Soviet past.
The Stakes of Holocaust Remembrance in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Subotić Jelena
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter takes a broader view of the importance of Holocaust remembrance after communism. It also looks at how other states in the region have adopted their political memories to fit the new political environment. The chapter also opens up a discussion about the larger implications of this variety of Holocaust remembrance practices, especially practices aimed at memory inversion and repurposing of fascist crimes into crimes of communism. Specifically, it discusses the relationship between Holocaust remembrance and the rise of the far-right movements in Europe, and the danger that inverted Holocaust remembrance presents in relegitimizing fascist movements in the present. The chapter ends with a call for memory solidarity—for groups to acknowledge, remember, and care for the memory of others as a foundation for building a more just society.
Introduction
Authors: Assmann Aleida
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter describes a change in the modern temporal order. The first is a general sense that the future is no longer much of a motivator in the arenas of politics, society, and the environment. Indeed, expectations for the future have become extremely modest. Within a relatively short period of time, the future itself has lost the power to shed light on the present, since we can no longer assume that it functions as the end point of our desires, goals, or projections. We have learned from historians that the rise and fall of particular futures is in itself nothing new. However, it is the case not only that particular visions of the future have collapsed in contemporary times, but also that the very concept of the future itself is being called into question. Alongside the future's eclipse, the chapter contends that we are also witnessing another anomaly of our long-held temporal order: the unprecedented return of the past.
Concepts of Time in Late Modernity
Authors: Assmann Aleida
Published: May 2020

This chapter demonstrates how the problems of “polar inertia” and its implications have been the subject of intensified philosophical reflection and debate since the 1980s. Polar inertia is the condition in which we have arrived at a temporal limit. However, we have also arrived at the absolute dead end of the modern time regime, in terms of both its compatibility with the rhythms of human life and the logic internal to the dynamics it has unleashed. The positions taken all grapple with the aporias, or inner contradictions, of the modern temporal regime and its possible alternatives or compensations. However, they do not lose sight of the epistemic presuppositions of this temporal ontology in the process.
Conclusion
Authors: Assmann Aleida
Published: May 2020

This concluding chapter poses the question of whether or not we have too much past and too little future. After all, the notion of the past has dramatically increased in its range of meanings, as has the future. The relation between the past, the present, and the future is a three-fold relationship in which one dimension cannot exist for long without the others. Ordering this three-fold temporal structure anew and bringing the three dimensions into a balanced relation, however, continues to be an open adventure. To be sure, it is also the greatest challenge posed by the demise of the modern time regime.
Student Movements and Indonesia’s Democratic Transition
Authors: Sastramidjaja Yatun
Published: May 2020

This chapter is an account of the student movement, which traces its fall from political vanguard to “orphans of democracy.” Heir to a long tradition of student struggle, student activists followed a similar path to student movements in other authoritarian societies, leveraging their privileged status to lead the campaign for democracy. From the late 1980s, they challenged the regime, fighting for land rights, organizing workers, and defying the government's bans on leftist political activity. Despite successive waves of repression, it was the students, too, who led the 1998 protests calling for Suharto's resignation and fundamental political reform. Suharto's resignation was, as this chapter argues, undoubtedly a victory for the so-called 1998 Generation. But, having failed to capitalize on the momentum they had generated, students quickly retreated from the political fray, with only the Islamic student movement making a place for itself in the new Indonesia. By 2004, what remained of the left of the student movement had been relegated to margins, while moderate reformists have moved into government or into other social movements, leaving just a few aging activists clinging to the more radical dreams of an earlier age.
Indonesia’s Labor Movement and Democratization
Authors: Caraway Teri , Ford Michele
Published: May 2020

This chapter demonstrates how the actions of the labor rights movement made a decisive contribution to the delegitimization of the regime. Struggling to regain a foothold after the decimation of independent labor unions in the massacres of 1965 and repression in the decades that followed, worker activists and their middle-class allies nevertheless clawed their way back, raising awareness at home and abroad of the Indonesian government's unrelenting subjugation of labor rights in its search for economic growth and political stability. Having been forced to accommodate some of the labor movement's demands in the early 1990s, the government struck back, all but destroying the alternative labor unions that had emerged in the intervening years. As a consequence, there was little evidence of worker mobilization in the immediate lead-up to the fall of Suharto. While continuing to grapple with the ongoing obstacles of low density of unionization among workers, organizational fragmentation, and political isolation, the labor movement has since asserted itself economically and politically.
Urban Poor Activism and Political Agency in Post–New Order Jakarta
Authors: Wilson Ian
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains that the urban poor played a significant role in the protests that brought down Suharto. Then, after 1998, some organizations emerged that supported the urban poor in their efforts to reform their local communities. But there was no coherent movement during the New Order, nor has there been since. Instead, the urban poor have had to look after themselves, engaging in the politics of the everyday and using defensive forms of action to protect their gains and respond to impending threats. The most significant change since democratization has been the recognition of the urban poor as a voting constituency. Nevertheless, in the absence of a political party with a particular and demonstrated interest in the politics of the poor, activism in support of the urban poor remains fragmented and confined primarily to individual rather than collective action.
Reformasi and the Decline of Liberal Islam
Authors: Fealy Greg
Published: May 2020

This chapter explains how liberal Muslim intellectuals and activists have drawn on religious teachings to popularize and validate political reform and human rights agendas from the late 1980s. This prepared the way for Indonesia's majority Islamic community to embrace democracy as an alternative to authoritarianism. The wealth of progressive Islamic thought and action that marked those decades, has, however, fallen victim to the illiberal aspects of reformasi. One of the paradoxes of democratization is that the progressive Islamic movement quickly became a casualty of the increasing dominance of conservative Islamic forces. The chapter concludes that while liberal Islam flourished in New Order Indonesia because it had the support of the regime, it was unable to leverage that success in the face of broader religiocultural and political changes from the early 2000s, which have been driven by, and favored, conservative Islamist forces.
Introduction
Authors: Muschalek Marie
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter provides a brief background on the power of everyday violence in the settler colony of German Southwest Africa (present-day Namibia) at the beginning of the twentieth century. It explores the “unspectacular” violent acts orchestrated by the police force of German Southwest Africa. Instead of being built primarily on formal, legal, and bureaucratic processes, the colonial state was produced by improvised, informal practices of violence. Contrary to most social theories of the state, the chapter argues that the organization of state power was not merely a matter of claiming the monopoly of force and thus proscribing any excessive, disruptive, and nonofficial violence. Rather, it reveals that colonial rule consisted in diffusing and regulating specific types of seemingly self-evident harm throughout society.
Of Whips, Shackles, and Guns
Authors: Muschalek Marie
Published: May 2020

This chapter approaches practices of everyday violence through the lens of its material instruments. Three tools are examined in depth: the whip, the shackle, and the gun. Their specific use emerged as improvised responses to contextual constraints, refining ideological discourses and official policy along the way. The chapter reveals that violent technologies of policing were parceled out according to the system of status hierarchy that defined colonial order. Under what circumstances they were used, and how, were more important as a matter of social distinction than efficient practice. Symbolically, who used what tools in what situations clarified hierarchy, for instance in the general ban on Africans owning guns. Moreover, the expert or approved use of tools—professionalism—could also serve as a marker of social distinction that elevated the policemen, Africans included, above other colonial actors, such as settlers. This chapter offers a first substantiation of the thesis that police praxis drove legal rationalization. As the cases of corporal punishment and of weapons usage against fleeing subjects illustrate, policemen manufactured procedures that police headquarters reluctantly yet gradually accepted as the rule.
Police Work
Authors: Muschalek Marie
Published: May 2020

This chapter investigates the nature of police work. It reconstructs the minutiae of policing in German Southwest Africa. Most of the policeman's day was filled with a series of established, unspectacular routines. Often, policemen appropriated the tasks at hand in a way that neither contradicted nor ignored given orders, but that executed them in a manner that would add distraction or excitement, or at least a sense of self-willed action to the task. In the field, policemen proceeded according to what can best be described as a tactic of making do. Policemen frequently improvised; they mixed duty and sociability, and they deployed both formal and informal techniques. Trickery paired with bureaucratic rationalization featured prominently. As a result, an organizational culture emerged in which policemen insisted on the primacy of their own experience and established a “commonsensical” course of action. More often than not, making “short shrift,” that is, resorting to the quick solution of violence, was the outcome. Integrated into daily routines, such violent behavior acquired ritualized features.
Introduction
Authors: Conway Gordon , Badiane Ousmane , Glatzel Katrin
Published: May 2020

This introductory chapter presents an optimistic outlook into the state of African agriculture. It highlights the achievements made by African farmers—many of whom are smallholders—emphasizing how they can feed themselves and their families, and that they can generate enough income from their crops and livestock to send their children to school and to purchase medicines when they get sick, as well as have funds to invest in improving their farms. The issue then, as the chapter notes, is to bring these achievements to scale. The chapter anticipates that Africa's demand for food is projected to more than double by mid-century, owing partly to demands for more food staples, more varied and nutritious foods, and more processed food and partly to improved intraregional trade. This is generating a pull factor that reaches down the value chain to smallholder farmers. As such, the chapter explains that Africa requires a new agricultural transformation that is appropriate to Africa and that recognizes the continent's great diversity of environments and climates and its histories and cultures.
Hunger and Malnutrition
Authors: Conway Gordon , Badiane Ousmane , Glatzel Katrin
Published: May 2020

This chapter looks at the challenges presented by hunger and malnutrition. After all, despite significant advances, severe hunger and malnutrition are all too common. Hence, the chapter explains that detailed nutrition and food security surveys can provide valuable information on how to reduce vulnerability and food insecurity. Undoubtedly the most shocking statistic of all is the incidence of child malnutrition, often referred to as “hidden hunger,” which measures the lack of essential micronutrients. This complex challenge involves distinct disciplines and agencies, but in recent years there have been successes by experts in health, nutrition, and agriculture working together over the life of the child to intervene in various ways and at different stages in the child's life. At the same time, Africa is urbanizing rapidly. A steep surge in the growth of the African middle class has taken place, especially in the 2000s. The effect of such an increase is rising urban demand for more and better food, which provides opportunities to increase and diversify food production in rural areas, resulting in greater value capture and rising incomes for smallholder farmers.
The New Genetics
Authors: Conway Gordon , Badiane Ousmane , Glatzel Katrin
Published: May 2020

This chapter turns to genetic intensification, which consists of developing crop and livestock crosses that contain genes capable of producing improved yields on a sustainable basis. These crosses often show increased vigor, such that they tend to outperform both parents, although for reasons that are not fully clear. Today, hybrids and crosses are the basis for most improved crop and livestock breeds, including wheat, rice, maize, and dairy cattle. Nevertheless, as has been long recognized, conventional breeding techniques have practical limitations. The application of modern cellular and molecular biology is pursued through four practical techniques: marker-assisted selection, cell and tissue culture, recombinant DNA, and gene editing. The chapter examines the extent to which these interventions contribute to sustainable intensification: improving nutrition, increasing resilience to pests, diseases, and climate change, and improving nitrogen fixation.
Digital Farmers
Authors: Conway Gordon , Badiane Ousmane , Glatzel Katrin
Published: May 2020

This chapter deals with digital technologies, both hardware and software, and how they can help increase agricultural production and food security in a sustainable fashion. Africa is going digital, enabling millions of Africans to connect for the first time. The effect is to revolutionize the lives of African farmers—by overcoming isolation, by speeding up change, and by taking success to scale. Digital connectivity has enormous implications for agriculture and nutrition. It is already being used to disseminate information on nutrition and health, providing timely information on everything from weather predictions, crop selection, and pest control to management and finance. Technologies include the analysis of big data, using machine learning and blockchain technology applications that help to produce and analyze digital soil maps, to provide sophisticated insurance and faster breeding cycles for traditional African crops.