bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Neutral Regulation – The Vital Ingredient for a Sustainable Energy Future
Authors: Mitchell Catherine
Published: March 2010

There are currently several targets for the take-up of sustainable energy in the UK. Renewable energy is to provide 10% of electricity supply by 2010; combined heat and power (CHP) is to increase from its current 5 Giga Watts (GW) to 10 GW by 2010 and energy conservation measures are hoped to at least contain energy increases and preferably reduce them. At the same time, the Government has initiated a number of wide ranging energy market changes with the intention of increasing competition within energy markets so that price of energy are reduced. Thus, the key drivers of the UK energy policy are: increasing competition and lower energy prices and increasing concern about climate change and the need to reduce emissions. This paper argues that if distribution companies were to become market facilitators of energy services (both supply and demand) then the twin goals of Government would be several steps closer to being achieved. This paper examines this regulatory question of how distribution network operators (DNOs) could move to such a role and how a consensus of the goals of economic and environmental could be reached.
Let's Stop Wasting Energy on Efficiency Programs – Energy Conservation as a Noble Goal
Authors: Rudin Andrew
Published: March 2010

Energy efficiency is popular during times of energy surplus. We are living in one such time, and the historic debate about the relative value of improved energy efficiency has been occurring. This paper discusses the theory behind energy efficiency and summarizes that debate.
Energy Efficiency and Energy Conservation: Policies, Programmes and Their Effectiveness
Authors: Owen Gill
Published: March 2010

This paper examines energy conservation and energy efficiency policies and programmes, mainly in the UK but also in Denmark and the Netherlands. It explores the theoretical and practical differences between conservation and energy efficiency and shows how, particularly in the household sector, energy demand continued to increase despite a range of policies to improve energy efficiency. Energy efficiency's ability to deliver energy and CO2 savings may be significantly counter-balanced in the short term by trends towards, greater use of appliances and increasing comfort standards. Over the medium and longer term energy efficiency should prove much more beneficial as saturation is reached for many energy services. However without action to raise energy prices (e.g. through taxation) the potentially beneficial effects of energy efficiency programmes may be limited.
Dream-World: A Simple Model of Energy-Related Carbon Emissions in the 20th and 21St Centuries
Authors: Boyle Godfrey
Published: March 2010

This paper describes “DREAM-World”, a simple model of global carbon emissions using logistic equations to describe the variations, over the period 1900–2100, in world population, GDP per capita, energy intensity and carbon intensity. The resulting simulations of historical and projected future carbon emissions are in reasonably good agreement with both the historical emissions data and with three published future emission scenarios, chosen to reflect a wide range of possibilities. The use of logistic equations highlights the need to consider when the inflection points in key variables, such as GDP per capita, will occur in future. The modelling exercise also highlights the fact that, because energy intensity cannot in principle reach zero whereas carbon intensity can, energy efficiency improvements can only “buy time” in the carbon abatement process: a shift to carbon-free energy sources is ultimately required – if global economic growth is to continue.
Resource Efficiency and Service Provision
Authors: Foxon Timothy J.
Published: March 2010

This paper addresses the possibility that improvements in energy and resource efficiency, together with a move towards the service economy, could help to stimulate the more profound social changes needed for sustainable development. The vision of resource efficiency improvements proposed in Factor Four and Natural Capitalism is discussed. It is argued that the key novel ingredient is the idea of moving towards a service economy, based upon the provision and sale of services, such as thermal comfort instead of energy, domestic services instead of appliances, and information services instead of printed matter. It is argued that this could lead to new relations between consumers and suppliers, a move towards sufficiency as well as efficiency, and could contribute significantly to moves towards more environmentally sustainable development.
The Cause of Global Warming
Authors: Gray Vincent
Published: March 2010

Three of the four methods of measuring global temperature show no signs of global warming Proxy measurements (tree rings, sediments etc) for the past 1000 years Weather balloons (radiosondes) for the past 44 years Satellites (MSU Units) for the past 21 years.

The fourth method, surface measurement at weather stations, gives an averaged mean global rise of a mere 0.6°C over 140 years, but is intermittent and irregular. Individual records are highly variable, regional, and sometimes, particularly in remote areas, show no change, or even a fall in temperature. It is concluded that temperature measurements carried out away from human influence show no evidence of global warming. The small and irregular rise shown by many surface stations must therefore be caused by changes in their thermal environment over long periods of time, such as better heating, larger buildings, darkening of surfaces, sealing of roads, increases in vehicles and aircraft, increased shielding from the atmosphere and deterioration of painted surfaces.
Strategic Value of Carbon Recovery and Storage Technology: Political and Administrative Dimension
Authors: Sugiyama Taishi
Published: March 2010

Many technological economy studies promise that energy conservation, renewable, nuclear, and carbon recovery storage technologies will be major technological options to mitigate climate change. While these studies do not differentiate the technological options from economic costs, political decision making should be based on the much broader context of political and administrative feasibility. Indeed, there are always formidable difficulties in design, agreement, and implementation of global climate policy. One of the major causes of the difficulties is the abundance of low-price fossil fuel. Restricting their use is politically and administratively difficult, since such a policy means to suppress parts of society that depend on fossil fuel use, leading to strong political resistance that affects national and international policy. The intrinsic strategic value of carbon dioxide recovery and storage technology is that this allows each society to continue using fossil fuel in exchange for adopting new equipment, with compensation where appropriate. The CO2 recovery and storage technology gives climate policy the chance to be in harmony with existing fossil fuel dependent social structures, engaging in fossil fuels rather than confining it. Political feasibility is weakened by saying “Do not burn fossil fuel, confine it” but improved by “You may burn fossil fuel, but recover and store CO2”.
Fossil Energy and Food Security
Authors: Günther Folke
Published: March 2010

To fulfil the basic goal of delivering food for the tables of the citizens, modern Western agriculture is extremely dependent on supporting material flows, infrastructure, and fossil energy. According to several observers, fossil fuel production is about to peak, i.e., oil extraction is no longer capable of keeping pace with the increasing demand. This situation may trigger an unprecedented increase in fossil energy prices, which may make the current highly energy dependent food production-distribution system highly vulnerable. The paper starts with a survey of this vulnerability. Also, the supply of phosphorus, a key factor in agriculture, may be at stake under such circumstances. The paper analyses this situation and discusses settlement structures integrated with agriculture that might increase food security by reducing energy demands. In the proposed ideal societal structure, agriculture is integrated with settlements and most of the food needed by the population is produced locally, and the nutrients for food production are recycled from households and animals by means of biological processes demanding considerably less mechanical investment and fossil support energy than the conventional type of agriculture. The vulnerability of this structure would be considerably lower, than that of the current system.
What Prospects for Soil Carbon Sequestration in the CDM? Cop-6 and beyond
Authors: Ringius Lasse
Published: March 2010

Although generally supported by international experts and the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), carbon (C) sequestration has long been a contentious and difficult issue in global climate negotiations. As the recent sixth Conference of the Parties (COP-6) held in The Hague in November 2000 demonstrated, the ‘sinks’ issue divides both the industrialized countries and the developing countries. To understand the background of the C sink controversy, and in order to assess the political acceptability of direct foreign investments in soil C sequestration in developing countries as an eligible climate policy measure, this paper briefly summarizes the main issues in the international policy debate on sinks. The paper finally analyzes the informal outcomes of COP-6 and attempts to predict the outcomes of the resumed COP-6 (COP-6 bis) to be held in July 2001.
Earth's Rising Atmospheric Co2 Concentration: Impacts on the Biosphere
Authors: Idso Craig D.
Published: March 2010

Concern has been expressed over the potential climatic and biological consequences of Earth's rising atmospheric CO2 concentration, which is expected to double above pre-industrial values sometime this century. This paper reviews several of the biological consequences that are likely to result, including enhanced plant photosynthesis and growth, an increase in plant water use efficiency, and the potential for atmospheric CO2 to reduce the growth-retarding effects of several environmental stresses. Implications of these phenomena are also briefly discussed, including the potential for atmospheric CO2 enrichment to enhance ecosystem biodiversity and carbon sequestration.
Waste Arisings — Energy Recovery Implications for a Traditional South Wales Valley Region
Authors: Emery Andrew , Gibbs Adrian , Griffiths Anthony , Williams Keith
Published: March 2010

This paper contains the results of a waste classification analysis conducted in a South Wales unitary authority and a traditional industrial community. It was found that on average each household in this area produced 19.4 kg of waste per week. Comparisons have been made with results of a similar survey in a more rural part of the UK and with the accepted UK national average data. The results have been used together with the government's waste management legislation to predict future waste blends and their energy characteristics. Waste legislation demands an increase to material recovery and thermal treatment. Using this district as a case study, for 33% material recovery in 2020 this region will be required to increase recycling or composting from under 4,000 to almost 40,000 tonnes of municipal waste. To comply with the landfill directive a further 66,000 tonnes will have to be used in thermal conversion projects. Material recovery removes certain fractions from the waste stream. The subsequent composition of waste downstream of material recovery will contain less biodegradable matter, most specifically paper which will reduce by over a half, and other components will rise in prominence. As a consequence the waste's energy content will rise slightly but landfill gas generation rate together with the amount landfilled will fall so that within 20 years landfill gas emissions could fall by as much as 40%.
JI and CDM: Lessons from Pilot Project Assessment
Authors: Begg Katie , Parkinson Stuart
Published: March 2010

This paper discusses two important issues concerning the use of Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol: — uncertainty in estimates of reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; and — contribution to and assessment of sustainable development.

The analysis is based on assessments of several operational projects which reduce GHG emissions in countries in transition and developing countries. The projects are concentrated in the energy sector.

When considering uncertainty in the estimates of GHG emissions reduction from JI/CDM projects, there are two main issues: construction of the baseline and accuracy of monitoring. Analysis across a range of project types led to estimates of baseline uncertainty which vary from 25% to 60%. Recommendations are made for measures to manage the uncertainty.

In terms of contribution to sustainable development, the paper reports analysis of the case study projects in this context and makes recommendations for project aspects which are positive in this respect.
Flexible Mechanisms in the Corporate Greenhouse: Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol and the Globalization of the Electric Power Industry
Authors: Schreuder Yda , Sherry Christopher
Published: March 2010

The contradictions and unresolved tensions between economic globalization and climate change negotiations have added urgency to the climate change debate. The paper argues that the declining role of the nation state in the global economy and the increasing reach of transnational corporations throughout the world present a serious challenge to the environmental integrity and success of international environmental treaties such as the Kyoto Protocol. In particular efficacy and equity of the flexible mechanism under the Kyoto Protocol are questioned as illustrated by the patterns of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) of the U.S. electric power industry in the developing world. U.S. FDI in the electric power sectors of developing countries supports continued carbon-intensive development patterns which will make the long-term goals of the Kyoto Protocol more difficult to achieve. Consequently, FDI raises questions about justifiability of giving credits to Annex I countries through CDM projects undertaken by transnational electric power corporations.
The Role of Plantation Sinks
Authors: Read Peter
Published: March 2010

In this paper it is argued that in the long term biofuel should play a significant role in global climate policy. Recent technological developments, as well as sustainable development criteria, would favour growing biofuel in community-scale plantations in developing countries. It is also pointed out that the lead times involved in growing biofuels are so great that the inclusion of biofuel plantation sinks in the CDM for the first commitment period would be desirable. It is suggested that to meet opposition to the inclusion of plantation sinks in the first commitment period plantation, sinks should be linked to biofuels technology development and production, and a biofuels obligation for plantation sink projects in the CDM should be established.
Polish-Dutch Cooperation in the Szamotuły Joint Implementation Project
Authors: Andruszkiewicz Jerzy , Groński Mariusz , van de Ven Jan-Willem , Borucka Anna
Published: March 2010

In this paper the modernisation of two coal boiler plants for district heating in Szamotuły near Poznań is described. This involved the first joint Polish-Dutch venture aiming at the protection of the natural environment and the efficient production of electric and heat energy. Energetyka Poznańska SA, represented by COGEN, a subsidiary acting on its behalf, the Management of the City and Commune of Szamotuly and Essent Duurzaam, a Dutch company, jointly adhered to this pilot programme of modernization of local coal boiler houses. Financial support was granted by SENTER, the Dutch government agency, in the framework of a JOINT-IMPLEMENTATION programme for the purpose of the global limitation of greenhouse gas emission.
Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder: A Comparison of ‘Green Power’ Certification Programs in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States
Authors: Patterson Mary Jane , Rowlands Ian H.
Published: March 2010

With growing concerns about air quality issues and the continuing restructuring of electricity supply industries world-wide, the prospects for ‘green power’ - that is, environmentally-friendly electricity - are probably better now than they have ever been. What kinds of power are deemed to be ‘green’, however, is the subject of much debate. In an effort to standardise the definition of green power, certification programs are being developed independently by different countries at the national or sub-national level. Effectively, these are the mechanisms by which green power is currently being defined.

This article compares the attributes of four certification programs for green power-those in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States. The goal is to determine the ways in which these programs are similar, and the extent to which they are different. Though there is no definitive effort to determine which certification program is ‘best’, the key debates surrounding the most contentious parts of green power certification programs are identified and investigated. Accordingly, the policy discussion about the relative merits of different approaches is informed and stimulated.
An Asssessment of Biomass as an Energy Source: The Case of Energy from Waste
Authors: Clarke Alexi , Elliott David
Published: March 2010

Given that biomass plays a part in a complex natural cycle of decay and re-growth, providing the feedstock for a variety of often slow and subtle natural cycles, there are clearly limits to how much can be burnt without undermining key biological processes. This paper focuses on energy from waste, since, we argue, waste combustion is one of the more problematic options in terms of environmental sustainability, and we attempt to make a preliminary life cycle assessment of its impact. This suggests that the overall impact will depend not just on the total amount of wastes combusted, but also on their specific organic qualities, and on their role if they had not been diverted, in particular their role in maintaining soil quality. Given that soil plays a significant part in the process of carbon sequestration, we argue that consideration should be given to the concept of conservation of organic potentials.
The U.S. Nuclear Power Industry: Past, Present, and Possible Futures
Authors: Jurewitz John L.
Published: March 2010

Although the United States generates only about 20% of its total electricity from nuclear power, it has almost twice as much nuclear generation capacity as any other country. This article presents an historical overview of the U.S. nuclear power industry and the policies that have shaped it. The U.S. nuclear industry is currently at a crossroads. The total number of nuclear powerplants has been virtually constant for over a decade. Over the coming years, it seems likely that the owners of most existing plants will succeed in securing extensions of their operating licenses. The critical question is whether new nuclear capacity will be built. Although it seems likely that some utility will attempt to build a new nuclear plant within the next decade, any such attempt will encounter a degree of public opposition based on environmental and security concerns. The ultimate outcome of this social confrontation is difficult to forecast.
The Mitigation of the French Nuclear Option: New Industrial Realism and Technical Democracy
Authors: Finon Dominique
Published: March 2010

Nuclear phase-out policies and the European obligation to liberalise electricity markets could put the French nuclear option dramatically at risk by influencing social preferences or by constraining power producers' investment choices in the future. So far, the particular institutional set-up which has allowed the efficient build-up and operation of several series of standardised reactors preserves the stability of the main elements of the option. However, important adaptations to the evolving industrial and political environment occur and contribute to changing the option. Some institutional changes (such as local public inquiry, creation of a Parliamentary committee, independence of safety authorities) and divergence between industrial interests already allow debates on internal options such as reprocessing, type of waste management deposits, ordering of an advanced PWR. These changes improve the cost transparency, even if internalisation of nuclear externalities (cost of insurance, provisions for waste management) is still incomplete. However, when effective, this internalisation would not affect definitively the competitive position of the nuclear production because of the parallel internalisation of CO2 externalities from fossil fuel power generation in the official rationale. Consequently the real issue for the future of the nuclear option in France remains the preservation of social acceptability in the perception of nuclear risks.
Eu-Russian Energy Policy — Single or Multiple Policy Paradigms?
Authors: Johnson Debra
Published: March 2010

This article explores possible explanatory frameworks for the increasingly important EU-Russian energy relationship. It begins with an examination of traditional policy paradigms from the separate perspectives of both parties. Through exploration of the energy security situation in the European Union and the supply position in Russia, the paper concludes that the overall EU-Russian energy relationship can be best explained through a framework of mutual interest and dependency: That is, the EU is becoming increasingly, but not totally, dependent on Russian energy supplies, particularly of gas and Russia is becoming increasingly, but not totally dependent, on European markets. Nevertheless, other paradigms continue to yield useful insights in relation to individual components of the EU-Russian energy relationship.
Designing National Allocation Plans for Eu-Emissions Trading — A First Analysis of the Outcomes
Authors: Betz Regina , Eichhammer Wolfgang , Schleich Joachim
Published: March 2010

In this paper the main design issues of 16 National Allocation Plans (NAPs) are presented in a systematic way for the first period (2005–2007) of the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS). These NAPs have either been submitted to the European Commission (EC) by the EU Member States (MS), or were available as draft versions in early May 2004. Further quantitative and qualitative analyses of these NAPs lead to the conclusions that – unless the review process by the EC leads to significant modifications – (i) the EU ETS is unlikely to result in any major emission reductions in this first period; (ii) many MS allow for a generous allocation to the emissions trading sector at the cost of other sectors and the general taxpayer; (iii) competitive distortions are likely to arise from the different national interpretations of the installations to be covered by the EU ETS and from the partial-system character of the EU ETS; (iv) barriers to economic efficiency will arise from a probable EU-wide ban on banking and ex-post adjustments of allocated quantities for newcomer installations. Finally, for the vast majority of participants transaction costs are expected to be high compared to costs for compliance.
Can the Eu Persuade the Us to Rejoin the Kyoto Agreement?
Authors: Krogstrup Jesper , Svendsen Gert Tinggaard
Published: March 2010

The aim of this work is to identify a clear policy proposal for how the EU may persuade the US to rejoin the Kyoto agreement. Accordingly the US' three major concerns in The Hague about the Kyoto Protocol have been investigated with the following result. Firstly, the EU should scrap the supplementarity principle of 50% domestic reduction or at least reduce it considerably. This would lower costs particularly by enhancing more free trade with emission permits. Secondly, the EU should support the US proposal to incorporate carbon sinks into the Protocol. Thirdly, the developing countries should be persuaded to make binding commitments preventing any carbon leakage which is harmful to the American economy. Together these measures should minimize US compliance costs, and ensure for the US a positive net gain from participation and thereby provide an incentive to rejoin. The overall result is that the EU necessarily has to make concessions to persuade the World's largest CO2 emitter to join international climate negotiations again. This would ensure environmental improvement and co-operation in contrast to the present situation of US refusal to participate.
The Carbon Dioxide Thermometer and the Cause of Global Warming
Authors: Calder Nigel
Published: March 2010

Carbon dioxide in the air may be increasing because the world is warming. This possibility, which contradicts the hypothesis of an enhanced greenhouse warming driven by man-made emissions, is here pursued in two ways. First, increments in carbon dioxide are treated as readings of a natural thermometer that tracks global and hemispheric temperature deviations, as gauged by meteorologists' thermometers. Calibration of the carbon dioxide thermometer to conventional temperatures then leads to a history of carbon dioxide since 1856 that diverges from the ice-core record. Secondly, the increments of carbon dioxide can also be accounted for, without reference to temperature, by the combined effects of cosmic rays, El Niño and volcanoes. The most durable effect is due to cosmic rays. A solar wind history, used as a long-term proxy for the cosmic rays, gives a carbon dioxide history similar to that inferred from the global temperature deviations.
Climate Change and the World Bank: Opportunity for Global Governance?
Authors: Boehmer-Christiansen S.A.
Published: March 2010

The direct and indirect efforts of the World Bank and its off-spring, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), to become leading international agents of global environmental ‘governance’ and ‘sustainable development’ are described and analysed politically with reference to the development of an implementation regime of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC). The Bank/GEF are seen as engaging in a potentially dangerous experiment of ‘global ecological modernisation’, or industrial transformation, in ‘emerging economies’, an experiment legitimised by reference to the catastrophic threat of man-made ‘global warming’. This threat is already being translated into political, commercial and bureaucratic benefits accruing to a small global elite. How was this achieved and what are the likely political implications?
Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Russian Federation — Problems and Choices
Authors: Hill Malcolm R.
Published: March 2010

The first part of this paper consists of reports of Russian carbon dioxide emissions, and a range of adjustments is then made on the assumption of similar under-reporting for both carbon dioxide and acid rain emissions, based on previous research on emissions of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from the former USSR. This range of estimates is then compared with reports of greenhouse gas emissions from other major industrial Western countries. The next section of the paper provides information on technological options for the reduction of carbon dioxide and acid rain emissions within a framework of available fuels and combustion processes. The paper continues with a discussion of the Russian economic, political and commercial factors which will influence the practical implementation of those technologies in that region, and concludes with suggestions for further research on technology transfer processes.
“Climate for all the Money's Worth”
Authors: Noreng Øystein , Andersen Svein S. , Anker-Nilssen Per
Published: March 2010

In August 1998, we published the first comprehensive critical book on the global warming issue in Norwegian, “Klima for alle pengene”, Climate for all the money's worth, Scandinavian University Press. The main purpose was to raise a critical voice in the generally one-sided Norwegian debate, but the book also deals with the basic international issues.
The Uk as a European Laboratory for Electricity Deregulation
Authors: Surrey John
Published: March 2010

This article does not suggest that other countries should adopt the British model of electricity privatisation and deregulation. What it does suggest is that other countries can draw useful lessons from the British experience. It describes how the electricity supply industry in England and Wales was restructured to allow competition in generation and in ‘supply’ and continuing regulation of the natural monopoly elements of transmission and distribution. It then identifies the ‘winners and losers’ so far, and goes on to review the various issues yet to be resolved. It emphasises that it is still too soon to assess the overall balance of benefits, costs and risks, but it suggests five lessons which can be drawn from the British experience so far.
Exploring Energy Solutions for Industrial Society
Authors: Trainer Ted
Published: March 2010

After outlining the resource and ecological implications of rich world living standards and economic systems, hypothetical general strategies for movement towards sustainability are explored. The first is the option most likely to be taken, involving reliance on greater energy efficiency and similar technical advance within a basically business as usual orientation towards living standards and the growth economy. The second involves reliance on nuclear energy. The third involves reliance on renewable energy. It is argued that none of these three options is viable, leaving a fourth whereby sustainability can only be achieved in the long term via change to simpler lifestyles, more self-sufficient settlements and a zero-growth economy.
Constructing a Response to Ecological Problems under Scientific Uncertainty: A Comparison of Acid Rain and Climate Change Policy in Canada
Authors: Guay Louis
Published: March 2010

This paper examines and compares acid rain and climate change policy making in Canada. It presents a brief model of ecological problem-solving under scientific uncertainty, in which problem identification, problem implication and problem solution are viewed as a complex social process. Ecological problem-solving is usually an open debate in which a plurality of actors participate. Building on interactionist studies, the paper presents these social actors as belonging to different but interacting social worlds. Their interactions lead to the construction of an ecological discourse which frames policy choices. Compared to the acid rain policy process, climate change policy process is marked by a closer participation of the scientific community; a change in policy instruments emphasising market and voluntary measures instead of ‘command and control’ ones; a perceived need for a wider public and social interests involvement in the policy process; ethical considerations and equity issues framed in intra and inter-generational terms; and participants' perception of a considerable challenge for technological development.
The Failure of Sulphur Trading in the UK
Authors: Sorrell Steve
Published: March 2010

The use of emissions trading for the control of sulphur2 emissions was first proposed by the UK government in 1992 as an attractive means to overcome problems with the existing regulatory framework (DoE, 1992). Despite repeated pronouncements in favour of ‘sulphur quota switching’ (as it was termed) and a strong commitment to economic instruments and deregulation, the idea was eventually dropped in 1996. This chapter explains why this occurred and draws some general lessons for the implementation of emissions trading in Europe. These lessons are particularly relevant to carbon trading after Kyoto. The various European regulations on sulphur emissions and the way these have been implemented within the UK. An account of the radical changes in UK energy markets over the last decade and the impact of these on sulphur emissions follows. The evolution of the debate on sulphur quota switching is then described, showing how the proposals faced a series of obstacles that ultimately proved insurmountable. Six reasons are proposed for the failure of the scheme, namely: independent developments in energy markets; a conflict of regulatory principles; a conflict of regulatory culture; a conflict over quota allocation; persistent regulatory uncertainty; and inadequate political support. The wider implications of these lessons are then considered.
Method of Area Coordinate — From Triangular to Quadrilateral Elements
Authors: Long Yuqiu , Long Zhifei , Cen Song
Published: March 2010

In this paper, the area coordinate method is generalized to formulate quadrilateral elements. The general theory of area coordinate for quadrilateral elements is presented and new quadrilateral elements for membrane and plate bending are formulated by using the area coordinate method.
Effectiveness of CFRP Strengthening on Curved Soffit RC Beams
Authors: Eshwar Nagaraj , Ibell Timothy James , Nanni Antonio
Published: March 2010

The objective of this research program was to study carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) members which have concavely-curved soffits. In the presence of such curvature, the FRP laminates attempt to straighten under tension, leading to direct transverse tensile stress at the adhesive-concrete interface, which may cause premature peeling. This tensile stress could also lead to concrete cover delamination. Ten beams, each 6 m in length and having the same soffit curvature (i.e., 4 × 10−5 mm−1 or in−1), extending over 1, 3 and 5 meters, were tested under three-point static flexure. Two different types of CFRP strengthening techniques, namely wet layup laminates and pultruded precured laminates, were used for external strengthening. One of the beams strengthened with CFRP wet layup laminates (with a curved soffit over an extent of 5 m), used glass FRP spike anchors to prevent peeling. Beams with soffit curvature limited to an extent of 1 m, failed at similar loads when compared with control specimens containing flat soffits. For beams having a soffit curvature extending over 3 and 5 m, reduction in strength was observed because of premature peeling. Inclusion of the GFRP spike anchors with the wet layup system led to a performance superior to the control specimen (flat soffit) confirming that application of GFRP spike anchors delays premature peeling.
Nonlinear Strut-Tie Model Analysis of Pre-Tensioned Concrete Deep Beams
Authors: Yun Y. M. , Lee W. S.
Published: March 2010

To date, many studies have been conducted for the analysis and design of disturbed regions. However, prestressed concrete deep beams have not been the subject of much dedicated effort. This paper presents an evaluation of the behavior and strength of two pre-tensioned concrete deep beams tested to shear failure using a nonlinear strut-tie model approach. In this approach, the effective prestressing forces represented by equivalent external loads are gradually introduced along tendon's transfer length in the nearest strut-tie model joints, the friction at the interface of main diagonal shear cracks is modeled by diagonal struts along the direction of the cracks in strut-tie model, and additional positioning of concrete ties at the place of steel ties is incorporated. Through strut-tie model analysis of pre-tensioned concrete deep beams, the nonlinear strut-tie model approach proved to present effective solutions for predicting the essential aspects of the behavior and strength of pre-tensioned concrete deep beams.
Behavior of the Tree Branches, Trunk, and Root Anchorage by Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis
Authors: Yang Y. B. , Yang Y. T. , Su H. H.
Published: March 2010

The finite element method that takes into account geometric nonlinearity is adopted to investigate the static behavior of the tree branches, trunk, and root anchorage. The formulation of a nonlinear beam element is first outlined, followed by a summary of the procedures for buckling analysis and incremental-iterative nonlinear analysis. Using the nonlinear analysis procedure presented, parametric studies are conducted for the critical lengths of tree branches and the buckling loads of tree trunks. The following parameters are considered for the branches: diameter, growth angle and elastic modulus, and the following for the trunk: taper ratio, bottom diameter, and static weight. Also presented is a procedure for evaluating the root anchorage stiffness of a tree based on the data previously recorded from a bending test. In order to deal with the ambiguities in the mechanical properties of tree components, parametric values of a wide range are considered in the analysis, which are believed to cover those of the real tree structures and components. Some interesting rules underlying the tree biomechanics are drawn from the numerical studies.
Rehabilitation of Large Diameter Prestressed Cylinder Concrete Pipe (PCCP) with FRP Composites — Experimental Investigation
Authors: Lee David C. , Karbhari Vistasp M.
Published: March 2010

Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites can be effectively used to repair deteriorating prestressed concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) through application as an internal structural liner. This paper presents results of an extensive test program using pipe sections under internal pressure and external loading and demonstrates the viability of the method. The use of both adhesively bonded prefabricated strips and wet layup of fabric is discussed and results show that the use of an appropriately designed FRP structural liner can completely make up for loss of structural action from the external prestressing. The method is shown to be both structurally efficient and rapid providing a cost-effective alternative to conventional methods of preventive maintenance and repair.
Effect of Sizes and Positions of Web Openings on Strut-and-Tie Models of Deep Beams
Authors: Guan Hong
Published: March 2010

The trend towards high-rise concrete structures has placed an increased importance on the design of reinforced concrete deep beams. Deep beams also have useful applications in foundations and offshore gravity type structures. Numerous design models for deep beams have been suggested, however even the latest design manuals still offer little guidance for the design of deep beams in particular when complexities exist in the beams like web openings. A method commonly suggested for the design of deep beams with openings is the strut-and-tie model which in the present study is developed through topology optimisation of continuum structures. During the optimisation process, both the stress and displacement constraints are satisfied and the performance of progressive topologies is maximised. In all, eight concrete deep beams with web openings are optimised and compared in an attempt to examine the effect of sizes and positions of web openings on the strut-and-tie models. Through comparison with published experimental crack patterns, the study confirms the effectiveness of the optimisation technique in developing the strut-and-tie model representing the load transfer mechanism in concrete deep beams under ultimate load, which in turn would assist detailed design of such structural elements.
Analytical Prediction of Thermal Displacement Capacity of Integral Bridges Built on Sand
Authors: Dicleli Murat
Published: March 2010

In this research, analytical equations are developed to calculate the lateral displacement capacity and maximum length limits of integral bridges built on sand based on the low-cycle fatigue performance of the piles under cyclic thermal variations and the ultimate strength of the abutment under positive thermal variations. To formulate the displacement capacity and maximum length limits of integral bridges based on the low cycle fatigue performance of steel H-piles under cyclic thermal variations, first, H-piles that can accommodate large plastic deformations are determined based on their local buckling instability. Then, a low cycle fatigue damage model is used as a tool to formulate the maximum cyclic curvatures and corresponding bending moments that such piles can sustain. Next, this information is employed in static pushover analyses of two integral bridges to study the effect of various geometric, structural and geotechnical parameters on their displacement capacity as determined by the low-cycle fatigue performance of steel H-piles under cyclic thermal variations. The findings from these static pushover analyses are then used to formulate the displacement capacity and maximum length limits of integral bridges as determined by the low-cycle fatigue performance of steel H-piles under cyclic thermal variations. The results from the same static pushover analyses are also used to formulate the displacement capacity and maximum length limits of integral bridges as determined by the ultimate strength of the abutments under positive thermal variations. It is observed that the stiffness of the deck, height of the abutment, properties and orientation of the piles as well as the density of the sand affect the displacement capacity of integral bridges. It is also found that the maximum length limit of integral bridges ranges between 65 and 310 m based on the properties of the bridge and climatic conditions.
The Instability of High Speed Jets
Authors: Morris Philip J.
Published: March 2010

This paper provides a review of the stability characteristics of high speed jets. These characteristics not only play a role in the transition of jet flows to turbulence, in the traditional sense of hydrodynamic stability theory, but also are key to understanding the behavior of large scale turbulent structures in the jet. They are also an important component in understanding the noise radiation by high speed jets. The paper begins with the development of the linear stability equations and then reviews the classes of instability waves in a jet, modeled as a cylindrical vortex sheet. Finite shear layer thickness effects are then discussed. This includes a review of numerical methods for the solution of the stability equations. The effects of jet Mach number and temperature are then presented. Additional topics considered include, the effects of mean flow divergence, the effect of Reynolds number, and the effect of the jet's geometry. Finally, the nature of absolute instabilities in jet flows is described, both from an analytical viewpoint as well as applications.
On Prandtl's Formulas for Supersonic Jet Cell Length
Authors: Powell Alan
Published: March 2010

In 1904 Prandtl developed a pioneering small perturbation theory to obtain the well-known “Prandtl Formula” λ = 1.306 d√(( wm/ c)2 − 1) for the wavelength (cell length) of an almost perfectly expanded circular supersonic jet, uniform everywhere and notably so on the bounding streamlines, where d = jet diameter, wm/ c = mean (unperturbed) speed (Mach number) of the jet. To relate to experiment and possibly provide a means of estimating jet speed from cell length measurements, he very tersely made a comparison of the results of his formula with those of Emden's formula, λ = 0.88 d√( R - Rc). This was based on extensive experiments with choked jets, with R = pressure ratio (critical value Rc), He rewrote his formula as λ = 1.306 dw√(( w/c)2 − 1), called herein “Prandtl's Formula II, where now dw = minimum diameter of the nozzle duct, i.e. exit diameter for Emden's choked jets, but the throat diameter of the convergent-divergent nozzle of uniform supersonic jets. He rewrote the foregoing equation, “my relationship,”” clearly considering that the nozzle exit diameter dw for the fully expanded flow would vary (according to the one-dimensional gas flow equations) so as to be consistent with the pressure ratio in Emden's formula. Unfortunately these simple but important notational changes for the comparison were made without comment and appear to have been totally ignored. Then converting his Formula II into Emden's form gave the well-known λ = 1.2 d√( R - Rc), a good approximation over a wide range of R. This fully satisfied Prandtl's objective, the discrepancy (1.2 vs. 0.88) being a constant factor easily taken into account, its magnitude apparently being of no particular significance considering the radically different jet flow structures. The coefficient 1.306 was improved to 1.22 by Pack who was able to compute up to 40 terms of the series solution, for which Prandtl had taken just the first term. Pack also provided the full series solution for the two-dimensional case.

The circumstances of the origin of these formulas and their subsequent history over the next half-century are discussed in some detail, but a more general discussion of cell length is beyond the scope of this account.
Vortex Sound with Special Reference to Vortex Rings: Theory, Computer Simulations, and Experiments
Authors: Kambe Tsutomu
Published: March 2010

This is a review paper on vortex sound with special reference to vortex rings and sound emission detected in experimental tests. Any unsteady vortex motion excites acoustic waves. From the fundamental conservation equations of mass, momentum and energy of fluid flows, one can derive a wave equation of aerodynamic sound. The wave equation of acoustic pressure can be reduced to a compact form, called the equation of vortex sound. This equation predicts sound generation by unsteady vortex motions. On the other hand, based on the matched asymptotic expansion (using the multipole expansions), one can derive a formula of wave pressure excited by time-dependent vorticity field localized in space.

The theoretical predictions are compared with experimental observations and direct computer simulations. The systems considered are, head-on collision or oblique collision of two vortex rings, vortex-cylinder interaction, vortex-edge interaction, and others. Scaling laws of the pressure of emitted sound are predicted by the theory and compared with experimental observations. Comparison between theories and observations shows excellence of the theoretical predictions. Direct numerical simulations are reviewed briefly for sound generation by collisions of two vortex rings and that by a cylinder immersed in a uniform stream ( aeolian tones). Vortex sound in superfluid is also reviewed about experimental observations and computational studies on the basis of the Gross-Pitaevski equation.