bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Retrospective Evaluation of Preseason Forecasting Models for Pink Salmon
Authors: Haeseker Steven L. , Peterman Randall M. , Su Zhenming , Wood Chris C.
Published: July 2005

Models for making preseason forecasts of adult abundance are an important component of the management of many stocks of Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. Reliable forecasts could increase both the profits from fisheries and the probability of achieving conservation and other management targets. However, the predictive performance of salmon forecasting models is generally poor, in part because of the high variability in salmon survival rates. To improve the accuracy of forecasts, we retrospectively evaluated the performance of eight preseason forecasting models for 43 stocks of pink salmon O. gorbuscha over a total of 783 stock-years. The results indicate that no single forecasting model was consistently the most accurate. Nevertheless, across the 43 stocks we found that two naïve time series models (i.e., those without explicitly modeled mechanisms) most frequently performed best based on mean raw error, mean absolute error, mean percent error, and root mean square error for forecasts of total adult recruits. In many cases, though, the best-performing model depended on the stock and performance measure used for ranking. In 21% of the stocks, a new multistock, mixed-effects stock–recruitment model that included early-summer sea surface temperature as an independent variable along with spawner abundance demonstrated the best performance based on root mean square error. The best-performing model for each pink salmon stock explained on average only 20% of the observed variation in recruitment. Owing to the uncertainty in forecasts, a strong precautionary approach should be taken to achieve conservation and management targets for pink salmon on the West Coast of North America.
Dependency of luminescence properties of Y2O3: Eu on the activator incorporation degree and lattice parameter
Authors: Nazarov M. V. , Kang J. H. , Jeon D. Y. , Bukesov S. A. , Popovici E.‐J. , Muresan L.
Published: July 2005

Abstract— Samples of yttrium oxide doped with trivalent europium have been prepared by ceramic techniques, under different synthesis conditions; barium chloride (BaCl2) and sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O7) were tested as flux. The improvement of the luminescence properties dependency on the substitution of Eu3+ for Y3+ in the host lattice under electron and UV excitations is demonstrated. The lattice parameter as a quantitative assessment of activator incorporation degree is proposed. The obtained results are discussed with respect to the employed processing method.
Chemical nanotechnology for transparent conducting coatings on thin‐glass and plastic‐foil substrates
Authors: Puetz J. , Aegerter M. A.
Published: July 2005

Abstract— The properties of wet‐deposited transparent conducting oxide coatings (TCO) prepared by sol‐gel and nanoparticle processing are presented, showing their potentials and limits for display applications. The electrical properties to a large extent are determined by their porous morphology and the resulting grain boundaries, leading to a conductivity which is a factor 10 to 50 lower compared to similar PVD and CVD coatings. Though sol‐gel coatings like antimony‐doped tin oxide (ATO) can be deposited at very low cost, they always require a high‐temperature heat treatment limiting the choice of substrate. For a low‐temperature curing of the coatings, instead, the use of crystalline conducting nanoparticles of indium tin oxide (ITO) in combination with a chemical binder offers considerable application potential. This processing not only allows the preparation of coatings with a sheet resistance of 1 to 2 kΩ/□ but also a direct patterning by a fast UV curing. Typical applications for wet‐deposited coatings are demonstrated including the adjustment of the properties of sputtered ITO coatings, as well as electrodes and antistatic properties on plastics substrates with a moderate conductivity in the lower kΩ/□ range.
Parameters on the LC alignment of organosilicon compound films
Authors: Muravsky Al. , Murauski An. , Mazaeva V. , Belyaev V.
Published: July 2005

Abstract— The aligning properties of a set of organosilicon compounds (OSC) were examined. The aligning films of the OSC were obtained. Pretilt angles and the polar and azimuthal anchoring energy of the LC materials on the OSC films were measured by optical and voltage‐capacity methods. The influence of both OSC and LC molecular structure on the results obtained was analyzed and discussed.
Chiral liquid‐crystalline 3,6‐disubstituted cyclohex‐2‐enones and their derivatives and the FLC compositions based upon them
Authors: Bezborodov V. S. , Lapanik V. I. , Sasnouski G. M. , Haase W.
Published: July 2005

Abstract— The synthesis and chemical transformations of the 3,6‐disubstituted cyclohex‐2‐enones into new chiral liquid‐crystalline lateral substituted derivatives of biphenyl, terphenyl, or quaterphenyl are presented. The mesomorphic properties of the prepared compounds and physical and electro‐optical parameters of FLC compositions based upon them are discussed here, emphasizing structure‐property relations.
Neuro‐filters used to enhance the image quality of video displays
Authors: Litovchenko C. , Grushin D. , Fomin A. , Belyaev V.
Published: July 2005

Abstract— Digital images can be affected by external factors. There are many types of noise which affect digital images. Image filtration is a basic method used to suppress such hindrances. The disadvantage of most filtration methods and hardware filters created on their behalf is their inability to react to changes in the input signal. The structure of the filters used for image processing is similar to the structure of a bi‐dimensional neural‐network matrix. Investigations have shown that a system with serial‐parallel filters of any degree of complexity can be created on the basis of the neural‐network matrices. Each neural‐network matrix layer acts as a separate neuro‐filter which can be trained and adapted to changes in the characteristics of the images. The neural‐network matrices allow for the creation of various types of linear and nonlinear filters, as well as combinations on the basis of a uniform structure. It allows for the design of a universal hardware neuro‐filter structure that can perform as different types of filters by means of loading the connectors weight. In our paper, we consider the realization of neuro‐filters based on a neural‐network matrix, which allows the processing of both static and moving images and increases the image sharpness, suppresses the noise, and detects movable objects in the processed image.
Model-Checking Problems as a Basis for Parameterized Intractability
Authors: Flum Joerg , Grohe Martin
Published: July 2005

Most parameterized complexity classes are defined in terms of a parameterized
version of the Boolean satisfiability problem (the so-called weighted
satisfiability problem). For example, Downey and Fellow's W-hierarchy is of
this form. But there are also classes, for example, the A-hierarchy, that are
more naturally characterised in terms of model-checking problems for certain
fragments of first-order logic.
Downey, Fellows, and Regan were the first to establish a connection between
the two formalisms by giving a characterisation of the W-hierarchy in terms of
first-order model-checking problems. We improve their result and then prove a
similar correspondence between weighted satisfiability and model-checking
problems for the A-hierarchy and the W^*-hierarchy. Thus we obtain very uniform
characterisations of many of the most important parameterized complexity
classes in both formalisms.
Our results can be used to give new, simple proofs of some of the core
results of structural parameterized complexity theory.
Contextual equivalence for higher-order pi-calculus revisited
Authors: Jeffrey Alan , Rathke Julian
Published: July 2005

The higher-order pi-calculus is an extension of the pi-calculus to allow
communication of abstractions of processes rather than names alone. It has been
studied intensively by Sangiorgi in his thesis where a characterisation of a
contextual equivalence for higher-order pi-calculus is provided using labelled
transition systems and normal bisimulations. Unfortunately the proof technique
used there requires a restriction of the language to only allow finite types.
We revisit this calculus and offer an alternative presentation of the labelled
transition system and a novel proof technique which allows us to provide a
fully abstract characterisation of contextual equivalence using labelled
transitions and bisimulations for higher-order pi-calculus with recursive types
also.
Bleaching
Authors: Taylor Dennis R.
Published: July 2005

Traditionally, bleaching refers to that process by which colored pigments are removed from fats and oils by adsorption onto bleaching earth. Of course, certain noncolored constituents are also removed as well. In fact, the removal of particular colored and noncolored constituents during bleaching is necessary if high‐quality oil is to be produced. In this chapter, the idea of bleaching as primarily an adsorptive purification process is developed. Four key aspects are addressed: (1) the use of adsorptive purification agents, (2) the adsorptive removal of targeted constituents, (3) practical means and methods for achieving optimal efficiency and efficacy from the bleaching process, and (4) approaches for dealing with spent adsorbents.

The properties and preparation of the main adsorptive purification agents used in the bleaching process (activated carbon, bleaching earth, and silica hydrogel) are discussed; differences between acid‐activated and natural bleaching earths and the types of clays used in their manufacture are delineated. The effects of various trace constituents (and contaminants) on oil quality, and the nature and specificity of their interaction with surface‐active (adsorption) sites are described. In particular, the control that noncolored constituents (phospholipids, soaps, free fatty acids, peroxides) exert over the adsorption of colored pigments (carotenoids, chlorophyll, pheophytins) is elucidated. Optimal bleaching practices and filtration conditions (“press bleach effect”) as well as processes and equipment for achieving maximum efficiency from the bleaching process are described. Finally, various tactics regarding spent filter cake, including utilization/disposal, best methods to recover retained oils, and control over smoldering, are examined.
Canola Oil
Authors: Przybylski R. , Mag T. , Eskin N.A.M. , McDonald B.E.
Published: July 2005

During the past two decades, canola oil, a modified rapeseed oil, has become one of the main commodity oils around the world. Rapeseed oil is still produced and used as industrial oil mainly for nonfood uses, with the exception of China and India, where it is used in food applications. In this chapter, the following aspects of canola/rapeseed oil are discussed: origin, detailed composition, physical properties, extraction, refining, processing, food utilization, nutritional properties, production of seeds and oils, canola/rapeseed as biodiesel, greases, and machine oils.
Fat Crystal Networks
Authors: Rye Geoffrey G. , Litwinenko Jerrold W. , Marangoni Alejandro G.
Published: July 2005

This paper reviews the identification of the various levels of structure present in milk fat crystal networks, and the development of analytical techniques to quantify these levels. The relationship of the various levels of structure to macroscopic physical indicators of the mechanical strength of the network is discussed. The analysis of the microstructural level of the network via fractal geometrical methods is outlined, as well as mechanical models relating the structure to mechanical properties. The effect of processing conditions on the different levels of structure and mechanical properties also discussed.
Flavor Components of Fats and Oils
Authors: Ho Chi‐Tang , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: July 2005

Most of the flavor compounds in fats and oils are produced by the oxidation reaction of unsaturated fatty acids in triglycerides or polar lipids. The development of objectionable flavor compounds by oxidation has significant detrimental effects on consumer acceptability of edible oils. The mechanisms for the formation of major flavor compounds in fats and oils are discussed. The important desirable and undesirable flavor compounds in butter, cocoa butter, lard, soybean oil, olive oil, fish oil, and sesame oil are reviewed.
Lecithins
Authors: Szuhaj Bernard F.
Published: July 2005

Lecithin is a novel natural material that has multifunctional properties. Original material was isolated from egg yolk and is found in significant quantities in brain and nervous tissue. Actually lecithin is a normal constituent in all cell membranes. The main source today is found in soybeans and is commercially available in many colors, viscosities, and functionalities. This article gives a detailed description of the nature and composition of lecithin and its manufacture and uses.

Lecithin has been an amphoteric surfactant for centuries but was not commercialized until soy processing started in the 1930's. It has many food applications and is also used in pharmaceutical preparations and natural food products. Lecithin has some unique properties in industrial applications from paints to fuel additives. The most prevalent use today is in chocolate and margarine manufacture and in nutritional beverages and supplements.
Minor Components of Fats and Oils
Authors: Kamal‐Eldin Afaf
Published: July 2005

Vegetable oils contain a wide range of minor components besides triacylglycerols, the major components of most oils. Sterols, tocopherols, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, chlorophyll, free fatty acids, and other minor derivatives, as well as trace metal ions are the most recognized of these compounds. Minor lipid components are of interest because they affect the technical properties of the oil, possibly provide health benefits, and/or might be used for the authentication of different oils and their mixtures. The tocopherols are interesting, as they are primarily responsible for the stability of the polyunsaturated fatty acids of vegetable oils. Tocopherols and carotenoids are important for human nutrition as they provide Vitamins E and A activities. Phytosterols are currently receiving much interest as cholesterol‐lowering agents derived from inter alias vegetable oil refining. The phenolic compounds in certain oils, e.g., olive and sesame oils, are interesting from oil stability and health points of view. Gas chromatography or gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of the unsaponifiable fractions of vegetable oils can provide a fingerprint for the identity of the oils.
Oil Extraction
Authors: Kemper Timothy G.
Published: July 2005

The crude oil used as a feedstock for the various oil refining and oil modification processes discussed throughout this book are derived from such oleaginous materials as soybean, rapeseed, sunflower seeds, cottonseeds, corn germ, ground nuts, olives, and palm fruits. This chapter discusses the evolution of the oil extraction process from hand press extraction, to early mechanized extraction, to hydraulic press extraction, to the processes of screw press extraction and solvent extraction commonly used today. Before an oleaginous material is extracted, it must first be carefully prepared for the extraction process. The seed preparation steps include cleaning, drying, size reduction, hull removal, heating/drying, flaking, and extruding. Oil can be extracted from a prepared material by either mechanical extraction or solvent extraction methods. The three types of mechanical extraction methods are palm fruit pressing, full pressing, and prepressing. Solvent extraction is the most common process used to extract oil today. The solvent extraction process includes the unit operations of oil extraction, meal desolventizing, meal drying and cooling, miscella distillation, and solvent recovery.
Rice Bran Oil
Authors: Orthoefer Frank T.
Published: July 2005

Rice bran is an underused coproduct of rice milling. The value is partially captured through extraction and refining of the rice bran oil. The capital costs have limited the ability of the U.S. rice milling industry to capture this value. However, rice bran oil has performance properties competitive to other widely used oils. An additional advantage of rice bran oil is certainly its nutritional benefits, which include a balance of fatty acids meeting AHA recommendations. Rice oil contains a mixture of antioxidants and promotes cholesterol reduction beyond that of more unsaturated oils. Its taste and performance is complementary to salad, cooking, and frying applications.

This chapter reviews the source and composition of rice bran oil, its nutritional characteristics, production, and refining of the oil and its applications.
Frying Oils
Authors: Gupta Monoj K.
Published: July 2005

Fried foods have provided culinary delight to people worldwide for centuries. Modern day frying involves sophisticated equipment, techniques, ingredients, and packaging. This is because the industrial fried products require long shelf life for warehousing, distribution, and sale. Oil plays a great role in determining the storage stability quality of the fried product. Frying oil has been available to man in various parts of the world. Most of the time a specific oil has been selected for frying because it is locally available. Man also has moved from the crude expelled oils to refined oils as the oil technology advanced. In addition, the availability of most oils across the world has also increased due to improved transportation and storage systems developed over the years. Consumers have been exposed to the taste of products fried in different types of oil for quite sometime. Production of other than the indigenous oils has also become common where the local climate, soil conditions, and overall agronomy have been favorable to a particular type of oilseed or oil palm trees.
Dietary Lipids and Health
Authors: Watkins Bruce A. , Li Yong , Hennig Bernhard , Toborek Michal
Published: July 2005

Lipids are essential components of living organisms and support multiple biological and physiological functions in the human body. They serve as the structural building material of all membranes of cells and organelles. Lipids and their derivatives also serve as signaling molecules that facilitate a variety of physiological functions. In addition, lipids are recognized as important biomarkers of disease and are involved in several pathological conditions. Individual fatty acids can influence biological processes, such as membrane‐associated receptors and signal transduction systems, and ion channels. Recent literature also demonstrates a specific role of fatty acids in gene modulation and protein expression to influence risk of chronic disease. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are the focus of substantial research interest in this area mainly because of their ability to be converted to various bioactive regulatory molecules, such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. Arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n‐6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n‐3) are two major players in the regulation and production of these bioactive molecules. In addition, an absolute requirement of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is necessary for normal neural and retinal development in the infant and young child. Besides the study of these PUFA molecules, numerous animal and human studies also suggest that other dietary lipids, such as cholesterol and saturated fatty acids, increase serum cholesterol as well as LDL‐cholesterol concentrations. In summary, this chapter provides a contemporary understanding of food lipids in nutrition and health, especially the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of the actions of these bioactive dietary lipids.
Gamma Linolenic Acid Oils
Authors: Kapoor Rakesh , Nair Harikumar
Published: July 2005

Gamma linolenic acid (GLA, cis‐6, cis‐9, cis‐12‐octadecatrienoic acid) is a conditionally essential fatty acid of the n‐6 family. It is produced in the mammalian body from enzymatic desaturation of linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that must be supplied by the diet. It is widely distributed in plant kingdom in trace amounts and is not present in major commercial vegetable seed oils. It is present in seeds of many species belonging to families Aceraceae, Boraginaceae, Cannabinaceae, Liliaceae, Onagraceae, Ranunculaceae, Saxifragaceae, and Scrophulariaceae. A very limited number of plant sources have been commercialized in last 30 years as a source of GLA, mainly in the health food industry and, to a limited extent, in pharmaceutical, pet food, and cosmetic industries. These include oils of borage, black currant, evening primrose, and recently, hemp. The total market for GLA‐containing oils is about $60–$70 million per year.

Research on GLA in the last three decades has focused on the physiologic and pharmacologic effects, including its effects on second messenger system in the body. On the production side, the research focus is on identification of new sources and yield optimization. This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge about sources and nutritional and health benefits of GLA and attempts to identify areas for future research that will help develop markets for GLA.
Animal Fats
Authors: Haas Michael J.
Published: July 2005

The depot lipids of land animals have long been used by humans in edible and industrial applications and as ingredients for animal feeds. They differ from the lipids of temperate region plants in that they are solid at room temperature (and are therefore termed fats). This solidity is largely a result of their relatively higher content of saturated fatty acids and reduced content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The fatty acid contents and the arrangement of these constituent fatty acids within the acylglycerols of animal fats confer distinctive properties that lend these lipids to various applications. The major industrial animal fats are tallow, which is obtained from cattle (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries), and lard, which is produced by pigs (Sus scrofa). In some countries, poultry fat, obtained primarily from chickens (Gallus gallus), is also produced in substantial quantities. Finally, greases, which can be a lard product, consist of spent deep fat fryer lipids, or be derived from other types of waste lipids, are another major class of fats with industrial applications. Annual global production of tallow, grease, and lard was estimated at about 15 million metric tons at the turn of the millennium, with an annual rate of increase in production of approximately 1.5%. This constituted about 14% of the global total lipid production of 105 million metric tons. This chapter provides an overview of the structures, properties, types and classes, and industrial processing technologies of animal fats. Contemporary issues relating to and impacting animal fat usage include (1) concerns for their contribution to coronary disease when consumed as a dietary lipid, (2) their use as feedstocks for the production of diesel engine fuels (biodiesel), (3) the recent appearance of bovine spongifiorm encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle and its spread to humans, and (4) the discovery of the beneficial effects of the consumption of conjugated linoleic acid.
Frying of Foods and Snack Food Production
Authors: Gupta Monoj K.
Published: July 2005

Frying of food is an old and traditional means to prepare food quickly and enjoy the preparation for culinary delight. The frying technique has improved over the years and has evolved from kitchen frying to large‐scale industrial frying. Coated products, par‐fried products with or without seasoning, have become popular across the world. The fried products are packaged and distributed for sale. Innovation of the packaging technology has enabled the fried food industry to distribute the products that maintain freshness over an extended period.
Butter
Authors: Hettinga David
Published: July 2005

Butter is one of the oldest forms of preserving fat components of milk. Its manufacture dates back to some of the earliest historical records.

The evolution of the art of buttermaking has been associated with the development and use of equipment. The construction of creaming and buttermaking equipment in the eighteenth century led to the appearance of the barrel churn. Creaming was at first done by a method called shallow pan. This was followed by a deep‐setting system. This shortened process time and produced a better quality cream. In 1879, cream separators for fully continuous operation were produced. The Babcock test assisted in the development of the butter industry. This test determines the percentage of fat in milk and cream. Other developments included the use of pasteurization, the use of pure cultures of lactic acid and bacteria, and the use of refrigeration.

Multiple butter fat products include butter oils, anhydrous butter fat, butter fat‐vegetable oils, and fractionated butter fats. Preservation of butter fat today involves the processing of butter fat to anhydrous butter oil. Shelf life is improved because the butter oil is hermetically packaged under nitrogen.

Recent times have seen a decline in the consumption of butter. This decline contradicts all historical patterns for butter fat consumption. Reasons for decline are noted. This chapter provides data on chemical composition, marketing, technology, processing, quality, legal restrictions, and uses.
Soybean Oil
Authors: Hammond Earl G. , Johnson Lawrence A. , Su Caiping , Wang Tong , White Pamela J.
Published: July 2005

This chapter includes information on the composition of soybeans, soybean oil, and other soybean lipids, especially as affected by environment, variety, and genetic modification. Other topics discussed are the physical properties of soybean oil, grading of soybeans, oil extraction, and the effect of various extraction techniques on oil quality and the various soy protein ingredients. Basic refining and processing of soybean oil includes degumming, neutralization, bleaching, hydrogenation, and deodorization, but alternative refining methods are also discussed along with soybean refinery coproducts (lecithin, deodorizer distillate, and soapstock). The major uses of soybean oil are itemized and trading rules for crude and refined soybean oil are provided. The major food products produced from soybean oil are cooking and salad oils, frying fats, mayonnaise, margarine, shortening, confectionary and imitation dairy products, and “low‐calorie fat substitutes.” The oxidative quality of soybean oil is reviewed, including flavor reversion, factors affecting oil oxidation, measures of control and measures of finished oil quality, storage and handling, and special processing for off‐quality soybean oil. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the health aspects of soybean oil, including the health effects of cholesterol, unsaturated oils,trans‐isomers, and total fat intake.
Shortenings: Science and Technology
Authors: Metzroth Douglas J.
Published: July 2005

Shortening is commercially prepared edible fat used in frying, cooking, baking, and as an ingredient in fillings, icings, and confectionary items. It may have been named so because when dough is mixed, water‐soluble fat prevents cohesion of gluten strands, literally shortening them and thus generating tender baked goods. Shortening is typically a 100% fat product formulated with animal and/or vegetable oil. These oils have been processed for functionality (describes how well a product performs in a certain application), and to remove any undesirable flavor and aroma. Overall, shortening improves the texture and palatability of food products. Products with characteristics similar to shortening are discussed in this article, but only when similarities in raw material, usage, production methods, and equipment are similar to those of shortenings.

Formulations include concerns about crystalline nature of the fats, fatty acid distribution, fractionation, hydrogenation, and interesterification. Manufacturing and processing equipment are detailed. The many forms of shortenings, i.e., solid, liquid, high stability, all purpose, pourable, and special formulations, are discussed. Packaging and storage of the final products are presented.
Germ Oils from Different Sources
Authors: Dunford Nurhan Turgut
Published: July 2005

Plant germ oils of high nutritional quality can be obtained from cereal grains. Germ oil processing presents a challenge because of the high content of biologically active heat labile components. Physical refining methods improve retention of these compounds in the final product. Currently plant germ oils, except corn germ oil, are produced for specialty markets in the United States. However, increasing consumer demand for healthy food products may change the market trends in the future.

Several reviews have been published on wheat corn, and rice bran oils over the years. Therefore, this chapter, with sufficient background information, will emphasize the latest literature on composition, nutritional characteristics, and processing methods of plant germ oils.
Citrus Oils and Essences
Authors: Shahidi Fereidoon , Zhong Ying
Published: July 2005

Citrus fruits are among the most popular fruits nowadays and have a very long history of production and use. However, within the past century, industrial technologies began to develop in order to convert citrus fruits into commercial products. Each year, millions of tons of citrus fruits are delivered to factories for processing and juice production. Historically, the oldest citrus product is the oil. In ancient Sicily, where early Italian citrus industry had just been introduced, lemons were primarily grown for production of lemon oil, and juice was treated as a waste product until its later use for citric acid recovery. The early use of lemon and orange oils was mainly in perfumery and pharmaceuticals. With rapid development of science and technology, more areas of use of citrus oils were found, for which more detailed information on chemical composition and properties were required. The modern perfume and flavor industries have benefited from further research on citrus peel oil and essence. Besides, the yield of citrus seed oil has increased since citrus seeds were discovered as a new source of edible oil.
Safflower Oil
Authors: Smith Joseph
Published: July 2005

Safflower has a long history of cultivation. Some would class it as the world's oldest crop. Because safflower was introduced to many lands, it is known by a number of different names, for example, false saffron, benihana, safflor, thistle saffron, and so on.

Safflower is a plant of desert origin. Flowering takes place during the warmest part of the growing season. Most farming areas of the world receive some summer rains. If rains occur, then the safflower has a chance of surviving. However, the chances also increase for the plant to be attacked by various molds. The history and botanical description of safflower are detailed in this chapter.

Safflower seed consists of a tough fibrous hull that protects the kernel. Attempts have been made to produce commercial hybrids of safflower seed by exploiting heterosis to increase seed or oil content. Safflower oil is pale yellow to golden and exhibits the highest level of linoleic fatty acid of any commercial oil. This high level has made safflower oil attractive to consumers. Processing of the safflower to produce the oil is done in various stages: extraction, refining, bleaching, and deodorizing.

Marketing of safflower and the quality assessment of the seed and oil are discussed. Unique uses for safflower seeds include bird feed, ornamental plantings, food coloring, dyes, in medicinal products, and in cosmetics.
Margarine Processing Plants and Equipment
Authors: Alexandersen Klaus A.
Published: July 2005

When designing margarine processing plants and choosing the equipment to be installed, a wide range of considerations have to be made with regard to issues like actual processing, hygiene, sanitation, and efficiency. In margarine production, oils and fats usually are considered to be the most important raw materials used, as oils and fats are significant in relation to the characteristics of the finished margarine. The type of oils or fats used has a considerable influence on the crystallization characteristics during the margarine processing, which has to be considered when choosing the equipment involved in the processing line. The criteria involved in choosing this equipment are to a certain extent based on the knowledge about product characteristics, polymorphism, and crystal structure of the margarine and related products.

In this chapter, crystallization of oil and fat products, margarine processing equipment and packaging methods, processing methods, and specific process flows are discussed. Various oil types exhibiting interesting crystallization habits are reviewed along with certain specialized margarine or fat products. Storage of the finished products as well as production quality control and hygiene are also covered.
Supercritical Technologies for Further Processing of Edible Oils
Authors: Temelli Feral , Güçlü‐Üstündağ Özlem
Published: July 2005

Supercritical CO
2
(SCCO
2
) processing of fats and oils has been widely investigated because SCCO
2
offers an environmentally friendly alternative for the processing of fats and oils with added advantages such as moderate operating conditions and solvent‐free extracts and residues. From a processing perspective, a unique advantage of SCCO
2
processing lies in its versatility, which results from the ability to modify solvent properties by changing operating conditions (temperature and pressure) or by the addition of cosolvents. A good understanding of the fundamentals of solubility behavior of lipid components in SCCO
2
as affected by operating conditions and solute properties is required to realize its full potential in fats and oils processing. The operational flexibility offered by supercritical fluid technology enables the processor to fine tune solvent properties and to develop novel processes by the integration of unit operations of extraction, fractionation, and reaction to meet the process objectives. Supercritical fluid extraction, fractionation, and reaction protocols have been effectively used for the extraction and refining of oils, concentration of bioactive components from oils or oil byproducts, modification of physical properties of fats and oils, production of oleochemicals, and analytical applications.
Extrusion Processing of Oilseed Meals for Food and Feed Production
Authors: Riaz Mian N.
Published: July 2005

There are several different definitions of extrusion depending on the manufacturer as well as the purpose of the extrusion. For the purpose of this chapter, the best definition of extrusion can be explained as “continuous cooking under pressure, moisture and elevated temperature.” During the process of extrusion, several operations take place, such as grinding, hydration, mixing, shearing, thermal treatment, gelatinization, protein denaturation, destruction of micro‐organisms and some toxic compounds, shaping, expanding, and partial dehydration. The use of extruders has been expanding rapidly in the food, feed, and oilseed industries over the past few years, although basic extruder technology has been around for a long time. It has been used in one form or another in many industries. New designs of extrusion equipment have increased the range of their application in food, feed, and oilseed processing.
Hydrogenation: Processing Technologies
Authors: Farr Walter E.
Published: July 2005

There is a continued need for hydrogenation of many products, but the volume of oils hydrogenated is certain to decrease, even with a population increase. All consumers worldwide are going to develop more and more concern for improving their health and longevity. Thus, the consumption of hydrogenated oils, and oils naturally high in saturated fat, must decrease. The first step will be the elimination of
trans
‐fat in food products, because we now have the technology to do that. Removal of
trans
‐fat will allow us time to find ways to reduce saturated fat, and remove hydrogenation from many products.
Lipid Oxidation: Theoretical Aspects
Authors: Schaich K. M.
Published: July 2005

Lipid oxidation has long been accepted as a classic free radical chain reaction mechanism with initiation, propagation, and termination stages. This view is not inaccurate, but it is incomplete. Initiation is generally treated as if it was spontaneous or random, but in reality, radical initiation is quite specific and varies with the source. Similarly, propagation is considered to involve only hydrogen abstraction where as internal cyclization, addition, scission, and disproportionation reactions are competitive or even dominant under some conditions, leading to variations in oxidation kinetics and, in particular, product mixes. Alternative reaction paths have been recognized for some time, but remain largely ignored in measurements of lipid oxidation. This chapter reviews initiation processes with a focus on differentiating rates, mechanisms, and specificity of radical formation; and it presents evidence for multiple propagation mechanisms that lead to different product mixes. Finally, a new integrated view of lipid oxidation is proposed to account for multiple propagation pathways. Practical application of this information should enable development of analyses that more accurately reflect the true extent of lipid oxidation and also antioxidant approaches that more effectively extend shelf life and preserve desirable food qualities.
Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Use of Lipids
Authors: Hernandez Ernesto
Published: July 2005

Lipid nutritional supplements have been in use before the term
nutraceutical
was coined. Products such as fish oils, shark cartilage, shark liver oil, and vitamins have been in the market since the beginning of the twentieth century. Some of the health claims of these products lacked strict scientific documentation in the past, and their curative properties were mostly anecdotal. However, today there is a better understanding of the biological properties of lipids and their application has extended to combined pharmaceutical and cosmetic fields such as disease prevention and treatment, excipients and coadjuvants,
trans
‐dermal carriers, and skin emolliency agents. This has led to the development of bioactive cosmetic and pharmaceutical products whose name has recently been coined as
cosmeceuticals
.
Quality Assurance of Fats and Oils
Authors: Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: July 2005

The quality of fats and oils is dictated by several physical and chemical parameters that are dependent on the source of oil: geographic, climatic, and agronomic variables of growth in the case of plant oils as well as processing and storage conditions. Thus, quality assurance criteria may depend partly on the type of oil under investigation as well as on other factors that may vary depending on the intended use and regulations that vary from country.
By‐Product Utilization
Authors: Pickard M. D.
Published: July 2005

This chapter provides an overview of the by‐products of seed processing and oil refining. The various uses of soybean, canola, sunflower, palm, safflower, cottonseed, olive, coconut, flax, and more are examined along with their extraction processes. The latest improvements in the by‐products of oil refining, such as lecithin, refining by‐product lipid, spent bleaching earth, deodorizer distilate, and spent catalyst are also reviewed.
Membrane Processing of Fats and Oils
Authors: Lin Lan , Koseoglu S. Sefa
Published: July 2005

Membrane technology is a mature industry and has been successfully applied in various food industries for separation of undesirable fractions from the valuable components of the feed streams. The industrial membranes are classified into various categories such as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, and pervaporation.

The commercial membrane separation processes are offered in the areas of nitrogen production and waste treatment applications. Developing membrane applications in oil milling and edible oil processing are (1) solvent recovery, (2) degumming, (3) free fatty acid removal, (4) catalyst recovery, (5) recovery of wash water from second centrifuge, (6) cooling tower water recovery, (7) protein purification, and (8) tocopherol separation.

The greatest potential for energy saving exists in replacing or supplementing conventional degumming, refining, and bleaching processes with a single‐step membrane separation system. Therefore, this contribution will concentrate on membrane degumming applications and represents data on future implications of this technology for energy savings and waste treatment costs.
Transgenic Oils
Authors: McKeon Thomas A.
Published: July 2005

Currently, the four genetically engineered (transgenic) crops that have been adopted are all oilseed crops: soy, corn, cotton, and canola. They are a commercial success and account for 99% of transgenic crops planted worldwide.

Transgenic technology remains a powerful tool for developing a broad range of useful food and industrial oils. To date, attempts to use this technology have been limited to crop input traits, but in the long term, novel crops with altered output traits will fill important niches in the food supply and will help to shift the petroleum economy to renewable resources.
Effect of the enclosure on carriers' body weight loss in the cotton‐top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus)
Authors: Sánchez Susana , Peláez Fernando , Morcillo Ana , Gil‐Bürmann Carlos
Published: July 2005

Infant carrying in cotton‐top tamarins is a costly activity that results in weight loss by the fathers and helpers. However, to date, measures of carrying costs have been obtained in small indoor enclosures. We studied body weight changes in adult and subadult individuals from eight large groups (n>5) for 9 weeks after the birth of infants. Four groups were housed in large indoor/outdoor enclosures (42 m2×3.3 m high), and four were housed in small indoor enclosures (12 m2×2.4 m high). All of the individuals were weighed regularly at least three times a week. Reproductive males lost more weight in the big indoor/outdoor enclosures (mean=6.51%) than in the small indoor ones, as did male adult helpers (mean=5.59%) and female adult helpers (mean=4.4%). Still‐growing subadult individuals also lost weight in the big indoor/outdoor enclosures (mean=3.17%), although the differences did not reach significance (P=0.07). These results support the hypothesis that cotton‐top tamarins living in more natural settings experience higher weight loss than those housed under less‐natural conditions. Am. J. Primatol. 66:279–284, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
How Much NMR Data Is Required To Determine a Protein–Ligand Complex Structure?
Authors: Schieborr Ulrich , Vogtherr Martin , Elshorst Bettina , Betz Marco , Grimme Susanne , Pescatore Barbara , Langer Thomas , Saxena Krishna , Schwalbe Harald
Published: July 2005

Here we present an NMR‐based approach to solving protein–ligand structures. The procedure is guided by biophysical, biochemical, or knowledge‐based data. The structures are mainly derived from ligand‐induced chemical‐shift perturbations (CSP) induced in the resonances of the protein and ligand‐detected saturated transfer difference signals between ligands and selectively labeled proteins (SOS‐NMR). Accuracy, as judged by comparison with X‐ray results, depends on the nature and completeness of the experimental data. An experimental protocol is proposed that starts with calculations that make use of readily available chemical‐shift perturbations as experimental constraints. If necessary, more sophisticated experimental results have to be added to improve the accuracy of the protein–ligand complex structure. The criteria for evaluation and selection of meaningful complex structures are discussed. These are exemplified for three complexes, and we show that the approach bridges the gap between theoretical docking approaches and complex NMR schemes for determining protein–ligand complexes; especially for relatively weak binders that do not lead to intermolecular NOEs.
Metastatic osteosarcoma at diagnosis
Authors: Mialou Valerie , Philip Thierry , Kalifa Chantal , Perol David , Gentet Jean‐Claude , Marec‐Berard Perrine , Pacquement Helene , Chastagner Pascal , Defaschelles Anne‐Sophie , Hartmann Olivier
Published: July 2005

BACKGROUND

The objective of this report was to estimate long‐term outcome and prognostic factors in children and adolescents who presented with metastatic osteosarcoma at diagnosis. Patients were treated in six French pediatric oncology centers with surgery and multiagent chemotherapy, mainly with high‐dose methotrexate. Their medical records were reviewed retrospectively.

METHODS

The medical records of patients who were treated for metastatic osteosarcoma from 1987 to 2000 were reviewed. Patients were treated with the chemotherapy regimens recommended for nonmetastatic disease in children (the French Society of Pediatric Oncology OS 87 and OS 94 protocols) or, in a few patients, with other chemotherapy regimens. Surgical excision of the primary tumor and, when possible, of all metastatic sites was performed based on a personalized assessment of each patient's situation.

RESULTS

Seventy‐eight patients age < 20 years were treated. Forty‐six patients (59%) had only 1 metastatic site (35 to the lungs and 11 to bone). Twenty‐eight patients (36%) achieved a complete remission after combination chemotherapy and surgery. The event‐free survival and overall survival rates at 5 years were 14% and 19%, respectively. To date, 14 patients (18%) have remained alive with a median follow‐up of 112 months. Pretreatment features associated with a shorter event‐free survival in the multivariate analysis were metastasis to at least two organs and high alkaline phosphatase level. Patients with at least 1 of these poor prognostic factors had a 2.6% event‐free survival rate at 5 years despite treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The survival of patients with metastatic osteosarcoma were treated with conventional chemotherapy and surgery remained very poor. Patients should be classified into different prognostic groups and treated accordingly. New therapeutic approaches are warranted to improve the prognosis for patients with the most severe disease. Cancer 2005. © 2005 American Cancer Society.
The electronic nose as a tool for the classification of fruit and grape wines from different Ontario wineries
Authors: McKellar Robin C , Vasantha Rupasinghe HP , Lu Xuewen , Knight Kelley P
Published: July 2005

Electronic nose technology is useful for classifying or ‘fingerprinting’ foods and beverages based on odour profiles. With a view to providing useful information on quality attributes, the Fox 3000 electronic nose (EN) was tested for the ability to characterize Ontario‐produced fruit wines. Eight fruit wines (blueberry, cherry, raspberry, blackcurrant, elderberry, cranberry, apple and peach) and four grape wines (red, Chardonnay, Riesling and ice wine) were each obtained from a minimum of five Ontario wineries. Replicates of each wine sample were dried onto membrane filters to remove ethanol, and analyzed by the EN. It was possible to separate completely each wine variety (eg blueberry) based on differences between wineries; however, when all wine data were pooled, classification by variety was poor (58.7% correctly classified). Analysis of different wine varieties from a single winery revealed some misclassification. Wines could be separated into four distinct groups based on position on the discriminant function analysis map (79.9% correct). Fruit and grape wines were well separated from each other (75.9% correct), as were red and white wines (92.2% correct). The results show that the EN can discriminate fruit and grape wines into natural and useful groupings and may become an important tool for standardization of wine quality. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry