bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Optimizing the Online Channel in Professional Sport to Create Trusting and Loyal Consumers: The Role of the Professional Sports Team Brand and Service Quality
Authors: Carlson Jamie , O'Cass Aron
Published: August 2016

How professional team-based sport organizations can optimize their e-service platform and manage their brand in an increasingly multichannel marketing environment is a critical issue. This study examines how sports consumers’ (i.e., fans’) perceptions of e-service quality, brand strength, and image congruency between the sport brands’ offline image and online image affects the development of consumers’ trust in the team’s website. In addition, the study explores the role of team website trust in developing team website loyalty, as well the role of loyalty in actual purchase frequency from the teams’ website. Data were collected via an online survey of sports consumers of e-services delivered by professional sport teams. The results indicate that sport team brand strength, followed by teams website e-service quality and brand image congruency between the teams online and offline activity are significant determinants of trust in the teams’ website, with online trust strongly influencing website loyalty intentions.
Leaders and Followers: An Exploration of the Notion of Scale-Free Networks Within a New Brand Community
Authors: Katz Matthew , Heere Bob
Published: August 2016

The authors explore the formation of a new brand community to increase our understanding of the development of particular social networks within this overall new community. An ethnographic study was conducted among four tailgating groups of a new college team during its inaugural season. The method was chosen to gain insight into how individual consumers interacted with each other and how these early interactions contributed to the development of a brand community. To examine these interactions, social network theory was used to examine the relationships between the individuals within a larger group setting. Adopting this theoretical approach allowed the authors to observe that newly created groups follow the principles of scale-free networks, where some consumers act as leaders and others as followers. The implications for both highly committed leaders and noncommittal followers within each social network are discussed.
Sport Sponsorship: The Relationship Between Team Loyalty, Sponsorship Awareness, Attitude Toward the Sponsor, and Purchase Intentions
Authors: Biscaia Rui , Correia Abel , Rosado Antonio Fernando , Ross Stephen D. , Maroco João
Published: August 2016

Sponsorship studies have generally been focused on attitudinal measures of fan loyalty to understand the reactions to abstract sponsors. This study examines the relationships between both attitudinal and behavioral loyalty with sponsorship awareness, attitude toward two actual sponsors, and purchase intentions. Data were collected among fans of a professional soccer team, and the results of a structural equation model provide evidence that attitudinal loyalty impacts the attitude toward both sponsors and purchase intentions. Behavioral loyalty influences sponsorship awareness, and impacts differently the attitude and purchase intentions toward each sponsor. Sponsorship awareness influences significantly the attitude toward both sponsors, while the attitude toward the sponsor was the strongest predictor of purchase intentions. These findings highlight the importance of examining actual sponsors and suggest managerial implications, such as the need for sponsors to help attract fans to the stadium and to design additional activation strategies to improve sponsorship value.
Relationship between Computer Resistance and Worker characteristics in the Sport industry: An Exploratory Analysis
Authors: McNamara Brian
Published: August 2016

This study sought to identify factors associated with computer resistance for employees within subsets of three segments of the sport industry. Seven hypotheses were developed to test the relationship between computer resistance and various independent variables, including assorted demographic factors and an employee’s background. Prior hands-on computer experience was the most important determinant of the extent of computer resistance. Another important determinant was age, with younger employees being less computer resistant than older employees. Other characteristics associated with computer resistance included number of years in present employment and exposure to computer education.
Defining Quality: Should Educators in Sport Management Programs Be Concerned about Accreditation?
Authors: Fielding Lawrence W. , Pitts Brenda G. , Miller Lori K.
Published: August 2016

This paper explores concepts about educational quality, accreditation, and assessment as they relate to sport management programs. It reports, analyzes, and synthesizes the results of a survey sent to teaching professionals associated with sport management programs. Accreditation and its alternatives are discussed in addition to the issue of professional responsibility for ensuring educational quality. Levels and degrees of professional responsibility are considered.
Male and Female Coaches of Women’s Athletic Teams: Reasons for Entering and Leaving the Profession
Authors: Pastore Donna L.
Published: August 2016

During the past two decades the number of female athletes has increased while the number of female coaches has declined. The purpose of this study was to determine the reasons why NCAA Division I male and female coaches of women’s athletic teams enter and leave the profession. The findings indicate that coaches enter the profession to remain in competitive athletics and would leave the profession to spend more time with family and friends. Further research in this area is recommended to determine solutions to the problem of the declining number of female coaches.
Characteristics of Athletic Directors of Historically Black Colleges and Universities
Authors: Quarterman Jerome
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was twofold: (a) to identify age, gender, educational background, athletic playing experience, teaching experience, coaching experience, and administrative experience of athletic directors (ADs) of historically black colleges and universities {HBCUs), and (b) to compare these data with data collected in previous studies on ADs of predominantly white colleges and universities. A 20-item questionnaire was designed, and copies were mailed to the 80 ADs of the HBCUs listed in the 1988-1989 National Directory of College Athletics. Fifty-five (68.8%) ADs returned the questionnaire; of these, 53 were black males, 1 was a black female, and 1 was a white male. Although the results revealed that ADs of HBCUs possessed many of the characteristics of ADs of predominantly white colleges and universities, there were differences found between the ADs of this study and those of earlier studies: (a) ADs of HBCUs were, on the average, 5 years younger in age, (b) a higher percentage of ADs of HBCUs held master's and doctorate degrees, (c) a higher percentage of ADs of HBCUs currently had teaching and/or coaching responsibilities, and (d) the median salary ranges were lower for ADs of HBCUs than for ADs of predominantly white colleges and universities. As was the case in earlier studies, few ADs held degrees in sport administration,
The Manager's Role in the Development and Maintenance of Ethical Behavior in the Sport Organization
Authors: Kjeldsen Erik
Published: August 2016

This essay uses role analysis and a social systems perspective to examine the sport manager as the key actor in initiating and reinforcing a program designed to nurture ethical behaviors on the part of members of sport organizations. Theoretical foundations are identified, the context is defined, and practical suggestions for ethically oriented behaviors are drawn from the analysis. Further understanding of potential managerial actions and targets for those actions are generated by examining how managers carry out the functions of teacher, administrator, and/or legislator within the organization.
Searching for Sociability in the Stands: A Theory of Sports Spectating
Authors: Melnick Merrill J.
Published: August 2016

It is argued that the social forces of urbanization, individualism, interpersonal competition, technology, and geographical mobility have brought greater and greater numbers of strangers into people's everyday lives and have made the achievement of primary, social ties with relatives, friends, neighbors, and workmates more difficult. As a result, many are forced to satisfy their needs for sociability in less personal, less intimate, less private ways. It is proposed that sports spectating has emerged as a major urban structure where spectators come together not only to be entertained but to enrich their social psychological lives through the sociable, quasi-intimate relationships available. The changing nature of the sociability experience in America presents sport managers with interesting challenges and opportunities. A number of recommendations are offered for maximizing the gemeinschaft possibilities of sports spectating facilities. By giving greater attention to the individual and communal possibilities of their events, sport managers can increase spectator attendance while rendering an important public service.
Marital and Other Primary Dyadic Relationships of Intercollegiate Athletics Administrators
Authors: Parks Janet B. , Russell Ronald L. , Wood Peter H.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate marital and other primary dyadic relationships of intercollegiate athletics administrators at the 106 NCAA Division IA institutions (N = 1072). The Spanier Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976, 1989) was used to assess perceptions of the quality of dyadic relationships among administrators who were either married or in unmarried, cohabiting partnerships (n = 402). Application of independent samples t tests, with alpha adjusted from .05 to .003 by Bonferroni's contrasting procedure, revealed that (a) there was a significant difference between Dyadic Cohesion scores of athletics administrators and the married norm group (p < .001), and (b) female athletics administrators produced significantly higher scores in Dyadic Cohesion than did male athletics administrators (p < .003). Future research should include an investigation of dyadic adjustment of the mates/partners of intercollegiate athletics administrators to facilitate comparisons of the two perceptions of the relationship.
Operative Goals of Interuniversity Athletics: Perceptions of Athletics Administrators in Nigeria
Authors: Onifade Ademola
Published: August 2016

This paper examined athletics administrators' perceptions of the operative goals of interuniversity athletics in Nigeria. The study also analyzed the rankings of operative goals by subgroups based on age, educational qualification, competitive sport experience, and present job title. Data for the study were collected with the Scale of Athletic Priorities (Chelladurai, Inglis, & Danylchuk, 1984), which measures nine operative goals of interuniversity athletics. All groups were congruent in ranking prestige, public relations, athletes' personal growth, and entertainment as the four top objectives. These results were similar to those reported in the literature.
Collegiate Athletics and the Unrelated Business Income Tax
Authors: Craig Caroline Kern , Weisman Karen
Published: August 2016

In recent years, many university athletic programs have turned to program and scoreboard advertisements, corporate sponsorships, and other nontraditional sources of revenue to supplement their operating budgets. As confirmed by several high-profile court cases, these nontraditional revenue sources can be subject to federal unrelated business income tax—-a consequence often overlooked by athletic administrators and those involved in sport management programs. This article discusses the unrelated business income tax and its impact on collegiate athletic programs. Court cases and Internal Revenue Service pronouncements are reviewed, where applicable. Compliance and planning issues are also briefly addressed.
The Structure of Funding in Canadian Interuniversity Athletics
Authors: Armstrong-Doherty Alison
Published: August 2016

Increasing financial constraints have led athletic directors in Canadian universities to consider alternative sources of funding to supplement traditional university and student support. A profile of the current structure of athletic funding was developed to provide a better understanding of who is paying for interuniversity athletics and to address concerns about the possible implications of this support. Athletic directors at 34 Canadian universities reported the amounts of financial resources received from various sources during the previous fiscal year; the amount from each source was calculated as a percentage of the total athletic budget. The results indicate that the majority of funding for interuniversity athletics continues to be secured from university funds and/or student fees, although a decline in the former was noted. An increase in the percentage of funding from internal revenues generated by the athletic department was observed. However, funding from nonuniversity sources continues to be relatively minimal.
Baseball Front Office Careers: Expectations and Realities
Authors: Hofacre Susan , Branvold Scott
Published: August 2016

Two hundred sixty-one participants in a baseball career seminar and 90 minor league front office personnel were surveyed to examine (a) what characteristics are viewed as important for a front office career in baseball and (b) how job seekers' expectations correspond to what people working in baseball say is reality. Experience and contacts were seen by both groups as important for entering the field, and both groups viewed speaking, time management, and organizational skills as necessary abilities. Enjoyable work was ranked highest as part of a baseball career by both job seekers and baseball personnel, while free time was ranked lowest as an outcome from such a career. Spearman Rho analysis reflected that expectations of job seekers correspond to baseball personnel rankings in terms of relative importance of various skills and job characteristics. However, Z-test comparisons showed job seekers score several skills higher in absolute importance than front office personnel do, including knowledge of baseball and general sports, and several job characteristics as more likely to exist, including job stability and good salary.
Dimensions of Coaching Performance: Development of a Scale
Authors: MacLean Joanne C. , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to define the dimensions of coaching performance for coaches and to develop a scale to measure those dimensions. The literature-based model used in this study espoused the use of three broad categories—behavioral product factors, behavioral process factors related to the task, and behavioral process factors related to maintenance of the organization. Each of these broad categories was further subdivided into two classes to yield a model of six dimensions of coaching performance. The dimensions explored were (a) team products, (b) personal products, (c) direct task behaviors, (d) indirect task behaviors, (e) administrative maintenance behaviors, and (f) public relations behaviors. Seventy-seven administrators and 363 coaches from Canadian Intercollegiate Athletic Union institutions responded to the coaching performance scale for the purposes of this study. Item-to-total correlations, confirmatory factor analysis, and internal consistency estimates supported the conceptual model and yielded a psychometrically sound Scale of Coaching Performance (SCP).
Is Liberal Feminism Working in the NCAA?
Authors: Lovett Dorothy J. , Lowry Carla D.
Published: August 2016

This study sought to describe the degree of success of a basic tenet of liberal feminism in providing equal opportunity as defined by female representation in the NCAA. The study showed how the NCAA is reflective of an association that is an instrument of domination. The purpose of the study was to determine the number of women holding leadership positions at the campus level in NCAA labeled functions. These data were compared with similar 1987-88 data. In addition, male and female representatives at the national level on committees and councils were compared to similar data collected in 1987-88. A gender comparison was made with the 1992-93 data involving NCAA national committees. The data revealed that there were significantly more males than females on NCAA national committees in 1992-93. The results of χ2 tests between years and female representation revealed no significant increase in female representation between 1987 and 1993; however, there was an increase in female representation beyond the mandated percentage required by NCAA bylaws.
Seeking Equitable Distribution of Opportunities for Intercollegiate Athletic Participation between the Sexes
Authors: Wilde T. Jesse
Published: August 2016

The article explores one of the key issues currently confronting collegiate athletic administrators, that is, how to equitably distribute opportunities to participate in intercollegiate athletics between male and female students. After reviewing relevant legal principles, the article examines selected gender equity initiatives proposed or adopted by colleges and universities and by various governing athletic organizations. In conclusion, the article presents a “Three-for-One” proposal designed to provide athletic administrators with a practical and achievable plan for satisfying the athletic interests and abilities of both sexes on campus.
Multidimensional Scaling of Sport Personality Data: An Individual Differences Approach
Authors: Fisher A. Craig
Published: August 2016

An individual differences approach to multidimensional scaling is outlined from the perspective of the modern interactional paradigm. The applicability of the individual differences model to anxiety research in sport settings is demonstrated. The model offers the advantage that both individual athlete data and group athlete data are revealed in the analysis simultaneously, without either analysis restricting the other. Representations of the structure in sport anxiety data matrices are unlocked by the individual differences model. Additional applications of the model to sport psychology research topics are offered.
School Sport Socialization: A Test of Differential Effects for Disadvantaged Youth
Authors: McElroy Mary A.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the role of athletic participation in affecting educational aspirations of disadvantaged youth, namely, those students for whom traditional opportunities for developing educational motivations have been restrictive. Using Coleman's leading crowd theory, it was hypothesized that disadvantaged students who were members of the interscholastic sports program would be exposed to a positive peer-group influence unavailable to their nonathletic counterparts. A national representative sample of 1,799 male high school seniors from the Youth in Transition project were used. Disadvantaged youth were defined in terms of social background and school attitudinal/behavioral factors. An interaction-regression modeling strategy for educational aspirations indicated that the interaction models did not significantly contribute to the explanation of educational aspirations. These findings resulted in the conclusion that sport participation's impact on educational aspirations was not greater for disadvantaged youth. It was suggested that the incorporation of social and psychological factors of socialization into more complex sport models is necessary in order to assess the true impact of sport participation on educational concerns.
Self-serving Biases in the Competitive Sport Setting: An Attributional Dilemma
Authors: Scanlan Tara K. , Passer Michael W.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this field study was to examine the effects of game win-loss and margin of victory or defeat on postgame attributions. Male competitive soccer players (N= 160) were asked to attribute causality for their teams' win or loss and for their individual performance during the game to the internal factors of ability and effort and to the external factors of opponent difficulty and luck. It was proposed that, in sport, self-esteem protecting biases could be constrained by the emphasis placed on internal causal determinants of performance, and by situational norms which limit the acceptability of external attributions. In accordance with these contentions, the findings showed that although winning players attributed greater causality to internal factors than did losers, losing players still assessed internal attributes to be the most important determinants of game outcome and personal performance. Further, losers were not more external in their causal ascriptions than winners. The margin of victory or defeat did not affect players' causal attributions or their judgments of how much ability, effort, difficulty with the opponent, and luck they personally had in the game. The margin of outcome did impact players' judgments regarding how much of these attributes their team had demonstrated during the game.
Convergent and Incremental Effects of Cohesion on Attributions for Self and Team
Authors: Bird Anne Marie , Foster Constance D. , Maruyama Geoffrey
Published: August 2016

Midseason and postseason measures taken from female collegiate basketball players provided information about their perception of team cohesion, personal and team success, and attributions for their own and their team's performance. First, it was hypothesized that players from highly cohesive teams show more consistency between self and team attributions than players from teams with low cohesion. This prediction received partial support, in that at the end of their season, players on cohesive teams demonstrated greater convergence between attributions for self and team than did players from less cohesive teams. Players associated with less cohesive teams made greater luck attributions and lesser task attributions for their performance than for the performance of their team. No significant differences were found for either effort or ability attributions. The second hypothesis predicted that cohesion influences players' team attributions over and above any influence of team outcome. Only for unsuccessful teams did cohesion affect attributions independently of team outcome. Finally, Schlenker and Miller's (1977b) notion of “fairness” in self-attributions as a function of high cohesion was explored.
Winners' and Losers' Attributions for Success and Failure in a Series of Athletic Events
Authors: Bukowski William M. , Moore DeWayne
Published: August 2016

Boys who participated in a series of athletic events as part of their activities at an overnight camp evaluated the importance of possible causes for success and failure in these events. These reasons included the four traditional attributions of ability, effort, luck and task difficulty, and other attributions suggested in previous person-perception studies of the causes of outcomes in achievement-related tasks. The results indicated the following: (a) two of the traditional attributions (luck and difficulty) were perceived as having little importance, (b) success was attributed to internal factors whereas failure was attributed to external factors, (c) the differences between the winners and losers provided little evidence for the presence of a self-serving bias in their evaluations of the items, and (d) the differences between actors and observers were not entirely consistent with the hypothesis that actors attribute outcomes to situational factors and observers attribute the same outcomes to dispositional factors. These results are discussed in light of possible confounds in the experimental design and previous attribution research in sport.
Sex Bias in Evaluating Motor Activity: General or Task-specific Performance Expectancy?
Authors: Brawley L. R. , Powers R. C. , Phillips K. A.
Published: August 2016

This experiment examined if a general expectancy for male superiority biased subjective evaluation of motor performance. Alternatively, sex bias could be specific to tasks involving muscular work. If the former, rather than the latter explanation is viable, a bias favoring males would be generalized to a task not obviously sex typed: motor accuracy. Observers, 22 of each sex, watched the softball pitching accuracy of performers of both sexes. Performer accuracy was trained and tested to ensure equality. Observers estimated preperformance accuracy, then observed three throws, estimating postperformance after each. Unlike the muscular endurance experiments, neither preperformance nor postperformance analysis revealed a sex bias. Thus a task-specific expectancy rather than general expectancy for male superiority was suggested to explain evaluation sex bias of previous muscular endurance experiments. Surprisingly, mean error magnitude of postperformance estimates was significantly greater for performers observed second than those viewed first, although actual performer accuracy was not different. This finding appears analogous to psychophysical judgment results in which successive stimulus judgments were conditions sufficient to cause estimation error. Suggestions are made for future research.
Psychological Characteristics of Successful and Nonsuccessful Big Ten Wrestlers
Authors: Gould Daniel , Weiss Maureen , Weinberg Robert
Published: August 2016

Wrestlers (N=49) competing in the 1980 Big Ten championship tournament completed a psychological skills inventory assessing psychological factors used in both training and competition. The relationships between 22 cognitive variables and two performance measures (tournament placement and seasonal won-loss record) were then examined using t-tests and discriminant function analyses. The findings revealed that self-confidence, maximum potential, and use of attentional focusing were the most important variables separating the groups. Specifically, successful wrestlers as compared to less successful wrestlers were more self-confident, indicated that they were closer to achieving their maximum wrestling potential, and more frequently focused their attention only on wrestling-related thoughts prior to competition. Unlike the previous studies, few differences in anxiety level or in coping responses to anxiety were evident between the successful and less successful wrestlers. Limitations of the design used in this type of research are discussed and suggestions for more controlled field experiments examining self-confidence and attentional control intervention techniques are outlined.
Sex Differences in the Aspects of Team Sport Participation Viewed as Enjoyable
Authors: Cacioppo John T. , Lowell Charlotte A.
Published: August 2016

Eight situations dealing with team sports were described to 63 male and 63 female undergraduates. Each situation depicted a team competition involving same-sex members, and subjects were told specifically about the affiliation, acquaintance, and skill of one of the participants. Subjects indicated how enjoyable they viewed each of the eight sports situations, how many years they had participated in team sports, and how much experience they had in team sport competition. The results suggested that men and women similarly enjoyed aspects of team sport participation that improved their chances of winning and interacting cooperatively with friends, but men seemed to enjoy the ego-challenging aspects of team sports more than women.
Assertiveness Training for Coaches: The Issue of Healthy Communication between Coaches and Players
Authors: Miller Thomas W.
Published: August 2016

Communicative dimensions of the coach/player relationship can have a pro-found impact on the self-esteem of the adolescent personality involved in sport activities. Assertiveness training as a part of standardized coaching clinics can be an important ingredient in improving the coach/player relationship. A n assertiveness training module is outlined with emphasis on a specific precept cognitive model which has been shown to improve the quality of interpersonal communication. It has favorable applicability to the coach/player interaction. Issues of import for future research together with measures to assess the effectiveness of assertiveness training for coaches are discussed.
Assessment and Treatment of Adult Observer Verbalizations at Youth League Baseball Games
Authors: Walley Page B. , Graham George M. , Forehand Rex
Published: August 2016

In response to a local youth sport organization's request, this study was designed to assess and, if necessary, modify the verbalizations made by adult observers of youth league (i.e., T-ball) baseball games toward the athletes, officials, and other observers. In a multiple baseline design across the observers of three teams, verbalizations were rated for content (i.e., positive, neutral, negative), target (i.e., child's team, umpire, opposing team, fan), and precipitating event (e.g., homerun, fly out) over a six-game season. Baseline results revealed that 3.42% of the observed intervals were composed of positive verbalizations, 7.50% of neutral, .28% of negative, and 88.80% of no statement. Following baseline, a self-instructional treatment utilizing a series of leaflets distributed across games was implemented to increase positive verbalizations. Treatment did not increase positive verbalizations; however, a follow-up questionnaire indicated that adult observers believed the leaflets had resulted in their increasing their frequency of positive verbalizations. Results are discussed in terms of the role of adult expectations of performance, attention given to low frequency occurrence of negative verbalizations, and future intervention strategies.
Attribution Theory in Sport: Current Status and New Perspectives
Authors: Rejeski W. Jack , Brawley Lawrence R.
Published: August 2016

In adopting attribution theory, researchers in the field of sport psychology have followed the cognitive perspectives characteristic of mainstream investigations in this area. Numerous investigations regarding the self-perception of achievement outcomes in sport reveal this trend. The present article discusses the sport psychological perspective of attribution theory in terms of present and future concerns. First, a critical evaluation of existing approaches to the study of sport attribution is presented. The discussion outlines the typical characteristics of such investigations and their problems, some inherited from psychology and others unique to sport. This critical analysis underscores the narrowness of previous interests. Second, the broad scope of attribution is presented to emphasize the wealth of research problems that could be studied, in addition to those concerning self-focus on achievement outcomes. Third, recent investigations of attribution in sport are briefly described to exemplify new research directions. These examples sketch the importance of subjects' phenomenology, the situational and internal variables affecting attributions, and a developmental comment. If future studies recognize the rich array of social inference problems within the sport context and confront previous investigative errors, the result should be a productive decade of attribution research in sport psychology.
Developmental Sport Psychology: A Theoretical Perspective for Studying Children In Sport
Authors: Weiss Maureen R. , Bredemeier Brenda Jo
Published: August 2016

A developmental theoretical approach is recommended as the most appropriate framework from which to study children's psychosocial experiences in sport. This perspective provides the best understanding of children's sport behaviors by focusing on ontogenetic changes in cognitive abilities which help to describe and explain behavioral variations among individuals. A content analysis of sport psychological research conducted on children and youth over the last decade reveals that few studies selected age groups for investigation that were based on underlying cognitive-developmental criteria. Thus, recommendations emanating from these studies may be misleading or inaccurate. Examples of developmental research from the psychological and sport psychological literature are provided to illustrate the potential for conducting further research on the psychosocial development of children in sport. Finally, guidelines for implementing a systematic line of research in sport psychology from a developmental perspective are outlined.
Athletic Maturity and Preferred Leadership
Authors: Chelladurai P. , Carron A.V.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to determine if preferences of athletes for training and instruction (task-oriented) behavior and social support (relationship-oriented) behavior would vary with athletic maturity (operationalized in terms of level of competition). Basketball players from high school midget (n = 67), junior (n = 63), and senior (n = 63) divisions and university (n = 69) completed the “preferred leader behavior” version of the Leadership Scale for Sports. Trend analyses revealed the presence of a quadratic trend in preference for training and instruction which progressively decreased from high school midget, through junior to senior levels and increased at the university level; however, the direction of this trend was opposite to that predicted. A linear trend was obtained for social support which progressively increased from the high school midget level to the university level but, again, it was in a direction opposite than that predicted. It was noted that future research should incorporate both a wide range of competition levels and groups with markedly different levels of success in order to determine the interrelationship between leadership preference and athletic maturity. It was also noted, however, that sport as a social system may not afford athletes an opportunity to achieve athletic maturity.
Social Psychological Aspects of Competition for Male Youth Sport Participants: I. Predictors of Competitive Stress
Authors: Scanlan Tara K. , Lewthwaite Rebecca
Published: August 2016

This field study investigated the influence and stability of individual difference and situational factors on the competitive stress experienced by 9- to 14-year-old wrestlers. Stress was assessed by the children's form of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory and was measured immediately before and after each of two consecutive tournament matches. Wrestlers' dispositions, characteristic precompetition cognitions, perceptions of significant adult influences, psychological states, self-perceptions, and competitive outcomes were examined as predictors of pre- and postmatch anxiety in separate multiple regression analyses for each tournament round. The most influential and stable predictors of prematch stress for both matches were competitive trait anxiety and personal performance expectancies, while win-loss and fun experienced during the match predicted postmatch stress for both rounds. In addition, prematch worries about failure and perceived parental pressure to participate were predictive of round 1 prematch stress. Round 1 postmatch stress levels predicted stress after round 2, suggesting some consistency in children's stress responses. In total, 61 and 35% of prematch and 41 and 32% of postmatch state anxiety variance was explained for rounds 1 and 2, respectively.
Addressing the Cognitive and Affective Needs of College Athletes: Effects of Group Counseling on Self-Esteem, Reading Skills, and Coaches' Perceptions of Attitude
Authors: Cooker Philip G. , Caffey Carol A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of group counseling on the self-esteem, athletic attitude, and reading skills of freshman, sophomore, and junior male athletes at the University of Mississippi. The study focused on the personal growth of athletes through the affective domain as well as the cognitive domain; it particularly examined group counseling in relation to the self-esteem of athletes and their attitude on the playing field as perceived by the coaches. The secondary focus of the study was to determine the effects of group counseling on reading rate, reading comprehension, and reading efficiency of athletes. The rationale for the study was based on the recent emphasis in sport psychology of treating athletes from a developmental and humanistic base. Group counseling was chosen as the mode of treatment, based on potential interactive effects of peer perception with facilitation by trained leaders.
Performer Perceptions of Movement Confidence
Authors: Griffin Norma S. , Keogh Jack F. , Maybee Richard
Published: August 2016

The initial study of movement confidence as a construct attempted to answer the research questions of whether confidence is more than competence and whether the determinants of confidence vary in relation to the movement situation. The study was designed as a preliminary examination of these two concerns in terms of the three components-competence, potential for enjoying moving sensations, and potential for harm—which were proposed in the model for movement confidence. Factor and regression analyses of data from 352 college students indicated that movement confidence is more than competence, and the determinants of movement confidence seem to vary in relation to movement situations and possibly in relation to gender. The major contribution of perceived level of confidence generally is a personal feeling of competence. The precise contributions of additional modifiers cannot be specified at present.
Female Physical Estimation and Attraction to Physical Activity
Authors: Fox Kenneth R. , Corbin Charles B. , Couldry William H.
Published: August 2016

The Psychological Model for Physical Activity Participation and the Physical Estimation and Attraction Scales (PEAS) were developed by Sonstroem using adolescent male subjects. This study investigated the adequacy of the model and instrument for explaining the involvement of college-age females in physical activity. Results indicated that although the model worked similarly for both sexes, there were important differences. Attraction to physical activity, as measured by the Attraction scale, does not contribute to the model for the females in this study, but it does for males. Physical estimation emerged as a key factor, particularly for females, in its relationship with self-esteem, fitness, and physical activity levels. The Estimation Scale appears to be a reliable and powerful instrument for assessing this construct. Future application and development of the model and scales is discussed.
Modeling and Self-Efficacy: A Test of Bandura's Model
Authors: McAuley Edward
Published: August 2016

Female undergraduate students (N - 39) were assigned to one of three conditions: aided participant modeling (APM), unaided participant modeling (UPM), or a control group followed by practice trials of a gymnastic skill. Subjects in both modeling groups reported higher self-efficacy expectations and lower anxiety ratings than the control group following treatment. The aided participant modeling group scored higher on the performance measure than did the unaided participant modeling group, and both modeling groups scored higher than the control group. Path analytic techniques were employed to test the fit of the data to Bandura's (1977a) self-efficacy model and an anxiety reduction model. Self-efficacy was a significant predictor of skill performance, but the anxiety-performance path was nonsignificant. Although Bandura's model did not fully explain the fit of the data to the fully recursive model, it proved to be a more parsimonious explanation of behavior change than was the anxiety reduction model. Despite the limitations imposed on the data by the small sample size, the present study suggests that self-efficacy is an influential determinant of motor skill acquisition.
Self-Disclosure to Male and Female Coaches by Female High School Athletes
Authors: Officer Sara A. , Rosenfeld Lawrence B.
Published: August 2016

This investigation examined the effects of sport team membership and coach's gender on the self-disclosing behavior of high school female varsity athletes. Results indicated that the athletes disclosed the same amount to their male and female coaches and that this was less than they disclosed to either parent or to friends of either sex. Also, athletes on cross-country teams disclosed more than did those on gymnastic, volleyball, and basketball teams. Finally, patterns of disclosure to male and female coaches were found to differ. First, topics of disclosure to female coaches were concerned primarily with self-concept development and role clarification, whereas topics of disclosure to male coaches were concerned primarily with school matters and interaction with significant males. Second, although amount of disclosure to the female coach was positively correlated with the athlete's disclosure to strangers, disclosure to the male coach was positively correlated with her disclosure to friends. Implications for the coach/athlete relationship are discussed.
Multimodal Effects of Electromyographic Biofeedback: Looking at Children's Ability to Control Precompetitive Anxiety
Authors: Blais Marc R. , Vallerand Robert J.
Published: August 2016

This study assessed the multimodal effects of electromyographic biofeedback on highly trait-anxious subjects, boys who scored in the upper quartile of the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT). Subjects participated in a bogus sport competitive tournament and participated individually in six laboratory sessions that consisted of a practice session and five matches. Each session comprised an adaptation period and three games separated by three rest periods. Biofeedback or placebo condition was administered during the rest periods. Frontalis EMG, heart rate, and respiratory rate were measured at the end of a rest period and immediately before every game (i.e., stress periods). State anxiety (STAIC; Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) was measured before every game, and game performance was also recorded. Results from a MANOVA combining the three physiological variables revealed significant variations between rest and stress periods but no significant group differences. Results from univariate repeated measures ANCOVAs on all dependent variables revealed that the biofeedback group was superior to the placebo group in reducing frontalis EMG both during rest periods and in the general competitive setting. Results support the specificity of single-system biofeedback training and are discussed in light of the discriminative/motor skills model and the trophotropic rebiasing model.
The Relationship of Sport Involvement with Children's Moral Reasoning and Aggression Tendencies
Authors: Bredemeier Brenda Jo , Shields David L. , Weiss Maureen R. , Cooper Brace A.B.
Published: August 2016

The relationships between sport involvement variables (participation and interest) and facets of children's morality (reasoning maturity and aggression tendencies) were investigated for 106 girls and boys in grades 4 through 7. Children responded to a sport involvement questionnaire, participated in a moral interview, and completed two self-report instruments designed to assess aggression tendencies in sport-specific and daily life contexts. Analyses revealed that boys' participation and interest in high contact sports and girls' participation in medium contact sports (the highest level of contact sport experience they reported) were positively correlated with less mature moral reasoning and greater tendencies to aggress. Regression analyses demonstrated that sport interest predicted reasoning maturity and aggression tendencies better than sport participation. Results and implications are discussed from a structural developmental perspective.
Perceived Competence and Motives for Participating in Youth Sports: A Test of Harter's Competence Motivation Theory
Authors: Klint Kimberley A. , Weiss Maureen R.
Published: August 2016

One of the most important issues facing youth sport researchers and practitioners is an understanding of why children participate in sport programs. The participation motivation research, however, has not been linked to an existing theoretical model. Thus the purpose of this study was to test the notions, based on Harter's (1978, 1981) competence motivation theory, that perceptions of competence are related to particular motives children have for sport participation. Sixty-seven children involved in youth gymnastic programs were administered the physical, social, and cognitive subscales of Harter's (1982) Perceived Competence Scale and a motives for gymnastic participation questionnaire. Discriminant function analyses revealed support for competence motivation theory as a viable explanation for the relationship between competence perceptions and motives for participation in sport. Specifically, children high in perceived physical competence were more motivated by skill development reasons, and gymnasts high in perceived social competence were more motivated by the affiliation aspects of sport when compared to their low perceived competence counterparts.
Antecedents of Self-Related Affects in Sport: Preliminary Evidence on the Intuitive-Reflective Appraisal Model
Authors: Vallerand Robert J.
Published: August 2016

In line with various cognitive theories of emotion, Vallerand (1983, 1984) has proposed an intuitive-reflective appraisal model for self-related affects in achievement situations. A fundamental postulate of the model states that it is the cognitive evaluation of events and not events per se that produces emotions. Such cognitive evaluation can be seen as intuitive (almost automatic) and reflective (deliberate) in nature. Whereas the intuitive appraisal is akin to one's almost automatic subjective assessment of performance, the reflective appraisal is hypothesized to include several forms: (a) intellectualization, (b) comparison (self, outcome, and social) processes, (c) mastery-related cognitions, (d) information processing functions, and (e) causal attributions. Two studies tested some of the model's postulates in field (Study 1) and laboratory (Study 2) settings. Results showed support for some of the model's postulates in that both the intuitive and reflective attributional appraisals were found to have important effects on self- and general-type affects. In addition, perceptions of success/failure (the intuitive appraisal of performance) had more potent effects on affects than did objective success/failure. On the other hand, the intellectualization reflective appraisal (task importance) did not have appreciable effects on affects. Results are discussed in light of the intuitive-reflective appraisal model, and implications for future studies on emotion in sport are underscored.
Effect of a Counterirritant on Pain and Restricted Range of Motion Associated with Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness
Authors: Haynes Scott C. , Perrin David H.
Published: August 2016

This investigation examined the effect of a counterirritant on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Fourteen female subjects had DOMS induced in the elbow flexor muscles of the nondominant arm through repeated eccentric contractions. Subjects returned 48 hrs after exercise and were randomly assigned to either a counterirritant ointment (CO) or placebo ointment (PO) treatment group. They were asked to quantify the amount of pain they experienced using a graphic pain rating scale while attempting to extend their elbow. Eight ml of the counterirritant or placebo ointment was applied to the anterior aspect of the arm centered directly over the biceps brachii. Pain and range of motion measurements were taken both pretreatment and 15 minutes posttreatment. Analysis of variance revealed that the CO group experienced significant pain relief and increased range of motion while the placebo group showed no significant changes. These findings suggest that counterirritants may be an effective means of treating the pain and restricted range of motion associated with delayed onset muscle soreness.