bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion and the Future of Presidential-Election Rules
Authors: McClintock Cynthia
Published: August 2018

Runoff has been advantageous in Latin America and could be in the United States also. Amid the legitimacy deficits of the 2000 and 2016 elections in the United States, popular demand for change in electoral rules is strong. Although ranked-choice voting is the most common innovation in the United States, it is complex and relatively untested. By contrast, runoff has been tested in Latin America and shown to be successful. Runoff opened the electoral arena to new parties but, at the same time, assured that the president had majority support and was not at an ideological extreme. By contrast, plurality often facilitated political exclusion by dominant parties and exacerbated cynicism and polarization. Although the number of parties was larger under runoff, the concomitant problems can be ameliorated by such measures as the scheduling of the legislative election after the first round and raising the threshold for entry to the legislature.
Making the Case for Reconciliation
Authors: du Toit Fanie
Published: August 2018

How does reconciliation make a beginning when conditions seem to suggest its impossibility, such as during the 1980s in apartheid South Africa? To answer this, I focus on leadership, arguing that opportunities must be seized in order to be realized. This requires a fresh examination of Mandela’s leadership along with F. W. de Klerk’s. I conclude that it was not remorse or forgiveness as such but rather a growing awareness of mutual interdependence—acknowledging their duty to provide their constituencies with the best possible future, and the role that their adversary would have to play in realizing this future—that provided a platform for cooperation between these principal leaders. This does not mean that forgiveness played no role; but what convinced South African leaders to turn to reconciliation to help end apartheid was foremost a realist understanding of the conditions as they were. Apartheid was no longer viable, and a new beginning crafted with the opposition was the only viable way forward.
Settling on a Shared Future
Authors: du Toit Fanie
Published: August 2018

This chapter challenges the assumption that a society should first deal with its past before moving on to a new future, arguing instead that settling on a shared future provides the basis for dealing with the past. A key question is what kinds of processes can take reconciliation forward and turn it into a political reality characterized by durability and deep-seated institutional change toward inclusivity and fairness. I highlight four mechanisms created during the South African transition that I consider the most important and relevant to reconciliation. These platforms—the National Peace Accord (NPA), the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), the Multi-Party Negotiating Forum (MPNF), and the TRC—carried out vitally important work, expanding the political transition across lines of political conflict. Analyzing the first three mechanisms in terms of their inclusivity and fairness occupies most of the chapter, as well as to understand how they built on, and complemented, one another.
Justice Promised or Just a Promise?
Authors: du Toit Fanie
Published: August 2018

This chapter evaluates the reconciliation process in terms of its inherent promise of social inclusion and fairness in South Africa. It first asks whether the constitutional process could be judged to have been inclusive and fair to all. Then it asks whether the TRC failed to address social justice and thereby constituted a setback to the reconciliation agenda. Finally, the chapter asks about the measure of inclusivity and fairness that have been achieved after some twenty years. The discussion concludes that inclusivity and fairness were not sacrificed at the time when reconciliation shaped the political transition but were compromised more recently, to the extent that inclusion across social divides failed to materialize and political leaders deviated from serving the common good. Just as early reconciliation efforts initially flourished through leadership, so in later years, reconciliation has floundered in its absence.
Restoring the Rule of Law
Authors: du Toit Fanie
Published: August 2018

The second typology theorizes reconciliation as restoring the rule of law. Typical of the international liberal consensus exemplified by the UN, this approach views the inception of reconciliation as synonymous with the call to join the family of liberal democracies. Its unfolding is characterized by holding perpetrators of political crimes to account and the security that judicial processes are supposed to generate; its promise is one of civic trust based on the acceptance of equality before the law. I identify difficulties with this approach, including the lack of an adequate theory of change; it is not empirically established if prosecutions lead to a cessation of conflict and enhanced security. Emphasis on equality before the law may mask ongoing power relations and subtle forms of subjugation if “rule of law” is taken prematurely to exclude redress and transformation. A final concern relates to what reconciliation may look like in non-liberal societies.
Valuing Political Difference
Authors: du Toit Fanie
Published: August 2018

Embracing risk and ambiguity, rather than closure and certainty, a third typology of reconciliation theorists have emerged. Calling themselves agonists, they emphasize that reconciliation is fundamentally open-ended, deliberative, and has to strive consciously to include “conflict through other means.” Seen through this lens, reconciliation is more a process-oriented activity than an outcomes-driven one. Agonist reconciliation understands its inception as the call, amid conflict, to political community. Its unfolding is described as incessant discourse and debate, and its promise is understood as the commitment never to stop debating the terms of togetherness in a given context. My criticism of this position rests on two points: underestimating what it takes to overcome violence, and its one-sided emphasis on process at the expense of any predetermined outcomes—a situation that would, I argue, be unacceptable especially to those victims of oppression who correctly demand redress and justice as definite predetermined outcomes of reconciliation.
Reconciliation as Interdependence
Authors: du Toit Fanie
Published: August 2018

This chapter endeavors to develop a coherent framework for political transition—as reconciliation. I argue that reconciliation explains how relationships emerge in unfavorable conditions; how once a modest beginning is achieved, cooperation can grow, trust strengthened, and understanding deepened through appropriate processes and institutional arrangements; and how eventually a fundamentally more just society is built—all as part of a comprehensive transitional agenda. In South Africa, reconciliation politics propagated the idea, diametrically opposed to apartheid, that racial groups were fundamentally and comprehensively interdependent. This provided a compelling rationale for taking reconciliation seriously—and twenty-four years on, it still does. Reconciliation embraces a shared future on the basis that this is not only desirable but unavoidable, and turns to deal with a troubled past because it obstructs this future. More broadly, therefore, reconciliation can be described as “working toward fairness and inclusivity, reconciliation entails the mutual acknowledgment, the progressive institutionalization, and the long-term socialization of a comprehensive and fundamental interdependence.”
Realms of Legal Interpretation
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: August 2018

Legal norms may forbid, require, or authorize a particular form of behavior. The law of contracts, for example, informs people how to enter into agreements that will bind both sides, and from this we establish legal requirements on how they should behave. In public law, legal standards provide authority to legislators and executive officials to set standards for citizens, and also give judges the authority to decide disputes by applying and interpreting governing standards. This book focuses on how courts decide what is legally forbidden or authorized, and how context shapes their decisions. The problem, it argues, is that we do not, and never have, agreed on all the details of the standards United States judges should employ—like everyone else, judges have different ideas of what constitutes good common sense. Moreover, circumstance regularly throws up hurdles. For instance, what should a judge do if the text of a statute does not fit the intention of the legislators, or if someone has obviously and mistakenly omitted a necessary item from a will or contract? Different judges react in different ways. Acknowledging that courts will never agree upon a uniform approach to applying norms and interpreting the law, the book’s aim is to provide a capacious model for approaching hard cases sensibly in both public and private law. The book also serves as a guide to the major forms of legal interpretation for non-lawyers.
Introduction
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: August 2018

This introductory chapter provides an overview of legal interpretation. The question of what counts as “interpretation” and what involves extending beyond “interpretation” to a form of judicial construction is far from simple. Like most other categories, the term “interpretation” does not have precise edges; people can reasonably disagree over whether some exercise is, or is not, really interpretation. Although different uses of the term often come into play in conflicting analyses of what judges do and might do, the crucial questions concern what individuals, officials, and judges should do under the law. If the language of a legal requirement clearly suggests a particular result, when the language fits the intentions of those who formulated the requirement, and when the consequence of the result is just and makes practical sense, that application is how private citizens, enforcement officials, and judges will understand it.
Introduction
Authors: Meyer David S. , Tarrow Sidney
Published: August 2018

Beginning with a review of the first Women’s March, this Introduction details the sudden and strong emergence of a movement in resistance to the presidency of Donald Trump (the Resistance movement). It identifies the new movement as posing three distinct challenges: to scholars of social movements; to the American Left; and to the stability and resilience of American institutions. This Introduction identifies antecedents and foundations of the Trump Resistance, including the presidential campaign of Bernie Sanders, Black Lives Matter, and immigrants’ rights movements. It situates the Resistance in a historical context. It also places the Resistance in a broader context of protest politics in America.
Lawyers as Activists
Authors: Dorf Michael C. , Chu Michael S.
Published: August 2018

Lawyers played a key role in challenging the Trump administration’s Travel Ban on entry into the United States of nationals from various majority-Muslim nations. Responding to calls from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which were amplified by social media, lawyers responded to the Travel Ban’s chaotic rollout by providing assistance to foreign travelers at airports. Their efforts led to initial court victories, which in turn led the government to soften the Ban somewhat in two superseding executive actions. The lawyers’ work also contributed to the broader resistance to the Trump administration by dramatizing its bigotry, callousness, cruelty, and lawlessness. The efficacy of the lawyers’ resistance to the Travel Ban shows that, contrary to strong claims about the limits of court action, litigation can promote social change. General lessons about lawyer activism in ordinary times are difficult to draw, however, because of the extraordinary threat Trump poses to civil rights and the rule of law.
Introduction
Authors: Rottenberg Catherine
Published: August 2018

Providing the cultural context for the rise of neoliberal feminism in the United States, the introductory chapter of The Rise of Neoliberal Feminism begins by laying out the book’s key conceptual terms, such as human capital, work-family balance, affect, and happiness. It then maps out the way in which feminism has been represented in the US popular imagination over the past hundred years, differentiating among classic liberal feminism, postfeminism, and neoliberal feminism, while underscoring the book’s theoretical contributions. Finally, it provides an overview of the book’s overall trajectory, offering a chapter-by-chapter outline, highlighting each chapter’s major arguments, contributions, and assumptions.
This American Moment
Authors: Gentry Caron E.
Published: August 2018

This American Moment focuses on the concept of anxiety politics by arguing that America is in crisis. Those who uphold or participate in racist and misogynist politics are threatened by changes to the status quo, such as the economic gains made by women and therefore respond with reactivity and defensiveness. This book examines first, the Black Lives Matter campaign as the latest disruption of the raced structures that define America and the anxious reactions that seek to protect and maintain the race structures; second, the particular economic, bodily, and reproductive health vulnerabilities that women face that have amalgamated into America’s War on Women as anxious reactions to maintain patriarchy; and, finally, the how racism and misogyny unwittingly and rather unexpectedly led to the election of Trump and opened the door to fascism in the United States. The book argues that these are all destructive outcomes of anxiety and responds by envisioning a creative intervention: arguing that an alternative response to anxiety is to think creatively about our relationships, society, and politics. The author poses this as feminist Christian realism, an update of Reinhold Niebuhr’s Christian realism, arguing that religious approaches still have a place in politics and international relations.
The Social Logic of Colonial Anti-Judaism: Revisiting the Anti-Jewish Crisis in French Algeria, 1889–1902
Authors: Tal Yuval
Published: August 2018

This chapter examines the social functions of anti-Judaism in French Algeria during the period 1889–1902 by focusing on the roles played by ethnic groups involved in what came to be known as the “anti-Jewish crisis.” The anti-Jewish crisis erupted in the late 1890s, when the three enfranchised ethnic groups living in French Algeria—Frenchmen with roots in France, European immigrants, and local Jews—challenged the established social order in the colony. The chapter first provides a background on the anti-Jewish crisis before discussing the segregated landscape of Algiers and the rise of the French anti-Jewish movement in the early 1890s. It then considers how xenophobia developed among many Frenchmen with regard to European immigrants in French Algeria and the participation of such immigrants in anti-Jewish riots. It also looks at Jewish reaction to the anti-Jewish crisis.
Introduction
Authors: Rivers Isabel
Published: August 2018

The Introduction summarizes the aims and methods of the book, explains the title, taken from Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, addresses the paradox of the otherworldly aims of religion and the worldly means of book publication, lists the principal questions the book sets out to answer and the denominations and groups covered, and points out the varied meanings of the terms ‘Methodist’ and ‘evangelical’. Despite the theological and organizational differences between these denominations and groups, they agreed on the fundamental importance of disseminating books for inculcating Christian belief and practice. To illustrate the long-term influence of such publications there is a brief analysis of Collins’s nineteenth-century series, ‘Select Christian Authors, with Introductory Essays’.
Why Maps are Not Propositional
Authors: Camp Elisabeth
Published: August 2018

Many philosophers and logicians assume an exhaustive and exclusive dichotomy between “imagistic”, iconic, or pictorial representations and “discursive”, logical, or propositional ones. Maps seem to fall somewhere in between, with different theorists assimilating them to one or the other side of the divide. Given this assumption, philosophers and logicians interested in defending the logical tractability of maps have typically analyzed them as being predicative, where this is understood as a species of logical, propositional representation. This chapter argues that the best way to interpret the debate about propositionality is as concerning a representational system’s operative functional structure. Propositional structure is claimed to exhibit several distinctive properties: it is digital, asymmetrical, general, recursive, and hierarchical. However, there is little positive evidence that cartographic structure exhibits these features in the relevant sense.
Why Xavière is a Threat to Françoise
Authors: Webber Jonathan
Published: August 2018

This chapter argues that Simone de Beauvoir’s first publication, the novel She Came To Stay, presents an existentialist metaphysics of human freedom that is opposed to Sartre’s idea of radical freedom. The novel’s central plot dramatizes Beauvoir’s idea that freedom consists in the ability to commit to a project that gains its own inertia and influence over one’s cognition through one’s repeated affirmation of it in thought and action. This is an existentialist theory because it agrees that the reasons one encounters in experience reflect the values at the heart of one’s chosen projects. It is opposed to Sartre’s theory of radical freedom because the inertia of a sedimented project entails that it can be revised or replaced only through a temporally protracted process of sedimenting contrary values.
Sedimentation and the Grounds of Cultural Values
Authors: Webber Jonathan
Published: August 2018

This chapter argues that Jean-Paul Sartre abandoned his theory of radical freedom in favour of adopting Simone de Beauvoir’s theory of project sedimentation between the publication of his essay on anti-Semitism and Jewish culture in 1946 and the publication of his preface to an anthology of Negritude poetry in 1948, though the clearest expression of his new position is his biography of Genet published in 1952. It argues that the reason for this change is his realization that the theory of radical freedom precludes any satisfactory cultural theory. The attempt to analyse Jewish culture as a response to anti-Semitism requires postulating an existing culture of inauthenticity, which itself is a cultural phenomenon that stands in need of explanation but cannot have one. Beauvoir’s theory of project sedimentation, by contrast, easily explains the adoption, expression, and transmission of cultural values.
Insinuation, Common Ground, and the Conversational Record
Authors: Camp Elisabeth
Published: August 2018

Most philosophical and linguistic theorizing about meaning focuses on cooperative forms of communication, and for good reasons. However, a significant amount of verbal communication involves parties whose interests are not fully aligned, or who do not know their degree of alignment. Such strategic contexts are theoretically revealing because they lay bare minimal conditions on communication that can be occluded in more fully charitable contexts. In such contexts, speakers sometimes turn to insinuation: the communication of beliefs, requests, and other attitudes ’offrecord’, so that the speaker’s main communicative point remains unstated in away that permits deniability. I argue that insinuation is a form of speaker’s meaning in which speakers communicate potentially risky attitudes and contents without adding them to the conversational record, or sometimes even to the common ground.
Clause-Type, Force, and Normative Judgment in the Semantics of Imperatives
Authors: Charlow Nate
Published: August 2018

This paper argues that imperatives express contents that are both cognitively and semantically related to, but nevertheless distinct from, modal propositions. On this analysis, imperatives semantically encode features of planning that are modally specified. Uttering an imperative amounts to tokening this feature in discourse, and thereby proffering it for adoption by the audience. This analysis resolves empirical problems that confront two major strands of theorizing about imperatives. It also suggests an appealing reorientation of clause-type theorizing, in which the cognitive act of updating on a typed sentence plays a central role in theorizing about both its semantics and role in discourse.
Commitment to Priorities
Authors: Portner Paul
Published: August 2018

Imperative sentences can be used to perform a range of speech acts, some of which are intuitively “stronger” than others. We can distinguish several different pragmatic features related to judgments of imperative strength, including speaker authority and whether or not the imperative allows an inference to a strong or weak modal declarative. Building on the observation that such features are sometimes tied to the utterance’s intonation, this paper argues for an extension to imperatives of Gunlogson’s (2001) theory of rising and falling intonation in declaratives. Within the framework of dynamic pragmatics, this analysis states that the initial discourse effect of imperatives can vary depending on whether it concerns the speaker’s discourse commitments, the addressee’s commitments, r the interlocutors’ mutual commitments.
Dynamic Pragmatics, Static Semantics
Authors: Stalnaker Robert
Published: August 2018

Semantic-pragmatic theorizing took a dynamic turn in the 1970s, but at the time the dynamics remained in the pragmatics and retained a more or less traditional static conception of compositional semantics. Later dynamic semantics built rules for context change into the semantics. This essay argues that the phenomena that motivated the dynamic turn are best explained at the pragmatic level, retaining a notion of propositonal content, and a distinction between content and force. It is argued that while a partial notion of propositional content can be recovered from a dynamic conception of semantic value as context-change potential, some information that plays an important role in the broader explanation of discourse is lost. It is then argued that it is important to retain a notion of speech act force, separated from content.
David Lewis on Context
Authors: Stalnaker Robert
Published: August 2018

A critical discussion of David Lewis’s two-dimensional framework for doing semantics. Lewis’s framework has the same abstract structure as David Kaplan’s semantics for demonstratives, where the truth-value of a sentence is defined as a function of two parameters, one of which is a context. This chapter focuses on the notion of context that is common to the two frameworks, arguing that it is not suited to play the pragmatic role that we need a notion of context to play. The technical notion that both Kaplan and Lewis call ‘context’ plays several different roles in the explanation of speech that need to be distinguished, and this notion also needs to be distinguished from a pragmatic notion of context as the body of information that is available for the determination of what is said.
From Meaning to Content
Authors: Recanati François
Published: August 2018

According to a widespread picture due to Kaplan, there are two levels of semantic value: character and content. Character is determined by the grammar, and it determines content with respect to context. In this chapter Recanati criticizes that picture on several grounds. He shows that we need more than two levels, and rejects the determination thesis: that linguistic meaning as determined by grammar determines content. Grammatical meaning does not determine assertoric content, he argues, but merely constrains it—speaker’s meaning necessarily comes into play. On the alternative picture he offers, there are four basic levels, only one of which is determined by the grammar. Pragmatics is what enables the transition from each level to the next.
Reviving the Parameter Revolution in Semantics
Authors: Pickel Bryan , Rabern Brian , Dever Josh
Published: August 2018

Montague and Kaplan began a revolution in semantics, which promised to explain how a univocal expression could make distinct truth-conditional contributions in its various occurrences. The idea was to treat context as a parameter at which a sentence is semantically evaluated. But the revolution has stalled. One salient problem comes from recurring demonstratives: “He is tall and he is not tall”. For the sentence to be true at a context, each occurrence of the demonstrative must make a different truth-conditional contribution. But this difference cannot be accounted for by standard parameter sensitivity. Semanticists, consoled by the thought that this ambiguity would ultimately be needed anyhow to explain anaphora, have been too content to posit massive ambiguities in demonstrative pronouns. This chapter aims to revived the parameter revolution by showing how to treat demonstrative pronouns as univocal while providing an account of anaphora that doesn’t end up re-introducing the ambiguity.
Lexical Meaning, Concepts, and the Metasemantics of Predicates
Authors: Glanzberg Michael
Published: August 2018

This chapter examines how concepts relate to lexical meanings. It focuses on how we can appeal to concepts to give specific, cognitively rich contents to lexical entries, while at the same time using standard methods of compositional semantics. This is a problem, as those methods assume lexical meanings provide extensions, while concepts are mental representations that have very different structure from an extension. The chapter proposes a way to solve this problem which is by casting concepts in a metasemantic role for certain expressions, notably verbs, but more also generally, with expressions that function as content-giving predicates in a sentence.
Fregean Compositionality
Authors: Zimmermann Thomas Ede
Published: August 2018

Two distinctive features of Frege’s approach to compositionality are reconstructed in terms of the theory of extension and intension: (i) its bias in favour of extensional operations; and (ii) its resort to indirect senses in the face of iterated opacity. While (i) has been preserved in current formal semantics, it proves to be stronger than a straightforward extensionality requirement in terms of Logical Space, the difference turning on a subtle distinction between extensions at particular points and extensions per se. (ii) has traditionally been dismissed as redundant, and is shown to lead to a mere ‘baroque’ reformulation of ordinary compositionality. Nevertheless, whatever Frege’s motive, the very idea of having opaque denotations keep track of the depth of their embedding gives rise to a fresh view at certain scope paradoxes that had previously been argued to lie outside the reach of a binary distinction between extension and intension.
The Biology of Grasslands
Authors: Wilsey Brian J.
Published: August 2018

This accessible text provides a concise but comprehensive introduction to the biology of global grasslands. Grasslands are vast in their extent, with native and non-native grasslands now covering approximately 50 percent of the global terrestrial environment. They are also of vital importance to humans, providing essential ecosystem services and some of the most important areas for the production of food and fibre worldwide. It has been estimated that 60 percent of calories consumed by humans originate from grasses, and most grain consumed is produced in areas that were formerly grasslands or wetlands. Grasslands are also important because they are used to raise forage for livestock, represent a source of biofuels, sequester vast amounts of carbon, provide urban green-space, and hold vast amounts of biodiversity. Intact grasslands contain an incredibly fascinating set of plants, animals, and microbes that have interested several generations of biologists, generating pivotal studies to important theoretical questions in ecology. As with other titles in the Biology of Habitats Series, the emphasis is on the organisms that dominate this environment although restoration, conservation, and experimental aspects are also considered. The Biology of Grasslands is suitable for both senior undergraduate and graduate students (in departments of biology, geography, and environmental science) taking courses in grassland ecology, plant ecology, and rangeland ecology as well as the many professional ecologists and conservation biologists requiring an authoritative overview of the topic.
Conclusions, Future Research Needs, and Issues
Authors: Wilsey Brian J.
Published: August 2018

Human populations are expected to reach 9 billion by the middle of the twenty-first century. This will present a challenge to grassland scientists on how to feed the world, while at the same time preventing further environmental degradation and biodiversity loss. Pollinating bees are in decline globally, and grasslands with abundant wildflower populations provide key pollen sources important to prevent their future decline. In the United States, the iconic butterfly species the Monarch butterfly is in decline. Another major theme of future grassland science is likely to be in the fields of alternate states theory and restoration ecology. Sustainability research to address these issues is expected to increase in importance in the near future.
Slurs and Obscenities
Authors: Pullum Geoffrey K.
Published: August 2018

Words are often assumed to have denotations linking them to concepts, and we use a word with a certain denotation when we want to convey to our interlocutor the concept to which it is linked. Obscene swearwords and offensive slurs reveal the simplistic character of this view. Issues of style, tone, esthetics, etiquette, attitude, and self-presentation arise; semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and anthropology are involved in clarifying them. After surveying some semantic and pragmatic preliminaries, the chapter delves into the lexicography of obscene and offensive terms. There are some flagrant semantic errors in trusted dictionaries. Experienced lexicographers get many simple meanings badly and obviously wrong. Part of the explanation may lie in a desire to distance the dictionary’s authority from the pejorative content. Correcting such entries involves recognizing that words have nonlinguistic properties as well as linguistic ones.
Solar Cell Physics and Technologies
Authors: Wolf E. L.
Published: August 2018

Solar cells are based on semiconductor pn junctions. Absorption of sunlight is optimal at bandgap energies near one electron volt, and greatly increases the reverse current density. The efficiency of the cell is described by the “filling factor”, and is limited, for single junction cells, by the Quiesser–Shockley limit, near 30 percent. Tandem cells, series combinations of cells, absorb a larger portion of the solar spectrum with higher efficiency but with greater complexity and cost. Such cells are used with focusing optics that inherently raises the efficiency, but also the complexity and cost. This is a textbook for physics, chemistry and engineering students interested in the future of energy as impacted by depletion of fossil fuels, and in the effects of fossil fuel burning on climate.
Sleep, health, and society
Authors: Cappuccio Francesco P. , Miller Michelle A. , Lockley Steven W. , Rajaratnam Shantha M. W.
Published: August 2018

Sleep disturbances are common in modern society. Since the beginning of the century, populations have shown a decline in sleep duration, owing to changes in environmental and social conditions. Industry was the first to appreciate the detrimental effects of sleep disturbances on health and wellbeing. It has taken, however, many decades to understand the implications for individuals and populations of sustained sleep deprivation.
Sleep and cognition
Authors: Bliwise Donald L. , Scullin Michael K.
Published: August 2018

Possible associations between sleep and cognition are provocative across different domains and hold the promise of prevention or reversibility. A vast array of studies has been reported. Evidence is suggestive but hardly definitive. We provide an overview of this literature, adopting the framework of Hill’s perspective on epidemiological causation. With rare exception, formal meta-analyses have yet to appear. Apparent consistency of findings suggests relationships, but the diversity of findings involving specific components of cognitive function raises interpretative caution. Large effect sizes have been noted, but small-to-moderate effects predominate. Natural history data are similarly enticing, and studies of biological plausibility and gradient indicate likely neurobiological substrates. Perhaps the ultimate population-health criterion, demonstration of reversibility of impairment, remains elusive at best. This area offers an exciting topic for future work.
Sleep, inflammation, and disease
Authors: Miller Michelle A.
Published: August 2018

Sleep is a fundamental requirement for living individuals. Sleep disturbances and sleep disorders have extensive effects on the immune system, affecting one’s susceptibility to, and ability to fight off, infections—both bacterial and viral—and the subsequent development of different diseases. This is mediated by the increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines associated with sleep loss and disruption. A number of common conditions, such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus, all share pro-inflammatory mechanisms and the presence of sleep disturbances. Early identification of sleep disorders, and the associated adverse inflammatory and metabolic risk factors, in affected individuals would have a clear clinical benefit.
Loss of sleep or loss of dark?
Authors: Stevens Richard G.
Published: August 2018

Before electricity, night was something akin to the deep sea: just as we could not descend much below the water surface, we also could not investigate the night for more than a short distance, and for a short period of time. Things changed with two inventions: the Bathysphere to plumb the ocean floor, and electricity to light the night for sustained exploration. Exploration led to dominance, and night has become indistinguishable from day in many parts of the world. The benefits of electric light are myriad, but so too are the possible detriments of loss of dark at night, including poor sleep, obesity, diabetes, cancer, and mood disorders. Our primordial physiological adaptation to the night and day cycle is being flummoxed by the maladaptive signals coming from electric lighting around the clock. The topic of sleep and health has finally attained scientific respect, but dark and health is not yet fully appreciated.
Foreign Policy on the Home Front
Authors: Saldin Robert P.
Published: August 2018

In the age of mass warfare, US engagement in foreign wars was an important force for state development. In particular, American wars spurred state growth, public capacities, regulatory oversight, and social reforms. These changes expanded government’s sphere of operations and recast American political, economic, and social life. Many of these changes were focused directly on veterans and the social problems that emerged in the aftermath of wars. Yet some of the changes were more broadly based and paved the way for future developments of the American welfare state. This war-based story complements the more familiar, domestic-based accounts of American state development. Notably, and in contrast with many European states, these changes were instituted in the USA even though there was very little war-wrought domestic destruction and no war-induced regime changes or social policy changes ordered by occupying powers.
War and Welfare States Before and After 1945
Authors: Obinger Herbert , Petersen Klaus , Schmitt Carina , Starke Peter
Published: August 2018

The conclusion reports major findings and discusses possible cross-country patterns. It shows that war’s impact on welfare state development can be differentiated into several distinct conclusions, each highlighting specific effects or causal mechanisms. Next, the case study evidence of the long-term effects of war is confirmed with quantitative data. For a sample of eighteen countries (thirteen of which are presented in this volume) war is shown to contribute to a better understanding of several of the phenomena lying at the heart of comparative welfare state research (i.e. social expenditure, benefit generosity, the public–private mix in provision, and the timing of legislation). The impact on outcomes such as income inequality is briefly discussed, along with the impact of the Cold War on welfare state development. Due to changes in warfare and the size of the existing welfare state, the effect of war on welfare state-building has all but disappeared today.
Yoko Tawada
Authors: Cox Fiona
Published: August 2018

Yoko Tawada is a Japanese writer who made her home in Germany at the age of nineteen. She has written powerfully about her status as an immigrant, about the challenges of operating in a foreign language, and about the privileges and perils of being an outsider. Her book Opium für Ovid combines her response to Ovidian myth with a reworking of the Japanese pillow books. The result is a book in which East meets West, and where the characters from Ovidian myth, such as Daphne, Salmacis, and Leto, have metamorphosed into a hybrid of the original myth and into girls who walk the streets of contemporary Hamburg. Through their stories Tawada probes issues such as racism, homelessness, body image, and educational constraints.
A Bank Branch in a Box
Authors: Bátiz-Lazo Bernardo
Published: August 2018

Chapter 9 (‘A Bank Branch in a Box’) tackles the long-running debate on the impact of automation within the retail bank branch. This debate concerns whether the introduction of labour saving devices (such as the ATM) will almost immediately be followed by the reduction of retail branch bank staff. Data in the quantitative analysis include information on ATMs, employment of bank staff, and retail branches. However, the analysis here departs from traditional approaches. The latter have focused on the economics of capital replacing labour. In contrast, this chapter looks at the alternative channels (namely transaction volume and the value of cash withdrawals) as the variables to explain technological change in retail banking. The discussion also speculates on the future of the ATM within retail banks’ self-service strategies. This while focusing not on obsolescence but on a narrative of maintenance and reinvention.
Modern Thermodynamics for Chemists and Biochemists
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

This book will equip a student of any physical or biological science with a sound understanding of thermodynamics, and will build confidence in using thermodynamics in practice. The emphasis is towards chemical thermodynamics, but the principles of the First, Second and Third Laws apply to all sciences. Importantly, the final four chapters show how thermodynamics can be applied to biological systems, discussing the biochemical standard state, bioenergetics, protein folding, and the self-assembly of smaller components to form higher-level structures. The book has not been written to support a particular curriculum; rather, it covers all the fundamental principles, so providing a comprehensive grounding, as well as a strong foundation for further study. It is therefore likely that there will be more material in this book than is required for any one particular curriculum, but we trust there is sufficient material for almost every curriculum. A key feature of the book is the style. It has been written so that ‘you can hear our voices’, and with the overarching intent of being logical, clear and comprehensible. The style will therefore be perceived as less formal than many other texts – and we trust more readable. Furthermore, we have sought to avoid phrases such as ‘it may be shown that...’, and ‘clearly, it follows that...’. If ‘it may be shown’, we show it; and we don’t use ‘clearly’ when things aren’t clear at all. Thermodynamics is notoriously difficult. This book does not make an intrinsically deep science ‘easy’. But it does make it intelligible.
Systems and states
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

An introduction to thermodynamics, its scope, applications and importance. Definition and exploration of key terms such as system, state, surroundings, boundary, intensive state function, extensive state function, and change in state. Definition of a key intensive state function, pressure. Introduction of the concept of an equation-of-state, with Boyle’s law as an example. Introduction to the ideal gas. Molecular interpretation of pressure.
Temperature and heat
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Concepts of temperature, temperature scales and temperature measurement. The ideal gas law, Dalton’s law of partial pressure. Assumptions underlying the ideal gas, and distinction between ideal and real gases. Introduction to equations-of-state such as the van der Waals, Dieterici, Berthelot and virial equations, which describe real gases. Concept of heat, and distinction between heat and temperature. Experiments of Rumford and Joule, and the principle of the conservation of energy. Units of measurement for heat. Heat as a path function. Flow of heat down a temperature gradient as an irreversible and unidirectional process. ‘Zeroth’ Law of Thermodynamics. Definitions of isolated, closed and open systems, and of isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric and isothermal changes in state. Connection between work and heat, as illustrated by the steam engine. The molecular interpretation of heat, energy and temperature. The Boltzmann distribution. Meaning of negative temperatures.
Enthalpy and thermochemistry
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Definition and mathematics of enthalpy. Definition of heat capacity at constant pressure as CP = (∂H/∂T)V. Endothermic and exothermic reactions. Role of the change in enthalpy as regards the direction and spontaneity of a change in state. Enthalpy changes and phase changes. Measuring enthalpy changes by calorimetry. Hess’s law of constant heat formation. Chemical standards and standard states. Standard enthalpies of formation, ionic enthalpies and bond energies. How the change in enthalpy varies with temperature. Kirchhoff’s equations. Applications of thermochemistry to a variety of worked examples, including flames and explosions.
Ideal gas processes – and two ideal gas case studies too
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

This chapter brings together, and builds on, the results from previous chapters to provide a succinct, and comprehensive, summary of all key relationships relating to ideal gases, including the heat and work associated with isothermal, adiabatic, isochoric and isobaric changes, and the properties of an ideal gas’s heat capacities at constant volume and constant pressure. The chapter also has two ‘case studies’ which use the ideal gas equations in broader, and more real, contexts, so showing how the equations can be used to tackle, successfully, more extensive systems. The first ‘case study’ is the Carnot cycle, and so covers all the fundamentals required for the proof of the existence of entropy as a state function; the second ‘case study’ is the ‘thermodynamic pendulum’ – a system in which a piston in an enclosed cylinder oscillates to and fro like a pendulum under gravity, in both the absence, and presence, of friction.
Chemical equilibrium and chemical kinetics
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Building on the previous chapter, this chapter examines gas phase chemical equilibrium, and the equilibrium constant. This chapter takes a rigorous, yet very clear, ‘first principles’ approach, expressing the total Gibbs free energy of a reaction mixture at any time as the sum of the instantaneous Gibbs free energies of each component, as expressed in terms of the extent-of-reaction. The equilibrium reaction mixture is then defined as the point at which the total system Gibbs free energy is a minimum, from which concepts such as the equilibrium constant emerge. The chapter also explores the temperature dependence of equilibrium, this being one example of Le Chatelier’s principle. Finally, the chapter links thermodynamics to chemical kinetics by showing how the equilibrium constant is the ratio of the forward and backward rate constants. We also introduce the Arrhenius equation, closing with a discussion of the overall effect of temperature on chemical equilibrium.
Reactions in solution
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Another key chapter, examining reactions in solution. Starting with the definition of an ideal solution, and then introducing Raoult’s law and Henry’s law, this chapter then draws on the results of Chapter 14 (gas phase equilibria) to derive the corresponding results for equilibria in an ideal solution. A unique feature of this chapter is the analysis of coupled reactions, once again using first principles to show how the coupling of an endergonic reaction to a suitable exergonic reaction results in an equilibrium mixture in which the products of the endergonic reaction are present in much higher quantity. This demonstrates how coupled reactions can cause entropy-reducing events to take place without breaking the Second Law, so setting the scene for the future chapters on applications of thermodynamics to the life sciences, especially chapter 24 on bioenergetics.
Boiling points and melting points
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

An analysis of the colligative properties of the elevation of the boiling point and depression of the freezing point. A unique feature of this chapter is the analysis of the depression of the freezing point, which is subtly – but importantly – different from, and much more logical than, the analysis presented in many other texts.
The biochemical standard state
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Applying thermodynamics to biological systems requires the use of the biochemical standard state. Many texts do not mention the biochemical standard state, and most of those that do dismiss it in three sentences: ‘The equilibrium constant K refers to pH 0. For biological systems, that’s not convenient, and so the biochemical standard state is defined as pH 7. K then becomes K ′. When K ′ replaces K in all the equations, everything works’. This is most unsatisfactory: it is not obvious why K is linked to pH 0, and replacing K by K ′ seems to be a typographical trick. This chapter therefore explains clearly why K relates to pH 0, why this is important, how K ′ relates to the biologically more relevant pH 7, how the biochemical standard is defined and used, and how equations based on conventional standards can be transformed to the biochemical standard.
The bioenergetics of living cells
Authors: Sherwood Dennis , Dalby Paul
Published: August 2018

Living systems create order, and appear to break the Second Law. This chapter explains, and resolves, this apparent paradox, drawing on the concept of coupled reactions (as introduced in Chapters 13 and 16), as mediated by ‘energy currencies’ such as ATP and NADH. The chapter then examines the key energy-capturing systems in biological systems – glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, and also photosynthesis. Topics covered include how energy is captured in the conversion of glucose to pyruvate, the mitochondrial membrane, respiration, electron transport, ATP synthase, chloroplasts and thylakoids, photosystems I and II, and the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.