bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Regulating the regulators: costimulatory signals control the homeostasis and function of regulatory T cells
Authors: Bour‐Jordan Hélène , Bluestone Jeffrey A.
Published: April 2009

Summary:  Costimulation is a concept that goes back to the early 1980s when Lafferty and others hypothesized that cell surface and soluble molecules must exist that are essential for initiating immune responses subsequent to antigen exposure. The explosion in this field of research ensued as over a dozen molecules have been identified to function as second signals following T‐cell receptor engagement. By 1994, it seemed clear that the most prominent costimulatory pathway CD28 and functionally related costimulatory molecules, such as CD154, were the major drivers of a positive immune response. Then the immunology world turned upside down. CD28 knockout mice, which were, in most cases, immunodeficient, led to increased autoimmunity when bred into the non‐obese diabetic background. Another CD28 family member, cytotoxic T‐lymphocyte‐associated protein 4, which was presumed to be a costimulatory molecule on activated T cells, turned out to be critical in downregulating immunity. These results, coupled with the vast suppressor cell literature which had been largely rebuked, suggested that the immune system was not poised for response but controlled in such a way that regulation was dominant. Over the last decade, we have learned that these costimulatory molecules play a key role in the now classical CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) that provide critical control of unwanted autoimmune responses. In this review, we discuss the connections between costimulation and Tregs that have changed the costimulation paradigm.
ORIGINAL ARTICLE: Two Different Homing Pathways Involving Integrin β7 and E‐selectin Significantly Influence Trafficking of CD4 Cells to the Genital Tract Following Chlamydia muridarum Infection
Authors: Kelly Kathleen A. , Chan Ann M. , Butch Anthony , Darville Toni
Published: April 2009

Problem  Chlamydia trachomatis causes STI and reproductive dysfunction worldwide which is not preventable with antibiotics. Identifying a population of endocervical T cells to target in vaccine development would enhance efficacy.

Method of study  Trafficking of murine CD4+ lymphocytes to Chlamydia muridarum infected genital tract (GT) tissue in vivo was measured using adoptive transfer studies of fluorescent CD4+ T cells from integrin β7−/− mice or mice which lack E‐selectin on endothelial cells.

Results  Murine in vivo migration studies showed that lack of α4β7 or E‐selectin significantly reduced trafficking of CD4 T cells to the GT of mice infected with C. muridarum.

Conclusion  CD4+ T cells use at least two different adhesive mechanisms involving an integrin of the mucosal homing pathway and selectin pathway to accumulate in the GT during C. muridarum infection.
ORIGINAL ARTICLE: The Combination of the Gastrointestinal Integrin (α4β7) and Selectin Ligand Enhances T‐Cell Migration to the Reproductive Tract During Infection with Chlamydia trachomatis
Authors: Kelly Kathleen A. , Wiley Dorothy , Wiesmeier Ed , Briskin Michael , Butch Anthony , Darville Toni
Published: April 2009

Problem  Chlamydia trachomatis causes sexually transmitted infection and reproductive dysfunction worldwide. Identifying a population of endocervical T‐cells to target in vaccine development is likely to enhance efficacy of a vaccine and reduce reproductive tract dysfunction.

Method of study  Endocervical samples were obtained from young women and flow cytometric analysis was used to identify lymphocytes that appeared in the genital tract in response to sexually transmitted bacterial infections caused by C. trachomatis.

Results  Increased numbers of α4β7+CLA+ memory T‐cells, a unique T‐cell phenotype, were found in the endocervix of human female subjects infected with C. trachomatis.

Conclusion A unique population of memory T lymphocytes expressing both α4β7 and CLA gain access to reproductive tract tissues during a sexually transmitted infection with C. trachomatis and should be considered in development of vaccines against sexually transmitted infections.
Comparison of angiogenesis in keratocystic odontogenic tumours, dentigerous cysts and ameloblastomas
Authors: Alaeddini M , Salah S , Dehghan F , Eshghyar N , Etemad‐Moghadam S
Published: April 2009

Objective:  The aim of the present study was to evaluate and compare angiogenesis in keratocystic odontogenic tumours, dentigerous cysts (DCs) and ameloblasomas using monoclonal antibody against CD34.

Materials and methods:  Microvessel density was assessed in a total of 53 cases including 20 keratocystic odontogenic tumours, 13 DCs and 20 ameloblastomas (14 solid and six unicystic variants). Microvessel density was expressed as the mean number of microvessels per high‐power‐field.

Results:  Statistically significant differences in mean microvessel density were observed between keratocystic odontogenic tumours, DCs and solid ameloblastomas (P < 0.001). Mean microvessel density was significantly higher in solid ameloblastomas compared with both keratocystic odontogenic tumours and DCs; and was also significantly higher in keratocystic odontogenic tumours than in DCs.

Conclusion:  Within the limitations of the present study, it can be suggested that angiogenesis may be one of the mechanisms possibly contributing to the different biological behaviours of keratocystic odontogenic tumours, DCs and solid ameloblastomas.
Phototherapy, photodynamic therapy and lasers in the treatment of acne
Authors: Degitz Klaus
Published: April 2009

Modern acne therapy uses anticomedogenic, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, and antiandrogenic substances. As an additional approach in recent years, treatments have been developed based on the application of electromagnetic radiation. Visible light or infrared wave lengths are utilized by most techniques, including blue light lamps, intense pulsed light, photodynamic therapy and lasers. This review evaluates the various methods with regard to efficacy and their current role in the management of acne. Although UV radiation has been frequently used to treat acne, it is now regarded as obsolete due to the unfavorable risk‐benefit ratio. Visible light, especially of blue wavelengths, appears to be suitable for the treatment of mild to moderate inflammatory acne. Photodynamic therapy is effective, but, due to considerable immediate side effects, it is best reserved for selected situations. Despite promising observations, intense pulsed light and lasers have to be evaluated in further studies, before they can be recommended.
Antibiotic usage, dosage and course length in children between 0 and 4 years
Authors: De Jong Josta , Van Den Berg Paul B , Visser Sipke T , De Vries Tjalling W , De Jong‐van den Berg Lolkje TW
Published: April 2009

Aim:  Antibiotic drugs are most frequently used by 0‐ to 4‐year‐old children. We performed a cross‐sectional study in the Netherlands using a pharmacy prescription database to investigate the use, dose and course length of antibiotic drugs in 0‐ to 4‐year‐olds.

Methods:  We used a database with pharmacy drug‐dispensing data. We investigated all prescriptions of systemic antibiotics prescribed in the years 2002–2006 for children of 0–4 years of age. Prescriptions for children under the age of 3 months were excluded.

Results:  Children of 9–12 months of age received more antibiotics than children in other age groups. In the 3‐ to 6‐month‐olds, amoxicillin was prescribed in 75.2% of the cases. This percentage was 50.4% in the 4‐year‐olds. The contribution of other broad‐spectrum antibiotics increased with age (clarithromycin and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid). Small‐spectrum penicillins were prescribed less often than the broad‐spectrum antibiotics. From the prescriptions of the five most used drugs, 97.6% were within the recommended dose range. Most course lengths corresponded with the guidelines. Of the prescriptions, 3.9% were unlicensed or off‐label.

Conclusion:  Within the group of 0‐ to 4‐year‐old children, most antibiotics were used by 9‐ to 12‐month‐olds. The doses and course lengths were mostly correct, but the choice of antibiotics was not according to the guidelines. Young children received unlicensed and off‐label prescribed antibiotics.
Effect of soybean hull supplementation to finishing pigs on the emission of noxious gases from slurry
Authors: WANG Yuan , CHEN Ying‐Jie , CHO Jin‐Ho , YOO Jong‐Sang , HUANG Yan , KIM Hyo‐Jin , SHIN Seung‐Oh , ZHOU Tian‐Xiang , KIM In‐Ho
Published: April 2009

Ninety six pigs were assigned on the basis of body weight (BW) to one of four dietary treatments (4 pigs per pen and 6 pens per treatment) and fed for 4 weeks. Four 14.85% CP diets were formulated to contain graded levels of soybean hulls at 0, 5, 10, or 15%, respectively. The results showed that treatments did not affect growth performance. Coefficient of total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) for dry matter (DM) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentrations were decreased linearly (P < 0.05) with the addition level of soybean hulls. Slurry ammonia nitrogen (NH3‐N) was not affected with the increased soybean hulls levels, but volatile fatty acids (VFA) were linearly (P < 0.05) increased. Slurry pH and ammonia (NH3) emissions were significantly decreased by the addition of soybean hulls (Linear, P < 0.05). Conversely, slurry hydrogen sulphide (H2S) emissions exhibited an increase with the addition of soybean hulls (Linear, P < 0.10). Our data indicate that soybean hulls inclusion can decrease slurry pH value and NH3 emission without any negative influence on growth performance.
Effect of SCD and SREBP genotypes on fatty acid composition in adipose tissue of Japanese Black cattle herds
Authors: OHSAKI Hideki , TANAKA Atsuko , HOASHI Shogo , SASAZAKI Shinji , OYAMA Kenji , TANIGUCHI Masaaki , MUKAI Fumio , MANNEN Hideyuki
Published: April 2009

Fatty acid composition of beef adipose tissue is one of important traits because high proportions of monounsaturated fatty acid are related to favorable beef flavor and tenderness. In this study, we investigated effects of genetic factors such as stearoyl‐CoA desaturase (SCD) and sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP) on beef carcass traits including fatty acid composition using two cattle populations. Sire effect was significantly related to almost all traits except BMS, suggesting that the trait examined in this study is highly controlled by genetic factors. The effect of SCD genotype on fatty acid composition was detected remarkably in both cattle groups, especially on stearic and oleic acids. This result was consistent with our previous studies and suggests that SCD is associated with fatty acid composition. Unlike SCD genotyping, the effect of SREBP genotype was not identified in this study. Our results suggested that SCD genotype would contribute to improving beef quality in field populations. Further studies about the relationship among these factors will bring an insight into the molecular mechanism of fatty acid metabolism in cattle.
Changes in peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor gamma gene expression of chicken abdominal adipose tissue with different age, sex and genotype
Authors: SATO Kan , ABE Hiroyuki , KONO Tatsuyoshi , YAMAZAKI Makoto , NAKASHIMA Kazuki , KAMADA Toshihiko , AKIBA Yukio
Published: April 2009

Peroxisome proliferatior‐activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is a transcription factor that regulates adipocyte differentiation, and the activation of PPARγ increases fat deposition in growing chickens. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the levels of PPARγ gene expression were related to fat pad weight in abdominal adipose tissue in growing chickens with different genotype and sex. Body weight and abdominal adipose tissue weight in broiler chickens (Ross strain) were higher than the other genotypes (Road Island Red, White Leghorn, and Japanese native poultry (Tsushima)) at 3 and 5 weeks of age. PPARγ mRNA expression in abdominal adipose tissue tended to increase with age, as evidenced by higher expression levels at 5 weeks than at 1 week of age in all sex and genotype of chickens. In broiler chickens, the PPARγ expressions were significantly higher than the other genotypes. PPARγ mRNA expression levels in abdominal adipose tissue of female chickens rapidly increased at 3 weeks, and were unchanged until 5 weeks, while those in male chickens gradually increased until 5 weeks. In addition, abdominal adipose tissue weight was correlated with PPARγ expression levels. These results demonstrated that PPARγ gene expression is a useful marker of fat deposition in chickens, suggesting that PPARγ is a key factor of fat accumulation in chicken abdominal fat pad.
SONOGRAPHY OF THE SOFT TISSUE STRUCTURES OF THE CANINE TARSUS
Authors: CAINE ABBY , AGTHE PETRA , POSCH BARBARA , HERRTAGE MICHAEL
Published: April 2009

Currently, there are no available anatomic descriptions of the soft tissue structures that are visible with ultrasound in the canine tarsus. Eight cadaver hindlimbs and 10 clinically normal dogs (15–37 kg) were examined with ultrasound to establish which structures could be visualized in normal dogs. The structures always identified included the long digital extensor tendon, the tibialis cranialis tendon, the joint space, and the three bellies of the extensor digitum brevis muscle on the cranial/dorsal aspect of the tarsus. The lateral digital extensor tendon and the peroneus longus tendon were identified as a single structure on the lateral aspect of the tarsus. The caudal/plantar approach allowed identification of the calcaneal tendon, the deep and superficial digital flexor tendons, the plantar ligament, and the lumbricales and interosseus muscles. The medial collateral ligament can be identified on the medial tarsus of larger dogs. This technique has proved useful in the diagnosis of soft tissue injuries of the canine tarsus, and clinical examples of tibialis cranialis tendinopathy, deep digital flexor tendinopathy, fibrosis surrounding the medial collateral ligament and extent of invasion of a tarsal hemangiosarcoma are described.
USE OF ULTRASONOGRAPHY AND CONTRAST RADIOGRAPHY FOR SNAKE GENDER DETERMINATION
Authors: GNUDI GIACOMO , VOLTA ANTONELLA , DI IANNI FRANCESCO , BONAZZI MATTIA , MANFREDI SABRINA , BERTONI GIORGIO
Published: April 2009

The purpose of this paper is to characterize the sonographic and radiographic features of hemipenes in male snakes and to use these features for gender determination. The sonographic and radiographic examination of 17 male and 10 female snakes, whose gender was determined previously by probing, were evaluated by one examiner who was unaware of the gender. Sonographically, hemipenes appeared funnel shaped with an echogenic thin wall and hypo to anechoic contents. Radiographically, hemipenes filled by positive contrast medium appeared as funnel‐shaped radiopacities pointing caudally. Snake gender was correctly determined in all snakes using sonography (accuracy=100%). Radiographic accuracy was 81.4%. Interpretation of radiographic examinations was limited by poor distribution of the contrast medium within the hemipenes.
Possible binding site for paclitaxel at microtubule pores
Authors: Magnani Matteo , Maccari Giorgio , Andreu José M. , Díaz J. F. , Botta Maurizio
Published: April 2009

Taxanes and other microtubule‐stabilizing agents comprise an important class of anticancer drugs. It is well known that taxanes act by binding to β‐tubulin on the lumenal side of microtubules. However, experimental evidence obtained in recent years led to the hypothesis of an external site on the microtubule wall to which taxanes and other microtubule‐stabilizing agents could bind before being internalized to their lumenal site. In the present study, different computational techniques were combined to explore the possible existence of an exposed and easily accessible binding site for microtubule‐stabilizing agents on the outside of microtubules. The results obtained indicate that the conformational rearrangement of the H6–H7 hoop of β‐tubulin can form a suitable pocket on the outer microtubule surface, and that paclitaxel can efficaciously interact with this newly‐proposed binding site.
Epidermal growth factor‐containing wound closure enhances wound healing in non‐diabetic and diabetic rats
Authors: Dogan S , Demirer S , Kepenekci I , Erkek B , Kiziltay A , Hasirci N , Müftüoğlu S , Nazikoğlu A , Renda N , Dincer UD , Elhan A , Kuterdem E
Published: April 2009

Background: This study was designed to elucidate the in vivo efficacy of epidermal growth factor (EGF) on wound healing in non diabetic and diabetic rats.

Methods: Ninety‐six male Wistar‐Albino rats were randomly divided into six groups. Saline‐moistened gauze, pure gelatin or EGF in gelatin‐microsphere dressings were used in a dermal excision model in both normal and streptomycin‐induced diabetic rats. Wound healing was evaluated on day 7 and 14. Reduction in wound area, hydroxypyroline content and tensile strength of the wound were evaluated in each rat. Tissue samples taken from the wounds were examined histopathologically for reepithelialisation, cellular infiltration, number of fibroblasts, granulation and neovascularisation.

Results: On day 7, the use of EGF‐containing dressing was observed to reduce the wound area better when compared with the other dressings tested. This effect was significant in normal rats rather than diabetic rats. The difference in reduction of wound area did not persist on day 14. No significant effect on hydroxyproline content of the wound was found with EGF‐containing dressing in either normal or diabetic rats. There was a statistically significant increase in tensile strength values of EGF‐applied non diabetic rats over the 14 day period. An increase in tensile strength was prominent in also EGF‐applied diabetic rats on day 14. Histological examination revealed higher histopathologic scores in EGF‐applied diabetic and non diabetic rats.

Conclusion: These findings implicate that use of EGF in gelatin‐microsphere dressings improves wound healing both in normal and diabetic rats.
Initial multi‐centre observations upon the effect of a new topical negative pressure device upon patient and clinician experience and the treatment of wounds
Authors: Witkowski Wojciech , Jawien Arkadiusz , Witkiewicz Wojciech , Zon Bartlomiej
Published: April 2009

Topical Negative Pressure (TNP) has become an accepted intervention in wound healing with a growing body of scientific literature supporting the effectiveness of TNP across a wide variety of wound aetiologies. The range of TNP devices has also increased with perhaps the primary distinction being between those TNP devices that employ gauze or foam as a wound dressing. This study reports preliminary multi‐centre observations upon the use of a new gauze based TNP device in the treatment of wounds. Across 3 study centres twenty‐nine subjects were recruited to the study with 8 presenting with leg ulcers, 8 with pressure ulcers, 12 with acute or surgical wounds and 1 with a non‐healing burn injury. Wounds were then treated with the new TNP therapy for a maximum of 17 days (range 2–17 days). There appeared to be a trend for subjects with leg ulcers to be treated for longer (mean duration 12.9 days) compared to subjects with pressure ulcers (mean duration 6.5 days) or those with surgical wounds (mean duration 8.2 days). Given the relatively short duration of the TNP therapy no wound completely healed although 22/29 (75.9%) showed reductions in surface area per day of treatment with all but 1 pressure ulcer and 1 leg ulcer responding positively to treatment. While not an RCT, this and similar cohort studies may be central to the future selection of TNP devices given the increasing importance of the role of the user interface to reduce the likelihood of incorrect use and sub‐optimal outcomes.
Role of integrins and focal adhesion kinase in the orientation of dermal fibroblasts exposed to cyclic strain*
Authors: Wen Huang , Blume Peter A , Sumpio Bauer E
Published: April 2009

Stretch is applied to skin under normal physiological conditions, for example pregnancy, or artificially using soft tissue expanders. Because cells are known to orient in response to the application of mechanical forces, the current studies were carried out to assess the effects of stretch on dermal fibroblast orientation and cell signalling. Dermal fibroblasts were seeded onto collagen‐coated flexible membranes and grown to 70–80% confluence. Membranes were then deformed at 10 cycles per minute by the application of 135 mmHg subatmospheric pressure. This corresponded to strain levels of 0–24% from the centre to extremity of the flexible membrane. We show that a minimum of 15% cell stretch is required to significantly stimulate the fibroblast orientation response. focal adhesion kinase (FAK), p38 and Rho were activated in fibroblasts exposed to cyclic stretch and incubation of cells with anti‐integrin β1 before the application of stretch abrogated fibroblast orientation, as well as FAK, p38 and Rho activation. Fibroblast orientation in response to cyclic stretch is mediated at least in part by integrin β1 through phosphorylation of FAK, p38 and activation of Rho.
Effect of a regular family visiting program as an affective, auditory, and tactile stimulation on the consciousness level of comatose patients with a head injury
Authors: ABBASI Maryam , MOHAMMADI Eesa , SHEAYKH REZAYI Abdoreza
Published: April 2009

Aim:  The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of a regular family visiting program, as an auditory, affective, and tactile stimulation, on the consciousness level of comatose head injury patients.

Method:  A randomized controlled trial design was used. Fifty comatose head injury patients were randomly allocated into a control group or an intervention group. The consciousness level of the patients in both groups was evaluated and recorded by the Glasgow Coma Scale, before and 30 min after the visiting program.

Results:  The independent t‐test results demonstrated that the means of the consciousness level at the first day before intervention had no significant difference in both groups. The repeated measured ANOVA results demonstrated that the consciousness level alterations were significant between the two groups over the 6 days of intervention.

Conclusion:  The results of the present study provided evidence to support that a regular family visiting program could induce the stimulation of comatose patients. Therefore, it can be considered as a potential nursing intervention.
Civil Society, State, and Institutions for Young Children in Modern Japan: The Initial Years
Authors: Uno Kathleen
Published: April 2009

Research on the history of children and childhood in modern Japan (1868–1945) reveals that issues related to civil society, state, and the establishment of institutions for young children can be explored beyond the transatlantic world. This brief essay considers the role of state and nonstate agents in the genesis of institutions for young children in modern Japan after briefly surveying historiography, a few basic terms, and earlier patterns of state and private involvement in education. After that, it proceeds in chronological order, treating first the founding of kindergartens and then day nurseries, focusing on the initial four decades.
The Immigrant Preschool
Authors: Wollons Roberta
Published: April 2009

Today, internationally, early childhood education, whether as nursery schools, kindergartens, or other forms of preschool, is a fully integrated feature of public and private education systems. The kindergarten, for example, had its origin in nineteenth century Germany. Following the 1848 revolution, exiled followers of Friedrich Froebel carried the kindergarten idea to England, America, and other European nations. From these early kindergarten apostles, the idea of the kindergarten flowed around the world so that by World War I, all industrialized and many industrializing nations had incorporated the kindergarten into their educational landscape. People and ideas arriving in new societies enter into a cultural exchange, maintaining at the same time as amending and adapting their social and cultural practices. By this process, in each setting the kindergarten and other forms of early childhood education were transformed and rooted as an institution that was simultaneously international and local.
Where to catch a fish? The influence of foraging tactics on the ecology of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Florida Bay, Florida
Authors: Torres Leigh G. , Read Andrew J.
Published: April 2009

Abstract

Observations of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Florida Bay, Florida, between 2002 and 2005 revealed the use of three distinct foraging tactics. The goal of this study was to identify ecological correlates with tactic use and describe the impact of foraging specializations on the overall habitat use and distribution patterns of this dolphin population. Foraging tactics showed strong association with contrasting environmental characteristics, primarily depth. Locations of two of these tactic groups were spatially repulsed. Analyses of sighting histories of individual dolphins observed at foraging events determined that dolphins which employed one tactic never employed the other, and vice versa. Although bottlenose dolphins have plastic foraging behaviors, dolphins in Florida Bay appear to specialize in one tactic and subsequently limit their overall distribution patterns to coincide with habitats that facilitate success using that foraging tactic. This study demonstrates how foraging behavior can be an ecological determinant of overall dolphin habitat use patterns and works to create spatial structure within a population due to consistent mapping of tactics onto environmental variation. These foraging specializations potentially impact the social and demographic patterns of this dolphin population. The possible evolutionary mechanisms behind this intraspecific variation, including resource limitation and social learning, are considered.
Climate Change Adaptation Strategies for Resource Management and Conservation Planning
Authors: Lawler Joshua J.
Published: April 2009

Recent rapid changes in the Earth's climate have altered ecological systems around the globe. Global warming has been linked to changes in physiology, phenology, species distributions, interspecific interactions, and disturbance regimes. Projected future climate change will undoubtedly result in even more dramatic shifts in the states of many ecosystems. These shifts will provide one of the largest challenges to natural resource managers and conservation planners. Managing natural resources and ecosystems in the face of uncertain climate requires new approaches. Here, the many adaptation strategies that have been proposed for managing natural systems in a changing climate are reviewed. Most of the recommended approaches are general principles and many are tools that managers are already using. What is new is a turning toward a more agile management perspective. To address climate change, managers will need to act over different spatial and temporal scales. The focus of restoration will need to shift from historic species assemblages to potential future ecosystem services. Active adaptive management based on potential future climate impact scenarios will need to be a part of everyday operations. And triage will likely become a critical option. Although many concepts and tools for addressing climate change have been proposed, key pieces of information are still missing. To successfully manage for climate change, a better understanding will be needed of which species and systems will likely be most affected by climate change, how to preserve and enhance the evolutionary capacity of species, how to implement effective adaptive management in new systems, and perhaps most importantly, in which situations and systems will the general adaptation strategies that have been proposed work and how can they be effectively applied.
Forest Wildlife Management and Conservation
Authors: Lindenmayer David B.
Published: April 2009

Forests are critical for the world's biodiversity, the regulation of the Earth's climate, and the provision of goods and services for humans. This review focuses on four broad topics: (1) key processes threatening forest biodiversity; (2) broad strategies for mitigating threatening processes; (3) climate change and forest biodiversity; and, (4) plantations and biodiversity. How key issues within these broad topics are addressed will have profound effects on forest biodiversity and the Earth's climate. A significant global problem for biodiversity conservation is the conversion of natural forests to other land uses, both in developing and developed nations; ways must be urgently identified to halt forest conversion. When forests are logged for timber or pulpwood and then regenerated, impacts on biodiversity are harder to quantify than when forests are converted to other land uses. Hence, the effectiveness of efforts to mitigate such impacts (where they occur) is frequently not well known. Climate change may result in substantial changes to forest ecosystems, and its effects may interact in additive or cumulative ways with other human disturbances in forests, although work on such combinations of impacts is in its infancy. The establishment of plantations of trees is frequently proposed to sequester large amounts of carbon and/or produce biofuels to mitigate the climate‐change effects. However, there is potential for perverse outcomes, such as biodiversity loss where plantation establishment is narrowly focused and other environmental values are ignored.
Setting Conservation Priorities
Authors: Wilson Kerrie A. , Carwardine Josie , Possingham Hugh P.
Published: April 2009

A generic framework for setting conservation priorities based on the principles of classic decision theory is provided. This framework encapsulates the key elements of any problem, including the objective, the constraints, and knowledge of the system. Within the context of this framework the broad array of approaches for setting conservation priorities are reviewed. While some approaches prioritize assets or locations for conservation investment, it is concluded here that prioritization is incomplete without consideration of the conservation actions required to conserve the assets at particular locations. The challenges associated with prioritizing investments through time in the face of threats (and also spatially and temporally heterogeneous costs) can be aided by proper problem definition. Using the authors’ general framework for setting conservation priorities, multiple criteria can be rationally integrated and where, how, and when to invest conservation resources can be scheduled. Trade‐offs are unavoidable in priority setting when there are multiple considerations, and budgets are almost always finite. The authors discuss how trade‐offs, risks, uncertainty, feedbacks, and learning can be explicitly evaluated within their generic framework for setting conservation priorities. Finally, they suggest ways that current priority‐setting approaches may be improved.
From Conservation Genetics to Conservation Genomics
Authors: Primmer Craig R.
Published: April 2009

Although the application of population and evolutionary genetic theory and methods to address issues of conservation relevance has a long history, the formalization of conservation genetics as a research field is still relatively recent. One of the periodic catalysts for increased research effort in the field has been advances in molecular technologies, leading to an increasingly wider variety of molecular markers for application in conservation genetic studies. To date, genetic methods have been applied in conservation biology primarily as selectively neutral molecular tools for resolving questions of conservation relevance. However, there has been renewed interest in complementing the analysis of neutral markers with the assessment of loci that may be directly involved in responses to processes such as environmental change, with a view to identifying the genes involved in them. These kinds of studies are now possible due to the increase in availability of genomic resources for nonmodel organisms, and there will likely be an even more rapid increase in the near future due to the advent of new ultrahigh throughput–sequencing technologies. This review considers the implications of the most recent developments in genomic technologies and their potential for contributing to the conservation of populations and species. Three “conservation genomics” case studies are presented (Atlantic salmon,Salmo sala;the butterfly,Melitaea cinxia;and the California condor,Gymnogyps californianus) in order to demonstrate the diversity of applications now possible. While it is clear that genomics approaches in conservation will not replace other tried‐and‐true methods, these recent developments open up an exciting new range of possibilities that will enable further diversification of the application of genomics in conservation biology.
A Predictive Framework to Understand Forest Responses to Global Change
Authors: McMahon Sean M. , Dietze Michael C. , Hersh Michelle H. , Moran Emily V. , Clark James S.
Published: April 2009

Forests are one of Earth's critical biomes. They have been shown to respond strongly to many of the drivers that are predicted to change natural systems over this century, including climate, introduced species, and other anthropogenic influences. Predicting how different tree species might respond to this complex of forces remains a daunting challenge for forest ecologists. Yet shifts in species composition and abundance can radically influence hydrological and atmospheric systems, plant and animal ranges, and human populations, making this challenge an important one to address. Forest ecologists have gathered a great deal of data over the past decades and are now using novel quantitative and computational tools to translate those data into predictions about the fate of forests. Here, after a brief review of the threats to forests over the next century, one of the more promising approaches to making ecological predictions is described: using hierarchical Bayesian methods to model forest demography and simulating future forests from those models. This approach captures complex processes, such as seed dispersal and mortality, and incorporates uncertainty due to unknown mechanisms, data problems, and parameter uncertainty. After describing the approach, an example by simulating drought for a southeastern forest is offered. Finally, there is a discussion of how this approach and others need to be cast within a framework of prediction that strives to answer the important questions posed to environmental scientists, but does so with a respect for the challenges inherent in predicting the future of a complex biological system.
Cytopathological and histopathological diagnosis of canine splenic disorders
Authors: Christensen NI , Canfield PJ , Martin PA , Krockenberger MB , Spielman DS , Bosward KL
Published: April 2009

Objectives To determine (1) the common types of canine splenic disorders, and the breeds affected, that are diagnosed by cytopathological and histopathological examination in Sydney, Australia and (2) the accuracy of cytopathological examination compared with histopathological examination for the diagnosis of canine splenic disorders.

Design 69 cytopathological and 51 histopathological diagnoses of canine splenic disorders presented to the Veterinary Pathology Diagnostic Services, The University of Sydney during 2006 and 2007 were tabulated and analysed; 17 cases examined both cytopathologically and histopathologically during 2001–07 were also analysed.

Results The most common cytopathological diagnoses were benign disorders of growth, vascular disturbances and necrosis (29%), followed by no abnormalities detectable (28%), malignant neoplasms (20%), equivocal diagnoses (20%) and inflammatory disorders (3%). The most common breeds were Kelpie crosses and mixed breeds. The most common histopathological diagnoses were benign disorders of growth, vascular disturbances and necrosis (49%), followed by malignant neoplasms (43%) and inflammatory disorders (8%). The most common breeds were German Shepherd Dogs, Boxers and Maltese Terriers. Cytopathological and histopathological diagnoses were in complete agreement in 59% of cases, partial agreement in 29% and disagreement in 12%.

Conclusion Benign disorders of growth, vascular disturbances and necrosis were the most commonly diagnosed canine splenic disorders, both cytopathologically and histopathologically. Kelpie crosses presented most frequently for cytopathological examination. German Shepherd Dogs were the most common breed diagnosed histopathologically with haemangiosarcoma. Although cytopathological and histopathological splenic examinations are complementary for diagnosis, this study has shown a high correlation for complete and partial agreement between the two.
Efficacy against Fasciola hepatica and the pharmacokinetics of triclabendazole administered by oral and topical routes
Authors: Martin PJ , Chambers M , Hennessy DR
Published: April 2009

Objective  To determine the efficacy of triclabendazole (TCBZ) against 28‐day‐old, early immature liver fluke in cattle and its pharmacokinetics following administration by the oral or topical (pour‐on) route.

Procedures  Cattle (n = 18) were infected with 500 TCBZ‐susceptible liver fluke metacercariae and randomly allocated to three groups. At 28 days after infection, the groups were: (1) untreated controls; (2) treated with oral TCBZ at 12 mg/kg in combination with oxfendazole and selenium (TOS); (3) treated with pour‐on TCBZ at 30 mg/kg in combination with abamectin (TA). Blood samples were taken immediately prior to treatment and serially after treatment to assess the plasma profile of TCBZ metabolites. Ten weeks after treatment all animals were slaughtered and total liver fluke counts, fluke egg counts and liver pathology were assessed.

Results  Both the TOS and TA treatments resulted in significant reductions of 28‐day‐old liver fluke, as assessed by fluke counts and fluke egg counts at slaughter, and the reductions following TOS treatment were significantly greater than those following TA treatment. The blood profile of TCBZ metabolites in TOS‐treated animals showed a significantly greater area under the plasma concentration time curve and a higher maximum observed concentration than those treated with TA. There was significantly less liver pathology in TOS‐treated animals than in the TA‐treated animals.

Conclusion  TCBZ administered orally at 12 mg/kg resulted in greater efficacy against 28‐day‐old, early immature liver fluke than was achieved by topical administration at 30 mg/kg. Plasma metabolites of TCBZ were higher and liver pathology was less in TOS‐treated animals than in TA‐treated animals.
The Effects of Ambient Solar UV Radiation on Alkaloid Production by Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense†
Authors: Lydon John , Casale John F. , Kong Hyesuk , Sullivan Joseph H. , Daughtry Craig S. T. , Bailey Bryan
Published: April 2009

Truxillines are alkaloids produced by Erythroxylum species and are thought to be derived from the UV‐driven dimerization of cinnamoylcocaines. This study was conducted to determine the effects of ambient UV radiation on the production of truxillines in Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense. Field plants were grown under shelters covered with plastic filters that were transparent to UV radiation, filtered UV‐B, or both filtered UV‐B and UV‐A radiation. The treatments had no significant effect on plant biomass or specific leaf weight. Absorption values in the UV‐C and UV‐A region of acidified‐methanol leaf extracts were higher for plants exposed to UV radiation compared to the no UV radiation treatment. There was a trend in decreasing levels of trans‐cinnamoylcocaine and a statistically significant decrease in levels of cis‐cinnamoylcocaine in the leaves of plants exposed to UV radiation compared to the no UV radiation treatment. Truxilline levels increased in leaves from plants exposed to UV radiation compared to the no UV radiation treatment. Most significantly, the ratio of truxillines to total cinnamoylcocaines in the leaves was affected by UV, increasing with increased UV exposure. The results support the hypothesis that UV radiation is involved in the formation of truxillines from cinnamoylcocaines.
Analysis of whole genomic expression profiles ofHelicobacter pylorirelated chronic atrophic gastritis with IL‐1B‐31CC/‐511TT genotypes
Authors: WANG Shao Ying , SHEN Xiao Ying , WU Cai Yun , PAN Feng , SHEN Yuan Yuan , SHENG Hai Hui , CHEN Xi Mei , GAO Heng Jun
Published: April 2009

OBJECTIVE:   Many studies have linked cytokine interleukin‐1B gene polymorphisms toH. pylori‐related gastric cancer development. The current study evaluated the characterization of whole genomic expression profiles of the premalignant condition:H. pylori‐related chronic atrophic gastritis (CAG) with IL‐1B‐31CC/‐511TT genotypes.

METHODS:  IL‐1B‐31/‐511 gene polymorphisms were determined by DNA sequences. RNA was extracted and expression profiles were performed using Agilent human whole genomic oligonucleotide microarrays (G4112F). The expression of three samples withH. pyloriinfection was compared to that of three samples withoutH. pyloriinfection from samples of six CAG patients, all with IL‐1B‐31CC/‐511TT genotypes. Differentially expressed genes related toH. pylori‐induced CAG with IL‐1B‐31CC/‐511TT genotypes were screened and analyzed further by Gene Ontology (GO) and pathway. Validation of the microarray data was performed using qRT‐PCR.

RESULTS:  A total of 124 differentially expressed genes and 32 GO term annotations were identified betweenH. pyloripositive and negative groups in the six CAG samples with IL‐1B‐31CC/‐511TT genotypes. The signaling pathways identified were oxidative phosphorylation and epithelial cell signaling inH. pyloriinfection. Five overlapping genes were contained in identified GO terms and pathways: ATP6V0B, NDUFS5, NDUFV2, ATP6V1F and ATP6V1G1. Comparisons of qRT‐PCR data and the previously reported data with the results of gene chips support the validity of our microarray data.

CONCLUSION:  TheH. pylori‐related CAG with IL‐1B‐31CC/‐511TT genotypes has shown to be the more malignant phenotype thanH. pylorinegative CAG with IL‐1B‐31CC/‐511TT genotypes. Mitochondrial energy metabolism probably plays a crucial role as it is the molecular mechanism of host–bacterial interactions.
Polymorphism of thymidylate synthase gene and chemosensitivity of 5‐fluorouracil regimen in metastatic gastrointestinal cancer
Authors: CUI Yue Hong , LIU Tian Shu , ZHUANG Rong Yuan , GAO Hen Jun , LI Hong
Published: April 2009

OBJECTIVE:  To explore the polymorphism of thymidylate synthase (TS) gene and chemosensitivity of a 5‐fluorouracil (5‐FU)‐containing regimen in metastatic colorectal and gastric cancer.

METHODS:  Sixty‐eight patients with metastatic gastric or colorectal cancer were included in this study. Doublets or triplets of 28 base pairs (bp) in the 5‐untranslated region (UTR) of TS gene promoter were detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis. Fragments of polymorphic products, 2R/2R, 2R/3R and 3R/3R were detected by the Agilent BioAnalyzer chip‐lab system. All patients were followed up until the censoring date. A χ2 test was used to analyze the polymorphism. A Kaplan–Meier curve and a log‐rank test were used to determine disease progression and overall survival.

RESULTS:  Among 68 patients, polymorphism expressions were 4.4% in 2R/2R, 29.4% in 2R/3R and 66.2% in 3R/3R, and clinical responses were 33.3%, 73.3% and 47.6%, respectively (2R/3R versus 3R/3R, P= 0.058). In the 64 evaluable cases, the median time to progression (TTP) was 4 months and the TTP were 3 months in 2R/2R, 6 months in 2R/3R and 4 months in 3R/3R, separately (log‐rank test, P= 0.0316). Response rates to the 5‐FU regimen were also better in the 2R/3R group than in the 3R/3R group both in metastatic colorectal cancer and advanced gastric cancer.

CONCLUSION:  Our study suggested that polymorphism of 3R/3R was more common in Chinese gastrointestinal cancer patients. Patients with a TS polymorphism expressed as 2R/3R might be more sensitive to 5‐FU regimen than those with a polymorphism expressed as 3R/3R.
Identification of NOD2/CARD15 mutations in Malaysian patients with Crohn's disease
Authors: CHUA Kek Heng , HILMI Ida , NG Ching Ching , ENG Tzy Lui , PALANIAPPAN Shanthi , LEE Way Seah , GOH Khean‐Lee
Published: April 2009

OBJECTIVE:  The NOD2/CARD15 gene has been identified as an important susceptibility gene for Crohn's disease (CD) but the three common disease predisposing mutations (DPM) found in developed countries have not been identified in Asian populations. The aim of our study was to look for the DPM in our multiracial population and to discover whether there were any differences in the three major ethnic groups; Malay, Chinese and Indian.

METHODS:  Blood samples from consecutive CD patients and healthy controls were obtained and analyzed for the three common mutations (R702W, G908R, 1007fs) but in addition to this, we also looked for the SNP5 and JW1 variants which are associated with CD in Ashkenazi Jews. A polymerase chain reaction‐restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR‐RFLP) technique was used to identify the mutations, which was confirmed by sequencing. The baseline socio‐demography and clinical characteristics of the CD patients were recorded.

RESULTS:  Overall 45 patients (three Malays, 15 Chinese, 26 Indians and one other) with confirmed CD and 300 controls were recruited. The three common DPM were not observed in either the CD patients or the controls. Neither the SNP5 nor the JW1 mutation was found in any of the controls. However, the SNP5 mutation was identified in six (13.3%) Indian CD patients and the JW1 mutation in eight CD patients who are different from those carrying the SNP5 mutation: one Malay (33.3%), two Chinese (13.3%), one other (Portuguese) and four Indians (15.4%). The presence of SNP5 was strongly associated with CD in the Indian population and that of JW1 was strongly associated with CD overall and in each of the major ethnic groups. There was a trend towards a younger age of onset and stricturing disease in patients carrying the JW1 mutation.

CONCLUSION:  These findings suggest the presence of novel DPM in the NOD2/CARD15 gene in Asian patients with CD.
A 7‐year study of lamivudine therapy for hepatitis B virus e antigen‐positive chronic hepatitis B patients in China
Authors: YAO Guang Bi , ZHU Mei , CUI Zhen Yu , WANG Bao En , YAO Ji Lu , ZENG Ming De
Published: April 2009

OBJECTIVE:  To evaluate the long‐term efficacy and safety of lamivudine treatment for chronic hepatitis B and the impact of emergence of YMDD mutation of hepatitis B virus (HBV).

METHODS:  A total of 429 patients with serum HBsAg, HBeAg and HBV DNA positive were randomized to receive either lamivudine 100 mg daily or a placebo in a 3:1 ratio for the first 12 weeks. Thereafter, all patients were administered with lamivudine 100 mg/d for 5 years and followed up for 2 years.

RESULTS:  After 12 weeks of the lamivudine treatment, serum HBV DNA levels decreased rapidly and HBV DNA negativity (<1.6 pg/mL) was 92.2%, whereas it was only 14.1% (P < 0.01) in the placebo group. At the end of 5 years, serum HBV DNA continued to be substantially suppressed. The loss of HBeAg and seroconversion were significantly correlated with baseline alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels, in patients with baseline ALT > 2 × upper limits of normal, the loss of HBeAg was 54% and seroconversion rate was 50%, respectively. YMDD mutation developed in 70.8% of the patients at years 5. In YMDD mutant patients, HBV DNA levels were increased moderately and with mild to moderate elevations of ALT. ALT flares (ALT > 5ULN) occurred in 22 patients, 16 with YMDD variants and six with non‐variants. One year durability of seroconversion after stopping lamivudine was 80%.

CONCLUSION:  Lamivudine is effective and tolerable for chronic hepatitis B.