bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Contractor Safety: Matching Owners and Contractors
Authors: Blanton M. L. , Montgomery E. W.
Published: December 2007

The recent trend in the United States and Shell Oil Company E&P has been to increase use of contractors to do specialized work. Many companies now use contractors almost exclusively for operations such as drilling, well workovers, construction, and many speciality and routine maintenance tasks. Today, approximately 75% of Shell Oil Company’s actual operating work force in E&P is contract.

Several recent industry catastrophes have pointed to inadequately trained contract workers as a primary cause. Industry is accused of using contractors to reduce operating costs and contractor safety is an issue in many regulatory initiatives in the United States. Contractor safety performance must be brought up to the same standards as company performance.

The E&P industry has had a long standing practice of using competitive bids based on rigid specifications as our primary method of contractor selection. Historically, the competitive bidding process has been primarily to select qualified contractors who provided the best value for the money. The management of safety has been the contractor’s responsibility with little effort historically to evaluate the contractor’s ability to carry out that responsibility.

Clearly, HS&E considerations must become an increasingly important part of the contractor selection process. In Shell Oil Company E&P we are evolving from a bidder selection process to a program of "Matching Owner and Contractor." We have begun to expand our efforts to make better assessments of contractor’s HS&E capabilities and values in pre-bid considerations. We are focusing our pre-bid evaluations to select contractors that have strong HS&E commitments and values similar to ours. We are looking for contractors who have management processes and structures in place to insure their HS&E performance is consistent with our requirements.

Contractor safety performance in our industry must be brought up to the same standards as operating companies. In Shell Oil E&P we will only use those contractors who can and are willing to do that.
The Development and Implementation of Environmental Training for Management and Employees
Authors: Grant R. O. , Whelan M.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes the design and implementation of an environmental training strategy in a major North Sea operating company. The training events were designed using in-house environmental and training advisers to include all levels of management, operational employees and contractors. As well as designing new courses, material was produced to introduce an environmental awareness component into some existing courses.
Field Training: An Efficient Means for Providing Individual HSE Training and Stimulating Employee Motivation
Authors: Mumford G. E. , Hadaway E. H.
Published: December 2007

Individualized, personal training can be used to increase an employee1s awareness of the HSE program. Such training can stimulate personal commitment and provide personal skills that can be utilized for the benefit of the overall HSE effort. If conducted properly, this training "personalizes" the HSE program for the individual, encouraging active participation. This can be especially effective when such training not only enhances personal job satisfaction, but also teaches skills that are beneficial both on and off the job. This is not a new concept in training or employee motivation, and such training is being conducted in various forms within many industries. But, providing such training within our industry can be a difficult task due to the scheduling, travel arrangements, and costs associated with bringing employees from isolated, remote locations to centrally located training facilities.

One method of overcoming these obstacles involves the use of field instructors to provide the training at the many, and varied work-sites. By using this method, a greater number of individuals can be reached with minimal disruption to their work scheduling or to their time off. In fact, this type of on-site training is already used by some oil companies and drilling contractors with encouraging results.

This paper describes one drilling contractor's experiences with such a training program. The results after eight years show that this program not only can provide an efficient, economical means of employee training, but also can have a direct application to employee motivation regarding a company's HSE effort.
A Safer Approach to Controlling the Cementing Operations at the Wellhead
Authors: Lavaure G. , Galiana G.
Published: December 2007

The installation of conventional cementing heads on the casing is time consuming and difficult to achieve. Loading and releasing the plugs is currently controlled manually by several operators acting directly on the head. This operation can take place up to 12m (40 ft) above the rig floor and exposes the personnel to high-pressure in the cementing head and the treating lines.

A new generation of remote-controlled cementing heads has been developed and tested in the field.

This paper describes how the system operates and performs. All safety aspects for rig-up, installation, and operations are detailed. Qualification test data and a summary of the field testing are provided to demonstrate the advantages of this new generation of cementing head in terms of both safety and operation.
An Overview of the OSHA-Proposed Standard for Process Safety Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals with Emphasis on Its Implementation
Authors: Jackson R. L.
Published: December 2007

Recent disasters in the petrochemical industry have indicated that more clearly defined process safety controls are needed. Process safety management (PSM) is not an overnight adjustment. It is a program designed to change the culture of how processes are managed over a long period of time. Process safety management is not a new idea, but perhaps its full implications are not widely understood.

The proposed United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulation for process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals (29 CFR 1910.119) is scheduled to be issued by the end of 1991. Although the OSHA program will not become law until then, two organizations within the United States (the American Petroleum Institute - API, and the Chemical Manufacturers Association - CMA) have taken the initiative to define model programs and their member companies are already taking steps to implement voluntary programs.

The API is a trade association of the petroleum industry whose primary objectives, are; (1) to afford a means of cooperation with the government in all matters of national concern; (2) to foster foreign and domestic trade in American petroleum products; (3) to promote in general, the interests of the petroleum industry in all its branches; and (4) to promote the mutual improvement of its members and the study of the arts and sciences connected with the petroleum industry.
Design Option Safety Assessment (DOSA): Method for the Assessment and Selection of Least Hazardous Design Option
Authors: Jordan D. , Poblete B. R.
Published: December 2007

Design Option Safety Assessment (DOSA) provides a method for ’front-end’ comparative selection of the safest option from any group of possible development schemes. It can also be used to rate the elements of a single scheme in terms of their relative risks, thereby indicating where efforts could best be made for the reduction/mitigation of hazards.

The method is qualitative, requiring experienced personnel for implementation, but derives a quantitative relative score for each scheme (or element) reviewed. Higher scoring schemes are likely to be more hazardous than those with lower scores.

There are three basic routines (made up of six steps of analysis) steps in the procedure: Scoring of Relative Importance of ElementsThe elements of a scheme are compared with each other to obtain their relative importance in terms of potential hazard effect. This is done on a matrix and score as follows:2 = element has more potential than comparison element.1 = element has some potential as comparison element.0 = element has less potential than comparison element.Scoring of Accidental EventsA set of accidental events are applied to each element of each scheme, using a matrix and a scoring method similar to that in 1. above.SummationElements and accidental event scores for each scheme are multiplied, and then multiplied by a risk factor (0 = no risk, 10 = very high risk) to obtain a final score for each design option.

The method has been adapted for use on a standard personal computer spreadsheet software and used for selection of a subsea development scheme. The study was presented together with outlines of the work subsequently undertaken to indicate how risk reductions were obtained in the finally accepted scheme.
Facilities Design Focus for Health, Safety, and Environment: Compliance and Compliance Monitoring
Authors: Amato F. S. , Resweber L. R. , Jones M. A.
Published: December 2007

Shell Oil Company's goal to be an industry leader in HS&E has placed even greater emphasis on the design of its production facilities so they will meet or exceed not only all regulatory requirements, but Shell's very demanding internal design standards as well. In addition to the many traditional equipment and process design requirements, there is also a need to incorporate Human Factors Engineering (HFE) into the design process. How the equipment will be operated and the potential for incorrect operation are very important safety design considerations as evidenced by recent industry disasters. Finally, the designs must not only achieve compliance with safety and environmental requirements, they must also consider how that compliance will be monitored and verified.

This paper addresses the approach utilized and some of the design considerations currently being made to provide for a safe and environmentally sound operation of Shell Oil Company's deepwater Tension Leg Platform (TLP). It also identifies some of the HFE efforts being applied in the TLP design and describes the HS&E monitoring techniques used to verify and document compliance.
Assessing the Risk of Riser and Pipeline Failures on Offshore Installations
Authors: Comer P. J. , Clements F. , Van Der Graf G.
Published: December 2007

In the aftermath of the Piper Alpha disaster in 1988, considerable attention was given by many companies to the risks posed by riser and pipeline failures to their installations. Particular attention was focused on ways of reducing the impact of failures, including specifically sub-sea isolation valves (SSIV). The decision process for deciding whether or not to install a SSIV is complex, and the Exploration and Production function of Shell International Petroleum Mij B.V. (SIPM-EP) felt that a consistent approach for assessing the safety benefit of SSIVs should be adopted by Shell companies. As a result, SIPM commissioned a study to develop a method which would enable their own staff to carry out risk assessments in a standardized repeatable manner. In parallel with the development of the method, a series of six risk assessment studies were carried out, followed by a further two once the method development had been completed.

This paper will describe the key aspects of the methodology and how it is applied, and will present a summary of the results of the applications to the eight installations. The installations studied included a widerange of platform types and environments from shallow water platform complexes in tropical areas to large integrated north sea platforms. Gas, oil and two-phase risers were included in the work. Each study considered a number of options including the installation of top of riser valves and sub-sea valves close to and remote from the facility. These were compared with the base case risk. The results will show that the risk reduction potential of an SSIV varies significantly from installation to installation depending on specific circumstances, and demonstrates the need to consider each case individually in order to ensure that cost effective risk reducing measures are adopted.
Emergency Management in Oil and Gas Exploration
Authors: Heidebrink I. , Bockholts P.
Published: December 2007

In the past years all kind of activities in the field of emergency management have been taken in order to handle accidents. In the scope of this paper emergencies are those accidents that may lead to severe releases of oil and gas, whereby also attention is payed to collisions between off-shore installations and drifting objects and the situation where people fall overboard. Case histories show that coping with these serious accidents is not always as effective and successful as intended.

The stage from being aware of the risks, to being prepared to cope with the consequences, to actually being capable to combat is long and consists of many elements. This paper will deal with the general approach of emergency management, the development of automated tools for decision support on emergencies as well as some fate and effect models.
Statfjord Field: Risk Analysis
Authors: Petterson G. , Nygaard M.
Published: December 2007

The Statfjord Field vas discovered in 1974. It turned out to be the largest oil field in the North Sea. The field straddles the Norwegian/United Kingdom borderline. The participants in the Statfjord Group are as follows:

 Amerada Hess Norge A/S

 Amoco Norway Oil Co.

 BP Petroleum Development Ltd.

 Chevron U.K. Ltd.

 Conoco (U.K.) Ltd.

 Conoco Norway Inc.

 Den norske stats oljeselskap a.s.

 Driftsdivisjon Stavanger

 Enterprise Oil Norge Ltd.

 Esso Norge a.s Expl. & Prod.

 Mobil Exploration Norway Inc.

 A/S Norske Shel1

 Saga Petroleum a.s

Presently the recoverable reserves are estimated to 3,3 billion barrels of oil, and 75,13 MMM Sm3 of gas. The field is developed and operated under a Unitization Agreement between Norwegian and British interest owners. Mobil Exploration Norway Inc. was the operator till 1. January 1987, whereupon the operatorship was transferred to Statoil.

The field is developed by three fully integrated concrete gravity base platforms of the condeep type. Oil is lifted from the field by tankers through an offshore loading system. The gas is exported through two pipeline systems to continental Europe and United Kingdom respectively.
Quantitative Assessment of Blowout Data as It Relates to Pollution Potential
Authors: Kato S. , Adams N. J.
Published: December 2007

A large blowout database has been developed. It has been analysed for various trends and quantitative data relating to blowouts and pollution. Pollution from blowouts is a rare occurrence and has a low probability. However, when an event occurs, it may involve large spill volumes.

Blowout trends have been analysed for some well control purposes. Techniques to mitigate pollution damage from an offshore blowout are presented.
Applying QRA to an Extensive Onshore Oil and Gas Operation
Authors: Rashid D. A. , Henderson G.
Published: December 2007

An extensive QRA study has been performed to assess the level of risk to the local population presented by Brunei Shell's onshore facilities and to identify suitable areas for future BSP and urban expansion.

The results of the study are presented in the form of individual risk contours plotted onto maps of the local area and societal risk F/N plots, the risk contributing factors are identified leading to the specification of effective risk reducing measures; the major hazard is shown to be associated with the use of liquid chlorine.
Benefits of Joint Audits of Service Company and Operator Personnel
Authors: Ritchie R. D.
Published: December 2007

Companies operating in the petroleum industry are showing an increasing collective awareness of safety and environmental issues. The objective of management in any organization is to identify potential hazards and develop and implement an action plan to eliminate these hazards.

Joint audits between operating companies and service companies have proved an effective means of developing an objective and realistic safety awareness program. Joint audits, unlike external audits, enable both companies to develop, implement and monitor a meaningful safety policy based on factual information.

Audit findings which are classified as either positive or areas in need of improvement are then reclassified into sub-groups according to the time frame required to complete the action item.

Findings are then analyzed to ensure that the internal safety management policies of the operator and contractor are in place and adhered to.

To date, the most beneficial point of interest from these joint audits is the reaction of management to translate the audit findings into tools with which to improve and enhance their existing safety and environmental management policies.

The paper describes the planning, execution and follow up of an in-depth joint audit. Analysis of the audit results generated action plans to correct areas in need of improvement for both the operating and service companies.

Of these areas, most could be corrected and resolved within three months while the remainder were targeted for remedial action to be completed within one year.

The paper provides a thorough set of guidelines for all stages of a successful joint audit and illustrates, with examples, the operational improvements to be gained from such operator/service-company cooperation.
Operability and Safety Audit: A Tool for Safety Management
Authors: Cote B. , Rochet B.
Published: December 2007

During the last 10 years, TOTAL has developed and refined a specific methodology to assess the operating and safety conditions of hydrocarbon processing installations.

This methodology has proven to be extremely effective to highlighting existing or potential hazards, due to the following techniques: –a detailed survey of facilities and documents–the use of a comprehensive check-list that enables:a break down of complex issues into simpler elements which are easier to address ;a careful investigation into activities where hazardous occurrences arise ;–a series of exercises and tests which assess plant conditions, site organisation and personnel behaviour.–a reporting system that keeps the operating company in touch with the auditors.–a rating system to provide precise reference which enables comparison with other installations.
Personal, Place, and Time Characteristics of Offshore Accidents in Five Oil Companies Operating in Indonesia
Authors: Rahardjo Rahardjo , Sudjoko Sudjoko , Sebayang Sebayang
Published: December 2007

This study is to determine personal, place and time characteristics of offshore accidents during the year of 1987, 1988 and 1989 of five oil companies operating in Indonesia.

Access to records of accidents was made through BPPKA, a production sharing coordinating body. Those records were transfered into a precoded forms for easy computer entry. Only five companies that submitted their data.

Age, length of service, employment status, job characteristics, work cycles, work schedules, marital status, citizenship, disability, anatomy and nature of accident were personal variables. Location of accident and number of inhabitants of offshore installation were place variables. Month, day of the week, date, hours, losstime and length of day working offshore before accidents were time variables. Description of these characteristics will be presented in proportion.

During the three years period there were 208 casualties (100%) in five companies. 43.75% of their age were between 31-40 years. 59.13% have been working with the companies for less than 10 years. 43.27% were permanent employees. 12.50% of them were mechanics. 61.06% were shiftworkers. 62.01% were working under schedule of two weeks on and 1 week off. 30.29% were married employees. 95.19% were national employees. 49.52% resulted in temporary disability. 29.32% caused injured hands and fingers. 44.71% striked by something. 44.71% of accidents were in production platforms. 54.33% of accidents were happened in installation with inhabitant less than 50 persons. 12.02% were happened during the month of May. 16.35% of accident were happened on Tuesday. 8.58% of accidents were happened at 10:00am and 7.50% at 16:00pm.

The younger the age of the employees the more prone they to an accident. Injury to hands and fingers were significantly high, if it was compared with the other anatomical section. Hours of the accident were also significantly high at 10am and 4pm. This would be very interesting with it was correlated with blood sugar level. A further study should be done in this matter.

Training should be emphasized for those younger and less experienced employees. Machineries that may caused hands and fingers injury should be replaced by robotics. Implementation of extra food between meals may be beneficial.
"FIRE-PRAN": A Technique for Fire Protection Analysis
Authors: Waterfall K. W.
Published: December 2007

Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B.V. ("SEPM"), is a service company in the Royal Dutch/Shell Group of Companies who provides services worldwide (outside of the USA) to Shell Operating Companies. It has defined and recommended for implementation by Shell Companies a policy on safety ("Enhanced Safety Management policy") to manage the total safety aspects of all they do, including the design, engineering, installation and operation of their facilities worldwide. This policy affects all activities in such a way as to avoid harm to health of, or injury to employees and others as well as avoiding damage to property. This in turn reflects through specific policies and standards for investment strategy, engineering and operations of facilities.

From the development of this policy SIPM has established tools and techniques for assessing and improving the safety of design and operations in its activities.

Two relatively independent tasks face the manager in concerning the HSE aspects of his work: –to optimise the development of the facilities and the associated procedures, and technical information so as to minimise the hazards during their operating life and subsequent abandonment;–to exercise full control of the HSE aspects in the execution of the work itself.
Enhanced Detection of Hazardous Gas Releases Using Open-Path Infra-Red Sensors
Authors: Skippon S. M. , Roberts I. R.
Published: December 2007

Open-path infrared gas sensors have recently become commercially available for offshore applications, but most operators are still unfamiliar with their use. The principle of operation of this type of sensor is reviewed. They have several significant advantages over conventional point-type gas detectors; they are failsafe, immune to poisoning by airborne contaminants, and they are able to give much more effective area coverage than point detectors. Results are presented of experiments to determine their response to realistic gas releases in large enclosures. The results indicate that they have greater sensitivity and faster response than conventional detectors. These advantages are examined, and the practical application of this type of detector to the protection of offshore installations is discussed.
Safety Requirements and Standards in Relation to Transport of Crude Oil, Products, and Gas
Authors: Lerstad A. , Sangvig M.
Published: December 2007

This Paper describes the quality assurance (QA) system developed and used by Statoil (the Norwegian stateowned oil company) in relation to the company’s shipping activities. The objective of the QA system is to reduce the risk of accidents and to maintain a high level of performance by increasing the quality of the internal and external shipping activities.
Produced Water Management
Authors: Lyngbaek M. E. , Blidegn L. H.
Published: December 2007

Produced water represents an increasing part of the total production from the process centres operated by Mærsk Olie og Gas in the Danish part of the North Sea. Long term production forecasts predict that some 200 million bbls produced water will require cleaning the next ten years. Due to this significant increase and to the growing environmental concern in connection with this discharge, some of the existing water treatment facilities will require some upgrading and additional capacity. This paper gives an overview of the presently installed equipment, its performance with respect to oil/water separation, operational problems and some of the considerations for the expansion of the purification plant for the Gorm process centre. Further, it describes briefly the observed effect on the marine environment around the Gorm process centre.
The Dispersion of Produced Water
Authors: Nguyen V. T. , Prandle D.
Published: December 2007

A study has been carried out to estimate the dispersion of produced water which is a major component of the effluent water discharged into the North Sea as a result of oil production. The study involved the application of a dispersion model developed for the northwest European continental shelf seas to Shell/Esso production operations in the northern and central North Sea. The produced water discharged from these operations represents around 22% of the total discharged in the UK sector.

The background to the model used in the calculations is outlined and the validation data are discussed. The results show that the produced water is diluted by factors around one million before the prevailing currents take it out of the North Sea off the Norwegian coast. This dilution and the natural decay effects reduce the concentrations of the environmentally sensitive components in the produced water to less than 1 ppb.
Environmental Guidelines for Worldwide Exploration and Production Activities: Do They Make Sense?
Authors: Armstrong K. E.
Published: December 2007

Environmental issues are receiving increasing attention in countries throughout the world, resulting from growing public and government concerns and pressures to address them. In turn, greater attention is being focused on environmental aspects of oil and gas exploration and production (E&P) activities in many countries.

Major international oil companies are being asked to demonstrate to the public and governments in most countries where they operate that the companies are committed to environmental protection. Many have therefore adopted corporate environmental policies that articulate that commitment. Industry trade associations have similarly adopted mission statements or guiding principles for the industry as a whole.

However, environmental commitment must be demonstrated in the field through actual performance. Environmental policies alone usually cannot assure such performance. Companies must establish their own environmental standards to guide their operations and defend them to the public and government, especially in countries with few or no environmental laws and regulations.

For these reasons, many companies and industry trade associations have developed or are developing internal operating requirements or guidelines for their units or members. Such requirements and guidelines can bring significant benefits to individual companies and to industry as a whole.

Companies have used varying approaches in developing internal operating requirements. Some appear to be more effective than others. However, any approach must deal with certain significant issues. Primary is the inevitable balance that must be achieved between the need for company-wide or industry-wide consistency and specificity in standards and the need for flexibility to address local and project- specific conditions.

Whatever approach is used, the requirements must be part of a more comprehensive environmental management program. Such a program is the only way to assure that' the standards the company adopts will be effectively implemented in the field.
Oil Production and Water Management in Oman
Authors: Parker D. H. , Kuijvenhoven C. A. T. , Waterland R. D. , Smies M.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes the development of integrated (production) water management in Petroleum Development Oman. In its existing oil fields the water cut is rising rapidly and water production is expected to increase two to three times in the next 15 years. Reinjection of production water will continue to account for less than half of the volume of co-produced water.

Current subsurface disposal of production water to shallow Tertiary formations is based on thorough knowledge of the local hydrogeology and does not affect potable water resources. However, in view of the expected increase in production water volume, utilisation and disposal options have been re-evaluated.

This review has been facilitated by recently acquired data on production water quality and by the results of research in dehydration and de-oiling technologies and of tests with production chemicals. The combined knowledge base is used to arrive at water management strategies for individual oil fields that are sound both in principle and in practice.
Baseline Air Quality Evaluation for the Venezuelan Orinoco Bitumen Belt
Authors: Arrocha A. , Octavio K. H. , Sanhueza E. , Cedeno A. L.
Published: December 2007

To achieve a harmonic relationship between oil exploration and production activities and the environment, Petrdleos de Venezuela and its affiliated companies conducted environmental evaluations of the physical and biotic media in the Orinoco Bitumen Belt. This region covers an area of approximately 42000 km2 with estimated bitumen reserves on the order of 3xl012 barrels, one of the largest bitumen reservoirs in the world. This paper presents the results of a study of baseline air quality conditions: an emissions inventory, surface and upper layer meteorological conditions and measurements of air quality parameters of interest (CO, HC, NOx, SO2, H2S and T.S.P.) taken by a network of automated air quality stations using standard international reference techniques. The temporal (hourly and daily basis) and spatial air quality variability and the variables/activities that might determine the observed trends are discussed. NO, NO2, SO2 and H2S concentrations were lower than the detection limits of the analytical methods, while O3 and CO 1-hour average levels ranged from 5-30 ppb and 0.5-1.8 ppm, respectively, and T.S.P. daily means varied from 10-50 ng/m, all of which is close to natural background concentrations. Maximum hourly average reactive hydrocarbon concentrations of 0.37 ppm were found near a producing oil field.
Reduction of Degassing During Offshore Loading of Crude Oil in the Norwegian Sector
Authors: Oldervik O. , Lerstad A.
Published: December 2007

This paper deals with emission of hydrocarbon gas to the atmosphere from shuttle tankers loading crude oil at offshore fields in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. Model tests which have been carried out, give relations between this emission and governing parameters.

The emission has been measured during 9 offshore loadings.

The variation of the magnitude of the emissions is discussed.

The paper also includes conclusions and corrective actions implemented, as well as further work to reduce the emission.
The Environment and Community Relations: The Shell Petroleum Development Co. of Nigeria Experience
Authors: Odogwu E. C.
Published: December 2007

Even though the petroleum industry in Nigeria has become the back bone of the Nigerian economy the relationship with the communities in the oil producing area is not all what it should be. There has been a significant shift in emphasis from the earlier peaceful and cordial relationship to the present more vocal sometimes violent relationship from a few communities who would like to see the operator held responsible for all environmental lapses of the past 50 years of oil operations in Nigeria. As the leading and most visible oil producer, we experience our share of strained relations in proportion to the size and extent of Shell's operations.

Social unrest in the oil producing areas can be attributed to the frequent complaint by the communities of gross neglect by the oil producing companies and the Federal Government of Nigeria in the development of their areas. The community's feeling is that the level of compensation from environmental pollution is not sufficient to compensate the damage caused and this affects good community relations. Also, some communities feel that despite the taxes and royalties paid by multinational companies that, most of the petroleum profit from their God-given wealth is being taken away by such multinationals for development elsewhere. This feeling stems from the perceived glaring disparity between developments in the urban and rural areas where oil operations are carried out.

Oil contributes 13% of Gross National Product (GNP) and 90% of the earned foreignexchange revenue in Nigeria. As the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited (SPDC) produces about 50% of the oil in Nigeria, it is appropriate to share our experience in community relations arising from environmental pollution from oil operations.

The global concern for the protection and preservation of the environment especially by the major countries like the US, Canada and some in Europe has further strengthened the resolve of pressure groups especially in developing countries like Nigeria to exert influence on Governments and industry to improve environmental control.

Environmental quality considerations will have to be accepted as essential in any policy formulation for petroleum development and to this end the Nigerian Government is committed to seeing that the oil industry is properly managed to ensure that the maximum benefit is derivable from oil revenue. It recognises that this can only be achieved with due regard to the protection and conservation of the environment, thus ensuring peaceful interaction between the oil operators and the communities among whom they operate.

This paper is an attempt to examine the social problems associated with oil exploration and production and the related environmental pollution therefrom and proffer suggestions on how such problems can be solved for good community relations.
Implications of The Netherlands' Environmental Policy for Offshore Mining
Authors: Meijer K. , Krijt K.
Published: December 2007

The environmental policy in the Netherlands, as outlined in the National Environmental Policy Plan, aims for a sustainable development. In principle a two track approach is adhered to: source oriented as well as effects oriented.

Effects oriented policy includes the setting of environmental quality objectives and is used to establish the final goals for the source-oriented measures. The policy aims at integrated life-cycle management; in the final target situation all waste is used again as raw material and remaining emissions to the environment should comply with the environmental objectives.

In this paper the implications of this policy for the offshore mining industry are elaborated, both for drilling operations and for the production of oil, gas and condensate.

The results of the recently concluded Environmental Impact Assessment for the offshore mining industry as a whole are also elaborated.
The Dutch Model for Environmental Care
Authors: van't Zet H. , van der Ham P. J. M.
Published: December 2007

Over the last 5 years a rapid evolution has taken place in the Dutch Environmental climate.

There are a number of factors contributing to these developments. Political pressure originating from Global, European and National sources. As a consequence, both the authorities and the industry have stepped up their activities.

The Offshore industry will soon come under the influence of the EEC North Sea Ministers conferences and discussions in the Paris Commission. On a national scale the authorities are driven by the implementation of targets derived from the Brundtland report, which resulted in the Dutch National Environmental Policy Plan (NMF, 1988). Targets for individual sections of industry (Target Groups) constitutes the so-called Target Group discussion. Nogepa takes part in the process as representative of the Dutch ESP industry. [Nogepa = the Netherlands Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Association]. This has already resulted in a complete new structure for cooperation between authorities and industry. Meanwhile Nogepa has introduced the principle of "Environmental Care" to its members. This concept presupposes that industry takes full responsibility for control of all environmental aspects of its activities. Environmental Care is the result of a growing awareness, Aleading to an involvement of the whole organization. Environmental Care is an efficient management tool for maintaining standards and achieving agreed reductions in environmental impact.

Changing attitudes will undoubtedly result in a more efficient cooperation between authorities and industry.
An Environmental Performance Program
Authors: Al-Shahri A. R. M. , Cuddeback J. E.
Published: December 2007

Concern about environmental protection has triggered national and international actions dealing with issues such as global warming, ozone layer depletion, transboundary movement of hazardous materials, air and water pollution, marine pollution, etc. The formation of the Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA), the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the Regional Organization for the Protection of Marine Environment (ROPME) and the Gulf Cooperation Council’s Environmental Affairs Directorate has enhanced the environmental regulations.

As a result, the petroleum industry, in particular, has become more conscious of the evolution and the importance of its rule in the protection and improvement of the environment. Major oil companies worldwide have established their environmental compliance programs as a mechanism through which they can assess their environmental performance and take appropriate mitigative measures.

In late 1986 Saudi Aramco conducted an overall review of Corporate environmental activities. The purpose of that review was to ensure that these activities met the objectives of applicable environmental regulations. The review included communication with the concerned managements, reviewing previous and existing environmental activities and reviewing applicable Government and industry environmental regulations. It also included reviewing other oil companies environmental compliance programs and interviews with many environmental experts. The review indicated that an Environmental Performance Assessment program should be established to conduct periodic facility inspections, in order to determine their compliance with the objectives of the Company's environmental policies.
Short- and Long-Term Effects of Discharged OBM Cuttings, With and Without Previous Washing, Tested in Field and Laboratory Studies on the Dutch Continental Shelf, 1985-1990
Authors: De Jong S. A. , Zevenboom W. , Van Het Groenewoud H. , Daan R.
Published: December 2007

A Dutch programme was carried out to study the distribution of discharged washed and unwashed oil-containing cuttings in the sediment and waterphase and their effects on selected test species in the Dutch part of the North Sea.

The distribution of OBM cuttings in sediment around drilling locatons was related to the total amount of oil discharged in the watercolumn. Increased oil contents were found over a range of 1000 to 5000 m in residual current direction. Total oil contents remained high at locations where unwashed OBM cuttings were discharged. At one location oil was found in high concnetrations upto 6 years after discharge of OBM cuttings, especially due to the persistence of the oil fractions "Other peaks" and "UCM". Washing of OBM cuttings resulted in lower amounts of oil discharged, lower concentrations in the sediment in the vicinity of the platform (upto 100 m), equal concentrations at 250 m but higher concentrations upto at more than 500 m off the platform when compared with unwashed cuttings and the respective amount of oil discharged. However, within one year, degradation of oil seems to have taken place at one of the washed sites at 5000 m.

During discharge in the watercolumn, oil was taken up by Mytilus edulis from washed cuttings as well as from unwashed cuttings. Leaching of oil from the sediment into the waterphase was measurable in the field for only a limited period of time, less than a year after discharge.

Several sediment-inhabiting species were tested on their response to oil contamination. Four species tested in experimental boxcosm set-ups, Fchinncardium cordatum, Amohiura filiformis,Laois koreni and Nucula turgida responded to elevated contaminaton levels by increased mortality. Boxcosm experiments supported the conclusion derived from the results of field studies on the macrofauna distribution around drilling sites, i.e. the NOEC-value should be estimated in the order of 1-10 mg oil kg-1 dry sediment [12]. For boxcosms taken at unwashed and washed sites one year after discharge this was confirmed. Preliminary results of a boxcosm experiment with sediment where discharge of unwashed OBM cuttings had taken place 6 years before, the NOEC-value seemed to have increased. Experimental boxcosms enable assessment of possible adverse effects of experimentally treated drilled cuttings or other toxic substances on the (macro)benthic infauna. Adverse effects were also seen at one of the washed sites using a short-term bioassay test with the sediment-inhabiting amphipod Bathyporeia sarsi.
Preliminary Results on Dose-Effect Relationships of Thermally Treated, Oil-Containing Drilled Cuttings in Boxcosms
Authors: De Jong S. A. , Marquenie J. M. , van't Zet J. , Zevenboom W.
Published: December 2007

Plans to reduce emission of oil prescribe the development of testing techniques to judge effects on the marine environment. In the Netherlands, a technique with the potential to be applied in offshore operations, is based on thermal treatment and grinding of the cutting in order to recover the base oil. The resulting cuttings form a very fine hydrophobic powder with an oil content of ca. 7.5 g kg-1 dry weight. In order to assess the dose-effect relationships and no-effect concentration of these cuttings at the ecological community level, boxcosm experiments were set-up. This study is a joint effort of the Dutch Government and the Dutch E&P Industry (NOGEPA).

Clean marine sediments were inoculated in duplo with 5 concentrations of pretreated cuttings with a 3.2 factor stepwise dilution of concentration. The results were compared with two blancs: one without addition of cuttings and one with addition of cuttings which had been made oil-free by heating at 500 °C. The incubation period was 3 months. The minimal dose of the cuttings was calculated to amount to ca. 1.2 mg oil kg-1 dry weight, the maximal dose to ca. 120 mg oil kg-1 dry sediment in the top 10 cm sedimentlayer. The results, however, showed that the initial background concentration of oil was at least 10 times as high as expected from previous measurements with a mean calculated value of 110 ± 59 mg oil kg-1 dry sediment (n = 10).

A parameter indicative for impact on biological activity in the sediment is the depth of the oxygen present in the sediment and the overlying water. Oxygen concentrations at the sediment/water interface were always near saturation, but the thickness of the aerobic layer differed markedly. In the high-dose boxes the aerobic layer was significantly thinner, problably due to the increased load of organic matter and oil originating from the SCS- cuttings. Furthermore, the oxygen gradient, indicative for respiratory activity, was upto 2.9 times higher compared to the blancs without any SCS-cuttings added. Since oxygen depletion did not occur no harmful effects on the benthic community were to be expected. Besides examining the effects on the natural infauna, the test species Echinocardium cordatum. an oil-sensitive species, was added. The results show that mortality of E. cordatum hardly exceeded naturally induced mortality with increasing dose of the cuttings. At the highest dose added all animals survived. Preliminary results on natural infaunal mortality indicate the same. The impact of oil-containing particles on bottom structure, such as smothering, may have been much less in case of the SCS-cuttings which were rather homogeneously reworked through the sediment toplayer.
Microbiological Decontamination of Oil-Based Mud-Contaminated Drilled Cuttings
Authors: Minton R. C. , Hubbard G. J. S.
Published: December 2007

Oil contaminated cuttings brought ashore for disposal need to be processed. A range of processes is being evaluated and this paper reviews some early work on Microbiological decontamination in respect of the removal of mineral oil based drilling fluid from this material. The process has been demonstrated to be feasible with over 70% of the oil removed within a 24 hour incubation period. Further studies continue to optimise the process.
From Oil-Based Mud to Water-Based Mud
Authors: Christiansen C.
Published: December 2007

Maersk Olie og Gas AS has used low toxic oil-based muds extensively since 1982 for drilling development wells and later in the development of horizontal well drilling techniques.

However, in view of the strong drive towards a reduction in the amount of oil discharged to the North Sea from the oil industry, Maersk Olie og Gas AS initiated trials with new or improved types of water-based mud, first in deviated wells (1989) and then in hori-zontal wells (1990).

The paper reviews Maersk Olie og Gas AS' experience with oil-based mud since the drilling of the first horizontal well in 1987, specifi-cally with respect to cuttings washing equipment, oil retention on cuttings, and the procedure for monitoring of this parameter. It describes the circumstances leading to the decision to revert to water-based mud systems.

Finally, it reviews the experience gained sofar with the new improved types of water-based mud systems, mainly glycol and KCl/polymer mud systems. Comparison of operational data, such as rate of penetration, torque and drag, etc., is made between wells drilled with oil- based mud and water-based mud.

The trials with the new improved types of water-based mud systems have been positive, i.e. horizontal wells can be drilled successfully with water-based mud. As a result, Maersk Olie og and Gas AS has decided to discontinue the use of low toxic oil-based muds in the Danish sector of the North Sea.
Zero Discharge Design Considerations for Jackup Drilling Rigs
Authors: Alford J. T.
Published: December 2007

This paper describes a zero discharge design intended to make jack-up drilling rigs as environmentally clean as possible. Waste streams of conventional rigs were listed and traditional methods of collection and treatment were identified. Next, certifying authority rules and regulatory requirements were reviewed and finally a study of various types of treatment equipment was conducted. Information from the foregoing research was used to develop a design for use in upgrading existing rigs and to also provide a system to be incorporated in new building programs. This effort has lead to increased catchment of effluent streams, selection of latest technology treatment equipment and increased use of monitors. The project has resulted in the design of systems that will make both new and existing rigs more environmentally acceptable.
Guidelines for the Application of Geophysics to Onshore E&P Environmental Studies
Authors: Young G. N.
Published: December 2007

This paper gives guidelines for geophysically detecting the two most common materials of interest in E&P environmental studies, produced water and crude oil. Techniques for locating buried metal objects such as buried casing heads and pipelines are also discussed. Produced water can easily be detected with several electrical techniques. The choice of technique generally depends on the depth of investigation. Crude oil can sometimes be detected remotely with ground-penetrating radar but there is no technique that can be used routinely. Magnetic or conductivity measurements usually are the most effective for locating buried metal.