bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
FLOW-THROUGH SYSTEM FOR CHRONIC EXPOSURE OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS TO SEAWATER-SOLUBLE HYDROCARBONS FROM CRUDE OIL: CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATIONS
Authors: Roubal William T. , Bovee Donald H. , Collier Tracy K. , Stranahan Susan I.
Published: January 2013

Flow-through systems circumvent problems associated with static systems for exposing aquatic organisms to water-soluble hydrocarbons by providing an uninterrupted supply of water-soluble fraction with minimal compositional variations. Moreover, there is little accumulation of deleterious excretory products. Yet the design of a flow-through system for crude petroleum poses practical problems. All exposed surfaces of equipment become coated with thick oily residues, which, if ignored, result in changes in water flow rates and in levels of soluble hydrocarbons.

To circumvent such problems, a modular system was built which can be adjusted to compensate for oil accumulation. Analysis of the water-soluble fraction prepared from Prudhoe Bay crude oil showed it to contain primarily low molecular weight aromatic compounds as follows (average concentration, ppm): benzene, 0.26; toluene, 2.45; total xylenes, 1.73; C3- and C4-substituted benzenes, 0.26; naphthalene, 0.01; 1-methyl naphthalene, 0.02; 2-methyl naphthalene, 0.02; C2-substituted naphthalenes, 0.05; and C3-substituted naphthalenes, 0.03. Hydrocarbon analysis of muscle tissue from coho salmon exposed to a water-soluble fraction for 5 weeks is presented.
THE EFFECTS OF CRUDE OIL ON LARVAE OF LOBSTER HOMARUS AMERICANUS
Authors: Forns Joseph M.
Published: January 2013

The effects of API reference South Louisiana crude oil upon four larval stages of American lobster (Homarus americanus) were determined in a flow-through system. Tests were conducted with naturally-hatched animals in individual test chambers as well as in mass culture systems in an operating state lobster hatchery. Experimental flow-through crude oil exposure concentrations were 0.1, and 1.0 ppm, administered as a strongly-agitated emulsion-like mix to ambient temperature seawater ranging from 15°-20°C. Oil exposure residence times ranged from 0.8-5.6 minutes depending on the test. Exposed animals were monitored six times daily for feeding behavioral characteristics, mobility, molting success, growth and development times to reach the fourth larval stage. Pigmentation analysis was performed on individual larvae by photomicroscopy, and hydrocarbon analyses were also conducted thereon. Post-larval development through the eighth stage was investigated. Statistical comparisons were made among different control animals and between control and oil-exposed larvae.
PREVENTING OIL SPILLS IN THE WEST COAST FOREST INDUSTRY
Authors: Melville L. , Hamm P.
Published: January 2013

MacMillan Bloedel, Canada's largest forest products company, uses about 67 million gallons of oil products annually. Moving, storing and dispensing such quantities calls for effective measures against spills, leaks and the problem of waste oil disposal. Experience has shown that prevention of oil losses must begin with a properly developed set of control standards endorsed by senior management and accepted by line personnel. A necessary adjunct is a major education and training programme. The company's enlightened approach to spill prevention and cleanup has resulted in a significant reduction in the number and magnitude of oil spills at MacMillan Bloedel operations. A side benefit has been reduced oil consumption for lubricating and heating purposes at some of the company operations.
SENSITIVITY OF LARVAL AND ADULT ALASKAN SHRIMP AND CRABS TO ACUTE EXPOSURES OF THE WATER-SOLUBLE FRACTION OF COOK INLET CRUDE OIL
Authors: Brodersen C. C. , Rice S. D. , Short J. W. , Mecklenburg T. A. , Karinen J. F.
Published: January 2013

The sensitivity of adult and larval Alaskan shrimp and crabs to the water-soluble fraction (WSF) of Cook Inlet crude oil was measured by tests using 96-hour static bioassays at the water termperatures that these animals normally encounter. Larval crustaceans were found to die more slowly than adults, making it necessary to measure sensitivity in terms of concentrations causing moribundity (death imminent) instead of in terms of concentrations causing death during exposure. The cessation of all motion and reaction was found to indicate moribundity in adults, and the cessation of swimming was found to indicate morbundity in larvae exposed for 96 hr. Ninety-six-hour LC50's for moribundity for stage I larvae ranged from 0.95 to 1.8 ppm depending on species, while 96-hr LC50's for adults ranged from 1.9 to 4.2 ppm oil. Sensitivities for stage I-VI larvae of coonstripe shrimp ranged between 0.24 ppm and 1.9 ppm.

Larvae were more sensitive to oil than adults. The sensitivity of larvae depended on species and developmental stage. Larvae are probably more vulnerable than adults to oil exposure because of greater sensitivity to oil and greater susceptibility to predation. Cold-water species may be particularly vulnerable because of increased time spent as developing larvae.
U.S. NAVY R&D EFFORTS IN SUPPORT OF OIL POLLUTION ABATEMENT STRATEGIES
Authors: Hura M. , Finger S.
Published: January 2013

During the past few years the Navy has become increasingly concerned with the detrimental environmental effects which may result from the oily waste discharges and oil spills from its ships and shore facilities. Thus, it is not surprising to find that the Navy has been embarked on a vigorous oil pollution abatement program designed to permit its ships and shore facilities to at least meet existing federal, state, and local environmental regulations.1 The basic strategy of the program has been to institute measures that will reduce the amount of oil being discharged into the environment wherever possible, before implementing oily waste treatment techniques.

In implementing the oil pollution abatement program it became apparent in many instances that commercially available off-the-shelf systems were not suitable for direct Navy use. Strict space, weight, reliability and maintainability requirements associated with operational Navy units precluded, in many instances, the use of existing oil pollution abatement equipment. For these reasons, an extensive research and development program was initiated. Numerous in-house laboratories and private contractors have been actively involved in the development of a technology base required to support oil pollution abatement strategies. They have been instrumental in identifying the causes and magnitude of the problem, developing operational changes, and providing techniques and hardware to combat oil pollution. The most salient contributions of the program are shipboard oil/water separators for contaminated bilge and ballast wastes, real time oil-in-water monitors, and effluent oil spill containment and cleanup equipment.
FATE OF PETROLEUM COMPONENTS IN ESTUARINE WATERS OF THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES
Authors: Lee Richard F.
Published: January 2013

Radiolabeled hydrocarbons and phenols were added to water samples from the Skidaway and Cooper Rivers, two estuarine rivers on the U.S. south Atlantic coast. The adsorption of hydrocarbons to particles and microbial degradation of different petroleum components were the processes studied. Alkanes, low molecular weight aromatics (benzene, toluene, naphthalene and methylnaphthalene) and phenols were rapidly degraded to 14CO2. Low degradation rates were observed for the higher weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, fluorene, anthracene, benz(a)anthracene, and benz(a)pyrene, and from 12 to 70% of these hydrocarbons were absorbed to suspended particles in the water. Radioauto graphs of particles after the addition of 3H-benz(a)pyrene and 3H-hexadecane to the water samples indicated the hydrocarbons associated with detrital particles. This detritus was composed of a mixture of clay, organic matter, plankton remains and living microbes. One area of the Cooper River had visible oil slicks and the degradation rates of added heptadecane (20 μg/l), naphthalene (30 μg/l) and methylnaphthalene (30 μg/l) were 0.4, 2.8 and 1.1 μg/I/day, respectively. In contrast, at a downstream site, where there were no visible slicks, the degradation rate of these same hydrocarbons were 0.1, 0.7 and 0.1 μg/l/day, respectively. Estuarine water had much higher hydrocarbon degradation rates than offshore and Gulf Stream waters.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR THE BP FORTIES OILFIELD PRODUCTION, PIPELINE AND TERMINAL SYSTEMS
Authors: Fulleylove R. J. , Lester T. E.
Published: January 2013

The Forties oil field in the UK sector of the North Sea is about 100 miles off the Scottish coast. Four steel platforms will eventually produce 500,000 barrels of oil per day, and deliver it by the subsea pipeline and 130-mile landline to the BP Grangemouth oil refinery and the Hound Point oil terminal on the Firth of Forth.

Although the safety measures both on the platforms at sea and on the shore installation should largely negate the risk of oil spillage, BP has developed oil spill contingency plans to cover the entire Forties system, from the production platforms to the refinery and tanker terminal. This paper describes these plans and the types of problems involved.

The work has required, in part, re-examining methods of oil spill cleanup at sea and on land, bearing in mind ecological problems, and redesigning equipment where necessary; coordinating with relevant authorities, and insuring personnel involved in the plans are adequately trained.
CLEANING PRODUCTS USED IN OPERATIONS AFTER THE AMOCO CADIZ DISASTER
Authors: Bocard Christian , Renault Philippe , Croquette Jean
Published: January 2013

Controlling the Amoco Cadiz spill and cleaning the sea and the coast of Brittany were made highly difficult by rough sea conditions and the location of the grounding. The rapid formation of “chocolate mousse” limited severely the efficiency of the different techniques used. At sea, restrictions on the use of dispersants led to use of both sinking and absorbing agents, including an experimental product, rubber powder.

On the coast, several types of chemicals were used or tried; emulsion breakers, sorbents, dispersants, and biodegrading products. Practical examples were given of how some of these products could help the cleanup operations on beaches, rocks, and piers and the handling of oil, polluted sand, and debris. The use of sorbents demonstrated that, despite the additional cost, this approach could be helpful if adequate operational techniques for such use were available.
FIREMEN AND EMERGENCY PERSONNEL OIL SPILL TRAINING PROGRAM
Authors: Duerden F. C. , Pierce W. L. , Simmons R. G.
Published: January 2013

During land-based incidents involving oil spills, the first persons of authority on scene are often firemen, police officers, or personnel from other agencies who become inadvertently involved. Because of their lack of ecological expertise, decisions made in managing the situation can result in significant detrimental effects on the immediate and surrounding environment.

The Environmental Emergency Division of the Environmental Protection Service, Atlantic Region, recognized this problem and in conjunction with the provincial Environment and Emergency Measures Departments, initiated an information transfer program for the above agencies. The program involves slide and film presentations and a literature kit handout. These address different aspects of oil pollution, including types and sources, environmental effects, cleanup equipment and techniques, and disposal, and are available in English and French.

Because most firemen are volunteers, the seminar is designed to be presented in various centers throughout each province. Each center is chosen to be within easy access for the maximum number of firemen, police officers, and other interested personnel in the surrounding area. To date, more than 40 seminars involving more than 2,000 people have been held in Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Labrador.

The program is not designed to create instant experts in environmental protection. It is intended to promote environmental awareness and to provide basic information so that the first person on scene can more adequately address the environmental problems which he may face.
IMPACT OF DISPERSANT USE DURING THE BRAZILIAN MARINA INCIDENT
Authors: Dewling Richard T. , Silva Carlos Celso Do Amaral E.
Published: January 2013

In January 1978, the tanker Brazilian Marina, while under tow, struck rock in São Sebastiao Channel, Sao Paulo, Brazil, and spilled approximately 10,000 tons (3,000,000 gallons) of 31.4 API gravity Kuwait crude. Prevailing winds and currents carried the oil in a northeasterly direction, causing pollution of the coastal embayments and beach areas in the States of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The most severely impacted areas were those in Ubatuba, Sao Paulo, and the coastline along the southwestern shore of the State of Rio de Janeiro.

In an attempt to protect recreational and other public use areas, particularly the popular beaches of Ubatuba, undiluted dispersants were applied to remove oil accumulations from the shoreline. This response action, while it cosmetically removed oil from the surface of the beaches, caused the oil to penetrate more deeply into the underlying sand, thus compounding the pollution and aesthetic problems attributable to the spill incident.

Chemical analysis of detergent-treated and oil-contaminated sand samples from Ubatuba beaches, as well as samples from a beach area in the State of Rio de Janeiro, located approximately 200 kilometers (124 miles) from the spill site, found similarities between the environmental samples and the suspected source, the Brazilian Marina. Preliminary follow-up studies, conducted seven months after the incident, verified the persistence of the detergent-treated oil in the beach sand.
MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN THE SOVIET UNION1
Authors: McClelland Joseph J.
Published: January 2013

During the past five years, the Soviet Union has made particular efforts to develop regulations and procedures for the prevention and cleanup of pollution of the marine environment from shipping. This paper briefly discusses the governmental organization relative to environmental regulation and enforcement, and marine pollution response practice and equipment. The information presented was obtained through a Joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Project on Prevention and Cleanup of Pollution of the Marine Environment from Shipping, the first meeting of which took place in May 1973.
A CHEMICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE PRESENT LEVELS AND SOURCES OF HYDROCARBON POLLUTANTS IN THE GEORGES BANK REGION
Authors: Boehm Paul D. , Steinhauer William G. , Fiest David L. , Mosesman Neil , Barak Judith E. , Perry George H.
Published: January 2013

Analysis of five suites of samples covering 40 stations in the region of Georges Bank, Nantucket Shoals, and the lower Gulf of Maine illustrates the ubiquity of anthropogenic hydrocarbons throughout this highly productive and heavily fished area. Petroleum compounds from a recent major oil spill (Argo Merchant) and chronic inputs from ballast washings and normal shipping traffic were evident in the water column's dissolved and particulate hydrocarbon fractions.

Concentrations were generally in the 0.1 parts per billion to 2.0 ppb range throughout the year, but were above 10 ppb in the four months after spills occurred in late 1976 and early 1977. Individual polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (which persisted in the water column during the year at levels of one to 10 nanograms/liter, also were elevated in concentration (10 to 50 ng/l) in early 1977.

Surface film enrichment in petroleum hydrocarbons was 1.5 to 90 times that of subsurface waters. This illustrates the existence of a year-round reservoir (10 to 70 ppb) for petroleum-derived material in the ocean's surface microlayer.

Surface sediments contained both anthropogenic and biogenic hydrocarbons. Up to 20 micrograms/gram of chromatographically unresolved complex mixture was found in siltier sediments. The unresolved complex mixture appears to have a terrigenous source. Recent tar and oil inputs to the sediments of the region also were observed, but the chemical impact on the benthos was short-lived, station revisitation showed. Sediments contained up to 50 ng/g of individual polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons attributable to pyrolytic sources and petroleum inputs.

Analyses of whole benthic invertebrates revealed sporadic but sizeable inputs of petroleum hydrocarbons to the benthic environment. These were assimilated by such edible species as sea scallops and ocean quahogs, commonly harvested in the region.
VALDEZ-THE SUPERPORT OF THE FUTURE1
Authors: Purdy Homer A. , Fisken W. L. N. , Perkins George G. , Bayliss Randy
Published: January 2013

The history of the Port of Valdez and the Alyeska marine terminal is not without its stories of dissension and conflict. There were days, in fact, when many associated with the terminal and its colossal companion, the Trans-Alaska pipeline wondered whether either would ever be completed.

The oil industry and the various regulatory agencies and environmental groups were frequently at odds over subjects too numerous and involved to be covered here. The American public played a major role in decisions which opened up a new era in the transportation of petroleum products within the state. Their adamant stand on preservation of the environment and Alaska's scenic beauty and natural resources were made unmistakably clear from the onset. The industry made extraordinary commitments for environmental protection above and beyond those made for any other major project of this type. The interaction which resulted played a most significant part in the design, construction, and operating procedures for both projects.

Another factor which played a major role in the success of the system was the cooperative effort required within the industry to finance, design, construct, and operate such a complex project. Companies, frequently in direct competition, were brought together over the drawing boards to work together with the state and federal governments and other interest groups toward a common goal. The ability to negotiate items in dispute and compromise or concede, did not develop over night; but it was obvious that without cooperation, the project would never be completed. This spirit of cooperation has continued and improved as it was carried over into working relationships which exist today. This paper serves to illustrate the cooperative efforts of those concerned to pass on to others what we have learned from our association with Valdez, the superport of the future.
CLEANUP OF A COLD WEATHER TERRESTRIAL PIPELINE SPILL
Authors: Buhite Tom R.
Published: January 2013

On February 15, 1978, sabotage of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline near Fairbanks resulted in a large terrestrial crude oil spill. Rapid response of trained personnel limited the spread of oil to an area of 2.1 acres. A 63-day cleanup effort led to the recovery of most of the crude oil which was later re-injected into the pipeline system at three different locations. The remaining crude was subsequently burned at the spill site and the area was fertilized.

The intent of this paper is to examine the implementation of the pipeline oil spill contingency plan for that area and the associated problems in and advantages of dealing with oil recovery under typical northern latitude winter conditions.
RECOVERY OF OIL SPILLED UNDER RIVER ICE COVER
Authors: Tsang Gee
Published: January 2013

Laboratory study showed that oil spilled under river ice cover could be recovered from a slot cut on the ice cover if the slot was properly dimensioned and the river flow and oil properties met certain criteria. The parameters affecting the containment and recovery capability of a slot were identified and their quantitative effects were studied through systematic experiments. Design curves were derived for proper design of slots normal to the flow. The study revealed that slots at an angle to the flow were more effective in trapping the spilled oil. In addition, they guided the oil to the more desirable points for recovery. Design curves for angled slot diverters were also obtained.

In addition to slots, imbedded barriers and slot-barrier combinations were also studied for their effectiveness in containing and diverting spilled oil. The quantitative effects of the affecting parameters were studied through experiments and design curves were obtained for proper design of barriers and slot-barrier combinations.

The laboratory study was used to guide a successful field exercise in March 1978 on the North Saskatchewan River in Alberta. In the field exercise, more than 99 percent of the oil spilled upstream was recovered by the slot. The field results and the laboratory predictions are compared.
THE USE OF DEFLECTORS FOR DEPLOYMENT OF OIL BOOMS IN RIVERS
Authors: Greene G. D. , Brodsky A. Z. , Charles M. E. , Mackay D.
Published: January 2013

A study was conducted to design, develop, and test deflectors for use in aligning oil containment booms at an angle to the current direction in flowing waters. A series of experimental field trials were undertaken in which booms, fitted with deflectors, were either towed in a lake or deployed in flowing water. During the program, several design improvements were incorporated and a final suggested design was established. A simple hydrodynamic theory has been devised which enables the boom deflection angle to be predicted from the number, dimensions, and configuration of the deflectors and the dimensions of the boom. Agreement between the simplified theory and the experimental results is satisfactory. A graphical procedure has been devised by which an on-scene commander can calculate the requirements for deflecting a given boom. Two promising applications for deflectors are discussed. A permanently deployed system could be used across a waterway subject to periodic oil discharges. A boom with deflectors closed could be moored alongshore in sensitive areas, allowing rapid deployment into the river current upon release of the deflectors.
WEST COAST OIL SPILLS—A PROBABILITY ANALYSIS KEYED TO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Authors: Bright Donald B.
Published: January 2013

There is concern that major oil spills will occur along the west coast of the United States as energy sources are developed in Alaska, outer continental shelf areas, and Elk Hills, California. Based on world tanker data, there is a potential for 4.4 accidents per 1000 voyages. However, using the actual number of casualty-caused oil spills from tankers along the Southern California coast, it is possible to predict zero spills. World-wide data for oil spill sizes and worldwide casualty rates for coastal waters suggest that a spill of 60,000 barrels somewhere in San Pedro Bay could occur once every 1,000 years. Alternatively, the chance of such a spill occurring in a given year is 0.001 or 1 in 1,000. Over a projected 40 year period, the probability of a spill of 60,000 barrels in San Pedro Bay is about 0.004 or 1 chance in 25. Similarly, a 60,000 barrel spill in coastal waters might be expected once every 500 years.

Northern and Southern California have distinctly different ship traffic patterns. In the south there is a decreasing frequency of occurrence of spills related to traffic volumes; in the north no such pattern is evident. The potential for numerous tanker collisions and subsequent loss of oil along the west coast is very, very low. Anticipated energy projects will not result in a major change in this potential. The concern for major tanker accidents and related oil spills on the west coast is not supported by existing data or predictions based on such data.
LOGISTIC PLANNING FOR OIL SPILL CHEMICAL USE
Authors: Lindblom Gordon P.
Published: January 2013

The use of chemical agents in oil spill cleanup should be rapid, but not haphazard. As with mechanical measures, both proper equipment and trained personnel must be available in order to employ chemicals most efficiently. This paper reviews those subjects which are particularly important to successful chemical applications, and which must be carefully considered in contingency planning. These are chemical types and their modes of action, design and operation of the equipment required, regulation of chemical dose per unit area, and the limitations (to both boats and aircraft) of a distant operations base.

Various kinds of oil spill control chemicals are likely to be used during a spill incident. Therefore, planning must also provide for flexibility in application equipment design in order to obtain the maximum service per unit. The design and construction of a portable chemical spraying system (which can be used on work boats, tugs, or other vessels of opportunity) is discussed. The adequacy of aerial spray systems is also examined in terms of required pump rates, chemical and equipment load, nozzle types and capacity, spraying time on-site, and volume of chemical delivered. It is shown that small aircraft are only useful near shore, and that (as the spill area increases) several large airplanes will be required.
SKIMMING BARRIER PERFORMANCE EVALUATION: OFFSHORE VERSION AND HARBOR VERSION1
Authors: Lichte H. W.
Published: January 2013

Performance evaluation test programs were carried out for two oil skimming devices, one for the full-scale high seas U.S. Coast Guard Skimming Barrier, and the second for the Scoop, a scaled-down skimming barrier for use in near-shore applications, incorporating a dedicated vessel. The new system was designed to utilize the successful design features of the proven Coast Guard system in a small, easily deployable skimmer for protecting harbors. The test results of the large system with a 19 cubic meter oil load in the barrier indicated 83 percent recovery efficiency at a 109.9 cubic meter per hour recovery rate. The smaller system produced an 84 percent recovery efficiency at an 11.4 cubic meter per hour recovery rate when encountering a 1.1 cubic meter oil-loaded barrier. Both programs provided unique underwater photography of the boom and tension cable lines reacting to water current, waves, and oil.
PERFORMANCE TESTS OF FOUR SELECTED OIL SPILL SKIMMERS
Authors: Schwartz Sol H.
Published: January 2013

From April through October, 1977, a series of oil spill skimmer performance tests were conducted at the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT), Leonardo, New Jersey. This program was sponsored by EPA, the Coast Guard, Navy, and Department of Energy combined as the OHMSETT Interagency Test Committee (OITC). The test devices selected were the commercially-available Oil Mop, Inc. Dynamic Skimmer, the Cyclonet 050 mounted on a Zodiac Inflatable boat, the Anti-Pollution, Inc. Clowsor Skimmer, and the Bennett Pollution Controls, LTD., Mark 6E Skimmer.

A total of 198 test runs were performed during which each device was evaluated for recovery of two test oils through a wide range of simulated environmental conditions of waves and currents. The performance indicating parameters were: (1) throughput efficiency, the percentage of oil encountered which is collected; (2) recovery efficiency, the percent oil in the oil/water mixture collected; and (3) oil recovery rate, the volume of oil collected per unit time.

The Oil Mop Dynamic Skimmer produced its highest average throughput efficiency (78 percent) with light oil (9 centistokes—cst) at a tow speed of 200 feet per minute (fpm) in calm water. Highest recovery efficiency (77 percent) was observed with heavy oil (3,000 cst) at 200 fpm in calm water, and maximum recovery rate was established with light oil at a tow speed of 400 fpm.

The Cyclonet 050 showed its highest average performance with heavy oil (550 cst) at a tow speed of 150 fpm. Throughput efficiency was 34 percent in calm water, recovery efficiency was 27 percent in the 0.6 by 26.2 ft (height by length) wave and recovery rate was 14 gallons per minute (gpm) in calm water.

The Clowsor Skimmer was tested as an advancing and stationary system. Highest average results occurred in the stationary mode with heavy oil (1,900 cst) and recovery efficiency was 91 percent. Maximum recovery rate observed was 95 gpm.

The Bennett Mark 6E Skimmer performed best with heavy oil (3,200 cst). Throughput efficiency was 95 percent at a tow speed of 300 fpm, recovery efficiency was 88 percent at 100 fpm, and maximum oil recovery rate occurred at 200 fpm and was measured at 108 gpm.

The general trend of performance for all devices tested showed diminishing performance with increased tow speeds and wave conditions.
ASSESSMENT OF THE ACW-400 OIL SKIMMER BY THE CANADIAN COAST GUARD FOR OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURE OPERATIONS
Authors: Gill Shawn D. , Ryan W.
Published: January 2013

Early in 1978, the Canadian Coast Guard acquired a diesel-powered vessel-mounted ACW-400 oil skimmer developed by Frank Mohn A/S of Norway. The skimmer was landed in St. John's, Newfoundland, where a series of static and field trials were undertaken preparatory to its addition to the hardware countermeasures inventory of the marine emergency organization of the Canadian Coast Guard. The results of these acceptance trials are described hereunder with an evaluation of the unit with respect to the specific requirements of the Canadian Coast Guard. Following this deployment, the ACW-400 was shipped to Tuktoyaktuk on the Beaufort Sea where it became a component of the Canadian Coast Guard contingency plan for offshore petroleum exploration in that theatre. From this experience it was apparent that the ACW-400 was well designed and met the safety, transportability, flexibility, sea-keeping, and oil recovery criteria required to fulfill the specific countermeasures obligations of the marine emergency organization of the Canadian Coast Guard.
A PLAN FOR SCIENTIFIC RESPONSE TO AN OIL SPILL IN THE BEAUFORT SEA
Authors: Wright Dennis G.
Published: January 2013

Exploratory drilling for hydrocarbons under the continental shelf of the Canadian sector of the Beaufort Sea has been actively pursued since 1973. There is a significant probability that at least one major oil spill may occur in this area during the course of exploration and exploitation. It has been demonstrated on previous occasions that an ad hoc approach to studies at the site of a major oil spill results both in major gaps in the information obtained and in inefficient utilization of available logistic resources.

In anticipation that a major oil spill could occur in the Beaufort Sea, a Scientific Response Plan has been developed. The plan consists of 28 integrated scientific studies that would be conducted to assess the immediate impact of such a spill, to provide a base for the assessment of the long-term impact of the spill and to increase the knowledge (and hence predictive capabilities) concerning the behaviour and fate of oil in Arctic marine environments.

Thirteen of the studies are concerned with determining the behaviour and fate of the spilled oil, and fifteen are concerned with determining the biological impacts.

Memoranda of agreement to participate in the implementation of the plan have been signed by the participating agencies. Funding for the plan is being sought from the Canadian Treasury Board in a special two-part submission. Phase I of the submission seeks immediate funding to purchase and stockpile necessary equipment and materials; Phase II requests a guarantee that funds will be made available to implement the response plan, should it ever be necessary.

Coordination of the Beaufort Sea Scientific Response Plan is the responsibility of Fisheries and Environment Canada, Fisheries and Marine Service.
ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION—A PRACTICAL LESSON USING THREE CASE HISTORIES1
Authors: Juhasz Ferenc
Published: January 2013

In connection with proposed measures to retrofit the existing oil tanker fleet with segregated ballast tanks, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development undertook a cost-benefit evaluation. The examination indicated that for the areas analyzed the availability of data on physical damage is severely limited. This is due partly to the fact that environmental damage data is site-specific and cannot be generalized for other areas. This makes data collection difficult and expensive and the physical evaluation of worldwide measures uncertain. The evaluation also indicated that while marginal changes in oil pollution levels might be insignificant at any particular time, their cumulative, long-term effect could be important. This cumulative effect may not necessarily be measurable with any precision.

The paper also concludes that because only the short-term effects can be measured and only few of them can be valued in monetary terms, the use of “cost-benefit” analysis in the chemical sense could lead to misleading results. Finally, an argument is made for more frequent application of a modified type of quantitative analysis, which would make the evaluation process a formal one and ensure that all the relevant factors are considered.
THE OCCURRENCE OF “WHITE EYE SYNDROME” IN SHRIMP (PENAEUS AZTECUS)
Authors: Minchew C. Douglas , Brown Lewis R. , Ladner Cornell M.
Published: January 2013

This report describes eye lesions observed in brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) which were chronically exposed to low levels of Empire Mix, Nigerian, and Saudi Arabian crude oils in 150 ft × 150 ft × 8 ft estuarine pond ecosystems. In live specimens, the lesions appeared as circular to slightly irregular white spots. In sectioned material, the lesions were characterized by the liquefactive necrosis of the crystalline cones, ommatidia, and all associated structures. Based on the appearance of these lesions in live specimens, this condition has been designated as the “white eye syndrome.”
RELATIONSHIP OF HYDROCARBON SOLUBILITY TO TOXICITY IN ALGAE AND CELLULAR MEMBRANE EFFECTS
Authors: Hutchinson Thomas C. , Hellebust Johan A. , Mackay Donald , Tarn Deborah , Kauss Peter
Published: January 2013

Recent studies have demonstrated that under carefully controlled conditions there is a highly significant correlation between the solubilities of a wide range of hydrocarbons and their toxicity to unicellular green algae. 38 different hydrocarbons have been studied, including alkanes, aromatics, polynuclear aromatics, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Toxicity has been determined in terms of the effects of hydrocarbons in solution on photosynthesis using 14 C-uptake as a measure. For each hydrocarbon, it was found that the molar concentration required to cause a 50 percent reduction in photosynthesis could be predicted from a knowledge of its solubility alone. A regression coefficient of 0.97 was obtained on a log plot. Chlorinated hydrocarbons behaved exactly as did other hydrocarbons. The effect of adding or subtracting methyl groups influenced toxicity through the effect on solubility. The linear toxicity/solubility response suggests a common mechanism of hydrocarbon action. Since hydrocarbons are lipophilic, it was hypothesized that the cellular membranes may be the site of cellular disruption. This has been tested by determining the amount of potassium and manganese leakage from algal cells, using neutron activation analysis, when exposed for a given time to equi-molar concentrations of selected hydrocarbons. Loss of relabeled organic material has also been determined in previously tagged cells when exposed to these hydrocarbons. The predictions seem to be very strongly borne out. Implications for the prediction of effects of oil spills on a variety of aquatic organisms are present. The less soluble hydrocarbons are the most toxic on a per mole basis. Partition coefficients appear to provide a key to the common effects.
SENSITIVITY OF 39 ALASKAN MARINE SPECIES TO COOK INLET CRUDE OIL AND NO. 2 FUEL OIL
Authors: Rice Stanley D. , Moles Adam , Taylor Tamara L. , Karinen John F.
Published: January 2013

The sensitivities of 39 subarctic Alaskan species of marine fish and invertebrates to water-soluble fractions of Cook Inlet crude oil and No. 2 fuel oil were determined. This is the largest group of animals ever tested under similar test conditions with the same petroleum oils and analytical methods. Organisms bioassayed represent several habitats, six phyla, and 39 species including fish (9), arthropods (9), molluscs (13), echinoderms (4), annelids (2), and nemer-teans (2). Sensitivities were determined by 96-hour static bioassays. Concentrations of selected aromatic hydrocarbons were determined by gas chromatography; concentrations of paraffins were determined by infrared spectrophotometry.

Although sensitivity generally increased from lower invertebrates to higher invertebrates, and from higher invertebrates to fish, sensitivity was better correlated to habitat. Pelagic fish and shrimp were the most sensitive animals to Cook Inlet crude oil with 96-h median tolerance limits (TLm's) from 1–3 mg/l total aromatic hydrocarbons. Benthic animals, including fish, crabs, and scallops were moderately tolerant (TLm's to Cook Inlet crude oil of 3–8 mg/l total aromatic hydrocarbons). Intertidal animals, including fish, crabs, and starfish, and many molluscs, were the most tolerant forms to water-soluble fraction of petroleum (TLm's greater than 8–12 mg/l of total aromatic hydrocarbons). Most of the intertidal animals were not killed by static oil exposures. No. 2 fuel oil was more toxic to most species than Cook Inlet crude oil.

Sensitive pelagic animals are not necessarily more vulnerable to oil spills than tolerant intertidal forms — oil may damage intertidal environments more easily and adverse effects may persist longer than in damaged pelagic environments.
COMPARATIVE UPTAKE OF NAPHTHALENES FROM WATER AND OILED SEDIMENT BY BENTHIC AMPHIPODS1
Authors: Anderson J. W. , Kiesser S. L. , Blaylock J. W.
Published: January 2013

The benthic amphipod, Anonyx laticoxae, was exposed to whole oil on sediments or water extracts of Prudhoe Bay crude oil under both static and flowing conditions. Time periods of exposure ranged from 4 to 27 days and, while a range of compounds was present, the only class measured in water, tissues, and sediments was naphthalenes. Compared to levels in the surrounding environment (sediment or water) tissue magnification was least during sediment exposures (2–4 times), greatest in a flowing exposure system (∼1000 times), and intermediate during static water exposure (10–50 times). During a constant exposure to 22 ppb total naphthalenes (0.506 ppm total hydrocarbons) the amphipods reached a threshold of accumulation after about seven days, and the majority of contamination was from alkylnaphthalenes.

Sediment exposures demonstrated relatively low bioavailability of naphthalenes and the route of entry appeared to be via interstitial and water column contamination. It appears that release of naphthalenes from both oiled sediments and tissues is largely controlled by water solubilities of the components, but metabolic processes may supplement this activity.
PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES IN MEASURING THE SOCIAL COSTS OF OIL POLLUTION1
Authors: Meade Norman F. , Anderson Robert C.
Published: January 2013

Efficient allocation of resources demands that the full social costs and benefits of all economic activities be reflected in market prices. Ignoring the costs of performing damage assessments, all damages caused by oil pollution of marine and coastal environments should be valued and included in the price we pay for petroleum products. Furthermore, widely accepted principles of equity demand that the victims of oil pollution be compensated for their losses. To meet both goals, methods must be developed for measuring the nature and extent of oil pollution damages in economic terms.

Measurement of oil pollution damages to natural resources is an inexact art. Not only do marine biologists and ecologists have an imperfect understanding of damage mechanisms, but economists, whose task it is to value damages, find it difficult to place dollar values on the affected resources. This paper analyzes the problem of providing an economic measure of oil pollution damages from three perspectives: the accuracy of the measure, the cost of the assessment, and the acceptability of the measure in judicial and policy-making arenas.

Although no measure of damages reviewed in this paper is without flaws, it is suggested that comprehensive damage assessments be performed for major spills while relatively crude indices of damage be developed for the more minor, chronic forms of oil pollution. As a case example of a major spill damage assessment, recent efforts supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to quantify damages from the Amoco Cadiz oil spill are reviewed.
DISTRIBUTION OF TAR AND RELATIONSHIP TO CHANGES IN INTERTIDAL ORGANISMS ON SANDY BEACHES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
Authors: Straughan Dale
Published: January 2013

Surveys on sandy beaches for 10 years following the Santa Barbara oil spill (1969–1978) revealed that large amounts (2 g per square foot) of tar are frequently found at sites adjacent to natural oil seep areas. Tar is intermittently found on most other open coast southern California beaches. This is in contrast to few records of tar on over 40 surveys at sites in the area just north of Point Conception.

The sources of tar is both difficult and costly to determine. However, available information suggests that with the exception of major oil spills, most tar on the beaches in the Southern California Bight originates from natural oil seeps. On the open coast beaches, the residence time of this tar appears to be short (generally days and perhaps weeks) but after exceptional storms such as those in the winters of 1969 and 1978, tar could be buried for longer periods. In most instances deeply buried tar would be removed by the approximately annual cut and fill cycle. At the sheltered site at Cat Harbor on Santa Catalina Island, tar appears to remain at the site and become gradually buried in the sediments. Wave action is apparently not sufficient to remove the tar and the site is gradually silting up.

At all sites, natural environmental variables such as sediment grain size, had a greater impact on the distribution and abundance of species than tar. Within this framework, changes in populations at Cat Harbor following contamination by wet sticky tar in early spring 1976, appear to be a response to this tar. Conservative estimates currently suggest a two-year recovery period. This may be revised after further research.
MODELING THE ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS AND SUB-ARCTIC SEDIMENTS
Authors: Malinky Greggory , Shaw David G.
Published: January 2013

The extent of association between labeled hydrocarbons representing the major chemical classes of petroleum, and marine suspended sediments from south-central Alaska has been investigated in a series of laboratory experiments using hydrocarbon concentrations near or below saturated solution. For a saturated solution of either an aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon, the concentration of hydrocarbon in parts per million (ppm) associated with sediment is roughly 30 percent of the original aqueous concentration in ppm. Extrapolation of these results to permitted discharge concentrations and dilution rates encountered in south-central Alaska indicates that concentrations of hydrocarbons sorbed to sediments are in the parts per trillion (ppt) to parts per billion (ppb) range. It appears that this process cannot be a major transport pathway for the dispersal of oil under the conditions investigated.
OIL SPILL FORECASTING—WHERE IS IT GOING?1
Authors: Lissauer Ivan M. , Murphy Donald L.
Published: January 2013

The methods used to forecast the movement of spilled oil have not changed significantly since the Argo Merchant spill. Little has been done to improve the deficiencies brought to light during this incident. Some of the deficiencies in the state-of-the-art are examined here, particularly those related to our incomplete knowledge of the physical mechanisms involved in oil spill movement. A basic framework for the development of an improved forecasting system is presented. It is based on the integration of a horizontal transport model, an evaporation model, and a vertical dispersion model.
EFFECTS OF AN OIL SLICK ON WIND WAVES1
Authors: Liu Hsien-Ta , Lin Jung-Tai
Published: January 2013

Laboratory experiments were performed to investigate the effects of an oil slick on ocean waves. This is part of an integrated program aimed at understanding the vertical dispersion of oil in the upper ocean. The experiments were conducted in a wind-wave tank which measured 9.1 m long, 1.2 m wide, and 1.8 m deep. Both wind waves and mechanically-generated waves with wind were considered. No. 2 Diesel oil was fed at a rate of 0.35 liters/sec onto the water surface from the upstream end of the wave tank. To measure the wave profiles, an optical sensor-photodiode wave gauge was developed and is described herein. The effects of an oil slick on wind waves were examined in terms of wave profiles and rms wave amplitudes. For wind waves, the presence of the oil slick damps the waves significantly. The amount of damping increases with the wind speed in the range from U∞ = 4 m/sec to 10 m/sec. At U∞ = 10 m/sec, the oil slick breaks into small lenses. The rms amplitudes of the wind-generated waves increase with the fetch without the oil slick, but they do not change appreciably in the presence of the oil slick. For mechanically-generated waves with wind, wave damping by the oil slick becomes insignificant when the waves are sufficiently steep and wave breaking occurs. Prior to wave breaking, however, steepening of the wave crests due to the presence of the oil slick has been observed occasionally as a result of the reduction in the surface tension by the oil film.
THE SURVIVAL OF OIL SLICKS ON THE OCEAN AS A FUNCTION OF SEA STATE LIMIT1
Authors: Raj Phani P. K. , Griffiths Richard A.
Published: January 2013

A research program is underway to obtain a better understanding of the interaction between spilled oil and sea state in order to predict the dispersion and ultimate physical fate of oil spilled in rough water. In pursuit of this goal, a theoretical study and two laboratory experimental studies are now complete. As a consequence, the lower limit of sea state at which globular dispersion of oil can be effected by ocean turbulence is calculable. The formation of oil globules by breaking waves, the penetration of globules into the water column, and the distribution of oil under breaking wave generated turbulence can also be modeled. A possible mechanism by which a coherent oil slick breaks up into small patches of oil (“slicklets”), caused by breaking waves, is described, and a simplified one-dimensional model of this effect is proposed.

Results indicate that a 3 meter (significant wave height) sea will tend to initiate globular vertical dispersion of oil, although this process would take place over only about 13 percent of the oil slick's area. To effect a horizontal surface dispersion, breaking waves with a very long crest length are necessary, a type not ordinarily found in deep water.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT RULEMAKING: ISSUES AND ALTERNATIVES*
Authors: Du Bey Richard A. , Fidell Eugene R.
Published: January 2013

Increasingly, observers of the legal framework for the determination of damages due to pollution have concluded that it may be possible to identify some “neutral principles” to guide the damage assessment process. Depending on the anticipated caseload of damage claims, these principles could find expression in the form of guidelines, specific conventional values, or a combination of the two. Adoption of a regional or national focus for such a program is an important threshold determination as well.

Whichever course is adopted, numerous grave legal and public policy issues would have to be confronted. Examples of these issues include: the need for preemption of state law; the evidentiary status of these guidelines or values; the procedural rights provided in the rulemaking process; and the assignment of administrative responsibility within the federal government. Federal and state analogs exist and should be examined in depth as part of the damage assessment reform process.