bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Special Education and Severe Disabilities in Costa Rica: Developing Inclusion in a Developing Country
Authors: Stough Laura M.
Published: June 2006

Special education has been part of the Costa Rican public education system for more than 60 years. Approximately 10% of the 75,000 students who receive special services have a severe disability; however, there is a chronic shortage of personnel trained to educate students with significant educational needs. In the last 5 years, Costa Rica has promulgated four educational service models that extend special education expertise: Consulting teachers, educational assistance teams, itinerant teams, and resource centers. These models more equitably distribute the technical skills and knowledge of special education professionals throughout the country. In addition, the Department of Special Education has developed a pragmatic educational classification system that describes the level of modifications required by students with disabilities, rather than one that is driven by their diagnostic label. Few publications have been written about special education in Costa Rica. This is the first historical overview of the development of inclusion in this country.
Marital Adjustment in Parents of Children with Disabilities: A Historical Review and Meta-Analysis
Authors: Risdal Don , Singer George H. S.
Published: June 2006

This report uses meta-analytic methods to reexamine a body of research literature on comparative levels of divorce and marital satisfaction/discord in parents of children with and without developmental disabilities in light of new assumptions about variability in family adjustment, including successful family adaptation and longterm resilience. A historical review of the literature on the impacts of children with disability on their family describes longstanding negative assumptions, in keeping with a view of disability as inevitably detrimental to couples and other family members. This meta-analysis finds a much smaller effect on parents' marital relationships than would be expected under older assumptions about disability and family.
Caught in the Continuum: A Critical Analysis of the Principle of the Least Restrictive Environment
Authors: Taylor Steven J.
Published: June 2006

This article presents a critical analysis of the principle of the least restrictive environment (LRE). The article begins with a review of the origins of LRE in professional writings and law and moves next to a discussion of how LRE has been operationalized in terms of a continuum of residential, educational, and vocational services. Building on previous critiques of the continuum concept, the author presents seven conceptual and philosophical flaws or pitfalls in the LRE principle itself, especially when it is applied to people with severe disabilities. The author then argues that an uncritical acceptance of LRE may lead to the establishment of a “new” community-based continuum and takes the position that many leading writings in the field can be interpreted to legitimate this new continuum. The conclusion of the article supports an unconditional commitment to integration and briefly contrasts integration with LRE as a guiding principle for the design of services and support for people with developmental disabilities and concludes with a note on the importance of viewing concepts in historical context.
New Considerations in the Prevention of Aversives, Restraint, and Seclusion: Incorporating the Role of Relationships into an Ecological Perspective
Authors: Amos Patricia A.
Published: June 2006

While many individuals with challenging behaviors now enjoy the benefits of inclusion and self-determination, large numbers of their peers remain in segregated, restrictive settings and continue to be subjected to coercive intervention plans that include aversives, (nonemergency) restraint, and seclusion as “treatment.” A rising tide of knowledge and expectations has not lifted all boats, and the gap between the “haves” and the “have nots” continues to grow. To address this gap, it may prove helpful to revisit the issue of coercive interventions from theoretical perspectives that can offer new insight into their persistence as well as a sobering appraisal of the complex collateral damage that can result from their use. New means to frame and develop such insights are at hand. The applied science of Positive Behavior Support (PBS), on which current advances in inclusion and self-determination depend, has been evolving in the direction of broader ecological perspectives and the incorporation of theoretical perspectives from related fields. A growing body of research from the fields of mental health and child development can now be incorporated into the PBS model to enrich our understanding of the dynamics of the use of these coercive interventions on individuals with disabilities, and of the cumulative and negative effects such interventions have on their larger support systems of school, work, family, friends, and community. With an enhanced understanding of the crucial role of relationships in fostering emotional and cognitive development and mental health, coercive interventions can be viewed from the perspective of a breakdown in relationship. Such a perspective yields a powerful, but frequently overlooked, rationale for avoiding their use, may prove helpful in analyzing and preventing the antecedents of such breakdowns, and may suggest more effective ways of coping with and repairing the debilitating individual and systemic consequences of the use of aversives, restraint, and seclusion.
Effects of Peer Support Interventions on Students' Access to the General Curriculum and Social Interactions
Authors: Carter Erik W. , Cushing Lisa S. , Clark Nitasha M. , Kennedy Craig H.
Published: June 2006

Peer support interventions are emerging as an effective alternative to traditional paraprofessional models for assisting students with moderate to severe disabilities to access the general curriculum. To contribute to the refinement of peer support interventions, we evaluated the impact of altering the number of participating peers on the social and academic outcomes of students with and without disabilities. Our findings indicated that changes in the configuration of peer support arrangements differentially affected student outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of social interaction and contact with the general curriculum were observed when students with disabilities worked with two peers relative to one peer. The additive benefits of a second peer provide guidance to educators concerning the implementation of peer support interventions in inclusive classrooms.
Management of blunt liver trauma in children
Authors: Losty P D , Okoye B O , Walter D P , Turnock R R , Lloyd D A
Published: June 2006

Introduction

Management of liver trauma in childhood represents a rare but formidable challenge.

Methods

Clinical presentation, grade of liver injury and Injury Severity Score (ISS) were studied in 11 cases of blunt liver trauma to examine factors influencing outcome.

Results

Seven of the 11 children were injured severely and had an ISS greater than 16. Seven who were haemodynamically stable were treated without operation, but four required surgery for grade 111, IV and V liver injuries. Two children had primary repair of hepatic lacerations. Perihepatic packing was employed in two other cases (grade IV and V injury) for uncontrollable haemorrhage. Delayed debridement and thrombectomy plus vena cava repair with suturing of liver lacerations in these patients obviated heroic efforts at primary repair. Nine children survived. There were two deaths from head and neck trauma.

Discussion

Selected children with liver trauma can be managed non-operatively using established trauma guidelines. Perihepatic packing is recommended in unstable patients with complex injuries, followed by delayed definitive repair.
Conditional disruption of ubiquitous calpains in the mouse
Authors: Tan Yinfei , Dourdin Nathalie , Wu Chao , De Veyra Teresa , Elce John S. , Greer Peter A.
Published: June 2006

Ubiquitous μ‐ and m‐calpain proteases are implicated in development and apoptosis. They are heterodimers consisting of 80‐kDa catalytic subunits encoded by capn1 and capn2, respectively, and a common 28‐kDa regulatory subunit encoded by capn4. The regulatory subunit is required to maintain stability and activity of μ‐ and m‐calpains; thus, genetic disruption of capn4 was predicted to eliminate both calpain activities. Germline disruption of capn4 caused embryonic lethality, hampering the use of those mouse models to explore physiological calpain functions. Here we describe a loxP/cre conditional capn4 targeted mouse model that enables tissue‐specific and temporal deletion of calpain activity. Disruption of the floxed capn4 gene using a ubiquitous cytomegalovirus promoter driven Cre recombinase transgene led to midgestation embryonic lethality. Fibroblasts from these embryos lacked detectable regulatory subunit expression, had reduced levels of the μ‐ and m‐calpain catalytic subunits, and had no detectable μ‐ and m‐calpain activities. These defects were corrected with a capn4‐encoding lentivirus. genesis 44:297–303, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A bubble‐stabilized finite element method for Dirichlet constraints on embedded interfaces
Authors: Mourad Hashem M. , Dolbow John , Harari Isaac
Published: June 2006

We examine a bubble‐stabilized finite element method for enforcing Dirichlet constraints on embedded interfaces. By ‘embedded’ we refer to problems of general interest wherein the geometry of the interface is assumed independent of some underlying bulk mesh. As such, the robust imposition of Dirichlet constraints using a Lagrange multiplier field is not trivial. To focus issues, we consider a simple one‐sided problem that is representative of a wide class of evolving‐interface problems. The bulk field is decomposed into coarse and fine scales, giving rise to coarse‐scale and fine‐scale one‐sided sub‐problems. The fine‐scale solution is approximated with bubble functions, permitting static condensation and giving rise to a stabilized form bearing strong analogy with a classical method. Importantly, the method is simple to implement, readily extends to multiple dimensions, obviates the need to specify any free stabilization parameters, and can lead to a symmetric, positive‐definite system of equations. The performance of the method is then examined through several numerical examples. The accuracy of the Lagrange multiplier is compared to results obtained using a local version of the domain integral method. The variational multiscale approach proposed herein is shown to both stabilize the Lagrange multiplier and improve the accuracy of the post‐processed fluxes. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Localized excitons and defects in PbWO4 single crystals: a luminescence and photo‐thermally stimulated disintegration study
Authors: Krasnikov A. , Nikl M. , Zazubovich S.
Published: June 2006

The cover picture refers to the article by Aleksei Krasnikov et al., that was selected as Editor's Choice [1]. It depicts a fragment of a lead tungstate (PbWO4) crystal lattice structure and illustrates the complex anion (WO4)2– tetrahedra bonded to the Pb2+ cation. Perturbation of the (WO4)2– tetrahedra by defects nearby results in exciton localization near the defects and a slightly different emission spectrum, which is shown in the diagram. Localized excitons are evidenced for the first time in the PbWO4 structure. Under selective irradiation of PbWO4 crystals in the ultraviolet spectral region, the decay of various localized excitons into stable defects takes place, which can be detected by a sensitive thermally stimulated luminescence method.

Aleksei Krasnikov is a PhD student at the University of Tartu, Estonia. Martin Nikl holds a position as a senior scientist and head of the Laboratory of Luminescence and Scintillation Materials at the Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences. Svetlana Zazubovich is a senior scientist at the Institute of Physics, University of Tartu. The research groups of Martin Nikl and Svetlana Zazubovich have been collaborating closely for the last 15 years mainly in the field of optical spectroscopy of wide band‐gap scintillation materials.
Interleukin‐1 stimulated activation of the COT catalytic subunit through the phosphorylation of Thr290 and Ser62
Authors: Stafford Margaret J. , Morrice Nick A. , Peggie Mark W. , Cohen Philip
Published: June 2006

The protein kinase COT/Tpl2 is activated by interleukin‐1 (IL‐1), TNFα and lipopolysaccharide, and its activation by these agonists involves the IκB kinase β (IKKβ) catalysed phosphorylation of the p105 regulatory subunit. Here, we show that COT activation also requires catalytic subunit phosphorylation, since IL‐1β induced a 5–10‐fold activation of a COT mutant unable to bind p105. Activation was paralleled by the phosphorylation of Thr290 and Ser62 and unaffected by the IKKβ inhibitor PS1145 at concentrations which prevented the degradation of IκBα. Mutagenesis experiments indicated that COT activation is initiated by Thr290 phosphorylation catalysed by an IL‐1‐stimulated protein kinase distinct from IKKβ, while Ser62 phosphorylation is an autophosphorylation event required for maximal activation.
Blockage of oncostatin M-induced LDL receptor gene transcription by a dominant-negative mutant of C/EBPβ
Authors: Zhou Yue , Zhang Fang , Abidi Parveen , Lin Meihong , Thiel Gerald , Liu Jingwen
Published: June 2006

OM (oncostatin M) activates the human LDLR [LDL (low-density lipoprotein) receptor] gene transcription in HepG2 cells through the SIRE (sterol-independent regulatory element) of LDLR promoter. The SIRE sequence consists of a C/EBP (CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein)-binding site and a CRE (cAMP-response element). Our previous studies [Zhang, Ahlborn, Li, Kraemer and Liu (2002) J. Lipid Res. 43, 1477–1485; Zhang, Lin, Abidi, Thiel and Liu (2003) J. Biol. Chem. 278, 44246–44254] have demonstrated that OM transiently induces EGR-1 (early growth response gene product 1) expression and EGR-1 activates LDLR transcription primarily through a protein–protein interaction with C/EBPβ, which serves as a co-activator of EGR-1. In the present study, we examined the direct role of C/EBPβ as a transactivator in OM-regulated LDLR gene transcription independent of EGR-1. We show that OM induces C/EBPβ expression with kinetics slower than EGR-1 induction. A significant increase in C/EBPβ protein level is detected by 2 h of OM treatment and remains elevated for 24 h. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrate that the amount of C/EBPβ bound to the LDLR SIRE sequence is increased 2.8-fold of control by 2 h of OM treatment, reached the highest level of 8-fold by 4 h, and slowly declined thereafter. To further examine the requirement of C/EBPβ in OM-stimulated LDLR expression, we developed a His-tagged dominant-negative mutant of C/EBPβ (His–C/EBPβ-P4; where P4 is plasmid 4 in our mutation series), consisting of the DNA-binding and leucine zipper domains of C/EBPβ (amino acids 246–345). Expression of His–C/EBPβ-P4 in HepG2 cells significantly diminishes the OM-induced increase in LDLR promoter activity and the elevation of endogenous LDLR mRNA expression. Taken together, these new findings identify C/EBPβ as an OM-induced transactivator in LDLR gene transcription and provide a better understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying the sterol-independent regulation of LDLR expression.
Two-dimensional optical three-pulse photon echo spectroscopy. I. Nonperturbative approach to the calculation of spectra
Authors: Mančal Tomáš , Pisliakov Andrei V. , Fleming Graham R.
Published: June 2006

The nonperturbative approach to the calculation of nonlinear optical spectra of Seidner et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 103, 3998 (1995)] is extended to describe four-wave mixing experiments. The system-field interaction is treated nonperturbatively in the semiclassical dipole approximation, enabling a calculation of third order nonlinear spectroscopic signals directly from molecular dynamics and an efficient modeling of multilevel systems exhibiting relaxation and transfer phenomena. The method, coupled with the treatment of dynamics within the Bloch model, is illustrated by calculations of the two-dimensional three-pulse photon echo spectra of a simple model system—a two-electronic-level molecule. The nonperturbative calculations reproduce well-known results obtained by perturbative methods. Technical limitations of the nonperturbative approach in dealing with a dynamic inhomogeneity are discussed, and possible solutions are suggested. An application of the approach to an excitonically coupled dimer system with emphasis on the manifestation of complex exciton dynamics in two-dimensional optical spectra is presented in paper II Pisliakov et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 124, 234505 (2006), following paper].
Theoretical investigation of RbCs via two-component spin-orbit pseudopotentials: Spectroscopic constants and permanent dipole moment functions
Authors: Lim Ivan S. , Lee Won Chai , Lee Yoon Sup , Jeung Gwang-Hi
Published: June 2006

Potential energy curves for the 28 lowest ΛΣ states and 49Ω states of RbCs are obtained from large-scale multireference configuration interaction calculations using both spin-averaged and two-component spin-orbit energy-consistent effective core potentials. Spectroscopic properties of all states are compared across available data in literature to date. Variations of the permanent dipole moments on the internuclear separation (R) for the Σ+1, Σ+3, Π1, and Π3 states are evaluated over a wide range of R. The most important effects of the spin-orbit interaction on the dipole moment distribution are discussed.
Inner-valence states of N2+ and the dissociation dynamics studied by threshold photoelectron spectroscopy and configuration interaction calculation
Authors: Aoto Tomohiro , Ito Kenji , Hikosaka Yasumasa , Shibasaki Akihiro , Hirayama Ryo , Yamamono Norifumi , Miyoshi Eisaku
Published: June 2006

The N2+ states lying in the ionization region of 26–45eV and the dissociation dynamics are investigated by high-resolution threshold photoelectron spectroscopy and threshold photoelectron-photoion coincidence spectroscopy. The threshold photoelectron spectrum exhibits several broad bands as well as sharp peaks. The band features are assigned to the N2+ states associated with the removal of an inner-valence electron, by a comparison with a configuration interaction calculation. In contrast, most of the sharp peaks on the threshold photoelectron spectrum are allocated to ionic Rydberg states converging to N22+. Dissociation products formed from the inner-valence N2+ states are determined by threshold photoelectron-photoion coincidence spectroscopy. The dissociation dynamics of the inner-valence ionic states is discussed with reference to the potential energy curves calculated.
Gaps in parental understandings and experiences of vaccine‐preventable diseases: a qualitative study
Authors: Hilton S. , Hunt K. , Petticrew M.
Published: June 2006

Objective  To explore parents’ understandings of the diseases included in the current UK Childhood Immunization Programme (CIP), and the role of first‐ and second‐hand experiences of these diseases in assessments of their severity.

Methods  A qualitative study in which 66 parents (58 mothers and 8 fathers) of children aged 6 years and below, and six mothers of immuno‐compromised children, took part in 18 focus group discussions between November 2002 and March 2003.

Results  There were many gaps in parents’ knowledge about some vaccine‐preventable diseases, most notably diphtheria, tetanus and haemophilus influenzae type b, three of the diseases covered by the pentavalent vaccine (introduced into the UK CIP in 2004). These gaps led some parents to question the need for vaccination. First‐hand experiences of the diseases reinforced the need for vaccination in some cases (e.g. Men C), but undermined it in others (e.g. pertussis, measles, rubella, mumps). Poliomyelitis and diphtheria were no longer seen as a threat to children’s health in Britain. Some parents saw mumps as only a threat to boys’ health and rubella as only having relevance to girls’.

Conclusions  As fewer parents have direct experiences of vaccine‐preventable diseases, there is an increasing need to provide parents with accessible information about these diseases. It is also important to recognize that direct or indirect experiences of any of the diseases may either heighten or diminish parents’ assessments of the severity of these diseases.
Perforin-independent rejection of transplanted human stem cells
Authors: Kaiser S , Kägi D , Ihorst G , Kapp U
Published: June 2006

The NOD/SCID mouse model is one of the most established model systems for the analysis of human stem cells in vivo. The lack of mature B and T cells renders NOD/SCID mice susceptible to transplantable human stem and progenitor cells. One remaining functional component of the immune system in NOD/SCID mice is natural killer (NK) cells. We rationalized that by eliminating NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity in this model system engraftment of human haematopoietic stem cells could be improved. Thus perforin-deficient NOD/SCID mice (PNOD/SCID) were generated, which display a complete lack of NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. To test the engraftment potential of human stem cells in PNOD/SCID mice, we compared the repopulating potential of human haematopoietic stem cells in these mice with the repopulating potential in NOD/SCID mice. Upon injection with varying numbers of mononuclear cells from human cord blood, the number of engrafted PNOD/SCID mice was lower (34·8%) than the number of engrafted NOD/SCID mice (64·7%). Similarly, injection of purified CD34+ human cord blood cells led to engraftment in 32·3% PNOD/SCID versus 60% in NOD/SCID mice. Surprisingly, these results show that the inactivation of cytotoxic activity of NK cells in PNOD/SCID mice did not result in better engraftment with human haematopoietic stem cells. A potential reason for this observation could be that compensatory activation of NK cells in PNOD/SCID mice induces high levels of soluble factors resulting in an environment unfavourable for human stem cell engraftment.
Assessment ofin vitroimmunity toM ycobacterium tuberculosisin a human peripheral blood infection model using a luciferase reporter construct ofM. tuberculosisH37Rv
Authors: Al-Attiyah R , El-Shazly A , Mustafa A S
Published: June 2006

Protective immune responses to tuberculosis in man are primarily cell-mediated and require the interaction of specific T cells, cytokines and activated macrophages. In the present study, Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv labelled with luciferase reporter enzyme was used to analyse the anti-mycobacterial immunity in man using an in vitro whole blood infection model. Peripheral blood samples obtained from M. bovis bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG)-vaccinated tuberculin-positive healthy volunteers (n = 23) were cultured with M. tuberculosis H37Rv reporter strain. The growth of bacteria in the whole blood cultures was monitored after 48 and 96 h of infection. The results showed that the growth of M. tuberculosis was significantly inhibited after 96 h (P < 0·029) of culture. Among the cytokines studied, interleukin (IL)-10 and IL-12 were not detected at all, whereas low levels of interferon (IFN)-γ after 96 h (0·4 IU/ml) and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α after 48 (135 pg/ml) and 96 h (47 pg/ml) of culture were detected in the supernatants of whole blood infected with M. tuberculosis. The magnitude of bacterial growth correlated directly with the concentration of TNF-α detected after 48 h (r = 0·722) and 96 h (r = 0·747) of culture (P ≤ 0·0001 and P ≤ 0·0001, respectively). However, the addition of monoclonal antibodies specific to TNF-α and IFN-γ to the blood cultures did not alter mycobacterial growth indicating the role of other mechanisms/factors in restricting the growth of M. tuberculosis in whole blood cultures.
Abscess of the orbit arising 48 h after root canal treatment of a maxillary first molar
Authors: Koch F. , Breil P. , Marroquín B. B. , Gawehn J. , Kunkel M.
Published: June 2006

Aim  To discuss a rare, but severe complication arising following routine root canal treatment.

Summary  An orbital abscess is reported that occurred following routine root canal treatment. A young, healthy female patient, with no history of chronic paranasal infection had undergone root canal treatment of the right maxillary first molar. On hospital admission, she presented with extensive periorbital swelling and discreet diplopia. Computed tomography imaging identified massive purulent sinusitis and subsequent involvement of the orbit via the inferior and medial orbital wall within 48 h after completion of root canal treatment. Immediate surgical drainage of the maxillary sinus and the orbit was established and a high dose of perioperative antibiotics (Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid, Gentamycin, Metronidazole) were administered. Vision remained undisturbed and mobility of the globe recovered within 10 days.

Key learning points • Rapid exacerbation of a periapical inflammation may occur following root canal treatment and may even involve the orbit.

• A typical speed of disease progression or ophthalmic symptoms should alert the clinician to at least consider unusual early orbital spread of odontogenic infection.

• When extra‐alveolar spread and especially orbital spread is suspected, immediate referral to a maxillofacial or other specialized unit is mandatory.
Candida peritonitis in a patient with necrotising cholecystitis and pancreatitis
Authors: Scheele Jan , Kujath Peter
Published: June 2006

An 80‐year‐old patient in previously excellent state of health presented with septic syndrome for gangrenous cholecystitis and concomitant pancreatitis. Diagnostic paracentesis revealed microbiological evidence of Candida albicans in the abdominal cavity. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed and examination of histological specimens confirmed peritonitis by fungal perforation of the gall bladder. In a complicated postoperative course the patient was finally cured choosing voriconazole (Vfend) for antimycotic therapy.
Comparison of different protocols for DNA preparation and PCR for the detection of fungal pathogens in vitro
Authors: Lugert R. , Schettler C. , Gross U.
Published: June 2006

Although a large number of different PCR protocols for the detection of fungal DNA from clinical samples have been described, a generally recognised standardisation has not yet been developed. In a first step, we compared six different methods to isolate DNA under in vitro conditions from Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae with respect to efficiency and expenditure of time. To this end, methods were tested that are based on both mechanical and enzymatic/thermic lysis. Thereby, enzymatic/thermic lysis were shown to be superior to mechanical lysis, although these methods of DNA isolation were more time consuming. The subsequent comparison of three different PCR protocols showed real‐time PCR to be the most sensitive method.
ON THE ROLE OF THE PRIMARY SYSTEM IN CANDIDATE SELECTION
Authors: OAK MANDAR P.
Published: June 2006

How does the type of the primary system affect political outcomes? We address this issue by constructing a simple model that accounts for intra‐party as well as inter‐party political competition. Our model suggests that allowing non‐partisan voters to participate in the primaries (i.e. a semi‐open primary system) indeed improves the chances of a moderate candidate getting elected. However, this need not necessarily happen in the case of a completely open primary system. Under such a system there arise multiple equilibria, some of which may lead to a greater degree of extremism than the closed primary system. Thus, our model contributes to the current debate on the choice of primary systems from an analytical perspective and helps explain some of the empirical findings.
SPECIAL INTERESTS AND THE GAINS FROM POLITICAL INTEGRATION
Authors: BROU DANIEL , RUTA MICHELE
Published: June 2006

This paper presents a formal study of economic influence by special‐interest groups under political integration and separation. We first show that countries where more groups are organized to lobby gain from political integration on economic grounds. The reason is that a more organized country, under a political union, can affect policies in the other country to its advantage, something that a less organized country can do to a lesser extent. We then study the interaction of political integration and endogenous lobbying structure. We show that political integration affects the formation of interest groups. Moreover, if a country is more organized before political integration, this will continue to be the case afterward.
Constitutionalising Subsidiarity in Integrated Markets: The Case of Tobacco Regulation in the European Union
Authors: Kumm Mattias
Published: June 2006

Abstract:  The article establishes three propositions. First, if a constitution establishes the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality as legal principles, questions of competencies are closely tied up with questions of regulatory policy. This means that the Treaty carves out a powerful role for the Court of Justice to assess the jurisdictional reasonableness of market intervention when reviewing whether the EU was legally competent to act. Second, general scepticism about courts being able to play such a demanding role in policing jurisdictional boundaries in federal systems are unjustified in the EU. The new procedure established in the Constitutional Treaty, which is likely to be included in any renegotiated constitutional settlement, involves national Parliaments and the Commission building a written record addressing the relevant policy issues on which the court can base its review. Additionally national courts serve as an external check on the Court of Justice, disciplining the Court of Justice to focus on taking competencies seriously or facing the prospect of national courts disapplying EU law on the grounds that it was enacted ultra vires. Third, even though there are some promising points of departure in its case law, the Court of Justice has not yet adopted a doctrinal framework that effectively operationalises the Treaty's commitment to subsidiarity and proportionality in the context of the common market.
Intervention in a Higher Education Market: a Case Study
Authors: Temple Paul
Published: June 2006

In many countries today, public higher education operates within some form of market framework, typically a government‐regulated quasi‐market. However, having created a market environment, how should the government agencies involved act when they wish to use higher education to achieve a particular policy goal? This paper considers the impact on the English higher education market of an initiative by the national funding agency to expand Chinese studies. It is argued that, in an already competitive market, this intervention led to the misallocation of resources because it encouraged universities to expand provision in ways that they would not otherwise have done. As a result, although some effective new provision resulted, excess capacity was created overall. It can be argued that the collective understanding of the universities about this specific market was more accurate than that of an expert committee advising on national provision. The paper suggests how intervention might have been more effectively arranged.
Women and men – same problems, different treatment
Authors: Palm Jessica
Published: June 2006

The focus on difference between men and women has been important in the development of gender‐specific treatment for alcohol and drug problems. The aim of this article is to examine the views of alcohol and drug treatment staff on differences between men and women in treatment and compare men and women in treatment on issues related to staff attitudes. One data set consists of questionnaires sent to staff working with alcohol and drug problems in Stockholm County (n = 918). Another data set consists of interviews with women and men in treatment for alcohol and drug problems in Stockholm (n = 1865). The results show that staff experience differences between men and women both in their problems and in how they should be treated. Some of these differences are supported by the comparison of women and men in the client‐data, but mostly the differences are relatively small or even non‐existent.
Accommodation to What? Univocity of Being, Pure Nature, and the Anthropology of St Irenaeus
Authors: BOERSMA HANS
Published: June 2006

Abstract:  This article, the author's inaugural lecture for the J.I. Packer chair at Regent College, Vancouver, takes as its starting‐point Karl Barth's penetrating question, ‘Accommodation to what?’ Suggesting that recent evangelical theologies have been too ready to accommodate to the immanentism inherent in postmodern culture, the article traces the roots of that immanentism to Scotus's teaching concerning the univocity of being, and suggests that in St Irenaeus's christologically shaped account of the nature and destiny of human life there is a theologically satisfying preservation of a proper account of transcendence.
Actualism and Incarnation: The High Christology of Friedrich Schleiermacher
Authors: HECTOR KEVIN W.
Published: June 2006

Abstract:  Defining Schleiermacher's Christology simply as ‘low’ is inadequate, and based on a neglect of the crucial role that actualism plays in his theology. However, accounts that see his Christology as so high as to be docetic are equally unhappy. This article shows that there is a different way to read Schleiermacher's theology, one that avoids both views. By looking at how Schleiermacher's Christology proceeds in both ‘vertical’ and ‘horizontal’ directions, it shows that through correctly understanding Schleiermacher's actualism we are able to see that, for Schleiermacher, Christ is the one who reproduces God's pure act of love through his own God‐consciousness. Christ, then, exists as pure activity and so, for Schleiermacher, is God incarnate. The article then addresses two common objections to Schleiermacher's Christology: that Schleiermacher's Christ is not fully human; and that, if Christ is pure act, what of the passion? The piece closes with an account of the relationship of Christology and Trinity.
Book Reviews
Authors: Smith Preston G. , Castellion George
Published: June 2006

Books reviewed in this issue:

Fast Second: How Smart Companies Bypass Radical Innovation to Enter and Dominate New Markets

Leadership, Management, and Innovation in R&D Project Teams

A Handbook of Intellectual Property Management

Intellectual Property Law in China

Non‐cooperation: The Dark Side of Strategic Alliances
A Communitarian Approach: A Viewpoint on the Study of the Legal, Ethical and Policy Considerations Raised by DNA Tests and Databases
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: June 2006

This article seeks to outline a viewpoint on the study of the legal, ethical and policy considerations raised by DNA tests and databases (from here on, DNA usages). It does not delve into the specifics involved. It outlines a way of thinking that has proven productive elsewhere1 and seems promising in dealing with DNA usages in the United States, but little more. Given that this essay is about a communitarian approach that draws on specific communitarian values, I turn next to briefly present the approach here followed.

Communitarianism is a social philosophy that maintains that society should articulate what is good, and asserts that such articulations are both necessary and legitimate. Communitarianism is often contrasted with classical liberalism, a philosophical position that holds that individuals should formulate their idea of good on their own. Communitarians examine the ways shared conceptions of the good (values) are formed, transmitted, justified, and enforced.
Employers' attitudes, practices and policies towards older workers
Authors: Loretto Wendy , White Phil
Published: June 2006

Despite policy emphasis on the importance of older workers (i.e. those aged 50 and above) to current and future labour markets, relatively little is known about the ways in which employers' attitudes, policies and practices influence their recruitment and retention. Drawing upon previous work by Taylor and Walker, this article reports qualitative research among employers across Scotland, which sought to investigate further the relationships between employers' policies, practices and attitudes towards older workers. The findings indicate a complex set of relationships, and challenge the simplistic causal link between attitudes and practice. The conclusions discuss the implications of these findings for the future employment of older workers, and assess the extent to which the forthcoming age discrimination legislation in the UK is likely to tackle discriminatory attitudes, practices and policies.
A Bayesian Approach to Reliability-Based Optimization With Incomplete Information
Authors: Gunawan Subroto , Papalambros Panos Y.
Published: June 2006

In engineering design, information regarding the uncertain variables or parameters is usually in the form of finite samples. Existing methods in optimal design under uncertainty cannot handle this form of incomplete information; they have to either discard some valuable information or postulate existence of additional information. In this article, we present a reliability-based optimization method that is applicable when information of the uncertain variables or parameters is in the form of both finite samples and probability distributions. The method adopts a Bayesian binomial inference technique to estimate reliability, and uses this estimate to maximize the confidence that the design will meet or exceed a target reliability. The method produces a set of Pareto trade-off designs instead of a single design, reflecting the levels of confidence about a design’s reliability given certain incomplete information. As a demonstration, we apply the method to design an optimal piston-ring/cylinder-liner assembly under surface roughness uncertainty.
A Thick Cloud of Neptune Trojans and Their Colors
Authors: Sheppard Scott S. , Trujillo Chadwick A.
Published: June 2006

The dynamical and physical properties of asteroids offer one of the few constraints on the formation, evolution, and migration of the giant planets. Trojan asteroids share a planet's semimajor axis but lead or follow it by about 60° near the two triangular Lagrangian points of gravitational equilibrium. Here we report the discovery of a high-inclination Neptune Trojan, 2005 TN
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. This discovery demonstrates that the Neptune Trojan population occupies a thick disk, which is indicative of “freeze-in” capture instead of in situ or collisional formation. The Neptune Trojans appear to have a population that is several times larger than the Jupiter Trojans. Our color measurements show that Neptune Trojans have statistically indistinguishable slightly red colors, which suggests that they had a common formation and evolutionary history and are distinct from the classical Kuiper Belt objects.
Dimethyphenylpiperazinium, a nicotinic receptor agonist, downregulates inflammation in monocytes/macrophages through PI3K and PLC chronic activation
Authors: Blanchet Marie-Renée , Israël-Assayag Evelyne , Daleau Pascal , Beaulieu Marie-Josée , Cormier Yvon
Published: June 2006

Activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on inflammatory cells induces anti-inflammatory effects. The intracellular mechanisms that regulate this effect are still poorly understood. In neuronal cells, nAChRs are associated with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). This enzyme, which can activate phospholipase C (PLC), is also present in monocytes. The aim of this study was to assess the role of these proteins in the signaling pathways involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of dimethylphenylpiperazinium (DMPP), a synthetic nAChR agonist, on monocytes and macrophages. The results indicate that PI3K is associated with α3, -4, and -5 nAChR subunits in monocytes. The PI3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002 abrogated the inhibitory effect of DMPP on LPS-induced TNF release by monocytes. Treatment with DMPP for 24 and 48 h provoked a mild PLC phosphorylation, which was blocked by the nAChR antagonist mecamylamine and reversed by PI3K inhibitors. Treatment of monocytes and alveolar macrophages with DMPP reduced the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3)-dependent intracellular calcium mobilization induced by platelet-activating factor (PAF), an effect that was reversed by mecamylamine in alveolar macrophages. DMPP did not have any effect on PAF receptor expression. DMPP also inhibited the thapsigargin-provoked calcium release, indicating that the endoplasmic reticulum calcium stores might be depleted by treatment with the nAChR agonist. Taken together, these results suggest that PI3K and PLC activation is involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of DMPP. PLC limited, but constant activation could induce, the depletion of intracellular calcium stores, leading to the anti-inflammatory effect of DMPP.
Oxygen availability regulates metabolism and gene expression in trout hepatocyte cultures
Authors: Rissanen Eeva , Tranberg Hanna K. , Nikinmaa Mikko
Published: June 2006

We studied the metabolic rate, cellular energetic state, hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) activation, and expression of enzymes involved in energy metabolism using rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss) hepatocytes over the oxygen range from 21 to 1 kPa. Oxygen dependence of these factors was assessed by gradually reducing oxygen supply to cells from 21 kPa to 10, 5, 2, and 1 kPa. Moreover, time course experiments for up to 20 h at oxygen tensions of 1 and 2 kPa were carried out. Reduction of oxygen from 21 kPa to 10, 5, 2, and 1 kPa decreased metabolic rate of the cells by 14, 24, 37, and 46%, respectively. This response was instantaneous and fully reversible upon reoxygenation. Cellular ATP content and the expression of all mRNAs studied decreased when oxygen was reduced from 21 to 5 and 2 kPa. The lowest ATP levels, ∼43% of the initial value, were measured at 5 kPa of oxygen, whereas the reduction in mRNA amounts was most pronounced at 2 kPa. At 1 kPa oxygen tension, both ATP content and mRNA amounts returned to normoxic (21 kPa) levels with a concomitant activation of HIF-1, indicating reorganization of energy metabolism in adaptation of cells to low oxygen supply. These results show that oxygen has a direct regulatory effect on metabolism of trout hepatocyte cultures, supporting the view that oxygen has a profound role in metabolic regulation in cells.
Amygdaloid lesion-induced obesity: relation to sexual behavior, olfaction, and the ventromedial hypothalamus
Authors: King Bruce M.
Published: June 2006

Lesions of the amygdala have long been known to produce hyperphagia and obesity in cats, dogs, and monkeys, but only recently have studies with rats determined that the effective site is the posterodorsal amygdala (PDA)—the posterodorsal medial amygdaloid nucleus and the intra-amygdaloid bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. There is a sex difference; female rats with PDA lesions display greater weight gain than male rats. In the brains of female rats with obesity-inducing PDA lesions, there is a dense pattern of axonal degeneration in the capsule of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) and other targets of the stria terminalis. Transections of the dorsal component of the stria terminalis also result in hyperphagia and obesity in female rats. Similar to rats with VMH lesions, rats with PDA lesions are hyperinsulinemic during food restriction and greatly prefer high-carbohydrate diets. The PDA is also a critical site for some aspects of rodent sexual behavior, particularly those that depend on olfaction, and the pattern of degeneration observed after obesity-inducing PDA lesions is remarkably parallel to the circuit that has been proposed to mediate sexual behavior. Medial amygdaloid lesions disrupt the normal feeding pattern and result in impaired responses to caloric challenges, and there is evidence that these behavioral changes are also due to a disruption of olfactory input. With its input from the olfactory bulbs and connections to the VMH, the PDA may be a nodal point at which olfactory and neuroendocrine stimuli are integrated to affect feeding behavior.
GABA-mediated neurotransmission in the nucleus of the solitary tract alters resting ventilation following exposure to chronic hypoxia in conscious rats
Authors: Chung Sean , Ivy Gwen O. , Reid Stephen G.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated whether changes in GABA-mediated neurotransmission within the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) contribute to the changes in breathing (resting ventilation and the acute HVR) that occur following exposure to chronic hypoxia (CH). Rats were exposed to 9 days of hypobaric hypoxia (0.5 atm) and then subjected to acute hypoxic breathing trials before and after bilateral microinjections of GABA, bicuculline (a GABAA-receptor antagonist), or bicuculline plus CGP-35348 (a GABABreceptor antagonist) into the caudal regions of the NTS. Breathing was measured using whole body plethysmography. CH caused an increase in resting ventilation when the animals were breathing 30% O2but did not alter ventilation during acute hypoxia (10% O2). GABA alone had no effect on breathing in either the control or chronically hypoxic rats. Bicuculline and bicuculline/CGP had no effect on breathing in control rats. Following CH, bicuculline and bicuculline/CGP reduced minute ventilation (VI) during acute exposure to 30% O2but had no effect during acute exposure to 10% O2. The bicuculline-induced reduction in VI resulted from a decrease in breathing frequency (fR) and tidal volume (VT). The bicuculline/CGP-induced reduction in VI was due to a decrease in fR with no change in VT. The results suggest that changes in GABA receptor-mediated neurotransmission, within the NTS, are involved in the increase in resting ventilation that occurs following CH.
Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain
Authors: Kramer Arthur F. , Erickson Kirk I. , Colcombe Stanley J.
Published: June 2006

We provide a brief review of the literature on exercise effects on brain and cognition. To this end, we focus on both prospective and retrospective human epidemiological studies that have examined the influence of exercise and physical activity on cognition and dementia. We then examine the relatively small set of human randomized clinical trials that have, for the most part, focused on exercise training effects on cognition. Next, we discuss animal research that has examined the molecular, cellular, and behavioral effects of exercise training. Finally, we conclude with a summary and brief discussion of important future directions of research on fitness cognition and brain.