bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Knowing and Naming in Theology and Science
Authors: Schaab Gloria L.
Published: September 2007

Chapter 3 addresses the question of how theology in dialogue with science authentically expresses insights concerning the ineffable mystery of God and suffering. Because neither science nor theology can speak uncritically as if a one‐to‐one correspondence existed between the meaning of their words and the realities to which they refer, nor can they speak instrumentally as if their words were simply useful fictions, each discipline must speak in terms of a critical or skeptical realism. In so doing, each employs certain concepts, analogies, metaphors, or models to signify something akin to the entity to which its words refer. This approach to scientific and theological language leads to the methodology of inference‐to‐the‐best‐explanation. This methodology aims not at certainty but at intelligibility, not at finality but at fecundity, not at immutability but at emergence with regard to its metaphors and models.
Divine Being and Becoming
Authors: Schaab Gloria L.
Published: September 2007

Chapter 4 examines the impact of Arthur Peacocke's evolutionary cosmology, biology, epistemology, and methodology on Christian theology and demonstrates how these insights come to fruition in an understanding of a Triune God. A particular model concerning the God‐world relationship emerges from the interaction of these insights. The model is panentheism, which denotes that the Being of God includes and penetrates the whole universe—a universe pervaded by pain, suffering, and death—but is not exhausted by the universe itself. Within this panentheistic paradigm, the Triune God is conceived as the transcendent Ground of Being who is immanently creative under the groaning of the cosmos and who becomes incarnate in the cruciformity of the cosmos with its ubiquitous suffering. It concludes with an analysis of Peacocke's proposals using fourfold criteria of intelligibility: fit with data, simplicity, fecundity, and pastoral efficacy.
Semantics as a Mentalistic Enterprise
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins by couching the questions of semantic theory in mentalistic terms, so that semantics can be compatible with generative grammar. It contrasts this position with a number of other views of what semantics is about. The chapter also addresses the putative distinction between linguistic meaning and ‘world knowledge’, arguing that various ways of making this distinction do not serve the intended purpose. Rather, if there is a special ‘linguistic semantics’, it is the theory of the interface components between meaning and linguistic expression.
Syntactic Categories and Semantic Relativity
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

Radical Construction Grammar, like other construction grammars, treats constructions as pairings of form and meaning, and like typology, uses meaning as the basis for crosslinguistic comparison. Semantic or linguistic relativity poses a potential problem for Radical Construction Grammar, because it hypothesizes that meaning varies depending on the formal constructions used. This chapter argues that arguments for semantic relativity contain several hidden assumptions which are implausible: contrast across languages implies contrast within a language; semantic analyses always involve monosemy, not polysemy; linguistic analyses must avoid syntagmatic semantic redundancy; and one can only posit a relativistic analysis of one part of a construction by assuming a universal analysis of another part of the construction (the Semantic Uncertainty Principle). Instead, grammatical differences are the result of different patterns of semantic extension and grammaticalization, and semantic change eventually reasserts the universal semantics of particular situation types.
A Radical Approach to Syntactic Relations
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

The central argument of this chapter is that a construction grammar, in which syntactic structures are paired with their semantic interpretations, can and should dispense with syntactic relations between the syntactic units (hence, syntactic units are joined together only by virtue of the role each holds in the entire construction). All the necessary information for the correct inference of the meaning of an utterance is found in a construction without syntactic relations. If there were syntactic relations, one would expect that they would consistently map onto semantic relations (iconicity). But a wide range of putative syntactic relations are not iconic. Also, one or more elements of a syntactic relation are frequently absent (e.g., ‘agreement’ does not agree with any syntactic unit). Instead, the linguistic evidence allegedly justifying syntactic relations (such as agreement and case marking) actually expresses symbolic relations linking the syntactic unit to its semantic counterpart in the construction.
Harmonic morphisms with one-dimensional fibres
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows that a harmonic morphism from a manifold of dimension n+1 to a manifold of dimension n is, locally or globally, a principal bundle with a certain metric. When n = 3, in a neighbourhood of a critical point, a harmonic morphism behaves like the Hopf polynomial map; when n > 3, there can be no critical points. A factorization theorem and a circle action are obtained in all cases, leading to topological restrictions. Given a nowhere-zero Killing field V, it is shown how to find harmonic morphisms with fibres tangent to V. Harmonic morphisms of warped product type are discussed; these are related to isoparametric functions. These two types are the only types that can occur on a space form or on an Einstein manifold when n > 3. When n = 3, a third type of harmonic morphism is found related to the Beltrami fields equation of hydrodynamics.
Harmonic morphisms between semi-Riemannian manifolds
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

This final chapter discusses how the main definitions and results need to be modified in the semi-Riemannian case. In this context, harmonic maps include the strings of mathematical physics. Weakly conformal and horizontally weakly conformal maps are discussed; care is taken with the definitions as the subspaces of the tangent spaces involved may be degenerate. It is shown that with appropriate definitions, the characterization of harmonic morphisms as horizontally weakly conformal harmonic maps carries over to the semi-Riemannian case. Certain harmonic morphisms are simply null solutions of the wave equation. The chapter concludes with an explicit local description of all harmonic morphisms between Lorentzian 2-manifolds. In the ‘Notes and comments’ section, the connection with the shear-free ray congruences of mathematical physics is described.
Time Lags in Terrestrial and Marine Environments
Authors: Post Eric
Published: September 2007

Temporal lags in the response of populations to climatic variation associated with the NAO are widespread in both terrestrial and marine environments. The existence of both immediate and lagged responses to climate presents conceptual and analytical challenges to the study of the ecological consequences of large-scale climatic variability, as well as to the ability to forecast population responses to future climatic change. This chapter discusses the influence of atmospheric processes, life history, and trophic interactions on time lags. It argues that the existence of time lags in a multitude of systems can be exploited to one obvious advantage: prediction. Hence, an empirically-derived basis for improving conceptual and analytical understanding of lagged responses to climate should prove valuable in the pursuit of scientifically robust predictions of population and community response to future climate changes.
Ancestry
Authors: Wang Xiaoming , Tedford Richard H. , Van Valkenburgh Blaire , Wayne Robert K.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the evolutionary history, molecular systematics, and evolutionary ecology of canids. Topics covered include the Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae subfamilies; morphological and molecular phylogenies; and iterative evolution of hypercarnivory.
Society
Authors: Macdonald David W. , Creel Scott , Mills Michael G. L.
Published: September 2007

This chapter addresses the question of why some canids live in groups, while others do not, and asks what shapes their societies. The behavioural and ecological selective pressures of group living are discussed. It is argued that while behavioural benefits may favour sociality in wild canids, ecological factors create the framework within which behavioural pressures operate, and dictate the balance of costs and benefits between group membership and dispersal.
Management
Authors: Sillero-Zubiri Claudio , Reynolds Jonathan , Novaro Andrés J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines why canids often find themselves in conflict with humans, and how managers and conservationists have tackled these conflicts. The biological basis for conflict, attacks on humans and disease transmission, livestock predation, predation on games species, and conflict with threatened wildlife species are discussed. Approaches to solving conflict between canids and people are presented.
Infectious disease
Authors: Woodroffe Rosie , Cleaveland Sarah , Courtenay Orin , Laurenson M. Karen , Artois Marc
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the role of infectious disease in the conservation of wild canids. Canid diseases cause concern for two reasons. First, widespread species such as red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and coyotes (Canis latrans) may carry infections such as rabies, leishmaniasis, and hydatid disease that can be transmitted to people and livestock. Second, populations of threatened canids such as Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis), African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), and island foxes (Urocyon littoralis) may be at risk of extinction through the effects of virulent infections such as rabies and canine distemper, sometimes needing management to protect them from infection.
Tools
Authors: Boitani Luigi , Asa Cheryl S. , Moehrenschlager Axel
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the rapidly evolving canid conservation tools that use recent advances in several fields of conservation biology and take into account sociological aspects. It considers the use of conservation tools in (1) assessing the status of wild canid populations; (2) limiting canids that become too numerous; (3) restoring canids that are threatened; (4) protecting canids in an ecosystem context; and (5) influencing socio-political change for canid conservation.
Swift and kit foxes
Authors: Moehrenschlager Axel , Cypher Brian L. , Ralls Katherine , List Rurik , Sovada Marsha A.
Published: September 2007

Swift foxes and kit foxes are found in the relatively flat, arid regions of North America. Swift and kit foxes are phenotypically similar, although kit foxes have slightly longer, less rounded ears and weigh less. Although early morphometric comparisons and protein-electrophoresis suggested that these foxes constitute the same species, recent multivariate morphometric analyses as well as mitochondrial DNA restriction-site and sequence analyses showed that they are separate species. This chapter compares swift and kit foxes to determine whether morphological and genetic differences might also be indicative of differences in life history, ecology, or population threats.
Blanford's foxes
Authors: Geffen Eli
Published: September 2007

While the morphology typical of canids adapts them to endurance running, and consequently to life in open habitats, a few species have specialized to other habitats such as rainforests, or even to climbing trees or cliffs. The cliff-dwelling Blanford's fox (Vulpes cana) is one of these exceptional canid species. This chapter presents an overview of the Blanford's fox's phylogeny and taxonomic status, recent distributional changes, the behavioural ecology of a population studied in Israel, and its conservation status.
Bat-eared foxes
Authors: Maas Barbara , Macdonald David W.
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a case study of bat-eared foxes in the Serengeti in order to shed light on the questions: how does their behaviour differ from that of other canids, and why? Topics discussed include group composition, dispersal, and philopatry; litter size, sex ratio, and reproductive success; energetics of female reproduction; rabies and mortality; and resources and sociality.
Ethiopian wolves
Authors: Sillero-Zubiri Claudio , Marino Jorgelina , Gottelli Dada , Macdonald David W.
Published: September 2007

The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), at about 20 kg, differs from such typical, medium-size canids as the coyote (Canis latrans) in its unusually long legs and a long muzzle. Restricted to rodent-rich Afroalpine habitat within the Ethiopian highlands, its diurnal habits and distinctive coat render this species conspicuous. Field studies of Ethiopian wolves began in 1988, with a focus on the Bale Mountains. Conservation and research activities continue in Bale and have recently expanded to other populations in Ethiopia. This chapter analyses data previously presented.
INTRODUCTION TO MARKOV CHAINS
Authors: Bini D. A. , Latouche G. , Meini B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter contains a brief introduction to the fundamental concepts of Markov chains, including classification of states, irreducible classes, first passage times, stochastic complementation and censoring, and stationary distributions, for both discrete and continuous time processes. The chapter ends with properties of non-negative matrices and the Perron-Frobenius theorem.
ELASTIC REGISTRATION
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces elastic registration using the general framework introduced in Chapter 8. A physical motivation for this particular regularizer is given. The two images are viewed as two different observations of an elastic body, one before and one after deformation. The displacement (or transformation) of the elastic body is derived using a linear elasticity model. In order to introduce different boundary conditions and for later reference, the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of the Navier-Lame operator are computed. It is shown that the Navier-Lame equations can be derived from the general framework. The continuous Euler-Lagrange equations are discretized and the discretized partial differential operator can be diagonalized using Fast-Fourier type techniques. The Moore-Penrose pseudo inverse of the discrete Navier-Lamé operator is explicitly given. Registration results for academic as well as real life problems are presented.
Secondary defences
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

Secondary defences act after predators have successfully detected and recognized prey; they seek to dissuade the predator from attacking and/or increase the likelihood of the prey surviving the attack. These defences are generally physical (armour, spines, thorns) or chemical (toxins, venom, irritants). This chapter examines on the costs of different defences and how these toxins are likely to impact on the evolution of defences.
The initial evolution of warning displays
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers the mechanisms by which aposematic signals might evolve and be maintained. Of particular importance are the roles of spatial aggregation and kin selection in the evolution of such signals, and the co-evolution of defence and signals of that defence. The initial evolution of aposematism is particularly interesting and challenging, since aposematic signals are expected to be more effective when they are commonplace, thus an initial rare mutant might be expected to be at a disadvantage.
The evolution and maintenance of Batesian mimicry
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

If an undefended species (the mimic) were to adopt the same warning signal as a defended species (the model), then it might be able to gain protection from predators without investing in defence. This Batesian mimicry may weaken the protection which the signal gives individuals of the defended species, since the predator experiences a less clear relationship between signal and defence as it samples both models and mimics. This chapter examines both the theory of this phenomenon and the empirical evidence for it. The outstanding questions and controversies in this area are addressed.
Other forms of adaptive resemblance
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the phenomenon of automimicry, where individuals within a population may share the same warning signal but differ in their investment in defence. It seeks to explain the evolution of this variability and how the predator’s continued appropriate response to the warning signal can be maintained in the face of this potential decrease in signal reliability. It also considers the use of mimicry by predators (aggressive mimicry), floral mimicry that attracts pollinators, and intraspecific sexual mimicry.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter ends the first, introductory part of the book by recalling some of the central observations so far.
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows how to use the well-known dynamic programming technique in order to design fixed-parameter algorithms. More specifically, dynamic programming solutions are presented for problems such as Knapsack, Steiner Problem in Graphs, tree-structured variants of Set Cover, and others. In a final discussion, the relationship to structural problem parameterization is pointed out.
GENERALIZED INDUCTIVE DEFINITIONS IN CONSTRUCTIVE SET THEORY
Authors: Rathjen Michael
Published: September 2007

This chapter studies generalized inductive definitions on the basis of constructive Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, CZF. In theories such as classical Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, it can be shown that every inductive definition over a set gives rise to a least and a greatest fixed point, which are sets. This principle, notated GID, can also be deduced from CZF plus the full impredicative separation axiom or CZF augmented by the power set axiom. Full separation and a fortiori the power set axiom, however, are entirely unacceptable from a constructive point of view. It is shown that while CZF+GID is stronger than CZF, the principle GID does not embody the strength of any of these axioms. CZF+GID can be interpreted in Feferman's Explicit Mathematics with a least fixed point principle. The proof-theoretic strength of the latter theory is expressible by means of a fragment of second order arithmetic.
CONSTRUCTIVE SET THEORIES AND THEIR CATEGORY-THEORETIC MODELS
Authors: Simpson Alex
Published: September 2007

This chapter advocates a pragmatic approach to constructive set theory, using axioms based solely on set-theoretic principles that are directly relevant to (constructive) mathematical practice. The aim is to leave the notion of set as unconstrained as possible, while remaining consistent with the ways in which sets are actually used in mathematical practice. Following this approach, the chapter presents theories ranging in power from weaker predicative theories to stronger impredicative ones. The theories considered all have sound and complete classes of category-theoretic models, obtained by axiomatizing the structure of an ambient category of classes together with its subcategory of sets. In certain special cases, the categories of sets have independent characterizations in familiar category-theoretic terms, and one thereby obtains a rich source of naturally occurring mathematical models for (both predicative and impredicative) constructive set theories.
Introduction
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter provides definitions and explains the scope of the book. It explains how conclusions are drawn from trees, how they are used to build these trees, why gametes are included, and the limitations of the topics considered. Previously, there have been many approaches to explain the evolution of organ systems, but these were restricted to particular systems. Other approaches have reconstructed phylogeny derived from the one organ system instead of reconstructing the evolution of this organ system from a tree based on all available data.
Epidermis
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

The epidermis is the external surface of an animal and performs several functions. It is usually a monolayer of cells, but can also be composed of several layers of cells. Epidermal cells are connected by cellular junctions (anchoring, occluding, and gap junctions), which are of particular phylogenetic importance. Epidermal cells can secrete extracellular material to their basal and apical side, which is called the ECM or glycocalyx/cuticle. The evolution of such structures is discussed in this chapter, including the presence of chitin and the moulting of the entire cuticle. Particular substructures of epidermal cells are the cilia, which form a variety of different arrangements and shapes. Several characters concerning the epidermis can be recognized as evolutionary novelties for particular metazoan taxa.
Sensory organs
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

There is a wide variety of different sensory organs, but the basic principles of their function are similar. This chapter summarizes the known sensory structures, and ciliary receptors are briefly discussed. The two sensory structures discussed in detail are static sense organs and photoreceptors. Static sensory organs occur as statocysts in a variety of animals. They differ extremely in shape, composition, and location, making their multiple parallel evolution quite likely. Photoreceptors also occur in abundance and in different forms. Following a review of photoreceptors among animal taxa, it is concluded that the molecular photosensitive system is quite old and that it is, for example, likely that several opsins were present in the bilaterian ancestor. The particular architecture of the photoreceptor (‘eye’) evolved in parallel many times over.
Reproductive organs
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Animals can reproduce in two ways: asexually or sexually. Both modes have advantages and their evolutionary distribution and significance is discussed in this chapter. In sexually reproducing animals, sexes can be separate (gonochoristic) or combined in one individual (hermaphroditic). Gametes can be formed in a variety of ways, but not necessarily in particular structures called gonads. Sponges do not have anything like a gonad, and cnidarians and ctenophores concentrate gametes in particular regions called gametogenic areas. Most bilaterian animals have particular gonads, which can originate in different ways. The gametes also originate in different ways, either very early in development by ‘preformation’ or later by ‘epigenesis’. Gametes are transferred in different ways, producing numerous reproductive structures for gamete storage and transfer.
Late twentieth-century patterns and trends in the climate of tropical forest regions
Authors: Malhi Yadvinder , Wright James
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents an analysis of the mean climate and climatic trends of tropical rainforest regions over the period 1960-98, with the aid of climatological databases. Since the mid-1970s all tropical rainforest regions have experienced a warming, in synchrony with a global rise in temperature that has been attributed to the anthropogenic greenhouse effect. Over the study period precipitation appears to have declined sharply in northern tropical Africa, declined marginally in tropical Asia, and showed no significant trend in Amazonia. There is no evidence to date of a decline in precipitation in eastern Amazonia, a region thought vulnerable to climate-change induced drying. The strong drying trend in Africa suggests that this should be a priority study region for understanding the impact of drought on tropical rainforests. Only African and Indian tropical rainforests appear to have seen a significant increase in dry season intensity. The El Niñno-Southern Oscillation is the primary driver of interannual temperature variations across the tropics, and of precipitation fluctuations for large areas of the Americas and Southeast Asia.
Forest–climate interactions in fragmented tropical landscapes
Authors: Laurance William F.
Published: September 2007

In the tropics, habitat fragmentation alters forest-climate interactions in diverse ways. On a local scale (<1 km), elevated desiccation and wind disturbance near fragment margins lead to sharply increased tree mortality, altering canopy-gap dynamics, plant-community composition, biomass dynamics, and carbon storage. Fragmented forests are also highly vulnerable to edge-related fires, especially in regions which have periodic droughts or strong dry seasons. At landscape to regional scales (10-1,000 km), habitat fragmentation may have complex effects on forest-climate interactions, with important consequences for atmospheric circulation, water cycling, and precipitation. Positive feedbacks among deforestation, regional climate change, and fire could pose a serious threat for some tropical forests, but the details of such interactions are poorly understood.
The effects of drought on tropical forest ecosystems
Authors: Meir Patrick , Grace John
Published: September 2007

Drought stress in tropical forests can have a major impact on global carbon, water, and energy cycles. This chapter examines drought-induced responses in the processing of carbon and water by intact tropical forest ecosystems over short (physiological) and longer (ecological) timescales. Both levels of understanding should be represented in analyses of climate-forest ecosystem feedback. Although limited spatial information on the diversity of the physical properties of soil constrains estimates of drought vulnerability, tree functional convergence across species based on simple measures such as wood density would simplify how drought responses can be represented and linked to changes in forest composition through mortality indices. While insufficient on their own, satellite-derived measurements of ecosystem properties (e.g. leaf area index) and processes (e.g. mortality and photosynthesis) are expected to provide increasingly detailed information that can be used to test understanding of short- and longer-term responses to drought.
MATRIX MODELS
Authors: Mariño Marcos
Published: September 2007

This chapter starts with explaining some basic aspects and techniques of matrix models. Matrix models are the simplest examples of quantum gauge theories; they are quantum gauge theories in zero dimensions. The basic field is a Hermitian N x N matrix M. Two useful techniques for solving matrix models are described: saddle-point analysis and orthogonal polynomials.
TOPOLOGICAL STRINGS
Authors: Mariño Marcos
Published: September 2007

Type-A and type-B topological sigma models are two topological field theories in two dimensions. Although they contain a lot of information in genus 0, they turn out to be trivial for g > 1. This is essentially due to the fact that, in order to define these theories, it is necessary to consider a fixed metric in the Riemann surface. In order to obtain a non-trivial theory in higher genus the degrees of freedom of the two-dimensional metric must be introduced. This means that the topological field theories must be coupled to two-dimensional gravity. The coupling to gravity is done by using the fact that the structure of the twisted theory is tantalizingly close to that of the bosonic string. Topological sigma models may be defined not only on closed Riemann surfaces and closed topological strings, but also on the open case.
The Concealed Art of the Soul
Authors: Ganeri Jonardon
Published: September 2007

The mistakes we make about ourselves result in our deepest sufferings. Philosophy, meant to be a medicine for our souls' affliction, claims to offer both a diagnosis and a cure. This book looks to ancient India, where Buddhists and Hindus alike grapple with the fundamental human quest for peace of mind. For Indian thinkers, a philosophical treatise about the self is meant not only to lay out the truth, but also to embed itself in a process of study and contemplation that will lead eventually to self-transformation. The survey includes the Upaniṣads, the Buddha's discourses, the epic Mahābhārata, and the philosopher Candrakīrti, whose work was later to become foundational in Tibetan Buddhism. The book shows that many contemporary theories of selfhood and personal identity are not only anticipated but developed to an extraordinary degree of sophistication in these works, and that there are other ideas about the self found here which modern philosophers have not yet begun to explore. In the Appendices, the book begins to disclose some of the paths along which Indian ideas about the self have migrated throughout history to the West.
A Cloak of Clever Words: The Deconstruction of Deceit in the Mahābhārata
Authors: Ganeri Jonardon
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the discussion of truth-telling, sincerity, and deceit in the Mahābhārata. It explores classical Indian thinking about the value of truth, and the circumstances under which it is morally permissible to tell a lie.
Investor Engagement
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M.
Published: September 2007

Increased engagement by investors with the companies in which they invest has been a major change in Western economies since the 1980s. Shareholder value provides rationale and incentive for investor engagement. The book summarizes the basic principles of shareholder value, and explains the reasons for its growth, especially in the UK and the USA. The authors outline a spectrum of investor engagement ranging from indirect/laissez-faire influence via (threat of) exit to direct intervention in specific areas of management practice. The book focuses on two types of investor, institutional investors and private equity/venture capital investors. Different types of institutional investors have different incentives for engagement, and adopt different methods. ‘Universal investors’ with long time horizons, such as pension funds, have especially strong incentives for engagement, as illustrated by USS Limited. The book distinguishes between institutional investors' routine and extraordinary engagement, and shows how collaboration amongst investors through organizations such as the Institutional Shareholders' Committee offsets the high costs of monitoring and provides means for ensuring compliance with ‘best City practice’. The engagement of private equity funds is illustrated through case studies of equity funds and the portfolio firms in which they invested. But corporate managers are not simply passive reactors to investors' interventions: managers seek to influence investors, for example through managing market expectations. Shareholder value conceptions are not universal: they are strong in the UK and the USA, but are weaker in coordinated market economies such as Germany. The book concludes by evaluating the normative case for shareholder value and investor engagement, arguing that conventional analyses overestimate the efficiency arguments for shareholder value and the equity arguments against shareholder value. The future development of corporate governance is seen to require greater openness and the inclusion of a wider range of interests, not the further enhancement of the protection accorded to shareholder interests.
8 Shareholder Value, Investor Engagement, and Management Practice: a Normative Evaluation
Authors: Martin Roderick , Casson Peter D. , Nisar Tahir M.
Published: September 2007

This chapter adopts a normative standpoint in examining both shareholder value and investor engagement. Shareholder value analyses exaggerate the weakness of internal control systems, overestimate the efficiency of the capital market as a means of transferring resources from sectors of low value added to sectors of high value added, and attributes too much importance to the capital market and equity finance as a source of new investment. Shareholder value analyses neglect the risks incurred by other stakeholders in the corporation, including employees. Investor engagement to enhance shareholder value or to secure compliance with ‘best City practice’ is regarded as uncontroversial. However, engagement to achieve wider social values may distort corporate practice. The chapter concludes by arguing for greater openness in corporate governance and the representation of a wider range of interests, not for further entrenchment of shareholder interests.
‘Scientific’ Criminology
Authors: Emsley Clive
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins by noting how in the last third of the 19th century, the usual suspects — beggars, vagabonds, prostitutes, the day-labouring poor of the cities and their children — continued to be stigmatized as criminals. It also notes the shift in this period towards medical and scientific discourses that led to criminals being identified as individuals with mental problems, with hereditary failings, or else corrupted by their environment. In addition to the medical experts summoned to give evidence in court, a new academic discipline emerged, fostered particularly by the work of Cesare Lombroso. These criminologists met and debated their findings in international congresses where national pride was often a spur to the criticism of others.
Beyond Pastoral? Generic Pressures in Vergil'sEclogues
Authors: Harrison S.J.
Published: September 2007

The Eclogues is examined as a collection extending the bounds of Hellenistic pastoral, partly on the model of the Theocritean collection. Particular emphasis is laid on Eclogues 4, 6, and 10, where generic complexity is most obvious and most overtly foregrounded. Here, we have a classic case of generic complexity, driven both by Hellenistic precedent (Theocritus) and by the political demands of the stormy triumviral period (Caesar, Pollio, land-confiscations).
Ambition to Rise: Horace,Satires1
Authors: Harrison S.J.
Published: September 2007

Horace's first poetic collection presents poems which interact notably with other genres — epic, both mythological and didactic, epigram, Priapean material, etc. This higher poetic material helps this book of lowly sermones show poetic ambition and react to other contemporary poets such as Vergil.
Lyric Flexibility: Literary Form in Horace'sOdes
Authors: Harrison S.J.
Published: September 2007

Horace's re-invention of archaic Greek lyric for Augustan Rome raises many issues of generic complexity, which are deliberately foregrounded by the texts. The boundaries of lyric are severely probed and tested by the incorporation and admixture of other literary genres (e.g., epic, epigram, prophecy, and tragedy).
Kant, Hume, and the Problem of Moral Motivation
Authors: Ameriks Karl
Published: September 2007

This chapter contrasts Humean theories of moral motivation with Kant's Critical account. It argues that standard objections to Kant fail to take heed of his general theory of action and the intrinsic difficulties in finding, on any sensible theory, a fully satisfactory ‘explanation’ of moral motivation. Kant's account of motivation must be understood in the context of his general theory of human subjectivity. Unlike contemporary quasi-Humean accounts, which depend on a two-part theory of belief and desire, Kant's theory presupposes a classical three-part distinction between cognizing, willing, and feeling. Although the second Critique is devoted specifically to what is called the faculty of desire (Begehrungsvermögen), this faculty is not to be understood simply in terms of feeling, let alone the mere determinations of pleasure and pain. Instead, for Kant this faculty primarily designates the power of choice, which presupposes cognitive and affective components but is distinct from them.
Early human societies and their plants
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces the new understanding from recent climatic and archaeological research of how human societies gradually developed increasingly important associations with edible plants. For the past two million years, life on earth has been largely dominated by hypervariable climatic conditions, fluctuating between relatively mild, damp conditions and much colder, drier states. Humans evolved during this period as efficient and relatively mobile hunter-gatherers, and by about 20,000 BP they had spread across much of the world. Over the past 100,000 years, human cognitive skills gradually increased, which facilitated more efficient social interactions and enabled people to adapt better to their unpredictable and ever-changing environments. During the Upper Palaeolithic (c.50,000-11,500 BP), as some of the megafauna became extinct, many human groups relied increasingly on a mixture of small game and plants, gradually becoming skilled exploiters and manipulators of numerous useful plant resources including fruits and seeds.
The domestication of non-cereal crops
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

Non-cereal crops are dominated by pulses (large-seeded legumes) and root crops, such as potatoes and yams. With their higher protein content and nitrogen-fixing ability, pulses complement cereals both agronomically and nutritionally, and are found in all regions of grain-based agriculture. Pulses were collected by hunter gatherers for many millennia before being domesticated in the Near East at about the same time as the early cereal crops, with non-dormant lentils dating from 11,000-9,000 BP, and non-shattering peas and lentils from 8,800-8,500 BP. Several bean species were domesticated in Eurasia and the Americas with Phaseolus spp being major staples throughout the latter continent. In all cases, the primary domestication traits were loss of dormancy, non-shattering pods, thin-coats, and increased seed size. As root crops, potatoes were selected primarily for low levels of toxins and large tuber size rather than for seed-related traits as in cereals and legumes.
People and the emergence of crops
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter is concerned with the emergence and spread of the major crop groups from their centres of origin in Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas. Although the initial domestication of some crops was sometimes rapid, with non-shattering large seed varieties often appearing within a few decades of cultivation, their subsequent spread across a wider region was relatively slow. In the Near East, domesticated forms of barley and wheat only gradually supplanted wild forms over a 2,500-year period after 10,000 BP. Rice was domesticated before 10,000 BP, but did not become a widespread dietary staple in east Asia until 7,000 BP. Mesoamericans domesticated maize before 9,000 BP, but large cob varieties did not appear until 3,000 BP.
Imperial botany and the early scientific breeders
Authors: Murphy Denis J.
Published: September 2007

The expansion of the British and Dutch mercantile empires from the 17th century was accompanied by a renewal of the old Babylonian concept of Imperial Botany, now made all the more effective by a new marriage of private commerce with state power and scientific knowledge. By the 18th century, and largely thanks to agrarian entrepreneurs such as Townshend, Coke, and Tull, Britain was undergoing an agricultural revolution that would underpin the later industrial revolution and consequent population growth. Botany became all the rage in court circles across Europe, from Vienna to Madrid. Botanical gardens established throughout the Anglo-Dutch empires simultaneously served economic, scientific, and aesthetic purposes. Crops such as sugar, tea, coffee, and cocoa served both as stimuli for expansion and lucrative products for the maturing empires. Greater understanding of the mechanisms of plant reproduction enabled breeders to experiment with new hybrids and mutations in order to enhance crop variation.
The Wreck of Catalonia
Authors: Ryder Alan
Published: September 2007

This book examines the fate that overtook the principality of Catalonia in the 15th century, reducing it from dominance within the state of Aragon to a marginal role in the Iberian power created by the union of Aragon and Castile. Part one studies the tensions destabilizing Catalonia: unrest among a peasantry resentful of outdated burdens; merchants and artisans struggling to wrest control of the towns from entrenched oligarchies; an aristocracy devoted to endless feuding; and a monarchy thrown into disarray by the extinction of the Catalan line and its replacement by a Castilian dynasty. In 1462, Catalonia degenerated into a civil war that lasted ten years. Part two seeks to explain how and why the king, Juan II, emerged victorious. The economic and military resources of the two camps, their tactics, and the lines along which Catalan society divided are examined. The book looks at the crucial part played by foreign powers in the conflict, who intervened on both sides until Juan turned the tables with his gamble on a Castilian crown for his heir, Fernando. The surrender of the insurgents in 1472 left Catalonia chaotic, devastated, and mired in many more years of war with France as Juan struggled to recover the territories he had surrendered in return for French aid. Catalonia was then helpless before Fernando, the Catholic King of Castile, who became ruler of Catalonia in 1479. The measures he imposed to restore order and subject the principality to the new ‘Spanish’ state are the theme of the final chapter. The events discussed have a continuing resonance in Spain today.
Sexual size dimorphism in mammals
Authors: Lindenfors Patrik , Gittleman John L. , Jones Kate E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the pattern of sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in mammals and the processes that underlie its evolution. Most mammalian orders have male-biased SSD, although some orders are not sexually-dimorphic for body size or show significantly female-biased SSD. In general, SSD increases with body size across mammals (Rensch's rule). Male-biased dimorphism relates to sexual selection on males through male-male competition for females, since sexual selection as indicated by mating systems is positively correlated with male-biased SSD. Selection pressure on female mass, identified in that age at weaning, is higher in polygynous species. However, the reproductive rate is lower for large females, indicating that fecundity selection selects small females. Although these patterns hold across mammals as a whole, the data presented in the chapter also reveal considerable variation across orders.
Sexual size dimorphism in amphibians: an overview
Authors: Kupfer Alexander
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews patterns of sexual dimorphism in amphibians and discusses their proximal causes and possible adaptive significance. Amphibians are diverse organisms that live in aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems. Female-biased sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is the common pattern in frogs and salamanders, and male-biased SSD is only present in few lineages. Preliminary SSD data for caecilians indicate that many are monomorphic in body size, while others exhibit female-biased dimorphism. The typical female-biased SSD may be partly explained by sex-specific growth trajectories and delayed maturity of females. Male-biased SSD is associated with sexual selection for large males through territoriality and male-male combat. In comparison with other vertebrates, our understanding of SSD in amphibians is still incomplete. Phylogenetic comparative analyses are needed to describe more fully the evolutionary patterns of amphibian SSD and to test hypotheses based on fecundity and sexual selection, life history theory, and ecological divergence.
Sexual dimorphism in the water strider,Aquarius remigis: a case study of adaptation in response to sexually antagonistic selection
Authors: Fairbairn Daphne J.
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes a series of studies examining the adaptive significance of sexual size dimorphism (SSD) in the water strider, Aquarius remigis. The data reveal that SSD is negligible until the adult stage, and there is no evidence of sexual bimaturation, ecological niche divergence, or sex-specific selection prior to reproductive maturity. However, once maturity is reached, sexual selection favours longer genitalia but smaller soma in males, fecundity selection favors longer abdomens in females, and longevity selection favours smaller size in both sexes. These patterns lead to net stabilizing selection with both sexes near their optimal sizes. Patterns of genetic correlations indicate that the genetic architecture has evolved in response to this sex-specific selection, and would facilitate rapid response of SSD to changing patterns of selection. This may explain why SSD can be close to equilibrium in local populations in spite of strong between-sex genetic correlations for overall size.
The genetic integration of sexually dimorphic traits in the dioecious plant,Silene latifolia
Authors: Delph Lynda F.
Published: September 2007

This chapter investigates sexual dimorphism in the dioecious, flowering plant, Silene latifolia. Results of comparisons among populations, a half-sib breeding experiment, and artificial selection on flower size indicate strong genetic integration such that selection for sexual dimorphism in any one trait affects the phenotype and extent of sexual dimorphism of many other traits. A flower size/number trade-off and the fact that larger flowers produce more ovules but not more pollen lead to selection for more (and smaller) flowers in males, but larger (and fewer) flowers in females. Strong genetic correlations between flower number and other traits are in accord with the hypothesis that the production of large numbers of flowers leads to a cost of reproduction. These results highlight the utility of taking a multi-trait, quantitative-genetic approach to understanding why the sexes differ from each other.
Development of sexual size dimorphism in lizards: testosterone as a bipotential growth regulator
Authors: John-Alder Henry B. , Cox Robert M.
Published: September 2007

Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is widespread in lizards but little is known about why males are larger than females in most species, while the opposite is true in many others. This chapter presents case studies of the development of SSD in three species of Sceloporus (Iguania: Phrynosomatidae), representing both male-larger and female-larger SSD. In all three species, SSD derives from sex differences in growth rate, and common garden experiments reveal significant phenotypic plasticity for SSD mediated by greater environmental sensitivity of growth in males. Studies focusing on growth regulation in males reveal that testosterone has opposing effects in closely related species with opposite patterns of SSD. Thus, testosterone serves as a bipotential mediator of sex differences in growth rate. The chapter closes by discussing mechanisms through which testosterone can both stimulate and inhibit male growth, including direct effects on the somatotrophic axis and indirect effects involving energy acquisition and allocation.