bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Protocol to Quantify Mammary Early Common Progenitors from Long‐Term Mammosphere Culture
Authors: Bachelard‐Cascales Elodie , Chapellier Marion , Delay Emmanuel , Maguer‐Satta Véronique
Published: March 2012

Here we describe a protocol established in our laboratory to quantify early common progenitors/stem cells grown as spheres in non‐adherent culture conditions. This protocol is based on the combination of two functional tests: the mammosphere assay to maintain and enrich early mammary progenitors/stem cells, and the epithelial colony‐forming cells (E‐CFC) assay to identify and quantify further differentiated epithelial progenitors. Primary spheres mainly contain progenitors and rare stem/early common progenitor cells while secondary and tertiary spheres contain progenitor cells derived from the early common progenitor/stem cell population maintained through passages and partially differentiated. Spheres are enzymatically and mechanically dissociated; the derived cells are subsequently plated on irradiated NIH‐3T3 fibroblasts for further processing, as in the E‐CFC assay. The principle of this assay is to quantify the number of epithelial colonies generated by cells present in the different sequential spheres. This assay has therefore been named ECP‐DC, standing for Early Common Progenitor‐Derived Colonies assay. Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell Biol. 20:1E.7.1‐1E.7.6. © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Reproducible Expansion and Characterization of Mouse Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells in Adherent Cultures Derived from the Adult Subventricular Zone
Authors: Theus Michelle H. , Ricard Jerome , Liebl Daniel J.
Published: March 2012

Endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) residing in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the adult mouse forebrain have been shown to enhance their neurogenic potential in response to CNS injury. Mechanisms involved in regulating adult neurogenesis under naïve or stressed conditions can be studied using a monolayer cell‐culture system of the nestin‐expressing NSPC lineage to analyze proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Here, a protocol for the expansion of NSPCs for studies aimed at understanding the functional role of NSPCs in maintaining adult neurogenic processes is described. This unit outlines detailed procedures for: (1) isolation, maintenance, and culture of the NSPC component of the SVZ niche from the lateral wall of the lateral ventricle; (2) characterization of NSPC functions by examining proliferation, survival, and differentiation; and (3) efficient siRNA transfection methods in 96‐well format. Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell Biol. 20:2D.8.1‐2D.8.10. © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Using MicroRNAs to Enhance the Generation of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Authors: Li Zhonghan , Rana Tariq M.
Published: March 2012

Somatic cells reprogrammed to acquire an ES‐like state are termed iPS cells. In this unit, a protocol to use microRNAs as enhancers to increase the reprogramming efficiency is described. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) are isolated from E13.5 mouse embryos and seeded for reprogramming by defined factors. microRNA mimics are transfected into MEFs at two time points during this process to enhance the overall reprogramming efficiency. Two standard protocols for characterization of these miR‐iPSCs, embryoid body formation and teratoma formation, are also provided. By using this method, the investigators can obtain a significantly higher number of bona‐fide iPSC colonies and miR‐iPSCs can be derived at a faster rate than with non‐treated cells. Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell Biol. 20:4A.4.1‐4A.4.14. © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Accountability
Authors: Newell Peter
Published: March 2012

Accountability has mainly come to the fore in debates about globalization because of concerns over the growing power of private actors and international institutions, in particular over governments and citizens alike. There is concern that many actors driving the process of globalization, such as multinational companies and institutions such as the World Bank and World Trade Organization, exercise power without responsibility and there are no means to hold them to account for their actions. Such fears underpin calls for a UN Corporate Accountability Convention, for example, that would provide legally binding regulation of multinational corporations (MNCs) wherever they operate, or for enhanced involvement of developing country governments and civil society organizations in global decision‐making on trade, finance and development.
Accumulation
Authors: Huang Chung‐Hsien
Published: March 2012

At the core of Marxist political economy is the idea that capitalism is highly dynamic and inevitably expansionary through accumulation. Exclaiming, “Accumulate, accumulate! That is Moses and the prophets,” Marx (1967), in Volume One of
Capital
, defined the most important driving force and the inner law of motion of the capitalist mode of production. What makes capitalism tick is not only that capitalists make a profit by exploiting workers, but that they reinvest part of the profit in further production. Capitalists are forced to act in that way as a result of competition. The rule that governs the behavior of all capitalists is, then, “accumulation for accumulation sakes, production for production sakes” (Marx 1967: 595). The inner logic of capitalism is thus not only to “work for profit,” but also to “work for capital accumulation.”
Acid Rain
Authors: Peter Brimblecombe
Published: March 2012

Rainfall is naturally acidic. Carbon dioxide present in the air dissolves in rainwater and it becomes acidic enough (pH about 5.6) to dissolve limestone and form caves. Acid rain is a general term used to describe the delivery of acids to the surface of the Earth where the acidity exceeds that of natural rainfall. This usually arises because pollutants have dissolved in the rainwater.
AIDS
Authors: Whiteside Alan
Published: March 2012

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, or AIDS as it is better known, defined the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty‐first. It is a globalized epidemic, made possible by economic globalization, liberalization of markets, mobility, and changing cultures, and driven by inequalities within and between nations.
Amnesty International
Authors: Waltz Susan
Published: March 2012

Founded in 1961, Amnesty International (AI) is the world's largest human rights organization as reflected by membership figures, geographic presence, and annual budget. In many ways AI is an archetype of the transnational social movements that flourished in the late twentieth century. More than two million individuals linked to internationally chartered local units work collaboratively across national borders to promote and protect human rights as elaborated in a commonly agreed set of objectives. AI's centralized research and campaigning activities are developed in its International Secretariat in London. Around the world the organization's advocacy work is carried out by AI entities organized at the local and national levels. For example, the United Kingdom section of AI has its main office in London, and like other national sections it works in collaboration with AI's International Secretariat, a few city blocks away.
Anti‐Capitalism
Authors: Tormey Simon
Published: March 2012

Anti‐capitalism is a broad term denoting those theorists, movements, and groupings who oppose capitalism, or some key feature of capitalism such as wage labor or private property. In recent commentary the term is usually used to describe those who oppose
neoliberal
capitalism. Anti‐capitalism in this latter sense is identified with the emergence of the anti‐globalization movement (also called the “Global Justice Movement”), which came to media attention during the Seattle protests in 1999. Not all participants in this and subsequent “summit protests” are opposed to capitalism on the strict reading of the term. Nearly all, however, would identify themselves as opposed to neoliberalism. The distinction is important in understanding contemporary political developments, and gives us insight into the aims and objectives of today's anti‐capitalists.
Anti‐Consumerism
Authors: Humphery Kim
Published: March 2012

Anti‐consumerism is a diverse field of social analysis and global political action that critiques and opposes excessive levels of consumption, especially the consumer excess characteristic of affluent economies. This critique focuses on both the environmental and cultural ramifications of an increasing consumerization of life, warns of the global reach and consequences of an unconstrained consumer marketplace, and is closely aligned with advocacy of ethical forms of exchange and sustainable lifestyles. While consumerism has long been challenged by critics worldwide, Western nations in particular have since the 1990s been the site of a vigorous renaissance of anti‐consumerist debate and action.
Architecture
Authors: Sklair Leslie
Published: March 2012

Architecture, like most other industries and forms of artistic expression, has in recent decades been globalized both directly — in what has come to be known as global architecture — and indirectly, by the transnational migration of specific local or regional architectural forms. The spread of what is known as international modernism as an architectural style from its heartlands in Europe and North America to Latin America, Asia, and Africa in the forms of postmodernism and even supermodernism (Ibelings 1998) is the most visible manifestation of global architecture. If we date the era of globalization from the advent of the electronic revolution, notably transformations in the technological base and global scope of the electronic mass media and in general the means of production, distribution, and exchange, architecture can be considered as a relatively globalized industry. Electronic technologies have made possible a new international division of labor between architectural offices in developed and developing countries (Tombesi 2001). This has occurred to an extraordinary degree in China, the most vibrant architectural marketplace since the mid 1990s (see Chung
et al
. 2001; Campanella 2008). Most celebrated living architects readily accept that they could not have made their most famous buildings without the help of computer‐aided design: for example, Norman Foster's Swiss Re (the Gherkin) in London, Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Bilbao, Cesar Pelli's Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, and SOM's Jinmao Tower in Shanghai. All of these buildings are commonly labeled global icons in the sense that they combine fame outside their host countries with distinctive symbolic‐aesthetic significance (Sklair 2006). It is a feature of architecture in the global era that the drivers of iconicity tend to be in the corporate and/or consumerist sectors, whereas iconic buildings of pre‐global eras tended to be driven by the state and/or religious institutions (like the Houses of Parliament, the White House, the great gothic cathedrals, the Parthenon, the Taj Mahal, and the Pyramids).
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
Authors: Yamazawa Ippei
Published: March 2012

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is an intergovernmental forum for increasing trade and investment as well as economic cooperation in the Asia Pacific region. It began in 1989 as a series of annual meetings of foreign and trade ministers from 12 member economies (the five industrialized economies of Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, and the United States, the Republic of Korea, and the six ASEAN members of Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand), focusing on economic cooperation. Three Chinas (the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, and Chinese Taipei) joined in 1991. Since the first Economic Leaders' Meeting in Seattle in 1993, APEC leaders declared that they would achieve “free and open trade and investment in the region.” In 1994 they declared ambitious Bogor Goals, setting a deadline for achieving them by 2010 for industrialized economies and by 2020 for the rest of the members. The Osaka Action Agenda was adopted in 1995, and since 1997 each member economy has been submitting an annual Individual Action Plan (IAP) detailing their actions to meet the Bogor Goals and implementing them.
Assemblage Theory
Authors: Rey P.J.
Published: March 2012

Assemblage theory was first formulated and popularized by Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari (1980/1987) in the book
A Thousand Plateaus
. It was later adopted by scholars in a range of disciplines. Most notably, Manuel Delanda (2006) extended the concept in
A New Philosophy of Society: Assemblage Theory and Social Complexity,
and afforded it a far more sustained theoretical treatment than the original authors. The assemblage concept is intended to supplant other metaphors traditionally employed in social theory to explain complex formations such as states, societies, or global networks. Particularly, it problematizes organismic metaphors that attribute discrete, interdependent functions to various parts of a system. Deleuze and Guattari often invoked the description “a body without organs” to distinguish assemblages from functionalist or organismic frames of thought.
Bank for International Settlements
Authors: L. Pinheiro Diogo
Published: March 2012

The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) is an international organization for cooperation between central banks based in Basel, Switzerland. It is the world's oldest international financial institution, founded in May of 1930. The original purpose of the Bank was to organize the payment of reparations that Germany owed as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. Initially an organization with both central banks and private investors and shareholders, the BIS has evolved into an organization comprised only of central banks. Its role now includes setting bank regulations (especially through the Basel I and Basel II accords), doing research, facilitating cooperation between monetary authorities in different countries, acting as a sort of global central bank, and helping with the provision of liquidity in the context of stabilization programs. It has also become a more global organization, with 56 central banks as its current members.
Body
Authors: Sutton Barbara
Published: March 2012

The term “globalization” evokes broad‐scale economic, social, and political phenomena. Yet what is often lost in discussions about international integration, financial transactions, trade agreements, information flows, and capital mobility is how human bodies are involved in these overarching processes. Attention to human bodies can help to grasp more fully the impacts and workings of globalization. As social theorist David Harvey (2000: 34) points out, in the last few decades both “globalization” and “the body” have become key categories for understanding the social world, and they represent the two poles of the “most macro” to the “most micro” levels of analysis. Much of the relatively recent scholarship on the body has been inspired by the work of Michel Foucault (1978, 1995), postructuralism/postmodernism, and feminist and queer theorizing about the social construction of bodies and power. The body in society has also been approached from materialist, phenomenological, and structuration perspectives (among other streams of social theory). Insights from the interdisciplinary field of body studies have much to offer to understandings of globalization.
Bollywood
Authors: Rizvi Fazal
Published: March 2012

The term “Bollywood” commonly refers to the Hindi‐language Indian film industry based in Mumbai. Established in the early 1920s, Hindi cinema grew rapidly in popularity after India became independent in 1947. The Hindi films played a major role in generating the postcolonial national imaginary of an India that was progressive and secular, committed to social justice and democracy. Films of the 1950s such as
Awara
,
Pyaasa
, and
Mother India
explored India's postcolonial aspirations and examined social issues such as corruption, poverty, and the growing urban–rural divide (Mishra 2002). Created in the genre of melodramatic musicals, most of these films represented ordinary Indian life around classical Indian narratives of the struggle between good and evil. The melodic songs of the period drew upon the traditions of
raga
; they were lip‐synched by actors on the screen and often accompanied by dances based on both folk and classical Indian traditions.
Borders
Authors: Paasi Anssi
Published: March 2012

Borders characterize and structure social life on all spatial scales, from localities to states and from supra‐state units to global geopolitical dividing lines. Yet the roles of borders vary between these scales. The most significant borders exist between national states. It is the state and its supposed power to erode or maintain borders that is nowadays being debated in the context of globalization. The state is the most important territorial unit that mediates and controls the cultural, economic, and political processes that operate between the “global” and the “local” — scales that are often seen today to constitute an integrated “glocal” level.
Brain Drain
Authors: Ray Manashi
Published: March 2012

In the new information economy that emerged in the 1990s, “human capital” devoted to creativity and innovation became the most critical resource that can ensure a country's dominant presence in the world. This is reflected in the selective immigration policies of countries in the Organization for Economic Co‐Operation and Development (OECD) and of developing and transition economies that favor the migration of skilled labor. These migration policies – including the US employment (H1B) visa program of the US government – increased the migration of highly skilled and educated individuals from developing nations to nations with employment opportunities in the information technology (IT) and science and technology fields, especially during 1990s. This process is referred to as “brain drain” because the sending countries in many instances lose a considerable number of their highly skilled people. Lowell (2003) states that two conditions are necessary for the phrase “brain drain” to apply to a given country: there must be a significant loss of the highly educated population; and adverse economic consequences must follow.
Bribery
Authors: Warner Carolyn M.
Published: March 2012

Bribery is a common technique or form of corruption in which something of value is given to an individual or organization in an effort to influence the individual or organization to make a decision in favor of the bribe‐giver – a decision that might not otherwise have been made. A multitude of things may constitute the bribe: money is the most obvious, but so too is a job, home renovation, or anything of value (Lambsdorff 2008). Bribery is an exchange of favors: the bribe is given in exchange for some desired outcome, which the recipient has the power (or is believed by the briber to have the power) to effect. Its role in facilitating business transactions and economic development more generally has been extensively debated by scholars and policy‐makers, a number of scholars in the 1960s and 1970s suggesting that it had a salutary effect (Nye 1967; Huntington 1968). The tide turned in the late 1980s, to the extent that bribery, as a particular form of corruption, has become the target of a number of national laws and international conventions, perhaps the most well known of which in the international business community is the United States Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1978. As it has been applied by the United States, this Act makes illegal any form of bribery of a foreign public official, an intermediary, or a political party by any firm with a listing on a US stock exchange. The Organization for Economic Co‐Operation and Development (OECD) adopted an anti‐bribery convention in the late 1990s, to which several dozen countries are now signatories. Bribery of politicians or government officials and bureaucrats is commonly associated with efforts to obtain favorable treatment. Bribery, like corruption, has been found to be most often associated with poor, authoritarian countries. Where there is limited oversight of governing authorities, where they hold extensive discretionary powers over political and economic activity, bribery becomes the means by which they are paid to use their power in favor of one individual or organization or another. If the economy is extensively regulated, as it often is in poor countries (due to a circular dynamic that is beyond the subject of this entry), bribery may be the means by which transactions can be accelerated. However, recent research has noted that there are dynamics within wealthy, democratic societies that provide incentives and opportunities for individuals and firms to bribe politicians and government officials and for the latter two to demand bribes (Johnston 2005; Warner 2007).
Buddhism
Authors: Nichols Brian J.
Published: March 2012

Buddhism is the oldest of the world's missionary religions. Originating in India about 2500 years ago, by the ninth centuryceit had spread throughout much of Asia, adapting itself to a great variety of cultural contexts and assuming a diversity of forms. For this reason many scholars prefer to speak of Buddhist traditions or religions (in the plural) rather than of Buddhism (in the singular). Three major branches or “vehicles” associated with three distinct canons of scripture may be distinguished: Theravada, which is based on the Pali Canon; Mahayana, which is centered on the Chinese Canon; and Vajrayana, which is associated with the Tibetan Canon. Theravada (the “Way of the Elders”) remains the dominant religion of Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma and is also present in Laos and Cambodia. Mahayana (the “Great Vehicle”) has been – and remains – an important feature of the cultures of East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan). Vajrayana (the “Adamantine Vehicle”) is dominant in Tibetan and Mongolian cultural areas.
Capital flight
Authors: Orr Martin
Published: March 2012

Capital flight refers to the movement of investment away from a country or region. This can take place suddenly, in response to a crisis, or more gradually, as labor markets, regulatory environments, and tax structures come to be regarded as less attractive to investors relative to those elsewhere.
Care Chain
Authors: Yeates Nicola
Published: March 2012

Global care chains (GCCs) involve the social organization and relations of paid and unpaid care that transcend the political and geographical borders of states and span the globe. GCCs are studied through the lens of international migration and focus on the provision of a variety of personal care services by migrants to one or more people who cannot, or will not, provide this care for them. Most, but not all, of this migration moves from poor to rich countries to bridge the “crisis of care” occurring there as a result of neoliberal attempts to reduce the costs of social reproduction.
Civilization
Authors: Tiryakian Edward A.
Published: March 2012

Civilization, like globalization, is a multidimensional concept with very old empirical referents and very new applications. It is also marked, as many other concepts in the social sciences, by a certain fuzziness as to what it includes and what it excludes. Further, while European scholars have long had familiarity with aspects of civilization as a cultural theme of prime importance in the international setting, American sociologists have shown as little readiness to engage in civilizational research as they have with historical research. Still, after a long delay of research and theoretical deployment, the contemporary setting is propitious for civilizational analysis to link with globalization to boost the repertoire of macrosociology in dealing with “large problems” of the twenty‐first century.
Collective Memory
Authors: Stepnisky Jeff
Published: March 2012

The term collective memory refers to group representations of the past that inform action in the present. The original theorist of collective memory is Maurice Halbwachs, who treated collective memory as a central component of a group's collective consciousness. As noted by Jeffrey Olick (2007), Halbwachs's treatment of collective memory had two dimensions. First, he used the term to describe the social origins of individual memory. In contrast to psychological perspectives, which treated memory as an individual phenomenon, Halbwachs argued that all forms of memory, even the most personal, are socially framed. Second, Halbwachs, following Emile Durkheim, treated collective memory as a social fact. Even though they can inform individual memory, collective memories exist independently of individual biography in the form of commemorations, archives, rituals, and other mnemonic practices. In this sense, collective memory is a social construction that embodies a group's identity. The concept of collective memory allows social scientists to describe the way that the constructed past can direct the formation and development of groups and institutions. This also distinguishes collective memory from related terms such as history. Unlike the concept of history, which in some sense stands outside of human action, collective memories are generated by groups and institutions. They orient action in the present, but they also construct the past so as to embody the concerns of the present. For this reason, both the form and the content of collective memory changes across time and place. This is also where collective memory studies overlap with the topic of globalization. As a distinct form of social organization, globalization impacts both the form and content of collective memories.
Commodification in Perpetuity
Authors: Dahms Harry F.
Published: March 2012

Commodification
denotes the process of something becoming, or being turned into, a commodity. This process can apply (and be applied) to objects, products, living creatures (including human beings), practices, forms of association, the natural environment, and even such abundantly available elements as water and air. The term often is linked to Marx's concept of
commodity fetishism
(Marx 1967 [1867]: 71–83), which played a central and rigorously theoretical role in
Capital
, and some traditions of Marxian theorizing ever since. However,
commodification
represents much less analytical acuity, has many more uses, and cannot be traced literally to Marx's writings, despite the conspicuous affinities between Marx's thought, the basic idea it alludes to, and his detailed discussion of the commodity form. Furthermore, although in
The Great Transformation
1944, Polanyi made extensive use of
commodity
to circumscribe the effects of marketization on society, he, too, did not use
commodification
.
Commodity Chains
Authors: Grossman‐Thompson Barbara , Lake Sarah
Published: March 2012

A commodity chain refers to the set of economic actors and activities involved in the creation of a good or service. Each part of the process, from design through production, distribution and consumption, represents a discrete link in the chain. Global commodity chain research was developed over the course of the 1990s as an approach for studying globalized networks that express a “new international division of labor” within increasingly integrated markets (Froebel et al. 1980). This body of work seeks to explain the organization of global capitalism by analyzing complex interfirm linkages and the manner in which these linkages are divided and coordinated across space. For example, the commodity chain for a pair of denim jeans exemplifies the spatial and organizational fragmentation of contemporary production insofar as each link in the chain takes place in a different location and is coordinated by different economic agents: cotton may be grown in India, woven into denim fabric in China, sewn into a garment in Mexico, and finally sold by a clothing retailer in the United States. Further, each of these processes has distinct and stratified possibilities of economic gain for participating actors and ultimately for the region in which these processes are located.
Communitarianism
Authors: Huat Chua Beng
Published: March 2012

Tension between community and individual is an intrinsic problem for society. The liberating, individualizing effects of industrial urban life have been both celebrated and lamented by social theorists across the centuries. Fast forward to the twenty‐first century, this tension is described by the first African‐American President of the United States, Barack Obama:
Computer Viruses
Authors: Subramanian Ramesh
Published: March 2012

Like their biological counterparts,
computer
viruses do not discriminate among class, creed, organization, society or even nation. Once released into the “wild,” they find ingenious ways to disguise, perpetuate, and spread themselves. In the short span they have existed – from the early 1980s to the present – they have infiltrated and infected millions of computers all over the globe, and in the process have captivated and frustrated both digital elites and novices. They have managed to instill revulsion, fear and even a perverse fascination among victims and non‐victims alike. Yet, unlike their biological counterparts, computer viruses are manmade. Researchers studying artificial life (A‐Life) have long considered computer viruses to be a nascent form of life itself, and have sought to create and study their capacity to self‐replicate, spread and mutate (Levy 1993). These research projects are generally confined to carefully monitored laboratory settings. However, outside the academic environs, numerous viruses proliferate in the wild today, performing their nefarious tasks. These viruses and their creators are not exactly popular in much of the computing world due to the damage they cause. What started as a prank by some computer science students (i.e., creating viruses) in high schools and colleges has now evolved into tools of crime co‐opted by criminals, extortionists, terrorists and even governments the world over to commit crimes, attack and wage war on each other and their citizens.
Consumption
Authors: Brändle Gaspar , Ryan J. Michael
Published: March 2012

Globalization has become perhaps the hot topic in both the academic and lay world alike in recent decades. Not far behind, however, have been issues related to consumption and consumer culture. Whether it was the global economic crisis of 2008 (and arguably beyond), the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the Beijing Olympics, the global spread of multinational brands, or the unprecedented rise of music, fashion, and popculture icon Lady Gaga, discussions about the relationship between globalization and consumption have becoming increasingly commonplace.
Core
Authors: Reifer Tom
Published: March 2012

The notion of core states and regions are key concepts in world‐systems analysis and their usage has gained considerable currency in world scholarship more generally. World‐systems analysts posit that in the period stretching from late medieval to early modern times, there developed a new historical system, a capitalist world economy, divided into a tripartite zonal hierarchy of wealth and power, among core, semiperipheral and peripheral zones and regions. In this system, an increasingly global division of labor, related networks of geopolitics, communication spheres and international law, created a system within which important processes transgressed the boundaries of nationstates, thus creating a world society, albeit a highly unequal one, in which there was more or less continuous conflict between materially based states, classes and peoples over the benefits of the global division of labor.
Cosmopolitanism
Authors: Menéndez Alarcón Antonio V.
Published: March 2012

The word “cosmopolitan” developed from the Greek “cosmos” (
κóσμoζ
) (the universe) and “polis” (
∏óλιζ
) (city). Like many other concepts, “cosmopolitanism” has many nuances and meanings. In what follows, some of the main aspects of this concept as they relate to globalization will be discussed. Cosmopolitanism contends that the world is a single community. It also implies that the world is reproduced and present in a given place. Thus, different cultures and different views coexist in a given territory. A cosmopolitan city would have different cultural expressions; different types of food would be offered in restaurants; different types of entertainment, music, and art would be available; and there would be stores that offer products from other parts of the world. This is directly tied to the globalization process, which implies the movement of goods and people. Today in the United States, as a result of immigration, one can find some elements of cosmopolitanism even in small, Midwestern towns. “Cosmopolitan” implies a connection with the world, and an acceptance – even a celebration – of cultural differences across societies.
Cosmopolitanism and Cosmopolitanization
Authors: Beck Ulrich , Grande Edgar
Published: March 2012

The concept of cosmopolitanism has been the object of one of the most significant debates in the social sciences and humanities during the last decade (Beck & Sznaider 2006; Beck & Grande 2010a). In the process, cosmopolitanism has refashioned itself, moving beyond philosophy and political theory, its conventional home, to social theory and research; and ranging widely across anthropology, geography, cultural studies, literary criticism, legal studies, international relations, and social history. New, more or less reflexive and critical cosmopolitanisms have since proliferated. They have been preoccupied, first, with squaring the circle of abstract universalism by emphasizing respect for the particularity of human diversity. In the second place, they have sought to expand the circumference of the circle to include (if not to favor) those for whom cosmopolitanism is not a lifestyle choice, but the tragic involuntary condition of the refugee or otherwise dispossessed.
Counter‐Hegemonic Globalization
Authors: Evans Peter
Published: March 2012

Contemporary capitalism's restructuring of global power has sparked a wide variety of countermovements. This article outlines one conceptualization of the set of countermovements that are sometimes referred to as “alter‐globalization” or “anti‐globalization” movements, or sometimes simply as “countermovements,” “anti‐systemic movements” or “the movement of movements.”
Counterterrorism
Authors: Innes Martin
Published: March 2012

Establishing a coherent and robust definition of counterterrorism is rendered difficult by the contested nature of terrorism. As the popular adage contends, “one person's terrorist is another's freedom fighter.” Accordingly, the scholarly and policy literatures on terrorism and responses to it are replete with definitions shaded in different hues. This is important because, in practice, it is the successful application of the label “terrorist” to particular actions and people that determines which are defined as suitable targets for counterterrorist interventions. While acknowledging the importance of such debates, the essence of a reasonable working definition of counterterrorism would gravitate around the notion of “actions and interventions deliberately designed to prevent or respond to violence enacted in pursuit of political ends that is labeled as terrorist.”
Creative industries
Authors: Olma Sebastian
Published: March 2012

The topos “creative industries” is a conceptual amalgamation made up of emergent social structures, urban planning fantasies, real estate speculation, academic marketing and local politicians' last hopes for regeneration. Its birth certificate is of British origin and was issued in 1998 (upgraded in 2001) by the Blair government's Department of Culture, Media and Sports (DCMS) in the form of the so‐called
Task Force Mapping Document
decreeing a new postindustrial super‐sector out of 13 otherwise distinct sectors ranging from advertising, interactive leisure software to performing arts. The Australian
Creative Nation Initiative
might be seen as its predecessor but receives hardly any attention in the literature.
Criminal Networks
Authors: Jakobi Anja P.
Published: March 2012

Criminal networks are loosely connected individuals or groups that organize themselves without a central authority for carrying out a criminal enterprise. This activity can take place within or across countries. In particular cross‐national networks and transnational organized crime have risen in the context of globalization, caused by new means of communication and transportation, and global markets in which licit and illicit goods can be manufactured, exported and imported more easily. Criminal networks are active in any area of crime, ranging from drug trafficking to human smuggling, counterfeiting products and terrorism (most prominently, Al‐Qaeda). This entry focuses primarily on criminal networks (crime marked by an economic motivation), and less on terrorism (crime marked by a political motivation).
Cruise Tourism
Authors: Clancy Michael
Published: March 2012

Cruise tourism is among the fastest growing segments of the global tourism industry, itself often referred to as the single largest industry in the world. From 1989 to 2009 the number of international cruise passengers tripled, to more than 13.5 million (CLIA 2011). Over the past decade at least, demand has spiked and global cruise lines have been unable to build new ships fast enough, despite adding dozens of ships per year. Cruise tourism highlights a number of different processes inherent to globalization including deregulation, Disneyfication, McDonaldization, labor stratification, deterritorialization and hypermobility.
Cultural Globalization
Authors: Tomlinson John
Published: March 2012

Most commentators agree that globalization is a multidimensional process, taking place simultaneously within the spheres of the economy, politics, the environment, the institutionalization of technologies, and culture. Given this, it might seem a relatively straightforward task to analyze cultural globalization as a discrete area of social life. However, this relatively simple set of distinctions turns out to more complicated once we come to explore it in detail, and particularly when it comes to the dimension of culture. To understand these complexities, it is first necessary to consider what culture consists of. This is by no means a straightforward issue, since culture is a complex concept and has always generated disagreements among analysts and critics. One fundamental issue of contention is the
scope
to give to the idea of culture. At one end of the scale is the view that culture refers to pretty much everything that makes up the life of a group of people – the idea, inherited from early versions of anthropology, of culture as a “complex whole,” the total “way of life” of a people. On a much narrower reading, culture refers to a limited set of human practices – the production of literature, music, art, film, and so on – which are
non‐instrumental
, that is to say, pursued as ends in themselves. Both these approaches grasp something of the rather elusive idea of culture, but both also suffer from problems, both intrinsically and in relation to the process of globalization.
Culture‐Ideology of Consumerism
Authors: Sklair Leslie
Published: March 2012

The culture‐ideology of consumerism refers to the transformation of excessively above‐subsistence consumption from a sectional practice of the rich throughout human history to a globalizing phenomenon directed at the mass of the population. Its emergence can be explained in terms of two central factors, factors that are historically unprecedented. First, capitalism entered a qualitatively new globalizing phase in the 1950s. As the electronic revolution got underway, significant changes began to occur in the productivity of capitalist factories, systems of extraction and processing of raw materials, product design, marketing and distribution of goods and services. This golden age of capitalism, driven largely by new types of globally integrated transnational corporations and organized politically by an embryonic transnational capitalist class, took root in the United States, but soon spread to Japan, Western Europe and other parts of the developed world, to the newly industrializing countries and to some cities and enclaves in the developing world. Second, the technical and social relations that structured the mass media all over the world made it very easy for new consumerist lifestyles to become the dominant motif for these media, which became in time extraordinarily efficient vehicles for the broadcasting of the culture‐ideology of consumerism globally (Sklair 2002).
Cyberspace
Authors: Boyd‐Barrett Oliver
Published: March 2012

There is broad consensus that the term “cyberspace” was first coined by William Gibson in his 1984 novelNeuromancer. Shachtman (2008) acknowledges Gibson's definition of cyberspace, namely, the “consensual hallucination” of data or more specifically, “a graphic representation of data abstracted from banks of every computer in the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding.”
Debt Crisis
Authors: Orr Martin
Published: March 2012

A debt crisis occurs when an organization finds itself unable to service its debt and is at risk of default on its loans. When a nation is unable to service its public debt, this is referred to as a sovereign debt crisis. Debt crises may lead to contagion, in which those holding the debt in turn find themselves at risk of default to their creditors. In a neoliberal financial system dominated by Western control of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, contagion has led to several sovereign debt crises with global impact.
Deglobalization
Authors: Babone Salvatore J.
Published: March 2012

Deglobalization is the reversal of globalization. Deglobalization can be understood both in normative terms and in empirical terms. Normatively, scholars working mainly from poor‐country perspectives argue that neoliberal globalization has inappropriately prioritized economic efficiency over social justice. They advocate greater economic sovereignty for poor countries and more balanced economies in which communities, cooperatives, and the state play larger roles than they do today (Bello 2004). Pleas for greater environmental sustainability usually also play a role in normative thinking about deglobalization. In empirical terms, deglobalization refers to the 32 percent peak‐to‐trough collapse in world merchandise trade during the 2008–2009 global financial crisis (Wynn & Kersting 2009) and similar historical periods of decline in world trade. Prior eras of deglobalization include most famously the Great Depression of the 1930s, but also the 1890s (Chase‐Dunn et al. 2000).
Democracy
Authors: Markoff John
Published: March 2012

The word “democrat” entered common use in European languages in the 1780s, often as an accusation that some person or group sought the establishment of “democracy,” something widely viewed as undesirable. Over the next two centuries, “democracy” was increasingly thought of in positive terms, and by the late twentieth century, in many parts of the world, was seen as the only acceptable way for human beings to govern themselves. By that point, more people in more countries lived under governments claiming the democratic label than ever before in human history. How and why this came about has generated much reflection and research. The very term has proven to be complex and subject to debate. Although democracy is commonly taken as an attribute of national states, transnational processes played major roles in democratic advances – and retreats – including war, migration, and the diffusion of ideas. The growing web of transnational connection of the late twentieth century and beyond posed new challenges to the future of democracy.
Dependency Theory
Authors: Kick Edward L.
Published: March 2012

Dependency theory
or
dependencia
theory
identifies a global system where economic benefits flow from a poor “periphery” to a wealthy “center” of countries. Dos Santos (1971) says: “Dependency favors some countries to the detriment of others … a situation in which the economy of a certain group of countries is conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy, to which their own is subjected.”
Dependency Trends
Authors: L. Kick Edward , McKinney Laura A.
Published: March 2012

Dependency theory is rooted in the work of Marx (1976; Marx & Engels 1848), Lenin (1914), Luxemburg (1915), and others (Hobson, Kautsky, Bukharin), who emphasize the globalizing trends associated with the inevitable, imperialist expansion of capitalism across the globe. Dependency theorists link this expansion to system‐wide trends in power/dependency relations between the wealthy North Atlantic center (the core) and the poorer periphery of the South. Unequal terms of trade, investments, currency differentials, and indebtedness coupled with related dynamics to accumulate surplus value in the center lead to the relative underdevelopment of the periphery.
Deterritorialization
Authors: Tomlinson John
Published: March 2012

The term
deterritorialization
first occurs in French psychoanalytic theory to refer, broadly, to the fluid and dissipated nature of human subjectivity in contemporary capitalist cultures (Deleuze & Guatarri 1972). Its most common use, however, has been in relation to the process of
cultural globalization
. Though there are different inflections involved, the general implication that globalization needs to be understood in cultural‐spatial terms as much as in institutional or political‐economic ones is common to all accounts. In this broad sense, deterritorialization has affinities with the idea of the “disembedding” of social relations in, for example, Anthony Giddens's (1990) analysis of the globalizing properties of modernity.
Developed and less developed societies
Authors: Thornton Arland
Published: March 2012

One of the most common criteria for categorizing and comparing societies is the concept of development. Scholars, policy makers, and ordinary people frequently rate countries according to their level of development, with societies often placed into categories such as developed and less developed. This practice has been common for centuries in the Western world, and globalization has spread it internationally.
Digitality and socio‐political networks
Authors: Juris Jeffrey S.
Published: March 2012

Globalization entails growing interconnectedness across time and space due to the greater ease of international travel and enhanced information and communication technologies. Digitality, or the way social, cultural, and political life is increasingly organized through digital networks, is a critical feature of contemporary globalization. New digital technologies, including the Internet, cell phones, and social networking sites, have radically altered the way we communicate, and by extension how we socialize, build communities, and engage in politics. Despite early fears that digital technologies would exacerbate alienation and erode social ties or, alternatively, the hyped claims that they would completely alter our social and political worlds beyond recognition, it is now clear that new digital technologies are being incorporated into daily social and political life, enhancing and transforming our everyday forms of social and political engagement at local, regional, and global scales. Contemporary globalization is thus facilitated by and constitutive of a widespread expansion of digitally powered socio‐political networks.