bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Encouragements of Crime
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers constitutional principles for encouragements to others that do not involve threats, orders, offers of agreement, or offers of benefits the speaker will confer. I have suggested in Chapters 3 and 6 that requests and other encouragements to action that are not strongly situation-altering fall to a greater degree within the justifications for freedom of speech than do situation-altering utterances like orders, offers, and manipulative threats. Some expressions of encouragement are virtually indistinguishable from evaluations, and many others are accompanied by explicit evaluations or statements of fact. In respect to influence on future action, distinguishing expressions of opinion from encouragements is much harder than distinguishing expressions of opinion from orders, offers, and threats. And requiring speakers to reformulate their thoughts and feelings in a manner that would purge explicit elements of encouragement would inhibit spontaneity and intensity of expression. Nevertheless, what I have called weak imperatives are not as fully within the ambit of liberty of speech as evaluations and statements of fact. A simple imperative, like “Kill him,” is certainly not the sort of utterance that a principle of free speech obviously embraces. The purpose of an imperative is to induce another to action and to do so in a much more direct way than by ordinary expressions of fact and value. If requests and encouragements are, as a class, less “action” than are orders and agreements, they are more “action” than are statements of fact and opinion.
Prohibition Not Ostensibly Directed at the Content of Communications
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

This chapter takes up the constitutional dimension of subjects discussed in Chapter 9, prohibitions of expressive activities for reasons unrelated to what is communicated and prohibitions of activities that themselves need not be expressive but in which some people engage for reasons of expression. These subjects are a very important and complicated aspect of First Amendment law, and I shall barely scratch the surface. I consider in turn legislation that largely affects communicative activities, legislation that interferes with some communicative acts, and the ways courts determine whether legislation is designed to suppress messages or not.
Conclusion
Authors: Greenawalt Kent
Published: November 2023

In this book, I have offered an approach to political and constitutional issues of free speech. The approach is modest in three important aspects. It assumes that not every human action that “expresses” something about the actor qualifies as speech that is covered by a principle of free speech. It concentrates on what is special about communicative acts, suggesting criteria for evaluation that do not depend on an overall theory about appropriate domains of liberty. Legislators are often called upon to consider speech-restrictive legislation that deals with many discrete activities, for example, forbidding solicitation of crimes in general. Judges must review punishments of particular expressive behavior. Neither for legislators nor for judges acting in these contexts is it very helpful to say that communications relating to one activity or another should be permitted because the underlying activity ought to be allowed, even though as things stand now it is forbidden, its prohibition has been declared constitutional, and there is no chance of repeal in the foreseeable future. Without doubt, analysis of free speech does depend on some, largely liberal, assumptions about a just and desirable polity, but that analysis can leave unresolved other independent questions about liberty. The third sense in which my approach is modest is in not proposing any single key to First Amendment interpretation. Attempting to rely on one key produces either grave distortion of concepts or highly inappropriate results.
Needs, Values, and Reason
Authors: Copp David
Published: November 2023

I have argued that the choices and preferences of societies can be evaluated on the basis of principles of rational choice. In this chapter, I propose a theory of “self-grounded” rational choice, called the “needs-and-values” theory. I suggest that it is the appropriate theory to use in developing the society-centered theory.

A theory of rational choice specifies a standard for choice and implies that the standard is appropriately justified. But there may be different kinds of justified standards for choice, and, if so, there are different kinds of reason. There may be moral reasons and epistemic reasons as well as the self-grounded reasons studied in the theory of rational choice. In order for a theory of reasons to suit our purposes in developing the society-centered theory, it must postulate reasons of a relevant kind.
Morality and Society
Authors: Copp David
Published: November 2023

In order to yield substantive moral implications, the characteristic J thesis of society-centered theory must be combined with a specific theory of societal rationality. In this chapter, I develop the societal analogue of the needs-and values theory and combine it with the J thesis. I call the result the “needs-based society-centered theory.”

In the course of the chapter, I will propose various minor amendments to the J thesis. I will postpone addressing technical meta-ethical issues until the concluding chapter.
Reprint Edition
Authors: Weamys Anna
Published: November 2023

IF I had not observed that the greatest humilitie, reigns in the bosoms of the Noblest Personages, I should not presume to Dedicate this most unworthie Fabrick to your Honours; especially when I consider the poorness of my endeavours, and admire the Learned Sidney’s Pastimes; Whereof I beseech you charitably to believe, that my ambition was not raised to so high a pitch, as the Title now manifests it to be, until I received Commands from those that cannot be disobeyed.
Introduction
Authors: George Alexander
Published: November 2023

Might the study of mathematics be important for an inquiry into mind, or vice versa? Philosophers have always been very interested in both, although sometimes this is only half granted. Occasionally one finds the philosophy of mathematics deemed an arcane area of specialization, rather off the main road, of little relevance to central and enduring areas of philosophical interest. Mathematics, on this view, is just another one of those tangential X’s for which we have a “Philosophy of X.” This conception is sometimes encouraged by the assumption that in philosophy a discussion’s degree of technicality is inversely proportional to its importance. But, of course, the view is thoroughly mistaken (and hence the assumption, ifit leads to that view, must be too): it is a challenge to think of major philosophers who have not grappled with problems arising from mathematics and whose reflections on the subject are not central to their views.
Conceptual Outline of Current Evolutionary Theory
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

There are times in any science when one senses that a transformation to deeper understanding is pressing upward in some as yet poorly articulated form. We may be in such a period in biology. The recent achievements in molecular biology have brought us close to the molecular basis of evolution and ontogeny. Yet the organization which stands revealed is puzzling in its vast complexity. It is the hallmark of our present understanding of organisms to see this complexity as a result of historical accident, due to random mutations and to natural selection, which cobbles together jury-rigged contraptions.
The Origins of Life: A New View
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

In the next three chapters we turn our attention to the wonderful problem of the origin of life. What more awesome problem could invite our attention? To many recent scholars—Wald (1954), Hoyle and Wickramasinghe (1981), and others— improbable features of current organisms imply improbable origins. If the probability that a protein catalyzes a given reaction is 10-20 and if a minimal contemporary organism such as a pleuromona-like organism has on the order of 1000 or 2000 enzymes, then the probability of their joint occurrence by chance is, say, 10-40 00°. More likely that, as Hoyle says, the whirlwind assemble a 747 from scraps in a junkyard. Yet here we are, in quite clear contravention to Hoyle’s unhappy conclusion.
The Origin of a Connected Metabolism
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

Metabolism is the connected flow of organic molecules through a web of transformations linking exergonic and endergonic reactions by which an organism harnesses the energy needed to drive the synthesis of molecular species. Figure 8.1 shows part of the familiarly complex web of human intermediate metabolism. I find it impossible to view this vast intricate network without wondering what principles might govern its structure and its capacity to have evolved.
Hypercycles and Coding
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers in more detail the opportunities and difficulties in envisioning life emerging from nude replicating RNA molecules. The possibilities discussed in the previous chapters for the spontaneous formation of autocatalytic sets of peptide or RNA catalysts and of a connected metabolism, even if demonstrable, are no reason to ignore the possibility that template-replicating DNA or RNA was the preeminent precursor to life.
Selection for Cell Types
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

My purpose in this chapter is to explore some of the issues which arise in considering either the evolution of novel cell types or the potential “perfection” of existing cell types. In Chapter 2, 3, 5, and 12 we examined the character of adaptive walks on rugged fitness landscapes, Ashby’s Ansatz for adaptive evolution in integrated dynamical systems, and the emergence of order in disordered Boolean models of genomic regulatory systems. In particular, in Chapter 12 we found that the spontaneous order in the canalyzing ensemble of Boolean networks closely mirrors a number of ontogenic features observed across many phyla. However, the “cell types” in such random networks are themselves random attractors in the dynamics of the regulatory systems. These preliminaries lead us to ask (1) whether natural selection can mold the genomic regulatory system in order to achieve particular patterns of gene expression in specific cell types and (2) whether and when the rugged character of adaptive landscapes may limit the capacities of selection.
Introduction
Authors: Murphy Liam B
Published: November 2023

In some areas of moral and political thought. something like a consensus exists. No one denies that it is wrong to kill a person for the sake of stealing his car. Other areas of normative thought, by contrast, are characterized by great disagreement and uncertainty. The issue of required beneficence is a salient example.* Most well-off people feel that they should “do something” to alleviate severe suffering, such as that caused by famine. But there is certainly no agreement about the extent of this obligation to promote the well-being of total strangers. Furthermore, and more important. most individuals have no settled view of their own about the question.
Moderate Beneficence?
Authors: Murphy Liam B
Published: November 2023

If the problem of over-demandingness is to retain its force, we will need arguments that explain why extreme active demands are objectionable while what appear to be extreme passive demands are not, and why extreme active demands are objectionable only when they come from a principle of beneficence. I do not know what plausible arguments of either kind might look like, but neither do I think it obvious that such arguments are impossible. So it is appropriate to discuss further difficulties that emerge even for a version of the problem of over-demandingness that concerns just the active demands of beneficence.
The Possibility of Strict Akratic Action: Self-Contradiction and Compulsion
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: November 2023

The contention that strict akratic action is impossible seems to fly in the face of experience. Philosophers who defend the contention are well aware of this; here, they claim, appearances are deceiving. Nor are they likely to be impressed by alleged examples of strict akratic action, such as those that fill the literature on the topic. What they rightly demand is that their arguments be met head on. Mere refutation, however, is not sufficient. Stalemates are rarely satisfying, and it is not obvious that when their arguments have been defeated ‘experience’ must carry the day. What is needed is an adequate explanation of the possibility of strict akratic action.
From Nothingness To Stars And Crystals
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

Science has not yet been able to probe back to the very first fraction of an instant, the real beginning of time before the raw material of the universe, intensely hot and almost infinitely concentrated, began to expand with an impetus so great that it is still continuing to move outward. No one knows exactly what happened at time zero, or in what state the world stuff existed before the expansion began. But as cosmologists work closer and closer to the boundary they expect to find ultimate simplicity and oneness. “The present model,” said theorist Alan Guth, “attempts to build the universe from almost nothing.”
From Amoeba To Man
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

For at least a billion years after life first appeared, the earth was a harsh and inhospitable place, almost unbelievably different from the planet we know today. Deadly rays of solar energy shone through a poisonous atmosphere onto the bare rocks of the continents. Winds, laden with fumes and dust from active volcanoes, blew with unimpeded force across the lava fields and the dark face of the ancient seas. Far beneath this wave-tossed surface, in the semi-gloom where only dim blue light penetrated, the phenomenon of life was beginning in a very tentative and seemingly insignificant way to take hold. In spite of the great complexity of form embodied in these earliest single-celled organisms, they must have been very small indeed. Judging from the average size of the simplest life forms today-the bacteria 25,000 of them laid side by side would not have measured half an inch. But at first there was probably only one . . . then two . . . then four. . . . From such infinitesimal beginnings, step by step life grew, adapted to its demanding environment, bur­geoned into a million diverse and sturdy forms. But equally im­portant, it gradually molded the environment to suit its own needs.
Being and Becoming
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

The concept of a universe in a state of genesis requires a level of sophistication that mankind has only recently attained. A human life is so brief; it is like a tiny candle flickering in the vast­ ness of cosmic time-snuffed out before the world has evolved enough for the changes to be apparent: before the oceans have moved halfway around the globe, before a new pole star has replaced Polaris in the northern sky, before the mountains have been returned grain by grain to the sea. But through language and writing, the ability to pass thought down from generation to generation has extended the little flame of thought at least a thousandfold. Mankind has also learned to play with the dimension of duration-to alter its rate of flow and thereby gain an intuitive understanding of the relativity of time. ·
Chance And Natural Selection
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

One school of modern artists has been experimenting with a new technique of painting a picture. Standing several feet back from a canvas they pelt it with pigment, so the little drops fall in a haphazard arrangement of dots, dribbles, and splashes on the flat surface. We can imagine that the overwhelming majority of these compositions turn out to be failures as works of art and the conscientious artist quickly disposes of them. But once in a long while the paint lands in a way that creates a pleasing pat­ tern of shape and color. This one is selected and preserved. The chances of a fortuitous result increase with the number of tries; given enough tries, in fact, every possible combination of color and pattern would be produced. If the experiment were con­tinued over untold generations, perhaps the trillionth time would re-create Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa or Van Gogh’s Self Por­trait! In this way time can bring about arrangements of great improbability, but unless there is some mechanism for recogniz­ing and selecting out the rare favorable ones, the entire process will produce nothing of lasting value.
The Female Thermometer
Authors: Castle Terry
Published: November 2023

The Female Thermometer is a collection of Professor Castle's liveliest essays on female identity from the eighteenth to the early twentieth century. Throughout the book are woven the themes which are constant in Castle's work: fantasy, hallucination, travesty, transgression, women, and sexual ambiguity. These essays form a coherent and provocative exploration of a range of issues pertinent to gender studies.
The Culture of Travesty: Sexuality and Masquerade in Eighteenth-Century England
Authors: Castle Terry
Published: November 2023

When the eighteenth-century moralist wished to decry the cheating and whorishness of contemporary life, he found a potent image close at hand. So ubiquitous were chicanery and vice, wrote Fielding in 174.’3 in his “Essay on the Knowledge of the Characters of Men,” the world was nothing more than “a vast Masquerade,” where “the greatest Part appear disguised under false Vizors and Habits.” Owen Sedgewick, in the same decade, entitled a lascivious compendium of modern evils The Universal Masquerade; or; The World  Turn’d Inside Out, and later, in a Rambler essay describing the corruptions of wealth (No. 75), Samuel Johnson asserted that the rich and powerful “live in a perpetual masquerade, in which all about them wear borrowed characters.” “The world’s a masquerade!” wrote Goldsmith in his epilogue to Charlotte Lennox’s The Sister (1762), and “the masquers, you, you, you.”
The Carnivalization of Eighteenth-Century English Narrative
Authors: Castle Terry
Published: November 2023

The secret history of a carnival,” wrote Addison in his 1718 Re marks on Italy, “would make a collection of very diverting novels.” One might take such a comment simply as part of the ingenuous dis course of eighteenth-century tourism: like Mary Wortley Montagu, Horace Mann, and many other English visitors, Addison delighted in the masked balls and carnivals of Venice, Rome, and Florence and celebrated the “great diversion” (as he put it) of dressing “as a false personage.”But one might also take his remark, paradoxically, as bearing a certain proleptic relation to English literary history itself. Addison offers what could be called an advertisement for a theme-a theme that the eighteenth-century English novel was subsequently to provide. With the spectacular rise of carnivalesque activity in England in the second and third decades of the eighteenth century-marked by the institutionalization of the public, or subscription, masquerade-the novel took a cue from popular culture: the carnival set piece, or masquerade scene, became a standard, though highly problematic, fictional topos. To the degree that writers incorporated the novel institution of the masquerade into an existing world of representation, the masquerade became an institution of the novel, making the multifarious body of eighteenth-century English fiction a “secret history of a carnival” indeed.
Socratic Psychology
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D
Published: November 2023

This son of Cleinias [sc. Alcibiades] is one who says now this and now that, but Philosophy always says the same things. She says what now surprises you. … So either refute her, as I said just now, and show that doing injustice and doing injustice without punishment are not the greatest of evils, or, if you allow (what I say) to be unrefuted, by the dog, the god of the Egyptians, Callicles will not agree with you,0 Callicles, but will be in conflict in your whole way of living. But I think, 0 best of men, that it is better to have my lyre, or a chorus that I might produce, out of tune and discordant, and to have most people disagree with me and contradict me, than that I, one man, be discordant with myself and contradict myself. (Grg. 482a6–c3)
Socratic Ethics
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D
Published: November 2023

At the heart of Socratic ethics may be found a version of what has come to be known as “eudaimonism,” according to which the value of something is always to be construed in terms of its connection to eudaimonia (happiness).
Rights, Welfare, and Mill’s Moral Theory
Authors: Lyons David
Published: November 2023

David Lyons’s well-known essays on Mill’s moral theory are collected in this volume, with an introduction which relates the essays to prior and subsequent philosophical developments. The first essay defends the beneficiary theory of rights. The central set of essays develop new interpretations of Mill’s moral theory with the aim of determining how far rights can be incorporated in a utilitarian framework. They also provide a new reading of Mill’s theory of liberty. The last essay argues that the promise of Mill’s theory of justice cannot be fulfilled, as utilitarianism is unable to account for crucial features of moral rights, or even for the moral force of legal rights whose existence might be justified on utilitarian grounds.
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Quentin
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 7 I argued that metaphysical time is primitive, absolute, all-embracing and is the only time series, all other time concepts being reductively definable in terms of nontemporal n-adic properties or in terms of these properties and the primitive temporal properties of metaphysical time. If these arguments are sound, then they justify one of the theses of presentism, namely, that presentness inheres in events absolutely, not relatively to a reference frame (or mind).
Ecology of Amazon Palms
Authors: Henderson Andrew
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I review some of the ecological studies of palms that have been carried out in the Amazon region. As will become obvious, considering the size of the region and the abundance of the family, we know very little about ecology of Amazon palms. Nevertheless, these studies are of great interest to systematists because they provide explanations for morphologic and geographic patterns. Francis Kahn and co-workers have carried out extensive studies on the relationship of palms to their physical environment in the Amazon region (summarized in Kahn and de Granville, 1992). They noted that the palm flora of the western part of the Amazon was richer in species than that of the central or eastern regions, and that diversity of palms was greater in terra firmeforests than in inundated areas. Furthermore, most of the increase in diversity in the west was due to terra firmespecies; in general, inundated forests have a rather homogeneous palm flora. Overall, they found that most species of palms were small, understory plants; the number of tall, arborescent palms was very low. The reasons for this community structure were to be found in forest architecture and dynamics. Development of arborescent palms depended on high light intensity, and these conditions were found in inundated forests. Here such common arborescent palms as Mauritia lexuosaand Oenocarpus batauaoccurred. These palms were highly specialized for growth in waterlogged soils.
Introduction. The Tarskian Schema
Authors: Yaqub Aladdin M
Published: November 2023

The project of this book is to give a thorough defense of the semantical theory that arises from a certain deflationary conception of truth together with some initial conditions.1 The conception is given by the following thesis:
The TS Conception of Truth
Authors: Yaqub Aladdin M
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to one multilayered argument. The main purpose of the argument is to show that the thesis TS and the initial conditions mentioned on page 3 entail the revision theory of truth and to present a preliminary defense of this theory. The circularity argument (in Section 1.3) unpacks the TS conception: the concept of truth is circular and in a bivalent language containing its own truth predicate, this circularity gives rise to a process of revision that determines the truth status of each sentence of the language. The correctness of the revision theory is demonstrated by its ability to accommodate successfully the diverse patterns of behavior exhibited by the concept of truth. The next three chapters are devoted to that task, but in this chapter we give a preliminary justification for this theory by arguing (in Sections 1.1 and 1.2) that there are grounds for accepting the thesis TS and those initial conditions, which collectively entail the revision theory of truth.
The Revision System
Authors: Yaqub Aladdin M
Published: November 2023

The last phase of our defense of the revision theory of truth is to confirm its material adequacy. We said in the preceding chapter that we shall achieve this goal by developing a formal semantical system that correctly models the revision theory of truth, and then showing that it delivers the intuitively correct verdicts in a representative sample of cases. In this chapter, we make good our promise: we advance a system of stability semantics whose limit rule assignment is designed to deal successfully with the problem of ,-unstable sentences and the problem of initial excessive arbitrariness. We call this system the revision system. In Section 4.2 we describe the limit rule assignment that generates the revision system and explain its approach to these two problems. We show there that this system does not produce any of the CRASS or CHOP errors discussed in Chapter 3. Given the type oflimit rule that the system employs, it is very likely that this system is free from all artifacts. Hence, we conclude that the revision system of stability semantics confirms the material adequacy of the revision theory of truth. In Section 4.3, we carry this confirmation one step further. We define a notion of logical consequence that is appropriate for any formal language whose semantics is of the type described in Section 4.2, and we show that this logical consequence relation validates all modes of deductive reasoning that ought to be preserved.
Me Tarzan, You Jane: Linguistic Simplification In “Personal Ads” Register
Authors: Bruthiaux Paul
Published: November 2023

To be truly illuminative linguistic theory must address the issue of those registers which appear to be “somewhere between the two extremes of order and chaos’(Ferguson 1982:51). A linguistic system may be deliberately (though not necessarily consciously) kept simple, among other purposes, “to reduce cognitive load, to save time and effort in communication, to give an appearance of ignorance, or to accommodate an interlocutor’‘(Ferguson 1982:59). Thus linguistic simplification might be defined as any strategy of language use which achieves optimal functional effectiveness while restricting form to what an encoder and/or decoder can handle.
Culture/Narrative/Power
Authors: Clayton Jay
Published: November 2023

Humboldt was saying that Stevenson was a man of real culture, the first really since Woodrow Wilson. But Wilson was inferior in this respect to Stevenson and Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln knew Shakespeare well and quoted him at the crises of his life. … If you could believe Humboldt (and I couldn’t) Stevenson was Aristotle’s great-souled man. In his administration cabinet members would quote Yeats and Joyce. The new Joint Chiefs would know Thucydides. Humboldt would be consulted about each State of the Union message. He was going to be the Goethe of the new government and build Weimar in Washington.
Theories of Desire
Authors: Clayton Jay
Published: November 2023

In Philip Roth’s The Professor of Desire (1977) the protagonist, who is planning a lecture for a course he calls Desire 341, suggests that his students try not to think of literature in terms of plot, character, structure, or form; that they try to forget the critical terms that they have learned with such difficulty, words like symbol, epiphany, and persona; and that they try instead to talk about novels in the language that they would use with their grocer or their lover. Roth’s character hopes that the students’ familiarity with erotic impulses will help them “locate these books in the world of experience” rather than in a “manageable netherworld of narrative devices” (183). The unstated assumption is that desire itself is a language that all men and women speak. To be knowable, longings must conform to some conceptual model, but at least it is a model that has been proved on the pulse. Rather than refer to narrative devices, one can point to the complexities of actual experience, to the subtle structures of desire. The dream, in Roth’s version, is to find “a more referential relationship” (183) to literature. The dream, in more general terms, is to use the exploration of desire as a way to move beyond formalism and thus to draw connections between literature and life.
Introduction
Authors: Mancosu Paolo
Published: November 2023

There are many ways of posing the question of the relationship between philosophy and mathematics during the seventeenth century. A favorite subject of research has been the influence of the mathematical method on other disciplines, such as philosophy, theology, or natural philosophy. It is well known that during the seventeenth century the mathematical method—either in its analytic or in its synthetic form—represented for many authors a guarantee of clarity and order in the development of a discipline. It is this fascination with the mathematical method that is responsible, to name but the most well-known example, for the structure of Spinoza’s Ethica More Geometrico Demonstrata.

This application of the mathematical method in the areas of philosophy, theology, and the natural sciences must be carefully distinguished from the application of mathematical techniques to specific areas of study. The mathematization of mechanics carried out in Galileo’s work is the paradigm of this type of approach, but attempts to extend calculations to several areas of knowledge, such as probabilistic thinking in theology, run deep through the seventeenth century. The philosophical problems generated by the so-called mathematization of physics are still problems of great philosophical importance.
Leibniz’s Differential Calculus and Its Opponents
Authors: Mancosu Paolo
Published: November 2023

Of all the mathematical advances of the seventeenth century, the discovery of the calculus is perhaps the most impressive. The techniques of the calculus enabled mathematicians to bridge two of the main areas of mathematical research: the determination of tangents and the computation of areas and volumes. The former is the object of the differential calculus and the latter of the integral calculus. The birth of the calculus coincides with the realization that the problems of determination of tangents and of computation of areas are inverses of each other. Most historians of mathematics agree in assigning to Newton and Leibniz the discovery of this fact.

Everyone has heard something about the fierce priority dispute that surrounded the paternity of the calculus in the early eighteenth century between Newton, Leibniz, and their followers. Today it is generally recognized that the two scholars arrived independently at the discovery of the calculus but that Leibniz published his results first in his 1684 “Nova Methodus pro Maximiset Minimise.” Given Newton’s slowness in publishing his results, it turns out that the foundational debates on the calculus in the latter part of the seventeenth century are mainly debates centered on the Leibnizian calculus. I should immediately qualify this judgement by noting that in Principia (1687) Newton had exposed a method of prime and last ratios that provides in classical garb some results related to the calculus.
Why Moore and Wittgenstein?
Authors: Stroll Avrum
Published: November 2023

This book is almost entirely about Moore and Wittgenstein, and its concentration is on a spectrum of topics that they explored in the latter stages of their careers: whether there is a common sense view of the world and if so what it is; whether the propositions comprising such a view are known to be true, and known to be true with certainty; whether the common sense view is a specimen of folk thought-folk psychology, folk physics, and folk semantics-and accordingly whether it will and should be replaced by a world picture deriving from scientific inquiry. Each of these topics splinters into an array of others-when it is true and/or appropriate to say one knows, when doubting has or fails to have a point, what counts as a proof, and when the adducing of evidence is appositeso that the range we shall ultimately be dealing with covers most of the classical subject matter of epistemology and some aspects of metaphysics.
Moores Strategy
Authors: Stroll Avrum
Published: November 2023

Given this characterization we are now in a position to make a run at deciding whether Moore is right in holding that such propositions are known to be true with certainty, and this is the issue that I will focus on here. The matter is complex and raises all sorts of related and important conundra. It is obviously impossible to address all of these in this chapter, but I will at least touch on some and defer others until later. Among these are: In the situations in which he utters the words he does, is Moore really expressing a proposition? Clearly, the words “I am a human being” said by him without the accompanying scenario in which they would ordinarily make sense raises an issue of this sort-and indeed both Malcolm and Wittgenstein challenge him on this point. But keeping their caveats in mind for later discussion, I will here assume that Moore is right in thinking that there is a proposition these words express in their literal lexical use, and more generally that all the locutions he uses in his main papers are propositions. Further, is Moore justified in claiming to know that he is a human being when no doubt has been raised about this matter by others? This question I will table for the nonce. Is he justified in claiming to know something without being able to give supporting reasons for his claim? This is a major question of this book, so I will say a few words about it below.
Folk Theory, Standing Fast, and Scepticism
Authors: Stroll Avrum
Published: November 2023

I mentioned at the beginning of this book that despite their differences Moore and Wittgenstein shared a philosophical outlook that is still relevant: a conviction that there is such a thing as certainty and that an accurate description of the world must take account of it. In Anglo-American philosophy this continues to be a minority point of view, though it has a substantial number of adherents. The converse, majority position has taken widely differing configurations in the twentieth century-beginning with semi-sceptics like Russell who saw philosophy as mostly dealing with undecidable questions through the logical positivists with their claim that any certain proposition is empty of factual content to the early anti-foundationalists, Popper and Quine.
The Nigger of the “Narcissus” as a Preface to Modernism
Authors: North Michael
Published: November 2023

According to at least one suggested genealogy, modernism begins with the preface Joseph Conrad wrote after finishing The Nigger of the “Narcissus.” Written at the turn of the century, as Conrad himself turned decisively from the sea to literature, the preface has received the kind of rapt attention given to short, epoch-making statements like the preface to Lyrical Ballads. It even seems easier, somehow, to consider this brief essay as prefatory to a whole new century than to the novel of which it was an afterthought. Though most critics would agree with Michael Levenson’s levelheaded judgment, “If we are to consider the preface, we must consider that to which it is prefatory,” very few actually attempt to connect the preface to the subject of the novel, as announced in its title. Levenson himself hardly mentions James Wait and does not discuss his race. For all the rivers of ink that have flowed over the tortuous racial politics of Heart of Darkness, it is hard to find a critique of The Nigger of the “Narcissus” that takes seriously the race of its title character.
“Characteristics of Negro Expression”: Zora Neale Hurston and the Negro Anthology
Authors: North Michael
Published: November 2023

Zora Neale Hurston’s first significant publication, the short story “Drenched in Light,” which appeared in Opportunity in December 1924, was autobiographical in more ways than one. Hurston had written into the story her past as a girl in Eatonville, Florida, and she had given to her protagonist, Isie Watts, a set of habits and aspirations she would later describe as her own. But she could not have known when she wrote the story how much the conclusion would come to seem autobiographical as well. The way that Isie is picked up and cosseted by a patronizing white traveler oddly predicts the way that Hurston herself, arriving in New York hard on the heels of “Drenched in Light,” was virtually adopted, first by Fannie Hurst and then by the grimly philanthropic Mrs. Charlotte Osgood Mason.
Methodological Issues: Reflective lntuitionism
Authors: Gowans Christopher W
Published: November 2023

Opposed views about “moral dilemmas” frequently reflect different methodologies of moral inquiry. Yet the debate about “moral dilemmas” has been conducted with little explicit consideration of methodological issues. This is surprising both because these issues are important for determining whether or not there are “moral dilemmas” and because contemporaneous with this debate there has been a significant discussion about methodology in moral philosophy. For the most part this discussion has not played a direct role in the debate about “moral dilemmas.” Though many arguments and objections concerning “moral dilemmas” have tacitly presupposed methodological positions, there has been little attempt to justify these positions in the context of the debate. My aim in this chapter is first to show the importance of methodological considerations for the question of “moral dilemmas” and second to develop and defend the methodology that informs my own approach.
The Pathogenesis of Atherosclerosis and Acute Thrombosis: Relevance to Strategies of Cardiovascular Disease Prevention
Authors: Ridker Paul M
Published: November 2023

Understanding current concepts in the etiology and pathogenesis of atherosclerosis is fundamental for practitioners concerned with the primary prevention of coronary heart disease (CHD). Research completed during the past decade indicates that complex interactions between vascular injury, inflammatory response, oxidation of lipids, hemodynamic shear stress, and endogenous fibrinolytic activation are all involved in the initiation, progression, and acute rupture of the atherosclerotic plaque. Thus, the century-old “incrustation” and “lipid” hypotheses of atherogenesis first presented by Rokitansky (1852) and Virchow (1856) have been radically modified by recent findings. These modifications have led to a separation of atherogenic from thrombotic risk factors, to a broader understanding of both the chronic and acute phases of vascular occlusion, and to new concepts of plaque stabilization and regression. These concepts form the basis for understanding accepted preventive strategies as well as the framework for novel approaches to the prevention of CHD.
Coronary Health Promotion: An Overview
Authors: O’Donnell Christopher J , Sleight Peter , Manson JoAnn E
Published: November 2023

Coronary health promotion is the summation of efforts by health care organizations and providers to identify as well as prevent and treat risk factors for coronary heart disease (CHD). Since acute myocardial infarction (MI) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity from CHD in the developed world, the effective promotion of behaviors known to decrease coronary risk may lead to substantial reductions in the burden of MI worldwide. Population and patient-based health promotion approaches represent complementary strategies that have been developed for intervention in in dividual coronary risk factors and are often implemented simultaneously. While most risk factors predisposing to acute MI and other adverse CHD events can be identified and modified, solid evidence for significant benefits from health promotion interventions, in overall populations or in specific patient subtypes, often derives from randomized trials and prospective observational studies. When available, data from well designed randomized trials provide the strongest qualitative and quantitative evidence for a causal link between intervention and reduced risk of CHD. Because the quality and strength of data concerning different interventions are not uniform, we advocate an evidence-based health promotion strategy. Consideration of the quality and strength of evidence when calculating the benefits, risks, and costs of individual interventions aids clinicians in selecting and implementing the most optimal risk reduction strategy for individual patients.
Future Directions in Coronary Disease Prevention
Authors: Ridker Paul M , Gaziano J Michael , Manson JoAnn E
Published: November 2023

This book has focused predominantly on available methods for cardiovascular disease prevention. Wherever possible, data supporting the use of a particular intervention have been explicitly provided so that clinicians and their patients can weigh the net benefits and risks that are likely to be associated with smoking cessation, cholesterol reduction, blood pressure control, and other prudent changes. If successfully implemented on a population basis, these measures will lead to large reductions in morbidity and mortality from coronary heart disease (CHO). For clinicians, such patient-oriented interventions form the cornerstones of current practice (Manson 1992).

In the near future, a wide variety of prevention-oriented interventions will become available, greatly expanding the tools for primary and secondary prevention. In this chapter, we provide a brief discussion of the scientific and clinical agendas that may determine future directions in cardiovascular disease prevention.
Liberty and Liberal Ownership
Authors: Christman John
Published: November 2023

This chapter concerns various arguments that might be constructed for liberal ownership based on considerations of liberty. This subject follows neatly from the discussion of the last chapter, since one of the conclusions reached there was that traditional natural rights defenses of liberal ownership in many cases collapse into arguments from liberty, in particular the natural right to liberty. The present discussion takes up that point and, eventually, rejects it as a plausible basis for justifying private liberal ownership.
Self-Ownership
Authors: Christman John
Published: November 2023

I now put the new understanding of ownership sketched in the last chapter to use. Here I show how the bifurcated conception of ownership, the understanding that control ownership and income ownership are two separable rights bundles, will aid in the analysis of the principle of self-ownership. That principle embodies what some have seen as one of the most basic rights to be protected in a free society, namely, the view that a person should enjoy those rights, liberties, and powers associated with the ownership of property over her own body, talents, and labor. The bifurcated view helps in the understanding of self-ownership, especially in the relation between that principle and egalitarianism. The aspect of that relation which I discuss here concerns the alleged conflict between the principle of self-ownership and egalitarian principles of distributive justice.
To Madam Fitz James
Authors: Wilson Carol Shiner
Published: November 2023

Less to be immitated than admir’d, No saint so good, no Heroin so great No wit so perfect, beauty so compleat, So good a friend, and mother ne’er was seen, So good a wife a mistress, and a Queen, By your warm rays, starv’d vertue shall bud forth, And Englands eyes, shall open to your worth, No country so obscure or place so far, Which shall not of your matchless merits hear, And those who never heard of god before, Shall now the god of Englands Queen addore.
The Earl Of Exrter
Authors: Wilson Carol Shiner
Published: November 2023

What Alien is there, ha’ n’t a pious tear, To wet the herse of this illustrious Peer, Then how much more, are we bound to lament, Our countrys darling, and its ornament. No less than we, the muses ought to mourn, Whose early wit their science did addorne. He his ripe years, in greater things imploy’d, He studyed man, and mankind edify’d To learn, in divers countrys, he thought fit, And tought each place, more than he learnt of it. In him abroade, the English worth was known, And made each foreign excellence his own, Italian prudence, French civiliry, Mix’d with the English magnanimity.
The Lovers Elesium
Authors: Wilson Carol Shiner
Published: November 2023

A dream to me seems a misterious thing, Whate’er the naturalists for causes bring, Whilst sleeps dull fetters, our frail bodys ty, Th’enlarged soul finds plesant company, With fellow spirits, midnight revells make, Where things forgot they see, and things to come forespeak, Some times in figures, and in dances they, Present to us th events, oth’ coming day, Dull things, by th’ grave currant, brisk ones byth’ minoet. Sometimes they mount, allmost toth’ place of bliss, Then doun again into the deep abys, Line naturalists: natural philosophers, who seek rational reasons for all phenomena. Line fetters: bindings, restrictions.
Reproductive And Fetal Research
Authors: Brody Baruch A
Published: November 2023

In recent years, great interest has developed in doing research involving fetuses. At least three forms of research have emerged. First, there is therapeutic and nontherapeutic research using fetuses in utero as subjects. Second, there is research employing tissue from aborted fetuses. Finally, with the emergence of in vitro fertilization, there is research on zygotes to study the early stages of development and to improve the techniques of technologically assisted reproduction.
Clinical Trials
Authors: Brody Baruch A
Published: November 2023

One of the important characteristics of research in the past few decades is the emphasis on clinical trials to validate interventions before they are widely used in the clinical setting. Whatever the theoretical scientific reasons for believing that these interventions would be beneficial, and whatever the favorable initial experience with their use, clinical trials to validate their use have become increasingly common. This is not to say that clinical trials are now used in all cases; it is to say that a variety of intellectual forces (e.g., the emergence of a science of clinical trials) and societal forces (e.g., the insistence by regulatory agencies on the use of clinical trials before drugs and devices are approved for sale) have combined to emphasize the value of such trials. It is, therefore, important that we examine the ethical issues raised by such trials.