bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Factor Analytic Test of Houle's Typology of Professionals' Modes of Learning
Authors: Cervero Ronald M. , Dimmock Katherine H.
Published: March 2007

Houle has proposed a typology of professionals' modes of continuing learning. Three modes are hypothesized: inquiry, instruction, and performance. The purpose of the study was to test the adequacy of this typology with a population of staff nurses in a community hospital. A 47-item instrument that has been shown to be a valid and reliable measure of the universe of nurses' continuing learning activities was used. The survey was administered to the same population twice, one year apart. Oblique factor analysis produced a four-factor solution for the data collected in each year. The four factors were labelled Inquiry, Performance, Group Instruction, and Self-instruction. A revised typology is proposed and an explanatory framework for the new typology is given.
Learning in the Workplace: The Case for Reflectivity and Critical Reflectivity
Authors: Marsick Victoria J.
Published: March 2007

Learning in the workplace has traditionally been understood primarily in terms of behaviorism, a perspective compatible with the machine-like design of organizations when training and development emerged as a field of practice. Adult educators have not challenged the desirability of that perspective directly, although various theorists suggest its modification through greater learner participation, problem-centeredness, experience basing, and concern for different learning styles. This article raises questions about the universal valuing of behaviorism in workplace learning based on a review of trends in organizations in the post-industrial era and analysis of theorists within and outside the field who emphasize the importance of reflectivity and critical reflectivity in learning. The author then describes emerging characteristics of a new paradigm for understanding workplace learning and concludes with a discussion of its limits.
Principles for Participatory Action Research
Authors: McTaggart Robin
Published: March 2007

For serious practitioners of participatory action research, it is helpful to identify its principles. This paper outlines some principles of participatory action research in Australia that have been derived from theory and practice in both Western and cross-cultural contexts. Participatory action research is identified with critical social theory and is exemplified with two perspectives from participatory action research in Northern Australian Aboriginal communities.
An Interdisciplinary Code Of Ethics for Adult Education
Authors: Connelly Robert J. , Light Kathleen M.
Published: March 2007

We believe it is time to develop a code of ethics as an important step in establishing interdisciplinary identity and credibility for adult education. The first section of this paper outlines five basic principles which could serve as a common ground for all adult educators: social responsibility as the most important principle, an inclusive philosophy of education for a foundation, pluralism as a strength but greater unity a worthy goal, respect for learners, and educators. As part of this discussion, we answer objections from those who question the wisdom of developing a code.
Policy Goals Become Less Elusive
Authors: Hodges Luther H.
Published: March 2007

Transportation is a basic element of the American economic complex. It has been a principal factor in the expansion, growth, and development of the United States. It has played an important role in the ascendance of the United States to a position of world leadership. But it would be folly to assume that transportation will automatically continue to contribute its optimum benefits domestically or internationally. Today, the transportation system in the United States is becoming a limiting factor in our deep need to grow economically at a greater rate. Yet, the transportation process intrinsically has the potential of helping to lead economic, social, and political development in this interdependent world. The goal of government is to aid in producing the conditions under which the growth and progress can occur. This must be accomplished within the framework of a broader and higher goal—the perpetuation of our basic freedoms and their maximum extension to other areas of the world. This requires that the government foster advanced efficiencies and technological developments with the minimum of regulation consistent with public protection. It requires continued reliance on private investment, profit, and the forces of competition. Public promotion and investment and our increasingly complex distribution system must be geared to the production of the most efficient transportation process and not to the narrow requirements of any segment.
Inequality and the Double Bluff
Authors: Davidson Paul
Published: March 2007

This paper demonstrates the role of the distribu tion of income in promoting or retarding economic growth, in either free market or planned economies. Keynes's view of the importance of the double bluff of income inequality for nineteenth century capitalism is explained in a Harrod growth model. The difference between Harrod's model and the neo- Keynesian emphasis on distribution is explained. Finally, it is shown that, to encourage growth, a rational monetary policy must take into account the fact that the distribution of income can create financial, as well as real, restraints on growth.
Representation and Congressional Committees
Authors: Davidson Roger H.
Published: March 2007

Congressional committees are not little legislatures because they do not accurately reflect the full range of interests articulated in the political system or even in the parent houses. Legislators tend to seek assignments on committees which offer them career advancement; committees, in turn, are most vulnerable to interests with direct stakes in their decisions. More generalized interests are thus underrepresented—a fact which reflects the broader biases of pluralist decision making. Shifts in committee control lag behind social and political changes affecting the electorate at large. Reformers should devise measures to make committee membership more responsive to diverse political viewpoints and to subject the committees to stronger countervailing forces by exposing committee work to closer scrutiny and control by other legislators. Ultimately, intensified social and economic interdependencies may reduce this problem by equalizing the impact of any given problem upon individual constituencies.
The Military Assistance Training Program
Authors: Lefever Ernest W.
Published: March 2007

The Military Assistance Training Program has been and is a low-cost, low-risk foreign policy instrument that has served the United States interest in interstate stability and has provided a valuable channel of communication and in fluence with a significant elite, especially in the Third World. In the past 25 years, the program has reached over 450,000 officers and men from 70 allied and friendly countries. Most of them have been trained in the United States, in more than 2,000 different skills from auto mechanics and bookkeeping to computer sciences and advanced manage ment. The program has advanced the efficiency, professional performance, and readiness of the recipient military services. Perhaps more significant, it has established a continuing link between United States and host-state military leaders, many of the latter being in positions of political responsibility.
The Constitution and Campaign Finance Regulation after Buckley v. Valeo
Authors: Rosenthal Albert J.
Published: March 2007

In a decision virtually unprecedented in scope, the Supreme Court, in Buckley v. Valeo, decided January 30, 1976, has ruled on a wide range of constitutional questions generated by federal campaign finance reform legis lation. In brief, limitations on contributions, reporting and disclosure requirements, and public financing of campaigns have been upheld as at least constitutional on their face, although the door is still open to attacks based on specific evidentiary showings of unconstitutional effects in particular situations. Limitations on expenditures—independently made on behalf of candidates, by candidates themselves out of their own funds, or in the course of the candidates' campaigns—have all been held unconstitutional, as infring ing upon rights under the First Amendment. The choices available for future legislative action, both federal and state, are henceforth likely to be limited in the light of the con straints to be found in the holdings and implications of this case.
Meeting Basic Human Needs
Authors: McHale John , McHale Magda Cordell
Published: March 2007

A new direction for more integrative development has emerged in which human needs are the centerpiece, and in which meeting the basic needs of the world's poorest is seen as the most urgent challenge. This is viewed not only as a strategy for helping the poor in the poorer nations to meet their own needs, but as part of a larger pattern of interdependent global development through which all nations may seek more diversified and sustainable directions for growth. The constituency of concern within which these directions are being formulated extends beyond conventional governmental groups to include new sets of participants in the larger development dialogue.
Dialectic Aspects of Recent Change in Academe
Authors: Wilson Logan
Published: March 2007

Viewed in retrospect, recent changes in academe have not all been upward and onward. Divergent forces in a democratic society with a pluralistic culture generate conflicting pressures on the academic profession, as may be witnessed in the dialectic interplay of continuity and change, autonomy and heteronomy, meritocracy and egalitarianism. Internal accommodation to these dualities has necessarily entailed trade-offs, and losses as well as gains. Compromises intended to mollify adversaries during the turbulent 1960s and early 1970s have resulted in later difficulties for the profession, with the implication that to avoid future repetition of past mistakes, academe must calculate more realistically the probable outcomes of alternate courses of action and reaction.
The Problems of Economic Theory in Explaining Economic Performance
Authors: LINDBERG LEON N.
Published: March 2007

The analytical, policy, and ethical issues raised by the contemporary crises of economic performance in the United States and the attendant crisis in economic theory might well serve as a critical catalyst for consummating a marriage of political science and institutional economics. Besides generally compatible modes of reasoning about economy and polity, political scientists and institutionalists share two essential perspectives on the problems of explaining economic performance and prescribing government roles in the economy which suggest a common research agenda: (1) a similar dissatisfaction with the epistemological and ideological characteristics of the mainstream economic debate about the policy and performance failures of the 1970s; and (2) some initial distinctive propositions about the institutional, structural, and political determinants of contemporary economic performance in the United States that can be empirically tested and that may serve as an entry point into the academic and policy debates of the 1980s.
Role of the Justice Department in Maintaining an Effective Judiciary
Authors: MEADOR DANIEL J.
Published: March 2007

Since the founding of the Republic, attorneys general have intermittently undertaken to improve the administration of justice in federal courts by a variety of recommendations, proposals, and analyses. Since the mid-1960s, this court reform role by the Department of Justice has been relatively sustained. This article reviews the history of Department of Justice involvement in court reform efforts, with special attention to developments of the last decade. It analyzes the various constitutional and policy reasons that point to an active Justice Department involvement in federal judicial administration and describes the work of the office established for this purpose by Attorney General Bell.
On Terror
Authors: DEVINE PHILIP E. , RAFALKO ROBERT J.
Published: March 2007

Very little has been written on the subject of terrorism from a philosophical viewpoint. What little exists generally presuposes terrorism to be either senseless brutality or romanticized heroism. We argue that it is neither. Many writers conflate terrorism with either revolutionary or criminal activity. We contend that it is a separate and recent phenomenon, defining terrorism as violence directed, as a matter of political strategy, against innocent persons. We consider three possible arguments that may be offered in defense of terrorism. First, the Economy of Scale argument, which supposes terrorism to be the “cheapest form of warfare.” Second, the Consciousness-Raising argument, contending that terrorism is warranted provided that it makes the public aware of institutional injustice. Third, the Collective Guilt argument, which holds that the public is sealed by their silence. We argue that none of these arguments holds up under close scrutiny, and we further consider general objections that can be raised against any terrorist activity. We conclude with a look into the terrorist's mind, noting that he or she interprets the world in starkly polar terms between good and evil. We describe the ideological rift that exists between the liberal democratic tradition—of which our arguments are representative—and the ideologies of terrorism.
Blacks at Middle and Late Life: Resources and Coping
Authors: GIBSON ROSE C.
Published: March 2007

An analysis of national data collected in 1957 and 1976 reveals that older black Americans' use of their informal support networks and prayer in times of distress is distinct from that of older white Americans. Black-white disparities in income, education, and widowhood were large and appeared to widen from middle to late life. Blacks, in coping with distress, drew from a more varied pool of informal helpers than whites, both in middle and late life, and were more versatile in substituting these helpers one for another as they approached old age. Whites, in contrast, were more likely to limit help seeking to spouses in middle life and to replace spouses with a single family member as they approached old age. Blacks were much more likely than whites to respond to worries with prayer, but prayer, as a coping reaction among blacks, declined between 1957 and 1976. The role of the special help-seeking model of older blacks in their adaptation to old age is discussed.
Allocative Medicine: Efficiency, Disease Severity, and the Payment Mechanism
Authors: HORNBROOK MARK C.
Published: March 2007

Health care expenditures now account for nearly 10 percent of our gross national product, the highest share ever recorded. Concerned that this represents too many resources being devoted to health care, policymakers are searching for ways to control health care expenses. These include higher coinsurance and deductibles, measures to increase market shares of health maintenance organizations, and conversion from cost reimbursement to prospective reimbursement. These measures contain many incentives for patients and providers to alter use of health care services. However, aggregate resource use may or may not be lower and more efficient under these new programs. To determine whether limited resources would be devoted to maximizing the nation's health, incentives inherent in each policy option must be examined. This article describes a classification of types of disease and medical care outputs. The framework is then used to examine incentives offered to patients and providers by three alternative payment mechanisms—capitation, fee-for-service, and payment by diagnosis—regarding types of disease treated and mix of outputs produced. This type of analysis is required to select an appropriate payment mechanism for obtaining a socially acceptable allocation of resources.
Incomplete Vertical Integration in the Health Care Industry: Pseudomarkets and Pseudopolicies
Authors: EVANS ROBERT G.
Published: March 2007

Most economic relationships are either arm's-length exchange transactions, each party seeking his or her own interest, or command structures, such as a firm or public agency, integrating joint efforts toward a common goal. The health care industry, however, displays a pattern of incomplete vertical integration—relationships which are neither truly arm's-length nor completely hierarchical. The doctor-patient relationship is archetypical. Physicians appear to sell services in private markets; yet they reach through the exchange process to direct the consumer-patient's utilization decisions, implicity undertaking to act in the patient's interest, and thus integrate forward. But they also integrate backward to control the public regulatory process—self-government—and some forms of insurance. The health care systems of different countries—Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States—can be interpreted as different patterns of incomplete integration among five basic classes of transactors: consumer-patients, first-line providers, second-line providers, insurers, and governments. Each system of linkage has characteristic strengths and weaknesses. Nowhere, however, do we find a predominance of arm's-length market relationships. Where they exist, markets in health care are usually pseudomarkets dominated by one side of the transaction. The rhetoric of market relationships serves principally to obscure political struggles over shifting patterns of integration.
Technology and Employment in Telecommunications
Authors: STRAW RONNIE J. , FOGED LOREL E.
Published: March 2007

The nearly 700,000 members of the Communications Workers of America have witnessed first-hand the effects of technological change on jobs and workers. Although technological change can bring many benefits to Americans at home and at work, if implemented improperly technology can eliminate entire classifications of jobs while deskilling and dehumanizing the jobs that remain. Worker participation in all stages of the process of technological change can provide added perspective and hands-on expertise, benefiting both labor and management by contributing to the design of challenging and productive jobs that enhance economic efficiency and growth.
Management Policy and Practices in Modern Casino Operations
Authors: MACOMBER DEAN M.
Published: March 2007

The prognosis for casino gaming is that it will emerge from the 1980s as a modern, generally well-managed, legitimate industry. These attributes contrast sharply with the legacy from the development years of legalized gaming in Nevada. Casino gaming is completing a stage in which modern management, marketing, and operating techniques are adopted and widely practiced. With half a dozen areas contemplating the legalization of casino gaming, the industry must overcome internal and external constraints that may affect its growth potential. Among the constraints are the development and motivation of employees as a marketing tool, as efficient workers, and as a corporate resource; refinement of management as fair and consistent; marketing as a creative, planned, and profit-oriented technique integrated into every aspect of a casino-hotel operation; the blending of the skills of the veteran casino operator and the corporate executive; and the legitimation throughout society of casino gaming. Depending upon how effectively these issues are addressed, the casino industry faces either unprecedented growth or relegation to pariah status.
Incarceration in the United States: The Extent and Future of the Problem
Authors: AUSTIN JAMES , KRISBERG BARRY
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to summarize and interpret the most current data on imprisonment in the United States. These data will be examined in light of other criminal justice and national trends affecting prison population growth. Of special importance will be analysis of historical and projected trends in the use of American prisons. This will include an examination of the methods used to forecast future incarceration rates in light of changing criminal justice policies and other factors believed to influence prison population growth. The authors conclude that despite a projected national trend of a leveling off of prison admissions, prison populations will continue to rise, reflecting the effects of sentencing reforms aimed at increasing prison terms.
The Maturing of Soviet-Chinese Relations
Authors: MEI YAN
Published: March 2007

It is argued that Soviet policy toward the People's Republic of China since 1960 has been reactive to Chinese initiatives. Both Chinese and Soviet policies are analyzed in the context of the maturation of the Sino-Soviet relationship. The U.S.-Soviet relationship is seen to be the principal axis of conflict within this triangle. China and the Soviet Union now exhibit an increasing realism and tolerance toward each other, with an attempt to minimize their ideological differences and former suspicions. Both countries are committed to normalizing the relationship.
Truly Foreign Languages: Instructional Challenges
Authors: JORDEN ELEANOR H. , WALTON A. RONALD
Published: March 2007

The teaching of a foreign language to any individual necessarily involves the bringing together of two languages and two cultures: the student's native language and culture—the base—and the language and culture being studied—the target. When these are in marked contrast, many special instructional challenges emerge. Students are confronted with totally unfamiliar linguistic patterns and cultural concepts, which require analysis that will be meaningful specifically to them. In the foreign language classroom, serious attention must be paid to the learners and their particular mind-set, through which they will inevitably filter the target language. A recommended approach to this pedagogical challenge is the use of a team of professionally trained instructors that includes targetnatives who, as authentic models of the target, actively and with linguistic sophistication, interact with the students in the target language—the act component—and base-natives, who concentrate on the analysis of the target—the fact component.
Back to Full Employment: Old Instruments, New Methods
Authors: HANKEL WILHELM
Published: March 2007

The old Keynesian instruments of monetary and fiscal policies aimed at full employment are currently ineffective. But the monetary instrument can be freed by writing off rather than rescheduling the developing-country debts that cannot be paid and by replacing the private U.S. dollar currency system with a system in which debt limits are specified and controlled by the International Monetary Fund and special drawing rights. Fiscal policy also can make an important contribution to national full employment, despite budgetary constraints. This it can do by promoting human capital rather than real capital and by not treating the black economy as a false path from growth but as its continuation and extension into postindustrial times.
Running in Front of the Bear: National Policy and City Reality
Authors: MURRAY SYLVESTER
Published: March 2007

The notions of neighborhood, family, and employment provide individuals with identity, self-esteem, status, and respect from others who are significant in their lives—all of which serve as disincentives for committing crime. To change from the present misconception that the criminal justice system prevents crime to a more promising policy addressing neighborhood, family, and employment, we must pursue programs that are equitable, rather than necessarily equal, and understand that what we call welfare benefits for the poor are called fringe benefits for people who are better off.
Victim Rights and Criminal Justice Reform
Authors: HERRINGTON LOIS HAIGHT
Published: March 2007

The treatment of victims of crime in America by the criminal justice system has been a national disgrace. In recent years, progress has been made to reverse this abuse, as reflected by tremendous growth in the number of state laws and programs designed to assist victims. At home, in school, in our religious institutions, and in the community, we must affirm values that best prevent crime. But we also must remember that law and its enforcement play a vital role in the inculcation of respect for human life and dignity.
Religion under State Constitutions
Authors: TARR G. ALAN
Published: March 2007

State constitutional provisions concerning church and state differ in specificity and substance from the First Amendment's establishment clause. In large part, these differences reflect the fact that the state provisions originated in concrete historical disputes. After the American colonies declared independence, conflict over established churches led states to adopt provisions safeguarding freedom of worship and prohibiting aid to religious institutions. During the nineteenth century, conflict between Protestants and Catholics over education resulted in the adoption in most states of provisions banning aid to parochial schools and prohibiting religious influences in schools receiving public funds. Reliance on either state or federal constitutional guarantees, therefore, should result in invalidation of religious exercises in public schools. In other cases, however, outcomes may depend on the constitutional basis for decisions. Whereas various indirect aids to parochial schools have survived scrutiny under the establishment clause, they may run afoul of state constitutional bans; and whereas the U.S. Supreme Court has upheld religious displays, some state courts have ruled that they violate state constitutional prohibitions.
Anti-Americanism in Central America
Authors: LANGLEY LESTER D.
Published: March 2007

Anti-Americanism in Central America, unlike the outbursts of anti-Americanism in the Islamic world, is fueled not by religious fanaticism or anti-Western political or social conviction. America and Americans and the social and political values they symbolize are often extolled and sometimes just as routinely denounced. From the beginning of Central American independence in 1821, isthmian political aspirants, idealists, opportunists, revolutionaries, and social conservatives have found in America's political tradition an example for Central Americans to emulate but ultimately came to regard Americans, along with other outsiders, as an intrusive threat to isthmian culture. Those who ascribe the modern outbursts of anti-Americanism that reverberate not only in Nicaragua—for obvious reasons—but, to our astonishment, in Honduras, El Salvador, and even in the most pro-American country in the region, Costa Rica, to the determination of the Reagan administration to bring down the Sandinista government and the economic and political dislocations wrought by an isthmus at war overlook the deeper causes of this hostility.
Technological Security
Authors: POMERANZ FELIX
Published: March 2007

Losses from computer fraud and abuse are likely to have been substantial, and they continue to pose enormous potential risk. Nevertheless, technological advances have equipped the white hats with numerous effective countermeasures. Their response has continued to be diffused, however, because corporate executives do not believe that a significant risk exists, auditors have been loath to accept responsibility, and law enforcement officers are often averse to change. The answers to the problem lie in management awareness and in the managers' role as moral pacesetters within their organizations. The audit profession, currently in the throes of cataclysmic change, will adapt to public expectations, and information will be freely exchanged by the computer-using law enforcement officers. Universities will research perpetrators' motivations, their modus operandi, and the manner in which they can be detected—with the assistance of computerized data bases.
Dispelling Ageism: The Cross-Cutting Intervention
Authors: BUTLER ROBERT N.
Published: March 2007

This article challenges all of us—policymakers, practitioners, scientists, members of the medical profession, the public at large—to intervene in the most basic of all problems of old age: “ageism,” a term the coinage of which I lay claim to. In concluding this special issue of The Annals on interventions designed to enhance the quality of aging, I begin with a history of ageism as a disease. I specify many of its manifestations, which still linger today despite years of effort to dispel the false stereotypes and myths about older people. Concerning the treatment of ageism as a disease, I find that knowledge is the most basic intervention, serving as antidote to numerous erroneous but widely held beliefs. I conclude with a brief rehearsal of a few interventions of special interest, including support for older people's sense of mastery, provision of specially designed self-help books, and the recognition of older people both as constituting an important market and as potential contributors to the productive capacity of the society.
Peace Studies as if Soviet Studies Mattered
Authors: HALL BARBARA WELLING
Published: March 2007

Students of peace studies and Soviet studies should provide complementary tools or mirrors for interpreting contemporary international politics, and yet, clearly, they are not responding to this call. The seriousness of the intellectual lacunae created by Soviet studies and peace studies scholars working in isolation from each other is addressed in this article in several ways. First, claims about existing differences in the two approaches are established. Second, the constructive, nonoverlapping contributions each approach can make in understanding contemporary Soviet politics are illustrated through a dual annotation of a speech by Gorbachev. Following comments on this particular text made from a peace studies perspective and a Soviet studies perspective, the article addresses particular issues that may be understood more deeply by incorporating the two approaches. In conclusion, an assessment is made of the promise of collaborative work in Soviet studies and peace studies.
Human Rights as an International Issue
Authors: SHELLEY LOUISE I.
Published: March 2007

Human rights currently constitute an issue of great concern. Several conditions, resulting from cumulative postwar developments and the current political situation, account for the present change in attitude toward human rights. They are (1) institutional developments of the past forty years; (2) the growth of citizen human rights organizations; (3) decline in superpower involvement in international and regional military conflicts; (4) the current focus of national leaders on human rights; and (5) significant political changes in the most abusive nations. This article focuses on the change in the conceptualization of human rights in Latin America and the Soviet Union and the current priority given in these areas to the issue of human rights. It also focuses on the utility of the human rights issue for these countries. The dynamics in the human rights arena have changed in the 1980s, but there is no guarantee that the present conditions will continue.
Norway: Domestically Driven Foreign Policy
Authors: KNUDSEN OLAV F.
Published: March 2007

Norway is a typical small industrial democracy, experiencing a continuous tension between external pressures and internally generated aspirations. In security policy a compromise—the reassurance policy—softens the collision between the two forces. When the Storting or the electorate decides policy directly, foreign policy may become the nonlogical outcome of complex, underlying lines of domestic conflict. A major instance, the 1972 referendum rejecting membership in the European Community (EC), has had a traumatic effect on the subsequent European policy of all parties for two decades. A corporatist participatory system, coupled with external economic dependence, often makes economic foreign policy salient. When ministries are the decisional locus, interest groups often have privileged access. The Labor Party will continue to play a key role in foreign policy making as long as it bridges the main foreign policy cleavages. The Conservatives and European-Atlanticists in the Labor Party have made up an implicit and durable foreign policy coalition fundamental to the nation. The EC-membership issue remains the largest challenge to their future policymaking role.
Transplanting Japanese Labor Relations
Authors: LEVINE SOLOMON B. , OHTSU MAKOTO
Published: March 2007

This article addresses the issue of exportability of the Japanese model of labor relations consisting of lifetime employment, length-of-service wage and promotion, and enterprise unionism, which together are sometimes called three divine treasures. A quick examination of the model's applicability in Japan itself reveals that it is a myth rather than a reality. A survey of literature on the practices of Japanese-owned companies in Southeast Asia and North America indicates that there is a wide variation of employment practices and that the divine-treasures model is seldom followed in its entirety. Even if there is partial adoption of the model, it is difficult to determine if those seemingly Japanese features are actually imported from Japan or home grown. It is concluded, therefore, that Japanese companies are pragmatists in adapting to local conditions and that globalization of business tends to bring about convergence of different models into one that is most suitable under dynamically changing conditions.
Superpower Conflict Resolution: Lessons for the Future
Authors: KATZ MARK N.
Published: March 2007

Despite the significant progress that the United States and the USSR have made in cooperating to resolve regional conflicts, many of these conflicts continue. One reason for this is that the Soviet and American governments have had differing expectations regarding what the outcome of superpower conflict resolution efforts should be. Yet even when Soviet and American aims are similar, there are other obstacles to conflict resolution. Among these are the lack of commitment to democracy on the part of one or more of the local antagonists in regional conflicts, and involvement by other external parties in the conflicts. There is no guarantee that the superpowers can successfully resolve regional conflicts even if they adopt a common approach to conflict resolution, but adopting a common approach may at least allow Washington and Moscow to unlink their overall relations from those conflicts that cannot be resolved.
Pretrial Drug Testing: Panacea or Pandora's Box?
Authors: VISHER CHRISTY A.
Published: March 2007

Pretrial drug testing of arrestees and defendants released before trial is increasingly being implemented in state and local criminal justice agencies. The federal courts are also considering whether pretrial drug testing should be initiated in each district. But researchers and policymakers are currently engaged in a vigorous debate about the merits and drawbacks of pretrial drug-testing programs. Critics contend that the programs are difficult to implement, are too expensive, and have little real impact on criminal behavior and illegal drug use. Proponents argue that pretrial drug testing enables criminal justice officials to reliably detect drug use and improve release decisions, to effectively supervise drug-involved offenders before trial, and to encourage these offenders to seek treatment. This article reviews state and local experience with pretrial drug testing, discusses the evaluations that have been conducted, and offers some suggestions as to the role of pretrial drug testing in our nation's drug control policy.
Equal Chances versus Equal Results
Authors: LIPSET SEYMOUR MARTIN
Published: March 2007

Affirmative action has two meanings: to affirm equal individual opportunity and to ensure equal group representation. The former meaning predominated until 1969, when the Nixon administration introduced numerical quotas or goals in hiring. Subsequently, Republicans opposed and Democrats endorsed group goals. As polls show that most Americans, including blacks, oppose such policies, the Democratic Party has been hurt by supporting them. Despite the strength of American egalitarianism, blacks have been an oppressed caste for most of the nation's history of statutory slavery and segregation. How best to resolve this contradiction between our egalitarian creed and the legacy of slavery remains the American dilemma.
Dispute Settlement in a North American Free Trade Agreement
Authors: GREENWALD JOSEPH A.
Published: March 2007

As the movement toward liberalization has succeeded in reducing or eliminating visible border barriers to trade, interest in and use of dispute settlement mechanisms have grown. For a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the general model will be the 1988 U.S.-Canadian Free Trade Agreement. Broad institutional and dispute settlement provisions along the lines of Chapter 18 of the U.S.-Canadian accord have already been agreed on in the NAFTA negotiations. More problematic is the extension of Chapter 19 to NAFTA. This special binational mechanism for dealing with antidumping and countervailing duty determinations depends for its success on the similarity of the U.S. and Canadian systems. Mexico has a different tradition and method of making such determinations. It is not clear whether the differences can be bridged. In other areas, such as standards—perhaps including the environment and labor—the U.S.-Canadian binational review principle or binational monitoring might be adapted to NAFTA. The outcome of the NAFTA negotiations on dispute settlement will probably be the model for other Western Hemisphere free trade agreements, although arrangements with groups of countries may be more difficult to adapt.
The Churches and Social Change in Twentieth-Century America
Authors: GLOCK CHARLES Y.
Published: March 2007

The twentieth century has witnessed a number of major social changes that have affected America's churches by virtue of the changes challenging traditional interpretations of scripture. Among these changes have been declines in anti-Semitism and racial prejudice and discrimination, and transformations in the role and status of women and in sexual practices and attitudes. In the past, scripture has been used to justify anti-Semitism, discrimination against Afro-Americans, women's being subordinate to men, and opposition to divorce, premarital sex, adultery, and homosexuality. Churches have responded to the social changes, sometimes by modifying scriptual interpretations to accommodate them, sometimes by standing fast against them. The differences in response prove to be highly associated with differences in church performance. They also have sharply varying implications for the churches' future, especially their ability to exercise moral authority.
Health and Spirituality as Contemporary Concerns
Authors: McGUIRE MEREDITH B.
Published: March 2007

One theme of particular importance in contemporary U.S. religion and quasi-religion is health and healing. Groups as diverse as Pentecostal Christians and New Age groups, women's spirituality groups and New Thought churches are promoting non-medical approaches to health and healing. Indeed, to many contemporary Americans, health and healing appear to be salient metaphors for salvation and holiness. Religious and quasi-religious attention to health is adamantly holistic in the belief that spiritual, emotional, social, and physical aspects of well-being are fundamentally interconnected. To understand the significance of this widespread focus on health and healing, we need to look beyond the religious groups themselves and appreciate some twentieth-century structural and cultural changes in the meanings of the body, the self, and the nature of well-being.
Toward the Year 2000: Reconstructions of Religious Space
Authors: ROOF WADE CLARK
Published: March 2007

As we approach the year 2000, there will be much reflection about the nation's religious and spiritual condition. In this article, three domains of American life are singled out as examples of how religious space is being reconstructed by the large portion of the population known as baby boomers. The first is the new religious pluralism of the nation's inner cities, reflecting a global order. Hispanics, Asian immigrants, and people of color are creating new solidarities and forging new religious voices. The second is a shift in institutional alignments between family and religion. These changes have provoked new spiritual concerns arising out of changing family patterns. The third is the new spirituality, generally of the postwar generation, with its emphasis on personal choice, faith exploration, and more holistic ways of thinking. What happens in these spaces will greatly influence the religious trends of the 1990s and of the early years of the next century.
Agricultural Change and Rural America
Authors: MAYER LEO V.
Published: March 2007

Rural America is known worldwide for its productive farms and agricultural abundance. Less well-known are the rural businesses that service America's farms, supplying inputs, buying output, and providing consumer goods to rural families. Even less well-known are the 70,000 small and medium-sized industrial firms that are located in rural communities. These businesses have slowly increased in number over the past half century as the farm population has dropped by two-thirds, the rural nonfarm population has grown slightly, and the national population has almost doubled. This article examines the role of agricultural change in rural decline and recommends two possibilities for expanding economic activity in rural communities.
An Agenda for Tomorrow: Immigration Policy and Ethnic Policies
Authors: FUCHS LAWRENCE H.
Published: March 2007

Since 1980, the Congress of the United States and three Presidents have vastly expanded immigration, mostly from Asia and Latin America. The expansion, having come as a result of policies enacted in 1980, 1986, and 1990, has stimulated a growing movement for immigration restriction. Even if that movement is partly successful, immigration is likely to continue at high levels, and it is important to pay attention to public policies that will help unify immigrants and their children as Americans. A civic unity policy agenda is suggested for the new Clinton administration that will promote civic unity while protecting ethnic diversity.
From Failure to Fortune? European Electronics in a Changing World Economy
Authors: ZYSMAN JOHN , BORRUS MICHAEL
Published: March 2007

European industrial policy for high technology must be reformulated. First, past support of producers over users has undermined producers by not creating a sophisticated market, the single most powerful industrial policy tool. Second, global trade and investment are regionalizing. Policies aimed at rejuvenating sectors such as electronics must consider that regionalization will make access to technology and markets increasingly asymmetrical. The concepts of supply base and architecture of supply clarify this understanding. Europe must not just refocus domestic support but also secure access to the supply bases of the other two regions, America and Asia.
An Assessment of the EC Future
Authors: HILLENBRAND MARTIN J.
Published: March 2007

The European Community is presently experiencing a period of relative gloom due partly to the current economic stagnation in Europe but also to doubts about the Maastricht Treaty and the inability of the Community to do anything effective with respect to the war in the former Yugoslavia. There are, however, longer-term indications of a more robust Community, particularly as the dynamic impulses generated by the unified market implementing the Single European Act begin to work through European economies. Dramatic changes in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union have presented new problems reflected, for example, in the dilemma of deepening or widening the Community. The near collapse of the Exchange Rate Mechanism in July-August 1993 and continuing speculation on the monetary exchanges may actually provide a further argument for monetary union. Community relations with the United States have remained ambiguous, with continued American support for European integration in the abstract clashing with specific trade disputes.
Caribbean Diasporas: Migration and Ethnic Communities
Authors: PORTES ALEJANDRO , GROSFOGUEL RAMÓN
Published: March 2007

Emphasis is on the five major insular migrations arriving in the United States during this century: Cubans, Dominicans, Haitians, Jamaicans, and Puerto Ricans. We briefly examine the historical origins of these outflows, focusing on the role of shifting external hegemony over the region and the resulting changes in economic structure. The long relationship of the United States with its southern periphery has had the most diverse effects on these countries. In the case of the small Caribbean nations, a common pattern of U.S. hegemony interacted with very diverse colonial experiences to produce different political and economic structures. The latter have been reflected, in turn, in the character of Caribbean migration flows and the relative success of the ethnic communities that they spawned. Contrary to common stereotypes, immigrants from the island-nations of the region are not solely unskilled workers but comprise a diversified lot that includes entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled workers as well.
Financing the Arms Trade
Authors: JOHNSON JOEL L.
Published: March 2007

When a government acquires a product from foreign sources, some financial transaction must occur. Countries may pay cash, borrow funds to pay for the goods over time, provide other goods in return, or receive the goods on a grant basis. With respect to commercial goods, such as aircraft, power generation equipment, and telecommunications products, methods of financing are well known, and an international framework disciplining such practices has gradually been established. Financing involving the defense trade is much more opaque, however, and there are no international agreements governing such transactions. With the end of the Cold War, and the sharp decline in military assistance formally available from the superpowers, the issue of how arms sales are financed will become more important for purchasers and vendors. This article will review the means by which arms sales have been and are financed and will discuss the possibility of increasing information and international discipline on financing practices.
The Use and Abuse of Power: The Supreme Court and Separation of Powers
Authors: KIRWAN KENT A.
Published: March 2007

The theme of this article is the use and abuse of power in relation to politics and ethics. The role of the United States Supreme Court as the umpire of the structure of separation of powers is explored through analysis of two relatively recent cases. This is followed, in conclusion, with some reflections on the ethical implications of our constitutional and political principles and on the role of the Court as ethical guide.
Enforcing Administrative Ethics
Authors: HUDDLESTON MARK W. , SANDS JOSEPH C.
Published: March 2007

In seeking to maintain high standards of ethical behavior by public administrators, agencies rely on a wide variety of enforcement mechanisms. These fall into three main categories: (1) codes of ethics, including laws, professional rules, and whistleblower statutes; (2) what might be called ethics police, with specific responsibilities to oversee ethical standards; and (3) cultural strategies, efforts to forge organizational climates conducive to ethical behavior. Though all have proved useful in some respects, none can be considered fully satisfactory, at least not in the sense that it alone can be expected to ensure organizational morality. Codes of ethics need to work hand in hand with proactive managerial strategies, which in turn need to be bolstered by external checks on behavior.