bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Kernel fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition for three almond cultivars during maturation
Authors: Cherif Ammar , Sebei Khaled , Boukhchina Sadok , Kallel Habib , Belkacemi Khaled , Arul Joseph
Published: November 2006

The kernel oil content, kernel FA and TAG composition, kernel moisture content, and kernel weight as well as fruit weight of three almond cultivars (Achaak, Mazetto, and Perlees) were monitored during the maturation of kernels. Lipid fractions of all almond samples were extracted using a mixture of chloroform and methanol. FAMF and TAG contained in these fractions were analyzed by GC and HPLC, respectively. The ratio of kernel to fruit weight appears to be a good indicator of almond kernel development. The total lipid content of developing almond kernels exhibited a sigmoidal pattern with time, similar to seeds and kernels of other higher plants; the cultivar Achaak showed a higher rate of lipid accumulation. The proportion of eleic acid (0) dominated at the later stage of maturation for all three almond cultivars. Although there was no significant difference in the FA composition for the three cultivars studied, marked differences were observed in their TAG profiles. Ten TAG species identified were LLL, LLO, LnOO, LOO, LOP, PLP, OOO, POO, POP, and SOO, where L represents linoleic acid; Ln, linolenic acid; P, palmitic acid; and S, stearic acid. The difference in the TAG profile can be useful for distinguishing various cultivars. The oil of Mazetto cultivar kernes exhibited a TAG composition comparable to that of olive oil.
Water‐retaining ability of diacylglycerol
Authors: Nakajima Yoshinobu
Published: November 2006

The water‐in‐oil emulsification characteristics and the adsorption properties of DAG at the oil/water interface were investigated for DAG having different FA compositions. The water‐retaining ability of DAG is dependent on the FA composition but is not dependent on the interfacial tension at the oil/water interface in a simple way. The water‐retaining ability is very different between uni‐chain DAG (two FA have the same chain length) and complex‐chain DAG (one FA is oleic acid and the other has a shorter alkyl chain). Uni‐chain DAG, having long FA chains (R=C12 or C18∶1) have the ability to emulsify water at the volume fraction of 80% (ϕ80%), but uni‐chain DAG with short or medium chain‐length FA (R=C3, C4, C6, C8) show little ability to retain water. For complex‐chain DAG, all the DAG studied here (R1=C18∶1, R2=C2−C12) have the ability to emulsify water at ϕ80%. The stability of the emulsions, however, varies with the chain length of the R2 FA (R2 stability order: C2, C3>C18∶1, C10>C8>C4, C6). The relationship between the water‐retaining ability and the molecular structure of DAG is discussed from the viewpoint of intra‐ and intermolecular interactions between the FA chains.
A method to estimate soybean seed protein and oil concentration before harvest
Authors: Yaklich R. W. , Vinyard B. T.
Published: November 2006

Temperature and precipitation variables during linear seed fill are known to be environmental determinants of protein and oil composition of the soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] seed. However, the contribution of other precipitation and temperature events during the growing season and a method that would determine the precipitation and temperature variables most related to protein and oil concentration values of the seed has not been fully explored. The former was evaluated by comparing monthly temperature and precipitation variables of the growing seasons to protein and oil data for the years 1959 to 1996 from three locations listed in the Uniform Soybean Tests, Northern Region. The data set comprised locations from Maturity Groups II and III and consisted of 186 location‐years. Classification and regression “tree‐based” analysis were conducted to determine the month, environmental variable, and “splitting” points that correctly classified most of the 186 location‐years for below‐vs.‐above‐median protein or oil composition. The protein concentrations from the location‐years were separated into these two median‐boundary categories most readily by temperature variables from the months of April and August. The oil concentrations from the location‐years were classified best by August and September temperature variables and precipitation in May and September. The sum of protein and oil concentrations from the location‐years were best separated by August and July temperature variables and precipitation in May and July. The protein‐to‐oil ratios from the location‐years were best separated by September precipitation and July and June temperature variables. These data demonstrate that tree‐based models can use monthly temperature and precipitation variables during linear seed fill and other specific months of the crop year and relate them to the final protein and oil concentration in the seed. These results could be used by the processing industry to estimate seed composition before harvest.
Composition of organic and conventionally produced sunflower seed oil
Authors: Perretti G. , Finotti E. , Adamuccio S. , Della Sera R. , Montanari L.
Published: November 2006

The aim of the present study was to highlight the main differences between seed oils produced from conventionally cultivated crops and organically cultivated ones and processed using mild extraction procedures. The composition and the nutritional and health aspects of both types of sunflower seed oils were compared and were analytically tested to determine the macroscopic differences in proximate composition, the main differences in the minor components, the main quality parameters, the in vitro antioxidant activity, and the presence of trans‐ethylene steroisomers in FA. No significant trends were found in the oil samples for TAG and FA composition, but remarkable differences were found in the composition of minor components and in the main chemical and analytical quality properties. The organically grown samples had a higher total antioxidant activity compared with the conventional samples. Trans FA were found only in the conventional oils.
Incorporation of the toxic aldehyde 4‐hydroxy‐2‐trans‐nonenal into food fried in thermally oxidized soybean oil
Authors: Seppanen C. M. , Csallany A. Saari
Published: November 2006

The toxic aldehyde 4‐hydroxy‐2‐trans‐nonenal (HNE) is an oxidation product of linoleic acid and is formed during the thermal oxidation of soybean oil at frying temperature. This investigation was conducted to determine whether HNE would be incorporated into food fried in thermally oxidized soybean oil. Commercially available liquid soybean oil was heated at 185°C for 5 h prior to frying uniform pieces of potato (1×0.5×7 cm). The oil was sampled prior to and after frying and was analyzed for the presence of HNE and other polar lipophilic aldehydes and related carbonyl compounds by HPLC. The oil was also extracted from the fried potato pieces and was analyzed identically to the frying oil. HNE was found to be a major polar lipophilic compound in the thermally oxidized frying oil, as previously published by this laboratory, and in the oil extracted from the fried potato. Similar concentrations of HNE were found in the oil prior to and after frying and in the oil extracted from the fried potato (57.53±16.31, 52.40±6.10, and 59.64±11.91 mg HNE per 100 g oil, respectively). These results indicate that toxic HNE was readily incorporated into food fried in thermally oxidized oil; extensive consumption of such fried foods could be a health concern.
A simple and rapid procedure for phytate determination in soybeans and soy products
Authors: Kwanyuen Prachuab , Burton Joe W.
Published: November 2006

A rapid and simple analytical procedure to determine the phytate (myo‐inositol hexaphosphate) content in soybeans and soy products is described. Minimal sample preparation and automated HPLC analysis were achieved for large numbers of samples. Determination of the phytate content in a variety of soybean samples, including animal feeds, demonstrated the simplicity, reliability, and economy of the procedure compared with other time‐consuming, complicated, and laborious methods.
Use of NMR for predicting protein concentration in soybean seeds based on oil measurements
Authors: Weir A. D. , Omielan J. , Lee E. A. , Rajcan I.
Published: November 2006

Increasing the level of protein in soybean seeds has been a major target for soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] breeders. The objective of this study was to examine the potential of predicting soybean seed protein based on oil values as determined by NMR. Seed protein and oil concentrations were determined in an F2 population generated from the cross between a G. max (NK, S08‐80), and a G. soja (PI 458536) cultivar. The protein concentration in the population ranged from 40.4 to 52.6%. Protein‐oil regression analysis was used to generate an equation for predicting seed protein concentration based on oil readings. The regression equation Protein=62.3–1.3 [Oil] (R2=0.46) was developed, with a corresponding correlation of −0.69 between the traits. With this equation, the mean protein concentration of the selected 25% of the population (a simulated breeding pressure) was greater than the mean of the unselected population (46.1%, SE=0.13) by about 1.9%. Individual F2 plants that exceeded the mean protein value of the population constituted 86.4% of the selected samples. Selection based on oil concentration, however, failed to include 27.1% of the plants that were among the top 25% for protein concentration. Selection of high‐protein plants based on NMR oil measurement was reasonably effective in the test population and might offer a new and rapid method of selecting high‐protein individuals in soybean populations derived from the wild soybean progenitor, G. soja. If further tested on other populations and samples, it might be used as an analytical alternative for an indirect measurement of protein concentration based on NMR measurements of the oil.
Evaluation of vitamin E by HPLC in a variety of olive‐based foodstuffs
Authors: López Antonio , Montaño Alfredo , Garrido Antonio
Published: November 2006

A survey of vitamin E levels in a wide variety of olive‐based foodstuffs was conducted. Vitamin E was determined by normal‐phase HPLC. The only form of vitamin E found in all commercial presentations of table olives was α‐tocopherol, with an average content of 3.1 mg/100 g edible portion. A very low content (<0.4 mg/100 g edible portion) of γ‐tocopherol was found in most of the samples analyzed. The main sources of variation of vitamin E were olive cultivars and commercial presentations. Processing type (Spanish style green olives, directly brined olives, ripe olives) had a limited influence. Irrespective of the elaboration style, the Gordal cultivar was the poorest with respect to the vitamin E content. On the other hand, all commercial presentations based on the Hojiblanca cultivar had high contents of vitamin E. The results of this study may be used by the industry for requirements of nutritional labeling or by nutritionists to estimate vitamin E intakes in diets that include table olives.
Effect of heat treatment and pH on the thermal, surface, and rheological properties of Lupinus albus protein
Authors: Mohamed Abdellatif , Peterson Steven C. , Hojilla‐Evangelista Mila P. , Sessa David J. , Rayas‐Duarte Patricia , Biresaw Girma
Published: November 2006

Endosperm from hand‐dissected and‐ dehulled Lupinus albus seeds was milled into meal, sieved through a 40‐mesh screen, and suspended in phosphate buffers (pH 4, 6.8, and 8) at 20% (wt/vol). The suspensions were treated at 75, 90, or 100°C for 1 h. The heat‐treated protein was characterized by SDS‐PAGE, free zone capillary electrophoresis (FZCE), and DSC; and its surface hydrophobicity, surface tension, and rheological properties were examined. The presence of high M.W. aggregates was apparent from SDS‐PAGE and FZCE results. Solubility was lowest at pH 4 and 100°C. DSC analysis was performed on low moisture content samples (3.1%) and 20% (wt/vol) suspensions. DSC analysis at 3.1% moisture content showed a glass transition around 85°C and an exothermic transition at 160°C, whereas the protein suspension showed a more thermally stable protein as indicated by the higher ΔH values. Lupin protein was surface active as demonstrated by its effectiveness in reducing the surface tension of the aqueous phosphate buffer. Surface hydrophobicity of the heat‐treated protein decreased as the treatment temperature increased, which supports the SDS‐PAGE results. The highest level of aggregation was noted at 90°C and pH 6.8 as indicated by low surface hydrophobicity values. Rheological studies showed direct relationships between the shear storage modulus (G′) of the lupin meal suspension and both pH and temperature treatment, although this effect is minimal at the highest temperature (100°C) and pH 6.8.
Thermal and flow properties of oils from salmon heads
Authors: Sathivel Subramaniam
Published: November 2006

Thermal and flow properties of unrefined oils from the heads of red or pink salmon were evaluated. Major thermal degradation of the salmon oils occurred between 200 and 450°C. Red and pink salmon oils were completely decomposed at 533 and 668°C, respectively. The phase transition of salmon oils occurred over a wide range of temperatures. The melting points of −69.6 to −0.36°C and −64.7 to 20.8°C were observed for red and pink salmon oils, respectively. The enthalpy was 40 j/g for red salmon oil and 39 j/g for pink salmon oil. Specific heat capacity ranges of 0.8 to 1.6 and 1.3 to 2.3 j/g/°C were observed for red and pink salmon oils, respectively. Both salmon oils exhibited Newtonian flow behavior. Red salmon oil required higher magnitudes of energy (kj·mol−1) to flow than pink salmon oil. The viscosity of salmon oils was temperature‐dependent and could be predicted by the Arrhenius equation.
A facile synthesis of aminohydroxy triglycerides from new crop oils
Authors: Harry‐O'kuru R. E. , Gordon S. H. , Biswas A.
Published: November 2006

Vegetable oils as the main source of plant lipids are currently generating much interest as renewable industrial feedstocks for nonfood industrial applications both as biobased lubricants and biodiesel fuels. But of particular interest for us is use of new crop oils in novel industrial applications. These oils, in general, are glyceryl esters with olefinic bonds, which are readily functionalizable. Aminated lipids are important intermediates in many applications including pharmaceutical formulations because they have a modifying effect on cell membranes. We have exploited the nucleophilic property of the carbon‐carbon double bonds in two seed oils to generate the oxirane derivatives of the lipids. Ring opening of the epoxy intermediates with amines under anhydrous ZnCl2 catalysis is facile, and the reaction proceeds smoothly at moderate temperatures to given the aminohydroxy TG of milkweed and salicornia oils.
Studies on the crystal growth of rice bran wax in a hexane medium
Authors: Ghosh Mahua , Bandyopadhyay Sibdas
Published: November 2006

Rice bran oil (RBO) is well known for its high wax content (2–4%). A good separation of waxes must be ensured through the formation of crystals that can be removed with a minimal retention of oil to maintain high yields of refined oil. In the present study, the form and size distribution of RBO wax crystals were investigated using a laser diffraction technique. An attempt was made to study the effect of cooling on growth and size distribution of RBO wax crystals in hexane medium, and it showed that high cooling rate and low temperature induces the formation of a great number of small nuclei. In addition, experiments were performed to evaluate the effect on the growth of wax crystals of successive additions of gum and pure TG to the medium. The entire experiment was designed to optimize the temperature and incubation time of wax crystallization to facilitate the efficient separation of wax from crude RBO‐hexane miscella using membrane technology.
Capabilities of different cooking oils in prevention of cholesterol oxidation during heating
Authors: Xu Zhimin , Zhang Ting , Prinyawiwatkul Witoon , Samuel Godber J.
Published: November 2006

The potential of various cooking oils to prevent cholesterol degradation and/or oxidation, as measured by the production of 7‐ketocholesterol during heating at different temperatures, was studied using a cholesterol model system. In the control group (without cooking oil), cholesterol was relatively stable, and 73% of its initial concentration was present after 30 min of heating at 125°C. Less than 30 and 10% of cholesterol remained at 150 and 175°C after 30 min, respectively, and 10% at 200°C after 10 min. In the treatment group, cholesterol mixed with corn, canola, soybean, or olive oil had significantly improved thermal stability. More than 60 and 40% of cholesterol remained at 150 and 175°C after 30 min, respectively. In the control group, 7‐ketocholesterol was produced when samples were heated above 150°C, and levels increased consistently during 30 min of heating. At 175 or 200°C, the level of 7‐ketocholesterol did not increase further after reaching the highest level after 10 min of heating. 7‐Ketocholesterol is not stable above 175°C, and its degradation rate could be much faster than its production at 200°C. 7‐Ketocholesterol was not found in samples of cholesterol mixed with corn oil or laboratory‐prepared soybean and rice bran oils until the heating temperature was raised to 175°C for 20 min. The levels of 7‐ketocholesterol in those treatment groups were greater than that in the control group at 175°C for 30 min. These oils may increase the thermal stability of 7‐ketocholesterol and retard its degradation rate.
Iron accumulation in oil during the deep‐fat frying of meat
Authors: Artz William E. , Osidacz Patricia C. , Coscione Aline R.
Published: November 2006

Iron accumulation in oil is a potential problem when frying food containing substantial amounts of iron. Selected meat products (skinless chicken breast, beef liver, and lean beef) were ground and fried (ca. 2‐cm spheres, ca. 10 g/sphere) in partially hydrogenated soybean oil (PHSBO). Samples (450 g) of ground meat were fried 3 times/h for 8 h/d for 3 d. Oil samples were collected for analysis for iron (every 8 h) and oil degradation (every 4 h) and replaced with fresh oil. The iron contents of oil samples after 3 d of frying were approximately 0.11, 0.48, and 4.01 mg of iron/kg of PHSBO for the oil used to fry chicken, beef, and liver, respectively. There was a notable darkening in color and an increased tendency to foam for the beef liver oil sample compared with the other samples. After frying, the acid values were 0.9, 1.1, and 1.4 for the oil samples for chicken, beef, and liver, respectively. After frying, the p‐anisidine values were 11.5, 12.8, and 32.6 for the oil samples for chicken, beef, and liver, respectively; the food oil sensor values were 0.96, 0.96, and 0.83 for the oil samples for chicken, beef, and liver, respectively.
Synthesis and characterization of oleic succinic anhydrides: Structure‐property relations
Authors: Candy Laure , Vaca‐Garcia Carlos , Borredon Elisabeth
Published: November 2006

Alkenyl succinic anhydrides (ASA) were prepared by an‐ene reaction of n‐alkyl (C1 to C5) oleates with maleic anhydride. The purified compounds were characterized by FTIR, 1H NMR, and MS analytical methods to elucidate their structures. Their physicochemical properties were systematically studied and found to depend on the length of the alkyl radical. Structure‐property relations were established for viscosity, m.p., and density. The combination of a long hydrophobic chain and a highly polar group with density values close to that of water implied good emulsification properties for some of these molecules. Comparison of the thermal properties of alkyl oleates and their respective ASA demonstrated that the grafting of maleic anhydride allowed the synthesis of compounds with very low melting temperatures (less than −60°C) and good stability at high temperatures (greater than 350°C) under both air and helium atmospheres. All these properties suggest a strong potential for application in the biolubricant or surfactant fields. The combined influences of the succinic part and variable ester moieties imply that each ASA molecule has its own characteristics, based on which applications could be developed.
Enzymatic production of human milk fat substitutes containing γ‐linolenic acid: Optimization of reactions by response surface methodology
Authors: Sahin Nese , Akoh Casimir C. , Karaali Artemis
Published: November 2006

Structured lipids resembling human milk fat and containing GLA were synthesized by an enzymatic interesterification between tripalmitin, hazelnut oil FA, and GLA in n‐hexane. Commercially immobilized 1,3‐specific lipases, lipozyme® RM IM and Lipozyme® TL IM, were used as the biocatalysts. The effect of these enzymes on the incorporation levels was investigated. A central composite design with five levels and three factors—substrate ratio, reaction temperature, and time—were used to model and optimize the reaction conditions via response surface methodology. Good quadratic models were obtained for the incorporation of GLA (response 1) and oleic acid (response 2) by multiple regression and backward elimination. The determination coefficient (R2) values for the models were found to be 0.92 and 0.94 for the reactions catalyzed by Lipozyme RM IM, and 0.92 and 0.88 for the reactions catalyzed by Lipozyme TL IM, respecitively. The optimal conditions generated from the models for the targeted GLA (10%) and oleic acid (45%) incorporation were 14.8 mol/mol, 55°C, and 24 h; 14 mol/mol, 55°C, and 24 h for substrate ratio (moles total FA/mol tripalmitin), temperature and time for the reactions catalyzed by Lipozyme RM IM and Lipozyme TL IM, respectively. Human milk fat substitutes containing GLA that can be included in infant formulas were success‐fully produced using both Lipozyme RM IM and Lipozyme TL IM enzymes. The effect of the two enzymes on the incorporation of GLA and oleic acid were found to be similar.
Egg‐yolk lipid fractionation and lecithin characterization
Authors: Palacios Luz E. , Wang Tong
Published: November 2006

Egg‐yolk lecithin has phospholipid (PL) classes and a FA composition that differ from soybean lecithin and may have unique functional properties. The purposes of this research were to develop an effective method for extracting a sufficient amount to lecithin from fresh egg yolks and to evaluate its functional properties. Ethanol was used to dehydrate and partially extract the PL, after which hexane was used to extract the total lipids. A phase separation of the combined extracts resulted in neutral and polar lipid fractions. An acetone precipitation of PL from the final polar lipid fraction was necessary to remove the residual neutral lipids, especially cholesterol. The purity of PL in the lecithin product was 95%. Surface tension reduction, emulsion stability, and oxidative stability studies were conducted to characterize the functional properties of egg‐yolk lecithin. Egg‐yolk lecithin and soy lecithin had similar surface activities, as evaluated by the surface tension reduction in an aqueous system and the critical micelle concentration. Soybean lecithin created a more stable emulsion than egg‐yolk lecithin. However, egg‐yolk lecithin was more oxidatively stable than soybean lecithin.
Fuel properties and nitrogen oxide emission levels of biodiesel produced from animal fats
Authors: Wyatt Victor T. , Hess Melissa A. , Dunn Robert O. , Foglia Thomas A. , Haas Michael J. , Marmer William N.
Published: November 2006

FAME of lard, beef tallow, and chicken fat were prepared by base‐catalyzed transesterification for use as biodiesel fuels. Selected fuel properties of the neat fat‐derived methyl esters (B100) were determined and found to meet ASTM specifications. The cold‐flow properties, lubricity, and oxidative stability of the B100 fat‐derived fuels also were measured. In general, the cold‐flow properties of the fat‐based fuels were less desirable than those of soy‐based biodiesel, but the lubricity and oxidative stability of the fat‐based biodiesels were comparable to or better than soy‐based biodiesel. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission tests also were conducted with the animal fat‐derived esters and compared with soybean oil biodiesel as 20 vol% blends (B20) in petroleum diesel. The data indicated that the three animal fat‐based B20 fuels had lower NOx emission levels (3.2–6.2%) than did the soy‐based B20 fuel.
Al‐Pillared clay for cottonseed oil bleaching: An optimization study
Authors: Caglayan Mustafa Oguzhan , Kafa Suleyman , Yigit Nevzat
Published: November 2006

In this study, Al‐pillared white bentonite (Ordu‐Unye, Turkey) was used for cottonseed oil bleaching. Pillaring process parameters were optimized in terms of bleaching efficiency as the bleaching capacity of cottonseed oil. The initial cation concentration, hydrolyzing agent ratio, and thermal treatment temperature were chosen as major process parameters. Pillared clays were characterized by FTIR and differential thermal analysis. The bleaching efficiency of bentonite increased from 11.8 to 17.5% by acid activation and to 33.5% by further Al pillaring. The optimal pillaring process conditions for cottonseed bleaching were an initial concentration of AICl3, of 0.5 M, a OH−/Al3+ molar ratio of 0.3, and a thermal treatment temperature of 700°C.
Production of MAG of CLA by esterification with dehydration at ordinary temperature using Penicillium camembertii lipase
Authors: Watanabe Yomi , Yamauchi‐Sato Yoshie , Nagao Toshihiro , Negishi Satoshi , Terai Tadamasa , Kobayashi Takashi , Shimada Yuji
Published: November 2006

Production of MAG with CLA using Penicillium camembertii mono‐ and diacylglycerol lipase (referred to as lipase) was attempted for the purpose of expanding the application of CLA. The commercial product of CLA (referred to as FFA‐CLA) is a FFA mixture containing almost equal amounts of 9cis,11trans (9c,11t)‐CLA and 10t,12c‐CLA. Esterification of FFA‐CLA with glycerol without dehydration achieved 84% esterification but produced almost equal amounts of MAG and DAG. Esterification with dehydration not only achieved a high degree of esterification but also suppressed the formation of DAG. When a mixture of FFA‐CLA/glycerol (1∶2, mol/mol), 1% water, and 200 units/g‐mixture of P. camembertii lipase was agitated at 30°C for 72 h with dehydration at 5 mm Hg, the degree of esterification reached 95% and the contents of MAG and DAG were 90 and 6 wt%, respectively. This reaction system may be applied to the industrial production of MAG with unstable CLA.
Lipase‐catalyzed preparation of palmitic and stearic acid‐rich phosphatidylcholine
Authors: Reddy J. R. C. , Vijeeta T. , Karuna M. S. L. , Rao B. V. S. K. , Prasad R. B. N.
Published: November 2006

Saturated FA enhance the oxidative stability of phospholipids. In the present study phosphatidylcholine (PC) rich in palmitic and stearic acids was prepared using lipase‐catalyzed transesterification from PC isolated from egg and soybean lecithins. Two different lipases, namely, Novozym 435 and Lipozyme TL IM, were used for the transesterification. The reaction conditions were optimized by varying the lipase dosage, molar ratio of PC to FA, and reaction period. Palmitic acid could be incorporated up to 58.6 and 57.1% using Lipozyme TL IM and 56 and 61% using Novozym 435 in egg and soybean PC from an initial content of 37.4 and 16.8%, respectively. Similarly, stearic acid incorporation was up to 44.7 and 46.3% using Lipozyme TL IM and 37.2 and 55.8% using Novozym 435 in egg and soybean PC from an initial content of 8.6 and 2.1%, respectively.
Structured lipids from high‐laurate canola oil and long‐chain omega‐3 fatty acids
Authors: Hamam Fayez , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: November 2006

The lipase‐assisted acidolysis of high‐laurate canola oil (HLCO; Laurical 25) with long‐chain n−3 FA (DHA and EPA) was studied. Response surface methodology was used to obtain a maximal incorporation of DHA or EPA into HLCO. The studied process variables were the amount of enzyme (2–6%), reaction temperature (35–55°C), and incubation time (12–36 h). The amount of water added and the mole ratio of substrates (oil to DHA or EPA) were kept at 2% and 1∶3, respectively. All experiments were conducted according to a face‐centered cube design. Under optimal conditions (4.79% of enzyme; 46.1°C; 30.1 h), the incorporation of DHA into HLCO was 37.3%. The corresponding maximal incorporation of EPA (61.6%) into Laurical 25 was obtained using 4.6% enzyme, a reaction temperature of 39.9°C, and a reaction period of 26.2 h. Examination of the positional distribution of FA on the glycerol backbone of modified HLCO with DHA showed that the DHA was primarily located in the sn‐1,3 positions of the TAG molecules. However, lauric acid also remained mainly in the sn‐1,3 positions of the modified oil. For EPA‐modified Laurical 25, lauric acid was present mainly in the sn‐1,3 positions, whereas EPA was randomly distributed over the three positions.
Effect of CLA on the cellular lipids of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Authors: Jaakola Sanna , Vahvaselkä Marjatta , Laakso Simo
Published: November 2006

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was cultivated in the presence of free CLA that was either a pure trans‐10, cis‐12 isomer, a pure cis‐9, trans‐11 isomer, or a 1∶1 mixture of the two, and the influence of these supplementations on the content and FA composition of the lipids in the yeast was determined. Neither the pure isomers nor their 1∶1 mixture influenced the growth of the yeast, but the trans‐10, cis‐12 isomer reduced the amount of cellular lipids by 40%. The reduction in total cellular lipids by the trans‐10, cis‐12 CLA was due to a reduction in TAG. Both of the isomers were incorporated into the yeast lipids, reaching a proportion of about 33% in TAG. With the incorporation of CLA, the yeast reduced the amount and desaturation of endogenously synthesized FA. These clear and pronounced isomer‐specific effects of CLA on the yeast suggest that yeast might be a useful model to obtain a more comprehensive view of the mechanisms of the action of CLA on lipid metabolism.
Gossypol removal by adsorption from cottonseed miscella
Authors: Kuk M. S. , Tetlow R.
Published: November 2006

A variety of aluminas (acidic, basic, and neutral), silica, and synthetic magnesium silicates were screened to evaluate their potential use as adsorbents,for reducing the content of gossypol and related compounds from hexane‐based cotton‐seed miscella. Among the tested adsorbents, one type of silica and two types of magnesium silicate with a relatively high Brunauer‐Emmet‐Teller (BET) surface area (≥240 m2/g) showed a superior adsorption capacity in reducing gossypol from hexane miscella. As a possible regenerating method for the spent adsorbents, washing with acetone was tested. The effect of pH in the washing solvent was also evaluated. Adsorbents that were regenerated by washing with acetone at pH values between 7 and 7.5 performed better than those at pH values between 6.5 and 7. The pH values of washing solvent were adjusted by using a small amount of caustic and 1 M HCl.
Synthesis of triacylglycerol containing conjugated linoleic acid by esterification using two blended lipases
Authors: Hirose Tadashiro , Yamauchi‐Sato Yoshie , Arai Yuri , Negishi Satoshi
Published: November 2006

We have developed an efficient esterification for the synthesis of triacylglycerol (TAG) containing conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) using a blend of two powdered lipases. Two pairs of blended lipases promoted the esterification. Rhizomucor miehei lipase, plus Alcaligenes sp. lipase and Penicillium cammembertii MAG and DAG lipase plus Alcaligenes sp. lipase were used. At the optmal ratio of two lipases, the content of TAG containing CLA (TAG‐CLA) in all glycerols reached 82–83% after 47 h using 1 wt% of lipases. With R. miehei lipase plus Alcaligenes sp. lipase, the reaction time to obtain ca. 60% of TAG‐CLA was one‐third of that needed with R. miehei lipase alone. The optimal ratio of two lipases differed between these two pairs. The optimal ratio was 70–80 wt% of R. miehei lipase in the last stage of the reaction, whereas it was over a wide range of 10–90 wt% for P. camembertii lipase. In the blend of R. miehei lipase plus Alcaligenes sp. lipase, activity remained very high after 10 cycles of esterification (every 47 h) and could be used in the industrial production of TAG‐CLA.
Mechanism for refunctionalizing heat‐denatured soy protein by alkaline hydrothermal cooking
Authors: Wang H. , Wang T. , Johnson L. A.
Published: November 2006

Using extrusion heat‐denatured soy protein isolate (SPI) as a model, the mechanism for refunctionalizing heat‐denatured soy protein by hydrothermal cooking (HTC) with alkali was studied. Heating causes soluble protein to form insoluble protein aggregates. Treating heat‐denatured soy protein with alkali dispersion without HTC increased solubility and viscosity by dissolution of a portion of the protein aggregates and swelling of the large protein particles. This suspension was more stable to solid separation than that of the original untreated heat‐denatured protein, but it was less stable than the protein suspensions that were refunctionalized by water dispersion with HTC or alkali dispersion with HTC. Water dispersion with HTC disrupted the large aggregates into smaller aggregates. The viscosity and total number of particles in the system also increased dramatically. The most significant effect was achieved with alkali dispersion (0.6 mmol NaOH/g) with HTC. The solubility increased from 4 to about 80% at neutral pH, and viscosity (at zero shear rate) increased by more than 1,000 times compared with extrusion heat‐denatured SPI. Alkali dispersion (0.6 mmol NaOH/g) with HTC dissolved most of the protein particles, decreasing the particle number by a factor of almost 100. The suspensions of heat‐denatured soy protein became much more stable after HTC as shown by particle settling velocities. The most effective treatment was alkali dispersion (0.6 mmol NaOH/g) with HTC, followed by water dispersion with HTC. The soy protein slurry refunctionalized by alkali dispersion (0.6 mmol NaOH/g) with HTC formed soft, translucent gels.
Production of mustard protein isolates from oriental mustard seed (Brassica juncea L.)
Authors: Marnoch Rebecca , Diosady Levente L.
Published: November 2006

A membrane‐based process to produce protein isolates from seeds of oriental mustard (Brassica juncea) was developed by modifying a method originally developed for rapeseed. The optimized process consisted of extraction at pH 11, ultrafiltration with concentration factor 4, diafiltration with diavolume 3, and precipitation at pH 5. The process, based on defatted oriental mustard seed containing 45–50% protein, recovered 81% of the protein in useful products: 47.3% in precipitated protein isolate (PPI), 3.8% in soluble protein isolate (SPI), and 13% in meal residue. Mass yields were 21.9% in PPI, 2.8% in SPI, and 38.4% in meal residue. The losses in the system included ∼10% loss of nonprotein nitrogen, and <9% into permeate and transfer losses. The PPI compared favorably with soy protein isolate in typical meat products in terms of color, texture, and flavor. The work confirms that oriental mustard is a potentially useful source of edible protein.
A fourier transform infrared spectroscopic method for determining butylated hydroxytoluene in palm olein and palm oil
Authors: Ammawath W. , Che Man Y. B. , Abdul Rahman R. B. , Baharin B. S.
Published: November 2006

A simple, rapid, and direct FTIR spectroscopic method was developed for the determination of BHT content in refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) palm olein and RBD palm oil. The method used sodium chloride windows with a 50‐mm transmission path. Fifty stripped oil samples of both RBD palm olein and RBD palm oil were spiked with known amounts of BHT concentrations up to 300 mg/kg (ppm). The data were separated into two sets for calibration and validation using partial least squares models. FTIR results for both oils correlated well with results obtained by the IUPAC HPLC‐based method. For RBD palm olein, the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.9907 and the SE of calibration (SEC) was 8.47 ppm. For RBD palm oil, an R2 of 0.9848 and an SEC of 10.73 ppm were achieved. Because of the significant decrease in analysis time and reduction in solvent usage, this FTIR method for BHT is especially well suited for routine quality control applications in the palm oil industry.
Scale‐sensitive fractal analysis of the surface roughness of bloomed chocolate
Authors: Briones Vilbett , Brown Christopher A. , Aguilera José M.
Published: November 2006

The surface roughness of stored chocolate bars was studied by scanning laser microscopy and area‐scale fractal analysis. Topographic data were expressed by the statistical average roughness (Sa), by two parameters from area‐scale analyses—the fractal complexity (Asfc) and the scale of the rough‐to‐smooth transition (SRC)—and by the relative area as a function of scale. The roughness measured with Asfc showed extremely low correlation with the SRC, indicating that these two parameters can be considered to be independent. Asfc appeared to have some correlation (R2=0.82) with the Sa, indicating that for these data Asfc and Sa are somewhat related. As surface roughness (Asfc) increased during storage, gloss decreased in a linear fashion (R2=0.96), which is consistent with the proposal that surface roughness is intimately related to gloss. The scales of observation from about 0.5 to 100 μm2 were characteristic of the fat bloom interaction with chocolate surface and with the gloss. Fractal analysis provides parameters (Asfc and relative area) that are better than conventional arithmetic mean roughness for describing the surface changes during storage of chocolate. Both the complexity (Asfc) and the relative areas showed strong correlations with gloss (0.96 and 0.94, respectively), which is consistent with a facet‐based scattering model.
Antioxidant activity of almonds and their by‐products in food model systems
Authors: Wijeratne Subhashinee S. K. , Amarowicz Ryszard , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: November 2006

Antioxidant activities of almond whole seed, brown skin, and green shell cover extracts, at 100 and 200 ppm quercetin equivalents, were evaluated using a cooked comminuted pork model, a β‐carotene‐linoleate model, and a bulk stripped corn oil system. Retention of β‐carotene in a β‐carotene‐linoleate model system by almond whole seed, brown skin, and green shell cover extracts was 84–96, 74–83, and 71–93%, respectively. In a bulk stripped corn oil system, green shell cover extract performed better than brown skin and whole seed extracts in inhibiting the formation of both primary and secondary oxidation products. In a cooked comminuted pork model system, green shell cover and brown skin extracts inhibited the formation of TBARS, total volatiles, and hexanal more effectively than did the whole seed extract. HPLC analysis revealed the presence of caffeic, ferulic, p‐coumaric, and sinapic acids as the major phenolic acids in all three almond extracts examined.
Bond quality of soy‐based phenolic adhesives in southern pine plywood
Authors: Yang In , Kuo Monlin , Myers Deland J.
Published: November 2006

Increased demand for wood adhesives, environmental concerns, and the uncertainty of continuing availability of petrochemicals have led to recent attention on protein‐based adhesives. This study was conducted to investigate the glue bond qualities of soy‐based phenolic adhesive resins for southern pine plywood. Two types of soy‐based resins were formulated and tested. The first was made by cross‐linking soy flour with phenol‐formaldehyde (pf) resins at neutral pH. The second type was obtained by cross‐linking soy flour hydrolyzates with pf resin under alkaline conditions. Plywood bonded with the neutral phenolic soy resins containing 70% soy flour and 30% 1.6 g/cm2 pf without the use of extenders and fillers compared favorably with the traditional southern pine pf glue mixes. Plywood bonded with alkaline phenolic soy resins, containing 40 or 50% 0.5 g/cm2 PF with the addition of extender (19% corn‐cob powder), provided better adhesive glue bond properties than traditional southern pine pf glue mixes. These results suggest that soy‐based phenolic adhesive resins have potential for the production of exterior southern pine plywood.
Optimization of the chemoenzymatic epoxidation of soybean oil
Authors: Vlček Tomáš , Petrović Zoran S.
Published: November 2006

The lipase Candida antarctica (Novozyme 435) immobilized on acrylic resin was used as an unconventional catalyst for in situ epoxidation of soybean oil. The reactions were carried out in toluene. The peracid used for converting TG double bonds to oxirane groups was formed by reaction of FFA and hydrogen peroxide. The reaction conditions were optimized by varying the lipase concentration, solvent concentration, molar ratio of hydrogen peroxide to double bond, oleic acid concentration, and reaction temperature. The kinetic study showed that 100% conversion of double bonds to epoxides can be obtained after 4 h. The addition of free acids was not required for the reaction to proceed to conversions exceeding 80%, presumably owing to generation of FFA by hydrolysis of soybean oil. The enzyme catalyst was found to deteriorate after repeated runs.
Effect of temperature programming on the performance of urea inclusion compound‐based free fatty acid fractionation
Authors: Hayes Douglas G.
Published: November 2006

The effect of cooling rate on the degree of removal of saturated acyl groups from FFA derived from canola oil and the isolation of di‐ and polyunsaturated acyl groups from FFA derived from vegetable and fish oil, respectively, during urea inclusion compound (UIC)‐based fractionation was investigated. Traditionally, slow cooling has been used (ca.−1°C min−1). A more rapid cooling rate (−47°C min−1) produced UIC crystals of similar morphology and thermodynamic properties, but of a size an order of magnitude smaller than the UIC formed during slow cooling. Fractionations used only renewable materials (urea, FFA, and 95% ethanol as solvent) and benign operating conditions (ambient pressure, 25–75°C, and neutral pH). When the recovery of FFA (in the solvent‐rich phase) was relatively high (>60%), the selectivity of UIC‐based fractionation toward the inclusion of saturated FFA and against polyunsaturated FFA was not affected by the cooling rate. In contrast, when the FFA recovery was low, representing cases in which an increase of the PUFA purity is a more important economic goal, a slower cooling rate resulted in a significantly greater discrimination against PUFA groups, hence to a FFA product with a measurably greater purity.
Reaction chemistry of gossypol and its derivatives
Authors: Kenar James A.
Published: November 2006

Gossypol, a complex polyphenolic compound, is a naturally occurring highly colored yellow pigment found in the small intercellular pigment glands in the leaves, stems, roots, and seed of cotton plants. In cottonseed, gossypol contributes to its toxicity and therefore it is regarded as an unwanted processing component. It was not until its antitumor and male infertility activities were discovered that gossypol was considered as a valueadded natural product from cottonseed with useful physiological and chemical properties. These serendipitous discoveries created much excitement, and an enormous amount of research on gossypol has ensued. Since then, much research has focused on the preparation of suitable gossypol derivatives for medicinal applications. This review summarizes current knowledge about gossypol, its stereochemistry, tautomerism, and the many varied reactions the gossypol molecule can undergo.
Tocopherol—An intrinsic component of sunflower seed oil bodies
Authors: Fisk Ian D. , White Daniel A. , Carvalho Andre , Gray David A.
Published: November 2006

Oil bodies were removed from mature sunflower through wet grinding followed by filtration then centrifugation and recovered as the buoyant fraction. Washing this fraction with buffer (water‐washed oil bodies, WWOB) or 9 M urea (urea‐washed oil bodies, UWOB) resulted in the removal of extraneous proteins. SDS‐PAGE of the proteins still associated with the oil body fraction after washing indicated that this effect was particularly dramatic with urea washing. Thirty‐eight percent of the total seed tocopherol was recovered in WWOB after only one cycle of oil body recovery. The total phenolic content (TPC) of differentially washed sunflower seed oil bodies was used as a marker for the nonspecific association of phenolic compounds to oil bodies. This value decreased with increased removal of proteins from oil bodies, whereas the converse was true for tocopherol values, which increased from 214 mg total tocopherol kg−1 WWOB [dry wt basis (dwb)] to 392 mg total tocopherol kg−1 UWOB (dwb). The ratio of the four tocopherol isomers remained constant in the seed and oil body preparations (α:β:γ:δ approximately 94∶5∶0.5∶0.5). This work provides evidence that an intrinsic population of tocopherol molecules exists in the oil bodies of mature sunflower seeds.
Fatty acids, tocols, and carotenoids in pulp oil of three sea buckthorn species (Hippophae rhamnoides, H. salicifolia, and H. tibetana) grown in the Indian Himalayas
Authors: Ranjith A. , Kumar K. Sarin , Venugopalan V. V. , Arumughan C. , Sawhney R. C. , Singh Virendra
Published: November 2006

Sea buckthorn berries from Hippophae rhamnoides, H. tibetana, and H. salicifolia were collected from the cold deserts of the Himalayas (Lahaul, Ladakh, and Spiti; India) and characterized in terms of the FA, carotenoid, tocopherol, and tocotrienol composition in their pulp oil. These varied from species to species. Total carotenoids ranged from 692 to 3420 mg/kg in pulp oils of fresh berries, and total tocols, from 666 to 1788 mg/kg. Hippophae salicifolia berries contained substantially lower amounts of pulp oil, with lower levels of carotenoids and tocopherols. There was little difference in the proportion of individual tocols in pulp among the three species. α‐Tocopherol alone constituted 40–60% of total pulp tocols in berries. Pulp oils had palmitoleic acid (32–53%) as the most abundant FA followed by palmitic (25–35%), oleic (8–26%), linoleic (5–16%), and linolenic (0.6–2.6%) acids, with the highest deviation observed in the proportion of palmitoleic acid in these berries. Hippophae rhamnoides and H. tibetana contained the highest amount of the lipophilic carotenoids and tocols. Hippophae salicifolia berries had higher amounts of lipophobic constituents such as vitamin C and flavonols.
Pheophytin α degradation products as useful indices in the quality control of virgin olive oil
Authors: Anniva Christina , Grigoriadou Despina , Psomiadou Eleni , Tsimidou Maria Z.
Published: November 2006

In previous studies we reported the presence of compounds with spectral characteristics similar to pheophytin α (Pheo α), which often accompany the Pheo α peak in the chromatographic profile of virgin olive oils (VOO) at 410 nm under normal‐phase HPLC conditions. The occurrence and levels of these compounds were found to be affected by storage conditions of the oil samples. In the present study we investigated whether the major Pheo a degradation products, identified as pyropheophytin α (coeluting with the respective epimer) and 132‐OH‐pheophytin α, could be used as estimates of VOO history. The content of Pheo α and its degradation products was determined for a great number of authentic olive oil samples of unknown history. Results are discussed in comparison with other quality indices (e.g., antioxidant content) when necessary. High amounts of the pyro form (20–30% of total pheophytins) were related to thermal abuse or lengthy storage. The presence of allomers indicated oxygen availability. The levels of these products, 0–20% of the total pheophytin content for 62% of the samples, seemed to be influenced by the presence of pro‐ and antioxidants. When low levels of Pheo α are not accompanied by other degradation products, light exposure for a certain period of storage can be assumed.