bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Editors' Introduction
Authors: Bloxham Donald , Moses A. Dirk
Published: February 2013

This article describes the state of genocide studies, historicization, and causation, placing genocide into its historical context, and genocide in the world today. ‘Genocide’ is unfortunately ubiquitous, all too often literally in attempts at the destruction of human groups, but also rhetorically in the form of a word that is at once universally known and widely invoked. The comparative scholarship of genocide began with Raphael Lemkin and through the later Cold War period was continued by a small group of dedicated scholars. The discussion also opens the probing of the limits and the utility of the concept of genocide for historical understanding, and placing this crime back in its context that may often include mass non-genocidal violence. It also reflects on the debate about the relationship between individual acts of genocide and the wider political economy and norms of the worlds in which they occur.
Social Psychology and Genocide
Authors: Roth Paul A.
Published: February 2013

This article examines what purports to be a core standing problem in the explanation of genocide — how to account for the large number of people willing to participate in mass murders. It contends that research in social psychology has already answered the question of ‘perpetrator production’. Recruiting people to be perpetrators proves to be alarmingly easy. In addition, the application of social psychology to genocide has also become entangled in an ongoing moral debate, a debate that focuses on whether an emphasis on the extrinsic predictors of behaviour fits with a sense that people should be held morally and legally responsible for the choices they make. The discussion also argues that social psychology neither casts a pall of inevitability over such events nor provides moral exculpation for those involved.
Twentieth‐Century China
Authors: Bulag Uradyn E.
Published: February 2013

This article invokes a Chinese political concept of ‘sinicization’, aiming to capture the nature of ethnic relations in China historically, and the political fate of ethnic groups in contemporary China. Sinicization has powerful genealogical and governmental dimensions; it is not primarily an ‘acculturation’ process as it is understood generally. Sinicization may not kill people directly, but it murders the non- Chinese sense of genealogical differences and their polities. The discussion concludes that sinicization has made a remarkable success in the PRC more than at any other time in Chinese history. Chinese policies have been directed at destroying the possibility that non-Chinese national identity might have any political meaning, at destroying the minorities' capacity to think and engage in politics independently as sovereign ethnic groups.
Political Genocides in Postcolonial Asia
Authors: Cribb Robert
Published: February 2013

This article discusses political genocide in postcolonial Asia, looking at Indonesia, Cambodia, and China. Mass political killing presents a special problem in genocide studies. The slaughter of human beings because of the political beliefs and attitudes they held, or were presumed to have held, cost millions of lives during the twentieth century. The Indonesian killings of 1965–6 cost half a million lives and the killings during the Cultural Revolution in China claimed a million lives. Although these are massive death tolls, both episodes involved only a relatively small proportion of the total population of those two countries. The Cambodian killings, by contrast, claimed twenty-five per cent of a population of eight million in little more than three years. These three political genocides took place within little more than a decade. They occurred in the context of the Cold War, a time of acute polarization between secular ideologies that is unprecedented in world history.
National Security Doctrine in Latin America
Authors: Feierstein Daniel
Published: February 2013

During the second half of the twentieth century, large sections of the population were exterminated in various parts of Latin America. Most of these events followed a similar pattern and were the result of what became known as the National Security Doctrine. The practice of systematic annihilation of political enemies in Latin America, which began as early as 1954 with the military coup in Guatemala, continued almost until the beginning of the twenty-first century, spreading throughout practically all of Latin America. This article analyses the general characteristics of these developments, their similarities and differences, and the possible connections between civil wars in the region and processes of mass extermination, taking into account that there were no real wars in many of the territories in which these practices were applied. It examines the cases of Guatemala and Argentina.
Genocide and Population Displacement in Post‐Communist Eastern Europe
Authors: Carmichael Cathie
Published: February 2013

Between 1990 and 2010, the political map of the Balkans and Caucasus changed as Communist regimes collapsed and border disputes escalated. Some of the most bitter conflicts were in areas where there were mixed populations with large ‘minority’ populations that did not recognize potential changes in their borders (Russians in Chechnya or Serbs in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo). Religious identities, heavily repressed during the Communist era, became a defining part of the rejection of that system. A revival of militant Islamism after the success of Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran in 1979 radicalized politics in both the Balkans and the Caucasus. In the former Yugoslavia, Serb nationalists claimed that they were fighting against Islamic encroachment, which became effectively a self-fulfilling prophecy after 11 September 2001. Successionists and politicians eager to redraw boundaries cynically exploited the idea of an ideological purpose and traditional identities under threat to motivate and legitimize armed resistance.
Genocidal Warfare in North‐east Africa
Authors: de Waal Alex
Published: February 2013

The modern history of the Horn of Africa is marked by protracted violence. The two powerful states of the region, Ethiopia and Sudan, are hybrid imperial creations from African and European colonialisms. For centuries, the dominant states of the Ethiopian highlands and the Nile Valley have been predators on the peoples of their peripheries, inflicting slavery, subjugation, and massacre upon them. The other states of the Horn, Eritrea and Somalia were forged out of resistance to the centres of state power, and each exists insofar as it can dispense violence. This article consists of four sections. The first outlines the key themes. A second part briefly surveys the position of the Horn of Africa within scholarly and legal approaches to genocide. The major part outlines twenty-two episodes of extreme violence, including mass killing and group-targeted repression, over the past half century. The final section draws some general conclusions.
War and Genocide in Africa's Great Lakes since Independence
Authors: McDoom Omar
Published: February 2013

Every generation born since independence in Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda, and Burundi has lived through either a war or genocide. A low-end estimate of deaths that resutled would stand at 1.4 million while 2.6 million would be at the high end. They would increase considerably if the indirect effects of war and genocide, notably disease and hunger, were also counted. These numbers have reinforced perceptions of the region as Africa's heart of darkness. This article aims to summarize the postcolonial record. It describes all the principal episodes of violence against civilians in each country since independence. It also provides a critical overview of the violence. It identifies the characteristics that define the regional context in which these numerous episodes of violence occurred.
The United Nations, the Cold War, and Its Legacy
Authors: Hankel Gerd
Published: February 2013

According to the Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations, the member states of this organization resolved ‘to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war’ as well as to act in a way that demonstrates ‘faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person’. As demonstrated by the emergence and consolidation of the Cold War, the reality of the situation was very different. The two superpowers (USA and Soviet Union) pursued their own agendas based on their respective power politics. For the most part, the United Nations watched helplessly from the sidelines. The states were meticulous in their efforts to ensure that the United Nations was not allocated any powers that could have led to any appreciable infringement of their sovereignty.
Military Intervention
Authors: Bellamy Alex J.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the role that military intervention can play in ending genocide and the political, moral, and legal debates that surround it. The first section briefly examines how genocides have ended since the beginning of the twentieth century, and explores the place of military intervention by external powers. The second section examines whether there is a moral and/or legal duty to intervene to end genocide. The third section considers the reasons why states intervene only infrequently to put an end to genocide despite their rhetorical commitments. Historically, once started, genocides tend to end with either the military defeat of the perpetrators or the suppression of the victim groups. Only military force can directly prevent genocidal killing, stand between perpetrators and their intended victims, and protect the delivery of lifesaving aid. But its use entails risks for all parties and does not necessarily resolve the underlying conflict.
Periodization
Authors: Cajani Luigi
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of the different periodizations of world history. It discusses first world histories that originated as part and parcel of religious visions which connect Creation myths and human history; Greek and Roman historiography; the Christian synthesis of salvation; medieval European historiography of the Six Ages and the Four Empires; Muslim historiography; the European discovery of new histories; the challenges against biblical chronology; Voltaire and the Enlightenment; German Aufklärung; Eurocentrism during the nineteenth century; Marxist historiography; UNESCO's world history after World War II; and current trends. The discussion ends with the big history, which places human history within the wider framework of the history of the universe, thus starting with the Big Bang and going through the formation of the galaxies, the solar system, planet Earth, and the geological eras until the evolution of human beings, and down to the present day.
States, State Transformation, and War
Authors: Tilly Charles
Published: February 2013

This article employs a stripped-down model of a state: a ruler, an apparatus of rule, a subject population, and external interactions of various sorts, from trade, diplomacy, and mass migration to war. It aims to identify common properties and systematic variations among states, including their involvement in war. First, using the example, of Tiglath-pileser I (ruler of Assyria, 1114–1076 bce), it places Middle Eastern empires in a much wider range of states across the entire world from the state's first emergence toward 3000 bce to the present. The rest of the discussion proceeds through four stages: an analysis of how states maintain themselves, a closer look at war's place in state transformation, a comparison among major types of state, and reflections on states and war in recent world history. Whether the states of today will break that interdependence is one of the day's most pressing political questions.
Migrations
Authors: Hoerder Dirk
Published: February 2013

The history of humanity is a history of migration rather than an early nomadic ‘prehistory’ and a subsequent ‘history’ of settled peoples. Migrations involve intercultural exchange as well as conflict; a human-agency approach emphasizes that even forced migrants leave their mark, if under severely constrained conditions. This article describes the Homo sapiens' migrations and the ‘agricultural revolution’; cities, civilizations, and seaborne migrations to 500 ce; migrations and societies in 500 bce–1500 ce; the expansion of the Chinese empire and the rise of Europe's Atlantic littoral; people on the move in colonizer, self-ruled, and colonized societies to 1800; nineteenth-century global migration systems; refugee-generation, unmixing of peoples, and forced labor migrations to the 1950s; and decolonization and new global patterns of migration since the 1950s.
Industrialization
Authors: O'Brien Patrick Karl
Published: February 2013

Industrialization refers to an economic transformation that is recent and different in scale and scope from the mere making of artifacts and has involved the rapid rise in the significance of manufacturing in relation to all other forms of production and work undertaken within national economies. This article discusses the many facets of industrialization: industrialization as a historical process; the present tendencies and future trends in global diffusion; inter-sectoral connections; international relations and the global context; and industrialization on a global scale over the very long run. In the twenty-first century success seems to require new and different political and social capabilities that are already shifting the concentrations of industrial activity away from Europe and North America and back to Asia.
Origins of Modern Germany
Authors: Friedeburg Robert Von
Published: February 2013

This article traces the origins of German history; the outcome the Western Federal Republic of 1949–1989, curiously similar to the Eastern Franconian Empire of Ludwig the German emerging with the treaty of Verdun, and the unified Germany at the second half of the twentieth century. Early modern Germans had a wide number of varying and partly contradictory ideas about the relation of empire, nation, and fatherland. This article traces the establishment of Germany as an empire and nation. The German lands were marked by conflicts and tensions between emperors and popes, kings and higher nobility, and among regions under varying degrees of royal influence and control. This article explains pluralism in German society and the eventual formation of the territorial German state, whether the Bonn or Berlin Federal Republic is seen to be the true representative of modern Germany, the territorial state seems to remain unavoidably at center stage.
Women and Men: 1760–1960
Authors: Goldberg Ann
Published: February 2013

This article is about the power of a norm and its mutation over time: the gender role division of the private nuclear family composed of a male provider and protector, and his dependent children and homemaker wife. Those roles corresponded to rigid distinctions that were made between a male public world of work, money, and politics, on the one hand, and a female private sphere of reproduction and nurturance, on the other. These were prescribed ideals of gender. However, as such, the ideals have had tremendous power, shaping personal identity and the daily lives of men and women, as well as influencing the development of the state, civil society, politics, and the economy, according to a vast and growing scholarship. This article highlights the powerful role played by the norm of separate spheres over two centuries of German history along with the development of civil society and the welfare state.
The End of the Economic Old Order: the Great Transition, 1750–1860
Authors: Brophy James M.
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on economic history, the old order in German society, and the Great Economic Transition. The industrial ‘take-off’ of the 1840s and 1850s introduced a scale of production that forever changed the material conditions of Germany. The belching smokestacks of factories and locomotives might have tokened swift change, but the foundations for industrial capitalism were long in preparation. This article focuses on this long-term transition toward Germany's modern economy, examining how agriculture and market economies shaped the socioeconomic formations of proto-industrialization, urbanization, and industrialization. No one factor or sector suffices as an interpretive key to explain Germany's transformation. An analysis of the agrarian society, followed by urbanization and industrialization of the German society winds up this article.
Escaping Malthus: Population Explosion and Human Movement, 1760–1884
Authors: Benz Ernest
Published: February 2013

This article focuses the theory of Malthus and the arguments of his Essay on the Principle of Population. This famous essay colored the thinking and actions of nineteenth-century householders and policy-makers. Vulgar Malthusian ideology missed the mark through an over-simplification of complex human behaviour, but general practice embodied his norms from 1760 to 1884. Even as the accuracy of the Malthusian model waned in terms of his description of marriage and reproduction at the end of the 1800s, its hold on the popular imagination persisted. Malthus bewitched the people with a picture. In 1798 Malthus proffered a schematic objection to their blueprints for perfecting humanity. Malthus postulated that the ‘passion between the sexes’ could unleash human ‘prolifick powers’ to reproduce at geometric rates, while technology generated merely arithmetic increases in the quantities of food necessary for human survival. An analysis of Malthusianism in practice concludes this article.
The Great Transformation: German Economy and Society, 1850–1914
Authors: Torp Cornelius
Published: February 2013

A study of the German economy and German society form the crux of this article. It shows how both industrialization and globalization transformed the German economy in the second half of the ‘long’ nineteenth century and how they affected German society. First, the long-term developments of the German economy between 1850 and 1914 are described based on quantitative indicators. There are only two points on which the industrialization experts seem to agree. First, the industrialization of the world started in England after the middle of the eighteenth century. In Germany, industrialization gained momentum in the late 1840s. Secondly, industrialization has to be considered not as a national, but as a regional phenomenon. A rapid globalization process in the nineteenth century was brought to a halt by the globalization backlash, which happened during the era of the two World Wars and the Great Depression. This article carefully explains the ushering of the Great Depression, and its effect on German economy.
Germany is No More: Defeat, Occupation, and the Postwar Order
Authors: Hoffmann Stefan-Ludwig
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on a completely back lashed Germany after the Second World War. More people died in the Second World War than in any other conflict before or since. Particularly between the Elbe and the Volga, the Nazi war of extermination left a wasteland of death. This article traces the gradual transformations that came over Germany post 1945. After the ‘unconditional surrender’ of 8 May, 1945 — the formulation was initially coined for the defeated Southern states in the American Civil War — German territories came under the control of the four Allied Powers, creating an ambiguous legal status unprecedented in the history of modern international law. Divided into four major territories, each under the control of the allied forces, Germany was no longer a sovereign state. This article further traces the effects of the post-war era followed by the gradual embracing of democracy. The Cold War and the final descending of peace in the German territory winds up this article.
The Two German States in the International World
Authors: Daum Andreas W.
Published: February 2013

This article centers on the two German states in the 1970s and 1980s. In 1972, however, détente — the period of relaxation, openness, and communication between the two antagonistic superpowers and their allies — had reached its height. Many in the West no longer saw the border that separated the Germans into antagonistic political blocs as an insurmountable ‘Iron Curtain’. The building of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 had been a brutal act. Ironically, its existence opened new opportunities for encounters between West and East. Dialogue, openness, and transparency were values that many in the Federal Republic cherished in 1972. These, too, were values that West Germans wanted others to associate with their country. They were meant to articulate — at home and abroad — that West Germany had developed into a knowledge-based, technologically-advanced, internationally minded, and peaceful consumer society. Finally in 1989 both the Germanies were united on the basis of unanimous international agreements.
Germany and European Integration Since 1945
Authors: Patel Kiran Klaus
Published: February 2013

Germany and the integration of Europe since 1945 is the main focus of this article. Finding its place in Europe and defining what its Europe should be is a leitmotif of Germany's history. Long before the twentieth century, its central position and size raised the question of how both Germany and Europe could be organized in a constructive, stable, and peaceful way that would work for Germans, as well as for their neighbors. In a basically chronological manner, this article analyzes the sea-shift in Germany's relationship to Europe since 1945, understanding ‘Europe’ not as a vague cultural or geographical entity, but rather as institutionalized forms of political and economic integration with a European focus. An analysis of West Germany as a post-national democracy untill the two Germanies reunites in 1990 concludes this article.
Toward A Multicultural Society?
Authors: Barbieri William A.
Published: February 2013

This article traces the multicultural German society that gradually came over after the reunification. In hosting the World Cup of 2006, Germany presented a new face to the world. The widely circulated image of the Afro-German footballer Gerald Asamoah in the publicity campaign ‘Du bist Deutschland’ advertised a Germany comfortable with its diversity and optimistic about its future prospects. The new German Chancellor, Angela Merkel, declared it time to relinquish the failed utopian dream of the multicultural society. These two snapshots reflect some of the divergent sensibilities and political forces in play as German society kicked off the twenty-first century amidst controversies over how best to come to terms with the ethnic diversity bequeathed by the ‘guest worker’ policies and various other migrations of the previous fifty years. This article further elaborates upon the conceptions of multiculturalism and the ideal and dialectics of the multicultural German society.
The Preacher's Bibles
Authors: Ferrell Lori Anne
Published: February 2013

This article surveys the many bibles that were available to preachers in England from the early sixteenth century to the early eighteenth century. It describes the idea of ‘the Bible’ as more stable than any particular Bible, and was differentiated by distribution, accessibility, translation, and production. It also introduces the Authorized Version of the English Bible and shows that after a century and a half of changes, the Bible of England and English sermon finally settled down.
The Preacher and Profane Learning
Authors: Reisner Noam
Published: February 2013

This article identifies the patterns that help define what forms ‘profane’ learning. It discusses some individual preachers and their classical intellect, and how they exploited profane learning in a variety of different contexts in their sermons. The article also considers the actual impact of profane learning on preaching and the different degrees of profanity.
Preaching Venues: Architecture and Auditories
Authors: Rhatigan Emma
Published: February 2013

This article presents a survey on the main preaching venues of the early modern period. It addresses the most general questions of early modern preaching, specifically where, when, and to whom sermons were delivered. The article also suggests why these questions were relevant to the scholarship of the early modern sermon.
Sermons in Performance
Authors: Armstrong Kate
Published: February 2013

This article discusses centrality in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods of classical rhetorical delivery in the formal education of future preachers. It studies the ways actio is recognised in different manuals of rhetoric and of preaching. The article also discusses the relevance of rhetorical delivery to James I and provides the background where similar anecdotes of actio from this period can be read against.
Preaching the Scottish Reformation, 1560–1707
Authors: Gribben Crawford
Published: February 2013

This article discusses preaching the Scottish Reformation, from 1560 to 1707. It first lists the critical approaches to Scottish Reformation preaching and then acknowledges the ambiguities associated with the title of the article. It contests the assumptions of a ‘reformation’. The article also studies early reformation preaching.
Restoration, Religion, and Law: Assize Sermons, 1660–1685
Authors: Adlington Hugh
Published: February 2013

This article takes a closer look at assize sermons, which is a preaching sub-genre that is mostly concerned with the connections between justice administration and religious tenets. It also presents three brief case studies of assize sermons, which were delivered and published after the Act of Uniformity. These case studies try to show how different churchmen adapted the established conventions of the assize sermon to gain different effects and purposes.
‘A Frame to Hang Clouds on’
Authors: Boyd William E.
Published: February 2013

In the archaeological context, a sense of the evolving landscape becomes especially important where there is considerable time depth or cultural sequencing inherent in a single site. The prehistoric occupants of that site used and related to the landscape in very different ways throughout time. However, archaeology is a modern endeavour, a form of enquiry directly related to post-Enlightenment and modernist conceptions and constructions of knowledge, place, and society, enacted within a complex of social-administrative and political constraints. The physical existence of an archaeological site reflects its multi-contextual conceptual identity. The concept of cognitive ownership has tended to be couched in relatively simple pragmatic terms: observing behaviour and drawing categorization of individuals and groups engaging in a cultural place as a management tool. In some studies, this has led to deeper understanding of cultural values, while in others, to more pragmatic management or activist conclusions.
The Value of a Looted Object
Authors: Kersel Morag M.
Published: February 2013

This article reveals the interplay between cultural heritage and identity formation. It discusses how considerations of cultural heritage and the interpretation of the past among local populations are understood vis-à-vis archaeological tourism, the looting of archaeological sites, and the daily interaction between local populations and archaeologists (foreign and national). Under this, the article presents an examination of the values attributed to looted artefacts by the assorted publics associated with illegal trade in antiquities. It reveals the values of a looted object to the looter, the local populace, the government employee, the archaeologist (both local and foreign), the dealer, the law-maker, the collector, the museum, and the tourist. This study addresses the ethnographic, criminological, and legal theory, based on which it provides an understanding of the values of looted objects and the competing demands for those contested items from the Middle East.
‘Changing of the Guards’
Authors: Gustafsson Anders , Karlsson Håkan
Published: February 2013

This article opens up with a quotation from a Swedish heritage manager concerning the rock carvings at Tanum in Sweden, which are designated as a World Heritage Site. It is a good example of the general and traditional view held by numerous heritage managers around the world in which preservation of past remains is prioritized for the purposes of public accessibility and participation. It also expresses heritage management's traditional epistemological standpoint on authenticity, in which cultural heritage is ascribed value and significance solely in terms of its status as an authentic phenomenon from the past. This standpoint also leads to specific views on ethics when it comes to: the handling, staging, and presentation of the rock carvings; the relationship between heritage managers and the public; and preservation, public accessibility, and participation.
A Vision for Archaeological Literacy
Authors: Franklin M. Elaine , Moe Jeanne M.
Published: February 2013

Many archaeology educators routinely use current educational research and best practices to design and deliver high-quality educational materials to the public. Debates exist concerning whether public archaeology refers to archaeology with the public, for the public, of the public, or archaeology of public resources. Archaeological literacy refers to the knowledge, ideas, and habits of mind that, as a profession, one wants citizens to possess. An archaeologically literate citizenry concerns itself with saving the past for the future. It understands that history matters. Many parallels can be made between the profession's desire for archaeological literacy and that of American scientists to develop scientific literacy; work on the public understanding of science is dominated by empirical studies of the understanding of scientific issues and research amongst the non-scientific public. A purposeful effort is proposed among archaeologists to guide public understanding around essential archaeological concepts, knowledge, processes, and beliefs, with the goal of developing an archaeologically literate citizenry.
Public Archaeology and the us Culture Wars
Authors: Jeppson Patrice L.
Published: February 2013

United States archaeologists often appear to function as part of society's progressive faction. Their interests and efforts stem from a nexus of social and economic elements regularly cursed in conservative circles. This article describes the implications of the wars in terms of public archaeology, especially public archaeological practice that intersects with public education in the United States. It explains the reasons that these culture wars are important in terms of formal education in the United States and discusses why archaeology is relevant to social studies as it is practised in the formal education sphere. The study also examines the negative attitudes that US archaeologists have about outreach to formal education in general, and describes some recent shifts within professional archaeology societies which indicate that some of these attitudes may be changing. Finally, it argues that archaeology's lack of engagement with education's needs has served to work against those promoting a more inclusive democracy.
Global Development and Impoverishment
Authors: Baxi Upendra
Published: February 2013

This article explores some ways in which forms of contemporary common law scholarship may be said to be related or responsive to global development and global impoverishment. This is a formidable task since common law scholarship lives in conceptual cloisters that often ignore the historic causes of world impoverishment, especially the impact of colonial and imperial common law practices and performances. Common law scholarship is impossible to understand except by reference to conceptual frames that derive from colonialism and imperialism. Yet mainstream common law scholarship remains concerned with explaining what the common law is or ought to be in a particular jurisdiction, in ways that rarely display an articulate concern with these historic world structures. Scholars should pursue symptomatic and diagnostic practices of reading the many forms of silence in the midst of the speech constituting common law scholarship.
Text-to-Speech Synthesis
Authors: Dutoit Thierry , Stylianou Yannis
Published: February 2013

This article gives an introduction to state-of-the-art text-to-speech (TTS) synthesis systems, showing both the natural language processing and the digital signal processing problems involved. Text-to-speech (TTS) synthesis is the art of designing talking machines. The article begins with brief user-oriented description of a general TTS system and comments on its commercial applications. It then gives a functional diagram of a modern TTS system, highlighting its components. It describes its morphosyntactic module. Furthermore, it examines why sentence-level phonetization cannot be achieved by a sequence of dictionary look-ups, and describes possible implementations of the phonetizer. Finally, the article describes prosody generation, outlining how intonation and duration can approximately be computed from text. Prosody refers to certain properties of the speech signal, which are related to audible changes in pitch, loudness, and syllable length. This article also introduces the two main existing categories of techniques for waveform generation: synthesis by rule and concatenative synthesis.
Comparative Law: Study of Similarities or Differences?
Authors: Dannemann Gerhard
Published: February 2013

Comparing legal systems involves, at least to some degree, exploring both similarities and differences. For some writers, this forms part of the definition of comparative law. Some comparative lawyers have generally emphasized differences, while others see similarities, particularly in problems and their results, and a third group has sought to strike a balance between observing and analysing similarities and differences. Drawing on a debate in comparative history, this article argues that the proper balance between looking for similarities and for differences depends on the purpose of the comparative enquiry. Furthermore, it links the issue of difference or similarity to the various steps which are involved in a comparative legal enquiry, suggesting that some steps require more focus on similarity, others on difference, and many call for a balance of both.
Comparative Contract Law
Authors: Farnsworth E. Allan
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of comparative contract law. It reveals a number of differences between civilian legal systems and the common law, and also between French and German law as two main exponents of the civil-law tradition and, to some extent, even between English and US-American law. The same is true of other major issues in the field of general contract law that have not been touched upon. But there is a gradual convergence. This convergence is due to developments in all of the four legal systems covered in this article: English, US-American, French, and German law. And it has enabled scholars from around the world to elaborate an international restatement of contract law (the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts) and scholars from all the member states of the European Union to formulate a restatement of European contract law (the Principles of European Contract Law).
The social and personal functions of music in cross-cultural perspective
Authors: Clayton Martin
Published: February 2013

Music's uses and contexts are so many and so various that the task of cataloguing its functions is daunting: how can we make sense of this diversity? These functions appear to range from the individual (music can affect the way we feel and the way we manage our lives) to the social (it can facilitate the coordination of large numbers of people and help to forge a sense of group identity). This article argues that musical behaviour covers a vast middle ground in which relationships between self and other or between the individual and the collective are played out. It surveys some of the extant literature on music's functions – referring to literature from ethnomusicology, anthropology, musicology, psychology, and sociology, and discussing a wide variety of musical contexts from around the world – and develops an argument emphasizing music's role in the management of relationships between self and other.
Bodily responses to music
Authors: Hodges Donald A.
Published: February 2013

This article explores bodily responses to music, i.e., physiological and physical responses. Bodily responses to music are among the core experiences of music. They are hugely complex, with a myriad of response types interwoven into the fabric of thoughts, feelings, and social context. Bodily responses are highly idiosyncratic, as each person brings a unique self to a music-listening situation. Researchers have made significant strides in ferreting out the details of these responses, and, in collaboration with practitioners, have made progress in utilizing this knowledge, particularly in music therapy and music-medicine applications. With all this, however, the richness and complexity of the human experience leaves much yet to be discovered.
Music and the brain
Authors: Patel Aniruddh D.
Published: February 2013

This article presents the evidence for links between music and language. The focus is on perceptual processes, and on links between mechanisms involved in the processing of instrumental music and of ordinary, day-to- day language. Music and language may have a number of common processes that act on distinct types of information, e.g. on musical melodies vs. linguistic intonation contours, or on chord progressions vs. sequences of words. Thus, the distinction between the domain specificity of information vs. the generality of processing is an essential conceptual tool for research that examines the relationship between music and other cognitive domains.
The impact of music instruction on other skills
Authors: Rauscher Frances H.
Published: February 2013

This article examines how making music may actually enhance children's abilities in other domains of reasoning. The goal is to integrate what is known about the area and to provide a substantive conclusion about the issue. The article reviews studies on the effects of music instruction on cognitive abilities, neurological mechanisms, and cognitive transfer.
Practising
Authors: Jørgensen Harald , Hallam Susan
Published: February 2013

This article reviews studies on the nature of practice and its importance in developing musical expertise. The musician not only needs to consider the development of technical skills but must also develop musical interpretation, may have to play or sing from memory, rehearse and perform in cooperation with other musicians, improvise, and contend with stage fright. Both the quantity and quality of practice contribute to the level of expertise attained, and the individual's ability to adopt more effective practising strategies is inextricably linked with their level of expertise. Musicians exhibit considerable diversity in the ways they practise, which can lead to equally successful outcomes.
Individuality in the learning of musical skills
Authors: Gaunt Helena , Hallam Susan
Published: February 2013

This article outlines what we know about the way that individual characteristics–including sex differences, physiological characteristics, age, personality, and cognitive and learning styles–impact on engagement with and approaches to learning music. It presents theoretical frameworks that may serve to guide future research in elucidating the way in which different environments interact in a reiterative manner with the individual, leading to different musical engagement outcomes.
Movement and collaboration in musical performance
Authors: Davidson Jane W.
Published: February 2013

The body has a crucial role in the production and perception of musical performance that has been recognized for centuries. Research in the field of music psychology on the body has reflected some of the recent social anthropology and critical musicology trends, and so has developed a strand of socially focused enquiry. These ideas are explored in this article, which begins with research on motor programming, moves to more social aspects of performance and bodily movement, and finishes by considering musical collaborations.
Clinical practice in music therapy
Authors: Hurt-Thaut Corene
Published: February 2013

The field of music therapy has grown substantially since it was founded in 1950. The advances in research and medical knowledge continue to help explain the therapeutic effects of music on behaviour based on scientific evidence, providing the framework to systematically and creatively transform musical responses into therapeutic responses. This article begins with descriptions of music therapy and the music therapy treatment process. It then discusses the application of music therapy to clinical populations and music therapy in neurological rehabilitation.
The cultured brain: interplay of genes, brain, and culture
Authors: Ali Farhan , Penney Trevor B.
Published: February 2013

The brain is perhaps the most complex phenotype, but it is, nonetheless, plastic. It can be cultured evolutionarily and developmentally across genetic and neuroanatomical levels. This article provides a brief overview of how recent advances in molecular biology and genetics may be used to inform future cross-cultural psychological research. It discusses the interaction of genes and culture in shaping the brain and its functions, with specific reference to Chinese psychology. It further explains how one might begin to establish a genetically informed, cross-cultural psychology. It provides an understanding that how different populations and ethnic groups are related provides a context in which to test ideas about putative cultural differences in psychology and behaviour. Furthermore, in studies uncovering group relationships, a rough measure of time can be obtained, potentially providing information as to the rate of cultural and psychological change among human populations.
Language and the brain: computational and neuroimaging evidence from Chinese
Authors: Li Ping , Shu Hua
Published: February 2013

Within only a few decades, the field of cognitive science has progressed from the mind-as-a-computer metaphor to the integration of mind, brain, behaviour, and culture at multiple levels of analysis and with multiple, convergent tools and methodologies. In particular, the interface between cognitive science and neuroscience has provided fertile ground for transformative research and revolutionary thinking, yielding perspectives that allow for fundamental scientific discoveries and rapid paradigm shifts. This article explores that the study of language, a unique human capacity, has played an important role in this scientific movement. A large body of knowledge has accumulated on the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying language representation and language acquisition. This article focuses on the computational mechanisms and neural signatures based on the recent cross-linguistic computational and neural studies which examine the acquisition, representation, and processing of spoken and written Chinese in the context of both native speakers and second-language learners.
What do we know about the Chinese self? Illustrations with self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-enhancement
Authors: Kwan Virginia S. Y. , Hui Chin-Ming , McGee James A.
Published: February 2013

Scholars of fields as diverse as biology, psychology, philosophy, anthropology, and theology have sought to achieve a greater understanding of the nature of the self. Since its first appearance in psychology, the self has become the most studied topic in Western research on psychology. One of the central issues this article addresses is, ‘What do we know about the Chinese self?’ Besides taking a bottom-up approach to review the literature relevant to the self within a Chinese context, this article also identifies the recurring themes among the topics on the self by assessing the frequency of their appearance in the literature. Although there are many topics relevant to the study of self-processes, this article focuses on only a few. It discusses three widely explored and central self-processes: self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-enhancement. Furthermore it identifies emerging topics and discusses future directions for research on the self.
Face and morality in Confucian society
Authors: Hwang Kwang-Kuo , Han Kuei-Hsiang
Published: February 2013

This article explains the various aspects and characteristics of the concept of face and morality in Confucian society. The vocabularies for describing Chinese usage of face can be divided into two broad categories, namely moral face and social face. Both are related to Confucian concepts of morality. It analyzes the relevant features of Confucian morality and discusses it from three different ethical perspectives. The article uses the thus obtained conceptual framework to explain the commonality in findings from two separate empirical studies on episodes of losing face conducted in Taiwan and mainland China. In Confucian society, not only do protective face and acquisitive face constitute significant orientations of personality, but such indigenous concepts as zuo mianzi (making face) and zheng mianzi (keeping up face) may also have important psychological implications.
Chinese cultural psychology and contemporary communication
Authors: Xu Shi , Feng Bing
Published: February 2013

This article provides an initial and sketchy account of a culturally different, specifically Chinese, psychology from the vantage point of linguistic communication in contemporary China. It examines the particular sort of Chinese psychology, which is characterized by a system of distinctive categories, traits, and principles that set Chinese culture apart from other Eastern and Western cultures. Drawing on the insights from existing Chinese psychological and linguistic scholarship, this article spells out some of the key cultural psychological characteristics and tries to link them up with the typical patterns of speaking and writing in contemporary Chinese communication. In addition, it suggests how this Chinese discursive-psychological framework may be used for not just making sense of texts and talk in contemporary Chinese society, but also for critically evaluating them. Broadly it puts together an integrated understanding of Chinese psychology and contemporary communication.
Introduction
Authors: Heine Bernd , Narrog Heiko
Published: February 2013

This introductory chapter first sets out the purpose of the book, which is to provide the student of language with alternatives that have been proposed in contemporary linguistics for analysing and understanding the structure of human languages. It then discusses various topics dealing with linguistic analysis and the creation of this book, including groupings and cleavages among the various approaches to linguistic analysis, analogies used for understanding linguistic phenomena, domains of language structure, relations among domains, the nature of structures, lexical vs. functional categories, and language evolution.
Embodied Construction Grammar
Authors: Feldman Jerome , Dodge Ellen , Bryant John
Published: February 2013

Recent developments in neuroscience and behavioural sciences suggest approaching language as a cornerstone of Unified Cognitive Science. One such integrative effort is the Neural Theory of Language (NTL) project, which studies language learning and use as an embodied neural system using a wide range of analytical, experimental, and modelling techniques. The grammar formalism of NTL is called Embodied Construction Grammar (ECG), and is notation for describing language that is being used in a wide range of theoretical and applied products. This chapter focuses on three related features of ECG: deep semantics, compositionality, and best-fit. Its core is a detailed analysis of a set of related constructions covering purposeful action, with an emphasis on compositionality. Examples illustrate the notation and central ideas of ECG formalism, and convey the underlying motivations of NTL deep semantics and conceptual composition.