bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Simeon the New Theologian: An Ascetical Theology for Middle-Byzantine Monks
Authors: Collins Gregory
Published: November 2023

In the life and teaching of Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022), Byzantine ascetical and mystical theology achieved its most intense penetration of the Christian Mystery. Simeon wrote at a time when the Byzantine church was relatively free of dogmatic disputes and doctrinal conflicts. The great Trinitarian and Christological debates of the late patristic era, although a constant source of interest in Byzantine religious life, had long since ceased to divide the "Great Church." Belief had crystallized and hardened into dogmatic definitions and conciliar formulations and an identifiable "Orthodox" identity had emerged in the Byzantine church. In dogmatic theology, the Cappadocian model of the Trinity reigned supreme; in Christology, the Chalcedonian dyophysite understanding of Christ, interpreted in an Alexandrian way, stressed the unity of the two natures in the person of the Incarnate Word.
Maximus the Confessor on the Affections in Historical Perspective
Authors: Wilken Robert L
Published: November 2023

Jonathan Edwards begins his treatise The Religious Affections with a citation from 1 Peter 1.8: "Whom having not seen, ye love; in whom, though now ye see him not, yet believing, ye rejoice with joy unspeakable and full of glory." What drew Edwards to this passage were the phrases "ye love" and "ye rejoice with joy unspeakable." For Edwards, love and joy were affections, and his book was a defense of the view that true religion consisted not only in actings of the inclination and will of the soul but also in the fervent exercises of the heart. The religion that God requires has nothing to do with a state of indifference, he writes, but with ardor, with a fervent spirit and a burning heart, in short with passions of the soul. "The holy Scriptures do everywhere place religion very much in the affections; such as fear, hope, love, hatred, desire, joy, sorrow, gratitude, compassion, and zeal.
Body Politic among the Brides of Christ: Paul and the Origins of Christian Sexual Renunciation
Authors: Boyarm Daniel
Published: November 2023

What was notably lacking, in Paul's letter, was the warm faith shown by contemporary pagans and Jews that the sexual urge, although disorderly, was capable of socialization and of ordered, even warm, expression within marriage. The dangers of porneia, of potential immorality brought about by sexual frustration, were allowed to hold the center of the stage. By this essentially negative, even alarmist, strategy, Paul left a fatal legacy to future ages. An argument against abandoning sexual intercourse within marriage and in favor of allowing the younger generation to continue to have children slid imperceptibly into an attitude that viewed marriage itself as no more than a defense against desire. In the future, a sense of the presence of "Satan," in the form of a constant and ill-defined risk of lust, lay like a heavy shadow in the corner of every Christian church.
The Battle for the Body in Manichaean Asceticism
Authors: Beduhn Jason
Published: November 2023

As distinct from most other religious movements, which contain ascetic traditions as one option of expression, Manichaeism is ascetic at its very core, and to be a Manichaean is, by definition, to be an ascetic. Unfortunately, there are none of these fascinating people around anymore, and it is the task of historians to reconstruct, as best they can, the discourse and practices of the Manichaean faith. This historical enterprise of recovery has been hampered by two related obstacles. The first is the diverse and fragmentary character of Manichaean literary remains. The second obstacle is the great liberty modern academics have taken with this material in synthesizing an artificial Manichaeism to match their own preconceptions. The quest for a unified Manichaean tradition, if such existed, must be based on careful comparison of distinct lines of tradition, with due regard for regional variation, in search of those elements that, by their ubiquity in the sources, reveal themselves to be fundamental to Manichaeism as a whole. The practice of asceticism is one such fundamental element of Manichaeism, and this paper examines the Manichaean literary tradition that authorized and interpreted the Manichaean ascetic life.
Psychophysiological and Comparative Analysis of Ascetico-Meditational Discipline: Toward a New Theory of Asceticism
Authors: Bushell William C
Published: November 2023

In this paper I describe a number of the major psychophysiological enhancements that accompany the practice, particularly the long-term practice, of asceticism and meditation (including prayer, contemplation, etc.), with special reference to contemporary Ethiopian Orthodox Christian asceticism and to the desert Christian movement of the early centuries CE. The present description and explanation of ascetic and meditational practice (the ascetico-meditational regimen) constitutes a new theory of the functions of asceticism and altered states of consciousness (ASCs), a theory that is developed in greater depth elsewhere.
Human Artistry and Divine Jealousy
Authors: Fantham Elaine
Published: November 2023

Ovid has already made clear the egotism and vindictiveness of the Olympian gods, who cannot endure a human rival. But their jealousy is not confined to sexual matters, and the poet will demonstrate repeatedly how human artists are punished, or simply victimized, for challenging a god’s professional expertise. In this context, it does not matter whether their performance succeeds or fails: to compete with a god on any terms brings loss of human identity. Among the five tales of divinely imposed metamorphosis in books 5-6, three are of formal contests and illustrate how human musicians and artists compete with divine beings and suffer for it.
After Ovid
Authors: Fantham Elaine
Published: November 2023

Ovid was famous and successful before he began the Metamorphoses, but it is probable that in the two millennia after his death his epic of transformation not only transformed epic but exercised a greater influence over the shaping of art and literature than any other Latin work. Anyone attempting to convey the breadth and variety of this influence can only pick a small sample of works that have themselves been the subject of many books. To provide some perspective this chapter will begin and end with popular art forms from the last decade.
Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Menopause
Authors: Koehn Cheryl , Palmer Taysha , Esdaile John
Published: November 2023

Conceiving a baby, growing it in the womb, giving birth, and raising a child can be some of the most fulfilling experiences life has to offer a woman whether she has RA or not. There’s no doubt that you’ll face challenges as a woman with RA, but moms who live with the disease and experts agree: If you want to have children, the rewards far outweigh the difficulties you may face. Your chances of becoming pregnant are normal, pregnancy will not make your disease worse, and your arthritis will not harm your baby, although there is a small possibility that RA will be passed along to your child through your genes and affect him or her later in life. Before and during pregnancy, you and your rheumatologist may face tough decisions about medications, and 90 percent of women experience a flare in the three months after the baby is born (more on these topics later). But, all in all, pregnancy and childbirth are safe for both moms with RA, and their precious cargo.
for the End
Authors: Stein Stephen J
Published: November 2023

The sketch of William Miller that appeared in the New York Herald in 1842 depicts him in a scholarly pose, a man with a broad head and high brow, his hand on an open Bible-an appropriate image for the Baptist lay preacher born in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, who predicted the end of the world would occur in 1843. Miller based his calculations on the biblical books of Daniel and Revelation. His startling pro-nouncement, first made public in 1831, created a major stir in the 1830s and 1840s. This kind of prediction gets attention in every age. Miller was the founder of a distinctive apocalyptic tradition in American religion.
Becoming Americans: 1924–1945
Authors: Diner Hasia R
Published: November 2023

The years between the Johnson Act of 1924 and the end of World War II in 1945 transformed American Jews. In fact, those years transformed all Americans. No one escaped completely from the ravages of the Great Depression during the 1930s or from World War II, which raged from 1939 to 1945 (the United States entered the war in 1941). But Jews experienced these cataclysmic events in a special way simply because they were Jewish.

Even if there had been no depression and no World War II, life would have changed for American Jews after the early 1920s. Once immigration stopped, the Jewish people in the United States became more and more American Jews, comfortable with a modern, urban way of life. With immigration from Europe halted, growth in the Jewish population of the United States would result from natural increase, births outnumbering deaths. In 1927 Jews made up about 3.6 percent of the American population.
On Evil
Authors: Aquinas Thomas
Published: November 2023

The De Malo represents some of Aquinas’ most mature thinking on goodness, badness, and human agency. In it he examines the full range of questions associated with evil: its origin, its nature, its relation to good, and its compatability with the existence of an omnipotent, benevolent God. This edition offers Richard Regan’s new, clear readable English translation, based on the Leonine Commission’s authoritative edition of the Latin text. Brian Davies has provided an extensive introduction and notes. (Please note: this edition does not include the Latin text).
Introduction
Authors: Aquinas Thomas
Published: November 2023

We have three main sources for our knowledge of Aquinas’s life. The first is the text of his canonization process (Naples 1319). Then there are two early biographies. One is by William Tocco, who knew Aquinas personally. The other is by Bernard Gui, whose account depends partly on that of Tocco, but may also incorporate independent and reliable information. Putting these documents together allows us to form a generally credible outline of Aquinas’s career. But they also leave us with many unanswered, and probably unanswerable, questions. Hence we find that the three most recent biographies of Aquinas differ significantly on a number of issues. They do so, for example, even when it comes to the year of Aquinas’s birth, which can arguably be placed anywhere from 1224 to 1226.
Hans Joachim Schoeps’s “Critical-Protestant” Theology: A Jewish-Christian Amalgamation
Authors: Krell Marc A
Published: November 2023

Like his older contemporary Rosenzweig, the German Jewish theologian Hans Joachim Schoeps constructed a systematic Jewish theology in conversation with Christianity that was supposed to preserve Jewish uniqueness while at the same time recognizing its contiguity with German, Christian culture. Similar to Rosenzweig, Schoeps grew up in an assimilated Jewish home yet later rebelled against bourgeois Jewish liberalism, arguing that it had changed Judaism from a theocentric religion into a historical, anthropological discipline. He disagreed with the effort to make God into a projec tion of either natural-cosmic forces or ethical-political ideals by historicizing revelation. Moreover, like Rosenzweig, Schoeps constructed a theological response to this religious dilemma out of a cultural discourse shaped to some extent by the early writings of the Protestant thinker Karl Barth. Additionally, in his attempt to recover faith in a transcendent God, Schoeps also became attracted to the theological writings of Martin Luther as interpreted by the Lutheran scholar Karl Holl.
Between Dialectic and Dialogue:Irving Greenberg’s Organic Model of the Jewish-Christian Relationship
Authors: Krell Marc A
Published: November 2023

For Irving Greenberg, like his contemporary Rubenstein, the Holocaust marked a theological watershed and consequently a significant turning point in Jewish-Christian relations. Yet while they both view the Holocaust as theologically and historically unique, they differ somewhat in their interpretations of this uniqueness and what response it requires. Whereas Rubenstein views the Holocaust as the punitive destruction of an omnipotent God, Greenberg sees God as actually abdicating his covenantal responsibility to protect the Jewish people from annihilation. Consequently, Rubenstein understands the Holocaust as the death knell for the historical God of Israel and an end to the myths of covenant and election. Greenberg agrees with Rubenstein that the Holocaust marks an end to the historical covenant between God and Israel as it was previously understood.
Flying Down to Rio
Authors: Lienhard John H
Published: November 2023

Imagine a scene on the shores of San Francisco Bay in 1915.1 Fifty thousand people watch a diver from the battleship Oregon being lowered down into the water; then they wait. An hour later, the ship’s winch begins turning. The crowd holds its breath until a primitive airplane finally emerges from the bay. Its wings are torn away, and still seated at the controls is the drowned body of Lincoln Beachey—until now, the greatest early daredevil of heavier-than-air flight.
Men Have Magnified a Natural Circumstance
Authors: Walker Ronald W , Turley Richard E , Leonard Glen M
Published: November 2023

Corn Creek, twelve miles south of Fillmore, ran thirteen feet wide and two feet deep during heavy runoff, though in late August when the Arkansas company arrived, much of the force was spent. Still, there was water enough to supply people and animals, both from the creek and nearby springs and sloughs. In good seasons, there was also enough moisture in the soil to nourish “immense quantities of grass”—a feature that made Corn Creek a fine resting place for cattle companies on the southern road.

The Pahvant Indians, a band that mixed the cultures of the Utes and Paiutes, had occupied the Corn Creek region for centuries. The Pahvants had wide contacts with other Indians, especially those in the Paiute heartland farther south. The Pahvants had a history of simple agriculture—growing “corn, beans, pumpkins, squashes, and potatoes”—but they also relied heavily on native plants and animals for their support.
Islamic Social Movements
Authors: Yavuz M Hakan
Published: November 2023

A comparison of different contemporary Islamic social movements shows that they are Janus-faced. That is, on the one hand they are modern and socially and politically “progressive” and express yearnings for democracy and economic development; on the other hand they are conservative and “authoritarian,” calling for a strict moral-religious code in society.

Consequently, tension is an inherent characteristic of most Islamic social movements. Ironically, this tension between “progresssive” and “authoritarian” aspects of religious movements is the source of religious innovation. Unfortunately, many scholars of slam fail to see the complex nature of modem Islamic social movements and seek to explain them according to textual (essentialist) or economic reductionist (contextualist) readings of Islam. This book challenges such interpretations, arguing instead that, by embracing certain opportunity spaces within the public sphere, Islamic movements could become a motivating force for economic expansion, democratization, and the popular acceptance of many aspects of modernity.
The Neo-Nur Movement of Fethullah Güllen
Authors: Yavuz M Hakan
Published: November 2023

Although there are more than 10 major Nurcu textual-communities divided along class, regional, and ethnic lines, the most influential one has been that headed by Fethullah Güllen, commonly referred to as the “community of Fethullah Güllen.” The Güllen-led neo-Nur movement seeks to improve Turkish society by using the market, education, and information opportunity spaces to raise a new generation with heightened patriotic and moral consciousness. As a result of the opening and closing up of political and economic opportunity spaces, the Güllen movement has evolved from a stress on religious-conservative community-building to a stress on creating a global, faith-inspired educational system. One can identify three different cycles in the movement: the formative period (1966-1983); the emergence into the public sphere (1983-1997); and the paradox of persecution and forced liberalization (1997-present). Each cycle is shaped by structural changes that reproduce a more contextual framing process. The movement functions like a beehive with a sense of loyalty and discipline.
Caesar’s Civil War
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia
Published: November 2023

Caesar's Civil War is an unfinished masterpiece. It was abandoned by an author who found himself living in a different world than that which saw its commencement. A snapshot of the late republic, it offers a vivid and detailed account of the troubled Roman empire near the turn to the common era. In it, Caesar recounts his break with the Senate and general Pompey and narrates the events of the nineteen months of civil war that followed. It ends after general Pompey's death, amidst the lead up to the Alexandrian war that initiated the next phase of the fight for Rome. The work shows the brilliance for which Caesar's oratory, like his generalship, was known. The primary topics covered in this introduction to Caesar's gripping history are the generic background of Caesar's commentarii or "Notebooks," his criteria for selection of material, the contemporary context of the civil war, the literary techniques employed, and the work's characterization and structure. General aids to the reader include maps to accompany the particular events discussed, a timeline of the civil war and of Caesar's life, explanation of technical terms, and a glossary.
Mastering Victory
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia
Published: November 2023

The three preceding chapters explored Caesar’s literary achievement in the Civil Warin terms of genre, structure, and characterization, and began to place the work in its contexts both literary and political. This chapter looks at how Caesar presents himself to his contemporaries through his text. The focus is not on what he says about himself and his virtues—his superiority to Pompey as general, for example, which was treated in chapter 3—but on the self he reveals to his readers by his authorial choices. At first glance, the Civil Warseems to be structured around the contest for primacy between Pompey and Caesar. It begins with Pompey’s assumption of leadership in the opposition to Caesar (1.1) and builds to their military confrontation in Greece (3.6–96). But neither Pompey’s flight from Pharsalus (3.96.4) nor his death at Alexandria (3.104.3) is the end of the work. Pompey’s defeat was, Caesar and others hoped, the end of a war (see sec. 5 in chap. 3), but the narrative carries Caesar on into another war, a “foreign” war this time, one fought to impose a Roman settlement on the Egyptian kingdom of the Ptolemies (3.107.2). The Civil Warbreaks off incomplete before the end of the resulting war.
Star-Crossed Heavens Fifth Trip 3 May-26 June 1630
Authors: Shea William R , Artigas Mariano
Published: November 2023

Galileo had returned to Florence in the summer of 1624 with the conviction that he was now free to write on the motion of the Earth as long as he avoided stating that it was physically true. Within a couple of months he had finished his Reply to Ingoli and could now return to his Dialogue. To emphasize what he considered his decisive argument for the motion of the Earth, Galileo planned to call the work The Discourse on the Tides. It is only when the pope objected that he changed it to The Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems. The work is the record of a discussion spread over four days, like a play in four acts, among three friends who meet in a palace in Venice.
Prose
Authors: Brooks Joanna
Published: November 2023

The occasional writings of Samson Occom provide us rare insights into the intellectual, spiritual, and cultural lives of Northeastern Native peoples in the eighteenth century. Most surviving accounts of American Indian life from this historical period were composed by European visitors to the American colonies or white settlercolonists; these documents often tell us more about the culturally specific preoccupations and prejudices or the political motives of their authors than they do about the indigenous peoples they purport to represent. Occom belonged to the communities he wrote about. Having been reared as a traditional Mohegan, he certainly understood that documenting the ceremonial life and customs of the Montauketts and Mohegans entailed specific cautions and obligations.
Bogus Citations
Authors: Cameron Alan
Published: November 2023

The problem of verifying references brings us back to the baffling question of bogus sources. I am not here concerned with imaginary works like the unfinished poem of Solon in which Plato claimed to have found the story of Atlantis, or the inscribed dedication on the island of Panchaia where Euhemerus claimed to have learned the truth about King Zeus and his family, or even the bronze tablets supposedly dug up by his father in the family house that Acusilaus cited as authority for his own Genealogies, the first prose work of Greek mythography. And only marginally with the Trojan journal of Dictys of Crete, allegedly discovered (written in the original Phoenician script) in a tomb split open by lightning. The devices of the long-lost manuscript and hidden tablets were to have a rich future in the history of fiction and forgery. Though sometimes taken seriously by the gullible,5 most such inventions can hardly have been intended (or expected) to deceive.
Sources Of Manu: The Traditions of dharma and artha
Authors: Olivelle Patrick
Published: November 2023

Given the elasticity of the concept of dharma and its broad semantic compass, the MDh drew on not one but at least two expert traditions: the one relating the dharma proper and the other centered on artha, viz., statecraft, polity, and the legal process.
Viruses and the Tree of Life
Authors: Mindell David P , Rest Joshua S , Villarreal Luis P
Published: November 2023

Viruses are rarely included in syntheses regarding the common origin and history for all life forms. There are many reasons for this, including our ignorance of their deep history, an earlier reluctance to consider them as living organisms, and their extreme changeability. However, increasing amounts of molecular sequence data enable more comparisons among viruses and between viruses and other organisms, and we attempt here a brief perspective on the integration of viruses and the Tree of Life. At the outset, we wish to emphasize that viruses have arisen on multiple, independent occasions, being a grade rather than a single clade, and to alert readers to the limitations of the “tree of life” metaphor when applied to virus histories. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites averaging 30 nm long, or 1/100th the size of many bacteria. They are the last major kind of organisms to be described, and may represent the last and broadest organismal frontier. Many viruses, when in reproductive mode, can produce thousands of offspring per hour in each of the hundreds or thousands of cells infected in a single host individual.
The Radiation of Vascular Plants
Authors: Pryer Kathleen M , Schneider Harald , Magallón Susana
Published: November 2023

Vascular plants include our major food resources in the form of leaves, stems, roots, fruits, and seeds. They further sustain human life by providing other essentials such as wood, fibers, and medicines. Plants are the dominant primary producers in terrestrial habitats, and by the process of photosynthesis, they actively convert solar energy, water, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (sugars) and oxygen, which is vital to all living things. The rise and spread of vascular plants resulted in a dramatic drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) about 400 million years ago during the mid-Paleozoic (Algeo et al. 2001, Berner 2001, Driese and Mora 2001, Raven and Edwards 2001). This decline in atmospheric CO2 triggered the evolution of vascular plants with more complex body plans, including such organs as leaves, specialized for optimizing photosynthesis (Beerling et al. 2001, Pataki 2002, Shougang et al. 2003). Vascular plants therefore both caused and reacted to global changes in their physical environment early in their evolution. The earliest radiation of vascular plants has been interpreted as one in which rapidly diversifying lineages colonized and shaped different terrestrial habitats (DiMichele et al. 2001).
The Fungi
Authors: Taylor John W , Spatafora Joseph , O’Donnell Kerry , Lutzoni François , James Timothy , Hibbett David S , Geiser David , Bruns Thomas D , Blackwell Meredith
Published: November 2023

The fungi contain possibly as many as 1.5 million species (Hawksworth 1991, 2001), ranging from organisms that are microscopic and unicellular to multicellular colonies that can be as large as the largest animals and plants (Alexopoulos et al. 1996). Phylogenetic analyses of nuclear small subunit (nSSU) ribosomal DNA (rDNA) put fungi and animals as sister clades that diverged 0.9 to 1.6 billion years ago (Wainright et al. 1993, Berbee and Taylor 2001, Heckman et al. 2001). The grouping of fungi and animals as sister taxa is controversial, with some protein-coding genes supporting the association and others not (Wang et al. 1999, Loytynoja and Milinkovitch 2001, Lang et al. 2002). Assuming that fungi and animals are sister taxa, a comparison of basal fungi (Chytridiomycota) with basal animals and associated groups (e.g., choanoflagellates and mesomycetozoa) should shed light on the nature of the last common ancestor of animals and fungi (fig. 12.1).
The Mollusca: Relationships and Patterns from Their First Half-Billion Years
Authors: Lindberg David R , Ponder Winston F , Haszprunar Gerhard
Published: November 2023

Mollusks are bilaterally symmetrical eumetazoans that are diverse in body form and size, ranging from giant squids more than 20 m in length to adult body sizes of about 500 mm. They are often considered to be the second largest phylum next to Arthropoda, with about 200,000 living species, of which about 75,000 living and 35,000 fossil have been named, making them one of the better known invertebrate groups. They also exhibit a great range of physiological, behavioral, and ecological adaptations. Mollusks have an excellent fossil record extending back some 560 million years to the early Cambrian, and perhaps into the Precambrian as well. Three major classes, Gastropoda (snails, slugs, limpets), Bivalvia (scallops, clams, oysters, mussels) and Cephalopoda (squid, cuttlefish, octopuses, nautilus), are recognized, as well as four or five minor living classes[Aplacophora (spicule worms)—which are often divided into two separate classes, Polyplacophora (chitons), Scaphopoda (tusk shells), and Monoplacophora (a small group of deep sea limpets with a long fossil history)]. A few extinct groups often treated as classes are also recognized.
The Meaning of Biodiversity and the Tree of Life
Authors: Wilson Edward O
Published: November 2023

It seems very likely, in accordance with the belief of many anthropologists, that the first words to emerge during the evolution of human speech were used to specify people, plants, animals, and other objects, a roster that proliferated rapidly thereafter. That step, which presumably occurred sometime during the transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens a half million years ago, can rightfully be considered the earliest roots of science. Accuracy and repeatability were vital for the sake of survival, then as now. Getting things by their right names, as the Chinese say, is the first step to wisdom. And so it came to pass that the emergence of modern Western science included an effort to name the immense array of plant and animal species on Earth, and also to group them in a system that reflects their degree of similarity. That was an eighteenth-century achievement, culminating in the binomial nomenclatural system of the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus. Scientific taxonomy was followed by the notion of a genealogy of species, a nineteenth-century advance foreshadowed by the acceptance of evolution. In the twentieth century came the explanation of the process of species multiplication, one of the central achievements of the Modern Synthesis of evolutionary theory.
What Is a Risk Factor?
Authors: Kraemer Helena Chmura , Lowe Karen Kraemer , Kupfer David J
Published: November 2023

Should we urge all mothers to stay home, breast-feed their infants, and encourage their toddlers to be adventurous while not allowing them to watch television? Each of these newspaper headlines1–5 describes how certain characteristics, behaviors, environments, or events (or more succinctly put, certain “factors”) are “associated with,” are “linked to,” or somehow are related to specific outcomes. Do these relationships mean these factors are risk factors? If they are, how should we consider and react to them? If they are not, what are they? In this chapter, we answer these questions by defining more of the terms central to risk research. Specifically, we will clarify what is a risk factor and, possibly more important, what is not a risk factor.
How Do We Use Multiple Risk Factors? ROC Tree Methods
Authors: Kraemer Helena Chmura , Lowe Karen Kraemer , Kupfer David J
Published: November 2023

The legend of St. Denis, the patron saint of Paris, describes how, after St. Denis was martyred by decapitation, he walked two miles carrying his head in his hands. Centuries later, a wise French woman, Mme. Du Deffand (1697–1780), pointed out: “La distance n’y fait rien, il n’y a que le premier pas qui coute.” Loosely translated: “The distance doesn’t matter—it’s only the first step that counts.” In short, the miracle is that first step. Once that is taken, all he had to do was repeat it. In Chapter 9 we described a “first step”: establishing the potency of a risk factor by acknowledging both the benefit and harm of using a risk factor to predict an outcome. In doing so, we noted that individual risk factors by themselves often are not very potent. Instead, we argued, we must consider multiple risk factors. In Chapter 10 we addressed how multiple risk factors might work together in order to both understand what leads to an outcome and begin to devise ways of preventing (or promoting) it. However, in the end, we had identified which risk factors were important and how they fit together over time but had ignored almost entirely how strong the prediction was.
Where Are We Now?
Authors: Kraemer Helena Chmura , Lowe Karen Kraemer , Kupfer David J
Published: November 2023

Our overall goal for this book is to make every reader a smart skeptic and thereby encourage a shift in the course of future risk research. Poor-quality risk estimation will persist until all of us understand the process better and until we make it clear that we are no longer willing to see taxpayer or philanthropic money spent on unnecessary or flawed research. We also hope that the ideas and approaches described in this book will reduce the amount of erroneous advice based on unsubstantiated claims and prevent decision makers from enacting policy or individuals taking drastic action without careful consideration of the adequacy of research methods and interpretation. The consequences of poor risk research cannot be ignored when the ultimate cost may be the shortened duration and diminished quality of human life.
No Smoking The Ethical Issues
Authors: Goodin Robert E
Published: November 2023

On the broad outlines of that analysis the great Victorian moral philosophers John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer,2 and Henry Sidgwick3-all seem agreed. It is the place of society to stop us from doing things that will harm others; it is not the place of society to stop us from doing things that will harm no one but ourselves. In Mill’s classic formulation: the sole end from which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number is self-protection.... The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise or even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil in case he do otherwise The only part of the conduct of any one, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over him self, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.
Community: The Neglected Tradition of Public Health
Authors: Beauchamp Dan E
Published: November 2023

What are the limits of government in protecting the health and safety of the public? As more and more states regulate personal behavior to protect the public health and safety, this question again becomes central. Can there be good reasons for public health paternalism in a democracy? Are health and safety individual interests, or also common and shared ends? ... In one version of democratic theory, the state has no legitimate role in restricting personal conduct that is substantially voluntary and that has little or no direct consequence for anyone other than the individual. This strong antipaternalist position is associated with John Stuart Mill. In his essay “On Liberty,” which has deeply influenced American and British thought for over 100 years, Mill wrote: “[t]he only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harms to others.” Mill restricts paternal ism to children and minors. In this view the common good consists in maximizing the freedom of each individual to pursue his or her own interests, subject to a like freedom for every other individual. In the words of Blackstone, “The public good is essentially interested [in] ... the protection of every individual’s private rights.” In a second version, health and safety remain private interests, but some paternal ism is accepted, albeit reluctantly. As Joel Feinberg argues, common sense makes us reject a thoroughgoing antipaternalism.
Health Policy in a New Key Setting Democratic Priorities
Authors: Jennings Bruce
Published: November 2023

This is a time of transition and transformation in the American health care system. The question is not whetherit will change in some fundamental ways in the coming decade, but whitherit is going-what direction the change will take, what interests and ends it will serve, and what values will be promoted by those ends. In this essay I am particularly concerned with two facets of this exceedingly large and complex problem. The first concerns the general issue of allocation in the health care system as a whole. The era when interest group liberalism predicated on the assumption of expanding resources worked tolerably well in health politics is over. An era of scarcity and the politics of hard choices and redistribution has begun, and in this new era more explicit value-laden policy rationales grounded on considerations of justice and equity must come to the fore. At this stage of the debate, we need to consider various conceptual maps and various ways of sorting out the allocation issues. In what follows I offer and explore one such map.
Rights and Dangers Bioterrorism and the Ideologies of Public Health
Authors: Bayer Ronald , Colgrove James
Published: November 2023

The history of American public health is punctuated by controversies over the extent to which the state may legitimately impose restrictions on liberty in the name of the common good and over the extent to which protection of the public’s welfare has served as a pretext for erosion of fundamental rights. Such conflicts were animated by deep-rooted mistrust of overreaching, by concerns about arbitrary exercises of power, and by the antiauthoritarian ethos that is such a prominent feature of American politics and civic culture. Periods of divisive controversy alternated with times of consensus during which dissident ideologies and underlying tensions largely disappeared from view. Extraordinary events, however, forced into the open assumptions underlying the dominant views of public health and revealed the existence of unresolved tensions, kindling anew debates over matters long thought to be settled. The shattering of the illusion of American continental impregnability by the events of September 11, 2001, and by the subsequent anthrax scare provided the occasion for a debate over the ideologies of public health. A controversy was sparked by proposals to enact a model emergency health powers act that would radically enhance the power of the state to respond to threats to the public health.
Regulating Toxic Substances A Philosophy of Science and the Law
Authors: Cranor Carl F
Published: November 2023

Since the reporting, interpretation, and use of epidemiological data are not normatively neutral, and we could change traditional scientific practices, we should face the use of the 95% rule in these contexts as a normative question, no matter who makes the interpretative decisions. The 95% rule ... serves as a surrogate or as an exemplar for the use of demanding standards of evidence for regulatory purposes. We have seen how this can adversely affect the health-protective goals of regulation. Thus, the reader should keep in mind plausible generalizations of the 95% rule as examples of how demanding standards of evidence or other scientific practices could frustrate pursuit of legally mandated goals when more sensitive and more flexible interpretations of data would better serve legal aims. In other institutional contexts we have clearly faced such issues. In the criminal law, for example, avoiding wrongful damage to someone’s reputation and well being is so important that we spend considerable sums of money and deliberately impose difficulties on proving guilt in order to avoid wrongly inflicting harsh treatment and condemnation on the defendant. We could save money and have more unjust outcomes if we thought it worth the human costs, but we do not. Clearly a number of moral and cost considerations have influenced the institution of the criminal law. We have been quite self-conscious in debating the considerations that bear on the design and workings of the criminal law. Somewhat analogous problems arise in environmental health law concerning the interpretation and use of scientific studies; I suggest that similar debates should address these issues.
Doth OSHA Protect Too Much?
Authors: Daniels Norman
Published: November 2023

A health care system can protect an individual’s share of the normal opportunity range both by curing disease when it arises and by reducing the risks of disease and dis ability. If we are obliged to protect opportunity, we may neglect neither curative nor preventive measures. The fair equality of opportunity account thus has a bearing on the debate about whether the health care systems of the United States and other Western countries overemphasize acute therapeutic services as opposed to preventive and public health measures. There are two general implications of the account for preventive health care: protecting opportunity will require (1) reducing the risk of disease and (2) seeking an equitable distribution of the risk of disease. The first implication is fairly obvious. It is often more effective to prevent dis ease and disability than it is to cure them when they occur (or to compensate individuals for loss off unction, where cure is not possible). Cost-effectiveness arguments will have some bearing on claims about the appropriate distribution of acute versus preventive measures. But the general point emphasized by the equal opportunity account is that the burdens of disease-even where the disease can be treated, and leaving aside financial burdens-have effects on fair equality of opportunity. This suggests that many types of preventive service and practice which reduce the risk of disease will be given prominence in a system governed by the fair equality of opportunity principle.
Governing Through Crime
Authors: Simon Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Across America today gated communities sprawl out from urban centers, employers enforce mandatory drug testing, and schools screen students with metal detectors. Social problems ranging from welfare dependency to educational inequality have been reconceptualized as crimes, with an attendant focus on assigning fault and imposing consequences. Even before the recent terrorist attacks, non-citizen residents had become subject to an increasingly harsh regime of detention and deportation, and prospective employees subjected to background checks. How and when did our everyday world become dominated by fear, every citizen treated as a potential criminal? In this startlingly original work, Jonathan Simon traces this pattern back to the collapse of the New Deal approach to governing during the 1960s when declining confidence in expert-guided government policies sent political leaders searching for new models of governance. The War on Crime offered a ready solution to their problem: politicians set agendas by drawing analogies to crime and redefined the ideal citizen as a crime victim, one whose vulnerabilities opened the door to overweening government intervention. By the 1980s, this transformation of the core powers of government had spilled over into the institutions that govern daily life. Soon our schools, our families, our workplaces, and our residential communities were being governed through crime. This powerful work concludes with a call for passive citizens to become engaged partners in the management of risk and the treatment of social ills. Only by coming together to produce security, can we free ourselves from a logic of domination by others, and from the fear that currently rules our everyday life.
“Prosecutor-in-Chief “ : Executive Authority and the War on Crime
Authors: Simon Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The executive as law enforcer is surely not a new story. Historical rulers in European societies made their jurisdiction over felonies a critical part of their local presence from the beginning of the nation-state. Even before this, small territorial rulers claimed the power to punish as defining features of their rule. Indeed, the very meaning of territorial power, or do- minion, derives from the notion of danger. To enter a dominion is to place oneself under the protection of the violent power that is the prince. It is tempting to assimilate the current tendency of politicians to champion their toughness on crime in contemporary democratic polities as a throw- back or at least a gesture toward that older model of executive power. We acknowledge this when we speak of “drug czars” and when politicians openly compete to name the highest penalty that should be exacted for a crime. Yet these monarchical echoes miss the deeply liberal and democratic tone of the war on crime. If the expansive role of the executive in the era of the war on crime can be traced to anything in our political genealogy, it is less the image of the sovereign as vengeance taker than the imminently American and democratic institution of the local prosecutor.
The Development of Visual Short-Term Memory in Infancy
Authors: Oakes Lisa M , Ross-Sheehy, Shannon , Luck Steven J
Published: November 2023

Short-term storage of visual information is critically important for many cognitive functions. Comparing two items that cannot be simultaneously foveated-for example, deciding which of two cookies is larger-requires that the information about one item (e.g., one cookie) be maintained in a visual short-term memory (VSTM) store while foveating the other item (e.g., the other cookie; Pomplun, Reingold, & Shen, 2001; Pomplun et al., 2001). Similarly, integrating views of the world separated by saccades requires that those views be stored in VSTM (Hollingworth & Henderson, 2002; Irwin, 1991). VSTM is therefore critical for the online use of visual information and is critically important for cognitive development. Given that visual exploration is a primary means of infants’ learning about the world, not to mention the enormous number of novel objects they encounter, infants must develop the ability to effectively compare objects online. Consider, for example, an infant presented with a new toy among several familiar toys. Determining that the new toy is similar to one of the old toys requires that he or she be able to compare the features of the new toy with the features of the familiar toys.
What Infants can Tell us About Working Memory Development
Authors: Cowan Nelson
Published: November 2023

Despite my focus for the past 25 years on theoretical aspects of working memory and its development in adults and elementary school children, my graduate training at the University of Wisconsin, 1974-1980, was in the infant speech perception laboratory of Philip A. Morse, often in collaboration with Lewis A. Leavitt. My graduate research began with questions about whether 4- and 5-month-old infants would show a right-ear advantage for the perception of spoken syllables, as adults do (e.g., Shankweiler & Studdert-Kennedy, 1967), and whether auditory backward recognition masking (Massaro, 1975) could be obtained in infants. However, slight differences in the stimulus arrangement turned out to make enormous differences in the measure of auditory discrimination being pioneered in the laboratory (heart rate deceleration to a change following 15 to 20 repetitions of a prechange sound). Failure of several experiments using that type of measure was followed by the success of conceptually similar investigations with slightly different discrimination measures (Cowan, Suomi, & Morse, 1982; Glanville, Best, & Levenson, 1977). Several hundred infants wiser, I drifted away from infant research, and return to it here with great admiration for exciting advances that have been made through persistent, intrepid work.
How Do We Remember?:Let Me Count the Ways
Authors: Mandler Jean M
Published: November 2023

Part II contains an interesting and informative set of chapters. Not only do they lay out some remarkable developments over the past two decades in infant memory research, but they also illuminate the fundamental unsolved issue in the study of infant memory. The chapters show a clear-cut split on the issue of what infant tests of memory measure, and a more nuanced, but nevertheless I believe genuine, split as to the usefulness of differentiating explicit and implicit memory. Underlying this split is the elephant in the room, the ever-disturbing question of how to measure conscious awareness in nonverbal creatures.