bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Measurement of Definitions of Success among Chinese and Australian Girls
Authors: Fan Cynthia , Karnilowicz Wally
Published: March 2007

This predominately methodological article reports the development of an approach to measure definitions of success. The method is designed to determine definitions of success as a cross-cultural phenomenon. The present approach overcomes the problems of imposing cultural constructs on other groups and response sets as encountered in cross-cultural research. Participants were 65 Australian and 113 Chinese immigrant girls living in Australia. Participants listed their definitions of success and those of significant others in response to open-ended questions. Their responses were grouped into five categories and based on these categories, a questionnaire (using closed-format 5-point scales) was developed. Four judges rated the original responses of the participants on the questionnaire. Interrater reliability was above .7. Validity was examined in terms of content validity and criterion validity, using the method of contrasted groups, comparing the scores of Chinese and Australian girls.
Scenarios for the Measurement of Collectivism and Individualism
Authors: Triandis Harry C. , Chen Xiao Ping , Chan Darius K.-S.
Published: March 2007

This article presents a method that uses scenarios for the measurement of horizontal (H)and vertical (V) individualism (I) and collectivism (C) across cultures, with university samples. The scenarios were developed by using focus groups, to cover a wide range of social situations often found among university students. Graduate student judges indicated which responses to each scenario represented HI, VI, HC, or VC judgments. When the judges did not agree on these judgments, the scenarios were eliminated. Scenarios that did not distinguish responses obtained from the Illinois and Hong Kong samples were also eliminated. This resulted in a set of 16 scenarios that provide efficient measurement of the constructs. The method converges with a method that uses attitude items.
Cultural Differences between Arabs and Americans
Authors: Buda Richard , Elsayed-Elkhouly Sayed M.
Published: March 2007

Cultural differences between Arabs and Americans were investigated using Wagner's individualism-collectivism survey. Arab subjects were significantly more collectivist than U.S. subjects, and within the Arab culture, Egyptian subjects were significantly more individualistic than Gulf States subjects.
Effects of Directional Habits and Handedness on Aesthetic Preference for Left and Right Profiles
Authors: Nachson Israel , Argaman Einat , Luria Assaf
Published: March 2007

Are aesthetic preferences associated with directional reading/writing habits or with cerebral laterality? To answer this question, 138 right-handed and non-right-handed Arabic, Hebrew, and Russian readers were presented with pairs of facial and bodily profiles; one member of each pair was turning to the left, and the other was turning to the right. The participants determined their aesthetic preferences for one member of each pair. If aesthetic preferences are associated with laterality, differential preferences were expected for right-handers and non-right-handers. However, if these preferences are linked to reading/writing habits, differential preferences were expected for Arabic and Hebrew readers who read and write from right to left and Russian readers who read and write from left to right. Data analyses showed that Arabic and Hebrew readers preferred both facial and bodily profiles that turned to the right, whereas Russian readers preferred the profiles that turned to the left. The data were interpreted as showing that aesthetic preferences are associated primarily with reading/writing habits.
Maslow and Relatedness: Creating an Interpersonal Model of Self-Actualization
Authors: Hanley Steven J. , Abell Steven C.
Published: March 2007

Abraham Maslow proposed what has become an almost definitive model of self-actualization with his theory of a hierarchy of needs. It is based heavily on Western and individualistic ideals of personal growth that de-emphasize the importance of relatedness in selfactualization. Critiques of this Western notion of relatedness have come from feminist thinkers, existential philosophers, environmentalists, and more. In light of these critiques it seems prudent to rethink Maslow’s hierarchy and his implicit assumptions about the health of autonomous living. Maslow is not dismissive of relatedness. His emphasis on relationships as vehicles for personal growth, however, is limited mostly to his discussion of peak experiences and those already highly self-actualized. The authors suggest here a modification to Maslow’s hierarchy that more fully considers positive views of relatedness. This new interpersonal model of self-actualization emphasizes the importance of relatedness as the substance of individual growth at all levels of psychological development. Implications of this theory for parenting, family life, community living, and creative expression are also discussed.
Affective Self-Disclosure in Telephone Versus Face To Face Interviews
Authors: Janofsky A. Irene
Published: March 2007

This study investigated whether Ss were as willing to express their feelings over the telephone as in face to face interviews. Eighty experimental interviews between 160 strangers were conducted under a fixed model 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. The factors investigated were: (a) interview mode, i.e., telephone vs. face to face; (b) sex of interviewee; and (c) sex of interviewer. Three-way analysis of variance showed no significant differences in the mean number of interviewees' total self-references, affective self-references, or the ratio of affective to total self-references (ASR/TSR) between the two interview modes. Highly statistically significant F ratios were found for differences between male and female interviewees on the three variables: females made more self-references, more affective self-references, and had a higher ASR/TSR ratio than males. Possible explanations for these findings are discussed and replication using actual therapy interviews is urged.
Successful Empathy Training
Authors: Jacob David
Published: March 2007

The present study was inspired by finding that a survey of research papers cited as demonstrating the effectiveness of brief training in communication skills failed to reveal evidence of successful training in "empathic respond ing." Two aspects of the general training situation were experimentally manipulated in an attempt to produce higher levels of "empathic respond ing" following a brief training program: ( a) the definition of the task, as well as the training instructions and materials, were deliberately phrased in a manner continuous with ordinary discourse. This was an attempt to solve the "translation" problem. (b) The purpose of the task was described as demon strating competence in assimilating an unorthodox set of rules, and not as accepting the validity of the trainer's conception of "empathy" and "being helpful." The results of the experimental manipulations were very dramatic: the group asked to display competence produced more than twice as many "empathic responses" as the group asked to learn "empathic responding," as assessed by an independent rater using a standard scale. In addition, 70% of the former group's responses were rated "empathic." The implications of this study for the general theoretical problem in psychology of evaluating capa city from performance are discussed.
Approaching Cosmic Consciousness via Hypnosis
Authors: Havens Ronald A.
Published: March 2007

An outline of a series of hypnotically induced events designed to depotentiate self-consciousness and organized awareness was presented to several volunteers. This series of events was hierarchically structured to minimize anxiety and to maximize responsivity. Preliminary responses indicate that exposure to this series is enjoyable and beneficial and may precipitate an episode similar to what has been described in the mystical literature as cosmic consciousness.
The Nuclear Threat and the Hidden Human Image
Authors: Friedman Maurice
Published: March 2007

The nuclear threat is both cause and effect of the hiding of the human image. The revealing of the hidden human image can take place in response to the challenge of the nuclear threat and is perhaps the only way in which we can hope to overcome that threat. The debate between Hobbes and Rousseau as to whether "man in nature" is evil or good had a modern counterpart in the debate between Freud and Einstein as to whether war is inevitable and the still more contemporary dialogue between Martin Buber and Car Rogers (1957) and the interchange on evil between Rogers and Rollo May in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology (1982) in which both Rogers and May were centrally concerned about the nuclear threat. Philosophical anthropology goes beyond "human nature" to the wholeness and uniqueness of the human, and the image of the human, as Maurice Friedman has unfolded it in his books Problematic Rebel, To Deny Our Nothingness and The Hidden Human Image, has gone beyond that to two typical responses to the "problematic of modern man"-that of the "Modern Promethean" and the "Modern Job." The Modern Promethean attitude is one of either/or, destroy or be destroyed. It can only lead to the destruction of all in the face of the nuclear threat. Only the attitude of the Modern Job, trusting and contending within the dialogue, can lead to that confirmation of otherness which is the sole hope of humankind to avert the nuclear threat and build together a community of communities in its place.
The Stream of Thought, the Lifespace, Selective Inattention, and War
Authors: White Ralph K.
Published: March 2007

The analogy of a moving flashlight enables us to integrate three concepts that are basic but not ordinarily seen as related to each other: William James's "stream of thought," Kurt Lewin's "lifespace," and Harry Stack Sullivan's "selective inattention." Lewin's lifespace, conceived as the psychological field at a given moment, resembles the field of objects lit up by a moving flashlight at a given moment; it has a bright center consisting of what is at the focus of attention and a fainter periphery or penumbra consisting of what is in the field but with little or no salience. James's stream of thought resembles the continual changing of this field as attention shifts and new objects of thought pass through the periphery into the center or vice versa. Sullivan's selective inattention is motivated resistance to the change from periphery to center. War becomes more likely when there is selective inattention to the following:

* the enormity of the nuclear danger and possible ideas about how to prevent it (Lifton's "psychic numbing");

* the enormous deficit, caused partly by spending on nuclear weapons;

* the human side of an enemy; realistic empathy with an enemy's fear of the self or anger at the self; and

* incipient guilt feelings, such as Soviet qualms about Afghanistan or American qualms about Nicaragua.
Dialogue, Confirmation, and the Image of the Human
Authors: Friedman Maurice
Published: March 2007

This article brings together three separate but not unrelated foci in Maurice Friedman's thought as an approach to the self in context: the life of dialogue, the philosophy and therapeutic implications of confirmation, and the image of the human. He approaches the "self in context" in terms of Martin Buber's ontology of the "between," according to which persons find their reality ever again through meeting one another in dialogue. In Buber's philosophical anthropology, it is the fact that one person sets another at a distance and makes him or her into an independent other that enables the person to enter into relation with others. Through this "interhuman" relation, people confirm one another, becoming a self with the other. Mutual confirmation is essential to becoming a self. True confirmation means that I confirm my partner as this existing being even while I oppose him or her. This mutual confirmation of persons is most fully realized in "making present," or "inclusion," imagining quite concretely what another person is wishing, feeling, perceiving, and thinking. This making present induces the inmost becoming of the self and builds the "essential We" of community, which are, in turn, the foundation for Buber's distinction between neurotic and existential guilt, the latter of which is a real event between persons-a rupture of dialogue. Confirmation cannot be willed; it cannot be blanket. It often occurs as a "contract" with strings attached, and in the specialization of labor it is dependent on function, leading to the tension between personal uniqueness and social and economic roles and to the dialectic between conceptions of roles and our actual relationship to them. The tension between calling and role finds expression in the image of the human that distinguishes between potentiality and the direction we give to our potentiality, which embodies attitude and response, and distinguishes between impersonal and personal guilt.
Psychospiritual Dimensions of Extraordinary Survival
Authors: Roud Paul Charles
Published: March 2007

Nine individuals who survived their medically confirmed diagnoses of "terminal cancer" were interviewed. These people offered personal theories to account for the extraordinary results and discussed the nature of their life changes following the terminal prognoses. The similarity of responses was compelling. Survivors assumed responsibility for contracting cancer, disease outcome, and the quality of their lives. They believed that their attitudes and actions significantly influenced their illnesses. Survivors were leading fuller, freer, more meaningful lives following cancer onset. Fear and worry were greatly reduced, or even eliminated according to some. The author suggests that these profound changes may be related to their encounters with impending death. They reported an intense desire to stay alive. Life was viewed as a gift, far too precious to abandon prematurely. Survivors indicated that they cannot offer prescriptive healing formulas. They believe that seriously ill patients must discover for themselves what will be life-giving.

Men pray to their Gods for their health. They do not realize that they have the power to control it themselves.

-Democritus, fifth century, B.C.

It's not over until it's over.

-Yogi Berra, 1973 manager of the pennant-winning New York Mets
When I Use the Term Humanistic Psychology...
Authors: O'Hara Maureen
Published: March 2007

All societies need ways to account for the existential facts of life. Humanistic psychology may be viewed as a recent attempt to provide a coherent story acceptable to an increasingly secular society. The author believes that even after 25 years, humanistic psychology is not yet a discipline but is what Kuhn refers to as "preparadigmatic." It is an amorphous field of inquiry in which there are no general axioms, no consensus as to the important questions or standards of evaluation, and wherein quite different forms of utterance are made about the nature of human reality. The boundaries between religious-type utterances and propositions made as scientific fact are frequently blurred. The author discusses how this creates the possibility both for fanaticism and for the recent court ruling in Alabama declaring secular humanism a religious belief and thereby prohibited in the public schools. Also discussed is the concept of an autonomous self that is held by humanistic psychology as a psychological "fact" even though it can be shown to be culturally given.
The Symbolic Growth Experience
Authors: Frick Willard B.
Published: March 2007

In this article I present a special example of the process of heuristic inquiry as I have experienced it in my several years of research on the Symbolic Growth Experience. I outline a chronology of the major discoveries and insights that have come as a result of following this phenomenological form of inquiry. Out of these discoveries and insights a final synthesis is achieved. The ultimate meaning of the Symbolic Growth Experience is revealed.
Noncoercive Psychiatry: An Oxymoron
Authors: Szasz Thomas
Published: March 2007

The practice of psychiatry rests on two pillars: mental illness and involuntary mental hospitalization. Each of these elements justifies and reinforces the other. Traditionally, psychiatric coercion was unidirectional, consisting of the forcible incarceration of the individual in an insane asylum. Today, it is bidirectional, the forcible eviction of the individual from the mental hospital (which has become his home) supplementing his prior forcible incarceration in it. So intimate are the connections between psychiatry and coercion that noncoercive psychiatry, like noncoercive slavery, is an oxymoron.
Maslow's Theory of Motivation
Authors: Neher Andrew
Published: March 2007

This critique of Maslow's theory of motivation examines all of its major components. The theory is summarized and its basic propositions are analyzed in the light of internal logic, other relevant theories, and related research. This examination points up many deficiencies in Maslow's theory, which enjoys wide acceptance, especially among humanistic psychologists. Suggestions are made regarding modifications to the theory that would remedy many of its more serious problems but at the same time preserve its perceptive insights.
"We Suffered Too"
Authors: Bar-On Dan (Bruno) , Gaon Amalia
Published: March 2007

Genuine and explicit empathy for the victims of one's predecessors' wrongdoings could be a psychological mechanism for preventing future similar atrocities. However, such empathy requires a lot of personal and societal working through that did not take place in Germany during the first 40 years after WWII. "We suffered too" was a major moral argument and normalization strategy found among descendants of Nazis in West Germany. This strategy kept them from relating to the outcomes of their parents' direct or indirect involvement in the Holocaust. In the present study, 31 interviews were content analyzed: 15 children of "perpetrators," 7 children of "witnesses," of the Holocaust, and 9 "children of war," whose parents were not involved in Nazi atrocities. In the search for verbal expressions of empathy for the victims of Nazism, the direct narration of events was analyzed according to three factors: Distinctiveness of the description (remote, proximal, and specific), the Target of the events ("done to us," "done to them") and Distance from the describer ("myself," "our family," "community," and "nation"). On the average, only 45% of the descriptions were direct, and out of these the vast majority were remote, relating to events that had happened to the interviewees and their families. Only in the very few specific and proximate descriptions did subjects relate also to the events that were inflicted by the Nazis on their victims. This was found significantly more among children of witnesses of the Holocaust, when compared to both children of war and children of perpetrators. Although lack of verbal expression of empathy, one generation after victimization, does not necessarily imply emotional indifference, we argue that the inability to empathize with the suffering of others may reinforce those people in today's society who promote discrimination and persecution of minorities.

"As a child, one tends to see the parents in a positive light. It is the drive for self-preservation. And then to find out that this person had some really terrible convictions, expressed some terrible views, and held onto them... how can one grasp it? How can you take him for a father?"

-One of the interviewees
Transpersonal Psychology and Jesus's Kingdom of God
Authors: Tisdale John R.
Published: March 2007

The emphases of transpersonal psychology and of Jesus's concept of the Kingdom of God are compared both for similarities and differences. They converge in that (a) entering the Kingdom entailed a change of consciousness, (b) the Kingdom as personal transformation was supremely important, (c) Jesus trusted available growth processes to carry on the change once begun, and (d) self-centeredness (broadly conceived) was the major obstacle to change. Jesus's teachings diverged from transpersonal emphases in that he did not describe any detailed discipline for entrance into the Kingdom, and he seemed to see ethical change as emerging from consciousness change, not vice versa.
"Human Science"-Really!
Authors: Smith M. Brewster
Published: March 2007

Centrifugal trends seem to dominate the present scene in academic/ scientific/theoretical psychology, and much "post-modern" criticism would even give up the empirical enterprise aimed at cumulative understanding. I argue for a conception of "human science" that joins the interpretive and explanatory traditions and, as a central, active component of personality, developmental and social psychology, undergirds professional applications and seems unlikely to be supplanted by neuroscience or cognitive science. It ought to be distinguished from the legitimate humanistic enterprise (Geisteswissenschaft) that meets other criteria than those of natural science.
Origination, Self-Determination, and Psychology
Authors: Bakan David
Published: March 2007

This article proposes that human causativity should be much higher than it is on the psychological research agenda. Causativity is exemplified by processes that can be designated by words such as creating, authoring, planning, intending, transforning, and originating. The history of the belief in mechanical determinism in science, which obscures human causativity, is traced in a line of thought that includes Augustine, Galileo, Hobbes, Laplace, Watson, and Skinner. Cattell's research suggests a unique human 'third factor" of causativity in addition to heredity and environment that must be taken into account in the study of human nature and behavior. This factor can be traced in Pico della Mirandola's (1992) Oration on the Dignity of Man on through Rogers.
Kinesthetic Imagining
Authors: Serlin Ilene A.
Published: March 2007

This article addresses the problem of embodiment in terms of the objectified body, the mute body, and meaningless action and seeks to restore a language of embodiment and an embodied language in terms of the conscious body, action language, and action hermeneutics.
Encountering People Labeled "Schizophrenic"
Authors: Kramer Aaron , Buck Lucien A.
Published: March 2007

Diagnostic labels segregate "normal" from "abnormal," leading to the dehumanization of all people. "Schizophrenia" is one of the most abusive terms applied to people, highlighting the deficits while obscuring the strengths that exist in all human beings. The detachment that diagnosis encourages has sometimes been used to justify destructive forms of treatment. This article examines the value of a poetry workshop as a means of delabeling schizophrenia and enhancing empathic understanding. What makes this annual 7-week experience unique is that it took place within the walls of a state institution and involved about an equal number of college students and hospitalized people, who gradually moved, through the writing and discussion of poems, from a no-man's land of mutual misconception to a high level of group unity and individual respect.
Peak Experiences in Childhooda: An Exploratory Study
Authors: Hoffman Edward
Published: March 2007

In the quarter century since Abraham Maslow's death in 1970, his concept of peak experience has remained important to personality theory and such applied fields as counseling, psychotherapy, and education. However, it is little known that Maslow became interested in the topic of childhood peak experiences at the end of his life. In this exploratory study, Maslow's biographer conducted oral and written interviews-phenomenologically based-with more than 250 adult men and women who could recall enduring "peak" episodes experienced before age 14. The results were supportive of Maslow's hypothesis that even young children are capable of peak moments of lasting impact. After presenting an overview of Maslow's general approach to peak experiences, a typology (with specific examples) is presented of nine distinct categories of childhood epiphanies, including uplifting experiences in places of scenic grandeur, near-death or crisis episodes, spontaneous moments of bliss, and unforgettable dreams. Directions for future research are suggested.
Altered Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behaviors Following Near-Death Experiences
Authors: Groth-Marnat Gary , Summers Roger
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the extent and types of altered beliefs, attitudes, and values of 53 subjects who reported having had a neardeath experience (NDE). A control group was composed of 27 individuals who reported having had similar life-threatening incidents but without a corresponding NDE. In addition, 45 significant others in the lives of the participants in these groups rated the extent and types of changes as a means of obtaining outside corroboration regarding the changes. The results indicated that the NDE group went through a significantly greater number of changes than persons who went through similar life-threatening situations but without having had a corresponding NDE. In addition, the extent and types of changes were mostly corroborated by significant others. Specific areas of change included increased concern for others, reduced death anxiety with a strengthened belief in an afterlife, increased transcendental experience, reduced interest in material possessions, increased self-worth, increased appreciation for natural phenomenon, and an enhanced awareness of paranormal phenomenon. Analysis of the depth of the experience indicated that the depth and the extent of change were positively correlated. Collectively, this information strongly suggests that it is the actual NDE itself, rather than some other factor such as merely being exposed to a life-threatening situation, that is crucial in facilitating change.
Transcendent Vocations: Their Relationship to Stress, Depression, and Clarity of Self-Concept
Authors: Treadgold Richard
Published: March 2007

This study explores the relationship between transcendent vocations— work to which one feels “called”—and stress, depression, and clarity of self-concept. Participants ( N = 127) completed a questionnaire containing four independent scales (the Self-Concept Confusion Scale [SCCS], the Perceived Stress Scale [PSS], the Costello-Comrey Depression Scale [CCDS], and the Engagement in Meaningful Work Scale [EMWS]) along with two essay questions. In addition, 6 of these participants—3 high EMWS and 3 low EMWS—were selected for postquestionnaire interviews. As predicted by individuation, self-actualization, and flow theories, being engaged in meaningful work as a calling was correlated negatively with stress and depression and correlated positively with clarity of self-concept. Also, clarity of self-concept was correlated negatively with stress and depression, whereas stress and depression were correlated positively with each other. Furthermore, engagement in meaningful work was correlated positively to problem-focused coping and correlated negatively to emotion-focused (avoidance) coping.
Pretherapy: A Client-Centered/Experiential Approach to Mentally Handicapped People
Authors: Peters Hans
Published: March 2007

It is usually presumed that there must be a reasonable amount of contact between therapist and client before it is possible to speak in terms of a meaningful therapy. Yet there are people with severe contact disturbances who need help. In this article, based on the client-centered frame of reference, a method is described which makes it possible to relieve severe contact disturbances and make the client accessible to more regular kinds of therapy. The method, developed by Garry Prouty, is called pretherapy. In the introduction, Prouty’s frame of reference and his working method are described. It is followed by an introduction to pretherapy methods. The latter refers to the philosophical and to the psychological starting point as well. Then a concrete description of the methods is given. The second part of the article deals with the application of pretherapy to mentally handicapped people.
Job Segregation, Industrialisation and the Non-Discrimination Principle
Authors: Thornton Margaret
Published: March 2007

While the long-term prospects for industrial growth in Australia promise improved employment opportunities for skilled male workers, despite the present cyclical downturn, the prognosis for women is gloomy. The majority of women workers are confined to female-dominated occupations, such as clerical work and sales. However, it is in these very areas that employment prospects have diminished as a result of technological change, as may be seen by the computerisation of office work, for example.

Australia's industrial future is intimately tied up with mining, construction and power generation, industries in which female participation is almost negligible. This reflects the societal bias against women working in what are perceived to be 'men's jobs'. This societal bias has been entrenched in International Labour Organisation (ILO) conventions and legislation which has resulted in restrictions on female labour relating to categories of employment, such as underground mining. While a certain ambivalence may be discerned in the motivations prompting the implementation of 'protective' measures, their retention is undoubtedly questionable in the light of the passage of anti-discrimination legislation. Therefore, new standards need to be devised to safeguard the health of all workers without disadvantaging one sector of the workforce.
Trade Unions, Economic Growth and Politics
Authors: Ng Ignace , McCallum John
Published: March 2007

Even though identifying the causes of economic growth has been the subject of numerous empirical studies, little is known about the impact of inter-country variations in unionization on differences in economic growth between countries. To fill this apparent gap in the literature, the primary objective of this paper is to examine the influence of trade unions on economic growth in seventeen oECD countries from 1960 to 1979. The results show that the nature of the relationship between trade unions and economic growth depends upon the ideology of the government in power. Under 'non-socialist' governments, increased union density reduces economic growth, whereas under `socialist' governments, a higher level of unionization increases economic growth. This, in turn, implies that governments can have an influence on whether trade unions are growth-inhibiting or growth-promoting. However, because of the limitations in the sample used, additional studies are needed before a consensus can be reached on this issue.
Communities and Peace: Catholic Youth in Northern Ireland
Authors: McEvoy Siobhán
Published: March 2007

The long-term success of any political settlement in Northern Ireland will rely not only on the willingness of young people to transcend their inheritance but also on the degree to which they are empowered to do so. This article focuses on the `next generation' in Northern Irelans, young people between the ages of 13 and 18 years, and in particular on young Catholics. It is based on a study conducted in the wake of the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, using a method influenced by the Participation Action Research (PAR) tradition employed in social psychology scholarship. The article explores the ways in which these young Catholics imagine and define community and peace. It examines the degrees to which they consider themselves to be part of a sectarian community, their perceptions of the ultimate attainability of peace, and of their own roles in peacebuilding. The study finds that young people's peacebuilding potential is hampered by the institutionalized bipolarity of the political system and by the continued existence of a system of communal deterrence. The varied exposure to the conflict of young people in different parts of Northern Ireland influences their conceptualizations of peace and recognition of this should be operationalized in the peace process.
Past as Preface: Civilizational Politics and the `Third' Balkan War
Authors: Hansen Lene
Published: March 2007

The concept of civilization has gained political as well as theoretical attention in the 1990s owing to Samuel P. Huntington's influential thesis about civilizational conflicts being the new conflict formation of the post-Cold War era. It is the aim of this article to problematize Huntington's claim that one particular reading of the Bosnian War follows from adopting a civilizational optic. Huntington argues that the war took place between three different civilizations and that the West should have abstained from intervention. I will draw out competing accounts of the war through detailed examination of three sets of texts - George Kennan, the Carnegie Commission investigating the First and Second Balkan Wars and the second Carnegie Commission examining the Bosnian War - each of which is representative of a common position within the Western debate. These texts specifically foreground `civilization' as the key analytical concept but they challenge Huntington both in terms of the construction of `Balkan civilization' and in terms of the policy prescription that should be adopted by the West. Whether to read the Balkan Wars as products of civilizational continuity or Western neglect is ultimately not simply a matter of objectively measuring historical facts, but of political and moral interpretation.
Globalization and the Study of International Security
Authors: Cha Victor D.
Published: March 2007

In spite of the plethora of literature on security and globalization, there is relatively little work written by security specialists that interconnects the two. In the case of security studies, this has been in no small part because the field remains entrenched in the `foodfight' of competing realist, liberal, and constructionist research programs. In the case of the globalization literature, it has stemmed from a relatively stronger focus on the social and economic processes of globalization. This essay explores how the processes of globalization have fundamentally changed the way we think about security. It argues that non-physical security, diversification of threats, and the salience of identity are key effects of globalization in the security realm. These security effects translate into certain behavioral tendencies in a state's foreign policy that have thus far not been studied in the literature. First, globalization creates an interpenetration of foreign and domestic (`intermestic') issues such that national governments increasingly operate in spaces defined by the intersection of internal and external security. Second, globalization puts unprecedented bureaucratic innovation pressures on governments in their search for security, and creates multilateralist pressures to cooperate with substate and transnational partners rather than traditional allies. Third, globalization makes the calculation of relative capabilities extremely complex and non-linear. Finally, globalization compels contemplation of new modes of fighting as well as renders commonly accepted modes of strategic thinking and rational deterrence increasingly irrelevant. The `new' security environment in the 21st century will operate increasingly in the space defined by the interpenetration between two spheres: globalization and national identity.
Researching Humanitarian Intervention: Some Lessons
Authors: Weiss Thomas G.
Published: March 2007

This article calls into question how much `learning' from humanitarian catastrophes has actually taken place in the last decade - if `learning' entails fundamental changes in the ways that international responses are mounted. Eight lessons are offered for authors doing both scholarly and policy research. Three relate to the causal impact of humanitarian values (recognizing importance of ideas; distinguishing first- and second-order principles; avoiding political correctness). And five concern specific pleas for clarification in analyses (avoiding `international community'; distinguishing the roles of IGOs; rejecting best-case scenarios; moving beyond paralysis by analysis; taking care about extrapolation from today's headlines). Too much attention is paid to the differences among scholars, policy analysts, and journalists; and too little to the common ground that they occupy. Modesty is a good point of departure for the post-post-Cold War era.
Trade and Conflict in Multi-country Models: A Rejoinder
Authors: DORUSSEN HAN
Published: March 2007

Hegre provides an interesting extension and an important amendment to my previous article. Here, I evaluate the ratio of minimum probabilities of victory given different assumptions about the nature of conflict. The analysis corroborates my previous conclusion that trade has the strongest deterrent effect if countries trade freely before conflict and are committed to not trading after conflict. In agreement with Hegre, the effect of trade increases with a larger number of countries. Finally, I demonstrate that the interpretation of ratio-indicators needs to be done with caution - just as is the case with difference-indicators.
On Different Types of International Relations Scholarship
Authors: CHAN STEVE
Published: March 2007

International relations features different types of scholarship. These types are metaphor, history, theory, engineering, and pattern recognition. This essay discusses the nature and contribution of each type as research characteristic of these different undertakings shows substantial overtime continuity in attracting varying attention from identifiable communities. It also raises several concerns about the extant literature. These concerns address the problems of endogeneity, selection effects, concept stretching, over-determination and indeterminacy, multiple conjunctural causality, and falsifiable proposition. Although hardly representing novel discoveries, they present generic and seemingly persistent challenges to valid inference. While not irrelevant to the conduct of social inquiry in general, this review addresses specifically international relations scholarship.
The Military Sector vis-à-vis the Environment
Authors: Westing Arthur H.
Published: March 2007

A conceptual overview is provided of the relationship between the military sector of society and the human environment (the latter both in its qualitative and natural-resource aspects). The military sector is seen to account for approximately its proportionate share of environmental impact during times of peace, but during times of war its activities are recognized to be able to lead to essentially any level of environmental destruction. Environmental factors are concluded to contribute to the frequency of armed conflict, especially insofar as the natural resources of the earth, both living and non-living, are in greater demand than their overall or local availability. Means of non-violent conflict resolution are outlined separately for territorial, shared, and extra-territorial resources, and approaches to mitigating the problem - legal, political, and social - are suggested. It is urged, inter alia, that all environment- impinging activities of the military sector be open to public scrutiny, that environmental exploitation be carried out only on a sustainable (and also equitable) basis, and that legal mechanisms be established for the non-violent resolution of environmental conflicts
American Nuclear Hegemony in Korea
Authors: Hayes Peter
Published: March 2007

The author draws on Cox and Schurmanns' differing conceptions of hegemony to analyze the exercise of American nuclear power in the Pacific. American hegemony was nuclear because strategic weapons were integral to alliance ideology, institutional integration, and force structures. In many ways, nuclear weapons became the military pnnciple around which regional security alliances were organized, just as capitalist production was the essence of economic hegemony. By the same token, he argues that allied elite consent is the key characteristic of a system of hegemomc nuclear alliances While the South Korean military is increasingly integrated with American nuclear strategy, the South Korean state has not publicly legitimated the strategy. To mimmize public opposition, the South Korean and American military have kept secret details of American nuclear forces in Korea. The United States especially values nuclear weapons in Korea for the message they send to the Japanese security elite, itself unable to overcome public opposition to ground-based nuclear weapons in Japan. Across the Pacific as well as in Korea, the hegemomc alliance ideology of nuclear deterrence is increasingly contradicted by the American strategy of nuclear war-fighting. As a result, American nuclear hegemony in the Pacific is vulnerable to counter-hegemonic challenges. In the short term, however, Korea is arguably the only place where an irreparable fracture could emerge in the American system of regional nuclear hegemony.
Civilizations, Empires, and Wars
Authors: Eckhardt William
Published: March 2007

We can learn a lot about war through the study of civilization. We can learn a lot about civilization through the study of war. We can learn a lot about empires through the study of civilization and war. These three have grown up together. Did they foster one another? Did one cause the others? Or were they all products of a cause which they had in common? Can we have one without the others? What light can they throw on one another's nature? on onnne another's history? This study suggests that they are all products of domination and exploitation. If so, a civilization designed to be more equal in its human relations should be less imperial and less warlike.
Kant and Processes of Democratization: Consequences for Neorealist Thought
Authors: SØRENSEN GEORG
Published: March 2007

Does the spread of democracy present a bright future, with peace among nations? The theoretical foundation for expecting peace to flow from democracy was set forth by Immanuel Kant. According to the interpretation in this article, Kant's notion of a pacific union of democracies rests on three pillars; first, the mere existence of democracies with their culture of peaceful resolution of conflict; second, the common moral bonds which are forged between democracies on this basis; third, the democracies' economic cooperation towards mutual advantage. The paper analyses each of the three conditions in the light of recent processes of democratization. It concludes that the emergence of a global pacific union embracing all the new and old democracries cannot be taken for granted. Success for the pacific union demands that the three basic conditions laid down by Kant are met by all members. Presently, this is far from the case. A pacific union is a reality among the industrialized democracies in the West; it may expand to include several of the new democracies in the East. Yet most of the democracies in the South fail to meet at least two of Kant's conditions, and instead of further democratic progress, they may backslide towards authoritarian rule. Finally, the article argues that it is possible to accept Kant's vision without rejecting basic insights of neorealism. The distance between Kant's idealism and neorealism is often overdone, as in Mearsheimer's analysis. A pacific union is the type of anarchy called a security community. It is only the extreme vision of Mearsheimerian neorealism with its one-sided emphasis on raw anarchy, and patterns of alliance and threat between anonymous state-units as the only sources of peace and war, which creates an insurmountable gulf between neorealism and Kantian thinking.
The Nuclear Arms Race: Prisoner's Dilemma or Perceptual Dilemma?
Authors: Plous S.
Published: March 2007

Traditionally, the most common game-theoretic model of the Soviet-US nuclear arms race has been an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma. According to such a model, on any given trial both superpowers are better off arming regardless of what the other side chooses, but if both sides arm the outcome is less desirable than had both sides reduced their supply of weapons. Although Soviet and US preferences resembled a Prisoner's Dilemma throughout much of the Cold War, recent evidence suggests that the arms race is now more accurately modeled by a `Perceptual Dilemma'. In a Perceptual Dilemma, both sides: (1) prefer mutual arms reductions to all other outcomes; (2) want above all to avoid disarming while the other side arms; and (3) perceive the other side as preferring unilateral armament to all other outcomes. This article presents empirical evidence that the nuclear arms race is more appropriately modeled by a Perceptual Dilemma than by a Prisoner's Dilemma, including new survey data in which members of the Australian Parliament and the Israeli Knesset were asked to estimate the preferences of Soviet and US leaders. The paper concludes by reviewing several factors which sustain misperception and by suggesting that a Perceptual Dilemma can be solved with a clear, time-limited series of disarmament initiatives.
What is the Use of International History?
Authors: SALOMON KIM
Published: March 2007

The significance of history for the study of today's international relations has often been underestimated. The point of departure of this article is that historical studies of international affairs, in order to be relevant in a broader societal context, must relate to crucial issues for the survival of our civilization. The basic idea is that historical knowledge should be able to contribute to the making of a better world, a more peaceful world without violence and war. An emancipatory stance like this is essential if we are to show the urgency of studying international relations. In this respect, historical research has a great deal to learn from peace research. Having adopted a political stance in favour of peace, we can use history or historical methods in at least six different ways to increase our understanding of today's international affairs: ascertaining facts per se, focusing on the long lines of development, studying history as a cultural construction, looking for causes, explaining the establishment of historical phenomena and developing theories. Using these approaches, historical science has the potential to illuminate aspects of today's international situation where other disciplines lack the necessary analytical tools. At this critical juncture of world history, in particular in the aftermath of the Cold War, the first three approaches are considered most relevant. Finally, it is maintained that historians in the field of international relations have to initiate a debate concerning central issues or syntheses in world politics to point to the relevance of the historical dimension.
Ripeness of Conflict: A Fruitful Notion?
Authors: Kleiboer Marieke
Published: March 2007

The theories of Zartman, Haass and Stedman focus on the notion of ripeness of conflict. In their view, conflict resolution depends above all on the identification of a ripe moment in the course of a conflict. This is the only time a third party has any chance to succeed. This essay seeks to provide an answer to the question whether the idea of ripeness is a fruitful notion in the discussion of third-party intervention. In doing so, the empirical usefulness and theoretical foundation of the idea of ripeness in the three studies are examined and compared. The analysis has five parts: (1) it discusses the concept of ripeness as developed by the three authors; (2) it looks at the role of a third party in relation to such ripe moments; (3) it compares the methodological basis on which the idea of ripeness has come about and how it has been used in the three books; (4) and it assesses the analytical value of ripeness as an explanatory and prescriptive tool. In the conclusion (5) the author provides three arguments why the notion of ripeness in the way it has been approached so far is problematic. The idea of willingness is proposed as a useful alternative.