bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Heterogeneity and the Nation
Authors: Ghassem-Fachandi Parvis
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes how Muslims in Gujarat form no political or cultural unity, with no single voice that can speak in their name. Hence the solution of the pogrom: what cannot be reconverted or expulsed and resists leaving can be killed, ritually undone by violence. The way Muslims were killed neither expresses underlying cultural incommensurables, nor were they motivated by religious antagonisms. Rather, the motivation to eliminate expresses an instability in which Muslim neighbors who fail to be all that different nonetheless can no longer be recognized. The internal heterogeneity of communities labeled “Muslim” escapes the dominant understanding of Indian national cultural integration. In Gujarat, Muslims are already internal. In this way, Muslims have become strange in their familiarity.
Postscript
Authors: Ghassem-Fachandi Parvis
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter looks at the aftermath of the pogrom in 2002. Since then, almost every year has seen small altercations such as stone throwing between residents in specific areas of the city. Most of these skirmishes never make it into the newspapers and are part of a strange local status quo—the nooks and crannies of local communal aggregation in urban space. To allude to these episodes too directly makes one suspicious, as it disturbs the comfortable arrangement of low-intensity tension in designated urban areas, which can be manipulated whenever the need arises. It also confirms stereotypes about Dalit and Muslim communities that circulate locally. Those who talk of the violence might be accused of being instruments of some malignant anti-Gujarati plots intended to deride the state's fabulous economic development or, worse, of being anti-Hindu.
The French Way: Economy, Society, and Culture in the 1990s
Authors: Kuisel Richard F.
Published: November 2017

In 1990s, the French saw America as both an incentive for change and an example to be shunned. If the New World's successes—for example, in economic growth—were admired, the ways Americans employed to attain such prosperity were to be avoided. In short, America was simultaneously a model and an antimodel. What the French accomplished in the 1990s was to adapt features of the American way, without admitting it, in an effort to find their own way forward. This chapter addresses policies of the Fifth Republic that were explicitly, or in some instances only implicitly, inspired by the American model. It deals with economic and social policy, business practice, and cultural affairs. In economic and social policy, the focus is on issues like economic and technological competitiveness, unemployment, and the welfare state. In cultural affairs, the focus will be on language—that is, the spread of American English—and on the audiovisual sector.
The Liberty of Servants
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

Italy is a country of free political institutions, yet it has become a nation of servile courtesans, with Silvio Berlusconi as their prince. This is the controversial argument that this book puts forward. Drawing upon the classical republican conception of liberty, the book shows that a people can be unfree even though they are not oppressed. This condition of unfreedom arises as a consequence of being subject to the arbitrary or enormous power of men like Berlusconi, who presides over Italy with his control of government and the media, immense wealth, and infamous lack of self-restraint. Challenging our most cherished notions about liberty, the book argues that even if a power like Berlusconi's has been established in the most legitimate manner and people are not denied their basic rights, the mere existence of such power makes those subject to it unfree. Most Italians, following the lead of their elites, lack the minimal moral qualities of free people, such as respect for the Constitution, the willingness to obey laws, and the readiness to discharge civic duties. As this book demonstrates, they exhibit instead the characteristics of servility, including flattery, blind devotion to powerful men, an inclination to lie, obsession with appearances, imitation, buffoonery, acquiescence, and docility. Accompanying these traits is a marked arrogance that is apparent among not only politicians but also ordinary citizens.
The Liberty of Servants and the Liberty of Citizens
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter examines different conceptions of liberty. If being free means that neither other individuals nor the state can prevent citizens from doing as they choose, then Italy is a free country. The problem is that liberty, if understood as an absence of impediments, is not in and of itself the liberty of citizens. Instead, it can be the liberty of servants and subjects. If the masters or the sovereigns are good, or weak, or foolish, or they have no interest in oppressing them, the servants and the subjects can enjoy the freedom to do more or less as they please. The liberty of citizens, or republican liberty, is quite another matter. It does not consist of not being hindered, or in merely not being oppressed, but rather of not being dominated, which is to say, not being subjected to the arbitrary or enormous power of another man or other men.
The Signs of Servitude
Authors: Viroli Maurizio
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores a number of unmistakable signs that servants can be recognized by. The first is fear. Those who live under the arbitrary power of another man never feels safe, even if they are not oppressed, because they know that the man who is dominating them can take their lives, or humiliate them, or deprive them of their property. They are downcast, they do not look other men in the eye, they are inclined to lie and dissimulate, and most important of all, they are incapable of courage. In contrast, the distinctive mark of political liberty is the sentiment of security and safety, understood as the absence of fear. Along with fear, another distinctive sign of dependency is servility, that is, the inclination to indulge a powerful man in order to obtain or maintain privileges. The flatterer, in order to perform his duties properly, must also insult, denigrate, and deride the enemies of the prince.
Visual Ecology
Authors: Cronin Thomas W. , Johnsen Sönke , Marshall N. Justin , Warrant Eric J.
Published: November 2017

Visual ecology is the study of how animals use visual systems to meet their ecological needs, how these systems have evolved, and how they are specialized for particular visual tasks. This book provides the first up-to-date synthesis of the field to appear in more than three decades. Featuring some 225 illustrations, including more than 140 in color, spread throughout the text, the book begins by discussing the basic properties of light and the optical environment. It then looks at how photoreceptors intercept light and convert it to usable biological signals, how the pigments and cells of vision vary among animals, and how the properties of these components affect a given receptor's sensitivity to light. The book goes on to examine how eyes and photoreceptors become specialized for an array of visual tasks, such as navigation, evading prey, mate choice, and communication. A timely and much-needed resource for students and researchers alike, the book also includes a glossary and a wealth of examples drawn from the full diversity of visual systems.
The Optical Building Blocks of Eyes
Authors: Cronin Thomas W. , Johnsen Sönke , Marshall N. Justin , Warrant Eric J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the optical building blocks of eyes. Irrespective of their optical specializations, all eyes have one thing in common: they collect and absorb light arriving from different places in the environment, thus giving animals information about the relative distribution of light and dark in the surrounding world, including the contrasts and positions of objects. This information is used to support a variety of visual tasks, such as identifying and avoiding predators, detecting and pursuing prey or conspecifics, and orientating and navigating within the habitat. Although some animals use their eyes to perform more or less all of these tasks, others do not. All visual systems evolved within one of two main categories, being either general purpose or special purpose.
Presidents and the Dissolution of the Union
Authors: Greenstein Fred I. , Anderson Dale
Published: November 2017

The United States witnessed an unprecedented failure of its political system in the mid-nineteenth century, resulting in a disastrous civil war that claimed the lives of an estimated 750,000 Americans. This book assesses the personal strengths and weaknesses of presidents from George Washington to Barack Obama. The book evaluates the leadership styles of the Civil War-era presidents. The book looks at the presidential qualities of James K. Polk, Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, and Abraham Lincoln. For each president, the book provides a concise history of the man's life and presidency, and evaluates him in the areas of public communication, organizational capacity, political skill, policy vision, cognitive style, and emotional intelligence. The book sheds light on why Buchanan is justly ranked as perhaps the worst president in the nation's history, how Pierce helped set the stage for the collapse of the Union and the bloodiest war America had ever experienced, and why Lincoln is still considered the consummate American leader to this day. The book reveals what enabled some of these presidents, like Lincoln and Polk, to meet the challenges of their times—and what caused others to fail.
The Policy-Driven Political Style of James K. Polk
Authors: Greenstein Fred I. , Anderson Dale
Published: November 2017

This chapter assesses the strengths and weaknesses of James K. Polk, focusing on six realms: public communication, organizational capacity, political skill, policy vision, cognitive style, and emotional intelligence. Polk, has been called the only strong chief executive between Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln. Polk also ranks near the top in the perennial polls on greatness in the White House. On the day of his inauguration, Polk declared that his administration would advance “four great measures”: division with Great Britain of the jointly administered Oregon Territory, acquisition of California, tariff reduction, and passage of a measure requiring the government to keep its funds in its own vaults instead of in state and private banks. Polk accomplished all this and more in a single four-year term. Despite his accomplishments, Polk lacked foresight. This was particularly evident in his inability to foresee that his territorial acquisitions would trigger a spiral of controversy that was to come to a head in the Civil War.
The Disastrous Presidency of James Buchanan
Authors: Greenstein Fred I. , Anderson Dale
Published: November 2017

This chapter assesses the strengths and weaknesses of James Buchanan, focusing on six realms: public communication, organizational capacity, political skill, policy vision, cognitive style, and emotional intelligence. Buchanan was a Northern politician with Southern principles—a common phenomenon of the Civil War era. He had been a presence in American politics for more than four decades when he assumed the presidency. It was widely expected that his extensive political experience would enable him to reverse the spiral of conflict between the free and slave states, but when he stepped down, several Southern states had left the Union and war was imminent, in no small part because of his pro-Southern policies.
America, Europe, and German Rearmament, August–September 1950: A Critique of a Myth
Authors: Trachtenberg Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes events in 1950 when U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson announced at the New York Conference that the U.S. government was willing to send “substantial forces” to Europe. The American combat force would be part of a collective force with a unified command structure, a force that would ultimately be capable of defending Western Europe on the ground. But the Americans were willing to take that step only if the European allies, for their part, were prepared to do what was necessary to “make this defense of Europe a success.” The U.S. government, he said, had come to the conclusion that the whole effort could not succeed without a German military contribution. So if the NATO allies wanted the American troops, they would have to accept the idea of German rearmament.
Democracy as Modern Religion
Authors: Jaume Lucien
Published: November 2017

The second volume of Democracy in America begins with the other question that Tocqueville regarded as crucial: that of public opinion conceived as a form of belief. The chapter in question— “On the Principal Source of Beliefs among Democratic Peoples”—deserves to be read carefully because in it Tocqueville sets forth one of his strongest intuitions, but in a complex style that proceeds from paradox to paradox. Tocqueville's intuition is the following: that the “principal source” of what the citizens of a democratic society think takes on the form and power of an authority—an authority that everyone collectively exerts on each individual. But because “everyone” creates this authority without knowing it, individuals find themselves facing an entity that is not fragmented but monolithic and therefore omnipotent. Democratic public opinion becomes the god of modern times, a god strangely immanent in society and with a face that changes daily. This chapter is devoted to the mechanisms of this alienation, which Tocqueville characterizes as “religious.”
Democracy as Expectation of Material Pleasures
Authors: Jaume Lucien
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with the taste for material pleasures that inevitably accompanies the development of democracy. What Tocqueville indiscriminately referred to as the “taste for material pleasures” or the “passion for well-being” was a phenomenon directly linked to equality, which therefore became characteristic of “democracy.” Here, then, we have a new facet of equality, different from the one encountered previously in decentralized town government in America, where popular sovereignty achieved its concrete realization, and different too from the religion of the Public, in which the citizen is at once strong and weak because he must deal with “increasingly similar and equal men.” Any definition of democracy that does not count pleasure in well-being as its foremost aim will fail to do justice to Tocqueville's thought. What is more remarkable still is the fact that the commentators' embarrassed silence is not a recent phenomenon: no serious analysis of this point can be found even in the first reviews.
The Moralist and the Question of l’Honnête
Authors: Jaume Lucien
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that Tocqueville was a moralist in the same sense that he was a political thinker: he imagines not only an adversary whom he must defeat but also an interlocutor whom he must convince. The paradox is that his methods as a moralist were the opposite of his methods as a sociologist. Tocqueville the moralist wanted schools to teach the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, which gave a surprising tinge to his “liberalism.” Like Rousseau, but also like Robespierre, he believed that a civic religion was necessary and that those who refused to accept it were enemies. By adopting the position of the public moralist, Tocqueville was able to strike a compromise between his negative emotions (horror of mediocrity, chronic depression and anxiety) and his reasons for hope (democracy was accomplishing miracles and would accomplish more in the future).
Guilty of Indigence
Authors: Chen Janet Y.
Published: November 2017

In the early twentieth century, a time of political fragmentation and social upheaval in China, poverty became the focus of an anguished national conversation about the future of the country. Investigating the lives of the urban poor in China during this critical era, this book examines the solutions implemented by a nation attempting to deal with “society's most fundamental problem.” Interweaving analysis of shifting social viewpoints, the evolution of poor relief institutions, and the lived experiences of the urban poor, the book explores the development of Chinese attitudes toward urban poverty and of policies intended for its alleviation. The book concentrates on Beijing and Shanghai, two of China's most important cities, and considers how various interventions carried a lasting influence. The advent of the workhouse, the denigration of the nonworking poor as “social parasites,” efforts to police homelessness and vagrancy—all had significant impact on the lives of people struggling to survive. The book provides a crucially needed historical lens for understanding how beliefs about poverty intersected with shattering historical events, producing new welfare policies and institutions for the benefit of some, but to the detriment of others. Drawing on vast archival material, the book deepens the historical perspective on poverty in China and reveals critical lessons about a still-pervasive social issue.
“Parasites upon Society”
Authors: Chen Janet Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how the metaphor equating the nonworking poor with “parasites” became ingrained in sociological thinking. In the first decade of the Republic, the advent of sociology as a new field of knowledge in China attempted to study “poverty” on a scientific basis. As left-wing intellectuals valorized labor and foreign missionaries promoted “scientific charity” based on work relief, these ideas converged with workhouses and poorhouses that provided custodial detention in the guise of both punishment and charity. In addition, this chapter begins the story of Shanghai's straw hut shantytowns, and the protracted battles between their residents and the International Settlement's Municipal Council.
Beggars or Refugees?
Authors: Chen Janet Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter follows the fortunes of occupied Beijing and the “solitary island” of Shanghai, against the backdrop of a broader national crisis. Here, the outbreak of World War II in China in July 1937 launched a refugee crisis that profoundly changed perceptions of “poverty” and its realities. In Beijing, the chapter shows that while the collaborationist government largely preserved the existing structure of poor relief, aggressive policing tactics resulted in the large-scale incarceration of people who aroused suspicion simply because they were homeless. In contrast, treaty port Shanghai, which remained free of Japanese occupation until the Pearl Harbor attack, became a temporary haven for more than 1.5 million refugees. The initial outpouring of sympathy for war victims transformed the face of urban poverty. But when the crisis did not abate, the refugee issue hardened into “the beggar problem,” reconfiguring old debates about both poverty and responsibility for poor relief.
The “Constitution” in American Civil Religion
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2017

This chapter elaborates on the variety of “constitutional faiths.” It discusses the parallels between Protestant and Catholic approaches to Christian doctrine and “protestant” and “catholic” modes of approaching the U.S. Constitution. It argues that there is double message contained within the analogy of the Constitution to a sacred text or the Supreme Court to a holy institution. The first, emphasizing unity and integration, is the one we most tend to be familiar. The chapter proposes to examine the alternative message, which is the potential of a written constitution to serve as the source of fragmentation and disintegration. The analysis aims not only to present a somewhat different perspective from which to look at the Constitution, but also to attack by implication any confidence of having “the Constitution” as a common symbol guarantees meaningful national political unity.
Loyalty Oaths: The Creedal Affirmations of Constitutional Faith
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents an extended treatment of our feelings about a variety of oaths and affirmations. Oaths are a mixture of pure form and substantive content. Their formal nature may remind us of the “contentless” seals formerly used to give legal validity to contracts. Vows also signify a desire to be considered a member of a particular community and a willingness to remain within its boundaries. This chapter focuses on the American political community and its extraction of loyalty oaths attesting to a shared commitment to certain beliefs—usually involving the legitimacy of the state, its particular political structure, or its ideological aspirations. It also considers two other kinds of communities. One is the classical religious faith community. The other is the marriage by which two individuals join together in constituting a special kind of common enterprise.
The Law School, the Faith Community, and the Professing of Law
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2017

The previous chapters traced some of the implications of treating law as a quasi-religious system. This chapter develops another aspect of the religious analogy through the self-conscious examination of tensions generated when one “professes” law, particularly in the institutional role of a “professor of law.” Only such an examination will allow us to decide whether an otherwise qualified individual should be hired to profess constitutional law. It considers the imagined application of one William Scheiderman to join a faculty of law. It argues that while law school may be aimed at a more adult clientele, the mixed and contradictory tasks of both generating autonomous adults and preparing them to reproduce the central institutions of the culture are no less present.
Introduction
Authors: Dudziak Mary L.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter sets out the book's purpose, which namely is to follow Thurgood Marshall from his civil rights practice in New York to Kenya under colonial rule. This story cannot be found in traditional sources for an American biography. The Bill of Rights that Marshall wrote for Kenya, for example, is not in any American archive, but in British colonial records in England. Marshall's African journey is not a triumphalist story of American law solving all problems. The legal ideas Marshall offered often were not American ones. And legal solutions did not create a legal edifice that would last for all time. Instead law could serve as a way station, giving political actors a way to talk to each other, a way to keep working together when things were hard.
Monitoring Democracy
Authors: Kelley Judith G.
Published: November 2017

In recent decades, governments and NGOs—in an effort to promote democracy, freedom, fairness, and stability throughout the world—have organized teams of observers to monitor elections in a variety of countries. But when more organizations join the practice without uniform standards, are assessments reliable? When politicians nonetheless cheat and monitors must return to countries even after two decades of engagement, what is accomplished? This book argues that the practice of international election monitoring is broken, but still worth fixing. By analyzing the evolving interaction between domestic and international politics, the book refutes prevailing arguments that international efforts cannot curb government behavior and that democratization is entirely a domestic process. Yet, the book also shows that democracy promotion efforts are deficient and that outside actors often have no power and sometimes even do harm. Analyzing original data on over 600 monitoring missions and 1,300 elections, the book grounds its investigation in solid historical context as well as studies of long-term developments over several elections in fifteen countries. It pinpoints the weaknesses of international election monitoring and looks at how practitioners and policymakers might help to improve them.
Introduction
Authors: Kelley Judith G.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses the credibility of international institutions and the methods the international community uses to promote good domestic governance. It asks about whether international election monitors improve the quality of elections. Given the logistical and political challenges to their efforts to assess elections, skeptics would have plenty of reasons to question claims that monitoring organizations could actually influence the behavior of politicians in any way. Theoretically, monitors may be able to improve elections through several mechanisms. Yet, as early critics noted, international election monitoring organizations are highly complicated actors and monitoring is a complex undertaking. By injecting themselves into the domestic political process, monitoring organizations raise many questions about their conduct and effects and, by extension, about the motivations of the international actors who sponsor them.
On Sacrifice
Authors: Halbertal Moshe
Published: November 2017

The idea and practice of sacrifice play a profound role in religion, ethics, and politics. This book explores the meaning and implications of sacrifice, developing a theory of sacrifice as an offering and examining the relationship between sacrifice, ritual, violence, and love. The book also looks at the place of self-sacrifice within ethical life and at the complex role of sacrifice as both a noble and destructive political ideal. In the religious domain, Halbertal argues, sacrifice is an offering, a gift given in the context of a hierarchical relationship. As such it is vulnerable to rejection, a trauma at the root of both ritual and violence. An offering is also an ambiguous gesture torn between a genuine expression of gratitude and love and an instrument of exchange, a tension that haunts the practice of sacrifice. In the moral and political domains, sacrifice is tied to the idea of self-transcendence, in which an individual sacrifices his or her self-interest for the sake of higher values and commitments. While self-sacrifice has great potential moral value, it can also be used to justify the most brutal acts. The book attempts to unravel the relationship between self-sacrifice and violence, arguing that misguided self-sacrifice is far more problematic than exaggerated self-love. Through the book's exploration of the positive and negative dimensions of self-sacrifice, it also addresses the role of past sacrifice in obligating future generations and in creating a bond for political associations, and considers the function of the modern state as a sacrificial community.
Jeffersonian and Jacksonian Democracy
Authors: Crowe Justin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the reorganization of the federal judiciary from the beginning of Thomas Jefferson's second term as president in 1805 until just prior to the Compromise of 1850. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the government faced a new set of challenges, many of which were the result of the vast territorial expansion. Territorial expansion and the politics of statehood admission intertwined with judicial reform attempts focused primarily on arranging states in circuits and ensuring regional geographic representation on the Supreme Court. The chapter considers the four stages in which the history of judicial institution building unfolded in the eras of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy: the Judiciary Act of 1807, the stalemate over the National Republicans' attempts to extend the circuit system to the West in the mid-1820s, the Whigs' failed consolidation plan of 1835, and the triumph of reform in the Judiciary Act of 1837.
Margins and Metropolis
Authors: Herrin Judith
Published: November 2017

This volume explores the political, cultural, and ecclesiastical forces that linked the metropolis of Byzantium to the margins of its far-flung empire. Focusing on the provincial region of Hellas and Peloponnesos in central and southern Greece, the book shows how the prestige of Constantinople was reflected in the military, civilian, and ecclesiastical officials sent out to govern the provinces. It evokes the ideology and culture of the center by examining different aspects of the imperial court, including diplomacy, ceremony, intellectual life, and relations with the church. Particular topics treat the transmission of mathematical manuscripts, the burning of offensive material, and the church's role in distributing philanthropy. The book contrasts life in the capital with provincial life, tracing the adaptation of a largely rural population to rule by Constantinople from the early medieval period onward. The letters of Michael Choniates, archbishop of Athens from 1182 to 1205, offer a detailed account of how this highly educated cleric coped with life in an imperial backwater, and demonstrate a synthesis of ancient Greek culture and medieval Christianity that was characteristic of the Byzantine elite. The chapters draw together a significant body of scholarship on problems of empire. The book features a general introduction, two previously unpublished essays, and a concise introduction to each essay that describes how it came to be written and how it fits into the book's broader analysis of the unusual brilliance and longevity of Byzantium.
Byzantium
Authors: Herrin Judith
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the mutual relations of palace and city in Byzantium. More specifically, it considers the link between the imperial court within the Great Palace of Constantinople and the local population who called themselves “Byzantines.” Constantine's foundation of a new capital on the site of ancient Byzantion gave rise to a series of epithets for the metropolis: the Queen City, or ruling city, basileuontas polis, as it became known, or simply “the city.” In Constantinople “the palace” refers to the “Great Palace,” even though there were many other palaces in the city and suburban region. The chapter describes the occasions when the emperor had contact with three important groups of people who could enter the palace doors: circus factions, soldiers, and merchants. It also discusses two circumstances in which the emperor left the palace: journeys established by imperial protocol for fixed ceremonies, and unplanned visits to the city.
Philippikos and the Greens
Authors: Herrin Judith
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the role played by the circus faction called the Greens in getting rid of Philippikos and replacing him with a civilian official, Artemios the secretary, as emperor of Byzantium in 713. Ever since the publication of Alan Cameron's book on the circus factions, it has been agreed that the Blues and Greens played a much less political role after the tumultuous reigns of Maurice and Phokas. Herakleios (610–41) diverted their energies into the far more manageable and benign roles of court entertainment: music and dancing, which had already been expanded in the sixth century. The chapter narrates the coup d'état staged by soldiers from the nearby military units of Opsikion and Thrace against Philippikos, who celebrated Constantinople's birthday on 11 May 713 with the customary races in the Hippodrome.
Constantinople, Rome, and the Franks in the Seventh and Eighth Centuries
Authors: Herrin Judith
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines a development in European diplomacy that proved critical to Western–Byzantine relations: between the seventh and eighth centuries, successive bishops of Rome abandoned their traditional alliance with Constantinople and turned instead to the Franks. Since 731 bishops of Rome had condemned the iconoclast policy adopted in the Eastern capital, which led to more increasingly bitter correspondence between Old Rome and New. Religious antagonism then led to the decision to involve the major force north of the Alps in the defense of Rome, which was increasingly threatened by the Lombards, established in northern Italy. To counter this break with tradition, Emperor Constantine V sought to win over the Franks to a more considered position. The chapter discusses the efforts of several embassies to persuade the Frankish king Pippin III and later Charles/Charlemagne into an alliance with Byzantium that would be sealed by a marriage.
The Pentarchy
Authors: Herrin Judith
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the fate of both the theory and reality of pentarchy from the 640s until the 880s, a period that links the Arab conquests of the Near East with the Eighth Ecumenical Council. The pentarchy formalized the existence of a hierarchy of five major sees—Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem—which assumed collective responsibility for the united direction of the entire church within the confines of the Byzantine Empire. The chapter considers the replacement of the rule of five by a distinct authority vested in the bishop of Rome by virtue of his Petrine tradition. It looks at two great intellectuals of the ninth century, Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photios, who developed quite different theories of ecclesiastical authority. It shows how the conversion of the Bulgars triggered a new conflict between the Christians of East and West that inevitably brought the pentarchy into question. It also discusses East–West divisions over the filioque.
Conformai Curvature Tensors
Authors: Fefferman Charles , Graham C. Robin
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies conformal curvature tensors of a pseudo-Riemannian metric g. These are defined in terms of the covariant derivatives of the curvature tensor of an ambient metric in normal form relative to g. Their transformation laws under conformal change are given in terms of the action of a subgroup of the conformal group O(p + 1, q + 1) on tensors. It is assumed throughout this chapter that n ≥ 3.
Conformally Flat and Conformally Einstein Spaces
Authors: Fefferman Charles , Graham C. Robin
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the ambient and Poincaré metrics for locally conformally flat manifolds and for conformal classes containing an Einstein metric. The obstruction tensor vanishes for even dimensional conformal structures of these types. It shows that for these special conformal classes, there is a way to uniquely specify the formally undetermined term at order n/2 in an invariant way and thereby obtain a unique ambient metric up to terms vanishing to infinite order and up to diffeomorphism, just like in odd dimensions. It derives a formula of Skenderis and Solodukhin [SS] for the ambient or Poincaré metric in the locally conformally flat case which is in normal form relative to an arbitrary metric in the conformal class, and proves an elated unique continuation result for hyperbolic metrics in terms of data at conformal infinity. The case n = 2 is special for all of these considerations. The chapter also derives the form of the GJMS operators for an Einstein metric.
Jet Isomorphism
Authors: Fefferman Charles , Graham C. Robin
Published: November 2017

A fundamental result in Riemannian geometry is the jet isomorphism theorem which asserts that at the origin in geodesic normal coordinates, the full Taylor expansion of the metric may be recovered from the iterated covariant derivatives of curvature. As a consequence, one deduces that any local invariant of Riemannian metrics has a universal expression in terms of the curvature tensor and its covariant derivatives. Geodesic normal coordinates are determined up to the orthogonal group, so problems involving local invariants are reduced to purely algebraic questions concerning invariants of the orthogonal group on tensors. This chapter proves an analogous jet isomorphism theorem for conformal geometry. By making conformal changes, the Taylor expansion of a metric in geodesic normal coordinates can be further simplified, resulting in a “conformal normal form” for metrics about a point.
Mothers and Daughters in the Medieval Greek World
Authors: Herrin Judith
Published: November 2017

This chapter surveys the pattern of the female life cycle that defined most possibilities for women in Byzantium, and explores elements of maternal education, together with the alternative that allowed women to opt out of procreation by dedicating themselves to Christ. It concludes that maternity obviously demanded a certain competence, which was passed through the generations by oral traditions; mothers, grandmothers, and other female relatives might have a profound influence. Within feminine monasteries, abbesses exercised a spiritual maternity over their younger nuns. But for the great majority who had no choice in the matter, maternal roles were constructed and reconstructed at every period, reinforcing the links between mothers and daughters and according women in Byzantium an unrivalled influence.
Marriage
Authors: Herrin Judith
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the theme of marriage in imperial statecraft. Like many other features of medieval organization, the Ottomans inherited and adapted a diplomatic system from Byzantium. In his book, The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, Edward Luttwak demonstrated the significance of diplomacy in keeping the medieval empire alive, especially in periods of weakness and decline. But he barely investigates the serious part marriage could play in this process. The chapter argues that marriage alliances became an essential part of Byzantium's foreign policy because they achieved something that no written diplomatic treaty could. Further, it seems clear that such arrangements are a common feature of imperial statecraft at many times in different societies.
Agreeing to Differ
Authors: Hall John A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents an account of the social origins of civility in the course of an argument distinguishing civility from civil society—or, rather, insisting that civility must be included in the definition of civil society if that concept is to carry the weight placed upon it. Civil society is a form of societal self-organization that allows for cooperation with the state while permitting individuation. The chapter argues that civil society only “makes sense” when it contains a heavy dose of civility. The initial breakthrough to civilized acceptance of difference in Europe obviously predated the emergence of capitalism. However, capitalism did have something to do with the establishment of a culture of political civility in England, for soft political rule was not always present there; on the contrary, it was a historical achievement.
The Disenchantment of the Intellectuals
Authors: Hall John A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the alienation of many modern intellectuals. Perhaps the modern world is bereft of meaning, but the affluence provided by modern science means that for the vast majority of people, the world has probably never been so enchanted. The romantic nostalgia so characteristic of modernist ideas is unlikely to have any general appeal once industrial conditions have been established. Curiously, there is very little empirical investigation into the purported misery of modern men and women, and certainly few findings to back up the view that disenchantment dominates most of social life. In contrast, there is a massive amount of evidence supporting the view of people being distracted from questions of meaning by the demands of status competition. This leads to the central point: artists and intellectuals have their own particular worries, and so may not give an accurate report on modern social conditions.
Convolution and Equidistribution
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This book explores an important aspect of number theory—the theory of exponential sums over finite fields and their Mellin transforms—from a new, categorical point of view. The book presents fundamentally important results and a plethora of examples, opening up new directions in the subject. The finite-field Mellin transform (of a function on the multiplicative group of a finite field) is defined by summing that function against variable multiplicative characters. The basic question considered in the book is how the values of the Mellin transform are distributed (in a probabilistic sense), in cases where the input function is suitably algebro-geometric. This question is answered by the book's main theorem, using a mixture of geometric, categorical, and group-theoretic methods. By providing a new framework for studying Mellin transforms over finite fields, this book opens up a new way for researchers to further explore the subject.
Convolution of Perverse Sheaves
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

Let k be a finite field, q its cardinality, p its characteristic, 𝓁 ≠ p a prime number, and 𝓖/k a smooth commutative group scheme which over k¯ becomes isomorphic to 𝔾ₘ/k¯. This chapter is concerned with perverse sheaves on 𝓖/k and on 𝓖/k¯.
Fibre Functors
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the fiber functor suggested by Pierre Deligne. The proof that it is in fact a fiber functor is given in the Appendix.
Frobenius Conjugacy Classes
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes Frobenius conjugacy classes. It shows that in either the split or nonsplit case, when χ‎ is good for N, the conjugacy class FrobE,X has unitary eigenvalues in every representation of the reductive group Garith,N. Now fix a maximal compact subgroup K of the complex reductive group Garith,N (ℂ). The semisimple part (in the sense of Jordan decomposition) of FrobE,X gives rise to a well-defined conjugacy class θE,X in K.
Symplectic Examples
Authors: Katz Nicholas M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter works on either the split or the nonsplit form. It begins with a lisse sheaf Ƒ on a dense open set j : U ⊂ G which is geometrically irreducible, pure of weight zero, and not geometrically isomorphic to (the restriction to U of) any Kummer sheaf Lᵪ. It denotes by G := j
*Ƒ its middle extension to G. Then the object N := G(1/2)[1] ɛ Garith is pure of weight zero and geometrically irreducible.
Krupp
Authors: James Harold
Published: November 2017

The history of Krupp is the history of modern Germany. No company symbolized the best and worst of that history more than the famous steel and arms maker. This book tells the story of the Krupp family and its industrial empire between the early nineteenth century and the present, and analyzes its transition from a family business to one owned by a nonprofit foundation. Krupp founded a small steel mill in 1811, which established the basis for one of the largest and most important companies in the world by the end of the century. Famously loyal to its highly paid workers, it rejected an exclusive focus on profit, but the company also played a central role in the armament of Nazi Germany and the firm's head was convicted as a war criminal at Nuremberg. Yet after the war Krupp managed to rebuild itself and become a symbol of Germany once again—this time open, economically successful, and socially responsible. This book presents a balanced account, showing that the owners felt ambivalent about the company's military connection even while becoming more and more entangled in Germany's aggressive politics during the imperial era and the Third Reich. By placing the story of Krupp and its owners in a wide context, this book also provides new insights into the political, social, and economic history of modern Germany.
Steel
Authors: James Harold
Published: November 2017

This chapter sketches a portrait of Alfred Krupp. It describes how Alfred Krupp perfectly fits the mold of the heroic entrepreneur. Profoundly skeptical of joint-stock companies, banks, and capitalism in general, but also of big-scale science and modern research methods, he was a genius at extending to its utmost limits the possibilities of the craft entrepreneur. He developed an extraordinarily successful business model that allowed the principles of the small workshop to be extended on a gigantic and global scale. Moreover, the chapter credits him with a social philosophy which eventually created a community of Kruppianer, workers bound to the enterprise and the community by pride in the product of their labor.
Thermodynamic Modeling of Large-Scale Interconnected Systems
Authors: Haddad Wassim M. , Nersesov Sergey G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the thermodynamic modeling of large-scale interconnected dynamical systems. Using compartmental dynamical system theory, it develops energy flow models possessing energy conservation and energy equipartition principles for large-scale dynamical systems. It then gives a deterministic definition of entropy for a large-scale dynamical system that is consistent with the classical definition of entropy and shows that it satisfies a Clausius-type inequality leading to the law of nonconservation of entropy. It also introduces the notion of ectropy as a measure of the tendency of a dynamical system to do useful work and grow more organized. It demonstrates how conservation of energy in an isolated thermodynamic large-scale system leads to nonconservation of ectropy and entropy. Finally, the chapter uses the system ectropy as a Lyapunov function candidate to show that the large-scale thermodynamic energy flow model has convergent trajectories to Lyapunov stable equilibria determined by the system initial subsystem energies.
An Iterative Decomposition of Global Conformal Invariants: The First Step
Authors: Alexakis Spyros
Published: November 2017

This chapter fleshes out the strategy of iteratively decomposing any P(g) = unconverted formula 1 for which ∫P(g)dVsubscript g is a global conformal invariant. It makes precise the notions of better and worse complete contractions in P(g) and then spells out (1.17), via Propositions 2.7, 2.8. In particular, using the well-known decomposition of the curvature tensor into its trace-free part (the Weyl tensor) and its trace part (the Schouten tensor), it reexpresses P(g) as a linear combination of complete contractions involving differentiated Weyl tensors and differentiated Schouten tensors, as in (2.47). The chapter also proves (1.17) when the worst terms involve at least one differentiated Schouten tensor.
The Second Step: The Fefferman-Graham Ambient Metric and the Nature of the Decomposition
Authors: Alexakis Spyros
Published: November 2017

This chapter proves (1.17) when the worst terms in P(g) involve only factors of the differentiated Weyl tensor. This case is much harder than the previous one; in particular, in this case we need both a local conformal invariant W(g) and a divergence divᵢTⁱ(g) to prove (1.17). One obvious difficulty is how, upon inspection of P(g)subscript worst-piece, to separate the piece that must be cancelled out by a local conformal invariant from the piece that is cancelled out by a divergence. In a first step, we prove that we can first explicitly construct a local conformal invariant and a divergence and subtract them from P(g)subscript worst-piece, to be left with a new worst piece, which has some additional algebraic properties. In a second step, we show that this new worst piece can be cancelled out by subtracting a divergence.
Γ‎-Null and Γ‎N-Null Sets
Authors: Lindenstrauss Joram , Preiss David , Jaroslav Tiˇser
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the notions of Γ‎-null and Γ‎ₙ-null sets, which are σ‎-ideals of subsets of a Banach space X. Γ‎-null set is key for the strongest known general Fréchet differentiability results in Banach spaces, whereas Γ‎ₙ-null set presents a new, more refined concept. The reason for these notions comes from an (imprecise) observation that differentiability problems are governed by measure in finite dimension, but by Baire category when it comes to behavior at infinity. The chapter first relates Γ‎-null and Γ‎ₙ-null sets to Gâteaux differentiability before discussing their basic properties. It then describes Γ‎-null and Γ‎ₙ-null sets of low Borel classes and presents equivalent definitions of Γ‎ₙ-null sets. Finally, it considers the separable determination of Γ‎-nullness for Borel sets.