bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Lipuria in Tigers
Authors: Hewer T.F. , Matthews L. Harrison , Malkin T.
Published: August 2010

Examination of urine from the bladder of a tiger and a tigress at postmortem, and of urine collected from the cages of other tigers, showed that considerable lipuria is a constant physiological feature in these animals. The total fat excreted was about 20 grams a day and it contained 6‐5 per cent. of unsaponifiable matter, of which 60 per cent, was cholesterol and the remainder, apart from small quantities of ketosteroids, of undetermined nature.

A histological examination of kidney tissue from the tiger and from two tigresses proved that the fat was derived from the epithelium of the proximal convoluted tubules and did not come from direct glomerular filtration.

Sections from the kidney of a lion showed abundant fat in the epithelium of the proximal convoluted tubules, and less in the distal tubules, but as none was seen actually in the lumen, it was not possible to assert that fat was being excreted.

Sections from the kidney of a cheetah, an ocelot and a blue whale gave no certain evidence of fat excretion, but the blood plasma in some of the vasa recta was sudanophil, and may have represented lipaemia.

The significance of the fat excretion in tigers is briefly discussed.

Our thanks are due to the Zoological Society of London for their kindness in sending us samples of tiger urine and tissue from the kidneys of a tigress, a lion, a cheetah and an ocelot, and to Dr. R.A.M. Case for tissue from a blue whale.

We are indebted to Dr. C.J.O.R. Morris for his kindness in estimating the ketosteroids for us.
The pituitaries of Amia, Lepidosteus and Acipenser.
Authors: Kerr T.
Published: August 2010

An anatomical and histological description is given of the pituitaries of adult Amia, Lepidosteus and Acipenser.

In Acipenser a hypophysial cavity is present, in the others it has been suppressed during development; otherwise the structure of the pituitary in all three appears to represent a more primitive level of the same type of organization as found in the teleosts.

A hypothetical scheme is outlined of relationships between the pituitaries of teleosts and of higher types.
Notes on the nasal fossa of a young Chimpanzee.
Authors: CAVE A. J. E.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

The nasal fossa of a six‐year old female Chimpanzee is figured and described in detail. Anterior ethmoidal sinuses are absent bilaterally. Posterior ethmoidal sinuses of supreme meatal origin are present unilaterally. The maxillary sinus manifests an intra‐frontal extension: an accessory ostium maxillare is present unilaterally.
Notes on the treatment of fish infected with Argulus
Authors: HINDLE EDWARD
Published: August 2010

Summary.

Exposure to a 1: 10,000,000 concentration of the gamma isomer of hexachloro‐cyclo‐hexane (“Gammexane”) is recommended for the treatment of fish infected with Argulus, and has been used with success for the eradieation of this parasite from three large tanks in the Society's aquarium.
The development of the inner ear of Xenopus laevis.
Authors: PATERSON NELLIE F.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

From a study of the progressive development of the membranous labyrinth through various larval stages of Xenopus laevis, it is noted that, in essentials, the parts resemble those of the Phaneroglossa.

The semicircular canals are separated after the constriction of the auditory vesicle into a pars superior and a pars inferior. The horizontal canal is formed before the anterior vertical, the posterior vertical being the last to appear. This sequence agrees with that of some of the Phaneroglossa (Herter, 1921). The pars inferior produces the sacculus, the pars neglecta, the lagena and the pars basilaris, there being no tegumentum vasculosum as in Rana (Gaupp, 1904).

Several membranous structures of somewhat doubtful physiological significance were observed to be associated with the foramen utriculo‐sacculare, the sacculo‐endolymphatic orifice and the aditus partis neglectae. Probably, like the utriculo‐saccular valve of fishes (Pearson, 1936) and the utriculoendolymphatic valve of mammals (Bast, 1928), they serve to maintain an approximately constant pressure of endolymph within the labyrinth.

The perilymphatic system appears to differ from the Phaneroglossan condition mainly in having no true ductus reuniens, as a consequence of which the foramen perilymphaticum superius is lacking, and the single perilymphatic foramen is comparable to the foramen perilymphaticum inferius of Rana. An additional tympanal area is to be observed between the anterior part of the pars basilaris and the spatium sacculare.

The sacci endolymphatici are paired throughout and are not connected by anterior ascending or ventral processes. Only two pairs of calcareous sacs were observed in the partes spinales. In post‐metamorphic specimens the endolymphatic system could only be traced as far as the region between the fourth and fifth intervertebral foramina. This reduction of the spinal portion of the endolymphatic system, in conjunction with the well‐defined auditory receptor areas in the labyrinth, is not suggestive of primitiveness. Xenopus possesses several structural features which may be regarded more fittingly as neotenic than as primitive. Others, again, may be purely adaptive, and while it is admitted that it may be fallacious to draw conclusions from a few isolated morphological facts, it could be surmised that, anatomically, the membranous labyrinth and its associated endolymphatic and perilymphatic systems indicate a possible reversion of this form from a semi‐terrestrial to an aquatic habitat. At the same time, the same features could equally well be interpreted as an attempt in a purely aquatic form to approach the condition found in semiterrestrial Anura.
On the Harvestman, Opilio saxatilis (C. L. Koch)
Authors: SANKEY J. H. P.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

A brief history of the systematic position of Opilio saxatilis (C. L. Koch) is given. The genitalia of O. saxatilis and O. parietinus are described, that of the males in more detail since this sex shows the greatest differences. The external characters of the two species are reviewed and compared. Records of O. saxatilis are given and its distribution is discussed, and the ecology of this species is contrasted with that of O. parietinus. It is claimed that sufficient evidence exists for regarding O. saxatilis as a distinct species.
The origin of the segmental musculature of the tail of the Axolotl (Ambystoma)
Authors: FORD PETER
Published: August 2010

Summary.

By means of vital stains the rudiments of the tail structures present in the posterior one‐fifth of the medullary plate were delineated and the extent of the chordal and somitic mesoderm remapped.

The cells that will form the myotomes of the posterior part of the trunk and the whole of the tail are present in the posterior medullary plate at stage 15. By stage 16–17 the trunk material is invaginated. The tail mesoderm is enclosed by the closure of the neural folds.

The neural folds of the posterior two‐fifths of the medullary plate are responsible for the formation of the dorsal and ventral tail fin (see 11 below).

Perichordal and other mesenchyme of the tail has its origin in the posterior medullary plate.

The lateral lips of the blastopore take part in the formation of the proctodaeum which produces sprouts growing forwards to meet the descending pronephric ducts.

By operative techniques (transplants, deficiency experiments, etc.) the degree of organization and the inductive powers of the posterior medullary plate were determined.

At stage 15 the posterior fifth of the neural plate is fully determined to form segmental muscular tissue. The establishment of its antero‐posterior axis, however, depends on the presence below it of the axial structures, the neural tube and notochord.

Extirpation of the posterior medullary plate results in deficiencies in somitic mesoderm of the tail and hind end of the trunk. Mesenchyme is present and is, no doubt, the product of the neural crest.

Medullary plate, whether its prospective fate be neural or muscular, possesses the power to form a tubular structure without the assistance of the neural folds.

In transplants the segmental tissue formed by the posterior medullary plate closely resembles neural tube cytologically, relating tail muscle to its origin in the medullary plate.

The neural fold of one side of the medullary plate is capable of forming a bilaterally symmetrical fin.

The presumptive rudiments of the tail possess remarkable powers of stretching.
On the Homology of certain elements in the Skull of Bufo regularis Reuss (Salientia).
Authors: SEDRA SHOKRALLA N.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

A centre of ossification is described for the first time in the auditory region of Bufo regularis Reuss. A similar one is present in Calyptocephalus gayi (Reinbach, 1939), where it was identified as “supratemporal”.

This centre has been homologized here with the postfrontal bone present in Apoda and in the Miobatrachidae.

Since the postfrontal of one side fuses with the corresponding squamosal towards the end of metamorphosis, the name “postfronto‐squamosal” is introduced.

The development of the so‐called fronto‐parietal is followed in three species of Salientia, which were not examined by Eaton. It is found that this bone develops from one centre of ossification in all cases.

After comparison with fossil forms it is concluded that it must be regarded as a frontal only.
Observations on the Grey Seal (Halichoerus grypus) at Ramsey Island, Pembrokeshire.
Authors: DAVIES J. L.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

A brdding colony of the grey seal was studied in the autumn of 1947 at Ramsey Island. The arrival of both sexes at the breeding grounds is discussed and also their behaviour prior to the birth of the calves. The history of the calf while on the beach is summarized, and calving rate, sex ratio and infant mortality are discussed. The movements of the immature and non‐breeding population are dealt with, and a description is given of the fur colour and age and sex distinctions. An attempt is made to elucidate population dynamics and the status of the species in South Wales. It is postulated that the Ramsey seals are traditionally cave‐breeders and that open beach breeding is a recent habit. Finally a comparison is made between the development and behaviour of Ramsey seals and those of Scottish colonies. It is shown that at Ramsey the adults are less dependent on land and the young are generally more precocious.
The Endoparasites of certain South African snakes, together with some remarks on their structure and effects on their hosts. By the late
Authors: FANTHAM H. B. , PORTER ANNIE
Published: August 2010

An account is given of the entozoal fauna found in certain South African snakes, including members of the Boidae, Colubridae, Elapidae and Viperidae.

Of the 89 snakes examined, 60 harboured Entozoa, 58 different associations of parasites having been found. These assemblages are detailed. Of these infected snakes, 33 were males and 27 females, of which 12 only were young. The majority of those without Entozoa at the time of examination were also young specimens.

A systematic statement of the entozoal assemblages of each infected snake is given, the distribution of the parasites within the hosts being noted. Mature snakes usually contained more species than younger ones and numerically more entozoal individuals were found in full‐grown snakes in poor condition. Flagellates were numerically dominant in most cases.

A number of new species of Flagellata, Ciliata and Plasmodia occurring in these hosts are described and their systematic positions discussed. Other parasitic organisms of special interest, but less well known, are also described.

The effects of certain Entozoa on their ophidian hosts are described. These include spontaneous intestinal and hepatic amoebiasis, found in members of each of the ophidian families examined, conditions due to ciliate infections, coccidiosis of the intestine and of the gall bladder, pressure effects of cysticerci, intestinal obstruction by helminths, haemorrhagic conditions and hypersecretion of mucus by the lungs due to the presence of helminths, one case of gall stones associated with a trematode infection, and blood conditions, In connection with blood conditions due to Entozoa, the percentage of erythrocytes infectcd with haemogregarines and the alterations of the host cells due to them and to Plasmodium spp. are stated. Mononuclear leucocytosis was found in snakes suffering from liver abscess. The pereentage of eosinophiles associated with single or multiple helminth infestations in some of the snakes is tabulated.

A brief comparison is made of the entozoal fauna of these snakes examined in South Africa and of the same species of snakes from West Africa. Distinct similarity is disclosed.

The interelations of the hosts and parasites are briefly indicated and their economic significancc stated.
The embryonie development of the mite Tyroglgphus farinae Linnaeus 1758.
Authors: HUGHES T. E.
Published: August 2010

Summary.

 Cleavage, at first total, commences before the accumulation of the yolk, and later becomes superficial.

 A blastoderm covering the yolk is formed.

 A germinal band is formed by further division of the blastoderm cells along the ventral surface of the embryo.

 The band terminates anteriorly in a large cap of cells, posteriorly in a similar but smaller cap of cells.

 The anterior cap differentiates into:‐ (a) the central nervous system; (b) the segmental appendages; (c) the anterior plaque of endoderm.

 The whole development proceeds singularly directly to the definitive form of the larva.

 Coelomic vesicles have not been traced at any stage.

 The genital rudiments differentiate from the inner part of the germinal band posterior to the third pair of walking legs and are solid structures.

 The posterior polar cap proliferates a mass of cells which indents the yolk at its posterior end and is therefore responsible for the morphological aspects of the lateral caeca.

 The posterior mass of cells differentiates dorsally into the mid‐gut, or colon, and ventrally into the upper rectum or post‐colon. The malpighian tubules arise at the upper end of the post‐colon.

 The proctodœal invagination sinks into the posterior mass of cells and is the only part of the hind‐gut to be lined with chitin.

 The stomodœum arises between the cheliceral rudiments and does not pierce the central nervous system.
Further experimental observations on the spawning behaviour of the Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar Linn.)
Authors: Jones J. W. , King G. M.
Published: August 2010

The 1948 observations confirmed those made in 1947 and produced further data on the behaviour of the adult cock, and the cutting movements of the hen. The fertilized eggs collected from twelve nests gave a percentage fertilization of 97.6. 1,200 ft. of ciné film was exposed.
Some points in the function, development and evolution of the tail in fishes*
Authors: Affleck Robert J.
Published: August 2010

Models show that in fishes the effective action of a tail in a vertical direction depend on:—

 the relative size of the epichordal and hypochordal lobes;

 the flexibility of the fins;

 the direction of the terminal part of the axis;

 the relative sizes of the dorsal and ventral lobes of a homocercal tail.

 The tails of Carassius auratus, Macropodus opercularis and Betta splendens pass through stages which may be called protocercal and heterocercal before the final homocercal tail is formed.

 Because of the precocity of the appearance and functioning of the swimbladder, which causes the specific gravity of the fish to become equal to that of the water in which it lives, no vertical reaction is necessary to keep the larval fish off the bottom when it is swimming. The tail, therefore, is isobatic throughout development.

 Whilst passing through the heterocercal stage the flexible epichordal lobe is retained to counteract the upward reaction on the large hypochordal lobe. In ontogeny, therefore, the function of the heterocercal stage of a homocercal tail differs from that of the heterocercal tail found in adult fishes.

 In spite of retaining the epichordal lobe during the heterocercal stage, the development of the homocercal tail is primarily recapitulatory.

 The possible evolution of tails from a primitive type is discussed in relation to their function and to the specific gravity of the fishes.

 It is suggested that the protocercal tail was the primitive type from which were evolved the heterocercal type (associated with pectoral fins) and the hypocercal type (associated with the absence of pectoral fins). The evolution of these tails would enable animals to swim although their specific gravity had increased.

 From these two types, five evolutionary lines are traced, each of which terminates in a tail which is exactly, or almost exactly, symmetrical.

 The achievement of external symmetry usually signifies that the tail takes no part in raising the posterior part of the animal when it is swimming, or that it is degenerate or specialized.
Some observations on the reproduction of Rattus rattus L
Authors: Watson J. S.
Published: August 2010

This paper contains observations on 2612 Rattus rattus from buildings in the port of London, 1519 rats from ships in the docks, both samples obtained during 1941–43, and 1358 rats examined in Cyprus in 1947–48.

The sex ratio is considered in relation to the body‐weight of the animals, the method by which they were killed and the locality where they were living.

The median body‐weight at which female rats reach maturity in both England and Cyprus in mid‐November to mid‐March is approximately 97 g. The corresponding weight for the rest of the year is 87 g. in England and 78 g. in Cyprus.

The pregnancy rate is highest in rats on ships and lowest in rats in Cyprus. Seasonal fluctuations in the breeding intensity is most marked in Cyprus where it is high in April and September and lowest in January. On shore in London the year can be divided into two periods, mid‐November to mid‐March when the breeding rate is declining, and the rest of the year when it is higher; the peak is in September. No obvious seasonal trends in breeding activity are perceptible in rats on ships.

The average number of embryos per pregnant female is 7.5 on ships, 6.9 on shore in London and 6.1 in Cyprus. The number of embryos is correlated with the body‐weight of the female, being highest in the heavier animals on both ships and shore in London, but not in Cyprus.

At least 25 per cent, of the embryos are lost between implantation and full term in rats on shore in London; the figure is probably smaller in rats on ships and in Cyprus.

The proportion of the three colour forms of R. rattus in London was similar on shore and on ships in London; this suggests that the shore population is frequently supplemented by immigrants.
An experiment with populations of fish in Windermere, 1939–48
Authors: Worthington E. B.
Published: August 2010

Introduction. Evidence on the biological history of Windermere indicates a change in the associations of fish from one dominated by trout and char to another dominated by perch and pike.

Scheme of work. The experiment has involved rapid and drastic reduction in the population of perch since 1940 and pike since 1944, and has been accompanied by research on the bionomics of the various species of fish and on the invertebrate fauna inhabiting Windermere.

Perch trapping. The method is described. Trials in 1939–40 were followed by intensive operations with up to 770 traps in 1941 to 1947, The annual migration of perch has been determined in detail. Complete statistics of the fishery have been collected, so that observations are available on more than four million perch. In consequence the varying factors of the environment and of individual behaviour are so masked that conclusions can be drawn from smooth curves plotting the data directly. From 1940 to 1944 inclusive the curves show a simple exponential relation as the population was reduced. Thereafter the fishery reached a condition which approximates to that of a sustained yield, which was one‐eighth to one‐tenth of the original yield in different parts of the lake. The sex ratio has been much disturbed because far more males have been caught than females. Marking experiments and other evidence show little lateral movement of perch along the shore‐line. Pike and eels were taken in perch traps in considerable numbers.

Pike netting. The method is described. Trials in 1943–44 were followed by intensive operations in 1944–47, during which period the catches have fallen and presumably the population has been drastically reduced, giving curves similar to those of perch trapping.

Char. Regular observations of the fish coming to breed suggests an increase in population following the reduction of perch and pike.

The opinions of anglers have given some corroborative evidence of the change of fish populations.

Discussion. The probable effects on the rates of reproduction, survival and growth of the five principal species of fish concerned are discussed.
Some oriental spiders of the genus Oxyopes.
Authors: SHERRIFFS W. RAE
Published: August 2010

Eleven oriental species of the genus Oxyopes have been re‐examined and accurate drawings made of the parts essential for their identification.

As a result these eleven species are shown to be separate and distinct from each other, though superficially markedly similar at first sight, e. g. (1) O. papuanus Thor. is apparently not the same as O. striatus Dol. as suggested by Thorell, (2) O. birmanicus Thor. is not “possibly identical with O. similaris Stol.” as stated by Pocock.
A large Scottish fox.
Authors: MATTHEWS L. HARRISON
Published: August 2010

The measurements of a large specimen of the hill‐fox from Scotland are recorded, and compared with the measurements previously recorded from similar animals. The conclusion reached by Tetley (1941); that such foxes are indistinguishable from the subspecies Vulpes v. vulpes, the Scandinavian fox, and are distinct from the generally distributed race found in Britain, V. v. crucigera, is supported.
Sub‐surface crypts in the cortex of the mammalian ovary.
Authors: HARRISON R. J. , MATTHEWS L. HARRISON
Published: August 2010

Examination of the ovaries from 106 different species of mammals has revealed the presence in a number of them of sub‐surface crypts, lined by germinal epithelium, which penetrate into, or pass through the tunica albuginea. Such crypts are differentiated from intra‐ovarian clefts which simply sub‐divide the ovary and from Pfluger's tubes which have no lumen. The crypts are constantly found in six species of Pinnipeds, frequently in numbers of Marsupialia, Insectivora, many fissiped Carnivora, two species of Procaviidae, Loxòdonta africana, and occasionally in Rodentia and Primates, including the human subject. In the Pinnipedia, and probably in the other species, the maximum development is at the time of oestrus and early pregnancy and the degree of development of the crypts appears to undergo changes corresponding to the degree of follicular activity and oogenesis. Experimental injection of gonadotrophins or oestrogens causes the appearance of crypts in Putorius furo, a species which does not normally show marked crypt formation.

The association of crypt formation with oogenesis is discussed and it is suggested that such crypts are possibly a vestige of the primitive pattern of ovarian structure.

In the human subject the formation of crypts is associated with the possible subsequent development of fibroadenoma or cystadenoma of the ovary.
The endocranial capacities of the Australopithecinae.
Authors: ASHTON E. H.
Published: August 2010

Modern statistical techniques have been used to compare the endocranial volumes of the Australopithecinae as published by Broom and his associates with those of the chimpanzee, gorilla, and Pithecanthropus.

It is shown that although the endocranial volumes of most of these extinct anthropoids are greater than in the chimpanzee, none differs significantly from the male gorilla, whereas all are significantly smaller than in the hominid genus Pithecanthropus.

Certain published statements about the cranial capacities of these fossils are discussed.
Leaf‐display and the sexual cycle in the Tooth‐billed “Bowerbird” (Scenopœetes dentirostris, Ramsay).
Authors: MARSHALL A. J.
Published: August 2010

The tooth‐billed “bowerbird” (Scenopœetes dentirostris) of North‐eastern Queensland clears a space on the floor of the rain‐forest and on this stage places freshly gathered leaves with their paler and more contrasting under surfaces uppermost. The indentations of the beak appear to be a development directly adapted to the laborious “sawing” by which the bird severs the petioles. The bird has not learnt that (at least with some of the leaves it uses) a sharp downward thrust would disengage the leaf from the tree without great effort.

Stage construction and leaf‐gathering commence at about the period when the testes begin their seasonal maturation. The stages are allowed to fall into disrepair after ovulation and at the time when the testes begin their fatty metamorphosis.

Male birds sit solitarily on a “singing stick” above each stage and sing loudly and continuously for several hours each day during the sexual season. This song, which includes the mimicked calls of other birds, ensures that in the rain‐forest where visibility is restricted every territorial rival or potential mate within a wide area will be aware of the singer's whereabouts.

It is not denied that the birds gain aesthetic pleasure from their leafdisplay and associated activities but it is concluded that these are essentially part of, and are governed by, the sexual cycle. The theory that the display grounds or bowers of this and allied species are primarily “recreational” in function is discounted.

Insufficient data are available to determine more precise functions of the display ground, or the factors that keep the reproductive rhythm “anchored” in time from year to year. These problems are discussed briefly in the text.
The relation between migration‐rate and type of habitat in aquatic inseets, with special reference to certain species of Corixidae.
Authors: BROWN E. S.
Published: August 2010

In a newly filled pond at Haileybury and Imperial Service College, Hertfordshire, the progress of colonization by Corixidae was studied in the spring and early summer of 1949, and again in 1950. The different species appearing were recorded, and compared numerically from sample collections.

The ratio of the numbers migrating into the pond to the numerical abundance of the same species in the surrounding district gave a rough comparison of their migration‐rates, which agreed closely with results obtained by other methods.

Migration‐rates of different species were found to be correlated with the types of habitat which they normally frequent; those normally found in temporary habitats migrate much, while those found in permanent habitats migrate relatively little. Those species of Corixidae whose migration‐rate is restricted by brachypterism are also confined to permanent habitats.

The significance of this correlation between habitat‐type and migration rate is discussed. A high rate of migration is advantageous to species frequenting temporary bodies of water, and a low one to those frequenting permanent habitats. Such a correlation may be more widespread, not only in Corixidae but in other aquatic insects such as beetles.

The factors controlling migration‐rate are (a) anatomical, involving reduction of wings (brachypterism) or of wing muscles (as in the beetle Noterus and the Hemiptera Nepa, Ranatra, Hyocoris), or both; and (b) of some other nature, probably physiological, which affect migratory tendency and behaviour (e. g. Corixidae).
Vestigial metapodials in the Okapi and Giraffe.
Authors: FRASER F. C.
Published: August 2010

In the Okapi vestiges of the second and fifth metapodials may be present but they are variable in occurrence and in extent. Metatarsal II is most often evident. This links up with the more specialized Giraffa in which the second metatarsal vestige is the only one which persists.
Notes on external characters of the pouch young of four species of bandicoot
Authors: Lyne A. G.
Published: August 2010

The external characters of pouch young of four Australian species of the family Peramelidae have been examined and their principal dimensions are recorded. Three of these bandicoots seem to be in danger of being added to the growing list of extinct marsupials.

Particular reference is made to the distribution of the sensory papillae and vibrissae. The numerical constancy of most groups of vibriwae is very marked. In tables 111 and IV, I have summarized the distribution of the vibrissae in seven of the Australian bandicoots.

Digits 2, 3 and 4 of the manus of newly‐born young of Perarneles gunnii and Isoodon obesulus bear deciduous claws which are shed soon after the embryo reaches the pouch. The presence of deciduous claws in bandicoots is reported here for the first time. These remarkable claws suggest that the embryo makes its way to the pouch by its own unaided efforts.

On the pes, claws are not discernible on newly‐born young.

In all but the smallest pouch young the sex may be determined by external examination.
Studies on the crevice fauna of a selected shore in Anglesey
Authors: Glynne‐Williams J. , Hobart J.
Published: August 2010

A detailed examination of rock crevices on a selected shore in Anglesey has been made. The tidal levels and percentage exposures of numerous cracks having been established, the contents and certain conditions within the crevice were investigated. These included a mechanical analysis and a qualitative study of the soil particles, estimates of the moisture content, of the humidity of the air trapped in the crevice, and of the organic carbon content of the substrate. A few readings were taken of the air and rock temperatures at the different levels.

Qualitative samples of the fauna were taken from crevices a t different tidal levels and from different parts of a single crevice. During the survey forty‐nine species were recorded from this habitat, thirty‐eight of which were plentiful enough for their distribution to be plotted.

For the sake of convenience the fauna has been divided into a marine and a terrestrial component. With the exception of Littorina rudis, all animals belonging to the marine component extended down to E.L.W.S., whereas their upper limits were found mainly in one of the three levels of M.L.W.S. M.L.W.N. to E.L.W.N., or M.H.W.N. to E.H.W.N.

All the members of the terrestrial component showed a well defined upper and lower limit between tidal marks. Three groups were defined by the extent of their distribution.

An examination of the spatial distribution within the crevice also showed differences between the two component parts of the fauna. The marine organisms, with the exception of Eulalia viridis were limited to the outer regions of the crevice, whereas the terrestrial forms were recorded as more common in the inner zone of the crevices at the h e r levels of the beach but more evenly distributed throughout the crevices higher up the shore.

Some observations on the feeding habits of the fauna of the crevice have been made in the field and supplemented by further observations made on animals in the laboratory. A diagram showing the possible feeding relationships of the members of the fauna a t different levels is presented.

The distribution of this fauna is discussed in relation to the conditions within the crevice; a few remarks on the probable stages in the development of the community are added.
The breeding seasons of mammals in captivity
Authors: Zuckerman S.
Published: August 2010

Representatives of 1049 different mammalian species have lived in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London during the 110 years intervening between their foundation in 1828 and the end of 1937. 171 belonged to the Order Primates. 316 species, including 28 Primates, have bred.

The records of births have been analysed to show the season of the year which different species breed. A summary of the main results is given in section 5, p. 914 of the main body of the paper.

There is a major physiological difference between a species that never breeds except in a restricted season, and one that breeds evenly throughout the year. The gap between the two is bridged by those animals which, while they breed +nore or less continuously, show a marked seasonal variation in the incidence of births. Theoretically the distinction between the two types of breeding habit can be evaluated statistically, but a more direct way of approaching the problem is the comparison of birth records for successive ten‐year periods. It has been found that the difference between a continuous and a seasonal breeder is often apparent in the records of the first ten years. Even a few birth records may sometimes indicate the breeding habit of a species, and occasionally of the entire genus of which it is a member.

The analysis of the breeding records of a species in successive periods has also occasionally revealed a change in the seasonal incidence of births. It is impossible to determine whether such changes reflect changed climat, ic, conditions or the different habits of different breeding stocks within a species.

An attempt has been made to compare the times when mammals from the southern hemisphere bear their young in London, with the times they breed in their natural habitat (and also to compare the times when mammals from the northern hemisphere breed in zoological collections in the southern hemisphere). There are some thirty‐eight species about which the records are sufficient to indicate breeding habits on the two sides of the equator. Eleven breed continuously in captivity but do not appear to exhibit any marked monthly variation in birth rate on either side of the equator. Two species breed continuously in both the northern and southern hemispheres, with a seasonal peak of births which also appears to be the same on both sides of the equator. In the remaining twenty‐five species most births appear to occur in different months on the two sides of the equator.

During the 1'10 years to which the present records relate, intergeneric crosses have occurred in the family Cercopit'hecidae ofthe order Primates, and in the family B0vida.e of the order Artiodactyh. A large number of interspecific hybrids have occurred in many orders and families.
A revision of the British leeches of the family Erpobdellidae, with a description of Dina lineata (O. F. Müller, 1774), a leech new to British fauna
Authors: Mann K. H.
Published: August 2010

Revised descriptions of the British leeches of the family Erpobdellidae are given, together with accounts of their principal variations.

Since the British Erpobdellidae cannot with certainty be identified by examination of external characters, a technique is described for separating the genera and species by the shape of the genital atrium.

The leech Dina lineata (O. F. Müller, 1774) is recorded in Britain for the first time. It was collected in a roadside pond rich in calcium and in organic matter. It is an isolated occurrence, probably an example of recent colonization.

Erpobdella testacea cannot establish itself in an environment favourable to E. octoculata, but in conditions of sewage pollution, or low total alkalinity, E. testacea becomes dominant.

The division of E. octoculata into var. vulgaris and var. atomaria is of no taxonomic significance, and should be discontinued.

Trocheta subviridis has been found most frequently in London and the Home Counties, but also occurs in Manchester, Gloucester, Glamorgan and Oxford. It is frequently associated with sewage works.
Molarization of the premolars in the Perissodactyla.
Authors: BUTLER P. M.
Published: August 2010

Molarization of the premolars in perissodactyls is reviewed in the light of that of the milk‐molars. The premolar patterns are closely related to those of the milk‐molars, the closest resemblance being shown, in most forms, to the milk‐molar that the premolar replaces. In a few Eocene forms, however, the premolars seem rather to resemble milk‐molars placed further forward in the series.

In primitive perissodactyls, each premolar differs from the corresponding milk‐molar in a number of ways, the most striking of which are the weak development of the talonid on the lower tooth and of the middle part of the crown on the upper tooth. The paracone and metacone of the upper premolar are more closely united than in the corresponding milk‐molar, and the protocone and hypocone are represented by a single cusp, the deuterocone. This condition is termed hyposphyric.

In the course of evolution the hyposphyric condition gives place to an isosphyric condition in which each premolar closely resembles in pattern the corresponding milk‐molar. If the milk‐molar is not yet molariform, further molarization of the milk‐molar and premolar take place together.

The lingual cusp (deuterocone) must be considered as homologous with the protocone and hypocone taken together. When on the milk‐molar the hypocone is larger than the protocone, the deuterocone of the premolar corresponds mainly to the hypocone and is converted into the hypocone as isosphyry increases, the protocone developing from its anterior crest. When the protocone and hypocone of the milk‐molar are equal. the deuterocone divides equally.

On P4 the development of the hypocone is retarded, and the deuterocone corresponds mainly to the protocone. The hypocone when it first develops on P4 is smaller, lower and less lingual than the protocone. In most rhinocerotoids and some tapiroids a lesser degree of retardation of the hypocone occurs on P3.

Molarization of the premolars is thus a complex of a number of processes which can be detected in all perissodactyls. Differences in the method of molarization from group to group are due to the lack of correlation between the processes involved. Differences in the course of evolution followed by adjacent premolars, as in Eocene Equidae and Oligocene Rhinocerotoidea. are to be explained in the same way.

Premolar occlusion is closely related to that of the milk‐molars, corresponding cusps having similar occlusal relations in the two series.
Trematodes of the genus Renicola from birds in British zoos, with descriptions of two new species
Authors: Wright C. A.
Published: August 2010

A number of cases of infection of the kidneys in birds by trematodes of the genus Renicola Cohn, 1904 is reported and two new species of the genus are described. One of them, Renicola pelecani sp. n., has been found in both the White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus) and the Spot‐billed Pelican (Pelecanus phillipensis). The other, Renicola sloanei sp. n., has been found in a number of species of penguin. It has also been found in a Common Guillemot (Uria aalge) from Sussex, this being the first record of a Renicola from a wild bird in Great Britain.
The anatomy of the Horse Leech, Haemopis sanguisuya (L.) with particular reference to the excretory system
Authors: Mann K. H.
Published: August 2010

The anatomy of the leech Haemopis sangaisaga is described. Whereas all other descriptions of British leeches are based on Whitman's conception of the relation between annulation and segmentation the system here employed is that of Castle and Moore, in which the distribution of the peripheral nerves is used to define the limits of the segments.

The alimentary canal differs markedly from that of Hirudo, since the crop has only one pair of lateral diverticula. This may be correlated with the feeding habits, which are macrophagous and not sanguivorous.

The nephridia are described in particular detail. It is found that, as in Hirudo, the inner end of the nephridial tubules have lost their connection with the ciliated organ, and the latter has no excretory function, but manufactures coelomic corpuscles.
Development and structure of the teeth in the Dog Fish, Squalus acanthias L. and Scyliorhynus caniculus (L.).
Authors: Kerr T. , Spaul E. A.
Published: August 2010

The development of the teeth of Squalus and Scyliorhynus has been examined in an attempt to clarify various aspects of their detailed structure and to provide a basis for comparison with other vertebrate teeth.

The enamel layer of the tooth is completely formed before calcification begins as a characteristic tissue, composed of a matrix penetrated by long cytoplasmic processes from the pulp cells and by reticular fibres passing inwards from the basement membrane. Calcification of the tooth commences in this enamel substance; during the process the matrix and reticulars alter in appearance and the cytoplasmic processes are replaced by fibres. The basement membrane calcifies where fused to the tooth, and the sharp‐edged ridges of the crown appear to be derived from this membrane.

The dentine appears as fibres laid down on the sides of the pulp, its appearance overlapping the beginning of enamel calcification; these intermingle with other fibres forming an irregular boundary fringe in the enamel and both extend upwards to enclose the apex of the pulp. The pulp cells whose processes penetrated the enamel substance become odontoblasts, and as the fibres enclose the pulp the truncated ends of their processes become enclosed in dentinal tubules.

The superficial similarity between the teeth of selacians and of higher types does not extend to the detailed structure of the teeth, and the question of homologies and relationships requires further work for its solution.
The evolution of the Ellobiidae with a discussion on the origin of the Pulmonata.
Authors: Morton J. E. , Graham Alastair
Published: August 2010

The primitive phonate family, the Ellobiidae, is discussed with reference to the structure, ecology and relationships of the following genera—Pythia, Ophicardelus, Cassidula, Ovatella, Leucophytia, Ellobium, Pedipes, Leuconopsis, Marinula, Rangitotoa, MelampusandCarychium. Ecologically, the family is shown to fall into four sections, a more primitive estuarine section, and sections containing marine intertidal, coastal terrestrial and inland terrestrial genera of rather more specialized character. In relation with detailed descriptions about to be published of the functional morphology of British ellobiids, a wider comparative account is now given of the digestive system and the genital ducts, and their evolution throughout the family. Further trends, chiefly concerning the adult and embryonic shell, are dealt with, in a discussion of the evolutionary pattern of the Ellobiidae. The frequent occurrence of parallel evolution, and the relative absence of adaptive radiation, or characters of obvious selective value, are noted. A scheme is proposed for the classification of ellobiid genera into subfamilies, which in some points departs from that of Thiele, based on radular studies by Odhner.

A wider review is then given of the evolutionary significance of the Ellobiidae, with reference both to the evolution of pulmonates from prosobranchs, and to their relationships with primitive tectibranchs. Finally, the relationships of the Basommatophora and the Stylommatophora are discussed, and the significance of the Ellobiidae is pointed out, with reference to the origins of both groups. The Basommatophora are held to be a phylogenetically unnatural group. The Ellobiidae is the only family of this group that could have provided possible ancestors for Stylommatophora, and these are unlikely to have occurred among known genera. Reference is made to the geological evidence in support of the view of gastropod evolution presented from this study.
The skull of the toad, Hemipipa carvalhoi Mir.‐Rib. with remarks on other Pipidae.
Authors: Paterson Nellie F.
Published: August 2010

An account is given of the morphology of the head region of Hemipipu carvalhoi excluding the nasal cavities which were discussed in a previous publication (Paterson, 1951).

The markedly fenestrated cartilaginous nasal capsule closely resembles that of Pipa and also shows similarities to that of Hymemhirus. In Xenopus. however, the nasal region is better chondrified and approximates that of other Salientia.

The nasals and frontoparietals are large, the latter being fused and provided with a conspicuous supraorbital ridge which also features in Pipa and Hymemchirus.

There is no quadrato‐jugal, palatine or prevomer and the squamosal lacks the processus zygomaticus that occurs in Xempus.

The ventral surface is largely occupied by the broad parasphenoid, while the pterygoid, in common with that of Pipa and Xenopus, is provided with an anterior process projecting forward towards the posterior end of the maxilla.

There is a continuous cartilaginous subocular arch from the quadrate to the planum antorbitale.

Only three foramina occur in the medial wall of the membranous labyrinth. These have been determined as the foramen endolymphaticum, the foramen perilymphaticum superius and a single foramen acusticum.

The quadrate is massive and mainly cartilaginous. It is concluded that in the Pipidae a pseudobasal process developed from the larval palatoquadrate is connected to a basicranial ridge of the neurocranium by means of a post‐palatine commissure. The latter, which is regarded as belonging to the neurocranium, is probably comparable to the auditory ledge described in other Salientia.

The sound‐conducting apparatus is essentially similar to that of other Pipidae, but lacks the small operculum that obtains in Xempus.

Although the complete hyoid apparatus was not investigated, it is evident that the adult Hemipipa agrees with Pipa in the absence of ceratohyals.
Gut haems in the invertebrates.
Authors: Phear Elizabeth A. , Fox H. Munro
Published: August 2010

A survey has shown that protohaemochromogens in the gut lumen are widely distributed in Mollusca and Polychaeta, but are not widespread in Crustacea. These compounds were always found in highest concentration in the anterior part of the gut.

All the Polychaeta examined, with the exception of two species of Chaetopteridae, were found to have a gut protohaem compound, and in several species this was shown to be methaemoglobin, or an undentified compound which may have been haematin but was not 2 haemochromogen. Haemochromogens were of more frequent occurrence in tubicolous than in free‐living Polychaeta.

In several species of Polychaeta an inverse correlation was established between the concentration of gut haem (as haemochromogen or unidentified haem) and that of the respiratory pigment in the blood (whether haemoglobin or chlorocruorin).

The survey has given no indication of the factors governing the presence or the nature of the particular haem compound in the gut, but there is evidence that these compounds are derived from the tissues of the animal in which they are found rather than from the food.

The variation in the concentration of haemochromogen in the gut of Helix aspersa and Daphnia magna has been studied in the field and in the laboratory.

The concentration has been found to vary little with the nature of the food, although in Daphnia an external factor of unknown nature has been found to be necessary for the maintenance of a high concentration in mature animals.

The amount of helicorubin in the crop of Helix has been shown to vary with the activity of the animals, and with the state of digestion of the food.

Evidence has been put forward that helicorubin is reabsorbed from the gut of Helix, and that it is not lost from the body.

The amount of daphniarubin in the anterior part of the gut of Daphnia has been found to vary with the activity of the gut, but the chief cause of variation is the concentration of body haem. Direct and inverse correlations with the haemoglobin concentration in the blood have been established under different conditions.