bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mourning Becomes Paul de Man
Authors: Siebers Tobin
Published: October 2023

Paul de Man’s Allegories of Reading defines one of its major terms, “rhetoric,” as “a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view, and therefore puts an insurmountable obstacle in the way of any reading or understanding” (131).1 Language is always rhetorical in de Man’s mind; metaphor is not an aberrant form of language but “the linguistic paradigm par excellence” (105). De Man likens his theory of language to Nietzsche’s early writings on rhetoric, those writings that established Nietzsche as one of the three masters of suspicion and the progenitor of modern deconstruction, and he takes pains to exhume the most skeptical formulations from Nietzsche’s notes: “No such thing as an unrhetorical, ‘natural’ language exists that could be used as a point of reference: language is itself the result of purely rhetorical tricks and devices … “ (105). When brought into the orbit of Nietzsche’s later writings, the rhetorical nature of language becomes a symptom of the will to power, one of the many tactics of persuasion by which the will asserts itself over truth.
The Politics of the Politics of Interpretation
Authors: Siebers Tobin
Published: October 2023

It is perhaps an oddity of the current theoretical scene that the phrase “the politics of interpretation” does not refer specifically to what hap pens in the classroom when an interpretation takes place but to a general idea about the types of interests that originate the impulse to interpret. The politics of interpretation is not involved directly with world or national politics, although it does not exactly ignore them, and it has little to say about university politics. Rather, the idea of the politics of interpretation is philosophically and theoretically motivated. It tries to trace the conditions of the political as such. It assumes that all meaning is political, and it makes an effort to describe what happens in general when we interpret. Such generality merely reaffirms the theoretical dimension of the notion, and I will not do it an injustice if I claim that this theory is fairly constant across a broad diversity of schools and camps. The politics of interpretation usually describes the “political” as that realm in which competing interests struggle to gain power. Power drives interpretation, it is argued, and the will to interpret would have no will at all if it did not reach toward the possession of power. To interpret, then, is to engage in an act of empowering oneself, usually at the expense of others.
Introduction The Restraints of Language
Authors: Doreski C K
Published: October 2023

When Elizabeth Bishop exchanges looks for visions in “Poem” (“About the size of an old-style dollar bill ... “), she renews a life-long commitment to a language of seemingly transparent simplicity, one that privileges the articulation of the experience of the senses instead of the interior world of the psyche or the romantic impulse toward epiphany and the world of the spirit. The tropes of Bishop’s domestic, pastoral, or exotic landscapes serve knowledge only insofar as they cloak, while exteriorizing, the unspoken and inarticulate interior, refusing either to resolve or deconstruct the binary opposition. For some critics, this binding of experience in a restraining rhetoric, one that depersonalizes as it simplifies, has become a characteristically American manner. Certainly it distinguishes Bishop from Wordsworth, with his penchant for “spots of time,” however superficially her work suggests his.
Romantic Rhetorics
Authors: Doreski C K
Published: October 2023

Epiphany and the power of naming (which in the modern era begins by naming the writer-as-authority) are two characteristically romantic-modern rhetorical embodiments of knowledge. Bishop, who largely learned these devices from Wordsworth, manipulates their conventions for some of her richest effects, and also for some of her most intriguing complexities. As I have previously argued, resistance to language that attempts to delve into the psyche or the world of the spirit characterizes her poetry. The process of resistance itself, however, constitutes a powerful rhetorical structure that shapes much of her best work. The epiphanic mode, which this chapter will discuss first, requires the poet to transgress the text and explicitly share its self-realization, its transcendence of language into immanence. Trust in the epiphany did not come readily to Elizabeth Bishop. As her poem “Santarem” warns, there is always the chance that the auditor might misunderstand the significance of the triggering subject and query “What’s that ugly thing?”, inadvertently mocking the ideational. What some critics consider Bishop’s extreme reticence and excessive decorum may be linked to her notions of decency and communion, and to her ultimate distrust of epiphany.
Spoken to Us by His Son: A Dialogics of the New Testament
Authors: Reed Walter L
Published: October 2023

In Chapter 1 we examined Erich Auerbach’s contrast between the forward-looking historical realism of the Gospel of Mark and the traditional comic realism of Petronius’s Satyricon. In the well-known scene describing Trimalchio’s nouveau riche banquet, Auerbach maintains, the lives of ordinary citizens and their common, vulgar speech, are presented as comic, placed within a frame­ work of the classical hierarchy of genres. These lives are treated neither with the seriousness nor with the awareness of revolutionary social forces that are registered for ordinary human existence in the Gospel of Mark. Although these two first-century narratives appear to be close in subject matter, Auerbach argues, they are distinctly different in style.
Law Libraries and Legal Information Places
Authors: Katsh M Ethan
Published: October 2023

The impact of LEXIS and WESTLAW is not simply a matter of a new technology simplifying or speeding up a preexisting process; it involves a change in the structure of legal literature in law,

more than any other discipline, the structure of the literature implies the structure of the enterprise itself.1

-Robert C. Berring

The earliest and perhaps the most familiar use of electronic communication by the legal community involved electronic legal research. The emergence of LEXIS in the early 1970s and of WESTLAW several years later enabled lawyers and law students to obtain legal information very quickly from the LEXIS database in Ohio or the West data base in Minnesota.2 For the past several years, every law student in the United States has had free access to these services, and their use generally in the practice of law has been increasing. These databases contain huge quantities of information. They are more up-to-date than any print library and in some areas, such as coverage of cases and judicial opinions, are more comprehensive than any print library. Each electronic service contains “unofficial” opinions that, for one reason or another, will not be published and that some courts have even said should not be relied upon.

There has been an understandable tendency to assume that LEXIS and WESTLAW are libraries.
Microbes and Virulence Factors: Bacteria
Authors: Relman David A
Published: October 2023

An understanding of the processes by which bacteria cause disease requires an appreciation of both participants, pathogen and host, as well as the manner by which the two relate and respond to each other. Hence, a discussion of either one alone is inadequate. Nonetheless, a brief presentation of basic bacterial structure, taxonomy, and the principles of pathogenicity may be useful at the outset of this discussion.
Fungi and Fungal Diseases
Authors: Edwards John E , Pappas Peter G
Published: October 2023

This chapter is divided into two main sections, “Opportunistic Mycoses” and “Endemic Mycoses.” Because of the evolution of the fungal pathogens, this division has become imperfect in contemporary times. Many fungal pathogens that were previously classified as endemic have become opportunistic in severely immunocompromised hosts. For instance, Histoplasma frequently infects patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Clinical Bacteriology
Authors: Plorde James J
Published: October 2023

The definitive diagnosis of bacterial infections is most commonly accomplished by the cultural recovery of the causative agent(s) from body surfaces, fluids, tissues or excreta of the affected patient. The reliability of this approach is dependent on (1) the collection of clinical specimens free of colonizing, but potentially pathogenic, bacteria, and (2) the transportation of these specimens to the laboratory in a manner that ensures the survival of fastidious pathogens.
Clinical Virology
Authors: Ashley Rhoda L
Published: October 2023

Laboratory tests for viral diagnosis include cell culture methods for viral isolation, rapid assays that detect viral macromolecules, molecular techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that amplify and identify viral nucleic acids, and serologic tests that detect serum antibody responses to viral infections (Fig. 17.1). With the advent of molecular techniques and availability of reagents to detect viral antigens and nucleic acids, the spectrum of tests offered and the complexity of specimen requirements has increased dramatically. Communication between health care providers and the laboratory is essential to assure that the most effective tests are used for each situation.
Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Action and Resistance
Authors: Jacoby George A
Published: October 2023

Antimicrobial agents possess selective toxicity because, as predicted by Paul Ehrlich a century ago, there are targets in a microbe that are missing or significantly different from those in humans.
Cephalosporins
Authors: Malow James B , Sheagren John N
Published: October 2023

The discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in 1929 and the eventual clinical use of the purified product in the 1940s led to the search for other antibacterial agents produced by naturally occurring fungi. Giuseppi Brotzu was the first to isolate a cephalosporin from Cephalosporium acremonium in 1945. This substance was subsequently further fractionated and found to be made up of several active components. The most active, Cephalosporin C, became the parent compound for the first cephalosporin, used in clinical practice.
Tetracyclines and Chloramphenicol
Authors: Thomas M. Hooton
Published: October 2023

Tetracyclines, discovered in the late 1940s, were the first major group of antimicrobial agents for which the term “broad spectrum” was used. They are naturally occurring and synthetically derived antibiotics that constitute a very important class of drugs commonly used in clinical practice.
Fluoroquinolones
Authors: Stahlmann Ralf , Lode Hartmut
Published: October 2023

Quinolones have been used therapeutically for more than 30 years, predominantly for treatment of urinary tract infections. As the antimicrobial and pharrnacokinetic characteristics of the older quinolones, such as nalidixic acid or oxolinic acid, were far from optimal, they have been considered second-line therapeutics. The synthesis of a new series of drugs with a fluorine atom at position 6 of the molecule led to derivatives with markedly enhanced antibacterial activity. This group is referred to as fluoroquinolones.
Miscellaneous Antibacterial Drugs
Authors: Dow Gordon , Ronald Allan R
Published: October 2023

Antimicrobial agents included in this category are not expected to achieve therapeutic concentrations outside the urinary tract. This unique drug disposition has advantages including reduced suppression of normal bacterial flora, decreased emergence of resistance, low rates of yeast overgrowth syndromes, and minimization of teratogenic risk and fetal toxicity. These agents are generally contraindicated for use in infections involving sites other then the urinary tract.
Antiviral Drugs and Therapy
Authors: Diamond Catherine , Corey Lawrence
Published: October 2023

Of the many drugs now available for the treatment of viral infections, several have only recently come into general clinical use. By clarifying the unique pharmacology of and indications for each antiviral drug, this chapter is intended as a guide to the appropriate use of these drugs. We will begin by reviewing drugs used for herpes simplex I (HSV-1) and II (HSV-2) and varicella zoster (VZV) viruses: acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famciclovir.
Cellulitis and Abscesses
Authors: Stevens Dennis L
Published: October 2023

Infections in the skin and subcutaneous tissue may be caused by viruses, fungi, bacteria, rickettsia, and parasites. Literally hundreds of different etiologies have been described in normal individuals, and more recently in compromised patients such as bone marrow transplant recipients and patients with AIDS. Thus, the clinician is faced with the formidable task of establishing a specific diagnosis and prescribing a definitive treatment.
Infectious Complications of Pancreatitis
Authors: Dellinger E Patchen
Published: October 2023

Acute pancreatitis frequently presents a diagnostic dilemma to the treating physician. The underlying pathophysiology of the disease is not infectious, but involves the activation of pancreatic enzymes in and around the pancreas itself with secondary inflammation and tissue destruction. The precise pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this inappropriate enzyme activation are not known; however, the clinical settings in which it occurs are well documented.
Peritonitis and Intraabdominal Abscesses
Authors: Dellinger E Patchen
Published: October 2023

Bacterial peritonitis and intraabdominal abscess are most conveniently discussed together, since one is frequently the cause of the other. They share a similar microbiological etiology, usually derived from the gastrointestinal tract, they are treated with the same selection of antibiotics, and they both usually have underlying causes that require surgical intervention.
Intravenous Catheter-Related Infections, Suppurative Thrombophlebitis, and Mycotic Aneurysms
Authors: Lew Daniel P , Schrenzel Jacques
Published: October 2023

It is estimated that more than half of the patients admitted to hospitals, both in the United States and in Europe, require, at one time or another, intravenous infusions. The rates of use of intravenous devices increase up to 100% in critically ill patients, in particular when admitted to intensive care units. Although very useful for the therapy of hospitalized patients, intravenous catheters are associated with a significant risk for developing infectious and noninfectious complications.
Vulvovaginitis, Cervicitis, and Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
Authors: Embree Joanne E , Brunham Robert C
Published: October 2023

Vulvovaginitis, cervicitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) are generally caused by infections of the lower and upper female genital tract. Although the etiological agents of vulvovaginitis generally differ from those of cervicitis and PID, these syndromes frequently occur concurrently. Together, these infections are of major public health concern because of the frequency of doctor visits associated with vulvovaginitis and cervicitis and due to the impact that PID exerts on the reproductive health of women.
Endemic and Traveler’s Diarrhea in Tropical Countries
Authors: Dupont Herbert L
Published: October 2023

In the developing tropical and semitropical world, microbial contamination of the environment and malnutrition among the local population commonly coexist, resulting in frequent enteric infection, diarrhea, and retarded growth of infants. The general microbial contamination also explains the common occurrence of diarrhea among persons traveling into these areas from industrialized countries such as the United States. In this chapter we will consider the enteric disease complications in the two population groups-local inhabitants and travelers to the region. Treatment of endemic and travelers’ diarrhea will be considered in this chapter. Chapter 61 deals with gastroenteritis and diarrhea in developed countries.
Epidemiology and Prevention
Authors: Crabbe Francois , Laga, Marie , Piot Peter
Published: October 2023

The first cases of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) were recognized in 1981, prior to the identification of the etiologic agent. Thus the initial case definition of this new syndrome was based on available clinical and laboratory data.
AIDS Immunology
Authors: Stranford Sharon A , Levy Jay A
Published: October 2023

Infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) results in severe disruptions to the homeostasis of the host immune system. Some of these disruptions, such as enhanced antibody production and a decrease in the CD4+/CDS+ cell ratio, are universal features of this infection. Other immune alterations, such as lymph node architecture damage and the magnitude of CD4+ cell depletion, are more variable (see Table 99.1 for a list of immunologic abnormalities associated with HIV infection).
Clinical Manifestations of HIV Infection and AIDS
Authors: Collier Ann C , Marra, Christina M , Sacks Lili A
Published: October 2023

Persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 infection have a broad spectrum of clinical conditions, which range from asymptomatic to life-threatening. Some clinical symptoms and signs are attributable to HIV infection, whereas others are due to infectious or malignant complications. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) refers to a state of severe in Immunodeficiency caused by HIV infection, which is characterized by specific opportunistic diseases. More recently, the term immunologic AIDS has been used to refer to persons with HIV who have not had an opportunistic disease, but who have severe depletion of CD4+ cells (<200/µL).
Decommunization after the “Velvet Revolutions” in East Central Europe
Authors: Smith Kathleen E
Published: October 2023

Perhaps the most surprising feature of the dramatic demise of communism in Eastern Europe was its form—pacts between reform Communists and democratic movements in Poland and Hungary and swift, civic-led peaceful revolutions in Czechoslovakia and East Germany. In the aftermath of communism’s collapse, demands have been raised in every post-Communist state for identification and disenfranchisement, if not prosecution, of those who thwarted earlier reforms, violated human rights, collaborated with the secret police, or abused their official positions under the old regime. The pervasiveness of such demands can be traced in part to the fact that, unlike violent and protracted conflicts, the “velvet revolutions” left the “vanquished” Communists alive and well, with their privileges virtually intact. A thorough settling of accounts with the old regime, however, has proved not only complex but potentially dangerous. For example, calls for prosecution of the old guard have jeopardized coalition rule in Poland and Hungary. Meanwhile, velvet revolutionaries in Germany and Czechoslovakia have grappled with contradictions between rule of law and purge. Vaclav Havel, the first post-Communist President of Czechoslovakia, described his nation’s law on screening state institutions for former secret police collaborators as “a somewhat revolutionary law, a law that is attempting to do something from above that our society failed to do and did not have the strength to do from below.” This problem of carrying out a second, democratic revolution against entrenched remnants of Communist rule in Central Europe is examined in this chapter.
Zimbabwe: Drawing a Line Through the Past
Authors: Carver Richard
Published: October 2023

The issue of the accountability of security force personnel for human rights violations is seldom debated in Africa. In Latin America and, more recently, in Eastern Europe, the issue of whether to bring to justice officials who violated human rights under past regimes has been a subject of national debate. But in most African countries the choice has been scarcely considered and has tended to be decided by default. South Africa is clearly an exception. Already embarked on a process of constitutional transformation after decades of gross human rights violations, the new government and the leading political parties must consider what attitude to take toward the members of the security forces and others responsible for these abuses. Will their crimes be investigated? Will they be brought to justice? Will there be a blanket amnesty for human rights violators? Will they be allowed to continue to hold positions of responsibility in the security forces?
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Law and the Inner Self
Authors: White G Edward
Published: October 2023

By any measure, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., led a full and remarkable life. He was tall and exceptionally attractive, especially as he aged, with piercing eyes, a shock of white hair, and prominent moustache. He was the son of a famous father (Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., renowned for `The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table’), a thrice-wounded veteran of the Civil War, a Harvard-educated member of Brahmin Boston, the acquaintance of Longfellow, Lowell, and Emerson, and for a time a close friend of William James. He wrote one of the classic works of American legal scholarship, The Common Law, and he served with distinction on the Supreme Court of the United States. He was actively involved in the Court’s work into his nineties. In Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, G. Edward White, the acclaimed biographer of Earl Warren and one of America’s most esteemed legal scholars, provides a rounded portrait of this remarkable jurist. We see Holmes’s early life in Boston and at Harvard, his ambivalent relationship with his father, and his harrowing service during the Civil War (he was wounded three times, twice nearly fatally, shot in the chest in his first action, and later shot through the neck at Antietam). White examines Holmes’s curious, childless marriage (his diary for 1872 noted on June 17th that he had married Fanny Bowditch Dixwell, and the next sentence indicated that he had become the sole editor of the American Law Review) and he includes new information on Holmes’s relationship with Clare Castletown. White not only provides a vivid portrait of Holmes’s life, but examines in depth the inner life and thought of this preeminent legal figure. There is a full chapter devoted to The Common Law, for instance, and throughout the book, there is astute commentary on Holmes’s legal writings. Indeed, White reveals that some of the themes that have dominated 20th-century American jurisprudence--including protection for free speech and the belief that ‘judges make the law’--originated in Holmes’s work. Perhaps most important, White suggests that understanding Holmes’s life is crucial to understanding his work, and he continually stresses the connections between Holmes’s legal career and his personal life. For instance, his desire to distinguish himself from his father and from the ‘soft’ literary culture of his father’s generation drove him to legal scholarship of a particularly demanding kind. White’s biography of Earl Warren was hailed by Anthony Lewis on the cover of The New York Times Book Review as ‘serious and fascinating,’ and The Los Angeles Times noted that ‘White has gone beyond the labels and given us the man.’ In Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, White has produced an equally serious and fascinating biography, one that again goes beyond the labels and gives us the man himself.
“An All Round View of the Law, ” 1882–1902 On
Authors: White G Edward
Published: October 2023

On March 3, 1881, Little, Brown and Company sent Holmes the first copy of The Common Law. He inscribed the copy on the flyleaf and he and Fanny opened a bottle of champagne; he saved the cork for the rest of his life.1 As noted, the book had appeared five days before his fortieth birthday, the point that indicated whether ‘a man was to do anything. ‘2 Its publication must have signified a great emotional release for Holmes. At last he had joined the company of his peers Pollock and Dicey and Henry Adams and Leslie Stephen in publishing a book while still in his thirties. But after the exultation of the moment when the first copy arrived, anticlimax may well have set in. Holmes went back to his law practice, which continued as before. The book was greeted, as most books are, with a long silence. The Lowell Lectures were over; the nights devoted to them and to their rewriting for the book were suddenly empty.
The supreme judicical court
Authors: White G Edward
Published: October 2023

Before his appointment to the Harvard faculty Holmes was preoccupied with his work, and he and Fanny had few social contacts. His assuming an academic position made his summers free from responsibilities, and he wrote Frederick Pollock in April 1882 that he planned to spend the summer in England and the continent as ‘one of the advantages of the professorship.’’5 But the appointment to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court meant that Holmes’ summers would be taken up, except for intervals, with court business, further cementing the junior Holmeses’ routine.
Aging
Authors: White G Edward
Published: October 2023

In October 1922, Holmes wrote Pollock from the Powhatan Hotel in Washington. He had had a prostate operation on July 12, and was slowly recovering. His weakness had resulted in his doctors recommending that an elevator be installed in his house to save him the labor of walking up a steep flight of stairs to his library and bedroom. The elevator had taken longer than expected, and the Holmeses were forced to stay at the Powhatan while awaiting its completion. Holmes’ routine was upset, as he had to move his Court papers to the hotel and was not within easy reach of his books, and the opening of the Court’s Term presented him with a series of new problems. “The total is,’’ he told Pollock, “that I am distracted. It is the first moment of feeling like an old man.”1 Six months before Chief Justice William Howard Taft had written his brother that “Holmes ... is suffering from asthma, and I suspect it is of a cardiac character.
Introduction: The Global Refugee Crisis
Authors: Loescher Gil
Published: October 2023

Desperate men, women, and children pushed out of their own countries by forces entirely beyond their control are paraded with grim regularity across our television screens. Images of exhausted, destitute mothers cradling emaciated children in some makeshift camp in a remote corner of the world not only evoke the pathos of refugees but graphically illustrate the daily reality of millions of people caught up in the crosscurrents of revolution, war, and famine who have been forced into exile.
The International Refugee Regime and Third World Refugees
Authors: Loescher Gil
Published: October 2023

At the beginning of the 1960s, the attention of the international refugee regime passed to the Third World, where millions of displaced people posed a serious challenge to international stability. In Europe, the era of refugees (except for waves of Czechs in 1968 and Poles in 1980) was mostly finished, and the problem would not reappear until the late 1980s. Although political repression in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union continued to produce more refugees, fewer and fewer Eastern Europeans were able to flee to the West, especially once the countries behind the Iron Curtain consolidated their rule, imposed exit controls, and closed their borders. It was assumed that the continuing process of overseas resettlement, as well as residual local integration, would dispose of the remaining European refugee problem.1 By the early 1960s, the westward flow of Eastern Europeans had rapidly been eclipsed by new refugee movements in the Third World.
The Crisis of Berlin Jewry: Introduction to the Problem
Authors: Lowenstein Steven M
Published: October 2023

Few communities of comparable size have received the scholarly attention that the Jews of Berlin in the period 1770-1823 have received from historians of modern Jewry. Virtually every general history of the Jews devotes several pages to the community, and many histories of modern Jewry devote whole chapters. The life of Moses Mendelssohn, the Berlin Haskala (Jewish Enlightenment), the women of the salons, the “epidemic of baptism,” the conflict over early religious reform, all are the staples of modern Jewish history. The impact of the events has affected Jewish life far beyond Berlin or Germany. Berlin Jewry has served as a model (and also as a cautionary tale) for Jewish communities in Eastern Europe, America, and elsewhere. Debate over the importance and the merit of the changes that took place in Berlin during those generations has been closely tied to ideological battles within Judaism. And yet, the Jewish community of Berlin was relatively small between the years 1770 and 1823. The total number of Jews in Berlin fluctuated, but was never much greater or fewer than 3,500. When compared to a world Jewish population of several million at the time, this seems an infinitesimal number. Even within the areas later to be part of united Germany, Berlin had none of the numeric dominance it was to have later on. Not only were there probably twice as many Jews in Hamburg as in Berlin, there were a number of small cities in the Posen district (such as Lissa, Kempen, etc.)-little more than shtetlekh-whose Jewish population exceeded that of Berlin.
The View from the Balcony
Authors: Davis Robert C
Published: October 2023

Hugely popular and openly staged throughout the early modern era, the battagliole were nevertheless in theory completely illegal and only to be put on with the special permission of the state. The Venetian government had taken this stance at least as early as 1505, when the Council of Ten issued a proclama threatening anyone “who dared to gather or make war at the bridges” with three hoists on the strappado and-at theTen’s discretion-a possible whipping as well. To make sure its intentions about illicit battagliole were perfectly clear, the Ten posted this and later edicts against such gatherings not only at Piazza San Marco and the Rialto-the usual places for displaying proclamations-but also in those outlying neighborhoods where Castellani and Nicolotti partisans customarily gathered. Before long, however, it became clear to the Ten that enthusiasts of the pugni would “continue to carry on the battagliole ... because of the light penalties [involved],” so the punishments for those who sought to amuse themselves at the bridges without permission were steadily increased. The state’s escalating battle against the pugni culminated with the edict of 29 November 1644, which proclaimed: That no one should dare make this said war under the irremissible penalty of assuredly being condemned to serve as a shackled oarsman in a prison galley for five years, or ... being unfit for such service, to be confined in one of the ... Ten’s prisons barred to the light for a space of seven years. Should he flee [arrest], let him be banished from this City of Venice and its territories for fifteen years.
The Impact of Sociocultural Differences on Health
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J
Published: October 2023

Previous chapters have emphasized the powerful impact that national and subnational levels of government have had on the health of the indigenous peoples of Northern America, Polynesia, and Australia. In this and the next chapter we return to the comparative method. Our focus shifts, however, to the importance of indigenous cultures for the health of their members. Our examples are the Hopi and Navajo Indians in the Southwest of the United States, chosen because they live in the same environment; have been coerced by the same government in similar ways (e.g., in regard to forced education and stock reduction in the 1930s); have been forced to acquiesce in the extraction of their natural resources in the interests of the same large corporation (e.g., the Peabody Coal Company, which operates a large strip mine on land claimed by both tribes); and are beneficiaries of the same health, education, and welfare systems. Yet they have very different cultures and patterns of social organization. They thus present yet another opportunity for comparison, this time holding constant the political, economic, and physical environment and considering differences in culture.
The New Haven School
Authors: Mcdougal Myres S , Lasswell Harold D
Published: October 2023

Borrowing and adapting the tools of a variety of social science disciplines from economics and political science to psychology and sociology-the originators of the New Haven approach developed what they have called a “policy-oriented jurisprudence.” Myres S. McDougal, a Yale law professor and one-time president of the American Society of lnternational Law, and Harold D. Lasswell, a Yale professor of law and political science and one time president of the American Political Science Association, have developed a truly interdisciplinary approach to the study of international rules.
Structural Realism
Authors: Grieco Joseph M
Published: October 2023

According to Kenneth N. Waltz, a founder of the approach, Structural Realism “presents a systematic portrait of international politics depicting component units according to the manner of their arrangement.”1 States, which are deemed the major actors in world affairs, are conceived as unitary actors motivated primarily by the will to survive. Anarchy-the absence of a central monopoly of legitimate force-is the essential structural quality of the system. This structural quality provides an adequate explanation both for competition of states and for the observable though severely limited instances of state cooperation. International regimes, institutions, rules, and norms are not independent causal factors, according to the Structural Realists (or “Neorealists”), and affect the prospects for international cooperation only at the margins.
Emissions
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

The profound, potentially long-lasting consequences of atmospheric pollution and the possible magnitude of the costs associated with controlling emissions demand careful physical and economic assessment of alternative strategies for reducing pollution. While the modeling of the physical emission processes is relatively well developed, the integration of the physical data with an economic model has often been identified as the weakest component of current environmental studies (EPA, 1990; Rind, Rosenzweig, and Rosenzweig, 1988).
Processing and Fabrication of Metals
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

Representation of Metals in the World Model The World Model explicitly tracks the extraction of six nonfuel metallic ores: copper (SES), bauxite (aluminum) (SE6), nickel (SE7), zinc (SES), lead (SE9) and iron ore (SElO). There is a single sector for primary processing of metals (XXS). To retain detail about the mix of metals in refined metals, the metal fabricating sectors purchase their refined metal inputs in two parts, the ore directly from the mining sectors (SES-10) and the services for transforming ore to semimanufactured inputs from the refining sector (XX:5). The metal extraction, processing, and principal metal fabricating sectors are shown in Table 7.1.
Chemicals
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

Description of the Sectors While all case studies face data problems, the lack of systematic information is particularly severe in the case of the chemical sectors because of the great diversity of products, the overlapping classification schemes used in different sources, and the lack of a common physical unit that can be useful at this degree of aggregation. For these reasons, this case study is more preliminary than the others.
Motor Vehicles
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

A country needs freight transport to develop its industrial base, and passenger transportation provides the mobility necessary for social development. Without good transportation facilities, it is, for example, impossible to benefit from economies of scale in production or to provide medical services and education to rural communities. Generally, road transport is the most important mode of transportation for both freight and passengers, except in China and India, where railroads are more important. However, even in these countries, there is an increasing reliance on road transport (OTA, 1991, p. 79).
Norms Elaborating the Elements of Self-Determination
Authors: Anaya S James
Published: October 2023

As indicated in the foregoing discussion, the principle of self-determination and related human rights precepts undergird more particularized norms concerning indigenous peoples. Newly developing norms contain substantive and remedial prescriptions and, in conjunction with already established human rights standards of general applicability, form the benchmarks for ensuring indigenous peoples of ongoing self-determination. This body of international norms indicates the minimum range of choices to which indigenous peoples are entitled in remedial-constitutive procedures (that is, in belated state-building procedures that aim to secure redress for historical and continuing wrongs). The international norms concerning indigenous peoples, which thus elaborate upon the requirements of self-determination, generally fall within the following categories: nondiscrimination, cultural integrity, lands and resources, social welfare and development, and self-government. The general contours of these norms are identified and discussed in the following synthesis of relevant conventional and customary law, including new and emergent law.
Frontier Banditti and the Indians: The Paxton Boys’ Legacy, 1763–75
Authors: Vaughan Alden T
Published: October 2023

This essay is less about changing colonial perceptions of Indians from I763 to I 775 than about how drastically perceptions had disintegrated in one British province between the late seventeenth century and the third quarter of the eighteenth. From the outset of William Penns colonial venture in the I 68 os, the Quaker leader sought respect and equity for native inhabitants; “lett them have Justice,” he urged, “& you win them.” Penn established policies to implement that goal and repeatedly admonished Pennsylvania s officials and the growing flow of European immigrants to practice Quaker ideals of kindness and nonviolence. Eighty years later, his colony—no longer dominated by Quakers either in the government or among the Euro-American population—set a sorry standard in its treatment of Indians. This essay documents the record of atrocities from the Paxton Boys’ assassinations of Conestoga Indians in late I763 until the eve of the American War of Independence.
Blacks in Virginia: Evidence from the First Decade
Authors: Vaughan Alden T
Published: October 2023

The earliest evidence of Africans in mainland British America is frustratingly sparse and sometimes inconsistent. The most obvious questions are accordingly difficult to answer: lien were the first Africans brought to its shores? liat was their status—slave, free, indentured, or some combination of those conditions? liat did the Euro-Americans in Virginia (mostly English, of course, but with scatterings of many nationalities) think about the presence of Africans and about their appropriate role in the colony? Was there a fairly clear consensus among Euro-Americans on such matters, or did they disagree, perhaps adamantly, on some points?

Surely historians do not agree. Although 1619 is generally accepted as the earliest arrival date for an African in England’s mainland colonies, and Point Comfort, Virginia, as the location, none of the other questions has enjoyed much agreement. Yet the events and perceptions of those early years may have been crucial to the evolution of the institution of slavery and the formation of racial ideology. It is accordingly important to learn as much as we can about the experiences of the first Africans in Virginia.
Crossing the Cultural Divide: Indians and New Englanders, 1605–1763
Authors: Vaughan Alden T
Published: October 2023

Europeans have often observed that Americans, almost from the outset of colonization, blended Old World traditions with New World innovations. By moving to a continent not bound by Europe’s restrictive customs and by absorbing some of America’s native ways, immigrants—and especially their children and grandchildren—became Americans rather than transplanted Europeans of whatever nationality. To say that Europeans “Indianized” is perhaps to exaggerate (and in the usage of the colonial period, to demean as well), but surely EuroAmericans became decreasingly like their forebears and more like American natives as time went by, even when the former influence remained the stronger of the two. Similarly, American Indian lives changed under the influence of the strangers from abroad; whether for better or for worse, the introduction of metal tools, woven cloth, alcoholic beverages, and firearms—to name only the most common items of intercultural trade—meant that even Indians who shunned personal contact with the intruders were likely to feel their influence and never be quite the same again. This essay examines the frequency and depth of acculturation in the New England colonies throughout most of the colonial period.
Concepts and Issues
Authors: Park Yung Chul
Published: October 2023

For all the scrutiny the exceptional economic performance of Japan, Korea, and Taiwan has attracted, relatively little attention has been paid to understanding the workings and development of their financial systems. But finance matters these countries’ financial systems and their evolutionary development-have been a fundamental component of the overall development process. This process has been driven by real economic growth and the attendant growth and change in demand for various types of financial services, by institutional development within the financial system, and by changes in government policies concerning finance. Thus, the experience of these three countries is useful in understanding the relationship between finance and real economic performance, as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of finance.
Shaping Law: Elitism and Democracy in the Bork Hearings
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: October 2023

Whatever else it may involve, law is a matter of restraint and, therefore, of character. Basic legal practices, such as the consistent application of rules and the impartial evaluation of evidence, require that desire be held in check. During the Thomas hearings, procedural fairness seemed, like a rider on a bucking horse, to be a light, almost ridiculous presence patently subordinate to large political forces and objectives. No one who watched Senator Metzenbaum question John Doggett could fail to see that much of the Judiciary Committee's proceedings were, in this sense, lawless. I suggested in the last chapter that this recognition should have triggered larger self-doubts, for as a society we have demanded too much of even our highest judges and our most fundamental law; we have wanted so much that we have jeopardized the complex and reciprocal expectations of forbearance that make law possible or even imaginable. Our own character is at issue, and our legal system stands in danger of being revealed as a charade. Because law requires the disciplining of desire by self-control and intellect, it is sometimes thought (especially within the educated classes) to follow that law is the opposite of desire and that intellectualism is the crucial trait for a culture that aspires to legal norms.
Double Bind Number Five: Aging/Invisibility
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: October 2023

“Do any of you stand a chance of making an unsolicited appearance in Senator Packwood’s little memoir?” a reporter asked NPR’s Cokie Roberts, Nina Totenberg, and Linda Wertheimer. The question referred to charges of sexual harassment levied against the Senator and possibly recorded in his diaries. Two out of three in turn denied the possibility because they were too old. They responded: NT: Not unless he’s been fantasizing.
The Anatomy of an International Monetary Regime
Authors: Gallarotti Giulio M
Published: October 2023

This book is a historical analysis of the gold standard from 1880-1914 focusing on the origins and workings of the gold standard as an international system. The system functioned smoothly until the onset of the First World War, when the foundations began to weaken. By the end of the 1920s the gold standard had been abandoned by most countries until the disastrous attempt to revive it in the 1930s. This book is comprehensive and definitive.
Hegemony and the Bank of England
Authors: Gallarotti Giulio M
Published: October 2023

That the British state did not behave hegemonically (i.e., that we cannot attribute the rise and maintenance of the gold standard to the actions of the British state) does not prima facie invalidate the thesis that the gold standard was somehow hegemonized. In fact, more scholars have attributed the stability of the gold standard to management on the part of the Bank of England than have attributed it to the British state. Clearly, if the Bank was a source of management, it was not in the service of the state. But the Bank itself may have taken it upon itself to stabilize the international system. The justification for such an act would have been quite apparent, and consistent with a variety of strands of hegemony, both of a benevolent and coercive nature. If behaving in the interest of the system (i.e., benevolently), the Bank may have taken up the moral duty of being a central bank for the world (managing the international business cycle and credit system, and providing liquidity in last resort). No other institution was situated in as favorable a position to affect world monetary conditions: being the central bank in the world’s major financial center. From a purely self-interested point of view, on the other hand, it was rational to stabilize the international monetary system because international economic transactions were preponderantly executed by British citizens (as consumers, traders, investors, and bankers). Fetter (1965, p. 255) observes how widespread has been the vision among 20th century economists that the stability of the gold standard relied on the “Bank of England action as managing director, or executive secretary.” The vision of the Bank as a manager of the international gold standard is both a common and old one. Keynes (1930, V. 11) and Scammell [1965] 1985), and more recently Eichengreen (1986b), saw the Bank as the leader of the international orchestra of central banks, and it was to the harmonization of this orchestra under the Bank’s leadership that the gold standard owed its stability. Beyen (1949, p. 14) argues that it was the Bank’s policy to be an international “shock absorber.” Cleveland (1976) concurs. Wood (1939, p. 139) avers that it was the Bank’s special position that led her to “guide the international standard.” Kindleberger (1984, p. 68) calls the Bank the “central focus of [the] management” of the classical gold standard.