bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Air‐Stripping Mass Transfer Correlations for Volatile Organics
Authors: Lamarche Philippe , Droste Ronald L.
Published: February 2018

Experiments were conducted on the packed‐column air stripping of six volatile organic compounds found in groundwater migrating from a landfill site in Gloucester, Ont. Mass transfer rate constants determined experimentally, at column loading rates typical of full‐scale application, were compared with rate constants predicted by three correlations. The model of Onda et al was found to give better predictions than the models of Sherwood and Holloway and Shulman et al. The model of Onda et al also gave reasonable predictions for saddles—a packing material for which the model had not been initially derived.
Complying With the New Drinking Water Quality Regulations
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

The 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act mandate the establishment of new drinking water quality and treatment regulations. In fulfilling this mandate, the US Environmental Protection Agency is in the process of developing, proposing, and promulgating drinking water quality regulations that will significantly change water treatment practice and water utility operations. New regulations for volatile organic chemicals, fluoride, surface water treatment, and total coliform bacteria have been promulgated. Regulations for synthetic organic and inorganic chemicals and lead and copper have been proposed. Regulations for radionuclides, additional synthetic organic and inorganic chemicals, and disinfectants and disinfection by‐products are under development. The history, content, current status, and schedule of new or anticipated regulatory actions are reviewed.
Water Supplier's Views Challenged
Authors: Hawkes Alfred L.
Published: February 2018

Mr. Hawkes writes in response to William Falcone's letter in the January 1990 JOURNAL. Mr. Hawkes believes that citizens have learned that leaving public decisions, such as water management, to “experts” has frequently lead to disaster. Mr. Hawkes believes bureaucrats are employed to implement, not set, public policies. He sees the rationale for the recent wide‐spread citizen participation in water resource affairs as a response to the industry's admitted, even by Mr. Falcone, lack of wisdom in respect to past water use.
Sherlock Holmes Meets Hardy‐Cross: or Model Calibration in Austin, Texas
Authors: Walski Thomas M.
Published: February 2018

One would think that water distribution model calibration would be a straightforward, logical process. Sometimes, however, the best tools for model calibration consist of a lot of detective work, a little intuition, and just a pinch of luck. Some anecdotes on model calibration in Austin, Texas, illustrate this principle.
WaterTech Help Sought for Peru
Authors: Estrella Hernan A.
Published: February 2018

The article in the October 1989 JOURNAL describing the proposed WaterTech USA program adequately described the water supply and sanitation problems of developing countries such as the author's (Peru). In Peru less than 10 percent of the rural and near‐rural populations has access to potable water. In large cities virtually all collection, treatment, and distribution systems are in bad condition. In making decisions on where to devote WaterTech resources, the author asks that South America be considered a priority and to start by helping Peru.
Two Forks Opinion Challenged
Authors: Welton Walter S.
Published: February 2018

Joseph T. Carney's comments (February 1990 JOURNAL) relative to AWWA's testimony on the proposed Two Forks project near Denver, Colo. are problematic, according to Mr. Welton, in that Mr. Carney does not indicate how he is involved in the water industry. Mr. Welton refutes the arguments that Two Forks would destroy a premier trout stream and scenic area. Mr. Welton applauds the intent of environmental legislation but is appalled by the radical approach taken by the environmental community. He would be disappointed by any professional organization involved in the water industry, such as AWWA, that did not recognize water supply as the fourth component in water matters. He would also be disappointed in any water industry professional who was unable to find a balance between environmental concerns and fulfilling the obligation to provide water.
Water—What a Dry Subject!
Authors: Mannion John B.
Published: February 2018

Many people lack the barest understanding of their water supply and this apathy about drinking water comes from people's long held assumption that it is always there and always safe. Lacking solid information, the public can easily be persuaded by alarmists or unscrupulous sales pitches for bottled water and home water treatment devices. Mr. Mannion asks water professionals to intensify their commitment to deliver the best quality water than can be reasonably achieved and to educate customers with information that enables them to put what they hear from alarmist sources into perspective.
Interesting Times
Authors: Cotruvo Joseph A.
Published: February 2018

Joseph A. Cutruvo left in April as the director of the Criteria and Standards Division of the USEPA Office of Water, a position he held for 14 years. Cotruvo suggests that public concern about water means the public finds contamination of drinking water an outrage, even if the risks are small. Public water supplies should not only be safe, they should be perceived to be safe. Cotruvo sees room for improvement in the operations and water quality of many utilities. Although the industry is generally in pretty good shape, he feels it can be improved, and the public should hear the industry asking the right questions and see the industry taking appropriate actions that address their concerns. He sees many challenges ahead for the industry.
Capability and Cost of Treatment Technologies for Small Systems
Authors: Logsdon Gary S. , Sorg Thomas J. , Clark Robert M.
Published: February 2018

Treatment technologies for small systems should have low construction and operating costs, simple operation, low maintenance, and low labor requirements. Processes that meet some or all of these conditions are coagulation‐filtration package plants, diatomaceous earth filtration, slow sand filtration, ion exchange, granular activated carbon, and air stripping. Reverse osmosis, lime softening, and activated alumina may also be used. All of these processes are evaluated based on capability and cost.
Evaluation of Treatment for Removing Giardia Cysts
Authors: Ongerth Jerry E.
Published: February 2018

The removal of Giardia cysts by three small (0.01‐ to 0.57‐mgd) treatment plants—one with conventional filtration, one with in‐line filtration, and one with diatomaceous earth filtration—was studied. Turbidity and cyst removals for each were compared with those of parallel pilot filters (1 gpm) seeded with Giardia cysts and with and without optimization of chemical treatment. Cyst removal efficiencies ranged from about 40 to 99 percent. Design and operating deficiencies likely contributed to the observed treatment performances. Major deficiencies included lack of or poor optimization of chemical treatment, on‐off cycles of filters without backwashing, absence of operator control of backwashing, and no filtering to waste.
Comparison of the Zinc Sulfate and Immunofluorescence Techniques for Detecting Giardia and Cryptosporidium
Authors: LeChevallier Mark W. , Trok Thomas M. , Burns Michael O. , Lee Ramon G.
Published: February 2018

This study compared an immunofluorescence (IFA) method for the simultaneous detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water with the zinc sulfate flotation and Lugol's iodine method. The results show that the IFA technique detected approximately 12 times more Giardia cysts in surface‐water samples than the zinc sulfate method. In addition, Cryptosporidium was detected in several samples. The implications of parasite detection methodology are discussed in relation to the Surface Water Treatment Rule.
Additives
Authors: Smith Gayle J. , Kurkjian Gregory A. , Inhoffer Wendell R. , Dickson R. Dewey , Lamson Robert , Gregorka David , Lucy Vernon D. , Hawley John J.
Published: February 2018

This discussion on the additives program took place June 18, 1990, in Cincinnati, Ohio, during AWWA's annual conference. Panel moderator was Robert Lamson, AWWA's director of standards. Members of the panel were R. Dewey Dickson, senior consultant with James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc., 250 N. Madison, Pasadena, CA 91101; David Gregorka, vice president‐administration, National Sanitation Foundation, 3475 Plymouth Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48105; John J. Hawley, associate managing engineer, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., 333 Pfingsten Rd., Northbrook, IL 60062; Wendell R. Inhoffer, general superintendent and chief engineer, Passaic Valley Water Commission, 1525 Main Ave., Clifton, NJ 07011; Gregory A. Kurkjian Jr., president and chief executive officer, Henry Pratt Co., 401 S. Highland Ave., Aurora, IL 60506; Vernon D. Lucy, senior vice president‐marketing, Infilco Degremont Inc., 2924 Emerywood Pkwy., Richmond, VA 23229; and Gayle J. Smith, director, Bureau of Drinking Water/Sanitation, Utah Department of Health, 288 N 1460 W, Salt Lake City, UT 84116‐0690.
The Role of Short‐Term Tests in Evaluating Health Effects Associated With Drinking Water
Authors: Meier John R. , Daniel F. Bernard
Published: February 2018

Short‐term bioassays such as the Ames test are used to assess genotoxicity and potential carcinogenicity of specific drinking water contaminants as well as concentrated samples of drinking water. The authors discuss the development, limitations, and interpretation of short‐term tests; qualitative and quantitative aspects of the utility of the tests for predicting carcinogenicity; and general approaches to using the tests in analyzing potential health effects of drinking water. They conclude that although uncertainties regarding interpretation limit the application of such tests for risk assessment, short‐term tests provide public health officials with a useful tool for obtaining timely and cost‐efficient information about potential health risks associated with drinking water.
Removing Aquatic Organic Substances by Anion Exchange Resins
Authors: Fu Paul L.K. , Symons James M.
Published: February 2018

The focus of this study was verification of the mechanisms of removal of aquatic organic substances by anion exchange resins, influence of resin properties and clarification processes on removal, and chromatographic behavior of organic substances in anion exchange columns. Depending on the type of resin and the nature of the organic matter, anion exchange resins removed up to 80 percent of the dissolved organic matter in natural waters. Except for some nonionic organic matter that passes directly through the ion exchange column, the resin removed organic material in preference to some common anions in natural water.
Coagulation Pretreatment for Ultrafiltration of a Surface Water
Authors: Lahoussine‐Turcaud Véronique , Wiesner Mark R. , Bottero Jean‐Yves , Mallevialle Joël
Published: February 2018

Polysulfone ultrafiltration membranes were used to treat water from the Seine River—with and without coagulation pretreatment. Pretreatment with polyaluminum or ferric chloride coagulant reduced the rate of reversible fouling and increased the removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) but did not reduce the rate or extent of irreversible fouling of the membrane. Seine River water that had been treated by coagulation, filtration, and ozonation, i.e., tap water, also produced significant irreversible fouling. Most of the DOC in flocculated Seine River water and tap water consisted of polysaccharide materials of low molecular weight. Irreversible fouling may be due to the adsorption of these materials on membrane surfaces.
Using Powdered Activated Carbon: A Critical Review
Authors: Najm Issam N. , Snoeyink Vernon L. , Lykins Benjamin W. , Adams Jeffrey Q.
Published: February 2018

Because the performance of powdered activated carbon (PAC) for uses other than taste and odor control is poorly documented, the purpose of this article is to critically review uses that have been reported and to analyze means of employing PAC more efficiently. The extent of adsorption of synthetic organic chemicals on PAC is strongly dependent on the type of compound being removed. The reported removals of trihalomethanes and trihalomethane precursors by PAC range from poor to very good. In selecting the point of addition of PAC, consideration must be given to the degree of mixing, the contact time between the PAC and the water, the PAC residence time, and the minimization of interference of adsorption by treatment chemicals. One of the main advantages of PAC is its low capital cost.
Predicting GAC Performance With Rapid Small‐Scale Column Tests
Authors: Crittenden John C. , Reddy Parimi Sanjay , Arora Harish , Trynoski John , Hand David W. , Perram David L. , Summers R. Scott
Published: February 2018

The rapid small‐scale column test (RSSCT) is a scaled‐down version of a pilot‐ or full‐scale granular activated carbon (GAC) column. Simple equations for selecting the design and operating parameters of RSSCTs from the full‐scale process design variables are presented, and their limitations are discussed. Carbon usage rates and breakthrough profiles for RSSCTs are compared with pilot‐column results. Case studies representing high and low levels of synthetic organic chemicals, in the presence and absence of background dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and weakly and strongly adsorbing organics are reviewed. For DOC removal, RSSCT and pilot performances were compared for five surface waters and one groundwater.
Give the Customers What They Want
Authors: Rouse Michael J.
Published: February 2018

Michael J. Rouse is managing director of the Water Research Centre in the United Kingdom. This article is adapted from Rouse's remarks at the opening session of the Water Quality Technology Conference in San Diego, Calif, Nov. 12, 1990.
Evaluating Aeration Technology for Radon Removal
Authors: Dixon Kevin L. , Lee Ramon G. , Smith James , Zielinski Paul
Published: February 2018

Spray jet aeration, packed‐tower aeration, and multistaged bubble aeration were evaluated for removal of radon from water. It was found that spray jet aeration was limited to ≤75 percent radon removal, but packed‐tower aeration and multistaged bubble aeration were observed to be very effective and flexible for removing this radioactive gas. Removal efficiency of the packed tower was largely a function of packing height. The current design of multistaged bubble aeration probably limits the system to wells with capacities of 800 gpm or less.
Kinetics of Manganese and Iron Oxidation by Potassium Permanganate and Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: Knocke William R. , Van Benschoten John E. , Kearney Maureen J. , Soborski Andrew W. , Reckhow David A.
Published: February 2018

This article describes research to quantify the kinetics of Mn(II) and Fe(II) oxidation by potassium permanganate and chlorine dioxide; illustrates the effects of reduced metal ion concentration, pH, temperature, and the presence of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) on these kinetics; and investigates aspects of oxidation through modeling analyses. Among conclusions based on experimental results were the following: oxidation of reduced Mn(II) was rapid except at low solution temperatures; rates of Mn(II) oxidation are acceptable in the presence of humic or fulvic acids, but those acids strongly inhibit Fe(II) oxidation efficiency; poor manganese removal may be caused by inefficient capture of colloidal MnOX(s). The sequence in which oxidants are added may be an important issue for design and operation.
Calibrating Hydraulic Analyses of Distribution Systems Using Fluoride Tracer Studies
Authors: Kennedy Mark S. , Sarikelle Simsek , Suravallop Khis
Published: February 2018

Accurate predictions of pipe velocities by hydraulic models are critical to enable modeling of water quality in distribution systems. Procedures are presented for verifying pipe velocities with travel‐time studies using fluoride as a conservative tracer. Results of a field study indicate that intermittent operation of fluoridation equipment is a relatively simple and effective way to determine travel times within a distribution system. These travel times can then be used to calibrate hydraulic models with respect to water demands and usage patterns.
Galvanic Stimulation of Corrosion on Lead–Tin Solder‐Sweated Joints
Authors: Reiber Steven
Published: February 2018

This article applies mixed‐couple theory to the electrochemistry of the Pb‐Sn solder‐copper joint and describes a technique for evaluating corrosion acceleration that is induced by galvanic stimulation. The theoretical underpinnings of the analysis are developed, along with an innovative analytical procedure that makes verification of predicted galvanic currents possible. The normal exposure of the soldered joint to water flow rapidly passivates the solder surface and limits galvanic action. After a few days, the ratio of the copper surface to that of the solder is of minimal consequence to corrosion of the solder surface. The pH is an important parameter in determining the rate and extent of passivation of the solder surface, as is the presence of orthophosphate inhibitors. Chlorine residuals are of little importance to the galvanic corrosion process. This research relates to proposed treatment procedures to minimize lead release.
The Haberer Process: Combining Contact Flocculation, Filtration, and PAC Adsorption
Authors: Haberer Klaus , Normann‐Schmidt Sabine
Published: February 2018

Two new technologies—the refiltration flocculation (REFIFLOC) process and the powdered activated carbon (PAC)–embedding filtration (PACEFILT) process—are applicable primarily to the removal of large quantities of flocculants and to the use of PAC filtration for the removal of organic micropollutants. The processes may be operated separately or combined to treat heavily polluted water that requires high dosages of chemicals. This article discusses development of these new techniques, criteria for their construction and operation, pilot‐ and full‐scale plants, and a test unit for determining the adsorbability of organic micropollutants.
California Industries Cut Water Use
Authors: Manzione Mark , Jordan Barbara , Maddaus William O.
Published: February 2018

Fifteen case studies in south San Francisco Bay Area industries have shown that electronics manufacturers and others can significantly cut water use—and do it cost efficiently. The use of a variety of water conservation techniques—ranging from employee education to major equipment retrofits—resulted in reductions in process water consumption of from 25 to 90 percent. Implementation of such techniques took from a week to several years, depending on the complexity of the plant and its processes. Capital payback periods for specific actions ranged from two months to three years.
The Effect of Soils on the Permeation of Plastic Pipes by Organic Chemicals
Authors: Holsen Thomas M. , Park Jae K. , Bontoux Laurent , Jenkins David , Selleck Robert E.
Published: February 2018

Polybutylene pipes (0.75 in.) buried in both water‐saturated and unsaturated soils contaminated with toluene, trichloroethylene, 1,2‐dichlorobenzene, and o‐chlorophenol were permeated to detectable levels in 1 to 150 days, depending on the organic chemical and its concentration. Comparison of these results with pipe‐bottle experiments containing no soil showed that the concentration of organic chemical in the soil pore controls the rate of organic chemical permeation through buried plastic pipes. The results also indicate that under otherwise identical conditions, plastic pipes buried in a soil of high organic carbon content will be permeated more slowly than pipe buried in a soil of low organic carbon content. Even so, soils of very high organic carbon content cannot be relied on to protect plastic pipe from permeation by organic chemicals. A method for predicting the equilibrium concentration of organic chemical in the soil pore was useful in determining whether a plastic pipe buried in contaminated soil is likely to be permeated.
Controlling Adult Zebra Mussels With Oxidants
Authors: Klerks Paul L. , Fraleigh Peter C.
Published: February 2018

Hypochlorite, permanganate, and peroxide with iron were compared for their effectiveness against adult zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha). The effects of hypochlorite and permanganate at applied concentrations of 0.5–2.5 mg/L were contrasted in continuous and intermittent 28‐day static renewal tests. In addition, 0.5–10 mg free Cl2/L, 0.5–2.5 mg KMnO4/L, and 1–5 mg H2O2/L (with iron at 25 percent of the H2O2) were applied continuously for 28 or 56 days in flow‐through systems. Permanganate was usually less effective than hypochlorite, and both were much more effective than the peroxide–iron combination. The data also indicated that intermittent treatments were ineffective (mussels avoided the chemical by closing up during treatments), that chlorine and permanganate were less toxic at lower temperatures, and that less chlorine was needed for a given kill when lower concentrations were applied.
Optimizing Belt Filter Press Dewatering at the Skinner Filtration Plant
Authors: Johnson George , Buchanan George G. , Newkirk Dale D.
Published: February 2018

Belt filter presses were placed into operation at the Robert A. Skinner Filtration Plant in 1985 as part of a renovation of the plant's sludge‐handling processes. Through a series of tests, operational parameters such as solids feed, sludge flow rate, polymer dosage, and belt speed and tension were identified as being critical to belt filter press efficiency and optimization. Although sludge production and cake solids have not met specifications, operation of the belt filter presses at this plant are considered successful.
Congress Debates Lead Legislation
Authors: Pontius Frederick W. , Warburton Albert E.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA associate director for regulatory affairs, and Albert E. Warburton, AWWA associate director for legislative affairs, prepared this discussion regarding pending lead legislation.
Effects of Particle Detachment in Granular‐Media Filtration
Authors: Ginn Thomas M. , Amirtharajah Appiah , Karr Philip R.
Published: February 2018

A laser‐based particle size analyzer was used to characterize trends in particle size distribution through conventional water treatment and through in‐line filtration. Review of the literature on particle detachment and filter pore flocculation and of data from the particle size distribution experiments led to the development of a conceptual filtration model, which incorporated particle attachment and detachment, as well as preferential tube (wormhole) flow in the filter bed.
A Current Look at the Federal Drinking Water Regulations
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

In response to mandates of the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments, the US Environmental Protection Agency is developing, proposing, and adopting new drinking water regulations that are significantly changing water treatment practices and water utility operations. In February 1990, the author summarized the history, content, status, and schedule of regulations as of January 1990. In this article, the author presents updated information on the regulations covered in the February 1990 article and summarizes new and anticipated regulations as of January 1992.
Cancer Risk From Radon
Authors: Crawford‐Brown Douglas John
Published: February 2018

The US Environmental Protection Agency intends to establish a maximum contaminant level (MCL) for radon in public drinking water supplies. This article reviews the information on concentrations of radon in US water supplies and the associated risks. It concludes that 1 pCi/L of radon in drinking water produces an average lifetime risk (over 70 years) equal to 4 $ 10–7 for radon emanating from the water into the home air and 1 $ 10–7 for radon ingested directly with the water. The total risk then is about 5 $ 10–7 per pCi/L. Assuming an average radon concentration of about 110 pCi/L in public water supplies, the annual loss of lie from waterborne radon is estimated to be about 170, with 95 percent confidence that the true annual loss of life is below 2,700. The concentrations of radon in water corresponding to lifetime risks of 10–4 and 10–3 are 200 pCi/L and 2,000 pCi/L, respectively.
Selecting Batch Studies for Adsorber Design: Molecular Oxygen's Role
Authors: Vidic Radisav D. , Suidan Makram T.
Published: February 2018

The presence of molecular oxygen in the test environment (oxic conditions) induces up to a 200 percent increase in the adsorptive capacity of granular activated carbon for o‐cresol compared with the capacity that was attainable under anoxic conditions. This phenomenon is attributed to the polymerization of adsorbate on the carbon surface in the presence of molecular oxygen. Molecular oxygen exerts little influence on adsorption kinetics during the first 10 h of adsorbate–adsorbent contact. Breakthrough curves are well predicted by independently determined adsorption equilibria and kinetic data collected under anoxic conditions.
Outbreaks of Waterborne Disease in the United States: 1989–90
Authors: Herwaldt Barbara L. , Craun Gunther F. , Stokes Susan L. , Juranek Dennis D.
Published: February 2018

For the two‐year period 1989–90, 16 states reported 26 outbreaks of waterborne disease from water intended for drinking. These outbreaks resulted in illness in an estimated 4,288 people. Giardia lamblia was implicated as the etiologic agent for seven of the twelve outbreaks in which an agent was identified. The outbreaks of giardiasis were all associated with ingestion of unfiltered surface water or groundwater influenced by a surface water. An outbreak with four deaths was attributed to Escherichia coli O157:H7, the only bacterial pathogen implicated in any of the outbreak investigations. An outbreak of remitting, relapsing diarrhea was associated with cyanobacteria (blue‐green algae)‐like bodies, whose role in causing diarrhea1 illness is being studied. Two outbreaks caused by hepatitis A and one caused by a Norwalk‐like agent were associated with use of well water. National surveillance of outbreaks of waterborne disease, which has been conducted for two decades, continues to be a useful means for characterizing the epidemiology of waterborne diseases.
From Conventional to Biological Removal of Iron and Manganese in France
Authors: Mouchet Pierre
Published: February 2018

The physical–chemical processes historically used to remove iron and manganese from groundwater are reviewed and the problems typically encountered are discussed. Also described is how the most commonly used treatment (aeration plus filtration) led to the discovery of the biological phenomena that substantially improve treatment and subsequently to a new generation of biological treatment plants. Tbe principles and the advantages of such processes as well as their limitations are discussed.
Evaluating the Removal of Color From Water Using Direct Filtration and Dual Coagulants
Authors: Graham Nigel J.D. , Brandao Cristina C.S. , Luckham Paul F.
Published: February 2018

Coagulant‐assisted direct filtration is a common process for treating upland, colored surface waters. This study investigated whether the process could be improved by partially replacing alum with cationic polyelectrolyte. Laboratory experiments were carried out to determine whether there is a unique optimal dosage combination of alum and polymer that—at a given color concentration and pH—maximizes the performance of a model filter. Filter performance was assessed in terms of the Ives filterability number and filtrate aluminum concentration. The results indicate that the filter performs systematically less well as the alum dosage is reduced. Partial replacement of alum with polymer appears to be less effective for coagulating color than alum alone at its optimal dosage.
Molecular Size Distributions of Dissolved Organic Matter
Authors: Amy Gary L. , Sierka Raymond A. , Bedessem James , Price David , Tan Lo
Published: February 2018

Twelve samples were obtained from a groundwater basin containing significant levels of color caused by the humic constituents of dissolved organic matter (DOM). The DOM present in raw source samples was characterized according to apparent molecular size (AMS) distribution. The resultant AMS distributions—expressed in terms of dissolved organic carbon, UV absorbance, and trihalomethane formation potential—were found to provide insight into potential treatment process applicability. Ozonation showed the most merit for lower‐color, lower‐AMS sources, whereas coagulation or membrane treatment was more suitable for higher‐color, higher‐AMS sources. No clear treatment niche (i.e., AMS range) was identified for activated carbon adsorption.
USEPA Releases Draft Ground Water Disinfection Rule
Authors: Grubbs Thomas R. , Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Articles in this section of the Journal are dedicated to providing current information about legislative and regulatory developments. They address needs and concerns of water utilities from a practical standpoint; they are not intended to reflect official positions or policies of AWWA. Thomas R. Grubbs, regulation manager for the Ground Water Disinfection Rule (GWDR), US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water, 401 M St., SW, Washington, DC 20460, and Frederick W. Pontius, AWWA associate director for regulatory affairs, prepared this discussion regarding the draft GWDR. The authors thank Philip S. Berger, USEPA's natural disinfection team leader.
Removal of Atrazine From Drinking Water by Ozonation
Authors: Adams Craig D. , Randtke Stephen J.
Published: February 2018

Atrazine (2‐chloro‐4‐ethylamino‐6‐isopropylamino‐s‐triazine) is a preemergent herbicide found frequently in Midwestern drinking water supplies at concentrations near or exceeding the recently promulgated maximum contaminant level of 3 μg/L. In water treatment plants that use ozone, oxidation breaks atrazine down into several different ozonation by‐products. In the research described in this article, the effects of aqueous ozone concentration, pH, total carbonate alkalinity, and temperature on the ozonation of atrazine were examined, and an empirical model based on these parameters was developed. The model was tested in a continuous‐flow recycle reactor using five different natural waters fortified with atrazine to concentrations of up to 11.4 μg/L. The correlation coefficient (r) between measured and predicted effluent atrazine concentration values (n = 53) was 0.95. Tests performed on synthetic waters showed that the model underpredicts removal in the presence of high ozone demand; thus, in waters having high ozone demand, the model's predictions are conservative and represent minimum removals that may be expected for a given set of conditions. This research provides quantitative insight into the effects of key process parameters and water characteristics on the oxidation rate by ozone of atrazine at micrograms per litre concentrations. The model does not eliminate the need for laboratory‐ or pilot‐scale testing, but it is a useful tool for designers and operators of water treatment plants.
Federal Drinking Water Regulation Update
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Regulations governing drinking water have more than tripled since the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) amendments in 1986. Two earlier articles (published in the Journal in February 1990 and March 1992) reviewed the history, content, status, and schedule of these regulations. Current developments related to these rules are reviewed in this article.
Identifying Escherichia Species With Biochemical Test Kits and Standard Bacteriological Tests
Authors: Rice Eugene W. , Allen Martin J. , Covert Terry C. , Langewis Johan , Standridge Jon
Published: February 2018

Two commercially available biochemical test systems were evaluated for their ability to accurately identify species of the genus Escherichia. Three laboratories participated in the study. The test kits did not always correctly identify species of Escherichia, but only once was an isolate misidentified as Escherichia coli. These results and the reactions of the isolates on media normally used for drinking water analysis are discussed.
Using a Conceptual Framework for Assessing Risks to Health From Microbes in Drinking Water
Authors: Sobsey Mark D. , Dufour Alfred P. , Gerba Charles P. , LeChevallier Mark W. , Payment Pierre
Published: February 2018

The US goal to reduce health risks from environmental exposures of all kinds has resulted in the need to assess the risks from exposure to microbes in drinking water. One way of doing this is to define and use a risk‐based conceptual framework and strategy, which involves systematically identifying, analyzing, quantifying, and characterizing these microbial risks; comparing them with the risks from chemicals, especially disinfectants and their by‐products; and then defining and implementing a risk management plan that presents the lowest risk to the consumer.
Effect of Calcium in Field‐Spent GACs on Pore Development During Regeneration
Authors: Cannon Fred S. , Snoeyink Vernon L. , Lee Ramon G. , Dagois Gérard , DeWolfe James R.
Published: February 2018

Thermal regenerations were conducted on a granular activated carbon (GAC) that had become exhausted (spent) in a water treatment plant where it had been in service nearly four years. This GAC contained 2 percent calcium. With this field‐loaded calcium intact, proper regeneration restored the spent GAC to the same pore structure and surface area that was exhibited by several virgin GACs. When calcium appeared inside the spent GAC, it always caused micropores to be converted to small mesopores during thermal oxidation. In contrast, if the calcium was leached out of the spent GAC with acid, thermal oxidation increased only the micropore volume. Several regeneration variables were tested, including pyrolysis temperature (650–950°C), oxidation temperature (650–950°C), oxidant gas (steam and CO2), oxidant flow rate, and oxidant extent. All regenerated products of the spent GAC that had been taken to the same targeted apparent density displayed the same surface area and pore structure except those regenerated at low temperatures (650–750°C) with both steam and CO2 together: these produced carbons with lower volumes of small pores and lower surface areas.
Formation and Removal of Aldehydes in Plants That Use Ozonation
Authors: Weinberg Howard S. , Glaze William H. , Krasner Stuart W. , Sclimenti Michael J.
Published: February 2018

Recently developed analytical techniques allow for the quantification of C1‐C1O straight‐chain aliphatic aldehydes, benzaldehyde, and the dialdehydes glyoxal and methylglyoxal down to 1 μg/L. These compounds are formed as the partial oxidation products of the reaction between disinfectants (particularly ozone) and naturally occurring organic matter. Various full‐scale and pilot treatment plants in North America that employ ozonation were surveyed using these techniques, which showed a trend toward both monoaldehyde and dialdehyde formation. Once formed, aldehydes can persist in the water and their concentrations may even increase following postdisinfection. An effective means of aldehyde removal appears to be the use of biologically active granular activated carbon filters, whose filtration mode determines the actual degree of removal. Dialdehydes require a slower filtration rate for their removal than formaldehyde and acetaldehyde.
Using POE Techniques to Remove Radon
Authors: Kinner Nancy E. , Jr. James P. Malley , Clement Jonathan A. , Fox Kim R.
Published: February 2018

The performance of point‐of‐entry granular activated carbon (GAC) and diffused‐bubble and bubble‐plate aeration systems was evaluated for one year with respect to radon removal efficiency, potential problems, and economics. The radon removal efficiency of the GAC units gradually deteriorated from 99.7 to 79 percent when cationic exchange pretreatment was not used and from 99.7 to 85 percent with pretreatment added. Both aeration techniques were consistently efficient (>99 percent radon removed), despite significant variation in radon loading rates. GAC units are suitable for treating groundwater with radon activities <5,000 pCi/L. At greater radon loading rates, aeration techniques consistently produce an acceptable effluent quality.
Utility Compliance: Status and Outlook
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Compliance with federal drinking water regulations is monitored by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Water utilities that fail to comply with a regulation are tracked for enforcement action. A report summarizing the number of public water systems, the national picture of water utility compliance, and USEPA and state enforcement actions is published annually by USEPA. The results and implications of the most recent report, released April 23, 1993, for fiscal year (FY) 1992, are summarized here. FY 1992 began October 1, 1992, and ended September 30, 1992. Following a summary of monitoring requirements and the basis of the information presented, the author discusses major issues and trends indicated by the raw data: nationally, the compliance trend remains steady, microbial standards are most frequently violated, small systems have greatest problems with chemical‐radiological noncompliance, and enforcement actions are “timely and appropriate,” and enforcement action drives compliance. The author also raises the question, Can 100 percent compliance be achieved? Many tables and graphs provide statistical data.
Using Computer Models to Determine the Effect of Storage on Water Quality
Authors: Grayman Walter M. , Clark Robert M.
Published: February 2018

Studies have indicated that water quality is degraded as a result of long residence times in storage tanks, highlighting the importance of tank design, location, and operation. Computer models, developed to explain some of the mixing and distribution issues associated with tank operation, were successfully used to predict the effect of tank design and operation on various water quality parameters. But because of the diversity of the effects and the wide range of design and environmental conditions, general design specifications for tanks are unlikely. Rather, the authors recommend that modeling be refined to facilitate site‐specific analysis.
Assessing the Effects of Storage Tank Design on Water Quality
Authors: Kennedy Mark S. , Moegling Scott , Sarikelle Simsek , Suravallop Khis
Published: February 2018

A study was conducted to assess the effects of storage tank design and operation on mixing regimes and effluent water quality. The influent and effluent flows of three tanks with diameter‐to‐height ratios ranging from 3.5:1 to 0.4:1 were monitored for chlorine residual. Chlorine levels were also measured within the water column of each tank. Although chlorine profiles revealed some stratification in tanks with large height‐to‐diameter ratios, completely mixed models were more accurate than plug‐flow models in representing the mixing behavior of all three tanks. Modeling further indicated that the quality of the effluent from completely mixed tanks deteriorated with decreasing volumetric change. Standpipes were the least desirable tank design with respect to effluent water quality.
AOC Associated With Oils for Lubricating Well Pumps
Authors: White Dawn R. , LeChevallier Mark W.
Published: February 2018

Several types of oil for lubricating well pumps were examined to assess their relative contribution to assimilable organic carbon (AOC) in groundwater. The objective of the study was to determine whether the use of an oil‐lubricated well‐pump system could contribute to the growth of bacteria in water distribution systems. A modified van der Kooij procedure was used to test the AOC concentration in sterile tap‐water samples before and after the addition of various types of pump‐lubricating oil. The results showed that certain lubricating oils could release substantial levels of bacterial nutrients (AOC) into the water. The choice of lubricating oil could be related to bacterial growth problems in some systems.
Information Collection Rule to Gather Critical Data
Authors: Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

The first rule to be proposed and promulgated as a result of regulatory negotiation (reg neg) is the disinfection‐disinfection byproducts rule is designed to fill the gaps in existing data. The reg‐neg advisory committee agreed that this rule was necessary to ensure that the future rules could be based on actual data. This article focuses on the content of the Information Collection Rule. Unlike any previous rule, its monitoring requirements are very extensive. Some readers may find it mystifying or liken it to a bad dream.
Public Affairs Programs: The Critical Link to the Public
Authors: Dent Joan
Published: February 2018

The technical integrity of a water provider is no longer enough in today's active social and political environment. Public water providers are being judged more and more on their ability to show that they are responsive and accountable to the public they serve. In connection with this, the job of the public water provider has expanded to include comprehensive public affairs programs, which are long‐term management commitments. Such programs often focus on employee communication, customer service, public information, media and community relations, youth and public education, public affairs, and public involvement. Important skills for effective public affairs programs are problem‐solving and alternative dispute resolution techniques. The public involvement process requires digging under specific positions to discover mutual interests.
Removing Giardia and Cryptosporidium by Slow Sand Filtration
Authors: Fogel Doug , Isaac‐Renton Judith , Guasparini Roland , Moorehead William , Ongerth Jerry
Published: February 2018

Between September 1986 and May 1988 a study of an operating slow sand water filtration plant was undertaken to determine its efficiency in removing Giardia and Cryptosporidium from a source water. The limited quantified data demonstrated an average 93 percent removal of Giardia cysts by the filtration plant, with this protozoan being detected in only one of 35 unfiltered water samples. An average 48 percent of Cryptosporidium oocysts was removed. Cryptosporidium was detected in 46 percent of the filtered samples. These findings suggest that Cryptosporidium may not be adequately removed from a contaminated source water under very cold operating conditions or if the filtration plant does not comply with accepted design standards. Other variables studied were turbidity and total and fecal coliform bacteria.
Assessing Treatment Plant Performance
Authors: Bellamy William D. , Cleasby John L. , Logsdon Gary S. , Allen Martin J.
Published: February 2018

Many utilities are concerned about the performance of their treatment systems as a result of recent Cryptosporidium outbreaks in the United States and Canada. The most responsive course of action a utility can take at this time is to ensure that its treatment facilities are operating at as close to optimum efficiency for pathogen removal and disinfection as possible. Currently, the best measure of efficiency for removal of parasites such as Cryptosporidium is assessing plant performance for turbidity and particle removal. This article reviews a number of performance evaluation procedures as well as results derived from evaluation and process improvement programs initiated by water utilities. A thorough treatment plant evaluation and improvement program is the best way to ensure pathogen‐free drinking water.
Particle Behavior in Deep‐Bed Filtration: Part 1—Ripening and Breakthrough
Authors: Moran Daniel C. , Moran Melissa C. , Cushing Robert S. , Lawler Desmond F.
Published: February 2018

Laboratory‐scale filtration experiments were conducted using sedimentation basin effluent from a local lime‐softening water treatment plant. An electronic particle counter was used to observe changes in the particle size distribution of the filtrate as a function of filter depth and time under a variety of filter operating conditions. The experiments were conducted for an extended period (up to 48 h) to observe the effects of both ripening and breakthrough over the duration of a typical water treatment plant filter cycle. The results indicate that ripening and breakthrough are not distinct stages but occur simultaneously for different‐size particles. The effects of media size and filtration velocity were investigated, and simple normalizations were developed.
Particle Behavior in Deep‐Bed Filtration: Part 2—Particle Detachment
Authors: Moran Melissa C. , Moran Daniel C. , Cushing Robert S. , Lawler Desmond F.
Published: February 2018

In laboratory‐scale filtration experiments conducted with settled water from a lime‐softening plant, breakthrough was discovered to be greatly influenced by particle detachment. Detachment was studied explicitly through a carefully designed experimental procedure that incorporated a sudden decrease in the influent particle concentration at the end of lengthy filter runs. Particle detachment (and, consequently, breakthrough) occurred most dramatically in an intermediate size range for the suspension studied; this intermediate size range coincides with that commonly associated with Cryptosporidium oocysts.
Customer service gains a foothold
Authors: Harmon Rick
Published: February 2018

Customer service reps can provide advantages to the public, and section customer service committees can provide advantages to utilities and one another.

This Roundtable, moderated by Rick Harmon, AWWA'S manager of management development programs, took place Mar, 29, 1993, in Seattle, Wash. Participants were Patricia Colson, accounts services director for Seattle Water Department, 710 2nd Ave., Seattle, WA 98104;Jess Jones, assistant superintendent of the Commercial Division, Cincinnati Water Works, 4747 Spring Grove Ave., Cincinnati, OH 45232;Gene Seibel, manager of Tualatin Valley Water District, 1850 S. W. 170th Ave., Beaverton, OR 97005; Linda Faulkner‐Vaughn, director of customer and community affairs for Orange Water and Sewer Authority, 400 Jones Ferry Road, Carrboro, NC 27510; and John P. (Jack) Waters, customer operations manager for Chesterfield County Utilities, 6806 W. Krause Road, Chesterfield, VA 23832. Moderator Harmon is at AWWA, 6666 W. Quincy Ave., Denver, CO 80235.
Weathering the storm: water systems versus hurricanes
Authors: Murphy Maripat
Published: February 2018

Hurricane Andrew ravaged southern Florida and left emergency planners with plenty of food for thought.

The enormously destructive Hurricane Andrew flattened southern Florida last year and left a quarter of a million people homeless. Its co: is estimated to be $20 billion—an estimated $100 million of that damage to drinking water systems. In this wide‐ranging report, the author describes the frustrating range of problems water professionals faced a they began the lengthy process of recovery. The problems were legion, ranging from “uprooted” water mains and debris‐laden flood control canals to useless radio communication systems disabled because anten nas above the roof line had been knocked out. Bookkeeping became impossible because addresses no longer existed. Some employees wer injured; many lost their homes. AWWA's Florida Section offered finan cial help, and water professionals from unaffected utilities lent their expertise. This inventory of problems faced and solutions discovered will provide helpful ideas to emergency planners for water utilities.