bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Distribution ofFarfantepenaeus aztecusandF. duorarumon submerged aquatic vegetation habitats along a subtropical coastal lagoon (Laguna Madre, Mexico)
Authors: Pérez-Castañeda Roberto , Blanco-Martínez Zeferino , Sánchez-Martínez Jesús Genaro , Rábago-Castro Jaime L. , Aguirre-Guzmán Gabriel , de la Luz Vázquez-Sauceda María
Published: October 2009

The spatial distribution ofFarfantepenaeusshrimp was analysed in the Laguna Madre of Tamaulipas, Mexico. Sampling was carried out on submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) habitats at five sites located along the coastal lagoon. Two nocturnal surveys were conducted during winter in 2005 (January–February), collecting a total of 3268 shrimp individuals. SAV beds were composed of a mixture of drift algae (mainlyDigenia simplex), attached algae (mainlyPenicillus capitatusandUdotea occidentalis) and seagrass (mainlyHalodule wrightii).Farfantepenaeus aztecuswas more abundant (39.5%) thanF. duorarum(36.8%), and the remaining 23.7% corresponding to small unidentifiedFarfantepenaeusspp. were classified as recruits. Abundance ofF. aztecuswas significantly higher at sites 2 and 4, whereasF. duorarumdid not show significant distribution differences along the Laguna Madre. Recruits, juveniles and total shrimp tended to decrease significantly at the northern part of the lagoon (site 1), where substrate was dominated by drifting algae and seagrasses were scarce or absent. The abundance of shrimp was positively related to seagrass biomass and/or water temperature, whereas there was a negligible or negative relationship with algal biomass. With the exception of subadults, a significant positive linear relationship between seagrass and shrimp abundance was fitted, indicating an increase in number of individuals of both species with increasing seagrass biomass. This suggests that seagrass is the most important component of SAV beds influencing the abundance ofF. aztecusandF. duorarumalong this hypersaline coastal lagoon.
On the Study of Literacy
Authors: Bendor-Samuel David
Published: October 2009

Literacy is a concept that can be very briefly defined. Webster uses just the five words “ability to read and write,” and few would challenge this as an acceptable dictionary entry. Many scholars, however, have felt compelled to develop much longer definitions, some of paragraph length, as they have examined literacy from a particular perspective, and there is no counting the number of words which have been used, as definition moves on to description and research.
Literacy in the Southern Sudan: A Case Study of Variables Affecting Literacy Programs
Authors: Cowan J Ronayne
Published: October 2009

The adoption of a multilingual educational policy resulting in the acquisition of literacy in different indigenous languages is becoming an increasingly common phenomenon throughout the world. Although comprehensive discussions of the role of literacy in development (Bokamba elsewhere in this volume), the patterns available for literacy acquisition (Ferguson 1971), critical questions (Srivastava elsewhere in this volume), and problems (Bokamba and Tlou 1977, Bamgboṣe 1976b, Chishimba 1981, Abu-Absi 1981, Kachru 1981) related to the implementation of multilingual educational policies exist, individual accounts of literacy projects tend to focus more on the goals and the programmatic development of materials and methods (e.g., Larsen and Davis 1982). Evaluations of specific projects, when they are available, are often reported in terms of the number of students reached (e.g., Teferra 1982), teachers trained, or certificates awarded (Bendor–Samuel 1980), rather than in actual acquisition of literacy skills. One major literacy project in East Africa which has been subjected to fairly rigorous formative evaluation since shortly after its inception is the Local Languages Literacy Project in the Southern Sudan. Drawing on the Sudan experience, this paper will delineate what appear to be the more important variables that affect the success of large-scale literacy programs in Africa, will make recommendations for the evaluation design of such projects, and will conclude with observations concerning the benefits to be gained from them.
An Overview of Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Kachru Braj B.
Published: October 2009

The 1970s have ushered in a new phase in approaches to language planning; the preference for a less provocative term such as language policy is indicative of this. There is now a decline in the use of terms such as language planning and language engineering: this is as it should be. For almost tow decades, language planning was presented as a cure-all for culturally and lingustically pluralistic societies in the developing Asian, African, and other non-Western countries. The term was overused, and its applications exaggerated. But this enthusiasm was not shared by all; serious practitioners were conscious of the limitations of the claims and the complexities of the task. This changed attitude has naturally contributed to a reassessment and re-evaluation of these earlier claims. There is now a much better understanding of the linguistic, political, sociological, and attitudinal constraints on language policy formation. The availability of greater cross-linguistic empirical data makes comparative observations more meaningful. As a consequence, the term language planning is now used with caution, with restricted generalization, and with an appreciation of the complexity of each situation. It has rightly been recognized that the task is more complex than linguists can handle within the traditionally conceived boundaries of their discipline, for example, in the work of the venerable Einar Haugen, or more recently, in the work of Charles Ferguson, Joshua Fishman, and others.
The Linguistic Situation and Language Policy in Eastern Africa
Authors: Scotton Carol Myers
Published: October 2009

This is an overview of studies concerning the linguistic situation of Eastern Africa in reference to the inter-relationships among the various Languages and their extent, as well as to both official and informal patterns of usage. The three which make up what is traditionally called East Africa--Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda--receive more detailed attention.
Language Policy in the Republic of china
Authors: Kwock-Ping Tse John
Published: October 2009

This review has as its major scope language policy as it has been practied in the province of Taiwan of the Republic of China (ROC). Language policies of the nation from 1911 to 1949 (i.e., from the establishment of the republic in the Mainland to the time when the central goverment of the ROC moved to Taiwan) will also be reviewed as they bear significantly upon the current policies. The reason for this is quite obvious, since the current policies are the result of a continuous evolution of policies in the past. In the following sections three areas will be presented: 1) a brief sociolinguistic profile of the major and minority languages in the ROC; 2) the functional allocation of languages; 3) the language policies as actually practiced today.
Language Policy, Planning, and Politics in the United States Concerned with Language Minority Issues
Authors: Macías Reynaldo F.
Published: October 2009

The development of a literature on language policy, plannaing, and politics in the U.S. is taking place quickly. Possibly the most difficult job for a researcher is placing the legal and official statements about language within a social, bureaucratic, and jurisdictional context that allows reasonable interpretation. There is as yet no comprehensive framework, compendium of law and other policies, or general research work on the topic. There is much more available and accessible data and research today, however, that could provide the basis for such work in the near future In the next three years, the federal government will consider reauthorizing the Bilingual Education Act, the Language Minority Provision of the Voting Rights Act, and the Court Interpreters Act. These legislative debates, and others, will surely fan the fires of language policy considerations, continue the polemics over the cultural bases of the country, including the role of language minorities, and stimulate greater language policy and planning research and interest in the U.S.
An Overview of Language-in-Education Policy Making
Authors: d'Anglejan Alison
Published: October 2009

Such are the vicissitudes of economics, politics, and Acts of God, that the provision of appropriate schooling for disparate refugee or migrant populations presents an enduring challenge for educators and policy–makers. The challenge is not a new one in that large scale migrations of people have been taking place since the earliest times in recorded history. However, it is heightened in today's world by our recongnition of the critical role which formal education plays in determining an individual's capacity to benefit from and to contribue to the society in which he lives. Such are the vicissitudes of economics, politics, and Acts of God, that the provision of appropriate schooling for disparate refugee or migrant populations presents an enduring challenge for educators and policy–makers. The challenge is not a new one in that large scale migrations of people have been taking place since the earliest times in recorded history. However, it is heightened in today's world by our recongnition of the critical role which formal education plays in determining an individual's capacity to benefit from and to contribue to the society in which he lives. This is as true for Third World countries as it is for modern industrialized ones. Given that educational achievement is a fundamental determinant of social and occupational mobility, it makes sense for the State to do whatever possible to ensure that migrants are provided every opportunity to become fully participating members of society rather than remaining marginal or disfunctional.
Languages-in-Education in the Philippines
Authors: Luzares Casilda E.
Published: October 2009

Although language differences may exist within a nation, these differences do not become issues of national concern until the government passes legislation to choose one language over others for the purpose of unifying the nation under one linguistic symbol.

The greater bulk of the task of implementing language policies is assigned to the schools for several reasons. First, the schools are one of the most potent instruments for developing and propagating a language. Second, the government has control over the schools. Third, the students are the most teachable segments of the population. Fourth, education is a verbal task; therefore, in order to carry out the education function, the schools have to take an active interest in language.
Language Teaching And Literacy in The U.S.
Authors: Gray Tracy , Grognet Allene Guss
Published: October 2009

Language teaching in the United States has always occurred in two distinctly different environments, as indeed it has in many other countries. In the 20th century in this country, most scholarly attention has been focused on only one of these environments while the other has received scant attention though it has continued to exist. The environment receiving most attention has been the the formal academic environment--that language teaching which occurs in schools, particularly in public schools at the elementary and secondary levels and in accredited institutions at the tertiary level. But there has also been a strong tradition of language teaching in other settings; language has been taught in special school-like environments outside of regular school hours and regular school curricula by ethnic communities and religious organizations, and it has also been taught informally by community groups in less-formal adult-education structures and even in industrial settings. As the result of recent influxes of refugees, particularly from Southeast Asia, a variety of long-standing informal mechanisms have begun to receive greater attention. This article will consider both kinds of language teaching--those in academic settings and those in the less-formal settings.
Concluding Thoughts
Authors: Richard Tucker G.
Published: October 2009

The present papers provide an instructive perspective on the emergence of the discipline of “applied linguistics.” First, and foremost, there is an underlying assumption that language is an important thread which runs, albeit often implicitly, through a variety of issues which are fundamental to national development and to public life (cf., Alatis & Tucker 1979). Second, there is an assumption that educational practices can be improved and social equity can be facilitated by applying knowledge gleaned from research conducted within the domain of the language sciences. Third, there is the assumption that scholars in diverse national settings want to become involved in improving access to opportunity--social, occupational or educational--in their own home settings. Fourth, there is an assumption that collaborative research is desirable, indeed increasingly necessary; and that the “Applied” Linguist may play a prominent role in helping to eliminate artificial disciplinary boundaries among anthropologists, educators, psychologists, sociologists, and others who are eager to utilize insights and data from research in the language sciences to ameliorate social and economic problems. Fifth, there is the assumption that the authors of the papers in this volume are investigating a common set of issues which despite their own geographical diversity, ethnolinguistic diversity, and disciplinary diversity can be better understood by examining the cumulative results of crossdisciplinary and cross-cultural research.
Structural-Cognitive
Authors: de Matos F. Gomes
Published: October 2009

The design of teaching materials for second or foreign language teaching (hereafter SFLT) should be a particularly creative and insightful activity for applied linguists to engage in, yet a search through the ever-growing literature of Applied Linguistics reveals that relatively negligible attention has been given to the study of applications of linguistics to SFLT textbooks (Gomes de Matos 1976a). A look at the Proceedings (1971, 1974, 1976) of three Congresses of the International Association of Applied Linguistics (AILA) shows that in its Stuttgart, 1975 Congress, AILA features a section devoted to Language Materail Development, but the program of its 1978 Montreal meeting reveals that the former sectin was subsumed under the section Second Language Teaching and Learning. Greater recognition of the importance of textbooks in Applied Linguistics can be seen in the inclusion in AILA's 1981 Congress in Lund, Sweden of a section on Teaching Materials, Textbooks (note the explicit mention of the latter), and Pedagogical Grammars.
Contrastive Rhetorics
Authors: Houghton Diane , Hoey Michael
Published: October 2009

Considering the immense difficulty of the English language to Japanese students, the ability of some of my boys to express their thoughts in it is astonishing. Their compositions have also another interest for me as revelations, not of individual character, but of national sentiment, or of aggregate sentiment of some sort or other. What seems to me most surprising in the compositions of the average Japanese student is that they have no personalcachetat all (Hearn n.d.:31).
English and American Indian Languages
Authors: Leap William L.
Published: October 2009

This essay discusses some of the contrasts which can be drawn between written discourse in English and the forms of written language discourse associated with members of American Indian speech communities. I word my reference to the second member of this pairing very cautiously. If contrasts of this sort are to be made with standard English discourse as used outside those communities, then several “Indian-related” discourse forms need to be considered.
English and German
Authors: Clyne Michael G.
Published: October 2009

The past decade has witnessed intensive activity in Textlinguistik (discourse analysis) among German linguists (cf., Kallmeyer and Meyer–Herrmann 1980). This, of course, is not an entirely new phenomenon. Such basic works on German syntax as Drach (1940) and Boost (1964) paid attention to relationships between sentences within discourse and/or their impact on word order.
English and Hindi
Authors: Kachru Yamuna
Published: October 2009

This study provides a fragment of a contrastive analysis of written texts from Hindi and English. Hindi is an Indo-Aryan language used in South Asia in several varieties by approximately three hundred million people. It is one of the four major world language in terms of number of speakers. In this study, I present a number of sample texts from Hindi, both of the narrative and the expository kind, and discuss them in the theoretical frameworks of contemporary discourse analysis.
English and Korean
Authors: Chang Suk-Jin
Published: October 2009

Linguistics, applied or non–, is a flourishing academic enterprise in Korea, when viewed from the quantitative perspective, especially in terms of the number of its practitioners and the scale of its actitvities in recent years. After a cursory sketch of some typological features of Korean discourse (Section 2), I will first present an overview of contrastive studies in Korean and English in recent years (1980–1982) (Section 3), and then I will discuss some aspects of written discourse in contrastive terms, making some suggestion for further research in related areas (Section 4).
English and Marathi
Authors: Pandharipande Rajeshwari
Published: October 2009

The goal of this paper is to compare and contrast some discourse features of English and Marathi. The paper is divided into four parts. The introductory sections review the main theoretical approaches for discourse analysis in general and discourse in South Asian languages in particular. Some of these insights are later used in this study. The first sections of part 2 point out the role of sociocultural differences in the discourse patterns of English and Marathi. The second section of part 2 focuses on the differences in the morphological and syntactic patterns which are used as discourse strategies in Marathi and English.
SLA: Models and Issues
Authors: Huebner Thom
Published: October 2009

Unlike first language acquisition, second language acquisition [SLA] is a phenomenon neither universally experienced nor uniformly successful. Yet an assumption underlying all of SLA research is that the phenomenon, whether aided by formal instruction or not, is guided by certain principles. The discovery of these principles is the over-riding goal of SLA research.
Conversational Analysis in L2 Acquisition and Teaching
Authors: Scarcella Robin
Published: October 2009

Over the past ten years, conversational analysis “CA” has come to wield a significant influence on second language “L2” acquisition and teaching. It originally developed out of a school of sociology called ethnomethodology, develped by Garginkel (1967). Following the work of Garfinkel, Sacks and his colleagues, Schegloff and Jefferson, establised CA, the study of the structural organization of ordinary conversation,. Sack' lecture notes (1964–1972), which comprise appeoximately 2,000 pages, continue to provide a foundation for contemporary CA. In explaining why he developed a framework for CA, Sacks states:
Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition
Authors: Gass Susan M.
Published: October 2009

Second language acquisition research has historically been influenced by the field of linguistics, not only in terms of theoretical inisghts, but also in terms of the emphasis placed on varioustopics. Within linguistics, the lexicon has taken on a secondary role in terms of theory construction; within second language acquisition, the rift between studies of the lexicon and theory construction seems to be even greater. While it is no longer possible to say that the lexicon is the ‘neglected component’ of second language acquisition research, it does appear to be the case that most lexical studies are not centrally concerned with the establishment of a theory of the lexicon; rather, the majority deal with descriptive aspects of the lexicon.
Cognitive and Cultural Styles in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Kachru Yamuna
Published: October 2009

The goals of second language acquisition research, as of first language acquisi-tion research, are to determine exactlywhatis acquired and preciselyhowit is acquired. The first concern leads to questions such as the following in the case of second language acquisition [SLA]

•How comparable are the first and second languages of the learners?

•What effect does the perceived closeness or distance of the two languages have on second language acquisition?

•Do learners only acquire linguistic categories and structures of the second language, or do they also acquire a different set of cognitive structures and cultural categories? And finally,

•Do they acquire only linguistic rules, or do they also acquire the sociocultural conventions of language use relevant to the second language?

The second concern leads to the following question:

•What role do cognitive styles, learning strategies, and personality factors—either innate or acquired as a result of socialization in a particular community—play in second language acquisition?
Applied Linguistics and Communicative Language Teaching
Authors: Brumfit Christopher
Published: October 2009

Some linguists may well feel that it is inappropriate to devote an entire issue of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics to a movement exclusively within language teaching. It would certainly be inaccurate to see language teaching as simply an application of linguistics, and some parts of this issue of ARAL will necessarily survey material that is not exclusively applied linguistics. Nonetheless, one particular tradition of applied linguistics has been heavily committed to the development of effective second language teaching strategies, and communicative language teaching has been responsive to changes in our approach to language study in its most central tenets and beliefs.
From Structures to Communicative
Authors: Howatt A. P. R.
Published: October 2009

Language teaching has traditionally adopted one of two complementary orientations towards its subject matter. It has either taken the view that language is a system and the primary objective of teaching must therefore be to insure that the system is mastered or it has taken the view that language is essentially a set of artifacts (texts and the like). System oriented language teaching (e. g., the grammar-translation method or the structural approach) has typically emphasized the generality of linguistic rules and attempted to describe and teach “the language as a whole,” whereas text-oriented approaches (such as, for instance, situational and communicative language teaching) have attempted to teach an appropriate sub-set of relevant texts which are taken to define “what the learner really needs.” The characteristic fault of system-based approaches. which explains how otherwise sane men were able to produce absurdities like “ The pen of my aunt is in the sporran of the Scotsman” [A good example of the genitive, my boy!] or pattern practices like “Are you English?” (cue: my brother) trained to fall victim to these little nonsenses, but what are the equivalent crimes of text-based language teaching? They are less easy to spot, but they generally take the form of “wasting police time.” If, as text-based teaching impliesm every text is potential grist to the learning mill, there is no reliable way of distinguishing between texts which are important because they stretch the learner's command of the target language and those which merely have been obvious.
Communicative Language Teaching in ESP Contexts
Authors: Swales John
Published: October 2009

Five years ago book-length studies of the craft of English for Specific Purposes comprsied Munby's Communicative Syllabus Design (1978) and Robinson's ESP (English for Specific Purposes) (1980), substantive additions to this very short list had been made by widdowson (1984), Kennedy and Bolitho (1984), McDonough (1984), Trimble (1985), and Hutchinson and task-orinented collections of papers (Swales 1985b, Peterson 1986), several conference proceedings (e.g., Tickoo 1986) and comprehensive survey articles such as that by Maher (1986) on English for Medical Purposes. Nor has there been any abatement in the steady stream of ESP-related articles, papers, theses, and monographs.
The Measurement of Communicative Competence
Authors: Canale Michael
Published: October 2009

In 1978 Merrill Swain and I had the opportunity to review theory and practice in the emerging communicative orientaitons to second language teaching and testing. The immediate outcomes of that review were published by the Ontario Ministry of Education in the form of a theoretical position paper (Canale and Swain 1979; see also Canale and Swain 1980) and a bank of sample items and techniques for measuring communication skills in French as a second language (Ontario Ministry of Education 1980). Although the limitations and problems in various communicative approaches have become increasingly evident since 1978, communicative competence has nonetheless become one of the most productive, influential, and complex paradigms in applied linguistics. Nowhere is this more true than in the relatively isolated area of measurement of communicative competence. It is thus appropriate to review activity in this area over the past decade.
Communicative Competence and Foreign Language Learning
Authors: Clark John L.
Published: October 2009

Recent developments in the teaching of foreign languages at school level have been primarily, if not exclusively, concerned with attempts to move away from the more academic form-focused views of language and language teaching that prevailed well into the 70s, towards the more practical and communicatively-oriented approaches in vogue today. Many projects have added useful insights in this areas, and it would be impossible to do justice to them all. It is proposed, therefore, to limit the scope of this chapter to the description of a rather as a subject rather than as a medium of instruction. It is hoped that these will be seen as representative of the much wider range of school foreign language teaching developments that have taken place across the world in recent years. First, however, a brief attempt will be made to outline the background from which these more communicatively-oriented approaches have emerged.
Language-in-Education Planning
Authors: Ingram D. E.
Published: October 2009

This paper attempts to survey language-in-education planning in the 1980s drawing on both formal publications and the more “ephemeral” but often more directky influential documents of government education departments and other authorities. Two problems are immediately evident: first, the influential ephemeral documents are hard to obtain. The second problem in surveying language-in-education planning is symptomatic of language policy-making in general; it is necessary to differentiate between, on the one hand, policy which is little more than uncoordinated good or bad ideas, limited in the range of needs that it seeks to answer, or incidental to policy serving other purposee (e.g., immigration policy) and, on the other hand, systematic, formalized language-in-education planning (cf., Rist 1982). This paper also focuses on only that part of language-in-education policy concerned with second or foreign language teaching and learning; other papers in this volume deal with the areas of literacy and bilingual education.
Second-Language Acquisition
Authors: McLaughlin Barry , Harrington Michael
Published: October 2009

As H. Douglas Brown pointed out in his review (1980), the field of second language acquisition [SLA] has emerged as its own discipline in the 1980s. A somewhat eclectic discipline, research in SLA involves methodologies drawn from linguistics, sociolinguistics, education, and psychology. Theoretical models are equally diverse (McLaughlin 1987), but in general a distinction is possible between representational and processing approaches (Carroll in press). Representational approaches focus on the nature and organization of second-language knowledge and how this information is represented in the mind of the learner. Processing approaches focus on the integration of perceptual and cognitive Processes with the learner's second-languages knowledge. This distinction is used here for purposes of exposition, although it is recognized that some approaches combine both representational and processing features, as any truly adequate model of second-language learning must.
Pedagogical Descriptions of Language: Grammar
Authors: Larsen-Freeman Diane
Published: October 2009

For hundreds of years, language educators have alternated between favoring language teaching approaches which focus on language form and those which emphasize language use or which focus on the message (Celce-Murcia 1979). For the greater part of this past decade, it has been the latter which have been fashionable. As a consequence, language teachers have been discouraged from teaching grammar. In fact, during the 1980s explicit grammer instruction has even been proscribed by certain methodologists (Krashen 1982; 1985, Krashen and Terrell 1983, Prabhu 1987). Although this position has been repeatedly assailed (Higgs and Clifford 1982, Long 1983; 1988, Harley and Swain 1984, Pienemann 1984), the proscribers persist. Only as recently as June 1988, Van Patten concluded that “…research evidence to date does not suggest that a focus on form is either necessary or beneficial to early stage learners’ (1988:243). Undeniable is the fact that research has pointed to a difference in learner performance (e.g., type of errors made) depending on whether there is a focus on form or not (Pica 1983, Spada 1987); still to be resolved, and surely an issue which will motivate much research in the next decade, is the extent to which a focus on form versus on a focus on message affects the rate of target language attainment. Such research will hopefully be conducted in a way which disambiguates “focus on form” (Larsen-Freeman and Long 1988, Beretta 1989).
Pedagogical Descriptions of Language: Lexis
Authors: Cowie A. P.
Published: October 2009

Any account of the lexcial description of English with reference to second language teaching over the past decade is essentially a review of developments in pedagogical lexicography over the same period. It is not simply that English monolingual dictionaries designed for foreign learners have increased astonishingly in number, variety, and authority throughout this time (McArthur 1989, Zgusta 1989); it is also the case that much recently published lexical analysis with an applied linguistic focus has either had the partial aim of improving existing dictionaries (Herbst 1984, Bolinger 1985) or been a preliminary to the compilation of new ones (Cowie 1981, Sinclair 1985).
On the Integration of Language and Content Instruction
Authors: Spanos George
Published: October 2009

The 1980s were dynamic years for applied linguistic researchers and practitioners involved in the integration of language and content instruction. In addition to the publication of five stimulating texts devoted to the subject (Mohan 1986, Cantoni-Harvey 1987, Crandall 1987, Enright and McCloskey 1988, and Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 1989), there was increasing attention at all school levels to curriculum development, materials development, teacher training, evaluation, and assessment, Second and foreign language educators as well educators in the fields of mathematics, science, and social science have become cognizant of the relationship between language development and the acquisition of content-specific knowledge and skills.
Natural Language Processing
Authors: Rindflesch Thomas C.
Published: October 2009

Work in computational linguistics began very soon after the development of the first computers (Booth, Brandwood and Cleave 1958), yet in the intervening four decades there has been a pervasive feeling that progress in computer understanding of natural language has not been commensurate with progress in other computer applications. Recently, a number of prominent researchers in natural language processing met to assess the state of the discipline and discuss future directions (Bates and Weischedel 1993). The consensus of this meeting was that increased attention to large amounts of lexical and domain knowledge was essential for significant progress, and current research efforts in the field reflect this point of view.
Call–Non-English L2 Instruction
Authors: Conrad K. Bernd
Published: October 2009

Research in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has neither traditionally nor recently had a language or setting-specific emphasis, one that would have established a distinction between second language learning (SLL) as opposed to foreign language learning (FLL) applications in its attempts to answer principled CALL questions. For example the two anthologies of essays, studies, and reports on CALL theory and practice by Smith (1987; 1989), the papers on CALL research compiled by Dunkel (1991b), and the collection of international perspectives edited by Pennington and Stevens (1992) summarize work done in the 1980s and provide directions and guidelines for work to be done in the 1990s with implications for both SLL and FLL. As this continues to be the case in recent CALL research, an FLL emphasis in the chapter of non-English L2 instructional context has been maintained exclusively for the discussion of software; whenever the rationale for the design and implementation of FLL software was based on second language acquisition theory or findings from empirical ESL-oriented CALL investigations, the respective research source was examined and cited.
Linguistic Corpora and Language Teaching
Authors: Murison-Bowie Simon
Published: October 2009

In recent years there have been many claims made for the importance of corpus linguistics to the fields of language description and language teaching. The strong case suggests that without a corpus (or corpora) there is no meaningful work to be done. The weak case is that there are additional descriptive and pedagogic perspectives facilitated by corpus-based work which improve our knowledge of the language and our ability to use it.
Electronic Networking
Authors: Sussex Roland , White Peter
Published: October 2009

In Physical terms, the Net—a term used generically—is a global system of computer linked by optical cable, telephone connections, microwave, and satellites. It comprises a number of individual networks, from LANs (Local Area Networks in individual institutions) to the largest, the Internet. (See Appendix Glossary for terminology explanations.) In January 1993, theMatrix Newsestimated that the Net comprised 2,152,000 host computers and 18,150,000 users. Now, in mid-1995, these figures are 3,500,000 host computers and 55 million users world-wide. From its beginnings in the U.S. military establishment, it now reaches into education, research, business and commerce, government, and private use. France is connecting its entire education system to the Internet. And the U.S.A. is leading the way not only in numbers of connections to the Internet, but also in providing access for non-university education fields. The Net is arguably the most dramatic new communications technology of the latter part of the 20th century.
The Language Of Business
Authors: Johns Ann M.
Published: October 2009

The teaching of the language of business, sometimes also called the “language of commerce” or “administration” (Yates 1977), has the longest history of any specific purpose teaching area; and, in ESP at least, the largest number of textbooks have been produced for business students (Robinson 1980). Yet most seminal research contributions to ESP have been in English for Science and Technology (EST). Due to this phenomenon, Swales (1985) subtitles his ESP retrospective “a source and reference book on the development of English for science and technology.” Earlier well-known collections–e.g., MacKay and Mountford (1978), Trimble, Trimble, and Drobnic (1978), and Selinker, Tarone, and Hanzeli (1981)–provide further evidence for the dominance of EST in teaching and research.
Language and Computers
Authors: Cheng Chin-Chuan
Published: October 2009

Language, writing, and the computer, as Wang (1986) states, must rank among the highest of our most important inventions since each has profoundly determined the development of the human species. There have been numerous interactions among these three types of human institutions. Writing, of course, is largely a reflection of language. Since its inception four decades ago, the computer has depended on various forms of language and writing to communicate with its human creators. Some of these forms were specially invented programming languages for a small breed of people.
Language and the Law
Authors: Shuy Roger W.
Published: October 2009

The application of linguistics to other areas of life has occurred in a somewhat natural, if haphazard, fashion. The first and most obvious applications were to education (first and second language learning, teaching, and testing), lexicography, translation, and speech therapy (Crystal 1981). There has been rather long standing interest in other fields, such as medical interaction (Mishler 1984; cf., van Naerssen and Kaplan elsewhere in this volume) and religious language (Samarin 1976), but it has been only within the past few years that increasing amounts of linguistic knowledge have been applied to the field of law.
Language and Politics
Authors: Shapiro Michael J.
Published: October 2009

There is a variety of ways to explore recent approaches to the language and politics connection, and each problematic suggested vjuld encourage a discussion of different issues and different literatures. The boundary strategies represented by this essay are encouraged by my vocation as a social scientist in general and a political scientist in particular. With respect to the first, I shall be focusing on the implications for social inquiry of different construals of language and meaning. With respect to the second, I shall be “reading” the problem of language within a politically oriented code.
Introductory Remarks
Authors: Tucker G. Richard
Published: October 2009

Research within the domain of applied linguistics is at the moment lively and vigorous. Exciting work is being conducted in many settings by scholars trained in diverse areas of specialization. Certainly the inclusion of separate strands in (at least) psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics is now obligatory in most graduate programs in linguistics, bilingual education, foreign language education, or English as a second or foreign language, whereas the subjects were just beginning to be introduced two decades ago. The vitality of the Linguistic Society of America (LSA), the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) and other organizations bodes well for the strength of our discipline. Annual or semi-annual meetings of each of these groups are well attended and offer broad, stimulating programs for participants. These organizations directly or indirectly sponsor a range of scholarly publications widely distributed to a broad membership.
Current Issues in Bilingualism: an Update of Directions in Research
Authors: Kachru Braj B.
Published: October 2009

This survey is primarily an update of the review published inARAL I, (Kaplan 1981:2-24). The research on various aspects of bilingualism during the last five years shows three main characteristics. First, there is questioning of some basic concepts which are still considered, as it were, sacrosanct by researchers for the description and analysis of bilingualism--individual and societal--and for actual fieldwork (cf., section 2 below). In such questioning--however mute at present--several theoretical and methodological sacred cows are under attack. Second, one notices a shift in the areas of research towards experimentation, with more precise methodology and techniques, to answer questions concerning the bilingual's brain (cf., sections 5 and 6). Third, there are insightful breakthroughs in crosscultural and cross-linguistic research with serious applied orientation (cf., sections 10 and 11) and, equally important, there is concern for a social commitment in such research. True, in this intense research activity there are very few questions asked which may be considered as breaking new ground. However, the newness lies in the answers which are provided to old questions. In these answers, we notice many fresh insights gained through a wealth of cross-cultural data, through the results obtained from longitudinal studies (e.g., Hakuta and Diaz in press, Rosier and Holm 1980), through the experiments conducted with highly refined and sophisticated tools and techniques of data collection and data analysis, and through increasing understanding of the bilinguals' and monolinguals' neuropsychological processes.
Psycholinguistics: Application • The Writing System as a Native Language for the Deaf
Authors: Steinberg Danny D.
Published: October 2009

Language can be acquired by means of the writing system, directly, without the medium of either speech or sign. Deaf children can acquire written language through an association of written forms with environ- mental objects and events, just as hearing children acquire language through an association of speech sounds with environmental experiences. This article considers in detail the rationale which underlies using written language as a native or first language for children who are severely or profoundly hearing-impaired. A perspective in terms of historical and current ideas concerning such theory, including the views of Alexander Graham Bell, is provided.
Sociolinguistics: Theory
Authors: Heller Monica
Published: October 2009

In 1980, in this journal, Joshua Fishman presented the major theoretical issue in sociolinguistics as being the link between microsociolinguistic and macrosociolinguistic processes. In 1984 that is still the case, although the issue is receiving more explicit attention than it did four years ago.

There are two branches of sociolinguistics which approach this issue in different ways. These two branches are interactionist and variationist sociolinguistics. Interactionist sociolinguistics is principally interested in what language use can tell us about social processes, and therefore a central concern is the social meaning of language use. Variationist sociolinguistics is interested in accounting for linguistic variation and change, at least partly as a product of the social distribution of language varieties. It is, therefore, less concerned with meaning as process, and more concerned with the interaction of linguistic and social systems; in this view the significance of language is mainly symbolic. In this review, I will discuss the contributions of these branches to the problem of the relationship between microsociolinguistics and macrosociolinguistics, as well as the theoretical problems peculiar to each branch.
Lexicography. a Contrastive Survey
Authors: Hartmann R. R. K.
Published: October 2009

There is no doubt that lexicography is an exciting specialization, full of promise, and capable of radically new developments. A review of lexicography in the 1980's cannot hope to convey a comprehensive picture of everything that is going on, but I shall try to pick out a few representative trends and issues. There are very few precedents to follow (the survey of Quemada (1972) covered more ground, while concentrating on historical lexicography in Western Europe to the late 1960's), but it seems that I can at least try to do three things:
Conversation Analysis
Authors: Schiffrin Deborah
Published: October 2009

Discourse analysis is widely recognized as one of the most far-reaching, but also one of the least well defined, areas in linguistic. One reason for this is that discourse itself has has often been defined in two different ways: as a unit of language that is larger than the sentence, and as the use of language. Whereas the former definition focuses attention mostly on the linguistic regularities characterizing texts, the latter definition focuses attention mostly on the social and cultural functions underlying ways of speaking. Despite these two different foci, many who analyze discourse combine the two concerns, analyzing how the linguistic regularities found in ways of speaking are constrained not only by the structures and patterns inherent in the language, but also by the social and cultural meanings which frame the production and interpretation of messages.
Discourse Analysis in Ethnographic Research
Authors: Poole Deborah
Published: October 2009

The discourse analysis typical of language-oriented ethnographic research is distinct form the that which is more linguistically driven. From a linguistic perspective, ethnographic data may seem impressionistic, and the units of analysis (e.g., clarification, shaming, or visiting ritual) too ill-defined for rigorous or detailed investigation. The perspective taken in this review, however, is that ethnographic research has greatly expanded understanding of what can consitute both valid data and appropriate analytical units. Through focus on categories such as speech event or genre, a large number of previously unexamined discourse phenomena have emerged as appropriate and significant domains of inquiry.
Discourse Analysis and Spoken Language Instruction
Authors: Riggenbach Heidi
Published: October 2009

Several excellent articles and books have been written, based on discourse analyses of spoken language, which can infrom teachers (and teacher educators) about features and conventions that are unique to spoken English (Brown, et al. 1984, Brown and Yule 1983, Bygate 1987, Melrose 1989, Tannen 1989) or about differences between authentic, naturalistic discourse and that fount in textbooks (Cathcart 1989, Scotton and Bernstein 1988). These approaches, clearly, have applications and implications for language instruction. However, it is the intent of this paper to discuss the ways in which discourse analysis itself can be useful for language learners as a tool for speaking and listening instruction. Many of the techniques and activities described in this paper bring students into the role of active participant in their own language learning processes, requiring them to collect and produce their own language “data,” to analyze these materials, and to become conscious of the skills involved with language production.
Discourse Analysis and Writing/Reading Instruction*
Authors: Connor Ulla Maija
Published: October 2009

In the 1984 volume of theAnnual review of applied linguistics, Grabe (1985) presented a comprehensive discussion of discourse analysis explaning its history, frameworks, models, taxonomies, and operationalizations. The approach of the present article complements Grabe's as a reivew with a more direct concern for instructional applications of discourse analysis in student reading and writing.