bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Pathway of Us11-Dependent Degradation of Mhc Class I Heavy Chains Involves a Ubiquitin-Conjugated Intermediate
Authors: Shamu Caroline E. , Story Craig M. , Rapoport Tom A. , Ploegh Hidde L.
Published: July 2002

The human cytomegalovirus protein, US11, initiates the destruction of MHC class I heavy chains by targeting them for dislocation from the ER to the cytosol and subsequent degradation by the proteasome. We report the development of a permeabilized cell system that recapitulates US11-dependent degradation of class I heavy chains. We have used this system, in combination with experiments in intact cells, to identify and order intermediates in the US11-dependent degradation pathway. We find that heavy chains are ubiquitinated before they are degraded. Ubiquitination of the cytosolic tail of heavy chain is not required for its dislocation and degradation, suggesting that ubiquitination occurs after at least part of the heavy chain has been dislocated from the ER. Thus, ubiquitination of the heavy chain does not appear to be the signal to start dislocation. Ubiquitinated heavy chains are associated with membrane fractions, suggesting that ubiquitination occurs while the heavy chain is still bound to the ER membrane. Our results support a model in which US11 co-opts the quality control process by which the cell destroys misfolded ER proteins in order to specifically degrade MHC class I heavy chains.
Stu2 Promotes Mitotic Spindle Elongation in Anaphase
Authors: Severin Fedor , Habermann Bianca , Huffaker Tim , Hyman Tony
Published: July 2002

During anaphase, mitotic spindles elongate up to five times their metaphase length. This process, known as anaphase B, is essential for correct segregation of chromosomes. Here, we examine the control of spindle length during anaphase in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We show that microtubule stabilization during anaphase requires the microtubule-associated protein Stu2. We further show that the activity of Stu2 is opposed by the activity of the kinesin-related protein Kip3. Reexamination of the kinesin homology tree suggests that KIP3 is the S. cerevisiae orthologue of the microtubule-destabilizing subfamily of kinesins (Kin I). We conclude that a balance of activity between evolutionally conserved microtubule-stabilizing and microtubule-destabilizing factors is essential for correct spindle elongation during anaphase B.
The BPAG1 locus
Authors: Leung Conrad L. , Zheng Min , Prater Susan M. , Liem Ronald K.H.
Published: July 2002

Bullous pemphigoid antigen 1 (BPAG1) is a member of the plakin family with cytoskeletal linker properties. Mutations in BPAG1 cause sensory neuron degeneration and skin fragility in mice. We have analyzed the BPAG1 locus in detail and found that it encodes different interaction domains that are combined in tissue-specific manners. These domains include an actin-binding domain (ABD), a plakin domain, a coiled coil (CC) rod domain, two different potential intermediate filament–binding domains (IFBDs), a spectrin repeat (SR)-containing rod domain, and a microtubule-binding domain (MTBD). There are at least three major forms of BPAG1: BPAG1-e (302 kD), BPAG1-a (615 kD), and BPAG1-b (834 kD). BPAG1-e has been described previously and consists of the plakin domain, the CC rod domain, and the first IFBD. It is the primary epidermal BPAG1 isoform, and its absence that is the likely cause of skin fragility in mutant mice. BPAG1-a is the major isoform in the nervous system and a homologue of the microtubule actin cross-linking factor, MACF. BPAG1-a is composed of the ABD, the plakin domain, the SR-containing rod domain, and the MTBD. The absence of BPAG1-a is the likely cause of sensory neurodegeneration in mutant mice. BPAG1-b is highly expressed in muscles, and has extra exons encoding a second IFBD between the plakin and SR-containing rod domains of BPAG1-a.
Multiple Cytokines and Acute Inflammation Raise Mouse Leptin Levels: Potential Role in Inflammatory Anorexia
Authors: Sarraf Pasha , Frederich Robert C. , Turner Ewa M. , Ma Grace , Jaskowiak Nora T. , Rivet Dennis J. , Flier Jeffrey S. , Lowell Bradford B. , Fraker Douglas L. , Alexander H. Richard
Published: July 2002

Several inflammatory cytokines, most notably tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and IL-1, induce anorexia and loss of lean body mass, common manifestations of acute and chronic inflammatory conditions. In C57BL/6 female mice, the administration of TNF, IL-1, and, to a lesser extent, leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), produced a prompt and dose-dependent increase in serum leptin levels and leptin mRNA expression in fat. IL-10, IL-4, ciliary neurotrophic factor, and IL-2, cytokines not known to induce anorexia or decrease food intake, had no effect on leptin gene expression or serum leptin levels. After administration of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS), leptin gene expression and leptin levels were increased. These findings suggest that leptin levels may be one mechanism by which anorexia is induced during acute inflammatory conditions.
Activation Mechanism of Anticoagulant Protein C in Large Blood Vessels Involving the Endothelial Cell Protein C Receptor
Authors: Fukudome Kenji , Ye Xiaofen , Tsuneyoshi Naoko , Tokunaga Osamu , Sugawara Keishin , Mizokami Hiroshi , Kimoto Masao
Published: July 2002

Protein C is an important regulatory mechanism of blood coagulation. Protein C functions as an anticoagulant when converted to the active serine protease form on the endothelial cell surface. Thrombomodulin (TM), an endothelial cell surface receptor specific for thrombin, has been identified as an essential component for protein C activation. Although protein C can be activated directly by the thrombin–TM complex, the conversion is known as a relatively low-affinity reaction. Therefore, protein C activation has been believed to occur only in microcirculation. On the other hand, we have identified and cloned a novel endothelial cell surface receptor (EPCR) that is capable of high-affinity binding of protein C and activated protein C. In this study, we demonstrate the constitutive, endothelial cell–specific expression of EPCR in vivo. Abundant expression was particularly detected in the aorta and large arteries. In vitro cultured, arterial endothelial cells were also found to express abundant EPCR and were capable of promoting significant levels of protein C activation. EPCR was found to greatly accelerate protein C activation by examining functional activity in transfected cell lines expressing EPCR and/or TM. EPCR decreased the dissociation constant and increased the maximum velocity for protein C activation mediated by the thrombin–TM complex. By these mechanisms, EPCR appears to enable significant levels of protein C activation in large vessels. These results suggest that the protein C anticoagulation pathway is important for the regulation of blood coagulation not only in microvessels but also in large vessels.
Nuclear Factor (NF)-κB–regulated X-chromosome–linked iap Gene Expression Protects Endothelial Cells from Tumor Necrosis Factor α–induced Apoptosis
Authors: Stehlik Christian , de Martin Rainer , Kumabashiri Ichiro , Schmid Johannes A. , Binder Bernd R. , Lipp Joachim
Published: July 2002

By differential screening of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- activated endothelial cells (ECs), we have identified a cDNA clone that turned out to be a member of the inhibitor of apoptosis (iap) gene family. iap genes function to protect cells from undergoing apoptotic death in response to a variety of stimuli. These iap genes, hiap1, hiap2, and xiap were found to be strongly upregulated upon treatment of ECs with the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, interleukin 1β, and LPS, reagents that lead to activation of the nuclear transcription factor κB (NF-κB). Indeed, overexpression of IκBα, an inhibitor of NF-κB, suppresses the induced expression of iap genes and sensitizes ECs to TNF-α–induced apoptosis. Ectopic expression of one member of the human iap genes, human X-chromosome–linked iap (xiap), using recombinant adenovirus overrules the IκBα effect and protects ECs from TNF-α– induced apoptosis. We conclude that xiap represents one of the NF-κB–regulated genes that counteracts the apoptotic signals caused by TNF-α and thereby prevents ECs from undergoing apoptosis during inflammation.
Stat5b Is Essential for Natural Killer Cell–mediated Proliferation and Cytolytic Activity
Authors: Imada Kazunori , Bloom Eda T. , Nakajima Hiroshi , Horvath-Arcidiacono Judith A. , Udy Garry B. , Davey Helen W. , Leonard Warren J.
Published: July 2002

We have analyzed the immune system in Stat5-deficient mice. Although Stat5a−/− splenocytes have a partial defect in anti-CD3-induced proliferation that can be overcome by high dose interleukin (IL)-2, we now demonstrate that defective proliferation in Stat5b−/− splenocytes cannot be corrected by this treatment. Interestingly, this finding may be at least partially explained by diminished expression of the IL-2 receptor β chain (IL-2Rβ), which is a component of the receptors for both IL-2 and IL-15, although other defects may also exist. Similar to the defect in proliferation in activated splenocytes, freshly isolated splenocytes from Stat5b−/− mice exhibited greatly diminished proliferation in response to IL-2 and IL-15. This results from both a decrease in the number and responsiveness of natural killer (NK) cells. Corresponding to the diminished proliferation, basal as well as IL-2– and IL-15–mediated boosting of NK cytolytic activity was also greatly diminished. These data indicate an essential nonredundant role for Stat5b for potent NK cell–mediated proliferation and cytolytic activity.
The Central Role of CD4+ T Cells in the Antitumor Immune Response
Authors: Hung Kenneth , Hayashi Robert , Lafond-Walker Anne , Lowenstein Charles , Pardoll Drew , Levitsky Hyam
Published: July 2002

The induction of optimal systemic antitumor immunity involves the priming of both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells specific for tumor-associated antigens. The role of CD4+ T helper cells (Th) in this response has been largely attributed to providing regulatory signals required for the priming of major histocompatibility complex class I restricted CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocytes, which are thought to serve as the dominant effector cell mediating tumor killing. However, analysis of the effector phase of tumor rejection induced by vaccination with irradiated tumor cells transduced to secrete granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor indicates a far broader role for CD4+ T cells in orchestrating the host response to tumor. This form of immunization leads to the simultaneous induction of Th1 and Th2 responses, both of which are required for maximal systemic antitumor immunity. Cytokines produced by these CD4+ T cells activate eosinophils as well as macrophages that produce both superoxide and nitric oxide. Both of these cell types then collaborate within the site of tumor challenge to cause its destruction.
Systemic Exposure to Irradiated Apoptotic Cells Induces Autoantibody Production
Authors: Mevorach Dror , Zhou Jun Liang , Song Xin , Elkon Keith B.
Published: July 2002

During apoptotic cell death, cell surface ligands initiate phagocytosis of the dying cell. Clearance of these apoptotic cells is thought to occur without an immune response. Since a number of autoantigens are located at the cell surface or within apoptotic blebs, we examined whether exposure of mice to syngeneic apoptotic cells by the intravenous route could induce autoantibody production. Normal mice injected with syngeneic apoptotic thymocytes developed antinuclear autoantibodies and anticardiolipin and anti-ssDNA antibodies. The autoantibody levels were generally lower than those observed in MRL/Faslpr mice and were transient. Surprisingly, six out of six immunized mice demonstrated immunoglobulin G deposition in the glomeruli several months after immunization. These findings indicate that systemic exposure to apoptotic cells can induce an immune response in normal mice, and may help to explain antigen selection and initiation of the immune response in diseases characterized by increased rates of apoptosis such as AIDS and, possibly, systemic lupus erythematosus.
Glucocorticoids Regulate the Expression of the Human Osteoblastic Endothelin A Receptor Gene
Authors: Börcsök Irma , Schairer Hans U. , Sommer Ulrike , Wakley Glenn K. , Schneider Ulrich , Geiger Florian , Niethard Fritz U. , Ziegler Reinhard , Kasperk Christian H.
Published: July 2002

The endothelial cell–derived peptide endothelin 1 (ET1) stimulates cell proliferation and differentiated functions of human osteoblastic cells (HOC), and HOC constitutively express the endothelin A receptor (ETRA). Therefore, ET1 may play an important role in the regulation of bone cell metabolism. As glucocorticoids (GC) exert a profound influence on bone metabolism and increase the effects of ET1 on bone cell metabolism in vitro, the effects of GC on ETRA expression in HOC were investigated. Dexamethasone (DEX) increased ETRA mRNA levels in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. The effects of dexamethasone, prednisolone, and deflazacort on the increase of ETRA mRNA levels correlate positively with their binding affinity to the GC receptor. Scatchard analysis of ET1 binding data to HOC revealed that DEX increased the binding capacity for ET1 from 25,300 to 62,800 binding sites per osteoblastic cell, leading to an enhanced mitogenic effect of ET1 on HOC after preincubation with DEX. Transiently transfected primary HOC with a reporter gene construct, containing the 5′-flanking region of the ETRA gene fused to luciferase gene, showed a promoter-dependent expression of the reporter gene and the induction of reporter gene expression by DEX treatment. Total RNA extracts of femoral head biopsies with osteonecrotic lesions from GC-treated patients showed threefold higher ETRA mRNA levels compared with extracts of bone biopsies from patients with traumatically induced osteonecrosis and coxarthrosis. Furthermore, GC treatment increased plasma ET1 levels by 50% compared with pretreatment values. These findings suggest that GC induced upregulation of ETRA, and ET1 plasma levels enhance ET1's anabolic action on bone cell metabolism. Increased ET1 concentrations may also impair bone perfusion by vasoconstriction in a metabolically activated skeletal region.
The Cysteine Protease Activity of the Major Dust Mite Allergen Der P 1 Selectively Enhances the Immunoglobulin E Antibody Response
Authors: Gough Lucy , Schulz Oliver , Sewell Herb F. , Shakib Farouk
Published: July 2002

The house dust mite Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus allergen Der p 1 is the most immunodominant allergen involved in the expression of dust mite–specific immunoglobulin (Ig)E–mediated hypersensitivity. The reason for this potent IgE-eliciting property of Der p 1 remains unknown, but there is mounting in vitro evidence linking the allergenicity of Der p 1 to its cysteine protease activity. Here we demonstrate for the first time that immunization of mice with proteolytically active Der p 1 results in a significant enhancement in total IgE and Der p 1–specific IgE synthesis compared with animals immunized with Der p 1 that was irreversibly blocked with the cysteine protease inhibitor E-64. We conclude that the proteolytic activity of Der p 1 is a major contributor to its allergenicity.
A Role for Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV in Suppressing the Malignant Phenotype of Melanocytic Cells
Authors: Wesley Umadevi V. , Albino Anthony P. , Tiwari Shakuntala , Houghton Alan N.
Published: July 2002

Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV) is a cell surface peptidase expressed by normal melanocytes, epithelial cells, and other cells. Malignant cells, including melanomas and carcinomas, frequently lose or alter DPPIV cell surface expression. Loss of DPPIV expression occurs during melanoma progression at a stage where transformed melanocytes become independent of exogenous growth factors for survival. Tetracycline-inducible expression vectors were constructed to express DPPIV in human melanoma cells. Reexpressing DPPIV in melanoma cells at or below levels expressed by normal melanocytes induced a profound change in phenotype that was characteristic of normal melanocytes. DPPIV expression led to a loss of tumorigenicity, anchorage-independent growth, a reversal in a block in differentiation, and an acquired dependence on exogenous growth factors for cell survival. Suppression of tumorigenicity and reversal of a block in differentiation were dependent on serine protease activity, assessed using mutant DPPIV molecules containing serine→alanine substitutions. Surprisingly, dependence on exogenous growth factors was not dependent on serine protease activity. Reexpression of either wild-type or mutant DPPIV rescued expression of a second putative cell surface serine peptidase, fibroblast activation protein α, which can form a heterodimer with DPPIV. This observation suggests that rescue of fibroblast activation protein α may play a role in regulating growth of melanocytic cells. These results support the view that downregulation of DPPIV is an important early event in the pathogenesis of melanoma.
Somatic Hypermutation in Muts Homologue (Msh)3-, Msh6-, and Msh3/Msh6-Deficient Mice Reveals a Role for the Msh2–Msh6 Heterodimer in Modulating the Base Substitution Pattern
Authors: Wiesendanger Margrit , Kneitz Burkhard , Edelmann Winfried , Scharff Matthew D.
Published: July 2002

Although the primary function of the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system is to identify and correct base mismatches that have been erroneously introduced during DNA replication, recent studies have further implicated several MMR components in somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes. We studied the immune response in mice deficient in MutS homologue (MSH)3 and MSH6, two mutually exclusive partners of MSH2 that have not been examined previously for their role in Ig hypermutation. In Msh6−/− and Msh3−/−/Msh6−/− mice, base substitutions are preferentially targeted to G and C nucleotides and to an RGYW hot spot, as has been shown previously in Msh2−/− mice. In contrast, Msh3−/− mice show no differences from their littermate controls. These findings indicate that the MSH2–MSH6 heterodimer, but not the MSH2–MSH3 complex, is responsible for modulating Ig hypermutation.
Immunoproteasomes Shape Immunodominance Hierarchies of Antiviral Cd8+ T Cells at the Levels of T Cell Repertoire and Presentation of Viral Antigens
Authors: Chen Weisan , Norbury Christopher C. , Cho Yunjung , Yewdell Jonathan W. , Bennink Jack R.
Published: July 2002

Vertebrates express three cytokine-inducible proteasome subunits that are incorporated in the place of their constitutively synthesized counterparts. There is increasing evidence that the set of peptides generated by proteasomes containing these subunits (immunoproteasomes) differs from that produced by standard proteasomes. In this study, we use mice lacking one of the immunoproteasome subunits (LMP2) to show that immunoproteasomes play an important role in establishing the immunodominance hierarchy of CD8+ T cells (TCD8+) responding to seven defined determinants in influenza virus. In LMP2−/− mice, responses to the two most dominant determinants drop precipitously, whereas responses to two subdominant determinants are greatly enhanced. Adoptive transfer experiments with naive normal and transgenic TCD8+ reveal that the reduced immunogenicity of one determinant (PA224–233) can be attributed to decreased generation by antigen presenting cells (APCs), whereas the other determinant (NP366–374) is less immunogenic due to alterations in the TCD8+ repertoire, and not, as reported previously, to the decreased capacity of LMP2−/− APCs to generate the determinant. The enhanced response to one of the subdominant determinants (PB1F262–70) correlates with increased generation by LMP2−/− virus–infected cells. These findings indicate that in addition to their effects on the presentation of foreign antigens, immunoproteasomes influence TCD8+ responses by modifying the repertoire of responding TCD8+.
Continual Low-Level Activation of the Classical Complement Pathway
Authors: Manderson Anthony P. , Pickering Matthew C. , Botto Marina , Walport Mark J. , Parish Christopher R.
Published: July 2002

There is evidence that the classical complement pathway may be activated via a “C1-tickover” mechanism, analogous to the C3-tickover of the alternative pathway. We have quantitated and characterized this pathway of complement activation. Analysis of freshly collected mouse and human plasma revealed that spontaneous C3 activation rapidly occurred with the generation of C3 fragments in the plasma. By the use of complement- and Ig-deficient mice it was found that C1q, C4, C2, and plasma Ig were all required for this spontaneous C3 activation, with the alternative complement pathway further amplifying C3 fragment generation. Study of plasma from a human with C1q deficiency before and after therapeutic C1q infusion confirmed the existence of a similar pathway for complement activation in humans. Elevated levels of plasma C3 were detected in mice deficient in complement components required for activation of either the classical or alternative complement pathways, supporting the hypothesis that there is continuous complement activation and C3 consumption through both these pathways in vivo. Blood stasis was found to stimulate C3 activation by classical pathway tick-over. This antigen-independent mechanism for classical pathway activation may augment activation of the complement system at sites of inflammation and infarction.
C1q and Mannose Binding Lectin Engagement of Cell Surface Calreticulin and Cd91 Initiates Macropinocytosis and Uptake of Apoptotic Cells
Authors: Ogden Carol Anne , deCathelineau Aimee , Hoffmann Peter R. , Bratton Donna , Ghebrehiwet Berhane , Fadok Valerie A. , Henson Peter M.
Published: July 2002

Removal of apoptotic cells is essential for maintenance of tissue homeostasis, organogenesis, remodeling, development, and maintenance of the immune system, protection against neoplasia, and resolution of inflammation. The mechanisms of this removal involve recognition of the apoptotic cell surface and initiation of phagocytic uptake into a variety of cell types. Here we provide evidence that C1q and mannose binding lectin (MBL), a member of the collectin family of proteins, bind to apoptotic cells and stimulate ingestion of these by ligation on the phagocyte surface of the multifunctional protein, calreticulin (also known as the cC1qR), which in turn is bound to the endocytic receptor protein CD91, also known as the α-2-macroglobulin receptor. Use of these proteins provides another example of apoptotic cell clearance mediated by pattern recognition molecules of the innate immune system. Ingestion of the apoptotic cells through calreticulin/CD91 stimulation is further shown to involve the process of macropinocytosis, implicated as a primitive and relatively nonselective uptake mechanism for C1q- and MBL-enhanced engulfment of whole, intact apoptotic cells, as well as cell debris and foreign organisms to which these molecules may bind.
Homeostasis of Peripheral B Cells in the Absence of B Cell Influx from the Bone Marrow
Authors: Hao Zhenyue , Rajewsky Klaus
Published: July 2002

To study homeostasis of peripheral B lymphocytes in the absence of B cell influx from the bone marrow, we generated a mouse mutant in which the recombination-activating gene (RAG)-2 can be inducibly deleted. When RAG-2 was deleted at the age of 8–10 wk, splenic naive follicular B cells were gradually lost over a year of observation, with a half-life of ∼4.5 mo. By contrast, the pool of marginal zone B cells in the spleen and of B-1 cells in the peritoneal cavity were kept at normal level. In lymph nodes, ∼90% of the B cells were lost within 4 mo, and B cell numbers remained constant thereafter. Mice in which RAG-2 was deleted at birth maintained a small population of activated B cells with an increased proportion of marginal zone B cells. Additionally, an increase of the pool of IgM secreting cells and B-1a cells was observed.
Desensitization of Mouse Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Channels
Authors: Auerbach Anthony , Akk Gustav
Published: July 2002

The rate constants of acetylcholine receptor channels (AChR) desensitization and recovery were estimated from the durations and frequencies of clusters of single-channel currents. Diliganded-open AChR desensitize much faster than either unliganded- or diliganded-closed AChR, which indicates that the desensitization rate constant depends on the status of the activation gate rather than the occupancy of the transmitter binding sites. The desensitization rate constant does not change with the nature of the agonist, the membrane potential, the species of permeant cation, channel block by ACh, the subunit composition (ε or γ), or several mutations that are near the transmitter binding sites. The results are discussed in terms of cyclic models of AChR activation, desensitization, and recovery. In particular, a mechanism by which activation and desensitization are mediated by two distinct, but interrelated, gates in the ion permeation pathway is proposed.
Biophysical Properties and Slow Voltage-Dependent Inactivation of a Sustained Sodium Current in Entorhinal Cortex Layer-II Principal Neurons
Authors: Magistretti Jacopo , Alonso Angel
Published: July 2002

The functional and biophysical properties of a sustained, or “persistent,” Na+ current (INaP) responsible for the generation of subthreshold oscillatory activity in entorhinal cortex layer-II principal neurons (the “stellate cells”) were investigated with whole-cell, patch-clamp experiments. Both acutely dissociated cells and slices derived from adult rat entorhinal cortex were used. INaP , activated by either slow voltage ramps or long-lasting depolarizing pulses, was prominent in both isolated and, especially, in situ neurons. The analysis of the gating properties of the transient Na+ current (INaT) in the same neurons revealed that the resulting time-independent “window” current (INaTW) had both amplitude and voltage dependence not compatible with those of the observed INaP , thus implying the existence of an alternative mechanism of persistent Na+-current generation. The tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na+ currents evoked by slow voltage ramps decreased in amplitude with decreasing ramp slopes, thus suggesting that a time-dependent inactivation was taking place during ramp depolarizations. When ramps were preceded by increasingly positive, long-lasting voltage prepulses, INaP was progressively, and eventually completely, inactivated. The V1/2 of INaP steady state inactivation was approximately −49 mV. The time dependence of the development of the inactivation was also studied by varying the duration of the inactivating prepulse: time constants ranging from ∼6.8 to ∼2.6 s, depending on the voltage level, were revealed. Moreover, the activation and inactivation properties of INaP were such as to generate, within a relatively broad membrane-voltage range, a really persistent window current (INaPW). Significantly, INaPW was maximal at about the same voltage level at which subthreshold oscillations are expressed by the stellate cells. Indeed, at −50 mV, the INaPW was shown to contribute to >80% of the persistent Na+ current that sustains the subthreshold oscillations, whereas only the remaining part can be attributed to a classical Hodgkin-Huxley INaTW. Finally, the single-channel bases of INaP slow inactivation and INaPW generation were investigated in cell-attached experiments. Both phenomena were found to be underlain by repetitive, relatively prolonged late channel openings that appeared to undergo inactivation in a nearly irreversible manner at high depolarization levels (−10 mV), but not at more negative potentials (−40 mV).
Electrically Triggered All-or-None Ca2+-Liberation during Action Potential in the Giant Alga Chara
Authors: Wacke Michael , Thiel Gerhard
Published: July 2002

Electrically triggered action potentials in the giant alga Chara corallina are associated with a transient rise in the concentration of free Ca2+ in the cytoplasm (Ca2+cyt). The present measurements of Ca2+cyt during membrane excitation show that stimulating pulses of low magnitude (subthreshold pulse) had no perceivable effect on Ca2+cyt. When the strength of a pulse exceeded a narrow threshold (suprathreshold pulse) it evoked the full extent of the Ca2+cyt elevation. This suggests an all-or-none mechanism for Ca2+ mobilization. A transient calcium rise could also be induced by one subthreshold pulse if it was after another subthreshold pulse of the same kind after a suitable interval, i.e., not closer than a few 100 ms and not longer than a few seconds. This dependency of Ca2+ mobilization on single and double pulses can be simulated by a model in which a second messenger is produced in a voltage-dependent manner. This second messenger liberates Ca2+ from internal stores in an all-or-none manner once a critical concentration (threshold) of the second messenger is exceeded in the cytoplasm. The positive effect of a single suprathreshold pulse and two optimally spaced subthreshold pulses on Ca2+ mobilization can be explained on the basis of relative velocity for second messenger production and decomposition as well as the availability of the precursor for the second messenger production. Assuming that inositol-1,4,5,-trisphosphate (IP3) is the second messenger in question, the present data provide the major rate constants for IP3 metabolism.
Multiple Modes of Calcium-Induced Calcium Release in Sympathetic Neurons I
Authors: Albrecht Meredith A. , Colegrove Stephen L. , Hongpaisan Jarin , Pivovarova Natalia B. , Andrews S. Brian , Friel David D.
Published: July 2002

Many cells express ryanodine receptors (RyRs) whose activation is thought to amplify depolarization-evoked elevations in cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) through a process of Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release (CICR). In neurons, it is usually assumed that CICR triggers net Ca2+ release from an ER Ca2+ store. However, since net ER Ca2+ transport depends on the relative rates of Ca2+ uptake and release via distinct pathways, weak activation of a CICR pathway during periods of ER Ca accumulation would have a totally different effect: attenuation of Ca2+ accumulation. Stronger CICR activation at higher [Ca2+]i could further attenuate Ca2+ accumulation or trigger net Ca2+ release, depending on the quantitative properties of the underlying Ca2+ transporters. This and the companion study (Hongpaisan, J., N.B. Pivovarova, S.L. Colgrove, R.D. Leapman, and D.D. Friel, and S.B. Andrews. 2001. J. Gen. Physiol. 118:101–112) investigate which of these CICR “modes” operate during depolarization-induced Ca2+ entry in sympathetic neurons. The present study focuses on small [Ca2+]i elevations (less than ∼350 nM) evoked by weak depolarization. The following two approaches were used: (1) Ca2+ fluxes were estimated from simultaneous measurements of [Ca2+]i and ICa in fura-2–loaded cells (perforated patch conditions), and (2) total ER Ca concentrations ([Ca]ER) were measured using X-ray microanalysis. Flux analysis revealed triggered net Ca2+ release during depolarization in the presence but not the absence of caffeine, and [Ca2+]i responses were accelerated by SERCA inhibitors, implicating ER Ca2+ accumulation, which was confirmed by direct [Ca]ER measurements. Ryanodine abolished caffeine-induced CICR and enhanced depolarization-induced ER Ca2+ accumulation, indicating that activation of the CICR pathway normally attenuates ER Ca2+ accumulation, which is a novel mechanism for accelerating evoked [Ca2+]i responses. Theory shows how such a low gain mode of CICR can operate during weak stimulation and switch to net Ca2+ release at high [Ca2+]i, a transition demonstrated in the companion study. These results emphasize the importance of the relative rates of Ca2+ uptake and release in defining ER contributions to depolarization-induced Ca2+ signals.
Summary of the Guidelines for Preventing Opportunistic Infections among Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients
Authors: Dykewicz Clare A.
Published: July 2002

This article contains highlights of “Guidelines for Preventing Opportunistic Infections among Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients: Recommendations of the CDC, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, and the American Society of Blood and Marrow Transplantation,” which was published in the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. There are sections on the prevention of bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and helminth infections and on hospital infection control, strategies for safe living following transplantation, immunizations, and hematopoietic stem cell safety. The guidelines are evidence-based, and prevention strategies are rated by both the strength of the recommendation and the quality of evidence that supports it. Recommendations are given for preventing cytomegalovirus disease with prophylactic or preemptive gancyclovir, herpes simplex virus disease with prophylactic acyclovir, candidiasis with fluconazole, and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Hopefully, following the recommendations made in the guidelines will reduce morbidity and mortality from opportunistic infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients.
Building the hybrid library: a review of UK activities
Authors: Breaks Michael
Published: July 2002

Five major projects developed under eLib's Hybrid Library programme have resulted in a significant shift in thinking, imagination, and above all confidence within higher education libraries. I examine the origins of the programme and the achievements of each project and conclude that libraries want to, and can, deliver deep and seamless integrated access to their print and electronic collections – which can have the shorthand name ‘hybrid library’ – and they are looking to publishers and intermediaries to assist in this.
Numerical calculation of the multiplicity of a solution to algebraic equations
Authors: Kobayashi Hidetsune , Suzuki Hideo , Sakai Yoshihiko
Published: July 2002

A method to calculate numerically the multiplicity of a solution to a system of algebraic equations is presented. The method is an application of Zeuthen’s rule which gives the multiplicity of a solution as the multiplicity of a united point of an algebraic correspondence defined naturally by the system. The numerical calculation is applicable to a large scale system of algebraic equations which may have a solution that we cannot calculate the multiplicity by a symbolic computation.
Analysis and modificaton of Newton’s method for algebraic Riccati equations
Authors: Guo Chun-Hua , Lancaster Peter
Published: July 2002

When Newton’s method is applied to find the maximal symmetric solution of an algebraic Riccati equation, convergence can be guaranteed under moderate conditions. In particular, the initial guess need not be close to the solution. The convergence is quadratic if the Fréchet derivative is invertible at the solution. In this paper we examine the behaviour of the Newton iteration when the derivative is not invertible at the solution. We find that a simple modification can improve the performance of the Newton iteration dramatically.
Radon transforms and finite type conditions
Authors: Seeger Andreas
Published: July 2002

We prove regularity of Radon type integral operators in

L

p

L^{p}

-Sobolev spaces.
A combination theorem for covering correspondences and an application to mating polynomial maps with Kleinian groups
Authors: Bullett Shaun
Published: July 2002

The simplest version of the Maskit-Klein combination theorems concerns the action of a free product of two finite subgroups of

P
S
L
(
2
,

C

)

PSL(2,{\mathbb C})

on the Riemann sphere

C

^

\hat {\mathbb C}

, when these subgroups have fundamental domains whose interiors together cover

C

^

\hat {\mathbb C}

. We prove an analogous combination theorem for covering correspondences of rational maps, making use of Douady and Hubbard’s Straightening Theorem for polynomial-like maps to describe the structure of the limit sets. We apply our theorem to construct holomorphic correspondences which are matings of polynomial maps with Hecke groups

C
p

∗

C
q

C_p*C_q

, and we show how it may also be applied to the analysis of separable correspondences.
The RNA Binding Activity of a Ribosome Biogenesis Factor, Nucleophosmin/B23, Is Modulated by Phosphorylation with a Cell Cycle-dependent Kinase and by Association with Its Subtype
Authors: Okuwaki Mitsuru , Tsujimoto Masafumi , Nagata Kyosuke
Published: July 2002

Nucleophosmin/B23 is a nucleolar phosphoprotein. It has been shown that B23 binds to nucleic acids, digests RNA, and is localized in nucleolar granular components from which preribosomal particles are transported to cytoplasm. The intracellular localization of B23 is significantly changed during the cell cycle. Here, we have examined the cellular localization of B23 proteins and the effect of mitotic phosphorylation of B23.1 on its RNA binding activity. Two splicing variants of B23 proteins, termed B23.1 and B23.2, were complexed both in vivo and in vitro. The RNA binding activity of B23.1 was impaired by hetero-oligomer formation with B23.2. Both subtypes of B23 proteins were phosphorylated during mitosis by cyclin B/cdc2. The RNA binding activity of B23.1 was repressed through cyclin B/cdc2-mediated phosphorylation at specific sites in B23. Thus, the RNA binding activity of B23.1 is stringently modulated by its phosphorylation and subtype association. Interphase B23.1 was mainly localized in nucleoli, whereas B23.2 and mitotic B23.1, those of which were incapable of binding to RNA, were dispersed throughout the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm, respectively. These results suggest that nucleolar localization of B23.1 is mediated by its ability to associate with RNA.
Dementia and Disability Outcomes in Large Hypertension Trials: Lessons Learned from the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP) Trial
Authors: Di Bari Mauro , Pahor Marco , Franse Lonneke V. , Shorr Ronald I. , Wan Jim Y. , Ferrucci Luigi , Somes Grant W. , Applegate William B.
Published: July 2002

In the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP) trial (1985–1990), active treatment reduced the incidence of cardiovascular events, but not that of dementia and disability, as compared with placebo. This study aims to evaluate if assessment of cognitive and functional outcomes was biased by differential dropout. Characteristics of subjects who did or did not participate in follow-up cognitive and functional evaluations were compared. The relative risks of incident cognitive impairment and disability were assessed in the two treatment groups, with the use of the reported findings and under the assumption that the proportions of cognitive and functional impairment among dropouts increased. Assignment to the placebo group and the occurrence of cardiovascular events independently predicted missed assessments. From the reported findings, the risk of cognitive and functional impairment was similar between the two treatment groups. However, when 20–30% and 40–80% of the subjects who missed the assessment were assumed to be cognitively and, respectively, functionally impaired, assignment to active treatment reduced the risk of these outcomes. In the SHEP, the cognitive and functional evaluations were biased toward the null effect by differential dropout. This might have obscured the appraisal of a protective effect of treatment on the cognitive and functional decline of older hypertensive adults.
SOSUI: classification and secondary structure prediction system for membrane proteins.
Authors: Hirokawa T , Boon-Chieng S , Mitaku S
Published: July 2002

SUMMARY: The system SOSUI for the discrimination of membrane proteins and soluble ones together with the prediction of transmembrane helices was developed, in which the accuracy of the classification of proteins was 99% and the corresponding value for the transmembrane helix prediction was 97%. AVAILABILITY: The system SOSUI is available through internet access: http://www.tuat.ac.jp/mitaku/sosui/. CONTACT: sosui@biophys.bio.tuat. ac.jp.
PASS: prediction of activity spectra for biologically active
substances
Authors: Lagunin Alexey , Stepanchikova Alla , Filimonov Dmitrii , Poroikov Vladimir
Published: July 2002

Summary: The concept of the biological activity spectrum was introduced to describe the properties of biologically active substances. The PASS (prediction of activity spectra for substances) software product, which predicts more than 300 pharmacological effects and biochemical mechanisms on the basis of the structural formula of a substance, may be efficiently used to find new targets (mechanisms) for some ligands and, conversely, to reveal new ligands for some biological targets. We have developed a WWW interface for the PASS software. A WWW server for the on-line prediction of the biological activity spectra of substances has been constructed.

Availability: http://www.ibmh.msk.su/PASS/

Contact: pass@ibmh.msk.su
Diseases of liporegulation: new perspective on obesity and related disorders
Authors: UNGER ROGER H. , ORCI LELIO
Published: July 2002

Obesity‐related diseases now threaten to reach epidemic proportions in the United States. Here we review in a rodent model of genetic obesity, the fa/fa Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rat, the mechanisms involved in the most common complications of diet‐induced human obesity, i.e., noninsulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus, and myocardial dysfunction. In ZDF rats, hyperphagia leads to hyperinsulinemia, which up‐regulates transcription factors that stimulate lipogene‐sis. This causes ectopic deposition of triacylglycerol in nonadipocytes, providing fatty acid (FA) substrate for damaging pathways of nonoxidative metabolism, such as ceramide synthesis. In β cells and myocardium, the resulting functional impairment and apoptosis cause diabetes and cardiomyopathy. Interventions that lower ectopic lipid accumulation or block nonoxidative metabolism of FA and ceramide formation completely prevent these complications. Given the evidence for a similar etiology for the complications of human obesity, it would be appropriate to develop strategies to avert the predicted epidemic of lipotoxic disorders.—Unger, R. H., Orci, L. Diseases of lipid overflow: new perspective on obesity and related disorders. FASEB J. 15, 312‐321 (2001)
Adaptive individual differences within single populations
Authors: Wilson David Sloan
Published: July 2002

Phenotypic differences can exist between species, between local populations of the same species and between individuals within single local populations. At all scales, phenotypic differences can be either adaptive or non–adaptive. Using natural selection to explain differences between closely related species was controversial during the 1940s but had become common by the 1960s. Similarly, the adaptive nature of differences between local populations was initially controversial but had become widely accepted by the 1980s. The interpretation of differences at the finest scale—between individuals within single populations—is still unresolved. This paper reviews studies of adaptive individual differences in resource use and response to risk. A general conceptual framework for thinking about adaptive individual differences within populations can unite subjects as seemingly different as speciation and personality psychology.
Replication of tobacco mosaic virus RNA
Authors: Buck Kenneth W.
Published: July 2002

The replication of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) RNA involves synthesis of a negative–strand RNA using the genomic positive–strand RNA as a template, followed by the synthesis of positive–strand RNA on the negative–strand RNA templates. Intermediates of replication isolated from infected cells include completely double–stranded RNA (replicative form) and partly double–stranded and partly single–stranded RNA (replicative intermediate), but it is not known whether these structures are double–stranded or largely single–stranded
in vivo
. The synthesis of negative strands ceases before that of positive strands, and positive and negative strands may be synthesized by two different polymerases. The genomic–length negative strand also serves as a template for the synthesis of subgenomic mRNAs for the virus movement and coat proteins. Both the virus–encoded 126–kDa protein, which has amino–acid sequence motifs typical of methyltransferases and helicases, and the 183–kDa protein, which has additional motifs characteristic of RNA–dependent RNA polymerases, are required for efficient TMV RNA replication. Purified TMV RNA polymerase also contains a host protein serologically related to the RNA–binding subunit of the yeast translational initiation factor, eIF3. Study of
Arabidopsis
mutants defective in RNA replication indicates that at least two host proteins are needed for TMV RNA replication. The tomato resistance gene
Tm–1
may also encode a mutant form of a host protein component of the TMV replicase. TMV replicase complexes are located on the endoplasmic reticulum in close association with the cytoskeleton in cytoplasmic bodies called viroplasms, which mature to produce ‘X bodies’. Viroplasms are sites of both RNA replication and protein synthesis, and may provide compartments in which the various stages of the virus mutiplication cycle (protein synthesis, RNA replication, virus movement, encapsidation) are localized and coordinated. Membranes may also be important for the configuration of the replicase with respect to initiation of RNA synthesis, and synthesis and release of progeny single–stranded RNA.
Cooperativity of myosin molecules through strain–dependent chemistry
Authors: Duke Thomas
Published: July 2002

There is mounting evidence that the myosin head domain contains a lever arm which amplifies small structural changes that occur at the nucleotide–binding site. The mechanical work associated with movement of the lever affects the rates at which the products of ATP hydrolysis are released. During muscle contraction, this strain–dependent chemistry leads to cooperativity of the myosin molecules within a thick filament. Two aspects of cooperative action are discussed, in the context of a simple stochastic model. (i) A modest motion of the lever arm on ADP release can serve to regulate the fraction of myosin bound to the thin filament, in order to recruit more heads at higher loads. (ii) If the lever swings through a large angle when phosphate is released, the chemical cycles of the myosin molecules can be synchronized at high loads. This leads to stepwise sliding of the filaments and suggests that the isometric condition is not a steady state.
Bird song, ecology and speciation
Authors: Slabbekoorn Hans , Smith Thomas B.
Published: July 2002

The study of bird song dialects was once considered the most promising approach for investigating the role of behaviour in reproductive divergence and speciation. However, after a series of studies yielding conflicting results, research in the field slowed significantly. Recent findings, on how ecological factors may lead to divergence in both song and morphology, necessitate a re–examination. We focus primarily on species with learned song, examine conflicting results in the literature and propose some potential new directions for future studies. We believe an integrative approach, including an examination of the role of ecology in divergent selection, is essential for gaining insight into the role of song in the evolution of assortative mating. Habitat–dependent selection on both song and fitness–related characteristics can lead to parallel divergence in these traits. Song may, therefore, provide females with acoustic cues to find males that are most fit for a particular habitat. In analysing the role of song learning in reproductive divergence, we focus on post–dispersal plasticity in a conceptual framework. We argue that song learning may initially constrain reproductive divergence, while in the later stages of population divergence it may promote speciation.