bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SOLITARY TOY PLAY AND TIME OUT: A FAMILY TREATMENT PACKAGE FOR CHILDREN WITH AGGRESSIVE AND OPPOSITIONAL BEHAVIOR
Authors: Wahler Robert G. , Fox James J.
Published: March 2006

The behavior of four boys, 5 to 8 years of age, who were referred for a number of oppositional, rule violating, and aggressive behaviors, was assessed by direct observation and parent reports. Following baseline measurement, several interventions were successively applied to each child's behavior. Use of a social play contract to reduce problem behaviors by teaching appropriate social behaviors resulted either in no improvement or in worsening of the problem behaviors in observations made when the contract was not in effect. Changing the contract behavior to solitary toy play resulted in reduced oppositional behavior during the observation sessions, fewer reports from the parents of low‐rate problem behaviors, and improvements in the parents' attitudes toward the children. However, these changes during the observation sessions were shortlived, because the data on these measures began to show a reversal during later sessions. Inclusion of a time‐out contingency with the solitary play contract recovered the earlier improvements in the children's behavior during observation sessions and the parents' reports. These results gave support to the view that for children whose behavior is severely oppositional and aggressive, a treatment approach emphasizing productive, solitary behaviors may be superior to one stressing appropriate social interaction. However, a combined strategy of reinforcement for solitary play and punishment for problem behaviors appears necessary to ensure more durable treatment effects.
THE TECHNICAL DRIFT OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Hayes Steven C. , Rincover Arnold , Solnick Jay V.
Published: March 2006

Four dimensions (applied, analytic, general, conceptual) were selected from Baer, Wolf, and Risley's (1968) seminal article on the nature of applied behavior analysis and were monitored throughout the first 10 volumes of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. Each of the experimental articles in Volumes 1 through 6 and the first half of Volumes 7 through 10 was rated on each of these dimensions. The trends showed that applied behavior analysis is becoming a more purely technical effort, with less interest in conceptual questions. We are using simpler experimental designs and are conducting fewer analogue studies. Although concern for maintenance is increasing, other forms of generality are being measured or analyzed less often. These trends are discussed in terms of a technical drift in applied behavior analysis.
BEHAVIORAL COACHING IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKILLS IN FOOTBALL, GYMNASTICS, AND TENNIS
Authors: Allison Mary Ghesquiere , Ayllon Teodoro
Published: March 2006

A review of the literature indicates that methods of skill acquisition based on the operant paradigm have been scientifically validated with many motor behaviors. However, these procedures have been limited to the use of positive reinforcement for correct performance when applied to the acquisition of complex sports skills in natural settings. To find complementary procedures to enhance skill acquisition, a coaching method involving several behavioral techniques was developed that focused on remediation of errors. This coaching method combined the following components: (1) systematic use of verbal instructions and feedback, (2) positive and negative reinforcement, (3) positive practice, and (4) time out. Three sports, football, gymnastics, and tennis, were selected to determine the effectiveness and generality of this behavioral coaching method. A total of 23 male and female subjects, ranging in age from 11 to 35, was included in this study. Baseline data were first collected for each sport under standard coaching conditions. Next, the behavioral coaching method was evaluated depending on the sport in either a multiple baseline or a reversal design. The behavioral dimensions selected were blocking in football; backward walkovers, front hand springs, and reverse kips in gymnastics; and the forehand, backhand, and serve in tennis. Behavioral coaching was immediately effective in increasing the correct execution of complex skills in all three sports. Gains of up to 10 times the baseline performance were achieved in each sport. In football, behavioral coaching resulted in an increase in correct blocking performance from a baseline average of 5% to 51.3%. Gymnasts' performances increased from baseline averages of 2.7% to 52.6% across the three skills. In tennis, standard coaching produced an average of 6 % correct performance which increased dramatically under behavioral coaching to 57% across the three strokes. The success of the behavioral coaching package used here suggests that a technology of behavior may offer additional and complementary strategies to the acquisition of motor skills in the natural environment.
TREATMENT OF SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR USING A WATER MIST: INITIAL RESPONSE SUPPRESSION AND GENERALIZATION
Authors: Dorsey Michael F. , Iwata Brian A. , Ong Pamela , McSween Terry E.
Published: March 2006

This study evaluated the effects of a fine mist of water applied to the face contingent upon self‐injurious behavior (SIB) exhibited by profoundly retarded persons. In Experiment 1, results of individual reversal designs showed substantial reductions in a variety of SIB's (mouthing, hand biting, skin tearing, and head banging) for seven participants. In Experiment 2, two participants who frequently bit their hands were each observed in two different settings. Following initial baselines in each setting, a series of manipulations was undertaken to compare the effects of mild verbal punishment (“No”) with those of a combined treatment (“No” plus mist procedure). Results in one setting indicated that “No” suppressed SIB only after it was first paired with the water mist. Data also suggested that, once acquired, the punishing properties of “No” could be extended to a second setting in which the mist was never applied, and that these effects could be generalized across therapists. Results of these experiments indicate that the water mist procedure may be an effective alternative to traditional punishment techniques. Although conclusions regarding generalization are limited due to the brevity of the maintenance conditions, the data suggest that treatment gains may be transferred to more acceptable forms of social punishment and reinforcement.
THE USE OF STIMULUS CONTROL OVER LITTERING IN A NATURAL SETTING
Authors: O'Neill George W. , Blanck Linda S. , Joyner Marcia A.
Published: March 2006

A conventional litter receptacle (55‐gallon drum) and a specially designed receptacle consisting of a 55‐gallon drum adorned with a plywood “hat” were alternated in two areas of a football stadium over a period of four games. A frequency count of several types of litter articles showed that more than twice as many items were deposited within the experimental container than the conventional one (an average of 52.5 and 21.5 items per game, respectively). The weight of litter deposited within each container showed a similar relationship. An average of 0.65 kg of litter per game were deposited within the conventional receptacle compared with an average of 1.3 kg per game for the experimental receptacle.
POLICE AND PROSECUTION SYSTEMS: AN EVALUATION OF A POLICE CRIMINAL CASE PREPARATION PROGRAM
Authors: Domash M. A. , Schnelle J. F. , Stromatt E. L. , Carr A. F. , Larson L. D. , Kirchner R. E. , Risley T. R.
Published: March 2006

Program evaluation can provide objective information relevant to decisions on program maintenance. A program to address problems in the preparation of criminal investigation reports in a metropolitan police department was evaluated. The program permanently altered environmental conditions under which reports were prepared to facilitate performance. Police officers, who had previously prepared reports without assistance, visited the Case Preparation Room to prepare reports with assistance from office personnel. Compared to reports prepared without assistance, reports prepared in the Case Preparation Room documented more case elements required by the state legal code for criminal prosecution, were completed in fewer days following arrests, and received higher ratings from Assistant District Attorneys. Operation of a permanent program available to approximately 945 officers proved a practical solution to improving the preparation of criminal investigation reports.
IN VIVO LANGUAGE INTERVENTION: UNANTICIPATED GENERAL EFFECTS
Authors: Hart Betty , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

After observing the lack of generalization of language trained in highly structured training sessions using established behavior modification techniques, “incidental teaching” procedures were developed to change the use of specified language behaviors in the natural environment. This paper reports an analysis of the general changes in the language, other than that specifically targeted by the incidental teaching procedures, used by disadvantaged preschool children. The daily language samples of disadvantaged children involved in a previously reported experiment to increase compound sentence usage were reexamined and compared to comparable records of other disadvantaged children and of middle‐class children of college parents in order to assess possible general effects of the intervention program. Whereas the language that both groups of comparison children used changed little across the preschool year, the amount of talking by the children in the experimental program increased markedly. Their use of more elaborate vocabulary and more elaborate sentences also increased in direct proportion to the increases in overall language use, such that both language use and language elaboration in the experimental group of children changed from a pattern similar to the comparison group of disadvantaged children to a pattern similar to the comparison group of middle‐class children. It is argued that some general features of the incidental teaching procedure—differentially attending to child overtures and responding relative to the child's selected topic (reinforcer)—contributed to the increase in overall language use beyond the specific language behavior targeted, and that this increase in the probability of children's talking itself resulted in the substantial increases in elaboration seen in the children's spontaneous language. Because, at least in children with fairly well‐developed language repertoires, language use is contextually controlled, talking more involves talking in more varied and complex contexts, which inevitably produces the use of more elaborate language.
TEACHING JOB INTERVIEW SKILLS TO RETARDED CLIENTS
Authors: Hall Christine , Sheldon‐Wildgen Jan , Sherman James A.
Published: March 2006

Six retarded adults were taught job application and interview skills including introducing oneself, filling out a standard job application form, answering questions, and asking questions. A combination of instructions, modeling, role playing, and positive and corrective feedback was used across a multiple baseline experimental design. After training, the clients' performance in each area improved substantially over baseline levels. In addition, the newly taught skills appeared to generalize to a different office, application form, and interviewer.
SMALL GROUP BEHAVIORAL TRAINING TO IMPROVE THE JOB INTERVIEW SKILLS REPERTOIRE OF MILDLY RETARDED ADOLESCENTS
Authors: Kelly Jeffrey A. , Wildman Beth G. , Berler Ellen S.
Published: March 2006

Four retarded adolescents, enrolled in a short‐term residential treatment program, received behavioral job interview skills training. Although potentially employable, each was unable to present himself effectively in standard employment interviews. Treatment consisted of a series of behavioral group sessions using instructions, modeling and rehearsal procedures to increase, in multiple baseline fashion, such skills as the adolescents' ability to disclose positive information about their experience and background, convey interest in the position and direct relevant questions to an interviewer. Effectiveness of treatment for each client was assessed by: (1) Objective ratings of performance during individual, structured role‐play job interviews following each treatment group; (2) objective ratings of pre‐ and posttraining performance during tape recorded in vivo generalization job interviews at a fast‐food restaurant; and (3) global evaluations of pre‐ and posttraining in vivo generalization interviews made by experienced personnel interviewers unfamiliar with the nature of the treatment. The results indicated that potentially employable retarded citizens can be successfully taught appropriate job interview behavior using a small group behavioral procedure. The need for such techniques in community and rehabilitation centers for retarded citizens and other clinical populations is discussed.
THE EFFECTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL “ENRICHMENT” PROGRAM ON THE BEHAVIOR OF INSTITUTIONALIZED PROFOUNDLY RETARDED CHILDREN
Authors: Horner R. Don
Published: March 2006

This study determined the effects of procedures designed to “enrich” the physical and social environment of an institutional ward on the “adaptive” and “maladaptive” child, adult, self, and object‐directed behaviors of five profoundly retarded ambulatory females. Behavior observed in two treatment conditions, an environment “enriched” with toys and objects and an “enriched” environment coupled with differential reinforcement of adaptive behavior, was compared to behavior occurring in corresponding baseline or “austere” conditions and during a period of noncontingent reinforcement. The results generally revealed: (1) little change in adaptive and maladaptive child and adult‐directed behavior across conditions, (2) an overall higher incidence of adaptive object‐directed behavior and reduced self‐directed maladaptive behavior in each treatment condition from that observed in corresponding control conditions, and (3) the use of an “enriched” environment and differential reinforcement of adaptive behavior resulted in maladaptive self‐directed behavior being reduced and adaptive object‐directed behavior being increased beyond that observed in the “enriched” environment alone. These behavioral gains were largely maintained during a follow‐up condition by continuing the “enriched” environment and transferring the responsibility for differential reinforcement to direct‐care staff.
SOME PROMISING DIMENSIONS FOR BEHAVIORAL COMMUNITY TECHNOLOGY
Authors: Fawcett Stephen B. , Mathews R. Mark , Fletcher R. Kay
Published: March 2006

In recent years, the search for effective and replicable approaches to planned change in communities has escalated. Applied behavior analysts have participated in these efforts to remedy existing community problems and to increase the capacities of community residents to meet their goals. Examples of behavioral technologies for community settings are described and their advantages are noted. Criteria for more contextually appropriate community technologies are suggested and strategies for developing behavioral methods according to these criteria are described. This paper outlines some promising dimensions for behavioral community technology and discusses several possible limitations to a behavioral approach to addressing societal problems.
THE USE OF SELF‐MODELING TO IMPROVE THE SWIMMING PERFORMANCE OF SPINA BIFIDA CHILDREN
Authors: Dowrick Peter W. , Dove Cynthia
Published: March 2006

The use of edited videotape replay (which showed only “positive” behaviors) to improve the water skills of three spina bifida children, aged 5 to 10 years was examined. A multiple baseline across subjects design was used, and behavioral changes were observed to occur in close association with intervention. One child was given successive reapplications of videotaped self‐modeling with continuing improvements. It appears that a useful practical technique has been developed.
INTERRUPTED TIME‐SERIES ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATION TO BEHAVIORAL DATA
Authors: Hartmann Donald P. , Gottman John M. , Jones Richard R. , Gardner William , Kazdin Alan E. , Vaught Russell S.
Published: March 2006

This paper uses a question‐and‐answer format to present the technical aspects of interrupted time‐series analysis (ITSA). Topics include the potential relevance of ITSA to behavioral researchers, serial dependency, time‐series models, tests of significance, and sources of ITSA information.
REDUCTION OF POLICE VEHICLE ACCIDENTS THROUGH MECHANICALLY AIDED SUPERVISION
Authors: Larson Lynn D. , Schnelle John F. , Kirchner Robert , Carr Adam F. , Domash Michele , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

Tachograph recorders were installed in 224 vehicles of a metropolitan police department to monitor vehicle operation in an attempt to reduce the rate of accidents. Police sergeants reviewed each tachograph chart and provided feedback to officers regarding their driving performance. Reliability checks and additional feedback procedures were implemented so that upper level supervisors monitored and controlled the performance of field sergeants. The tachograph intervention and components of the feedback system nearly eliminated personal injury accidents and sharply reduced accidents caused by officer negligence. A cost‐benefit analysis revealed that the savings in vehicle repair and injury claims outweighed the equipment and operating costs.
RESPONSE DEPRIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT IN APPLIED SETTINGS: A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
Authors: Konarski Edward A. , Johnson Moses R. , Crowell Charles R. , Whitman Thomas L.
Published: March 2006

First‐grade children engaged in seatwork behaviors under reinforcement schedules established according to the Premack Principle and the Response Deprivation Hypothesis. Across two experiments, schedules were presented to the children in a counterbalanced fashion which fulfilled the conditions of one, both, or neither of the hypotheses. Duration of on‐task math and coloring in Experiment 1 and on‐task math and reading in Experiment 2 were the dependent variables. A modified ABA‐type withdrawal design, including a condition to control for the noncontingent effects of a schedule, indicated an increase of on‐task instrumental responding only in those schedules where the condition of response deprivation was present but not where it was absent, regardless of the probability differential between the instrumental and contingent responses. These results were consistent with laboratory findings supporting the necessity of response deprivation for producing the reinforcement effect in single response, instrumental schedules. However, the results of the control procedure were equivocal so the contribution of the contingent relationship between the responses to the increases in instrumental behavior could not be determined. Nevertheless, these results provided tentative support for the Response Deprivation Hypothesis as a new approach to establishing reinforcement schedules while indicating the need for further research in this area. The possible advantages of this technique for applied use were identified and discussed.
INCREASING SPELLING ACHIEVEMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF TREATMENT PROCEDURES UTILIZING AN ALTERNATING TREATMENTS DESIGN
Authors: Ollendick Thomas H. , Matson Johnny L. , Esveldt‐Dawson Karen , Shapiro Edward S.
Published: March 2006

Two studies which examine the effectiveness of spelling remediation procedures are reported. In both studies, an alternating treatment design was employed. In the first study, positive practice overcorrection plus positive reinforcement was compared to positive practice alone and a no‐remediation control condition. In the second study, positive practice plus positive reinforcement was compared to a traditional corrective procedure plus positive reinforcement and a traditional procedure when used alone. Results of both studies indicated that the combined positive practice plus positive reinforcement procedure was more efficient and that it was preferred by the children. Following brief training under this combined procedure, all children demonstrated 100% spelling accuracy.
TEACHING SEVERELY MULTIHANDICAPPED STUDENTS TO PUT ON THEIR OWN HEARING AIDS
Authors: Tucker Dennis J. , Berry Galen W.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were conducted with six severely multihandicapped students with hearing impairments to: (a) train the six students to put on their own hearing aids independently, and (b) provide an empirical evaluation of a comprehensive instructional program for putting on a hearing aid by assessing acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of that skill across environments. All six students acquired the skill rapidly, with two students requiring remedial training on one step of the program. Because for two of the original three students the newly learned skill failed initially to generalize to other environments, a second experiment was initiated to assess generalization across environments as well as to replicate the efficiency of the acquisition program. When a variation of the multiple‐probe baseline technique was used, the behavior of three additional students generalized to other settings without direct training in those settings.
SEAT BELT USAGE: A POTENTIAL TARGET FOR APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Authors: Geller E. Scott , Casali John G. , Johnson Richard P.
Published: March 2006

Results of 1,579 observations of cars entering or exiting campus parking lots showed direct relationships between seat belt wearing and the intrusiveness of the engineering device designed to induce belt usage, and between device intrusiveness and system defeat. For example, all drivers with working interlocks or unlimited buzzer reminders were wearing a seat belt; but 62% of the systems with interlocks or unlimited buzzers had been defeated, and only 15.9% of the drivers in these cars were wearing a seat belt. The normative data indicated marked ineffectiveness of the negative reinforcement contingencies implied by current seat belt inducement systems; but suggested that unlimited buzzer systems would be the optimal system currently available if contingencies were developed to discourage the disconnection and circumvention of such systems. Positive reinforcement strategies are discussed that would be quite feasible for large‐scale promotion of seat belt usage.
DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF CORRECT RESPONSES TO PROBES AND PROMPTS IN PICTURE‐NAME TRAINING WITH SEVERELY RETARDED CHILDREN
Authors: Olenick Debra L. , Pear Joseph J.
Published: March 2006

A systematic sequence of prompt and probe trials was used to teach picture names to three severely retarded children. On prompt trials the experimenter presented a picture and said the picture name for the child to imitate; on probe trials the experimenter did not name the picture. A procedure whereby correct responses to prompts and probes were nondifferentially reinforced was compared with procedures whereby correct responses to prompts and probes were differentially reinforced according to separate and independent schedules of primary reinforcement. In Phase 1, correct responses to prompts and probes were reinforced nondifferentially on a fixed ratio (FR) 6 or 8 schedule; in Phase 2, correct responses to prompts were reinforced on the FR schedule and correct responses to probes were reinforced on an FR schedule of the same value; in Phase 3, correct responses to prompts were reinforced on the FR schedule and correct responses to probes were reinforced on a continuous reinforcement (CRF; every correct response reinforced) schedule; in Phase 4, correct responses to prompts were reinforced on a CRF schedule and correct responses to probes were reinforced on the FR schedule; in Phase 5, a reversal to the conditions of Phase 3 was conducted. For all three children, the FR schedule for correct responses to prompts combined with the CRF schedule for correct responses to probes (Phases 3 and 5) generated the highest number of correct responses to probes, the highest accuracy (correct responses relative to correct responses plus errors) on probe trials, and the highest rate of learning to name pictures.
BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH IN PREVENTIVE DENTISTRY: EDUCATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF PATIENT COMPLIANCE
Authors: Iwata Brian A. , Becksfort Cynthia M.
Published: March 2006

This study examined the effects of reinforcement on compliance with an oral hygiene education program. Patients 18 years of age or older who enrolled in an ongoing program at a periodontal practice received 3–5 sessions of instruction in preventive dental care. Using a between‐subjects design, patients who entered the program during alternating months also had a portion of their fees refunded contingent upon improvements in their dental plaque scores. Pre‐ and posttreatment data showed that all subjects exhibited lower plaque levels following the program, but that greater improvements were seen in patients who were exposed to the fee reduction contingency. Plaque scores taken at a 6‐month follow‐up revealed some relapse for the Fee Reduction subjects. However, their scores were still substantially better than pretreatment, and better than those of the Education only subjects, whose data differed little from untreated Controls. Methodological and practical issues related to behavioral research in preventive dentistry are discussed.
THE RELATION OF FOOD QUANTITY TO RUMINATION BEHAVIOR
Authors: Rast Jim , Johnston James M. , Drum Cheryl , Conrin James
Published: March 2006

Preliminary work suggested that the quantity of food ingested by retarded individuals who usually ruminated following meals was related to the frequency and duration of ruminating responses. This possible relation was experimentally examined by systematically varying food quantity from regular portions to satiation levels for three retarded individuals who exhibited high levels of ruminating. A clear functional relation of food quantity to ruminating emerged, with satiation procedures producing rapid and large decreases in the relatively high frequencies and durations of ruminating characteristic of baseline food quantity conditions.
EXPERIMENTS IN A COMMUNITY MENTAL HEALTH CENTER: INCREASING CLIENT PAYMENTS FOR OUTPATIENT SERVICES
Authors: Hannah Gerald T. , Risley Todd R.
Published: March 2006

Although public health care systems often depend on revenue generated from client payment for services, inadequate agency fee payment systems continue to create substantial administrative problems. The first study examined the effects of implementing a system for producing and maintaining routine client fee payment. The second study was a replication of the first study. The Credit Criterion System was designed to: (a) allow clients to establish intra‐agency credit by paying cash for each of the first three visits; and (b) pay for services monthly after credit was established. The system resulted in a baseline collection rate of 20%, compared with the Credit Criterion rate of 96.6%. The Credit Criterion System did not create additional administrative costs and it had no effect on attendance. Thus, the Credit Criterion System appears to be a reasonable set of procedures for allowing clients to meet their financial obligations to an agency.
VALIDATION OF SOCIAL SKILLS OF ADOLESCENT MALES IN AN INTERVIEW CONVERSATION WITH A PREVIOUSLY UNKNOWN ADULT
Authors: Spence Susan H.
Published: March 2006

Seventy convicted young male offenders were videotaped during a 5‐min standardized interview with a previously unknown adult. In order to determine the social validity of the behavioral components of social interaction for this population, measures of 13 behaviors were obtained from the tapes. These measures were then correlated with ratings of friendliness, social anxiety, social skills performance, and employability made by four independent adult judges from the same tapes. It was found that measures of eye contact and verbal initiations were correlated significantly with all four criterion rating scales. The frequencies of smiling and speech dysfluencies were both significantly correlated with ratings of friendliness and employability. The amount spoken was found to be a significant predictor of social skills performance whereas the frequency of head movements influenced judgments of social anxiety. The latency of response was negatively correlated with social skills and employability ratings and the frequency of question‐asking and interruptions correlated significantly with friendliness, social skills, and employability ratings. Finally, the levels of gestures, gross body movements, and attention feedback responses were not found to influence judgments on any of the criterion scales. The implications of the study for selection of targets for social skills training for adolescent male offenders are discussed.
TEACHING SELF‐PROTECTION TO YOUNG CHILDREN
Authors: Poche Cheryl , Brouwer Richard , Swearingen Michael
Published: March 2006

Self‐protective behaviors were taught to three preschool children in order to prevent the opportunity for abduction. An analogue measure of self‐protection was developed in which confederate adults approached and verbally attempted to lure each child from the setting, before, during, and after training. A multiple baseline design across subjects was used. During baseline, all the children displayed susceptibility to the lures. Training procedures included modeling, behavior rehearsal, and social reinforcement. Within 1 week after training began, all children displayed appropriate responses to all of the lures both in the training setting and in the community.
AN ANALYSIS AND REDUCTION OF DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR ON SCHOOL BUSES
Authors: Greene Brandon F. , Bailey Jon S. , Barber Frank
Published: March 2006

Thousands of children are injured or killed each year in school bus accidents. A significant number of these tragic incidents is precipitated by disruptive child behavior that distracts the drivers from their difficult task. Two experiments were conducted which addressed this problem. For both experiments an automated sound recording device (referred to as a Noise Guard) selectively responsive to frequencies above 500 Hz (i.e., unresponsive to bus drone) recorded both the duration and frequency of noise outbursts above a tolerable threshold. Additionally, an observer made in situ measurements of other disruptions including roughhousing and getting‐out‐of‐seat. In the first experiment, following baseline measurements of these behaviors, middle‐school students received feedback for noise outbursts. That is, when “Noise Guard'” was activated, it in turn operated one of several lights on a panel visible to all passengers. Each day students were allowed to listen to high‐appeal taped music while riding the bus and to participate in a raffle for prizes, provided the number of outbursts on the preceding day remained below a specified criterion indicated on the light panel. This intervention resulted in drastic reductions of noise outbursts with a concomitant reduction in other disruptive behaviors. Comparable results were obtained in the second experiment which eliminated the raffle from the intervention.
TEACHING A PARENT TO TRAIN A SPOUSE IN CHILD MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Authors: Adubato Susan A. , Adams Maureen K. , Budd Karen S.
Published: March 2006

This study analyzed several aspects of the training of a mother and father in child management techniques for use with their 6‐year‐old severely developmentally delayed son. The mother received clinic training in procedures for increasing her son's independent dressing skills; subsequently, she was asked to teach the same procedures to her husband with no assistance from the trainer. For both parents, procedures were introduced sequentially across two components of parent behavior in a multiple baseline design. Examinations were made of (a) the effectiveness of initial child management training on the mother's behaviors, (b) her ability to teach the same techniques to her husband independently, (c) the generalization of both parents' skills from the training setting (a dressing task) to two untrained activities (eating and toy use), and (d) the impact of training on the child's behavior. Results showed that the mother learned to implement the trained procedures and successfully communicated them to her husband, as evidenced by substantial positive changes in both parents' behaviors after being introduced to the child management skills. Both parents showed some generalization to the untrained activities, and their written comments following training indicated they understood the procedures. Clear‐cut improvements were observed in the child's attending and independent performance of dressing and toy use skills concurrent with parent training. A 2‐year follow‐up report indicated that both parents retained their knowledge of skills taught, continued to use the procedures, and rated the training as very helpful in teaching the child self‐help skills.
TRAINING PARENTS IN BEHAVIORAL SELF‐MANAGEMENT: AN ANALYSIS OF GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE
Authors: Sanders Matthew R. , Glynn Ted
Published: March 2006

This study examined the generalization and maintenance effects of three phases of parent training (Instructions plus Feedback and two Self‐management Training phases) on levels of disruptive child behavior and the accuracy with which parents implemented programs. Data were collected from five families in three main settings: the initial training setting (the home), a variety of generalization settings in the community, and the family breakfast. A multiple baseline across subjects design was used. Instructions plus Feedback comprised instructing parents to use a range of behavior management procedures and provided home‐based differential feedback concerning accuracy of program implementation. Self‐management Training phases involved training parents in goal setting, self‐monitoring, and planning skills, specific to their performance of appropriate parenting skills in generalization settings. Results indicated that the Instructions plus Feedback phase was sufficient to produce reduced levels of problem behavior at home and high levels of accurate implementation, but generalization effects out of home were equivocal. Self‐management maintained reduced levels of problem behavior at home but, in addition, resulted in generalization effects in community settings for both children and parents. Maintenance probes 3 months following the program revealed the effects had been maintained.
A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF POSTED FEEDBACK AND INCREASED POLICE SURVEILLANCE ON HIGHWAY SPEEDING
Authors: Houten Ron Van , Nau Paul A.
Published: March 2006

A counterbalanced, reversal design was used to compare the effectiveness of posted feedback and increased police surveillance in reducing speeding on two urban highways. Drivers' speeds were measured using a concealed radar unit. During public posting, a large highway sign, which listed the percentage of drivers not speeding during the preceding week and the best record to date, was erected on each street. Use of the feedback sign alternated with periods of baseline and periods of increased police surveillance and ticketing. During increased police surveillance, highly visible, stationary police radar patrols were established along the highways for either 30 min or 60 min per day, 5 days per week. Results indicated that although public posting was highly effective in reducing the percentage of speeding drivers, increased police surveillance was not. Thus, since the feedback sign required only 30 min per week to maintain, public posting was at least 10 times more efficient in controlling speeding than was police surveillance and ticketing.
NORMAL PEER MODELS AND AUTISTIC CHILDREN'S LEARNING
Authors: Egel Andrew L. , Richman Gina S. , Koegel Robert L.
Published: March 2006

Present research and legislation regarding mainstreaming autistic children into normal classrooms have raised the importance of studying whether autistic children can benefit from observing normal peer models. The present investigation systematically assessed whether autistic children's learning of discrimination tasks could be improved if they observed normal children perform the tasks correctly. In the context of a multiple baseline design, four autistic children worked on five discrimination tasks that their teachers reported were posing difficulty. Throughout the baseline condition the children evidenced very low levels of correct responding on all five tasks. In the subsequent treatment condition, when normal peers modeled correct responses, the autistic children's correct responding increased dramatically. In each case, the peer modeling procedure produced rapid achievement of the acquisition criterion which was maintained after the peer models were removed. These results are discussed in relation to issues concerning observational learning and in relation to the implications for mainstreaming autistic children into normal classrooms.
A TOKEN SYSTEM FOR A CLASS OF UNDERACHIEVING HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN
Authors: Robinson P. W. , Newby T. J. , Ganzell S. L.
Published: March 2006

Using a BAB design, a token system requiring cooperative interaction was used to change the reading and vocabulary performance of an 18‐member class of third‐grade hyperactive boys. Four different colored tokens, which could be exchanged for 15 minutes of play on electrovideo games, were earned by successful completion of two tasks that involved learning to read and to use new vocabulary words in sentences, and two tasks in which the student served as a proctor to a student who had not yet completed those tasks. The mean number of tasks completed during the intervention periods rose to over nine times the number completed during reversal. Additionally, the average completion rate for the school district's standardized weekly reading level examinations rose from four to eight fold during the token conditions. All 18 students responded to the token program by increasing their academic performance.
WORD GAME BINGO: A BEHAVIORAL TREATMENT PACKAGE FOR IMPROVING TEXTUAL RESPONDING TO SIGHT WORDS
Authors: Kirby Kimberly C. , Holborn Stephen W. , Bushby Harry T.
Published: March 2006

Six third‐grade students identified as deficient in reading skills tested the efficacy of word game bingo for acquisition and retention of sight word reading. The design was a modified multiple baseline in which treatment was implemented over 3 of 4 word sets and terminated on earlier sets when commencing treatment on later sets. Four sets of bingo cards were constructed on 7 × 9 cm paper divided into 25 equal‐sized boxes. Sight words of each set were randomly placed into 24 of these boxes (the center box was marked “free”). Bingo winners were given tokens which were traded weekly for reinforcing activities. Noticeable improvements occurred for the word sets receiving the game treatment (sets A to C). Mean percentage points of improvement from baseline to treatment were approximately 30%. Terminal levels of correct responding exceeded 90%. Several variations of the game were suggested for future research and word game bingo was advocated as an effective behavioral technique for teachers to train sight word reading.
THE LIMITS AND MOTIVATING POTENTIAL OF SENSORY STIMULI AS REINFORCERS FOR AUTISTIC CHILDREN
Authors: Ferrari Michael , Harris Sandra L.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the reinforcing properties, limits, and motivating potentials of sensory stimuli with autistic children. In the first phase of the study, four intellectually retarded autistic children were exposed to three different types of sensory stimulation (vibration, music, and strobe light) as well as edible and social reinforcers for ten‐second intervals contingent upon six simple bar pressing responses. In the second phase, the same events were used as reinforcers for correct responses in learning object labels. The results indicated that: (a) sensory stimuli can be used effectively as reinforcers to maintain high, durable rates of responding in a simple pressing task; (b) ranked preferences for sensory stimuli revealed a unique configuration of responding for each child; and (c) sensory stimuli have motivating potentials comparable to those of the traditional food and social reinforcers even when training receptive language tasks.
A GROUP CONTINGENCY FOR ELECTRICITY CONSERVATION IN MASTER‐METERED APARTMENTS
Authors: Slavin Robert E. , Wodarski John S. , Blackburn Bernard L.
Published: March 2006

Two studies evaluated the effects of a group contingency on electricity conservation. In Study 1, residents of 166 apartment units in three towers held meetings and received biweekly payments of the value of electricity saved compared to predicted use. The group contingencies were initiated in each tower in a multiple‐baseline design. The program produced substantial savings in one tower (11.2% of temperature‐adjusted baseline), moderate savings in another (4.0%), and minimal savings in a third (1.7%). Overall, the residents saved 6.2%. In Study 2, residents of 255 apartment units, also in three towers, received the same treatment, except only 50% of the value of their savings were paid, and they received a one‐time bonus of $5 for using ≥ 10% less than baseline. Towers in Study 2 showed savings of 9.5%, 4.7%, and 8.3%, an average of 6.9%.
REDUCING ELEVATOR ENERGY USE: A COMPARISON OF POSTED FEEDBACK AND REDUCED ELEVATOR CONVENIENCE
Authors: Houten Ron Van , Nau Paul A. , Merrigan Michael
Published: March 2006

The effects of two different procedures for reducing elevator energy use were assessed using a multiple‐baseline design. In the first procedure, feedback about the amount of energy consumed by the elevators each week was posted on each elevator door. Later, signs advocating the use of stairs to save energy and improve health were posted next to the feedback signs. In the second procedure, the time required to travel between floors was increased by adding a delay to the elevator door closing mechanisms. Results indicated that neither feedback alone nor feedback plus educational signs reduced the amount of energy consumed by the elevators. However, use of the door delay reduced consumption by one‐third in all elevators.

A second experiment replicated the effect of the door delay on energy consumption and, in addition, demonstrated that the door delay also produced a reduction in the number of persons using the elevator. The second experiment also showed that, following an initial period during which a full delay was in effect, a gradual reduction of the delay interval resulted in continued energy conservation. Reduced convenience as a general strategy for energy conservation is discussed.
TEACHERS' GENERALIZED USE OF DELAY AS A STIMULUS CONTROL PROCEDURE TO INCREASE LANGUAGE USE IN HANDICAPPED CHILDREN
Authors: Halle James W. , Baer Donald M. , Spradlin Joseph E.
Published: March 2006

In Experiment 1, classroom teachers were taught to delay their offers of help in naturally occurring situations, and thereby to provide additional opportunities for language use by six moderately retarded language‐delayed children. The teachers introduced this delay technique in a multiple‐baseline design across the six children. As delays were used, child verbal initiations increased. Follow‐up assessment showed that teachers were maintaining greater than baseline levels of the delay technique after 10 weeks. Experiment 2 replicated the findings of Experiment 1, and included a more thorough maintenance assessment, while focusing on teachers' generalization of the delay technique. Teachers were found to generalize their use of delay to 56% of their monitored untaught opportunities. The two experiments show that (a) the delay technique is quick to teach and simple to implement, (b) delays do provide opportunities for children to initiate, (c) teachers can generalize their use of delay to novel self‐selected situations, and (d) teachers can maintain their use of delays over time.
INVOLVING INSTITUTIONAL STAFF IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF SIGN LANGUAGE SKILLS WITH PROFOUNDLY RETARDED PERSONS
Authors: Faw Gerald D. , Reid Dennis H. , Schepis Maureen M. , Fitzgerald Jeffrey R. , Welty Patricia A.
Published: March 2006

A program to involve institutional staff in developing manual sign language skills with profoundly retarded persons was evaluated. In Experiment 1, six direct care staff, with close supervision, taught a small repertoire of signs to six profoundly retarded residents who had not benefited from previous training in vocal language. Training was conducted in a group format using instructions, modeling, manual guidance, contingent reinforcers, and feedback. During training, all residents learned to identify pictures of objects with manual signs. Generalization observations during unstructured times on the residents' living unit indicated that staff used their signing skills with the residents in addition to their vocal interactions but the residents did not increase their signing or vocalizing. In Experiment 2, the residents' skills in signing with real objects on their living unit as opposed to pictures of objects were evaluated and provided with additional training where necessary. Results indicated that all participating residents learned to communicate with signing during structured interactions on their living unit, and the skills maintained during follow‐up assessments ranging from 39 to 49 weeks. Results are discussed regarding the variable generalization effects noted as well as the general benefits and disadvantages of teaching manual signing skills to profoundly retarded persons.
GENERALIZATION OF THE EFFECTS OF TEACHER‐ AND SELF‐ADMINISTERED TOKEN REINFORCERS TO NONTREATED STUDENTS
Authors: Fantuzzo John W. , Clement Paul W.
Published: March 2006

Ten, black, second‐grade boys served in a series of single‐subject studies. They were from poor families, did not do well in arithmetic, were deficient in sustained attention, and presented behavior problems at school. One boy was a therapeutic confederate. Of the remaining nine nontreated students, three observed the confederate reinforced by a teacher, three observed the confederate self‐reinforce without having an opportunity to use “self‐reinforcement” themselves, and three observed self‐reinforcement while having an opportunity to use “self‐reinforcement.” The target behavior was attending. Other measures of outcome were glancing, academic achievement, and accuracy of reinforcement. The basic experimental design consisted of an ABAB withdrawal applied to the confederate while the nontreated students remained on baseline. Generalization was expressed as a ratio (i.e., percent change in the generalization measure divided by percent change in the target behavior). Teacher‐administered reinforcers to the confederate did not produce generalization of any kind. Both arrangements of self‐administered reinforcers to the confederate produced across‐subjects generalization and subject‐response generalization. Additionally, the confederate manifested response generalization.