bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Making World Religions
Authors: Rocklin Alexander
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the short-lived Trinidad Hindu Mahasabha, which endeavored to articulate a Hindu identity that transcended local politics and concerns of "orthodox" and "reform," in order to unify all Hindus in Trinidad and allow them to take their place, on an equal footing, along with Christianity, Islam, and the other "world religions," on the international stage. This chapter shows the ways in which world religion operated as a lived category for particular communities: how local groups imagined and performed transnational Hindu identities through the consumption and distribution of print media and the promotion and performance of physical culture.
✦ North American Saints ✦
Authors: Cummings Kathleen Sprows
Published: January 2020

This chapter traces saint-seeking from 1884 to 1925, providing short biographies of the early U.S. nominees for sainthood, most of whom were European missionaries to North America in the colonial and early national period. It argues that these prospective saints served as double symbols, proving to Rome that holiness had flourished on American soil and demonstrating to Protestant Americans that Catholics could be loyal U.S. citizens. This chapter highlights the connections between hagiography and historiography in the work of prominent church leaders like James Cardinal Gibbons and John Gilmary Shea, provides short biographies of the Jesuit Martyrs and other early nominees for sainthood, explains key terms such as postulator, and outlines the procedures for canonization and its precursor, beatification.
✦ Papal Saints ✦
Authors: Cummings Kathleen Sprows
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines American sanctity during the papacy of John Paul II (1978-2005). John Paul II canonized more saints then all of his predecessors combined. He canonized Neumann and Duchesne, beatified six other U.S. candidates, and introduced dozens of others. Beyond the numbers, this chapter traces a fundamental shift in U.S. saint-seeking throughout this era. As polarization within the church supplanted marginalization in America as the keynote of U.S. Catholicism, U.S. Catholics became less likely to project their American stories onto candidates for canonization. Instead, prospective saints became signifiers of where Catholic individuals and groups position themselves within the church, often on issues related to gender, sexuality, and social and racial justice.
✦ Epilogue ✦
Authors: Cummings Kathleen Sprows
Published: January 2020

The epilogue introduces a sampling of the dozens of prospective U.S. saints, including those who have official causes open such as Fulton Sheen and Augustus Tolton as well as those who are regarded more informally as saints such as Mychal Judge and Dorothy Stang. It argues that while these holy figures continue to reveal a great deal about the priorities and perspectives of U.S. Catholics, the contemporary saint-seeking landscape indicates that U.S. Catholics’ goal of finding a single, unifying saint receded with each step taken toward attaining it. The diversity of the U.S. Catholic experience could never be represented by one holy hero.
Atrocity at Shelton Laurel
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

In January 1863, a gang of Unionists in mountainous Madison County raids Marshall for its store of salt-which has been denied hem by the Confederate commissioners. They extend their looting to the home of Col. Lawrence Allen, the commander of the 64th North Carolina who has been temporarily relieved of duty. He nonetheless joins a punitive expedition led by his cousin, Lt. Col. James Keith. They kill a number of Unionists, torture the wives and mothers of other suspects, and capture thirteen men and boys. On the pretext of marching them to Tennessee for trial, they take them in to the woods of Shelton Laurel and shoot them all down in cold blood. The women of Shelton Laurel discover the atrocity and recover the bodies, launching a manhunt and investigations that will eventually be taken up in the U.S. Congress.
The Afterlives of the Dead
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

Many of the dead in both armies are buried in shallow graves on or near the field of battle. Some are retrieved by family or friends and carried home for burial in “body baskets,” preserved in a mixture of salt, alum, and saltpeter. Embalming is rare among fallen Confederates. As death becomes wholesale, elaborate pre-war customs for mourning and grief give way to practical sharing of mourning crepe among widows, the shortening of mourning periods, and memorial rituals that must substitute for the actual burial of a body that may never be recovered. Sentimental songs like the “The Vacant Chair” honor the courage of fallen husbands and sons, and survivors cherish the stories and letters of the lost ones.
Deserters and Outliers
Authors: Gerard Philip
Published: January 2020

W. H. Younce of Ashe County, an admitted “Lincolnite,” attempts to flee over the mountains to Tennessee to avoid conscription-but he is betrayed by a young woman he has been courting and is taken by the Home Guard. Enlisted in the 58th North Carolina, he tries to desert and is again betrayed. Time and again, he deserts, is captured, and deserts again-till at last he makes it to Tennessee. He is one of thousands of North Carolina troops to desert, many after significant service, congregating in the mountain counties. The crisis is so acute that Confederate generals begin shooting deserters-even those who, like John Redman, simply take unauthorized leave to harvest crops and then return to the army. Younce recounts lynchings by the Home Guard of suspected Unionists and deserters, including one man who survives hanging and joins the U.S. Army. The nephew of one of the hanged men tracks down and murders five of the men who lynched his uncle.
The Slave Trade and Slavery in the Americas
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: January 2020

This chapter outlines the major phases of the slave trade in relation to colonization and the evolution of the institution of slavery. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Christian Western Hemisphere relied on the enslavement of Africans, and as a result, tens of thousands of men, women, and children were deported from Africa to the Caribbean and the American continent for nearly four centuries. This chapter covers slavery in Peru and Brazil in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as well as the sugar plantations in the Caribbean, Brazil, and North America in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This chapter also covers the topics of cotton, sugar, coffee, and chattel slavery in the U.S. South, Cuba, and Brazil in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and explores the similarities and differences in slave systems in the Americas.
Self-Purchase and Military Service
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores self-purchase and military service as strategies used by slaves to obtain their freedom. In contrast to marronage, these were forms not of revolt but rather of individual, familial, and at times community resistance that used existing legislative frameworks to escape a condition of servitude. This chapter discusses self-purchase and manumission in Iberian America and the prohibition of manumission in British and Dutch America, as well as The Code Noir and restrictions on emancipation in French America. In every slave society, armies and navies historically employed enslaved men, some of whom were rewarded with emancipation. Though emancipation did not challenge the system of slavery, it demonstrated long before the era of revolutions and independence movements that enslaved men and women were able to pursue freedom for themselves or their families through supplementary labor, unknowingly foreshadowing modernity.
Conspiracy and Revolt
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: January 2020

According to most historians, the first 250 years that followed the conquest of the Americas were interspersed with conspiracies and slave revolts. This chapter shows that, in reality, many of those rebellions only existed in the frightened imaginations of colonial elites and numerous whites. Fears and rumors prior to 1700 led to the making of the slave conspiracy narrative. This chapter discusses various rumored slave revolts and the events leading up to the Seven Years' War. The Seven Years' War would suddenly offer slaves new possibilities for liberation by visibly weakening the colonial powers, thus inciting groups of slaves to take extraordinary risks. At the end of the Seven Years' War, the slave trade resumed and reached unprecedented heights, bringing dozens of thousands of Africans to American ports each year. At the same time, slave escapes and protests increased, prompting increasingly bloody crackdowns. That escalation highlighted the fundamental barbarism of slavery - and the equally fundamental humanity of those subjected to it.
The Wars of Independence in Continental Iberian America
Authors: Helg Aline
Published: January 2020

Beginning in 1810, the wars of independence waged in Spain's continental colonies following the Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula would provide slaves in those territories with new occasions to free themselves. Thousands of them fled or found themselves without masters, while others enlisted in rival armies in exchange for promises of emancipation. This chapter explores the ways in which rumors of emancipation circulated among slaves, renewing their attempts to gain their freedom. In effect, the decrease of a third and at times half, of the slave populations in all the new republics between 1810 and the 1820s was partly due to slaves' desire to liberate themselves through flight or manumission. The institution of slavery was weakened by war and then by laws of gradual abolition that banned the slave trade and promoted the free-womb principle.
A New Force in the History of the World
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the birth of Pan-American feminism through a conflict between Uruguayan Paulina Luisi and Brazilian Bertha Lutz. Both women helped develop a new inter-American movement for women’s political, civil, economic, and social rights, and both drew on ideals of a Latin-American-led Pan-Americanism that followed the First World War. However, Luisi privileged a Pan-Hispanic movement led by Spanish-speaking women that could counter U.S. hegemony, while Lutz upheld the U.S. and Brazil as continental leaders. At the 1922 Pan-American Conference of Women in Baltimore, Maryland, Luisi’s proposal created a new inter-American feminist group, but Lutz and U.S. feminist Carrie Chapman Catt became its leaders. This 1922 conference and the Pan-American Association of Women that emerged from it would be critical to unprecedented resolutions at the 1923 Fifth International Conference of American States for the study and discussion of women’s rights at future diplomatic Pan-American conferences. Yet Lutz and Catt’s organization failed to unite many Latin American feminists because of their own dim views about Spanish-speaking feminists’ capacity to organize. These tensions and their conflicts with Luisi demonstrate how centrally discord around language, race, nation, and empire, shaped the early Pan-American feminist movement.
The Anti-imperialist Origins of International Women’s Rights
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores how a group of feminists from Central America, the Caribbean, and the U.S. who spoke out against U.S. imperialism, revitalized Pan-American feminism and developed an international treaty for women’s rights. In 1926, at the Inter-American Congress of Women in Panama City, Panamanian Clara Gonzoz and Cuban Ofelia Dom쭧uez Navarro, carried the torch of Paulina Luisi’s Pan-Hispanic feminism. They argued for international women’s rights treaties and spoke out against U.S. empire in the region, including in the Panama Canal. Two years later, at the Sixth International Conference of American States in Havana, Cuba, anti-imperialist feminist solidarity emerged between Cuban feminists (including Dom쭧uez) and women from the U.S. National Woman’s Party who, together, gate-crashed the conference. Led by U.S. feminist Doris Stevens, these women marched in the streets of Havana and achieved a hearing at the conference plenary. At a time when U.S. marines were dive-bombing Nicaragua, feminists’ calls for national sovereignty and women’s sovereignty in an Equal Rights Treaty gained the favor of many Latin American statesmen in Havana. Although the treaty did not pass, their efforts resulted in the creation of the Inter-American Commission of Women which would give organizational form to Pan-American feminism for several decades.
Feminismo práctico
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores coalitions that Latin American feminists forged in opposition to Doris Stevens. After the 1928 conference, Stevens became the chair of the Inter-American Commission of Women. Many Latin American feminists, including Clara Gonzoz (one of the first appointed to the Commission), Ofelia Dom쭧uez Navarro, and Paulina Luisi, found that Stevens’s commitments to anti-imperialism were thin, and that she ran the Commission unilaterally, excluding Latin American feminists’ countervailing ideas. Stevens controlled the Commission finances, participants, and agenda, which she focused exclusively on the Equal Rights and Equal Nationality treaties. Spanish-speaking feminists in turn forged stronger bonds with each other and promoted their own feminismo prࢴico, defined by solidarity around local struggles, anti-imperialism, and promotion of women’s social and economic rights. Dom쭧uez became a pivotal mouthpiece. Disillusioned with Stevens after the Commission’s 1930 meeting in Havana, Dom쭧uez became infuriated several years later when Stevens criticized her for not promoting women’s suffrage during the Cuban revolution against Machado. Dom쭧uez, who had been imprisoned by this dictatorship, penned a fiery response to Stevens and disseminated their correspondence throughout the region. This insurgency, and the friendships between Dom쭧uez, Gonzoz, Luisi, and others would be the seedbed for a Latin-American-led inter-American feminism.
The Latin American Contribution to the Constitution of the World
Authors: Marino Katherine M.
Published: January 2020

This chapter explains how Latin American feminists pushed women’s rights into the United Nations Charter at the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO) in San Francisco. Bertha Lutz and a number of Latin American feminists with whom she collaborated–Minerva Bernardino from the Dominican Republic, Amalia de Castillo Ledón from Mexico, and Isabel Pinto de Vidal from Uruguay–as well as Jessie Street from Australia, were responsible for pushing women’s rights into several parts of the UN Charter and for proposing what became the UN’s Commission on the Status of Women. They did this over the express objections of the U.S. and British female delegates to the conference who believed that women’s rights were too controversial or not important enough to include. These Latin American women also worked alongside representatives from “smaller nations” and from U.S. non-governmental organizations like the NAACP to push “human rights” into the Charter. At the UNCIO, the racism that Lutz experienced from U.S. and British delegates, lack of U.S. and British support, and overweening power of the "Big Four" in the constitution of the United Nations, caused her to turn away from her long-time Anglo-American-philia and identify as a "Latin American."
Introduction
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores why surrender was so common during the American Civil War. One out of every four Civil War soldiers surrendered. It contrasts how frequent and accepted surrender was during the Civil War with American attitudes during the 20th and 21st centuries.
To the Last Man
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines how the collapse of the Dix-Hill prisoner exchange cartel led to the "hard war" of 1864. Without prisoner exchange, prisons like Andersonville became overcrowded, and soldiers increasingly refused to surrender. The chapter also examines the experience of guerrillas, African Americans, and Southern Unionists in 1864.
Dying in the Last Ditch
Authors: Silkenat David
Published: January 2020

This chapter examines Confederate surrenders east of the Mississippi after Appomattox Courthouse. It argues that these post-Appomattox surrenders were more complex and contingent than most historians imagine. It focuses on Johnston's surrender to William Tecumseh Sherman at Bennett Place, Jefferson Davis's flight, and why some Confederate soldiers refused to surrender.
Without Howling, Without Squirming
Authors: Kotch Seth
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the drive to make execution painless for the condemned and easy for executioners and witnesses. When the state of North Carolina took responsibility for capital punishment from county sheriffs, it introduced the electric chair. When that failed to produce a swift and spectacle-free death, the state constructed a gas chamber. The search for a reliable, quiet, and painless method of execution sapped most of the activist energy around the death penalty, transforming its form but never its function.
I Cannot Allow This Boy to Be Executed
Authors: Kotch Seth
Published: January 2020

This chapter explains how executive clemency—the state governor’s power to reduce a death penalty to a lesser sentence—helped make capital punishment function in North Carolina. With mandatory death sentences for four serious crimes (murder, rape, burglary, and arson), judges had no choice but to pronounce a death penalty upon conviction. This left it up to the governor to decide whether or not the convicted person would be executed. Although this power was reserved for the governor, it was soon transferred to a parole board, which reviewed each death sentence and invited community comment. This process most benefitted teenagers and women. Perversely, more African Americans received commutations than whites because of the high rate of error in their trials.
Conclusion
Authors: Kotch Seth
Published: January 2020

This chapter theorizes the death penalty as an outcropping of our political failings and our desire to fix failing institutions rather than eliminate them. It argues that the death penalty has failed by any reasonable measure, but also that this failure is a normal feature of institutions. It lays out the different kinds of failures the death penalty has undergone: to punish fairly, to punish painlessly, to bring resolution to victims of crime, to have any effect at all on crime rates. Today’s death penalty even fails to execute, as there have been no executions since 2006.
The Social Origins of Materialism and Socialism
Authors: Robinson Cedric J.
Published: January 2020

In this chapter, Robinson takes on what he sees as Marx’s fallacious assumption that socialism requires the existence of full-blown capitalism. Instead, Robinson explores the history of materialism and political economy in Europe in relation to late medieval Christianity and the Roman Church as a way to uncover other lineages of Western socialism. He traces the genealogy of materialism upon which Marx himself relied—drawing from German idealists and eighteenth century bourgeois ideas—and contrasts this with an alternative genealogy of modern materialist discourse (Aristotelianism, Dualism, Classical materialism, historical materialism). He shows how bourgeois resistance against the Church’s political order in the thirteenth century took the form of socialist communities. This socialist-oriented resistance was then repressed and co-opted by Church leaders before reappearing in the popular impulses of the French Revolution, eventually leading to Marx’s secular expression of socialism. Robinson argues that Marxism ignores this history of non-industrial socialism, accepting many assumptions of bourgeois historiography and leading him to assume that full industrial, bourgeois society is necessary to the establishment of socialism. This effaces the thirteenth century precedents to nineteenth century Western socialism.
Reality and Its Representation
Authors: Robinson Cedric J.
Published: January 2020

In the final chapter, Robinson summarizes the implications of his anthropology of Marxist thought and his alternative history of Western socialism. He argues that the iconography of Marxism effaces the longer history of Western socialism, instead displacing all potential for radical change to the proletariat in the era of capitalism. The fetishization of industrial labor by Marx, Engels, and Lenin then has the effect, he argues, of excluding all socialist revolt that takes place outside of the urban proletariat—radical action in Algeria, Cuba, Iran, etc.—from the history of socialism, making socialism into an idea for the future rather than something that could also exist in the past. Mistakenly transfixing the origins of socialist theory to Marx or making his ideas into universals rather than contextually specific philosophy in fact restricts the theoretical and practical development of socialism. The history of Western socialism radiated from the desperation, rage, and anguish of the oppressed long before Marx identified it in the French Revolution and will survive Marxism’s conceits because, Robinson argues, socialist discourse is an irrepressible response to social injustice in world history.
Napoléon III’s “Grand Design” and the Confederacy
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

In 1862, Napoleon III sent an expeditionary force to occupy Mexico with the aim of establishing a Latin and Catholic empire in the region as part of his “Grand Design” for the Americas. The American Civil War served Napoleon’s purposes in many ways. First, the division of the Union neutralized the U.S. by rendering it unable to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. Second, the location of the new Confederacy, interposed between the Lincoln government and the Rio Grande, would protect Mexican interests. Third, faced with this interference in Mexican affairs, the insurgents showed their support for Napoleon’s enterprise.
From the very start of the war, the Confederates and their sympathizers tried to cast themselves out as the natural allies of Napoleon’s new Mexican regime, but the French had their doubts about the sincerity of the South’s support. Until the eve of secession, Southern nationalism was reflected by an unremitting desire for conquest in the Caribbean, Mexico, or Central America. To the Quai d’Orsay, a Confederate victory would signal the resumption of Southern conquests to fuel a slave empire. At the same time, Maximilian, the new emperor of Mexico set up by Napoleon, preferred to remain neutral and keep his distance from the Confederacy.
The Future of the Disunited States
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

In the summer of 1862, faced with the Southerners’ unexpected resistance and the Union’s failure to make them yield, the Quai d’Orsay briefly envisaged the breakup of the U.S.At the moment the Union appeared most vulnerable to defeat, its existence was seen as essential to a peaceful future for the continent.Henri Mercier was the first to suggest a customs union, two self-governing nations with a common economic market but separate administrations. Thouvenel’s plan for “two federated confederations” proposed a reorganization of the federal framework. For Thouvenel and Drouyn de Lhuys, the future of the U.S. lay in a new union, not a division between two republics.
The Imbalance of Power
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

From the start of the war, the French agents in the U.S. saw the North’s demographic, economic, financial, and technological superiority. However, faced with the staunch determination of the enemy troops, the Union’s military superiority remained in question. French Consul Alfred Paul in Richmond aptly predicted from the beginning that war was inevitable, as was a Union victory. His analysis shaped the view of the Tuileries cabinet on the overall military situation. The imperial government considered that the South’s chances of winning its independence depended on the Federal government’s either backing out in the face of the rebels’ prodigious efforts or being rejected through the ballot box. Paris realized the extent of the North’s potential when Lincoln’s persistence in the war was rewarded with electoral triumph, strengthening his administration.
Conclusion
Authors: Sainlaude Stève
Published: January 2020

The imperial government was able to focus solely on French national interests in determining its policy on the American crisis, without taking into account public opinion, because the antidemocratic nature of the Second Empire meant that decision-makers discussed external affairs in the closed sphere of the Quai d’Orsay or the Tuileries Palace. To determine its course of action during the American Civil War, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs therefore relied solely on its assessment of how France could best benefit from the situation created by the crisis, a judgment that it based on the dispatches of its diplomats and consuls. No advantage could be gained from a division of the Union; no valid reason could prompt the French Foreign Ministry to side with the states in rebellion. While Napoleon III hoped for a victory for the secessionists in order to further his own “grand design” in Mexico, he had to revise his American policy under the influence of his foreign ministers, who made him realize that France would not benefit from U.S. dismemberment. Nonintervention prevailed, revealing the powers of persuasion of Thouvenel and Drouyn de Lhuys.
The People’s Billionaire
Authors: Goudsouzian Aram
Published: January 2020

Chapter Four begins with Nelson Rockefeller’s March 1968 announcement that he would not run for president. The ultra-rich, larger-than-life governor of New York had supported George Romney as the representative of the moderate Republicans, but the Michigan governor issued a disastrous remark that he had been “brainwashed” about the Vietnam War. In April, Rockefeller injected himself back into the fold. This chapter paints the progressive Republican’s energetic and popular campaign, even as most rank-and-file Republicans sought more conservative alternatives.
Favorite Son
Authors: Goudsouzian Aram
Published: January 2020

Chapter Six covers the Republican National Convention in Miami, concentrating on the behind-the-scenes campaign of Ronald Reagan. The new governor of California communicated the principles of the New Right in a more genial, telegenic way than the disastrous 1964 nominee, Barry Goldwater. Conservative delegates at the convention adored Reagan. But thanks to a deal with South Carolina Senator Strom Thurmond, Nixon held off a last-minute defection of southern delegates, ensuring his nomination. His vice-presidential selection of Spiro Agnew further signaled the Republican’s emerging base in the suburbs and New South.
Private Confederacies
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

How did the Civil War, emancipation, and Reconstruction shape the masculinity of white Confederate veterans? As James J. Broomall shows, the crisis of the war forced a reconfiguration of the emotional worlds of the men who took up arms for the South. Raised in an antebellum culture that demanded restraint and shaped white men to embrace self-reliant masculinity, Confederate soldiers lived and fought within military units where they experienced the traumatic strain of combat and its privations together--all the while being separated from suffering families. Military service provoked changes that escalated with the end of slavery and the Confederacy's military defeat. Returning to civilian life, Southern veterans questioned themselves as never before, sometimes suffering from terrible self-doubt. Drawing on personal letters and diaries, Broomall argues that the crisis of defeat ultimately necessitated new forms of expression between veterans and among men and women. On the one hand, war led men to express levels of emotionality and vulnerability previously assumed the domain of women. On the other hand, these men also embraced a virulent, martial masculinity that they wielded during Reconstruction and beyond to suppress freed peoples and restore white rule through paramilitary organizations and the Ku Klux Klan.
Demobilization
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

A review of the demobilization of the Confederate Army from April 1865 and beyond. A long view of this act of demobilization demonstrates a range of postwar social, political, and military challenges that might otherwise be missed and illuminates how Confederate soldiers became citizens. While some former Confederates tried to continue the war’s aims outside of the United States, most soldiers journeyed home and then began to think about how to become a citizen again.
Reconstructions
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

Though many former Confederate soldiers arrived home after the war as dazed and disheartened veterans, they soon came to strive for self-control and emotional moderation in an attempt to suppress the unfettered feelings expressed at the war’s end. By these means, the veterans reasserted a strong public face and regained mastery of many political, cultural, and social institutions.
Violence
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

In an effort to re-establish the pre-war paradigm of white mastery over black people, Confederate army veterans founded the Ku Klux Klan. In addition to stoking fear among the black citizenry, the pseudo-military organization of the KKK allowed white southern men to reform soldier-like bonds within the civilian sphere.
Conclusion
Authors: Broomall James J.
Published: January 2020

The evidence of period diaries contrasted with post-war writings shows that Confederate veterans’ attempts at emotional expression were vastly altered by their wartime experiences. The public face of the Civil War became increasingly sanitized and reductive, while the privately expressed emotions became at once masked by public heroism and confused by private doubts and sadness.
Development and application of the WRFDA-Chem 3DVAR system: aiming to improve air quality forecast and diagnose model deficiencies
Authors: Sun Wei , Liu Zhiquan , Chen Dan , Zhao Pusheng , Chen Min
Published: January 2020

Abstract. To improve the operational air quality forecasting over China, a new aerosol/gas phase pollutants assimilation capability is developed within the WRFDA system using 3DVAR algorithm. In this first application, the interface for MOSAIC aerosol scheme is built with flexible extending potentials. Based on the new WRFDA-Chem system, five experiments assimilating different surface observations, including PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, O3, and CO are conducted for January 2017 along with a control experiment without DA. Results exhibit that the WRFDA-Chem system evidently improves the air quality forecasting. On the analysis aspect, the assimilation of surface observations reduces the bias and RMSE in the initial condition (IC) remarkably; on the forecast aspect, better forecast performances are acquired up to 24-h, in which the experiment assimilating the six pollutants simultaneously displays the best forecast skill overall. With respect to the impact of DA cycling frequency, the responses toward IC updating are found out to be different among the pollutants. For PM2.5, PM10, SO2 and CO, the forecast skills increase with the DA frequency; for O3, although improvements are acquired at the 6-h cycling frequency, the advantage of more frequent DA could be consumed by the disadvantage of unbalanced photochemistry (due to inaccurate precursor NOx/VOC ratios) from assimilating the existing observations (only O3 and NO2, but no VOC). Considering after one aspect (IC) in the model is corrected by DA, the deficiencies from other aspects (e.g., chemical reactions) could be more evident, this study further explores the model deficiencies by investigating the effects of assimilating gaseous precursors on the forecast of related aerosols. Results exhibit that the parameterization (uptake coefficients) in the newly added Sulfate-Nitrate-Ammonium (SNA) relevant heterogeneous reactions in the model are not fully appropriate although it best simulates observed SNA aerosols without DA; since the uptake coefficients were originally tuned under the inaccurate gaseous precursor scenarios without DA, the biases from the two aspects (SNA reactions and IC DA) were just compensated. In the future chemistry development, parameterizations (such as uptake coefficients) for different gaseous precursor scenarios should be adjusted and verified with the help of DA technique. According to these results, DA ameliorates certain aspects by using observation as constraints, and thus provides an opportunity to identify and diagnose the model deficiencies; it is useful especially when the uncertainties of various aspects are mixed up and the reaction paths are not clearly revealed. In the future, besides being used to improve the forecast through updating IC, DA could be treated as another approach to explore necessary developments in the model.
Anatomy of the magmatic plumbing system of Los Humeros Caldera (Mexico): implications for geothermal systems
Authors: Lucci Federico , Carrasco-Núñez Gerardo , Rossetti Federico , Theye Thomas , White John Charles , Urbani Stefano , Azizi Hossein , Asahara Yoshihiro , Giordano Guido
Published: January 2020

Abstract. Understanding the anatomy of magma plumbing systems of active volcanoes is
essential not only for unraveling magma dynamics and eruptive behaviors but
also to define the geometry, depth, and temperature of the heat sources for
geothermal exploration. The Pleistocene–Holocene Los Humeros volcanic
complex is part of the eastern Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (central Mexico),
and it constitutes one of the most important exploited geothermal fields in
Mexico with ca. 90 MW of produced electricity. With the aim to decipher the
anatomy (geometry and structure) of the magmatic plumbing system feeding the
geothermal field at Los Humeros, we carried out a field-based petrological
and thermobarometric study of the exposed Holocene lavas. Textural analysis,
whole-rock major-element data, and mineral chemistry are integrated with a
suite of mineral-liquid thermobarometric models. Our results support a
scenario characterized by a heterogeneous multilayered system, comprising a
deep (depth of ca. 30 km) basaltic reservoir feeding progressively shallower
and smaller discrete magma stagnation layers and batches, up to
shallow-crust conditions (depth of ca. 3 km). The evolution of melts in the feeding
system is mainly controlled by differentiation processes through fractional
crystallization (plagioclase + clinopyroxene + olivine + spinel). We
demonstrate the inadequacy of the existing conceptual models, where a single
voluminous melt-controlled magma chamber (or “Standard Model”) at
shallow depths was proposed for the magmatic plumbing system at Los Humeros.
We instead propose a magmatic plumbing system made of multiple, more or less
interconnected, magma transport and storage layers within the crust, feeding
small (ephemeral) magma chambers at shallow-crustal conditions. This revised
scenario provides a new configuration of the heat source feeding the
geothermal reservoir at Los Humeros, and it should be taken into account to
drive future exploration and exploitation strategies.
Impact of exhaust emissions on chemical snowpack composition at Concordia Station, Antarctica
Authors: Helmig Detlev , Liptzin Daniel , Hueber Jacques , Savarino Joel
Published: January 2020

Abstract. The chemistry of reactive gases inside the snowpack and in the lower
atmosphere was investigated at Concordia Station (Dome C), Antarctica, from
December 2012 to January 2014. Measured species included ozone, nitrogen
oxides, gaseous elemental mercury (GEM), and formaldehyde, for study of
photochemical reactions, surface exchange, and the seasonal cycles and
atmospheric chemistry of these gases. The experiment was installed ≈1 km from the station main infrastructure inside the station clean air
sector and within the station electrical power grid boundary. Ambient air
was sampled continuously from inlets mounted above the surface on a 10 m
meteorological tower. In addition, snowpack air was collected at 30 cm
intervals to 1.2 m depth from two manifolds that had both above- and below-surface sampling inlets. Despite being in the clean air sector, over the
course of the 1.2-year study, we observed on the order of 50 occasions when
exhaust plumes from the camp, most notably from the power generation system,
were transported to the study site. Continuous monitoring of nitrogen oxides
(NOx) provided a measurement of a chemical tracer for exhaust plumes.
Highly elevated levels of NOx (up to 1000 × background) and lowered
ozone (down to ≈50 %), most likely from reaction of ozone with nitric
oxide, were measured in air from above and within the snowpack. Within 5–15 min from observing elevated pollutant levels above the snow, rapidly
increasing and long-lasting concentration enhancements were measured in
snowpack air. While pollution events typically lasted only a few minutes to
an hour above the snow surface, elevated NOx levels were observed in
the snowpack lasting from a few days to ≈ 1 week. GEM and
formaldehyde measurements were less sensitive and covered a shorter
measurement period; neither of these species' data showed noticeable
concentration changes during these events that were above the normal
variability seen in the data. Nonetheless, the clarity of the NOx and
ozone observations adds important new insight into the discussion of if and how
snow photochemical experiments within reach of the power grid of polar
research sites are possibly compromised by the snowpack being chemically
influenced (contaminated) by gaseous and particulate emissions from the
research camp activities. This question is critical for evaluating if
snowpack trace chemical measurements from within the camp boundaries are
representative for the vast polar ice sheets.
Re-formation in Action: Liberty in a Wesleyan Spirit and Praxis—The Tolpuddle Martyrs, Part I
Authors: Schuler Ulrike
Published: January 2020

This article (in two parts) focuses on Methodist agricultural labourers who founded one of the first British trade unions in 1833. Six of them—including three Methodist local preachers—were convicted of taking an unlawful oath on joining the union. In consequence, they were sentenced to seven years' transportation to Australia. The public outcry was immediate, and this led to a full pardon being granted to them three years later. The Wesleyan Methodist leadership was silent and the story has received minimal attention from Methodist historians. These men demonstrated a deep scriptural faithfulness, and their understanding of God's liberating grace motivated their actions.
Reading Sideways
Authors: Seitler Dana
Published: January 2020

This book explores the pivotal role that various art forms played in American literary fiction in direct relation to the politics of gender and sexuality at the turn of the twentieth century. It tracks the transverse circulation of aesthetic ideas in fiction and argues that at stake in fin-de-siècle American writers’ aesthetic turn was not only the theorization of aesthetic experience, but also a fashioning forth of an understanding of aesthetic form in relation to political arguments and debates about available modes of sociability and cultural expression. To track these practices it performs an interpretive method Seitler calls “lateral reading,” a mode of interpretation that moves horizontally through various historical entanglements and across the fields of the arts to make sense of, and see in a new light, their connections, challenges, and productive frictions.
The Impossible Art Object of Desire
Authors: Seitler Dana
Published: January 2020

This chapter is about how art objects in Henry James’s fiction function as a theory of desire.
Willa Cather and W. E. B. Du Bois Go to the Opera
Authors: Seitler Dana
Published: January 2020

This chapter explores the politics of allusion in Willa Cather and W. E. B. Du Bois’s fiction, specifically their use of Wagner’s opera Lohengrin.
Machinery of Death or Machinic Life
Authors: Wills David
Published: January 2020

Justice Blackmun’s 1994 decision to “tinker with the machinery of death” no more brings into focus the problem of an instantaneous death penalty that was raised by Eighth Amendment objections to the firing squad and electric chair at the end of the nineteenth century. A review of American death penalty jurisprudence reveals that the instant is not the only temporal question raised: the doctrine of “evolving standards” presumes a speed of evolution that is impossible to determine and compares different evolutions among electorates, legislatures, and countries within the international community. By examining those questions in the context of Blackmun’s Callins dissent I argue that what the machinery of death reveals above all is a concept of technological time.
The Time of the Trap Door
Authors: Wills David
Published: January 2020

This chapter offers an examination of the refining of the instant of execution that takes place with the introduction of trap door gallows in the seventeenth century and, more spectacularly and explicitly, in the late eighteenth century with the French Revolution and the guillotine. The death penalty is thereby distinguished from torture and a post-Enlightenment conception of punishment is introduced, lasting to the present. But the guillotine is bloody, and that underscores a complex visuality of the death penalty that also obtains during the same time period, playing out across diverse genres such as the execution sermon, political and scientific discourses relating to the guillotine, Supreme Court descriptions of crimes, and practices of an entity such as the Islamic State. What develops concurrent with the guillotine—yet remains constant through all those examples--is a form of realist photographic visuality.
The Future Anterior of Blood
Authors: Wills David
Published: January 2020

What is called the “temporal technology” of the human can be analyzed as a relation between time and blood. The death penalty reveals that relation not as a natural one but as a “prosthetic” one, whereby time gets attached to the human body in such a way that it mimics the flow of blood but at the same time shows that flow to be mechanically produced. That conclusion is reached by tracing a history of mortal time that links Socrates to Heidegger and by examining in detail Hegel’s promotion of blood as a figure for dialectical sublation in general, a blood that is simultaneously inside and outside the body. As a result, blood is “shed” by means of an execution whether it involves the guillotine or lethal injection.
Drone Penalty
Authors: Wills David
Published: January 2020

A different appropriation of the instant takes place in the case of extrajudicial killing by drones. That practice by the U.S., begun in 2002, has remained shrouded in secrecy. However one counts the victims, drone executions outnumber by a huge margin American judicial executions, and the drone penalty thus represents a particular paradigm of the American death penalty: for the most part out of sight and out of mind. It raises in turn questions about American democracy and the deadly criminal conduct of its foreign policy, but also produces a perspective that brings into focus the long series of historical relations between slavery and the death penalty, as well as lynching and the persistence of racism in the application of capital punishment. Furthermore, the sovereign secrecy of drone attacks produces a structural space shared by the U.S. president and the terrorist s/he attacks.
Introduction
Authors: Constable Marianne , Volpp Leti , Wagner Bryan
Published: January 2020

WHAT ARE THE “wrong places” of law? If, for many inside and outside the legal academy, the right place to look for law is in the rules of judicial opinions or in the texts of statutes and constitutions, the “wrong places” are sites and spaces in which no such law—or even reference to such law—appears. These may be geographic regions beyond the reach of law, everyday practices ungoverned or ungovernable by law, or works of art that have escaped law’s constraints. Many essays in this volume look for law precisely in such “wrong places” where there seems to be no law. They find in these places not only reflections and remains of law, but also rules and practices that seem indistinguishable from law. These essays raise challenging questions about the locations of law and about law’s meaning and function. Other essays in this volume seem to do the opposite: rather than looking for law in places where law does not obviously appear, they look in statute books and courtrooms, but from perspectives that are usually presumed to have nothing to say about law. Looking at law sideways or upside down or inside out defamiliarizes law. Weird, canted angles reveal otherwise ...
Secularism, Family Law, and Gender Inequality
Authors: Mahmood Saba
Published: January 2020

Interfaith romance or marriage, abducted women, and religious conversion are key sites of violence between Muslims and Christians in Egypt stemming from the privatization of religion and family in Egypt under modern secular governance. Even though religion-based family law is often regarded as a continuation from the premodern past, it is in fact, a modern invention that belongs to a radically distinct political order-one that has little in common with the premodern arrangement from which it supposedly emanated. A global genealogy of modern family law shows how its designation exacerbated premodern hierarchies and gender inequalities. The conjoining of religion, sexuality and family in the private sphere-in Egypt or in the United States-tied up their regulative fates in such a way that struggles over religion often unfold over the terrain of gender and sexuality. Whereas this entwinement is apparent in a variety of global struggles (over gay marriage, abortion, contraception, and HIV/AIDS, for example), in Egypt it is instantiated in the institution of religion-based family law.
Is There Jewish Law? The Case of Josephus
Authors: Boyarin Daniel
Published: January 2020

Martin Buber famously accused the translators of the Septuagint of having invented Christianity by "mistranslating" Torah as nomos and argued that it was the "Greek narrowing of the concept of Torah into law that makes possible Paul's opposition of law and faith. 'Without the change of meaning in the Greek, objective sense,' Buber writes, 'the Pauline dualism of law and faith, life from works and life from grace, would miss its most important conceptual presupposition.'" Whatever Paul did or did not understand, I would exonerate the translators of the Septuagint from having perpetrated a "Greek narrowing" of Torah, suggesting rather that they engaged in a Hebraic broadening of the concept of nomos into Torah and so were understood by Judean readers. My main witness will be that somewhat later near-contemporary of Paul, Josephus, Yoseph the son of Matityahu, the historian.