bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Understanding distribution system WATER QUALITY
Authors: Besner Marie‐Claude , Gauthier Vincent , Barbeau Benoît , Millette Robert , Chapleau Robert , Prévost Michèle
Published: February 2018

Understanding distribution system water quality is a complex task because it involves not only numerous parameters but also the interactions among these parameters. This article highlights the development of a visualization tool capable of showing all types of information, (modeled and measured parameters), simultaneously or independently as a function of space or time. In this study, diversified databases that included such system parameters as structure, hyudraulics, and water quality were compiled and explored spatially and temporally through the visualization software. This approach proved to be successful in identifying probable sources of water contamination at a specific sampling point. It also helped establish general relationships between distribution system parameters, i.e., pipe breaks, pipe age, and water pressure, that are often difficult to link. A clearer understanding of the reasons for water quality degradation during distribution is important to water suppliers because research has suggested that such degradation increases the rate of gastrointestinal illnesses. When water quality is questionable, often the only parameters taken into account are measurements of water characteristics. Visualization of multiple parameters at one time enables utilities to pinpoint the source of their water quality problems and distinguish which areas of the distribution system are most at risk.
The Complicated Simplicity of UV Disinfection
Authors: McMeen Chris
Published: February 2018

This article discusses using ultraviolet (UV) light disinfection for Cryptosporidium. It gives a case study where a small water system in Montana uses a combination of UV and chlorine with adequate contact time to treat for Cryptosporidium. It also explains how UV disinfection works and discusses questions regarding inactivation of viruses.
Meeting Usepa's Operator Certification Guidelines in Virginia
Authors: Adam Carrie A. , Dietrich ea M. , Gallagher Daniel L. , Whelton Andrew J. , Boardman Gregory D. , Edwards Marc A.
Published: February 2018

This article outlines a study, funded by the Virginia Department of Health, that was undertaken to help the department develop policies and procedures for implementing the US Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) final guidelines for the certification and recertification of the operators of community water systems and nontransient‐noncommunity public water systems. These guidelines, which apply to small water systems serving fewer than 3,300 people, require that each state must have adopted or implemented a public small water system operator certification program as of Feb. 5, 2001, or be subject to USEPA's withholding of 20% of the capitalization grants to which the state is entitled from the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund. This study provided input that led to Virginia's decision to implement a class VI license for operators of water systems that deliver untreated, high‐quality groundwater and that serve more than 25 people but fewer than 400 people. To gather basic information on the owner/operators of small Virginia water systems, a 43‐question survey was mailed to 2,011 public systems in Virginia that served fewer than 3,300 people. The questions pertained to operations, facilities, personnel, and certification of small system operators.
Microcystin algal toxins in Source and Finished Drinking Water
Authors: Karner Dawn A. , Standridge Jonathan H. , Harrington Gregory W. , Barnum Robert P.
Published: February 2018

The number and intensity of reported blue‐green algae (cyanobacteria) blooms in reservoirs, lakes, ponds, and rivers have increased worldwide. Some species of cyanobacteria are capable of producing microcystins, hepatotoxins that can cause liver damage, shock, and in some cases, death to mammals ingesting contaminated water. In 1998 and 1999, studies were conducted to elucidate the occurrence of microcystin toxins in raw and finished water from five drinking water treatment facilities in Wisconsin. Samples were collected and analyzed for microcystins using an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay. Microcystin toxins were repeatedly found in the raw water. Conventional water treatment practices used by the facilities effectively removed microcystins by 1‐3 logs. The data collected suggest that microcystin toxin removal occurs incrementally at several points in the drinking water treatment train.
Biocorrosion of Copper in Potable Water
Authors: Bremer Phil J. , Webster Barbara J. , Wells D. Brett
Published: February 2018

Copper (Cu) is widely accepted as a durable, corrosion‐resistant conduit for potable water. However, over the past decade, the corrosion of Cu in potable waters has been critically assessed, triggered by tighter regulatory standards for potable water and wastewater, higher consumer expectations, and the recognition of a possible microbiological role in corrosion failures. At least two unusual types of pitting corrosion in hot and cold water systems and several anomalous cases of excessive Cu corrosion by‐product release (“blue water”) have features consistent with microbially influenced corrosion (MIC). Cu corrosion by‐product release has traditionally been considered controlled by inorganic water chemistry. However, recent work has demonstrated that MIC can potentially produce excessive Cu concentrations under optimized water treatment conditions. This article discusses recent developments in understanding the influence of biofilms (microorganisms attached to and growing on a surface) on Cu corrosion.
Biodegradation Kinetics of Ozonated NOM and Aldehydes
Authors: Digiano Francis A. , Singer Philip C. , Parameswar Chitra , Lecourt Thomas D.
Published: February 2018

The batch recycle attached growth reactor (BRAGR) was found to be a convenient technique to determine simultaneously the biodegradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) concentrations and the biokinetic rate constants for BDOC and aldehyde removal. The rate of biodegradation was first‐order with respect to the BDOC remaining. A second‐order, intrinsic rate constant was obtained by dividing the first‐order rate constant by the attached biomass concentration in the biofilter. The intrinsic rate constant did not increase with an increasing ozone‐to‐DOC ratio and averaged 8.5 × 10‐5 mg/L cells‐1 min‐1. The biokinetic rate constants for aldehydes were first‐order with respect to remaining substrate concentration. The second‐order, intrinsic rate constants (mg/L cells‐1 min‐1) for the aldehydes were much larger than those for BDOC, with the order being: methyl glyoxal (5.93 × 10‐4) > glyoxal (4.42 > × 10‐4) > formaldehyde (2.23 × 10‐4) >> BDOC (8.5 × 10‐5). Removal of aldehydes in a laboratory‐scale, continuous‐flow biofilter packed with anthracite and exhausted granular activated carbon (GAC) was predicted fairly well with rate constants derived from the BRAGR. BDOC removal was significantly underpredicted on GAC biofilters, possibly because of residual adsorption capacity. An empty bed contact time that achieves good natural organic matter (NOM) removal will also yield very high removal of aldehydes because aldehydes are degraded much faster than NOM, regardless of the ozonation level. Biokinetic modeling could possibly be improved by accounting for differences in the biodegradability of NOM fractions and by better techniques to measure the concentration and activity of attached biomass in calculation of the intrinsic rate constant.
Controlling bromate Formation
Authors: Galey Catherine , Mary‐Dilé Veronique , Gatel Dominique , Amy Gary , Cavard Jacques
Published: February 2018

A pilot‐scale study, based on a fractional factorial experimental design, was performed to evaluate the indirect impact of preozonation (0‐1.5 mg/L) and/or the addition of powdered activated carbon (PAC) (0‐20 mg/L), and the direct impact of intermediate ozone (O3) dose (1.2‐3.0 mg/L), pH (6.0‐7.5), and hydraulic residence time (HRT—12‐18 min) on bromate (BrO3‐) formation. Under the conditions of this study, neither preozonation nor PAC addition had a significant impact on BrO3‐ formation observed at the outlet of the pilot contactor. The most influential parameter was pH, followed by intermediate O3 dose. A cross‐effect (interaction between pH and intermediate O3 dose) was also statistically significant. Consequently, the impact of pH depression on BrO3‐ formation was shown to be O3‐dose‐dependent. During these experiments, the BrO3‐ standard of 10 μg/L was achieved with O3 doses of < 1.6 mg/L and a pH of < 6.3. These conditions were consistent with 2‐log—but not 3‐log—inactivation of Cryptosporidium.
Waterborne disease Outbreaks Caused by Distribution System Deficiencies
Authors: Craun Gunther F. , Calderon Rebecca L.
Published: February 2018

Distribution system contamination has resulted in a significant number of waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States. A review of the 113 distribution‐associated outbreaks reported over the past 30 years finds 498 hospitalizations and nine deaths. Since 1996, distribution system deficiencies have caused 45% of all outbreaks reported in community water systems. Most distribution‐associated outbreaks were attributable to chemical and microbial contamination from cross‐connections and backsiphonage. Preventing contamination of the distribution system is key to reducing the risk of waterborne disease outbreaks. Important preventive steps include maintaining adequate water pressure throughout the system; identifying and replacing older, leaking water mains; maintaining a chlorine residual and routinely monitoring the residual; adopting cross‐connection control programs; inspecting storage facilities on a routine basis; adequately disinfecting after system repairs; and, increasing corrosion control efforts. An aging water system infrastructure renders the United States even more vulnerable to the risk of waterborne disease outbreaks. More regulations may be required to prevent these outbreaks unless water suppliers take action to reduce distribution system contamination and sufficient funds are allocated for system maintenance, repair, and replacement.
The Measure of a Professional
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses what it means to be a professional. He believes that it is a mix of privilege and obligation and is built on a body of knowledge and experience. It also carries with it an obligation to society to use the tools for the common good. He discusses his personal criteria for measuring professionalism in the water industry, based on the critical obligation of providing the best possible water service and, in so doing, preserving the public health, ensuring public safety, and becoming responsible stewards of the earth's precious water resources. He cites the degree of commitment to this obligation, and also, how the aspiring professionals conduct themselves in discourse and debate as two means of measuring the degree of professionalism a person has.
Water suppliers watching USEPA review of TMDL program
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark A.
Published: February 2018

This article provides a brief overview of the total maximum daily load (TMDL) rulemaking, which limits pollution from nonpoint sources that are currently unregulated by having states identify waterways that are not meeting ambient water quality standards for their designated uses and sets pollutant‐specific TMDLs to achieve those standards.
Oregon Irrigation Canals are Subject to Provisions of CWA
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

Irrigation canals are “waters of the United States” and are thus subject to the Clean Water Act (CWA), according to the US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.
ApplyingTQM to major water supply projects
Authors: Lavanchy Daniel
Published: February 2018

Water supply and treatment projects the world over are characterized by similar constants and constraints and a similar sequence of project phases. These projects are also alike in that they are governed by the same rules of management, which can be applied regardless of project objective, technology used, local conditions, type of financing, and even the personalities of the project participants. Almost every project progresses through the same sequence of stages: appraisal, preliminary study, feasibility study, decision to finance and realize the project, detailed engineering design, tendering, final engineering design, construction, startup, commissioning, and maintenance. Through these stages, the project is defined, studied, assessed, financed, designed, contracted, specified, constructed, tested, commissioned, and operated. Each stage is critical to the project's ultimate success or failure; many projects founder when their objective is not properly defined, that objective is lost sight of, or approval procedures are inadequate. Total quality management (TQM) offers the guidelines and controls to help ensure that each phase of the project is successfully completed. To create a high‐quality facility or infrastructure, the project owner, financing institution, management office, and other components of the project team must work together while carrying out their individual responsibilities at the highest level.
Chlorine Decay KINETICS of a Reservoir Water
Authors: Sung Windsor , Levenson Joan , Toolan Tara , O'Day D. Kelly
Published: February 2018

Massachusetts Water Resources Authority started adding sodium hypochlorite to its raw water (Wachusett Reservoir) in September 1997 to achieve compliance with the requirements of the Surface Water Treatment Rule for unfiltered surface water supplies, mainly the 3‐log C × T (concentration times time) value for Giardia inactivation. There were concerns about the chlorine dosage necessary to achieve pathogen inactivation and the effect of that dosage on the amount of disinfection by‐products (DBPs) formed. Weekly chlorine decay tests were initiated in April 1998 to gather information on chlorine decay so that the necessary parameters to produce an integrated C × T value could be developed (area under the chlorine decay curve). Wachusett Reservoir water quality is also affected by transfer of water from the Quabbin Reservoir, which has lower total organic carbon and UV254 absorbance levels. A model was developed to describe the rate constant as a function of hydroxide concentration (taking both pH and temperature effects into account through the ion product of water), UV254 absorbance, and chlorine dose only. The availability of kinetic parameters allows development of a method for calculating C × T achievement for primary disinfection. Models for DBP formation will be presented in another article. These models together allow for better determination of the necessary chlorine dosage to achieve the required C × T value and minimize DBP formation.
Arizona Requires an Emergency Situation Before Interim Rate Changes Possible
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The Court of Appeals of Arizona has ruled that in the absence of an emergency or automatic adjustment clause, the Arizona Corporation Commission (ACC) cannot impose a water rate surcharge that is based on a specific cost increase without first determining a water utility's fair value rate base.
Rising to the Challenge
Authors: Mills Donald A.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the importance of an organized, industrywide approach to protecting water supply facilities against terrorism. The article stresses that each water system in the US must undertake a thorough self‐exam and discusses elemental concerns that can be used as a starting point for initiating a security analysis.
Finding your way
Authors: Summers Patrick
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how developing and implementing an Information Technology (IT) strategy is the first step to reducing the cost of customer transactions, allowing real‐time troubleshooting and monitoring of water use, automating, updating, and streamlining data organization and business processes, and even proving compliance with new regulations.
User‐friendly Carbonate Chemistry Charts
Authors: Najm Issam
Published: February 2018

Acid and base addition is commonly practiced in drinking water treatment. These chemicals are used primarily to control pH and alkalinity of water in order to enhance treatment performance and reliability. The acid or base dose required to cause a predetermined change in pH is primarily influenced by the starting pH and alkalinity of the water. Calculating the exact acid or base dose needed to cause a specific shift in pH requires knowledge of the basic chemical reactions involved and the mathematical principles that describe them. This article provides an introduction to and validation of user‐friendly charts that can be used to answer questions of acid or base addition, as well as the corresponding pH and alkalinity changes. The charts presented do not require any knowledge of the background chemical reactions or their mathematical representations.
Role of Aluminosilicate deposits in Lead and Copper Corrosion
Authors: Kvech Steven , Edwards Marc
Published: February 2018

Aluminosilicates frequently deposit onto plumbing materials in distribution systems. Such solids were previously believed to provide some degree of corrosion protection to pipes—although at the expense of increased head loss, reduced flow, and consumer complaints related to postprecipitation. However, this work demonstrates that new copper and lead pipe sections did not benefit from the deposition of aluminosilicate solids. In fact, in most situations the presence of solids actually caused the release of more metal to drinking water compared with solutions without solids. Final pH played a key role in determining the extent of copper corrosion, and the aluminum deposits prevented increases in pH during stagnation through a buffering action.
Whitman's Halloween surprise: 10‐μg/L arsenic standard
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark A.
Published: February 2018

This column discusses US Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Christie Whitman's surprise proclamation of October 31, 2001 that the summer‐long review of the arsenic rule affirmed the 10 ug/L standard promulgated last January 22, 2001. Drinking water suppliers and regulators felt that the assessment was not complete as far as the soundness of the tougher new standard, coming as it did on the due date for public comment on a midsummer proposal seeking input on four maximum contaminant level options, and on the results of rigorous reviews of the best available risk, cost, and benefits science.
Comparing TOTAL HAA and TOTAL THM CONCENTRATIONS using ICR data
Authors: Roberts Megan G. , Singer Philip C. , Obolensky Alexa
Published: February 2018

The US Environmental Protection Agency's Information Collection Rule (ICR) provided a rich source of occurrence data for total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) and six of the nine bromine‐ and chlorine‐containing haloacetic acids (HAAs), i.e., HAA6. A limited number of utilities participating under the ICR measured the remaining three HAAs—bromodichloroacetic acid, dibromochloroacetic acid, and tribromoacetic acid, collectively referred to as HAA3; however, extensive occurrence data for these HAA species are still lacking. An examination of the first 12 months of available ICR disinfection by‐product (DBP) data found that these three HAA species constitute a significant fraction of total HAA (HAA9) concentrations in finished drinking waters. A model was developed to estimate HAA3 occurrence using measured concentrations of trichloroacetic acid and individual TTHM species. The model estimated HAA3 concentrations reasonably well, and after estimated HAA3 concentrations were added to ICR HAA6 results, the model allowed for generation of a national distribution of total HAA occurrence. The median HAA9 level for this national distribution was approximately equal to the observed median ICR TTHM concentration. This finding suggests that THM/HAA relationships in US drinking waters need to be reevaluated with respect to DBP exposure and regulation.
Montana Standard on Mixing Zones Not a Violation of Clean Water Act
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The US Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit has determined that Montana's water quality standard that exempts mixing zones from compliance with the water quality criteria under the Clean Water Act (CWA) was not itself a violation of the act. A mixing zone is an allocated impact zone in which acute and chronic water quality criteria may be exceeded as long as a number of protections are maintained.
Cleanup benefits reach utilities: BIOREMEDIATION A GROWING MARKET
Authors: Parmelee Mary A.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses bioremediation as one of the fastest‐growing technologies for the treatment of contaminated soils and groundwater, and it is increasingly becoming available for the cleanup and protection of water supplies. The article discusses the demand for such services, explains what bioremediation is and how it works, describes the growth of the US bioremediation market, and research being done in the field.
Chemical Reduction Methods for Bromate Ion Removal
Authors: Gordon Gilbert , Gauw Renee D. , Emmert Gary L. , Walters Bryan D. , Bubnis Bernard
Published: February 2018

Bromate ion (BrO3–) in drinking water is a concern to water utilities because of its toxicity—but also because new regulations have been promulgated to lower residual levels of BrO3– in finished water. This study evaluated sulfite ion (SO32–) and reduced iron (Fe2+) as potential removal agents for BrO3–over a wide pH range. The experimental rate law for BrO3– removal using SO32– shows that the rate of removal decreases with increasing pH. The experimental rate law for BrO3– removal using Fe2+ shows that the rate of removal increases with increasing pH.
Lawsuit Against Texas Resources Commission Allowed
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

Under the doctrine of sovereign immunity, a state is immune from suit. However, because of a Texas law that allowed citizens to file suit because of the inaction of the Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC), this doctrine did not bar a landowner's action against TNRCC.
Evaluation of Costs and Benefits OF A lower arsenic MCL
Authors: Frost Floyd J. , Tollestrup Kristine , Craun Gunther F. , Raucher Robert , Stomp John , Chwirka Joseph
Published: February 2018

The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) recently proposed that the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for arsenic be revised from 50 to 10 μg/L. This change will have significant economic consequences for water systems. Will the benefits of the revised MCL justify the expense? According to Frost et al, the revised arsenic MCL will result in high costs for uncertain benefits. To support their theory, they examined the cancer health risk studies that were used to support the proposed revision and evaluated the quality of this evidence as well as its cost‐effectiveness. They maintain that the science supporting the proposed new arsenic MCL is fraught with uncertainties. For instance, the arsenic MCL revision is partly based on an extrapolation of arsenic‐related cancer risks from studies in Taiwan to US populations. However, the authors discovered that no US epidemiological studies have found adverse health effects in people who consumed US water supplies that contained arsenic. The authors used estimates of the cost of compliance developed by USEPA and the AWWA Research Foundation and USEPA's estimated reductions in arsenic‐related cancer mortality to calculate the marginal cost per year‐of‐life gained for different MCL options. These costs were then compared with acceptable costs for other public health and medical treatment interventions. Even assuming USEPA's projected benefits and costs, Frost et al maintain that the cost per year of life gained from the proposed regulation is much higher than acceptable costs per year of life gained from medical interventions or other public health programs. With their findings in mind, the authors hope that the drinking water industry will take a more aggressive approach to evaluating the health effects science for new proposed regulations and that their article will initiate a discussion of acceptable costs per unit of benefit for future regulations. Frost and colleagues also hope that the industry, led by AWWA and/or other organizations, will confront USEPA to reform the process used to justify new regulations.
Point‐of‐use treatment and the revised arsenic MCL
Authors: Gurian Patrick L. , Small Mitchell J.
Published: February 2018

Community water systems (CWSs) may comply with the US Environmental Protection Agency's new 10‐μg/L arsenic (As) standard using point‐of‐use (POU) treatment by reverse osmosis; however, current regulations do not specify exactly how a CWS should implement POU treatment. This article describes three scenarios for implementing a POU program and provides cost estimates for each scenario. These costs vary significantly depending on the amount of monitoring and maintenance assistance provided for each POU unit. The scenario with less‐frequent (triannual) As monitoring and annual maintenance assistance to the customer could be substantially less expensive than centralized treatment for many small CWSs. The triannual As monitoring is supplemented by more frequent conductivity measurements to ensure proper operation of the individual POU treatment units. The higher‐cost scenario, which includes a quarterly As monitoring schedule more typical of recent POU applications, is likely to be more expensive than centralized treatment for most CWSs. Although most CWSs would probably not adopt POU treatment as the preferred method of compliance with a stricter As standard under the current regulations, a POU treatment program may be a less‐costly variance option for CWSs for which centralized treatment is not economically feasible.
Assessment and Optimization of chemical and physicochemical Softening Processes
Authors: Chao Peng‐Fei , Westerhoff Paul
Published: February 2018

Hardness removal processes are very pH‐dependent, especially for removal of magnesium (Mg) and silica (Si). Bench‐scale tests were conducted with a groundwater that was supersaturated with carbon dioxide and contained calcium (Ca), Mg, and Si. The purpose of this work was to assess and optimize several softening processes to reduce chemical use (i.e., sludge production) and improve turbidity removal. Optimal dosing of lime and soda ash (OLSA) removed 79% of Ca and Mg hardness and 23% of Si hardness. Iron salt addition during OLSA improved the rate of turbidity removal, had minimal effect on Ca or Si removal, but decreased Mg removal unless the pH was readjusted to offset the pH decline that resulted from iron hydroxide formation. Sodium aluminate addition during OLSA improved the rate of turbidity removal and increased settled sludge viscosity, but did not affect Ca, Mg, or Si removal. In separate semibatch aeration softening tests (without lime or soda ash addition), Ca removal increased as a function of aeration rates; Mg and Si were not removed. The addition of a nuclei seed increased dissolved Ca removal from 60% without the nuclei seed to > 80% in the presence of 3 g/L of nuclei seed. Results indicate that the aeration softening process would remove hardness, decrease chemical consumption, and reduce sludge production.
Cooperation, coordination integrate area's water resources
Authors: Webber Timothy M. , Henry Rick
Published: February 2018

Located in western New York state, Genesee County is home to approximately 60,000 residents. For several years, towns within the county have experienced problems with both water quality and quantity. This paper discusses a project by Clark Patterson Associates, Genesee County, Monroe County Water Authority (MCWA), and Erie County Water Authority (ECWA) to develop a successful plan to update an aging infrastructure and provide water of sufficient quality and quantity to the residents of Genesee County. The plan was called the Genesee County Water Supply Program.
A Perspective of Riverbank Filtration
Authors: Ray Chittaranjan , Grischek Thomas , Schubert Jürgen , Wang Jack Z. , Speth Thomas F.
Published: February 2018

Riverbank filtration (RBF) is a process in which pumping wells located along riverbanks induce a portion of the river water to flow toward the wells. During RBF, which has many similarities to slow‐sand filtration, river water contaminants are attenuated from a combination of processes such as filtration, microbial degradation, sorption to sediments and aquifer sand, and dilution with background groundwater. RBF systems have been operating in Europe since the 1870s. In the United States, there has been renewed interest among large‐ to medium‐sized utilities to use it as a mechanism of water production to reduce treatment costs and to meet regulations on pathogens, disinfection byproducts, and other contaminants under the Surface Water Treatment Rule. Although filtrate water quality from RBF systems can vary based on river conditions, it is possible that appropriately designed systems can serve as pretreatment for drinking water, and at the same time, the utility can receive log‐removal credits for pathogens and particles. In addition, RBF can be used as a pretreatment for membrane filtration. In the United States, a knowledge gap exists on the benefits and limitations of using RBF. This paper addresses those gaps, outlining the benefits and limitations of the process. It also illustrates that RBF can be a viable alternative to surface water at suitable sites.
Effects of CO32–/bicarbonate, Si, and PO43– on Arsenic sorption to HFO
Authors: Holm Thomas R.
Published: February 2018

Groundwaters that have elevated arsenic (As) concentrations sometimes have moderate to high ferrous iron concentrations. Soluble As species readily sorb to hydrous ferric oxide (HFO); therefore, conventional water treatment methods that remove soluble iron (Fe) by oxidizing to HFO also remove As. Commonly occurring solutes, including phosphate (PO43–), silica (Si), and carbonate (CO32–), also sorb to HFO, and competition between these substances and As species may interfere with As removal. This study simulated Fe/As removal at the pH values, alkalinities, and concentrations of Si and PO43– typical of central Illinois groundwater. The results suggest that for water with a pH > 7, lowering the pH to 7 can overcome CO32– and Si interferences. Lowering the pH of water containing PO43– improves As removal but not to the degree observed in waters containing CO32– and Si. The Dzombak and Morel surface complexation–diffuse‐layer model fits the sorption data fairly well.
USEPA shows helping hand for small systems
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark A.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how small community and nontransient‐noncommunity water systems, expecting to have difficulties complying with the revised federal drinking water standard of 10 ug/L by January 23, 2006, may find help in two new documents from the US Environmental Protection Agency. In both a report to Congress and draft implementation guidance released in March, the agency has laid out its plans to help roughly 3,400 small systems that are expected to face compliance challenges, find the regulatory flexibility and financial and technical resources needed to meet or beat the tougher new maximum contaminant level (MCL) no later than January 23, 2015 ‐ 14 years after promulgation.
Tapping into AWWA at the Local Level
Authors: Torpie Scott
Published: February 2018

Getting training at AWWA's subsection level is often the best way for small systems with small budgets to get the type of comprehensive, hands‐on education and advice they need. Subsection board members, who typically come from the staffs of local utilities, vendors, consultants, and/or local and state drinking water programs, devote their time and talent for the sole purpose of providing relevant training and professional growth opportunities for local drinking water professionals. The Inland Empire Subsection, one of 14 subsections of AWWA's Pacific Northwest Section, provided education to 478 people during the past year, and during the past 7 years, it has provided education to 2,100 people.
Public–private partnerships show gains in 2001
Authors: Parmelee Mary A.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses statistics concerning how contract services for water and wastewater in the United States gained economic ground in 2001, despite an economic downturn.
Water follies
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr relates how an Australian veterinarian and biochemical pathologist, Russell Beckett, has patented a specific water concoction called “Unique Water.” This Australian water contains magnesium bicarbonate, which acts as a buffer to the body's cells from the harmful effects of carbon dioxide produced in the body and the acids it creates, causing degeneration and inflammation such as arthritis, osteoporosis, cartilage loss, and Alzheimer's disease.
Total Coliform Rule in USEPA sights for revision
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark A.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the first six‐year review by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) of current national primary drinking water regulations (NPDWRS), resulting in a preliminary decision that the total coliform rule (TCR) can be improved, whereas none of 68 chemical contaminants is ripe for revision at this time.
The Operator's Territory: Working Within Various Political Structures
Authors: Moore Michelle
Published: February 2018

Because operators of small water systems often deal directly with the boards that oversee them, they need to develop the skills and techniques that managers in larger water systems often use.
Assessing Intrusion Susceptibility in Distribution Systems
Authors: Lindley Trevor R. , Buchberger Steven G.
Published: February 2018

The last barrier of a water supply system is the distribution system. To ensure the quality of water that is delivered to the customer, utilities take precautions to prevent intrusions, both accidental and deliberate, from occurring. Many waterborne illnesses can be traced to similar breakdowns in the distribution system. Intrusions may occur during backflow at a connection or where a water main is broken. Other conditions such as low pressure can also cause an intrusion. In addition, systems can be vulnerable to intentional sabotage. Although this article focuses on accidental intrusions, its findings can provide a basis for assessing susceptibility because of intentional attacks on distribution systems. This article provides a framework to identify locations in the distribution system that are susceptible to contaminant intrusion. The framework integrates infrastructure information, hydraulic modeling, and demographic data. These elements are managed within a geographic information system. Susceptibility is based on the joint spatial occurrence of three critical conditions: system pressure, intrusion pathway, and contaminant or pollutant source. Locations found to be susceptible to intrusions are prioritized for attention based on proximity to sensitive populations, such as children and the elderly. This active management approach will perhaps allow utilities to avoid more heavy‐handed regulatory requirements. If a utility is able to demonstrate that it is in tune with the day‐to‐day operations of the system, regulators are perhaps less inclined to require numerous regulations and expensive sampling protocols.
An innovative technology to improve surface water quality
Authors: Ferrante John G.
Published: February 2018

The Surface Water Protection System (SWPS) helps solve water pollution problems by minimizing particulates, certain organic contaminants, and bacterial loading to surface water reservoirs. The SWPS can be an effective tool to alleviate water contamination in surface water reservoirs and intake systems for water treatment facilities. The technology is designed to lessen the need for extensive pretreatment facilities and high concentrations of chlorine as a bactericide. The SWPS includes a full water column filter curtain, supported by a floating boom and anchored to the contour of the floor of the body of water. The curtain is designed to greatly reduce coliform bacteria numbers and turbidity in the body of water it protects. The boom isolates a source of storm water discharge and stops the transport of particulate material and associated bacteria from entering the main body of water.
The Three C's
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses the importance of the basic principles of culture, coordination, and communication being embedded in an organization's security philosophy.
Don't Confuse Marketing With Public Participation
Authors: Katz Sara M.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses how marketing and public participation are two distinct types of communication with different, and complementary, goals. Criteria are given for choosing the right approach for the communication goal, along with examples of different kinds of communication goals.
First CCL regulatory determination draws a blank
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark A.
Published: February 2018

If the US Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) preliminary decision not to regulate any of nine contaminants on the first contaminant candidate list (CCL1) holds up, no new drinking water standards will be promulgated for them, while guidance will be issued to address potential eye‐infection risks posed by Acanthamoeba and health advisories will be finalized for sodium and sulfate.
Let's Deal With the Real Arsenic Problem
Authors: Adamski Robert E.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses the arsenic levels found in the drinking water of countries outside the US and how as little as $5 can reduce arsenic levels from 100 ug/L to safe levels of 20 ug/L. The article stresses how a donation of $10 a month (the cost of protecting 2 million consumers in the US from the health risks of arsenic in the water supply) to such groups as Water For People can save a child's life or reduce the risk of cancer in developing countries.
Bench‐Scale Evaluation of Innovative Arsenic‐Removal Processes
Authors: Smith Sheryl D. , Edwards Marc
Published: February 2018

Microsand‐ballasted coagulation provided promising arsenic (As) removal in bench‐scale tests of simulated drinking waters; however, no synergistic benefits were observed when microsand‐ballasted coagulation was used as a pretreatment to microfiltration. Polymer was critically important to the performance of the microsand‐ballasted coagulation process. Although coagulation/microfiltration typically provided the best As removal at a given iron dose, microsand‐ballasted coagulation processes are likely to be a promising alternative method of As treatment for many utilities if expectations of lower projected capital and operating costs for microsand are proven valid.
Community
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W.
Published: February 2018

In his column, AWWA Executive Director Jack Hoffbuhr discusses the uncertain future for the water industry and the importance of the web of relationships and the sense of community that our association offers during these uncertain times. He discusses three key areas that our association must excel in so that we can continue to develop a successful community.
White papers set stage for regulating distribution system water quality
Authors: Scharfenaker Mark A.
Published: February 2018

This article presents summaries of a series of “white papers” that review the best available science on potential health risks posed by nine of the most significant concerns. These white papers consolidate all of the most important findings reported in recent literature and research on the priority topics and set the stage for regulating distribution system water quality.
Suburban Water Demand Modeling Using Stepwise Regression
Authors: Brekke Levi , Larsen Milton D. , Ausburn Mary , Takaichi Lynn
Published: February 2018

Any utility facing rapid growth and expensive capital improvements needs accurate water demand forecasts for planning. For a smaller suburban utility, the planning effort is constrained by limited staff and financial resources. Although smaller utilities may understand the benefits of using multiple regression for water demand forecasting, they may instead decide to use conventional trend analysis or unit water demand analysis. This decision is often based on the belief that multiple regression is difficult to implement, requires staff experts on statistics, and is too time‐consuming. This study was undertaken to eliminate these misperceptions. It shows that: regression‐based water demand models are easy to develop using features available in most spreadsheet and statistical software packages; and, the time to develop a model can be reduced from days to minutes if a systematic model construction procedure such as stepwise regression is used. Although good information is available on using multiple regression analysis to investigate historic water demand, little information is available on the merits of stepwise regression and/or other systematic model construction techniques. This article can help make regression‐based water demand analysis more accessible to water suppliers with limited resources and staff expertise.
Effect of ortho‐and polyphosphates on the properties of IRON PARTICLES AND SUSPENSIONS
Authors: Lytle Darren A. , Snoeyink Vernon L.
Published: February 2018

Orthophosphate and polyphosphates are widely used by drinking water utilities to reduce lead, copper, and iron (Fe) release from distribution system materials and reduce visible Fe precipitation and related discolored water complaints. Bench‐scale experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of orthophosphate and several polyphosphates on the properties of Fe particles and suspensions derived from the oxygenation of Fe (II) at a single oxygen concentration over a broad pH range. Results showed that polyphosphates and orthophosphate, to a lesser extent, reduced apparent color and turbidity of Fe suspensions, decreased particle size, made the zeta potential more negative, and increased Fe suspension stability. A fixed‐mass concentration of low‐molecular‐weight polyphosphate was more effective at reducing the particle size of Fe (III) solids than high‐molecular‐weight polyphosphates.
Oregon Agency Allowed to Waive Time Limit for NPDES Permit Renewal
Authors: Stiegler Mayo H.
Published: February 2018

The US Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has ruled that the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (ODEQ) acted within its authority when it waived the time limitation for a company's renewal application for a discharge permit.
Enhanced Coagulation and Removal of Cryptosporidium
Authors: States Stanley , Tomko Richard , Scheuring Michele , Casson Leonard
Published: February 2018

In an effort to better control formation of disinfection by‐products (DBPs), the US Environmental Protection Agency's recently promulgated Disinfectants/DBP Rule requires that US surface water treatment plants whose influent and effluent waters meet certain criteria practice enhanced coagulation. Although this treatment technique has been shown to effectively reduce natural organic matter, and consequently DBPs, questions have been raised concerning its effect on other aspects of water treatment such as particle and pathogen removal. The current study was designed to investigate the influence of decreased coagulation pH levels (an integral component of enhanced coagulation) on removal of Cryptosporidium oocysts as well as on reduction of total organic carbon (TOC), turbidity, and particle counts. A series of pilot‐plant trials was conducted in which commonly used coagulants (ferric chloride, alum, and polyaluminum chloride) were used at various pH levels to treat river water spiked with large numbers of Cryptosporidium oocysts. The results showed that TOC removal is significantly enhanced by coagulation at lower pH levels and that all three coagulants are effective in removing Cryptosporidium oocysts during conventional treatment (mean removal = 4.3 log units). However, turbidity and particle counts appear to be unreliable indicators of oocyst removal. Finally, the investigation suggested that lowering coagulation pH does not interfere with removal of Cryptosporidium. However, questions remain concerning the use of alum at pH 5.
Pilot‐scale evaluation of nitrification control strategies
Authors: Harrington Gregory W. , Noguera Daniel R. , Kandou Alicia I. , Vanhoven David J.
Published: February 2018

A significant concern associated with chloramination is nitrification caused by the growth of ammonia‐oxidizing bacteria (AOB) in the distribution system. To prevent nitrification, any measures designed to slow the decay of chloramine and its associated release of ammonia should theoretically reduce the occurrence of AOB growth. Pilot‐scale studies were used to evaluate whether enhanced removal of natural organic matter and pH adjustment delayed the onset of nitrification. For the system described in this article, nitrification occurred at pH values ranging from 7.9 to 8.9, with the time to onset of nitrification being fastest at about pH 8.5. However, pretreatment with enhanced coagulation successfully delayed the onset of nitrification compared with pretreatment with conventional coagulation. Nitrification did not occur when total chlorine concentrations were 2.2 mg/L as Cl2 or more. Similarly, nitrification did not occur in locations with biocide‐to‐food ratios of 1.9 mg Cl2/mg N or more.
Researchers looking to fiber technology for desalination, metals removal
Authors: Parmelee Mary A.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses a new research center at the University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign that is working on developing new materials and technologies for water treatment. The goal of the center is to develop revolutionary materials and systems for safely and economically purifying water to counter the impending crisis of world‐wide water shortages. The center's research focuses on improving disinfection and desalination processes, removing trace contaminants, and eliminating foulants that clog filters and reduce their effectiveness.
Water utility communication practices—what Contributes to Success?
Authors: Bishop Bojinka
Published: February 2018

Water utilities in the United States must communicate with a variety of stakeholders, including customers, the media, boards, and citizens' groups. Often, they must disseminate negative, unpleasant, or unwelcome information about rate hikes, conservation measures, water source pollution, expensive infrastructure projects, and management or ownership changes. The biggest challenge facing water providers today is finding effective ways to convey their variety of messages to this range of audiences. To better understand the communication practices of US water suppliers, a national survey of 175 utilities was conducted to obtain hard data about the toughest topics, toughest audiences, communication techniques used, and utilities' perception about the success of their communication efforts. Survey responses indicated that water quality was the toughest topic and residential customers were the toughest audience. Of the approximately 60 communication techniques used, news releases were the most common. As to success, nearly three quarters of respondents rated their communication efforts as very or moderately successful. Statistical analysis of survey responses showed that successful communication efforts were correlated with 10 principles of authentic communication: communication must be truthful, fundamental, comprehensive, relevant, clear, consistent, accessible, timely, compassionate, and allow feedback. By adopting these proven principles as best practices, water providers can become more effective in communicating with their various constituencies on today's increasingly complex water issues.