bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Melodic Memory Tests: A Comparison of Normal Children and Mental Defectives
Authors: Zenatti Arlette
Published: June 2006

A melodic memory test divided into two series, one tonal and the other atonal, was given to 480 children of normal intelligence and 396 mental defectives. The normal group ranged in age between 5 years, 6 months, and 16 years, 6 months. The defectives (IQs between 50 and 85) had an age range of 8 years, 4 months, to 16 years, 6 months.

The results demonstrated that the acuity of perceptive discrimination in the defectives was clearly inferior to that of the normal children of the same chronological age and approximated that of normal children of the same mental age. Tonal acculturation was shown by a significantly easier discrimination in the tonal series, in relation to the mental age of the subjects.
The Influence of Loudness on the Discrimination of Musical Sound Factors
Authors: Haack Paul A.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effects of differing loudness levels on discrimination of pitch, rhythm, duration, loudness, timbre, and tonal memory. Subjects were 101 university undergraduates, and comparisons were made for music versus nonmusic majors, males versus females, and those with exposure versus nonexposure to loud sounds.

Analysis of variance procedures revealed the significant influence of varying loudness levels on rhythm, duration, loudness, and timbre discriminations. Music and nonmusic majors responded similarly, though several interactions were noted. No major differences appeared concerning the sex variable nor the exposure to loudness grouping; however, the nonexposure subjects fared more favorably in a preponderance of mean data comparisons (15 of 21)— a trend most marked among the nonmusic majors.

Implications were that less intense presentation levels should be employed to enhance timbre discriminations, louder presentation levels to enhance perception and discrimination of loudness or dynamic variation. Also noted was the need to view cautiously those test norms and results acquired without rigorous control of loudness presentation levels.
The Relationship of Pitch-Matching and Pitch-Discrimination Abilities of Preschool and Fourth-Grade Students
Authors: Geringer John M.
Published: June 2006

This study examined the relationship between pitch-discrimination and vocal pitch-matching abilities of preschool and fourth-grade children. One hundred forty-four students were selected randomly and tested individually on both ability measures. Scores on the pitch-discrimination test served as the basis for three ability-level groups within each age group. Analysis of pitch-matching scores indicated a significant difference between the age groups, but not for the pitch-discrimination based ability groups; nor was there a significant age-by-ability group interaction. Rank-order correlations between the two measures were generally low, with the exception of the high-ability group of fourth-graders, where r = 61.
A Comparison of the Motor Music Skills of Nonhandicapped and Learning Disabled Children
Authors: Gilbert Janet Perkins
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this research was to compare the motor music skill development of children who are learning disabled with that of their nonhandicapped peers. The research sample included 103 children ages 5 through 9 attending Colorado public schools. Data were collected via individual administration of the Motoric Music Skills Test (MMST). Resulting descriptive data indicated that improved skills were related to age, and that normal subjects attained a better average performance on every subtest except compound factors. Multivariate analysis of variance confirmed the significance of differences related to age and handicap; this analysis revealed an interaction between age and handicap, as defined primarily by performance on the criterion variable eye-hand. Results are discussed in terms of the performance problems of learning disabled subjects on eye-hand coordination tasks, and the implication from MMST performance that the manner in which educational materials are arranged and presented can overcome these difficulties.
Characteristics of Motivation for Music and Musical Aptitude of Undergraduate Nonmusic Majors
Authors: Asmus Edward P. , Harrison Carole S.
Published: June 2006

Nonmusic majors in a music appreciation course were administered an experimental college version of the Musical Aptitude Profile (CMAP) and two measures of motivation for music. One motivation measure assessed five factors to which students attribute success or failure in music: effort, musical ability, background, classroom environment, and affect for music. The other measure assessed the magnitude of student motivation for music in three areas: personal commitment, school music, and music compared to other activities. Low reliability obtained on the CMAP Musical Sensitivity scale necessitated its elimination from the analyses. No significant differences due to sex or academic level were obtained, nor was there a significant relationship between the motivation and aptitude variables. The motivating factors and magnitude-of-motivation measures were significantly related, although these two types of variables were found to measure different aspects of music motivation. The main reason cited for being musically motivated was affect for music.
The Contributions of Development versus Music Training to Simple Tempo Discrimination
Authors: Miller Leon K. , Eargle Amy
Published: June 2006

Children ages 7 to 15 and adults were asked to detect changes in an unaccompanied drumbeat that either increased, decreased, or maintained the same tempo across measures. Marked differences in performance as a function of age were found for the change trials, older subjects being more accurate, while musical training was relatively unimportant. For trials in which the beat remained constant, however, subjects with musical training were more accurate, while age, by itself, had little effect upon performance. A multiprocess model for the perception of tempo is discussed.
Music and Elementary Education Students' Evaluations of Music-Teaching Scripts
Authors: Wolfe David E. , Jellison Judith A.
Published: June 2006

The manner in which a teacher uses particular instructional techniques has been referred to as the teacher's “style.” Teacher observation and evaluation is frequently structured to demonstrate styles and instructional techniques to future teachers. Previous research using videotaped teaching examples for subjects' evaluations indicates that a discrepancy exists between the actual effectiveness of teaching procedures that contribute to music learning and observers' perceptions of their effectiveness. We examined perceived differences among three teaching styles and identified subjects' perceptions of their own teaching styles. Two groups of subjects, 188 elementary education students and 99 music students, rated three teaching scripts that were developed to exemplify three different teaching styles: (a) lecture, (b) questions, and (c) positive feedback. Discriminant analyses used in the comparison of subjects' responses on 10 teaching variables for the three teaching conditions indicated that the differences among the conditions were most attributable to the variable of student participation. Positive feedback was perceived as the most effective style and was selected most often by subjects as the most desirable style.
An Assessment of Motor Music Skill Development in Young Children
Authors: Gilbert Janet
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this research was to describe the characteristics of motor music skill development in children aged three to six. Variations in development were also examined in relation to age, sex, race, community size, and previous musical instrument experience. Data were gathered via administration of the Motoric Music Skills Test (MMST) to 808 children selected from seven eastern Kansas communities. Measures of central tendency and variability for each age group indicated that the skills tested by the MMST improve with increases in chronological age. Inferential statistical procedures included a canonical analysis to reduce the number of independent variables, followed by a multiple analysis of variance. Race, community size, and previous musical instrument experience were not significantly related to test performance, and no interactions were discerned among the variables.
The Effectiveness of Mental Practice in Improving the Performance of College Trombonists
Authors: Ross Stewart L.
Published: June 2006

This study examined the relative effectiveness of mental practice in improving trombone performance. The experiment involved 30 trombonists from three colleges. They were randomly assigned to one of five experimental practice conditions: (1) all physical practice, (2) all mental practice, (3) a combination of physical and mental practice, (4) mental practice with simulated slide movement, and (5) no practice (control). A short étude served as both a pre- and posttest. A one-way analysis of covariance and subsequent Scheffé's Test found three pairs of groups significantly different from each other: (1) combined practice and no practice, (2) combined practice and mental practice, and (3) physical practice and no practice. The results of the study suggest that the use of mental with physical practice can accrue many benefits for the skilled trombonist.
Student Perceptions of Characteristics of Effective Applied Music Instructors
Authors: Abeles H. F.
Published: June 2006

The lack of a satisfactory instrument for evaluating applied music instruction stimulated this research. A four-factor (rapport, instructional systemization, instructional skill, and musical knowledge), 30-item rating scale for systemizing student evaluations of applied faculty was developed. The facet-factorial scale development procedure was employed. The study produced a scale that seems appropriate to employ in the evaluation of applied faculty. The inter-judge reliability estimates for the scale are sufficiently high (.88 to .96) and the relationship with an appropriate criterion variable, student performance, seems acceptable (.60).
Same/Different Discrimination Techniques, Readiness Training, Pattern Treatment, and Sex on Aural Discrimination and Singing of Tonal Patterns by Kindergartners
Authors: Jordan-DeCarbo Joyce
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effect on kindergarten children of same different discrimination techniques, sex, readiness training, and tonal patterns trained with songs or no songs on one aural perception and two singing measures. During an 11-week period, 89 children received training in eight tonal patterns. Dependent variables were (1) Primary Measures of Music Audiation (Part I-Tonal), (2) the Criterion Singing Test 1 (103-tone patterns), and (3) the Criterion Singing Test 2 (song). Results indicated no significant differences between techniques or among readiness groups. Girls scored significantly higher than boys. Results of the analysis of patterns trained with songs or no songs were inconclusive.
Effects of Student Teaching on the Classroom Management Beliefs and Skills of Music Student Teachers
Authors: Brand Manny
Published: June 2006

This study provided a basis for answering two questions: (1) Does the music student teaching experience affect student teachers' classroom management beliefs and skills; and (2) As a result of student teaching, do the classroom management beliefs and skills of student teachers and their cooperating teachers become more congruent? Forty-seven music student teachers from two universities and 47 cooperating teachers comprised the sample population. Data were collected on the subjects' classroom management beliefs and skills before and after the 8-week student teaching experience. Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that the student teaching experience did not affect the student teachers' classroom management beliefs and skills, and student teachers did not become more like their cooperating teachers wtih regard to classroom management beliefs and skills. The results raise questions regarding the effectiveness of cooperating teachers in assisting their trainees in the area of classroom management.
Music Instruction in Early Nineteenth-Century American Monitorial Schools
Authors: Fouts Gordon E.
Published: June 2006

The monitorial school, developed in England in the late eighteenth century by Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell, was adopted in the early nineteenth-century in American schools. Educators hoped that this system, which was designed to extend the teacher's efforts by means of student assistant teachers, would provide training for children at minimal expense—up to three hundred pupils per teacher. The first three volumes of the American Journal of Education (1826–1828) were devoted almost entirely to discussions of the monitorial system and to schools that used it. Ezra Barrett's Sabbath School Psalmody was planned and published in 1828 to assist teachers in presenting music rudiments by means of this system. The most significant characteristic of the system was that the assistant teachers, or monitors, learned given lessons and then instructed other members of the class by means of prepared questions and answers. The monitors and their groups repeatedly recited the questions and answers until the information was assimilated.

Henry Kemble Oliver, a teacher, church musician, and hymn-tune composer who taught in monitorial schools during the 1820s, related his observations of the monitorial system before the first annual meeting of the American Institute of Instruction in 1830. He first spoke well of the system, principally because a large number of pupils could be accommodated by a single teacher, saving time and money. However, Oliver also pointed out the superficiality of the instruction and other adverse effects that outweighed the advantages. The influence of monitorial schools declined in America during the first half of the nineteenth century with the development of public schools.
An Analysis of Sequential Patterns of Instruction in Piano Lessons
Authors: Speer Donald R.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate verbal behaviors of independent piano teachers in private lessons. Forty-seven lessons from 25 teachers were recorded on audiotape, scripted, and analyzed for time spent in teacher presentation, student participation, and teacher reinforcement. Frequencies were obtained for complete/correct, complete/incorrect, and incomplete teaching patterns observed.

Results indicated significant differences due to student age in presentation of musical information, teacher talk, teacher coaching, and student participation. Students perceived as “average” by teachers received significantly more directive comments than “better” students. Significant interactions were observed for verbal reinforcement by student and teacher experience. Teachers with more than 18.5 years of experience were more disapproving to students with more than 3.5 years of playing experience. Less-experienced teachers were more specific with approvals than their more-experienced colleagues. Frequencies of complete/correct patterns of teaching were significantly lower than other patterns observed.
Undergraduate Nonmusic Majors' World Music Preference and Multicultural Attitudes
Authors: Fung C. Victor
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between world music preferences and multicultural attitudes of nonmusic-major undergraduate students. The World Music Preference Inventory (WMPI) and the Multicultural Attitude Inventory (MAI) were administered to 50 undergraduate nonmusic majors. Two scores were determined from the WMPI (composite preference and composite correct identification) for eight world music style categories: Africa, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Middle East, and Thailand. No significant correlations were found between the composite preference score and composite correct identification score. There was, however, a significant correlation between the composite preference score and the composite MAI score. Furthermore, significant correlations were found among the preference subscores of all style categories, indicating that subjects' preferences for the eight world musical style categories were similar. Analyses revealed that there was a significantly higher degree of preference for instrumental excerpts than for vocal excerpts.
Connections between the Musical and Life Experiences of Young Composers and Their Compositions
Authors: Stauffer Sandra L.
Published: June 2006

The case-study records of six sixth-grade composers were examined for evidence of connections between the music and life experiences of the students and compositions they wrote. Analysis revealed rich and varied connections between the students' contexts and their music. Idiomatic writing related to instrumental and ensemble experiences was present in their works, and links between instrumental fluency and fluency in composing became evident. Familiar melodies from instrumental experiences, films, and television served as starting points for compositions. Social and cultural cues related to other media as well as to school and home life were also evident in compositions. Findings suggest that young composers draw on their sociocultural milieu and personal experiences to create music that is relevant and meaningful to them.
First Remembrances of Wanting to Become a Music Teacher
Authors: Madsen Clifford K. , Kelly Steven N.
Published: June 2006

In the study described here, we used an open-ended written essay to identify the factors that lead students to become music teachers. Ninety music education majors were given the instructions to indicate in their own words their earliest remembrances of when they considered becoming a music teacher, including age, place, who was with them, how they felt, their thoughts at the time, and any other aspects they considered important. Essays were analyzed and classified according to these areas of interest; additionally as a more qualitative assessment, total responses were analyzed to discern some of the nuances evidenced in individual responses. Results indicated that the age at which the decision was made and influential people in their lives were the most important factors affecting these subjects' decision to become a music teacher. The decision was vividly remembered, with school music teachers exerting the primary influence. Of the subjects, 76% decided to become a music teacher before entering a teacher preparatory program. Students who did not decide until they were of college age remained ambivalent about their choice.
On-Task Participation of Typical Students close to and away from Classmates with Disabilities in an Elementary Music Classroom
Authors: Jellison Judith A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this case study was to assess on-task participation by individual typical students in an inclusive elementary music classroom when students were close to and away from classmates with disabilities. Ten typical fourth-grade children in an inclusive music class of 24 students, two of whom had disabilities, were selected for observation. No specific instructions were given to students regarding interactions with peers with disabilities. Computerized software was used to record on-task and off task behaviors. Findings show differences among typical students related to the two classmates with disabilities and in different locations. Results discussed include individual differences among typical students, location and the academic success of students with and without disabilities, and the importance of teaching typical children when and how to interact with their classmates with disabilities.
Interval Matching by Undergraduate Nonmusic Majors
Authors: Price Harry E.
Published: June 2006

This article describes the sixth in a series of studies designed to gain a better understanding of factors that may affect pitch matching. Undergraduate nonmusic majors ( N = 141) enrolled in a music fundamentals class were classified as uncertain, modulating, or certain singers. They listened to a stimulus tape of descending minor thirds, sung by men in their normal and falsetto registers (G3-E3 and G4-E4, respectively, with G3 (middle C being C4), and to two sine-wave stimuli in the same octaves and attempted to sing back the interval they heard. There were no significant differences in the accuracy of responses to male and sine-wave stimuli or between men and women participants. There were significant differences among singer types, with inaccurate singers being less in tune than either modulating or certain singers. There was a significant interaction of response accuracy between participant sex and stimulus octave. These results differ somewhat from previous research with children, in which stimulus timbre and participant sex were factors.
A Comparison of Music Majors' and Nonmajors' Perceptions of Tension for Two Selections of Jazz Music
Authors: Fredrickson William E. , Coggiola John C.
Published: June 2006

The present study allowed music majors (n = 40) and nonmajors (n = 30) to record their perceptions of tension in two selections of jazz music using the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI). Both musical stimuli were recorded versions of “St. Louis Blues” by W. C. Handy, The first was a popular, stylized version sung by Nat King Cole, and the second, which included an extensive improvisatory section, was performed by Ella Fitzgerald. In comparing these results to earlier studies dealing with music majors' and nonmajors' perceived tension and aesthetic response, there are certain factors that remain constant Music majors' responses did not seem to differ markedly in overall contour from nonmusic majors' responses, which is consistent with previous research. Graphs of perceived tension responses are much more highly differentiated than are graphs of perceived aesthetic response. These graphs produce a pattern that is unique to that musical selection (or in this case, a highly stylized performance). Subjects had no trouble performing the task or using an existing internal definition of musical tension. This existing internal definition is probably applied to a variety of musical styles, including jazz. This study also seemed to indicate a definite order effect in the presentation of the stimuli, which may relate to the way listeners put what they hear into a musical context.
Effects of Multiple Listenings on Error-Detection Acuity in Multivoice, Multitimbral Musical Examples
Authors: Sheldon Deborah A.
Published: June 2006

This study is an investigation of the effects of multiple listenings on error-detection identification and labeling accuracy among brass and woodwind instrumentalists. Examples derived from band music used balanced four-voice incipits performed with differing timbres, and errors that occurred in one or multiple voices. Response rates for correct and incorrect identification and labeling of errors were greatest during the first listening, less for the second, and least for the third. Identification mistakes outnumbered correct responses in the last two listenings. Error-labeling mistakes outnumbered correct responses in all listenings. Most correct responses in the first listening were made in the top two lines. During all listenings, the fewest correct identification and labeling responses occurred in the bottommost voice. Data suggest that multiple listenings and a correct aural referent may not help error-detection acuity in multitimbral, multivoice settings. These data may be useful in informing practice in conducting and methods instruction during teacher-preparation programs.
Relationships between Grades in Music Theory for Nonmusic Majors and Selected Background Variables
Authors: Harrison Carole S.
Published: June 2006

The relative contributions of measures of musical aptitude, music experience, and sex in predicting grades in a music theory course for nonmusic majors (N = 279) were determined by multiple regression analysis. The only statistically significant predictor was the variable indicating years of performance experience, which accounted for 10% of the variation in theory grades. Although the bivariate correlations between the measures of musical aptitude and music experience were strong, the musical aptitude measures did not contribute significantly to the prediction of theory grades.
Effect of Melodic Context, Tuning Behaviors, and Experience on the Intonation Accuracy of Wind Players
Authors: Morrison Steven J.
Published: June 2006

In the first of two experiments, subjects ( N = 137) were band students with 1, 2, 3, or 4 years of formal instrumental performance experience. Subjects tuned to a single prerecorded tuning pitch and subsequently played along with a prerecorded four-measure melody. Direction and magnitude of pitch deviation were analyzed for the single tuning pitch and four selected target pitches within the melody. Responses to the tuning pitch were more accurate than for the melodic pitches. There was a high positive correlation among the four melodic pitches, but a low positive correlation between the melodic pitches and tuning pitch. In a second experiment, high school musicians ( N = 167) played along with the same prerecorded melody after either (a) tuning their instrument to a single pitch, (b) receiving verbal instructions to perform “in tune,” or (c) receiving no information. No differences were observed among the three conditions. Students who first tuned to a single pitch were more accurate at this task than at melodic performance. A high correlation was observed among melodic pitches but not between melodic and tuning pitches. Across both experiments, subjects erred most often in the sharp direction; a stronger tendency toward sharp errors was noted among more experienced students. Performance accuracy was observed to improve with experience.
An Analysis of the Editorial Committee of the Journal of Research in Music Education, 1953-1992
Authors: Humphreys Jere T. , Stauffer Sandra L.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine selected characteristics of the editorial committee of the Journal of Research in Music Education (JRME) during the publication's first 40 years (1953-1992). Findings include: (1) the appointment of women to the committee increased significantly by decade but lagged behind female researcher productivity in music education; (2) committee members received their doctorates from and were affiliated with a relatively large number of colleges and universities; (3) generally, geographical distribution of the doctoral-degree-granting and affiliated institutions was proportionate to regional populations; (4) committee members' rate of publication in the JRME before appointment increased significantly by decade; and (5) female members published significantly more JRME articles than did male members during one decade, but there was no significant publication difference between male and female members for the four decades combined. The authors noted a possible trend toward dominance among doctoral-degree-granting institutions, but applauded the demographic representativeness of the committee over the four decades and continuing improvements toward the same.
The Effects of Texture and Number of Parts on the Ability of Music Majors to Detect Performance Errors
Authors: Byo James L.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine graduate and undergraduate music majors' ability to detect pitch arid rhythm errors in one-, two-, and three-part settings of texturally contrasting musical excerpts. A stimulus audiotape consisting of 12 excerpts resulted from the following arrangement by texture and number of parts: 4 one-part excerpts, 2 two-part and 2 three-part homorhythmic excerpts, and 2 two-part and 2 three-part polyrhythmic excerpts. Subjects ( N = 150) listened to purposefully marred recorded performances of these excerpts and attempted to identify pitch and rhythm errors by circling appropriate places on correctly notated scores. Results of analyses of variance with repeated measures on correct responses indicated significant main effects of degree status (graduate students were more accurate than were undergraduates); number of parts (subjects were most accurate in one-part settings, less accurate in two-part settings, and least accurate in three-part settings); texture (subjects were more accurate in homorhythmic texture than in polyrhythmic texture); and. error type (subjects were more accurate detecting rhythm errors than pitch errors). Significant interactions indicated that these variables did not function independently of each other.
The Integration of Pitch and Rhythm in Musical Judgment: Testing Age-Related Trends in Novice Listeners
Authors: Demorest Steven M. , Serlin Ronald C.
Published: June 2006

Results of a previous study revealed that musically untrained listeners showed a significant, age-related increase in their sensitivity to rhythmic information when judging the degree of difference between a theme and selected pitch and rhythm variations. There was no corresponding increase in their sensitivity to pitch information, and there were no age-related differences in the overall integration process used to reach their judgments. The purpose of this study was to test the possibility that the developmental differences found in the earlier study were due to specific characteristics of the test melody used. Musical novices were randomly sampled from Grades 1, 5, and 9 of three elementary schools and three high schools from three different suburban school districts. Adult musical novices were chosen from elementary education majors tested at the beginning of their required music course. Results using a new, contrasting test melody confirmed the findings of the first study regarding the increased importance of rhythmic information. However, some melody-related differences were found. Implications for early music education experiences and future research in perceptual development are discussed.
The Vocal Teacher of Ten Thousand: E. Azalia Hackley as Community Music Educator, 1910–22
Authors: Karpf Juanita
Published: June 2006

Known as “the vocal teacher often thousand, ”Emma Azalia Hackley (1867-1922) dedicated much of her career to the promotion of music activities in black communities. She organized dozens of community gatherings at which she taught music reading fundamentals, techniques of singing, and appreciation of the classics to huge groups of amateur musicians and the general public. This essay introduces aspects of the late nineteenth-century musical landscape in the United States that preceded Hackley's entry into music education, and recounts her career as a community music educator. The article concludes with the identification of more recent manifestations of the philosophical underpinnings that informed her teaching, thereby establishing connections between her work and contemporary educational thought. Hackley's own writings serve as the primary source material for this discussion whenever possible, supplemented by first-hand accounts of her activities that appeared in the black press and those written by her associates. Her accomplishments add an important chapter to the history of community music education which has thus far received little scholarly attention.
The Development of Teaching Cases for Instrumental Music Methods Courses
Authors: Conway Colleen M.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to develop teaching cases for instrumental music education methods courses through analysis of current teaching practice. A qualitative case study research design was used to document the daily interactions, decision-making skills, and use of pedagogical content knowledge of four experienced instrumental music teachers (one elementary, two middle school, and one high school teacher). Observation and interview data were analyzed and coded, categories were identified, and teaching cases were developed. The teaching case categories documented in this project include curricula and objectives, program administration, recruitment and balanced instrumentation, scheduling, choosing literature, classroom management in rehearsals, motivation, assessment and grading, musicianship, and rapport with students. Implications of this project for music teacher education and music education research are discussed.
A Nationwide Overview of Sight-Singing Requirements of Large-Group Choral Festivals
Authors: Norris Charles E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine sight-singing requirements at junior and senior high school large-group ratings-based choral festivals throughout the United States. Responses to the following questions were sought from each state: (1) Are there ratings-based large-group choral festivals? (2) Is sight-singing a requirement? (3) Are there specific levels or classes of difficulty ? (4) Is musical content specified for each level or class ? (5) Is there an overall rating that includes both the performance and sight-singing ratings? Data revealed that less than half of all states require sight-singing at large-group festivals at both the junior high and high school levels. Fewer states delineate levels of difficulty, outline musical content to be assessed, and use the sight-singing rating in an overall final rating. Frequency of “yes” responses to all questions was consistently lower at the junior high level. The author suggested further analysis of the most evolved state sight-singing assessment systems to develop a more uniform, sequential system of content, materials, and assessment.
Psychological Sex Type and Preferences for Musical Instruments in Fourth and Fifth Graders
Authors: Sinsel Tiffany J. , Dixon Wallace E. , Blades-Zeller Elizabeth
Published: June 2006

Music education researchers have found biological sex to be in important determinant of whether elementary students persevere in musical instrument training. Psychological sex type may also play an important role. A sample of 108 students from two elementary schools completed the Children's Sex Role Inventory (Boldizar, 1991) and, following a presentation of nine typical band instruments, completed a survey assessing most- and least-preferred instruments. Results showed that masculine sex-typed students preferred, masculine-stereotyped instruments, feminine sex-typed students preferred feminine-stereotyped instruments, and androgynous students preferred neutral instruments. The converse pattern was obtained for least-preferred instruments, with the exception that androgynous children disliked both categories of sex-typed instruments. These results suggest that to enhance retention in musical instrument education, children's psychosocial identity ought to be considered.
Preschool Classroom Teachers' Perceptions of Useful Music Skills and Understandings
Authors: Kelly Steven N.
Published: June 2006

The primary purpose of this study was to identify the music skills and understanding taught during preservice training that in-service preschool classroom teachers perceived, as practical and beneficial. A 31-item questionnaire was developed and mailed to directors of 89 public and. private preschool programs where music specialists were not used. The mailing resulted in a return of 210 individually returned forms, representing 66% of the total mailing. Results demonstrated that the teacher skills and. understandings that were considered most useful were those that provided students with direct music experiences. These skills, which teachers learned in preservice training, included movement activities, using rhythm instruments, and singing experiences. More traditional music skills and understandings, such as those taught in courses such as music theory and. history, were not perceived to be useful to preschool instructors. Descriptive information revealed that although most teachers held a college degree and a teaching certificate, the majority were unaware of and none had read the Performance Standards for Music: Grades PreK-12.
Pictorial versus Verbal Rating Scales in Music Preference Measurement
Authors: LeBlanc Albert , Jin Young Chang , Simpson Charles S. , Stamou Lelouda , McCrary Jan
Published: June 2006

Participants from Grades 3, 4, 5, and 6 ( N = 238) rated selections on an 18-item music listening tape four consecutive times at 2-week intervals, alternately using pictorial and verbal Likert-type response scales. The order of response scale administration was counterbalanced among the classrooms involved. There was no significant difference between preference scores generated by participants using either form of response scale. Test-retest reliabilities ranged from .65 to .88 using a 4-week time interval, with higher grade levels associated with higher reliabilities and the pictorial scale generally associated with higher reliabilities. Internal consistency reliabilities measured by coefficient alpha ranged from .90 to .93 for the verbal scale and .92 to .93 for the pictorial scale. A large and statistically significant majority of participants (84%) expressed a preference for using the pictorial scale to record their music listening preferences.
Effect of Instruction in Appropriate Rubato Usage on the Onset Timings and Perceived Musicianship of Musical Performances
Authors: Johnson Christopher M.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate how instruction in the use of specific rhythmic nuances influences the performed timings of a musical performance. Volunteer participants were asked to learn and musically perform an excerpt from Mozart's Concerto for Horn and Orchestra, No. 2. They did this using computer software titled Instant Pleasure. As the title of the software implies, no prior musical training is required to perform a piece of music using this program. The only element that the operator controlled was the rhythmic onset of each pitch. Pitches, amplitude, and all other musical variables were controlled by the computer. When the participants had generated a performance of the concerto with which they were pleased, they recorded it using the same software. Participants were then taught the rhythmic tendencies that have been identified in the finest performances of this excerpt and practiced them until they believed they were prepared to make a second recording which served as a posttest. All digital onset data were calculated and analyzed to determine if participants had successfully integrated the given rhythmic tendencies into their performance. Results indicated that subjects did indeed use significantly more rubato in their posttest performance and that usage more closely reflected the model performance. In a further analysis, a single aggregate performance rhythmically representing subjects' pretest performances and a single aggregate of subjects' posttest performances were evaluated on the basis of musicianship by a select panel of musicians. Results indicated that the aggregate posttest performance was somewhat more musical.
Gender Association of Musical Instruments and Preferences of Fourth-Grade Students for Selected Instruments
Authors: Delzell Judith K. , Leppla David A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was fourfold: (a) to measure possible changes in gender association of musical instruments from earlier research, (b) to estimate current preferences of fourth-grade students for selected instruments, (c) to gain an understanding of reasons expressed by students for preferring certain instruments and not others, and (d) to compare students' perceptions of their peers' preferences to the actual choices their peers made. Findings indicate the magnitude of gender associations has lessened; however, such associations are still noticeably present. Instrument positions on the masculine-feminine continuum remain relatively stable. The majority of the fourth-grade subjects preferred drums, saxophone, or flute, followed in descending order by clarinet, trumpet, violin, trombone, and cello. “Quality of sound” was a primary reason cited for wanting to play an instrument; “too difficult to play” was a primary reason for not wanting to play an instrument. Children's perceptions of their peers' preferences bore a moderate relationship to what their peers actually chose, with girls more accurate in predicting preferences of boys than vice versa.
Relationships Among Parental Involvement, Music Aptitude, and Musical Achievement of Instrumental Music Students
Authors: Zdzinski Stephen F.
Published: June 2006

This study examined relationships among selected aspects of parental involvement, music aptitude, musical achievement, and performance achievement. Subjects were 113 wind instrumentalists from four north-central Pennsylvania middle schools. Variables were defined through a researcher-constructed measure of parental involvement (PIM), the tonal and rhythmic imagery subtests of the Music Aptitude Profile (Gordon, 1965), selected sub-tests of the Music Achievement Tests (Colwell, 1969), and the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale (Walkins & Farnum, 1954). Data were analyzed through correlation and MANOVA procedures. Results indicated (1) no significant relationship between parental involvement (as measured by student responses) and performance achievement; (2) a relationship of little practical significance between parental involvement and both musical achievement and musical aptitude; (3) a strong relationship between music aptitude and both musical achievement and performance achievement; and (4) a significant three-way interaction for performance achievement among parental involvement, music aptitude, and gender.
The Effects of Breath Management Instruction on the Performance of Elementary Brass Players
Authors: Sehmann Karin Harfst
Published: June 2006

The present study is an investigation of the effects of breath management instruction on the performance of elementary brass players. The experimental group ( N = 32) received instruction on the use of air during brass performance. The control group ( N = 29) continued with instruction from their method books. Three measures for breathing (thoracic displacement, abdominal displacement, and lung capacity) and for performance (range, duration, and tone quality) were the dependent variables. The data were analyzed using multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance. Independent variables included group (experimental and control), instrument (trumpet, horn, and trombone), and grade level (fourth, fifth, and sixth). Main effects for group showed that the experimental group had significantly higher scores on measures of abdominal displacement, range, and duration ( p < .05). There were no treatment-by-instrument or treatment-by-grade-level interactions. Breathing instruction in group lessons was effective in improving the breathing and performance of elementary brass players.
“The Future of Scholarly Inquiry in Music Education”: 1996 Senior Researcher Award Acceptance Address
Authors: Yarbrough Cornelia
Published: June 2006

Cornelia Yarbrough is the recipient of the MENC 1996 Senior Researcher Award. The following speech was presented on April 19, 1996, at a special session of the Society for Research in Music Education at MENC's National Biennial In-Service Conference held in Kansas City, Missouri.
A Comparison Study of the Ohio Proficiency Test Results between Fourth-Grade String Pullout Students and Those of Matched Ability
Authors: Wallick Michael D.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a pullout string program on student achievement in the writing, reading, mathematics, and citizenship sections of the Ohio Proficiency Test. One hundred forty-eight fourth-grade string students and 148 fourth-grade nonstring students from a southwestern Ohio city school district were ability-matched according to their performance on the verbal section of the Cognitive Abilities Test. The scores of the Ohio Proficiency Test were then recorded and compared. This study involved a two-group static-group comparison design. A two-sample independent t-test analysis was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the achievement scores of the string students who were excused from class twice a week for 30 minutes and the matched group of nonstring students who remained in class. It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference between the two matched groups. The results revealed a significant difference in favor of the string students' achievement in reading and citizenship, with no significant difference between the two matched groups in the writing and mathematics sections of the Ohio Proficiency Test.
Empirical Description of the Pace of Music Instruction
Authors: Duke Robert A. , Prickett Carol A. , Jellison Judith A.
Published: June 2006

The present study was designed to assess novice teachers* perceptions of timing in music instruction and to identify the aspects of timing that are associated with positive perceptions of instructional pacing. We selected eight 1-3-minute excerpts from teaching-practicum videotapes of four novice teachers teaching in a choral rehearsal, a band rehearsal, and two elementary music classrooms. Each teacher appeared in two excerpts that differed with regard to the pace of instruction depicted in each. Novice teachers (N = 44) viewed the videotaped excerpts and evaluated the pace of instruction along six semantic differential scales: fast—slow; appropriate—inappropriate; tense—relaxed; smooth-uneven; too fast-too slow; good-bad. Subjects discriminated among the faster and slower examples on five of the six evaluation dimensions, and among teachers on all six dimensions. Subjects rated the pace of instruction more positively when the rates of student performance episodes and teacher activity episodes were higher rather than lower, and when the mean durations of teacher and student activity were shorter rather than longer. These variables may function as operational measures of the pace of instruction in music performance.
Behavioral Characteristics and Instructional Patterns of Selected Music Teachers
Authors: Hendel Catherine
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to (a) identify factors that contribute to effective music teaching; (b) examine the relationship of teacher-defined traits, which emerge qualitatively, to operationally defined characteristics of effective instruction resulting from quantitative research; and (c) explore the complementary nature of qualitative and quantitative methods. Nine experienced, elementary specialists from three regions of the country were observed, taped, and interviewed; student interviews and instructional documents supplemented the data. Qualitative evaluation and quantitative measures were used for analysis. Although operational definitions were modified for elementary teachers, results revealed instructional patterns that supported previous research in teacher magnitude and sequential patterns of instruction. Analysis of sequential patterns resulted in categorical expansion of complete/incomplete patterns. Qualitative evaluation revealed personal values relative to teaching. Combined analyses disclosed high-intensity behaviors and permitted more specific interpretation. Findings may be useful for teacher training and evaluation among experienced specialists.