bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ten Years Into the Arab Uprising: Images of EU’s Presence, Practices, and Alternatives in the Mediterranean Space
Authors: Huber Daniela
Published: April 2022

Ten years into the Arab uprisings, how is the EU perceived in the Mediterranean region in terms of its democracy and human rights agenda? Based on a systematic inquiry into images of EU presence and practices through 144 recursive multi-stakeholder consultations with mainly civil society and grassroots actors in Morocco, Tunisia, Lebanon, Egypt and Europe, we found that the EU presence is described as invisible, incoherent, preferable to other powers, ambivalent, unresponsive, ineffective, divisive, and even neocolonial. Its practices appear as depoliticizing, securitizing, and technocratic. While it is not seen as a model in the region, no new model is emerging. However, ideas for alternatives exist, namely embracing the local struggle for democracy, taking account of human security needs on all shores of the Mediterranean, and investing into a new two-way relationship where all voices matter equally.

European Union, Arab countries, external perceptions, non-Eurocentric, alternatives
The EU After Brexit: A Weaker or Stronger International Actor?
Authors: Gstöhl Sieglinde
Published: April 2022

The withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU) has often been interpreted as yet another recent crisis with detrimental effects on the EU’s global image and role. Is the EU likely to be a weaker international actor as a result of Brexit? Drawing on actorness and role theory, this article argues that despite the UK’s departure and the uncertainty surrounding the nature and scope of the future EU–UK relationship, the EU, who remains a relevant player in world affairs, may even become a stronger international actor. Although the UK’s departure shrinks the EU’s overall resources, it opens also new opportunities for it to acquire additional capabilities and to conceive novel roles. This is partly due to a confluence of developments not directly related to Brexit, in particular the United States’ foreign policy under President Trump and the assertive great-power politics of both China and Russia. As a result, the EU’s international role of market and normative power is likely to develop a stronger security dimension with a more geopolitical approach.

actorness, Brexit, China, development policy, European Union, role theory, security policy, trade policy, United States
Reassessing External Images of the EU: Evolving Narratives in Times of Crisis
Authors: Lucarelli Sonia , Chaban Natalia
Published: April 2022

The past decade has challenged the EU and its international image. The Eurozone sovereign debt crisis, the Ukraine crisis, the so-called irregular migration crisis and the Covid-19 pandemic have all put the EU under severe strain. This article explores if and how the EU’s performance in such crises has impacted upon the external image of the EU. The analysis shows that external images have closely followed the EU’s actual performance, although filtering it through the powerful lenses of local and regional concerns and sensibilities. While some traditional images have proved to be resilient in the longer run (as in the case of the EU as an economic powerhouse or a frequently divided community), others have been severely weakened by the EU’s crisis responses (such as the EU as a bastion of human rights). Our findings contribute to the discussion on the public diplomacy and information strategy of the European External Action Service (EEAS) in shaping locally-resonating positive images of the EU worldwide.

external images of the EU, multiple crises of the EU, EU public diplomacy
Crisis and Differentiation in the CFSP: Leaders, Laggards and Critical Junctures
Authors: Riddervold Marianne , Bosilca Ruxandra-Laura
Published: April 2022

This article explores the relationship between exogenous crises and internal, formal differentiated integration in the European Union (EU) maritime foreign and security policy. Drawing on institutionalist concepts and the analytical framework in the Introduction, we argue that crises may serve as drivers of uniform rather than differentiated integration in policy areas dominated by dissent or differing needs and interests. Specifically, crises mark ‘critical junctures’ that open windows of opportunity for EU integration supporters (‘leaders’) to convince reluctant states (‘laggards’ and ‘disruptors’) to pursue further integration. To substantiate these theoretical assumptions, the article explores two case studies of integration where Member States were unlikely to agree to joint measures. The first case examines the launch of the EU anti-smuggling mission EUNAVFOR MED Sophia in response to the refugee crisis in the Mediterranean, while the second case looks at the EU’s joint actions against Turkish natural gas exploitation in Greek and Cypriot sovereign waters. Both cases use process tracing to show how, in the face of exogenous crises, ‘leaders’ in maritime foreign and security policy successfully exploited windows of opportunity to persuade formerly reluctant EU Member States to adopt common measures (This article is an output of the EUFLEX project, which has been funded by the Research Council of Norway, project number 287131).

crisis, differentiated integration, European Union (EU), leaders, laggards, maritime security policies, institutionalism
Non-Contractual Liability For EU Sanctions: Towards the Normalization of CFSP
Authors: Lonardo Luigi , Carrozzini Alina
Published: April 2022

In Case C-134/19 P Bank Refah Kargaran, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) made an important pronouncement over its jurisdiction on Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), as it held that it can hear an action for damages allegedly suffered by a natural or legal person because of restrictive measures adopted under CFSP. This article reflects on this important development in the case law of the CJEU, by putting it in the context of what scholarship on the topic has referred to as the ‘normalization’ of CFSP. In addition, the article comments upon the potential significance of the decision in Bank Refah for the EU’s external posture. The decision, this article argues, recognizes the opportunity to seek damages stemming from CFSP acts – including decisions adopted under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), that is decisions establishing military operations of civilian missions, and, in those contexts, acts or conduct attributable to EU bodies.

damages, non-contractual liability, CFSP acts, normalization, CSDP missions and operations, restrictive measures, jurisdiction, CJEU, sanctions.
L’influence de la Convention européenne des droits de I’homme sur le droit français des obligations
Authors: Mestre Jacques
Published: April 2022

Abstract. Conceived of, in essence, as means of ensuring the protection of the fundamental rights of the individual, the European Human Rights Convention and its additional protocols appear at first sight to have little in common with the law of contract and of tort. However, there are a number of conceivable points of contact, which are visible in particular in the context of the right to the protection of property, the right to privacy and the rights to freedom of expression and freedom of association, or even in the context of the right to due process. Already a number of decisions have been handed down both by the European Court of Human Rights and the French courts which illustrate the potential influence of European Law on the internal law of obligations. This article thus briefly sets out these points, before presenting by way of conclusion an attempted synthesis and a reflection upon possible future conjunctions between national law and these European principles.

Zusammenfassung. Die europäische Menschenrechtsconvention, die im wesentlichen zur Verteidigung der fundamentalen personalen Freiheiten erlassen wurde, und seine ergänzenden Protokolle erscheinen auf den ersten Blick ‘fremd’ im Hinblick auf das Vertragsrecht und das Recht der zivilrechtlichen Verantwortlichkeit. Dennoch sind mehrere Berühungspunkte unmittelbar einleuchtend: so z.B, in Bezug auf das Eigentums(Vermögens)recht, den Schutz des Privatlebens und das Recht auf freie Entfaltung der Persönlichkeit und auf Vereinigung oder auch auf das das Recht auf eines gerechten Verfahren. Mehrere Entscheidungen des Europäischen Gerichtshofes ebenso wie die Französische Rechtsprechung haben bereits den möglichen Einfluß der europäischen Normen auf das interne Recht der Obligationen erläutert. Dieser Beitrag beschäftigt sich folglich mit diesen Entwicklungen und zeigt analysierend einige Beobachtungen dieser Zusammenhänge auf. Zudem widmet er sich mit einigen möglichen Entwicklungen in der Zukunft.
L’influence de la Convention européenne des droits de I’homme sur le droit de propriété
Authors: Massias F.
Published: April 2022

Abstract. Up to the present time, the European Court of Human Rights has handed down 18 interesting judgments on Article 1 of Additional Protocol 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. As interpreted by the Court, this provision authorises three types of restrictions to the right to property which it lays down, but in contrast to the other provisions which permit restrictions (in particular Articles 8–11 of the Convention) it makes no mention of what is necessary in a democratic society. What is proposed here is a global reading of the case law of the Court in this field in order to demonstrate the logic lying behind the system of control set up by the Court, which is essentially based on the notion of porportionality, with the Court determining the correct balance to be set between considerations of the public interest, as put forward by the States, which might justify interferences (the purpose and utility of the restriction with recognition of a sphere of discretion for the State), and the rights of the individual (the right to property, and also the other rights guaranteed under the system of the Convention). Certain general principles are emerging which make it possible to evaluate the influence of the case law of the Court on the right to property. Although the number of violations which the Court has found appears to be very small, it is significant that those which it has found are essentially based on the failure to respect other rights under the Convention which restrictions upon the right to property affect indirectly, and the reference to the notion of necessity in a democratic society introduced by the Court has tended rather to increase the scope of discretion accorded to the States with regard to the general interest, instead of limiting it which is the case in relation to the other rights which are guaranteed with the exception of restrictions which are necessary in a democratic society.
Libre circulation des biens culturels et protection des tresors nationaux
Authors: Rigaux Francois
Published: April 2022

Zusammenfassung. Freier Verkehr von Kulturgütern und der Schutz von ‘nationalen Schätzen’. Die Verordnung der EG-Kommission zum Export von Kulturgütern und die Direktive hinsichtlich der Rückschaffung (Wiederherstellung) von Kulturgütern, die illegal aus dem Temtorium eines Mitgliedstaates entfernt wurden (O.J.E.C. Nr. L 395/1,31 Dezember 1992; Nr L 74/74, 27 März 1993), befassen sich rnit dem Transfer solcher Güter zwischen den Mitgliedstaten und dem Export dieser Gütern zu Nicht-Mitgliedstaaten. Beide Instmmentarien haben das Ziel, Art. 36 des EG-Vertrages, der die Mitgliedsstaaten dazu ermächtigt, die Entfernung von nationalen Kulturgütern von künstlerichem Wert, – sogar in andere Mitgliedstaaten – zu verbieten, mit der Verabschiedung jeglicher (systematischer) Kontrolle des freien Waren-verkehrs nach dem 1. Januar 1993 in Einklang zu bringen. Dieser Aufsatz versucht, beide vorliegende Instmmente und die damit zu erwartenden juristischen Probleme zu analysieren. Außerdem werden die Konseauenzen hinsichtlich der Abgabe von Kompetenzen für die Bauwerke und Sehenswürdigkeiten der Belgischen Regionen aufgezeigt. Die Nationalen Stellen, die die nationalen Kulturgüter zu schützen haben, sind nicht länger Autoritäten (Behörden) des belgischen Staates, aber has vorgesehene Recht, die Rückschaffung der Kulturgüter einzufordern, wird – im Einklang mit dem EG-Recht – innerhalb der Kompetenz der Mitgliedsstaaten bleiben.

Abstract. Free movement of cultural goods and protection of national treasures. The EEC regulation on the export of cultural goods and the EEC directive on the restitution of cultural goods illicitly removed from the territory of a Member State (O.J.E.C. n° L 39511, 1992, December 31, n° L 74/74, 1993, March 27) are concerned with the transfer of such goods between the Member States and the export of such goods to non Member States. Both instruments aim to reconcile Article 36 of the EEC Treaty which empowers a Member State to forbid the removal of ‘national treasures’ of art, even to other Member States, and the abolition of any systematic control on the free movement of goods after 1 January 1993. The paper deals with the analysis of both instruments and the juridicial difficulties they will raise. Moreover it indicates the consequences of the devolution of competences, for the monuments and sites to the Belgian Regions. The ‘national’ authorities competent to protect ‘national treasures’ are no longer the authorities of the Belgian State, but the right to require the restitution provided for by the directive will remain, according to EEC law, within the competence of the Member States.
The EC Product Liability Directive: An EC wide conspectus
Authors: Lewis Xavier
Published: April 2022

Abstract. This first article on Product Liability in Europe focuses on the implementation of the Council Directive no. 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985 and its interpretation. Ten out of twelve Member States have now adopted legislation to implement the Directive. The author gives a survey of the way in which the various countries have made use of the options which the Directive leaves them. He submits that late implementation of the Directive may lead to state liability towards victims of defective products. The author then points to the influence the Directive has. Existing national law in the field of product liability must be interpreted with regard to the Directive. The Directive also transposes other Community texts into liability law. Finally, various non-EC Member States have adopted the Directive, which has also had an impact on some non-European countries. It is unlikely that the Commission will submit proposals for a fundamental revision of the Directive in 1995.

Résumé. Ce premier article sur la responsabilité du fait des produits en Europe met plus spécialement l’accent sur l’étude de la mise en oeuvre de la directive communautaire n° 85/374 adoptée par le Conseil le 25 juillet 1985 et son interprétation. Dix des douze Etats membres ont maintenant adopté des législations spécifiques dans ce but. L’auteur étudie ainsi la façon dont les différents pays ont usé des options que leur laissait le texte. Il soutient en outre qu’une application tardive de son dispositif pourrait entraîner la responsabilité des Etats envers les victimes de produits défectueux. Il relève ensuite l’influence que peut avoir la directive. Les droits nationaux existants doivent d’abord être interprété au regard de ses dispositions. La directive transpose en outre d’autres textes communautaires en droit de la responsabilité. Enfin, divers Etats non membres de la Communauté ont adopté la directive, qui a ainsi eu une influence sur plusieurs pays non européens. Il est donc peu probable que la commission soumette de nouvelles propositions en vue d’une révision fondamentale de la directive en 1995.
La responsabilité du fait des produits en Belgique
Authors: Fagnart Jean-Luc
Published: April 2022

Abstract. The author describes first the development of the Belgian case law which has now resolved that trade sellers are responsible in respect of all defects affecting the products which they sell, including those which they did not know about. The only exception allowed by the case law concerns the absolute impossibility of detecting the defect. The second section of the report describes the drafting of the Belgian Law of February 25 1991 which, like the Directive, has opted to excluse primary agricultural products and to include the development risks defence. The Belgian Law offers two innovations, in that it adds two points of detail to the Directive: it offers a definition – albeit rather an obscure one – of the concept of ‘putting on the market’ and it affirms the principle that overlapping indemnities are prohibited. The article concludes by noting the absence of any published case law since the coming into force of the new Law of February 1991. This will soon change, as the Tribunal in Brussels is due to apply the Law to a case concerning pharmaceutical products manufactured using plants which originated in China.
Die Haftung nach dem Produkthaftungsgesetz in Deutschland
Authors: Kullmann Hans Josef
Published: April 2022

Abstract. The Federal Republic of Germany only implemented the EC Directive on Products Liability of July 25 1985 by means of a law dated December 15 1989. In the implementing law, most of the options set out in Article 15 of the Directive have not been used. Primary agricultural products and game before initial processing are not included within the scope of liability and no general principle of liability for development risks is provided for; however, the already existing liability for pharmaceutical products intended for human consumption has been retained. In contrast, German Products Liability Law does adopt the possibility of setting upper compensation limits for serial losses. The upper limits also apply to other cases of loss, such as the losses caused by an accident involving a single aeroplane. The Product Liability Law has yet to play a significant role in the German case law. However, a number of problems of interpretation of the German Product Liability Law have already emerged. These concern mostly the protective scope of the liability. Considerations based on such an argument would tend to point in favour of a restriction upon liability if the loss which occurs is the result, not of the specific risk posed by the defective product, but not if the products have been altered in way which infringes the criminal law. Liability is provided for also in respect of damage caused by books and other publications, as well as by computer software. In accordance with the protective scope of the Products Liability Law, however, liability is excluded if the reader or user of the product merely receives incorrect information or advice as a result of the defect in such a product.
Concurrency of contractual and delictual liability in a European perspective
Authors: Van Rossum Madeleine
Published: April 2022

Abstract. This paper deals with the question whether and if so under what conditions delictual and contractual liability can coexist.

Owing to the tendency to develop a European civil law a ‘ius commune’, the issue under consideration will be placed in the perspective of a harmonisation of European rules. Therefore some legal systems on this topic will be compared in order to find out whether some common principles can be found which can ultimately lead towards the formulation of some general rules.

It will be shown that it seems difficult at first sight to trace throughout the legal system under review some common elements for the acceptance of the coexistence of the liability for breach of contract and for the tort of negligence.

However it may be noted as a uniform feature that in all legal systems under consideration contractual and delictual liability do not differ fundamentally. This is not at all surprising if one notices that the contractual and the delictual standard of social conduct show many similarities.

In view of the blurring of the lines Getween contract and tort throughout the legal systems dealt with a strict distinction between the liability for tort and for breach of contract cannot sensibly be maintained. In my opinion contractual and delictual liability should wexist where the breach of contract embodies more than just the breaching of the contractual obligation because there exists a duty of care between the parties, which is violated.

Résumé. Cet article traite de la question de savoir si —et le cas échéant à quelles conditions — les responsabilités contractuelle et délictuelle peuvent coexister.

Compte tenu de la tendance au développement d’un droit civil européen, le sujet est envisagé dans la perspective d’une harmonisation des règles européennes. Dans cette optique, il est procédé à la comparaison de différents systèmes de droit pour tenter de dégager l’existence de principes communs qui peuvent conduire à la formulation de certaines règles générales.

Il est montré qu’ il paraît difficile, à première vue, de trouver des éléments communs en faveur de la coexistence d’une responsabilité pour rupture du contrat et pour faute de négligence.

Néanmoins, il peut être observé que dans tous les systèmes de droit examinés, les responsabilités contractuelle et délictuellen e diffèrent pas fondamentalement. Ce qui n’est pas surprenant si l’on remarque que les standards de conduite, en matière contractuelle et délictuelle, présentent de nombreuses similitudes.

Au vu de l’altération de la démarcation entre le contrat et le délit civil dans les systèmes de droit consédéres, une stricte distinction entre la responsabilité contractuelle et la responsabilité délictuelle ne peut raisonnablement plus être maintenue. Selon l’auteur, ces responsabilitês devraient coexister dans le cas où la rupture d’un contrat renferme plus que la seule violation de l’abligation contractuelle parce qu’il existe un devoir de diligence entre les parties qui est méconnu.
Report on the Conference “European Constitutionalisation of Private Law”
Authors: Cherednychenko Olha O.
Published: April 2022

The Constitution and private law. These notions which were originally considered to be far apart from each other became the subject-matter of the conference entitled “European Constitutionalisation of Private Law”, which was organized by Amsterdam University’s Institute for Private Law on 28 March 2003.

The very title of the conference appears to require immediate clarification due to the increasing use of the notion of “constitutionalisation” in different contexts. As was mentioned in the introductory speech by J.W. Rutgers, University of Amsterdam, the term “constitutionalisation of private law” can concern two things. On the one hand, it may be used in the context of the impact of EC law on the national private law of the Member States. On the other hand, it may be also used to indicate the effect of fundamental rights on private law. The main focus of the present conference was on the first aspect of constitutionalisation, although the second aspect also received attention.
Arrêt de la Cour de Cassation du 25 juin 2002. Agreements on grounds of interruption of prescription of claims.
Authors: Lebon Caroline , Pantazopoulos Stefanos
Published: April 2022

Même si le régime de la prescription en droit espagnol reconnaÃ®t son origine historique immédiat parmi d’autres dans le Code Napoléon, malgré pas mal des différences significatives (A), et étant donné que l’Article 1973 C.c. esp a établi expressément une règle qui aurait permettre de décider le litige posé devant la Cour de Cassation française dans le même sens que l’a fait l’arrêt commenté (B), peut-on conclure que celui-ci ne va provoquer des graves objections doctrinales en Espagne (C).
Diverging Legal Culture but Similar Jurisprudence of Overruling: The Case of the House of Lords and the Belgian Cour de cassation
Authors: Rorive Isabelle
Published: April 2022

Abstract: According to the conventional view, the attitude towards precedent is one of the most important differences between common law and civil law systems. This paper argues that the phenomenon of overruling as practised both by the Belgian Cour de cassation and the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords casts doubt on the cogency of such a perception. As a matter of fact, the Belgian and English systems exhibit a very similar jurisprudence with respect to departure from existing case law as practised at the highest level in the judiciary. This approach challenges the appearance that formal definitions provide for the difference in attitude towards precedent between the two countries and more broadly between common law and civil law systems, without denying the existence of a distinctive legal culture.
Epistemological Value of Roman Legal Rules in European and Comparative Law
Authors: Santos Francisco J. Andrés
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Very often the European Courts make use of legal maxims or adages coming out of the ancient Roman-Canon ius commune in their decisions (or conclusions of the Advocates General), even in their original Latin form, as a way of solution of cases where no clear rule in the Community legal order is found. In this paper different possible interpretations thereof are discussed, just as a simple rhetorical devise, an expression of European Community law principles, or a consequence of the ‘subconscious’ remaining of ancient ius commune in the core of the new European (private) law, at any case as a means of harmonizing European law other than of codification or legislative acts.
Recent case law
Authors: van Schaick Bert , Ruda Albert , Østergaard Kim , Sagaert Vincent , Dacoronia Eugenia , Caterina Raffaele , Petz Thomas , Tvarnø Christina , Tamasauskas Andreas , Cairns Walter , Pironon Valérie , Hünert Matthias , Shúilleabháin Máire Ní , Mota Pinto Paulo , MacGregor Laura , Ribot Igualada Jordi , Hahn Anne-Catherine
Published: April 2022

In this section authors from various European countries report the recent case law in their jurisdiction in the field of private patrimonial law, that is decisions on the law of property, juridical acts, the law of obligations, contract law and prescription. The ERPL started this section in 2003. The section aims to give readers an overview of what is happening in the most recent European case law. We have asked the national reporters to report the juridical essence of the decisions given by the highest courts in their country. These national reports are integrated in one general report that arranges the decisions by subject, so that readers can easily find out whether decisions on their special interest were given in any European jurisdiction or whether decisions on one subject have been taken in various European countries. In principle, this section does not relate the facts of the decision, nor the personal opinion of the reporter. One can find discussions on the most important decisions of European courts in ERPL?s case note section.

The recent case law section gives overviews of decisions published in periods of four months. The period of January-April is published in the fourth issue, the period from May to August is published in the sixth issue, the period from September to December is published in the second issue of the next year. In this issue, we report decisions of high courts taken from January to April 2004. As yet, some decisions can only be found on the internet. Therefore, at the end of this section we have listed web sites where one can find European high court decisions.

The Board of Editors of the ERPL wants to thank the national contributors to this report, who worked very hard to have their reports ready in time. Further, the Board considers itself very fortunate that Mr. Ross MacDonald (University of Dundee, Scotland) has been willing to edit the contributions and, by doing so, contribute substantially to the quality of this section.
Editorial
Authors: Rutgers Jacobien W.
Published: April 2022

On 28 March 2003 the Amsterdam Institute for Private Law organized a conference named ?European Constitutionalization of Private Law?. The aim of this conference was to discuss the influence of European constitutional public law on (national) private legal systems. To do so, speakers from the area of private law and European public law were invited.

Although, there is no formal European Constitution, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) considers the European Treaties the ?constitutional charter? of the European Communities in its Les verts-decision. The heart of this substantive constitution is the internal market and the core thereof are competition rules and the free movement of goods, services, capital and persons. The ECJ has guaranteed the application of these European rules by the development of the doctrines of direct effect and supremacy of European law.
Why Object to the Harmonization of Private Law by the EC?
Authors: Weatherill Stephen
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Harmonization in general, and its application to private law in particular, has become an increasingly contested process. This paper attempts to impose a degree of order on the objections that today confront the EC?s harmonization programme. Three types of objection are identified and (albeit self-consciously unsystematically) evaluated: the constitutional, the cultural and the economic. The paper is intended to contribute to clarifying the ground-rules of the debate into the nature, purpose and value of ?EC private law?.
UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts 2004
Authors: Heutger Viola
Published: April 2022

Nur zehn Jahre sind seit dem Erscheinen der Grundregeln der Internationalen Handelsverträge, den sogenannten ?UNIDROIT Prinzipien 1994?, des Inter­nationalen Instituts für die Vereinheitlichung des Privatrechts (UNIDROIT, Rom) vergangen und schon sind die UNIDROIT Prinzipien in einer ergänzten und erweiterten Version als UNIDROIT Prinzipien 2004 erhältlich. Anpassungen an neue Entwicklungen, wie den zunehmenden elektronischen Handel und die Anwendung der sogenannten Grund­regeln der Internationalen Handelsverträge in der Recht­sprechung und Schieds­gerichtsbarkeit forderten eine Neuauflage und inhaltliche Erweiterung. Auch sind die Prinzipien fester Bestandteil der rechts­vergleichenden Ausbildung an den Universitäten in der ganzen Welt geworden. Kaum ein anderes internationales Vertrags­werk kann auf so eine Entwicklungs­geschichte zurückschauen.
Electronic Contracts and the Harmonization of Contract Laws in Europe - An Action Required, A Mission Impossible?
Authors: Kryczka Katarzyna
Published: April 2022

The use of information technologies allows parties to enter into contracts in a manner that provides speed, ease, on a mass scale and with a cross?border range with which traditional means of contracting cannot easily compare. It also impacts several traditional concepts of contract law and the legal criteria based thereon. The focus of this paper is on the formation of contracts by electronic means. The ongoing discussion has resulted in establishing in the Member States certain legal rules aimed at answering the questions raised by the procedure of contract formation by electronic means. It is argued that, in order to promote electronic commerce in Europe and to eliminate the lack of predictability connected with electronic transactions, the harmonization of such rules at the European level could be the appropriate means. It is submitted that harmonizing the law concerning the formation of electronic contracts should not be made in isolation of the efforts aimed at the harmonization of contract law in general such as the Principles of European Contract Law. Therefore, the article further reflects on the applicability, for the purpose of electronic commerce transactions, of the provisions of the Principles of European Contract Law dealing with contract formation.
Jean Yves Carlier, Marc Fallon, Bernadette Martin Bosly, Code de droit international privé 2004. Édition à jour au 1er septembre 2004
Authors: Boele Woelki Katharina
Published: April 2022

In dieser umfangreichen Textsammlung zum belgischen IPR sind alle für den belgischen Rechtsanwender relevanten Regelungen für grenzüberschreitende Rechtsverhältnisse zu finden.
Cour de Cass., 26.11.2003 - ’Perte de Chance’ (Expectation Interest) and Liability of a Third Person in Case of Breaking Off Negotiations
Authors: Paz García Rubio María , Mäsch Gerald
Published: April 2022

This case deals with the interruption of negotiations, where the chambre commerciale of the Cour de cassation, for the first time, teaches two important lessons, a theoretical as well as a practical one. On the one hand, the loss of the possibility to make earnings which the conclusion of the contract led to hope for does not constitute a reparable damage, because it is not caused by circumstances constituting a fault in the interruption of the negotiations. On the other hand, the simple fact of contracting, even with full knowledge of the fact, with a person who is already engaged in negotiations with a third party, does not constitute as such a fault which may engage the liability of its author, unless it is inspired by an intention to harm or is accompanied by fraudulent misrepresentations.
Effective Unilateral Ending of Complex Long-term Contracts
Authors: De Hoon Machteld W.
Published: April 2022

Should contract law enable (and perhaps even stimulate) contracting parties to achieve a settlement that is compatible with both their needs? According to some scholars it should. If this is indeed one of the aims of contract law, the unilateral ending of complex long-term contracts is one of the topics that may need a critical evaluation. It seems that the power to end complex long-term contracts unilaterally is not really the issue, since no complex cooperation can be forced to continue if commitment is lacking; it is the way in which a long-term cooperation comes to an end that matters. Reasonable expectations need to be taken into account to some extent; conflicts often arise because contracting parties disagree on this ?reasonable expectations?-part. The costs of these conflicts can be high, even without legal proceedings. The purpose of this paper is to explore the possibilities of contract law to help reduce both the number and the intensity of conflicts arising from the unilateral ending of a complex cooperation. For this purpose, the unilateral ending instrument is reframed into a model of negotiations.
Schweizerisches Bundesgericht, 4C.175/2003 vom 28.10.2003 - Zur Frage der rechtsmißbräuchlichen Berufung auf Formnichtigkeit bei einem bereits teilweise erfüllten Vertra
Authors: Reichert Klaus , Kenny Graham P.
Published: April 2022

The decision by the Swiss Bundesgericht was based on the following facts. The parties were the sole shareholders of the X-AG [public limited company] and the Y-GmbH [limited company]. In 1999 they agreed, without being aware of the special form requirement in respect of the transfer of a share in the GmbH, that the plaintiff would resign from both companies and transfer his shares in the X-AG to the GmbH and his core-shares in the Y-GmbH to the defendant. In exchange the plaintiff was entitled to a sum of 670,000 Swiss Francs, payable in four instalments. After having paid the first instalment of 400,000, the defendant denied further payment upon knowledge and immediate notification of the lack of form, i.e. the missing notarisation of their agreement.

All instances, including the Swiss Bundesgericht, rejected the claim by the plaintiff, arguing that the defendant did not abuse his right by invoking the lack of form of their agreement, i.e. the fact that the transfer of the shares was not notarised. Their agreement was concluded without the knowledge of this form requirement. In addition, it was considered indivisible, and thus completely void; it was irrelevant that the agreement was performed partly.
Internet Auctions and Harmonization. A comparison between Italy and Germany
Authors: Wiesemann Hans Peter , Falletti Elena
Published: April 2022

The aim of this article is to demonstrate how harmonization of private law especially in the field of European Directives on E-commerce and distance contracts is working in the market of Internet Auctions where parties are contracting without intermediaries. The authors have chosen the topic of Internet Auctions because it is a very important modality to sell goods through the Internet, easily crossing borders of national sovereignty.

First of all, the authors give an overview over the existing Internet Auction models and the way of concluding contracts in such an Auction. Then, they provide an overview over the relevant European Directives in the field of Internet Auctions, the implementation of the Directives in the different national legal systems and the related national case law.Several differences between Italy and Germany are highlighted. One of these differences is the way to solve disputes between consumers: in Germany, these disputes are decided by courts while in Italy the solution is found through Alternative Dispute Resolution. Despite all the differences, several similarities are identified, like the desire to monitor transactions in E-commerce. In the end, each system can benefit from the results found in the other.
Illegality and Restitution
Authors: Chorus Jeroen M.J.
Published: April 2022

Under Dutch Law juridical acts may conflict ? by their mere accomplishment, their content, or their purport ? with a statute, good morals, or public order. This may be a ground for nullity, produce other effects, or have no consequences at all. Though not conflicting with law in such a way, a juridical act will not be (fully) enforceable, if a performance under an act would result in a violation of statute, good morals, or public order. The Dutch condictio indebiti also covers performances other than giving money or any other property, e.g. services rendered. The Dutch Law of Restitution is remarkable in that generally both parties may reclaim what they performed on an illegal contract. Under the 1992 Civil Code, unlike beforehand, there is now some room for the in pari delicto defence, albeit very little. Only where a particular performance made by one party is so repugnant that it defies assessment of its value, this party may, sometimes, avail itself of this defence against the condictio indebiti of the other party. If a contract, though not null, is not enforceable but has nevertheless given rise to performances, condictiones indebiti may equally lie.
More about Timeshare: A Revised Directive or a Regulation? Incidence of Other Instruments of Consumer Protection
Authors: Downes Noemí
Published: April 2022

This online article is a revision of the published version.

Abstract: The EU Commission is in the process of restructuring the consumer protection acquis. The project seems still undefined, however, there are areas where there is a certain urgency to intervene. For this purpose, after a series of consultations, a revised version of Directive 94/47/EC has been published. This article reviews some of the most significant propositions of the draft text and analyses a broader approach to protection to include other instruments of control of malpractices in those areas where timeshare transactions place consumers in a highly vulnerable position.

Résumé: La Commission Européenne travaille à la restructuration de l’acquis communautaire en matière de protection du consommateur. Le projet est encore très peu défini, cependant, il a eté necessaire d’admettre qu’il y a des matières qui demandent une intervention urgente. Dans ce but, et aprés une série de consultations, il a été publié une proposition de Directive concernant la protection des acquéreurs portant sur l’acquisition d’un droit d’utilisation á temp partiel de biens immobiliers pour substituer la Directive 94/47/CE. Cet article porte sur certaines propositions plus significatives du brouillon et en même temps il analyise une approximation plus large, élargissant le concept de protection pour introduire d’autres instruments de control des pratiques de commercialisation aggressives notamment, celles où la commercialisation de biens immobiliers à temps partagé place le consommaateur dans une position de grande vulnérabilité.

Zusammenfassung: Die Europäische Kommission will den verbraucherrechtlichen acquis communautaire überarbeiten. Obwohl das genaue Ausmass dieses Unternehmes nach wie vor nicht vollständig abgesteckt ist, wurden bestimmte Bereiche als vordringlich novellierungsbedürftig markiert. Die Europäische Kommission hat nach einer Reihe von Konsultationen den Entwuf einer Timeshare Richtlinie veröffentlicht, welche die Richtlinie 94/47/EG ersetzen soll. Der vorliegende Beitrag bietet eine Analyse der wichtigsten Vorschläge des Entwurfs. Im Rahmen dieser Analyse wird insbesondere auch auf unlautere Geschäftspraktiken eingegangen, denen der Verbraucher insbesondere beim Abschluss von Timeshareverträgen ausgesetzt ist. Von Bedeutung ist insofern die Richtlinie 2005/29/EG über unlautere Geschäftspraktiken.
The Effectiveness of Fundamental Rights in Private Law: Restrictions of the Right to Adopt in Light of the Portuguese Constitution
Authors: Costa Marta
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This manuscript intends to analyze the effectiveness of the submission of the Portuguese private law legislator to fundamental rights, namely, the fundamental right to adopt. It aims to verify the constitutionality of civil restrictions on the right to adopt, stressing the prohibition of joint adoption by homosexual couples. A European microcomparative reference is made regarding some aspects of restrictions of the right to adopt examined in light of the best interest of the child. The suggestion is made that the Portuguese legislator reconsider the institution of adoption in such a way as to permit the most suitable conciliation of all interests.

Résume: Ce manuscrit vise à analyser l’effectivité de la soumission du législateur portugais aux droits fondamentaux, à savoir le droit fondamental d’adopter. Il vise à vérifier la constitutionalité des restrictions de droit civil au droit d’adopter, en insistant sur l’interdiction d’adoption conjointe par les couples homosexuels. Une micro–comparaison européenne est faite par rapport à certains aspects des restrictions du droit d’adopter au vu du meilleur intérêt de l’enfant. Il est suggéré que le législateur portugais revise l’institution d’adoption de manière à concilier tous les intérêts au mieux.

Zusammenfassung: Dieser Beitrag beabsichtigt, die Effektivität der Unterwerfung des portugiesischen zivilrechtlichen Gesetzgebers unter die Grundrechte, insbesondere das Grundrecht auf Adoption, zu analysieren. Er versucht vor allem, die Konstitutionalisierung der zivilrechtlichen Beschränkungen des Grundrechts auf Adoption, hier insbesondere das Verbot einer gemeinsamen Adoption durch homosexuelle Paare, zu überprüfen. Eine europäische mikro–vergleichende Verweisung auf einige Aspekte der Beschränkung des Rechts auf Adoption, welches im Hinblick auf die besten Interessen des Kindes hin überprüft wurde, soll hier darüber hinaus erfolgen. Dabei sollen Vorschläge dahin gehend gemacht werden, dass der portugiesische Gesetzgeber die Institution der Adoption in einer Weise neu erörtert, dass damit der am meisten taugliche Ausgleich von Interessen ermöglicht wird.
Emigration of Companies under the EC Treaty: Some Thoughts on the Opinion of the Advocate General in the Cartesio Case
Authors: Szydlo Marek
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Since the ECJ has, in its jurisprudence, already guaranteed immigrating companies (within the meaning of Article 48) the right – seen from the perspective of the host Member State – to transfer their real seat, by acknowledging that the host Member State must recognize the company’s legal personality and allow it to continue to be subject to the company law of its home Member State, the time has come for the same right to be guaranteed to the emigrating companies (i.e., those that transfer their real seat) from the perspective of their home Member State, as well. An opportunity for such a right to be guaranteed to the companies is offered by the Cartesio case that is now pending before the ECJ. In his opinion delivered on 22 May 2008, the Advocate General states that Articles 43 EC and 48 EC preclude national rules of the home Member State which make it impossible for a company constituted under national law to transfer its operational headquarters to another Member State, while acknowledging at the same time that such absolutely prohibited rules include, among others, an order for the emigrating company to be dissolved. This article argues that the ECJ should also include among such absolutely prohibited rules an order concerning the change of law applicable to the emigrating company, since the said company should have the right to demand from its home state to be allowed to retain its current personal statute.
Enforcement of Arbitral Awards in the New Countries of the European Union
Authors: Chovancová Katarína
Published: April 2022

Abstract: In a five–part, broad legal study, the author has analyzed the enforcement of foreign and domestic arbitral awards in three European countries – the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Croatia – two of which have already entered the European Union successfully. The goal of the study has been to familiarize the professional legal public as well as independent readers not only with the legal regulation of enforcement of arbitral awards in the aforementioned countries, but with the real practice of national enforcement courts as well. Furthermore, the author has focused on providing the reader with a comparative insight into the enforcement of arbitral awards in all three European states in its entire complexity. Finally, evaluating the current specifi c position of Croatia as a country that still has not acceded to the European Union, the author introduced an explanation of various reasons for including Croatia in the submitted study.

Résumé: L’auteur a analysé, dans une étude en 5 parties au spectre juridique large, l’exécution des sentences arbitrales étrangères et nationales dans trois pays européens – la République Tchèque, la Slovaquie et la Croatie – deux d’entre eux ayant déjà rejoint avec succès l’Union Européenne. L’objet de cette étude a été de familiariser autant les juristes professionnels que les lecteurs indépendants non seulement avec la règlementation de l’exécution des sentences arbitrales dans les pays susmentionnés mais aussi avec la pratique effective des tribunaux nationaux d’exécution. De plus, l’auteur s’est concentré à donner au lecteur dans toute sa complexité le point de vue comparatif vis–à–vis de l’exécution de sentences arbitrales dans les trois pays européens. Enfi n, évaluant la situation actuelle spécifi que de la Croatie en tant que pays n’ayant pas encore approché l’Union Européenne, l’auteur a présenté une explication des différentes raisons l’ayant amené à inclure la Croatie dans l’étude soumise.

Zusammenfassung: In einer in fünf Teilen aufgebauten rechtswissenschaftlichen Untersuchung hat der Autor die Vollstreckung von ausländischen und nationalen Schiedsentscheidungen in drei europäischen Ländern (Tschechien, Slowakei und Kroatien), von denen zwei als Mitglieder der Europäischen Union aufgenommen sind, untersucht. Das Ziel dieser Untersuchung ist, die professionale juristische Öffentlichkeit sowie auch andere Interessierte nicht nur mit den Regelung der Vollstreckung von Schiedsentscheidungen in den genannten Ländern vertraut zu machen, sondern auch mit der Praxis der nationalen Vollstreckungsgerichte in diesen Ländern. Darüber hinaus beabsichtigt der Autor, den Lesern einen rechtsvergleichenden Überblick über die gesamte Komplexität der Vollstreckung von Schiedsentscheidungen in diesen drei europäischen Ländern zu geben. Abschließend begründet der Autor, warum es angemessen ist, die Rechtslage in Kroatien in dieser Untersuchung darzustellen, trotz der derzeitigen besondern Stellung Kroatiens als nicht Mitgliedstaat der Europäischen Union.