bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Bangsamoro Basic Law: Awareness and support among the Basilan Ethnic and Non-Ethnic Youths
Authors: Fajardo Orlando L. , Salain Hji. Nasser A.
Published: January 2017

The Philippine government (GPH) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) signed the Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro, which culminates the Aquino Administration’s effort to end the deadlock in the peace process in Mindanao. It would pave the way for the creation of the new Muslim autonomous political entity (NPE) called “Bangsamoro” under law to be approved by the Philippine Congress, which was the proposed ‘Bangsamoro Basic Law’ or BBL (Bangkok Post, 2014). This study is a descriptive - correlation – regression analysis of the awareness and support of the Ethnic and Non-Ethnic Youths in Basilan, Philippines on the Bangsamoro Basic Law. The findings and conclusions were: (1) The Basilan ethnic youths (Yakan and Tausug) were moderately aware of the provisions of the BBL, while the Basilan non-ethnic youths (Chavacano and Visayan) are barely aware of the provisions of the BBL; (2) The ethnic youths moderately support the passage of the BBL while the non-ethnic youths least support its passage; (3) There is a significant relationship between the youths’ level of awareness and extent of support for the BBL; and (4) The levels of support for the BBL of the Basilan youths are dependent on their ethnic and non-ethnic affiliation.
Dual Career Academic Couple in the Higher Educational Institutions: Women Academic Perspective
Authors: Sultana A. M. , Zuraini Osman Jamil
Published: January 2017

Recently, dual career academic couples are increasing in the higher educational institutions in Malaysia and across the globe. Migrant dual-career academic tend to have a positive impact on the academic world with regards to diversity and competitive workforce. However, dual career academic couples particularly the women academic face a unique set of challenges within the academic world and family. These couples may work separately with different organizations to thrive toward their career goals. Studies showed that one of the problems of pursuing two careers in the different geographic area is often encountered by dual-career couples, especially for women in academic dual-career marriages in balancing familial roles and professional responsibilities. Some studies suggested that couple hiring policy is necessary for the universities that would impact on quality of work and diversity. In line with, the goals of the discussion are: (a) to discuss the importance of dual career couples (b) to know the common barriers are encountered by dual career academic couples in their work and families (c) to review the Dual Hire Policy for effectively managing their two careers and work-life balance.
Exploring Academic Department Priorities of the Non Sectarian Higher Education Institution towards Strategies for Future Direction: A Multiple Case Analysis
Authors: Erum Vangeline O. , Decenorio Nino M. , Reyes Edilbert A.
Published: January 2017

This paper determines and describes the departmental priorities of one of the Non- Sectarian Higher Education Institutions in General Santos City, Philippines towards strategies for future directions.  This study is qualitative in paradigm, descriptive, and exploratory in purpose, multiple case analysis in discipline and quantitative and interpretivist in interpretation. Findings revealed that instruction is the top most priority as shown by the provisions/ data scrutinized in the five studied departments namely: Criminology, Education, Social Work, Accountancy, and Engineering. However, there seemed neglect in other provisions under research and extension because of their limited quantity, non-implementation, and limited budget if not totally absence of the provisions as planned. Instruction is claimed to be a priority since accordingly, the programs are board- courses. Participants had comparative and contrastive views on the priority of their department, implementation barriers, and feelings for the nonimplementation of other provisions particularly in research and extension that are seemed to be neglected by the academic departments.
Significance of Learning Management Systems (Moodle) on the students of Ajman University, United Arab Emirates
Authors: Shishakly Rima
Published: January 2017

Information communication technology (ICT) enhances education and learning processes in higher education.  Learning Management Systems (LMS) is a software application that manages the learning processes. LMS also supports peer collaboration and the communication between students and professors. This paper is going to investigate the students’ responsiveness to LMS in Ajman University. Moodle is a tool used to manage and assimilate their learning processes and facilitate communication. The goal of this study is to examine the acceptance of LMS, to assess the area where Moodle is supporting student learning and to determine the preferred aspects of learning provided by Moodle that students find enticing. This study showed a positive response regarding Moodle support learning processes in Ajman University. The participants found Moodle was able to manage, facilitate and enable access to different Moodle features.
The Intended and the Implemented Curriculum: The Case of Special Science High Schools in South Central Mindanao, Philippines
Authors: Reyes Edilbert A. , Decenorio Nino M. , Erum Vangeline O.
Published: January 2017

The study determined and described the intended and the implemented curriculum of Special Science High Schools in South Central Mindanao, Philippines towards policy recommendations to address the gaps. Specifically, it determined the levels of implementation of curriculum, instructional programs, and instructional support. Both quantitative and qualitative data were employed in the study for collecting and analyzing the data. Specifically, it utilized multiple case analysis. Triangulation procedure was used in collecting data through questionnaire, interview, documents and on-site visitation. The quantitative data established which areas have gaps while the qualitative works on description and judgment to identify what created them. The result of the study showed that there are significant gaps between the intended and the implemented curriculum in some areas of curriculum implementation, instructional programs, and instructional support. Policies cited in the Department of Education Orders are not generally implemented in all science high schools investigated.
Effectiveness of Online Methods and Social Media to Enhance Training and Workplace Learning in the United Arab Emirates
Authors: Al Haj Suad Al Areef , Gernal Liza M. , Jawabri Adnan , Armoti Aymanal
Published: January 2017

The effectiveness of social media and online sources as a collaborative and effective learning tool are explored to complement the training and development programs within the company. Social media and online learning tools help in peer to peer interaction which may provide better results in the long run. Employers are concerned that valuable work time is being consumed during the process. A large chunk of talent is not productively engaged at a given point of time which may result in a loss for the organization. Many companies like Google, IBM, and Microsoft are following this pattern to enable the employees to become the captain of their ship. Online tools and social media help to provide training across geographical limits and reach up to large audiences. It can enhance the training experience with pictures, three-dimensional looks, pictures, videos, etc. which can catch the attention of the learner. The social media tools that can be used to create interactive, online, company-limited, virtual spaces, which is extremely collaborative and group operated thus increasing a sense of camaraderie among the peers. This creates a sense of interest among the users and helps to anchor them to the reality of the workplace and thus, increasing productivity and innovation.
Higaonon Culture and Belief: Their Contribution to the Higaonon Pupils’ Academic Performance
Authors: SUMORTIN II SEVERO C. , CUIZON ROLANDO C.
Published: January 2017

Higaonons are indigenous people in Rogongon, a hinterland community in Ili­gan City. They co-exist with Christians and Muslims where electrification and the public elementary and secondary school services have recently reached their com­munity. This study investigated the contribution of Higaonon Culture and Beliefs towards the Higaonon academic performance using a qualitative research design. The respondents were the parents of all the Grade 5 and Grade 6 Higaonon pupils in Kalamalamahan Elementary School. A researcher-made questionnaire and interview schedule were used and the data were analyzed using percentage and ranking. The results of the study showed that the Higaonon culture and belief do not specifically advocate for the formal education of their children in schools. Rather, they prefer them to gain the basics of Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic; afterwards, the children become their workmates in the farm. They give a higher preference to food sufficien­cy than education. The intrusion of the Christians and Muslims and the mass media has taught them to speak other dialects like Cebuano and Tagalog. Only a few can speak meager English. This study has found out that the Higaonon culture and belief do not provide a significant contribution to the academic performance of the pupils.Keywords: Ethnography, Higaonon culture and belief, academic performance, descriptive design, Iligan City, Philippines
College of Teacher Education Students’ Level of Awareness on Climate Change, Impacts and Mitigation Practices
Authors: OUANO NARCITAS B.
Published: January 2017

The Cagayan State University at Sanchez Mira is one of the agencies commissioned by the Department of Science and Technology to implement projects for the abatement of the ill effects of climate change. This study determined the level of awareness of the students on climate change, its impacts and their mitigation practices, making use of a descriptive research design with open and closed-ended statements administered to 500 randomly chosen College of Teacher Education students of CSU during the S.Y. 2012-2013. Data elicited from the questionnaire were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages, and weighted means. The respondents have a low level of climate change awareness, and reported impacts include changes in rainfall patterns in the locality, excessive heat and lower incidence of strong typhoons during the past few years. Proper waste disposal, tree planting, inclusion of climate change topics in the school subjects and wider researches along adaptation practices are among the popular mitigation practices identified. This study concludes that the impacts of climate change are not always negative. The change has led the people to adopt new technologies, crops and livestock that gave them even a higher income. New cropping patterns and production technologies must be studied to suit to the new weather condition.Keywords: Ecology and conservation, climate change awareness, descriptive-survey design, Philippines
Integration of Ilokano in the Mass Communication Curriculum of the University of Northern Philippines
Authors: RABANG MARIE ROSE QUITORIANO
Published: January 2017

The University of Northern Philippines (UNP) offers Bachelor of Arts major in Mass Communication to provide qualified and effective communicators for the various communication channels in the locality. This study was conducted to look into the need to integrate Ilokano or the local language in the mass communication curriculum of the University of Northern Philippines (UNP). It determined the Ilokano proficiency required by the local media, the Ilokano proficiency of the mass communication students, and whether Ilokano should be offered as a subject in UNP. This is a descriptive survey using questionnaires in gathering the data. Frequency counts, percentages and means were used to interpret the data. This study found out that most of the local media use Ilokano in 81-100% of their programs/publications and that they require personnel with very high Ilokano proficiency specifically in listening, reading, speaking and writing. The students assessed themselves as being highly proficient in Ilokano but average in writing. In particular, their facility in using Ilokano is only average along vocabulary, spelling, grammar, essay and longer composition. Further, students need to develop their facility in using Ilokano for skills needed in the media, such as interviewing, news casting, giving commentaries, program hosting, newswriting, writing advertisements and public service announcements. Students could best develop their Ilokano proficiency through the integration of Ilokano as a subject in the curriculum.Keywords: Communication, curriculum, Ilokano, local media, descriptive method, Philippines
Tundra photosynthesis captured by satellite‐observed solar‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence
Authors: Luus K. A. , Commane R. , Parazoo N. C. , Benmergui J. , Euskirchen E. S. , Frankenberg C. , Joiner J. , Lindaas J. , Miller C. E. , Oechel W. C. , Zona D. , Wofsy S. , Lin J. C.
Published: January 2017

Accurately quantifying the timing and magnitude of respiration and photosynthesis by high‐latitude ecosystems is important for understanding how a warming climate influences global carbon cycling. Data‐driven estimates of photosynthesis across Arctic regions often rely on satellite‐derived enhanced vegetation index (EVI); we find that satellite observations of solar‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) provide a more direct proxy for photosynthesis. We model Alaskan tundra CO2 cycling (2012–2014) according to temperature and shortwave radiation and alternately input EVI or SIF to prescribe the annual seasonal cycle of photosynthesis. We find that EVI‐based seasonality indicates spring “green‐up” to occur 9 days prior to SIF‐based estimates, and that SIF‐based estimates agree with aircraft and tower measurements of CO2. Adopting SIF, instead of EVI, for modeling the seasonal cycle of tundra photosynthesis can result in more accurate estimates of growing season duration and net carbon uptake by arctic vegetation.
Which ENSO teleconnections are robust to internal atmospheric variability?
Authors: Brands Swen
Published: January 2017

Assuming that atmosphere general circulation models (AGCMs) provide realistic estimates of the atmosphere's response to external forcing, it is here tested whether teleconnections triggered by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are robust to internal atmospheric variability. To this aim, the AGCM ensemble from the European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts ERA‐20CM project is used, whose 10 members are here seen as surrogates for the atmosphere's response to the observed external forcing. Results for 1900–2010 indicate that ENSO teleconnections in the tropics and in areas affected by the Pacific‐North American and Pacific‐South American patterns are robust, whereas in the extratropics they are otherwise generally not. Then, shorter periods are assessed during which particularly strong or weak teleconnections were found in previous studies based on observations. Results reveal that the late twentieth century teleconnections to North America, coinciding with the positive phase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, are robust in the southern United States and Mexico and to the south of Aleutian Islands. In contrast, according to the model experiments and methods applied here, teleconnections to the climate in southern Europe are not robust at all.
A new climate index controlling winter wave activity along the Atlantic coast of Europe: The West Europe Pressure Anomaly
Authors: Castelle Bruno , Dodet Guillaume , Masselink Gerd , Scott Tim
Published: January 2017

A pioneering and replicable method based on a 66‐year numerical weather and wave hindcast is developed to optimize a climate index based on the sea level pressure (SLP) that best explains winter wave height variability along the coast of western Europe, from Portugal to UK (36–52°N). The resulting so‐called Western Europe Pressure Anomaly (WEPA) is based on the sea level pressure gradient between the stations Valentia (Ireland) and Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands). The WEPA positive phase reflects an intensified and southward shifted SLP difference between the Icelandic low and the Azores high, driving severe storms that funnel high‐energy waves toward western Europe southward of 52°N. WEPA outscores by 25–150% the other leading atmospheric modes in explaining winter‐averaged significant wave height, and even by a largest amount the winter‐averaged extreme wave heights. WEPA is also the only index capturing the 2013/2014 extreme winter that caused widespread coastal erosion and flooding in western Europe.
Comment on “Sandbox modeling of evolving thrust wedges with different preexisting topographic relief: Implications for the longmen Shan thrust belt, eastern Tibet” by C. Sun et al.
Authors: Tan Xibin , Xu Xiwei , Lu Renqi
Published: January 2017

Sun et al.'s (2016) sandbox modeling takes preexisting topographic relief into account for faulting activity at the compressional orogenic belt, which promotes better understanding of Longmenshan thrust belt's (LTB) orogenic process and faulting behavior. However, topographic relief in sandbox modeling is contradictory to central LTB's actual topographic relief, and as a result, both the comparison between sandbox modeling and actual tectonics and topography and the conclusion that Xiaoyudong Fault is a tear fault should be reconsidered. Actually, based on Sun et al.'s (2016) sandbox modeling, the Xiaoyudong Fault cannot be treated as a tear fault.
Percolation blockage: A process that enables melt pond formation on first year Arctic sea ice
Authors: Polashenski Chris , Golden Kenneth M. , Perovich Donald K. , Skyllingstad Eric , Arnsten Alexandra , Stwertka Carolyn , Wright Nicholas
Published: January 2017

Melt pond formation atop Arctic sea ice is a primary control of shortwave energy balance in the Arctic Ocean. During late spring and summer, the ponds determine sea ice albedo and how much solar radiation is transmitted into the upper ocean through the sea ice. The initial formation of ponds requires that melt water be retained above sea level on the ice surface. Both theory and observations, however, show that first year sea ice is so highly porous prior to the formation of melt ponds that multiday retention of water above hydraulic equilibrium should not be possible. Here we present results of percolation experiments that identify and directly demonstrate a mechanism allowing melt pond formation. The infiltration of fresh water into the pore structure of sea ice is responsible for blocking percolation pathways with ice, sealing the ice against water percolation, and allowing water to pool above sea level. We demonstrate that this mechanism is dependent on fresh water availability, known to be predominantly from snowmelt, and ice temperature at melt onset. We argue that the blockage process has the potential to exert significant control over interannual variability in ice albedo. Finally, we suggest that incorporating the mechanism into models would enhance their physical realism. Full treatment would be complex. We provide a simple temperature threshold‐based scheme that may be used to incorporate percolation blockage behavior into existing model frameworks.
Horizontal propagation of large‐amplitude mountain waves into the polar night jet
Authors: Ehard Benedikt , Kaifler Bernd , Dörnbrack Andreas , Preusse Peter , Eckermann Stephen D. , Bramberger Martina , Gisinger Sonja , Kaifler Natalie , Liley Ben , Wagner Johannes , Rapp Markus
Published: January 2017

We analyze a large‐amplitude mountain wave event, which was observed by a ground‐based lidar above New Zealand between 31 July and 1 August 2014. Besides the lidar observations, European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) data, satellite observations, and ray tracing simulations are utilized in this study. It is found that the propagation of mountain waves into the middle atmosphere is influenced by two different processes at different stages of the event. At the beginning of the event, instabilities in a weak wind layer cause wave breaking in the lower stratosphere. During the course of the event the mountain waves propagate to higher altitudes and are refracted southward toward the polar night jet due to the strong meridional shear of the zonal wind. As the waves propagate out of the observational volume, the ground‐based lidar observes no mountain waves in the mesosphere. Ray tracing simulations indicate that the mountain waves propagated to mesospheric altitudes south of New Zealand where the polar night jet advected the waves eastward. These results underline the importance of considering horizontal propagation of gravity waves, e.g., when analyzing locally confined observations of gravity waves.
An approach to secure weather and climate models against hardware faults
Authors: Düben Peter D. , Dawson Andrew
Published: January 2017

Enabling Earth System models to run efficiently on future supercomputers is a serious challenge for model development. Many publications study efficient parallelization to allow better scaling of performance on an increasing number of computing cores. However, one of the most alarming threats for weather and climate predictions on future high performance computing architectures is widely ignored: the presence of hardware faults that will frequently hit large applications as we approach exascale supercomputing. Changes in the structure of weather and climate models that would allow them to be resilient against hardware faults are hardly discussed in the model development community. In this paper, we present an approach to secure the dynamical core of weather and climate models against hardware faults using a backup system that stores coarse resolution copies of prognostic variables. Frequent checks of the model fields on the backup grid allow the detection of severe hardware faults, and prognostic variables that are changed by hardware faults on the model grid can be restored from the backup grid to continue model simulations with no significant delay. To justify the approach, we perform model simulations with a C‐grid shallow water model in the presence of frequent hardware faults. As long as the backup system is used, simulations do not crash and a high level of model quality can be maintained. The overhead due to the backup system is reasonable and additional storage requirements are small. Runtime is increased by only 13 % for the shallow water model.
Heavy Metal Adaptation
Authors: Guevara‐García Ángel A , Lara F Paloma , Juárez L Katy , Herrera‐Estrella Luis R
Published: January 2017

Fifty‐three chemical elements, those with densities higher than 5 g cm−3, are categorized as heavy metals. Ecologically speaking, any element that is not used in basic metabolism or biodegradable should be regarded as a heavy metal. Heavy metals are natural components of the biosphere and as such are part of biogeochemical cycles; however, as a consequence of human activities, heavy metal concentrations have reached toxic levels in the soils and water bodies of many ecosystems around the world. Actually, using multidisciplinary approaches, including ‘omics’ strategies, several factors involved in heavy metal adaptation have been identified. In the coming years, the detailed study of the contribution of these factors to the heavy metal tolerance mechanism, as well as the crosstalk between them, should produce the necessary knowledge for the development of heavy metal‐tolerant crops that would improve agricultural productivity to meet growing food demand.

Key Concepts

Heavy metals are the group of chemical elements with densities higher than 5 g cm−3.

Any chemical element that causes environmental pollution could be considered as heavy metal.

Heavy metal concentrations increase to toxic levels through human activities.

Biogeochemical cycles are considered to have an important role in maintaining environmental equilibrium of heavy metals.

All heavy metals reaching a concentration higher than 0.1% generate a polluted and toxic environment.

Metallophytes can be used as biomarkers of heavy metal‐polluted soils.

Hyperaccumulator plants are those that actively take up and translocate heavy metals from the soil, accumulating them in aboveground organs.

Some plant exudates (named phytosiderophores) are known to take part in the uptake and mobilisation of heavy metals.
Turgor Pressure
Authors: Fricke Wieland
Published: January 2017

Turgor pressure is the hydrostatic pressure in excess of ambient atmospheric pressure which can build up in living, walled cells. Turgor is generated through osmotically driven inflow of water into cells across a selectively permeable membrane; this membrane is typically the plasma membrane. The maintenance of turgor in cells requires energy. Turgor pressures can be as small as 0.1–0.4 MPa yet can also exceed 2–3 MPa. Cells of many organisms can build up turgor pressure. In plants, turgor pressure plays an important role in key processes such as growth, development, mechanical support, signalling, organ movement, flowering and responses to stress. The ability to build up significant turgor pressure in cells has been key to the evolutionary success of terrestrial plants to pursue a sessile life strategy.

Key Concepts

Turgor pressure refers to the hydrostatic pressure in cells in excess of ambient (normal) atmospheric pressure.

Turgor pressure is best known in plant cells but also occurs in walled cells of other organismal kingdoms.

The build‐up and maintenance of turgor pressure requires five key components: water, solutes, a selectively permeable membrane, a wall and metabolic energy.

Values of turgor pressures cover a wide range; they can be as small as 0.1–0.4 MPa yet also exceed 2–3 MPa.

Turgor pressure in plants plays a key role in processes such as growth, development, mechanical support, signalling, flowering and stress response.

Turgor pressure is an ideal means in plant cells through which the energy content of water molecules (water potential) can be adjusted quickly, within seconds.

The ability of plants to establish significant cell turgor pressure was key to their evolutionary success to colonise land while pursuing a sessile life strategy.

The best‐known example of rapid changes in cell turgor causing microscopic movements is the reversible opening and closing of stomatal pores in leaves.

As plant cells are generally very small (picolitre‐range volumes), eating a fruit such as an apple which contains highly pressurised cells does not hurt.
Evolution of Photosynthesis
Authors: Cardona Tanai
Published: January 2017

Photosynthesis originated once during the early Archaean due to the emergence of photochemical reaction centres, the biological nanomachines that convert the energy of light into chemical energy. The evolution of the photosynthetic machinery is consistent with a single origin of photosynthesis followed by an early diversification event that resulted in the rapid evolution of distinct reaction centre types and pigment forms. One of these reaction centres specialised in highly oxidising photochemistry, which facilitated the oxidation of Mn and the evolution of the water‐oxidising cluster of Photosystem
II
. In addition, the last common ancestor of all photosynthetic organisms can be traced back to a period of time near the root or at the root of the tree of life of bacteria, with the current distribution of photosynthesis being the result of widespread loss of photosynthetic capacity and horizontal gene transfer.

Key Concepts

Photosynthesis originated at least 3.5 billion years ago, but it could be much older.

Photosynthesis evolved only once in ancestral forms of bacteria.

Type I and Type II reaction centres originated from an ancestral gene duplication event.

The last common ancestor of photosynthetic bacteria had type I and type II reaction centres.

Photosystem II originated from the close interaction of a Type I and Type II reaction centre.

The ancestral homodimeric Photosystem II was able to catalyse the oxidation of water.

The last common ancestor of photosynthetic bacteria had protochlorophyllide and chlorophyllide reductase and could make pigments similar to chlorophyll
a
and bacteriochlorophyll
g
.

Nitrogenase and the chlorophyll synthesis enzymes originated from an ancient gene duplication event predating the diversification of bacteria.

The current distribution of photosynthesis in bacteria is explained by widespread loss of photosynthesis and horizontal gene transfer.
Xylem: Differentiation, Water Transport and Ecology
Authors: Fricke Wieland
Published: January 2017

The xylem constitutes the part of plant vascular system which is primarily concerned with the long‐distance transport of water, dissolved minerals and signalling molecules from root to shoot. The development of xylem during tissue differentiation and organ growth is governed in particular by auxins and cytokinins. The mode of transport in xylem is bulk flow, driven by hydrostatic pressure gradients between root and shoot. These gradients involve substantial negative pressures (xylem tensions) during daytime transpiration. As xylem tension increases, so does the possibility of embolism and xylem dysfunction, particularly when water supply is sparse, unless embolism is repaired. The evolution of xylem reflects a combination of demands: optimising the volume flow rate, optimising control over xylem sap composition and minimising the chance of xylem dysfunction through embolism. Strategies to meet these often conflicting demands are reflected through differences in xylem anatomy between species which differ in their ecology.

Key Concepts

A key innovation during the evolution of plants was the development of a long‐distance, ‘vascular’, transport system.

The mode of long‐distance transport of substances is bulk flow.

Bulk flow is driven by gradients in hydrostatic pressure.

The xylem constitutes the part of vascular system which is primarily concerned with the transport of substances, including water, between root and shoot.

The xylem is made up of cells which are dead at full maturity and fulfil a transport (xylem vessels, tracheids) and mechanical support (fibres) role and cells which are alive and provide metabolic activity (xylem parenchyma).

Development of xylem starts from procambial and cambial cells and is governed by auxin and also cytokinins.

Daytime transpiration is associated with significant negative pressures (tensions) in xylem; this increases the chance of embolism and (partial) loss of function of xylem.

The structural design of xylem of plant species, which differ in their taxonomy and ecology, often reflects differences in the transpirational demand (water flux rates), water availability (and associated likeliness of embolism formation) and soil solution composition (and need to control xylem sap composition) encountered by these species.
Cell Culture Contamination
Authors: Gollin Susanne M , Lewis Dale W
Published: January 2017

Cell cultures are valuable models of health and disease, especially in translational research. Cell culture is important for genome editing, stem cell technologies, cancer research, investigating the basic mechanisms involved in development and differentiation, elucidating the role of genetic alterations in normal and abnormal cellular behaviour and developing and testing therapeutics. The clinically important field of classical cytogenetics requires cell culture to obtain metaphase chromosomes from dividing cells at the mitotic stage of the cell cycle when the chromosomes are most compact and visible as distinct entities. Further, culture
in vitro
facilitates analysis of cells in a controlled environment; minimises morbidity and mortality of human, animal or plant subjects and enables replicate studies over long periods of time. Cell lines are essential models for testing therapeutic efficacy, including drug screening and sensitivity studies. The main difficulty with cell cultures in the clinical or research laboratory is their propensity to contamination, whether by microbes or stray cells from other cultures. It is imperative to verify the authenticity of (authenticate) cell lines and rule out microbial contamination of cell cultures before initiating a series of experiments, at regular intervals during each experimental study and at the end of the study to assure the quality and validity of experimental results.

Key Concepts

Cell cultures are valuable models in biomedical research.

Cell cultures have a propensity to become contaminated by microbes.

Intra‐ or interspecies cross‐contamination of cell lines by mislabelling or stray cells from other cell lines results in misidentified cell cultures.

High‐quality research results rely on (1) cell line authentication to rule out cross‐contamination and (2) testing cell cultures for and avoiding microbial contamination, at the beginning, at regular intervals during and at the end of a research study.

Contaminated or misidentified cell cultures waste both time and money and produce invalid research results.
Mitochondrial Genome
Authors: Saccone Cecilia , Gadaleta Gemma
Published: January 2017

Mitochondria are cytoplasmic organelles present in all eukaryotic cells that are able to respire. They possess their own genetic system whose size and organisation are quite variable in plants, protists and fungi. A certain degree of structural variability is observed also in Metazoa. In human and all vertebrates, mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (mtDNA) is rather small (about 17 kb) but constant as genetic content and organisation. It consists of two ribosomal ribonucleic acid (RNA) genes, 13 protein‐coding genes and 22 transfer RNAs. All other mitochondrial products are coded by nuclear DNA and transported into the mitochondrion. Mitochondrial genetic system has a uniparental, usually maternal, way of inheritance, and it is present in cell in a multicopy state. mtDNA replication, transcription and translation are also very peculiar. Evolutionary origin of mitochondria has been described through the endosymbiotic theory.

Key Concepts

Mitochondria are eukaryotic cell organelles with their own genome.

Mitochondrial genome shows great structural variability in most eukaryotic taxa but is quite stable for content and organisation in Metazoans.

mtDNA has a small size with a poor gene content.

Two types of genes are encoded by mtDNA: genes for protein synthesis machinery and genes for respiratory chain subunits, fundamental for cell energy production.

The mitochondrial genome has bacterial origin, with several peculiar features about its replication and expression.

mtDNA is a multicopy genome that is uniparentally, usually maternal, transmitted and does not undergo recombination.

Evolution of mtDNA (within Metazoa) is lineage specific.
Chromosome 8
Authors: Hilton Matthew J , Wells Dan E
Published: January 2017

Chromosome 8 is a submetacentric chromosome containing about 5% of the euchromatic human genome. The total length of the chromosome has been estimated at 145 138 636 bp. Sequence analysis and annotation indicated that the chromosome contains 677 protein coding genes and 1031 noncoding genes. There are multiple online resources that provide sequence and mapping information for chromosome 8. These include the NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) Map Viewer, the Mitelman Map, the Marshall Map and the OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) Morbid Map. Compilations of these sources suggest that chromosome 8 contains approximately 223 phenotypes, diseases or syndromes. Of these, 45 have yet to be associated with specific genes. Notably, a region of the distal p‐arm on chromosome 8 has a strikingly high mutation rate. In this region, the majority of the genes are involved in development or signalling of the nervous system.

Key Concepts

Chromosomes contain gene clusters.

Certain chromosomal regions contain high mutation rates.

Many diseases and syndromes do not correspond to specific genes.

A single gene can produce multiple phenotypes, disease and syndromes.

Some syndromes are not directly linked to a specific gene or genes, but to chromosomal morphology.
Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Authors: Pappas Kara B , Migeon Claude J
Published: January 2017

In human subjects, the sex chromosomes are the X and the Y chromosomes. Normally, a complement of two X chromosomes (46,XX) is seen in females and one X and one Y (46,XY) in males. The X‐chromosome includes about 1500 genes, only a few of which are involved in sex development. The Y‐chromosome contains very few genes, but one gene,SRY, is the most important gene in male sex development. Multiple autosomal genes are also involved in sex development. Abnormalities of sex chromosomes can involve errors in the number of sex chromosomes, such as 45,X0 (Turner syndrome), 47,XXX, 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome), 47,XYY or mosaicism. Sex chromosome abnormalities also include aberrations of a single gene of the sex chromosome, leading to a disorder of sex development (DSD). This can result in 46,XX DSD and 46,XY DSD.

Key Concepts

Turner syndrome occurs when females have a missing sex chromosome (45,X0) or have a mosaic complement of cells with one or more lines missing a sex chromosome.

Girls with Turner syndrome have a variety of congenital anomalies, the most striking being short stature and premature ovarian failure.

Klinefelter syndrome boys (47,XXY) have tall stature, marfinoid habitus, and may have difficulty with language development and verbal IQ (intelligent quotient).

46,XY complete gonadal dysgenesis, or Swyer syndrome, describes patients who have both external and internal female organs with a 46,XY chromosome complement.

46,XY disorders of sex development encompass a wide range of disorders including androgen insensitivity, partial gonadal dysgenesis and many more.

46,XX disorders of sex development can result from a multitude of virilising disorders or the presence of Y‐chromosome material.

Patients with disorders of sex development and intra‐abdominal gonads may be at risk for gonadoblastoma, depending on their underlying disorder.

Assignment of sex, timing of surgery and medical management of patients with disorders of sex development is controversial.
Convention on Biological Diversity
Authors: Höft Robert , Yifru Worku
Published: January 2017

The Convention on Biological Diversity is the key global instrument on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources. Through a globally agreed Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and related global Aichi targets, the Convention promotes, among other things, the maintenance of healthy ecosystems, the protection of threatened species and the conservation of the genetic material that underpins populations of wild and domesticated species. Increasingly, nongovernmental organisations, civil society groups and indigenous and local communities work through the Convention to urge governments to live up to their commitments and to support them, for example, in the establishment and effective management of protected area networks. As population growth and economic pressures enlarge humanity's ecological footprint, it remains to be seen whether the Convention is an effective tool for conserving the beauty, diversity and inspiring nature of our living environment for future generations to enjoy.

Key Concepts

International Conventions and protocols.

Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources.

Biodiversity targets.

National biodiversity strategies and action plans.
Scale‐Dependence in Ecological Systems
Authors: Hewitt Judi E , Thrush Simon F , Lundquist Carolyn
Published: January 2017

Scale has a profound influence on how we conduct ecological studies, interpret results and understand the links between processes operating at different rates. All of these factors profoundly influence our ability to predict responses to change. The ecological patterns and variability we observe range from millimetres to across ocean basins and from seconds to the expanse of evolutionary history. Patterns apparent at one scale can collapse to noise when viewed from other scales, indicating that perceptions of the importance of different processes vary in a scale‐dependent manner. Moreover, rather than the environment simply providing an arena within which organisms are born grow and die, many organisms interact with the environment, altering it for both for themselves and for other species. Because of these factors, studying ecological systems is far from simple and scale needs to be considered in study design and analysis.

Key Concepts

The pattern you see depends on the scale at which it is studied.

Threats from human activities occur at varying scales, from small point sources to large diffuse threats and changes in disturbance regimes across landscapes.

How organisms interact with the environment depends on how they perceive it and how patchy it is.

How an organism moves and how far it can move is crucial to how an organism perceives and responds to their environment.

Many organisms can alter their environment, both for themselves and for other species.

Connectivity between locations and habitats does occur not only for organisms but also for ecosystem processes and services.

Because most processes are scale dependent, studies must explicitly consider scale in their design.

Understanding both the scale of threats and the scale over which species live are essential for successful management and conservation.
Evolution of Genome Size
Authors: Wright Stephen I
Published: January 2017

The size of the genome represents one of the most strikingly variable yet poorly understood traits in eukaryotic organisms. Genomic comparisons suggest that most properties of genomes tend to increase with genome size, but the fraction of the genome that comprises transposable elements (TEs) and other repetitive elements tends to increase disproportionately. Neutral, nearly neutral and adaptive models for the evolution of genome size have been proposed, but strong evidence for the general importance of any of these models remains lacking, and improved understanding of factors driving the activity of TEs should also be considered. Fine‐scale investigation of the mutational and population‐genetic properties of both small and large insertions and deletions should help advance our understanding of how and why genome size evolution has occurred.

Key Concepts

Larger genomes tend to have larger amounts of most genome components, but the proportional representation of different types of DNA changes dramatically.

Transposable elements and other repetitive DNA represent a major determinant of genome size variation.

The importance of ancient whole genome duplication events in genome size evolution, particularly in plants, remains to be fully resolved.

Direct estimates of mutational patterns do not suggest that the relative rate and size of small insertion/deletion events are major contributors to genome size evolution.

Although broad‐scale patterns suggest a negative correlation between effective population size and genome size, comparative phylogenetic methods and comparisons of focal taxa have not suggested repeated shifts in genome size are tied to repeated changes in effective population size.

The extent and causes of between‐species changes in transposable element activity should be characterised, to better understand the drivers of genome expansion.
Gene Therapy in Heart Failure
Authors: Hayward Carl , Patel Hitesh C , Welch Sophie , Patel Ketna , Lyon Alexander R
Published: January 2017

Heart failure is a chronic condition leading to debilitating symptoms and reduced life expectancy. Several pharmacological therapies which improve symptoms and mortality have been developed over the past 30 years. These therapies are, however, limited in terms of both efficacy and side‐effect profile. Gene therapy represents a fundamental change in the way treatments are developed with the potential to directly target and correct individual molecular abnormalities. These therapies have the potential to offer long‐term beneficial effects from a single treatment and, with direct targeting, less off‐target effects. As with any new therapy, a number of challenges must be overcome before gene therapy can be considered a realistic option to patients with heart failure.

Key Concepts

Gene therapy could allow direct targeting of molecular abnormalities in patients with heart failure.

Preclinical data suggests that in animal models of heart failure, SERCA2a gene therapy significantly improves haemodynamic parameters, reduces arrhythmia risk and corrects molecular abnormalities.

Initial clinical data in a small number of patients suggested that SERCA2a gene therapy was beneficial to patients with advanced heart failure. However, a recent study in a larger number of patients was disappointingly neutral.

A number of molecular abnormalities exist in the failing myocytes, each of which could represent a potential target to treat heart failure.

Gene therapy requires a large financial commitment from pharmaceutical companies and cost is a major limitation to the development of gene therapy products.
GITR
: A Modulator of Regulatory and Effector
T
‐Cell Activity, Crucial in Tumour Rejection and Autoimmune Diseases
Authors: Nocentini Giuseppe , Cari Luigi , Riccardi Carlo
Published: January 2017

The immune response is the result of complex interactions among cells of innate immunity, the vascular system and cells of adaptive immunity including T and B lymphocytes. Interactions among effector T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs) and antigen‐presenting cells determine the outcome of the immune response. Activated effector T cells and Tregs express high levels of glucocorticoid‐induced tumour necrosis factor receptor‐related protein (GITR, also known as TNFRSF18 or CD357), which is triggered by the ligands GITRL and SECTM1. The effect of GITR triggering on the immune system is complex, with GITR playing a physiological role in inflammation, response to infection, graft rejection, autoimmunity and tumours. Antibodies and fusion proteins capable of modulating GITR and GITRL activity produce meaningful effects in animal models of advanced tumours and boost the effectiveness of vaccines. GITR triggering also shows potential for curing autoimmune diseases and preventing graft rejection and graft‐versus‐host disease.

Key Concepts

GITR is a costimulatory molecule that is overexpressed by activated T lymphocytes and promotes their activation/expansion following activation by its ligand (GITRL).

GITR triggering can treat infection, particularly chronic viral infection, and boost the effectiveness of vaccines.

Inhibition of GITR triggering by fusion proteins has an anti‐inflammatory effect.

The highest levels of GITR expression are found in regulatory T cells (Tregs).

GITR plays a crucial role in the development of FoxP3
+
Tregs in the thymus (tTregs) and the expansion of tTregs and peripherally derived Tregs (pTregs).

A subset of CD4
+
pTregs that expresses GITR, but not FoxP3 or CD25, is expanded in patients with autoimmune diseases who show low disease activity.

In mouse models, GITR triggering by anti‐GITR antibodies promotes the rejection of established tumours via effector T lymphocyte activation and, more importantly, via Treg killing by antibody‐dependent cell‐mediated cytotoxicity, Treg inhibition/differentiation and modulation of Treg trafficking.

The GITR/GITRL system is structurally different in mice and humans, suggesting that functional differences also exist.

Phase I studies testing anti‐human GITR antibodies in cancer patients are underway.