bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What Is Science About?
Authors: Goldman Steven L.
Published: December 2021

The linkage between epistemological and ontological claims, between calling a theory true because it correctly accounts for experimental data and claiming that therefore it is true of reality, became an issue in nineteenth-century physical science. In particular, Fourier’s mathematical theory of heat explicitly set aside the ontological question of what heat was in reality in favor of a mathematical account that correctly described and predicted how heat behaved. The founders of thermodynamics set aside the question of what matter really was, in favor of a mathematical theory that described how matter behaved in its interactions with energy. Maxwell proposed a mathematical theory of electromagnetic waves propagated through a space-filling aether, without identifying a physical structure for the aether or a causal mechanism for its action. Finally, the millennial acceptance of Euclidean geometry as a true account of space because of its deductive logical character was undermined by the creation of non-Euclidean geometries.
The Knowledge Problem in Mature Science
Authors: Goldman Steven L.
Published: December 2021

In the course of the nineteenth century, physical scientists became increasingly self-conscious of the need for a theory of how scientific knowledge was produced. Though many theories were proposed, none won a consensus. As explicitly stated by William Whewell, the core problem was the same for everyone: how to ground claims of knowledge of experience in a way that also justified claiming that the object of these claims was a reality independent of experience that caused experience. Everyone was acutely aware of the Fallacy of Affirming the Consequent and of the logical gulf between induction and deduction. John Herschel, Whewell, John Stuart Mill, August Comte, Hermann Helmholtz, Pierre Duhem, and Ernst Mach were some who proposed theories of science. Of these, Mach alone decisively rejected reality as the objective of science. Meanwhile, the nonscientist J. B. Stallo argued for the fundamental role played by metaphysical concepts in modern science.
The Empires of Western Asia and the Assyrian World Empire
Authors: Barjamovic Gojko
Published: December 2021

The history of empire begins in Western Asia. This chapter tracks developments in the second and first millennia BCE as imperial control in the region became increasingly common and progressively more pervasive. Oscillations between political fragmentation and imperial unification swung gradually toward the latter, from just a few documented examples in the third millennium BCE to the more-or-less permanent partition of Western Asia into successive imperial states from the seventh century BCE until the end of World War I. The chapter covers about a dozen empires and empire-like states, tracing developments of territoriality and notions of imperial universality using Assyria ca. 2004–605 BCE as a case study for how large and loose hegemonies became the normative political formation in the region.
Ancient Mediterranean City-State Empires
Authors: Scheidel Walter
Published: December 2021

Only a few ancient Mediterranean city-states managed to absorb their peers into larger empires. This chapter explores the creation of imperial structures of domination and exploitation by ancient Athens, Carthage, and Rome. It identifies crucial similarities among these cases. Empires grew out of alliances formed within existing city-state cultures. Imperial state formation driven by these three city-states produced complex, multilayered systems that sought to preserve the privileged position of the original core and resisted homogenization of status. As a result, the Athenian and Carthaginian empires failed in the face of foreign pressure, whereas Roman power structures survived much longer by assuming a more conventional and stable form of organization, that of a monarchical tributary empire.
Hellenistic Empires
Authors: Fischer-Bovet Christelle
Published: December 2021

The incessant rivalries between the Ptolemaic and the Seleucid empires, the two largest empires issued from Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Persian Empire, generated an expansion and a growing complexity of their administration. Moving beyond past colonial approaches, recent scholarship points to their sustainability, as they were among the longer lasting empires in the eastern Ancient Mediterranean. Their institutions proved resilient, internal decay and revolts leading at times to reconstruction under the same dynasty. The capacity of these empires for war-making and state-making are compared, as well as their military and economic goals, including their different monetary policies. These empires were able to penetrate many aspects of their multicultural societies through their integration of segments of the local elites into their state machinery, which was facilitated by the central ideological figure of their kings, who supported and infiltrated local religious traditions, though perhaps less in the Seleucid case.
The First East Asian Empires
Authors: Lewis Mark Edward
Published: December 2021

In 221 BCE the Qin state created the first unitary empire in continental East Asia. Although it innovated in exalting the title and status of the ruler, its continuation of the institutions of the Warring States led to policies that provoked rebellion and ultimately collapse. The subsequent Han dynasty introduced the changes that underlay all future East Asian empires: elaboration of the role of the emperor as supreme ruler and high priest; abandonment of universal military service; incorporation of nomadic peoples into the Han state order (primarily through military service); proclaiming the role of the state as chief patron of a textually defined cultural ecumene; and development of a new elite, combining aspirations to state service with local power bases created through land ownership, market-oriented agriculture, small-scale craft production, moneylending, and social networks fashioned through charity to and domination of poorer neighbors.
The Tang Empire
Authors: Lewis Mark Edward
Published: December 2021

The Tang dynasty reunited continental East Asia using institutions inherited from the nomad-dominated Northern dynasties: state-owned land; exactions of grain, cloth, and labor service levied on notional “average” households; a hereditary “divisional army” concentrated around the capital and professional soldiers at the frontier, cities divided into walled wards with state-administered markets; a hereditary, imperial super-elite; and state-sponsored Buddhism and Daoism. The An Lushan Rebellion in the mid-eighth century eliminated these institutions. In their place emerged the major characteristics of late-imperial China: a fiscal system that assessed actual wealth and taxed trade; a new pattern of state service based on textual, technical, and military expertise measured by examinations; large-scale interregional trade through purely commercial entrepôts and local market towns; the incorporation of China into a multistate East Asian world; and the linkage of continental East Asia into a world economy through oceanic trans-shipment of commodities.
The Mongol Empire and the Unification of Eurasia
Authors: Kradin Nikolay P.
Published: December 2021

The Mongolian polity was the greatest pre-industrial empire, and second in the world history after the British Empire. It was established by the out-of-nowhere people of pastoral nomads. Nevertheless, the Mongolian Empire has played a great role in the world. Its founder, Genghis Khan, was even named the man of the second millennium. After termination of the murderous conquests, the Mongols became the trigger for building the global communication system in which gas stimulated the technological, cultural, and ideological exchanges between the civilizations of the Old World and contributed indirectly to the bubonic plague. The medieval Mongolian globalization laid the groundwork for subsequent technological growth, the age of discovery, and the rise of the West.
The Qing Empire
Authors: Crossley Pamela Kyle
Published: December 2021

The Qing Empire (1636–1912) used the historical evolution of three governments within the state to manage tensions between a reliance upon the coherence of local communities and a containment of the possibilities for local autonomy. The governments had distinct origins and provided the enormous Qing Empire with the scale of information and administration to control over a culturally, socially, and functionally diverse population. The earliest was the Eight Banners, which evolved from a personal security operation to an empire-wide conquest and occupation force. Second was the negotiation of Mongol economic and political affairs that ultimately became the Lifanyuan, the Qing instrument for indirect governance of selected territories. And last was the Chinese civil bureaucracy. Though never hermetically isolated from each other, the three governments provided the basis both for spatial and functional specialization and for the centralization of the Qing state, particularly after the creation of the Grand Council in 1729.
The Kinetic Empires of Native American Nomads
Authors: Hämäläinen Pekka
Published: December 2021

This chapter re-examines the powerful nomadic-equestrian societies in the North and South American grasslands and makes the case for a distinctive imperial formation, the kinetic empire. Kinetic empires were shape-shifting, action-based regimes that turned mobility into an imperial strategy and revolved around mobile activities: long-distance raiding, seasonal expansions, transnational diplomatic missions, semi-permanent trade fairs, recurring political assemblies, and control over shifting nodes. Their governing systems were light and flexible, and they rose and stayed in power by capitalizing on their superior capacity to access and connect political and economic centers around them. The Comanche and Lakota Indians created the Western Hemisphere’s most prominent examples of kinetic empires in the North American Great Plains. In South America the Araucanians frustrated European colonizing efforts, commanded a large and expanding territory, and pulled other Native groups on their orbit, but lacked the Comanches’ and Lakotas’ strong collective identities and political unity.
Decolonization and Neocolonialism
Authors: Ward Stuart
Published: December 2021

Europe’s maritime empires unraveled at the intersection of the major upheavals of the twentieth century: the defeat of the Axis Powers, postwar reconstruction, and the onset of the Cold War. Conventionally labeled “decolonization,” the far-reaching implications of the term belie its surprisingly limited temporal and interpretative reach. This chapter examines the onset of decolonization and its neocolonial afterlife through the interplay of events, agencies, and the ideas that emerged to make sense of them. It takes its point of departure in the intellectual rumblings of the interwar years, culminating in the “Wind of Change” era in colonial Africa in the early 1960s—precisely the time when “decolonization” found a permanent foothold in the political lexicon. Significantly, no sooner had the term become common currency than its political antonym, “neocolonialism,” was promptly pressed into service. As such, the two phenomena were deeply implicated in each other’s formative historical context.
Epilogue
Authors: Cooper Frederick
Published: December 2021

“Beyond Empire” asks what studying empires from ancient times to the twentieth century tells us about the world today. Crises in the Middle East and the configuration of Europe, China, Africa, the United States, and elsewhere bear the imprint of trajectories into, through, and out of empire. Instead of assuming the “empire-to-nation-state” narrative, it explores the articulations of empire and nation and makes clear that the relationship was uncertain and contested, even in the mid- and late twentieth century. New empires (USSR, Japan, Nazi Germany) arose even as others collapsed, but World War II constituted a break point for winning as well as defeated empires, creating openings to anti-colonial movements but also enabling Western European powers to imagine a future without needing imperial resources in their rivalry with each other. The independent territorial state was not the only objective of political movements in colonial empires, but in the end national independence was what they could get. The juridical equivalence of post-imperial states has not brought about a stable, equitable, or even predictable world order.
Living for God
Authors: Horwitz Ilana M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter introduces readers to the childrearing logic of “religious restraint” and distinguishes it from Annette Lareau’s classic class-based childrearing strategies of “concerted cultivation” and “natural growth.” Deeply religious families do not fall into either of Lareau’s categories. Parents who raise their children with religious restraint exist across different social class groups. Children raised with religiously restraint (“abiders”) come to believe in God so deeply that it alters their sense of self—their idea of who they are. Teens believe that they are constantly being evaluated by God, which prompts them to change how they perceive themselves, how they carry themselves, and how they imagine their future selves. Living to please God shapes how teens see themselves and how they behave, which the chapter describes as developing a “God-centered self-concept.” Teens raised with religious restraint who develop a God-centered self-concept come from different genders, social class backgrounds, racial backgrounds, and religious traditions.
Unexpected Destinations
Authors: Horwitz Ilana M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter argues that an upbringing of religious restraint constrains college choices, especially for professional-class kids. It does so by recalibrating their academic ambitions after graduation, leading them to rarely consider a selective college despite their excellent grades in high school. As a result, religiously restrained teens—and especially those from the professional class who have the resources to make it to college—tend to undermatch in the college selection process. This is evident among men and is especially prevalent among women. Girls who grow up with religious restraint have a self-concept centered around family, service, and God. They do not aspire toward prestigious careers, which makes a degree from a selective college less valuable. Unlike less affluent teens who want to improve their class position by gaining a college degree, religiously restrained teens are content maintaining their class position by attending college close to home and reproducing traditional gender norms.
Introduction
Authors: Lustig Jason
Published: December 2021

The introduction presents the book’s core argument that twentieth-century Jewish archives were not just about the past but also about the future: We can look to a process whereby Jews turned increasingly toward archives as anchors of memory in a rapidly changing world. Jews in Germany, the United States, and Israel/Palestine all sought to gather the files of the past in order to represent their place in Jewish life and articulate a vision of the future. It situates these projects in the history of community-based archiving and archival theory and methodology, as well as Jewish history at large. It also dives into the ways we can see archive making as a metaphor for the broader patterns in modern Jewish history, as Jews sought to gather the sources and resources of their culture both before the Holocaust and especially in its aftermath.
Training Spiritual Caregivers
Authors: Cadge Wendy , Stroud Beth , Palmer Patricia K. , Fitchett George , Haythorn Trace , Clevenger Casey
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores graduate theological education as a field that produces both discourses of spirituality and the professionals who provide what is increasingly called “spiritual care.” As taught in chaplaincy programs, the case of spiritual care illustrates how “spirituality” is produced by religious institutions in a pragmatic effort to train chaplains for work in the secular institutions that employ them. The chapter shows how, based on the history of chaplaincy graduate education programs and their students’ religious backgrounds, programs adapt the content of their curricula and their approaches to religious diversity to prepare their students for work with a wide range of religious and nonreligious people across secular institutions. It concludes by outlining what this case contributes to broader scholarly conversations about the institutional production of “spirituality” in the current American context and the role of theological education in that production.
Introduction
Authors: Kertz-Welzel Alexandra
Published: December 2021

The chapter introduces the topic of music education and social change and shows the need for an interdisciplinary study. It discusses research related to social change and music education critically and shows possible directions for new investigations. It develops the theoretical framework of utopia and utopian thinking as an innovative approach to music education and social change. It offers a much-needed scholarly foundation for music education and social change. Furthermore, this chapter presents the purpose of the present study, and the specific contribution this book will make to music education theory and practice. Finally, it offers a brief overview of the book chapters.
Digital Technologies and the Problem of Democracy
Authors: Forestal Jennifer
Published: December 2021

This chapter introduces the book’s argument and approach. It argues that participatory democracy—understood as a method of collective problem-solving—is well suited for understanding the democratic implications of digital technologies. The chapter then explains why the book takes the methodological approach of examining the democratic effects of digital technologies through the lens of the built environment. Ultimately, the reason is one of power: the built environment exerts considerable power over us, shaping our behavior in often-invisible ways. Insofar as democracy requires citizen participation in the decisions that shape their lives, they require a built environment that affords the opportunity to engage in the requisite democratic affordances—specifically, the practices of recognition, attachment, and experimentalism. In order to facilitate these affordances, democratic environments must have three characteristics: (1) boundaries, to facilitate recognition; (2) durable spaces, to cultivate attachment; and (3) flexible spaces, to provide opportunities and resources for experimental habits.
Democracy for Profit?
Authors: Forestal Jennifer
Published: December 2021

This chapter evaluates Facebook and Twitter’s algorithms using the framework of democratic space. Prominent critiques highlight their opacity and users’ lack of control; tools like Gobo “fix” these algorithms by increasing their flexibility. But while these solutions might cede more control to individual users, they are insufficient for building democratic communities; the more pressing concern for both Facebook and Twitter is their lack of clear boundaries, which undermines users’ ability to recognize their communities. The chapter concludes by showing how we might “democratize” these algorithms in ways that not only increase user control over their digital environments and the algorithms that structure them, but also help to generate and sustain the communities required to exert that control democratically. Ultimately, the chapter argues that questions of ownership and control must be placed alongside considerations about the communal effects of algorithmic design if we are to build environments supportive of democratic politics.
Twenty-First-Century Torture
Authors: d'Ambruoso William L.
Published: December 2021

Immediately following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, members of the George W. Bush administration signaled that current rules regarding intelligence, detention, and interrogation were too confining. With approval from the Justice Department’s Office of Legal Counsel (OLC), the president declared that the Geneva Conventions’ detention and interrogation guidelines would not apply to Al Qaeda and Taliban detainees. The problem with Geneva, administration lawyers argued, was that it would tie interrogators’ hands. The CIA and the military wanted an explicit legal blessing for their interrogation programs. They got it in the form of a series of memos by the OLC and military lawyers, who defined torture in exceedingly narrow terms. The result was “enhanced interrogation,” which the administration claimed did not amount to torture but was still a sufficiently “tough” program to break hardened terrorists.
Starting the Conversation
Authors: Braxton Gordon
Published: December 2021

Helping boys stand against sexual violence is not a one-time event and requires a sustained conversation. Chapter 4 identifies some key complications that boys may face once they decide to share their voices so that caretakers can be prepared to help them through the process of adopting anti-violent perspectives. Particular emphasis is given to questioning the popular notion of defending alleged Black perpetrators as a default position for Black boys. Standing against violence is definitively pro-Black, as this chapter explains. The chapter also identifies the social justice ideologies held by many Black boys as a potential resiliency factor that can help them to adopt anti-violence perspectives.
Facing the Complications of Being an Anti-violent Man
Authors: Braxton Gordon
Published: December 2021

The massive levels of sexual violence that are present today must have a source. Chapter 2 posits that male socialization is a primary contributor to male-perpetrated violence. Few would deny that a male socialization exists but it is rare to examine it. Readers are encouraged to help boys identify those aspects of manhood that negatively influence their lives, and the author shares some concerns about male cultures that boys have expressed to him. The toolbox for recruiters of boys is expanded as freedom from male stereotypes is suggested as a major selling point for boys that challenge traditional male training.
Understanding Our Power to Harm
Authors: Braxton Gordon
Published: December 2021

We don’t talk to boys about sexual violence with the same intensity and regularity that we talk to girls. It’s no wonder, then, that many grow into men with limited understandings of how to ensure the safety of themselves and their partners. Chapter 7 provides a deeper dive into sexual misconduct policies. It identifies common misunderstandings that boys have of policies and provides some practical tips on how to correct those deficiencies. Particular emphasis is placed on the common understanding that alcohol usage absolves one from fault. The chapter also provides tips on how boys can better navigate a sexual arena where they perceive themselves to have a lot of risk. Chief among these tips is the suggestion that boys are free to hold themselves to standards that exceed what laws and policies expect of them.
Finding a Home in a Global Movement
Authors: Braxton Gordon
Published: December 2021

Sexual violence has persisted across time and cultures and responsibility for its prevention has been firmly placed on women. Chapter 9 reminds readers that there is now a global movement aimed at ending sexual violence that is waiting on contributions from boys. The chapter urges incoming boys to seek out training so that they can best be integrated into existing strategies. A brief overview of existing resources is provided as well as some historical examples of Black men standing against sexual violence. Chapter 9 closes with a challenge that Black boys can be the missing ingredient in tipping cultural values against sexual violence.
Reproducing Populism
Authors: Carrión Julio F.
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the third mechanism populist presidents use to reproduce their power: the tilting of the electoral playing field. The chapter shows the centrality of free and fair elections in defining democracy. It then identifies and discusses the main characteristics of democratic elections. The remainder of the chapter shows how unconstrained populist presidents violate four central conditions of free and fair elections: the free formation of alternatives, the free formation of preferences, the freedom to express these preferences, and the neutral management of elections. The chapter argues that the illegal enabling of reelection and the elimination of term limits violate the free formation of alternatives; the restriction of political and civil liberties and unfair access to media undermine the free formation of preferences; voter intimidations and vote buying violate the freedom to express those preferences; and electoral fraud and institutional biases negate the neutral management of elections.
Conclusion
Authors: Carrión Julio F.
Published: December 2021

The chapter shows that the impact of populism on democracy depends on the variety of populism in power: the worst outcomes in democratic performance are found under unconstrained populism. By contrast, when populism in power is constrained, democracy will largely survive. To support this claim, the chapter traces two democracy indices under populism in power in the Andes, which as expected, show a marked deterioration of democracy under unconstrained populist governments, while remaining largely unchanged under contained populism. The central proposition of the theory—unconstrained populism in power leads to regime change whereas constrained populism does not—is then explored in cases beyond the Andes. The chapter finds examples of unconstrained populism in Nicaragua under Daniel Ortega and Hungary under Viktor Orbán, their governments having transitioned away from democracy. In other cases where populism was constrained, that was not the case.
My Perilous Girlhood
Authors: Chen Yuan-tsung
Published: December 2021

In early 1941 , Yuan-tsung’s family moved to Chongqing, the wartime capital of the Nationalist government, where she attended the prestigious Nankai Middle School and went through the trials and discoveries of adolescence, though shadowed by war and byzantine domestic politics. This was also the time of her romantic and sexual awakening, though it took place in a vicarious manner. She accompanied her wealthy best friend, Edith Shen, to the latter’s tryst at the Peach-Blossom Grove. She acted as an intermediary for Edith, the school beauty queen, and her lover, a role that earned her a place in one of Chongqing’s most elegant mansions.
Breaking Away
Authors: Chen Yuan-tsung
Published: December 2021

The Second World War ended in victory for the Nationalist government. It was a Pyrrhic victory, however, as the Nationalists would soon be defeated by the Communists in the civil war, and Yuan-tsung was at a crossroads, wondering what to do: join her rich friends and flee to Hong Kong or stay in China. Despite her mother’s insistence that she go south with her rich friends, she decided with her younger siblings’ support to stay, believing that earthshaking events were about to happen in China and that they would provide material for her literary endeavors. She decided to go north to Beijing and meanwhile began to read some radical literature, such as Gorky’s Mother.
Between the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution
Authors: Chen Yuan-tsung
Published: December 2021

Yuan-tsung returned to Beijing in November 1960, but she could not forget what she had seen in the Red Flag Commune, and so she planned to circumvent another, probably worse catastrophe. She discussed options with Jack. Both agreed to leave China for Hong Kong, where Jack’s brother Percy ran the Marco Polo Club, a sort of bridge between Western businessmen and China. Jack would work as a freelance journalist. They consulted their friend Comrade Xia. Xia arranged for Jack to meet the foreign minister, Chen Yi, who liked to wear a French Beret. Chen Yi thought it was a good idea that Jack continue his work in a less restrictive environment. But Yuan-tsung and Jack disagreed on when to depart. She preferred 1965 and he, 1966. She was afraid that anything might happen in that one year.
The Origins and Dynamics of Inequality
Authors: Wisman Jon D.
Published: December 2021

Whereas President Barack Obama identified inequality as “the defining challenge of our time,” this book claims more: it is the defining issue of all human history. The struggle over inequality has been the underlying force driving human history’s unfolding. Drawing on the dynamics of inequality, this book reinterprets history and society. Beyond according inequality the central role in human history, this book is novel in two other respects. First, transcending the general failure of social scientists and historians to anchor their work in explicit theories of human behavior, this book grounds the origins and dynamics of inequality in evolutionary psychology, or, more specifically, Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. Second, this book is novel in according central importance to the critical historical role of ideology in legitimating inequality, a role typically ignored or given little attention by social scientists and historians. Because of the central role of inequality in history, inequality’s explosion over the past 45 years has not been an anomaly. It is a return to the political dynamics by which elites have, since the rise of the state, taken practically everything for themselves, leaving all others with little more than the means with which to survive. Due to elites’ persuasive ideology, even after workers in advanced capitalist countries gained the franchise to become the overwhelming majority of voters, inequality continued to increase. The anomaly is that the only intentional politically driven decline in inequality occurred between the 1930s and 1970s following the Great Depression’s partial delegitimation (this should remain delegitimation globally) of elites’ ideology.
Representation
Authors: Shaver Stephen R.
Published: December 2021

Chapter 6 presents the motif of representation: the idea that the eucharistic bread and wine are symbols (or signs, figures, antitypes, etc.) of the body and blood of Christ. Using a definition of symbol as a blend involving a “material anchor” (Edwin Hutchins), the author argues that “The bread is the symbol of the body of Christ” is not, as some Swiss Reformers believed, a literal equivalent for the figurative “The bread is the body of Christ.” Rather, it is a prompt for a more complex (“Y-squared”) blending network. In this blend a vital relation of Representation is created between bread and the body of Christ. The Representation relation can coexist with Identity, Change, and other vital relations. Thus, the identity and representation motifs are not mutually exclusive but complementary.
Theosophical Gnosis and Astral Hermeneutics
Authors: Cox Simon
Published: December 2021

This chapter traces the subtle body concept through the writings of Blavatsky’s heirs, the major figures in the second generation of theosophy, zeroing in specifically on their reformulations of a mystical form of Christianity informed by the yoga of the subtle body. First, it examines the life and works of Annie Besant and her mythological subtle body interpretations of the Bible. Next, it moves on to Charles Leadbeater, his Kundalini experiences, and how these informed his own subtle body ideas drawn from Kabbalah, Hindu philosophy, and his own personal experience. Lastly, the chapter examines Blavatsky’s former secretary, G. R. S. Mead, and how the subtle body concept is formulated in his numerous books. It ends by looking at Mead’s prognostications about a future wherein the sciences, parapsychology, and humanities are brought together to answer questions about the nature and function of the subtle body.
The Alchemical Body of Carl Jung
Authors: Cox Simon
Published: December 2021

This chapter traces the subtle body concept through the work of Carl Jung, who is introduced to the idea by G. R. S. Mead’s theosophical books. After tracing Jung’s early engagement with the Orient, the chapter moves to an analysis of the subtle body concept in his work, specifically in his engagements with Eastern traditions: Daoism, Kundalini Yoga, and Tibetan Bardo Yoga. After examining Jung’s use of the subtle body concept in his translation-commentaries on Eastern texts, the chapter turns to how Jung incorporates the concept into his own psychology of individuation based on the techniques of active imagination and dream analysis. The chapter turns to Jung’s seminars on Nietzsche, where he presents the subtle body concept with a unique dose of critical reflexivity and Kantian rigor. It ends with Jung’s late-life speculation about a future where, following the quantum revolution and spitting of the atom, humans evolve into subtle body–dwelling creatures who occupy a world of psychical substance.
Locke’s Ciceronian Liberalism
Authors: Hawley Michael C.
Published: December 2021

This chapter considers how John Locke reunites the two strands of Ciceronian thought from the seventeenth century. Locke returns to Cicero’s original formulation of natural law republicanism and innovates on it. He derives from Cicero’s natural law a set of natural rights, corresponding to the duties Cicero claimed were imposed by natural law. Locke’s law of nature is a barely modified version of Ciceronian natural law, but his conception of natural rights allows him to solve a number of theoretical problems posed by Cicero’s construal of the issue. Locke also offers a solution to the puzzle of how a doctrine of natural law could meet the standard of skeptical epistemology.
Getting Your Data Into SSDforR
Authors: Auerbach Charles
Published: December 2021

This chapter covers how to measure target behaviors and use common software to record and edit client data. Readers are then shown how to import data into R and use the SSD for R functions to analyze their data. The first part of this chapter focuses on the type of data that is most appropriate to record and some common issues related to collecting these. Four different types of measurement are covered, each of which has its own strengths and weaknesses. These include direct behavioral observations, standardized scales, individual rating scales, and logs. When selecting one or more methods of measuring a target behavior, readers will want to consider the specific needs of their clients, the identified problem, and the practice or research situation. The second part of this chapter demonstrates how to use Excel or other spreadsheet programs to quickly and effectively record this data.
Overview of SSDforR Functions
Authors: Auerbach Charles
Published: December 2021

In this chapter, readers are given step-by-step instructions on how to access the software necessary to use SSD for R. They are also presented with a brief overview of the capabilities of the SSD for R package. These include basic graphing functions, descriptive statistics, many effect size functions, autocorrelation, regression, statistical process control charts, hypothesis testing, and functions associated with analyzing group data. In combination, R, RStudio, and SSD for R, all of which are freely available, provide a robust way to analyze single-system research data. This chapter demonstrates how to download the necessary software and provides an overview of the visual and statistical capability available with SSD for R.
Analyzing Baseline Phase Data
Authors: Auerbach Charles
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the analysis of the baseline phase. The baseline serves as the comparison for information collected during subsequent phases. It allows the researcher or practitioner to determine if the target behaviors are changing in a desirable or undesirable direction. Two different types of baselines are presented, concurrent and reconstructed. In a concurrent baseline, data are collected simultaneously, while other assessment activities are being conducted. A reconstructed baseline is an attempt to approximate naturally occurring behavior based on memories or case records. Issues related to comparing phases are discussed and illustrated, including stability of the baseline, trending data, and autocorrelation (or serial dependency). Guidance is provided on how each of these can be assessed and addressed, including the transformation of highly autocorrelated data. Examples are provided throughout to illustrate each concept.
Religion, Virtues, and Health
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

The literature on the relationship between religion and health is vast, but it is in a state of disarray. One empirical study has been piled upon another, while little effort has been made to integrate them into a more tightly knit theoretical whole. This book was designed to address this problem. It is the product of 40 years of empirical research, hundreds of peer-reviewed publications, and countless hours of deep reflection. This volume contributes to the literature in three ways: (1) a unique approach to theory construction and model development is presented that is designed to produce a conceptual scheme that is evidence based and empirically verifiable; (2) a new construct—communities of faith—that has largely been overlooked in empirical studies on religion is introduced; and (3) the need is highlighted for a no-holds-barred discussion of how to practice one’s research craft.
Setting the Stage
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter presents a detailed rationale for why this volume is needed. The discussion is divided into five sections: (1) a critical overview of the religion-and-health literature is provided; (2) some preliminary observations are made on the state of current theoretical frameworks and conceptual models in the field; (3) a new conceptual model is introduced—this model is based on the premise that religion is, in essence, a social phenomenon that serves as a key conduit for the transmission of core religious virtues; (4) a new model-building strategy is illustrated by showing how submodels (i.e., brief supplementary models) can be used to expand the conceptual scope of the core model; and (5) an overview is provided of the chapters that follow.
Issues in Theory Construction
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

The purpose of this chapter is to discuss key steps in the theory construction process that have not received sufficient attention in the literature. Four issues are explored: (1) a brief history of the prevailing approaches to theory construction is presented; (2) an in-depth discussion is provided on how the core study model was developed—a special emphasis is placed on specifying a generic strategy for how to practice one’s own research craft; (3) a concise discussion on how to weave preliminary theoretical specifications into a viable midrange theory is described; and (4) a discussion involving how to write for an academic audience is provided.
Religious and Spiritual Identities
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an in-depth examination of the first construct in the core theoretical model—religious and/or spiritual identities. People typically identify themselves as religious only, spiritual only, religious and spiritual, or neither religious nor spiritual. The identity they choose has profound implications for the way they relate to religious institutions and the health-related benefits they may enjoy from doing so. Four issues are examined in detail: (1) an overview of social identity theory is provided; (2) previous research on religious identities and health is reviewed; (3) a detailed overview of recent research by the author on religious and spiritual identities is discussed; and (4) next steps that are needed to take research on religious and/or spiritual identities to the next level are identified.
Forgiving Others and Compassion
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

The virtue of forgiving others and the virtue of compassion occupy a pivotal position in the core study model because they provide an important point of departure for explaining how spiritual support affects health. This fundamental issue is explored in three sections: (1) a theoretical rationale for focusing specifically on forgiveness and compassion is provided—in the process the social underpinning of these virtues is highlighted; (2) studies on the relationship between forgiveness and health as well as compassion and health are reviewed; (3) a submodel is introduced that aims to flesh out the nature of the relationship between spiritual support and these two social virtues is provided.
Beneficence
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

Beneficence is defined as concrete efforts that are designed to improve the situation of a person who is in need. Researchers have proposed a plethora of terms that are like beneficence, including charity, generosity, prosociality, and providing social support to others. Five issues are examined in this chapter: (1) two conceptual controversies involving the genesis of beneficence are examined first, (2) then research is reviewed that shows that people who are more forgiving as well as individuals who are more compassionate are more likely to be beneficent; (3) following this, four theories are reviewed that explain how beneficence arises in religious settings; (4) the potential downside of beneficence is identified; and (5) a submodel is introduced that fleshes out the interface between beneficence and health.
Meaning in Life
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

This pivotal chapter marks the transition from discussing what religion is (i.e., the core components of religion) to a discussion of what religion does (i.e., how religion affects health specifically). Meaning in life performs this vital bridging function. This function is explored in three sections: (1) issues in the measurement of meaning in life are examined first, (2) then an overview of the elements of religious life that promote a sense of meaning are examined (the virtues of forgiveness, compassion, and beneficence figure prominently in this respect), and (3) a submodel is proposed that provides further insight into why a sense of meaning in life is so critical.
Health and Well-Being
Authors: Krause Neal M.
Published: December 2021

The goal of this chapter is to show how a sense of meaning in life acts in concert with the dimensions of religion that have been discussed so far to affect health. The discussion that follows is divided into two sections. The extensive body of research that links meaning with health and well-being is examined first. Following this, three submodels are introduced that provide further insight into how meaning in life might affect health. The first submodel brings gratitude and prayer to the foreground. The second submodel focuses on the relationships among meaning in life, proactive coping responses, and health behavior. The third submodel brings issues involving the interface between meaning in life, negative aspects of religious life (e.g., religious doubt), and health-related outcomes.
Some Considerations
Authors: Drijvers Jan Willem
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers thoughts about origin and function of the Jovian Narrative. The Jovian Narrative is a composite text in which various narratives about Julian and Jovian circulating in northern Mesopotamia and the Syriac-speaking world were combined. The Jovian Narrative is part of the Syriac tradition of Christian discourse of imagination, and the author is likely to have made use of various Syriac narrative traditions. Edessa is in all probability the Christian intellectual center where most of these texts were produced, and the Jovian Narrative most likely had its origin in Edessa. For the composition of his text, the composer is likely to have made use of various Syriac narrative traditions as well as historical information. The compilation of the Jovian Narrative as a cohesive text should probably be seen against the background of the religious and geopolitical policy of the emperor Justinian (527–565). Under his reign the Roman–Persian military conflict flared up again in all vehemence after many years of peaceful coexistence between the two empires. Furthermore, the Jovian Narrative intervenes on an eschatological level in the conflict between Chalcedonians and non-Chalcedonians in the reign of Justinian. Jovian is presented as the eschatological realization of the ideal Christian emperor, who represents a return to the orthodox ideal as it existed under Constantine.
Reimagining the Face of HIV/AIDS
Authors: Stamm Laura
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 features a discussion of the queer biopic’s relationship to PWA photography and media representation, looking finally to contemporary media practices to reflect upon the current AIDS media landscape. The queer biopic does not function outside of other modes of photography and video; instead, questions of portraiture are foundational to any understanding of the biopic form. The chapter moves through the history of PWA photography, providing readings of photography by Therese Frare, Nicholas Nixon, David Wojnarowicz, and Nan Goldin. The chapter’s turn to contemporary HIV + multimedia artist Kia LaBeija examines the legacies of black queer performance that emerge in her video and photographic work.
Kant
Authors: Elgat Guy
Published: December 2021

This chapter’s argument is that for Immanuel Kant, empirical guilt requires determination of responsibility, where responsibility involves free agency. It argues that empirical guilt could only be justified for Kant in the final analysis if the agent is responsible and consequently guilty for his or her own “original sin” or radical evil (ontological guilt), where this responsibility and guilt imply an intelligible free deed, a position Kant defends in his Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason. It is here that Kant can be seen to put forward a transcendental argument from (ontological) guilt to intelligible freedom. The chapter concludes by arguing that Kant, however, does not ultimately succeed in showing why guilt (empirical and ontological) is justified and that even though he can be seen to approach the idea of the subject as causa sui that later thinkers endorse, he does not embrace it fully.
Schelling
Authors: Elgat Guy
Published: December 2021

In this chapter, Friedrich Wilhelm von Schelling’s thought on the phenomenon of guilt is examined. The main point established is that on the one hand, Schelling can be seen to follow in Kant’s footsteps in that he, too, sees guilt as ultimately grounded in a free, intelligible act. On the other hand, Schelling goes beyond Kant in that he holds that for guilt (empirical or ontological) to be justified, it is necessary that the human being constitute or choose his or her own being in a timeless and free deed. In other words, Schelling endorses a version of the transcendental argument for freedom where guilt implies that the human being is a free causa sui. Schelling’s conception of the human being as causa sui enables him to address the problem of infinite regress that beleaguers Kant’s view.
Rée
Authors: Elgat Guy
Published: December 2021

In this chapter, Paul Rée’s views on guilt, responsibility, free will, and punishment are considered. Three subsidiary aims of the discussion are to show that, first, Rée’s works are worth paying attention to in their own right and not merely as a foil for Nietzsche’s ideas; second, that Nietzsche’s criticisms of Rée’s views fall short of the mark; and third, that in contrast to the views of some interpreters, Rée’s thought does undergo development in the course of his career. The discussion presents a radically different approach to guilt from the one encountered in the chapters on Kant, Schelling, and Schopenhauer. This approach spurns all metaphysical speculation and attempts to consider guilt as a natural phenomenon, that is, a phenomenon that does not require for its explanation an appeal to some noumenal or intelligible realm where agents perform timeless deeds but is to be explained as a thoroughly this-worldly psychological phenomenon.