bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Natural and Revealed Theology in Hill and Chalmers
Authors: Elliott Mark W.
Published: October 2019

George Hill (1750–1819), a member of the Whig establishment, Principal of St Mary’s College, St Andrews and long-time leader of the Moderate Party at the General Assembly expressed a cautious and conservative theology that was pragmatic and even progressive in its application. He stressed the applicative doctrines that had moral force, such as the Atonement, and if not determinist, then at least a monist vision of the universe. Hill’s most famous pupil, Thomas Chalmers (1780–1847), for all his evangelical formation, from his time as Professor of Moral Philosophy at St Andrews to his spell as Professor of Theology at Edinburgh University then the Free Church College after the Disruption of 1843, held to a solid baseline of a rational religion to which was added an emphasis on the doctrine of sin and a need to receive the atoning work of Christ by faith and to be sanctified. This was to be enabled by preaching to all, without expecting that all will react with sufficient personal faith for salvation. As with Hill, the Bible alone was the guide to truth.
Theology, Slavery, and Abolition 1756–1848
Authors: Whyte Iain
Published: October 2019

The seventeenth-century Court of Session cases involving slaves in Scotland saw extensive use of Scripture on both sides, and the issue of Christian baptism was more significant north of the border. Scottish petitions to Parliament against the slave trade emphasized divine wrath and national guilt. The sinfulness of enslavement was generally accepted in the Church despite the widespread profits from slavery, but by the 1830s a key call from a leading minister for immediate abolition replaced the cautious gradual approach, hitherto accepted in the churches. After the abolition of slavery in the British Empire, attention turned to America in the 1840s. Support for the new Free Church from Northern and Southern States led to a nationwide campaign to ‘Send Back the Money’ and have no fellowship with slaveholders, led largely by Presbyterian Secessionists and Quaker abolitionists.
Hume amongst the Theologians
Authors: Fergusson David
Published: October 2019

The doyen of the Scottish Enlightenment, David Hume (1711–76) was notable for the religious scepticism evident in his writings, particularly the posthumously published masterpiece The Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. This chapter explores a series of responses to Hume from theologians and religiously inclined philosophers in his native land from the eighteenth to the twentieth century. These are grouped into three categories—the rejection of Hume as a ‘dangerous infidel’, the affirmation of Hume as the catalyst for a more rationally grounded philosophical theology, and the conviction that Hume is a sceptic of perennial religious worth. Finally, Hume’s philosophical style is commended to contemporary audiences.
As Open as Possible
Authors: Storrar William
Published: October 2019

This chapter draws on recent scholarship on the architect Alexander Thomson, and more briefly on the ecologist Patrick Geddes and the Liberal Young Scots Society, to examine the public significance of churchgoing in the modern history of Scottish theology and society. It asks whether it is possible to speak of a Presbyterian modernity during Scotland’s long nineteenth century by considering the public lives of these lay members of the dissenting Presbyterian churches in the Victorian and Edwardian era who transposed the theological ideas of their ecclesial milieu into the urban buildings, intellectual climate, and liberal politics of a modern industrial society.
Liberal, Broad Church, and Reforming Influences in the Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Macdonald Finlay A. J.
Published: October 2019

The second half of the nineteenth century saw something of a watershed as the post-Disruption Presbyterian Churches moved beyond the theology of the Westminster Confession. At the same time the Church of Scotland was forced to defend its role as an ‘established Church’, finding a ready champion in John Tulloch of St Andrews who stressed the role of religion in the public as well as the private sphere. Through the liberal and reforming influences of men such as Tulloch, John Caird, Norman Macleod, Robert Flint, and Archibald Charteris in the Church of Scotland, John Cairns in the United Presbyterian Church, and Robert Rainy in the Free Church the late century years witnessed a new theological engagement with the challenges of scientific discovery and social need. By such means Christianity was commended to mind as well as spirit, to reason as well as faith.
Learning a Form of Life
Authors: Strhan Anna
Published: October 2019

Focusing on the space of churches, Chapter 2 explores the practices through which adults seek to form children as subjects able to ‘engage with God’ in Sunday school and Kids Church and the ways in which the children responded to these practices across each of the three churches studied in this book. Focusing on the desired formation of children provides insight into the morally charged ideals of personhood articulated in each church, and draws out the particular emphasis on biblical literacy and ideals of submission to God expressed in conservative evangelicals’ work with children in comparison with the emphasis on ideals of friendship with Jesus that is privileged at St George’s and Riverside. The author argues that despite these differences, the techniques of formation used in each church aim to shape the children as reflexive individuals, able to reflect on their actions in the light of church teachings.
Living with Mess
Authors: Strhan Anna
Published: October 2019

Through ethnographic focus on ‘Messy Church’ at Riverside Church (open evangelical), Chapter 7 turns to examine shifting ethical currents within conservative, charismatic, and open evangelical cultures. Considering the contemporary significance of ideas of ‘mess’ and ‘messiness’ at Riverside and St George’s churches, the chapter argues that this turn to ‘mess’ at both churches is shaped by both a strategy of differentiation from conservative evangelicalism—which emphasizes a desire for hierarchical order within church, self, and society—and by an ethics of responsiveness to the everyday needs of those in their local area, marked by heightened socio-economic polarization. How groups engage with ideas of ‘order’ and ‘mess’, the chapter argues, is significant for understanding how different groups respond to fragmented experiences of social life, and how they enact modes of difference and belonging in the contemporary moment.
Conclusion
Authors: Strhan Anna
Published: October 2019

The conclusion begins with an ethnographic vignette exploring the development of children’s work at St George’s Church (charismatic evangelical) following the period of fieldwork. The chapter then summarizes the key findings and takeaways of the preceding chapters and the significance of attending to children within the sociology of religion. It argues that what follows from this book is not an argument for developing the sociology of religious childhood per se, but rather recognition of how attending to childhood and to children’s experiences in relation to religion shifts perceptions and deepens understanding of the everyday social realities we inhabit. The chapter concludes by considering what it means to take children’s voices seriously in the sociology of religion.
Rights’ Elusive Relation to Interests
Authors: Cruft Rowan
Published: October 2019

Chapter 2 examines the relation between rights, interests, and desires, focusing on Raz’s and Kramer’s differing Interest Theories and Wenar’s recent Kind-Desire Theory. It argues that none of the theories respect our ability to create rights wherever we wish through law or promising, independently of the interests and desires of the right-holder. It argues nonetheless that Raz’s theory succeeds as a sufficient condition on right-holding, while Kramer’s and Wenar’s distinct theories come very close as necessary conditions. The chapter argues that it is easy to overlook the limitations of the theories because every right creates a circular ‘status desire’ or ‘status interest’ in its own fulfilment, borne by the right-holder in virtue of her status as holding a right.
Rights’ Relation to the First and Second Person
Authors: Cruft Rowan
Published: October 2019

Chapter 4 develops a new account of what it is to be owed a duty. There are two parts to the analysis. The first part says that it is distinctive of a duty owed to a capable party (an adult, young person, corporation as opposed to, e.g. a baby or a rabbit) that that party is required to conceive the action the duty enjoins in first-personal terms as to be ‘done to me’. The second part says that it is distinctive of a duty owed to any party whatsoever (including ‘incapable’ parties such as babies or rabbits) that the duty-bearer is required to conceive the action the duty enjoins in second-personal terms as to be ‘done to an addressable party, a being conceivable as “you”’. These requirements need not be met for the duty to exist, for it to be fulfilled by its bearer, or for it to have a direction—but their obtaining as requirements is definitive of its being owed to someone. The chapter shows how this distinguishes demanding on one’s own behalf as owed a duty from demanding on behalf of another or in relation to an undirected duty.
From Directed Duties to Rights
Authors: Cruft Rowan
Published: October 2019

Chapter 6 explains how the foregoing chapters—with their focus on the analysis of directed duties—generate an analysis of Hohfeldian claim-rights, and how this analysis relates to the other forms of rights within Hohfeld’s taxonomy: privileges, powers, and immunities. The idea that claim-rights are enforceable directed duties is criticized, and the conceptual primacy of directed duties is explained. The chapter ends with a summary of the position developed through Chapters 2–6, which together constitute Part I of the book: the conceptual part arguing that rights are fundamentally ‘Addressive’ duties.
Enquiries Concerning the Minds of Others
Authors: Parrott Matthew
Published: October 2019

This chapter serves as substantive introduction to the topic of this volume. More specifically, it discusses three central problems relating to our everyday knowledge of other minds. The first is an epistemological problem concerning whether we are capable of knowing anything at all about the mental states of others and, if we are, how we are able to do this. The second is a conceptual problem, concerning our ability to have concepts of mental states that are applicable both to oneself and to others in a way that preserves unity of meaning. As we will see, this conceptual problem arises if we think that a subject typically acquires mental state concepts on the basis of her own experiences. The third problem is explanatory, and it concerns the psychological processes and mechanisms that underpin our ordinary attributions of mental states to others. These three problems are not only central to existing philosophical discussions of our knowledge of other minds, but they are also the primary questions addressed in this volume. As well as outlining the questions, this chapter serves as an introduction to the way in which each of the subsequent chapters chooses to address one or another of them. The chapter concludes with a proposal for how we might consider the answers to each of these problems as related to the others.
Hubal
Authors: Furani Khaled
Published: October 2019

Heuristically evoking Hubal, an ancient Arabian god of the moon, the unknown, and divination, this chapter employs idolatry, a central category of critique from monotheistic theology, to explore ways in which anthropology falls prey to disorientations, conflations, and unwarranted concessions in its study of multiplicity. Concerned with a particular form of idolatry whereby the finite is taken for the infinite, entailing confusion about ends worthy of a life’s devotion, this chapter examines how “culture” and its cognates function as idols in anthropodom. It argues that by conceding to secular state power, and ultimately to principles of sovereignty, anthropology becomes complicit in a wider idolatry that unnecessarily limits its very capacities of reason.
Introduction
Authors: Furani Khaled
Published: October 2019

This introductory chapter outlines the basic premises underlying—as well as the origins of—the book’s argument: anthropology has had a complex and potentially vital relationship with its other, theology. Reviewing the ways anthropology has comprised an ethical quest—responding to and constituting a crisis of theistic proportions (“death of God”)—this chapter advances the utility of applying an anthropological exercise on anthropology: regarding itself from the standpoint of an other, reflected in a theological “mirror.” It also justifies the book’s method of mining anthropology’s biographical register for understanding the discipline’s complex secular making and concludes with an itinerary of the book’s chapters.
Introduction
Authors: Hurka Thomas
Published: October 2019

In one sense philosophers of the last sixty or so years have written a lot about games and sports, since they’ve used analogies with them to illuminate claims on many other philosophical topics. Perhaps best known is Ludwig Wittgenstein’s use of “language-game” to refer to specific portions of our linguistic practice (1953) and the continued use of that term by later philosophers of language (e.g., ...
Suits on Games
Authors: Hurka Thomas
Published: October 2019

This chapter proposes that Suits be seen as analyzing a concept close to that expressed by the English word “game” but different and more useful, because it’s internally unified—its elements fit together—and explanatory, especially of the value of playing games. It slightly revises his account of the lusory attitude, so it involves accepting a game’s rules for the specific reason that they make it more challenging and difficult; this answers many objections to his analysis but requires adding a social dimension to it. And it slightly restricts his analysis by conceding that it doesn’t fit as many things called “games” as Suits himself thought. This doesn’t, however, detract from the value, beauty, and explanatory power of his analysis.
Sport as a Thick Cluster Concept
Authors: Berman Mitchell N.
Published: October 2019

The dominant view in the philosophy of sport maintains that sports constitute a true subset of games—in particular, that sports are competitive games that involve a physical component, such as physical exertion or the exercise of gross motor skills. This chapter argues that the dominant view is mistaken and proposes in its stead an account of sport as a thick cluster concept. Sport is a thick concept because it requires the application of what this chapter terms “warranted seriousness.” And it is a cluster concept because such features as game-ness (or contrivance), physicality, and competitiveness bear constitutively on whether an activity is a sport, but none of these factors is individually necessary. The chapter concludes by sketching possible implications of the thick cluster account of sport for normative questions regarding the virtue of sportsmanship and the proper interpretation of sport rules.
The Nature and Value of Sport
Authors: Papineau David
Published: October 2019

Suits is good on games, but bad on sports. Because he views sports as games, he has trouble accommodating the many sports that aren’t really games at all, like running, swimming, and rowing. More importantly, he mistakes the value of sport, suggesting that it derives from the challenges posed by the arbitrary rules that constitute games, when in truth it lies in the development and exercise of physical abilities. This paper argues that sport includes any activity whose central purpose is the exercise of physical skills, whether or not it is also a game, and that the value of sport derives from the intrinsic worth of such exercises.
The Metaphor of a “Level Playing Field” in Games and Sports
Authors: Francis Leslie
Published: October 2019

In sports, the concept of a “level playing field” is much praised but not well understood. One way to construct the idea is in terms of the rules of the game: if the rules are public, consistently enforced, and respected by players, the game is fair. Another approach to construction is in terms of justice: some rules of the game are unfair and thus the field is not level. Interestingly, although the “rules of the game” metaphor is drawn from games to sports, the corresponding idea of a level playing field is not incorporated into the design of games. This chapter explores the relationship between ideas of a level playing field and rules of games. It argues that how games are constructed sheds light on constructivist accounts of level playing fields in sports. Games take many forms and are fluid rather than static; rules develop and change over time. Sports do so as well, responding to pressures for inclusion and fairness. There is no one perfectly level field; there are fields that are more or less level, in different directions and dimensions.
The Fragility of Fairness
Authors: Bialystok Lauren , Kingwell Mark
Published: October 2019

Proponents and critics alike tend to adjudicate the ethics of sex segregation against the criterion of fairness. In general, fairness supports sex segregation so that women athletes can excel, but there is not yet consensus on who counts as a “woman.” Recent philosophical debates about sex segregation have unfolded as attempts to maximize the fairness of sports policies in light of concerns about biological categorization and social discrimination. We argue that fairness, while an important ideal, is an incomplete framework for organizing competitors and defers vexing questions about gender and justice. This is because, first, fairness can yield contradictory intuitions about the justice of sex-segregated competition; second, it can be overruled by more important values external to sport; third, it threatens to drain sport of its non-competitive virtues; and finally, it effectively masks unjust reasons for grouping athletes in particular ways.
The Grasshopper, Aristotle, Bob Adams, and Me
Authors: Kagan Shelly
Published: October 2019

In this paper, I explore the nature of the ideal human life, by asking what we will do in Utopia. I take issue with Suits’s suggestion in The Grasshopper that all we will do is play games. I argue, instead, that there will also be a place for understanding fundamental truths and admiring beauty. Nor must it be the case that our “productive” behavior is limited to playing games: there will still be room for acts of creativity and for engaging in meaningful relationships with others.
Rethinking the Contest Between Pleasure and Wisdom
Authors: Vogt Katja Maria
Published: October 2019

Chapter 2 analyzes how the Philebus sets up a contest between two positions, Revised Hedonism and Reason, that offer competing views on the good. The two positions are modified versions of the long-standing ideas that either pleasure or wisdom are the good. They are formulated, however, in distinctive ways. In response the interlocutors investigate, broadly and extensively, what goes on in our minds. The emerging project includes not only psychology and epistemology, but also the metaphysics of plurality. Moreover, both positions construe good as good-for: the good for human beings. This will prompt the interlocutors to pursue nothing less than the metaphysics of the kind of mix—a limit-unlimited combination—that a good human life is. The chapter reads the beginning of the Philebus as launching this tour de force across philosophical disciplines.
Cooking Up the Good Life with Socrates
Authors: Jones Russell E.
Published: October 2019

At Philebus 59d10–64c4, Socrates offers a recipe for the good life. His recipe reveals pure knowledge as the most important ingredient. Not only is pure knowledge valuable on its own, but it must be present for the other ingredients to make their own distinctive contributions to the good life. It determines which other ingredients are to be included, and in what manner and what amounts. The passage thus prepares the way for knowledge, and particularly pure knowledge, to be ranked ahead of pleasure as most responsible for the good life.
A Conversation with Research Ethics Boards About Inclusive Research with Persons with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
Authors: Cobigo Virginie , Potvin Lynne A. , Fulford Casey , Chalghoumi Hajer , Hanna Mariam , Plourde Natasha , Taylor Whitney D.
Published: October 2019

Persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) have the right to participate in research with dignity and respect. Information about persons with IDD is often acquired from third parties; however, they are capable of, and want to be included in, research. Nevertheless, current practices to protect persons with IDD from harm may preclude them from participating in research. Therefore, inclusive research requires ethical and practical considerations to ensure that persons with IDD are treated fairly. In this chapter, experiences and recommendations in four aspects of ethical research with persons with IDD are shared: (1) accessibility, (2) consent, (3) confidentiality, and (4) research participation risks. Interactions with research ethics boards are used to illustrate the complexity of these ethical considerations and the need for guidelines.
Ongoing Consent for the Inverse Problematic to Loss of Capacity
Authors: Courchesne Caitlin , Illes Judy
Published: October 2019

Patient vulnerability exists at both ends of the age spectrum. While Sankary and Ford consider in Chapter 1 the ethical challenges present in clinical research with patients at risk of cognitive decline, the inverse quandary is explored in this chapter: child and adolescent patients whose capacity to consent, clinical preferences, and health-related goals develop and change over time. We explore the pediatric clinical trial landscape through the example of treatment refractory epilepsy, a condition for which a variety of neurotechnologies have been developed to improve seizure management. Just as Sankary and Ford demonstrate with cognitively vulnerable patient populations, ongoing consent procedures that reflexively involve researchers, sponsors, caregivers, and youth-aged study participants can allow for clinical trials that respect research design integrity, and maximize participant autonomy.
Drawing Distinctions Among Different Types of Research on Persons with Autism
Authors: Barnbaum Deborah R.
Published: October 2019

This commentary engages two aspects of Kenneth A. Richman’s chapter “Autism, Autonomy, and Research” (Chapter 5). First, several excellent points made in the chapter are discussed. Second, a distinction is introduced among types of research on persons with autism, a distinction that would strengthen his discussion. Drawing distinctions among the ways in which informed consent is confounded by symptoms of autism, as well as among types of research on autism, would further strengthen an already compelling chapter.
A Critical Lens on Disability and Consent
Authors: Bloom Allison
Published: October 2019

This commentary reflects on the chapter by Stephanie Patterson and Pamela Block and the chapter by Saira A. Mehmood (Chatpers 6 and 14, respectively) to discuss the need for a more critical lens on disability when approaching research, vulnerability, and consent.
Repurposing Ethnography to Assess Consent Capacity
Authors: Wright Megan S.
Published: October 2019

This chapter comments on the use of ethnographic methods to assess prospective research participants’ capacity to consent to research. While repurposing ethnography provides a valuable tool to assess consent capacity for persons with chronic mental illness by observing such persons in different settings and over a period of time, which can provide a fuller picture of capacity, there are limitations to this use. First, in some jurisdictions, an ethics review board may not permit a researcher to engage in ethnography without the consent of those being observed, which means this method would not be of use. Second, a researcher may not have appropriate methodological training to employ this method of assessing consent capacity. Third, the method may be limited to institutional settings. Finally, this method may only be appropriate for low-risk research.
Using Ethnographic Methods
Authors: Trammell Jack
Published: October 2019

The growing need to redefine consent for subjects with disabilities also requires an evolving set of methodologies. Ethnographic methods, combined with the principles of universal design, can provide an advanced starting point for a more sophisticated definition of consent. Such a combination can better accommodate the subtleties of subjectivity that are necessary when studying disability.
“Caught Between the Suffering and the Good”
Authors: Park Melissa , Fogelberg Donald
Published: October 2019

A focus on social accountability and responsibility in public and private sectors raises questions about if and how social scientists should act upon the concerns of those with whom they conduct research. Leonardo Campoy argues that anthropologists should be empowered to intervene in the clinical situations they study rather than being limited to actions associated with participant observation. Although his reflections raise issues pertinent to the ethical practices of many researchers, we situate our response in conversation with the historical shifts in ethnographic interest that, most recently, has moved from the suffering subject towards an anthropology of the good. Grounding our reflections in medical anthropology, we discuss the challenge of appropriating positivist–scientific terms to propose the utility of research and, more specifically, of how research results could be used to think through and, thus, guide how researchers respond to—enact and embody—the care required in the ethical conduct of research.
Suicide Tourism
Authors: Sperling Daniel
Published: October 2019

This book explores the phenomenon of ‘suicide tourism’. Freedom of movement creates problems with policies constrained by national boundaries and, as more countries contemplate regulating assisted suicide, there is now a pressing need for a theoretical investigation of the issues that provides a thorough appraisal of the global situation. Switzerland is no longer the only country where a person can find assistance for legal suicide. A similar law has been passed in Croatia, and Dutch and Belgian laws do not prohibit assisted suicide for non-residents. Few states in the US provide for physician-assisted suicide for state residents but US citizens from elsewhere can take simple steps to overcome this restriction. As more countries legally permit assisted suicide, suicide tourism will become a larger and more complex global practice. The book sets out the parameters for future debate, first contextualizing the practice and casting light on how it is treated under international and domestic law. It then analyses the ethical ramifications, and considers where the state’s responsibility should lie in dealing with accompanying persons and in regulating contractual agreements. It also contains a sociological and cultural analysis of suicide tourism, a review of policy and media reports on the topic, and interviews with various stakeholders (including policymakers, and medical and patients’ organizations) in Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, and the UK. The book concludes with a summary of the legal, ethical, political, and sociological dimensions of suicide tourism, offering recommendations for how professionals and policymakers might respond to this evolving phenomenon.
R and exploratory data analysis
Authors: Edge M. D.
Published: October 2019

R is a powerful, free software package for performing statistical tasks. It will be used to simulate data, analyze data, and make data displays. More details about R are given in Appendix B.
Probability and random variables
Authors: Edge M. D.
Published: October 2019

This chapter considers the rules of probability. Probabilities are non-negative, they sum to one, and the probability that either of two mutually exclusive events occurs is the sum of the probability of the two events. Two events are said to be independent if the probability that they both occur is the product of the probabilities that each event occurs. Bayes’ theorem is used to update probabilities on the basis of new information, and it is shown that the conditional probabilities P(A|B) and P(B|A) are not the same. Finally, the chapter discusses ways in which distributions of random variables can be described, using probability mass functions for discrete random variables and probability density functions for continuous random variables.
Properties of random variables
Authors: Edge M. D.
Published: October 2019

In this chapter, the behavior of random variables is summarized using the concepts of expectation, variance, and covariance. The expectation is a measurement of the location of a random variable’s distribution. The variance and its square root, the standard deviation, are measurements of the spread of a random variable’s distribution. Covariance and correlation are measurements of the extent of linear relationship between two random variables. The chapter also describe two important theorems that describe the distribution of means of samples from a distribution. As the sample size becomes larger, the distribution of the sample mean becomes bunched more tightly around the expectation—this is the law of large numbers—and the distribution of the sample mean approaches the shape of a normal distribution—this is the central limit theorem. Finally, a model describing a linear relationship between two random variables is considered, and the properties of those two random variables are analyzed.
Properties of point estimators
Authors: Edge M. D.
Published: October 2019

Point estimation is the attempt to identify a value associated with some underlying process or population using data. The unknown number that is the target of estimation is called an estimand. An estimator is a function that takes in data and produces an estimate. In this chapter, estimators are evaluated according to a number of criteria. An unbiased estimator is one whose expected value is equal to the estimand—in lay terms, it is accurate. Low-variance estimators, which are precise, are also evaluated. Consistent estimators converge to the estimand as the number of data collected approaches infinity. Mean squared error is the expected squared difference between the estimator and the estimand. Efficient estimators are those that converge to the estimand relatively quickly—i.e., fewer data are necessary to get close to the right answer. An optional section discusses statistical decision theory, which is a general framework for evaluating estimators. Finally, some ideas of robustness are discussed. A robust estimator is one that can still provide useful information even if the model is not quite right or the data are contaminated.
Semiparametric estimation and inference
Authors: Edge M. D.
Published: October 2019

Nonparametric and semiparametric statistical methods assume models whose properties cannot be described by a finite number of parameters. For example, a linear regression model that assumes that the disturbances are independent draws from an unknown distribution is semiparametric—it includes the intercept and slope as regression parameters but has a nonparametric part, the unknown distribution of the disturbances. Nonparametric and semiparametric methods focus on the empirical distribution function, which, assuming that the data are really independent observations from the same distribution, is a consistent estimator of the true cumulative distribution function. In this chapter, with plug-in estimation and the method of moments, functionals or parameters are estimated by treating the empirical distribution function as if it were the true cumulative distribution function. Such estimators are consistent. To understand the variation of point estimates, bootstrapping is used to resample from the empirical distribution function. For hypothesis testing, one can either use a bootstrap-based confidence interval or conduct a permutation test, which can be designed to test null hypotheses of independence or exchangeability. Resampling methods—including bootstrapping and permutation testing—are flexible and easy to implement with a little programming expertise.
Bayesian estimation and inference
Authors: Edge M. D.
Published: October 2019

Bayesian methods allow researchers to combine precise descriptions of prior beliefs with new data in a principled way. The main object of interest in Bayesian statistics is the posterior distribution, which describes the uncertainty associated with parameters given prior beliefs about them and the observed data. The posterior can be difficult to compute mathematically, but computational methods can give arbitrarily good approximations in most cases. Bayesian point and interval estimates are features of the posterior, such as measures of its central tendency or intervals into which the parameter falls with specified probability. Bayesian hypothesis testing is complicated and controversial, but one relevant tool is the Bayes factor, which compares the probability of observing the data under a pair of distinct hypotheses.
Introduction
Authors: Roselaar Saskia T.
Published: October 2019

This chapter sets out the main issues discussed in this book regarding the position of the Italians in the Republican period. It summarizes earlier scholarly views on integration and identity and presents the most recent theories regarding these concepts. In doing so, it reviews earlier literature on the much-debated issue of Romanization. It also introduces economic theories that will be applied in the book, such as New Institutional Economics. Furthermore, the chapter gives a basic overview of the various legal statuses that existed in Republican Italy. Finally, this chapter gives an introduction into the sources and methodology used in this study.
Explanatory perspectives
Authors: Mackenbach Johan P.
Published: October 2019

Chapter 3 (‘Explanatory perspectives’) provides a digest of the vast amounts of explanatory research on health inequalities that has been conducted over the past three decades. It introduces recent methodological advances, such as the counterfactual approach to causality, quasi-experimental study designs, and mediation analysis. It reviews the scientific evidence that education, occupational class and income have a causal effect on health. It introduces life-course models, summarizes current understanding of the role of six groups of contributing factors (genetics, childhood environment, material living conditions, social and psychological factors, health-related behaviours, and health care), and describes the biological mechanisms of ‘embodiment’ of social inequality. It also discusses the merits of nine overarching theories of health inequalities: ‘social selection’, ‘diffusion of innovations’, ‘cultural capital’, ‘inverse equity’, ‘inverse care law’, ‘neo-materialism’, ‘psychosocial environment’, ‘fundamental causes’ and ‘political economy of health’.
W. T. Stead
Authors: Brown Stewart J.
Published: October 2019

W. T. Stead (1849–1912), newspaper editor, author, social reformer, advocate for women’s rights, peace campaigner, spiritualist, was one of the best-known public figures in late Victorian and Edwardian Britain. This a religious biography of Stead, giving particular attention to Stead’s conception of journalism, in an age of growing mass literacy, as a means to communicate religious truth and morality, and his view of the editor’s desk as a modern pulpit from which the editor could preach to a congregation of tens of thousands. The book explores how his Nonconformist Conscience and sense of divine calling infused his newspaper crusades, most famously his ‘Maiden Tribute’ campaign against child prostitution, and it considers his efforts, through forms of participatory journalism, to create a ‘union of all who love in the service of all who suffer’ and a ‘Civic Church’. The book considers his growing interest in spiritualism and the occult as he searched for the evidence of an afterlife that might draw people of an increasingly secular age back to faith. It discusses his imperialism and his belief in the English-speaking peoples of the British Empire and American Republic as God’s new chosen people for the spread of civilization, and it considers how his growing understanding of other faiths and cultures, but more especially his moral revulsion over the South African War of 1899–1902, brought him to question those beliefs. Finally, it assesses the influence of religious faith on his campaigns for world peace and the arbitration of international disputes.
Refining the Political Autonomy Account
Authors: Stilz Anna
Published: October 2019

This chapter extends the political autonomy theory of self-determination by responding to a variety of challenges. Is collective self-determination possible in a modern mass society, where citizens have (and can only have) a negligible influence over political decisions? How do we define the “self” in self-determination? Does self-determination require democratic governance or is it compatible with nondemocratic arrangements? Does self-determination apply only to overseas dependencies or also to internal minorities? How does it cohere with other international principles, such as territorial integrity? It also contrasts the political autonomy theory with two alternatives: the liberal nationalist theory and the peoplehood theory.
Is There a Right to Exclude?
Authors: Stilz Anna
Published: October 2019

This chapter continues to investigate whether the three core values defended in this book (occupancy, basic justice, and collective self-determination) can justify states’ exclusionary claims to border control. This chapter focuses on what we might call opportunity migrants, those who are not suffering from persecution, persistent violations of their basic human rights (including subsistence rights), environmental devastation, or cultural or political oppression. Can states exclude migrants whose fundamental territorial interests are not at stake? What about travelers, students, economic migrants, and so on? The chapter argues that a state may exclude immigrants of this sort only where it can offer a plausible case that their entry would cause harm.
Resource Sovereignty and International Responsibilities
Authors: Stilz Anna
Published: October 2019

Among the territorial rights states claim is the exclusive right to control, regulate, and manage the natural resources found within their territories, and sometimes to profit from their sale or taxation. This chapter investigates states’ sovereignty claims over natural resources. It defends a resource-sovereignty principle different from the permanent sovereignty doctrine as it exists in international law. The proposed alternative principle is primarily about jurisdiction, not ownership: it is a right to control resource management decisions. By investigating the case of forest conservation, the chapter also argues that in the case of certain global systemic resources, resource sovereignty should be constrained by duties of environmental justice that require cooperation in international institutions.
Persistence Explained
Authors: Williams Neil E.
Published: October 2019

Chapter 8 offers an account of object persistence in terms of the exercising of causal powers. It is argued that there are a number of problems of persistence, and that the question of how persistence is explained (here called the problem of ‘pluck’) is frequently ignored. A solution to the problem of pluck is offered. The aim is that of providing a powers-based solution in terms of a neutral notion of object-stages that can be applied equally to three- and four-dimensional frameworks, and thus can be adopted by endurantists, perdurantists, and stage-theorists alike. Applications to further problems of persistence are discussed.
Deification in the Greek Patristic Era
Authors: Coates Ruth
Published: October 2019

Chapter 1 explores the meaning of deification in the Eastern Orthodox tradition as a metaphor for salvation, comparing this with the metaphor of redemption with which the ‘Western’ denominations are more familiar. Departing from the notion of the structural significance of deification for Orthodox theology, it sets out its importance for Greek patristic anthropology, Christology, and eschatology. Following Norman Russell (2004), it distinguishes between a ‘realistic’ approach to deification through participation, notably in the sacramental life of the church, and an ‘ethical’ approach, through imitation of Christ’s virtues. The two approaches are combined in contemplative monasticism, where mystical union comes to be understood as participation in the grace or energies of God. In conclusion, the chapter identifies aspects of Greek patristic deification that prove most important to Russian religious philosophers in the inter-revolutionary period.
Deification and Political Theology
Authors: Coates Ruth
Published: October 2019

Chapter 3 analyses the essay collection Tsar and Revolution (1907) as a collective project aimed at establishing the historical origins and enduring contemporary relevance of the Russian autocracy’s religious mystique for the purpose of arguing that the Russian revolution must be religious in nature if it is to succeed in countering and overcoming the religious underpinnings of tsarism. By engaging their analysis with the work of the Russian semioticians Lotman, Uspensky, and Zhivov on the sacralization of the Russian tsar, the chapter demonstrates the soundness of the Merezhkovskys’ grasp of the phenomenon. It shows how they view this through the prism of deification, specifically the illegitimate form of self-apotheosis that was condemned by Russian Old Belief and later by Dostoevsky and Soloviev: true deification, for the Merezkovskys, means the deification of the whole people of Christ in the millennium that the Revolution will inaugurate, overthrowing the false tsar-god.
Deification and Creativity
Authors: Coates Ruth
Published: October 2019

Chapter 4 analyses Nikolai Berdiaev’s first philosophical statement The Meaning of Creativity (1916) in the context of the theosophy of Jakob Boehme. It is shown how Berdiaev adopts the deification narrative primarily as expressed by Boehme rather than in the Orthodox theological tradition, and the ways in which the two narratives diverge are analysed. Berdiaev tends towards a Gnostic attitude to the material world and the body and an Origenistic view of the pre-existence of the soul. Most importantly, his reading of human–divine synergy in the task of transfiguring the universe emphasizes the superiority of human over divine agency after the Incarnation. The chapter goes on to set the work in the context of Berdiaev’s critique of the Russian Orthodox Church and of Russian Symbolism. His contemporaries’ response to the work is drawn on to suggest that Berdiaev’s Nietzschean persona opens him to the charge of illegitimate self-apotheosis.
Deification and Economics
Authors: Coates Ruth
Published: October 2019

Chapter 5 analyses Sergei Bulgakov’s The Philosophy of Economy (1912) in the context of the philosophy of F. W. J. Schelling and the theology of Maximus the Confessor. Bulgakov elaborates an original theory of human economic activity as the instrument by which the material world is divinized. The work is Bulgakov’s first attempt creatively to bring together categories from German metaphysical idealism with elements of Orthodox doctrine: here, the chapter argues, the doctrine of deification as participation in the divine. It is shown how Bulgakov’s deification narrative broadly conforms to the religious philosophy of late Schelling, including its elaboration of Sophia as the divine humanity in which all concrete humans participate. Maximus and the Greek patristic tradition is engaged to show how Bulgakov has assimilated important elements of deification doctrine, as well as how his attempted synthesis is ultimately expressed more in a Schellingian philosophical than an Orthodox theological idiom.
Speaking When You’re Spoken To
Authors: Morgan Oliver
Published: October 2019

This chapter is concerned with what Harvey Sacks has called ‘the speaker sequencing problem’—how a group of people (or fictional characters) is able to decide which of them should speak next. It examines the model of speaker-sequencing now standard in conversation analysis and asks what this model has to offer for the student of dialogue. For literary critical purposes, it concludes, we will need a radically simplified approach. Happily, this is not difficult to achieve. We need only make a single, very reasonable, assumption—that the basic rule which underpins all conversational sequencing is ‘speak when you’re spoken to’. The implications of this assumption for the analysis dramatic dialogue are explored in Chapter 2.
Aposiopesis and the Comforts of Rhetoric
Authors: Morgan Oliver
Published: October 2019

This chapter explores the relationship between turn-taking and syntax by studying Shakespeare’s use of aposiopesis in 1 Henry IV. More specifically, it questions how adequately this term describes what happens when Hotspur dies part way through a sentence at the Battle of Shrewsbury (5.4). The chapter reviews what a sixteenth-century schoolboy is likely to have understood by ‘aposiopesis’ and argues that, although the term is inadequate, its inadequacy is instructive. We can use it to develop a more precise vocabulary with which to talk about the relationship between syntax and turn-taking. Three new terms are proposed for this purpose (suspension, completion, and addition) and the chapter ends by showing how they can be used to arrive at a more nuanced reading of Hotspur’s final moments.
The Play of Line and Turn
Authors: Morgan Oliver
Published: October 2019

This chapter explores how the timing of a transition between two turns at talk can be metrically loaded—can be made to sound early or late depending on its position in the line. Its central claim is that there is a ‘play of line and turn’ at work in Shakespeare’s dialogue every bit as important as the ‘play of phrase and line’ described by George T. Wright. The chapter examines how this works in two short exchanges: Antony attempting to tell Cleopatra that he is leaving for Rome (Antony and Cleopatra, 1.3), and Iago attempting to reason with an enraged Othello (Othello, 3.3). What the two exchanges have in common is that they each depict a conversation in which one character can barely get a word in edgeways. Metrically, however, they are handled quite differently, and these differences have profound implications for the ways in which we read them.
Conclusion
Authors: Morgan Oliver
Published: October 2019

This chapter examines the implications the turn-taking approach for our understanding of early modern performance practices. On the one hand, Shakespearean dialogue is full of subtle effects of timing and sequence that would seem to call for careful rehearsal and a detailed knowledge of the script. On the other hand, everything we know about early modern theatre suggests it was performed with minimal rehearsal by actors who did not necessarily know when, or from where, their next cue would arrive. This apparent mismatch I call ‘the performability gap’. The question is how it can be bridged. The explanation provided by Simon Palfrey and Tiffany Stern—that Shakespeare’s plays are designed to make artistic capital from their own under-rehearsal—does not entirely solve the problem. The second half of the chapter speculates about how else we might account for the gap.