bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Ordeal of Philip Schuyler
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the issue of Major General Philip Schuyler’s command of the Northern Department after the fall of Fort Ticonderoga. Schuyler handled the army quite well as he ordered the obstruction of the routes Burgoyne had to use to move the army toward their ultimate goal of Albany. However, Schuyler was not popular among the militia, and so he struggled to convince them to join the army. In addition, Schuyler’s reports to Washington and Congress did not convey how well he was doing. In fact, despite Washington’s many attempts to provide both moral and material assistance to Schuyler, his reports were so pessimistic that both the commander-in-chief and Congress ultimately lost confidence in his ability to lead the Northern Department. He was relieved of his command by Congress and replaced by Horatio Gates.
The Murder of Jane McCrea
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This short chapter discusses one of the most infamous events of the Saratoga campaign, and, indeed, the entire Revolutionary war: the murder of Jane McCrea. As Burgoyne’s army slowly advanced, many Americans sought refuge away from the potential fighting. Jane McCrea, a Loyalist, was captured by some of Burgoyne’s Indian allies and as they conveyed her back to their camp, she was killed, most likely by friendly fire from American soldiers, and scalped. This notorious event led to a crisis in the relationship between Burgoyne and his Indians and it would ultimately inflame American passions against the British. While the tragedy’s impact on the Saratoga campaign was minimal, it did have long-term negative consequences for the British war effort.
Oriskany and Relief
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the horrific Battle of Oriskany and the lifting of the siege of Fort Stanwix. Not long after St. Leger and his force arrived at Fort Stanwix and began the siege, a column of Tryon County militia led by Nicolas Herkimer marched to help relieve the fort and its garrison. But they were ambushed by a detachment of Indians, led by the charismatic Indian leader Joseph Brant and troops from St. Leger’s army and the resulting battle was one the bloodiest of the American Revolution by a percentage of numbers engaged. Despite the failure of the militia to relieve the fort, the garrison held out until a detachment from the main army led by Benedict Arnold was dispatched to aid the fort. Upon learning of this approaching column, St. Leger ended his siege and returned to Canada, thus this important part of Burgoyne’s overall plan was thwarted.
Recommendations for Education, Research, and Community Practice
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

This recommendation chapter is a perfect time to transition from the themes raised in the previous chapter. A detailed map is in order to help navigate the field of urban gun violence because it is so easy to get lost in the murky sea and dark skies, as represented by contradictory data, competing theories, and local political considerations; there is desperate need of a North Star to help gain our bearings and successfully navigate finding solutions. The values outlined previously in this book help shape this North Star. Readers will develop a better understanding of how they can help shape this field’s evolution when collaborating with self-help organizations.
When Money Talks
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

This book tells the story of numismatics, the study of coins, as part of the larger history of money. It explains why and where coinage was invented and how this monetary revolution spread around the world. By examining sources ranging from Aristotle and the Gospels to modern novels and TV sitcoms, this book highlights how historians, philosophers, poets, and religious leaders have used coinage to investigate, teach, and preach about human societies. It uses new ideas about memes and object agency to ask whether coins can act as though independent of human oversight. It details how numismatists have become more scientific since the Renaissance, although misuses of physiognomy and phrenology still hamper the field. Coins are studied not solely as individual works of art, but also as meaningful groups brought together as treasures called hoards. The analysis of buried hoards offers many interesting insights into human behavior, particularly in times of political turmoil and natural disaster. Although numismatics shares a common origin with archaeology, these disciplines have clashed in recent history, particularly over the disputed rights of amateurs to collect artifacts of historical importance. This book explores the ethics of coin collecting and considers whether paleontology might provide a model for the future of numismatics. New forms of numismatic investigation, such as Cognitive Numismatics, also pave a novel path for one of the oldest and most respected contributors to the arts and humanities.
Introduction
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

The “simple” word coin once caused a constitutional crisis in American history that reveals just how surprising and significant this subject can be. Today, cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin raise even harder questions about the nature of money in general and coins in particular. This chapter explains why coinage has a social, political, spiritual, and cultural function alongside its more familiar economic one. Many users overlook the magic and mystery of their coinage because they have no experience with numismatics, the discipline dedicated to understanding this earliest form of mobile communication based on small disks of information technology. This chapter lays out why coins matter, and why everyone deserves a basic introduction to numismatics as a major contributor to our knowledge of world history and cultures.
The Invention of Coins
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

Early forms of money included agricultural commodities and metals, such as silver bullion and barley in Mesopotamia or gold, silver, and bronze in Egypt. The fungibility of metals made them particularly useful. Aristotle provides one view of how barter gave way to coined money, but this question remains contentious. The first coins appeared in Lydia near the end of the seventh century BC, but the spread of this monetary revolution owed much to the neighboring Greeks. Mints in many Greek poleis issued coins that not only served economic needs, but also functioned as state-sponsored advertising, art, and propaganda. The Romans and others followed suit, while independent coinage traditions emerged in China and India.
Finding Hoards
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

In literature, folklore, and popular culture, coins have a powerful association with buried treasure. That association often includes, of course, a colorful array of dragons, elves, leprechauns, and pirates. This chapter examines coin hoards as they appear in the works of Aristophanes, Plautus, Sir Walter Scott, George Eliot, J.R.R. Tolkien, and others. Among historical hoards are those reported by Cicero, Samuel Pepys, and a curious testimonial involving a witch in a medieval manuscript from 1366. Modern discoveries of ancient and medieval coin hoards number in the tens of thousands; this chapter examines some notable examples from Pompeii, Herculaneum, Britain, and Afghanistan.
Understanding Hoards
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

The importance of coin hoards makes it imperative to study them properly. After classifying eight different kinds of hoards, this chapter shows how some historians and numismatists have not treated the evidence carefully. For example, the “Marner Paradox” warns against our natural impulse to reconstruct in detail the identities and lifestyles of hoarders. It is also important to remember that it is the non-recovery of buried treasure that is meaningful and measurable. Coin hoards are best investigated collectively rather than individually. In this way, certain categories of hoards provide a Misery Index that can illuminate changing historical conditions and the responses of populations to them. An example is the No-Tomorrow scenario faced by the victims of Vesuvius. Finally, hoard data are used to calculate how quickly the gold of Alexander the Great disappeared from circulation.
How the Internet Developed
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

This chapter presents the history of the Internet and associated applications. The Internet grew out of the ARPANET, founded on network engineering ideas such as packet switching and the end-to-end principle. The chapter describes the development of TCP/IP to connect networks by Cerf and Kahn, creating the modern Internet as a permissionless open system which anyone can join without a gatekeeper, allowing it to scale up. The evolution of the governance system of Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and Internet Exchange Points (IXPs) is presented. The chapter also describes the development of applications that sit on the Internet platform, including the World Wide Web, linked data, cloud computing, and social media.
Policy Question: How Can Quality Be Ensured in an Open System Like Wikipedia?
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the policy question of how to assure quality in an open system, using the crowdsourced online encyclopaedia Wikipedia as a case study. The history of Wikipedia’s development out of another online encyclopaedia, Nupedia, is sketched, with a description of how wiki technology allowed collaborative authoring. Wikipedia compares favourably with expert-written reference books, and has helped populate the Linked Data Web via DBpedia. However, to produce good content, and minimize hoaxes and trolling controversies such as the GamerGate affair, it needs a hierarchical meritocratic management system. This has resulting in tensions, particularly along gender lines, and relatively small numbers of women participate. However, the system has if anything become more hierarchical during the COVID-19 pandemic, when it has worked hard to eliminate misinformation.
Openness and Its Discontents
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

Although openness has many good arguments for it, it has led to a string of hard cases, including data protection and privacy, copyright, censorship, the externalities of social networks, and net neutrality. Openness brings three problematic effects: it is hard to keep out bad actors without centralized gatekeeping; openness does not ensure representativeness or diversity; collective action problems, such as free-riding, can occur. Some technologies enable the efficiencies of openness to be reproduced in systems that are not open, and governments have a number of levers they can pull to restrict Internet freedoms. Some governments even dream of total sovereignty over the Internet. There are various specific complaints about openness, including the need to treat different media differently, the problems of bad faith at scale, a large threat surface, and bias.
Policy Question: When Is Surveillance Justified?
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

Surveillance is regarded negatively in the European Union. It is, of course, highly enabled by the Internet, especially by smartphones. Under modernity, and digital modernity in particular, however, surveillance does have its uses: it can facilitate coordination of complex social functions; it is a means to the personalization, recommendation, and negotiation of choice; it can also be used for care and welfare systems, or control of desirable outcomes, such as the reduction of carbon emissions. The 2020 COVID-19 pandemic is an area where surveillance has played a role, by gathering data, enforcing lockdowns, and particularly enabling the tracking and tracing of contacts by smartphone apps, to suppress the spread of the virus by asymptomatic carriers. The patchy implementation of this function is reviewed, together with some of the technical issues that made it harder than anticipated.
Policy Question: How Can Competition against the Tech Giants Be Fostered?
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

In the United States, monopoly is often tolerated if the profits are used to create or reward innovation and enhanced customer service. However, where a lack of competition harms the consumer, the government is empowered to step in, and even break companies up, using antitrust law. The tech giants have pushed against these limits, being immensely innovative, but at the cost of creating giant, powerful, and (often) highly profitable closed networks. The chapter considers the difficulties in remedying these problems, as breaking up a large network will lose its network effects and positive externalities. Other possibilities include preventing acquisitions, and forcing divestment of some units. However, if the conditions allowing the network effects to build up are not addressed, new firms may become just as large. The European Union is actively looking at competition law in the tech industry, and by late 2020, so was the Trump administration.
The Fourth Internet: The Beijing Paternal Internet
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

This chapter describes the Beijing Paternal Internet. The ideal consists of respect for public values. The exemplar is China, whose Confucian heritage values hierarchy and social stability. China’s Communist Party asserts legitimacy via its claimed technocratic efficiency, and aims to restore China’s position as a regional and global superpower; it is playing more of a role in global Internet governance. Much of the Chinese Internet is run by private-sector giants like Alibaba, Tencent, and Baidu, but their activities have to align with government policy. The rule of law is weak, surveillance and censorship ubiquitous, and data-protection laws keep data about Chinese citizens available for government use. Citizens cooperate in monitoring, for example with the social credit system. The Belt and Road Initiative, a global technology infrastructure strategy, helps export Chinese ideas, including surveillance and security technology. Many governments other than China’s have paternal intentions for the Internet.
The Moscow Spoiler Model
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

The hacking ethic and organizations such as Pirate Parties and Anonymous support the use of technical skill to bypass security and censorship. The Russian government has weaponized this ethic to use the Internet to spread disinformation and conspiracy theories, and to undermine trust in epistemological authority globally. This leads us to call this the Moscow Spoiler model, although many other countries, political actors, and non-state actors also use the tactic. Quasi-state agencies in Russia such as the Internet Research Agency and gangs such as the Night Wolves automate misinformation, while activists like WikiLeaks have been used in kompromat operations to reveal true but confidential information alongside misinformation. The Moscow Spoiler is not a vision for the Internet, but parasitical on a functioning Internet. The chapter also reviews progress and problems in the development and application of fact checkers.
New Faces of God in Latin America
Authors: Garrard Virginia
Published: July 2021

This is a historically infused study of the intersection of local encounters with global religion (Christianity) in Latin America. Using a mixture of deep archival research and ethnographic methods, this book discusses how everyday people inscribe supernormal spirit power (in a variety of guises) with the ability to provide alternative sources of authority and validate “otros saberes” (other knowledges or epistemologies) in the context of specific cultures to create order and meaning in a chaotic late-capitalist universe. This work is about emerging forms of “new” Christianity in Latin America—a Christianity that is as utilitarian as it is miraculous and as quotidian as it is supernatural. It is “new” in that it is innately modern in a very specific sense, directly empowering believers with a repertoire of strategies to survive, even thrive, in a challenging and often hostile modern world.
The Business of Journalism and Studying the Journalism Business
Authors: Usher Nikki , Poepsel Mark
Published: July 2021

This chapter challenges the conventional assumption that journalism can be saved through a singular business model. We argue, using examples from the United States, that scholars and journalists need to be more holistically engaged with the economics of media more generally, and different types of journalism beyond newspaper and digital-first outlets. Second, scholars and journalists need to be more intellectually honest about their aims in conducting this research: Is research on news business models aimed at propping up corporate-funded journalism? What is the purpose of critiquing current business models, and are the solutions proposed really tenable or equitable within current political and social landscapes? Third, universities should consider their strengths and limitations in serving as potential “bubbles” for innovation, experimentation, and insulation from commercial pressures.
Conclusion: Betrothed or Belligerent
Authors: Carlson Matt
Published: July 2021

This chapter concludes the book by reflecting on the concept of engagement.
The Rest of the Pie
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Chapter 5 underscores a key theme of this study: that understanding how one group’s opportunities are constrained requires simultaneously accounting for how those opportunities are facilitated for others. This chapter encompasses the first comprehensive analysis of the prospects for representation of Latina/os and Asian American women and men in predominantly white districts across the United States. Chapter 5 also provides an account of how partisanship interacts with race-gendered processes to create particular limits on the electoral opportunities for Asian American women and Latinas. The final section of the chapter addresses the phenomenon of the “crossover” candidate. Such a candidate is often characterized by pundits and some scholars as a Latina or Asian American woman running in a racial plurality or predominantly white district, on the basis of her presumed appeal to white voters.
Conclusions
Authors: Devins Neal , Baum Lawrence
Published: July 2021

This final chapter summarizes and extends the book’s central arguments about how elite influences are integral in shaping Supreme Court decision making. In so doing, Devins and Baum take issue with those who see the Court as being largely independent of the political world and society. At the same time, they also disagree with those who see the Court as being responsive chiefly to the other branches of government and the public. Furthermore, the authors explain that party polarization is now ingrained in the Court—so much so that the partisan divide of today is likely to continue for the foreseeable future.
The Artists’ Cemetery
Authors: Sprigge Martha
Published: July 2021

The development of a public commemorative culture in East Germany extended into the development of new funerary rites for cultural figureheads and everyday citizens. Chapter 5 charts the ruling party’s efforts to restructure the spaces and sounds of national sepulchral culture by examining the funerals for six artists buried at a plot reserved for members of the Academy of the Arts in East Berlin. Each artist was honored with a state funeral, aimed not to console the bereaved, but to canonize the deceased as socialist heroes. At these events, the deceased’s friends and family made deliberate efforts to reclaim their legacy within the space of the cemetery itself, and continued these personal reflections through musical homage. In doing so, these mourners were continually renegotiating their relationship to the deceased. This chapter thus shows how the relationship between private mourning and public commemoration was in a state of negotiation throughout East Germany’s forty-year existence.
Introduction
Authors: Wood Gordon S.
Published: July 2021

This introduction sets the stage for the most creative period of constitutionalism in American history. During the five or six decades between the early 1760s and the early nineteenth century, Americans debated and explored all aspects of politics and constitution-making—the nature of power and liberty, the differing ideas of representation, the importance of rights, the division of authority between different spheres of government or federalism, the doctrine of sovereignty, the limits of judicial authority, and the significance of written constitutions. Rarely has any nation in such a short period of time discussed and debated so many issues of constitutionalism and created so many institutions of government, institutions that have lasted for over two hundred years.
Hypermetric Manipulations in Haydn and Mozart
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

This book presents a systematic discussion of hypermeter and phrase structure in eighteenth-century music. It combines perspectives from historical and modern music theory with insights from the cognitive study of music and introduces a dynamic model of hypermeter that allows the analyst to trace the effect of hypermetric manipulations in real time. This model is applied in analyses of string chamber music by Haydn and Mozart. The analyses shed a new light upon this celebrated musical repertory, but the aim of this book goes far beyond an analytical survey of specific compositions. Rather, it is to give a comprehensive account of the ways in which phrase structure and hypermeter were described by eighteenth-century music theorists, conceived by eighteenth-century composers, and perceived by eighteenth-century listeners.
Hypermeter, Phrase Structure, and Rhetorical Figures
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

The theory of music-rhetorical figures, originating with Joachim Burmeister and Christoph Bernhard, was relaunched by Johann Mattheson and further developed by Johann Adolph Scheibe and Johann Nikolaus Forkel. Its integration into the theory of melody was attempted by Heinrich Christoph Koch in Musikalisches Lexikon (1802). The renewed attempt, undertaken in this chapter, reveals an unsuspected bond between two conceptually interrelated but historically unrelated branches of eighteenth-century music theory. The chapter explores effects of rhetorical figures upon hypermeter. It focuses on two rhetorical figures—ellipsis and anadiplosis—and indicates that further rhetorical figures account for some of the phrase expansions discussed in chapter 6.
Beyond Rhetoric
Authors: Mirka Danuta
Published: July 2021

The chapter starts with the discussion of the aesthetic category of “humorous music,” which emerged in the last decade of the eighteenth century, and links it to the theory of multiple agency, proposed by Edward Klorman (2016). There follow two case studies of hypermetric manipulations in the first movements of Haydn’s string quartets Op. 50 No. 3 and Op. 64 No. 1. These analyses reveal how such manipulations act in concert with ingenious deployment of musical topics and contrapuntal-harmonic schemata, and how they affect musical form. The chapter closes with remarks about the role of the first violinist in Haydn’s string quartets.
PSIs with Head-Like Properties
Authors: Alqassas Ahmad
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses two main issues that arise from PSIs (polarity-sensitive items) with head-like properties. These PSIs seem to be outside the (immediate) domain of their licensor. The first issue is how these PSIs are licensed in syntax and how a unified analysis can handle their distribution. The author argues that these PSIs are adverbial phrases that do not project a clausal projection and that negation licenses these PSIs either in Spec-NegP or under c-command. This unified analysis does not appeal to the problematic head–complement relation as a putative licensing configuration. Another issue that arises from these NPIs (negative polarity items) with head-like properties is their ability to host clitics with accusative and genitive case marking. This issue raises interesting questions pertaining to case theory and dependent case licensing. The author argues that negation licenses the puzzling accusative case of the pronominal complement, a conclusion with far-reaching implications to dependent case licensing in natural language.
Hope and Anger
Authors: Stockdale Katie
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues that hope under conditions of oppression cannot be adequately understood without considering how hope is cultivated, sustained, and lost alongside the emotion of anger. Anger, like hope, can be evaluated as a prudentially rational, fitting, and morally appropriate response to injustice. And there is an important relationship between hope and anger. Anger often responds to disappointed hopes. We invest hope in other people to live up to the demands of morality and justice, and when they fail to do so, anger tends to ensue. But anger about injustice is also often accompanied by the formation of hopes for repair.
Conclusion
Authors: Stockdale Katie
Published: July 2021

The concluding chapter offers a summary of the key arguments in the book, situating them within the context of ongoing injustice and suggesting new questions that emerge for scholars working on hope and related topics. Drawing upon the emotional economy of hope, anger, bitterness, and faith under oppression defended in the book, it suggests the need for an ethics and politics of hope more generally, attention to human difference in theorizing the virtue of hope, further inquiry into the nature of despair, and further discussion of collective hope and other emotions in the pursuit of a more just world.
Plato and Aristotle on Our Perceptual Beginnings
Authors: Gasser-Wingate Marc
Published: July 2021

I consider the Platonic background for Aristotle’s account of our cognitive development. On the Platonic view, we learn from perception in a purely causal sense: our perceptions lead us to reflect on their shortcomings, and thereby prompt us to recollect the knowledge of the Forms relative to which they fall short. But perception is not something that would supply us with a valuable kind of knowledge, or be useful except as a means to recollect: the fact that our learning begins from perception is just a lamentable consequence of our embodied existence. Aristotle presents his account of the perceptual origins of our learning as a challenge to this sort of view. He does so, I argue, precisely because he takes perception to be an epistemically valuable capacity—a capacity whose exercise supplies us with sophisticated forms of knowledge, and provides a foundation for our learning, rather than merely prompting it.
Digital Realism
Authors: Thomson-Jones Katherine
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, I acknowledge that a study of the digital image would not be complete without a discussion of realism. The widespread concern about whether to trust digital images is tied up, for many art and media theorists, with particular accounts of realism (e.g., Rodowick 2007). The notion of realism is a complex one, and this chapter provides some important theoretical background on one central kind; namely, the kind had by traditional photographs. This prepares the way for a discussion of digital “photorealism” as it is derived from traditional “photographic realism.” Through an analysis of “live-action animated” films, I develop an account of photorealism and its effect on the viewer’s experience of the composite—i.e., part recorded, part computer-generated—shot.
Newton’s Substance Monism, Distant Action, and the Nature of Newton’s Empiricism
Authors: Schliesser Eric
Published: July 2021

This chapter is a critical response to Hylarie Kochiras’ (2009) “Gravity and Newton’s substance counting problem.” First, it argues that Kochiras conflates substances and beings; it proceeds to show that Newton is a substance monist. Second, it argues against the claim that Newton is committed to two speculative doctrines attributed to him by Kochiras and, earlier, Andrew Janiak—namely the passivity of matter and the principle of local causation. Third, the paper argues that while Kochiras’ (and Janiak’s) arguments about Newton’s metaphysical commitments are mistaken, it qualifies the characterization of Newton as an extreme empiricist as defended by Howard Stein and Rob DiSalle. In particular, the paper shows that Newton’s empiricism was an intellectual and developmental achievement that built on nontrivial speculative commitments about the nature of matter and space.
On Reading Newton as an Epicurean
Authors: Schliesser Eric
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues for three distinct, albeit mutually illuminating theses: first it explains why well informed eighteenth-century thinkers, e.g., the pre-critical Immanuel Kant and Richard Bentley, would have identified important aspects of Newton’s natural philosophy with Epicureanism. Second, it explores how some significant changes to Newton’s Principia between the first (1687) and second (1713) editions can be explained in terms of attempts to reframe the Principia so that the charge of “Epicureanism” can be deflected. Third, the chapter argues that there is an argument in Kant’s (1755) Universal natural history and theory of the heavens that undermines a key claim of Newton’s “General Scholium” that was used to discredit Spinozism by Clarke in A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God.
Disconnection as Distinction
Authors: Fast Karin , Lindell Johan , Jansson André
Published: July 2021

Disconnecting from digital media is often mentioned in the public debate as a way of improving quality of life, productivity, sustainability, and so forth. However, not everyone can afford to disconnect, and media morality varies across social space. Based on data from a national Swedish survey (2019), this chapter applies correspondence analysis and a Bourdieusian theoretical framework to chart the extent to which different social groups prioritize disconnecting in different places, and the forms of digital unease associated with smartphone use. Such preferences are mapped onto a social space constructed around the distribution of economic and cultural capital in Swedish society, also illuminating how disconnection practices correspond to other lifestyle practices. The analysis reveals that the handling of digital (dis)connection (in different places) plays into overarching patterns of taste and cultural distinction. As such, disconnection manifests as an emerging moral-symbolic battleground in affluent societies.
Pilgrims Until We Die
Authors: Reader Ian , Shultz John
Published: July 2021

The Shikoku pilgrimage, a 1400-kilometre, eighty-eight-temple circuit around Japan’s fourth largest island, takes around forty days by foot and a week by car. Historically Buddhist ascetics walked it incessantly, creating a tradition of unending pilgrimage that continues in the present era, both by pilgrims on foot and by those in cars. Some spend decades walking the pilgrimage, while others drive repeatedly and do hundreds of pilgrimage circuits. Most are retired and make the pilgrimage the centre of their post-work lives, while others work full-time but spend their free time and weekends as pilgrims. Some have only done the pilgrimage a few times but already imagine themselves as unending pilgrims and intend to do it ‘until we die’. They talk, happily, of being addicted and having Shikokubyō, ‘Shikoku illness’, while portraying such ‘illness’ and addiction as blessings. This book, based in extensive fieldwork, shows that unending pilgrimage is the dominant theme of the Shikoku pilgrimage and argues that this is not specific to Shikoku but found widely in global contexts, although it has barely been examined in studies of pilgrimage. It counteracts normative portrayals of pilgrimage as a transient activity involving temporarily leaving home to visit sacred places outside the everyday parameters of life; rather, pilgrimage for many participants means creating a sense of home and permanence on the road. As such this book presents new theoretical perspectives on pilgrimage in general, along with rich ethnographic examples of pilgrimage practices in contemporary Japan.
Virgil’s Eclogues as Meditation
Authors: Kachuck Aaron J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues that Virgil’s Eclogues give literary form to Rome’s solitary sphere and make solitude their central social and literary problem. A meditation on Virgil’s use of the verb meditari (“to meditate, contemplate, practice”) and on the fourth Eclogue provides background for a formulation of Virgil’s model of “loveful reading” that, in its solitude, nuances readings of the Eclogues as representing dreams of social reciprocity and communal (pastoral) humanism. Drawing on multiple genealogical and comparative sources, and the whole of the Eclogues book, it argues that the first, fifth, and tenth Eclogues privilege the solitary over the private and public. Finally, it shows how Virgil confounds the commonplace assignment of the pastoral of solitude to later literary periods, in ways appreciated by two of Virgil’s closest readers: John Milton and Andrew Marvell.
The World Communist Movement
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

The death of Stalin also led to a loosening of controls within the world communist movement. Strict subordination to Stalin gave way to a pluralistic relationship within the movement, whereby Moscow, while still the leader, allowed for an interplay of interests and greater consensus building among the communist parties to become the norm. This resulted —sooner in some places, later in others—in a variety of postures toward the world communist movement as led by Moscow: attempted withdrawal from the movement, straddling of several camps in world affairs, loose bloc discipline, schism, and abandonment of anti-imperialist struggle in favor of pragmatic foreign policies that sought to advance the national-security and economic interests of the communist state.
Marxism
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Marx provided the vision of revolution invoked by communist leaders as they sought to come to power. But he assumed this would happen in advanced capitalist countries, not in peasant-feudal societies. Ambiguities within Marxist theory led to a diversity of Marxisms in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, most notably among the so-called Economists, Orthodox Marxists, and Leninists.
Varieties of Opposition to Bureaucratic Leninism in Eastern Europe, 1968–1985
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Brezhnev’s Bureaucratic Leninism was broadly emulated (or imposed) in East European communist regimes. But it was controversial and led to many rejections. The Prague Spring of 1968 was an effort to democratize the communist party from within. It was crushed by Warsaw Pact troops. Poland experienced a repeated wave of worker rebellions, as well as a cross-class alliance that resulted in Solidarity almost coming to power, until it was crushed in 1981 by Polish special-service troops. Hungary experimented with narrow-scope marketization of its economy, insufficient to create prosperity, but enough to avoid the extent of economic stagnation plaguing the Soviet Union. All these set the stage for Gorbachev’s reforms.
Market Leninism in Laos
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

The Laotian communist forces came to power in 1975, assisted by their patron, North Vietnam. They only briefly proceeded to “build socialism,” but then fell back upon leaving the peasantry to cultivate their private landholdings, usually at subsistence level. They then transitioned, already in the 1980s, to market Leninism on the Chinese model. This has created wealth, but much of it has been diverted, lining the pockets of the party and military elites who run the country.
Contesting Revisionism
Authors: Chan Steve , Feng Huiyun , He Kai , Hu Weixing
Published: July 2021

What motivates states to act the way they do? This book focuses on a particular kind of motivation inclining a state to challenge the existing norms, rules, and institutions of international order. Specifically, it addresses the concept of revisionism, which has loomed large in international relations narratives but has remained largely understudied until recently. The authors offer a critique of the existing discourse on revisionism and investigate the historical origin and evolution of the foreign policy orientations of revisionist states in the past. They moreover introduce an ensemble of indicators to discern and compare the extent of revisionist tendencies on the part of contemporary China and the United States. Questioning the facile assumption that past episodes will repeat in the future, they argue that “hard” revisionism relying on war and conquest is less viable and likely in today’s world. Instead, “soft” revisionism seeking to promote institutional change is more relevant and likely. They attend especially to contemporary Sino-American relations and conclude that much of the current discourse based on power-transition theory is problematic. Contrary to this theory, a dominant power is not inevitably committed to the defense of international order, nor does a rising power usually have a revisionist agenda to challenge this order. The transformation of international order does not necessarily require a power transition between China and the United States, nor does a possible power transition between these two countries necessarily augur war.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Jonathan , Topor Lev
Published: July 2021

This chapter introduces and summarizes the book. It addresses four questions: First, what is this book about? Most studies focus on anti-Semitism. This book focuses on the causes of discriminating against Jews. The authors’ findings are valid whether or not this discrimination or its causes are labeled as anti-Semitic. Second, what are the patterns of discrimination against Jews? The authors address this in more detail in Chapter 2. Third, what are the causes of discrimination against Jews? This book focuses on three prominent theories from the anti-Semitism literature: religious motivations, anti-Israel motivations, and belief in conspiracy theories of Jewish power. Fourth, why is this study unique? This is the first book to examine the causes of discrimination against Jews using cross-national data from 76 countries. It also provides a comprehensive comparison of the predictions found in the anti-Semitism and social science academic literatures focusing on theories which explain the causes of discrimination.
Patterns of Discrimination
Authors: Fox Jonathan , Topor Lev
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses what the authors mean by discrimination and how they measure it. It also provides a detailed discussion and analysis of the levels of discrimination against Jews compared to other religious minorities. While government-based discrimination against Jews is below average, societal discrimination is higher than against other religious minorities. However, levels of discrimination against Jews are not uniform and range from none in a few countries to extremely high levels in others. From an empirical standpoint this is beneficial since this variation allows for the cross-country testing of the causes of religious discrimination in the subsequent chapters. This basic non-causal analysis reveals some interesting patterns, including that a good portion of government-based discrimination against Jews in the West is caused by secular-based opposition to practices common to both Jews and Muslims, including infant circumcision and ritual slaughter of meat (kosher and halal meat).
Conclusions
Authors: Fox Jonathan , Topor Lev
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at the broader picture. It reviews from a broader perspective what the anti-Semitism and general social science literatures can learn from each other. It also discusses how this study impacts the understanding of (1) the causes of discrimination against Jews, (2) the causes of discrimination against religious minorities, (3) the causes of discrimination in general, and (4) how all of this impacts on the understanding of anti-Semitism. One interesting finding in this chapter is that conspiracy theories of Jewish power predict not only discrimination against Jews, but also discrimination against other religious minorities.
Being an Imperial Consort
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

Within the structure of an imperial court, the empress played a key role, but one which was a challenge to negotiate for the twenty empresses between 1804 and 1947. They had to fulfil a biological imperative whose success was out of their hands while conforming to expectations of how they should act that often ran counter to their own individuality. In the latter part of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth, they were also playing their role at a time when the place of women in society was up for debate, while at the same time they themselves were subject to increasing exposure in the developing mass media. The chapter discusses the empresses in relation to motherhood, beauty and fashion, charitable activities, and political involvement, as well as picking out some empresses for special discussion.
Seeing the Emperor
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

Seeing and being seen is the glue that cements the relationship between ruler and ruled. That the ruler should present him or herself to the public gaze became even more important in the nineteenth century when his or her subjects began increasingly to call for self-determination. Emperors, like all rulers, had to be on show and, though they could sometimes be seen in the flesh, most people had to rely on images, which had to be carefully composed. The chapter discusses the different iconographical types of official imperial portrait. The technical means to reproduce and disseminate images became more and more sophisticated during the nineteenth century, with photography and film the most important innovations.
Showcasing the Empire
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

The second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth were remarkable for large-scale international exhibitions of agricultural products, manufactured goods, technological inventions, and artworks that were staged in major cities in purpose-built buildings and visited by very large numbers of people. These events were demonstrations of national pride, functioned as engines of modernity, and promoted the global exchange of knowledge, global competition, and global trade. The chapter discusses how Napoleon III used the Paris exhibitions of 1855 and 1867 to promote himself and his Empire and how Franz Joseph engaged in international diplomacy during the Viennese world exhibition on 1873. Pedro II used his prestige to promote Brazilian exhibits in Paris in 1862 and 1857, in Vienna in 1873 and in Philadelphia in 1876.
Staging Empire as History and Allegory in Austria and Germany
Authors: Watanabe-O'Kelly Helen
Published: July 2021

Theatrical presentations of the foundational myths of the Austrian and German empires, either as costumed processions and pageants or as specially commissioned plays for the theatre, were staged on anniversaries and important jubilees. In Austria, the most important was Franz Joseph’s Diamond Jubilee in 1908, when a pageant of 12,000 lay participants took place in Vienna, while other elements of the national myth were presented on the stage. Wilhelm II played an active part in promoting the imperial theatre festival in Wiesbaden between 1896 and 1914, for which parts of the Hohenzollern myth were dramatized. In 1897, on Wilhelm I’s hundredth birthday, Ernst von Wildenbruch’s Willehalm was performed in Berlin, a verse drama presenting Wilhelm I in allegorical form as the hero who rescued Germany from the evil French.
Introduction
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

Chapter 1 clarifies which parts of Nietzsche’s thought belong to his philosophical psychology and what role his philosophical psychology plays within his overall project, in particular, his critique of morality. Whereas some scholars have been primarily interested in Nietzsche’s specific claims about moral psychology, this book is primarily interested in Nietzsche’s philosophical psychology understood as a body of claims about more basic and more general psychological phenomena. The chapter also discusses methodological issues regarding the use of Nietzsche’s unpublished notes, and argues that unpublished materials may be an essential tool when one is interested in investigating how Nietzsche came to adopt a certain concept or formulate a certain view. The chapter ends by offering a brief overview of the book’s content.
The Soul’s Order
Authors: Riccardi Mattia
Published: July 2021

This chapter is concerned with Nietzsche’s conception of the soul (human psychology) as constituted by the hierarchical order or structure among drives and affects. After a demonstration that that conception raises the spectre of the homunculus fallacy, it is argued that the two major interpretations of the Nietzschean soul’s order—the vitalistic one proposed by P. Wotling and the normative one proposed by M. Clark and D. Dudrick—should be rejected because they commit Nietzsche to that fallacy. The author’s own dispositional reading frees Nietzsche’s psychology of drives from any charge of fallacious homuncularism. In the light of this reading, the chapter investigates how the interaction between drives and affects should be understood.
Making Guanxi
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores how guanxi is made by the people who participate in it. First there is recognition of a common identity, a guanxi base; then, if the relation is to endure, commitment between the persons and especially to their connection is required. How this is achieved is examined in the chapter. Emotional involvement of the participants in their relationship is explored. Typically neglected aspects of the making of guanxi are then considered, including the nature of debt between a favour giver and recipient, and the persistence of debt, so that guanxi exchanges are not exhausted or concluded. Finally, acknowledging the costs as well as the benefits of guanxi, the chapter goes on to theorize the ‘efficiency’ of guanxi, which relates to the societal persistence of guanxi and its changing form. Finally, the association of guanxi and corruption is explored.
Traditional Rural Society
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: July 2021

A constant source in academic discussion of guanxi is a book, universally regarded as a template for understanding guanxi, first published in 1947 by Fei Xiaotong. The relevance of Fei’s model is critically assessed in the chapter. It demonstrates that Fei’s account of Chinese social relationships draws upon an idealized Confucianism rather than empirically-grounded social analysis. The discussion shows that Fei ignores non-kin relations in rural society, and an account of their importance is provided. A problem with Fei’s account of social obligation is identified. A proposed solution distinguishes between obligations generated through role compliance and obligations arising from exchange relations. Finally, it is shown that guanxi requires a notion of instrumental self-interest, absent in Fei’s account, and that interested action in guanxi operates through enhancing social standing or face, about which Fei has nothing to say. In this way the chapter clears the ground for discussion in subsequent chapters.