bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Corrosion
Authors: Włodarczyk Renata , Kobyłecki Rafał , Bis Zbigniew
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Corrosion

Corrosion Processes

Subsurface Corrosion

Corrosion in the Power Industry

Theory

Effect of Deposition on Corrosion Rate

Effect of Fuel Type on the Damage of Boiler Elements

Mechanism of Corrosion in the Presence of Superheated Steam

Sulfate–Sulfide Corrosion Mechanism

Chloride Corrosion Mechanism

Applications in Research and Industry

Outlook
Overview of Gaseous Fuels
Authors: Ganesh Anuradda
Published: June 2010

Gaseous fuels are easy and convenient to handle and are fast gaining popularity. Most of the naturally occurring resources and the synthesized gases consist of one or more of the gases methane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen as the primary combustible constituents. The calorific value of the gaseous fuels vary over a wide range from 3 to 100 MJ m
−3
; however, the relative combustion properties are more influenced by combinations of various fuels and thermal and transport properties of individual gas components.
Global Warming Implication of Natural Gas Combustion
Authors: Sonibare Jacob Ademola
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Energy Sources

Hydrocarbon Destruction in Gas Flares

A Review of Global Warming Concept

Water Vapor

Carbon Dioxide

Methane

Nitrous Oxide

CFCs

Fundamentals of Natural Gas Combustion

World Natural Gas Reserves, Production, Consumption and Destruction

World Natural Gas Reserves

World Natural Gas Production

World Natural Gas Consumption

World Natural Gas Destruction

Global Warming Contribution from Natural Gas Combustion

Global Warming Contribution from Natural Gas Combustion in Energy Consumption

Global Warming Contribution from Natural Gas Combustion in Flaring Activities

Control Measures for Global Warming from Natural Gas Combustion

Conclusion
Theory, Modeling and Computation of Gas Explosion Phenomena
Authors: Di Benedetto Almerinda , Di Sarli Valeria
Published: June 2010

This chapter focuses on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling for gas explosions. Recent results obtained at both laboratory and industrial scales are reviewed. It is pointed out the central role of large eddy simulation (LES) as the most adequate tool for describing the inherently unsteady interplay of flame propagation, flow field, and geometry underlying explosion phenomena. Modeling, numerical, and computational issues yet to be afforded are discussed as relevant to realize fully the potential of explosion LES.
Flame Lift‐Off and Blow‐Out Stability Limits and Their Application in Gas Burners
Authors: Wu Yajue
Published: June 2010

Flame stability is usually characterized by lift‐off velocity, lift‐off height, and blow‐out velocity. The lift‐off velocity is defined as the mean jet velocity at which the flame becomes lifted above the jet exit rim. If the jet velocity is further increased, the flame moves downstream to a position where it stabilizes. Lift‐off height is the distance between the lifted flame base and the jet exit. When the jet velocity reaches the blow‐out velocity, the reaction cannot be sustained and the flame is extinguished. For positions between the jet exit and the flame base, a turbulent mixing region exists which is very similar to that for the unignited jet. The stability limits of turbulent jet diffusion flames are important for operation of combustion systems and have safety implication for handling combustible fuels. The lift‐off and blow‐out behaviors of the turbulent jet diffusion flames have been the subject of numerous research efforts. The focus point was the physical mechanisms responsible for flame stabilization, which has become a subject of considerable confusion and controversy. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of three main theories of the lift‐off of a turbulent jet flame which have been proposed over the years. Following the review, the chapter provides the most practical theories on the prediction of the stability limits of flames for hydrocarbon fuels, including hydrogen fuel. It also provides a discussion on the uncertainties over the stabilization theories through a comparison of measured and predicted stability data. Energy‐efficient burners require the flame to operate within the stability limits yet with smallest possible fuel consumption. Industrial burners usually use air entrainment to provide partially premixed flames; this chapter reports a recent study carried out on a series of burners which examined the role of burner diameter, burner head geometry, and the flame conditions at the flame base. The practical corrections for the stability limits are extended to the partial premixed flames from the gas burner and the operating conditions for industrial gas burners are discussed.
The Combustion of Low Heating Value Gaseous Fuel Mixtures
Authors: Karim Ghazi A.
Published: June 2010

The presence of diluents such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen with methane lowers significantly the effective heating value of the fuel mixture and can bring about adverse changes to the combustion characteristics of the methane. It may undermine its effective utilization altogether depending on the composition and the type of device used and the associated operating conditions. Such fuel mixtures are often encountered with varying composition in numerous natural, industrial and biogases and represent a potential energy source that needs to be exploited effectively. This section will discuss primarily how the presence of such diluent gases with methane modifies significantly the thermodynamic, kinetic and combustion characteristics of the fuel in air. It is shown that the presence with methane of nitrogen is tolerated relatively much better in combustion systems than the corresponding similar presence of carbon dioxide. The bases for these trends are discussed with examples of some operational considerations.
Hydrogen Combustion and Emissions in a Sustainable Energy Future
Authors: Aggarwal Suresh K. , Briones Alejandro M.
Published: June 2010

The global energy landscape is undergoing a transformation driven by rising energy demand, diminishing fossil fuel supplies, deregulation of energy industry, and growing concern about climate change. While fossil fuels will continue to play a dominant role in meeting the current and future energy needs, there is worldwide interest in developing renewable and alternative energy sources to meet the growing energy demand and address concerns about the emission of greenhouse gases and hazardous pollutants. In this context, hydrogen is viewed as a viable renewable energy carrier due to its abundant supply, superior emission characteristics, and flexibility in harnessing its energy through a variety of technologies. There are, however, many technological and scientific issues pertaining to its production, storage, and utilization. This chapter provides an overview of such issues and discusses research dealing with hydrogen combustion and emissions in the context of sustainable energy future. Studies concerning laminar flames, including non‐premixed, premixed, and partially premixed flames in various configurations, and also those dealing with ignition and extinction phenomena, are reviewed. High‐pressure phenomena including explosions/ignition limits are discussed, and an overview of detonation and turbulent combustion is provided. Issues pertaining to hydrogen combustion and emissions in practical systems are also discussed. Further technological advances and fundamental research needed for hydrogen to play a major role in the sustainable energy future are identified.
Combustion in Gas‐fueled Compression Ignition Engines of the Dual Fuel Type
Authors: Karim Ghazi A.
Published: June 2010

In the dual fuel engine, much of the energy release comes from the combustion of the gaseous fuel and only a small amount of diesel liquid fuel provides ignition through timed cylinder injection. Such operation with optimum conversion methods has the potential to provide operational characteristics that are comparable or superior to those of the corresponding diesel or spark ignition engines. These characteristics may be realized only if sufficiently effective measures can be ensured both for the avoidance of knock, usually at high loads, and incomplete gaseous fuel utilization at relatively light loads. To overcome these problems associated with the operation of dual fuel engines over a wide range of fuels and their mixtures, better control of the relatively complex processes of combustion is essential. Both experimental and analytical modeling procedures for effecting optimum improvements to the combustion process are described.
Fuel Gas Applications in Industry
Authors: da Costa Fernando Cörner
Published: June 2010

This chapter relates the main fuel gas applications in industry, emphasizing the main gases available for each segment such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, coke oven gas, and blast furnace gas. A short history of industrial heating by fuel gases and the differences between the concepts of batch and continuous processes helps to understand the role of gas firing systems and the main equipment such as burners, flow trains, and controls. Other fuel gas applications as feedstock, protective and active atmosphere, lubricant and demolding, propellant, and foam‐blowing agent are also discussed. Some industrial segments are detailed such as steel mills, foundries, ceramic industry, glass works, thermal utilities, rubber industry, food segment, and chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Also, some highlights of synthetic natural gas and replacement of electrothermal by fuel gas are presented.
Hydrogen‐Assisted Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Fossil Fuels
Authors: Aggarwal Suresh K.
Published: June 2010

A blended fuel strategy using mixtures of renewable and petroleum‐based fuels can play an important role in reducing our dependence on fossil fuels along with a measurable reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and local pollutants, and achieving the goal of a sustainable energy future. This chapter focuses on the fundamental and practical aspects of using hydrogen–hydrocarbon fuel blends. Flame studies dealing with the effects of hydrogen addition on the combustion and emission characteristics of hydrocarbon fuels are reviewed. The combustion characteristics include ignition, extinction, flammability limits, laminar burning velocity, flame structure, and dynamics including flame–stretch interactions and cellular instabilities. The use of hydrogen for enhancing the performance and emissions of petroleum‐based internal combustion engines is considered. The effects of hydrogen addition on the emissions of GHGs (CO2, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons), NOx, and particulate matter from flames in both laboratory‐scale and practical combustors are discussed. Future research needs pertaining to the combustion and emission characteristics of such blends are identified.
Liquid Biofuels: Biodiesel and Bioalcohols
Authors: Skevis George
Published: June 2010

The development of alternative, renewable fuels is of global importance due to concerns regarding global warming, environmental protection and diversity and security of energy supply. Liquid oxygenated biofuels in particular, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, provide the potential for superior engine performance coupled with reduced particulate emissions, and are increasingly gaining acceptance and market share in the energy and transportation sectors. This chapter provides a concise review of the current knowledge on biodiesel and bioalcohol combustion science and technology. An overview is given of biodiesel and bioalcohol production technologies. An outline of important physical and chemical properties of biofuels is presented and the dependence of biodiesel fuel properties on alkyl ester structure is discussed. Reliable performance and emissions predictions are very much dependent on the availability and performance of detailed chemical kinetic mechanisms. The combustion chemistry of ethanol is fairly well established and is reviewed in detail. Recent developments in the kinetic modeling of propanol and butanol isomers are also presented. The combustion chemistry of biodiesel surrogates is also reviewed. The effects of using neat or blended biofuels on internal combustion engine performance and exhaust emissions is thoroughly reviewed. The feasibility of biofuel use in aviation is also explored. The chapter finally briefly reviews life cycle analyses that assess the environmental performance of liquid biofuels as compared with conventional fuels.
Combustion in a Spark Ignition Engine
Authors: Burluka Alexey A.
Published: June 2010

The modern spark ignition (SI) engine is a mature and well‐established prime mover for hundreds of millions of passenger cars and tens of millions of diverse other applications, ranging from simple single‐speed two‐stroke engines in lawnmowers and portable electric power generators to complex four‐stroke engines used in power boats and light airplanes. The main combustion mode in an SI engine is turbulent premixed combustion where a flame propagates through a mixture of homogeneous chemical composition; the combustion process within any one given engine cycle occurs under a wide range of pressures and temperatures. As a computational fluid dynamics calculation of the engine combustion remains a prospective research tool, and owing to its complexity and the uncertainty of input, the use of a simpler methodology such as the “thermodynamic” or “zonal” modeling considered in this chapter is desirable. Crucial to the engine performance, the net rate of heat release is determined by several processes, the principal one of which is flame propagation. This chapter reviews applications of modern premixed combustion models to SI engine conditions. Measurements of turbulent flame velocity and observations of the flame structure are compared with existing models. Results obtained with the described approach are presented and the relative importance of various sub‐models is discussed. It is shown that a very simple modification of existing models allows one to predict the magnitude of the cycle‐to‐cycle variations in engine performance. The chapter concludes with a brief outline of the latest trends in SI engine development and the challenges it may pose for combustion research.
Diesel Combustion
Authors: Andersson Öivind
Published: June 2010

The diesel combustion process and combustion system are briefly described, with the aim to provide a starting point for those interested in exploring and developing these. The chapter describes the typical characteristics of the diesel combustion process and its heat release. A description is given of how hardware in the combustion system supports the combustion process, for example, the importance of the combustion chamber geometry and the fuel injection system. Furthermore, useful theoretical concepts are presented to provide the reader with simple tools for understanding limiting processes for emissions formation. These include scaling relationships for air entrainment and flame lift‐off in quasi‐stationary diesel jets. Heavy duty and light duty combustion systems are then treated separately, since differences in duty cycle and customer requirements have given them different characteristics. Due to the high‐load duty cycle, with long injections and high fueling rates, heavy duty diesel combustion can be analyzed by analogy to a quasi‐stationary jet. In light duty engines, where injections typically are short, a significant portion of the heat release takes place after the end of injection. Therefore the picture of a quasi‐stationary jet becomes inadequate. Emphasis is put on describing fluid mechanic processes supporting the late‐cycle combustion in these engines. Finally, means of in‐cylinder emissions control in diesel engines are discussed.
Overview of Solid Fuels, Characteristics and Origin
Authors: Bridgeman Toby G. , Jones Jenny M. , Williams Alan
Published: June 2010

This chapter is concerned with the origin, properties and characteristics of coals, cokes, different biomass, and peat. The first section gives a brief overview of the formation of coal, and defines coal rank and coal type, the sources of biomass and peat and some of their properties. The availability of the fossil and biomass fuels is estimated in the second section. This is followed in Section 1.3 by an overview of the principal standard test methods for chemical and physical properties of coal and biomass. Section 1.4, the major part of this chapter, gives useful reference data, containing typical chemical and physical measurement test results for the common coal types, a selection of biomass and also for the lesser used fuels such as peat and waste materials. The significance of ash composition in boiler performance is outlined, and typical ash properties are also listed for several coals and biomass fuels. Trace elements can be problematic for certain types of waste fuels in particular. This section also discusses approaches to classifying solid fuels, and examines how some properties interrelate. Section 1.4 also discusses the factors that influence the reactivity of solid fuels and how thermogravimetric analysis may be applied to compare and quantify these differences. Finally, Section 1.5 outlines solid fuel preparation methods, drying, and milling and an emerging pre‐treatment method in the case of biomass, namely, torrefaction.
Solid Biomass Combustion
Authors: Suri Amit , Horio Masayuki
Published: June 2010

To suppress the global temperature rise so as to avoid climate disasters it is necessary to shift to a renewable energy source. Biomass is the single most abundantly available renewable energy source that can be used on demand in direct combustion/gasification technologies. For a better understanding of solid biomass combustion, in the present chapter biomass fuels from different sources have been characterized in terms of physical and chemical properties, ash behavior and pretreatment methods, and suitable combustor types. Ash‐related issues relevant to the high alkali content typical of biomasses are discussed in detail. Effects of heating rate on pyrolysis product yields are compared for biomass and coal. For a better understanding of ignition/extinction characteristics of a solid fuel, the combustion kinetics for both volatile and char combustion with and without ash layer, with different shapes, are considered. Emissions during combustion of biomass, namely, NOx, SOx, HCl, heavy metals, and dioxins are described. Various combustion technologies are reviewed, from large‐scale entrained bed combustion systems to medium‐scale FBCs and fixed bed combustion. Finally, ash behavior in different combustion technologies is discussed.
Coal Combustion
Authors: Kosowska‐Golachowska Monika
Published: June 2010

This chapter provides an overview of coal combustion of a single coal particle. First, it outlines heating and drying, ignition of volatiles, devolatilization, char combustion and fragmentation of coal particle. The results of experimental research of combustion and fragmentation of two brown coals (lignites), seven hard coals mined in Poland and Russian anthracite are then presented. The combustion and fragmentation behavior of these coals was tested in an externally‐heated bench‐scale bubbling fluidized‐bed unit. Next, the mathematical model of primary fragmentation, including coal heating and volatile release is outlined. Finally, applications of coal combustion in industry and key clean coal technologies of the future are discussed.
Modeling Moving and Fixed Bed Combustion
Authors: Peters Bernhard , Raupenstrauch Harald
Published: June 2010

Owing to declining sources of primary energy and a demand for sustainability, solid fuels and their use for generation of energy have gained a growing attraction during recent years. In particular, biomass is considered as an alternative source because it contributes to reduced net emissions of carbon dioxide. To understand the conversion behavior of solid fuels, both experimental and theoretical investigations were initiated. This chapter deals with the modeling aspect of solid fuel combustion in fixed and moving beds. The conversion of both a fixed and moving bed is a rather complex process involving various thermodynamic, fluid dynamic, physical, and chemical aspects and their interactions. Thus, the relevance of each aspect will be described within this chapter and moreover their dependence on each other. Major processes during solid fuel combustion include, in general, heating, drying, pyrolysis, devolatilization, gasification and perhaps combustion. These processes of thermal conversion involve chemical reaction processes that consume or generate energy. In moving beds, the redistribution of the solid fuel particles has to be taken into account additionally. All these aspects may be represented by models of different levels of accuracy, whereby the models may be divided into the continuum mechanics and the discrete approach. The first approach treats solid fuel as a continuum for which characteristics such as size or shape disappear due to the averaging process. However, the discrete approach takes all these characteristics into account on a particle level, and therefore, offers a priori a higher degree of accuracy.
Waste Combustion,MSW, Sewage Sludge, Hazardous, Grate and Rotary Kiln
Authors: Seifert Helmut , Vehlow Jürgen
Published: June 2010

Waste incineration is the preferred practice of thermal treatment of municipal and of industrial waste. The objectives and basic principles of waste incineration as well as the various types of grate systems are described in detail. Special interest is attached to the characterization of municipal solid waste and waste based fuels. Their combustion properties, first of all the calorific value, are important parameters for furnace design. The biogenic energy share in municipal solid waste worldwide is roughly 50%, meaning that waste‐to‐energy strategies contribute significantly to the reduction of fossil CO2emissions. The quality of air emissions is dealt with in view of the respective legislative regulations and the environmental impact. Of particular interest in this respect is the role of dioxins.

Solid residues from waste are partly used as secondary building materials while filter ashes and gas cleaning residues are classified as hazardous waste. Whereas municipal solid waste is mainly incinerated in grate systems the preferred combustion technology for sewage sludge is fluidized bed furnaces. Industrial and hazardous waste is preferentially burnt in rotary kilns, which are typically followed by high temperature combustion chambers. In recent years various alternative thermal treatment systems, mainly combinations of pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion, have been developed in Europe and Japan. Several such systems are in operation in Japan but have not yet made it to market in other countries.
Gasification and Pyrolysis of Coal
Authors: Luckos Adam , Shaik Mohammed N. , van Dyk Johan C.
Published: June 2010

Nowadays, concerns about global climate change and rising prices of crude oil and natural gas make the need for clean energy from coal more important than ever. Gasification of coal is a major clean coal technology that will play a significant role in the coming decades, both for power generation and for the production of chemicals and synthetic fuels.

Gasification is a technology in which coal is reacted with air, oxygen, steam, carbon dioxide, or a mixture of these gases to yield a gaseous product (called syngas) consisting of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and some methane and carbon dioxide. After cleaning, syngas can be used either as raw material for the synthesis of liquid fuels and chemicals coal‐to‐liquids technologies, as a reductant in pyrometallurgical processes (e.g. direct reduction of iron), or as a source of energy for the generation of electric power (in integrated gasification combined cycle systems) or a combination of these products.

This chapter provides an overview on the pyrolysis and gasification chemistry and the current status of coal gasification technologies.
Fluidized Beds
Authors: Bis Zbigniew
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Theory

Average Particle Size

Parameters of a Bed of Solids

Critical Fluidization Velocities

Structure of Fluidized Bed

Heat Transfer in Fluidized Bed

Application in Industry

Introduction

Fundamental Rules in Designing and Operating the Fluidized Bed Boilers

Outlook
Modeling of Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion
Authors: Wang Wei , Li Jinghai
Published: June 2010

Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) combustion has found increasing industrial applications worldwide. Good design, operation and scale‐up of CFB combustors rely on thorough understanding of the complex multiphase fluid dynamics as well as the coupling between flow, heat/mass transfer, and reaction kinetics over a wide range of scales as to time and space. Simulation of these coupled processes play an important role that is complementary to experiments. This chapter reviews the currently available modeling approaches for CFB combustion, including various correlations, as well as computational fluid dynamics (CFD) based approaches, with emphasis on the so‐called multiscale CFD approach. Some basic issues of the multiscale CFD approach, concerning drag force closure, mass transfer coefficients, and mass conservations are addressed with appropriate solutions. A general scheme towards multiscale modeling of CFB combustion, together with a simulation example for a 150 MWe boiler, is recommended finally for future practices.
Ash‐Forming Matter and Ash‐Related Problems
Authors: Zevenhoven Maria , Yrjas Patrik , Hupa Mikko
Published: June 2010

Deposit formation, that is, fouling and slagging, corrosion, and sintering are often cause for unwanted shutdowns of boilers. These problems are ash related. The composition and physical state of ash determines if problems may occur and where and when.

Ash properties depend on the way ash‐forming matter is present in a fuel, how it is released from the fuel, and process conditions in the furnace.

This chapter is dedicated to the more challenging fuels like biomass‐derived fuels that nowadays are used as a replacement for coal. Examples are taken from 92 fuels extracted from the Åbo Akademi fuel database, a collection of fuel analyses carried out at Åbo Akademi University during the last decade.

Fuel characterization and analysis of ash‐forming matter in fuels will be discussed. Here, the analyses of the association of ash‐forming matter by chemical fractionation are emphasized. Release of ash‐forming matter and the formation of ash will be examined. Here, knowledge obtained from the fuel analyses plays an important role. Formed ash may cause deposits on heat exchanger surfaces, agglomeration of bed material in a fluidized bed, or corrosion. Nowadays, biomass fuels are often co‐fired, either with positive or negative effects on boiler availability. All these above‐mentioned phenomena can be seen from a chemistry point of view, where understanding of interaction of ash forming and melting behavior of ashes is seen to be vital.
Co‐Firing Biomass with Coal in Fluidized Bed Combustion Systems
Authors: Selçuk Nevin , Gogebakan Zuhal
Published: June 2010

This chapter overviews direct co‐firing applications of agricultural and forestry residues with coal in fluidized bed combustion (FBC) systems, which is the most promising technology due to its fuel flexibility and high efficiency. Similarities and differences in characteristics of biomass and coal are summarized. Issues on operational problems and their possible solutions in FBC systems firing biomass only are identified. Among the available solutions to these problems, co‐firing biomass with coal is the most effective and simple option. Experiences obtained from several biomass/coal blends in FBC systems, ranging from laboratory rigs to large‐scale utility boilers, are presented to emphasize the impact of co‐firing on combustion efficiency, emissions and ash‐related operational problems.
Co‐utilization of Biomass Based Fuels in Pulverized Coal Power Plants in
E
urope
Authors: Grammelis Panagiotis , Agraniotis Michalis , Kakaras Emmanuel
Published: June 2010

This chapter discusses various issues related to the co‐firing of biomass‐based secondary fuels in existing coal‐fired power plants. The main objective is to present the current situation of co‐firing technology in Europe and its future developments, as well as the most applied technological co‐firing options in large‐scale pulverized fuel boilers. Co‐firing can be accomplished either via the direct or indirect approach. The first option is the most common trend in co‐firing owing to time saving for installation, fewer modifications, shorter shutdown periods, and lower investment cost. To co‐utilize biomass in an existing coal fired power plant some form of retrofitting is needed. Although no two plants are the same, the practical considerations for retrofitting and co‐firing can be generalized into four areas of interest: fuel availability, plant modification, legislative framework on environmental issues, and financial evaluation. Technical constraints in a co‐firing project include a potential increase in slagging and fouling, pollutant formation, ash deposition, and utilization of solid by‐product, whilst the non‐technical barriers mainly concern fuel supply and financial issues. A review on co‐firing experience at the European level, mainly focusing on the utilization of novel solid biofuels such as solid recovered fuels (SRF) is also presented. In summary, co‐firing with limited biomass shares is technically feasible and has been demonstrated in several European countries. Research efforts are now focused on the deployment of co‐firing applications in even more power plants and the increase of solid biofuels shares in the mixture. For this reason, solid biofuel qualities have to be standardized for their use in the power sector and new fuel markets should be established.
Simulation of Low Temperature Combustion in Engines
Authors: Kong Song‐Charng
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Numerical Models

HCCICombustion

PCCICombustion

Low‐Pressure Injection

High‐Pressure Injection
Corona, Spark, and Electrothermal‐Chemical Plasma Ignition Systems
Authors: Das Malay K. , Thynell Stefan T.
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Plasma Fundamentals and Classifications

Corona and Spark Discharge

Corona and Spark Ignition

Electrothermal‐Chemical Ignition

Applications in Industry

Outlook
Plasma‐Assisted Ignition and Combustion
Authors: Starikovskaia Svetlana M. , Starikovskii Andrey Yu.
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

General Principles

Combustion Initiation and Plasma: Fundamentals

Plasma Used for Combustion Initiation

Experimental Evidences and Analysis of Mechanism

Ignition by Plasma under Conditions of Supersonic Flows

Discharges in Low Speed Gas Flows: Sustaining Combustion

Discharge behind the Reflected Shock Wave: Decrease of Ignition Delay Time

Kinetic Analysis: Available Experiments and Numerical Modeling

Outlook

Acknowledgments
Combustion Enhancement and Stabilization: Principles of Plasma Assistance and Diagnostics Tools
Authors: Vincent‐Randonnier Axel
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Diagnostics Applied to Plasma‐Assisted Combustion

Imaging

Schlieren Flow Visualization

Interferometry

Spectroscopy

Laser‐Induced Fluorescence

Coherentanti‐StokesRaman Scattering Thermometry

Thomson Scattering

Gas Chromatography

Effect of the Plasma Assistance on Combustion

General Considerations

Experiments and Interpretations

Plasma Assistance Applied to Non‐Premixed or Partially Premixed Combustion

Plasma Assistance Applied to Premixed Combustion

Plasma Assistance Applied to Supersonic Combustion

Numerical Simulation

Outlook

Acknowledgments
Staged Combustion and Exhaust Gas Recirculation in Fluidized Beds
Authors: Bolhàr‐Nordenkampf Markus
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

General Aspects of Combustion

Excess Air

Formation of Nitrogen Oxides

Staged Combustion and Flue‐Gas Recirculation in Gas‐ and Oil‐Fired Applications

Low Excess Air

Staged Combustion

Flue‐Gas Recirculation

Reburning

Stage Combustion in Modern Grate‐Fired Applications

Advanced Secondary Air Supply

Stage Combustion and Flue‐Gas Recirculation in Modern Bubbling Fluidized‐Bed Boiler Applications

Staged Combustion

Bed Fluidization

Bed Temperature

Outlook
Hetero‐/Homogeneous Combustion
Authors: Mantzaras John
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Fundamentals of Catalytic Combustion

Reactor Thermal Management

Hetero‐/Homogeneous Combustion in Power Generation

Hetero‐/Homogeneous Kinetics

Fuel‐Lean Methane Combustion on Platinum

Catalytic Kinetics

Gas‐Phase Kinetics

Hetero‐/Homogeneous Chemistry Coupling

Fuel‐Lean Hydrogen Combustion on Platinum

Fuel‐Rich Methane Combustion on Rhodium

Application to Practical Systems

Turbulent Hetero‐/Homogeneous Combustion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments
Fluidized Bed Combustion of Natural Gas and other Hydrocarbons
Authors: Laviolette Jean‐Philippe , Sotudeh‐Gharebagh Rahmat , Mabrouk Rachid , Patience Gregory S. , Chaouki Jamal
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Kinetics

Mixing in Gas/Solid Fluidized Beds Mixing

Fluidized Bed Combustion

Fluidized Bed Combustion Modeling

Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Kinetics

Homogeneous Kinetics

Global Homogeneous Combustion Kinetics

Microkinetic Combustion Models

ReducedGRIMechanism

Combined Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Kinetics

Inert Particles

Kinetics for Methane Combustion in Inert Particles

Combustion Catalysts

Oxygen Carriers

Mixing in Gas/Solid Fluidized Beds

Superficial Gas Velocity and Bubble Size

Particle Size

Effect of Baffles

Sparger Flow Pattern for Non‐Premixed Operation

Methane Fluidized Bed Combustion

Inert Particles

Fluidized Bed Temperature

Bubble Size and Air‐to‐Fuel Ratio

Fluidization Regime

COFormation

NOxFormation

Particle Type and Size

Combustion Catalysts

Oxygen Carriers/Chemical‐Looping Combustion

Fluidized Bed Combustion Modeling

Single‐Phase Models

Two‐Phase Models

Model ofDavidson andHarrison

Bubbling Bed Models

Bubble Assemblage Models

Multiple Region Models

Kinetic Models
MILDCombustion
Authors: de Joannon Mariarosaria , Sabia Pino , Cavaliere Antonio
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Definition and Properties

Main Effects of Operative Conditions

Combustion Chamber Properties

Pollution Reduction/Abatement‐Effect of Diluent Nature

Identification of Basic Processes in MILD Combustion

Applications in Industry

Energy Conversion Plants

Material Treatment

Pollution Abatement

Summary and Outlook
Underground Coal Gasification: A Clean Coal Technology
Authors: Aghalayam Preeti
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Brief Overview ofUCGField Trials and Practice

Mathematical Models forUCG

Fundamental Studies Related toUCG

Chemical Reactions

Thermomechanical Spalling and Cavity Growth

Flow Patterns in theUCGCavity

Process Models forUCG

Reactions‐Based Models

Flow Pattern Based Models

Combination Models

Outlook

Acknowledgments
Energy from Aquatic Biomass
Authors: Aresta Michele , Dibenedetto Angela
Published: June 2010

Aquatic biomass includes microalgae, macroalgae, and plants, each with peculiar properties. In general, aquatic biomass presents a large distribution entropy of products. The chemical composition may vary according to the strain and the growing conditions of each strain. The latter is a positive aspect as it is possible to govern the product distribution entropy by maximizing the yield of one of the products. Although aquatic biomass is ubiquitous and grows in different climatic conditions, the use of local species‐strains more than exogenous species‐strain is, in general, a good option for maximizing production yield.

Aquatic biomass is considered as a second (or third) generation option for the production of biofuels. The best utilization option for energy purposes is not its direct combustion. Several technologies are available for the extraction of compounds that may find application for the production of gaseous fuels (biogas, hydrogen) or liquid fuels (ethanol, biooil, biodiesel).

In total, if used in a clever way, aquatic biomass may become an interesting source of chemicals and fuels in the very near future, contributing significant to the production of transport fuels.

Implementation of the biorefinery concept may maximize the economic and energetic value of the biomass.
Flameless Pulverized Coal Combustion
Authors: Stadler Hannes , Kneer Reinhold
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Development of Flameless Pulverized Coal Combustion

Theory

Aerodynamic Aspects

Temperature Distribution

Characterization of the Reaction Zone

Burnout

NOxEmissions

Fuel‐NO

Thermal NO

Reburning of NO

Radiation

Definition of Flameless Combustion

Fields of Application of Flameless Coal Combustion

Single Burner Systems

Novel Furnace Designs for Flameless Coal Combustion

Flameless Coal Combustion in Reburning Furnaces

Flameless Coal Combustion in a O2/CO2Atmosphere
Warm Discharges for Fuel Conversion
Authors: Gutsol Alexander
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Fuel Conversion

Thermal, Cold, and Warm Plasma

Industrial Fuel Conversion Using Thermal Plasma

Warm Plasma for Plasma‐Assisted Partial Oxidation (PAPO)

Low current (Gliding) Arcs and Glow Discharges

Microwave Discharges forPAPOand Plasma Catalysis

Warm Plasma for Other Fuel Conversion Processes

Outlook
Metal–Halocarbon Pyrolant Combustion
Authors: Koch Ernst‐Christian
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Characterization of Pyrolants

Thermochemical Properties of Constituents

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Poly(Carbon Monofluoride) (PMF)

Vinylidene Fluoride Based Copolymers

Hexachloroethane (HC) and Hexachlorobenzene (HCB)

Thermochemistry of Pyrolants

Ignition and Propagation

Ignition

Propagation

Combustion Phenomenology and Spectroscopy

Technical Applications

SHS

IRCM– Flares

Metal–Halocarbon Obscurants

Safety

Outlook

Acknowledgment
Control of Acoustically Coupled Combustion Instabilities
Authors: Ducruix Sébastien , Schuller Thierry , Durox Daniel , Candel Sébastien
Published: June 2010

This chapter reviews control methods for combustion instability. It specifically considers the rather general situation where instabilities are coupled by acoustic modes. The chapter begins with fundamental acoustic principles for reactive flows, leading to the acoustic energy balance equation. This equation is used to describe the three main control strategies that can be envisaged for combustion instabilities: (i) passive control methods (PCM); (ii) flame dynamic control methods (FDCM); (iii) active control methods (ACM). These schemes are considered successively. The survey begins with passive control methods (PCM) in which the dissipation of acoustic energy is augmented byad hocsystems (acoustic liners, Helmholtz resonators, quarter wave cavities, and various other devices), which enhance absorption of acoustic energy. It is shown that such devices can be effectively used to modify the impedance of a boundary and that this can change the resonance properties of the combustor. Control of injection and flame dynamics is then envisaged. For this second group of methods (FDCM) it is shown that the flame geometry has a profound effect on the combustion response to incoming perturbations. The modification of the flow and flame configurations can thus be used to control the system response. It is then indicated that the dynamics of the injection system can be designed to decouple the system from the manifold feeding reactants into the combustor. Recent work indicates that the flame dynamics can be modified so that the combustion region becomes less susceptible to perturbations impinging on the flame. Finally, active control methods (ACM) are considered, and their application to combustion instability reduction is described. Implementation in the form of a closed loop control aims at modifying the feedback mechanism to hinder the resonant coupling between unsteady combustion dynamics and system acoustics. ACMs have been developed using various strategies, ranging from the control of injection parameters (fuel flow, air flow, secondary jets, etc.) to the active modulation of acoustic boundary conditions up‐ and downstream of the combustion chamber. Under application of the active control system, instabilities can be totally suppressed and the instability‐related flame extinctions are eliminated.
CO2Sequestration from Combustion Sources
Authors: Rayalu Sadhana S. , Jadhav Pravin , Labhasetwar Nitin
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Preamble

Sources ofCO2Emissions

CO2Inventory and Emission Projections

GlobalCO2Emission Scenario

CO2Emissions Scenario inIndia

Emissions from Combustion Sources

Impacts of IncreasedCO2Emissions (Global Warming, Climate Change, and Related Impacts)

CO2Capture from Combustion Sources

CO2Capture Methods

Pre‐Combustion Capture

Oxy‐Fuel Combustion

Post CombustionCO2Capture Techniques

CO2Emissions from the Transport Sector

CO2Sequestration

Importance of Carbon Sequestration

Geological Sequestration

Mineral Carbonation

Research Interests in Mineral Carbonation

Injection into Active Oil Wells

CO2Sequestration through Forests

Soil Sequestration

Oceanic Sequestration

Shallow Ocean Sequestration

Deep Ocean Sequestration

Industrial Use ofCO2

Biological Conversion into Fuel

Enhanced Natural Sequestration Processes

Enhanced Humification

Marine Sequestration

Biomimetic Sequestration ofCO2

Biomineralization

Biomass to Pyrogenic Carbon and Hydrogen

Niche Technologies for Carbon Sequestration

Biomass Management

Catalytic and Photocatalytic Conversion ofCO2

Biocatalysts forCO2Transformation

CCSGuidelines

Carbon Capture and Sequestration and Clean Development Mechanism

Summary andR&DOpportunities

Improved Mineral Carbonation

Enhancing the Natural Terrestrial Sequestration

Sequestration in the Oceans

Sequestration in Geologic Formations

Advanced Bioengineering Processes

Advanced Nanotechnological and Chemical Approaches

Conclusion
Overview of Oxy‐Combustion Technologies with Pure Oxygen and Chemical Looping Combustion
Authors: Anthony Ben , Hoteit Ali
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Chemical Looping Combustion

CLCTheory and Applications

CLCOutlook

Potential for Oxy‐fuel in Fluidized Bed Combustion

Brief Overview ofFBCTechnology Developments

Advantages of Oxy‐fuel Technology

Oxy‐fuelFBCPilot Plant Developments

Early Lessons from Pilot Plant Units

NOxEmissions from theCanmetEnergy Tests

Other Lessons fromCanmetEnergyR&Don Oxy‐fuel Firing

Future Demonstration Projects

Conclusions

Acknowledgment
Combustion of Pulverized Fuel in a CO2Atmosphere
Authors: Toporov Dobrin , Förster Malte , Kneer Reinhold
Published: June 2010

Oxy‐combustion of pulverized fuel followed by post‐combustion CO2sequestration has become a valuable alternative for significant and relatively quick reduction of CO2emissions from fossil fuel power generation, while taking advantage of existing power plant infrastructure. However, several experiments with oxy‐firing pulverized coal burners show that flame temperature and its stability are strongly affected. Carbon dioxide shows pronounced differences of thermodynamic and optical properties compared to air; therefore, it is of vital importance to know the effect of CO2properties on chemical reactions and heat transfer during pulverized coal oxy‐combustion.

This chapter reviews the existing research activities and the experience on burning pulverized fuel in a mixture of recirculated flue gases and O2(oxy‐firing) accumulated worldwide. It focuses on the impact of a CO2‐rich combustion atmosphere on distributions of temperature, species, and radiation fluxes inside the combustion chamber. Mathematical models for the homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions developed especially for oxy‐firing conditions are presented and analyzed. Special attention is given to oxycoal flame stabilization as a function of the recycling ratio (O2content) as well as the impact of recycling mode (wet and dry) on flame temperature levels and emissions and on radiative and convective heat transfer in the boiler.
Introduction
Authors: Schmid Günter
Published: June 2010

In his personal introduction, the author defines the scope and level of the “Nanotechnology” book series. A rationale is given for the selection of topics and for their order of presentation.
The Nature of Nanotechnology
Authors: Schmid Günter
Published: June 2010

Chapter 2 defines the expressions “Nanoscience” and “Nanotechnology” on a strictly scientific base. Various examples are used to illustrate the development from a scientific discoveryviaan engineering step to a final technology. “Molecular Motors and Machines”, “Molecular Switches” as well as “Single Electron Memories” are examples that are still exclusively objects of basic research, whereas “Drug Delivery” already reached the status of Nanoengineering. The “Gene Chip” is used as an example that is still object of research in basic nanoscience, but at the same time is already of interest in the nanoengineering step and has partially even reached the technology status. “Hyperthermia” and “Gas Sensors” have left the field of fundamental research and have developed to engineering as well as to technology. Chapter 2 closes with some examples belonging to the field of “Technology on the Nanoscale” which is, however, often but wrongly called “Nanotechnology”.
Top‐Down Versus Bottom‐Up
Authors: Parak Wolfgang J. , Simmel Friedrich C. , Holleitner Alexander W.
Published: June 2010

Objects on the nonometer scale can be created with two different strategies: top‐down‐ and bottom‐up approaches. Both strategies will be explained and discussed with relevant examples.
Fundamentals and Functionality of Inorganic Wires, Rods and Tubes
Authors: Schneider Jörg J. , Popp Alexander , Engstler Jörg
Published: June 2010

In this article an overview of current developments in the area of nanostructured inorganic wires, rods and tubes will be given. First and briefly fundamental viewpoints of physical properties will be discussed followed by a presentation of the synthetic techniques to obtain 1D inorganic nanostructured morphologies. Emphasis is then laid on current developments which are based on the special properties of these structures with respect to piezoelectricity, biosensing, nano‐micro integration of inorganic nanostructures, current developments in the area of circuiting with inorganic 1D structures and integration of ordered arrangements of 1D structures into device architectures.
Philosophy of Nanotechnoscience
Authors: Nordmann Alfred
Published: June 2010

Nanoscientific research has been characterized as an “engineering way of being in science.” This mode of research calls for a philosophy of technoscience that investigates the four questions: i) What is the role of theory and theory‐development in nanoscale research, and what kinds of theories are needed for nanotechnological development? ii) What are the preferred methods and tools and the associated modes of reasoning in nanoscientific research? iii) What is nanotechnoscience and how are its objects constituted? iv) What kind of knowledge do technoscientific researchers typically produce and communicate? The consideration of these questions yields a survey of nanotechnoscience in terms of disciplinary questions (a complex field partially disclosed by stretching closed theories), of methodology (constructions and qualitative judgments of likeness), of ontology (a thin conception of nature as unlimited potential), and of epistemology (acquisition and demonstration of capabilities). In all four cases, the strictly philosophical discussion leads to societal dimensions and questions of value.