bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Városutópiák környezetpszichológiai és szimbolikai elemzése
Authors: Lippai Edit , Dúll Andrea
Published: July 2004

A városépítészet egész történetét végigkísérik a „Jó város - jó társadalom” elképzelések, vagyis az utópiák. A jelen tanulmányban néhány, a szépirodalomban megjelent ideális, tökéletes, kívánt városelképzelést, vagyis eutópiát elemzünk környezetpszichológiai és szimbolikai szempontból. A városok tényleges téri-társadalmi szerkezetének és folyamatainak, valamint ezek mentális-érzelmi leképezodésének vizsgálata egyidos a környezetpszichológiával. A kutatást Kevin Lynch (1960) úttöro vizsgálatai alapozták meg, amelyeket „A város képe” (The Image of the City) címu klasszikus könyvében publikált. Lynch három amerikai város - Boston, Los Angeles és Jersey City - lakosságának reprezentatív mintáin végzett kutatásában a lakók mentális térképeit vizsgálta. Kutatásának eredményei szerint az emberek fejében él egy kép a városukról (image of the city), ami a városlakó orientációs bázisa és egyúttal esztétikai-formai struktúra. Összehasonlítva a három amerikai városról alkotott mentális térképeket, Lynch rájött, hogy bizonyos környezeti elemek általános térkép-jellegzetességnek tekinthetok: utak (paths), határok (edges), lakónegyedek (districts), csomópontok (nodes), iránypontok (landmarks). Az utópiák három csoportra oszthatók: idobeli (múlt- és a jövobeli), térbeli (négy világtáj irányában, illetve magasban vagy mélyben levo) és abszolút (képzeletbeli) utópiákra. Az általunk elemzett idobeli utópiák: Atlantisz, Mennyei Jeruzsálem, Minas Tirith és Diaspar, térbeli utópiák: Nekeresd, Napváros, Eldorado és abszolút utópia: Elefántcsonttorony. Ezeket a városutópiákat ebben a munkában kulturális városképeknek tekintettük, és ily módon elemeztük fizikai, észlelheto elemeiket. Vizsgálatunk során arra az érdekes felfedezésre bukkantunk - természetesen Lynch munkájáról nem is tudva -, hogy az utópiák megalkotói pontosan az általuk empirikusan feltárt fenti szempontok alapján írták le információikat az általuk tökéletesnek tartott városról. Elemzésünk eredménye szerint leírhatók a vágyott város ismérvei általában:1. széles, jó alapanyagból készült sugárutak, 2. jól elkülönített határok és szélek, amelyek védenek, s tagolják a város szerkezetét és 3. a városon belül tágas tereket, kerületeket fognak közre, valamint 4. a csomópontokban a vizuális tájékozódást segíto jellegzetes és látványos tereptárgy van. A városok lakóit többek között közös szimbólumrendszer és a kommunikáció adott, megszokott módja kapcsolja egymáshoz. Az utópikus városok szimbolikus „kognitív térképeinek” funkciója - a valós városokéhoz hasonlóan - az lehet, hogy keretet és biztonságos kapaszkodót nyújtanak egy ideális világban, megteremtik az arról való közös kommunikáció lehetoségét, és ily módon kifejezik, létrehozzák és fenntartják az emberek vágyott tökéletes helykötodését és helyidentitását.
Homogámia, genetikai hasonlóság, imprinting.
Authors: Bereczkei Tamás , Gyuris Petra , Köves Panna , Bernáth László
Published: July 2004

Miközben a homogámia genetikai közvetítettségére vonatkozó hipotézist számos vizsgálat alátámasztja, szigorú bírálatok fogalmazhatók meg az ún. genetikai hasonlóság elméletével szemben. Alternatív ma­gyarázatként feltételezzük, hogy imprinting jellegű mechanizmusok, nem pedig „közvetlen”, genetikai szintű detektálási folyamatok a felelősek azért, hogy magunkhoz hasonló párt választunk hosszú távú kapcsolatainkban. Vizsgálatunkban, amely több mint 300 családtagról és idegenről (kontrollról) készült arckép párosításait tartalmazta, a vizsgálati személyek a véletlenhez képest magasabb arányban állapították meg a feleség és a férjük anyja közötti hasonlóságot. Ez a találati gyakoriság szignifikánsan magasabb volt annál, mint amikor a feleség és a férj közötti hasonlóságot ítélték meg. A regressziós elemzés azt mutatta, hogy azok a férfiak, akiknek gyerekkorukban gyakran volt részük anyai elutasításban, kisebb valószínűséggel választottak felnőtt korukban anyjukhoz hasonló feleséget, mint azok, akik kedvezőbb nevelésben részesültek. Ezek az eredmények azt mutatják, hogy a gyerekkori tapasztalatok hatására a fiúk internalizálják anyjuk fenotípusát és ezt, mint egyfajta mentális modellt, használják fel későbbi párválasztásuk során.
A placebohatás vizsgálata táplálékallergiás és táplálékaverziós betegeknél
Authors: Cziboly Ádám , Pálfi Erzsébet , Nékám Kristóf , Bárdos György
Published: July 2004

Táplálékallergiás és táplálékaverziós személyeknek placebotablettákat adtunk, amelyet egy hónapig kel­lett szedniük. A tablettát olyan gyógyszernek állítottuk be, amelyet az Egyesült Államokban fejlesztettek ki, és amely nagyon hatékonynak bizonyul a táplálékallergia gyógyításában. A vizsgálat során mértük, hogy történik-e objektív orvosi javulás, illetve javul-e a közérzet megítélése. 14 betegből 6 volt táplálékaverziós. Öt embernek kezdtek el javulni a tünetei a placebótól, ebből kettő visszaesett (ennek hátterében a noncompliance-t sejtjük), egy fokozatosan javult, kettő tünetmentessé vált. Ennek a két embernek a gyógyulása „csodának” számított: egyikükön sem tudott korábban semmilyen hagyományos biomedikális gyógymód segíteni. A táplálékallergiások közérzetüket jobbnak ítélték meg, mint a táplálékaverziósok, a placebo hatására ez nem változott. Végső soron, ha csekély mennyiségben is, de néhány ember állapotának javulásához hozzájárultunk ezzel a vizsgálattal. Ne feledjük azonban, hogy a placebohatás vizsgálata csak állomás. A placebo ugyanis mankó, ami (azáltal, hogy megadja a beteg számára a hitet a gyógyulásban) segít mozgósítani a gyógyító folyamatokat. A végső cél az, hogy a betegek maguktól járjanak, és a tudomány is megfejtse, hogyan taníthatja meg erre őket. Vagyis meg kell fejtenünk, mi az a folyamat, ami a placebohatás során végbemegy, hogyan tudjuk fehér tabletták nélkül, saját elhatározásunkból mozgósítani ezt az endogén, öngyógyító funkciót.
Beérkezett könyvek
Authors: Pléh Csaba
Published: July 2004

Locke, John: Értekezés az emberi értelemről. Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 2003 Kant, Immanuel: Prekritikia írások. Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 2003 Heidegger, Martin: Útjelzők. Osiris Könyvkiadó, Budapest, 2003 Boros Gábor: A mozgástörvényektől isten értelmi szeretetéig. A morális univerzum kitágulása a mechanikai filozófiában. Áron Kiadó, Budapest, 2003 Neumer Katalin (szerk.): Kép, beszéd, írás. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 2003 Horányi Özséb (szerk.): A sokarcú kép. 2., módosított kiadás. Typotex Kiadó, Budapest, 2003 Sternberg, R. J.: Psychology. 4. kiadás. Thomson és Watsons, Belont, 2004 Horváth-Szabó Katalin-Vigassyné Dezsényi Klára: Az agresszió kezelése. Tanári kézikönyv. Szociális és Családügyi Minisztérium, Budapest, 2001 Pléh Csaba (szerk.): A pszichológiaoktatás kérdései. MAB-MPT, Budapest, 2003 Pikó Bettina: Fiatalok pszichoszociális egészsége és rizikómagatartása a társas támogatás tükrében. Osiris Kiadó, Budapest, 2002
Bevezető
Authors: Lányiné Engelmayer Ágnes
Published: July 2004

Tematikus kötetünk válogatást kíván nyújtani a gyógypedagógiai pszichológia elméleti és gyakorlati műhelyeként működő Gyógypedagógiai Pszichológiai Intézet munkatársainak kutatási eredményeiből.
A test és az identitásalakulás kérdései a fogyatékossággal élők személyiségének megismerésében
Authors: Garai Dóra
Published: July 2004

A szerző a gyógypedagógiai pszichodiagnosztika jelenlegi helyzetéből kiindulva a fogyatékossággal élők megismerésének további lehetőségeit elemzi. A tudományos elméletek olyan csomópontjait igyekszik összegyűjteni, amelyek a gyógypedagógiai pszichológia lehetséges kutatási irányait jelölik ki. Vizsgálódásainak körét a jelen munkában az identitásalakulás, valamint a test ebben betöltött szerepére szűkíti. A test modern elméletei közül a feminista elméletek fogyatékosságot érintő kérdései kerülnek tárgyalásra. A pszichológiai elméletekben a biológiai adottságok és ezek társas jelentésadási folyamatainak összefüggéseit vizsgálva a szerző az eltérő testi tapasztalás, a testhatárok szerepét, a narratív identitás releváns kérdéseit taglalja.
Neuropszichológiai vizsgálatok jelentősége a tanulási és viselkedés­zavarok diagnosztikájában
Authors: F. Földi Rita
Published: July 2004

Az iskolai tanulási és viselkedészavarok diagnosztikájában az intelligenciaszint meghatározása mellett kiemelt jelentőséggel bír annak megállapítása, hogy mely funkció és az információfeldolgozás mely szintjén mutat elmaradást. A pontos diagnózis felállításához a neuropszichológiai vizsgálóeljárások segítenek. Hiperaktivitással kapcsolatos kutatásunkat példaként mutatjuk be, mely arra hívja fel a fi­gyelmet, hogy a viselkedészavar egyik oka lehet a vizuális-téri információfeldolgozási kapacitás elmaradása. Mivel a vizuális információfeldolgozás problémái inkább rejtve maradnak a környezet számára, mint a verbális képességek elmaradása, az intellektuális serkentés hatásai kevéssé érvényesülhetnek, mint egyértelmű rizikófaktorok esetében.
Kisiskolás diszlexiás tanulók kognitív funkcióinak sajátosságai
Authors: Mohai Katalin
Published: July 2004

A tanulmány a sikertelen tanulási teljesítmények mögött meghúzódó pszichikus folyamatokat, és azok rendellenes működését mutatja be egy kisiskolás korú diszlexiás csoporton végzett vizsgálat alapján. A MAWGYI-R teszt és a Hiskey Tanulási alkalmasságot vizsgáló teszt eredményeinek kvantitatív és kvalitatív összehasonlításával megkíséreltük a diszlexiás tanulók intelligencia- és kognitív profilját megrajzolni, s a markánsan megragadható funkciózavarokat meghatározni. Vizsgálatunk célcsoportját 15 kisiskolás korú diszlexiás tanuló alkotta, akikkel mindkét teljesítménytesztet fölvettük. A kontrollcsoportot a MAWGYI-R standardizálása során összegyűjtött jegyzőkönyvek alapján válogattuk össze. A kognitív képességek elemzésekor először a diszlexiás és kontrollcsoport globális intelligenciaértékeit hasonlítottuk össze, majd külön a MAWGYI-R profiljait. A diszlexiás csoport kognitív mutatóit mind a MAWGYI-R, mind a Hiskey-szubtesztek alapján is elemeztük, és kísérletet tettünk a képességek együttjárásainak a meghatározására is. Az eredmények azt mutatták, hogy a diszlexiás tanulóknál a kognitív képességek hiányos szerveződése sajátos tanulási képességprofilt eredményez, amely együtt jár a nyelvi funkciók gyengeségével és a vizuá­lis percepció diszfunkciójával.
Vak gyermekek verbális intelligenciájának vizsgálata.Tapasztalatok a MAWGYI-R teszttel
Authors: Prónay Beáta
Published: July 2004

A vak és súlyos mértékben látássérült gyermekek értelmi képességeinek feltárása, intelligenciavizsgálata megoldatlan kérdés nemzetközi viszonylatban. A nemzetközi szakirodalom több tesztadaptációs kísérletről számol be, de a legáltalánosabban alkalmazott eszköznek mégis a Wechsler-teszt bizonyult. Jelen tanulmányban a megújult magyar Wechsler-teszt, a MAWGYI-R verbális próbáinak kipróbálásáról számolunk be a vizsgálati időszakban teljesnek tekinthető, vaksággal élő, iskoláskorú populáción végzett vizsgálataink alapján. Ismertetjük a teszt alkalmazásának tapasztalatait, a vizsgált populáció verbális kvóciensének az új magyar standarddal mért, kissé balra tolódott görbéjét. A csoportot továbbiakban jellemzi a Számolási gondolkodás és az Általános ismeretek szubtesztekben elért alacsony pontszám és a Számismétlés és Szókincs próbákban mutatott jó eredmény. Saját eredményeinket összevetve mások korábbi vizsgálataival hasonlóságokat és eltéréseket egyaránt tapasztalunk. A különböző életkorokban mért eltérő teljesítmény nem bizonyult szignifikánsnak. A koraszülött és nem koraszülött csoport teljesítménye között nem tudtunk különbséget igazolni. Vizsgálatunkban a VQ-ra szignifikánsan hatást gyakorolt a látásteljesítmény és a családi háttér.
Hallássérült fejlődési diszfáziás gyermekek kognitív képességei
Authors: Nagyné Réz Ilona
Published: July 2004

A hallássérüléshez kapcsolódó fejlődési diszfázia mint a neurogén tanulási zavar egy specifikus formája vált ismertté a hazai gyógypedagógiai pszichológiában. Súlyos fokú beszéd- és nyelvi fejlődési akadályozottság lesz a következménye a hallássérült gyermekek jelentős hányadánál. Előfordulása 6-35%-ra becsült. Megjelenési típusai: a diszpraxiás dominanciájú, az integrációs és a kevert típusú fejlődési disz­fázia. Feltárására A. M. J. Van Uden diagnosztikus módszerét adaptálta a Gyógypedagógiai Pszichológiai Intézet munkacsoportja. A hallássérült gyermekek diszfáziás nyelvi fejlődésének korai felismerése és hatékony fejlesztése alapfeltétele a hallássérült gyermekek tanulási sikerességének, harmonikus fejlődésének. Az esettanulmány a komplex szűrőeljárást ismerteti egy kevert típusú diszfáziás gyermek esetének feldolgozásán keresztül.
A képességzavar mint különleges ellátási jogosultság a közoktatásban
Authors: Torda Ágnes
Published: July 2004

A tanulmány azoknak a gyermekeknek közoktatási ellátását tekinti át, akiknél a szakvéleménnyel megállapított képességzavar szükségessé teszi a különleges gondozást. A sajátos nevelési igény kielégítésére jogi, pénzügyi és szakmai garanciákat tartalmaz a közoktatásról szóló törvény. Az ismertetett, 2001-ben záruló átfogó vizsgálat szerint azonban a közoktatási intézményekben nem áll rendelkezésre az a különleges szaktudás, amely a gyermekek pedagógiai többletellátásához szükséges lenne.
Chromosome Maps
Authors: Speed T.P. , Zhao H.
Published: July 2004

Chromosome maps are a natural way of organizing genetic data about chromosomes. Existing chromosome maps can be broadly divided into four categories: genetic maps, physical maps, radiation hybrid maps, and gene maps. Although they all make reference to the same biological entity, namely chromosomes, these maps differ substantially in the types of genetic experiments conducted and the types of genetic data collected. They further differ in the metrics employed to define distances and the resolution achievable. Collectively, these maps provide essential tools to further our understanding of the organization and function of the genome. In this review, we first describe the biological principles behind each type of chromosome map and then outline the statistical models and methods that have been developed to construct it. The current state of each chromosome map is summarized, and links to mapping software are provided for readers interested in getting hands‐on experience with chromosome mapping.
Comparative Genomics
Authors: Dicks J. , Savva G.
Published: July 2004

Over the last couple of decades, numerous genetic and physical maps have been developed for a wide range of species. This has led to the field ofcomparative genomicswhich analyses characteristics of whole genomes, in contrast to the analysis of single genes in comparative genetics. Where markers on one map are known to be have homologues on another, we can get a feel for the relative distribution of markers on the chromosomes of different species. From these we can deduce segments of chromosomes where the gene content, and sometimes also the order of the genes, is similar in two or more species. More recently, we have begun to see the DNA sequences of whole genomes, which enables us to compare genomes at both the sequence and gene levels. The promise of the post‐genome era means that we will see many fully sequenced genomes within the next decade, and we should develop analytical methods that are mature when significant quantities of data become available. However, not all species will be sequenced and so we should continue to develop methods of analysis that are appropriate for both types of data. In this chapter, we will give a flavour of the types of comparative genome analysis that are carried out. We will highlight particular problems, such as phylogenetic inference and the use of maps to compare genomes. Finally, we will give examples of problems with our current analyses that could be solved in the future.
Analysis of Microarray Gene Expression Data
Authors: Huber W. , von Heydebreck A. , Vingron M.
Published: July 2004

This chapter reviews the methods utilized in processing and analysis of gene expression data generated using DNA microarrays. This type of experiment allows relative levels of mRNA abundance in a set of tissue samples or cell populations to be determined for thousands of genes simultaneously. Naturally, such an experiment requires computational and statistical analysis techniques. As processing begins, the computational procedures are largely determined by the technology and experimental setup used. Subsequently, as more reliable intensity values for genes emerge, pattern discovery methods come into play. The most striking peculiarity of this kind of data is that one usually obtains measurements for thousands of genes for a much smaller number of conditions. This is at the root of several of the statistical questions discussed here.
Adaptive Molecular Evolution
Authors: Yang Z.
Published: July 2004

This chapter reviews statistical methods for detecting adaptive molecular evolution by comparing synonymous and non‐synonymous substitution rates in protein‐coding DNA sequences. A Markov process model of codon substitution is introduced first, which forms the basis for all later discussions in this chapter. I then consider the case of comparing two sequences to estimate the numbers of synonymous (dS) and non‐synonymous (dN) substitutions per site. The maximum likelihood (ML) method and a number ofad hoccounting methods are evaluated. The rest of the chapter deals with joint analyses of multiple sequences on a phylogeny. I review Markov models of codon substitution that allow the non‐synonymous/synonymous rate ratio to vary among branches in a phylogeny or among amino acid sites in a protein. Those models can be used to construct likelihood ratio tests to identify evolutionary lineages under episodic Darwinian selection or to infer critical amino acids in a protein under diversifying selection. I use real data examples to demonstrate the application of the methods. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the limitations of current methods.
Application of the Likelihood Function in Phylogenetic Analysis
Authors: Huelsenbeck J.P. , Bollback J.P.
Published: July 2004

The likelihood of a phylogenetic tree is proportional to the probability of observing the comparative data (such as aligned DNA sequences) conditional on the tree. The likelihood function is important because it is the vehicle that carries the observations. The likelihood function can be used in two ways to infer phylogeny. First, the tree that maximizes the likelihood can be chosen as the best estimate of phylogeny; this is the method of maximum likelihood. Second, a prior probability distribution on trees can be specified and inferences based upon the posterior probability distribution of trees; this is the approach taken by Bayesians. Although maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference are similar in that the same models of DNA substitution can be used to calculate the likelihood function, they differ in their interpretation of probability. Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) can be used to approximate the posterior probabilities of trees. MCMC also makes it possible to perform comparative analyses that accommodate phylogenetic uncertainty.
Marker‐Assisted Selection and Introgression
Authors: Whittaker J.C.
Published: July 2004

Good maps of molecular markers now exist for many species. In this chapter we discuss the statistical methodology that has been developed to facilitate the exploitation of these maps in commercial breeding programs. Methods appropriate both for populations derived from inbred line crosses and outbred populations, particularly dairy cattle populations, are considered, and the possible utility of such methods discussed. There is a consensus that incorporating marker information into breeding programs can increase selection response, but the value of such schemes once marker typing costs are allowed for is less clear‐cut.
Coalescent Theory
Authors: Nordborg M.
Published: July 2004

The coalescent process is a powerful modeling tool for population genetics. The allelic states of all homologous gene copies in a population are determined by the genealogical and mutational history of these copies. The coalescent approach is based on the realization that the genealogy is usually easier to model backward in time, and that selectively neutral mutations can then be superimposed afterwards. A wide range of biological phenomena can be modeled using this approach.

Whereas almost all of classical population genetics considers the future of a population given a starting point, the coalescent considers the present, while taking the past into account. This allows the calculation of probabilities of sample configurations under the stationary distribution of various population genetic models, and makes full likelihood analysis of polymorphism data possible. It also leads to extremely efficient computer algorithms for generating simulated data from such distributions, data which can then be compared with observations as a form of exploratory data analysis.
Inferences from Spatial Population Genetics
Authors: Rousset F.
Published: July 2004

This chapter reviews theoretical models and statistical methods for inference from genetic data in subdivided populations. These methods are mainly concerned with estimation of dispersal rates and are generally based on neutral models of genetic differentiation. The formulation and main results of migration matrix, island, and isolation by distance models, are briefly described. The definition and basic properties ofF‐‘statistics’ are detailed (including a reformulation of the ‘random effect’ model forF‐statistics), and moment methods for their estimation are contrasted to likelihood methods. Then the application of the different methodologies to the different theoretical models is reviewed. The practical performance of these methods is discussed in light of comparisons with demographic estimates, as well as of their robustness to different assumptions in theoretical models.
Conservation Genetics
Authors: Beaumont M.A.
Published: July 2004

This chapter reviews some of the statistical methodologies used in the genetic analysis of endangered and managed populations. The topics covered include the estimation of effective population size,Ne, the detection of past changes in population size, the estimation of admixture proportions, and the detection of immigrant and hybrid individuals. The reasons why it may be useful to measureNeare discussed. Using genetic information it is possible to estimateNefrom changes in gene frequencies between samples taken at different times, or from genotypic disequilibria in one sample, or from differences in gene frequencies between two recently descended populations. The different statistical methodologies that have been applied are discussed in some detail. The ability to detect past changes in population size may also be useful in conservation management, and some of the more recent approaches are described. Another area of concern in conservation biology is introgressive hybridization. At the population level it is possible to infer admixture proportions by comparing the gene frequencies in the admixed and non‐admixed populations, providing they are available, and the different statistical approaches to analysing this problem are reviewed. Very recently statistical methods have been developed to detect immigrant and hybrid individuals from their multilocus genotype, and the main methods developed in this area are described.
Genetic History of the Human Species
Authors: Relethford J.H.
Published: July 2004

A major and continuing issue in anthropology is the recent evolutionary history of the human species. One question is the relationship of early humans (Homo erectus) to later larger‐brained hominids often referred to as ‘archaic humans’ and ‘anatomically modern humans’. The major debate is between the recent African origin model and the multiregional model. The recent African origin model proposes thatHomo sapiensarose as a separate species in Africa within the past 200 000 years, and then dispersed across the Old World replacing non‐African archaic populations. The multiregional model suggests that human evolution over the past 2 million years has been within a single evolving polytypic species. Genetic data have been used increasingly to address these different models (and different variants of each). Several different approaches have been used: gene trees, genetic diversity within populations, genetic distances between populations, and reconstructions of ancient demography. Much of the genetic data is consistent with a replacement model. However, these data are also compatible with a general multiregional model that postulates genetic input from at least two geographic regions. To date, neither model is supported unequivocally by the genetic evidence. Genetic estimates of ancient population size favor an African origin model, but it is still not clear whether this rules out non‐African archaic genetic input. One possibility is that our species is mostly, but not exclusively, out of Africa.
Nonparametric Linkage
Authors: Holmans P.
Published: July 2004

Model‐free methods are commonly used to detect linkage to both dichotomous and quantitative traits. This review begins by discussing the principles underlying model‐free methods for detecting linkage, and their merits relative to traditional lod‐score methods. Affected sib‐pair methods and their extensions to include other typed unaffected relatives and extra affected siblings are discussed, together with model‐free methods for the analysis of dichotomous traits on larger pedigrees. Extensions of the methods for the analysis of covariates, multiple marker loci and disease loci are reviewed, together with an investigation of the most effective ways to perform genome scans. Finally, various methods for the analysis of quantitative traits are discussed.
Statistical Basis of Risk Calculations
Authors: Chakraborty R.
Published: July 2004

Risk calculation, in the context of genetic counseling, is commonly formulated as a problem of Bayesian inference. Employing its simplest formulation, this chapter reviews the major advances which have prompted changes in the computational routines of the various stages of risk calculation. Recent data from the functional genomics and radiation genetics literatures illustrate that genetic risk calculations are feasible for complex diseases as well, although to attain the desired accuracy of risk predictions for complex adult‐onset diseases more precise additional data will be needed. However, the future holds promise in this direction as we enter the post‐genome era of human genetics. Through examples, the uniqueness of risk predictions in each individual counseling case is stressed, advocating the concept of ‘nondirective’ counseling recommendations based on risk analysis.
Introduction to Plant Biotechnology
Authors: Flavell Richard B.
Published: July 2004

This chapter provides an overview of the subject of plant biotechnology.
Construction and Application of Genomic DNA Libraries
Authors: Kim Hye Ran , Yang Tae Jin , Kudrna David A. , Wing Rod A.
Published: July 2004

Crop failures, pathogenic outbreaks and famine are serious problems facing society. Understanding an organism's genome will help provide the genetic tools needed to solve these complex problems in a shorter time and with less effort. To efficiently study an organism's genome, it can be partitioned into a permanent and stable collection of DNA fragments, called a library. Such libraries provide convenient access to a genome for both laboratory and breeding applications. Genomic libraries can be used as substrates to physically map and sequence entire genomes, clone agriculturally important genes and to investigate gene expression patterns. Further, genomic libraries also provide powerful tools and resources for evaluating germplasm conservation stocks and biological diversity. The ongoing explosion of genetic data and molecular clone resources has opened new scientific possibilities to researchers venturing across all avenues of applied science. In this chapter we will present the details for small and large insert library construction and their applications.
Isolation and Analysis of Gene Regulatory Sequences
Authors: Hehl Reinhard , Steffens Nils Ole , Wingender Edgar
Published: July 2004

Database‐assisted bioinformatic approaches facilitate the analysis of gene regulatory sequences and allow the identification of putative transcription factor binding sites or common regulatory motifs in similarly expressed genes. These approaches complement experiments that identify specific regulatory sites. They may be easily established if the respective transcription factors responsible for gene expression have already been cloned and annotated to the databases.

In this chapter we summarise recent results on transcriptional regulation in plants and describe the most abundant transcription factor families ofArabidopsis thaliana. We summarise experimental approaches to delineate gene regulatory sequences that should precede a database‐assisted analysis. The plant cis‐regulatory DNA element database PLACE and the transcription factor databases PlantCARE and TRANSFAC® are described, including connected software tools. PlanCARE is a plant specific database and TRANSFAC® covers transcription factors of all eukaryotes. The content and use of the TRANSFAC® database is presented in detail. Furthermore, we give examples on the identification of putative transcription factor binding sites in previously identified regulatory sequences and compile other databases that are relevant for the identification of regulatory sequences.
Molecular Mapping and Marker‐Assisted Selection of Quantitative Trait Loci in Plants
Authors: Prince James P. , Ogundiwin Ebenezer A.
Published: July 2004

Since the dawn of agriculture, mankind has tried to mould crop plants into more useful types. Over the years, experience and intuition led to the development of sophisticated and successful artificial selection (breeding) of many types of plants for human food, fibre, shelter, profit and pleasure. Just compare the cultivated tomato with some of its small‐ and green‐fruited relatives, or cultivated maize to teosinte. Most of this ‘improvement’ was probably through simple field selection and propagation of desirable genotypes. Scientifically based plant breeding, not appearing until the 20th century, has also had great successes in plant improvement, particularly in disease resistance and yield. Breeders have achieved good results for both single‐gene traits and polygenic traits, but the polygenic traits, encoded by multiple genes often referred to as quantitative trait loci (QTL), are much more difficult to work with. Advances in molecular genetics in the last 20 years have enabled the placement of molecular markers on to maps of the chromosomes of most major crop plants and the subsequent tagging of genes of interest by their placement near these markers. A major goal of these efforts is marker‐assisted selection (MAS), the use of molecular markers to track traits in breeding programmes. In this chapter, we will discuss the basics of molecular mapping in crop plants, the identification of the location of QTL and MAS. While not intended as an exhaustive review of the techniques nor of successes in this field, this chapter will provide lists of crops with linkage maps and QTLs identified to serve as entry points into the literature for investigators interested in pursuing this technology in a particular crop.
Gene Expression and Level of Expression
Authors: De Buck Sylvie , Depicker Anna
Published: July 2004

Genes encoding heterologous proteins are introduced into the plant genome for several purposes. First, the plant‐made protein can be a tool in fundamental research. Second, the synthesis of heterologous proteins in plants can have biotechnological applications. Plants are capable of producing several types of recombinant proteins. Indeed, for the production of all these proteins, the use of plants is obvious, because they have several important advantages; plants can grow easily and inexpensively in large quantities and they can be harvested and processed with the available agronomic infrastructures and upscaling is very simple. Finally, using processes similar to those used in food and feed industry, specifically desired proteins can be easily purified. However, the stability of accumulation is as important as the accumulation levels themselves. Indeed, the introduced transgenes are not always correctly expressed and are often susceptible to position effects and homology‐dependent gene silencing (HDGS) mechanisms. Although the mechanism that induces silencing is still not completely unravelled, already some factors are defined which influence transgene expression, such as copy number and chromosomal position, methylation pattern in the integration region and properties of the transgene sequence itself.
Engineering of Crops for Improved Agronomic Traits
Authors: Gatehouse A.M.R.
Published: July 2004

Maximum crop productivity in a manner which is both environmentally sustainable and cost effective is a major challenge to agriculture. Since plants routinely encounter sustained periods of stress, sufficient to limit their growth and reproductive capacity, one means of achieving this goal of increased productivity is through a greater understanding of the complex adaptive responses that plants have evolved to combat these various forms of stress. Plant stress is classified as being either biotic (as a result of infestation by pests, pathogens, and/or weeds) or abiotic (as a consequence of unfavourable soils and/or climates, including inadequate or excessive supply of water). Biotechnology not only offers new opportunities and technologies for understanding the underlying mechanisms enabling plants to respond to stress, but also provides a powerful tool in the production of crop species with increased tolerance to biotic and abiotic forms of stress.

The current chapter serves as an introduction to the section on Agronomic Traits where key issues and recent developments in the improvement of crops to respond to stress, are addressed. It thus provides a brief overview both of the current status and future perspectives of transgenic crops with enhanced tolerance to pathogens (chapter

), insect pests (chapter

) and herbicides (chapter

). Furthermore, it considers the molecular bases of plant adaptation to abiotic stress and the use of QTLs and marker‐assisted breeding for the production of crops with increased tolerance to abiotic stress (chapter

).
Introduction
Authors: Kishore Ganesh
Published: July 2004

Plant metabolic engineering as a scientific discipline has come of age. Our understanding of the related microbial metabolic pathways and ability to introduce and express genes in plants, coupled with the rapidly evolving tools of systems biology are at the heart of this development. The scientific and commercial outcomes of plant metabolic engineering are numerous—from a greater and in depth understanding of metabolic reactions in plants to enhance productivity, increase sustainability and quality of the fundamental food, feed, fiber and fuel production systems of this planet.
Lipid Metabolism
Authors: Schmid Katherine M.
Published: July 2004

Lipids are an immensely diverse group of compounds, technically including all biomolecules that dissolve more readily in non‐polar solvents than in water. This review will emphasisze two prominent groups of lipids: the acyl lipids, whose hydrophobic units are derived from fatty acids, and the isoprenoids, made up of five‐carbon isopentene units. Acyl lipids, in the form of the triacylglycerols stored as energy reserves, underpin the vegetable oil industry. In addition, acyl lipids that dominate the bilayers of plant membranes, are indispensable for the protective layers that prevent plant desiccation and pathogen attack, and include several signalling molecules. Isoprenoids are even more diverse than acyl lipids, with more than 25,000known. Two prominent groups are the sterols, which are important membrane constituents, and the carotenoids, which collect light for photosynthesis, protect plants from excessive light, attract pollinators and fruit dispersal agents, and provide vitamin A precursors for consumers. Biotechnology has provided both a tool for understanding plant lipid metabolism, and a means of altering quality and quantity of these constituents to better serve the needs of industry and human nutrition better.
Storage Proteins and their Metabolism
Authors: Hagan N.D. , Higgins T.J.V.
Published: July 2004

The identification and cloning of storage protein genes over the last 20 years has provided new tools to improve grain and forage crops. To date, storage protein biotechnology has been used to address deficiencies of essential amino acids in important crop species, improve the digestibility of forage crops for ruminant animals and improve quality traits such as the bread making quality of wheat dough. High lysine maize is already available through the breeding of storage protein mutants, whilst transgenic crops containing storage proteins that impart a nutritional benefit are currently undergoing field trials. However, despite recent advances in this area, a number of limitations remain. In some cases, the rate of synthesis of particular amino acids limits protein accumulation. In other cases, the introduction of a new storage protein has altered the expression levels of endogenous proteins, potentially affecting desirable traits. In addition, some of the storage proteins targeted for use in transgenic plants have been identified as allergens.
Amino Acids
Authors: Hoefgen Rainer , Hesse Holger , Galili Gad
Published: July 2004

Amino acids perform essential functions in both primary and secondary plant metabolism besides their obvious role in protein synthesis. They can be categorised on the basis of their function such as serving to assimilate and transport nitrogen from sources to sinks or serving as precursors for secondary products such as hormones, vitamins, co‐factors and compounds in plant defence. Thus, synthesis of amino acids directly or indirectly controls various aspects of plant growth and development. Recent investigations of genes involved in amino acid biosynthesis reveal that this is a dynamic process controlled by metabolic, environmental and developmental factors including mineral nutrients such as nitrate and sulphate. This chapter intends to provide fundamental knowledge on nitrogen and sulphur metabolism as basis for amino acid biosynthesis and to highlight examples in which combined molecular, biochemical and genetic approaches have helped to define the pathways and uncover regulatory mechanisms of amino acid biosynthesis in plants. These studies have implications for both basic and applied research because amino acid biosynthesis is as well a target for herbicide action as an option to improve the nutritional quality of crops by metabolic engineering and plant breeding.
Metabolic Engineering of Plant Secondary Metabolism
Authors: Peters Reuben J. , Croteau Rodney B.
Published: July 2004

In this chapter, we focus on the promise inherent in current efforts to manipulate plant secondary metabolism to improve the yield and/or quality of domestic crop plants. While there is yet no commercial production of any crops engineered in this fashion, a number of crops are in development based on successful research demonstrating the potential of such alteration for improving agriculture and human health. However, as in the deployment of any new technology, there are cautionary notes regarding the possibility of unforeseen and undesirable side effects of such manipulation.
Introduction to Developmental Traits
Authors: Amasino Richard
Published: July 2004

This chapter provides an overview of the subject of developmental traits.
Phytochromes – Biotechnological Prospects
Authors: Reid Robert , Jones Huw D. , Smith Harry
Published: July 2004

At all stages of the life‐cycle plant growth and development processes are exceptionally responsive to signals in the light environment. Light signals can, and often do, determine when a seed germinates, when a plant flowers, the direction in which its stems grow, the balance between stem, leaf and root growth, and the interactions between a plant and it neighbours. All of these processes can be crucial to crop plant performance. More than 50 years of fundamental research has been devoted to discovering the mechanisms through which plants detect and respond to the natural light environment, and this research is now reaching the stage where the finding can be exploited in ways that will enhance crop productivity. This chapter outlines the work that has been done on phytochrome genes and their transgenic expression with a view to identifying promising approaches for the future.
Flowering Time
Authors: Laurie David A.
Published: July 2004

Flowering involves profound developmental changes that switch vegetative growth (the production of stems and leaves) to reproductive growth (the production of flowers and seeds). Flowering requires a considerable investment of a plant's resources and elegant mechanisms have evolved to ensure that flowering occurs when conditions are most favourable for pollination, seed development and seed dispersal. Plants commonly use day length (photoperiod) or periods of low temperature (vernalisation) as environmental cues to regulate the timing of flowering. The dramatic developmental changes involved in flowering and the importance of flowering time to adaptation and crop yield have interested researchers for long, and the control of flowering is an area of biology where fundamental and applied aspects are closely interwoven. This chapter briefly discusses research in model plants but is primarily concerned with what is known about the genetic control of flowering time in crop species and the ways in which this affects adaptation and performance.
Seed Germination
Authors: Kermode Allison R.
Published: July 2004

Seeds control the survival and reproductive capacity of plants and therefore occupy a critical position in the life history of higher plants. The successful establishment of the new plant both temporally and spatially, as well as the vigour of the young seedling, is largely determined by physiological and biochemical processes that occurred earlier, i.e. during seed development. At dispersal, the quiescent mature seed upon encountering favourable environmental conditions (that can include light of a given wavelength, sufficient water, optimal temperatures and adequate oxygen) commences germination. However, as will be discussed, under conditions that are not optimal for a transition from germination to seedling growth, seeds express genes that impose a transient ‘quiescence’ until those conditions become optimal. The agricultural and forest industries rely upon seeds that exhibit high germinability and vigorous, synchronous growth after germination; hence dormancy is generally considered an undesirable trait. Some of the problems unique to the forest industry in relation to the deep dormancy of conifer species will be discussed. Functional genomic approaches hold promise for elucidating genes and proteins that control seed dormancy and germination. The understanding of molecular and physiological mechanisms underlying seed dormancy, particularly of angiosperms, has been accelerated through the analysis of mutants that are disrupted in their development (including dormancy inception and maintenance) as a result of a deficiency in hormone biosynthesis or response. These and other biotechnological approaches for manipulating germination will be discussed.
Non‐Food Crops: Introduction
Authors: Klee Harry
Published: July 2004

This chapter provides an overview of the subject of non‐food crops.
Applications of Plant Biotechnology to Ornamental Crops
Authors: Clark David G.
Published: July 2004

In many cases of ornamental crops, biotechnology applications are proving to be very difficult, but there have been several advances made with engineering a wide variety of genetic traits in floriculture crops and turfgrass. Significant gains have also been made in cloning important genes that are proving to be involved with biological processes that scientists hope to manipulate in ornamental crops in the future. The purpose of the rest of this chapter is to provide a status report on the progress that has been made in applying biotechnology to plants grown for the ornamental characteristics, and to project where research efforts will be focused over the next few years.
Natural Products and Metabolites
Authors: Yazaki Kazufumi
Published: July 2004

In this chapter, a holistic overview of biotechnology on plant secondary metabolism, including the molecular biology and metabolic engineering by genetic manipulation, is provided, as well asalong with the mechanisms of secondary metabolite accumulation and transport. Examples of metabolic engineering are also introduced in each section of the metabolite group.
Plants as Enzyme Factories
Authors: Hood Elizabeth E.
Published: July 2004

In this chapter, we focus on the production of enzymes and other commercially valuable proteins in transgenic plants. Enzymes are ideal for use as catalysts in industrial processes because they can function in aqueous solutions at ambient temperatures and neutral or physiologic pH levels. Furthermore, enzymes have a high specificity, low toxicity, and catalyse reactions relatively quickly at low concentrations. However, temperature and pH extremes can limit enzymatic activity, and certain ions, organic molecules and solvents can inactivate enzymes. Such conditions are often present in large‐scale industrial processes so significant changes are required when moving from chemical to enzymatic catalysts. Nevertheless, the large market opportunity for industrial enzymes and the environmental benefits they provide offer the incentive to invest in the development of efficient production systems and to make the necessary changes in industrial processes.
Production of Pharmaceutical Proteins Using Viral Vectors
Authors: Grill Laurence K.
Published: July 2004

Extracts and extracted products from plants have probably been used as therapeutics since the beginning of humankind. In the more recent history, it has been a hope of many to improve on nature and genetically manipulate plants to produce better, cheaper, and more specific therapeutics and pharmaceuticals. Viral vector technology has several attributes that allow foreign gene expression to be very effective in specific applications for the production of pharmaceuticals and therapeutics. These attributes include rapid ‘turn‐around’ time, high yield and good measures of safety as far as containment of the gene. The viral vector system will be described in this chapter.
Emerging Production Systems for Antibodies in Plants
Authors: Schillberg Stefan , Twyman Richard M.
Published: July 2004

In this chapter, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of different production crops that have been used to produce antibodies and their derivatives, including leafy crops, cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables. We also discuss alternative plant‐based production systems that do not involve stable gene transfer, which shorten the development time and eliminate many of the biosafety concerns, which surround the use of genetically ‐modified organisms as bioreactors.
Risk Assessment and Public Policy Issues
Authors: Newell‐McGloughlin Martina
Published: July 2004

While exploitation of the fundamental biological phenomenon of genetic change has been the principal well spring of agrarian evolution and, in no small way, has assisted the advancement of civilisation, it did not emerge as an issue of social concern until scientists attained the means to manipulate life at the molecular level. In essence, commercialisation of the products of recombinant DNA technology is just another facet in a long history of human intervention in nature for agricultural and food production. And, as such, the same parameters of risk‐based assessment should apply. Commercialisation of all types of organisms must be undertaken within a regulatory framework that insures adequate protection of the consumer and the environment while not stymieing innovation. The latter may slow the entry of new products into the marketplace and such a delay can sustain reliance on less efficient, less precise, less predictable and sometimes more hazardous alternative technologies and products.