bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Attributional Consequences of Chemical Exposure and Performance Feedback1
Authors: Croxton Jack S. , Putz‐Anderson Vernon R. , Setzer James V.
Published: August 2006

Much has been learned about the behavioral and physiological effects of various chemicals and drugs on human performance. The present study concerns the attributional consequences of such exposure. Pairs of subjects inhaled measured quantities of methyl chloride, an industrial solvent, and ingested caffeine. Each performed a variety of tasks involving eye‐hand coordination and mental alertness. Participants generally tended to underestimate their actual performance on the tasks. Later, false feedback was given to each subject indicating either a superior or inferior performance on some of the tasks. Attributions of participants to ability, effort, and the effects of the agents were influenced both by type of exposure and type of feedback provided. Subjects considered both their own performance and data about the performance of previous participants when estimating their partner's performance. The implications of such findings for industrial relations are discussed.
Mentoring Among Women Lawyers1
Authors: Riley Sandra , Wrench David
Published: August 2006

Considerable controversy exists as to both the nature and efficacy of mentoring among women professionals. As noted by Wrightsman, this controversy persists largely because researchers have failed to use a common scientific definition of the concept. In the present research a survey of existing studies was used to set a more stringent criterion of mentoring than that usually employed. Data were then gathered from a sample of women lawyers in the State of Oregon. Results indicated that those meeting the more stringent criterion perceived themselves as more successful and satisfied in their careers than those not meeting it. Those women who said that they had mentors but who did not meet the criterion reported themselves as less successful and satisfied than those who claimed to have a mentor and met the criterion. These results are seen as demonstrating the value of the more stringent criterion as well as the possible value of true mentors to women professionals.
The Effects of Limited and Conflicting Stereotypic information on Group Categorization in Northern Ireland1
Authors: Stringer Maurice , Cook Neil McLaughlin
Published: August 2006

The process of group categorization, as suggested by Tajfel and Turner's (1979) theory of intergroup comparison, was examined under conditions of intergroup conflict in Northern Ireland. The theory predicts that under “normal” conditions groups have a need to distinguish themselves from others. The present study investigates how individuals in Northern Ireland under extreme environmental pressures to identify both their own and other groups, can use learned stereotypic cues in making such categorizations. Results suggested that such limited information was highly effective in the process of categorization, with both Protestant and Catholic subjects exhibiting significant agreement and confidence in identifying unknown persons on the basis of stereotypic cues Conflicting information was found to reduce subject's confidence levels, with conflicting Catholic cues being more disruptive than Protestant ones
The Self‐Consciousness Scale: A Revised Version for Use with General Populations1
Authors: Scheier Michael F. , Carver Charles S.
Published: August 2006

Recent research suggests that some of the wording of the original Self‐Consciousness Scale is too abstract for easy understanding by research participants who are not college students. This article presents a revised version of that scale, along with information regarding its psychometric properties. In general, the psychometric properties of the revised scale compare quite favorably to those of the original scale. It is suggested that the revised Self‐Consciousness Scale be used whenever data are collected from populations other than college students.
The Influence of Perceived Injustice on the Endorsement of Political Leaders1
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Rasinski Kenneth A. , McGraw Kathleen M.
Published: August 2006

Recent public opinion polls have suggested that there is a striking lack of public support for national political leaders and institutions. The two studies discussed in this paper explore why public evaluations of political leaders and institutions are low. In particular, they examine the role of perceived injustice in creating dislike for and distrust of leaders and institutions. This focus upon justice is contrasted with the more traditional focus upon the level of outcomes received from the political system and upon congruence in citizen‐leader policy preferences. The results strongly support a focus upon justice by showing that judgments of injustice exercise an influence upon leadership evaluations and in stitutional endorsements which is independent of beliefs about the level of outcomes the political system is providing to citizens or of public support for government policies. In fact, both studies suggest that judgments of justice or injustice have more influence upon the endorsement of political leaders and institutions than do outcome‐related concerns.
Public Self‐Disclosure and Speaker Persuasiveness1
Authors: Burger Jerry M. , Vartabedian Robert A.
Published: August 2006

Two experiments were conducted to examine the conclusion of several rhetorical critics that intimate self‐disclosure by high‐ranking officials will be viewed by an audience as inappropriate and will result in lowered speaker persuasiveness. In Experiment 1 college students viewed a videotape of a speaker described as either a member of an oratory club, a candidate for Congress, or a congressman. Half of the subjects heard a speech in which the speaker revealed some intimate information about himself. Little disclosure was included in the other speech. It was found that the greater the prestige of the speaker, the more self‐disclosure was seen as inappropriate. The audience was least likely to be persuaded by the speaker when he was perceived as a congressman who had disclosed personal information. This effect was replicated in Experiment 2, where individual differences in the audience members' l]evels of perceptiveness about disclosure appre priateness were examined. No significant effects for this individual difference variable were uncovered.
Attribution of Arousal as a Mediator of the Effectiveness of Fear‐Arousing Communications1
Authors: Schwarz Norbert , Servay Wolfgang , Kumpf Martin
Published: August 2006

Before watching a fear‐arousing antismoking movie, male smokers were administered a placebo pill that was said to have either arousing, tranquilizing, or no side effects. Subjects reported less intention to reduce smoking when they could attribute their arousal to the presumably arousing pill, and greater intention to do so when they expected the pill to be tranquilizing, than when they expccted no side effects. The self‐reported number of cigarettes smoked during a two‐week period following the experiment decreased in both the tranquilizing and no side‐effects conditions, but not in the arousing side‐effects condition. The data on subjects' i]ntentions are consistent with predictions derived from Kelley's discounting and augmentation principles and demunstrate informational functions of affective states. Several explanations concerning the differences between intentions and behavior are discussed, and implications concerning strategies for behavior change are explored.
Prejudice Toward Contemporary Outgroups as a Generalized Attitude
Authors: Bierly Margaret M.
Published: August 2006

The interrelatedness of attitudes toward homosexuals, Blacks, women, and old people was studied, as well as attitude differences on demographic variables. Three hundred and nine White undergraduates responded to the Homosexual Attitude Scale, The Attitudes Toward Women Scale, Multifactor Racial Attitude Inventory, and two attitudes toward old people scales. Nine of the ten possible intercorrelations were significant beyond the .01 levels. Prejudice toward quite distinct outgroups appears to be a generalized attitude. Attitude differences were found on the demographic variables of sex, political party, and religion. Women expressed more tolerant attitudes than men toward all four outgroups studied. Republicans were more prejudiced toward homosexuals and women than were Democrats or Independents. Participants who identified themselves as Christians were less supportive of equality between the sexes than were Catholics, Protestants, or those with no religion Christians were also more prejudiced toward homosexuals than were Catholics or those with no religion.
Hiring Decisions for Disabled Workers: Looking at the Cause
Authors: Bordieri James E. , Drehmer David E.
Published: August 2006

This study experimentally explored hiring recommendations involving disabled job applicants. One hundred eight supervisors and mid‐level managers reviewed the cover letter and resume of an applicant and the job description for a simulated position. The applicant's type of disability and cause of disability were systematically manipulated in the resume and cover letter. The results demonstrated that subjects made different recommendations for hiring the applicant as a function of the type as well as the cause of the disability. Implications for employers' bias are discussed and suggestions for future research are presented.
On‐the‐Job Experience and Skill at Detecting Deception1
Authors: DePaulo Bella M. , Pfeifer Roger L.
Published: August 2006

The role of on‐the‐job experience in fostering skill at detecting deception was examined. A deception‐detection test was administered to three samples of more than 100 subjects each: a group of undergraduates with no special experiences at detecting deceit; a group of new recruits to a federal law enforcement training program, who had some limited on‐the‐job experience at detecting deceit; and a group of advanced federal law enforcement officers, with years of experience working at jobs in which the detection of deception is very important. Although the officer samples were more confident about their judgments of deceptiveness than were the students, they were no more accurate than the students. None of the three groups showed a significant improvement in deception‐detection success from the first half to the second half of the test; however, the advanced officers felt increasingly confident about their performance as they progressed through the test. Correlational analyses of the relationship between accuracy and confidence provided further evidence that experience does not improve people's awareness oi the accuracy or inaccuracy of their judgments. The findings from this research are compared to the results of research on other kinds of professional decision‐makers (e.g., clinical psychologists), and several theoretical perspectives on the role of experience in decision making are discussed.
The Misdirected Letter and the Quasi‐Questionnaire: Unobtrusive Measures of Prejudice in Northern Ireland
Authors: Kremer John , Barry Robert , McNally Andrew
Published: August 2006

This paper reports on the use of devices derived from the Lost Letter Technique as measures of religious prejudice in sensitive areas within Northern Ireland. Studies were carried out in six urban areas using the Misdirected Letter Technique (Howitt, Craven, Iveson, Kremer, McCabe, & Rolph, 1977), and a further development dubbed the Quasi‐Questionnaire Technique. It was found that return rates of letters/questionnaires from traditionally violent Catholic areas were influenced by the assumed religion of the intended recipient/sender, but return rates from other areas were unaffected by these religious considerations. The work is taken as adding further support to the contention that the incidence of forms of religious prejudice in Northern Ireland is highly variable and dependent on the interplay of a range of factors. Further, it is argued that only by using unobtrusive measures such as employed here can these complexities be understood more completely.
Autism and Accuracy in Adolescent Perceptions of Friends' Sexual Attitudes and Behavior
Authors: Wilcox Steven , Udry J. Richard
Published: August 2006

This study uses data from adolescents matched with data from their friends to examine whether reference group effects on adolescent sexuality should be thought of as operating through the sharing of norms or the modeling of behavior. We observe that perception of attitudes has such a trivial reality component and such a strong autistic component that it cannot serve as a mechanism of peer influence. Perception of sexual behavior has a reality component which is as large as its autistic component, and large enough to serve as a route of influence. We reach two conclusions: (1) Reference group effects on adolescent sexual behavior probably work through behavior modeling rather than through normative influence. (2) Studies which infer peer influence on sexual behavior using only perception of peers will arrive at erroneous conclusions.
Perceived Control in Prison: Its Relation to Reported Crowding, Stress, and Symptoms1
Authors: Ruback R. Barry , Carr Timothy S. , Hopper Charles H.
Published: August 2006

Two studies were conducted to investigate the effects of perceived control in two men's prisons, one housing 181 inmates and the other housing 623 inmates. In both prisons, inmates' perceived control over the environment was found to be significantly related to their ratings of their living accommodations, experienced stress, and physical symptoms, even when type of cell was held constant.
Trait Attributions About College Students With a Physical Disability: Circumplex Analyses and Methodological Issues1
Authors: Fichten Catherine S. , Amsel Rhonda
Published: August 2006

Trait attributions concerning able‐bodied college students and those with a physical disability were investigated in two studies. In Study 1, 194 able‐bodied students completed extensive adjective checklists in one of four experimental conditions: stimulus person physically disabled (wheelchair user) male, disabled female, able‐bodied male, or able‐bodied female college student. To avoid self‐presentation biases, subjects completed checklists not in terms of their own views but in terms of commonly held stereotypes. Results showed that not only were fewer socially desirable and more undesirable traits attributed to students with a disability than to able‐bodied students, but when tested for “sameness” vs. “oppositeness” using two circumplex models, traits attributed to students who have a disability were clearly the “opposite” of those attributed to able‐bodied students. In Study 2, 115 students completed a trait checklist based on the findings of Study 1 with reference to one of the four stimulus persons. Although subjects reported their own views, the results were consistent with those of Study 1. It was also found that stereotyping in the socially desirable direction was related to stereotyping in the undesirable direction; both were related to lack of ease with students with a disability. Common stereotypes of wheelchair user students are listed and the implications of the findings for the design of programs to reduce prejudice and integrate students with a disability into academic life are discussed.
Reactions to Patients' Self‐or Chance‐Blaming Attributions for Illnesses Having Varying Life‐style Involvement
Authors: Westbrook Mary T. , Nordholm Lena A.
Published: August 2006

The effects of the perceived accuracy of attributions of self blame and chance blame were examined in the context of health care. Health practitioners (N= 147) rated interviews in which patients made self‐or chance‐blaming attributions for diseases with high (heart attack, stroke), or low (cancer, arthritis) life‐style involvement, or acidental injuries. Three discriminant analyses yielded p < .001. Self‐blaming heart and stroke patients were rated as coping better and acting more appropriately and typically than chance blamers. Other self blamers were rated as more depressed, poorly adjusted, coping poorly, not accepting disability, needing counselling and information. Additionally, self‐blaming accident victims were judged as more dependent, less likeable, and having poorer prognoses than chance blamers. Realistic self blame for life‐style diseases did not lead to victimization, but other self‐blaming patients were stigmatized and the adaptiveness of self blame as a coping strategy was unrecognized.
Military Psychology: Applicable Research1
Authors: Nogami Glenda Y.
Published: August 2006

Many psychologists and social scientists are unaware of the field of military psychology. Although marginally aware of Division 19: Military Psychology of the American Psychological Association (APA), a number of psychologists have very mistaken ideas about what military psychology includes and the uses thereof (APA Monitor, 1984). The purpose of this special issue is to present some research conducted under the rubric of military psychology. This issue of the Journal of Applied Social Psychology (JASP) may provide some preliminary answers to the frequently asked questions: What is this creature called military psychology? Who does it? What kinds of research are classified as military psychology?What Is Military Psychology?
Pretrial Publicity, the Timing of the Trial, and Mock Jurors' Decision Processes
Authors: Davis Roger W.
Published: August 2006

Pretrial publicity and a temporal interval between the news and trial were explored for their effects upon the jury's deliberation process and verdict. Publicity (neutral, negative) and trial timing (immediate, delayed) were manipulated in a 2 × 2 design. Twenty 12‐person simulated juries were exposed either to neutral or negative publicity and viewed a videotaped criminal trial immediately following news exposure or after a one‐week delay between news and trial. Dichotomous pre‐and postdeliberation verdicts, probability of guilt scales, trial recall, ratings of companion jurors, perceptions of attorneys, assessments of the news article, and recall of news facts were measured. Deliberations were tape recorded and content analyzed. Juries exposed to neutral and negative publicity did not significantly differ on conviction rate, deliberation length, or on quality of deliberations. Prejudicial news elicited counter remarks about the threatening nature of the publicity to the defendant's right to a fair trial. Individual juror data revealed that while the news manipulation did not significantly affect predeliberation verdicts or attention to trial events, negative news lowered jurors' probability estimates of guilt and facilitated their recall of news facts. A discriminant analysis predicting jury verdict indicated a lack of support for prior research showing damaging effects from prejudicial pretrial publicity. Findings are explored for methodological implications and for usefulness of theoretical notions of reactance, and “sleeper effects”.
Commitment to Particiation in Musical Activities: An Extension and Application of the Investment Model1
Authors: Koslowsky Meni , Kluger Avraham
Published: August 2006

Recently, an investment model integrating several interdependence‐type variables has been proposed to explain commitment in social and organizational settings. The model includes the components of costs, rewards, investments, and alternatives, and has served well in predicting specific outcomes such as job turnover and romantic commitment. The purpose of the present study was to determine the degree to which the investment model can be extended to a new area—commitment to musical activities—and to assess the extent to which commitment profiles generated by the model vary across musical preference groups. Results from a sample of 87 musical devotees demonstrated that the investment model is a valid means of accounting for commitment to participation in musical activities. In addition, distinctive profiles for each group—classical and nonclassical—were identified.
Video Games and Aggression in Children1
Authors: Cooper Joel , Mackie Diane
Published: August 2006

This study examined the effect of playing an aggressive or nonaggressive video game on fifth‐graders' free play. Twenty‐two pairs of boys and 20 pairs of girls were randomly assigned to one of three conditions. One of the children in each pair played a video game rated by peers as aggressive, a video game with little aggression, or a non‐video maze‐solving game for 8 minutes. The other child watched. Each child was then left individually to engage in free play in a separate room for 8 minutes, and also given the opportunity to deliver rewards and punishments to another child. The results were similar for both players and observers. Girls evidenced significantly more general activity and aggressive free play after playing the aggressive video game. Girls' activity decreased and their quiet play slightly increased after playing the low aggressive game compared to the control group. Neither video game had any significant effect on boys' free play. Neither girls nor boys gave significantly more punishments or rewards after playing any of the games.
A Panel Study of Subjective Expected Utility for Adolescent Sexual Behavior1
Authors: Gilbert Marcia A. , Bauman Karl E. , Udry J. Richard
Published: August 2006

The relationship between subjective expected utility (SEU) for intercourse and sexual behavior was examined in a 3‐year panel study of adolescents. Linear structural equation models were used to evaluate the causal priority of these variables for 225 junior high school students. Panel data allowed this examination, which is not possible in more common cross‐sectional studies. It was found that SEU had a significant relationship to subsequent sexual behavior in each of the 1‐year intervals, but intercourse was significantly related to subsequent SEU in only the first interval. This pattern was explained as a result of the process of development of utility during adolescent initial experience with sexual behaviors.
Preferences for Individual Video Games as a Function of Their Emotional Effects on Players
Authors: Mehrabian Albert , Wixen Warren J.
Published: August 2006

Video games vary in terms of the emotional states they elicit from players. These differences in emotional reactions, in turn, help account for differential preferences of individual games. The three independent dimensions of pleasure‐displeasure, arousal‐nonarousal, and dominance‐submissiveness were used to assess emotional impacts of individual games. In addition, a preference measure was constructed to evaluate attraction toward, versus avoidance of, specific games. In Study One, a group of subjects provided data on emotional responses to 22 common arcade video games and a different group rated their preferences for the same games. The emotional impact of video games was highly unpleasant, moderately arousing, and moderately dominance‐inducing; thus, the predominant emotional response to these games was aggression, anger, or hostility. I n Study Two, subjects visiting a video game arcade were recruited and assigned to play two games each and to report their reactions to each game immediately after playing the game. Results showed that greater feelings of pleasure, and separately of arousal, while playing video games resulted in higher preferences for the games and that greater dominance (significant only for males) also led to higher preferences. It may be beneficial, therefore, to experiment with more arousing and more dominance‐inducing game designs which are not necessarily unpleasant or which definitely yield high pleasure.
Self‐Presentation in Job Interviews: When There Can Be “Too Much of a Good Thing”1
Authors: Baron Robert A.
Published: August 2006

Male and female subjects interviewed female applicants for an entry‐level management position. The applicants were actually confederates of the researcher who engaged or did not engage in two different tactics of self‐presentation: the emission of many positive nonverbal cues and the use of one popular grooming aid (perfume). It was predicted that alone, each of these tactics would enhance ratings assigned to the applicants. However, together, they would induce negative reactions among interviewers (e.g., attributions of manipulativeness to the applicant). It was further hypothesized that such reactions would be stronger among male than among female interviewers. Finally, it was predicted that the two self‐presentational tactics investigated would affect interviewers' memory for information presented by the applicants. Results offered support for all of these hypotheses.
Increasing Community Recycling with Persuasive Communication and Public Commitment
Authors: Burn Shawn M. , Oskamp Stuart
Published: August 2006

Persuasive communication and public commitment were used to encourage recycling in a citywide program. The persuasive communication was a combination of factors which have been found by laboratory researchers to produce attitude and/or behavior change. The public commitment manipulation involved signing a statement supportive of recycling. Households which did not recycle during a 6‐week baseline period were selected for experimental study. Trained Boy Scouts made an oral informational statement and then gave each of 201 experimental households one of three treatments (a written persuasive communication, public commitment, or both). A control group of 132 homes received no treatment. Recycling was observed for 6 weeks following delivery of all treatments. Results indicated that the three treatment groups recycled significantly more than the control group but did not differ significantly from each other. Future directions for applied work in this domain are discussed.
Active Versus Passive Euthanasia: An Attributional Analysis1
Authors: Sugarman David B.
Published: August 2006

The present study investigates the way in which observers judged physicians who engaged in various acts of euthanasia. These acts varied over two dimensions: voluntary versus nonvoluntary (on the patient's part) and active versus passive (on the physician's part). Vignettes about a patient who was severely burned in an apartment fire were read by 632 subjects (199 men and 433 women). The vignettes varied the physician's actions and whether the patient requested to die or not. After reading one vignette, participants responded to a 19‐item questionnaire to assess the moral evaluation, responsibility, and professional conduct of the physician. The results indicated no significant differences in the perception of the physician involved in voluntary or nonvoluntary euthanasia. The physician was perceived more negatively, held more responsible, and perceived as acting outside the standards of the medical profession in situations of active euthanasia in contrast to passive euthanasia. The data also suggested that the temporal relationship of the physician's behavior to the patient's death affected the perception of the physician's responsibility and professional conduct.
Public Policy and Public Opinion Toward Sex Education and Birth Control for Teenagers
Authors: Reichelt Paul A.
Published: August 2006

That government policy toward provision of sex education and contraception for adolescents may be influenced by public opinion is reflected in the fact that recent program formulation appears to follow the conventional wisdom of a general conservative shift among the American public, i.e., recent policy toward adolescent pregnancy is conservative in the sense of being reactive rather than preventive. A cheek on the validity of this conventional wisdom was accomplished by integrating available data on public opinion toward sex education and brth control services for teenagers. These data reveal an upward trend in public approval of such services for adolescents that runs counter to the conventional wisdom. This is because the conventional wisdom is not firmly supported by the available data on American opinions and values which demonstrate that the overall movement in attitudes decisively contradicts the idea of a simple conservative swing. Provision of more and better contraceptive services and sex education to teenagers is an important policy goal that would lower the incidence of adolescent pregnancy and would be supported by the American people.
Hindsight Distortion: “I knew‐it‐all along and I was sure about it”1
Authors: Synodinos Nicolaos E.
Published: August 2006

Hindsight distortion was examined in the context of the 1982 Hawaiian gubernatorial election by obtaining estimates from 474 persons either prior or after the election. Two motivational factors (global self‐esteem and political involvement) were also measured. Despite the accuracy of subjects in foresight, hindsight distortion was demonstrated. The most pronounced effect was exhibited in the subjects' degree of confidence which was significantly (p < .0001) higher in hindsight than in foresight. There was no mediation by global self‐esteem or by political involvement. The findings support that hindsight distortion occurs because of biases in information processing, rather than through mediation by motivational factors.
Thinking Fat: Self‐Schemas for Body Weight and the Processing of Weight Relevant Information1
Authors: Markus Hazel , Hamill Ruth , Sentis Keith P.
Published: August 2006

Self‐schemas pertaining to body weight were investigated for their effects on processing weight‐relevant information. Females who had body weight schemas (Schematics) were compared for their cognitive performance on a variety of tasks with females who did not have such schemas (Aschematics). The function and content of the body weight schema was explored by using stimuli that varied in their conceptual relevance to the schema, including verbal descriptors, body silhouettes, and pictures of food. Both Schematics and Aschematics exhibited a sharp differentiation in their processing of “fat” and “thin” trait adjectives, confirming the hypothesis that all individuals will generate at least a simple structure of thoughts and feelings about their bodies. However, only those individuals with highly developed body weight self‐schemas (Schematics) showed a clear and consistent discrimination in their responses across stimulus domains. It is hypothesized that a body weight self‐schema has both universalistic and particularistic aspects. All individuals have some conception of their body image (universalistic aspect), but there is considerable variation in the way they will process stimuli with reference to body weight. Only those with a particularistic schema will show consistent discriminations in their responses in the body weight domain and will use relevance to one's body weight as a selective mechanism in processing a variety of stimuli.
Lay Conceptions of Physical Symptoms1
Authors: Bishop George D.
Published: August 2006

This research uses multidimensional scaling (MDS) and cluster analysis to investigate the cognitive dimensions used by lay people in responding to physical symptoms. Fifty‐eight adult subjects sorted 60 physical symptoms according to perceived co‐occurrence. MDS analysis of these sortings revealed four dimensions: caused by a virus, upper vs. lower in the body, physical vs. psychological causation, and disruptive to activities. These dimensions were in turn significantly related to predicted behavioral responses to symptoms. Disruptiveness of the symptom was closely related to reduction in activities while both viral causation and disruptiveness were related to self‐care (use of nonprescription medicines or home remedies). Physical vs. psychological causation and location in the lower part of the body were related to the use of professional care (visiting a doctor, using a prescription medicine). Results from cluster analyses supported and extended these findings.
The Association of Gender, Ethnicity, and Length of Residence in the Bay Area to Adolescents' Knowledge and Attitudes about Acquired immune Deficiency Syndrome1
Authors: DiClement Ralph J. , Zorn Jim , Temoshok Lydia
Published: August 2006

A large‐scale survey was conducted in San Francisco to assess adolescents' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about AIDS. Data obtained from 1,326 adolescents demonstrate marked variability in knowledge across informational items, particularly about the precautionary measures to be taken during sexual intercourse which may reduce the risk of infection. The findings identified ethnic differences in knowledge about AIDS, with Asians having a lower overall knowledge score than Hispanics, Blacks, and Caucasians. Adolescents who score below the median for total number of correct responses were more than twice as likely to perceive themselves as very susceptible to AIDS. A comparison of surveys from other parts of the country suggests that proximity to an AIDS epicenter has great saliency for adolescents with respect to their knowledge and attitudes about AIDS. The proportion of adolescents reporting correct responses, for questions in common, between the surveys indicates that students in San Francisco score appreciably higher. A framework is also described for providing school‐based risk‐reduction health education for adolescents.
Perceived Risk of AIDS: Assessing the Behavioral and Psychosocial Consequences in a Cohort of Gay Men1
Authors: Joseph Jill G. , Montgomery Susanne B. , Emmons Carol‐Ann , Kirscht John P. , Kessler Ronald C. , Ostrow David G. , Wortman Camille B. , O'Brien Kerth , Eller Michael , Eshleman Suzann
Published: August 2006

Longitudinal analyses reported here explored the relationship between a perceived sense of being at risk for AIDS and a variety of behavioral, social, and psychological consequences. Data were obtained from a cohort of 637 homosexual men living in Chicago, who are participating in a psychosocial study and have completed two waves of data collection. Their perceptions of risk were quantified using both an absolute and a comparative measure; these were combined into a risk index, scored from one to nine (x̄= 3.91; SD= 1.64). Univariate analyses demonstrated that level of risk was related to several measures of subsequent behavioral risk reduction. However, after adjustment for sociodemographic variables, initial behavior, and other components of a model predicting behavior change, this was no longer true. Of the 12 behavioral outcomes assessed, only one was related to risk after appropriate adjustment, and this relationship was negative. Other longitudinal analyses examined the impact of a sense of risk on measures of psychosocial functioning which have been theoretically linked to health behaviors and to measures of psychological/ social distress. These demonstrated a range of potentially adverse consequences for those who perceived themselves to be at greater risk for AIDS, including increased barriers to behavioral change, obsessive/compulsive behavior, social role impairment, and more intrusive worries and concerns about AIDS. Taken together, these results suggest that there is little or no observable benefit to an increased sense of risk, but that such a sense subsequently leads to distress and dysfunction in a variety of realms. The implications of these findings for development of policy concerning antibody testing of at‐risk populations is discussed.
A Psychoneuroimmunologic Perspective on AIDS Research: Questions, Preliminary Findings, and Suggestions1
Authors: Solomon George F. , Temoshok Lydia
Published: August 2006

Starting with the premise that research questions emanating from the fields of psychoneuroimmunology and behavioral medicine may provide critical information for understanding and treating acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), we provide brief backgrounds on psychoneuroimmunology and on AIDS. Previously, Solomon had generated 25 hypotheses based on the thesis that the immune and central nervous systems are intimately linked. Eight hypotheses from his list are presented as particularly relevant to AIDS. From these hypotheses, we derived a set of 12 new questions to be addressed in research on AIDS. Evidence and illustrations from studies in the literature, from our own research on psychoimmunologic relationships and psychosocial factors related to outcome, and from clinical examples is discussed for each question. Finally, suggestions are offered to address some of the problems in conducting psychoneurologic research.
Coping with AIDS: Psychological and Health Implications1
Authors: Namir Sheila , Wolcott Deane L. , Fawzy Fawzy I. , Alumbaugh Mary Jane
Published: August 2006

The current study explored the relationship of coping to both psychological and health parameters in 50 gay men recently (within three months) diagnosed with AIDS. Three methods of coping (active behavioral, active cognitive, and avoidance) and eight different coping strategies (positive involvement, expressive/ information seeking, reliance on others, positive understanding/create meaning, passive/ruminative, distraction, passive resignation, and solitary/passive behaviors) were assessed. Findings indicate that avoidance coping is not protecting these people from distressful feelings, mood disturbance, and concerns. The three coping methods evidenced distinctly different associations with measures of psychological and health variables. Active‐behavioral coping was related to lower total mood disturbance and higher self‐esteem, while avoidance coping was inversely related to self‐esteem and positively correlated with depression. The frequencies of specific coping strategies indicate men in this study were using cognitive strategies most frequently. Suggestions for interventions to help people cope with AIDS are given.
Misperception Among Gay Men of the Risk for AIDS Associated with Their Sexual Behavior1
Authors: Bauman Laurie J. , Siegel Karolynn
Published: August 2006

Until a vaccine against AIDS is developed, the most effective strategy for preventing the spread of the disease among gay men, the largest risk group, is to persuade them to abstain from particular kinds of sexual practices implicated in the transmission of the AIDS virus. Motivation to comply with risk‐reduction guidelines, however, is dependent in part on a realistic appraisal of the degree of risk associated with one's sexual practices.

Data are presented from 160 asymptomatic gay men. Their subjective assessment of the riskiness of their sexual behavior is compared to an objective assessment of the riskiness of their sexual practices. Factors associated with a tendency to underestimate the riskiness of one's practices are examined. Finally, the implications of the findings for public health education efforts among gay men are discussed.
The Effects of Commitment to Performance Goals on Effort1
Authors: McCaul Kevin D. , Hinsz Verlin B. , McCaul Harriette S.
Published: August 2006

The laboratory experiments were designed to examine the effects of commitment to a performance goal on the level of effort exerted to achieve the goal. In both experiments, college students worked on two memorization tasks and, after receiving performance feedback on the first task, commitment to either an easy or a more difficult goal for the second task was varied. In the first experiment, goal commitment was manipulated either by giving the students perceived choice over setting their goal or by assigning them to one of the two goal levels. In the second experiment, goal commitment was manipulated by publicly identifying students' goals or by keeping the goals private. To assess effort, participants were allowed to spend as little or as much time as they desired studying for the second task. In both experiments, the commitment manipulations (high choice or public identification) led to significantly greater persistence in studying, regardless of the goal level. In addition, high‐commitment subjects tended to be more successful in reaching their goals than low‐commitment subjects. These experiments suggest that commitment to a goal has motivational properties that prompt an increase in effort.
Effects of Case History versus Abstract Information on Health Attitudes and Behaviors1
Authors: Rook Karen S.
Published: August 2006

Social psychological theory suggests that information presented in the form of a vivid case history is often more persuasive than information presented in abstract form, yet this idea has rarely been tested in the health promotion area. Three studies compared the effectiveness of health information presented in case history form with equivalent information presented in abstract form. The case history version had a greater impact on subjects' health attitudes and behavioral intentions in Studies 1 and 2. Study 3 investigated subjects at high risk for a serious health threat and found that the case history version was more persuasive than the abstract version among those who minimized the health threat. A six‐weeks follow‐up in Study 3 indicated that the case history version modestly enhanced long‐term recall of the information but did not differentially affect subjects' actual health behaviors. The three studies provided partial support for the prediction that the case history version would arouse greater affect than the abstract version. Implications for health promotion programs are discussed.
Environmental Evaluations and Participation Activities: A Social Psychological Field Study1
Authors: Prester Georg , Rohrmann Bernd , Schellhammer Edith
Published: August 2006

A social‐psychological field study analyzed how residents respond to environmental problems. The presupposed theoretical framework combines perspectives of environmental research and of political science, and attempts to explain the process intermediate to the presence of environmental stressors and participatory or protest activities. Empirical data were collected in an urban area where plans for a railway had led to some involvement by the citizens. In Phase I of a quasi‐experimental longitudinal approach, 229 personal interviews were conducted based on a standardized questionnaire. The data analyses are oriented toward a description and prediction of environmental evaluations and participatory behavior. The results demonstrate that participation is mainly influenced by evaluations of present environmental quality, the expected state of the environment in the future, the knowledge and assessment of participation, and general interest in politics. The exposure level, environment‐related attitudes (e.g., environmental awareness or desired environmental quality), and personal characteristics (e.g., education), operate as initial determinants in the causal structure of participation. The evidence obtained supports the main claims of the proposed causal model, but also indicates necessary revisions.
Touching as Teaching: The Effect of Touch on Students' Perceptions and Performance
Authors: Steward A. Lee , Lupfer Michael
Published: August 2006

The effect of instructor touch on students' ratings of the instructor and students' performance in the classroom was investigated. A total of 171 male and female college students participated in individual conferences with their instructors following the first examination in the course. Half were touched by their instructors during the conference; the other half were not. Students then evaluated the instructor, the instructor's teaching effectiveness, and the utility of the conference. Analysis of results revealed that students who were touched during the conference gave their instructors significantly higher ratings than those who were not touched. In addition, students in the touched condition showed superior performance on the next course examination, scoring .58 standard deviations higher on the examination compared to the untouched students. The authors conclude that touching, when conducted in a conference situation to help students improve class performance, can be a highly effective teaching tool.
Students' R]eactions to Teachers' E]valuations: The Unique Impact of Negative Feedback1
Authors: Coleman Lerita M. , Jussim Lee , Abraham Jack
Published: August 2006

This study attempts to identify some of the processes mediating self‐fulfilling prophecies in the classroom. Specifically, we hypothesized that negative feedback conveyed by teachers would influence students' p]erceptions of how the teacher viewed their success/failure, effort, ability and task difficulty more than positive feedback. In response to college students' s]core on an anagrams test, a (confederate) teacher expressed either positive, negative or no evaluative feedback. Questionnaires assessed students' s]elf‐perceptions and perceptions of the teacher's evaluations of them. Consistent with our hypotheses, negative feedback was seen as a more credible indicator of the teacher's evaluation than positive feedback. Furthermore, negative feedback led students to believe that the teacher held an extremely unfavorable but inaccurate impression of their effort and ability and that the teacher underestimated the difficulty of the task. There were few differences between the effects of positive feedback and no feedback, and there were no significant effects on self‐perceptions. These findings suggest new insights into negativity effects in evaluations and into the mechanisms underlying self‐fulfilling prophecies.
Social Involvement as a Mediator of Disaster‐Induced Stress1
Authors: Solomon Susan D. , Smith Elizabeth M. , Lee Robins N. , Fischbach Ruth L.
Published: August 2006

This study examined individuals either personally or indirectly exposed to disaster and hypothesized that social involvement would differentially mediate the effect of exposure on the mental health of male and female victims. The study reinterviewed individuals previously interviewed just prior to disastrous floods and the discovery of unsafe levels of dioxin. Results indicated that males and females differ in their response to disaster exposure. Males showed increased symptoms of alcohol abuse and depression as a result of either personal, or both personal and indirect, exposure to disaster. In contrast, females' s]ymptomatology was not directly elevated by personal disaster exposure. Both sexes were sensitive to demands for support as a mediator of disaster effects. That is, victims both personally exposed to disaster and heavily relied upon by network members were far more likely to somatize (females) or abuse alcohol (males) than personally exposed individuals subject to more moderate network demands. Although excellent spouse support attenuated male symptomatology, its presence was associated with an exacerbation of symptoms in personally exposed females. Results suggest the importance of considering both the positive and negative consequences of social involvement because, for women in particular, very strong social ties may be more burdensome than supportive in times of extreme stress.
Self‐Serving Attributions for Performance in Naturalistic Settings: A Meta‐Analytic Review1
Authors: Mullen Brian , Riordan Catherine A.
Published: August 2006

The study of self‐serving attributions in sports settings is fertile ground for testing the validity of self‐serving attributional phenomena. This paper reports the results of a meta‐analytic review of research examining self‐serving attributions in the context of sports events. A total of 91 distinct hypothesis tests were located, comprising five dimensions of attribution: ability (N= 21), effort (N= 21), task difficulty (N= 21), luck (N= 21), and a general internal‐external dimension (N= 7). The meta‐analytic combination of significance levels indicated that the combined results were unlikely to occur if the null hypothesis of no effect were true (for each of the five dimensions of attribution). The internal‐external dimension and the ability dimension produced effects of moderate magnitude, whereas effort, difficulty and luck produced effects of small magnitude. Meta‐anaiytic focused comparisons revealed that self‐serving attributions (ended to be more extreme in the context of larger team sizes, and for attribution measures focused upon the team rather than the individual. Discussion considers the implications of these findings and develops and explanation for the finding that ability is the specific attribution dimension exhibiting the greatest self‐serving attribution effects.