bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The red wolf as a model for carnivore re-introductions
Authors: Moore Donald E , Smith Roland
Published: November 2023

The unique red wolf became extinct in the wild in the 1970s because of 100 years of human encroachment, destruction of bottomland forest and coastal marsh habitat, persecution and predator control activities. In 1973, a Red Wolf Captive Breeding Program was established by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and Point Defiance Zoo in Tacoma, Washington. Today there are about 125 red wolves in captivity in zoological parks and national wildlife refuges. The US Fish and Wildlife Service, in co-operation with the AAZPA SSP Propagation Group, released captive-born red wolves into National Wildlife Refuges in the south-eastern United States, beginning in September 1987.
Species and genetic effects on the utility of biotechnology for conservation
Authors: Donoghue Ann M , Schmidt Leslie A Johnston Patricia M , Howard Jogayle
Published: November 2023

In determining the ultimate utility of reproductive biotechnology for conserving genetic diversity, one of two strategies can be chosen: (1) using existing knowledge from a related species, a given technique can be directly applied across a range of related taxa; or (2) a methodical, detailed approach can be used which emphasizes the study of fundamental reproductive processes in individual species followed by artificial breeding. A growing database suggests that even closely-related species demonstrate marked physiological differences in reproductive mechanisms. More significant are the oft-observed biological variations within species or among populations. These differences may profoundly affect the efficiency of using biotechniques for preserving endangered species.
Captive breeding: can genetic fingerprinting help?
Authors: Ashworth D , Parkin D T
Published: November 2023

Captive breeding is likely to become increasingly important for the conservation of endangered species. Management of captive stocks should be geared towards maintaining genetic variability and minimizing inbreeding depression, so as to increase the success of any re-introduction programme attempted. The monitoring of genetic variation is essential for such management, and, owing to the high levels of homozygosity commonly found in captive stocks, a sensitive technique is required. ‘DNA fingerprinting’ allows individuals to be easily distinguished even in highly inbred stocks. The success of ‘fingerprinting’ in elucidating the demography of natural populations has led to its use in the management of captive species. We show how the technique has been used to investigate the relationships in the British Isles captive stock of Rothschild’s mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi), and point out some of the problems encountered in analysing this kind of data.
Integrating technologies into animal breeding programmes
Authors: Frankham R
Published: November 2023

Significant advances in animal breeding have come about as a consequence of the development and application of new theories, the use of the computer and the use of semen freezing and artificial insemination in dairy cattle. Programmes involving multiple ovulation and embryo transfer have recently begun. The integration of these technologies into breeding programmes for dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, swine and poultry is described. Laboratory animals have played an extremely important role in the development and evaluation of new technologies and theories in animal breeding. By contrast, little laboratory animal work is currently being carried out in conservation genetics.
Neo-Darwinian explanations of the inheritance of acquired characters
Authors: Jablonka Eva , Lamb Marion J
Published: November 2023

By the end of the 1940s, neo-Darwinian ideas were almost universally accepted. The Mendelian basis of continuous variation was recognized, the mathematical treatment of natural selection had begun, and there was an increasing awareness of the wealth of genetic variation present in natural populations. The ‘Modern Synthesis’ of evolution had arrived: Darwin’s theory had been reconciled with Mendelian genetics. Lamarckism, which had become almost synonymous with the inheritance of acquired characters, was generally rejected. In the first edition of his book Evolution: the modem synthesis, published in 1942, Julian Huxley was scathingly dismissive of Lamarckists, Lamarckian reasoning, and most experiments claiming to show the inheritance of acquired characters.
Review of the literature on springtails
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p.
Published: November 2023

The earliest humans must have been aware of springtails. The ‘Ice Man’, whose well-preserved body was uncovered recently near the border between Austria and Italy, would have come across swarms of Collembola on alpine glaciers over which he roamed about 5000 years ago. However, rather like early stages in evolution which are lost forever if they leave no fossils, we will never know what early humans thought of these strange ‘living carpets’ of tiny animals since no written or artistic record survives.
Interactions between Collembola and the biotic environment
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p.
Published: November 2023

Collembola consume a wide variety of food materials, especially fungal hyphae (Section 7.2). Recent experiments on euedaphic species suggest that soil springtails are very important in either stimulating or suppressing microbial symbionts around plant roots (Klironomos and Kendrick 1995b; Lussenhop 1993, 1996). Collembola have numerous predators and parasites, they interact among themselves, and occur as ‘guests’ in the nests of eusocial insects such as ants and termites (Section 7.3). A major beneficial effect of collembolan feeding activity is the promotion of decomposition processes in soils (Rusek 1975a). This occurs through direct feeding on dead vegetation and fungal hyphae, and indirect stimulation of microbes involved in decomposition (Section 7.4).
Eucalypt Domestication and Breeding
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

Fast-growing eucalypts help to meet the demand for wood throughout the warmer parts of the world. They are grown in numberous small woods and windbreaks to produce poles and firewood, and in extensive plantations mainly for the pulp and paper industries. This book shows how to breed improved eucalypts that will provide more and better wood on appropriate sites selected through sound land use planning. The emphasis is on making greater use of the immense richness of the genetic resources of the eucalypts, especially in the first generation or two of domestication `wild' eucalypts for wood production. The book covers those aspects of variation, selection, and reproduction that are unique to eucalypts. Large gains in production and quality can be obtained relatively cheaply by choosing the best geographic seed sources (provenances). Once suitable base populations have been assembled, continued long-term genetic gain can be assured through well-planned recurrent selection and mating. This book is essential reading for practising foresters managing eucalypt plantations, and will also be of great interest to planners and administrators in aid agencies.
Eucalyptus regnans
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

Eucalyptus regnans is the second tallest tree species in the world, only exceeded in height by the coast redwoods of California (Ashton 1975b). The natural forests are in Victoria and Tasmania in discontinuous areas between latitudes 37° and 43°S (Fig. 14.1). In Victoria it occurs at altitudes between 200 and 1100 m and is restricted to mountainous areas south of the Great Dividing Range in the eastern part of the state, but there is also an occurrence in the Otway Ranges south-west of Melbourne. In Tasmania it occurs between sea level and 700 m principally in the north-east, and in the south-east in the valleys of the Huon and Derwent Rivers (Griffin et al. 1982; Boland et al. 1984).
Eucalyptus tereticornis
Authors: Eldridge Ken , Davidson John , Harwood Chris , Wyk Gerrit Van
Published: November 2023

This eucalypt has a very extensive natural distribution in a long narrow strip from southern Papua New Guinea to Victoria, Australia, a range of more than 30° of latitude (Fig. 15.2, Table 15.1). Climates vary from monsoonal with markedly wet and dry seasons at 9°S in Papua New Guinea, to a predominantly summer rainfall with a very dry winter in Queensland, an equal distribution of rainfall between winter and summer in southern New South Wales, and a dry summer and cold, wet winter at 38°S in eastern Victoria. Altitudinal range is from sea level to about 1000 m with a wide variation in annual rainfall from 500-1500 mm.
Biological control of aquatic weeds
Authors: Pieterse A H
Published: November 2023

According to the report on terminology in weed science (Coördinatiecommissie Onkruidonderzoek 1984) a biological control agent is ‘a control agent based upon a living organism or virus’. As a consequence biological control of aquatic weeds could be defined as ‘activities aimed at decreasing the population of an aquatic weed to acceptable levels by means of a living organism or virus’
Aquatic weed problems and management in South and Central America
Authors: FernÁNdez O A , Sutton D L , Lallana V H , Sabbatini M R , Irigoyen J H
Published: November 2023

South and Central America, with a rapidly growing human population currently around 400 million, extends from latitude 20°N to 56°S and is 8 000 km in length and 5 000 km at its widest point. The altitude ranges from sea level to 7 000 m in the highest mountains. Over such a vast expanse of territory the variation in vertical and horizontal bio-geographical zones is, therefore, of extraordinary magnitude, ranging from tropical rain forests to deserts such as that of Puna de Atacama, temperate zones like the Pampas, and the cold sub-antarctic regions. An enormous number of aquatic plant species occurs in natural bodies of water with the majority of these being native and generally not regarded as troublesome. However, when they start to invade bodies of water constructed, or used, by man, they become not only troublesome but also at times harmful.
Australian Rainforests
Authors: Adam Paul
Published: November 2023

Until recently, few people would have associated rainforest with Australia. The present-day distribution of Australian rainforest is limited but it was formerly more widespread and was the dominant vegetation type of the entire continent. The contraction to its present limits reflects environmental changes that have taken place over many millions of years. In this book Dr Adam gives a general account of the Australian rainforests: what they are, where they are, and how their present distribution has evolved. His aim is to provide a broad framework that will enable new results to be placed in context. The book concludes with a historical account of human interaction with the rainforest from late Pleistocene times to the 1980s. The history of the exploitation of the Australian rainforests and the development of a conservation ethic have important lessons for the conservation of rainforests world-wide.
Rainforest-Definition and Classification
Authors: Adam Paul
Published: November 2023

in the coastal belt of Queensland, two contrasting types of vegetation are found side by side: the indigenous Australian ‘open’ forest and the rain-forest or ‘jungle’. The distinction between them is sharp and definite, for they rarely intergrade.
Invasion and metastasis
Authors: Woodruff Michael
Published: November 2023

Many cells exhibit migratory activity, i.e. can crawl in vitro and in vivo, because they possess contractile fibrils and have the capacity to form surface adhesions of various kinds. This phenomenon has been studied in depth by Abercrombie and his colleagues (rev. Abercrombie 1980). Crawling, according to Abercrombie, subserves three functions: (1) in the case of wandering cells (leucocytes and macrophages), defence against micro-organisms; (2) maintenance of organization during growth, and restoration of organization after tissue damage; and (3) translation of embryonic determination during development into the definitive arrangement of cells characteristic of the mature organism. Crawling activity is stimulated when there is rapid cell division, and is influenced also by the cell’s environment. In the case of normal cells, crawling is arrested when the leading edge of one cell comes in contact with some part of another cell–a phenomenon termed contact inhibition (Abercrombie and Heaysman 1954)–but may be resumed later in a different direction. It is also arrested by epithelial basement membrane, and directed by extracellular connective tissue matrix.
The role of bryophytes and lichens in terrestrial ecosystems
Authors: Longton Royce e.
Published: November 2023

The importance of bryophytes and lichens in primary succession has long been recognized. Otherwise these plants have generally been regarded as troublesome to identify when compiling releves but of little significance in the functioning of mature communities. This attitude has recently changed with the use of mosses and lichens as pollution monitors, and it has also been realized that they play a significant role in the functioning of undisturbed communities (Longton 1984; Seaward 1988; Slack 1988). Nowhere is the importance of mosses and lichens greater than in polar tundra and in northern forests and mires, which have so far been less modified by human activity than other, more complex ecosystems. Such communities are ideally suited to the study of fundamental ecosystem processes, and their cryptogamic component was intensively investigated during the International Biological Programme (Longton 1988a). Global warming is likely to be most intense at high latitudes, and the role of bryophytes and lichens in boreal and polar communities is therefore emphasized in this account.
Bryophyte distribution patterns
Authors: Schofield Wilfred b.
Published: November 2023

The floristic regions of the world have been assessed recently by Takhtajan (1986). This assessment is based entirely on vascular plants, and essentially on flowering plant distributions, but is comprehensive and encyclopaedic in its treatment. Schuster (1983a, b) presents recent expositions for the bryophytes and, although he provides examples of general distribution patterns, he makes no attempt at a detailed mapping of floristic kingdoms, subkingdoms, regions, and their subdivisions. It is apparent, however, from comparison of the two analyses, that a considerable parallel of patterns exists, strongly suggesting that the historical and biological phenomena that determined vascular plant distribution patterns have also been a major factor in moulding bryophyte distribution patterns. An elementary summary is presented by Schofield (1985) while Zanten and P6cs (1981) concentrate on the factors that have determined distribution patterns.
Changes in moss-dominated wetland ecosystems
Authors: Vitt Dale h.
Published: November 2023

The Bryopsida, or mosses, are a diverse assemblage of species that form the second largest group of green land plants (Vitt 1982). In general, mosses are poikilohydric and drought tolerant (Proctor 1972; Levitt 1980). As a result of these two characteristics, species can maintain active photosynthesis only when water is available. The ability of this group of plants to tolerate frequent dry periods by coming to thermodynamic equilibrium with their surroundings has enabled them to occupy highly stressed habitats. The abundance and species richness of mosses in tropical montane rain forests; on montane cliff faces and canyons; in boreal forests; in subarctic, boreal, and temperate peatlands; and in arctic meadows, indicates that this group of plants can exist under water- and nutrient-stressed conditions, and also be a dominant component of the ecosystem. Recent studies of tropical montane rain forests (Coxson and Vogel 1989), boreal forests (Oechel and Lawrence 1985), peatlands (Bayley et al. 1987), and arctic meadows (Vitt and Pakarinen 1977) have all suggested that the moss component can have a great influence on the nutrient dynamics and water retention of the ecosystem. However, it is only in peatlands in which continuous records of past species occurrences are found.
Impact of agriculture on bryophytes and lichens
Authors: Brown Dennis h.
Published: November 2023

Two major agricultural chemical practices that can have an impact on bryophytes and lichens are discussed in this chapter. The use of pesticides (e.g. herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides) has been important in improving the productivity of modern farming. Sometimes such chemicals are deliberately employed to control mosses and liverworts, especially in amenity grass such as lawns and sports turf or around potted plants. On other occasions spray drift or longer distance dispersal may be an inadvertent result of otherwise acceptable application procedures. Nutrient fertilizer usage, including animal waste, is the second major influence and may also be the result of controlled or relatively accidental agricultural practices.
Histology and Character State Definitions for Vegetative Shoot and Root Anatomy of Araceae
Authors: Gregory M , Cutler D F , Keating Richard C , Keating Richard C
Published: November 2023

This survey of histology of the Araceae includes the most reliable anatomical characters that can be used for diagnostic, evolutionary, or other studies. It includes characters that can be routinely determined for most specimens but whose trends of specialization are in some cases poorly understood. Conspicuously useful characters have been reviewed in the Introduction in the sections on anatomical character state transformations and on the evolutionary position of the Araceae; they will also be discussed later in the taxonomic notes sections at the end of tribal and generic descriptions.
Acoraceae C. Agardh
Authors: Gregory M , Cutler D F , Keating Richard C , Keating Richard C
Published: November 2023

This genus of two species is very widely distributed. The species range from Siberia, across northern Europe as far north as 630 north latitude, and across northern North America. In Asia, they extend southward to subtropical India and from Japan, south to Formosa, south-west China, Thailand and Vietnam, Celebes and south of the equator in Java. Acorus calamus is found over most of the range.
The interaction between red wood ants, cinara aphids, and pines. A ghost of mutualism past?
Authors: Rosengren Rainer , Sundström Liselotte
Published: November 2023

A major conceptual problem in ant-plant protection mutualisms is the variability of costs and benefits in space and time (Beattie 1985; Janzen 1985; Addicott 1986). The classical debate about the ‘usefulness’ of red wood ants (Cotti 1963) provides an illustration of that point. A problem with this old debate, however, is that it tends to confuse benefits in terms of human forestry with benefits in terms of tree fitness.
Evolutionary And Ecological Patterns In Myrmecophilous Riodinid Butterflies
Authors: DeVries P J
Published: November 2023

The ability to form mutualisms with ants has been well documented in many groups of plants, and amongst insect herbivores in the Lepidoptera and Homoptera. In general, in both plants and insects the ability to provide secretions to ants is a fundamental part of maintaining these mutualistic associations. In these systems, insects provide ants with secretions directly, through specialized organs (Way 1963; Cottrell 1984), and plants generally provide secretions to ants directly through extrafloral nectaries or pearl bodies (Beattie 1985; Schupp and Feener Chapter 13, this volume; Koptur Chapter 15, this volume).
Some Associations Between Ants And Euphorbs In Tropical Australasia.
Authors: Mackay D A , Whalen M A
Published: November 2023

The Euphorbiaceae is a large and diverse plant family, widespread in both the Old and New World tropics (Webster 1967), many members of which have extrafloral nectaries (Elias 1983) or other adaptations that encourage ant visitation. Most studies to date on interactions between ants and Old World members of this family have been conducted on myrmecophytic species, such as Macaranga triloba, which provide specialized food bodies and hollow stem domatia for one or a few species of ants (Ridley 191 O; Tho 1978; Rickson 1980; Maschwitz et al. 1984; Fiala et al. 1989, Chapter 18, this volume) and very little experimental work has been done on nonmyrmecophytic associations in which plants provide food bodies and/or extrafloral nectar for ants, but not nest sites (Whalen and Mackay 1988; Fiala et al. 1989).
Myrmecotrophy: Origins, Operation, And Importance
Authors: Benzing David H
Published: November 2023

Tropical forests harbour a poorly understood but potentially important mutualism between arboreal ants and epiphytic vascular flora. Partners are diverse and the benefits to ant and plant vary, indicating that myrmecotrophy (the feeding of plants by ants) arose repeatedly under different conditions. Plants fed by ants belong to two groups which are distinguished by the type of organ that comes into contact with useful ant products.
Parasitism Of Ant-Plant Mutualisms And The Novel Case Of Piper
Authors: Letourneau D K
Published: November 2023

An organism can be considered a parasite of a mutualism if it exploits resources or the services of mutualists, such that they are unavailable to the organisms that are capable of providing reciprocal benefits. Diffusely associated mutualists such as plants with extrafloral nectaries and their visiting coterie of ants and other insects have a large potential for parasitism. Visitors that do not protect the plant but imbibe nectar and thereby compete for nutrients with the most effective mutualists may reduce the efficiency with which the plant is protected. Exploitation of nectar by herbivores and scavengers (e.g. Agnew et al. 1982) is clearly parasitic.
The Influence Of Mound-Building Ants On British Lowland Vegetation
Authors: Woodell Stanley R J , King Timothy J
Published: November 2023

There are forty-seven species of ant in Britain, most of which occur in the lowlands, but only nine are relatively common. The majority nest in the soil and feed mainly on honeydew and aphids. None of these ants habitually eats much vegetation or harvest many seeds. Although ants are numerous, and important consumers, obtaining over 200 KJ m-1 year-1 in British grasslands (King, 1981 a), most colonies are inconspicuous, merely having an entrance hole, perhaps with parts of flowers, seeds, or fruits scattered nearby. It may be for this reason that British research on the effects of ants on plants has concentrated upon the yellow ant, Lasius flavus F., which constructs prominent mounds in grasslands, sand dunes, and saltmarshes, and on the red wood ant, Formica rufa L., a large species which builds mounds of pine needles and other elongated vegetable matter and forages along trails across the soil surface and into trees. We shall concentrate upon Lasius flavus, which feeds on root aphid honeydew; Whittaker deals with Formica rufa in Chapter 6.
Parallels Between Ants And Plants: Implications For Community Ecology
Authors: Andersen Alan N
Published: November 2023

Botanists and zoologists often take little notice of each other. This is especially pronounced in the field (or is it fields?) of community ecology, where plant and animal ecologists traditionally tread separate paths. For example, plant ecologists talk of patterns and processes, animal ecologists of structure and dynamics. Zoologists hotly dispute the importance of competition as a factor structuring (?patterning) communities (Strong et al. 1984; den Boer 1986), whereas botanists accept it as fundamental (Harper 1977; Grime 1979; Tilman 1982).
The dynamics of cannibalistic populations: a foraging perspective
Authors: Dong Quan , Polis Gary A
Published: November 2023

For many species, cannibalism can strongly affect population dynamics and mortality rates. However, it is less clear if and how it can stablize population size. If cannibalism is density-dependent, as has been shown for over 40 studies (see Fox 1975; Polis 1981 for reviews), it can potentially regulate population size (Polis 1981; Judeet al.1987; Sailaet al.1987). However, other models (Ricker 1962; Hastings and Constantino 1987) and empirical studies (Radovich 1962; Mertz 1969; Mertz 1972; Barber 1979a; Barber 1979b; DeAngeliset al.1979; Higgins 1990; Orret al.1990) show that cannibalism may also destabilize populations, often by causing cycles.
Cannibalism in beetles
Authors: Stevens Lori
Published: November 2023

Beetles are holometabolous insects with egg, larval, pupal, and adult life stages. Cannibalism often involves mobile stages (adults and larvae) eating quiescent stages (eggs and pupae). Adult beetles are sclerotized and invulnerable to cannibalism, with the consequence that cannibalism among mobile stages usually involves larvae eating larvae (Tables 8.1 and 8.2); however, adults occasionally eat larvae and there are two reported cases of adults eating callow adults. Cannibalism in beetles can be classified into two categories (Hamilton 1964a,b; Fox 1975; Polis 1981, 1984): (1) cannibalism of kin, including sibling cannibalism where early hatching larvae cannibalize eggs or later hatching larvae from the same clutch and filial cannibalism where adults eat larval offspring, and (2) non-kin cannibalism in which cannibalism is not specifically directed toward or away from closely related individuals. Non-kin cannibalism in beetles apparently does not involve individuals specifically seeking out and eating one’s own species (Tables 8.1 and 8.2), in fact, such cannibals do not necessarily discriminate between conspecifics and other prey. Indiscriminate or incidental cannibalism are terms that may be used to describe non-kin cannibalism, however, ecological factors and age specificity of cannibalism may bias indiscriminate cannibalism towards unrelated individuals (e.g. Mertz et al. 1984). I use the term non-kin cannibalism to refer to cannibalism when relatedness between victim and perpetrator is variable and/or unknown.
Relating behaviour to maternity and paternity
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David
Published: November 2023

After all the excitement of the mating period, life suddenly becomes peaceful on a dunnock territory during incubation. While the female incubates the clutch, the males feed quietly and an alpha and a beta male are sometimes seen side by side with no signs of the serious squabbles which characterised the days when the female was soliciting copulations. It is as if a whistle had been blown to signal the end of a game.
Systematics and sociality of wasps
Authors: Itö Yosiaki
Published: November 2023

The order Hymenoptera is divided into two suborders, Symphyta and Apocrita, and the latter is further divided into Terebrantia and Aculeata. Eusociality only occurs in the Aculeata and one group of the Terebrantia, the Chalcidoidea, in which one species, Capidosomopsis tanytmemus has sterile, defensive larvae, like aphid soldiers (Cruz 1981 ).The designations ‘bee’ and ‘wasp’ respectively refer to phytophagous and mainly carnivorous groups of the Aculeata. The wasps include species belonging to many different systematic groups (e.g. Bethyloidea, Sphecormis group, and Vespoidea; in addition, species of Symphyta and Terebrantia are also called wasps), but all the bee species belong to a single taxon, the Apiformes (Fig. 2.1 ).
Theories on the evolution of eusociality
Authors: Itö Yosiaki
Published: November 2023

In The origin of species, Darwin wrote of ‘one special difficulty, which at first appeared to me insuperable, and actually fatal to my whole theory.’ He was referring to the existence of sterile workers among the social insects. As the worker is ‘absolutely sterile’, ‘it could never have transmitted successively acquired modifications of structure or instinct to its progeny.’ For the evolution of a new varied trait to occur, individuals who bear this trait must leave more progeny than others; but the workers leave no offspring. To rescue his theory, Darwin introduced the idea of natural selection applied to the family, rather than to the individual. His logic seems to be correct, even to the present day: ‘breeders of cattle wish the flesh and fat to be well marbled together; the animal has been slaughtered, but the breeder goes with confidence to the same family’ (Darwin 1859; p. 258). Thus, Darwin clearly noticed the successful reproduction of kin which, by common descent, shares genes identical to those of the individual which leaves no offspring. Darwin also wrote that ‘by the long-continued selection of the fertile parents which produced most neuters with the profitable modification, all the neuters ultimately come to have the desired character’. He thus approached the idea of parental manipulation presented by Alexander (1974).
Problems with the kin-selection hypothesis
Authors: Itö Yosiaki
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I will first discuss some facts which contradict the 3/4 relatedness hypothesis, and then introduce some studies of eusocial wasps made during the 1970s, the results of which have been considered to overcome one of the difficulties with the hypothesis. Although kin-selection may function regardless of whether or not 3/4 relatedness between sisters in the Hymenoptera has favoured social evolution, the application of general kin-selection theory is restricted by the factors discussed in this chapter. The social relations of some wasp groups are introduced here only as examples. More detailed accounts of the intranidal social relations of representative groups are given in later chapters. The 3/4 relatedness hypothesis is based on the following three assumptions: (1) single insemination of a queen; (2) a mother-daughter caste system; and (3) haplometrosis (a single egg-layer (queen) per colony). Alexander’s (1974) parental manipulation hypothesis is also based on the assumption of a haplometrotic, mother-daughter caste system. Thus, the two hypotheses postulate that the evolution of hymenopteran eusociality is a consequence of social evolution along Wheeler’s (1923) subsocial route.
Social lives of the other social wasps
Authors: Itö Yosiaki
Published: November 2023

For a long time, the basic social system of the wasps and hornets of the subfamily Vespinae was thought to be exclusively haplometrotic (Jeanne 1980; Akre 1982). Although their nests all have multiple combs and envelopes similar to those of the nests of Polybia and some Ropalidia (subgenus Icarielia), no case of swarm-founding was known in this subfamily. Before 1983, besides rare, possibly exceptional, cases (see later), pleometrosis was found only in Vespula germanica, which had been accidentally introduced into Australia (Spradbery 1973 ). This case is an example of secondary pleometrosis, possibly a result of perennation of the colony cycle in Australia, where the winter climate is far milder than in Europe. Many entomologists, however, have considered this case to be an abnormal phenomenon resulting from the introduction of a small gene pool.
Origin of pleometrosis: altruism or mutualism?
Authors: Itö Yosiaki
Published: November 2023

I noted in Chapter 4 that the existence of pleometrosis (the coexistence of multiple egg-layers) raises a difficult problem for the kin-selection hypothesis for the evolution of eusociality, because pleometrosis reduces mean related¬ ness among colony members. This is also the case for Alexander’s parental manipulation hypothesis (Alexander 1974 ).As has been noted in Chapter 4, one of the means by which this difficulty could be overcome would be if high mean relatedness was maintained among most progeny females through functional (secondary) haplometrosis.
Biology, Rearing, and Care of Young Primates
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

The propagation of wild animals in captivity is playing an increasingly important role in the conservation of species. This is particularly true of primates, many of which are threatened or endangered in their natural habitat. Unfortunately, primate mortality during the neonatal period is often high in captivity, often because of suboptimal management. Significant improvements in infant survival can be made with a better knowledge of neonatal biology and rearing procedures. The aim of this book is to provide a reference text on the normal growth of 18 primate species commonly held in captivity for propagation or research, and on the housing, feeding, management, and preventative medicine techniques that enable this normal growth. Up-to-date information, scattered widely through the scientific literature, is here gathered together and presented in an easily accessible form for those involved in rearing primates in captivity.
Partial Reactions and Chemical Rescue of Site-Directed Mutants of Rubisco as Mechanistic Probes
Authors: Harpel Mark R , Larimer Frank W , Lee Eva H , Mural Richard J , Smith Harry B , Soper Thomas S , Hartman Fred C
Published: November 2023

Given the current state of knowledge of the reaction pathways catalysed by Rubisco* (Jaworowski and Rose 1985; Pierce et al. 1986a; Schloss 1990) and the elucidation of the three-dimensional structure of several different forms of the enzyme (Chapman et al. 1988; Andersson et al. 1989; Knight et al. 1990; Schneider et al. 1990; Lundqvist and Schneider 1991), site-directed mutagenesis offers the potential to decipher catalytic roles of active-site residues and to unravel the functional significance of various structural elements. Especially intriguing are intersubunit, electrostatic interactions at the active site between Glu48+ and Lys168 of the nonactivated (noncarbamylated) enzyme (Schneider et al. 1990) and between Glu48 and Lys329 of the activated (carbamylated) enzyme (Knight et al.1990).
Room-temperature Catalytic and Photocatalytic Fixation of Carbon Dioxide
Authors: Gratzel Michael
Published: November 2023

At the start of this chapter we recall the salient features of natural photosynthesis which serves as a model in the development of artificial systems that accomplish the fixation of carbon dioxide. Nature has built a fascinating device to make use of sunlight in order to drive a thermodynamically uphill reaction to generate carbon-containing compounds. The reaction is the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates by water.
Cyanobacterial Carbon Dioxide-Concentrating Mechanism
Authors: Badger Murray R , Price G D , Yu J-W
Published: November 2023

Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms are able to acquire inorganic carbon (C; = CO2 + HCO3-+ co/-) and convert it into organic sugars which can then be used for the metabolic needs of the cell. This process of carbon fixation has developed with a number of evolutionary constraints against which, it may be argued, that organism have struggled to optimize the efficiency of this process under a range of environmental conditions. In particular, the extent to which the primary substrate for this process, CO2, has operated as a limiting factor has changed dramatically over the time span of evolution of photosynthetic organisms. In view of this, it is not surprising that there has been a great deal of adaptation by various organisms in the mechanisms which have developed to minimize the limitation which C; availability imposes on photosynthesis.
Behavioural ecology of fishes: adaptations for survival and reproduction
Authors: Godin Jean-Guy J
Published: November 2023

Behavioural ecology, as a scientific discipline, has been concerned primarily with understanding the evolution of animal behaviour and thus how behaviour, ecology and genetics interact to determine individual inclusive fitness. Perhaps to a lesser extent, it is also concerned with the consequences of the behaviour of individuals on ecological processes at the population and community levels (Krebs and Davies 1991, 1993; Gross 1994). Although still a relatively young discipline, behavioural ecology has none the less contributed significantly to our current understanding of behavioural adaptations (sensu Reeve and Sherman 1993) and their importance in ecology, and has experienced a rapid growth in new ideas, concepts, and methodological and analytical techniques over the past decade (Krebs and Davies 1991, 1993; Gross 1994). During this period, the subject areas of ‘reproductive strategies’ and ‘survival strategies’ have received considerable attention from behavioural ecologists (Gross 1994). Reflecting the current importance of these topics to the discipline, this book focuses on behavioural adaptations for survival and reproduction in teleost fishes. More specifically, the book aims to provide insights into the evolution of the diverse strategies and tactics (sensu Gross 1984, 1996) for survival (i.e. those concerning habitat selection, territoriality, foraging and antipredation) and reproduction (i.e. concerning mating systems, sex allocation, competition for mates and mate choice, and parental care) exhibited by fishes.
Foraging tactics
Authors: Hart Paul J B
Published: November 2023

Behavioural mechanisms or tactics of feeding have been largely neglected by behavioural ecologists. Strategic aspects of fish foraging have been studied theoretically and empirically ever since the publication of the theoretical papers of Emlen (1966) and MacArthur and Pianka (1966), which initiated the development of contemporary optimal foraging theory (Stephens and Krebs 1986; Schoener 1987) . Optimal foraging theory (OFT) is a collection of mathematical models that each assume that the forager maximises some currency such as the long-term average rate of energy gain (Stephens and Krebs 1986; Fig. 5.1). This currency is in turn assumed to be correlated to Darwinian fitness (see also Hughes, Chapter 6). OFT models specify a strategy that the forager must adopt which will depend on the ambient foraging conditions. The foraging tactics observed will be the behavioural realisation of the strategy. The nature of the tactics, which have also been called modes in the literature (Helfman 1990), is the subject of this chapter. The topic of tactics deserves more attention from both theoreticians and empiricists.
Historical biogeography
Authors: Humphries Christopher J , Parenti Lynne R
Published: November 2023

Our aim in this chapter is to review briefly the history of biogeography from Linnaeus to Croizat. The following three chapters detail subsequent critical developments in cladistic biogeography. The geographic distribution of living things has intrigued biological theorists, especially systematists, since the fifteenth and sixteenth century voyages of exploration brought to light exotic plants and animals. As the acquisition of specimens and the classifications based upon them improved, especially in the nineteenth century, botanists and zoologists tried to understand the burgeoning wealth of distributional evidence. As it became clearer that all organisms had particular distributions, enquiring minds tried to establish the historical causes of such patterns.
Anaerobic eukaryotes: phagotrophy and food chains
Authors: Fenchel Tom , Finlay Bland J
Published: November 2023

Endocytosis is a fundamental property of eukaryotes. While some analogies to predation and parasitism are found in the prokaryote world (e.g. the ‘predatory’ bacterium Bdellovibrio, see Guerrero et al. 1986) the original ecological niche of eukaryotes was probably one of predation, and the advent of eukaryotes introduced food chains into ecological systems.
Biological Invasions: Theory and Practice
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

When a species colonizes an area that it has not previously inhabited, it is called an "invasion", and it can result in the extinction of endemic species. The increase in numbers of humans travelling the world presents opportunities for invasions by organisms and the spread of diseases such as rabies and smallpox. Using the large amount of data from studies in pest control and epidemiology, it is possible to construct mathematical models that can predict which species will become invaders, which habitats are susceptible to invasion, and the biological impact. This book presents a clear and accessible introduction to the modeling of biological invasions. It demonstrates the latest theories and models, and includes data and examples from various case studies showing how these models can be applied to problems from deadly human diseases to the spread of weeds.

The present book is based on an earlier one published in Japan (in Japanese) by one of the authors (N.S.), entitled Mathematical modeling for biological invasions (University of Tokyo Press, 1992); this English edition, however, results from the collaboration between two authors. The original Japanese edition is aimed primarily at university undergraduate and graduate students, and its purpose is to introduce to them some of the pioneering works in biological invasion as well as some mathematical models developed by the authors. Necessarily, discussions on many relevant theories, field data, and their references were curtailed in favor of conciseness. For this English edition, we have included more field data, updated some theoretical results according to the latest findings, and rewritten much of the text with a wider audience, including field researchers and scholars, in mind.
Introduction
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

In nature, all organisms migrate or disperse to some extent. This can take a diversity of forms as in walking, swimming, flying, or being transported by wind or flowing water. Among organisms that have the ability to move, many possess the habit of moving back and forth within a definite range on a regular basis. For instance, zooplankton repeat diurnal vertical movements in which they float to the water's surface during the daytime, while sinking to the bottom at night. Many birds and mammals return to their nests or dens at the end of an active day spent in their respective home range. The most commonly identified return migrations are those with a yearly periodicity. Migratory birds such as swallows return regularly to the same breeding area year after year. Some fish and whales migrate between the equatorial zone and polar regions in their search for feeding or breeding grounds. However, a species' range cannot expand beyond fixed ranges by such return migrations alone. It can expand only if there are certain individuals who disperse to new areas without returning to their original places.
Invasion of alien species
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

We begin with a classic example of invasion, the spatial spread of muskrats (Ondatra zibethica) in central Europe from 1909 to 1927. Figure 2.1, which appeared in Elton's book (1958), gives the contours of the range of spread based on Ulbrich's data (1930). As will be shown in section 3, Skellam (1951) analysed the data using the diffusion model, laying the foundation for the theoretical study of biological invasion in an ecological context. The muskrat, which is a species native to North America, was brought to Europe for fur-breeding. In 1905, five muskrats escaped from a farm located near Prague in Czechoslovakia. They started to spread and repro¬ duce (later mixing with other escaped groups), inhabiting the entire European continent in the short period of 50 years; today they number many millions.
Diffusion models and biological waves
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

The spatial spread of an invading species can basically be seen as a process in which individuals disperse while multiplying their numbers. One model in which dispersal is formulated as a random diffusion process is the Fisher equation. Assume that a few individuals invade the centre of a two-dimensional homogeneous space.
Invasion of rabies in Europe
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

Rabies is known for its extremely high death rate and for the violent swings in the host population as the epidemic progresses. In this chapter, we examine the invasion and spatial spread of rabies. A person who is infected with rabies dies in a short period after experiencing convulsions and other violent nervous symptoms, and for this reason, it has been feared since early times. Although in industrialized nations the incidence of rabies infections among humans is rare today, with an annual average of 4.3 cases in Europe, over 15,000 cases are reported worldwide every year (Anderson et al., 1981). In Europe, which has high host populations of red fox, badgers and roe-deer, rabies has spread from wildlife to domestic animals, and considerable effort is expended on its control.
The Birds of Paradise
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Beehler Bruce M , Cooper William T , Mcguire Michael
Published: November 2023

Birds of paradise have long played a central role in the mythologies, ceremonies, dress and dance of the peoples of New Guinea and its neighbouring islands. For the few centuries that these magnificent birds have been known outside of Australasia, their striking nuptial plumages and elaborate courtship rituals have captured the imagination of collectors, scientists, and naturalists throughout the world. The first part of the book provides a comprehensive and scientifically accurate overview of the biology, ecology, and history of the group, written so as to be interesting and accessible to the lay-reader as well as the scientist. The authors' intimate observations of the birds have enabled them to describe for the first time how the extravagant tails and plumage are used in courtship and mating as well as to describe their nesting biology, about which little has been written previously. The role of the birds of paradise in human culture and tradition is explored in chapter 7, and a final chapter discusses issues of conservation and threats to the survival of these unique and beautiful birds. The second part of the book consists of species accounts of the 42 species of birds of paradise, describing their plumage, size, habitat, distribution, and behaviour in detail and accompanied by distribution maps and sonograms. 12 superb colour plates by William T. Cooper, one of the world's most acclaimed bird artists, illustrate all the species, their known hybrids, and many juveniles and sub-species. His original fine line provide a vivid record of how the birds use their famous ornaments during reproductive behaviour. As with the other books in the Oxford Bird Families of the World series, the Birds of Paradise is written by authors who have dedicated much of their professional lives to researching the birds and observing them at first hand. It includes previously unpublished material and provides a synthesis of the huge literature that has been published over the last few years. As such it will be the most comprehensive review ever to be published on the birds of paradise, the most ornate and interesting group of birds on earth. Nothing comparable exists in print.
Overview
Authors: Nee Sean , Gouyon Pierre-Henri , Hewitt Godfrey , Jaeger Jean-Jacques
Published: November 2023

The origins of biodiversity lie, of course, in evolutionary history. In the past, the fossil record has been our only source of information into evolutionary patterns, but fossil data are now being supplemented in an unexpected way: it is coming to be understood that phylogenies constructed from molecular data, of which we have an ever increasing, high-quality supply, also provide information about the evolutionary past. The theory which underpins such inferences, the theory of family trees, is also the basis of contemporary approaches in population genetics to using molecular data in making inferences about population structure, a subject of great importance to biodiversity studies.

What sets the chapters in this section apart from classical studies of the tempo and mode of evolution, such as the work of Simpson (see, for example, Simpson (1945) in references to Chapter 1), is the use of quantitative statistical and theoretical models to both assess the quality of the data, whether molecules or fossils, and to make inferences from such data about evolutionary patterns.