bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
E. Thayer Gaston: Leader in Scientific Thought on Music in Therapy and Education
Authors: Johnson Robert E.
Published: June 2006

E. Thayer Gaston, a prominent figure in American music education, turned to his musical talents when he was financially unable to pursue a medical career. As he became interested in using music as a tool for understanding human behavior, Gaston discovered the possibility of relating music education to medicine. While chairman of the music education department at the University of Kansas, Gaston received en couragement from doctors at the Menninger Foundation in Topeka, Kansas, for his ideas regarding the use of music as an adjunctive therapy for the mentally ill. He then established the first graduate degree program in the United States for training of music therapists. His insatiable thirst for knowledge, dedication to scholarship, and unquestioned integrity led to his preeminent position in this field, and many of his associates referred to him as the “father of music therapy.”
Discrimination between Tone Quality and Intonation in Unaccompanied Flute/Oboe Duets
Authors: Madsen Clifford K. , Geringer John M.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to investigate discrimination in tone quality and intonation. Four-hundred-eighty (480) music and nonmusic graduate and undergraduate subjects checked good and bad quality/intonation classifications by listening to each of twenty-four oboe and flute duet performances. The duets were unaccompanied and performed either with good or bad quality and close to equal temperament or were adjusted 50 cents sharp between one instrument and the other. Results of the study indicated that there was a significant difference between the music and nonmusic majors across categories, with the music majors making more correct discriminations than nonmusic students. A significant difference in subjects' indications of total intonation performance errors showed 38% “sharp” responses and 62% “flat” responses. This finding, while somewhat surprising, is consistent with prior research. Subjects perceived more intonation errors (although incorrectly) than tone quality errors. When indicating a preference for tone quality subjects were actually responding to intonation variables as opposed to quality variables throughout almost all of the com parisons.
The Effects of Teaching and Learning Experiences, Tempo, and Mode on Undergraduates' and Children's Symphonic Music Preferences
Authors: Flowers Patricia J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine (a) the effect of high positive music appreciation I instruction or teaching presentations on 62 elementary education majors' preference ratings and listening times for four symphonic movements, (b) the abilities of the undergraduates to increase children's preferences through their teaching presentations, (c) undergraduates' and children's preferences for fast versus slow tempi and major versus minor characteristics in music, and (d) the vocabulary used in their written descriptions of given works. It was found that both children and undergraduates tended to give higher ratings to fast than to slow tempi on the pretest. Children were quite redundant in their descriptions of music excerpts, whereas undergraduates used larger vocabularies involving more words that were unique to a particular excerpt. Undergraduates in both the music appreciation and teaching experience groups significantly and commensurately increased their pretest-to-posttest ratings for overall (total) and taught music. Undergraduates did not spend more time listening to taught selections than to selections that were not taught, nor did they listen to significantly more fast music than slow music.
The Effect of a Music Appreciation Course on Students' Verbally Expressed Preferences for Composers
Authors: Price Harry E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a course in music appreciation on I attitudes of college nonmusic majors (N = 187) regarding favorite composers, as verbally expressed in the absence of music stimuli. Students participating in a 10-week music appreciation course were tested for knowledge of course content and surveyed for ranked listings of their 10 favorite composers before and after the course. These data were analyzed for precourse to postcourse changes and their interrelationships, as well as their relationships to music training, textbook content, and recording purchases.

The primary focus of the music appreciation course was the music and composers of the formal tradition as reflected by the textbook content. After completing the course, students had a significantly greater tendency (p < .01) to include composers of this tradition on ranked listings of their 10 favorite composers. There was a significant (p < .05) but moderate relationship between textbook content and both frequency of mention and rank sums of composers of the formal tradition. The inclusion of more composers of the formal tradition on the ranked listings had no significant relationship (p > .05) to cognitive gains, musical training, or recording purchases. The increased inclusion of composers of the formal tradition may have been a result of familiarity with and not necessarily greater liking of their music. Weaknesses of the investigation are discussed, along with recommendations for future research.
A Case Study of a Chromesthetic
Authors: Haack Paul A. , Radocy Rudolf E.
Published: June 2006

D, a middle-aged female art educator, exemplifies the phenomenon of chromesthesia or “ color hearing, ” a form of synesthesia in which a tone elicits a visual color experience as well as an auditory sensation. Extensive interviews and tests with music stimuli over a five-year period revealed a remarkable range and consistency of tone-color linkages. Absolute pitch, which D possesses independently of her chromesthesia, showed less stability than the chromesthesia. Synesthesia, while not unnatural, rarely is demonstrated because of societal constraints in childhood. Potential learning problems are revealed that should be considered in the development of instructional programs. Also, individual perceptual differences may significantly influence learning style.
Praise and Corrective Feedback in the Remediation of Incorrect Left-Hand Positions of Elementary String Players
Authors: Salzberg Rita S. , Salzberg Charles L.
Published: June 2006

Subjects of the study were five elementary string class students who performed consistently with incorrect left-hand positions. Three teaching procedures were used in an attempt to modify the incorrect hand positions: corrective (negative) verbal feedback and physical prompts in a schedule of twice per minute for two minute training sessions, positive feedback on the same schedule, and increasing the training session from two to ten minutes and the praise schedule from two to four times per minute. Data were collected for two minutes during each training session in all conditions and, to assess generalization effects, during a later period of class each day when the left-hand position was not taught. Results indicated improvement for some subjects during the first and second interventions, although the improvements were not substantial nor enduring. The third intervention resulted in greater response improvement for all subjects and more generalization. Although students varied in response to different teaching styles, praise was always as effective as corrective feedback in changing the left-hand position and more durable in its effectiveness.
Significant Developments in Choral Music Education in Higher Education Between 1950-1980
Authors: White J. Perry
Published: June 2006

The years between 1950 and 1980 were a time of unprecedented growth in American higher education. Beginning in the late fifties and continuing through the early seventies, college enrollments rapidly expanded throughout the U. S. This period was characterized by a proliferation of new academic programs and a demand for expanded postbaccalaureate degrees. Concurrent with the rapid expansion in higher education was the emergence of the DMA degree in conducting and the rapid acceptance of related degree programs. This study concentrates on the impact of the DMA on choral music education, suggests that the primary leadership for training choral music teachers has shifted from small liberal arts colleges to large state and private universities granting postbaccalaureate degrees, and examines the implications of this movement for the future.
Individualized Instruction, Student Achievement, and Dropout in an Urban Elementary Instrumental Music Program
Authors: McCarthy James F.
Published: June 2006

In this study involving fifth- and sixth-grade students in an urban school system, both individual instruction within instrumental music classrooms and student subject variables were examined for their influence on an audiovisual music reading test, a performance sight-reading test, and attrition from the music program. When compared to group instruction, individualized instruction resulted in significantly superior scores on the performance test for students of higher than normal academic reading skills. No other instructional interactions or main effects were found. Of the subject variables used in the analyses, only the students' academic reading achievement and socioeconomic status were able to account consistently for unique and nontrivial proportions of variance in the three dependent variables. Scores on the two measures of achievement and dropout were not predictable by race or sex, and the students' grade level was either a nonsignificant or minor factor in the analysis. Differences in teachers also had virtually no effect on student achievement or attrition.
Edgar B. Gordon: A Pioneer in Media Music Education
Authors: Barresi Anthony L.
Published: June 2006

Although he is remembered primarily for his work as president of the Music Supervisors National Conference during the mid-1920s, Edgar B. Gordon's most unique contributions were associated with his highly influential but less publicized involvement with radio instruction in music. His pervading social philosophy, nurtured in the Chicago settlement movement and in the community arts activities of Winfield, Kansas, motivated him to participate in perhaps the earliest radio instruction in the nation (1921) as well as to devise materials and teaching techniques that would effectively teach music via radio to approximately one million rural Wisconsin children over a twenty-four year period (1931–1955). The author traces Gordon's professional development, details his radio involvement, and analyzes his instructional techniques and materials.
The Effect of Keyboard Learning Experiences on Middle School General Music Students' Music Achievement and Attitudes
Authors: Wig Jacob A. , Boyle J. David
Published: June 2006

The study reports student achievement and attitude data for a study comparing the effects of a keyboard learning approach and a traditional general music approach on sixth-grade general music students' music achievement, attitudes toward music, and self-concept regarding music ability. Experimental subjects made significantly greater gains than the control group on the standardized measures of meter discrimination and major/minor mode discrimination. Control/experimental comparisons were not made on the investigator-constructed measures of performance skills and understanding of notation, but pre-post comparisons within the experimental group on these measures were significant beyond the .001 level of probablility. Pre-post changes in attitudes toward music were more positive for the experimental group than for the control group.
Peer Tutoring Effects on the Music Performance of Tutors and Tutees in Beginning Band Classes
Authors: Alexander Lucille , Dorow Laura G.
Published: June 2006

This study compared the pre- and posttest music performance of beginning band students in tutor and tutee pairs with students in regular band class instruction. The effect of tutor approval and disapproval (error correction) techniques was also studied. In Experiment 1, students that had been tutored performed substantially higher on the posttest than control students. In Experiment 2, only students tutored with approval techniques performed higher than the control students. In both experiments peer tutors performed as well as the control tutors even though only the control tutors continued to have weekly band lessons during the experiment. All groups, except control tutees, showed significant pre- and posttest gain in both experiments. Peripheral investigations showed that there was a significant correlation between the tutors' posttest scores and the number of exercises completed by their tutees. Approval tutor and tutee posttest scores correlated significantly with the number of approvals given by the tutor. No other groups showed significant correlations.
Effects of Rhythmic and Melodic Alterations on Rhythmic Perception
Authors: Sink Patricia E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine effects of rhythmic and melodic alterations on rhythmic perception. A 30-item Rhythmic Dissimilarities Evaluation was administered to undergraduate and graduate music students. For each item, a standard rhythmic pattern was paired with itself and with nine rhythmic alterations. Each rhythmic pattern was treated with three melodic alterations including monotony, M-shaped melody, and V-shaped melody. Results of the study demonstrated that various rhythmic alterations affect perception of rhythmic dissimilarity; that melody alters perception of rhythmic dissimilarity; that the simultaneous presentation of melody and rhythm may result in reduced attention to absolute rhythmic structures in music; and that a possible relationship exists between rhythmic alterations and the degree of perceived dissimilarity.
Empirical Testing of an Affective Learning Paradigm
Authors: Asmus Edward P.
Published: June 2006

The investigation studied the effectiveness of a cyclical affective learning paradigm based on the premise that student affect toward a course of instruction will dictate, in part, cognitive performance in the course. The methodology of causal analysis indicated little support for the validity of this paradigm. In determining what relationships existed between the variables, a new learning model was derived. The derived model revealed that students' performance on cognitive tasks was influenced by affective perceptions at the outset of the course. Further into the instructional sequence, cognitive variables were found to be best predicted by performance on other cognitive variables. This suggests that teacher concentration on the development of positive affect toward a course of instruction may not produce student cognitive gains. Teachers would be better advised to concentrate on the development of students' cognitive skills and subject retention.
Relationships Among Ensemble Participation, Private Instruction, and Aural Skill Development
Authors: May William V. , Elliott Charles A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships that exist among students' participation in public school performing ensembles, those skills measured by the Gaston Test of Musicality, the number of years of private piano study, and the number of years of private instruction on ensemble instruments. The study was conducted in a large, suburban, midwestern school district with a sample of 164 music students at one junior high school. All subjects were administered the Gaston test upon entering the fourth grade. When the sample students reached junior high school they were assigned to band, orchestra, choir, or combination groups, and the Gaston test was read-ministered. Although the groups exhibited no significant differences on the Gaston test at the fourth-grade level, differences were significant when the same test was given at the junior-high level. Significant differences between mean scores on the Gaston test at the junior-high level were attributed largely to the low scores of the choir group. Years of piano study appeared to be a significant independent factor in the development of aural skills. Years of private instrument instruction did not seem to be a factor in the results.
Attitudes of High School Band Directors and Principals Toward Marching Band Contests
Authors: Rogers George L.
Published: June 2006

This study consisted of a mailed survey of 421 high school band programs. The band director and principal in each school received a separate questionnaire with similar items rating the value of six aspects of marching band contests. Sixty-two percent of the bands participated in marching band contests. Differences were found in the annual number of contests entered according to geographic area. The West was highest in contests entered annually ( M = 2.75 contests per band) and the Midwest was lowest ( M = 1.00 contest per band). Principals rated the contests highest in improving public relations for the school. Band directors rated the contests highest in terms of personal benefits to students and lowest in terms of improving students' musical skills and knowledge. Principals and band directors differed significantly in their attitudes toward marching band contests, with principals' ratings being generally higher than those of band directors.
Efficacy of a Self-Help Program in Music for Disadvantaged Preschools
Authors: Young William T.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a prestructured music program, designed especially for disadvantaged children, when this program was implemented by personnel already involved in the operation of Headstart and similar preschools. The study included 12 Headstart teaching centers in Texas and Louisiana with a total enrollment of 277 kindergarten age children from disadvantaged environments.

A culture-free music ability test was administered individually to each child in all 12 centers in September and again in May at the end of the teaching year. Comparisons of pretest-posttest improvement revealed significant gains for the experimental group but not for the control group. The results suggested that the teachers' musical knowledge had less effect on the children' s improvement than teacher traits such as determination, industry, and willingness to take the initiative. The final conclusion of the study was that the typical Headstart teacher, with a minumum of assistance, is capable of producing significant improvement in the musical abilities of preschool disadvantaged children.
Effect of Magnitude of Conductor Behavior on Students in Selected Mixed Choruses
Authors: Yarbrough Cornelia
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effect of magnitude of conductor behavior on performance, attentiveness, and attitude of students in mixed choruses. Four mixed choruses (one university and three high schools) were rehearsed under three conditions: (1) with regular conductor, (2) with high magnitude conductor, and (3) with low magnitude conductor.

Magnitude was defined a priori by the experimenter and subsequently observed using the Music Conductor Observation Form developed for this study. In addition the effect of magnitude was measured by (1) judges' ratings of audiotaped musical performances, (2) behavioral observation of student attentiveness, and (3) self-report of student attitude.

Although results indicated no significant differences in musical performance, attentiveness, or attitude ratings among baseline and the two experimental conditions, high and low magnitude, three of the groups received their lowest ratings under the low magnitude condition, off-task percentage was lower during the high magnitude condition, and data demonstrated student preference for the high magnitude conductor.
The Development of a Model and Assessment Instrument of Choral Music Teaching Styles
Authors: Gumm Alan J. , College Ithaca
Published: June 2006

Basing this study on teachers' perceptions of their own teaching, I identified teaching styles in secondary choral music and developed a self-report scale to assess choral music teaching style. Ten dimensions of choral music teaching style were identified through common factor analysis of 134 teaching behaviors. Eight of these dimensions were validated through confirmatory factor analysis. The dimensions were labeled Student Independence, Teacher Authority, Positive Learning Environment, Aesthetic Music Performance, Nonverbal Motivation, Time Efficiency, Group Dynamics, and Music Concept Learning. Test-retest reliability of the subscales that were used to assess the eight validated dimensions indicated acceptable consistency over time. Eleven choral music teaching styles were identified through k-means cluster analysis of directors, based on their scores on the dimensions. Clusters of directors from two samples were cross-validated with discriminant analysis. The teaching styles were labeled Student-Centered Comprehensive Musicianship Oriented, Teacher-Controlled Comprehensive Musicianship Oriented, Student/Subject Matter Interaction Oriented, Task Oriented, Music Performance Oriented, Cooperative Learning Oriented, Concept Presentation Oriented, Content Oriented, Low Teacher Involvement Oriented, Discovery Oriented, and Nonfocused Low-Interaction Oriented.
Gender and Musical Instruments: Winds of Change? Jason Zervoudakes
Authors: Tanur Judith M.
Published: June 2006

A nationwide probability sample of elementary schools, high schools, and colleges and universities was contacted and asked to send programs from band and orchestra concerts over the past three decades. Players of instruments were coded for gender by means of their first names. Using the band or orchestra as the unit of analysis, we found that the mean proportion of females playing historically “male” instruments increased over the period, but so did the proportion of females playing historically “female” instruments. Partial correlation analysis holding overall proportion of females in the instrumental groups constant showed that the partial correlation between year and proportion female playing “female” instruments was significantly positive, and the partial correlation between year and proportion female playing “male” instruments was negative or zero. These results held for the high school and college level but not at the elementary level. Thus, we conclude that gender-based segregation has increased at the high school and college level, but we have no evidence that it has done so at the elementary level.
“A Home away from Home”: The World of the High School Music Classroom
Authors: Adderley Cecil , Kennedy Mary , Berz William
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to investigate the world of the high school music classroom. Motivation to join music ensembles and to remain, perception of the musical groups by their members and by the school community as a whole, the meaning and value that music ensembles engender for their participants, and the social climate of the music classroom were explored. Structured interviews were conducted with 60 students—20 each from band, choir, and orchestra. Students joined ensembles for musical, social, academic, and family reasons. Insider views highlighted the importance of labels and identifiers and changing perceptions throughout one's school career, whereas outsider views included the opinion that musicians are talented, intelligent, and underappreciated. Ensemble participation yielded musical, academic, psychological, and social benefits. The social climate emerged as a pervasive element in the study as students noted the importance of relationships for their well-being and growth.
The Effect of Computerized versus Classroom Instruction on the Phonetic Pronunciation of English
Authors: Dekaney Elisa Macedo
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of computerized versus classroom instruction on musicians' ability to correctly pronounce English words phonetically transcribed into the International Phonetic Alphabet. Sixty-three (N = 63) instrumentalists volunteered as subjects. The study used a pretest/posttest design. The tests consisted of two different phonetic transcriptions of English used by the International Phonetic Association for its standardized proficiency exam. Following the pretest, subjects were randomly assigned to one of three groups: (1) Class (n = 21) received three 45-minute lessons, (2) Computer-Assisted (n = 21) used the software package Sounds of English, and (3) Class and Computer-Assisted (n = 21) used a combination of the two previous instruction types. Results showed no significant differences among groups regarding pretest scores, but significant differences regarding posttest and pre/posttest difference scores. Post hoc analyses of total time revealed significant differences among the groups.
Factors and Abilities Influencing Achievement in Instrumental Jazz Improvisation
Authors: May Lissa F.
Published: June 2006

The primary purposes of this study were to identify factors underlying instrumental jazz improvisation achievement and to examine the extent to which knowledge of jazz theory, aural skills, aural imitation, and selected background variables predict achievement in instrumental jazz improvisation. Subjects were 73 undergraduate wind players enrolled in college jazz ensembles at five midwestern universities in the United States. Results indicated that objective measurement of instrumental jazz improvisation is possible on expressive as well as technical dimensions. Factor analysis revealed only one factor, suggesting that instrumental jazz improvisation is a single construct. Stepwise multiple regression revealed self evaluation of improvisation as the single best predictor of achievement in instrumental jazz improvisation with aural imitation ability as the second best predictor.
The Role of Music in Deaf Culture: Implications for Music Educators
Authors: Darrow Alice-Ann
Published: June 2006

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the role of music in the deaf culture and to relate the findings to current practices in music education programs for hearing-impaired students. Secondary purposes of the study were to accumulate data that would either substantiate or refute the writings of hearing authors regarding the value of music to the deaf and to examine factors that determine deaf individuals' involvement with music. Data were collected by (a) a questionnaire sent to a random sample of deaf Americans from across the country, and (b) videotaped personal interviews with a random sample of deaf community members in a large midwestern metropolitan area. Based on their primary language and socialization practices, respondents were identified as members of the deaf culture, members of the hearing culture, or those that interact within both cultures. A summary of the results indicates that (1) cultural identification is a strong influential factor in deaf individuals' involvement with music, (2) deaf individuals that do involve themselves with music do so in ways similar to hearing individuals, (3) musical activities enjoyed most by deaf individuals are singing/signing songs, listening to music, and moving or dancing to music, (4) most respondents believed that music instruction should be optional for deaf students, (5) certain factors related to family involvement with music and musical training seem to be indicators of the role music will play in the lives of deaf individuals, and (6) deaf individuals do not participate to the degree that hearing individuals do in most common ritual uses of music. Quotes from respondents and implications for music educators teaching hearing-impaired students are given.
The Development and Evaluation of a Computerized Adaptive Test of Tonal Memory
Authors: Vispoel Walter P.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this three-phase investigation was to develop and evaluate a computerized adaptive test of tonal memory. In the first phase, characteristics of commercially available tonal memory tests (instrument timbre, rhythmic complexity, tonality) were systematically varied and compared to determine the types of items most likely to yield reliable and valid scores. Results from ANOVA, factor-analytic, correlation, and regression analyses indicated that synthesizer-produced, varied-rhythm tonal and atonal melodies of four to nine notes would provide reliable and concurrently valid scores over a wide range of ability levels. In the second phase, the adaptive test was constructed, and its measurement precision and efficiency were evaluated in a series of computer-simulation analyses. Results showed that the adaptive test required 5 to 11 items to yield reliabilities from .80 to .90, and 80% fewer items to surpass the reliability of the Seashore Tonal Memory Test. In the final phase, the adaptive test was field-tested on the PLATO computer system. In line with the computer-simulation findings, the adaptive test required an average of 6.05, 8.55, and 11.60 items to reach reliabilities of .80, .85, and .90, respectively.
The Influence of Textural and Timbral Factors on the Ability of Music Majors to Detect Performance Errors
Authors: Byo James L.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of textural and timbral factors on graduate and undergraduate music majors' ability to detect performance errors. Specifically, subjects' discrimination of pitch and rhythm errors in music excerpts that were counterbalanced for error type, textural placement of errors (soprano, alto, tenor, and bass voices), and timbre (single and multiple) was examined. In the development of a stimulus audiotape for error detection, the Yamaha SY77 digital synthesizer was used to record and perform two contrasting, six-measure music excerpts selected from the wind band literature. The original excerpts were edited to include purposeful errors resulting in a stimulus of 20 total excerpts, 16 of which included performance errors. Subjects (N - 60) listened to the recorded excerpts and attempted to identify pitch and rhythm errors by circling appropriate places in the scores.

Results of a four-factor analysis of variance with repeated measures on correct responses indicated significant main effects of error type (subjects were more discerning of rhythm errors) and timbre (subjects were more discerning of errors in the single-timbre condition) and no effects regarding voice placement and degree status. There was a significant three-way interaction among the variables of error type, textural placement, and timbre.

Additionally, descriptive comparisons were made concerning incorrect responses.
Effect of Colored Rhythmic Notation on Music-Reading Skills of Elementary Students
Authors: Rogers George L.
Published: June 2006

The researcher attempted to determine whether instruction using colored rhythmic notation affected first- and second-grade students' rhythm-reading skills. As a regular part of general music classes, 64 experimental-group students participated in reading, clapping, and vocalizing rhythms notated in color. Seventy control subjects participated in identical activities in which rhythms were notated without color. Subjects were tested individually using both colored and uncolored notation. Results after the 23-week treatment period revealed that the experimental group scored slightly higher when reading both colored and uncolored notation than did the control group. Group differences on the colored-notation task were statistically significant ( p < .05). Experimental and control-group means did not differ significantly ( p > .05) when reading uncolored notation. Comparison between the scores of each group on the task similar to the training mode (color-trained students reading colored notation versus control students reading uncolored notation) also showed the experimental mean to be slightly but significantly ( p < .05) higher. A positive affective influence was noted in that 78% of all students favored the colored-notation task as the exercise they liked performing the most.
Music Style Preferences of Different Age Listeners
Authors: LeBlanc Albert , Sims Wendy L. , Siivola Carolyn , Obert Mary
Published: June 2006

We measured the music preference opinions of 2,262 listeners for examples of art musk, traditional jazz, and rock. Our subjects were enrolled in Grades 1 through college, and we also tested adults who were not college students. Participants ranged in age from 6 to 91 years. We found that music preference means for the different styles were comparatively similar across grade levels, and when style subtest scores were pooled to make a general index of music preference, a characteristic pattern of responding across grade levels emerged. Listeners in Grade 1 had a high level of preference, but preference levels then declined to a low point at Grade 6. From that point, preference steadily rose into the high school years, reaching its highest point at college level. Preference declined again for our adult group, which included a good representation of senior citizens. However, adult preference was higher than that of any other grade levels except Grade 1 and college.
Elementary, Middle, and High School Student Perceptions of Tension in Music
Authors: Fredrickson William E.
Published: June 2006

School-age students from Grades 2, 5, 8, and 11/12 (N = 112) were asked to listen to a recording of the first movement of Haydn's Symphony No. 104. All subjects were asked to record their perception of “tension ” in the music using a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) dial. As in previous studies of this type (Fredrickson, 1995; Madsen & Fredrickson, 1993), no definition of the term in question was given, allowing subjects to, in essence, create their own definition. Graphic analysis showed that even though the magnitude of group responses varied widely, there are some striking similarities in the timing of major group responses. Pearson correlations between groups ranged from .98 between the fifth and eighth graders to . 71 between the second graders and a population of professional musicians from a previous study who responded to the same musical recording. In general, younger subjects tended to use a wider range of the dial, whereas older and more musically experienced subjects were much more conservative. These results were consistent with results of previous studies and indicated a perceptual consistency regarding an entity that a fairly wide variety of populations define as tension in this piece of music.
Factors Related to the Validity of Reproduction Tonal Memory Tests
Authors: Norris Charles E.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this investigation was to acquire data regarding the validity of reproduction tonal memory tests by examining the relationships between performances on an existing reproduction tonal memory test and performances on several recognition tonal memory tests. Analysis of 210 fifth- through twelfth-grade students' scores on one reproduction test and four recognition tests of tonal memory revealed moderate relationships (r = .47 to .66) between the two types of tests. Stepwise multiple regression revealed a moderately strong predictive relationship between a combination of three recognition measures and the reproduction test (R = .73, R2 = .53). Little change was noted in the relationship between the two types of tests with regard to singing experience. Although the reproduction tonal memory test was tentatively deemed a valid measure, the following additional research and analysis was suggested: (a) continued consideration of gender, ability, and total musical experience as they affect overall validity, and (b) the creation of a more reliable recognition test alternative.
Relationships Among Children's Music Audiation and Their Compositional Processes and Products
Authors: Kratus John
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among music audiation, I the processes of composition, and the musical characteristics of songs composed by 9-year-olds. Subjects (N = 40) were given the Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation and were asked to compose a song on a synthesizer during a 10-minute period. A pair of independent judges analyzed recordings of the composition periods to determine the amount of time subjects engaged in exploration, development, repetition, and silence. Another pair of judges analyzed the music composed by the subjects for cohesiveness (tonal and metric), pattern use (melodic and rhythmic, repeated and developed), and extensiveness (length and pitch range). Audiation was found to be positively correlated (p < . 05) with the compositional processes of development and silence and was negatively correlated with exploration. Audiation was positively correlated with the songs' tonal and metric cohesiveness and developed rhythmic patterns, and negatively correlated with the songs' pitch range. The process of composition was related to the products' cohesiveness, pattern use, and extensiveness.
Consistency in Piano Performance Evaluation
Authors: Wapnick Joel , Flowers Patricia , Alegant Marci , Jasinskas Lily
Published: June 2006

Eighty pianists each listened to 21 trials of solo piano music. Trials consisted of two different performances of the same excerpt, and the same music was played on all trials for any given subject. Over the 21 trials, seven different interpretations were presented in all possible pair-wise combinations. Forty subjects listened to a slow excerpt from Liszt's Totentanz, and the other forty listened to a fast excerpt from the same piece.

The subjects' task was to select which of the two performances on each trial, if either, they preferred. Subjects were assigned randomly to one of four conditions: preference only, preference plus use of the musical score, preference plus use of rating scales, and preference plus use of both the musical score and rating scales ( n = 10 per treatment per excerpt).

Results indicated that the use of the musical score and of rating scales both separately and in combination with each other did not improve consistency as compared to their nonuse. Subjects who responded to rating scales, however, were more consistent when they did not also use the musical score than when they did use it. Subjects were less consistent for the slow excerpt than they were for the fast excerpt, and consistency was unaffected by their piano experience. Presentation order within trials (first versus second excerpt) did not affect ratings; however, ratings on Trials 12-21 were slightly and significantly higher than ratings on Trials 1-10. Also, preference for a performance was not affected by preference for the performance immediately preceding it.
Factors Relating to Pitch-Matching Skills of Elementary Education Majors
Authors: McCoy Claire Wehr
Published: June 2006

This study is an examination of the relationship between accuracy in singing the starting pitch of a song and four variables: (a) perception of tonal center, (b) ability to maintain a consistent key while singing a song, (c) self-selected pitch level, and (d) previous music experience. The subjects, 42 elementary education majors, sang “Row, Row, Row Your Boat ”at the pitch level of their choice. They were then asked to sing the song in the keys of B, C, and D with the keys established by (a) a single tonic pitch played on a piano, (b) a I-V7-I cadence played on a piano, and (c) a I-V7-I cadence played on an Autoharp. A multiple-regression analysis was performed to determine the extent to which the variables predicted initial pitch accuracy scores. Analyses of variance were conducted to determine the effects of (a) subjects' self-selected pitch level and target pitch level on initial pitch accuracy and (b) method of establishing the target key on initial pitch accuracy.
Perception of Tempo Modulation by Listeners of Different Levels of Educational Experience
Authors: Sheldon Deborah A. , Gregory Diane
Published: June 2006

This study was designed to investigate the similarities and differences in how listeners with different levels of educational experience demonstrate perception of tempo modulation in music using a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI). Subjects ( N = 210) were divided into seven education-level groups of 30 subjects each. Musical experience ranged from minimal through extensive. Melodies gradually increased or decreased in tempo from a beginning rate of 112 beats per minute (bpm). Rates heard in accelerating examples were 120 bpm, 128 bpm, 136 bpm, 144 bpm, 152 bpm, and 160 bpm. Rates heard, in decelerating examples were 104 bpm, 96 bpm, 88 bpm, 80 bpm, 72 bpm, and 64 bpm. Change scores demonstrating perception of tempo modulation were calculated from the midpoint of the CRDI and were compared by group and tempo. Subjects' responses were significantly different among degrees of tempo change in increasing and decreasing examples. Significant differences were also found among subject groups for both increasing and decreasing examples. Significant interactions were found between education level (group) and tempo change for increasing and decreasing examples.
Effect of Selected Recruiting Strategies on Beginning Instrumentalists' Participation Decisions
Authors: Nierman Glenn E. , Veak Michael H.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to explore the effect of aptitude, two methods of introducing wind and string instruments, and the effect of socioeconomic status (SES) on fourth-grade students' attitude toward playing an instrument. Students ( N = 531) in nine different elementary schools were divided into two experimental groups (recorder and demonstration) and a control group. Students in the recorder group were taught to play the recorder, whereas the demonstration group encountered the instruments via films and live student performances. After 10 weeks of instruction, students completed an attitude assessment questionnaire. When low aptitude/attitude correlations were found, ANCOVA procedures were abandoned, and ANOVA procedures revealed a statistically significant interaction among the three groups and three SES levels. Simple main effects analyses indicated that the type of recruiting strategy does not significantly affect low-SES stuents' attitudes, but significant differences in both the middle- and high-SES classifications were examined using the Tukey-Kramer test.
Teaching Behaviors of Middle School and High School Band Directors in the Rehearsal Setting
Authors: Blocher Larry , Greenwood Richard , Shellahamer Bentley
Published: June 2006

The study was designed to investigate specific rehearsal behaviors exhibited by band directors in rehearsal settings. Of particular interest was the amount of time band directors engaged in conceptual teaching behaviors, defined as verbal behaviors of band directors in rehearsal settings in which the band director attempts to make students aware of, have an understanding of, and/or be able to transfer any musical concept. Participants ( N = 18) were full-time middle school or high school band, directors teaching in Florida. Each participant prepared a videotape of two or three regular band rehearsals. Randomly ordered 20-minute segments counterbalanced across all examples were extracted from each videotape for data analyses. Two trained observers viewed the prepared videotapes and simultaneously manipulated the dial of a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to indicate perceived teacher behaviors. The CRDI dial was partitioned along a 256-degree arc into seven specific teacher behaviors. Results indicated that, on average, directors spent less than 3% of observed teaching time engaged in conceptual teaching behaviors. Percentages of time were computed for additional instructional, non-interactive, and feedback behaviors.
Song Recognition among Preschool-Age Children: An Investigation of Words and Music
Authors: Feierabend John M. , Saunders T. Clark , Holahan John M. , Getnick Pamela E.
Published: June 2006

We sought to discover whether listening to songs over an expanded period of time would contribute to a greater integration of wards and music in memory among preschool children (3-5 years old). The following specific problems guided this research: (1) What are the effects of songs performed with and without texts on preschool children's melodic-recognition ability? (2) Do differences in meter and tonality have an effect on song-recognition capability? and (3) Are songs of similar melodic content, with or without words, more difficult to recognize than songs of diverse melodic content? The subjects ( N = 75) were assigned to one of three treatment conditions in which children, with their parents, listened to tape recordings of eight unfamiliar songs. Preschool children were more accurate in recognizing songs performed without texts when they had heard them performed previously with texts. Melodic content, however, was found to influence song-recognition ability in that distinct (unrelated) melodies were more readily recognized than songs with similar (related) melodies, with or without text.
A Computer-Based Training Program for Developing Harmonic Intonation Discrimination Skill
Authors: Dalby Bruce F.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a computer-based training program for improving students' ability to make judgments of harmonic intonation. Twenty members of two undergraduate conducting classes participated in the Harmonic Intonation Training Program (HITP). An equivalent matched control group was selected from 156 other undergraduate music majors who had also taken the investigator-developed Harmonic Intonation Discrimination Test (HIDT). The HITP consisted of a body of drill-and-prac-tice exercises using intervals, triads, and brief three- and four-part musical passages. The exercises were played in both equal temperament and just intonation by a 16-voice digital synthesizer. After a 9-week treatment period, a two-way ANOVA on posttest HIDT scores revealed a difference (p= .005) in favor of the experimental group. Results of a questionnaire administered after the training to the experimental subjects indicated that attitudes toward the training program were mostly positive.
Effects of Finger Markers and Harmonic Context on Performance of Beginning String Students
Authors: Bergonzi Louis
Published: June 2006

This study is an investigation of the effects of finger placement markers (FPMs) and I harmonic context on the left-hand technique, intonation performance skills, and overall musical performance skills of sixth-grade beginning string students. Central to this study was the question of how a tactile/visual reference and an aural reference influence the development of string intonation performance skills. Subjects were assigned to research conditions in a 2 ? 2 factorial design (FPMs by harmonic context). Students received 90 minutes of weekly, heterogeneous-group instruction from the same teacher and used researcher-prepared audio home practice tapes to accentuate their class experience. Subjects with FPMs played significantly more in tune than those who did not have FPMs. Students whose instruction and practice were accompanied by harmonic background demonstrated a higher degree of overall musical performance ability. Differences were significant even after adjusting for musical aptitude. There were no differences in left-hand technique. Results of this study endorse the theoretical and practical support for the use of these teaching techniques in beginning string instruction.