bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Microbial Petroleum Degradation: The Role of Cladosporium Resinae
Authors: Walker John D. , Jr. Louis Cofone, , Cooney Joseph J.
Published: January 2013

Cladosporium resinae is probably the most prevalent hydrocarbon-utilizing fungus. It has been isolated in fresh water and marine environments. It utilizes aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as alcohols and acids. Growth on aliphatic hydrocarbons is slow, and yields are lower than for cells cultured on acids. However, degradation of hydrocarbons is not slow, since most of the hydrocarbon is mineralized (converted to CO2) and not assimilated to cellular carbon. Growth of the fungus was not supported by organo-phosphorus-, chlorinated hydrocarbon-, or natural pesticides as sole carbon source. However, the fungus was resistant to or stimulated by high concentrations (20,000 ppm) of these pesticides when cultured on hydrocarbons. This suggests that high concentrations of pesticides occurring in oil slicks would not inhibit oil degradation by Cladosporium resinae. Hydrocarbon-oxidation is constitutive in Cladosporium resinae. Cells oxidize aldehydes, although they did not grow on them. Release of 14C02 from D-glucose-l-14 C labeled cells was not greater in the presence of hydrocarbons than under endogenous conditions, indicating that intermediate and long-chain hydrocarbons are oxidized and do not stimulate endogenous respiration. Comparison of hydrocarbon oxidation by whole cells and cell-free preparations revealed the presence of an efficient cell-free oxidizing system. The pathway of hydrocarbon oxidation has been reported for hydrocarbon-utilizing bacteria and yeasts but not for fungi. Temperature, pH and co-enzyme requirements were determined for the oxidation of hydrocarbons by C. resinae. Isolation of intermediates and results of experiments utilizing electron transport inhibitors support the conclusion that in C. resinae alkanes are oxidized to their homologous alcohol, aldehyde and acid. The range of hydrocarbon substrates degraded by constitutive enzymes of Cladosporium resinae coupled with the ability to degrade hydrocarbons in the presence of high concentrations of pesticides suggests that C. resinae may be one of the most important microorganisms capable of degrading oil in the natural environment.
Tagging Oil-Residues in Tankers with Microparticles
Authors: Agnedal P. O.
Published: January 2013

The increase in pollution by oil spills in the Baltic has lead to the Minister of Transport to set up a committee with the task to find methods for identifying ships responsible for oil spills.

A preliminary study of the oil transport situation in Sweden had shown that the fingerprint method for identification will be difficult to use. The study also showed that microparticles of plastic and metal as tags might be used. In most cases the oil spills in the Baltic are due to pumping out residues mixed with ballast. In the present paper the merits of different methods for tagging these residues, including the cost aspect, are treated as well as identification of recovered oil samples.

In a field experiment the oil residues in a tanker were tagged. Some of its tanks were tagged with plastic particles and some with metal particles. The tanks were treated in different ways for cleaning and the oil-water mixtures were then pumped out in the sea under controlled conditions. The different spills were kept inside an enclosure for a fortnight and samples were taken every day. In all analysed samples the tagged substance could be recovered and identified.

A plan for testing this method on a larger scale is under preparation.
THE 1973 IMCO CONVENTION: A TANKER OPERATOR'S VIEWPOINT
Authors: Gray William O.
Published: January 2013

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, drafted in London under IMCO auspices last fall is undoubtedly the most comprehensive and potentially promising step yet taken to prevent pollution to the seas by ships. While this convention is now open for ratification by nations, its very detailed nature has already caused studies to commence to identify the steps which must be taken to assure its practical and timely implementation.

This paper reviews first the essential provisions of the convention, stressing the technological elements relating to oil tankers. These elements include ships’ operational and equipment features, as well as fundamental design changes for new tankers ordered after December 31, 1975. In addition, questions of reception facilities ashore will be considered. The paper will include a status report in regard to each of these matters as of the date of this conference, rather than a recap of the many technical studies already done prior to the IMCO 1973 convention.

While Exxon studies on this subject must form the basis of the paper, to the extent possible, activities of various industry groups and governments toward bringing the IMCO 1973 convention effectively into force will be covered as well
SPILL PREVENTION: THE SPCC APPROACH
Authors: Charlton Thomas J. , Cunningham John M.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Spill Prevention Program of the Environmental Protection Agency is discussed as it has evolved from the implementing legislation: section 311(j)(l)(C) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. The regulations apply to all non-transportation-related facilities with oil storage in excess of certain minimum amounts from which spilled oil could reasonably be expected to reach navigable waters. The prevention program centers around a requirement in the regulation that these facilities must prepare and implement a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) plan. The type of engineering analysis needed to prepare or review a plan is discussed along with an outline of what EPA considers to be the elements of a good plan. After the period for plan implementation is past, a facility must submit its SPCC plan to EPA for review if it experiences spill problems. After review, EPA may require revisions to the plan in the form of amendments, but there are several levels of technical appeal on amendments. The paper discusses EPA plan reviews, amendment procedures, appeals on amendments, and finally, penalty procedures and appeals from penalties.
THE CASCO BAY OIL SPILL: PROBLEMS OF CLEANUP AND DISPOSAL
Authors: Eidam Carl L. , Fitzpatrick Edward V. , Conlon John F.
Published: January 2013

This paper deals with the control and cleanup of a 100,000-gallon (422,000-liter) no. 6 fuel-oil spill which occurred in Casco Bay, Maine, on July 22, 1972. A lack of locally available equipment, logistics involved in moving men and equipment to numerous offshore islands which were affected by the spill, and disposal of large amounts of oil-soaked debris presented unique problems to on-scene personnel. Additionally, the development of environmental priorities for cleanup proved most critical because the area produces commercial harvests of shellfish, lobsters, and intertidal seaweed, and serves as one of Maine's principal recreation areas.

Of particular concern was the major obstacle encountered in disposing of over 10,000 yards (7,646 m3) of oil-soaked seaweed which had either been gathered from intertidal rocks or removed from the water surface, and over 4,500 yards (3,440 m3) of contaminated beach sand. Oil-soaked sand was finally placed in a sanitary landfill utilizing guidelines developed by personnel from EPA, Region I, Solid Waste Program. Oil-soaked debris was incinerated at a facility in Gray, Maine, which was specially modified for this purpose. Modifications included burner head and feed-grate changes to accept the debris.

The damage resulting from the spill and the effectiveness of the cleanup were studied up to one year after the spill, utilizing a private consulting firm under contract to EPA. These studies indicated that the cleanup techniques used resulted in more successful survival and/or recolonization of intertidal populations than in areas not cleaned.
OIL POLLUTION OF INLAND WATERS IN ENGLAND AND WALES
Authors: Toms Ronald
Published: January 2013

The author describes the setting up of ten regional water authorities in England and Wales with the duty of managing water, from the supply of drinking water to the treatment of sewage and the control of rivers. The new Control of Pollution Act 1974 is examined, particularly with regard to the powers it contains for the water authorities to take action if oil pollution occurs. This includes both action to stop discharges containing oil and also to remove oil once it has entered a river. The author discusses the results of a survey to assess what are the main causes of oil pollution and suggests means of reducing these. Finally, there is a description of a number of particularly significant cases of oil pollution and the steps taken to prevent recurrences.
THE STATUS OF OILED WILDLIFE: RESEARCH AND PLANNING
Authors: Hay Keith G.
Published: January 2013

The cleaning and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife, especially waterfowl, has been one of our most difficult environmental problems to solve. It is plagued by controversy, emotion, apathy, and a host of biological unknowns. Costs have been high and survival rates low. This paper discusses the efforts taken by organizations and individuals in recent years to reverse this trend. It assesses biological problems and outlines research results. It analyzes people problems and wildlife contingency planning and presents a review of recent accomplishments in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain.
OIL-SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANS FOR THE ALYESKA PIPELINE SYSTEM
Authors: Sartor James D. , Couch W. Donald , Kauffman David S.
Published: January 2013

Alyeska Pipeline Service Company has aimed for zero oil spillage in the design of the Alyeska pipeline system. The extent of the technical studies and efforts to minimize environmental impact are unprecedented in the annals of pipeline design. Examples include special design and construction techniques in areas of permafrost, burial, and river crossings, and special designs to withstand earthquake effects and fault movements. In addition, all essential data related to leak detection will be monitored. Alyeska will also conduct regular aerial and ground patrols of the pipeline route. At the marine terminal at Port Valdez, Alyeska has identified sources of potential oil spills and has incorporated in the terminal's design facilities for reducing the probability of a spill and minimizing the effects of spillage should it occur.

In view of the above considerations, the probability of a major oil spill seems remote. However, Alyeska recognizes the need to respond rapidly and effectively to a spill.

Comprehensive oil-spill contengency plans are being prepared to ensure that immediate steps are taken to protect the environment, to contain and clean up any spill, and to restore any affected areas. These are probably the most thorough and comprehensive plans of this nature yet developed. If a spill occurs on land or water, these plans assign immediate what-to-do and how-to-do-it actions to designated individuals.
A REVIEW OF THE UTILITY OF SELF-MIXING DISPERSANTS IN RECENT YEARS
Authors: Canevari Gerard P.
Published: January 2013

This paper reviews the development during the past two years of self-mixing chemical dispersants to minimize damage from oil spills.

Some history regarding the acceptance (or lack thereof) of previous conventional dispersants requiring mixing energy is covered so that the progress manifested by the current self-mix dispersant approach can be readily appreciated.

The utility of the self-mix dispersant system is based upon both the elimination of the laborious mixing requirement and the formation of submicron diameter size oil droplets. The role of droplet size in the behavior and movement of dispersed oil as well as the effect of droplet size on the toxicological and ecological impact of the dispersed oil, are significant aspects that are discussed.

The planned research to determine the fate of dispersed oil under actual field conditions is outlined. This will permit a more accurate and objective assessment of the impact of dispersed oil on the marine environment than is now available from the extrapolation of laboratory bioassays. For example, the rapid dilution-dispersion of the oil into a large body of water is an important characteristic and advantage of the chemical dispersion process and is very much influenced by droplet size. However, in laboratory tests the concentration of the oil is maintained at a constant level during the test exposure, and little attention is directed toward the determination or control of the dispersed oil droplet size.
ENERGY DISSIPATIVE DEVICES TO CONTROL OIL SLICKS IN FAST-CURRENT ENVIRONMENTS
Authors: Jensen D.S. , Lindenmuth W. , Beach R.L. , Norton D. J.
Published: January 2013

A concept to control and recover oil slicks in potential water current velocities of 10 knots is presented. The energy dissipation concept involves gradually slowing down the fast-moving oil slick and a layer of water flowing directly beneath such that the critical velocity Vc is never reached at the oil-water interface. In the process of slowing down, the oil layer thickens to a point where conventional recovery techniques may be used to remove the oil. Three research programs are discussed that investigate applications of the energy dissipation concept. These efforts under sponsorship of the U.S. Coast Guard include Hydronautics’ Surface Velocity Retarder Oil Skimmer (SVROS), Seaward's Streaming Fiber Device, and Texas & University's Porous Barrier System. Results of preliminary testing are discussed and analyzed. Program plans for subsequent work on the energy dissipation concept are described.
UNITED STATES COAST GUARD HIGH SEAS OIL CONTAINMENT SYSTEM (HSOCS)*
Authors: Dennis Samuel J.
Published: January 2013

A detailed technical description of the High Seas Oil Containment System (HSOCS), presently being procured by the U.S. Coast Guard for operational use, is presented. Fifteen of the systems are scheduled for completion of delivery by March 1974. Each of the major subsystems of the HSOCS is described in detail. The HSOCS will be part of the equipment inventory of the Coast Guard Strike Teams of the National Strike Force for use in response to major oil spills on the high seas.
NAVY HARBOR OIL SPILL CLEANUP: A PROGRESS REPORT
Authors: Wilson Jack E. , Nadeau Paul F. , Premack Joel S.
Published: January 2013

After four years, significant progress has been achieved in the development of new equipment and techniques for the Navy oil spill program. Utilizing the systems analysis approach, the Navy has undertaken both intermediate and long-term efforts. The intermediate effort developed systems utilizing the best commercially available equipment with Navy-developed techniques. The long-range effort is refining and optimizing the intermediate systems.

The intermediate systems and cleanup techniques developed are now operational. Experience, to date, reveals that commercially available equipment is effective when properly applied to a well-defined spill problem. Significant progress is reported which should be of interest to others involved in research and development efforts, those involved in complex port facilities operation, and those involved in development of an effective oil spill cleanup capability.
BEACH PROTECTION BY A DEGRADABLE, SPRAYED FILM
Authors: Dailey J.J. , Cassidy P.E. , Yager B.J.
Published: January 2013

The feasibility of beach protection against off-shore oil spills by means of a sprayed-on polymeric film is reported. The concept involves the spraying of a threatened beach area with a water-soluble polymer which forms a protective film on drying. The film prevents the adsorption and absorption of oil by sand, rocks, and wood and thus facilitates clean-up. Ideally, the film should degrade and dissolve within 2 to 3 weeks of application.

Eighteen candidate resins systems were screened initially for their solution and film properties. Five were selected for further testing, and two were chosen for small-scale, mock-beach protection tests. One coat of 55% polyvinyl acetate provides good protection against oil permeation of sand and against staining of wood and rocks. The film is nontoxic and clear; it does not adversely affect a beach site. However, under laboratory conditions, the film is quite slow to degrade.
DETERMINATION OF AN OIL EFFLUENT GUIDELINE FOR INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES IN THE STATE OF NEW JERSEY: IS 1 PPM REALISTIC AND OBTAINABLE?
Authors: Birns Karl F.
Published: January 2013

In order to rationally control and issue permits for discharges into the state's waters, it is necessary to have a guideline or standard to compare the discharge to. This paper sets forth criteria for the establishment of a maximum limit of 1 ppm oil in a discharge. The state has the authority to control the effluent quality and is also empowered to prohibit any and all oil discharges. One ppm of oil can be measured and the technology to treat water to that limit does exist. The need for a 1-ppm limit is demonstrated by the deleterious effects that oil has on water quality, marine biota, and water usage.
MORPHOLOGICAL ANOMALIES IN ADULT OYSTER, SCALLOP, AND ATLANTIC SILVERSIDES EXPOSED TO WASTE MOTOR OIL
Authors: Gardner George R. , Yevich Paul P. , Rogerson Peter F.
Published: January 2013

Waste motor oil concentrations of 20 ppm and higher induced lesions in the vascular systems of Atlantic silversides and oyster. These lesions were associated with the pseudobranch, the heart, and the arterial system of the Atlantic silversides, and the branchial efferent vein of the oyster. Lesions occurred in the gastro-intestinal tract of oyster, the gill and kidney of scallop, and the mantle of both species. Based on these preliminary exposures, the scallop, of the three species tested, demonstrated the highest sensitivity to the toxic effects of 20 ppm waste motor oil, or higher, for periods up to 60 days. The LC-50 (96 hr) value for waste motor oil and adult Atlantic silversides was 1,7000 ppm. Acute toxicity values were not determined for the oyster or scallop.
TOXIC, SUBLETHAL, AND LATENT EFFECTS OF PETROLEUM ON RED SEA MACROFAUNA
Authors: Eisler Ronald
Published: January 2013

This report studies the effects of crudes and a chemical oil counteractant on survival, metabolism, and behavior of representative species of Red Sea macrofauna under controlled environmental conditions. Specifically, it examines the action of crude oil from fields in Iran and in the Sinai, a chemical oil dispersant, and oil-dispersant mixtures on juveniles or adults of octocorals, crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, and teleosts. The choice of bioassay methodology on response parameters, especially survival, is significant. A comparison of toxicity values derived from tests in large (1,500 Q), deep (2.0 m) tanks under conditions of continuous flow with those performed in small (3 Q) jars under static conditions demonstrated that most assay species were up to 30 times more resistant to almost all toxicants in large tanks. Tank tests also demonstrated a protective effect with increasing depth: organisms confined 1.0 to 1.8 m from the surface exhibited higher survival than those held at shallower depths. Sublethal and latent effects of oils and dispersants on Red Sea biota were reviewed and included reduction in feeding rate and egg case deposition of predatory gastropods, interference with substrate attachment by mussels, liver enlargement and lowered blood hematocrit values in fishes, and bio-accumulation of crude oils in octocorals.

These and other data presented herein suggest that introduction of petroleum into Red Sea ecosystems may disrupt established feeding-predator patterns, reproductive processes, defense mechanisms, and conceivably other systems, and it would constitute a potential threat to population stability.
BOONE CREEK OIL SPILL
Authors: Schultz Donald , Tebo L. B.
Published: January 2013

During the months of March through September 1972, a biological survey was conducted on the effects of a 7,000-gallon diesel fuel spill into Boone Creek, a small stream near Salem, South Carolina. Boone Creek empties into Lake Keowee, an impoundment on the Keowee River.

Macroinvertebrate organisms, periphyton, and fish were collected, preserved, identified, and enumerated. Sediment samples were taken for hydrocarbon analysis.

Oil was observed in the creek during the entire six-month study period.

Locations downstream from the oil spill generally contained reduced numbers and types of organisms.

An estimated 90% of the fish community was killed during the initial oil spill.

Periphyton growths, dominated by diatoms, increased at locations downstream from the oil spill during May and June.

Analysis of substrate sediment samples revealed hydrocarbons still present in Boone Creek and Lake Keowee 13 months after the spill occurred.
A PRACTICAL OIL SPILL CONTROL TRAINING SCHOOL
Authors: Robinson Joel
Published: January 2013

This paper describes a practical oil spill control training course to be offered by Texas Engineering Extension Service of Texas A&M University, beginning in March, 1975. Objectives of the training course are listed, and a tentative schedule for a one-week course is presented. The course will offer basic “hands-on” training for first-line supervisors and above. The course will stress practical rather than theoretical aspects of spill control, and it will be updated and adjusted regularly to provide experience with modern equipment and techniques on a wide variety of spill situations.
DETERMINATION OF SULFUR-CONTAINING PETROLEUM COMPONENTS IN MARINE SAMPLES
Authors: Warner J. S.
Published: January 2013

Sulfur-containing petroleum components such as benzothiophene, dibenzothiophene, naphthobenzothiophene, and their alkyl derivatives are obtained along with aromatic hydrocarbons during the determination of hydrocarbons in marine samples. By using a sulfur-specific flame photometric detector in gas chromatographic analysis, the sulfur-containing components are determined separately from the aromatic hydrocarbons. Individual sulfur-containing components are identified by retention times and mass spectrometry.

It is shown that the fingerprint of sulfur-containing components can be more definitive of an oil source than the corresponding hydrocarbon fingerprint. It is also shown that sulfur-containing components can be preferentially concentrated in the marine environment. The techniques described have been used to identify and quantitate individual sulfur-containing compounds in marine tissue and sediment samples.
RECOVERING FOR MARINE LIFE DAMAGE: LEGAL ASPECTS OF ALLOCATING SOCIAL COSTS AND PROTECTING PUBLIC INTERESTS
Authors: Lutz Robert E. , Meck John P.
Published: January 2013

Determining and evaluating wildlife damage is becoming a necessary procedure in the settlement or adjudication of harm resulting from major oil spills. This is especially so in light of the several present and the many proposed compensation funds which provide for wildlife damage. Once a dollar figure is ascertained, various methods are available in compensating for these damages.

In determining damages, two basic problems exist. First is the question of who owns the wildlife or who can assert a claim to ownership of the wildlife. Second, how can the fact and extent of damage to wildlife be assessed. The various theories supporting the right to wildlife damage recovery include: ownership in fee, trusteeship, parens patriae, public interest/private Attorney General, and citizen-guardian ad litem.

Ascertaining the fact and extent of damages must be reasonably certain and not speculative. Such certainty can be determined from statistical estimations based on adequate sampling or inventories. Wildlife damage resulting from a major oil spill can amount to many millions of dollars. Arriving at the final figure in most instances necessitates addressing two issues: one, placing a dollar figure on wildlife species having no current market value; two, calculating the damage of the destroyed wildlife in the context of the relevant ecosystem. Methods of evaluating currently non-marketable natural resources and damage to relevant ecosystems include replacement value, psychic value, and consumptive and non-consumptive use values.

Means of compensating and settling damage claims can be accomplished by a number of means including the traditional method of direct cash payment. Alternative approaches could include trust funds, specific replacement and restoration programs, maintenance of sanctuaries and reserves, and financing of wildlife refuges and habitats. Compensating for wildlife damage is moving from the strictly unquantifiable approach of civil penalties to an approach which allows for a quantification of damages. This article will discuss many of the issues, as briefly described above, relating to this expanded approach.
U.S. COAST GUARD AIRBORNE OIL SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM STATUS REPORT1
Authors: Maurer A. T. , Edgerton A. T. , Meeks D. C.
Published: January 2013

Evaluation of a U.S. Coast Guard prototype operational airborne coastal patrol system has been completed. The prototype system has proven effective for detection, monitoring, and assessment of offshore oil discharges; search and rescue operations; ice reconnaissance; and monitoring of foreign fishing activities in coastal waters. The system combines several sensors (side-looking radar, IR/UV line scanner, camera and passive microwave imager) with a real-time display system for effective operation around the clock and under all but extreme weather conditions. The Coast Guard subsequently contracted with Aerojet ElectroSystems Company to modify the sensor equipment for installation in a C-130 aircraft for operational deployment. Active operations using the modified system are scheduled to begin in January 1977. This paper describes the results of prototype operational evaluation, the operational configuration of the C-130 system, and the future plans for the system.
BLACK OIL DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES
Authors: Wise Neil , Brunk Peter A.
Published: January 2013

One of the most complex and frustrating problems encountered in any oil spill is the disposal of recovered product. This paper will discuss an alternative utilizing relatively simple and inexpensive techniques as developed in the Chesapeake Bay Spill of February 1976, in which 125,000 gallons of contaminated black oil was burned at a total cost of $7,000.

This is not, however, an endorsement of burning as a more desirable method, nor an endorsement of any particular product or brand, but rather a “limited application” technique to be considered where warranted. Indeed, the varying degrees of air pollution problems generated and their effect on ambient air quality standards1 may preclude any burning at all. Other alternatives must be considered, which could be more feasible or acceptable, depending on the local problems confronted in each instance. Therefore, other methods explored and exhausted before resorting to the brush burner are briefly mentioned, such as recycling, road use, burial, and a mechanical pit burner.

The main thrust of this paper is the use of the brush burner, a compact gasoline powered propeller fan which forces a high volume air supply to sustain a fire hot enough to burn contaminated black oil. Given the requisite circumstances—a relatively isolated and unpolluted area, a high water table which precluded pit-burning or burial, and very large quantities of recovered product—the brush burner proved to be an efficient, convenient, and highly cost effective disposal technique.
IMCO AND THE EVOLVING INTERNATIONAL SCHEME FOR CONTROLLING MARINE POLLUTION
Authors: Schubert Frederick P.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the genesis, composition, and functions of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) and the expanding role of this United Nations specialized agency in protection of the marine environment. Focusing on the work of IMCO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) established in the wake of the 1973 Marine Pollution Conference, the paper gives evidence of the universal concern for the oceans in the nature and scope of the family of international conventions developed under the auspices of IMCO. Also discussed is the extent to which U.S. regulations on prevention, control of, and response to marine pollution are looked at as models for international standards and, conversely, how IMCO-related activities bear upon U.S. regulations in this field. As the primary U.S. maritime regulatory and enforcement agency, the Coast Guard plays a leading role in IMCO affairs, particularly those concerned with the prevention of marine pollution. Its role in providing assistance to other IMCO member nations also is described, as are methods for mutual sharing of the latest techniques and methodologies for the prevention, control of, and response to pollution incidents.
CONTROLLING POLLUTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT: AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Authors: Epple Dennis , Visscher Michael , Wallace William A. , Wilkinson John W.
Published: January 2013

Although federal legislation restricts the discharge of oil and other hazardous substances into inland and coastal waterways, debate continues over the best choice of institutional arrangements to control waterway pollution through regulations, standards, penalties and cleanup charges. No one approach is necessarily best in all situations. Issues addressed when determining public policy must be concerned with the tradeoff between methods chosen to influence polluter behavior and the cost of their enforcement. Using data from the U. S. Coast Guard's Pollution Incident Reporting System (PIRS) and the Port Safety and Security/Marine Environmental Protection Quarterly Activities Report, this paper examines a model describing the behavior of polluters in response to pollution control costs and, in so doing, stresses the potential economic impact. Implications for public policy also are presented.
DEVELOPMENT OF A HIGH CURRENT STREAMLINED OIL BOOM/SKIMMER FOR INLAND WATERWAYS1
Authors: Folsom Blair A. , Johnson Clyde
Published: January 2013

The streamlined oil boom/skimmer uses a slightly submerged slotted hydrofoil to skim a thin layer of oil and water into an attached sump where kinetic energy is dissipated, the oil and water are separated and the oil is retained and recovered. Because of the system's simplicity and low drag, it can be deployed as a high speed skimmer supported by a catamaran or as a high current boom with several adjacent sections spanning a high current area. Earlier work, reported in the 1973 and 1975 Joint Conferences on the Prevention and Control of Oil Spills, included preliminary feasibility tests, in which the potential for excellent high current performance was demonstrated, and small-scale bow wave tests. The work reported here includes applying the previous results to full-scale models, refining sump design, developing a stability control/flotation system and integrating these subsystems in a pre-prototype model for testing at OHMSETT.
SURFACE ENHANCEMENT—BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER
Authors: Wilson Jack E.
Published: January 2013

Pursuit of a concept as simple as reversing the oil spill spreading phenomenon has resulted in the development of a very effective methodology for cleaning up U.S. Navy oil spills. New equipment and techniques are now routinely used throughout the Navy where spills occur. Two comprehensive spill cleanup scenarios which extensively utilize the surface enhancement equipment and techniques are described. The two scenarios are: (1) confined area spill, with the skimmer in a stationary mode; and (2) open area spill, with the skimmer in a moving mode. The confined area stationary mode scenario employs boat propeller wash, air and water jets remote to the skimmer, surface active agents, granular or chip sorbents, and water and air jets built into the skimmer/boom system. Data is presented which shows that skimmer performance can be improved by factors of 8 and 18 for water and air enhancement systems respectively. The open area moving mode scenario employs a skimmer with boom and two utility boats in a “V” configuration with granular sorbents, piston film, etc., or a skimmer with oil concentration sweeps having built-in water jets and with granular sorbents, piston films, etc. Examples are presented which clearly show that low speed skimming (under 2.5 knots) while utilizing surface enhancement techniques is more cost effective than high speed skimming, even if 80% throughput efficiencies could be achieved.
EFFECTS OF THE MARCH 18, 1973 OIL SPILL NEAR CABO ROJO, PUERTO RICO ON TROPICAL MARINE COMMUNITIES
Authors: Nadeau Royal J. , Bergquist Eugene T.
Published: January 2013

During the early morning hours of March 18, 1973 the Greek tanker, Zoe Colocotronis spilled 37,000 barrels of Venezuelan crude oil into the coastal waters of southern Puerto Rico. About 24,000 bbl of oil washed ashore at Cabo Rojo, contaminating sandy beaches, turtle grass, and rocky shore communities.

Within 48 hours following the spill, dead and moribund invertebrates, representing several distinct phyla were being deposited along the beach and intertidal zone. Population analysis of the affected mangrove prop root and sublittoral turtle grass (Thalassia) communities revealed a sparse and impoverished fauna. Subsequent survey trips have revealed marked increases within certain affected populations. In one area (1.0 hectare)the red (Rhizophora mangle) and black (Avicinnia nitita) mangrove trees have defoliated and died during the three years following the spill. Analysis of the sediments in this area indicates significant levels of petroleum hydrocarbon residues were present as of January 1976.
OIL POLLUTION AND TROPICAL LITTORAL COMMUNITIES: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF THE 1975 FLORIDA KEYS OIL SPILL
Authors: Chan Elaine I.
Published: January 2013

This study reports biological effects of the July 1975 oil spill in the Florida Keys for a one-year period. Floating seagrass served as a natural sorbent for oil and stranded in the intertidal zone. A soluble component of oil, or possibly an organic cleaning solvent, leaching from this debris, was probably responsible for a mass mortality of subtidal echinoderms on the rocky platform. Several crab species were eliminated from the rocky shores, mangrove fringes, and Batis marsh communities for several months. Subtidal pearl oysters (Pinctada radiata) from the grass flat community suffered extensive mortalities, also attributable to a soluble component of oil. Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle)seedlings on the fringe and in the mangrove swamp, sustaining greater than 50% oiling of their leaves, were killed. Dwarf black mangroves (Avicennia nitida) with greater than 50% oiling of pneumatophores also died, as did some where the substrate remained oiled one year later. Elevated temperatures, exceeding lethal limits for many intertidal organisms, were observed in oil-covered substrates. Oil persisted in the substrate of rocky shores and mangrove-marsh areas for at least one year after the spill.
THE FIVE-YEAR RECRUITMENT OF MARINE LIFE AFTER THE 1971 SAN FRANCISCO OIL SPILL
Authors: Chan Gordon L.
Published: January 2013

On January 18, 1971, two Standard Oil tankers collided underneath the Golden Gate Bridge, releasing about 840,000 gallons of Bunker C fuel. An estimated 4.2 million to 7.5 million intertidal invertebrates, chiefly barnacles, were smothered by the oil. Five-year observations of marine life recruitment following the spill indicate that population densities of some marine species have significantly increased in the San Francisco Bay area intertidal zones at Sausalito and Duxbury Reef. With some fluctuations, the barnacles Balanus glandula and Chthamalus dalli have increased from July 1971 to May 1976—from 93 to 189 barnacles per dm2 at Sausalito and from nine to 34 per dm2 at Duxbury Reef. The large bed of mussels, Mytilus californianus, showed a steady rise from 5.9/m2 in April 1971 to 14.0/dm2 in July 1976. The density of mobile organisms, such as limpets, snails, crabs, and starfish, all show cyclical variations; some show an overall increase. The limpets, Collisella spp., which suffered high mortality during the spill have increased threefold over pre-oil counts.

In 1975, some significantly low sample means were recorded for barnacles in Sausalito and for 18 composite species at Duxbury Reef, probably due to natural ecological forces. The five-year recruitment (1971-76), however, shows no evidence of lasting detrimental effects of Bunker C oil on the populations of marine life within the transect sites.
WATER SOLUBLE COMPONENTS OF CRUDE OILS, FUEL OILS, AND USED CRANK-CASE OILS
Authors: Winters Kenneth , Parker Patrick L.
Published: January 2013

The major components of water soluble fractions (WSFs) prepared from representative crude, fuel, and used crankcase oils have been identified by combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Classes of hydrocarbons identified include alkyl phenols, anilines, indoles, quinolines, and benzothiophenes. Aromatic aldehydes and ketones were also identified.

The composition of freshly prepared WSF and WSF exposed to air for from 6 hours to 5 days was determined. Alkyl benzenes, indans, and naphthalenes were rapidly lost from solution with negligible concentrations remaining after 24 hours. In contrast alkyl phenols, anilines, and indoles were generally present at greater than 50% of their initial concentration after 5 days.
EFFECTIVENESS OF A LARGE-SCALE BALLAST TREATMENT PROCESS
Authors: Lysyj Ihor , Rushworth Ron , Melvold Robert , Farlow John
Published: January 2013

A study dealing with the effectiveness of large-scale treatment of ballast water was conducted at the terminal treatment facility of the Alaska Pipeline in Port Valdez, Alaska. Three principal questions addressed by the study were: the effectiveness of petroleum removal from ballast water; the nature of the chemical changes in the process stream; and the suitability of various analytical techniques for monitoring plant operation and measuring the quality of the final effluent.

The following analytical operations were performed on-site in Port Valdez: determination of “total oil” by Freon 113 extraction, followed by IR and gravimetric measurement methods; determination of nonvolatile dissolved and nonvolatile suspended organic materials by TOC analysis; determination of volatile organics by gas chromatography; and accumulator column separation and chloroform extraction of dissolved nonvolatile organic matter for subsequent HPLC and GC/MS analysis.

It was found that the final effluent contained volatile organic matter composed primarily of aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, and xylenes) (48 percent), dissolved organic materials of petroleum nonhydrocarbon type (36 percent), and suspended organic matter which is traditionally defined as water-insoluble “oil” (16 percent).

The bulk of the separation of oil from water, it was found, takes place in primary gravity separators (more than 99 percent), and that the secondary aeration-flocculation operation removes only approximately one-half of the remaining fraction of one percent.

The studies also showed that standard methods for determination of “total oil” by extraction and either IR or gravimetric methods are insufficient for monitoring the quality of the final treated effluent. This is because the principal organic components in treated effluent are volatile aromatic hydrocarbons and dissolved petroleum non-hydrocarbons. The standard method for “total oil” analysis by extraction-IR is not calibrated for detection of such components, while evaporation of solvent during the gravimetric procedure results in the loss of the largest single group of organics present in the effluent: aromatic hydrocarbons.
UNIT OPERATIONS, UNIT PROCESSES AND LEVEL OF RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CLEANUP OF THE OIL SPILL FROM THE SUPERTANKER AMOCO CADIZ
Authors: Hann Roy W.
Published: January 2013

The March 1978 oil spill from the tanker Amoco Cadiz will serve as a landmark reference point for many decades for those interested in dealing with large oil spills. This paper1 describes the apparent strategy and the timing of resources used for cleanup of the spill, investigates the cleanup operations in terms of the individual unit operations and unit processes, and examines the level of financial resources, manpower, supply and equipment used in dealing with the spill at the various stages of the cleanup operation. The paper concludes with an extensive discussion of the lessons which have become apparent or are being reinforced by this particular spill with regard to the technology and administrative structure needed to effectively deal with very large oil spills.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF MOUSSE AND SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES FROM THE AMOCO CADIZ OIL SPILL
Authors: Overton E. B. , Patel J. R. , Laseter J. L.
Published: January 2013

Mousse, biota, soil, sediment and reference mousse (collected immediately adjacent to the wreck) samples were collected during and immediately after the Amoco Cadiz oil spill. A medium Arabian crude oil was used as a nonweathered control sample. The extracts were fractionated by liquid/solid chromatography and analyzed by high resolution gas chromatography and GC-MS techniques (mass spectrometry). GC-MS analysis had identified most of the major components in the 40 percent benzene in n-hexane fractions of the samples. Relative concentrations of selected aromatic components in the various samples were compared using a unique three-dimensional plotting format. The presence of oxidation products from the diben-zothiophenes were characterized in methanol fractions of actual environmental samples. Laboratory experiments conducted under simulated environmental conditions suggest that these oxidized products may arise by photochemical transformations. Products were identified by GC and GC-MS techniques and representative mass spectra are included.
THE PROTECTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT AND COASTAL AREAS OF THE KUWAIT CONFERENCE REGION: THE PROGRAM OF THE UNITED NATIONS SYSTEM1
Authors: Neuman Lawrence D.
Published: January 2013

On the initiative of the States of the Region, in response to their large-scale development activities and the threat posed to the marine environment, the Kuwait Regional Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Areas was convened by the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in Kuwait from 15–23 April 1978. The Conference was attended by Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.

The major achievement of the Conference was the adoption of a Final Act which includes an Action Plan containing environmental assessment and management programs as well as the Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation in the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution and a Protocol concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency. The potential for severe environmental degradation from massive oil spills was recognized as the priority concern.

Initial project activities are scheduled to begin in early 1979 and continue for two years. UNEP will act as the catalytic agent in what is a co-ordinated effort of the United Nations system. In addition to an assessment of the origin and magnitude of pollution in the Region, the unprecedented growth of coastal development, especially industry, will be assessed in order to evaluate environmental consequences and appropriate pollution control measures.
OIL RECOVERY FROM UNDER RIVER ICE
Authors: Telford A. S. , Quam H. A.
Published: January 2013

On March 7, 1978, a successful field test of the recovery of oil from under river ice was conducted on the North Saskatchewan River in Alberta, Canada. The ice was 28 inches (70 cm) thick, the water depth ranged from 1.5 to 7.9 ft (0.5 to 2.4 m) and the average water current was 1.3 ft/second (40 cm/sec). Dyed vegetable oil and crude oil were released under the ice upstream of a recovery slot which was 4 ft (1.2 m) wide, 400 ft (122 m) long, and placed at an angle of 30 degrees to the current. Almost all the vegetable and crude oil that was released under the river ice was intercepted by the slot and diverted to the slower current at the downstream end of the slot where it was readily recovered with a specially-constructed weir skimmer. From experiments in small 4 ft by 4 ft (1.2 m by 1.2 m) slots cut in the ice, it was determined that a slot would hold about a 5 inch (12 cm) layer of oil on the water surface for an ice thickness of 28 inches (70 cm) and an average current of 1.6 ft/sec (50 cm/s).

A trenching machine (Ditch Witch) proved effective for cutting the ice. Ice blocks about 3 ft by 4 ft (1 m by 1.3 m) were formed and pushed along the slot to the river bank. There, each ice block was lifted with a mobile crane by means of a cable and T-bar inserted through a 6 inch (15 cm) diameter hole drilled in the centre of the block. The load bearing capacity of the ice was critical in determining the type and size of equipment that could operate safely on the ice. The project was conducted by the Prairie Region Oil Spill Containment and Recovery Advisory Committee and was financed by the Canadian Petroleum Association, Environment Canada, and the Petroleum Association for the Conservation of the Canadian Environment.
CLEANUP OF A 32,000-BARREL CRUDE OIL SPILL AT THE WEST HACKBERRY DOME STORAGE SITE IN LOUISIANA1
Authors: Wilson Jack E. , Gallagher Jack
Published: January 2013

At 4:00 p.m. on September 21, 1978, a fire and major oil spill occurred at the U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve in West Hackberry, Louisiana. Five days later, the fire was extinguished and within another two days, more than 30,000 barrels of oil had been recovered from the adjoining lake. History will record the event as a serious accident that resulted in one death and an injury, but a closer look will reveal one bright spot—an effective oil spill cleanup operation.
DEVELOPMENT AND TESTS OF AN AIR-JET OIL BOOM1
Authors: Cohen Steven H. , Lindenmuth William T. , Farlow John S.
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the development of the Air-Jet Boom—a novel boom which has the capability to divert oil slicks under wave and current conditions that normally preclude the deployment of conventional booms. Tests at the EPA's Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) facility have demonstrated that this boom can, for example, successfully divert oil slicks at 3 knots with 85 percent efficiency when at 30° to the flow. Moreover, with the addition of steep, 4-foot waves, the boom's performance is virtually unchanged. 1

The key operational feature is a continuous, horizontally-oriented air jet ejected from along the boom near the water surface. The flow interaction and the ensuing momentum transfer from the air jet to the water surface (by viscous and turbulent shear stress) induces a strong local surface current just ahead of the boom. When the boom is deployed at an angle to the flow (diversionary mode), the induced current causes the oncoming oil slick to be deflected and transported across the water surf ace, apart from the clean underlying flow.

Overall, each boom module is about 33 feet long and 2 feet in diameter. Major components include two inflatable sections (ducts) supporting the continuous air-jet nozzle and a center support-float/jet-pump arrangement to supply the high volume, low-pressure (23,000 SCFM at 3 inches of water) air flow required for operation. Some unique features of the structural design are low draft (one inch) and excellent compliance to waves. Furthermore, the sections are lightweight and highly compactible for storage.