bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Most-Favored-Nation Clauses
Authors: Bonet Jordi
Published: September 2014

A most-favored-nation clause (MFNC) is a specific treaty provision “whereby a State [the granting State] undertakes an obligation towards another State [the beneficiary State] to accord most-favored treatment in an agreed sphere of relations” (Article 4 of the draft on most-favored-nation clauses adopted by the International Law Commission at its thirtieth session in 1978). The general purpose of a MFNC is to grant most favored treatment (MFNT) within spheres of relations generally connected to areas of bilateral or multilateral intergovernmental cooperation varying in scope. MFNT is a standard of treatment accorded by the granting state to the beneficiary state, or to persons or things in a determined relationship with that state; this means that MFNT could also be employed to benefit persons or things that have an identified link with the beneficiary state (for example, citizenship or product origin) and not only in reciprocal interstate relationships. The International Law Commission (ILC) points out that MFNT involves granting treatment not less favorable than treatment extended by the granting state to a third state or to persons or things in the same relationship with that third state; the ILC prefers the wording “not less favorable” to the alternative “equal treatment” because it is the phrase commonly used in MFNCs and because MFNCs cannot prevent the granting state from bestowing on the beneficiary state additional advantages to those applied to the most-favored third state. In sum, the purpose of MFNCs is to maintain fundamental equality among all the states concerned in the relevant fields. On the other hand, even if MFNT could theoretically arise from the unilateral conduct of states, whether or not based on reciprocity or on nonbinding instruments (as political agreements), conventional MFNCs inserted in international treaties have become the most effective tool to ensure MFNT and its reciprocal extension to all parties since unilateral clauses granting such treatment are, if in use at all, rather exceptional nowadays.
The Seychelles
Authors: Allen Richard
Published: September 2014

The Seychelles are an archipelago of some 115 small granitic and coralline islands scattered over 1 million square kilometers of the western Indian Ocean. The largest island is Mahé, situated 1,600 kilometers east of Mombasa, which houses more than 80 percent of the country’s population of approximately 100,000. Most other Seychellois live on the neighboring islands of La Digue and Praslin. The Seychelles remained uninhabited until 1770 when the central Mahé group was settled by colonists and their African and Malagasy slaves from the French-controlled Mascarene Islands of Île de France (modern Mauritius) and Île de Bourbon (modern Réunion). The Seychelles remained a Mauritian dependency following that island’s cession to Great Britain in 1814 by the Treaty of Paris. The archipelago became a separate British Crown colony in 1903 and acquired independence in 1976. Because of their geographical isolation, small population, and lack of natural resources, the Seychelles have remained a subject of limited interest to economists, historians, political scientists, and social scientists.
Diverse guilds provide complementary dispersal services in a woodland expansion process after land abandonment
Authors: Escribano‐Avila Gema , Calviño‐Cancela María , Pías Beatriz , Virgós Emilio , Valladares Fernando , Escudero Adrián
Published: September 2014

Land abandonment due to increasing depopulation of rural areas is an ongoing trend in developed countries worldwide. Abandoned lands represent an opportunity for ecosystem recovery, an urgent need for biodiversity conservation. Seed dispersal services provided by animals are a key feature for this process. Different dispersers may differentially contribute to plant recruitment under different ecological conditions, leading to complementary dispersal services.

We studied the dispersal services, quantified as the contribution to plant recruitment, provided by the main dispersal guilds of Spanish juniper Juniperus thurifera L.: small‐to‐medium‐sized strongly frugivorous birds (thrushes) and medium‐to‐large‐sized carnivorous mammals (red fox and stone marten). To do this, we studied seed fate from seed dispersal to seedling survival during 2 years and estimated seed dispersal effectiveness (seedlings recruited per m2) in two ecological contexts derived from ecosystem recovery after a historical period of degradation: remnant woodlands and old fields.

Results showed a clear shift in the contribution to plant recruitment between these guilds, resulting in complementary and non‐redundant dispersal services. Thrushes were the main contributors to plant recruitment in woodlands (73%), leading to population growth but with a reduced impact on the colonization of old fields where carnivores contributed to 80% of recruitment (42% red fox, 38% stone marten). The dispersal complementarity observed for thrushes and carnivores is a consequence of their functional diversity, mainly driven by their differences in feeding and movement behaviour.

Synthesis and applications. The combination of short‐distance, strongly frugivorous dispersers (e.g. passerine birds) together with big generalist frugivores with long‐distance movements (e.g. carnivorous mammals) maintained (i) effective seed dispersal services in remnant woodlands and (ii) the connectivity between patches promoting old fields colonization and woodland expansion. Thus, it is in heterogeneous landscape mosaics ecosystems (e.g. agro‐environments) where functionally diverse disperser communities play a key role in ecosystem recovery. By performing effective dispersal services across an array of habitat types, functionally diverse disperser communities assist natural restoration of human‐impacted ecosystems all over the world. Thus, dispersal communities provide an important ecosystem service that may replace costly human‐mediated restoration projects.
Adenosine as a probing tool for the mechanistic study of acupuncture treatment
Authors: Wang Jia‐You , Li Hui , Zhang Lei , Ma Chun‐Mei , Wang Jia‐Lu , Lai Xin‐Sheng , Zhou Shu‐Feng
Published: September 2014

To date, acupuncture has been widely used despite a lack of solid clinical evidence in the East and West. However, there are few validated in vitro models for the mechanistic studies of acupuncture. We hypothesized that adenosine could be used as a probing tool in the mechanistic studies of acupuncture because of its critical role in the action of acupuncture. Subsequently, we tested this hypothesis using both in vitro and in vivo experiments. First, we found that adenosine stimulation mimicked the effect of acupuncture on microRNA profiling (including miR‐339, miR‐145 and miR‐451) and protein level (including Sirt2) in nerve growth factor‐induced differentiated PC12 cells. These miRNA and proteins have been found to be regulated by acupuncture treatment in the brain of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Next, we found that adenosine stimulation downregulated miR‐339 expression through adenosine A1 receptor‐mediated pathway. Finally, we showed that the concentration of adenosine was actually decreased in the brain of spontaneously hypertensive rats after acupuncture treatment at Taichong acupoint. Taken together, these findings suggest that adenosine could be used as a useful probing tool for acupuncture mechanistic studies, while more validation studies are certainly warranted.
Serum levels of visfatin, resistin and adiponectin in patients with psoriatic arthritis and associations with disease severity
Authors: Dikbas Oguz , Tosun Mehmet , Bes Cemal , Tonuk Sukru Burak , Aksehirli Ozge Yilmaz , Soy Mehmet
Published: September 2014

Aim

Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is an inflammatory form of arthritis typically associated with psoriasis and/or psoriatic nail disease. Adipocytokines were once thought to influence development of (only) insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus. However, it is now clear that adipocytokines play important roles in development of the inflammation associated with either autoimmune or auto‐inflammatory disorders. In the present study, we measured changes in the serum levels of adiponectin, resistin and visfatin, and the associations of such changes with the extent of disease activity and insulin resistance in PsA patients.

Material and methods

A total of 67 subjects (28 with PsA and 39 healthy controls) without hypertension or diabetes mellitus were enrolled. Adiponectin, resistin and visfatin levels, and the extent of insulin resistance (assayed using the homeostasis model [HOMA‐IR]), were measured in all subjects. Assessment of PsA disease activity was done with the Disease Activity Index for Psoriatic Arthritis (DAPSA).

Results

Psoriatic arthritis patients had considerably higher serum levels of adiponectin, resistin and visfatin than did healthy controls (all P < 0.05). In the logistic regression analysis, the following variables may contribute to complex pathogenesis of PsA: adiponectin (P = 0.001, OR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.6–6.0), resistin (P = 006, OR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.2–2.9) and visfatin (P = 0.031, OR = 3.9, 95% CI = 1.1–13.9). In contrast, we have not detected any correlation between DAPSA and adipocytokine serum levels (P > 0.05).

Conclusion

There is no correlation between adipocytokines and disease activity. Although serum adiponectin, resistin and visfatin levels are higher in patients with PsA, pathophysiological significance of the result has to be evaluated with more extensive studies.
Bioclimatic variables derived from remote sensing: assessment and application for species distribution modelling
Authors: Waltari Eric , Schroeder Ronny , McDonald Kyle , Anderson Robert P. , Carnaval Ana
Published: September 2014

Remote sensing techniques offer an opportunity to improve biodiversity modelling and prediction world‐wide. Yet, to date, the weather station‐based WorldClim data set has been the primary source of temperature and precipitation information used in correlative species distribution models. WorldClim consists of grids interpolated from in situ station data recorded primarily from 1960 to 1990. Those data sets suffer from uneven geographic coverage, with many areas of Earth poorly represented.

Here, we compare two remote sensing data sources for the purposes of biodiversity prediction: MERRA climate reanalysis data and AMSR‐E, a pure remote sensing data source. We use these data to generate novel temperature‐based bioclimatic information and to model the distributions of 20 species of vertebrates endemic to four regions of South America: Amazonia, the Atlantic Forest, the Cerrado and Patagonia. We compare the bioclimatic data sets derived from MERRA and AMSR‐E information with in situ station data and contrast species distribution models based on these two products to models built with WorldClim.

Surface temperature estimates provided by MERRA and AMSR‐E showed warm temperature biases relative to the in situ data fields, but the reliability of these data sets varied in geographic space. Species distribution models derived from the MERRA data performed equally well (in Cerrado, Amazonia and Patagonia) or better (Atlantic Forest) than models built with the WorldClim data. In contrast, the performance of models constructed with the AMSR‐E data was similar to (Amazonia, Atlantic Forest, Cerrado) or worse than (Patagonia) that of models built with WorldClim data.

Whereas this initial comparison assessed only temperature fields, efforts to estimate precipitation from remote sensing information hold great promise; furthermore, other environmental data sets with higher spatial and temporal fidelity may improve upon these results.
Relationships Among NANDA‐I Diagnoses, Nursing Outcomes Classification, and Nursing Interventions Classification by Nursing Students for Patients in Medical‐Surgical Units in Korea
Authors: Noh Hyun Kyung , Lee Eunjoo
Published: September 2014

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to identify NANDA‐I, Nursing Outcomes Classification (NOC), and Nursing Interventions Classification (NIC; NNN) linkages used by Korean nursing students during their clinical practice in medical‐surgical units.

Methods

A comparative descriptive research design was used to measure the effects of nursing interventions from 153 nursing students in South Korea. Nursing students selected NNN using a Web‐based nursing process documentation system. Data were analyzed by paired t‐test.

Results

Eighty‐two NANDA‐I diagnoses, 116 NOC outcomes, and 163 NIC interventions were identified. Statistically significant differences in patients' preintervention and postintervention outcome scores were observed.

Conclusion

By determining patient outcomes linked to interventions and how the degree of outcomes change after interventions, the effectiveness of the interventions can be evaluated.
Antenatal shared care: Are pregnant women being adequately informed about iodine and nutritional supplementation?
Authors: Lucas Catherine J. , Charlton Karen E. , Brown Lucy , Brock Erin , Cummins Leanne
Published: September 2014

Objectives

To assess nutrition‐related knowledge and practices, including supplement use, of both pregnant women and healthcare providers that participate in antenatal shared care (ANSC).

Methods

Pregnant women enrolled in ANSC (n = 142) completed a knowledge and practices survey and a validated iodine‐specific Food Frequency Questionnaire. General practitioners (GP) and nurses (N = 61) participating in the ANSC program completed a short survey which assessed their knowledge about nutrition for pregnancy, focussing on iodine.

Results

Both groups had poor knowledge about the importance and roles of iodine during pregnancy. Most women (82%) reported taking a supplement during their current pregnancy, and 70% were taking a supplement containing iodine. Only 26% of GPs discussed iodine supplementation with pregnant patients. The median (IQR) iodine intake of pregnant women was 189 (129–260) μg/day which meets the estimated average requirement (160 μg/day). Half (52%) of women's dietary iodine was provided by dairy foods, and only 7% came from fish and seafood. Most healthcare providers (74%) expressed interest in receiving ongoing professional education about iodine in pregnancy.

Conclusion and Implications

Ongoing nutrition education for ANSC health practitioners is required to ensure that women receive sufficient dietary advice for optimal pregnancy outcomes. Further research is required to address reasons behind dietary choices of Australian pregnant women.
Motivated and Displaced Revenge: Remembering 9/11 Suppresses Opposition to Military Intervention in Syria (for Some)
Authors: Washburn Anthony N. , Skitka Linda J.
Published: September 2014

We conducted an experimental test of the displaced international punishment hypothesis by testing whether reminding people about 9/11 would increase support for U.S. military intervention in Syria. A community sample of Americans were reminded of 9/11, the terrorist attacks in London in 2005, or were given no reminder before being asked their support for military intervention in Syria. Results indicated that there was a significant suppression effect of desired revenge for the 9/11 attacks on support for military intervention for liberals and moderates, but not conservatives. Liberal and moderate participants reminded of 9/11 supported military intervention because reminders of 9/11 primed strong desires for vengeance. These findings suggest that reminding people of a severe offense to their country triggers a desire for revenge, which increases the desire to punish a target symbolically similar to the original perpetrator, but only when doing so is politically expedient.
Policy change in flat pensions: ComparingCanada and theUK
Authors: Béland Daniel , Waddan Alex
Published: September 2014

Adopting a historical and comparative perspective, this article explores the politics of flat old‐age pensions in theUnitedKingdom (UK) andCanada, two liberal countries in which this type of program is at the foundation of the public pension system. The article focuses on changes that affect eligibility criteria and benefit levels. It concludes that, in both countries, pension reform efforts have followed contradictory trajectories but, overall, despite being a non‐contributory program,Canada's Old Age Security has proved more resilient than theUK'sBasicStatePension, a reality that challenges the well‐known claim that contributory pension programs are more resistant to restructuring than non‐contributory ones.
“Pooling our resources”: Equalization and the origins of regional universality, 1937–1957
Authors: Bryden P.E.
Published: September 2014

This paper places Canada's equalization program in the context of broader discussions of equality and universality that dominated the mid‐twentieth century discourse. It examines the origins of equalization in the Rowell‐Sirois Report, the flirtation with equalization during the Dominion‐Provincial Conference on Reconstruction in 1945–46, and the intergovernmental discussions of the 1950s that led to the first formal implementation of equalization in 1957. It argues that a system of universal regional equalization grants arose not only because of the lessons of the Depression and the regional inequalities surfacing during the 1930s, but also as a by‐product of the move to universal social security measures, such as family allowances and, later, health insurance.
Paths, precedents, parallels and pendulums: The uses of the past in public policy and administration
Authors: Dutil Patrice
Published: September 2014

Is there a place for “history” in understanding both the theory and the practice of public administration today? The answer of this article is an emphatic “yes,” as long as the approach is used carefully. The reality is that history is used constantly to justify policy and administrative directions. The challenge is to find the best approach. This article explores four devices put to use by policy scholars and practitioners and encourages the field to use the past more effectively so that the claim that “This time, it's different” will be understood with a measure of precision, but also with modesty.
Winner of Voorjaarsdagen Award 2014: Sedation and Mechanical Hypoalgesia Induced by Four Different Dosages of Butorphanol in Xylazine‐Premedicated Donkeys
Authors: Lizarraga I. , Castillo‐Alcala F.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Combinations of α2‐adrenoceptor and opioid agonists are commonly used in equines, but there is little scientific information on this topic in donkeys.

Objectives

To compare the sedative and hypoalgesic effects of 4 dosages of butorphanol in xylazine‐premedicated donkeys.

Study design

In vivo experiment.

Methods

Six donkeys received intravenous treatments: saline and saline (S‐S); xylazine (0.5 mg/kg bwt) and saline (X‐S); xylazine and butorphanol 10 μg/kg bwt (X‐B10); xylazine and butorphanol 20 μg/kg bwt (X‐B20); xylazine and butorphanol 30 μg/kg bwt (X‐B30); and xylazine and butorphanol 40 μg/kg bwt (X‐B40). Sedation score (0–3), head height above ground (HHAG), and mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNT) of the left metacarpus were assessed before and for 120 min after treatment. Areas under the curve (AUC) for 0–30, 30–60 and 60–120 min post treatment were computed for sedation scores (SS‐AUC), HHAG (HHAG‐AUC) and MNT (MNT‐AUC). Differences between treatments were analysed using the Friedman test followed by Dunn's test and repeated measures one‐way ANOVA followed by Tukey's test.

Results

All treatments except S‐S induced sedation. Butorphanol treatments induced significantly greater SS‐AUC0–30 values than those for S‐S (P<0.05), but S‐S and X‐S SS‐AUC0–30 values were not significantly different. The HHAG‐AUC0–30 values for all treatments were smaller than corresponding values for S‐S (P<0.001). For HHAG‐AUC30‐60, only X‐B40 values were significantly smaller than corresponding values for S‐S (P<0.05). Compared to S‐S, all treatments increased MNT and yielded significantly higher MNT‐AUC0–30 values (P<0.001). Treatment X‐S yielded significantly lower MNT‐AUC0–30 values than those for X‐B30 and X‐B40 (P<0.05). Only MNT‐AUC30–60 values for X‐B30 and X‐B40 were higher than those for S‐S and X‐S (P<0.05).

Conclusions

Xylazine induced sedation and mechanical hypoalgesia that were enhanced by adding butorphanol at 40 μg/kg bwt. This drug combination may be suitable for chemical restraint of donkeys undergoing clinical procedures.

Ethical animal research: The study was approved by the Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Sources of funding: Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine intramural grant. Competing interests: None.
Changes in Adipose mRNA Expression between Previously Laminitic Ponies and Nonlaminitic Ponies in Summer and Winter
Authors: Timpson A.J. , Elliott J. , Harris P.A. , Cheng Z. , Rainbow L. , de Mestre A.M. , Menzies‐Gow N.J.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Some ponies are predisposed to recurrent pasture‐associated laminitis, but the mechanisms underlying this remain unclear. Adipose tissue is a highly metabolically active tissue that secretes mediators which affect vascular function, insulin signalling and inflammation, all of which are potentially implicated in the pathogenesis of laminitis.

Objectives

To determine whether the gene expression of adipose tissue from previously laminitic ponies (LP) differs from nonlaminitic ponies (NL).

Study design

Subcutaneous adipose tissue was collected by biopsy from the neck region of healthy LP and NL (n = 6 each group) in the summer and winter.

Methods

Gene expression was determined using a 44 K equine expression microarray. Data were analysed using GeneSpring and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. Genes with >2‐fold difference, P<0.01 were considered significant using a t test to analyse group and/or season.

Results

The most significant differences in global gene expression in adipose tissue were observed between summer and winter in both groups, with 244 (NL) and 174 (LP) genes differentially expressed. There was a significant difference between LP and NL groups in the summer (141 genes differentially expressed), whereas the 2 groups were more similar in the winter (40 genes differentially expressed). Eight of the top 10 upregulated genes and 3 of the top 5 canonical pathways that differed between LP and NL in the summer were associated with inflammation and/or immunity.

Conclusions

Laminitic ponies appear to have a different adipose tissue gene expression profile to NL, particularly in the summer. Inflammatory genes and pathways were significantly upregulated in the LP group suggesting higher levels of inflammation or priming of inflammatory pathways which may contribute to a predisposition to laminitis.

Ethical animal research: The study was completed under Home Office Project Licence approved by the RVC Ethics and Welfare Committee. Sources of funding: This study was funded by Waltham®. A. Timpson is funded by the Mellon Equine Endowment Fund. Competing interests: Dr P. Harris is employed by Waltham. The other authors have declared no competing interests.
Evaluation of Regional Adiposity in the Neck Area of Andalusian Horses
Authors: Martin Gimenez T. , de Blas Giral I. , Aguilera Tejero E. , Diez de Castro E. , Aguirre Pascasio C.N.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Adipose tissue deposited along the crest of the neck has been associated with altered metabolic states and with an increased risk of laminitis in equids. Thickness of the neck is a phenotipic characteristic in Andalusians; however, there are no studies evaluating this condition in this breed.

Objectives

To evaluate morphometric and ultrasonographic measurements in the neck area for assessment of neck adiposity and its associations with adiposity scores and biochemical variables.

Study design

A sample of 115 Andalusian horses (46 barren mares and 69 stallions, 2–15 years old) was evaluated in a cross‐sectional study.

Methods

Cresty neck score (CNS) was determined. Two groups were created: cresty neck (CNS ≥ 3) and noncresty neck (CNS<3) horses. Neck circumference (NC) (cm) and ultrasonography (US) of subcutaneous fat (mm) at 25% (NC0.25–US0.25), 50% (NC0.50–US0.50) and 75% (NC0.75–US0.75) of neck length were measured. Middle neck circumference (NC), neck length and height at the withers were taken to calculate neck ratios (NC0.50:height, NC0.50:neck length). Plasma was analysed for insulin and leptin. Hyperinsulinemia was defined as insulin ≥20 μiu/ml. Correlations using Pearson and Spearman coefficients were evaluated. Mean comparisons were carried out with Student's t or Mann‐Whitney tests.

Results

Cresty neck condition was present in 73.9% (n = 85) of the horses and 2.6% (n = 3) were hyperinsulinaemic. Cresty neck horses had significantly higher plasma leptin, morphometric and ultrasonographic measurements. NC0.50:height was the most correlated parameter with CNS. Insulin was correlated with leptin levels and all morphometric measurements. Insulin and leptin were correlated only with US0.75.

Conclusions

Andalusian horses’ neck score, despite their thick necks in the majority of individuals, does not have a good correlation with plasma insulin and leptin levels. Since in Andalusian horses, neck scores may be overestimating obesity, further studies on ultrasonographic fat measurements are needed.

Ethical animal research: The university committee for the ethical use of animals approved all procedures. Owners gave informed consent for their horses’ inclusion in the study. Sources of funding: None. Competing interests: None.
‘Riding the Rollercoaster’: Veterinary Experiences of Managing Laminitis in Practice
Authors: Scantlebury C.E. , Perkins E. , McGowan C. , Pinchbeck G.L. , Christley R.M. , Archer D.C.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Little is reported about the successes and challenges experienced by veterinary surgeons while managing cases of laminitis. Such information could enhance the effectiveness of communication of management and preventive health strategies for laminitis.

Objectives

To explore veterinary surgeons’ experiences of dealing with laminitis and examine how veterinary–client communication influences the treatment and management of cases.

Study design

Focus group discussions conducted among first‐opinion equine veterinary surgeons.

Methods

First‐opinion ambulatory veterinary practices from Cheshire (n = 15), Lancashire (n = 14) and the Rutland region (n = 14) were identified. Letters of invitation were sent and all practices were telephoned to invite veterinary surgeons to participate in the study. Key questions relating to laminitis were explored within semi‐structured focus group discussions: veterinary perceptions of laminitis information, reasons for horse‐owners’ seeking veterinary advice, veterinary perceptions of horse‐owners’ knowledge, attitudes and practices, situations where the advice of other professionals may be sought. All discussions were recorded and transcribed verbatim. A thematic analysis was conducted using NVivo software.

Results

Three focus group discussions were held with veterinary surgeons with a range of experience; 2 in the North West (9 vets) and one in Rutland (4 vets). Emerging themes relating to veterinary surgeons’ experience of dealing with laminitis included; veterinary–client communication, challenges faced by vets, managing clients perceptions and expectations, client recognition and management of laminitis, feeding and obesity management, issues of compliance, causes of laminitis, strategies to prevent laminitis, diagnosing, treating and prognosticating in laminitis cases, sources of veterinary information and collaboration with other professionals.

Conclusions

The findings illustrate key features of the veterinary–client relationship in supporting owners through the variable course of this disease. This study demonstrates the complexity of issues that veterinary surgeons may encounter when managing cases of laminitis and communicating healthcare messages to the client.

Ethical animal research: This project was approved by the University of Liverpool Ethics for Research Committee. Sources of funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge support and funding from the BVA Animal Welfare Foundation charitable trust. Competing interests: None.
Different Methods to Identify Pain after Routine Surgical Castration of Equine Stallions: Composite Pain Scale, Facial Expressions, Faecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites and Plasma Cytokines
Authors: Stucke D. , Hall S. , Morrone B. , Große Ruse M. , Lebelt D.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Lack of ‘gold standard’ for pain assessment in horses.

Objectives

To assess different approaches of quantifying pain in horses. Castration was chosen as a pain model because of its wide clinical relevance.

Study design

Exploratory study.

Methods

51 equine stallions undergoing castration under general anaesthesia were divided in 3 pain‐relieving treatment groups: A) single perioperative administration of flunixin (n = 19), B) additional subsequent flunixin administrations (n = 21), D) like A but with intra‐operative mepivacaine injections into the spermatic cord (n = 11). All horses were assessed before and 5 times after surgery (up to 44 h) by means of a modified composite pain scale (CPS), a newly developed facial expression pain scale (FEPS), faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (GCMs) and plasma cytokine profiles. The same parameters were measured in a control group C, undergoing general anaesthesia for different nonpainful procedures (n = 6). Data were analysed with nonparametric statistical tests (Wilcoxon, Mann Whitney U).

Results

Time had an influence on CPS and FEPS scores in treatment groups A, B and D but not in C. Scores of groups A and B were higher compared to groups D and C at 4 (CPS, FEPS) and 8 h (CPS), whereas there was no difference between groups A and B nor between groups D and C. Only in group AB was there an increase of faecal GCMs 20 h after surgery. GCMs in group AB were higher compared with groups C and D at 32 h. No effects by time or treatment could be identified for the different plasma cytokines.

Conclusions

CPS and FEPS seem to be able to detect different levels of post castration pain differentiating from possible anaesthesia effect. Additional local anaesthesia of the spermatic cord was associated with lower post surgical pain scores when compared to perioperative flunixin application alone, whereas subsequent applications of flunixin had no obvious effect.

Ethical animal research: This study was registered as an animal experiment by the Brandenburg state authority (V3‐2347‐A‐42‐1‐2012). Client‐owned horses were included with informed consent. Sources of funding: EU‐funded FP7‐project “Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN)” (FP7‐KBBE‐2010‐4). Competing interests: None.
Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (TES) as a Possible Novel Alternative to Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to Assess the Motor Function of the Spinal Cord for Clinical Diagnosis in Horses
Authors: Journée S.L. , Delesalle C.J.G. , de Bruijn C.M. , Bergmann W. , Journée H.L.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

To introduce and assess the feasibility of multipulse transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) in horses.

Objectives

To assess latency times of muscular motor evoked potentials (MEP) in the m. extensor carpi radialis (ECR) and the m. tibialis cranialis (TC), elicited by transcranially applied multipulse stimulation in 12 healthy horses.

Study design

Prospective observational study applied in 12 healthy horses.

Methods

Horses with a mean age of 11.0 (range 3.6–20.5) years and a height of 160 (s.d. ± 10.0) cm were studied. Horses were sedated with detomidin (1.5 μg/kg bwt) and butorphanol (1.5 μg/kg bwt) i.v. A subcutaneous ring block with lidocaine 2% + adrenaline was placed on the forehead. TES was performed using biphasic high frequency multipulse voltage trains (pulse width: 0.1 ms, interpulse interval: 1.3 ms, 3 pulses/train) applied to 2 subcutaneous needle electrodes bilateral from the centre of the forehead. Latency times (30 V above motor threshold (MT) and amplitude of MEP were recorded bilaterally at the ECR and the TC muscles. Motor latency times are expressed as mean ± 2 s.d.

Results

Mean latency times (at MT + 30 V) for the ECR muscles were respectively 20.18 ± 1.85 ms (left side) and 19.7 ± 1.69 ms (right side) and for the TC muscles respectively: 34.6 ± 2.01 ms (left) and 34.9 ± 2.43 ms (right).

Conclusions

TES is well tolerated. Interestingly, recorded motor latency times at the level of front and hind legs appear to be shorter for TES when compared to TMS from literature data [1].

Ethical animal research: Ethical approval was granted by the animal ethics committee of the Groningen University. Sources of funding: JS Center and Wolvega Equine Clinic. Competing interests: None.
Cervical Computed Tomography (CT) and CT Myelography in Live Horses: 16 Cases
Authors: Kristoffersen M. , Puchalski S. , Skog S. , Lindegaard C.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Cervical spine lesions are often suspected in horses with neurological signs, abnormal head/neck position and obscure forelimb lameness. Computed tomography (CT) has the potential to image the cervical spine in 3 dimensions in superior anatomical detail; e.g. lesions that cause compression of the spinal cord and nerve roots, small fragments, and osteoarthritis of the articular process joints may be more easily detected.

Objectives

To investigate if CT and CT myelography of the entire cervical spine is possible in horses, describe the technique used, the type of horses and distribution of cervical lesions detected.

Study design

Retrospective case series.

Methods

Horses undergoing cervical CT and CT myelography from June 2013 to February 2014 were reviewed. The horses were anaesthetised in left lateral recumbency using continuous intravenous anaesthesia. A Philips Brilliance Big Bore 16 slice scanner and a custom made equine CT table (Solving, Finland) were used.

Results

Cervical CT was performed on 16 horses, 11 of which also had CT myelography: 12 Warmblood, 2 ponies, 1 Standardbred and 1 Paint Horse. Horses ranged in age from 1 to 21 years, and in weight from 406 to 670 kg. Presenting complaints were: neurological symptoms (n = 8), abnormal head/neck position (n = 5), forelimb lameness (n = 4), Horners syndrome (n = 1). In all cases (n = 16) the cervical spine from the skull to C7 could be imaged, in 3 cases T1 was imaged and in one case T3. Significant lesions were detected in 14 horses. The sites of the most significant lesions were: C4–C5 (n = 3), C5–C6 (n = 2), C6–C7 (n = 5) and C7–T1 (n = 2), cervical stenosis C5–T2 (n = 1) and muscle injury (n = 1). Length of anaesthesia ranged from 35 to 70 min (median 60 min), with one complicated recovery.

Conclusions

Cervical CT and CT myelography can be performed in large adult horses. CT may be the future gold standard to evaluate equine cervical lesions. Further studies are needed.

Ethical animal research: Ethical committee oversight not currently required by this congress: retrospective study of clinical records. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study was not stated. Sources of funding: None. Competing interests: None.
Comparison and Clinical Application of CT and MRI for Evaluation of the Equine Cranial Nerves
Authors: Dixon J. , Lam R. , Weller R. , Smith M. , Piercy R.J.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Advanced imaging modalities enable assessment of the equine skull and brain. Horses are susceptible to neurological dysfunction of the cranial nerves; however, our understanding of these structures’ imaging anatomy is limited.

Hypothesis

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will be superior to computed tomography (CT) for the identification of cranial nerves, but optimal assessment may depend on both modalities.

Objectives

Identify cranial nerves and compare and contrast the utility of MRI and CT images of cadaver and clinical material. Interpret images from both modalities and determine the cranial nerve imaging anatomy.

Study design

Prospective cadaver anatomical study combined with retrospective clinical case study.

Methods

The head of a neurologically normal 9‐year‐old Thoroughbred gelding was scanned immediately following euthanasia (performed for reasons unrelated to this study). High resolution MRI (1.5 Tesla) and CT examinations were conducted over a 12 h interval following euthanasia. Images obtained were compared with selected clinical cases which were scanned during anaesthesia (MRI; approximately 30–60 min) or standing sedation (CT; approximately 30 s).

Results

On a high resolution MRI scan of a cadaver equine skull, each of the 12 cranial nerves and their topographic location was readily appreciated. Cranial nerves 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8 were more easily identified in clinically relevant MRI scans. CT allowed visualisation of the stylomastoid foramen, the inner and middle ear and cranial nerves 2, 3, 5 and 7.

Conclusions

High field MRI allows for excellent visualisation of equine cranial nerves. CT allows for detailed visualisation of the osseous canals and foramina. This study advances anatomical knowledge of the normal equine cranial nerves to aid interpretation in horses that display neurological dysfunction localising to the brain and brainstem.

Ethical animal research: Horse owners gave their consent for their animals to be included in the study. Sources of funding: Institutional. Competing interests: None.
Sales Consignment and Nasal Shedding of Equine Herpesvirus‐1 (EHV‐1) and 4 (EHV‐4) in Young Thoroughbred Horses in South Africa
Authors: Badenhorst M. , Page P.C. , Ganswindt A. , Guthrie A.J. , Schulman M.L.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Commingling of horses from various populations, together with stress associated with transport and confinement at a sales complex, may predispose horses to EHV‐1 and ‐4 shedding and transmission. Current information on the prevalence and associated risk factors of EHV‐1 and ‐4 in South Africa is limited. Relevant research could enhance scientific‐based risk management strategies for horses attending sales events.

Objectives

Detect nasal shedding of EHV‐1 and ‐4 at a sales event. Identify the temporal pattern of viral shedding. Investigate the association between clinical signs and EHV‐1 and ‐4 shedding. Identify risk factors for EHV‐1 and ‐4 shedding and transmission.

Study design

Prospective cohort study.

Methods

Data was collected over a 9 day period during August 2013 at the National Two Year Old Sales in Germiston, South Africa. The study population included 90 Thoroughbreds (51 colts, 39 fillies) in their second year of life that originated from 8 studs situated in 3 provinces. Nasal swabs were collected from each horse on arrival and on departure from the event. During their stay horses were monitored twice daily for pyrexia and once daily for nasal discharge. Nasal swabs were collected daily from any horse with nasal discharge and/or pyrexia. Nasal swabs were submitted for qPCR to detect EHV‐1 and ‐4.

Results

No EHV‐1 shedding was detected; however, 14.4% of the population shed EHV‐4. A biphasic shedding pattern with peaks one day post arrival and on the first day of auction was observed. Pyrexia, with or without nasal discharge, was observed prior to first shedding in 61.5% of EHV‐4‐positive horses. Province, associated longer travel duration and smaller resident horse populations on farms of origin were associated with increased risk of EHV‐4 shedding.

Conclusions

Young Thoroughbreds consigned to a South African sale shed EHV‐4. Pyrexia proved useful to identify impending EHV‐4 shedding.

Ethical animal research: The study was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee (AEC) of the University of Pretoria (Study V040‐13). Informed, written consent for participation was obtained from the owners of each of the studs included in the study. Sources of funding: Funding for this study was provided by Racing South Africa and the Departments of Companion Animal Clinical Studies and Production Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria. Competing interests: None.
EHV‐5 Associated with Respiratory Disease in a Survey of Alpha‐ and Gammaherpesviruses in 409 Australian Horses
Authors: El‐Hage C.M. , Mekuria Z.H. , Hartley C.A. , Gilkerson J.R.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

To determine the prevalence of EHV‐1, ‐2, ‐4 and ‐5 in respiratory samples from a large number of horses using quantitative PCR methods. Samples from horses with, and without mild signs of respiratory disease provided an opportunity to examine associations with single or multiple herpesviral infections.

Objectives

To determine any correlation between quantitative detection of these equine herpesviruses and mild clinical respiratory disease in horses.

Methods

Nasal swabs were taken from horses with, and without, clinical respiratory disease. Nucleic acid was extracted from all swabs prior to PCR testing for EHV‐1, ‐2, ‐4 and ‐5. Clinical signs of respiratory disease included coughing, fever (temperature >38.5°C) or nasal discharge.

Results

Of the 409 horses, 250 (61%) were clinically normal, 121 (30%) presented with clinical signs consistent with mild respiratory disease and 38 (9%) horses had no traceable clinical history. One‐fifth (83/409) of horses sampled were infected with EHV‐2 and almost two‐thirds 249/409 (60.9%) with EHV‐5. Infection with EHV‐5 was significantly associated with mild respiratory disease (85/121; 70.2%) compared to nondiseased horses (137/249; 55%) P = 0.005. The proportion of EHV‐2 infected horses, however, did not differ significantly between those in the diseased (18/121) and nondiseased (61/250) groups. Too few horses were detected with alphaherpesviruses to determine any association with clinical signs of disease. Mean nasal shedding loads of herpesviruses were not significantly different between diseased and nondiseased horses.

Conclusions

There was a significant association between horses displaying clinical signs of mild respiratory disease and infection with EHV‐5, however, no such association was evident for neither horses with EHV‐2 nor the alphaherpesviruses EHV‐1 and ‐4. The clinical significance of respiratory gammaherpesvirus infections in horses remains yet to be determined; however, these findings add to the mounting body of evidence incriminating EHV‐5 in association with equine respiratory disease.

Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to veterinarians and animal health staff who took samples. Garry Anderson provided valued and erudite statistical assistance.

Ethical animal research: Ethical committee oversight not currently required by this congress: the study was performed on archived material collected for the Victorian Department of Environment and Primary Industries’ Equine Influenza surveillance programme. Explicit owner informed consent for participation in this study was not stated. Sources of funding: Special Virology Fund at the University of Melbourne and the Chief Veterinary Officer's unit DEPI Victoria. Competing interests: None.
Development and Efficacy of the Recombinant Canarypox‐Based Equine Influenza (EI) Vaccine Updated According to the Last OIE Expert Surveillance Panel Recommendations
Authors: Paillot R. , Lemaitre L. , Dancer A. , Thibault J‐C. , Minke J.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Since 2010, the OIE expert surveillance panel (ESP) recommends that EI vaccines contain representative equine influenza virus (EIV) strains from the Florida clade 1 and 2 sub‐lineages for optimal protection against EIV currently circulating worldwide. To date, no EI vaccine commercially available in the EU meets this recommendation.

Objectives

This report summarises the development process of a fully updated recombinant canarypox‐based EI vaccine, including clinical efficacy results against EIV strain A/eq/Richmond/1/07.

Study design

The EI vaccine ProteqFlu containing 2 recombinant canarypox viruses expressing the haemagglutinin of EIV strains was updated by replacing the A/eq/Newmarket/2/93 strain with the A/eq/Richmond/1/07 isolate (Florida clade 2 sub‐lineage) and keeping A/eq/Ohio/03 (Florida clade 1 sub‐lineage), to meet the last OIE recommendations. The updated EI vaccine was tested for efficacy in the Welsh mountain pony model.

Methods

The mode of action, production steps and efficacy of the updated EI vaccine will be presented. Efficacy was tested in a group of 7 ponies vaccinated twice, 5 weeks apart. Protective antibody response were measured and challenged by experimental infection with the A/eq/Richmond/1/07 EIV strain. Clinical signs of disease and virus shedding were compared with control unvaccinated ponies (n = 7).

Results

Significant protection was measured in vaccinated ponies, which supports the vaccine registration.

Conclusions

The recombinant canarypox‐based EI vaccine was already the first EI vaccine to meet the 2004 OIE ESP recommendations and was successfully used in Australia during the 2007 EI outbreak. This new version will be the first fully updated EI vaccine available in the EU, which will help to minimise the increasing risk of vaccine breakdown due to constant EIV evolution through antigenic drift. EI vaccination remains one of the most effective tools to prevent or limit the impact of EI, as clearly illustrated by the limited frequency and scale of EI outbreaks.

Ethical animal research: All animal work received ethical approval. Sources of funding: The study was funded by Merial SAS. Competing interests: R.P. reports no conflict of interest. L.L., A.D., J‐L.T. and J.M. are employed by the study sponsor.
Investigation of Equine Encephalitis Cases During the West Nile Virus (WNV) Epidemics in Greece
Authors: Diakakis N. , Chaintoutis S.C. , Bouzalas I. , Brellou G.D. , Vlemmas I. , Papanastassopoulou M. , Dovas C.I.
Published: September 2014

Reasons for performing study

Clinicopathological and laboratory investigation of horses showing severe neurological signs during the 2010 WNV‐lineage 2 human epidemic in Central Macedonia (Northern Greece). Implementation of preventive measures was also addressed.

Objectives

To describe the clinical signs, supportive treatment and outcome in WNV cases and report the use of an inactivated WNV vaccine used for the protection of horses during the following epidemic periods.

Study design

Clinical study.

Methods

Laboratory testing included serology, real‐time RT‐PCR and histopathology. All affected animals received supportive treatment (furosemide, dexamethasone, B‐complex vitamins and NSAIDs). The Equip WNV vaccine was used for immunisation of horses.

Results

WNV‐specific IgM antibodies were detected in 17 horses with neurological signs. The specificity of the detected antibodies was confirmed by seroneutralisation tests. The maximum duration of IgM was determined to be 60 days. Clinical signs included weakness of hindlimbs, ataxia and tremors (17/17), altered mental state (10/17), hypersensitivity (7/17), inability to swallow (3/17), recumbency (3/17) and convulsions (3/17). Supportive treatment was successful in 14/17 horses. The 3 recumbent horses died as a result of the infection, or were subjected to euthanasia. Histopathological findings observed in the CNS were mild perivascular cuffing of mononuclear cells, axonal swelling, glial nodules, microhaemorrhages and neuronal necrosis. None of the vaccinated horses showed clinical signs. Three unvaccinated horses showed clinical signs and developed WNV‐specific IgM antibodies.

Conclusions

The Nea Santa‐Greece‐lineage 2 strain responsible for the massive human epidemic of 2010 was also highly pathogenic for horses. Timely administration of supportive treatment is important to the prognosis of the cases. WNV infection should be included in the differential diagnosis of horses with encephalitis in Greece. Vaccinations can effectively protect horses, especially in areas of Greece where the virus seems to have become endemic.

Ethical animal research: All owners gave their consent prior to the commencement of the study. Sources of funding: Funding for this project came from Zoetis. Competing interests: None.