bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Biossegurança na odontologia
Authors: Bezerra André Luiz Dantas , Sousa Milena Nunes Alves de , Feitosa Ankilma Do Nascimento Andrade , Assis Elisangela Vilar de , Barros Criseuda Maria Benício , Carolino Eclivaneide Caldas de Abreu
Published: May 2014

Introdução: As atividades laborais, de modo geral, expõem os trabalhadores a riscos ocupacionais dos mais variados. Esses riscos incluem agentes físicos, químicos, ergonômicos, de acidentes e biológicos. O contato rotineiro com esses últimos deve ser motivo de reflexão e intervenção. Objetivo: Descrever os aspectos da biossegurança na odontologia. Métodos: Foi realizada uma revisão do estado da arte, adotando-se critérios para análise dos trabalhos mais diretamente relacionados à prática odontológica. A partir dos descritores controlados (DeCS) "biossegurança" e "odontologia", procederam-se a busca na Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe em Ciências da Saúde, na Scientific Electronic Library Online, na National Library of Medicine e na Biblioteca Cochrane. Resultados: Com a associação entre os DeCS, chegou-se a 66 artigos, porém, após refinamento foram incluídos nesta revisão 12 artigos. Nos resultados foi evidenciado que a produção científica sobre biossegurança é vasta, bem como é ampla na odontologia, contudo, quando da concentração de trabalhos contempladores da associação dos termos biossegurança e odontologia, a quantidade de estudos diminui consideravelmente. Não obstante, as pesquisas foram, em sua maioria, desenvolvidas por estudiosos nacionais, da região nordeste e evidenciaram que o conhecimento e a adoção de medidas de segurança biológica na área ainda são insuficientes para garantir a proteção da equipe e dos pacientes qualitativamente. Conclusão: Sugere-se que as normas de precaução padrão sejam seguidas rigidamente e que ações de educação sejam promovidas entre os profissionais.
Fracking Operations
Authors: Holloway Michael D. , Rudd Oliver
Published: April 2014

Fracking (hydraulic fracturing) of rock deep beneath the surface to release petroleum product has become a contentious subject across the globe. This practice is not to be confused with drilling or extraction. Fracking is the process of using fluid power to fracture rock to release gas and sometimes crude oil. Certain countries have actually outlawed the practice of hydraulic fracturing, claiming that ground water and air pollution increase due to the process. Pumping fluid below ground in order to fracture rock and release gaseous petroleum is a new process. This article focuses on the technology of the fracking process and this covers product development, understanding fractures, well drilling and well operations.Fracking fluids composition, need for, and where they go after fracking are discussed in detail. Some common objections to the process and regulations and legislation involving fracking are also discussed.
The triple oxygen isotope tracer of primary productivity in a dynamic ocean model
Authors: Nicholson David , Stanley Rachel H. R. , Doney Scott C.
Published: April 2014

The triple oxygen isotopic composition of dissolved oxygen (17Δdis) was added to the ocean ecosystem and biogeochemistry component of the Community Earth System Model, version 1.1.1. Model simulations were used to investigate the biological and physical dynamics of 17Δdis and assess its application as a tracer of gross photosynthetic production (gross oxygen production (GOP)) of O2 in the ocean mixed layer. The model reproduced large‐scale patterns of 17Δdis found in observational data across diverse biogeographical provinces. Mixed layer model performance was best in the Pacific and had a negative bias in the North Atlantic and a positive bias in the Southern Ocean. Based on model results, the steady state equation commonly used to calculate GOP from tracer values overestimated the globally averaged model GOP by 29%. Vertical entrainment/mixing and the time rate of change of 17Δdis were the two largest sources of bias when applying the steady state method to calculate GOP. Entrainment/mixing resulted in the largest overestimation in midlatitudes and during summer and fall and almost never caused an underestimation of GOP. The tracer time rate of change bias resulted both in underestimation of GOP (e.g., during spring blooms at high latitudes) and overestimation (e.g., during the summer following a bloom). Seasonally, bias was highest in the fall (September‐October‐November in the Northern Hemisphere, March‐April‐May in the Southern), overestimating GOP by 62%, globally averaged. Overall, the steady state method was most accurate in equatorial and low‐latitude regions where it estimated GOP to within ±10%. Field applicable correction terms are derived for entrainment and mixing that capture 86% of model vertical bias and require only mixed layer depth history and triple oxygen isotope measurements from two depths.
Experimental examination of the relationships among chemico‐osmotic, hydraulic, and diffusion parameters of Wakkanai mudstones
Authors: Takeda M. , Hiratsuka T. , Manaka M. , Finsterle S. , Ito K.
Published: April 2014

Sequential permeability and chemical osmosis experiments on Wakkanai mudstones were performed to explore the relationships between the semipermeability of clayey rocks and the hydraulic and diffusion parameters as well as the pore structure characteristics. The wide ranges in osmotic efficiency (0.0004–0.046) and intrinsic permeability (8.92 × 10−20 to 1.24 × 10−17 m2) reflect the variation in the pore size distributions of the Wakkanai mudstones. A regression analysis between osmotic efficiency and permeability shows that the osmotic efficiency is proportional to the inverse of permeability, suggesting that the permeability is indeed indicative of the degree of semipermeability. Osmotic efficiency was determined invariant with the effective diffusion coefficient for the Wakkanai mudstones (3.59–8.36 × 10−11 m2/s) due to their small osmotic efficiencies (≤0.046). The wide variation in osmotic efficiencies and pore structure characteristics of Wakkanai mudstones indicates that the nanoscale pores enable semipermeability in Wakkanai mudstones. However, the pressure evolution caused by chemical osmosis is limited by the connected wide pores that are the main conduits for water, thus dissipating the osmotic pressure buildup induced by the semipermeability of nanoscale pores.
Atmosphere/mantle coupling and feedbacks on Venus
Authors: Gillmann Cedric , Tackley Paul
Published: April 2014

We investigate the coupled evolution of the atmosphere and mantle on Venus. Here we focus on mechanisms that deplete or replenish the atmosphere: atmospheric escape to space and volcanic degassing of the mantle. These processes are linked to obtain a coupled model of mantle convection and atmospheric evolution, including feedback of the atmosphere on the mantle via the surface temperature. During early atmospheric evolution, hydrodynamic escape is dominant, while for later evolution we focus on nonthermal escape, as observed by the Analyzer of Space Plasma and Energetic Atoms instrument on the Venus Express Mission. The atmosphere is replenished by volcanic degassing from the mantle, using mantle convection simulations based on those of Armann and Tackley [2012], and include episodic lithospheric overturn. The evolving surface temperature is calculated from the amount of CO2 and water in the atmosphere using a gray radiative‐convective atmosphere model. This surface temperature in turn acts as a boundary condition for the mantle convection model. We obtain a Venus‐like behavior (episodic lid) for the solid planet and an atmospheric evolution leading to the present conditions. CO2 pressure is unlikely to vary much over the history of the planet, with only a 0.25–20% postmagma‐ocean buildup. In contrast, atmospheric water vapor pressure is strongly sensitive to volcanic activity, leading to variations in surface temperatures of up to 200 K, which have an effect on volcanic activity and mantle convection. Low surface temperatures trigger a mobile lid regime that stops once surface temperatures rise again, making way to stagnant lid convection that insulates the mantle.
Spatial and temporal variations of methane flux measured by autochambers in a temperate ombrotrophic peatland
Authors: Lai Derrick Y. F. , Moore Tim R. , Roulet Nigel T.
Published: April 2014

We measured CH4 flux at high temporal resolution with triplicate autochambers from three different plant communities at the ombrotrophic Mer Bleue bog in Canada to investigate the spatial and temporal variations, and factors that related to the CH4 flux. Our results show that seasonal mean CH4 fluxes from the Eriophorum‐dominated community were 1.4–2.2 and 3.7–5.5 times higher than those from Maianthemum/Ledum and Chamaedaphne communities, respectively. Significant interannual variations in CH4 flux were observed in Maianthemum/Ledum and Chamaedaphne communities, attributable to a 55–60% reduction of mean summer (July–September) CH4 flux in 2010 as a consequence of a 5.5–9.0 cm lower mean summer water table compared to 2009. The Eriophorum community showed a much larger rate of increase in CH4 flux with peat temperature in the early growing season than in midsummer, which might be caused by a concomitant increase in root exudation of labile carbon for methanogenesis. Temporal variability of log‐transformed CH4 flux was correlated (r ≥ 0.4) with peat temperature only when water table was less than 20, 30, and 40 cm below the peat surface for Maianthemum/Ledum, Chamaedaphne, and Eriophorum communities, respectively. This difference in water table threshold among communities might partly be related to differences in rooting depth and hence the ability of plants to sustain CH4 flux in dry conditions. These results suggest that modeling of CH4 flux from ombrotrophic peatlands over time should take into account the role of different vegetation types, since the relationships between CH4 emissions and environmental factors vary among vascular plant communities.
Geophysical Advances Triggered by 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake
Authors: Haeussler Peter , Leith William , Wald David , Filson John , Wolfe Cecily , Applegate David
Published: April 2014

A little more than 50 years ago, on 27 March 1964, the Great Alaska earthquake and tsunami struck. At moment magnitude 9.2, this earthquake is notable as the largest in U.S. written history and as the second‐largest ever recorded by instruments worldwide. But what resonates today are its impacts on the understanding of plate tectonics, tsunami generation, and earthquake history as well as on the development of national programs to reduce risk from earthquakes and tsunamis.
Women in Science Fellowships
Authors: Wendel JoAnna
Published: April 2014

The L'Oréal For Women in Science program is calling for women postdoctoral scientists to submit applications for the L'Oréal USA Women in Science Fellowship. Five women scientists in a variety of fields, including life and physical/material sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics, will receive grants of up to $60,000 each. Since the program began in 1998, more than 2000 women scientists worldwide have been awarded fellowships. Application materials are available at https://lorealfwis.aaas.org/login/indexA.cfm; the deadline to apply is 19 May 2014.
Students Should Seek Professional Internships to Learn the Power of Collaboration
Authors: Tamalavage Anne
Published: April 2014

After graduation, many undergraduates feel pressure to jump immediately into graduate school or to land a job. That path keeps students from pursuing an internship or temporary position in something that might provide authentic and useful professional experience that would help establish a desirable career.
Quartz‐in‐garnet samples reveal conditions within subduction zones
Authors: Schultz Colin
Published: April 2014

In subduction zones, seismic activity is dictated, to some extent, by the specific dynamics of the subsurface, including the depths to which rocks dove during subduction, the path that brought them back to the surface, and the mineral reactions they experienced along the way. The way to best understand these details requires either directly or indirectly measuring the depth of subduction and the mechanisms and rates of both subduction and exhumation.
New method to estimate variability in groundwater volumes
Authors: Wendel JoAnna
Published: April 2014

As the warming climate and increasing population put stress on the world's water supply, it has become increasingly important to have a global understanding of how groundwater volumes vary from season to season and from year to year. Current global hydrological models do not include lateral groundwater flow, which plays a significant role in providing water to plants and in recharging lakes, rivers, and streams.
Insight into overturning circulation measurements from southern Atlantic
Authors: Wendel JoAnna
Published: April 2014

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a major component of global ocean circulation and thus has a profound effect on global climate. The AMOC transports warm, salty water from tropical regions northward on the surface and cool, fresher water southward as deep water. Although much effort has concentrated on examining AMOC dynamics in the easily accessible north, few studies have ventured south.
Ionospheric variability over Indian low latitude linked with the 2009 sudden stratospheric warming
Authors: Patra A. K. , Pavan Chaitanya P. , Sripathi S. , Alex S.
Published: April 2014

In this paper, we analyze radar observations of E × B drift and plasma irregularities, ionosonde observations of E and F layer parameters including spread F, and magnetic field observations made from Indian low latitudes linked with the 2009 sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) event. E × B drift variations presented here are the first of their kind from the Indian sector as far as the effect of SSW is concerned. Difference of magnetic fields observed from the equator and low‐latitude (∆H) and E × B drift show linear relation, and both show remarkably large positive values in the morning and negative values in the afternoon exhibiting semidiurnal behavior. Remarkable changing patterns in the critical frequency of F2 layer (foF2) and F3 layer (foF3) were observed after the occurrence of SSW. Large variations with quasi 16 day periodicity were observed in ∆H, foF2, and foF3. Both semidiurnal and quasi 16 day wave modulation observed after the 2009 SSW event are consistent with those reported earlier. We also noted quasi 6 day variations in ∆H and foF2 soon after the SSW commencement, not much reported before. During the counterelectrojet events linked with the SSW event, while equatorial Es (Esq) disappeared as expected, there were no blanketing Es (Esb), a finding not reported and discussed earlier. Esb was also not formed at the off‐equatorial location, indicating the absence of required vertical wind shear, but E region plasma irregularities were observed by the ionosonde and radar with a close relationship between the two. Weak F region irregularities were observed in the postmidnight hours, and case studies suggest the possible role of SSW‐related background electric field in the manifestation of postmidnight F region irregularities.
Temporal variation of “solar dimming” induced by composite and carbonaceous aerosols: Observations from mineral‐rich eastern Indian region
Authors: Latha R. , Murthy B. S. , Lipi K. , Kumar Manoj , Das S. K. , Mahanti N. C.
Published: April 2014

Composite and carbonaceous aerosol radiative forcing (RF) over Ranchi (23.5°N, 85.3°E) in eastern India at monthly and seasonal scales during February 2011 to January 2012 is derived from mean optical properties obtained from Sun‐sky radiometer and a radiative transfer model. Ranchi is located on the Chotanagpur plateau at 650 m above mean sea level; the region is unique with dense open active mines, a source of mineral aerosols with opposing optical properties such as coal and limestone. Diurnal mean composite aerosol RF at the surface, in the spectral band 0.3–3.0 µm increases from winter (December, January, February) to premonsoon (March, April, May) with maximum (−65 Wm−2) aerosol RF in March that is associated with highest black carbon (BC) aerosol optical depth (AOD), 0.05. Minimum surface aerosol RF occurs in July with minimum values of AOD and AODBC. Aerosol RF at top of the atmosphere is maximum (−17 Wm−2) in April, and is positive (+1.2 Wm−2) in March. On an average, carbonaceous aerosols (BC) contribute ~8.8% to total AOD and about 60% to total atmospheric absorption. A rapid increase of BC is seen in the postmonsoon with 1.0 µg m−3 in September to 3.0 µg m−3 in October. Aerosol‐induced solar dimming is about 9.4% (premonsoon), 7.0% (monsoon), 10.6% (postmonsoon), and 10.2% (winter) of the surface radiation. Seasonal mean aerosol heating rate is observed to be maximum in premonsoon (~1.15°K/d−1), followed by postmonsoon, while winter and monsoon experience minimum (~0.45°K/d−1) heating, assuming typical aerosol profiles of the model.
Assessing the role of sublimation in the dry snow zone of the Greenland ice sheet in a warming world
Authors: Cullen Nicolas J. , Mölg Thomas , Conway Jonathan , Steffen Konrad
Published: April 2014

Meteorological and glaciological data obtained over an intensive 2 year measurement period (2000–2002) are used to run a physically based climatic mass balance model to characterize a seasonal variability in mass and energy exchanges at Summit, Greenland. The model resolves the full surface energy balance and the subsurface temperature profile by inclusion of energy release from penetrating shortwave radiation. A Monte Carlo approach using 1000 different parameter combinations is adopted to assess model uncertainty, with output compared to measured surface and subsurface temperatures, changes in surface height, and eddy correlation data. The heat exchanges associated with the change in phase of water are very small in all seasons, with the average turbulent latent heat flux equal to 0.4 (±0.2) W m−2. This suggests that the mean annual water vapor gradient is toward the surface, resulting in a mass gain of 4.1 mm WE yr−1. The mass gain represents only a small fraction of the total accumulation (<2%), in part because of the change in sign of the water vapor flux from winter (deposition) to summer (sublimation), but if assumed to be typical of the entire dry snow zone (40% of the total ice sheet area) is equivalent to approximately 5.5 Gt yr−1. A simple experiment based on 2012 atmospheric conditions suggests that mass turnover from water vapor exchanges will likely be enhanced in a warming climate, with sublimation increasing more than deposition. Should the sign of the mean turbulent latent heat flux change due to warming, the present mass gain in the dry snow zone could easily become a mass loss of equal proportion, which would further enhance the negative mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet.
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Authors: Maclachlan Ian
Published: April 2014

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is an incurable degenerative neurological disorder of cattle that is invariably fatal. It was first identified in 1986 in the United Kingdom and by 1996 BSE had been associated with a variant form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in humans. Though largely concentrated in the United Kingdom, BSE has infected cattle in most of Europe, the Americas, and in Japan, disrupting the international trade of live cattle, beef for human consumption, and beef byproducts. BSE has attained global significance by revealing the potential for the intercontinental spread of an infectious animal disease and its implications for risk management and for animal and human health.
Diaspora
Authors: Fiddian‐Qasmiyeh Elena
Published: April 2014

The term “diaspora” derives from the classical Greek word

, which literally means “scattering” or “dispersion.” While the classical Greek term reflected the positive and widespread scattering of seeds, in addition to the dispersion of people, today “diaspora” is used in academic and popular discourses primarily with reference to peoples who have been involuntarily displaced. The usage of the term diaspora in the Greek translation of the Bible to refer to the expulsion of the Jews (Deut. 28:25), led both to the Jewish diaspora being considered to be the archetypal diaspora, and to the equation of diasporas with forced displacement. Other prototypical diasporas have included the Greek and Armenian diasporas.
Empire
Authors: Passavant Paul
Published: April 2014

Debates over globalization in the 1990s typically posited one of two assessments. Either globalization and the nation‐state exist in a zero‐sum balance such that increases in globalization necessarily mean that the sovereignty of the nation‐state is weakening. Or globalization does not indicate a weakening of the nation‐state's sovereignty because nation‐states are represented within the institutions promoting globalization. Therefore, if some complain that market liberalization policies are being forced upon developing countries against their will, we can analyze this phenomenon using familiar concepts or arguments. Those who claim that globalization is not a dramatically new development for the international system can argue that imperialism – projections of national power beyond a nation's territorial boundaries for economic or political advantage – has long been part of world politics. They can point to the political reality that some states are hegemonic and others are weaker, hence vulnerable to the assertion of a strong state's interests. In other words, they would say that legal “sovereignty” has long been circumscribed in the international system by the political realities of national interest and unequal power. “Globalization,” according to those who claim that nothing much has changed, is nothing other than stronger states (sometimes acting through international institutions) imposing policies that suit their interests upon weaker states, and this is nothing new for the international system.
Environmental Problems
Authors: Dunlap Riley E. , Jorgenson Andrew K.
Published: April 2014

In recent decades environmental problems have become globalized in terms of their existence and impacts as well as the socioeconomic forces that generate them. After briefly noting the growth of international awareness of environmental problems, this entry examines first the nature of environmental problems and their global reach, then evidence that humans are increasingly pushing against global ecological constraints, next the global politico‐economic forces that generate and exacerbate ecological degradation on a worldwide basis, and finally ends with concluding remarks.
Hollywood
Authors: Miller Toby
Published: April 2014

Hollywood – shorthand for the mainstream US film and television drama industry – has long been at the center of globalization, in three ways. First, export markets have always been crucial to it. Second, it has consistently drawn on creative labor from overseas, and shot movies overseas, in search of economies of production. And third, its export success has led to concerns about cultural imperialism.
Guantanamo Bay
Authors: Olesen Thomas
Published: April 2014

Guantanamo Bay is geographically part of Cuba, but has been leased by the United States since 1903. The lease agreement followed the Spanish–American war and was confirmed in a 1934 treaty. The treaty allows the United States to use the area for coaling or naval stations as long as required, in practice making the lease indefinite. Guantanamo Bay is a naval base, but was used in the 1990s as a detention camp for Haitian and Cuban refugees and asylum seekers (Gregory 2006: 411–412; Johns 2005: 616). In January 2002, shortly after the beginning of the war in Afghanistan, the United States started transferring persons captured on the battlefield to Guantanamo. The base was used by the Bush administration because it was initially considered to be outside of the United States legal jurisdiction. In 2006, in the court caseHamdan(a detainee at Guantanamo Bay)vs. Rumsfeld, the United States Supreme Court ruled that this assertion did not conform to the Uniform Code of Military Justice and the Geneva Conventions. Guantanamo is part of a global pattern of CIA‐run so‐called black sites. Black sites are facilities outside the United States where detainees from the war on terror are being held and interrogated for intelligence purposes. These sites remain shrouded in secrecy but it is widely believed that such sites have been in operation in several countries around the world, including in Europe (for an account of the early phase of the detention camp, see Greenberg 2009; for a wider historical perspective, see Carvin 2010; for a collection of papers and statements by detainees, see Worthington 2007).
Labor markets, informal
Authors: Medina Octavio
Published: April 2014

If a labor market is the place where individuals sell their human and physical capital to firms, with wages set by supply and demand, informal labor markets are, broadly speaking, those in which this process is not overseen by, or does not comply with, the rules set by the relevant regulatory authority. However, the exact definition remains under debate, despite decades of research and academic argument (Maloney 2004). As Peattie (1987) quotes from Schaefer (1976), “the informal sector is still too broad to be meaningful; at one end is a pool of surplus labor, at the other a skilled high‐income earning entrepreneur; at one end a proliferation of residual enterprises involuntary in nature, at the other end of the spectrum dynamic evolutionary enterprises.” As a result, throughout the past century several competing theories appeared, in an attempt to explain what informal labor markets are, and also why they exist.
Mortality
Authors: Ram Bali , Ram Shefali S.
Published: April 2014

Mortality and fertility are two major determinants of population growth. Demographic history reveals that mortality decline is the primary cause of population growth in most countries around the world. Prior to industrialization, birth and death rates in Northwest Europe – a region with reliable, historical vital statistics – used to be high and of a similar magnitude, resulting in almost no population growth. It was only at the beginning of the nineteenth century that mortality began to decline, while fertility remained almost unchanged, resulting in what is known as “demographic transition.” The transition has since spread to other parts of the world, although many less industrialized countries are still struggling in the early stages, similar to those experienced in Northwest Europe two centuries ago. On the other hand, in less than 50 years many countries have achieved the status that European countries took more than hundred years to achieve.
Pacification
Authors: Özcan Gülden , Rigakos George S.
Published: April 2014

Pacification is a military concept that was popularly used during the US war in Vietnam. Since then, however, the term had disappeared not only from the discourse of political power and the opposition but also from the academic literature until Mark Neocleous and George S. Rigakos revisited it. Neocleous and Rigakos theorized the rising concern for “security” in the post‐9/11 period with recourse to the term's historical significance and relationship to security as part of their broader project, called “Anti‐Security” (Neocleous & Rigakos 2011).
Polar regions, law and
Authors: Loukacheva Natalia
Published: April 2014

Over the course of the past few decades, the magnitude of changes happening in the Arctic and in Antarctica has prompted a renewed inquiry into the role of law in dealing with the various issues and challenges relevant to both polar regions. Although law is not a panacea for all issues, it has its own role to play in addressing many of them. Noteworthy generalizations on this matter are not feasible as each legal challenge may require a specific solution and a detailed analysis of the case in question. Present polar law developments also indicate that both polar regions will continue to be the focus of growing legal, political, international, scientific, media, and public interest and discourse for the foreseeable future. Thus, the question becomes: what is polar law, or should the notion of “Arctic” law be used instead?
Russian Revolution
Authors: Zajda Joseph
Published: April 2014

The Russian Revolution in 1917 was a monumental political and social transformation in Russia, which brought down the autocratic monarchy; toppled Kerensky's Provisional government; and installed the Bolshevik government under Lenin. It refers to the February and October 1917 Revolutions. The February Revolution resulted in the collapse of tsarist autocracy and the establishment of the Provisional government, which was led briefly by Kerensky. The October 1917 Revolution toppled the Provisional government and brought the Bolsheviks to power. It resulted in the formation of the Marxist–Leninist state – the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR) – in 1918, under the leadership of Lenin, and the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. Russia became the world's first socialist country.
The Thermochemistry and Energetics of Organoiron Compounds
Authors: Liebman Joel F. , Slayden Suzanne W.
Published: April 2014

The current study concerns the thermochemistry and energetics of organoiron compounds that contain an iron–carbon bond. The main quantities that are discussed are enthalpies of formation and bond energies. The chapter begins with the simplest binary iron carbides and then considers progressively larger neutral and ionic organic ligands. Within the context of small ligands, binding to iron as found in hemes and hemoglobin is discussed. The acidity and basicity of iron‐containing compounds is also included.
Gas‐phase Ion Stereochemistry of Iron Complexes probed by Mass Spectrometric Techniques
Authors: P. Palii Sergiu
Published: April 2014

Modern mass spectrometry (MS) evolved into a ‘complete chemical laboratory’, enabling studies to be performed on structure and reactivity of ionic species under environment‐free conditions. The advent of theoretical methods as a supplement to experimental MS data has expanded gas‐phase ion chemistry to include the stereochemical perspective. In the last decade IRMPD (infrared multiple‐photon dissociation) and IRSPD (infrared single‐photon dissociation) spectroscopy methods have been increasingly employed to directly probe the 3D structures of mass‐selected ions. This chapter aims to provide an overview (139 references) of
gas‐phase ion stereochemistry
of metal complexes as exemplified by Fe‐containing species, with a special emphasis on combined experimental/theoretical approaches and the advantages that this prolific partnership brought to the field. A survey of literature has revealed that circa 100 three‐dimensional structures of ionic Fe‐containing species have been characterized to date by both MS techniques and computational methods. These include coordinatively unsaturated organoiron species with various hydrocarbons, Fe complexes with homogeneous and heterogeneous conjugated cyclic hydrocarbons (including PAHs of astrophysical interest), anionic and cationic iron carbonyls, Fe complexes of N‐, O‐ and S‐donor ligands providing classical Werner‐type coordination sites. Some of these gaseous species adopt only a single stable structure, while others generate multiple conformers. In most cases, the reactivity of Fe‐containing species is oxidation‐state dependent. The nature of the ligands in a complex clearly influences the reactivity. With a decrease in the number of available coordination sites on the metal center, the gas‐phase reactivity decreases as well, with a concomitant increase in selectivity.
Synthesis of Selenium and Tellurium Ylides and Carbanions. Application to Organic Synthesis
Authors: V. Comasseto JOÃO , Piovan Leandro , P. Wendler Edison
Published: April 2014

The preparation and synthetic applications of selenium‐ and tellurium‐stabilized carbanions as well as selenonium and telluronium ylides are reviewed. Selenium‐ and tellurium‐stabilized carbanions are prepared by deprotonation or by element/lithium exchange of the parent selenides and tellurides. Additionally, selenium‐stabilized carbanions are prepared by conjugate addition of organometallics to vinyl‐ and alkynyl selenides. Selenonium and telluronium ylides are prepared mainly by deprotonation of the parent selenonium and telluronium salts. The above‐mentioned anionic species react with electrophiles, giving intermediates, which by subsequent transformations, lead to synthetically useful products. In the case of the selenium‐stabilized carbanions, these sequences of reactions were applied in the synthesis of natural products. The tellurium counterparts were not yet explored for this purpose. Selenonium and telluronium ylides were not yet employed in total synthesis.
Performance Target Conflicts in Normal Tires and Ultrahigh Performance Tires
Authors: Mundl Reinhard , Wies Burkhard
Published: April 2014

Tire development is a demanding task following the requirements of original equipment and replacement under challenging cost considerations and legal requirements. A tire development engineer faces a multiple set of customer‐oriented performance requirements often conflicting with each other and making it difficult to achieve a balanced optimum. The way of gaining the necessary know‐how to apply design measures, target oriented, is described, and a qualitative overview on the findings is given. The most important performance conflicts, which can be related to the main tire domains (tread pattern and compound, tire contour, and construction), are described. Most of the chapter is dedicated to the explanation of the described conflicts based on rubber physics and tire mechanics. The reasons for the dominating performance conflicts of
UHP
tires between handling, high speed, and wear resistance are given in detail. Some ideas for future possible improvements based on material innovations and interactions with vehicle control systems are discussed.
Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems
Authors: Underberg Victor , Roscher Thomas , Jenne Frank , Pucar Predrag , Sturmhoebel Jörg
Published: April 2014

Tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMSs) have become almost a commodity in all vehicle segments. Current and upcoming legal requirements will further enhance the market penetration ofTPMS. Two different pressure‐monitoring principles are available as there are direct and indirect systems. Direct systems place, in each wheel, a sensor that measures pressure and temperature. Indirect systems use sensor fusion to generate pressure loss information from the wheel speed signals. This chapter describes the importance of the correct tire pressure and the history of TPMSs. It presents in detail the working principle of state‐of‐the‐art direct and indirect systems as well as the current legal requirements that need to be fulfilled when designing tire pressure‐monitoring systems. The last section not only focuses on customer requirements and aftermarket topics but also gives an outlook on future developments and trends in the field of tire pressure monitoring.
EVPowertrain Configurations
Authors: Chau K.T.
Published: April 2014

An internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) employs a combustion engine for its powertrain. In contrast, an electric vehicle (EV) employs an electric motor for its powertrain. Differing from theICEVpowertrain that involves only the mechanical subsystem, theEVpowertrain includes both the electrical subsystem and the mechanical subsystem. The electrical subsystem consists of the electronic controller, the power converter, and the electric motor, whereas the mechanical subsystem is the mechanical transmission. The variations in the electrical subsystem are mainly due to various types of electric motors and power converters adopted, whereas the variations in the mechanical subsystem mainly depend on various types of gearings and differentials selected. As there are many possibleEVpowertrain configurations, only those viable and representative configurations are discussed in this chapter, with emphasis on their basic principle and qualitative comparison.
Overview of Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
Authors: Chan C.C.
Published: April 2014

With the more stringent regulations on emissions and fuel economy, global warming and constraints on energy resources, the research, development and commercialization of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles have been accelerated. This chapter reviews the state of the art of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles with focus on their technical features and commercial road map. The fundamental features of electric, hybrid, and fuel fell vehicles are summarized. The importance of using engineering philosophy as overall guidance for research and development is emphasized. The architecture and functionality of powertrains is distinctly analyzed. The challenge of energy management is explored, the function and interaction of global control and local is discussed, and the possible types of appropriate control model are suggested. The success of commercialization of electric vehicles lies on the availability of three goodness factors, namely good product, good infrastructure, and good business model.
Rechargeable Battery Basics
Authors: Burke Andrew
Published: April 2014

This chapter discusses the basic concepts related to batteries for automotive applications including hybrid and electric vehicles. The construction and operation of cells are discussed in detail as well as the laboratory testing of the cells and modules. Test data for lithium batteries of several chemistries are given from which it can be seen that the performance of lithium batteries is now suitable for hybrid and electric vehicle applications. In addition, it is shown that lithium batteries can be fast charged in <1 h and that their cycle life can be several thousand deep discharge cycles. The cost ($/kWh) of the lithium batteries varies with cell chemistry, but the projected costs are in the range $300–400/kWh. When these batteries are used in plug‐in hybrid (PHEV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV), life cycle vehicle cost analyzes indicate effective break‐even gasoline cost to consumers in the range $3–4/gal when the cost of the battery is recovered over the battery lifetime of 10 years.
Fundamental Chemical Kinetics
Authors: Westbrook Charles K. , Pitz William J.
Published: April 2014

This chapter discusses the chemical kinetics of practical hydrocarbon and biodiesel fuels used in engines. Elementary reactions that provide chain branching are identified, and their role in producing autoignition is explained. Roles of differences in fuel molecular structure, particularly primary, secondary, and tertiary C–H bonds, on rates of combustion and ignition are explained and used to explain how fuel parameters such as octane and cetane numbers depend on the fuel molecule size and structure. Chemical kinetic factors are used to explain the way in which selected additives can improve either the cetane or octane ratings for fuels, through their roles in influencing chain‐branching rates. Examples are provided to illustrate the principles, including very recent studies in biodiesel fuel kinetic modeling.
In‐Cylinder Flow
Authors: Borée Jacques , Miles Paul C.
Published: April 2014

The general properties and evolution of in‐cylinder flows are reviewed, from the initial generation of turbulence and large‐scale bulk structures during the induction process until the early expansion stroke period, when flow processes continue to aid with the completion of combustion. Flows typical of both spark ignition and compression ignition engine technologies are described. Our primary emphasis is on providing the practicing engineer and engine designer with a physical understanding of the storage of flow energy in large‐scale rotating structures; the mechanisms by which this energy can be extracted to enhance turbulent mixing processes; the interaction of these flow structures with the compression, fuel injection, and combustion processes; and the fluid‐dynamical origin of cycle‐to‐cycle fluctuations in the combustion process. We further examine characteristics of the turbulence, with the objective of providing engineers with a natural understanding of how turbulence scales relate to engine parameters (bore, stroke, speed, etc.) and of how turbulence is generated and dissipated throughout the engine cycle. Various methods used to characterize and separate the turbulence from large‐scale, coherent cycle‐to‐cycle fluctuations in the flow, and tools to characterize the topology of the flow, are also briefly reviewed. Lastly, we identify several areas, principally related to turbulence generation and dissipation in engines, to the elucidation of flow structures and their cycle‐to‐cycle variation, and to near‐wall flows, that are still poorly understood and that would benefit from additional investigations by the research community.
NVHConsiderations in Engine Development
Authors: Reinhart Thomas E.
Published: April 2014

Engines generate noise by directly radiating sound from engine surfaces and also by creating pressure pulses in the intake and exhaust systems. Forces generated by engine operation result in vibrations that can be transmitted into the vehicle structure or that result in sound radiation. Sources of vibration include unbalanced forces and moments and gas pressure forces. Noise radiated by engine surfaces is also a result of forces applied to the structure of the engine. These forces can be divided into combustion excitation and mechanical excitation. A number of design measures can be taken to reduce the sensitivity of the engine structure to excitation forces and to reduce the noise radiated by engine exterior surfaces. Radiation efficiency is a key concept to use in the reduction of noise radiated by the exterior surfaces of larger engines. There are also measures that can be taken to reduce the amplitude of forcing functions such as combustion excitation or gear rattle. Analytic techniques are available to predict the engine's structural response to forcing functions and to predict radiated noise that results from the engine's response to forcing functions.
Series Hybrid Electric Vehicles (
SHEVs
)
Authors: Van Mierlo Joeri , Hegazy Omar
Published: April 2014

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of the series hybrid electric vehicles (
SHEVs
) to give a clear overview on their powertrain and energy management strategy for the next‐generation
SHEVs
. Furthermore, the advantages and the disadvantages of the
SHEV
s are provided. In this chapter, the different operating modes of the
SHEV
s are presented.
Engine Performance
Authors: Martyr Anthony J. , Rogers Eur Ing David R.
Published: April 2014

This chapter covers the basic laboratory requirements of a modern engine test cell. The importance and requirements of good system integration are emphasized throughout. The facility building construction and services are briefly described, with particular mention of features required in modern engine test cells. The types of control systems found within the test cell, including the building management system, test cell controller, and the control unit of the engine under test and their interactions are covered. Many types of transducer and data channels are listed, and interfacing with “intelligent” instrumentation such as emission analyzers is mentioned. Mention is also made of special purpose test cells and the particular features that may require specific planning or operational considerations. All of the text is based on the authors' experiences in resolving the most common problems in designing or operating engine test cells.
Trends—Compression Ignition
Authors: Samaras Zissis , Vouitsis Ilias , Geivanidis Savas
Published: April 2014

TheCIengine has changed significantly over the last quarter of the century, in terms of technology and performance giving at the same time to customer more fuel economy and more driving pleasure. From a societal viewpoint, it has provided significant fuel saving andCO2emission reduction and it has complied with ever more stringent emission regulations. This evolution has been supported by a sustained technological improvement. This chapter discusses the advanced engine technologies that became essential. They include fuel injection with rate shaping capability and elevated injection pressures, variable geometry engine characteristics along with optimized turbocharging and downsizing, flexible engine systems, thermal management, friction loss reduction, advanced combustion modes, and advanced exhaust aftertreatment systems for emission control.
The Fascination of Car Body Manufacture: Requirements for Car Body Manufacture from Viewpoint of Production
Authors: Kropf Andreas
Published: April 2014

Volume manufacturers like Volkswagen face the challenge of simultaneously building different body structures with the greatest possible flexibility in existing and future body designs and thus creating additional growth potential across the world and even in niche markets. Volkswagen is responding to this challenge with a cross‐brand modular strategy. New innovative joining methods in body assembly are the key to future lightweight design concepts, along with consistent implementation of sustained vehicle production. The “Think Blue. Factory.” program combines economic and ecological goals in the factory. The complexity of future production processes in body assembly will also remain manageable for staff as regards demographic aspects. For Volkswagen as a volume producer, the Volkswagen Way will provide the necessary method, building blocks, and elements for this extensive change process. The aims of their 2018 strategy clearly describe the areas of action for body assembly on the way to the company becoming the most innovative volume manufacturer.
Styling of Cars, from Sketch to Realization, Main Trends and Milestones
Authors: Brisbourne David R. , Clough Brian A.
Published: April 2014

The art of designing an automobile has evolved into a powerful example of cooperation, logistics, creative genius, and compelling innovation. The process of taking a creative designer's rough sketch and marketer's vision of the world from that initial sketch through to a fully functioning technical
tour de force
has been developed over a century or more into a recognizable process throughout the world. This chapter sets out to inform the reader of the modern milestone‐led “gateway” program and how all the various components of that program combine over increasingly shorter timescales to deliver a desirable, salable quality product. The trends highlighted prove that every decision taken at each of those milestones is a commercial one and not an emotional one.
Printed Transistors on Paper: Towards Smart Consumer Product Packaging
Authors: Grau Gerd , Kitsomboonloha Rungrot , Swisher Sarah L. , Kang Hongki , Subramanian Vivek
Published: April 2014

The integration of fully printed transistors on low cost paper substrates compatible with roll‐to‐roll processes is demonstrated here. Printed electronics promises to enable a range of technologies on paper including printed sensors, RF tags, and displays. However, progress has been slow due to the paper roughness and ink absorption. This is solved here by employing gravure printing to print local smoothing pads that also act as an absorption barrier. This innovative local smoothing process retains desirable paper properties such as foldability, breathability, and biodegradability outside of electronically active areas. Atomic force microscopy measurements show significant improvements in roughness. The polymer ink and printing parameters are optimized to minimize ink absorption and printing artifacts when printing the smoothing layer. Organic thin film transistors (OTFT) are fabricated on top of this locally smoothed paper. OTFTs exhibit performance on par with previously reported printed transistors on plastic utilizing the same materials system (pBTTT semiconductor, poly‐4‐vinylphenol dielectric). OTFTs deliver saturation mobility approaching 0.1 cm2V–1s–1 and on‐off‐ratio of 3.2 × 104. This attests to the quality of the local smoothing, and points to a promising path for realizing electronics on paper.