bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Monius Anne E.
Published: October 2003

The modern religious landscape of Tamil‐speaking South India is dominated by the Hindu tradition, but as this introduction to the book explains, non‐Hindu religious communities played a significant role in shaping the religious history of the region. There are still minority populations of Muslims, Christians, and Jains, but the literary and historical record of the region tells a far more complex story, and includes Jains, Ajivikas, and Buddhists. There has been a recent study on the Tamil‐speaking Jains, but relatively little study of the Buddhists, who are little understood because of the scarcity of remnants of Tamil‐speaking Buddhist culture; this fragmentary Buddhist record is examined. The introduction goes on to discuss the two extant Buddhist texts in Tamil that are complete – the Maṇimēkalai, and the Vīracōliyam, which are the subject of the book, and provide, in very different ways, compelling evidence for the existence of Tamil‐speaking Buddhists in the region. The literary culture that they represent is used to reach an understanding of the (religious) Buddhist communities of the times.
The Maṇimēkalai's Community of Readers and Listeners
Authors: Monius Anne E.
Published: October 2003

The nature of the Maṇimēkalai's textual or reading community is considered through an examination of the narrative as a literary work produced in the context of a diverse and multilingual South Indian literary culture. Through careful reading of the intertextual allusions in the Maṇimēkalai, particularly in relation to the principal themes of an earlier Tamil narrative from which the Buddhist text borrows its central characters and settings, a picture begins to emerge of a textual community of literary connoisseurs who are multilingual, well versed in world views and the literature of various religious communities, and thoroughly engaged in the project of articulating religious identity in a literary and religious landscape of extreme diversity through the medium of ornately sophisticated poetry. The Maṇimēkalai's free appropriation and translation into Tamil of Buddhist narratives and philosophical concepts found in earlier Pāli and Sanskrit transregional sources provides a glimpse of the processes of transmission of a tradition for which no other record exists. In a literary‐cultural context that includes the vehemently anti‐Buddhist invective of the earliest Hindu poet‐saints, such easy switching from transliterated Sanskrit to translated Pāli in the Maṇimēkalai bespeaks a moment in Tamil literary history when language choice did not entail the same cultural, political, or religious allegiance that it would assume by the time of the eleventh‐century Vīracōliyam.
Imagining Community through Commentary
Authors: Monius Anne E.
Published: October 2003

The commentary on the Vīracōliyam discussed here (which really constitutes a text in its own right) brings together fragments of a considerable corpus of Buddhist narrative and devotional poetry in Tamil, of which nothing else remains. Expanding on the Vīracōliyam's project by substantiating the language of the Buddha‐to‐be with Tamil literary examples, the commentary envisions a community of readers who share a profound devotion to the Buddha and a moral vision of human kindness and self‐sacrificing compassion for the welfare of others. In drawing from texts that are not explicitly Buddhist for many of his moral illustrations, the commentator clearly envisions Buddhism as one among many sectarian communities in Tamil‐speaking literary culture; in quoting so broadly, he both locates and subtly reworks common intersectarian concerns and claims a part of the literary corpus in Tamil for Buddhism. In its failure to cite the Maṇimēkalai even once, the commentary further suggests that despite their common language and common geographical origin, the Maṇimēkalai and the Vīracōliyam did not belong to a single community of Tamil‐speaking Buddhists. Rather, each envisions and enacts a textual community unique to its own cultural and historical location, with each text revealing a distinct moment in the way Tamil‐speaking Buddhist communities represented and imagined themselves in diverse religious and linguistic landscapes.
Conclusion
Authors: Monius Anne E.
Published: October 2003

An outline is given of what has been learned of historical Buddhist communities in South India from the examination in the book of the two extant Buddhist texts in Tamil that are complete – the Maṇimēkalai, and the Vīracōliyam. Each text has been shown to reveal a distinct moment in the way in which Tamil‐speaking Buddhist communities represented and imagined themselves. Nevertheless, it is also possible to discern certain thematic threads running through both texts and the Vīracōliyam commentary, and these are discussed.
The Question of Democracy
Authors: Tamimi Azzam S.
Published: October 2003

In prison from 1980–84 Ghannouchi translates a number of works and writes some of his own on a number of topics including democracy, women's rights, and Palestine.

He is influenced by Malik Bennabi, whose treatise “Islam and Democracy” inspires him to lay the foundations for his own masterpiece Al‐Hurriyat al‐’Ammah (Public Liberties).

In this book, Ghannouchi attempts to address issues of great interest to modern activists and thinkers in the Muslim world and of direct relevance to the debate on the role Islam plays in the lives of Muslims in the modern world.

Freedom, citizenship rights, riddah (apostasy), democracy's Islamic roots, the foundations of an Islamic democracy, and such concepts as Islamic state, vicegerency, and shura are some of the topics addressed.
Gender in the Mirror
Authors: Meyers Diana Tietjens
Published: October 2003

In patriarchal cultures, people internalize cultural gender imagery that enshrines procreative heterosexuality and relations of domination and subordination between men and women. Once internalized – i.e., embedded in people's cognitive and emotional infrastructure – this imagery shapes, though it does not determine individual identity. Discernable in perception, imagination, desire, reflection, judgment, and choice, internalized gender imagery not only affects individual self‐knowledge and self‐definition but also affects people's conception of human nature and hence their political principles and ideals. As a result of their ubiquity and potency, patriarchal stereotypes of womanhood interfere with women's self‐determination or, in other words, their autonomy. The book canvasses and critiques a wide range of toxic gender imagery pertaining to issues that are central to women's individual identities, e.g., mother hood, recovered memory of childhood sexual abuse, and beauty ideals. Because women (and men) typically appropriate culturally entrenched tropes, mythic tales, and pictorial images to develop their self‐portraits and self‐narratives, resisting and supplanting patriarchal discursive regimes are crucial to women's agency. It is incumbent on feminists, then, to combat the pernicious effects of these representations of womanhood through a discursive politics that crafts and broadcasts emancipatory gender imagery and that complements feminist demands for equal rights and improved material conditions. Feminist discursive politics have already made some headway, for contemporary psychoanalytic theory and other representational practices provide illustrations of how emancipatory imagery might look. If this discursive campaign is unsuccessful, patriarchal cultures will continue to undercut women's ability to chart their own courses in their day‐to‐day lives, and feminist social and economic gains will be vulnerable to residual misogyny, backlash, and reversal.
Gender Identity and Women's Agency: Culture, Norms, and Internalized Oppression Revisited
Authors: Meyers Diana Tietjens
Published: October 2003

Because individual identities evolve in the context of enculturation, interpersonal bonds of affection and interdependency, and unconscious attitudes and wishes, a philosophical account of self‐determination must not only give due weight to each individual's unique desires, capabilities, values, interests, and goals, but it must also accommodate these intrapsychic, interpersonal, and social realities insofar as they shape an individual's identity. In patriarchal cultures, women internalize oppression, for regnant narrative schemas, themes, and figurations provide the default templates for their self‐portraits and self‐narratives. Women's appropriation of these default templates reproduce subordinat ing norms and crowds out alternative understandings of who they are and what their lives are about. Thus, patriarchal cultures impede women's agency. In contrast to existing value‐neutral, value‐saturated, and self‐narrative approaches to autonomy, this account stresses the need for a well‐developed, well‐coordinated repertoire of agentic skills. Using these skills enriches women's self‐knowledge, extends their emanci patory potentialities, and strengthens their ability both to define themselves in their own terms and to enact their identities as they understand them – i.e., agentic skills bring women's voices into alignment with their individual identities and their lives.
The Rush to Motherhood: Pronatalist Discourse and Women's Agency
Authors: Meyers Diana Tietjens
Published: October 2003

Despite the importance of women's decisions about procreation, women's testimony shows that, even when the right to procreate and the right to refuse to procreate are respected, few women autonomously decide whether or not to become mothers. Pronatalist ideology, which I dub matrigyno‐idolatry, is comprised of figurations of motherhood that interfere with women's autonomy by obfuscating their distinctive needs, temperaments, capabilities, and hopes – i.e., by subverting their self‐knowledge – and also by blocking their ability to imagine alternative life courses for themselves – i.e., by subverting their self‐definition. Testimony from those few women whose decisions about motherhood are arguably autonomous suggests that these women call on two key discursive strategies – lyric transfiguration and appropriation/adaptation – to generate individualized self‐figurations as well as agentic skills that enable them to assess the aptness of dissident self‐figurations as articulations of their distinctive sense of self. It is necessary to reform child‐rearing practices that fail to cultivate these skills, and feminist discursive politics must contest the matrigynist discursive monopoly by fashioning and circulating both counterfigurations of motherhood and counterfigurations of adult women disassociated from motherhood. Coupled with efforts to ensure that individual women acquire the agentic skills they need to make selections from a pluralistic stock of imagery and to tailor that imagery to suit themselves, this latitudinarian discursive setting would secure a key social condition for women's autonomy regarding motherhood.
The Family Romance: A Fin‐de‐Siècle Tragedy
Authors: Meyers Diana Tietjens
Published: October 2003

It is necessary to find an interpretation of recovered memory of childhood sexual abuse that moves beyond the frequently futile “Did it happen, or didn’t it?” construal. Focusing on the rhetoric of autobio graphical memory in conjunction with the contribution of autobio graphical memory to self‐definition reorients the controversy over recovered memory. Popularized versions of Freud's family romance figure disparate adult outcomes for women: the standard scenario signifies marriage and motherhood, but the sadistic incest trope signifies hysteria or multiple personality disorder. Because cultural ly furnished tropes and mythic tales structure autobio graphical memory, in cases of uncorroborated memories of father‐daughter incest, it may be best to remain agnostic about the accuracy of one's memories and instead to consider whether adopting the sadistic incest trope is conducive to redefining oneself in a satisfying way. For epistemolog ical, therapeutic, legal, and political reasons, feminist psychotherapists, scholars, and discursive activists should fashion alterna tives to the family romance.
Miroir, Memoire, Mirage: Appearance, Aging, and Women
Authors: Meyers Diana Tietjens
Published: October 2003

Instead of encountering the faces they have identified with, however ambivalently, many aging women meet a stranger in the mirror – an alien image that is an object of scorn and a constant reminder of mortality. What cultural assumptions must be changed in order for women to happily live with their time‐altered visages? Women who have undergone cosmetic surgery use several key strategies to reconnect with their radically transformed faces, and it seems that parallel strategies should serve aging women. Alas, these strategies depend on three untenable assumptions about the self, the expressivity of faces, and the nature of beauty – the identity constancy postulate, the facial legibility postulate, and the goodness‐goes‐with‐beauty postulate. With radical modifications, these postulates could accommo date women's lifelong needs, but it would remain necessary for feminist discursive politics to sever the symbolic association between death and the changes women's faces undergo as they grow old.
Live Ordnance in the Cultural Field: Gender Imagery, Sexism, and the Fragility of Feminist Gains
Authors: Meyers Diana Tietjens
Published: October 2003

At the same time as the gender imagery discussed in preceding chapters mandates feminine desires and values for women, it normalizes misogynistic bigotry. None of the solutions that cognitive psychologists and psychoanalytic theorists propose would suffice to wipe out sexism, for all of the remedies derived from these theories bypass one of sexism's major contributing causes, namely, culturally entrenched representations of womanhood. Since men in patriarchal cultures internalize a sexist cultural patrimony that harnesses lasting emotion and potent motivation to flimsy, but seemingly solid rationales for misogynistic practices, a feasible and effective program for resisting and subduing sexism must include a feminist discursive politics aimed at replacing this heritage of derogatory imagery with emanci patory gender imagery. As long as misleading feminine stereotypes remain integral to western mythologies of selfhood and human purpose, unconscious sexism will persist, backlash movements will thrive, and women's social and economic gains will be fragile.
Playing Host to Deity
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

In the South Indian religious tradition, there are grand ten‐day festivals held each year in the streets around the temples, mosques, and churches. This tradition is found not only inTamil Nadu and Kerala but also in Sri Lanka and in a variety of diaspora settings as well. These festivities remind one in certain ways of the earthy, lower class ”carnival” activities of medieval Europe, around which the Soviet scholar, M.M. Bakhtin, built some of his theories, except that the South Indian festivals are intensely religious and still very popular. Festivals that go back to ancient times often reflect issues in hunting tribal society, those dating from the medieval period reflect the concerns of complex agricultural societies (with landlords, kings, and priests, prominent), and others that started more recently are concerned with dealing with specific changes in the immediate social setting.

Most of the festivals are held near Hindu temples and involve the worship of a number of deities. Many center on the worship of a particular Goddess, or a Goddess linked to either Visnu or Sivan (Siva) in some interesting way. Subplots about Muslim saints or warriors are commonly woven into the celebration, and a few of the most prominent festivals center on Buddhist or Christian figures, even though the patterns of worship are very similar to the more Hindu‐oriented festivals.

Festivals with ancient roots usually include dramatic ascetic practices such as “fire walking”, where practitioners walk across beds of burning coals, and “hook swinging”, where a person is swung from a scaffold by ropes attached to a hook in the flesh of his back. In Goddess festivals, many worshipers go into a trance and become possessed by the Goddess so that they are enabled to perform healings and exorcisms for others. Animal sacrifice was also central to traditional Goddess festivals, but it is now discouraged in India and is found primarily in diaspora settings where South Indians went as indentured laborers in the nineteenth century.

The crowds for the best‐known festivals can be in the hundreds of thousands, but whatever the size, the community that attends the festival considers itself a sanctified version of its everyday self, and it takes great delight in “playing host” to its favorite deities. This rich religious tradition seems to have roots in the earliest periods of South Indian history, but it is still a vibrant religious form that South Indians seem to be using with new enthusiasm as they face the social changes of the present generation.
Return to the Mountains
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

One of the oldest festivals in South India is the pilgrimage to the Sabarimalai shrine of Ayyappan in the mountains of Kerala. About 10 million male devotees make this pilgrimage each December and January. On the way, bands of devotees shout antiphonally “Ayyappan saranam” “I take refuge in Ayyappan” and “Swamiye saranam” “I take refuge in the Lord” , and initiate new pilgrims in the rigors of this form of devotion. Reinterpretations of the Ayyappan stories have taken place a number of times over the centuries, with a major one being that Ayyappan can be called ”HariHara” because he was born of a union of Visnu (Hari) in female form and Sivan (Hara). The recent increase in the popularity of this festival indicates that it still provides a sense of the deepest foundation of South Indian or Dravidian culture.
The Goddess of Koṭuṅkaḷūr
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

The festival of Kotunkalur, the ancient capital of Kerala, engages the worshipers with the Goddess of that region described in the Cilappatikaram epic as Kannaki. This Goddess is understood as temperamental, and demands erotic pleasure and blood sacrifices from her devotees. The priests close the temple during the festival because the devotees’ insistence on physical contact with the deity violates the restrictions of the priestly system. The many velicapatu or sorcerers who come to the festival have the power of their ritual swords renewed by having them placed on a sacred spot in the home of the Nair family that manages the temple. On the final day, a member of the ancient kingly lineage arrives and negotiates with the priests and the Nairs on behalf of the worshipers, and it is agreed that the temple will be reopened.
Wandering and Romance With Lord Raṅkanātaṉ
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

The Ati or “Original” festival of Srirankam brings an ancient festival tradition into the ritual cycle of one of the most sophisticated temple traditions in all of India. The festival image of Visnu used in these celebrations is a fun‐loving potential bridegroom, and on successive days he makes trips out from the temple on an island in the Kaveri River in the four directions. Gradually, a triangular love story emerges because the Cola princess falls (prapatti) in love with him during a visit to her town, and he then has to return to the temple to deal with the angry Goddess whose devotion (pakti or  bhakti) he has dishonored and with whom he is to be married the next day. The Goddess and the worshipers eventually learn that the deity is both fully transcendent and free (paratva) and easy of access (saulabhya).
The Family of Śivaṉ in the Kāvēri River Valley
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

The festivals of the Tiruvnaikka temple in the fertile Kaveri River valley reflect the concerns of the landlord Velala caste and the Cola dynasty when, as their many inscriptions show, they joined together to start their famous irrigation system. The symbol system they used has an elaborate medieval quality, which sees things in a bipolar form. The “land” and “water”, which make the irrigation system work, correspond with the Goddess Akilantesvari, who gives fertility to the earth, and the God Sivan, who brought water to earth by catching the river Ganges in his hair. In the festivals, this symbol system is played by reversing the roles of female and male, by comparing the “elephant” concerned, like the priests, with daily devotional work and the ”spider” concerned, like the kings, with building permanent structures such as temples. These festivals are now elegant reminders of a medieval style of thinking and worshipping.
Monks and Kings Intervene
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

The festival in Kandy in the highlands of central Sri Lanka is unusual because in the eighteenth century, an older festival tradition was transformed by an order of the emperor Krti or Rajasimha to conclude the festival with a procession from the Buddhist Tooth temple. Both an archaic festival segment and a medieval agricultural segment, introduced when the Cola dynasty conquered Sri Lanka, were clear in the description of the festival given by Robert Knox who was held prisoner in Kandy in the seventeenth century. The more Buddhist‐oriented festival described in the Buddhist Chronicle of the eighteenth century had a very political form with each province of the empire expected to bring its drummers, dancers, elephants, and political officials to march in the procession. Today those elements of the procession remain the same, but they are now thought of as a reflection of medieval grandeur.
Can Śivaṉ Be “Re‐Formed”?
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

Murukapula is a modestly sized village in the south of Kerala which looks out onto the backwaters leading to the sea and has a huge Roman Catholic church for its large population of fishermen. The other two‐thirds of its population are a mixture of people in Untouchables castes and Ilavas who have only a slightly higher caste status. Narayana Guru started a reform movement among Ilavas early in the last century and he visited Murukapula and there is a reform temple in the village still pushing his ideas. The traditional temple compound had separate temples for the Untouchables and the Ilavas, and the Ilava who now owns the compound has tried to redesign the local festival so that it appeals to those two groups and the more modern tastes of those who see the festival as community entertainment. The velicapatu still goes into trance for those who need exorcism, but the cock sacrifice is only simulated and the hook swinging is transformed into a painless initiation of the youth in which the whole community participates.
Dance and Trance in a New World
Authors: Younger Paul
Published: October 2003

The most thorough recreation of the South Indian tradition of worship anywhere in the diaspora took place in Guyana when large numbers of indentured laborers were taken there in the middle of the nineteenth century. The temple compounds they established in each village are called the ”Madrasi temples” in local parlance, and they are all the same with Mariyamman in the center surrounded by five to ten subsidiary deities. The pujaris (priests) regularly go into trance and perform exorcisms, and in preparing for their trance, they carry on the ancient practice of animal sacrifice and also follow a unique local practice of being whipped with a 12‐foot rope. The festival in this case is limited to three days, with the Goddess arriving and possessing the pujaris and their assistants the first night, the whole troop visiting every house in the village the second night, and the whole village returning to the temple for exorcisms on the last night.
Introduction
Authors: Jaffee Martin S.
Published: October 2003

Introduces key technical terms referring to the composition and transmission of oral tradition, and proposes a general theoretical model for studying the various elements of Jewish oral tradition in particular. The most important technical terms are: “oral‐literary tradition” (defined as “verbal products of a culture that have pretensions beyond everyday speech”); “oral‐performative tradition” (defined as “the sum of performative strategies” for transmitting the content of oral‐literary tradition); and “text‐interpretive tradition” (defined as “the body of interpretive understandings that arise from multiple performances of a text”). The theoretical model of oral tradition employed here enables studies of the interrelationships among three dimensions of Jewish oral tradition: the textual substance of the tradition, the social settings for its transmission, and, most importantly, the ideological system by which the texts of oral tradition are represented. For rabbinic Judaism, the concept of Torah in the Mouth and the description of the earliest rabbinic text (the Mishnah) as repeated tradition are the crucial ideological elements under study.
Performative Reading and Text Interpretation at Qumran
Authors: Jaffee Martin S.
Published: October 2003

Explores the nature of oral‐performative reading and text‐interpretive tradition in the scribal community (Yakhad) associated with the Qumran ruins and the Dead Sea scrolls. The focus is upon the conceptions of the authority of written texts and their oral‐performative transmission as embodied in the community's written representations of the study session of the community, its own practice of textual study preserved in the Damascus Covenant (CD), and the Community Rule (1QS). The chapter shows that despite a rich tradition of interpretive reading of scriptural works and others regarded as stemming from prophecy, the Qumran Yakhad had no sense of itself as bearing an ancient tradition, either oral or written.
The Media of Pharisaic Text‐Interpretive Tradition
Authors: Jaffee Martin S.
Published: October 2003

This chapter focuses upon conceptions of written and oral tradition ascribed to the Pharisees, an important group in Second Temple Judean society. It surveys the key sources of knowledge about Pharisees: some scattered references in the pesher literature of the Dead Sea scrolls, complex narratives found in the historical writings of Flavius Josephus, the writings of the Apostle Paul, Gospel narratives of Jewish opposition to Jesus, and the classical rabbinic writings from the Mishnah to the Babylonian Talmud. The chapter concludes that Pharisees of the first century c.e. almost certainly believed themselves to possess an ancient “ancestral tradition” of a text‐interpretive character. But there is no evidence that they linked the authority of this tradition to exclusively oral forms of transmission.
Tannaitic Tradition as an Object of Rabbinic Reflection
Authors: Jaffee Martin S.
Published: October 2003

This chapter studies the representations of the oral nature of rabbinic law (halakhah) and text‐interpretive tradition as found in the earliest extant rabbinic literary sources: the Mishnah and the Tosefta. In these early Tannaitic sources, the tradition of halakhah is represented in a variety of ways: as oral‐literary tradition per se; as a tradition of ritual (rather than civil or criminal) law; and as the innovative decisions of rabbinic sages. It concludes that in contrast to Pharisaic conceptions of the antiquity of “ancestral tradition,” the earliest rabbinic texts insist upon the oral nature of the halakhic tradition and, paradoxically, upon its relatively recent origins in Hasmonean‐Herodian times. This point is made clear by the fact that only a few minor halakhic norms are conceded to precede the first century b.c.e. as “halakhah to Moses from Sinai.”
Torah in the Mouth in Galilean Discipleship Communities
Authors: Jaffee Martin S.
Published: October 2003

Explores the connection between the presence of written versions of rabbinic tradition and the emergence among Galilean sages of the third century c.e. of an explicit ideological claim that the entire rabbinic tradition originated in Sinaitic revelation to Moses as unwritten Torah in the Mouth. Of great comparative interest is the Greco‐Roman tradition of rhetorical education, represented in the tradition of rhetorical textbooks (Progymnasmata), which prized memorization of written texts for exclusively oral performances that included rule‐governed transformations and revisions of texts in the performative setting. The chapter examines Amoraic traditions of Byzantine Galilee (the Palestinian Talmud, Midrash Tanhuma, Midrash Pesiqta Rabbati) for evidence that they were mastered from written versions and intentionally revised in performative settings. From this comparative perspective, the chapter concludes that the rabbinic conception of Torah in the Mouth is designed to legitimate the authority of the sage in the setting of discipleship training.
Epilogue
Authors: Jaffee Martin S.
Published: October 2003

The epilogue briefly explores the ontological distinctions drawn in rabbinic culture between Torah in the Mouth as an oral performative reality and the written versions of rabbinic tradition. Rabbinic sages from the Byzantine period on recognized the written texts of the Bible as classical embodiments of the Torah by virtue of their being written records of revelation. They also believed that written texts found neither in the Bible nor in rabbinic tradition had no status as Torah at all. They were simply literature. But the written texts of Torah in the Mouth occupied a peculiar status: they were not Torah until they were absorbed in the memory and delivered in public performance. This public performance, in the midst of the discipleship community, represented a religious reenactment of the moment of Sinaitic revelation.
The Slave‐Boy
Authors: Weiss Roslyn
Published: October 2003

In the slave‐boy demonstration, Socrates teaches the slave boy which line it is in an original square upon which a new square, double the size of the first, is constructed. The instruction is disguised as an elenchus in order to encourage Meno to continue with the elenctic examination into virtue with which he and Socrates had been occupied up to this point. The diagonal, which constitutes the answer to the geometrical question, is present in the diagram from the start but stimulates no “recollection” on the part of the slave‐boy. The solution to the geometry problem is incontestable (it is confirmed by counting) and so amounts to knowledge; in virtue the most one can hope for is to know “no less accurately than anyone.” Socrates is committed only to the moral value of the “doctrines” ‐recollection and the immortality of the soul – he has espoused; he has fought in word (myth) and deed (the slave‐boy demonstration) for the worth of moral inquiry.
Introduction
Authors: Trumbower Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

The introduction looks at the posthumous salvation of non‐Christians in the nineteenth‐century American context as practiced by Shakers and Latter‐day Saints (a.k.a. Mormons), in order to set the stage for the study of the ancient texts. The Shakers experienced a form of spirit possession by which dead non‐Christians, especially Native Americans, would enter into the bodies of living Shakers and thereby be saved. Joseph Smith, prophet and founder of the Latter‐day Saints, introduced the ritual of vicarious baptism for the dead based on his reading of 1 Corinthians 15:29 and his encounter with the biblical prophet Elijah. This ritual is still practiced today in the LDS church.
Greek, Roman, and Jewish Succor for the Dead
Authors: Trumbower Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

Chapter one sets up the cultural context for the study of early Christian texts by examining traditions in which the living helped the dead in Greek religion, Roman religion, and ancient Judaism. The archaeology of burial sites, epitaphs, other inscriptions, and textual sources are adduced as evidence for this purpose. The chapter concludes with a discussion of salvation after death in the Greek religious movement called Orphism, as well as in the Jewish texts 2 Maccabees and 4 Ezra.
The New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature
Authors: Trumbower Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

Chapter two scours the New Testament and other Christian literature, of roughly the same era, for passages in which there is a discussion of the possibility of salvation after death. Luke's parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19–31) appears to cut off the possibility, while several comments in Paul and 1 Peter seem to indicate that there might be hope for salvation beyond the grave. Statements in Paul's letters have been interpreted to justify vicarious baptism for the dead (practiced by later Marcionites), and universal salvation. The chapter ends with a discussion of two key texts that envision a scene of the final judgment in which the Christian saints are given the opportunity to rescue selected sinners from hell: the Apocalypse of Peter and the Sibylline Oracles.
Jesus' Descent to the Underworld
Authors: Trumbower Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

The fifth chapter categorizes various early Christian opinions on who exactly was saved during Christ's descent to the underworld or Hades, an event known in later theology as the “harrowing of hell.” Most early theologians posit that only the righteous of the Old Testament were saved, but some texts, like the Odes of Solomon, infer that a general offer of salvation to all the dead was made at that time. Clement of Alexandria interpreted 1 Peter from the New Testament in the same direction. John Chrysostom and Philaster of Brescia were adamant that no one “converted” in hell; only those who had been righteous in this life were eligible to receive Christ in the underworld. Two different versions of the Gospel of Nicodemus give two different answers to this question.
Augustine's Rejection of Posthumous Salvation for Non‐Christians
Authors: Trumbower Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

The seventh chapter documents how and why Augustine of Hippo came to reject all the forms of posthumous salvation outlined in the earlier chapters of this study. His influence over theology in the west on this issue cannot be understated. First, some of the antecedents to Augustine's thought are examined, including Cyprian and Ambrose. Next, the chapter traces the gradual development of Augustine's thought up to the year 419. In that year Augustine encountered an opponent named Vincentius Victor, who argued that unbaptized infants could be saved and prayers for the non‐Christian dead could be efficacious. Victor's interpretation of Perpetua's prayer for Dinocrates was crucial to his argument. Augustine insisted on the absolute necessity of infant baptism (as he had earlier in the Pelagianism debate), and he began to outline a notion of what would become purgatory by stating that prayers are only effective for baptized Christians who died with light sins. Central to Augustine's reasoning was a defense of the power and authority of the church on earth as the sole vehicle for salvation.
Gregory the Great's Prayer for Trajan
Authors: Trumbower Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

The eighth and final chapter briefly surveys the history of posthumous salvation after Augustine. Central is a story told about Pope Gregory the Great (sixth century), who supposedly uttered a prayer for the salvation of the pagan Roman emperor Trajan, who had lived in the second century. In Eastern Orthodoxy, this prayer is often combined with that of Thecla for Falconilla as two examples of God's mercy even upon dead pagans. In the west, because of Augustine's influence, the story is retold to include the resurrection of the body of Trajan, since without physical baptism, no one who lived after Christ can be saved.
State Transformation, Globalization, and the Possibilities of Cause Lawyering
Authors: Sarat Austin , Scheingold Stuart A.
Published: October 2003

Globalization and democratization are creating new types of social relations, and thus new dimensions of state power. This in turn creates new rights and obligations, or extensions of existing ones, which can be exploited by cause lawyers in pursuance of their various ideological and redistributive projects. This chapter explains the general processes at work, and summarizes the individual case studies that comprise the remaining chapters of the book.
Two Worlds of Ghanaian Cause Lawyers
Authors: White Lucie
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines two key areas in which cause lawyers are active in Ghana – womens’ rights and economic development policy. The analysis is based on interviews with mid‐level professionals, and details what their objectives and outlooks have in common.
Cause Lawyers in a Cold Climate
Authors: Boon Andrew
Published: October 2003

The neoliberal agenda initiated under the Thatcher government had a major impact on the legal profession in the U.K., by dismantling its protective practices, and by substantially reducing the legal aid budget as part of its assault on welfare expenditures. The legal profession saw this as derogation from its legitimacy in the eyes of public opinion, or erosion of its symbolic social capital, and responded by an increased focus on cause lawyering and by assuming a greater burden of pro bono work.
Cause Lawyers, Clients, and the State
Authors: Ziv Neta
Published: October 2003

This chapter focuses on cause lawyering in Congress. Its subject is the group of advocates representing disabled persons during the enactment of the Americans with Disabilities Act (A.D.A. between 1988 and 1990. Analysis of cause lawyering within a political institution throws light on new aspects of legal professionalism and the state. As depicted here, lawyering for legislative reform on behalf of a politically and socially disempowered group does not adhere to the conventional client–lawyer–state model, which treats the interests of both the client and the state as determinable, and assigns a mediating role to the lawyer. Rather, it presents a model in which the interests of both the client and the state are defined and developed as part of the legislative process, as a field of “sub‐political” interaction. This chapter examines the political space within which such interaction takes place.
Introduction
Authors: Delancey Craig
Published: October 2003

The chapter develops a taxonomy of emotions and other affects and introduces and defends a version of the affect program theory. A general and primitive notion of affect as a motivational state is introduced. Affects are defined as real, occurrent states, functionally identified, and not well characterized by such bivalent features as positive/negative. Some of the states typically called “emotions,” such as fear and anger, are found to be special kinds of affects, characterized primarily by the actions they cause or are associated with. These basic emotions are explained by a version of the affect program theory that takes many emotions to be evolved from action programs.
The Case Against Cognitivism
Authors: Delancey Craig
Published: October 2003

Cognitive theories of emotions are criticized. Cognitivism is shown to have two forms: reductive and doxastic. Each is found inconsistent with a range of important scientific findings about affects. The affect program theory is consistent with these findings, and is consistent with a weak form of cognitivism. The failure of cognitivism about emotions is also evidence for the hierarchical view of mind.
Interpretationism
Authors: Delancey Craig
Published: October 2003

Scientific evidence against cognitivism about emotions is conclusive, but is only convincing if one accepts a naturalist view of mind. Interpretationism is a leading kind of theory of mind, primarily associated with Donald Davidson and Daniel Dennett, which entails cognitivism about emotions but which is resistant to scientific evidence because it posits that mental states are not scientific entities. Using commonsense examples, I show that interpretationism cannot account for some emotional actions and therefore fails to account for basic emotions.
Emoting for Fictions
Authors: Delancey Craig
Published: October 2003

The fact that we emote for fictions is incompatible with some cognitivist views of emotions and has therefore received a great deal of attention and been called the paradox of emotion and fiction. I show how the affect program theory offers an explanation of how and why we emote for fictions. Central to this approach, is the idea that the entertainment of content is prior to and more basic than the consideration of whether a content is warranted.
Four Puzzles for Consciousness
Authors: Delancey Craig
Published: October 2003

After a basic review of the contemporary debate about phenomenal consciousness, four puzzles about emotional experience are discussed. First, emotions appear to be essentially motivational states, making them poor candidates for arguments, akin to inverted spectra or zombie worlds. Second, emotions differ significantly in their character, whereas some phenomenal experiences do not. Third, emotions vary significantly in their intensity, another feature lacking in some phenomenal experiences. Fourth, representations do not appear to be the best explanation for the features of emotional experience.
Affective Engineering
Authors: Delancey Craig
Published: October 2003

The notion of affective engineering – the attempt to engineer affective systems – is introduced. Shallow affective engineering is defined as the recreation of outward signs or single features of affects; deep affective engineering is the attempt to create affects in artificial systems. The important role of affects in autonomous biological systems shows that AI should pursue deep affective engineering as a strategy to understand and recreate such systems. Our best understanding of emotion suggests other insights into AI, including a special focus on action, parallel processing, and diverse valuations.
Noah's Curse
Authors: Haynes Stephen R.
Published: October 2003

This book is a study in the history of biblical interpretation with implications for contemporary social relations. It illumines the religious dimensions of America's racial history by exploring how the book of Genesis has been used to justify slavery, segregation, and the repression of “blacks.” The book focuses on passages in Genesis 9–11 that have been consistently racialized by Bible readers in search of authoritative explanations for the origin and destiny of sub‐Saharan Africans. This often‐overlooked section of the Bible's primeval history includes the tale of Noah and his sons (Gen. 9: 20–27), the legend of the “mighty hunter” Nimrod (Gen. 10: 6–10), and the Tower of Babel story (Gen. 11: 1–10), passages that have contributed profoundly to Euro–American images of “blacks.” The book carefully analyzes the so‐called curse of Ham (or Canaan) recorded in Genesis 9, invoked by antebellum proslavery apologists, and explores the influence of the curse tradition in America before and after the Civil War.
Grandson of Disorder
Authors: Haynes Stephen R.
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores how white concerns for order are reflected in the portraits of Nimrod and his Tower sketched by American Bible readers during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Analyzing American versions of Nimrod's legend reveals how Bible readers have appropriated the leitmotifs of rebellion and disorder forged in antebellum readings of Noah's curse. Special attention is given to the way Nimrod's legend figured in the defense of legalized segregation by white Christians.
Noah's Sons in New Orleans
Authors: Haynes Stephen R.
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores the use of the story of Noah's sons and related passages in the biblical exposition of Benjamin M. Palmer (1818–1902), a representative proslavery intellectual and leader in the southern Presbyterian Church from the 1850s until his death in 1902. Palmer was not only an influential advocate of slavery and secession but also an apostle of the South's Lost Cause following the Civil War. The role of Ham's curse is traced through Palmer's writings before, during, and after the Civil War, through which it is demonstrated that, with the demise of American slavery, Genesis 9–11 was utilized to justify racial segregation. The postbellum need for a new system of domination for dealing with the African majority in the South corresponds to a shift in Palmer's reading of Genesis from Ham the impudent son to Nimrod the rebellious tyrant who ignored the separation of peoples instituted by God following the flood.
Beyond Slavery, Beyond Race
Authors: Haynes Stephen R.
Published: October 2003

This chapter traces the way Noah's curse has been interpreted by Christians seeking to establish the relevance of Genesis 9–11 in a post‐Civil Rights age. While race steadily receded into the background of American commentary on Genesis 9–11 during the twentieth century, Bible readers continued to commend Noah's prophecy as a “remarkable unfolding of the future destinies of the new humanity.” As such, the passage was read as a delineation of the character and destiny of the great human “types” stemming from Shem, Japheth, and Ham. Attention is also given to the way the biblical tale of the Tower of Babel came to function as an explanation for the origins of human difference.
Introduction
Authors: Leeming David
Published: October 2003

Followers of given religious traditions tend to assume that sacred stories of other religious traditions, however beautiful and stirring, are myths. In this sense, myths are seen as false stories. Yet, understanding that all of our sacred stories are mythic helps us to rediscover the universal relevance of all mythologies and to understand that all myths – not just our own – are in some sense true. Modern understandings challenge our religious mythmakers to discover new metaphors for reality.
Capitalists against Markets
Authors: Swenson Peter A.
Published: October 2003

Challenges the conventional wisdom that welfare state builders take their cues solely from labor and other progressive interests. It argues instead that pragmatic social reformers in the U.S. and Sweden looked for support from above as well as below, taking into account capitalists’ interests and preferences in the political process. Legislation associated with the American New Deal and Swedish social democracy was built, consequently, on cross‐class alliances of interest. Capitalists in both countries appreciated the regulatory impact of reformist social and labor legislation. Their interests in such legislation derived from their distinct systems of labor market governance. Thus, new theory and historical evidence in this book illuminate the political conditions for greater equality and security in capitalist societies.
Solidarity, Segmentation, and Market Control
Authors: Swenson Peter A.
Published: October 2003

This chapter develops an alternative theory about welfare state development, which posits that reformers try to root their legislation in cross‐class alliances intersecting the internally diverse interests of capital and labor. Reformers appeal to interests in progressive reform deriving from capitalists’ desire for regulation of markets. The theory about the politics of the welfare state draws on labor economics, arguing that macroeconomic shocks to systems of labor market governance (various forms of collective bargaining and managerial relations) create an opportunity for politicians to enlist capitalist support for regulatory assistance through social insurance and labor reform.