bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Comparative Analysis of Tillage Practices on Soil Characteristics in Vertisol for Groundnut-based Cropping System
Authors: Ranjitha Meti , Hundekar S. T. , Yenagi Basavaraj S , K. N. Jakir Hussain , Devarnavadgi Mahalaxmi Shrishail
Published: November 2024

Tillage practices in groundnut-based Vertisol systems is essential for improving soil health and maximizing agricultural productivity. This study investigates the impact of tillage practices and cropping systems on soil physical and chemical properties in the Vertisol region of Karnataka during the 2022-23 Kharif and Rabi seasons. Conducted at the MARS, UAS, Dharwad, the experiment utilized a strip plot design, comparing minimum tillage with crop residue incorporation (M1) and conventional tillage without residue (M2) across four cropping systems. Findings revealed that minimum tillage significantly enhanced soil properties, demonstrating improved porosity (52.14%), maximum water holding capacity (55.97%) and soil aggregate stability (62.42%) while reducing bulk density (1.27 Mg m⁻³) at the surface layer. Among cropping systems, the groundnut + pigeon pea combination showed superior soil characteristics, with porosity at 50.88%, MWHC at 55.05%, and reduced bulk density of 1.31 Mg m⁻³ at 0-15 cm depth. Additionally, minimum tillage led to higher soil organic carbon (7.65 g kg⁻¹) and available NPK levels (315.8 kg ha⁻¹ N, 44.06 kg ha⁻¹ P, 324.53 kg ha⁻¹ K), particularly in the groundnut + pigeon pea system. These findings emphasize the efficacy of conservation agriculture techniques, reinforcing existing research that highlights how minimum tillage and leguminous cropping systems enhance soil health and foster sustainable farming practices. Such results are pivotal for promoting sustainable agricultural development, as they illustrate that implementing these practices can lead to significant improvements in soil vitality, crucial for boosting crop yields and ensuring ecological stability in Karnataka's Vertisol region.
Analysis of early results of edoxaban and warfarin in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis
Authors:   Konya City Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Konya, Türkiye, Guner Abdullah , Taban Volkan Burak ,   Şırnak State Hospital Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Şırnak, Türkiye, Ceran Muhammet Talha ,   Konya City Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Konya, Türkiye, Dereli Yuksel ,   Necmettin Erbakan University, Meram Medical Faculty, Cardiovascular Surgery Clinic, Konya, Türkiye
Published: November 2024

Aim: Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) is an acute onset disease. Warfarin and new oral anticoagulants (NOAC) can be used for treatment. Edoxaban is one of the NOACs that acts directly as a ‘Factor Xa inhibitor’. The aim of our study was to investigate early treatment complications and efficacy in patients treated with warfarin and edoxaban. Material and Methods: The results of a total of 100 patients who started drug treatment for DVT between September 2018 and March 2020 were retrospectively analysed. The patients included in the study were divided into two groups according to the type of anticoagulant used [Warfarin (n=50), Edoxaban (n=50)]. Patients' routine examinations and colour Doppler ultrasound (CDUSG) results at baseline and 1-month follow-up were compared with their bleeding status. Results: Clinical status and CDUSG revealed acute DVT in 57 patients, subacute DVT in 32 patients, and chronic DVT in 11 patients. The recanalisation rate at 1 month was higher with edoxaban (80%) and lower with warfarin (62%) and this difference was statistically significant (p=0.008). The most common complication during follow-up was minor bleeding, which occurred in 24% and 18% of patients using Warfarin and Edoxaban, respectively. There was no mortality due to minor, major or cerebrovascular events in any of the patients. Conclusion: In our study, we evaluated the early results of anticoagulant therapy in patients with DVT and found faster recanalization and fewer complications in the NOAC group in agreement with the literature. Further randomised, advanced and large-scale studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of the drugs.
Long-term outcomes of radiofrequency ablation and cyanoacrylate closure for treatment of small saphenous veins
Authors:   Kırıkkale High Specialization Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Kırıkkale, Türkiye, Kayan Ahmet , Karacuha Ali Fuat ,   Trabzon Kanuni Training and Research Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Trabzon,Türkiye, Dikmen Nur ,   Ankara University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Heart Center, Ankara, Türkiye, Baran Cagdas ,   Ankara University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Heart Center, Ankara, Türkiye, Sirlak Mustafa ,   Ankara University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Heart Center, Ankara, Türkiye
Published: November 2024

Aim: Superficial venous insufficiency is less prevalent in the lesser saphenous vein compared to the great saphenous vein. Treating the lesser saphenous vein often presents greater challenges due to its proximity to the sural nerve and anatomical variations. This study evaluates the long-term efficacy of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and cyanoacrylate closure (CAC) for managing small saphenous veins and discusses our treatment approach. Material and Methods: We performed a retrospective analysis involving 137 patients (64 treated with CAC and 73 with RFA) who received treatment for small saphenous vein insufficiency at our clinic between 2014 and 2019. We assessed quality of life and clinical outcomes at 6 months, and at 1, 3, and 5 years post-treatment. Results: Our findings indicated that radiofrequency ablation showed greater improvements compared to cyanoacrylate embolization in terms of VCSS. However, over the 5-year follow-up period, recurrence rates were observed in 11 (17.1%) patients in the CAC group and 5 (6.8%) patients in the RFA group, with this difference being statistically significant (p=0.045). Conclusion: Radiofrequency ablation for treating venous insufficiency offers superior long-term quality of life benefits compared to cyanoacrylate closure, particularly after three years.
Endovascular intervention in patients with blunt traumatic thoracic aortic injury: Early results
Authors:   Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training and Research Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, İstanbul, Türkiye, Toz Hasan , Kuserli Yusuf ,   Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training and Research Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, İstanbul, Türkiye, Turkyilmaz Gulsum ,   Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training and Research Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, İstanbul, Türkiye, Turkyilmaz Saygin ,   Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training and Research Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, İstanbul, Türkiye, Kavala Ali Aycan ,   İstanbul Bakırköy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training Research Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery İstanbul, Türkiye
Published: November 2024

Aim: Mortality rates are high in thoracic aortic injuries caused by blunt trauma. Thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR) is the most commonly employed surgical strategy for patients with blunt traumatic thoracic aortic injuries (BTTAI) due to its favorable outcomes. This study aims to present our endovascular experience in treating Type B aortic dissections resulting from blunt trauma. Material and Methods: Our retrospective study included 70 patients who underwent TEVAR for Stanford Type B aortic dissection due to blunt aortic injury. Patients who were under 22 and over 70 years of age, those who underwent emergency TEVAR, died in a hospital emergency, and had penetrating aortic injury, head traumas with neurological symptoms and requiring intervention, aortic pathology other than Type B aortic dissection, or aortic rupture were excluded from the study. Results: Of the patients, 34.3% (n=24) were female, and 65.7% (n=46) were male, with a mean age of 48.54±10.00 years. The most common cause of injury was motor vehicle accidents (81.4%, n=57). No statistically significant difference was found between patients regarding the locations of the landing zones (p>0.05). Conclusion: Early outcomes in selected patients demonstrate high survival rates following TEVAR for trauma-induced Type B dissections.
The effect of silymarin on ischemia-reperfusion injury in skeletal muscles of rats silymarin and ischemia-reperfusion injury
Authors:   Gazi University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ankara, Türkiye, Ozer Abdullah , Kocak Basak ,   Gazi University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ankara, Türkiye, Arslan Mustafa ,   Gazi University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Anaesthesiology and Reanimation, Ankara, Türkiye, Mardin Baris ,   Gazi University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ankara, Türkiye, Kucuk Aysegul ,   Kütahya Health Sciences University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Kütahya, Türkiye, Sezen Saban Cem ,   Kırıkkale University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Kırıkkale, Türkiye, Zor Mustafa Hakan ,   Gazi University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Ankara, Türkiye, Kavutcu Mustafa ,   Gazi University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Ankara, Türkiye
Published: November 2024

Aim: Although the precise process is not entirely elucidated, it is well-known that oxidative stress mediators contribute to ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. The impact of silymarin on I/R injury in many different tissues has been examined. For this purpose, we planned to see the effect of silymarin on muscle tissue in rats subjected to lower extremity I/R injury. Material and Methods: We used 18 male Wistar albino rats weighing 225-275 g. Each of the three groups of rats [Control (C), Ischemia-Reperfusion (I/R), and Silymarin-Ischemia/Reperfusion (S-I/R)] consisted of six rats. Silymarin was administered intraperitoneally 30 minutes before the procedure. (100 mg/kg-1) In Group I/R, the infrarenal abdominal aorta was clamped with a microvascular clamp. The clamp was removed after 120 minutes, and reperfusion was achieved for the next 120 minutes. At the end of the reperfusion period, muscle tissue samples were collected, and Malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase (CAT) enzyme activity levels and histopathological parameters were compared. Results: In the histopathological examination, no degeneration was observed in the muscle fibers in the Group C, while findings of striated muscle damage such as muscle atrophy/hypertrophy, muscle degeneration/congestion, internalization of the muscle nucleus/oval/central nucleus, fragmentation/hyalinization and leukocyte cell infiltration were seen in the Group I/R. In Group S-I/R, muscle atrophy /hypertrophy, internalization of the muscle nucleus/oval/central nucleus, fragmentation/hyalinization, and leukocyte cell infiltration were observed to improve these damaged areas compared to Group I/R. MDA levels in the Group I/R were significantly higher compared to Group C and S-I/R. The activity of the CAT enzyme was much higher in Group I/R compared to Group C. Conclusion: Our study revealed that 100 mg/kg-1 silymarin administered by intraperitoneal injection 30 minutes before ischemia effectively decreased lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress, and the injury caused by I/R in muscle histology in rats.
Does the type of aortic pathology affect periprocedural outcomes in patients undergoing thoracic endovascular aortic repair?
Authors:   Bursa City Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Bursa, Türkiye, Badem Serdar , Atasoy Mustafa Selcuk ,   Bursa City Hospital, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Bursa, Türkiye
Published: November 2024

Aim: To examine whether the type of aortic pathology affects periprocedural outcomes in patients undergoing thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR). Material and Methods: This retrospective observational cohort study included 47 TEVAR patients in total. Based on the kind of aortic pathology, the patients were categorized into three groups: Group 1 (n=23) included patients with type B aortic dissection (TBAD), Group 2 (n=14) included patients with descending thoracic aortic aneurysm (DTAA), and Group 3 (n=10) included patients with thoracic aortic mural thrombus (TAMT). Preprocedural basic clinical features, procedural data, and postprocedural outcomes and complications were compared between the groups. Results: The study population consisted of 36 males and 11 females, with a mean age of 62.48±14.2 years. Most of the patients in Groups 1 and 2 were male (82.6% and 92.8%), while 40% of the patients in Group 3 were male, and this difference was statistically significant. Compared to patients in other groups, individuals in Group 2 were significantly older and exhibited a higher incidence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and coronary artery disease. Group 3 required thromboembolectomy more frequently during the postprocedural period. In terms of other postprocedural outcomes, complications and mortality, there were no significant differences between the groups. Conclusion: Our study demonstrated that the type of aortic pathology did not significantly influence periprocedural outcomes in patients undergoing thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR). The TEVAR procedure can be effectively performed in suitable patients with various pathologies of the descending thoracic aorta.
Investigate the Influence of Glass Temperature on the Absorption Coefficient of Helium-Neon (He-Ne) Laser Radiation
Authors: Yaseen Dr. Hashim Fathi
Published: November 2024

Density of the glass and the speed of their movement at high temperatures. As the temperature increases, the behaviour and movement of photons within the material changes, leading to more significant interactions that affect how the laser is absorbed. Overall, the results highlight the relationship between temperature and optical properties of glass, emphasizing the importance of understanding these effects for applications in materials science and engineering. The results of the study are consistent with previous research on visual materials, which confirms the hypotheses and theoretical equations that were used in the research. It studies the variables that affect optical devices at different thermal conditions, and provides valuable new practical insights for the design of modern optical components. Key findings enhance and confirm understanding of the interactions of the laser beam with materials, especially glass, which is critical for improving performance in practical and medical laser applications.
Action Theory
Authors: Gardner Andrew
Published: November 2018

All archaeological interpretation employs some theory about the nature of the human beings who lived in the pasttheir choices, their intentions, and their “rationality,” as manifest in the actions which are the ultimate origin of the archaeological record. In traditional archaeologies, these theories tended to be “common sense” and implicit suppositions based upon the norms of western societies. New approaches began to appear in the mid‐twentieth century that emphasized the supposedly adaptive qualities of human behavior, but it is from the 1980s to the present that archaeologists have really begun to explore the range of different approaches to these fundamental issues that can be found across the social sciences and various branches of philosophy. This entry covers the major approaches to “action,” and the agency‐structure problem, in archaeology, examining also some of the theoretical traditions these draw upon, as well as neglected intellectual avenues with potential for future development.
Airborne Laser Scanning and Lidar
Authors: Hannon Nick
Published: November 2018

Lidar (light detection and ranging) is a laser scanning technique that has become a standard tool of the landscape archaeologist. The technique uses a laser sensor mounted on an aircraft to digitally survey the land beneath during the aircraft's flight. The process allows archaeologists to survey the Earth's surface to facilitate the accurate mapping of archaeological features. Due to the speed of data acquisition and availability of free data, landscapes can be investigated at a scale previously unavailable. The method also allows investigators to see the ground surface beneath extant woodland, potentially revealing archaeological features hidden from conventional survey techniques.
Analysis of Variance and Covariance
Authors: Barceló Juan A.
Published: November 2018

This is a statistical procedure to test the relationship between a quantitative dependent variable and a qualitative independent variable with more than two levels or attributes. As such, it is useful to test the existence of a relationship between spatiotemporal units (assemblages) and any magnitude used to describe archaeological observations (length, width, height, weight, volume, perimeter, elongation, shape–form, circularity, concavity, etc.).
Archaeological Videography
Authors: Morgan Colleen
Published: November 2018

Archaeological videography visually communicates some aspect of archaeological research and is either authored by archaeologists or through close consultation with archaeologists. Archaeology has been featured on film since the earliest days of cinema, and archaeological videography is now rapidly proliferating through the use of digital media. Early archaeological footage is increasingly available through online archives, and current footage is disseminated through social media platforms. Though the medium is changing, there are several relatively stable genres of archaeological film: Expository, direct testimonial, impressionistic, and phenomenological. These genres impact on how archaeological storytelling is performed and the reception of archaeological interpretations of the past by the public. The future of archaeological videography is diverse, with several hybrid media formats expanding the use of moving images in archaeology. Though archaeological videography is increasingly popular, preservation strategies remain problematic and both current and archival footage is at risk.
Archaeomagnetic Dating of Baked Clay Features
Authors: Schnepp Elisabeth
Published: November 2018

Features of baked clay are able to record the Earth's magnetic field at the time of their last heating and retain this information until today. As the magnetic field changes slowly with time, the phenomenon of geomagnetic secular variation provides a dating tool for archaeology as soon as a calibration curve is available. Usually the recorded direction of the geomagnetic field is used for archaeomagnetic dating. The archaeomagnetic field's strength is more difficult to measure and gives less precise ages. Here basic assumptions, experimental procedures, advances, and limitations of this dating method are discussed.
Bayesian Statistics
Authors: Christen J. Andrés
Published: November 2018

Bayesian statistics is a formal theory for performing statistical inferences. It is based on probabilistic statements about uncertain events and, by conditioning on observed data, inference is provided by the posterior distribution, commonly obtained via Bayes' theorem. Its roots may be traced back to the eighteenth century, but its modern form was developed in the twentieth century. In the last 20 years it has seen substantial developments in all areas of application and particularly in archaeology. It is now considered one of the main approaches to statistical inference.
Beverages
Authors: Biwer Matthew E.
Published: November 2018

Beverages occupied important social, political, economic, and religious functions within ancient cultures much as they do today. As food, beverages not only nourish, but can also be used as payment, social lubrication, as a marker of social categories, as a means of preserving food, an important part of ritual activities, or may contain medicine to heal or induce an altered state of consciousness. Beverages are also difficult to recover from archaeological contexts due to the physical nature of liquids. However, evidence for beverages may survive in several forms reflecting different aspects of human activity, including: organic residues from preparation or consumption, production equipment, plant remains, historic documents, and ethnographic evidence. Incorporating multiple lines of evidence, an interdisciplinary approach considering paleoethnobotanical remains and chemical residues with other artifacts, architectural space, and ethnographic and ethnohistoric materials, provides the best course for investigating and interpreting the production, consumption, and functions of beverages in the past.
Bioarchaeology
Authors: Wright Lori E.
Published: November 2018

Bioarchaeology as a discipline encompasses the broad variety of data that can be gleaned from ancient human skeletal remains and that contribute to understanding human biological and cultural history. Bioarchaeologists examine archaeological skeletal remains to estimate individual ages at death and sex, then use these data to reconstruct demographic profiles. Together with evidence of skeletal pathology or growth disruption, bioarchaeologists also study skeletal features that are a product of genetics and population affinity, health status, or behavior, and reconstruct past mobility and diets through the chemical analysis of bones.
Burial Excavation
Authors: O'Donnabhain Barra
Published: November 2018

There is significant diversity across human cultural settings when it comes to disposal of the dead but burial of human remains is common. Burial excavation involves the careful exposure of remains in a systematic and controlled manner. Detailed recording is carried out at all stages of the process. Technological advances have improved the accuracy of this process while an ever‐evolving theoretical landscape has resulted in the recentering of burials and mortuary contexts in archaeology.
Cancer
Authors: Waldron Tony
Published: November 2018

An account is given of the types of cancer that affect bone and of how they might be recognized in the skeleton. As today, in the past, too, people experienced a variety of neoplastic growths of the skeleton that can be seen in their remains. These included primary tumors of bone and secondary tumors of bone. Diagnosis involves comparison with patterns that can be seen in modern populations through both gross macroscopic observation and X‐ray imaging.
Characterization of Pigments
Authors: Mahmoud H. H. Marey
Published: November 2018

Pigments are among the most distinctive elements of archaeological and cultural heritage materials. For decades, the characterization of ancient pigments was an important target for many researchers. The characterization is usually performed using invasive and noninvasive techniques. Many techniques are used for this purpose, for example optical microscopy, the environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM), micro‐X‐ray fluorescence (μ‐XRF), visible reflectance spectroscopy (VRS), micro‐Raman and FT‐IR/ATR spectroscopies. These techniques allow the examination of stratigraphy, morphology, and chemical and molecular composition of the paint layers. The data obtained from the analytical methods help in drawing an image of ancient materials and technologies.
Characterization of Ceramics
Authors: Degryse P. , Shortland A. J.
Published: November 2018

Ceramics are the most abundant surviving material on many archaeological sites. Once discarded, they offer the archaeologist the possibility to reconstruct the shape of vessels and to identify their origin. Typo‐chronologies of ceramic vessels are studied on virtually every excavation worldwide as the prime stratigraphic dating tool. Ceramics function as a proxy to study craft organization and trade patterns, social stratigraphy, subsistence strategies and the standard of living. The identification of imported vessels in a mass of locally produced wares is perhaps the most frequently asked question in the study of ceramics. For all of this research, the scientific analysis of ceramics has great utility.
Digital Heritage
Authors: Hazan Susan
Published: November 2018

We are currently witnessing an exponential growth of cultural heritage throughout the digital ecosphere, reaching us from beyond the traditional restraints of space or time. This explosion of digital cultural assets may be seen as a perplexing cacophony, but once organized into intuitive datasets, and machine readable, they may serve to enrich our lives wherever we may be—even directly into the palm of our hand. This discussion turns to the circulation of objects in the digital ecosphere of cultural heritage, from top down management of cultural heritage to the Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums (GLAM) community's custodianship of cultural heritage. These collections, and their digital counterparts, together with the telemanagement of archaeology, are now evolving into compelling visualization platforms that enable the sharing of cultural heritage in the public sphere in novel ways, such as augmented and virtual reality, and new kinds of immersive, embodied experiences.
Diet and Nitrogen Isotopes
Authors: O'Connell Tamsin C.
Published: November 2018

Nitrogen isotopic analysis of humans, animals, and plants is now widely used as a method for dietary assessment in archaeology. The underlying basis of the technique is reviewed in this entry, together with the current metabolic understanding, the types of samples that can be analyzed, and the nature of the dietary information that the technique can yield, illustrated by selected archaeological case studies.
Domestication of Equids
Authors: Bendrey Robin
Published: November 2018

Horse and donkey domestication and their use for transportation had profound impacts on past human societies, with repercussions lasting to the present day. The story of these domestications is complex, with notable differences in their emergent pathways. The earliest evidence of horse husbandry is clearly in a context where it was the main animal used for food, kept for multiple products, including meat, milk, but also for transport and probably manure; whereas the earliest domestic donkeys were
not
a significant/major food resource, and they were likely raised for transport. Both domestications appear to be extended processes, with long‐term gene flow between wild and domestic populations. Within their natural ranges, the ecology of equids and their adaptation to these biomes offered certain advantages over previously domesticated ruminant livestock. Interdisciplinary study and the harnessing of advanced scientific techniques have allowed far better understanding of their domestication processes.
Total Station
Authors: Rick John W.
Published: November 2018

Total stations are survey instruments capable of measuring the locational position of artifacts, architecture, and topography in archaeological sites and localities to a great degree of precision and accuracy. Although somewhat costly to purchase, maintain, and learn to use, they are the most effective way to accurately document the spatial dimensions essential to the practice of archaeology, from a scale of a few millimeters up to a few kilometers.
Electron Microscopy in Conservation
Authors: Prikhodko Sergey V. , Kakoulli Ioanna
Published: November 2018

The first electron microscope was developed in 1931, surpassing light optical microscopes with improved resolution and enabling observations of objects at the micron and the atomic scale. Advancements in technology and the introduction of new materials have provided versatility in imaging capabilities and increased analytical sensitivity and specificity. The application of electron microscopy to the study of cultural heritage materials in archaeometry and conservation has revolutionized the way material culture is sampled and analyzed. This entry provides a brief overview of the state‐of‐the‐art and recent technological advancements increasing the potential application in the conservation field. This introduction further provides the basics for making informed decisions on selecting appropriate instrumentation based on specific research needs.
Environment and Landscape
Authors: David Bruno , Hamacher Duane W.
Published: November 2018

The terms “environment” and “landscape” are commonly used in archaeology, sometimes interchangeably, yet they have different histories and different nuances. “Environment” is usually used to refer to the physical features of places, to the characteristics of place as external phenomena; “landscape,” on the other hand, has been used more to refer to the cultural meaningfulness of place, to how cultural perceptions affect how people engage with things and with each other. The two different terms affect how, and what, we investigate about the human past.
Environmental Management with Fire
Authors: Coughlan Michael R.
Published: November 2018

Fire is one of the oldest and most important environmental management tools humans have at their disposal. Fire has long been a key component of human provisioning strategies, facilitating efficient manipulation of the distribution, productivity, and diversity of natural resources. In the past, archaeological programs largely ignored the significance of fire use to human evolution. New research programs, techniques, and interdisciplinary collaborations have begun to shed light on the relevance of fire use to archaeological science.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Read Dwight W.
Published: November 2018

Factor analysis (FA) is a statistical technique used to recognize, interpret, and model patterning in multivariate datasets. This technique applies to continuous measurement‐based data where the goal is to confirm a model that relates underlying factors as the drivers for the measurement values obtained over the dataset. A well‐known example of using FA in archaeology by modeling Mousterian tool type frequencies through activity‐specific toolkits viewed as factors is discussed briefly. The Mousterian FA example has the problem, though, of not meeting the homogeneity assumption for the processes structuring a dataset when statistical methods are used inferentially. Statistical resolution of the homogeneity assumption leads to the “double‐bind” problem in which one needs to know in advance the basis for the heterogeneity in the dataset, but discerning the latter is a goal of archaeological data analysis.
Heritage and Community Archaeology
Authors: Lewis Carenza
Published: November 2018

Community archaeology aims to involve communities in investigations of their tangible heritage, with the aim of conferring a benefit on the individuals involved, the community, and the archaeological resource. Community archaeology developed gradually in places such as the United Kingdom but more abruptly in places where new approaches to archaeological investigation were imported by colonial incomers with no connection to indigenous sites or people. Nowhere has the development of community archaeology been entirely smooth, with social, political, economic, and academic factors frequently determining the extent to which communities have been able to engage with their tangible heritage. Now, however, the basic principles—that communities should have the right to take part in the initiation, design, consultation, execution, management, interpretation, and presentation of investigations into their tangible archaeological heritage—are increasingly widely enshrined in legislation and professional practice across the world.
Heritage Management
Authors: Majewski Teresita , Altschul Jeffrey H.
Published: November 2018

Cultural heritage management (CHM) includes those practices that identify and evaluate a community's tangible and intangible cultural heritage resources and the programs that ensure their transmittal to the next generation. A nation's desire to preserve its heritage is almost always pitted against economic development, particularly natural resource exploitation, infrastructure improvements, and urban renewal, which result in threats to heritage resources. CHM must be situated within social, political, and economic contexts, and is therefore not simply the application of laws, regulations, charters, or conventions, although these are necessary for successful heritage management programs. There are two primary approaches to CHM as it is practiced globally today: (1) one where the burden of identifying and treating heritage is placed on the project proponent (the social license approach), and (2) one where responsibility for heritage is vested in the government (the national patrimony approach). The role of CHM experts is to work with all stakeholders in a project, from proponents and regulators to community members and other interested parties, to develop and broker solutions that provide an acceptable balance between the preservation of heritage and economic growth. While finding this acceptable balance is a challenge, CHM is also faced with addressing the global issue of the uneven nature of academic training for CHM professionals.
Human Lives and Deaths
Authors: Stutz Liv Nilsson
Published: November 2018

Archaeology is inherently transdisciplinary as a discipline. In addition to data, it requires the methodological and interpretative work of science, humanities, and social science to puzzle together the fragmented pieces of the past into a coherent story about human lives and deaths. This entry argues that while archaeology is currently benefitting from an intensification of cross‐disciplinary collaborations, we need to maintain this direction in the discipline by developing stronger literacy across the subdisciplinary boundaries and foster a disciplinary culture that explicitly credits the different sides equally.
ICP
‐
MS
and Material Analysis
Authors: Kamenov George D.
Published: November 2018

An inductively coupled–plasma mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS) instrument consists of an introduction system, a plasma ion source, an ion transfer interface, a mass analyzer, and detector(s). ICP‐MS is used for elemental concentration and isotope ratio analyses of a wide variety of samples, including water, soils, rocks, ores, metals, artifacts, ceramics, construction materials, plants, bones, teeth, fur, and hair. Samples can be analyzed in solution or directly in solid state via laser ablation (LA)‐ICP‐MS. Multicollector (MC)‐ICP‐MS is used exclusively for high‐precision isotope ratio measurements. The elemental and isotopic information obtained from archaeological samples by ICP‐MS is used to decipher provenance, resources, crafts, trade patterns, human and animal origin and mobility, diet, exposure to heavy metals, and age.
Information Modeling
Authors: Gonzalez‐Perez César
Published: November 2018

People have always tried to represent what they know in a meaningful way. In fact, this is inherent to natural language. In science, however, representations are often required that are more formal than natural language allows, and so information models have been developed. Information models allow us to represent entities in the world, as well as their properties, relationships, and categories, so that new fields can be easily explored, knowledge documented and communicated to others, technological artifacts designed based on this knowledge, and these artifacts made to interoperate with one another. Information modeling, as practiced today, is based on two background fields: conceptual modeling from software engineering, and ontological research and semantic web ideas from artificial intelligence. As in other disciplines, the fact that computers and software tools are now mainstream technologies in archaeology has made information models a central part of archaeological practice.
Life Table Analysis
Authors: Wilson Jeremy J.
Published: November 2018

Abridged life tables have been used by archaeologists for more than four decades to extract meaningful information about past populations, such as mortality and fertility rates, and to compare death assemblages from different contexts, including the Neolithic revolution. While limitations related to the quality of data, skeletal age estimation techniques, and sample size exist, the use of life tables allows for the detection of underrepresentation, sampling biases, coarse‐grained inferences regarding population growth or decline, and summary statistics for skeletal samples that can be incorporated into larger meta‐analyses assessing past population dynamics.
Metallography and Crystallographic Texture Analysis
Authors: Barba‐Pingarrón Arturo , González‐Parra Rafael
Published: November 2018

Several methods of characterization have provided valuable information to determine the chemical composition and manufacturing techniques used to elaborate artifacts. Through optical microscopy, it is possible to obtain an overview of sample morphology and the presence of various phases, inclusions, or oxides, as well as other imperfections on the surface of materials. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the potential for observing details in samples is increased. Analytical techniques such as chemical microanalysis are also an option for determining particular features of a sample. The contribution of X‐ray and neutron diffraction is substantial for determining grain orientation, crystalline structure, and compounds and phases present in a material, and to document the phase transformations that an archaeological material can undergo. Finally, evaluation of the hardness of a metallic archaeological object has become a tool of increasing importance for understanding the mechanical properties of a metallic material due to progress of the essays of this type.
Micromorphology
Authors: Goldberg Paul
Published: November 2018

Micromorphology uses petrographic thin sections to study undisturbed samples of sediments, soils, and archaeological materials. It allows for the identification of depositional and post‐depositional events and processes of natural and human origin. When used in conjunction with other microanalytical tools (e.g., SEM, FTIR and Raman spectrometry, XRD, XRF) that are carried out on the thin section itself, robust datasets can be generated that allow for a holistic picture of site formation processes that include sedimentation, soil formation, and human activities such as construction, trampling, agricultural practices, and burials.
Mobility and Strontium Isotopes
Authors: Hoffmeister Kristin K.
Published: November 2018

Radiogenic strontium isotopes (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) are used to directly analyze mobility patterns of past peoples to assess population dynamics, exchange, conflict, sociopolitical organization, and cultural interactions. The strontium isotopic composition of rocks and minerals varies across space, and these differences are subsequently incorporated into human and faunal skeletal tissues from the foods and water consumed by an individual. Most mobility studies today employ radiogenic strontium isotopes in conjunction with other isotopic measures of mobility, such as oxygen and lead. This entry describes the underlying principles of radiogenic strontium analysis in archaeology, discusses current trends in the literature, and outlines possible future applications of radiogenic strontium isotopes in archaeology.
Multispectral and Hyperspectral Imaging of Artworks
Authors: Ricciardi Paola , Delaney John K.
Published: November 2018

Multi‐ and hyperspectral imaging consists in the capture of a number of images of the same object in a series of spectral bands, thus providing spectral information across the area imaged. First developed in the mid‐1980s for remote mapping of minerals on the Earth's surface, these methods are being increasingly used to study artworks, especially low‐relief polychrome objects such as easel and wall paintings, works on paper and parchment, but also historic textiles and different types of plastics. Often used in combination with other spectroscopic or imaging methods, multi‐ and hyperspectral imaging are rapidly becoming indispensable tools for conservators and cultural heritage scientists. They allow identification and mapping of artists' materials, notably pigments and paint binders; detection of nonoriginal materials and retouched areas; and visualization of information which is hidden underneath the surface of the work of art.
Multivariate Analysis
Authors: Negre Joan
Published: November 2018

Multivariate analysis techniques have become part of the general toolset of archaeology since quantitative methods emerged as the unique way to correctly formalize archaeological observations and analyze complex datasets. Their effectiveness in helping to understand large amounts of data has given them a place in both university curricula and scientific journals in our field. This entry provides a broad perspective on these procedures and their utility in processing archaeological datasets, using examples from several case studies worldwide.
Nonparametric Statistics
Authors: Auerbach Benjamin M.
Published: November 2018

Research using archaeological data, outside of experimental archaeology, is inherently retrospective. The investigator has limited control on sampling, sample size, or the distribution of the data. Nonparametric methods are useful statistical techniques given these limitations, as they are less sensitive to the effects of retrospective data than parametric (distribution‐based) approaches. Though nonparametric techniques have certain drawbacks, namely less statistical power than equivalent parametric methods, their resilience to violations of parametric statistical assumptions—namely normal distributions of data—make them ideal for many archaeological investigations. This entry provides an overview of nonparametric statistics, and briefly introduces methods that are especially applicable to archaeological data. The intent is to provide archaeologists with a guide to the types of nonparametric methods that are available, and the types of research questions that may be addressed using them. While this is not a comprehensive review of all techniques, the major families of nonparametric statistical methods are presented. The entry concludes with a brief overview of statistical software available.
Optical Microscopy
Authors: Figueiredo Elin
Published: November 2018

Optical microscopy is one of the most recurrent, widespread, and oldest examination techniques used in scientific investigation, and of frequent use in the research of archaeological materials. It is based on a microscope that uses light and a system of lenses for the examination of samples. It is capable of magnifying small areas, resulting in the examination of the (micro) constituents and structure of the materials. Most optical microscopes can provide images with magnifications from 50× to 1,000×. An optical microscope can take various configurations, each one with specific advantages for different types of materials. Transmitted light optical microscopy is frequently used for observation of thin sections of semitransparent materials such as ceramics and petrographic samples. Reflected light microscopy is mainly used for opaque materials such as metals. The use of polarized light has advantages in the identification of minerals through their colors.
Terahertz Imaging in Conservation
Authors: Fukunaga Kaori
Published: November 2018

Electromagnetic waves are widely used in heritage science in nondestructive testing methods. The penetration depth and spatial resolution depend on the frequency and the test object's physical properties. Terahertz (THz) time domain spectroscopy (TDS) technology that uses a narrow pulse of picosecond order is one of the emerging technologies, and has been applied to various museum objects since 2008. THz spectroscopic imaging can roughly indicate the material distribution in a shorter time than other precise methods for material identification, such as X‐ray fluorescence (XRF). One practical advantage of THz imaging is the ability to detect separation in a multilayered object, because a reflection pulse sequence at each point of scanning corresponds to internal interfaces. By extracting a specific reflection pulse in the observation area, the condition of the layer of interest, such as the surface of a supporting material, can be examined. The number of THz users in the heritage science field is increasing rapidly, and THz technology will provide more useful information for conservation science in cultural heritage in the near future.
Uranium‐Series
Authors: Hoffmann Dirk L.
Published: November 2018

The naturally occurring radioactive uranium (U) isotopes
235
U and
238
U are parent nuclides of so‐called decay chains. In rocks of geological age, U and the (also radioactive) decay products (daughters), so‐called U‐series, are found in an activity equilibrium. Traces of U can also be found in natural waters and U is incorporated in minerals such as CaCO
3
that precipitate from these waters. Daughter elements like Th and Pa are essentially insoluble in natural waters and not included in those precipitates. This disrupts the decay chain and Th (Pa) builds up in the mineral until equilibrium of activities is reached again. This process provides a timer since formation of the mineral, and by analyzing today's activity ratios we can work out the age. This chronological tool can be employed to derive age constraints for archaeology with stratigraphic relationship to such formations, for example, for cave excavations, archaeological finds in caves covered with CaCO
3
, or open‐air sites related to travertine.
Vibrational Spectroscopies
Authors: Madariaga Juan M.
Published: November 2018

This entry describes the importance of past and present developments of vibrational spectroscopies in archaeology to characterize original and decayed chemical compounds, of inorganic and organic nature, present in the bulk and on the surfaces of archaeological objects. Different modes of infrared and Raman spectroscopies are presented (NIR, FTIR, FORS, DRIFTS, FT‐Raman, dispersive Raman), describing the currently available setups (laboratory, portable/handheld, spectroscopic microscopy, and imaging) to perform the measurements, showing their advantages and disadvantages in identifying these chemical compounds. This identification/characterization step is the basis to further define: (1) the procedures and techniques used in the past to manufacture the objects; (2) the impacts of environmental stressors (natural and anthropic, in the burials and surrounding atmosphere) and the subsequent decaying pathways (chemical reactions); and (3) the most adequate remediation (cleaning, consolidation, restoration, etc.) processes that conservators should use based on the acquired chemical knowledge.
Visibility Modeling
Authors: Llobera Marcos
Published: November 2018

Visibility has always played a role in archaeological investigations. Visibility modeling has only been possible since the advent of computing in archaeology, thanks primarily to the use of geographical information systems (GIS). For the most part, visibility modeling has been approached as part of investigating the locational preferences of people in the past: was visibility a factor when choosing the location of a particular site or monument? Key within this approach has been the study of intervisibility among sites. Lately, other studies have emerged that attempt to describe and explore structural properties of visual space. Some of these studies include the derivation of new visual parameters and the incorporation of sophisticated statistical techniques.
Water Pollution
Authors: Hudson‐Edwards Karen A.
Published: November 2018

Since the dawn of civilization, water pollution has affected the health of huge numbers of people and ecosystems. The pollution arises from natural and anthropogenic sources and can be discharged to water systems from point or diffuse sources. Research efforts on water pollution in archaeology currently center on determining its effects on past peoples and on developing appropriate environmental proxies for water quality. Future research will likely continue in these areas, and will be enhanced by new and novel isotopic, microfaunal, and microbial detection analytical techniques.