bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Policy Making as Organised Irresponsibility: the case of public conveniences
Authors: Edwards Julia
Published: October 2007

English

When bad effects are produced by a combination of contributory causes, the inability to apportion blame often results in nothing being done to stop their perpetration; instead new policies are devised to treat these bad effects. This is Beck’s concept of organised irresponsibility which is here applied to the case of bad effects from local authorities’ decisions to close public toilets. In Beck’s view, the way to overcome organised irresponsibility is for authorities to organise debates about the safety of their policies before decisions are made. This prescription is explored and contrasted with the way one council closed 62% of its public conveniences.
Will Doctors Manage? Lessons from general practice fundholding
Authors: Surender Rebecca , Fitzpatrick Ray
Published: October 2007

English

Under the UK Conservative government, GP fundholding represented a major increase in the involvement of primary care doctors in the management of local service provision. The Labour government’s proposals for Primary Care Groups extends and develops this role. This article examines the experiences of fundholding of a group of general practices which participated in an external evaluation of their work. Opinions about the merits of fundholding were varied. Doctors and managers expressed concern about the administrative burden and questionable clinical value of the scheme. Uncertainties about the overall impact upon professional autonomy were also raised. These reservations are consistent with discussions elsewhere questioning the role of doctors as managers within health care systems.
Delivering New Potential for Community Economic Development?: European Structural Funds, RECHAR II and the West Midlands coal communities
Authors: Ball Rick
Published: October 2007

English

Recognised as a key ‘feedback loop’ for policy evolution and the main innovative spin-off from Structural Fund procedures, evaluation is increasingly on the European agenda. Against a background of the regeneration needs and potentials of former coalmining communities, regional differences, and the drive for cohesion, this paper focuses on the RECHAR II Programme as it has been developed in the UK’s West Midlands region. The analysis considers the focus, objectives and array of projects supported in the 1994–99 phase, assesses the negatives and the positives linked to early evidence on emergent outputs and outcomes, and discusses the funding and decision-making processes involved. More generally, the role of RECHAR support as a catalyst for local economic change is assessed using examples of ongoing projects.
Fighting Unemployment: Business start-up support for the unemployed in Norway
Authors: Reiersen Jon
Published: October 2007

English

The primary goal of business start-up support programmes for the unemployed is to combat unemployment by making it more attractive for the unemployed to establish their own businesses. In examining a representative sample of persons who have received such support in Norway, we find that short business lifetimes are found especially among the long-term unemployed, people with less than 10 years education, and those with short work experience. At the same time, these groups, more than others, assess start-up support as being of critical importance to their decision to establish their own business. As such there seems to be a difficult trade-off built into the programmes.
Polytype and morphological analyses of gümbelite, a fibrous Mg-rich illite
Authors: Kameda Jun , Miyawaki Ritsuro , Drits Victor A. , Kogure Toshihiro
Published: October 2007

Polytypism in gümbelite and its relationship to the fibrous or ribbon-like morphology exhibited by this Mg-rich illite were investigated by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Comparison between the XRD pattern from oriented fibers using a conventional powder diffractometer and a randomly oriented pattern using a Gandolfi camera suggested that 2M2 is dominant but other polytypes belonging to subfamily A also exist, and that the fiber axis of gümbelite is parallel to <110> in 2M2, <110> in 2M1, and <100> in 1M. The EBSD analyses confirmed these crystallographic directions directly from individual crystals. Electron diffraction and high-resolution TEM showed that twinning and intergrowths of various polytypes including both subfamilies are common in a single crystal and that the two types of rotations [2n60° and (2n+1)60°] between adjacent layers are often randomly mixed at the monolayer level. The data suggest that high densities of twinning and intergrowths account for the origin of the fibrous morphology along <110> for 2M1 and 2M2 polytypes. Volume restriction in a confined vein space may also play a role.
X-ray diffraction criteria for the identification of trans- and cis-vacant varieties of dioctahedral micas
Authors: Zviagina Bella B. , Sakharov Boris A. , Drits Victor A.
Published: October 2007

To provide structural and diffraction criteria for the identification of trans-vacant (tv) and cis-vacant (cv) mica varieties with different layer stackings, powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns have been simulated for 1M, 2M1, 2M2, 3T and 2O structural models consisting of either tv or cv layers. The differences in the unit-cell parameters resulting from the specific structural distortions of tv and cv layers lead to the differences in the positions of reflections having the same indices in the XRD patterns for tv and cv 1M, 2M1 and 2M2 mica varieties. The tv 1M, 2M1 and 2M2 varieties of Al-rich micas can therefore be distinguished from the corresponding cv varieties using powder XRD diffraction provided that the d values are measured with high precision and accurately compared with those calculated from the unit-cell parameters for the corresponding hkl indices. The differences in reflection positions for these tv and cv varieties should decrease with increasing Mg and/or Fe contents, thus complicating their identification.

The peak positions and intensity distributions in the XRD pattern for the tv 3T variety are similar to those for the cv 3T structure with the vacancy in the right-hand cis site (3T-cv1), and both XRD patterns are similar to that for the 1M-cv mica. The simulated XRD pattern for the cv 3T structure with the vacancy in the left-hand cis site (3T-cv2) is similar to that for the 1M-tv variety. The similarities and dissimilarities in intensity distribution between the XRD patterns simulated for the 1M and 3T varieties in question may be associated with the differences in the mutual arrangement of cations and anions in successive layers.

Possible interstratification of tv and cv layers within the same structure should seriously complicate the identification of dioctahedral mica polytypes and polymorphs.
Extensive dickitization of the permo-triassic fluvial sandstones from the eastern Iberian Range, Spain
Authors: Martín-Martín J. D. , Gómez-Gras D. , Sanfeliu T. , Thiry M. , Ruiz-Cruz M. D. , Franco F.
Published: October 2007

Diagenetic kaolin minerals are very common in the Permo-Triassic succession from the SE Iberian Range, Spain. The morphology and crystal structure of kaolin minerals has been examined in four size fractions (<1 µm, <2 µm, <6.3 µm and <20 µm) of sandstone samples by means of scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, differential thermal analysis and thermogravimetry. Experimental data reveal that dickite is the dominant kaolin-type mineral in the entire range of size fractions, whereas small amounts of kaolinite coexists with dickite in all size fractions. Dickite appears typically as booklets of pseudo-hexagonal plates with blocky habit. The increase in size fraction is concomitant with the increase in the amount of dickite and the progressive improvement of its structural order. The extensive dickitization is attributed to the high paleogeothermal gradient recorded in the studied area and the increase in H+, presumably resulting from the flux of organic acids derived from the underlying Carboniferous rocks and/or the late Permian succession. These conditions are more likely to be associated with the late Cretaceous post-rift thermal stage of the eastern Iberian Basin. Lately, during the maximum burial depth, the fine crystalline kaolin minerals were slightly illitized. Given the very small feldspar content in the studied sequence, the results reflect the important contribution of mica alteration to the early diagenetic formation of kaolinite as well as the late conversion to dickite.
Oligocene clay mineralogy of the linxia basin: evidence of paleoclimatic evolution subsequent to the initial-stage uplift of the Tibetan Plateau
Authors: Hong Hanlie , Li Zhaohui , Xue Huijuan , Zhu Yunhai , Zhang Kexin , Xiang Shuyuan
Published: October 2007

The clay mineral content of the Oligocene sediments in the Linxia Basin has been investigated using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. The clay mineral assemblages are mainly mixed-layer illite-smectite (I-S), illite, kaolinite and minor palygorskite in the early-Middle Oligocene deposits, mixed-layer I-S, illite and kaolinite in the Middle Oligocene deposits, mainly illite and chlorite (usually >50–70 vol.%), mixed-layer I-S, and trace to minor palygorskite in the late Oligocene sediments, respectively. The mineral assemblage indicates a warm and seasonally humid climate in the Middle Oligocene, with an episode of warm and dry conditions in the early stage of the Middle Oligocene, and a trend of temperature decrease and more arid conditions in the late Oligocene. Climate evolution in the Oligocene corresponds with the significant elevation change in central Tibet since late Oligocene, and therefore, suggests that tectonic-forced cooling of climate took place in Linxia in the northeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau. The ubiquitous mixed-layer I-S and carbonates throughout the Oligocene sediments reflect relatively small fluctuations in climate conditions during the epoch. The changes in clay mineral components and feldspars in the late Oligocene suggest a variation in the source of clastic materials, which probably reflects an increase in erosion of soils and poorly weathered parent rock in more elevated or high-relief source areas during this period of tectonic uplift.
Clay mineral assemblages and vitrinite reflectance in the Laga Basin (Central Apennines, Italy): What do they record?
Authors: Aldega Luca , Botti Flavia , Corrado Sveva
Published: October 2007

Temperature-dependent clay mineral assemblages and vitrinite reflectance data have been used to investigate levels of diagenesis from the Messinian Laga Basin in the Central Apennines developed at the footwall of the Sibillini Mts. and the Gran Sasso Massif. Data are from stratigraphic units forming the main siliciclastic basin fill up to Middle Messinian gypsum-arenites and its pre-orogenic substratum. Specifically, the largest Rom% values and percentages of illite layers in illite-smectie (I-S) are found in the basin depocenter and at the footwall of the main carbonate thrust sheets. Smaller Rom% values, and percentage of illite layers in I-S characterize less subsided sectors surrounding the depocenter.

The X-ray diffraction data were treated using decomposition methods and the peaks identified were rationalized in terms of discrete and/or mixed-layer phases. Complex clay mineral assemblages were found in the Laga Fm. including three sub-populations of illitic material corresponding to authigenic and detrital components. I-S mixed layers record the maximum paleotemperature the Laga Fm. experienced, which is directly related to its burial history. Kübler index (KI) data, however, suggest higher temperatures related to detrital K-micas inherited from the uplift of the Alpine-Apennines chain.

A tentative calculation of paleotemperatures from selected data of organic and inorganic parameters is also proposed and compared with recent sedimentological, stratigraphic and structural data. We conclude that the Laga Basin fill never experienced temperatures of >100–110°C, generally due to variable sedimentary loading, whereas localized anomalous heating is due to the effect of the tectonic emplacement and subsequent local erosion of the Sibillini and Gran Sasso thrust sheets.
Correlation between surface area and Atterberg Limits of fine-grained soils
Authors: Dolinar Bojana , Mišič Miha , Trauner Ludvik
Published: October 2007

As the water content is increased, the consistency of a fine-grained soil changes from a semi-solid state to a plastic state and finally to a liquid state. The plastic limit (PL) is the point at which the consistency, caused by the soil water content, is transformed from a semi-solid state to a plastic state. The liquid limit (LL) is the point at which the consistency is transformed from a plastic state to a liquid state. The plastic limit and liquid limit are often collectively referred to as the Atterberg (or consistency) Limits. Although the liquid and plastic limits are easily determined, fundamental interpretations of the limits and quantitative relationships between their values and compositional factors are more complex. Previous studies examined artificially-prepared soil samples that contained monomineralic clays and a non-clay substance(quartz sand). These studies have shown that in soils without expandable clays the PL and LL water contents were mostly related to surface area and clay content. For soils that contain expandable clays, the PL and LL values are also dependent on interlayer water content. Hence, expandable clay mineral contents are needed to calculate PL and LL values. These relationships have been presented in a general analytical form. The aim of these investigations was to identify practical applications. Mineral compositions and surface areas of five randomly selected natural soil samples were used to estimate PL and LL values. The estimated values were compared to experimentally measured liquid limits (by the ‘fall-cone’ test) and plastic limit (by the ‘rolling thread’ test) values. The measured PL values ranged from 18.77 to 44.92% and the LL values from 31.19 to 82.10%. The differences between estimated and measured Atterberg Limits were 3.0–7.1% for thePL and 2.7–7.8% for the LL. Minor differences in measured and estimated Atterberg Limits were probably due to soil organic matter (1.2–2.7%).
Zeolitization of tuffs at Quinamávida, central southern Chile
Authors: Bascuñan Sophía , Kelm Ursula , Sanhueza Vilma , Alfaro Guillermo
Published: October 2007

Tuffs of the Tertiary Colbún Formation near Quinamávidain central southern Chile have been mapped and their mineralogy analyzed. The pyroclastic rocks present a maximum outcropping thickness of 120 m and are dominated by vitreous lapilli and minor lithic tuffs, the products of active volcanism nearby. About 10% of the tuffs consist of lenses of fine banded tuffs with a high leaf content that were deposited in shallow lakes during quiescent periods between periods of volcanic activity. This tuff sequence is pervasively transformed to clinoptilolite/heulandite and mordenite with variable amounts of plagioclase, minor quartz and smectite. Factors thought to have influenced this conversion to zeolites are a humid climate following deposition combined with a slightly elevated heat flow. Local hydrogeological conditions have modified the cation-hydrogen ion ratios across the study area favoring the formation of clinoptilolite/heulandite and mordenite with medium-minor smectite in the center and south, and a more abundant presence of smectite in the north of the study area.
Baseline studies of the clay minerals society special clays: Specific surface area by the Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) method
Authors: Dogan Meral , Dogan A. Umran , Yesilyurt F. Irem , Alaygut Dogan , Buckner Ira , Wurster Dale Eric
Published: October 2007

The Clay Minerals Society published a complete characterization scheme for its ‘Source Clays’ but not for its ‘Special Clays’. To address this issue, the specific surface areas (SSAs) of the 16 special clays from The Clay Minerals Society were determined using the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) method of adsorption of an inert gas. Two BET measurements were performed for each of the 16 special clays, and the average BET SSA of each of the special clays was determined. The BET SSA of cookeite is reported for the first time. In the present study, special clays from The Clay Minerals Society are classified under three groups based on their BET special surface area values as Group-I special clays, with BET values of 0.1–10 m2/g, Group-II special clays, with BET values of 10–100 m2/g, and Group-III special clays, with BET values >100 m2/g. Comparisons which proved interesting were the those involving the mixed-layer clays and the synthetic clays. The systematic approach employed in this paper will allow for better comparisons to be made between different clays and will provide a comprehensive database for future applications of such material (e.g. as catalyst carriers, as adsorbents in waste treatments, etc.).
Time Window-of-Opportunity Strategies for Oil Spill Planning and Response
Authors: Nordvik Atle B.
Published: October 2007

This paper presents an integrated scientific and engineering strategy to improve and bring planning and decision-making for marine oil spill response to a higher level of knowledge. The most efficient, environmentally preferred, and cost effective spill response is dependent on the following factors: chemistry of the spilled product, quantity, location, response time, environmental conditions, and effectiveness of available response technologies at various degrees of oil weathering.

Time windows is a highly targeted process, in which the selection of response technologies will be more efficient, cost effective, technically correct, and environmentally sensitive and appropriate. The strategy integrates dynamic oil weathering data and performance effectiveness data for oil spill response technologies derived from laboratory, mesoscale, and experimental field studies. Performance data has been developed from a wide range of viscosities of different weathering stages of transported oils into a dynamic oil weathering database to identify and estimate time periods, called "technology windows-of-opportunity." In these windows, specific response methods, technologies, equipment, or products are more effective during clean-up operations for specific oils. The data bases represent the state of the art for response technologies and research in oil spill response.

The strategy provides a standard foundation for rapid and cost effective oil spill response decision-making, and is intended for use by local, state, federal agencies, response planners, clean up organizations (responders), insurance companies, tanker owners, and transporters. It provides policy, planners and decision-makers with a scientifically based and documented "tool" in oil spill response that has not been available before.
Countermeasures for Ice Covered Waters
Authors: Dickins David , Buist Ian
Published: October 2007

This chapter describes the state of knowledge regarding the most applicable countermeasures to deal with oil on, in or among ice. Countermeasures are discussed in the context of seasonal variations in ice conditions and observations of oil fate and behaviour in a variety of different situations. The behaviour of oil spilled in ice covered waters is governed largely by the ice concentration in the case of broken ice, and the processes of encapsulation and subsequent migration in the case of solid (fast) ice). Each season presents different drawbacks and advantages for spill response. During freezeup and breakup, drifting ice and limited site access tend to restrict the possible response options and significantly reduce recovery effectiveness. Mid-winter, although associated with long periods of darkness and cold temperatures, provides a stable ice cover that not only naturally contains the oil nearshore within a relatively small area but also provides a safe working platform for oil recovery and transport. For the case of spills under or on fast ice, there are a range of effective countermeasures options which can result in very high recovery effectiveness. Countermeasures to deal with spills in moving pack ice are much more limited and likely to result in highly variable recovery values depending on a variety of natural conditions and logistics constraints.
Terminology, relative photonic efficiencies and quantum yields in heterogeneous photocatalysis. Part I: Suggested protocol
Authors: Serpone Nick , Salinaro Angela
Published: October 2007

The term photocatalysis is one amongst several in a quagmire of labels used to describe a photon-driven catalytic process; a simple description of photocatalysis is proposed herein. Other labels such as quantum yield and/or quantum efficiency used in solid/liquid and solid/gas hetero-geneous photocatalytic systems to express process efficiencies have come to refer (incorrectly) to the ratio of the rate of a given event to the rate of incident photons impinging on the reactor walls and typically for broadband radiation. There is no accord on the expression for process efficiency. At times quantum yield is defined; often, it is ill-defined and more frequently how it was assessed is not described. This has led to much confusion in the literature, not only because of its different meaning from homogeneous photochemistry, but also because the description of photon efficiency precludes comparison of results from different laboratories owing to variations in light sources, reactor geometries, and overall experimental conditions. The previously reported quantum yields are in fact apparent quantum yields, i.e. lower limits of the true quantum yields. We address this issue and argue that any reference to quantum yields or quantum efficiencies in a heterogeneous medium is inadvisable until the number of photons
absorbed
by the light harvester (the photocatalyst) is known. A practical and simple alternative is proposed for general use and in particular for processes employing complex reactor geometries: the concept of
relative photonic efficiency
(xr) is useful to compare process efficiencies using a given photocatalyst material and a given standard test molecule. A quantum yield can subsequently be calculated since f
= xr
f
phenol, where f
phenol denotes the quantum yield for the photocatalyzed oxidative transformation of phenol used as the standard secondary actinometer and Degussa P-25 TiO2 as the standard photocatalyst. For heterogeneous suspensions (only), an additional method to determine quantum yields f is also proposed.
Harmonized guidelines for the use of recovery information in analytical measurement
Authors: Thompson Michael , Ellison Steven L R , Fajgelj Aleš , Willetts Paul , Wood Roger
Published: October 2007

Synopsis: ISO, IUPAC and AOAC INTERNATIONAL have co-operated to produce agreed protocols or guidelines on the "Design, Conduct and Interpretation of Method Performance Studies" [1] on the "Proficiency Testing of (Chemical) Analytical Laboratories" [2] and on "Internal Quality Control in Analytical Chemistry Laboratories" [3]. The Working Group that produced these protocols/guidelines was asked to prepare guidelines on the use of recovery information in analytical measurement. Such guidelines would have to outline minimum recommendations to laboratories producing analytical data on the internal quality control procedures to be employed.

A draft of the guidelines was discussed at the Seventh International Symposium on the Harmonization of Quality Assurance Systems in Chemical Laboratory, sponsored by IUPAC/ISO/AOAC INTERNATIONAL, held in Orlando, USA, 4-5 September 1996. Proceedings from that Symposium are available [4].

The purpose of these guidelines is to outline the conceptual framework needed for considering those types of analysis where loss of analyte during the analytical procedure is inevitable. Certain questions cannot be satisfactorily addressed, and hence remain irreducibly complex, unless such a conceptual framework is established. The questions at issue involve (a) the validity of methods for estimating the recovery of the analyte from the matrix of the test material, and (b) whether the recovery estimate should be used to correct the raw data to produce the test result. The types of chemical analysis most affected by these considerations are those where an organic analyte is present at very low concentrations in a complex matrix.

"Protocol for the Design, Conduct and Interpretation of Method Performance Studies", W. Horwitz, Pure Appl. Chem. 60, 855- 864 (1988), revised, 67, 331-343 (1995).

"The International Harmonized Protocol for the Proficiency Testing of (Chemical) Analytical Laboratories", M. Thompson and R. Wood, Pure Appl. Chem.
65, 2123-2144 (1993). (Also published in J. AOAC International
76, 926-940 (1993).

"Harmonized Guidelines for Internal Quality Control in Analytical Chemistry Laboratories", M. Thompson and R. Wood, Pure Appl. Chem. 67, 49-56 (1995).

"Quality Assurance for Analytical Laboratories", edited M. Parkany, Royal Society of Chemistry, London, UK, 1996.
The determination of cadmium in oils and fats by direct graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Results of collaborative studies and the standardized method
Authors: Lacoste F. , van Dalen G. , Dysseler P.
Published: October 2007

A description is given of the development by collaborative study of a standardised method for the determination of cadmium in crude and refined oils and fats by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. The procedure is rapid and sensitive allowing determination at levels of 1 to 10 μg/kg.
Extension and revision of the nomenclature for spiro compounds
Authors: Moss G. P.
Published: October 2007

Spiro ring systems have two or more rings linked by one common atom. Several different methods are used to name such systems. Rules A-41, A-43, B-10 and B-12 (Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, 1979) describe the basics of how to name these compounds. The alternative methods in rules A-42 and B-11 are abandoned.

This document describes the nomenclature in greater detail and extends it to cover branched polyspiro systems and compounds where three rings have one common spiro atom. A new notation, based on the von Baeyer method of naming spiro systems where all components are monocyclic, allows both unbranched and branched polyspiro systems to be named without ambiguity. It also enables the names to be readily interpreted.
Revised Section F: Natural products and related compounds
Authors: Giles P. M.
Published: October 2007

The nomenclature of natural products has suffered from much confusion, mostly for historical reasons. The isolation of a new substance, in the early days of the science, generally preceded its characterization by a lengthy period. Thus, these compounds were often assigned trivial names that gave no indication of the structure of the molecule and were often found afterwards to be misleading. Even when the original names were later revised (for example: glycerin to glycerol) the new names often expressed the structure imperfectly and were thus unsuitable for the nomenclatural manipulation that is required to name derivatives or stereoisomers. The result was a proliferation of trivial names that taxed the memory of chemists and obscured important structural relationships.

The resultant disorder in the literature led to the creation of committees of specialists with the task of codifying the naming of compounds in various connected areas of natural-product chemistry, such as steroids, lipids, and carbohydrates. As far as their recommendations have been followed, their efforts have been successful in eliminating confusing or duplicate nomenclature.

It is the aim of the lUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry to unite as far as possible all the specialist reports into a single set of recommendations that can be applied in most areas of natural-product chemistry. Accordingly, provisional recommendations were prepared and published as Section F of the lUPAC Organic Nomenclature Rules, first in 1976, and then in the 1979 edition of the Rules.
Terminology and Convention for Electrochemical Stripping Analysis
Authors: Fogg Arnold G. , Wang Joseph
Published: October 2007

Introduction: The term electrochemical stripping analysis is applied to a family of procedures involving a preconcentration of the determinand (or a salt or derivative of the determinand) onto the working electrode, prior to its direct or indirect determination by means of an electroanalytical technique1,2. Such a combination of an effective accumulation step with an advanced measurement procedure results in a very low detection limit, and makes stripping analysis one of the most important techniques in trace analysis. The original stripping analysis method involved the cathodic electrodeposition of amalgam-forming metals onto a hanging mercury drop (working) electrode, followed by the anodic voltammetric determination of the accumulated metal during a positive-going potential scan3. Numerous advances during the 1980s and 1990s, however, have led to the development of alternative preconcentration schemes and advanced measurement procedures that further enhance the scope and power of stripping analysis4,5. As a consequence, numerous variants of stripping analysis exist currently, differing in their method of accumulation and measurement. A recent text on stripping analysis is by Brainina and Neyman,6 and recent reviews on adsorptive stripping voltammetry are by Kalvoda and Kopanica,7 van den Berg,8 and Paneli and Voulgaropoulos.9

Problems in selecting an effective nomenclature for stripping analysis are discussed in this document. Stripping analysis incorporates a two step process - accumulation and determination - and the technique can be considered to be a 'hyphenated technique'. The method of determination has been included, usually, in naming a particular technique, but often the method of accumulation has not. In some cases, eg. adsorptive stripping voltammetry, the method of accumulation is given but no indication is given as to whether the determination is cathodic or anodic (or whether it measures a capacitance current due to desorption).

The purpose of this document is to recommend classification, and relevant terminology, for the different procedures used in electrochemical stripping analysis.
Species-selective Analysis for Metal - Biomacromolecular Complexes using Hyphenated Techniques
Authors: Szpunar J. , Lobinski R.
Published: October 2007

Analytical chemistry of metal complexes with biomacromolecules based on the coupling of a high resolution separation technique with an element or species selective detection technique is critically discussed. The role of size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) with on-line atomic spectrometric detection is evaluated for the characterization of the metal distribution among the fractions of different molecular weight. Attention is given to the conditions for the separation of metallated biomacromolecular isoforms and sub-isoforms by anion-exchange and reversed-phase HPLC. Techniques for interfacing chromatography with atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP AES) and ICP mass spectrometry (ICP MS) are assessed. The potential of electrospray (tandem) mass spectrometry for the on-line determination of the molecular mass of the eluting protein is highlighted. Perspectives for capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), microbore and capillary HPLC with ICP MS and electrospray MS detection for probing metalloproteins are discussed. Applications of hyphenated techniques to the analysis of real-world samples are reviewed.
Classification of Scanning Probe Microscopies
Authors: Friedbacher Gernot , Fuchs Harald
Published: October 2007

In the last few years scanning probe microscopy techniques have gained significant importance in a variety of different research fields in science and technology. A rapid development, stimulated by the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope in 1981 and still proceeding at a high pace, has brought about a number of new techniques belonging to this group of surface analytical methods. The large potential of scanning probe microscopes is documented by over 1000 publications per year. Due to the fact that a number of different terms and acronyms exist, which are partially used for identical techniques and which are sometimes confusing, this article is aimed at classification and at an overview on the analytically most important techniques with clarification of common terms. Emphasis will be put on analytical evaluation of scanning tunneling and scanning force microscopy, as up to now these techniques have gained the highest importance for analytical applications.
Nomenclature of Organometallic Compounds of the Transition Elements (IUPAC Recommendations 1999)
Authors: Salzer A.
Published: October 2007

Organometallic compounds are defined as containing at least one metal-carbon bond between an organic molecule, ion, or radical and a metal. Organometallic nomenclature therefore usually combines the nomenclature of organic chemisty and that of coordination chemistry. Provisional rules outlining nomenclature for such compounds are found both in Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, 1979 and in Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, 1990

This document describes the nomenclature for organometallic compounds of the transition elements, that is compounds with metal-carbon single bonds, metal-carbon multiple bonds as well as complexes with unsaturated molecules (metal-p-complexes).

Organometallic compounds are considered to be produced by addition reactions and so they are named on an addition principle. The name therefore is built around the central metal atom name. Organic ligand names are derived according to the rules of organic chemistry with appropriate endings to indicate the different bonding modes. To designate the points of attachment of ligands in more complicated structures, the h, k, and m-notations are used. The final section deals with the abbreviated nomenclature for metallocenes and their derivatives.

Contents

Introduction

Systems of Nomenclature

2.1 Binary type nomenclature

2.2 Substitutive nomenlcature

2.3 Coordination nomenclature

Coordination Nomenclature

3.1 General definitions of coordination chemistry

3.2 Oxidation numbers and net charges

3.3 Formulae and names for coordination compounds

Nomenclature for Organometallic Compounds of Transition Metals

4.1 Valence-electron-numbers and the 18-valence-electron-rule

4.2 Ligand names

4.2.1 Ligands coordinating by one metal-carbon single bond

4.2.2 Ligands coordinating by several metal-carbon single bonds

4.2.3 Ligands coordinating by metal-carbon multiple bonds

4.2.4 Complexes with unsaturated molecules or groups

4.3 Metallocene nomenclature
Glossary of terms used in theoretical organic chemistry
Authors: Minkin V. I.
Published: October 2007

The glossary contains definitions and explanatory notes for more than 450 terms used in the context of multidisciplinary research and publications related to applications of modern theoretical concepts, computational and graph-theoretical methods to investigation into structure, reactivity, spectroscopic and other physical and physicochemical properties of organic, organometallic and metal coordination compounds. The aim of the glossary is to provide guidance on terminology used in theoretical organic chemistry and to contribute to the elimination of inconsistencies and ambiguities in the meanings of terms in the area.
Studies on Biodegradable Poly(Hexano-6-Lactone) Fibers. Part 2: Environmental Degradation
Authors: Mochizuki M. , Hayashi T. , Nakayama K. , Masuda T.
Published: October 2007

Poly(hexano-6-lactone) (PCL*) fibers were degraded under environmental conditions, including soil burial, sea water exposure, and activated sludge exposure. The extent of degradation was examined by weight loss, mechanical properties loss such as tensile strength and ultimate elongation decreases, and visual observations by scanning electron microscopy. The rate of degradation was found to depend on draw ratio and crystallinity of the PCL fibers with surface erosion of amorphous regions more readily than crystalline regions. The life time of highly-drawn PCL fibers when exposed to soil burial and seawater was evaluated from the view point of environmental applications. In terms of degradation mechanism of PCL fiber breakdown biodegradation seems to be the dominant reaction, that is hydrolysis reaction catalyzed by enzyme secreted by microorganisms.
Nomenclature, Symbols, Units, and Their Usage in Spectrochemical Analysis - Part XVII; Laser-Based Molecular Spectrometry For Chemical Analysis: Absorption
Authors: Gauglitz G. , Moore D. S.
Published: October 2007

This report is the 17th in a series on spectrochemical methods of analysis issued by IUPAC commission V.4. It is concerned with the principles of laser absorption spectroscopy and its application in the optical wavelength region. The present report has four main sections: fundamentals of laser absorption spectroscopy, Doppler-limited spectroscopy; sub-Doppler laser spectroscopy, and time-resolved laser spectroscopy.
Temperature Dependence of the Westcott g-factor for Neutron Reactions in Activation Analysis
Authors: Holden N. E.
Published: October 2007

The Westcott g-factors, which allow the user to determine reaction rates for nuclear reactions taking place at various temperatures, have been calculated using data from the Evaluated Neutron Nuclear Data Library, ENDF/B-VI. Nuclides chosen have g-factors which are significantly different from unity and result in different reaction rates compared to nuclides whose neutron capture cross section varies as the reciprocal of the neutron velocity. Values are presented as a function of temperature up to 673.16 K (400 °C).
The Influence of Reprocessing on the Structure-Property Characteristics of a Plasticised Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC-p) Compound
Authors: Dehennau C. , Moore D. R.
Published: October 2007

Synopsis: We have conducted a detailed investigation of the change in deformational, structural, molecular and rheological characteristics that are attendant on a PVC-p compound experiencing higher processing temperatures. Our study reflects an experience that occurs in the PVC industry and for which a loss of processing performance accompanies the excursions to higher temperatures. It is apparent that as this process continues the material will eventually become unprocessable, unless changes are made.

The change that accompanies the material as it passes from an experience of low processing temperatures to high processing temperatures has been thoroughly mapped. However, it has been difficult to make precise observation of the molecular and structural changes occurring. This has not been without application of a number of likely candidate methodologies, including DSC, TGA, WAXS, GPC and fluorescence spectroscopy. It would seem that some additional crystallization is accompanying the increase in gelation that occurs at higher processing temperatures. At the same time, the observations on the influence of annealing hint that this is not the only consideration and that diffusion of the plasticiser into the PVC particles might also be playing a role or even residual stresses in the materials might be important.

This study has not only been concerned with an in depth materials characterisation; it has also explored ways of alleviating the loss of processability. Two particular lines of study involving pre-shear history and blending with higher plasticised compounds have provided interest albeit inconclusive results. On the other hand, there are strong implications from the DSC study that reversibility of the "process aging" is not likely.

In conclusion, it is interesting to observe that by conducting this study through an IUPAC Working Party it has been helpful to pool the resources and experience of an international community of scientists which has likely given us an opportunity of conducting this study at much lower costs than might have otherwise been the case.
Electrochemical Biosensors: Recommended Definitions and Classification
Authors: Thevenot D. R. , Tóth K. , Durst R. A. , Wilson G. S.
Published: October 2007

Two Divisions of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), namely Physical Chemistry (Commission I.7 on Biophysical Chemistry formerly Steering Committee on Biophysical Chemistry) and Analytical Chemistry (Commission V.5 on Electroanalytical Chemistry) have prepared recommendations on the definition, classification and nomenclature related to electrochemical biosensors; these recommendations could, in the future, be extended to other types of biosensors.

An electrochemical biosensor is a self-contained integrated device, which is capable of providing specific quantitative or semi-quantitative analytical information using a biological recognition element (biochemical receptor) which is retained in direct spatial contact with an electrochemical transduction element. Because of their ability to be repeatedly calibrated, we recommend that a biosensor should be clearly distinguished from a bioanalytical system, which requires additional processing steps, such as reagent addition. A device which is both disposable after one measurement, i.e., single use, and unable to monitor the analyte concentration continuously or after rapid and reproducible regeneration should be designated a single use biosensor.

Biosensors may be classified according to the biological specificity-conferring mechanism or, alternatively, to the mode of physico-chemical signal transduction. The biological recognition element may be based on a chemical reaction catalysed by, or on an equilibrium reaction with macromolecules that have been isolated, engineered or present in their original biological environment. In the latter cases, equilibrium is generally reached and there is no further, if any, net consumption of analyte(s) by the immobilized biocomplexing agent incorporated into the sensor. Biosensors may be further classified according to the analytes or reactions that they monitor: direct monitoring of analyte concentration or of reactions producing or consuming such analytes; alternatively, an indirect monitoring of inhibitor or activator of the biological recognition element (biochemical receptor) may be achieved.

A rapid proliferation of biosensors and their diversity has led to a lack of rigour in defining their performance criteria. Although each biosensor can only truly be evaluated for a particular application, it is still useful to examine how standard protocols for performance criteria may be defined in accordance with standard IUPAC protocols or definitions. These criteria are recommended for authors, referees and educators and include calibration characteristics (sensitivity, operational and linear concentration range, detection and quantitative determination limits), selectivity, steady-state and transient response times, sample throughput, reproducibility, stability and lifetime.
Glossary of Terms Used in Combinatorial Chemistry
Authors: Maclean D. , Baldwin J. J. , Ivanov V. T. , Kato Y. , Shaw A. , Schneider P. , Gordon E. M.
Published: October 2007

Introduction: The development of combinatorial chemistry has generated a wide variety of new concepts and much associated terminology. In addition, the nature of research in this area has brought together scientists from diverse backgrounds: statisticians may discuss their work with biologists and heterocyclic chemists; medicinal chemists are talking to engineers, analytical chemists, and polymer scientists. In recognition of the potential for confusion and lack of communication in this field, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) convened a working party (within the Division of Human Health, Medicinal Chemistry Section) to attempt to capture and define the terminology at the interface of these endeavours. The following Glossary is the result of their efforts. It is hoped that it will provide a resource for those new to the area encountering terms for the first time, and, perhaps, to increase the clarity of communication between more experienced workers in the field.

The Glossary is not intended as a comprehensive review or encyclopaedia of combinatorial chemistry, although occasional attempts have been made to broaden the scope beyond a strict dictionary-type definition of terms by providing illustrative examples of some terms, and directing readers to literature sources where appropriate. These references have not necessarily been chosen to attribute credit for the discovery or invention of a term; rather they should provide the most pertinent information for the topic. Ideally this will be an article or review with the Glossary term as its central theme, in which proper accreditation for the seminal contributions to that area may be found.

Because of the intrinsic interdisciplinary nature of this area of research, it has not been possible to provide a comprehensive coverage of each of the sub-fields, neither has this been the intent. Rather it has been attempted to identify those elements which are particularly pertinent to combinatorial chemistry. Thus, in the analytical sciences "magic angle spinning" gains an entry whereas "mass spectrometry" does not. The interested reader will readily be able to find more detailed treatments of these specialized areas.

Trademarks have been included where, in the judgement of the authors, their use has become sufficiently widespread that they often do not receive appropriate citation; the implicit assumption being that the reader will understand what is meant. This criterion has been adopted over one of inclusiveness, which would rapidly become extreme in many areas. In a field which is developing as rapidly as combinatorial chemistry a document such as this Glossary may soon require revision. The authors welcome suggestions for new terms, clarifications, references, and other comments which will aid in the development of this resource.
Colloidal quantum dots. From scaling laws to biological applications
Authors: Alivisatos Paul
Published: October 2007

Over a twenty-year period, condensed matter physicists and physical chemists have elucidated a series of scaling laws which successfully describe the size dependence of solid state properties [1,2]. Often the experiments were performed under somewhat exotic conditions, for instance on mass-selected clusters isolated in molecular beams or on quantum dots grown by molecular beam epitaxy and interrogated at low temperatures and in high magnetic fields. As a result, we now have an understanding of how thermodynamic, optical, electrical, and magnetic properties evolve from the atomic to the solid state limit. This area of research is presently undergoing a remarkable transformation. The scaling laws, previously the direct subject of research, now provide a tool for the design of advanced new materials. In the case of colloidal quantum dots, or semiconductor nanocrystals, these new insights are poised to have impact in disciplines remote from solid state physics [3].