bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The process of EDC-NHS cross-linking of reconstituted collagen fibres increases collagen fibrillar order and alignment
Authors: Shepherd D. V. , Shepherd J. H. , Ghose S. , Kew S. J. , Cameron R. E. , Best S. M.
Published: November 2014

We describe the production of collagen fibre bundles through a multi-strand, semi-continuous extrusion process. Cross-linking using an EDC (1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide), NHS (N-hydroxysuccinimide) combination was considered. Atomic Force Microscopy and Raman spectroscopy focused on how cross-linking affected the collagen fibrillar structure. In the cross-linked fibres, a clear fibrillar structure comparable to native collagen was observed which was not observed in the non-cross-linked fibre. The amide III doublet in the Raman spectra provided additional evidence of alignment in the cross-linked fibres. Raman spectroscopy also indicated no residual polyethylene glycol (from the fibre forming buffer) or water in any of the fibres.
Charge transport in single CuO nanowires
Authors: Wu Junnan , Yin Bo , Wu Fei , Myung Yoon , Banerjee Parag
Published: November 2014

Charge transport in single crystal, p-type cupric oxide (CuO) nanowire (NW) was studied through temperature based (120 K–400 K) current-voltage measurements. CuO NW with a diameter of 85 nm was attached to Au electrodes 2.25 μm apart, using dielectrophoresis. At low electrical field (<0.89 × 103 V/cm), an ohmic conduction is observed with an activation energy of 272 meV. The injected electrons fill traps with an average energy, ET = 26.6 meV and trap density, NT = 3.4 × 1015 cm−3. After the traps are saturated, space charge limited current mechanism becomes dominant. For 120 K ≤ T ≤ 210 K phonon scattering limits mobility. For T ≥ 220 K, a thermally activated mobility is observed and is attributed to small polaron hopping with an activation energy of 44 meV. This mechanism yields a hole mobility of 0.0015 cm2/V s and an effective hole concentration of 4 × 1018 cm−3 at 250 K.
Ab initio study of molecular and atomic oxygen on GeTe(111) surfaces
Authors: Deringer Volker L. , Dronskowski Richard
Published: November 2014

Oxidation of the phase-change material germanium telluride (GeTe) is an atomic-scale process of fundamental importance, as it is detrimental to the stability of GeTe-based data-storage devices. Here, we present comprehensive density-functional theory simulations of molecular and atomic oxygen in contact with GeTe(111) surfaces. Molecular O2 is predicted to readily adsorb on the Ge-terminated (111) surface; the pristine Te-terminated counterpart, by contrast, appears quite inert. The coverage-dependent adsorption of O atoms is then investigated, and based on these data, a surface phase diagram for GeTe(111)/O is constructed. These results afford a detailed, atom-resolved picture of the initial surface oxidation of GeTe, and they harmonize well with a previous X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study on this very topic.
Electrical levels in nickel doped silicon
Authors: Scheffler L. , Kolkovsky Vl. , Weber J.
Published: November 2014

Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) reveals three electrical levels of substitutional nickel in silicon at EC – 0.07 eV, EC – 0.45 eV, and EV + 0.16 eV. A number of additional DLTS peaks are observed after hydrogenation of the samples. We identify different NiHx -complexes with x = 1, 2, and 3. NiH introduces a single acceptor and a single donor state at about EC – 0.17 eV and EV + 0.49 eV into the band gap of silicon. NiH2 and NiH3 are shown to have a single acceptor state at EV + 0.58 eV and EV + 0.46 eV, respectively. In addition to the electrically active NiHx-complexes, a total passivation of the electrical activity of nickel by hydrogen is observed.
Hybrid metasurface for ultra-broadband terahertz modulation
Authors: Heyes Jane E. , Withayachumnankul Withawat , Grady Nathaniel K. , Chowdhury Dibakar Roy , Azad Abul K. , Chen Hou-Tong
Published: November 2014

We demonstrate an ultra-broadband free-space terahertz modulator based on a semiconductor-integrated metasurface. The modulator is made of a planar array of metal cut-wires on a silicon-on-sapphire substrate, where the silicon layer functions as photoconductive switches. Without external excitation, the cut-wire array exhibits a Lorentzian resonant response with a transmission passband spanning dc up to the fundamental dipole resonance above 2 THz. Under photoexcitation with 1.55 eV near-infrared light, the silicon regions in the cut-wire gaps become highly conductive, causing a transition of the resonant metasurface to a wire grating with a Drude response. In effect, the low-frequency passband below 2 THz evolves into a stopband for the incident terahertz waves. Experimental validations confirm a bandwidth of at least 100%, spanning 0.5–1.5 THz with −10 dB modulation depth. This modulation depth is far superior to −5 dB achievable from a plain silicon-on-sapphire substrate with effectively 25 times higher pumping energy. The proposed concept of ultra-broadband metasurface modulator can be readily extended to electrically controlled terahertz wave modulation.
Preparation and electrical transport properties of quasi free standing bilayer graphene on SiC (0001) substrate by H intercalation
Authors: Yu Cui , Liu Qingbin , Li Jia , Lu Weili , He Zezhao , Cai Shujun , Feng Zhihong
Published: November 2014

We investigate the temperature dependent electrical transport properties of quasi-free standing bilayer graphene on 4H-SiC (0001) substrate. Three groups of monolayer epitaxial graphene and corresponding quasi-free standing bilayer graphene with different crystal quality and layer number homogeneity are prepared. Raman spectroscopy and atomic-force microscopy are used to obtain their morphologies and layer number, and verify the complete translation of buffer layer into graphene. The highest room temperature mobility reaches 3700 cm2/V·s for the quasi-free standing graphene. The scattering mechanism analysis shows that poor crystal quality and layer number inhomogeneity introduce stronger interacting of SiC substrate to the graphene layer and more impurities, which limit the carrier mobility of the quasi-free standing bilayer graphene samples.
Cost-effective nanostructured thin-film solar cell with enhanced absorption
Authors: Wang Peng Hui , Nowak Regina-Elisabeth , Geißendörfer Stefan , Vehse Martin , Reininghaus Nies , Sergeev Oleg , von Maydell Karsten , Brolo Alexandre G. , Agert Carsten
Published: November 2014

Nanostructured transparent conductive electrodes are highly interesting for efficient light management in thin-film solar cells, but they are often costly to manufacture and limited to small scales. This work reports on a low-cost and scalable bottom-up approach to fabricate nanostructured thin-film solar cells. A folded solar cell with increased optical absorber volume was deposited on honeycomb patterned zinc oxide nanostructures, fabricated in a combined process of nanosphere lithography and electrochemical deposition. The periodicity of the honeycomb pattern can be easily varied in the fabrication process, which allows structural optimization for different absorber materials. The implementation of this concept in amorphous silicon thin-film solar cells with only 100 nm absorber layer was demonstrated. The nanostructured solar cell showed approximately 10% increase in the short circuit current density compared to a cell on an optimized commercial textured reference electrode. The concept presented here is highly promising for low-cost industrial fabrication of nanostructured thin-film solar cells, since no sophisticated layer stacks or expensive techniques are required.
The distribution alloying elements in alnico 8 and 9 magnets: Site preference of ternary Ti, Fe, Co, and Ni additions in DO3 Fe3Al, Co3Al, and Ni3Al based intermetallic phases
Authors: Samolyuk G. D. , Újfalussy B. , Stocks G. M.
Published: November 2014

Recently, interest in alnico magnetic alloys has been rekindled due to their potential to substitute for rare-earth based permanent magnets provided modest improvements in their coercivity can be achieved without loss of saturation magnetization. Recent experimental studies have indicated that atomic and magnetic structure of the two phases (one AlNi-based, the other FeCo-based) that comprise these spinodally decomposed alloy is not as simple as previously thought. A key issue that arises is the distribution of Fe, Co, and Ti within the AlNi-based matrix phase. In this paper, we report the results of first-principles calculations of the site preference of ternary alloying additions in DO3 Fe3Al, Co3Al, and Ni3Al alloys, as models for the aluminide phase. For compound compositions that are Al rich, which correspond to experimental situation, Ti and Fe are found to occupy the α sites, while Co and Ni prefer the γ sites of the DO3 lattice. An important finding is that the magnetic moments of transition metals in Fe3Al and Co3Al are ordered ferromagnetically, whereas the Ni3Al were found to be nonmagnetic unless the Fe or Co is added as a ternary element.
Foliar trait contrasts between African forest and savanna trees: genetic versus environmental effects
Authors: Schrodt Franziska , Domingues Tomas F. , Feldpausch Ted R. , Saiz Gustavo , Quesada Carlos Alberto , Schwarz Michael , Ishida F. Yoko , Compaore Halidou , Diallo Adamo , Djagbletey Gloria , Hien Fidele , Sonké Bonaventure , Toedoumg Herman , Zapfack Loius , Hiernaux Pierre , Mougin Eric , Bird Michael. I. , Grace John , Lewis Simon L. , Veenendaal Elmar M. , Lloyd Jon
Published: November 2014

Variations in leaf mass per unit area (Ma) and foliar concentrations of N, P, C, K, Mg and Ca were determined for 365 trees growing in 23 plots along a West African precipitation gradient ranging from 0.29 to 1.62 m a–1. Contrary to previous studies, no marked increase in Ma with declining precipitation was observed, but savanna tree foliar [N] tended to be higher at the drier sites (mass basis). Generally, Ma was slightly higher and [N] slightly lower for forest vs savanna trees with most of this difference attributable to differences in soil chemistry. No systematic variations in [P], [Mg] and [Ca] with precipitation or between trees of forest vs savanna stands were observed. We did, however, find a marked increase in foliar [K] of savanna trees as precipitation declined, with savanna trees also having a significantly lower [K] than those of nearby forest. These differences were not related to differences in soil nutrient status and were accompanied by systematic changes in [C] of opposite sign. We suggest an important but as yet unidentified role for K in the adaption of savanna species to periods of limited water availability; with foliar [K] being also an important factor differentiating tree species adapted to forest vs savanna soils within the ‘zone of transition’ of Western Africa.
Quantifying uncertainty in environmental indices: an application to an estuarine health index
Authors: Dobbie Melissa J. , Clifford David
Published: November 2014

Estuaries are an important link between terrestrial and marine ecosystems, so assessing their health and what influences it can help guide future ecosystem monitoring and management. But estuaries can be complex and dynamic systems, so summarising health by a single score or grade raises questions about interpretation, variability, sensitivity and confidence. Such questions may include how variable is the score for a particular waterway, how sensitive is the score to seemingly benign decisions taken to reach that score, and how different is the B grade of one waterway to the C scored by an adjacent waterway. Focusing on a specific estuarine health index, we quantified two different sources of variation in its construction and examined how they contributed to the variability of the final score. We found that quantifying the variability in two steps of the index construction enabled us to make more informed inferences about the index and its bearing on an overall report card score for an estuary. By highlighting uncertainty in an estuarine health index, we are improving its inferential value and enabling more defensible decision-making about current and future management and amelioration of an estuary’s health and function.
Recent sedimentation dynamics in a shallow coastal lake (Lake Sarbsko, northern Poland): driving factors, processes and effects
Authors: Woszczyk Michał , Tylmann Wojciech , Jędrasik Jan , Szarafin Tomasz , Stach Alfred , Skrzypczak Joanna , Lutyńska Monika
Published: November 2014

Despite the fact that sediment dynamics in shallow coastal lakes strongly influences lake water quality and is crucial for preserving good quality paleo-records from coastal zones, the depositional processes in coastal lakes have not been thoroughly recognised so far. The present study aims at investigating the relationship between lake water circulation and the distribution of surface sediments, identifying the postdepositional physical mechanisms affecting lake deposits, and estimating the intensity of sediment mixing in a coastal lake on the Baltic coast. Our approach includes analyses of sediment grain size and chemical composition, hydrodynamic modelling and measurements of 210Pb activity in sediment short-cores from various sections of the lake. We showed that the distribution of lithofacies in the lake is explained by hydrodynamic conditions. Enhanced water dynamics reduces spatial extent of organic-rich lacustrine deposits and results in the exposure of relic marine-lagoonal sediments. A major part of the lake sediments is prone to vertical mixing by wind waves to a depth of ≥ 40 cm. Hydrodynamic modelling and 210Pb displayed overall agreement in predicting the depth of sediment mixing. At the same time the limitations of 210Pb as a geochronologic marker in shallow coastal lakes are revealed. It appears that even exponential depth-wise 210Pb distributions may be produced by storm redeposition.
Issues in the development of open access to research data
Authors: Wessels Bridgette , Finn Rachel L. , Linde Peter , Mazzetti Paolo , Nativi Stefano , Riley Susan , Smallwood Rod , Taylor Mark J. , Tsoukala Victoria , Wadhwa Kush , Wyatt Sally
Published: November 2014

This paper explores key issues in the development of open access to research data. The use of digital means for developing, storing and manipulating data is creating a focus on ‘data-driven science’. One aspect of this focus is the development of ‘open access’ to research data. Open access to research data refers to the way in which various types of data are openly available to public and private stakeholders, user communities and citizens. Open access to research data, however, involves more than simply providing easier and wider access to data for potential user groups. The development of open access requires attention to the ways data are considered in different areas of research. We identify how open access is being unevenly developed across the research environment and the consequences this has in terms of generating data gaps. Data gaps refer to the way data becomes detached from published conclusions. To address these issues, we examine four main areas in developing open access to research data: stakeholder roles and values; technological requirements for managing and sharing data; legal and ethical regulations and procedures; institutional roles and policy frameworks. We conclude that problems of variability and consistency across the open access ecosystem need to be addressed within and between these areas to ensure that risks surrounding a data gap are managed in open access.
Assessment for Learning in International Contexts: exploring shared and divergent dimensions in teacher values and practices
Authors: Warwick Paul , Shaw Stuart , Johnson Martin
Published: November 2014

The Assessment for Learning in International Contexts (ALIC) project sought to extend knowledge around teachers’ understandings of Assessment for Learning (AfL). Using a modified version of a survey item devised by James and Pedder for use with teachers in England, evidence was gathered about the assessment practices that were highly valued by teachers across international contexts. The extent of congruence between these values and teachers’ reported classroom practices was explored and dimensions of teachers’ assessment practices were derived through factor analysis. While there was considerable congruence across the ALIC cohort of teachers and data sets derived from English teachers, particularly with respect to the items that have positive values–practice gaps, there were some interesting differences. Two components were derived from factor analysis, rather than the three derived by James and Pedder. These components were ‘Making learning explicit and promoting learner autonomy’ and ‘Student control of assessment processes’.
Gorenstein categories, singular equivalences and finite generation of cohomology rings in recollements
Authors: Psaroudakis Chrysostomos , Skartsæterhagen Øystein , Solberg Øyvind
Published: November 2014

Given an artin algebra

Λ
\Lambda

with an idempotent element

a
a

we compare the algebras

Λ
\Lambda

and

a
Λ
a

a\Lambda a

with respect to Gorensteinness, singularity categories and the finite generation condition

Fg

\mathrm {\textsf {Fg}}

for the Hochschild cohomology. In particular, we identify assumptions on the idempotent element

a
a

which ensure that

Λ
\Lambda

is Gorenstein if and only if

a
Λ
a

a\Lambda a

is Gorenstein, that the singularity categories of

Λ
\Lambda

and

a
Λ
a

a\Lambda a

are equivalent and that

Fg

\mathrm {\textsf {Fg}}

holds for

Λ
\Lambda

if and only if

Fg

\mathrm {\textsf {Fg}}

holds for

a
Λ
a

a\Lambda a

. We approach the problem by using recollements of abelian categories and we prove the results concerning Gorensteinness and singularity categories in this general setting. The results are applied to stable categories of Cohen–Macaulay modules and classes of triangular matrix algebras and quotients of path algebras.
Alcohol Use and Alcohol Use Disorders
Authors: Sher Kenneth J. , Martinez Julia A. , Littlefield Andrew K.
Published: November 2014

Alcohol use disorders (AUDs), alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence, are among the most prevalent mental disorders in the United States and elsewhere. Controversy exists with respect to the optimal way of classifying these disorders and the boundaries between normal and abnormal drinking. Although AUDs can occur over much of the life span, from an epidemiological perspective it is largely a disorder of adolescence and young adulthood. Many who experience AUDs “mature out” of them as they age and acquire adult roles and, perhaps, as a function of normal personality. However, a significant minority of individuals fails to mature out, and some individuals develop AUDs later in adulthood. There are a number of etiological pathways associated with developing an AUD; foremost among them is a pathway shared with other externalizing disorders such as conduct disorder, adult antisociality, and other substance dependence. However, pathways associated with internalizing disorders and with individual differences in alcohol effects also exist. All of these pathways likely involve major genetic and environmental determinants. Given the etiological pathways that have been documented, it is not surprising that AUDs are often comorbid with other mental disorders. A number of approaches to the prevention and treatment of AUDs have been developed that are effective. Additionally, basic research is setting the stage for further advances in both behavior and drug treatments of AUDs.
Behavioral Interventions in Public Health Settings
Authors: Lewis Beth A. , Statt Eric , Marcus Bess H.
Published: November 2014

This chapter discusses three health behaviors that significantly impact public health. Specifically, physical activity behavior, weight loss, and smoking cessation are associated with many health benefits, including decreased risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and cancer. These three health behaviors are important modifiable risk factors that can have a significant impact on health. Unfortunately, only half of Americans are physically active at the recommended levels. Additionally, 66.3% of Americans are overweight or obese. Finally, despite the health problems related to smoking, about one-fifth of Americans continue to smoke cigarettes. We provide an overview of the theoretical models commonly used in intervention studies and summarize the research evidence from randomized trials. Finally, we review three different intervention approaches for improving health behaviors, including an individual-level approach for physical activity, a community-level approach for weight loss, and a group-based approach for smoking cessation.
Couple Therapy
Authors: Baucom Donald H. , Epstein Norman B. , Kirby Jennifer S. , Falconier Mariana K.
Published: November 2014

Whereas most couples enter into marriage or similar committed, romantic relationships with the full expectation that they will live their lives together in a happy and rewarding manner, the divorce rate in the United States and many Western countries continues to be alarmingly high—in the United States hovering around 50%. As a result, mental health practitioners have focused energy on ways to alleviate relationship distress. Many approaches for assisting distressed couples have been developed, yet few have been evaluated to demonstrate that they actually help couples. The current chapter provides an overview of the major models of couple therapy that have been evaluated in well-controlled research studies and have demonstrated that they benefit couples. The models included are: behavioral couple therapy, cognitive-behavioral couple therapy, integrative behavioral couple therapy, emotionally focused couple therapy, and insight-oriented couple therapy. For each model, the theoretical approach, overall interventions, and effectiveness are discussed.
Creating Public Health Policy
Authors: Chorpita Bruce F. , Miranda Jeanne , Bernstein Adam
Published: November 2014

In recent years, clinical psychology has made significant contributions to mental health policy through its increasing focus on the notion of evidence-based practice and an empirical approach to clinical decision-making. These developments have not been without challenges, however. Most notable are issues with the acceptability of treatment design among practitioners and the difficulty of implementing and sustaining high-quality practices in real-world contexts. Two specific barriers central to these challenges are discussed, namely, the highly specialized architecture of most research-based mental health treatments and the unavailability of a dedicated supervisory and training infrastructure. Solutions are proposed that suggest the need to rethink both the way treatments are packaged and the way they are supported in real-world practice.
Interviewing and Case Formulation
Authors: Koerner Naomi , Hood Heather K. , Antony Martin M.
Published: November 2014

The main objective of this chapter is to provide an overview of clinical interviewing. Although clinical interviewing is often referred to as an art (Shea, 2007), the information in this chapter highlights the science of clinical interviewing as well. The chapter opens with a discussion of the general structure and content of clinical interviews that are typically conducted in mental health contexts. The reader is introduced to a variety of interviews that are used in the assessment of Axis I and Axis II conditions, including their psychometric properties; guidelines for the assessment of suicidality are also presented. This is followed by an overview of interviewing skills. Specifically discussed are ways in which information processing limitations, verbal and nonverbal cues, and style of questions can influence the clinical interview. We then turn to a discussion of case formulation, a core component of the clinical interview. Empirical research on the impact of training on quality of case conceptualization and on the association between case formulation and treatment outcome is summarized. The chapter closes with a brief overview of issues that may arise when interviewing certain populations, in particular, couples, individuals from diverse populations, and young individuals.
The Anxiety-Depression Spectrum
Authors: Leyfer Ovsanna , Brown Timothy A.
Published: November 2014

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has undergone considerable revisions since its first publication, with a continuous increase in the number of the anxiety and mood disorder categories. However, many researchers have expressed concern that the expansion of our nosology has resulted in less consideration of the overlapping features of emotional disorders. The purpose of this chapter is to review current issues and empirical evidence pertinent to the classification of anxiety and mood disorders and the relevance of these issues to treatment planning. It discusses discriminant validity, including diagnostic reliability and comorbidity, reviews the existing hierarchical models of emotional disorders, proposes a dimensional approach for classification of anxiety and mood disorders, and reviews transdiagnostic treatments of emotional disorders.
Training, Credentialing, and New Roles in Clinical Psychology
Authors: Grus Catherine L.
Published: November 2014

This chapter provides an overview of key developments in the education, training, and credentialing of clinical psychologists; new roles in the field; and intersecting issues across these domains. Emerging issues highlighted within education and training include the move toward the assessment of competence in trainees, accreditation developments, and the doctoral internship match imbalance. Changes in licensing laws, mobility, and the degree of coordination between education and training and credentialing systems are described. Expanded roles for clinical psychologist, such as in health-care settings and public health, are reviewed. Finally, emerging developments such workforce analyses conducted within and across health-care professions and the relationship of issues such to national policy initiatives that are and will impact the future of clinical psychology are presented.
Trauma, Dissociation, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Keane Terence M. , Marx Brian P. , Sloan Denise M. , DePrince Anne
Published: November 2014

Worldwide, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is among the most common psychological disorders; over the past three decades researchers have made considerable progress in understanding the prevalence of PTSD and its psychological and biological underpinnings, while developing methods for its assessment and treatment. Only included in the diagnostic nomenclature since 1980, the history of PTSD extends as far back as the oldest literature in Western civilization. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey capture the impact of war on combatants and civilians, as do many of the works of writers and artists across the centuries. The focus of this chapter is on the integration of contemporary work on traumatic stress exposure, psychological dissociation, and the development of PTSD, a disorder characterized by concurrent high levels of anxiety and depression and, in many instances, considerable chronicity and disability. More than 50 randomized controlled treatment outcome studies suggest that cognitive- behavioral treatments are especially effective, and support the use of exposure therapy, stress management therapy, cognitive therapy, cognitive processing therapy, and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing in treating PTSD. All these approaches constitute key evidence-based psychological treatments for PTSD. Future work will determine which treatments used by which therapists are best for patients with specific symptoms and concomitant conditions.
Working with Sexual-Minority Individuals
Authors: Diamond Lisa M. , Butterworth Molly R. , Savin-Williams Ritch C.
Published: November 2014

The present chapter provides a review of some of the primary psychological issues confronting sexual minorities (i.e., individuals with same-sex attractions and relationships). Our goal is to provide a flexible set of preliminary questions that can be used to help sexual-minority clients to articulate their own idiosyncratic experiences and give voice to their own unique needs. We begin by addressing two of the most common and important clinical issues faced by sexual minorities: generalized “minority stress” and acceptance and validation from the family of origin. We then turn attention to the vast—and vastly underinvestigated—population of individuals with bisexual attractions and behavior, who actually constitute the majority of the sexual-minority population, despite having been systematically excluded from most prior research. We review the increasing body of research suggesting that individuals with bisexual patterns of attraction and behavior actually face greater mental health risks than those with exclusive same-sex attractions and behavior, and we explore potential processes and mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, focusing particular attention on issues of identity development and transition over the life span. We conclude by outlining a number of areas for future clinically oriented research.
Human Prosocial Motivation and the Maintenance of Social Order
Authors: Gächter Simon
Published: November 2014

This chapter presents some insights from basic behavioral research on the role of human prosocial motivation to maintain social order. I argue that social order can be conceptualized as a public goods game. Past attempts to explain social order typically relied on the assumption of selfish and rational agents (“homo economicus”). The last twenty years of research in behavioral and experimental economics have challenged this view. After presenting the most important findings of recent research on human prosociality I discuss the evidence on three pillars of the maintenance of social order. The first pillar is internalized norms of cooperation, sustained by emotions such as guilt and shame. The second pillar is the behavior of other people who typically are “conditional cooperators” willing to cooperate if others do so as well. This motivation can sustain cooperation if enough people cooperate but can jeopardize social order if many others follow selfish inclinations. The third pillar is sanctions meted out to anyone who does not cooperate; ideally punishment can work as a mere threat without being executed much. The chapter also presents some evidence on the cross-cultural variability of some findings, in particular with regard to punishment behavior. The chapter concludes with remarks on future research.
Moral Judgment
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2014

Legal judgments must be influenced by how people think about good and evil, right and wrong. This chapter reviews some of the history of the psychology of moral judgment, and the methods used to study it. It suggests the use of utilitarianism as a normative model for evaluating judgments, if only because departures from utilitarian judgments could have a cost in terms of outcomes. Common biases, from this perspective, are omission bias (preference for harms of omission over harms of action), and protected (absolute) values. The chapter also discusses biases in helping others, and biases in distributions of goods and bads. General psychological theories of moral judgment include heuristics, naive theories, and dual systems. The chapter concludes with discussion of citizenship, and speculations about the possible effects of law on moral judgment and about the morality of belief.
Alternative Behavioral Law and Economics
Authors: Mitchell Gregory
Published: November 2014

This chapter considers the psychological, methodological, and normative paths taken by behavioral law and economics (“BLE”) and alternative paths that BLE might have taken, and might still take. The counterfactual BLE imagined here focuses on performing behavioral analyses of legal problems rather than promoting the heuristics and bias view of judgment and decision-making to compete with law and economics’ rational actor model. This change in focus would give priority to empirical studies in which particular legal institutions and specific legal tasks are simulated or studied in situ rather than to studies of abstract and general judgment and decision-making problems that may provide more theoretical bang but have less clear applied payoff in specific legal contexts.
Law and Prosocial Behavior
Authors: Stout Lynn
Published: November 2014

This chapter examines the relevance of prosocial behavior to law. It begins by tracing the history of the homo economicus model of human behavior, its role in contemporary behavioral law and economics, and why the concept of utility does not solve the problem of the model. It then looks at the emergence of a behavioral economics approach to human behavior that incorporates the empirical reality of prosociality without undermining the predictive power of economic analysis. It also discusses the empirical methodology known as experimental gaming, focusing on the application of three experimental games—the social dilemma game, dictator game, and ultimatum game—to study when and how people will act prosocially. In particular, the article considers three basic lessons about human behavior offered by the social dilemma game, ultimatum game, and dictator game. In addition, it explores how prosocial behavior influences regulation, negligence rules, and contracting, along with corporate law. The chapter concludes by stressing the value of incorporating prosocial behavior into the analysis of legal and policy problems.
Probability Errors
Authors: Williams Sean Hannon
Published: November 2014

This chapter provides an overview of three probability errors and their impact on legal scholarship. Overoptimism causes people to underestimate their likelihood of experiencing negative events, to overestimate their likelihood of experiencing positive events, and to be overly confident in each of these judgments. Overoptimism can help explain numerous behaviors including excessive borrowing, excessive litigation, and insufficient preparation for negative events like divorce. Ambiguity aversion—the tendency of people to prefer known to unknown risks—helps explain patterns in contracting behavior and plea bargaining, and can also be used strategically to increase deterrence. The certainty effect, which includes the tendency of people to place a high premium on reducing the probability of a negative event to zero, has been used to illuminate the behavior of both jurors and legislators. Combined, these probability errors help explain a great deal of human behavior and have numerous implications for law.
The Hindsight Bias and the Law in Hindsight
Authors: Teichman Doron
Published: November 2014

The hindsight bias is one of the first cognitive biases to be documented by psychologists, and to be studied by legal scholars employing a behavioral perspective. This chapter presents a review of the main findings documenting the prevalence of the hindsight bias in judicial decision-making. Based on this review, it then analyzes the different ways in which legal systems as well as contracting parties deal with the bias, and highlights potential paths for future empirical and theoretical studies.
Behavioral Law and Economics of Property Law
Authors: Lewinsohn-Zamir Daphna
Published: November 2014

This chapter critically surveys the behavioral law-and-economics literature on property law. First, it sketches the main features of existing studies and their tendency to excessively focus on certain topics, such as the home. The chapter then discusses various issues with respect to which behavioral analysis has made an impact, such as the characterization of property as a “thing” or as a “bundle of sticks,” compensation for takings of property, the choice between property rules and liability rules, and redistribution through rules of property law. The chapter proceeds to highlight several gaps in the current literature, such as the disregard of commercial property, fungible property, and movables. Finally, the chapter addresses the desirability and possibility of debiasing, and offers recommendations for future research.
Behavioral Economics and Insurance Law
Authors: Baker Tom , Siegelman Peter
Published: November 2014

Because choosing insurance requires consumers to assess risks and probabilities, the demand for insurance has proven to be fertile ground for identifying deviations from rational behavior. Consumers often shun the insurance against large losses that they rationally should want (e.g., floods); and they are attracted to insurance against small losses (extended warranties, low deductibles) that no rational individual should purchase. But the welfare consequences of behavioral anomalies in insurance are complex, because consumers’ irrational behavior takes place in a market profoundly shaped by informational asymmetries. Under some conditions, deviations from rational behavior may actually generate insurance market equilibria that produce greater welfare than would be achieved in a market in which all consumers are rational. This chapter summarizes the literature and discuss the legal and policy implications of this conclusion.
The Market, the Firm, and Behavioral Antitrust
Authors: Tor Avishalom
Published: November 2014

This Handbook chapter examines the main distinct concerns facing the application of empirical behavioral evidence to antitrust law and economics—also known as “behavioral antitrust.” More than many (though not all) other legal fields, antitrust law is primarily concerned with the conduct of firms in markets rather than in individual behavior per se. Yet much of the empirical evidence that behavioral antitrust draws on concerns individual behavior outside the firm, often in nonmarket settings. Hence besides adducing additional, direct empirical evidence on behavioral phenomena within firms and markets, there is a need to determine when and how the behavioral evidence on human judgment and decision behavior more generally is informative for antitrust. To this end, the chapter considers the ways in which markets and firms shape behavior. Direct evidence and theoretical analysis both reveal these institutions variously to facilitate rationality and deviations from it. After illustrating the implications of the complex interaction among markets, firms, and the rationality of antitrust actors across different areas of the law and enforcement policy, the chapter concludes by sketching some important open questions and future research directions in behavioral antitrust.
Behavioral Economics and Plea Bargaining
Authors: Covey Russell
Published: November 2014

Numerous documented cognitive biases, including loss aversion, confirmation bias, and overconfidence, seem to work against resolution of criminal cases through plea bargaining, since doing so requires a criminal defendant to accept immediate loss (punishment) and forfeit the possibility of no loss (acquittal) in exchange for a future benefit (reduction of punishment). This chapter considers why plea bargaining is so prevalent in the US criminal justice system, notwithstanding the existence of so much potentially plea-discouraging cognitive bias. The principal explanation is that the criminal justice system is functionally designed to overcome cognitive bias in order to induce defendants to plead guilty. Incorporation of the insights of behavioral economics into plea-bargaining theory provides a more nuanced explanation of the shape of many features of our criminal justice system and casts new light on the factors that drive plea-bargaining outcomes.
Judicial Decision-Making
Authors: Teichman Doron , Zamir Eyal
Published: November 2014

This chapter critically reviews the behavioral literature on judicial decision-making. Among other things, it presents general theories of judicial decision-making, such as the story model and coherence-based reasoning. It also describes the reflection of a series of well-known cognitive phenomena in judicial decision-making, including the compromise and contrast effects, the effect of legally irrelevant information, the hindsight bias, the omission bias, and the role of anchoring in converting qualitative into quantitative judgments. The chapter examines fact-finders’ reluctance to impose liability based on certain types of evidence. It further reviews the contribution of behavioral studies to better understanding judicial prejudice. Special attention is given to judicial application of legal norms to facts and the effect of the choice between rules and standards on the predictability of judgments. Finally, the chapter provides an overview of two fundamental questions in the behavioral analysis of judicial decision-making: group decision-making and judges’ versus laypersons’ decision-making.
Anaphylaxis Is More Common with Rocuronium and Succinylcholine than with Atracurium
Authors: Reddy Jeffrey I. , Cooke Peter J. , van Schalkwyk Johan M. , Hannam Jacqueline A. , Fitzharris Penny , Mitchell Simon J.
Published: November 2014

Background:

Intraoperative anaphylaxis is a rare but serious occurrence, often triggered by neuromuscular-blocking drugs (NMBDs). Previous reports suggest that the rates of anaphylaxis may be greater for rocuronium than for other NMBDs, but imprecise surrogate metrics for new patient exposures to NMBDs complicate interpretation.

Methods:

This was a retrospective, observational cohort study of intraoperative anaphylaxis to NMBDs at two hospitals between 2006 and 2012. Expert anesthetic and immunologist collaborators investigated all referred cases of intraoperative anaphylaxis where NMBDs were administered and identified those where a NMBD was considered responsible. New patient exposures for each NMBD were extracted from electronic anesthetic records compiled during the same period. Anaphylaxis rates were calculated for each NMBD using diagnosed anaphylaxis cases as the numerator and the number of new patient exposures as the denominator.

Results:

Twenty-one patients were diagnosed with anaphylaxis to an NMBD. The incidence of anaphylaxis was 1 in 22,451 new patient exposures for atracurium, 1 in 2,080 for succinylcholine, and 1 in 2,499 for rocuronium (P < 0.001).

Conclusions:

In Auckland, the rate of anaphylaxis to succinylcholine and rocuronium is approximately 10-fold higher than to atracurium. Previous estimates of NMBD anaphylaxis rates are potentially confounded by inaccurate proxies of new patient exposures. This is the first study to report anaphylaxis rates using a hard denominator of new patient exposures obtained directly from anesthetic records.
Differences in Funding Sources of Phase III Oncology Clinical Trials by Treatment Modality and Cancer Type
Authors: Jairam Vikram , Yu James B. , Aneja Sanjay , Wilson Lynn D. , Lloyd Shane
Published: November 2014

Objectives:

Given the limited resources available to conduct clinical trials, it is important to understand how trial sponsorship differs among different therapeutic modalities and cancer types and to consider the ramifications of these differences.

Methods:

We searched clinicaltrials.gov for a cross-sectional register of active, phase III, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) studying treatment-related endpoints such as survival and recurrence for the 24 most prevalent malignancies. We classified the RCTs into 7 categories of therapeutic modality: (1) chemotherapy/other cancer-directed drugs, (2) targeted therapy, (3) surgery, (4) radiation therapy (RT), (5) RT with other modalities, (6) multimodality therapy without RT, and (7) other. RCTs were categorized as being funded by one or more of the following groups: (1) government, (2) hospital/university, (3) industry, and (4) other. χ2analysis was performed to detect differences in funding source distribution between modalities and cancer types.

Results:

The percentage of multimodality trials (5%) and radiation RCTs (4%) funded by industry was less than that for chemotherapy (32%,P<0.01) or targeted therapy (48%,P<0.01). Trials studying targeted therapy were less likely to have hospital/university funding than any of the other modalities (P<0.01 in each comparison). Trials of chemotherapy were more likely to be funded by industry if they also studied targeted therapy (P<0.01).

Conclusion:

RCTs studying targeted therapies are more likely to be funded by industry than trials studying multimodality therapy or radiation. The impact of industry funding versus institutional or governmental sources of funding for cancer research is unclear and requires further study.
Idiopathic Unilateral Enlargement of the Extraocular Muscles in an Infant
Authors: Modi Yasha , Erickson Benjamin , Ranadive Isha , Pasol Joshua , Wester Sara , Cavuoto Kara
Published: November 2014

A 6-month-old boy presented with a unilateral motility deficit of the right eye in all fields of gaze. Neuroimaging revealed unilateral enlargement of the medial, lateral, and inferior rectus muscles with sparing of the tendons. An evaluation for thyroid eye disease, idiopathic orbital inflammation, myositis, inflammatory and neoplastic infiltration of the muscle, vascular anomalies, and metastatic neuroblastoma was unrevealing. Biopsy of the muscle revealed normal architecture with an absence of inflammation, infiltration, or fibrosis. A review of the literature reveals the exceptionally rare nature of this finding. While the authors cannot rule out an atypical case of congenital euthyroid eye disease, this constellation of findings is not consistent with thyroid eye disease and may represent previously described cases of idiopathic enlargement of the extraocular muscles.
Flexibility of bacterial flagella in external shear results in complex swimming trajectories
Authors: Tournus M. , Kirshtein A. , Berlyand L. V. , Aranson I. S.
Published: November 2014

Many bacteria use rotating helical flagella in swimming motility. In the search for food or migration towards a new habitat, bacteria occasionally unbundle their flagellar filaments and tumble, leading to an abrupt change in direction. Flexible flagella can also be easily deformed by external shear flow, leading to complex bacterial trajectories. Here, we examine the effects of flagella flexibility on the navigation of bacteria in two fundamental shear flows: planar shear and Poiseuille flow realized in long channels. On the basis of slender body elastodynamics and numerical analysis, we discovered a variety of non-trivial effects stemming from the interplay of self-propulsion, elasticity and shear-induced flagellar bending. We show that in planar shear flow the bacteria execute periodic motion, whereas in Poiseuille flow, they migrate towards the centre of the channel or converge towards a limit cycle. We also find that even a small amount of random reorientation can induce a strong response of bacteria, leading to overall non-periodic trajectories. Our findings exemplify the sensitive role of flagellar flexibility and shed new light on the navigation of bacteria in complex shear flows.
Symmetry relations in viscoplastic drag laws
Authors: Kamrin K. , Goddard J. D.
Published: November 2014

The following note shows that the symmetry of various resistance formulae, often based on Lorentz reciprocity for linearly viscous fluids, applies to a wide class of nonlinear viscoplastic fluids. This follows from Edelen's nonlinear generalization of the Onsager relation for the special case of
strongly dissipative
rheology, where constitutive equations are derivable from his dissipation potential. For flow domains with strong dissipation in the interior and on a portion of the boundary, this implies strong dissipation on the remaining portion of the boundary, with strongly dissipative traction–velocity response given by a dissipation potential. This leads to a nonlinear generalization of Stokes resistance formulae for a wide class of viscoplastic fluid problems. We consider the application to nonlinear Darcy flow and to the effective slip for viscoplastic flow over textured surfaces.