Airway, Lung, and Respiratory Muscle Function During Exercise
Authors: Dempsey Jerome A. , Adams Lewis , Ainsworth Dorothy M. , Fregosi Ralph F. , Gallagher Charles G. , Guz Abe , Johnson Bruce D. , Powers Scott K. 
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Regulation of the Upper Airway During Exercise

Anatomy and Physiology of the Upper Airway

Contractile Properties and Endurance of Upper Airway Muscles

Changes in Upper Airway Flow Resistance During Exercise

Upper Airway Muscle Activities during Exercise

Oronasal Distribution of Respiratory Airflow

Effects of Exercise on Passive Respiratory Mechanics

Elastic Properties

Total Lung Capacity

Expiratory Flow Rates, Vital Capacity, and Residual Volume

Breathing Pattern During Exercise

Mechanical Breathing Pattern

Methods of Assessment of Respiratory Muscle Contraction

Pattern of Respiratory Muscle Contraction

Influence of Sensory Feedback on Breathing Pattern

Influence of Respiratory Mechanics on Breathing Pattern

Influence of Duration of Exercise on Breathing Pattern

Influence of Mode of Exercise on Breathing Pattern

Breathing Pattern during Recovery from Exercise

Physiological Implications of Exercise Breathing Pattern

Importance of Respiratory Load in Regulation of Exercise Hyperpnea

Helium‐Oxygen Unloading

Unloading with Pressure Assist

Conclusion

Locomotor‐Respiration Interdependence

Entrainment—the Most Obvious Locomotor‐Respiratory Interaction

How Does Entrainment Effect Ventilation?

Is there Stronger Evidence to Support a Significant Biomechanical Effect of Locomotion on Respiration in Dogs?

Are Biomechanical Effects Important in Entrainment in Humans?

Locomotory: Respiratory Interactions, Independent of Entrainment

Conclusion

Respiratory Muscle Perfusion and Energetics

Oxygen Cost of Hyperpnea

Respiratory Muscle Blood Flow

Exercise‐Induced Respiratory Muscle Fatigue

Respiratory System Design

Assessment of Diaphragm Fatigue in Animal Models

Glycogen Depletion

Fiber Type Recruitment

Definition of Fatigue

Task Failure vs. Objective Assessment of Fatigue

Contractile Changes with Fatigue

Predicting Respiratory Muscle Fatigue During Exercise

Application of Resting Tests to Respiratory Muscle Function During Exercise

Assessment of Respiratory Muscle Fatigue in Humans

Volitional Tests

Volitional Tests Applied to Exercise

Nonvolitional Tests

Bilateral Phrenic Nerve Stimulation (BPNS)

Characteristics of Diaphragm Fatigue

High‐ vs. Low‐Frequency Fatigue

Sites and Mechanisms of Respiratory Muscle Fatigue

Central Fatigue in Humans

Neurotransmission Fatigue

Bilateral Phrenic Nerve Stimulation Applied to Exercise

Short‐Term Exercise

Endurance Exercise

Factors Contributing to the Decline in Twitch Pdi Following Exercise

Role of Diaphragmatic Force Output in Fatigue

Consequences of Exercise‐Induced Diaphragmatic Fatigue

Fatigue vs. Task Failure

Does Training of Respiratory Muscles Affect Exercise Performance?

Altered Respiratory Muscle Recruitment with Fatigue

Physical Training Effects on Respiratory Muscles

Respiratory Muscle Morphology and Contractile Properties

Whole‐Body Training: Effects on Rodent Respiratory Muscles

Whole‐Body Exercise: Effects on Human Respiratory Muscle Performance

Specific Respiratory Muscle Training

Respiratory Sensation During Exertion

Mechanisms of Respiratory Sensations during Exercise

Methods of Assessing Respiratory Sensations

Respiratory Movements

An Urge to Breathe

A Sense of Respiratory Effort

Respiratory Sensation as a Respiratory Controller during Exercise

Respiratory Sensation as a Limiting Factor during Exercise

Conclusions

Summary—Pulmonary System Limitations and Their Effects on Exercise Performance

Absence of Pulmonary System Limitations in the Normally Fit

Contrasting Adaptabilities: Demand vs. Capacity

Alveolar Capillary Diffusion Surface of the Lung

Ventilatory Limitations/Constraints

Inadequate Alveolar Ventilation andLimitations

Endurance Exercise Performance

Special Circumstances Favoring Pulmonary Limitations to Exercise Performance in Health

Hypoxia of High Altitudes

Aging Effects on Pulmonary Limitations