bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nutritional Response to the 1998 Bangladesh Flood Disaster: Sphere Minimum Standards in Disaster Response
Authors: O’Donnell Max R. , Bacos Dimitri , Bennish Michael L.
Published: December 2004

In this study we use a cross–sectional survey to evaluate the nutritional response to the 1998 Bangladesh Flood Disaster by 15 relief agencies using standards developed by the Sphere Project. The Sphere Project is a recent attempt by agencies around the world to establish universal minimum standards for the purpose of ensuring quality and accountability in disaster response. The main outcomes measured were resources allocated to disaster relief, types of relief activities and percentage of agencies meeting selected Sphere food aid and nutrition indicators. Although the process of nutritional response was measured, specific nutritional and health outcomes were not assessed.

This review found that self–reported disaster and nutritional resources varied widely between implementing agencies, ranging from US$58,947 to $15,908,712. The percentage of resources these agencies allocated to food aid and nutritional response also varied, ranging from approximately 6 to 99 per cent of total resources. Agencies met between 8 and 83 per cent of the specific Sphere indicators which were assessed. Areas in which performance was poor included preliminary nutritional analysis; beneficiary participation and feedback; disaster preparedness during non–emergency times; monitoring of local markets and impact assessment. Agencies were generally successful in areas of core humanitarian response, such as targeting the vulnerable (83 per cent) and monitoring and evaluating the process of disaster response (75 per cent).

The results here identify both strengths and gaps in the quality of humanitarian response in developing nations such as Bangladesh. However, they also raise the question of implementing a rights–based approach to disaster response in nations without a commitment to meeting positive human rights in non–disaster times.
The Price of Water Under the Lesotho Highlands Water Project
Authors: Barrett C. R. , Senaoana M. P.
Published: December 2004

The paper's main objective is to examine, in the light of contract theory, the agreement between Lesotho and South Africa on the transfer of water under the Lesotho Highlands Water Project. A secondary objective is to analyse the shareout involved, using the Nash bargaining solution.
Gender Differences in Recruitment Outcomes
Authors: Russo Giovanni , Ommeren Jos van
Published: December 2004

The paper tests the hypothesis that female applicants have a lower probability of being hired from a pool of applicants than their male counterparts. The results indicate that male and female candidates have about the same probability of being hired independently of the type of vacancy. The probability of hiring a candidate of a certain sex is therefore determined by the gender composition of the pool of applicants who have selected themselves on the basis of job characteristics, hiring standards and the type of sector. This indicates that male and female job‐seekers select themselves in such a way that they have equal probabilities of being accepted.
The Labour Market in Association Football: Who Gets Transferred and for How Much?
Authors: Carmichael Fiona , Forrest David , Simmons Robert
Published: December 2004

This paper employs data for the 1993–94 season to estimate a hedonic equation representing the determination of the price structure in the transfer market for professional players in the English football leagues. Player transfer proneness is modelled, and the Heckman two‐step procedure is employed to take account of selection bias. The paper identifies those player attributes which affect either the probability of transfer or the transfer fee and evaluates the relative influence of such variables.
Acyclic Probabilistic Social Decision Functions
Authors: Treglia Michael
Published: December 2004

Social decision functions that incorporate elements of chance are often employed when equity considerations are of importance. The papers main result shows that in this extended framework acyclicity of the social preference relation implies the existence of at least one individual who has the ability to randomly veto a critical number of pairs of alternatives.
Is More Information a Good Thing? Bias Nonmonotonicity in Stochastic Difference Equations
Authors: Abadir Karim , Hadri Kaddour
Published: December 2004

It is shown that the bias of estimated parameters in autoregressive models can increase as the sample size grows. This bias is also a nonmonotonic function of the largest autoregressive root, contrary to what asymptotic approximations had indicated so far in the literature. These unusual results are due to the effect of the initial sample observations that are typically neglected in theoretical asymptotic analysis, in spite of their empirical relevance. Implications for practical economic modelling are considered, including a comparison of the likely inaccuracies of parameter estimates in alternative models based on competing macroeconomic theories.
Resource Utilization and Economies of Size in Secondary Schools
Authors: Taylor Jim , Bradley Steve
Published: December 2004

This paper identifies the determinants of costs per pupil in English secondary schools. A distinction is made between the short run and the long run in order to estimate the separate effects on costs per pupil of short‐run variations in school output and school size. A school’s capacity utilization rate is used to indicate short‐run deviations in output from pupil capacity, and pupil capacity is used as an indicator of school size to capture scale effects on costs per pupil. The statistical analysis uses both published and unpublished data for secondary schools in England. Two separate analyses are undertaken, one for grant‐maintained schools alone and the other for all schools. A separate analysis is undertaken for grant‐maintained schools since cost data are available only for schools in this sector. Staff hours per pupil is used as a proxy for costs per pupil for schools as a whole. The main finding is that costs per pupil and staff hours per pupil are both highly significantly negatively related to both school size and the capacity utilization rate of schools. A range of other variables are also estimated to have a significant effect on costs per pupil in secondary schools. The main finding is that there is scope for reducing the costs of schooling in the secondary schools sector in England.
Nonlinear Dynamics in Expectations: An Empirical Study
Authors: Resende Marcelo
Published: December 2004

The paper investigates whether expectations data are consistent with nonlinear dynamics possibly involving deterministic chaos. Survey data on exchange rate expectations for four different currencies over one‐week and one‐month prediction horizons are considered. The evidence indicates that one cannot neglect the possibility of nonlinear dynamics underlying the erratic behaviour of expectation data, even though the evidence in that respect is not overwhelming.
Entry and Managerial Incentives: A Note
Authors: Carlos Bárcena‐Ruiz Juan , Paz Espinosa Marı´a
Published: December 2004

This note reinforces the results in a paper by Sen (International Journal of Industrial Organization, vol. 11, 1993, pp. 123–37). It is shown that his assumption that the incentive schemes in a two‐period model are the same for the two periods is not necessary for the results: only the long‐term nature of contracts with managers matters.
Public and Private Investments in Greece: Complementary or Substitute ‘Goods’?
Authors: Apergis Nicholas
Published: December 2004

This paper investigates whether government investment spending exerts a positive or a negative effect on private investments. Time‐series data for Greece as well as the methodology of cointegration suggest that, over the period 1948‐80, public investment spending exerted a positive effect on private investments, while over the period 1981‐96, the relationship turned out to be negative. Empirical results indicate that the large increase of the public share in the total investment process tended to crowd out private investments and to jeopardize the growth process of the economy.
A Theory of Credit Ceilings in a Model of Debt and Renegotiation
Authors: Fender John , Sinclair Peter
Published: December 2004

A model is considered in which an entrepreneur uses debt to finance a risky investment project. He may in certain circumstances credibly threaten default on the loan, which is then renegotiated. However, lenders will never lend so much that default is credibly threatened in all states. There exists a ‘credit ceiling’ which, if binding, implies underinvestment. The paper discusses the determinants of the credit ceiling and derives some comparative statics results. For example, it is shown that the credit ceiling is raised by a mean‐preserving spread of the firm’s revenues. Also, a borrower may benefit from a reduction in his bargaining power.
A Logic for Suspicious Players: Epistemic Actions and Belief–Updates in Games
Authors: Baltag Alexandru
Published: December 2004

This paper introduces a notion of ‘epistemic action’ to describe changes in the information states of the players in a game. For this, ideas are developed from earlier contributions. The ideas are enriched to cover not just purely epistemic actions, but also fact–changing actions (‘real moves’, e.g. choosing a card, exchanging cards etc.) and nondeterministic actions and strategies (conditional actions having knowledge tests as conditions). The author considers natural operations with epistemic actions and uses them to describe significant aspects of the interaction between beliefs and actions in a game. A logic is used that combines in a specific way a multiagent epistemic logic with a dynamic logic of ‘epistemic actions’. The author presents a complete and decidable proof system for this logic. As an application, the author analyses a specific example of a dialogue game (a version of the Muddy Children Puzzle, in which some of the children can ‘cheat’ by engaging in secret communication moves, while others may be punished for their credulity). Also presented is a sketch of a ‘rule–based’ approach to games with imperfect information (allowing ‘sneaky’ possibilities, such as cheating, being deceived and suspecting the others to be cheating).
Information, Knowledge and Belief
Authors: Bonanno Giacomo
Published: December 2004

The paper models information as possibilities consistent with signals received from the environment. Knowledge is obtained by reasoning about the signals received as well as those that might have been received but were not. The term ‘knowledge’ is used to refer to those beliefs that are obtained by reasoning about the available information, and nothing else. That is, one ought to be able to fully justify what one knows by means of the information that is available. The term ‘belief’ is used to refer to those beliefs that are based on information but not necessarily only on information. The author investigates the relationship between information, knowledge and belief, as well as the issue of updating knowledge and belief in response to changes in information.
Stackelberg Mixed Duopoly with a Foreign Competitor
Authors: Matsumura Toshihiro
Published: December 2004

We investigate Stackelberg mixed duopoly models where a state‐owned public firm and a foreign private firm compete. We examine a desirable role (either leader or follower) of the public firm. We also consider endogenous roles by adopting the observable delay game of Hamilton and Slutsky (1990). We find that, in contrast to Pal (1998) discussing a case of domestic competitors, the public firm should be the leader and that it becomes the leader in the endogenous role game. We also find that in contrast to Ono (1990) eliminating a foreign firm does not improve domestic welfare in mixed oligopolies.
Forward Markets and the Behaviour of the Competitive Firm with Production Flexibility
Authors: Wong Kit Pong
Published: December 2004

This paper examines the production and hedging decisions of the competitive firm under output price uncertainty when a forward market for its output is available. The firm possesses production flexibility in that it makes its production decision after the resolution of the output price uncertainty, albeit subject to a capacity constraint on production. We show that the firm optimally acquires a higher level of capacity investment than an otherwise identical firm with no production flexibility. We further show that production flexibility allows the firm to implicitly hedge against its output price risk exposure by the ex post production decision. The firm as such under‐hedges its output price risk exposure in the forward market wherein the forward price contains a non‐positive risk premium.
Nash Equilibria in Pure Strategies
Authors: Ziad Abderrahmane
Published: December 2004

We consider an n‐person non‐zero‐sum non‐cooperative game in normal form, where the strategy sets are some closed intervals of the real line. It is shown that if the pay‐off functions are continuous on the whole space and if for each pay‐off function the smallest local maximum in the strategy variable is a global maximum, then the game possesses a pure strategy Nash equilibrium.
Endogenous instability in financial markets
Authors: Brookfield David
Published: December 2004

In a simple counter‐example it is shown how financial markets can be destabilized through the trading of derivative instruments. In particular, an assessment is made of the impact on the stock market of a widely used equity option trading strategy, and it is shown that instability may arise as a consequence of option trading. Furthermore, it is suggested that potential instability is endogenous because it arises from the use of available financial instruments in a manner which is not unusual or in other ways pathological.
Entrepreneurship: Psion and Europe
Authors: Potter David
Published: December 2004

This article is drawn from the first of the 1998 Stockton Lectures which focus on the subject of entrepreneurship. Here, David Potter, the founder of Psion, uses his own experience to identify the challenges facing business in Europe in a world of rapid and continuing change. For him, the key equation is Risk=Opportunity.
Telecommunications: Are the Regulators Killing Innovation?
Authors: Waverman Leonard
Published: December 2004

The ending of monopolies in most European Union countries on January 1 1998 has shifted the industry spotlight to the role of regulation. With particular reference to the contrasting non‐monopoly experience of telecommunications in the US and the UK, this article argues that regulation – as implemented in the US – suppresses innovation and investment.
The Boundary of Leadership: Getting it Right and Having it All
Authors: Trevelyan Rose
Published: December 2004

Leadership should be a balance between a directive style which shows the way (gets the job done) and a softer, devolved style which maximises the potential of individuals. This article describes how setting a boundary serves both purposes. The boundary represents the guidance, support and expertise of the leader and is communicated through behaviour and actions. Within the boundary is where work activity occurs and where individuals have the freedom to be creative and take responsibility for their actions. This model of leadership promotes motivation, creativity and performance (the positive outcomes of empowerment) while also sustaining support, managerial control and expert input (often lost with empowerment). The boundary offers the leader a way to be both an enabler and a container.
Thinking Creatively about Your Market: Crisps, Perfume and Business Strategy
Authors: Geroski Paul
Published: December 2004

This article starts from the premise that "identifying a market is, in effect, identifying a business". Bringing together economics, marketing and strategy, it seeks to extend the ways that managers can identify and develop existing and new markets – and therefore businesses. It concludes by setting out a three‐stage process by which managers can distinguish which business opportunities to select.
The Challenge Today: Changing the Rules of the Game
Authors: Hamel Gary
Published: December 2004

As the information age takes over from the industrial age and change accelerates, the key challenge for each company is to become the architect of revolution in its industry, leaving other companies to play catch‐up. The author argues that the key competitive advantage for companies intent on winning in the new economy is non‐linear innovation. Companies need to shift from a product‐centric view of innovation to a systemic view of innovation: ie innovation of the business model itself. This article is derived from the last of the 1998 Stockton Lectures, delivered in April.
Collaboration
Authors: Liedtka Jeanne M.
Published: December 2004

Collaboration across lines of business is among the most difficult of all types of synergy to achieve: an extreme case of sibling rivalry is the author’s analogy. This article starts by examining why it is worthwhile – and, in today’s world, even perhaps essential. The author explores the challenges involved and the new skill sets required as collaboration evolves, illustrating her argument with experience from two real‐life attempts to achieve synergy, in a high‐tech company and a bank. One has so far succeeded and the other has failed. The article ends by discussing the critical role of top managers – even if they try to play no role at all.
Collaboration
Authors: Rosenbladt Peter A.
Published: December 2004

In June 1994, Hewlett‐Packard (HP) and Intel announced an exciting new collaboration with ramifications for companies worldwide: a partnership to develop what has become known as the Merced chip – a new generation of core microprocessor technology ("architecture") different in kind from its antecedents. This article, reporting a conference speech given late in 1997, provides an eye‐witness account of the collaboration as seen at that date by one of the key players. The speaker reflects on the reasons why the two companies got together, the strategic and organisational implications for HP – and the key factors ensuring that the partners continued to work together productively, if not always in perfect harmony.
The Russian Default
Authors: Estrin Saul
Published: December 2004

This article argues that the international financial markets' massive involvement in Russia had at best a limited basis in developments in the real economy, while financial inflows from the West both enabled and encouraged Russia to avoid the restructuring which lies behind the economic recovery elsewhere in Central and Eastern Europe. The best hope for a positive future for Russia is to allow many Russian banks and firms to go bankrupt and to change the nature of foreign financing. Liberal reforms could then be pursued with a clean slate. However, the author sees little likelihood of either of these happening.
Joint Ventures in Kazakstan: Views from Local and Foreign Partners
Authors: Charman Ken
Published: December 2004

For all the talk of a crisis of confidence in the region of the former Soviet Union (FSU), international business goes on as it has done throughout the decade since the fall of Communism. This article reports on the views of foreign and local partners who have established joint ventures in Kazakstan, the largest of the independent satellite republics of the FSU. Findings suggest that such joint ventures are playing an integral role in the growth of business in Kazakstan, although they are difficult to manage successfully.
Are Brand Promotions Just a Zero‐Sum Game – or Can They Increase the Size of the Pie?
Authors: Putsis, Jr. William P.
Published: December 2004

Packaged goods companies now “spend” more on promotions – special offers, in‐store displays and the like – than on media advertising. Until recently, it was generally believed that while promotions benefit individual brands, they usually do not result in an increase in overall category sales. Recent research, however, suggests that promotions can increase total category sales in a wide range of circumstances. This article starts by discussing the relationship between brand promotion and category sales, outlines research to date, and then describes the author's own most recent research on this topic. It concludes by pointing to implications for managers.
The China Market: Strategic Implications of Guanxi
Authors: Fock Henry K.Y. , Woo Ka‐shing
Published: December 2004

This article examines the differing perceptions of the nature of guanxi –“personal connection”– among business executives in Hong Kong and the different ways in which they use it. In the process, it contrasts views of relationship marketing in China and the West and suggests that the importance of guanxi for success in China may be waning. It substantiates the view that personal links and absence of commitment are major elements differentiating relationship marketing in China from that in the West. Major disadvantages of guanxi are perceived as being the extra time and cost this approach involves. For western managers involved in the China market, the research reported here has three strategic implications. First, in some form or other, they need to include the guanxi approach in their relationships with Chinese partners; second, they should be aware that guanxi may not involve commitment; and, finally, they should mount sustained efforts to build up guanxi to give them a competitive edge in their search for an insider position in the China business arena, whilst being aware that guanxi cannot eliminate threats and competition.
Liberalizing Europe's Network Industries: Ten Conflicting Priorities
Authors: Doyle Chris
Published: December 2004

This article, the first of a two‐part feature, summarises the general arguments of the inaugural report of a programme to monitor the progress of European deregulation. The author starts by defining Europe's network industries in terms of three phases of market structure: monopoly, monopoly and competition co‐existing and, finally, effective competition. In the current second phase, he identifies ten conflicting priorities for policy‐makers and the industries.
The Liberalisation of Telecommunications in the EU: Managing the Transition
Authors: Gual Jordi , Waverman Leonard
Published: December 2004

This second article in our two‐part feature on the inaugural report of a programme to monitor the progress of European deregulation summarises the report's policy recommendations. The programme is designed to be a “report card” on the process of liberalisation, starting here with telecommunications where new technology is leading to dramatic changes in the basic economics of the industry.
Ethics and Ambition
Authors: Crainer Stuart
Published: December 2004

Derrick Bell is one of the US' most forthright and best‐known commentators on race and ethics. Bell, now visiting professor at New York University's School of Law, attracted headlines when he became the first tenured African‐American professor at Harvard Law School in 1971, only to leave in protest about the lack of African‐American women on the faculty. He also resigned as dean of Oregon Law School after the school refused to hire a qualified Asian‐American woman. His latest book, Ethical Ambition, applies his thinking on ethics to the world of business.
Growth and Development Following Prenatal Stress Exposure in Primates: An Examination of Ontogenetic Vulnerability
Authors: Schneider Mary L. , Roughton Elizabeth C. , Koehler Alyssa J. , Lubach Gabriele R.
Published: December 2004

Previous studies have found that stressful events during pregnancy can influence the developing fetus, resulting in attentional and neuromotor problems. This prospective study examined whether periods of vulnerability exist for neurobehavioral impairments associated with prenatal stress, using a nonhuman primate model. Twenty‐eight rhesus monkey infants were born to mothers in 3 groups: (1) early gestation stress involving mild psychological stress from gestational days 45–90, (2) mid‐late gestation stress from days 90–145, and (3) undisturbed controls. Infants were separated from their mothers on days 4, 9, 15, and 22 (±1) postpartum for growth and neurobehavioral assessments. Results indicated that infants from the early gestation stress condition weighed less than infants from mothers stressed during mid‐late gestation. Moreover, whereas both groups scored lower than controls on measures of attention and neuromotor maturity, early gestation stress was associated with more pronounced and more pervasive motor impairments than mid‐late gestation stress. These results suggest sensitivity to prenatal stress effects peaks during early gestation, tapering off during mid‐late gestation. Clarifying the period of greatest vulnerability to prenatal stress moves toward elucidating the underlying mechanism for prenatal stress effects and may lead to more successful intervention and/or prevention.
A Longitudinal Investigation of Chimpanzees' Understanding of Visual Perception
Authors: Reaux James E. , Theall Laura A. , Povinelli Daniel J.
Published: December 2004

Seven chimpanzees were tested for their understanding of the intentional aspect of visual perception at 5 – 6 years of age and again at 7 years of age. They appeared not to understand that they should use a species‐typical, visually based begging gesture in front of someone who could see them, as opposed to someone who could not. Four experiments that were conducted when these same subjects were adolescents are reported here. The results suggest that there was no development between 5 and 9 years of age in the animals' understanding of visual perception as an internal state of attention. The subjects appeared to learn procedural, stimulus‐based rules related to the frontal orientation, the face, and the eyes of the experimenters. Even subjects most adept at these tasks appeared to rely on stimulus‐based rule structures, not an attribution of “seeing.”
Learning to Spell: Variability, Choice, and Change in Children's Strategy Use
Authors: Rittle‐Johnson Bethany , Siegler Robert S.
Published: December 2004

We examined whether the overlapping waves model, originally developed to account for strategy choices in arithmetic, could also account for strategy choices in spelling. The contrast was of particular interest because arithmetic is an algorithmic domain (a domain that includes strategies that always yield correct answers if executed properly), whereas spelling is not. Thirty first‐grade students spelled words under 2 conditions, and 23 of these students were retested in second grade. Trial‐by‐trial analysis of strategy use was used to identify which strategies first and second graders used, how adaptively they chose among them, how effective the strategies were, and what changes occurred from first to second grade along each dimension. The model proved useful for understanding the development of spelling, despite the fact that explicit use of backup strategies had a minimal impact on accuracy. Implications for understanding adaptive strategy choices in algorithmic and nonalgorithmic domains are discussed.
Acting Out the Details of a Pediatric Check‐up: The Impact of Interview Condition and Behavioral Style on Children's Memory Reports
Authors: Greenhoot Andrea Follmer , Ornstein Peter A. , Gordon Betty N. , Baker‐Ward Lynne
Published: December 2004

This investigation was designed to determine whether an enactment interview condition involving a doll and props, in contrast to a verbal interview, would enhance 3‐ and 5‐year‐olds' (N = 62) recall of a pediatric examination. An additional aim was to explore the influence of behavioral styles and language skills on children's performance, and the extent to which these relations varied by age and interview condition. Both 1‐ and 6‐weeks following their check‐ups, the children in the enactment condition, particularly the 3‐year‐olds, provided more spontaneous, elaborate reports than did those assessed with a verbal protocol. Nonetheless, enactment also resulted in increased errors by the 3‐year‐olds at the first interview, and by children in both age groups after the 6‐week delay. The age and interview condition effects, however, were moderated by the children's behavioral characteristics. Among the younger children, a measure of manageability predicted performance in the enactment setting, whereas an indicator of persistence was associated with recall in the verbal condition. The results have implications for an understanding of children's memory of events and of their ability to provide testimony in legal settings.
Development of Children's Knowledge about Unconsciousness
Authors: Flavell John H. , Green Frances L. , Flavell Eleanor R. , Lin Nancy T.
Published: December 2004

Children of ages 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 years, and adults were asked whether people who are sound asleep and not dreaming could or would: (1) see, hear, listen, notice, think, wish, pretend, and feel things (primary‐consciousness activities), (2) know that they are asleep, and know whether they are or are not engaged in primary‐consciousness activities such as perceiving and thinking (reflective‐consciousness activities), (3) deliberately decide to or try to perform mental or physical actions (control activities). Results indicated that the recognition that people do not engage in conscious mental activities when unconscious is still developing during the late middle‐childhood years. We speculate that a developing understanding of consciousness may assist the development of an understanding of unconsciousness and vice versa, and that sensitivity to the phenomenology as contrasted with the content of mental states may be a late acquisition in the theory‐of‐mind area.
Regulation, Emotionality, and Preschoolers' Socially Competent Peer Interactions
Authors: Fabes Richard A. , Eisenberg Nancy , Jones Sarah , Smith Melanie , Guthrie Ivanna , Poulin Rick , Shepard Stephanie , Friedman Jo
Published: December 2004

In this study, the relations of regulatory control to the qualities of children's everyday peer interactions were examined. Effortful control (EC) and observations of peer interactions were obtained from 135 preschoolers (77 boys and 58 girls, mean ages = 50.88 and 50.52, respectively). The results generally confirmed the prediction that children who are high in EC were relatively unlikely to experience high levels of negative emotional arousal in response to peer interactions, but this relation held only for moderate to high intense interactions. Socially competent responding was less likely to be observed when the interaction was intense or when negative emotions were elicited. Moreover, when the interactions were of high intensity, highly regulated children were likely to evidence socially competent responses. The relation of EC and intensity to social competence was partially mediated by negative emotional arousal. The results support the conclusion that individual differences in regulation interact with situational factors in influencing young children's socially competent responding.
Children's Over‐ and Underestimation of Academic Competence: A Longitudinal Study of Gender Differences, Depression, and Anxiety
Authors: Cole David A. , Martin Joan M. , Peeke Lachlan A. , Seroczynski A. D. , Fier Jonathan
Published: December 2004

A total of 807 third and sixth graders completed questionnaires about their academic competence, feelings of depression, and symptoms of anxiety, every 6 months for 3 years. Teachers provided objective measures of academic competence. Compared to teachers' ratings, boys overestimated and girls underestimated their academic competence. Gender differences first emerged in fourth or fifth grade and increased through eighth grade. Symptoms of depression and anxiety were negatively associated with academic overestimation. Furthermore, controlling for depression and anxiety eliminated most of the gender differences in academic over‐ and underestimation. Finally, self‐reported depression and anxiety predicted changes in the tendency to overestimate academic competence over time. Evidence of the reverse relation was much weaker.
The Social‐Emotional and Cultural Contexts of Cognitive Development: Neo‐Piagetian Perspectives
Authors: Suizzo Marie‐Anne
Published: December 2004

The neo‐Piagetian research on individual differences in cognitive development reviewed by Larivée, Normandeau, and Parent suggests that Piaget's theory can be used to explain variability in development. My commentary explores this question further through a discussion of two additional sources of variation in children's cognitive development: social‐emotional context and cultural meanings.
What Is the Target?
Authors: Bloch Henriette
Published: December 2004

Reconciling the differential perspective with the Piagetian perspective is a very difficult task. The Piagetian perspective admits the existence of interindividual differences but interprets them as noise masking the universal logical succession of structures, whereas the differential perspective views development as consisting of ‘vicarious processes.’ As a matter of historical fact, the main aim of the ‘procedural studies’ carried out in Geneva was to introduce concrete microgenesis into the macrogenetic Piagetian model.
Young Children's Understanding of Perception, Desire, and Emotion
Authors: Wellman Henry M. , Phillips Ann T. , Rodriguez Thomas
Published: December 2004

Very young children seem to know that people experience several mental states: desires, perceptions, emotions. In three studies, we investigated 2‐ and young 3‐year‐olds' judgments and communications about how these states connect together in people's lives and minds. Two experimental studies with 56 participants demonstrated young children's understanding of at least one set of connections: In appropriate circumstances, a person's perception of desirable or undesirable objects leads to related emotional experiences. A complementary investigation of four young children's everyday conversations demonstrated their awareness of and expression of several additional connections between people's desires, perceptions, and emotions.
Children's Memories for Painful Cancer Treatment Procedures: Implications for Distress
Authors: Chen Edith , Zeltzer Lonnie K. , Craske Michelle G. , Katz Ernest R.
Published: December 2004

Children (ages 3 to 18, N= 55) diagnosed with leukemia were tested for their memories of lumbar punctures (LPs), a repeated and painful part of the cancer treatment protocol. Memory for both event details and the child's emotional responses was assessed one week after the LP. Children of all ages displayed considerable accuracy for event details, and accuracy increased with age. Overall recall accuracy for event details and emotional responses was similar. Recall among children given oral Versed was similar to that among children not given Versed. Finally, higher distress predicted greater exaggerations in negative memory 1 week later (although controlling for age weakened this relationship); moreover, greater exaggerations in negative memory predicted higher distress at a subsequent LP. These results indicate that children's memories play an important role in their experience of distress during repeated stressful events.
Memory Strategy Development: Do We Need Yet Another Deficiency?
Authors: Waters Harriet Salatas
Published: December 2004

Recent discussions of strategy development have included the introduction of the concept of utilization deficiency. The present analysis examines the definition of utilization deficiency vis‐à‐vis the older contrasts between mediation and production deficiency and assesses the logical clarity of the current definition. Further, because utilization deficiency focuses on the transition from initial to proficient strategy use, the present analysis considers all of the possible types of strategy inefficiencies and evaluates whether the current definition of utilization deficiency precludes consideration of important strategy inefficiencies that have been documented in the existing literature and are likely to form the bulk of yet‐to‐be discovered inefficiencies. Although the emphasis on strategy inefficiencies is welcomed, the current analysis concludes that there are serious problems with the current definition of utilization deficiency, problems that both obscure important theoretical distinctions of the past and limit the investigation of strategy inefficiencies that are likely to play an important role in our understanding of the development of strategy use. Furthermore, the linear developmental model that frames utilization deficiencies from no benefit to sophisticated strategy use ignores the heterogeneity in strategy development that has been recently documented.
Child Compliance/Noncompliance and Maternal Contributors to Internalization in Maltreating and Nonmaltreating Dyads
Authors: Koenig Amy L. , Cicchetti Dante , Rogosch Fred A.
Published: December 2004

Moral development in maltreated and nonmaltreated children was examined by coding child compliance and noncompliance behaviors in a mother–child interaction during a cleanup situation that followed a semistructured free play. Features of child compliance/noncompliance involve a shift from reliance on external controls to internal mechanisms, thereby reflecting child internalization of the maternal agenda. Differences in maltreating versus comparison mothers' use of control strategies (power‐assertive and inductive techniques) and their relations to child internalization were examined. Eighty‐nine mother–child dyads participated; approximately half of the children (n= 46) had documented histories of maltreatment and the remaining children (n= 43) were nonmaltreated, demographically similar comparison children. Maltreated children were divided into two subgroups: physically abused and neglected. Compared with nonmaltreated children, abused children were found to exhibit less internalization, whereas neglected children displayed significantly more negative affect. No differences were found between groups for the maternal control strategies. However, maltreated and nonmaltreated groups differed in the maternal variables that predicted child internalization. A lower level of maternal negative affect was linked to child internalization in maltreated children, whereas a lower level of maternal joy predicted internalization for the comparison children. The findings suggest that maltreated children exhibit both behavioral and affective differences in their moral development, with differential effects based on the type of maltreatment. The clinical implications for maltreated children's self and moral development are discussed.
Adolescent Social Competence: Effectiveness in a Group Setting
Authors: Englund Michelle M. , Levy Alissa K. , Hyson Daniel M. , Sroufe L. Alan
Published: December 2004

We used a longitudinal data set to evaluate an observational assessment of adolescent competence within a group context. Participants were 40 (21 males, 19 females) ethnically diverse children who had earlier been observed in summer camp (age 10) and preschool (age 4H), as well as in infancy. A revealed differences task was videotaped as part of an intensive weekend camp reunion at ages 15 to 16. Raters, blind to the adolescents' developmental histories, coded each adolescent on the following behavioral rating scales: enjoyment of the task, involvement, leadership, self‐confidence in the task, and global social competence. Both concurrent validity (strong correlations with independent camp reunion counselor ratings and peer sociometric measures) and clear associations with antecedent measures of peer competence in preschool and middle childhood were demonstrated. A pattern of correlations revealed considerable discriminate validity. Neither IQ nor socioeconomic status accounted for these associations. Overall, the results confirm the power of a developmentally appropriate, taxing, behaviorally based assessment of group functioning as a measure of competence in adolescence.
Parental Monitoring: A Reinterpretation
Authors: Stattin Häkan , Kerr Margaret
Published: December 2004

Monitoring (tracking and surveillance) of children's behavior is considered an essential parenting skill. Numerous studies show that well‐monitored youths are less involved in delinquency and other normbreaking behaviors, and scholars conclude that parents should track their children more carefully. This study questions that conclusion. We point out that monitoring measures typically assess parents' knowledge but not its source, and parents could get knowledge from their children's free disclosure of information as well as their own active surveillance efforts. In our study of 703 14‐year‐olds in central Sweden and their parents, parental knowledge came mainly from child disclosure, and child disclosure was the source of knowledge that was most closely linked to broad and narrow measures of delinquency (normbreaking and police contact). These results held for both children's and parents' reports, for both sexes, and were independent of whether the children were exhibiting problem behavior or not. We conclude that tracking and surveillance is not the best prescription for parental behavior and that a new prescription must rest on an understanding of the factors that determine child disclosure.
The Similarity of Siblings' Attachments to Their Mother
Authors: Van IJzendoorn Marinus H. , Moran Greg , Belsky Jay , Pederson David , Bakermans‐Kranenburg Marian J. , Kneppers Kirstie
Published: December 2004

Do siblings develop similar attachment relationships with their mother? Attachment theory suggests that brothers and sisters growing up in the same family are likely to relate in similar ways to their parents, at least when parental attachment representations and interactive styles remain stable across time. In the current study, sibling attachment data from three research groups (from Pennsylvania State University, Leiden University, and the University of Western Ontario) have been pooled to assemble a sufficiently large sample of observations (N= 138 sibling pairs) for a detailed comparison of sibling attachment relationships. Spacing between the births, differences in maternal sensitivity, and gender of siblings were examined as possible sources of concordance of nonconcordance. Attachment security (including disorganized attachment) of each sibling was assessed with the Strange Situation procedure between 12 and 14 months after birth. Maternal sensitivity was observed with the same rating scale in a laboratory play session in one of the studies and in home observations in the others. Sibling relationships were found to be significantly concordant when classified as secure/nonsecure (62% concordance, p < .01, 1‐tailed, intraclass correlation = .23) but not when further subcategorized. Maternal insensitivity to both siblings (shared environment) was associated with concordance of sibling nonsecurity. Siblings of the same gender were more likely to form concordant relationships with their mother (68%; p < .01, 1‐tailed, intraclass correlation = .37) than those of opposite gender. Same‐sex sibling concordance was comparable to the concordance found for monozygotic twins in earlier studies. Genetic factors may, therefore, play a relatively small role in the development of attachment.
The Role of Maternal Affect Mirroring on Social Expectancies in Three‐Month‐Old Infants
Authors: Legerstee Maria , Varghese Jean
Published: December 2004

The role of maternal affect mirroring on the development of prosocial behaviors and social expectancies was assessed in forty‐one 2‐ to 3‐month‐old infants. Prosocial behavior was characterized as infants' positive behavior and increased attention toward their mothers. Social expectancies were defined as infants' expectancy for affective sharing. Mothers and infants were observed twice, approximately 1 week apart. During Visit 1, mothers and infants were videotaped while interacting over television monitors for 3 min. During Visit 2, infants engaged in a live, 3‐min interaction with their mothers over television monitors (live condition) and they also viewed a replay of their mothers' interaction from the preceding week (replay condition). The order of conditions was counterbalanced. Maternal affect mirroring was measured according to the level of attention maintenance, warm sensitivity, and social responsiveness displayed. A natural split was observed with 58% of the mothers ranking high and 42% ranking low on these affect mirroring measures (HAM and LAM, respectively). Infants in the HAM group ranked high on prosocial behaviors and social expectancy — they discriminated between live and replay, conditions with smiles, vocalizations, and gazes. Infants in the LAM group ranked low on these variables — they gazed longer during the live condition than during the replay condition, but only when the live condition was presented first; however, they did not smile or vocalize more. These findings indicate that there is a relation between affect mirroring and social expectancies in infants.
Tests of a Dynamic Systems Account of the A‐not‐B Error: The Influence of Prior Experience on the Spatial Memory Abilities of Two‐Year‐Olds
Authors: Spencer John P. , Smith Linda B. , Thelen Esther
Published: December 2004

Recently, Smith, Thelen, and colleagues proposed a dynamic systems account of the Piagetian “A‐not‐B” error in which infants' errors result from general processes that make goal‐directed actions to remembered locations. Based on this account, the A‐not‐B error should be a general phenomenon, observable in different tasks and at different points in development. Smith, Thelen, et al.'s proposal was tested using an A‐not‐B version of a sandbox task. During three training trials and three “A” trials, 2‐year‐olds watched as a toy was buried in a sandbox at Location A. Following a 10‐s delay, children searched for the object. Across five experiments, children's (total N= 92) performance on the A trials was accurate. After the A trials, children watched as a toy was hidden at Location B, 8 to 10 inches from Location A. In all experiments, children's searches after a 10‐s delay were significantly biased in the direction of Location A. Furthermore, this bias toward Location A decreased with repeated trials to Location B, as well as when children completed fewer trials to Location A. Together, these data suggest that A‐not‐B–type errors are pervasive across tasks and development.
The Relation between Law and Morality: Children's Reasoning about Socially Beneficial and Unjust Laws
Authors: Helwig Charles C. , Jasiobedzka Urszula
Published: December 2004

This study investigated children's reasoning about laws and legal compliance. A total of 72 children, 24 each at 6, 8, and 10 years of age, made judgments of law evaluation (“Is it a good or bad law?”), legitimacy of legal regulation (“Is it OK or not for government to make a law?”), and law violation (“Is it OK or not for people to break the law?”) for three socially beneficial laws (a traffic law, a vaccination law, and a law requiring compulsory education for children under 16) and three unjust laws (denial of education to a class of persons, denial of medical care to the poor, and age discrimination). Participants also evaluated the application of laws in conflict scenarios in which a socially beneficial law infringed on individual freedom. Results showed that children considered a number of factors in their judgments, including the perceived justice of the law, its socially beneficial purpose, and its potential for infringement on individual freedoms and rights. The findings showed that children apply moral concepts of harm, rights, and justice to evaluate laws and to inform their judgments of legal compliance.