bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inhibition of Recombinant N-Type CaVChannels by the γ2Subunit Involves Unfolded Protein Response (UPR)-Dependent and UPR-Independent Mechanisms
Authors: Sandoval Alejandro , Andrade Arturo , Beedle Aaron M. , Campbell Kevin P. , Felix Ricardo
Published: March 2007

Auxiliary γ subunits are an important component of high-voltage-activated calcium (CaV) channels, but their precise regulatory role remains to be determined. In the current report, we have used complementary approaches including molecular biology and electrophysiology to investigate the influence of the γ subunits on neuronal CaVchannel activity and expression. We found that coexpression of γ2or γ3subunits drastically inhibited macroscopic currents through recombinant N-type channels (CaV2.2/β3/α2δ) in HEK-293 cells. Using inhibitors of internalization, we found that removal of functional channels from the plasma membrane is an improbable mechanism of current regulation by γ. Instead, changes in current amplitude could be attributed to two distinct mechanisms. First, γ subunit expression altered the voltage dependence of channel activity. Second, γ subunit expression reduced N-type channel synthesis via activation of the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response. Together, our findings (1) corroborate that neuronal γ subunits significantly downregulate CaV2.2 channel activity, (2) uncover a role for the γ2subunit in CaV2.2 channel expression through early components of the biosynthetic pathway, and (3) suggest that, under certain conditions, channel protein misfolding could be induced by interactions with the γ subunits, supporting the notion that CaVchannels constitute a class of difficult-to-fold proteins.
Modulation of the Cold-Activated Channel TRPM8 by Lysophospholipids and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Authors: Andersson David A. , Nash Mark , Bevan Stuart
Published: March 2007

We investigated the role of phospholipase A2(PLA2) and the effects of PLA2products (polyunsaturated fatty acids and lysophospholipids) on the cold-sensitive channel transient receptor potential (melastatin)-8 (TRPM8), heterologously expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. TRPM8 responses to cold and the agonist icilin were abolished by inhibitors of the calcium-independent (iPLA2) form of the enzyme, whereas responses to menthol were less sensitive to iPLA2inhibition. Inhibition of PLA2similarly abolished the cold responses of the majority of cold-sensitive dorsal root ganglion neurons. The products of PLA2had opposing effects on TRPM8. Lysophospholipids (LPLs) (lysophosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylinositol, and lysophosphatidylserine) altered the thermal sensitivity of TRPM8, raising the temperature threshold toward normal body temperature. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), such as arachidonic acid, inhibited the activation of TRPM8 by cold, icilin, and menthol. The relative potencies of lysophospholipids and PUFAs are such that lysophosphatidylcholine is able to modulate TRPM8 in the presence of an equimolar concentration of arachidonic acid. Positive modulation by LPLs provides a potential physiological mechanism for sensitizing and activating TRPM8 in the absence of temperature variations.
Anesthesia Leads to Tau Hyperphosphorylation through Inhibition of Phosphatase Activity by Hypothermia
Authors: Planel Emmanuel , Richter Karl E. G. , Nolan Charles E. , Finley James E. , Liu Li , Wen Yi , Krishnamurthy Pavan , Herman Mathieu , Wang Lili , Schachter Joel B. , Nelson Robert B. , Lau Lit-Fui , Duff Karen E.
Published: March 2007

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction, confusion, and delirium are common after general anesthesia in the elderly, with symptoms persisting for months or years in some patients. Even middle-aged patients are likely to have postoperative cognitive dysfunction for months after surgery, and Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients appear to be particularly at risk of deterioration after anesthesia. Several investigators have thus examined whether general anesthesia is associated with AD, with some studies suggesting that exposure to anesthetics may increase the risk of AD. However, little is known on the biochemical consequences of anesthesia on pathogenic pathwaysin vivo. Here, we investigated the effect of anesthesia on tau phosphorylation and amyloid precursor protein (APP) metabolism in mouse brain. We found that, regardless of the anesthetic used, anesthesia induced rapid and massive hyperphosphorylation of tau, rapid and prolonged hypothermia, inhibition of Ser/Thr PP2A (protein phosphatase 2A), but no changes in APP metabolism or Aβ (β-amyloid peptide) accumulation. Reestablishing normothermia during anesthesia completely rescued tau phosphorylation to normal levels. Our results indicate that changes in tau phosphorylation were not a result of anesthesia per se, but a consequence of anesthesia-induced hypothermia, which led to inhibition of phosphatase activity and subsequent hyperphosphorylation of tau. These findings call for careful monitoring of core temperature during anesthesia in laboratory animals to avoid artifactual elevation of protein phosphorylation. Furthermore, a thorough examination of the effect of anesthesia-induced hypothermia on the risk and progression of AD is warranted.
Segment Specificity of Load Signal Processing Depends on Walking Direction in the Stick Insect Leg Muscle Control System
Authors: Akay Turgay , Ludwar Björn Ch. , Göritz Marie L. , Schmitz Josef , Büschges Ansgar
Published: March 2007

In terrestrial locomotion, sensory feedback from load sensors is important for altering ongoing motor output on a step-by-step basis. We investigated the influence of load signals from the leg on motoneuron pools of the thorax-coxa (ThC) joint in the stick insect walking system. Load sensors were stimulated during rhythmic, alternating activity in protractor coxae (ProCx) and retractor coxae (RetCx) motoneuron pools. Alternating activity in the segment of interest was induced by mechanical stimulation of the animal or pharmacological activation of the isolated thoracic ganglia. Load signals from the legs altered the timing of ThC motoneuron activity by resetting and entraining the activity of the central rhythm generating network of the ThC joint. In the front and middle legs, load signals induced or promoted RetCx activity and decreased or terminated ProCx activity. In the hindleg, reverse transitions were elicited, with increasing load terminating RetCx and initiating ProCx activity. Studies in semi-intact walking animals showed that the effect of load on the ThC-joint motoneurons depended on walking direction, with increased load promoting the functional stance phase motoneuron pool (in forward walking, RetCx activity; in backward walking, ProCx activity). Thus, we show that modifications of sensory feedback in a locomotor system are related to walking direction. In a final set of ablation experiments, we show that the load influence is mediated by the three groups of trochanteral campaniform sensilla.
Extraction Distribution of Sodium Picrate in the Water–Nitrobenzene System in the Presence of p-tert-Butylcalix[4]arene-tetrakis(N,N-diethylacetamide)
Authors: Makrlík E. , Vaňura P.
Published: March 2007

From extraction experiments with 22Na as a tracer, the extraction constant corresponding to the equilibrium Na+(aq) + A-(aq) + L(nb) ↔ NaL+(nb) + A-(nb) taking place in the two-phase water–nitrobenzene system [A- = picrate, L = p-tert -butylcalix[4]arene-tetrakis(N,N-diethylacetamide); aq = aqueous phase, nb = nitrobenzene phase] was evaluated as log K
ex(NaL+, A-) = 4.6± 0.1. Further, the stability constant of the p-tert -butylcalix[4]arene-tetrakis(N,N-diethylacetamide)–sodium complex in nitrobenzene saturated with water was calculated for a temperature of 25 °C: log βnb(NaL+) = 9.8± 0.1.
Secondary States in Perspective: An Integrated Approach to State Formation in the Prehistoric Aegean
Authors: PARKINSON WILLIAM A. , GALATY MICHAEL L.
Published: March 2007

In this article, we explore the typological distinction between primary and secondary states. We outline a methodology for exploring variability in the formation and organization of secondary states that integrates aspects of traditional neoevolutionary approaches, Marcus's “dynamic model,” Blanton et al.'s “dual‐processual model,” and world‐systems theory. We discuss the development of the Minoan and Mycenaean states of the Bronze Age Aegean and argue that they arose via different mechanisms of secondary state formation, through direct and indirect contact with neighboring societies in the Eastern Mediterranean, Near East, and Egypt. We argue that a model that measures state formation along several different theoretical dimensions encourages archaeological exploration of secondary states along varied historical trajectories, in different (pre)historic contexts.
All that Brokeback Allows
Authors: Kitses Jim
Published: March 2007

ABSTRACT In Brokeback Mountain, the grand Western tradition's he- roes are deconstructed, and the monumental landscape with its coded promise of freedom and opportunity reduced to the scale of a postcard. Brokeback Mountain transforms into melodrama, albeit with a restrained style that disguises its radical take on an America betraying its original ideals.
Imagining the Future in Revolutionary Cuba: An Interview with Fernando Pérez
Authors: Stock Ann Marie
Published: March 2007

ABSTRACT Fernando Pérez reflects on making films in his native Cuba during the past fifteen years, a time of dramatic change on the island. His trilogy of recent films—Madagascar, Life is to Whistle and Havana Suite—provide a window into present-day Cuba while looking out onto the future. These works have earned Fernando Pérez the reputation as Cuba's most important filmmaker living today.
Explicitation in Simultaneous Interpreting: A Strategy or a By-product of Language Mediation?
Authors: Gumul Ewa
Published: March 2007

The present paper focuses on the phenomenon of explicitation in simultaneous interpreting. In an attempt to provide an answer to one of the most contentious issues in the translation & interpreting studies community, this study aims at investigating the causes triggering shifts leading to greater explicitness of the target texts. The scope of the analysed explicitating shifts encompasses all linguistic strata, ranging from syntax and lexis to pragmatics. The analysis of both product and process data (retrospective comments) indicates that the vast majority of explicitating shifts in simultaneous interpreting are not attributable to the interpreters' conscious strategic behaviour.
Conference Reports
Authors: Heltai Pál , Berber Diana
Published: March 2007

“Interpreting for Relevance: Discourse and Translation”,Institute of English Studies of Warsaw University, Poland, Kazimierz Dolny, 12-14 June 2006; “The Future of Conference Interpreting: Training, Technology and Research”, University of Westminster, London 30, June - 1 July 2006
Colony morphology mutants of Trichoderma harzianum with increased β -1,4- N -acetyl-glucosaminidase production
Authors: Szekeres A. , Hatvani L. , Leitgeb B.
Published: March 2007

A total of 36 UV-induced mutants with altered colony morphology were isolated from strain
Trichoderma harzianum
T334, a potential biocontrol agent against plant pathogenic fungi with the ability to produce constitutively low levels of chitinases. The level of constitutive
β
-1,4-
N
-acetyl-glucosaminidase production in standing and shaken cultures under non-inductive conditions was tested in mutants and compared to that of the parental strain. About 30% of the mutants showed significantly increased levels of enzyme production, with strain T334 col26a being the best producer. This mutant and the parental strain were subjected to
in vitro
confrontation assays with plant pathogenic
Fusarium culmorum, Pythium debaryanum
and
Rhizoctonia solani
strains. The mutant derivative could be characterized by significantly higher biocontrol index values than the parental strain in each experiment, suggesting, that mutants with improved constitutive extracellular chitinase secretion could be applied for biocontrol purposes against fungal plant pathogens.
Characterisation of community structure of bacteria in parallel mesophilic and thermophilic pilot scale anaerobe sludge digesters
Authors: Tauber T. , Berta Brigitta , Székely Anna , Gyarmati I. , Kékesi Katalin , Márialigeti K. , Tóth Erika
Published: March 2007

The aim of the present work was to compare the microbial communities of a mesophilic and a thermophilic pilot scale anaerobe sludge digester. For studying the communities cultivation independent chemotaxonomical methods (RQ and PLFA analyses) and T-RFLP were applied. Microbial communities of the mesophilic and thermophilic pilot digesters showed considerable differences, both concerning the species present, and their abundance. A
Methanosarcina
sp. dominated the thermophilic, while a
Methanosaeta
sp. the mesophilic digester among Archaea. Species diversity of Bacteria was reduced in the thermophilic digester. Based on the quinone patterns in both digesters the dominance of sulphate reducing respiratory bacteria could be detected. The PLFA profiles of the digester communities were similar though in minor components characteristic differences were shown. Level of branched chain fatty acids is slightly lower in the thermophilic digester that reports less Gram positive bacteria. The relative ratio of fatty acids characteristic to Enterobacteriaceae, Bacteroidetes and Clostridia shows differences between the two digesters: their importance generally decreased under thermophilic conditions. The sulphate reducer marker (15:1 and 17:1) fatty acids are present in low quantity in both digesters.
Bioconversion of benzonitrile to benzoic acid using free and agar entrapped cells of Nocardia Globerula NHB-2
Authors: Raj J. , Singh N. , Prasad S. , Seth A. , Bhalla T.
Published: March 2007

The free and agar immobilized cells of
Nocardia globerula
NHB-2 having nitrilase (EC 3.5.5.1) activity were used to catalyse the transformation of benzonitrile to benzoic acid. The whole cells of
N. globerula
NHB-2 were immobilized in agar which exhibited maximum conversion of benzonitrile to benzoic acid in 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer pH 7.5 (free cells) 8.0 (immobilized cells), temperature 40 °C, cells 2 mg dcm ml
−1
reaction mixture and benzonitrile (4% v/v) in 4 h (free cells). The effect of temperature on the stability of nitrilase was studied and cells retained 100% activity at 30 °C and lost 50% activity at 40 °C. In a fed batch mode of reaction 108 and 84 gl
−1
benzoic acid was produced using free and agar entrapped cells (2 g dcm). The agar immobilized cells were recycled up to three times and 80, 62, 20 gl
−1
benzoic acid was again produced respectively in each of three cycles and a total 244 g benzoic acid was produced by recycling the same mass of immobilized biocatalyst.
Localised knowledge inputs and innovation: The role of spatially mediated knowledge spillovers in Hungary
Authors: Varga A.
Published: March 2007

The role of spatial proximity to innovation inputs (such as industrial R&D or academic research) in technological change has been widely studied in the economics literature. However, most of the papers in this research area are based on data for technologically advanced countries such as the US and parts of the EU. During transition recently accessed countries of Central Europe have undergone a dramatic restructuring process that significantly affected their systems of innovation: R&D expenditures, academic research and patenting activity have declined. According to some research results FDI constituted the most significant drive of technological change during the 1990s. Is there any role of spatially mediated knowledge spillovers in innovation in these countries? To what extent regional systems of innovation have started to develop in Central European new EU member countries? These questions have rarely been raised in the relevant literature. Using regional data this paper adopts econometric modelling techniques commonly applied in innovation research to study the role of localised knowledge inputs in technological change in Hungary.
Zur Bartók-Rezeption in Russland
Authors: Tschigareva Evgenia
Published: March 2007

Béla Bartók's sympathies towards Russian culture are well-known, as is the veneration of the Hungarian master by Russian musicians. During the course of three quarters of a century the image of Bartók the composer and folklore researcher has gradually infolded itself to Russian musical circles as well as the broad strata of music lowers. This thesis presents an integral overview of the reception of Bartók in Russia: the perception of his musical legacy by composers, musicological research about him, performances and publications of his works in Russia, comments from the press, and of music critics, etc. At the same time a particular evolution could be traced: an active interest towards Bartók the composer and pianist in the 1920s, then a nearly twenty-five years “pause;” in the 1950's a perception of him primarily as a folklor researcher as well as a progressive musical public figure at that an aversion from the official policy makers of his musical style as an “avant-garde” style during the dominance of the doctrine of “socialist realism;” the discovery of Bartók's innovative style, his influence on the young Soviet composers (E. Denisov, A. Schnittke, S. Gubaidulina) during the 1960's and 1970's; an overall comprehensive study of his musical legacy and the recognition of his significance (1960's–1980's), a decline of interest towards Bartók (as a classic) as a result of the stream of information, gushing from the West, having to do with the “new music” of the avant-garde of the “second wave” and the “post-avantgarde” trends (during the 1990's); a resurgence of interest at the turn of the century and an acquiescence of Bartók's artistic path as being perspective for musical art.
Miserere d'après Palestrina: Die Geschichte eines musikalischen Zitats von der Sixtinischen Kapelle bis zu Liszts Komposition
Authors: Domokos Zsuzsanna
Published: March 2007

Die Abhandlung versucht, die Autorschaft des Themas Miserere d'après Palestrina, des achten Stückes von Liszts Klavierzyklus Harmonies poétiques et religieuses, nach der Tradition der Sixtinischen Kapelle zu erörtern. Das Miserere-Thema ist für die Liszt-Forschung nicht nur bei der Bestimmung der Inspirationsquelle wichtig, sondern erweist sich auch beim Vergleich mit anderen Themen von ähnlicher Fauxbourdon-Struktur als interessant. Von immer weiteren Perspektiven betrachtet, verspricht die Untersuchung des Tons der Komposition neue Zusammenhänge für den Aufbau des ganzen Zyklus und führt schließlich zur Festellung der Herausbildung eines eigenartigen Intonationskreises, dessen Entwicklung im Lebenswerk Liszts später eindeutig verfolgt werden kann.
In Beethoven's and Wagner's footsteps: Phrase structures and Satzketten in the instrumental music of Béla Bartók
Authors: Broman Per F.
Published: March 2007

Recent studies of formal structure in themes in the Classical repertoire (William Caplin) as well as the music of Wagner (Matthew BaileyShea) point towards the enormous importance and potential of the Sentence phrase structure with its hybrid forms for analyzing tonal music. Initially described by Schoenberg, a Sentence is phrase consisting two main events of equal length, a presentation phrase (consisting of one repeated basic idea) and a continuation phrase. In this paper I will demonstrate Bartók's dependence upon Classical and Romantic phrase structures, including the Sentence, and also the Classical Period (consisting of an antecedent and consequent phrase). In both his small-and large-scale works, Bartók's sentences display a Classical coherence, despite the lack of a functional harmonic framework, due to their clear formal articulation and clearly defined modal pitch centers. Bartók also utilized chains of Sentences, Satzketten, in several works including Concerto for Orchestra. I will describe the different paradigmatic types utilized by Bartók in works such as Divertimento, the String Quartets, along with the Violin and Piano Concertos. Particularly significant is how Bartók alters the repeated basic idea and elaborates the continuation phrase and the creation of compound forms.
Divergierende Schichten eines ästhetischen Manifests? Anmerkungen zu Herzog Blaubarts Burg
Authors: Jezovšek Veronika
Published: March 2007

Die Komplexität der Oper Bartóks basiert unter anderem auf der gelungenen Synthese der kompositorischen Strukturen mit einem andeutungsreichen Libretto. Aus teils offensichtlichen, teils verborgenen Beziehungen zwischen den Materialebenen und den mit ihnen transportierten symbolischen Gehalten resultiert ein Netzwerk von Assoziationen, das sehr unterschiedliche Deutungen erlaubt und selbst sich logisch ausschließende Aussagen miteinander verbindet. Dadurch entsteht die Frage nach der Absicht solch ‚kryptischer‘ Botschaft in Herzog Blaubarts Burg.
Dynamic Simulations With an Improved Model for Foam Generation
Authors: Kam Seung Ihl , Nguyen Quoc Phuc , Li Qichong , Rossen William Richard
Published: March 2007

We present the first 1D simulations of dynamic foam displacements with a population-balance model incorporating bubble creation controlled by pressure gradient. For the first time, a population-balance model is fit to steady-state experimental data for both the three foam states (coarse foam, intermediate, and strong foam) and the two strong-foam regimes (low-quality and high-quality) observed in laboratory studies. Simulations confirm the stability of the coarse-foam and strong-foam states to small perturbations, and the instability of the intermediate state, at fixed injection rates.

In dynamic displacements, the model shows foam generation as injection rates increase, or as liquid fraction of injected fluids increases, in agreement with laboratory observations.

When coarse foam is created instead of strong foam, there is a narrow region of finer foam predicted near the gas displacement front. This region appears to play a role in foam generation. However, in the limited cases examined here, foam generation occurs at roughly the same injection rate as predicted by local-steady-state theory. Because of this narrow region of finer-textured foam, fronts can be sharper than estimated from fractional-flow theory assuming a constant effective gas viscosity at its steady-state value behind the displacement front.

If a strong foam forms in the low-quality regime, the kinetics of foam generation and destruction affects the length of the entrance region in which foam forms. Therefore, the length of the entrance region can be used to calibrate the kinetic parameters in the model. The displacement front and the bank behind it, however, are essentially what one would have predicted from local-steady-state modeling. The complexities of population-balance modeling are not necessary, if it is known that strong foam will be created.

Introduction

Foam can improve sweep efficiency in gas-injection improved oil recovery (IOR) processes (Schramm 1994; Rossen 1996; Terdre 2003), redirect acid flow in matrix acid stimulation (Gdanski 1993; Cheng et al. 2002; Nguyen et al. 2003), and increase the efficiency of environmental remediation of aquifers (Hirasaki et al. 2000; Mamun et al. 2002). A continuing goal of foam research is the development of a fully mechanistic, predictive model. This paper describes efforts toward such a model and insights gained from application of the model to dynamic displacements. Before providing a detailed description of the model, it is worthwhile to review the mechanisms of foam in porous media and the experimental observations that the model attempts to reproduce.
Sunlight inactivation of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica, compared with Escherichia coli, in seawater and river water
Authors: Sinton Lester , Hall Carollyn , Braithwaite Robin
Published: March 2007

The inactivation of Campylobacter jejuni and Salmonella enterica, compared with Escherichia coli, was determined in 100 l chambers of seawater and river water located at an outdoor site. The chambers (paired with dark controls) were seeded with waste stabilization pond effluent and laboratory-cultured pathogens, and exposed to sunlight in summer and winter experiments. All sunlight inactivation (kS) rates, as a function of cumulative global solar radiation (insolation), were far higher than the corresponding dark (kD) rates, with a ranking (and average kS rates for seawater and river water, respectively) of: C. jejuni (3.23; 2.34)>S. enterica (0.51; 0.37)>E. coli (0.34; 0.26). All the T90 (time to 90% inactivation) values were higher in winter than in summer, but there was far greater similarity between the summer and winter S90 (insolation needed for 90% inactivation) values. The rapid inactivation of C. jejuni was attributed to a high susceptibility to photooxidative damage. The results suggest that, in sunlight-exposed waters, E. coli will be a more conservative indicator for C. jejuni than for S. enterica, and C. jejuni transmission as a pathogenic agent is less likely than for S. enterica.
After the flood: an evaluation of in-home drinking water treatment with combined flocculent-disinfectant following Tropical Storm Jeanne — Gonaives, Haiti, 2004
Authors: Colindres Romulo E. , Jain Seema , Bowen Anna , Mintz Eric , Domond Polyana
Published: March 2007

Tropical Storm Jeanne struck Haiti in September 2004, causing widespread flooding which contaminated water sources, displaced thousands of families and killed approximately 2,800 people. Local leaders distributed PūR®, a flocculent-disinfectant product for household water treatment, to affected populations. We evaluated knowledge, attitudes, practices, and drinking water quality among a sample of PūR® recipients.

We interviewed representatives of 100 households in three rural communities who received PūR® and PūR®-related education. Water sources were tested for fecal contamination and turbidity; stored household water was tested for residual chlorine.

All households relied on untreated water sources (springs [66%], wells [15%], community taps [13%], and rivers [6%]). After distribution, PūR® was the most common in-home treatment method (58%) followed by chlorination (30%), plant-based flocculation (6%), boiling (5%), and filtration (1%). Seventy-eight percent of respondents correctly answered five questions about how to use PūR®; 81% reported PūR® easy to use; and 97% reported that PūR®-treated water appears, tastes, and smells better than untreated water. Although water sources tested appeared clear, fecal coliform bacteria were detected in all sources (range 1 – >200 cfu/100 ml). Chlorine was present in 10 (45%) of 22 stored drinking water samples in households using PūR®.

PūR® was well-accepted and properly used in remote communities where local leaders helped with distribution and education. This highly effective water purification method can help protect disaster-affected communities from waterborne disease.
Cost and financial sustainability of a household-based water treatment and storage intervention in Zambia
Authors: Banerjee Anyana , McFarland Deborah A. , Singh Ritu , Quick Robert
Published: March 2007

Providing safe water to >1 billion people in need is a major challenge. To address this need, the Safe Water System (SWS) - household water treatment with dilute bleach, safe water storage, and behavior change - has been implemented in >20 countries. To assess the potential sustainability of the SWS, we analyzed costs in Zambia of “Clorin” brand product sold in bottles sufficient for a month of water treatment at a price of $0.09. We analyzed production, marketing, distribution, and overhead costs of Clorin before and after sales reached nationwide scale, and analyzed Clorin sales revenue. The average cost per bottle of Clorin production, marketing and distribution at start-up in 1999 was $1.88 but decreased by 82% to $0.33 in 2003, when >1.7 million bottles were sold. The financial loss per bottle decreased from $1.72 in 1999 to $0.24 in 2003. Net program costs in 2003 were $428,984, or only $0.04 per person-month of protection. A sensitivity analysis showed that if the bottle price increased to $0.18, the project would be self-sustaining at maximum capacity. This analysis demonstrated that efficiencies in the SWS supply chain can be achieved through social marketing. Even with a subsidy, overall program costs per beneficiary are low.
Somatic coliphages and bacterial indicators of bathing water quality in the beaches of Gipuzkoa, Spain
Authors: Ibarluzea Jesús M. , Moreno Belén , Serrano Elena , Larburu Karmele , Maiztegi María J. , Yarzabal Asunción , Santa Marina Loreto
Published: March 2007

Monitoring the quality of the bathing waters of Gipuzkoa (the Basque Country, Spain) makes it possible to assess the suitability of its 15 beaches for bathing throughout each season. In 1998, the parameters E. coli, somatic coliphages (SOMCPH) and F-specific RNA bacteriophages (FRNAPH) were incorporated into the bathing water quality monitoring system. This enabled the study of the link between bacterial and viral indicators as well as the analysis of the ratios between both types of indicators in waters with different levels of pollution. Although bacterial indicators (total coliforms (TC) and faecal coliforms (FC)) and enterococci showed a strong correlation between them, the correlations between the viral indicators and between the viral and bacterial indicators were weaker, though significant in all cases. The ratio between SOMCPH and E. coli indicates that at low levels of bacterial pollution (E coli <100 MPN/100 ml) SOMCPH outnumber E coli. In contrast, at higher levels of pollution (E coli >100 MPN/100 ml), SOMCPH numbers are lower than those of E-coli. The data reveal the presence of viral indicators in waters classified as suitable for bathing by the European Directive and alert us to their suitability.
Opportunistic Aspergillus pathogens measured in home and hospital tap water by quantitative PCR (QPCR)
Authors: Vesper S. J. , Rogers M. E. , Neely A. N. , Haugland R. A.
Published: March 2007

Opportunistic fungal pathogens are a concern because of the increasing number of immunocompromised patients. The goal of this research was to test a simple extraction method and rapid quantitative PCR (QPCR) measurement of the occurrence of potential pathogens, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus, A. terreus and A. niger, in home tap water and a hospital water supply.

Water samples were taken from the kitchen tap in the homes of 60 patients who were diagnosed with legionellosis. Water samples were also taken from three locations in a hospital that generated all of its hot water by flash heating. Opportunistic infectious agents Aspergillus fumigatus, A. flavus, A. terreus and A. niger were measured using QPCR. Aspergillus terreus DNA was found in 16.7% and A. fumigatus DNA in 1.7% of the samples taken from the kitchen tap. None of the Aspergillus species were found in any of the hospital water samples.

The development of a simple DNA extraction method along with QPCR analysis is suitable for rapid screening of tap water for opportunistic fungal pathogens. This simple method can be used to obtain pathogen occurrence results in about 3 h, instead of waiting days to weeks for culture data. Obtaining pathogen occurrence data in a timely manner could promote the elimination of the pathogens from the water supply of immunocompromised patients.
Water resources and waste water management in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro
Authors: Kaštelan-Macan Marija , Ahel Marijan , Horvat Alka J. M. , Jabučar Dalila , Jovančić Petar
Published: March 2007

This work provides an inventory of water resources and presents the current status of water supply, water quality as well as wastewater management in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, established after the break-up of the former Yugoslavia.

All three countries are very rich in water resources, pertaining in a large percentage to the Adriatic and Black Sea basins. However, this richness is not adequately reflected in the current status of the public water supply. Water supply is satisfactory only in bigger cities, whereas rural populations still largely depend on the local sources. Furthermore, with respect to integrated water management, there is a big discrepancy between the capacities of water supply and drainage and those for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment. Only a small percentage of wastewaters receive at least some treatment, putting those receiving natural waters at considerable risk. Nevertheless, available reports on the water quality of ambient waters do not reveal the existence of this problem on a wider scale, but indicate only few hot spots. Microbiological pollution near big cities and patchy elevated levels of heavy metals and organic pollutants around industrial plants and agricultural lands belong to these exceptions. Such a relatively favourable situation is, partly, a consequence of a significant decrease in economic activities, which is characteristic of all transition countries, but it also reveals the impact of the recent wars in the region.

Political and military conflicts in the region generated mutual distrust and lack of cooperation between the three countries. However, attempts are being made to resolve most of the issues related to cross-border contamination by signing international and regional treaties.

As a part of pre-accession activities, all three states are harmonizing their legislation with the EU and are joining scientific projects on the water protection of other western countries. This is expected to bring considerable benefits to the local population and to make economic development more vigorous.
Using internal incentive contracts to improve water utility performance: the case of Uganda's NWSC
Authors: Mugisha Silver , Berg Sanford V. , Muhairwe William T.
Published: March 2007

The achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015 requires significant managerial innovation and creativity, especially in low-income countries where utility inefficiencies are still most prevalent. This paper describes approaches that have been used in Uganda's National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC). We outline the potential for internal incentive contracts in delivering efficiency gains under public–public water management settings. No simple recipe for promoting efficiency exists. However, this paper highlights useful ingredients, including proper contract framework design, competition for managerial responsibility, effective business planning, performance monitoring and the use of managerial incentives. We conclude that these factors require careful consideration during the planning and implementation of incentive contracts.
Managing lakes in Uganda: integration through policies, structures and plans
Authors: Nunan Fiona
Published: March 2007

Integrated approaches to natural resource management abound, but what does integration mean in practice, what are the benefits and constraints to integration and how can integration be achieved? Characteristics of integrated approaches include linkages to broad strategies; involvement of stakeholders; bringing multiple sectors together; and taking a basin or ecosystem as the management unit. Analysis of early experience in the development and implementation of a new approach to lake management in Uganda – integrated lake management (ILM) – identifies how the approach is integrated through policies, structures and plans. Integration within policies includes the development of more coordinated and coherent natural resource sector policy through the development of a sector wide approach. Integrating lake management priorities into broader poverty reduction policies and development planning guidelines is also essential for effective implementation and to secure resource allocation in developing countries. Integration within lake management structures and planning processes ensures they are inclusive, participatory and inter-sectoral, responding to the development needs of lake-dependent communities, as well as to the management of natural resources. Integrated approaches reflect the complexity and diversity of interests and livelihoods and provide an exciting opportunity for more coordinated and effective policies and programmes within and between sectors.
Interlaboratory comparison of geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol in municipal tap water
Authors: Brownlee B. , Marvin C. , MacInnis G. , Charlton M. , Watson S.
Published: March 2007

An interlaboratory comparison (“round-robin”) for geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) was carried out between six laboratories of the Ontario Water Works Research Consortium (OWWRC). Municipal tap water was found to be a suitable medium for distribution of samples. To test stability, geosmin and MIB were added to tap water and stored at 2–4°C. Under these conditions, geosmin concentrations declined by approximately 5% per month for the first 2 months. MIB concentrations were stable over a 158-day period. Three round-robins were carried out individually in 2001, 2003 and 2004. Two levels of geosmin and MIB were used: nominally 10 and 100 ng/l. In 2003 the relative standard deviation for all six participating laboratories were 34, 21, 21 and 22% for low and high level MIB, and low and high level geosmin, respectively. For all but MIB at the low level, there was a marked improvement in agreement between laboratories from 2001 to 2004. However, we recommend use of common analytical standards in order to potentially further reduce interlaboratory variability.
A fast stir bar sorptive extraction method for the analysis of geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol in source and drinking water
Authors: Bauld T. , Teasdale P. , Stratton H. , Uwins H.
Published: March 2007

The presence of unpleasant taste and odour in drinking water is an ongoing aesthetic concern for water providers worldwide. The need for a sensitive and robust method capable of analysis in both natural and treated waters is essential for early detection of taste and odour events. The purpose of this study was to develop and optimise a fast stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) method for the analysis of geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) in both natural water and drinking water. Limits of detection with the optimised fast method (45 min extraction time at 60 °C using 24 μL stir bars) were 1.1 ng/L for geosmin and 4.2 ng/L for MIB. Relative standard deviations at the detection limits were under 17% for both compounds. Use of multiple stir bars can be used to decrease the detection limits further. The use of 25% NaCl and 5% methanol sample modifiers decreased the experimental recoveries. Likewise, addition of 1 mg/L and 1.5 mg/L NaOCl decreased the recoveries and this effect was not reversed by addition of 10% thiosulphate. The optimised method was used to measure geosmin concentrations in treated and untreated drinking water. MIB concentrations were below the detection limits in these waters.
Collaborative monitoring of chlorine flavours in drinking water
Authors: Gouveia C. , Nicolau R. , Ferreira F. , Câmara A.
Published: March 2007

Sensory data have always been used by concerned citizens to evaluate environmental variables within volunteer monitoring initiatives. The work presented in this paper intends to explore the possibility of using human sensory data as a source of information to monitor environmental quality variables within a public participation context. A case study that uses untrained citizens to monitor chlorine flavour of tap water is presented. Two collaborative monitoring tests were developed: (1) the one-sample one-trial test and (2) the Chlorine@Home test. The tests intended to address the participatory context required by collaborative monitoring initiatives. The development of the collaborative tests was supported by two tests that were designed for a laboratory context and explored sensory methodologies. The sensory tests implemented were: (1) the paired comparison test, (2) the forced-choice triangle test (ASTM Method E679-04). The collaborative experiments showed that the ability to detect chlorine flavours on a participatory context was independent on chlorine concentrations. The use of sensors by citizens may be a way to increase the credibility of the information. Nevertheless, this case study suggested that more research should be carried out to explore ways to involve citizens while increasing data reliability.
Contributions of silane cross-linked PEX pipe to chemical/solvent odours in drinking water
Authors: Durand M.L. , Dietrich A.M.
Published: March 2007

A commonly used plastic plumbing pipe, silane-cross-linked polyethylene (PEX-b according to European standards), was investigated using the Utility Quick Test (UQT), which is a migration/leaching protocol recommended for evaluating taste-and-odour properties of materials prior to installation in distribution systems. After exposure of new PEX pipe to chlorine, monochloramine or no disinfectant, the odours in the leachate were described as “chlorinous” if chlorine or monochloramine were present and “chemical/solvent-like” with descriptors of sweet, bitter, chemical, solvent, plastic, burnt and mechanical/motor oil. The presence of disinfectant, chlorine or chloramines, did not alter the odour characteristics or intensity of the PEX odour. The “chemical/solvent-like” odours persisted even after multiple flushing periods. 2-Ethoxy-2-methylpropane, commonly called ETBE, was identified as a contributor to the described odour from the PEX pipe. Aqueous concentrations of ETBE in pipe leachate ranged from a low of 23 μg/L to >100 μg/L. The concentrations decreased with increased flushing. Panelists were able to smell ETBE at a concentration of 5 μg/L and assigned a rating of a weak odour. The need for taste and odour testing of plumbing materials prior to use in residential housing systems is necessary.
A methodology for identifying vulnerable locations to taste and odour problems in a drinking water system
Authors: Proulx F. , Rodriguez M.J. , Sérodes J. , Bouchard C.
Published: March 2007

In this research, methodology was developed to identify locations vulnerable to taste and odour problems in a distribution system. The methodology was based on a multicriteria procedure combining spatial information on consumer complaints and popular perception of tap water. The first step in the described methodology consisted of mapping complaints regarding tap water made by the population between 2002 and 2004 using a geographical information system (GIS). The second step consisted of analysing results of a questionnaire-based mail survey, also through GIS. The information generated using the above steps was integrated using a multicriteria and spatial approach allowing segregation of the distribution system into delineated zones, according to their vulnerability to occurrences of taste and odour problems. The identification of vulnerable sectors in a distribution system will help water managers to implement a better-targeted water quality monitoring programme – one that considers odours and tastes of drinking water – within the management process.
The Ontario Water Works Consortium: a functional model of source water management and understanding
Authors: Moore L.F. , Watson S.B.
Published: March 2007

With an historical onus on reactive water treatment in North America, most taste and odour (T&O) outbreaks and other water quality issues have been unanticipated and difficult to control. Recent severe outbreaks of these drinking water issues have prompted wider advocacy of a more proactive “source-to-tap” approach, with greater focus on multidisciplinary partnerships among utilities, scientists and management/policy-makers. However, the practical application of this management model is faced with fragmented drainage basins, waterbodies and jurisdictions, and often requires a common issue such as T&O to initiate its development. This paper presents an example of a successful cooperative approach to drinking water management, the Ontario Water Works Research Consortium (OWWRC), consisting of the six major water utilities drawing water from Western Lake Ontario, scientists from the Canadian and Ontario governments and universities, and several other agencies. Established in 1999 following severe T&O outbreaks, the OWWRC has since operated as a highly effective model, employing a science-based approach to T&O management, supporting research on source-water and treatment issues, public outreach and utility surveys. The paper describes this partnership and summarises the results of an OWWRC T&O survey as one of the significant steps towards source-water characterisation undertaken by this cooperative.
A nose for trouble – the role of off-flavours in assuring safe drinking water
Authors: Hrudey S.E. , Hrudey E.J.
Published: March 2007

A detailed review of drinking water disease outbreaks over the past 30 years in 15 affluent countries produced over 70 case studies, some involving fatalities, which revealed a number of common factors in these disasters. Some of these outbreaks involved off-flavours, either as a driver for reducing disinfection and making the system vulnerable to pathogenic contamination or as an early warning of contamination that was not responded to with sufficient urgency or efficiency to avoid a disease outbreak. The characteristics of these outbreaks are recounted and the important link they reveal between aesthetically pleasing drinking water and safety is documented. Our analysis of common features in drinking water outbreaks also supports an argument that the failure of a water utility to be concerned about aesthetic factors makes such water supplies an inherently greater health risk for their consumers.
A re-evaluation of the taste and odour of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) in drinking water
Authors: Suffet I.H.
Published: March 2007

Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is a gasoline additive that has been found in groundwater when an underground gasoline storage tank leaks. Although dependent on the clean-up standards that are applied, clean-up costs have been estimated in the US alone to be in the billions of dollars. MTBE is considered primarily a taste and odour concern and not a toxicity issue at concentrations found in drinking water. Thus, the clean-up of MTBE problems is controlled by the MTBE odour threshold concentration (OTC). The level of clean-up and associated differential of millions of dollars is a matter of concern for water purveyors and well owners. A 1993 study of nine OTC studies showed the OTC of MTBE in water to be between 0.04 and 0.06 μg/L, a level over two orders of magnitude less than eight other studies. This 1993 study was repeated at the original laboratory in 2004 and is reported in this paper. The laboratory's quality control programme and ability to repeat one of the eight other studies indicated the laboratory was qualified to repeat its original OTC study. The flavour and odour detection threshold range in the 1993 study, however, could not be confirmed by trained assessors repeating the original study in 2004. The inconsistencies in the data and the high detection on water blanks indicate that the dilution series of the test solutions for the 1993 study were mainly at subthreshold levels. Therefore, the original study of 1993 is not a valid OTC study for MTBE and should not be used to develop drinking water and clean-up standards. The OTC of MTBE is over 15 μg/L for the eight valid studies.
Minerals in drinking water: impacts on taste and importance to consumer health
Authors: Whelton A.J. , Dietrich A.M. , Burlingame G.A. , Schechs M. , Duncan S.E.
Published: March 2007

More than 100 years of research has focused on removing acute and chronic health threats to produce safe drinking water, but limited research has focused the consequences of removing minerals that affect drinking water taste and health. This paper covers the human sense of taste, typical variations in drinking water taste, comparisons of global taste standards, the role of water chemistry and future research needs for understanding consumer preference. Results of several consumer tap and bottled water acceptability investigations conducted by the authors are presented.