bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Disease of Language and the Language of Disease
Authors: FERNANDEZ JAMES W.
Published: August 2013

This chapter raises some of the interlinked matters that have been very much at issue in press, television, and the world wide web since September 11. First is the role of the imagination itself, and of the unimaginable, in experiencing and categorising what we have difficulty understanding, and its role in our coming to terms with and coping with difficult matters of any kind. Second are the social interaction processes of categorisation and re-categorisation. Third is the contribution to our understanding provided by attention to the play of tropes in social life, and to the importance of tropology to our anthropology. Fourth are the multitude of moral issues and their claim upon our actions and reactions: the morality present in religious fundamentalism, for example. But also now under intense and renewed debate is the morality of political assassination, of racial profiling, of the employ of weapons of mass destruction. And fifth, in all of this and everywhere we find the disease of reification/entification of our newly realised world historical problem, the increasing disparity of well being. These are the diseases of language investigated here.
Gertrude Stein’s Differential Syntax
Authors: PERLOFF MARJORIE
Published: August 2013

This chapter suggests that the poetics of T. S. Eliot and Gertrude Stein may be seen as two sides of the same coin. It begins by examining that coin itself, which is the Modernist aesthetic, shared by Eliot and Stein, even as it was shared by Pound and Joyce, and the other central figures of the period.
Welfare-to-Work: Which Policies Work and Why?
Authors: BLUNDELL RICHARD
Published: August 2013

This chapter considers the arguments behind the expansion in welfare-to-work programmes that occurred over the last decade, and reviews the effectiveness of alternative approaches to enhancing labour-market attachment and earnings among the low skilled. It concerns the ‘iron triangle’ of welfare reform — that is the three, often conflicting, goals: raising the living standards of those on low incomes; encouraging work and economic self-sufficiency; and keeping government costs low. Section 2 considers the labour-market trends that stimulated the New Deal and Working Families Tax Credit (WFTC) reforms in the UK. Section 3 considers a number of central design features, focusing on time limits, means testing and implicit tax rates, minimum hours requirements, welfare receipt eligibility, and wage progression. This is done in the context of the design of the New Deal and of the WFTC. Section 4 moves on to evaluate specific aspects of the New Deal and WFTC reforms. Section 5 concludes with an overview of these schemes and their effectiveness, and an assessment of the appropriate design of welfare-to-work and make-work-pay programmes.
Elementary, my dear Watson, the clue is in the genes…or is it?
Authors: KARMILOFF-SMITH ANNETTE
Published: August 2013

This chapter argues that there is no one-to-one, direct mapping between specific sets of genes and cognitive-level outcomes. Rather, there are very indirect mappings, with the regulation of gene expression more likely to contribute to very broad differences in developmental timing, neuronal type, neuronal density, firing thresholds, neurotransmitter types, etc. It presents the neuroconstructivist framework where gene/gene interaction, gene/environment interaction and, crucially, the process of ontogeny itself (pre- and postnatal development) are all considered to play a vital role in how genes are expressed and how the brain progressively sculpts itself, slowly becoming specialised over developmental time. The infant brain is not simply a miniature version of the adult brain.
Archaeological models and Asian Indo-Europeans
Authors: Mallory J. P.
Published: August 2013

Archaeological attempts to discern prehistoric linguistic dispersals are packaged in a variety of models that must all rest on at least one assumption: the archaeological record in some form or another provides proxy evidence for linguistic entities or, at least, language shift. All of these models are well rehearsed in the area of Indo-European dispersals in Asia, particularly with reference to Indo-Iranian origins and migrations. This chapter discusses the following models: continuity, discontinuity, geographical, cultural, and contact models.
The Nuristani languages
Authors: Degener Almuth
Published: August 2013

In the context of the problems connected with the early migrations of the Indo-Iranian peoples and the entry of the Indo-Aryans into India, the question of where and when the ancestors of the later Iranians separated from the Indo-Aryans is particularly interesting. This problem is connected with that of the relationship between Iranian, Indo-Aryan, and the third Indo-Iranian group of languages, the Nuristani languages, formerly called Kafiri languages. The Nuristani languages are spoken almost entirely within the confines of the area of northeast Afghanistan known as Nuristan. There is no doubt that the Nuristani languages belong to the Aryan group of Indo-European languages, their nearest relatives being the Iranian and the Indian languages. However, there has never been unanimity about the exact position of the Nuristani languages in relation to these two well-known branches of the Aryan family. There are three possible hypotheses, each of which has found supporters: (i) the Nuristani languages are part of the Iranian family, but separated at a very early stage from the main stream of Iranian languages; (ii) they are part of the Indo-Aryan family, but separated from Indo-Aryan in pre-Vedic times; and (iii) they are neither Indian nor Iranian but represent a third branch of the Aryan family. This chapter attempts to evaluate each of these hypotheses critically.
Professor Sir Harold Bailey: An appreciation
Authors: Gershevitch Ilya
Published: August 2013

This chapter details the life and career of Sir Harold Bailey. It also describes the contents of his library. Bailey joined the Ancient India and Iran Trust in order to secure a permanent home for his books, where they would serve no longer only himself as they had done in Southacre and in Queens' College, but also other scholars both during and after his lifetime. His is a library that eminently deserves preservation, since for the continuation of research on the lines evolved by him there is not to be found in the British Isles a compact study space more thoughtfully equipped. Dating back longest is the acquisition of Iranological books and articles. These Bailey began to assemble when in 1929 he became at the London School of Oriental Studies the first holder of its Lectureship in Iranian Studies. If the Irano-Indian holdings are impressive, so is the library's equipment in respect of Indo-European language groups other than the Indo-Iranian.
Introduction Eθνoς and Γένoς
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

This introductory chapter surveys the various meanings given to the two terms ἔθνος and γένος in documentary and literary usage. It aims to enable the reader to follow the detailed analysis of selected parts of the text of Stephanus and the associated aspects of ancient Greek concepts of ethnicity, in practice and in theory.
Ethnics, Ktetics, and Topics: the Grammatical Terminology
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

An analysis of the civic and regional terminology of Greek communal life, and especially the use of the term τὸ ἐθνικόν, is an essential preliminary to understanding how the Greeks considered national and civic identity once the regular framework of polis-life was established. With the development of grammatical and linguistic analysis, words denoting membership of a community were called ἐθνικά, the nominal adjectival form which we find regularly in Stephanus of Byzantium and in lexica: τὸ ἐθνικόν (ὁ) δεῖνα. The history of the term formed a distinct branch of the traditional studies of the grammarians and lexicographers. This chapter is concerned with the ethnic significance of the adjective as a term used to denote nationality or origin (in the Greek sense), but inevitably it takes account of other meanings of the term when necessary.
Ethnic Formations in Theory and Practice
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

Our knowledge of the use of the local ethnic in early documents is limited not only by the scarcity of evidence, but also because by definition the ethnic form, was from the outset used almost exclusively as a means of external identification outside the individual polis or other unit to which the ethnic and its bearer belonged — whether in another city, or in a sanctuary, local or panhellenic, or any other external context. It is in sanctuaries, large and small, that are found most of the examples of texts from the Archaic period in which the ethnic is used. The basic function of the ethnic, regional or civic, was to indicate and identify ‘hereditary membership’, as a member either of a race or tribe, Greek or barbarian, or of a civic body. Where the ‘ethnic’ was recorded, attached to an individual or to a group, it represented the external criterion of identification, individual or collective, in the international world of regional groups and city-states.
Ethnics in Public and Private Use
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

This chapter considers the various usages of the ethnic, the expression essentially of the foreigner in both public and private life, from the fifth century bc onwards. It shows that after the fifth century bc the use of the ethnic in entries in public records, which were recognised to have international validity, might vary, even within a single document, without good cause, or at least without an evident cause. This substantiates the view expressed concerning other types of evidence, that Greek protocol — the use of the criteria treated in this and the preceding chapters — was consistent only with regard to matters within the traditional framework of the individual poleis themselves, and to publicly proclaimed honours such as proxeny-decrees, while still conforming in the broadest terms to certain inherited practices. At the same time allowance must be made for a considerable amount of variation, due to causes which frequently remain unknown.
Expanded Ethnics
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

For the most part the ethnic of a citizen of an independent city carries no reference to the region in which the city is located, only to the city itself. However, the combination of a regional ethnic preceded or followed by a city ethnic is also a familiar feature of ethnic nomenclature. If, for one reason or another, the plain ethnic was regarded as insufficient for identification, the essential documentary formula from Classical times onwards was either by the addition of a prepositional clause, which might govern either the city or the region, or (less frequently) by the juxtaposition of the two elements, or by the simple use of the genitive case. This system of expanded ethnics was most commonly used either (a) when a city was a subordinate element in the federal organisation of an ἔθνος, which developed in due course into a political koinon; or (b) as a simple way of distinguishing between citizens of homonymous, and especially ‘eponymous homonymous’, cities. This chapter examines a few examples of the various categories involved.
Hellenistic Eponymous Cities and Ethnics
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

Chapter 6 showed the long history of metonomasy, which is preserved in a number of entries in documentary evidence and particularly in Stephanus, relating to cities and communities of the Classical world. It also investigated the reverse process, by which ethnics of cities that had for one reason or another ceased to exist as independent bodies continued to be used, particularly (but not exclusively) in peripheral regions such as Egypt. This chapter looks forward to the new world, particularly the early Hellenistic age, which brought into being new urban settlements, with politically eponymous titles.
Ambiguous and Variable Ethnics
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

This chapter discusses ambiguous and individual variable ethnics. Although differentiated and ambiguous, place-names and their ethnics are especially a feature of the Hellenistic age, the phenomenon is also associated with some of the earliest of Greek cities. The phraseology used to differentiate the homonymous cities themselves varied slightly in both literary and epigraphical texts in one of three ways: (a) by the use of the regional ktetic or ethnic; (b) by the use of the genitive of the city or region; (c) by the use of prepositions.
The Decline in the Use of the Ethnic
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

The most significant change that occurred with the growth and expansion of Roman power in the Greek world was the piecemeal introduction of Roman names towards the end of the Hellenistic age, and, in due course, with the bestowal of Roman citizenship, the very different onomastic formulae of which led to varieties in terminology, as the Greek-speaking population was increasingly affected by the system of nomenclature employed by the Romans, and bestowed in due course on them. This chapter focuses on the changes that occurred in the traditional Greek system of ethnic forms and usage. The discussion covers multiple civic ethnics and the establishment of Christian communities in and after the fourth century.
Stephanus’ Sources: the Tradition of ἐθνικά
Authors: Fraser P. M.
Published: August 2013

This chapter focuses on some problems associated with Stephanus' ultimate sources, and considers how much his text contributes to the subject of ethnic terminology. Stephanus is not the earliest writer on or compiler of a catalogue of places and ethnics, but his work alone survives, though only in an epitomised form, and is thus the essential part of the evidence. The goal is to interrogate the text in the hope that it will throw more light on the various aspects of ethnic formations in general use. The chapter examines the text of the Epitome with especial reference to the main sources of earlier date, with particular consideration to (a) Alexander Polyhistor, of Miletus, a contemporary of Sulla, to whom he owed his Roman citizenship, with the nomen Cornelius, whose enormous output — some thirty separate titles in all — included numerous works concerned with ethnic forms; (b) Herennius Philon of Byblos, the Phoenician‐Greek ‘translator’ or author of the Phoenician history which passed under the name of Sanchuniathon, and author of a work on ‘Famous Cities and their Famous Sons’, which included much information on ethnic forms; and (c) Alexandrian Oros, of the fourth/fifth century ad, who formed perhaps the final link between Stephanus and his predecessors, and also between Stephanus and contemporary or later writers.
The Ritualized Commemoration of War in the Hellenistic City: Memory, Identity, Emotion
Authors: CHANIOTIS ANGELOS
Published: August 2013

This chapter studies (primarily using epigraphic evidence) the various ways in which wars, both wars of the remote past and more recent conflicts, were present in the ritual life of Hellenistic cities. It demonstrates the continual presence of war memories and memorials in ritual activities, exploring the diverse ways in which that presence was manifested (for example, historical anniversaries, public funerals, the graves of the war dead as places of memory, the part played by war dedications in sanctuaries, the commemoration of war in the public recitation of honorary decrees).
Two Neoclassical Monuments in Modern France: The Panthéon and Arc de Triomphe
Authors: BEN-AMOS AVNER
Published: August 2013

The Panthéon and Arc de Triomphe are two neoclassical Parisian monuments that were created in the second half of the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century, respectively, and which have ever since been main sites of French official memory. However, they never had the same share of the stage: when one was prominent, the other was marginal, and vice versa. This chapter delineates the parallel histories of these monuments and analyses the relationship between them, from the French Revolution to the Fifth Republic. Although they are usually ascribed to different political camps – the Pantheon to the left and the Arc de Triomphe to the right – a close reading of the context of various commemorative acts that were performed inside and around these monuments shows that their identity was more complex.
Monument to Defeat: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in American Culture and Society
Authors: TRITLE LAWRENCE A.
Published: August 2013

Monument or memorial? Defeat or withdrawal? The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington DC pays tribute to more than 58,000 Americans who died fighting an unpopular war. Yet today the ‘Wall’, as it is known to most Americans, is the most visited site managed by the US National Park Service. Weekend visitors will happen upon an almost festive place as thousands of people pass by looking at the names – what do they think, imagine? This chapter discusses not only the story and controversy behind the building of the ‘Wall’, but also how it reflects the collective memory of a society and its values, and how these are constructed.
The Mountain and the Runaway Daughter
Authors: Empson Rebecca M.
Published: August 2013

This chapter presents narratives concerned with people's past experiences of loss and migration. This is explored through the prism of their current interstitial position as an ethnic minority living in Mongolia's far countryside. Narratives about the Buriad's sustained persecution by the Mongolian state are often evoked as a means by which to objectify themselves as different from other Mongolians. In contrast, narratives of continuity revolving around the tracing of clans and genealogies are used to highlight connections to a wider Buriad diaspora. Focusing on the way in which people define themselves against or alongside others, the chapter reveals some of the idioms by which people evoke different kinds of personhood. These narratives provide a background against which ideas of separation and containment can be used to think through other aspects of Buriad social life.
The Mirror’s Reflections and Refractions
Authors: Empson Rebecca M.
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the role of the mirror, which is placed at the centre of the display, to reveal an exemplary kind of person made from each of the parts that constitute the household chest. Drawing on recent work in artefact-oriented research, these visible and hidden components of the household chest appear as inter-dependent perspectives that index different concepts of the person. They reveal that relations based on affinity, separation, rupture, and difference are the necessary, yet invisible, background that supports the visibly foregrounded relations based on shared bone, containment, and sameness. When viewed together, through the mirror that stands at the centre of the display, we see that a person is made from each of them. Far from being a mere psychological reaction to external stimuli, here vision of oneself through the mirror becomes the ‘tool’ through which an exemplary kind of personhood is revealed.
Housing Others in Rebirths
Authors: Empson Rebecca M.
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores the relationship between memory and kinship, showing how people's bodies can also be viewed as the containers that ‘house’ deceased kin. This is necessary because a sense of being separated from one's relatives embraces many levels of life for pastoral herders in Ashinga. Primarily, there is a sense of absence from place as the Buriads escaped war and disruption in Russian Buryatia and migrated to Mongolia in the early 1900s. In Mongolia, the Buriad were heavily persecuted during the socialist period and people were prohibited from communicating with their ancestors through shamanic performance. Intra-kin rebirths, common to most families in this area, provide a way in which to negotiate the politics of memory and wider feelings of loss. Nevertheless, when people are born into a world where they are both the rebirth of their grandfather and the daughter of someone in the present, life becomes a process of learning how to separate out this multiplicity in order that one may become the son or daughter of a person in the present.
Managing the Landscape’s Resources
Authors: Empson Rebecca M.
Published: August 2013

This chapter focuses on the accumulation of wealth through herding. For pastoral herders, movement across the landscape is the dominant means by which fortune is harnessed and growth in animals achieved. Here, fecundity and wealth are visible in mobile and transitory forms. At the most basic level, it is the herds that form the landscape as it is they who traverse the land and contain the fortune that engenders the fertility and vital energy that makes ‘places’. In the face of competing claims on the landscape, local shamans are motivated to establish relations with previous inhabitants who are held to reside in particular places. In so doing, they gain endorsement from past historical figures who claim that they are good people who should remain there. In securing this endorsement, the Buriad go some way in gaining authority over the place in which they currently live.
The Ambiguous Power of Fire and Sites of Accumulation
Authors: Empson Rebecca M.
Published: August 2013

In Ashinga's district centre, wealth is increasingly visible in the form of people's elaborately constructed wooden houses. This chapter shows that these static displays have, over the past decade, become the target of serious arson attacks. Such attacks bring to the fore memories of past terrors where people's property was confiscated in the dead of night. But the threat of arson should not be viewed simply as an extension of a previous terror. Instead, through a focus on Mongolian ideas about fire, arson appears as a form of purification, as people question the morality of their new means of accumulating wealth and power.
Introduction
Authors: Beresford-Jones David
Published: August 2013

This introductory chapter first sets out the book's purpose, which is to present a new archaeological case for prehistoric human impact on the environment: a study of ecological and cultural change from the arid south coast of Peru, beginning around 700 bc and culminating in a collapse by about ad 1000. Its focus is the lower Ica Valley, today largely depopulated and bereft of cultivation, but whose abundant archaeological remains attest to substantial prehistoric occupations and thereby present a prima facie case for changed environmental conditions. This is a place of extreme environmental juxtaposition: one of the world's oldest and driest deserts, crossed by lush riverine oases, and sporadically impacted by El Niño floods or long droughts. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Tracing Landscape Change: The Geomorphological Record
Authors: Beresford-Jones David
Published: August 2013

This chapter sets out the geomorphological history of the basins of the lower Ica Valley — those processes of erosion and deposition which have formed and destroyed their archaeological record, and indeed given rise to today's landscape there. It reviews the results and interpretations of the geomorphological survey, which included: the definition of the basic geomorphic units across the lower Ica Valley; investigating the character of the relict river terraces of H-13 and G-8/9, which underlie most of their archaeology; understanding the extent of landscape and ecological change across the Samaca and Ullujaya basins, as revealed by buried ancient land surfaces; and evaluating those contexts from which archaeological and archaeobotanical data were extracted and subsequently analysed.
The Sonoran Desert: An Ethnoecological Analogue?
Authors: Beresford-Jones David
Published: August 2013

The relationship between humans and the genus Prosopis in the arid lands of the New World is almost as ancient as human occupation itself. This chapter explores this in one particular part of these American drylands: the Sonoran Desert of the south-western United States or, to be more specific, within the riparian basins of the Salt and Gila rivers of that desert. For here, a more recent human ecology offers an analogue for the far deeper time-depths of the Peruvian south coast. In the Sonoran, and elsewhere in the United States, several species of section Algarobia of the Prosopis genus are known collectively as ‘mesquite’. Mesquite is the one of the most common plants along the washes of North American arid lands and was a vital resource for its peoples.
Introduction: Slavery, Social Revolutions and Enduring Memories
Authors: Lane Paul J. , Macdonald Kevin C.
Published: August 2013

Slavery played an important role in the economies of most historically documented African states of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This introductory chapter considers the regionality and relative antiquity of various forms of enslavement on the African continent, as well as a range of emergent archaeological studies on the subject. Further, the lingering impacts of slave economies and the memories of enslavement are critically assessed, including consideration of recent efforts to document and ‘memorialise’ both the tangible and intangible heritage of slavery on the continent. The contributions to the present volume are situated within these issues with the aim of drawing out commonalities between chapters and emphasising the value of an inter-regional comparative approach.
The Daily Life of Slaves in the Last Years of the Bamana States of Kaarta and Segou
Authors: Sow Moussa
Published: August 2013

This chapter attempts to further the understanding of Sahelo‐Sudanic systems of slavery via enquiries into the daily life of slaves. This work is based on the memories of elders in certain villages within the zone of the ancient state of Kaarta and the buffer zone between it and the state of Segou, an area corresponding to the modern Malian administrative Cercles of Kolokani and Banamba. Temporally, the focus is on the period directly before the colonial era. In particular, the mode of acquisition of slaves and the different types of local slavery are considered.
The Early Medieval Slave Trade of the Central Sahel: Archaeological and Historical Considerations
Authors: Haour Anne
Published: August 2013

The trans-Atlantic trade that brought slaves from the African continent to the New World has generated such interest and controversy that it has tended to obscure another significant African slave trade, that which saw individuals sent across the Sahara to be sold in North Africa and Western Asia. This trans-Saharan trade was both longer-lived and, in terms of numbers eventually enslaved, demographically similar to the better-known trans-Atlantic trade. This chapter summarizes current understandings of the trans-Saharan slave trade for the period ad 750–1500 approximately, and assesses the prospects for its archaeological recognition. A second topic will be to suggest the merits of a comparative approach considering the impact of slave trading on social and political frameworks: the argument here is that a consideration of wider themes can bring us closer to understanding roots and causes, invalidating the convenient assumption that the Atlantic slave trade was a historical curiosity which can be safely consigned to the annals of the past.
Slaves without Shackles: An Archaeology of Everyday Life on Gorée Island, Senegal
Authors: Thiaw Ibrahima
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines how slavery was imprinted on material culture and settlement at Gorée Island. It evaluates the changing patterns of settlement, access to materials, and emerging novel tastes to gain insights into everyday life and cultural interactions on the island. By the eighteenth century, Gorée grew rapidly as an urban settlement with a heterogeneous population including free and enslaved Africans as well as different European identities. Interaction between these different identities was punctuated with intense negotiations resulting in the emergence of a truly transnational community. While these significant changes were noted in the settlement pattern and material culture recovered, the issue of slavery — critical to most oral and documentary narratives about the island — remains relatively opaque in the archaeological record. Despite this, the chapter attempts to tease out from available documentary and archaeological evidence some illumination on interaction between the different communities on the island, including indigenous slaves.
Different Conversations about the Same Thing? Source Materials in the Recreation of a Nineteenth-Century Slave-Raiding Landscape, Northern Ghana
Authors: Swanepoel Natalie
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the slave trade in north-western Ghana during the final decades of the nineteenth century and, more specifically, the history and archaeology of the defensive site of Yalingbong occupied by the community of Kpan/Dolbizan during a time known as the ‘Babatunik Wars’, when the Zaberma leader, Babatu, and his band of raiders waged war upon the region. Here, the documents produced by the colonial officers in the final years of the nineteenth century, and the traditions preserved in the village today, speak to the complexity of the social, political, and economic relationships that existed between networks of sedentary agricultural communities, the bands of slave raiders, and the French and German officers.
The Invisible Archaeology of Slavery in the Horn of Africa?
Authors: Finneran Niall
Published: August 2013

Any archaeological study of slavery in the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia) must take two factors into account: first, the paucity of archaeological evidence for this system, which is historically attested as being of immense economic importance in the Aksumite and post-Aksumite period; and second, that the ‘social memory’of slavery within the modern Ethiopian psyche has fuelled an ethnohistorical — potentially racist — dichotomy between the ‘Semitic’ highlands and the ‘Cushitic’ lowlands. This dichotomy also broadly mirrors a religious Christian/Muslim separation. This chapter argues that although apparently archaeologically invisible, the long history of slavery within this region of Africa has left a profound and legible cultural imprint upon its peoples and landscapes.
A Place of History: Archaeology and Heritage at Cidade Velha, Cape Verde
Authors: Sørensen Marie Louise Stig , Evans Christopher , Richter Konstantin
Published: August 2013

Early depictions of Cidade Velha's sear-frontage show a thriving, well-appointed and heavily fortified town with architectural aspirations: ships ride at anchor, the cathedral and Bishop's Palace can be seen below the plateau-top fort on the east side of the valley, the harbour is ringed with batteries, behind which poke a number of two-storey residences and church towers. The crucial point is that, as the early capital of the Cape Verde Islands, located some 350 nautical miles off the West African coast and being Portugal's main transshipment centre for the trans-Atlantic trade, all this was carried on a slavery-based infrastructure. This chapter consists of three parts. First it outlines the history of slavery from a Cape Verdean perspective. Second, it discusses interviews conducted with the local residents as they indicate how the past of slavery may affect contemporary attitudes and the values associated with the historical remains. Third, it provides a brief summary of the archaeological work started in Cidade Velha.
Introduction1
Authors: Marks Shula
Published: August 2013

The contributions to this collection were originally given at a conference held at the British Academy on 3–4 December 2008, to celebrate the 75th anniversary of the founding of the Academic Assistance Council in 1933, later the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning (1936–98), and now the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics. This introductory chapter discusses the story of the SPSL and the flood of European refugee scholars and scientists from Nazi-occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s, and their subsequent contribution to specific disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
‘Protests Butter No Parsnips’: Lord Beveridge and the Rescue of Refugee Academics from Europe, 1933–1938
Authors: Zimmerman David
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines in detail the central role of Lord Beveridge in establishing the Academic Assistance Council, in a context of economic depression, social and political turmoil, and pervasive anti-Jewish hostility in Britain. Lord Beveridge's work with British academic refugee organizations was on a par with his leading role in the major expansion of the London School of Economics, the building of London University's Senate House in the 1920s, and perhaps even with his famous 1942 report on Social Insurance and Allied Services.
Refugee Scientists in a New Environment1
Authors: Born Gustav
Published: August 2013

This chapter presents the author's recollections about his family's migration and experiences as refugees from Nazi Germany to Britain in 1933. It recalls the academic scene into which German scientists came and indicates the contributions refugees made to science and medicine in this country.
Max Perutz and the SPSL
Authors: Ferry Georgina
Published: August 2013

This chapter focuses on Austrian-born molecular biologist Max Perutz (1914–2002). Perutz was one of twenty scientific refugees from continental Europe who went on to win Nobel Prizes. A chemist and molecular biologist, he led the first successful attempt to discover the three-dimensional structure of protein molecules using X-ray crystallography, for which he shared the 1962 Nobel Prize. He was the founding chairman of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, an institution that continues to thrive and counts thirteen Nobel Prize-winners among those who have spent time in its laboratories. Although Perutz applied to the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning (SPSL) for funding, in the event he did not need their money. His case, however, offers an excellent example of the emotional and practical support SPSL's officers extended to all academics who found themselves in precarious situations in the years following the rise to power of the Nazis in Germany and their subsequent conquest or annexation of neighbouring countries.
Esther Simpson: A Correspondence
Authors: Broda Paul
Published: August 2013

Among the hundreds of Austrian refugees who arrived in Britain in 1938 after Hitler annexed Austria was the author's father, Engelbert Broda, who shortly afterwards was joined by his wife Hildegard. Engelbert Broda later made contact with the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning (SPSL), and it was through Esther Simpson, the long-time Secretary of the SPSL, that Charles Goodeve took him on to work on visual purple (rhodopsin), a vital component of the human retina. This chapter presents a selection of letters between Esther Simpson and Engelbert Broda. The extracts given here relate to the foundation of the Academic Assistance Council, Esther Simpson's beliefs, Engelbert Broda's memories much later of what her help had meant to him personally, and the state of the world. Other regular topics are their work, her musical activities, and the comings and goings of mutual friends including L. Kowarski, J. Guéron, and O. R. Frisch, all of whom they knew from Cambridge days. The emphasis in this selection is in representing Esther Simpson's own attitudes and achievements in her own words.
Eva and Esther
Authors: Elton Lewis
Published: August 2013

This chapter presents the story of how two women, the author's mother, Eva Ehrenberg, and the late Secretary of the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning, Esther Simpson, saved his life and gave him an academic career. He believes that his story might not be worth telling but for the fact that few who escaped from the clutches of Hitler can have been as fortunate as he had been.
‘Dedicated to Represent the True Spirit of the German Nation in the World’: Philipp Schwartz (1894–1977), Founder of the Notgemeinschaft
Authors: Kreft Gerald
Published: August 2013

This chapter focuses on the importance of Philipp Schwartz's role in the establishment of the Notgemeinschaft outside Germany, his remarkable success in placing thirty refugee scholars in the new University of Istanbul within a few months in 1933 (and, over the next twenty years, in recruiting some 250 ‘first-rate scientists (émigrés) for the Turkish Government’), and the close ties established with the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning (SPSL) by his successor, Dr Fritz Demuth. Between 1936 and 1946, the Notgemeinschaft actually shared the SPSL's accommodation, and provided an invaluable database of refugee academics to the Society and to the American Emergency Committee. In 1937 Demuth was recognized as advisor to, and honorary member of, the SPSL Executive Committee.
Organized Rescue Operations in Europe and the United States, 1933–1945
Authors: Frank Tibor
Published: August 2013

After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in January 1933, organized rescue operations in both Europe and the United States were put in place to save European intellectuals before or after their exile. However, it was mostly the brilliant and the productive who were helped in coming to America. From among the victims of Nazism, American foundations and endowments, universities, and research institutions primarily supported those who were viewed as having the greatest potential usefulness for the United States. This chapter discusses the activities of the Rockefeller Foundation, the New School for Social Research, and the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Karl Mannheim and Viola Klein: Refugee Sociologists in Search of Social Democratic Practice
Authors: Lyon E. Stina
Published: August 2013

This chapter recounts the story of a relationship forged out of a shared intellectual past, a passion for sociology as a discipline, and the circumstances of being academic refugees. Karl Mannheim (1893–1947), whose sociological writings count amongst the classics in the discipline, arrived in Britain in 1933 as one of the first beneficiaries of the Academic Assistance Council/Society for the Protection of Science and Learning (SPSL). Viola Klein (1908–1973), a pioneer in the field of the sociology of women, also arrived in Britain as a refugee from the onslaught of National Socialism, though without the assistance of SPSL. For a brief period during the war, Mannheim became Klein's Ph.D. tutor at the London School of Economics. Theirs is a story of academic success and enduring intellectual legacy, but also of the hardships of displacement, marginality, tireless networking, and backbreaking daily slog to find employment, academic recognition, and a platform from which to contribute to the country they proudly came to see as their own.
Plutarch’s Thesis: The Contribution of Refugee Historians to Historical Writing, 1945–2010
Authors: Baets Antoon De
Published: August 2013

Can exile be seen as a blessing in disguise? The Greek moral essayist Plutarch, and others after him, argued that it can. This thesis that exile is a blessing in disguise is referred to as Plutarch's thesis, and this chapter attempts to test it. It analyzes 764 refugee historians — drawn from 63 countries on all continents — who made their contribution to historical writing after 1945. The overarching question is whether the loss for the country of origin featured as a corresponding benefit for the country of destination. For the countries of origin the three stages of exile — departure, sojourn abroad, and return — had repercussions. The brain drain was a devastating blow to history-writing, as ‘critical historical writing’ was replaced, for the most part, ‘by servile propaganda on behalf of repressive regimes’. During their sojourn abroad, many refugee historians edited ‘influential editions of sources’, while on their return, their influence was initially limited. Through their continued scholarly networks and contact with scholars and ideas from abroad, however, they enriched both their own scholarship and often the discipline itself. And although it was often delayed, in due course the works of those refugees who remained abroad became known or were rediscovered in their countries of origin.
‘Bending the rules’: South African Refugees in the UK, 1960–1980
Authors: Marks Shula
Published: August 2013

In this chapter, the author reflects on her long personal association with the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning (SPSL)/Council for Assisting Refugee Academics and many of its South African grantees. The academic refugees who came to the SPSL's notice in the 1960s, specially the South Africans, bent the ‘rules’ and signalled the new ways in which the SPSL was going to have to work in a very changed social and educational environment in Britain, and equally great changes in the nature of the academic refugees. Before the rise of Hitler, German scholars had advanced the frontiers of knowledge in the sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities. And in many of these fields the Jews of Central Europe had played a crucial role. Increasingly from the 1960s, however, many of the refugee academics to the UK were from the so-called ‘third world’, especially Latin America and countries just emerging from colonialism in Africa. Academic refugees from South Africa formed something of a bridge between the old and the new. While most of the South African grantees were white and from institutions modelled on British universities, they were on the whole younger and less highly qualified than the earlier generation of grantees. The very small number of Africans assisted at this time were in fact far more eminent; significantly, however, they were the very first Africans to be assisted by the Society.
Associational voluntarism in interwar Britain
Authors: McCarthy Helen
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines the interwar voluntary sector to demonstrate that associational life did not come to be dominated by the ideologies of class and mass political parties, but rather continued to develop an independent voice, oriented towards support for liberal democracy more generally. Considering organisations such as the League of Nations Union, the National Council of Women, the Club and Institute Union, and the British Legion, it outlines the ‘ideological work’ performed by voluntary associations: educating and socialising the new mass electorate into the workings of the liberal democratic system; and assisting in the democratisation of social relations. While class, gender and religious stratification continued to exist, significant ecumenism and gender- and class-mixing meant there was ‘a democratising logic at work’.
Civil society, class and locality
Authors: Shapely Peter
Published: August 2013

This chapter returns working-class agency to the analysis of voluntarism. As it demonstrates with reference to tenants' associations, the voluntary sector was shaped as much by working-class as middle-class culture, even at the height of the welfare state, with the provision of services generating engagement rather than apathy. Tenants' associations provided a vehicle for the assertion of working-class interests in the face of an often unresponsive bureaucracy. In doing so they ‘helped to create a new decision-making arena, making a contribution to expanded notions of democracy’. That they managed to do so while engaging tenants from across the political spectrum demonstrates ‘the essential flexibility and robustness of the voluntary organization as a form which continued to provide an effective platform for the development of civil society’.
Professionalisation, new social movements and voluntary action in the 1960s and 1970s
Authors: Berridge Virginia , Mold Alex
Published: August 2013

This chapter explores the heightened professionalism of the voluntary sector as it adapted to the emergence of a new form of activist, as a way of analysing the utility of different methodological approaches. Using the case-study of voluntary action around smoking and illegal drugs, it demonstrates that the distinctions between old and new politics, between insider and outsider groups, simply ‘melt away’ when closely examined. Instead, the chapter pays attention on the ‘in between spaces’ of the oppositional models, where organisations merged counter-cultural presentation and thought with more traditional pressure-group and service-provision activity, and combined policy challenge with partnership-working, a balancing act enabled by a surprisingly permissive statutory funding regime.
Prologue: On grammar and women
Authors: Sanson Helena
Published: August 2013

This chapter begins with a brief review of various personifications of grammar. It suggests that whichever personification Grammar is given, the underlying point — that she holds a central position in the system of education of the liberal arts — remains. She is the cradle of knowledge and the point of entry to a whole range of disciplines, skills, and methods that in turn lead to further literary and textual knowledge. This is followed by discussions of how teaching and learning grammar was considered unsuitable for women; the impact of the invention of printing on the form, content, and transmission of knowledge; and the emergence of the literary vernacular alongside Latin in the sixteenth century. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Women, the vernacular, and classical languages
Authors: Sanson Helena
Published: August 2013

This chapter examines women's linguistic education in Cinquecento Italy and the role played by the vernacular in making knowledge more accessible to the less educated, and particularly to women. Women's language, according to men of letters and theorists, was simple and devoid of refinement, but also pure and conservative. Women's role as linguistic educators of their offspring could only be a limited one, circumscribed to the first years of childhood: a girl's education usually remained confined within a domestic environment dominated by the vernacular, and removed from the universe of classical languages and more advanced studies that was a privilege of the lucky few. With the development and spread of the printing press, women came to be seen as a new, profitable sector of the publishing market. They became the target of a variety of works that brought the literary vernacular within their reach. A determining role in helping to spread the literary vernacular across different social classes was played by Petrarchism, and the prestige of the written vernacular allowed for the expression of the voices and talents of women writers. Discussions on language were not merely arid scholarly lucubrations. They had become a fashionable topic that pervaded courtly and upper-class society and concerned men and women alike, with women's presence also occasionally directly gracing the more traditional realms of male linguistic erudition.
Women and vernacular grammar
Authors: Sanson Helena
Published: August 2013

With the opening up of literary society and the erosion of its hierarchy that came about during the course of the Cinquecento, vernacular grammars ceased to be works only for scholars and authors tried to extend their reach also to beginners, foreigners, and women. This chapter examines this process of relative popularization of grammar works and, at the same time, of the Questione. The first section outlines the shift in the envisaged readers of these works, with reference to social and political issues. The next two sections focus on women as addressees of grammatical works, both at the higher end of the social scale and more in general alongside the less learned, respectively. Continuing to follow the development of grammatical production in time, the last section investigates the reasons for the setback that the relationship between women and grammar suffered in the seventeenth century.