bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hiring Internal Employees: A View from the Field
Authors: Roach Katie , Dixon Marlene A.
Published: August 2016

In small athletic departments, particularly at the NCAA Division III level, the challenge of building effective coaching staffs can be great because financial and other barriers often limit the pool of job applicants. This challenge is often addressed by hiring former athletes who have just graduated from the same program. This consultation-based study analyzed the positive and negative effects of hiring former athletes as assistant coaches within the same institution. Findings indicated that advantages of hiring former athletes include a reliable assessment of fit, quick time for socialization and valuable contribution, and already established trust between all parties. Disadvantages included limitations on specialization, a dearth of new ideas and new innovations, and issues caused by the role transition from former athlete to coach or assistant coach. Recommendations offered for practice include broadening the search for candidates, and for internal hires, external training and development, and assistance for role transitions.
Prejudice, Patriarchy, and the PGA: Defensive Discourse Surrounding the Shoal Creek and Augusta National Controversies
Authors: Daddario Gina , Wigley Brian J.
Published: August 2016

This study examines the discourse associated with the membership policies at Shoal Creek and Augusta National Golf Clubs. Get-away havens for wealthy White males, these clubs became contested terrains when each was scheduled to host a major golf event: the 1990 PGA Championship at Shoal Creek and the 2003 Masters Tournament at Augusta National. At the time of the events in this study, Shoal Creek had a Whites-only membership policy and Augusta National a male-only policy, which it maintains today. Controversy ensued when the chairs of each club made disparaging comments to the press about these excluded groups. Two parallel areas were considered in our comparative analysis: how the commercial sponsors responded to the controversies, and how the club chairs and their supporters used the rhetorical strategy of apologia to defend themselves and restore the public image of golf. Our analysis reveals the differences in how the cultural constructs of race and gender were negotiated in each case.
Creative Tensions and Conversations in the Academy
Authors: Inglis Sue
Published: August 2016

Academic life invokes creative tensions within and among teaching, research, and service. Work–life balance plays a prominent role in those tensions and in the conversations that they engender. As NASSM’s strategic plan demonstrates, sport management has grown to the point that it will benefit from closer attention to the content and potential of those conversations. Systems thinking in the scrutiny of tensions provides insight that can further inform our conversations. The resulting discourses will engage our thinking about our discipline’s values, content, and environmental influences. As a result, they will move us forward.
Volunteering Abroad: Motives for Travel to Volunteer at the Athens Olympic Games
Authors: Fairley Sheranne , Kellett Pamm , Green B. Christine
Published: August 2016

Volunteers have become essential to the delivery of sport events. Megaevents, such as the Olympic Games, rely on a large number of volunteers for the successful running of the event, some of whom travel to volunteer. This study investigates the motives of a group of people who volunteered at the Sydney Olympics as they prepared to travel to volunteer at the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. Four key motives were identified: (a) nostalgia, (b) camaraderie and friendship, (c) Olympic (i.e., subcultural) connection, and (d) sharing and recognition of expertise. The motives identified distinguish event volunteer tourists from other volunteer tourists and from other event volunteers. It is suggested that the recruitment, retention, and reacquisition of event volunteers will be served by understanding the motives and experiences of repeat event volunteers.
Determinants of Interorganizational Relationships: The Case of a Canadian Nonprofit Sport Organization
Authors: Babiak Kathy
Published: August 2016

Interorganizational relationships have become increasingly important for sport organizations. The purpose of this study was to explore the determinants and conditions of partnership formation in a group of collaborating nonprofit, public, and private organizations. A conceptual framework that includes the determinants of legitimacy, stability, necessity, asymmetry, reciprocity, and efficiency were used. Conditions including interdependence and presence of an interpersonal network were also explored. This research employed qualitative methods to examine partners’ reasons for developing interorganizational relationships in a sport context. For the collaborating organizations, the determinants of legitimacy, stability, reciprocity, and efficiency prevailed as important motives for relationship formation. These findings help to refine and apply contemporary theory to sport management and can be used to help manage interorganizational relationships.
The Impact of a Golf Course on Residential Property Values
Authors: Nicholls Sarah , Crompton John L.
Published: August 2016

A large proportion of golf courses currently under construction are part of larger real-estate projects. The objective of this study was to identify the magnitude of the increase in property prices created by the golf course in one such amenity. A hedonic analysis was undertaken using a sample of 305 sales transactions in a golf course subdivision in College Station, Texas. For comparative purposes, the assessed valuations of these properties were used as an alternative dependent variable. The premiums on lots adjacent to the golf course were $61,074 and $45,759, based on sales prices and assessed valuations, respectively. These premiums represented 25.8% of the average sales price of the homes, and 19.2% of the average assessed value. Prices and assessed values were also found to decline significantly with distance to the country club (by $8–10 per foot from the entrance).
Service Quality, Satisfaction, and Intent to Return in Event Sport Tourism
Authors: Shonk David J. , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

The article proposes a conceptual model of quality in event sport tourism wherein perceived quality of sport tourism (Sport Tourism Quality) is said to influence tourist satisfaction which, in turn, influences the tourist’s intention to return to the place of the event and/or the event itself. Sport Tourism Quality is indicated by four primary dimensions each of which is defined by two or more subdimensions. The primary dimensions are (a) access quality (composed of access to destination, sport venue, hotel), (b) accommodation quality (including the environment, interactions, and value), (c) venue quality (comprised of environment, interactions, and value), and (d) contest quality (indicated by process of the contest and the product of the contest). The proposed multidimensional model of sport tourism quality would facilitate research into the dynamics of sport tourism and offer guidelines for practitioners as they constantly strive to provide the very best experience for sport tourists.
Exploring Substitutability Within College Sports through Hierarchical Choice Processes
Authors: Ferreira Mauricio
Published: August 2016

Understanding how spectators make decisions among the multiplicity of sport alternatives is important to the development of marketing strategies. In this study, a hierarchical choice framework was adopted to help illuminate theprocessin which individuals deal with sport substitution decisions within one university setting. In a forced-choice experiment, 419 college students were presented with existing sport offerings and asked, under constraint-free conditions, to make attendance choices with and without the most preferred alternative available. By observing students’ choices, the choice process was inferred based on the degree of switching that occurred between the two scenarios and tested whether it followed a hierarchical scheme. Results supported a “tree” structure for attendance choices, in which students consider the specific sport before considering the alternatives within the sport. Thus, under the conditions tested substitution was more likely to occur between alternatives of the same sport than either between different sports with the same sex of participants or proportionally across all alternatives.
Sponsor and Sponsees Interactions: Effects on Consumers’ Perceptions of Brand Image, Brand Attachment, and Purchasing Intention
Authors: Chanavat Nicolas , Martinent Guillaume , Ferrand Alain
Published: August 2016

Notwithstanding the substantial development of sponsorship investigations, relationships between the sponsor and cosponsees and fan’s responses (i.e., cognitive, affective and conative) have not been investigated yet in a multiple sponsorship sport event context. Hence, the purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of commercial sponsorships on the intention to purchase sponsor products in relation to brand image and brand attachment. Furthermore, this researcher analyzed the relationships between a sponsor (adidas), an event (2006 FIFA Soccer World Cup Germany), a team (French National Soccer Team) and a top player (Zinédine Zidane). Structural equation modeling was used to conduct this research. The crucial results revealed that a multiple sponsorship arrangement creates interactions between the sponsor and the sponsees brands cognitive and affective stages. Secondly, the model demonstrated that multiple sponsorship activates brand behavioral dimensions (i.e., cognitive, affective and conative) according to the hierarchy of effects model (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961).
The Antecedents and Outcomes of Attachment and Sponsor Image Within Charity Sport Events
Authors: Filo Kevin , Funk Daniel , O’Brien Danny
Published: August 2016

Sport events benefiting a charitable cause have emerged as meaningful experiences for participants. These charity sport events may allow event sponsors to shape perceptions of corporate image among event participants. Using the Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) as the theoretical framework, the factors that contribute to participants’ perceptions of event sponsors are examined. The influence of this image of event sponsors on behavioral outcomes among participants is also investigated. A post-event questionnaire was administered to participants in a sport event (N = 672) to investigate the relationships among motives, sponsor image, event attachment, purchase intent, and future participation intent. Results reveal that recreation and charity motives contribute to event attachment, while charity motives and event attachment contribute to sponsor image. Significantly, sponsor image and attachment contribute to purchase intent for event sponsors’ products. Finally, sponsor image does not influence future participation intent, while event attachment does. The results illustrate the discrete roles that sponsor image and attachment play in sport consumption activities. Suggestions are made for the strategic selection and marketing of events by potential sponsors to most effectively leverage event sponsorship opportunities.
Gross Domestic Sport Product: The Size of the Sport Industry in the United States
Authors: Milano Michael , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

With a view of verifying the optimistic forecasts of the growth of the sport industry, the paper presents an estimate of the size of the sport industry in 2005 and compares it to a 1995 estimate provided by Meek (1997). Following the methodology of Meek and the guidelines put forth by the United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis (2007), we present three estimates for the size of the Gross Domestic Sport Product (GDSP) of the United States of America in 2005—conservative estimate of $168.469 billion, moderate estimate of $189.338 billion, and the liberal estimate of $207.503 billion. A comparison of the moderate estimate with Meek’s 1995 estimate shows that the size of sport industry, in relative terms, actually declined. The sources of the data, rationale for three different estimates, and the values for the components of the GDSP are described and explained.
The Provision of Social Support for Elite Indigenous Athletes in Australian Football
Authors: Nicholson Matthew , Hoye Russell , Gallant David
Published: August 2016

This paper reports the findings of an exploratory study into the perceptions of social support held by elite Indigenous athletes playing in the Australian Football League. Indigenous athletes within the AFL appear to require more culturally relevant and specialized support structures than non-Indigenous athletes. The study illustrates that teammates of a similar cultural background are the most important providers of social support and that Indigenous led and implemented support structures and programs seem most likely to be successful in supporting Indigenous athletes. The study highlighted that the family and community connections held by Indigenous athletes are little understood by their non-Indigenous teammates, their clubs or the league, yet they form an essential network of social support that provides the foundation for Indigenous participation and individual success.
Racial-Ethnic Team-Market Congruency in Professional Sport
Authors: Nadeau John , Pegoraro Ann , Jones D. Floyd , O’Reilly Norm , Carvalho Paulo
Published: August 2016

This paper reports on an investigation of racial-ethnic congruency among professional sport teams and their local markets. The study empirically tested the relationship between racial-ethnic team-market congruence and market support. Results of the research provide some support for the relevance of team and market congruency in the marketing of professional sport. Although varying by city, by North American professional sport league, and by racial-ethnic community, the results demonstrate that consumers have noticed and used their own reflections in professional baseball teams to influence their level of team support.
‘Lifting the Veils and Illuminating the Shadows’: Furthering the Explorations of Race and Ethnicity in Sport Management
Authors: Armstrong Ketra L.
Published: August 2016

This essay provides a general introduction to and foundation for the scholarly explorations of how race and ethnicity impact Sport Management. Briefly discussed are the changing portraits of racial and ethnic demography, the conceptual treatments of race and ethnicity, and the methodological challenges and research imperatives. This essay also offers a brief summary of the trends in research on race and ethnicity in Sport Management, and it provides an integrated overview of the scholarship featured in this Special Issue which (in varied ways) explicate the salience of race and ethnicity to Sport Management practices, and to the experiences of sport employees, athletes, and sport marketing and media consumers.
Free Ride, Take It Easy: An Empirical Analysis of Adverse Incentives Caused by Revenue Sharing
Authors: Rascher Daniel A. , Nagel Mark S. , Brown Matthew T. , McEvoy Chad D.
Published: August 2016

A fundamental belief in professional sport leagues is that competitive balance is needed to maximize demand and revenues; therefore, leagues have created policies attempting to attain proper competitive balance. Further, research posits that objectives of professional sport teams’ owners include some combination of winning and profit maximization. Although the pursuit of wins is a zero sum game, revenue generation and potential profit making is not. This article focuses upon the National Football League’s potential unintended consequences of creating the incentive for some teams to free ride on the rest of the league’s talent and brand. It examines whether an owner’s objectives to generate increased revenues and profits are potentially enhanced by operating as a continual low-cost provider while making money from the shared revenues and brand value of the league. The present evidence indicates that, overall, being a low-cost provider is more profitable than increasing player salaries in an attempt to win additional games.
More Than Motivation: Reconsidering Volunteer Management Tools
Authors: Warner Stacy , Newland Brianna L. , Green B. Christine
Published: August 2016

Volunteers provide an essential human resource to sport organizations. Yet measures of motivation and satisfaction have had limited impact on an organization’s ability to improve their volunteer systems. This study applied the Kano Method to categorize volunteers’ perceptions of their experience into four dimensions of satisfaction: Attractive (or Satisfiers), Must-Be’s (or Dissatisfiers), One-Dimensional, and Indifferent. Four types of volunteers (44 sport continuous, 47 sport episodic, 49 nonsport continuous, 176 nonsport episodic) completed a web questionnaire including 26-paired features of their experience, 26 motives, and five key outcome measures. Although motives were deemed important, alone they were poor predictors of key outcomes and were unrelated to satisfaction. Volunteers in the four contexts classified the 26 features in different ways. No Must-Be’s (dissatisfiers) were identified by any group. Although most features were identified as Attractive, the distribution of One-Dimensional and Indifferent features varied by context. One-dimensional items were only identified among features categorized as Supportive Culture, Clear Direction, and Contribution. These features should be prioritized as managers improve volunteer management systems. The Kano Method extends our understanding of the volunteer experience by providing researchers with a tool to distinguish the way volunteers conceptualize their experience. From a practical standpoint, it provides volunteer managers with an additional tool in their efforts to recruit and retain volunteers by prioritizing features that will most immediately impact volunteers.
Divided Loyalty? An Analysis of Fantasy Football Involvement and Fan Loyalty to Individual National Football League (NFL) Teams
Authors: Dwyer Brendan
Published: August 2016

Fantasy football participation is an extremely-popular, yet unique online activity that combines traditional sport fandom with interactive components to enhance a fan’s overall sport experience. The player-specific concentration of the game, however, has the potential to alter traditional team-focused loyalties that have driven sport consumer behavior inquiry for decades. Due to this intriguing circumstance, this study investigated the relationship between fantasy football involvement and traditional NFL fan loyalty. In addition, given the varying levels of fantasy participation, this study examined factors that predict differing levels of involvement among fantasy owners. The results suggest a positive relationship between involvement and attitudinal loyalty and a nonstandard relationship between a highly-involved fantasy football participant’s attitudes and behaviors, especially with regard to team loyalty. Discussed are the theoretical repercussions of this conceptual disconnect, the potential for future research, and practical implications for the future marketing of individual teams, leagues, and fantasy-related applications.
Athletics Department Awareness and Action Regarding the Environment: A Study of NCAA Athletics Department Sustainability Practices
Authors: Casper Jonathan , Pfahl Michael , McSherry Mark
Published: August 2016

The relationship of sport to sustainability management is relatively unknown. Despite the increasing recognition of the growing role of athletics in regard to environmental sustainability, it remains unclear what role athletics departments have with regard to environmental action and what is currently being done now. The purpose of this study is to examine American intercollegiate athletics department personnel in relation to their organization’s sustainability practices, organizational strategies, and personal perspectives at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) universities. Athletics department members (N = 97) who were most responsible for sustainability initiatives responded to a survey designed to assess awareness levels and concern for environmental issues and the strategies and practices at work in their respective athletics departments. Findings based on prioritization, planning, decision-making, and use of initiatives using frequencies and means are reported. Differences, using t tests were also compared based on BCS or non-BCS standing. Results show that although environmental concern is high, there is disconnect between concern and action perhaps due to a lack of communication between the athletics department and the general university, cost concerns, and a lack of knowledge about sustainability initiatives. Implications related to the need for better communication between the athletics department/university and improved planning and prioritization is discussed.
Norms in Sports Contests: The Tour de France
Authors: Fink Alexander , Smith Daniel J.
Published: August 2016

Profit-maximizing organizers of sports contests have an incentive to implement rules that increase the attractiveness of sports contest for spectators. But prohibitively high enforcement costs can prevent organizers from implementing certain rules. We argue that in these instances unofficial norms can potentially complement the official rules and add to the attractiveness of a contest. If contest participants who have an encompassing interest in the contest face low enough monitoring and sanctioning costs, they can enforce unofficial norms among themselves. Thus, organizers of sports contests may find it beneficial to avoid instituting rules that inhibit the emergence of unofficial norms. We provide evidence in support of our contention from the Tour de France.
Good Boards Are Strategic: What Does That Mean for Sport Governance?
Authors: Ferkins Lesley , Shilbury David
Published: August 2016

To learn more about the governance of sport organizations, this study explored what meaning board members of national sport organizations (NSOs) attach to the concept of “strategic capability”. In so doing, the inquiry also identified factors considered to constrain or enable board strategic function. This paper draws on a body of knowledge developed over 38 years on board strategic function, primarily from the commercial setting but also from the emerging body of work in the nonprofit and sport governance setting. Located within the interpretive research paradigm this study engaged a range of different qualitative methods including cognitive mapping and visual imagery. Working across two NSOs in New Zealand, four elements were generated that served as reference points in mapping out the meaning of a strategically able board. These were categorized as the need to have capable people, a frame of reference, facilitative board processes, and facilitative regional relationships.
Recurring Sport Events and Destination Image Perceptions: Impact on Active Sport Tourist Behavioral Intentions and Place Attachment
Authors: Kaplanidou Kyriaki , Jordan Jeremy S. , Funk Daniel , Ridinger Lynn L.
Published: August 2016

Hosting recurring sport events can be a solution for sustainable tourism development resulting in destination loyalty and higher place attachment levels. This study proposes active event sport tourists may include in their destination perceptions a number of destination and event attributes, given the direct association of the event with the place. The feasibility of the convergence of event and destination image attributes in one scale was explored and that scale’s influence on place attachment and on specific active sport tourists’ behaviors was examined. Data were collected from sport event tourist participants (n = 2,015) at a recurring marathon event via an online survey. Exploratory factor analysis confirmed the factor structure of destination image to include event characteristics. Regression analysis was used to test the impact of destination image factors on behavioral intentions and place attachment and supported the predictive validity of destination image factors. Implications for event and destination marketers are discussed.
Bringing Baseball to the Big Screen: Building Sense of Community Outside of the Ballpark
Authors: Fairley Sheranne , Tyler B. David
Published: August 2016

Sport fandom, particularly game attendance, offers an opportunity for social interaction. However, actual attendance at sport events is unrealistic for many individuals. In an attempt to foster a sense of community among such fans, sport marketers have begun to create additional consumption sites by televising live games in central locations, such as in a movie theater. This study examines the motives and experiences of fans who attend a cinema to view live baseball games. Data were collected through participant observation, a survey distributed to event attendees (n = 188), and focus groups. Results suggest that the sense of community and social environment created at the cinema were key factors in the viewing experience. The cinema provided individuals a collective viewing experience with likeminded fans, which helped create a stadium-like environment. This atmosphere, which affords the opportunity to focus on the game (compared with viewing at home or in pubs), allows fans to feel more connected to the team as they believe the cinema offers an authentic environment. Thus, providing sites for fans to view the game with likeminded fans outside of the stadium can be used as a means of creating social ties that could lead to increased fan loyalty. For some individuals, the cinema experience was preferred over that of the ballpark.
Patterns of Bureaucracy in Intercollegiate Athletic Departments
Authors: Rocha Claudio M. , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

The objective of the current research was to verify the extent to which Gouldner’s (1954) three patterns of bureaucracy were prevalent in intercollegiate athletic departments. Single and multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) of the data provided by 907 coaches from all three NCAA divisions (ndivI = 322; ndivII = 277; ndivIII = 308) showed that structural relationships among goals, processes, and patterns of bureaucracy were invariant among all three groups of coaches. Substantively, the factor of developmental goals through developmental processes (Trail & Chelladurai, 2000) predicted positively the presence of representative bureaucracy and punishment-centered bureaucracy and negatively the existence of mock bureaucracy. This means that the more athletic departments emphasize academic values, the less the coaches perceive a pattern of loose coupling between rules and actual technical activities. Implications of these results for theory and practice were discussed.
Examining the Financial Impact of Alcohol Sales on Football Game Days: A Case Study of a Major Football Program
Authors: Huang Kelly , Dixon Marlene A.
Published: August 2016

As college athletic departments continue to seek additional sources of revenue to remain competitive, alcohol sales on game day increasingly has been considered as a potentially lucrative and untapped revenue source. Despite the seemingly high profitability from alcohol sales, the increased availability of alcohol coupled with its consumption by a large number of individuals has negative social consequences, including assaults, arrests, and other behavioral risks, causing potential ethical and social responsibility dilemmas for athletic departments and universities. Utilizing self-disclosed financial data (via interviews and documents) from a major college football program, this case study examines the financial implications of selling alcohol to the general public on football game days. Through proforma financial analysis, two revenue models are created to show the incremental revenue potential of alcohol sales. Results show that for this institution the incremental financial impact from alcoholic beverage sales does not create sufficient benefit to pursue this avenue of funding. This conclusion, however, must be examined within the larger resources, contextual constraints, and expectations of particular institutions for both competitive advantage and social responsibility.
Expanding Social Inclusion in Community Sports Organizations: Evidence from Rural Australian Football Clubs
Authors: Frost Lionel , Lightbody Margaret , Halabi Abdel K.
Published: August 2016

Australian Football clubs have traditionally been seen as contributing social benefits to the rural communities in which they are embedded. Declining numbers of participants, both players and volunteers, suggest that this role may not be as strong today. Critical explorations of the extent to which football has driven social inclusion and exclusion in such environments emphasizes a historic masculine culture of drinking and violence that segregates and marginalizes women and children. Less is known about the contemporary strategic efforts of clubs to use social capital to support their activities, and whether the resources they generate have positive impacts on social inclusion in the wider community. We use evidence from the Parliament of Victoria’s Inquiry into Country Football (2004) to explore the current focus of rural Australian Football clubs regarding social inclusion, in light of changes occurring in society and rural towns in the 21st century.
The Structure and Processes of Synchro Canada
Authors: Morrow Wendy White , Chelladurai P.
Published: August 2016

A successful national sport organization, Synchro Canada, was described in terms of three structural characteristics (formalization, centralization, and complexity) and five processes (activities to ensure resources, work flow, control, identification, and homeostatic activities) based on evidence from documents and, to a limited extent, from interviews. Eighty-five subjects from four constituent groups (administrators, judges, coaches, and athletes) responded to a questionnaire that assessed their perceptions regarding the contributions of the selected organizational characteristics to Synchro Canada's overall effectiveness. The analyses showed that the organization's structures and processes were consistent with the literature in organization theory. From an overall perspective, the respondents perceived the structural and process characteristics as contributing to overall effectiveness. However, the coaches as a subgroup viewed the dimensions of activities to ensure resources, control activities, and centralization as detracting from effectiveness.
Total Quality Management: Perspectives for Sport Managers
Authors: Mawson L. Marlene
Published: August 2016

The management technique known as Total Quality Management (TQM) has been incorporated into many large business firms, Because TQM is focused on customer satisfaction, sport managers may find its concepts useful for sport organizations.
Understanding Sport Sponsorship through Exchange Theory
Authors: McCarville Ronald E. , Copeland Robert P.
Published: August 2016

Public, not-for-profit, and private sector sport groups are increasingly exploring innovative means of generating funds. Sponsorship represents one promising revenue alternative. This paper uses exchange theory to discuss and describe sport sponsorship and offer propositions. These propositions are based generally on the principles of exchange and often reflect current practice. As such they offer some insight to those hoping to initiate and maintain sponsorship agreements. All have yet to be empirically verified within the context of sport sponsorship, however, so they may also be used to guide research efforts. They suggest that partners choose sponsorship opportunities that offer the most valued rewards with the greatest probability of success. It is suggested that past successes may dictate future sponsorship decisions. Further, multiple-reward options may be most successful in encouraging subsequent contributions. Although this discussion takes place in the context of sport sponsorship, both the theoretical perspective and propositions are relevant to a broad spectrum of sponsorship settings.
Leadership and Organizational Culture: An Investigation of Big Ten and Mid-American Conference Campus Recreation Administrations
Authors: Weese W. James
Published: August 2016

This descriptive research study was conducted to investigate the concepts of transformational leadership and organizational culture within the administrative levels of campus recreation programs of Big Ten and Mid-American Conference universities. While transformational leadership was quantitatively measured by the Leadership Behavior Questionnaire (LBQ), the Culture Strength Assessment (CSA) and Culture Building Activities (CBA) instruments provided two quantitative measures of organizational culture. Qualitative data were also collected and analyzed to enrich and cross validate the findings. The researcher concluded that high transformational leaders direct programs that (a) possess stronger organizational cultures and (b) carry out culture-building activities, specifically the “customer orientation” function, to a greater extent than other leaders do. An interaction effect between leadership and conference was uncovered for this variable. No significant difference was uncovered between the high and low leadership groups relative to the penetration of culture throughout the top four hierarchical levels of the organization.
Sex-typing of Physical Activities and Success Predictions of Children before and after Cross-sex Competition
Authors: Corbin Charles B. , Nix Charles
Published: August 2016

Elementary school children, 20 boys and 20 girls, served as subjects in this investigation designed to determine how children sex-typed each of three different motor activities and to study their success predictions before and after cross-sex competition. Results of the study indicated that both boys and girls sex-typed a motor task requiring strength, speed, and power as a “male” activity, while the two other motor tasks were characterized as “male-female.” The self-confidence levels of girls, as measured by success predictions were lower than boys prior to competition but only for the “male” activity. After cross-sex competition in which girls succeeded as often as the boys, self-confidence of girls was no different than for boys. There were no sex differences in postcompetition state anxiety levels. All subjects regardless of sex were more threatened after competing in a “male” as opposed to a “male-female” activity, and they experienced lower state anxiety following successful rather than unsuccessful competition.
Children's Anxiety in Sport and Nonsport Evaluative Activities
Authors: Simon Julie A. , Martens Rainer
Published: August 2016

Comparisons of pre-event state anxiety (A-state) were made among 9- to 14-year-old boys participating in required school activities (classroom tests and physical education class), nonrequired nonsport activities (band solos and band group competition), and nonschool sports (baseball, basketball, football, gymnastics, hockey, swimming, and wrestling). Participants in all three groups were significantly different from each other with those in the nonrequired nonsport activities manifesting the highest A-state levels followed by boys in the nonschool sports and then those in the required school activities. Comparisons across sports revealed higher A-states among individual sport participants than team sport participants. No differences were found between contact and noncontact sport participants, but a significant interaction showed that the highest A-states were reported among those in individual-contact sports and the lowest in team-contact sports. The differences in A-state levels among the activities studied were discussed in terms of the evaluation potential existing in each activity.
Causal Attributions in Sport: Some Theoretical Implications
Authors: Roberts Glyn C. , Pascuzzi Debbie
Published: August 2016

Previous sport attribution studies have generally asked subjects to make attributions for outcomes to the four elements of ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty. These studies have assumed that these elements are the most important causes of outcomes. The present study tested this assumption. An open-ended questionnaire was given to 349 male and female subjects to determine the causal elements used in sport situations. Results showed that the four traditional elements of ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty were used 45% of the time. However, the theory advocated by Weiner (1974) is based on the dimensions of locus of control and stability, and not on the elements per se. When the responses of subjects were content analyzed for dimensional properties, it was concluded that 100% of the responses could be placed within the four cells of the Weiner model. These results support the applicability of the Weiner achievement behavior model to sport environments, but only when careful analysis of causal attributions is made to determine their dimensional relevance. The evidence suggests that situationally relevant elements be included in addition to the traditional elements of ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty.
Relationship between Competitive Trait Anxiety, State Anxiety, and Golf Performance: A Field Study
Authors: Weinberg Robert S. , Genuchi Marvin
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the present investigation was to determine the relationship between competitive trait anxiety (CTA), state anxiety, and golf performance in a field setting. Ten low, moderate, and high CTA collegiate golfers (N = 30) performed in a practice round on Day 1 and Day 2 of a competitive tournament. State anxiety results indicated a significant CTA main effect with low CTA subjects displaying lower state anxiety than moderate or high CTA subjects. The competition main effect was also significant, with post hoc tests indicating higher levels of state anxiety during Day 1 and Day 2 than during the practice round. Performance results produced a significant CTA main effect with low CTA subjects displaying higher levels of performance than moderate or high CTA subjects. Correlations between SCAT and state anxiety indicated that SCAT was a good predictor of precompetitive state anxiety. The direction of state anxiety and performance CTA main effects provide support for Oxendine's (1970) contentions that sports requiring fine muscle coordination and precision (e.g., golf) are performed best at low levels of anxiety. Future directions for research are offered.
The Effects of Model Similarity and Model Talk on Self-efficacy and Muscular Endurance
Authors: Gould Daniel , Weiss Maureen
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to determine if observing a similar or dissimilar model who makes varying self-efficacy statements influences an observer's efficacy expectations and, in turn, muscular endurance performance. Females (N = 150) were randomly assigned to groups in a 2 × 4 × 3 (model similarity by model talk by trials) factorial design or to a no-model control group. Model similarity was manipulated by having subjects view a female described as a nonathlete (similar) or a male described as a varsity track athlete (dissimilar). The four levels of model talk included: a positive self-talk model who performed and made positive self-efficacy statements, a negative self-talk model who made negative self-efficacy statements, an irrelevant-talk model who made statements unrelated to self-efficacy, and a no-talk model who remained silent throughout the performance. Self-efficacy measures were assessed in addition to performance on three trials of a muscular endurance task. Results revealed that similar model subjects extended their legs significantly longer than dissimilar model and control subjects. Moreover, the similar-positive-talk and similar-no-talk groups performed significantly better than the dissimilar-positive-talk, dissimilar-negative talk, dissimilar-no-talk, and the no-model control groups. Subject self-efficacy, however, was not found to be the major mediating variable affecting these performance changes.
The Effects of Career Counseling on Freshman College Athletes
Authors: Nelson Eileen S.
Published: August 2016

The results of this study suggest that college athletes can improve their academic performance through participation in career counseling. Subjects included 34 female and 98 male freshman athletes enrolled in their first semester in college. They were randomly assigned to two groups. The experimental group attended five career counseling sessions with an academic advisor. This group was found to have significantly higher first semester GPAs, more changes in choice of college majors, and higher expressed satisfaction with their majors as compared to the second, or control, group that received no career counseling. At the end of the freshman year, the GPAs of experimental subjects, who had received career counseling, did not differ significantly from those of the rest of the freshman class (nonathletes). However, GPAs of athletes who did not receive any career counseling were significantly lower than both those of the experimental group and the rest of the freshman class.
Sport Psychology in the 1980s: Status, Direction, and Challenge in Youth Sports Research1
Authors: Gould Daniel
Published: August 2016

Past youth sports research studies that have had significant practical and theoretical impact were identified. These investigations were characterized by several features: (a) asking questions of practical importance, (b) integrating previous research or theory into the designs, (c) employing adequate methodological procedures and sample sizes, and (d) answering questions through series of interrelated investigations. In contrast, youth sports studies that did not have as much impact did not reflect many of these characteristics. Based on these findings, future directions in youth sports research were identified. It was concluded that if the sport psychologist is to conduct socially significant research that will make contributions to those involved in youth sports, three issues must be addressed. First, critical questions of practical significance must be identified. In an effort to identify these issues the results of a survey on psychological topics of practical significance to youth sport personnel was presented. In addition, beneficial and detrimental aspects of theory testing are outlined as well as the role of strong inference in conducting youth sports research. The second issue addressed is the use of varied types of research in studying youth sports. It is argued that descriptive, evaluation, and systems approach research are all needed and examples of each type of research are presented. The third issue examined is the need for a shift in methodological approaches when conducting youth sports research. Sport psychologists must realize that no single method is always best, and varied as well as innovative methodological procedures must be employed. The need to shift from a linear causation and convenient ANOVA categories model to a multidisciplinary, multivariate, and longitudinal approach is suggested.
Sensation Seeking among High and Low-Risk Male Athletes
Authors: Straub William F.
Published: August 2016

Many problems are associated with the measurement of athletes in contemporary sport psychology. There is, for example, a dearth of valid and reliable tests to assess the many and diverse behaviors of players. The purpose of this investigation was to attempt to validate Zuckerman's sensation seeking scale (SSS V) using high- and low-risk sport participants. The SSS (Form V) was administered to male hang gliders (n = 33), automobile racers (n = 22), and intercollegiate bowlers (n = 25). It was hypothesized that the high-risk athletes (hang gliders and auto racers) would score significantly higher (.05 level) than the low-risk sport participants (bowlers) in total sensation seeking score and on the four subscales of Zuckerman's test. Stepwise multiple discriminant function analyses found that except for thrill and adventure seeking and disinhibition subscales, the above hypotheses were tenable. Thus, it was concluded that support exists for Zuckerman's SSS (Form V) as a measure of sensation seeking among male athletes.
Causal Relationships among Cohesion, Satisfaction, and Performance in Women's Intercollegiate Field Hockey Teams
Authors: Williams Jean M. , Hacker Colleen M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine whether team cohesion in women's intercollegiate field hockey was specifically a cause for or an effect of successful performance and to examine what the cause-effect relationship is between cohesion and satisfaction and satisfaction and performance. A secondary purpose was to compare results from a cross-lagged panel correlation analysis with partial correlations and path analysis of the data. The high and significant individual correlations from cohesion to performance and performance to cohesion, combined with the failure of the cross-lagged correlation to indicate any causal predominance, suggested a circular relationship between cohesion and performance. Examination of the satisfaction correlations suggested that satisfaction may be a mediating variable in the cohesion-performance circular relationship. Support for this model totally broke down when the results from the partial correlations and path analysis of the data were examined. The only causal flow, and this only in a few select circumstances, was from success to increased cohesiveness and greater satisfaction, and from increased cohesiveness to greater satisfaction.
Personal and Situational Factors Associated with Dropping out versus Maintaining Participation in Competitive Sport
Authors: Robinson Timothy T. , Carron Albert V.
Published: August 2016

The relationship between the decision of young athletes (N = 98) classified as starters, survivors, and dropouts to either maintain involvement with a competitive sport team or drop out and a number of motivational (personal) and situational factors was examined. The personal and situational factors employed fell into six categories: trait measures (competitive trait anxiety [A-trait], achievement motivation; intrinsic [self] motivation; self-esteem; and causal attributions), general attitudes toward competitive sport, sportsmanship and communication factors, socialization factors (parental and peer group involvement), coaching (leadership) considerations, and cohesion or group climate factors. Discriminant function analysis revealed that the continuum of actual participation which exists (starters-survivors-dropouts) is also directly related to systematic differences in personal factors within the groups as well as in their perception of specific situational factors. Variables discriminating among the groups included perception of group climate (sense of belonging, enjoyment, closeness), attitudes toward competition (perception of the importance of winning, role of physical activity in physical fitness development), socialization factors (encouragement received from fathers, encouragement received from teachers), attributions following athletic outcomes (attributions to ability following failure and effort following success), and leadership (perception of the coach as an autocrat).