bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Income Risk and Crop Production Patterns of Small-Scale Farmers in Eastern Oromiya Region of Ethiopia
Authors: Fufa. Bekabil , Hassan Rashid M
Published: March 2006

Income risk associated with crop production was analysed using the Quadratic Risk Programming Model for users and non-users of maize production technologies in Dadar district in Ethiopia. The E-V results revealed that both categories of farmers have the same degree of risk aversion as reflected by the degree of risk aversion coefficient (λ = 0.0008). In addition, the optimisation model results showed that improved maize production is associated with higher income risk as no more than the minimum subsistence constraint was chosen under higher degrees of risk aversion. While an increase in fertilizer prices reduced maize area cultivated for package users, the sensitivity analysis results for increases in maize prices showed a substantial rise in the area allocated to improved maize. However, for increased maize prices, area allocated to maize remained at subsistence level for non-users of the package. The development and promotion of new agricultural technologies need to take into account the yield and income risks associated with maize production in the area. In addition, expansion of rural road infrastructure, the promotion of post-harvest crop storage technologies and food processing industries should be given emphasis as strategies to stabilize prices and reduce income variability arising from crop production in the area.
Analysis of Institutional Solid Waste Management in Gweru, Zimbabwe
Authors: Jerie S
Published: March 2006

Of all environmental problems that have come into focus in Gweru, institutional solid waste management has been the slowest to develop either direction or regulatory mechanisms. This study examines the characteristics of waste generated, and the effectiveness of the waste management system in the institutions. Measurements were used to determine the quantities of waste generated, and interviews and questionnaires were employed to assess the soundness of the system. The general picture is that significant quantities of waste are generated in the institutional sector, but there are no sound practices for managing the waste. This paper attempts to provide a framework for policy and planning strategies relating to solid waste management in public and private institutions in Gweru. Presently, institutional solid waste management is an area in which our ignorance still exceeds our knowledge.
Childhood Obesity: Trends and Potential Causes
Authors: Anderson Patricia M. , Butcher Kristin F. (Kristin Frances)
Published: March 2006

The increase in childhood obesity over the past several decades, together with the associated health problems and costs, is raising grave concern among health care professionals, policy experts, children's advocates, and parents. Patricia Anderson and Kristin Butcher document trends in children's obesity and examine the possible underlying causes of the obesity epidemic. They begin by reviewing research on energy intake, energy expenditure, and "energy balance," noting that children who eat more "empty calories" and expend fewer calories through physical activity are more likely to be obese than other children. Next they ask what has changed in children's environment over the past three decades to upset this energy balance equation. In particular, they examine changes in the food market, in the built environment, in schools and child care settings, and in the role of parents—paying attention to the timing of these changes. Among the changes that affect children's energy intake are the increasing availability of energy-dense, high-calorie foods and drinks through schools. Changes in the family, particularly an increase in dual-career or single-parent working families, may also have increased demand for food away from home or pre-prepared foods. A host of factors have also contributed to reductions in energy expenditure. In particular, children today seem less likely to walk to school and to be traveling more in cars than they were during the early 1970s, perhaps because of changes in the built environment. Finally, children spend more time viewing television and using computers. Anderson and Butcher find no one factor that has led to increases in children's obesity. Rather, many complementary changes have simultaneously increased children's energy intake and decreased their energy expenditure. The challenge in formulating policies to address children's obesity is to learn how best to change the environment that affects children's energy balance.
Treating Child Obesity and Associated Medical Conditions
Authors: Caprio Sonia
Published: March 2006

With American children on course to grow into the most obese generation of adults in history, Sonia Caprio argues that it is critical to develop more effective strategies for preventing childhood obesity and treating serious obesity-related health complications. She notes that although pediatricians are concerned about the obesity problem, most are ineffective in addressing it. Treatment should begin, Caprio explains, with a thorough medical exam, an assessment of nutrition and physical activity, an appraisal of the degree of obesity and associated health complications, a family history, and full information about current medications. Caprio also summarizes the current use of medications and surgery in treating child obesity and argues that for severe forms of obesity, the future lies in developing new and more effective drugs. Caprio explains that today's most effective obesity treatment programs have been carried out in academic centers through an approach that combines a dietary component, behavioral modification, physical activity, and parental involvement. Such programs, however, have yet to be translated to primary pediatric care centers. Successfully treating obesity, she argues, will require a major shift in pediatric care that builds on the findings of these academic centers regarding structured intervention programs. To ensure that pediatricians are well trained in implementing such programs, the American Medical Association is working with federal agencies, medical specialty societies, and public health organizations to teach doctors how to prevent and manage obesity in both children and adults. Such training should be a part of undergraduate and graduate medical education and of continuing medical education programs. Caprio also addresses the problem of reimbursement for obesity treatment. Despite the health risks of obesity, patients get little support from health insurers, thus putting long-term weight-management programs beyond the reach of most. Caprio argues that obesity should be recognized as a disease and receive coverage for its treatment just as other diseases do.
Markets and Childhood Obesity
Authors: Cawley John H. (John Horan)
Published: March 2006

In examining the childhood obesity epidemic from the perspective of economics, John Cawley looks at both possible causes and possible policy solutions that work through markets. The operation of markets, says Cawley, has contributed to the recent increase in childhood overweight in three main ways. First, the real price of food fell. In particular, energy-dense foods, such as those containing fats and sugars, became relatively cheaper than less energy-dense foods, such as fresh fruits and vegetables. Second, rising wages increased the "opportunity costs" of food preparation for college graduates, encouraging them to spend less time preparing meals. Third, technological changes created incentives to use prepackaged food rather than to prepare foods. Several economic rationales justify government intervention in markets to address these problems. First, because free markets generally under-provide information, the government may intervene to provide consumers with nutrition information they need. Second, because society bears the soaring costs of obesity, the government may intervene to lower the costs to taxpayers. Third, because children are not what economists call "rational consumers"—they cannot evaluate information critically and weigh the future consequences of their actions—the government may step in to help them make better choices. The government can easily disseminate information to consumers directly, but formulating policies to address the other two rationales is more difficult. In the absence of ideal policies to combat obesity, the government must turn to "second-best" policies. For example, it could protect children from advertisements for "junk food." It could implement taxes and subsidies that discourage the consumption of unhealthful foods or encourage physical activity. It could require schools to remove vending machines for soda and candy. From the economic perspective, policymakers should evaluate these options on the basis of cost-effectiveness studies. Researchers, however, have as yet undertaken few such studies of obesity-related policy options. Such analyses, once available, will help policymakers achieve the greatest benefit from a fixed budget.
The Consequences of Childhood Overweight and Obesity
Authors: Daniels Stephen R
Published: March 2006

Researchers are only gradually becoming aware of the gravity of the risk that overweight and obesity pose for children's health. In this article Stephen Daniels documents the heavy toll that the obesity epidemic is taking on the health of the nation's children. He discusses both the immediate risks associated with childhood obesity and the longer-term risk that obese children and adolescents will become obese adults and suffer other health problems as a result. Daniels notes that many obesity-related health conditions once thought applicable only to adults are now being seen in children and with increasing frequency. Examples include high blood pressure, early symptoms of hardening of the arteries, type 2 diabetes, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, polycystic ovary disorder, and disordered breathing during sleep. He systematically surveys the body's systems, showing how obesity in adulthood can damage each and how childhood obesity exacerbates the damage. He explains that obesity can harm the cardiovascular system and that being overweight during childhood can accelerate the development of heart disease. The processes that lead to a heart attack or stroke start in childhood and often take decades to progress to the point of overt disease. Obesity in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood may accelerate these processes. Daniels shows how much the same generalization applies to other obesity-related disorders—metabolic, digestive, respiratory, skeletal, and psychosocial—that are appearing in children either for the first time or with greater severity or prevalence. Daniels notes that the possibility has even been raised that the increasing prevalence and severity of childhood obesity may reverse the modern era's steady increase in life expectancy, with today's youth on average living less healthy and ultimately shorter lives than their parents—the first such reversal in lifespan in modern history. Such a possibility, he concludes, makes obesity in children an issue of utmost public health concern.
Targeting Interventions for Ethnic Minority and Low-Income Populations
Authors: Kumanyika Shiriki Kinika , Grier Sonya
Published: March 2006

Although rates of childhood obesity among the general population are alarmingly high, they are higher still in ethnic minority and low-income communities. The disparities pose a major challenge for policymakers and practitioners planning strategies for obesity prevention. In this article Shiriki Kumanyika and Sonya Grier summarize differences in childhood obesity prevalence by race and ethnicity and by socioeconomic status. They show how various environmental factors can have larger effects on disadvantaged and minority children than on their advantaged white peers—and thus contribute to disparities in obesity rates. The authors show, for example, that low-income and minority children watch more television than white, non-poor children and are potentially exposed to more commercials advertising high-calorie, low-nutrient food during an average hour of TV programming. They note that neighborhoods where low-income and minority children live typically have more fast-food restaurants and fewer vendors of healthful foods than do wealthier or predominantly white neighborhoods. They cite such obstacles to physical activity as unsafe streets, dilapidated parks, and lack of facilities. In the schools that low-income and minority children attend, however, they see opportunities to lead the way to effective obesity prevention. Finally, the authors examine several aspects of the home environment—breast-feeding, television viewing, and parental behaviors—that may contribute to childhood obesity but be amenable to change through targeted intervention. Kumanyika and Grier point out that policymakers aiming to prevent obesity can use many existing policy levers to reach ethnic minority and low-income children and families: Medicaid, the State Child Health Insurance Program, and federal nutrition "safety net" programs. Ultimately, winning the fight against childhood obesity in minority and low-income communities will depend on the nation's will to change the social and physical environments in which these communities exist.
The Role of Parents in Preventing Childhood Obesity
Authors: Lindsay Ana C , Sussner Katarina M , Kim Juhee , Gortmaker Steven Lawrence
Published: March 2006

As researchers continue to analyze the role of parenting both in the development of childhood overweight and in obesity prevention, studies of child nutrition and growth are detailing the ways in which parents affect their children's development of food- and activity-related behaviors. Ana Lindsay, Katarina Sussner, Juhee Kim, and Steven Gortmaker argue that interventions aimed at preventing childhood overweight and obesity should involve parents as important forces for change in their children's behaviors. The authors begin by reviewing evidence on how parents can help their children develop and maintain healthful eating and physical activity habits, thereby ultimately helping prevent childhood overweight and obesity. They show how important it is for parents to understand how their roles in preventing obesity change as their children move through critical developmental periods, from before birth and through adolescence. They point out that researchers, policymakers, and practitioners should also make use of such information to develop more effective interventions and educational programs that address childhood obesity right where it starts—at home. The authors review research evaluating school-based obesity-prevention interventions that include components targeted at parents. Although much research has been done on how parents shape their children's eating and physical activity habits, surprisingly few high-quality data exist on the effectiveness of such programs. The authors call for more programs and cost-effectiveness studies aimed at improving parents' ability to shape healthful eating and physical activity behaviors in their children. The authors conclude that preventing and controlling childhood obesity will require multifaceted and community-wide programs and policies, with parents having a critical role to play. Successful intervention efforts, they argue, must involve and work directly with parents from the earliest stages of child development to support healthful practices both in and outside of the home.
The Role of Schools in Obesity Prevention
Authors: Story Mary, Ph. D , Kaphingst Karen M , French Simone
Published: March 2006

Mary Story, Karen Kaphingst, and Simone French argue that U.S. schools offer many opportunities for developing obesity-prevention strategies by providing more nutritious food, offering greater opportunities for physical activity, and providing obesity-related health services. Meals at school are available both through the U.S. Department of Agriculture's school breakfast and lunch programs and through "competitive foods" sold à la carte in cafeterias, vending machines, and snack bars. School breakfasts and school lunches must meet federal nutrition standards, but competitive foods are exempt from such requirements. And budget pressures force schools to sell the popular but nutritionally poor foods à la carte. Public discomfort with the school food environment is growing. But can schools provide more healthful food options without losing money? Limited evidence shows that they can. Although federal nutrition regulations are inadequate, they permit state and local authorities to impose additional restrictions. And many are doing so. Some states limit sales of nonnutritious foods, and many large school districts restrict competitive foods. Several interventions have changed school food environments, for example, by reducing fat content of food in vending machines and making more fruits and vegetables available. Interventions are just beginning to target the availability of competitive foods. Other pressures can also compromise schools' efforts to encourage physical activity. As states use standardized tests to hold schools and students academically accountable, physical education and recess have become a lower priority. But some states are now mandating and promoting more physical activity in schools. School health services can also help address obesity by providing screening, health information, and referrals to students, especially low-income students, who are at high risk of obesity, tend to be underinsured, and may not receive health services elsewhere.
The Role of Built Environments in Physical Activity, Eating, and Obesity in Childhood
Authors: Sallis James F , Glanz Karen
Published: March 2006

Over the past forty years various changes in the U.S. "built environment" have promoted sedentary lifestyles and less healthful diets. James Sallis and Karen Glanz investigate whether these changes have had a direct effect on childhood obesity and whether improvements to encourage more physical activity and more healthful diets are likely to lower rates of childhood obesity. Researchers, say Sallis and Glanz, have found many links between the built environment and children's physical activity, but they have yet to find conclusive evidence that aspects of the built environment promote obesity. For example, certain development patterns, such as a lack of sidewalks, long distances to schools, and the need to cross busy streets, discourage walking and biking to school. Eliminating such barriers can increase rates of active commuting. But researchers cannot yet prove that more active commuting would reduce rates of obesity. Sallis and Glanz note that recent changes in the nutrition environment, including greater reliance on convenience foods and fast foods, a lack of access to fruits and vegetables, and expanding portion sizes, are also widely believed to contribute to the epidemic of childhood obesity. But again, conclusive evidence that changes in the nutrition environment will reduce rates of obesity does not yet exist. Research into the link between the built environment and childhood obesity is still in its infancy. Analysts do not know whether changes in the built environment have increased rates of obesity or whether improvements to the built environment will decrease them. Nevertheless, say Sallis and Glanz, the policy implications are clear. People who have access to safe places to be active, neighborhoods that are walkable, and local markets that offer healthful food are likely to be more active and to eat more healthful food—two types of behavior that can lead to good health and may help avoid obesity.
The Role of Child Care Settings in Obesity Prevention
Authors: Story Mary, Ph. D , Kaphingst Karen M , French Simone
Published: March 2006

Mary Story, Karen Kaphingst, and Simone French argue that researchers and policymakers focused on childhood obesity have paid insufficient attention to child care. Although child care settings can be a major force in shaping children's dietary intake, physical activity, and energy balance—and thus in combating the childhood obesity epidemic—researchers know relatively little about either the nutrition or the physical activity environment in the nation's child care facilities. What research exists suggests that the nutritional quality of meals and snacks may be poor and activity levels may be inadequate. Few uniform standards apply to nutrition or physical activity offerings in the nation's child care centers. With the exception of the federal Head Start program, child care facilities are regulated by states, and state rules vary widely. The authors argue that weak state standards governing physical activity and nutrition represent a missed opportunity to combat obesity. A relatively simple measure, such as specifying how much time children in day care should spend being physically active, could help promote healthful habits among young children. The authors note that several federal programs provide for the needs of low-income children in child care. The Child and Adult Care Food Program, administered by the Department of Agriculture, provides funds for meals and snacks for almost 3 million children in child care each day. Providers who receive funds must serve meals and snacks that meet certain minimal standards, but the authors argue for toughening those regulations so that meals and snacks meet specific nutrient-based standards. The authors cite Head Start, a federal preschool program serving some 900,000 low-income infants and children up to age five, as a model for other child care programs as it has federal performance standards for nutrition. Although many child care settings fall short in their nutritional and physical activity offerings, they offer untapped opportunities for developing and evaluating effective obesity-prevention strategies to reach both children and their parents.
Harriet Beecher Stowe and the Virtuous Mother: Argentina, 1852-1910
Authors: Frederick Bonnie
Published: March 2006

In a reversal of her reputation in the United States, Harriet Beecher Stowe was considered the ideal feminist in nineteenth-century Argentina, while her views on race were downplayed. Both pro-feminist and anti-feminist Argentines emphasized the image of Stowe as the virtuous civic mother, whose writing was not designed to enhance her own fame but rather to defend the good mother's duty to raise enlightened citizens. This selective image of Stowe became part of the debates about the role of women in the new nation of Argentina. This article documents how Stowe was discussed in newspaper essays on the role of women, provides a historical context for the discussions, and contrasts the role of motherhood in the feminisms of the United States and Argentina.
"Long Live Our Honest Girls": The Image of Women in Slovene Anti-Communist Propaganda 1942-1945
Authors: Kranjc Gregor
Published: March 2006

"Long Live Our Honest Girls" seeks to highlight the image of women in anti-Communist propaganda during the civil war that raged in Slovenia from 1942 to 1945. While their Communist opponents attempted to attract women to their movement by promising them social, economic, and political emancipation, the anti-Communist camp proffered a much more conservative and traditional image of women. In contrast to the Communists, they portrayed the "good" Slovene woman as a dutiful wife and responsible mother. Anti-Communists also portrayed her as the kernel of Slovene national consciousness because of her fidelity to Catholicism, Slovene customs, and the Slovene language. These conflicting images of women must also be seen in the wider context of the cultural clash between Communism and anti-Communism, as well as symptoms of the "total wars" of the twentieth century.
The Difficulties of Despair: Dan Di and Chinese Literary Production in Manchukuo
Authors: Smith Norman
Published: March 2006

In the Japanese colonial state of Manchukuo (1932–45) a critical Chinese-language literature emerged to shine a light on the failure of colonial authorities to actualize the socio-political ideology through which they sought to legitimize their rule. This article analyzes Dan Di's literary legacy to problematize received interpretations of Japanese rule in Manchukuo. Dan was partly educated in Manchukuo and in Japan, and used the educational and career opportunities offered her to establish a career as a cultural critic. Under Japanese colonial auspices, she aspired to realize her potential as a Chinese new woman writer, determined to act as a spokesperson for the underprivileged. Ironically, the critical nature of her writings fueled the anti-Manchukuo narratives that led to her own downfall, as any success in such an oppressive context was deemed suspect. Dan Di's career underscores the vital endurance of Chinese May Fourth-inspired ideals of the new woman in a Japanese colonial context.
Creating Metadata for Children's Resources: Issues, Research, and Current Developments
Authors: Abbas June
Published: March 2006

A key challenge to retrieval in any type of system is how to represent the resources appropriately so that the user(s) can find what they are looking for. In systems being used by children, as well as those designed specifically for children, there exist two fundamental representation problems: (1) the metadata or representation scheme of the system may not be designed with this specific user group in mind, and (2) few age-appropriate controlled vocabularies exist for use in creating metadata. Existing research in these two problem areas and the impact on the users' information seeking and retrieval experiences are presented. Current projects and developments, and the contribution that the users themselves can provide, will give the reader further insight into the issues and potential opportunities for research and application.
Children's Information Seeking and the Design of Digital Interfaces in the Affective Paradigm
Authors: Bilal Dania
Published: March 2006

Research reveals that affect imparts directionality to cognition, which in turn influences actions. The role of affect has been well recognized in psychology, computing, education, cognitive science, and neuroscience. However, little recognition has been given to the study of affect in the field of information science. In this article the term "affective paradigm" is introduced based on research grounded in many disciplines. Research that investigated children's affect in seeking information and participating in the design of digital interfaces is reviewed. Unanswered questions in these areas of study are addressed.
Developmentally Appropriate Digital Environments for Young Children
Authors: Cooper Linda Z
Published: March 2006

The developmental level of child information seekers affects their ability to interact with digital technology as a means to satisfy their information needs. Principles of child development and learning that inform developmentally appropriate practice must be considered when designing digital environments for the very young. Cognitive, physical, social, and emotional development impact a child's ability to interact successfully with a digital environment. These developmental considerations and design responses supportive of young children's information-seeking behavior, as well as perspectives of theorists in the area of child development and system design, are addressed.
Access: The Information-Seeking Behavior of Youth in the Digital Environment
Authors: Dresang Eliza T
Published: March 2006

The theory of Radical Change, which is based on the digital age principles of interactivity, connectivity, and access, is suggested as a lens to reexamine existing research on youth information-seeking behavior in the digital environment. After a brief review of research meta-analyses, which often point to deficits in youth information-seeking behavior, questions that emerge from this research are suggested. Meta-analyses of gender and information behavior studies find that some recent research disputes former conclusions. Radical Change is applied to an examination of specific facets of contemporary research in order to demonstrate how new perspectives can be gained. This analysis addresses commonalities between information-seeking behavior related to the handheld book with hypertextual qualities and digital materials, the social nature of information seeking, and emerging issues of access. It is noted that the public library as a setting for research has rarely been used, even though its less structured nature might provide insights that do not surface in schools. A look at directions for youth information-seeking behavior research in the future proposes how brain research might shed further light on behavioral observations. Conclusions note existing research and summarize some new points of view and areas for investigation.
Educational Inquiry and Creativity: Developing Digital Resources in Ireland's Information Age Town
Authors: McInerney Claire R. (Claire Regina)
Published: March 2006

Despite cultural and social barriers to technology adoption, the teachers and administrators of schools in the Irish town of Ennis, with help from the Clare County Education Centre, integrated computers, networking, software, Internet, and digital imagery into the schools' curriculum. Success in technology integration has been achieved in primary education due to persistent and innovative efforts on the part of teachers; however, technology integration has not been as deep nor as broad in the secondary-level schools. Students have produced many new learning materials themselves using computer-based tools, the Internet, and other technologies. The barriers, challenges, and achievements of the community described in this case study may have implications for other small communities who wish to use technology for teaching, learning, and curriculum change.
Just Curious: Children's Use of Digital Reference for Unimposed Queries and Its Importance in Informal Education
Authors: Silverstein Joanne
Published: March 2006

This research investigated the informal use of two children's digital reference services that were used for purposes unintended by the designers. The motivation for this research was to explore the ways that children bend to their own informal uses the formal tools designed to support their education. Research questions included, How and with what frequency do children use digital reference services to answer their own questions? Do digital reference services support self-initiated learning? Could digital reference services support the transfer of student motivation and curiosity from formal education to informal education? What do instructional and software designers need to consider in creating tools that support a notion of transformed education and learning? Results answered these questions and uncovered several unanticipated findings. Digital reference services were shown to support efforts to interest children in science-related careers as early as fourth or fifth grade and to support self-initiated learning in science. Unanticipated findings showed that students ask different kinds of questions as they progress through school, and they should receive training in the use of digital reference services in elementary school. Further conclusions provide insights for digital reference software and service design and suggestions for more strategic pedagogical use of digital references services.
Life of the Party: The Origins of Regime Breakdown and Persistence under Single-Party Rule
Authors: Smith Benjamin
Published: March 2006

This article develops a theory of single-party regime consolidation to explain the dramatic variation in longevity among these regimes. The strength of the opposition and rent scarcity during party consolidation, it argues, structure the choices available to elites as they decide how to build a support base. A weak opposition and ready access to rents makes a low-cost consolidation possible, but these conditions provide little incentive to build a robust coalition or strong party organization; this trajectory generates weak single-party rule that is likely to collapse in a crisis. Conversely, elites who face a powerful opposition and scarce rents have no choice but to offer potential allies access to policy-making and have powerful incentives to build a strong and broad-based party organization. Ruling parties that emerge from initial conditions like these prove more resilient during later crises. The author conducts an initial test of the argument against paired comparisons of Guinea-Bissau and Tanzania and of Indonesia and the Philippines.
Presidential Conditional Agenda Setting in Latin America
Authors: Tsebelis George , Alemán Eduardo
Published: March 2006

Ten Latin American presidents have a power that has not received the study that it deserves: the ability to make positive suggestions to vetoed bills. These “amendatory observations” return to Congress for afinalround of voting. Sometimes the presidential version of the bill becomes the default alternative automatically and may require qualified majorities to be overturned. The authors analyze veto procedures in eighteen Latin American countries and argue that amendatory veto power significantly increases presidential weight in legislative decision making.
Electoral Control in New Democracies: The Perverse Incentives of Fluid Party Systems
Authors: Zielinski Jakub , Slomczynski Kazimierz M. , Shabad Goldie
Published: March 2006

How do fluid party systems that exist in many new democracies affect democratic accountability? To address this question, the authors analyze a new database of all legislative incumbents and all competitive elections that took place in Poland since 1991. They find that when district-level economic outcomes are bad, voters in that country punish legislators from a governing party and reward legislators from an opposition party. As a result, electoral control in Poland works through political parties just as it does in mature democracies. However, the authors also find that, in contrast to mature democracies, legislators from a governing party tend to switch to an opposition party when the economy in their district deteriorates. When they do so, their chances of reelection are better than those of politicians who remained loyal to governing parties and are no worse than those of incumbents who ran as opposition party loyalists. These empirical results suggest that while elections in new democracies function as a mechanism of political control, fluid party systems undermine the extent to which elections promote democratic accountability.
Amplified Immunohistochemical Detection of PrPsc in Animal Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies Using Streptomycin
Authors: Bencsik Anna A. , Coleman Anthony W. , Debeer Sabine O.S. , Perron Hervé , Moussa Aly
Published: March 2006

Due to its sensitivity, immunohistochemistry (IHC) of abnormal prion protein (PrPsc) is used to study experimental and natural cases of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans or scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in animals. The limits of detection are particularly critical when PrPsc IHC is used for diagnostic purposes. In this article, we describe for the first time the use of streptomycin sulfate in IHC, providing a novel original and easy way to amplify specifically PrPsc immunohistochemical detection in natural cases of BSE and scrapie, as well as in experimental TSEs in mice models using two different PrP antibodies. (J Histochem Cytochem 54:849-853, 2006)
Use of Anti-fluorophore Antibody to Achieve High-sensitivity Immunolocalizations of Transporters and Ion Channels
Authors: Coleman Richard A. , Liu Jie , Wade James B.
Published: March 2006

We have discovered that the immunoreactivity of the fluorophore Alexa Fluor 488 survives glutaraldehyde and osmium tetroxide fixation and epoxy resin embedding and etching. We have developed new localization methods that for the first time take advantage of this property. The antigen is localized in cryosections using suitable primary antibody and an Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated secondary antibody. Cryosection fluorescence can be photographed for later correlation with electron microscopy (EM) findings. The sections are then further fixed with glutaraldehyde and OsO4, if desired and flat-embedded in epoxy resin. Semi-thin sections are etched completely with sodium ethoxide, whereas thin sections are partially etched. Alexa Fluor 488 is then localized with rabbit anti-Alexa Fluor 488 and goat anti-rabbit conjugated to Alexa Fluor 488 [light microscopy (LM)] or to colloidal gold (EM). A second antigen may also be localized using Alexa Fluor 568. When used without postfixation, these methods produce high-resolution semi-thin, or even thin, sections that retain a high level of fluorescence for LM observations. These methods allow highly sensitive immunolocalizations in tissue while preserving cell fine structure through traditional fixation and epoxy embedding. In demonstration of the methods, we describe the localization of the thiazidesensitive sodium/chloride cotransporter and the epithelial sodium channel in rat kidney.
Prediction of Effective Stiffness of a Cross-Ply Laminate with Transverse Matrix Cracks
Authors: Zhang H , Minnetyan L
Published: March 2006

A theoretical model based on the stationary value of total potential energy has been proposed to evaluate effective elastic constants in a cross-ply laminate with transverse matrix cracks. The method is based on the principle of minimum total potential energy. In the model, displacement fields and stress components satisfy the boundary and continuity conditions. Crack geometry is based on general functional minimization rather than assumed shape functions. Moreover, the crack shape is shown to be a function of crack density. The changes in stiffness reduction are examined theoretically. Predicted results are compared with test data.
Filtration of Gaseous or Liquid Oxygen in Industrial Applications and Associated Fire Risks
Authors: Colson A , Fano E
Published: March 2006

The gaseous or liquid oxygen filter is a safety component which retains undesirable particles as they move downstream. The experience of industry and accident records show the importance of using the right type of filter for a given application and ensuring the quality of the filter's construction. Fire reports highlight ignition mechanisms, kindling chain, and the importance of proper location of oxygen filters in different configurations and in industrial conditions. Appropriate recommendations are made in terms of design, installation and maintenance.
Evaluation of Adhesive Strength of Thin Plasma Sprayed Oxide Coatings by a Crosshatch Testing Method
Authors: Venkataraman R , Sampath Kumar TS , Ramalingam K
Published: March 2006

A test method for the evaluation of the adhesive strength of coatings of thickness less than 250 µms has been attempted on coupons of pure alumina and alumina-13 wt% titania samples plasma sprayed on low alloy steel substrates. Crosshatches were made with a diamond tipped wheel with 0.02-mm width and 20-mm bore diameter, which was mounted on a common tooling and grinding machine. Cuts with 5×5 mm were made on the as-sprayed surface; subsequently, a pressure-sensitive tape was applied on the hatched surface and pulled off. The area of the coatings thus removed was interpreted in accordance with ASTM D 3359B testing standard; the testing method seems to be appropriate for qualitative evaluations.
Haemophilus influenzaeType b Immunization in Infants in the United Kingdom: Effects of Diphtheria/Tetanus/Acellular Pertussis/Hib Combination Vaccine, Significant Prematurity, and a Fourth Dose
Authors: Berrington Janet E. , Cant Andrew J. , Matthews John N.S. , O'Keeffe Marilyn , Spickett Gavin P. , Fenton Alan C.
Published: March 2006

OBJECTIVE. To measure anti-polyribosylribitolphosphate (PRP) antibody and anti–tetanus toxoid (TT) antibody responses in UK infants to explore the effects of (1) immunization with an acellular diphtheria/tetanus/pertussis/Haemophilus influenzae type b (DTPHib) combination vaccine, (2) significant preterm delivery, and (3) a fourth dose of conjugated Hib vaccine (PRP-T) in those with a low anti-PRP antibody (<1.0 μg/mL) after primary immunization.

METHODS. A prospective study was conducted in 4 tertiary neonatal units at a time when 2 types of DTPHib vaccines were used interchangeably in the United Kingdom for primary immunization: acellular (DTPaHib) and whole cell. Timing and type of all vaccine doses were as per standard UK practice. Blood was taken before and after immunization. A total of 166 preterm and 45 term infants completed the study; 97 (15 term) infants who had anti-PRP antibody <1.0 μg/mL were offered a fourth dose of PRP-T; 61 (55 preterm) then had repeat antibody measurements. Anti-PRP and anti-TT antibody after primary immunization relative to gestation and number of whole cell vaccine doses received was measured, as well as anti-PRP antibody after a fourth dose of PRP-T.

RESULTS. A total of 49% of preterm and 33% of term infants had anti-PRP antibody <1.0 μg/mL after full primary immunization. Receipt of 1 or more acellular vaccine doses was associated with lower anti-PRP antibody, a dose response effect being observed. Preterm infants were less likely to have anti-PRP antibody >1.0 μg/mL compared with term infants. A total of 93% of infants who were given a fourth dose had anti-PRP antibody >1.0 μg/mL. Anti-TT antibody responses were satisfactory for all infants but also reduced by each DTPaHib dose received.

CONCLUSION. Infants who receive DTPaHib, are significantly preterm, or who do not receive a fourth dose of conjugated Hib vaccine may be at increased risk for Hib disease.
Deposit Collectors
Authors: Ashraf Nava , Karlan Dean , Yin Wesley
Published: March 2006

Informal lending and savings institutions exist around the world, and often include regular door-to-door deposit collection of cash. Some banks have adopted similar services in order to expand access to banking services in areas that lack physical branches. Using a randomized control trial, we investigate determinants of participation in a deposit collection service and evaluate the impact of offering the service for micro-savers of a rural bank in the Philippines. Of 137 individuals offered the service in the treatment group, 38 agreed to sign-up, and 20 regularly used the service. Take-up is predicted by distance to the bank (a measure of transaction costs of depositing without the service) as well as being married (a suggestion that household bargaining issues are important). Those offered the service saved 188 pesos more (which equates to about a 25% increase in savings stock) and were slightly less likely to borrow from the bank.
Three Phase Catalytic Reactions: Role of Omega Aqueous Phase in Solid-Liquid Phase Transfer Catalyzed Etherification of 2'- Hydroxy Acetophenone
Authors: Yadav Ganapati D. , Desai Neesha M.
Published: March 2006

Phase Transfer Catalyst (PTC) is used in more than 600 commercial processes, with wide ranging applications in the pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, polymer industries. Despite thousands of publications on the PTC, several intricacies of PTC in reactions are not understood or properly modeled. Liquid-liquid (L-L) PTC is inferior to solid-liquid (S-L) phase transfer catalyzed reactions, which in turn can be converted into Solid (reactant)-Liquid-(aqueous omega)- Liquid (organic) using trace quantities of water to realize 100% selectivity to the product. There is great enhancement in rates of reactions in comparison with corresponding S-L or L-L PTC. Thus, the O-alkylation of sodium salt of 2'-hydroxy acetophenone was achieved using 1-bromopentane using tetrabutylammonium bromide as the catalyst at 90 0C.2-Pentyloxy acetophenone is used as a starting material for synthesis of fungicides. The current study deals with the efficacy of so-called omega phase with special emphasis on kinetic and modeling aspects.
A Comprehensive Model for Catalytic Membrane Reactor
Authors: Kumar Shashi , Shankar Sukrit , Shah Pushan R. , Kumar Surendra
Published: March 2006

Catalytic membrane reactors are multifunctional reactors, which provide improved performance over conventional reactors. These are used mainly for conducting hydrogenation/ dehydrogenation reactions, and synthesis of oxyorganic compounds by using inorganic membranes. In this paper, comprehensive model has been developed for a tubular membrane reactor, which is applicable to Pd or Pd alloys membrane, porous inorganic membranes. The model accounts for the reaction on either side, tube or shell, isothermal and adiabatic conditions, reactive and non reactive sweep gas, multicomponent diffusion through gas films on both sides of membrane, and pressure variations. Equations governing the diffusion of gaseous components through stagnant gas film, and membranes have been identified and described. The model has been validated with the experimental results available in literature. By using the developed model catalytic dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene to produce styrene in a tubular membrane reactor have been simulated. Four catalysts available for this reaction have been evaluated for their performance. It is our view that the model may be used to develop general purpose software for the analysis and design of tubular catalytic membrane reactors through numerical simulation.
A Structured Model for Interleukin-11 Production with Recombinant E.coli and Genetic Algorithm for Model Parameter Estimation
Authors: Tang Shuiquan , Zhang Zisheng , Gan Yiru
Published: March 2006

Recombinant human interleukin-11(rhIL-11) is still the only therapy drug for thrombocytopenia. Although the biological properties and clinical behaviors of rhIL-11 have been studied extensively, bioprocess development work has rarely been reported. In this study, a three-compartment structured model was developed to simultaneously simulate batch cultivation of bacteria growth, substrate utilization and intracellular rhIL-11 production with recombinant E. coli. A genetic algorithm was formulated and successfully applied to the estimation of the model parameters, which simulated the experimental data obtained from flask cultivation experiments quite well. The results of this work indicate that combination of structured modeling and genetic algorithm could be a simple and effective way for simulating the fermentation of recombinant microorganisms with over-production of foreign proteins.
U.S. Offshoring: Small Steps to Make It Win-Win
Authors: Farrell Diana
Published: March 2006

How many U.S. white collar jobs will be lost to offshoring? Not as many as you think: as Diana Farrell explains, offshoring of white collar jobs is a limited problem that can be turned into a win-win with a few small steps.
The Many Definitions of Social Security Privatization
Authors: Fullerton Don , Geruso Michael
Published: March 2006

Definitions can matter, and Don Fullerton and Michael Geruso argue that proponents of social security privatization mean a host of different things by "privatization." They point out that many of the gains from privatization seen by economists like Martin Feldstein and Laurence Kotlikoff owe to only a few aspects of privatization.