bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Soviet Union after Khrushchev
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Khrushchev was overthrown by his associates in the Politburo in October 1964. The new collective leadership proceeded to institutionalize a regime I call “Bureaucratic Leninism.” This is a top-down vision of the centralized communist party “scientifically managing” society, and doing so through the cadres of the party and the state. “Trust in cadres” became the phrase that signaled a willingness to govern through the party, not over it.
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 1966–1969
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was launched by Mao as a reaction against the rationalizing policies of 1960–1965. It was at once a power struggle, a civil war, a purge of cadres and critical intelligentsia, an effort to reverse authority relationships within society, and a romantic-revolutionary crusade to instill revolutionary consciousness in the masses.
The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, December 1979
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

The year 1979 was a fateful one. Relations between the United States and the PRC warmed considerably, while almost everything went wrong in the US-Soviet relationship. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was driven by a determination to show the Americans that Moscow did not have feet of clay and to rescue an allied regime from collapse. The timing was dictated by the failure of US-Soviet arms control talks.
Gorbachev and the Abandonment of Anti-Imperialist Struggle
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Gorbachev knew that reform at home could not be accomplished while the US-Soviet relationship remained confrontational and marked by arms races. His interactions and negotiations with President Reagan led Gorbachev continuously to augment Soviet concessions, even unilaterally, in hopes of ending the Cold War. He succeeded in doing so. Moreover, Gorbachev’s long-standing unwillingness to use military force to prevent democratization in Eastern Europe led directly to the collapse of these communist regimes in 1989.
From Maoism to Market Leninism
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

Initiated by Deng Xiaoping, China embarked on a path of transforming—marketizing and privatizing—the economy and opening it to competition and opportunity within the capitalist global economy. With this policy followed and deepened by two successors, the result was a Chinese economic miracle of historic proportions.
Why the Drive to Difference?
Authors: Breslauer George W.
Published: July 2021

This chapter inquires as to the factors that drove the drive to difference within the communist world. Factors discussed include limited guidance from the ideological heritage (Marxism and Leninism) as to how to proceed after “building socialism,” the clash between the ideals of Marxism and the realities of governing an elite-dominated system, the shortage economy, the reality of bureaucratism, varieties of nationalism among the communist states, diverse pathways to power among those states, differences in the timing of the many communist revolutions, nuclearism, the realities of affluence and liberty in the capitalist world, and the idiosyncrasies of certain leaders within the communist world.
Revisionist States’ Strategies and Encounters with Their Counterparts
Authors: Chan Steve , Feng Huiyun , He Kai , Hu Weixing
Published: July 2021

This chapter argues that the current literature’s emphasis on revisionist attempts to challenge the existing international order by means of war and conquest is misplaced due to the changed nature of international relations. In contrast to “hard” revisionism, “soft” revisionism, intended to promote institutional change, has become more relevant to today’s world. Four “soft” revisionist strategies are introduced to show how a revisionist state is likely to pursue its agenda. They are institutional reform, institutional competition, institutional obstruction, and institutional exit, with illustrations from Chinese and US conduct toward different multilateral organizations. The choice among these strategies is hypothesized to depend on a state’s comparative advantage and the benefits it receives from a specific institution.
The British Example
Authors: Fox Jonathan , Topor Lev
Published: July 2021

In order to place the empirical findings of this study into a more concrete context, in this chapter the authors examine the United Kingdom as a case study, using traditional comparative politics qualitative methodology. They examine the history of anti-Semitism and discrimination against Jews in the United Kingdom, focusing on the religious, anti-Zionist, and conspiracy-based explanations in this context. They demonstrate that it is plausible to argue that all three of these motives have caused discrimination against Jews in the United Kingdom. The chapter also discusses briefly the allegations of anti-Semitism by the Labour Party in recent years, specifically under the leadership of Jeremy Corbyn.
Conclusion
Authors: Barbalet Jack
Published: July 2021

In concluding the analysis of guanxi, the image is invoked of Chinese reticulated carved balls, in which one hollow sphere sits inside another, with as many as a dozen—each smaller than the other—interlocked in a descending nested order. The suggestion is that this is a metaphor for guanxi in today’s China, in which guanxi determines relations between businesses, and between entrepreneurs and officials; additionally, popular mobilizations against official corruption draw on the guanxi between protestors, and state repression of protest draws on the guanxi between state workers and protestors, and so on, in continuing descending interlockings of guanxi. It is shown that guanxi is sufficiently versatile to access quite different resources, and sufficiently flexible to enter new areas of relations and engagement. Reliance on guanxi is not confined to the elderly, but used by young people in China, and the educated. The future of guanxi seems assured.
The Vernacular Alternatives Composed during the Age of Revolutions
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

Irish-language vernacular verse history proved adaptable throughout the eighteenth century to take account both of new reverses, and of opportunities presented by revolutionary developments in North America, in France, and in Ireland. The oral and the written records were interlinked because manuscript copyists aided memory. Themes from the Irish oral tradition also resurfaced in English-language print form or in political speeches by Daniel O’Connell. Similarly in the Protestant experience narratives composed in the seventeenth century by such as Temple entered into Protestant vernacular culture because they were regularly regurgitated in sermons. When Musgrave composed a Protestant narrative of the 1798 rebellion he could therefore allude to Catholic proclivity to rebel knowing that this was a trope in Protestant oral culture. Musgrave could also dovetail the occurrences of 1798 with Temple’s narrative on 1641 and thus make it comprehensible for his audience.
Fresh Unionist Re-Appraisals of the History of Early Modern Ireland
Authors: Canny Nicholas
Published: July 2021

Landowners were challenged both by political change and by historical arguments. Their contribution to debate took the form of county histories to illustrate how landowners had been responsible for improvement and communal leadership. These histories varied because the experience of no two counties was identical. However, most dated the introduction of civil order to the establishment of counties, they enumerated the ‘improvements’ introduced by individual proprietors, they decried absenteeism, and they rejoiced that sectarian strife had been kept at bay other than when it had been provoked by external provocateurs—usually Catholic clerics. George Hill, writing of Ulster counties, dissented from this narrative by attributing past disturbances to the unfair treatment accorded natives in the Ulster Plantation and to the indifference of principal landowners to communal welfare. For him, the bedrock of Ulster society was its Protestant tenant farmers and their willingness to co-operate with their Catholic counterparts.
Smelling in Stereo
Authors: Stevens Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the sense of smell of animals. One way of acquiring information from chemicals in the world is through smell. Just as with the other senses, smell is used for many things, from finding food, judging relatedness and kin, locating and assessing potential mates, marking and defending territories, and much more. The chapter focuses first on ants, which are quite representative of how olfaction broadly works in nature. Located on the antennae of many insects are the main sensory receptors for encoding aspects of the world, from temperature and humidity through to pressure. In insect olfaction, the organs in which the receptors are housed are the olfactory sensilla. Meanwhile, the sense of smell of dogs has contributed to their long working relationship with humans, from help in hunting to search and rescue. After being domesticated for so long, dogs are also extremely good at reading humans, and this has clearly been a valuable trait for breeders in producing a variety of working and companion dogs. Finally, the chapter looks at the eastern American mole, which is one of the several mammals that has been shown to smell in stereo. The findings in the stereo mole essentially parallel some of the features of sound detection, rather like the way in which owls zero in on hidden prey based on the noises they make.
Sensing in the Anthropocene
Authors: Stevens Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines how the growing understanding of the variety of sensory systems used by nature has inspired new technologies to benefit human lives and society. A growing area is biomimicry, which involves inventions inspired by nature, and this has included trying to copy the sensory systems of animals. Humans also use animals directly in many ways; tens of billions of birds are kept for food production, not to mention other animal groups. There is much potential for food industries and places such as zoos to adopt conditions that are tailored to the sensory worlds and wellbeing of the animals they keep. The chapter then addresses how humans are dramatically altering the sensory worlds of animals. It considers the impacts of chemical pollution, sound or noise pollution, light pollution, electromagnetic noise, and climate change on animal senses. Finally, the chapter looks at how knowledge of animal senses has been put to good use in seeking to solve one of the problems of humanity’s own creation, namely overfishing. The use of LED lights in fisheries as a way of preventing bycatch, especially of highly visual animals such as turtles, is very promising, and target species appear to be relatively unaffected.
The Emergence of the EU’s Commitment to Human Rights
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the emergence of the European Union's (EU) commitment to human rights. The EU's de facto constitution has not always been endowed with human rights provisions. The original founding Treaties contained no mention of human rights — or ‘fundamental rights’ in EU jargon — and this remained the case until the adoption of the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992. As the pace of integration started to pick up and more policy areas became of EU relevance, human rights have also been gradually brought into the fold. Similarly to other aspects of EU law, judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) have played an important role in establishing the EU's commitment to human rights at the outset of the integration process. Today, the EU is a recognised human rights actor both globally and in Europe and its neighbourhood. It has its own legally binding ‘bill of rights’ in the form of the EU Charter on Fundamental Rights and a dedicated Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA). Nevertheless, like other global political actors, the Union's human rights commitment faces both internal and external pressures from competing objectives, interests, as well as challenges which test the authenticity of its proclaimed human rights identity and aspirations.
Male Choice, Female Competition, and Female Ornaments in Sexual Selection
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

When Darwin first proposed sexual selection theory he suggested two mechanisms: competition among males and choice by females. There is no doubt that these mechanisms are immensely important, but their mirror images have been largely underappreciated so far. In fact, males choose as well and females compete. Males choose based on female quality, often selecting mating partners that are more fecund. But male choice is also associated with changes in the sex ratio of a population and males can be choosy when they are rare. Furthermore, males sometimes invest heavily into reproduction and that too can be associated with male choice. That females compete with another, although less often with open aggression, is another understudied phenomenon. Finally, we now know that females are often ornamented, but are these ornaments under sexual selection by males? This book tries to review what we know and point to what we don’t know while pointing out the connections between male mate choice and female competition for a more complete view of sexual selection.
Sexual Selection, Mate Choice, and Competition for Mates
Authors: Schlupp Ingo
Published: July 2021

Well over a century ago Charles Darwin redefined biology and introduced the theory of natural selection. One of the problems he encountered was the existence of traits, mainly in males, that seemed to defy the principles of natural selection: they did not aid its bearers in survival and were often outright detrimental. Darwin solved this conundrum by introducing sexual selection. Unlike natural selection where all individuals compete with each other for survival and reproduction, in sexual selection individuals within each sex compete with each other for reproduction. In the original formulation of the principle, Darwin recognized two mechanisms for this. Males would compete with each other for access to females, and females would choose mating partners of their preference. In this opening chapter I want to introduce the topics to be covered in the book, define some basic terms that we will need to understand the subject matter, and define the questions to be asked. My aim for this book is to summarize our growing, yet still comparatively limited empirical knowledge and theory, and to provide suggestions for future research. What interests me most is the relationship between the four forms of sexual selection and their consequences.
Italians on the Battlefield
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

From the period of neutrality onwards, Italy mobilized a mass conscript army which drew on Italians from around the peninsula as well as emigrants overseas, though after much debate colonial troops were not brought to Italy. Despite the lack of widespread war enthusiasm, most men within Italy complied with the draft, and the army was soon able to deploy over a million men at the front. For emigrants, the decision to return and fight was complex yet many did so. Fighting was concentrated along the Italo-Austrian border, where chief of general staff Cadorna hoped to break through Austrian defences. The tactical difficulties of trench warfare combined with difficult terrain led to strategic immobility along this front, with eleven battles fought along the river Isonzo. In 1917 a joint Austro-German attack at Caporetto achieved a major victory but Italy was able to recover and defend itself successfully, with Allied support, before eventually returning to the offensive in 1918.
Race, Nationality, and Citizenship
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

As a relatively new nation-state, which considered itself to be territorially incomplete, Italy faced a challenge in defining Italian identity. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, italianità—Italianness—became understood in increasingly racialized terms. Eugenics thrived in Italy and race theory underpinned attitudes not only to colonialism and colonial subjects but also to the conduct of war, among the general public and particularly in military circles. The results can clearly be seen in the conduct of the Italian army in Libya, both in 1911–12 and during the First World War, and in Italy’s treatment of Slav and German civilians under military occupation. Racial definitions of italianità also shaped attitudes to the rights, duties, and delimitation of Italian citizenship, especially under the pressures of war.
The Paris Peace Conference and Beyond
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

When the war ended, the domestic political situation was tense and the economy rapidly entered a crisis. Public opinion required that Italy’s huge sacrifices be vindicated by the war’s outcome, leading Vittorio Orlando’s government to request even more territory than had originally be agreed by the Treaty of London. Foreign minister Sonnino, an ambitious imperialist, demanded Fiume and also sought expanded colonial compensation. But Woodrow Wilson refused to accept Italian possession of Slav-inhabited lands, which he wished to see allocated to Yugoslavia. Diplomatic errors, Wilson’s opposition, Greek rivalry, and above all the changed international landscape meant that Italy’s leadership failed utterly to achieve its goals in Paris.
Passive European Union Influence
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

This chapter traces the European Union’s passive influence in the establishment of the Mercosur Permanent Review Tribunal in 2004. This is an useful case to study passive EU influence because the Tribunal’s establishment constitutes an unlikely case from the perspective of existing explanations of dispute settlement design and it is representative of a statistical association presented in Chapter 4. Through a detailed process tracing exercise that reconstructs the institutional preferences and strategies of national governments and the process of international bargaining on the basis of primary documents, interviews with policy-makers and secondary sources, it shows how the European Union, through its passive influence on the institutional preferences of Uruguay, the bloc’s smallest member state, shaped the design of the Tribunal. In the absence of passive EU influence, the chapter concludes, the Tribunal would have been less institutionalized.
The Origins of LWOP in California
Authors: Vannier Marion
Published: July 2021

Chapter 1 turns to the Californian Congress where opponents of the death penalty first lobbied for LWOP before legislators. It critically examines the period during which the idea of sentencing offenders to life imprisonment with no possibility of release first emerged, starting in the early 1900s and culminating with the introduction of LWOP for capital murder in 1978 in the Californian Penal Code. What emerges from this archival research is that different experts—prison wardens, police officials, academics, spiritual leaders, and criminologists—offered LWOP as a strategic way for legislators to argue against the death penalty. This novel approach was however diverted from its progressive endeavours to serve more punitive agendas. Legislators concerned with preserving capital punishment in contexts of sensationalized crimes and early forms of populist demands drove the reforms that introduced LWOP. This historical investigation reveals that the punishment’s particular severity can serve agendas which are seemingly in tension with one another.
Probes: Sources and Their Interactions with Matter
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

Probes are generated using laboratory sources, or in large user facilities. Photon sources include incandescence and plasma discharge lamps. Electron beams are generated using thermionic or field-emission sources. RF plasma sources generate ions that are accelerated and used for scattering experiments. Specimens should be probed first with light, as it causes the least damage. Electron interaction with matter causes beam broadening, atomic displacements, sputtering, or radiolysis leading to mass loss and local contamination. Neutrons are heavier than electrons, penetrate more deeply in materials, and require more sample for analysis. Protons (positive charge, heavier than electrons) go a longer way in the specimen without significant broadening. Ions in solids undergo kinematic collisions with conservation of energy and momentum; they also lose energy continuously as they propagate. In the back-scattering geometry, they form important methods of Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) and low-energy ion scattering spectroscopy (LEISS). Medium energy ions generate secondary ions by sputtering that can be analyzed by mass spectrometers to determine specimen composition (SIMS). Alternatively, its composition is analyzed (ICP-MS), by creating an aqueous dispersion and converting it to a plasma. Finally, interaction of high-energy ions with core electrons can lead to inner shell ionization and characteristic X-ray emission (PIXE).
Optics, Optical Methods, and Microscopy
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

Propagation of light is described as the simple harmonic motion of transverse waves. Combining waves that propagate on orthogonal planes give rise to linear, elliptical, or spherical polarization, depending on their amplitudes and phase differences. Classical experiments of Huygens and Young demonstrated the principle of optical interference and diffraction. Generalization of Fraunhofer diffraction to scattering by a three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in crystals forms the basis of diffraction methods. Fresnel diffraction finds application in the design of zone plates for X-ray microscopy. Optical microscopy, with resolution given by the Rayleigh criterion to be approximately half the wavelength, works best when tailored to the optimal characteristics of the human eye (λ = 550 nm). Lenses suffer from spherical and chromatic aberrations, and astigmatism. Optical microscopes operate in bright-field, oblique, and dark-field imaging conditions, produce interference contrast, and can image with polarized light. Variants include confocal scanning optical microscopy (CSOM). Metallography, widely used to characterize microstructures, requires polished or chemically etched surfaces to provide optimal contrast. Finally, the polarization state of light reflected from the surface of a specimen is utilized in ellipsometry to obtain details of the optical properties and thickness of thin film materials.
Tort and Construction Law
Authors: Wilmot-Smith QC Richard
Published: July 2021

This chapter analyses the law of tort that relates to damage and addresses the question of whether the damage is actionable if it is caused by someone’s negligence. It explains how the law of tort is not to be understood only by the creation of a legal duty rather is dependent upon damage. It also notes the recovery in tort if someone has suffered damage, which is in contra-distinction to the law of contract. This chapter looks at damage and its categorization, focusing on the tort of negligence in relation to defective structures that has two separate species. It describes the first species that permits recovery for direct costs or losses that suffered as a result of a negligent act or omission, while the second species relates to all losses.
Time for Completion
Authors: Higgs Nicholas
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses how construction contracts provide for the time by which the contract works are to be completed and the consequences if a contractor fails to complete on time. The development of the law on liquidated damages is reviewed, and the current position on the penalty doctrine and of the contra preferentum rule in this context are considered. Recent jurisprudence regarding the meaning of ‘completion’ is presented.
Locative inversion in Germanic and Romance
Authors: Sluckin Benjamin L. , Cruschina Silvio , Martin Fabienne
Published: July 2021

This chapter investigates locative inversion (LI) in Germanic and Romance, a subject inversion involving a preposed locative expression. LI appears in two primary types: overt LI and covert LI, where a locative reading obtains without a preposed locative. Covert LI occurs in null-subject languages, where a covert locative argument satisfies formal subject requirements. English LI is always overt, yet French only allows covert LI with verbs of appearance. Furthermore, Romance permits embedded and matrix LI, but English prohibits the former. This chapter proposes that cross-linguistic variation follows from varying conspiracies of syntactic and pragmatico-semantic factors. Firstly, verbs of appearance select a locative covert experiencer, which satisfies the French EPP. Secondly, multiple formal ingredients interact in different distributions to produce various instantiations of LI: an EPP in TP, and the ability of locatives to check: the EPP (Dutch), Subject of Predication (Italian), EPP and SoP (French), and EPP and Topichood (English).
V2 and topicalization in Germanic and Romance
Authors: Hinterhölzl Roland
Published: July 2021

The paper discusses the relation between Verb Second and the derivation of topics in a comparative and diachronic perspective. It is argued that internally merged topics in Germanic led to the generalization of the V2 rule, while the predominant presence of externally merged topics in Romance led to the loss of the V2 rule in declarative clauses. The paper is based on a fine-grained analysis of the C-domain as envisaged by the cartographic approach (cf. Rizzi 1997), a detailed analysis of topic types and their syntactic properties as well as on a novel approach to V2 that proves to be more flexible than the traditional EPP-based to the V2 rule.
Issues in the left periphery of Old French and Old English
Authors: van Kemenade Ans , Meklenborg Christine
Published: July 2021

Topicalization in Old English and Old French is a poorly studied field. This chapter aims to identify and compare their different strategies for topicalization. We find that both Old English and Old French have evidence for high and low topics, which we argue are Hanging Topics and Left Dislocated Topics. In the case of Old English, we find evidence that both kinds of topics have been derived by movement into the left periphery. Old French displays a hybrid system where Hanging Topics have been base generated, while Left Dislocated Topics have been moved. Applying a Force-Fin-V2 analysis, we find that even in a Force-V2 language there may be Left Dislocated Topics. We propose that the Force-Fin-V2 model be refined, so that moved Left Dislocated Topics block further movement of the finite verb to Force, so that even in a Force-V2 language, the finite verb will be in Fin in the presence of moved Left Dislocated Topics.
In the Beginning
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

This chapter presents a general account of the pure business of being true, otherwise put, of what is so of truths and falsehoods merely by virtue of their being that. It introduces Frege’s notion of a thought and of the thought’s logical and ontological priority, the idea that whole thoughts come first and are multiply decomposable, other items in the business of being true to be understood in terms of their role in such decompositions. It also discusses his idea of winnowing the psychological from the logical, and the distinction between generalities and particular cases.
Concepts
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

At the start Frege had not decided what a concept was to be, but knew well what a concept was supposed to do: to relate to objects which ‘fell under it’ in a fundamentally different way than a name relates to what it names. Such was to be the foundation of his account of quantificational logic. In the end two notions of concept emerge, one on which a concept has representational ‘intent’, another on which it does not. Some notions of unsaturation are discussed. The most natural of these fit what does have predicative intent. (This not all to the good.)
Objecthood
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

An object is whatever satisfies a call for completion by what predicates (engages in the business of truth-of). Object need not be a category, can be a relational notion. It is intrinsic to an object to have a capacity to recur. Therefore it must participate in the relation of identity. For this it is important that it be beleuchtbar in indefinitely many ways, but never allseitig.
Bedeutung
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

Chapters 1–4 unfolded Frege’s general, fruitful, picture of the business of being true. Chapter 5 concerns some elaborations of that picture, in 1891–1895, with an eye on his then-central project: proving arithmetic to be logic. Here we find some interesting false steps, culminating in his technical notion, Bedeutung. This chapter examines and unravels some of these. They involve his treatment of the notion function, correlatively, a radical (but not properly motivated) syntactic revisionism, the conflation of two different sorts of Bedeutung, one having to do with evaluation and transmission of truth value, the other having to do with forming a representation, something to be either true or false.
Concept and Object
Authors: Travis Charles
Published: July 2021

Frege propounded a doctrine on which the distinction between object and concept has the form of a traditional distinction between categories: what can be said of the one cannot so much as be said of the other. This idea has been philosophically influential. It has inspired various doctrines on various supposed limits of making sense, the general thought being that when one tries to stand back too far from the phenomenon of thought itself, one gets involved in what might be issues of self-reference in a way that blocks saying anything at all. So much philosophy is saying nothing at all. Which might be true anyway. But the core idea rests on a mistake. It fails to take account of the relational and functional nature of the notion object.
The Brexit Elections, 2017–19
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

The years immediately after the 2015 general election were dominated by another vote, held in 2016. In 2013, the electoral challenge from UKIP had forced David Cameron to promise an in–out referendum on the EU should his party win the next general election. Cameron fulfilled his promise, after negotiations with the EU which only partially addressed the grievances of Eurosceptics in UKIP and within his own party. The chapter discusses the narrow victory for ‘Leave’ in the 2016 referendum, arising from divisions within the UK which cut across previous party allegiances and introduced a new element of volatility in an electorate which was already barely recognizable from that of 1964. The situation was complicated further by the election of the radical left-wing MP Jeremy Corbyn as Labour leader after his party’s 2015 defeat. By contrast, when David Cameron resigned as Conservative leader and Prime Minister after the referendum he was succeeded by Theresa May, who was regarded as a pragmatic centre-right politician who could negotiate a compromise ‘Brexit’ deal with the EU. The chapter examines May’s failure to carry out this promise, marked in particular by her inept attempt to secure a convincing parliamentary majority in the 2017 general election. When May was forced from office in 2019 she was succeeded by Boris Johnson, a far more controversial and divisive character who nevertheless was able to lead the Conservatives to a comfortable electoral victory, not least because their pro-European opponents were hopelessly divided. However, the victorious Conservatives had no reason to feel complacent; even if Johnson’s government could deliver the favourable Brexit deal which it had promised, over the years since 1964 the British electorate had become far more fickle and parties were increasingly vulnerable to events outside their control. Within a few months of the 2019 election, party competition in Britain, which had seemed so stable back in 1964, was exposed to a new and deadly source of disturbance—the outbreak in China of the Covid-19 virus—which presented the most serious challenge faced by any UK government since 1945.
The Waves as “saturated” Novel
Authors: Kopley Emily
Published: July 2021

Since Jacob’s Room, Woolf’s fiction had incorporated three tools borrowed from poetry: the lyric “I,” figurative language, and aural recurrence. These tools find their clearest expression in The Waves (1931), which Woolf described as “prose yet poetry; a novel & a play.” This chapter analyzes The Waves with respect to these three tools, and then considers the book’s genre. Since its publication, many critics have received it—and other work by Woolf—as prose poetry and free verse. But to read Woolf as writing in these genres is to disregard authorial intent and historical context, to impose associations and conventions on work conceived without them. And lineating Woolf’s prose to “reveal” it as free verse betrays a confusion of lineation with poetry. Woolf’s vexation with the word “novel” reflects her effort to expand the meaning of the term. One way to honor this expansion is to use the term to describe the work of hers that seems least novel-like.
History of a hypothesis
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

The main ideas about preventing illness run through the whole of human history even if, in every age and in every place, they find new interpretation. Spanning 5,000 years, this chapter reveals prevention’s common themes, including the following: illnesses have preventable causes (Neolithic filtration and boiling of water); the choice of prevention over cure is conditional on the balance of costs and benefits, where the benefits depend on the risk, timing and severity of the hazard (shipping insurance, from 4000 BC); prevention is about improving health, not merely avoiding illness (Ancient Greece); prevention is for communal as well as personal health (Roman aqueducts and communal toilets); prevention is at a premium in the absence of a cure (fourteenth-century plague); the costs and benefits of prevention can be calculated and used to make choices about health (Franklin on fire insurance, Chadwick on sanitation); and the immediate, preventable causes of illness (diet, tobacco) depend, in turn, on deeper causes, in societies, economies and environments (Hippocrates to the Sustainable Development Goals).
Unlikely disasters
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

If the threat of disaster—an earthquake, a pandemic, or a nuclear accident—is unlikely or uncertain in time, place, and scale, then prevention may not be seen as better than cure. A potential health emergency becomes more manageable when the cost is commensurate with the hazard and the risk. Tactics to satisfy that criterion are familiar to the insurance industry: spotlight preventable hazards, pool the risks, and share the costs. A hazard—such as COVID-19, Ebola or Zika virus—is perceived to be more dangerous, and more likely to stimulate action, when classified as a public health emergency or a threat to national security. Among the methods for pooling risks and sharing costs are early detection and response systems for multiple pathogens; platform technologies for the development of new diagnostics and vaccines; collaborations through the International Health Regulations (IHR 2005); and shared genomic databases for bacteria and viruses.
Policing Human Rights
Authors: Martin Richard
Published: July 2021

Human rights are a common feature of police reform, rhetoric and regulation in many jurisdictions. Yet how human rights law might serve to regulate policing, function as a discourse for describing what police ‘do’ or perform as a critical concept for engaging with what the police role is, or ought to be, has received limited attention. This book is an endeavour to produce one of the first sustained, interdisciplinary accounts of the empirical realities of human rights law in policing. The substantive insights are drawn from unprecedented access to the Police Service of Northern Ireland. The book takes the reader on a tour of four sites of policing: the public forums host to ‘official’ police narratives, routine policing, public order policing and police custody. It seeks to better understand how and why police officers performing different aspects of policing, operating in distinct regulatory sites and enacting their own identities and experiences, come to encounter and engage with human rights law in their everyday work. The book aspires to embrace criminology’s interdisciplinary spirit, drawing on concepts from criminology itself, as well as law, anthropology, sociology and organizational studies, to illuminate the empirical realities of human rights law. It offers a series of findings and insights that expose how human rights law functions in modern policing, and the histories, imaginations, visions and values police officers’ express in narratives, sensemaking and practices of routine police work.
The Script in Action
Authors: Martin Richard
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines how the public order script, explored in Chapter 6, was performed by commanders. It begins by exploring how commanders sought to sell the script to the parade and protest groups commanders sought to ‘win over’. If such groups could be won over with the PSNI’s pitch, the likelihood of disorder was greatly diminished, and commanders could better control the event. In some cases, however, the sales pitch proved unsuccessful; marchers and protestors proceeded with their own agendas. In such instances, commanders proved reluctant to intervene too forcefully, for reasons that will become clear. In two high-profile cases, the police approach to disorder has led to legal challenges, both of which reached the UK’s highest court. This introduces the second audience occasionally in receipt of the police script: the courts that must assess the internal self-application of human rights law by police. In their review of police decision-making in these cases, though, the senior judiciary have proven reluctant to interfere, showing deference to officers’ relative expertise, their access to intelligence and the exigencies of operational situations. The final section asks what role human rights law has come to play in managing the kinds of ‘trouble’ that Waddington (1994) identified over two decades ago as crucial to commanders’ decision-making.
Feeling the Pressure
Authors: Martin Richard
Published: July 2021

Similar to the street-level bureaucrats in Lipsky’s classic study, the custody officers met in the course of fieldwork for this study were faced with a dilemma emergent from competing occupational demands and police functions. On the one hand, they were conscious of their statutory duties under PACE to act as guardians of suspects’ rights, and that the routine practices of their fellow officers could undermine the right to liberty. On the other, they were confronted with considerable organizational pressure to process arrests in custody and, in doing so, help their over-worked frontline colleagues who tirelessly bounced from one response call to another. This chapter aims to answer the question emerging from the last chapter: how did custody officers respond to the pressure they faced to authorize the detention of suspects, especially where the arrest seemed to be on dubious grounds? Did they succumb to workplace demands and authorize detention, or did they feel able to push back and challenge arresting officers and their supervisors? By the end of this chapter, the reader will come to understand how and, more importantly, why, the former attitude prevailed and what this tells us about custody officers as human rights practitioners.
Pastoral Instruction in ‘As You Like It’
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter evaluates William Shakespeare’s As You Like It. If critics of As You Like It agree on one thing, it is that the play is pastoral-romantic by genre. However, there are some problematic features of As You Like It, which have been called antipastoral. Shakespeare by no means flouts or satirizes pastoral convention, but merely selects a particular shade of mixed, realistic pastoral, in the interests of a particular strategy. A complex departure from pastoral is made by the prominent introduction of hunting. A fundamental characteristic of pastoral was its apparent artlessness: pastoralists went to great lengths to avoid the implication of knowledge in their shepherds. Shakespeare uses this convention to amusing effect when he makes the ultrapastoralist Jaques pretend that he is innocent of even the most ordinary technical terms of poetry. In the mixed pastoral romance, a very limited instructional element entered, in that the temporary shepherds were initiated into the value of stoicism and heard idealistic speeches about love. But in As You Like It, the educational element bulks so large as to become the main activity. The chapter then considers how As You Like It contains many references to time and objective measures.
The Paradoxical Machinery of The Rape of the Lock
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter assesses Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock. The two-canto The Rape of the Lock of 1712 had mythological machinery of an ordinary epic (or mock-heroic) sort—‘Now Jove suspends his golden Scales in Air’. But in the five-canto 1714 version, Pope greatly enlarged and individualized the machinery. Indeed, much of the poem’s effect is due to its Rosicrucian mythology. Yet John Dennis, the Critic himself, called it contemptible, in his Remarks on Mr Pope’s The Rape of the Lock. As often with Dennis’s admirably detailed criticism, even his formidable failures, compounded as they are by irascibility, help more than many other critics’ successes to define the context of Pope’s intentions. The chapter then explores the psychological machinery, moral machinery, and political machinery in The Rape of the Lock.
Relevance
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter reflects on the relevance of literature and literary works. The meaning of the word ‘relevance’ has unobtrusively changed. In the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, ‘relevance’ meant ‘pertinent to a case or argument’ or occasionally ‘pertinent to the matter in hand’. By 1800, however, ‘relevant’ was more often used to mean ‘pertinent to the issue’; and after that it altered rapidly, since what was taken to be the current issue kept changing. In fact, ‘relevance’ began to imply pertinency to specifically new issues, or the newest issue. In literary criticism, this collectivist assumption had an astonishing influence. Relevance came to be used as an overriding criterion; considerable and negligible, good and bad, were distinguished simply in terms of this one factor. Was the work socially relevant, relevant to the public? Such a criterion could easily exclude much of literature and soon it did. The chapter then looks at modern relevance theory, the thrust of which is to replace decoding with ordinary inference and so to recover the idea of pertinency—albeit pertinency reconceived in linguistic terms.
Gavin Douglas
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines Gavin Douglas’s humanism. To ask whether Douglas was a true humanist is to try to fix the fluidities of a transitional period. And, besides, ‘humanist’ covers as many subtexts as its dictionary definitions betray. Assume a fourteenth- to sixteenth-century scholar of Latin and Greek literature, and Douglas qualifies—although classical studies then were not as now. But, take humanism as a movement away from religious to secular concerns, and Douglas’s humanism is more doubtful. The chapter then looks at mimesis and the rhetoric of ekphrasis in Douglas’s Eneados. The term ekphrasis is commonly defined as ‘description, particularly description of works of art’. But the term is much richer; the verb ekfrazdo means ‘tell, recount, express ornately’. Ultimately, Douglas’s greatest original achievement must be his invention of landscape poetry in English. In addition, Douglas’s Prologues not only use calendar art as a model but have themselves the structure of a calendar.
The Information Economy of Early Modern Travel Writing
Authors: Netzloff Mark
Published: July 2021

England’s relations with European states were mediated through an information economy that depended not only on credential extraterritorial agents but also the illicit labor of individual travelers and other informants. The earliest forms of English travel writing emerged out of this context of the state’s networks of intelligence gathering. As described in the opening section, most travel texts from this period were not autobiographical accounts of personal travel but rather advice texts—often written by leading state officials—that outlined procedures for organizing the experience of travel and converting it into narrative form. After an initial section surveying travel advice texts of the Elizabethan period, the chapter analyzes the influence of this tradition on the practices of writing and narrative forms of the first-person travel accounts of Fynes Moryson’s Itinerary (1617) and Thomas Coryat’s Crudities (1611).
The Mercenary State
Authors: Netzloff Mark
Published: July 2021

Throughout the late Elizabethan period, England’s population was incorporated in an ongoing military mobilization, with English armies maintaining a nearly constant presence on multiple fronts in the Low Countries as well as France and Ireland. Through an analysis of the autobiographical writings of English soldiers, this chapter examines how the conditions of military service enabled them to reflect on their economic position as mercenaries, able to transfer their labor power, as a way of reimagining their ability to assert their agency as political subjects. The chapter looks at texts written by English military agents themselves, with an extended discussion of George Gascoigne alongside analysis of lesser-known figures such as Sir John Smythe and the Norris family. The latter sections of the chapter examine the effects of extraterritorial military service on models of English domesticity, particularly the material histories of local communities, households, and families.
Vanity, Narcissism, Timidity, and Fatalism
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra
Published: July 2021

This chapter provides account of four character traits in the intellectual domain: vanity and narcissism; timidity and self-fatalism. It argues that vanity and narcissism are vices of superiority while timidity and self-fatalism are vices of inferiority. They are characterized as opposed to acceptance of limitations and proper concern to be esteemed by others. Vanity is typical of those who show an excessive concern for being held in high esteem by other people. Timidity is instead exemplified by those whose fear to be exposed as intellectually inadequate is so extreme that they shun being noticed by other epistemic agents. Consequently, they exhibit insufficient concern for being held in esteem by their epistemic community. Narcissism is related to intellectual vanity. It involves a failure to accept one’s intellectual limitations due to an infatuation with one’s own intellectual abilities. Fatalism is a strengthening of timidity that consists in a disposition to resign oneself to the alleged intractability of one’s own intellectual limitations. The chapter also defends the view that vanity and narcissism are based on attitudes whose function is social-adjustive, while timidity and self-fatalism have attitudes serving an ego-defensive function as their causal bases.