bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Judgments of Hazard, Risk, and Danger: Do They Differ?
Authors: Young Stephen L. , Brelsford John W. , Wogalter Michael S.
Published: January 2012

There were three purposes of the present research. The first was to test whether some of the discrepancies found in the hazard and risk perception literature were due to differences between the connotations of the terms hazard and risk. The second purpose was to examine the relationship between willingness to read warnings and generalized cautious intent, as well as other relevant variables suggested by past literature. The third purpose was to examine the relation between objective measures of injury (e.g., frequencies of hospital emergency room admissions) and people's subjective perceptions. The results showed that the expressions of hazardous, risky, dangerous and hazardous-to-use connote the same meaning to lay participants. Strong intercorrelations were found between overall unsafeness (a composite of the four hazard-risk expressions), injury severity, cautious intent, and willingness to read warnings. While injury likelihood played a small part in the prediction of willingness to read warnings, the results indicated that overall unsafeness (and severity of injury) play the foremost role in people's judgements of whether to read warnings and to act cautiously. No relationship was observed between objective measures of injury frequency and people's subjective perceptions of injury likelihood which is taken as a further indication that people do not readily use injury likelihood in their judgements of product safety.

The implications are two-fold. First, the results suggest that lay persons do not interpret the term risk in the same way as do experts. These results suggest that other terminology and language may be needed to express probability to lay persons. Second, the results suggest that designers of warnings and educational materials should focus their attention to ways that appropriately communicate how badly a person can get hurt, rather than (or to a lesser extent) the likelihood of getting hurt.
Effects of Warning Explicitness on Consumer Product Purchase Intentions
Authors: Vaubel Kent P.
Published: January 2012

Two studies examined the relationship between the explicitness of hazard consequences described by a warning label and purchase intentions. Subjects indicated buying preferences for consumer products displaying explicit and nonexplicit warning labels. A total of 6 common consumer products was used in Experiment 1. Subjects were shown a questionnaire containing information about products varying in price, quality and warning label explicitness. Sixty-six subjects rated 2 products and ranked 2 products based on which they would be most likely to purchase. Results of the rating and ranking tasks suggest that products containing nonexplicit warnings were significantly more likely to be purchased. In Experiment 2, both explicit and nonexplicit warning labels were simultaneously presented for each of nine products and subjects rated with which warning they would prefer to buy the product. Results of Experiment 2 indicate one product was rated significantly more likely to be purchased with an explicit warning label; whereas, two products were rated more likely to be bought with nonexplicit warnings. There were no significant differences for the remaining six products. Overall, nonexplicit warnings were preferred to explicit warnings. However, this trend was reversed for one product, and for many products the detail with which a warning describes potential consequences had little effect on anticipated purchase decisions.
Workstation Prototypes: A Human Engineering Approach
Authors: Frey Thomas J. , Stults Jerry
Published: January 2012

In April 1989 a concerted effort was undertaken by the Human Factors Engineers of the IBM Federal Systems Division in Boulder, Colorado to research and design the workstation area of a mobile ground shelter. This mobile ground shelter is designed to ride and function on the trailer of a standard semi-truck. The intent was to devise a functional, human-centered design that met the specifications of tasks being performed. A series of four mockups were constructed as a way of iteratively evolving the design. This project is a good example of applied human factor principles though the evaluation of user input.
The Application of Environmental Design Principles and Human Factors Guidelines to the Design of Training and Instructional Facilities: Room Size and Viewing Considerations
Authors: McVey G. F.
Published: January 2012

A review of selected research and past projects has resulted in the identification of a set of design principles, guidelines, and explanations which may be used with confidence by the facility planner and architect in the development of training and educational facilities that promote desired participant interaction and comfortable and accurate viewing of displays.
Consumer Perception of Light Truck Safety
Authors: LaRue Cindy , Cohen H. Harvey
Published: January 2012

The popularity of light trucks has increased tremendously since their introduction in the 1970's. Also increasing is the accident rate and injury severity of passengers involved in light truck accidents according to literature dating as far back as 1979. There are several federal requirements which apply to passenger cars that are not in effect for light trucks, primarily overhead and side structural protection. Also, the light trucks, especially the four-wheel drive models, have a greater propensity for rollover accidents due to their higher center of gravity. At issue in a products liability case regarding a light truck accident is whether or not the product meets the consumer's reasonable expectations. To determine what the consumer expectations are for the performance and safety of light trucks, a survey was conducted which addressed the issues of how safe the participants felt a truck was in comparison to other motor vehicles and under a variety of driving conditions. In order to determine how advertising affects this opinion, several 4-wheel drive light truck advertisements from a major manufacturer were shown after the first part of the survey. Three questions followed the videotape and the answers were then compared to see if the opinions changed after viewing the commercials. Results indicate that the survey participants on the average felt that cars and light trucks were equally safe and the commercials had only a slight effect on their opinion. Other findings were that the majority of the participants felt that the 4-wheel drive capability increased the safety of a vehicle.
Toward a Methodology for Evaluating Instrument-Panel Controls
Authors: Hardee H. Lenora , Johnston Charles M. , Kuiper James W. , Thomas William E.
Published: January 2012

Although there is a relatively large body of literature which documents evaluations of driver performance with instrument-panel (IP) controls, there does not exist a standard methodology which can be applied to obtain dynamic and objective performance data. Because of this, it is difficult to compare and integrate the findings from different evaluations. To address this problem, the G.M. Systems Engineering Human Factors Department has developed two implementations of a methodology which show promise — the “Video Method” and the “Automated Method.” Both implementations are identical with respect to the experimental tasks performed by the subjects and the types of objective data which can be obtained. The implementations differ, however, with respect to the method by which task completion times and errors are obtained. The Video Method relies upon frame-by-frame video analysis to obtain task completion times, while the Automated Method employs instrumented controls. A computer records driver control inputs, which are later reduced through the use of a custom software package, to obtain task completion times. Because of the differences in data acquisition techniques, both implementations exhibit unique strengths and weaknesses, and differ in their appropriateness for use with certain types of controls.
The US Army's New Air Defense Command and Control System: The Human Factors Design Process
Authors: Smith Mark W. , Grose Eric M.
Published: January 2012

TRW is currently under contract to produce the US Army's new Command, Control, and Intelligence (C2I) system for its forward areas air defense elements. The system design is characterized by automatic dissemination of tactical aircraft data as well as battlefield intelligence information. The Human Factors Engineering effort on this program has been responsible for all aspects of the design of the operator interface. The effort has focused attention on the value of interactive prototypes for the purpose of detailed design. This paper describes the Human Factors design process on this program and presents a two-phase approach to a rapid prototyping effort. Future plans to use objective data collected from prototype work in conjunction with a formal task analysis are also discussed.
Evaluation of Handle Positions Using Force/Endurance Relationship of an Isometric Holding Task
Authors: Bishu Ram R. , Myung Ro Hae , Deeb Joseph M.
Published: January 2012

Almost all the published studies on container handle positions have used the psychophysical, physiological, and biomechanical criteria to evaluate the best handle locations on container. The primary intent of this investigation was to determine if force endurance relationship curves could be used as criterion for comparing the handle positions. Ten subjects participated in a factorial experiment involving four handle positions (2/2, 3/7, 8/8, and 6/8), and four levels of exertion (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of maximum lifting capacity). On any treatment condition, the subjects held the box till their endurance limit. The endurance time and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were the dependent measures. For the RPE, it was observed that the asymmetric position 6/8 was the best. Similarly the handle position 6/8 had the longest endurance as observed by a third order polynomial fit. The differences among the handle position were consistent across all levels and exertions tested. Further, it appears that the maximum lifting capacity is closer to the grip strength of the non-dominant hand.
Biomechanical Modeling of Asymmetric Lifting Tasks in Constrained Lifting Postures
Authors: Gallagher Sean , Hamrick Christopher A. , Love Arnold C.
Published: January 2012

Twelve subjects participated in an investigation of the biomechanical stresses of asymmetric lifting in stooped and kneeling postures. Three factors were manipulated in this study: Posture (stooped or kneeling), height of lift (35 or 70 cm), and weight of lift (15, 20, or 25 kg). Subjects were required to lift or lower a box every 10 seconds for a period of 2 minutes. Electromyography (EMG) of eight trunk muscles was collected during a lift in this period. The EMG data, normalized to maximum extension and flexion exertions in each posture, were input to a biomechanical model and used to predict compression and shear forces at the L3 level of the lumbar spine. Results from the EMG-driven biomechanical model indicated that compression was greater when lifting to a higher shelf (p < 0.001), and indicated a significant interaction between posture and the weight of the lifting box (p < 0.01). Peak lateral shear was not significantly affected by any main effects or interactions (p < 0.05). Anterior shear was increased with increasing height of lift (p < 0.001), and also by the posture x weight interaction (p < 0.01). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated a complex relationship for recruitment of the eight trunk muscles, with the triple interaction being significant (p < 0.001). The results of this investigation will be used to evaluate safe loads for lifting in these restricted postures.
Noise in Open-Plan Computer Rooms
Authors: Mital Anil , McGlothlin James D. , Faard Hamid F.
Published: January 2012

Noise in open-plan computer rooms and annoyance associated with it was reported to be a problem in a large service organization. An experimental investigation was undertaken to determine noise levels in this organization's computer rooms. The noise spectrum was found to be similar in all facilities investigated but substantially different from those of open-plan offices. Fifty percent of all respondents rated the noise level (on a 25–point scale) between extremely annoying and unbearable and intolerable; 10% of the respondents considered the noise very annoying; 20% of the respondents considered the noise levels moderately annoying; the remaining respondents did not seem to have a major problem. Conversational sound and computer-printer beeping sounds were reported to be most annoying by 90% of the respondents who considered the noise levels annoying.
Effects of Keying Method, Image Preview and Work/Rest Schedule on Posture of the Remote Bar Coding Operators
Authors: Karwowski Waldemar , Noland Soraya , Eberts Ray , Salvendy Gavriel
Published: January 2012

The main objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of different work/rest schedules, keying methods and preview conditions on postures preferred by the remote bar coding (RBC) operators, as well as on the patterns of postural changes over time, and to relate these to the perceived postural discomfort at work. Twelve operators (nine females and three males) were hired through a local employment service. A participation requirement was a minimum typing speed of 40 correct words per minute. Three factorial (2 × 2 × 3) design with replication was used. The experiment consisted of twelve scenarios utilizing three factors, i.e. 1) keying methodology (key all or key 5 digits only), 2) image preview (none or one), and 3) work/break schedule (50 minute/10 minute, 2 hour/15 minute, or flexible schedule). The data collection for biomechanical analysis of the RBC operators was performed using the video-recording technique. Assessment of the operator's postural discomfort was performed before the work started, immediately after each work period (during the break), and immediately after the task was completed. The results of postural discomfort analysis showed the significant effects of data collection time on all reported discomfort scores. The instruction to “key all” resulted in significantly higher wrist discomfort levels than the instruction “key 5 characters only.” The neck/head flexion was the lowest (mean = 30.2 degrees) for the flexible work/break schedule, and the highest (mean = 36.5 degrees) for the 50 minute work/10 minute break schedule. The preview condition resulted in smaller arm flexion (mean = 108.2 degrees) than the no preview condition (mean = 115.6 degrees). On average, the subjects used back support 34.7% of the time. When working with no image preview, the back rest was used 25% of the time. The back rest utilization increased for 50% of the time with the image preview, indicating more relaxed posture at work with the preview condition. The upper trunk angle (back inclination) assumed by the RBC operators was on average by 10 degrees greater than the angle preferred by the VDT operators.
The Acceptability of Control Locations and Related Features in Agricultural Tractor Cabs
Authors: Casey Steven M. , Kiso James L.
Published: January 2012

Five clinics involving 172 tractor operators from North America and Europe were conducted to evaluate 69 different tractors produced by various manufacturers. Human factors and usability concerns were the primary focus of the evaluations. Two categories of data — physical measures from the vehicles and subjective ratings from participants — were gathered. The physical data consisted of control locations (in 3D space), control travel, and force requirements. Subjective data consisted of hundreds of 5–point acceptability ratings from each participant. The physical data were used to create polynomial regression equations (or models) showing the relationships between an individual physical variable, such as the fore/aft placement of a control, and the subjective acceptability rating for that particular variable. The models and overall results show that (1) there is tremendous design variability within agricultural tractor cabs, (2) control locations within vehicles are systematically related to user acceptability ratings, and (3) there are unique, optimal placement zones for each major category of hand control, such as transmission controls, throttle controls, and hydraulic controls. Furthermore, the models can be used to (1) evaluate current products and (2) evaluate design alternatives for future products.
Dynamic Muscle Modeling via Spectral Electromyography
Authors: Rajulu Sudhakar L.
Published: January 2012

The current method of using processed EMG has certain limitations when one attempts to study the muscle behavior during continuous motions. In addition, since it ignores several useful information in the raw EMG signal, it was felt that these lost information may be the key to better understanding of the muscle behavior. Studies have shown that spectral Electromyography retains such useful information and have speculated that spectral EMG might provide better knowledge of the muscle activity. This study shows that the spectral EMG is sensitive to the changes in external torque and the joint velocity but not to the changes in the sampling area. The effect of performing submaximal tasks during dynamic conditions on the muscle effort is also explained by using an agonistic-antagonistic muscle model based on spectral EMG.
A Model Describing the Time Course of Isometric Muscle Fatigue
Authors: Deeb Joseph M. , Drury Colin G.
Published: January 2012

Despite the recommendations that an important design criterion is not to exceed 15% of an operator's maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) with any muscle that must be used for a long period of time, many tasks involve the exertion of much higher forces coupled with long-term contractions. Many studies have investigated the force-time relationship of isometric muscle contractions to determine the endurance time of a given relative force. To date, however, direct studies of muscle performance throughout fatiguing tasks have not been conducted to the same degree.

This research was concerned with studying the effects of different muscle groups (biceps, vs quadriceps) of subjects with different age groups (20–29 vs. 50–59 years of age) on long-term muscular isometric contractions at different levels of %MVC (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100% MVC), and modelling the functional data to describe the time course of strength decrement. The data revealed that the time course of strength decrement was best modelled by the function:

[Formula: see text]

An experiment test using 2 0 subjects with each subject performing 10 conditions (two muscle groups * five level of %MVC) showed that this function accounted for over 95% of the variance of strength decrement. All parameter estimates were statistically significant.
Acquisition of Skills for New Plant Start-Up in Singapore along with a Plan to Retain Employees
Authors: Birnbrauer Herman
Published: January 2012

There is always a problem in a new plant start-up acquiring a workforce that is competent. This is aggravated when the skills required are not available in the prevailing labor market. Couple this with a tight labor market with competition for workers. A further complication is doing all of this internationally (Singapore). The traditional on-the-job training was not considered capable of creating and developing a competent workforce.

The solution of the problem that was adapted was a competency -based technical program using subject-matter experts. These SME's were selected from within the culture of the plant, brought to the United States and trained, coached and counselled so that they could develop and conduct the training back home in Singapore.

Competency-based training that uses certification was taken a step further by the integration of human factors and social interaction consideration and skills. The SME's to be effective must be accepted as experts, coaches, counsellors and mentors. The feeling of caring and consideration needed to come across as credible and honest for success. When this did, the trainers were receptive and enthusiastic and they took pride in their accomplishment.
Empirical Studies of Candidate Leading Indicators of Safety in Nuclear Power Plants: An Expanded View of Human Factors Research
Authors: Nichols Mary L. , Marcus Alfred A.
Published: January 2012

The role of management and organization factors in safety performance in nuclear power plants is examined. The research to be reported has been conducted over a two-year period, funded by the Research Division, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The research is guided by a framework which proposes that certain management and organizational characteristics influence intermediate outcomes, which include the level of operating efficiency of the plant, the quality of its components, the compliance of its systems and people to preestablished standards, and the plant's capacity for recognizing potential problems, and finding and implementing solutions to them. Relationships between these intermediate outcomes and the post-hoc measures of safety currently being used by the NRC are examined. Candidate variables among the intermediate outcomes which might become “leading” indicators of safety are discussed. In addition, the research seeks to identify management and organization factors which provide antecedent conditions leading to the intermediate outcomes and ultimately to safe operations. Empirical studies of the effects of problem solving capacity, organizational learning, financial resources, and the relationship between the utility-level strategy and the plant are being conducted and the results will be reported. The paper calls for an expanded view of human factors research in understanding the causes of complex human and system behavior which ultimately leads toward a goal of safe operations in nuclear power plants.
Types, Tokens and Indicators
Authors: Reason James
Published: January 2012

This paper discusses the role of latent human failures in the breakdown of complex, well-defended systems. It distinguishes between failure types and failure tokens, and argues that remedial measures must be directed at identifying failure types through the use of various proactive indicators. The paper concludes by considering the implications of this approach for the management of organizational safety.
The Iowa Silent Reading Test's Comprehension Section: Local Norms and Predictive Validity for Usability Studies
Authors: Lewis James R.
Published: January 2012

The Iowa Silent Reading Test (ISRT), Level 2, Form E, Test 2 (Reading Comprehension) Part A was used to assess 70 participants' reading comprehension skills prior to performing a sequence of tasks in a series of seven printer usability studies (10 participants per printer). This part of the ISRT measures a person's ability to answer questions based on short passages to which the participant has ready access, and requires 26 minutes to administer. Data were collected to provide local norms for future studies, and for use as a covariate if necessary. The participants for these studies were obtained through a temporary employment agency. The distribution of scores for these participants is provided in this paper to describe local norms for this type of population, commonly used in such industrial usability studies. The predictive validity of this test score for the overall percentage of tasks successfully completed was found to be significant ( r = .25, p = .035). The predictive validity of the ISRT score for ratings of satisfaction with user documentation was also significant ( r = .35, p = .0028). Analysis of variance results suggested that participants with better reading comprehension skill generally performed better and were more critical of the user documentation.
Preventing Alcohol-Impaired Driving: Evaluating Simple Behavioral Tests and Their Effects on Driving Decisions
Authors: Streff Fredrick M. , Kalsher Michael J.
Published: January 2012

It is essential that social hosts be able to identify guests who may have had too much to drink to drive safely. We explored the efficacy of four sobriety tests for use by individuals with little training (one-leg stand, horizontal gaze nystagmus, backward counting, and ruler drop). Tests predicted BAC with statistically significant accuracy, but prediction accuracy varied. Interobserver reliability was high for each except the nystagmus test. The ruler drop was found to affect self-reported driving decisions most.
Smart Vehicles: New Directions for Human Factors Safety Research
Authors: Perel Michael , Brewer H. Keith , Allen Wade , Farber Eugene I. , Rockwell Thomas H. , Repa Brian
Published: January 2012

Advances in technology are being incorporated in motor vehicles at an increasing pace. These technologies have applications that may improve driver safety, comfort, and convenience. Among the “Smart Vehicle” applications that have been proposed are navigation systems, near obstacle detection systems, drive-by-wire, and active suspensions. In order for these systems to be effective, they need to be designed in consonance with driver needs, capabilities, and limitations. One concern is that unless human factors issues are addressed, new technologies not only may fall short of their potential for improving safety, but also may confuse or overload the driver and reduce safety. Because of this concern, a major focus of the crash avoidance research program at the National Highway Safety Administration (NHTSA) is on human factors issues associated with new vehicle technologies.

The panel will feature presentations of NHTSA perspectives and research programs followed by discussants from the private sector describing their views on human factors research needs for improving vehicle safety in the 90′s. The introductory paper will present background on current and near future research directions at NHTSA. The next presentation will describe the status of the NHTSA program to develop an advanced research simulator. The final presentation will discuss potential applications of the simulator to human factors research. The discussants will provide reactions to the research envisioned by NHTSA as well as their own perspectives on research from the private sector point of view. Two of the discussants are from the motor vehicle manufacturing industry and one has an academic/private consulting background. It is hoped that this panel will provide a broad perspective on the challenges of vehicle safety research and will stimulate new interest by human factors researchers to become involved in this important field.
Perceived Automobile Safety as a Function of Body Style, Cosmetic Design Variation, and Viewing Distance
Authors: Beringer Dennis B.
Published: January 2012

Some of the noticeable external variations in the appearance of vehicle systems are direct reflections of structural differences while others are more “cosmetic” in nature. It was hypothesized that judgements of vehicle safety, although often a function of structural design and operator personal experience, may be influenced by essentially cosmetic external variations in design that do not represent salient differences in vehicle structure. Individuals were asked to rate the general and specific safety characteristics of automobiles from viewing a series of photographs of each of several body styles. The general safety rank orderings, obtained in two separate samples, were expected, placing sedans and station wagons safest with convertibles least safe. Those cars initially ranked as less safe than average exhibited further reductions in average rated safety as viewing distance decreased. Rated likelihood of injury increased, on average, as viewing distance decreased. Rated likelihood of rollover ejection was affected by whether occupant would or would not be wearing a seat belt and did not interact with body style, which also influenced the ratings. Models that were structurally equivalent were rated differently depending upon whether removable roof panels were installed or removed. It appears that the presence of some removable sections or accessories may actually decrease the operator's perception of the hazard present although the actual hazard may not have been decreased.
Designing Antecedent Strategies for Increasing Safe Driving: A Pledgecard for Encouraging Belts and Discouraging Booze
Authors: Gamble Katrin A. , Kalsher Michael J.
Published: January 2012

A pledgecard designed to increase safety belt use and decrease driving under the influence of alcohol was distributed to faculty, staff, and students at a university campus. The pledgecard actually contained two separate pledges - one to use a safety belt (Buckle Up) and one to use safe transportation (Drive Sober). Each portion was designed such that it would be present whenever a decision regarding these behaviors was to be made. The Buckle Up pledge was designed to be hung from the inside rearview mirror of a vehicle, whereas the Drive Sober pledge was designed to fit inside one's purse or wallet.

The “Take the Pledge” program encouraged participants to pledge to Buckle Up and Drive Sober for four weeks. Observations of safety belt use were conducted beginning two weeks prior to the beginning of the pledge program and ending ten weeks later. Additionally, surveys were distributed before and after the program to obtain self-report measures of safety belt use and driving under the influence (DUI). Results indicated that there was a significant increase in both self-reported and actual safety belt use for both drivers and passengers during the “Take the Pledge” program. There was no significant change in the reported incidence of DUI. Program Agents demonstrated a greater commitment to both their Buckle Up and Drive Sober pledges than did Program Recipients.
Cockpit Distractions: Precursors to Emergencies
Authors: Barnes Valerie E. , Monan William P.
Published: January 2012

The Federal Aviation Administration promulgated the “Sterile Cockpit Rule” in mid-1981 in order to reduce incidents resulting from distractions occurring in the cockpit during critical phases of flight below 10,000 feet. The rule was, in part, a response to the large number of reports submitted to NASA's Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) that indicated that non-safety-related activities, such as making PA announcements to passengers, had diverted flight crews' attention from their primary flight duties—with adverse results. In this paper, more recent ASRS reports are discussed. These reports indicate that distraction incidents below 10,000 feet have continued to occur since the rule was promulgated. The sources of distraction identified in the sample of ASRS reports are also discussed.
Methodology for Determining the Human Role in the Strategic Defense System Command Center
Authors: Cuomo Donna L. , Rizzuto Major Anthony P.
Published: January 2012

A requirement in the design of the Strategic Defense System (SDS) is that the human maintain positive control of the system at all times. An allocation of functions between the human and the computer which leaves the human in control but does not degrade system effectiveness must be determined. We have had the opportunity to design and conduct a series of “human-in-control” experiments to study human decision making capabilities in a prototyped SDS command center. Experiments were designed to determine the factors affecting specific decisions, decision time, decision accuracy, and the decision makers' confidence in their decision at different points in time. Both the positive and negative aspects associated with performing experiments during the demonstration/validation phase are discussed.
A Program to Study Human Factors in Aircraft Maintenance and Inspection
Authors: Shepherd William T.
Published: January 2012

Safety in air travel is critically dependent on the work of personnel who inspect and repair aircraft. Catastrophic accidents have occurred as a result of failure to detect and repair aircraft malfunctions. It is imperative that we understand the factors that impact the performance of these people to support recommendations for any needed changes in training, communication methods, equipment and system design and work environments. This paper describes a program of research being conducted by the Office of Aviation Medicine of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), concerning the human factors of maintenance and inspection of civil aircraft.
Experimental Evaluation of a Diagnostic Rule-Based Expert System for the Nuclear Industry
Authors: Holmström Conny B.O. , Nelson William R.
Published: January 2012

This paper summarizes an experiment that was conducted at the international research institute, the OECD Halden Reactor Project, Halden, Norway to assess the effectiveness of the diagnosis expert system DISKET (Diagnosis System Using Knowledge Engineering Technique) for helping nuclear reactor operators diagnose and treat malfunctions. The objectives of the experiment are described, the experimental design and the methods of data analysis are presented, and the results of the analysis are discussed. In summary, the DISKET system improved the performance of test subjects in performing the actions needed to treat the malfunction, but the effects on the diagnostic processes were not conclusive. The improvement in treatment performance is encouraging in itself, but the question of how this occurs has not been completely answered, because of the difficulty in measuring human performance for cognitive activites such as diagnosis. The need for improved methods for measuring diagnostic performance in future experiments is discussed.
Relative vs. Absolute Rating
Authors: Liu T. S. , Narayanan S. , Subramanian V. , Konz S.
Published: January 2012

Making relative and absolute judgments of alternatives is compared.

Relative judgments, following Saaty's procedure, require that each possible pair of conditions be compared. The subject indicates which member of the pair is preferred, then gives the magnitude of the preference on a 1–9 scale. The scores then are entered into a matrix and eigenvectors calculated for each subject in each condition. These eigenvectors then are evaluated in a conventional subjects × conditions analysis of variance.

Two experiments are reported which show relative rating using eigenvectors is a more sensitive rating instrument than absolute rating.

Experiment 1 compared discomfort glare for three simulated streetlight luminances. Experiment 2 evaluated the likability of various fonts when used on transparencies with two sizes of fonts (subtending.57 or.72°), two styles (bold and regular) and three types (executive, roman and sans serif).

The relative rating method is a “more sensitive instrument.” It has two disadvantages. One, it requires evaluation of all possible pairs of conditions by the same subject so the experiment itself may take longer. Second, the program to calculate the eigenvectors is not presently available in a standard statistical package such as SAS or SPSS.
Guide for Human Performance Measurements
Authors: Gawron Valerie J. , Cipriano Leonard , Fleishman Edwin , Hegge Fred , Lehman Ed , Meister David , Reising John
Published: January 2012

There are currently no guidelines for human performance measurement. To fill this void, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) has formed a committee on standards (COS) to develop a Guide for Human Performance Measurements (HPM). The objectives of this guide are to: 1) describe methods for HPM, 2) allow database transfer without reformatting, 3) present a human performance taxonomy that can be used in the development of human performance models and theories, 4) foster HPM techniques which have proven to be effective, 5) promote commonality across research projects and thus enable comparison of results across experiments, and 6) enable the development and use of common HPM tools for data collection and data processing. The background and progress on this effort are discussed and the outline of the guide presented.
Taking Cognitive Task Analysis into the Field: Bridging the Gap from Research to Application
Authors: Redding Richard E.
Published: January 2012

Cognitive methods of task analysis have been used for training development. Although quite promising, these methods are generally time consuming and labor-intensive, and require considerable expertise. This has precluded their full use in field training situations. Economical, practical and user-friendly methods are needed which can be integrated easily with current approaches. This symposium paper discusses the potential of cognitive task analysis as well as the practicality problem. Of particular concern is how cognitive methods can receive widespread application among training practitioners — how to transition theory and research in cognitive task analysis into mainstream training development programs.
Display Design Guide for Visual Media
Authors: Brooks Jada D. , Gilson Richard D. , Myler Harley R.
Published: January 2012

Visual display systems have become so advanced with available options, it is difficult to decide which type of system is needed. Traditionally, the choice has been to select the system with the greatest level of functional and physical fidelity that can be procured. While most would assume that more realism results in better training and performance, research (Dwyer, 1972; Marsh, 1983; Richey, 1986) suggests otherwise. Realism in a display system may serve to be more distracting than helpful, depending upon the training objective. The initial intent of this project was to locate any and all information pertaining to visual display characteristics as they relate to human visual functions or to visual training requirements. A selected literature search was conducted to locate relevant information, data bases or taxonomies that relate the above information. No current taxonomy of this kind was located; therefore, the efforts of the project turned in the direction of formulating a taxonomic structure based on information derived from various disciplines such as instructional technology, human psychology, and computer engineering. General guidelines only, with no specific information, pertaining to the selection of visual media for given situations were found in the instructional technology literature. Based on those guidelines, four general types of presentation media were selected: alphanumerics, 2-dimensional graphics, 3-dimensional graphics, and scene quality. Next, display specifications for these presentations were identified through the aid of engineering and vendor-provided design parameters. Finally, human limitations were applied and psychophysical transformations allowed the determination of final display descriptions.
Network and Virtual-World Technologies for Training: A Panel Presentation and Discussion
Authors: Alluisi Earl A.
Published: January 2012

New adaptations of “virtual-world” and “networking” technologies in the Department of Defense provide effective alternatives to traditional methods of military training. These technologies have broad applicability to education and training in non-military settings as well. Four panelists describe and discuss some of the recent successful demonstrations of “teleteaching,” simulator networking, mechanisms for interoperability networking, and the promise of networks for training and other applications. The session includes a discussion among the panelists as well as interaction between the panel and the audience.
Performance, Throughput, and Cost of In-Home Training for the Army Reserve: Using Asynchronous Computer Conferencing as an Alternative to Resident Training
Authors: Hahn Heidi Ann , Ashworth Robert L. , Phelps Ruth H. , Byers James C.
Published: January 2012

Asynchronous computer conferencing (ACC) was investigated as an alternative to resident training for the Army Reserve Component (RC). Specifically, the goals were to (1) evaluate the performance and throughput of ACC as compared with traditional Resident School instruction and (2) determine the cost-effectiveness of developing and implementing ACC. Fourteen RC students took a module of the Army Engineer Officer Advanced Course (EOAC) via ACC. Course topics included Army doctrine, technical engineering subjects, leadership, and presentation skills. Resident content was adapted for presentation via ACC. The programs of instruction for ACC and the equivalent resident course were identical; only the media used for presentation were changed. Performance on tests, homework, and practical exercises; self-assessments of learning; throughput; and cost data were the measures of interest. Comparison data were collected on RC students taking the course in residence. Results indicated that there were no performance differences between the two groups. Students taking the course via ACC perceived greater learning benefit than did students taking the course in residence. Resident throughput was superior to ACC throughput, both in terms of numbers of students completing and time to complete the course. In spite of this fact, however, ACC was more cost-effective than resident training.
The Use of Single Event Evoked Cerebral Potentials to Predict Stimulus Identifications
Authors: Smyth Christopher C.
Published: January 2012

An experiment was conducted to determine the feasibility of using waveform features of the single trial transient evoked cerebral potential as a predictor of a simple “YES or NO” decision response. Six subjects, who were tested in a stimulus identification test, were shown a 100-trial sequence of instruction stimulus sets to which they decided by a button push whether the stimulus agreed with the instruction. The Electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded during the test, along with a stimulus trigger pulse used to align the EEG with the stimulus. The coefficents of a Linear Predictor Coding model fit to the post-stimulus, evoked potential signals were used as inputs for training and testing a supervised, hidden layer, neural network representation of the decisionmaking process. The resultant error rate computed using the “leaving one out” procedure, varies from 32-% to 46-% for predicting the decisions made by the subjects.
Character Aspect Ratio and Design Tradeoffs
Authors: Somberg Benjamin L.
Published: January 2012

The American National Standard for Human Factors Engineering of Visual Display Workstations specifies that character height-to-width ratios be within the range of 1:0.7 to 1:0.9. The empirical literature, however, fails to provide unequivocal support for that requirement. In designing CRT displays there is a complex interaction among several parameters, including character aspect ratio and character height. The present study compared a font with a character aspect ratio within the range allowed by ANSI/HFS 100–1988 to a font with a character aspect ratio outside that range. Using three different visually-intensive tasks, no real performance differences between the two fonts were observed. The study demonstrated that meeting individual design specifications, such as those provided in ANSI/HFS 100–1988, does not necessarily produce the most legible character set. It is argued that a performance-based compliance procedure may allow more flexibility in the design of visual display workstations.
Effects of Noise and Workload on Performance with Two Object Displays vs. a Separated Display
Authors: Zhang Kan , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

This study examines the effects of stress on the processing of displayed information from two types of object displays, when dimensions were formed by the color and size of a bar, by the height and width of a rectangle, and from a separated two bargraph display. Subjects either integrated information across the two dimensions of each display or focused attention on each dimension, in a simulated airborne decision task. In Experiment 1 (14 subjects), stress was imposed via three levels of workload of a concurrent visual search task. In Experiment 2 (14 subjects), it was imposed by 88 dB helicopter noise. Results indicated that information integration was best supported by the rectangle display at higher levels of workload. Both the color bar and the bargraph display were associated with poor performance on the integration task, but were superior on the focused attention task. Hence, an emergent feature of the rectangle (its area), rather than objectness per se, was the critical element supporting information integration and disrupting focused attention. The imposition of noise enhanced the subjective feeling of stress. Noise did not influence performance on the decision task, but differentially affected the resources necessary to extract that information. Noise reduced the resource demands of both object displays and increased the resource demands of the separate bargraph display.
Reduction of Cognitive Workload through Information Chunking
Authors: Kahn Michael J. , Tan Kay C. , Beaton Robert J.
Published: January 2012

Two experiments were conducted to determine whether grouping of icons on complex graphic displays reduces information processing loads, as measured by the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique and errror rates. In Experiment 1, between 2 and 25 symbols were presented on a computer display. Participants were asked to chunk symbols under class labels and store these labels in short-term memory. Two different display formatting variables were tested: spatial proximity grouping of icons was manipulated across three levels, while temporal grouping was manipulated across two levels. Results suggest that display grouping helps operators organize, encode, and store information into task relevant chunks and, in turn, reduces subjective workload and error rates. Experiment 2 was similar to Experiment 1, except that participants were required to remember individual icon names (i.e., participants were asked to remember as many as 25 item names). Results suggest that for chunk formation, storage, and parsing tasks, display grouping may reduce subjective workload, but not error rates.
Field of View Effects on a Simulated Flight Task with Head-Down and Head-Up Sensor Imagery Displays
Authors: Brickner Michael S. , Foyle David C.
Published: January 2012

When pilots fly an aircraft with sensor imagery rather than direct vision, their instantaneous field of view (FOV) is restricted severely. This limitation has been identified as a major human factors problem in aviation and has fostered efforts to develop displays with much wider FOVs than are currently available. Two experiments are reported investigating FOV effects in simulated flights with sensor imagery appearing on a Head-Down Display (HDD) and a Head-Up Display (HUD). The outside world was viewed via a simulated sensor image with a 25, 40, or 55 deg FOV, while the surrounding world was dark and provided no additional information. The subjects' task was to fly a slalom course without hitting the pylons or missing the intervals between pylons. The results indicate significant effects of FOV on both hits and misses for both the HDD and the HUD. In addition, performance was significantly affected by the speed of flying and the level of training. With the narrow FOV, subjects flew closer to the pylons than with the wide FOV and hit the pylons more often. These results are interpreted as an indication that subjects perceived the sensor display as the entire world rather than as a window into the world. This effect was somewhat smaller with the HUD than with the HDD, possibly because the HUD better represented a window into the world. The differences between the HUD and the HDD, however, did not reach statistical significance.