bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Particulate Concentrations in Ultraclean Rooms
Authors: Van Luik F. W.
Published: September 2009

In summarizing results of measuring air-borne particulate concentration in over 15 clean or ultraclean facilities, it is evident that three major sources of particles are present: (1) those associated with the air supply, (2) those associated with the processes conducted within the room, and (3) those associated with the personnel in the room.

Each of these potential sources has specific problems which must be considered. The air supply in the cleaner facilities utilizes high efficiency impingement filters to provide low levels of concentrations (0.1 particles per cu cm) for the microscopic size particles. Those processes involving high temperatures, combustion, the utilization of gases, paper products, or abrasion must be carefully controlled. The presence of people in a clean or ultraclean room is very critical and the number and activity of the personnel can be correlated to the level of contamination in a room and, therefore, must be carefully controlled.

A more detailed analysis of these three sources of contamination is presented, including tables of typical values of air-borne particle contamination for classes of clean facilities, common processes conducted, and personnel present.
An Approach to Control of Transistor Processing Environments
Authors: Smith C. A. , Manns T.
Published: September 2009

Control of processing environments has always been a major factor in the manufacture of electronic devices. However, the control of environments did not involve important capital outlay until after World War II. At that time, military and industrial demands for improved performance and greater reliability necessitated the development of special equipment for environmental control in the manufacture of ball bearings, gyroscopes, and electronic devices.
Removal of Water-Soluble Flux from Assembled Printed Circuit Boards
Authors: Smallwood Jack E.
Published: September 2009

Most of the fluxes encountered in printed circuit work today are of the rosin or activated rosin types. The corrosivity of the residues from these fluxes has made it mandatory to remove them from critical assemblies. The difficulties encountered in the removal of rosin residues has led many manufacturers to consider the use of water-soluble organic fluxes in an attempt to lessen the problem. In addition, certain applications require fluxes which are more active than the rosin compounds.
Sulfamic Acid Cleaning of Electron Tube Parts
Authors: Etter Robert W.
Published: September 2009

Copper, silver, nickel, and their alloys, as well as Kovar, stainless steel, and molybdenum are all used in the manufacture of electron tubes. They require chemical cleaning during parts assembly. Descaling of severely oxidized parts has always been a problem because very ac-safety equipment. This monobasic acid is readily soluble in water up to 30 per cent by weight, and may be used hot or at room temperature.
Notch Rupture Tests of Inconel X and Nimonic 80A
Authors: Furman D. E. , Talbot A. M.
Published: September 2009

To obtain some information on the effect of notches on the rupture strength of Inconel X and Nimonic 80A, tests were made at 1100, 1350, and 1500 F on Inconel X and at the two latter temperatures on Nimonic 80A. Using a notch 0.042 in. deep with a root radius of 0.005 in., neither alloy is indicated to be notch sensitive except for extended service at 1350 F. The presence of notch sensitivity while associated with the range of minimum ductility does not appear to accompany any particular ductility value. Both materials were found to be insensitive to shallow, sharp notches at 1350 F, suggesting that accidental surface imperfections would have small effect on the service life of these alloys. It was observed that a definite decrease in the number of cracks present in a plain rupture specimen after fracture may have some correlation with notch sensitivity.
Current Investigations of the Durability of Woodworking Adhesives
Authors: Blomquist R F
Published: September 2009

Factors that influence the deterioration of glued joints in wood include mechanical stresses, as a result of dimensional changes in the wood, moisture, heat, and microorganisms. Presently available methods for evaluating the permanence of glued wood joints include long-term exposures to controlled laboratory conditions and to weathering, actual service tests, and accelerated permanence tests. The advantages and limitations of each of these methods are discussed and applications of each method are illustrated. It is recognized that the most reliable procedure for evaluating such permanence is actual service experience. The problems of developing adequate data from such experience and in correlating the results of other types of tests with such service data are discussed. Accelerated tests are much desired, but the usefulness of present methods are limited by lack of adequate information on correlation of such tests with service and other long-term test experiences.
Introduction
Authors: Foster F. G. , Loveland R. P.
Published: August 2009

As an organized and accepted art and science, microscopy may be considered as one of the more recent additions to the engineering field. Although the literature cites applications other than biological in the early eighteenth century, microscopy from an engineering, industrial, and research standpoint has made its greatest strides through the last three decades. Unfortunately, microscopy as a science has been very loosely organized and fragments of its applications must be gleaned from many sources. The purpose of the 1952 Light Microscopy Symposium has been to bring together people interested in the various phases of this important field and present the results of more recent advancements. In a limited session it has been difficult to present papers covering all fields of interest. However, a number of specific fields have been covered and it will be found that many of the new methods discussed are usable in more than the original specific application.
Some Applications of Light Microscopy in the Study of Textile Materials
Authors: Tripp Verne W.
Published: August 2009

The light microscope has been used in the scientific investigation of textile materials for nearly a century. During that time its importance as a tool in such studies has continually increased. Today many organizations in the textile manufacturing field maintain a microscopical laboratory as an integral part of their production, control, and research activities. In the current ASTM Standards on Textile Materials, the microscope is included as a necessary piece of equipment in at least eight methods of test. From the widespread appreciation of textile microscopy, it is apparent that the microscope has proven to be an effective aid in understanding textile behavior and has made significant contributions toward the development and production of satisfactory textile products. The examination of fibers, the basic units of textiles, has been and remains the largest part of the work of the textile microscopist. The extension of the ideas and techniques developed for fiber examination to yarns and fabrics has broadened considerably the scope of textile microscopy. Microscopical studies on the effects of chemical modification and mechanical processing on fiber characteristics likewise are effective means of approach to a more complete knowledge of these processes and to the setting up of reliable standards of test in textile production and use. It is the purpose of this paper to set forth briefly some of the objectives of textile microscopy and to describe accepted methods of accomplishing them. Details of the routine and specialized equipment and techniques are available in several comprehensive texts (1, 2, 3) and in numerous articles and technical bulletins (4, 5).
Polarized Light Microscopy and Supplementary Techniques
Authors: McCrone Walter C.
Published: August 2009

The Armour Research Foundation has for the past six years been especially active in publishing crystallographic data for common and important compounds. During this period nearly eighty complete descriptions have been published as monthly contributions in Analytical Chemistry (1). At least eight other laboratories have collaborated with the Foundation on publications in this series. The net result of this activity is to increase the number of adequately described compounds available for analytical purposes. When a reasonable proportion of the common everyday compounds have been described in this way, analytical methods based on the use of polarized light microscopy and other allied crystallographic techniques will become more useful. That these data will be useful for analytical purposes is shown by Table I where the accuracy possible in measuring two crystallographic properties is compared with the accuracy possible in measuring melting points. This paper has the aim of increasing the number of contributions of crystallographic data by carefully outlining the methods and techniques used in accumulating the data necessary for a complete description. Since the methods of polarized light microscopy are very adequately covered in such texts as Chamot and Mason (2), Hartshorne and Stuart (3), and Wahlstrom (4), this paper will only illustrate the integration of these techniques into a complete description.
Applications of Light Microscopy in Concrete Research
Authors: Mather Katharine
Published: August 2009

The applications of light microscopy in concrete research are outgrowths of its applications in petrology, mineralogy, and chemistry, but there is more quantitive emphasis in its use in concrete research than is common in petrology. Metallographic and combined petrographic and metallographic techniques are used to study portland cement. Normal petrographic methods are used to study aggregates and cement-aggregate reactions. Air content and bubble spacing in concrete are investigated by linear traverse and point-count techniques. The use of light microscopy in making comparative studies of the microstructure of concrete is described.
The Microscopical Examination of Metallic Specimens
Authors: Vilella J. R.
Published: August 2009

The term metallography is not confined to the visual or microscopical examination of metals but may be defined as the study of the internal structure of metals and alloys and of its relation to their composition and to their physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. But this paper is concerned only with the microscopical examination of properly prepared metallic specimens. Microscopical examination is perhaps the most fruitful of the methods of investigation employed in the systematic study of metals and their alloys. Its use for metallic specimens probably originated as the examination of a fractured surface with a magnifying glass. As far back as 1665, Robert Hooke described in his “ Micrographia” (1) the formation of lead crystals during the freezing of a lead silver alloy as observed with a magnifying glass and drew the magnified image of the surface of a polished steel razor blade. In 1772 Réaumur (2) published his microscopic examination of fractured surfaces of steel and white cast iron and, based on his observations, he proposed a method of distinguishing between irons subjected to different thermal treatments. However, the microscopic examination of fractured surfaces proved to be a very restricted field unsuited for systematic study and it was not until about 1808 that Widmanstatten (3) opened the way to a better method by his discovery that certain meteorites, when cut and polished, developed a characteristic structure on being oxidized by heating in air or when etched with acids. Since magnification was not needed to see the Widmanstatten figures, the method was not extended to metals having finer structures, and metallography made no further progress for many years. One of the earliest metallographic examinations was made by Paul Annosow (4), who in 1841 examined with a microscope the polished and etched surfaces of oriental damascened steel blades.
Methods of Particle-Size Analysis
Authors: Loveland R. P.
Published: August 2009

Particle size is a generic term and embraces a wide range of sizes of matter. In this discussion it will be limited to those sizes that will pass through the common commercial sieves. Of the many methods for determining particle size, only a few are fundamental, that is, do not require calibration by other methods. The microscopic method is one of these few. This discussion will be restricted to this method. Although in the literature its only value is stated to be as a calibration method for other methods, and it is more laborious than some other methods, nevertheless it is being used as a routine method of measurement in many places. Measurement of the image of a particle with a rule seems very direct compared with the measurement of a physical property correlated with the size and it gives a sense of validity.
Introduction
Authors: Schofield L. B.
Published: August 2009

Over a period of about seven years, Subcommittee IV on Liquid Insulation of ASTM Committee D-9 on Electrical Insulating Materials has held a series of five symposia on insulating oils. These stemmed from a very active interest in the development of test methods and the evaluation of test results to be used in establishing the serviceability of new and used insulating oils. The first symposium was held at a meeting of Committee D-9 in October, 1946, in Atlantic City. Four papers provided a basis for a discussion on the possible significance of the steam emulsion number test, the interfacial tension test, and the analysis of dielectric strength data by statistical methods. The second program was held in June, 1947, at Atlantic City, during the ASTM 50th Annual Meeting. Again, four papers were presented for discussion, two on the use of inhibitors in transformer oils and two on the practical application of power factor tests on oils as a criterion of aging effects. The first two symposia were published in ASTM Bulletins, No. 146, May, 1947, pp. 90 to 100, and No. 149, December, 1947, pp. 58 to 94. Both of these symposia also were printed in separate pamphlet form.
The Reclamation of Insulating Oils
Authors: Doble Frank C.
Published: August 2009

The reclamation of insulating oils, including reconditioning, re-refining, and inhibiting, is of growing importance to power system operators. Recent developments in a long-studied power system maintenance program have furnished the basis for a new concept of the operating characteristics of insulating oils. The new concept is that insulating oils, when properly serviced, can be given practically unlimited extension of life free from the formation of sludge or excessive acidity due to oxidation even in free-breathing transformers. In view of this situation it is felt that this symposium will show that an entirely new trend of thought is now in order and that some of the ASTM standards may need to be reviewed because they are based on the old concept that insulating oils inherently wear out and must be discarded because of acidity and sludge caused by oxidation. To develop the subject, discussed briefly are the background, the necessary terminology, and the problems involved and the developments of importance to their solution. This general treatment of the subject has been followed by a more detailed description of modern maintenance methods, including the tests available and their significance, the various means for reclaiming oil, the effects of inhibition, and the principles upon which an oil maintenance program is based.
Properties and Uses of Radioisotopes
Authors: Calkins G. D.
Published: August 2009

Radioisotopes are being used at a rapidly increasing rate in all fields of science and engineering. The growth in the applications of radioactive materials started in 1946 when an abundant supply of a large variety of radioisotopes became available from the nuclear reactors operated by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. At first radioisotopes were mainly tools of the research scientist and were limited to the confines of the laboratory. As experience was gained and more people became acquainted with their potentialities, radioisotopes were applied on a routine basis to problems in the factory and testing laboratory.
Applications of Radioactive Measurements to ASTM Work
Authors: Elliott O. M. , Kuranz J. L.
Published: August 2009

Radioactive tracers and radioactive measurements will not replace ingenuity, determination, and common sense in either the laboratory or the factory, but they have greatly increased opportunities for economy, accuracy, and understanding. The purpose of this paper is to discuss whether we are taking advantage of these opportunities. The paper by G. D. Calkins has reported some of the uses of the now abundant radioactive tools. The authors' task is to show how and where these fit into the ASTM work. A brief review of the volume of isotope distribution is needed in order to show the strides that have already been taken. As of June, 1953, well over 35,000 shipments of isotopes have been made from Oak Ridge for all purposes, but only approximately 2500 shipments have been made to industrial concerns for use in research and process control. Industry certainly carries on more than 7 per cent of the technical effort in this country, and therefore, proportionately, industry has not employed these new tools to the extent they have been employed by the medical and biochemical fields. Why is this so? There must be many reasons, but only a few can be given here. A primary reason is that there has been undue fear in the handling of these new tools and that industry, by and large, has not yet fully appreciated the potential value of the radioactive and stable isotopes that are now readily available and the simplicity and safety attending their use. The primary purpose of this Symposium is to furnish a little more than an academic acquaintance with these new tools. All the answers, of course, will not be obtained from the Symposium; it is hoped that industry itself will eventually supply the important answers by applying radioactive materials to its problems. However, the time is ripe to start industry thinking along this new road of discovery.
Design of Radioisotope Laboratories for Low and Intermediate Levels of Activity
Authors: Manov George G. , Bizzell Oscar M.
Published: August 2009

Designs of radioisotope laboratories for general purpose use are illustrated, and suggestions are made concerning the choice of flooring, walls, laboratory benches, working surfaces, and fume hoods together with cost estimates. Information is presented concering the availability and procurement of radioactive materials from the Atomic Energy Commission.
Nuclear Radiation—Its Detection and Measurement
Authors: Wakefield Ernest H.
Published: August 2009

There are six different types of commonly used nuclear radiations: alpha particles, beta particles, positrons, gamma rays, protons, and neutrons. The first five of these radiations are detected directly by the ionization which they produce on passage through a medium, such as gas. Neutrons are unlike the other radiations in that they are nonionizing in nature, but when entering a nucleus they often convert it to a radioactive isotope whose emission is detectable (for instance, when they enter the nucleus of the boron-10 isotope, the nucleus disrupts, emitting an alpha particle and a lithium particle; the alpha and lithium particles can be detected). Neutrons, therefore, are detected by secondary means.
Introduction
Authors: Turk Amos
Published: August 2009

The odorous properties of materials, pleasant, unpleasant, or with mixed cultural associations, stemming from the materials directly, or so distantly removed from them that the odor source is obscure, have been increasingly recognized as being fruitful subjects for study. Nomenclature, measurement, and control in this field all present somewhat unique problems. Because the perceptive mechanism of odor is perhaps the least perfectly understood among man's senses, nomenclature must have a subjective basis and may be a source of confusion in communication if it is not clarified. Problems in measurement are complicated by the facts that (a) many odorants are easily perceived in concentrations that are undetectable by direct physical or chemical methods, and (b) the measurement of an odor cannot be related to a perceptual mechanism (as can vision or sound, for example) and hence must be subjective, or organoleptic. In the applications field, there have been a number of interesting approaches to problems of odor control or modification, some of which have reached active commercial practice. ASTM Committee D-22 on Atmospheric Sampling and Analysis devotes attention to the odor problem through its Task Group on Odors of the Subcommittee on Analytical Methods. It was partly because of interest evoked by the activity of this Task Group, and with the aid of original organization and suggestions by L. C. McCabe, Chairman of Committee D-22, that this Symposium was initiated. J. Cholak, of the Kettering Laboratory, University of Cincinnati, and C. P. McCord, of the Institute of Industrial Health, University of Michigan, served with the Symposium Committee. It is hoped that the researches and reviews included herein will summarize and illustrate the “state of the art” in the industrial odor field, covering the aspects of nomenclature, measurement, and control. Nomenclature is discussed in the initial paper, dealing exclusively with this subject. Measurements are described in three papers devoted, respectively, to a temperature-rise method for combustible odorants, organoleptic appraisals of complex systems, and a test room for odor evaluations by a panel in a static system. Control problems are taken up in a paper dealing with outdoor odor pollution and a summary review on control methods.
Odor: A Proposal for Some Basic Definitions
Authors: Sagarin Edward
Published: August 2009

The science of olfaction has been seriously lacking in definitions that can serve as limiting guideposts for the researcher. A worker seeking to measure odor, to determine the stimuli that result in the perception of odor, to name substances that have no odor, to place various odors into groups or classes—such a worker is constantly handicapped by the virtually unanswerable question: what is odor? What is the property or quality that one is seeking to measure? What property or quality, by its very absence, can characterize a given substance as being odorless? This problem is made no less enigmatic by the statement that everyone knows what odor is, even though no one has succeeded in defining it. Odor, for practical purposes, is that which can be smelled; and to smell, as everyone agrees, is to use the nerves and sensory cells in the nose to perceive odors. But such a definition is of no help to the scientist, for it succeeds only in creating a circle which brings one back to the starting point. How far advanced would our knowledge of linear measurements be if our definition of an inch were that it is the twelfth part of a foot, and of a foot that it consists of twelve inches?
Catalytic Method of Measuring Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Industrial Exhaust Fumes
Authors: Ruff R. J.
Published: August 2009

Methods of chemical analysis invariably involve physical measurements. In the simplest cases this may be a measurement of weight, volume, or density. By these means the mass of a sample may be determined as well as the mass of any of its ingredients, usually after chemical conversion to a form that will permit its actual physical separation. More frequently, the amount of the element or compound sought is estimated by measurement of the quantity of another substance required to react chemically with it. Still another method consists of direct observation of one of the physical properties of the material, such as color or some other characteristic of the substance sought and not held in common with the other ingredients. In this manner the actual isolation of the substance is avoided along with difficult and time-consuming procedures. Most modern instrumentation methods fall into the direct observation class, and a wide variety of physical properties of matter is utilized. Typical examples include absorption of ultraviolet or infrared radiation, radiant emission at high temperatures, electrical, optical, and nuclear effects. These properties may differ widely in their selectivity, precision, requirements for instrumentation, and, of course, in their applicability to specific analytical problems. Generally, thermal effects have been of little use for analytical purposes. Accurate measurement is difficult, and selectivity is often lacking. It is apparent, however, that a broad field exists here, since aside from the ordinary thermal properties that may be used to differentiate between substances, every chemical reaction is attended by an energy effect, usually thermal. Specifically, in the field of atmospheric analysis and control, heats of combustion of hydrocarbon and organic vapors in air could be used as a measure of concentration, if a convenient and accurate method of measurement were available. Frequently there is little or no need for selectivity in the usual analytical sense. In industrial processes where fumes are liberated, such as the volatile solvents in the drying or baking of finishes, concentration determinations of total combustible matter, without discrimination between the actual chemical compounds present, serve adequately for design of full-scale, disposal equipment. Measurement of heat release through catalytic oxidation appears to have considerable usefulness in other related atmospheric analysis and control problems. This paper will describe such analytical applications as have been made and discuss avenues for further refinement.
Organoleptic Appraisal of Three-Component Mixtures
Authors: Gee A. Haldane
Published: August 2009

Three kinds of odorants were introduced in various proportions into a specially devised dynamic flow system suitable for organoleptic appraisal of the resulting odor mixture. The methods and equipment were developed under a United States Air Force contract in connection with the control of undesirable odors in hospital aircraft, without masking alarm or signal odors indicative of mechanical trouble or of an incipient fire on the airplane. The components of cabin air are: (1) odors of infected wounds and of body discharges, (2) odor control agents, (3) vapors and smokes from gasoline, hot lubricating oil and hydraulic fluid, burning electrical insulation, and scorching paint. These were appraised in experimental mixtures by the use of profile scoring. Plotting the results showed the effects of the control agents. The malodors were partly masked by aldehyde. Ozone cancelled the malodors but must be used with care. Smokes and other alarm odors were unaffected by the control agents.
Odor Control Methods: A Critical Review
Authors: Turk Amos
Published: August 2009

Methods now commercially available for control of odors by treatment of the odorous air may be divided into four general classifications: combustion, adsorption, absorption, and vapor mixing. Odors may, of course, also be controlled by eliminating or reducing their source, or by diluting the odorous air before it reaches humans—by a stack, for example—but such methods will not be considered in this review. Instead, this paper will be restricted to a critical evaluation of the four air treatment methods mentioned above.
The Problem of Thermal Stress Fatigue in Austenitic Steels at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Coffin L. F.
Published: August 2009

The localization of cyclic strain produced as a consequence of thermal fluctuations is principally responsible for thermal stress fatigue failures in structures fabricated from austenitic stainless steel. Mechanisms for strain localization are discussed, and experiments are reported for specimens designed to exhibit such localizations. Relationships between plastic strain change and cycles to failure are developed from tests performed on uniform specimens subjected to both cyclic strain at constant temperature and constrained cyclic thermal strain. These relationships are used to predict failure for the localized strain experiments. A difference in stress change and in cycles to failure between strain and constrained thermal cycling is observed.
Effect of Temperature Cycling on the Rupture Strength of Some High-Temperature Alloys
Authors: Miller James
Published: August 2009

Cyclic temperature rapture tests were conducted on four different high- temperature alloys (S816, M252, 16-25-6, and A286). Specimens were subjected to a constant load and three different types of temperature cycles. The size of the specimens and the method of heating was such that thermal stresses were considered to be negligible. The results of the tests are compared with calculated rupture lives made using constant temperature rupture data and integrating the life expenditure over a complete temperature cycle. The calculated and actual test values correlate very well, although in general the actual values are somewhat lower than the calculated values.
Experiments on the Effects of Temperature and Load Changes on Creep Rupture of Steels
Authors: Smith G. V. , Houston E. G.
Published: August 2009

Variation in stress or temperature during creep-to-rupture test may result in alteration of the creep rate, or time to rupture, under certain conditions; it does not appear possible, however, to generalize regarding these changes, on the basis of the relatively few results now available.
Effects of Cyclic Overloads on the Creep Rates and Rupture Life of Inconel at 1700 and 1800 F
Authors: Caughey R. H. , Hoyt W. B.
Published: August 2009

A series of creep-rupture tests was conducted at 1700 and 1800 F on coarsegrained Inconel to determine the effect of cyclic mechanical and thermal overloads. The “over conditions” were applied for a single continuous time interval and also for several cyclic time intervals of equal duration. It was found that single applications of mechanical overloading (overstressing) had no significant effect on the total life of the material. However, if the same overload is applied in repeated intervals (cycles) instead of a continuous period, the material sustains very pronounced damage; total life and elongation are sharply reduced, and creep rates are greatly accelerated. The effect of multiple applications of thermal overloads is not as pronounced as with mechanical overloads; instead, the most significant factor appears to be the total length of time at the overtemperature.
The Creep-Rupture Properties of Aircraft Sheet Alloys Subjected to Intermittent Load and Temperature
Authors: Guarnieri G. J.
Published: August 2009

The high-temperature creep-rupture properties of six sheet alloys having application to aircraft design were investigated under conditions of intermittent load and temperature for comparison with their corresponding constant-temperature — constant-load behavior. Included are type 321 stainless steel at 1200 and 1350 F, N-155 alloy at 1350 and 1500 F, Inconel “X” at 1350 and 1500 F, RC-130-A titanium at 800 F, 24S-T3 Alclad aluminum at 300, 450, and 600 F, and FS-1H magnesium at 300 and 450 F. Intermittent-load — constant-temperature tests were conducted with a cycle of 1-hr-load-on, 1-hr-load-off in most cases although several of the alloys were subjected also to an 8-hr-on, 8-hr-off load cycle. Intermittent-temperature — constant-load tests were made using a 2-hr cycle with the specimen at temperature 1 hr and cooled 1 hr. While these relatively simple cyclic conditions do not duplicate the complex load and temperature patterns encountered in aircraft service, the results obtained do provide some qualitative guidance in applying available static creep-rupture data to design of aircraft structural parts. A wide variety of effects were produced by the intermittent-load and temperature conditions. Stability of microstructure was one of the more significant variables controlling the alloy response to the cyclic conditions. Acceleration of creep and rupture was induced by intermittent loading where such processes as overaging, relaxation, recrystallization, and loss of ductility occurred. Retarding of creep and rupture occurred in those alloys where increase in ductility and creep recovery developed because of the intermittent-load cycle. Intermittent heating produced acceleration of creep and rupture in a number of cases, particularly where susceptibility to intergranular oxidation and cracking was aggravated by thermal stresses.
Constant and Cyclic-Load Creep Tests of Several Materials
Authors: Simmons Ward F. , Cross Howard C.
Published: August 2009

This investigation was made to determine whether alternate periods of load and rest would have the same effect as continuous loading on the deformation characteristics of metals at elevated temperatures. Constant-load and cyclic-load creep tests were made on sheet specimens of 24S-T3 and 24S-T81 aluminum alloys at 300 F, SAE 4130 steel at 800 F, and AISI 310 stainless steel at 1500 F. The test results indicate that under the conditions of these tests cycling the load did not increase the rate of creep of the materials tested. Also since none of the cyclic-load tests had creep rates less than one half the rate of the constant-load test, there was no evidence of recovery taking place during the low-load part of the cycle. Specimens of 24S-T3 showed less creep deformation during the first ten hours of the tests than did the corresponding tests of 24S-T81 alloy, although subsequent creep rates were essentially the same. The data obtained, although incomplete, indicate that it is probably safe to design for cyclic-load conditions using data from constant-load tests.
Catalysts for Accelerated Aging Testing of Transformer Oil
Authors: Liander Halyard , Ericson Gosta
Published: August 2009

A number of experimental and normal transformer oils have been tested for accelerated aging. The main features of the test method are in agreement with ASTM Method of Test D 1314, but, in order that the supply of oxygen should not be a governing factor in the oxidation process, oxygen was bubbled through the oil at a sufficient rate, usually 1 liter per hr. The temperature has been varied, though the bulk of the experiments have been carried out at 100 C. Both solid and soluble metal catalysts have been studied. When solid copper is used as a catalyst, two things take place. One is a dissolution of copper in the oil; the other consists of oxidation of the oil, catalytically influenced by the dissolved copper. The dissolution of the metal takes place mainly at the beginning of the oxidation, the extent of this “corrosion” depending partly on the properties of the solid metal and its area and partly on the type of oil. The oxidation is governed by the type and concentration of the catalyst and is, furthermore, dependent on the type of oil. The copper is soon again precipitated as sludge and only small amounts remain in solution—about the same magnitude, 0.05 to 0.2 ppm, as will be found in transformer oils in service. The advantage of employing soluble catalysts are discussed, and it is shown that inhibited as well as uninhibited oils may be readily evaluated with the aid of soluble catalysts. A mixture of copper and iron naphthenates is recommended for practical use.
The Evaluation of Inhibited Transformer Oils
Authors: Irving R. , Bravey D. W.
Published: August 2009

A simple and rapid routine oxidation test for the evaluation of inhibited transformer oils has been developed from the ASTM Method of Test D 1314. Similar test methods are currently under investigation by the International Electrotechnical Commission, but their efforts so far have been concentrated on the evaluation of uninhibited oils only. In the present work, a series of inhibited transformer oils prepared from base oils having widely differing inhibitor susceptibilities has been examined. Correlations have been shown to exist between the results obtained by various oxidation tests in which the catalysts used were soluble copper, mixed soluble copper — soluble iron, and solid copper, respectively.
The Role of Specific Gravity in the Design and Control of Bituminous Paving Mixtures
Authors: Carpenter C. A.
Published: August 2009

The design of bituminous paving mixtures for heavy-duty service under today's traffic requires great emphasis on stability or resistance to lateral displacement under load. Maximum stability is obtained by adequate provision for all of the following factors: 1. Angular aggregates with rough or granular surface texture. 2. Properly graded aggregate with maximum size particles as large as is consistent with good finish and acceptable pavement surface texture. 3. Bitumen of as heavy a consistency as can be used with proper regard for limits imposed by cold weather brittleness. 4. Carefully controled bitumen content to provide not less than 2 or 3 per cent of unfilled voids in the fully compacted pavement. 5. Complete compaction during construction. If it can be done without discounting the importance of the other four, I should like to put a great deal of emphasis on the importance of the fifth factor, compaction. This does not mean that specific gravity as a subject is being abandoned. It is simply recognizing the fact that unless we concern ourselves ultimately with compaction and the closely related matter of voids in the compacted aggregate we might as well forget about specific gravity. Specific gravity is the important tool with which we determine the volume of the ingredients of the bituminous mixture and the size of the reservoir that must contain all the bitumen we put into the mixture. Basically, this reservoir is the total volume of the interstitial or inter-particle voids when the aggregate is compacted to refusal. Account must also be taken of the fact that if the aggregate particles are absorptive, the size of the reservoir is increased by the amount of asphalt the pores in the aggregate particles are capable of absorbing. After we have determined the specific gravities of the ingredients and made laboratory compaction tests to determine the refusal point of the combined aggregate we can proceed to the final step in design, determination of the bitumen content so that the capacity of the reservoir will not be exceeded by using too much bitumen. If the specific gravity we use in computing the capacity of the reservoir is wrong or we do not in some way take into account the absorptive properties of the aggregate the design bitumen content will be wrong and very probably the pavement will not perform satisfactorily.
Measurement of Bituminous Concrete Core Specific Gravities and Specific Gravities of Bituminous Coated Coarse Aggregates by Means of a Volumeter
Authors: Williams F. M. , Grimmer L. E. , McAdams M. M. , Yanoshek S. Y.
Published: August 2009

Need for a means to control pavement denseness for bituminous concrete construction in Ohio was indicated several years ago by failure of some late season paving. The paving that failed carried up to 20 per cent voids into the winter. Such paving was easy prey to freezing and thawing, and stripping. The proportion of paving that failed to the total paving was small for any one construction season, although one single course resurfacing was almost entirely lost. While it is most important to correct conditions causing critical void contents, consideration must first be given to the accurate measurement of void contents. Several methods are available for the measurement of paving density. Perhaps the most widely recognized is the ASTM method for the determination of specific gravity of compressed bituminous mixtures (D 1188). Data presented in this paper compare specific gravities of cores obtained by the ASTM method, modified by dipping cores in paraffin and time- of-dry weighing, with specific gravities of the same cores obtained by three other methods. Methods are also available to determine the specific gravity of bituminous coated aggregates. For aggregates nonabsorptive to both bituminous material and water, any of the specific gravities shown in ASTM methods of determining specific gravity of coarse and fine aggregates (C 127 and C 128) can be used to determine accurate theoretical maximum densities. For aggregates with bituminous material absorption equal to water absorption, bulk specific gravity from the above methods can be used to determine accurate theoretical maximum densities. A method was presented in 1942 by Nevitt and Krchma (1) to estimate the absorption of bituminous material for aggregates by their absorptions of kerosine. The same year Goshorn and Williams (2) presented a method for the direct measurement of the amount of bituminous material absorbed by aggregate immersed in bitumen. Each of these methods was most useful for voids computations when the method accurately indicated the amount of bituminous material absorption that occurred in aggregates as they were coated in the mix.
Measurement of Maximum Theoretical Specific Gravity of a Bituminous Mixture by Solvent Immersion
Authors: Serafin Paul J.
Published: August 2009

For the past number of years the Michigan State Highway Dept. has been investigating voids in bituminous mixtures. During this study a method was developed which consists of placing a bituminous mixture in a large pycnometer and introducing a solvent that dissolves the asphalt, thereby liberating the air voids in the mass. From the weights of the sample and the solvent used, the specific gravity of the voidless bituminous mixture can be determined by calculation. The pycnometer consists of a 1000-ml Erlenmeyer flask with a 1 1/2-in. ground glass opening in which is fitted a top with a restricted neck for more precise volume measurement. Volume measurements must be precisely controlled at specific temperatures in order to minimize errors due to the thermal volume changes of the solvent. The paper describes the procedure and illustrates the calculation. Data are presented to show the repeatability of the method on the different types of materials from which bituminous mixtures are normally made. Also a comparison is made with the conventional method of determining specific gravity of aggregates.
Development and Application of the Effective Specific Gravity of Bituminous Coated Aggregates
Authors: Martin J. Rogers , Layman Andrew H.
Published: August 2009

In 1949 the authors undertook an investigation dealing with the design of asphaltic concrete mixes. The work was of such nature that accurate per cent density determinations were highly desirable. Shortly after the work was started per cent densities were obtained which exceeded 100 per cent, using bulk specific gravity for the aggregate. Use of the apparent specific gravity gave densities which were obviously too low. In an effort to obtain more accurate results, a method was developed and employed termed the “effective specific gravity.” Briefly, it is determined as follows: An asphaltic concrete specimen is made up with sufficient asphalt cement to overfill the voids in the compacted aggregate. The specific gravity of the molded specimen is obtained by the water immersion method. If the specific gravity of the asphalt cement is not known, it is determined by the pycnometer method. The effective specific gravity, ge, is calculated by means of the following equation: ge=100−Wa100Ge−Waga...........(1) where: ge = effective specific gravity of aggregate in specimen at 77 F, Ge = specific gravity of molded specimen with voids overfilled, ga = specific gravity of asphalt at 77 F, and Wa = asphalt cement in specimen, per cent by weight.
Maximum Specific Gravity of Bituminous Mixtures by Vacuum Saturation Procedure
Authors: Rice James M.
Published: August 2009

The laboratory of the National Crushed Stone Assn. has long been concerned with the specific gravity of aggregates for bituminous mixtures. About ten years ago, a limited study was undertaken in which four samples of coarse aggregate were coated with asphalt by dipping. The results indicated that the aggregates absorbed some asphalt, but the asphalt absorption was less than water absorption. Therefore, neither the bulk nor the apparent specific gravity values of the aggregate were applicable for computing the theoretical maximum density of a bituminous mix. In 1951, experiments were begun with the direct measurement of voids in compacted specimens by use of an air meter such as is used for measuring entrained air in concrete (1). While the equipment used was not particularly suited for this application, the results were encouraging. Still we were not completely satisfied with this procedure because there was always some doubt that all of the voids were being measured. The vacuum saturation procedure was first used in connection with the air meter tests on compacted specimens. This test was performed with the air meter chamber filled with water; thus, there was a possibility that the test specimen was absorbing some water while the equipment was being prepared. In order to minimize this source of error, specimens were initially saturated with water after evacuation of air. With porous mixtures it was found that this procedure filled practically all of the measurable voids.
Specific Gravity and Voids Relationships in Bituminous Pavement Mix Design
Authors: McRae J. L.
Published: August 2009

The use of voids criteria has been one of the principal features of the Corps of Engineers' method for design and control of bituminous pavements. However, certain limitations in the use of voids criteria have been recognized as a result of continuing research by the Corps of Engineers. This paper discusses the basic problem of specific gravity of aggregates for use in calculating voids in bituminous mixes, the application of the calculated voids data, and a new approach in bituminous pavement design being developed by the Flexible Pavement Laboratory, Soils Division, of the Waterways Experiment Station which may eliminate the necessity for voids calculations.
Organizational and Functional Aspects of Section on Oil Systems for Turbines, Technical Committee C, of ASTM Committee D-2
Authors: Kottcamp Charles F.
Published: August 2009

In planning for this Symposium on Turbine Oils, numerous members of Technical Committee C expressed the opinion that it might be desirable to outline briefly the organizational structure of ASTM Technical Committee C on Turbine Oils. There was an expressed feeling that due to the distances involved, and to the fact that most of our working committee meetings are held in the East, that it might be of interest to review, for our West Coast associates, some of our operational procedures. In our preliminary programing studies for this meeting, however, it became apparent that there was a particularly unique committee structure within Technical Committee C that was not only of interest to the West Coast members of ASTM but might also deserve clarification to all members of the Society—even those associated as active members of Technical Committee C. The committee to which I am referring is Section I, on Oil Systems for Turbines of Technical Committee C and, as the present chairman of this Section, I am afforded the privilege of describing its functions. The first uniqueness of Section I is that it operates jointly with The American Society of Mechanical Engineers and ASTM Technical Committee C. Secondly, it differs from other sections of Technical Committee C in that it does not develop any standard methods of test for evaluating turbine oil. Its primary objective is to evaluate performance aspects of the turbine lubricating system as related to the mechanics of the equipment and the characteristics of the petroleum products used.