bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Entrepreneurial, Professional, and Leadership Career Aspiration Survey
Authors: Chernyshenko Olexander S. , Chan Kim-Yin , Moon-Ho Ringo Ho , Uy Marilyn , Sam Emma Yoke Loo
Published: June 2017

This chapter describes a new measure of career aspirations designed to be relevant in today’s work contexts. The measure was initially implemented at Nanyang Technological University as a university-wide student survey to enable the university to understand the entrepreneurial motivation, efficacy, and intentions (collectively called “career aspirations”) of its students, relative to their professional and leadership career aspirations. What began as a survey to guide the university’s student development policy is evolving into a tool to provide students with career developmental feedback on their entrepreneurial, professional, and leadership career aspirations. This research indicates that such an approach may be increasingly relevant in a more boundaryless 21st century career context, which demands greater career adaptability over career maturity. This chapter also discusses how the assessment may be used as part of educational course/program evaluation in the university.
The Sourdough Model of Conscientiousness
Authors: Roberts Brent W. , Hill Patrick L.
Published: June 2017

Conscientiousness is a spectrum of constructs that describe individual differences in the propensity to be self-controlled, responsible to others, hard-working, orderly, and rule abiding. This chapter discusses the factors that are critical for the development of conscientiousness. It introduces a bread-making analogy, stating that the creation and development of conscientiousness is akin to making sourdough bread. The analogy identifies the key ingredients that serve as the basis to conscientiousness, the environmental conditions under which conscientiousness is fostered, and the timing issues critical to the full development of the trait. The chapter also discusses the implications of this transactional model of the development of conscientiousness for interventions intended to foster conscientiousness in students.
Linking Education and Employment
Authors: Clark Hope
Published: June 2017

This chapter presents an overview of various frameworks for organizing and measuring foundational academic and workplace competencies that are needed for broad career success and expands on research on work readiness standards and benchmarks. Foundational competencies and career success are thoroughly defined, with discussion about blending and assessing the combination of knowledge, cognitive and noncognitive skills, and behaviors important for success. Examples of how foundational competencies are used in the workplace and in educational settings are highlighted with recommendations on building a common language between educators and employers. To support this common language, linking foundational competency assessments and credentials to labor market outcomes is critical. These frameworks can be used by education-to-career continuum stakeholders to develop authentic learning experiences that incorporate work-based foundational competencies into kindergarten through 12th grade and postsecondary education programs.
Introduction
Authors: Debes Remy
Published: June 2017

Until the mid-nineteenth century, the concept of dignity almost invariably connoted elevated social rank, of the sort that marked nobility or ecclesiastic preferment. However, today dignity usually connotes a fundamental moral status belonging to all humans equally, which status is the basis of human rights. How did this radical change in meaning come about? And did anything like our moralized concept of dignity exist before it was named “dignity”? The introduction sketches the way that the chapters in this volume answer these questions, and in turn how they draw the arc of dignity’s conceptual development from Homeric Greek thought to medieval Christian and Islamic theology through eighteenth century enlightenment revolutions all the way to the contemporary era.
A Time for Dignity
Authors: Mills Charles W.
Published: June 2017

This reflection argues that ignoring—as mainstream Kantians tend to do—Kant’s own racism with respect to people of color and, correspondingly, obfuscating their radically different experience in modernity (as subpersons rather than recognized persons) only continues in a different form the disrespect historically shown to them. Drawing on Eviatar Zerubavel’s concept of “time maps,” that is “[competing] sociomental representations of the past,” it is suggested instead that we self-consciously theorize the demands of dignity for nonwhites in a framework of corrective justice—not in the “white time” of the racially privileged but in the “nonwhite time” of the racially subordinated.
Sympathy and Dignity in Early Africana Philosophy
Authors: Boxill Bernard
Published: June 2017

This chapter is about dignity not as an innate quality possessed equally by all persons but as a set of largely acquired qualities and virtues. Dignity in this sense commands a “bowing” gesture, and is, it is argued, the subject of Du Bois’s neglected essay “Of Alexander Crummell.” More specifically, the chapter argues that Du Bois’s biographical tale of Crummell covertly offers an account of the genesis and nature of the virtues and qualities that constituted Crummell’s dignity. The chapter concludes that on Du Bois’s account, dignity is impossible without the sympathy of others; that it includes the conviction that one has a morally worthy purpose to pursue; that it is one’s duty to find that purpose and to pursue it; and that the virtues that constitute it follow from one’s unflagging struggles to fulfill those duties.
Death and Dignity in American Law
Authors: Kaufman Emma
Published: June 2017

Dignity serves many purposes in American law, but the concept is perhaps most vital in decisions on the death penalty. Since 1972, when the Supreme Court briefly banned capital punishment, American jurists have debated whether death sentences violate “the dignity of man.” These legal debates describe dignity as an innately human attribute and a core feature of human nature. In practice, however, courts employ dignity to instantiate a particular model of democratic governance. Legal cases on the death penalty treat dignity as a fundamentally relational concept, less a characteristic of personhood than a state of existing in dialogue with the law. This vision of dignity is more institutional and alienable than conceptions that emphasize unwavering worth. Ultimately, the approach to dignity in death penalty cases displaces an individuated account of the term and raises a basic question about whether dignity can exist in the absence of the law.
Repositioning Oxford University Press, 1970–2004
Authors: Robbins Keith
Published: June 2017

The chapter examines the historical context in which the Press operated, not only within the political, economic, and social climate of late twentieth-century Britain, but also on a global stage. Beginning with a discussion of the Waldock Report of 1970, the chapter assesses the relationship between the Press and the University, and traces how the personality, education, and managerial success of each new Secretary to the Delegates affected this relationship as well as the operations, finances, staff, and publications of the Press as a whole. The chapter carefully assesses the Press’s role within the British book trade, noting the increasing professionalism of OUP staff and drawing a particular comparison with Cambridge University Press. Changes in structure, such as the closing of the Printing House, are discussed as are the opportunities offered by the global reach of the English language and the growth of higher education around the world.
Technology
Authors: Luna Paul
Published: June 2017

This chapter considers the technologies that emerged in the publishing trade between 1970 and 2004. OUP’s response to technological change can be considered in three phases. Initially the Press invested in the computerization of typesetting as both a cost- and time-saving measure. During the second phase, the Press introduced the efficient use of computers in book design and experimented with the sale of software and packaged electronic publications. The third phase witnessed the advent of the worldwide web, which allowed the Press to develop and exploit new methods of advertisement, sales, distribution, and publication. Throughout these phases, the Press demonstrated a consistent desire to reduce costs, protect intellectual property, and expand into new markets. Along with these developments in publication and distribution, the chapter briefly considers the impact of the computerization of administrative, editorial, and other office tasks.
Academic Publishing
Authors: Schuller Andrew
Published: June 2017

The core of the Oxford University Press is academic publishing, and it was from this strength that the Press developed interests in reference, educational, and trade publishing. Scholarly publishing, although a significant component of the New York Business and a number of the branches, is primarily centred in Oxford and distributed under the imprint of The Clarendon Press. The chapter considers the growth of the university textbook market and the conscious effort of the Press, as recommended by the Waldock Report, to expand the scientific list and to cultivate relationships with the academic faculties of the University of Oxford. The chapter outlines OUP’s response to pedagogic and research developments in universities and the economics of the academic publishing sector. The influence of individual editors and senior management is also considered, as are the Press’s efforts to coordinate its academic programme across the three major markets in America, Europe, and Japan.
Trade Publishing
Authors: Phillips Angus
Published: June 2017

Trade publishing at Oxford University Press included those titles aimed at a broader audience, including general non-fiction, illustrated histories and encyclopedias, World’s Classics, and children’s books. Originally a separate operation of the London Business, overseas trade publishing later devolved to the branches while domestic trade titles were amalgamated into the Oxford academic lists. Trade titles involved a higher level of risk, deeper discounts to booksellers, larger author royalty payments, and investment in marketing and sales. The Press gradually minimized these risks by introducing greater oversight from the Delegates on manuscript selection, and by reducing the number of individual titles and concentrating on series. The chapter highlights the significant series and individual trade titles from across the Press, and considers the trade list both in its interaction with OUP’s wider academic and scholarly interests and within the context of commercial trade publishing.
UK Schoolbook Publishing
Authors: Catling Simon
Published: June 2017

Oxford University Press had a long-established tradition of publishing books for schools and for the education of young readers, a commitment reiterated and commended by the Waldock Report. The Press issued schoolbooks in New York, through all of its overseas branches, and in Britain. This chapter examines the publication of schoolbooks for the UK market as edited and distributed from Oxford with regard to developments in educational approaches—including the appearance of computers in the classroom, fluctuations in state funding for schools, and the introduction of the National Curriculum. The chapter also considers the management, sales, and financial position of the Press’s educational publishing division in the context of the competitive UK schools market. The second half of the chapter presents case studies of important OUP educational titles and series, including Oxford Reading Tree and Oxford dictionaries for schools and young readers.
Music Publishing, Bibles, and Hymnals
Authors: Wright Simon
Published: June 2017

The Music Department, which remained in London until 1983, published sheet music, performance scores, hymnals, books, and educational materials, but was increasingly developing into a rights-management business. The chapter chronicles the department’s move to Oxford and subsequent streamlining—the list of titles in print was cut back and editorial control over music books transferred to New York. Under the directorship of Andrew Potter, the department sought out new composers and developed particular strengths in church, choral, and early music. Successful series included Oxford Choral Classics, Musica da Camera, and Carols for Choirs. The publication of bibles, prayer books, and hymnals is also considered in this chapter. Although historically a significant part of the OUP list, bible publishing had declined in relative importance, with management of the list moving from department to department. Important publications included the New English Bible, Revised Standard Version, and the BBC Songs of Praise.
English Language Teaching
Authors: Nell Dawn D’Arcy
Published: June 2017

The chapter assesses the role of the English Language Teaching Department—its structure, management, profitability, and publications—and its impact on the Press as a whole. The extraordinary growth of Oxford’s ELT programme resulted in part from a global shift towards English-language learning in old markets and a rapid growth of new markets around the world to which OUP had good access through its branches and established international trade. New ELT courses were developed or adapted for use in Africa, Central and East Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and, most successfully, in Europe. Successful series titles included Crescent English Course, Access to English, Streamline, and Headway. Despite intense competition and some unprofitable partnerships, OUP became the world’s leading ELT publisher through developing reliable titles for children and adults and placing a strong emphasis on market strategy.
OUP España
Authors: Richardson Martin
Published: June 2017

ELT activity was vigorous in many European countries, but it was only in Spain that political, cultural, economic, and personal factors combined to produce a new branch designed principally to create and market OUP English Language Teaching courses. After the death of Franco and the establishment of constitutional monarchy in the late 1970s, the country reformed its political and educational systems; as a result, Spain emerged as the largest single ELT market in the world. OUP established a sales office in Madrid in 1981, and later enlarged this into the branch OUP España, which came to be a prime example of a commercial success for OUP in a non-English-speaking market. Under the leadership of Jesús Lezcano, OUP España developed its own ELT publications and adapted other OUP titles for the local market, as well as producing Spanish-language textbooks.
Transplanting International Courts
Authors: Alter Karen J. , Helfer Laurence R.
Published: June 2017

The Andean Pact was founded in 1969 to build a common market in South America. Andean leaders copied the institutional and treaty design of the European Community, and in the 1970s, member states decided to add a tribunal, again turning to the European Community as its model. Since its first ruling in 1987, the Andean Tribunal of Justice (ATJ) has exercised authority over the countries which are members of the Andean Community: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru (formerly also Venezuela). It is now the third most active international court in the world, used by governments and private actors to protect their rights and interests in the region. This book investigates how a region with weak legal institutions developed an effective international rule of law, why the ATJ was able to induce widespread respect for Andean intellectual property rules but not other areas governed by regional integration rules, and what the ATJ's experience means for comparable international courts. It also assesses the Andean experience in order to reconsider the European Community system, exploring why the law and politics of integration in Europe and the Andes followed different trajectories. Finally, it provides a detailed analysis of the key factors associated with effective supranational adjudication. This book collects together previously published material by two leading interdisciplinary scholars of international law and politics, and is enhanced by three original chapters further reflecting on the Andean legal order.
Transplanting the European Court of Justice to the Andes
Authors: Alter Karen J. , Helfer Laurence R. , Saldías Osvaldo
Published: June 2017

This chapter explains why national political leaders decided to add a court to their integration project. After considering a variety of options, governments chose to model the Andean Tribunal on the European Union's Court of Justice (ECJ). But they did not slavishly copy the ECJ's design features and legal doctrines. Instead, they selectively adapted those that were appropriate to the more sovereignty-protective Andean context, preserving greater state control over the ATJ and its role in interpreting regional legislation. Thus, this chapter explains why these original adaptations later came to be seen as undermining the effectiveness of the Andean legal system and why, in a 1996 revised treaty, member states revised the institution to bring the ATJ jurisdiction and access rules closer to those of its European predecessor.
The Andean Tribunal of Justice and its Interlocutors
Authors: Alter Karen J. , Helfer Laurence R.
Published: June 2017

This chapter presents data on national court interactions with the Andean Tribunal. It analyzes case referral patterns from each of the five member states and discusses cross-country variations. The chapter also explains the resistance of some national courts to referring cases and how that resistance was eventually overcome. In addition, this chapter highlights the fundamentally different nature of the Andean Tribunal of Justice's (ATJ's) relationships with national judges as compared to the analogous relationships in the European Community (EC). In Europe, the symbiosis between the European Union's Court of Justice (ECJ) and national courts helped to build integration through law. In the Andes, effective international adjudication is mostly an island confined to intellectual property (IP) disputes. Domestic administrative agencies that review IP applications are the ATJ's primary interlocutors and compliance partners; national judges have remained largely passive intermediaries.
Nature or Nurture? Judicial Lawmaking in the European Court of Justice and the Andean Tribunal of Justice
Authors: Alter Karen J. , Helfer Laurence R.
Published: June 2017

This chapter explores a different issue raised by the Andean Tribunal of Justice's (ATJ's) origins as a legal transplant — when do international judges engage in expansive judicial lawmaking? Although many scholars assert that international courts are hard-wired for self-aggrandizement, this comparative study of the ATJ and the European Union's Court of Justice (ECJ) reveals that the political contexts in which courts are embedded are critical to how expansively they interpret their authority. Hence this chapter develops the Andean Community analogue to Joseph Weiler's famous account of the ECJ's transformation of Europe. It explores how variations in political support for integration over time have influenced lawmaking by international judges in the Andes and in Europe. The chapter focuses in particular on the ATJ's refusal to follow the ECJ in transforming the Andean Community's founding treaty, the Cartagena Agreement, into a constitutional blueprint for regional integration.
Visual Illusions in Action
Authors: Bruno Nicola
Published: June 2017

This chapter presents a review of the evidence supporting the notion that motor responses may resist visual illusions. It asks the question of whether actions will be affected by illusions. The review is selective, as dictated by space constraints, and highly critical because the interpretation of the relevant evidence remains controversial. The conclusions underscore the theoretical relevance, as well as the heuristic value, of studies of illusion effects on action responses. At the same time, however, they offer a warning concerning past interpretations of this literature and suggest that the proposed immunity of actions from visual illusions may be much more limited than proposed in earlier accounts.
Motion Illusions in Man and Machine
Authors: Fermüller Cornelia
Published: June 2017

At the level of mathematical abstraction, computing image motion amounts to an estimation problem and can be analyzed using the tools of statistics and signal processing. As shown in this chapter, intrinsic limitations to the estimation processes make it impossible to derive veridical estimates for all images. Image motion is estimated erroneously, and as a result higher level processes compute erroneous three-dimensional motion and moving scenes. Specifically, two limitations are discussed: (a) due to noise in image data, there is statistical bias that affects anisotropic patterns and (2) the filters computing changes in time are asymmetric (causal), using data only from the past but not the future, and misestimate on locally asymmetric intensity signals of certain spatial frequencies. Since these limitations are not an artifact of the hardware but are inherent to the computations, they will affect any system and thus create illusions in man and machine.
The Bar-Cross-Ellipse Illusion
Authors: Caplovitz Gideon P. , Boswell Alex , Killebrew Kyle
Published: June 2017

This chapter describes a multistable stimulus that reveals the complexity of visual processing that underlies the determination of an object’s form and motion. The stimulus is constructed by placing an ellipse on a uniform background and then partially occluding it with four squares, each with the same color as the background. When the ellipse is made to rotate, it can be perceived in any of four distinct ways, and, over time, the percept will switch between them. Each percept corresponds to a distinct figure-ground segmentation that is determined on the basis of contour ownership and how different sources of motion information are assigned to contours and integrated over space and time.
The Ames Window Illusion and Its Variations
Authors: de Heer Marcel , Papathomas Thomas V.
Published: June 2017

This chapter presents a brief history of the Ames window illusion, in which a trapezoid with its long and short sides in a vertical position rotates continuously in the same direction about a vertical axis. It creates the illusion of oscillating back and forth. An explanation is offered that is based on humans’ tendency to perceive a trapezoid as a slanted rectangle; according to this explanation, when the long base of the trapezoid is behind the short base, viewers perceive it to be in front, thus reversing depth and, consequently, reversing the direction of rotation. The chapter tries to see this illusion in a broader perspective and includes many compelling variations of the Ames window illusion.
Symmetry and Uprightness in Visually Perceived Forms
Authors: Maniatis Lydia M.
Published: June 2017

Why do some two-dimensional (2D) drawings look three-dimensional (3D)? The answer is because their projection on our retinas is consistent with a 3D percept that has a “better” shape and orientation than the 2D figure. Whenever a retinal projection is interpreted by the visual system as the projection of a surface that is not frontoparallel (i.e., not parallel to the retinal surface), then the retinal image will differ in shape from the source of the projection in (a) the sizes of its internal angles and/or (b) the relative extents of its surfaces. The latter differences arise because, when an extent is assumed to be receding, then it must also be assumed to have undergone foreshortening in the projection. Using pictures, we can show that the visual system likes more, rather than less, mirror symmetry and a vertical axis of symmetry more than a tilted one.
The Pitchroom Illusion
Authors: Matin Leonard , Matin Ethel , Li Wenxun , Hudson Todd E. , Shavit Adam
Published: June 2017

A pitched visual field (i.e., a visual stimulus tilted around a horizontal axis in the observer’s frontal plane) generates profound changes in the elevation visually perceived to correspond to eye level (visually perceived eye level [VPEL]). It also affects the perceived elevation and size of objects viewed against the field. With top-forward pitch (top toward the observer), VPEL lies above true eye level and objects appear smaller and lower; with top-backward pitch (top away from the observer) VPEL lies below true eye level and objects appear larger and higher. This chapter summarizes parametric studies of the spatial and temporal properties of multimodal factors that influence the illusion and describes a three-stage neuromathematical model that accounts for the effects.
The Contrast Contrast Illusion
Authors: Chubb Charles , Solomon Joshua A. , Sperling George
Published: June 2017

To most observers, a patch of medium-contrast texture viewed against a background of high-contrast texture appears lower in contrast than an identical patch viewed against a homogeneous, mean gray background. This is the contrast contrast illusion. This chapter reviews basic findings concerning this illusion; for example, the contrast contrast illusion is selective for texture spatial frequency as well as for texture contrast polarity. Several theories to account for the illusion are discussed. Related concepts such as texture contrast, textual granularity, individual differences, contrast polarity, color and the contrast contrast illusion, and ecological accounts of the contrast contrast illusion are explored.
Large Shift in Brightness Induced by Motion in Context
Authors: Hong Sang Wook
Published: June 2017

Brightness of an object is not determined solely by physical intensity of light reflected from the object, but it is also affected by spatial structure of the surrounding light. In the new brightness illusion introduced by Hong and Kang, on the other hand, brightness of a stationary object can be greatly altered by the presence of another object that is moving around the stationary one. This novel brightness illusion sheds light on the question of how interaction among visual objects affects their appearance. This chapter discusses these concepts, including possible neural mechanisms, and explores implications for other illusions, including motion-induced blindness, among others.
The Chromatic Mach Card
Authors: Hurlbert Anya
Published: June 2017

The object colors that we see are constructed by the visual brain and may therefore be significantly influenced by other visual attributes we perceive the object to possess. This chapter describes an illusion that illustrates one such interdependence between perceived object shape and color. The Chromatic Mach Card is a folded concave card, one side painted white and the other magenta. When the card is perceived in inverted depth, or convex, the pinkish reflections cast by the magenta side onto the white side appear deeper in saturation and painted thereon. Like the nineteenth-century Mach Card that inspired it, the chromatic Mach Card demonstrates that the apparent surface reflectance properties of objects—and, hence, their colors—are inextricably linked to the perception of 3D shape and scene configuration via the visual brain’s inbuilt knowledge of the physics of mutual reflection.
The Wedding Cake Illusion
Authors: Spehar Branka , Clifford Colin W. G.
Published: June 2017

Lightness induction is the shift in surface appearance caused by adjacent or nearby surfaces. Spatial context can make a surface appear more different from (contrast) or more similar to (assimilation) its surround. Although assimilation effects tend to occur with more complex contexts, often containing repetitive patterns, we are still generally unable to ascertain the circumstances in which assimilation or contrast will occur. This chapter explores the interaction of geometric and photometric characteristics leading to contrast and assimilation in lightness induction. Concepts covered include the wedding cake illusion, White’s effect, the checkerboard illusion, the bull’s eye illusion, and luminance contrast.
Low-Level Motion Illusions
Authors: Anstis Stuart
Published: June 2017

Visual motion stimuli can be defined as changes in luminance over space and time. Both kinds of change can alter the perceived speed and direction of motion. This chapter covers crossover motion; reverse phi, in which motion between a positive and a negative appears to go backward; the bicycle spokes illusion; the footsteps effect, in which smooth movement looks jerky if the background is striped; zigzag motion, whose direction appears to change with viewing distance; and the furrow illusion of motion, whose direction appears to change when viewed by the fovea versus the periphery. Other concepts covered include the chopstick illusion and the footsteps illusion.
High-Level Organization of Motion
Authors: Anstis Stuart
Published: June 2017

Some ambiguous patterns of flashed dots are equally likely to be seen as jumping horizontally or vertically. Priming dots can disambiguate this motion, showing that observers prefer to see straight-line rather than L-shaped motion. Pairs of dots that circle around each other can become perceptually linked into larger, global shapes including many such pairs. Moving backgrounds can distort moving dots so that their circular paths appear elliptical or even linear. Observers radically misperceive the sliding motions of rods (chopsticks) or rings that glide over each other. Finally, a moving background can strongly shift or distort a flashed-up static cross. This chapter discusses these concepts.
The Enigmatic Enigma Illusion
Authors: Hamburger Kai
Published: June 2017

As a visual illusion, the Enigma illusion is a pattern that in its original version consists of 120 black radial lines on a white background intercepted by three bicolored annuli and a central disk. The main illusory effect in the Enigma (leading to its name) occurs during fixation of the center of the static image. Then, quite intense streaming motion may be perceived on the different annuli. It is characterized by a traveling wave or some subtle motion on the annuli that may not be described in more detail by the observer. Sometimes the observers call it “a feeling of motion”. This perceived (illusory) motion can occur in either direction; clockwise or counterclockwise. This example shows that such illusions are an important means to psychophysically investigate human motion perception and its limits.
The Fraser-Wilcox Illusion and Its Extension
Authors: Kitaoka Akiyoshi
Published: June 2017

The Fraser-Wilcox illusion is one of the anomalous motion illusions observed in a stationary image, and its extension, including “rotating snakes,” which has been used extensively via the Internet, are reviewed in this chapter. Perceptual dimorphism featuring the Fraser-Wilcox illusion is explained by an interaction between two different illusions. Darkening disambiguation of the Fraser-Wilcox illusion, perceptual dimorphism, the optimized Fraser-Wilcox illusions, the effect of age on the illusion magnitude, as well as the role of color including color enhancement are demonstrated and discussed. The timing-difference model and the eye-movement model are also explored. Recent studies that relate to these concepts are also examined.
The Motion Aftereffect
Authors: Verstraten Frans A. J. , Bex Peter J.
Published: June 2017

The aftereffect of motion is one of the oldest known illusions. It refers to the illusory motion of a stationary scene after some time of adaptation to real motion. While it is still unknown whether this adaptation effect has any functional value, it surely has served well as a tool to investigate the functional organization of the visual system. In this chapter some of the classic findings are discussed. More recent work using complex stimuli, attentional modulation, higher order motion, as well as modern neuro-imaging techniques has provided vision scientists with surprising new insights. Discussion of the related concepts of motion perception, motion transparency, and interocular transfer are included.
The Illusion of Sex
Authors: Russell Richard
Published: June 2017

In the Illusion of Sex, an androgynous face has been manipulated to have increased or decreased contrast between its features and the surrounding skin. This manipulation makes the face appear male or female. The Illusion of Sex works by manipulating the luminance contrast between the eyes and lips and the rest of the face. It has been shown that manipulating it affects the attractiveness of male and female faces differently. In particular, female faces are more attractive with facial contrast increased than decreased, while male faces are more attractive with facial contrast decreased than increased. This effect of facial contrast on attractiveness is a result of a naturally occurring sex difference in facial contrast. The illusion demonstrates the importance of this kind of contrast for the perception of gender and is related to typical cosmetics use, which involves the darkening of the eyes and lips relative to the surrounding skin.
Inattentional Blindness and the Illusion of Attention
Authors: Simons Daniel J.
Published: June 2017

Many illusions reveal shortcuts that our visual system takes when making sense of the world; they show how the visual system breaks down, thereby revealing how it works. Another class of illusions, though, reveal not just the limits of vision but also the limits of the mind. We can fail to see something that is fully visible and distinctive, provided we are focusing our attention on something else. This inattentional blindness affects what we see, but it also influences what we think we will see. People mistakenly believe that they will notice such unexpected objects, a cognitive illusion about what captures attention.
The Three-Dimensional Necker Cube
Authors: Bruno Nicola
Published: June 2017

The Necker cube is a widely known example of a reversible figure. Perceptual reversals were first observed in engravings of crystals by the Swiss geologist Louis Albert Necker in 1832. Although Necker’s engravings were not exactly of regular cubes, the figure as it is used now can be perceived in two alternative arrangements of a three-dimensional (3D) cube. Although less widely known than the popular two-dimensional version, the 3D Necker cube is a surprisingly rich model for psychophysical investigation. This chapter summarizes relevant main results and their implications for diverse theoretical issues such as the definition of visual illusions, the role of global three-dimensional interpretations in the integration of local sensory signals, and the exploratory and multisensory nature of perceptual processes.
Reach
Authors: Ron James , Golden Shannon , Crow David , Pandya Archana
Published: June 2017

This chapter analyzes the diffusion of human rights consciousness among global South publics. Survey data reveal broad diffusion of human rights discourse, as respondents report hearing “human rights” regularly in their lives. Actual engagement with organized human rights activities is much lower, however, as knowledge about, contact with, and participation in human rights organizations is relatively rare. Concerning to those who hope the human rights sector is reaching and engaging those most likely in need of human rights protections, statistical analysis shows those with lower socioeconomic statuses are less likely to engage with human rights organizations or activities. This chapter discusses implications for social movement mobilization, including potential strategies for increasing participation in local human rights activities among diverse publics.
Resources
Authors: Ron James , Golden Shannon , Crow David , Pandya Archana
Published: June 2017

This chapter examines the persistence of the top-down foreign funding resource pattern for local human rights organizations (LHROs) in the global South. Local publics have generally high levels of support for human rights ideas and organizations, and they do make donations to other causes. Despite this high potential for local donations, almost all LHRO funding flows from northern institutions. Part of the explanation lies in socially constructed philanthropic routines: individuals prioritize donations to “tangible” charities rather to organizations that support policy, advocacy, and legal work, and LHROs pursue international resources, rather than engage in costly domestic fundraising efforts. The chapter argues that local rights groups face an uncertain future if they do not begin to capitalize on public support. It further suggests that LHROs should—and can—develop a more diverse domestic resource base.
Religion
Authors: Ron James , Golden Shannon , Crow David , Pandya Archana
Published: June 2017

This chapter explores the complex relationship between religiosity and human rights. Publics in Mexico, Morocco, India, and Nigeria are deeply religious, yet human rights practitioners struggle to identify the most effective methods to engage with religious worldviews and institutions. The chapter presents evidence for human rights conceptualizations that are unique to particular religious traditions. For example, Catholics are more likely to have positive associations with human rights than non-Catholics, and Muslims tend to associate “human rights” with “women’s rights” more than non-Muslims. Data also suggest that social religiosity, such as regular attendance in a place of worship, is associated with more negative ideas about human rights, whereas personal religiosity, such as practices of prayer, is linked to more positive ideas. Religion and human rights are strongly linked, but in multidirectional or seemingly contradictory ways, suggesting the need for context- and issue-sensitive future research.
Epigenomic annotation-based interpretation of genomic data: from enrichment analysis to machine learning
Authors: Dozmorov Mikhail G
Published: June 2017

Motivation

One of the goals of functional genomics is to understand the regulatory implications of experimentally obtained genomic regions of interest (ROIs). Most sequencing technologies now generate ROIs distributed across the whole genome. The interpretation of these genome-wide ROIs represents a challenge as the majority of them lie outside of functionally well-defined protein coding regions. Recent efforts by the members of the International Human Epigenome Consortium have generated volumes of functional/regulatory data (reference epigenomic datasets), effectively annotating the genome with epigenomic properties. Consequently, a wide variety of computational tools has been developed utilizing these epigenomic datasets for the interpretation of genomic data.

Results

The purpose of this review is to provide a structured overview of practical solutions for the interpretation of ROIs with the help of epigenomic data. Starting with epigenomic enrichment analysis, we discuss leading tools and machine learning methods utilizing epigenomic and 3D genome structure data. The hierarchy of tools and methods reviewed here presents a practical guide for the interpretation of genome-wide ROIs within an epigenomic context.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Clarifying the concept of climate change refugia for coral reefs
Authors: Kavousi Javid , Keppel Gunnar
Published: June 2017

Refugia can facilitate the persistence of biodiversity under changing environmental conditions, such as anthropogenic climate change, and therefore constitute the best chance of survival for many coral species in the wild. Despite an increasing amount of literature, the concept of coral reef refugia remains poorly defined; so that climate change refugia have been confused with other phenomena, including temporal refuges, pristine habitats and physiological processes such as adaptation and acclimatization. We propose six criteria that determine the capacity of refugia to facilitate species persistence, including long-term buffering, protection from multiple climatic stressors, accessibility, microclimatic heterogeneity, size, and low exposure to non-climate disturbances. Any effective, high-capacity coral reef refugium should be characterized by long-term buffering of environmental conditions (for several decades) and multi-stressor buffering (provision of suitable environmental conditions with respect to climatic change, particularly ocean warming and acidification). Although not always essential, the remaining criteria are important for quantifying the capacity of potential refugia.
Physiological changes in sleep
Authors: Chokroverty Sudhansu , Bhat Sushanth
Published: June 2017

It is important for clinicians to be conversant with the physiological changes that occur in various organ systems during sleep, and the impact that sleep fragmentation and sleep deprivation have on the normal functioning of these systems. This chapter therefore strives to provide a brief overview of the physiological changes associated with sleep that occur in the central nervous system (CNS), the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the neuromuscular system, the respiratory system (including changes in the control of breathing during various stages of sleep) and cardiovascular systems, the gastrointestinal tract, the endocrine system, and the systems controlling thermoregulation and immune regulation. Additionally, the mechanisms underlying muscle hypotonia in sleep, as well as sleep-related changes in cerebral blood flow and cytokine function are discussed.
Central sleep apnea and hypoventilation syndromes
Authors: Junna Mithri R. , Selim Bernardo J. , Morgenthaler Timothy I.
Published: June 2017

Sleep disordered breathing (SDB) may occur in a variety of ways. While obstructive sleep apnea is the most common of these, this chapter reviews the most common types of SDB that occur independently of upper airway obstruction. In many cases, there is concurrent upper airway obstruction and neurological respiratory dysregulation. Thus, along with attempts to correct the underlying etiologies (when present), stabilization of the upper airway is most often combined with flow generators (noninvasive positive pressure ventilation devices) that modulate the inadequate ventilatory pattern. Among these devices, when continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) alone does not allow correction of SDB, adaptive servo-ventilation (ASV) is increasingly used for non-hypercapnic types of central sleep apnea (CSA), while bilevel PAP in spontaneous-timed mode (BPAP-ST) is more often reserved for hypercapnic CSA/alveolar hypoventilation syndromes. Coordination of care among neurologists, cardiologists, and sleep specialists will often benefit such patients.
Advanced, delayed, free-running, and irregular sleep–wake rhythm disorders
Authors: Warman Guy , Arendt Josephine
Published: June 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the incidence, presentation, assessment, diagnosis, and management of the four main circadian rhythm sleep disorders: advanced sleep phase disorder (ASPD), delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD), free-running (non-24-hour) sleep disorder (FRSD), and irregular sleep–wake rhythm disorder (ISWRD). Following a brief discussion of the daily entrainment of the human circadian clock to the light cycle, and the shifting effects of light and melatonin on the clock, each of the four different disorders are considered in turn. The aim of this chapter is to provide a concise overview of the disorders and the potential treatment strategies for each. The chapter is extensively referenced for further information.
Restless legs syndrome/Willis–Ekbom disease
Authors: Ferini-Strambi Luigi , Marelli Sara
Published: June 2017

Restless legs syndrome (RLS)/Willis–Ekbom disease (WED), is a common neurological disorder characterized by uncomfortable and unpleasant sensations in the legs, with an urge to move. The general population prevalence has been estimated at approximately 5%. In 1995, the International RLS/WED Study Group established four clinical criteria for RLS/WED diagnosis, and in 2012 introduced a fifth (that symptoms are not due to another medical or behavioral condition) to improve differential diagnosis. Periodic leg movements causing sleep fragmentation may be observed in almost 80% of RLS/WED patients. Genetics, central nervous system dopamine dysregulation, and brain iron deficiency seem to be the primary involved factors, but peripheral phenomena may also contribute to the pathophysiology. Several medications have demonstrated efficacy in treating RLS/WED, including dopaminergic agents, alpha-2-delta ligands, and opioids. Pharmacological therapy should be limited to those patients who suffer from clinically relevant symptoms with impaired sleep quality or quality of life.
An overview of sleep dysfunction in Parkinson disease
Authors: Sokolov Elisaveta , Chaudhuri K. Ray
Published: June 2017

Disturbances in nocturnal sleep and their consequences during waking in Parkinson disease (PD) were recognized in 1817 by James Parkinson, who described sleep problems in his case series as follows: “His attendants observed, that of late the trembling would sometimes begin in his sleep, and increase until it awakened him: when he always was in a state of agitation and alarm.” Sleep disturbance in PD is complex, with a prevalence of up to 98%, and has been shown to be a key determinant of quality of life. Sleep disturbances in PD are heterogeneous, ranging from insomnia to drug-induced sleep disorders, and now can be assessed by simple validated bedside tools such as the Parkinson’s Disease Sleep Scale (PDSS). Also, sleep, contrary to previous perceptions, can be disordered not just in advanced PD, but also in the pre-motor as well as the untreated states.
Sleep in other neurological disorders—headache
Authors: Sahota Pradeep , Singh Niranjan N.
Published: June 2017

Headache and sleep disorder are among the most commonly reported problems in clinical practice and often coexist in the same patient. The two are related in several ways, though the relationship is very complex and is still not very well understood. The brainstem and hypothalamic nuclei are hypothesized to regulate both sleep and headache. Differential diagnosis of headache during sleep includes cluster headache, hypnic headache, migraine, sleep apnea headache, exploding head syndrome, tension-type headache, and paroxysmal hemicrania. Management of these headaches depends upon the diagnosis as a primary headache like migraine and cluster headaches versus secondary headaches during sleep seen in the patient with brain tumors, stroke, or meningitis. Management of primary headaches can be divided into nonpharmacological approaches, which predominantly include lifestyle modification, diet and exercise, avoidance of triggers, and sleep hygiene, and pharmacological approaches, including preventive and abortive treatments.
Clinical and neurophysiological aspects of fatigue
Authors: Bhat Sushanth , Chokroverty Sudhansu
Published: June 2017

While fatigue and excessive daytime sleepiness may coexist in many medical, neurological, and primary sleep disorders, they are distinct clinical symptoms that have different etiologies and treatment strategies. Making the distinction between fatigue and sleepiness is crucial to the management of a variety of conditions. This chapter provides an overview of fatigue from the perspective of the general practitioner, neurologist, and sleep specialist, and summarizes recent research developments in the field, including neuroimaging in fatigue. Emphasis is placed on the evaluation of fatigue in patients with a variety of neurological conditions (including multiple sclerosis, basal ganglia disorders, and post-polio fatigue), medical disorders, and sleep disorders, as well as on chronic fatigue syndrome.