bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sulphur dioxide in foods:– chemical interactions
Authors: WEDZICHA B. L.
Published: December 2007

SUMMARy

Sulphur dioxide is a versatile food additive which has extensive chemical reactivity. The components of food, and biological systems in general, which may react with this additive include proteins, coenzymes and enzyme cofactors and prosthetic groups. Enzymic browning in cut fruits and vegetables is inhibited by reaction of sulphite ion with quinone intermediates. Inhibition ofnonenzymic browning in a wide range of foods, including beverages and dehydrated products, takes place by inactivation of carbonyl intermediates. Sulphite ion is detoxified in man by sulphite oxidase whilst one of the known products of reaction between hydrogen sulphite ion and intermediates in nonenzymic browning is metabolically inert.
Rural refugees in Africa: Past experience, future pointers
Authors: Chambers Robert
Published: December 2007

Rapid change In rural Africa raises new policy problems In dealing with mass influxes of rural refugees. Self‐settlement in agriculture has become less feasible and is less acceptable now that Its disadvantages are better understood. Organized smallholder settlement can be a better solution where it is economically viable, refugees have freedom of movement, and staff are suitable. But growing land shortage means that Increasing proportions of refugees are being placed in camps. To offset this trend, more attention is suggested to programmes for groups of refugees, categorized by time of arrival, by ability to self‐settle or to farm, and by skills and experience. Practically‐oriented social science research can contribute to these and other approaches which will require imagination and ingenuity. Solutions to future rural refugee problems should be linked with programmes of social and economic development which will make easier the achievement of humanitarian objectives.
Unanticipated repercussions of international disaster relief
Authors: Dudasik Stephen
Published: December 2007

Following the Peruvian earthquake of May 1970, the devastated provincial town of Huarez received massive amounts of disaster relief aid. The reconstruction process rapidly transformed the economic and social structure of the community by causing a shortlived boom which raised the expectations of the population. Once the relief agencies withdrew, the demand for goods and services fell sharply and the people were forced to readjust to a less prosperous life. It also appeared that their capacity to respond to future disasters had not been significantly unproved. This case study highlights the need for research into the long term consequences of disaster relief.
The great Australian drought: 1982–1983*
Authors: Gibbs WJ.
Published: December 2007

The development of drought over eastern Australia from April 1982 to February 1983 is described. National wheat production for the 1982–1983 season was 63 per cent of the average for the previous five years, while for New South Wales and Victoria production was 29 and 16 per cent respectively. Production of other grains was similarly reduced. Net value of rural production was reduced from over $4,000 million to $2,300 million nationally, the percentage reduction being much larger in drought‐affected States. Methods of assessing drought severity are discussed and it is concluded that the 1982–1983 drought must be regarded as one of the most severe in the last 100 years. Impact of drought is also discussed, including that on wheat production and sheep and cattle populations since 1885. It is suggested that the limits of grain growing areas, and of sheep and cattle populations, beyond which environmental degradation may occur, have been exceeded during that period. The view is expressed that more attention should be given to the development of strategies to ameliorate drought impacts.
The Erzurum‐Kars earthquake area revisited
Authors: Aysan F. Yasemin
Published: December 2007

This report is a summary of the findings of a second follow‐up visit to the Erzurum‐Kars area in Eastern Turkey where a major earthquake happened on 30th October 1984. The temporary resettlement area and the affected villages studied in November 1983 (as reported in Disasters 8(1)) were revisited in May 1984 to follow up the recovery of the communities, to examine how various kinds of aid were utilized and what other steps the Government had taken towards relocating and rehousing these communities.
Drought in Bangladesh: Lessons for planners and administrators
Authors: Brammer Hugh
Published: December 2007

The 1978–1979 drought in Bangladesh affected three crop seasons, reducing rice production by an estimated two million tons. Rainfall deficiency varied regionally and locally, and drought effects varied with soils, crops and management. Farmers used new practices such as irrigation of crops normally grown rainfed, cultivation of famine millets, and – when rain eventually fell – transplanting crops that normally are direct seeded (including replanting to fill gaps in drought‐affected fields). Crop rotations also were adjusted to compensate for crop losses or late planting and to take advantage of reduced flood‐levels or changed market prices. The various and location‐specific responses by farmers provide useful lessons for planners and administrators in a disaster‐prone country: production plans and programmes must be flexible; relevant environmental factors, crop areas sown and crop condition must be closely monitored and the implications promptly assessed; and the farmers' repertoire of disaster‐mitigating practices should be recorded so as to provide a basis for more pragmatic research, extension and development programmes. A method for monitoring and assessing rainfall is described.
Restoring regenerative systems of production in Sub‐Saharan Africa: Research requirements
Authors: Gibbon David
Published: December 2007

It is the principal proposition of this paper that formal agricultural research, and its supporting policies and planning, has not responded adequately to the special situation that exists in semi‐arid Africa. In many cases the transfer of research approaches based on temperate and more humid tropical experience has contributed to greater instability and the growing environmental crisis. Radically different research structures, objectives, methods and expectations are necessary to contribute to the redevelopment of long term regenerative systems of production that will provide the short and long term needs of the people who live in the semi‐arid regions and at the same time protect these environments.
Food acquisition during the African drought of 1983–1984: A study of Kenyan herders
Authors: Sperling Louise
Published: December 2007

In 1983 and 1984, drought spread across the northern rangelands of Kenya and herders in lowland Samburu lost substantial portions of their livestock. Food aid arrived when 50 to 75% of the cattle had already died, and after poorer pastoralists were hungry enough to sell their remaining productive animals. No pastoralists died of the immediate effects of the drought, but many were so impoverished that their longer‐term prospects for remaining as herders look dim.

This essay discusses the timing and content of famine relief as it applies both to Samburu and other food‐stressed areas. It focuses on the process of food acquisition during the northern Kenyan drought itself. The more “indigenous” food strategies of herding, hunting and gathering offered limited benefits. Equally, however, commercial channels for procuring food proved inadequate. Herders could not reliably sell animals to obtain cash for purchased food, nor were the grain and sugar staples always available even when cash was on hand. Lacking means to provide for themselves, Samburu came to depend on varied kinds of handouts.
The Relief Operation in Puno District, Peru, after the 1986 Floods of Lake Titicaca
Authors: SZTORCH L. , GICQUEL V. , DESENCLOS J. C.
Published: December 2007

The 1985‐86 rainy season in Peru was disastrous due to very high precipitation. Because of the unusual level of floods in the Lake Titicaca area and the increasing number of affected people, the Peruvian Government established an emergency relief plan and appealed for international aid. At that time the situation was already very critical. The lack of preparedness made the implementation of the relief operation difficult. Our paper describes the intervention of a French N.G.O. (Médecins Sans Trontières), requested by the Peruvian authorities. The early phase of the relief programme and its methodology are described. Problems within this relief programme and the further long‐term development action that should be undertaken are discussed.

Au Pérou, la saison des pluies 85–86 a été catastrophique par l'importance des précipitations. Au cours des premiers mois de l'année 1986, devant l'ampleur inhabituelle des inondations dans la région du lac Titicaca et le nombre sans cesse croissant de sinistrés, le gouvernement pbruvien décide de mettre en route un plan national de secours d'urgence enfaisant appel à l'aide internationale. Mais la réponse est déjá tardive et le manque de mesures préventives fait que l'organisation des secours se heurte à un grand nombre de difficultés. Notre étude se situe dans le cadre de l'intervention d'une organisation non gouvernementale européenne, sollicitée par le gouvernement péruvien pour une collaboration dans la phase des premiers secours à cette population. Les problémes posés lors de cette opération et la suite à donner à l'assistance a moyen et a long terme sont discutés.
Preserving the Identity of Small Settlements during Post‐Disaster Reconstruction in Italy1
Authors: ALEXANDER DAVID
Published: December 2007

The nature of small, historic settlements in Apennine Italy is described and options for reconstructing them are discussed. Villages and towns are disproportionately vulnerable to damage by even small earthquakes, which can cause substantial changes to their distinctive character. Responses to such events are outlined, including various strategies of evacuation and the process of developing standardized methods for post‐disaster architectural survey. Rationales for demolishing damaged buildings, and their role in causing decentralization of the settlements, are discussed. The effects of temporary shelter and contemporary reconstruction plans are evaluated in terms of their impact on the changing urban landscape of such towns. Finally, inconsistencies in government reconstruction funding are shown to be responsible for much of the variability of post‐disaster recovery in Italy. Hence, existing theoretical models are of little use in predicting the course of reconstruction.
Migrations and Nutritional Status in the Sahel
Authors: AUTIER PHILIPPE , D'ALTILIA JEAN‐PIERRE , CALLEWAERT BART , TAMBOURA BAALTI , DELAMALLE JEAN‐PIERRE , VERCRUYSSE VINCENT
Published: December 2007

In the Sahel, migration is of considerable importance. It permits the peasants to adjust to variable food conditions. In areas affected by food shortages, cluster sample studies of villages showed that, as the number of recently abandoned houses in a cluster increased, the prevalence of malnutrition decreased, and this linear trend was significant (p < 0.05). This phenomenon tends to reduce the prevalence of malnutrition in these areas, and it emphasizes the fact that the malnutrition rate is a late indicator when used for nutritional surveillance. The article provides also a brief description of the current migration patterns in the Sahel and underlines the effects droughts have had on them.
The 1988 Earthquake in Soviet Armenia: Implications for Earthquake Preparedness
Authors: NOJI ERIC K.
Published: December 2007

An earthquake registering 6.9 on the Richter scale hit the northern part of the Armenian Republic of the Soviet Union on 7 December 1988, resulting in thousands of deaths and injuries. The majority of these resulted from the collapse of inadequately designed and constructed buildings. Analysis of the effects of the Armenian earthquake on the population, as well as of the rescue and medical response, has strong implications for earthquake preparedness and response in other seismically vulnerable parts of the world. Specifically, this paper will recommend a number of important endeavours deemed necessary to improve medical planning, preparedness and response to earthquakes. Strengthening the self‐reliance of the community in disaster preparedness is suggested as the best way to improve the effectiveness of relief operations. In earthquake‐prone areas, training and education in basic first aid and methods of rescue should be an integral part of any community preparedness programme.
Effects of Floods on the Use and Condition of Pit Latrines in Rural Bangladesh
Authors: HOQUE BILQIS A. , HUTTLY S.R.A. , AZIZ K.M.A. , HASAN Z. , PATWARY M.Y.
Published: December 2007

The severe floods of 1987 in Bangladesh had devastating effects on many development activities. Here, the use and condition of improved sanitation facilities (double pit water sealed latrines) during the 1987 peak flood period are presented. Two surveys on the use and condition of the latrines were carried out in May (pre‐flood) and September (post‐flood) 1987 in a rural area 60 km north of Dhaka, with a population of about 4500. General usage of the latrines by the population aged five years or more decreased from 88% to 78% (p < 0.001) after the flood. Only 40% of the 343 latrines which were in use and had no damaged component at the time of the pre‐flood survey still had no damaged components after the floods. Fencing was the component which suffered the most damage. It was the only component which was installed and maintained by the users, project staff being responsible for all other components. The estimated post‐flood repair cost was approximately US $4.0 per latrine. Development of an affordable and durable fencing is recommended.
Displacements and Reconstruction: The Case of West Beirut – Lebanon
Authors: EL‐MASRI SOUHEIL
Published: December 2007

This paper focusses on the housing conditions of the displaced people who were forced to move to West Beirut due to the conflict in Lebanon which started in 1975. With the lack of any emergency housing provision, people have adopted two ways to shelter their families; either by occupying vacant buildings or by squatting on unused land (land squatting).

The study is based on fieldwork undertaken in order to gain a deeper insight into the displaced people's housing conditions. The results of the survey analysis are believed to be common to other displaced people, as has been verified by comparison with the available information in newspaper reports, unpublished documents, and other accounts.

The paper concludes with a reconstruction strategy, composed of two policies. First, a short‐term policy which deals with the urgent needs of the people in the place of refuge. Thus mitigation and risk reduction are the aims of this policy. Second, a long‐term policy which concentrates on future housing reconstruction; in which economic development, social integration and cultural identity are the basic features.
The Yellow Fever Epidemic in Western Mali, September—November 1987: Why Did Epidemiological Surveillance Fail?
Authors: KURZ XAVIER
Published: December 2007

Recent yellow fever epidemics in West Africa have underlined the discrepancy between the official number of cases and deaths and those estimated by a retrospective epidemiological investigation. During the yellow fever epidemic that broke out in western Mali in September 1987, a total of 305 cases and 145 deaths were officially notified, but estimates revealed true figures abut five times higher. This paper attempts to discuss the factors that hindered early case detection and more complete reporting. They were, first, the insufficient training on the clinical diagnosis, the blood sampling method for laboratory confirmation, and the curative treatment of patients (resulting in low utilization of services); second, the lack of an action plan to prepare in advance a quick response to the epidemic, affecting reporting procedures at the peripheral level and active case‐finding during the outbreak; and third, the lack of laboratory facilities for a quick confirmation of the disease.

The difficulties experienced during the yellow fever epidemic in Mali demonstrated the importance of a preparedness strategy for epidemic control, based on an integrated approach of epidemiological surveillance within basic health service activities. The need for regional collaboration and for institutionalized funds in the donor community that could be mobilized for epidemic preparedness activities is also emphasized.
Pests and Donors in Mali, 1985–90
Authors: KREMER A.R.
Published: December 2007

Between 1985 and 1988 large‐scale spray campaigns were carried out against migratory crop pests in the Sahel. The Malian government and its donors subsequently adopted this emergency response to a natural disaster as a long‐term strategy for crop protection in Sahelian Mali. This is financially unsustainable, probably economically wasteful and stunts the development of other plant protection strategies. A similar process has occurred in Burkina Faso, Niger and Senegal. Donors should therefore exercise critical, collective control over the release of pesticide aid and should subject it to economic evaluation.
Vulnerability to Tropical Cyclones: Evidence from the April 1991 Cyclone in Coastal Bangladesh
Authors: HAQUE C. EMDAD , BLAIR DANNY
Published: December 2007

In this article we report the results of a survey conducted in two coastal communities of Bangladesh less than two weeks after they were hit by the severe cyclone of April 29, 1991. It was found that almost all of the surveyed heads of households had received early warnings of the cyclone. Nevertheless, a majority of the respondents did not leave their homes to seek shelter. The two most common reasons given for this passive reaction were (i) fear of burglary and (ii) disbelief of the warnings. Thus, it appears that the existing system of early warnings is not having its intended effect and that it, and related disaster mitigation policies, need to be revised. Some suggestions are made as to what could be done.
Health Response to a Large and Rapid Influx of Albanian Refugees in Southern Italy, 1991
Authors: GRECO DONATE , CAPUTO SERGIO LO , BINKIN NANCY , PANATTA MARCO , SQUARCIONE SALVATORE , GERMINARIO CINZIA
Published: December 2007

Over a two‐day period in March 1991, more than 23,000 Albanian refugees arrived without warning in the southern Italian port of Brindisi. A simple surveillance system was established within days of their arrival to monitor health problems that were expected to have a high frequency, were of concern to the Italian health care system because of potential spread to the local population, and were susceptible to therapeutic or preventive measures. The most commonly encountered health problems were pediculosis and scabies. Despite poor sanitary conditions, only one outbreak of gastrointestinal disease was reported. Obstetric events were common, and many resulted in adverse outcomes. Hospitalization rates were high, although in the early weeks of the emergency, many were unwarranted. This experience demonstrates the value of a simple, rapid surveillance system in prioritizing health problems and preventing rumors. In future, greater emphasis should be placed on outpatient management of simple medical problems.
Environmental Health and the 1991 Bangladesh Cyclone
Authors: HOQUE BILQIS A. , SACK R. BRADLEY , JAHANGIR ALAM M. , HAZERA NAZRUL , SIDDIQI MIZAN , NAHID ALI
Published: December 2007

A brief post‐disaster study was undertaken soon after the cyclone of 1991 in Bangladesh to make a preliminary assessment of existing environmental health conditions. Eighty affected people and 26 relief personnel from the affected areas were interviewed. Faecal coliform counts, salinity conductivity and pH values were determined for 43 water samples from tubewells and ponds. The quality of 32 samples of water purifying tablets was also tested.

Water scarcity was acute, especially water used for washing and personal hygiene. The situation was made worse by the fact that the surface water sources (ponds) which were commonly used for domestic purposes other than drinking were flooded, highly contaminated and regarded as unusable. The user load on existing tubewells doubled, indicating a significantly increased demand for the tubewell water which is commonly used for drinking purposes only. The majority (63 per cent) of the water purifying tablets were found to have lost potency. Sanitation was very poor in households as well as in field clinics and shelters. Most people, including relief personnel, lacked environmental health knowledge. Suggestions regarding immediate preparations for disaster relief include: restoring water systems (tubewells and ponds), training courses for relief personnel, standardizing of water purifying tablets, promoting appropriate water use and its treatment, maintaining sanitation in clinics and shelters and improving the skills and resources of local people to enable them to cope with the situation.
Northern Sudan in 1991: Food Crisis and the International Relief Response
Authors: KELLY MARION , BUCHANAN‐SMITH MARGARET
Published: December 2007

By the end of 1991, less than half the amount of relief food requested for North Sudan at the beginning of the year had been delivered. Despite ample evidence of social and economic stress and high rates of child malnutrition, many donors felt that relief needs had been exaggerated, and were unwilling to accept that relief assistance was urgently needed. The feeble response of the main food aid donors is explained initially by the politics of relief in 1990/91, which seriously delayed the launch of the relief operation. These problems were compounded by an oversimplified understanding of famine among some sections of the relief community, and by the orientation of the international relief system to crisis indicators. Toward the end of 1991, donors argued that despite the shortfall in relief assistance there had been no deaths from starvation, and therefore local people had ‘coped’ better than expected. This paper challenges that view by arguing that excess deaths did occur, but went unnoticed and unremarked. Local people's ‘coping strategies’, which supposedly ‘saved the day’, actually had very negative and sometimes fatal consequences.
Strategy and Organizational Disaster Preparedness
Authors: BANERJEE MAHASWETA M. , GILLESPIE DAVID F.
Published: December 2007

Strategy is introduced as a predictor of disaster preparedness. Tests with multiple regression show that strategy, disaster experience and capacity for disaster response are the strongest predictors of preparedness. We conclude that the measure of strategy warrants further refinement and that the study of preparedness must move from idiosyncratic, disconnected studies to a more theoretically organized set of studies that verify useful guidelines for monitoring and enhancing disaster preparedness.
Malnutrition and Poverty in the Early Stages of Famine: North Darfur, 1988–90
Authors: JASPARS SUSANNE , YOUNG HELEN
Published: December 2007

In this article we report findings on the relationship between malnutrition and poverty during a period of acute food insecurity in Darfur, Sudan. Children of rich and poor families were equally likely to be malnourished, which is explained in terms of people's responses to the threat of famine. This finding has important implications for targeting interventions in the early stages of famine. Appropriate interventions at the early stages of famine are livelihood and income support to the most vulnerable. The entitlement theory of famine causation assumes that the poor are most vulnerable, and become malnourished and die during famines. In this article we show that this assumption does not hold. Even though poverty is the root cause of malnutrition, it does not follow that anthropometric status can be used to target individual poor families, or even that targeting the poor is appropriate in famine situations.
Early Warning and Response: Why the International Community Failed to Prevent the Genocide
Authors: ADELMAN HOWARD , SUHRKE ASTRI
Published: December 2007

Western leadership … has proclaimed moral indifference to be its decent Christian right John le Carré (1995, p. 213).

The enormity of the genocide in Rwanda demands that it be subjected to searching enquiry and that members of the international community, collectively and individually, examine their own roles in the event.

This paper draws extensively on Study II of the Joint Evaluation, and examines the effectiveness of international monitoring (early warning) and management of the Rwanda conflict. It is not intended to explore all the factors which together contributed to the genocide that were or might have been amenable to modification by the international community. The focus is on warning and response beginning with the start of the civil war in 1990, and culminating in an analysis of the international response to the genocide in April–June 1994.
THE LIFE AND WORK OF TURGOT
Authors: Maxwell Constantia
Published: December 2007

Philosophe indulgent, ministre citoyen qui ne cherche le vrai que pour faire le bien.—Voltaire: Épǐtre à un. Homme.
INCOME SECURITY—THE FUTURE
Authors: Wryell M.
Published: December 2007

The following article is a shortened version of a paper presented at a conference on social security at Monash University in August 1974. Australia is, as Mr. Wryell said in introducing his paper “in a sense at the crossroads as far as social security is concerned”. Several important inquiries have been made into a range of social security questions—on poverty, oh compensation and rehabilitation, on superannuation—and the reports are currently being discussed. Mr. Wryell's article outlines the existing Australian provisions, factors to be kept in mind in reviewing them, and proposals for variation—some of them involving fundamental changes in philosophy and approach—which have been put forward in the various reports. He emphasises that, as a public servant, his function was limited to providing factual information about the issues under review.
Financing social security in Latin America: New perspectives in the light of current economic developments
Authors: Camacho Luis A.
Published: December 2007

The main objective of this report is to give a general overview of the different aspects of social security financing in Latin America, and also to study specific cases of substantial reforms made in the last decade. Thus, this is an attempt to set forth general ideas on the consequences of different aspects of financing which should be taken into account when different methods are being reformulated.
Extending social security protection to the entire population: Problems and issues
Authors: Jenkins Michael
Published: December 2007

Rural, agricultural and informal‐sector workers have often beendenied the social security protection to which other economic sectors of populations have had access, and this is particularly true in the case of developing countries. There are also other important groups which have few or no rights to social security protection, such as family, domestic and casual workers. The lack of coverage is disturbing, as witnessed by the frequency with which this topic appears on social security meeting agendas worldwide, and particularly so since these sectors, as a whole form a very large proportion of the populations of many countries. Certainly there are difficulties of a practical nature which inhibit extension of coverage to these groups. So what can social security systems do? What kind of coverage is best suited to the needs of these groups? This article, based on papers presented at an ISSA Regional Meeting for Asia and the Pacific held in Manila in 1992, analyses the issues and makes some suggestions for a strategy relating to extension of coverage.
Pension insurance and the participation of private enterprise
Authors: Tamburi Giovanni
Published: December 2007

One of the principal developments of our time in the field of social security policy has been the growing importance of the desire of individuals for greater economic security in their old age. This desire has in its turn given rise to an increasing tendency to seek benefits complementing those offered or promised by public social insurance schemes. In Europe and North America private enterprise has for many years played an active role in the field of complementary provident arrangements; but in the countries of Latin America interest in schemes of this kind has only begun to develop in recent years. A study of the present situation shows a need to establish concepts permitting an objective approach to the problem of whether — and ultimately, how — a modern State can succeed in striking a satisfactory balance between public intervention and private enterprise in the field of provision against deferred risks or, if it cannot do so, what the prospects are for the securing of a better future by present‐day society and how that goal could be achieved. A reform of provident systems in Latin America is inevitable. The difficulty lies in determining how to reorganize public systems so as to ensure their continuance and to entrust them with the principal role in ensuring social solidarity while at the same time opening up opportunities for free private complementary insurance.
The work prospects of older employees: An international comparison
Authors: Hardes Heinz‐Dieter , Mall Judith
Published: December 2007

The labour markets in the European Community countries are faced with a massive change in the structural composition of employee age groups. This article examines the employment prospects for older persons in selected European countries. The first, introductory section gives a quantitative comparison of existing levels of employment of older persons. This group is defined on the basis of the Eurostat labour force statistics; it comprises those aged over 50 but under 65. The second section aims to give an overall picture of the different types of early pension and the different methods by which older employees were taken off the labour market in the past. In the 1970s and 1980s the countries of Europe took numerous measures to bring about early cessation of work and early pensions for older persons, in order to reduce the labour surplus at a time when unemployment was increasing. In future, however, employee age structures will develop on opposite lines (third section): demographic change will affect pensions policy financially (extending working life rather than pensioning workers off). The change in company employee age structures will begin in the 1990s. This new impending trend calls for longer‐term adjustments in employment policies: these will be considered in the fourth, concluding section of the article.
Social security for dependent persons in Germany and other countries: Between tradition and innovation
Authors: Scheil‐Adlung Xenia
Published: December 2007

For decades, the discussions on the problem of social protection in cases of dependency have been gaining in intensity. Comprehensive new regulations on the subject have now been enacted in Germany and have attracted international interest. The new Dependency Insurance Act in Germany is based to some extent on tried and tested model solutions enshrined in German social policy, but it also contains fundamental new orientations which could have an importance reaching beyond the sphere of social dependency insurance. Does the act adhere to established traditions, merely disguising them in modern dress? Or is it a trend‐setter disguised in traditional dress? Taking the new Dependency Insurance Act as an example, this article examines current trends in social policy in Germany and on the international plane.
Providing better protection and promoting growth: A defence of Averting the old age crisis
Authors: Lames Estelle
Published: December 2007

This article briefly summarizes the recommendations of the recent World Bank report, Averting the old age crisis, analyses why representatives of the ISSA and the ILO came to quite different policy conclusions from that report, and takes up other selected issues. The article argues that there are four underlying reasons for the divergence between the World Bank and the ILO/ISSA positions: the Bank is more concerned about the impact of social security systems on the broader economy; the Bank is troubled by the inequities that we often find in current systems in practice, even though they may look equitable on paper; the Bank believes that behavioural responses and political economy factors sometimes make non‐viable the design changes of public systems recommended by the ILO and the ISSA; and the Bank places considerable emphasis on the benefits of risk diversification.
Social security and dependence
Authors: Piachaud David
Published: December 2007

There is increasing concern that social security creates dependence. The contingencies of most interest are unemployment, lone parenthood and disability. The relationships between each of these contingencies and the level of social security benefits are analysed cross‐nationally; in no case is there a systematic relationship. The paper then examines other factors that determine dependence on social security.
Reforming social security in economies in transition: Problems and policies in the former Soviet Republic of Moldova
Authors: Mabbett Deborah
Published: December 2007

In the Republic of Moldova, as in other former Soviet republics, a great deal of pressure has been put on the social security system by the removal of general consumer subsidies and their replacement with targeted compensation payments (assistance). The growth of assistance needs has made it difficult to reform earnings‐related pension provision along “insurance” lines. There have also been adverse developments in the labour market. Large‐scale open unemployment has not emerged, but insurance contributions are not being paid. Some of the measures which have been adopted to deal with the resulting financial crisis are counterproductive for the development of a social security system compatible with a market economy.
FINELY GRADED BINOCULAR DISPARITIES FROM RANDOM‐DOT STEREOGRAMS
Authors: Reading R. W. , Tanlamai Theanchai
Published: December 2007

Abstract Relation of a stereogram around an axis through its centre provides a method of presenting finely graded binocular disparities. Such displays arc useful for clinical testing of stereopsis. A comparison between projected‐ and real‐depth thresholds indicated that most of the differences could be accounted for in terms of the change in stereoscopic sensitivity associated with differing errors in the equidistance judgements. The method of disparity display described allows for the direct observation of those attributes of random‐dot stereopsis known as global stereopsis and local stereopsis and requires caution in comparison of stereopsis thresholds using these different perceptual criteria.
VISUAL MECHANISMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL PATTERN*
Authors: Ruddock K. H.
Published: December 2007

Abstract After a brief outline of the structure and electrophysiology of the normal visual pathways, the responses, as revealed by psychophysical studies, of the visual system to spatially and temporally varying stimuli are reviewed. An appropriate network model, involving two sequentially organized classes of visual channel, is presented. Examples are given in which the psychophysical methods developed to analyse the normal visual pathways are applied to cases in which these pathways are defective (amblyopia, albinism, hemianopia, parietal cortical lesion, inhibitory central colour vision defect). These cases not only illustrate the value of psychophysical techniques in analysing disturbances of visual function but are also suggestive of the mechanisms involved in higher processing of the retinal image.
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM*
Authors: DRASDO N.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Progress during the last 60 years has revealed numerous electrical signals arising from many parts of the visual system. These now play an essential part in the detection of many pathological conditions. Further progress in the acquisition and interpretation of these signals is necessary however before they could be justified as part of every routine eye examination. Such significant progress is only likely to occur if the electrophysiological origins of each signal can be more precisely identified and understood. Fundamental research on many aspects is therefore necessary.
A REVIEW AND EVALUATION OF THEORIES OF REFRACTIVE ERROR DEVELOPMENT
Authors: McBrien N. A. , Barnes D. A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract A review of theories of the development of refractive errors is presented. These are classified into three major groups: the biological – statistical theories, the use – abuse theories and theories of emmetropization. They are commented upon and their merits contrasted. Current research developments which relate to these theories are discussed.
ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENT OF TRANSVERSE LENS DIAMETER DURING ACCOMMODATION
Authors: Storey J. K. , Rabie E. P.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— A new method is introduced which makes possible in vivo measurement of transverse lens diameter (T.L.D.) with ultrasound. The horizontal T.L.D. was measured for 7 nearly emmetropic subjects at accommodation stimulus levels of 0,2,4,6 and 8 dioptres. The unaccommodated T.L.D. was found to be proportional to the axial length. The mean unaccommodated T.L.D. was found to be larger than in vitro measurements reported in the literature.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EXTENT OF VISUAL FIELD AND DRIVING PERFORMANCE—A REVIEW
Authors: North R. V.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— The effect of the extent of visual field upon driving performance has recently received a great deal of interest. With such a volume of traffic on the roads today, peripheral vision would seem to be essential for safe driving and yet past literature is inconclusive as to the relationship between the extent of visual field and driving performance. This paper reviews the research work and gives possible reasons for the lack of relationship reported in most of the studies. Until further research work does determine the minimum visual field required for safe driving, the role of the medical practitioner in advising patients when they are considered unsafe to drive is in question. The provision of a period of adaptation after complete loss of vision in a previously normal eye should also be considered, during which time the motorist is temporarily banned from driving.
FOURIER ANALYSIS AND THE FARNSWORTH—MUNSELL 100‐HUE TEST
Authors: Allan D.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— A mathematical method based on Fourier analysis devised for the assessment of score charts for the Farnsworth—Munsell 100‐Hue test is described. The method facilitates the analysis of features of the shape of the score chart in an objective and quantitative manner. The calculations are easily performed by a microcomputer.
THE VER AS A PREDICTOR OF NORMAL VISUAL ACUITY IN THE ADULT HUMAN EYE
Authors: Jenkins T. C. A. , Douthwaite W. A. , Peedle J. E.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— The ability of the evoked potential to predict conventional visual acuity, as measured with a Landolt C test, was investigated for subjects with normal acuities. Both peak‐to‐trough and Fourier‐analysed amplitudes were used. The extrapolation technique assumed curvilinear regression and produced correlations no better than did a method employing amplitude measurements of a single check size of 5.5 min arc (r= 0.67). Assessment of Landolt C acuity by subjective use of the evoked potential stimulus was unable to produce a higher correlation.
DARK ADAPTATION IN AGE‐RELATED MACULOPATHY
Authors: Brown Brian , Adams Anthony J. , Coletta Nancy J. , Haegerstrom‐Portnoy Gunilla
Published: December 2007

Dark adaptation was measured for patients with age‐related maculopathy (ARM) and for age‐matched controls; green and red test stimuli were flashed 15d̀ from the fovea to examine differential effects of ARM on rod and cone functions, respectively. The ARM patients showed decreases in sensitivity for both rods and cones (0.5‐ 1.5 log units) and an increased time constant of recovery for rod function. After 20 min in the dark, sensitivity to both red and green stimuli was depressed at the fovea and at 5, 10, 15 and 25d̀ eccentric to the fovea. The greatest sensitivity loss was found in the macular area (fovea and 5d̀ eccentric). Our data suggest that the ARM patients have an abnormality in both rod‐ and cone‐adaptation systems over a relatively large retinal area which extends beyond the zone of visual field abnormality.
BINOCULAR COLOUR INTERACTION
Authors: Taylor S. P.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— Colour filters are used to modify the performance of colour normal subjects on the 100‐Hue test. A short wavelength transmission (blue/green) filter is used in front of the dominant eye, and a long wavelength transmission (red/orange) filter is placed in front of the non‐dominant eye. The change induced by the filters is then assessed monocularly and binocularly in an attempt to understand the processes involved in the binocular interaction of colour. The tentative conclusion is that the visual system uses a sampling procedure to obtain the best colour discrimination possible for a given set of viewing conditions.
EFFECTS OF 0.1% CYCLOPENTOLATE OR 10% PHENYLEPHRINE ON PUPIL DIAMETER AND ACCOMMODATION
Authors: Mordi J. , Tucker J. , Charman W. N.
Published: December 2007

Abstracts— The mydriatic and cycloplegic effects of either one drop of 0.1% cyclopentolate or two drops of 10% phenylephrine were studied over a period of up to 6 hours after drug instillation, using 5 subjects aged between 25 and 43 years. The extent of mydriasis was determined from the horizontal diameter of the pupil. Dynamic accommodation responses were monitored with an infra‐red, continuously recording optometer. Static measurements of the accommodation response/stimulus curve were made with a laser optometer.

With either drug, dilation of the pupil occurred more rapidly than recovery of normal pupil diameter. Both drugs caused alterations in the dynamic and static accommodation responses. Response times were generally slowed, and the slope of the accommodation response/stimulus curve and the amplitude of accommodation were, reduced. The time course of these changes was broadly similar to that of the pupil dilation. Cyclopentolate hydrochloride was more efficient as a mydriatic but exercised a greater unwanted cycloplegic effect.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF REFRACTIVE ERRORS IN NIGERIA
Authors: Kragha I. K. O. K.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— A clinical study of the refractive errors of 349 females aged between 5 and 69 years and 473 males aged between 3 and 62 years was undertaken. This report describes the prevalence of the different types of refractive errors with regard to sex and age.
THE CLINICAL ASSESSMENT OF BINOCULAR VISION BEFORE AND AFTER A WORKING DAY*
Authors: Yekta A. A. , Jenkins T. , Pickwell D.
Published: December 2007

Abstract— This paper looks at the clinical investigative and measurement procedures used in assessing binocular vision at the beginning of a normal working day and compared with the same procedures carried out in the afternoon which included several hours of close work. In 84 young adults, it was found that dissociated heterophoria, associated heterophoria and fixation disparity increased. This was accompanied by visual symptoms. It is likely that any decompensation of heterophoria is worse at the end of a working day. The results of this investigation raise the question of the value of some clinical tests for binocular assessment carried out at the beginning of the day.
OSCILLATORY MOVEMENT DISPLACEMENT THRESHOLDS: RESISTANCE TO OPTICAL IMAGE DEGRADATION
Authors: Whitaker David , Buckingham Terry
Published: December 2007

Abstract Vernier acuity, under optimal conditions, appears remarkably resistant to image degradation. This characteristic has been used to assess neural function in cataract patients who exhibit poor spatial resolution. Conventional resolution tests fail to differentiate between neural and optical causes of visual loss. The oscillatory movement displacement threshold—the smallest amplitude of oscillation which gives rise to the perception of movement—provides an alternative hyperacuity test. This may offer advantages over vernier acuity. The effect of image defocus upon displacement thresholds for a sinusoidal contrast grating of spatial frequency 2 c deg‐1 was investigated for high (15 Hz) and low (2 Hz) oscillation frequencies. With visible stationary references, subjects were more sensitive to oscillation frequencies of 2 Hz than to 15 Hz (F1,9= 33.34, p < 0.005) whilst blur of up to 2 dioptres had no significant effect (F3,27= 1.73, p > 0.1). Simulating media opacities by spatial degradation affected both grating acuity and contrast sensitivity functions, whilst displacement thresholds remained largely unaffected. Results suggest that oscillatory movement displacement thresholds may be of value in assessing ocular neural dysfunction in the presence of media opacities.
Dehydration of hydrogel contact lenses in vitro and in vivo
Authors: Efron Nathan , Young Graeme
Published: December 2007

An attempt was made to derive a model for predicting the extent of hydrogel lens dehydration in vivo (ΔWv) by using a contact lens refractometer to (1) measure the water content (W) of eight lensus ranging from 36.5 to 85.8% water before and after 90 min lens wear by six subjects; and (2) measure the rate of dehydration of the same lenses in vitro (ΔW1), in a controlled, randomized, double‐masked experiment. A significant correlation was demonstrated between W and the rate of change of ΔW1 (the dehydration rate, D), whereby lenses of higher water content dehydrate at a slower rate. No correlation was found between W and ΔWv or between D and ΔWv, thus precluding the development of a predictive model. Possible reasons for this failure, and directions for further research, are discussed
Dual‐mode behaviour in the human accommodation system
Authors: Hung George K. , Ciuffreda Kenneth J.
Published: December 2007

The human accommodation system was investigated using a dynamic infra‐red optometer to determine whether its feedback control process exhibited dual‐mode behaviour. Ramp changes of target accommodative demand presented monocularly at various velocities (0.5‐0.6 D s‐1) with a fixed 2 D amplitude elicited two modes of behaviour. Smooth ramp movements were observed for low‐velocity stimuli, whereas step responses predominated for high‐velocity stimuli. At intermediate velocities, combined step‐ramp responses were more prevalent. The characteristic of these step‐ramp responses showed two important properties that suggest a pre‐programming mechanism. The amplitude of the step portion of a step‐ramp response approximated the value of the ramp stimulus at the time corresponding to the end of the step movement. Also, the initial step amplitude increased with increasing target ramp velocity. It appears that the amplitude of the preprogrammed accommodative movement was based on an estimate of the expected ramp target position at the end of the response. These findings are consistent with a recent unifying theory of oculomotor control in which the various oculomotor subsystems (versional and vergence eye movements and accommodation) each has fast and slow components. The fast component exhibits preprogramming, while the slow component shows continuous feedback control.