bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Is the Privileged Position of Political Expression justified?
Authors: hare* Ivan
Published: October 2023

Expression which may be described as political is accorded a privileged legal status in most common law countries and under the European Convention of Human Rights. The aim of this piece is to question whether the manner in which this privilege has been formulated in some jurisdictions is desirable. The structure of the article is as follows. Part 1 provides a brief account of the extent to which United Kingdom law and the doctrine in a number of legal systems which are particularly relevant to domestic developments protect political speech. The remaining sections of the paper question this method. In Part 2 some of the difficulties of defining political speech and distinguishing it from other forms of expression are discussed. Part 3 addresses certain other characteristics of free speech analysis which may prove more revealing than a focus on the category of expression. Finally, Part 4 explains why it may be more legitimate to limit or regulate some forms of political speech than other forms of expressive activity. The aim throughout is not to argue against a high level of legal protection for political speech, but to advert to some of the dangers of resolving free speech issues by reference to a priori categorizations of types of expression.
The Relationship Between Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Information
Authors: Kbe The Hon Sir Anthony Mason Ac
Published: October 2023

The purpose of this essay is to examine the relationship between freedom of expression and freedom of information. The two freedoms are often mentioned in the same breath, so to speak, as if they are so closely connected or intertwined that one (freedom of information) is part or counterpart of the other (freedom of expression). International and European lawyers rather than traditional common lawyers have been astute to see that close connection. That is because guarantees of freedom in constitutions and international instruments expressly or impliedly include certain aspects of freedom of information in freedom of expression, that is the right to seek and impart, even the right to receive, information. As no such inclusion has arisen under the very limited common law conception of freedom of expression, the common lawyer tends to see freedom of information as a statutory right of access to information.
The Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998
Authors: Cripps Yvonne
Published: October 2023

Disclosures made by public and private sector workers acting in the public interest may be crucially important in protecting the public from a range of hazards including injury, risk to life, fraud, financial malpractice and environmental damage. Those who make such disclosures deserve legal protection. Even jurisdictions in which there is wide-ranging freedom of information legislation will benefit from occasional disclosures by public-spirited individuals who focus initial attention on matters of which the public ought to be aware. Damaging or potentially damaging activities that would otherwise escape detection, may, at a relatively early stage, come to the notice of workers who may or may not have the courage to speak out. Notorious examples of such situations include the Piper Alpha disaster, the Clapham Junction train collision, the foundering of the Herald of Free Enterprise, the arms to Iraq affair and the collapse of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI).
Information, Privacy, and Technology: Citizens, Clients, or Consumers?
Authors: Aman Alfred c.
Published: October 2023

In his classic book, Not in the Public Interest, Professor Sir David Williams states: ‘It is desirable that as far as possible the workings of the central government should either be subject to publicity or subject to some form of independent scrutiny. Sweeping assertions of executive secrecy ought not to be tolerated in a democratic country.’1 He concludes that ‘secrecy and security have to be balanced against the legitimate demands for an informed public opinion which is, when all is said and done, the essential element in a country which claims to be democratic.’ These words are as important and wise today as they were in 1965. Indeed, the emphasis on democracy, an informed public opinion and the public interest embody values and an approach towards governance that, in this era of globalization, is more important than ever before. Freedom of lnformation legislation is intended to further these values and to make the status and role of citizen meaningful.
Freedom of Information and International Law
Authors: Keith K J
Published: October 2023

Thirty-five years ago a fellow of Keble College, Oxford, set out to try to lessen or even subvert one passion of British civil servants-their ‘passion for secrecy’. The book which resulted, Not in the Public Interest-the Problem of Security in Democracy,is a masterpiece of description, analysis and prescription. The description comes from a wide range of sources which soon became familiar to the writer’s growing band of admiring readers: parliamentary proceedings, official reports of commissions, committees and privy councillors, newspaper reports, books and articles (running far beyond the familiar, at least to this lawyer), as well as the statute books and law reports.
Freedom of Information: The Implications for Business
Authors: Thomas Richard
Published: October 2023

Whitehall’s notorious ‘Culture of Secrecy’ has been in significant decline for at least ten years, but sharp reminders of the traditional Civil Service mind-set are still to be found. A few years ago the Department of Trade and Industry published advice for the business community entitled: ‘Protecting Business Information-Understanding the Risks’.1 Under the main heading of ‘The Threat’, the sub-heading on the third page alarmingly groups together: But the DTI is absolutely right to identify the importance of information to the business community. We are constantly told that we live in the Information Society-sometimes elevated to the Knowledge Society or even the Intelligence Society. Today, as the opening paragraph of the DTI paper correctly states: ‘Business is driven by information. It is your most valuable asset.’
Just Lawyers
Authors: Parker Christine
Published: October 2023

Just Lawyers proposes a model for the regulation and organization of lawyers, guided by an ideal of access to justice. It is grounded in empirical analysis of why people complain about lawyers, the nature of existing legal institutions, and the ethical ideals of the profession. Parker weaves the normative theory of deliberative democracy with the empirical law and society tradition of research on the limits and possibilities of law. She shows that access to justice can only occur in the interaction between courtroom justice, informal everyday justice, and social movement politics. Lawyers' justice should educate people's justice to improve the justice quality of everyday relationships and transactions, while community concerns (including community access to justice concerns) should reshape lawyers' regulation, organization, and practices to improve substantive justice. Just Lawyers shows how legal proffesionalism can only be revitalized through the reform of access to justice beyond lawyers.
Judgments on Lawyers
Authors: Parker Christine
Published: October 2023

In popular culture, writes Robert Post, ‘the most striking aspect of the image of the lawyer ... is the intense hostility with which it is invested’ (Post 1987: 379). On the one hand movies portray lawyers as heroes of justice. As the authors of one study of the characterization of law and lawyers in film concluded.
Lawyers in the Republic of Justice
Authors: Parker Christine
Published: October 2023

The main principle for regulatory reform of lawyers that withstands all the normative, phenomenological, and structural challenges of the iterated adjustment employed in the previous chapters is a process of deliberation about how to regulate in which the substantive access to justice concerns of the community are brought to bear on the profession. It is not a model that privileges either the profession or state regulatory institutions. Rather lawyers’ regulation would focus on enhancing the culture of legal professionalism in a way that is both subject to and constitutive of deliberative democratic justice.
International Health Regulations
Authors: Fidler David P
Published: October 2023

The global infectious disease threat directly implicates the International Health Regulations (IHR), which constitute the ‘only international health agreement on communicable diseases that is binding on [WHO] Member States’. The IHR provides a unified code for infectious disease control. As of November 1997, 194 States were bound by the IHR. This chapter analyses the IHR by examining their development, basis in international law, objectives, and effectiveness. The chapter also briefly analyses WHO’s proposed revision of the IHR.
International Environmental Law and Infectious Diseases
Authors: Fidler David P
Published: October 2023

Public health experts cite environmental change as a factor in the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases. Human alteration of the natural environment exposes people to microbes or disease vectors and creates conditions conducive to the multiplication and transmission of microbes and disease vectors. Natural environmental phenomenon can generate increased infectious disease threats to human populations, as evidenced by connections between weather variations (for example, El Nifio) and infectious diseases; but anthropogenic environmental changes produce the most serious infectious disease concerns. Environmental changes that encourage infectious disease spread range from the local, such as contaminated drinking water, to the global, such as climate change.
Security Interests
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

This chapter will consider security interests. Outright collateral transfers will be considered in Chapter 6.

English law recognises four types of security interest. These are pledge, mortgage, charge and lien.
Global Custody, Prime Brokerage and Straight Through Processing
Authors: Benjamin Joanna
Published: October 2023

It will be seen from the foregoing that many inefficiencies remain in cross border settlement. The global custody industry has developed in order to relieve institutional investors from the burden of these inefficiencies.

Global custody is of particular interest because of its fungible nature. It is customary for a custodian to commingle the (interests in) securities which it holds for its respective clients. Because each client’s (interests in) securities are held on an intermediated and unallocated basis, global custody clients hold interests in securities and not securities.
The Policy of British Governments within the European Community
Authors: George Stephen
Published: October 2023

What have been the characteristics of the policies followed by successive British Governments towards the EC since membership? How consistent have policies been over time, and under Governments of different political persuasions? How far does the record lend support to the idea of Britain as a ‘semi-detached’ member of the Community? These are the questions that are considered in this chapter. The period covered begins with membership in 1973, under the Conservative Government of Edward Heath, and looks at the Labour Governments of Harold Wilson (1974-6) and James Callaghan (1976-9) and the Conservative Governments of Margaret Thatcher (1979-90).
Local Government and the European Community
Authors: Preston Jill
Published: October 2023

Over the last decade an increasing number of EC policies have had a direct impact on local authorities in the UK. For example, many local authorities have been able to take advantage of the resources provided by the EC structural funds and other Community financial instruments. Local authorities are one element in a complex system of government. In structural terms the UK is a unitary state, in the sense that Parliament is omnipotent. The formal constitutional position is reflected in the traditional doctrine of ‘ultra vires’. Parliament has the authority to allocate functions to local authorities or take those functions away. In general terms local authorities may only lawfully engage in activities for which they have statutory authority.
British By-Elections
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: October 2023

By-elections raise fundamental questions, such as: why do third parties manage unexpected breakthroughs in such contests? Why does the government of the day consistently lose support through the `mid-term blues'? Are by-elections essentially idiosyncratic contests reflecting the strengths and weaknesses of individual candidates in particular constituencies? Or can a series of by-election results provide an accurate indication of party popularity in subsequent general elections? Pippa Norris addresses these questions through her analysis of post-war trends in party support. She covers changes in campaigns, contrasting the stable by-elections of the post-war decade with the more volatile ones characteristic of today. She then explores systematic trends in the light of theories of partisan dealignment and retrospective voting, analysing the influence of campaign-specific factors, notably the role of candidates, party organizations, the media, and opinion polls. To set Britain in a comparative context, she also surveys trends in by-elections in Canada and Australia. Finally there is an essential reference section listing changes in party support in almost four hundred British by-elections since 1945.
Retrospective Theory and Government Performance
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: October 2023

Partisan dealignment helps to explain why volatility has increased in by-elections but so far we have not sought to explain the direction of change; in particular why the party in government consistently tends to lose support in these contests. This trend can be explored in the light of the theory of retrospective voting, a perspective which has attracted growing interest in recent years. The aim of this chapter is to develop a modified version of this theory, as a broad analytical framework which can be used to account for the particular characteristics of by-elections, before going on to examine its empirical basis.
The Role of the Media and Opinion Polls
Authors: Norris Pippa
Published: October 2023

In recent years there has been a substantial increase in the number of opinion polls being commissioned, and the amount of media attention devoted to campaigns. In the quiet by-elections of the fifties and sixties press coverage was minimal and opinion polls were the exception rather than the rule; there was only one poll even in such well-known contests as Rochdale in 1958 or Orpington in 1962. Polls became more regular features of by-elections in the seven ties but the turning-point came with Warrington. During the more dramatic contests in the eighties there developed an avalanche of polls; during the campaign eight polls were published in Darlington and Croydon North-West, nine in Crosby, ten in Fulham, thirteen in Greenwich, sixteen in Chesterfield, and seventeen in Glasgow Hillhead alone. In a small seat such as Glasgow Hillhead over l0,000 voters were polled in total by different companies, which represents one in five of the electorate.
The United States
Authors: Foster Jody , Muste Christopher
Published: October 2023

Campaigning and electioneering in the United States have undergone tremendous change since 1945. The changes have been driven by a host of factors, including declining party identification and participation in the electorate, the growing impact of the media and other communication technologies, the greater involvement of independent, professional consultants and technical experts in the management of campaigns, changes in the laws regarding elections and campaign finance, the extended duration of campaigns, and the increased resources available to incumbent candidates.
The British Electoral System: Fixture without Foundation
Authors: Curtice John
Published: October 2023

Proponents of alternative electoral systems do not simply disagree about how the votes cast at elections should be counted. They also disagree about why elections should be held at all. Supporters of the continued use of the first-past-the-post (or single-member¬ plurality) system take one view of what British parliamentary elections should be about; those in favour of some form of proportional representation take another. The differences between the two camps can be summarized under three broad headings, as shown in Table 9.r. The first and most important of these is a disagreement about what precisely is being elected (Schumpeter, 1976). Formally speaking, British general elections are about the election of 650 or so members of the House of Commons. But in everyday political discourse we talk about the Conservative or Labour party ‘winning’ an election-by which we mean winning enough seats to form the government. In theory British elections are simply legislative elections; in practice we have come to regard them as executive elections.
Judicial Review as Welfare Manage1nent
Authors: Robertson David
Published: October 2023

At various stages in this book we have referred to the way the Lords can be seen as exercising, amongst their various functions, the role of manager, or perhaps referee, of the welfare state. There are literally hundreds of cases one could select to show the way judicial review has been applied in this sort of highly routine context. Of course no case that gets to the House of Lords can really be seen as routine, but these cases involve only relatively straightforward interpretation of statutory duties, rather than calling for any common law creativity. They are routine also in the sense that they are mundane; indeed one problem is knowing why any particular case does make it so far in the litigation hierarchy, when others, presenting similar practical issues, do not. Certainly it is not that cases likely to win on appeal are selected, because the plaintiffs hardly ever do win. We have chosen to illustrate this role mainly through a linked series of cases on only one area of welfare.
Jainism and the Puja Ritual
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James
Published: October 2023

The central objects of veneration in a Jain temple are statues of human figures in marble, stone, or metal. These austere and rigid figures, always sharply sculpted and finely polished, sit with their hands folded on their lap or stand bolt upright in meditation. They are the Jinas or Tirthankars, the twenty-four divine ascetic renouncers who have founded and refounded the Jain religion.
The Ritual Commitment
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James
Published: October 2023

In this chapter we begin to answer the question, ‘What is the difference between acting in a ritualized and in an unritualized way?’. In attempting to describe what is distinctive about ritual action, we start with the subtle and yet pivotal transformation which ritualization effects in the relation between intention and action. The present chapter focuses on the theoretical delineation of this shift and some of its implications.
Getting It Right
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Laidlaw James
Published: October 2023

In previous chapters we made some brief remarks on the nature of prescription in ritual. Now we shall enlarge on these remarks and try to give an account of the kind of rules which govern the puja. While it is one of the most obvious things about ritualized action that it is prescribed, it is not so obvious quite how this compulsoriness or rigidity should be characterized.
The Language of Honour
Authors: Dresch Paul
Published: October 2023

The most noticeable thing about tribesmen at first glance is that they are armed. Every tribesman but the poorest owns a rifle (many have more than one), and in public each carries his rifle with him. Antique Turkish pieces and old service rifles are supplemented rather than replaced by modern self-loading and automatic weapons, some of which are all but the latest of their kind; and downstairs in many houses, among the grain and goats, are heavy weapons such as mortars, machine guns, and even light artillery. Weapons are a mark of tribesmen’s standing.1 ‘Weak’, non-tribal people who live scattered about in tribal territory are not permitted to carry rifles,
History from the Q āsim īs to the l:fam īd al-Din (c.1600-1950)
Authors: Dresch Paul
Published: October 2023

The apparatus of formal learning set tribes at the margin of Islamic government, but tribesmen were at all times involved with Zaydi history. In the present chapter we shall follow the history through from the Zaydi expansion of the seventeenth century to the disasters of the nineteenth, the Turkish occupation before the First World War, and the rise of the dynasty of powerful Imams who held North Yemen until the 1960s. Certain features of the tribal world are indeed almost timeless. Others cannot be understood without reference to the rest of Yemen, to events linking Yemen to the wider world, and, in short, to the course of regional history. In particular, the fortunes of tribal leaders were bound up with those of successive Imams.
Isaiah Berlin’s Liberalism
Authors: Galipeau Claude J
Published: October 2023

Isaiah Berlin is a towering figure in the world of letters. To the international community of scholars he is best known as the author of Two Concepts of Liberty, yet his career covers many fields in addition to moral and political philosophy: music and literary criticism, historiography, scholarship in the history of ideas, cultural interpretation, translation, teaching, university and arts administration, diplomacy, community work, and broadcasting. This is the first systematic study of Berlin's political ideas to draw on all of his writings, including manuscripts, interviews, and correspondence. Berlin's defence of political liberalism is based on moral pluralism and an interpretation of the historical and cultural development of western civilization, rather than on abstract arguments about rights. Claude Galipeau brings out the uniqueness and force of this defence while acknowledging, in his discussion of Berlin's Zionism, the tensions and complexities inherent in it. In all his writings Berlin seeks to understand the intricacies and paradoxes of human behaviour. His political thought offers a compelling justification of liberal institutions in the contemporary world and Claude Galipeau's study will be an invaluable guide to the range and depth of his work.
Introduction Landscape: Between Place and Space
Authors: Hirsch Eric
Published: October 2023

This Introduction and the essays that follow explore the concept of landscape from an anthropological perspective. Unlike ‘exchange’, ‘ritual’, ‘history’ and other concepts which have figured centrally in anthropological debates in recent years, landscape has received little overt anthropological treatment.1 In this respect landscape shares a similar status to the body in anthropology, that despite its ubiquity it has remained largely unproblematized: ‘the majority of researchers have in effect simply “bracketed” it as a black box and set it aside’ (Lock 1993: 133). Yet landscape has a submerged presence and significance in anthropological accounts in two related ways. ‘Landscape’ has been deployed, first, as a framing convention which informs the way the anthropologist brings his or her study into ‘view’ (i.e. from an ‘objective’ standpoint—the landscape of a particular people). Secondly, it has been used to refer to the meaning imputed by local people to their cultural and physical surroundings (i.e. how a particular landscape ‘looks’ to its inhabitants). The black box of landscape requires ‘opening’ and its contents themselves brought into view.
Landscapes of Liberation and Imprisonment: Towards an Anthropology of the Israeli Landscape
Authors: Selwyn Tom
Published: October 2023

For several generations of lsraelis, ideas about landscape have supplied some of the most potent metaphors sustaining the will to establish and maintain the modern State of Israel. While, assuredly, these have helped to shape attitudes and policies towards the land itself, their scope has always been more extensive, and the purpose of the present chapter is to consider ideas about landscape in relation to those ideological processes associated with the construction and formation of national identity. Contemporary events in the region lend the exercise a particular political piquancy.
Landscape and the Reproduction of the Ancestral Past
Authors: Morphy Howard
Published: October 2023

The Dreamtime was a ground of consummation. The doctrine of the Dreaming is a sort of eschatology, a doctrine of final things which were also first things. (Stanner 1984: 170)
Introduction
Authors: Alexander Claire E
Published: October 2023

IN April 1989, The Face heralded the arrival of Soul II Soul as ‘The New Funki Face of Black Britain’. In the summer of that year, in the clubs in Oxford, and undoubtedly elsewhere in Britain, their music was playing, and young black men were moving on to the dance floor with a proprietorial air. Sky Magazine wrote, ‘This summer has seen the explosion of a new black pride. African pendants, Muslim headgear and militant rap lyrics can be seen and heard in all the trendiest British nightclubs’ (Sept. 1989).
Home
Authors: Alexander Claire E
Published: October 2023

Just before completing my fieldwork in London I decided, as a farewell gesture, to hold a goodbye party for those people I had been living and working with for the past months. The plan was to bring all my main informants together to thank them and wish them well before I disappeared back into ‘the country’ to write up my research. I consulted with Ricky, my flatmate, about the food and the music, and duly invited all ‘the boys’, together with Angelina, her brothers, and some of their friends.
Work
Authors: Alexander Claire E
Published: October 2023

IN an article for Guardian Woman (June 1991), ‘Flying Colours’, Juliet Alexander writes of ‘the widening gap between aspiring black women and black men’ in the employment sphere. The article is significant not only for its assertion of black female success in the labour market, and the divisions this has caused within the black community, but also for its contrasting representation of the position of black men. She writes: ‘As the real success story of the Thatcher drive to create a black middle class, she [the black woman] has blossomed, while her brother is a sadder statistic of miseducation, disaffection and recession’ (ibid.).
Patterns of Constitutional Evolution and Change in Eastern Europe
Authors: Preuss Ulrich k.
Published: October 2023

Constitutions are not all alike. They differ according to the tradition, physical, economic, and social conditions, world-view, culture, and historical experience of a people which gives itself a constitution. Despite this diversity of constitutions, it is justifiable to claim a universally valid concept of constitutionalism: a set of ideas and principles which form the common basis of the rich variety of constitutions. According to probably the most common place understanding, constitutionalism embraces essentially the idea of limited government.1 Although this meaning is undoubtedly an indispensable ingredient of constitutionalism, it does not fully grasp its principle. It would suggest that the constitution plays a purely negative and defensive role in the polity. In fact, if we are not willing to conceive of political power as an existential, unrationalized, and unfathomable fact of life which originates and persists prior to any kind of cultural rationalization, we must realize the constituent and constitutive role of the constitution for political power.
The Production of Children: House Cycles and Life Cycles
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

Villagers consider their houses incomplete unless there is at least one child living there. Houses are ‘lonely’ and ‘quiet’ without the noise of children. Adults delight in children’s company. In old age, couples whose children have grown up and moved away regularly take a young grandchild or niece or nephew to live with them. Just as houses are incomplete without children, so too are marriages. Relations between husbands and wives focus on their children. A couple whose marriage is childless will either divorce or will foster children.
Producing Similarity: Affinity and the Sharing of Grandchildren
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

Marriage in Langkawi is a process of incorporation. The rituals begin the transformation of affines into consanguines. Childbirth marks the achievement of this transformation. New sibling sets, by definition, signal the incorporation and blending of the different substances of their parents. Out of difference has come similarity. This chapter explores some of the implications of these ideas. It also shifts from the discussion of abstract principles to the tensions and difficulties of everyday life. The first half of the chapter concerns a dispute, which highlights by default the subject of the second half, the ties that bind affinal (and other) houses together.
Coercive Incorporation: The Historical Construction of Community
Authors: Carsten Janet
Published: October 2023

This chapter may be read as an experiment in scale. The analysis shifts away from the contemporary reproduction of the house and community in Langkawi to their historical construction. I begin by recapitulating some of the themes already encountered, linking the reproduction of individual houses to the reproduction of the community at large.
Introduction
Authors: Baker David , Seawright David
Published: October 2023

As Andrew Gamble observes in his chapter in this book, few would doubt that Britain’s troubled relationship with the European Union has been one of the dominant and most divisive issues of modem British politics. Our title ‘Britain for and against Europe’ is a particularly apposite description of this relationship. The book primarily offers a research-based analysis of British elite attitudes towards Europe, including political parties, the civil service, trade unions, business, and the media. This analysis takes place at a time of what promises to be the most significant period in European history since the signing of the original Treaty of Rome. The book also includes a summary of Britain’s troubled relationship with Europe over the last forty-five years and includes a final chapter that surveys Britain in Europe from a recent European perspective.
Mortality in Europe from 1720 to 1914 Long-Term Trends and Changes in Patterns by Age and Sex
Authors: Vallin Jacques
Published: October 2023

On the eve of the First World War the demographic transition in Europe was far from complete and, in particular, the decline in mortality had a long way to go: indeed, it had hardly begun. However, though we are well aware of what has happened since that time, our knowledge of earlier developments is often vague, sometimes confused, and always incomplete. Regular reliable statistics on mortality only became available in Europe towards the end of the nineteenth century. Social scientists know that there is often a time-lag between the appearance of a particular phenomenon and the construction of instruments designed to measure it. In spite of the long history of burial registers this is also true of mortality, whose course altered radically between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It is easily understandable that the historical demographers responsible for the organization of this volume are interested in an analysis of mortality over this extended period, when the conditions for demographic transition first appeared. But I would ask for sympathy for the difficulties faced by a demographer (who is not a historian) and who has been asked to provide a synthetic view based on very diverse material within a relatively short space, and for his frustration at having to omit the most recent period in which the decline of mortality was most pronounced, and for which there exists an abundance of statistical information to document the transition.
Tuberculosis and the Decline of Mortality in Sweden
Authors: Puranen Bi
Published: October 2023

During the last two centuries mortality has fallen substantially in all European countries. More than two-thirds of this decline is due to a reduction in deaths from infectious diseases, of which tuberculosis was by far the most important. In this paper, we shall discuss the reasons for the decline in the importance of this disease. Has this change been caused by improvements in the standard of living, by medical interventions, or possibly by a change in virulence of the causative organism?There are many problems in tracing movements in the death rate from tuberculosis over time and in different countries, or in undertaking longitudinal studies within one country. However, this type of study is possible for Sweden over the last 200 years.
Developments in the Study of Cointegrated Economic Variables
Authors: Granger C W J
Published: October 2023

At the least sophisticated level of economic theory lies the belief that certain pairs of economic variables should not diverge from each other by too great an extent, at least in the long-run. Thus, such variables may drift apart in the short-run or according to seasonal factors, but if they continue to be too far apart in the long-run, then economic forces, such as a market mechanism or government intervention, will begin to bring them together again. Examples of such variables are interest rates on assets of different maturities, prices of a commodity in different parts of the country, income and expenditure by local government and the value of sales and production costs of an industry. Other possible examples would be prices and wages, imports and exports, market prices of substitute commodities, money supply and prices and spot and future prices of a commodity. In some cases an economic theory involving equilibrium concepts might suggest close relations in the long-run, possibly with the addition of yet further variables. However, in each case the correctness of the beliefs about long-term relatedness is an empirical question. The idea underlying cointegration allows specification of models that capture part of such beliefs, at least for a particular type of variable that is frequently found to occur in macroeconomics. Since a concept such as the long-run is a dynamic one, the natural area for these ideas is that of time-series theory and analysis. It is thus necessary to start by introducing some relevant time series models.
Multicointegration
Authors: Granger C W J , Lee Tae-Hwy
Published: October 2023

This paper introduces a deeper level of cointegration, which might be expected to occur in economics. It can arise from special optimal control situations and can improve short- and long-run forecasts. It seems to be particularly appropriate for considerations of inventory.
Merging Short- and Long-Run Forecasts
Authors: Engle R F , Granger, C W J , Hallman J J
Published: October 2023

When forecasts of a series Yrmust be made for several horizons, it is a common practice to build different models to forecast different horizons. This paper shows how the information in the several models can be combined in an error-correction framework to yield a single set of forecasts which outperform those from the separate models. The notions of seasonal integration and cointegration are introduced. The methods are applied to forecasting monthly commercial electricity sales with some success. Also reported are results of some simulation experiments designed to evaluate their effectiveness.
The Trade Cycle
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Before Keynesian theory rose to pre-eminence, explanations of the trade cycle were based on monetary, technological, and entrepreneurial factors. In Schumpeterian theory growth took place through innovation; but innovation by entrepreneurs and their followers forced the economy first into an upswing and then into a downward movement until a new innovation set off another business cycle. Explanations of the business cycle were advanced in monetary terms by the ‘pre-Keynes Keynesians’ like Hawtrey, and by the economists of the Wicksellian school, for whom the cycle originated in the discrepancies between monetary and real magnitudes. The Austrian school held the trade cycle to be principally the outcome of a change in the relative prices of consumption goods and capital goods. (This extremely simplified taxonomy should not obscure the fact that many interpretations of the cycle belonged to more than one of these various lines of thought; they therefore must not be taken to be mutually exclusive.)
Cambridge and the Theories of Growth and the Distribution of Income
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

At that time Cambridge enjoyed the fortunate position of being both one of the most important cultural centres in the world and having a relatively small amount of inherited doctrinal baggage to contend with. Thus, during the forty years that followed, the university became the centre from which would emanate three innovative periods of high theory. The first of these seasons saw the development during the mid-I 920s of the theory of imperfect competition; the second saw the theory of income and employment as originally formulated during the early l 930s; and then the third, during the early 1950s, the theories of capital, growth, and distribution.
The Debate on Kaldor’s Theory of Distribution*
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Kaldor’s contribution to the post-Keynesian theory of distribution can be summed up in the following two relations, valid in situations of balanced steady growth: where P/Y represents the steady-state rate of profit, P/Y the share of profits in the national income, sp and sw the (constant) propensities to save out of profits and wages, K/Y the (constant in post-Keynesian models) capital/output ratio, and n=I/K the system’s steady-state rate of growth.
The International Monetary System, Managing an Economy in an Open Market, and the De-Industrialization of Britain
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Kaldor’s work on international monetary economics was deeply influenced by the need to find viable solutions for major problems. In his search for such solutions, his work ranged across a remarkably broad area of plans, proposals, and policies. The present chapter, addresses the following: his plan for reform of the international system and for managed devaluation; his proposals which acquired wide circulation through the work of the New Cambridge school; his recommendations for import controls and for reform of Common Market agricultural policy; and his criticisms of Thatcher’s economic policies. All these contributions, despite their varied and sometimes irreconcilable natures, had at least two features in common. First, they demonstrated that political intervention at the national and international level is even more urgently needed in an open economy than it is in a closed one.
The Political Economy of Controls: American Sugar
Authors: Krueger Anne O
Published: October 2023

In economic theory, it is relatively straightforward to analyse the impact of government controls over economic activity. Whether the control is over feed-grain prices in Egypt, the quantities of imports of individual items in India, price controls on ‘old’ oil, or the ‘voluntary’ reduction in the number of automobiles exported from Japan to the United States, several conclusions follow straightforwardly. First and foremost, those controls (and most others) at best achieve their objectives in a more costly manner than would alternative mechanisms. Second, the presumed beneficiaries of controls are often quite different from those (if any) actually benefiting. Third, the costs of controls seem to be largely ignored or misunderstood in political decision-making, at least in the first instance.
Introductory Survey
Authors: Tuomala Matti
Published: October 2023

Most advanced countries use progressive income tax as an important element of their tax and welfare systems: for a long time it has been widely accepted as one of the central features of modern capitalism. The issue of whether progressive income tax is desirable has again in recent years become the subject of lively debate in many countries. Strong statements have been made about the-negative incentive effects of high marginal tax rates, and many tax reform proposals have been based on the premiss that marginal tax rates at upper income levels are too high. It is clear that every argument about changes in the income tax schedule is to some extent an argument about the principle of progression itself.
Introduction
Authors: Helm Dieter
Published: October 2023

This volume brings together economists and political scientists to present an assessment of a central theme of the new policies which have dominated the 1980s and which have come to be known as ‘Thatcherism’. That central theme is the rolling back of the economic borders of the State, placing greater emphasis on the role of the individual choice and markets in allocating resources.
Hayek on the Market Economy and the Limits of State Action
Authors: Gray* John
Published: October 2023

In the work of F. A. Hayek we find the most systematic and comprehensive twentieth-century statement of the classical liberal conception of the role and limits of the State. As a classical liberal conception, Hayek’s account of the State and its relations with the market economy is to be contrasted, not only with social-democratic and liberal-interventionist perspectives, but also with conservative doctrines of the functions of the State. For Hayek, as for Kant, Adam Smith, and others in the classical liberal intellectual tradition, the functions of the State are strictly limited. They do not include the promotion of any specific moral ideal or the preservation of a particular culture (as they do for conservatives1) any more than they comprehend the socialist imposition on society of a preferred pattern of distribution of income or wealth. The chief task of the State is the protection and enhancement of individual freedom. It is because he believes that the market economy is an indispensable condition of individual freedom that Hayek, along with other contemporary classical liberals, sees the principal economic functions of the State as having to do with the maintenance and improvement of the institutions which sustain market processes. Hayek’s life-work has been the project of renewing the foundations and repairing the ramifications of this classical liberal conception of the State.
The Economic Functions of the Tax System
Authors: Kay* John
Published: October 2023

Why do governments raise taxes? When should they impose taxation, in preference to other instruments of economic intervention? At first sight, the answers to these questions appear obvious. The purpose of taxation is to raise revenue. But this answer, although correct in a limited sense, is evidently inadequate. The traditional role of government was to provide public goods, such as defence and police, and to obtain funds for the purpose with minimum fuss or cost. But this is now a minor part of total fiscal activity in all western economies. Much of government expenditure is now devoted to the provision to users, at prices well below cost, of services such as health and education which could be privately provided and which normally were privately provided before public expenditure achieved its present scale. Direct grants to individuals through social security expenditures form another major element of public budgeting. These three services alone—health, education, and social security—now account for over half of UK government spending. Most of the financial transactions of government now involve either taxing some activities to subsidize others, or taxing some people to subsidize others by means of redistribution among individuals or households. The traditional separation between revenue and expenditure, which remains characteristic of British budgetary procedures, dates from an era in which the activities of public authorities were very different in both scope and scale.
Public Ownership: Concepts and Applications
Authors: Mayer* Colin
Published: October 2023

The trend towards privatizing State-owned enterprises has become worldwide. Privatization is being actively discussed or promoted in Austria, France, Italy, Japan, and Spain amongst many other countries. In Britain, we have come to expect periods of nationalization to be followed by denationalization as political fashions alter. But even by British standards, the size and scope of recent transfers from public to private ownership have been unusual.
Introduction
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

Peasants form the vast majority of the poor in developing countries. Whether policies can be effective in alleviating poverty is therefore largely a question of the relation between peasants and governments. There are obviously numerous ways in which governments can (and do) affect peasants, either directly or indirectly. An exhaustive treatment is clearly impossible and in this book we are, in fact, highly selective. We focus on two East African countries, Kenya and Tanzania, in a particular period, 1975—83. This implies that we restrict attention to the channels of government influence on peasants which were most important in these countries and at that time. There are four such channels. One of these (the effect of trade, investment, and stabilization policies on the prices paid by peasants for non-agricultural goods) is treated in a companion volume, Controlled Open Economies (Bevan et al., 1989). The other three, producer pricing, the availability of non-agricultural consumer goods in rural areas, and the provision of public services, form the subject of the present book. The way the two East African governments affected peasants in these three areas is, we believe, of wider significance.
Introduction to Part II
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

The descriptive account of farming in Kenya in 1974—82 in Chapter 2 made clear that this was a period in which peasants were exposed to very strong price volatility. Price changes were dominated by the coffee boom, consisting not only of the increase in coffee prices (and the associated rise in tea prices) but also of its indirect effects in the form of changes in prices of goods and factors. This Part does not aim to provide an analysis of the boom; nevertheless, the boom plays a central role. This is so not just because of the intrinsic interest of the impact of a commodity boom on peasant producers, but largely because in analysing the boom we encounter restrictions on both the static and the dynamic efficiency of resource allocation which are critical for the understanding of peasants’ behaviour as producers.