bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Rise of a Factory Industry: Silk Reeling in Suwa District
Authors: Nakabayashi Masaki
Published: September 2006

This chapter analyzes the modernization of the silk-reeling industry, focusing on the most prosperous silk reeling district of Suwa. The rapid growth of silk reeling in Suwa is attributed to the establishment of an efficient factory system. Its capacity to supply large amounts of high quality raw silk matched the rising demand from the mechanized silk weaving industry in the United States, resulting in strong competitiveness in the export market.
Communal Action in the Development of Regional Industrial Policy: A Case Study of the Kawamata Silk Weaving Industry
Authors: Yamauchi Futoshi
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines the ‘industrial policy’ executed in the industrial district, Kawamata. The local government and associations made various attempts to support the development of silk weaving industry. An investigation into these practices and actions, as well as the conflicts within the regions, shows that both the silk traders and the rural elites played key roles in the process. Their activities were motivated by the widespread understanding within the region that the rural elites had to take responsibility for the development of the regional economy.
Who Bears What Risk? An Intergenerational Perspective
Authors: Bohn Henning
Published: September 2006

Retirement systems in the past have attempted to protect retirees from risk. However, by making fixed benefit promises, these systems necessarily imposed a more-than-proportional risk on younger cohorts and on future generations. This chapter explores the impacts of alternative tax, pension, and health care policies to evaluate how current policies spread risk across cohorts. It also assesses conditions under which such policies increase general welfare, and where there may be scope for better policies.
Changing Risks Confronting Pension Participants
Authors: Borzi Phyllis C.
Published: September 2006

The shift from traditional employer-sponsored defined benefit pensions towards individual-account defined contribution plans involves a reallocation of risks and rewards from plan sponsors to employees. While much has been written about the transfer of investment risk and the potential consequences of bad investment choices, less attention has been focused on other potential hazards to retirement security such as the effect of job change and other labour market factors on contribution patterns, the chance of outliving one’s accumulated assets, and the tension between encouraging participants to save for retirement while allowing access to those assets for a variety of other pressing financial needs. This chapter examines these challenges to retirement income security, and identifies several legal and policy changes that might enable participants to cope better with such changes.
A Regulatory Framework for Strengthening Defined Benefit Pensions
Authors: Warshawsky Mark J. , McCall Neal , Worth John D.
Published: September 2006

Recent financial market and plan termination experiences have exposed the shortcomings of existing funding, disclosure, and premium rules governing private single-employer defined benefit pension plans in the United States. These rules were designed to provide predictability for plan sponsors and administrators by insulating pension plans from the realities of economic and financial market fluctuations. Unfortunately, current practice often overlooks key financial principles that arguably should inform a responsible set of pension rules and the insurance system backing the plans. This chapter outlines the key characteristics of pension plans needed to beneficially guide rule-making and offers examples drawn from proposed funding and premium rules.
Restructuring the Defined Benefit Pension
Authors: Hammond P.Brett , Fore Douglas
Published: September 2006

Under the traditional approach to defined benefit plans, well-intended disciplinary and regulatory regimes have sought to restrict discretion, reduce uncertainty and risk, and protect workers and employers. Nevertheless, the discouraging state of defined benefit plans indicates that past efforts have gone awry. This chapter suggests that a new approach to defined benefit plans could resurrect the key elements required for retirement income security, rather than pursuing piecemeal reform.
Market Innovations to Better Allocate Generational Risk
Authors: Valdés‐Prieto Salvador
Published: September 2006

Mandatory old-age benefit programs tend to require periodic adjustments as a result of demographic and economic shocks. However, such discretionary adjustments create political risk for workers and beneficiaries, and raises taxpayer risk. An alternative way to handle such shocks is to use rule-based adjustment, which can be adopted in an unfunded system without incurring transition costs and without increasing public debt. This chapter explores an approach to this problem that would endow the Social Security Trust Fund with property rights over the revenue of a (much reduced) residual payroll tax paid by future workers. This revenue would be securitized and the resulting securities priced in financial markets. The new securities created in the process would allow beneficiaries to obtain safe real pensions protected from investment risk.
Bureaucratic form and the informal economy
Authors: Hart Keith
Published: September 2006

This paper is divided into three parts. The first part is a story about fluctuations in the balance of the relationship between impersonal and personal principles of social organization, drawing heavily on Max Weber’s interpretation of western history. The second part reviews the concept of an ‘informal economy/sector’, from its origins in discussions of the Third World urban poor to its present status as a universal feature of economy. The third part asks how the combination of the formal/informal pair may be conceived, with a view to promoting development. The paper concludes with suggestions on how partnerships between bureaucracy and the people can be made more equal.
The global path: soft law and non-sovereigns formalizing the potency of the informal sector
Authors: Christensen Robert K.
Published: September 2006

The Westphalian paradigm suggests that sovereign nation-states formally constitute the only legitimate institutions of international policy creation, enactment, and enforcement. This paper seeks to highlight the policy potency of nongovernmental organizations by turning to a debate that questions the relevancy of the Westphalian paradigm. One of the most contentious points in this debate is the role and legitimacy of the various actors involved in globalization. The mechanism of ‘soft law’ is discussed, which allows non-state actors to participate — in an increasingly formalized way — in policy processes traditionally and even exclusively populated by sovereign nation states. Ostrom et al.’s Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework is used to clarify the institutional implications of non-sovereigns in policy formation. Ultimately, the soft law mechanism illustrates that the informal sector is gaining access — as and through NGOs — to powerful policy networks where formal sovereignty is decreasingly relevant.
The relevance of the concepts of formality and informality: a theoretical appraisal
Authors: Sindzingre Alice
Published: September 2006

The concept of informality has encompassed an increasing number of meanings; referred to highly heterogeneous phenomena and measurement methods; and has been explored by development microeconomics (informal contracts) and institutional economics (informal institutions). This plurality of meanings and instruments calls into question the concept’s validity. This paper synthesizes the critical issues within both a development economics and an institutional economics perspective. First to be examined are the conceptual problems inherent in the concept of informality, especially its inconsistencies and the heterogeneity of the phenomena and measurement. The concept is then analysed according to an institutionalist perspective. A more relevant distinction than the formal-informal one is proposed, which relies on an alternative theory of institutions and different distinctions, particularly between the forms, contents, and meanings of institutions.
Formal and informal enterprises: concept, definition, and measurement issues in India
Authors: Narayana M. R.
Published: September 2006

This paper introduces the multiplicity of official concepts, definitions, and measurements of economic contributions and performance of formal and informal enterprises in India’s manufacturing and services sectors. Conceptually, formal (or informal) enterprises are distinguished by registered (or unregistered), organized (or unorganized), and regulated (or unregulated) enterprises. Employment size is a major criterion to define these enterprises. In contrast, registered and unregistered small scale enterprises are uniquely defined by size of capital investments. Using the national level databases, the economic performance of formal, informal, and small scale enterprises is separately measured by their contributions to production, employment generation, and use of assets in rural and urban areas. This implies that the standardization of concepts and definitions are a precondition for establishing comparability between the databases, or for the measurement of economic contributions and performance of India’s formal and informal enterprises.
The impact of regulation on growth and informality: cross-country evidence
Authors: Loayza Norman V. , Oviedo Ana María , Servén Luis
Published: September 2006

This paper studies the effects of regulation on economic growth and the relative size of the informal sector in a large sample of industrial and developing countries. Along with firm dynamics, informality is an important channel through which regulation affects macroeconomic performance and economic growth. A heavier regulatory burden, particularly in product and labour markets, reduces growth and induces informality. These effects are, however, mitigated as the overall institutional framework improves.
Turning to forestry for a way out of poverty: is formalizing property rights enough?
Authors: Andersson Krister , Pacheco Diego
Published: September 2006

How can formal, national-level policies be structured so that they enhance rural people’s capabilities for sustained improvements of their quality of life? This paper analyses this question in the rural context, drawing upon first-hand observations of the consequences from a recent public policy reform in Bolivia’s forestry sector. It examines the effect the new legislation on forest users’ incentives to invest in forestry activities as compared to other production alternatives. Data from six smallholder communities in the tropical lowlands showed that although formalized forestry activities can be relatively profitable for smallholders, complicated acquisition rules and traditional policy bias against agricultural activities often make forestry a less attractive land use alternative.
Voluntary contributions to informal activities producing public goods: can these be induced by government and other formal sector agents? Some evidence from Indonesian posyandus
Authors: Nugent Jeffrey B. , Swaminathan Shailender
Published: September 2006

Indonesia’s posyandus are an excellent example of important local quasi-public goods (health care) produced largely by volunteers, but with crucial inputs from government and other formal sector providers. This paper identifies the circumstances under which the formal sector’s inputs are especially successful in inducing voluntary activities that contribute to both the quantity and quality of the care provided. Data from three rounds of Indonesia’s Family Life Survey (IFLS) are used to estimate the causal effect of formal sector interventions on the quantity and quality of the healthcare provided by the informal sector. The model includes posyandu and community level fixed effects so that the effect of the intervention is identified using only longitudinal variation in the extent of interventions.
Enforcement and compliance in Lima's street markets: the origins and consequences of policy incoherence towards informal traders
Authors: Roever Sally
Published: September 2006

For decades, excessive and costly regulations have provided strong incentives for people to work outside Peru’s formal economy. In the case of street vending, repeated efforts to govern street traders’ use of public space have produced a body of policy that is incoherent and ultimately unenforceable. This paper identifies two sources of such policy incoherence: (1) a lack of definitional clarity in national and metropolitan level policy; and (2) contradictory legal provisions concerning municipalities’ right to charge fees for street traders’ use of public space. It is shown how municipal policy oscillates dramatically over time as local governments experiment with different ways to implement the contradictory policies created by national and metropolitan laws. The constant improvisation at the municipal level precludes stable and effective governance of street trade.
1 ‘Introduction and Overview‘
Authors: Whiteley Paul , Seyd Patrick , Billinghurst Antony
Published: September 2006

This introductory chapter begins with a brief history of the British Liberal Democrat Party, followed by an examination of the evolution of its policy goals over time. The Liberal Democrat Party was founded in 1988 from a merger of two hitherto independent but allied parties: the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party. The former had existed in different forms for more than 300 years, whereas the latter emerged from a split in the Labour Party in 1981. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
5 Explaining Party Activism
Authors: Whiteley Paul , Seyd Patrick , Billinghurst Antony
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines grassroots activism in the Liberal Democrat Party. The results suggest that party activism can be explained by a combination of the individual’s psychological engagement with both politics and the party, together with their judgements about the costs and benefits of political engagement. Resources play a role in this, but it appears that incentives, and the choices associated with them, are particularly important in influencing the individual’s decision to be active.
7 Electoral Performance and Prospects
Authors: Whiteley Paul , Seyd Patrick , Billinghurst Antony
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins by looking at long-term support in elections and in the polls for the Liberal Democrats, to see how it has evolved over the last half-century or so. This provides a context within which to judge the party’s future electoral prospects. The analysis of trends in Liberal Democrat voting intentions over a thirty-year period shows that the competitive situation between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats is significantly greater than the competitive situation between Labour and the Liberal Democrats. It also shows that the party has to wait for its main rivals to make political mistakes and lose support before it can profit by winning over voters. This is described as the political equivalent of ‘waiting for Godot’, meaning that the Liberal Democrats are not the masters of their own electoral fate.
4 Some Actual Positions on Psychological Reality
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: September 2006

This chapter places some historically interesting actual positions among the possible positions on psychological reality, on linguistic competence. There is strong evidence that Chomsky is committed to the Representational Thesis (RT), but that commitment is open to question. Although Fodor, Bever, and Garrett, Bresnan and Kaplan, and Berwick and Weinberg all seem to subscribe to RT, it is often unclear what role, if any, RT plays in their theories of language use. Matthews rejects RT. His view of the psychological reality is hard to distinguish from the uncontroversial minimal position according to which the processing rules simply “respect” the linguistic rules.
7 Intuitions
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: September 2006

This chapter starts by arguing against the received view that the intuitive judgments of speakers are the main evidence for a grammar. Still, they are evidence and an explanation for this is required. The Chomskian explanation involves the Representational Thesis (RT): that intuitions are derived by a rational process from a representation of linguistic rules in the language faculty, a representation that constitutes the speaker’s linguistic competence. The chapter argues for a different view of intuitions in general, and hence of linguistic intuitions: they do not reflect information supplied by represented or even unrepresented rules in the language faculty. Rather, they are empirical central-processor responses to linguistic phenomena differing from other such responses only in being fairly immediate and unreflective.
9 A Case for the Psychological Reality of Language
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with the popular “Representational Theory of the Mind” (RTM), according to which a thought involves a mental representation. It then follows Fodor in arguing for the controversial “Language-of-Thought Hypothesis” (LOTH), according to which representation is language-like. On the basis of LOTH, it is argued that the syntactic structure of this representation is likely to be similar to that of the sentence that expresses it in the thinker’s language. The tentative proposal is that a language is largely psychologically real in a speaker in that its rules are similar to the structure rules of her thought.
Reflections on Meaning
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

The broad aim of this work is to explain how mere noises, marks, gestures, and mental/neural symbols are able to capture the world, that is, how words and sentences (in whatever medium) come to mean what they do, to stand for certain things, to be true or false of reality. Paul Horwich’s answer takes off from Wittgenstein’s appealingly demystifying remark, that the meaning of a term is nothing over and above its use, and proceeds with a groundbreaking articulation and defence of that idea, showing how it can deal successfully with Quinean and Kripkean forms of scepticism about meaning, with the various normative features of thought and language, with the paradoxical phenomenon of vagueness, with the way that word-meanings combine to yield sentence-meanings, and with Chomsky-style models of the language faculty. The main lines of this theory were first suggested in Horwich’s 1998 book, Meaning. The present volume (which requires no familiarity with its predecessor) provides a host of improved, formulations, fresh arguments, responses to criticism, and extensions of the position into new areas.
The Space of Issues and Options
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

This chapter presents an overview of central issues that must be confronted in developing a decent account of meaning, with various positions that might be taken with respect to them, and with some of the arguments that can be given for and against these positions. Topics addressed include forms of scepticism about meaning, the pros and cons of reductionism, the relationship between language and thought, the compositionality of sentence-meanings from word-meanings, the normative import of meaning, individualism, externalism, and the promise of a deflationary theory.
A Use Theory of Meaning
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

How should we go about trying to identify which particular underlying property of a given word is responsible for its meaning? And what sort of property will that turn out to be? The answers elaborated in this chapter are that the meaning of a word, w, is engendered by whichever non-semantic feature of w is the one that explains w’s overall deployment; and that this will turn out to be an acceptance-property of the following form: ‘that such-and-such w-sentences are regularly accepted in such-and-such circumstances’ is the idealized law governing w’s use (by the relevant experts, and given certain meanings attached to various other words). Some notable features of this theory are: (i) that it rebuts Quine’s scepticism about meaning, (ii) that it rejects the idea (due to Grice) that the meanings of public-language terms derive from our intentions, (iii) that it focuses on idiolects, but can also accommodate communal meaning (i.e., social externalism), and (iv) that (a la Dummett) it embraces a limited form of meaning-holism.
The Pseudo-Problem of Error
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

It is widely held, following Kripke, that no theory of ‘meaning as dispositions of use’ could accommodate the relationship between meaning and truth, e.g., that if a word means DOG then it is true of all dogs and only of dogs. This chapter makes explicit and criticizes the assumptions on which Kripke’s position is founded. First, that in order for the meaning of a given word (e.g., dog) to be constituted by its having a given use, we would have to be able to read off (and hence give an explanation of) the word’s extension on the basis of that use. Second, for this to be possible, there would have to be some way of weeding out those uses that are errors (i.e., cases in which the word is applied to things other than dogs). It is argued that these assumptions are incorrect, since they are affiliated with an anti-deflationary conception of truth.
The Sharpness of Vague Terms
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

According to the ancient sorites paradox, zero grains of sand is not enough to make a heap, and adding one single grain can never transform a non-heap into a heap, so there can be no heaps of sand! Similar reasoning applies to all vague terms. In view of this problem, some philosophers have suggested that we must modify classical logic (specifically, the law of excluded middle). This chapter argues that there is no need for this, for we should allow that one grain of sand can make the crucial difference, and more generally, that even vague terms have sharp boundaries. This idea is defended by reference to three considerations: (i) the conclusion of Chapter 3, which implies that one should not expect to be able to explain the extension of a predicate in terms of its use; (ii) an identification of what sort of meaning-constituting use-practice would engender the distinctive symptoms of vagueness, namely the existence of ‘borderline cases’ to which it is impossible to know whether the predicate applies; and (iii) a characterization and invocation of the difference between truth and determinate truth.
Norms of Truth and Meaning
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

Truth and meaning each have evaluative import. However, contrary to Dummett, Gibbard, Brandom, and many others, these notions are not constitutively normative — they are not themselves evaluative concepts. One element of this argument is a discussion of why true belief is desirable. Another element is a demonstration — in case meaning is a matter of implicitly following rules for the use of words — that such rule following can be analyzed in terms that are purely naturalistic (i.e., non-normative and non-semantic).
Meaning Constitution and Epistemic Rationality
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

Our beliefs and inferential transitions are subject to evaluation as rational or irrational by reference to general epistemic norms. But what could determine certain norms as the correct ones? This chapter explores and opposes the answer that certain patterns of belief formation (e.g., in arithmetic and in deductive logic) are justified by virtue of the fact that they constitute the relevant concepts or the meanings of the relevant words (e.g., ‘number’, ‘successor’, ‘every’, ‘not’, etc.). This ‘semantogenetic’ proposal goes back to Hilbert, Poincare, and the logical positivists, and was recently defended by Boghossian, Peackocke, Hale, and Wright. Among the arguments developed against it are that although it might account for the epistemic legitimacy of certain beliefs, it cannot explain why certain commitments are epistemically obligatory; and that the practices that provide words with their meanings are ‘conditionalized’ and therefore do not coincide (even approximately) with the practices recommended by our epistemic norms.
Meaning and its Place in the Language Faculty
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

This chapter considers the phenomenon of meaning from the perspective of Chomsky’s ‘I-linguistics’ and his empirical postulation of the ‘language faculty’. After a sketch of that model, the question is raised as to how meaning should be incorporated within it. In accord with the use-theoretic perspective of this book, an answer is developed whereby the association of I-sounds with I-meanings is achieved by virtue of the conceptual roles of those I-sounds, i.e., their basic acceptance-properties. It is shown that this picture compares favourably with various alternatives, including those suggested by Fodor’s mentalese, Davidson’s view of compositionality, naturalizations of the reference relation, and by Chomsky-style explicitly-represented definitions.
Deflating Compositionality
Authors: Horwich Paul
Published: September 2006

The meaning of any sentence derives from the meanings of its words and from how those words are syntactically combined with one another. But what explains this ‘principle of compositionality’, and what is its import? The answer is due to Davidson: that since we know (from Tarski) how to deduce the truth conditions of sentences from the referents of their words, we should explain it by identifying (or replacing) sentence-meanings with truth conditions and word-meanings with referents. This chapter offers a deflationary alternative according to which the meaning of a sentence is trivially compositional, since it is constituted by the facts concerning its structure and the meanings of its words. An important implication of this idea is that contrary to the writings of Fodor and Lepore, compositionality can place no constraint whatsoever on how word-meanings are engendered.
Europe's Advantage
Authors: Carnevali Francesca
Published: September 2006

This book focuses on the relationship between banks and small firms in a comparative historical perspective. By comparing the rise of small firms in France, Germany, and Italy and their decline Britain, this book analyses how the structure of the countries’ banking systems has affected the growth of small firms. This analysis is placed in the historical context of the political economy of these four countries to show how banking and industrial structures developed over the century as a consequence of the state’s need to mediate between different social and economic groups. This approach shows why British banking became so concentrated and the negative impact this had on the supply of finance to small firms. The experiences of France, Germany, and Italy show alternative structures and policy responses towards small firms.
3 Local Systems of Production in Germany
Authors: Carnevali Francesca
Published: September 2006

This chapter looks at the history of Germany’s savings and cooperative banks, and their relationship with government and small firms up to the early 1930s. It analyses the link between local production systems and local sources of finance.
4 Small Firms and theSynthèse Républicaine
Authors: Carnevali Francesca
Published: September 2006

This chapter analyses the segmented nature of France’s banking system up to the early 1930s. It focuses on the social and political reasons why French small firms were able to influence the government’s economic policy, including banking regulation. The chapter also reassesses the role played by small firms in the process of French economic growth.
6 The Demise of Small Firms in Britain
Authors: Carnevali Francesca
Published: September 2006

This chapter analyses the reasons behind the decline of small firms in Britain after 1945. It explores the politics behind industrial concentration by looking at the attitude towards small firms of successive Conservative and Labour governments. The chapter focuses on monetary policy up to 1971, and its impact on commercial banks and their relationship with small firms.
10 Small Firms and Made in Italy
Authors: Carnevali Francesca
Published: September 2006

This chapter considers the reasons behind successive Italian governments’ decision to continue their support of small firms after 1945, and how this has shaped the structure of the economy. The relationship between local banks and small firms is analysed further, considering the claim made by the literature that Italy’s banks present high levels of inefficiency.
11 Conclusion
Authors: Carnevali Francesca
Published: September 2006

This chapter concludes the book by assessing the impact of banking deregulation since the 1980s on the structure of the banking systems of the four countries. The combined forces of liberalization and increased supra-state supervision (the Basle Capital Accords) are seen as having a negative impact on credit provision to small firms.
Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?
Authors: Karamanolis George E.
Published: September 2006

This book breaks new ground in the study of later ancient philosophy by examining the interplay of the two main schools of thought, Platonism and Aristotelianism, from the first century BC to the third century AD. From the time of Antiochus and for the next four centuries, Platonists were strongly preoccupied with the question of how Aristotle’s philosophy compared with the Platonic model. Scholars have usually classified Platonists into two groups, the orthodox ones and the eclectics or syncretists, depending on whether Platonists rejected Aristotle’s philosophy as a whole or accepted some Peripatetic doctrines. The book argues against this dichotomy, claiming that Platonists turned to Aristotle only in order to discover and elucidate Plato’s doctrines and thus to reconstruct Plato’s philosophy. They did not hesitate to criticize Aristotle when judging him to be at odds with Plato. For them, Aristotle was merely auxiliary to their accessing and understanding Plato. The evaluation of Aristotle’s testimony on the part of the Platonists also depends on their interpretation of Aristotle himself. This is particularly clear in the case of Porphyry, with whom the ancient discussion reaches a conclusion, which most later Platonists accepted. While essentially in agreement with Plotinus’s interpretation of Plato, Porphyry interpreted Aristotle in such a way that the latter appeared to agree essentially with Plato on all significant philosophical questions, a view which was dominant until the Renaissance. It is argued that Porphyry’s view of Aristotle’s philosophy guided him to become the first Platonist to write commentaries on Aristotle’s works.
Introduction
Authors: Karamanolis George E.
Published: September 2006

This introductory chapter addresses the question why Aristotle’s philosophy attracted so much attention by Platonists in late antiquity. The author argues that Platonic (that is, Plato’s) philosophy was subject to different reconstructions by Platonists, who often resorted to Aristotle in order to reconstruct parts of it. It then examines the main philosophical issues on which Platonists focused when discussing Aristotle’s philosophy and its relation to Platonic. Finally, it briefly reviews the evidence regarding the Peripatetic positions on how Aristotle’s philosophy compares with Plato’s.
3 Numenius
Authors: Karamanolis George E.
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with a discussion of Numenius’ Pythagoreanism and his thesis on Aristotle’s philosophy. It then analyses the question of whether Pythagoreanism is incompatible with Aristotelianism. It is argued that Numenius does not show hostility to Aristotle, and does not even display much concern for his thought. However, existing evidence suggests that Numenius did voice a warning to Platonists to the effect that Aristotle’s philosophy is substantially different from that of Plato, and that any concession to his views on the assumption that he preserves Plato’s doctrines can cause sedition and secession from Plato’s actual philosophical spirit.
3 Theology, Wissenschaft, and the Founding of the University of Berlin
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert
Published: September 2006

This chapter focuses on the establishment of the University of Berlin (1810), its early years of operation, and this institution’s implications for the future of theological instruction and scholarship. One feature that distinguishes Berlin’s founding from those of older universities was the energetic outpouring of theoretical treatises on higher education that preceded the actual event. Together, these writings provide a remarkable window onto a variety of intellectual trends and cultural realities of the time; they also bear witness to an acute sense of modernity, an idealist and post-revolutionary sense that ‘the human spirit’ possessed an entirely new range of individual and institutional possibilities. The analysis of these documents concentrates on the question of what role the theological faculty was to play in the new university. Should it be drastically reduced or even eliminated, as some suggested, or should it be given a new academic lease so long as it could demonstrate an ability to adapt to the post-1789 world order and the new scholarly demands of Wissenschaft?
4 An Erastian Modernity? Church, State, and Education in Early Nineteenth‐Century Prussia
Authors: Howard Thomas Albert
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines reconfigurations in Prussian politics, bureaucracy, educational policy, and church-state relations in the early 19th century. It explores the rhetoric and realities of Prussia qua Kulturstaat, and examines in detail the establishment of the Ministry of Culture (Kultusministerium) during the Prussian Reform Era and the far-reaching Erastian authority this ministry exercised over church affairs, academic life, and theology throughout the 19th century. It was largely through the agency of this Ministry, the nationalist historian Heinrich von Treitschke once wrote, that the church in Prussia was kept ‘under the benevolent tutelage of the state’.
2 Trustee‐Type Public Service Bargains
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses ‘trustee’ bargains, in particular, it explores the background to the notion of government as a ‘trust’ and considers the puzzle why ‘trustee’ type PSBs emerge and persist in the democratic age. It draws a distinction between representative and tutelary forms of trustee bargains, and discusses empirical examples of such variants.
4 Reward in Public Service Bargains: Pyramids,Noblesse Oblige, Turkey Races, and Lotteries of Life
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter explores the reward dimension of public service bargains. It analyzes different forms and aspects of reward and then explores four specific types of reward bargains: pyramids and escalators, noblesse oblige, turkey race, and lottery of life. Each of these bargains is discussed, indicating potential difficulties and highlighting empirical examples. Mixes and matches as well as trends and tendencies are discussed, with some forms of reward bargain apparently in decline and others increasing in importance.
6 Loyalty and Responsibility in Public Service Bargains: Judges, Partners, Executives, and Jesters
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses the loyalty dimension of public service bargains, exploring four types of loyalty-type bargains: judge-, partner-, executive- and jester-type bargains. It gives examples of each, discusses the curious case of jester-type bargains, and explores mixes and matches. The chapter shows how these types of loyalty bargain have played out in the German and UK political systems, and discusses the direction of changes over time.
7 Putting the Pieces Together
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

The first part of this chapter brings together the earlier analysis and considers combinations of public service bargains, suggesting there are many possible combinations, but also some elements that do not seem to mix effectively. It then goes on to show how the various dimensions of PSBs have combined over time in two state traditions, Germany and the UK. It shows how a PSB lens can be utilized in different historical perspectives, ranging from the long-term perspective covering two centuries to the analysis of the past two decades.
10 Conclusion
Authors: Hood Christopher , Lodge Martin
Published: September 2006

This chapter first shows what contribution a Public Service Bargain (PSB) perspective can make to the understanding of executive government. It claims that such a perspective can aid comparison, can be applied at various levels of aggregation, and can sharpen understanding of cheating and strategic behaviour. It then shows how the PSB perspective can add to existing analytical and comparative work on executive government. The future of PSBs is discussed and it is argued that rather than stasis, convergence, or divergence, the most likely future is one of further multiplication and, therefore, complication.
Counterpart Theory and the Puzzles of Transworld Identity
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

This chapter considers the proposal that counterpart theory should be adopted as a solution to the problems about identity across possible worlds discussed in the previous chapters: a solution that requires neither bare identities, extrinsically determined identities, nor non-trivial individual essences. It concludes that unless one is already committed to counterpart theory on other grounds (such as the adoption of David Lewis’s version of realism about possible worlds), one has insufficient reason to prefer a counterpart-theoretic solution to a ‘bare identities’ solution to the problems.
The Necessity of Origin
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

This chapter argues that the intuitive appeal of Kripke’s necessity of origin thesis can be explained by seeing the thesis as the consequence of a temporally asymmetrical ‘branching model’ of de re possibilities, which, in turn, rests on two principles concerning possibility, time, and identity called ‘the assumption of open futures’ and ‘the overlap requirement’. This explanation of the necessity of origin intuition is defended against a standard objection, and compared with two other proposed explanations. It is also argued that the explanation of the intuitive appeal of the necessity of origin thesis does not justify that thesis, principally because the ultimate defensibility of the overlap requirement is doubtful. The chapter concludes by suggesting that the necessity of origin thesis advocated by Kripke and others should be rejected in favour of a weaker thesis called ‘the tenacity of origin’, that does not imply that distinctive features of an individual’s origin are among its essential properties.
Sortal Concepts and Essential Properties II: Sortal Concepts and Principles of Individuation
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines David Wiggins’s version of sortal essentialism, which relies on the EPI thesis, that a thing’s principle of individuation is essential to it in order to derive the result that certain sortals (‘ultimate sortals’) are essential sortals. It argues that the attempt to defend sortal essentialism by appeal to EPI faces a dilemma: either the thesis is vacuous, and lends no support to sortal essentialism, or it is a substantial thesis, but one that we have no good reason to accept. It concludes that even if it is true that, for any given individual, there are some sorts or kinds to which it could not have belonged, there is insufficient reason to believe the sortal essentialist’s explanation that this is because there is some sortal kind to which it belongs essentially.
Essential Properties and Remote Contingencies
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

Having rejected the standard views about the essential properties of ordinary individuals, this chapter confronts the question whether such individuals have any interesting essential properties at all. It defends a version of ‘extreme haecceitism’, also known as ‘minimalist essentialism’, according to which ordinary individuals have relatively few interesting essential properties. According to this theory, many properties that might be assumed to be essential properties of ordinary individuals are not, strictly speaking, essential, but rather ‘tenacious’ or ‘quasi-essential’, where this implies that the possibility that the thing should lack the property is so remote as normally to be ignored in the context of counterfactual speculation. It is argued that the appearance of conflict between this version of extreme haecceitism and our intuitions may largely be dispelled, partly by appeal to the fact that in many contexts in which we make de re modal claims, we restrict ourselves to what all theorists must acknowledge to be a limited subset of the full range of de re possibilities. It is also argued that extreme haecceitism need not undermine the role played by an appeal to essential properties in various philosophical arguments, such as the debate between psychological and biological theorists concerning personal identity and a standard form of argument that appeals to modal distinctions, in order to establish the numerical distinctness of coincident entities.
Essentialism, Semantic Theory, and Natural Kinds
Authors: Mackie Penelope
Published: September 2006

Following Nathan Salmon and D. H. Mellor, this chapter argues that natural kind essentialism of the type advocated by Kripke and Putnam is not an inevitable consequence of the adoption of an anti-descriptivist semantic theory of natural kind terms. It attempts to clarify various issues about the characteristics of natural kind essentialism and its relation to semantic theory, as well as reinforcing the distinction made earlier in the book between essentialism about individuals and essentialism about natural kinds. The author remains agnostic on the question of the truth of essentialism about natural kinds, but suggests reasons for scepticism about its plausibility in comparison with some weaker views, such as the theory that a natural kind has a Lockean ‘real essence’ which need not belong to the kind in all possible worlds.
In Pursuit of a Theory of Political Obligation
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

This chapter argues that a fully satisfactory theory of political obligation will pass certain tests. It will offer an affirmative answer to the membership problem and, among other things, it will show how membership in a political society gives one obligations to uphold that society’s political institutions. There are discussions of A. John Simmons’s ‘generality test’ and of some broad notions of membership: membership through residence and imputed membership.
Actual Contract Theory: Attractions
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

The best-known theory of political obligation is actual contract theory: a political society is founded on an agreement, and the parties to the agreement — now the members of the society — are obligated accordingly. As is generally admitted, actual contract theory has significant attractions as a solution to the membership problem. For one, agreements are a canonical source of obligations. For another, an agreement may indeed suffice to found a social group in general. This chapter details eight analytic points that have been or might be judged to favour of the theory, and five ways in which it might appear to be morally attractive.
Political Societies
Authors: Gilbert Margaret
Published: September 2006

A political society was defined in Chapter 1 as a society with institutions of governance. These institutions are its institutions. Three kinds of institution of governance are discussed, all involving social rules of one kind or another: governing rules, personal rule, and rules of governance or constitutional rules. The nature of social rules is explored in counterpoint to the classical account of H.L.A. Hart, and an alternative joint commitment account is offered. Given this account, the members of a political society are jointly committed to uphold its institutions of governance. By the argument of the previous chapters, they will then be obligated to uphold the institutions in question. This is the gist of the plural subject theory of political obligation.
Deontologism
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

This chapter focuses on whether deontologism — the view that justification is to be understood in terms of concepts such as duty, obligation, and blame — entails internalism. If it does, then internalists could still avail themselves of this deontological motivation for internalism despite the argument made in Chapter 1, that internalists endorsing the weak awareness requirement lose the main motivation for their view. It is argued that deontologism does not entail internalism. An explanation is offered for why philosophers are misled into thinking it does.
Proper Function
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

This chapter defends an externalist analysis of justification, focusing on its proper function requirement. It identifies three ways a popular evidentialist view needs improvement, and argues that the proper function analysis captures the recommended improvements. It then highlights some virtues of the analysis, including the fact that because it has no reliability requirement, it is an externalist position that avoids the usual objections to reliabilist accounts of justification. The chapter concludes by responding to several objections.
Defeaters
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins by explaining the different kinds of defeaters and no-defeater conditions. It argues for the inclusion of a no-defeater condition in the analysis of justification, and concludes by responding to a number of objections.
Epistemic Circularity
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

One prominent objection to externalism is that it commits its adherents to approving of epistemic circularity. This chapter explains and then responds to this objection by giving two arguments for the conclusion that we should sometimes approve of epistemic circularity, that being committed to approving of it is not, in itself, a defect of externalism. It then explains why approving of epistemic circularity misleadingly seems like a defect, and how epistemic circularity is likely to occur in an acceptable manner.
Responding to Skepticism
Authors: Bergmann Michael
Published: September 2006

Perhaps the most natural objection to externalism is that it does not seem to offer an adequate response to skeptical worries. This chapter explains this objection and shows how it applies to nonexternalist positions as well externalist ones. It is argued that this objection ultimately fails to give us a reason to reject externalism.
Overview
Authors: Brown Harvey R.
Published: September 2006

Following Einstein's brilliant 1905 work on the electrodynamics of moving bodies, and its geometrization by Minkowski which proved to be so important for the development of Einstein's general theory of relativity, it became standard to view the FitzGerald-Lorentz hypothesis as the right idea based on the wrong reasoning. This chapter expresses doubts that this standard view is correct, and believes that posterity will look kindly on the merits of the pre-Einsteinian, ‘constructive’ reasoning of FitzGerald, if not Lorentz. The theories of FitzeGerald, Michelson, Heaviside, Einstein, and Bell are discussed. The chapter also considers what space-time is not.
The Physics of Coordinate Transformations
Authors: Brown Harvey R.
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses the physics of coordinate transformations. Topics covered include coordinatization of space-time, inertial coordinate systems, the linearity of inertial coordinate transformations, and the rod and clock protocols.