bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Required Rates of Return and Financial Contracting for Entrepreneurial Ventures
Authors: Smith Richard
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on determining the appropriate discount rate to be used by an entrepreneur who is deciding whether or not to proceed with a prospective venture. First, it analyzes the investment decision from the perspective of a venture capitalist (VC). It shows that the discount rates commonly used by VCs are consistent with the discount rates implied by financial economic theory. It then draws on the same financial economic theory to infer the required rate of return (i.e., opportunity cost of capital) for an entrepreneur who is undertaking a venture that will require commitment of substantially all of the entrepreneur's wealth and effort. Among other things, it concludes that the required return on the entrepreneur's investment is higher than the required return of a VC who represents well-diversified investors and is considering a similar financial claim. The analysis is extended to consider the required return for an entrepreneur who is able to divide total wealth between the venture and a well-diversified portfolio of market assets. It is shown that the required rate of return to the entrepreneur depends on the allocation of wealth between the venture and the market portfolio. Thus, to an extent, by selecting the asset allocation between the two, the entrepreneur can control the required rate of return on the venture. The article includes a discussion of methods of implementation, along with an illustration of one approach. It concludes by focusing on the design of value-maximizing financial contracts between entrepreneurs and outside investors.
Venture Capital in Germany: The Role of Venture Capital Firms' Experience, Ownership Structure, and Agency Problems
Authors: Antonczyk Ron Christian , Breuer Wolfgang , Brettel Malte
Published: February 2013

This article analyzes empirically the relevance of direct measures for incentive problems in German venture capital (VC) financial contracting, and investigates whether differences in experience or ownership structure across firms remain relevant even for given realizations of direct measures of incentive problems. It also asks whether risk perception in itself depends on experience and/or ownership structure. The article is organized as follows. It presents the database and describes the relative frequencies of several contractual terms in Germany and the role of debt financing as a determinant of the utilization of different covenants. It introduces independent variables and then analyzes how experience and ownership structure of a VC firm influence its utilization of contractual terms and its perception of incentive problems.
Value Added by Angel Investors through Postinvestment Involvement: Exploratory Evidence and Ownership Implications
Authors: Chua Jess , Wu Zhenyu
Published: February 2013

This article uses data from The Performance Project: Group Angel Investor, released by the Kauffman Foundation and the Angel Capital Education Foundation in 2007 to investigate the value added by angels through their postinvestment involvement (PII) with ventures. In contrast with findings showing that venture capitalist PII may not significantly affect venture performance, the results show that the PII of angels contributes significantly to value creation. The value added is due to involvement related to mentoring rather than monitoring. This resultant value added has a very important implication for the ownership share that angel investors deserve or, conversely, the share that the entrepreneurship retains. It is an important factor missing in current discussions about the ownership share that entrepreneurs must surrender in exchange for equity capital. The article discusses the implication conceptually and proposes an adjustment to the model proposed in the literature to determine the theoretical ownership share that entrepreneurs deserve to retain.
The Impact of Venture Capital on the Long-Term Performance of IPO Firms: Evidence from Korea
Authors: Lee Jaeho
Published: February 2013

This article investigates the performance of initial public offerings (IPOs) in Korea during the rapidly changing dot-com bubble-and-bust period (1999–2001). Specifically, it analyzes the impact on long-term performance of the extent of venture capital involvement in the IPO, and of the ownership characteristics of the venture capital companies themselves, in 372 firms that went public during the period 1999–2001 in KOSDAQ. The study measures VC participation in terms of pre-IPO share ownership by VC firms and attempts to differentiate IPO impacts between VCs grouped in terms of their reputation (measured by their dominance of the VC market) and their affiliation with financial institutions (in terms of ownership of VCs by banks and security companies). The article is organized as follows. It first provides an institutional description of the venture capital industry in Korea in comparison with the U.S. and U.K. industries. After reviewing the related literature, it describes the data set and document the methodology used. It then discusses the main characteristics of the IPO samples and reports the univariate and multivariate analysis on long-term performance.
Spread, Scope, and Scale in Venture Capital Globalization: A Clustered Globalization Model
Authors: Madhavan Ravi , Iriyama Akie
Published: February 2013

This article reviews some recent developments in the literature on venture capital (VC) globalization. It then develops a conceptual model addressing the spread, scope, and scale of globalization in this critical industry that is central to innovation and entrepreneurship. It proposes the clustered globalization model as a unifying construct that brings together the spread, scope, and scale of VC globalization, and provides a baseline framework for thinking about globalization in the VC industry. In clustered globalization, the geographical spread of VC will continue but not in a “world is flat” sense; rather the emergence of more clusters worldwide is expected, and the organizational linkages between them will consist of loosely coupled VC firm families rather than integrated VC multinationals.
Geography and Venture Capital Investment in the United States, 1995–2009
Authors: Shachmurove Emanuel , Shachmurove Yochanan
Published: February 2013

This article examines the investment activity of venture capital in the United States, stratified by both geography and choice of industries, and evaluates the effects of certain key macroeconomic variables. The entire period covered extends from 1995 until Quarter 1 of 2009. In addition, the data set is split into four subperiods: the boom years of 1995Q1 to 2000Q1, the bust period of 2000Q2 to 2003Q4, the boom years of 2004Q1 to 2007Q3, and the bust period of 2007Q4 to 2009Q1. For the entire period as well as the subperiods, the statistical results confirm the importance of both region and industry in explaining investment in venture capital in the United States. These are valid for all subperiods; even when faced with a multitude of effects caused by the current recession, industry and region are still the dominating causes of venture capital investment activity.
Stress and Immunity in Pregnancy
Authors: Coussons-Read Mary E.
Published: February 2013

The last decade has seen a dramatic increase in research on the effects of environment and behavior on pregnancy and infant development. A key aspect of these efforts has been to examine how prenatal stress affects pregnancy and maternal and child health and to identify candidate mechanisms for these effects. This chapter describes research addressing how prenatal stress can alter the course of pregnancy and affect infant development and the potential role of neural-immune interactions in mediating these effects. Background research in psychoneuroimmunology, discussion of the role of the immune and endocrine systems in normal and complicated pregnancy, and foundational and ongoing research on how neural-immune interactions are involved in stress-related pregnancy outcomes are presented. The chapter concludes by identifying key future directions and ongoing challenges for research in this field with an eye toward affecting clinical practice.
Social Regulation of Gene Expression in the Immune System
Authors: Cole Steven W.
Published: February 2013

Social factors influence health in part by altering the expression of genes in diseased tissue and immune cells. This chapter surveys the emerging field of social genomics, which has begun to identify the types of genes subject to social regulation, the biological signaling pathways mediating those effects, and the genetic polymorphisms that moderate socioenvironmental influences on human gene expression. After highlighting the implications of these dynamics for immune response and host defense, this chapter considers the evolutionary basis for the deep functional connections between social behavior and immune response.
Design and Evaluation of Prevention Programs
Authors: Davis Marsha , Orpinas Pamela , Horne Arthur M.
Published: February 2013

Abstract Evaluation is the application of social science methods to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of prevention programs. Evaluation is critical for determining the worth, need, and effectiveness of a program. This chapter presents an overview of the principles, methods, and practices for designing and evaluating prevention programs. The design and evaluation process is outlined in 10 steps: setting up the evaluation team and engaging stakeholders, determining the budget, using a logic model to define the program, determining the evaluation question, determining the outcome variables and measurement, selecting a sample, collecting the data, analyzing and interpreting the data, reporting, and using the data for program improvement. In each step, the authors provide examples of real world applications. Challenges and future directions for evaluation are discussed.
Prevention of Conduct Disorder
Authors: Daly Brian P. , Buchanan Cindy , Dasch Kimberly , Eichen Dawn , Lenhart Clare
Published: February 2013

Abstract The cluster of behavior problems known as the disruptive behavior disorders, including oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder, represent the most common reason for referral among all childhood mental health problems. Without early preventive and intervention services, these behaviors may escalate over time, becoming more frequent, severe, and maladaptive in nature, resulting in significant and long-lasting negative consequences that affect individuals, families, schools, communities, and society in general. Historically, disruptive behavior disorders were perceived to be some of the most difficult disorders with which to intervene and ameliorate symptoms. Fortunately, evidence-based preventive and early intervention programs delivered across various settings have been developed that improve outcomes for these children and adolescents and their families.
Promoting Well-Being and Mental Health in Refugees
Authors: Loncar Larisa Buhin
Published: February 2013

Abstract The chapter primarily focuses on interventions that have the potential to promote well-being by facilitating and fostering successful acculturation through acquisition of new life skills in refugees and by increasing multicultural competencies of individuals and changing public policies in receiving cultures. Berry’s (1997 ) work on the acculturation process is utilized in considering possible interventions aimed not exclusively at refugee populations but also at increasing the readiness of receiving cultures to promote well-being of refugees. Prilleltensky and Nelson’s (2002) theory of well-being, particularly with regard to relational and collective well-being, also provides a theoretical framework for proposed interventions.
Introduction
Authors: Levine Aaron
Published: February 2013

This book explores how Judaism, as a religion, and Jews, as people, relate to the economic sphere of life in modern society and how they did so in past societies. This article traces the major sources of Jewish Law beginning with the Pentateuch (i.e., the Five Books of Moses), which, according to orthodox Jewish tradition, was revealed by God to Moses at Mount Sinai (c.1312 bce).The authoritative literary sources dating from after the Pentateuch to the beginning of the second Temple period (fifth century bce) are the Prophets (Nevi'im) and the Hagiographia (Ketuvim). This article traces the codification of ancient Judaic texts such as the Talmud and Mishnah. The laws of the Mishnah are mostly presented in the form of factual cases rather than through simple statements of the legal principles in abstract form. The rest of the article explains the various Judaic eras beginning from Savoraim till Roshonim.
The Right to Return: The Biblical Law of Theft
Authors: Katz Eliakim , Rosenberg Jacob
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the law surrounding the biblical law of theft. According to Jewish Law, a thief who is caught and found guilty must return the stolen article and, in addition, pay the owner a fine equal to the value of the article. The thief can avoid this fine by admitting to the theft on his own initiative in a court and returning the stolen article to its owner. This article refers to such canceling of a fine as a pardon. The pardon is explained in the Talmud by the legal dictum “Mode BeKnass Patur,” that is “he who confesses in a fine is exempt”. This article carefully explains economic model with the help of various graphs. This article also explains two issues which require consideration in assessing whether Eliezer acted properly as an agent according to Jewish law. A detailed analysis of concepts of duty in Judaism concludes this article.
Externalities and Public Goods in the Talmud
Authors: Kleiman Ephraim
Published: February 2013

Insofar as their literary heritage suggests the ancients did not, as a rule, indulge in explicit economic theorizing. This article examines the Talmudic Sages' views of the causes underlying the existence of externalities and of public goods and of the remedies offered for them, which also reveal the taxation principles to which they subscribed. The Talmud does not contain any explicit economic analysis in the modern sense of the word. But many of its rules pertain to economic phenomena and their formulation and discussion required some insight into economic relationships that went beyond the simply commonsensical one. This article also discusses negative externalities known as torts. This article further encapsulates the Talmud's view of Torts and Externalities. The civil law sections of the Talmud deal extensively with torts. Aspects such as sharing the burden of billeting are explained in details. This article also draws a comparison between the Talmuds and the Roman Laws.
Could What You Don’t Know Hurt You? Information Asymmetry in Land Markets in Late Antiquity
Authors: Viswanath P.V. (Meylekh) , Szenberg Michael
Published: February 2013

Jewish legal texts are important sources of information on Middle Eastern economies in the early centuries of the Common Era (ce). This article focuses on the Rashi’s explanation of seasonality and trading volume fluctuations of land prices, as discussed in tractate Bava Kamma of the Babylonian Talmud (Roman Palestine). Although the text itself was redacted in Babylonia, it is largely a commentary on the Mishnah, an earlier text redacted in Roman Palestine toward the end of the second-century ce. It may be argued that information asymmetry is a reasonable assumption in a firm, where the activities of the managers are not easily observable. It might even be reasonable in the case of land with multiple uses. The evidence of the Talmud indicates that information asymmetry can considerably depress the prices of assets and affect the liquidity of markets. This indicates the importance of attempts to reduce information asymmetry. Future work on market frictions in antiquity might consider other examples of information asymmetry in the agricultural economies discussed in the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds.
Hetter Iska, the Permissible Venture: A Device to Avoid the Prohibition Against Interest-Bearing Loans
Authors: Bleich J. David
Published: February 2013

Biblical law forbids exaction of interest by a creditor and payment of interest by a debtor in loans between Jews. This article focuses on a device to avoid the prohibition against interest-bearing loans. Although in biblical days the economic structure of society was predominantly agrarian and loans were sought primarily for personal purposes, the strictures against usury apply with equal force to loans extended for commercial purposes. Since interest was not permitted, ways and means had to be found to facilitate commercial endeavors without violation of either the letter or the spirit of Jewish law. Keeping this in mind, the hetter iska was drafted. The hetter iska is a document that specifies the terms and conditions under which money is advanced by one individual to another. Its legal purpose is to create a partnership arrangement as distinct from a debtor creditor relationship. A detailed analysis of promissory and mortgage loans concludes this article.
The Jewish Prohibition of Interest: Themes, Scopes, and Contemporary Applications
Authors: Feldman Daniel Z.
Published: February 2013

The prohibitions of taking and paying interest are the essence of this article. The prohibition of taking interest, also known as ribbit, is one of the most complex areas of Jewish law. The complexity of this realm is multileveled. At first glance, ribbit and its basic intent seems simple to comprehend. It appears to address the widely condemned practice of usury, also known as predatory lending, where a lender exploits a borrower's desperate need for assistance by lending at rates of interest that are excessive and often unfeasible. However, a close look at the details of the prohibition will reveal that concern for predatory lending is insufficient to explain the Torah's ban against interest. This article also discusses the challenge of categorizing ribbit. This article further elaborates upon the effects of prohibition on monetary regulation. Other applications and extensions of the prohibition are explained and the prohibition is also compared to receive and return interest.
The Theory of “Efficient Breach”: A Jewish Law Perspective
Authors: Warburg Ronald
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the theory of efficient breach from the perspective of the Jewish law. The law and economics schools of thought have advanced a number of controversial claims in the name of economic efficiency—from promoting trading on inside information to providing markets for the sale of human organs—but none may be as provocative and challenging as the argument of entitlement and economic efficiency underlying the theory of “efficient breach.” This article explains various Jewish laws such as halakhah. Halakhah distinguishes between legal and moral norms. The distinguishing characteristic between them is enforceability. Whereas a halakhic-legal norm is enforceable by a bet din, compliance with a halakhic moral norm is dependent upon individual volition. There are two components required in the undertaking of an obligation: effectuating a kinyan and gemirat da'at. This article further elaborates upon every other clause pertaining to Jewish law and Judaism which concludes this article.
Public and Private International Law from the Perspective of Jewish Law
Authors: Broyde Michael J.
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on public and private international law from the perspective of Jewish law. When one speaks about international law from the perspective of the Jewish tradition, it is not enough to consider the community now forming and the international treaties that are now developing; it is necessary instead to ponder the procedural and substantive safeguards that need to be put in place to protect the rights of people to be different and unique. International law has the potential to eliminate regional diversity and culture. It could compel adherence to communal norms that have never fit particular regions, religions, or geographical units. This article explores two basic Jewish law questions that reflect on the technical issues related to the applicability of international law proposals within Halakhah. The first question asks how Jewish law views public international law and the second question asks how Jewish law generally incorporates domestic (municipal) law into Jewish law, and if this classical paradigm of integration assists in formulating a Jewish law view of world law.
The Global Recession of 2007–2009: The Moral Factor and Jewish Law
Authors: Levine Aaron
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the recent global recession that raged the world and in particular the United States with special reference to Jewish law. In December 2007, the United States economy plunged into the longest and deepest downturn since the Great Depression. The driving force behind the recession was the widespread failure of the subprime mortgage market, the segment of the home mortgage market extending loans to households with impaired credit histories and with little or no documentation of income. The collapse of that sector occurred in a rapid succession of events beginning with the fall of Countrywide Financial in January 2008. This article further moves to explain the moral factor pervading the recession and analyses the situation as per Jewish law. The central relevant moral dictum of Jewish law is the Imitatio Dei principle, which says that, in our interpersonal conduct, we should emulate the various attributes of mercy.
The Employee Free Choice Act, Unions, and Unionizing in Jewish Law
Authors: Rapp Dani
Published: February 2013

Employees, their free choice act, and unions and unionizing in Jewish law are the essence of this article. The law equalizes the imbalance by allowing employees to unionize, putting the negotiating power of employees on par with their employers. By banding together, organized workers gain the ability to strike, neutralizing management's ability to withhold employment. The approach of the Jewish law towards the employer–employee relationship is explained in detail. It says employer–employee relationships are no exception. Each side has rights and obligations, ensuring that the worker receives equitable treatment and the employer receives the full value of the employee's labor. The Talmud clarifies that one who withholds a worker's pay actually transgresses five negative commandments and one positive commandment. This article also traces various sources found in Jewish laws relating to labor unions and the power of the citizens and tradesmen. An explanation of the regularization of Jewish law winds up this article.
Rabbinic Responses to Rapid Inflation in Israel, 1973–1985
Authors: Schiffman Daniel
Published: February 2013

The economy of Israel underwent a major change during the late twentieth century in terms of rapid inflation. This article considers that from 1971 to 1972, the annual rate of inflation increased by only one percentage point, from 12% to 13%. But, from 1973 to 1978, the rate jumped to 39%. Inflation skyrocketed to 445% in 1984, before the economy was finally stabilized in 1985. Rapid inflation was accompanied by an expansion of dollarization and indexation arrangements. This article explores the legal opinions of leading rabbis on monetary issues, during and immediately after the inflationary episode of 1973 to 1985. Some essential Talmudic cases and concepts are explained for the understanding of the inflation. This article also traces the economic changes and developments that came over in Israel during the decade especially in case of inflation rates. A detailed analysis of a Rabbinical views on indexation follows with special reference to CPI which concludes the article.
Jewish Ethics, The State, and Economic Freedom
Authors: Meir Tamari
Published: February 2013

The objective of this chapter is to investigate the balance between private property and economic freedom needed for wealth formation, on the one hand, and morality and communal justice, on the other. The state, Jewish ethics, and economic freedom are the main components of this article. Wealth creation, preservation, and transference to future generations are fundamental necessities of human existence. Fittingly, it has been the focus of religious, political, and philosophical thought, and social movements since the beginning of time. This article proceeds to state that Judaism does not see poverty as spiritual or desirable, nor the creation or increase of private individual wealth as evil or immoral. Because of Judaism's insistence on the legitimacy of economic activity and the essential reality of private property, both of these two causes of economic immorality require the constraint of enough. This article concludes by saying that the recognition of moral and social responsibilities is required to stabilize society.
Babylonian Jews at the Intersection of the Iranian Economy and Sasanian Law
Authors: Elman Yaakov
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the position of the Babylonian Jews at the intersection of the Iranian economy and Sasanian Jews. The article begins with a detailed analysis of the cultural background. The Babylonian Talmud with its detailed description of religious, lifestyle, economic, and social issues presents us with a portrait of the integration of Babylonian Jews within the economic life of the middle classes of the Sasanian Empire. The article states that unlike the Jews of Roman Palestine the Babylonian Jews were a significant minority in a vital province. This is followed by an analysis of the status of the Jewish community under the Sasanian regime. The Sasanian regime encouraged private initiative in both commercial and agricultural activities, and the rabbis did their best to enable the Babylonian Jewish community to take advantage of these opportunities. The article concludes by saying that the rabbinical Jews excelled in contemporary business practice.
Coins and Money in Jewish Law and Literature: A Basic Introduction and Selective Survey
Authors: Rabinovich Laurence J.
Published: February 2013

We live in a world in which coins are still common and useful, although, with the introduction of paper money, credit cards, and, more recently, internet shopping, it is certainly possible to conceive of a commercial system without coins. This article focuses on the position of coins and money in Jewish law and literature. For over two thousand years, though, following the development of coinage in Asia Minor the association between coinage and a sophisticated international commerce was real. There were, though, great civilizations that knew nothing of coinage. The first evidence of coins in Egypt dates from the time of the Persian invasion, and coinage was not firmly established until the arrival of Alexander the Great. The article further elaborates upon the usage of coins in the Talmud and Rabbinic literature. The Talmud displays no particular interest in Jewish coins per se. An analysis of the devaluation of the currency concludes this article.
How Economics Helped Shape American Judaism
Authors: Chiswick Carmel Ullman
Published: February 2013

The United States presents an economic environment unlike any other in the millennia-long experience of the Jewish people. As the “Great Experiment” in democracy and religious freedom, America broke with its European roots in ways that greatly reduced the economic penalties imposed by society on Jews per se. The major focus of this article happens to be how economics helped shape American Judaism. American Jews were subject to no special taxes and faced no laws restricting their freedom. Although anti-Semitism was not completely absent, other minority religious and ethnic/ racial groups also faced challenges in America. The article explores the economic forces that facilitated and supported these and other changes in American Judaism. It deals first with the immigrant experience and a change in economic incentives associated with upward educational and occupational mobility and then looks specifically at how this context affected the economics of Jewish religious education in the twentieth century.
Interpreting and Combining Heterogeneous Survey Forecasts
Authors: Manski Charles F.
Published: February 2013

This article examines forecasts reported in surveys, expositing several logical issues that arise when interpreting and combining heterogeneous forecasts. Understanding these issues is a prerequisite for meaningful use of the data collected in existing surveys, and it may enable design of more informative surveys. The article is organized as follows. Section 2 considers the proper interpretation of point predictions of uncertain events. Section 3 explains the simple, but underappreciated, logical basis for a pervasive empirical finding on the performance of consensus forecasts of real-valued events, while Section 4 calls attention to the problem of assessing the temporal variation of forecasts made by panels of forecasters.
Social Texts and Poetic Texts
Authors: DuPlessis Rachel Blau
Published: February 2013

This article explores critical intersections between cultural studies and the poetic text. In thinking about a poetic text, one cannot be limited to the social information about it, to the social information it appears to present, or to the surface attitudes it seems to convey. A critic must focus on articulating the complex relationships that may be constructed among statement and mode. So the problem of interpretation becomes one of articulating the dynamic variables, making adequate readings of social texts, rhetorics, and poetics; the problem is actually riding those waves and pulses of dialectical flux. The segregation of poetry from the social may be attributable to poetry's formalist and stylized condensations, constituting more acute barriers to a relatively innocent reader than parallel conventions in novels (or even films), which may well be consumed almost as if “the real” itself.
Economics and Gender in Mina Loy, Lola Ridge, and Marianne Moore
Authors: Kinnahan Linda A.
Published: February 2013

This article puts early modern poetry by women in dialogue with economic theory and thus opens unacknowledged intersections for discussion. In looking at the early poetry of Mina Loy, Lola Ridge, and Marianne Moore in relation to economics, it is important to recognize not only that economic theory mattered to a wide public in the early years of the twentieth century but that the economic field was itself a gendered site of contention as it transitioned into a centrally defining system of modernity. Not only did these three poets circulate in the same avant-garde crowds in New York during the late teens and publish in many of the same little magazines, they also shared feminist sentiments concurrent with the first-wave movement, including challenges to male-dominated economies and institutions. Within their work, economic arrangements of gender are not only challenged but connected to modern ideas of value, work, desire, and need; subsequently, the tension between an economy of consumption and an economy of social provisioning finds expression in a distinctively feminist poetics concerned with capitalism's degradation of both work and human need.
Out with the Crowd
Authors: Newcomb John Timberman
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the interactions of modern American poetry with mass culture. Mass culture is considered in two senses: first as collective spectacle or performance experienced in spaces of commodified amusement, then as semiotic and textual phenomena, advertisements above all, that interpellate modern subjects for the ideological project of corporate capitalism. It surveys work by a variety of poets in order to show that this engagement with mass culture was no tangent limited to the work of a few oddballs or specialists, but was a pervasive dimension of American poetry during these decades. The entire careers of several significant poets—not only Williams and Fearing but Carl Sandburg, Vachel Lindsay, Langston Hughes, and Muriel Rukeyser—can be framed as attempts to articulate a productive relationship with the forms and meanings of modern mass culture. The same could be said for significant parts of other careers, including those of Eliot, Pound, Edna St. Vincent Millay, and Archibald MacLeish, whose turns toward and away from radio at particular historical and personal junctures reveal the inescapable role mass culture played in their poetics. Still others, particularly Lindsay, Sandburg, Millay, and Robert Frost, created iconic public personae that challenged the boundaries between literary art and mass culture.
Exquisite Corpse
Authors: Rosenbaum Susan
Published: February 2013

This article makes the case for a sustained and growing interest in surrealism on the American poetry scene from the 1920s to the early 1960s, chiefly through a focus on the little magazines involved in adapting and publicizing surrealist work and ideals. Although surrealism's influence on American poetry from the 1960s forward has been widely recognized, its early history and influence in the United States have been just as widely overlooked, despite Dickran Tashjian's foundational work on this topic. For instance, the poet Dana Gioia comments that “one of the provocative ironies of twentieth-century literature is that during the Thirties and Forties when surrealism was transforming the landscape of European and Latin American poetry, it never took root in the United States.” It is shown that surrealism profoundly transformed the landscape of American poetry in the 1930s and 1940s, and that these surrealist roots gave vital shape and direction to the subsequent history of American poetry.
Material Concerns
Authors: Chasar Mike
Published: February 2013

This article argues for the importance of the “vest-pocket masterpiece” and the individual poetry clipping in understanding the situation of poetry in twentieth-century American popular culture and in the lives of ordinary readers. It accesses the culture of incidental poetry in two major ways, each of which taps—via the individual clipping and its carriage—in to a different point along the communications circuit of poetry's social lives. First, it traces the international circulation of a single poem—V. M. Rodebaugh's Depression-era “Rejected,” a piece of political satire first printed in 1938—as it made its way not only into Paul Fox's portfolio in Ashland, Ohio, but also into the footlockers and albums of World War II soldiers, onto the desk of Eleanor Roosevelt, and into the hands and rocket bombs of propagandists in Nazi Germany. Then, it examines the political and aesthetic dimensions that individual poetry clippings like “Rejected” acquired as they were collected, read, edited, and saved in poetry scrapbooks. Many noteworthy authors kept scrapbooks themselves; by focusing primarily on anthologies edited by less credentialed individuals, however, it is shown how such albums became engines for critical reading processes in the hands of readers who would have encountered poetry largely in incidental ways.
Behavior and Behavior Assessment
Authors: Kelly Janice R. , Agnew Christopher R.
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses the questions (1) What do we mean by “behavior” in personality and social psychology? and (2) How can we best assess social behavior? We define behavior as being observable and socially meaningful, but also discuss the dimensions on which behavior varies (e.g., intentional vs. habitual, discrete vs. continuous). We also discuss important variabilities in behavior as they relate to issues of measurement (e.g., behavioral frequency or desirability). For behavior assessment, we focus on some of the practical issues involved (e.g., choosing a coding system, selecting an observational setting), as well as how behavior assessment might intersect with personality and social psychological theory (e.g., manipulating or assessing behavior as it serves as moderator, mediator, or outcome in a theory). We end by discussing some emerging technologies that might prove useful for behavioral assessment (e.g., virtual reality), as well as a call for more integration of behavioral measures into future research.
Multilevel Modeling in Personality and Social Psychology
Authors: Christ Oliver , Sibley Chris G. , Wagner Ulrich
Published: February 2013

An integrated personality and social psychology needs to take into account different levels of analysis by definition. In both disciplines, it is widely accepted that personality and the social context affects social behavior and that social behavior, in turn, also informs us about personality. The challenge for an integrated personality and social psychology is to simultaneously analyze the complex relations between the different levels of analysis for both theoretical as well as statistical reasons. Innovations in statistical analysis in the last three decades have made it possible to simultaneously take into account different levels of analysis. Our purpose in this chapter is to review the basics of as well as recent advances in multilevel modeling, to develop a framework of multilevel analyses for an integrated personality and social psychology, and to illustrate the importance of multilevel modeling for theory development and testing using examples from research on personality and social behavior. It is our hope that this chapter will help to increase the application of multilevel modeling in personality and social psychology and to further advance the development of an integrated personality and social psychology.
Motivation and Goal Pursuit
Authors: Norem Julie K.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews motivation research that integrates person and situation perspectives. Personality and social psychologists pursue approaches to the study of human motivation that tend to be complementary and integrated, because they have had similar reactions to historical influences. Research tends to focus either on general motives, or on specific goals and goal pursuit processes. Within each focus, one can distinguish between implicit and explicit motives and goals, and approach and avoidance versions of motives and goal constructs. The chapter reviews implicit motive theory, self-determination theory, and research on goal structure, content, appraisal and pursuit. Implicit theories, life tasks, and self-regulation strategies (e.g., defensive pessimism) exemplify perspectives on motivation that integrate personal and situational factors using a functional approach. The chapter calls for further research on the relationship between implicit and explicit motivational variables, on congruence versus conflict in motivational systems, and on the integration of self-concept and motivational systems.
Attitudes and Persuasion
Authors: Ajzen Icek
Published: February 2013

This chapter begins by discussing personality traits and attitudes, two broad internal dispositions, and their relations to behavior. Such dispositions influence general patterns of behavior, and their ability to predict individual behaviors is moderated by their strength or accessibility. This discussion is followed by a distinction between explicit and implicit attitudes and the implications of this distinction for behavioral prediction. Like their explicit counterparts, implicit measures of broad attitudes show only modest correlations with specific behaviors; however, the prediction tends to be somewhat better for automatic than for controlled behaviors. Turning to attitude change, it is shown that implicit and explicit attitudes can be modified by both automatic and deliberative processes. Lasting attitude change depends on central processing of strong arguments contained in a persuasive communication, which is facilitated by such motivating factors as the personal relevance of the message, the need for cognition, and the match between the functions served by the attitude and the content of the message. Finally, theory and research is reviewed showing that individual behaviors can be predicted and changed best by considering internal dispositions that focus directly on the behavior of interest, such as self-efficacy beliefs and intentions.
Personality Influences on Group ProcessesThe Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Parks Craig D.
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses the role of personality traits in group decision-making and performance processes. I begin with a review of the history of interaction between group and personality researchers to show that, at one time, the domains went hand in hand. Methodological concerns in the 1950s, however, led group researchers to move away from personality, resulting in a piecemeal approach to personality influences in groups. Following this historical analysis, I review modern work in conflict, group performance, group decision-making, and group maintenance, with a key theme being that although there are few systematic studies of traits in groups, there is in fact quite a bit of isolated work being done. I conclude with a discussion of the barriers to increased collaboration between the two camps, why such collaboration is important for both, and some ideas about what a person x situation interaction within a group might refl ect.
Intergroup ProcessesFrom Prejudice to Positive Relations Between Groups
Authors: Tropp Linda R. , Molina Ludwin E.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews individual and contextual processes that explain why prejudice exists in diverse societies and what processes and strategies can contribute to its reduction. The first half of the chapter discusses origins and definitions of intergroup prejudice, along with ideological and structural factors that support the endurance of intergroup prejudice, such as authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and patterns of social segregation. The second half discusses strategies and processes involved in prejudice reduction, with a particular emphasis on those derived from intergroup contact theory, including situational conditions, social categorization, cross-group friendships, and motivational processes of individuals such as anxiety reduction and empathy. Taken together, this chapter highlights that prejudice and its diminution are best understood when individual and contextual factors, and their interaction, are jointly employed to illuminate negative and positive intergroup relations between groups.
Individual and Societal Well-Being
Authors: Oishi Shigehiro
Published: February 2013

This chapter highlights the contributions that have been made by personality and social psychology, respectively and together, to the science of well-being. Since its humble beginning in the 1930s, the science of well-being has grown to become one of the most vibrant research topics in psychological science today. The personality tradition of well-being research has shown that it is possible to measure well-being reliably, that self-reported well-being predicts important life outcomes, and that well-being has nontrivial genetic origins. The social psychology tradition has illuminated that there are various cultural meanings of “well-being,” that responses to well-being questions involve multiple cognitive processes, that happiness is experienced often in relationship contexts, and that it is possible to improve one’s well-being. Finally, there are recent methodological integrations of the personality and social psychology perspectives that delineate person-situation interactions and gene–environment interactions.
Leadership
Authors: van Knippenberg Daan
Published: February 2013

Leadership research has a long history from both personality psychological and social psychological perspectives, but integrated treatment of these person-situation influences is surprisingly scarce. To sketch the contours of such an integrated approach, I first outline the personality approach to leadership effectiveness and then move on to an alternative to straightforward conceptualizations of leader personality-leadership effectiveness linkages: a person-in-situation perspective that sees leadership effectiveness as a function of the interaction between leader personality and situation (task, follower, and context characteristics) and that incorporates insights form social psychological, behavior-in-situation research in leadership. Although the person-in-situation perspective is far less developed than probably it should be, there are indicators that it holds more promise for our understanding of leadership effectiveness than more one-sided approaches. I aim to capture what can be concluded on the basis of the evidence so far as well as present an associated research agenda for the further development of this perspective on the interface of the personality and social psychology of leadership.
Personality and Social Psychology
Authors: Deaux Kay , Snyder Mark
Published: February 2013

In this epilogue to the Handbook of Personality and Social Psychology, we reflect on how the contributions to the Handbook illustrate the ways in which personality and social psychology relate to and contribute to each other. Among the patterns of conjunction reflected in these contributions are bridges (joining distinct social and personality perspectives on a substantive area), combined territories (with relatively seamless mergers between fields), and ravines (where the distance between fields has been substantial but where developmental opportunities exist). We also assess the roles played by professional associations, scientific journals and edited collections, departmental structures, funding agencies, and educational and training programs as they facilitate or inhibit integrative work.
Traumatic Stress Disorders: Historical Context and Current Focus
Authors: Beck J. Gayle , Sloan Denise M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an introduction and overview to this handbook, focusing on the historical context that underlies current issues within the trauma literature. This handbook contains eight parts, focusing on classification and phenomenology, epidemiology and special populations, contributions from theory, assessment, prevention and early intervention, and treatment. The historical underpinnings of each area are delineated, with attention to their linkage with current research.
Defining Traumatic Events: Research Findings and Controversies
Authors: Cougle Jesse R. , Kilpatrick Dean G. , Resnick Heidi S.
Published: February 2013

Since the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis was introduced in the DSM-III (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1980) controversy has existed over what constitutes a Criterion A stressor, or a potentially traumatic event. Such definitions have considerable research, clinical, and legal implications. In this chapter, we review the history of Criterion A, conditional risk of PTSD associated with specific stressors, and situational and demographic variables likely to increase risk of PTSD. Significant attention is given to the controversies surrounding Criterion A, as well as limitations of extant research. We conclude with specific recommendations for future inquiry with particular emphasis on the importance of comprehensive assessment of Criterion A stressor exposure and PTSD assessment that captures the effects of exposure to more than one Criterion A stressor.