bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of preservation on wing morphometry of the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus)
Authors: Bininda‐Emonds O. R. P. , Russell A. P.
Published: March 2009

The effects of formalin fixation and subsequent alcohol preservation on various morphometric variables and their derivatives (lifting surface area, wingspan, mass, aspect ratio, wing loading and minimum power speed) and on the results of procedures that estimate lifting surface area of the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) are identified and quantified. Statisitical analysis demonstrates that the values of all of the examined morphometric variables depends upon the specimen type from which they are obtained (live animal; freshly killed specimen; immediately following formalin fixation; or after 36 weeks in alcohol). Over the short term, the choice of preservation fluid is ot important with respect to determination of the six variables studied. The fixation positin of the wing is an important factor in the determination of all variables except mass. Although originally suggested for study skins and not fluid‐preserved specimens, ‘intermediate’ and ‘extended’ wing positions are demonstrably better than the conventional ‘compressed’ position. The estimation procedures of both Pirlot (1977) and Blood & McFarlane (1988) significantly underestimate analogous lifting surface areas determinedby tracing live bats. Smith & Starrett's (1979) procedure was found to yield accurate estimates occasionally: on live animals and preserved specimens with wings fixed in the extended position. Aldridge's (1988) method also yields accurate estimates of lifting surface area, but is limited to those museum specimens where the live or freshly‐killed mass is known. Such conclusions permit recommendation of procedures that minimize changes arising through the fixation and preservation process in fluid‐preserved museum specimens when compared to the live animal.
Intramuscular morphology and tendon geometry of the epaxial swimming muscles of dolphins
Authors: Pabst D. Ann
Published: March 2009

The dolphin upstroke is powered primarily by the m. multifidus and m. longissimus—robust muscles that insert serially along the vertebral column. Intramuscular and tendon morphology coupled with kinematic data are used to hypothesize regionally specific functions of these muscles. Both muscles develop equivalent forces (approximately 2kN) in the region of the thoraco‐lumbar spine, but transmit those forces to different regions of the vertebral column. The m. multifidus transmits the majority of its force locally to the thoraco‐lumar spine, a region of the body that undergoes no measurable bending. The action of the m. multifidus appears to be to stiffen its deep tendon of insertion, forming a temporary skeletal element for the m. longissimus. The m. longissimus transmits the majority of its force to the caudal spine, by way of a novel interaction between its insertional tendons and the subdermal connective tissue sheath. This insertional pattern confers torsional stiffness on the caudal peduncle, and allows the m. longissimus to do relatively more work (118 J) than if it had a typical mammalian insertional pattern. The caudal extension of the m. multifidus does 12 J of work on the caudal spine during an upstroke. The caudal extension of the m. longissimus transmits its force to the vertebrae in the caudal flukes and is the only epaxial muscle that acts to control the angle of attack of the fluke blade.
Persistent influences of birth date on dominance, growth and reproductive success in bison
Authors: Green Wendy C. H. , Rothstein Aron
Published: March 2009

Long‐term influences of birth date were examined in bison (Bison bison) over a nine‐year period. Variation in birth date was related to differences in individual quality in both juveniles and adults. Earlier‐born animals of both sexes were socially dominant to their later‐born peers. Earlier‐born females showed greater long‐term fecundity. Long‐term growth patterns also varied with birth date, earlier‐born animals being larger. In females the relationship between body weight and birth date was significant as late as the eighth year of life, whereas in males effects on growth were weaker. For mothers, late parturition imposed immediate costs, increasing the likelihood of subsequent reproductive failure. There was no evidence that calving date varied with maternal condition, except that old females bore their last calves unusually late. These findings suggest that, in seasonally breeding ungulates, the benefits of early birth persist well into adulthood and have fitness consequences.
Scaling of insulation in seals and whales
Authors: Ryg M. , Lydersen C. , Knutsen L. Ø. , Bjørge A. , Smith T. G. , ØRitsland N. A.
Published: March 2009

We describe scaling of morphological variables that influence total insulation in eight species of marine mammals ranging in average size from 35 to 30000 kg. We also calculate total heat loss and the partitioning of heat loss through the body surface and appendages. For the eight species investigated, heat loss in 0°C water is appreciably higher than the predicted basal metabolic rates for small species such as the ringed seal. Rorquals, on the other hand, will probably not need to raise their metabolic rates to keep warm. At rest, 10–30% of the heat production of a resting animal is lost through flippers, fins and flukes. This amount can increase to 70–80% during moderate exercise. Whole‐body conductance scales with body size in the same way in marine as in terrestrial mammals, although conductance is higher for a given body size in a marine mammal.
Feeding ecology of the northern Ryukyu fruit bat, Pteropus dasymallus dasymallus, in a warm‐temperate region
Authors: Funakoshi K. , Watanabe H. , Kunisaki T.
Published: March 2009

The warm‐temperate fruit bat, Pteropus dasymallus dasymallus consumed at least 17 species of fruits, five of flowers, nine of leaves, one of bark and eight of insects. Soft fruits formed the bulk of its diet. Ficus eaten by the bat fruited asynchronously among individuals of the same species. In these species, the ratios of trees bearing ripe fruit to all trees cxamined each month were very low except for F. erecta. On the other hand, some plant species showed synchronous fruit production over a short period. Both types of plants supply fruits in every season. Seasonal dietary shifts and food choice were evident, and flowers, leaves or insects formed a small but nutritionally important component of the diet of the bat. The frequency of mastication was 124–155 per one pellet produced within a few minutes. The bat extracted and swallowed 61 82% ofthe fruits' wet weight and 58–73% of the insects' weight. The swallowed juice passed through the digestive systems in only 34 min on average. The bat ingested 0.5 times its body weight in figs per day. It is probablc that such a low food intake is adapted for the seasonal changes of food availability in the warm temperate region.
Echolocation, flight morphology and foraging strategies of some West African hipposiderid bats
Authors: Jones G. , Morton M. , Hughes P. M. , Budden R. M.
Published: March 2009

We studied echolocation call structure, flight morphology and feeding behaviour of three hipposiderid bats (Asellia tridens, Hipposideros caffer and H. ruber: Chiroptera: Hipposideridae) in The Gambia during the wet season (July‐August). All three species emitted brief CF/FM echolocation calls. In A. tridens CF (constant frequency) frequencies between 108 and 122 kHz were recorded. This variation was caused mainly by sex and age difference in call frequencies: juveniles used lower frequencies than did adults, and males were lower in frequency than females. Among adults, CF frequency was related to forearm length in a polynomial manner. Asellia tridens is unusual for a microchiropteran in that males are larger than females: nevertheless this species follows the typical trend for bats using CF components in their calls in that males call at lower frequencies than do females. The spread in frequencies noted for A. tridens in group flight was not caused primarily by individual shifting their frequencies when flying in a group compared with when flying alone. Three bats were flown separately and then together in a small room. The hypothesis that bats shift emitted frequencies in group flight to minimize confusing their own echoes with those from conspecifies was not supported. Rather, we suggest each bat has a personal CF frequency determined by sex, age and size, and that the variation created by these factors reduces confusion with other bats' echoes during group flight. Bats of the genus Hipposideros were separated into two groups by discriminant analysis on flight morphology. The two groups showed little overlap of CF frequencies used in echolocation. Bats identified as H. ruber called with CF resting frequencies between 121 and 136 kHz, while H. caffer used 128–153 kHz. Our results support the classification of these bats into two sibling species. We compared the flight performance of A. tridens and H. ruber by flying bats through obstacle courses: H. ruber had a lower wing loading and was able to negotiate more complex arrays of obstacles than could A. tridens. In the wild, H. ruber fed in more cluttered situations than did A. tridens. Both species were feeding mainly on Coleoptera during the study period, and in H. ruber individuals with higher aspect ratios and longer wingspans tended to eat more months than did bats with broader and shorter wings.
Diet of otters (Lutra lutra) inhabiting small rivers in the Bialowiez̀a National Park, eastern Poland
Authors: Brzeziński M. , Jęldrzejewski W. , Jędrzejewska B.
Published: March 2009

The diet of otters Lutra lutra L. inhabiting small rivers in the primeval forests of the Bialowieza National Park was studied in 1988–91 by analysis of 135 spraints. Anurans, mainly Rana temporaria, and fish, mainly Cyprinidae, were two staple prey of otters. In autumn and winter (1 October–31 March), 99% of spraints contained anuran remains and 45% fish remains. This corresponded to 66 and 34% of biomass consumed by otters, respectively. In spring and summer, anurans dropped to 55% occurrence in spraints (38% of biomass eaten by otters) and that of fish increased to 69% occurrence (50% of biomass). Fifty per cent of fish caught by otters were very small specimens (body length 6.5–10 cm) and 35% were small (> 10–15 cm). Pike were the only big fish captured by otters (mean body length 31 cm). Water beetles Dytiscidae were commonly eaten by otters in warm seasons (72% of occurrence in spraints, 9% of biomass taken by otters in spring and summer). Birds, snails, mammals and crayfish were minor supplements to the otters' diet.
Aggregation in the tropical millipedeAlloporus uncinatus(Diplopoda: Spirostreptidae)
Authors: Dangerfield J. M. , Telford S. R.
Published: March 2009

Millipedes tend to have a near random dispersion pattern when surface active. Only in a few species do juvenile stadia form dense swarms. This study describes the occurrence and composition of aggregations in an adult population of the tropical spirostreptid millipedeAlloporus uncinatus(Attems) inhabiting riparian forest in Zimbabwe. Also presented are the results of a field experiment designed to induce aggregation behaviour in a separate population with the addition of high quality food to the habitat.

Our initial hypothesis that the natural aggregations of between six and 42 individuals observed during the period of surface activity were part of the mating system in this species was refuted. Few mature males were present in aggregates and less than 1%, of copula pairs sampled were taken from aggregates. The composition of aggregates and the results of the experiment suggest that aggregations are associated with the feeding activities of immature individuals and are not related to reproductive activity. We suggest that the aggregations observed inA. uncinatus, although related, may perform different functions to the swarming behaviours observed in other millipede species.
Environmental and maternal influences on embryonic pigmentation in a turtle (Trachemys scripta elegans)
Authors: Etchberger Cory R. , Ewert Michael A. , Phillips John B. , Nelson Craig E. , Prange Henry D.
Published: March 2009

Incubation temperature is known to affect pigmentation in turtles and alligators, but the influence of other incubation parameters on pigmentation has not been reported previously. We examined the pigmentation of hatchling red‐eared slider turtles, Trachemys scripta elegans, incubated under various temperatures and gaseous conditions in the course of three prior studies. Reduced levels of oxygen during embryogenesis did not affect pigmentation, although such levels had produced small significant changes in developmental time. Elevated levels of carbon dioxide during development had a greater influence on pigmentation than did incubation temperature without producing as great a lengthening of incubation time. Hence, the changes in pigmentation produced by temperature and carbon dioxide could not be simply a function of their effects on developmental time. The carbon dioxide and temperature produced parallel changes in plastral pattern. In contrast, carbon dioxide had marked effects on skin pigmentation that were not paralleled by those of temperature. In addition, there were some significant differences among clutches in the effects of incubation temperature and carbon dioxide on pigmentation. Some of the differences in pigmentation among incubation treatments for this species are similar in magnitude to those occurring naturally among related turtle species. The ability to alter various developmental sequences differentially by changes in incubation conditions will facilitate both developmental and comparative evolutionary studies.
Resting ecology and behaviour of Egyptian mongooses (Herpestes ichneumon) in southwestern Spain
Authors: Palomares F. , Delibes M.
Published: March 2009

Nocturnal and siesta resting ecology and behaviour of 24 Egyptian mongooses were studied. Mongooses mainly used underground dens (rabbit warrens and badger setts) and thickets in both periods. Tree hollows were occasionally used. Twenty‐one individuals used 338 different nocturnal resting sites on 672 occasions. Mean number of resting sites per individual was 16.1, though resting sites used by each individual increased when sample size did. Mean re‐use rate was 1.99 nights/site. The majority of nocturnal resting sites were only used once, and very few more than five times. Nocturnal resting sites used two or more times were significantly more often inside than outside home range core areas, whereas resting sites used once were significantly more often outside than inside. Mean distance between consecutive nocturnal resting sites was different among classes of individuals, and annual variations were detected. Eighteen mongooses used 133 different resting sites on 171 occasions during siesta periods. Mean number of different sites used and re‐use rate were 7.4 and 1.29, respectively. Types of resting sites used during siesta periods changed throughout the year with underground dens predominating in summer. Re‐use rates remained constant for the whole year. The impacts of social structure and summer high temperatures on mongoose resting behaviour are discussed.
The effect of supplementary feeding upon the demography of a population of woodmice Apodemus sylvaticus, living on a system of maritime sand‐dunes
Authors: Akbar Zubaid , Gorman M. L.
Published: March 2009

The woodmouse is a characteristic rodent of deciduous woodland but it also lives on maritime sand‐dunes. The population density of woodmice on sand‐dunes is much lower than in woodland. Hue we test the hypothesis that this difference is due to the fact that woodland provides substantially more food than do sand‐dunes. Our experimental approach was to provide supplementary food (wheat grain) to a sand‐dune population for a period of 22 months and to compare demographic responses with a control population.

The supplemented population increased rapidly and reached a size 6–7 times that ofthe control population. The overall annual pattern of changes in density were similar in both populations with minimum numbers in late spring, maximum numbers in autumn and a loss of individuals over the winter. The woodmice receiving supplementary food bred earlier and for longer than did the control mice.
The energetics of coprophagy: a theoretical analysis
Authors: Alexander R. McN.
Published: March 2009

Lagomorphs, many rodents and some other small mammals eat their faeces during the part of the day when they are not foraging for fresh food. One of the possible benefits of this habit of coprophagy is that it may enable them to extract more energy from their food. A computer model is used to assess the likely benefits and explore their relationships to food, feeding rate and gut morphology. The predicted benefits are much larger for hindgut fermenters than for foregut fermenters, and especially large for hindgut fermenters with relatively small fermentation chambers. They are larger for poor foods (with lower proportions of cell contents) than for richer ones. At low feeding rates the energetic advantage of coprophagy may disappear if the faeces from food eaten during one feeding period emerge largely during the next, but this can be avoided by adjusting the rate of passage of gut contents during the intervening rest period.
Effects of photoperiod on spermatogenesis in Gambusia affinis holbrooki (Teleostei: Poecilidae) during the period of testicular quiescence
Authors: Fraile B. , Sáez F. J. , Vicentini C. A. , de Miguel M. P. , Paniagua R.
Published: March 2009

The influence of mild temperature (20 d̀C) combined with different photoperiods (natural day length; 16L: 8D; 8L: 16D) on the testis of Gambusia affinis holbrooki during the early (Experiment I) and late (Experiment II) phases of the testicular quiescence period was studied by histologic quantitative methods. In Experiment I (October‐January), spermatogenic development was not found in either the initial and final control fishes or the experimental groups. In Experiment II (January‐March), neither initial nor final controls showed spermatogenic development. The group subjected to the short photoperiod showed development of secondary spermatogonia but no spermatocytes. Complete spermatogenesis was observed in both the group exposed to the natural day length photoperiod and the group exposed to the long photoperiod. These results indicate that a mild temperature combined with a long photoperiod induces spermatogenesis in G. affinis in the late phase of quiescence.
Tertiary sex ratios in wild Galago population (Mammalia: Primates)
Authors: Masters J. C. , Lumsden W. H. R. , Young D. A.
Published: March 2009

Previous studies have proposed that species within the genus Galago exhibit a secondary sex ratio that is strongly skewed (approximately 70%) in favour of males. It has further been suggested that this sex ratio is maintained into adulthood. We present data obtained from 669 adult galagos, representing eight wild populations and five species, to indicate that the sex ratio among sexually mature individuals is close to parity. If the observations regarding sex ratios at birth are correct, this implies that juvenile/sub‐adult males suffer significantly higher mortalities than do their female counterparts.
Growth and mortality in juvenile European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniclus)
Authors: Webb N. J.
Published: March 2009

Factors influencing the growth and mortality patterns of young were examined in a small population of European wild rabbits. Juveniles were trapped and tagged for individual identification soon after their emergence from underground nests. Age was estimated from weight on first capture and survivorship determined from the last date individuals were observed. Differences in growth rates of young born throughout the season and between the three years of the study were related to population density. Maternal social status had no significant effect on post‐emergence growth rates of kittens, or on offspring survival. Young born in females' first litters of the season, in March, had significantly lower mortality than subsequent litters. Cats and stoats were regularly observed on the study site and are likely to have been major agents of juvenile mortality. There was no difference in the growth rates of the sexes, and correspondingly non‐breeding adult males and females were of similar body weight. From their first days above ground juvenile males suffered significantly higher mortality than females. Differential mortality may be linked to previously reported sex differences in behaviour if the greater activity of young males made them more vulnerable to predation or attack by neighbouring territorial conspecifics.
Mechanical design of polypterid fish integument for energy storage during recoil aspiration
Authors: Brainerd Elizabeth L.
Published: March 2009

Polypterid fishes ventilate their lungs by recoil aspiration. Active exhalation compresses the bony scale jacket; inhalation occurs when the scale jacket recoils to its original shape. Exhalation and loading of the integument are powered by contraction of striated muscle in the lung walls. The integument of polypterid fishes consists of interlocking rhomboid scales held together by collagen fibre strands. The scales imbricate with bevelled edges, so that when the fish is at rest, its integument is circular in cross‐section and the overlapping scale edges are parallel. During exhalation, the hemicircular shape of the ventral integument is deformed, and the scales rotate slightly. As the overlapping scale edges become non parallel, the scales act as tiny levers to stretch the collagen fibres between them. When the fish opens its glottis to inhale, the stretched collagen fibres return to their rest lengths and pull the scale jacket back into a circular shape, sucking air into the lungs. Thus, despite the deformation of the integument as a whole in compression, strain energy is stored in tensile elements.
Antler growth and morphology in a feral sika deer (Cervus nippon) population in Killarney, Ireland
Authors: Hayden T. J. , Lynch J. M. , O'Corry‐Crowe G.
Published: March 2009

Antler growth and form was examined for a sample of 303 sika stags (Cervus nippon) culled over an eight‐year period from a feral population in Killarney National Park, County Kerry, Ireland. Most antler measurements taken were highly correlated with each other and growth was complete after the sixth year. Few abnormalities were recorded and the degree of asymmetry in structure was less than previously reported for other sika populations. Variability in structure decreased with age and there was no effect of year of birth or cull on antler size for either adult or yearling stags. The growth pattern was similar to that of other populations except that the proportion of ‘eight pointers’ was low. An examination of antler damage was used to estimate fighting frequency across age classes. The results are discussed in relation to the genetic history of the herd and the use of antlers as weapons for intra‐specific combat.
Polymorphic Müllerian mimicry in a group of African butterflies: a re‐assessment of the relationship between Danaus chrysippus, Acraea encedon and Acraea encedana (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)
Authors: Owen D. F. , Smith D. A. S. , Gordon I. J. , Owixy A. M.
Published: March 2009

Müllerian mimicry, in which there is convergence in coloration between unrelated unpalatable species, should lead to uniformity in appearance, not polymorphism, and so the occurrence in tropical Africa of unrelated species of unpalatable butterflies with corresponding polymorphic colour forms suggested a problem of special evolutionary interest. Field work in Uganda and Sierra Leone in 1964 72 demonstrated a statistical association between the occurrence and relative frequencies of polymorphic forms in Danaus chrysippus (Danainae) and Acraea encedon (Acraeinae) which was deemed as confirmation of a Müllerian relationship between them. There were, however, certain anomalies which at the time remained unresolved. Later, in 1976, it was discovered that what had been called A. encedon is in reality two sibling species. A. encedon and a new one, named as A. encedana. The two differ in the structure of both male and female genitalia and in the coloration and the food‐plants of the larvae. The recognition of the additional species has enabled a re‐assessment of the polymorphie Müllerian association with D. chrysippus. It emerges that, although there is a close qualitative and quantitative reciprocal mimetic relationship between A. encedana and D. chrysippus, the relationship between A. encedon and D. chrysippus is much weaker, and in places non‐exitent. The possible origin of the mimetic polymorphism is discussed in terms of hybridization of previously allopatric and monomorphic populations which have met as a consequence of recent expansions of geographical range in all three species resulting from forest clearance and the spread of savanna‐like conditions in previously forested areas.
Adaptive variation in sex determination in a crustacean, Gammarus duebeni
Authors: Watt Penelope J. , Aams Jonathan
Published: March 2009

In some animals sex is determined after conception by environmental factors (environmental sex determination. ESD). In the amphipod Gammarus duebeni sex is reportedly determined by photoperiod: there is a higher proportion of males in broods reared under long‐day than under short‐day photoperiods. It has been proposed that this is an adaptive response to seasonal population dynamics. A test of the hypothesis would be to demonstrate changes in the degree to which sex is determined by the environment in populations from different latitudes with different dynamics. This study reports such a test. Environmental response is significantly less strong in a southern population with a long breeding season than in a northern one in which breeding is seasonally restricted. Moreover, the threshold of the ESD cue for male or female determination is not defined when the breeding season is weakly seasonal. There is a broad correlation between latitude (and hence breeding seasonality) and the strength of ESD response across a series of population studies. Similarities between the Gammarus system of sex determination and that of the Atlantic silverside Menidia menidia, a fish with thermal ESD, are discussed.
Przibram's Rule and male body‐size dimorphism in Zygoballus rufipes (Araneae: Salticidae)
Authors: Faber Dean B.
Published: March 2009

Przibram's Rule of growth in hemimetabolous insects is derived from average values for the ratios of mean weights (2–09) and mean lengths (1–29) of successive instars in mantids. Adult males of the jumping spider Zygoballus rufipes Peckham & Peckham (Araneae, Salticidae) were shown to be dimorphic, while adult females were monomorphic. The male body weight distribution was bimodal, with two distinct body‐size classes (morphs). A method was developed for testing the null hypothesis that an observed ratio of two means is equivalent to a previously derived null ratio. The observed ratio of mean weights for the two male morphs of Z. rufipes (2–12) was not significantly different from the value for Przibram's Rule for weight (2–09), suggesting that males matured at two different instars. The body‐size dimorphism found in males was consistent with the existence of two size‐based alternative life‐history strategies.
Poisson's ratio of a crossed fibre sheath: the skin of aquatic salamanders
Authors: Frolich L. M. , LaBarbera M. , Stevens W. P.
Published: March 2009

Many animal connective tissues are composite materials formed into sheaths containing regularly organized collagen fibres in a crossed, fabric‐like array. From a few simple assumption about the interactions between fibres, we construct a model for the effect of such a fabric‐like construction on the Poisson's ratio of connective tissue sheaths. Surprisingly, the model predicts high Poisson's ratios (often greater than 1.0) Mdashespecially high given the value of 0.5 that is usually used for primarily aqueous biological tissues (based on assumptions of incompressibility and anisotropy). However, virtually all empirical attempts to measure Poisson's ratio in animal connective tissue sheaths (including our own experiments on salamander skin) reveal similarly high Poisson's ratios. The model also predicts that Poisson's ratio will increase with increasing strain, at a rate dependent on the initial angle of the crossed fibres relative to the direction of strain. Since the Poisson's ratio of a material is directly correlated with the material's stiffness, such strain‐dependent changes in Poisson's ratio have important implications for the stiffness properties of connective tissue sheaths. Given the structural support role of connective tissues, stiffness is assumed to be one of their most important qualities, and several examples of how our model might predict the stiffness qualities within the walls of cylinders formed from helically wound crossed fibre sheaths (such as mammalian annular ligament and nematode cuticle) are given.
Analysis of variance of first‐year growth in captive garter snakes (Thamnophis elegans) by family and sex
Authors: Gregory P. T. , Prelypchan C. J.
Published: March 2009

Although body size in reptiles has important consequences for their ecology, it is quite variable in most species, presumably because growth in these animals is influenced by many factors. In this study, we analyse the effects of family membership and sex on first‐year growth of garter snakes (Thamnophis elegans) held under identical conditions in the laboratory. Litters, but not the two sexes, differed significantly in mean size at birth. Larger snakes ate more food and had a higher absolute (but not relative) growth rate in length than smaller snakes. Thus, there was significant variation in length increase among litters, but not between the sexes. All else being equal, variance in size at birth could contribute significantly to variance in adult body size.
Reproductive parameters of the grey goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae) and brown goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus) at Abergowrie, northern Queensland, Australia
Authors: Burton A. M. , Alford R. A. , Young J.
Published: March 2009

Thirty‐one A. novachollandiae breeding attempts on 14 territories were located near Abergowrie, Queensland (18° 27' S, 146° 0' E) between 1986 and 1989. Twenty‐nine breeding attempts by A. fasciatus were located on 14 territories in the same study area.

Both species began nest construction around the first week of September. Egg‐laying was complete by mid‐October. Mean clutch size of A. nouurhollandiue was 2.0 and of A. fusciutus was 3.0. Both species incubated for about 30 days. The nestling period of A. nouuehollundiue was 30–38 days; that of A. fusciutus was 32–37 days. Post‐fledging period for both species was 38–43 days. Neither species bred outside the ‘spring’ (August‐December) period.

Both species tended to nest near the edge of large (> 50 ha) forest or woodland tracts bordering young pine P. curibueu plantations. They did not nest near sugar cane.

Accipiter nozmehol/undiuc tended to nest in larger trees, which occurred in denser habitats: closed forest and tall open woodland. Nests were placed on forks at the end of major horizontal or slightly oblique branches. Accipiter, fusciutus tended to construct nests in smaller trees; nests were correspondingly closer to the trunk. Differences in the overall size of nest trees were attributed to habitat differences.

Interspecific distances to nearest‐neighbour were less than intraspecific distances. Close interspecific nesting was related to habitat heterogeneity and prey availability within the study area.

Ninety‐four percent of A. nouuehoNundiue nests of known outcome were successful, while the success rate of A. fusciafus was 62%. The total offspring production per pair of the species was similar, but the greater rate of nest failure for A. fusciatus meant that this species fledged fewer young per initial nest than A. nouuehollundiur. Tropical thunderstorms were responsible for most nest failure and nestling deaths. Both species used nests repeatedly only after successful nesting.
Size‐related mating success in the shore crab Carcinus maenas (Crustacea: Brachyura)
Authors: Reid D. G. , Abello P. , Warman C. G. , Naylor E.
Published: March 2009

The relationship between the size of a given mating male Carcinus maenas (L.) (Brachyura, Portunidae) and the size of the female with which it was paired was studied for 1248 pairs of crabs collected from the shore In 764 of these pairs the female was in pre‐moult and so the pair were in pre‐copula. In the remaining 484 pairs the female had already moulted and the pairs were in copula. There were significant correlations between the sizes of the males and females in both pre‐copula and copula pairs. It was found that male Carcinus collected in mating pairs and tested in the laboratory were unable to distinguish between females in terms of their size or stage of pre‐moult. The positive correlation between the sizes of males and females in mating pairs on the shore is proposed to be, in part, a function of a mechanical constraint of the size of female that a given male can hold, defend and copulate with. In addition, encounters between solitary males and males carrying females, resulting in the formation of new pairs, appear to enhance the size‐related mating pattern observed.
The modulation of rhythmic behaviour in the pulmonate slug Limax pseudoflavus by season and photoperiod
Authors: Ford Douglas J. G. , Cook Anthony
Published: March 2009

Freshly caught samples of slugs were maintained at constant temperature and humidity but at day lengths (from 5 h 50 min to 16 h darkness) appropriate to the time of year at which they were collected. The duration of their feeding and crawling activities as well the total time spent active was recorded by time‐lapse cinematography.

Total activity was significantly higher in autumn and spring than in summer and winter. The activity period was symmetrically disposed about the midpoint of the dark period except for two samples in autumn. At scotoperiods longer than about 12 h, activity onset was delayed relative to the start of the dark period and activity cessation was advanced relative to the end of the period, resulting in the short duration of activity seen in winter. At scotoperiods of less than 12 h the duration of activity was relatively independent of scotoperiod.

In spring the total time spent crawling was composed of relatively few bouts of long duration whereas in the autumn the number of bouts was greater and their duration shorter. The winter was characterized by slugs making single journeys to and from the food. While emerged these slugs stayed in close association with the food but not necessarily feeding on it.

These data are discussed in terms of comparisons with homoiothermic nocturnal animals. It is concluded that seasonal responses in poikilothermic animals are likely to be limited by the hazards of winter even when such animals are maintained in apparently non‐limiting conditions.
Coprophagy in the Japanese hare (Lepus brachyurus): reingestion of all the hard and soft faeces during the daytime stay in the form
Authors: Hirakawa Hirofumi
Published: March 2009

The daily rhythms of formation and reingestion of hard and soft faeces were studied in Lepus brachyurus. Although the Leporidac have long been known to reingest soft faeces, the Japanese hare also reingests a substantial amount of hard faeces. All the faeces excreted during the daytime stay in a form, comprising first hard faeces, then soft faeces and again hard faeces, were reingested. Hares repeatedly sit straight up from the squatting position to practise reingestion. A reingestion bout for hard faeces consists of repeated faeces‐taking actions each followed by mastication, whereas that for soft faeces includes only one faeces‐taking action without mastication. If deprived of food during foraging at night, the Japanese hare reingested most of the faeces that were normally discarded. Evidence in literature indicates that other Leporidae also practise reingestion of hard faeces.
Progesterone concentrations and contents in the plasma, ovary, adrenal gland and placenta of the pregnant Natal clinging bat Miniopterus schreibersii natalensis
Authors: VAN Aarde R. J. , VAN DER Merwe M. , Skinner D. C.
Published: March 2009

Reproduction in the Natal clinging bat in South Africa at 25°S is characterized by fertilization in April, implantation during July and parturition in November. In the present study plasma progesterone concentrations peaked two months before implantation, this coinciding with significant peaks in ovarian progesterone content and concentration. Plasma progesterone concentrations remained relatively low during and after implantation, but increased significantly during the limb bud stage to peak levels one month before parturition. Adrenal progesterone content and concentration did not follow a specific trend; post‐implantation ovarian progesterone content and concentration remained at baseline values. Placental progesterone content increased significantly with foetal weight (age). The present study showed that pregnancy in these bats is characterized by two major sources of progesterone, with the ovary as the primary source before implantation and the placenta the primary source during embryonic and foetal development.
Self‐fertilization and cross‐fertilization in the land snail Arianta arbustorum (Mollusca, Pulmonata: Helicidae)
Authors: Chen Xiaofeng
Published: March 2009

The simultaneously hermaphroditic land snail Arianta arbustorum (L.) (Pulmonata: Helicidae) was long believed to be self‐incompatible. In the present study, however, uniparental reproduction was observed under laboratory conditions. Snails from two natural populations and from laboratory culture reared in isolation from the subadult stage produced fertile eggs. Over a period of three years after maturation, 38.5% of the unmated snails produced fertile eggs, mostly in the second and third years instead of the first year. Egg production and hatching success (the proportion of eggs that hatched) were lower in unmated snails than in mated snails. The number of hatchlings produced by unmated snails was 1–2% of that produced by mated snails. Hatchlings from unmated snails survived as well as those from mated snails under laboratory conditions. The result indicate that A. arbustorum can self‐fertilize but with a great fitness reduction.
Mating behaviour of the water mite Arrenurus manubriator (Acari: Arrenuridae)
Authors: Proctor Heather C. , Smith B. P.
Published: March 2009

Water mites of the genus Arrenurus vary in male sexual dimorphism and in sperm transfer behaviour. Although it is a very large genus (≈800 spp.), mating behaviour has been described for only a few species. Here sperm transfer behaviour is described for the first time in a North American species, Arrenurus manubriator. Behaviour patterns can be divided into pre‐pairing (readiness posture and cauda presentation), pre‐deposition (high vertical jerking, low vertical shaking, striking/stroking and slow lateral waving), spermatophore deposition, sperm translocation, post‐deposition (striking/stroking. slow lateral waving, ‘tick‐rock’, shuttling, violent shaking), and separation. Males deposited 8–21 spermatophores in a mating. Pairs remained together for up to 31/2h. Possible adaptive functions of male courtship behaviour are discussed, including the hypothesis that male intromittant organs evolved in Arrenurus to circumvent female choice.
Reproductive synchrony and annual variation in foetal growth rate in the long‐fingered bat (Miniopterus schreibersii)
Authors: Bernard R. T. F.
Published: March 2009

Mating in the long‐fingered bat (Miniopterus schreibersii) from the East Cape region of South Africa occurred during a four‐week period in April and May, and implantation was delayed until August. Analyses of foetal age and estimated dates of conception indicate that after implantation, the progression of pregnancy within the population was synchronous both within and between years. It is suggested that implantation, probably initiated by increasing day length, occurred at about the same time throughout the population and thus synchronized reproduction. In the final month of pregnancy foetal growth rate and, consequently, the timing of parturition in the three years of the study varied. These variations were correlated with variations in rainfall and it is suggested that the failure of the November rains in 1990 would have caused a reduction in insect abundance and that this was responsible for the decrease in foetal growth rate and the delay in parturition.
Morphological variation in shallow‐water octopuses (Mollusca: Cephalopoda)
Authors: Voight Janet R.
Published: March 2009

Whether the study of external morphology can increase our knowledge of shallow‐water octopuses and their biology is tested by multivariate morphometric analyses. The extent of morphological variation among 20 species from the Atlantic and eastern tropical Pacific Oceans is explored, and four hypotheses are addressed: (1) that octopuses show secondary sexual dimorphism; (2) that remote, ostensibly conspecific populations are morphologically distinct; (3) that morphometric characters contribute to resource partitioning among sympatric species; and (4) that morphology is predictably associated with habitat.

Results of principal components analysis show most species to be very similar in shape. Arm length contributes most shape variation; other characters contribute little. Principal components and size‐free discriminant analyses refute each of the hypotheses considered. The morphological similarity of isolated Atlantic populations may be a symplesiomorphy, but information on the planktonic phase of the octopus lire cycle supports the possibility of dispersal across the Atlantic Ocean. Size, not directly treated here, may significantly affect some aspects of octopus biology. Increased female size may evolve due to selection for increased fecundity and intraspecific niche partitioning. Size may also indicate interaction within and among species. Characters of shape, deemed essential to species descriptions, do not appear to be able to identify most specimens, nor to increase our understanding of octopus biology.
Investigating the evolutionary effects of one feature on another: does muscle spread suppress caudal autotomy in lizards?
Authors: Arnold E. N.
Published: March 2009

Hypotheses of secondary evolutionary change, where alteration in a particular feature is thought to result in change in another, can be tested in two main ways. First, phylogenies can be used to identify separate cases where one of the features changes and each case can then be examined to see whether the other change also actually takes place and if the perceived sequence of the alterations is appropriate. Secondly, the mechanism by which change in the second feature is supposed to be effected can be scrutinized and, in some cases, subjected to experimental investigation.

This approach was applied to a recent hypothesis, that backward spread of the caudifemoralis longus muscle in the tail base of lizards was the primary cause of loss of capacity to autotomize the tail. Some 23 to 25 independent cases of total autotomy loss in adult lizards were identified. In all but six of these there was no substantial spread of the muscle. In two of the remainder, the muscle appears to have spread ufiev autotomy loss, and another case cannot be tested properly as information about relationships is equivocal. The final three cases exhibit extension of the caudifemoralis longus before autotomy loss, but the latter is not found in related species that also inherit muscle extension, which suggests that other causal factors may be involved. In about 15 other cases, where autotomy becomes restricted to the tail base, there is no marked spread of the caudifemoralis longus. The proposed functional link between muscle extension and autotomy loss is also discussed and discounted
Nutrient reserve dynamics and energetics during long‐term fasting in the king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus)
Authors: Cherel Y. , Gilles J. , Handrich Y. , Le Maho Y.
Published: March 2009

Males of king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) naturally fast during one month at the beginning of their breeding cycle in the sub‐Antarctic islands. Previous qualitative data have shown that this species adapts to prolonged fasting by mobilizing fat stores and minimizing protein loss and that this strategy ends with a progressive increase in protein utilization. In the present study, the quantification of nutrient utilization from body composition of captive birds indicates that, during the phase of protein conservation, 93% of the energy produced derives from the oxidation of fat stores, body protein accounting for the remainder (7%). Tissue composition analysis shows that integument (feathers, skin and subdermal fat) is the main lipid source (65% of the fat loss) during this period, and that pectoral muscles provide the majority of body protein (57% of the total loss). If the fast is prolonged until a body mass below 10 kg is reached, there is a progressive four‐fold increase (from 1 68 to 6.50 gN/24h) in nitrogen excretion, together with a progressive exhaustion of fat stores. This shift in fuel metabolism is not a direct consequence of total lipid depletion, because 22% of the initial fat content still remains when proteins are no longer spared. During this later metabolic phase, protein is not only provided by pectoral muscles (71% of the loss), but also by hindlimb muscles (13%), and there remains only 2% of the initial amount of lipid in the integument at the end of the fast. Total energy expenditure is close to the fasting basal metabolic rate during the phase of protein conservation (2.52 W/kg), but it increases by 33% (3.36 W/kg) during the phase of protein wasting. This difference is probably due to a rise in locomotor activity, that is interpreted as reflecting a stimulation of food foraging behaviour before the lethal depletion of nutrient reserves.
Environmental factors influencing habitat exploitation by the polecat Mustela putorius in western France
Authors: Lode T.
Published: March 2009

Variation in habitat use was studied by radiotracking 11 polecats Mustela putorius in two wetlands in western France. Habitat selection showed a clear seasonality. Marshes were the most exploited habitat in spring while woods were mainly used in the coldest months and meadows were frequented in summer and winter. An analysis of scats showed that diet correlated with habitat utilization. The proportions of bank voles Clethrionomys glareolus, and meadow voles Microtus sp. were, respectively, related to the use of woods and meadows, while amphibians (mainly Rana dalmatina and Bufo bufo) were associated with marshes. Availabilities of rodents, assessed monthly by trapline success, were also significantly correlated to their occurrences. In contrast, no correlations were found between larger prey, such as brown rats Rattus norvegicus and rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus, and any habitats or their abundance in the field. The occurrences of these prey and of some minor resources, such as shrews and birds, were correlated most with meteorological factors. The exploitation of marshes and amphibians increased when small rodents declined. Therefore, in the polecat, habitat selection was mostly influenced by trophic factors. Dietary diversity was greater in spring when food resources decreased, suggesting that polecats were optimal foragers. The study has emphasized that the polecat is a generalist feeder.