bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
‘Maximum Leader’
Authors: Paliwal Avinash
Published: December 2017

A key challenge to India’s Afghanistan policy after 9/11 was to balance relations with the newly appointed president Hamid Karzai, and his mainstream political opponents (including former United Front leaders Abdullah Abdullah, Yunus Qanuni, and Mohammad Fahim among others). This chapter argues that apart from debating policy towards the Taliban, the partisans and the conciliators were also at odds on how to engage with Karzai. Wary of Karzai’s historical links with Pakistan, partisans wanted India to focus on his opponents (while maintaining a polite veneer of diplomatic recognition towards him). The conciliators, however, wanted India to have an open approach towards all Afghan political factions including Karzai, and not play favourites.
First as Tragedy, then as Farce
Authors: Paliwal Avinash
Published: December 2017

Better understanding about the Afghan Taliban allowed India to advocate political reconciliation, but also made it wary about the way NATO members — especially the UK — were going about it. This chapter explains why, despite accepting the merits of a political solution, India stiffly opposed the idea of reconciling with the Taliban at the 2010 London Conference. It explains how the partisans and conciliators debated providing lethal military equipment to Afghanistan, why they could not reach a timely decision, and how they viewed the 2014 Afghan elections and the rise of Ashraf Ghani as president of Afghanistan. Critically, the chapter shows the influence that the conciliators exerted on India’s policy in 2015, (despite having a Hindu nationalist government that is staunchly opposed to holding unconditional talks with Pakistan) confidently (but not happily) accepting Ghani’s diplomatic outreach to Pakistan.
Epilogue
Authors: Paliwal Avinash
Published: December 2017

The epilogue brings together all key points highlighted in the book, and delves into the latest developments between India, Pakistan and Afghanistan between late-2015 and in 2016.
White Writers, Race Matters
Authors: Jay Gregory S.
Published: December 2017

White liberal race fiction has been an enduringly popular genre in American literary history. It includes widely read and taught works such as Huckleberry Finn and To Kill a Mockingbird along with period bestsellers now sometimes forgotten. Hollywood regularly adapted them into blockbusters, reinforcing their cultural influence. These novels and films protest slavery, confront stereotypes, dramatize social and legal injustices, engage the political controversies of their time, and try to move readers emotionally toward taking action. The literary forms and arguments of these books derive from the cultural work they intend to do in educating the minds and hearts, and propelling the actions, of those who think they are white—indeed, in making the social construction of that whiteness readable and thus more susceptible of reform. The white writers of these fictions struggle with their own place in systems of oppression and privilege while asking their readers to do the same. The predominance of women among this tradition’s authors leads to exploring how their critiques of gender and race norms often reinforced each other. Each chapter provides a case study combining biography, historical analysis, close reading, and literary theory to map the significance of this genre and its ongoing relevance. This tradition remains vital because every generation must relearn the lessons of antiracism and formulate effective cultural narratives for passing on the intellectual and emotional tools useful in fighting injustice.
Jew Like Me
Authors: Jay Gregory S.
Published: December 2017

The discourse on racial liberalism at mid-century involved the debate over antisemitism, made more urgent by Hitler’s rise in Germany. Born Jewish but largely assimilated, Hobson protested the complicity of liberals with antisemitism in her post–WW II best seller, which featured a gentile journalist passing for Jewish to write his expose. This novel’s reliance on a discourse of empathy ties it closely back to Stowe’s and looks forward to the philosophy at the heart of Lee’s Mockingbird. Here the protagonist, Philip Greene, passes as a Jew to learn how antisemitism feels. Meanwhile his liberal girlfriend hesitates to rent her cottage in a restricted neighborhood to Philip’s Jewish war buddy. Both protagonists exhibit the limitations of liberalism as they confront systemic as well as emotional biases that threaten their idealism.
Speaking of Abjection
Authors: Jay Gregory S.
Published: December 2017

The genre of the white liberal race novel was revived in 2009 by Stockett’s bestseller and its high-profile Hollywood film version. Much controversy broke out over the novel’s depiction of black maids in early 1960s Jackson, Mississippi, which was a center of Civil Rights activism and white backlash. Were these characters stereotypes or deconstructions of the “mammy” figure? The chapter demonstrates that the narrative sections told by the maids contain much subversion, and that even the white protagonist exhibits resistance to orthodox female gender norms. Understanding the novel also requires attention to its specific historical setting amidst the Civil Rights tumult in Mississippi and Alabama during the years in which the novel is set, including the attempt to integrate the universities in those two states and the assassination of Medgar Evers. These events belong to the theme of the necessity for change reiterated throughout the novel.
Anxieties of Experience
Authors: Lawrence Jeffrey
Published: December 2017

Anxieties of Experience: The Literatures of the Americas from Whitman to Bolaño offers a new interpretation of US and Latin American literature from the nineteenth century to the present. Revisiting longstanding debates in the hemisphere about whether the source of authority for New World literature derives from an author’s first-hand contact with American places and peoples or from a creative (mis)reading of existing traditions, the book charts a widening gap in how modern US and Latin American writers defined their literary authority. In the process, it traces the development of two distinct literary strains in the Americas: the “US literature of experience” and the “Latin American literature of the reader.” Reinterpreting a range of canonical works from Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass to Roberto Bolaño’s 2666, Anxieties of Experience shows how this hemispheric literary divide fueled a series of anxieties, misunderstandings, and “misencounters” between US and Latin American authors. In the wake of recent calls to rethink the “common grounds” approach to literature across the Americas, the book advocates a comparative approach that highlights the distinct logics of production and legitimation in the US and Latin American literary fields. Anxieties of Experience closes by exploring the convergence of the literature of experience and the literature of the reader in the first decades of the twenty-first century, arguing that the post-Bolaño moment has produced the strongest signs of a truly reciprocal literature of the Americas in more than a hundred years.
The Content of Parental Rights
Authors: Millum Joseph
Published: December 2017

This chapter develops an account of the content of parental rights—that is, what they are rights to do and against whom they are held. It distinguishes between fundamental parental rights, which are grounded in the interests of the parents, and derivative parental rights, which are grounded in other considerations. It argues that parents have fundamental rights to realize the goods that they have made possible through their work in raising their child. The content of derivative parental rights will depend to a significant extent on how a society or community organizes child-rearing. To illustrate this view the chapter considers putative parental rights to physically punish one’s child and to exercise religious freedom with respect to one’s child. Finally, there is a discussion of the relationship between parental rights and various justice-related considerations. The chapter closes by summarizing a framework for evaluating whether a putative parental right is justified.
Parental Decision-Making
Authors: Millum Joseph
Published: December 2017

This chapter considers how parents should make decisions on their child’s behalf when the child’s interests are in conflict with the interests of other people. This includes such issues as the extent to which parents are permitted to favor themselves over their children, the adjudication of conflicts of interests among siblings, and the permissibility of putting one’s child at risk for the sake of others. The chapter argues for a reasonable subject standard according to which parents should decide on behalf of their child as though she were a rational agent acting prudently within the constraints of what morality requires.
Dehumanization and Mentalizing Animals
Authors: Kasperbauer T.J.
Published: December 2017

This chapter applies the psychological account from chapter 3 on how we rank human beings above other animals, to the particular case of using mental states to assign animals moral status. Experiments on the psychology of mental state attribution are discussed, focusing on their implications for human moral psychology. The chapter argues that attributions of phenomenal states, like emotions, drive our assignments of moral status. It also describes how this is significantly impacted by the process of dehumanization. Psychological research on anthropocentrism and using animals as food and as companions is discussed in order to illuminate the relationship between dehumanization and mental state attribution.
On (Not) Making Oneself Known
Authors: Gibson John
Published: December 2017

This chapter uses an exploration of the nature of selfhood in Hamlet to stage a discussion of the concept of literary knowledge. What does it mean to claim for our various practices of literary production that they can yield, collectively if not always individually, a “form of knowing”: that there exist distinctly literary ways of making sense of the world and thus of presenting it as an object of understanding? Making sense of this, this chapter argues, requires an account of the nature of narrative and the manner in which it bestows a distinct form of intelligibility upon the events it relates. Hamlet brings to view a striking feature of the nature of this intelligibility and its role in generating the forms of meaning that make Hamlet, and literary narrative more generally, elusive.
Hamlet’s Ethics
Authors: Beckwith Sarah
Published: December 2017

“Hamlet’s Ethics” argues that the critical question of delay in Hamlet has blinded readers to the play’s exploration of questions of agency and vision. The so-called indecision of Hamlet at the point of action is framed in the play, but in such a way as to expose and altogether overturn the prototype of revenge. What does it mean to be the author of one’s own acts, and what does one become in doing them? What are the ends of action? Hamlet opens out these questions of what we become by virtue of our acts. In so doing this tragedy offers us an object lesson in ethics, but not as a question of either obligation or choice, but as a question of the vision by which the world comes into focus for us at all.
Interpreting Hamlet
Authors: Gjesdal Kristin
Published: December 2017

In German eighteenth-century culture, Shakespeare’s work was translated, staged, and discussed with a passion that has remained unrivaled. Philosophy was no exception to this trend. In the second half of the eighteenth century, Lessing, Herder, and Schlegel all turned to Shakespeare’s work and used it as an anchoring point for reflection on theater and dramatic poetry. In different ways, they came to see Hamlet a work that captured the dynamics of modern life, especially its emphasis on interpretation, relativism, and the threat of nihilism. The changing attitudes toward Hamlet reflect, in turn, a changing attitude toward interpretation and understanding, as these topics are addressed in Shakespeare’s work and in eighteenth-century aesthetics and philosophy more broadly speaking.
Médecine Rétrospective
Authors: Gotman Kélina
Published: December 2017

Neurology emerged as a transdisciplinary field of research, allying iconographic collage, clinical experimentation, performative re-enactment, narrative, and historiography. Jean-Martin Charcot and his colleagues at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris engaged in what they called ‘retrospective medicine’, an archival exercise that involved compiling images from the past depicting convulsive gestures that represented, they thought, hysteria, epilepsy, and ‘hysteroepilepsy’, a theatrical form of acting out they considered stemmed from the patient’s imagination. From the Convulsionaries of Saint-Médard to maenads on Greek vase paintings and ecstatic figures depicted in religious frescoes, Charcot and his collaborators collected artefacts resembling their patients’ dance-like gestures: arches of the back and other attitudes passionnelles re-enacted on the lecture-hall stage. This exuberant comparativism, and iconographic excavation, paved the way for ethnographic fieldwork (and eventually anthropology), as one neurology student took it into his hands to visit the reportedly still living remains of choreomania in a nearby dancing procession.
Monstrous Grace
Authors: Gotman Kélina
Published: December 2017

The first decades of the twentieth century saw a flurry of dance ‘crazes’, from the tango and the Charleston to the jitterbug, increasingly mapped onto the language of blackness. Jazz, cakewalk, and animal dances infused the social and popular culture of American and European cabarets; yet in the literature on dance and public health, twisting, contortions, hopping, and contagious enthusiasm represented the spectre of sexually taboo and ungainly blackness, against which ‘modern’ (white) dancing set itself. The choreographic discourse on modernity after Sigmund Freud conjugated primitive, infantile gestures with the lowest classes, in contrast to the lithe, ‘graceful’ dancing body exemplified by white socialite teachers Irene and Vernon Castle. They, reprising medical opinion, argued that upright dancing exercised in moderation stimulated youthful health. But the fantasy of convulsive primitivism held strong: from the advent of rock ’n’ roll to raves and Burning Man, figures of Dionysian frenzy persist.
The Protestant Establishment in Action
Authors: Kemeny P. C.
Published: December 2017

The Watch and Ward Society was very effective at enforcing Protestant mores, especially through lobbying efforts and work as an extralegal police force that strove to enforce the state’s anti-obscenity laws. The anti-vice society employed three closely related strategies to combat the arguments of free love and free speech activists and to suppress the sale of obscene material. First, reformers lobbied state legislatures to pass more effective anti-obscenity statutes. Second, they demanded that the police enforce the laws, and they investigated book and magazine vendors to aid the police in their work. Finally, they pressured publishers and bookstore owners to refrain from selling objectionable materials. Examining the controversy over the publication of Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass in 1882–83 illustrates the organization’s effectiveness.
Ministry to Rodeo Cowboys
Authors: Dallam Marie W.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 3 is concerned with the many forms of organized religion that began among cowboys in the second half of the twentieth century. It examines early rodeo ministry organizations, racetrack ministries, and cowboy churches dating back as far as the 1970s. It begins by describing the rough lifestyle of rodeo cowboys and the opening that this created for early rodeo ministry. It then talks about some of the first cowboy churches and the development of the cowboy church as a networked institution. It concludes with consideration of a famous prophecy from Pentecostal evangelist Smith Wigglesworth, in which he allegedly anticipated the cowboy church movement.
Introduction
Authors: Hogan Patrick Colm
Published: December 2017

The introduction first sets out some preliminary definitions of sex, sexuality, and gender. It then turns from the sexual part of Sexual Identities to the identity part. A great deal of confusion results from failing to distinguish between identity in the sense of a category with which one identifies (categorial identity) and identity in the sense of a set of patterns that characterize one’s cognition, emotion, and behavior (practical identity). The second section gives a brief summary of this difference. The third and fourth sections sketch the relation of the book to social constructionism and queer theory, on the one hand, and evolutionary-cognitive approaches to sex, sexuality, and gender, on the other. The fifth section outlines the value of literature in not only illustrating, but advancing a research program in sex, sexuality, and gender identity. Finally, the introduction provides an overview of the chapters in this volume.
Sexuality and Regulatory Regimes
Authors: Hogan Patrick Colm
Published: December 2017

The fourth chapter takes us to the regulation of sexuality, specifically developing the relation of such regulation to the formation and operation of identity groups. The first section argues that there are complex ways in which identity categories may interact with emotional attitudes to produce different sorts of identity oppositions. Disgust seems especially important in defining the limits of tolerance, including limits enforced by coercion or violence. Moreover, disgust appears to have a particularly strong connection with sexuality. The chapter goes on to consider Bhaṭṭa Jayánta’s Āgamaḍambara, a tenth-century work from Kashmir that directly treats sexuality and social tolerance across identity groups. Specifically, it suggests the profound importance of sexual liberation—not only for sexual minorities, but for a range of groups that might be subjected to social exclusion. From here, the chapter turns to Banks’s Lost Memory of Skin, a novel treating current U.S. practices surrounding sexual offenders.
Afterword
Authors: Hogan Patrick Colm
Published: December 2017

The afterword takes up two unresolved issues. First, just what might motivate individuals to commit themselves to identifying with a group category? Second, do groups gain absolute benefits through identity categories or only relative benefits, perhaps with increased harm in absolute terms? For example, it seems clear that having French national identity is valuable in opposing Nazis; thus, it has relative value. But there would be no Nazis in the first place if there were no categorial identification. Thus, national identity may reduce well-being across the board. The final section of the afterword examines an empirical analysis that purports to show that identity categories are important for the well-being of individuals and societies. The chapter argues that the data are better explained by the hypothesis that economic and democratic empowerment—not identity categorization—are crucial for the well-being of individuals and societies.
Membrane theory
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: December 2017

This chapter develops two-dimensional membrane theory as a leading order small-thickness approximation to the three-dimensional theory for thin sheets. Applications to axisymmetric equilibria are developed in detail, and applied to describe the phenomenon of bulge propagation in cylinders.
Linearized theory, the second variation and bifurcation of equilibria
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: December 2017

This chapter develops the criterion of the second variation of energy and its connection to bifurcation buckling. It includes a non-standard treatment accounting for local constraints.
Elements of plasticity theory
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 13 develops the modern theory for finite elastic-plastic deformations. It covers dissipation and highlights the role of the Eshelby tensor, and recovers the classical theory for isotropic materials using material symmetry arguments. Also developed are the equations of classical slip-line theory for plane-strain deformations.
Conclusion
Authors: Sawada Osamu
Published: December 2017

Chapter 10 summarizes the book’s analyses and proposal regarding (i) similarities and differences between semantic scalar modifiers and pragmatic scalar modifiers, (ii) variations in pragmatic scalar modifiers, (iii) interpretations of embedded pragmatic scalar modifiers, and (iv) the historical development of pragmatic scalar modifiers, and considers theoretical implications. The dual-use phenomenon of scalar modifiers and the interpretations of pragmatic scalar modifiers suggest that although there is a difference between at-issue and not-at-issue meanings, they have a flexible relationship. The chapter argues that both types of meanings must be captured in a unified or flexible fashion. This multidimensional approach is compared to other alternative approaches: the relevance-theoretic approach and Bach’s approach, which does not assume the notion of a CI. Finally, possible future directions for studies of pragmatic scalar modifiers and not-at-issue content are briefly considered.
Knowledge First
Authors: Carter J. Adam , Gordon Emma C. , Jarvis Benjamin W.
Published: December 2017

In this introductory chapter, the volume’s editors provide a theoretical background to the volume’s topic and a brief overview of the papers included. The chapter is divided into five parts: Section 1 explains the main contours of the knowledge-first approach, as it was initially advanced by Timothy Williamson in Knowledge and its Limits. In Sections 2–3, some of the key philosophical motivations for the knowledge-first approach are reviewed, and several key contemporary research themes associated with this approach in epistemology, the philosophy of mind and elsewhere are outlined and briefly discussed. The volume’s papers are divided into two broad categories: foundational issues and applications and new directions. Section 4 discusses briefly the scope and aim of the volume as the editors have conceived it, and Section 5 offers an overview of each of the individual contributions in the volume.
Perception First?
Authors: Logue Heather
Published: December 2017

Heather Logue, like Williamson, investigates an analogy—in her case, an analogy between knowledge and perception. This chapter asks if knowledge is unanalysable, might also perception be? After all, the history of attempts to analyse the perceptual relation have been subject to counterexamples in such as way as to broadly mirror the track record of the post-Gettier literature. To the extent that the failure of the post-Gettier project motivates a knowledge-first approach, it is natural to wonder whether an analogous sort of failure to analyse (in a fashion that avoids counterexamples) the perceptual relation motivates a perception-first approach. However, this chapter argues that even if the perceptual relation turns out to be unanalysable, this does not necessarily mean that we should embrace a perception-first approach. Finally, it suggests that there might, nonetheless, be an alternative motivation for a perception-first approach.
In Support of the Knowledge-First Conception of the Normativity of Justification
Authors: Meylan Anne
Published: December 2017

The knowledge-first solution to the New Evil Demon Problem (NEDP) goes hand in hand with a particular conception of the normativity of justification, one according to which a justified belief is one that satisfies some sort of “ought” or “should” This claim is incompatible with another, well-accepted view regarding the normativity of justification. According to this established view, a justified belief is rather something that is neither obligatory, nor forbidden. This chapter attempts to settle the debate between these two irreconcilable conceptions of the normativity of justification. The main upshot is that the knowledge-first conception of the normativity of justification—the one on which the knowledge-first solution to the NEDP relies—seems in fact superior.
Gettiered Belief
Authors: Coffman E. J.
Published: December 2017

Gettiered beliefs are beliefs that fall short of knowledge in the way illustrated by Gettier cases: cases like those Edmund Gettier employed to show that justified true belief doesn’t suffice for knowledge. What has happened to a belief that falls short of knowledge in the way such cases illustrate? I focus initially on two leading substantive answers, what I call the Ease of Mistake Approach and the Lack of Credit Approach. After critically assessing and rejecting each of these approaches, I introduce and evaluate two less prominent approaches to gettiered belief. According to the view I settle on—a species of what I call the Risk of Misleading Justification Approach—a gettiered belief is one which is justified and true, yet held in such a way that the belief’s subject either actually is justified in believing many falsehoods similar to its propositional content or could well have been so justified.
Knowledge, Luck, and Virtue
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: December 2017

The Gettier Problem is conceived in a specific fashion as the problem of offering an informative (but not necessarily reductive) Gettier-proof analysis of knowledge. A solution is offered to this problem via anti-luck virtue epistemology. This is an account of knowledge which incorporates both an anti-luck condition and a virtue condition, and which is thereby able to avoid problems that face some of the main competing accounts of knowledge, particularly those offered by proponents of robust virtue epistemology. In particular, it is able to accommodate the epistemic dependence of knowledge on external factors, where this has both a positive and a negative aspect. Relatedly, it can also avoid the problem posed by epistemic twin earth cases. Anti-luck virtue epistemology is then motivated and defended in light of a range of objections, in order to demonstrate its potential as a resolution to the Gettier Problem, so conceived.
Chained to the Gettier Problem— a Useful Falsehood?
Authors: Shope Robert K.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 5 refines a solution previously proposed to the Gettier Problem focusing on proscribing certain roles for falsehoods in a ‘justification-explaining chain.’ The refinement is partly explained in contrast to Peter D. Klein’s defeasibility theory of knowledge, which focuses on proscribing certain relations of truths to ‘chains of justifiers.’ Klein eventually revised his defeasibility account in order to allow for instances of knowledge that depend on what he calls ‘useful falsehoods.’ His definition of the latter turns out to face counterexamples. An improved definition allows a role for useful falsehoods in justification-explaining chains. It also has the unexpected effect of pointing toward a solution to the Gettier Problem that obviates the need to appeal to either type of chain.
The Metaphysical Gettier Problem and the X-Phi Critique
Authors: Sosa Ernest
Published: December 2017

What follows lays out and rebuts methodological objections to metaphysical analysis. Metaphysical analysis must be distinguished from conceptual or semantic inquiry, and also from the mere search for necessary biconditionals, which can fail to provide the metaphysical explanation of special interest to the philosopher. Clarity on the metaphysical project of analysis protects a traditional form of armchair analysis from two radically different attacks. Section 1 will lay out that traditional approach, which turns out to be safe from the objections aimed against more familiar approaches in Timothy Williamson’s Philosophy of Philosophy. Section 2 will rebut the x-phi critique of the armchair, with a defense based in part on the results of Section 1.
Knowledge, Noise, and Curve-Fitting
Authors: Weinberg Jonathan M.
Published: December 2017

The psychology of the ‘Gettier effect’ appears robust—but complicated. Contrary to initial reports, more recent and thorough work by several groups of researchers indicates strongly that it is in fact found widely across cultures. Nonetheless, I argue that the pattern of psychological results should not at all be taken to settle the epistemological questions about the nature of knowledge. For the Gettier effect occurs both intermittently and with sensitivity to epistemically irrelevant factors. In short, the effect is noisy. And good principles of model selection indicate that, the noisier one’s data, the more one should prefer simpler curves over those that may be more complicated yet hew closer to the data. While we should not endorse K=JTB at this time, nonetheless the question ‘Is knowledge really just justified true belief?’ ought to be treated as once again in play.
Dangerous Liaisons
Authors: Sajó András , Uitz Renáta
Published: December 2017

This chapter examines the idea of separating distinct governmental functions into at least three branches (horizontal separation) as a means to safeguard individual liberty. The three branches of government have different functions: the legislature legislates, the executive branch executes the laws, and the judiciary administers justice. This corresponds to the functional distribution of essential governmental tasks and competences. The chapter explores how governments based on separated (or at least divided) powers work, in a perpetual balancing exercise as a result of the operation of checks and balances. Finally, it discusses independent agencies that are now routinely added to the old constitutional mix of powers and the problem of outsourcing public powers to private actors.
The Executive Power
Authors: Sajó András , Uitz Renáta
Published: December 2017

This chapter examines the self-perpetuation of the executive branch. Since constitutions usually concentrate on the position and powers of the chief executive, they feed the mistaken impression that the executive branch is synonymous with the will of a single president or prime minister. In reality, executive power in a modern regulatory state is not a one-man show. The chapter provides an overview of where the executive branch comes from before discussing the origins and scope of presidential power. It then considers the role of cabinets, councils, and prime ministers in parliamentary systems, along with the confidence mechanism that serves as the lifeline between the legislature and the executive (cabinet). It also explores the responsibility and accountability of the executive branch, and considers measures aimed at limiting the powers of the executive within the constitutional framework.
The Rule of Law and Its Executors
Authors: Sajó András , Uitz Renáta
Published: December 2017

This chapter examines rule of law and how it relates to constitutionalism. Since the 1990s, governance reform, constitutional assistance and development work worldwide have focused on building and promoting the rule of law. To make technical solutions associated with the rule of law more palatable across political regimes, constitutionalism, democracy, and the protection of human rights are often pushed to the sidelines. After providing an overview of the origins of the rule of law state, this chapter discusses the virtues of the rule of law, as opposed to rule by man. It also considers the negative aspects of the rule of law, noting that without constitutionalism, protection against despotism, purely on the basis of the rule of law, is limited. Finally, it looks at how the law is enforced and justice administered by the courts, along with the juridification and judicialization of politics.
Rights
Authors: Sajó András , Uitz Renáta
Published: December 2017

Constitutionalism, by restricting the (actual and potential) autocracy of the state, is intended to help people live in freedom or at least free from governmental despotism. It offers a practical chance for the individual to make up their own mind about what they want to do with their life. Fundamental rights thus have a privileged role in the constitution of liberty. This chapter examines how constitutions handle fundamental rights. This chapter first provides an overview of what constitutional rights are about before discussing the histories, theories, and contingencies of constitutionalized rights. It then looks at practical considerations which animate constitutionalism’s rights-based programme of anti-despotism. It also asks which fundamental rights should be protected by the constitution, including the so-called positive rights, and what fundamental rights imply. Finally, it describes restrictions on fundamental rights.
Constitutions Under Stress
Authors: Sajó András , Uitz Renáta
Published: December 2017

This chapter examines how constitutions fare in crisis situations, under stress, with special attention to three disturbing scenarios. The classic form of lifting constitutionalism occurs under the guise of emergency. The official purpose of emergency powers is simple: to restore constitutional normalcy after a sudden shock. The idea that constitutional democracy should be able to defend itself from its enemies also sounds appealing. However, this militant democracy remains ambiguous and an invitation to and justification for abuse of powers. In closing, the chapter considers the rise of the preventive state and its implications for constitutionalism, especially in governments engaged in a war on terror.
Prayer as Acceptance of Time
Authors: Teubner Jonathan D.
Published: December 2017

Chapter 2 examines Augustine’s ‘ascents of the soul’, and how, over time, this motif shapes Augustine’s understanding of both his beliefs about and practices of prayer. Extending a line of argument that begins in Chapter 1, this chapter inspects how Augustine makes a shift in the structure of the ascent that has profound and lasting consequences: whereas in De ordine and De quantitate animae ascent is envisioned as the mind’s ascent to vision, in De vera religione the ascent is more properly characterized as the human being’s temporal journey towards the beata vita that is enticed by the truth of Scripture. De sermone Domini in monte emerges as a pivotal text for the development of Augustine’s exercitatio animi. This chapter concludes with a detailed analysis of Augustine’s commentary on the Lord’s Prayer, which is his first attempt at integrating prayer and the ‘ascent of the soul’.
Railton’s Resolution of Our Disagreements
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter resolves the disagreements which arose in the previous chapter. Metaphysical naturalists believe that there are no ontologically weighty non-natural normative properties and truths. But naturalists can believe that there are some non-ontological normative properties and truths. Some examples are truths about which acts are wrong, and about which facts give us normative reasons. We could justifiably believe that there are such normative truths, since this belief would not add anything mysterious to our ontology. These claims have led to the belief that there are some normative truths of a different kind that have yet to be considered. Furthermore, this wider view avoids or answers all of the previous chapters' objections to Normative Naturalism, such as the normativity and triviality objections, and what is called the soft naturalist's dilemma.
Morality, Blame, and Internal Reasons
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter presents two claims. The first is that no fact could give us a reason if we could not possibly be aware of this fact, or our awareness of this fact could not possibly motivate us. Next is that the moral wrongness of an act cannot give us a reason if we could not possibly believe that such acts are wrong. To both these claims, the chapter maintains an externalist view in accepting these claims. However, it also rejects the claim that an act's wrongness cannot give us a reason unless our belief that this act is wrong would actually motivate us. With several more claims regarding moral accountability and blameworthiness, this chapter makes further arguments concerning the true beliefs about reasons that are considered either externalist or objectivist.
Nietzsche’s Mountain
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter discusses the convergence claim. This claim argues that, if everyone knew all of the relevant non-normative facts, used the same normative concepts, understood and carefully reflected on the relevant arguments, and was not affected by any distorting influence, we would nearly all have similar normative beliefs. It also discusses some counterpoints to attempts to reconcile some of Friedrich Nietzsche's claims with what most of us believe. Though Nietzsche sometimes denies that suffering is in itself bad, and even suggests that suffering may be in itself good, that was not, in most of his life, what Nietzsche believed. The chapter goes on to discuss further arguments for and against the Convergence Claim.
What Matters and Universal Reasons
Authors: Parfit Derek
Published: December 2017

This chapter takes a look at the Any-All Thesis. Regarding the argument that some of our reasons are purely personal in the sense that no one else has any such corresponding impartial reasons, this chapter contends that, as the Any-All Thesis claims, there are no such purely personal reasons. We have no reason to try to achieve some aim if this aim's achievement would not be in any way good. When we have some aim whose achievement would be in some way good, everyone has a weak impartial reason to want us to achieve this aim. In addition, this chapter considers some plausible counterexamples to the Any-All Thesis. It shows how, if we can defend this thesis, we can be Universalists about what matters.
The skeleton, support and movement
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

Buoyancy largely supports fish, reducing the role of the skeleton, which functions as an attachment for muscle involved in movement and in protection, as exoskeleton (scales, scutes, bony plates) and as endoskeleton (vertebral column, skull). The general organization of fish skeletons and their component parts are described, as well as bone and cartilage. The interesting occurrence of acellular bone, additional to cellular bone, in teleosts is considered. Fish show metameric segmentation with myotomes on either side of the vertebral column, the latter acting as a compression strut, preventing shortening. Myotome muscle is organized into linear units named sarcomeres which contract by means of protein fibres, myosin and actin, sliding past each other. Usually fish body wall muscles occur as a thin outer layer of aerobic red muscle, with an inner thick region of anaerobic white muscle. Interspecific variability in the relative roles of myotomes and fin musculature in swimming is discussed.
Reproduction
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

Interspecific fish reproductive patterns, outputs and life cycles display the greatest variability within the vertebrates. Early stages of oogenesis can be repeated in adult fish, contrasting with mammals; the pre-set sequence of cell divisions in gametogenesis is otherwise similar and is described in detail. Most fish deposit much yolk (vitellogenesis) in developing eggs. Migrations, beach-spawning and mouth-brooding are some of the interesting variations. Fertilization is predominantly external but is internal in some groups such as chondrichthyans. The omission of annual reproduction is well established in some freshwater species and the idea that this may also be the case for marine teleosts is gaining acceptance. This should be taken into account for intensively fished species. The possible roles of external cues, hormones, pheromones and neural factors acting as ‘switches’ and coordinators in gametogenesis and reproductive behaviour are discussed.
Conservation and fish function
Authors: Burton Derek , Burton Margaret
Published: December 2017

The future for fish is a matter of concern. Individual fish may need specific conditions and are increasingly constrained by habitat changes and destruction, such as the reduction of wetlands. Pollution and temperature change affect fish negatively. It has recently been suggested that extinction rates for freshwater fish are very high. Generally, the wild fishery has no owner, ‘the tragedy of the commons’ may apply with nobody taking adequate responsibility. Increasing awareness is promoting conservation and conservation physiology. This can involve aquaculture, reducing the wild fisheries and captive breeding to rehabilitate stocks. Problems arise with overoptimistic views of bony fish reproductive capacity, a proportion may omit gametogenesis dependent on nutrition or temperature conditions. Conservation measures include establishing ‘marine protected areas’ which help recovery of fish populations. Support for conservation depends on education and knowledge-based decisions rather than inappropriate political compromises, particularly when international groups discuss the problems.
Editor’s Introduction
Authors: Sinclair Mark
Published: December 2017

This chapter introduces the historical approach of the volume in the context of modal doctrines in contemporary philosophy, and offers a broad survey of the history of modal metaphysics. It discusses how a statistical approach to modality in ancient Greek philosophy was overtaken by a notion of possible worlds admitting unrealized possibilities, a notion that would receive its clearest expression in the philosophy of Leibniz. I discuss how Leibniz’s ideas form the historical background to twentieth-century possible worlds theories of modality, and how those theories have been challenged recently by more Aristotelian approaches. The chapter summarizes and contextualizes the following chapters of the book.
Heidegger on ‘Possibility’
Authors: Sinclair Mark
Published: December 2017

This essay examines Heidegger’s promotion of a sense of possibility in Sein und Zeit and his later work. Heidegger’s famous account of our practical engagement with things already involves, as I show, a notion of being-possible, which is fully developed in his account of Dasein’s movedness. I argue that this account of our own mode of being is based on an interpretation of Aristotle’s definition of movement as the actuality of the possible as possible. After showing how Heidegger’s famous analysis of death as the ‘possibility of impossibility’ can be understood on this basis, I explore how his (neo)-Aristotelian claims are modified in the 1930s by a reflection on art-production.
Introduction
Authors: Saitoh E.
Published: December 2017

This chapter is an introduction to the concept of spin current, the detailed formulation of which is not simple by any means and is still a challenging undertaking. However, it is a useful and versatile concept that has given birth to a number of phenomena in condensed matter science and spintronics. There exist certain types of flow, carried by electrons, in condensed matter. This flow of electron charge or electric current has been developed and is now a vital contributor to how electronics is understood today. Since an electron carries both charge and spin, the existence of an electric current naturally implies the existence of a flow of spin. This flow is called a spin current.
Exchange spin current
Authors: Saitoh E. , Ando K.
Published: December 2017

This chapter introduces the concept of exchange spin current, which derives from rewriting the exchange interaction in magnets and formulating a spin-wave spin current. States of matter can be classified into several types in terms of magnetic properties. In paramagnetic and diamagnetic states, matter has no magnetic order and exhibits zero magnetization in the absence of external magnetic fields. In ferromagnetic states, the permanent magnetic moments of atoms or ions align parallel to a certain direction, and the matter exhibits finite magnetization even in the absence of external magnetic fields. In ferrimagnets, the moments align antiparallel but the cancellation is not perfect and net magnetization appears. This interaction that aligns spins is called the exchange interaction.
Topological spin current
Authors: Saitoh E.
Published: December 2017

This chapter discusses another type of equilibrium-spin current similar to the exchange-spin current—the topological spin current. Topological spin currents are driven by topological-band structure and classified into bulk and surface topological spin currents. The former is confined onto electron-band manifolds, sometimes affecting their motions. This confinement is addressed through the standard method of combining the equations of motion and the Boltzmann equation for semi-classical electrons in a band. The latter class, on the other hand, is a surface-spin current, which is limited near surfaces of a three-dimensional system and flows along these surfaces. This type is known to appear in topological insulators, where the bulk is insulating but the surface or edge is electrically conducting due to the surface or edge state.
Spin polarization in magnets
Authors: Takanashi K. , Sakuraba Y.
Published: December 2017

This chapter explains how the exchange splitting between up- and down-spin bands in ferromagnets unexceptionally generates spin-polarized electronic states at the Fermi energy. The quantity of spin polarization P in ferromagnets is one of the important parameters for application in spintronics, since a ferromagnet having a higher P is able to generate larger various spin-dependent effects such as the magnetoresistance effect, spin transfer torque, spin accumulation, and so on. However, the spin polarizations of general 3d transition metals or alloys generally limit the size of spin-dependent effects. Thus,“‘half-metals” attract much interest as an ideal source of spin current and spin-dependent scattering because they possess perfectly spin-polarized conduction electrons due to the energy band gap in either the up- or down-spin channel at the Fermi level.
Spin Caloritronics
Authors: Bauer G. E. W.
Published: December 2017

This chapter focuses on spin caloritronics, the field combining thermoelectrics with spintronics and nanomagnetism. Spin caloritronics is concerned with new physics related to spin, charge, and entropy/energy transport in materials and nanoscale structures and devices. Heat and spin effects are also coupled by the dissipation and noise associated with magnetization dynamics. Spin caloritronics lead to low power nan-scale devices and provide new strategies for waste heat recovery.
Multiferroics
Authors: Nagaosa N.
Published: December 2017

This chapter delves into the physics of multiferroics, the recent developments of which are discussed here from the viewpoint of the spin current and “emergent electromagnetism” for constrained systems. It presents the three sources of U(1) gauge fields, namely, the Berry phase associated with the noncollinear spin structure, the spin-orbit interaction (SOI), and the usual electromagnetic field. The chapter reviews multiferroic phenomena in noncollinear magnets from this viewpoint and discusses theories of multiferroic behavior of cycloidal helimagnets in terms of the spin current or vector spin chirality. Relativistic SOI leads to a coupling between the spin current and the electric polarization, and hence the ferroelectric and dielectric responses are a new and important probe for the spin states and their dynamical properties. Microscopic theories of the ground state polarization for various electronic configurations, collective modes including the electromagnon, and some predictions including photoinduced chirality switching are discussed with comparison to experimental results.