bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Contesting Methodism
Authors: Watson Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

This chapter connects Matthew Simpson and B.T. Roberts and shows why they should be seen as representative figures of the initial theological fragmentation in American Methodism. Simpson’s role as presiding bishop at the Genesee Annual Conference after Roberts was expelled, and the additional expulsions of “Nazarites” that happened at the 1859 Conference are discussed. The most in-depth focus is on the entry “Free Methodists” in The Cyclopaedia of Methodism, which Simpson edited. The Free Methodists disagreed strongly with the content of this one-page article. The result was the commissioning of B.T. Roberts, now a General Superintendent in the Free Methodist Church, to write a formal response. Roberts wrote a book-length rebuttal, Why Another Sect. The initial fragmentation of American Methodism is explored through the ways that Simpson and Roberts were connected from Roberts’s expulsion through the first decades of Free Methodism.
Embodying Methodist Theology
Authors: Watson Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

This chapter explores the diverging conceptions of holy living in Simpson and Roberts in depth. The chapter argues that Simpson was most concerned with growing and expanding the Methodist Episcopal Church, often compromising on what had been core commitments of Methodism in the hope of gaining a broader audience and expanding the institution. Roberts, on the other hand, believed that these same compromises were leading to a sacrifice of Methodism’s mission to “spread scriptural holiness.” The chapter outlines disagreements about how holiness should be expressed in the lives of Methodists, focusing in particular on differences in church buildings, dress and personal wealth, secret societies, and slavery. The chapter concludes by discussing the different visions for the future of American Methodism that Simpson and Roberts had, as a result of these different understandings of the importance of holiness and how it should be expressed in the lives of Methodists.
Conclusion
Authors: Watson Kevin M.
Published: March 2019

The conclusion summarizes the argument and highlights the potential contributions of the book. Old or New School Methodism? has implications for understanding the beginning of the Church of the Nazarene. This study also has implications for Methodist theological education and diverging understandings of the purpose of theological education. The chapter points to Borden Parker Bowne and Henry Clay Morrison as illustrative of this tension. The conclusion also argues that this study offers a challenge to contemporary big-tent visions for American Methodism, noting that this vision came out of a moment of transition that was seen by Methodists like B.T. Roberts as a betrayal of Methodism’s theological heritage. Finally, it is argued that this study contributes to contemporary Wesleyan/Methodist communities wrestling with their own theological heritage by pointing to the importance of entire sanctification for this tradition and the value of Christian ecumenical engagement outside of Methodism.
Capital Women
Authors: Zanden Jan Luiten van , Carmichael Sarah , Moor Tine De
Published: March 2019

This book argues that the position of women in late medieval and early modern Europe was relatively strong. This, van Zanden, De Moor, and Carmichael argue, is evident from the fact that marriage was usually based on consensus, implying that women had a clear say in their marriage. The authors analyze the medieval roots of this European Marriage Pattern, demonstrating that it was much stronger in northwestern Europe than in the Mediterranean. That women had considerable agency was one of the factors behind the rise of Europe in the centuries before the Industrial Revolution. This had huge consequences for the average age of marriage (which was very high), fertility (which was restricted by the high age of marriage), human capital formation (resulting in high levels of numeracy and literacy), and labor-force participation by women. However, the authors also explore the negative effects of the European Marriage Pattern, such as the greater vulnerability of these relatively small families, and the large group of single women, subject to external shocks particularly in old age. Special institutions emerged, such as the beguinages, to cope with these pressures. Finally, by comparing these European households with household patterns in the rest of Eurasia, this book puts the European Marriage Pattern into global perspective.
The Broader Picture
Authors: Luiten Jan
Published: March 2019

This chapter introduces the concept of female agency and sets up the framework for the rest of the book. The authors explain how age at marriage can be an indicator of the degree of power a woman has in a relationship, as well as her role in society. This chapter argues that the European Marriage Pattern (free choice of marriage partner) played a fundamental role in the economic development of Western Europe, leading to the Industrial Revolution and a higher standard of living. The authors explore the contemporary situation, presenting correlations between marriage age and composite measures of gender equality, as well as zooming out to the global level to discuss differences in how women have fared in terms of human capital formation, access to the capital market, and participation in the labor market.
The Patterns Behind Change
Authors: Luiten Jan
Published: March 2019

This chapter argues that the European Marriage Pattern (EMP) played a fundamental role in western Europe’s economic development. The EMP emerged in northwestern Europe in the late medieval period as a result of the Catholic Church’s promotion of marriage based on consensus, the rise of labor markets, and specific institutions concerning property transfers between generations that encouraged wage labor by women. This combination of factors resulted in a demographic regime embedded in a highly commercial environment, in which households interacted frequently with labor, capital, and commodity markets. The authors also discuss possible long-term consequences for human capital formation and institution building, which are elaborated upon in later chapters of the book.
The “Dark Side” of the EMP?
Authors: Luiten Jan
Published: March 2019

This chapter addresses several issues, with the aim of refining and reorienting the debate about the nuclear hardship hypothesis. Several indicators show that the primacy of the European nuclear household did not lead to more hardship; in fact, the evidence points in the contrary direction. Nor would it be fair to claim that this outcome is entirely due to top-down provisions, and in particular charity. The authors stress the institutional diversity of solutions for hardship, and focus on one particular group in society, the elderly. They demonstrate that the elderly had more “agency” than usually expected and that a combination of institutional arrangements, besides the top-down provisions, in which the elderly participated actively offered more resilience so as to deal with “hardship.”
From Mind Cure to Mindfulness: What Got Lost
Authors: Hickey Wakoh Shannon
Published: March 2019

This chapter considers the early, community-oriented wing of New Thought movement and the Mindfulness movement side by side and identifies several characteristics they have in common, as well as significant differences between them. The Mindfulness movement is similar in various ways to Individualist New Thought. This analysis reveals some of the problems and limitations inherent in the Mindfulness movement’s approach to meditation, from both Buddhist and scientific perspectives. By extracting meditation from its religious contexts and meanings and turning it into an individual technique for reducing stress, several important resources get “lost in translation.” These include the social and spiritual benefits of religious community; fundamental aspects of Buddhist and neo-Vedanta spiritual paths, particularly the ethical foundations of meditation and yoga; and systemic analyses of the causes of suffering and stress-related illness, including racism, sexism, and poverty.
Former Ottomans in the Ranks
Authors: Fahrenthold Stacy D.
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines the clandestine recruitment of ten thousand Syrian migrants into the militaries of the Entente powers. As conditions deteriorated in Ottoman Syria and Mount Lebanon, Syrian migrant organizations shifted from providing humanitarian relief toward military resistance against the Ottoman state. Activists from competing Syrianist, Lebanist, and Arab nationalist movements produced propaganda in support of the war against Istanbul, conducted espionage for the Entente powers, and recruited Arab men from across the mahjar into Entente military service. The chapter tracks migrant networks between Syrians in Brazil, Argentina, and the United States who worked to deliver migrant troops to the army, where the US government granted recruits passports and a post-Ottoman nationality status to facilitate their service. Syrians joined up under a patriotic rhetoric promising the war would deliver Syria’s liberation, but they also resented nationalists’ attempts to claim them as symbols for competing homeland projects.
Travelling Syrians, Immovable Turks
Authors: Fahrenthold Stacy D.
Published: March 2019

This chapter investigates passport fraud and migrant smuggling between the 1918 armistice and the establishment of the French Mandate in 1920. During the war, the United States had progressively identified “Syrian” as a national origins category to exempt Arab migrants from travel restrictions imposed on other Ottoman nationals. The French consulates of the Americas expanded this nationality category by offering Syrian migrants sauf conduit (or safe conduct) passports to facilitate repatriation after 1918. These passports claimed Syrian and Lebanese migrants as French protected persons, exempting them from America’s travel ban while also claiming them as future French colonials. France used the document to bolster its own claims to Syria and Mount Lebanon as a League of Nations Mandate, but the passport also opened the door to migrant smuggling. Because US laws governing national origins remained ambiguous, smugglers turned ineligible Ottoman Kurds and Turks into “Syrians” on paper.
Mandating the Mahjar
Authors: Fahrenthold Stacy D.
Published: March 2019

This chapter analyzes Lebanon’s census of 1921 and argues that the French Mandate counted emigrants to bolster the confessional system it was building in Greater Lebanon (Grand Liban). As the Mandate’s first point of contact with its colonial citizens, census-taking was a means of refracting French authority into the transnational Lebanese communities. The Mandate used census records in lieu of a formal Lebanese nationality, making optional registration a deeply politicized act among Lebanese and Syrian migrant communities in the Americas. For some, being counted was the first act of a new Lebanese citizenship; for others, it was intolerable sublimation beneath the colonial yoke. The French Mandate used the census to domesticate the diaspora, to parse friend from foe, and to cut ties with perceived troublemakers.
Calculated Surprises
Authors: Lenhard Johannes
Published: March 2019

In this book, Lenhard concentrates on the ways in which computers and simulation are transforming the established conception of mathematical modeling. His core thesis is that simulation modeling constitutes a new mode of mathematical modeling that is rearranging and inverting key features of the established conception. Although most of these new key features—such as experimentation, exploration, and epistemic opacity—have their precursors, the new ways in which they are being combined is generating a distinctive style of scientific reasoning. Lenhard also documents how simulation is affecting fundamental concepts of solution, understanding, and validation. He feeds these transformations back into the philosophy of science, thereby opening up new perspectives on longstanding oppositions. By combining historical investigations with practical aspects, the book is accessible for a broad audience of readers. Numerous case studies covering a wide range of simulation techniques are balanced with broad reflections on science and technology. Initially, what computers are good at is calculating—with a speed and accuracy far beyond human capabilities. Lenhard goes further and investigates the emerging characteristics of computer-based modeling, showing how this initially simple observation is creating a number of surprising challenges for the methodology and epistemology of science. These calculated surprises will attract both philosophers and scientific practitioners who are interested in reflecting on recent developments in science and technology.
Experiment and Artificiality
Authors: Lenhard Johannes
Published: March 2019

This chapter works out in what way or ways experimentation is fitted into the process of simulation modeling: how much do numerical experiments contribute to making simulation modeling a special type of mathematical modeling? The main point of the chapter is that the discreteness of the computer makes it necessary to perform repeated experimental adjustments throughout the modeling process. Experimentation and modeling, it is argued, build an explorative cooperation. Experimental practice (in the ordinary sense) is bound up with adjustments such as calibrating instruments. With simulation, they become essential to mathematical modeling, as well. Atmospheric circulation models are discussed as an illustrating case.
Introduction
Authors: Dombo Eileen A. , Sabatino Christine Anlauf
Published: March 2019

Chapter 1 explains the basic assumption of the book: that school social workers are in a position to provide leadership, knowledge, and skills to create trauma-informed schools and foster resilience in schoolchildren. Trauma-informed schools aim to address students’ dysfunctional academic and behavioral performance driven by affective and physiological arousal. The correlation between high rates of trauma exposure and poor academic performance is established in the scholarly literature, as is the need for trauma-informed schools and communities. However, researchers are now finding negative effects on school outcomes for children who have not directly experienced trauma, but whose classmates have. This means that all children benefit from trauma-informed schools. School social workers are in a prime position to prevent and address trauma, and this book provides current knowledge and concrete skills to guide development of trauma-informed schools, helping students succeed in school.
The Catch-22 of Asylum Policy
Authors: FitzGerald David Scott
Published: March 2019

Most refugees do not have a legal way of reaching safety in the rich democracies of the Global North. There is no legal line where they can register and wait as their number advances. Obtaining a resettlement slot is like winning the lottery. The only realistic way to reach the Global North is to reach its territory and then ask for asylum. Rich democracies typically abide by the principle of non-refoulement but deliberately and systematically shut down most legal paths to safety. An architecture of repulsion based on cages, domes, buffers, moats, and barbicans keeps out asylum seekers and other migrants. Australia, Canada, the United States, and the European Union have converging policies of remote control to keep asylum seekers away from their territories. The catch-22 for refugees is that rich democracies are essentially telling them, “We will not kick you out if you come here. But we will not let you come here.”
Origins and Limits of Remote Control
Authors: FitzGerald David Scott
Published: March 2019

Many theories try to explain why remote controls of asylum seekers proliferated in the 1980s and 1990s, but most techniques of remote control were developed in the 1930s and 1940s. Policies to push out the border were ad hoc responses to perceived crises that then spread as governments copied each other’s policies. Europeanization took this process toward convergence the furthest of all the cases. Over time, policies have tended to converge across the Global North as multiple forces, such as the end of the Cold War and the broadening of the refugee definition, incentivized further remote control. This chapter describes the broad factors that promoted the spread of remote control as well as where those impulses have been constrained by countervailing forces arising from the courts, transnational advocacy networks, and foreign policy interests.
The Dome over the Golden Door
Authors: FitzGerald David Scott
Published: March 2019

The aerial dome is the single most effective block in the architecture of remote control. The contemporary dome over U.S., Canadian, and Mexican airspace was derived from controls over transoceanic shipping passengers dating back to the nineteenth century. Its deeply rooted history makes the system seem natural. The use and framing of mobility controls as a way to protect national security also has a history more than a century old. Terrorist attacks further generated a strong security rationale for strict passenger controls that states then use to keep out all manner of unwanted foreigners. Many controls are exercised in spaces that are difficult for watchdogs to access. The people harmed by the system because they are blocked from reaching sanctuary are uncounted and unseen. As a result of these characteristics, there are few institutional constraints on the system of visas, carrier sanctions, liaison officers, pre-clearance operations, and international anti-smuggling operations that together constitute the dome.
The North American Moat
Authors: FitzGerald David Scott
Published: March 2019

The U.S. Coast Guard intercepted more than a quarter of a million migrants, including an unknown number of refugees, between 1982 and 2015. Practices developed by the United States to stop Haitians were then copied to prevent Chinese asylum seekers from crossing the Pacific. The 1993 Sale decision by the U.S. Supreme Court to allow refoulement on the high seas still stands. The fact that there are screenings at all, whatever their serious inadequacies, is evidence of diffuse international pressure articulated through the U.S. State Department and the influence of civil society. The Canadian government flirted with maritime refoulement but was constrained by greater deference to international law and the concern that openly flouting it would potentially damage Canada’s international reputation. The United States is a world leader in defining military bases strewn across the globe as territories under its control but not its sovereignty and thus spaces where asylum seekers have limited rights.
Buffering North America
Authors: FitzGerald David Scott
Published: March 2019

Washington and Ottawa have tried to keep out most of the Central Americans fleeing to North America beginning in the civil wars of the 1980s. Central America and Mexico buffer the United States, which in turn buffers Canada. The U.S. government has propped up client states in Central America; paid for refugee camps; and provided training, equipment, and financing for migration controls further south. Mexico has weak rights of territorial personhood, so rather than strictly controlling entry across its southern border, its entire territory has become a “vertical frontier” with the United States. Aggressive U.S. enforcement at the Mexican border traps transit migrants in Mexico and creates an incentive for the Mexican government to deport them. But harsh U.S. enforcement on its border and the fact that it targets Mexicans as well as third-country nationals impedes the bilateral cooperation that would make Mexico a more effective buffer.
Building Fortress Europe
Authors: FitzGerald David Scott
Published: March 2019

The European Union since the 1990s has been engaged in a unique project of reducing mobility controls between members while strengthening the external borders and then shifting control outward. The individual pieces of the remote control strategies themselves are common, with the exception of the Frontex external border control coordinating agency, which does not have parallels in the North American or Australian cases. Europeanization has cross-cutting effects on remote control. The ubiquity of policies rooted in law, regulations, or formal agreements with other states—around readmission, visas, carrier sanctions, safe third countries, and safe countries of origin—is a result of Europeanization. However, Europeanization also includes built-in constraints derived from its supranational courts and institutions.
Introduction
Authors: Berman Elise
Published: March 2019

The introduction asks a basic question: What makes children and adults different from each other? The chapter focuses on how Marshallese children and adults use words and goods differently, as well as on Marshallese children’s lack of “shame” (āliklik). It argues that these differences are not natural but cultural: children are socialized to do things that are inappropriate for their elders to do. This production of difference has numerous implications for anthropological theory: it shows that agency is aged, that past research on giving is incomplete, and that socialization should be seen not as a movement from novice to expert but as the process of producing oneself as different from others. While explaining these points, the chapter also introduces readers to the atoll environment of the Marshall Islands, the author’s ethnographic and sociolinguistic research methods, and the organization of the book.
“Give Me My Food”
Authors: Berman Elise
Published: March 2019

This chapter analyzes the production of relative age through discussing children’s efforts to get other children to give. It explicitly contrasts children’s direct modes of interaction with the indirect adult-adult interaction patterns discussed in chapter 3. The chapter focuses on one small child who walked into a church while sucking on a lollipop and three older children who attempted to get him to share his food. These four children did a number of things that adults avoid: display their food in public, directly demand food, directly criticize and insult other children, and directly refuse to give. These direct forms of speech are not natural results of children’s immaturity. Rather, they are techniques through which children mark and negotiate their hierarchical status relationships—who has power over whom. The chapter argues that these power negotiations are also age negotiations. Through their speech, children index themselves as children and construct relative age.
Your Country, Our War
Authors: Brown Katherine A.
Published: March 2019

This book reviews how news intersects with international politics and discusses the global power and reach of the U.S. news media, especially within the context of the post-9/11 era. It is based on years of interviews conducted between 2009 and 2017, in Kabul, Washington, and New York. The book draws together communications scholarship on hegemony and the U.S. news media’s relationship with American society and the government (i.e. indexing and cascading; agenda-building and agenda-setting; framing; and conflict reportage) along with how national bias and ethnocentrism are fixed phenomena in international news. Given the longevity of the U.S. presence in Afghanistan and the Afghan news media’s dramatic proliferation since 2001, Afghanistan provides a fascinating case study for the role of journalists in conflict and diplomacy. By identifying, framing, and relaying narratives that affect the normative environment, U.S. correspondents have played unofficial diplomatic and developmental roles. They have negotiated the meaning of war and peace. Indirectly and directly, they have supported Afghan journalists in their professional growth. As a result, these foreign correspondents have not been merely observers to a story; they have been participants in it. The stories they choose to tell, and how they tell them, can become dominant narratives in global politics, and have directly affected events inside Afghanistan. The U.S. journalists did not just provide the first draft of history on this enduring post-9/11 entanglement between the United States and Afghanistan—they actively shaped it.
9/11 and the American Press
Authors: Brown Katherine A.
Published: March 2019

This chapter discusses U.S. news reportage in the wake of 9/11 and how certain habits and norms in American national security journalism drove the coverage. It reviews scholarship on the U.S. news media’s relationship with U.S. government and society, especially in the context of international issues and events. The foreign policy narrative in Washington is set by a small cohort of U.S. government officials, in addition to international news reporters and editors for elite news agencies like the New York Times and Washington Post. Through interviews with U.S. officials and reporters, the chapter also examines the roles the American government and news outlets play in setting the agenda and framing events for the American public and how the U.S. press maintains an ethnocentric bias in its foreign reportage.
Afghanistan in Americans’ Imagination
Authors: Brown Katherine A.
Published: March 2019

This chapter examines how the American public was reintroduced to Afghanistan after the events of 9/11 and how the U.S. broadcast and print media began to frame this “good war” in October 2001. It analyzes the American news media’s relationship with Afghanistan beginning in the 1980s and the reality it has constructed since 2001 about Afghanistan and the conflict. It also reviews U.S. officials’ perceptions about their responsibilities to the press. During these 15 years, the news coverage, especially that of the broadcast news media, was tightly indexed to the degree of White House attention to the war and the intensity of conflict for American soldiers. Yet some American print news agencies, especially the Associated Press, New York Times, and Washington Post, have stayed committed to covering Afghanistan despite decreased American presidential attention.
Afghanistan’s Press
Authors: Brown Katherine A.
Published: March 2019

This chapter discusses the history of the Afghan news media, which was under either authoritarian or hyperpartisan control throughout the 20th century. This chapter explores the political and sociocultural factors that have contributed to the state of modern Afghan journalism, and how Afghan government officials have treated their press since 2001. It also examines the habits and norms local journalists have created, in addition to the impact of Western aid money and the presence of Western journalists in the country. Independent news media organizations have helped to drive dramatic change in Afghan politics and society, often at a seemingly breakneck speed. The patchwork media landscape of present-day Afghanistan reflects the various power struggles between the country’s politicians, extremists, strongmen, progressives, and foreign actors.
The Modern Afghan Journalist
Authors: Brown Katherine A.
Published: March 2019

This chapter describes the sociological constraints that modern Afghan journalists face, not the least of which is a highly volatile security environment and a high degree of economic instability that jeopardizes their organizations’ sustainability. Based on interviews with these journalists, the chapter explores the ways they think of themselves, their relationships with Afghan government officials, and their roles in Afghan society. It also surveys the dense networks that Afghan reporters have created with Western journalists to report news stories. Afghan journalists have an inherent national bias and are proud that U.S. elite news professionals find Afghanistan newsworthy, as this confers legitimacy on Afghanistan’s importance in the world. Yet given their nascent state, they acknowledge that they depend on Western journalists’ reportage to hold Afghanistan’s powerful accountable.
The Diplomatic Dimension of News
Authors: Brown Katherine A.
Published: March 2019

The news media have a special role in creating and maintaining a nation. Journalists have astounding power to construct a sense of reality for people, but despite the transnational reach of news today, the bulk of editors, producers, and reporters select and construct media messages and images to cater to their targeted audiences. Much of the U.S. news about Afghanistan has been constructed for Americans and therefore is colored by the U.S.-led war and abides by a norm that explains the contours of American power and its impact abroad. To Afghan consumers, what frustrates them about U.S. news of their country is what frustrates them about America: It should consider their perspective more, be more empathetic, give them hope, and stop serving itself. News, therefore, does not bridge understanding or broker goodwill between the United States and Afghanistan, or any other country, and it can create tension in international affairs.
Educating Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners in Inclusive Classrooms in Tanzania
Authors: Namirembe Bernadatte
Published: March 2019

Educating deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) learners poses a challenge to teachers working in inclusive education settings such as the ones in Tanzania. Having DHH learners in the classroom is viewed as a burden by all stakeholders, especially teachers. In 2009, Tanzania signed and ratified United Nations Convention on Rights of Persons with Disabilities. This implies that Tanzania recognizes the DHH learners’ right to a good education. However, it remains unclear how the country is dealing with the challenges of providing DHH learners with a quality inclusive education. This chapter discusses the status of DHH learners in Tanzania in the face of the global trend toward inclusive education. It explains the current situation of inclusion of DHH learners in mainstream classes, including their achievements, challenges, and limitations. Recommendations are provided for future objectives based on best practices discussed in the literature.
Education and Services for Deaf People in Viet Nam
Authors: Hoa Nguyen Thi , Woodward James
Published: March 2019

This chapter provides an overview of education and services for deaf people in Viet Nam. The first section covers the three distinct but historically related sign languages in Viet Nam: Ha Noi Sign Language, Hai Phong Sign Language, and Ho Chi Minh City Sign Language. The second section discusses education for deaf people, which is provided in elementary schools and junior and senior high schools. Certificate programs are offered in sign language analysis, teaching, and interpretation. Few deaf learners go on to university. The third section of the chapter outlines the lack of audiological and sociocultural services for deaf people in Vietnam; either they are unavailable or too expensive for most people to afford. The chapter concludes with a summary and sets out recommendations for the future.
Conversion as Inclusion
Authors: Skotnicki Andrew
Published: March 2019

The dynamics of conversion are presented in this chapter. It first clarifies what conversion is not. It is not adhesion—attaching oneself to a particular community and maintaining an oppositional or at least suspicious attitude regarding other forms of association or structures of belief. Conversion is seen as the progressive expansion of one’s horizon of acceptance and care at the intellectual, moral, and spiritual levels. Its proof is precisely in its nonjudgmental and compassionate presence to new ideas and to the other. It always begins with a crisis in the lifeworld of the convert. This is followed by a gratuitous moment of acceptance despite one’s feeling of alienation. The “peak experience” then fosters an alteration of one’s personal narrative and community and an ongoing sense of accountability and embodiment of the communal narrative. The final stage of conversion reveals a profound sense of unity with all aspects of reality.
How Conversion Can Rehabilitate the Penal System
Authors: Skotnicki Andrew
Published: March 2019

This chapter provides an outline of a penal system patterned upon conversion. It argues that any form of violence or reduction of the problematic to “dependent variables” in an equation of pain delivery or social control is immoral and ineffective. It first looks at ways in which front-end initiatives might eliminate the need to incarcerate a large majority of those currently under custody. It combines the restorative approach to dialogue with contemplative practices of meditation as the necessary rudiments of a fully human life, regardless of one’s involvement with the law. It then presents its vision of penal organization for the truly violent and unrepentant to be one of careful accompaniment. Since it is predicated upon an ontology of fundamental human goodness, the person comes naturally to conversion without force or intimidation. There is a balance of solitude, association, and accompaniment by a mentor.
Recipes, Plans, Instructions, and the Free Speech Implications of Words That Are Tools
Authors: Schauer Frederick
Published: March 2019

This chapter investigates whether speech acts of urging, advising, recommending, instructing, and informing ought all to be treated in the same way for purposes of implementing a principle of freedom of speech, and asks: If not, how do we justify treating them differently? This problem is arguably more pressing than it has been in the past, as the internet and various forms of social media have seemingly caused the mass distribution of instructions for committing antisocial acts have proliferated. After discussion of examples of publications that allow the reader to acquire knowledge on how to engage in dangerous activities, the chapter concludes that the normative and philosophical questions about the relationship between freedom of speech and the provision of instructions, plans, recipes, and detailed facts are in the final analysis less philosophical than they are empirical and social scientific.
Free Speech Categories in the Digital Age
Authors: Bhagwat Ashutosh
Published: March 2019

Modern free speech law in liberal democracies is oriented around some basic, categorical distinctions. This chapter examines four such categories: speech versus conduct (speech generally receives far greater protection than non-expressive conduct); public versus private actors (most legal systems place sharp limits on public regulation of free expression but generally protect private autonomy); political versus commercial (speech related to economic transactions is subject to greater regulation than political or cultural speech); and finally, public discourse versus domestic gossip (the former being universally considered more worthy of protection). Without these distinctions modern free speech law would be unworkable, because it would devolve into either radical libertarianism or tyranny. This chapter demonstrates that the evolution of the internet and social media into the primary platforms for commerce and expression has fundamentally destabilized each of these categories. This is because the very natures of a digital economy and a disaggregated social media undermine the distinction between the commercial and the political, as well as between the public and the private. I conclude by arguing that if workable new categories of speech are to be constructed, scholars and decision-makers must start with first principles establishing why free speech remains of paramount importance today.
Privacy, Speech, and the Digital Imagination
Authors: Post Robert C.
Published: March 2019

Norms of privacy are grounded in social practices. When social practices are unsettled and rapidly evolving, as they are in digital space, these norms are subject to confusion and uncertainty. A good example is the recent decision of Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) in Google Spain SL v. Agencia Española de Protección de Datos (AEPD) (“Google Spain”), which created the “right to be forgotten.” The CJEU derived the right to be forgotten from Directive 95/46/EC (“Directive”), which is arguably the most influential privacy document in the world. The Directive imagines digital data as stored in a space of instrumental reason, as it is when data is compiled and processed by large bureaucratic organizations. The Directive protects data privacy in order to maximize the control of data by data subjects. But the CJEU applied the right to be forgotten to public discourse in the public sphere. The instrumental logic of data privacy is inappropriate to the communicative action of the public sphere, as is the value of “control.” Instead the CJEU should have conceptualized the right to be forgotten to safeguard the dignitary privacy that courts have applied to public discourse for more than a century. Dignitary privacy ensures civility within public debate. It focuses on communicative acts, rather than data. And it requires an assessment of harm to public discourse. All of these concepts are foreign to the analytic framework of data privacy. The CJEU’s confusion between data privacy and dignitary privacy leads to inconsistencies and logical deficiencies in its opinion, which are unlikely to have occurred were the court to have focused on the ordinary print media of the public sphere.
Demographics, Design, and Free Speech
Authors: Chemaly Soraya
Published: March 2019

The toxicity of online interactions presents unprecedented challenges to traditional free speech norms. The scope and amplification properties of the internet give new dimension and power to hate speech, rape and death threats, and denigrating and reputation-destroying commentary. Social media companies and internet platforms, all of which regulate speech through moderation processes every day, walk the fine line between censorship and free speech with every decision they make, and they make millions a day. This chapter will explore how a lack of diversity in the tech industry affects the design and regulation of products and, in so doing, disproportionately negatively affects the free speech of traditionally marginalized people. During the past year there has been an explosion of research about, and public interest in, the tech industry’s persistent diversity problems. At the same time, the pervasiveness of online hate, harassment, and abuse has become evident. These problems come together on social media platforms that have institutionalized and automated the perspectives of privileged male experiences of speech and violence. The tech sector’s male dominance and the sex segregation and hierarchies of its workforce result in serious and harmful effects globally on women’s safety and free expression.
Regulating Online Speech
Authors: PoKempner Dinah
Published: March 2019

This chapter argues that we are at a difficult juncture in protecting online speech and privacy when states resist applying principles they have endorsed internationally to their domestic legislation and practice. Although governments have welcomed the internet’s globalizing effect on economic development, they now fear its ability to amplify messages such as terrorism, revolution, pornography, or propaganda. But sacrificing basic freedoms to control the internet’s powers is neither effective nor wise. How well we protect privacy and speech in the digital age will determine whether the internet liberates or enchains us.
Planting the Cross
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara B.
Published: March 2019

This book examines how Catholic reformers envisioned and implemented changes to monastic life in late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century France. Scholars of France’s Catholic Reformation have tended to focus on the movement’s later stages and, taking a top-down approach, view it from the perspective of activist clerics seeking to impose a fixed idea of religious life. This study focuses instead on the movement’s beginnings and explores the aims and tactics of proponents of reform from different but overlapping perspectives. The six case studies draw from three regions—Paris, Provence, and Languedoc. The first chapters tell the story of religious caught in the direct path of the Wars of Religion, which reduced France to near anarchy in the sixteenth century. Chapter 1 tells of the difficulty traditional women’s orders had surviving—much less reforming themselves—in Protestant-dominated Montpellier. Chapter 2 examines the rebellion of Paris’s Feuillants against both their ascetic abbot and the king during the Holy League revolt. Chapter 3 recounts the implantation of the militant Franciscans called Capuchins in the Protestant heartland, Languedoc. Chapters 4 and 5 examine the struggle to reform two old orders—the Dominicans and Trinitarians—that had fallen into decay. Chapter 6 explores conflicting interpretations of Teresa of Avila’s legacy at France’s first Carmelite convents. The book illuminates persistent debates about what constituted religious reform and how a reform’s success should be judged. It shows reform to have been lived as an ongoing process that was more diverse, experimental, and experiential than is often recognized.
Battling Demons to Propagate Reform
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara B.
Published: March 2019

The chapter traces Sébastien Michaëlis’s efforts to reform the Order of Preachers (Dominicans) in the south of France and shows the close connection between these efforts and his participation in a notorious case of demonic possession. Michaëlis is usually viewed as a determined witch-hunter, whose pursuit of Louis Gaufridy resulted in the latter’s condemnation and execution for sorcery. This chapter contends, by contrast, that Michaëlis was not the mastermind behind the Gaufridy affair but rather was inadvertently caught up in it at a moment when both his reformed Dominicans and the two other reformed congregations involved in the affair—the Ursulines and Jean-Baptiste Romillion’s Priests of Christian Doctrine—were in crisis. Michaëlis wrote the Histoire admirable that recounted the alleged possession and exorcisms of the young Ursuline Madeleine de Demandols to reaffirm and publicize his vision of religious reform and in the hope of spreading his Dominican reform to Paris.
Catholic Reform from the Bottom Up
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara B.
Published: March 2019

The chapter examines efforts the Trinitarians of Provence made to reverse a long decline and to adapt their medieval order to reflect the new spiritual climate of the Catholic Reformation. The reform was made by ordinary members despite opposition from their superior general in Paris, who envisioned reform only as a return to the order’s original rule. Founded to ransom Christian slaves in the Mediterranean, the order had fallen away from its rule and experienced declining vocations and impoverishment in the Wars of Religion. The chapter argues that the Provençal monks took their model of religious life from the reformed congregations of Capuchins and Recollects and not from a desire to return to some imagined primitive purity. They wanted to govern their houses in a more collaborative way, to better educate their priests, and to create a more spiritualized community with the interiorized personal piety that characterized the Catholic Reformation.
Alternative Visions of the Teresian Heritage
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara B.
Published: March 2019

The chapter shows how, within a year after the Discalced Carmelites of Teresa of Avila’s reform were founded in France, opinions diverged on just what constituted an authentic Teresian reform. Spanish nuns brought to guarantee the new order’s authenticity found Paris’s convent of the Incarnation too big, too grand, and too ambitious to lead the order’s expansion. They worked to ensure that the second convent, founded outside Paris at Pontoise, conformed more closely to Teresa’s desire to keep the houses small and poor. The chapter uses written records and art to show how nuns at Pontoise created their own vision of an authentic Teresian convent but in doing so provoked a rivalry that threatened at times to divide the rapidly growing French order. The case illustrates well the challenges not just of defining and enacting religious reform but also of adapting reform to local circumstances and values.
Conclusion
Authors: Diefendorf Barbara B.
Published: March 2019

The conclusion argues that France’s Catholic Reformation benefitted from reform efforts initiated in Italy and Spain but was most profoundly shaped by France’s experience of religious war. The movement’s origins lay in the perceived need both to fight the spread of Protestant ideas and to raise standards of clerical behavior. Summarizing the diverse ways in which religious communities responded to the challenges of heresy and civil war, the conclusion further argues that the old religious orders, which had suffered greatly in the conflicts, found themselves at a serious disadvantage when wealthy elites shifted their patronage at the wars’ end to the new reformed congregations, whose penitential fervor and rigorous asceticism had captured their imagination. The new congregations grew at a rapid pace, while the old orders struggled to overcome wartime debts and destruction, fought to determine what reforms to enact, and pressured recalcitrant members to accept their programs for change.
Framing Inequality
Authors: Guardino Matt
Published: March 2019

This book examines how major news media have influenced the politics of economic inequality by shaping U.S. public opinion toward key policies since the early 1980s. The book describes the substance and ideological texture of news coverage during economic and social welfare policy debates across the neoliberal era. It also compares this news content to patterns of official and nongovernmental discourse. The book argues that the media’s structural position as a corporately organized and commercially driven institution helps to explain politically significant discrepancies between news coverage and broader policy discussions. The book also shows how framing patterns in the news produced through these political-economic processes may influence concrete policy attitudes. Its experimental analysis demonstrates that news coverage can shape public opinion to favor neoliberal policies, including among key segments of the American public that otherwise would not express support. The book contends that structural and institutional shifts which mark the rise of neoliberalism as a governing framework for media policy and practices have reinforced patterns of superficial and narrow news content during policy debates. Ultimately, the book argues that media coverage has fostered political climates conducive to neoliberal domestic policies at important historical moments. It suggests that changing media technologies have done little to arrest these trends in corporate news media, and that significant shifts in public policy coverage would require changes in media policy.
“No One Wants to Change the System as Much as Those Who Are Trapped by the System”
Authors: Guardino Matt
Published: March 2019

This chapter analyzes media content, elite discourse, and public opinion on welfare reform in the mid-1990s. It demonstrates that major television and newspaper coverage of this historic neoliberal policy change significantly favored neoliberal views and downplayed elite and nongovernmental criticism. The chapter also demonstrates dwindling substance in news coverage of neoliberal policies since the early 1980s. Corporate imperatives in the increasingly consolidated media system and rightward movement in the Democratic Party during this historical period are connected to patterns in welfare news. Survey data suggest that media coverage shaped public opinion to support this paradigmatic neoliberal social policy.