bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Interactive Strategic Model of Transport Costs and Metropolitan Population Dynamics
Authors: Varaprasad N
Published: October 2006

This paper presents an exploratory model of the population redistribution process in metropolitan areas. A set of ten differential equations developed from logistic growth theory describes the dispersal of population from an urban area into two encompassing concentric zones. These outward flows give rise to changes in the commuting flows by mode as well as changes in the modal mix of journey-to-work trips within the urban area. The model is calibrated for Greater London and the South-East Standard Region of England between 1961 and 1976, and various possible pricing scenarios are tested to examine the population trajectories up to 1991. The results illustrate the feasibility of dynamic process-descriptive models in urban analysis, but also suggest an integrated programme of research and model-building as part of this development.
On Sudden Urban Growth
Authors: Papageorgiou G J
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this paper is to explain sudden urban growth, a global phenomenon of astonishing force that presents one of the greatest challenges facing humanity today. The forces that shape urban growth are many and varied. Such forces produce an array of histories of urbanization ranging from continuity to various catastrophic shifts along the population trajectory. It is seen that the realized history of urbanization explicitly depends on the prevailing characteristics of individuals and of the existing technology. Hence, in principle, given a knowledge of these characteristics (and given some other information explained in the text), it would be possible to predict the path toward urbanization taken by simple worlds such as those considered here, Different outcomes would then be attributed to and explained by different behavioural and technological circumstances.
Developments of an Entropy Model for Residential Location with Maximum Zonal Population Constraints
Authors: Walsh P K , Gibberd R W
Published: October 2006

This paper considers recent developments of singly-constrained entropy models which are used for predicting future zonal populations, when the models are required to satisfy given inequality constraints for the maximum zonal populations. Wilson and Batty et al have shown how ad hoc algorithms could be used to modify the usual singly-constrained gravity model, whereas recently Jefferson and Scott have used geometric programming techniques to ensure that the inequality constraints are satisfied. This work develops an approach suggested by Dacey and Norcliffe whereby the inequality constraints are incorporated into the expression for the system entropy. The entropy-maximising method and the more rigorous statistical derivation considered in the paper lead to implicit expressions for the zonal populations which can be evaluated by means of a given algorithm. The asymptotic properties of the model and the inclusion of attractiveness factors are also considered. An interesting feature of this model is that it contains as special cases Wilson's doubly-constrained model and singly-constrained model.
Multiobjective Modelling for Economic—Environmental Policies
Authors: Hafkamp W , Nijkamp P
Published: October 2006

This paper is devoted to the use of multiobjective programming models for integrated economic and environmental policymaking in a spatial context. An interactive (ideal point) method is proposed as an operational technique for arriving at meaningful compromises between conflictual options. The analysis is illustrated by means of an interregional policy model with economic and environmental conflicts.
Spatial Interdependencies in Population Distributions: A Study in Univariate Map Analysis. 1 Rural Population Densities
Authors: Haining R P
Published: October 2006

The paper discusses methods for analyzing statistically homogeneous maps. The specific example concerns rural population density surfaces, and the theories of Bylund and Hudson are used to justify the search for pattern properties in the data. The objectives of map description and map explanation are distinguished and the need to use process theories both to decide on which statistical techniques to use and in the interpretation of results is emphasized.
Aggregation in Data Tables: Implications for Evaluating Criminal Justice Statistics
Authors: Hubert L J , Kenney T , Golledge R G , Costanzo C M
Published: October 2006

Data collected on a set of objects (cities, for instance) over a set of attributes (time points, for instance) can be subjected to a variety of aggregation schemes. For example, if a hypothesized pattern over the attributes is to be confirmed (a temporal increase in homicide rate, for instance), the data could be first aggregated over cities and then compared to the hypothesized pattern. Alternatively, the correspondence for each city could be separately assessed and the individual city indices aggregated. The stage at which aggregation takes place affects the size of the final measure of confirmation as well as its significance, but, unfortunately, in opposite ways. Preliminary data aggregation typically leads to larger summary statistics and larger significance levels. The conflicting notions of size and significance are first formalized in detail when the basic data are single numerical values obtained for each object-attribute pair. Extensions are presented to multigroup concordance, hierarchical aggregation schemes, and to object data defined by pairwise proximities between the attributes.
Optimal Urban Plans
Authors: Gordon P , Wingo L
Published: October 2006

This paper develops a model of optimal urban structure which combines data from hedonic regressions with a version of the assignment model. It is proposed that the data be updated in such a way that the model can be run over many time periods. The optimization is structured in such a way that external effects can be considered. The data for these are also obtained from the hedonic regressions. All of the methodology (hedonic regressions, demand estimations, linear assignment optimizations) is currently operational. The usefulness of the approach is further underscored by the ability to track welfare effects over space and over time; surplusses accruing to each renter and owner group (maximum willingness to pay less actual price paid) are computed from the dual of the optimization.
Modelling the Geographic Component of Mass Transit Subsidies
Authors: Hodge D C
Published: October 2006

A framework is developed for evaluating the distributive effects of mass transit subsidies that explicitly considers the inherent spatial interdependences of a transit system, particularly with regard to the nature of cities, and the politically and legally ‘fair’ distribution of scarce public resources. The methodology is demonstrated by means of a simulated urban mass transit system, and a review is presented of previous models and approaches to the question of subsidies at all levels of scale.
Disaggregate Modelling and Decisions of Retail Firms: A Case Study of Clothing Retailers
Authors: Miller E J , Lerman S R
Published: October 2006

A general theory of the decisions made by retail firms with regard to location, number of employees, and the amount of floor space rented is reviewed. This theory, originally developed by the authors in a previous paper, leads to a multinomial probit disaggregate choice model with some of the attributes endogenously determined. This paper is a sequel to that earlier work. The application of this model to clothing retailers in the Boston Metropolitan area is described, and results of models estimated from a survey of such stores are reported. Some specific inferences regarding the behavior of clothing retailers are drawn, and more general conclusions regarding the usefulness of the theory are discussed.
Manufacturing Decentralization: Some Evidence from Greater Manchester
Authors: Mason C M
Published: October 2006

A number of authors have suggested that the decentralization of manufacturing employment in metropolitan areas has largely resulted from spatial variations in plant openings. However, the use of establishment level data covering the 1966 to 1975 period for Greater Manchester indicates that the process which exhibited the greatest spatial variation was plant closures. This contrast with the conventional wisdom is due, at least in part, firstly to the internal structure of Greater Manchester, and secondly to its lack of regional policy assistance which in the Development Area conurbations has resulted in the opening of new plants in suburban locations. The implication is that attempts to revive the inner-city economy will be relatively unsuccessful unless steps are also taken to combat its high level of plant closures.
Misconceptions, Misinterpretations, and Misrepresentations of Behavioral Approaches in Human Geography
Authors: Golledge R G
Published: October 2006

This paper itemises and examines some of the myths that appear to be building up in geography around the topic of behavioral research. In particular it traces some of the reasons for the development of behavioral approaches in the discipline, defines some of their fundamental characteristics, and examines the epistemological bases of selected types of behavioral research. Comments are made about research on utility and choice, mobility and migration, and cognitive mapping in an attempt to dispell these myths—or at least to inhibit their further development and acceptance.
Measuring Interstate Migration Flows: An Origin—Destination Network Based on Internal Revenue Service Records
Authors: Engels R A , Healy Mary K
Published: October 2006

This paper examines gross interstate migration flows for five periods for the years between 1969 and 1978. The analysis is based upon a newly available data source—Federal income tax returns. Approximately 90% of the US population is covered by this data series. The matching of Internal Revenue Service (IRS) returns between filing dates enables the determination both of the origin and of the destination of migrants, with few of the risks of geographic miscoding present. These data illustrate that despite divergent economic fluctuations over the past nine years, the patterns of interstate migration have remained virtually unchanged. With few exceptions, the number of migrants either leaving or entering a particular state comprise identical proportions over time. Unlike migration data obtained from the Current Population Survey which enables the study of regional mobility only, the IRS data document current state-to-state flows that can be constructed on an annual basis. Comparisons are also made with the Current Work History Sample. In addition, these data offer considerable evidence that current residence has a significant impact on the selection of a destination. The resistance of migration patterns to large economic and social shifts during the period examined also implies that the explanation of individual migration determinants and the forecasting of aggregate migration flows should be treated as separate research questions. The potential of the data for the addition of further demographic detail and for use in forecasting also is considered.
A Linear Structural Equation Approach to Cross-Sectional Models with Lagged Variables
Authors: Folmer H , van der Knaap G A
Published: October 2006

Lagged variables play an important role in cross-sectional models in geography and regional sciences. This paper starts with an overview of the situations in which they may be required. Lagged variables also pose serious problems from a statistical point of view: multicollinearity and the determination of the length of the lag. Some common approaches to these two problems are discussed and evaluated. As an alternative a linear structural equation approach is presented, where the lagged variables are compressed to latent variables in a measurement model. The relationship between the lagged variables, thus compressed, and the dependent variable is expressed in the structural model. Both the measurement model and the structural model are estimated simultaneously. The paper ends with an application. A model of urban immigration for the thirty-three largest Dutch cities is estimated.
Measuring Political Change
Authors: Bodman A R
Published: October 2006

The analysis of political change in Britain has been dominated by the swing. The swing is inadequate because it measures only a relationship between changes in party support and sheds no light on the processes of political change. This paper critically examines the swing concept and suggests an alternative standardised measure which eliminates a number of problems associated with the use of the swing.
On the Parameters of Uniform Swing in Single-Member Constituency Electoral Systems
Authors: Johnston R J , Hay A M
Published: October 2006

The concept of uniform swing across a set of constituencies is widely used in analyses of British general election results. The uniformity of swing is paradoxical, since only in very special cases will it be the result of a uniform national process. The present paper investigates that paradox, and identifies the spatially varying parameters of electoral change needed to produce uniform swing. Further, it adapts the entropy-maximising procedures to provide best estimates of interconstituency variations in changing voter preferences between elections.
Some Comments on Non-Euclidean Mental Maps
Authors: Golledge R G , Hubert L J
Published: October 2006

The Euclidean metric is perhaps the most commonly used and most convenient one for representing mapped phenomena. In this paper we examine the suitability of representing cognitive phenomena via the Euclidean metric. Some general properties of spaces are examined with particular emphasis on the properties of isotropy, incompleteness, and curvature, and a more detailed discussion is undertaken of the suitability of using curved spaces (particularly Reimannian spaces) for the representation of cognitive information. A final discussion is presented on the problems of handling manifolds with folds, warps, and tears; and speculations are made concerning the appropriateness of non-Euclidean metrics for the spatial representation of mental maps.
Volatility in the Geographical Structure of Short-Run US Interstate Migration
Authors: Clark G L
Published: October 2006

Migration is often thought to be a long-run phenomenon. However, it is shown here by means of labor-force migration estimates derived from the Continuous Work History Sample over the period 1958–1975, that US interstate migration is quite volatile over the short run with respect both to its adjustment to macroeconomic fluctuations and to its geographical structure. A hierarchical clustering routine is utilized to analyse yearly estimates of interstate gross in-migration and out-migration so as to identify the temporal stability and characteristics of the geographical patterns of migration. States enter the national migration linkage tree at different levels for different years, depending upon the level of short-run economic activity. It is also shown that when national economic conditions worsen, labor-supply adjustments are more localized and the degree of interstate interdependence is less than in times of economic boom. An Almon distributed-lags time series regression model is used to formally test the relationship between spatial interconnectivity (as represented by interstate migration flows) and national fluctuations.
Proximity Matrix Reorganization and Hierarchical Clustering
Authors: Hubert L J , Golledge R G , Richardson G D
Published: October 2006

Connections between hierarchical clustering and the sedation of objects along a continuum that depend on the patterning of entries in a proximity matrix are pointed out. Based on the similarity between the central notion of an ultrametric in hierarchical clustering and what is called an anti-Robinson property in sedation, it is suggested that the two data-analysis procedures are compatible. Indeed, preliminary seriation of a proximity matrix may help verify the adequacy of the results obtained from a hierarchical clustering or suggest alternatives that may be better. A numerical example using data from the area of criminal justice completes the paper.
A Note on the Law of 29 June 1975 to Control Large Scale Retail Development in Belgium
Authors: Dawson J A
Published: October 2006

The Business Premises Act in Belgium has been in operation for five years and seeks to control the development of large shops. From a review of the workings of the Act it appears that it was introduced too late to have much impact on supermarket development, but has succeeded in slowing the growth in the number of hypermarkets. Under the implementation procedure it appears that there are considerable differences in permission rates for different types of development and a notable size differential between approved and refused applications.
Spatial Aggregation in Gravity Models: 2. One-Dimensional Population Density Models
Authors: Batty M , Sikdarfl P K
Published: October 2006

This paper, the second of four, is concerned with applying a methodology for analysing the spatial aggregation problem in gravity models outlined in the first paper. The methodology is based on a consistent framework for linking measures of pattern in interaction data to the derivation and estimation of related interaction models using spatial information theory. In this quest, a link is forged between information in data and the parameters of an associated model, and in part 1 it was suggested that if this link could be formalised then a means would be available for predicting changes in model parameters from different aggregations of the data, prior to the actual estimation of the models themselves. This relationship can be formalised for the case of the continuous one-dimensional interaction model such as the population density model, and this paper is concerned with demonstrating such an application to aggregations of zones in the Reading region. The framework is first described and two continuous models are presented. Then, the discrete model is estimated by means both of regression and of entropy techniques applied to various aggregations of the region, and the resulting parameters are related to the predicted and observed informations. Finally, the parameters approximated from observed information by use of the theoretical models are compared with the estimated parameters, and the approximation is deemed good, thus providing some confidence in the general concepts developed to handle these types of problem.
Route Factors in Grid Systems ‘Pushed Over’ by φ Degrees
Authors: Tinkler K J
Published: October 2006

Route factors are obtained for biaxial grid systems, of infinitely fine mesh, which have been ‘pushed over’ by φ degrees. The results assume that trip origins and destinations are uniformly distributed over the plain.
A Technique to Obtain Accurate Impact Multipliers for Individual Firms by Means of Existing Input—Output Models
Authors: Billings R B , Katz J L
Published: October 2006

A low-cost technique is developed that allows individual firms and establishments to estimate accurately their output, income, and employment multipliers by integrating their regional coefficients (the proportion of the purchases of a firm from each sector of the regional economy) with an existing regional input-output model. The empirical tests of this method on three actual survey-based input-output models produced excellent results.
Towards Integrating a Model of Urban Socioeconomic Structure and Urban Imagery
Authors: Spector A N
Published: October 2006

In this paper a link is made between variations in socioeconomic characteristics of urban residents and the understanding of spatial relationships in an urban landscape. It is contended that the development of activity spaces and the understanding of space and place are tied to the social, political and economic organization of a social formation. Although some of the arguments posed here parallel recent works on space-time geography, it is argued that these could be usefully augmented with the consideration of the factors influencing the knowledge and understanding of place and space. Salient features of a case study undertaken in Columbus, Ohio, are included which indicate interrelationships between the activity space elements, the knowledge of the location of various commonly known places, and the socioeconomic characteristics that urban residents have in this city.
Entropy and Economic Modelling
Authors: Batten D F , Roy J R
Published: October 2006

Entropy-maximizing models have been focused predominantly at the microscopic level of social and economic activities, their use being advocated by urban geographers, mathematicians, and microeconomists. By maintaining a sharp distinction between the behavioural and statistical aspects of entropy, various submodels may be formulated to generate the most probable pattern of individual choice behaviour. It may nevertheless be possible to regard each submodel of activity as an essential component of some larger, more complex macromodel of the entire economy. Various forms of (simultaneous or sequential) macromodels could then be investigated by examining alternative linkage arrangements between the behavioural submodels.
Comments on the Use of Eigenfunctions to Measure Structural Properties of Geographic Networks
Authors: Boots B N
Published: October 2006

The use of eigenfunctions has been proposed to measure spatial structure in networks. So far, however, there has been a paucity of applications of the approach, particularly to cellular networks (mosaics). This study uses specially constructed cellular networks which possess very similar degree vectors but dissimilar arrangements of vertex degrees to test the effectiveness of the approach. The results of this test indicate that there are several considerable limitations inherent in the procedure.
On the Interactions of Job Creation, Migration, and Natural Population Increase within the Framework of a Dynamic Demoeconomic Model
Authors: Birg H
Published: October 2006

Within the framework of a dynamic demoeconomic model the dominant role of job creation and migration for regional development is examined. The model is formulated by means of continuous dynamic equations for which an analytical solution is available for one region. On the basis of the solution the time paths of the model variables are specified. Numerical examples show the impact of the theoretical issues involved. The extension to two or more regions is discussed, which provides a comparison with models developed by Keyfitz and Rogers.
Action Spaces of Urban Residents: An Empirical Study in the Region of Hamburg
Authors: Dangschat J , Droth W , Friedrichs J , Kiehl K
Published: October 2006

The different theoretical approaches used in action space research are discussed; then a causal model, based on hypotheses drawn from the relevant literature, is presented. This model is tested in an empirical study on the action spaces of 3000 residents in the region of Hamburg.

The results of two different path analytical test strategies of this model are reported, which show the deficiencies of prior, mainly bivariate, analyses. Finally, a cluster analysis of the respondents' activities demonstrates that the ‘sociodemographic groups’ which are traditionally used are not homogeneous in their behaviour.
A Comparative Study of Some Stochastic Methods and Autoprojective Models for Spatial Processes
Authors: Nipper J , Streit U
Published: October 2006

Spatial stochastic processes often show a distinct persistence, which becomes noticeable in a nonrandom spatial grouping of similar or regularly dissimilar values. Various methods have been developed for statistically analyzing such persistence effects which are dependent upon distance and direction. Important differences and similarities in the concept of spatial autocorrelation and the theory of regionalized variables will be pointed out and explained by means of examples. The use of these geostatistical methods in modelling spatial processes leads to the SAR (spatial auto-regressive) models and to the Kriging concept, respectively. Although SAR models are used in particular to represent spatial persistences as characteristic endogenous dependency structures, the Kriging method is more pragmatically orientated to the interpolation and extrapolation of spatial data. The suitability of such stochastic models in purely spatial forecasting and also in the estimation of areal means will be described by use of examples, and compared with conventional methods.
The Financial Health of Local Authorities in England and Wales: Role of the Rate Support Grant, 1974/1975-1980/1981
Authors: Bennett R J
Published: October 2006

The financial health of local authorities in England and Wales is examined over the period 1974/1975-1980/1981 to determine the manner in which financial positions have been affected by central government transfers under the rate support grant. The results of the analysis are preliminary pending fuller analysis of needs positions, but they do demonstrate that local party control has very little relation to grant allocations. This is mostly because of the interrelation with levels of urban stress, which is found to be a very significant correlate with levels of grant received. It is concluded, therefore, that in contrast to the USA, local authorities in England and Wales have received progressively larger grants in relation to higher levels of urban stress.
Variations in the Retail Price of Chemists' Goods: Testing Spatial and Structural Hypotheses and the ‘Sample of One’
Authors: O'Connor T , Parker A J
Published: October 2006

Spatial variations in the price of chemists' goods in Dublin are examined for a number of different baskets of products and for two time periods, so as to tackle the problem of the ‘sample of one’. A number of hypotheses including measures of store size, proximity of competition, and the type of residential area in which the shop is located are examined by means of bivariate and multiple correlation in relation to price variations, and in general the results are consistent for different baskets at a single time period: shops which are expensive for one combination of products tend to be expensive for most product combinations. However, there is little consistency of results between the two time periods, and this must create problems for price-motivated consumers: an inexpensive shop at one time period may not necessarily be inexpensive at a subsequent time period even for the same products. Even so, there is some temporal consistency in that the size of shop generally has a direct relationship with variations in prices, smaller shops being the more expensive.
Linkages between Manufacturing Industry and Business Services
Authors: Marshall J N
Published: October 2006

Manufacturing industry demand for business services is examined in the British city regions of Birmingham, Leeds, and Manchester. A postal survey of selected industries considers the impact of a number of industrial and organisational determinants of spatial variations in manufacturing service demands. The study suggests that external control is not the only important predictor of service linkage; previous research has neglected the influence of spatial differences in the supply of services on the pattern of manufacturing industry demand. Research relating variations in the supply of business service activities to differences in regional economic growth is critically reviewed. It is suggested that the economic growth of provincial regions could be improved by expanding key services in selected provincial centres at differing levels of the urban hierarchy.
The Internationalization Process and Spatial Form: Research Problems and Prospects
Authors: McConnell J E
Published: October 2006

The basic challenge to industrial geographers is to construct a general theory of the interrelationships between the behavior of industrial organizations and the dynamic spatial structures of industrial systems. Three conceptual problems associated with this research are examined in terms of the transformation of manufacturing firms from intranational companies to international enterprises. The major conclusions from the discussion are that the interrelationships between the internationalization process and the spatial form of industrial systems must be viewed as the result of the strategic choices made by management; that the initial dependent variable of the transformation process should be an index measure of the financial performance of the firm over time; and that rigorous testing of the hypotheses already formulated by industrial geographers must assume the highest priority. Following a discussion of the three issues, the conceptual design of an experimental research project now in progress is described. The project is an investigation of the strategic responses of a sample of American firms to import competition and economic decline.
Fluctuations and Rigidities in Local Labor Markets. Part 1: Theory and Evidence
Authors: Clark G L
Published: October 2006

Cyclical sensitivity in employment, wages, and hours worked are explored with reference to three industries and eleven US cities over the period 1972–1980. Conventional neoclassical discrete-exchange models of the labor market are shown to be inadequate because of marked rigidities in the patterns of short-run adjustment. Money wages are very stable, being dominated by a long-run trend, and firms tend to adjust hours worked and only then employment in the short run. There are, however, significant interregional variations in these patterns within the same industry. Spectral analysis and tests for periodicities in the patterns of residuals derived from trend-line estimates of money wages confirm a supposition that urban Phillips curves do not exist. The evidence supports the implicit notion of contract theory that continuous employer-worker relationships exist over the business cycle. The question of how useful, in general, this theory might be is left open for the present.
Urban Fire as an Unstabilized Parasite: The 1976–1978 Outbreak in Bushwick, Brooklyn
Authors: Wallace R , Wallace D
Published: October 2006

Fire service cuts recommended by the Rand Corporation, and largely implemented before New York City's ‘fiscal crisis’, are known to have initiated a geographically spreading, temporally recurrent fire epidemic. Examination of a resulting fire outbreak in Brooklyn's Bushwick section shows the epidemic to have temporal and spatial ‘patchiness' characteristics of a parasite infestation, as well as an apparent composite ‘life cycle’, but without the stabilizing mechanisms which assure the survival both of host and of parasite populations. The composite fire ‘life cycle’ implies the need for a multiple factor eradication program, in which improvements in fire service play a key role, both for extinguishment and for prevention purposes.
Fluctuations and Rigidities in Local Labor Markets. Part 2: Reinterpreting Contracts
Authors: Clark G L
Published: October 2006

Local labor markets are characterized by rigidities in their patterns of adjustment to short-run fluctuations. With or without unions, fluctuations in employment, hours worked, and money wages are unlike the patterns predicted by conventional discrete-exchange labor-market theories. Moreover there are distinct geographical and industrial patterns in the observed rigidities. Neoclassical implicit contract theory has been vindicated. Or has it? Obvious empirical difficulties remain, especially with regard to predicting which adjustment variable has precedence. There are conceptual shortcomings as well, evidenced by ad hoc assumptions of cooperative wealth maximization. By integrating the underlying structure of inequality with the processes of production and exchange, principles of an alternative conceptualization of contract theory are sketched and their implications noted for a set of hypothetical local labor markets. Based upon these arguments a research agenda for analyzing the relational character of local labor markets is briefly outlined.
A Temporal Perspective on the Properties of the Index of Dissimilarity
Authors: Morgan B S
Published: October 2006

It is demonstrated that the index of dissimilarity ( D), the most commonly used measure of residential segregation, is generally sensitive to the effects of population composition. D is independent of proportion black in an extreme case considered by Duncan and Duncan, but is a logarithmic function of proportion black in two other extreme cases. In the general case, D is in most instances sensitive to compositional changes. It is suggested that the nature of residential succession, in particular the relative stability of the white and black population distributions, influences changes in D. The trend in segregation in Cleveland, Ohio, between 1910 and 1970 is examined in the light of these findings. The properties of a range of other segregation indices are reexamined, and compared with those of D.
Understanding Residential Energy Conservation through Attitudes and Beliefs
Authors: Brown Marilyn A , Macey Susan M
Published: October 2006

The role of beliefs, attitudes, social influence, and intentions as predictors of residential energy conservation behaviour is explored in the context of Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action. Empirical analysis of survey data from Decatur, Illinois provides support for the theory and insight into barriers to energy conservation.
On the Uniqueness and Existence of Equilibrium Points in an Urban Retail Model
Authors: Rijk F J A , Vorst A C F
Published: October 2006

A commonly used urban retail model is shown always to have a positive solution, a solution that is not always unique. In particular, a study is made of the case where there are two shopping and two residential zones.
The Theory of the Multinational Enterprise: An Application to Multinational Office Location
Authors: Dunning J H , Norman G
Published: October 2006

The forces that affect growth, location, and distribution in the service sector will have elements in common with those at work in manufacturing, but equally will exhibit certain unique features. This paper examines such forces in the specific context of location choices made by offices of multinational enterprises (MNEs). Such enterprises emerge in response to particular market imperfections and to exploit particular ‘ownership specific’ advantages. The nature of such ownership specific advantages is discussed with specific reference to MNE office location, and tested using data drawn from a survey of European offices of mainly US-based MNEs. It is shown that a distinction must be drawn between offices that provide a service for final consumption and those that provide a mainly coordinating role. The former types of office are shown to be heavily market oriented and to act in ways consistent with theory. The latter types of office are more complex, but again locate in ways consistent with theory; in particular they are influenced more by accessibility and by environment than by cost and geography.
Travel Probability Fields and Urban Spatial Structure: 2. Empirical Tests
Authors: Beckmann M J , Golob T F , Zahavi Y
Published: October 2006

The research presented here is a continuation of the work published in a previous issue of this journal. The overall objective was to relate travel patterns and urban structure using continuous spatial distributions and urban-economic concepts of residential location choice. In the present paper, model hypotheses are tested using data from a transportation planning study in Washington.
On the Duality of Employment and Wages in the Garin-Lowry Model
Authors: Emmi P C
Published: October 2006

Previously undiscovered properties of the Garin-Lowry model are identified by presenting the model as a simple linear program. The primal program seeks a spatial allocation of employment which minimizes import requirements while satisfying basic-employment demand. The dual program seeks a spatial allocation of employee remuneration which maximizes the imputed value of basic employment while insuring that employee wages are not exceeded by the import costs of employee support. Thus a duality between employment and wages is identified, and the role of imports in wage determination is defined.
The Small-Town Viability Question in a Prairie Context
Authors: Todd D
Published: October 2006

The phenomenon of population reversal away from major urban centres to small towns is considered in a Canadian context. Specifically, the paper examines towns from the Manitoba portion of the prairies which have benefited from modest population gain in the period 1966–1976. It relates that population change to a number of factors presumed to be influential in this essentially rural nonmetropolitan milieu. These embrace objective quality-of-life indicators, objective measures of economic activity, and subjective indexes expressing people's preferences for small-town living. A two-part model of small-town population change is construed, one part to focus on the relationships between population change and economic activity for the 1971–1976 episode and the second part to deal with the situation pertaining to 1966–1971. The division is maintained in order to trace nonrecursive as well as recursive effects on population change. The preeminence of social as opposed to economic factors is a major conclusion arising from this model.
Evaluation of Regional Development Policy—An Alternative Approach
Authors: Sakashita N
Published: October 2006

As a theoretical basis for the evaluation of regional development policies which include capital subsidy in the form of low interest rate financing, we have the famous Borts's criteria. Borts's criteria, however, presuppose the existence of an immobile labor force as an idle resource in a specific region, and this assumption makes the criteria practically inapplicable to the situation of present-day Japan, where the interregional mobility of the labor force is extremely high. The only way to justify the meaningfulness of regional development policies which use subsidy in Japan is to take the nationwide dispersion of population as a supreme social-policy objective and to evaluate the relative cost-effectiveness of alternative economic policies instead of using the cost — benefit approach of Borts's criteria. In the present paper, different intervention policies to attain a desired distribution of population between two regions are compared from the point of view of social cost as well as from that of the amount of subsidy (or tax) needed.
Business-Service Activities in British Provincial Conurbations
Authors: Marshall J N
Published: October 2006

Business-service activities are poorly represented in provincial areas of the British economy, and this acts as a constraint on the economic growth of these locations. This argument is developed in a survey investigation of business-service offices in the conurbations of Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham. It is argued that external control is an important feature of the business-service sector, and that the organisational structure of multisite service firms influences the supply of business services. The importance of indigenous employment growth and industrial movement in provincial cities is examined. It is suggested that some business services generate regional exports, and should therefore, be given regional policy support.
Effects of Neighborhood Grant-Allocations on Trade-Offs among Urban Outcomes. Part 1: Conceptual Approach and Example
Authors: Nesher A , Schinnar A P
Published: October 2006

In this paper a framework is developed for analyzing trade-off possibilities among urban outcomes resulting from public-funded community development activities. The purpose is to identify complementarities and substitutions which exist among public service outputs (outcomes), thereby allowing a study of the implicit trade-offs among outputs which result from decisions on the allocation of community development resources. This is the first of two papers on the subject. It is intended to provide here a conceptual overview of the approach and a numerical illustration.
Migration and Settlement: A Multiregional Comparative Study
Authors: Rogers A , Willekens F , Ledent J
Published: October 2006

In 1976, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis initiated a study of migration and population distribution patterns in its seventeen member nations. In each country, the analysis was carried out by national scholars using techniques of multiregional demography. In this paper the authors describe the organization of the study, discuss the data bases used, evaluate the main results obtained, and review some of the methodological research that has been generated by the study. Among the author's conclusions are recommendations for researchers wishing to carry out a multiregional demographic analysis.
Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage from Retrospective Data: A Multiregional Approach
Authors: Espenshade T J
Published: October 2006

In this paper the author applies the framework of multiregional population analysis to marital status changes as revealed by longitudinal retrospective data on marital histories collected as part of the June 1975 Current Population Survey supplement. Four marital statuses are used: never married, presently married, divorced, and widowed. Marital status life tables are computed for three periods: 1960–1965, 1965–1970, and 1970–1975, and, for each period, differences between males and females and between whites and blacks are described. We examine the proportion of a life-table cohort ever marrying, the mean age at first marriage, the number of marriages per person marrying, the proportion of marriages ending in divorce, the average duration of a marriage (or a divorce, or a widowhood), and the like.
A Conditional Nearest-Neighbor Spatial-Association Measure for the Analysis of Conditional Locational Interdependence
Authors: Okabe A , Miki F
Published: October 2006

The objective of this paper is to examine descriptively the locational phenomena that the distribution of one type of establishment is conditioned by the location of another type, such as barbers near hotels or newspaper stands around stations. First, a model is formulated in which points of one type are probabilistically distributed in relation to another type of points whose location is fixed. Second, in this context, a conditional nearest-neighbor spatial-association measure is proposed. Third, as the calculation of this measure is complex, a computational method is shown. Fourth, by the use of this method, eight types of establishments in Toshima-ward in Tokyo are examined for spatial association with railway stations.
Equilibria of a Gravity Demand Model
Authors: Chudzyńska I , Słodkowski Z
Published: October 2006

In this paper the equilibria of an urban retail model based on the principle of gravitation are studied. It is shown, among other things, that a positive equilibrium exists and is unique when the parameter α of the model is less than 1; for α equal to 1 a sufficient condition for uniqueness is given.
A Monte Carlo Approach to Estimating the Significance of Segregation
Authors: Findlay A , Findlay Anne
Published: October 2006

Simulation techniques are not new to geography, but they have focused traditionally on attempts to replicate observed patterns rather than on seeking to assist in the formulation of a null hypothesis. The benefits and problems of a Monte Carlo simulation methodology are examined with reference to the latter objective. The flexibility of the approach in the evaluation of spatial statistics is shown to be considerable. Specific case studies are pursued which exemplify its potential in the investigation of social segregation using familiar measures such as the dissimilarity index and the P* index.
The Notion of Prior Structure in Urban Modelling
Authors: Couclelis H
Published: October 2006

Most work in urban modelling to date has proceeded under the tacit assumption that there are mechanisms of urban process, either deterministic or nondeterministic, which can be approximately described in models. An alternative hypothesis is suggested proposing that urban process as such cannot be objectively specified, although urban system behaviour may appear deterministic or nondeterministic according to the frame of representation chosen by the modeller. Besides explaining the paradox of the relative predictive success of certain simple deterministic models in the face of more sophisticated theories stressing the impossibility of deterministic evolution, this hypothesis also throws light on the reason why physical analogies may work in the field of urban studies. This latter point is elaborated by means of an illustration involving the ‘Brussels paradigm’ of bifurcation. It is suggested that predictive ability and success of analogical transfer both depend on the presence in a model of a ‘logical prior’, a formal element which, being nonempirical, maintains its validity, not only in repeated applications across time and space, but also in transfers from one substantive field to another.
Planning for Rural Accessibility Provision: Welfare, Economy, and Equity
Authors: Nutley S D
Published: October 2006

Although there have been a great many studies of rural accessibility, the vast majority have been concerned only with basic survey and evaluation, with very little systematic attempt at developing methodology for improving rural access standards. This paper is based upon previous work using the time—space approach to evaluation and policy appraisal, and considers its extension into planning. This can only be done under the guidance of crucial policy-decisions on the accessibility targets desired, cost limits, and criteria for the distribution of (access) benefits such as the degree of social/spatial equity. Policy options and their implications are discussed, and a planning framework outlined.
The Demand for Local Amenity: An Hedonic Price Analysis
Authors: McLeod P B
Published: October 2006

In this paper the author investigates the demand for housing characteristics and proximity to local amenities in Perth, Western Australia. By application of hedonic price theory to a sample of house transactions the implicit prices for individual characteristics are estimated and used to estimate inverse demand curves for these characteristics in a second stage analysis. The results confirm the importance of proximity of river, parks, and highways in determining house prices. River views are found to be particularly important being valued at 28% of average selling price. From the inverse demand curves income elasticities of willingness to pay are found to range from 1.0 for age of house to 0.43 for proximity to the river.
Residential Satisfaction, Neighbourhood Attributes, and Personal Characteristics: An Exploratory Path Analysis in Cork, Ireland
Authors: Hourihan K
Published: October 2006

Many studies of residential satisfaction have shown that the effect of residents' personal characteristics is mediated through their perceptions and evaluations of attributes of their neighbourhoods, but have not been able to show how this occurs. A path analysis which treats the personal variables as causally antecedent was tested in Cork, Ireland. This shows neighbourhood satisfaction to be a direct result of four perceived attributes and two personal characteristics, which together explain 38% of the variation in satisfaction. The other personal variables are mediated through these direct causes and contribute indirectly to satisfaction levels.