bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Complex Triaxial Fabrics—Cover, Flexural Rigidity, and Tear Strength
Authors: Schwartz Peter
Published: March 2008

The properties of complex triaxial fabrics are examined and compared to earlier results presented for the simplest case of the triaxial weave. Cover factor results for the case of the basic weave are extended to the general triaxial case, which admits the stacking of three yarns. The tear strength (tongue) of complex triaxial fabrics is shown to be independent of the orientation of the test, altfiough the mode of tear propagation differs. Flexural rigidity is shown to vary with orientation angle, indicating that unlike simple triaxial fabrics, the effect of interlacing cannot be ignored.
Improved Comfort Polyester
Authors: Demartino R.N. , Yoon H.N. , Buckley A.
Published: March 2008

A series of polyester, cotton, rayon, polypropylene, polybenzimidazole, and polyester/cotton blend fabrics were evaluated in two subjective wearer trials. Subjective trial data were correlated with results of in-house laboratory tests. Important findings were that both geometric modifications and surface treatments play an important role in perceived comfort; however, objective testing can only predict general trends in comfort or pick out extremely poor candidates. These are supplemental but are no substitutes for a well planned and well run subjective wear trial analysis.
Flame Retardant, Durable Press Finishes for Cotton and Polyester/Cellulosic Blends
Authors: Bajaj P. , Chakrapani S. , Jha N.K.
Published: March 2008

Diammonium hydrogen phosphate (DAP) and N-methylol resins were applied to cotton and polyester/cellulosic blends using one step and two step sequential pad- dry-cure processes. Among the N-methylol resins studied, only urea formaldehyde treatment on phosphorylated cotton demonstrated the phenomenon of N-P synergism in terms of oxygen index, while no clear trend could be established in blends. The 45° angle burning rate at atmospheric oxygen concentration was accelerated by a trimethylol melamine treatment on phosphorylated cotton, while post-treatment with the same resin produced a slight retardation in the burning rate in 48/52 polyester/ viscose with respect to DAP treatment alone.
Chemicals and Textiles
Authors: Hatch Kathryn L.
Published: March 2008

This literature review traces the occurrence of dermatological problems caused by textile fibers and dyes, with the focus on consumer rather than occupational exposure. Wool, silk, nylon, fiberglass, spandex, and rubber have a role in cumulative insult, allergic contact, atopic, or contact urticaria dermatitis. Thirty-one dyes, mainly disperse with anthraquinone or azo structures, cause allergic contact dermatitis. Phototoxic dye dermatitis is rare. Dermatological information necessary to understand the kind of dermatitis and characteristic skin eruptions has been included. The sensitization process is described. Incidence rates can only be deduced from studying scattered reported incidences. Until predictive testing is done, the extent of fiber and dye caused skin problems will remain unknown.
Image Formation by Fibers and Fiber Assemblies
Authors: Chudleigh P.W.
Published: March 2008

The brightness distribution across a fiber image, formed under diffuse illumination with various source geometries, has been calculated and compared with experimental observations. Brightness distribution can be modified by masking the light source to enhance or suppress selected features of the image. This technique may be regarded as a form of optical processing that could be used in conjunction with conventional image processing methods to obtain information about dimensional properties of fiber assemblies. Examples illustrate the enhancement and suppression of images formed by an assembly of colorless wool fibers; the first case has application to the measurement of fiber dimensions and orientation, while the second can be used to improve the detection of colored fiber contaminants in an assembly of colorless wool fibers.
Differentiation of Catalyst Types in the Formaldehyde-Cotton Cellulose Reaction1
Authors: Gonzales Elwood J. , Rowland Stanley P.
Published: March 2008

Differences in effectiveness between a Bronsted acid catalyst (hydroxymethane sulfonic acid) and two commonly employed Lewis acid catalysts (Zn(NO3)2and MgCl2) on the pad-cure reaction of formaldehyde with cotton cellulose were determined in statistical experimental designs. The effects of each catalyst were followed by measured textile properties. Two methods for comparison of properties, one based on equal durable press appearance and a second based on equal conditioned wrinkle recovery angles, indicated that cotton reacted with formaldehyde in the presence of the Bronsted acid catalyst generally had superior resilience properties. Cotton reacted in the presence of the Lewis acid catalysts had better strength retentions at equivalent resilience by either method of comparison, and better abrasion properties by the method based on durable press appearance. Cotton reacted with formaldehyde and Lewis acid catalysts to a durable press appearance rating of 4.0-4.3 had better strength, abrasion, and wrinkle recovery angles than cottons reacted with formaldehyde in the presence of the Bronsted acid.
Diameter and Hairiness of Ring and Rotor Polyester-Cotton Blended Spun Yarns
Authors: Barella A. , Manich A. , Castro L. , Hunter L.
Published: March 2008

Ring and rotor 50%-50% blended polyester-cotton spun yarns were studied for diameter and hairiness by comparison with 100% cotton and 100% polyester yams. Experiments were carried out with 25 mg/m yams with twists of between 574 and 814 t/m (ring spun yams), and 766 and 1,244 t/m (rotor spun yams). The ITQT digital hairiness meter was used for measuring results.
Effect of Hydroquinone on Light-Induced Degradation of Nylon 6 Dyed with SolubilizedVat Dyes
Authors: Shah C.D. , Jain D.K.
Published: March 2008

Photostability of nylon 6 has been studied in the presence of four solubilized vat dyes in the lightfastness tester with an MBTF lamp. Two of the four dyes exhibit catalytic activity to enhance the actinic degradation of nylon 6, whereas the other two dyes are photochemically inactive and confer photoprotective action to the fibers. Photochemically inactive dyes possess better lightfastness compared to active dyes.

Light-induced degradation of nylon 6 in the presence of solubilized vat dyes is retarded by an aftertreatment with hydroquinone because of the anti-oxidant action of hydroquinone, and not because of ultraviolet absorption by this aftertreatment agent.
A Wool/Cotton Blend Fabric Made with Scoured Wool Processed Through the Carding Cleaner
Authors: Bel Patricia D. , Louis Gain L.
Published: March 2008

A suiting material was woven from a 50/50 wool/cotton blend made from combed cotton and scoured wool fibers. The scoured wool was cleaned and shortened using the carding cleaner developed at the Southern Regional Research Center. A small amount of vegetable matter present in the greige fabric was removed in dyeing and finishing. Mechanical processing procedures of the blend are outlined and discussed, and other pertinent fabric properties are also presented.
Effect of Hardness Ions on the Flammability of Phosphorylated and Aftertreated Polyester/Viscose Blend Fabrics
Authors: Bajaj P. , Chakrapani S. , Jha N.K. , Jain A.
Published: March 2008

To minimize the pick-up of hardness ions, phosphorylated 48/52 PET/viscose blend fabrics were aftertreated with titanyl sulphate, zirconium oxychloride/antimony trioxide, and sodium stannate formulations. Flame retardancy before and after hard- water (220 ppm) wash cycles was evaluated by oxygen index, surface ignition, 45° burning tests, and horizontal burning rate measurements. The FR behavior of phos phorylated blend was impaired by hard water after 4 washing cycles while the after treated blends resisted deactivation by maintaining their initial level of flame retardancy. Infrared spectral analysis revealed ion-exchange reactions in the phosphorylated blend. Ion exchange also occurred in aftertreated fabrics at those sites where complex for mation with metal complexing agents had not taken place.
Effect of Drawing of Poly(ethylene Terephthalate) Fiber on Molecular Orientation
Authors: Bhat N.V. , Naik S.G.
Published: March 2008

Polyester continuous filament yams were drawn at 36 and 200°C at four different draw ratios: 2.65, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0. Crystallinity and molecular orientation were investigated using infrared spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, birefringence, and sonic velocity. The densities were determined using the flotation technique, and sonic velocity was measured using a dynamic modulus tester PPM-5R. X-ray and infrared crystallinity indices of fibers changed because of the drawing, which could be further correlated with the data obtained by density measurement. Dyeing behavior was also investigated in terms of crystallinity changes caused by the thermomechanical process, and the changes in the molecular orientation because of drawing.
Solvent (Perchloroethylene) Dyeing of Disperse Dyes on Polyester
Authors: Shah C.D. , Jain D.K.
Published: March 2008

Three disperse dyes were applied on polyester from aqueous and perchloroethylene dyebaths. The perchloroethylene did not change the hue of the shades in the substrate to any noticeable extent, but did depress the glass transition temperature of the polyester film from 85° to 56°C Dyes applied from an aqueous medium were more aggregated than those applied from perchloroethylene. The retained perchloroethylene decreased lightfastness of the dyeings, and for each of the dye studied, the higher the amount of solvent retained, the lower the lightfastness.
Hygral Expansion of Woven Wool Fabrics
Authors: Dhingra R.C. , Postle R. , Mahar T.J.
Published: March 2008

An experimental study is reported of the hygral expansion behavior of a wide range of laboratory produced and some commercially produced wool woven outerwear fabrics. A fabric hygral expansion apparatus simultaneously measures changes in fabric length and fabric moisture regain which occur when the relative humidity of the ambient environment is altered. Fabric and yam hygral expansion curves are analyzed and discussed in terms of the following parameters: hygral expansion coefficient (slope of the initial linear part of the hygral expansion versus moisture regain curve), hygral expansion at 25% regain, and hygral expansion at 30% moisture regain. F bric hygral expansion behavior depends largely on the magnitude of the weave crimp. The effect of weave construction on the fabric hygral expansion is very small at high moisture regains; at low regains, plain-weave fabrics tend to show slightly higher expansion than the corresponding twill structures of similar crimp magnitude. The effect of fiber properties on hygral expansion behavior has been examined for a series of wool plain-weave fabrics produced from yams of the same linear density.
Effect of Modified Rinsing Conditions on the Whiteness of Laboratory Scoured Wool
Authors: Bateup B.O.
Published: March 2008

The effect of detergent distribution and the influence of various additives to the penultimate rinse bowl on the whiteness of laboratory scouted wool was investigated. With different distributions of scouring reagents (nonionic detergent plus alkali) between bowls 1 to 3 and a rinse in bowl 4, the whitest samples of both high yielding and low yielding merino fleece wools were obtained with the following bowl compositions: bowl 1, a large amount of detergent plus alkali; bowl 2, rinse; bowl 3, a small amount of detergent plus alkali; bowl 4, rinse. The lowest whiteness resulted when all the detergent was added to the first bowl. Intermediate whitenesses were obtained when a small amount of detergent plus alkali was followed by a large amount in the later bowls.

In a more conventional scouring system with constant scouring conditions in bowls 1 and 2, the addition of various builders to bowl 3 increased the whiteness in the order sodium carbonate < trisodium citrate < trisodium ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA-3) < trisodium nitrilotriacetate. Analyses of the level of residual contaminantes gave a statistically significant negative linear correlation between whiteness and residual iron content for both high and low yielding wool. For the low yielding wool, statistically significant correlations aiso existed between whiteness and residual solvent extractables, residual calcium, and ash content.

The improved whiteness obtained using EDTA-3 compared with no additive was also observed initially in simulated continuous scouring, but the overall whiteness decreased rapidly thereafter because of the rapid build-up of contaminants in the liquor.
Spreading and Imbibition of Durable Press Reagent Solutions in Cotton-Containing Fabrics
Authors: Bertoniere Noelie R. , Rowland Stanley P.
Published: March 2008

Incomplete spreading and penetration of durable press reagents during low pickup finishing of cotton textiles result in poor distribution of reagent residues, which adversely affects textile performance. To assess those properties of fabric and solution that affect spreading and penetration, drop absorbancy time (DAT), vertical wicking distance (VWD), and saturation value (SV) were determined. The solution-holding capacity of the fibers in the fabrics was assessed via solution of imbibition (SI). The durable press reagent systems studied contained DMDHEU, MgCl 2·6H2O, and the wetting agent Silagen MA alone and in combination. The fabrics included a series of all-cotton Osnaburg-type fabrics, in which the fill thread count was increased incrementally, and a series of intimate blend sheetings with a range of cotton/ polyester ratios. Enhanced spreading, as indicated by decreasing DAT and SV and increasing VWD, was associated with increasing fill thread count in the all-cotton Osnaburgs, decreasing cotton content in the blend sheetings, and the inclusion of the wetting agent Silagen MA in the test liquor. Depressed spreading was associated with increasing solids concentration, which increases solution viscosity, and with inclusion of the MgCl2·6H2O catalyst. The SI of the fabric was increased by increasing the cotton content and by increasing the DMDHEU content of the liquor. The latter is attributed to an increase in solution density.
Distribution of Fiber Diameter Within Sale Lots of Australian Greasy Wool Part II: Coarse Edge Statistics
Authors: Whiteley K.J. , Thompson Barbara
Published: March 2008

Procedures for recording the proportion of coarse fibers in greasy wool sale lots were compared. The percentage of fibers greater than 1.5 times the mean provided an estimate of the coarse edge that was precise and not particularly sensitive to outliers; however, due to the high multiple correlation of this statistic with standard deviation and average fiber diameter, specification of the latter two parameters appeared to obviate the need to specify a third parameter associated with coarse fibers in the distribution.
Optical Anisotropy in Ramie Fibers
Authors: Sokkar T.Z.N. , Shahin M.M.
Published: March 2008

Multiple beam Fizeau fringes in transmission and at reflection were used to de termine several optical properties of ramie fibers: the refractive indices of the fiber for monochromatic light vibrating parallel and perpendicular to the fiber axis and the birefringence of the fibers. A new method was used to determine these quantities by regarding the area enclosed by the deviation of the fringe as it crosses the fiber as representative of the path-difference integrated across the fiber.
Statistical Procedures for Predicting Length Characteristics of Top from Raw Wool Measurements
Authors: Brown G.H. , Rottenbury R.A. , Kavanagh W.J.
Published: March 2008

This paper deals with the application of regression procedures and cross-validation for predicting the resultant fiber-length characteristics of tops from raw wool measurements. Alternative methods of choosing raw wool variables and then estimating regression coefficients for prediction are compared. Data from 39 commercial batches from a single mill are used for this evaluation. The statistical problems associated with prediction are discussed; however, further mill studies will be required to assess the potential of the predictive relationship obtained in this study.
Work of Adhesion of Oily Dirt and Correlation with Washability
Authors: Saito Masako , Otani Mamiko , Yabe Akihiko
Published: March 2008

Adhesion and removal of dirt in the detergent process is interpreted from the point of interfacial phenomena, and the energetic measure of the adhesion and removal reaction is estimated by the work of adhesion ( Wa) of each system using the dispersion and polar force components of polymers and oily dirt. Soilability and washability of oily dirt are estimated from the values of Wa, and the correlation between Wa and washability is confirmed through experiments. The limitations and applicability of this surface energy analysis to the detergency system are then discussed.
Effect of Growth Area of Cotton Varieties on Gram Negative Bacillary and Endotoxin Levels
Authors: Fischer Janet J. , Jacobs Robert R.
Published: March 2008

Three species of cotton grown in different areas of the United States (Mississippi, California, Texas) during 1982 are associated with differing levels of gram negative bacilli and endotoxin activity. Area of growth is an important variable in determining airborne levels of gram negative bacilli and endotoxin activity when the cotton is carded.
Effects of Hygroscopically Treated Polyester Blouses on Sweating Rates of Sedentary Women at 33°C
Authors: Tokura H. , Midorikawa-Tsurutani T.
Published: March 2008

We studied the physiological effects of fiber moisture and water absorbancy on sweating rates in sedentary women during 60 minutes of warm exposure of 33°C. The sweating rates decreased significantly in the subjects wearing the polyester blouses treated hygroscopically, compared with those subjects wearing polyester blouses without hygroscopic treatment. We discuss the reason for such different sweating responses to garments with or without hygroscopic properties from the viewpoint of thermal physiology.
Physicochemical Properties of Sized Yams
Authors: Slauson Sherilyn D. , Miller Bernard , Rebenfeld Ludwig
Published: March 2008

The physical properties of cotton and polyester/cotton blend yams sized with several two-component size formulations were evaluated. The sizing systems included starch/polyvinyl alcohol, starch/polyester, and polyvinyl alcohol/polyester. The yams were evaluated by means of tensile tests and by measurements of rupture lifetimes when subjected to simultaneous tensile, bending, and abrasive stresses using the TRI cyclic tensile abrader (CTA). Scanning electron microscopy and tensile tests on films cast from the two-component size mixtures were used to clarify the different yam physical properties that were observed. The findings indicate that film extensibility and surface uniformity of the film are critical for achieving .high lifetimes on the CTA apparatus. The effects of adding a lubricant (tallow) to the size formulations were also investigated.
Magnesium Nitrate, A Neglected Catalyst for Producing Durable Press Fabrics with Low Formaldehyde Release
Authors: Reeves Wilson A. , Allgood Ann C.
Published: March 2008

Magnesium nitrate was compared to magnesium chloride for curing an unmeth ylated DMDHEU for the production of durable press fabrics under mild cure conditions with a minimum of formaldehyde release. The catalysts were used alone, with propanediol, and with the diol plus aluminum dichlorhydroxide. A wide range of catalyst concentrations and curing conditions were used in the study.

Magnesium nitrate produced fabrics with substantially less formaldehyde release and higher wrinkle recovery values than magnesium chloride did when the catalysts were used alone or with the diol plus the aluminum salt, and curing conditions were mild with respect to catalyst concentration, cure time, and cure temperature.
Statistics for the Number of Fiber Ends in a Segment of a Random Assembly of Aligned Fibers
Authors: Brown G.H. , Ly Nhan G.
Published: March 2008

A plausible model is used to derive formulas for the expected number of fibers with zero, one, or two ends in a given length segment of a random assembly of aligned fibers. These results are then combined to form the expectation of the number of ends and various related quantities. By making a stronger assumption, an expression for the variance of the number of ends is found. A numerical illustration is used to show how the variance depends on the length of the segment involved. Various definitions for the proportion of ends are given and discussed. A brief discussion of the relevance of these results to the study of the mechanics of staple fiber yarns is included.
Prediction of Finished Relaxed Dimensions of Cotton Knits— The Starfish Project
Authors: Heap S. Allan , Greenwood Peter F. , Leah Robert D. , Eaton James T. , Stevens Jill C. , Keher Pauline
Published: March 2008

Shrinkage of 20 different cotton knit fabrics was followed over ten cycles of relaxation using two methods of relaxation. The first method used a standard washing and tumble drying procedure, while the second used washing for only the first cycle; for the second and subsequent cycles, fabrics were merely wet out by rinsing before tumble drying. The two methods returned essentially the same shrinkage results within experimental error. Evidence was found for at least two separate underlying relaxation processes. In the length direction, the two processes are complementary, resulting in gradual progressive shrinkage. In the width direction, the two processes apparently worked in opposite senses, leading to greater uncertainty in the results and no marked trend in shrinkage over a number of cycles. The simplified rinse and tumble procedure has been adopted as the standard relaxation method for the Starfish project. At least five cycles seem to be necessary to approximate the fully relaxed state.
Importance of Boundary Friction in Measuring Bulk Compression of Loose Wool Fibers
Authors: Young M.D. , Dircks A.D.
Published: March 2008

The conventional method of conducting compression tests on fibrous masses employs a "piston-in-cylinder" arrangement. In its most common form this system overestimates the energy required to compress the fibers since it includes the energy expended in overcoming friction between the fibers and the cylinder wall. A new apparatus is described which both avoids this problem and enables the size of such errors in the conventional system to be estimated. Experiments comparing the conventional apparatus with several versions of the new design are described and some optimum dimensions are established for the latter.
A New Method for Reducing the Stickiness of Cotton
Authors: Balasubramanya R.H. , Bhatawdekar S.P. , Paralikar K.M.
Published: March 2008

Cottons contaminated with honeydew cannot be spun under normal conditions, and several methods such as washing, blending, spraying with yeast and, of late, applying a hydrocarbon and a surfactant have been used to reduce stickiness. Only the latter two methods have shown some encouraging results with few disadvantages. Spraying sticky cottons with Beijerinckia mobilis, a free living nitrogen-fixing bacterium, offers several advantages over the other methods apart from significantly reducing stickiness.
Effect of Synthappret BAP on the Wrinkle Recovery of Uncrosslinked and Crosslinked Cotton
Authors: Rippon J.A.
Published: March 2008

The dry and wet wrinkle recovery angles of a cotton fabric are increased by treatment with the carbamoyl sulphonate-terminated poly(ether) urethane, Synthap pret BAP. This product cures best under alkaline conditions, but in the presence of an organometallic catalyst, it can also be cured under the acid conditions used to crosslink cotton with dimethyloldihydroxyethylene urea (DMDHEU).

Synthappret BAP improves wrinkle recovery by decreasing the frictional component of wrinkling, probably through the formation of interfiber and interyam bonds. This contrasts with DMDHEU, which acts largely by changing the viscoelastic properties of the fibers. When the treatments are done separately, the improvements obtained with the elastomer and fiber crosslinker are additive for both dry and wet wrinkle recovery. Even better results are obtained however, when the treatment with Synthappret BAP, DMDHEU, and magnesium chloride catalyst is done from a single bath, provided a nonionic surfactant is present. The surfactant is necessary to prevent precipitation of the magnesium salt of Synthappret BAP.

The practical significance of these results is that fabrics with dry and wet wrinkle recovery angles similar to those produced by treatment with a high level of DMDHEU alone can be produced by a pad-dry-cure method, using low concentra tions of Synthappret BAP (<1.0% solids omf) plus DMDHEU (1-2% solids omf). These fabrics have better abrasion resistance and tear and tensile strengths than fabrics treated solely with a high level of the crosslinker.
Stability of a Borax-Based Smolder Retardant Finish for Cotton Upholstery Fabrics
Authors: Cheek L. , Wilcock A. , Olsen N.
Published: March 2008

The stability of a borax/phosphoric acid/resin smolder retardant on cotton fabric following continuous exposure to varying degrees of temperature and relative humidity for up to 100 days was examined. Specimens were assessed for boric acid active ingredient by chemical analysis, for smolder resistance by the UFAC procedure, and for morphologic changes by scanning electron microscopy.

Prior to exposure of the specimens, the finish formed a non-uniform waxy film with short protrusions covering the superficial fibers. During exposure to low temperature and relative humidity for 100 days, there was a small loss of boric acid with no accompanying loss of smolder resistance or change in microscopic appearance. The more severe conditions of temperature and relative humidity led to greater boric acid losses. With one exception, the smolder resistance of all specimens was classified as UFAC class I (safe for use over polyurethane foam substrates). The original waxy film encapsulating the fibers of the finished specimens became lobular and crystalline during exposure to the more severe environmental conditions.
Continuum Mechanics of the Fiber Bundle
Authors: Curiskis John I. , Carnaby Garth A.
Published: March 2008

The extent to which the methods of continuum mechanics may be used to model the mechanical properties of an idealized unit cell of untwisted but aligned fibers has been explored. An important question is the extent to which the continuum assumptions are applicable to a unit cell of fibers and the restrictions that exist with regard to interpolation of continuum solutions. The symmetry properties of the fiber bundle are used to show that, for small strains and linear elastic behavior, the fiber bundle might best be characterized mechanically as a degenerate square- symmetric homogeneous continuum, which is fully defined by six independent elastic constants. None of the existing yarn models includes all six of the elastic constants needed for a rigorous small-strain linear analysis; however, nearly all deformations of textile interest involve both large strains and nonlinear material deformation, and some of the difficulties involved in representing the constitutive properties of the material are discussed, using a tangent compliance matrix. The novel test methods needed indicate that the fiber bundle has various fundamental properties that have little relation to those of single fibers. The development of better test procedures for the key continuum parameters and consequent improve ments in the modeling of both mechanical and geometrical nonlinearities are seen as important stepping stones to improved modeling of the mechanics of textile structures.
Effect of Internal Stress on Lattice Strain in Relaxed Heat Set PET Filaments
Authors: Anqiu Zhang  , Hao Jiang  , Chengxun Wu  , Linyang Zhou  , Liang Xuan  , Baojun Qian
Published: March 2008

Using the method of resolving overlapping peaks, wide angle x-ray scattering data for relaxed heat set poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) filaments were analyzed and the characteristic parameters of some main crystal peaks were obtained precisely. The relative lattice strains of the filaments treated at different heat setting temperatures were thus determined. With the help of a thermomechanical analyzer, the thermal shrinkage stresses were also measured. Analysis of these experimental results indicated that the crystal structure of polymer fibers differs from that of low molecular weight substances, in that the unit cell parameters of the former are much more influenced by the internal stresses left in the fiber during the heat setting of the drawn polymer fibers. The series model is suitable for explaining these phenomena.
Effects of Heat on Cotton, Polyester, and Wool Fibers in Blended Fabrics - A Scanning Electron Microscopy Study
Authors: Goynes Wilton R. , Trask Brenda J.
Published: March 2008

Treating cotton textile fabrics with phosphorus-containing flame retardant finishes reduces the flammability of the fabrics. The presence of fibers other than cotton in blended fabrics changes the burning rates and char lengths of the fabrics, as well as the nature of the resultant chars. To better understand the relationship of blended fibers during burning, and the response of each fiber to heat, scanning electron microscopy was used to study structures of blended cotton/polyester and cotton/ wool fabrics, and of individual fibers, both before and after exposure to flames. In blended fabrics, changes in physical structures of polyester and wool were observed before those in cotton. Chars of blended fabrics were more stable than those from either fiber alone, because the charred cotton formed a network onto which the melted polyester and wool could flow. These melts in turn protected and strengthened the cotton residue.
Pilling Attrition and Fatigue
Authors: Cooke W.D.
Published: March 2008

Recent research into the formation, growth, and wear-off of pills is summarized. A sequential staining process is described allowing the identification of the pull-out/ roll-up mechanism of pill growth. A number of common pilling situations are considered with reference to five pilling rate differentials; if pill formation, pull-out, and roll-up continue at a high rate, the process of pill growth can remove sufficient fiber from a localized area to precipitate yam breakdown and fabric failure.
Evolution of Fibrous Structures Within Unstable Polymeric Fluids
Authors: Sawyer L. , George W.
Published: March 2008

Fibril formation within polymeric fluids is viewed from two complementary models. One is based on the lattice theory for solutions of semiflexible polymer molecules presented by Flory in 1956. This viewpoint is modified along lines suggested by Frenkel to incorporate effects that may be present in the thermokinetic environment of a polymeric system undergoing fibril formation. In the other viewpoint, fibril formation is recognized as an irreversible process. and the ther modynamics of irreversible processes, pioneered by Prigogine, is applied. This viewpoint considers the expansion and collection of polymer molecules in a nonequilibrium thermodynamic stationary state as developed by Lavenda. A merging of these two viewpoints is suggested as a viable stratagem for erecting a proper theory of fibril formation within the fluid jet inherent in contemporary synthetic filament forming processes.
A Micromechanics Analysis of the Mechanical Behavior of the α-Keratin Composite at Low Strains
Authors: Curiskis J.I. , Feughelman M.
Published: March 2008

The two-phase microfibril-mairix composite structure of α-keratin materials is generally accepted to be the basis of any attempt to explain the mechanical properties of these hard mammalian keratins. Despite this general acceptance of the composite analogy, little is known of the individual phase mechanical properties, even with respect to the low strain regime (up to 2-3% strain). This series of papers is an attempt to rectify this situation using finite element techniques appropriate to composite micromechanics analysis. To this end this paper presents an outline of the finite element method for elastic displacement analysis together with a definition of the constraint formulation of the basic composite micromechanics problem. This approach is applicable not only to the α-keratin composite but also to other composite materials, and this is verified for examples of boron epoxy and glass epoxy composites. Subsequent papers demonstrate the application of these techniques to α-keratins both in the native state and in a modified state, resulting from a "setting" process, for which the microfibrillar reinforcement can be considered continuous and discontinuous, respectively.
Analysis of the Single Bar Warp Knitted Structure Using an Energy Minimization Technique
Authors: Hart K. , De Jong S. , Postle R.
Published: March 2008

The application of an energy minimization technique is described which computes the equilibrium shape and interyarn forces of the single bar warp knitted fabric structures. The boundary conditions required for the solution of the single bar warp knitted fabric structures are derived. The method by which these boundary conditions can be enforced within the energy minimization technique is indicated. Because of the increased complexity of the single bar warp knitted structures, two features were incorporated into the technique. First, to assist convergence in the initial stages of minimization, the bending energy of the yarns was neglected, simplifying the minimization technique. Second, an algorithm was introduced to determine the state of interlocking between any two neighboring yarn loops. This algorithm permitted quick checks of whether the loop shape at any iteration had the correct interlacing characteristics.
Viscosity Profiles of Printing Thickeners at High Shear Rates and Their Use in Predicting Paste Flow in Screen Printing
Authors: Guion T.H. , Hood J.R.
Published: March 2008

Apparent viscosities of various natural and synthetic printing thickeners were measured at shear rates from 0.05 to 7000 s-1. Log viscosity-log shear rate plots (viscosity profiles) were curves, not straight lines as generally believed. Nonlinear regression equations were computed and required significant second or third order terms or both to fit the data. The slopes and shapes (or curvature) of the profiles were distinctly different for synthetic copolymers, for nonionic cellulose or starch ethers, and for anionic polysaccharides (either carboxylmethyl cellulose or sodium alginate). The interaction efforts on both apparent viscosity and slope of viscosity profiles of such variables as pH, temperature, concentration of thickener and added electrolyte, thickener composition, and molecular weight were estimated by analysis of variance.

The appearance of prints made with different thickeners was compared visually, photometrically, and microscopically. Prints with optimum sharpness of mark, levelness, and penetrations were obtained from pastes whose profiles, even with widely different shapes, all intersected at the same shear rate and apparent viscosity. The concentrations of each thickener required for optimum paste spread and appearance could be calculated from the slope of the viscosity profiles and from the estimated change in viscosity with concentration.
Factors Controlling Formaldehyde Release from Durable Press Cotton
Authors: Kamath Y.K. , Weber R.U. , Hornby S.B. , Weigmann H.-D.
Published: March 2008

Formaldehyde release from durable press fabrics treated with dimethyloldihy droxyethyleneurea (DMDHEU) has been investigated in an effort to understand the physicochemical equilibria that control the generation of formaldehyde and its transport from the fabric to the environment. Fabric pH plays a major role in the generation of pendant N—CH20H groups and of formaldehyde by affecting the rates of hydrolysis of the crosslinks formed between cellulose and the finish and of the pendant N—CH2OH groups, respectively. Specific rate constants for the hydrolysis of C-O and C-N bonds have been determined and found to go through a minimum at pH 7, suggesting that formaldehyde release under neutral conditions is very low. Under acid conditions, a high rate of crosslink hydrolysis (C-O scission) and a proportionately low rate of N—CH20H hydrolysis lead to the generation of additional N-CH2OH groups, increasing the formaldehyde release potential of the fabric. Under alkaline conditions, on the other hand, a combination of high C—N and low C—O hydrolysis rates leads to the elimination of N—CH2OH groups, the potential sources of formaldehyde release in the fabric.

The sorption equilibrium does not play a major role in formaldehyde release into water, but in a confined gas phase, formaldehyde release to the environment is controlled by the distribution coefficient of formaldehyde between cellulose and air. At ambient temperatures, the distribution coefficient is very large, reflecting the high affinity of formaldehyde for cellulose at low temperatures. Heats of sorption obtained from sorption studies at various temperatures suggest chemisorption of formaldehyde, possibly involving the formation of hemiacetals with cellulose. Since hemiacetals are hydrolytically unstable, formaldehyde is released under conditions of high humidity. At high treatment temperatures, formaldehyde binds with cellulose in an irreversible manner, forming a product that is stable to mild hydrolytic conditions, and is thus removed from the sorption equilibrium.
Determining Heatset Temperature by Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy
Authors: Ghosh Subhas , Rodgers James E.
Published: March 2008

Heat has a significant impact on the molecular structure of nylon 6 and 66, which in turn changes the yarns' physical and chemical properties and their morphological response to further processing. One of the major components of heatsetting is the temperature at which the yarn is heatset. Nylon 6 and 66 yams were heatset at different temperatures in a Suessen unit, and near infrared (NIRA) and x-ray diffraction analyses were then made on these samples. A regression modeled calibration curve was established by measuring the NIRA reflectance of yams heatset at known temperatures. This curve was in turn used to determine effectively the heatset temperature of nylon 6 and 66 yams. Correlation of the NIRA data with the x-ray diffraction data indicates that the NIRA regression models detect and measure crystalline perfection and growth with the increase in Suessen heatset temperature.
Elastic Properties of Twill and Modified Twill Warp Knitted Elastic Fabrics Part II: Discussion and Assessment of Results
Authors: Cooke W.D. , Assimakopoulos G.S.
Published: March 2008

An initial examination of the results generated by the program of fabric testing described in Part I of this series of papers showed no obvious relationship between elongation in either warp or weft direction and the underlying differences in fabric structure. It was necessary to use microscopic and fabric section techniques before the precise mechanism of stretch and stretch control could be explained.
Part II: Generalization of the Solution to Arbitrary Cross Sections
Authors: Kobsa Henry
Published: March 2008

The semi-empirical solution to the diffusion equation for the case of dyeing fibers with round cross section from finite baths containing soluble dyes proposed in the first paper of this series is generalized to fibers of arbitrary cross section. The errors incurred by this generalization are examined and correction factors are given.
Surface Energy Analysis of the Detergency Process — Surface Tension Components of Binary Mixtures of Organic Liquids and Aqueous Solutions of Surfactants
Authors: Otani Mamiko , Saito Masako , Yabe Akihiko
Published: March 2008

The applicability of the surface energy analysis method to the detergency system is discussed. This method involves multicomponent washing liquids, such as binary mixtures of organic liquids and aqueous solutions of surfactants. The surface tension and its components of these mixtures and surfactant solutions, which were calculated from contact angle measurements, were not linearly proportional to the molar ratio or concentration.

Oily dirt/washing liquid interfacial tensions were estimated from surface tension components. The interfacial tension tended to be overestimated compared with that observed in the systems using surface active materials. The results of a rolling-up test of oil drops suggest a correlation between the work of adhesion and washability.
Shrink Resisting Wool with Synthappret BAP: The Effect of Drying Conditions
Authors: Cook J.R. , Fleischfresser B.E.
Published: March 2008

The shrink resistance obtained when the water-soluble polymer Synthappret BAP is applied to wool fabric has been investigated. Particular attention has been given to the variation of shrink resistance with the rate at which the fabric was dried after the polymer had been applied by padding. The adhesion between wool and polymer, and therefore the shrink resistance of the fabric, is strongly dependent on the relationship between the drying rate and the rate at which the polymer reacts. Possible reasons for the dependence of adhesion on drying rate are discussed. The catalytic effect of sodium bicarbonate in curing the polymer is also considered. Under fast drying conditions bicarbonate hindered, rather than promoted, the development of shrink resistance.
Optimization of a Single-Stage Preparatory Process for Cotton Using Sodium Hypochlorite
Authors: Gulrajani M.L. , Sukumar N.
Published: March 2008

A single-stage preparatory process for cotton fabrics, based on a self emulsifiable solvent-assisted system using sodium hypochlorite has been investigated using a second- order response surface design. The proposed process works at a low temperature (40°C) and thus leads to a considerable energy savings. The properties of single-stage bleached fabrics are comparable with those of conventionally bleached fabrics.
Solvent Effects on Short Time Dyeings of Acrylics
Authors: Alberti Guido , Cerniani Ado , De Giorgi Rita
Published: March 2008

The absorption of CI basic green 4 by acrylic yam in the presence of different solvents is studied by means of the short dyeing time method. The quantity of absorbed dye is related to the dyeing temperature through an equation of the Williams-Landel- Ferry type. Using the theory of fractional contribution to the solubility parameter, linear correlations are found between the ratio of polar to nonpolar contributions to the solubility parameter and the lowering of the dyeing transition temperature of polyacrylonitrile caused by the solvents, and between the same and the quantity of absorbed dye. Increases in temperature level the effect of the different solvents on dye absorption.
Response of Lint Foreign Matter and Dust to Gin Machinery1
Authors: Anthony W. Stanley
Published: March 2008

The changes in lint foreign matter and respirable dust in cotton were evaluated using eight different cottons, three moisture levels, and seven gin machine sequences. Linear regression equations were developed to estimate the effect of each machine sequence. Coefficients of determination ranged from 0.85 to 0.93 and from 0.72 to 0.94 fbr the lint foreign matter and respirable dust, respectively. Substantial reduction in the levels of foreign matter (50%) and respirable dust (66%) were achieved by se quences that included lint cleaners, but the other sequences achieved minimal reduc tions. The effectiveness of each machine sequence can be determined with the regression equations and will provide a basis for machinery selection to optimize cleaning and for automatic process control.
Linear Viscoelasticity Applied to Wool Setting Treatments
Authors: De Jong S.
Published: March 2008

An account is given of setting experiments in hot water or urea/bisulfite solutions done on keratin fibers stretched up to 5% strain. The fibers are released in water at 20°C. A formula is derived to describe the setting process in viscoelastic terms. The formula correctly predicts the amount of set or contraction in wool subsequent to a setting treatment. The formula breaks up into separate observations the factors con trolling the set produced in a fiber. The formula holds because, after setting, the fiber can be regarded as being linearly viscoelastic about its set length. The dominant factor in producing the set in a fiber is the retractive force in the fiber prior to release; however, the stiffness of the fiber after release and its decay also are significant. The stiffness of a set fiber appears to age or increase with time after release in water. The initial stiffness of the fiber after release partly determines its set.
Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Mechanically Deformed Filaments
Authors: Chauhan R.S. , Dweltz N.E.
Published: March 2008

The effect of mechanical deformation on filament structure has been evaluated using a viscoelastometer. As a result of cyclic twisting, or torsional deformation, the fiber structure tends to disorient and behave more like an amorphous system where the loss factor (tan δ) increases as deformation cycles increase. Tensile cyclic loading, on the other hand, improves the orientation function as determined by sonic data, which include contributions from both the amorphous and the crystalline fractions as well as lateral order, as revealed by x-ray fiber diagrams. These structural changes give rise to lower values of tan δ. The decreased height and increased width of the loss peak at the a transition temperature substantiate the assumption that cyclic tensile loading improves orientation and lateral order through relaxation and strain condi tioning.
Irreversible Chemisorption of Formaldehyde on Cotton Cellulose
Authors: Kamath Y.K. , Hornby S.B. , Weigmann H.-D.
Published: March 2008

At low temperatures (lower than 65°C), sorption of formaldehyde on cellulose is reversible as indicated by complete extractability of the sorbed formaldehyde in water. At temperatures higher than 65°C, a fraction of the sorbed formaldehyde is irreversibly bound to cellulose and cannot be recovered by extraction with water. The extent of irreversible binding depends on the temperature and the time of exposure to formaldehyde. The moisture content of the fabric does not seem to have much effect on the binding reaction, especially at the high temperatures used in curing durable press fabrics. Over short periods of time at these temperatures, the amount of bound formaldehyde is a quadratic function of temperature. Thus, small amounts of free formaldehyde present in the fabric during durable press finishing would bind irreversibly to cellulose and are therefore unlikely to be a source of releasable formaldehyde during fabric storage and use.
Effect of Sizing Wax on Tensile Properties, Abrasion Resistance, and Weaving Performance of Polyester/Cotton Yarn Sized with Polyvinyl Alcohol
Authors: Walker Robert P. , Perkins Warren S.
Published: March 2008

A comparison is made of tensile and abrasive properties and weaving performance of polyester/cotton yams sized with polyvinyl alcohol with and without wax in the size formulation. Waxy lubricants are usually present in size formulations for spun yams. Wax enhances size application by reducing the tendency of the size to stick to drying cylinders, lowering the force necessary to split the yams at the lease rods, and defoaming the formulation. Wax is often difficult and costly to remove from fabrics in finishing, however, which raises manufacturing costs and lowers fabric quality. Wax also reduces the strength of the size film, adhesion of the size to the fibers and, con sequently, the resistance to abrasion of the yam. Since sized yam must have at least a minimum level of abrasion resistance in order to be woven successfully, a higher size add-on level is necessary when wax is present in the size formulation.