bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social pathways between childhood and adult health
Authors: Kuh Diana , Power Chris , Blane, David , Bartley Mel
Published: November 2023

There are two main ways that socioeconomic factors throughout the life course affect adult health and disease risk. First, they affect exposures to known or suspected causal factors during gestation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, or young adulthood which are part of long term biological chains of risk. Second, they form part of social chains of risk that begin with a socially compromised start to life, operate throughout the life course partly via educational and other learning experiences, and lead to adult socioeconomic circumstances which affect disease risk through exposures to causal factors in later life. Causal factors at each life stage include physical hazards and behaviours with known or suspected biological pathways, but may also include stressful life conditions which affect biological resources through psychosocial processes which are only beginning to be understood. Thus evidence from two types of studies are reviewed in this chapter: (1) aetiological studies which have examined how variations in adult disease are related to social factors at different stages of the life course in order to understand biological chains of risk, and; (2) studies of social chains of risk, which have investigated either the extent to which individuals experience continuity in their socioeconomic environment or how they interact with their environment in ways that lead to socially patterned exposures which may damage or protect health capital.
Time trends
Authors: Strachan David P , Perry Ivan J
Published: November 2023

Analyses of time trends offer intriguing but inconclusive evidence relating to life course influences on adult disease. There appears to be a combination of linear and non-linear components which are not readily combined and quantified in terms of period and cohort effects. Furthermore, the major identifiable cohort effect, the effect of cigarette smoking on respiratory mortality, cannot be attributed to programming effects in early life. Age–period–cohort analyses thus provide a limited basis for inference regarding the relative importance of factors acting in childhood or adult life. Attempts to explain trends in mortality and morbidity from ischaemic heart disease, stroke and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases have focused on recent documented changes in established risk factors related to adult life style. These explain some but not all of the observed trends, suggesting that a life course approach embracing factors acting in early as well as later life may be appropriate. Predictions of future mortality rates and disease burden need to acknowledge our uncertainties about the nature of many of the underlying cohort influences, the unpredictability of future changes in environment and life style, and the potential for changes in case-fatality resulting from advances in medical care.
Geography and migration
Authors: Elford Jonathan , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: November 2023

Geographic variations in the risk of coronary heart disease have been widely reported. Such variations may be genetic in origin, influenced by factors acting early in life, later in life or a combination acting throughout the life course. Two epidemiological approaches to investigating geographic variations in disease are considered here-ecological studies and migrant studies. Ecological studies within countries have shown strong associations between past measures of early life conditions as well as current measures of deprivation and cardiovascular disease. Other conventional risk factors showed weak effects or no associations. Current birthweight distribution was also not associated with cardiovascular disease. At an international level, both early life and adult risk factors showed moderate associations, although these were greater for cerebrovascular disease rather than ischaemic heart disease. Migrant studies conducted in the Pacific region, Israel, Kenya, China and Britain showed that people moving from a low blood pressure to a high blood pressure community experienced a rise in blood pressure not seen in those who remained behind. This appeared to occur soon after moving and could not be explained by selective migration. For example, islanders from Tokelau (in the Pacific) who migrated to New Zealand experienced a faster annual rise in blood pressure during follow up than non-migrants, the differential being 1 mmHg/yr for males and 0.4 mmHg/year for females. Factors acting after migration were clearly of aetiological importance for blood pressure. Ecological and migrant studies confirm that factors acting throughout the life course, and not simply at one stage, influence the geographic distribution of coronary heart disease and its risk factors.
Should we intervene to improve fetal growth?
Authors: Joseph K S , Kramer Michael
Published: November 2023

Numerous recent studies have demonstrated associations between specific patterns of fetal and infant growth and coronary heart disease. In this chapter, we examine the potential long term health impacts of interventions to improve fetal and infant growth. Although the available evidence does not permit firm inference that reduced fetal or infant growth causes coronary heart disease, our discussion is based on the assumption that the reported associations are in fact causal. The magnitudes of the effect that interventions to improve fetal growth are likely to have on subsequent coronary heart disease were estimated using data from the Hertfordshire cohort. About 33% and 26% of coronary heart disease deaths among women and men, respectively, would be averted if all births weighed between 9 –9.5 lbs (3969 –4422 g). Most of this decline would occur secondary to increases in the birthweight of babies in the 7–8.5 lbs (3061 –3968 g) category. Simulations with more realistic assumptions based on the 1993 Canadian birth cohort show a marginal impact on subsequent coronary heart disease deaths. For instance, a 100 g increase in the birthweight of female and male babies would result in a 2.5% and a 1.9% decrease in coronary heart disease deaths, respectively. Various options for improving fetal growth were reviewed, including interventions to improve maternal nutrition before and during pregnancy, reduce smoking in pregnancy and improve other aspects of prenatal care. The effects of such interventions are likely to be relatively modest, at least in terms of their impacts on subsequent coronary heart disease. For instance, observational studies show that the mean birthweight reduction in smoking mothers is approximately 150 g, while clinical trials evaluating the effects of intervention to reduce smoking in pregnancy have reported mean birthweight increases ranging from 31 to 92 g. Other issues that must be considered before intervening to improve fetal growth include the potential for unintended (adverse) effects.
Philosophical Perspectives On Music’s Expressiveness
Authors: Davies Stephen
Published: November 2023

Sometimes philosophy seems to psychologists to be psychologizing in a fashion that is uninformed and unrestrained by empirical data. (That’s alright, sometimes psychology looks to philosophers like unskilled philosophizing!) As this is the only chapter by a philosopher, I begin with an introduction outlining the nature of academic philosophy. For most questions, one (or more) of the following strategies supplies the answer: fact finding, scientific theorizing, calculating, voting, and legislating. The natural and social sciences rely on the first three of these methods. Some questions are not satisfactorily resolved by their use, however. The issues these questions present are neither empirical nor merely matters of opinion—they are ‘philosophical’. ‘Philosophy’ comes to connote the recalcitrant residue of questions which remain after all the (other) branches of knowledge and taste have taken the questions they are equipped to answer.
Aesthetic agency and musical practice: new directions in the Sociology of music and emotion
Authors: Denora Tia
Published: November 2023

If psychology is concerned with human behaviour (Sloboda & Juslin, this volume), sociology is concerned with forms of social organization and the relation of these forms to social action, by which is usually meant, to paraphrase Max Weber (1978,Vol. 1, p. 4), conduct (real or hypothetical) that is meaningfully orientated in its course and outcome. The scope of material that falls within sociology’s compass is wide, and perhaps it is because of its substantive breadth that sociology is a diverse—some would argue, fragmented—field. Sociologists have traditionally employed a range of empirical strategies and theoretical perspectives, and have tended to engage in a high degree of intradisciplinary opposition such that is probably impossible to speak of ‘a’ sociological paradigm. For example, some sociologists seek to identify and quantify causes of collective and/or individual behaviour and to predict behavioural trends, while others seeks to understand meanings and meaning systems using ethnographic and qualitative methods of observation.
The Influence Of Musical Structure On Emotional Expression
Authors: Gabrielsson Alf , Lindström Erik
Published: November 2023

The expressive qualities of music have been a matter of discussion by philosophers and music theorists ever since antiquity and, more recently, by music psychologists. Many kinds of expression have been proposed, but expression of emotion is undoubtedly the most frequent. Likewise, most empirical research has focused on emotional expression in attempts to find out, on the one hand, which emotions can be reliably expressed in music (reviewed in Gabrielsson & Juslin, in press) and, on the other hand, which factors in music contribute to the perceived emotional expression. The latter refer to factors in the composed musical structure represented in the musical notation, such as tempo, loudness, pitch,mode, melody, rhythm, harmony, and various formal properties. While it is a popular conception, and sometimes perhaps true, that composers express their present feelings in their compositions (cf. Cook & Dibben, this volume; Simonton, this volume), a more plausible view is that composers try to use various structural factors in order to achieve certain intended expressions, different in different works, with little or no direct connection to their present feelings. ‘A composer .
Emotional Effects Of Music: Production Rules
Authors: Scherer Klaus R , Zentner Marcel R
Published: November 2023

It is an ancient, and very pervasive, idea that music expresses emotion. Apart from the copious literature to this effect contributed by composers, musicologists, and philosophers, there is also solid empirical evidence from psychological research, reviewed in chapters of this book (e.g. Gabrielsson & Lindström, this volume; Juslin, this volume), that listeners often agree rather strongly about what type of emotion is expressed in a particular piece. It is also a pervasive belief that music can, at times, actually produce emotion in listeners. The distinction between perception and production is related to the distinction between cognitivism and emotivism proposed by philosophers in their analysis of emotion inmusic (e.g.Kivy 1989).Whereas ‘emotivists’ hold thatmusic elicits real emotional responses in listeners, ‘cognitivists’ argue that music simply expresses or represents emotions. Our view is that it would be premature to prejudge the issue and that both positions may be perfectly appropriate depending on a number of factors outlined below.
A History of Roman Britain
Authors: Salway Peter
Published: November 2023

One could not ask for a more meticulous or scholarly assessment of what Britain meant to the Romans, or Rome to Britons, than Peter Salway's Monumental Study Frederick Raphael, Sunday Times From the invasions of Julius Caesar to the unexpected end of Roman rule in the early fifth century AD and the subsequent collapse of society in Britain, this book is the most authoritative and comprehensive account of Roman Britain ever published for the general reader. Peter Salway's narrative takes into account the latest research including exciting discoveries of recent years, and will be welcomed by anyone interested in Roman Britain.
Why Spock could never have evolved
Authors: Evans Dylan
Published: November 2023

The visual similarity, however, concealed a deeper difference. Behind the human-like face lay an alien brain, far superior to ours. In particular, the Vulcan race had no emotions. At some point in their past, the Vulcans had dispensed with these primitive vestiges of their animal origins, and, no longer encumbered by passion, they had attained a superhuman degree of rationality. In supposing that a creature devoid of emotions would be more intelligent than we are, the creators of Star Trek were perpetuating an ancient theme of Western culture.
The computer that cried
Authors: Evans Dylan
Published: November 2023

In Bicentennial Man, Robin Williams plays the part of a robot who redesigns his own circuitry so that it will allow him to experience the full range of human emotion. These stories achieve their effect in part because the capacity for emotion is often considered to be one of the main differences between humans and machines. This is certainly true of the machines we know today. The responses we receive from computers are rather dry affairs, such as ‘System error 1378’.
Mayoral Elections
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

When a citizen pulls a lever in a mayoral election, the choice is more than among names. Candidates should, and generally do, stand for something; voters are giving a new or reelected chief executive a mandate to pursue a set of goals which have been emphasized in a campaign or a current administration. Unanticipated events and issues, often of great importance, inevitably arise; mayors cope with such events based on the broad values they hold. Other important aspects of municipal affairs are influenced, even determined, by people outside local government. Yet mayoral elections are the most meaningful opportunity for linking the desires of local residents and the decisions of local government.
The Capital Budget and Capital Projects
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

A major challenge for the leaders of the city of New York is to rebuild municipal infrastructure and enhance the physical facilities that support service delivery. Since emerging from the fiscal crisis of 1975, the city has regained access to credit markets and developed an ambitious capital investment program. A key issue is how quickly these capital projects can be completed. Delays postpone improvements and add to project costs.
The Property Tax
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

Over the past decade, real estate taxes consistently have accounted for almost one-fourth of the city of New York’s revenues. From fiscal year 1980 to 1990, the increase in property taxes slightly outpaced growth in the operating budget, rising 105 percent while total revenues grew 97 percent.1 This growth in property tax revenues, however, came largely at the expense of the owners of commercial and industrial property.
Expenditures and Services
Authors: Brecher Charles , Horton Raymond D , Cropf Robert A , Mead Dean Michael
Published: November 2023

The relationship between what local government spends in money and produces in services has important effects on the local economy and resident welfare. Municipal officials who are able to produce “acceptable services at acceptable costs” contribute to the economic fortunes of their communities and the living standards of their citizens. In return, they can expect to receive support from campaign contributors and voters. Municipal officials who are unsuccessful at managing the spending—service relationship are likely to elicit challenges to their policies, perhaps even to their positions; more important from a community perspective, their behavior reduces local living standards and employment opportunities and encourages outmigration of those for whom “exit” appears a more appropriate response than “voice.”1
Learned Helplessness and Physical Health
Authors: Peterson Christopher , Maier Steven F , Seligman Martin E P
Published: November 2023

Although many believe that psychological states have something to do with health and illness, actually showing the influence of psychology on physical well-being proves difficult. The best-known arguments in favor of such influence are striking case studies, such as Norman Cousins’s (1981) well-chronicled fight against illness through the mustering of his positive emotions. We find these stories of great interest, but at the same time, we are forced to take a skeptical view. Such examples prove very little other than the fact that the course of people’s physical health can vary drastically.
Oscillatory Zoning In Crystals
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Solid-solution crystals have been observed to zone with periodic or other undulatory profiles. The classic example is plagioclase feldspar, where the mole fractions of albite and anorthite may oscillate many times along a ray from a crystal’s core to its rim. Recent advances in microscopy have allowed for the observation of oscillatory zoning in a variety of mineral systems: The appearance of oscillatory zoning in grains of a variety of crystalline solutions from rocks of all types suggests that there is either a universal mechanism or a number of mechanisms. There are two possibilities. Oscillation could arise during grain growth or from an initially uniform (or perhaps monotonically zoned) crystal. In the former case, oscillatory zoning may be a direct reflection of oscillatory conditions in the growth medium. 38 In this chapter, however, our focus will be on mechanisms for oscillations that can occur during growth from a time-independent medium (i.e., autonomous oscillations).
Dissipative Structures At Reaction Fronts
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Both conditions favoring self-organizing and other nonlinear phenomena--disequilibrium and nonlinearity-are attained at reaction fronts. In this chapter we attempt to demonstrate that the question of geochemical self-organization at a reaction front may be cast as a problem in bifurcation theory (see Sections 2.B,D). Rather than analyze the full problem, we limit our discussion to a simplified model wherein the reaction zone is represented by averaged variables within the front. This has a great pedagogical advantage in that it allows us to map the problem directly onto one extensively studied in the modem literature on nonlinear dynamics-reaction diffusion systems. From this literature one expects oscillations, chaos, waves; and the other phenomena reviewed in Section l.C.
Liesegang Banding
Authors: Ortoleva Peter J
Published: November 2023

Runge and Liesegang and later investigators demonstrated that the interdiffusion of two coprecipitates can lead to the formation of banded patterns in one dimension, concentric ring localization in two dimensions, and corkscrew patterns in three di¬ mensions.1-5 That some repetitively banded mineral distributions in rocks could be accounted for by this process was proposed by Liesegang himself. Indeed, interest in the physicochemical basis of the self-organization of macroscopic patterns dates back to the time of Liesegang (the latter part of the nineteenth century).
Last Fiasco in Indochina
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

In May 1975, barely two years after the last U.S. combat forces had left Vietnam, U.S. servicemen were again fighting in Southeast Asia. As dawn broke over Cambodia on the morning of May 15, U.S. Marines assaulted the small Cambodian island of Koh Tang, twenty miles off the Cambodian coast. The United States had struck to recover the crew of the U.S. merchant ship Mayaguez, seized three days earlier by forces of Cambodia’s new Communist regime. Before the day was over, the United States had recovered the ship and crew, triggering a wave of jubilation throughout the country. After years of bitter war that had led to deep divisions at home and defeat abroad, the nation finally enjoyed a victory, won for a popular cause.
There Are No Snakes on Koh Tang
Authors: Vandenbroucke Lucien S
Published: November 2023

Planning and directing the Mayaguez operation fell to the closest U.S. military headquarters, the U.S. Support Activities Group/7AF (USSAG) in Nakhon Phanom, Thailand. Technically a joint command, it included representatives from the four services. In fact, it was predominantly an Air Force command, headed by an Air Force officer, Lieutenant General John J. Burns. In the three years prior to the capture of the Mayaguez, USSAG’s main mission had been to provide air and logistical support to the South Vietnamese and Cambodian allies of the United States. In April 1975, USSAG had been heavily involved in the successful largescale evacuation of Americans from Cambodia and from South Vietnam as the two countries fell to Communist forces. Now USSAG faced a new challenge. Almost overnight, it was to organize the disparate U.S. units at hand into an integrated force and conduct one of the most difficult military operations of all: a combat rescue mission.
Cognitive Constructs In Animal And Human Studies
Authors: Kesner Raymond
Published: November 2023

Buchwald (Chapter 5, this volume) has presented data in support of an animal model for the Pl middle latency response and for the endogenous P300 event-related potential (ERP) component. The aim of this chapter is to provide a commentary on those data, particularly the data on the P300 component and the cognitive processes to which it is related.
Event-Related Potentials In Populations At Genetic Risk: Genetic Principles And Research Strategies
Authors: Cloninger C Robert
Published: November 2023

Event-related potential (ERP) research in populations at genetic high risk for psychiatric disorders has not made optimal use of basic principles and research strategies that have been developed in genetic epidemiology during the past decade. Genetic epidemiology is the study of the interaction of biological and social risk factors influencing the inheritance and development of familial disorders.
Radiation and Cloud Processes in the Atmosphere
Authors: Liou K N
Published: November 2023

With significant advances in the field of atmospheric radiation and remote sensing in recent years, the need for an up-to-date treatment of radiation and cloud physics has become evident. This monograph addresses these advances, focusing on the physical principles and approximations required to develop specific subjects. In addition to its scientific value, the information presented here is essential for the development of better weather prediction models for medium- and long-range forecasting. It is also critical for achieving accurate retrieval of temperature and humidity profiles from satellite measurements, since new techniques for monitoring global biogeochemical changes rely on radiation theory and a precise knowledge of clouds and their role in radiative transfer.
Light Detectors, Photoreceptors, and Imaging Systems in Nature
Authors: Wolken Jerome J
Published: November 2023

The influence of light on the lives of living organisms is all-pervasive, affecting movement, vision, behavior, and physiological activity. This book is a biophysically grounded comparative survey of how animals detect light and perceive their surroundings. Included are discussions of photoreceptors, light emitters, and eyes. The book focuses in particular on the kinds of optical systems that have evolved, beginning with unicellular organisms that detect and respond to light through to more advanced and complex designs for imaging. The relevance of these studies extends beyond biology, since these findings can be used to help develop photoreceptor energy conversion and information systems, and optical imaging devices with a wide range of everyday applications. The book will appeal to biophysicists, photobiologists, bioengineers, neuroscientists, and all researchers working in the area of vision and visual optics.
Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System: An Overview
Authors: Loewy A D
Published: November 2023

The autonomic nervous system is traditionally de scribed as a motor system that provides control over visceral functions critical for homeostasis. This sys tem is responsible for the extrinsic regulation of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and all glandular secretions. Various metabolic processes are secondarily affected by this system due to its control over the re lease of hormones such as adrenaline and related chemical substances secreted by the adrenal gland, as well as insulin and glucagon liberated from the pancreas. However, the autonomic nervous system is not strictly an efferent motor system. Almost all visceral nerves have sensory fibers intermixed with the motor fibers.
Role of the Ventral Medulla Oblongata in Blood Pressure Regulation
Authors: Guyenet P G
Published: November 2023

The sympathetic vasomotor outflow is composed of a series of parallel and differentially regulated efferent pathways that control the cardiac output and the vascular tone of somatic and visceral structures. These pathways are thought to be organized in a highly specific fashion. For example, it is currently believed that specific sets of sympathetic preganglionic neurons may regulate the activity of muscle vasoconstrictor sympathetic postganglionic fibers and other sympathetic preganglionic neurons may control cutaneous vasoconstrictor postganglionic neurons (see Chapter 18).
Autonomic Control of the Eye
Authors: Loewy A D
Published: November 2023

For the eye to function normally, a variety of functions that are under control of the autonomic nervous system need to be maintained. These functions include autonomic adjustments of smooth muscles controlling the iris and the lens so that a focused image is projected onto the fovea, as well as sympathetic regulation of the uveal blood vessels to pro vide nutrients to the ocular tissues. This chapter re views the neural pathways involved in (l) the pupillary light reflex, (2) the accommodation response, (3) the regulation of blood flow to the eye, and (4) the control of intraocular pressure.
A Comparative Primate Perspective on Adolescence
Authors: Rosenblum Leonard A
Published: November 2023

As the Kinsey quote suggests, adolescence is neither a point in time nor an event signaled by some particular behavioral or morphological change. One may define puberty in specific neuroendocrinological terms, but adolescence is, of its essence, a period of transitions rather than a moment of attainment. It is the nature of those transitional processes that concerns us. While we may recognize, indeed agonize over, the diverse pathways followed by our own species during the stormy pas­ sage into maturity in human cultures, the march toward adulthood would appear to involve many of the same basic elements within the other primates. The role of this commentary is certainly not to provide any sort of survey of the extensive animal literature on the behavioral and morphological changes that culminate in reproductive and social maturity. Rather it is an effort to provide a comparative framework within which one may see parallel factors at work in shaping the form of adult expression in both human and nonhuman primates.
Emerging and Submerging Adolescent Sexuality: Culture and Sexual Orientation
Authors: Hotvedt Mary E
Published: November 2023

A 15-year-old unmarried woman becomes pregnant. If she is a rural Iraqi peasant girl, her father may kill her. If she is a Kalahari bush­ woman, she may marry quickly and comfortably. If she is a middle­ class U.S. high school student, she might stay unmarried and attend a special class for expectant mothers. These responses to the same scenario-only one of several aspects of adolescent sexuality to be dis­ cussed-are not simply random reactions due to geographic or linguistic differences or to parental whim. Each outcome is part of an integrated cultural pattern in which the reproductive capacity and sexuality of the girl, as well as the disposition of her infant, have different economic and social portent.
Reforming Sex
Authors: Grossmann Atina
Published: November 2023

Reforming Sex reconstructs the complicated history of a movement that has been romanticized as the harbinger of 1960s sexual radicalism and demonized as a precursor to Nazi racial policy, but mostly buried and obscured by Nazi bookburnings and repression. Relying on a broad range of sources--from police reports, films and personal interviews to sex manuals unearthed from library basements and secondhand bookstores--the book analyzes a remarkable mass mobilization during the turbulent and innovative Weimar years of doctors and laypeople for women's right to abortion and public access to birth control and sex education.
On Special Representations Of Polynomials That Are Positive On A System Of Closed Intervals, And Some Applications
Authors: Krein M G , Levin B Ya. , Nudel’Man A A
Published: November 2023

The present reserach arose as a result of studying and discussing a remarkable paper [1] of N. I. Akhiezer. In particular, in section 5.3.3 we consider a result of Akhiezer in the theory of spectral functions of a Sturm-Liouville equation of special form. When establishing this result, Akhiezer proved in passing the following proposition: It is obvious that, conversely, if a polynomial P(z) admits a representation of type (5.1), then it is positive on E.
On Polyhedral Annexation Method For Concave Minimization
Authors: Tuy Hoang
Published: November 2023

We shall be concerned with the problem of finding the global minimum of a concave function over a polytope. This problem, which is encountered in many applications (see, e.g., [1], [2]), can be considered as a central problem in global optimization, at least as far as deterministic methods are used. Actually, this is perhaps the simplest problem that exhibits in full all the typical computational difficulties of global optimization. Moreover, many deterministic algorithms so far developed for global optimization use concave minimization over polytopes as basic subroutines (see, e.g., [3]-[13]).
Cognitive Development in Sociocultural Context
Authors: Rogoff Barbara
Published: November 2023

As humans, we progress across the span of a few years after birth to remarkable ability to communicate by means of language, to use and devise tools to solve problems, to engage in flexible cooperative actions with others, to profit from the experience and inventions of our ancestors, to teach and learn from others, and to plan for distant future events.
Psychosociology
Authors: Collier Gary , Minton Henry L , Reynolds Graham
Published: November 2023

If William McDougall’s (1908) textbook on social psychology is regarded as British, then it is relatively easy to defend the position that American social psychology developed as a sub discipline of sociology. In deed, during the first three decades of the twentieth century, sociology and social psychology were so closely associated that the two disciplines were almost identical. Eight of the eleven textbooks published between 1908 and 1928 were written by sociologists, and two others (Gualt, 1923; Dunlap, 1925) were written by psychologists from a perspective so similar as to be in distinguishable. The only exception was the text writ ten by Floyd H. Allport (1924), which will be discussed in Chapter 5.
Oil and Gas Forecasting
Authors: Drew Lawrence J
Published: November 2023

This is the candid and often colourful account of the personal experiences of a resource analyst; experiences that led to major contributions in the modelling and forecasting of petroleum discovery rates and of potential oil and gas supply. The author ‘s approach is largely nontechnical. He relates the difficulties encountered in integrating geoscience, economics, and statistics, and stresses the value of critically examining data before formulating theories or building formal models.
What Is the Role of Frontal Lobe Damage in Memory Disorders?
Authors: Shimamura Arthur P , Janowsky, Jeri S , Squire Larry R
Published: November 2023

The prefrontal cortex comprises over 29% of the cortical mantle in humans (see Fuster, 1989). It is richly connected to other cortical regions (e.g., association areas, limbic structures) as well as to various subcortical structures (e.g., the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus) (Barbas and Pandya, Chapter 2, this vol ume; Goldman-Rakic, 1987, Chapter 4, this volume; Fuster, 1989). Thus, it is not surprising that damage to the prefrontal cortex can cause a variety of days functions in humans-including disorders of affect, motor control, language, problem solving, and memory (for reviews: Hecaen and Albert, 1978; Luria, 1966; Milner, 1964; Milner et al., 1985; Schacter, 1987; Stuss and Benson, 1986).
Somatic Markers and the Guidance of Behavior: Theory and Preliminary Testing
Authors: Damasio Antonio R , Tranel, Daniel , Damasio Hanna C
Published: November 2023

The theory proposed here evolved as a response to the challenge posed by patient EVR. As has been discussed elsewhere in detail (Eslinger and Damasio, 1985), patient EVR developed profoundly abnormal personality characteristics following a bilateral ablation of ventromedial frontal cortices, which was required for the surgical treatment of a meningioma. Prior to the appearance of the tumor and to surgery (which took place when EVR was age 35), EVR was, from all possible perspectives, a normal individual.
Delayed-Response Tasks: Parallels Between Experimental Ablation Studies and Findings in Patients with Frontal Lesions
Authors: Oscar-Berman Marlene , Mcnamara, Patrick , Freedman Morris
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we begin by defining a category of tasks usually referred to as delayed-response tasks. In particular, we describe the classic direct method delayed-response (DR) task, and the spatial delayed alternation (DA) task. Next, we briefly outline the neuroanatomic systems important for performing DR and DA tasks, and we review results of DR and DA testing in several human populations with neurologic dysfunction. One of our goals is to contribute toward an understanding of two basic issues: (1) The extent to which prefrontal cortex may be involved in DR and DA performance in humans, and (2) the nature of the neuropsychologic functions necessary for the successful performance of DR and DA tasks by humans.
Liquid He
Authors: Isihara A
Published: November 2023

Atmospheric He gas contains usually a minute amount of isotopic He atoms. Isotopic He atoms were separated out in small amounts in the 1940s. Although it was thought earlier that liquefaction could not be done, a gas of He was finally liquefied at Los Alamos in 1948. Subsequently, it became possible to obtain sufficient amounts of He by making use of the nuclear reaction of neutrons in lithium and the β-decay of the reaction product tritium. Liquid He attracted strong attention immediately because it is a Fermi liquid that is completely independent of electron systems and hence could be used as a new system to test Fermi liquid theory.
Polymers
Authors: Isihara A
Published: November 2023

The shape of a chain polymer molecule in solutions depends on the molecular weight, its repeating units, the temperature, and the solvent. For a long flexible chain, it is convenient for theoretical consideration to introduce an effect repeating unit called a segment. The segments are more or less free from each other in orientation although they are connected. As such, each segment may consist of several monomers. The essential feature of their connectivity can be studied in terms of a simple pearl necklace model. The main point in using such a simple model comes from the expectation that as far as the dependence on the chain length is concerned, the internal structure of a segment will be irrelevant in the long-chain limit. This expectation is similar to the universality of the scaling laws near the critical points of second-order phase transitions, as we shall discuss later.
Life Histories, Unsolved Mysteries
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

One spring morning in 1990 I was watching Louise as she swung into a small legume tree next to the trail, and began eating the tiny young leaves sprouting from the branch tips. The rest of the group was scattered along the slope below her. Nilo, a young adult male, crossed into the tree to feed with Louise. He spotted some fresh shoots growing out of the ground, and descended the trunk to sit on the trail within a meter from where I stood. With a quick glance at me as I slowly sank down beside him, he began gently pulling handfuls of the tender shoots into his mouth. He was close enough to touch. I could smell his strong cinnamon scent, and hear his teeth snapping at the juicy greens. Nilo continued to feed for 5 minutes and then casually climbed back into the tree, where Louise was now resting. It had taken more than eight years for a muriqui to come to the ground so close to me.
Sociobiology of Plants: An Emerging Synthesis
Authors: Doust Jon Lovett , Doust Lesley Lovett
Published: November 2023

An exciting new synthesis is taking place within the literature of evolutionary biology. Botany, especially plant ecology, is being reexamined in light of theory derived from animal sociobiology. Greater communication between ecologists who study plants and those who study animals has led to some sharing and trading of concepts and contexts. Recently, for example, a number of workers have used the theory of sexual selection to explain intersexual differences in particular plant traits.
Monomorphic and Dimorphic Sexual Strategies: A Modular Approach
Authors: Cox Paul Alan
Published: November 2023

A seed plant has two possible pathways to transmit its genes to the next generation: pollen and/or ovules. The precise combination of pollen and ovules used to transmit genes depends on the types of sexual organs found within a single type of flower, the different types of flowers produced by a single individual, and the different types of individuals occurring within a population. Thus, compared to animals, plants have a wealth of means of varying their sexual expression.
Reproductive Ecology of Bryophytes
Authors: Mishler Brent d.
Published: November 2023

The bryophytes, with some 25,000 species, are the second most diverse group ofland plants (behind the angiosperms) in terms of number of species, yet many aspects of their biology remain relatively under-studied, and reproductive ecology is no exception. This chapter has several goals, and since some of these differ from other chapters in this book, a few words of explanation are in order. The first goal is to present a picture of the evolutionary biology of bryophytes to general evolutionary ecologists who may not be fully aware of the unique or special features of this group.
Understanding the Created World
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

I’m looking at the soup ladle in Figure 6.1. Why is it shaped this way instead of like the serving spoon next to it? What is the purpose behind its distinctive shape? Often we begin our understanding of an invention by determining its purpose. Strangely, it’s not always clear how to do this. Let’s look at two simple inventions, the soup ladle and the door knob, to see how we can determine purpose. Along the way, we will find out if it is a bad thing to be as dumb as a doorknob.
Multiple-Invention Heuristics: Linking
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

When I was younger, I always had a stationwagon. Not because I liked the ride or the way it responded or the exposure of cargo, but for reasons of economy. Ideally, I needed a sedan for the comfort it affords on longer trips and a pickup truck for all the junk I wanted to haul around. The stationwagon was a compromise, a kind of functional blend or interpolation between the sedan and the pickup truck. That’s an interesting new idea, that one invention can be between two others.
Discovering Heuristics
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

Last week I bought a new set of tires for my car. I had to wait for some time for the tires to be put on, and, during my wait, I wandered through the counters and display of the sewing section of a nearby store. These experiences prompted me to think about two seemingly unrelated ideas: What are the origins of this device that moves us around so readily, this device we call the wheel? And where did the idea for sewing come from? Let’s use these questions as a vehicle for how to find heuristics, since by now you’re probably wondering where heuristics come from. The answer is simple enough. Usually, heuristics are tentative generalizations abstracted from actual cases of invention, and ideally they are tested for generality by seeing if they have explanatory power for other inventions.
The Interface’s Form.
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

An interface is the place and the way that two different systems are connected to one another. A human interface is the way we connect with our artifacts. A typical example is the handle, an interface between a tool head and a human hand.
Procedure’s Way
Authors: Weber Robert J
Published: November 2023

I can remember a favorite TV series-Julia Child doing her culinary magic. I loved to watch her use a knife. She was a virtuoso: slice, chop, pare, almost like a ballet of hands and tools. These actions with the knife form a common, little appreciated, and powerful mode of invention, the creation of procedures.
Joining Biological and Economic Models for Conserving Plant Genetic Diversity
Authors: Falk Donald A
Published: November 2023

Intraspecific genetic diversity is a fundamental element in the modern concept of species. Although not necessarily prominent in the public understanding, the scientific view of species is not as a homogeneous set of organisms, but as a group of evolutionarily related individuals incorporating and expressing wide variety in genetically determined traits. This view of species as biological entities not only tolerates genetic variation, but depends on it; we recognize the importance of genetic variation in re production, in ecology, and in evolution and speciation itself (Lewontin 1974). Genetic variation is increasingly recognized as a basic component of population and community structure as well. We would no more consider a single specimen to capture the full functional, ecological, and evolutionary range of a species than we would consider one individual to represent human society.
Natural History and Epidemiology of Tobacco Use and Addiction
Authors: Fiore Michael C , Newcomb Polly , Mcbride Patrick
Published: November 2023

While tobacco products have been consumed in the United States for many centuries, cigarette smoking was an uncommon behavior at the beginning of this century. In 1900, approximately 7 pounds of tobacco were consumed on a per capita basis for every adult in the United States (Shopland 1986). Of this, about 4 pounds were in the form of chewing tobacco, 1.6 pounds of pipe tobacco, and 0.3 pounds of snuff. In 1900, less than 1 pound of tobacco was consumed as cigars or cigarettes. By 1918, however, cigarette consumption had surpassed all other forms of tobacco use and the epidemic of cigarette smoking had begun.
Treating Nicotine Dependence in Medical Settings: A Stepped-Care Model
Authors: Orleans C Tracy
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents the rationale for treating nicotine dependence in health care set-tings and introduces a stepped-care model as a blueprint for intervention. It includes an overview of the patient characteristics associated with success in quitting smoking and of the stages of change smokers progress through as they quit. Treatments for cigarette smokers are emphasized because most clinical work and research has focused on cigarette smoking. Likewise, the chapter focuses on physician interventions, because they have been the most carefully studied. However, applications for allied health care providers (e.g., nurses, physician assistants, health educators, respiratory care practitioners), for dentists and their staffs, for pharmacists, and for chemical dependency counselors also are described. Subsequent chapters give detailed practical guidelines for implementing the interventions outlined here. They also will help the clinician modify this generic treatment model for different settings and for patients in selected high-risk groups (e.g., pregnant smokers, smokers with cardiac or pulmonary disease or cancer, psychiatric and chemical dependency patients) and for smokeless tobacco users.
Pharmacological Adjuncts for the Treatment of Tobacco Dependence
Authors: Jarvik Murray E , Henningfield Jack E
Published: November 2023

The vast majority of current tobacco users are interested in quitting smoking and have tried to quit at some point (USDHHS 1989). Although approximately one-third of all cigarette smokers attempt to quit each year, most quickly relapse in the first week or two (USDHHS 1989). For many, pharmacologic aids may make the transition from nicotine addiction to a stable abstinence more tolerable, and this may make the difference be-tween premature death due to tobacco exposure and the improved health achieved by abstinence from tobacco. The advent of a medication approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for assisting in the maintenance of tobacco abstinencenicotine polacrilex (gum)-was one of the important biomedical breakthroughs in the 1970s. Understanding both the known benefits of this medication and the limits of its use provides a useful perspective for the evaluation of other putatively effective medications.
A Naturalist Perspective on Moral Reasoning and Moral Relativism
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

You can say of normative argument what has been said of comedy: that it is a narrow escape not from truth but from despair. The emphasis falls on the narrowness of the escape; you cannot even be sure in the end whether you have made it. Perhaps the only view of normative argument that can be made to stick is one that approaches skepticism without being engulfed by it. Better this view than the familiar alternation between boastful moral dogmatism and barely hidden moral agnosticism. Thomas Scanlon has suggested that there are three basic “questions which a philosophical account of the foundations of morality must answer.” They are, first, the question of subject matter: Moral knowledge is knowledge of or about what? second, the espistemological question: How is moral knowledge achieved? and, third, the question of motivation: What reason, if any, does one have to take an interest in, to care about, moral knowledge?
Foundations Of The Neuron Doctrine
Authors: Shepherd Gordon M
Published: November 2023

For a century, the neuron doctrine has been the basis for our concepts of nervous organization and brain function, stating that the cell theory applies to the nervous system. Santiago Ramon y Cajal, Spain’s greatest scientist, was its main architect; his main tool being a capricious nerve cell stain discovered by Camillo Golgi. This book reviews the original papers on which the neuron doctrine was based, showing that the evidence came from such contributors as Albrecht Kolliker, Sigmund Freud, Wilhelm His, August Forel, Fritdjof Nansen and Gustav Retzius. Many questions were raised which remain relevant today. Electron microscopical studies in the 1950s appeared to confirm the classical doctrine but subsequent studies revealed unsuspected complexities. This book reviews the new studies against the classical work and suggests new directions for revising our concept of the neuron as a basis for the functional organization of the nervous system.