Applications of digital imaging coupled with machine-learning for aiding the identification, analysis, and quantification of intergranular and grain-coating clays within reservoirs rocks.
Authors: Vogel Hannah , Amiri Hamed , Plümper Oliver , Hangx Suzanne , Drury Martyn 
Published: March 2022

&lt;p&gt;Induced subsidence and seismicity caused by the production of hydrocarbons in the Groningen gas field (the Netherlands) is a widely known issue facing this naturally aseismic region (Smith et al., 2019). Extraction reduces pore-fluid pressure leading to accumulation of small elastic and inelastic strains and an increase in effective vertical stress driving compaction of reservoir sandstones.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Recent studies (Pijnenburg et al., 2019a, b and Verberne et al., 2021) identify grain-scale deformation of intergranular and grain-coating clays as largely responsible for accommodating (permanent) inelastic deformation at small strains relevant to production (&amp;#8804;1.0%). However, their distribution, microstructure, abundance, and contribution to inelastic deformation remains unconstrained, presenting challenges when evaluating grain-scale deformation mechanisms within a natural system. Traditional methods of mineral identification are costly, labor-intensive, and time-consuming. Digital imaging coupled with machine-learning-driven segmentation is necessary to accelerate the identification of clay microstructures and distributions within reservoir sandstones for later large-scale analysis and geomechanical modeling.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;We performed digital imaging on thin-sections taken from core recovered from the highly-depleted Zeerijp ZRP-3a well located at the most seismogenic part of the field. The core was kindly made available by the field operator, NAM. Optical digital images were acquired using the Zeiss AxioScan optical light microscope at 10x magnification with a resolution of 0.44&amp;#181;m and compared to backscattered electron (BSE) digital images from the Zeiss EVO 15 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) at varying magnifications with resolutions ranging from 0.09&amp;#181;m - 2.24 &amp;#181;m. Digital images were processed in ilastik, an interactive machine-learning-based toolkit for image segmentation that uses a Random Forest classifier to separate clays from a digital image (Berg et al., 2019).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Comparisons between segmented optical and BSE digital images indicate that image resolution is the main limiting factor for successful mineral identification and image segmentation, especially for clay minerals. Lower resolution digital images obtained using optical light microscopy may be sufficient to segment larger intergranular/pore-filling clays, but higher resolution BSE images are necessary to segment smaller micron to submicron-sized grain-coating clays. Comparing the same segmented optical image (~11.5% clay) versus BSE image (~16.3% clay) reveals an error of ~30%, illustrating the potential of underestimating the clay content necessary for geomechanical modeling.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Our analysis shows that coupled automated electron microscopy with machine-learning-driven image segmentation has the potential to provide statistically relevant and robust information to further constrain the role of clay films on the compaction behavior of reservoir rocks.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#160;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;References:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Berg, S. et al., Nat Methods 16, 1226&amp;#8211;1232 (2019).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;(NAM) Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij BV (2015).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pijnenburg, R. P. J. et al., Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 124 (2019a).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Pijnenburg, R. P. J. et al., Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 124, 5254&amp;#8211;5282. (2019b)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Smith, J. D. et al., Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 124, 6165&amp;#8211;6178. (2019)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Verberne, B. A. et al., Geology, 49 (5): 483&amp;#8211;487. (2020)&lt;/p&gt;