bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Efektivitas, Daya Pajak dan Kontribusi Pajak Kendaraan Bermotor Tahun 2013-2017 di UPT Pengelolaan Pendapatan Daerah Provinsi Jawa Timur Bondowoso
Authors: Sita Irfani Meysa , Probowulan Diyah , Pramono Didik Eko
Published: May 2019

Jumlah Kendaraan Bermotor yang semakin meningkat setiap tahunnya berpengaruh terhadap pendapatan pajak di indonesia. pajak adalah salah satu penerimaan pendapatan pemerintah yang penting dalam pembangunan daerah. Sumber pendapatan daerah antara lain pajak provinsi dan pajak kabupaten yang diharapkan dapat menjadi sumber pembiayaan bagi program pembangunan daerah dan mensejahterakan masyarakat. Salah satu sumber pendapatan asli daerah dari pajak provinsi adalah Pajak Kendaraan Bermotor, di Kabupaten Bondowoso penerimaan pajak kendaraan bermotor memberikan sumbangan yang besar terhadap pendapatan asli daerah. Penelitian ini dijabarkan dengan metode deskriptif persentase, tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah mengetahui efektivitas pajak kendaraan bermotor, daya pajak dan kontribusi pajak kendaraan bermotor terhadap pendapatan asli daerah. Hasil penelitian menunjukan penerimaan pajak kendaraan bermotor sangat efektif, daya pajak rendah dan kontribusi pajak kendaraan bermotor yang sangat baik.
Analisis Potensi dan Realisasi Penerimaan Pajak Hotel di Kabupaten Pemalang
Authors: Benita Nita , Adechandra David , Pesudo Ashedica
Published: May 2019

Studi ini meneliti tentang potensi pajak hotel di Kabupaten Pemalang dari tahun 2014 sampai dengan tahun 2018. Tujuan dari penelitian ini ialah mencari potensi riil pajak hotel dan membandingkannya dengan realisasinya. Studi ini menggunakan metode kualitatif dan data yang digunakan ialah data sekunder yang didapatkan dari Bapenda Kabupaten Pemalang. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa potensi riil pajak hotel Kabupaten Pemalang pada tahun 2014 sebesar Rp 3.019.518.365  dan terus meningkat hingga pada tahun 2018 sebesar  Rp 3.205.734.770. Begitu pula dengan efektivitas (perbandingan antara potensi pajak hotel dengan realisasi pajak hotel) yang selalu meningkat tiap tahunnya dan persentase paling besar ialah tahun 2018 sebesar 15,70 persen
A Tilted Playing Field
Authors: Hindman Matthew
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on stickiness—the factors that allow sites and apps to attract and keep an audience. Critically, many tactics that promote stickiness get cheaper per user as sites get bigger. The Internet thus provides economies of scale in stickiness. Bigger, more popular sites and platforms find it easier to attract still more visitors, and to build up habits of readership. The chapter shows how the economies of scale that shape countless traditional industries, from airlines to automakers, remain powerful in the digital economy. Here, understanding digital audiences starts with digital economies of scale. The goal is to highlight some of the most powerful and best documented forces that skew the game toward the largest players. Size advantages alone are not the full story, after all. But with so many strong economies of scale, of so many different types, in so many different areas of digital media, the chapter argues that it is time to stop pretending that the Internet is a level playing field.
The Dynamics of Web Traffic
Authors: Rogers Bruce
Published: May 2019

This chapter aims to build better models of web traffic. It shows how web traffic is roughly power law distributed, in which a highly concentrated “head” of the Web is coupled with a long, diffuse “tail” of tiny sites. These power law-like patterns have provoked vigorous debate about whether the Web is dominated by new or old elites. To address these issues, this chapter builds new models that scale seamlessly from the largest websites down to hundreds of smaller ones. It builds and tests these models with a rich dataset from Hitwise, a web measurement firm. As this chapter shows, digital audience growth follows predictable patterns. These patterns look much like the growth of cities over time, or the fluctuations of stocks on an equity market (more on that shortly), or even the growth and decline of biological species. This chapter borrows mathematical models and techniques from other disciplines to demonstrate these patterns, focus with a focus on understanding the principles and intuition behind the models.
Economic Growth and Human Development since 1820
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the trends in economic growth and human development in Turkey during the last two centuries. Economists have learned a great deal about modern economic growth since the end of World War II. The large and growing literature has emphasized that increases in productivity, achieved through technological progress on the one hand, and increases in per capita physical capital and education levels, on the other, were the most important factors contributing to economic growth. In addition, the labor force is much better educated than in 1820. In short, technological change and higher rates of investment in both physical and human capital are seen today as the leading proximate causes of economic growth since the Industrial Revolution.
Institutions and the Ottoman Past
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at the role of institutions in economic development and the evolution of Ottoman institutions before the nineteenth century. It argues that while institutions are not the only things that matter, it is essential to examine their role in order to understand Turkey's experience with economic growth and human development during the last two centuries. The economics and economic history literature has been making a related and important distinction between the proximate and deeper sources of economic growth. The proximate causes refer to the contributions made by the increases in inputs, land, labor, and capital and the productivity increases. The deeper causes refer to the social, political, and economic environment as well as the historical causes that influence the rate at which inputs and productivity grow.
From Empire to Nation-State
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This chapter begins with global and national political developments and explores how they led to changes in economic policies and institutions, as well as the consequences of these changes. Both world wars, as well as the Great Depression, had a significant negative impact on the economy. In addition, the transition from the empire to a new nation-state within new borders had long-lasting economic consequences. As a result, both total and per capita GDP fluctuated sharply during these decades. The chapter demonstrates how the decade of the Great Depression from 1929 to 1939 was characterized by protectionism, industrialization led by the state, and moderately high rates of growth.
Conclusion
Authors: Pamuk Şevket
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter discusses how most countries around the world have experienced significant increases in per capita income and improvements in human development during the last two centuries. For instance, GDP per capita in the area within Turkey's current borders has increased approximately fifteenfold since 1820. While Turkey did slightly better than the averages for the developing countries, the gap with developed countries widened significantly. The most basic reason for this pattern was the relatively rapid industrialization in Western Europe and North America, while Turkey as well as other developing countries stayed mostly with agriculture. The most important proximate cause of the large divergence in per capita incomes between Western Europe and much of the rest of the world was the very different rates of adoption of the new technologies of the Industrial Revolution.
The Pericope Adulterae and the Rise of Modern New Testament Scholarship
Authors: Knust Jennifer , Wasserman Tommy
Published: May 2019

This chapter evaluates the modern scholarship on the pericope adulterae. Debates about the pericope adulterae have been central to the development of both modern textual criticism and historical-critical approaches to the Gospels, as these disciplines emerged in the nineteenth century. When nineteenth- and twentieth-century scholars advocated for the necessity of correcting ancient scribal error, they did so in part on the basis of this pericope, which was relegated to brackets or margins and thereby effectively removed from the canonical Gospel of John. The displacement of this story, as well as a few other passages, was inextricably linked to a new scientific approach to textual editing that finally overturned the Textus Receptus, the Greek text that had been employed in Europe since the Renaissance.
The Interrevolutionary Recovery and Rally
Authors: Malik Hassan
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores Russia's rapid recovery from the strains of revolution and war, and the impact of its return to war in 1914. It argues that this interrevolutionary rally is a striking and curious phenomenon that flies in the face of existing theories that suggest political instability and violence are bad for markets. In exploring the archival record, the chapter shows that investor perceptions of improvements in the real economy, a geopolitical realignment, and factors operating at the level of financial gatekeepers all contributed to the interrevolutionary rally. Yet despite the improving economic indicators and rising security prices, Russia's economy and financial system became increasingly fragile in the decade from 1906 to 1916. Paradoxically, were it not for the fiscal stimulus provided by the armaments buildup that preceded the First World War and the outbreak of the war itself, the Tsarist regime could have faced a potentially disastrous financial crisis in 1913–14.
Introduction
Authors: Malik Hassan
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter argues that the story of the Russian investment boom and bust of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries is based on, among other things, financial and economic data, as well as the correspondence, reports, and other documents in government and private banking archives in Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Paris, London, and New York. The 1918 Bolshevik repudiation of debts contracted by the Tsarist and Provisional governments—the largest default in history—punctuated the end of an era during which Russia had become the leading net international debtor in the world. It is relevant to an extensive academic literature that stretches across the disciplines of history, economics, and political science. The secondary literature cited in these sources relates to the Russian Revolution, banking and business history, the historical sociology of revolutions, and international capital flows. Given the crucial importance of the last of these, the story is international, touching on aspects of the histories of nations such as Russia, France, Germany, Britain, the United States, China, and Japan.
First Authors
Authors: Vélez Karin
Published: May 2019

This chapter reexamines Loreto's historical “brand” by looking at some of the first authors of Loreto's origin story. It opens with the architects of Loreto's shrine seal, Cardinal Antonio Maria Gallo and Cardinal Rutilio Benzoni. Moving down the ranks and back in time, there are two earlier sixteenth-century chroniclers who laid the groundwork for the high clergy's selective mythohistory: a shrine governor, Pietro di Giorgio Tolomei, and a local secretary, Girolamo Angelitta. Like Virgin and house, and seal and medal, these men are first introduced in pairs and then grouped in larger company because, sometimes unbeknownst to each other, they worked in tandem to reconstruct Loreto's past. Their overlaps and contradictions illuminate the often inadvertently collaborative project of building official shrine history.
The Case of the Invisible Butchers
Authors: De Rohit
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores the transformation of the political agitation over cow protection by the enactment of the Constitution. Although the debate over cow protection had always been framed in terms of the religious rights of Hindus and Muslims, the Constitution met the demands for cow protection on ostensibly neutral economic grounds and laid it down in Article 48 as a directive principle of state policy. After partition and democratic elections, the new elected state governments of north India enacted strict laws prohibiting cow slaughter and criminalizing the consumption of beef. The chapter then looks at a writ petition brought by three thousand Muslim butchers—possibly India's first class-action suit—that challenged these bans through a language of economic rights rather than religious freedom. Ultimately, it addresses how religious freedom, minority rights, and political mobilization were transformed through the emergence of the Constitution as a site for politics.
The Case of the Honest Prostitute
Authors: De Rohit
Published: May 2019

This chapter studies the new laws against prostitution, enacted to enforce Article 23 of the Constitution, which sought to end the trafficking of women. For nationalists and leaders of the Indian women's movement, independence meant the achievement of constitutional and legal equality and the emergence of the republican female citizen as a moral, productive member of society. However, legislators and social workers were confronted by a different conception of freedom when sex workers began to file constitutional challenges to the anti-trafficking laws. They asserted their constitutional right to a trade or a profession and to freedom of movement around the country, and they challenged the procedural irregularities in the new statutes. The chapter then demonstrates that despite the sex workers' minimal success in the courts, this litigation prompted mobilization and associational politics outside the court and brought rights language into the everyday life of the sex trade.
Epilogue
Authors: De Rohit
Published: May 2019

This epilogue highlights the three connected themes that emerge from the cases studied in this book: the process through which the Indian Constitution emerged as an organizational assumption and a background threat for the state; the greater acceptability of procedural over substantive challenges to government action; and the origins of constitutional consciousness among certain citizens. Constitutional law became the field in which citizens marked as deviant in the new order could recast themselves as virtuous constitutional actors. These citizens differed in the extent of their marginality. However, all their cases carved out rules and norms that benefited a larger populace. Regardless of the court's judgments, people created and disseminated their own meanings of the Constitution, which may even be a successful insurgent and displace the elite conception of the law.
Belief in the Human
Authors: Shagan Ethan H.
Published: May 2019

This chapter cites Samuel Taylor Coleridge's concept of the “willing suspension of disbelief” in order to describe the timeless process by which human beings believe in their own creations. As seen before, Europeans influenced by new ideas in the seventeenth century were freed to believe in spiritual objects in much the same way they believed in mundane ones, as acts of sovereign judgment. With the category so perforated, there was no intrinsic reason why belief had to remain bound to objects judged “true” in a transcendent or universal sense; it might also alight upon objects judged true in more provisional or instrumental ways. Crucially, this included the social world: ephemeral human creations, the ideas and things that humans themselves make.
Religion, Ancient Wisdom, and Newton’s Alchemy
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes several related themes, considering, for example, the relationship between Newton's exegesis of biblical prophecy and his method of interpreting the textual riddles presented by writers on the philosophers' stone. It also examines Newton's views on ancient wisdom and mythology in their relation to the aurific art, since many alchemists believed that the entertaining tales of the Greek and Roman pantheon contained veiled instructions for preparing the great arcanum. Previous scholarship has tended to assume that Newton too upheld the belief that ancient mythology was largely encoded alchemy. However, this would have presented a sharp conflict with his views on ancient chronology and religious history. Further evidence shows that Newton may well have considered the mythological themes transmitted and analyzed by early modern alchemists as conventional puzzles reworked from antique sources rather than as true expressions of ancient wisdom.
Flowers of Lead
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers the middle period of Newton's long alchemical endeavor. It focuses his adoption of the florilegium genre in Keynes 35, which marks an important turning point in his alchemical career. Specifically, it examines the first three chapters of Keynes 35, the ones that deal with finding and extracting the ingredients of the philosophers' stone. The final two chapters, “On the Doubled Mercury” and “On Extracting the Living Gold and Conjoining it in the Hour of its Birth”, carry Newton into the higher reaches of alchemical speculation and have less intersection with his actual laboratory practice.
Praxis
Authors: Newman William R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on Newton's Praxis, which has been described as his most important alchemical text. A preliminary reading of the text quickly leads one to sympathize with Westfall's claim that it reflects a disordered state of mind. It is not easy, at least initially, to make out the subjects described allusively in each of the first four chapters. Their disjointed snippets and quotations represent Newton's florilegium style at its densest and least approachable. But this is not the product of madness, however temporary. Rather, it is Newton's way of sifting through his sources and reassembling the disparate parts of a great puzzle distributed piecemeal among the diverse sons of art. The very materials that figured in Newton's laboratory notebooks, in his interpretations of Snyders (especially Keynes 58), and in his instructions to Fatio can be found in Praxis.
Living Standards in Edwardian England and the Liberal Welfare Reforms
Authors: Boyer George R.
Published: May 2019

This chapter argues that the Liberal Welfare Reforms of 1906–11, which created a safety net reducing the economic insecurity associated with industrial capitalism, marked a watershed in the history of British social welfare policy. Their timing is explained by increased middle-class knowledge of workers' insecurity and by the greater willingness of Parliament to act as a result of growing working-class political influence. The chapter then compares British social welfare policies with social policies elsewhere in Western Europe. Britain's welfare reforms did not take place in isolation—several European nations adopted social welfare policies in the decades leading up to 1914. Indeed, Britain was a bit of a latecomer in the adoption of social programs, although it caught up quickly after 1906 and by the eve of the First World War was a leader in social welfare protection.
Introduction
Authors: Tannous Jack
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter provides a background of the religious history to the late antique and medieval Middle East. The great majority of Christians in the Middle East belonged to what church leaders referred to as “the simple.” They were overwhelmingly agrarian, mostly illiterate, and likely had little understanding of the theological complexities that split apart the Christian community in the region. As such, during this period, there was fierce competition for the loyalties of simple, everyday Christians among leaders of the various Christian movements in the Middle East. This competition helped fuel debates, the composition of polemics, the translation of texts, the creation of educational institutions, and the development of a Syriac-language syllabus of study in the seventh century. Ultimately, this book attempts to write a compelling and persuasive unified account that does equal justice to the religious landscape of the Middle East and to its changes under both Roman and Arab rule.
Epilogue
Authors: Getachew Adom
Published: May 2019

This epilogue charts the fall of self-determination and illustrates that the collapse of anticolonial worldmaking continues to structure our contemporary moment. Picking up in the immediate aftermath of the NIEO, it locates self-determination's fall in two developments—the increasingly critical orientation of Western intellectuals and politicians toward the right to self-determination as well as the diminution of international institutions like the United Nations where anticolonial nationalists had staged their worldmaking. Together the normative erosion of self-determination and marginalization of the United Nations set the stage for the resurgence of international hierarchy and a newly unrestrained American imperialism. At the same time, the critical resources of anticolonial nationalism appeared to be exhausted as the institutional form of the postcolonial state fell short of its democratic and egalitarian aspirations, and anticolonial worldmaking retreated into a minimalist defense of the state.
A Classical Garden of Liberal Economics
Authors: Colander David , Freedman Craig
Published: May 2019

This chapter discusses the Classical Liberal methodology. In the Classical Liberal method, formal theory was something to be conscious of, to be kept in the back of one's mind as difficult policy issues were confronted. However, it was secondary to educated common sense, and the method required one to be clear about the judgments one was making in applying a particular model and in deciding which assumptions were reasonable and which were not. Applied policy economics had to explicitly deal with all such issues, which meant that no firm policy conclusion followed from scientific theory. In policy, science played only a supporting role. However, in what would increasingly become associated with the neoclassical method, that would change, and scientific theory would occupy center stage within the realm of policy thinking.
Ashes and Diamonds
Authors: Colander David , Freedman Craig
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines the postwar Chicago School. Understanding the transformation that defined the Chicago School, and the way in which that transformation slots into broader changes within the profession, requires an accurate sense of the mood prevailing in the postwar era. Under the sway of the postwar methodological upheaval, economic policy strayed decisively from its Classical Liberal abode in moral philosophy. Instead, it eagerly attempted to forge a more desirable alliance with the newly refurbished and rigor-saturated realm of economic theory. Given the progress of mathematics, quantification, and the increasing application of statistical analysis, theories were now thought to be validated through careful econometric testing. This idea of adhering strictly to a scientific policy approach defined the emerging postwar generation of economists, especially those enrolled within the cadre of young academics. Under this modern dispensation, policy had been transformed into simply another occasion to practically apply precise scientific methods.
Harmonia
Authors: Feke Jacqueline
Published: May 2019

In the Harmonics, Ptolemy reveals that the heavens and human souls share the same formal structure. They are characterized by the same set of ratios, the ones studied by harmonics, the mathematical science that investigates the relations among musical pitches. In other words, harmonic ratios describe the relations among not only musical pitches but also the parts of the human soul and the movements and configurations of heavenly bodies. Moreover, Ptolemy explains why it is that these various objects are characterized by these same ratios. It is because of harmonia. This chapter argues that concept of harmonia is the crux of Ptolemy's ethical theory. It is because harmonia operates most fully in human souls, the heavens, and musical scale systems that human beings' mathematical study of the latter two sets of phenomena has the power to shape and transform their souls.
The Rise of the Bankers’ Alliance
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter details how the growing dependence of the Mexican state on credit contributed to the rise of a domestic “bankers' alliance” made up of financial elites and orthodox technocrats who gradually found their position strengthened as the crisis deepened, allowing them to effectively sideline the national-popular wing of Mexico's one-party regime. The strengthened position of these groups led to the steady internalization of fiscal discipline into the Mexican state apparatus, ensuring continued debt servicing and a cooperative stance vis-à-vis foreign creditors even in the absence of outright external impositions. This turn toward compliance was eased by the fact that popular opposition to continued debt servicing remained relatively muted due to the cooptation of the main labor and peasant organizations and the absence of powerful popular mobilizations against austerity.
“Even in a Default There Is Money to Be Made”
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents the main outcomes of the Argentine crisis—from the realignment of the domestic balance of forces in the wake of the default, to the aggressive debt restructuring concluded by President Kirchner in 2005. It seeks to explain why Kirchner was both willing and able to pursue a confrontational stance towards the IMF and foreign bondholders, and presents the counterintuitive conclusion that—far from being harmed by the Argentine default—Wall Street actually managed to find innovative ways to turn it to its own advantage. The main beneficiaries of the crisis were not Argentine elites but the speculative foreign investors who managed to find fresh profit opportunities in the country's debt troubles.
The Power of Finance in the Eurozone
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers the Greek debt crisis that began in late 2009, specifically the remarkable degree of debtor compliance in the Greek case in light of the country's long-standing reputation as a “debt-intolerant serial defaulter” that spent nearly half of its history since independence in a state of default. The chapter analyzes the Greek crisis through the lens of the three enforcement mechanisms of debtor discipline identified in the Mexican and Argentine cases in the preceding chapters. While much of the debate on Greece's policy response has centered on the question of the country's Eurozone membership, the chapter digs a little deeper to uncover many of the same power dynamics that had been at play in the Global South in the 1980s and 1990s.
The Defeat of the Athens Spring
Authors: Roos Jerome
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers the short-lived standoff between Syriza and the Troika in the first half of 2015. It asks: why did the Syriza-led government not simply suspend payments and pursue an aggressive debt restructuring, as Argentina had in the wake of its own anti-austerity revolt in December 2001? The standoff presents a unique test of the structural power hypothesis because it concerns a case in which the stated preferences of foreign lenders visibly clashed with the stated preferences of the debtor country. The chapter argues that the ultimate reasons for Greece's continued compliance in 2015 must be sought in a combination of two factors: first, the extremely hostile response and overwhelming structural power of the country's foreign lenders; and second, the internal divisions within the Syriza government, which gradually led to a reassertion of the third enforcement mechanism of internalized debtor discipline following its partial and temporary breakdown after Syriza's ascent to government.
Strategic Mobilization for Suffrage in Great Britain
Authors: Teele Dawn Langan
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents a case study of women's enfranchisement in the United Kingdom. Although a few suffragists and some subsequent scholars have claimed that women's role in preparations for the First World War paved the way for their inclusion, it argues that on its own, a shift in public opinion was not enough, nor was it strictly necessary, to guarantee women's enfranchisement. Instead, it proposes that the war's greatest influence on suffrage lay in the creation of a multi-party wartime cabinet, which saw Arthur Henderson, a Labour leader and a key player in the Election Fighting Fund, appointed to the government. Henderson's early and persistent lobbying prior to the 1916 “Speaker's Conference” on electoral reform is critical for understanding how women's suffrage made its way into the 1918 Representation of the People Act.
Remember the Ladies: Competition and Mobilization in the United States
Authors: Teele Dawn Langan
Published: May 2019

This chapter presents a case study of women's enfranchisement in the United States. It argues that the formation of a broad coalition of women, symbolized by growing membership in a large non-partisan suffrage organization, in combination with competitive conditions in state legislatures, was crucial to securing politicians' support for women's suffrage in the states. The chapter first gives a broad overview of the phases of the US suffrage movement, arguing that the salience of political cleavages related to race, ethnicity, nativity, and class influenced the type of movement suffragists sought to build. It then describes the political geography of the Gilded Age, showing how the diversity of political competition and party organization that characterized the several regions mirrors the pattern of women's enfranchisement across the states.
Bill Clinton and America’s Credibility after the Cold War
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: May 2019

This chapter evaluates the dispositional theory against the crisis decision making of President Bill Clinton. Of all the presidents studied in this book, Clinton comes closest to an ideal-type high self-monitor. A review of both quantitative and qualitative indicators of military assertiveness from before and during his presidency indicates that his beliefs about the efficacy of military force leaned toward the dovish side of the military assertiveness scale. Taken together, one should expect Clinton's crisis behavior to be consistent with that of a reputation believer. Because of his more dovish tendencies, Clinton did not seek out opportunities to show resolve and was at first reluctant to use force to demonstrate resolve; but once he sensed a loss of reputation, he was prepared to escalate with military force as the theory predicts.
Conclusion
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter summarizes the book's findings and suggests avenues for future research. At its core, the book makes the case for why leaders should matter to international relations, and also how they matter. Leaders' characteristics significantly shape their behavior on the international stage, but current scholarship lacks clear direction as to what characteristics are important and how those traits affect crisis decision making and international behavior more broadly. The book advances this research agenda by exploring the relationship between self-monitoring, military assertiveness, and contests of “face.” Although prominent in the field of psychology, self-monitoring has unfortunately remained largely unexplored to students of world politics. Self-monitoring should be of significant importance to international relations scholars who study signaling and perception in international politics, but there is also much to be gained by applying the concept of self-monitoring beyond studies of security.
Divine and Human Knowledge: Knowing by Doing
Authors: Funkenstein Amos
Published: May 2019

This chapter talks about how the difference between divine and human knowledge became quantitative rather than qualitative. God may possess infinite knowledge, humans have finite; God knows all at once intuitively, humans’ thinking processes are discursive. Yet what humans know, they know exactly as God knows it—it is, in fact, the same act of knowledge by which humans and God know something. By knowing itself, the divine intellect knows ipso facto everything other than itself; its knowledge is the simple unity of the “knower and the known.” The chapter describes how knowledge by doing, that which is named factual or ergetic knowledge, pertains to the domain of actual beings and their interaction.
Conclusion: From Secular Theology to the Enlightenment
Authors: Funkenstein Amos
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter considers how the secular theologians of the seventeenth century gave way to a new generation of savants whose posture was often anti-theological, sometimes also anti-religious, occasionally even atheistic. It seems as though the secular theology of the seventeenth century was bound to dig its own grave, because it often stressed, however ambiguously, the self-sufficiency of the world and the autonomy of mankind. The chapter shows how belief in the open character systematic knowledge was already part of the intellectual profile of many seventeenth-century thinkers; the Enlightenment added to it, in a manner of speech, the demand for social action, for the deliberate preaching of knowledge as the only means for the amelioration of the human condition.
Introduction
Authors: Boardman John
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter outlines a selection of the stories about Alexander the Great that were invented and circulated after his death, and to the ways he has been treated by authors and artists ever since. There was something superhuman about the man, and soon after his death stories were circulating about his life and afterlife, which drew heavily upon existing legends of the mysterious east. Whether he was truly exceptional, physically or intellectually, is a matter for dispute. The chapter shows how his image remained truly iconic to the present day. In addition, there has long been a mystic quality about him—even association with Christ in that both died at the alleged mystic number of years—thirty-three.
His Body and Burial
Authors: Boardman John
Published: May 2019

This chapter talks about how the early accounts of Alexander's death essentially imply that it was the result of overmuch drinking, or drinking tainted wine, and probably an ensuing stroke, at Babylon. But the chapter argues that there were several ancient sources which suggested that he had been poisoned, as well as much modern speculation about by whom and how, and whether his illness could have been the result of malaria or typhoid fever. What happened to his body ranges in story-telling from the plausible if grandiose, to fine imaginative fiction. It inevitably involves the great city of Alexandria, which he founded, and is repeatedly reflected upon in the Romances, quite apart from the problems of his first burial.
The Alexander Story in the Renaissance and Down to the Present Day
Authors: Boardman John
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines how Renaissance scholars and artists were taken with Alexander, and were not altogether dependent on the Romances. For instance, the thirteenth-century Catholic saint Albertus Magnus somehow knew of Alexander's discovery of the caladrius, a white bird that could foretell the future and whether the sick would survive. In the mid-fifteenth century, the Portuguese Vasco da Lucena translated Quintus Curtius' Deeds of Alexander. Moreover, the Renaissance artists had behind them a rich tradition of mediaeval illustration of Alexander, but they had their own preferences, for artistic or sometimes political purposes, and some episodes proved to be especially favoured. These include attempts to depict whole stories as a sequence of scenes as well as in the well-known episodes.
The War in Afghanistan (1979–1986)
Authors: Carson Austin
Published: May 2019

This chapter analyzes the end of the Cold War and external involvement in Afghanistan. On the Soviet side, the December 1979 invasion was preceded by six months of covert involvement in counterinsurgency military operations. The chapter reviews evidence on the motives for covertness and the detection of it by American leaders. It then assesses covertness in the American weapons supply program after the overt Soviet invasion. Escalation fears—in particular, fear of provoking Soviet retaliation against Pakistan and a larger regional war—led to consistent efforts to keep the expanding U.S. aid program covert from 1979 to 1985. By the mid-1980s, however, American leaders embraced a more aggressive strategy and identified key changes that largely eliminated the risk of escalation, leading them to approve an overt form of weaponry (the Stinger missile system). The chapter also reviews covert Soviet cross-border operations into Pakistan and U.S. inferences from its detection of these activities.
Representation in the One-Party South
Authors: Caughey Devin
Published: May 2019

This chapter conducts a systematic statistical analysis of congressional representation in the one-party South. Overall, the evidence presented in the previous chapters suggests a political system that was responsive not to a narrow elite only, but to a broad swath of the white public. As such, this chapter examines the responsiveness of Southern members of Congress (MCs) to their white constituents, both cross-sectionally and over time, and compares them to non-Southern MCs. It also shows that Southern MCs responded to the income of the median voter, and examines their ideological bias relative to non-Southern MCs. The chapter then highlights the ways that congressional representation did differ across regions, and discusses how these findings help resolve the “puzzle” of Southern conservatism. In marked contrast to the conventional wisdom, this chapter not only shows that Southern MCs were responsive to their white constituents, but also finds little indication that congressional responsiveness was weaker in the one-party South than in the two-party North, though the mechanisms and character of responsiveness did differ between regions.
Humanity in Hindsight
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter considers the retrospective literature on Charles Darwin's work. These views on Darwin's intellectual development and legacy, such as that posited by Loren Eiseley, began the way many classes on the history of modern biology still begin: by emphasizing early-modern scientific empiricism and the desire of Enlightenment natural historians to catalog and classify all living species according to a great scale of nature. Against this background, Eiseley posited, evolutionary thinking—the idea that species have not been static in time, but some have gone extinct and others slowly evolved into new forms—emerged in France, rising from the secularized ashes of the revolutionary republic. Eiseley made clear that Darwin's legacy therefore rested on his innovative mechanism explaining the transformation of species. Like Eiseley, the retrospective essays and books published in the years after pointed to Darwin's theory of natural selection as his “most important generalization.”
Cain’s Children
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter traces the popularization of the “killer ape” theory through the work of Robert Ardrey. It shows how Ardrey did not confine his use of “mankind” to Homo sapiens or to men. Preferring to recognize the long evolutionary lineage resulting in modern humans, he used “man” to include all of our hominid ancestors, from the moment our evolutionary lineage diverged from the lineages of other apes. Second, the chapter reveals that, throughout his writings, but especially in African Genesis, Ardrey evoked stereotypes of Africa as a timeless, wild, and primitive continent in which our ancient past had been preserved for the few Westerners (like himself) who were brave enough to confront it. In doing so, Ardrey promoted images of Africans that cultural anthropologists, civil rights leaders, and the designers of Man: A Course of Study (MACOS) were desperately trying to combat but that a reading white public eagerly consumed.
The Edge of Respectability
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter concerns the insights of Elaine Morgan, particularly in her 1972 book, The Descent of Woman. In this book, she argues that all theories of human evolution to date were based on a male-centered notion of human evolution. The Descent of Woman was one of the earliest public rejoinders to masculinist narratives of human ancestry. An Oxford-educated Welsh writer for BBC Radio, Morgan chose as her target several of the most prominent books on human evolution circulating through the United Kingdom. By the early 1970s, in other words, evolutionary approaches to human nature were sufficiently current for other writers (and publishers) to deem them worthy of ridicule. Yet humor was a double-edged sword. Sarcasm might garner readers but for authors with no formal training in anthropology or zoology, like Morgan, maintaining a respectable public persona as a popularizer of science proved difficult.
Human Nature
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This chapter looks at the scientific revelations produced by Jane Goodall's studies on great apes and the effects these studies had on the contentious field of sociobiology. When Jane Goodall and David Hamburg argued for the biological similarities shared by humans and chimpanzees, they also articulated a vision of human nature. They based this vision on biological relatedness rather than on ecological sympathy and implicitly questioned the gendered roles and social hierarchies that characterized baboon behavior as the most appropriate primate model for reconstructing the social and behavioral norms that might have characterized early human life on the savannah. Goodall's early discoveries that chimpanzees manufactured tools, sticks with which to eat termites and masticated leaves with which to sponge up water, fit well with hypotheses that the origins of tool use lay in manufacturing aids for “gathering and processing food” rather than as weapons. But one of Hamburg's graduate students later recalled him warning her not to go overboard with sociobiology.
Coda
Authors: Milam Erika Lorraine
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter reflects on the lessons presented by this volume as a whole and considers the ongoing study into the origins of humanity in the post-1970s era. In the decades after, readers have not lost their passion for epic evolutionary dramas in which the entirety of human history unfolds before their eyes. Yet when students today respond to the question “What makes us human?” they are far more likely to invoke neurological facts than paleontological ones. The public battlefield over violence and cooperation has since shifted to new ground in the mind and brain sciences. Despite the apparent polarization of scientists writing about human nature into culture- and biology-oriented positions, the intellectual landscape defined by scientists working on the interaction between culture and biology has continued to flourish.
The Infinite Scroll
Authors: El-Ariss Tarek
Published: May 2019

This chapter focuses on Saudi “tweeter” Mujtahidd, who has been leaking by “showing the inside” of the Saudi government and royal family since 2011. It explores how the leaking subject, the unknown Mujtahidd or Mujtahidd the “mystery,” constructs himself as an online character (avatar), author, and knower. Drawing on classical Arabic prose genres such as akhbār (anecdotes, news, lore), it reads the fiction of the leak in relation to the genres of serialized novels and TV series. It argues that the collapse between Twitter user and Twitter as such is at work in Mujtahidd's case as well. Mujtahidd fuses with Twitter, reproducing it as function of revelation, writing genre, and machine à scandale.
Introduction
Authors: El-Ariss Tarek
Published: May 2019

This chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. The book draws on literary studies, media studies, and digital humanities, and focuses on the Arab world in a transnational context in order to examine the radical transformations affecting the way stories are told, dissent is expressed, and canons are produced in the new millennium. Focusing on new writing from Egypt and the Gulf, it explores these writings' fascination with and appropriation of digital media. These writings chart a particular redefinition of what Arab culture means in the digital age, pointing to the changing meaning of Arab culture (novels, authors, education, etc.) and of traditional codes of civility (adab) as a model of subjectivity in a context shaped by technological development and political upheaval.
The Brief but Significant Life of an Institutional Innovation
Authors: Hoffman Philip T. , Postel-Vinay Gilles , Rosenthal Jean-Laurent
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how notarized letters of exchange (NLE) turn out to have been common in southern France throughout much of the nineteenth century. They were medium-term instruments (only ten percent were issued with a maturity of less than eight months, and less than seventeen percent had a maturity of more than two years), and since most were drawn up in the countryside, they were of smaller value than obligations. The NLE gave farmers and others who were not in commerce access to this sort of debt for the first time, and it is no surprise that it was popular. Yet despite the wide use of the NLE in the south, they virtually disappeared by the end of the century.
The Diffusion of Banks
Authors: Hoffman Philip T. , Postel-Vinay Gilles , Rosenthal Jean-Laurent
Published: May 2019

This chapter challenges the claim that the spread of banks in France was delayed by the lack of an appropriate legal structure. Even if one acknowledges that Paris did not make the corporate form available soon enough, there were still other feasible forms of organization that could have done the trick. In France, a bank could be open and operate as a sole proprietorship, a partnership, a limited partnership, or even a limited partnership with tradable shares. Furthermore, the demand for the limited liability version of the joint stock firm was in any case low. Therefore, the lack of a joint stock limited liability firm was not a constraint that limited the creation of banks.
Modernism in Translation
Authors: Creswell Robyn
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the book's main themes. The book explores the Arab modernist movement, the most significant literary grouping in the Arab world since World War II. It produced a body of work remarkable for its aesthetic ambition and rhetorical coherence. Like many artistic groups of the early and mid-twentieth century, the Arab modernists, gathered around a magazine that acted as the nerve center of their movement: Shi'r [Poetry], a quarterly dedicated to poetry and poetry criticism, founded in 1957 by Yusuf al-Khal. The Shi'r poets' conceptualization of “modernity” or “modernism”—the Arabic word, al-hadatha, can be used for both English terms—was immensely influential.
Lebanon and Late Modernism
Authors: Creswell Robyn
Published: May 2019

This chapter emphasizes the importance of Beirut in conditioning the historical and intellectual emergence of the modernist poetry movement, not only because of the city's suddenly central and yet anomalous place in the intellectual life of the Arab world, but also for its nodal position in the global history of modernism during the early Cold War. It focuses on the antagonistic nature of intellectual exchanges during the period, particularly as seen in literary magazines and journals of opinion. If, as Robert Scholes and others have argued for the European case, “modernism begins in the magazines,” then the same is profoundly true of the Arabic movement. Intellectual life in Beirut was not so much a playground as a battleground, and this war of position extended beyond the borders of Lebanon. The debates between local intellectuals—nationalist, Marxist, and liberal—reflect the global agon between the main ideological camps of the early Cold War.