bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Principles of Staff Employment
Authors: Amerasinghe C F
Published: November 2023

See also Sect. 6(b) i.23. The Applicant has been accused by the Bank of having committed fraud by claiming overtime in excess of time actually worked. The disciplinary measure imposed has been termination of employment. The basic rule invoked by the Respondent is Principle of Staff Employment 3.l(c) to the extent that it imposes an obligation on staff members not to ‘engage in any activity that is incompatible with the proper discharge of their duties with the Organization’. Staff Rule 8.01 elaborates on this Principle by defining conduct for which disciplinary measures may be imposed, with particular reference to ‘unlawful acts (e.g., theft, fraud, felonious acts, use or possession of illegal drugs); and other misconduct (e.g., physical assault; harassment on the basis of race, color, sex, sexual orientation, or national origin; willful misrepresentation of facts intended to be relied upon)’.
Legal Classifications as the Production of Knowledge Systems
Authors: Collins Hugh
Published: November 2023

Can we wrench the topic of legal classification from lawyers’ hands for a moment? They hold it tight, for it is the master key to the inner sanctum of legal discourse. That space, like the quadrangle of the old Bodleian library, contains doors marked by the classifications of legal knowledge, such as public Jaw and private law, contract, property, and tort. Behind each door lurks the complex structure of categories, conceptions, and rules, through which legal knowledge interprets events in the world and proposes standards of behaviour. If we resist the temptation to investigate the mysteries which lie within and abide in the open quadrangle, then we can examine the archi tecture of this system of knowledge.
Meeting the Needs of People with an Intellectual Disability: International Perspectives
Authors: Mittler Peter
Published: November 2023

All of us have experienced and will continue to experience difficulties in learning. These difficulties may be transient and affect only a few aspects of living and learning. But for some, the difficulties appear to be pervasive and permanent, leading to labels such as intellectual disability or mental retardation.
Statutory Changes in Disability Policy: Types of Legislation, Policies, and Goals
Authors: Silverstein Robert
Published: November 2023

In many countries, legislatures have adopted statutory frameworks that reflect a new paradigm in which persons with disabilities, with all of their differences, are socially integrated. As a national example, this chapter focuses on the United States and its federal legislation. These efforts have critical implications regarding the design, implementation, and evaluation of programs and policies that affect persons with all types of disabilities. Persons with intellectual disabilities, as members of this broader class, benefit from the statutory and policy frameworks that all persons with disabilities in their respective countries enjoy, or should enjoy. This chapter emphasizes cross-disability issues, fundamental beliefs, and core policies that vigilant advocacy can realize.
Self-Determination, Autonomy, and Alternatives for Guardianship
Authors: Herr Stanley S
Published: November 2023

Self-determination involves the struggle for control and a voice in the key personal decisions that affect the life of an individual with intellectual dis abilities. On its face, guardianship seems antithetical to self-determination, as it shifts the locus of control from the affected individual to a legally empowered agent, the guardian. In recent years, a number of countries have adopted new legislation to minimize the use of guardianship and to introduce less restrictive alternatives. This chapter outlines these developments as well as related legal reforms that enable persons with intellectual and other disabilities to obtain companionship for personal support and other forms of assistance.
Charities And Taxation
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

Charities, and gifts to charity, enjoy significant tax exemptions and reliefs. 3.01 The following discussion concentrates on the fiscal advantages accorded to the charities themselves; the fiscal privileges enjoyed by gifts to charity are dealt with mainly in chapter 19. The tax implications of charity trading are analysed in chapter 20. Specific tax exemptions can be claimed by a charity by virtue of section 505(1) of 3.02 the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 (ICTA). The exemptions are contained in the five surviving out of the original six lettered paragraphs.
Benefit To A Sufficient Section Of The Community
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

In the context of the law of charity, the expression ‘public benefit’ is somewhat 5.01 ambiguous. First, it can mean that the purpose itself must benefit the public. Such public benefit is necessary under all four heads of Pemsel’s case, and it indeed describes the fourth head. Public benefit in this sense has been considered in the definition of charitable purposes in chapter 4. Secondly, however, it can mean that the section of the community to benefit is sufficient. A trust for the advancement of education, for instance, satisfies the public benefit requirement in the first sense, but it will still not comprise a charitable trust if the persons to benefit are restricted to a class of persons which is not a sufficient section of the community in charity law. It is this second sense of the expression with which the present chapter is concerned.
The Charity Commissioners
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

functions and powers are now contained in the Charities Act 1993. The Commissioners are civil servants appointed by the Home Office. There must always be at least three Commissioners, one of whom is the Chief Charity Commissioner. At least two of these must be legally qualified. There is also provision for the appointment of not more than two additional Commissioners; and two part-time Commissioners have been appointed. The Commissioners are assisted by a staff of several hundred persons. There are three branches of the Charity Commissioners: London, Liverpool,7 and Taunton.
Mediation And Dispute Resolution
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

Charities may be involved in a variety of disputes, but these are essentially of three 14.01 kinds. First, there are internal disputes between those involved in the charity, either as groups or as individuals. There may, for instance, be disputes between rival groups of members, or between the trustees and the members, or between the charity and one or more of its employees. Secondly, there may be disputes between a charity and a third party, such as a contractor or supplier, or a local authority, a landlord or a tenant. Thirdly, there may be disputes between different charities.
EAGGF, Guidance Section
Authors: Evans Andrew
Published: November 2023

Article 33(1)(a) of the EC Treaty provides that the common agricultural policy shall seek to increase agricultural productivity. It shall seek to do so by promoting technical progress and by ensuring the rational development of agricultural production and the optimum utilization of factors of production, in particular labour.’ At the same time, concern is expressed for social aspects of farming. According to Article 33(1)(b), the policy should seek to ensure a fair standard of living for the agricultural community, particularly by increasing the individual earnings of persons engaged in agriculture. Moreover, in the elaboration of this policy and the special methods for its application Article 33(2)(a) requires that account be taken of various factors. These include the particular nature of agricultural activity, which results from the social structure of agriculture and from structural and natural disparities between the various agricultural regions.
Can Negligence be Culpable?
Authors: Simester A P
Published: November 2023

Reasonableness is in the lifeblood of law. Our legal system does not, indeed cannot, specify with precision what is to be done in every variety of circumstance. Instead, its rules are often stated in terms of what is reasonable, or of what a reasonable man would do. Jurors are enjoined to find the accused guilty of a negligence-based offence only if his conduct has fallen below the standard to be expected of a reasonable man: that standard is left to them with no further definition. In contract law, objective tests for the formation and interpretation of contracts are elucidated by reference to reasonable understandings: ‘[t]he judicial task is not to discover the actual intentions of each party; it is to decide what each was reasonably entitled to conclude from the attitude of the other’.1 Actions in estoppel are concerned to protect reliance upon reasonable, rather than unreasonable, expectations that the defendant has in some way fostered. Similarly, principles of causation normally exclude the defendant’s responsibility for harmful consequences unless such harms are reasonably foreseeable.
On the Conceptual and Philosophical Foundations of Tort Law
Authors: McBride Nicholas J
Published: November 2023

In this essay I want to talk about the philosophical foundations of tort law. But perhaps I should start by making clear what branch of the law I am referring to when I use the term ‘tort law’. It is necessary to do this because some lawyers use the term ‘tort law’ to refer to one branch of the law while other lawyers talk about a quite different branch of the law when they use the term ‘tort law’. The reason for this is that not all lawyers use the term ‘tort’ in the same way.
How Does Marshalling Work?
Authors: Ali Paul A U
Published: November 2023

The historical account of marshalling of securities in the preceding chapter reveals two conflicting views as to how marshalling should protect the priority-ranking of the holders of mesne security. The first (and older) of these views-labelled the ‘coercion theory of marshalling ‘-holds that marshalling preserves priorityranking by dictating the order of realisation of the assets subject to the senior security. In contrast, the second view-labelled the ‘post-realisation theory of marshalling ‘-contends that priority-ranking is preserved by granting the junior creditor access to the senior security following the recoupment of the senior debt.
Marshalling Of Securities And Other Equitable Doctrines And Remedies
Authors: Ali Paul A U
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the relationship between marshalling of securities and consolidation of mortgages, contribution and specific performance. Each of consolidation, contribution and specific performance has been claimed as the basis for the doctrine of marshalling. As such, the nature of marshalling would be explicable only by reference to its progenitor. Further, the claims made for consolidation and specific performance would, if correct, have serious consequences for the efficacy of marshalling.
Introduction
Authors: Mitchell Charles
Published: November 2023

This book is essentially concerned with claims in the English law of unjust enrichment to recover the value of money paid in the following situation. Two parties, who will be described here as the claimant and the defendant, are both legally liable to a third party. The law forbids the third party to recover in full from both the claimant and the defendant: he may not accumulate recoveries by enforcing his rights against both of them. As between the claimant and the defendant, the law also holds that some or all of the burden of paying the third party should be borne by the defendant.
Claimant’S Liability To Creditor
Authors: Mitchell Charles
Published: November 2023

As discussed in Chapter 6, a claimant who has paid a creditor cannot recover contribution or reimbursement from a defendant unless his payment to the creditor was made pursuant to a legal liability. In this chapter, three questions will be discussed, all of which go to a defendant’s ability to argue that a claimant was not liable to the creditor. First, where the claimant and the defendant are joined as defendants to proceedings by the creditor, or where the creditor sues the claimant and the claimant joins the defendant to these proceedings by issuing a Part 20 claim against him, can the defendant raise defences.
DEFENDANT’S LIABILITY TO CLAIMANT
Authors: Mitchell Charles
Published: November 2023

This chapter will consider various defences going to the defendant’s liability to the claimant. Part B will discuss the effect of contractual terms which exclude or limit or vary the defendant’s liability to the claimant in some way. In Part C the situation where the defendant settles the claimant’s contribution or reimbursement claim will be noted. Part D will examine the rules on limitation of actions which govern contribution and reimbursement claims. Part E will discuss whether it affects a claimant’s entitlement to contribution or reimbursement that he has acted improperly or illegally. Finally, in Part F, the effect of a defendant’s death on a claimant’s cause of action will be examined.
Transparency, Confidentiality and Freedom of Information
Authors: Merry Allan
Published: November 2023

Sectoral economic regulators were founded with the intention that they should exert upon historic or natural monopolies disciplines equivalent (or at least similar) to those which exist in market competition. This requirement was (and still is) especially important for the protection of customers ‘ interests over price and quality of service, unless and until true competition emerges. To the latter end, sectoral regulators have also been required to exercise their functions in such as way as to facilitate (or even promote) competition.
Regulating the Telecommunications Sector: Substituting Practical Co-operation for the Risks of Competition
Authors: Coates Kevin
Published: November 2023

The telecommunications sector is favoured with the attentions of many different regulatory authorities, applying different laws, competition law and sector-specific regulation, derived from different legal orders, Community, national and international. Given the number of regulators involved, there are two areas of potential problems: the first relates to the relationship between the regulators and the difficulties associated with concurrent as opposed to exclusive jurisdiction; the second relates to the risks of over-regulation more generally. This article looks at the former rather than the latter.
Selective Incorporation of .Foreign Legal Systems to Promote Nepal as an International Financial Services Centre
Authors: Jackson Howell E
Published: November 2023

This paper arises out of a project sponsored by the United Nations Development Programme and designed to assist the Kingdom of Nepal in becoming an attractive host jurisdiction for the international financial services industry. My specific assignment was to recommend a regulatory structure that would be both effective in overseeing financial intermediaries that choose to do business in Nepal and practical in light of Nepal ‘s existing legal and professional resources. What emerged from this project was a novel recommendation. In contrast to traditional legal reform strategies, which depend in large part upon the development of indigenous legal structures, the premise of my proposal for Nepal was that, for purposes of establishing itself as an international financial services center, :His Majesty ‘s Government of Nepal would be better served by selecting a limited number of existing, well developed legal regimes and then allowing qualified foreign firms to establish international financial operations in Nepal as long as the firms conduct these Nepalese operations in accordance with one of the legal regimes that His Majesty ‘s Government has selected. Under my proposed approach, a Swiss bank establishing an international lending office in Nepal could elect for its operations to be governed by Swiss law, whereas a Dutch insurance company setting up a Nepalese facility could choose to follow the law of Holland or perhaps the law of the Netherlands Antilles.
The Interim Rent
Authors: Haley Michael
Published: November 2023

The facility of an interim rent was created in 1969, by the insertion of section 24A 6.01 into the Landlord and Tenant Act 1954, to offer the landlord much needed protection from financial disadvantage during the continuation period between the end of the contractual tenancy and the commencement of a new lease. It is a bridging device which caters for a variation of the former contractual rent until the time when, on renewal, a market rent becomes payable. The interim rent, therefore, constitutes a counterweight to the tenant’s right to prolong the continuation tenancy under section 24(1).1 As Lawton LJ explained in Bloomfield v Ashwright Ltd: ’There were probably two reasons for its introduction. First, experience between 1954 and 1969 had shown that some tenants who anticipated a rise in their rent following the grant of a new lease had delayed the day of judgment. The second reason was that by 1969 inflation was beginning to rear its head in the United Kingdom.
Defeating The Tenant’S Claim: Illegality And The Discretionary Grounds
Authors: Haley Michael
Published: November 2023

Under section 29 of the Landlord and Tenant Act 1954, the primary right of the business tenant is to apply for and obtain the grant of a new lease following on from the determination of the current tenancy. In default of agreement, the grant or refusal of a new tenancy must be determined by the court. The terms of any such renewal may also be worked out by the court. This jurisdiction is limited by the requirement that the tenant must have adhered to any prescribed time-limits and procedures.1 Accordingly, the right to renew can be sacrificed through slow- ness and inaction. In order for the court to grant a renewal, it is, moreover, necessary that the tenancy is within the catchment of the Act and remains so until the proceedings are concluded.
The Citizen-Individual in Western Christianity
Authors: Hermet Guy
Published: November 2023

Any discussion of the relationship between politics and religion within Western Christianity must begin with the work of Max Weber. However, although The Protestant Ethic illuminates a specific aspect of individualism in Northern Europe, it is not the only key to an understanding of the values underlying the emergence of modern citizenship.

Although its importance cannot be overstated, the Weberian interpretation is neither exhaustive nor universally applicable in the European context. Given its emphasis upon a particular phase of one particular expression of Calvinism, it ignores significant areas relevant to the dynamics of individualization in our societies.
On Rationality and Democratic Choice
Authors: Pizzorno Alessandro
Published: November 2023

Received opinion on democracy carries within it a certain number of presuppositions: each individual acts according to his own interests; the individual is the best judge of these interests, in the economic as in the political sphere; because democracy allows citizens to choose between several ‘policies’ it is the most efficient way of satisfying interests. These presuppositions are the basis of a general theory of politics which is now hegemonic in the Anglo-Saxon world and widespread throughout continental Europe. It sees itself as a positive theory because it creates predictive models: the behaviour of individuals can be deduced once their intended aims are known (aims which can be deduced from their interests). And it is assumed that individuals act rationally, that is to say, choose the means adequate to the aims they are trying to achieve. It also sees itself as a normative theory: if it can be assumed that the possibility for each person to pursue his interests is a value, then the political procedures which will allow the greatest number to pursue the satisfaction of their interests can be prescribed.
Australia
Authors: Ravenhill John
Published: November 2023

As an island continent whose closest neighbour, Papua New Guinea, was its Trust Territory until 1975, Australia has been largely immune from the forces that have led subnational units in other federated states to engage in what Duchacek has termed ‘transborder regionalism’. Furthermore, Australia’s cultural and racial isolation – captured in the characterization by its longest-serving Prime Minister, Sir Robert Menzies, as a country ‘washed on our western and northern shores by potentially hostile seas’ – has ensured that the principal effect of regional transnational influences on Australia for most of its existence was to generate fear.
Conclusion
Authors: Michelmann Hans J
Published: November 2023

The seven country studies that constitute the bulk of this volume amply demonstrate the scope and complexity of the ‘trans-sovereign encounters of a new kind’, as Ivo Ducachek, in the Introduction, has called the international activities of subnational units of federal systems. They highlight the challenges to federal governments that such activities represent, as well as the opportunities for federal states to forge international relations that are more attuned to the needs of their citizens in a world whose states, for a whole host of social, political, technological, ecological, and economic reasons, arc becoming increasingly interdependent, less parochial, and less self-sufficient. The country chapters also shed light on the range of constitutional and institutional practices that have been devised to deal, more or less effectively, with the realities of provincial/state/ Länder paradiplomacy. What conclusions can we draw from this seven-country symposium?
American Exceptionalism Reaffirmed
Authors: Lipset Seymour Martin
Published: November 2023

The topic which concerns us, American exceptionalism (the phrase is Tocqueville’s), could only have arisen in a comparative context.1 It basically means that America is unique, is different in crucial ways from most other countries. It has been argued by many that the United States has stood out as distinct from other Western countries, in Europe and the Americas, including, as I have tried to document in detail, Canada.2 In dealing with national characteristics it is important to recognize that comparative evaluations are never absolutes, that they always are made in terms of more or less. The statement that the United States is an egalitarian society obviously does not imply that all Americans are equal in any way that can be defined. This generalization usually means, regardless of which aspect is under consideration (social relations, status, mobility, income distribution, etc.), that the United States is more egalitarian than Europe.
Interpreting Northern Ireland
Authors: Whyte John , FitzGerald Garret
Published: November 2023

Relative to its size, Northern Ireland is possibly the most heavily researched area on earth; hundreds of books and thousands of articles have been published since the current troubles began there in 1968. In Interpreting Northern Ireland John Whyte provides a badly-needed guide to the mass of literature and comment. In part I, Professor Whyte surveys the research on the nature and extent of the community divide, examining in turn the religious, economic, political, and psychological aspects of the issue. In Part II he discusses ideological interpretations of the Northern Ireland problems, from unionist and nationalist to Marxist. In the final section of the book he surveys the various solutions that have been proposed and looks critically at what the mass of research has achieved. He suggests that if it has not achieved more it may be because it has sometimes asked the wrong questions.
The Traditional Nationalist Interpretation
Authors: Whyte John , FitzGerald Garret
Published: November 2023

The traditional nationalist view of Northern Ireland can be summed up in two propositions: (1) the people of Ireland form one nation; and (2) the fault for keeping Ireland divided lies with Britain.

This view can be traced back to the foundation of Northern Ireland itself. Among early statements of it are The Handbook of the Ulster Question (1923), published by the North-Eastern Boundary Bureau, which had been set up by the Irish Free State government, and Henry Harrison’s Ulster and the British Empire: Help or Hindrance? (1939). In the late 1940s and early 1950s the pamphlets of the All-Party Anti-partition Conference gave a renewed ideological basis to the nationalist interpretation.
The Slide to War
Authors: Morris Benny
Published: November 2023

The IDF raid on Gaza triggered a qualitative and quantitative rise in the level of Israeli-Arab, and specifically Israeli-Egyptian, hostility and violence. Egypt responded to the raid by a policy of low-level harassment along the frontiers and by the conclusion of a major weapons deal with the Soviet Union, the Czech arms deal. Israel, for its part, decided (a) also to acquire major new armaments, and (b) to confront and destroy the Egyptian army before it became too strong.
Justifying impartial justice
Authors: Barry Brian
Published: November 2023

I can best introduce the topic of this chapter by presenting in summary form the relevant points that have emerged from the preceding two. If we start, then, from the problem posed by the irreducible plurality of conceptions of the good, we can say that utilitarianism and justice as impartiality offer alternative solutions. Both purport to provide a generally acceptable basis for bringing diverse conceptions of the good into relation with one another by putting them on an equal footing. Utilitarianism reduces them to a lowest common denominator by treating them all as giving rise to wants, which are then given equal value qua wants regardless of their origins in different conceptions of the good. A utilitarian doctrine based on want-satisfaction as a conception of the good assesses outcomes according to their prospects of maximizing aggregate want-satisfaction. Rules of justice and constitutional arrangements are then to be assessed by asking how well their expected outcomes fare on the utilitarian criterion. Principles have a purely derivative status and are to be judged in the same way.
Levels of impartiality
Authors: Barry Brian
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter I put forward the proposition that second-order impartialist theories do not entail universal first-order impartiality. I hope that I have succeeded in showing that this is true for justice as impartiality. I believe that the same conclusion also holds for the other main varieties of impartialist theory, the Kantian and the utilitarian. What makes the position less than completely straightforward is that there have been self-proclaimed utilitarians and Kantians who have endorsed universal first-order impartiality. Contemporary anti-impartialists have exploited the existence of such people to discredit the whole idea of impartiality. But this is a cheap victory that gains nothing because the ‘utilitarianism’ thus destroyed is not that of Bentham or Mill, and the ‘Kantianism’ would have been repudiated by Kant.
Introduction
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

IT was when he had become an elder, mettlesome and with every shining black hair in place but approaching the age of seventy, that Urgunge Onon suggested we explore his memories. He wanted a book to be written about the shamanism of his youth, a book which would explain shamanism both as an anthropological subject and ‘from inside’. Urgunge is a Daur Mongol who was born in Manchuria in far Northern China and now lives in England. Our book is based largely on his recollections of his youth, up to the time when he left China in 1948. It therefore grounds the magical and difficult-to-grasp topic of shamanism in a specific region, period, and set of historical circumstances. But we hope also to explain shamanism in a more general sense, in particular to explain the holding of the practical understandings, the metaphorical ideas, the fears, and the defiance that give rise to it. Existing studies of North Asian shamanism are virtually all written in the unsatisfactory idiom of general cultural models, neglecting history, singular views, contexts, and disagreements, and above all ignoring how people hold religious ideas, their salience, and the extent to which people really hold to them in particular situations.
Shamans and Shamanship
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

Despite all the complexities of gender just described, we have a strong sense of the separateness of men’s and women’s lives. Shamans created a way to merge them again. Whether they were male or female, yadgans’ identity came from spirits and these represented human predicaments in a way that deliberately overrode gender. I propose to show this using the example of a woman yadgan, Huangge. While I was in China I discovered that Huangge was not only the sister of the revolutionary Merse, but was herself a brilliant and famous woman, and I resolved to search for whatever information I could find about her.
Aerospace Companies and the State in Europe
Authors: Muller Pierre
Published: November 2023

Over the course of the last decade the aeronautical manufacturing sector in Europe has undergone a series of fundamental transformations. The ‘explosion’ of the civilian market and the rise of Airbus, the end of the cold war, and the search for the resulting peace dividend, the emergence of new political, economic, and industrial strategies, have completely modified the environment in which European aerospace manufacturers operate. Indeed, in this sector—as in others—we are in the process of experiencing the end of the post-war period. In such a context of change, it is hardly surprising that the position of publicly-owned industries should be completely altered. In reality, in this key sector we are witnessing nothing less than a genuine revolution in the very idea of nationalized industries.
Introduction
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Lamalera represents an historically important variety of society in South-East Asia, one which by analogy with a usage introduced by Pigeaud and drawing on Malay for ‘coastal regions’ might be called pesisir societies. These societies are characterized by their links both to the interior and to the outer world. They are frequently at once isolated and involved in contacts far beyond their region. They are often remote communities, far from the centres of commerce and culture. At the same time they are in local perspective sophisticated mediators of external influences who maintain far-flung and even international contacts and commitments. This paradox has caused difficulties in understanding their characteristic place in South-East Asian life. Nevertheless every shore of every island and of every part of the mainland of Asia is lined with smaller or larger exemplars of this pattern, appreciation of which is essential for understanding both the past and the present in South-East Asian economy and society.
Descent Groups
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

The sociological make-up of descent groups, both unilineal and non-unilineal, in Nusa Tenggara Timur is extraordinarily various, ranging from fairly straightforward patrilineal or matrilineal air angements, through a combination of patrilineal and matrilineal clans and lineages in a configuration of so-called double descent, toward more complex mixtures of unilineal principles and cognatic practices in places on Timor and the islands to the east of Timor. Scattered here and there are communities lacking unilineal descent groups of any kind (for a survey see R. H. Barnes 1980a).
Marriage Alliance
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Marriage alliance is now recognized in anthropology to constitute not only a potentially coherent set of practices relating groupings of people in a series of mutual obligations lasting longer than a lifetime and occasioned by exogamous marriages, but also in some societies a principle of social organization on a scale comparable to that of unilineal descent. The literature on the subject is huge, and the topic has a long and varied history.
Seasons, Winds, Tides, Currents, Celestial Objects, and Directions
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

Local seasons are determined by the two great monsoons and the transition periods between them. A season is mūsi, from Malay musim and Arabic mausin (Wilkinson 1932: 2: 157), or naung (Arndt 1937: 93; Gregorius Keraf 1978: 242). The monsoons affect not only temperatures, rainfall, and the growth of vegetation, but also of course productive activities. As is characteristic of rural communities, the local calendar is comprised of a sequence of time marks referring both to recurring events in nature and to characteristic human activities.
Harpoons, Ropes, and Other Gear in the Boats
Authors: Barnes R H
Published: November 2023

When a boat first puts to sea, it is this harpoon which is put at readiness, by being attached to its pole and rope and propped up on the harpooning platform and the fore part of the harpoon pole rack on the right side of the boat. The harpoon is suitable for moderate- and small-sized game, and it can quickly be replaced by a heavier harpoon and rope if large game looms into sight. Because it is always at the ready, its rope is coiled in the first unobstructed section of the boat behind the bow, namely the fourth section, which is called the place of the léo rope. In general the ropes increase in weight and thickness moving from the bow to the stern; and they are arranged so that they can be fastened to each other in that order.
Output And Price Policy In Public Enterprise
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

THIs Chapter is an essay in applied welfare economics. We propose to review and discuss some of the contributions to the marginal-cost controversy. The suggestion of marginal-cost pricing in public utilities in a mixed economy appears to have been first made by Professor Hotelling in his article ‘ The General Welfare in relation to problems of Taxation and of Railway and Utility Rates’.1 Professor Lerner, in his Economics of Control,also considers a mixed economy, but assumes that pure, or nearly pure, competition prevails in the private sector. Apparently inspired by these contributions, there was, in the post war years, an extensive discussion of the problem.2
Conclusions
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

THIS book might, in part, be described as a study of the usage of influential and persuasive language in economics. Wherever it has been found that the terminology of economics is, in this sense, normative, we have suggested that the ethical issues involved should be brought right into the open. Unless this is done, it is often not at all clear whether a dispute is one of fact, or one of value. A discussion, which is superficially objective and factual (because frankly ethical expressions are not used), but which is really about values, though the contestants may not realize it, is usually unhelpful, and may tend to create ill feeling.
Introduction
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto
Published: November 2023

The aim of this study is to consider the structure of productive processes within a general description of human, technical, and environmental capabilities and their utilization in ‘supporting’ networks of productive tasks. As a result of this investigation, the view will emerge of the overall economic system as a set of interdependent funds (such as workers, machinery, natural resources) executing, according to a co-ordinated pattern, a certain transformation or set of transformations. Such patterns will affect the physical characteristics of the material environment and/or the capabilities of the funds involved in productive activity.
The Analytical Representation of Productive Activity
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto
Published: November 2023

Any given type of productive activity may lead to a number of distinct patterns of description. First, it may be considered as a combination of goal-oriented operations by means of which material objects take a particular shape according to given specifications, or immaterial services are supplied. Second, productive activity may be described as a combination of ‘transformation stages’ (usually a sequence), which leads material objects or human capabilities from a state of nature that is conventionally considered as original to a different state of nature that is conventionally considered as final. Last, productive activity may be identified with those human and non-human factors that must be available within each productive unit if some process of ‘technical transformation, or production’ (Hicks, 1939: 78) has to take place.
Conclusion: Tasks, Processes, and the Economic System
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto
Published: November 2023

The foregoing analysis derives from a particular description of the production process. This process has been described as a network of tasks rather than as a combination of inputs. Tasks are performed in real time, and their repeated performance leads to certain productive procedures. This approach has a number of distinctive features which may be summarized as follows. First, the ‘arrangement’ of tasks is independent of the inputs used in these tasks. A given task is often feasibile with alternative input combinations, and a given input combination generally permits more than one pattern of task co-ordination (see Chapter 5). Second, technical ‘adoption’ is a two-dimensional process: (a) a certain combination of inputs must be assembled and (b) a certain procedure must be followed. This dual and often sequential character of technical adoption leaves room for bottle-necks and disequilibria within each technical practice, for the input set and the pattern of task coordination may not match, if the former or the latter reflects past choices and procedures and cannot be instantaneously adjusted.
The Progression to the Third Birth in Sweden
Authors: Murphy Michael
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with the patterns of progression from second to third birth in Sweden during the period 1960 to 1980 from analysis of data from the 1981 Statistics Sweden (formerly Central Bureau of Statistics) survey Women in Sweden (Statistics Sweden 1981; WFS 1984), which is also described as the Swedish Fertility Survey. The approach adopted is the widely used one of hazard regression, which attempts to explain (at least in a statistical sense) patterns of differential progression to the third birth. Within this framework, a number of social, demographic, and economic factors that obtained prior to the third conception are included in a formal regression-type model that quantifies their relative and joint importance. Such techniques are both powerful and appropriate for fitting models to survival processes such as this one. However, they are not without their problems, and some of these will be brought out and illustrated in areas relating to the form of data source employed, the variables used in the analysis, and the transformation and interpretation of results.
Introduction
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre
Published: November 2023

Up to the present, longitudinal analysis has basically been developed through an approach that takes each demographic phenomenon into consideration separately. Its main objective has been to isolate each phenomenon in its ‘pure state’. In particular, it was considered necessary to separate the effects of each demographic variable from those of the others, such as mortality and migrations. To this end, a certain number of hypotheses were required, but they could not be tested against existing sources (Henry, 1959, 1966). Longitudinal analysis was developed on the basis of aggregate data such as registration statistics, or, whenever possible, data from population registers. Even though these sources allow each event to be dealt with separately, since they eliminate disturbing effects, they hardly make it possible to analyse interactions between different phenomena.
Methods of Estimation using Censored Observations
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall present the principle of non-parametric estimation methods of hazard rates using various types of survey data, which can be either right-censored or left-censored. There are different types of ‘gaps’ in retrospective or prospective longitudinal data, depending on the collect.
Statistical Formalization of Parametric Analysis
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre
Published: November 2023

The models presented in the first part of this work do not impose a priori any specific form on the hazard rates being estimated. Thus, they are non-parametric. However, it may be useful to summarize this information using a small number of parameters which make it possible to find the correct overall distribution. Apart from the saving thus made, these parameters can provide us with a simple demo graphic interpretation clarifying the processes observed.
Conclusion
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre
Published: November 2023

In the Introduction to this book we presented its two main objectives: on the one hand, to develop methods that make it possible to analyse the interactions between demographic phenomena; on the other hand, to examine and deal with the heterogeneity of observed populations. While both these problems had already been raised some time ago (Henry, 1959; Pressat, 1966), no satisfactory solution has thus far been found. ‘ Most often, the option was taken to eliminate the modifying effect that one phenomenon had on another, without analysing the more complex interactions between phenomena. Similarly, populations were considered to be homogeneous or, at best, were broken down on the basis of simple criteria into sub-populations which were dealt with separately.
Conclusion
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

There has always been a strong sense that no good characterization of externality exists. I suggested in the conclusion of Chapter 2 that a temptation to avoid the problem of characterizing externality should be resisted because of the important insights a better understanding of the notion would provide for the appraisal of an economy and its institutions. In this book I have tried to show why characterizing externality has been such an intractable task. This has entailed a critical examination of many of the existing characterizations, and an attempt to understand and evaluate the many concepts, distinctions and motivations latent in the apparently homogeneous notion of externality.
Introduction
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

For a country the size of China, which accounts for around a quarter of the world population and some 20 per cent of the world total of cereals output, fluctuations in agricultural production pose serious economic policy problems for the political leadership. Grain output in China per head is still comparatively low and the country still ranks as one of the largest net grain importers in the world. A minor shortfall in production may translate itself into sizeable demands for grain imports.1 Inter national market repercussions aside, this may result in competitive claims for foreign exchange resources against the planners’ programme of machine and equipment imports which are so instrumental in the pursuit of the ‘four modernizations’.
Measures of and Factors in Agricultural Instability
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

Agricultural instability can be measured in terms of farm output and farm income. It can also be estimated in terms of the fluctuations in such farm input variables as land, labour, farm machines, diesel oil, chemical fertilizers, etc. Through a comparison of total farm output (income) and inputs, it is possible to estimate fluctuations in agricultural productivity (output/income per hectare or per agricultural worker). Farm instability measures may be extended to cover farm-related non-farm economic activities in order to give a broad measurement of rural economic instability. In China, for example, such a comprehensive measure is the gross value of agricultural output (GVAO). This comprises, besides the farming sector proper, forestry, husbandry, fishery, and cottage-type industries which use agricultural raw materials such as cotton, tobacco, and sugar-cane as inputs. Another measure with a scope even broader than that of the GVAO is the so-called gross value of social output (GVSO) introduced in the mid-1980s. This embraces, in addition to the GVAO, building construction, transportation, and trade sectors. Within the rural context, the volume of undertakings in all these sectors fluctuates with the performance of the agricultural sector.
Methods and Problems of Measurement
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

In our analysis of the history of agricultural instability in China, weather and technological changes have frequently emerged as crucial factors shaping both short-run fluctuations and the long-run stability of agricultural production. Rural collectivization in the 1950s, and the subsequent organizational variations in the different periods of socialization, also seem to have played an important role in this respect, especially when compared with the 1930s, which was dominated by market relations and private ownership. However, our foregoing historical survey has been mainly descriptive, being concerned with the relative impact of the three factors, weather, technology, and institutional changes in specifically qualitative terms. We now attempt to determine, in more specific terms, to what extent each of these factors may have contributed to the observed degrees of agricultural instability in the different periods, and their changes over time.
The Long-Run Interplay of Weather, Technology, and Institutions
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

The main purpose of this chapter is to compare the impact of weather in different periods, which, each taken as a whole, represent either different institutional characteristics or technological settings. A com arison of two periods, 1931-7 and 1952-9, which are similar technologically, is used in an attempt to confirm the contention made in Part II that rural collectivization significantly helped to stablize Chinese agriculture relative to the weather influence. Likewise, by contrasting the two longer periods, 1952-66 and 1970-84, which display the same basic socialist collective arrangements, we seek to prove that advances in agricultural technology since the early 1970s have lessened the negative weather impact.
Precipitation and Yield Relationships in 1931-1935
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

In our analysis of the relationships between weather and national grain yield variations in Part III, we relied on the extent of the sown area covered by natural disasters, i.e. shouzai area, as a national indicator of weather changes between the different years. This approach is deemed necessary, because the sheer size of China and the complexity of her geoclimatic conditions make it impossible to compile a meteorological weather index for the country as whole based on precipitation or temperature data.
Comparisons between Countries and over Time
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will pay attention to the differences between the countries which participated in the study. The main emphasis will be put on the differences as they appear in the second measurement phase, although some references will be made to the differences with respect to the changes in scores or score patterns over the period 1977-87. A presentation and discussion of the results of the 1987 cross-national comparisons will be given with respect to (a) the formal participative systems (PS), (b) the actual involvement practices and distribution of influence in the organizations (PO), and (c) the relationships between the two (PS-PO). A separate section will be devoted to each of these three themes.