bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Solo Voice
Authors: Welch Graham F.
Published: March 2022

The chapter provides an overview of the physical basis of solo singing. Skilled vocal performance requires a multifaceted coordination of the singer’s anatomy and physiology, which is conceived as a tripartite system of energy source, vibrator, and resonators. The vocal instrument embraces (a) the respiratory apparatus, which compresses air upwards through the larynx; this (b) sets the vocal folds in vibration and converts an airstream to sound; and (c) filters the sound of the resultant pulsating airflow to be radiated from the vocal tract. Each of these components is discussed in detail, as well as their interconnectedness, with implications drawn in the concluding section for how this information is important to the soloist in understanding how their voice works in performance.
The Alexander Technique
Authors: Valentine Elizabeth R. , Kleinman Judith , Buckoke Peter
Published: March 2022

The origin of the Alexander Technique (AT) and its concept of “good use” are explained, with its potential for improving function in music practice and performance. The principles of primary control, inhibition, and body mapping are explained, and illustrated by quotes from students and performers. Procedures used to assist the learning of the principles, including semi-supine, hands-on-the-back-of-a-chair, lunge, monkey, and “whispered ah” are illustrated. The application of the AT to performance anxiety is outlined. Attention is drawn to some of the methodological problems involved. Physiological, behavioral, and experiential investigations of the effects of the AT are reviewed. These include electrophysiological studies of string players and singers, respiratory function in wind players, and blood pressure in orchestral players. Behavioral and experiential studies range from pioneering studies on postural faults to later work on bodily misuse and quality of music performance based on ratings of video recordings by relevant experts, as well as self-reports. A number of studies have shown beneficial effects of training in the AT on breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure, posture and bodily use, quality of musical performance, and mental attitude. Practitioners report improved mental attitudes and increased awareness of ability to minimize tension.
Vocal Ensembles
Authors: Jers Harald , Ternström Sten
Published: March 2022

A typical performance situation of a vocal ensemble or choir consists of a group of singers in a room with listeners. The choir singers on stage interact while they sing, since they also hear the sound of the neighboring singer and react accordingly. From a physical point of view, the choir singers can be regarded as sound sources. The properties of the room influence the sound and the listeners perceive the sound event as a sound receiver. Furthermore, the processes in the choir can also be described acoustically, which affects the overall performance. The room influences the timbre of the sound on their way to the audience, the receiver. Reflection, absorption, diffraction, or refraction influence the timbre in the room. The sound in a performance space can be distinguished between a near field very close to the singer and a far field. The distance at which the far field can be assumed is strongly dependent on the acoustics of the room. Especially for singers within a choir, the differentiation between those sound fields is important for hearing oneself and the other singers. The position of the singers, their directivity, and the seating position of the listener in the audience will have an influence on listener perception. Furthermore, this chapter gives background information on intonation and synchronization aspects, which are most relevant for any vocal ensemble situation. Using this knowledge, intuitive behavior and performance practice can be explained and new adaptations can be suggested for singing in vocal ensembles.
Electronic Instruments
Authors: Chafe Chris
Published: March 2022

Electronic musical instruments using electrical signals as a sound source have existed for over 150 years. The chapter on electronic instruments focuses on digital musical instruments and explores the designs of computer-based technologies in the most common present of electronic synthesizers. As these machines advance, so do the capabilities for expressive performance. Instruments may be devices with keyboards, microphones, and/or other kinds of sensors attached or they may exist solely as software applications running on many possible kinds of computers. The chapter describes how performance gestures and sound are treated as numbers and are represented in formats such as the MIDI protocol and sound files. Musical sound is produced by samplers and synthesizers that are programmed for tone generation. The basics of spectrum analysis and synthesis methods are covered in order to understand what a particular tone generator algorithm provides as sonic dimensions to control and which dimensions of control might be available to the performer.
Technology-Enhanced Learning of Performance
Authors: Ramirez-Melendez Rafael , Waddell George
Published: March 2022

Technology is used in all aspects of musical practice, whether in developing instruments, recording performances, or linking musicians with audiences. Music education has also benefited from new digital tools, though the integration of technological approaches has not been as pervasive across learning environments and methods. This chapter summarizes recent research examining the attitudes toward and use of music technology in the learning of music performance, with particular focus on the domain of one-to-one teaching. It highlights new and developing hardware and software designed to address specific musical skills, from intonation and rhythmic accuracy to tone quality and expressiveness, and to drive self-regulated learning. The Technology Enhanced Learning of Music Instrument Performance (TELMI) project is presented as a case study demonstrating how state-of-the-art methods of audio and video analysis, motion capture, artificial intelligence, and musician-designed feedback displays are being advanced and integrated to develop the next generation of music learning tools. This chapter sets out an optimistic view of technology’s future as a tool to increase the accessibility, efficiency, and interactivity of music learning, and highlights the many ways in which musicians can take part in the evolution of technology-enhanced learning.
Fostering Musicians’ Wellbeing
Authors: Ascenso Sara , Delle Fave Antonella , Perkins Rosie , Williamon Aaron
Published: March 2022

The World Health Organization (WHO) has for decades highlighted that health is more than just the absence of disorder. Musicians’ wellbeing has received growing attention over the years, and the music sector seems increasingly engaged in its investigation and promotion. However, initiatives tend to focus on eliminating disorder, with performance anxiety and injury dominating the sector’s efforts. Aiming to understand and promote musicians’ wellbeing in line with the WHO’s proposal requires broadening our outlook beyond the stresses and strains of the profession and looking at positive indicators of human functioning. Positive Psychology is an innovative framework at the center of the latest wellbeing research that can help musicians in this pursuit. It focuses on the conditions that lead individuals and communities to live to their fullest potential. This chapter provides an introduction to Positive Psychology and outlines some of its more prominent wellbeing models. We explore recent findings resulting from the application of this framework to the music sector and examine its promise as an innovative lens to shape wellbeing promotion strategies with musicians.
Mindfulness
Authors: Diaz Frank M.
Published: March 2022

Mindfulness is a state of consciousness characterized by deliberate attention, non-judgmental monitoring of experience, and self-inquiry. Individuals with a propensity to experience mindfulness report a number of cognitive and mental health benefits, and in skilled endeavors such as music and athletics, mindfulness is associated with improved performance. One of the most popular ways of cultivating mindfulness is through formal meditation. However, the psychological processes that define mindfulness can be enacted within various contexts and endeavors, including musical activities. This chapter draws on insights from neuroscience, psychology, and other disciplines in order to describe how mindfulness might benefit musicians, and includes suggestions for applying mindfulness in practice and performance settings.
Stage Behavior, Impression Management, and Charisma
Authors: Platz Friedrich , Kopiez Reinhard
Published: March 2022

The live presentation of music depends not only on the auditory modality but also on the comprehensive preparation of visual and auditory components. As shown throughout the history of music, this unity of senses has always been a central feature of live music performance. However, the rise of technical means of sound recording and storage in the twentieth century has reduced the multimodal character of music performance to isolated streams of information with a bias toward the auditory modality. Based on findings from experimental work on music performance evaluation, this chapter aims to revisit the underlying concept of live concerts, namely, the unity of senses with particular emphasis on the often-neglected visual component. In this chapter, we present the many facets of multimodal interactions in concerts and make suggestions for making the best use of these interactions to enhance the performer’s opportunities and contribute to enhanced, persuasive performance. However, instead of presenting a simple list of “do’s and don’ts,” we encourage performers to find out the appropriate stage behavior in a particular performance setting, which also fits their personal and authentic style.
Creating Sustainable Performance Careers
Authors: Burland Karen , Bennett Dawn
Published: March 2022

This chapter reviews and distills the diverse literature on performance careers in music. It begins by exploring the issues and concepts involved in a performance career, examining the nature and shape of musicians’ work across the career lifespan. Next, factors that influence sustainability are discussed; these include initial and ongoing education, job-getting and the role of networks, place-making, mental and physical wellbeing, and musician identity. Drawing on these sources, the chapter examines likely influences on the creation of sustainable performance careers before turning to practical implications for the performing musician and for those who prepare and support them in their careers.
Traumatic Stress Disorders
Authors: Sloan Denise M. , Beck J. Gayle
Published: March 2022

The publication of DSM-5, with updated criteria for diagnoses of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and acute stress disorder (ASD), has made classification of traumatic stress disorders more precise. This chapter highlights some of the advances in our understanding of traumatic stress disorders. These areas include classification of traumatic stress disorders; advances in biological and genetic markers of traumatic stress disorder; advances in assessment measures, especially measures developed for use with children and older adults; and advances in prevention and interventions. The chapter also present topics and questions that will be important for the field to address in the years to come.
Disability Prevalence, Measurement, and Health in a
Global Context
Authors: Sykes Bryan L. , Strong Justin D.
Published: March 2022

While the rights of people with disabilities have ascended in global importance and institutional recognition, nation-states remain instrumental in addressing health inequalities. Worldwide, people with disabilities face formidable barriers to optimizing their life and health chances, and these barriers further hinder political and civil participation. This chapter seeks to understand how disability rates are associated with observed democratic principles, including the enshrinement and protection of disability rights into national laws and constitutional doctrines. Put differently, to what extent do more egalitarian and healthy democracies address the material needs of people with disabilities? To answer this question, we combine data from four publicly available, international databases to examine disability rates across global and national policies. We show that considerable variation exists across countries for three axes of inequality: disability-related health metrics, disability policies, and democratic ideals. Our findings speak to the importance of exploring how the structure of democracy itself and its attendant democratic ideals are central considerations in the production of population health, disability rates, and social inequality.
Dangerous Drugs From Habit to Addiction
Authors: Hickman Timothy A.
Published: March 2022

This chapter, concentrating mainly on Anglophone cultures, examines the emergence and construction of drug use as a social, medical, and legal problem in the late nineteenth century, which was a prelude to their early twentieth-century legal restriction. Growing belief in the concept of “addiction” as an explanation of habitual drug use was central to this transformation and, for many specialists, addiction encompassed the principal social and medical harms born by narcotic drugs such as morphine or cocaine. The emergence of addiction as a medical or disease concept fostered the change from older moralistic models of the habits and harms inflicted by inebriation, those inherited from previous religiously inspired temperance movement anti-alcohol campaigns. It reflected and enhanced the growing power of the medical profession as reformers seized upon new “scientific” justifications for legal restrictions on the use of what became depicted as dangerous drugs.
Middle East Drug Cultures in the Long View
Authors: Ram Haggai
Published: March 2022

This chapter discusses the integration of opium, cannabis/hashish, tobacco, and coffee into Middle East drug cultures from the rise of Islam in the seventh century through the long nineteenth century. Each of these key stimulants or intoxicants was introduced and disseminated in the region independently, some earlier than others, with each drug becoming subject to distinct perceptions; medicinal, legal and political discourses; and distinct social anxieties and controversies. Yet, beginning in the seventeenth century, the budding of new urban coffeehouses throughout the Middle East meant that such drugs could now be consumed together under a single roof. As a result, novel patterns of shared consumption and sociability were forged across Middle East societies. These processes and the debates they precipitated are explored in their Ottoman and Iranian contexts, providing a broader comparative perspective on these drug transformations.
The Cultural Biography of Opium in China
Authors: Zheng Yangwen
Published: March 2022

Opium is central in the history of nineteenth- to early twentieth-century late imperial and modern China. Opium’s shift from herbal medicine into a larger narco-economy helped shape China’s foreign relations and economic life, affecting Chinese culture and the long struggle for modern China. This chapter puts together researched social history issues of who smoked opium, when, and why. By considering opium as a consumer item, historians “decriminalize” and depoliticize thinking about the drug and its consumption. Opium, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, began to appeal to millions of consumers from different regions and backgrounds as they indigenized, integrated, enhanced, and reinvented opium smoking as something Chinese. The demand for drugs’ rising consumption drove its rising trade, foreign conflicts, prohibition, and modern state “opium regimes.” Drug consumer culture offers a window on how a commodity and its consumption impacted the course of Chinese history.
The Making of Pariah Drugs in Latin America
Authors: Campos Isaac
Published: March 2022

From the middle of the nineteenth century down to World War II, countries across Latin America saw the rise of increasingly virulent anti-drug hygienic and modernizing discourses relating to substances ranging from alcohol to marijuana, cocaine, opium, and a variety of historically indigenous hallucinogenic drugs. These domestic histories, which often had similar contours and language from Argentina and Chile to Peru, Colombia, Cuba, and Mexico, provided some strong local rationales for the growing political participation of Latin American countries in the emerging international drug control regime, usually depicted regionally as a consequence of US diplomatic pressures. This chapter, based on the growing revisionist research on Latin American drug histories, examines how such local processes and attitudes helped shape regional participation, with particular attention on Mexico and Mexican cannabis, given Mexico’s influential role in this continental history.
Germany’s Role in the Modern Global Drug Economy
Authors: Stephens Robert P.
Published: March 2022

Germany, a world leader in pharmaceutical drug innovation (morphine, cocaine, amphetamines) has seen a multiplicity of changes in consumption cultures and drug policies, shaped by dramatic shifts in political regimes: Empire, the Weimer republic, Third Reich, Cold War social democracy, post-89 reunification at the center of Europe, and its current conservative regime. Visible drug consumption cultures arose in the 1920s but went invisible (save for intensive military use) during the Nazi regime; a modernizing consumption regime after 1945 prompted both rising heroin addiction and a broad 1960s global youth culture. By the early 1970s, drug policy briefly turned to experimental styles of treatment; however, the rise of hard drugs and AIDS crisis led to the 1990s emergence of harm reduction related to nearby decriminalization sites such as the Netherlands. Given European nativism, liberal German policies remain uncertain, but drugs have long epitomized the country’s consumption and political cultures.
Drugs, Nation, and Empire in Japan, 1890s–1950s
Authors: Kingsberg Kadia Miriam
Published: March 2022

Contemporary observers note Japan’s relative success in suppressing illegal drugs, projecting this image of abstinence onto the past. Recent scholarship debunks Japan’s historical reputation as a drug-free nation. The 1890s through the 1950s marked the nation’s most intensive engagement with narcotics. At the height of Western imperialism, the exclusion of opium, a symbol of dependency, came to signify Japan’s capacity for sovereignty. When Japan itself became an empire in 1895, administrators in the East Asia territories tried to eradicate morphine and heroin in keeping with international norms, even as they sought to profit from state drug sales. Finally, after Japan’s 1945 occupation by the victorious Allies, the nation experienced one the world’s first methamphetamine epidemics. Belying the national image of abstinence, public campaigns against stimulants helped restore a shattered national sense of social agency. The resolution of the crisis also erased it from public memory with the illusion of a confidently drug-free nation.
The Globalization of US Drug Enforcement
Authors: Pembleton Matthew R.
Published: March 2022

The United States has been long the global leader in turning drug control into an international policing or military enterprise, though the drug war’s long periodization is harder to define. This chapter surveys three phases in the rise of the US global drug war. The first, at the start of the twentieth century, involved opiates and drug diplomacy in Asia and US colonial possessions. The second phase followed World War II, when drug interdiction first became an American global enterprise, alongside growing US Cold War influence. Skeptical of public health strategies and diplomatic efforts, Federal Bureau of Narcotics Commissioner Harry J. Anslinger turned to international policing and source control, by federal agents abroad, starting as clandestine operations in Europe and the Mediterranean and later the Middle East and Asia. The third phase began with creation of the DEA in 1973 and the militarization of cocaine interdiction in the Americas during the 1980s.
Turkey and the Formation of the Global Heroin Trade
Authors: Gingeras Ryan
Published: March 2022

Heroin’s emergence as an illicit commodity in the twentieth century possesses strong Turkish roots. Global patterns in the postwar trade were specifically tied to long-term trends in opium production and heroin trafficking between the end of the Ottoman Empire and the evolution of the Republic of Turkey. Though disconnected in terms of origins and network structures, the producer and traders in Turkish opiates have shared a symbiotic relationship with one another and the global community at large, a pattern that became most apparent after the breakdown of the iconic postwar “French Connection.” Political developments during and after the 1970s, such as the intensification of US drug diplomacy, the Iranian Revolution, and the rise of Recep Tayyip Erdogan, ultimately led to major transformations in the Turkish drug industry, leading to significant changes in how heroin and opium is produced, traded, and consumed in and beyond Turkey.
De-Orientalizing Drugs in the Modern Middle East
Authors: Ghiabi Maziyar
Published: March 2022

Narratives of drugs in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) rely on Orientalist tales of drug consumption in the shadow of colonial encounters. Scholarship on drug history also marginalizes this region or it is done simply in terms of its connection to the West. Nonetheless, the MENA region has its own long rich history of drugs. Its geographical span, from Morocco to Iran, makes this fertile ground for study of multiple dimensions and varieties of drug cultures and histories. The chapter examines hashish in Morocco and Lebanon; opium in Iran and Iraq; heroin in Libya, Iran, and Palestine; and, finally, at amphetamine-type stimulants (captagon, methamphetamine, etc.) in the Arab monarchies of the Persian Gulf. Diverse in drug consumption, the region also hosts different regimes of drug control and prohibition. The chapter surveys changing drug cultures amid the region’s epochal political events such as wars, occupations, civil conflict, and political revolts
The Origins of Drug Trafficking Networks in China
Authors: Meyer Kathryn
Published: March 2022

The origins of drug trafficking networks in Asia are best seen through the legal and policing mechanisms put in place to control the illicit import, transport, sale, and consumption of drugs. This chapter surveys those structures and the ways that entrepreneurs circumvented such obstacles for profit. China, until the 1949 Revolution, was the world’s primary market for opium and its derivatives. Opium bans started with the 1911 Nationalist era and Chinese authorities began public campaigns to demonize drug use, with support from international organizations like the League of Nations. However, these new legal strictures had unforeseen consequences: use and manufacture of morphine and heroin grew as smoking opium became scarce and risky. Supply routes moved underground, becoming the domain of organized crime syndicates such as Shanghai’s Green Gang. Finally, prohibition impacted East Asian geopolitics in complex ways, as warlords, politicians, and regional powers used narcotics to fund China’s modern civil wars.
Global Drug Debates in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Malinowska Kasia , Walker Summer
Published: March 2022

The international drug policy regime, framed by three UN drug control conventions, sets the normative framework for national-level drug policies. Current debates are evolving toward more balanced drug policies. The final documents of the 2016 UN General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) on the world drug problem opened up space for reforming national drug policies and enforcement with, for example, human rights and due process protections. A survey of policies across the globe shows commonalities among countries in the Global South and North, but a diversification of recent drug policy discussions. National-level reforms are proceeding within the unique contexts of each country’s culture, history, and norms around drugs. While some countries are intensifying prohibitionist restrictions required by UN conventions, others are challenging aspects of the regime. International NGOs highlight the unique circumstances and needs of specific groups such as women and indigenous peoples, in the context of human rights conventions and development goals.
Plant Drugs and Shamanism in the Americas
Authors: Carneiro Henrique S.
Published: March 2022

The Indigenous cultures of South America developed a diverse array of traditional uses for psychoactive plants. This chapter surveys the historical and anthropological literatures on these practices. Pre-Columbian usage, later labeled as idolatry, was transformed by European colonization of the Americas. However, chroniclers such as Sahagun, Hernández, de Acosta, and Monardes, as well as accounts by Spanish “extirpadores de idolatrias” can be used to understand the original Amerindian contexts of these plant drugs. Colonialism initiated processes of “mestiçagem” (mixing) and cultural hybridity including the drug “imaginary,” to borrow Serge Gruzinski’s term. The current religious revival of such practices as “vegetalismo” “curandeirismo” using ayahuasca, jurema, and hallucinogenic snuffs (paricá, yopo, vilca, etc.) is analyzed along with its recent literatures. This also means revisiting the classic anthropological concept of shamanism and its application to Amerindian cultures, particularly in Amazonia.
Soma and Drug History in Ancient Asia
Authors: Torri Davide
Published: March 2022

Some of the oldest texts of India’s classical Vedic age (1500–500 BCE) refer to soma, at the same time as a god, a plant, and a beverage of the gods themselves. The intoxicating elixir appears as a pivotal element in many ancient religious rituals, and yet its exact identification has eluded generations of scholars and seekers. Taking soma as a point of departure, this chapter explores the religious dimension of the use of drugs across the Asian continent, ranging from ancient Indian and Chinese civilizations to shamanism in Siberia. From the myth of mushroom consumption in shamanic rituals to the meditative use of cannabis by ascetics, this chapter critically surveys drug-related mythologies and practices, through a diversity of historical and ethnographic sources from ancient Asian civilizations.
New Imperial Drug Trades, 1500–1800
Authors: Breen Benjamin
Published: March 2022

It was not until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that drug trades became truly global in scope, and drugs items of everyday sociability. This chapter draws connections between regional cultures of healing, drug cultivation, and new forms of consumption; and the larger cultural, socioeconomic, and medical impacts of drugs in the early modern era. It argues that the globalization of drugs like coffee, tea, cinchona, opium, and tobacco shaped the fates of both early modern empires and imperial subjects. The growing wealth of European merchants and colonists found a counterpoint in the misery of the African slaves and Indigenous laborers who made imperial drug trades possible. After an overview of key initial drugs, the chapter looks at the social roles of apothecaries and drug merchants, the contribution of colonial healers and cultivators in regions like Brazil and sub-Saharan Africa, and how early modern imperial histories of drugs influence contemporary debates.
Tobacco’s Cultural Shifts as an Early Atlantic Drug
Authors: Norton Marcy
Published: March 2022

Tobacco is arguably the most important modern drug given its cultural, economic, and fiscal centrality across the globe, as well for forging a path for other new drugs (cacao, cannabis, opium etc.) in its wake. In use for millennia by Native Americans across the Western Hemisphere, it gained a permanent foothold in Europe by the late sixteenth century and became a significant commodity in Europe and beyond by the early seventeenth century. Beyond an overview of tobacco’s spread, this chapter considers frameworks that account for tobacco’s successful and relatively rapid “transculturation” from Indigenous America outward: biochemical (e.g., addiction explanation), European cultural (a tobacco-like vacuum in Europe a new intoxicant filled), and Native American cultures (e.g., tobacco’s assimilation as an effect of European expansion and of initial European dependence on Indigenous peoples). Tobacco’s success appears both singular and prototypical in the early modern movement of other drugs across cultures and empires.
Standardized Identifiers and Electronic Data Interchange Rules for Music
Authors: Elton Serona
Published: March 2022

The music industry uses several categories of information standards, which involve policies, governance rules, and technical specifications. This chapter explains the standardized ways of identifying music-related parties, intellectual property, publications, products, and releases; of formatting music metadata; and of exchanging data electronically. It describes how parties such as songwriters/composers, music publishers, recording artists, performers on sound recordings, and record companies are identified through use of the IPI, IPN, and ISNI; intellectual property such as musical compositions and sound recordings and music videos are identified through use of the ISWC, ISRC, acoustic fingerprints, and watermarks; and publications, products, and releases are identified through the use of the ISMN, GTIN, and GRiD. It explores the way that Music Data Style Guides are used to set rules regarding the presentation of information to consumers and the structure of data which accompanies digital music files. It explains the electronic data interchange standards, including the CIS and DDEX message suites, which are used to efficiently communicate information between parties in the supply and value chains. Finally, the chapter looks to the future, considering the information management segment of the music industry as a form of IT service management and explores ways that people, process, and technology may come together to maximize business value.
A World They Don’t Deserve
Authors: Thompson Allen
Published: March 2022

In the early 21st century, multiple anthropogenic environmental crises present themselves as morally problematic. Views of intergenerational ethics typically attempt to give a clear account of to whom we owe obligations, what is owed, and how we should act to satisfy these obligations. The normative significance of these views is to identify what we morally should do to prevent bad consequences that will otherwise follow the status quo. In this chapter, on the contrary, the author addresses what it could mean and what we should do on the assumption that present generations are moral failures vis-à-vis the global environment and thus will deliver to future generations a significantly degraded world they don’t deserve. Because of our moral failure, the world of tomorrow may not resemble our own in any obvious ways but one: Short of extinction, human beings will aim to lead good lives. The author considers and rejects three initial answers concerning what morality requires, given humanity’s moral failure to prevent catastrophic climate change, before offering an alternative version of “deep adaptation” for the Anthropocene. The author’s view includes a commitment to fostering social capital of trust, care, and community self-reliance and learning to manage the natural capital of emerging novel ecosystems. The author argues that radical hope today involves broad cultural adaptation of philosophical views best suited for difficult times. A philosophy of life that gives priority to the internal conditions of flourishing will serve future generations well, as they confront difficult conditions of a wrecked world.
Child Soldiers
Authors: Denov Myriam , Cadieux Van Vliet Anaïs
Published: March 2022

This chapter explores the complex phenomenon of child soldiers—in theory and in practice. The chapter begins by outlining the international legal instruments aimed at preventing the use of children in armed conflict, as well as summarizing global estimates of the issue. The rights violations faced by children involved in armed conflict are addressed, with a particular focus on girls, who are often overlooked. The chapter then provides an overview of the depictions of child soldiers in popular media, highlighting how iconography may contribute to the shaping of policy and programming. The chapter discusses the tensions and paradoxes associated with the translation of formal legal commitments into practice. It concludes with a discussion of areas for future policy and research.
The International Community and Atrocity Crimes
Authors: Bellamy Alex J.
Published: March 2022

Arising from the horrors of Rwanda and Srebrenica, the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) holds that sovereign states have a responsibility to protect their own populations from atrocity crimes, that the international community should encourage and assist individual states to fulfil their responsibility, and that when states are “manifestly failing” to protect their populations, the international community should respond in a “timely and decisive” fashion. This chapter examines the emergence and developments of R2P. It shows that R2P confers responsibilities upon specific actors, but that the principle is grounded in international politics. It is best thought of, therefore, as a “responsibility to try.” The principle’s mixed record in practice should not obscure the fact that the international community increasingly recognizes a collective responsibility to protect populations within other states. The chapter also shows that the allocation of responsibility is complicated by the emergence of non-state armed groups both as perpetrators and protectors.
On the Empirical Study of Atrocity Crimes
Authors: Bijleveld Catrien
Published: March 2022

This chapter discusses research methods for atrocity crimes. Mass atrocity crimes, the context in which they are committed, and their aftermath generate a constellation of factors in which methodologies may differ from standard criminological or even social-science methods and techniques. Differences emerge, first, because atrocity crimes are so deadly: we find many epidemiological and public health methods employed to estimate the prevalence of this type of crime. Second, we see differences because atrocity crimes occur generally against the backdrop of a conflict in which also government may be involved, so that vital statistical data are compromised or lacking. Third, data collection in situations of conflict may be dangerous and therefore compromised methodologically, in various ways. Last, atrocity crimes are rare occurrences in unique and idiosyncratic constellations of conflict and violence, in which it is hard to make causal inference according to regular social-science methodological standards.
How Can Mortality Due to Atrocity Crimes Be Estimated? Methods and Data Sources
Authors: Brunborg Helge
Published: March 2022

This chapter gives an overview of data collection methods and sources on atrocity deaths. The normal data sources on deaths—civil registration—are usually not available during war. The two main methods to collect data on violent deaths are: (i) passive recording of incidents of violent deaths through available sources, such as media, hospitals, and eyewitnesses, which often begin while the armed conflict is going on; and (ii) active recording of deaths in sample surveys or censuses. The number of victims in incidence databases are often greatly underreported, but retrospective surveys sometimes result in grossly exaggerated estimates. The population project at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) is presented as an example of use of different data sources to estimate the number of victims. This project was a breakthrough in the use of demographic evidence to prove war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide in a court of law.
In the Aftermath of Atrocities
Authors: Berckmoes Lidewyde
Published: March 2022

This chapter explores how, over time, scientific research has dealt with questions about effects of mass atrocity violence on people born after the violence. It shows that the interdisciplinary field of scholarship on the intergenerational transmission of violence and trauma has been growing and suggests important themes in emerging scholarship. The roots of the field are traced to clinical work with Holocaust descendants in the 1960s. Holocaust offspring appeared to suffer from psychopathological problems that until then could only be attributed to personal exposure to violence. Over the past two decades, attention has broadened to include various mass atrocity violence contexts and diverse disciplinary perspectives. The new orientations and perspectives are promising, yet further empirical and conceptual work is needed, also in order to understand when transmission does not occur and prevent legacies of mass atrocity violence impacting on new violence.
Crimes Against Humanity and Transitional Justice in Ethiopia (1935–2020)
Authors: Bouwknegt Thijs B. , Metekia Tadesse Simie
Published: March 2022

Ethiopia has experienced a gamut of mass atrocity violence over the last century. Colonial, political, and ethnic violence have been cyclical phenomena and have often escalated into mass atrocity crimes against civilians. By exhibiting a historical synopsis of mass atrocity violence in Ethiopia since 1935, this chapter demonstrates how the expression crimes against humanity can be operationalized to perceive, understand, and explain mass atrocity violence in diverse temporal, political, and socioeconomic contexts. Additionally, the chapter narrates an Ethiopian genealogy of transitional justice. The chapter concludes that crimes against humanity—as a judicial, scholarly, and historical framework—captures best the dynamics and nature of mass atrocity violence in Ethiopia. Simultaneously, we observe that Ethiopia has been spearheading trends in international law and transitional justice, but has done so on its own terms.
Introduction
Authors: Holá Barbora , Nzitatira Hollie Nyseth , Weerdesteijn Maartje
Published: March 2022

The introduction discusses the concept of atrocity crimes and its origins. It outlines its main definitional characteristics, distinguishes and briefly describes the three main constitutive categories of atrocity crimes (genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes), and discusses similarities and differences among the three categories. The introduction also addresses the scattered state of atrocity studies as a field of academic inquiry and introduces the Handbook on Atrocity Crimes as the pioneering volume combining major theoretical and empirical research on all three categories of atrocity crimes. It subsequently provides a roadmap of individual chapters included in the Handbook.
Human Rights and Atrocities
Authors: O’Brien Melanie
Published: March 2022

Atrocity crimes are often also referred to as mass human rights violations. Indeed, atrocity crimes are human rights violations, although analysis of the conduct involved under both labels is rare. Behavior that is categorized as atrocity crimes (war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity) overlaps with that which is categorized as human rights violations. This chapter examines the relationship between human rights and atrocity crimes, considering human rights as means of prevention of atrocities, the relationship of each category of atrocity crime with human rights, and the importance of the human rights law regime in times of atrocity. Overall, there is a need for more engagement with the human rights regime in the mass atrocity contexts, from prevention through to accountability.
Armed Conflict and Atrocities
Authors: Demmers Jolle
Published: March 2022

To gain insight into the power dynamics of atrocities, one needs to examine (i) how and why atrocities become functional to potential entrepreneurs of violence, as well as (ii) the formal and informal alliances that help execute and sustain the violence, and (iii) the frames through which violence becomes socially meaningful and justified. These three components underlie the analytical frameworks addressed in this chapter on the making of atrocities. In settings of instability, atrocity crimes are instrumentally orchestrated by violent entrepreneurs to renew and/or harden boundaries between civilian populations as a means to gain or attain power. Although these (aspiring) leaderships are crucial drivers, they depend on alliances and relationships of exchange with local actors for the execution and organization of violence. However, an analysis of atrocities which only looks at the functionality of violence is unlikely to be convincing. Large-scale violence needs to be imagined and legitimized in order to be carried out. This occurs through the repeated rehearsal of violent imaginaries from the past which sanction violence against the ‘enemy-other’ as necessary and legitimate.
Natural Resources and Atrocities
Authors: Mitton Kieran
Published: March 2022

The relationship of the natural environment to war has long been the subject of study, but its connection to atrocity crimes in particular has received far less attention. This chapter explores the rich literature on the role natural resources play in shaping violence, examining it through two broad areas of focus that define the scholarship: scarcity and abundance. In doing so, it provides an overview of the key thematic debates linking resources to violence, ranging from early Malthusian concerns over demographic pressures to more recent discussion of the potential (and perhaps already realized) cataclysmic impacts of climate change and urbanization.
Ideologies, Identities, and Speech in Atrocities
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan
Published: March 2022

One of the most enduring debates over the explanation of atrocity crimes concerns the role of ideologies, identities, and extreme speech or propaganda. While many scholars have strongly emphasized the way radical ideologies, antagonistic identities, and extreme speech can encourage atrocity crimes, others dispute the centrality of such factors, preferring to focus on the roots of atrocity in conflict dynamics, local intracommunal politics, and material self-interest. This chapter provides an overview of these debates, mapping out three broad perspectives:—(i) traditional; (ii) skeptical; and (iii) revisionist—on the role of ideologies, identities, and speech in atrocities. It then proceeds to consider two key theoretical puzzles that are in need of further research: first, what forms of ideology, identity, and speech carry the greatest danger of promoting atrocity crimes; and second, what underlying factors explain the radicalization of ideologies, identities, and speech toward atrocity crimes.
Chemical Industries
Authors: Stokes Ray
Published: March 2022

Dynamic change has characterized the history of the modern chemical industry from its inception in the early 19th century to the present. This article departs from previous studies of the industry’s evolution by dividing the history of the industry into five distinct periods. Each has entailed fundamental changes in the industry’s products, processes, main actors, and other aspects, and therefore alterations to its fundamental character. The main drivers and impacts of change over time have included technology, in particular application of theoretical science for product and process innovation; feedstocks; the companies populating the industry; government policy, especially with regard to intellectual property; and globalization.
Politics and Popular Music
Authors: Lie John
Published: March 2022

Popular music proffers a window into the world of politics and political economy. In tracing the transformations of South Korean popular music, the chapter shows not only its reflections and refractions, but also the interactions with politics, state policy, and political economy. From the immediate post-Liberation decade to military rule, we witness, for instance, the decline of Japanese influence, the ascent of the US impact, and the turmoil of domestic politics and culture. The entwinement of politics and popular music is especially clear in the emergence of K-pop. It illuminates the broader backdrop of export-orientated industrialization and the South Korean political economy and how they shaped, and in turn were shaped by, the explosive success of K-pop. Indeed, K-pop has emerged as a paradigmatic exemplar of South Korean globalization.
The Development of Welfare Programmes
Authors: Lee Jooha
Published: March 2022

This chapter aims to review the evolution of welfare programmes in South Korea, and it consists of two main parts. The first half investigates the characteristics of the South Korean welfare programmes (‘developmental welfarism’), such as the state’s role as a low social spender and a regulator, the prominent welfare role of the private sector, and the strong emphasis on self-reliance and human capital investment. The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, often considered the most critical national crisis since the Korean War in the early 1950s, provided a window of opportunity for policy change. To what extent have a series of welfare reforms after the 1997 crisis departed from the policy legacies of developmental welfarism? The second half of the chapter highlights the political dynamics behind the welfare reforms in South Korea. Welfare politics might be divided into three arenas or approaches: bureaucratic politics, partisan politics, and social politics. The three approaches are not mutually exclusive, but are instead theoretically and practically complementary.
The Micro-Gestures of Survival
Authors: Guilbert Laure
Published: March 2022

Many forms of creativity were put into play by deportees for surviving the ghettos and the concentration camps of Nazi Europe. They played a crucial role at different levels, among others, for resisting humiliation, for preserving one’s own identity, for helping each other, and for recreating moments of community. The traces left in music, poetry, theater, and drawing are manifold. What about dance? Is it possible to conceive an archeology of “gestures under duress” by those opposing the black holes of humanity? How can we decipher their message today using archival materials and testimonials—what is revealed and what remains missing?
My Body is My Torah
Authors: Nehama Efrat
Published: March 2022

Is it possible that the early Jewish concept Na’aseh V’Nishma expresses worlds of movement and word, interwoven together, allowing us a contemporary interpretation of the Torah and Halacha? Efrat Nehama is a choreographer who grew up in a religious Israeli home, was educated in the world of Jewish halakhic sources, and is unable to dance and express herself through the body. Over the years, she has been searching the Jewish sources through body and dance. In this chapter she describes her journey through the dance work Partition. In dealing with the question of partitioning in a synagogue and the small place dedicated to women, the work reveals processes of discovery and concealment in the body, in the Hebrew language, in ancient mystic Judaism, and in Midrash and in Jewish prayer. The chapter reveals sincere revelations of Israeli-religious-Jewish femininity that demands its place and presence.