bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
National Crime Victimization Survey (
NCVS
)
Authors: Rennison Callie Marie
Published: March 2014

The
NCVS
is one of the two national crime measures that currently gathers information on attempted and completed rape, sexual assault, robbery, aggravated assault, simple assault, personal larceny (purse snatching and pickpocketing), burglary, motor vehicle theft, and property theft. The use of the survey for the purposes of testing and development of victimology theory has been somewhat limited in recent years. Nonetheless, ongoing changes to the survey designed to produce a stronger, more theoretically relevant
NCVS
are under way.
Lombroso, Cesare
Authors: McDonald Danielle
Published: March 2014

Born in Verona, Italy, November 6, 1835. Died in Turin, Italy, October 19, 1909. Education: medical degree from the University of Pavia. 1859–1862 army physician. 1862–1876 professor of psychiatry at the University of Pavia. 1863–1872 director of multiple mental asylums. 1876–1895 professor of forensic medicine and hygiene at the University of Turin. 1896–1905 professor of psychiatry and 1906–1909 professor of criminal anthropology at the University of Turin.
Thornberry, Terence P.
Authors: Joon Jang Sung
Published: March 2014

Terence P. Thornberry's interactional theory was originally proposed in 1987 to address two major limitations of micro‐criminological theories: unidirectional causality and nondevelopmental perspective. Combining Hirschi's social bonding and Akers' social learning for theoretical elaboration, Thornberry's interactional theory first posits bidirectional causal relationships among five core concepts in early adolescence, and then extends the baseline model to explain developmental changes in the relationships at middle and late adolescence. The theory was expanded in 2001 and then in 2005 to incorporate four new elements into another extended version of interactional theory: (1) the full life course, from infancy through adulthood; (2) a discussion of prosocial behaviors designed to enhance the explanation of antisocial behaviors; (3) a strain perspective, which became prominent again after the original theory was introduced; and (4) behavioral continuity across generations.
Net‐Widening
Authors: Blomberg Thomas G. , Mestre Julie
Published: March 2014

The number of people under correctional or criminal justice supervision in the United States has continued to grow over the past several decades, despite a decline in the overall crime rate. This can be attributed to what is known as net‐widening. Net‐widening occurs when correctional programs are implemented as supplements to one another rather than as alternatives, thereby increasing the total number of people who are subject to correctional control. In this entry, we describe the past, present, and future of net‐widening in the United States.
Hot Spots
Authors: Sarver Mary B.
Published: March 2014

Police departments utilize data in their jurisdictions to identify hot spots where a large proportion of calls for service and crime and disorder occur. This data indicates the types and extent of the problems in the communities and enables the police to create tailored responses with the goal of reducing and/or deterring crime and disorder. Research throughout the past 30 years has provided conflicting findings regarding the effectiveness of tactics in deterring crime and the possibility of crime displacement as a result of the implementation of responses to crime and disorder in hot spots. Additional research should be conducted which focuses on which strategies and tactics appear to work best in deterring crime in hot spots and if those responses cause crime displacement.
Freud, Sigmund
Authors: LaRose Anthony P. , West Tena V.
Published: March 2014

As controversial as he was brilliant, no one personifies the field of psychology more than Sigmund Freud. His ideas on human nature, psychoanalysis, the subconscious, the psychosexual stages of development, free association, the interpretation of dreams, and the “talking cure” still resonate today within the psychological community. Himself influenced by such pioneers as Jean‐Martin Charcot, Hippolyte Bernheim, and Josef Breuer, Freud was also a mentor to many later well‐known psychologists such as Alfred Alder, Erik Erikson, his daughter Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, and the noted Carl Jung with whom he would later have a major falling out.
Time
magazine named him one of the 100 most important thinkers of the twentieth century.
Benson, Michael
Authors: Wright Emily M.
Published: March 2014

Michael L. Benson is an American criminologist best known for his work on white‐collar and corporate crime. His article “Denying the guilty mind: Accounting for involvement in white collar crime,” and several books, includingCombating corporate crime: Local prosecutors at workandWhite‐collar crime: An opportunity perspective, have made him a prominent scholar in the white‐collar area. Benson's work often applies mainstream criminological and sociological theories, such as opportunity theory, control theory, and social disorganization theory, to understudied types of crime, such as white‐collar crime and intimate partner violence.
Moral Panic
Authors: Arford Tammi
Published: March 2014

The concept of a moral panic has been used to describe a situation in which an inordinate amount of concern and attention is rather suddenly focused upon some particular behavior, condition, or social group that is perceived as a threat to the interests or values of society. This article traces the origins of the concept, provides historical and contemporary examples of moral panics, discusses the major criticisms and contributions to the study of moral panics over the past few decades, and finally outlines several of the current key directions in which the study of moral panics is moving.
Agnew, Robert
Authors: Stacer Melissa J.
Published: March 2014

Robert Agnew is an American sociologist best known for his work extending Emile Durkheim's work on anomie and Robert Merton's strain theory to explain crime and delinquency. His general strain theory attempts to explain why people commit crime and posits that negative events and relationships result in people feeling negative emotions. The strain of these negative emotions can lead to criminal coping as a way to deal with these strains. Agnew's work has focused on extending his general strain theory. Currently he is examining the impacts of climate change on crime through the lens of general strain theory.
Anderson, Elijah
Authors: Stacer Melissa J.
Published: March 2014

Elijah Anderson is an American sociologist best known for his urban ethnographies on African Americans in the inner city. Anderson publishedStreetwise: Race, class, and change in an urban communityin 1990 andCode of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner cityin 1999, both of which explore how inner‐city life has changed and how African Americans in these communities have adapted their behavior when in public places. Anderson's work in criminology combines aspects of learning theories, strain theories, and subcultural theories to explain violence in the inner city.
Merton, Robert K.
Authors: Petersen Rebecca D.
Published: March 2014

The eminent scholar of criminology Robert K. Merton (1910–2003) was associated with advancing the concepts of Emile Durkheim, especially anomie or “normlessness.” Merton's strain theory of crime situates crime within the cultural demands of
US
society for individual self‐betterment through hard work, education, and thrift, when the achievement of such goals by approved institutional means is not a reality in some people's lives.
Problem‐Oriented Policing
Authors: Jenkins Michael J.
Published: March 2014

Problem‐oriented policing uses various methods to respond to and prevent an array of citizen concerns. Herman Goldstein's introduction of problem‐oriented policing in 1979 marked the beginning of a shift in how police viewed their responsibilities and measured their successes and provided a channel for police and community collaboration. Problem‐oriented policing takes many forms and is often part of community policing, broken windows policing, and hot‐spotting. Innovations in technologies and police management will continue to improve the profession's practice of problem‐oriented policing.
General Strain Theory
Authors: Leiber Michael J. , Peck Jennifer H.
Published: March 2014

General strain theory (
GST
) is considered the most recent theoretical framework to emerge from traditional strain perspectives.
GST
focuses strictly on negative relationships and assumes that delinquency and crime are forms of coping mechanisms that result from strain and stressful events. While
GST
is considered an overall micro‐level perspective, recent research has emerged which argues that
GST
can also be applicable at the macro‐level and also has the potential to explain group differences (e.g., age, gender, race) in delinquent and criminal behavior. The theory also suggests policy implications to decrease deviant coping through the reduction of strain and stress exposure.
Wildlife Crime
Authors: Andrew Hansen J.
Published: March 2014

Wildlife crime has historically been overlooked by the public and social scientists. However, wildlife crime has been shown to negatively impact humans, animals, plants, and the natural environment. The difficulty in defining wildlife crime is discussed, as is the recent social construction of traditional practices in many parts of the world as criminal. Next, the shift among increasingly organized wildlife crime offenders towards economic motivations is documented. Estimates of the environmental and financial impact of wildlife crime are offered. Finally, responses to wildlife crime at various levels by researchers, international organizations, and law enforcement are provided.
Desistance
Authors: Deckert Antje
Published: March 2014

Desistance occurs when individuals stop offending of their own free will, either permanently or for prolonged periods of time. It is a well‐evidenced fact that most criminal careers start in early adolescence and end in the late twenties regardless of whether or not individuals have been processed through the criminal justice system. Maturational, structural, and interactionist desistance theories attempt to explain why and how desistance occurs. Maturational desistance theories perceive offending as an inevitable part of youth's transition into adulthood. Structural desistance theories explain desistance through key life‐events that provide for improved social bonding with others; and interactionist desistance theories see a change in offenders' narrative identity, which is triggered by certain life‐events, as the cause of desistance. Desistance research and related concepts are still evolving, but heir theoretical implications for the criminal justice system and intervention policies are already evident.
Crime Mapping
Authors: Drawve Grant
Published: March 2014

Crime mapping is a common technique used within police departments for crime prevention and crime initiatives. Crime mapping has benefited greatly from technological advancements in recent history. Computer‐based crime mapping is widely used nowadays; previously, push pins were often used to visually mark where crime occurred. This entry discusses common crime mapping techniques used by police departments and criminologists.
Foucault, Michel
Authors: Worley Vidisha Barua
Published: March 2014

This article discusses French philosopher and postmodernist Michel Foucault's contribution to theoretical criminology. The major works examined include
Madness and civilization: A history of insanity in the Age of Reason
;
Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison
;
The archaeology of knowledge and the discourse on language
; and
The history of sexuality
, volumes 1, 2, and 3. A recurrent theme in Foucault's works is the power/knowledge dynamic.
Power Control Theory
Authors: Roberts Melinda R.
Published: March 2014

Power control theory, like other control theories, is intended to explain delinquency. The supposition is that the existence of power and lack of control leads to delinquency. This theory states that parents' power and control in the occupational structure influences the freedom of their children to engage in delinquent acts. Furthermore, the theory argues that patriarchal or traditional family households will restrain female behavior while promoting aggressiveness in males that will result in delinquency.
Cybercrime
Authors: Reyns Bradford W. , Henson Billy , Fisher Bonnie S.
Published: March 2014

This entry explores the extent and nature of cybercrime from criminological and victimological perspectives. Emphasis is placed on theories from these two fields and their application to explaining cybercrime offending and victimization. Future directions and issues in the continued study of cybercrime also are discussed.
Maras: Central American Youth Gangs
Authors: Bolden Christian L.
Published: March 2014

Maras are transnational Latino gangs with factions in Central, South, and North America. The two particular gangs referred to as Maras are
MS
‐13 (Mara Salvatrucha) and 18th Street (Mara 18), both originating in the Los Angeles, California area.
MS
‐13 and 18th Street have generated considerable attention from media, politicians, and law enforcement resulting in massive campaigns to arrest, suppress, and deport the Maras. These efforts have created a cyclical system of deportation that caused the transnational dynamics of the gangs.
MS
‐13 and 18th Street's transnational situation have made the gangs the subject of controversy in the arena of crime, border security,
US
deportation policy, gang proliferation, and immigration.
Defensible Space Theory
Authors: Shjarback John A.
Published: March 2014

Defensible space theory was proposed by an architect named Oscar Newman in 1972. The theory suggests that the physical design of a living environment can be used to reduce crime. Newman posited that three key elements − territoriality, surveillance, and image/milieu − act both individually and in concert to assist in the creation of a safe environment. The theoretical framework, modifications and evolution of the theory, criticisms, and practical applications are discussed in this entry.
Matza, David
Authors: Lopez Kristina M.
Published: March 2014

Born in New York, May 1, 1930. Education: College of the City of New YorkBA1953; Princeton UniversityMA1955, Sociology,PhD1959, Sociology; Instructor, Temple University, 1957–1959; Post‐Doctoral Fellow, University of Chicago Law School, 1960–1961; Professor of Sociology, University of California, Berkeley, 1961–present; Book Review Editor,Journal of Criminal Law and Police Science, 1961–1962; Book Review Editor,American Sociological Review, 1962–1965.
Durkheim, Emile
Authors: Klein Josh R.
Published: March 2014

Emile Durkheim was one of the founding father of sociology. He is best known in criminology for his concept of anomie, an important element in strain theory, and the idea that some level of crime is normal. His major books are
The division of labor in society
(1893),
The rules of sociological method
(1895),
Suicide
(1897), and
The elementary forms of the religious life
(1912). Durkheim claimed that a key contributor to social cohesion and a preserver of stability is the “conscience collective,” which consists of moral, religious, and cognitive beliefs and sentiments. Durkheim viewed crime as resulting from society's response, a relativist and sociological conception.
Radical Feminism
Authors: Doude Sara Buck , Tapp Kathryn E.
Published: March 2014

Radical feminism arose from the backlash of the 1960s' focus on liberal and Marxist feminism. Radical feminism focuses on male oppression of females both privately and politically. Radical feminists claim that the central issue is the subordination of women by men within the private and political spheres. This subordination is exemplified by the rhetoric surrounding rape and victim blaming. During the 1970s, radical feminists argued that rape was not a biological predisposition among men but the socialization of men that projected women as objects. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, radical feminists, along with liberal feminists, reformed rape statues in all states to reflect the sentiment that rape was not just a crime against virginal women but against all women, through the fear of rape. Radical feminism focuses on the rejection of the patriarchal ideal that the private sphere (for women) focuses on childrearing, marriage, and the maintenance of the household. Due to this private sphere, the political sphere of patriarchy results in women being harmed through rape, domestic violence, and prostitution.
Virtual Criminology
Authors: Bolton Amanda
Published: March 2014

Virtual criminology is a subdiscipline within the field of criminology which focuses on the study of cybercrime and cyber‐victimization, using generally accepted criminological methods and theories. The primary goal of virtual criminology is to define cybercrime and classify its different types. In studying virtual criminology, researchers have also attempted to use traditional criminological theories to explain the incidence, prevalence, and occurrence of cybercrime and cyber‐victimization.
Phrenology and Crime
Authors: Morin Robert
Published: March 2014

Phrenology is the study of the shape of the head through the examination and measurement of the bumps on an individual's skull. Phrenology was a theory developed by Franz Joseph Gall during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Phrenology, also referred to as crainology, is a theory of human behavior based upon the belief that an individual's character and mental faculties correlate with the shape of their head. Phrenology was one of the early biological theories of criminology and laid the foundation for the development of the biological school of criminology.
Convict Criminology
Authors: Richards Stephen C. , Lenza Michael , Murphy Daniel S. , Ekunwe Ikponwosa O. , Jones Richard S.
Published: March 2014

Convict criminology is a theoretical perspective in criminology and a collective of affiliated authors. Ex‐convict professors that merge their first‐hand experience with prisons with their academic training to conduct research and publish together lead the group. First organized in the United States, the “convict criminology group” now includes members from many other countries.
Financial Crime
Authors: Fidelie Laura Woods
Published: March 2014

Financial crime is a crime committed against another person's property. Financial crime is often called white‐collar crime, or abuse of trust crime. Financial crime involves the conversion of someone else's property and may include embezzlement, fraud, money laundering, investment schemes, and cybercrime. Financial crime may take place among individuals, or in business and government entities. Various forms of financial crime have been brought to the public's attention through high‐profile cases such as those involving Enron, Martha Stewart,
WorldCom
, and Bernard Madoff Investment Securities. Financial crime is very difficult to regulate and has a significant impact on the economy.
Fraud
Authors: Fidelie Laura Woods
Published: March 2014

Fraud is a type of property crime in which a person obtains property through the use of misleading, untruthful, or deceptive information or behavior. Fraud is also known as theft by deception. Types of fraud that occur frequently include securities fraud, Ponzi schemes, services fraud, insurance fraud, health care fraud, tax fraud, and identity theft. This is not an exhaustive list and fraud has the potential to take place in almost any business or personal context. Fraud is monitored by a number of agencies, including local law enforcement, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Department of Health and Human Services. Measures that have been taken to prevent fraud include the creation of the Health Care Fraud Prevention and Enforcement Action Team and the passing of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, as well as other legislation.
Community Corrections
Authors: Leone Matthew C.
Published: March 2014

Prison operations are inextricably related to society's pervading beliefs about offenders and crime. This entry examines the theories which drive prison operations, and how the policies which emerge from these beliefs impact the operations and goals of both the prison and community‐based correctional programs. Included in this entry are descriptions of the different forms of community‐based correctional programs, and the social and correctional histories which led to their creation.
Crime and the American Dream
Authors: Baron Stephen W.
Published: March 2014

Criminologists explain that the pursuit of the American Dream and the extreme emphasis placed on monetary success in American society lead to high rates of serious crime. It is argued that because American society stresses economic achievement to a much greater extent than the use of legitimate methods to reach these economic goals, there is a higher use of illegal and more efficient means, including violence, to achieve economic success. Other institutions in American society, including the family, schools, and political system, that might buffer this economic emphasis and provide moral guidance have been weakened by the overwhelming strength of the American Dream ethos. This creates a situation where the constant demand for economic achievement generates crime. The American Dream explanation has received some limited support and continues to generate research and debate.
Broken Windows Theory
Authors: Maskaly Jon , Boggess Lyndsay N.
Published: March 2014

The broken windows theory originated from a 1982
Atlantic Monthly
article of the same name written by James Q. Wilson and George Kelling. They postulated that broken windows and other unchecked social and physical disorder are direct antecedents to criminal behavior. The article led to the development of popular broken windows policing or zero‐tolerance policing strategies that targeted minor offenses, such as panhandling, public drunkenness, and vandalism as a mechanism to reduce more serious offenses. This style of policing has been credited with reducing crime in several major cities including New York City. Broken windows theory and the associated policing policies have been heavily criticized. Opponents of the theory argue that social and physical disorder are symptoms of the same underlying problems that lead to crime under a social disorganization theory framework, including poverty and high rates of residential mobility. Opponents of broken windows policing argue that it unfairly targets the homeless, the poor, and minorities.
Fear of Crime
Authors: Jackson Jonathan , Gouseti Ioanna
Published: March 2014

Fear of crime describes a range of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that people have regarding the subjective risk of criminal victimization. In this article the main conclusions of criminological inquiry about these feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are reviewed. We also consider the ways in which individuals attribute criminal threat to individuals, groups, and community conditions, and propose possible avenues for future research.
Seduction of Crime
Authors: Morden Hilary Kim
Published: March 2014

The seduction of crime is a phenomenological, interactionist, and ethnomethodological perspective on crime in which foreground factors, as situated within the individual and in the specific context in which they are submerged, are used to explain criminal acts. This controversial approach requires that research focus on the minutiae of the nature of the reality constructed by the actor prior to and during the commission of a crime and treat them as magically transformative and sensually compelling—such that the actor is bounded in his or her rational response to these inner constructions—rather than as an effect of the background factors more commonly accepted as precipitous of criminal behavior. This perspective commanded significant attention when it was first proposed but has since languished due to its untestable hypothesis.
Peers and Delinquency
Authors: Schwartz Seth J. , Vazsonyi Alexander T.
Published: March 2014

In this article, we outline the importance of peers in adolescent delinquency. We review ways in which peers influence different deviant behaviors, as well as the ways in which deviant adolescents tend to select like‐minded friends (homophily). The coexistence of the peer influences → deviance and deviance → peer selection directions of effects is also explored, where the same adolescents and behaviors co‐occur in both directional pathways. We also discuss ecological (especially family) influences on peer selection and effects, as well as the ways in which peer network effects may differ between “life course persistent” and “adolescence limited” adolescent deviance. Finally, we briefly review biological and early‐experiential vulnerabilities that predispose adolescents toward selecting antisocial peers.
Victim–Offender Overlap
Authors: Reingle Jennifer M.
Published: March 2014

The victim−offender overlap can be defined as the link between victimization and the perpetration of crime and delinquency. In other words, these behaviors appear to co‐occur within individuals across a variety of criminal behaviors (e.g., sex offenses, homicide, other violent crimes). The research literature strongly suggests that an overlap does exist and often cannot be explained through shared risk factors (e.g., demographics, lifestyle variables) for each behavior; however, the overlap is more persistent among some groups than others. This article discusses the empirical literature and criminological theory that has been adapted to explain the existence of the victim−offender overlap.
Punitive Populism
Authors: Wood William R.
Published: March 2014

Punitive populism refers to the idea that public support for more severe criminal justice policies (most specifically incarceration) has become a primary driver of policy making, as well as of political election cycles, with the result of increasingly harsh punishments regardless of their ability to reduce crime or redress its known correlates. This entry explores the concept of punitive populism, discusses its history in the United States and other countries, and analyzes some of its effects on criminal justice policies and social responses to crime.
Diversion
Authors: Sung Hung‐En , Shlosberg Amy
Published: March 2014

Diversion policies and programs are community‐based services or sanctions offered to, or imposed on, prison‐ or jail‐bound offenders at any stage of the adjudication process. Avoidance of incarceration and treatment of the dysfunctions underlying specific criminal behaviors are their defining features. They are proposed as solutions to the problems of prison overcrowding, spiraling prison costs, and high recidivism among incarcerated offenders. First instituted as the most rational response to juvenile delinquency, diversion has become a versatile model and is used to address a variety of crime problems. Racial disparities in enrollment, disposition without full adjudication, and net‐widening of social control are the major pitfalls of poorly implemented diversion initiatives. Current efforts at reforming mandatory minimum prison sentences and expanding problem‐solving justice initiatives are the most recent achievements of the diversion movement.
Zero Tolerance
Authors: Grant Darren , Lewis John A.
Published: March 2014

Zero tolerance policies pledge the harshest authorized punishment for any violation of a rule or law. In doing so, they limit the discretion of authorities, lessen the marginal (or additional) sanction incurred from further or more severe offenses, and conflict with a key element of deterrence theory, namely the proportionality of sanctions. These features limit the effectiveness of zero tolerance policies and can lead to undesirable consequences. Accordingly, many policies are “zero tolerance” in name only. For this reason, the evidence for the effectiveness of zero tolerance laws can be difficult to evaluate. Of those that have been most convincingly evaluated, zero tolerance drunk driving laws have little apparent effect on traffic fatalities, but California's “three strikes” law has led to a material reduction in second and third offenses in that state, along with the migration of some criminals to neighboring states.
Focal Concerns Theory
Authors: Hartley Richard D.
Published: March 2014

Several theoretical perspectives have been utilized to explain judicial decision making related to case processing and sentencing. The most recent of these which has dominated the sentencing literature has been the focal concerns perspective. Originally proffered as an explanation for the lenient treatment of female defendants, this perspective has been extended to include sources for racial and ethnic disparity in sentencing as well. According to the focal concerns perspective, judges make sentencing decisions based on three focal concerns: the blameworthiness and culpability of the offender; a desire to protect the community; and concerns about practical constraints and consequences. Race, ethnicity, and sex play a role in these decisions because judges often lack time and/or enough information to adequately evaluate defendants with regard to the focal concerns. Thus their decisions are based on stereotypes linked to offender characteristics. While support has generally been found for the focal concerns perspective, some have argued that further research regarding the conceptualization and operationalization of the concepts underlying the theory is necessary in order to conduct more comprehensive tests of the utility of this theory.
Aggression and Crime
Authors: Boutwell Brian B.
Published: March 2014

The topic of human aggression has elicited the attention of scholars for centuries. Despite our best efforts, the causes of aggression in our species have dodged anything even resembling a simple explanation. Sociologists and criminologists have a long history of stressing the social and cultural contributors to aggressive behavior. While important, this focus on social factors has largely resulted in a casting out of biology when contemplating the causes of human violence. This is unfortunate because, as will be discussed here, aggression may represent a completely natural behavior—a fundamental component of the evolution of our species. In surveying the topic of aggression, this entry explores the possibility that our history played a vital role in shaping our capacity for aggression.
Intelligence and Crime
Authors: Boisvert Danielle
Published: March 2014

The relationship between intelligence and crime has garnered much attention from the scientific community. There are various views on how best to conceptualize and measure intelligence as well as the mechanisms underlying the
IQ
and crime relationship. While research has consistently shown a significantly negative relationship between
IQ
and crime at both the individual and aggregate level, some remain skeptical about this association. The three main criticisms involve police detection, race, and class, as well as the temporal order of the intelligence and crime relationship. Despite these criticisms, it is clear that a deeper understanding is needed on how low intelligence affects criminal behaviors and on how this vulnerable group navigates through the criminal justice system.
Gender and Crime
Authors: Pazzani Lynn
Published: March 2014

This entry discusses the use of gender in the study of crime. It gives some statistics on the differences between male and female criminality before tracing the history of criminological theory as it relates to the study of women and gender. The implications of feminist theories are discussed.
Depression and Crime
Authors: Cain Calli M. , Clinkinbeard Samantha S.
Published: March 2014

Until relatively recently the study of depression and of crime were independent endeavors. Though the relationship between depression and crime is not yet well understood, there is strong evidence of an association, and depressive symptoms are overrepresented among delinquent and offender populations. Depression and crime and delinquency has been viewed within the framework of a number of traditional criminological theories (e.g., social control, strain), as well as more circumscribed theories (e.g., failure theory, acting‐out theory) dealing specifically with the relationship between internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Gender, substance abuse, and mental health all play an important role in the current research on depression and crime and are likely to continue to do so. Future research on this topic will benefit from heightened reliance on longitudinal explorations aimed at further understanding timing and development.
Organized Crime Theories
Authors: Tewksbury Richard
Published: March 2014

Explanations for organized crime include theories that focus on ethnic group solidarity and culture, attempts by marginalized social groups to improve their social and economic standing, and traditional theories used to explain crime in general. Six theories are most commonly used to attempt to explain organized crime: alien conspiracy theory, rational choice theory, differential association, social disorganization and relative deprivation approach, the queer ladder of mobility theory, and enterprise theory.
Rational Choice Theory
Authors: Jennings Wesley G. , Beaudry‐Cyr Maude
Published: March 2014

Rational choice theory is one of the core criminological theories. Rooted in classical criminology, rational choice theory assumes that all individuals freely choose to participate in crime as a result of a rational decision‐making process. Specifically, individuals are rational actors who consciously weigh the costs associated with engaging in a particular crime against the potential benefits from engaging in the crime. Should the benefits outweigh the costs, then the individual may make the rational decision to commit the crime.
Comparative Criminology
Authors: Schaible Lonnie M.
Published: March 2014

How and why crime rates vary across different societal and cultural contexts has been a perennial question within criminological research. The present entry examines comparative criminology, including key theoretical perspectives, major sources of data, key empirical findings, and promising avenues for future research.
Displacement of Crime
Authors: Morgan Frank
Published: March 2014

Crime displacement is a concept that emerged in criminology in the early 1970s. It refers to an unintended effect of crime prevention programs that successfully reduce crime in their target area. Displacement is said to occur if crime reductions in the target area lead to crime increases elsewhere. These increases may occur in neighboring areas, or in the same area but at different times. Alternatively, they may affect different targets, crime types, tactics, or offenders. The term arose in connection with crime prevention efforts that were believed not to address the root causes of crime. Particular crime prevention initiatives need to be evaluated for displacement effects, but there is considerable evidence that displacement is not inevitable, and that an opposite effect—diffusion of benefits—is just as likely to occur.
Accounts Theory
Authors: Copes Heith , Cardwell Stephanie M.
Published: March 2014

Scott and Lyman developed accounts theory to explain the ways that those who violate norms make sense of their actions and manage potential stigma. They argue that when offenders are confronted about norm violations they offer justifications or excuses in an attempt to align their actions with behavioral expectations. Doing so allows them to maintain desired social identities. Common excuses include appeal to accidents, appeal to defeasibility, appeal to biological drives, and scapegoating. The most commonly used justifications include denial of injury, denial of the victim, condemnation of condemners, and appeal to loyalties. Scott and Lyman argue that for accounts to be effective they must be honored by the social audience. This suggests accounts will vary based on characteristics of the offender and the offense. Recent research on accounts shows that they are effective for managing stigma and may contribute to criminal persistence.
Bursik, Robert J.
Authors: Grantham Robert V.
Published: March 2014

Robert Bursik was born in 1951. He attended
Creighton Preparatory
School in Omaha, Nebraska and graduated class of 1969. Bursik gives credit to growing up in Omaha for helping him develop an appreciation for the nuances of big cities. His parents eventually moved to New Jersey, which made it easier for him to attend
Rutgers University
, where he earned a
BA
in sociology. During this time he also worked part‐time in a circus, which awakened his interest in deviancy. After graduation from Rutgers, he moved to Chicago to pursue graduate studies at the University of Chicago, where he fine‐tuned his sociological interests in deviance and crime, and earned his doctoral degree in 1980.
Chicago School of Criminology
Authors: Bryant Kevin M.
Published: March 2014

This entry traces the history of the “
Chicago School
,” a term applied to a cohort of social scientists at the University of Chicago in the early twentieth century. Specifically, this entry focuses on how the
Chicago Schoolhas
influenced contemporary criminological theory and research, with special attention to the history of social disorganization theory.
Neighborhoods and Crime
Authors: McKinnon Layla
Published: March 2014

The communities where people live and socialize provide a convenient and logical unit of analysis for examining crime. Theories in this area of criminology regard crime as a function of the interaction between groups of people and their social and physical environments. Known as the
social ecology of crime
, this perspective has its origins in the Chicago School and initial research linking sociology and criminology. Early researchers described the emergence of crime in transitional urban areas as a consequence of
social disorganization
, and subsequent scholars determined that lack of
social control
is closely linked with
ethnic heterogeneity
,
population mobility
, and
concentrated disadvantage
. Absence of
collective efficacy
or capacity to mobilize is also a significant contributor to neighborhood crime levels. Furthermore, the neighborhood–crime connection has proved to be bidirectional, in that crime is capable of influencing community structure and is not merely the product of an adverse environment.
Rowe, David
Authors: Harrington Cleveland H. , Jacobson Kristen C. , Rodgers Joseph L.
Published: March 2014

David Christian Rowe (1949–2003) contributed seminal work across multiple behavioral science disciplines. His important research includes studies demonstrating genetic influences on temperament and forms of parenting, especially dimensions of warmth and affection. He directly contributed to criminology by publishing the first twin study demonstrating the heritability of adolescent self‐reported delinquent behavior, and, along with Wayne Osgood, demonstrating how genetic influences can contribute to social processes, such as affiliation with delinquent peers. He is best known among some social scientists for his book
The limits of family influence
(1994), which challenged core premises of environmentally focused social science.
Cullen, Francis
Authors: Wright John Paul
Published: March 2014

Francis Cullen was born in Boston, MA, in 1951. He obtained his
BS
in psychology in 1972 from Bridgewater State University, his
MA
in sociology and education in 1974 from Columbia University, and his
PhD
in sociology and education in 1979 also from Columbia University. He was assistant and then associate professor at Western Illinois University from 1976 to 1982. He then moved to the University of Cincinnati, where he was first assistant professor of criminal justice (1983–1987), then associate professor (1987–1993), and is now distinguished research professor.
Narco Culture
Authors: Sibila Deborah A. , Weiss Andrea J.
Published: March 2014

Narco culture is a growing subculture focused around the drug trade. The criminal lifestyle has created distinct social formations that reflect a separation of power between the in‐group and out‐group. This has created a cult‐like following that celebrates a glamorized lifestyle of drug trafficking, violence, money, and power. Its pervasiveness and impact are undeniable. Narco culture has gone mainstream and can be seen in various areas of popular culture, including music, religion, cinema, television, fashion, and language.
Prenatal Influences and Crime
Authors: Barton‐Bellessa Shannon M.
Published: March 2014

The impact of prenatal care on long‐term delinquent and criminal activity has begun to garner more attention since the early 1990s. Issues related to insults while in utero combine to result in delays in cognitive functioning, antisocial behavior, conduct disorder, fighting, delinquency, criminal offending, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, and substance abuse. For the purposes of this entry, the following domains will be examined: smoking during pregnancy (
SDP
); alcohol exposure; drugs and maternal stress; and exposure to lead. Each of these categories will be described.
Feminist Criminology
Authors: Pasko Lisa
Published: March 2014

Traditional explanations for crime and delinquency have mostly focused on male offending. While men were the primary subjects of criminological research and theory as well as the central focus of the justice system, gender was not explicitly examined. Consequently, girls and women—whether as victims or offenders—were often ignored by justice professionals and misrepresented in criminological theory. Feminist criminology remedied this deficiency in criminology, introduced the various influences of gender theory to the discipline, and challenged the field to consider seriously how sex and gender impact crime, victimization, and justice involvement.
Peacemaking Criminology
Authors: Dodson Kimberly D.
Published: March 2014

Peacemaking criminology is an alternative approach to crime that endorses nonviolent, socially just methods for dealing with victims and offenders and, ultimately, achieving social control. It lies in direct opposition to the war on crime model that seeks social control through coercion, intimidation, and, sometimes, violence. Peacemaking is viewed as a radical departure from the warmaking model that is so pervasive in the criminal justice system. Advocates of peacemaking laud it as a solution for not only crime but a host of social ills, including poverty, homelessness, racism, and sexism. Some critics view it as naïve and soft on crime.
Guns and Crime
Authors: Nobles Matt R.
Published: March 2014

The relationship between guns and crime occupies a special place among the most emotionally charged and divisive issues in American public discourse. Amid the political debate and rhetoric, it is very challenging to identify sound empirical evidence from criminology or any other field that supports a clear consensus on precisely how guns impact crime. The available research suggests two basic theoretical frameworks may be useful for understanding the phenomenon: deterrence and subcultural theories. Both have been instrumental in evaluating gun‐related behavior, both legal and illegal, at several levels of aggregation. Considerable controversy remains.
Shover, Neal
Authors: Copes Heith , Slyke Shanna Van
Published: March 2014

Neal Shover is an American‐born sociologist best known for his contributions on how one's background and lifestyle influence one's perceptions about the decision to engage in crime and about how to control it. Shover has made many substantive contributions to the understanding of the social organization of burglary, gender and crime, decision making among offenders, and the lives and crimes of white‐collar offenders.
Surplus Labor and Crime
Authors: Garlitz Dustin
Published: March 2014

Surplus labor and crime have complemented one another since the nineteenth century, when social philosopher Karl Marx propounded a now classical theory of surplus labor, exploitation, and crime in the material sense. As illustrated in Volume 1 of the
Capital
(Marx, 1867/1976), Marx's concept of “surplus labor”—a type of unpaid labor—represented a moral injustice, a sort of crime against humanity. In the twentieth century a distinct form of surplus labor was linked to crime in a wider range of studies, which redefined this concept as labor surplus or surplus in labor. As an expression of the twentieth‐century neo‐Marxism of Frankfurt School, Rusche and Kirchheimer's
Punishment and Social Structure
, first published in 1933, was among the first studies to link surplus labor and crime where the former was meeting the criteria both for a classical theory concept of “surplus labor” and for a revised concept of “surplus in labor” or “labor surplus.” Most studies along a sociological–criminological spectrum were now dedicated to this revised concept.
Historical Explanations of Crime
Authors: Khey David N.
Published: March 2014

Crime theory has a long and rich history full with pseudoscience and missteps. Yet some ideas about crime causation have withstood centuries of practical and empirical testing and are still relevant today. This entry explores early criminological theory by overviewing the prominent ideas of crime causation generations ago. It explores the development of crime theory as the discipline of criminology (via sociology) adapted the scientific method to ground its ideas in empirical reality.
Crime Ethnography
Authors: Tapia Mike , Mitchell Miller J.
Published: March 2014

Ethnography is a form of qualitative research conducted from a philosophical position of cultural outlook and insider perspective. Understanding individual behavior, social relations, and social problems from stakeholders' viewpoints are essential goals. Accordingly, ethnography involves researcher immersion into study settings and interaction with subjects in their natural settings (“in‐situ”), as opposed to more sterile qualitative research approaches extracting data without attention to environment and group dynamics. Most ethnographers are social scientists, usually sociologists or anthropologists, with a preference for inductive knowledge production and a critical eye toward quantitative inquiry. The conduct of ethnographic research is often time‐consuming and the requirements of gaining access to study settings (entrée) and rapport development with study group members are sufficiently challenging, so that ethnographers represent a minority group among social scientists.
Bittner, Egon
Authors: Jennings Wesley G.
Published: March 2014

Egon Bittner is a widely recognized and respected scholar in the field of sociology and policing. He is credited with transforming qualitative research methodologies in the social sciences through his early ethnographic work and writings on the role and function of the police.
Assault
Authors: Todaro Joseph , Mitchell Miller J.
Published: March 2014

Assault is defined as a violent physical or verbal attack against another person. Commonly referred to as “assault and battery,” such attacks occur in one of two forms (aggravated or simple) and are theorized to occur due to various individual, environmental, and situational factors. Gender, age, race/ethnicity, familial situation, and socioeconomic status are major characteristics of both assailants and assault victims. The most recent findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey, which depicts trends and rates of numerous criminal offenses including assault, show that the two types of assault combined almost entirely account for recent increases in violent victimizations in the United States.