bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Domestic-Political Dimension in Britain
Authors: IMLAY TALBOT C.
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that Winston Churchill' coalition government represented the culmination of a process, begun before the war, in which the Labour Party and growing number of Conservatives and Liberals converged on a common response to the prospect and eventual reality of war. Unlike the previous government which clung to a more limited view of Britain's effort, its opponents espoused the need for total war against Germany. In stark contrast to the French case, this conception of total was became the basis of a stable, cross-party parliamentary majority.
Conclusion
Authors: IMLAY TALBOT C.
Published: January 2010

This chapter summarizes the findings; discusses the links between the three dimensions — strategic, domestic-political, and political-economic; and the relative importance of each to the overall war effort of France and Britain.
Introduction
Authors: Heckscher Charles , Maccoby Michael , Ramirez Rafael , Tixier Pierre-Eric
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter discusses the use of consulting experience as data for analysis and the method of systematic reflection on experience. It then sketches the core lessons of the authors' consulting experiences: firstly, the value of a ‘full engagement’ approach to relational intervention; and secondly, the need for development of ‘post-industrial relations’.
A “Full Engagement” Approach to Intervention
Authors: Heckscher Charles , Maccoby Michael , Ramirez Rafael , Tixier Pierre-Eric
Published: January 2010

This is the first of three chapters on intervention methods. It gives an overview of the ‘full engagement’ approach that operates simultaneously at the strategic, operational, and relational levels. This approach addresses not only rational dimensions, but also the non-rational, ‘sociodynamic’ aspects of relations. It is complex and long at best, but necessary for system transformations of the type analyzed in this book.
Assessing the Interventions: Achievements and Limitations
Authors: Heckscher Charles , Maccoby Michael , Ramirez Rafael , Tixier Pierre-Eric
Published: January 2010

This chapter attempts an honest overall assessment of the outcomes of these long transformative processes. It concludes that much progress was made in overcoming adversarial histories, increasing involvement, and navigating some major business discontinuities. But there are also rather clear limits beyond which the dialogic ‘full engagement’ process has not yet been able to go; it has been blocked by the legal and institutional framework of existing stakeholder relations. The full move to a knowledge-solutions economy ultimately proved too large for any of these interventions to navigate peacefully.
Introduction
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter sketches the cultural background against which Gellius wrote. The character of the second century is considered, and in particular that of its literature, both Greek and Latin. Whereas in Greek the return to the glorious Athenian past had encouraged declaimers of the Second Sophistic to attempt composition in classical Attic, in Latin, rejection of Julio-Claudian modernism and Flavian neoclassicism brought about not the wholesale imitation of Republican Latin implied by the term ‘archaism’, but a mannerism of style that concentrated on finding the most striking individual words, often indeed taken from writers of the Republican period. These writers were coming back into fashion to replace the Silver Latin authors who had fallen from favour, a development that was fostered but not created by the personal tastes of the Emperor Hadrian.
5 Teachers
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers Gellius's portraits of four teachers: Sulpicius Apollinaris in grammar, Antonius Julianus and Titus Castricius in rhetoric, and Lucius Calvenus Taurus in philosophy. Apollinaris is presented as a man of superior learning (though Gellius sometimes disagrees with him) and gentle in reproof. Julianus and Castricius are both masters in their discipline, but Julianus's geniality, which makes him a welcome guest at a pupil's birthday party, stands in contrast to Castricius's sternness, which finds fault even with admired authors. Taurus dislikes pupils whose interest lies in rhetoric rather than philosophy or who presume to dictate the syllabus, but overcame his initial suspicions of Gellius to make him an intimate despite his lack of philosophical penetration.
10 The Latin Language
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc
Published: January 2010

Gellius despises run-of-the-mill professional grammarians for their ignorance both of other disciplines and of Republican Latin, which furnished exceptions to their arbitrary rules. This attitude should not be called a championing of anomaly against analogy, since anomaly had dissolved into the competing principles, of which the most important in Gellius's eyes is the authority of approved writers; arguments from ratio (analogy or etymology) are acceptable provided they support it. Nevertheless, he is aware that language changes over time, especially pronunciation. His discussions of etymology are very sensible by ancient standards; he is also aware that euphony plays an important part in writers' choices. His ventures into textual criticism show an appreciation of the lectio difficilior, but the readings he produces from supposedly authentic manuscripts must be judged on their merits.
16 Other Values and Interests, Weak Spots, and Blind Spots
Authors: Holford-Strevens Leofranc
Published: January 2010

Gellius is tolerant in matters of sexual conduct, not being disturbed even by pederasty with ingenui, but his attitude to women reflects the rigorous sexism of Cato the Elder. He seems to show more sympathy for Hadrian than for his successors, has a taste (at a safe distance) for the severity of ancient punishments and the office of censor, and takes an unexplained interest in embassies. He is sometimes inaccurate in his recollection of names; Egyptians apart, he takes little notice of barbarians save as enemies or foils; he has only a restricted interest in the visual arts, mathematics, music, and natural sciences.
Human Rights: The Shifting Boundaries
Authors: CAMPBELL TOM
Published: January 2010

This chapter investigates the best means of protecting and promoting human rights. It identifies which human rights are being discussed. It examines the reason for choosing these human rights rather than other possible rights as human rights. It provides a definition of human rights. It considers some ways in which to constrict and contain the boundaries of human rights and mentions its expansionism. It determines the roles that human rights are to have in the decision-making processes and what their form and content should be.
Human Rights Concepts in Australian Political Debate
Authors: NOLAN MARK A. , OAKES PENELOPE J.
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by describing human rights use as a psychological response to injustice and is then followed by a discussion of the empirical findings. It presents empirical findings that suggest Australians assert human rights as one of a number of possible political responses to felt harm and perceived injustice. It also talks about the responses of the Australians to the existence of a mandatory sentencing scheme, and the exclusion of lesbians and single women from using assisted reproductive technology. It notes that despite the absence of an Australian bill of rights, respondents were motivated to use human rights arguments to press social justice claims. It explains that this willingness to use rights concepts challenges people to consider how to best provide mechanisms of human rights protection that remain relevant to the needs of aggrieved persons.
Rights, Rules, and Democracy
Authors: KAY RICHARD S.
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on competing characterizations of the nature of constitutional judicial review. It argues that the source of much scepticism of constitutional rights lies in the success of the legal realist critique of adjudication, which has made it impossible to describe the role of judges as simply applying rules made by constitution-makers. It reasserts the idea that, in enforcing rights, courts can possibly be taken to be enforcing rules (rather than exercising quasi-legislative judgment).
Representation-Reinforcing Review; Comparing Experiences in the United States and Australia
Authors: TUCKER DAVID
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the judicial supervision of elections, a key area in which judges might be expected to act to enforce the necessary conditions of democracy. It provides a comparative analysis of the performance of the Supreme Court of the United States and of the High Court of Australia. It examines the judicial policy-making with regard to electoral districting, campaign finance reform, and the ‘Australian ballot’.
Contextual, Functional, and Geometric Components in the Semantics of Projective Terms
Authors: ESCHENBACH CAROLA
Published: January 2010

The projective terms of a natural language can differ regarding their syntactic properties, their dependence on reference systems, and their contextual dependency regarding objects or regions of comparison. While the dependence of projective prepositions on reference systems has been considered in linguistics and psycholinguistics in detail, the other aspects are less well studied. This chapter focuses on a collection of German projective terms including prepositions, postpositions, adverbs, and adjectives. The chapter identifies similarities between different items and maps them to common semantic components or syntactic regularities. The semantics of the lexemes combine geometric components representing spatial aspects and functional components representing the principal directions on the basis of a reference system. The influence of the context on the interpretation of projective terms is mapped to the distinction between variables belonging to the argument structure of the lexemes and free variables occurring in the semantic form. The description of the semantics of the German terms in this framework shows that the similarities and variations between the lexemes can be modeled by combining a small set of semantic components in different ways.
Shape: A Developmental Product
Authors: SMITH LINDA B.
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers the idea that the perception of object shape — perceptions of the kind that can yield rapid and reliable object recognition — is learned by young children through their actions on objects as a product of category learning. Action-based categories create shape caricatures, abstractions that enable the systematic broadening of recognition beyond specific experiences. Thus, the processes that yield facile and reliable recognition may not be pre-specified in the visual system but rather may be experience dependent.
Syntatic Enquiry as a Cultura Activity
Authors: DILLER ANTHONY V. N. , KHANITTANAN WILAIWAN
Published: January 2010

Can there be ‘syntax’ without ‘ethno’? Answers to this question will vary depending on how the two parts of the ‘ethnosyntax’ are construed. This chapter focuses on these components, taking up a methodological issue in how ‘ethno’ — and ‘syntax’ intermesh in syntactic enquiry.
Aspects of Ku Waru Ethnosyntax and Social Life
Authors: RUMSEY ALAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses some relationships between language and other aspects of culture and social life among the Ku Waru people of the Western Highlands of Papua New Guinea. This leads to some conclusions about the nature of connections between language and culture in general. The chapter includes a brief introduction to some relevant aspects of Ku Waru culture and language.
Introduction: The Poet and the Reader
Authors: Pearson Roger
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of how Mallarmé became a central point of reference in the history of 19th- and 20th-century literature and critical theory given the fact that he wrote so relatively few poems. It then explains the purpose of the book, which contends that all of Mallarmé's work is informed by a consistent and coherent view of the poet's role — to break the silence of a godless universe and to confer upon that silence some kind of lasting pattern.
Fatherhood and the Habit of Command: L. Aemilius Paullus and theAdelphoe
Authors: LEIGH MATTHEW
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by investigating the sense that the historicist approach to the Adelphoe, for all that it was richly and excitingly suggestive, had never recovered from the perception of a hopeless discontinuity between context and content. It shows that in the case of the Adelphoe, however, the construction of two opposed father-figures immediately raises the issue of which of the two wears the mask of Paullus. It explains that the true eloquence of this identification finally emerges when the reader is ready to acknowledge that fatherhood is only part of a wider system of authority.
The Mechanisms of Repression
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the legal mechanisms which were available, both at home and in the colonial empire, to deal with insurrection and civil disorder. These were the suspension of habeas corpus, the imposition of martial law (the theory of which was problematic), the employment of air control in the control of ‘primitive’ colonial subjects, the passage of coercion acts, and the development, from the time of the World War I onwards, of elaborate codes of emergency regulations, creating a form of statute based martial law.
The Ideological Response to War: Codes of Human Rights
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes how the protection of human rights came, during World War II, to feature in schemes for creating a new world order, encouraging the drafting of comprehensive codes of rights to be protected. It considers the role of the British and American governments in this development, giving accounts both of private initiatives, such as that of H. G. Wells, and official contributions, as in the Atlantic Charter and United Nations Declaration. It describes the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, and the processes which led to the establishment of the United Nations, and the idea that it should be concerned with the international protection of human rights in the post war world. It examines the resulting expansion of the boundaries of international law at the expense of protected domestic jurisdiction.
Britain and the Western Option
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN
Published: January 2010

This chapter analyses British post 1945 foreign policy, as adopted by Foreign Secretary Bevin, and of the origin of the idea of forming a Western European bloc, which Bevin was unwilling to pursue until relations with the Soviet Union had become impossible. It provides a history of the European federalist movement, and of the British government's skeptical attitude to it, and explains the change of policy in favour of forming a Western Union, announced by Bevin in early 1948 as a spiritual union. It gives an account of the Brussels Treaty of 1948, which embodied in its text the notion that the protection and furtherance of human rights should be central to the ideology of the western European democratic states, offering an alternative to Soviet communism.
The Conclusion of Negotiations and the Rearguard Action
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRAIN
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the conclusion of the negotiations which produced the text of the European Convention, signed on 4 November 1950 in Rome. The final text reflected a number of compromises, most importantly between those who wanted a system of juridical protection, based ultimately on binding decisions from a court of human rights, and a right of individual petition, those who, like the UK, were not prepared to accept the loss of sovereignty which this would involve. Hence, acceptance of the court and right of individual petition was made optional. The chapter also describes the somewhat belated opposition to the acceptance of the convention led by Lord Chancellor Jowitt, and the steps whereby in spite of his opposition, and unease from other members of the British cabinet, the text, with its compromises, was accepted by the UK.
The First Protocol
Authors: SIMPSON A. W. BRIAN
Published: January 2010

In the negotiations which produced the convention great difficulty had been met over the drafting of articles dealing with the protection of the right of property, which raised delicate political issues — the right to education, and the right to participate in the democratic process; the last two of which presented acute problems for colonial powers. So these rights were not included in the text of the convention, and came to be covered in a protocol to the convention, signed in Paris in 1952. This chapter describes the disagreements and conflicts between the Consultative Assembly and the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe over the drafting of the protocol, and the serious conflicts which also arose within the UK governmental machine.
Canada's Voluntary, Market-Based Approach to Energy Security
Authors: Lucas Alastair R.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses that no explicit Canadian policy addresses either the physical security or supply adequacy and reliability aspects of energy security. It notes that the primary objective of the Canadian Energy Security is to secure a US market for reliable Canadian energy exports, and for this purpose, cooperates with the US in its energy security initiatives. It adds that new legislation concerning physical security of energy facilities and activities is limited to Alberta, the major oil- and gas-producing province. It explains that Federal legislation in relation to security of pipelines and international power lines within federal constitutional jurisdiction went before Parliament in 2003.
Energy Security and Energy Sovereignty in Mexico
Authors: Máarquez José Juan González
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses that the demand for all sources of energy is growing in Mexico. It adds that financial resources are needed to support the investments which will satisfy the demands. It notes that the growing incorporation of Mexico into the global economy demands the privatisation of the energy sector. It explains that the challenge for Mexico in the twenty-first century is to design a new legal regime which allows the participation of private investment, but at the same time guarantees the national sovereignty of the resources, and the sustainable development in the sector.
Energy Security and Conflict with Other Values: The Case of Germany
Authors: Kühne Gunther
Published: January 2010

This chapter demonstrates that in Germany there exists a relatively dense complex of rules and regulations designed to ensure security of energy supply. It notes that this relates to both aspects of energy security: the availability of energy, and the technical continuity of the energy supply system. It explains that whether both sets of rules are sufficient to cope with a crisis can be finally determined only when an emergency arises. It discusses that the security of supply will find it even more difficult to prevail over conflicting values where the balancing process takes place on the basis of statutory provisions which primarily serve those other values. It clarifies that whether security of energy supply will be given its necessary weight in the future will often depend on the balancing of considerations under legislation not primarily concerned with energy.
Security, Continuity, and Regularity of Energy Supply: The Case of Spain
Authors: Guayo Iñigo Del
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses that Spain relies upon foreign sources of energy, and so security issues are of paramount importance. It notes that under these conditions, Spain tries to diversify the sources of energy supplies to build stocks for emergency situations, promote the use of indigenous resources such as coal and renewable energy, and foster a rational and efficient use of energy. It adds that international interconnections — international gas pipelines and electricity lines — are vital. It explains that from the perspective of the continuity and regularity of electricity supply, some regulatory reforms are needed, and some are already being implemented by the government, in order to avoid further blackouts like those which took place on December 17, 2001.
Definite Reference in Old and Modern French: The Rise and Fall of DP
Authors: BOUCHER PAUL
Published: January 2010

This chapter addresses the question of the emergence and evolution of the definite article in French. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 7.2 examines the problem of bare NPs and bare (pronominal) determiners (BD) in Romance and Germanic and discusses the Restricted Quantification Condition, as well as the representation of morphological complexity developed in Kerstens (1993). Section 7.3 looks at data on NPs in Old French between the 9th and 14th centuries. Section 7.4 returns to the reanalysis of D-words in OF and to the problem of case projections in Romance and Germanic.
The Reanalysis of the French Prepositional System: A Case of Grammaticalization in Competing Grammars
Authors: TREMBLAY MIREILLE , DUPUIS FERNANDE , DUFRESNE MONIQUE
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers the evolution of French prepositions and particles. The comparative analysis of Old and Modern French shows a change in transitivity at the end of the Middle French period, followed by a split of the prepositional system into the two subsystems which characterize Modern French. It argues that both changes can be related to the lexicalization of verbal and prepositional prefixes. This study is based on the Base de français médiéval constituted by C. Marchello-Nizia (for Old French), and the corpus Lemieux (for 6th-century French). The Rabelais corpus comes from the CERHAC, Université de Clermont–Ferrand.
The Syntax of Objects in Old English
Authors: PINTZUK SUSAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents evidence against three commonly held views of Old English syntax and verb-object order: (1) the increase in verb-object order during the Old English period can be attributed to a gradual increase in the frequency of extraposition, an increase which is not necessarily tied to internal grammatical factors; (2) all object types (negative, quantified, and nonnegative non-quantiWed) have the same syntax in Old English; and (3) Old English can be analysed as a head-initial language, with head-final order derived by the leftward movement of various constituents. The chapter argues that in diachronic syntax studies, much of the historical data are structurally ambiguous and open to a number of different interpretations.
Gradience in Grammar
Authors: FANSELOW GISBERT , FÉRY CAROLINE , VOGEL RALF , SCHLESEWSKY MATTHIAS
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by defining gradience in terms of an individual speaker's grammar. It also identifies gradient phenomena in various domains of grammar such as semantic ambiguities, syntactic blends, and in phonological entities including intensity and length, among others. It then discusses the theories of gradience in phonology and syntax.
Linguistic and Metalinguistic Tasks in Phonology: Methods and Findings
Authors: FRISCH STEFAN A. , STEARNS ADRIENNE M.
Published: January 2010

A much closer connection between phonological grammar and mental lexicon is revealed by studies of gradience in phonology using linguistic and metalinguistic data. The discovery of these new dimensions of phonological variation would not have been possible without corpus methods and data from groups of participants in psycholinguistic experiments. The presence of gradient phonological constraints illustrates that phonological knowledge goes beyond a categorical symbolic representation of possible forms in a language. To accommodate the broader scope of phonological generalizations, models of grammar will have to become more like models of other cognitive domains, which have long recognized and debated the nature of frequency and similarity effects for mental representation and processing. Well-understood mechanisms of speech perception and speech production bind the scope of phonological variability. Phonological categories and phonological patterns give a sufficiently rich and intricate variety of alternatives to explore the full complexity of cognitive processes.
Intermediate Syntactic Variants in a Dialect-Standard Speech Repertoire and Relative Acceptability
Authors: CORNIPS LEONIE
Published: January 2010

This chapter proposes that acceptability judgments do not offer a direct window into an individual's competence. It discusses an intermediate speech repertoire that exists in the province of Limburg, the Netherlands. In this repertoire, some constructions are difficult to obtain. It also talks about acceptability judgments that are given by local dialect speakers in the same area. Using data from reflexive impersonal passives, reflexive ergatives, and inalienable possession constructions, the chapter argues that the occurrence of intermediate variants and the variation at the level of the individual speaker is not because of the specific task-effects, but is due to the induced language contact effects between the standard variety and the local dialects.
Gradedness and Optionality in Mature and Developing Grammars
Authors: SORACE ANTONELLA
Published: January 2010

This chapter highlights specific patterns of gradedness and optionality in the grammar of three types of speakers: monolingual native speakers, speakers whose native language (L1) has been influenced by a second language (L2), and very fluent non-native speakers. In all these cases, gradedness is apparent in areas of grammar that are at the interface between the syntax and other cognitive domains. First, the analysed evidence indicates that not only auxiliary selection, but also a number of syntactic manifestations of split intransitivity in Italian and other languages, are lexically constrained by aspectual properties. Second, residual optionality, with its entailed gradedness effects, is shown to occur only in interface areas of the competence of near-native speakers, and not only in purely syntactic domains. Third, the differentiation between narrow computational syntactic properties and interface properties is also relevant in other domains of language development, such as L1 attrition due to prolonged exposure to a second language.
Modelling Productivity with the Gradual Learning Algorithm: The Problem of Accidentally Exceptionless Generalizations
Authors: ALBRIGHT ADAM , HAYES BRUCE
Published: January 2010

This chapter develops a model that can handle all configurations of gradience and categoricalness. It believes that the solution lies in the trade-off between reliability and generality. It shows how the previous approach to the problem was not enough, and suggests a novel approach using the gradual learning algorithm (GLA), adapted to more general limitations.
Gradedness as Relative Efficiency in the Processing of Syntax and Semantics
Authors: HAWKINS JOHN A.
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents a group of corpus data from English, a head-initial language, and some additional data from Japanese, a head-final language, showing clear selection preferences among competing structures. The structures include positioning of complements and adjuncts relative to the verb, and the preferences range from highly productive unattested (despite being grammatical). These ‘gradedness effects’ lead to a principle of efficiency in performance, minimize domains (MiD). This principle is evaluated on postverbal prepositional phrases (PPs) in English and on preverbal NPs and PPs in Japanese. This chapter introduces a measurement for quantifying multiple constraints and their interaction. It discusses MiD in grammars and in cross-linguistic variation.
Probabilistic Grammars as Models of Gradience in Language Processing
Authors: CROCKER MATTHEW W. , KELLER FRANK
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by reviewing some of the key psycholinguistic evidence motivating the need for experience-based mechanisms, before turning to a discussion of recent models. It focuses on probabilistic models of human sentence processing, which attempt to assign a probability to a given sentence, as well as to alternative parse interpretations for that sentence. It discusses the association between probabilistic models of performance (gradient grammaticality). A vital result of the proposed view is that the likelihood of a partial structure is only significant relative to the likelihood of competing (partial) structures, and does not give an independently useful characterization of the grammaticality of the alternatives. Therefore, it argues that a probabilistic description of gradient grammaticality should differ from a probabilistic performance model.
The Politics of Genocide Justice in Cambodia
Authors: Etcheson Craig
Published: January 2010

The single most sensitive issue facing Cambodia today concerns the question of accountability for the crimes committed by the Khmer Rouge regime. The matter of genocide justice in the country is not merely a legal or political question, but also personal. Public opinion surveys suggest that the overwhelming majority of Cambodians want the Khmer Rouge leadership to be prosecuted for their crimes. To date, however, the country's political elite has been very reluctant to grant this wish, in part because nobody has completely clean hands. Killings during the Khmer Rouge regime constituted war crimes, genocide, and other crimes against humanity. Yet 25 years after the regime responsible for these crimes was ousted from power, no senior leader of that regime has yet faced justice before a court of law. One reason is that the politics of achieving genocide justice in Cambodia have proven to be particularly intractable.
Procedural Law of Internationalized Criminal Courts
Authors: Friman Håkan
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the criminal procedures applied (or to be applied) by internationalized courts in Kosovo, East Timor, Cambodia, and Sierra Leone, including developments for the period up to August 2003. Following a brief presentation of the procedural law that is applicable to each of the internationalized courts, different criteria for the assessment of procedural regimes are discussed. Particular procedural features of the different regimes are compared with international standards for fair and expeditious proceedings in accordance with the International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights, and some other international instruments. Possible preparatory steps are proposed to overcome some identified shortcomings in the criminal procedures of internationalized courts, such as the ones established in Kosovo and East Timor.
Internationalized Criminal Courts and Tribunals: Are They Necessary?
Authors: Condorelli Luigi , Boutruche Théo
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines whether internationalized criminal courts and tribunals are necessary or, at least, useful. In particular, it analyses whether they are a model to be reproduced, or a development of little use in today's international judicial system. This question is difficult to answer because it encompasses a heterogeneous reality. To arrive at an answer, it is necessary to identify the common features of these courts that appear so different. The future of internationalized courts and tribunals is also tied to their relationship with the International Criminal Court (ICC). This chapter explores whether internationalized courts and tribunals are complementary to, or in competition with, the ICC, focusing on the cases of Kosovo, Sierra Leone, Cambodia, and East Timor.
Exploring Uncertainty
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This chapter explores the history of the idea of risk and different ways of theorising this concept. It argues that the theory that ‘risks’ are socially constructed (an approach developed by the anthropologist Mary Douglas) can help modern scholars to understand the role played by oracles and curses in ancient Greek culture. The social construction of risks holds that different communities will select some dangers from others for particular attention as ‘risks’. These selections are connected to a community's worldview and its values and beliefs; in particular, conceptions of blame, accountability and responsibility.
Individuals and Oracles
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

Whereas most modern scholarship concentrates on the use of oracles by states, this chapter explores the evidence for the use of oracles by individuals, exploring both epigraphic and literary material from and about the oracles of Didyma, Delphi, and Dodona. It investigates how the Greeks represented oracular consultation to themselves in terms of both explicit instructions and the stories they told about it, and the evidence for actual consultations, including the subjects of consultations, the kinds of questions that were asked, and how they were formulated.
Oracles and Daily Life
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

Collecting the oracle tablets in one catalogue reveals underlying patterns among the individual consultations at Dodona. This chapter discusses the subject matter and timing of the questions; the identities of those who visited the oracle; the language and behaviour of inquiry; and, overall, how these tablets deepen our understanding of the use of oracles by individuals between the 6th and 1st centuries BCE, including the evidence provided by responses.
Urban Drama
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on the smallest category of curses for this period: curses directed against public performers. There are only four of these: three directed against various personnel involved with festival choruses, while the fourth targets an individual whom it identifies as an actor. It argues for the importance of setting these texts in their civic context, and for recognising the complex dynamics that may underpin these curses.
Love and Curses
Authors: Eidinow Esther
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines a group of curses that are concerned with hindering or encouraging the appetites of both genders for intimate relationships. At least two of the eight tablets discussed here were certainly written by women and it is possible that others were as well. After examining extant treatments of this category of curses, the chapter briefly considers the historical context and possible circumstances for the creation of relationship curses. It argues for the importance of reading these curses without making assumptions about the nature of the relationships involved, and suggests that, in turn, these texts may provide insights into changes over time in ancient gender relations.
7. Isthmian 8: A Monster Avoided
Authors: Burnett Anne Pippin
Published: January 2010

The special problems Pindar had faced in making an ode for Lampon were intensified when, a few years later, another from Aigina, Telesarchos, commissioned an ode for his son, Kleandros. Isthmian 8 is a celebration of not only the youth, Kleandros, but also of his father's nephew, Nikokles, a victorious athlete who seems to be recently dead. Pindar utilises two key concepts, good hope and freedom, which direct that men should strive to fulfil their ambitions, stretch their courageous strength to its fullest, like the Aiakids, and then celebrate victory by giving free rein to healing song that imitates that of the Muses. Kleandros is ready to take on these responsibilities, for he moves into the adult state after a youth devoted to the harsh challenge of the pankration, the most warlike of contests.
Epilogue
Authors: Kontogiorgi Elisabeth
Published: January 2010

This epilogue presents a synthesis of discussions in the preceding chapters. The resettlement of Greek refugees was the first major project in the 20th century which involved such large numbers of displaced people and was supervised by an international body, the League of Nations. The RSC carefully planned the reconstruction of the livelihoods of the uprooted and exchanged Greek refugees. The strategic goal of this international organization was to execute its programme in a constructive way in order to help the successful re-establishment of the refugees' livelihoods in both rural and urban areas.
6 The Persian Wars in Fourth-Century Oratory and Historiography
Authors: Marincola John
Published: January 2010

This chapter addresses the very different presentation of the Persian Wars by 4th-century historians and by the patriotic Athenian orators, as writers of both forensic and political speeches, including the epitaphioi logoi at which it was customary to catalogue Athenian victories. It is shown that it was the battles in which the Athenians were most involved (Marathon, Salamis) that unsurprisingly featured most prominently, building up an idealized picture of Athens in her finest hour and replacing the uncertainty and ambivalences in Herodotus' narrative with a ‘smooth-flowing teleology, in which each battle marches the Greeks forward to an overall victory’; the discussions of Plataea are equally idealizing in their amnesiac erasure of conflict between different Greek states. The ‘patriotic’ and idealizing strand in the reception of the Persian Wars found its first cohesive and near-uniform expression in the panhellenic ideology of such authors.
11 ‘Shrines of the Mighty’: Rediscovering the Battlefields of the Persian Wars
Authors: Morris Ian Macgregor
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the role played in the Enlightenment by the battlefields of the Persian Wars, shifting the focus of the argument to Thermopylae and Marathon, and the canonization of their status as the places where Liberty was born. The chapter explores the attitudes of visitors to Greece and the Persian War battle sites — especially the scene of the heroic last stand of Leonidas at Thermopylae — from the earlier part of the 17th century until the 18th century. Particular attention is paid to the British expedition in 1751, and the frustrations of scholarly travellers at the failure of the landscape they encountered to match precisely the topography described by Herodotus and Strabo. But the recorded emotional responses of the visitors on their pilgrimages to what they saw as the sacrificial shrine of western liberty ultimately transcended all their empirical anxieties.
On Declining an Invitation: Context, Form, and Function
Authors: Minchin Elizabeth
Published: January 2010

The format that generates the refusal of an invitation is stored in memory as implicit knowledge. The format cues a set of three moves that, taken together, enables the speaker to decline an invitation in a courteous manner. Although we may not immediately recognize the standardized nature of the refusals we offer, because the language we use varies from context to context, the format to which Homer refers in the performance of his epics is the same as that to which we refer in casual talk today.
Hysteron Proteron in Questions and Answers
Authors: Minchin Elizabeth
Published: January 2010

This chapter studies a phenomenon first observed by Samuel Bassett in questions and answers in the Homeric epics: the poet's preference for spelling out a twofold instruction, proposal, or question, and in a subsequent passage reversing the original order of presentation. It discusses the ‘device’ in the context of the Odyssey. There are two findings: first, that this practice of answering questions in an order that reverses the order of asking is motivated both by cognitive factors and, following Schegloff and Sacks, social factors; and, second, that, since hysteron proteron is a feature of oral discourse more generally, oral poets in this tradition observed an everyday practice, and mimicked it in stylized form in their songs.
Introduction
Authors: Hezser Catherine
Published: January 2010

This book examines ancient Jewish discourse on slavery in the context of Graeco-Roman literary, legal, and documentary writings and on the basis of the social, economic, and political circumstances under which Jews lived. It shows that for ancient Jews just as for Greeks and Romans, slavery was an everyday experience whose existence was taken for granted, whose practicalities were discussed by legal scholars, and which was repeatedly alluded to in literary, philosophical, and historiographic works. In late antiquity, when the employment of slaves in agriculture was supplemented by other types of labour, domestic slavery prevailed. The image, function, and treatment of slaves within the ancient Jewish household are analysed alongside slavery's role within the ancient Jewish economy. Slavery also had a large symbolic significance in antiquity. The particular ways in which Jews used slave metaphors are very revealing with regard to the religious, social, and political concerns of ancient Jewish society.
Master–Slave Relationships
Authors: Hezser Catherine
Published: January 2010

The relationship between slaves and their masters could, at one and the same time, be governed by exploitation and affiliation, submission under the master's authority and intimacy. It was characterised by what may be called a mutual dependency: the master was dependent on the slave's loyalty and the slave dependent on the master's maintenance and humane treatment of him. While slaves had to bow to their master's wishes under the constant threat of punishment, they could also become indispensable to them, function as their confidants, and be party to their secrets. One may assume that masters who had one or a few slaves only stood in a closer relationship to them than those who owned many. But even in large households some slaves will have been closer to their master than others, depending on their respective functions.
Slaves as Intermediaries in Business Transactions
Authors: Hezser Catherine
Published: January 2010

The employment of slaves in business was fraught with ambiguities. On the one hand, slaves were not free agents but under the authority of their masters in all respects. On the other hand, in order to do business for their masters, slaves had to be granted a certain amount of power and autonomy. They were both extensions of their masters and independent persons. One of the great contradictions of slavery becomes evident here: on the one hand the master wants the slave to be an automaton who is nothing more than an extension of his will, but on the other hand he needs the slave to take some initiative if he is to be properly served. Both Roman and rabbinic legal traditions address the complex issue of slaves' agency in commercial enterprises.
Slavery as Metaphor
Authors: Hezser Catherine
Published: January 2010

The metaphorical use of images connected with slaves and slavery has a long tradition in Jewish writing. Whereas the religious use of the slave metaphor appears in the Hebrew Bible already, the psychological meaning, that is, the notion of one's enslavement to desires and emotions, seems to have been adopted by Jewish authors in Hellenistic times only. It is most prevalent in Philo's writings and may be traced back to philosophical, especially Stoic, influence. In contrast to its elaboration in early Christian writings, the rabbis do not seem to have adopted the idea. The socio-hierarchical use of the slave metaphor has its main Sitz im Leben in the formal introductions of letters, where the letter writer introduces himself to his addressee, but it has left traces in literary sources as well. In the political sense slave metaphors are used especially in Josephus' writings. Rome appears as the brutal slave master who reduced other nations to servitude.
2 Marriage: Eligibility
Authors: Cretney Stephen
Published: January 2010

This chapter studies the development of the rules governing who can marry whom. It asks the following questions: How far do genetic and other relationships operate as a bar? When should marriage be forbidden between people who are not genetically related? Should young people be allowed to marry? Should parents or other family members have the right to veto a marriage? Should marriage be confined to relationships between same sex couples? Is the ability to have a sexual relationship essential?
11 Maintenance, the Magistrates’ Courts and the State
Authors: Cretney Stephen
Published: January 2010

For many years, married women who needed protection used the Magistrates’ Courts, which had a (very restricted) jurisdiction to make orders in cases where wife and children needed financial support from the husband. How should those orders be enforced? Was there any scope for social work intervention? The State provided support through the Poor Law and then, after World War II, through welfare benefits; but should the adults involved be ultimately responsible for the cost? Eventually the Child Support Act 1991 introduced what was intended to be a modern and scientific system under which a Child Support Agency would use a formula to calculate responsibility for family support and have recourse to efficient business management tools to enforce the obligations. The scheme did not work out wholly as had been hoped.
Problems in the Prologue and Parodos of Bacchae
Authors: Scullion Scott
Published: January 2010

In this chapter, the author gives the text of Diggle's Oxford Classical Text as lemmata, with apparatus of his own. The intense controversy that raged over Prologue: Verses 13-25 until recently has abated; Kovacs's text in his Loeb edition differs from Diggle's only in verse 20, where he accepts πρώτον from LP and χθόνα from Christus Patiens. The chapter attempts to stir a little flame from the ashes of the controversy, arguing for four alterations in Diggle's text.
Tragic Interpolation and Philip II: Pylades’ Forgotten Exile and Other Problems in Euripides’ Orestes
Authors: Kovacs David
Published: January 2010

This chapter argues that several passages in Orestes that have hitherto escaped suspicion are spurious, and further that in two of them (and perhaps in a third) there are allusions to 4th-century history, particularly to the Third Sacred War. It will be suggested that for once these interpolations are not anonymous: the chief suspect is the actor Neoptolemus.
Reconstructing Archetypes: A New Proposal and an Old Fallacy
Authors: Reeve Michael D.
Published: January 2010

In Textkritik (1927), Paul Maas's procedure for reconstructing an archetype involves the elimination first of witnesses that descend from others, then of readings that have no stemmatic weight. He gives each kind of elimination its own name: eliminatio codicum descriptorum (§4), eliminatio lectionum singularium (§8c). The distinction also explains a detail in the section where he introduces the latter: his list of the witnesses that may have lectiones singulares in his imaginary example does not include J, which has already been eliminated as a descendant of another extant witness, F (§8a). In a commentary on Textkritik (2003), Elio Montanari builds on the clause a different interpretation of the procedure that Maas prescribes. The reconstruction of an archetype, he argues, is tantamount to eliminatio codicum descriptorum, because one moves up the stemma from the bottom and eliminates witnesses at lower levels by reconstructing their ancestors (§§5.7, 13.2.2, 23.4.1, 25.5, 30.3.3, 31.3.1, 130.3). What Maas calls eliminatio lectionum singularium has no validity, he argues, except as a logical consequence of that eliminatio codicum descriptorum (§§25.5, 25.5.3, 30.3.4, 117.7.1). This chapter raises the question: is Montanari right to argue that the two kinds of eliminatio collapse into one?
Homage to G&R 2nd ser. 11 (1964): 185–7 or The Sibyl Prophesies the Slaying of the Jabberwock
Authors: Lightfoot J. L.
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents The Sibyl Prophesies the Slaying of the Jabberwock.