bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Freshwater Spills Information Clearinghouse
Authors: Rayburn Thomas
Published: January 2013

The Great Lakes Commission, in concert with the Great Lakes Spill Protection Initiative (GLSPI) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Great Lakes National Program Office (GLNPO), has developed the Freshwater Spills Information Clearinghouse (FSIC) Web site (www.freshwaterspills.net.). The Web site serves as point of entry for users searching for freshwater planning and response information, research data and abstracts, education and outreach materials, emerging response and prevention technologies, pertinent geographic information system (GIS) data, and organizational links. In addition, the Web site has been proposed as the central repository for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) “small science” program. The FSIC initially was developed to address the freshwater planning, response, and research community's need to centralize data and resource information currently housed in fragmented locations. Its growth will depend on the interaction of the oil/freshwater community, the willingness and ability to post historic and current information electronically, and acceptance of the need to build a minimal foundation of research and data and then expand that knowledge base. It is intended that by identifying research and freshwater-specific spills processes, users of the Web site will further dialogue and hard science.
Response Benefit Analysis: A New Method for Measuring Response Effectiveness1
Authors: Gautier Peter , Satra Kara , Tarpley John , Parker-Hall Heather , Henderson Harlan , Ueber Ed
Published: January 2013

Traditionally, spill response effectiveness has been measured by cost per volume of oil spilled. However, this measurement is misleading and arbitrary. Measuring the cost of response per gallon (or barrel) spilled does not adequately account for the value of environmental and economic injuries that were minimized or prevented through appropriate response actions. The authors discuss the principles underlying an evaluation of spill response benefit and present the results of their work in progress to compare the economic and environmental benefits gained by minimizing injuries through response against the cost of conducting that response. This process, which we call response benefit analysis (RBA), uses a quantitative and/or qualitative evaluation of resources protected and rehabilitated as a result of spill response actions. As a pilot study, the authors examined the South Traffic Lane Spill (T/V Command) off the San Francisco peninsula in September 1998. This spill involved an approximate 6,000 gallons of oil, discharged 12 miles offshore, with response costs of $1.03 million. The analysis concluded that significant environmental and economic benefits were realized by conducting a proactive response that would not normally be considered by reporting cost per barrel spilled alone. This methodology presents a conceptual framework and needs to be further developed and tested to enable the spill response community to conduct response benefit analysis locally.
A Practical Answer to OPRC in the United Kingdom1
Authors: Neilson David E. , Tallack Robert
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation Convention (OPRC 90) came into effect in 1990. Since this date, 52 of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) member states have signed to the convention, and recently the United Kingdom has developed legislation to implement the intent of the convention in that country. The convention requires a number of steps to enhance the preparedness of a country for an oil spill incident. The primary requirements are a focal point within the country, a national contingency plan, cooperation—notification between countries and response resources in-country. The United Kingdom developed legislation, the Merchant Shipping (Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation Convention) Regulations, which became effective on August 15, 1998, although there was a grace period of 1 year before becoming effective on August 15, 1999. This placed a requirement on ports, harbors, and oil-handling facilities to prepare and submit a oil spill response contingency plan to the U.K. government. Within the plan, there is a requirement for the port, harbor, or oil-handling facility to either have in-house or contracted “Tier II” resources.

A number of lessons can be drawn from the experience of OPRC 90 implementation in the United Kingdom, and there are lessons for the ports, the Tier II provider, and also for the regulator. The ports themselves had additional requirements placed on their already stretched resources. Industry needed to understand the potential market and plan their investment accordingly. The government agencies, again with limited resources, were tasked with the development of compliance guidelines and administering their internal review. The consultation process with statutory consultees proved a bottleneck in the planning process.
Studies of Emissions From Oil Fires
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. , Lambert Patrick , Li Ken , Wang Zhendi , Ackerman Francine , Whiticar Steve , Goldthorp Mike , Schutz Steve , Morganti Mike , Nadeau Royal , Campagna Phil , Hiltabrand Robert
Published: January 2013

Over 45 mesoscale burns were conducted to study various aspects of diesel and crude oil burning in situ,. Extensive sampling and monitoring of these burns were conducted at downwind stations, upwind stations, and in the smoke plume. Particulate samples were taken in air and analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs were found to be lower in the soot than in the starting oil, although higher concentrations of the larger molecular PAHs were found in the soot and residue, especially for diesel burns. Overall, the amount of PAHs in the soot and residue were about 2 to 8% of that in the starting oil. This implies a destruction of PAHS by 92 to 98%. Particulates in the air were measured by several means and were found to be greater than recommended exposure levels up to 500 meters downwind at ground level, depending on the size and type of fire. Diesel fires emit much more particulate matter and have longer exposure zones. Combustion gases including carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are below exposure level maximums. Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions are extensive from fires, but the levels were less than from an evaporating crude oil spill. Over 140 compounds were identified and quantified. Carbonyls, including aldehydes and ketones, were found to below human health concern levels.

Emission data from over 45 experimental burns have been used to develop prediction equations for over 150 specific compounds or emission categories. These are used to calculate safe distances and levels of concern for a standard burn size of 500 square meters, an amount that would typically be contained in a boom. The safe distance for a crude oil burn of this size is about 500 m and for a diesel burn, much further.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region V Unannounced Drill Program
Authors: Calovich Sheila M. , Whelan Ann E.
Published: January 2013

Rather than conduct site inspections at oil facilities where response times and response activities are not tested, government-initiated unannounced exercises allow the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to evaluate these important activities. The facility response plan (FRP) is tested, industry interfaces with the government, and more effective environmental programs are the result. EPA Region V initiated, developed, and conducted government-initiated unannounced exercises during Fiscal Year (FY) 1999 and 2000. The goal was to heighten the awareness of pollution prevention in the oil industry.
Response To Bunker Fuel Oil: The Options
Authors: Lunel Tim , Davies Louise
Published: January 2013

As a general “rule of thumb,” a dispersant response is not the most appropriate response to a spill of Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO)-380 bunker fuel oil However, as with all rules of thumb, there are some exceptions. There has been increasing evidence that a limited number of oil spill dispersants can be used on certain types of oil spill where previously dispersants would not have been considered. A new dispersant tested in field trials carried out by AEA Technology in 1997 (Lunel and Lewis, 1999), indicated that there might be an opportunity to treat viscous emulsions and bunker fuel oils by dispersant spraying. Following these field trials, AEA Technology undertook a number of laboratory-based studies, including tests in France during the first week of the Erika spill, which indicate that IFO-180 and IFO-380 bunker fuel oils may be dispersible under favorable conditions when fresh and when lightly emulsified.

At present, the authors conclude that the rule of thumb—a dispersant response is not likely to be the most appropriate response to most spills of IFO-380—holds. However, the authors believe that there may be some conditions when a dispersant response can be considered as part of a response to a spill of IFO-380 to reduce the volume of oil beaching. It has been recognized by most experts dealing with this issue that a field trial is needed to establish the validity of this assertion. In the absence of a field trial, the authors believe that a dispersant response to IFO-380 can be considered providing that:The reduction of volume beaching will result in a significant net environmental or economic benefit.The sea temperature is 10°–15°C or greater.The dispersant to be used is COREXIT®9500, Dasic Slickgone LTSW, Inipol 90, or Superdispersant 25.The characteristics of the IFO-380 are known and have been assessed by an oil spill expert at the time of the spill.In situ monitoring is in place to assess whether the response is effective.
Fish and Wildlife Contingency Planning for Oil Spills: The Need for A National Wildlife Plan1
Authors: Ott Gary L.
Published: January 2013

If responders believe preplanning will help them become more successful during an oil spill, a recent survey shows that they are not very successful at wildlife protection and response preplanning in Area Contingency Plans (ACPs), at least here on the Atlantic Coast. Wildlife planners in a few states, such as California and Alaska, have committed considerable resources to develop statewide goals, best practices, and standards for wildlife planning and have also described tactical implementation for wildlife protection. In most areas of the United States, however, planning for protection and rehabilitation of wildlife is limited to listing the name and phone number of the regional wildlife volunteer organization.

How is “success” achieved for wildlife protection and rehabilitation? Wildlife Resource Management Agencies have a responsibility to support the ACP planning process as well as to tell industry what they expect them to accomplish during an oil spill. Without goals and some tangible definition of success it is not possible for planners neither to determine if they have done adequate planning nor to determine if any given spill response actually met the Wildlife Resource Management Agency's expectations.

Wildlife Resource Management Agencies should provide the Area Committees with appropriate wildlife protection and response goals, recommended protocols, and best practices. The objective of the February 2001 workshop funded by the Prince William Sound Oil Spill Recovery Institute (OSRI) is to develop national standards and protocols relative to migratory birds affected or potentially affected by an oil spill. Perhaps these protocols and standards could be published in a National Wildlife Plan.

A National Wildlife Plan should enable the Area Committee to identify at least three things: (1) appropriate goals, such as which sensitive wildlife resources are most at risk and should be protected; (2) appropriate protocols and strategies for the protection and rehabilitation of wildlife including countermeasures to protect wildlife habitats and the most useful wildlife hazing and preemptive capture strategies to protect the maximum number of the most critical resources; and (3) levels of wildlife protection and response resources needed to accomplish these strategies.

The building of a National Wildlife Plan will require a thoughtfully structured consensus process. One method would be for representatives of Wildlife Resource Management Agencies to actively participate in workshops or in an ecological risk assessment process designed to reach consensus on a wide range of wildlife issues.
Offshore Operations Following the Erika Oil Spill
Authors: Cabioc'h Fanch , Peigne Georges
Published: January 2013

On December 12, 1999, the Maltese tanker Erika, loaded with 30,000 tons of heavy fuel oil and sailing from Dunkirk (France) to Livorno (Italy), broke up into two parts in bad weather and sank 40 miles off the Brittany coast in the northern part of the Biscay Bay. The very first assessment of the situation revealed that between 5,000 and 7,000 tons of Fuel Oil No. 6 had been released into the sea. French Customs remote-sensing aircraft revealed many black and thick slicks drifting southwards at a speed of 1.2 knots.

On December 15, a French oil recovery vessel (ORV) called Ailette arrived on-site equipped with a Transrec 250 skimmer in very rough seas and was followed a few days later by four other ORVs: Alcyon (French) and three other ships belonging to the European fleet, British Shield (United Kingdom), Neuwerk (Germany), and Area (Netherlands). Finally, after 2 weeks at sea, but only a few days during which conditions permitted the recovery operation to proceed, more than 1,100 tons were retrieved by the five ORVs.

This paper describes the cleanup operation at sea, and analyses problems and difficulties encountered because of bad weather, the way the slick evolved, the way subsequent floating slicks behaved and the difficulty in detecting them, and the limitations of the equipment available in the event of this major oil spill.
Do Trajectories Belong in Area Plans? A New Approach in California Using the Trajectory Analysis Planner (Tap II)1
Authors: Hall Heather Parker , Barker Christopher , Gautier Peter , Holmes Tim , Hardwick James
Published: January 2013

The National Contingency Plan (NCP) requires that Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) be adequate to address the removal of a worst case discharge from a vessel or facility operating in or near the area. The U.S. Coast Guard took this requirement further by issuing guidance in 1992 that ACPs address response to worst case, maximum most probable, and most probable discharges. As a result, many ACPs include area-specific scenarios applying these discharge quantities. However, there remains very little guidance about including trajectories in the ACPs. For example, only three of California's six ACPs include trajectories from computer models; the remaining three contain only oil spill scenarios that incorporate committee-selected environmental conditions to help estimate where oil might go.

The 2000 revision of the San Francisco Bay and Delta ACP includes a new type of trajectory using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) Trajectory Analysis Planner (TAP II). TAP II is a statistical model rather than a single scenario-based deterministic model. It generates statistics that describe oil spill behavior using an ensemble modeling approach. These statistics are generated from an ensemble of thousands of possible trajectories resulting from hundreds of oil spill scenarios computed within a given location. This approach is designed specifically for planning purposes, and not response. A statistics-based approach facilitates the planning process by providing key information, including which shorelines have the highest probability of being impacted, the size of the area that might be affected, how quickly a response should be mounted, what quantity of oil could impact a shoreline location, which resources will be oiled, which assets will be affected, and the most threatening origin of possible oil discharge. The authors describe how the TAP II model employs ensemble modeling, detail its application in the 2000 version of the San Francisco Bay and Delta ACP, and discuss possibilities for future applications.
Combining Oil and Hazardous Materials Worst Case Discharge Scenarios
Authors: Wolf Martha A. , Baker Chuck
Published: January 2013

Consideration of credible worst case discharges (WCDs) is part of the contingency planning processes mandated by the Clean Air Act 112(r) and the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) to be included in Facility Response Plans, Area Contingency Plans, Risk Management Plans, and other related plans. The WCD must be in accordance with the National Response Plan. The process of developing a WCD gives the facility or Area Committee a tool to determine the resources and training needed, and sensitive areas that need to be protected. While working with Area Committees in developing WCDs, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region VIII has recognized the value of examining both oil and hazardous materials. In many cases, it is very effective to combine the two into one WCD, yet, in other cases, the scenario would be so far fetched that it is best to have two separate WCDs.

Response scenarios are complicated in those situations where an oil spill occurs along with the release of a hazardous chemical. For inland areas, the most likely scenarios involving the release of oil products and hazardous chemicals are associated with rail transportation adjacent to major waterways. Often, the oil spill will become of secondary importance when accompanied by a human life-threatening chemical release, but, with prior planning, human health can be protected and environmental damage associated with the oil spill can be minimized. Simultaneous oil and hazardous chemical releases complicate response actions. Additional agencies will be involved, and complications with regard to health and safety, and regulatory constraints are additional factors during these response actions. This paper describes some of these additional considerations in planning for an oil and hazardous chemical release and draw on the experiences derived from actual oil and hazardous material responses.
Cooperative Assessment of Natural Resource Injuries: Why Can It Work?
Authors: Grenon Stéphane , Waxman Jeffrey B.
Published: January 2013

Around the world, typically, when a spill situation occurs, the main objective of the responsible party (RP) is to reduce the costs of the response as much as possible. At the other end, governments will want to protect the environment in the most efficient manner. These two positions will often clash resulting in stalled interventions to the disadvantage of both parties. Unfortunately, this situation is common and can lead to prosecution of the ship by governmental authorities. Examples of this behavior were recently observed in some Canadian cases where response was prolonged unnecessarily because of a lack of collaboration from RP.

This paper will explore the benefits associated with a collaborative approach for the assessment of environmental damages between RP and governments. The authors will use a recent Canadian spill where such an approach was used to illustrate with concrete examples the benefits that where obtained.
A Case Study in Public Health Risk Assessment and Communication During the New Carissa In Situ Burning
Authors: Barnea Nir , Holloway Charles , Kirn Lilo , Orme Patricia
Published: January 2013

The cargo vessel New Carissa ran aground in February 1999 in Coos Bay, Oregon, only a few miles from nearby towns with a total population of 26,000. When the ship began leaking oil, in situ burning remained the only viable option to minimize a potentially major spill. Experts at the local, state, and federal levels cooperated in using modeling, previously done research, and monitoring, to conduct a public health risk assessment of the smoke plume on residents in the nearby communities, which were found to be very low. Risk communication was done to provide this information to the public and the media. Easily accessible information on in situ burning and improved communication between the Unified Command and local public health officials are recommended for similar future incidents.
New Carissa Response Air Operations
Authors: Miller Judith A.
Published: January 2013

In early February 1999, the unladen freighter M/V New Carissa ran aground near Coos Bay, Oregon. The subsequent oil spill, burning, and breaking, pumping, towing, and wreck removal efforts proved to be challenging and often unpredictable. Air operations were a critical and complex component of the New Carissa response. This paper contains an overview of the varied duties carried out utilizing aircraft, and discusses how both fixed-wing airplanes and helicopters were critical to response and salvage operations. The overview includes descriptions of air operations activities and discusses the types of aircraft utilized specific to each job. In addition, the challenges of successfully integrating air operations with the overall response will be addressed. New Carissa air operations included challenges, opportunities, and lessons that all responders will find useful.
IDENTIFICATION OF SENSITIVE AREAS FOR AREA CONTINGENCY PLANS IN ALASKA
Authors: Mutter Douglas L.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 requires identification of sensitive areas through the area contingency planning process. In 1992, a process was begun in Alaska to identify and document information about sensitive areas that could be affected by oil spills. Sensitive areas are based on natural resources and human uses, such as wildlife habitats, land management designations, fish hatcheries, cultural resources, hunting and fishing locations, and community water intakes. At the request of the U.S. Coast Guard, a Sensitive Areas Work Group (SAWG) was established in 1992 to prepare the “Sensitive Areas Section” of Alaska's first Subarea Contingency Plan (SCP).

The SAWG continues to identify sensitive areas for all 10 subareas of the state, covering 365 million acres of land and 47,000 miles of shoreline. The SAWG coordinates with and reviews sensitive areas identification and mapping carried out by federal and state agencies and oil spill response cooperatives. SAWG participants vary by subarea, but include federal and state natural resource trustee agencies, local governments, nonprofit organizations, oil spill response cooperatives, and oil industry companies. In 1995, the SAWG prepared a 5-year strategic plan with these objectives: (1) establish a process to develop and maintain sensitive areas information; (2) present, in a standard format, sensitive areas information in all 10 SCPs; (3) map sensitive areas and develop more detailed computer-generated maps; and (4) provide input to the development of detailed response plans.

Results to date include: (1) establishment of the SAWG as a statewide team for identifying and maintaining sensitive areas information for spill response planning; (2) completion of sensitive areas sections for all 10 SCPs; (3) participation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in preparing environmental sensitivity index (ESI) maps/data files for four subareas and initiating work on five others; and (4) participation in the creation of over 75 site-specific response strategies prepared by stakeholder teams for high-risk sensitive areas. The cooperative process used in Alaska could serve as a model for sensitive areas identification elsewhere.
OHMSETT TRAINS OIL SPILL RESPONDERS
Authors: Nolan Kathleen , Schmidt William , Lane James , Jensen David
Published: January 2013

The OHMSETT Test Facility, operated by the U.S. Minerals Management Service, is dedicated to testing full-scale oil spill response equipment, conducting research on innovative spill response technology, and conducting training sessions with oil. The facility's most recent contribution to increasing marine environmental protection is training public and private oil spill responders in the use of new and existing response technologies in a test tank under controlled conditions. The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) recently has increased the number and the frequency of their courses at OHMSETT. Increased training options and satisfied students make OHMSETT a unique training opportunity for the oil spill response community. Training at OHMSETT allows students to increase their recovery proficiency while receiving real-world training recognized by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the USCG. OHMSETT also is researching the idea of using the Sandy Hook Bay for actual field exercises. This would be an additional option for the oil spill responders' course taught by the National Spill Control School at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi.
RESPONSE QUALIFICATION SYSTEM: IS THE OIL SPILL RESPONSE INDUSTRY READY?
Authors: Linderman Ken
Published: January 2013

The oil spill response industry is continuously driven to elevate the level of readiness of response personnel. The industry challenges itself to maintain a roster of spill response personnel that are trained and ready to fulfill “specialty functions” and operate “specialty equipment” in the event of a major oil spill.

It is easy to respond to questions like: “Who are your oil spill response vessel operators?” or “Who are your response barge crew members?” However, how should one react when presented with the next set of questions: “What are your vessel operators qualifications?” or “How do you determine what qualifies them to perform that function?” Since it provides emergency response, the oil spill response industry is now asked these questions and is required to provide definitive responses. To avoid becoming complacent, it is necessary to provide a training curriculum that goes beyond the basics.

A basic training program that simply includes a 24- or 40-hour HAZWOPER course coupled with a course on booming and skimmers will not suffice. The spill response industry is brimming with individuals that possess basic training. Today, to maintain a high state of response readiness, an oil spill training program must offer more than the basic components. To be effective, response personnel must maintain the highest level of competency to ensure readiness when responding to an oil spill. The industry must be confident that it will succeed in its responsibility to operate response equipment efficiently and effectively. It is imperative that the oil spill response industry demonstrates to the governing agencies that it has the personnel with the necessary skills to operate special equipment and fulfill the specialty functions that arise during the course of an oil spill response. If not, the industry is putting the environment and itself at risk. Therefore, Alaska Clean Seas' latest efforts have been directed toward developing a highly competent oil spill Response Qualification System (RQS).
AUTOMATED ICS: A FRAMEWORK FOR SUCCESS
Authors: Costanzo Don
Published: January 2013

Over the years, many organizations have attempted to automate the Incident Command System (ICS). These attempts have ranged from computerizing T-cards to a nationwide spill operations system. Over time, these systems have had varying degrees of success. While certain inherent reasons exist for not automating ICS, they are outweighed by the tremendous potential of successful automation. The need to produce documentation, the integration of ICS sections, and the rapid change of information all lend themselves to automation. Successful ICS automation does not start with computerizing ICS forms. The hey to automating ICS is to automate both ICS and response processes. In a response effort, many separate and distinct processes occur daily. The requisitioning of resources, the planning and application of the response organization, cost accounting, and the development of an Incident Action Plan (IAP) occur many times during an incident. This paper describes a framework for automating and integrating these processes. This framework offers organizations a road map for successful ICS automation. The poster presentation includes a software demonstration that illustrates the benefits of integrated automation.
MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS USED FOR INLAND RESPONSES IN EPA REGION VIII
Authors: Wolf Martha A. , Christner Jan
Published: January 2013

Management systems are a focus of Sub-Area Contingency Plans (SACPs) developed in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region VIII. The key element to planning is working with facilities and local, state, tribal, and federal agencies to provide for coordinated response to oil and hazardous materials emergencies. Because a variety of management systems are used, even within small subareas, negotiation, education, and practice are required to encourage responders to set up incident command and to be prepared for expansion into a unified command structure when justified by the nature of the incident.

SACPs currently are being prepared for areas as small as two counties and as large as twelve counties within two states, two EPA regions, and one Canadian province. The SACPs contain the information needed by the incident commander and support personnel to provide a coordinated response among facilities, local, state, tribal, and federal agencies. Plans include a notification tree showing how initial communications between agencies are handled, phone lists of emergency responders and authorities, response roles, equipment lists, lists of trained response personnel, immediate actions for oil spill response, and a summary of the incident command system with forms that may be used by those agencies without their own. In plans that cross into Canada, additional coordination is required to ensure that all affected parties participate in a common management system and include the appropriate parties.

Facilities that may pose potential hazards are included in the planning process to encourage communication, cooperation, and planning prior to and during an emergency. Facilities have a vested interest in participating because establishing relationships with local, state, and federal responders reduces conflict during an actual response and because swift, effective response will minimize the costs of initial response, long-term restoration, and natural resource damages. This paper presents successful techniques used in Region VIII to prepare consolidated response plans for use by all levels of responders.
DEVELOPING AN OIL SPILL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR INDONESIA
Authors: Armstrong Louis J. , Gunawan Iwan
Published: January 2013

Indonesia is a major player in the world's oil and gas development. Much of the oil and gas exported from Indonesia is produced in the coastal and offshore areas. Protection and management of coastal resources are therefore high priorities for the government of Indonesia. Given the high priority of protecting the coast, an integrated oil spill management system has been developed for the East Kalimantan area of Indonesia. The system is comprised of a Geographical Information System (GIS) for management and interpretation of marine, coastal, and oil production/transportation data integrated with an oil spill trajectory model.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL SPILL MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE
Authors: Joh Seong-eok , You Song Hee , Lee Kyoung Hoon , Lee Soo Hyung , Lee Moon Jin
Published: January 2013

Oil spill countermeasure actions are combatants, and spilled oil is the enemy. A good operation map at the oil spill response plays a keystone role for victory as military combats. Various complicated geographical information—spill location, damaged areas, natural resources and positions of response resources like skimmers, booms and vessels—are involved in a spill situation. The development of Geographical Information System (GIS)-based spill management software was studied in the project entitled Computerized Oil Spill Response Support System in Korea, by Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute (KORDI) in cooperation with the Korea Maritime Police Agency (KMPA) and the Korea Environmental Science & Technology Institute (KESTI).

The spill management software was developed to implement computer operation maps of oil spill countermeasures on the desktop of spill responders. Spill responders can draw the spill positions, damaged areas, and locations of response. The management of cleanup activities is another important role of this software. The users of this software can record every response activity with the time, location, and input amounts of resources, which allow for the evaluation of response activities and estimation of cleanup costs. Fisheries damage also can be assessed using the preimplemented aquaculture field database. The integrated oil spill model can predict oil trajectory of future with computer graphics animation. Moreover, Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are included so spill responders can determine operational priority efficiently using the ESI and trajectory model predictions. This software is expected to give a great efficiency to spill responders and to be a good solution to manage oil spills.
MODELING THE WATER-ACCOMMODATED FRACTION IN OSCAR2000
Authors: Reed Mark , Singsaas Ivar , Daling Per S. , Faksnes Liv-Guri , Brakstad Odd Gunnar , Hetland Ben A. , Hofatad Jorunn N.
Published: January 2013

Oil Spill Contingency and Response 2000 (OSCAR2000) is a multicomponent 3-dimensional oil spill contingency and response model tool for analysis of alternative response strategies. The model allows specification of oil using an arbitrary number of separate components or pseudocomponents. This specification is retained throughout the model domain, such that detailed information on the behavior, fate, and effects of complex mixtures can be incorporated accurately into the model. This detailed representation allows the model to make full use of laboratory data that typically are derived for individual oil components or groups of components. Examples of such data include toxicity, degradation, dissolution, and evaporation rates. An example application demonstrates the potential importance of the degradation process in determining the eventual fate and effects of a deepwater release of oil.
ACCURATE SIMULATION OF OIL SLICKS
Authors: Tkalich Pavlo , Xiaobo Chao
Published: January 2013

Over the past three decades, simplified empirical formulas contributed greatly in a rapid evaluation of oil slicks spreading and drifting. In recent years, however, with the development of efficient numerical schemes and enormous improvement of computational resources, new alternatives have appeared. Nowadays oil spill operational models can afford to use more accurate and physically relevant mathematical formulations for the oil slick dynamics simulation.

The recently developed Multiphase Oil Spill Model (MOSM) describes the oil slick dynamics within the kinetically coupled two-layer approach. For the upper layer, the oil slick thickness is computed using the layer-averaged Navier-Stokes model, rewritten as the quasilinear mass-transport equation. The lower layer is represented by the oil droplet mixture in the wave-mixing layer of the water column. The oil horizontal movement within the slick and the mixing layer is calculated using a highly accurate numerical scheme. The theoretical model is verified against most popular empirical formulas. The model is used to explore the combined influence of wind and shear currents on the oil slick evolution.
A RISK-BASED DRILL CANDIDATE SELECTION SYSTEM FOR THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, OFFICE OF PIPELINE SAFETY1
Authors: Chang John , Taylor James S.
Published: January 2013

The Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS), U.S. Department of Transportation plans and conducts about 20 government-led tabletop exercises and two area exercises annually under its Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) drill program. Until recently, one of the main objectives in the drill candidate selection process each year was to select a mixture of operators whose pipeline facility spill response plans represented the range of plans required under the agency's OPA 90 regulation. The annual list of drill candidates represented large to small operators transporting crude oil and refined products in various regions of the country. While this approach has worked well, OPS wanted to ensure that the selection process was not inadvertently missing operators whose pipeline facility spills pose the greatest threats to safety and the environment. As a result, OPS developed a quantitative-based process to identify drill candidates. The process uses weighted factors, including input from the Regional Pipeline Safety Offices combined with professional judgment to produce a risk-based approach to help OPS select the operators to drill.
REMEDIATION AND TRANSPORTATION PLANNING, LAKE MARACAIBO, VENEZUELA
Authors: Gundlach Erich R. , Findikakis Angelos , Delgado Luis , Harding Alan
Published: January 2013

Lake Maracaibo in western Venezuela is one of the major oil-producing areas of the world with over 12,000 platforms connected by 15,100 km of pipeline, capable of producing 3 million barrels/day. To expedite oil export, the entrance to the lake was dredged beginning in 1938 and reached its present depth (14 m or 45 ft) in 1960 to permit the utilization of Lakemax oil tankers. The deeper channel, however, also altered the water quality of the lake, principally raising salinity and influencing the development of an anoxic zone. Several solutions to these changes have been suggested including reclosure of the channel, therefore excluding tankers.

This multiyear study focused on determining the quantity and sources of contaminants entering Lake Maracaibo, and then applied several computer models to determine short- and long-term changes in water quality due to modifications of the entry channel and in contaminant loadings. The final part of the study included development and cost analysis of alternative pathways to continue the transport of oil, coal, petrochemicals, and general cargo to and from the lake.

Results indicate that the oil industry contribution to contamination is minor compared to that from domestic discharges at the north end and from river inputs to the south, and that changes in channel configuration (including restoration to the predredged condition) do not improve water quality significantly. A concerted effort is needed to reduce land-based contamination to ensure any sustained improvement of the lake's water quality.
GUIDELINES FOR DISPERSANT USE IN NEW ZEALAND1
Authors: Stevens Leigh M. , Roosen John T. , Irving Paul
Published: January 2013

This paper describes guidelines for making decisions on dispersant use in New Zealand. The guidelines are designed to facilitate and document rapid and justifiable decisions for dispersant use during a marine oil spill, and were developed by modifying existing international models and information to suit N.Z. requirements. They are based around a simple flowchart that highlights the key questions that need to be answered during a spill. Each key question in the flowchart is linked to supporting information that provides further details, or directs the decision maker—normally a statutorily appointed On-Scene Commander (OSC)—to where the information can be obtained.

Although dispersant use is pre-approved in virtually all N.Z. waters, the guidelines do not provide hard and fast rules for when dispersants should or should not be used. The OSC is expected to judge, based on the information available and the type of values requiring protection, whether a dispersant response will result in a net environmental benefit, either on its own, or in combination with other response options. The guidelines provide a simple way to collect the information required to make decisions about dispersant use within a rapid, systematic, and flexible framework, with supporting information available where needed to make and document dispersant decisions.

The guidelines are designed specifically for use during a spill response, and as such are self-contained, concise, and easy to read, and allow quick access to the information essential for deciding about dispersant use. While they rely on the decision maker being knowledgeable about dispersant issues, they generally will be of value to anyone involved in spill response planning and decision making.
MODIFICATION OF THE DISPERSANT COREXIT®9500 FOR USE IN FRESHWATER
Authors: George-Ares Anita , Lessard Richard R. , Canevari Gerard P. , Becker Kenneth W. , Fiocco Robert J.
Published: January 2013

Recent inland spills in Latin America have generated interest in dispersant use for freshwater oil spills. However, oil spill dispersants primarily are formulated for use in marine waters. Dispersants that are designed for saltwater use show reduced effectiveness when applied in freshwater. The effectiveness of COREXIT® 9500 in low salinity waters varies with the type of oil, the dispersant-to-oil ratio (DOR), and other factors. The effectiveness of COREXIT® 9500 can decrease markedly at salinities of 15 ppt or less. The authors observed an increase in effectiveness of COREXIT® 9500 in freshwater when the dispersant was blended with an inorganic, divalent salt, such as calcium chloride, prior to use (patent pending). COREXIT® 9500* refers here to the blend of the salt and dispersant.

The Exxon Dispersant Effectiveness Test (EXDET) was used to evaluate dispersant performance in deionized water and in river water samples from Rio de la Plata, Argentina. COREXIT® 9500 showed 22% effectiveness on Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude oil in deionized water, a value indicative of poor effectiveness. Depending on the amount of calcium chloride added, COREXIT® 9500* showed up to 63% effectiveness on ANS crude oil in deionized water, which indicates good effectiveness. The effectiveness of COREXIT® 9500* and COREXIT® 9500 was compared for three additional crude oils both in deionized water and in river water. In all cases, the effectiveness of COREXIT® 9500 was lower compared with COREXIT® 9500*.
COOPERATIVE STUDIES ON THE TOXICITY OF DISPERSANTS AND DISPERSED OIL TO MARINE ORGANISMS: A 3-YEAR FLORIDA STUDY
Authors: Wetzel Dana L. , Van Fleet Edward S.
Published: January 2013

The present study was conducted to assess the toxicity of the water-accommodated fraction (WAF) and the chemically enhanced WAF (CE-WAF) of selected crude oils for both weathered and fresh oil. Test organisms included two standard test species, Mysidopsis bahia and Menidia beryllina, and a commercially important Florida marine fish, Sciaenops ocellatus. Tests ascertaining LC50 values were conducted under continuous exposure and spiked (declining exposure using flow-through toxicity chambers) conditions using Venezuelan Crude Oil (VCO), Prudhoe Bay Crude Oil (PBCO), and COREXIT® 9500 dispersant on the above species. Data suggest that the dispersant is less toxic than the WAF and CE-WAF of the tested crude oils. The toxicity of the CE-WAF of fresh VCO is similar to that of other oils under continuous exposure conditions, but may be slightly more toxic to some species under spiked exposure conditions. The CE-WAF of fresh VCO appears to be less toxic than the corresponding WAF for M. bahia, M. beryllina, and S. ocellatus. Fresh VCO appears to be much more toxic to M. bahia and M. beryllina than weathered VCO in spiked exposure tests for both the WAF and CE-WAF. The WAF of PBCO is apparently less toxic to the test organisms than the corresponding WAF of fresh VCO. The LC50 values of M. bahia with CE-WAF fractions of both fresh VCO and PBCO are similar, while the same PBCO CE-WAF fraction is less toxic for M. beryllina than fresh VCO CE-WAF. The toxicity of oils and dispersants were lowest in the spiked exposure weathered oil tests, which may be most representative of an oil spill under natural environmental conditions.
GOALS, OBJECTIVES, AND THE SPONSORS' PERSPECTIVE ON THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF THE CHEMICAL RESPONSE TO OIL SPILLS: ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS RESEARCH FORUM (CROSERF)
Authors: Aurand Don V. , Jamail Robin , Lessard Richard R. , Henderson George , Sowby Michael , Steen Alexis , Pearson Leslie
Published: January 2013

In the summer of 1994, a group of organizations sponsoring research related to the environmental effects of chemical oil spill treating agents organized a working group to coordinate their research activities in this area. The purpose of Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum (CROSERF), as defined at the first meeting, was to provide a mechanism for the exchange of ideas and coordination of research to state, federal, and international agencies; industry; academic researchers; and consultants engaged in research on the ecological effects of oil spill response chemicals, especially dispersants. Each of the primary sponsors had its own objectives for the program, and contributed to the design of the cooperative research efforts. Over the past 7 years, there have been nine CROSERF meetings, each serving to direct the research efforts and resolve issues of importance to all of the participants. Most of the program objectives were achieved, but declining research funds limited the scope of the toxicity-testing program. Nevertheless, the forum provided the means for resolving dispersant and dispersed oil toxicity issues and encouraging communication among participants. The laboratory toxicity data generated by CROSERF is the most complete information currently available for multiple oils and species.
ACUTE EFFECTS OF FRESH VERSUS WEATHERED OIL TO MARINE ORGANISMS: CALIFORNIA FINDINGS
Authors: Singer Michael M. , Jacobson Susan , Tjeerdema Ronald S. , Sowby Michael
Published: January 2013

Early experiences with dispersants led to a widely accepted paradigm in the United States that chemically dispersing oil led to increased ecological damage. Since then, dispersant formulations have evolved significantly, leading many in the oil spill response community to revisit the question of whether or not dispersing oil can help achieve an overall net ecological benefit. Spill response must necessarily involve weighing the costs and benefits of both dispersant use and non-use to resources potentially at risk. The majority of comparative data on the toxicity of dispersed and undispersed oil in the literature to date is based on fresh oil. In most circumstances, however, mounting of dispersant operations requires hours to days, making the use of data based on fresh oil problematic. Laboratory-weathered oil has been used in the evaluation of dispersant effectiveness, but its use in toxicological investigations has been limited. Using standardized methods, the authors have compared the acute aquatic effects of untreated and chemically dispersed oil in both its fresh state, and artificially weathered to simulate approximately 1 day at sea. Oil weathering was done under controlled conditions using accepted, repeatable methods. Findings show that weathering significantly reduces the amount of low molecular weight hydrocarbons, and generally elicits reduced toxicity from both untreated and dispersed oil, compared to fresh oil. Based on actual hydrocarbon exposures, however, in several instances aqueous solutions from dispersed and undispersed oil (both fresh and weathered) were essentially equitoxic.