bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Correlation of respiration and ultrasound production in rodents and bats
Authors: Roberts Laurence H.
Published: August 2009

Audible and ultrasonic cries of five species of myomoph rodent pups were generally found to be closely associated with the onset of the expiratory phase of respiration (recorded with a hot wire anemometer). Consideration of the patterns found and possible laryngeal mechanisms may help to explain the origin of the ultrasounds which differ considerably in physical structure from the typically “vocal” audible cries. Echolocation cries of the constant frequency bat Rhinolophus luctus were always associated with expiration, whereas the much shorter cries of two vespertilionids, Eptesicus serotinus and Plecotus auritus, although occurring at the onset of expiration at low repetition rates, could occur throughout the respiratory cycle at the highest rates recorded. The patterns found may well be adapted for the echolocation requirements of these bats. Using a simpler technique the long ultrasounds of adult rats were also found to be associated with expiration.
The biting and feeding habits of the Vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus*
Authors: Greenhall Arthur M.
Published: August 2009

Observations of how the common vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus, prepares wound sites with the teeth and tongue are described, as well as how the wounds are made. Included are the selection and preparation of the wound sites, shearing or shaving of hairs and feathers, a description of teeth and how they may be sharpened, followed by the mechanics of actual biting and feeding. Types of wounds described include the typical bite, plus previously unknown wounds made by scraping, shaving, shearing, rasping and a defensive bite; also discussed are alimentation, aberrant food habits, factors in saliva and water consumption. Pertinent literature is reviewed as well as implications for disease transmission. It is suggested that similar studies should be made on Diaemus and Diphylla, the other two genera of the Desmodontidae.
Roosting associations of flat‐headed bats, Tylonycteris species (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in Malaysia
Authors: Medway Lord , Marshall Adrian G.
Published: August 2009

Roosting associations of Tylonycteris pachypus and T. robustula were studied in West Malaysia. Both species roosted within the internodes of one species of bamboo, but were only once found together at roost. Roosting groups, which formed before entry in the morning, were not limited in size by the dimensions of the roost site. In both species the sexes exhibited different roosting behaviour, the males tending to be solitary and the females gregarious. Seasonal variations in associations occurred correlated with the reproductive cycle. Banding demonstrated that the populations were highly mobile, that the bats frequently changed roost sites, and that the roosting associations were of an ephemeral nature.
New fish fossils from the Pliocene of Wadi Natrun, Egypt
Authors: Greenwood Peter Humphry
Published: August 2009

New material from the Pliocene fish beds of Wadi Natrun, Egypt, is described, including a new species of Alestes (Characidae). A total of 15 freshwater and at least four marine genera are now known from the site. This fauna is reviewed with particular regard to the fossil history and zoogeographical relationships of its component taxa.
Axial changes in the nemertean egg and embryo during development and its phylogenetic significance
Authors: Iwata Fumio
Published: August 2009

On the basis of the axial relationship between the larva and adult, it is possible to divide the larvae of the members of the Heteronemertea and a species of the Palaeonemertea into five types, forming a sequential series in which the adult axis of each advances by an angle of 45° from that immediately preceding it. Phylogenetic consideration of the Nemertea has been undertaken in the light of evidence provided by the axiality of the embryos and the developmental data hitherto recorded.
Differences in the disposition of trichobothria in the Chernetidae (Pseudoscorpiones)
Authors: Gabbutt Peter D.
Published: August 2009

An analysis of the disposition of trichobothria in all the post‐embryonic stages of six British species of Chernetidae, similar to that employed by Gabbutt (1969) in his study of the Neobisiidae, shows that a linear relationship exists between the successive position of named trichobothria. A model, based on growing and non‐growing regions gives a good approximation to the data. The results are considered in relation to the use of trichobothrial position as an adult generic or specific character and as a device for separating the nymphs of this family.
Ecological studies on crater lakes in West Cameroon Fishes of Barombi Mbo
Authors: Trewavas Ethelwynn , Green J. , Corbet Sarah A.
Published: August 2009

In the West Cameroonian crater lake, Barombi Mbo, and its inflowing stream there are 17 species of fishes, of which 12, including the 11 cichlids, appear to be endemic. We give a systematic account of the endemics, including four new species and two new genera, Konia and Myaka. The ecology of the lake is described in relation to the feeding biology of the fishes, studied by underwater observation in the lake and the examination of stomach contents. The cichlids in Barombi Mbo probably evolved there from two or three ancestral populations and now show clear ecological separation in their feeding and breeding. The problem of speciation within the lake is of particular interest because of the apparent absence of physical barriers to account for the genetic isolation of incipient species.
On a polyploid complex of freshwater snails (Planorbidae: Bulinus) in Ethiopia
Authors: Brown D. S. , Wright C. A.
Published: August 2009

In Bulinus as in other Planorbidae the basic haploid chromosome number is 18 and B. tropicus belongs to a group of diploid forms (2n=36) distributed predominately in southern Africa. B. truncates belongs to a group of tetraploid forms (2n=72) occurring mainly in northern Africa and extending northwards beyond the limit of the diploid forms. Hexaploid (2n= 108) and octoploid (2n= 144) populations occur in Ethiopia. Observations were made on snails belonging to this polyploid complex collected from 69 localities in Ethiopia. Chromosome numbers were determined in gonad tissue and in embryos. Morphological features studied are the shell (spire length, columella shape, umbilicus, costulation), radula (size of the first lateral tooth and the shape of its mesocone), copulatory organ (presence or absence) and egg size. Biochemical features investigated are the body‐surface mucus, egg‐proteins and esterase iso‐enzymes.

Certain diploid populations conform to B. natalensis and others to B. tropicus but these extremes are connected by intermediates preventing taxonomic subdivision and the entire diploid group is regarded as a northern part of the range of a B. natalensis/tropicus complex. Ethiopian tetraploid populations are identified as B. truncates because of similarity to Egyptian snails in morphology and egg‐proteins and the susceptibility of some Ethiopian snails to infection with Egyptian Schistosoma haematobium. The shell spire is comparatively long in many hexaploid and octoploid populations, and distinctive egg‐protein patterns are given by octoploids but these groups do not provide clear‐cut taxonomic species.

Hexaploids and octoploids are associated with streams at high altitudes while diploids and tetraploids occur in various habitats, most frequently at lower levels. The comparative rarity of the tetraploid B. truncates probably is one of the factors that have apparently prevented the establishment of truncates‐borne strains of S. haematobium in Ethiopia, though present developments are likely to increase the abundance of tetraploid snails and provide opportunities for transmission of the parasite.
An analysis of aggregations formed by the caddis fly larva Potamophylax latipennis in its natural habitat
Authors: Campbell J. I. , Meadows P. S.
Published: August 2009

Cases of the larvae of the caddis fly Potamophylax latipennis (Curtis) (Trichoptera) were collected from a 60 m stretch of the River Allander, Milngavie, Dunbartonshire, Scotland. Water depth ranged from 2 to 25 cm and water speed from 0·25 to 0·66 m/sec. The river bottom consisted of gravel and stones lying on a compact silt substrate. The size of the stones ranged from under 1 cm to 22 cm in diameter. Larval cases were only found on the undersurfaces of large stones of a diameter 11 cm to 22 cm, and were not limited to any particular shape of stone. Analysis of the microdistribution of larval cases on the undersurfaces of the large stones revealed two levels of aggregation. Firstly, cases were found only on particular stones, and secondly, they were aggregated on particular areas of the undersurfaces of those stones. These aggregations may be the result of gregarious behaviour, or be caused by certain large stones and particular areas of the undersurfaces of those stones having the most suitable microenvironment for attachment. Cases usually faced into the current. A short description of the larval case is given.
Leg chaetotaxy and the classification of the Uropodina (Acari: Mesostigmata)
Authors: Evans G. Owen
Published: August 2009

Details of the segmental chaetotaxy of the legs of 47 species of Uropodina are given. On the basis of the ontogenetic development of the chaetotaxy, the Uropodina may be divided into two groups which coincide with the concepts of the Lower (Polyaspidoidea) and Higher (Uropodoidea) Uropodina of certain authors. Chaetotactic criteria do not support the classification of the Polyaspidini and Trachyuropodini sensu Hirschmann and Z‐Nicol within the Oplitinae Hirschmann & Z‐Nicol, the Diarthrophallini within the Uroactiniinae Hirschmann & Z‐Nicol or the genus Trachytes within the Uropodini.

A critical appraisal is given of the classification of the Uropodidae (based on “Gangmerk‐male”) by Hirschmann and Z‐Nicol.
Pinnipeds or sirenians at western Indian Ocean Islands?
Authors: Stoddart D. R.
Published: August 2009

Records of pinnipeds and sirenians are rare in the western Indian Ocean away from continental coasts. In the case of pinnipeds there are apparently no records at all in this area, except for occasional stray Elephant seals Mirounga leonina as far north as Mauritius and Rodriguez, and a single record of an undetermined species in the southern Maldive Islands: the Indian Ocean now lacks any counterpart of the Monk seals of the Caribbean and the Pacific (King, 1956, 1964). In the case of sirenians, Dugongs are widely distributed round the continental coasts of the Indian Ocean, including Madagascar, the Comoros, and Ceylon, but there is much less information concerning them on more remote Indian Ocean islands. This paper draws attention to hitherto unnoticed reports of animals which could be either pinnipeds or sirenians made by 18th and early 19th century navigators, and reviews some of the published evidence for the existence of these animals in the 17th and 18th centuries in the Mascarene Islands. It is shown that many of the reef islands of the tropical western Indian Ocean were formerly inhabited by seals, of undetermined species and now extinct, and that some of the early references to Dugongs in fact concerned seals.
The osteology and relationships of the Millerettidae (Reptilia: Cotylosauria)
Authors: Gow C. E.
Published: August 2009

The morphology of the Millerettidae is described in detail, based on careful preparation using the acetic acid technique. This shows that the Millerettidae constitute a closely knit natural group and results in a more satisfactory classification. Common to the group is the possession of anthracosaur‐like vomerine fangs. A second feature of major importance is that these animals do not have a solid lower temporal bar. It is suggested that the reason for this is to be sought in an understanding of cranial kinesis. The reason for the lack of a temporal bar can be traced back to Anthracosaurian amphibia and is due to expansion and contraction across the cheek region during jaw movements. (These movements were necessarily minimized during the transition from amphibian to reptile.) Following from this it is suggested that the Millerettidae may have given rise directly to the Squamata. The Archo‐sauria and Rhynchocephalia probably had an entirely independent origin. Only three genera are considered valid, viz. Miileretta (Broom, 1948) in which the temporal opening first appears, Millerosaurus (Broom, 1948) in which contact between jugal and quadratojugal is lost, though the jugal retains a crenellated posterior edge, and a new genus Milleropsis based on Millerosaurus pricei (Watson, 1957) in which there is still greater separation between jugal and quadratojugal and in which the posterior border of the jugal is quite smooth.
The life histories and distribution of the centipedes Rhysida nuda togoensis and Ethmostigmus trigonopodus (Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae) in Nigeria
Authors: Lewis J. G. E.
Published: August 2009

Observations on populations of Rhysida nuda togoensis and Ethmostigmus trigonopodus in Zaria, Nigeria, show that growth rates are very rapid and life cycles shorter than in centipedes from temperate regions. R. nuda togoensis reproduces when one year old and, in all probability, E. trigonopodus does so as well.

It is suggested that both species are enabled to continue feeding in damp areas after the rains have ended by virtue of their mobility and large size (with consequent greater resistance to desiccation). Increasing aridity drives them into crevices in the soil where a relatively rich fauna may persist through the dry season. The young appear at the beginning of the rains, thereby having the entire rainy season available for feeding.

The taxonomy of R. nuda togoensis is discussed and the distribution of both species in Nigeria is described. They are virtually absent from the dry sudan savanna vegetation belt.
The structure of the scales of Latimeria chalumnae
Authors: Smith Moya Meredith , Hobdell M. H. , Miller W. A.
Published: August 2009

Scales from four specimens of Latimeria chalumnae were examined in a dissecting microscope and then X‐rayed. Some were demineralized and prepared for routine histology. Others were cleared in cedarwood oil. Ground sections of plastic embedded scales were micro‐radiographed and electronmicrographs made of araldite embedded frozen scales. Corresponding 1 μm thick serial sections were examined in the light microscope.

The greater part of the scale is composed of layers of unmineralized isopedine surmounted by the exposed portion of the scale which is pigmented and ornamented by a series of denticles of tubular dentine tipped with enameloid. Between these two parts is a thin ridged bone‐like layer. In the electron micrographs the isopedine was seen to consist of layers of densely packed collagen fibres; the orientation of which was uniform in each layer but varied markedly from layer to layer. Only few cells were found between the fibre bundles.

The X‐rays revealed numerous concentric annulae and, lying approximately at right angles to these, a further series of ridges radiating from the centre of the scales.

It is suggested that the basal unmineralized isopedine and the ridged layer of bone‐like tissue covering it represents a highly modified cosmoid scale on which the denticles and pigmented layer have become superimposed.
Sparassocynus (Marsupialia, Didelphidae), a peculiar mammal from the late Cenozoic of Argentina
Authors: Reig O. A. , Simpson G. G.
Published: August 2009

The extinct genus Sparassocynus is known from the Montehermosan, Chapadmalalan, and Uquian stages of Argentina, spanning the Pliocene‐Pleistocene transition, and a relative occurs in the older Huayquerian. After a taxonomict review, the morphology of skull, mandible, and dentition is described. The short, triangular face, wide zygomata, broad cranium with large completely bone‐enclosed hypo‐ and epitympanic sinuses, and carnassialized molars are unique among known American marsupials. All these characters are functionally convergent toward living Australian phascogaline dasyurids, small marsupial carnivores, although phylogenetically Sparassocynus clearly represents a moderately specialized offshoot of the American family Didelphidae. It represents a small steppe carnivore now ecologically replaced, at least in part, by placental carnivores that spread from North America in the late Pliocene and Pleistocene.
Barnacle orientation and water flow characteristics in California Grey whales
Authors: Briggs K. T. , Morejohn G. Victor
Published: August 2009

Studies were made on barnacle orientations with reference to water flow seen on Grey whales taken by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in March, 1969. Water flow patterns were derived by laying cord transects along lines of barnacle orientation. Statistical evaluation of directional consistency within barnacle colonies revealed that 95% of the individuals were within 14° of a mean direction. Flow patterns were generally parallel to the long axis of the whales with modification in the areas of anterior rostrum, lips, throat, and flippers. No data were available concerning water flow on the flukes.
The jump of the click beetle (Coleoptera, Elateridae)—a preliminary study
Authors: Evans M. E. G.
Published: August 2009

A preliminary account is given of the jump of the click beetle, Athous haemorrhoidalis (F.). The jump is normally made from an inverted position. It involves a jack‐knifing movement whereby a prosternal peg is slid very rapidly down a smooth track into a mesosternal pit. The muscles which produce this movement are allowed to build up tension by a friction hold on the dorsal side of the peg. The anatomy of this jumping mechanism is briefly described. Ciné recording showed that the jump was usually nearly vertical and could exceed 0.3m in height; the beetle normally rotated several times head over tail during a jump. The jump was produced by a very rapid upwards movement of the beetle's centre of gravity during the jack‐knifing action. In a typical jump, a 4 × 10−5 kg beetle could be subjected to an upwards acceleration of 3800 m/s−2 (380 g). The minimum work done and the power output of the muscles causing jumping have been calculated. A simple mechanical model has been constructed to simulate a jump, and several possible ways in which the jumping mechanism could operate have been discussed.
The feeding behaviour of some common lotic insect species in two streams of differing detrital content
Authors: Fahy Edward
Published: August 2009

The trophic relationships of the benthic invertebrates at two places of differing detrital content in an oligotrophic stream system were examined during a 12 month period.

The sites are described and their detrital contents and other abiotic features compared.

The faunal list at each site is fairly similar but certain species are more common at or restricted to one or other site. The reasons for this are briefly discussed.

The predators and omnivores are in two groups: the first feed only on certain prey and are thus limited by the distribution of their prey. The others consume a wide range of prey and have wider distributions.

The predator species are non‐selective in their choice of prey which are devoured in an intensity which cannot however be related to their density in the benthos.

In poorer trophic conditions predators adapt by consuming a greater quantity of algae and detritus; cannibalism and interpredator‐predation occur. The prey species are more intensely consumed under poor trophic conditions.

The ecology of two species of predatory Plecoptera is examined and the results indicate that competition probably occurs between them.
Palpebral vibrissae in the Sumatran rhinoceros (Didermocerus sumatrensis
Authors: Cave A. J. E. , Wingstrand K. G.
Published: August 2009

The erroneous notion that palpebral vibrissae (eyelashes) are wanting from the lower eyelid of the Rhinocerotidae is attributable to Pocock (1914), whose observations were apparently made on museum skins and mounted specimens only. Examination of living and of freshly dead specimens shows such vibrissae to be present upon both eyelids in three of the five extant rhinoceros forms, viz. Rhinoceros unicornis, Diceros bicornis, Ceratotherium simum (Cave, 1969; Van den Bergh, 1970).
Comparative ecology of three pteropid bats in Rio Muni, West Africa
Authors: Jones Clyde
Published: August 2009

Data on morphologic features, habits, stratification, flight, and thermal response are presented for Eidolon helvum, Epomops franqueti, and Micropteropus pusillus from Rio Muni, West Africa. Relative abundance and reproduction activities of these pteropids are concordant with seasonal rainfall and availability of foods in Rio Muni. There are major differences between these sympatric species with regard to roosting sites, foods and feeding behaviour, levels of flight, and aerodynamic properties. Thermal responses vary between the species and are correlated with differences in behavioural thermoregulation.
Reactions of the adult female of the soft scale Kilifia acuminata to some physical factors in laboratory experiments (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae)
Authors: Habib A. , Salama H. S. , Saleh M. R.
Published: August 2009

The reactions of the soft scale insect Kilifia acuminata (Signoret) towards some environmental factors namely light, temperature and air humidity have been studied experimentally in the laboratory, to detect their effectiveness on the insect's orientation towards its habitat. The mechanisms of the insect's orientation towards these factors have been also discussed. Light seems to be the most important factor regulating the insects distribution on different zones of the mango trees in natural conditions in all seasons and this is followed by temperature.

The soft scale insect, Kilifia acuminata (Signoret) reacts positively to light. The simple eyes are the photoreceptors by means of which the insect can sum up the light from various directions and steers in a path towards the high intensity beam. The insect reacts skototactically towards dark objects.

The linear velocity of the insect significantly increases with the increase of temperature. It has a zone of thermopreferendum extending between 22° and 32°C. Above 37°C, the insect is sensitive to small temperature differences of 2°C.

At different humidity combinations below 75% R.H., the insect prefers the moist side, while in the upper range above 83% R.H., it usually prefers the dry side. The preferred zone of humidity extends between 75 and 83%.

Orthokinesis, klinokinesis and klinotaxis are the main mechanisms regulating the insect reaction towards different physical factors.

The insect behaviour and its correlation to the normal environment is also discussed.
Conception dates in relation to age and condition in two populations of Red deer in Scotland
Authors: Mitchell Brian , Lincoln G. A.
Published: August 2009

The conception dates of wild Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in two parts of Northern Scotland (the Isle of Rhum in the Inner Hebrides, and Glen Feshie in the Central Highlands) were estimated from foetus weights and from the known birth dates of calves. In both localities, the conceptions were spread over periods of about 100 days from late September to late December with a peak in October. The median conception date was seven to ten days earlier on Rhum than at Glen Feshie.

The conception data from shot hinds showed distinct patterns in relation to age, whether or not the hinds had current year's calves, and to body condition. Body condition may be the most important “secondary factor” influencing the time of conception; hinds in poor condition tended to conceive later than those in good condition. Body condition could also account for year to year fluctuations in the time of breeding; hinds tended to breed earlier in years when they were in better condition.
Reproduction in the female African tree rat (Grammomys surdaster)*
Authors: Bland K. P.
Published: August 2009

Under laboratory conditions, the African tree rat, Grammomys surdaster surdaster (Thomas & Wroughton, 1908), had four‐ or five‐day oestrous cycles and sterile mating induced a 12‐ or 13–day pseudopregnancy. Fertile mating resulted in a pregnancy of 24 days and litters usually consisted of two, three or four young. Mating at the post‐partum oestrus was rare, but oestrus recurred four or five days later, irrespective of whether or not a litter was being suckled. Conception frequently occurred at this oestrus. Pregnancy length was not influenced by the number of young suckling and delayed implantation was not observed. Puberty usually occurred between 50 and 70 days of age but first conception occurred most frequently between 80 and 100 days of age.
The ear in Amphisbaenia (Reptilia); further anatomical observations
Authors: Wever Ernest Glen , Gans Carl
Published: August 2009

The anatomy of the ear, and especially of the sound‐receptive and conductive system, was studied in nine species of amphisbaenians. In all species a region of skin is used as the sound‐receptive surface, and the vibrations are transmitted along a columellar apparatus consisting of cartilage and bone that expands to form a footplate in the oval window of the cochlea. In all species but one the receptive skin area is on the face; in the form Bipes biporus it is in the region of the neck constriction.

The structures of the inner ear present a fairly uniform pattern, except for species variations of nearly four‐fold in the size of the hair‐cell population. The amphisbaenian extracolumella is shown to be an epihyal and not homologous to the structure of the same name in lizards.
Circadian rhythms of activity, ventilatory frequency and heart rate in the adult River lamprey, Lampetra fluviatilis
Authors: Claridge P. N. , Potter I. C. , Hughes G. M.
Published: August 2009

Activity and the electrocardiogram and respiratory potentials of 17 adult River lampreys, Lampetra fluviatilis, acclimated to 7°± 1°C and a light/dark cycle of 11/13 hours, were recorded throughout the spawning run (November to April). Activity was far greater in the dark in all but the sexually mature animals, reflecting behaviour in the field. A circadian rhythm was also observed in the heart rate during periods of inactivity, and this was correlated with an increase in ventilatory frequency or amplitude. A similar rhythm was not present in the sexually mature animals. Moreover, heart and ventilatory frequencies tended to increase during the spawning run. A whole number ratio between heart rate and ventilatory frequency was seen in only 11 of 425 recordings.
A new species of Oncocypris (Ostracoda) from a crater lake in West Cameroon
Authors: Green J.
Published: August 2009

A new species, Oncocypris debundshae, is described from the crater lake on Cape Debundsha.
A quantitative system of age analysis for the dog‐whelk, Nucella lapillus
Authors: Coombs Valerie‐Anne
Published: August 2009

Past attempts to age classify dog‐whelks are revised briefly. The most satisfactory method is a system which relies upon familarity of morphological characteristics with which to separate population samples into five different classes. An attempt has been made to quantitate this system. Definite standards have been suggested as the criteria with which to separate the five age classes, and a series of simple methods have been demonstrated which, when followed give finite values for each of these standards. The standards suggested are: (i) the lower limits for shell‐length in mature individuals; (ii) the lip‐thickness coinciding with maturity; (iii) the upper limits for shell‐length in juvenile crevice dwellers. The methods of estimate for values for these standards are illustrated in practice with population samples from Blackrock, Sussex. The values thus obtained and the methods used in each estimation are discussed with view to their validity. It is reasonable to suspect that the quantitative age classification system can be used to classify dog‐whelks from any shore provided large enough population samples are collected to estimate the values for each standard. Use of the system is further demonstrated by classification of animals from the shore at Martin's Haven, Pembrokeshire.
An ultrastructural study of shell regeneration in Mytilus edulis (Mollusca: Bivalvia)
Authors: Meenakshi V. R. , Blackwelder Patricia Lurie , Wilbur Karl M.
Published: August 2009

The sequence of changes following experimental removal of a central region of one valve of Mytilus edulis included: (1) the secretion of periostracum similar to one of the three layers of normal periostracum; (2) calcification on the periostracum in a pattern corresponding to the form of the periostracal surface; (3) the deposition of prismatic and nacreous shell layers also present in normal shell; and (4) the frequent formation of a complex prismatic‐like shell. The deposition of all layers was carried out by a region of the mantle which normally deposits only nacreous shell.
The mechanism of locomotion of Agriolimax reticulatus (Mollusca: Gastropoda)
Authors: Jones H. D.
Published: August 2009

The locomotion of Agriolimax reticulatus is described and the musculature directly responsible for producing the pedal waves has been identified. The probable mechanism of locomotion is discussed.
Head posture in the Hominoidea
Authors: Moore W. J. , Adams L. M. , Lavelle C. L. B.
Published: August 2009

The angle between the antero‐posterior plane of the occipital condyles and a vertical axis at right angles to the Frankfort Horizontal was measured in Homo sapiens, Gorilla, Pan, Pongo and casts of two Neanderthal skulls, the Rhodesian skull and three australopithecine skulls. The angle was much greater in adult Homo sapiens and in the Neanderthal and australopithecine casts than in the adult groups of the three apes. In the immature groups, the angle underwent little change with age in Homo sapiens but in Gorilla and Pan the angle decreased markedly during the growth period. These findings can be readily correlated with the habitual bodily posture of each of the extant genera. In Homo sapiens, an upright posture is adopted early in life while in the African apes the young tend to move by brachiation and thus have an habitual posture of the spine closer to the vertical than in the “knuckle walking” adults. The large value of the angle in the Neanderthal casts also correlates well with the now widely held view that this group has a fully upright posture. However, the finding of a relatively low value for the angle in adult Pongo—a brachiator—runs counter to the general thesis that the angle is a direct reflection of overall posture and casts some doubt upon a conclusion that the large value of the angle in the australopithecine fossils necessarily indicates that these creatures stood upright.
Continental drift, paleoclimatology, and the evolution and biogeography of birds
Authors: Cracraft Joel
Published: August 2009

An analysis is presented of the influence that late Mesozoic and Tertiary paleogeography and paleoclimatology may have had on the evolution and biogeography of birds. Many intercontinental connections, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, persisted until the late Cretaceous and/or early Tertiary. Moreover, climates at these times were warmer and more equable than in the late Tertiary, and birds could breed in and disperse through high latitudes. It is concluded that a number of avian orders and families had their origin in Gondwanaland and predrift configurations of the continents were major determinants of their biogeography. Penguins, ratites, galliforms, and suboscines among others are the best examples. Tropical‐subtropical Eurasia was probably the centre of origin for the oscines, and primitive stocks entered the New World mostly through Beringia and mostly prior to the Miocene (but also via a North Atlantic land connection prior to the early Eocene). Continental drift and paleoclimatology have clearly influenced the evolution and biogeography of birds, and future advances in the systematics of the higher taxa will undoubtedly provide further confirmation of this.
Studies on the ecology and systematics of a new species of clawed toad, the genus Xenopus, from western Uganda
Authors: Tinsley R. C.
Published: August 2009

A new species of African clawed toad, Xenopus kigesiensis sp.n., has been recorded from Lake Mutanda in South‐west Kigezi, Uganda. Information on the biology and morphological variation of the species has been compiled from a sample preserved in the field and from a collection of living specimens maintained in the laboratory. An analysis of the characters of the species has been conducted and its relationships with the six known species of the genus assessed.

In the early part of this century the clawed toad populations occupying the lakes of South‐West Kigezi exclusively comprised a Xenopus laevis subspecies. It appears that X. kigesiensis sp.n. has recently migrated into Lake Mutanda and has replaced the previous form. Hybridization experiments have demonstrated the reproductive isolation of X. kigesiensis sp.n. from two subspecies of X. laevis. There is evidence of a change in the ecology of the lakes during the period of apparent invasion.

The locality of X. kigesiensis sp.n. lies close to one of the main watersheds of Central Africa; taxonomically the toad forms an important link in the series of known Xenopus species.
Population dynamics of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana)
Authors: Hanks J. , McIntosh J. E. A.
Published: August 2009

Recent studies on elephant populations from East Africa and from Zambia have suggested that as population density increases, so does the mean age at puberty and the mean calving interval. At the same time there is also an increase in the proportion of old females that are reproductively inactive. By constructing elephant population models, it is possible to investigate the extent to which these “homeostatic mechanisms” will regulate an elephant population. The models indicate that a change in the duration of the calving interval is more important as a population regulating mechanism than a change in the age at puberty, and that the proportion of old reproductively inactive females is of little significance. The importance of neonatal mortality in controlling population growth is emphasised by the models, and they also show that an annual population increase of 4% would be close to the maximum value.
Specific foetal growth rates of cetaceans
Authors: Frazer J. F. D. , Huggett A. ST G.
Published: August 2009

The numerous data in the International Whaling Statistics relating foetal length to date of catch have been studied. They can be used as alternatives to cube roots of foetal weights to give rates of foetal growth and for the computation of data of conception and foetal ages. There are major differences between the Mysticeti and Odontoceti. The main gestation period for the former is 10.8.±1‐2 months and for the latter 14 ± 2 months. In both groups the greatest birth‐weight is attained by an increased foetal growth rate, to such an extent in the rorquals that the gestation period in the largest is actually shorter than in the smaller species. There are dietetic and metabolic differences between the two sub‐cohorts. The outstanding one is that pregnant mysticetes appear to stop feeding and lose body fat to the foetus during late pregnancy, at the time when the foetal increase in size is maximal. The causes of the differences in growth and metabolism of the two groups are unknown, apart from those imposed by differences in their ecology.
Additional notes on the food of the Common porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)
Authors: Rae Bennet B.
Published: August 2009

Investigation of the food (through stomach contents) of Common porpoises caught in Scottish waters, discussed in an earlier paper, has been continued at the Marine Laboratory. The results confirm the earlier conclusions and stress the prominence of fish in the food. They also indicate the comparatively small size of the fish eaten and the predominantly pelagic or semi‐pelagic nature of the majority of species in the diet.
X‐ray analysis coupled with scanning and transmission electron microscopic observations of spermatozoa of the African lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus
Authors: Purkerson M. L. , Jarvis J. U. M. , Luse S. A. , Dempsey E. W.
Published: August 2009

Spermatozoa from the reproductive tubules and epididymis of the African lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus, were examined by scanning, transmission and scanning‐transmission electron microscopy. The biflagellate nature of lungfish spermatozoa was confirmed as a general rule by examining large numbers of specimens in the scanning mode. All have two flagella with attached undulating membranes, a short middle piece and a large sperm head without condensation of the nucleus. The various portions of the sperm have been subjected to analysis of the X‐rays emitted upon electron bombardment, and the relative concentrations of several elements have been determined.
Observations on the ecology and breeding biology of the genus Chiromantis (Amphibia: Rhacophoridae)
Authors: Coe Malcolm
Published: August 2009

The construction of foam nests by the Anura seems to be a habit that has evolved separately in all the main zoogeographical regions. Chiromantis is a large tree frog weighing up to 5.5 g which is restricted to the Ethiopian region. This genus comprises three species which are found in the three main African biomes from rain forest (C. rufescens), through woodland (C. xerampelina) to semi‐arid savannah (C. petersii). The female of C. rufescens is shown in this study to construct her nest with the assistance of three males, and like the other two species, the nests are always fastened to objects over temporary water sources.

Although the rain forest and savannah species are the same size the latter lays twice as many eggs as the former. Additionally it is shown that the eggs of C. petersii are only half the size of C. rufescens. These facts can be correlated with the degree of permanence of the water source over which the nest is constructed.

Features of the water economy and ecology are also described.
The ocular light organ of Bathothauma lyromma (Mollusca: Cephalopoda)
Authors: Dilly P. N. , Herring Peter J.
Published: August 2009

The ocular photophore of Bathothauma emits light. The presumed photogenic tissue is cellular and contains a mass of highly organized crystalloids. One of its surface abuts against a fibrous system that probably acts as a light guide. The rest of the organ is surrounded by a pigment screen of modified iridophores.
The epipharyngeal bursa in the Rhinocerotidae
Authors: Cave A. J. E.
Published: August 2009

The mammalian bursa epipharyngea commonly presents as an insignificant mucosal recess, not always recognisable macroscopically. In some mammalian forms, however, it is developed into an obtrusive diverticulum (sacculus epipharyngeus) extending caudally from the epipharynx between the cranial base and the pharynx roof. Among the Rhinocerotidae such an epipharyngeal saccule has been recorded for Ceratotherium simum. Herein it is described for the first time in Rhinoceros unicornis, Diceros bicornis and Didermocerus sumatrensis. Its tonsillar nature is established on morphological and histological grounds.
The salinity tolerance of trichodinids (Protozoa) parasitic on the Three‐spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus
Authors: Dartnall H. J. G.
Published: August 2009

Sticklebacks from a variety of habitats have been examined for trichodinids. Two species of trichodinid were found on fish at every site. They were identified as Trichodina domerguei subsp. domerguei and T. tenuidens, and these identifications are discussed in relation to previous observations by other workers. The tolerance to change in salinity has been examined for both species and the activity of the contractile vacuole of T. domerguei has been examined in detail.
Male behaviour and territoriality in the Yellow‐bellied marmot
Authors: Armitage Kenneth B.
Published: August 2009

Five populations of marmots were studied in Colorado from 1962 through 1972. Males are classified by age as yearlings, two‐year olds, and adults. Socially, marmots are colonial, peripheral, or transient. Each population was divided into four age‐sex classes, male yearlings, female yearlings, male adults, female adults, for analysis of social behaviour. Social behaviour was amicable or agonistic. Both types of behaviour occurred between male yearlings and each of the other age‐sex classes. Play‐fighting characterized social behaviour among male yearlings. Agonistic behaviour characterized social interactions between male yearlings and male adults. Male yearlings avoided male adults and usually dispersed from the locality. Adult male aggression enhanced but was not necessary for dispersal of yearling males. Agonistic behaviour between males and the four age‐sex classes was not related to population density.

Territorial males are conspicuous and advertise their presence by tail flagging. Many colonial males patrol their territory. Adult male social behaviour is predominantly agonistic. Mean rates of amicable and of agonistic behaviour between adult males and adult females were greater for years of male turnover than for years of male returns.

Territoriality is characterized by exclusive use of the area by the colonial male, vigorous defence against transient or peripheral males, and by a relatively fixed area. A decrease in the number of males in an area causes an increase in the size of territories. Additional males in an area causes a decrease in the size of territories. The mean size of 24 typical territories is 0.67 ha. Reduction in the number of territories in an area was associated with increased agonistic behaviour among adult males. Fights were rare and occurred when the territorial system was unstable.

The major functions of the territorial system are enhanced reproduction in a limited environment, enhanced outbreeding and enhanced fitness of colonial males.
A multivariate study of the external measurements of the Sperm whale (Physeter catodon)
Authors: Machin David
Published: August 2009

The methods of principal component analysis and of canonical analysis are applied to data of the external measurements of the Sperm whale (Physeter catodon). The principal component analysis summarizes the main features of the data in the first four components and suggests those characters of prime importance while the canonical analysis permits comparisons between those whales caught at several locations.
The structure and diversity of the animal communities in a broadland reedswamp
Authors: Mason C. F. , Bryant R. J.
Published: August 2009

The fauna of a Phragmites reedswamp at Alderfen Broad, Norfolk, is described in terms of structure and diversity. Three transects were laid parallel to the water's edge at 1 m (T1), 10 m (T2) and 25 m (T3) from the reedswamp/open water interface. Twenty samples were taken randomly along each transect in July and all the macroinvertebrates in the samples were collected. The pH at each site was measured. The pH fell from 8–4 at T1 to 6–4 at T3.

The fauna of the three transects was analysed by recurrent groups and by plotting the log abundance against the frequency for each species and dividing the resulting graph into units in terms of abundance and frequency. Both methods gave very similar results but the recurrent groups analysis only gave information on the most frequent species. The recurrent groups of the three transects had no common elements. The abundance/frequency analysis is simple to perform and could be of considerable use in evaluating sites for conservation purposes.

Transect T2 had the greatest species diversity, equitability and evenness, T3 the least. Reasons for this are discussed.
The ultrastructure of the cuticle of some British lumbricids (Annelida)
Authors: Richards K. Sylvia
Published: August 2009

The ultrastructure of the cuticle of 11 species of British lumbricids is described. The number of unbanded collagenous fibre layers varies with the species and is roughly proportional to the size of the adult worm. Four zones are discernible in the cuticle matrix in all species except E. foetida where the outermost zone shows subdivision.

Microvilli, cytoplasmic extensions from the epithelial surface, occur. The “long” and “short” microvilli of other workers are shown to be different views of the same structure. The microvilli have an ovoid base with the two poles forming low shoulders on either side of the ascending microvillus. The bases are oriented at right‐angles to the longitudinal axis of the worm and the microvilli are arranged in regular staggered rows along the same axis. Details of the spatial alignment of the microvilli are given and the possible role of these regularly arranged structures as factors in the orientation of the collagen fibre unit filaments is discussed, and it is speculated that they might also have some proprioceptive function.

Distally the microvilli terminate among the surface epicuticular projections and are shown to give rise to them. The epicuticular projections are peanut‐shell shaped with a distinct substructure consisting of a 8 nm electron dense lining and two parallel dense discs, each 8 nm deep, above the “waist”.

The mucous cell pores are lined with electron pale microfibrillar material and at the base of the pore a circlet of 13–15 short microvilli, with prominent tonofilaments, arises from the cytoplasm of the mucous cell. Surrounding the pore microvilli are numerous, small, membrane bound mucous pore particles.
The inter‐spawning interval of the female Three‐spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus
Authors: Wootton R. J.
Published: August 2009

Female Three‐spined sticklebacks spawn several times in a breeding season, at intervals of a few days. The changes that take place in females during the interval between successive spawnings were analysed. The average time between spawnings was 87.5 hours. Between spawnings females increased in weight by between 15 and 30%. The bulk of this weight increase was lost when the eggs were spawned. The increase in weight was because of an increase in weight of the ovaries, which showed an increase in both dry matter and water content. After spawning the ovaries formed 8 to 9% of the total body weight, and this increased to up to 24% just prior to the next spawning. The ovaries were maximally hydrated immediately after spawning. There were no significant changes in the calorific value of the ovaries, but the calorific value of the rest of the body was a minimum just after spawning. It was estimated that between spawnings females were making a net gain of energy at an average rate of 2 cal/hour. After spawning, courtship behaviour by the females waned, but recovered over the last half of the interval between spawnings. The inter‐spawning interval of the Three‐spined stickleback provides a useful situation in which physiological and nutritional aspects of reproduction in a teleost fish can be studied.
The timing of reproduction in Red deer (Cervus elaphus) in relation to latitude
Authors: Fletcher T. J.
Published: August 2009

A survey was carried out of the birth dates of Red deer calves born in zoological gardens throughout the world in an attempt to assess the effects of latitude on the timing of conception. The results showed that Red deer in the Northern Hemisphere calve at a similar time of the year irrespective of latitude, and that there is no increase in the length of the calving season as the equator is approached; south of the equator, calving is shifted by six months. Populations living at similar latitudes can show small variations of up to two weeks between the median calving dates.