bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Regulation of Movement within States
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

Because the freedom of movement is somewhat encouraged through its protection by human rights, it is necessary for States to regulate the residence, whereabouts, and physical movement of persons within a particular set of reasonable limitations. The methods of accomplishing such regulation and the basis and justification of such necessity must comply with the criteria established by the human rights that concern the freedom of movement. While public policy accounts for how legislative or administrative methods for controlling the residence and movement of persons within territories, the purposes and forms of such measures vary between and within countries depending on the degree of importance given to public interest that States attempt to protect through enforcing limitations. While it is impractical to discuss the various restriction measures, this chapter looks into the issues of legality of particular restriction through examining the nature and permissibility of such measures.
Exclusive Movement and Residence of Indigenous People on Traditional Lands
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

Although there may be certain restrictions regarding the entry and residence of non-indigenous persons within State bounds that protect identity, lifestyle, and other collective rights of indigenous people that may be associated with traditional lands, these, however, are usually undermined as an important aspect of the human rights' international standards. Because such standards are based on the ideology of Western nations that the centre of protection is grounded on the freedom of an individual, human rights usually tend to focus on the rights of the individual. The classical conceptions of human rights which are concerned with instruments of general application used in the setting of standards did not consider the rights of groups, except maybe in the case of self-determination.
Derogation of Freedom of Movement
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

At times when nations are undergoing states of war or national emergency, it can be noticed that throughout history, States have veered away from the protection of human rights. The States attempt to justify such actions through pointing out how the State should take the proper measures in maintaining its stability and ensuring its security against certain forms of delinquency that puts both individual and collective interests at risk. Although human rights standards recognize that there are certain incidences in which the principle of derogation must be imposed, a set of criteria that is well-defined is established to limit the occurrences of its application since derogation during states of emergency is believed to lessen the quality and degree of human rights.
Provocation: The Case for Abolition
Authors: Wells Celia
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the Provocation exculpation, stating the need for its abolishment due to the underlying sexist, racist, and homophobic factors that the accused may put forward with regards to provocation. To give an insight, a person may have been ‘provoked’ to commit the act of murder by their sheer attitude towards a certain person. This would not be the same for a person, for example, motivated to commit a murder due to simple hatred of the person or perhaps even who had been outright provoked into committing the act. With this in mind, it is suggested that Provocation as an excuse for murder should be abolished since it is ‘encourages’ racism, sexism, and the like with regards to murder cases and similar scenarios.
Context and Culpability in Involuntary Manslaughter: Principle or Instinct?
Authors: Clarkson C. M. V.
Published: April 2012

Manslaughter, like homicide, sits in a neutral position with regards to English criminal law. This chapter identifies several types of manslaughter and its corresponding investigation and prosecution. These range from cases such as constructive manslaughter and gross-negligence manslaughter to corporate killing and killing by gross carelessness. The chapter mentions that these cases should serve as a stepping stone to the outright reform of present criminal law, citing factors such as separate offences and their respective fault requirements. It also provides an in-depth discussion of the aforementioned cases with the differing types of manslaughter put forth by English law and how they should be taken into account with regards to the law's overall reform in the present setting. Overwhelming as it may be, the proposal cannot be ignored without overlooking the outlying components that make up the situation outlined in the aforementioned cases.
Sentencing in Homicide
Authors: Wasik Martin
Published: April 2012

This chapter focuses on the sentencing of the offence of manslaughter; a conclusion of sorts as it takes into account previously discussed passages in the preceding topics. The chapter fist provides a brief history of the sentences carried out in the history of English criminal law, citing several cases ranging from the common man all the way up to businessmen and even politicians. The broad definition of manslaughter and homicide is often disregarded with the current sentencing practice, and thus a reworked structure is presented within the essay as a means to rectify the process. This chapter also discusses the future of sentencing guidelines in criminal law in the modern setting and hopes to bring a distinction with sentencing with regards to murder, homicide, and manslaughter.
Vision, behaviour, and the single neuron
Authors: Rainer Gregor , Logothetis Nikos K.
Published: April 2012

This chapter starts by describing some of the historical developments that represent the origins of single-neuron recording and first attempts to relate the observed neural activity to behaviour. It also provides an overview of the cortical areas of the monkey that process visual information and discusses some of the relevant literature for each area. It then reviews more specifically the progress that has been made in the understanding of different regions of the monkey brain by recording the activity of single neurons. The studies outlined in this chapter represent only a small sample of the wealth of information that has been collected by recording the activity of single neurons in monkeys. Nevertheless, it shows that important progress has been made, not only in the understanding of the representation of sensory stimuli, but also in uncovering neural correlates of cognitive operations such as attention, decision-making, or associative memory formation.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography studies of motion perception, eye movements, and reading
Authors: Greenlee Mark W.
Published: April 2012

This chapter addresses the recent findings from studies of visual motion processing, eye movements, and reading. It specifically outlines the brain-imaging studies that have studied cortical responses to visual motion. It then provides studies that explore the cortical control of reading and evidence for the involvement of cortical areas in reading disabilities. It assesses the current findings on functional imaging of human cortical responses to visual motion. In addition, it deals with the influences associated with stimulus properties. The results of many groups suggest that several cortical areas respond selectively to visual motion. Different visual areas also respond to complex optic flow fields. Moreover, the data indicate that changes in the subject's attention can modify the blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) response to visual stimulation. Attention to different aspects of moving stimuli can lead to differences in the response. The role of pursuit eye movements in motion perception and the resultant pattern of BOLD responses are also considered. The task-dependent effects of pro- and anti-saccades, variations in the amplitude and frequency of saccades, and the difference between saccadic eye movements and smooth pursuit are also explained. Finally, it describes the results linked to reading and disorders of reading.
Lesions in primate visual cortex leading to deficits of visual perception
Authors: Merigan William H. , Pasternak Tatiana
Published: April 2012

This chapter reports a selective, critical analysis of the contribution of lesions of visual neurons to understand the function of the visual pathways. The analysis highlights more recent studies that have examined the influences of striate and extrastriate lesions in the primate. It specifically discusses the deficits of visual perception caused by lesions in primate visual cortex, e.g., lesions caused by ablation experiments in monkeys, by relating the symptoms caused by the lesions to the physiology of the visual system. It is shown that V4 lesions seem to transiently disrupt colour discrimination learning and to slightly elevate chromatic contrast thresholds, but not to permanently disrupt discrimination of hue differences. A number of lesion studies have generated disruptions of more complex behaviours such as reaching, eye movements, and learning and attention. Moreover, many studies have shown a noteworthy degree of recovery after lesions in both the ventral and the dorsal pathways, although the recovery looks to be much more pronounced in the dorsal than in the ventral pathway.
Magnetic stimulation in studies of vision and attention
Authors: Ellison Amanda , Stewart Lauren , Cowey Alan , Walsh Vincent
Published: April 2012

This chapter shows that short lasting, reversible functional lesions can be safely produced in healthy humans, too, by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). TMS thus establishes a novel method to associate animal studies with those on patients and to create a new discipline, experimental neuropsychology, in humans. The role of the parietal cortex in visual attention is a question of central concern. TMS has many uses in the vision sciences that demand the attention of researchers. The impact of learning and plasticity are good paradigms for studying cortical change and the potential for combining TMS with other neuroimaging techniques will widen the scope of its utility in the study of vision.
Unconscious perception: blindsight
Authors: Weiskrantz L.
Published: April 2012

This chapter shows that blindsight illustrates that at least a limited analysis of visual signals continues in some patients even in those parts of their visual field for which they are subjectively blind. It begins by presenting categories of residual visual capacities. There are two general approaches to indirect methods of testing for residual visual function that allow an inference without requiring the subject to guess ‘without seeing’: (1) reflexes to visual stimuli in the blind hemifield; (2) interactions between the intact and impaired hemifields. There can be no doubt that parallel extrastriate visual pathways can mediate visual discriminations, in humans as well as in other primates, but it is the dissociations that emerge, suggesting a segregation of functions, that we are only beginning to characterize.
Perception, memory, and agnosia
Authors: Farah Martha J.
Published: April 2012

This chapter outlines the evidence on perception, memory, and agnosia. It proposes a rapprochement among the different positions that have been taken on the issue. It concentrates on a form of agnosia called, by most authors, associative visual agnosia. The empirical evidence on memory and perception in associative agnosia is provided. At the early stages, the nature of the representations is influenced only minimally by learning and experience. At progressively later stages, learning plays a more significant role in identifying what is explicitly represented. The experience of having seen particular objects will shape what the later representations are most useful for representing.
Recovery and rehabilitation of cerebral visual disorders
Authors: Zihl Josef
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents a brief description of visual deficits after brain injury. It also discusses observations on spontaneous recovery of vision. In addition, the return of visual function using systematic practice and the improvement of visual efficiency by compensation strategies are described. There is evidence that visual deficits induced by acquired brain injury can spontaneously recover, at least to a certain degree. In addition, there is additional data that specific training can support functional recovery, although the underlying mechanisms are not exactly known. Furthermore, many of the described procedures still have an experimental character, but they represent a first step in developing more sophisticated procedures to decrease visual deficits or their consequences.
The role of similarity in natural categorization
Authors: Hampton James A.
Published: April 2012

The intuitive idea that one puts things into categories because one finds them similar appears to be non-controversial, if not circular. Cars are clearly more similar to other cars than they are to trees, and trees more similar to other trees than they are to cars. However, a number of theorists have recently questioned the degree to which the notion of similarity is sufficiently clearly defined and constrained to serve as an explanation of the categorization. This chapter discusses the arguments for and against basing categorization on a notion of similarity, and concludes that, construed broadly, similarity may yet be the best explanation of how most of our conceptual categories function. It proposes a distinction between concepts viewed as a cultural phenomenon and concepts at the psychological level, and suggests a naive model of conceptual development that starts with concepts as similarity clusters.
Induction and inherent similarity
Authors: Ellison T. Mark
Published: April 2012

This chapter explores a new account of the difference between logical compatibility and inductive confirmation. No amount of past evidence ensures any conclusion about the future. Nevertheless, certain potential generalizations are reliable adopted, and others ignored with conflicting predictions. This selection and its lack of basis in logic is well recognized in philosophy, where it is termed the problem of induction. However, the problem of induction is of concern not only for philosophers, but also for psychologists and cognitive scientists. In any scientific account of human inductive behaviour, reliable experimental results should be deducible from the experimental conditions.
Categorization by simplicity: a minimum description length approach to unsupervised clustering
Authors: Pothos Emmanuel M. , Chater Nick
Published: April 2012

There is a strong intuition that one important factor in determining psychological categories is that they should group similar items together — that categories should be seen as running along default lines in a psychological similarity space. To make this idea precise requires finding some ‘objective’ criterion for determining a ‘good’ classification, given a set of similarity data. This chapter provides such a criterion, based on an application of a simplicity principle, that can be viewed as a general criterion for cognition. To illustrate the approach, it addresses the specific illustrative problem of dividing a set of items into groups, on the basis of data consisting of pairwise similarities between the items. A simplicity principle is used to assess the relative goodness of different clusterings on the same data set: a particular classification is good to the extent that it provides a short encoding of the similarity information.
Issues in case-based reasoning
Authors: Rodríguez Abraham Rodríguez
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides an introduction to the paradigm of case-based reasoning, an approach to the design of knowledge-based systems which implements the idea that classification and problem-solving depend crucially on remembering similar past episodes. At the heart of any case-based system is a standard sequence of steps that has been described in detail, summarized as ‘retrieve, reuse, revise, and retain’. As a field, CBR has rapidly reached maturity, as evidenced by the number of commercial applications in use, as well as the existence of numerous development tools and methodologies. The current technological level in the field allows rapid development of help-desk-like applications, which are characterized by the simplicity of their representational structures and similarity function. However, limitations of current technology become apparent with more complex tasks.
Background knowledge and models of categorization
Authors: Heit Evan
Published: April 2012

This chapter focuses on the integration model of categorization, which is one similarity-based model that has already been applied to a series of experiments on background knowledge effects. This chapter addresses the generality of the integration model by applying it to a set of experiments designed by other researchers. How far can a similarity-based model of categorization go, applying ordinary assumptions about categorization and without making any special claims about other kinds of theoretical processing? The integration model is an exemplar model of categorization that has been extended to apply to situations in which previous knowledge has an influence.
Spatial neglect
Authors: Heilman Kenneth M. , Watson Robert T. , Valenstein Edward
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides a discussion of the history and mechanisms underlying spatial neglect. It also describes several neuropsychological mechanisms that have been hypothesized to account for hemispatial deficit, including deficits in attention, intention, and representation. It is shown that the mesencephalic-diencephalic reticular system mediates arousal, and unilateral attentional neglect follows unilateral mesencephalic reticular activating system lesions because the mesencephalic reticular formation does not prepare the cortex for sensory processing and/or because it no longer inhibits the ipsilateral nucleus reticularis, which then inhibits thalamic transmission of sensory input to the cortex. The action-intention hypothesis of spatial neglect states that while patients may be aware of stimuli in contralateral hemispace, they fail to act on these stimuli. In general, studies have revealed that patients with neglect are less likely to live independently than even patients with severe aphasia and a right hemiparesis.
Functional Anatomy of Attention and Neglect
Authors: Mesulam Marsel
Published: April 2012

This chapter attempts to illustrate that parietal lobe, frontal lobes, cingulate gyrus, striatum and thalamus constitute a large-scale network subserving spatial attention, that hemispatial neglect is a syndrome of the network as a whole, and that the complexity of this network is commensurate with the clinical heterogeneity of the neglect syndrome. It is noted that components of the ascending reticular activating system, such as the intralaminar thalamic nuclei, the brainstem raphe nuclei, the nucleus locus ceruleus, the ventral tegmental area-substantia nigra, and the nucleus basalis project to each cortical component of the attentional network. The reviewed data has resulted in the hypothesis that spatial attention is organized at the level of a distributed large-scale network revolving around three cortical components, each of which supports a slightly different neural representation of the extrapersonal space. Each of these components serves a dual purpose: it provides a local network for regional neural computations and also a nodal point for the linkage of distributed information. Moreover, the components of the attentional network can collectively specify whether and how an event in extrapersonal space will attract covert attentional shifts, orientation, foveation, manual grasp, and overt search behaviors.
Neglect in Monkeys
Authors: Wardak Claire , Olivier Etienne , Duhamel Jean-René
Published: April 2012

This chapter outlines results from permanent and reversible lesion experiments in monkeys. It also describes these in the light of current knowledge of the anatomical and functional organization of the parietal and frontal cortices. It first briefly establishes the current anatomical and functional background with respect to which monkey lesion experiments have to be interpreted. Cortical ablation studies in monkeys have demonstrated that neglect can occur following lesions of either the periarcuate frontal or the inferior parietal regions. In addition, it has been shown that the inactivation of distinct parietal and frontal subregions can generate selective deficits in visual attention and in target and movement selection, largely confirming the functional role originally postulated for these areas on the basis of single-cell recording studies.
Posterior parietal networks encoding visual space
Authors: Galletti Claudio , Fattori Patrizia
Published: April 2012

This chapter outlines the cellular mechanisms that are probably involved in the encoding process of visual space in physiological conditions. It is noted that gaze-dependent visual cells are not able to continually inform about what happens in the same spatial location of the visual field, regardless of eye movements. The real-position behavior could be the result of the work of many strongly modulated gaze-dependent visual cells. Two mechanisms possibly encoding the visual space have been proposed in the posterior parietal cortex (PPC). One is distributed, retinotopically organized, and based on the activity of gaze-dependent visual cells, and the other is direct, nonretinotopically organized, and based on the activity of the so-called real-position cells. It is proposed that the interaction between visual and oculomotor signals, as they occur in gaze-dependent visual cells, represents the first step in the analysis of visual space occurring in almost all areas of the dorsal visual stream. Real-position cells have not been yet detected in the dorsal PPC (areas V6A and ventral intraparietal area [VIP]) and in the ventral premotor cortex, i.e., in regions of the dorsal visual stream that are probably implicated in the visual guidance of actions.
Cortical substrates of visuospatial awareness outside the classical dorsal stream of visual processing
Authors: Thier Peter , Haarmeier Thomas , Chakraborty Subhojit , Lindner Axel , Tikhonov Alexander
Published: April 2012

This chapter presents work that addresses cortical substrates of visuospatial awareness outside the classical dorsal stream of visual processing. It is shown that the visual posterior sylvian area (VPS) may be a major player in a network of visual areas, underlying visual space perception and the subjective sense of visuospatial stability. This statement is based on experiments, which the authors have conducted in order to find an answer to the question of how the brain is able to construct a stable representation of the visual world, despite the confounding effects that movement of the subject has on the visual stimuli impinging on the retinas. The work clearly confirms the notion that the perception of visual motion is based on an inferential mechanism involving a nonretinal reference signal capturing the visual consequences of the eye movement. Furthermore, it illustrates that this inferential mechanism resides in rather ‘late’ parts of the cortical hierarchy of motion processing, sparing the early stages up to cortical area middle temporal (MT), and that disturbances of this mechanism may give rise to severe disturbances of vision and spatial orientation as exemplified by RW.
The exploration of space and objects in neglect
Authors: Niemeier Matthias , Karnath Hans-Otto
Published: April 2012

This chapter deals with the exploration of space and objects in spatial neglect. The studies demonstrate that both segmentation and rotation of stimuli have an impact on neglect symptoms which can be described in object-centered coordinates. In addition, it outlines experimental data reported on the spatial distribution of neglect patients' spontaneous exploratory behavior and then contrasts these results with the predictions of the enhancement and the normalization models. Moreover, an alternative concept, referred to as integrated space-object map (ISO-map), that prevents the presented problems by combining the enhancement model with a normalization model, is proposed. It is noted that the simulations indicate that both types of coordinates are simultaneously disturbed, suggesting that both coordinate systems might be closely connected in the brain. Finally, it answers how and where the ISO-map might be enforced in the brain.
Visual peripersonal space in humans
Authors: Làdavas Elisabetta
Published: April 2012

This chapter outlines evidence of the existence of a visual peripersonal space in humans that seems to be codified by an integrated visuotactile system. It describes the evidence of the existence of the peripersonal space centered on the hand and on the face. It also examines the functional properties of this space. It then considers the dynamic aspect of the peripersonal space, i.e., whether this space is fixed or whether it can be expanded or reduced depending on the action performed in space. The data shows the existence of an integrated system controlling both visual and tactile inputs within peripersonal space around the face and the hand and demonstrates how this system is functionally separated from that controlling visual information in the extrapersonal space. Moreover, evidence indicates that the visual experience of the body can somehow ‘boost’ the signal strength to neuronal circuits associated with the feel-touch experience. Furthermore, results illustrate that sight of the body part improves perception of visual stimuli presented in the peripersonal space.
The contribution of retinotopic and multimodal coding of space to horizontal space misrepresentation in neglect and hemianopia
Authors: Doricchi Fabrizio
Published: April 2012

This chapter addresses some apparently paradoxical phenomena concerning horizontal space misperception and misrepresentation in patients with left unilateral neglect. It concentrates on some empirical findings considered relevant for the understanding of ‘misrepresenting behaviors’ in neglect patients. A series of studies run by the author with several colleagues are described and the findings are related to those of investigations performed by other researchers in the field. In addition, the problem of space misrepresentation in hemianopia is addressed, and readers are briefly reminded about phenomena of size misperception due to dysmetropsia. On the basis of the empirical findings and the arguments summarized, misperception or misrepresentation of horizontal space, as determined in distance and size reproduction tasks explicitly requiring orienting toward the contralesional space, cannot be considered as the fundamental dysfunction explaining the rich, varied, and complex symptomatology that can be observed in neglect patients. Rather, horizontal space misrepresentation in neglect patients appears to be the result of concomitant disruption of visual retinotopic and specific multimodal non retinotopic representations of space (probably head centered).
Mapping spatial attention with reaction time in neglect patients
Authors: Marzi Carlo A. , Natale Elina , Anderson Britt
Published: April 2012

This chapter describes two attempts to cast light on an attentional model of neglect by trying to specify two important aspects. First, it examines whether the attentional impairment concerns exogenous stimulus-driven attention or endogenous controlled attention. Second, it fits the reaction time (RT) data to the saliency map model of neglect proposed by Anderson, which is a formal model of neglect inspired by clinical data (line bisection). The overall rationale of the approach depends on the idea that speed of RT (and detection performance) at various locations in the visual field depends on both retinal and attentional factors. The RT approach used in the study of the distribution of spatial attention across the visual field in neglect patients without hemianopia has provided evidence in broad agreement with hemispatial theories of neglect. In addition, a clear-cut hemifield difference in performance is shown. Moreover, fitting the RT data to the mathematical model of neglect proposed by Anderson has proved to be a fruitful exercise.
Primary sensory deficits after right brain damage—an attentional disorder by any other name?
Authors: Halligan Peter W. , Marshall John C.
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides a review of primary sensory deficits after right brain damage. It begins by presenting the historical basis for the conceptual divide between ‘primary’ and ‘high-level’ deficits. A number of converging studies have demonstrated that impairments such as visual field deficits, somatosensory disorders, and motor disorders, traditionally conceived as primary deficits, involve impairments of higher-order cognitive processes. The mere clinical fact that some patients show deficits on one set of tasks whereas others show deficits on other tasks does not in itself provide sufficient reason to justify a qualitative distinction between visual field deficit (VFD) and visual-spatial neglect (VSN).
Spatial, Temporal, and Form-Binding Effects in Vision
Authors: Riddoch M. Jane , Humphreys Glyn W.
Published: April 2012

This chapter addresses the nature of the processes which allow form elements to be bound into contours, contours to be bound into shapes, and the conjunctions of surface features such as color and form to be bound together. It then reports the case for several different forms of binding in visual processing; some are the function of the ventral visual system, while others may come about through the involvement of the dorsal visual pathway. In addition, it offers neuropsychological data suggesting that binding may be based on the common temporal onset of visual stimuli. Damage to early visual processing within the ventral visual stream can disrupt the binding of contours into shapes, although the binding of form elements into contours can still operate. Furthermore, the function of transient binding may be to provide the visual system with a rapid representation of the world.
The role of spatial working memory deficits in pathological search by neglect patients
Authors: Driver Jon , Husain Masud
Published: April 2012

This chapter addresses one possible contributing component to the neglect syndrome that has received relatively little attention to date, namely deficits in spatial working memory. It is proposed that impaired spatial working memory may contribute to recursive examination of ipsilesional locations in many visual tasks. It also considers how possible spatial working memory deficits might impact performance on a standard diagnostic test for neglect, namely cancellation tasks. In doing so, it discusses a new variant of the cancellation task (‘invisible’ cancellation) which provides a clinically applicable method for investigating the role of spatial working memory at the bedside. In general, it is suggested that deficits in spatial working memory may promote visuospatial neglect. Specifically, it indicates a role for a deficit in retaining which locations have already been examined, across saccades during search.
Cognitive routes to the rehabilitation of unilateral neglect
Authors: Robertson Ian H. , Manly Tom
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides a review of cognitive routes to the rehabilitation of unilateral neglect. Cognitive rehabilitation is defined as ‘the systematic use of instruction and structured experience to manipulate the functioning of cognitive systems such as to improve the quality and/or quantity of cognitive processing in a particular domain’. Results reveal that the lack of spontaneous improvement shown by some patients may stem from impairments in the more general resources necessary to maintain corrective ‘top-down’ control. It can be stated that the connections between theoretical models of cognitive neuroscience and cognitive rehabilitation techniques have been particularly fruitful in the field of unilateral neglect. Most patients who display unilateral neglect in the immediate post-stroke phase recover quite rapidly from the frank spatial biases of the disorder. However, for many patients, this apparent recovery may reflect the use of compensatory strategies (volitional or otherwise) that mask a persistent distortion in the perception of space.
In the year 2054: innumeracy defeated
Authors: Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides a panel discussion, ‘How the war against innumeracy was won’. The discussion is chaired by Professor Emile Ecu, an economist at the Sorbonne, Paris. The Great Hall at the Sorbonne is packed with flowers and guests, and is presided over jointly by the president of France and the president of the World Health Organization. A large curved podium provides the set for the four most distinguished scholars in the social sciences. France happens to be the birth place of probability theory, back in the 17th century.
A memory models approach to frequency and probability judgement: applications of Minerva 2 and Minerva DM
Authors: Dougherty Michael R. P. , Franco-Watkins Ana M.
Published: April 2012

A fundamental question in decision making has been how people make judgements of frequency and probability. This chapter describes a new theory, Minerva DM (MDM) that ties many of the heuristics and biases together within the context of a multiple-trace memory model for frequency judgements. It provides a brief tutorial on how Minerva 2 and MDM simulates non-conditional and conditional frequency judgements, and then demonstrates how the models can be used to describe two possible accounts of the availability heuristic. It ends by discussing where MDM fits within the context of other models of frequency judgement.
Associative learning and frequency judgements: The PASS model
Authors: Sedlmeier Peter
Published: April 2012

This chapter argues that associative learning is the obvious mechanism to simulate judgements of relative frequency. PASS (Probability ASSociator), the specific associationist model proposed, consists of two parts, FEN (Frequency Encoding Network), a neural network, and the CA (Cognitive Algorithms)-module, which operates on the output of the neural network. FEN encodes events, including their contexts, by their featural description and builds up a representation of the frequency with which features co-occur. The CA-module consists of only two algorithms that suffice to model the results usually found in studies on relative frequency estimates as well as on confidence judgements about such estimates. Several extensions of PASS that allow judgements of absolute frequencies and the simulation of biased estimates are suggested, and PASS is compared to competing models that have been used to simulate relative frequency judgements.
Frequency judgements of emotions: the cognitive basis of personality assessment
Authors: Schimmack Ulrich
Published: April 2012

Frequency judgements of emotions are routinely used in personality assessment and clinical diagnoses. However, relatively little is known about the cognitive processes underlying these judgements and their validity. This chapter examines this issue, drawing on cognitive psychological theories of frequency processing. The reviewed evidence suggests that frequency judgements of emotions are made in a fast, intuitive manner that does not rely on the conscious retrieval of individual episodes. These judgements show high discriminant validity for frequency of different emotions but low absolute accuracy. Implications for the validity of personality assessments are discussed.
Online strategies versus memory-based strategies in frequency estimation
Authors: Haberstroh Susanne , Betsch Tilmann
Published: April 2012

Two kinds of strategies can be distinguished by which people can arrive at a frequency estimate: online strategies and memory-based strategies. Online strategies are based on a frequency record, which is formed during encoding. Subsequent frequency judgements can be directly based on this record. In contrast, when people use memory-based strategies, they base their estimate on a memory sample drawn at the time of judgement. The Strategy Application Model predicts under which conditions online strategies and memory-based strategies are used. This chapter describes an experiment in which one of the key assumptions of the Strategy Application Model is tested regarding the role of cognitive effort on the selection of judgement strategies.
Free word associations and the frequency of co-occurrence in language use
Authors: Wettler Manfred
Published: April 2012

This chapter shows which predictions about the relation between the strength of free word associations and the frequency of co-occurrence of the stimulus and the response word in language use can be derived from the stimulus sampling theory of Estes (1950). It describes a method to test these predictions and show that they prove correct. Examples are given to demonstrate how the possibility of predicting human word associations can be used in consumer research. This work is then linked to other approaches which relate co-occurrences between words to word associations as well as to other observations about verbal behaviour.
Is imprinting such a special case?
Authors: BATESON PATRICK
Published: April 2012

As the result of relatively brief exposure to a particular type of object early in life, many birds and mammals will form strong and exclusive attachments to that object. This is known as ‘filial imprinting’. Early experience can also have long-lasting effects on sexual preferences, but the conditions are different from those in which the first attachments are formed. Some of the characteristics of imprinting are undoubtedly because of the naive animal searching for and responding selectively to particular stimuli. But that is not all. At least two types of plastic change seem to be involved: establishing an internal representation of the familiar object and pre-emptive capturing by that representation of the systems controlling filial behaviour and, much later in development, sexual behaviour.
Neural bases of recognition memory investigated through an analysis of imprinting
Authors: HORN GABRIEL
Published: April 2012

Visual imprinting leads to changes in a nervous system that may not have been marked by previous visual experience, and so encourages the hope of discovering the neural bases of the learning process. The intermediate and medial part of the hyperstriatum ventrale, a sheet of cells within the cerebral hemispheres, plays a crucial role in visual imprinting, particularly in the memory process of recognition. The cellular and sub-cellular changes that take place in this part of the hyperstriatum ventrale after imprinting are described. The right and left hyperstriatum ventrale regions play different roles in the imprinting process, and evidence is given for the existence of multiple memory systems in the chick brain.
Food-storing birds: adaptive specialization in brain and behaviour?
Authors: KREBS JOHN R.
Published: April 2012

Among the passerine birds, species that store food have an enlarged hippocampal region (dorso-medial cortex), relative to brain and body size, when compared with the non-storers. The volume of one of the major afferent-efferent pathways (the septo-hippocampal pathway) is also greater in food storing species. This specialization of brain structure is discussed in relation to behavioural studies in which the spatial memory of storing and non-storing species has been compared.
An assessment of Marr's theory of the hippocampus as a temporary memory store
Authors: WILLSHAW D. J. , BUCKINGHAM J. T.
Published: April 2012

In the study of neural networks, there have been very few attempts to examine in detail how a particular part of the brain might compute a particular function. This chapter examines one theory of learning and memory that does consider seriously the constraints imposed by the available computing machinery of the brain. This is the proposal, due to the late David Marr (1971), that the mammalian hippocampus acts as a temporary content-addressable memory store. This study remains a potential source of inspiration for those interested in the theory of the nervous system.
Memory: task dissociations, process dissociations and dissociations of consciousness
Authors: Richardson-Klavehn Alan , Gardiner John M. , Java Rosalind I.
Published: April 2012

This chapter covers tasks, retrieval strategies, states of consciousness, task dissociations, and process dissociations and dissociations in reports of subjective awareness. It also reviews and combines recent data to understand better the relationship between task performance, retrieval strategies, and states of awareness. This leads to the adoption of a framework that makes a threefold distinction between methods of testing memory as defined by intentional and incidental task instructions; voluntary and involuntary retrieval strategies and subjective states of conscious and unconscious awareness with respect to the past. These conscious memorial states are further sub-divided into recollective experiences, which are referred to as remembering, and feelings of familiarity, which are referred to as knowing. This chapter also clarifies the distinction between memory tasks and the chapter suggests that the relationships between task performance, memorial states of awareness, retrieval strategies, retrieval processes, and memory representations are much more intricate than is acknowledged by any current framework or theoretical scheme.
Implicit knowledge in people and connectionist networks
Authors: Dienes Zoltan , Perner Josef
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the methodological criteria of implicit knowledge, the meaning of implicit/explicit knowledge, the three types of explicitness, analysis of a connectionist model of artificial grammar learning, and the differences of connectionist models and implicit knowledge. It focuses on artificial grammar learning as a paradigm example of the attainment of knowledge that appears to be implicit by some criterion but not by others. Typical artificial grammar learning tasks ask the subjects to first memorize strings of letters that are generated by a finite state grammar and then they are informed that the strings were generated by a complex set of rules. The subjects were then ask to classify new strings as either obeying the rules or not. Subject knowledge are assessed as being implicit by using four methodological criteria. This chapter also discusses a possible connectionist model of artificial grammar learning and also considers the way connectionist models illuminate the way in which subjects knowledge can be regarded as implicit.
Intuition, incubation, and insight: implicit cognition in problem solving
Authors: Dorfman Jennifer , Shames Victor A. , Kihlstrom John F.
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the stages of thought, the scope of implicit cognition, the role of intuitions in insight problem solving, the evidence for intuitions in insight problem solving, the role of activation in intuition and incubation, priming in insight problem solving, the problem of incubation, autonomous and interactive activation in incubation, and implicit thought in detail. It is thought that introspective analyses of human problem solving have always focused on the phenomena of intuition, incubation, and insight. These phenomena that have long intrigued observers of problem solving have also long eluded scientific analysis partly because they seem to implicate unconscious processes. The advent of the cognitive revolution in the 1960s led to psychologists returning their attention to thinking and developed more on problems of categorization, reasoning, judgement, and problem solving per se. Wallas decomposed problem solving into stages which include the preparation stage, the verification stage, the incubation stage, and the illumination stage. Wallas is certain that incubation involves subconscious thought and that immediate and sudden flashes of illumination reflect the materialization of a previously unconscious thought into phenomenal awareness. This chapter argues that intuition and incubation are aspects of implicit thought, and a facet of implicit cognition.
Development of contrast sensitivity in normal and amblyopic monkeys
Authors: Kiorpes Lynne
Published: April 2012

This chapter aims to discuss the development of spatial vision in primates and explore the possible underlying neural limitations on visual performance in infants. The basic measure of spatial vision for the purposes of this chapter is the spatial contrast sensitivity function. The development of contrast sensitivity is described, both in the central and peripheral visual field, in nonhuman primates, and parallels are drawn between development in animals and in humans. To explore the neural basis for behaviour ally assessed development, parallels between anatomical and physiological development of the retina and lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) are discussed, together with measured performance in infant monkeys. Finally, the effects of abnormal visual experience on the development of contrast sensitivity and on development of the visual nervous system are described.
Development of the visual field: results from human and animal studies
Authors: Sireteanu Ruxandra
Published: April 2012

The extent of the adult visual field gives important clues on brain functioning. Visual field deficits often accompany, and sometimes predict, the onset of neurological problems. It is therefore of utmost importance to have reliable methods of early assessment of the visual field, in addition to the assessment of visual resolution. The behavioural function that is used for visual acuity assessment is the spontaneous orienting towards a salient visual stimulus in preference to a homogeneous field. In this chapter, an overview on the achievements and limitations of the methods of visual perimetry used with infants and children is given, including correlative data from cats and monkeys.
Development of primate rod structure and function
Authors: Fulton Anne , Hansen Ronald M. , Dorn Elizabeth , Hendrickson Anita
Published: April 2012

The rod-mediated sensitivity of infants is lower than that of adults while the scotopic sensitivity for full-field stimuli of infants approaches adult values earlier than those psychophysical sensitivities that are mediated by rods at the posterior pole. For example, in ten-week-old infants, dark adapted scotopic sensitivity for full-field stimuli, whether assayed using an electroretinographic (ERG) or visually evoked potential procedures, is only about 0.5 log unit less than that of adults, while psychophysical sensitivities for test spots falling only on more central retina are at least a log unit below those of adults. This chapter examines the rod photoreceptors themselves for explanations of infants' low scotopic sensitivity. All across the retina, the structure of the rods of infants and adults differs. Moreover, developmental increases in rod outer segment (ROS) length and in content of the photosensitive compound, rhodopsin, have been documented. There appear to be regional variations in the rate of ROS maturation with both ROS and thresholds near the fovea. Thus it examines the physical and functional characteristics of infants' rods for possible relationships.