bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
How epidemic psychology works on Twitter: evolution of responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S.
Authors: Aiello Luca Maria , Quercia Daniele , Zhou Ke , Constantinides Marios , Šćepanović Sanja , Joglekar Sagar
Published: July 2021

Disruptions resulting from an epidemic might often appear to amount to chaos but, in reality, can be understood in a systematic way through the lens of “epidemic psychology”. According to Philip Strong, the founder of the sociological study of epidemic infectious diseases, not only is an epidemic biological; there is also the potential for three psycho-social epidemics: of fear, moralization, and action. This work empirically tests Strong’s model at scale by studying the use of language of 122M tweets related to the COVID-19 pandemic posted in the U.S. during the whole year of 2020. On Twitter, we identified three distinct phases. Each of them is characterized by different regimes of the three psycho-social epidemics. In the refusal phase, users refused to accept reality despite the increasing number of deaths in other countries. In the anger phase (started after the announcement of the first death in the country), users’ fear translated into anger about the looming feeling that things were about to change. Finally, in the acceptance phase, which began after the authorities imposed physical-distancing measures, users settled into a “new normal” for their daily activities. Overall, refusal of accepting reality gradually died off as the year went on, while acceptance increasingly took hold. During 2020, as cases surged in waves, so did anger, re-emerging cyclically at each wave. Our real-time operationalization of Strong’s model is designed in a way that makes it possible to embed epidemic psychology into real-time models (e.g., epidemiological and mobility models).
On numerical solution of the second-order linear Fredholm–Stieltjes integral equation
Authors: Abduzhabbarov Mukhammadmuso , Ali Ramzan , Asanov Avyt
Published: July 2021

In this framework, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence and uniqueness of the second-order linear Fredholm–Stieltjes-integral equations, u(x)=λ∫abK(x,y)u(y)dg(y)+f(x),x∈a,b, are thoroughly derived. Moreover, instead of approximating the integral equation by different numbers of partition n, the optimal number n for the given error tolerance is established. The system of equations is implemented in MAPLE for the Runge method. An efficient scheme is proposed for second-order integral equations. The solution has been compared with an exact and closed-form solution for limited cases.
Salvaging and replanting 300 mangrove trees and saplings in the arid Arabian Gulf
Authors: Erftemeijer Paul L. A. , Price Brae A. , Ito Satoshi , Yamamoto Hiroshi , Agastian Titus , Cambridge Marion L.
Published: July 2021

Construction works along a causeway at Mubarraz Island near Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, in the Arabian Gulf necessitated the salvaging and replanting of 300 mangroves (Avicennia marina). Mangroves were excavated manually by shovel (smaller trees and saplings) or mechanically using a backhoe excavator (larger trees), transported with the root ball wrapped in burlap and replanted in a newly created tidal channel. Relocated mangroves were exposed to two different watering regimes and two tidal inundation levels, and were monitored for survival, plant height and leaf health (percentage of green leaves) at 0 and 1 weeks, and then at 3, 7 and 12.5 months. Tree mortality was high in the first week (24%) in mid-summer, with further losses (43%) during the next 3 months. After 12.5 months, 31% of the transplanted trees had survived. There was a significant effect of the duration of tidal inundation on survival and leaf health (higher survival in shallow than deeper plots). There were no significant effects of initial tree height or freshwater treatment on survival or plant performance. These results demonstrate that salvaging of larger mangroves is technically feasible, potentially providing faster ecosystem services (e.g. shoreline protection, source of new propagules) than newly planted seedlings in arid regions where growth is extremely slow.
Should Munanga learn Kriol?
Authors: Hendy Caroline , Bow Catherine
Published: July 2021

Kriol, an English-lexifier contact language, has approximately 20,000 speakers across northern Australia. It is the primary language of the remote Aboriginal community of Ngukurr. Kriol is a contact language, incorporating features of English and traditional Indigenous languages. The language has been perceived both positively and negatively, although recent literature suggests a shift towards more favorable views. This paper investigates how community members in Ngukurr responded to the question of non-Indigenous residents (known locally asMunanga) learning Kriol. Interviews with local Indigenous residents showed positive attitudes to Kriol, with respondents providing a number of perceived benefits for outsiders learning the language. Our interviews provide empirical evidence for pride in the language, affirming a shift to more positive attitudes.
Paradigmatic consequences of the suffixing preference
Authors: Berg Thomas
Published: July 2021

As one of the most robust typological findings, the suffixing preference captures the empirical observation that grammatical categories are more likely to be coded by suffixes than by prefixes. The goal of this contribution is to explore the effects that this asymmetry may have on the inflectional paradigms of the languages of the world. Three empirical issues are addressed: do languages with either possessive prefixes or suffixes and languages with both possessive prefixes and suffixes differ in their suffix-to-prefix ratio? Do prefixes and suffixes differ in the number of cases that they code? Do prefixes and suffixes differ in their probability of explicit singular in addition to plural marking? The answer to all three questions is in the affirmative. These effects are understood in terms of a response to an inherent disadvantage of prefixes. Morphological systems reduce the processing difficulty incurred by prefixes by assigning them fewer tasks (i.e. number of cases), by limiting their occurrence in highly competitive contexts (i.e. inconsistent possessive-affix coding) and by creating prefix paradigms, which are conceived of as protective structures in which the individual members strengthen one another. The general claim these three effects lead up to is that morphological systems develop “repair strategies” which reduce the processing cost involved in using inherently disadvantaged units. These repair strategies shape morphological structure.
Corynebacterium insidiosum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Hayward A. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Corynebacterium insidiosum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Medicago saliva
: also on
Medicago falcata
, and other species of
Medicago
and
Melilotus alba
(see 34: 155; 39: 114). DISEASE: Wilt, chiefly vascular, causing dwarfed yellow or pale green foliage associated with discoloured young wood in the root close beneath the bark. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Italy, U.S.S.R., Canada, Mexico, United States including Alaska (31: 436) and possibly Chile (37: 497). See CMI Map 67 ed. 2. 1962. TRANSMISSION: The bacteria overwinter in roots and crowns of diseased plant and enter healthy plants through wounds made at harvesting. Seed transmission from severely, but not moderately, infected plants has been shown. The bacterium occurs in the intercellular spaces of the seed parenchyma and in the vascular tissues of pedicels and pods (35: 896; 36: 249). A high degree of viability was retained throughout 10 years in dried lucerne stems stored at 70-80°F. Infective capacity in leaves and pods was lower. In seed samples the bacterium has been shown to be still highly infective after 3 years (see also 35: 157). The pathogen survives poorly in non-sterile soil (39: 152).
Pseudomonas solanacearum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Hayward A. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Pseudomonas solanacearum
[Ralstonia solanacearum]
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On numerous hosts including tobacco, potato, tomato and eggplant among the
Solanaceae
; various members of the
Musaceae, Compositae, Leguminosae
etc. For complete list see Kelman (32: 671) pp. 48-64. DISEASE: A vascular wilt disease with or without browning of the vascular bundles of stems (variation according to strain). Disease variously known as Granville wilt (of tobacco), wilt disease, slime disease, bacterial ring disease (of potato), brown rot of
Solanaceae
and Moko disease of banana etc., according to host and territory. When diseased potato tubers are cut open and gently squeezed, cream-like drops of sticky liquid containing bacteria are exuded from the severed vascular bundles. The disease may be distinguished from ring rot of potato tubers caused by
Corynebacterium sepedonicum
(CMI Descript. 14), by the more variable nature of the ring of infected vascular bundles and surrounding tissue which may not always be accompanied by brown discoloration, and the bacterial ooze which may be putty-like rather than viscous or slimy. Methods for differentiating the two diseases are given in 41: 57. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widespread in topical, sub-tropical and warm-temperate parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia, Europe, N. America, C. America and West Indies (CMI Map 138 Ed. 2). TRANSMISSION: In potato tubers (41: 57), in the transplanting of infected seedlings of tobacco, tomato, pepper and eggplant etc. By movement of contaminated soil in cultural practices, or in irrigation water. On banana by contaminated pruning knives (37: 493), by insects (Nature 194: 164-165, 1962), and by movement of infected rhizomes (40: 551). There is some indication that the pathogen is seed borne on groundnut (1: 328).
Corynebacterium michiganense
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Hayward A. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Corynebacterium michiganense
[Clavibacter michiganensis]
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Lycopersicon esculentum
and other species of
Lycopersicon
; also on
Cyphomandra betacea, Nicotiana glutinosa, Solanum mammosum, S. muricatum, S. nigrum, (S. douglasii
) and other species of
Solanum
. Natural infection on
S. tuberosum
has not been recorded. DISEASE: Bacterial canker of tomato. A vascular wilt disease in which splitting of the stems may occur with the formation of yellow or reddish-brown cavities in the pith.
Corynebacterium michiganense
is a phloem invader, causing wilt symptoms in its host most rapidly at high nutrient concentrations; and conversely, producing maximum development of canker at low nutrient concentrations (27: 394). 'Birds eye' fruit spots occur under some climatic conditions and are round, at first white, later with a light brown roughened centre surrounded by a white halo. Fruits are invaded through the vascular system and show in section a yellow discoloration of the placenta. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widespread, including the U.S.A., where the disease was first described, Canada, Europe, Australia, New Zealand. Africa (including recently Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Kenya and South Africa), China and South America. (CMI Map 26). TRANSMISSION: A wound pathogen spread by cutting knives, or through damaged roots in the soil. Leaf trichomes are also known to be avenues of infection (
Phytopathology
52: 1306, 1962). Survives from season to season in soil containing diseased plant material. Fruit spotting is probably caused by rain splash or overhead irrigation water dripping from leaves and cankers. The pathogen is seed transmitted and the incidence of infection may reach 1% from this source (33: 507; 36: 793). Transplanting to the field from seed-bed soil contaminated with plant refuse often results in a stand with over 50% canker (33: 507).
Xanthomonas vesicatoria
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Hayward A. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Xanthomonas vesicatoria
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On tomato,
Lycopersicon esculentum
, and Chilli peppers,
Capsicum frutescens
; also on
Lycopersicon pimpinelifolium, Datura stramonium, Hyoscyamus niger, H. aureus, Lycium chinense, L. halimifolium, Nicotiana rustica, Physalis minima, Solanum dulcamara, S. nigrum, S. rostratum, S. tuberosum, S. melongena
. DISEASE: Bacterial scab or spot. The pathogen causes a superficial corky scab of the fruits with irregularly lobed margins and water-soaked halos, a leaf spot or blight and a canker of the stems and petioles. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: U.S.A., Mexico, Canada, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Bermuda, Brazil, Argentina, Hawaii, Australia, Japan, India, China. Israel, Italy, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Rumania, Lithuania, U.S.S.R., Mozambique, South Africa, Southern Rhodesia. (CMI Map 269). TRANSMISSION: On seed and by wind driven rain. Leaf infection occurs through the stomata, fruit infection through wounds. Overwintering in the dead stalks of diseased tomato plants and also survival in rhizospheres of dead plants has been recorded by Peterson (
Phytopathology
53: 765-767, 1963) as well as overwintering on wheat roots (25: 479). Fruit symptoms reported to be associated with punctures by
Nezara viridula
(37: 249).
Fusarium redolens
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Booth C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Fusarium redolens
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Asparagus officinalis, A. plumosus, Cucumis sativus, Daucus carota, Dianthus barbatus, D. caryophyllus, D. plumarius, Helleborus niger, Iris florentina, I. germanica, I. tectorum, Larix sibirica, Ligustrum vulgare, Linum usitatissimum, Lupinus angustifolius, Lycopersicon esculentum, Picea glauca, Pinus resinosa, P. sylvestris, Pisum sativum, Spinacia oleracea, Tulipa
sp. and
Vicia faba
. DISEASE: A tracheid parasite causing wilt, 'damping-off in seedlings, and sometimes a cortical rot.
Fusarium redolens
has been recorded in association with
F. oxysporum
f.
pisi
in a wilt of broad beans (35: 340) and of peas (39: 450). Each of these pathogens can cause wilting of peas separately, producing symptoms which are indistinguishable from one another (35: 213). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widespread in soil in temperate regions. TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne infection through roots, or dying cotyledons in the case of peas.
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Booth C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Gossypium
spp., and species of
Cajanus, Coffea, Hevea, Hibiscus, Medicago, Ricinus, Solanum
and
Vigna
. DISEASE: Vascular wilt or Fusariosis of cotton is a disease affecting its host at all stages of its growth. Early symptoms on seedlings consist of vein clearing of the leaves followed by necrosis of the interveinal tissue and death of the leaves. On older plants leaves become chlorotic and the vascular tissues show a brown discolouration. Growth is retarded and the plant eventually wilts. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa: Congo, Central African Republic, Egypt, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, South Africa, Tanganyika, Uganda; Asia: Burma, China, Formosa, India, Indo-China, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, U.S.S.R. ; Europe: France, Greece, Italy, Romania, Yugoslavia; North America, Mexico, U.S.A. (cotton belt); Central America & West Indies: Guatemala, Nevis, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Salvador, St. Vincent; South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela. (C.M.I. Map 362). TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne, but may also be transmitted by water and seed. The pathogen has been recovered from delineated seed obtained from infected cotton plants in the Central African Republic, Congo, Tanganyika and Brazil (32: 186; 33: 143; 40: 754; 41: 389). The percentage infection ranged from 0.2 to 5.0.
Fusarium stilboides
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Booth C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Fusarium stilboides
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Coffea arabica
. DISEASES: Storey's bark disease in which suckers are attacked at their base and finally killed; scaly bark in which mature main stems are attacked through wounds left after pruning-off laterals and are subsequently girdled; and collar rot, where stems are slowly girdled at or slightly above soil level leading to death of the plants. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Tanganyika, Nyasaland and possibly Madagascar. TRANSMISSION: Mainly by rain-drop splash (41: 7).
Phytophthora nicotianae var. nicotianae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waterhouse G. M. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phytophthora nicotianae var. nicotianae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Nicotiana plumbaginifolia, N. tabaci, N
. spp., and on
Amaranthus
sp.,
Commelina benghalensis, C. nudiflora, Lycopersicon esculentum, Ricinus communis, Solanum melongena
; also on wound inoculated
Buxus
sp.,
Daucus carota, Hedera helix, Ipomoea batatas
and
Trema amboensis
. DISEASE: Black shank of tobacco. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Malawi, Mauritius, Uganda); Asia (Ceylon, China, Formosa, India, Indonesia, Japan, Java, Malaya, Philippines, Sumatra); Central America & West Indies (Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, Trinidad); Europe (Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Italy, Poland, Romania, U.S.S.R.); North America (U.S.A.); South America (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela). TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne, persisting in soil for at least 4 years between tobacco crops, and not eliminated by a 3 year rotation or a 4 year fallow (41: 409; 39: 126). Tobacco leaves have been used to indicate disease potential in infested soil after serial dilution with sterile soil (42: 408). Spread in contaminated pond water used in overhead irrigation also suspected (43, 1413). Wind-borne spread up to 800 ft. has been recorded (39: 500).
Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waterhouse G. M. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On a very wide range of host plants comprising 58 families including: avocado, castor,
Cinchona
spp., citrus, cotton, eggplant, guava, lucerne, papaw, parsley, pineapple,
Piper betle
, rhubarb, sesame, strawberry, tomato. DISEASES: Damping-off of seedlings (tomato, castor, citrus, cotton); root rot (citrus, avocado, strawberry, lucerne); crown rot (parsley, rhubarb, strawberry, lucerne); brown stem rot of tobacco; stem canker and tip blight of
Cinchona
spp. ; leaf blight (castor, sesame, pineapple,
Piper betle
) and fruit rot (citrus, tomato, guava, papaw, eggplant). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Ethiopia, Mali, Madagascar, Mauritius, Morocco, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Southern Rhodesia, Tanganyika); Asia (Burma, Ceylon, China, Formosa, India, Israel, Japan, Java, Malaya, Philippines); Australia & Oceania (Australia, Hawaii, Tasmania); Europe (Cyprus, France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, U.S.S.R.); North America (Bermuda, Canada, Mexico, U.S.A.); Central America & West Indies (Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, Trinidad);. South America (Argentina, Brazil, British Guiana, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru, Venezuela). TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne, spreading rapidly after heavy rain or where soil remains moist or water-logged (40: 470). Also recorded in drainage water in India and in reservoirs and canals supplying citrus groves in U.S.A. (23: 45; 39: 24). A method for determining a disease potential index in soil using lemon fruit has been described (38: 4). Also present in testas of seeds from diseased citrus fruit which may infect nursery seedbeds (37: 165).
Pythium graminicola
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waterhouse G. M. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Pythium graminicola
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Agropyron cristatum, Avena saliva, Bromus inermis, Hordeum vulgare, Oryza saliva, Panicum miliaceum, Phleum pratense, Saccharum officinarum, Secale cereale, Setaria glauca, Sorghum vulgare, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays
. DISEASE: Seedling blight, collar and root rot of wheat, maize, sugar-cane, and other
Gramineae
. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Mauritius, South Africa, Sudan); Asia (Ceylon, India, Indonesia, Malaya, Philippines, Taiwan); Australasia & Oceania (Australia, Hawaii); Europe (England, France, Italy); North America (Canada, Mexico, U.S.A.); Central America & West Indies (British Honduras, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Salvador); South America (Argentina). (CMI Map 296) TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne. Most prevalent at depth of 3-6 in. and infrequent at 27-30 in. (38: 396), surviving in soil as oospores whose germination is stimulated by contact with growing roots of gramineous plants. Host roots may thus be used as traps for isolating the pathogen from the soil (37: 649; 41: 583).
Corynebacterium flaccumfaciens
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Hayward A. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Corynebacterium flaccumfaciens
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Phaseolus vulgaris
and other
Phaseolus
spp., and on
Glycine max, Zea mays
and other hosts on inoculation (17: 810; Elliott, 31: 105, p. 20). DISEASE: Bacterial wilt. The pathogen is primarily a vascular parasite and spotting of the leaves and stems does not develop. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Restricted to parts of Australia, Europe and North America (CMI Map 370. Ed. 2, 1964). Reports by Hedges (5: 463; 18: 49), reproduced by Elliott (31: 105), of occurrence in Canada, Belgium, France and Germany have not been substantiated, and the last-named is specifically refuted by Stapp (40: 554). TRANSMISSION: Primarily on seed which may be infected externally, or internally as the result of systemic infection. The bacterium can remain viable and virulent for long periods (up to 24 years) in seed stored under laboratory conditions (25: 89). In the field, survival in soil for at least two winters between bean crops rotated with beet is recorded (37: 195).
Corynebacterium flaccumfaciens
does not spread by rain splash in the field as readily as other bacterial pathogens of the bean because of the more limited external development of the disease. Irrigation water may assist in localized spread (34: 339; 38: 641). Secondary infection is through wounds: the incidence of wilt has been increased by wounding below soil level and by wounding stem and leaf tissues (35: 503; 37: 195). Under certain conditions the nematode
Meloidogyne incognita
may provide wounds for entry of the pathogen (38: 641). The incidence of infection is also affected by soil type, being high in a sandy loam and low in a clay loam.
Erwinia amylovora
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Hayward A. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Erwinia amylovora
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Primarily a pathogen of the subfamily
Pomoideae of Rosaceae
, with a host range of over 90 species (14: 702). The most important economic hosts are
Pyrus
(pear) and
Malus
(apple). Hawthorn hedges (
Crataegus
spp.) have assisted the extensive spread of the pathogen in New Zealand.
Erwinia amylovora
f.sp.
rubi
has been described on raspberry (
Rubus idaeus
) in the U.S.A. (31: 131). DISEASE: Fire blight. Blossom blight and twig blight, stem and branch canker. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Canada, Mexico, U.S.A., New Zealand, Japan, China and S.E. England. Other records probably involve confusion with
Pseudomonas syringae
(48: 315; 41: 601 and CMI Map 2 Ed. 4, 1962). TRANSMISSION: Bacterial ooze on cankers is carried into open blossoms by rainfall and probably more commonly by flies, ants and honey-bees Aphids and leafhoppers also transmit the pathogen to growing terminals and watersprouts. Multiplication of the bacteria in the floral nectaries provides secondary inoculum which may be spread by rain splash and insects. Apple buds infected during the previous growing season may provide a source of inoculum in orchards where there are no overwintering cankers, also in young trees where blossom infection cannot occur (43, 1073) Wounds in the bark or branches resulting from pruning, hail damage or wind, may serve as points of entry.
Melampsora lini
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Laundon G. F. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Melampsora lini
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Linum usitatissimum, L. catharticum
and other species of
Linum
. The American
Aecidium lini
Dearness & House on
L. virginianum
differs from
M. lini
in having cupulate, not caeomoid, aecia. DISEASE: Flax rust. Characterized by light-yellow to orange-yellow sori containing pycnia and aecia on leaves and stems early in the growing season, followed by reddish-yellow uredia on leaves, stems and capsules during the growing season, and later, brown to black telia covered by the epidermis, chiefly on the stems. Causes serious damage to flax by weakening and disfiguring the fibres and reduces the quality and yield of linseed. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, North and South America. (CMI Map 68, 2nd Ed.) TRANSMISSION: Sporidia produced in the spring from teliospores over-wintering on crop refuse are the most common source of primary inoculum. Teliospores may also be carried on fragments of infected host tissue with the seed. Volunteer flax plants, including some wild species, may also serve as important sources of infection (Millikan, 1951), and provide a means of over-wintering of the uredial stage in New Zeland (32: 79).
Puccinia arachidis
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Laundon G. F. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Puccinia arachidis
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Arachis hypogaea, A. marginata, A. nambyquarae, A. prostrata
. DISEASE: Rust on leaves of groundnut producing leaf scorch which may occasionally prove severe on some varieties when the crop is approaching maturity; no other rust has been recorded on Groundnut. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Mauritius), Asia (China, U.S.S.R.); N. America (U.S.A.); C. America (Antigua, Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Puerto Rico, St. Vincent); S. America (Argentina, Brazil, British Guiana, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Uruguay, Venezuela). (CMI Map 160, Ed. 2, 1948.) TRANSMISSION: Said to have been introduced into Florida on seed imported from Brazil (10: 501). The danger of uncontrolled importation of American ground nuts into Africa has been stressed by De Wildeman (1922) and Chevalier (1934).
Tolyposporium penicillariae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Ainsworth G. C.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Tolyposporium penicillariae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Pennisetum typhoides
[Pennisetum glaucum]
(pearl millet). DISEASE: Pearl millet smut. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (widespread), Asia (India, Pakistan, Mesopotamia), U.S.A. (Ga, 42: 382); see CMI Map 150, 1948. TRANSMISSION: Floral infection occurs initially by sporidia from spores in the soil and later by spores from early infected plants. Spikelets are most susceptible before the anthers and stigmas emerge. In experimental infections sorus formation occurs 15 days after inoculation (Ramakrishnan, 1963).
Ustilago scitaminea
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Ainsworth G. C.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Ustilago scitaminea
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Saccharum officinarum
(sugarcane),
S. barberi, S. spontaneum
(Kens grass) and (
fide
McMartin, 24: 290) in S. Africa the wild grasses
Imperata arundinacea
[Imperata cylindrica]
and
Erianthus saccharoides. Zea mays
(maize) has been experimentally infected by Hirschhorn (44: 686). DISEASE: Sugarcane smut. See Antoine (1961) for a comprehensive account. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Egypt, E. and S. Africa, Madagascar), Asia (widespread), S. America, and elsewhere; absent from N. America and Australia; see CMI Map, 79, Ed. 2, 1960. TRANSMISSION: Infection is by air borne spores. The spores germinate easily and under moist conditions soil borne infection is not considered to be a hazard.
Coniella diplodiella
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Sutton B. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Coniella diplodiella
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Vitis vinifera
. Also on
Hymenocardia acida
(Herb. IMI). DISEASE: White rot (coitre or hail disease) of vine. Chiefly on fruit but also causing 'pedicel lameness' in fruit stalks and injury to shoots, stem and leaves. Lesions on leaves are marginal, irregular, with the centre various shades of brown, becoming lighter towards the diffuse edge, up to 4 cm diam. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Algeria, Nigeria, Tanzania); Asia (China, India, Japan, Turkey); Australasia & Oceania (New South Wales); Europe (Austria, Bulgaria, France, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Rumania, Spain, Switzerland, U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia); North America (Canada, United States); South America (Brazil, Uruguay). (CMI Map. 335) TRANSMISSION: By soil splashed on grapes by hail. In addition to wounds following damage by hail, sun scorch, mechanical wounding and attack by mildew,
Plasmopara viticola
, also provide infection courts (8: 482; 40: 647). Where hailstorms are frequent the vineyard soil may become infested from fallen rotten fruit and contain up to 2, 000 spores/g (34: 276). The pathogen remains viable for 2-3 yr on berries both in the soil and in the air, whilst stored material of pycnidia and spores have retained their viability and virulence for 16 yr (16: 152). Also spread on implements used for cutting bunches (6: 76).
Diplodia maydis
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Sutton B. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Diplodia maydis
[Stenocarpella maydis]
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Zea mays
. Also on
Arundinaria
sp. DISEASES: Stalk rot, white ear rot, and seedling blight of maize. Roots may also become infected. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Congo, Kenya, Malawi, Rhodesia, South Africa, Tanzania); Asia (India); Australasia (Australia); Europe (U.S.S.R.), North America (Canada, Mexico, United States); South America (Argentina, Brazil, Colombia).
Phaeocytostroma sacchari
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Sutton B. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phaeocytostroma sacchari
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Saccharum
spp. DISEASE: Rind disease and sour rot of sugarcane. Associated with a stalk rot of mature canes growing under unfavourable conditions; also on cuttings (setts) that have deteriorated after planting. Leaf sheaths and blades near the nodes may be infected resulting in premature yellowing and dessication. Conspicuous black pustules are developed on the shrivelled stalks which exude black, coiled, hair-like masses of conidia under moist conditions. The presence of the pathogen is a contributing factor to the inversion of sucrose in the stalks (Johnston, 1917; 1: 272). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Angola, Egypt, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Nigeria, Reunion, Rhodesia, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda), Asia (Andaman Is., Burma, Borneo, Ceylon, China, Formosa (Taiwan), India, Indo-China, Japan, Java, Malaysia, Okinawa, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand), Australia & Oceania (Australia, Fiji, Hawaii, New Guinea, Tahiti); Europe (Portugal); North America (? Bermuda, Mexico, U.S.A.); Central America and the Carribean (Antigua, Barbados, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Nevis, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, Trinidad); South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, British Guiana, Colombia, Paraguay, Peru). (CMI Map 255, ed. 2, 1952 and Herb. IMI.) TRANSMISSION: The disease is spread principally by conidia carried by wind, rain or in irrigation water (Abbott
et al.
, 1964).
Aspergillus fumigatus
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Onions A. H. S.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Aspergillus fumigatus
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Common as a saprophyte in soil and fermenting vegetable matter. Pathogenic to mammals (including man), birds and insects. DISEASES: The most serious diseases caused by this fungus are the acute and chronic infections of the respiratory system (aspergillosis, aspergilloma) of man (Austwick, 1965; and many other references, e.g., RMVM 3, 677; 4, 316; 4, 549, 551) and animals (Ainsworth & Austwick, 1959; Austwick, 1965). It may also infect the cardiovascular, digestive, genital, musculoskeletal, nervous, and urinary systems, such infections usually following haematogenous spread of the pathogen from a primary focus in the lungs or air sacs. It is the most common cause of mycotic abortion in cattle (Ainsworth & Austwick, 1959; Austwick, RMVM 5, 660; Dijkstra; RMVM 5, 92) and less often in horses (Hensel
et al.
; RMVM 4, 1227).
Aspergillus fumigatus
may also infect the ear (otomycosis) and mastoid cavity, the eye and sinuses (mycoses). Aspergillosis is a major disease of birds and is a cause of considerable losses in the poultry industry, particularly of very young birds (brooder pneumonia) (Vertinskii
et al.
; RMVM 5, 758; Vallejo; 5, 940). It is also common in captive wild birds, especially water birds (Ainsworth & Rewell; RMVM 1, 2090; Dathe; 4, 1948; Saez; 4, 811), but reports of infections in free-living wild birds are more rare (Beer; RMVM 4, 2177; McDiarmid; 2, 1761; Rosen, 5, 558). A. fumigatus also invades eggs.
Aspergillus fumigatus
spores may induce allergic reactions in man, resulting in hay fever, asthma or allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. It also produces toxins (Ainsworth & Austwick, 1959; Austwick, 1965). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: World-wide. TRANSMISSION: Soil and air-borne. Disease incidence appears to be related to heavy infection from house dust, mouldy hay or straw, litter, or feeding stuffs (Austwick, 1965; Austwick, RMVM 5, 3b).
Phytophthora cambivora
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waterhouse G. M. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phytophthora cambivora
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Acer platanoides, Andromeda floribunda, Castanea sativa, Casuarina equisetifolia, Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, Erica
sp.,
Fagus sylvatica, Rubus idaeus
and
Senecio cruentus
(cineraria). Also pathogenic on inoculation to
Cajanus cajan, Juglans regia, Lupinus albus, Nothofagus
sp.,
Pisum sativum, Quercus
sp. and
Ulmus campestris
. Crandall (1950) in his revised host list expressed the opinion that
P. cambivora
was only to be found on
Castanea
spp. associated with 'ink' disease and that all other records of this pathogen should be referred to
P. cinnamomi
. This does not, however, appear to be the case though there have been many misdeterminations in the past. DISEASES: Associated with
P. cinnamomi
in a root rot of chestnut ('ink' disease) and with
P. syringae
causing a root rot of beech. Also causes basal canker of Norway maple. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Mauritius), Asia (India), Australasia & Oceania (New Zealand); Europe (Azores, France, Great Britain, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Yugoslavia); North America (Canada, United States). (CMI Map 70, ed. 2, 1961.) TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne, persisting in soil for several years after host has disappeared (Grente & Solignet, 1952). High soil moisture, unfavourable growth conditions such as drought and injuries all contribute to increasing the susceptibility of the host to infection (34: 495; 31: 39, 406).
Phytophthora citricola
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waterhouse G. M. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Phytophthora citricola
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Antirrhinum majus, Brachychiton populneum, Ceanothus
sp.,
Citrus
spp.,
Erica hiemalis, Hibiscus
spp.,
Humulus lupulus, Lycopersicon esculentum, Malus pumila, Primula japonica, Rhododendron catawbiense, Ribes grossularia, Rosa
sp.,
Rubus idaeus, Schinus moue
and
Syringa vulgaris
. Also pathogenic on inoculation to:
Chamaecyparis
sp.,
Cupressus
sp.,
Cydonia oblonga, Euphorbia resinifera, Lycopersicon esculentum, Malus pumila, Phaseolus vulgaris
and
Pinus
sp. (Waterhouse, 1957; 39: 249; 40: 433; Herb. IMI.) DISEASES: Brown rot of oranges, black root of hops, root rot and cane die-back of raspberry, die-back of rhododendron and basal rot of tomato seedlings. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (South Africa); Asia (Formosa), Australasia & Oceania (Australia, New Zealand); Europe (Great Britain, Germany, Italy (Sicily)); Central America & West Indies (Antilles); North America (U.S.A.); South America (Argentina). TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne. Survives as mycelium in host roots and as oospores in soil (45, 3381b). Also intercepted once in Czechoslovakia on oranges imported from Turkey (42: 197).
Pythium oligandrum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Waterhouse G. M. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Pythium oligandrum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Ananas comosus, Antirrhinum majus, Beta vulgaris, Brassica oleracea, Carthamus tinctorius, Citrullus vulgaris, Citrus
sp.,
Cucumis sativa, Cucurbita pepo, Daucus carota, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Ipomoea batatas, Lactuca sativa, Lathyrus odoratus, Lycopersicon esculentum, Malus pumila, Papaver rhocas, Persea gratissima, Phaseolus acutifolium, P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Prunus amygdalus, Rheum rhaponticum, Stipa
sp.,
Triticum aestivum, Viola tricolor
and in soil and compost. DISEASES: Causing damping-off of seedlings, also stem and root rot of a wide range of plants including peas, beans, sweet potato, tomato, rhubarb, sugar beet, sweet peas, pansy and wheat. Also associated with a fruit rot of cucumber and water melon. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (South Africa), Asia (Israel); Australasia & Oceania (Australia, Hawaii); Europe (Cyprus, Great Britain, Italy); North America (U.S.A.); South America (Argentina). TRANSMISSION: Soil-borne.
Uromyces betae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Uromyces betae
[Uromyces beticola]
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On sugar beet, beetroot, spinach beet, mangolds and wild beet (
Beta vulgaris
subsp.
vulgaris, B. vulgaris
subsp.
maritima), Beta vulgaris, B. cycla, B. rapa
. DISEASES: Beet rust. First appears as small, cinnamon brown pustules scattered over the lamina, which in susceptible plants quickly spreads over the entire foliage causing the older leaves to wilt, wither and die prematurely. The younger leaves remain erect but their blades become crumpled drooping and yellowish. Badly rusted plants with blisters on leaf blades and petiole finally collapse. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Algeria, Canary Is., Libya, Madeira, Morocco, S. Africa); Asia (Israel, Iran, U.S.S.R.); Australasia (Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania); Europe (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Channel Islands, Czechoslovakia, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Great Britain, Holland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Malta, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Sardinia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia); N. America (Canada, Mexico, U.S.A.); S. America (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay). (C.M.I. Map No. 265) TRANSMISSION: Mainly by urediospores (McKay, 1952, 44, 566a). Overwinters on seed crop stecklings, clamped mangolds, groundkeeping beet and mangolds. Spores adhering to seed clusters helps to spread the disease. Reports from U.S.S.R. indicate that teliospores retain viability for 2 yrs. in store houses.
Uromyces decoratus
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Punithalingam E.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Uromyces decoratus
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Crotalaria juncea, C. maxillaris, C. medicapinea, C. retusa
and
C. vitatoni
. Also by inoculation on
C. pumila, C. shrica
and
C. verrucosa
(Josh), 1960). Aecial hosts include
Euphorbia, Euphorbia nicaeensis, Dianthus, Saponaria ocymoides
and
Tunica prolifera
. DISEASE: Rust of Sunn hemp. All parts of the plant above ground, stems, leaves, petioles and fruits are liable to attack. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Kenya, Malawi, Morocco, Mozambique, Rhodesia, S. Africa, Tanzania, Zambia); Asia (Ceylon, China, Formosa, India, Israel, Japan, Russia, Turkey), Europe (Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Italy, Malta, Norway, Portugal, Rumania, Yugoslavia); N. America (Alaska, Canada, U.S.A.); S. America (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Venezuela); W. Indies (Jamaica); Australasia, (Australia, New Zealand). TRANSMISSION: By urediospores through contact with man and his implements. The spread of this rust from one country to another has been attributed to the introduction of imported carnation from infected areas. It is said to have been introduced into Great Britain on imported carnation in 1890. So far the aecidium has not been known outside Europe and the rust maintains itself in the uredial state. Tests carried out have shown that urediospores can remain viable for a period of 185 days (4: 122).
Rigidoporus zonalis
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Pegler D. N. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Rigidoporus zonalis
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Bauhinia purpurea, Ceiba pentandra, Ficus benghalensis, Hevea brasiliensis, Mangifera indica, Sapindus trifoliatus, Shorea robusta, Syzygium cuminii, Tectona grandis
and
Toona ciliata
. DISEASE: White pocket rot. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Africa (Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, St. Thome, Uganda); Asia (Ceylon, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia (W., Sarawak), Philippines, Singapore); Australasia & Oceania (Australia, New Caledonia, New Guinea, New Hebrides); North America (U.S.A. : Ark., Miss., Tenn., Tex., Va.); Central America & West Indies (Bahamas, British Honduras, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad), South America (Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela). TRANSMISSION: By air-borne spores. Spores have been recorded infecting wood and vegetative mycelium has been observed to spread over unsterilized wood and moist sand (46, 2543).
Fusarium oxysporum
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Booth C.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Fusarium oxysporum
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: Pleurivorous in soil. DISEASE:
Fusarium oxysporum
occurs chiefly as a soil saprophyte and appears to survive winter in the mycelial or chlamydospore state. Numerous strains of this species are serious wilt pathogens of many crop plants. These together with saprophytic strains have the ability to live almost indefinitely in soil with the result that normal rotational cropping is not a practical control measure. Because of the importance of many of these physiologic strains to the plant pathologist and because of the immense amount of research that has been carried out in relation to their control, separate description sheets have been prepared dealing with the history, distribution and control measures of certain 'formae speciales'. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: world-wide.
Colletotrichum musae
. [Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria].
Authors: UK, CAB International  , Sutton B. C. , Waterston J. M.
Published: July 2021

A description is provided for
Colletotrichum musae
. Information is included on the disease caused by the organism, its transmission, geographical distribution, and hosts. HOSTS: On
Musa
spp. (banana),
M. textilis
and other species of
Musa
. Also on
Malus pumila, Mangifera indica, Persea americana, Psidium guajava
and
Vigna
sp. (by inoculation; 4: 103; 42: 268). DISEASES: Anthracnose, ripe fruit rot, finger stalk and main stalk rot, black rot of banana; leaf spot of abaca seedlings. Chiefly known as a cause of wastage of bananas in storage. The pathogen attacks immature fruit in the field and is also present as invisible latent infections in very young fruit. Leaves, transition leaves, bracts and flowers are also attacked. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION: Widespread on banana. TRANSMISSION: By wind-bome conidia and possibly by ants and other insects (2: 280). Conidia remain viable in acervuli in the field for long periods, tolerating extremes of temperature (up to 45°C) and fluctuations in relative humidity (32-83%) (45, 160).