bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Augustine on the Will
Authors: Kantzer Komline Han-luen
Published: December 2019

By analyzing a variety of texts from across Augustine’s career, the book traces the development of Augustine’s thinking on the human will. Augustine’s most creative contributions to the notion of the human will do not derive from articulating a monolithic, universal definition. He identifies four types of human will: the created will, which he describes as a hinge; the fallen will, a link in a chain binding human beings to sin; the redeemed will, which is a root of love; and the fully free will, to be enjoyed in the next life, when perfection is made complete. His mature view is theologically differentiated, consisting of four distinct types of human will, which vary according to these diverse theological scenarios. His innovation consists in distinguishing these types with a detail and clarity unprecedented by any thinker before him. Augustine’s mature view of the will is constructed in intensive dialogue with other Christian thinkers and, most of all, with the Christian scriptures. Its basic features shape, and are shaped by, his doctrines of Christ and the Holy Spirit, as well as creation and grace, making it impossible to abstract his views on willing from his account of the central Christian doctrines of Christology, Pneumatology, and the Trinity. The multiple facets of Augustine’s conception of will have been cut to fit the shape of his theology and the biblical story it seeks to describe. From Augustine we inherit a theological account of the will.
Cascades and Object Knowledge
Authors: Oakes Lisa M. , Rakison David H.
Published: December 2019

Chapter 7 applies the cascade framework to the development of object knowledge in infancy. Many theories on the development of object knowledge focus either on a single mechanism or on a single level of mechanism. This chapter presents an alternative view of infants’ developing object representation and knowledge by considering the effect of mechanisms of change at multiple levels and as involving multiple skills and abilities, cascades across development, and structural, environmental, and learned constraints. Multiple examples are presented that demonstrate how changes in motor skills affect object representations and, as such, show that there are multiple pathways to object knowledge.
The Development of Knowledge of Animates and Inanimates in Infancy
Authors: Oakes Lisa M. , Rakison David H.
Published: December 2019

Previous theories have tended to focus on a single mechanism to explain the development of knowledge of animates and inanimates infancy, although for some theorists this mechanism is domain-specific and for others it is domain-general. In contrast to these well-documented positions, in this chapter the authors claim that infants’ understanding of animacy reflects many developmental changes that occur at many levels, reflect many mechanisms—some that are domain-specific and some that are domain-general—and reflect structural, environmental, and learned constraints on that development. Examples of such developmental cascades are provided with a focus on infants’ developing knowledge of goal-directed action.
Conclusions
Authors: Oakes Lisa M. , Rakison David H.
Published: December 2019

This chapter summarizes the developmental cascades perspective and outlines a number of implications of this framework. These implications include the heuristic value of a developmental cascades approach and how developmentalists logistically can adopt a cascade approach. The generalizability of the cascade approach is also outlined by illustrating how this approach can be applied to other domains outside of infant cognitive development, namely, the development of attachment and gender. The chapter concludes with a discussion of potential criticisms of the approach, including reframing those criticisms in terms of potential strengths or limitations that can be overcome. This chapter concludes with a “call to arms” encouraging all developmental scientists to consider change in terms of developmental cascades.
Background and theoretical assumptions
Authors: Dalrymple Mary , Lowe John J. , Mycock Louise
Published: December 2019

This chapter sets the scene for the rest of the work. The chapter first describes the historical roots and development of Lexical Functional Grammar, a nontransformational theory of linguistic structure, within the tradition of generative grammar. The chapter then explains the fundamental assumptions of the theory, its lexicalist orientation, and the central role that functional syntactic relations play. Subsequently, the structure of the rest of the book is set out, providing detailed accounts of each part, with brief summaries of each chapter. The chapterthen provides advice on how best to use the book, highlighting the primary focus of chapters and how the chapters relate to specific areas of linguistic structure and analysis, before concluding with references on other LFG overviews and introductions to the theory.
Information structure
Authors: Dalrymple Mary , Lowe John J. , Mycock Louise
Published: December 2019

This chapter considers how information is organized within an utterance, and in particular how syntax, semantics, and information structure interact. As with semantic information, early work in LFG represented certain aspects of information structure by means of f-structure attributes. The authors follow subsequent work in assuming a separate level of information structure or i-structure, related to other structures via correspondence functions. This chapter begins with a discussion of how the information conveyed by an utterance is structured to facilitate communication, before an exploration of the nature of the units that are relevant to the structuring of information. Subsequently, there is a review of some early LFG approaches to the representation of information structural features (Section 10.3), followed by an overview of the model of information structure that is adopted in the rest of this book (Section 10.4).
Anaphora
Authors: Dalrymple Mary , Lowe John J. , Mycock Louise
Published: December 2019

This chapter presents LFG analyses for different types of anaphora. Section 14.1 discusses how incorporated pronominal elements behave differently from elements that alternate with agreement markers, and the ways in which these differ from morphologically independent pronouns. Anaphoric relations and binding patterns have been the subject of much research within the LFG framework; Section 14.2 discusses positive and negative constraints on anaphoric binding stated in terms of structural relations holding at f-structure, and Section 14.3 discusses prominence relations which hold between the anaphor and its potential antecedents stated at f-structure as well as other linguistic levels. A glue-theoretic treatment of the semantics of anaphoric binding is presented in Section 14.4, modeled using a version of Discourse Representation Theory. This semantic treatment will be drawn upon in subsequent chapters, particularly in the discussion of anaphoric control in Chapter 15.
Poetics of the Pillory
Authors: Keymer Thomas
Published: December 2019

On the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695, Thomas Macaulay wrote in his History of England, ‘English literature was emancipated, and emancipated for ever, from the control of the government’. It’s certainly true that the system of prior restraint enshrined in this Restoration measure was now at an end, at least for print. Yet the same cannot be said of government control, which came to operate instead by means of post-publication retribution, not pre-publication licensing, notably for the common-law offence of seditious libel. For many of the authors affected, from Defoe to Cobbett, this new regime was a greater constraint on expression than the old, not least for its alarming unpredictability, and for the spectacular punishment—the pillory—that was sometimes entailed. Yet we may also see the constraint as an energizing force. Throughout the eighteenth century and into the Romantic period, writers developed and refined ingenious techniques for communicating dissident or otherwise contentious meanings while rendering the meanings deniable. As a work of both history and criticism, this book traces the rise and fall of seditious libel prosecution, and with it the theatre of the pillory, while arguing that the period’s characteristic forms of literary complexity—ambiguity, ellipsis, indirection, irony—may be traced to the persistence of censorship in the post-licensing world. The argument proceeds through case studies of major poets and prose writers including Dryden, Defoe, Pope, Fielding, Johnson, and Southey, and also calls attention to numerous little-known satires and libels across the extended period.
Theology and Art in Scotland
Authors: Brown David
Published: December 2019

This chapter argues that the change in attitude to art from Reformation times to today was undergirded by theological argument: first among Enlightenment philosophers such as Alison, Hutcheson, Reid, Turnbull, and Stewart; then by the more practically orientated reflections of artists such as Sir David Wilkie. The aim of art should be more than simply representational: it should elicit some sense of the divine, a view endorsed by the most important Scottish theologian to discuss the issue, P. T. Forsyth. Two of the most interesting artists in this respect are identified as Robert Scott Lauder and William Dyce. The discussion ends with an exploration of the possibilities for creative engagement today, particularly with apparently hostile initiatives.
Late Twentieth-Century Controversies in Sexual Ethics, Gender, and Ordination
Authors: Orr Lesley
Published: December 2019

During the second half of the twentieth century, a seismic shift in outlook, norms, behaviours, and laws transformed Western societies, particularly in relation to sexuality and gender relations. These changes were characterized and facilitated by escalating rejection of dominant sources of moral authority, including organized religion. This chapter considers the Church of Scotland’s response to the ‘permissive society’. It attempted to grapple theologically with questions concerning marriage and divorce, homosexuality, and women’s ordination, confronted unavoidably with profound questions concerning gender, power, and sexuality. These debates generated controversy and division as the moral consensus fractured. Fault lines opened up between conservatives who defended the validity of Christian moral certainties, and others who embraced more liberal and contextual interpretations of Scripture and tradition. Previously silenced or subordinated voices emerged, challenging but failing to provoke radical institutional change at a time of rapid declension in the status and cultural influence of the national Church.
Episcopalian Theology in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Peden Alison
Published: December 2019

Bertrand Brasnett, Donald MacKinnon, and John Riches were Scottish Episcopalians who responded to the twentieth-century world with innovative theology. Between the two World Wars, the passibilist theologian Brasnett explored the eternal suffering of God in Christ and its meaning for humanity. Then MacKinnon wrestled with the reality of evil and the scope of the Church’s truthful response. Later in the century, Riches demonstrated the creative power of Scripture, as communities found their identity in an interpretative conversation with the text. Their theologies are realist, contextual, and have at their core the kenotic Christ. All three theologians were connected in some way with Hans Urs von Balthasar. They wrote in an authentically Anglican but not overtly denominational way.
Building the evidence
Authors: Vihman Marilyn May
Published: December 2019

This chapter presents data from six children learning American English at two developmental points: first word use and the end of the single-word period, when templates typically first begin to be identifiable. The chapter lays out procedures for identifying prosodic structures and variants and also consonant inventories, which give insight into the child’s resources for word production. Analysis of the most frequently used prosodic structures is followed by an analysis of each child’s data to permit template identification, based primarily on high proportionate use and adaptation. A developmental comparison of the two data sets shows continued reliance, by all the children, on the default or simplest CV structure, but advances in use of one- and two-syllable structures with codas. Consonant variegation is found to be the single greatest challenge for early word formation.
Phonological templates in development
Authors: Vihman Marilyn May
Published: December 2019

This chapter presents cross-linguistic data from two children each from the language groups represented in Chapter 4. The child’s consonantal resources are evaluated, with examples of the child’s word forms. This is followed by an account of the child’s prosodic structures and their relative frequency of use. Active template use is evaluated, based in part on the extent to which the child adapts words to fit those structures. A correlation is found between the children’s production of consonant matches and the extent of variegation in their word forms. Finally, an overview is provided of template use in the 18 children whose patterns have been considered in detail. Consonant harmony is found to be the pattern most frequently deployed, but a VCV pattern is used by five of the children (French, Finnish, Italian, Welsh). The pattern is traced to accentual aspects of the ambient language.
Conclusion
Authors: Vihman Marilyn May
Published: December 2019

This chapter reviews the phases of early phonological and lexical development, based on the analyses of early words and prosodic structures (Chs. 3, 4), templatic patterns (Chs. 3, 5, 6), and the replacement of templates by more adult-like forms (Ch. 6). The role of memory in the process of template formation is discussed, contrasting the template model of lexical development with other theoretical approaches. The emergence of system-building is then related to the discussion (Ch. 1) of current studies in adult word learning and the distinction between lexical configuration and lexical engagement. In a brief account of current models of phonological development particular attention is given to the recently disseminated A-map model, which emphasizes accuracy and child-to-adult continuity within an Optimality Theoretic perspective. In a concluding section the function of adult and child templates is discussed again, highlighting the similarities observed in our data analyses (Ch. 8).
Conclusion
Authors: Ochoa Rolando
Published: December 2019

This chapter concludes the book. It establishes its main contributions to the literature on crime in Latin America, as well as the broader sociological and criminological theories of crime, trust, and signaling in a context where the state does not willingly provide protection in an egalitarian manner. It outlines how the book has sought to contribute to our understanding of kidnapping by entering into a dialogue with the existing literature on crime in Mexico and Latin America, its causes, and its consequences. It also explains how the book has provided a methodologically sound account of the evolution of the crime of kidnapping, and the ways in which communities and individuals navigate the risk of being kidnapped. The chapter also sets out new questions and issues for further research.
Acquaintance as Grounded in Joint Attention
Authors: Campbell John
Published: December 2019

One great opposition in philosophy of language has been between those who take the shared language as fundamental to human cognition and those who argue that all human cognitive capacities, including knowledge of language, are grounded in individualistic cognitions. Those who took the primacy of the shared language seriously, such as Whorf and Wittgenstein, were resistant to the idea of reference to mind-independent objects, and statements being made true or false by a mind-independent world. This chapter sketches out a way of reinstating the primacy of the shared language that gives full weight to the role of reference and truth. Accepting that an understanding of language has a fundamentally social grounding means that we do not regard language as grounded in individualistic cognitions, but also gives full place to the idea that knowledge of reference is basic to language mastery.
Principles of Acquaintance
Authors: Pepp Jessica
Published: December 2019

The thesis that in order to genuinely think about a particular object one must be (in some sense) acquainted with that object has been thoroughly explored since it was put forward by Bertrand Russell. Recently, the thesis has come in for mounting criticism. The aim of this chapter is to point out that neither the exploration nor the criticism have been sensitive to the fact that the thesis can be interpreted in two different ways, yielding two different principles of acquaintance. One principle uses the notion of content in distinguishing genuine thinking-about things from a merely derivative kind of thinking-about things. The other principle is quiet about content, focusing instead on a distinction between satisfactional and non-satisfactional means of bringing things into thought. I shall argue that the latter principle merits independent assessment as part of the broader effort to account for genuine thinking about particular objects.
Introduction
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B.
Published: December 2019

Sampling theory concerns itself with development of procedures for random selection of a subset of units, a sample, from a larger finite population, and with how to best use sample data to make scientifically and statistically sound inferences about the population as a whole. The Introduction orients the reader to the essential content and structure of the text, including (a) an overview of the nature and objectives of design-based sampling theory as well an explanation for why we emphasize the design-based approach to sampling, (b) organization of content by chapters, (c) summary of notational conventions adopted throughout, (d) suggestions for instructors using the text for a class, (e) assumed level of mathematics and statistics background expected from readers, and (f) discussion of how this text differs from other published sampling texts. The chapter concludes with a brief review of the history and development of sampling theory, including both the design-based theory (that is stressed in the text), and model-based prediction theory (that is motivated and illustrated in Chapter 7). The Introduction notes that the text presents small sample space numerical illustrations of the performance of many sampling strategies, and that the text adopts a logical and consistent notation which clarifies presentation of sampling theory concepts. The ecological/environmental/natural resources orientation of the text is most evident in problem exercises associated with most chapters, many of which have been motivated by practical resource applications.
Ratio and regression estimation
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B.
Published: December 2019

Inexpensive and/or readily available auxiliary variable, x, values may often be available at little or no cost. If these variables are highly correlated with the target variable, y, then use of ratio or regression estimators may greatly reduce sampling variance. These estimators are not unbiased, but bias is generally small compared to the target of estimation and contributes a very small proportion of overall mean square error, the relevant measure of accuracy for biased estimators. Ratio estimation can also be incorporated in the context of stratified designs, again possibly offering a reduction in overall sampling variance. Model-based prediction offers an alternative to the design-based ratio and regression estimators and we present an overview of this approach. In model-based prediction, the y values associated with population units are viewed as realizations of random variables which are assumed to be related to auxiliary variables according to specified models. The realized values of the target variable are known for the sample, but must be predicted using an assumed model dependency on the auxiliary variable for the non-sampled units in the population. Insights from model-based thinking may assist the design-based sampling theorist in selection of an appropriate estimator. Similarly, we show that insights from design-based estimation may improve estimation of uncertainty in model-based mark-recapture estimation.
Unequal probability sampling
Authors: Hankin David G. , Mohr Michael S. , Newman Ken B.
Published: December 2019

Equal probability selection is a special case of the general theory of probability sampling in which population units may be selected with unequal probabilities. Unequal selection probabilities are often based on auxiliary variable values which are measures of the sizes of population units, thus leading to the acronym (PPS)—“Probability Proportional to Size”. The Horvitz–Thompson (1953) theorem provides a unifying framework for design-based sampling theory. A sampling design specifies the sample space (set of all possible samples) and associated first and second order inclusion probabilities (probabilities that unit i, or units i and j, respectively, are included in a sample of size n selected from N according to some selection method). A valid probability sampling scheme must have all first order inclusion probabilities > 00 (i.e., every population unit must have a chance of being in the sample). Unbiased variance estimation is possible only for those schemes that guarantee that all second order inclusion probabilities exceed zero, thus providing theoretical justification for the absence of unbiased estimators of sampling variance in systematic sampling and other schemes for which some second order inclusion probabilities are zero. Numerous generalized Horvitz–Thompson (HT) estimators can be formed and all are consistent estimators because they are functions of consistent HT estimators. Unequal probability systematic sampling and Poisson sampling (the unequal probability counterpart to Bernoulli sampling for which sample size is a random variable) are also considered. Several R programs for selecting unequal probability samples and for calculating first and second order inclusion probabilities are posted at http://global.oup.com/uk/companion/hankin.
Martin Crimp’s Alles Weitere kennen Sie aus dem Kino
Authors: Cole Emma
Published: December 2019

Chapter 2 explores the relationship between text and postdramatic theatre via Katie Mitchell’s 2013 production of Martin Crimp’s adaptation of Euripides’ Phoenissae, titled Alles Weitere kennen Sie aus dem Kino (The Rest Will be Familiar to You from Cinema). I argue that Mitchell’s experimental realization of the text can provide new insights into problematic issues in Euripides’ play, such as the function of the chorus, and that the production consequently indicates the value of analysing postdramatic receptions to the discipline of classics. Furthermore, the chapter showcases how the production engaged with a range of opaque political discourses that questioned the use antiquity to construct one’s own identity, and how tragedy can be used to consider contemporary power disputes and issues of nationalism. The discussion exemplifies why it is unhelpful to think of scripts as either dramatic or postdramatic texts, and instead suggests a focus on the potential that playtexts hold to be realized through postdramatic performance.
Meditations
Authors: Auger Peter
Published: December 2019

Several seventeenth-century poets explored ways to compose verse meditations that showed readers how to use scriptural poems like Devine Weekes as a devotional aid. Joseph Hall and Francis Quarles advocated new forms of non-lyric meditation, a literary mode especially practised by women writers. As such poems offered a greater role to the self as an interpretive agent, scriptural poets like Anne Southwell and Edward Browne stretched Du Bartas’ models in ways that responded to their personal, political, and social circumstances. Even though historical and meditative verse forms blended into each other, Anne Bradstreet’s The Tenth Muse distinguishes sharply between the two modes in order to cast her as a conservative historical poet writing under Du Bartas’ shadow.
Retrospectives
Authors: Auger Peter
Published: December 2019

Although Devine Weekes was read and admired throughout the seventeenth century, writers came to regard it as an outdated gathering of mythical information. Later seventeenth- and eighteenth-century poets (such as Susanna Hopton, Thomas Ellwood, and Richard Blackmore) continued to test the relation between faith, empiricism, and poetry with Du Bartas as a distant precursor. The Lake Poets (William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey) remembered Du Bartas’ place in literary history, perhaps aware that he was an oblique precursor to literary Romanticism, even if he ignored the role of the creative consciousness. Du Bartas’ poetry should not just be read for its historical significance or as a source for other writers, but in dialogue with those who read and imitated his works.
Dispersions of solids in liquids
Authors: Aveyard Bob
Published: December 2019

Adsorbed surfactants and polymers are able to modify the interactions between particles and hence the stability of a dispersion. A brief description of stabilization of dispersions by electrical interactions is given, including how addition of electrolyte can lead to both flocculation and coagulation of dispersions. Other forces are also exploited either to stabilize or destabilize dispersions. Steric interactions arise from adsorbed macromolecules; steric repulsion depends on the surface concentration of polymer, and also on whether the medium is a good or a poor solvent for the polymer chains. In dilute solutions of polymer that can adsorb simultaneously on two or more particles, bridging can lead to flocculation. Non-adsorbed (free) polymer molecules in solution give rise to depletion forces that result from the exclusion of polymer molecules from between particles in close proximity, which can cause flocculation of dispersions.
Emulsions stabilized by solid particles
Authors: Aveyard Bob
Published: December 2019

Adsorbed solid particles can stabilize (Pickering) emulsions and multiple emulsions very effectively. For roughly equal volumes of oil and water, together with solid particles, the ‘preferred’ emulsion type depends on the relative wettability of the particles by oil and water. Hydrophobic particles tend to stabilize W/O emulsions whereas hydrophilic particles favour O/W emulsions. Emulsions can be inverted from one type to the other either by changing the liquid volume fractions or the (mean) wettability of the particles. The latter method is analogous to changing the HLB in surfactant-stabilized emulsions. The possibility of forming thermodynamically (rather than kinetically) stable emulsions if (i) the line tension in the three-phase contact line around adsorbed particles is negative, and (ii) when Janus particles are used, is explored. Finally some other structures that can be stabilized by solid particles are mentioned.
Housing System and Urbanization in the People’s Republic of China
Authors: Chen Jie
Published: December 2019

This chapter provides a contextualized interpretation of the transformation of housing regimes in urban China since the abolition of the urban welfare housing system in 1998. Particular attention is given to the impacts of public housing provision on China’s urbanization mode. The employment of the widely used state-market-family model is supplemented by contextualization. A close examination of the case of Public Rental Housing (PRH) in Shanghai helps to show that the recent revival of public housing in Chinese cities is mostly driven by economic growth motives. Despite that the Chinese urban housing regime up to now could be located within the context of other Asian countries’ ‘productivist’ welfare regimes, this chapter however discerns mixed evidence that it is recently shifting towards a ‘developmentalist’ regime. This investigation offers multifaceted insights on the complexity of the social-economic dynamics in post-reform urban China.
Urbanization, Land, and Housing in India: Options Amid the State and the Market Failures
Authors: Mahadevia Darshini
Published: December 2019

Housing or shelter security is the key to rapid as well as inclusive urbanization, which different countries have addressed in their own way in the course of modern history. India too has, after a hiatus of half a century, introduced public housing programme for the first time in 2006, which has seen many modifications. This chapter attempts to answer the questions as to why the state and market has failed to meet the housing needs of the urban poor, and thus how do the urban poor access housing/shelter and what explains different levels of housing achievements by different states in India? The chapter draws on available secondary data to answer these questions and suggests what needs to be done going forward.
Human Capital and Urbanization in India
Authors: Sarkar Sandip
Published: December 2019

This chapter analyses the human capital base of population, workers, and migrants and compares the human capital base of the population and workers in rural and urban areas. The nature and extent of the private sector’s role in human capital formation are also looked at. This chapter finds that earnings of workers increase substantially at each successive level of education and returns are far higher at the graduate-and-above level. The contribution of rural–urban migration in increasing the urban population has been around one-fifth. In that sense, urban growth has been exclusionary. It observes that urban areas are considerably better endowed with the quality of human capital and the average returns to education are higher in urban areas compared with rural areas, and rural–urban gaps in average return to education are increasing over time. It calls for active policy to promote rural–urban migration that will boost urban as well as national income. In this regard it argues for an active policy of promoting the labour-intensive manufacturing sector which is likely to promote more migration and reduce the selectivity bias in rural–urban migration.
Congestion and Pollution in Chinese Cities
Authors: Zheng Siqi , Sun Cong , Wang Jianghao , Hu Xiaoke
Published: December 2019

The rapid urbanization of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) is assumed to generate greater economic benefits in terms of income, but also result in greater social costs in terms of negative externalities. This chapter focuses on the direct relationship between city growth and the urban diseases of congestion and pollution in the PRC. The ‘demand–supply–government’ framework is employed to analyse the sources and consequences of these major urban diseases. The roles of market power and political power in congestion and pollution mitigation are also discussed in this chapter.
Urbanization, Water Supply, and Sanitation in India
Authors: Kumar Surender
Published: December 2019

The chapter aims to review the state of water and sanitation facilities in Indian cities, and policy interventions undertaken to address inadequacies in the provision of these services. The power-law relationship reveals that greater autonomy in management helps in realizing economies of scale. The chapter also measures technical and scale efficiency in the provision of these services in Indian cities. Estimates of technical efficiency uncover that water and sanitation service providers have the potential to increase service levels by 37 and 48 per cent respectively. Note that most Indian urban water and sanitation utilities are operating at decreasing returns to scale. This implies that services may be charged following the rule of marginal cost pricing. The chapter also finds that there are consumption-metering advantages in improving efficiency of water utilities.
Urbanization, Inequality, and Poverty in the People’s Republic of China
Authors: Zhang Yuan
Published: December 2019

Urbanization is considered to be an engine of economic growth in developing countries. Driven by policies of economic reforms and opening up, the structural changes ushered in an era of sustained and rapid economic growth for the People’s Republic of China (PRC). As a consequence, rural and urban poverty declined dramatically. At the same time, income inequality increased rapidly. To understand these important observations, this chapter inquires into the role played by urbanization in economic growth, poverty reduction, and the evolution of inequality in the PRC. Specifically, this chapter (1) analyses the relationship between urbanization, economic growth, and the evolution of inequality in the PRC; (2) focuses on the urban labour market and urban poverty; (3) portrays the multifaceted nature of poverty in the process of urbanization; and (4) analyses the effect of some anti-poverty and inequality policies in the context of urbanization.
Processes
Authors: O'Callaghan Casey
Published: December 2019

Crossmodal perceptual illusions such as ventriloquism, the McGurk effect, the rubber hand, and the sound-induced flash demonstrate that one sense can causally impact perceptual processing and experience that is associated with another sense. This chapter argues that such causal interactions between senses are not merely accidental. Interactions between senses are part of typical perceptual functioning. Unlike synesthesia, they reveal principled perceptual strategies for dealing with noisy, fallible sensory stimulation from multiple sources. Recalibrations resolve conflicts between senses and weight in deference to the more reliable modality. Coordination between senses thus improves the coherence and the reliability of human perceptual capacities. Therefore, some perceptual processes of the sort relevant to empirical psychology are multisensory.
Awareness
Authors: O'Callaghan Casey
Published: December 2019

Perceptual capacities need not be reflected as such in perceptual consciousness. Thus, a subject could possess multisensory perceptual capacities while perceptual consciousness remains sense specific. For instance, a subject could detect and differentiate novel intermodal features without corresponding, irreducibly multisensory perceptual awareness. In response, this chapter argues that perceptual awareness of an object or feature sometimes is constitutively, irreducibly multisensory. In particular, it argues that the exercise of multisensory perceptual capacities can serve to make features that are not otherwise perceptible available to conscious subjects for use in thought, reasoning, and rational action. Multisensory perception thereby fixes which features are occurrently accessible to conscious perceiving subjects. The implication is that multisensory perceptual awareness cannot fully be captured in terms of sense-specific awareness.
Experience
Authors: O'Callaghan Casey
Published: December 2019

This chapter argues that perceptual experience is richly multisensory. In particular, phenomenal consciousness is constitutively and irreducibly multisensory. The reason is that the phenomenal character of a conscious multisensory episode can include more than what is associated with each of the respective senses plus whatever accrues due to simple co-consciousness. Exercising multisensory capacities thus makes a phenomenal difference to perceptual consciousness. This difference can obtain whether or not it would enable a subject to discriminate between two otherwise equivalent experiences. It follows that the character of a perceptual episode is not exhausted by what belongs to each of the senses. Therefore, not all perceptual experience is modality specific. Coordination among the senses thus makes possible new forms of perceptual consciousness. Multisensory perception extends the varieties of experience.
Senses
Authors: O'Callaghan Casey
Published: December 2019

Multisensory phenomena have been used to challenge the distinctness of our senses. Perceptual processes interact extensively and perform joint functions, while perceptual experience is constitutively and irreducibly multisensory. This chapter presents an account of the senses and what differentiates them. According to this proposal, each sense is a family of perceptual capacities unified and distinguished by the way in which those capacities are exercised. The relevant manner is an information-gathering activity type individuated by the information it functions to extract and the medium from which it does so. Perceiving involves exercising perceptual capacities in one or more sensory manners. Thus, perceptual episodes and experiences may be typed accordingly, without appealing to their phenomenology. The key to this approach is distinguishing the task of individuating senses from that of ascribing modalities to experiences. This account rejects the independence of the senses while preserving their distinctness. It illuminates richly multisensory perception and captures why it matters.
Mechanoreceptors and touch
Authors: Fain Gordon L.
Published: December 2019

“Mechanoreceptors and touch” is the fifth chapter of the book Sensory Transduction and describes general mechanisms of touch sensitivity in animals. It begins with a review of mechanoreception in the single-celled protozoan Paramecium and transduction of touch in the round worm Caenorhabditis elegans. A thorough treatment is next given of the crayfish stretch receptor and insect mechanoreceptors, including a description of NOMPC channels in Drosophila. The chapter then reviews the anatomy and physiology of mechanoreceptors and touch in mammals, both in glabrous and hairy skin. It concludes with recent discoveries of the molecular biology and physiology of Merkel cells, known to be responsible for much of mammalian touch sensation.
Introduction to drawing geology
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Illustrations and drawings have been used in geology to record field data and communicate science since the inception of the subject. In this chapter the history of illustration and drawing in geology is described and shows the evolution of pictorial representation in Earth Science from the earliest examples of the fifteenth century to the present time. The impact of new technologies and the changes in emphasis brought about by modern technology is also considered in relation to drawing as a means to record data. The chapter argues that drawing remains the best means to document geological features and still has an important place in Earth Science.
Drawing igneous outcrops
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Igneous rocks are a fundamental component of the Earth and are commonly encountered during geological fieldwork. This chapter describes techniques used to draw field sketches of intrusions and volcanic features, such as lava flows, volcanic craters, and pyroclastic sequences. The most important features of igneous rocks to record are discussed. Recording the nature of contacts is particularly important in drawing igneous outcrops, in particular cross-cutting relationships that relate to emplacement timing. Four worked examples of field sketches of igneous geology are provided to illustrate concepts in their description in during fieldwork. These include the summit crater of Vesuvius, lava flows from Mount Etna, and pyroclastic deposits from Santorini.
Drawing fossils
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Fossils record the evolution of life on Earth and are crucial in the dating of sedimentary rocks through biostratigraphy. This chapter examines the methods used to record the taxonomy and sedimentological context of fossils within field sketches. The taxonomy and geological range of important fossil groups are described as well as their occurrence within sediments. Blocking-in sketches accurately is particularly important when drawing fossils since their quasi-regular shapes can lead to drawings that are overly schematic. Small-scale morphological features are often important in the interpretation of fossils. Four worked examples of sketches of fossils are given together with descriptions of their interpretation to illustrate techniques to record palaeontological specimens.
The art of maps
Authors: Genge Matthew J.
Published: December 2019

Geological maps record the exposure of different rock units at the surface and are crucial in determining the stratigraphy and structure of a region. Creating and interpreting geological maps are important skills for an Earth Scientist. This chapter describes the methods used in geological mapping, including the tactics involved during fieldwork and the conventions and symbols used to record data. The chapter illustrates the use of sketch maps during fieldwork to record high resolution observations in areas with complex geological relationships. Four examples of sketch map are given to demonstrate how they can be used in field notes to record spatially constrained observations.
The World as Descartes Found It
Authors: Brown Deborah J. , Normore Calvin G.
Published: December 2019

Descartes stands as the pivotal transitional figure between Aristotelian Scholasticism and modern philosophical systems. This chapter documents the philosophical trends of ancient and medieval origin that remained current in Descartes’ time and with which he grappled in developing his own ideas about composite entities and the substances from which they were composed. It presents an analysis of Descartes’ theory of distinctions according to which all three distinctions (real, modal, and of reason) are argued to have a foundation in nature, and the issue of where to fit the part/whole distinction among this typology of distinctions is addressed. By outlining the history and development of the terminology Descartes uses to make metaphysical and physical sense of the world around him, this chapter sets the foundation for further discussion of Descartes’ treatment of ordinary objects that occurs throughout later chapters of the book.
Lifeblood
Authors: Brown Deborah J. , Normore Calvin G.
Published: December 2019

In Aristotelian-Scholastic accounts that equated life with the possession of a soul, there is no particular problem explaining the distinction between living and non-living things. Descartes makes frequent references to living things and to the distinction between life and death, equating the latter to the difference between an automaton working and one that is not. The question arises how robust is the distinction between the living and the dead for Descartes? How real is the possibility of artificial life? Should we conclude that a clock is alive? This chapter examines four attempts to give an analysis of “life” in Descartes’ philosophy and finds each wanting. It is argued that the best one can do to understand what “life” means for Descartes is to look at what death involves—the gradual silting up of an automaton through the very processes that for its duration sustain and nourish it.
Jurisdiction
Authors: Briggs Adrian
Published: December 2019

This chapter discusses the items of private international law of jurisdiction in civil and commercial matters, which were governed in part by a number of European Regulations and other instruments prior to Exit Day. These include the Brussels I Regulation 44/2001 and the recast Brussels I Regulation 1215/2012; the 1988 Lugano Convention and the 2007 Lugano II Convention; and the 1968 Brussels Convention as amended from time to time. According to the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019, SI 2019 No 479, on Exit Day these instruments are revoked or, in the case of the Conventions given effect by the Civil Jurisdiction and Judgments Act 1982, as amended, repealed.
Stoic Magnanimity
Authors: Gill Christopher
Published: December 2019

The Stoic treatment of magnanimity was formulated independently from Aristotle’s, though there are points of resemblance, considered at the end of this chapter. In early Stoic thought, magnanimity is presented as a subdivision of the cardinal virtue of courage, and is marked by an ability to rise above external circumstances, especially adversity. Stoic thinking on magnanimity is analysed here in terms of their theory of value, psychology, and worldview. The main later Stoic treatment of magnanimity comes in Cicero’s On Duties, a highly influential work in medieval and early modern Europe. Magnanimity here appears as one of the four cardinal virtues, defined both in terms of the ability to rise above misfortune and the readiness to undertake great actions on behalf of others; the relationship between magnanimity and honour also emerges as a new theme in Cicero’s treatment.
“They are nothing but birdbrains!”
Authors: Tilburg Patricia
Published: December 2019

From 1901, the Parisian clothing trades saw a remarkable escalation of labor activism and subsequent legislative reform driven by and on behalf of the more than 80,000 women working in the capital’s couture industry. Time and again (in 1901, 1908, 1910, 1911, 1916, 1917, 1918, and 1919), the midinettes of Paris took to the boulevards in work stoppages that captured unprecedented media attention and garnered meaningful gains for garment workers across the city. French journalists, government officials, and labor leaders alike promoted a romantic and infantilizing vision of the female garment strikers as insouciant girls in need of paternal care (whether of the state, union, or reforming bourgeoisie), and replicated the pervasive belle époque type of the midinette. In the face of strikes in the heavily feminine garment trades, an image of the female Parisian fashion worker as charmingly capricious and pleasure-loving persisted. This chapter assesses the symbolic work performed by such a persistence, and also attends to the workingwomen who lamented the condescension of strike coverage and stressed their own demands and experience. In tracing the discursive work of the midinette as type, this chapter draws upon archival material from the Préfecture de Police, union journals, cartoons, workers’ memoirs, reform inquiries, songs, novels, and newspapers. The aestheticization of workingwomen had real consequences for the handling of garment trade militancy by the press, politicians, police, labor leaders, and couture workers themselves. It also framed the evolution of a new brand of militant midinette over the course of these strikes
Mimi Pinson Goes to War
Authors: Tilburg Patricia
Published: December 2019

During World War I, the midinettes of Paris suffered unemployment and drastically cut wages; at the same time, they were elevated in wartime ephemera as a nostalgic and erotic image of a France made whole. They were embraced by the press, by government agencies, and by trench soldiers as a soothing counterimage to more troubling female types on the homefront. As a cheerful and desirable national girlfriend, the Parisian garment worker was imagined offering her body, her gaiety, and her inimitable taste to the war effort. Physical intimacy between these women and trench soldiers emerged, particularly in the early years of the war, as a potent fantasy of pre-war wholeness—with the midinette’s body serving as a talisman to ward off violence, defeat, and death. Two patriotic initiatives through Charpentier’s Oeuvre de Mimi Pinson are examined. First, the Cocarde de Mimi Pinson, a campaign by female Parisian needle workers to manufacture tricolor cockades for front soldiers. What began as the spontaneous production of morale-boosting mementos by a group of unemployed garment workers soon expanded to include a government-funded exposition, a shop, an operetta, poems, and several songs. Second, Charpentier created an association to fund and train workingwomen as nurses. Government officials, journalists, and even soldiers applauded garment workers’ patriotic participation under the sign of Mimi Pinson, gay guardian of French taste and the loving and (safely) eroticized national Girlfriend.