bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Grand Coalescence of Life and Earth
Authors: McCarthy Dennis
Published: November 2023

Here Be Dragons” is a phrase that most people associate with the outskirts of ancient, sepia maps—the ominous warning scrawled over those places where the lands leave the familiar. At least, that is where many people think we would find the phrase. As noted in the Preface, “Here Be Dragons” is unknown from historical maps, appearing only once, in Latin, on the Hunt-Lenox Globe, constructed in the years after Columbus’s trip to the New World. The phrase was not, as so many believe, a general warning to sailors about alien realms.
chapter 21Individual Differences in Foreign Sound Perception: Perceptual or Linguistic Difficulties?
Authors: Sebastián-Gallés Núria
Published: November 2023

This talk is going to deal with variation in languages, a subject that we have heard mentioned quite often at this conference. As we know, the problem of why there are so many different languages on Earth has been solved. Genesis 11 gives us the answer with the story of the Tower of Babel – the proliferation of languages was a punishment from God. So the issue that I want to talk about here is not how all these languages came into being, but about another type of variation: why it is that when we try to learn a second language, some people are very good at it, while the rest of us are not.
chapter 4
Authors: Wu Duncan
Published: November 2023

The collection of Italian masters formerly in the possession of the Regent Orleans was on display at a gallery in Pall Mall, and Hazlitt visited it many times, never to forget what he saw. He gazed at Ludovico Carracci’s ‘Susannah and the Elders’ ‘till our heart thrilled with its beauty, and our eyes filled with tears. How often had we thought of it since, how often spoken of it!’ Sebastiano del Piombo’s ‘The Raising of Lazarus’ moved him for its portrayal of the revived man: ‘The flesh is well-baked, dingy, and ready to crumble from the touch, when it is liberated from its dread confinement to have life and motion impressed on it again.’ He adored Annibale Carracci’s ‘Danaë’, with its ‘fine, up-turned, expectant’ face. Most of all, two paintings by Titian burned themselves into his memory. In ‘Venus Rising from the Sea’, the central figure was in shade—’a kind of veil through which the delicate skin shows more transparent and aerial’—while ‘The Death of Actaeon’ worked beautifully as a landscape: ‘The winds seemed to sing through the rustling branches of the trees, and already you might hear the twanging of bows resound through the tangled mazes of the wood.’ For the rest of his life Hazlitt would return to them in his imagination. ‘From that time I lived in a world of pictures. Battles, sieges,
chapter 11
Authors: Wu Duncan
Published: November 2023

The sobriety was new—and Hazlitt better company as a result. That evening he was enjoined to talk about the baby, which put him in buoyant mood. He was probably prevailed upon to spend Christmas 1815 at home, but on Boxing Day he reviewed the pantomimes, perhaps taking young William with him, now four, either to George Barnwell or (more likely) Harlequin and Fortunio; or The Poet’s Last Shilling at Covent Garden.
chapter 14
Authors: Wu Duncan
Published: November 2023

The Yellow Dwarf opened on 3 January 1818 with a barnstorming performance in which Hazlitt analysed the three trials of William Hone—a factually based, investigative piece detailing legal abuses by the prosecution. Over the course of its 21 issues Hazlitt would provide the new journal with some of his best political writing, including ‘On Court-Influence’, ‘On the Clerical Character’, ‘What is the People?’, and ‘On the Regal Character’ (all reprinted in Political Essays). Together they comprise a primer on the governmental system and its flaws—for which reason, decreed Wordsworth, The Yellow Dwarf ‘ought to be instantly put down’.
chapter 17
Authors: Wu Duncan
Published: November 2023

In the last months of 1819 preparations were afoot for The London Magazine, to be launched under the editorship of John Scott. During the five years since he and Hazlitt last worked together, Scott had come to regret the conduct which led Hazlitt to break with him. When they were reunited at Haydon’s on 16 January 1820, his feelings of guilt ‘were quite punishment enough’. They made up, but Hazlitt knew Scott could not be trusted—’I suspect he is at me again,’ he would tell Haydon in August.
chapter 18
Authors: Wu Duncan
Published: November 2023

The summer of 1821 brought unwelcome tidings. Robert Stodart, whose stock included the Letter to William Gifford, A View of the English Stage, and the third series of Hazlitt’s Lectures, was gazetted bankrupt. He was shattered in body and mind, and in August M’Creery reported: ‘Stodart is gone mad he has attempted to destroy himself several times lately.’ M’Creery was £100 out of pocket, and Stodart’s stock was sold to assignees, who disposed of it to the highest bidder. That was how Hazlitt’s books found their way into John Warren’s shop (which ran into difficulties in November). When Stodart recovered, he attempted to make amends; that much is implied by the note he sent Hone on Boxing Day, asking: ‘Will you do me the favor to dine with me on Tuesday next to meet Mr Hazlitt & no one else?’ If he could not repay Hazlitt, he could at least offer him dinner with an old friend.
chapter 22
Authors: Wu Duncan
Published: November 2023

Their first visitor was Leigh Hunt, who had known for months that Hazlitt and his new wife were heading in his direction. He had come to Italy in June 1822 to help Shelley and Byron edit The Liberal—which, despite the calibre of its contributors, had attracted poisonous reviews and folded after four numbers. When Byron left for Greece in summer 1823, Hunt had come to Florence and was now resident at Maiano, a small village several miles to the north.
Introduction: Under an Empty Sky—Realism and Political Theory
Authors: Bell Duncan
Published: November 2023

Nobody loves a political realist.
A Theoretical Missed Opportunity? Hans J. Morgenthau as Critical Realist
Authors: Scheuerman William E
Published: November 2023

abstract

When Richard K. Ashley suggested twenty-five years ago that Hans J. Morgenthau’s realism contained rudiments of a critical theory of international relations, his claim met with widespread scepticism. How could Henry Kissinger’s mentor and the father of post-war US international relations theory have possibly contributed to an emancipatory theory heralding fundamental transformations to the existing state system? Understandably perhaps, Ashley’s thesis faced a hostile reception not only among mainstream realist and neo-realist thinkers with a vested professional interest in preserving the conventional portrait of Morgenthau but also scholars on the left. Richard Falk, for example, conceded the existence of a tradition of what he called ‘critical realism’, which conceives of international relations as ‘a matter of historical evolution arising from the play of social, economic, and ideological forces’. Falk notably refused to classify Morgenthau as a representative of this subterranean current of realist thinking, however, suggesting that Morgenthau reified existing interstate relations by failing to acknowledge their historically alterable character. Critical realism, Falk posited, was open to the possibility of significant reforms to the existing international system, whereas conventional realists like Morgenthau—as well, presumably, as most of his more recent progeny—ultimately denied this possibility.
Hans J. Morgenthau and the Legacy of Max Weber
Authors: Turner Stephen P
Published: November 2023

abstract

To begin to understand Max Weber’s significance for Hans Morgenthau, it is necessary to read Morgenthau in the light of the situation of the émigré scholar in the 1940s. Many of the emigrants failed to adapt, while others thrived, and thrived spectacularly, in their new setting. Morgenthau was one of the success stories, but it is important to see what success consisted in, and what needed to be done to succeed, especially at the crucial point of his transformation into an American scholar writing in English. For almost all of the most successful emigrants, it rested in both the utilization and the transformation of the skills and ideas which they had acquired in Germany, very often in a different academic discipline.
hans j. morgenthau versus e. h. carr: conflicting conceptions of ethics in realism
Authors: Molloy Seán
Published: November 2023

It is commonplace to assert that realism is an amoral or immoral theory of international politics, that its focus on power is to the exclusion, or at best the marginalization, of ethical concerns. The purpose of this chapter is to challenge this general criticism and to identify the ethical content in the works of two of the most foundational realist thinkers, E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau. The selection of Carr and Morgenthau is not arbitrary, for it is their work that marks the definitive entry of realism into the discourse of academic International Relations (IR)—the so-called realism of Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and so forth is significant in itself, but it is anachronistic to label these authors as realist in the IR sense. It is Carr who makes the discipline defining conceptual division between the Utopian and the Realist and Morgenthau who expounds realism as a political theory of international relations. I argue that Carr and Morgenthau provide two competing perspectives on the possibility of ethical life in international relations. Carr can be seen as a pragmatist, convinced of the social construction of norms and ethics in international society.
the ethic of reality in hannah arendt
Authors: Owens Patricia
Published: November 2023

Hannah Arendt, Between Past and Future
Realism’s ‘Hidden Dialogue’: Leo Strauss, War, and Politics
Authors: Rengger Nicholas
Published: November 2023

abstract

Throughout the history of human political engagements, the relationship of those engagements to the use of force has been one of the central questions that has challenged and perplexed those who seek to understand the character of the political tie. There have been those, perhaps most obviously Thucydides in the ancient world and Clausewitz in the modern, who have believed that the key to the character of politics can be found in the consideration of war; there have even been those—Carl Schmitt springs to mind in the modern context, and we shall have occasion to refer to him again later on—who suggest that the experience of politics is, in at least a certain sense, the experience of war writ large. And there have been many, Tertullian, Erasmus, and Tolstoy perhaps most prominent among them, who have believed that war is perhaps the greatest mistake of human beings under any circumstances whatever. But however it is seen, the relationship between war—understood here as simply the possibility of, or the actual use of, lethal force—and politics is a centrally contested one.
Introduction: Aid and Sovereignty
Authors: Whitfield Lindsay , Fraser Alastair
Published: November 2023

A coalition of priests, politicians, and pop-stars are campaigning to ‘make poverty history’. They claim that rich countries have a responsibility to provide the money to do so. As a result, international development policy now has a higher public profile than ever before. Books on foreign aid have moved from the shelves of university libraries into the best-seller lists.1 Two of these best-sellers by Jeffrey Sachs (2005) and William Easterly (2006) present competing perspectives. While Sachs’ The End of Poverty: How We Can Make It Happen in Our Lifetime argues that ending world poverty requires a doubling of aid, Easterly’s The White Man’s Burden: Why the West’s Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good argues that aid is part of the problem, rather than the solution to poor countries’ problems. Aid practitioners typically find themselves somewhere between these two positions, arguing that aid has made a positive difference but, with some changes in the way it is delivered, could be far more effective (e.g. Riddell 2007).
Ethiopia: Retaining Sovereignty in Aid Relations
Authors: Furtado Xavier , Smith W James
Published: November 2023

When Ethiopia first entered into relations with donors in the 1950s, it did so as a sovereign state “ one that had been established, in varying forms, for several hundred years “ with its own domestic governance structures.2 In this respect it was quite unlike most other aid-recipient countries, which began receiving aid upon independence in the mid-1960s, in a context of weak domestic policy-setting structures, and almost as an extension of colonial/mother-country relations. One of the implications is that the act of entering into relations with aid donors tended to be seen by Ethiopians at the time, and still is, as a meeting of equals.
Ghana: Breaking Out of Aid Dependence? Economic and Political Barriers to Ownership
Authors: Jones1 Lindsay Whitfield,Emily
Published: November 2023

Ghana has often been in the limelight. It captured attention in 1957 by being the first country to gain independence in sub-Saharan Africa, but then became the epitome of Africa’s decline. The country also became famous as a ‘star pupil’ of structural adjustment reforms in the 1980s, but then the country went off the radar as its economic success stalled by the mid-1990s. Ghana is now in the limelight as a shining example of democracy and as a place for international investment opportunities. A country that has been a focus of donors and their agendas, Ghana provides an interesting case for exploring the economic and political barriers to ownership. Recent events have challenged us to ask whether the country is finally breaking out of aid dependence.
New departures in Blindsight Research
Authors: Weiskrantz Lawrence
Published: November 2023

A large number and variety of new observations on subjects other than D.B. have appeared that throw light on the properties and varieties of residual visual function after V1 damage. Also, other studies have been published on normal subjects in whom simulations of blindsight have been generated, either by trans-cranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or by backward masking. Many of the studies of brain damage have been carried out on G.Y., who has been studied by several investigators for some years. G.Y. demonstrated many aspects of blindsight after suffering brain damage in a road accident at the age of 8, which destroyed much of his left visual brain. Some of the background evidence and findings are included in the Introduction to the paperback edition of this book (Chapter 3), but all of the studies cited in the section that follows are more recent and take us into interesting new lines of investigation.
Introduction to the New Paperback Edition of Blindsight, 1998
Authors: Weiskrantz Lawrence
Published: November 2023

The original edition of Blindsight: A case study and implications, published in 1986, has been out of print for some years, and I am very grateful for the invitation by Oxford University Press to write a new introduction for its reissue. The experimental findings reported in the original work have not changed and so in that sense there would be no point in a ‘revised’ edition. Of course, the review of the literature is a dozen years out of date, but more recent reviews are available to which reference will be made in passing. I am happy to keep alive a route to older papers. In this age of electronically fostered breathlessness over the latest ‘hot’ findings, we are apt to forget that there were also exciting and valuable papers with a vintage of more than ten years. Some of them have become buried and forgotten in the contemporary avalanche but very much deserve to be followed up experimentally and to be absorbed into contemporary debate and research planning.
D.B.: Clinical History and Early Testing
Authors: Weiskrantz Lawrence
Published: November 2023

D.B. was born in a small English market town in 1940. His childhood appears to have been uneventful medically, until the age of about 14 when he began to experience headaches. The headaches had a prelude: they were almost always preceded by a sensation of a flashing light, which appeared in an oval-shaped area immediately to the left of the centre of his visual field and straddling the horizontal axis. Then, over the course of a few minutes the oval enlarged, mainly in a downwards direction. After about 15 minutes the flashing lights in the oval stopped and the oval was blind. Its general appearance was of a white opaque area with a crescent of coloured lights around its outer and lower edges. This was the stage at which a headache would ensue, on the right side of his head. It was often followed by vomiting about 15 minutes later. The headache would persist for up to 48 hours, but usually he slept and upon waking would find his vision normal and his headache gone.
‘Form’ discrimination
Authors: Weiskrantz Lawrence
Published: November 2023

We studied D.B.’s ability to discriminate shapes, using various letters, rectangles vs. squares, and degrees of curvature of triangles. In most studies we used both projected and back-illuminated material.
Recognition of viral antigens by cytotoxic T lymphocytes
Authors: Mcmichael Andrew J , Gotch Frances , Robbins Penelope , Rothbard Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are generated during most viral infections. They are detected in vitro by their ability to lyse virus-infected cells and probably act in the same way in vivo (Zinkernagel et al., 1986), although they may also release lymphokines including interferon-gamma (Morris et al., 1982). In acute infections such as with influenza A virus, CTLs have been shown to terminate infection and to contribute to the clearing of virus (Yap et al., 1978; Lin and Askonas, 1981). This was most clearly demonstrated in experiments in which virus-specific CTL clones were transferred to lethally infected mice (Lin and Askonas, 1981). The level of specific CTL responses has been shown to correlate with virus-clearing in humans (McMichael et al., 1983). In Epstein - Barr virus (EBY) infection in vitro, CTLs have been shown to cause regression of the outgrowth of transformed B lymphocytes, and in vivo they probably inhibit infection by persisting virus (Rickinson et al., 1979). This may be a model for other persisting virus infections. The importance of CTLs in vivo has been demonstrated in mice depleted of CD4+ cells by specific monoclonal antibody. These animals generated weak antibody response to infecting influenza virus, because they lacked helper T cells, but a good CTL response was demonstrated and influenza virus-infected irradiated mice were cured by transfer of these CTLs (Lightman et al., 1987). Similarly, mice that are genetically incapable of making a CTL response to a virulent strain of Sendai virus are more likely to die during acute infection (Kast et al., 1986).
The immune response to hepatitis B virus
Authors: Thomas Howard C
Published: November 2023

Recovery from hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is dependent on the integrated activity of the patient’s interferon (IFN) and immune system. Chronic HBV infections arise because of defects in these defences. Acute hepatitis B infection

HBV is not cytopathic and the resulting liver damage is caused by immune lysis of infected hepatocytes, an essential part of the recovery process. Analysis of the inflammatory infiltrate demonstrates the presence of natural killer (NK) and cytotoxic T cells (Eggink et al., 1982). Viral antigens are seen on the surface of the hepatocyte (Gudat et al., 1975) and these, in association with the class I MHC proteins, make the cell a target for cytotoxic T cell lysis (Doherty and Zinkemagel, 1975). Studies in patients with chronic HBV infection suggest that the nucleocapsid antigens (HBc and HBe-a cleavage product of HBc) are an important target (Eddleston et al., 1982; Pignatelli et al., 1987). Hepatocytes usually express very little MHC class I protein (Thomas et al., 1982) but in the early stage of acute HBV infection, following the production of IFNα, MHC expression on hepatocytes increases and coincidentally transaminase levels rise (Figures 1 and 2). Interferon also activates a series of enzymes, including the 2-5A oligoadenylate synthetase/endonuclease system, which leads to inhibition of viral protein synthesis (Figure 2). This would be expected to produce an antiviral state in uninfected regenerating liver cells, preventing re-infection during the lysis of infected hepatocytes.
Introduction
Authors: Gunstone Frank D
Published: November 2023

The analysis of lipids can be undertaken to answer at least four questions at both the qualitative and quantitative level: (a) what fatty acids (or alcohols or amines) are present, (b) what different lipid classes are present, (c) what is the fatty acid composition of each separate lipid class, and (d) since lipids generally contain two or three acyl chains, how are these associated in individual lipid molecules? This chapter is devoted to the structural nature of the acids (alcohols, amines) and the lipids so that these analytical questions and their answers can be understood. Prior to the development of chromatographic methods of separation these questions were answered by measuring average properties such as unsaturation (iodine value), chain-length (saponification equivalent), or phosphorus content. These have now been replaced by ever-improving chromatographic separation procedures accompanied, when necessary, by spectroscopic methods of identification. These topics are covered in the following chapters of this book.
High-performance liquid chromatography
Authors: Sewell Peter A
Published: November 2023

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is, in many areas, the main technique used for analysis. However, in the area of lipid analysis its use is still relatively uncommon, and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and gas chromatography (GC) are the more commonly used techniques. Both of these techniques have advantages and disadvantages compared to HPLC: TLC is a very simple and cheap technique but it is a relatively inefficient process and is difficult to quantitate; GLC (gas-liquid chromatography) is easier to use and the equipment is cheaper than HPLC, but samples must be capable of being volatilized without decomposition. Thus, whilst it is unlikely that HPLC will ever displace GC as the preferred technique for the analysis of fatty acids the use of HPLC will increase in other areas of lipid analysis. HPLC is the analogue of gas chromatography where the stationary phase, be it a liquid, a solid surface, an ion-exchange resin or a porous polymer, is held in a metal column and the liquid mobile phase is forced through under pressure. The analyte is injected into the mobile-phase stream and the separated components are detected as they elute from the column. The ‘chromatogram’ (a trace of the variation in component concentration against time) may be used to obtain both qualitative and quantitative information. For a discussion on the technique of HPLC the reader is referred to any of the several texts available on the subject (1-3). Only those topics which are essential to an understanding of the methodology presented later in the chapter will be discussed here.
Cholesterol esterifying enzymes—lecithin:cholesterol acy1transferase (LCAT) and acylcoenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT)
Authors: Gillett Michael P T , Owen James S
Published: November 2023

Unesterified cholesterol (UC) is an important structural component of cell membranes, modifying their fluidity, and of the surfaces of lipoprotein particles; it is also the precursor for steroid hormones and bile acids. The apolar nature of cholesteryl ester (CE) molecules largely excludes them from lipoprotein surfaces and from cell membranes and they form lipid droplets, either within the core region of lipoproteins or intracellularly. The CE of lipoproteins can be regarded as a transportable form of UC and that of cells as a storage form. Lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT, EC 2.3.1.43) is responsible for the formation of most lipoprotein CE and acylcoenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT, EC 2.3.1.26) for intracellular CE.
Polymerase chain reaction: basic principles and automation
Authors: Taylor Graham R
Published: November 2023

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique for the in vitro amplification of specific DNA sequences by the simultaneous primer extension of complementary strands of DNA. The PCR method was devised and named by Mullis and colleagues at the Cetus Corporation (1), although the principle had been described in detail by Khorana and colleages (2, 3) over a decade earlier. The use of PCR was limited until heat-stable DNA polymerase (4) became widely available. The PCR is a major development in the analysis of DNA and RNA because it has both simplified existing technology and enabled the rapid development of new techniques which would not otherwise have been possible.
Products from animal cells
Authors: Griffiths Bryan
Published: November 2023

The manufacture of products from animal cells is currently a large and important component of the biotechnology industry. This exploitation of cells (Table I) as a manufacturing substrate dates back to 1949 when Enders and his colleagues (1) published the first report on growing viruses in cultured cells. The effect of this discovery was dramatic, especially in the field of virology and eventually biotechnology. It took only 5 years for the first cell vaccine to be on human trial and licensed (Salk polio vaccine-1954). Classically, cell culture became the means of assaying, isolating, and producing a virus, and for 25 years this was the only cell product. The first human vaccines were produced in primary monkey kidney cells but this choice of substrate was controversial. Monkeys carry a wide range of adventitious viruses, many of them oncogenic (although subsequently it has been found not for human cells). The derivation of the human diploid cell (HOC) line WI-38 in the early 1960s by Hayflick and Moorhead (2) was welcomed as it made available a safer substrate for the production of human vaccines. This cell line was genetically stable, diploid, of normal cell derivation (fetal lung), free of all known viruses, and had useful markers for quality control evaluation.
Extracellular Matrix
Authors: Haralson M A
Published: November 2023

Studies of the extracellular matrix (the material that surrounds cells and tissues) span much of modern biological research. In addition to providing structure to organisms the extracellular matrix is crucial in determining cell growth, how the cell responds during injury and development and what the cell makes. Changes in the extracellular matrix are important components in both inherited and acquired diseases such as diabetes and cancer. This important volume brings together under a single cover the majority of techniques currently employed in extracellular matrix research and will serve as an indispensable resource for researchers and clinicians in this field.
1H NMR studies of oligosaccharides
Authors: Homans S W
Published: November 2023

Proton NMR is a very valuable technique for the structural analysis of oligosaccharides since it is possible to determine primary sequence as well as three-dimensional structure. In view of their branched nature, there is at present no cyclical degradative chemical or enzymatic sequencing strategy for oligosaccharides which could potentially be automated as has been done for proteins and nucleic acids, and NMR is probably the most useful technique in this regard. Despite their relatively small size, oligosaccharides generally give remarkably complex proton NMR spectra. The primary reason for this is the poor spectral dispersion of ring protons, which presents problems due to severe resonance overlap and the increased probability of strong coupling effects. Resonance assignment strategies thus differ significantly from those used in studies of proteins and nucleic acids, although the experimental techniques are the same. Below we shall discuss the practical aspects of these techniques primarily by reference to a single compound, namely GlcNAcpi-4GlcNAc. This disaccharide exhibits all of the idiosyncracies of oligosaccharide NMR spectra while at the same time generating spectra which are simple enough to allow casual interpretation by the non-specialist.
Structure Determination From NMR Data II. Computational Approaches
Authors: Sutcliffe Michael J
Published: November 2023

Structure determination by NMR can be divided into four steps as shown in Protocol .

Reviews of the steps involved in Protocol 1 are given by, for example, Close and Gronenborn (1) and With rich (2). Steps 1 and 2 are covered in earlier chapters of this book.
Ion-selective electrodes
Authors: Sykova Eva
Published: November 2023

The invention of ion-selective microelectrodes (ISMs) has opened up new possibilities for experimental physiology. The measurement of the activity of specific types of ions in different cells and in the extracellular space, together with the resting potential, action potential, and extracellular potential shifts, has increased our knowledge about the relationship of ion activities and membrane transport mechanisms in excitable tissues. Measurement with ISMs is the only available method which provides simultaneous information about ion activity and electrical parameters of a cell in living tissue. Therefore, the measurement of ion activities with ISMs has become, in the last 20 years, an important tool in microelectrode studies not only in neurophysiology, sensory physiology, muscle physiology, but also in epithelial studies and in renal physiology.
Structure determination of acylated proteins
Authors: Aitken Alastair
Published: November 2023

This chapter will describe methods available for the study of the modifications in the wide range of eukaryotic and prokaryotic proteins known to be acylated with fatty acids. There are three main types of such modification in eukaryotes: at the amino terminus on glycine residues (1); internally attached to cysteine or hydroxy-amino acids (2); or at the carboxy-terminus as a PI containing glycan moiety (3) (see Figure 1). Analysis of isoprenylation (4) at the carboxy-terminus will also be covered. The methods described will be confined to those not included in other chapters of this volume.
Identification and characterization of lipid-modified proteins in bacteria
Authors: Hayashi Shigeru , Wu Henry C
Published: November 2023

Covalent modification of membrane proteins with lipids is ubiquitous in all living cells. Research on the biosynthesis of lipoproteins has been focused mainly on the major outer membrane (Braun’s) lipoprotein of Escherichia coli as a prototype of all other bacterial lipoproteins (lipid-modified proteins) (for a recent review of bacterial lipoproteins, see ref. 1). Braun’s lipoprotein is first synthesized as a precursor protein-the unmodified prolipoprotein that contains a signal sequence with a cleavage site of Leu-Ala-Gly-Cys. More generally, the sequence of Leu-(Ala, Ser)-(Gly, Ala)-Cys is found at the -3 to +1 positions of the prolipoprotein modification/processing site in about three-fourths of all lipoprotein signal sequences in bacteria, as indicated by an analysis of the signal sequences of twenty-six distinct bacterial lipoprotein precursors (1). The unmodified prolipoprotein with this consensus sequence undergoes sequential modifications and processing catalysed by glyceryl transferase, 0-acyl transferase(s), prolipoprotein signal peptidase (signal peptidase II), and N-acyl transferase, in that order, to form the mature lipoprotein containing N-acyl diglyceride-cysteine at its amino-terminus (2).
Der β-Glucan-Abbau im Griinmalz wahrend des Darrens
Authors: Zahn Thomas
Published: November 2023

For investigation of the degradation of β-glucan during kilning, commercial, green malts were malted by our usual technology but subjected to different kilning procedures. The objective of the trial was to reduce the content of β-glucan in the malt during this last phase of the malting process.
Continuous fermentation of alcohol-free beer with immobilized yeast in fluidized bed reactors
Authors: Aivasidis A , Wandrey Ch. , Eils H -G , Katzke M
Published: November 2023

Continuous fermentation provides significant advantages. Process control becomes easier at a constant product quality.
Extensional viscosity of some food hydrocolloids
Authors: C.Clark R
Published: November 2023

Conventional rheological techniques such as steady shear viscosity and dynamic oscillatory rheometry have long been used to characterize differences between hydrocolloid solutions. Useful information on structure and conformation has been obtained in this way. A complementary method, extensional viscosity, is now available to study these solutions. The newly released Rheometrics Extensional Rheometer (RFX) measures extensional viscosity by means of an opposing jet design. The fluid being tested is drawn into two opposing nozzles from a test beaker. The area between the nozzles undergoes an extensional flow. Such instruments are called stagnation point devices and have been used to study molecular alignment via optical techniques. However, these devices were not able to quantitate the extensional viscosity.
Interactions between xanthan gum and konjac mannan
Authors: Dalbe Bernard
Published: November 2023

Konjac mannan has been used for many years as an ingredient in food recipes, in Japan, Pakistan and India. Konjac mannan is a partially acetylated polysaccharide produced from tubers of Amorphophallus konjac, composed of 1,4-B-linked mannose and glucose residues. Xanthan gum is a hetero-polysaccharide obtained by fermentation with a naturally occurring micro-organism, a bacteria called Xanthomonas Campestris. Although neither xanthan nor Konjac mannan aqueous solutions, at neutral pH, form a gel alone, blends of the two polysaccharides form gels at low total concentration. In this paper,the synergism between xanthan and Konjac mannan is described. We show how the synergism varies with different parameters (total gum concentration, ionic strength...). During the preparation of the mixed gels, certain parameters such as the temperature of preparation and the rate of cooling, can greatly affect the properties of the final gel.
Somatic cell hybrids in the analysis of the human genome
Authors: Cowell J K
Published: November 2023

The genetic information of cells from very different origins can be combined in a single nucleus by somatic cell fusion. Such hybrid cells have been used extensively in, for example, standard genetic complementation tests and the production of monoclonal antibodies, though it is perhaps in the field of human gene mapping that they have found their broadest application. The concept has been extended to the mapping of anonymous DNA sequences isolated through recombinant DNA technology. In this chapter the production and subcloning of hybrids is discussed.
Intestinal protozoa
Authors: Smith H V
Published: November 2023

Examine the stool macroscopically and record whether it is formed, soft, unformed, or liquid or it contains evidence of blood or mucus. Stools with evidence of blood or mucus may contain the developmental or reproductive stages of protozoa and are examined with the minimum of delay by direct microscopy to ensure that these stages are still intact and motile. Where possible, blood or mucus should be examined separately as they are more likely to contain trophczoites.
Analysis of Terpenoid Phytoalexins and their Biosynthetic Enzymes
Authors: Threlfall David R , Whitehead Ian M
Published: November 2023

Terpenoid phytoalexins and terpenoid stress metabolites (some of which have been ascribed phytoalexin status) are produced by members of nine plant families (1, 2). Their accumulation both in planta and in plant cell cultures can be induced by a variety of biotic and abiotic agents. The class of terpenoid phytoalexin produced is uniform within a plant family. The largest class comprises the sesquiterpenoid phytoalexins which, in common with the pentacyclic triterpenoid phytoalexins, are formed from (2E, 6E)-farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) (see Figure I). The only other documented class of terpenoid phytoalexin is made up of the diterpenoid phytoalexins, which are formed from (all E geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) (see Figure 1). It should also be noted that the terpenoid precursor dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), provides the hemiterpenoid (dimethylallyl) residue(s) for many isoflavonoid phytoalexins produced by members of the Leguminosae (see Figure 1).
Analysis of gene expression in haemopoietic cells
Authors: Cowling G J , Hampson, I N , Pope L
Published: November 2023

Haematologists are increasingly using molecular biology methods to detect changes in the RNA levels of specific marker genes. Such changes reflect both the proliferative state and the developmental stage of a haemopoietic cell. RNA analysis by northern hybridization can be used to observe gross changes of gene expression, whereas in situ mRNA hybridization coupled with morphology, identifies single cells expressing a specific gene within complex populations of cell types. Both types of analysis can be used for assessing the expression of genes introduced into haemopoietic cells using the methods described in Chapter 10. In this chapter, we give protocols for the isolation of total cellular RNA, northern hybridization, and in situ RNA hybridization adapted for use with haemopoietic cells. The reader is referred to other molecular biology manuals for further descriptions of these methods (1-4) and other methods of analyzing gene expression including nuclease Sl/RNase protection assays (4), cDNA cloning (4), and polymerase chain reaction analysis of cDNA (5).
Mechanism and control of immunoglobulin gene rearrangement
Authors: Lansford Rusty , Okada Ami , Chen Jianzhu , Oltz Eugene M , Blackwell T Keith , Alt Frederick W , Rathbun Gary
Published: November 2023

The seminal studies of Landsteiner led to the notion that immunoglobulins can interact with an unlimited array of antigens (1). B lymphocytes produce immuno globulins (lg) which are composed of heavy (H) and light (L) polypeptide chains. At the amino terminus of H and L chains are regions of highly variable amino acid sequences (variable region) which pair with each other to form the antigen-binding site. The vast diversity of the antibody repertoire derives largely from the fact that H and L chain variable regions are encoded by a portion of the H or L chain gene that is assembled somatically from component germline gene segments (2). The T cell antigen receptor (TCR) is composed of immunoglobulin like polypeptides, which are also encoded by genes that are assembled somatically by the same enzymatic mechani&ms (3). lg heavy chain genes can also undergo a separate type of recombination event, termed 'class switch recombination', which permits clonal lineages of B cells to express the same variable region with a different constant region effector function (4). This chapter will focus on our current knowledge of the organization of lg genes in mice and humans and on the mechanistic aspects and the control of the gene rearrangement events involved in their assembly and expression.
An introduction to human retroviruses
Authors: Cullen Bryan r.
Published: November 2023

The first retrovirus to be discovered, Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), was described in 1911 as a filterable agent that caused sarcomas in chickens (1). The association between retroviral infection and oncogenesis in animals is clearly the primary reason that this viral genus was to become such a focus of biological research over approximately the next 70 years (2). Indeed, retroviruses are still occasionally referred to as ‘RNA tumour viruses’ or ‘oncornaviruses’. The various acutely transforming retroviruses, such as RSV, were subsequently shown to express novel gene products, termed oncogenes, that are critical for their transforming potential but that play no role in viral replication per se (3, 4). The demonstration that these viral oncogenes are actually mutant forms of cellular genes that had been acquired by retroviruses through a process of illegitimate recombination was the first, and most critical, step in the development of the proto-oncogene hypothesis of cellular transformation, i.e. the concept that oncogenesis initiates with the aberrant expression of cellular genes that regulate the response of eukaryotic cells to extracellular stimuli and/or that regulate gene expression directly (4, 5).
| Transposable elements as selfish DNA
Authors: Brookfield J F Y
Published: November 2023

Biologists seek functional explanations for the attributes of organisms. Such explanations show the advantage that the attribute gives to the organism. Any attribute, including components of the genome, can potentially be explained in this way. The belief that such functional explanations are appropriate rests on the tenet of the Neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory that states that the only systematic mechanism by which genes or other DNA sequences can spread through populations is through differences in the fitnesses of their carriers. Transposable elements, however, increase in number either directly or indirectly during transposition, and thus could potentially spread without increasing the fitness of their hosts. This non-Darwinian behaviour illegitimizes functional explanations and requires us to seek causal explanations for the presence of transposable elements in genomes, incorporating both their own molecular properties and their effects on their hosts. One class of explanations are those in which the effects of transposable elements on their hosts are negative. In other words, they are ‘selfish DNAs’ (1, 2). In this chapter, I will discuss some of the ideas and experiments indicating the selfishness or otherwise of transposable genetic elements. For details of the structures of various classes of transposable elements and the mechanisms of their transposition, the reader should consult other chapters in this volume. I will concentrate mainly on the elements in sexually reproducing diploid eukaryotes, for which the data sets of the distributions and frequencies of elements are often more complete, and for which the Neo-Darwinian population genetics synthesis provides a framework for considerations of transposable element evolution. I will strive, however, to highlight the ways in which the evolutionary process affecting prokaryotic transposable elements shows important similarities to and differences from the diploid paradigm.
Mutational analysis: known mutations
Authors: Newton Clive R
Published: November 2023

This chapter attempts to illustrate the various PCR options that are available to detect specific mutations and/or polymorphisms in genomic DNA. In so doing, the relative merits and drawbacks of each technique are addressed in the respective sections. For some methods of PCR-assisted mutation detection covered in this chapter, a protocol has not been included. In these instances the respective method is rarely used and is therefore discussed and the seminal reference cited. Protocols have, as far as possible, been described so that they can be applied in a generic fashion. However, detection of some mutations or polymorphisms may require deviations from the respective protocols as a result of adjacent genomic DNA sequence. This is more likely where detection of the specific DNA variation is dependent on oligonucleotide hybridization as opposed to primer/template annealing.
Chemiluminescent detection systems for protein blotting
Authors: Durrant Ian , Fowler Sue
Published: November 2023

The immobilization and detection of proteins on membrane supports has become a widely used technique (1, 2). The overall process can be separated into four basic procedures.
Isolation of synaptosomes, growth cones, and their subcellular components
Authors: Phelan Pauline , Gordon-weeks Phillip R
Published: November 2023

Neural tissue is composed of neurones and their support cells, the glia. Neurones are notable for their highly elaborate shapes and the possession of long and often branching processes which intermingle extensively with each other and with glial cells. Neurones do not survive homogenization intact; the cell bodies are sheared from their processes which break up into discrete fragments. The plasma membranes of cell fragments may reseal to form osmotically active particles and when such particles contain the organelles of the synapse they are known as synaptosomes (Figure 1). This chapter describes methods for the isolation of synaptosomes and their subcellular components from mammalian brain. Also included are two methods for the isolation of growth cones, the highly motile tips of growing neuronal processes that become, during the development of the nervous system, pre- or postsynaptic elements of the synapse, and subcellular fractions derived from them.
Immunoassays of proteins and anti-peptide antibodies
Authors: Groome Nigel P
Published: November 2023

The use of antibodies in the qualitative and quantitative detection of proteins and peptides is well established. In this chapter special emphasis will be placed on the detection of antibodies reacting with peptides, and the application of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies raised using synthetic peptide immunogens to the detection of the parent protein. Examples will be given of cases where anti-peptide antibodies have been successfully applied, and an attempt made to give the reader a balanced view of some of the advantages and disadvantages of this approach.
Elucidation of protein-protein interactions in gels and foams
Authors: Howell Nazlin K
Published: November 2023

The interactions of globular proteins with other food proteins lead to synergism, phase separation or precipitation thereby affecting food texture. Elucidation of these interactions in unheated and heated mixtures of plasma, egg albumen and whey proteins were studied by chemical modification and chromatography as well as NMR, circular dichroism and Raman spectroscopy. Plasma and egg albumen proteins exhibited synergistic interaction in heat-set gels and compatible gel structures as indicated by immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy. In contrast, mixtures of lysozyme with either a-lactalbumin or lactoglobulin led to precipitation via a soluble complex detected by ion-exchange FPLC. Electrostatic interactions were predominant although changes in the aliphatic and aromatic groups were also shown by spectroscopy. In addition, chemically modified bovine serum albumin also exhibited interactions with native bovine serum albumin through electrostatic interactions, increased hydrophobicity and conformational changes. The mechanism of the above protein interactions have been discussed in relation to gelling and foaming properties together with proposed molecular models of the interacting molecules.
Technologisch optimierte Bierherstellung im Festbettfermenter bei sehr kurzer Produktionszeit
Authors: Dembowski K , Narziß L , Miedaner H
Published: November 2023

Due to economic reasons the continuous fermentation of beer stays in the view of technological development. A continuous fermentation system is presented by using a filter system. An overall production time of 7 days is proved. The system shows a high flexibility in production.
The molecular interactions of beer foam
Authors: Bamforth C W , Canterranne E , Chandley P , Onishi A
Published: November 2023

The most foam stabilizing polypeptides in beer have high hydrophobic character. Whilst there is a diversity of such species in beer, they must interact with other components for acceptable foam quality to be realized. The interpretation of such interactions is easier if model protein systems are employed in experiments; for example, bovine serum albumin or hydrolyzed liquid egg white. The ability of such defined proteinaceous species to interact with metal ions and iso-a-acids differs substantially. The binding of divalent cations to iso-a-acids leads to enhanced interaction with monovalent cations. Similar mechanisms may account for the interaction of iso-a-acids wit foaming polypeptides.