bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
River Enhancement in the Upper Mississippi River Basin: Approaches Based on River Uses, Alterations, and Management Agencies
Authors: O’Donnell T. Kevin , Galat David L.
Published: July 2007

The Upper Mississippi River is characterized by a series of locks and dams, shallow impoundments, and thousands of river channelization structures that facilitate commercial navigation between Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Cairo, Illinois. Agriculture and urban development over the past 200 years have degraded water quality and increased the rate of sediment and nutrient delivery to surface waters. River enhancement has become an important management tool employed to address causes and effects of surface water degradation and river modification in the Upper Mississippi River Basin. We report information on individual river enhancement projects and contrast project densities, goals, activities, monitoring, and cost between commercially non‐navigated and navigated rivers (Non‐navigated and Navigated Rivers, respectively). The total number of river enhancement projects collected during this effort was 62,108. Cost of all projects reporting spending between 1972 and 2006 was about US$1.6 billion. Water quality management was the most cited project goal within the basin. Other important goals in Navigated Rivers included in‐stream habitat improvement and flow modification. Most projects collected for Non‐navigated Rivers and their watersheds originated from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the USDA were important sources for projects in Navigated Rivers. Collaborative efforts between agencies that implement projects in Non‐navigated and Navigated Rivers may be needed to more effectively address river impairment. However, the current state of data sources tracking river enhancement projects deters efficient and broad‐scale integration.
Convulsive Status Epilepticus: Clinical Profile in a Developing Country
Authors: Murthy Jagarlapudi M. K. , Jayalaxmi Sita S. , Kanikannan Meena A.
Published: July 2007

Summary

Purpose: In developing countries optimal care of status epilepticus (SE) is associated with major barriers, particularly transportation.

Methods: A prospective study of SE was performed between 1994 and 1996 to determine the clinical profile, response to treatment and outcome, Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS).

Results: Of the 85 patients admitted, the mean age was 33 years (8–75 years), 16% <16 years of age. The mean duration of SE before admission was 18.02 h (1–72 h). Only 23 (28%) patients, all locals, presented within <3 h of onset. Etiology included acute symptomatic (54%), remote symptomatic (7%), cryptogenic (19%), and established epilepsy (20%). Central nervous system infections accounted for 24 (28%) of the etiologies. Seventy‐five (88%) patients responded to first‐line drugs and 10 (12%) required second‐line drugs. The mean duration of SE was significantly long in nonresponders (Mean ± SD: 32.6 ± 20.11 vs. 15.2 ± 18.32, p < 0.006). Duration (p < 0.01; OR 1.04, 95% CI 1.01–1.07) and acute symptomatic etiology (p < 0.038; OR 10.38, 95% CI 1.13–95.09) were the independent predictors of no‐response to first‐line drugs. Of the nine deaths (10.5%), eight were in acute symptomatic group. Predictors of mortality included female sex (p < 0.017, OR 13.41, 95% CI 1.59–115.38) and lack of response to first‐line drugs (p < 0.0001, OR 230.27, 95% CI 8.78–6037.19). Longer duration was associated with poor GOS 1–4 (p = 0.001). Of the 37 patients with <6 h, 81% had GOC5 outcome.

Conclusion: This study suggests that longer duration of SE and acute symptomatic etiology are independent predictors of lack of response to first‐line drugs. Failure to respond to first‐line drugs and duration predict the outcome.
Distribution of Alcohol Consumption and Expenditures and the Impact of Improved Measurement on Coverage of Alcohol Sales in the 2000 National Alcohol Survey
Authors: Kerr William C. , Greenfield Thomas K.
Published: July 2007

Background:  To validate improved survey estimates of alcohol volume and new expenditures questions, these measures were aggregated and evaluated through comparison to sales data. Using the new measures, we examined their distributions by estimating the proportion of mean intake, heavy drinking days, and alcohol expenditures among drinkers grouped by volume.

Methods:  The 2000 National Alcohol Survey is a random digit dialed telephone survey of the United States with 7,612 respondents including 323 who were recontacted for drink ethanol measurement. Among drinkers, we utilized improved drink ethanol content estimates and beverage‐specific graduated frequency measures to assess alcohol consumption and past month beverage‐specific spending reports to estimate expenditures.

Results:  Coverage of alcohol sales by the new measures was estimated to be 52.3% for consumption and 59.3% for expenditures. Coverage was best for wine at 92.1% of sales, but improved most for spirits from 37.2% to 55.2%, when empirical drink ethanol content was applied. Distribution estimates showed that the top 10% of drinkers drank 55.3% of the total alcohol consumed, accounted for 61.6% of all 5+ and nearly 80% of all 12+ drinking days. Spirits consumption was the most concentrated with the top decile consuming 62.9% of the total for this beverage. This decile accounted for 33% of total expenditures, even though its mean expenditure per drink was considerably lower ($0.79) than the bottom 50% of drinkers ($4.75).

Conclusions:  The distributions of mean alcohol intake and heavy drinking days are highly concentrated in the U.S. population. Lower expenditures per drink by the heaviest drinkers suggest substantial downward quality substitution, drinking in cheaper contexts or other bargain pricing strategies. Empirical drink ethanol estimates improved survey coverage of sales particularly for spirits, but significant under‐coverage remains, highlighting need for further self‐report measurement improvement.
Strategic Activism and Nonmarket Strategy
Authors: Baron David P. , Diermeier Daniel
Published: July 2007

Activist NGOs have increasingly foregone public politics and turned to private politics to change the practices of firms and industries. This paper focuses on private politics, activist strategies, and nonmarket strategies of targets. A formal theory of an encounter between an activist organization and a target is presented to examine strategies for lessening the chance of being a target and for addressing an activist challenge once it has occurred. The encounter between the activist and the target is viewed as competition. At the heart of that competition is an activist campaign, which is represented by a demand, a promised reward if the target meets the demand, and a threat of harm if the target rejects the demand. The model incorporates target selection by the activist, proactive measures and reputation building by a potential target to reduce the likelihood of being selected as a target, fighting a campaign, and credible commitment.
Toll‐Like Receptors in Older Adults
Authors: Van Duin David , Shaw Albert C.
Published: July 2007

Toll‐like receptors (TLRs) recognize a limited number of conserved elements in pathogens and, by activating antigen‐presenting cells such as dendritic cells and monocytes and macrophages, play a crucial role in the immune response to infection and vaccination. Most data on TLR function in the context of human aging focus on responses to lipopolysaccharide, an integral component of gram‐negative bacteria, which signals through TLR4. However, such studies have not led to a consensus conclusion and are limited by differences in epidemiological and laboratory methods. A recent comprehensive evaluation of TLR function in monocytes from older adults was conducted using a multivariable mixed statistical model to account for covariates. It was found that cytokine production after TLR1/2 engagement, which is essential for the recognition of triacylated lipopeptides found in a variety of bacteria, is substantially lower in monocytes from older adults. The upregulation of costimulatory proteins such as CD80, essential for optimal activation of T cells, on monocytes from older adults was less for all TLR ligands tested than for cells from young individuals, and the extent of CD80 upregulation predicted subsequent antibody response to influenza immunization. These and other consequences of aging on human TLR function may impair activation of the immune response and contribute to poorer vaccine responses and greater morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases in older adults. Such age‐associated alterations have particular relevance in view of the interest in TLR agonists as therapeutic agents not only for infections, but also for allergic, autoimmune, and malignant disease.
Uncertainty Management and Social Issues: Uncertainty as an Important Determinant of Reactions to Socially Deviating People1
Authors: Van Den Bos Kees , Euwema Martin C. , Poortvliet P. Marijn , Maas Marjolein
Published: July 2007

In this paper, the social psychology of uncertainty management is used to explain reactions to socially deviating people. In Study 1, we examine how people react to a person communicating negative messages about their home country; in Study 2, how a representative sample of the Dutch society reacts to encounters with a homeless person; and in Study 3, what the behavioral and psychological reactions are of people in an anticipated interaction with a homeless individual. All 3 studies reveal that personal uncertainty—whether made salient in a subtle manner or measured by means of individual differences in the extent to which uncertainty is considered an emotionally threatening experience—is an important determinant of reactions to socially deviating persons.

Give me your tired, your poor,

Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,

The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.

Send these, the homeless, tempest‐tossed, to me:

I lift my lamp beside the golden door.
INVISIBLE PARTIES: LISTENING TO CHILDREN
Authors: Boshier Hon. Peter , Steel‐Baker Damien
Published: July 2007

This article discusses how children are involved in family court proceedings in New Zealand. On July 1, 2005, the Care of Children Act 2004 came into force. One of the changes brought about by this Act is an increased expectation that children will participate in proceedings involving them, by the court giving the child a reasonable opportunity to express his or her view. Children may participate in three ways, the primary mechanism being through the lawyer for the child. Children's views can also be elucidated through a specialist report, and direct participation can be achieved through judicial interviews. As each child is different, it is important that the unique circumstances of the case are accounted for. This article will discuss how each of the three methods can be combined to tailor an approach that gives every individual child a reasonable opportunity to express his or her view. There are a number of examples given of this approach in practice, showing how the court has adapted the process to accommodate the child's situation and personality.
MEDIATIVE EVALUATIONS: THE PROS AND PERILS OF BLENDING ROLES
Authors: Barsky Allan E.
Published: July 2007

Child custody evaluators with experience in mediation may be tempted to use mediation skills and strategies in their evaluation processes. This article explores the benefits and risks of blending mediation with evaluation, comparing the perspectives of professionals and clients.
PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF LYSOSTAPHIN FROM STAPHYLOCOCCUS SIMULANS AGAINST GROWTH OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS IN MILK AND SOME OTHER FOOD PRODUCTS
Authors: SZWEDA PIOTR , KOTŁOWSKI ROMAN , ŁĄCKA IZABELA , SYNOWIECKI JÓZEF
Published: July 2007

The effect of lysostaphin from Staphylococcus simulans expressed in Escherichia coli TOP10 strain on Staphylococcus aureus used for inoculation of milk, ground pork and mayonnaise salad was investigated. The populations of this pathogen in ultrahigh‐temperature milk preserved at 4C by lysostaphin added up to concentrations of 1.5 or 3.0 µg/mL were reduced by 0.73 and 0.92 log(cfu/mL) in control samples without enzyme addition. The protective influence of lysostaphin was diminished in case of milk storage (20C) prolonged up to 24 h. Furthermore, a final reduction level by 0.92 log(cfu/mL) was achieved after 24 h of pork storage. The smaller and more dependent on enzyme concentration inactivation of S. aureus was observed in the case of the mayonnaise salad, and it led to the conclusion that some food components or proteolytic enzymes originating from other bacteria caused lysostaphin inactivation.
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE–POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION DETECTION OF HEPATITIS A VIRUS IN NATURALLY CONTAMINATED MUSSELS (MYTILUS EDULIS)
Authors: ELAMRI DORSAF ESSEBAI , AOUNI MAHJOUB
Published: July 2007

With the development of modern molecular techniques, the shellfish enteric viruses became easily detectable. In this study, we evaluated the efficiency of four methods quoted in the literature to extract hepatitis A virus (HAV) from naturally contaminated mussel tissues and to identify the viral material by a sensitive reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction (RT–PCR). The results obtained after real‐time RT–PCR showed a decreasing efficiency for HAV mussel extraction with glycine buffer, borate buffer, saline beef–polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and saline beef buffer, respectively, as it was reported in previous works. However, the sensitivity of HAV extraction method using glycine buffer in artificial contaminated mussel was insufficient to allow the detection of HAV at a concentration below 102 50% tissue culture infective doses. Running the real‐time amplification reaction with a mixture containing PVP and T4 gene 32 protein has removed RT–PCR inhibitors and has improved sensitivity of this technique in comparison with conventional RT–PCR.
Post‐Katrina provision of health care to veterans in a mobile clinic: Providers’ perspectives
Authors: Lafuente Corazon R. , Eichaker Veronica , Chee Vernon E. , Chapital Eleanor
Published: July 2007

Purpose: To describe the challenges faced by healthcare providers in the aftermath of one of the worst natural disasters in the United States.

Data sources: Eight healthcare providers describe their perceptions of the care they provided to veterans at a mobile clinic in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. This informal report used Giorgi’s phenomenological approach to gathering and analyzing information provided in written response to eight specific questions.

Conclusions: Four broad categories of challenges and concerns are discussed in this article: (a) What was important in the provision of care for the veterans, (b) the hindrances encountered, (c) factors that facilitated the care given, and (d) the perceived effects of the care they provided. Three key themes characterized the lived experience of the eight participants: uncertainty, deprivation, and stabilization. Although this was not a formal research study, the authors and participants were able to use their research backgrounds and understandings to organize and make sense of their experiences during this chaotic period.

Implications for practice: As hurricane season in the United States and the anniversary of Hurricane Katrina (August 2005) approach, it is hoped that this report on the experiences and recommendations of healthcare providers will benefit other providers in similar situations.
5α‐reductase inhibition for men with enlarged prostate
Authors: Issa Muta M. , Kraft Kate H.
Published: July 2007

Purpose: Increasingly, men with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) are seeking treatment in the primary care setting. This article reviews the use of α‐blockers and 5α‐reductase inhibitors (5ARIs) in the management of LUTS and enlarged prostate.

Data sources: Information is based on a critical review of the published literature. Relevant studies were identified using MEDLINE and review of reference lists of published studies.

Conclusions: Enlargement of the prostate is a common occurrence among aging men. Nurse practitioners (NPs) are in a unique, frontline position to evaluate symptoms and bother and to recommend appropriate treatment of patients with enlarged prostate. Both α‐blockers and 5ARIs are effective at reducing symptoms in the short term. However, only the 5ARIs impact disease progression and maintain improvement in symptoms in the long term.

Implications for practice: NPs play an important role in assessing and treating LUTS in men with enlarged prostate. When treating men with LUTS, assess the severity of symptoms and the extent of prostate enlargement. For symptomatic men with enlarged prostate, long‐term therapy with 5ARIs should be considered to treat symptoms as well as address the disease progression.
Water in the China Clay Industry
Authors: GOWAN M. , COMYNS R. A.
Published: July 2007

SYNOPSIS

Water is essential for the mining and refining of China Clay. This paper describes the industry and its methods of working and comments upon the sources of water, how it is used and its subsequent disposal as eftluent.
An Air Quality Impact Assessment for the Proposed Development of Stansted Airport
Authors: McINTYRE A. E. , PERRY R.
Published: July 2007

The results of an air quality impact assessment conducted in 1980, for the proposed development of Stansted airport, Essex, to a capacity of 15 million passengers per annum, are presented. Air pollutant concentrations measured in the vicinity of the airport were found to be low in comparison to ambient air quality guidelines and also when compared with other airports and urban areas.

Atmospheric dispersion modelling to predict future emissions and ambient concentrations of air pollutants revealed that air quality standards would be unlikely to be infringed and that concentrations would be generally within the range of those measured at Gatwick airport in 1979.
Tolo Harbour – the Case for Integrated Water Quality Management in a Coastal Environment
Authors: HOLMES PAUL R.
Published: July 2007

SYNOPSIS

Tolo Harbour is a marine inlet which is under severe development pressure. Degradation of the environment has caused visual nuisance, adverse ecological changes, economic losses, and health risks. The increasing occurrence of damaging and potentially dangerous red tides is closely correlated with the increase in nutrient pollution loading. This comes mainly from two sewage treatment works, even though they are performing in accordance with their design. The Hong Kong Government's response involves a co‐ordinated sequence of conventional pollution control activities. The problems which are now being faced would not be so severe if earlier planning had given adequate recognition to the ecological consequences of all the aspects of development in combination.
The Disposal of Spoil from the Channel Tunnel Development
Authors: BARRON JANE M. , SIMONS M. A. S.
Published: July 2007

SYNOPSIS

This paper describes the nature of the spoil from the tunnelling activities, the plant requirements for its handling, and the investigation into possible disposal locations carried out in 1986 with a view to minimizing environmental impact. It further describes some of the steps currently being taken to minimize environmental impact at Shakespeare Cliff.
Digital Mapping for Watermains in Torbay
Authors: HOOPER B. D. , SINCLAIR A. N.
Published: July 2007

SYNOPSIS

The development of a digital mapping and database system for water supply and distribution is described. The procedures adopted in producing the User Requirement Specification and preparing the existing records for conversion to digital form are outlined, and the manual digitization methods used for data conversion are detailed.
Controlling Nitrate Leaching in Water Supply Catchments
Authors: KNIGHT M. S. , TUCKWELL S. B.
Published: July 2007

Springs from a catchment to the north east of Bath to provide up to 80 per cent of the water supply to a population of 96 000. A review in 1984 suggested that within a few years nitrate concentrations in these sources could exceed the limit for drinking water (11.3 mg N/1). Nitrate was being leached from agricultural land and when an opportunity arose to alter the largely arable farming on part of the catchment, guidelines were devised to reduce nitrate leaching. This paper describes the guidelines and the effects of their implementation.
A Senegal Village Water Supply Project
Authors: HORSFIELD A.
Published: July 2007

This Project Describes a rural water supply project in Senegal, West Africa, carried out in phases by Balfours, during the period 1983‐88.

The first phase was a study, followed by detailed survey, construction works and borehole drilling.

The scheme was financed by a $6 million grant from the Overseas Development Administration (ODA). British equipment such as the vehicles, pumps, elevated sectional steel water towers, pipes and fittings, were purchased and shipped to Senegal by the Crown Aents.

Balfours designed, specified, and supervised the construction of water supply systems in 18 villages in Senegal comprising deep boreholes, pumping plant, elevated sectional steel water towers, and limited piped distribution systems. In order to ensure a full understanding of the project by the people it was to serve, and because major international contractors were unwilling to bid for a project which was scattered across a large area of Senegal, the work was carried out by direct labour, much of which was recruited in the villages in which the works were located. About 85000 people and 250000 cattle and sheep were provided with safe, reliable supplies of clean drinking water, as a result of the project.
Developments in Sewage Sludge Incineration
Authors: FROST R. C.
Published: July 2007

Within THE LAST few years there has been a resurgence of UK interest in incineration as a sludge disposal option. However, the last plant installed in the UK represented the technology and design thinking of the 1970s and there have been significant developments since that time. These are reviewed in this paper.

Especial attention is given to changes in legislation and attitudes concerning the environmental impact of incineration, and the effects on process selection. The wide range of options for the achievement of autothermic operation are itemized and a brief review of costs given.

It is considered likely that incineration will have an increased role in the future, though continuing to be rather specialized. Keeping an open mind on equipment selection is urged, as is the conduct of an organized programme of work to establish process design information before going out to tender.
Economic Optimization of Distribution Leakage Control
Authors: SHORE D. G.
Published: July 2007

Evry WATER DISTRIBUTION system has an economic optimum level of leakage. To maintain that optimum level of leakage there is a corresponding optimum level of leakage control activity.

Despite much work on this subject, particularly in recent years with publication of DoE Report No. 261, many undertakers remain unclear about their economic optimum leakage level and how much effort is required to maintain that level.

This paper describes development of an economic model which attempts to quantify optimum leakage through measurement of parameters which should be readily available or obtainable.

The model was originally developed specifically for routine sounding. However, extension of the basic principles allows development of a general optimization theory. The paper then shows how the theory can be applied to optimization of district metering
2. Risk Management and Reservoir Maintenance
Authors: Parr N. M. , Cullen N.
Published: July 2007

A Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) of a typical earth embankment dam in North West England has been undertaken as part of the development of a methodology for prioritizing expenditure on monitoring, maintenance, and remedial works. The techniques used, difficulties encountered, and potential areas of usefulness are listed, and component tasks for a simplified approach are outlined. The paper recommends publication of the results of the assessment, continued development of the approach. and that the water industry should consider developing emergency plans for dam failure, and extending use of PRA techniques to study of other hazards.
3. Risk Management of Major Aqueducts
Authors: GRAY R. S. , POWELL E.
Published: July 2007

The paper Describes the methodology applied to determine the security of ageing aqueducts by the application of risk analysis techniques. Targets for safety and reliability are suggested within a strategy for risk management.

A case study of a security study of a major aqueduct is briefly described.
Domestic per Capita Water Consumption in South West England
Authors: Hall M. J. , HOOPER B. D. , POSTLE S. M.
Published: July 2007

WHEN THE Component Method is applied to produce a forecast of future water demand, particular attention must be paid to the unmeasured consumption. This component consists largely of domestic water demand and takes into account the major water uses within the home. A knowledge is therefore required of the ownership of water‐using appliances, the volumes of water involved and the frequency of use. These data are best obtained by the metering of individual households, supplemented by questionnaire surveys and the completion of diaries for each major element of water use.

Such a survey was carried out by South West Water over a 13‐month period during 1977‐78. Subsequent updating, which has included further surveys of appliance ownership in the original sample of households and of the capacities of individual appliances, has shown that domestic per capita consumption has increased from 113.4 1/hd/d in 1977 to 131.6 1/hd/d in 1985.
Estimates of Crop Evapotranspiration in Egypt
Authors: FAULKNER RICHARD D.
Published: July 2007

SYNOPSIS

The WORK DESCRIBED is part of a feasibility study for the rehabilitation of the Old Lands irrigation areas in Egypt. Despite much previous work there is still some controversy regarding the consumptive use of water by crops in Egypt. The present study utilized the Energy Balance (sometimes also called Bowen Ratio) method to determine the actual evapotranspiration occurring over crops. It was found that the modified form of the Penman equation recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization overestimated evapotranspiration by approximately 30 per cent. Alternatively, the use of an earlier form of the Penman equation yielded acceptable estimates.
Contamination of Groundwaters from Diffuse Sources arising from Farming Activities
Authors: HEADWORTH H. G.
Published: July 2007

There is wide concern in developed countries that groundwater resources are deteriorating in the long‐term, both in quantity and quality. Some causes of pollution have a largely agricultural origin of which nitrates and pesticides are thought to pose serious risks to human health. This paper briefly reviews the sources of agricultural pollution of groundwater and the extent of the problem. It summarizes the various processes which take place in aquifers to remove, alter or attenuate contaminants.
The Use of Chemicals in Agriculture
Authors: MALCOLM J.
Published: July 2007

This paper examines the use of agrochemicals in modern agriculture and horticulture. It begins by reflecting on the uncertainties of agricultural and horticultural production prior to the use of synthetic chemicals, then discusses the improved quantity and quality of output which is possible using agrochemicals. The social, environmental and agricultural hazards attendant upon chemical use are also considered. Provided that proper safeguards are observed, the use of agrochemicals is a sine qua non for the majority of farmers and growers in the UK.
Problems Encountered in the Hotwells District Small‐Scale Metering Trial
Authors: BESSEY S. G.
Published: July 2007

As the debate on the fairness of water metering continues, the Hotwells metering trial has revealed two new contentious issues which could add credibility to the arguments of those who are opposed to a universal system. One could not have predicted that the safety of electrical appliances would make media headlines on the subject of water metering, or that supporters of rateable value should object to being charged by measured floor area when these two systems are so similar

This paper sets out to concentrate on two particular problems which were encountered during the consultative and installation phases of the Hotwells trial. Whilst the author would not claim to be able to provide definitive answers, he can share the approaches taken by the Company on apportionment and electrical earthing, and highlight I‐the most important factors.
Operational Experiences with Package Filter Sewage‐Treatment Plants
Authors: STOODLEY A. E.
Published: July 2007

This paper describes the operation of four prefabricated‘package’biological filter plants which have been installed in Somerset by Wessex Water since 1984. Whilst these, in common with most other package sewage‐treatment plants, have advantages of low capital cost and minimum site requirement, some operational difficulties have arisen since commissioning, and effluent quality has been variable.

This paper outlines the problems, and makes some suggestions for improvements.
Land‐Treatment Systems: Design and Performance with Special Reference to Reed Beds
Authors: BAYES C. D. , BACHE D. H. , DICKSON R. A.
Published: July 2007

The principles of design of a land treatment system are explained on the basis of determining the land area requirements of particular constituents in terms of the supply rate and assimilative capacity. Illustrative data are provided for the design and performance of slow‐rate and overland flow systems.

The paper includes a comprehensive report on the design and performance of pilot studies carried out on a reed‐bed treatment system at Valleyfield, Fife, Scotland. This provides valuable insight into the choice of the bed substrate and the problems of reed establishment. Of the media tested, coarse pulverized fuel ash appeared to be promising in terms of its hydraulic conductivity and reduction in biochemical oxygen demand. For a domestic sewage of typical strength, a bed area of 5 m2 per population equivalent yielded an effluent having a BOD of less than 20 mg/1, but did not provide conditions which were conducive to significant nitrogen removal.
Waste Disposal and Groundwater Management
Authors: EDWORTHY K. J.
Published: July 2007

About ONE THIRD of the population of the UK depends on groundwater, which is pumped mainly from the Cretaceous Chalk limestone and the Permo‐Trias Bunter Sandstone, for their domestic supply. The recharge areas of both aquifers correspond broadly with areas of high population density and substantial industrial activity. The disposal of solid and liquid wastes which are generated by this large population has caused local contamination of groundwater, and there is evidence of trace concentrations of a large range of man‐made organic substances in public supplies. Although total prevention of groundwater pollution is not feasible, it is increasingly evident that groundwater resources and quality management must involve improved waste‐disposal management. This paper reviews the main threats, the ways in which the hazards and the resources should be monitored, and legislative changes which are desirable. The problems in the interpretation of data and the models used for prediction are also discussed.
Hastings and Bexhill Drainage and Sea Outfall Schemes
Authors: ARMSTRONG R. B. , FOXLEY J. C. , BENNETT N. J. , MORLEY R. G.
Published: July 2007

THE DEVELOPMENT OF the Hastings and Bexhill drainage systems since the early 1960s is described. Most of the 18 million investment has taken place in the last decade in several phases which were completed in 1988. Ultimate disposal of sewage is by long sea outfall. The new works include two pumping stations and rising mains leading to a header tower serving the outfall. A number of innovations are included to overcome technical problems and reduce costs. The paper concludes with some comments on operational aspects of the new works.
The Root‐Zone Process at Holtby Sewage‐Treatment Works
Authors: CHALK E. , WHEALE G.
Published: July 2007

THE ‘root‐zone’ sewage‐treatment proccess was introduced to the UK and Yorkshire Water in 1984, with claims that capital and operating costs were significantly less than for conventional processes. The design and construction of the experimental root‐zone bed at Holtby (which forms part of Yorkshire Water's contribution to the evaluation of the process in the UK), is described. The planting of the Phragmites, their growth and the performance of the bed are discussed. Suspended solids and BOD removal efficiencies have satisfied the predictions of the designers for the performance of a bed which is still immature, although ammonia and phosphate removals have been low. The role which is played by the reeds is considered to be minor, and it is suggested that it is too early to judge the Holtby bed either a success or a failure. The paper also discusses the problem of weed control, the importance of floor slope, maturity of the system and the use of gravel instead of soil.
A Numerical Approach to Multi‐stage Bioreactor Kinetics
Authors: MUSLU Y.
Published: July 2007

A numerical model is presented to determine hydraulic and solids retention periods and effluent concentrations from activated‐sludge reactors‐in‐series when substrate utilization follows Monod kinetics. The model considers the axial change in biomass concentrations and takes all kinetic coefficients into account. By means of the numerical approach, the variation of the ratio between the hydraulic retention period of a given reactor and that of an equivalent plug‐flow tank with the same inlet and outlet conditions has been investigated. Using the numerical results obtained, dispersion prediction graphs are plotted for designing cascade‐connected systems.
Experiences with the Deep‐shaft Process at Tilbury
Authors: IRWIN R. A. , BRIGNAL W. J. , BISS M. A.
Published: July 2007

The deep‐shaft activated‐sludge process, which was originally developed for single‐cell protein production by ICI1, has been successfully applied to the treatment of high‐strength domestic and industrial waste water. The process exploits the hydrostatic pressure generated at the bottom of a column of liquid to enhance the transfer of oxygen to a rapidly‐circulating mixed liquor.

About forty deep‐shaft plants are in operation worldwide of which four have been built in the UK. The latest of these treats a mixed industrial and domestic waste water at Anglian Water Authority's sewage‐treatment works at Tilbury. At a dry‐weather flow of 30 Ml/d, this is the largest deep‐shaft plant in the world.

The paper gives a description of this works and some performance data obtained during a 3‐month monitoring period following plant commissioning. The results show that the BOD and suspended solids loads were extremely variable and exceeded the design capacity of the works by approximately 40% during the month of July. Despite this, the effluent quality remained within consent limits with a 95 percentile BOD of 83 mg/1 (consent limit: 120 mg/1 BOD).

The computerized aeration control system was not functional during the trial period; nevertheless, considerable potential energy savings were indicated. During a one‐week period, an average of 41 000 kg BOD were removed daily at a mean oxygenation efficiency of 2.5 kg BOD removed/kWh.
Agricultural Utilization of Sewage Sludge: A Review
Authors: DAVIS R. D.
Published: July 2007

Utilization on agricultural land is the principal outlet for sewage sludge in the UK, accounting for about 40% of the annual production. During the last 30 years current practice has developed to maximize the benefits to farmers whilst controlling potential problems of public nuisance, water pollution, pathogen transmission and soil contamination. Until now this has been achieved by Government guidelines but, in future, utilization of sewage sludge in agriculture will have a statutory basis following the implemention of an EC Directive in June 1989.

A copy of the discussion to this paper, and a copy of the full version of the proceedings of the Symposium, can be obtained from the Institution's Headquarters.
An Appraisal of the Potential Health Impacts of Sewage Disposal to UK Coastal Waters
Authors: JONES F. , KAY D. , STANWELL‐SMITH ROSALIND , WYER M.
Published: July 2007

The discharge of sewage to the unique UK coastal environment has been a traditional and cost‐effective means of treatment for many decades. This disposal option is increasingly questioned by professionals with public‐health responsibilities as well as by environmental pressure groups. There are limited firm data on the epidemiological significance of existing disposal practices: the established prospective methods, developed by North American workers in this area, have not provided a scientifically‐robust, epidemiological, research protocol. This leaves a scientific vacuum for those with operational and policy responsibilities in this important and sensitive area of water resource management.
Secondary Disinfection of Service Reservoirs
Authors: PEARSON T. M.
Published: July 2007

In order to comply with the European Community Directive on the quality of water intended for human consumption', which was embodied in the 1989 Water Act, a number of problems need to be addressed. One such problem is to identify a reliable method of secondary disinfection for service reservoirs which have a history of bacteriological failures.

This paper considers the advantages and disadvantages of ultraviolet (UV) and chemical disinfection techniques (both hypochlorite dosing and on‐site generation of chlorine), together with the basic design features, and presents a case study examining capital and revenue costs. The collated information suggests that UV disinfection is a cost‐effective secondary‐disinfection technique. This suggestion is supported not only by the cost benefits but also by the ease of operation, improved monitoring and control, and elimination of water quality problems associated with chemical techniques.
The Evolution of an Ozone Process at Littleton Water‐Treatment Works
Authors: SMITH D. J.
Published: July 2007

Ozone is increasingly being considered as a means of improving the organoleptic quality of lowland surface waters, often in conjunction with granular activated carbon. This paper relates the experiences of Bristol Water, who have recently introduced this process at Littleton water‐treatment works to resolve long‐standing taste and odour problems. It describes the background to the project, and briefly discusses alternative processes considered before choosing ozone.

The results of the pilot‐plant studies used to assess the effectiveness of the biological process promoted by ozone are reviewed. Performance requirements specified in the contract for the full‐scale plant are then outlined, together with a description of the civil works and equipment. Finally, consideration is given to the methods which will be used to evaluate the success of the project.
European Environmental Directives ‐ Implications for Northern Ireland
Authors: SAVILLE D. R.
Published: July 2007

This paper describes the current level of compliance in Northern Ireland with the European Community (EC) Directives on drinking water quality, bathing water quality2, sewage sludge to land3 and the draft Directive on the disposal of sewage sludge to sea'. It examines the cost implications of full compliance. taking account of works already programmed, and concludes that additional funding will be required over the next ten years amounting to almost f250 million. A large proportion of this sum will be required for improvements relating to the drinking water Directive.

Compliance with the Directives is a statutory requirement throughout the UK. and there is no choice but to take the measures necessary to achieve full compliance.

An addendum to the paper describes the increase in estimated additional funding to approximately 440 million, due to general inflation and other factors since the paper was prepared. These other factors include the new draft municipal waste water treatment Directive, together with the March 1990 announcement by the UK Environment Minister committing the UK to the cessation of sewage sludge dumping at sea and the provision of sewage treatment for coastal outfalls.
Above‐Ground Landfill: The Engineered Approach
Authors: STREET A. , DUMBLE J. P.
Published: July 2007

The UK waste management industry remains committed to landfill as the principal means of disposal for a large proportion of controlled wastes. Whilst the development of landfills above ground has been practised for many years in certain countries overseas, the concept has only become more widely accepted in the UK during the 1980s.

It is vital that such sites are well planned, designed, operated, and restored. In particular, such sites need to be well engineered, and the following key issues have to be addressed: (i) Site identification and assessment; (ii) Peripheral bunding; (iii) Filling and compaction; (iv) Drainage; (v) Water management; (vi) Landfill gas management; and (vii) Monitoring programmes.

The practice of above‐ground landfilling is gaining greater acceptance in the UK. In certain respects such sites can have advantages over conventional infilling of voids.
The Options Available for Ammonia Removal at Davyhulme Sewage‐Treatment Works
Authors: DOLAN J. F. , O'NEILL M. J. , HORAN N. J.
Published: July 2007

Davyhulme sewage‐treatment works, which serves the Manchester drainage area, is one of the lagest in the UK. The dry‐weather flow is 300 000 m3/d, and the plant receives a wide range of industrial effluents. The works has been identified as a major source of pollution in the Mersey estuary, with an average discharge of 6500 kg ammonia/day. As part of its initiative to improve the Mersey estuary, North West Water intends to reduce the daily ammonia load from Davyhulme to about 1000 kg/d by 1995. In order to assess the capabilities of both conventional and novel processes to achieve this degree of ammonia removal, a number of on‐site pilot plants were established. This paper reports on the pilot‐plant studies and the selection of process options. Recommendations with regard to design parameters and final process selection are given.
Operating Experiences of Instrumentation, Control and Automation at Holdenhurst Sewage‐Treatment Works, Bournemouth
Authors: ROBINSON M. S.
Published: July 2007

Operating experiences of the design, construction, and daily use of automation at a coastal sewage‐treatment works are described. A full description of each automated item of plant is given, together with an overview of the complete scheme. Cost savings as a result of automation are assessed, and improvements in works' operation and effluent quality are outlined. Development of the original project to include an ‘expert system’ for regulating storm discharges is also given.
A Review of Treatment Process Options to Meet the EC Sludge Directive
Authors: BRUCE A. M. , PIKE E. B. , FISHER W. J.
Published: July 2007

New UK regulations from June 1989 will enforce the provisions of an EC Directive on the use of sewage sludge in agriculture. Among the requirements is one that sludge should be treated before surface application to farmland. Treatment is needed to reduce ‘significantly’ both the fermentability of sludge and the health hazards resulting from its use on farms. In the UK, the health risks associated with sludge are principally beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata and cysticercosis) and Salmonellosis. Research on the effects of various treatment processes on pathogens has shown the conditions required to produce a 90% reduction of T. saginata and Salmonellae. This information has been used as a basis for describing a list of ‘effective’ treatment processes and process conditions ‐ as given in a new UK National Code of Practice on the use of sludge in agriculture. The uprating of existing treatment plant, or provision of new plant, to meet the Code of Practice recommendations could involve significant costs. A comparison of the economics of each of the ‘effective’ treatment processes for different population sizes shows a fairly wide range of net present costs. In general, increased sludge quality means increased costs.
A Review of Pollution from Waste Incineration
Authors: WILLIAMS P. T.
Published: July 2007

The paper reviews the pollutant emissions from the incineration of waste. The emissions to the atmosphere are discussed in detail in terms of odour, dust and litter, particulate metals and salts, and chlorine, fluorine, sulphur and nitrogen compounds. The products of incomplete combustion of waste are reviewed with particular emphasis on polycyclic aromatic compounds, dioxins and furans. The pollution arising from contaminated wastewater and ash is discussed. The sampling and analysis of the pollution emissions are also reviewed.
An Evaluation of Some Methods of Determining Storage Yield Relationships for Impounding Reservoirs
Authors: CARTY J. G. , CUNNANE C.
Published: July 2007

Twelve methods of storage yield estimation available in the hydrological literature are identified. Eight of these are then selected for use in a comparative study where the objective is to select those methods with least bias and standard error. A time‐series model is used to generate a population of 3000 years of synthetic flow data for one set of Irish conditions. The true population storage volume for each level of yield and return period is obtained by counting, and the storage estimates obtained using the eight selected methods are compared with the population volume on the basis of bias and standard error. The Modified Gould and Behaviour Analysis Methods were found to have least bias and the lowest standard error. These methods are therefore recommended for use, in conjunction with simulation methods of investigating storage requirements, for Irish and similar climatic conditions.
On‐Site Treatment of Leachates from Landfilled Wastes
Authors: ROBINSON H. D.
Published: July 2007

The large accumulations of putrescible materials which comprise a modern landfill have potential to generate quantities of highly‐polluting leachate as they decompose anaerobically over many years. Operators must control and manage such leachates if severe environmental impacts are to be avoided.

Progress has been made in the development of simple, automatic, robust and reliable treatment systems as full‐scale plants have been installed at UK landfills during the last decade, with the assistance of Department of the Environment funding to allow detailed monitoring of particular schemes.

This paper describes the results from a site where such a plant was installed in 1985 to overcome a particularly difficult leachate problem, where high ammonia concentrations had posed a threat to local watercourses. More than two and a half years' results of detailed operational data are presented, and particular emphasis is given to the reduction of ammonia concentrations to low values.
The Transfer of Technology Occasioned by the Senegal Village Water‐Supply Project
Authors: WENN J. M. , HORSFIELD A.
Published: July 2007

This paper describes the technology transfer of a rural water‐supply scheme in Senegal, West Africa, which was financed by a 6‐million grant from the Overseas Development Administration and carried out by direct labour during 1983–88. The prime objectives of the transfer of technology through this project were (a) to achieve the project construction at a reasonable cost, and (b) to leave a skill pool in Senegal at Ministry, engineer and village level, so that the project works could be operated, maintained, extended and replicated in the years after completion. The scheme provided a safe supply of clean drinking water to 85 000 people based in 18 village centres.