bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Damastes
Authors: Gallo Luigi
Published: December 2012

Greek historian and geographer of the fifth century
BCE
, Damastes came from Sigeion in the Troad: according to the
Suda
lexicon, which is the unique source for his biography, he was born before the Peloponnesian War and was a student of Hellanicus of Mytilene.
Alexandria (Egypt), Catechetical School of
Authors: van den Hoek Annewies
Published: December 2012

Scholarship and teaching had been a well‐established activity in Alexandria long before Christianity reached its shores. It is therefore not surprising to read in the accounts of the church historian Eusebius, our primary source of information, that a Christian school existed in Alexandria toward the end of the second century.
Apostle
Authors: Given Mark D.
Published: December 2012

The word “apostle” is derived from the Greek
apostolos
, which means “something or someone sent.” The subject of this article is the technical sense the word acquired in early Christianity.
Apostles' Creed
Authors: Löhr Winrich
Published: December 2012

The received text (T) of the Apostles' Creed which is now used in Christian churches around the globe is possibly first attested in theordo Romanus antiquus, that is, not before the close of the eighth century (Westra 2002: 22–3).
Autourgia
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Autourgia
refers to personal labor as opposed to slave and dependent labor. A person working in this way is thus an
autourgos
and the corresponding verb is
autourgeo
.
Cattle
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Cattle breeding was in the ancient world generally practiced extensively on open pastureland rather than on private estates (e.g., Arist.
Hist. an
. 572b says that bulls can disappear for long times).
Choregia
Authors: Rothwell Kenneth S.
Published: December 2012

The great festivals of Classical Athens featured tragic, comic, and dithyrambic competitions, each of which required a carefully trained chorus.
Coinage, Greek
Authors: Bubelis William S.
Published: December 2012

Archaic and Classical Greek coinage provides unparalleled information about the economic, military, social, and political development of hundreds of different communities over several centuries, many of which would remain otherwise unknown, around the Mediterranean from ca. 625BCEonward.
Coinage, Hellenistic
Authors: Callataÿ François de
Published: December 2012

The Hellenistic period is characterized by a considerable extension of coinage in terms of areas, quantities, and use. The massive monetization of the Persian treasuries undertaken by Alexander the Great in order to pay his troops plays a key role in this phenomenon.
Conductores
Authors: Hirt Alfred M.
Published: December 2012

In Roman contract law the termconductordescribes a lessee, a provider of work or services to a lessor, or an employee. Comparable or synonymous terms are the Latinmancepsandredemptorand the Greekmisthotes.
Congiarium
Authors: Waddell Philip
Published: December 2012

A
congiarium
was a type of gift made by the emperor to the populace in the city of Rome. The term derives from a Roman unit of fluid measure, the
congius
(Quint. 6.3.52).
Copper
Authors: Ratliff Melissa
Published: December 2012

It is very likely that copper was the first metal used by ancient people.
Cotton
Authors: Gleba Margarita
Published: December 2012

Cotton is a soft, fine fiber that grows in a boll on the seeds of the cotton plant, which is a perennial or annual shrub‐like plant.
Credit
Authors: Hollander David B.
Published: December 2012

Credit (from the Latincreditum, “loan”), in the economic sense of the word, indicates the reception of, or ability to receive, goods, services, or money with payment (or repayment in the case of money) deferred to a later date.
Dokimastes, dokimasia
Authors: Tiersch Claudia
Published: December 2012

Dokimasiawas an examination procedure in ancient Greekpoleis. The best documented case fordokimasiais Athens, not only as a result of the privileged sources, but as a consequence of the developed procedures of Athenian democracy.Dokimasiain Athens was applied to several different matters: (1) to prove the quality of measures and coinage (IGII2 1492 B, 102; 137); (2) to test the ability of knights and mariners ([Arist.]Ath.
Economy, Roman
Authors: Ray Nick M.
Published: December 2012

There were numerous economic components in the ancient world, most of which experienced economic growth (seeEconomic Performance) during the first and second centuriesCE, reaching a scale that was not surpassed until the emergence of industrial societies.
Economy, western Roman provinces
Authors: Gibbs Matt
Published: December 2012

By the late first century
CE
, the Romans had amassed a sizeable provincial empire, ranging from the Mediterranean coastlines of Italy, Libya, and Spain, to the north past the Atlantic shoreline of Gaul, to northern Britain, and then across to the Danube and the Balkans.
Farrago
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Farrago
, a Latin term, means fodder made from a mixture of different grains and legumes.
Fig
Authors: Spanier Ethan
Published: December 2012

The so‐called Common Fig (Ficus carica) is a species of fruit‐bearing tree from the Middle East that was widely cultivated from ancient times.
Locusts
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Locusts is the swarming name of short‐horned grasshoppers that, in swarms of billions, can ravage fields for hundreds of square miles.
Meat, consumption of
Authors: Mackinnon Michael
Published: December 2012

Although most ancient Mediterranean cultures fed predominantly on vegetarian resources, meat was also consumed.
Metoikos
Authors: Garnett Sterling
Published: December 2012

Ametoikos, commonly transliterated as “metic” was a free, non‐citizen resident of a Greekpolis.
Overstrike
Authors: Meyers Rachel
Published: December 2012

Overstriking refers to the process in which an old coin, rather than a newly prepared flan, was used in the minting process.
Pagus
Authors: Hirt Alfred M.
Published: December 2012

The term Pagus describes a territorial district with defined borders and includes villages (Vici), individual farms, and
oppida
.
Petra papyri
Authors: Frösén Jaakko
Published: December 2012

The discovery of the remnants of ca. 140 charred papyrus rolls during the excavations of the Petra church in 1993 substantially expanded our knowledge of the Byzantine city. At the end of the sixth or beginning of the seventh century
CE
, a fire destroyed the church, also affecting the room where the papyri were kept.
Phrontistes
Authors: Adams Colin E. P.
Published: December 2012

Phrontistes (pl. phrontistai) is a Greek term (deriving from the root “care” or “to have a care”) for the manager of an estate, or sub‐unit of an estate.
Prices
Authors: Nappo Dario
Published: December 2012

Price in economics and business is defined as the result of an exchange or trade; from that trade we assign a value to a good, service, or asset.
Profit
Authors: Nappo Dario
Published: December 2012

In classical economics, profit is considered the difference between the revenue gained through certain business and its production costs, as the result of an economic transaction.
Reciprocity
Authors: Coffee Neil
Published: December 2012

In the usage of anthropologists and historians, “reciprocity” signifies a mode of exchange that includes the giving and receiving of gifts and favors.
Screw
Authors: Schneider Helmuth
Published: December 2012

According to Heron, the screw is among the five critical mechanical instruments along with the shaft, the lever, the block and tackle, and the wedge. The Archimedes screw (third century
BCE
), which was used to elevate water, likely represents the first technical use of the principle of the screw.
Spits
Authors: Schaps David M.
Published: December 2012

During the Archaic period no single item performed all the functions of money; this is a general characteristic of primitive money.
Storage
Authors: Brown Kimberly M.
Published: December 2012

Storage is the strategic response to the risk of economic and agricultural shortfall by saving foodstuffs, commodities, and other resources for later use.
Tax farming
Authors: Gibbs Matt
Published: December 2012

Almost ubiquitous in the history of Late Republican and early imperial Rome, tax farming was a practice in which the government publicly auctioned the right to collect the specific forms of taxes in a particular district, region, or community to a group of tax collectors, or tax farmers.
Technitai
Authors: Ulrich Roger B.
Published: December 2012

The Greek term for those beings, mortal or divine, who practice a
techne
, or skill.
Technological change
Authors: Lucas Adam R.
Published: December 2012

Technological change over the roughly 2,000‐year period from the beginning of the Late Bronze Age ca. 1550BCEto the seventh centuryCEis characterized by extraordinary diversity and heterogeneity. A survey article of this kind can therefore flag only some of the more significant aspects of those changes and their complexity.
Tin
Authors: Ratliff Melissa
Published: December 2012

Tin, silvery in color, was one of the rarest metals in use in antiquity.
Toll
Authors: van Tilburg Cornelis
Published: December 2012

In Greek society, there were several types of tolls.
Trade, Roman
Authors: Williams D. F.
Published: December 2012

Roman trade was multi‐faceted and existed on several different levels. It produced complex patterns of commercial activity in many ways atypical of a pre‐industrial state, many of which are not entirely understood today. Trade was generally considered an unfitting activity for the aristocracy and propertied classes of ancient Rome, whose main ambitions lay in the acquisition of land and the status in society which this gave them.
Wax
Authors: Ebert Adam W.
Published: December 2012

Greek and Roman texts describe the wax trade across the Mediterranean (see, e.g., Plin.HN21.83–4). Bees produced many times more honey than wax, so wax was the scarcer commodity.
Coinage, Roman Egypt
Authors: Christiansen Erik
Published: December 2012

From the conquest by Augustus in 30
BCE
to Diocletian's currency reform in 296
CE
, Roman Egypt remained a closed currency area, having its own coins, by numismatic convention called the “Alexandrian” coins or “the Roman coins of Alexandria.”
Ethiopia
Authors: Zimmerle William
Published: December 2012

In the third centuryCE, a Manichean religious text of injunctions written by the prophet Mani and known as theKephalaia(LXXVII) lists the third greatest kingdom (among four) as the Kingdom of the Axumites.
Hermopolis Magna (Greco‐Roman)
Authors: Maehler Herwig
Published: December 2012

Hermopolis Magna, whose modern name el‐Ashmunein is derived through Coptic
Shmûn
from the original Kmunu (“City of the Eight”
sc
. gods), is situated on the west bank of the Nile some 40 km south of el‐Minia and 7 km north of Mellawi.
Heroninos Archive
Authors: Rathbone Dominic
Published: December 2012

The Heroninos Archive is a group of documents written in Greek on papyrus which bring to life the large private estate of Aurelius Appianus in the Fayyum area of Egypt in the mid‐third century
CE
.
Kallikrates of Samos
Authors: Widmer Marie
Published: December 2012

Kallikrates of Samos, son of Boiskos (third century
BCE
) was the fleet commander (nauarch) of king Ptolemy II (r. 285–246).
Katoikoi
Authors: Fischer‐Bovet Christelle
Published: December 2012

Thekatoikoiare the “inhabitants” of a place (Arist.Oec. 1352a33), the noun being synonymous with the participial formkatoikountes, while akatoikiais a “settlement” or “colony” (village or town) lacking the status or the institutions of aPolisor “city” (Polyb. 2.32.4; Strabo 7.4.4).
Land and landholding, Greco‐Roman Egypt
Authors: Rowlandson Jane
Published: December 2012

Egypt was noted in Antiquity for the productivity of its agricultural land, due to the annual Nile flood which fed both water and silt fertilizer by a network of canals throughout the Valley, Delta, and Fayyum basin.
Libelli
Authors: Hirt Marguerite
Published: December 2012

Thelibellifrom Roman Egypt, also known as certificates of sacrifice, were applications or petitions to a specially constituted commission to certify that the applicant had demonstrated constant religious conformity, and had complied with the edict of the emperor Trajan Decius (249–51CE). Promulgated in Rome around December 249, shortly after Decius' accession, the edict ordered all subjects of the empire, women and children included, to publicly sacrifice to the gods, pour a libation, and taste the offerings. The official certification took the form of an official subscription added to the end of the application.
Mummy portraits
Authors: Dasen Véronique
Published: December 2012

Egyptian mummy portraits, painted on a variety of materials, but mainly hardwood (cypress, cedar, linden, fig) or canvas, offer unique surviving examples of Greco‐Roman panel portraiture, highly praised by ancient writers (Plin.
HN
35.118), and preserved thanks to the dry Egyptian climate.
Names, personal, Egyptian
Authors: Clarysse Willy
Published: December 2012

Both Greeks and Egyptians identified themselves by a single name, to which could be added the name of their father; the Roman
tria nomina
, not discussed here, used a different system. Mothers' names are used in religious and magical contexts, and become a common feature of full identification in the Roman period. Names are usually either masculine or feminine: unisex names are non‐existent in Greek, and rare in Egyptian (e.g., Herieus, Stotoetis).
Ostraca, Greco‐Roman Egypt
Authors: Cowey James
Published: December 2012

Ostracon (ὄστρακον) is the term used to describe a potsherd with writing on it. This material was prolific owing to the widespread use of pots for storage and transport. They cannot, of course, be recycled, so reuse was an obvious choice. Such writing material was used throughout various parts of the Greek and Roman world and had already been in use in Egypt before the Ptolemaic period. Ostraca thus cover a timespan of well over one thousand years from the sixth century
BCE
to the eighth century
CE
. Broken Athenian glazed pottery was used by scratching through the glaze in order to write on the pieces.
Panopolis
Authors: Van Rengen Wilfried
Published: December 2012

Panopolis, modern Akhmim, was a major Greek city on the eastern bank of the Nile in Upper Egypt, some 450 km south of Cairo. It has an uninterrupted history of about 6,000 years. In Greco‐Roman times it was an important focus of Hellenistic culture, later a stronghold of paganism and traditional Egyptian religion, but also one of the centers from which Christianity and Coptic monastic life spread in Egypt.
Ptolemy X Alexander I
Authors: Nadig Peter
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy X Alexander I (r. 107–88
BCE
) was the younger son of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III.
Ptolemy XIII
Authors: Nadig Peter
Published: December 2012

Ptolemy XIII (r. 51–47
BCE
) was born around 61 as the oldest son of Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Auletes by an unknown mother.
Strategos, Egypt
Authors: Kruse Thomas
Published: December 2012

The office ofstrategoswas introduced into the administrative system of Egypt by Alexander the Great and further institutionalized by the succeeding Ptolemaic kings.
Syene
Authors: Manning Joseph
Published: December 2012

Syene is the ancient town at modern Aswan (seeAswan and hinterlands) (24° 05′ N, 32°54′ E), located on the east bank of the river, and part of a complex regional settlement that included both banks of the Nile and several islands in the river at the first cataract.
Trajan's Canal
Authors: Aubert Jean‐Jacques
Published: December 2012

Trajan's Canal was one of the names used to designate a ca. 180 km long waterway between the Nile River and the Red Sea.
Coinage, Ptolemaic
Authors: Lorber Catharine
Published: December 2012

Three salient features distinguish Ptolemaic coinage from the currency of other Hellenistic kingdoms: a lower weight standard for precious metal coins; an abundance of ostentatious, high–value gold pieces; and the importance of bronze currency.
Amplificatio (auxesis)
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

Amplificatio(auxesis) or “magnifying” was the convention employed to express and emphasize the importance of a work, a chosen topic or a particular theme, point, or fact. In rhetoric,auxesiswas anexornatio, “adornment/embellishment,” employed to create emotional effect—to move, persuade, and convince the audience.
Archaism
Authors: Primo Andrea
Published: December 2012

Archaism in ancient Greek and Latin historiography is the adoption of lexical, syntactical, or morphological usages found in archaic authors, for the purpose of achieving greater solemnity.
Constitution of the Athenians, [Aristotle]
Authors: Rhodes P.J.
Published: December 2012

TheConstitution of the Atheniansis the only surviving work from a collection of 158Constitutions (Politeiai)written in Aristotle's school in the fourth centuryBCE: it comprises a history of the constitution itself, down to the end of the fifth century, and an account of how it worked at the time of writing.
Battle narratives
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

“All are involved ceaselessly in a lifelong war against all states” (PlatoLaws, 625e). The Cretan Stranger in Plato dialogue was not wrong. Warfare was almost a constant reality in the ancient world, and the continuing prominence of battles and war and of military metaphors in literature of all genres is hardly surprising.
Diodorus of Sicily
Authors: Fronda Michael P.
Published: December 2012

Diodorus of Sicily (or Diodorus Siculus) was a historian of the first centuryBCE, author of a Universal History.
Enargeia
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

Enargeia
means “vividness”; its Latin equivalent is
evidentia
(Quint.
Inst
. 4.2.63–4).
Ephemerides, historical
Authors: Johnson Scott Fitzgerald
Published: December 2012

Derived from the adjective
ephêmérios
(‘daily'), this Greek historiographical genre comprised a journal or basic ledger that organized events under the heading of a given day (cf. Suda E 3903.1, ed. Adler).
Erga
Authors: Lateiner Donald
Published: December 2012

Like its English cognate, “works,”ergarefers to any sort of human achievement, any deed or task – often the physical object.
Finley, Moses (1912–1986)
Authors: Tompkins Daniel P.
Published: December 2012

Moses Finley (1912–1986), born Moses Finkelstein, received a BA at Syracuse University in 1927, then an MA in public law at Columbia University in 1929, with a thesis on the first Justice Harlan, famed dissenter in civil rights cases.
Gellius, Gnaeus
Authors: Forsythe Gary
Published: December 2012

Gnaeus Gellius, author of a Roman history in Latin, flourished during the late second and early first centuries
BCE
and wrote the first lengthy history of Rome from the earliest times to his own day.
Hanno, Periplus
Authors: Farrington Scott
Published: December 2012

Hanno's
Periplus
is the oldest account of the exploration of the west African coast.
Hirtius, Aulus
Authors: Fronda Michael P.
Published: December 2012

Aulus Hirtius (ca. 90–43BCE) was a staunch supporter of Caesar, one of the core group of the Caesarians whom Cicero called by the deicticisti(“those men”). He was also an author of some note. Hirtius' political career owed much to Caesar's patronage. He served as Caesar's legate in Gaul in the late 50s, and he later served with Caesar in Spain (49) and Antioch (47). He was praetor (46), governor in Gaul (45), and finally he was designated consul for the following year by Caesar in 44. During his consulship (43), Hirtius, along with his colleague C. Vibius Pansa and with young Octavian, raised Mark Antony's siege of Mutina. Hirtius died during this campaign.
Historia
Authors: Lateiner Donald
Published: December 2012

Like the English word “history” itself,historiacarries multiple meanings: past events, inquiries pursued by various means into oral and written sources, information, and accounts of those events (Plut.Cons. Apoll. 119d).
Inventio
Authors: Fronda Michael P.
Published: December 2012

The Latin word
inventio
, whose basic meaning is “an inventing” or “invention,” was a key term in the study of rhetoric, but was also applied to writing history.
Ius imaginum
Authors: Flower Harriet I.
Published: December 2012

The so‐calledius imaginumis a modern term not attested before the sixteenth century.
Jacoby, Felix (1876–1959)
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Felix Jacoby was born in Magdeburg, Germany, in 1876 and died in Berlin in 1959.
Manetho, Egyptian historian
Authors: Schneider Thomas
Published: December 2012

Manetho was an Egyptian priest and chronographer (ca. 250BCE), famed for hisEgyptian History(Aigyptiaka), which continues to assume a prime place in the modern chronological reconstruction of ancient Egypt.
Marmor Parium
Authors: Sickinger James P.
Published: December 2012

The
Marmor Parium
, also known as the Parian Chronicle or Marble, is a marble inscription preserving a chronicle of events in Greek myth and history from the sixteenth to the third century
BCE
.
Mimesis
Authors: Longley Georgina M.
Published: December 2012

To Plato and Aristotle,mimesiswas the imitation of reality or nature through narrative or art.
Orality, oral culture, and historiography
Authors: Thomas Carol G.
Published: December 2012

Orality, oral culture, and historiography of ancient Greece and Rome are aptly joined: in both cultures, historical writing developed from non‐literate roots.
Panegyric
Authors: Gibson Bruce
Published: December 2012

The word “panegyric” is derived from the Greek word,panegyris,a festival or assembly, but commonly applied to works or sections of works in prose and verse that deal with praise across the historical range of Greek and Latin literature.
Polybius
Authors: Thornton John
Published: December 2012

Polybius (ca. 200–118BCE), was a Greek politician and historian.
Portents
Authors: Engels David
Published: December 2012

With few exceptions, all ancient historians assigned an important place to heavenly signs in their works.
Sicelica
Authors: Zambon Efrem
Published: December 2012

Sicelica
were mythical and historical narratives of Sicily. Unfortunately, no examples survive intact, and what is known about them comes from references in Classical authors.
Suetonius
Authors: Rutledge Steven H.
Published: December 2012

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (ca. 69–121
CE
) was born sometime between 69 and 75 to an equestrian father, Suetonius Laetus, tribune of the thirteenth legion at the Battle of Bedriacum during the civil war of 69 (Suetonius
Otho
10.1).
Valerius Antias
Authors: Serrati John
Published: December 2012

Valerius Antias was a Roman historian of the first centuryBCE.
Xenophon
Authors: Bearzot Cinzia
Published: December 2012

Biographical data on Xenophon can be reconstructed from autobiographical notes in his works and from Diog. Laert. 2.48–59.
Malchos of Philadelphia
Authors: Wiemer Hans‐Ulrich
Published: December 2012

Malchos was a native of Philadelphia in Arabia, who taught as a sophist at Constantinople in the late fifth century
CE
.
Academy
Authors: Spinelli Emidio
Published: December 2012

The Academy is the school founded by Plato, most probably after his first trip to Syracuse (387–385BCE).
Agathokles, son of Lysimachos
Authors: Müller Sabine
Published: December 2012

Agathokles was the son of Lysimachos and Nikaia, daughter of Antipater, whom Lysimachos married around 320BCE. Being Lysimachos' heir apparent, Agathokles supported his campaigns at first.
Agron, Illyrian
Authors: Šašel Kos Marjeta
Published: December 2012

Agron, son of Pleuratos (a common Illyrian name), came from the royal house of the Ardiaioi. In the period before 230
BCE
, he reconquered southern Illyria, which had since Pyrrhos belonged to Epirus, and also brought under his dominion Corcyra, Epidamnos, and Pharos.
Amphictyony, Delphic
Authors: Sánchez Pierre
Published: December 2012

The Pylaeo‐Delphic Amphictyony (from
amphi + ktiones
, “those dwelling around”) was a religious association of the
ethne
of northern and central Greece, which was in charge of the two sanctuaries of Demeter at Anthela, near Thermopylai, and of Apollo at Delphi.
Antiochos V Eupator
Authors: Iossif Panagiotis P.
Published: December 2012

Antiochos V (ca. 173–162), son of Antiochos IV Epiphanes and Laodike, assumed the royal title for a brief period (Porph. inFGrHII 260 F 32.13).
Archelaos of Cappadocia
Authors: Michels Christoph
Published: December 2012

Archelaos Philopatris Ktistes (r. 36
BCE
–17
CE
;for coins bearing his epithets, see Simonetta 1977: 45–6) was the last king of Cappadocia.
Cappadocia
Authors: Michels Christoph
Published: December 2012

Cappadocia extended in antiquity from the Taurus mountain range to the southern Black Sea coast, bordering Paphlagonia and Phrygia at the Halys River and Lake Tatta in the west, Kolchis, Armenia, and the upper Euphrates in the east, and Cilicia and Kommagene in the south.
Damophon
Authors: Schultz Peter
Published: December 2012

Damophon of Messene was a prominent Greek sculptor. He worked during the late third and early second centuries
BCE
. He was well‐known for the construction of large cult statues throughout the Greek mainland and islands. Damophon was the most famous Greek sculptor of the southern Peloponnese.
Deiotaros of Galatia
Authors: Coşkun Altay
Published: December 2012

Deiotaros (ca. 120–41/40BCE) was the most important Galatian ruler and the leading ally of the Romans in Asia Minor of his time. He succeeded his father Sinorix (Ogis I 347) as tetrarch of the Tolistobogii, whose territory included the castles of Blukion and Peion north of the Sangarius bend, and the region around Gordion (Strabo 12.3.13, 12.5.1f.).
Democracy, Hellenistic
Authors: Grieb Volker
Published: December 2012

Democracy as a constitution was widespread in Hellenistic times. The term itself characterizes first of all a specific form of institutional organization that had developed in city‐states in the Classical period and in which the citizens' assembly was the central institution. However, Hellenistic democracies in particular could differ from each other to a considerable degree, with a strong and independent rule of thedemos, the citizen body, in some places and a more oligarchic character in others.
Friends of the king
Authors: Savalli‐Lestrade Ivana
Published: December 2012

The “friends of the king,” along with the army, are the two pillars of any Hellenistic kingdom.
Genthios, Illyrian king
Authors: Kos Marjeta Šašel
Published: December 2012

According to Appian, the center of the kingdom of the last “Illyrian” king Genthios (early second centuryBCE) was different from that of Agron and Pinnes (III. 9.25); and indeed, as is known from Livy, Genthios reigned among the Labeates (43.19.3), who had the capital near Labeatis Lacus.
Hekatomnids
Authors: Müller Sabine
Published: December 2012

The dynasty of the Hekatomnids provided the satraps of Caria in southwestern Asia Minor in the fourth century
BCE
. Originally a member of a local dynasty from Mylasa, Hekatomnos was installed as satrap by Artaxerxes II in 392/1 (Diod. Sic. 14.98.3), when Caria became a separate satrapy.
Herodas
Authors: Petrovic Ivana
Published: December 2012

Herodas was active in the first half of the third century
BCE
. Apart from what we can gather from his poetry, nothing is known about his life. His entire extant opus — seven complete poems ranging in length from 85 to 129 lines and fragments of two more — was preserved on a papyrus published in 1891. Like other Hellenistic poets, Herodas experimented with traditional genres and combined mime and iambos, thus creating a new genre called
mimiambus
.
Klearchos
Authors: Haake Matthias
Published: December 2012

The Peripatetic philosopher Klearchos of Soloi on Cyprus was born around 340
BCE
.
Kleomenes of Naukratis
Authors: Eich Armin
Published: December 2012

Kleomenes was an important figure in the administration of Egypt under Alexander III, the Great.
Kritolaos of Phaselis
Authors: Gray B. D.
Published: December 2012

Kritolaos of Phaselis (second century
BCE
) wrote and lectured on all aspects of Peripatetic philosophy and became head of the Peripatetic school at Athens.
Kynoskephalai, Battle of
Authors: Eckstein Arthur , Čašule Nikola
Published: December 2012

Fought in June 197BCE, the Battle of Kynoskephalai was the decisive military encounter of the Second Macedonian War.
Lamian War
Authors: Wallace Shane
Published: December 2012

The Lamian War (323–322BCE) was fought between the Macedonian governor of Europe, Antipater, and an alliance of Greek states under Athens. It ended with the introduction of oligarchies and garrisons throughout Greece, including Athens. Our main sources are Diodorus of Sicily (17.109, 111, 18.8–18), Plutarch (Phoc. 23–9, Dem. 27–31), and numerous Athenian inscriptions (see below).
Laodike, wife of Anxtiochos II
Authors: Mittag Peter
Published: December 2012

Laodike (dates of birth and death unknown) was the daughter of Achaios according to Porphyry (
FGrH
260 F 32.6; for Laodike as daughter of Antiochos I Soter, see Polyaenus
Stmt
. 8.50) and married the future king Antiochos II Theos, probably in 266
BCE
.
Mithradates I–VI of Pontos
Authors: Kantor Georgy
Published: December 2012

Mithradates (or Mithridates), an Iranian name, was the name of several kings of the Mithradatid Dynasty in Pontos (more properly Pontic Cappadocia) between the early third centuryBCEand 63BCE.
Phyromachos
Authors: Schultz Peter
Published: December 2012

Phyromachos of Athens was a Greek sculptor. He worked sometime between 250 and 150
BCE
and spent most of his career in Asia Minor or the nearby islands.
Roxane
Authors: Carney Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

Roxane (ca. 345–ca. 310BCE), daughter of the Bactrian noble and later satrap Oxyartes, married Alexander the Great in 328/7 and bore him a son, Alexander IV, only a few months after his death in 323 (Curt. 10.6.9; Just.Epit. 13.2.5).
Seleukos IV Philopator
Authors: Ehling Kay
Published: December 2012

Seleukos IV Philopator (as is his byname in
OGIS
247) was the second son of Antiochos III Megas and Laodike, daughter of Mithradates of Pontos, and was born after 220
BCE
. In 196, his father gave him the task to rebuild the city of Lysimacheia, located on the Thracian Chersonese, which was supposed to become the future residence of the European part of the Seleucid empire (Polyb. 18.51.8; Livy 35.15.5).
Skerdilaidas
Authors: Antonetti Claudia , Matijašić Ivan
Published: December 2012

Skerdilaidas (Livy:
Scerdilaedus
), ruler of the Illyrian Labeatai, was a relative of Agron and the father of Pleuratos (Šašel Kos 2002: 146). He played an important role in the political affairs of the late third century
BCE
.
Skopas, Aitolian
Authors: Antonetti Claudia , Cavalli Edoardo
Published: December 2012

The best‐known Aitolian Skopas is the son of Sosandros and brother of Dorimachos from Trichonion (?–196BCE).
Spartokids
Authors: Wallace Shane
Published: December 2012

Known in antiquity as “the Leukonidai” (Ael.VH6.13) or “the dynasty of Leukon, Satyros, and Pairisades” (Strabo 7.4.4), the Spartokids were a dynasty of Thracian origin centered on the city Pantikapaion.
Syrian wars
Authors: Wright Nicholas L.
Published: December 2012

The Syrian wars were a series of campaigns fought between the Seleucids and Ptolemies, ostensibly over control of the southern Levant (seePtolemaic Possessions Outside Egypt).
Teuta, Illyrian queen
Authors: Šašel Kos Marjeta
Published: December 2012

Teuta was the second wife of the Illyrian (Ardiaean) king Agron and stepmother as well as regent to his son and successor Pinnes.
Theocritus
Authors: Petrovic Ivana
Published: December 2012

Theocritus of Syracuse was active in the third centurybce. Apart from an epigram from thePalatine Anthology(9.434) and what we can gather from his poetry, nothing is known about his life. He may have spent some time at Kos and Alexandria.
Zeno of Kition
Authors: Haake Matthias
Published: December 2012

Zeno of Kition (333/2–261/0
BCE
) was the founder and first head of the Stoic philosophical school.
Herakleides Lembos
Authors: Gray B. D.
Published: December 2012

Herakleides Lembos wrote and compiled works on history and philosophy. He was probably identical with a second‐century
BCE
government official under Ptolemy VI Philometor, whose political prominence is evident from his role in negotiating peace between Ptolemy VI and Antiochos IV Epiphanes in 169 (Suda).
Court, Hellenistic
Authors: Strootman Rolf
Published: December 2012

Hellenistic court culture developed from the Argead household of Philip and Alexander (seeargeads), absorbing diverse Greek, Iranian, and other influences.
Aelius Aristides
Authors: Weiss Charles
Published: December 2012

Publius Aelius Aristides (117–ca. 180CE) was an Antonine Sophist active in Asia Minor, and is by far the best preserved of those catalogued by Philostratus in hisLives of the Sophists. His multi‐faceted corpus gives us a detailed glimpse of intellectual and political life in the Antonine age, particularly from a Greek perspective.
Chariton
Authors: May Regine
Published: December 2012

Chariton of Aphrodisias, the author of the novel
Callirhoe,
probably from the first century
CE
, presents himself as the secretary of the rhetor Athenagoras.
Clodia
Authors: Clark Anna J.
Published: December 2012

Born in the early years of the first century
BCE
, Clodia was one of the patrician Claudii, daughter of the consul of 79, and sister of P. Clodius Pulcher and four other siblings.
Crucifixion
Authors: Zias Joe
Published: December 2012

Whereas crucifixion, a form of state terror described by the historian Josephus as “the most wretched of deaths” (
Jewish Wars
7.23), persisted for hundreds of years, few are aware of its widespread use, with victims being crucified on all three continents in the ancient world.
Lusus Troiae
Authors: Bell Sinclair
Published: December 2012

The “Game of Troy” was a parade and paramilitary exercise that was performed by equestrian youths of Rome in the Circus Maximus.
Palatine
Authors: Guldager Bilde Pia
Published: December 2012

The Palatine (Latin:Mons PalatinusorCollis Palatium) is an outcrop of tufa, ca. 370 × 370–420 m, about 50 m above the Forum in Rome.
Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus)
Authors: Gibson Bruce
Published: December 2012

Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, as he was called after adoption by his maternal uncle, Gaius Plinius Secundus, probably in his will, was born in 61 or 62CE(since he was seventeen when Vesuvius erupted in 79;Ep. 6.20.5), and both sides of his family belonged to the local aristocracy of Comum in northern Italy.
Trimalchio
Authors: Harrison Stephen J.
Published: December 2012

Trimalchio is a major character in the fragmentary first‐century Latin novelSatyricaby Petronius, and the central figure in that work's longest preserved episode, the “dinner of Trimalchio,” which probably appeared around the center of the long novel.
Livia
Authors: Barrett Antony A.
Published: December 2012

Livia Drusilla (59 or 58
BCE
–29
CE
) was the wife of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, and mother of the second, Tiberius.
Ethics
Authors: Engels David
Published: December 2012

“Ethics” is derived from the Greek adjectiveethike(ethosmeaning convention and corresponding roughly to the Romanmos) and refers to the study and assessment of customary habits characterizing individuals as well as collectivities.
Theophrastus
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

Theophrastus (ca. 371/70–288/6BCE) was a Greek Peripatetic philosopher from Eresos on Lesbos.
Adiabene, ruling dynasty of
Authors: Witakowski Witold
Published: December 2012

Adiabene (Hadyab, Syriac:Hedayyab) was a minor kingdom in northern Mesopotamia, east of the Tigris, between the Upper and Lower Zab, its main city being Arbela. It occasionally included other areas to the west, north (Gordyene), and northwest (Nisibis).
Alexander Jannaeus
Authors: Rotman Youval
Published: December 2012

Alexander Jannaeus was ruler of the Hasmonean state from 103 to 76
BCE
. The second son of John Hyrcanus I, he succeeded his brother Judas Aristobulus I when he was twenty‐two.
Amulets, Jewish
Authors: Harari Yuval
Published: December 2012

In the broad sense of the term, an amulet is an artifact empowered through rituals and spells that is used for the benefit of its owner. In this sense magical gems and jewelry, and even incantation bowls, are amulets.
Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, Jewish
Authors: Henze Matthias
Published: December 2012

The terms “Apocrypha” and “Pseudepigrapha” have both been used loosely to designate collections of ancient Jewish books that are similar to the biblical books in content, language, and form but have not been unanimously accepted into the biblical canons. Since the lack of a clear definition has led to some confusion, it is important first to define each term and then to discuss the literature it subsumes.
Aramaic Levi Document
Authors: Law T. M.
Published: December 2012

The pseudepigraphon known as the Aramaic Levi Document (ALD) is one of the oldest Jewish non‐biblical works and was a source for the “Testament of Levi” in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs.
Bar Kokhba, Shim'on
Authors: Bilde Per
Published: December 2012

Shime'on Bar Kokhba was a Palestinian Jew living in the second centuryCE. He appears to have been the undisputed leader of the second Jewish revolt in Palestine against the Romans (132–5), and for that reason, he has been a major hero in Jewish history, in particular in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Marks 1994).
Eschatology, Jewish
Authors: Himmelfarb Martha
Published: December 2012

The term “eschatology” derives from the Greek wordeschaton(“end”). It refers to beliefs about the end of the world, the subject of this entry, or about life after death.
Eupolemos, historian
Authors: Atkinson Kenneth
Published: December 2012

Eupolemos (“good at war”) is the earliest known Hellenistic‐Jewish historian.
Felix, procurator of Judaea
Authors: Curran John
Published: December 2012

(Marcus?) Antonius Felix was an imperial freedman (Tac.Hist. 5.9; Suet.Claud. 28) and procurator of Judaea 52–58/9CE.
Florus, procurator of Judaea
Authors: Curran John
Published: December 2012

Gessius Florus was procurator of Judaea in 64–66CE.
Gamala
Authors: Syon Danny
Published: December 2012

Gamala (or Gamla) is mainly known from the writings of Josephus as one of the Jewish towns that fell to Vespasian during the Jewish War in 67CE(BJ4.1–80).
Gamaliel II, Rabban
Authors: Oppenheimer Aharon
Published: December 2012

Rabban Gamaliel was the prime Jewish leader of the Yavneh period, replacing Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai at the head of the rabbinical leadership institution, the
Beit ha‐Va'ad
(
Sanhedrin
in the Babylonian Talmud) around 96‐115
CE
.
Hasmoneans
Authors: Grabbe Lester L.
Published: December 2012

The dynasty of the Maccabees, who took charge of and ruled Judah in the mid‐second centuryBCE, are referred to as the “Hasmoneans” (from an ancestor Hasmon).
Herod Antipas
Authors: Curran John
Published: December 2012

The tetrarch Herod Antipas was the son of Herod the Great and his Samaritan wife Malthace (Jos.BJ1.562;AJ17.20).
Intermarriage, Jewish
Authors: Marks Susan
Published: December 2012

Even as expectations for Jewish marriage change significantly from biblical times to rabbinic times, so too ancient texts present a remarkably inconsistent view of which unions with which outsiders ought to be rejected and why.
Ituraea and Ituraeans
Authors: Kropp Andreas J. M.
Published: December 2012

The Ituraeans are attested in classical sources as masters of the Beqa' and mountain brigands posing a threat to civilian life.
Jannes and Jambres, Book of
Authors: Minov Sergey
Published: December 2012

Jannes and Jambres are the names given by postbiblical sources to the Egyptian magicians who opposed Moses at the Pharaonic court.
Johanan ben Zakkai, Rabbi
Authors: Raphael Blumenthal , Steven Fine
Published: December 2012

Johanan ben Zakkai (first centuryCE) was a rabbinic sage and leader in Roman Judaea near the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70CE. The Jews had a long history of dwelling under the hegemony of greater powers. After the end of the Davidic Dynasty, they fell beneath the shadow of a succession of overlords, whether near or far: Babylonians, Persians, Ptolemies, Seleucids, and Romans. A form of autonomy existed briefly for the Jews in the time of the Hasmoneans and Herod, but even that was cramped by the need to peer regularly over their shoulders at, and seek the collaboration of, either Seleucids or Romans. Under the circumstances, how would Jews formulate and express a sense of their own identity in the larger world of the Mediterranean and Near East – where they regularly played a subordinate role?
Manasseh, Prayer of
Authors: Leicht Reimund
Published: December 2012

The Prayer of Manasseh is a short penitential prayer attributed to the Judaean king, who did repentance after his deportation to Babylon and was (according to 2 Chron 33:13, 18–19) ultimately restored to his kingship (differently in 2 Kgs 21 and 24).
Patriarchs, Jewish (Nasi)
Authors: Levine Lee I.
Published: December 2012

The Jewish patriarch (Heb. Nasi) was the leading Jewish communal official in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine empires.
Phocylides, Pseudo‐(Jewish author)
Authors: Rotman Youval
Published: December 2012

TheSentences,an ethical moral code of conduct in the form of a gnomic poem, was written in didactic hexameters of 230 verses in Ionian dialect and cites as its author Phocylides of Miletos (middle of the sixth centuryBCE). The text is, however, later than this and was written in a Hellenistic‐Jewish milieu which some scholars date to 30BCEto 40CE. Although it is normally defined as a Hellenistic gnomic text, its combination of references to Old Testament rules together with Hellenistic ethics and ideas about the afterlife makes it a one‐of‐a‐kind text and raises questions about its authorship.
Politeuma
Authors: Cowey James
Published: December 2012

The term politeuma (πoλíτευμα) is attested in literary sources (e.g., Attic orators, Polybius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus). It is used to refer to a number of different political concepts: political activity as such, but also specific political activities and action, form of government, the power of state or government, a constitutional form. Documentary evidence from inscriptions and papyri offers many specific examples, the earliest of which come from the end of the fourth centuryBCEand survive until the first centuryCE.
Septuagint
Authors: Aitken James K.
Published: December 2012

The Septuagint as the Jewish translation into Greek of the Old Testament provides both an extensive example of literary translation in antiquity and one of the largest pieces of Hellenistic Greek writing. The Septuagint, a term coined to reflect the legend of “seventy” translators, originally applied to the translation from Hebrew of the first five books, the Pentateuch.
Shemoneh Esreh (Jewish daily prayer)
Authors: McClister David
Published: December 2012

The Shemoneh Esreh (literally meaning “eighteen”) is a Jewish liturgical, communal prayer which actually consists of nineteen parts. It is also known as the
Amidah
(literally “standing,” because of the posture in which it is recited) or the
Tefillah
(“the prayer,”
par excellence
).
Targum (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible)
Authors: Smelik Willem F.
Published: December 2012

The “Targums” are translations of the Hebrew Bible into some form of Jewish Aramaic.
Tax, Jewish (fiscus Judaicus)
Authors: Curran John
Published: December 2012

Following the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70CE, Vespasian ordered that the two‐drachmas/half‐shekel tax (thefiscus Judaicus) traditionally paid by Jews to fund its upkeep should be diverted to pay for the reconstruction of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in Rome and the subsequent cult at the site (Jos.BJ7.218; Cass. Dio 66.7.2).
Wisdom literature, Jewish
Authors: Miller Charles William
Published: December 2012

Jewish wisdom literature stands within the broad global tradition of ancient wisdom literature, as embodied particularly in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Yahweh
Authors: Miano David
Published: December 2012

Yahweh was the patron god of the Israelites who became the official state god of the sister kingdoms of Israel and Judah (first half of the first millenniumBCE). After the dissolution of those kingdoms, he became the God of Judaism (second half of the first millenniumBCE).
Circumcision
Authors: Bernat David A.
Published: December 2012

Circumcision, cutting the penile foreskin (Heb.Milah), is a core Jewish ritual that signals commitment to God and acceptance of the commandments. Jewish circumcision has a biblical origin, and emerged in antiquity as the quintessential Jewish identity marker.
Alamanni
Authors: Lawrence Thomas Christopher
Published: December 2012

The Alamanni or Alemanni (“All Men”) was a loose confederation of Germanic groups, including the
Lentienses, Bucinobantes, Brisigavi, Iuthungi
, and the
Suebi
, first attested in the third century
CE
. As a Roman geographic designation, “Alamannia” served to indicate the general region that these tribes occupied, particularly the
Agri Decumates
, opposite Roman provinces on the upper Rhine‐Danube frontier.
Alphabets and scripts, Late Antiquity
Authors: Richter Tonio Sebastian
Published: December 2012

Late Antiquity saw a remarkable multiplication and spread of alphabets throughout the eastern Mediterranean and beyond. Scripts of important early Christian literature, such as the Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopic, Visigothic, Georgian, and Syriac, but also the Persian Avesta script and the Sogdian, Manichaean, and possibly Mandaic alphabets, emerged in the third to fifth centuriesCE; the Arabic, Old Nubian, Old Uyghur, and Orkhon alphabets developed in the sixth to eighth centuriesCE; Glagolitic and early Cyrillic occurred in the ninth and tenth centuries.
Ambrose
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

Ambrose of Milan (ca. 339–97CE, bishop of Milan 373/4–97) was a leading bishop of the later fourth‐century church, whose life and works helped to shape the early christian Roman Empire.
Avesta
Authors: Dinshaw‐Vevaina Yuhan Sohrab
Published: December 2012

The Avesta, conventionally referred to as the “Sacred Book of the Persians” is, in fact, an orally transmitted, liturgically based, corpus redacted by the Zoroastrian priesthood in Late Antiquity.
Berytus
Authors: Jones Hall Linda
Published: December 2012

Berytus was a Roman colony founded by Augustus for his veterans. The city, famed for the teaching of Roman law in the Late Antique era, was also economically successful due to its involvement in the trade and production of purple dye and silk fabrics. Wine production is confirmed by both archaeological finds and literary sources. A diverse economy was supported by agricultural productivity and the manufacture of glass, linen, various metal objects, and books. Occupying a key position on many ancient land and sea routes, Berytus was a center of cultural interaction until the devastating earthquake and tidal wave of 551CE.
Caliph
Authors: Kennedy Hugh
Published: December 2012

In early Islamic history,caliphwas one of the titles used for the leaders of the Muslim community (umma).
Caliphs, rightly guided
Authors: Melchert Christopher
Published: December 2012

Caliphs, rightly‐guided (Ar.Al‐khulafa' al‐rashidun)are, according to Sunni Muslims, the first four successors to the Prophet Muhammad and, in descending order, the most virtuous of the Prophet's Companions: Abu Bakr (r. 632–4), 'Umar (r. 634–44), 'Uthman (r. 644–56), and 'Alī (r. 656–61).
Cassiodorus
Authors: Arnold Jonathan J.
Published: December 2012

Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (ca. 490–585CE) was born to an aristocratic family (perhaps of Syrian origin) from Bruttium in southwestern Italy.
Churches, Miaphysite
Authors: Wood Philip
Published: December 2012

During the late fifth and sixth centuries, the Christian world was divided over a central dogmatic issue, that of the relationship between the human and divine natures of Christ.
Decline
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

The“Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” immortalized by Edward Gibbon, has cast a long shadow over modern scholarship on the period now known as Late Antiquity.