bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Acid‐catalyzed condensation of oleic acid into estolides and polyestolides
Authors: Isbell Terry A. , Kleiman Robert , Plattner Beth A.
Published: January 2007

Oleic acid, when treated with 1.0 equivalent of perchloric acid at 50°C, produced a 76% yield of polyestolide. The concentration of mineral acid greatly affected the rate of estolide formation, with increased rates under high acid concentrations. Over a range of temperatures from room temperature to 100°C, reaction rates increased at higher temperatures. However, high acid concentrations and temperatures produced undesirable side products, primarily lactones. Other acids catalyze the condensation of oleic acid to form estolide with the following relative rates: HClO4 >H2SO4>p‐toluenesulfonic>BF3·Et2O> montmorillonite K‐10>HCl>H3PO4, HNO3. Addition of water impedes the formation of estolide.
Discriminant analysis of vegetable oils by near‐infrared reflectance spectroscopy
Authors: Bewig Karen M. , Clarke Andrew D. , Roberts Craig , Unklesbay Nan
Published: January 2007

Discriminant analysis of four vegetable oil types (cotton‐seed, peanut, soybean and canola) was performed by near‐infrared reflectance spectroscopy. The objective of this study was to provide an alternate method to differentiate vegetable oil types and to classify unknown oil samples. Second derivative spectra of the vegetable oils were subjected to discriminate analysis with Mahalanobis distances principles. A four‐wavelength (1704, 1802, 1816 and 2110 nm) equation was derived, which produced a sum of inverse squared distance of 0.0548. Although all four groups were successfully separated with a chi square of 18.9, the soybean oil group is more dispersed in space than the other three groups. Iodine values of the soybean oil samples suggest that this group may have a wide range of hydrogenation states. Discriminant analysis can be successfully used to differentiate vegetable oil types and possibly could also be used to differentiate degree of hydrogenation and oxidative states of oils.
Are theoretical surface chemistry measurements really practical?
Authors: Wingrave J. A. , Matson T. P.
Published: January 2007

The principles and concepts of surface chemistry can be of enormous aid in the application of surfactant chemicals to practical cleaning and foaming problems. The use of surfactants for foam stability was seen to be dependent on rheological properties of the foam (bulk and surface viscosity) and to the energetics of the adsorbed surfactant monolayer (area/surfactant molecule, monolayer clasticity modulus, rate of monolayer spreading and rate of surfactant adsorption into the interface). From these principles, an equation predicting foam volume in the presence or absence of soil was derived and found to be in good agreement with experiment. In detergency, the performance was dictated by the thermodynamic work of adhesion between the soil and substrate. The adhesion was a function of surface properties (soil/water interfacial tension and soil/water/substrate). The role of agitation in detergency was shown to be that energy which was needed to overcome the adhesive bond between soil and substrate. The implicit form of the agitation term was discussed (dependent on substrate configuration, agitator system geometry and mechanics) but not explicitly deduced. The role of interfacial tension was discussed in relation to foam stability and detergency. In both applications, low interfacial tension is beneficial to performance. However, because other surface chemical effects play a role in performance in detergency and foam stability, it was noted that interfacial tension is not the sole correlating parameter with performance. The situations in which low interfacial tension is not sufficient to give improved detergency and foam stability performance were delineated. A possible new method of aiding in optimizing oil/surfactant performance also was discussed. Finally, the role of micelles in detergency was examined in light of very recent experimental work which suggests that micelles may be detrimental to detergency and foam stability performance. This study suggests that surfactants which form mesomorphic phases with soil give better performance. Micelles, instead of solubilizing soil in their hydrophobic cores, are said to be competing with the mesomorphic phase formation process, thereby hindering detergency performance. It is suggested by the sheer weight of new theoretical and innovative approaches to surface chemistry applied to detergency and foam stability performance that “theoretical surface chemistry measurements really (are) practical!”
Hard surface cleaners
Authors: Lichorat J. J.
Published: January 2007

Three key points for hard surface detergent making are: knowledge of raw materials, understanding of product application, and use of adequate test methods. The enormous variety of hard surface cleaner applications leads to a wide spectrum of product types. The importance of intimately knowing cleaning equipment and technique cannot be overstated for the hard surface detergent formulator.
The preparation of soy products with different levels of native phytate for zinc bioavailability studies
Authors: Baker E. C. , Mustakas G. C. , Erdman J. W. , Black L. T.
Published: January 2007

Soy products with low, intermediate and normal phytate levels were prepared in the pilot plant for subsequent rat‐feeding experiments to evaluate zinc bioavailability. The low level (0.29%) phytate product was made by precipitation of the protein curd at pH 5.5, whereas the normal level (1.05%) phytate product was produced by a similar process except that the phytate previously isolated from the whey fraction was added back to the original curd as native phytate. The intermediate level (0.73%) phytate product was also produced by acid precipitation, but at pH 4.5. The pH 5.5 precipitation process yielded a large quantity of whey in which the ratio of water content to phytate was over 1,000 parts to 1. However, ca. 75% of the water was subsequently removed by reverse osmosis (RO), which increased the concentration of phytate in the whey fraction and facilitated its isolation. Protein was first removed from the whey by precipitation with trichloracetic acid, then phytate was precipitated in the supernatant with ferric chloride. Another series of experiments was run to find optimal conditions to convert ferric phytate to the more soluble sodium phytate form, using a minimal amount of sodium hydroxide so that the phytate could be recycled back to the curd without causing a large increase in sodium content of the product. There were only minor differences in the protein, lipid and mineral contents of the three products.
Selective conjugation of soybean esters to increase hydrogenation selectivity
Authors: Koritala S. , Frankel E. N.
Published: January 2007

Polyunsaturated fatty acid methyl esters of soybean oil (MeSBO) were selectively conjugated as a means of increasing the linolenate selectivity of various homogeneous and heterogeneous hydrogenation catalysts. Kinetics of the conjugation reaction in various solvents indicated that linolenate conjugated 5–8 times faster than linoleate. Selective conjugation of MeSBO with potassiumt‐butoxide in dipolar solvents resulted in an increase in linolenate hydrogenation selectivity to 7–8 with Ni and Pd heterogeneous catalysts, and to 7–10 with homogeneous and heterogeneous chromium carbonyl catalysts.Trans‐unsaturation in the hydrogenated products was only 1–3% with the chromium carbonyl catalysts, in contrast to 30–39% with the heterogeneous metal catalysts. Triglycerides were readily converted to partial glycerides andt‐butyl esters with the potassiumt‐butoxide reagent.
Vegetable oils as fuel alternatives — Symposium overview
Authors: Pryde E. H.
Published: January 2007

Several encouraging statements can be made about the use of vegetable oil products as fuel as a result of the information presented in these symposium papers. Vegetable oil ester fuels have the greatest promise, but further engine endurance tests will be required. These can be carried out best by the engine manufacturers. Microemulsions appear to have promise, but more research and engine testing will be necessary before performance equivalent to the ester fuels can be developed. Such research effort can be justified because microemulsification is a rather uncomplicated physical process and might be adaptable to on‐farm operations, which would be doubtful for the more involved transesterification process. Although some answers have been provided by this symposium, others are still not available; engine testing is continuing throughout the world particularly in those countries that do not have access to petroleum.
Redeposition of natural soils in a home laundry test
Authors: Feighner George C.
Published: January 2007

A procedure for measuring the redeposition of natural soils onto clean fabrics was developed. Laundry bundles of paired articles from typical households were divided and washed under controlled conditions in a home style washing machine. Large swatches of unsoiled fabrics were included in the laundry load. After each laundering small swatches were cut out for reflectance measurements. The large swatches were rated by panelists after every 5 cycles. Twenty cycles were run. Results demonstrated that the test discriminates between similar products. The effect seen was quite similar to the soil build‐up which occurs in the Laundry Bundle Test ASTM‐D‐2960. However, the bundle test requires much time to complete while the test described here can be run at the rate of several cycles per day. Also, it is not necessary to purchase new clothing for each test.
Sunflowerseed extraction with a new type of extractor
Authors: Türkay S. , Şatiroğlu K. N. , Şaşmaz D. A. , Gülbaran E.
Published: January 2007

In this study extraction of sunflowerseeds is performed using a new extractor system which eliminates various operations, such as dehulling and prepressing, of the conventional systems. This new extraction system uses a moving bed of seeds which is continuously washed with fresh solvent sprayed from mobile spray nozzles. To confirm the performance of the Gülbaran extractor for extraction of sunflowerseeds, the effects of extraction temperature, residence time, solvent/meal ratio and particle size on the oil yield are investigated.

The experiments performed showed that the optimum extraction conditions are 50–53 C solvent temperature, 40–45 C extractor temperature, 90 min extraction time, 2.7 kg/hr solvent flow rate and 0.9–1.0 mm particle size. The resultant miscella in this system was more dilute than some multicell extractors, thus requiring more evaporator costs.
Viscoelastic properties of plastic fat products
Authors: DeMan J. M. , Gupta S. , Kloek M. , Timbers G. E.
Published: January 2007

An instrument is described for the creep analysis of plastic fat products. The instrument records the deformation of a sample under constant force. Deformation is sensed by a displacement transducer. Instantaneous elasticity, retarded elasticity and plastic flow can be calculated. The extent of instantaneous elasticity of plastic fat products was found to be dependent on loading time. At longer loading times, the instantaneous elasticity as a percentage of total deformation decreased, with a corresponding increase in permanent deformation. The effects of temperature, magnitude of force and work softening were investigated. The results are discussed in relation to the nature of the crystal network structure in plastic fat products.
Studies in photooxidation of olive oil
Authors: Kiritsakis A. , Dugan L. R.
Published: January 2007

Photooxidation of olive oil, bleached to remove most non‐triglyceride components, was studied to elucidate the role of added chlorophyll a, pheophytin a and b,α‐ andβ‐carotene, d‐α‐tocopherol and nickel dibutyldithiocarbamate.

Chlorophyll functioned as a photosensitizer resulting in rapid oxidation of the oil and the added components and loss of color.α‐ andβ‐carotene acted essentially equally as singlet oxygen quenchers.α‐tocopherol had little apparent effect on the oxidation rate. Carotenes and tocopherols apparently were destroyed more rapidly when chlorophyll was present. The ratio of peroxide value to conjugated dienoic acids formed developed greater values when chlorophyll was present, thus suggesting a singlet oxygen effect in the system. Pheophytin also proved to be an oxidation promoter.
Production of eicosapentaenoic acid by a bacterium isolated from mackerel intestines
Authors: Akimoto Masamichi , Ishii Tetsuya , Yamagaki Koji , Ohtaguchi Kazuhisa , Koide Kozo , Yazawa Kazunaga
Published: January 2007

Optimization of culture conditions for the growth rate, 5,8,11,14,17‐cis‐Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) content and EPA productivity of a bacterium isolated from Pacific mackerel intestines was investigated by use of a culture medium containing 1.00 wt% peptone and 0.50 wt% yeast extract in an artificial sea water (ASW). Cultivation temperature affected the growth rate and cellular EPA content of the bacterium. The cellular EPA content at 8°C was as great as 16.8 mg/g of dry cells, which was more than two times greater than that at 25°C (7.3 mg/g of dry cells), although the growth rate showed a maximum at 25°C. Both the yield of bacterial cells and the cellular EPA content at 25°C reached maximum values when the pH of the culture medium was nearly 7.0 and when the concentration of ASW was 100% (v/v). Under optimum culture conditions [25°C pH 7.0 and 100% (v/v) ASW], the amount of EPA accumulated in the cellular lipids reached 45.6 mg/L of culture broth after 8 hr.
Protein and oil patterns in U.S. and world soybean markets
Authors: Hurburgh Charles R. , Brumm Thomas J. , Guinn James M. , Hartwig Randy A.
Published: January 2007

The Japan Oilseed Processors Association provided yearly data showing the average protein and oil content of imported soybeans from the U.S. (No. 2 Yellow and IOM grades), Brazil, Argentina, and the People's Republic of China. Throughout the years 1972–1988, U.S. No. 2 soybeans contained about 1–1.5% less oil than Brazilian soybeans. Recently, the protein content of U.S. soybeans has also fallen behind that of Brazil. U.S. IOM soybeans, a designation based on seed size, contained about 1.5% more protein and about 0.5% less oil than U.S. No. 2 soybeans. Surveys of U.S. soybeans in the years 1986, 1987, and 1988 showed consistent state and regional differences in protein and oil content. Soybeans from northern and western soybean‐growing states (North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin) contained 1.5–2% less protein and 0.2–0.5% more oil than soybeans from southern states (Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina). State and regional differences in composition represented differences of up to 25 cents per bushel in Estimated Processed Value for one set of soybean meal and oil prices.
Cholesterol oxides I. Isolation and determination of some cholesterol oxidation products
Authors: Maerker G. , Unruh J.
Published: January 2007

Cholesterol in purified triolein was subjected to saponification by two procedures employing hot alkali and was found to give rise to oxidation products despite precautions. The isomeric 5,6‐epoxycholestanols and 7‐hydroxycholesterols were stable under saponification conditions, but 7‐ketocholesterol and 6‐ketocholestanol were destroyed by hot alkali. The oxidation of cholesterol during saponification was not inhibited by the addition of BHT. The determination of a number of standard cholesterol oxides by direct on‐column GC was demonstrated with good resolution. Their order of elution was different from that of the TMS‐derivatized products.
Toasted soybean flour components with trypsin inhibitor activity
Authors: Sessa David J. , Bietz Jerold A.
Published: January 2007

Compounds in toasted soybean flour having trypsin inhibitor (TI) activity were isolated and characterized. Sodium hydroxide (0.01N) extracts of toasted soybean flour had an average of 2.59 mg TI/g sample. These extracts, after trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitation and dialysis, yielded supernatant and precipitate fractions. Addition of polyvinylpyrrolidone to eliminate free tannins and phenolics in the extracts, which may lead to overestimation of TI activity, was unnecessary. Material balance studies revealed 91% protein recovery and 92% recovery of TI activity in the TCA supernatant (1.1% protein, 2.0% TI) and precipitate (89.8% protein, 90.0% TI) fractions. Column chromatography and electrophoresis showed the TCA supernatant and precipitate fractions to contain proteins, including those having TI activity. Kunitz type TI and Bowman‐Birk type protease inhibitors accounted for most residual TI activity of toasted soybean flour, as verified by column chromatography, isoelectric focusing, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide electrophoresis, and size‐exclusion high performance liquid chromatography, using the two similarly treated protease inhibitors as standards. Immunoblotting was also used to detect and identify Kunitz type TI’s in toasted soybean meal extracts. This study established the proteinaceous nature of residual trypsin inhibitor activity in toasted soybean flour and the presence of both Kunitz and Bowman‐Birk inhibitors.
Chemical and fungal evaluation of graded sunflowerseed
Authors: Robertson J. A. , Roberts R. G. , Morrison W. H.
Published: January 2007

Thirty‐four samples of commercial oil‐type sunflower‐seed graded No. 1, 10 samples graded No. 2 and 33 samples graded Sample grade (SG) were used to study the relationship between percent heat damage, an important grading character, and percent FFA, percent color and UV absorption of extracted oil, percent germination and number and identities of fungi present. Seventy‐two fungal species belonging to 28 genera were isolated. Thirty‐seven fungal species in 17 genera were isolated from grade No. 1 seed; 68 species in 13 genera were isolated from grade No. 2 seed, and 68 species in 26 genera were isolated from SG seed. The genera most frequently isolated from grade No. 1 seed wereAlternaria (85.3%),Phoma (4.7%) andCladosporium (4.5%).Alternaria alternata was recovered from all No. 1 samples and comprised 75.6% of all isolates. The genera most frequently isolated from grade No. 2 seed wereAlternaria (74.5%),Eurotium (8.4%) andPhoma (7.7%). Fewer fungal species were isolated from grade No. 2 than from No. 1 seed, but a greater recovery of storage fungi was found for No. 2 seed (13.3%) than for No. 1 seed (2.5%).Alternaria (33.8%),Eurotium (33.1%) andMicroascus (8.3%) were the genera most frequently isolated from SG seed. Species of common storage fungi (Eurotium, Microascus, Penicillium andAspergillus) were recovered more frequently from SG than from Grades No. 1 and No. 2. In general, as the quality of the seed decreased from grade No. 1 to grade No. 2 to SG, there was an increase in percent heat damage, percent FFA, Lovibond color and UV absorption of extracted oil, and a decrease in percent germination. Analysis of variance of the quality characteristics data showed no significant differences between grade No. 1 and No. 2 seed except for UV 228 nm absorption. However, the quality characteristics of SG seed all differed significantly from those of grades No. 1 and No. 2 seed with the exception of percent seed yielding fungi. Correlation coefficients of the quality characteristics of SG showed a slight relationship between heat damage and percent FFA (r=0.63) and UV 228 nm absorbance (r=0.68). Although many of the SG seed were badly heat damaged, no statistical relationship was found between percent heat damage and percent seed yielding fungi or total isolates of storage fungi. The data in this study show that errors exist in grading decisions when seed are judged visually to be heat damaged.
Dynamometer evaluation and engine wear characteristics of palm oil diesel emulsions
Authors: Sii H. S. , Masjuki H. , Zaki A. M.
Published: January 2007

Dynamometer engine tests at steady‐state conditions and a wear characteristics study were carried out on an indirect‐injection diesel engine with palm oil diesel (POD) and its emulsions. The POD fuel was obtained in commercial form, and its emulsions were created by mixing POD fuel to contain 5 and 10% of water by volume. Variations in the engine’s performance characteristics were determined from the results of steady‐state tests carried out at fifteen selected torque‐speed matrix points of the engine’s performance map. The wear characteristics tests were performed by running the engine at half throttle setting for twenty hours for each fuel system. Then a desk‐top comparison study was performed between the base‐line fuel system of ordinary diesel (OD), POD, and its emulsions. Promising results have been obtained. Neither the lower cetane number of POD fuel nor its emulsification with water presented obstacles to the operation of the diesel engine during a series of steady‐state engine tests and the twenty‐hour endurance tests. Engine performance and fuel consumption for POD and its emulsions are comparable with those of OD fuel. Accumulations of wear metal debris in crank‐case oil samples were lower with POD and its emulsions than with baseline OD fuel.
The effects of extraction methods on sesame oil stability
Authors: Kamal‐Eldin Afaf , Appelqvist Lars‐Åke
Published: January 2007

The oxidative stability of sesame oil, as measured by the Rancimat test, was shown to be dependent on extraction methods and seed pre‐treatment. Oils extracted from whole seeds were more stable than those extracted from dehulled seeds by the same method. Extraction of the same seeds with polar solvents and effective seed crushing yielded more‐stable oils (16.7–21.3 Rancimat hours) compared with extraction with nonpolar solvents and coarsely crushed or pressed seeds (4.5–6.4 Rancimat hours). Heptane‐isopropanol (3:1, vol/vol) provided slightly more stable oils thann‐hexane by the same method. Results are discussed in relation to some of the major anti‐ and prooxidants present in the oils.
Soybean proteins: Their production, properties, and food uses. A selected bibliography
Authors: Wolf W. J.
Published: January 2007

Key references have been selected to provide an introduction to production, properties, and food uses of soybean proteins.
Authorizations and restrictions on soy protein in foods in the U.S.
Authors: Wodicka Virgil O.
Published: January 2007

The Food and Drug Administration makes the basic decisions on what materials will be permitted in U.S. foods. The U.S. Department of Agriculture then selects those items which it will allow in meats and poultry products. The Food and Drug Administration is in the process of developing definitions for soy products and issuing the regulatory controls over their uses. Care is being taken not to impose burdensome regulatory restrictions on a technology that is in a rapid state of development.
Use of soy proteins in Swedish foods
Authors: Ohlson Ragnar
Published: January 2007

A positive action program has been instituted in Sweden. A new food law recognizing soy protein as a food ingredient and not an additive was obtained, a discriminatory tax was reduced by 75%, and the image of soy proteins was changed in newspapers and journals. Many soy‐containing foods are now on the market as a result of these changes.
Agency for international development’s program for development and utilization of soybeans in the developing world
Authors: Parman G. K.
Published: January 2007

The Department of State’s Agency for Industrial Development is sponsoring a development program to increase yields and utilization of soybeans in tropical and subtropical countries. The work is being done under grants to the University of Illinois and the University of Puerto Rico.
Interaction of proteins with sorghum tannin: Mechanism, specificity and significance
Authors: Butler Larry G. , Riedl David J. , Lebryk D. G. , Blytt H. J.
Published: January 2007

The grain of some varieties of sorghum contains 2% or more condensed tannin; many other varieties contain no tannin at all. Agronomic advantages, e.g., resistance to bird depredation, are associated with high‐tannin sorghums, which have relatively low nutritional value for nonruminants. The biological effects of tannin are a result of its propensity for binding proteins; both hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions are involved. Sorghum tannins can bind dietary proteins and reduce their digestibility. Purified digestive enzymes are inhibited by tannin, but significant inhibition in vivo is unlikely. Proteins differ greatly in their affinity for tannin. Those with highest affinity are large, have an open structure, contain no bound carbohydrate and are rich in proline. Sorghum proteins of the alcohol‐soluble prolamine fraction associate strongly with tannin, are difficult to remove during tannin purification and are found combined with tannin in the indigestible residue after in vitro digestion with pepsin. On germination, the seed may sacrifice a portion of these proteins to bind the tannin that might otherwise interfere with metabolism by inhibiting seed enzymes. During seed development, tannin molecules are relatively short and do not effectively precipitate proteins; as the seed dries, tannins undergo polymerization to an average of ca. 6 flavan‐3‐ol units/molecule. The antinutritional effects of sorghum tannins can be eliminated by soaking the grain in dilute aqueous alkali, but not by cooking. When rats are put on high‐tannin sorghum diets, their parotid glands undergo hypertrophy and produce a group of unique salivary proteins with extremely high affinity for tannin. These proteins contain over 40% proline and are devoid of sulfur‐containing and aromatic amino acids. This metabolic adaption may protect rats against tannin by binding and inactivating it immediately when it enters the digestive tract.
Homogeneously catalyzed hydrogenation and gas‐liquid chromatographic analysis of the methyl esters of cyclopropene fatty acids
Authors: Bland W. J. , Dine T. C. , Jobanputra R. N. , Shone G. G.
Published: January 2007

Various concentrations of cyclopropene fatty acids have been determined down to 0.2% by the use of gas liquid chromatographic (GLC) analysis of the methyl esters of fatty acids that have been quantitatively hydrogenated using a homogeneous transition metal complex catalyst. The effectiveness of the use of bromotris(triphenylphosphine)‐rhodium(I), Br(P(C6H5)3)3Rh, as a homogeneous hydrogenation catalyst to convert the cyclopropene ring to a cyclopropane ring has been evaluated and compared with the analogous chloro‐ and iodo‐complexes. The hydrogenation/GLC method of analysis has been compared with the method of titration with hydrogen bromide in benzene and with the method involving the use of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
Current practices in continuous cottonseed miscella refining
Authors: Hendrix WM. Blake
Published: January 2007

Miscella refining of crude cottonseed oil has become a generally accepted commercial process for the past 20 years. The simple and efficient continuous process for removal of undesirable impurities is described, having changed little in its basic form since discovery 40 years ago. The individual unit processes, control systems, process flow charts, chemical reactions and oil‐to‐hexane ratios used in miscella refining are described. The several advantages to miscella refining vs conventional oil refining are noted.
Field evaluation of extraction performance
Authors: Milligan E. D. , Tandy D. C.
Published: January 2007

This paper presents 5 methods to evaluate the performance of percolation‐type extractors during actual operation by determining the sources of residual oil left in the extracted meal. To determine residual oil left due to poor “flake extractability,” the operator may use either or both the “shaker” and “stain and soak” methods. The “shaker” method first determines the maximum oil that can be removed from the flake and compares this result with the actual amount extracted. The “stain and soak” method involves the microscopic examination of the flakes before extraction. Three methods are described to determine the residual oil due to poor drainage in the extractor. The first involves removing the undrained oil in the laboratory by washing with additional hexane and then comparing the residual oil in the meal with a sample that has not been washed. The second is a colorimetric determination of the final‐stage miscella and comparison against known standards, and, finally, a method is presented using a comparison between the design conditions of the extractor and the actual operating conditions to infer the residual oil left due to poor drainage. A combination of any or all of these methods provides a useful means for a field evaluation of the performance of a percolation‐type extractor.
Fatty and resin acids of spanishpinus pinaster Ait. Subspecies
Authors: Arrabal Carlos , Cortijo Manuel
Published: January 2007

The qualitative and quantitative composition of the acid fraction of wood extractives from three SpanishPinus pinaster Ait. subspecies (Atlantic, mountain Mediterranean and plain Mediterranean) were studied. Seven samples of each subspecies were prepared according to Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Standards, extracted with petroleum ether (b.p. 40–60°C) in a Soxhlet apparatus and saponified with ethanolic 0.4N potassium hydroxide. The acid fraction was methylated with diazomethane and studied by combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. The major constituents found were palmitic, oleic and linoleic among the fatty acids and pimaric, sandaracopimaric, levopimaric, isopimaric, abietic and dehydroabietic among the resin acids. Neoabietic and palustric acids were not found. Variations in the quantitative composition of the acid fraction enable us to distinguish the three subspecies. Main quantitative differences are found between the Atlantic subspecies and the two Mediterranean subspecies.
Lipid‐lipase interactions. 2. A new method for the assay of lipase activity
Authors: Linfield Warner M. , Serota Samuel , Sivieri Lorraine
Published: January 2007

A simplified procedure for the measurement of activity was developed for lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) fromChromobacterium viscosum, Candida rugosa, Aspergillus niger andRhizopus arrhizus. It differs from existing procedures in that olive oil, refined with a bleaching clay, was used as the substrate, periodic sonication was applied to promote efficient emulsification, the hydrolysis time was extended to 1 hr, and no additive such as protective colloids and surfactants were used. The activity was determined arbitrarily for that amount of lipase required to bring about 24% hydrolysis/hr at room temperature Unlike currently used assay procedures, the present method gives results which are highly reproducible with a maximum standard deviation of 2.5% and, more commonly, less than 1.00%.
Metathesis of methyl oleate with a homogeneous and a heterogeneous catalyst
Authors: Kohashi Hitoshi , Foglia Thomas A.
Published: January 2007

The cometathesis reaction of methyl oleate (MO) with unsaturated dicarboxylic acid esters has been studied using either a homogeneous catalyst system (WCl6‐Me4Sn) or a heterogeneous catalyst system (Re2O3‐Al2O3‐Me4Sn). In the presence of the homogeneous catalyst, dimethyl‐3‐hexenedioate (DMHD) reacted with MO to give cometathesis products in 47% yield with a distribution of products that agreed with the theoretical equilibrium composition. When dipropyl‐4‐octenedioate (DPOD) was used, however, the yield of cometathesis products was less than 1%. The lower reactivity of DPOD might be due to the formation of a stable complex of DPOD with the catalyst. The cometathesis reaction of MO and DMHD was also catalyzed by the heterogeneous catalyst. However, the reaction rate decreased significantly and the distribution of products did not attain the theoretical. Similar results were obtained in the cometathesis reaction of MO and DPOD catalyzed by the heterogeneous catalyst. These results suggest that MO and DMHD are preferentially adsorbed onto the surface of this catalyst according to their polarity, and that the molar ratio of MO and DMHD at the catalytic site was different from that in the reaction medium.
Synthesis and properties of 2‐alkoxy‐N, N‐Dimethylethylamine N‐oxides
Authors: Hayashi Y. , Shirai F. , Shimizu T. , Nagano Y. , Teramura K.
Published: January 2007

2‐Alkoxy‐N,N‐dimethylethylamines (1) were prepared from the reaction of alkyl chlorides with 2‐dimethylaminoethanol in the presence of potassium hydroxide. Amine oxide surfactants 2 were prepared by oxidation of1 with hydrogen peroxide. The surfactants 2 were good foam stabilizers and stable up to 100 C, but decomposed rapidly to vinyl ethers at 150 C.
Effects of deteriorated frying oil and dietary protein levels on liver microsomal enzymes in rats
Authors: Huang Ching‐Jang , Cheung Nam‐Sang , Lu Ven‐Rond
Published: January 2007

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of deteriorated used frying oil (DUFO) and dietary protein levels upon the hepatic microsomal drugmetabolizing enzyme system. Fresh soybean oil was subjected to a deep‐frying process at 205±5°C for four six‐hr periods. The resultant DUFO was incorporated into high protein (HU) (27% lactalbumin) or low protein (LU) (8% lactalbumin) test diets at a 15% level. High protein (HF) and low protein (LF) diets containing fresh soybean oil served as the control. Male Long‐Evans young rats fed the test diets for eight weeks showed decreased fat absorption and increased red blood cell (RBC) in vitro hemolysis. The activities of hepatic aminopyrine N‐demethylase (AD), aniline hydroxylase (AH), NADPH‐cytochrome C reductase (NCD), UDP‐glucuronyl transferase (UDPGT) and glutathione S‐transferase (GST) as well as cytochrome P‐450 content were significantly increased in rats fed the HU diet. However, the AD, AH and GST activities, as well as the cytochrome P‐450 content of the LU group, were increased to a lesser extent and significantly lower than those of the HU group. Rats fed the LU diet were the only group that showed significantly elevated serum GOT (E.C. 2.6.1.1, glutamate‐oxaloacetate transaminase) and GPT (E.C. 2.6.1.2, glutamatepyruvate transaminase) values. Supplementation of 0.3% DL‐methionine to the HU diet further increased GST activity. Unexpectedly, rats fed the low protein control diet (LF) also had raised levels of AD, AH and UDPGT activities as well as in vitro RBC hemolysis. It was concluded that rat hepatic microsomal enzymes are induced by dietary DUFO and that the level of induction is influenced by dietary protein level.
Polyethylene glycol modification ofCandida rugosa lipase
Authors: Baillargeon Mary Welch , Sonnet Philip E.
Published: January 2007

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) was covalently attached to lipase (EC 3.1.1.3) fromCandida rugosa yielding a modified lipase of higher specific activity in hydrolytic and synthetic reactions in organic solvents. PEG of molecular weights 5000 and 1900 solubilized the lipase in selected organic solvents, but PEG of molecular weight 750 was too small to accomplish this completely. The modified lipase was 10 times more stable in water than native lipase, but was less stable in benzene. The selectivity of the modified lipase was also altered to favor reaction with oleic versus stearic acid.
Reclamation of nickel from spent nickel catalyst
Authors: Shukla Arun , Maheshwari P. N. , Vasishtha A. K.
Published: January 2007

Spent nickel catalyst containing an average 9.6% nickel was obtained locally from an oil hydrogenation industry. It was digested with 1–3N HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 and mixtures thereof in one to three stages of durations ranging from one to three hr at 100°C using spent nickel catalyst to acid proportions of 1:3 to 1:8 (w/v). Nickel recoveries of over 94% were obtained when one part of spent catalyst was digested for three hr with six or more parts of 3N mixture of HCl and HNO3 (3:1, v/v). Acid extracts of spent nickel catalyst obtained using HCl, H2SO4 and mixtures thereof were treated with NaOCl to convert their content of iron in the ferric form. The iron from the nickel extract was precipitated out in the form of ferric hydroxide at pH 6.0. Nickel from the iron‐freed acid extracts was recovered at pH 8.5±0.5 as nickel hydroxide. Nickel formate was prepared by refluxing nickel hydroxide with 10% formic acid in about 6% excess to stoichiometric requirements for 30 min. The dried nickel formate was reduced in peanut oil at 230°C to 270°C for 0.25 to 2.75 hr. The reduction at 260°C on kieselguhr support, employing nickel formate:oil:support in ratio of 50:43:7, for two hr provided catalyst of maximum activity. The hydrogenation activity of the reclaimed catalyst, assessed by standard AOCS procedure, was greater than that of the parent catalyst.
Preparation of detergents from formaldehyde
Authors: Larkin Donald R. , Hobbs Charles C.
Published: January 2007

A process was developed for condensing different mol ratios of dodecanol, formaldehyde and ethylene oxide to form a series of adducts with useful detergent properties. These products are analogous to the commercially important class of nonionic surfactants produced by treating fatty alcohols with ethylene oxide to produce a homologous series of adducts. The structures were shown to be represented by RO[(CH2O)x(CH2CH2O)y]R where R is either dodecyl or hydrogen, x and y are integers (including zero), and it is understood that the oxymethylene and oxyethylene groups are intermingled in the ether chains. Unfortunately, we were unable to produce commercially viable detergent compositions. For these, our calculations indicate that a dodecanol:HCHO:EO mol ratio between 1:3:4 and 1:5:2 would be necessary both for good detergency and good economics. With acidic catalysts such as BF3, the condensation is facile and product with desired overall mol ratios can be produced. However, much of the formaldehyde and ethylene oxide are incorporated into by‐products that either detract from the detergency properties (e.g., terminal ethers where both R groups are dodecyl) or make the mixtures unacceptable as detergents (e.g., 1,4‐dioxane). Because of the presence of terminal ethers, the detergent properties are similar to those of propylene oxide adducts rather than ethylene oxide adducts. With selected basic catalysts most of the harmful by‐products can be eliminated, but the reaction rates and conversions are unsatisfactory. Basic catalysts that give high reaction rates convert most of the formaldehyde fed to methyl formate.
Thermal oxidation of lipids in monolayers II. Unsaturated fatty acid esters
Authors: Hau Lung‐Bin , Nawar W. W.
Published: January 2007

To investigate whether oxidation of lipids in the ordered state differs from that in the bulk phase upon heating, ethyl oleate, ethyl linoleate and ethyl linolenate adsorbed as monolayers on silica were used as model systems. For both bulk and monolayer samples, the major decomposition products found were those typical of classical decomposition of hydroperoxides. However, quantitative and qualitative differences were observed after heating. The decomposition patterns in monolayers were much simpler than those of the bulk samples.

The major decomposition products of the substrates in monolayers were ethyl 9‐oxononanoate and nonanal from ethyl oleate, ethyl 9‐oxononanoate and hexanal from ethyl linoleate, and ethyl 9‐oxononanoate and hexenal from ethyl linolenate. It is likely that the acidic nature of silica favored a selective heterolytic cleavage of hydroperoxide intermediates.
Wetting properties of nonionics from branched fatty diamides
Authors: Micich T. J. , Linfield W. M.
Published: January 2007

Low pressure oxyethylation of RNHCOR CONHR or RCONHCH2CH2NHCOR does not occur below 100 C where R represents branched aliphatic groups and R’ is 0–4 methylene groups or ‐CH=CH‐. These diamides add ethylene oxide at 140–170 C to give dark adducts highly contaminated with aminoester. The corresponding dihydroxyethyl derivatives undergo low pressure oxyethylation, yielding products with good room temperature solubility, low aminoester content and good wetting properties for cotton skeins and a hydrophobic soil. For these adduct series, most effective wetting was found with an ethylene oxide chain length of 8. For adducts based on fumaramide, excellent wetting properties were observed over a chain length range of 5–15 units. All adduct series effectively wet Idylwild hydrophobic soil at 0.01%, but no distinction was possible between series at the same concentration.
Systematic evaluation of heated fats based on quantitative analytical methods
Authors: Dobarganes M. C. , Perez‐Camino M. C.
Published: January 2007

A simple, objective procedure for the analysis of heated or used frying fats is presented. In the proposed evaluation, based on quantitative methods, the direct analysis of the fat is combined with that of the methyl esters in order to obtain various measurements representative of the alteration proceeding from the same sample. This process permits the distinction of the three predominant types of degradation, oxidative, thermal and hydrolytic, and thus can be applied to fats of whatever level and type of alteration.

The results of application of this analytical system to palm, olive, sunflower and soybean oils both before and after heating them for 100 hr at 195 C are discussed.
Effect of seed maturity on seed oil, fatty acid and crude protein content of eightCuphea species
Authors: Thompson A. E. , Kleiman R.
Published: January 2007

Thirty‐six lots of eightCuphea species grown at nine geographical locations from 1983 to 1985 were analyzed for seed weight, oil percentage, fatty acid and crude protein content. Twenty‐two samples were separated into two distinct seed maturity groups and also analyzed. Seed maturity varied widely but had little effect on oil percentage, even though mature seeds were significantly heavier than less mature seeds. Lauric acid content generally increased and capric acid decreased with increasing seed maturity. Crude protein of whole seeds and defatted seed meal increased with increasing seed maturity. The net effect of harvestingCuphea wrightii seeds at full maturity in comparison with that for less mature seeds was to increase seed weight by 12%, decrease capric acid by 3%, increase lauric acid by 2% and increase crude protein of whole seeds and defatted meal by 5% and 4%, respectively. Seed oil content was decreased by a statistically nonsignificant 1%. The effect of seed maturity was comparable for the other four lauric acid‐ and three capric acid‐rich species, even though distinct species differences in all factors were measured. Location and environment contributed to some quantitative and qualitative changes, but these factors are not considered to be major sources of variation. It is concluded that variation in seed maturity does not present a major constraint to commercialization ofCuphea as a new, alternative source of lauric and other medium‐chain fatty acids. The ultimate significance of these minor changes will depend upon relative yields, demands and values of the various seed components.
Flavor and oxidative stability of oil processed from null lipoxygenase‐1 soybeans
Authors: Frankel E. N. , Warner K. , Klein B. P.
Published: January 2007

The role played by lipoxygenase in the flavor quality of soybean oil was investigated by comparing the oil processed from special soybeans lacking lipoxygenase‐1 (Forrest x P.I. 408251) with the oil from normal (Century) beans. Quality assessment was based on sensory evaluations and on capillary gas chromatographic (GC) analyses of volatiles of the extracted crude, partially processed, and refined, bleached and deodorized oils. In direct comparisons of oil products from the two types of beans, no significant differences were found in either flavor quality or in flavor stability based on total volatiles, and in analyses for 2,4‐decadienal. Although thermal tempering did not significantly affect the initial flavor scores of crude and degummed oils from Century and low L‐1 soybeans, the initial scores of refined and bleached oils from Century soybeans were significantly improved by this treatment. Similarly, thermal tempering was just as important in producing good quality flour from the special beans lacking lipoxygenase‐1 as the flour from normal beans. Therefore, factors other than lipoxygenase‐1 appear to affect the food quality of soybean oils and meals.
Synthesis and isolation of epoxy secondary amidesvia direct amidation ofVernonia galamensis seed oil
Authors: Bryant Kent A. A. , Nwaonicha Chukwuma P. , Hassan Mahmoud , Anderson Melissa A. , Ayorinde Folahan O.
Published: January 2007

Vernonia galamensis oil, containing naturally epoxidized triglycerides, was reacted withn‐butylamine,n‐pentylamine andn‐hexylamine to afford high yields of epoxidized secondary amides. Three reaction conditions were investigated: (i) reflux with amines as solvents, (ii) reflux with hexane as the solvent and (iii) room temperature with the amines as solvents. Reactions with amines as refluxing solvents were completed in 1–5 h, while those with hexane went to completion within 2 to 5 d. Room temperature reactions were onlyca. 80% complete after several days. Reactivity was increased with higher amine homologs at both reflux and room temperature reaction conditions. Isolated yields of epoxy‐containing amides were about 80% with purity exceeding 96% in all cases. Spectroscopic characterization of the previously unreported alkyl‐vernolamides is provided.
The effects of bleached and unbleached rosemary oleoresins on light‐sensitized oxidation of soybean oil
Authors: Hall Clifford , Cuppett Susan
Published: January 2007

Bleached and unbleached forms of a rosemary oleoresin (RO) in stripped and nonstripped soybean oil behave both as antioxidant and prooxidant in a light‐induced oxidative system. At 0.02 and 0.05% levels, RO had the greatest antioxidant activity, while at 0.01 and 0.5% levels it had the highest prooxidant activity in both stripped and nonstripped soybean oil. Treatment of both soybean oil systems with tertiary butylhydroquinone controlled light‐induced oxidation of the oil better than did the oleoresin treatments. The prooxidant activity of the 0.5% RO level was probably due to an excess of prooxidant components being carried into the oil at that level, whereas the reduced antioxidant activity at 0.01% was probably due to the low initial level of active antioxidant components being added to the oil.
Lipase‐catalyzed esterification of glycerol and n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrate in organic solvent
Authors: Li Zu‐Yi , Ward O. P.
Published: January 2007

Enzymatic synthesis of glycerides from glycerol and n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in organic solvent was studied. Optimal conditions for glyceride synthesis by lipases were established. Of the commercially available lipases that were investigated, lipase PS‐30 fromPseudomonas sp. and lipase IM‐60 fromMucor miehei resulted in the highest extent of esterification. Isooctane and hexane were particularly useful organic solvents in glyceride synthesis. The water content in the reaction mixture was of primary importance. For lipase PS‐30 and lipase IM‐60, optimal water contents were 5 and 1%, respectively. Lipases PS‐30 and IM‐60 manifested contrasting positional specificities in glyceride synthesis. Glycerides containing predominantly eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid can be easily synthesized.