bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE FUNCTIONS OF ASSESSMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF DEVICES FOR ASSESSING REPERTOIRES IN CLINICAL, EDUCATIONAL, AND OTHER SETTINGS
Authors: Hawkins Robert P.
Published: March 2006

An attempt is made to identify the many different functions that assessment of an individual's repertoire can serve. Implications of these functions for the character of and evidence about assessment devices are suggested. The functions fall into two general groups, those which influence decisions regarding an individual learner, and those which influence policy, program development, and scientific knowledge. The first group of functions is presented in a rough chronological sequence such that they form a “behavioral assessment funnel,” beginning with functions involving broad‐band assessment to identify likely persons and skill areas, and narrowing to the precise pinpointing, monitoring, and follow‐up functions. The contribution of behavior analysis and behavior therapy to assessment methodology in this sequence is identified as well as the areas where more traditionally conceived methods are still useful. The second group of functions and behavioral contributions to it are then discussed.
COMPARISON OF OBSERVATIONAL RECORDINGS IN VIVO, VIA MIRROR, AND VIA TELEVISION
Authors: Kent Ronald N. , O'Leary K. Daniel , Dietz Allen , Diament Charles
Published: March 2006

Simultaneous observational recordings were made in vivo, via an observation mirror, and via closed circuit television. Three of nine observers had extensive experience recording behavior in vivo; three had extensive experience recording behavior via mirror; and three had extensive experience recording via television. Observers recorded nine categories of disruptive behavior for children in a special class setting. Frequencies of behavior recorded in vivo, via mirror, and via television differed significantly for only one category, vocalization. There were no significant main effects or interactions involving the observers' previous experience. Occurrence reliability coefficients computed within and between media demonstrated the similarity of observer agreement in all three media. Data collection procedures using an observational mirror or closed circuit television appear to be reasonable alternatives to in vivo observation in circumstances similar to those in the present study.
BACK TO BASICS: PERCENTAGE AGREEMENT MEASURES ARE ADEQUATE, BUT THERE ARE EASIER WAYS
Authors: Birkimer John C. , Brown Joseph H.
Published: March 2006

Percentage agreement measures of interobserver agreement or “reliability” have traditionally been used to summarize observer agreement from studies using interval recording, time‐sampling, and trial‐scoring data collection procedures. Recent articles disagree on whether to continue using these percentage agreement measures, and on which ones to use, and what to do about chance agreements if their use is continued. Much of the disagreement derives from the need to be reasonably certain we do not accept as evidence of true interobserver agreement those agreement levels which are substantially probable as a result of chance observer agreement. The various percentage agreement measures are shown to be adequate to this task, but easier ways are discussed. Tables are given to permit checking to see if obtained disagreements are unlikely due to chance. Particularly important is the discovery of a simple rule that, when met, makes the tables unnecessary. If reliability checks using 50 or more observation occasions produce 10% or fewer disagreements, for behavior rates from 10% through 90%, the agreement achieved is quite improbably the result of chance agreement.
INCONSISTENT VISUAL ANALYSES OF INTRASUBJECT DATA
Authors: DeProspero Anthony , Cohen Stanley
Published: March 2006

Visual inspection has been the method of analysis most widely employed to evaluate the functional control demonstrated by any given set of intrasubject replication data. To identify the influence of certain graphic characteristics on these evaluative behaviors, 36 “ABAB reversal” figures were constructed. They were sent to 250 reviewers of behavioral journals. Their evaluation of each figure was expressed as a rating on a 100‐point scale of “experimental control.” Mean interrater agreement was 0.61. In addition to this rating, a verbal description of evaluation criteria was requested. It was also found that graphic characteristics determine evaluative judgments in concert rather than singly. For example, phase mean changes had to be a pattern consistent with the hypothesized effect of the experimental variables, while degrees of mean shift and variability were less important. A description of the following evaluative criteria was presented: (a) topographic characteristics, (b) format of data presentation, (c) intraexperimental, and (d) extra‐experimental circumstances.
SOCIAL VALIDATION: THE EVOLUTION OF STANDARDS OF COMPETENCY FOR TARGET BEHAVIORS
Authors: Houten Ronald Van
Published: March 2006

The use of social validation procedures has become widespread in recent years. Although most researchers have used social validation procedures to select target behaviors and to evaluate whether the changes produced by a treatment program should be considered socially useful, little attention has been focused upon using the social validation process to determine the optimal levels for target behaviors. This paper suggests several ways in which social validation procedures can be employed in order to select when and how much to change target behaviors.
ISSUES IN THE ASSESSMENT OF SOCIAL COMPETENCE IN CHILDREN
Authors: Foster Sharon L. , Ritchey Wendy L.
Published: March 2006

Recent interest in children's social competence has been prompted by findings of correlational and retrospective studies that indicate a positive relationship between early social adjustment problems of children and their adjustment later in life. To date, the assessment methodology in the area has pursued two directions: (1) sociometric measures (peer nomination and peer rating scales), which have provided the major means of identifying the socially competent child, and (2) direct observation, principally employed in the specification of socially competent behaviors. The current uses and the inherent assets and limitations of both strategies are discussed along with suggestions for enhancing current data collection methods. Issues concerning the definition of social competence, generalizability of current findings, and social norms are also examined.
SELECTING A COST‐EFFECTIVE SCREENING MEASURE FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF PRESCHOOL SOCIAL WITHDRAWAL
Authors: Greenwood Charles R. , Walker Hill M. , Todd Nancy M. , Hops Hyman
Published: March 2006

The utility of teacher judgment (rankings, ratings) and peer judgment (sociometric ratings) were studied as screening variables for preschool social withdrawal/responsiveness. Observational measures of preschoolers' interaction were used as the validation criterion based upon theoretical, empirical, and practical considerations related to development of a multipurpose behavioral assessment system. Results indicated that teacher rankings of students' verbal interaction frequencies (1) were most highly correlated to interaction rate in two preschool settings, (2) had test‐retest reliability consistently above Rho = .80, and (3) were useful in that 77% of teachers using this procedure could identify their least socially responsive student within five rankings. The peer nomination sociometric rating was the least reliable measure at retest (Rho = .35) and showed consistently the lowest correlation with observational indices of interaction partner preferences, e.g., reciprocal rate (Rho = .29 to .39). The tendency for relationships among screening measures and the criterion to increase at retest suggested a training effect on screening accuracy. The use of teacher rankings in combination with observational measures to confirm selection accuracy and for monitoring treatment progress is discussed as a cost‐effective behavioral assessment procedure for preschool social withdrawal/responsiveness.
A SOCIAL ECOLOGY OF HYPERACTIVE BOYS: MEDICATION EFFECTS IN STRUCTURED CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENTS
Authors: Whalen Carol K. , Henker Barbara , Collins Barry E. , Finck Doris , Dotemoto Sharon
Published: March 2006

Hyperactive boys on methlyphenidate (Ritalin), hyperactive boys on placebo, and comparison boys were observed in quasi‐naturalistic classroom settings. Ambient stimulation (quiet versus noisy conditions) and source of regulation (self‐paced versus other‐paced activities) were varied in a 2 × 2 design. Compared to their peers, hyperactive boys on placebo showed lower rates of task attention and higher rates of gross motor movement, regular and negative verbalization, noise‐making, physical contact, social initiation, disruption, and acts that were perceived as energetic, inappropriate, or unexpected. Self‐paced activities resulted in increased rates of verbalization, social initiation, and high‐energy episodes. High ambient noise levels reduced task attention and increased the rates of many other behaviors including verbalization, physical contact, gross motor movement, and high‐energy acts. Medication‐by‐situation interactions emerged for both classroom dimensions, with hyperactive boys on placebo being readily distinguishable from their peers under some classroom conditions and indistinguishable under other conditions. Moderate relationships were found between teacher ratings and many individual behavior categories. Discussion focused on (a) the merits and limitations of a social ecological research perspective, and (b) the implications of these findings for the design of intervention strategies.
UNOBTRUSIVE MEASURES IN BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
Authors: Kazdin Alan E.
Published: March 2006

A major distinguishing characteristic of behavioral assessment is the direct assessment of overt behavior. Direct assessment is assumed to provide a sample of behavior that reflects client performance in the situation in which behavior is assessed, even if the assessment procedures were not implemented. Yet, in the majority of investigations, behavioral assessment procedures are obtrusive, i.e., subjects are aware that their behavior is being assessed. The potential problem with obtrusive assessment is that it may be reactive, i.e., affect how subjects perform. Recent research has demonstrated that obtrusive observations often are reactive and that behaviors assessed under obtrusive and unobtrusive conditions bear little relation. From methodological and applied perspectives, additional attention needs to be given to unobtrusive measures of behavior change. The present paper illustrates unobtrusive measures in behavior modification including direct observations, archival records, and physical traces of performance. In addition, validation and assessment problems, questions about the obtrusiveness of the measures, and ethical issues are discussed.
EVALUATION OF BIOFEEDBACK IN THE TREATMENT OF BORDERLINE ESSENTIAL HYPERTENSION1
Authors: Blanchard Edward B. , Miller Stephen T. , Abel Gene G. , Haynes Mary R. , Wicker Rebecca
Published: March 2006

Direct biofeedback of blood pressure was compared with frontal EMG biofeedback and with self‐instructed relaxation for the treatment of essential hypertension in a controlled group outcome study. Patients were followed up for four months after the end of treatment. Generalization of treatment effects was assessed through pre‐ and posttreatment measurements of blood pressure under clinical conditions in a physician's office. There were no significant reductions in diastolic blood pressure. The systolic blood pressure (SBP) of the patients receiving blood pressure biofeedback decreased 8.1 mm mercury (p = 0.07) and the SBP of the patients in the relaxation condition decreased 9.5 mm mercury (p = 0.05). In the generalization measures, there were significant reductions in SBP for the relaxation group. The results are discussed in terms of the general lack of replicability within the area of biofeedback treatment of hypertension.
ESCAPE AS A FACTOR IN THE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR OF TWO RETARDED CHILDREN
Authors: Carr Edward G. , Newsom Crighton D. , Binkoff Jody A.
Published: March 2006

This study sought to identify some of the variables controlling the severely aggressive behavior of two retarded children. In Experiment 1, each child was presented with several demand and nondemand situations. Aggression was frequent in the demand situations and rare in the nondemand situations. When a stimulus correlated with the termination of demands was introduced, aggression fell to a near zero level. In Experiment 2, for one child, a variety of preferred reinforcers was introduced into the demand situation contingent on correct responding. Aggression abruptly decreased to a low level. Experiments 3 and 4 involved the second child. In Experiment 3, this child was permitted, in one condition, to leave the demand situation if he emitted a nonaggressive response. Aggression decreased to a low level. In Experiment 4, he was prevented, in one condition, from leaving the demand situation in spite of high levels of aggression. Aggression fell to a near zero level. In Experiments 3 and 4, he was permitted, in several conditions, to leave the demand situation following aggressive behavior. Aggression increased to a high level. The results suggested that: (1) aggression can sometimes function as an escape response; and (2) escape‐motivated aggression can be controlled by: (a) introducing strongly preferred reinforcers to attenuate the aversiveness of the demand situation; (b) strengthening an alternative, nonaggressive escape response; or (c) using an escape‐extinction procedure.
PEER TUTORING WITH OR WITHOUT HOME‐BASED REINFORCEMENT, FOR READING REMEDIATION
Authors: Trovato Joseph , Bucher Bradley
Published: March 2006

An operant‐based corrective reading program was established to study effectiveness of peer tutoring in the school, for reading deficient children. Sixty‐nine second to fourth grade students were matched on measures of initial reading ability and level of reading retardation, and randomly assigned to three groups: Peer Tutoring Only, Peer Tutoring with Home Based Reinforcement, and Control. SRA materials were used in training for the experimental groups, supplemented with additional reading materials. The program continued for 15 weeks, in seven public schools. Changes in oral reading accuracy and comprehension were assessed. Both reading and comprehension were significantly increased by peer tutoring, relative to the control group. The addition of home‐based reinforcement doubled this increase. The measured gain in oral reading, based upon standardized testing, was 0.19 years for the controls and 1.27 years for peer tutoring with home‐based reinforcement. Internal measures of gain showed similar results, and comprehension gains were also comparable. A high rate of compliance with the tutoring program was maintained by the tutors. High ratings of satisfaction were obtained for the program, from all groups of participants. The feasibility of the program for application in the school system is discussed.
A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF FIXED AND VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT ON THE BEHAVIOR OF DEAF CHILDREN
Authors: Houten Ron Van , Nau Paul A.
Published: March 2006

The performance of all five students in an adjustment class for deaf children was compared under fixed and variable ratio schedules of reinforcement. During the fixed ratio (FR) condition, students earned checks if they were attentive and did not engage in disruptive behavior. These checks could be exchanged for the opportunity to draw a prize from a grab bag. During the variable ratio (VR) condition, they earned a draw from the grab bag according to a variable ratio schedule with a mean ratio equal to the value of the preceding FR schedule. During the VR condition, students visually attended more and engaged in disruptive behavior less often than during the FR condition. The number of math problems completed per minute was also higher during the VR condition although no specific consequences were applied to math performance.
THE APPLICABILITY OF A HELICOPTER PATROL PROCEDURE TO DIVERSE AREAS: A COST‐BENEFIT EVALUATION
Authors: Kirchner Robert E. , Schnelle John F. , Domash Michele , Larson Lynn , Carr Adam , McNees M. Patrick
Published: March 2006

The residential burglary deterrent effects of a helicopter patrol procedure were investigated in four separate areas with a multiple baseline technology. The helicopter was flown during an 8:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. period in two high density population areas of approximately 9.82 and 14.71 square miles and two low density population areas of 117.49 and 89.97 square miles. The helicopter patrol reduced residential burglaries without crime displacement in the two high density areas but had no deterrent effects in the low density areas. The costs of the helicopter patrol were justified by the benefits that resulted from the reduced home burglaries in the two high density areas. Because the helicopter patrol program is funded by general tax revenues, there is a disparity between those people paying for the procedure (all residents of Nashville) and those citizens that receive the burglary deterrent benefits (only residents of high‐density areas). This distribution of benefit limitation suggests two courses of action: (1) The helicopter should be flown only in high population density areas even though the low population density areas are also victimized by high burglary rates. (2) A more comprehensive burglary reduction program must be developed so that effective deterrence can be realized in low density areas. These latter techniques would supplement helicopter patrol strategies and thus form a comprehensive burglary deterrent package that has an equitable benefit distribution.
THE EFFECTS OF INTERSPERSAL TRAINING VERSUS HIGH‐DENSITY REINFORCEMENT ON SPELLING ACQUISITION AND RETENTION
Authors: Neef Nancy A. , Iwata Brian A. , Page Terry J.
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the effects of interspersing known items during spelling instruction on new words for three mentally retarded students. Following a baseline consisting of the presentation of 10 test words per session, a multielement design was implemented. During interspersal training sessions, previously mastered words were presented alternately with each of 10 test words. During high‐density reinforcement sessions, 10 test words were presented and additional reinforcement was provided for task‐related behaviors. Throughout all conditions, test words were deleted and replaced after meeting a mastery criterion. Periodic retention tests were administered over mastered words and a cumulative retention test was administered at the end of the experiment. Results showed that high‐density reinforcement did facilitate performance over baseline; however, intersperal training was superior to the other conditions in terms of both acquisition rate and short‐ and long‐term retention. In addition, students preferred the interspersal condition when offered a choice.
PILLS OR SKILLS FOR HYPERACTIVE CHILDREN
Authors: O'Leary K. Daniel
Published: March 2006

The controversial nature of drug treatment of hyperactivity, the incidence and sequelae of hyperactivity, and problems of differential diagnosis of hyperactivity versus aggression were discussed. The effects of psychostimulant medication and behavior therapy on hyperactive children were reviewed with regard to effects on their social and academic behavior. Both treatments have resulted in clear short‐term changes in social behavior but neither long‐term academic nor long‐term social effects have been shown with either treatment. Short‐term effects on academic behavior have resulted from behavioral interventions but not from psychostimulants. However, the interventions have been too brief to allow one to draw unequivocal conclusions about the clinical efficacy of behavioral treatments. Although there have been long‐term evaluations of psychostimulant therapy, there have not been any evaluations of long‐term behavioral treatment programs for hyperactive children. Given the salutary short‐term effects of behavior therapy with hyperactive children, extended clinical trials of behavior therapy need to be conducted. Finally, specific directions are suggested for future research.
A COMPARISON OF THREE STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING OBJECT NAMES
Authors: Cuvo Anthony J. , Klevans Lori , Borakove Shelley , Borakove Larry S. , Landuyt Jean Van , Lutzker John R.
Published: March 2006

Researchers in applied behavior analysis have been charged to provide large‐scale demonstrations of the outcomes of evaluations. In this research, three experiments were conducted to examine the relative efficacy of three methods of presenting stimuli in object naming tasks. Stimuli were introduced successively, simultaneously, or using a combination of the two procedures. College adults, mentally retarded children and adolescents, and preschool children were taught to produce the names of five Hebrew letters, English words, or American coins, respectively. Presentation method was a between‐subjects treatment in a factorial design. Results from the series of systematic replications were consistent in showing better posttest performance for subjects in the Simultaneous and Combined conditions. Further, follow‐up data in Experiment III showed that retention was also superior for subjects trained by the Simultaneous or Combined methods. Although the acquisition criterion was met in fewer trials by subjects in the Successive condition, only several minutes more training time was required by the Simultaneous and Combined conditions. From a cost‐effectiveness point of view, either of the latter two techniques should be favored over the Successive procedure for teaching verbal naming skills.
ACCEPTABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS FOR DEVIANT CHILD BEHAVIOR
Authors: Kazdin Alan E.
Published: March 2006

The acceptability of alternative treatments for deviant child behavior was evaluated in two experiments. In each experiment, clinical cases were described to undergraduate students along with four different treatments in a Replicated Latin Square Design. The treatments included reinforcement of incompatible behavior, time out from reinforcement, drug therapy, and electric shock and the treatments were described as they were applied to children with problem behaviors. Experiment 1 developed an assessment device to evaluate treatment acceptability and examined whether treatments were rated as differentially acceptable. Experiment 2 replicated the first experiment and examined whether the severity of the presenting clinical problem influenced ratings of acceptability. The results indicated that treatments were sharply distinguished in overall acceptability. Reinforcement of incompatible behavior was more acceptable than other treatments which followed, in order, time out from reinforcement, drug therapy, and electric shock. Case severity influenced acceptability of alternative treatments with all treatments being rated as more acceptable with more severe cases. However, the strength of case severity was relatively small in relation to the different treatment conditions themselves which accounted for large portions of variance.
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY HAZARD REDUCTION THROUGH PERFORMANCE FEEDBACK
Authors: Sulzer‐Azaroff Beth , Santamaria M. Consuelo de
Published: March 2006

A “feedback package” system, designed to prevent occupational accidents and to fit directly into the normal operations of an industrial organization, was analyzed. Eighteen hazardous conditions in six production departments were assessed during seven observation sessions over a 12‐week period, plus four follow‐up observations over 4 months. The “feedback package” was presented in multiple baseline fashion, across subjects (department supervisors). It consisted of presenting the supervisor with copies of observational data, accompanied by a note which congratulated good practices and suggested ways for improving safety conditions, along with occasional comments from a senior executive. The results indicated that during the feedback phase, hazard rates were lower and less variable than during the baseline phase. Baseline data were highly variable with peaks ranging from 20 to 55 hazards per department. Following intervention, hazard frequencies dropped by 60%, averaged across departments, with decreases ranging from 29% to 88%. During treatment, data stabilized, with the highest frequency reaching 33. A modified feedback system was implemented by the organization following termination of the study, validating the assumption that such a system would tend to maintain.
BIOFEEDBACK, AUTOGENIC TRAINING, AND PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION IN THE TREATMENT OF RAYNAUD'S DISEASE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
Authors: Keefe Francis J. , Surwit Richard S. , Pilon Robert N.
Published: March 2006

Twenty‐one female patients suffering from diagnosed idiopathic Raynaud's Disease were trained to raise digital skin temperature using either autogenic training, progressive muscle relaxation, or a combination of autogenic training and skin temperature feedback. Patients were instructed in the treatment procedures in three one‐hour group sessions spaced one week apart. All patients were instructed to practice what they had learned twice a day at home. Patients kept records of the frequency of vasospastic attacks occurring over a four‐week baseline period, and during the first four weeks and the ninth week of training. In addition, patients underwent four laboratory cold stress tests during which they were instructed to maintain digital temperature as the ambient temperature was slowly dropped from 26° to 17°C. Cold stress tests were given during week 1 of baseline and during weeks 1, 3, and 5 of training. Results indicated that all patients improved during the first four weeks of training. No significant differences between the three behavioral treatment procedures were obtained. In addition, the ability of patients to maintain digital temperature during the cold stress challenge showed significant improvement from the first to the last tests. Symptomatic improvement was maintained by all patients nine weeks after the start of the training. The implications of these findings for the behavioral treatment of Raynaud's Disease are discussed.
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS OF INSTITUTIONALIZED RETARDED PERSONS: A COMPARISON OF LICENSURE DECISIONS AND BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS
Authors: Repp Alan C. , Barton Lyle E.
Published: March 2006

In the last several years, various organizations have produced strikingly similar documents by which institutions for retarded persons are judged for licensure. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether residential units that were licensed differed from residential units that were not licensed in terms of the active programming behaviors of their staff and residents. Data were collected through a time‐sampling procedure that yielded about 160,000 observations on eight staff and six resident behaviors. Results showed that the licensed units were just as derelict as unlicensed units in providing habilitative programming for their retarded residents. Maladaptive responding by residents occurred at least as much as task‐related behaviors: residents spent as much time self‐stimulating as they did in programming; they also engaged in self‐abusive behavior about as much time as they engaged in on‐task responding. Results were discussed in terms of the failure of governmental regulations that are not based on observation to adequately assess habilitative programming.
MODELING INFLUENCES ON ALCOHOLICS' RATES OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION
Authors: Caudill Barry D. , Lipscomb Thomas R.
Published: March 2006

Two experiments were designed to examine modeling influences on alcoholics' alcohol consumption. Three male alcoholics were paired with confederates, posing as alcoholics. In Experiment 1, alcoholic‐confederate pairs participated in a 1‐hour taste‐rating task, which involved rating different wines on a list of adjectives. Experiment 2 consisted of 1‐hour ad lib access to wine in a naturalistic bar setting. In both experiments, confederates alternated 15‐minute periods of heavy and light consumption, drinking fluids resembling wine. The amount of wine consumed by alcoholics in each period was secretly recorded and the data examined on a single subject basis. In Experiment 1, two subjects increased and decreased consumption along with their confederate. The third subject followed the confederate's pattern only after the confederate demonstrated heavy consumption. All three subjects varied consumption with the confederate during Experiment 2, performed later on the same day. These results suggest that alcoholics' alcohol consumption can be modified by the social influences of modeling. The implications of this finding for the loss of control hypothesis and alcoholism treatment maintenance were discussed.
AN ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC POSTING IN REDUCING SPEEDING BEHAVIOR ON AN URBAN HIGHWAY
Authors: Houten Ron Van , Nau Paul , Marini Zopito
Published: March 2006

The effects of public posting on speeding behavior on an urban highway were assessed using a reversal design. During baseline the percentage of drivers speeding was measured with a concealed radar unit. During the daily posting condition a highway sign was installed which provided feedback on the percentage of drivers not speeding yesterday and the best record to date. This sign was then covered and reintroduced. Results indicated that the sign was effective in reducing speeding behavior. Furthermore, the effects were most pronounced in reducing the speeds of the faster drivers. Next, daily and weekly postings were compared with the sign alone without numerical feedback: results revealed that the weekly posting condition was as effective as the daily posting condition, but that the sign had no influence when numbers were not posted. Finally, the weekly posting procedure remained effective during a 6‐month follow‐up condition.
REDUCING CHILD UNCOOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR DURING DENTAL TREATMENT THROUGH MODELING AND REINFORCEMENT
Authors: Stokes Trevor F. , Kennedy Suzanne H.
Published: March 2006

The uncooperative behavior of grade‐school children during dental treatment was examined. Forty children enrolled in a government dental program were observed during treatment conditions involving instructions concerning the appropriate behavior required by the dental practitioner, description of the objective procedures and subjective experience the child could expect, praise for appropriate behavior, and a colorful stamp for coming to the clinic. Eight of these children whose behavior was still too disruptive for effective dentistry were formally introduced to additional intervention procedures of tangible consequences for cooperative behavior, and observation of peers and by peers during actual dental treatment. Within a multiple baseline design, the intervention conditions were effective in decreasing the children's uncooperative behavior to acceptable levels.
A SELF‐INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE FOR INCREASING ATTENDING BEHAVIOR IN EDUCABLE MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN
Authors: Burgio Louis D. , Whitman Thomas L. , Johnson Moses R.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this study was to develop a self‐instructional package that would aid highly distractible retarded children in increasing their attending behavior in a training and two generalization (a one‐to‐one and a classroom) situations. Three untrained subjects were monitored for general comparison and social validation purposes. One of these control subjects was distractible and the other two (criterion comparison) were evaluated as not having attentional problems. A multiple baseline design was employed in which training was sequentially introduced across subjects. During training, the experimental subjects were taught through self‐instruction to focus their attention and to cope with two tasks, math and printing. After learning the self‐instructions the subjects were systematically and sequentially exposed to photo‐slides of distracting situations, to audio‐distractors composed of noisy lunchroom verbal peer interactions, and to in vivo distractors provided by kindergarten children playing with wooden blocks in the training setting. The entire training procedure was handled in a game‐like context to maintain subject interest and to facilitate generalization. The results suggested that the training package produced direct and generalized changes in self‐instructional behavior. In addition, a decrease in off‐task behavior occurred during math, printing, and also during a phonics program in the one‐to‐one and classroom situations. However, reliable changes in academic task performance were not observed. Finally, no systematic changes on any of the dependent measures occurred for the three untrained subjects.
AN EMPIRICAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING AN APPROPRIATE INTERVAL LENGTH FOR RECORDING BEHAVIOR
Authors: Sanson‐Fisher R. W. , Poole A. Desmond , Dunn John
Published: March 2006

The study sought to examine the effects of varying interval length on the representation of data obtained using modified frequency time sampling. A 7‐category scale was used to observe reliably the behavior of eight psychiatric inpatients. Using electronic real time recording equipment, it was possible to computer analyze the obtained data at varying interval lengths, the shortest interval being 1.0 seconds. It was found that increasing the interval length had little effect on the percentage of total duration recorded within each behavioral category, suggesting that this is a relatively stable measure of behavior. Percentage total events for each category was less stable with increasing interval lengths. The number of recorded events within each category tended to decrease, while their average durations tended to increase, as a function of increasing the interval length. The data suggest that the current practice of determining interval length in an arbitrary fashion, or on the basis of convention, should be abandoned. Rather, such a decision should be empirically determined for each particular observation scale and subject group. One method by which this might be achieved is presented.
DEVELOPMENT OF SPONTANEOUS MANDING IN LANGUAGE DEFICIENT CHILDREN
Authors: Simic Joan , Bucher Bradley
Published: March 2006

Six institutionalized children, aged 7–11, with little or no spontaneous vocal manding, were trained to request food items under appropriate natural conditions when snacks were presented. “I want a” was appropriate when an adult presented food in the playroom. “Out” was appropriate when the items were displayed in the hallway, across a half‐door barrier from the child. A sequence of steps was trained, through increasingly naturalistic setting and cuing conditions. The two mands were trained in sequence, not concurrently. To encourage “spontaneous” productions, no vocal cuing was provided by the adult. After criterion performance in each step, several probe sessions were conducted for various cuing conditions, adults, and settings. Probes after imitation training showed no spontaneous manding. Thus, failure of manding was not due to production difficulties. In probes after training for “approximately” natural cues, most children showed little transfer to the natural cues. This implies that training for the specific appropriate cues may often be required. However, good transfer generally occurred across persons, and from training room to playroom. Probes also showed that most children did not use one of the trained mands in the stimulus conditions that were appropriate for the other mand. Thus, adding a second mand did not generally disrupt use of the first. However, significant disruption occurred for two children. Finally, at the end of training, extinction training was given for one mand in one setting. Performance of the other mand was litle affected. In sum, the appropriate form of a mand depends on specific stimulus and setting characteristics, and these characteristics must be considered in training.
OBSERVATION PROCEDURE, OBSERVER GENDER, AND BEHAVIOR VALENCE AS DETERMINANTS OF SAMPLING ERROR IN A BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT ANALOGUE
Authors: Farkas Gary M. , Tharp Roland G.
Published: March 2006

Several factors thought to influence the representativeness of behavioral assessment data were examined in an analogue study using a multifactorial design. Systematic and unsystematic methods of observing group behavior were investigated using 18 male and 18 female observers. Additionally, valence properties of the observed behaviors were inspected. Observers' assessments of a videotape were compared to a criterion code that defined the population of behaviors. Results indicated that systematic observation procedures were more accurate than unsystematic procedures, though this factor interacted with gender of observer and valence of behavior. Additionally, males tended to sample more representatively than females. A third finding indicated that the negatively valenced behavior was overestimated, whereas the neutral and positively valenced behaviors were accurately assessed.
THE CALIFORNIA DROUGHT: A QUASI‐EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL POLICY
Authors: Agras W. Stewart , Jacob Rolf G. , Lebedeck Melissa
Published: March 2006

The effect of fines for failure to conserve water during the California drought of 1976 to 1978 was evaluated in a retrospectively arranged multiple‐baseline design across three San Francisco Bay area cities. The data indicated that, on a community level, significant savings of water occurred regardless of whether fines were introduced or not. However, on an individual level, fines appeared to have an effect on private, as opposed to commercial or industrial, consumers who had received at least one fine. The limitations imposed on these conclusions by the quasi‐experimental nature of the design were highlighted. Possible reasons for water conservation in the absence of fines were discussed within the framework of stimulus control. It was suggested that an area for future research should be the delineation of stimulus parameters involved in producing behavior change in entire communities.
CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS: ITS EFFECTS ON VERBAL STATEMENTS ABOUT AN ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECT
Authors: Sanford Fonda L. , Fawcett Stephen B.
Published: March 2006

Typically, citizens lack relevant information concerning possible consequences of proposed environmental projects. Despite federal requirements for citizen participation in decisions about proposed roadway projects, no systematic procedures exist for educating citizens as to the possible consequences of such projects. The effects of a consequence analysis procedure on community residents' verbal statements about the favorability of a proposed roadway project were assessed. The consequence analysis procedure involved asking residents to rate the desirability and magnitude of each of 48 possible consequences of the proposed roadway project. Following the intervention, overall ratings of favorability of the project changed for nine of ten residents. Community residents' ratings of the quality of participants' justifications of their position on the roadway issue provided evidence of generalization to this collateral behavior.
CONTINGENT EXERCISE: A MILD BUT POWERFUL PROCEDURE FOR SUPPRESSING INAPPROPRIATE VERBAL AND AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Authors: Luce Stephen C. , Delquadri Joseph , Hall R. Vance
Published: March 2006

Two single‐subject experiments were conducted in public school classrooms for severely emotionally disturbed children. Both experiments investigated the effects of a treatment requiring a child to exhibit a simple exercise task after a verbal or aggressive response, using reversal and multiple‐baseline designs. The independent variable, contingent exercise, required standing up and sitting on the floor five to ten times contingent on an inappropriate behavior. It was found that contingent exercise was easy to carry out, and following it, the child quickly returned to the learning task that had been interrupted by the inappropriate behavior. The contingent exercise procedure required a minimum of prompting or manual guidance. Although contingent exercise was not topographically related to the inappropriate response, it decreased those responses dramatically. The results suggested that contingent exercise was not only more powerful than DRO but also could be administered independently. It was concluded that contingent exercise may constitute an alternative procedure that can be used by therapists confronted with severely abnormal behaviors. It would appear to be particularly relevant in settings where procedures such as timeout and painful consequences find restricted use. Finally, a number of guidelines have been proposed as a safeguard against the misuse of this mild but powerful procedure.
EFFECTS OF INFORMATIONAL PROMPTS ON ENERGY CONSERVATION IN COLLEGE CLASSROOMS
Authors: Luyben Paul D.
Published: March 2006

A multiple‐baseline design was used with two target classroom groups (n = 28 and 27) in a study to reduce electrical energy waste in college classrooms. A dittoed letter, signed by a faculty member, was sent to each professor in the prompt condition. In the letter the professor was informed that he or she taught prior to an unscheduled period and was asked to turn off lights following the class. The results showed that after the prompt, the percentage of rooms with lights turned off increased by 13% and 6% in each target group. A further analysis of the 10 classrooms that had the lowest baseline rates of turning lights off indicated a 30% increase after the prompt. This study indicates that a minimum prompt procedure was effective in reducing electrical energy waste. The further significance of these results are also discussed.
MOTIVATING AUTISTIC CHILDREN THROUGH STIMULUS VARIATION
Authors: Dunlap Glen , Koegel Robert L.
Published: March 2006

This study evaluated the differential effectiveness of two methods of presenting discrimination tasks when teaching autistic children. In a constant task condition, the common method of presenting a single task throughout a session was used. In a varied task condition, the same task was interspersed with a variety of other tasks from the children's clinic curricula. Results showed declining trends in correct responding during the constant task condition, with substantially improved and stable responding during the varied task condition. In addition, naive observers judged the children to be more enthusiastic, interested, happier, and better behaved during the varied task sessions. These results suggest that “boredom” may be a particularly important variable to control in the treatment of autistic children, and that particular care may be necessary when defining criteria for task acquisition. The results are discussed in relation to the literature on increased responsivity to stimulus novelty and variation.
EFFECTS OF TRAINING STUDENTS TO IDENTIFY THE SEMANTIC BASE OF PROSE MATERIALS
Authors: Glover John A. , Zimmer John W. , Filbeck Robert W. , Plake Barbara S.
Published: March 2006

Feedback and feedback plus points toward a course grade were applied to the attentional behaviors (defined as the ability to identify the semantic base of text passages) of 30 undergraduate students participating in a reading comprehension development program. Correct underlining was increased, extraneous underlining was decreased, and post‐reading comprehension test scores improved as a result of the procedures. Scores on a standardized test of reading comprehension also increased significantly.
OUTCOME EVALUATION OF BEHAVIORAL PARENT TRAINING AND CLIENT‐CENTERED PARENT COUNSELING FOR CHILDREN WITH CONDUCT PROBLEMS1
Authors: Bernal Martha E. , Klinnert Mary D. , Schultz Leola A.
Published: March 2006

The central question addressed was, how effective is parent training in reducing conduct problems in children in comparison to client‐centered parent counseling? A secondary question was the relative effectiveness of the two treatment groups in comparison to a wait control group that when untreated during the 8‐week period of treatment provided the other groups. Families of 36, 5‐ to 12‐year‐old conduct problem children were screened and assigned at random to treatment groups, but wait control group assignment depended upon therapist availability. Supervised graduate student therapists conducted 10 treatment sessions for each family. Parent reports and paper and pencil tests of child deviance and parent satisfaction showed a superior outcome for behavioral over the client‐centered and wait control groups, and no differences between the latter two groups. At follow‐up there was no maintenance of this superiority. Home observation data showed no advantage of behavioral over client‐centered treatment, and these two groups did not improve significantly more than the wait control group. These results were discussed in the light of possible interactions between treatment and measurement, and methodological and sampling differences between this and other studies.
THE USE OF CONTINGENT‐INTERRUPTED MUSIC IN THE TREATMENT OF DISRUPTIVE BUS‐RIDING BEHAVIOR
Authors: Barmann Barry C. , Croyle‐Barmann Carol , McLain Bill
Published: March 2006

The present study evaluated the efficacy of using contingent‐interrupted music in treating the disruptive bus‐riding behavior of an 8‐year‐old profoundly retarded female. Music was played during each bus ride as long as the subject was sitting appropriately, and interrupted contingent upon each response defined as disruptive bus riding, during an ABCDCDCDA design. A significant reduction in disruptive bus riding occurred with each introduction of contingent‐interrupted music. The treatment procedure described in this report was easy to administer, produced rapid treatment gains, and showed virtually no regression during an 8‐week follow‐up period.
INTERTRIAL INTERVAL DURATION AND LEARNING IN AUTISTIC CHILDREN
Authors: Koegel Robert L. , Dunlap Glen , Dyer Kathleen
Published: March 2006

This study investigated the influence of intertrial interval duration on the performance of autistic children during teaching situations. The children were taught under the same conditions existing in their regular programs, except that the length of time between trials was systematically manipulated. With both multiple baseline and repeated reversal designs, two lengths of intertrial interval were employed: short intervals with the SD for any given trial presented approximately one second following the reinforcer for the previous trial versus long intervals with the SD presented four or more seconds following the reinforcer for the previous trial. The results showed that: (1) the short intertrial intervals always produced higher levels of correct responding than the long intervals; and (2) there were improving trends in performance and rapid acquisition with the short intertrial intervals, in contrast to minimal or no change with the long intervals. The results are discussed in terms of utilizing information about child and task characteristics in terms of selecting optimal intervals. The data suggest that manipulations made between trials have a large influence on autistic children's learning.