bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Protective amorphous carbon coatings on glass substrates
Authors: Silins Kaspars , Baránková Hana , Bardos Ladislav
Published: November 2017

Thick amorphous carbon films were deposited by the Magnets-in-Motion (M-M) rf linear hollow cathode at varying acetylene contents in Ar in a hybrid PVD/PE-CVD process directly on glass substrates. The hollow cathode plates manufactured from graphite were used as the PVD target. The measurements show that the films can reach thickness of up to 50 μm at deposition rates of up to 2.5 μm/min. Scratch test measurements confirm that well adhering films several μm thick can be achieved at C2H2 contents of up to 0.5%.
Thermal resistances of crystalline and amorphous few-layer oxide thin films
Authors: Chen Liang , Kumari Niru , Hou Yu
Published: November 2017

Thermal insulation at nanoscale is of crucial importance for non-volatile memory devices such as phase change memory and memristors. We perform non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations to study the effects of interface materials and structures on thermal transport across the few-layer dielectric nanostructures. The thermal resistance across few-layer nanostructures and thermal boundary resistance at interfaces consisting of SiO2/HfO2, SiO2/ZrO2 or SiO2/Al2O3 are obtained for both the crystalline and amorphous structures. Based on the comparison temperature profiles and phonon density of states, we show that the thermal boundary resistances are much larger in crystalline few-layer oxides than the amorphous ones due to the mismatch of phonon density of state between distinct oxide layers. Compared with the bulk SiO2, the increase of thermal resistance across crystalline few-layer oxides results from the thermal boundary resistance while the increase of thermal resistance across amorphous few-layer oxides is attributed to the lower thermal conductivity of the amorphous thin films.
The influence of additives in the stoichiometry of hybrid lead halide perovskites
Authors: Burgués-Ceballos Ignasi , Savva Achilleas , Georgiou Efthymios , Kapnisis Konstantinos , Papagiorgis Paris , Mousikou Androniki , Itskos Grigorios , Othonos Andreas , Choulis Stelios A.
Published: November 2017

We investigate the employment of carefully selected solvent additives in the processing of a commercial perovskite precursor ink and analyze their impact on the performance of organometal trihalide perovskite (CH3NH3PbI3−xClx) photovoltaic devices. We provide evidence that the use of benzaldehyde can be used as an effective method to preserve the stoichiometry of the perovskite precursors in solution. Benzaldehyde based additive engineering shows to improve perovskite solid state film morphology and device performance of CH3NH3PbI3−xClx based solar cells.
Rigid separation may play a key role in discontinuous shear thickening
Authors: Hendricks-Sturrup Rachele
Published: November 2017

A new contact model closely explores shear thickening phenomena in viscous suspensions, revealing rigidity to be important in curious discontinuous behavior.
New free-exchange model of EmrE transport
Authors: Robinson Anne E. , Thomas Nathan E. , Morrison Emma A. , Balthazor Bryan M. , Henzler-Wildman Katherine A.
Published: November 2017

Significance

EmrE facilitates
Escherichia coli
multidrug resistance by coupling drug efflux to proton import. This antiport mechanism has been thought to occur via a pure-exchange model, which achieves coupled antiport by restricting when the single binding pocket can alternate access between opposite sides of the membrane. We test this model using NMR titrations and transport assays and find it cannot account for EmrE antiport activity. We propose a new free-exchange model of antiport with fewer restrictions that better accounts for the highly promiscuous nature of EmrE drug efflux. This model expands our understanding of proton-coupled transport and has implications for both transporter design and drug development.
Incremental heating of Bishop Tuff sanidine reveals preeruptive radiogenic Ar and rapid remobilization from cold storage
Authors: Andersen Nathan L. , Jicha Brian R. , Singer Brad S. , Hildreth Wes
Published: November 2017

Significance

Recent improvements in analytical and microsampling techniques for multiple geochronometers have resulted in datasets with unprecedented temporal and spatial resolution. These advances are accompanied by the discovery of crystal- and outcrop-scale complexities previously obscured by low analytical precision. Single-crystal incremental heating resolves subtle, intracrystal isotopic heterogeneity, allowing for more-accurate40Ar/39Ar eruption ages. The eruption ages of widespread volcanic ash deposits are critical for calibrating the geologic timescale, and thus their accuracy has substantial implications for the geologic, biologic, and global climate records. Complex distribution of40Ar/39Ar dates in the deposits of supervolcanic eruptions requires rethinking the magmatic processes and their effect on the40Ar/39Ar system, specifically the extent of cooling and remobilization during the decades to centuries preceding these events.
Subplate neurons are the first cortical neurons to respond to sensory stimuli
Authors: Wess Jessica M. , Isaiah Amal , Watkins Paul V. , Kanold Patrick O.
Published: November 2017

Significance

Sensory experience, even at prenatal periods, can shape brain connectivity. Thus, the emergence of sensory responses is a key step in cortical development. Sensory cortical responses are thought to emerge in cortical layer 4, which is the adult target of thalamic projections. However, in developing animals, thalamic fibers do not target layer 4 but instead target subplate neurons in the white matter. We show that subplate neurons respond to sounds before layer 4 is activated by thalamic axons. Moreover, early local field potential (LFP) responses demonstrate nascent topographic organization. Together we find that sound-evoked cortical activity and topographic organization emerge in a different layer than thought. Since subplate circuits are disrupted in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) models, disrupted emergence of sensory activity could be utilized for diagnosis and intervention.
DSCAM-mediated control of dendritic and axonal arbor outgrowth enforces tiling and inhibits synaptic plasticity
Authors: Simmons Aaron B. , Bloomsburg Samuel J. , Sukeena Joshua M. , Miller Calvin J. , Ortega-Burgos Yohaniz , Borghuis Bart G. , Fuerst Peter G.
Published: November 2017

Significance

Adult neurons are not able to make new connections as easily as developing neurons can; however, future therapies aimed at regeneration and repair of neural circuits in the adult nervous system depend critically on the formation of such connections. Here, we studied a recently discovered cell population that has the unusual ability to make new connections into adulthood, but under normal conditions does not grow new axons or dendrites, so that no new cells are contacted. We manipulated this cell population to induce axon and dendrite outgrowth using transgenic methods and determined that this results in stable, functional connections with new cells.
BAG3 directly stabilizes Hexokinase 2 mRNA and promotes aerobic glycolysis in pancreatic cancer cells
Authors: An Ming-Xin , Li Si , Yao Han-Bing , Li Chao , Wang Jia-Mei , Sun Jia , Li Xin-Yu , Meng Xiao-Na , Wang Hua-Qin
Published: November 2017

Aerobic glycolysis, a phenomenon known historically as the Warburg effect, is one of the hallmarks of cancer cells. In this study, we characterized the role of BAG3 in aerobic glycolysis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and its molecular mechanisms. Our data show that aberrant expression of BAG3 significantly contributes to the reprogramming of glucose metabolism in PDAC cells. Mechanistically, BAG3 increased Hexokinase 2 (HK2) expression, the first key enzyme involved in glycolysis, at the posttranscriptional level. BAG3 interacted with HK2 mRNA, and the degree of BAG3 expression altered recruitment of the RNA-binding proteins Roquin and IMP3 to the HK2 mRNA. BAG3 knockdown destabilized HK2 mRNA via promotion of Roquin recruitment, whereas BAG3 overexpression stabilized HK2 mRNA via promotion of IMP3 recruitment. Collectively, our results show that BAG3 promotes reprogramming of glucose metabolism via interaction with HK2 mRNA in PDAC cells, suggesting that BAG3 may be a potential target in the aerobic glycolysis pathway for developing novel anticancer agents.
Na leak with gating pore properties in hypokalemic periodic paralysis V876E mutant muscle Ca channel
Authors: Fuster Clarisse , Perrot Jimmy , Berthier Christine , Jacquemond Vincent , Charnet Pierre , Allard Bruno
Published: November 2017

Type 1 hypokalemic periodic paralysis (HypoPP1) is a poorly understood genetic neuromuscular disease characterized by episodic attacks of paralysis associated with low blood K+. The vast majority of HypoPP1 mutations involve the replacement of an arginine by a neutral residue in one of the S4 segments of the α1 subunit of the skeletal muscle voltage-gated Ca2+ channel, which is thought to generate a pathogenic gating pore current. The V876E HypoPP1 mutation has the peculiarity of being located in the S3 segment of domain III, rather than an S4 segment, raising the question of whether such a mutation induces a gating pore current. Here we successfully transfer cDNAs encoding GFP-tagged human wild-type (WT) and V876E HypoPP1 mutant α1 subunits into mouse muscles by electroporation. The expression profile of these WT and V876E channels shows a regular striated pattern, indicative of their localization in the t-tubule membrane. In addition, L-type Ca2+ current properties are the same in V876E and WT fibers. However, in the presence of an external solution containing low-Cl− and lacking Na+ and K+, V876E fibers display an elevated leak current at negative voltages that is increased by external acidification to a higher extent in V876E fibers, suggesting that the leak current is carried by H+ ions. However, in the presence of Tyrode’s solution, the rate of change in intracellular pH produced by external acidification was not significantly different in V876E and WT fibers. Simultaneous measurement of intracellular Na+ and current in response to Na+ readmission in the external solution reveals a rate of Na+ influx associated with an inward current, which are both significantly larger in V876E fibers. These data suggest that the V876E mutation generates a gating pore current that carries strong resting Na+ inward currents in physiological conditions that are likely responsible for the severe HypoPP1 symptoms associated with this mutation.
Critical Theory: A Very Short Introduction
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: November 2017

Critical Theory: A Very Short Introduction explores the concepts and themes that distinguished critical theory from its more traditional philosophical competitors. Critical theory emerged in the 1920s from the work of the Frankfurt School, the circle of German–Jewish academics who sought to diagnose and cure the ills of society. Sketches of leading representatives of this critical tradition, such as Georg Lukács and Ernst Bloch, Theodor W. Adorno and Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas, as well as many of its seminal texts and empirical investigations, are presented. Concepts such as method and agency, alienation and reification, the culture industry and repressive tolerance, non-identity, and utopia are explained and discussed.
Introduction
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: November 2017

Interdisciplinary and uniquely experimental in character, deeply skeptical of tradition and all absolute claims, critical theory was always concerned not merely with how things were, but how they might be and should be. This ethical imperative led its primary thinkers to develop a cluster of themes and a new critical method that transformed our understanding of society. The Introduction describes some of the many sources of critical theory, including Immanuel Kant, Hegel, Karl Marx, Karl Korsch, Georg Lukács, Theodor W. Adorno, Erich Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Jürgen Habermas, and Max Horkheimer. The two ideas most commonly associated with critical theory are alienation and reification.
1. The Frankfurt School
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: November 2017

‘The Frankfurt School’ provides a brief history of the formation of the Frankfurt School, and biographies of prominent members. The Frankfurt School grew out of the Institute for Social Research, the first Marxist think tank. However, in 1930, under the directorship of Max Horkheimer, the organization moved to America to escape the Nazis, and began to concentrate on critical theory. Aside from Horkheimer, notable members of the Frankfurt School's inner circle included Erich Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Theodor W. Adorno, and Jürgen Habermas. Each member of the inner circle was different, but they all shared the same concerns, and attempted to solve them through intellectual daring and experimentation.
6. The utopian laboratory
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: November 2017

‘The utopian laboratory’ explores the notions of aesthetics and utopia. Friedrich Schiller introduced aesthetics as a utopian response to society. The Frankfurt School said that art should not depict the wrongs of society, but rather should experiment with new forms that could elicit utopia. Ernst Bloch aggregated work from all over the globe into the ‘utopian laboratory’, while Herbert Marcuse contended that the modern world of scarcity was being artificially maintained, and psychological reconfiguration could end this repression. Both these views elicited vigorous criticism from other Frankfurt School members. The dream of utopia is an enduring one, but the dream of realising it is abstract and unreachable.
8. The great refusal
Authors: Bronner Stephen Eric
Published: November 2017

‘The great refusal’ outlines the resurgence in critical theory in young intellectuals during the 1970s. Activists in the 1960s saw critical theory in Marxist terms, but the outlook of the working class had become compromised, and revolutionary consciousness could only come from outside that group. The young rebels of the seventies did not embody the utopian sensibility critical theorists spoke of, but they did evince a deep appreciation of subjectivity. The Frankfurt School was always suspicious of organized politics. Young people had lessons to learn from totalitarian movements with their propaganda apparatus and their contempt for the individual. Affirming individuality was the best response to the totally administered society.
Arup’s adhocracy and projects in theory
Authors: Davies Andrew
Published: November 2017

‘Arup’s adhocracy and projects in theory’ considers how the spread of adaptive project structures in the 1960s and 1970s encouraged management scholars to develop new ways of thinking about organizations. It begins with Ove Arup’s work on the Sydney Opera House, which established a new model of architect and engineer collaborating in project teams to innovate and solve challenging problems. It then goes on to discuss some of the theoretical insights and perspectives introduced by organizational scholars to help us think about projects as an adaptive structure in a complex, unstable, and rapidly changing environment. It explains organization theory and adhocracy, the difference between stable and flexible project teams, and the contingent dimension of projects.
Lean, heavy, and disruptive projects
Authors: Davies Andrew
Published: November 2017

‘Lean, heavy, and disruptive projects’ considers how project management was transformed in the 1980s and 1990s to manage innovation in increasingly competitive global markets. The ‘lean’ product development approach was created by Honda and Toyota to develop a wider range of products faster and with fewer errors than their Western car manufacturer counterparts. Over the past two decades, lean development has spread to many industries experiencing rapid product obsolescence and shorter product life cycles. It has also been supported by the rise in digital technology. Different project management styles for different types of projects are discussed, including those for breakthrough innovations, as well as portfolio management and project team structures.
Lightness and colour
Authors: Rogers Brian
Published: November 2017

‘Lightness and colour’ considers visual perception and attempts to identify some of the characteristics of the patterns of light reaching our eyes that might contribute to the information we need for survival. It discusses trichromatic vision in humans; the problem of metamerism; and the implications trichromacy has for the ability to describe and differentiate colours, including intensity, hue, and saturation. The pick-up of particular perceptual characteristics—the lightness and colour of the surfaces that surround us—should not be thought of as ends in themselves, but rather as a contribution to a perceptual system that has evolved to allow us to act successfully in a particular ecological niche.
Perception of a 3-D world
Authors: Rogers Brian
Published: November 2017

The ability to perceive the 3-D world has often been regarded as a task that poses particular problems for the visual system. However, ‘Perception of a 3-D world’ argues that we are particularly fortunate because there are multiple sources of information to tell us about the different aspects of the 3-D structure of objects. It discusses three of these sources of information—perspective, occlusion, and shading—and then explains motion parallax, optic flow, binocular stereopsis, eye vergence and depth constancy, vertical disparities and differential perspective, and primary and secondary depth cues. The effectiveness of these different sources of 3-D information is considered along with how they are all brought together.
3. The substance of environmental law
Authors: Fisher Elizabeth
Published: November 2017

Environmental problems have a socio-political aspect, but they are also very real collective action problems that require collective responses. Law is the most legitimate and stable medium through which to foster and maintain collective responses to environmental problems. Environmental law has thus developed at all levels of government. It is a dense thicket of legislation, treaties, policies, regulatory strategies, and case law shaped by the complexities of many different environmental problems. ‘The substance of environmental law’ considers the diversity, material, and legal categorization of environmental law and the pursuit of stability. Environmental law is a complex field of legal practice embedded in a legal order that responds to the complexity of environmental problems.
4. The history of environmental law
Authors: Fisher Elizabeth
Published: November 2017

‘The history of environmental law’ explains that environmental problems have been inherent in civilization since the beginning and have needed collective management. It tracks environmental issues and how societies managed them from ancient Rome to the Middle Ages, and then through to industrialization. The increasing international dimension of environmental problems is discussed, as well as the emerging environmentalism of the 1960s. The 1970s saw regional and international agreements signed in relation to a range of pollution and nature conservation issues, but there was disenchantment by the 2000s when environmental laws began to be seen as a threat to economic growth. Finally, the ultimate tragedy of the commons—climate change—is discussed.
7. Power and accountability in environmental law
Authors: Fisher Elizabeth
Published: November 2017

Nation states dominate environmental law because of the need for a comprehensive exercise of authority in response to a collective action problem within any particular jurisdiction. ‘Power and accountability in environmental law’ explains that what makes the exercise of state power legitimate is that it is employed in accordance with established principles of good government—principles nearly always embodied in law. However, behind many environmental debates and disagreements are disagreements about the power of the state. The different administrative institutions of environmental law are described as well as how scientific expertise is fundamental to environmental law. The judicial review process is also outlined.
10. Lessons
Authors: Fisher Elizabeth
Published: November 2017

We live in precarious times. The environmental problems of the Anthropocene are products of our interconnectedness. ‘Lessons’ explains that it is important to understand what environmental law is, despite its complexity. Why does environmental law exist and what can it do? This VSI provides three lessons. First, environmental law is necessary. Second, environmental law is not a set of magic wands for the troubles of environmental problems. It is a vast field of practice concerned with the legitimate management of environmental problems and the resolution of disputes that arise in relation to those problems. Third, there is a need for legal imagination to help existing legal structures evolve to address environmental issues.
2. The human brain
Authors: Blackmore Susan
Published: November 2017

‘The human brain’ considers the brain as a vast network of connections from which come our extraordinary abilities: perception, learning, memory, reasoning, language, and somehow or another—consciousness. Different areas deal with vision, hearing, speech, body image, motor control, and forward planning. They are all linked, but this is not done through one central processor, but by millions of criss-crossing connections. By contrast, human consciousness seems to be unified. A successful science of consciousness must therefore explain the contents of consciousness, the continuity of consciousness, and the self who is conscious. Research linking consciousness to brain function is discussed along with conditions such as synaesthesia, blindsight, stroke damage, and amnesia.
3. Time and space
Authors: Blackmore Susan
Published: November 2017

‘Time and space’ discusses a range of experiments and theories of consciousness including neuroscientist Benjamin Libet’s ‘half second lag’ and the ‘cutaneous rabbit’ illusion, dualism, ‘higher-order thought’, varieties of global workspace theory (GWT; proposed by psychologist Bernard Baars in the 1980s), and Daniel Dennett’s ‘multiple drafts theory’. GWTs have been popular and influential, but can be interpreted in different ways: items ‘become conscious’ by virtue of being broadcast, and a previously unconscious item becomes a subjective experience; or nothing changes and the broadcast is all there is. There is obviously something we call ‘consciousness’ that demands explanation. But is it really the unified stream of experiences we think it is?
4. A grand illusion
Authors: Blackmore Susan
Published: November 2017

Is consciousness an illusion? If so, it isn’t that consciousness doesn’t exist, but that it isn’t what it seems. ‘A grand illusion’ considers change and inattentional blindness, challenging the way we think about our visual experiences. Traditional vision theories, with their detailed inner representations, cannot explain how or why those representations become conscious experiences or why we seem to be someone looking at those representations. Sensorimotor theory, proposed by psychologist Kevin O’Regan and philosopher Alva Noë, suggests vision means mastering sensorimotor contingencies. It turns the problem upside down, making the viewer into an actor and the visions into actions. This theory must now explain how actions can be subjective experiences.
5. The self
Authors: Blackmore Susan
Published: November 2017

Who—or what—am I? ‘The self’ shows that this question is intimately bound up with the problem of consciousness because whenever there are conscious experiences it is easy to assume they must be happening to someone; that there cannot be experiences without an experiencer. Philosopher Derek Parfit distinguishes between ego theories and bundle theories to try to sort out some of the confusion. Buddhism is the only major religion to reject the idea of a persisting self and therefore subscribe to bundle theory. The concepts of hypnosis, dissociation, and the default mode network are also discussed along with the theories of William James, Ramachandran, and Daniel Dennett.
7. Altered states of consciousness
Authors: Blackmore Susan
Published: November 2017

‘Altered states of consciousness’ discusses the states of consciousness during sleep, dreaming, hallucinations, out-of-body experiences, near-death experiences, meditation, and after taking psychoactive drugs. Psychologist Charles Tart defines an altered state of consciousness (ASC) as ‘a qualitative alteration in the overall pattern of mental functioning, such that the experiencer feels his consciousness is radically different from the way it functions ordinarily’. This certainly captures the idea of ASCs, but also creates problems, such as knowing what a ‘normal’ state is. In both mystical experiences and long-term meditation, people describe seeing through the illusions of duality and seeing the world as it truly is.
Logic: A Very Short Introduction
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: November 2017

Logic is often perceived as having little to do with the rest of philosophy, and even less to do with real life. Logic: A Very Short Introduction shows how wrong this conception is. It explores the philosophical roots of the subject, explaining how modern formal logic deals with issues ranging from the existence of God and the reality of time to paradoxes of probability and decision theory. Along the way, the basics of formal logic are explained in simple, non-technical terms, showing that logic is a powerful and exciting part of modern philosophy. It also covers the subjects of algorithms and axioms, and proofs in mathematics.
Validity: what follows from what?
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: November 2017

To tell someone that they are not being logical is seen as a criticism. Logic is the study of what counts as a good reason for what, and why. ‘Validity: what follows from what?’ explains how logic works in terms of premisses, inferences, conclusions, and validity of premisses. A valid inference is one where the conclusion follows from the premiss or premisses. A deductively valid inference is one for which there is no situation in which all the premisses are true, but the conclusion is not. How do we recognize inferences as valid or invalid? Is there some special insight contained within us or is it hard-wired into us through evolution?
Decision theory: great expectations
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: November 2017

Pascal’s Wager is about choosing whether to believe in God or not. The argument concludes that the only logical course of action is to believe in God (if you don’t and God does exist then you are going to suffer after death). ‘Decision theory: great expectations’ is concerned with the topic of inductive (or practical) reasoning: about how one should act. Pascal’s Wager collapses if we consider the possibility of many gods, or a different God to the one we are to ‘believe’ in. The best course of action isn’t necessarily to decide according to the greatest expectation. There are situations where this definitely seems to give the wrong results.
Complex analyses of inverted repeats in mitochondrial genomes revealed their importance and variability
Authors: Čechová Jana , Lýsek Jiří , Bartas Martin , Brázda Václav
Published: November 2017

Motivation

The NCBI database contains mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genomes from numerous species. We investigated the presence and locations of inverted repeat sequences (IRs) in these mtDNA sequences, which are known to be important for regulating nuclear genomes.

Results

IRs were identified in mtDNA in all species. IR lengths and frequencies correlate with evolutionary age and the greatest variability was detected in subgroups of plants and fungi and the lowest variability in mammals. IR presence is non-random and evolutionary favoured. The frequency of IRs generally decreased with IR length, but not for IRs 24 or 30 bp long, which are 1.5 times more abundant. IRs are enriched in sequences from the replication origin, followed by D-loop, stem-loop and miscellaneous sequences, pointing to the importance of IRs in regulatory regions of mitochondrial DNA.

Availability and implementation

Data were produced using Palindrome analyser, freely available on the web at http://bioinformatics.ibp.cz.

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Indigenous Constitutionalism
Authors: Borrows John
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines aspects of Canada’s constitution related to its Indigenous roots. It explores the different ways in which Indigenous peoples in Canada possessed constitutional structures prior to European arrival. Indigenous constitutionalism has provided standards through which Indigenous societies have resisted or engaged with the broader Canadian state. Traditions of Indigenous constitutionalism are varied and diverse because they developed in diverse ecological spaces over vast epochs of time. This vast range of Indigenous constitutional practices has contributed to Canada’s broader constitutional order in many ways. Inuit, Métis, Mikmaq, Haudenosaunee, Anishinaabe, Cree, Secwepmec, and Gitksan constitutional traditions are reviewed to illustrate these themes.
Constitutional Debates in French Canada, 1764–1774
Authors: Morin Michel
Published: November 2017

After 1760, constitutional debates occurred in French Canada on issues ranging from the contestation of royal authority to the consolidation of constitutional rights or colonial autonomy. In this regard, our main source of information is the bilingual Quebec Gazette, which reported on legal developments in France, England, and the American colonies. Contrary to what is generally assumed, these discussions predated the American Revolution. The Chapter also examines the assimilation of British constitutional principles by the educated members of the Francophone elite. Many of them were eager to obtain an Assembly in which Catholics could sit. They believed that the Capitulation of 1760 protected property and seigneurial rights, as well as inheritance and matrimonial laws. In the end, the request for an Assembly was shelved in order to obtain religious equality. Meanwhile, British officials declared that Canadians had no appetite for an Assembly, creating a lasting and misleading impression.
The Section 35 Duty to Consult
Authors: Newman Dwight
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the duty to consult doctrine, which is a particularly significant doctrine under Canada’s section 35 Aboriginal rights clause that is triggered hundreds of thousands of times a year. Since a series of cases in 2004, this doctrine has taken a particular proactive form in which the honour of the Crown leads to government duties of consultation when government decisions potentially impact on Aboriginal or treaty rights. This chapter explains the purposes and origins of this duty, considers its relationship to developing international norms on consultation and FPIC (free, prior, and informed consent), and considers a number of controversies that have emerged on the scope of its application. The chapter also examines the complex relationships of the duty to consult to administrative law contexts before turning to some final comments on potential future directions for the duty.
Métis Constitutional Law Issues
Authors: Chartrand Larry
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a review of some of the leading cases on Métis rights and jurisdiction. In terms of rights, the chapter reviews the Powley decision, critiques its determination of Métis identity, and contrasts this with the Métis right to self-determination and membership determination of Métis communities. This chapter also examines the recent Daniels case and the implications of finding that Métis are “Indians” for the purposes of section 91(24) of the Constitution, which is said to allocate power to legislate over Indians to the federal Parliament. The chapter questions this understanding and in particular the plenary nature of section 91(24) as a head of power and argues that it should be understood differently from all the other heads of power allocated between provincial and federal authority under sections 91 and 92 of the Constitution. This chapter also critically examines the definition of Métis adopted by the Supreme Court of Canada in Daniels as overly broad, resulting in problems of Métis identity legitimation and the preference for a race-based definition of Métis Indians as opposed to a political community definition of Métis.
Interpreting theCharter
Authors: Harrington Joanna
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the judicial approach to the interpretation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Attention is paid to the general interpretive techniques developed by the courts to determine both the content of Charter rights and their limitations, while also considering the judicial use of internal and external interpretive aids, including both foreign and international law, such as the European Convention on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It is also argued that the national context plays an important role, with the interpretive role of the court ultimately to be guided by a sense of balance in protecting rights and recognizing their limitations.
The Right to Protest, Freedom of Expression, and Freedom of Association
Authors: Cameron Jamie , Des Rosiers Nathalie
Published: November 2017

Freedom of expression and freedom of association are guaranteed by section 2 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. These freedoms are closely related, conceptually and philosophically, but evolved in different directions under the Charter. Whereas section 2(b)’s guarantee of expressive freedom generated a rich jurisprudence across diverse issues, section 2(d)’s attention focused on associational freedom in the context of labour union activities. The authors draw on a pocket of section 2(b) case law on picketing and other labour-related expressive activities to bring these guarantees into comparison. In doing so, they comment on the Supreme Court of Canada’s interpretation of each guarantee, including the constitutionalization of key aspects of labour relations under section 2(d). In addition, the authors critique the Court’s jurisprudence, emphasizing the central importance of protecting protest and dissent activities under both guarantees.
International Organizations in World Politics
Authors: Pevehouse Jon C. W. , Borzyskowski Inken von
Published: November 2017

This chapter gives a broad overview of international organizations (IOs) in world politics, highlighting some important research areas, while suggesting future avenues for progress. It follows the logical progression of the life cycle of a state's interaction with an IO: what explains the decision to form IOs; what form do the IOs take once a decision is made to create one; which issues are taken to IOs/which IOs are joined if they already exist; how do they operate; and do they achieve their stated goals. This life-cycle approach to IOs helps elucidate many of the puzzles concerning IOs, while suggesting how the answers to the puzzles potentially interact with one another.
International Organizations, 1945–Present
Authors: Chimni B. S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter primarily focuses on histories of post 1945 international organizations (IOs) told from different theoretical perspectives by political scientists and legal scholars. It is organized as follows. Section I discusses the mainstream history of IOs as told by liberal and neo-liberal scholars in the form of a narrative of progress. Section II briefly narrates three alternative stories about the role of IOs in the post 1945 period: third world, Marxist, and feminist histories of IOs. These histories i.e. mainstream and critical histories need not be read as mutually exclusive histories. In many ways these capture different dimensions of the history of IOs. Section III reflects on salient issues and themes that are the subject of current debates including the emergence of a nascent world state.
Non-Proliferation and Disarmament
Authors: Sidhu Waheguru Pal Singh
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the nuclear non-proliferation regime. It begins by tracing the history and evolution of the formal international organizations (IOs) and treaties — notably the 1968 Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) — that provide the foundation for the nuclear regime. It then tracks the origins of informal and ad-hoc arrangements — particularly the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) and the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) — and assesses their contribution to preventing nuclear proliferation. Next, it outlines the three contemporary challenges posed to the regime by states within the regime; states outside the regime; and non-state actors. The final section examines the diverse set of responses to these contemporary challenges and the effectiveness in addressing them. The chapter concludes by identifying the trends in the evolution of IOs to prevent nuclear proliferation.
Humanitarian Action
Authors: Weiss Thomas G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by defining some key terms, including humanitarian action, humanitarianism, humanitarian space, and humanitarian intervention. It then examines the history of humanitarian action in wars through the lenses of three historical periods: the 19th century until World War I; the early 20th century through the end of the Cold War; and the last quarter-century. Next, it describes the entities that exert influence on the ground from outside a war zone: international NGOs, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the UN system, bilateral aid agencies, external military forces, for-profit firms, and the media. Operating alongside, and sometimes in opposition to, external agents in a particular war zone are local actors, which include NGOs and businesses as well as the armed belligerents. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the coordination of the various moving parts of the international humanitarian system.
International Finance
Authors: Moschella Manuela
Published: November 2017

The international financial architecture (IFA) can be viewed as a landscape crowded with different international bodies that share responsibilities for the prevention of global financial instability. These bodies include international organizations (IOs), such as the international financial institutions (IFIs) (e.g. the International Monetary Fund [IMF] and the World Bank), intergovernmental fora (e.g. the G7, G10, and G20), and transnational networks of regulators and supervisors (such as the Bank for International Settlements [BIS] and the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision [BCBS]). This chapter examines the dispersion of governance functions in the IFA. It focuses on the relationship between two key bodies — the Financial Stability Board (FSB) and the IMF — and applies the insights of the IO literature to illuminate the sources of organizational conflict between the two bodies. It argues that the problems in the FSB-IMF working relationship can be attributed to the different terms of their delegations, memberships, and organizational cultures. These factors, in turn, can be explained by the insights of the rationalist, realist, and constructivist frameworks.
Economic Relations and Integration
Authors: Schimmelfennig Frank
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with issues of regional economic integration in a comparative perspective. It is divided into two parts: a conceptual and a theoretical part. The conceptual part starts with a definition and typology of economic integration. It then presents features of institutional design that capture the institutional variation and development of regional economic integration. This conceptual apparatus has been used recently to map regional economic organizations and describe their variation and development. The theoretical part begins with economic theories of integration, which have, however, little to say about the political process of integration and the role and effects of institutions and organizations. It then moves on to political theories of economic integration, which have mainly been developed in the context of European integration: intergovernmentalism, supranationalism, and constructivism.
Development
Authors: Malone David M. , Medhora Rohinton P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter develops the hypothesis that the ‘golden age’ of international development organizations may be coming to a close, in part perhaps as victims of their own success. Even if they do not disappear, a recasting away from traditional poverty alleviation in poor countries to provision of global public goods (financial stability, climate change mitigation, and more controversially, security) is likely to accelerate. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the results of the immediate post-war period, in particular the Bretton Woods organizations, the UN system, and the regional development banks. Section 3 considers the parallel emergence of the foundations, the large NGOs with a global reach, and the more recent ancillaries to the established official organizations, such as the vertical funds and trust funds. Section 4 examines a constellation of international developmental actors, highlighting the transition that each sub-group within it is undergoing. Section 5 concludes that the prognosis for organizations caught in this transitional stage in global economic governance is uncertain. The challenge will be for the global community to craft what the 2013 Human Development Report calls ‘coherent pluralism’.
Labor
Authors: Langille Brian
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines ‘labor’ as an issue which international organizations have attempted to regulate over the last century by using legal and other techniques to construct modes and structures of governance. It begins by setting out the five reasons why the terrain of labour is especially difficult for IOs to negotiate. It then considers how these reasons both structure and complicate the competing narratives of the labour issue, in the context of the roles and actions of prominent IOs as well as significant events and debates. It is argued that the long-held narrative about international labour standards as a necessary cost to be paid in order to either to constrain markets in the name of fairness, or to avoid radical social outcomes, is today inadequate. Rather, a new, alternative account is needed: that labour law can be, and is best seen, as holding positive value for both the creation of real human freedom, just societies and economic progress.
Use of Force
Authors: Weller Marc
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by explaining how international organization has always remained firmly wedded to the aim of controlling violence or war. It goes on to discuss the establishment of the League of Nations as an organization against war, which was followed by the creation of the United Nations organization as a system of collective security. It then considers the hierarchies within the organizations in relation to the use of force. While the UN Security Council enjoys primary responsibility in relation to international peace and security, it does not enjoy exclusive responsibility. First, there is the issue of the UN's own organs in relation to this issue area. Then there is the question of organizations external to the UN. The chapter argues that the present system of international organization for the maintenance of international security remains incomplete or at times dysfunctional. This applies to the lack of comprehensive compulsory dispute settlement; the problem of representation and the veto in the Security Council; and allegations of double standards which allow some issues to be addressed, but not others.
Secretariats
Authors: Piiparinen Touko
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the traditional, ‘Weberian’ bureaucratic powers of the international secretariats of international organizations (IOs). It argues that globalization is opening up new, post-Weberian power bases for secretariats and IOs at large which were not envisaged in Weber's time. These new power bases include emerging global networks of cooperation between secretariats and other actors involved in global governance, which further reinforce the bureaucratic powers of secretariats by enabling them to exchange expertise and specialized information, best practices, and lessons learned in a flexible and swift manner. The chapter draws upon an in-depth case study of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Secretariat to illustrate the way in which secretariats exert the aforementioned Weberian and post-Weberian powers in practice.
Financing and Budgets
Authors: Katz Cogan Jacob
Published: November 2017

International organizations require funds to operate, a basic and anodyne fact that has manifold and fundamental consequences. The means by which organizations are financed and the methods by which budgets are decided shape the character of the organization, its relations with and between its member states, and its policy outcomes. Consequently, formal and informal decisions and practices concerning the design of financing mechanisms and the allocation of budgets necessarily entail constitutive choices about an organization's operation and its forms of governance. This chapter describes the means by which organizations acquire resources and the methods they use to decide on expenditures. In so doing, it also considers the implications for organizations of those chosen means and methods.
Organizational Culture
Authors: Weaver Catherine , Nelson Stephen C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that attention to organizational culture, in addition to other explanatory factors, can greatly enrich how we understand and explain the complex forms, functions, and dynamics of international organizations (IOs) in the world today. It begins by conceptualizing organizational culture in a way that is amenable to observation and analysis. It then demonstrates how and when culture matters, and how much culture matters, especially in relation to factors such as political power and material interests. Finally, it discusses problems of measurement and inference in the study of IO cultures. Not only is it important to make the case for why we must pay attention to organizational culture in the study of IOs, but we must also make a clear and persuasive case for how we study organizational culture.
Responsibility
Authors: Klein Pierre
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the regime of responsibility of international organizations (IOs). It considers issues such as the applicability of circumstances precluding wrongfulness to IOs; the interplay between the responsibility of IOs and that of their member states; and the problems raised by the implementation of responsibility when conduct of IOs is at stake. It concludes that responsibility of IOs will to a large extent remain an essentially theoretical concept as long as the scope of primary obligations incumbent upon IOs is not significantly clarified and remedies open to individuals victims of internationally wrongful acts committed by organizations are not established.
International Administrative Tribunals
Authors: Villalpando Santiago
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on international administrative tribunals, which are part of the internal systems of administration of justice put into place by international organizations (IOs) to settle employment disputes. Without them, staff members would have no other recourse. IOs are generally granted immunity from municipal jurisdiction, thus their employees are, in principle, unable to turn to national tribunals. The chapter begins by tracing the evolution of internal justice systems in IOs. It then discusses the institutional components of administrative tribunals. These components vary, depending on the needs of each organization and the choices made at the time of their creation. They have, however, a number of common features.