bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Race-specific validation of food intake obtained from a comprehensive FFQ: the Adventist Health Study-2
Authors: Jaceldo-Siegl Karen , Fan Jing , Sabaté Joan , Knutsen Synnove F , Haddad Ella , Beeson W Lawrence , Herring R Patti , Butler Terrence L , Bennett Hannelore , Fraser Gary E
Published: May 2011

Objective

To assess race-specific validity of food and food group intakes measured using an FFQ.

Design

Calibration study participants were randomly selected from the Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2) cohort by church, and then by subject-within-church. Intakes of forty-seven foods and food groups were assessed using an FFQ and then compared with intake estimates measured using six 24 h dietary recalls (24HDR). We used two approaches to assess the validity of the questionnaire: (i) cross-classification by quartile and (ii) de-attenuated correlation coefficients.

Setting

Seventh-day Adventist church members geographically spread throughout the USA and Canada.

Subjects

Members of the AHS-2 calibration study (550 whites and 461 blacks).

Results

The proportion of participants with exact quartile agreement in the FFQ and 24HDR averaged 46 % (range: 29–87 %) in whites and 44 % (range: 25–88 %) in blacks. The proportion of quartile gross misclassification ranged from 1 % to 11 % in whites and from 1 % to 15 % in blacks. De-attenuated validity correlations averaged 0·59 in whites and 0·48 in blacks. Of the forty-seven foods and food groups, forty-three in whites and thirty-three in blacks had validity correlations >0·4.

Conclusions

The AHS-2 questionnaire has good validity for most foods in both races; however, validity correlations tend to be higher in whites than in blacks.
Multiple widespread landslides during the long‐term evolution of a volcanic island: Insights from high‐resolution seismic data, Montserrat, Lesser Antilles
Authors: Lebas E. , Le Friant A. , Boudon G. , Watt S. F. L. , Talling P. J. , Feuillet N. , Deplus C. , Berndt C. , Vardy M. E.
Published: May 2011

New high‐resolution multichannel seismic data (GWADASEIS‐2009 and JC45/46‐2010 cruises; 72 and 60 channels, respectively) combined with previous data (AGUADOMAR‐1999 and CARAVAL‐2002; 6 and 24 channels, respectively) allow a detailed investigation of mass‐wasting processes around the volcanic island of Montserrat in the Lesser Antilles. Seven submarine deposits have sources on the flanks of Montserrat, while three are related to the nearby Kahouanne submarine volcanoes. The most voluminous deposit (∼20 km3) within the Bouillante‐Montserrat half‐graben has not been described previously and is probably related to a flank instability of the Centre Hills Volcano on Montserrat, while other events are related to the younger South Soufrière Hills‐Soufrière Hills volcanic complex. All deposits are located to the south or southeast of the island in an area delimited by faults of the Bouillante‐Montserrat half‐graben. They cover a large part of the southeast quarter of the surrounding seafloor (∼520 km2), with a total volume of ∼40 km3. Our observations suggest that the Bouillante‐Montserrat half‐graben exerts a control on the extent and propagation of the most voluminous deposits. We propose an interpretation for mass‐wasting processes around Montserrat similar to what has happened for the southern islands of the Lesser Antilles.
Space‐time dynamics of depositional systems: Experimental evidence and theoretical modeling of heavy‐tailed statistics
Authors: Ganti Vamsi , Straub Kyle M. , Foufoula‐Georgiou Efi , Paola Chris
Published: May 2011

In depositional systems, channels migrate from one location to another, causing erosion and deposition at any given point in the domain. The durations of depositional and erosional events, as well as their magnitudes, control the structure of the stratigraphic record. In this study, we use high‐resolution temporal surface elevation data from a controlled experiment to quantify the probability distributions of the processes that govern the evolution of depositional deltaic systems. Heavy‐tailed statistics of erosional and depositional events are documented, indicating that a small but significant chance exists for the occurrence of extreme events. We show that the periods of inactivity, when neither deposition nor erosion occurs, follow a truncated Pareto distribution whose truncation scale is set by the mean characteristic avulsion time scale in the system. Further, we show that the heavy tails in the magnitudes of the erosional and depositional events are not preserved in the stratigraphic record, resulting instead in an exponential distribution for the bed sediment thickness. It is also shown that the temporal evolution of surface elevation exhibits self‐similarity with a nonlinear spectrum of scaling exponents (multifractality) quantifying the complex dynamics of the system. Finally, we show how the results of this study can lead to improved diffusional models for surface evolution using the tools of fractional calculus.
Monthly and seasonal streamflow forecasts using rainfall‐runoff modeling and historical weather data
Authors: Wang Enli , Zhang Yongqiang , Luo Jiangmei , Chiew Francis H. S. , Wang Q. J.
Published: May 2011

Well‐validated rainfall‐runoff models are able to capture the relationships between rainfall and streamflow and to reliably estimate initial catchment states. While future streamflows are mainly dependent on initial catchment states and future rainfall, use of the rainfall‐runoff models together with estimated future rainfall can produce skilful forecasts of future streamflows. This is the basis for the ensemble streamflow prediction system, but this approach has not been explored in Australia. In this paper, two conceptual rainfall‐runoff models, together with rainfall ensembles or analogues based on historical rainfall and the Southern Oscillation index (SOI), were used to forecast streamflows at monthly and 3‐monthly scales at two catchments in east Australia. The results showed that both models forecast monthly streamflow well when forecasts for all months were evaluated together, but their performance varied significantly from month to month. Best forecasting skills were obtained (both monthly and 3 monthly) when the models were coupled with ensemble forcings on the basis of long‐term historical rainfall. SOI‐based resampling of forcings from historical data led to improved forecasting skills only in the period from September to December at the catchment in Queensland. For 3 month streamflow forecasts, best skills were in the period from April to June at the catchment in Queensland and in the period from October to January for the catchment in New South Wales, both of which were the periods after the rainy season. The forecasting skills are indicatively comparable to the statistical forecasting skills using a Bayesian joint probability approach. The potential approaches for improved hydrologic modeling through conditional parameterization and for improved forecasting skills through advanced model updating and bias corrections are also discussed.
Aerosol nucleation induced by a high energy particle beam
Authors: Enghoff Martin B. , Pedersen Jens Olaf Pepke , Uggerhøj Ulrik I. , Paling Sean M. , Svensmark Henrik
Published: May 2011

We have studied sulfuric acid aerosol nucleation in an atmospheric pressure reaction chamber using a 580 MeV electron beam to ionize the volume of the reaction chamber. We find a clear contribution from ion‐induced nucleation and consider this to be the first unambiguous observation of the ion‐effect on aerosol nucleation using a particle beam under conditions that resemble the Earth's atmosphere. By comparison with ionization using a gamma source we further show that the nature of the ionizing particles is not important for the ion‐induced component of the nucleation. This implies that inexpensive ionization sources ‐ as opposed to expensive accelerator beams ‐ can be used for investigations of ion‐induced nucleation.
Vascular plasticity in cerebrovascular disorders
Authors: Edvinsson Lars IH , Povlsen Gro Klitgaard
Published: May 2011

Cerebral ischemia remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality with little advancement in subacute treatment options. This review aims to cover and discuss novel insight obtained during the last decade into plastic changes in the vasoconstrictor receptor profiles of cerebral arteries and microvessels that takes place after different types of stroke. Receptors like the endothelin type B, angiotensin type 1, and 5-hydroxytryptamine type 1B/1D receptors are upregulated in the smooth muscle layer of cerebral arteries after different types of ischemic stroke as well as after subarachnoid hemorrhage, yielding rather dramatic changes in the contractility of the vessels. Some of the signal transduction processes mediating this receptor upregulation have been elucidated. In particular the extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 pathway, which is activated early in the process, has proven to be a promising therapeutic target for prevention of vasoconstrictor receptor upregulation after stroke. Together, those findings provide new perspectives on the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke and point toward a novel way of reducing vasoconstriction, neuronal cell death, and thus neurologic deficits after stroke.
Influence of opposition team formation on physical and skill‐related performance in a professional soccer team
Authors: Carling Christopher
Published: May 2011

This study examined the influence of opposition team formation on physical and skill‐related performance in a professional soccer team. Performance in 45 French League 1 matches played over three competitive seasons (2007–2008, 2008–2009, and 2009–2010) was analysed using multi‐camera computerized tracking. Players (n=21) in the reference team (using a 4‐3‐3/4‐5‐1 formation) were analysed in matches against three opposition team formations: 4‐4‐2 (11 games), 4‐3‐3/4‐5‐1 (16 games), and 4‐2‐3‐1 (18 games). Performance was compared for defending and midfield units as a whole and individually across four positions: full backs, central defenders, central midfielders, and wide midfielders. Collectively, players covered a greater total distance (P<0.05) and distance in low‐ to moderate‐intensity running (0–14.3 km · h−1) (P<0.05) in matches against a 4‐2‐3‐1 compared with a 4‐4‐2 formation. Distance covered in high‐intensity (14.4–19.7 km · h−1) and very high‐intensity running (≥19.8 km · h−1) was not affected by opposition formation. In contrast, players covered more distance in total high‐intensity performance (≥14.4 km · h−1) when the reference team was in possession against a 4‐4‐2 compared with a 4‐2‐3‐1 formation (P<0.05), while a greater distance was run at these speeds when the reference team was not in possession against a 4‐2‐3‐1 (P<0.01) and a 4‐3‐3 (P<0.05) compared with a 4‐4‐2 formation. Players ran less distance at low‐to‐moderate intensities in the second‐ versus first‐half of matches against all three formations (P<0.01 to P<0.05), whereas total distance and high‐intensity performance were unaffected. None of the measures of physical performance across the individual playing positions were affected by opposition team formation. Skill‐related performance varied according to opposition formation: players as a whole performed more passes versus a 4‐4‐2 than a 4‐2‐3‐1 formation (P<0.01); ground and aerial duels versus a 4‐2‐3‐1 compared with a 4‐4‐2 formation (both P<0.01); one‐touch passes versus a 4‐2‐3‐1 compared with a 4‐4‐2 formation (P<0.01) and a 4‐3‐3/4‐5‐1 formation (P<0.05). The mean number of touches per possession was highest versus a 4‐4‐2 compared with a 4‐3‐3/4‐5‐1 (P<0.01) and a 4‐2‐3‐1 formation (P<0.01). While skill‐related performance across the four individual playing positions was generally unaffected by opposition team formation, mean pass length was greater for central midfielders against a 4‐4‐2 compared with a 4‐3‐3/4‐5‐1 (P<0.05) and a 4‐2‐3‐1 formation (P<0.01). In general, the findings suggest that physical performance in the reference team was not greatly affected by opposition team formation. In contrast, skill‐related demands varied substantially according to opponent formation and may have consequences for tactical and technical preparation and team selection policies.
Demonstration of 300 kA CHI-startup current, coupling to transformer drive and flux savings on NSTX
Authors: Nelson B.A. , Jarboe T.R. , Mueller D. , Raman R. , Bell M. , Menard J. , Ono M. , Roquemore A.L. , Soukhanovskii V. , Yuh H.
Published: May 2011

Discharges formed by transient coaxial helicity injection (CHI) in the National Spherical Torus Experiment (NSTX) have attained peak currents of 300 kA for the first time. CHI-started discharges are coupled to induction, and ramped up to over 1 MA. Up to an additional 400 kA of toroidal current is produced, compared with discharges with the same inductive drive without CHI. These CHI-inductively coupled discharges demonstrate flux savings over standard NSTX inductive-only discharges, requiring significantly less transformer flux to reach 1 MA of toroidal current, as well as exhibiting higher elongation and lower internal inductance. These results indicate the potential for substantial current generation capability by CHI in NSTX and in future toroidal devices.
Calculated neutron emission spectrum with knock-on effects for RF heated (3He)D plasmas
Authors: Nocente M. , Gorini G. , Källne J. , Tardocchi M.
Published: May 2011

The neutron emission from (3He)D plasmas with RF heating is calculated using a model that includes supra-thermal (knock-on) components of the deuteron population. The RF generation of fast 3He ions is described and the knock-on components were determined with the help of newly derived 3He + d scattering cross sections. Results are presented on the neutron emission spectrum and its contributions from different deuteron velocity components. It is shown that knock-on leaves an observable feature in the spectrum with a clear dependence on absorbed RF power. The importance of the nuclear interaction in the elastic cross section is demonstrated. The results represent a step forward in the use of neutron emission spectroscopy to diagnose fusion plasmas with minority supra-thermal components in their fuel ion composition.
Young measures as probability distributions of Loeb spaces
Authors: Li Bang-He , Li Tian-Hong
Published: May 2011

First we give a simple proof for a folklore result, which we call the Fundamental Theorem of Young Measures in a general framework. In the second part, we deal with the explicit representation of Young measures on Euclidean spaces. Young measure is an abstract concept in the sense that when it is described, it needs all continuous functions

ϕ
(
y
)

\phi (y)

and all

L
1

L^1

functions

f
(
x
)

f(x)

in the realm of standard analysis. However, we found that in the framework of nonstandard analysis, Young measures at almost all points are proved to be probability distributions for some random variables on some Loeb spaces defined in the monads of those points. This means that we can describe this Young measure without using

f
(
x
)

f(x)

and

ϕ
(
y
)

\phi (y)

. This also leads to the concrete computation of Young measures.
The C*-algebra of a partial isometry
Authors: Brenken Berndt , Niu Zhuang
Published: May 2011

The universal C*-algebra generated by a partial isometry is a non-unital residually finite dimensional C*-algebra which is not exact. Many unitarily inequivalent partial isometries generating any given finite dimensional full matrix algebra are constructed. The

K
K

-groups of this algebra are computed, and it is shown that all projections in the algebra are equivalent.
One. The Family Tree
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

This chapter covers Schuman's genealogy, the derivation of his first and middle names, and the change in spelling of his last name. The lives of his paternal great-grandparents, both sets of grandparents, and his parents are covered, with emphasis on Schuman's German Jewish ancestry. The service of Samuel Schuhmann, Bill's father, in the Spanish-American War is mentioned as well as Sam's colorful past. Schuman grew up around relatives who were committed to their professional lives and noncommittal to their religious lives, and their priorities are reflected in Schuman's later life choices. Schuman's association with Manhattan is established in this chapter.
Five. Frankie
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

Frances (Frankie) Prince is the subject of this chapter, beginning with her early life at summer camp, continuing with her own educational and musical career, and leading to her courtship with and marriage to Schuman. After the wedding, Frankie sought to continue to work outside the home, but her husband eventually asked her to be a stay-at-home wife and mother when they moved to New Rochelle, NY. Frankie responded by volunteering for causes she believed in, causes that tended to be more progressive than those of her fellow homemakers or of her husband. She was Schuman's most trusted friend and confidante, making his discovery of Frances Prince every bit as important in his life as the discovery of classical music.
Eight. “The pupil is outdoing the master”
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

Schuman studied with Roy Harris during the summers of 1936, 1937, and 1938. This chapter explores the complicated relationship between the two men. At first Schuman accepted Harris's ideas uncritically, but when his own star was in the ascendancy, Schuman began to distance himself from his former teacher. When Schuman became president of Juilliard—a post that Harris himself had sought—he continued to speak enthusiastically about Harris's work but brought less enthusiasm when talking about his mentor's demeanor. Schuman's admiration for Harris's Symphony: 1933, the Symphony for Voices, and the Piano Quintet is explored, as is their mutual love for the poetry of Walt Whitman. The title of the chapter comes from a negative music review, whose author detested the music of Harris and Schuman.
Nine. Schuman, Copland, Koussevitzky, and Bernstein
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

Though Harris was Schuman's last major teacher, it was Aaron Copland who gave Schuman the biggest boost in his career, first by helping Schuman win the prize for the Second Symphony and then by encouraging Schuman to present the work to Boston Symphony Orchestra conductor Serge Koussevitzky. Koussevitzky agreed to perform the symphony, and Schuman's host that weekend was a junior at Harvard, Leonard Bernstein. This chapter explores the early beginnings of these new and seminal relationships, with an emphasis on the close friendship Schuman developed with Copland. This chapter also looks at an aborted ballet Schuman was commissioned to write and considers the possibility that some of this music became part of the American Festival Overture.
Twenty-One. International Man of Music
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

Schuman's activities with the U.S. State Department are explored in this chapter. The national and international profile of the Juilliard School of Music had grown considerably in part because of the triumph of alumnus Van Cliburn in Moscow in 1957, the tour of the Juilliard Orchestra in 1958, and the decision (driven by Schuman) to have the school join the Metropolitan Opera and the New York Philharmonic in relocating to the Lincoln Square area. Schuman responded to this higher profile by expanding his own compositional palette, especially through his sustained interest in 12-tone music. This chapter concludes by suggesting that the growth in dissonance in the works Schuman composed in the 1960s is a direct result of his serial experiments in the late 1950s as well as his personal desire to be considered au courant.
Twenty-Two. The Dream Defined
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

This is the first of the Lincoln Center chapters. In this chapter, a short history of the Lincoln Square project is given along with the nature of the Center's first two presidents and the historical contingencies that led the Board of Directors of Lincoln Center, with John D. Rockefeller III at the helm, to make Schuman the Center's third president. Schuman came to the job with a list of ideas he hoped to see realized. This chapter examines this list and considers how successful Schuman was in realizing his dreams.
Thirty. Round and Round and Round He Goes
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

Schuman returned to the idea of a major bicentennial composition and received help from several well-connected businessmen he met during his Lincoln Center years. None of their efforts bore immediate fruit, so Schuman turned his attention to a Ford Foundation commission for a concerto for viola and orchestra. Schuman came up with the unusual idea of adding a women's chorus, and the finished work remains one of the largest and most difficult viola concertos in the repertory. Schuman also pushed his ideas for recording American music from colonial times to the present day. Those ideas, along with those of others who sharpened and shaped his proposal, resulted in the creation of New World Records. He also became the chairman of the MacDowell Colony at this time.
Thirty-Four. The Wind Was With Him
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

The chapter chronicles the white-hot collaboration Schuman had with Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Richard Wilbur on the cantata On Freedom's Ground. Their correspondence provides a fascinating window into the creative process of these two men. Schuman himself could hardly believe how quickly the work went and credited his cardiologist for his new lease on life. In many ways, the cantata is the long-delayed bicentennial composition that Schuman had longed to write. The works composed soon after the cantata, however, do not all show the same originality and sweep. By this time in his life, Schuman was stepping down from the boards of the various organizations with which he had affiliated. But he still had creative ideas he needed to get out, including one on certificates of deposit that he thought would help support the arts.
Thirty-Five. A Rare Vintage
Authors: Swayne Steve
Published: May 2011

Schuman's opera The Mighty Casey had never received a professional production until 1986, when Glimmerglass Opera in Cooperstown, NY, gave the opera the loving treatment Schuman had long wished for. The experience for opera company and composer was so positive that they both agreed that if Schuman could compose a companion piece, they would premiere the new work and couple it with The Mighty Casey. Schuman found a short story by Roald Dahl that he felt could make a good opera, so he asked Richard Wilbur to write the libretto. Wilbur declined, but Schuman discovered J. D. McClatchy, who wrote the libretto for A Question of Taste. This chapter covers the creation of this opera as well as Schuman's other works from this, his final period of composition. The chapter ends by examining three works that were left unfinished at the time of Schuman's death that, in various ways, sum up his life as a composer and administrator.
Understanding the Topography of Moral and Criminal Law Norms
Authors: Simons Kenneth W
Published: May 2011

This chapter explores the following questions. Should criminal law norms be relatively general? Or instead should criminal law norms be relatively specific? Recent codification movements tend to simplify offence definitions by limiting the number of harms or wrongs that the criminal law addresses, and also by restricting the number of mens rea categories that are employed for purposes of grading the seriousness of a crime. Does that simplification come at too great a price? At the same time, a more particularist approach increases the chance that criminal law norms will be incommensurable. Is this outcome regrettable, or instead desirable? Finally, what is at stake in the decision whether to have the legal fact-finder employ descriptive or instead explicitly evaluative criteria, as criteria either of mens rea or of actus reus? Are evaluative criteria preferable, simply because criminal law norms depend, to some extent, on moral norms? The chapter takes a non-consequentialist perspective, for the most part, and concentrates on the justification for punishing malum in se rather than malum prohibitum crimes. The focus is not on the narrower (but important) questions of how to distinguish mens rea from actus reus, or culpability from wrongfulness.
Groundwork for a Jurisprudence of Criminal Procedure
Authors: Roberts Paul
Published: May 2011

This chapter explores four rival perspectives or approaches to conceptualizing criminal procedure and evidence designated: doctrinal-conceptualist; epistemological; institutional; and normative. These four ideal-types are intended to represent core strands in contemporary common law scholarship, viewed from a British perspective. This chapter, in other words is largely an exercise in sympathetic reconstruction of existing theory and practice rather than a building from the ground up of conformity with an ideal theoretical blueprint. Any purported contrast between ‘procedure’ and ‘evidence’ is slippery at the best of times; and readers may need temporarily to suspend belief in their own jurisdiction's conceptual, disciplinary, and pedagogic taxonomies.
Structures Built from Events
Authors: Truswell Robert
Published: May 2011

This chapter gives a basic theory of the relationship of event structure to temporal structure. Two problems are discussed, the first concerning temporal modification of coordinated VPs, the second concerning the semantics of alternately as described by Lasersohn. In each case, the units operated on by Tense (intervals) must be partially independent of the events described by V. An operator, Op, is therefore defined, situated below T in the phrase structure, which converts a predicate over events into a predicate over intervals. Flexibility in the timing of application of Op derives a systematic ambiguity between single-event and multiple-event interpretations of many sentences containing multiple VPs. However, at a certain point in the tree, Op must be applied. Above this point, only multiple-event readings are possible.
Extraction from Adjuncts
Authors: Truswell Robert
Published: May 2011

The syntactic core of the book is a description of patterns of A'-extraction from three classes of adjunct in English. In rationale clauses, extraction is generally possible, provided syntactic constraints are obeyed. Among prepositional participial adjuncts, extraction possibilities are partly determined by height of attachment (adjuncts headed by since and upon attach high, and therefore categorically disallow extraction), and partly by the semantic relation among events specified by the preposition (by-clauses often allow extraction, while extraction from before- and after-clauses requires enrichment of the temporal relation specified by the preposition into a contingent relation). A complex pattern of extraction from bare present participial adjuncts depends on the aspectual class of the matrix VP, and factors related to agentivity. These latter factors require definition of event groupings, and restatement of the Single Event Condition in terms of event groupings. An appendix considers patterns of preposition-stranding in English.
Modelling Nonlinear Economic Time Series
Authors: Teräsvirta Timo , Tjøstheim Dag , Granger Clive W. J.
Published: May 2011

This book contains a up-to-date overview of nonlinear time series models and their application to modelling economic relationships. It considers nonlinear models in stationary and nonstationary frameworks, and both parametric and nonparametric models are discussed. The book contains examples of nonlinear models in economic theory and presents the most common nonlinear time series models. Importantly, it shows these models can be applied in practice. For this purpose, the building of various nonlinear models with its three stages of model building: specification, estimation, and evaluation, is discussed in detail and is illustrated by several examples involving both economic and non-economic data. Since estimation of nonlinear time series models is carried out using numerical algorithms, the book contains a chapter on estimating parametric nonlinear models and another on estimating nonparametric ones. Forecasting is a major reason for building time series models, linear or nonlinear. The book contains a discussion on forecasting with nonlinear models, both parametric and nonparametric, and considers numerical techniques necessary for computing multi-period forecasts from them. The main focus of the book is on models of the conditional mean, but models of the conditional variance, mainly those of autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity, receive attention as well. A separate chapter is devoted to state space models.
Concepts, models, and definitions
Authors: Teräsvirta Timo , Tjøstheim Dag , Granger W. J.
Published: May 2011

This chapter gives a brief overview of the basic concepts and topics used in the book. There exists a large literature on linear stationary models. The purpose of the present book is to look at nonlinear models in both a stationary and nonstationary framework. Linear techniques are contrasted with typical tools used to analyse nonlinearity, such as the conditional mean and the conditional variance, and Markov chain theory. Nonlinear parametric models are mentioned as well as nonparametric ones.
Nonparametric models
Authors: Teräsvirta Timo , Tjøstheim Dag , Granger W. J.
Published: May 2011

A difficulty of nonparametric techniques is the curse of dimensionality. One cannot estimate nonparametrically in high dimensions unless restrictions are made. The present chapter considers a selection of such more restrictive models. The techniques are intermediate between purely parametric and purely nonparametric. Prime among these models are additive models and the closely related functional coefficient models. The nonparametric structure is then typically allowed to depend on just one or two variables at a time. There is also the possibility of letting a nonparametric term depend on a linear combination of variables as in the index models or in projection pursuit. Finally, there are semiparametric models, where some of the variables are modelled parametrically, some nonparametrically.
Algorithms for estimating parametric nonlinear models
Authors: Teräsvirta Timo , Tjøstheim Dag , Granger W. J.
Published: May 2011

This chapter contains an introduction to estimating parametric nonlinear models. Estimation has to be carried out using numerical algorithms. Both algorithms not using derivatives of the function to be optimized and ones requiring them are discussed. Several algorithms of both types are presented. The expectation‐maximization algorithm used for estimating Markov switching models and state space models is considered as well.
Nonlinear impulse responses
Authors: Teräsvirta Timo , Tjøstheim Dag , Granger W. J.
Published: May 2011

This short chapter presents an important tool in interpreting estimated nonlinear models: the generalized impulse response function which is a random variable and thus has a distribution. Representing these functions, that is, estimated densities, using so‐called highest density regions is considered. Examples of their use can be found in Chapter 16.
Other Topics
Authors: Teräsvirta Timo , Tjøstheim Dag , Granger W. J.
Published: May 2011

This chapter contains a brief overview of three different topics. First, effects of aggregation of nonlinear models are considered. The second topic is modelling time‐varying seasonal variation in economic time series. Finally, there is a discussion of outliers and nonlinearity, as outliers can lead to erroneous statements about nonlinearity. Also, time series generated by nonlinear models may contain observations that look like outliers but are not.
The Political Theology of Trade Law: The Scholastic Contribution
Authors: Koskenniemi Martti
Published: May 2011

In his massive opus on legal and political theory, the Jesuit Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) addresses at great length the distinction between natural law and the jus gentium (law of nations). The latter, he suggests, is deprived of the kind of absolute necessity that characterizes the former and should rather be understood in instrumental terms. While natural law is always the same and never varies, the jus gentium contains those legal provisions that have been historically adopted so as to contribute to the fulfilment of the necessity embodied in natural law in the context of actual human communities. Among institutions of jus gentium, Suárez lists the freedom of trade. This chapter revisits the ideological ancestry of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in the Christian narrative of the power of humans over things (and thus on each other) through the worldwide application of dominium proprietatis — the right of free use and exchange of private property.
The World Trade Organization as a Club: Rethinking Reciprocity and Common Interest
Authors: Stoll Peter-Tobias
Published: May 2011

The issues of reciprocity and common interest — or community interest — mark two demarcation points in the oeuvre of Bruno Simma. Some parts of international economic law, particularly the WTO legal system, arguably have a number of characteristics that go beyond the idea of strict reciprocity and that might well reflect a legal structure, which Simma later on identified as one designed to serve a common interest. This chapter explores further the concepts and structures of WTO law in view of reciprocity and community interest. The effort may be particularly worthwhile when we take a different view on international trade law. Beyond its strange issues and cases, its historical roots can be found in Article 55 of the UN Charter and can be seen as a cornerstone of the Charter's perception of the relevance of economic and social conditions for world peace. In addition, it is a major element in securing the economic and social development of nations and peoples around the world.
Responsibility for Breaches of Communitarian Norms: an Appraisal of Article 48 of the ILC Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
Authors: Crawford James
Published: May 2011

Nowadays it seems that international law develops more rapidly than international society does, seeking to serve as a tractor rather than a trailer, reversing Cicero's scheme of society and law. But where this happens, the developments may be fragile and called into question. A good illustration of this proposition can be seen in the debate as to the existence in international law of communitarian norms entailing obligations erga omnes, a debate carried on almost entirely in the abstract, with little or no reference to earlier instances of international adjudication or State practice. The idea was reflected, in the Draft Articles on State Responsibility adopted by the International Law Commission (ILC) on first reading in 1996, in two unwieldy provisions, draft Article 19 (dealing with ‘international crimes of States’) and draft Article 40 (defining the ‘injured State’ to include, in the case of State crimes and in certain other cases, all States). On second reading, these proposals were radically changed. Draft Article 19 disappeared, being replaced by Articles 40 and 41 (dealing with consequences of serious breaches of peremptory norms). Draft Article 40 was transfigured, emerging as Articles 42 and 48 (distinguishing between the ‘injured State’ and other States entitled to invoke responsibility even though not individually injured by the breach). This chapter focuses on Article 48 and the accompanying notion of invocation of responsibility in the public interest.
An Emerging International Public Policy?
Authors: Gowlland-Debbas Vera
Published: May 2011

The concept of international public policy is undoubtedly vague, with a content to be determined by the practice of States and the international community. This chapter illustrates its emergence by pointing to the way in which human rights have gained central stage and infiltrated into such areas as international humanitarian law and collective security — but this is also evidenced by their penetration into other functional regimes such as international criminal law and even investment law. There are of course other areas such as that of the environment which have produced fundamental norms which international organizations have found difficult to ignore. Of course, this process has raised its own challenges and calls for a healthy dose of scepticism, such as awareness of the pitfalls of ‘droit de l'hommisme’ (Alain Pellet) and the ‘darker sides of virtue’ (David Kennedy). Nevertheless, the interactions between functional regimes should be examined within a new conceptual legal framework which has seen the juxtaposition of community interests alongside inter-State interests.
Implications of the World Financial Crisis: What Role for the United Nations?
Authors: von Schorlemer Sabine
Published: May 2011

The current global financial crisis, being mainly the result of speculative lending and investment in major international finance centres of the North, is affecting all countries and all people worldwide. The crisis calls for immediate policy reaction in order to stabilize financial markets and international capital flow. In order to improve economic global governance various proposals have been put forward in the United Nations (UN), the G-20, and the Bretton Woods Institutions (BWIs). Whether the current reform initiatives will achieve practical results is an open question: although proposals for reform (such as the Financing for Development Initiative and the Sovereign Debt Restructuring Mechanism) had already been made after a series of regional crises in the 1990s, no significant result has yet been reached.
The Obligation to Prevent Genocide: Towards a General Responsibility to Protect?
Authors: Zimmermann Andreas
Published: May 2011

In its judgment of 26 February 2007 in the Bosnian Genocide case, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), when dealing with the obligation to prevent genocide as contained in Article I of the Genocide Convention, limited its holding to this very treaty provision. It therefore specifically stated that its decision ‘does not, in this case, purport to establish a general jurisprudence applicable to all cases where a treaty instrument, or other binding legal norm, includes an obligation for States to prevent certain acts’. This chapter first analyzes whether there exists, apart from such treaty-specific obligations, a general obligation to prevent the occurrence of serious breaches of international law under customary international law. The second focus is on the content of the obligation to prevent genocide, as contained in the Genocide Convention, and the somewhat parallel provision in the four Geneva Conventions, before moving on to the third point, namely the more general question whether the Security Council, or individual members thereof, are also under a Charter-based obligation to act when facing genocide, crimes against humanity, or the large-scale commission of war crimes. The sole focus, however, is on possible obligations of the Security Council, as well as those of third States, given that it seems to be beyond doubt that the respective territorial State is anyhow under an obligation to make sure that genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes are not being committed on its territory. This is due to the fact that, on the one hand, each State is responsible for acts of its own organs committing such crimes.
Is there an Austrian Contribution to the Codification of International Law?
Authors: Cede Franz , Binder Christina
Published: May 2011

This chapter highlights Austrian contributions to the codification of international law. It deals with the personal contributions Austrian scholars have made to the codification process, either as members of the ILC, as office holders at the codification conferences, or as academics. This chapter also examines the contribution of the Austrian State, with special focus on the major codification conferences held in Vienna: the Conferences on Diplomatic and Consular Relations; the Conferences on the Law of Treaties between States, on State Succession and on Treaties between States and International Organizations and between International Organizations. It is shown that Austria made significant contributions to the codification of international law, especially in the ‘golden era of codification’ in the 1960s.
Customary International Law in the Jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice: A Critical Appraisal
Authors: H Geiger Rudolf
Published: May 2011

In an international court consisting of judges educated in different legal cultures, the ways of approaching a legal question may be difficult to be reconciled. But this lack of agreement may also be caused by blurred standards by which the relevant legal norms are being sought. This is the subject of this article. Customary international law plays an important role in the jurisdiction of the ICJ. But the Court's openly proclaimed standards for establishing specific customary rules are quite different from how the Court really proceeds. The chapter tries to show what is probably the Court's ‘real’ method.
The Unilateral Secession of Kosovo as a Precedent in International Law
Authors: Fleiner Thomas
Published: May 2011

This chapter takes the Kosovo case as an occasion to discuss in principle possible far-reaching effects of the ongoing narrative about the precedence argument upon internationally guaranteed fundamental human rights. It concludes that with the secession decided without any referendum, Kosovo Provisional Authorities have violated vital interests and fundamental human rights of the minority communities in Kosovo in general and the Serb community in particular. Minorities could not participate in decision-making concerning one of the most important issues of public affairs (foundation of a new State), which directly affects their existence. They were even deprived of their universally guaranteed fundamental right of access to justice.
Kosovo and Lotus
Authors: Frowein A Jochen
Published: May 2011

It has been put to the Court by many that the practice throughout the history of international law shows that the creation of States by secession is not regulated b international law. There are exceptions where secession is triggered by intervention or is in violation of other rules but in general international law does not regulate secession. If one compares the Advisory Opinion of the Court concerning Kosovo with the Lotus judgment of the Permanent Court of International Justice one difference cannot be overlooked. In the Lotus judgment the issue was whether States were free to act if no prohibition existed. The criticism against this holding in present day international law is fully justified where States act in an area which may affect the interests of other States. In the Kosovo Opinion the issue was not whether or not a State could act in an area where interests of other States exist but whether specific persons being the elected representatives of a people could or could not act as ‘pouvoir constituant’ of that people. It would seem that this distinction is of importance for the analysis. While States must certainly respect not only prohibitions existing in international law but must show that they are entitled to act wherever the interests of other States are concerned, this is different in a case like Kosovo. Here, the absence of a prohibition existing in international law for a declaration of independence and for secession can suffice to show that this declaration is in accordance with international law. It would have been preferable for the Court to have gone into the questions of secession and self- determination in some more depth. However, as Judge Simma's voting has shown, the result reached by the Court is correct under international law.
Trends and Trials: The Implementation of Consular Rights a Decade After LaGrand
Authors: Hoppe Carsten
Published: May 2011

Article 36 of the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular Relations the right to be informed of one's right to contact one's consulate and the related duty to notify the respective consulate have come a long way. A decade after the International Court of Justice (ICJ) decided the LaGrand case, Article 36 has finally made it into the mainstream, and has become interesting. This also illustrates that it is time to take stock of a development that, with major involvement of Bruno Simma, brought Article 36 from relative obscurity to the forefront of public attention, with three cases brought before the ICJ, four decisions of the United States (US) Supreme Court, several decisions of other domestic high courts, and countless lower court decisions addressing the subject. This chapter sets out to draw a few lessons from the seemingly never-ending story of violation, interpretation, and (non-)enforcement of Article 36 rights as it still evolves, with a view to assessing in which ways the story could still be influenced in favour of those who find themselves arrested or detained as strangers in a strange land.
Using International Law to Combat Unlawful Targeted Killings
Authors: Alston Philip
Published: May 2011

International law does not offer any recognized definition of what constitutes a ‘targeted killing’ and the confluence of diverse legal frameworks further complicates matters. For the purpose of discussion, targeted killing is defined as the intentional, premeditated, and deliberate use of lethal force, by States or their agents acting under colour of law, or by an organized armed group in armed conflict, against a specific individual who is not in the physical custody of the perpetrator. In recent years such killings have been justified both as a legitimate response to ‘terrorist’ threats and as a necessary response to the challenges of ‘asymmetric warfare’. The invocation of these justifications has led to a highly problematic blurring of the boundaries of the applicable legal frameworks, which include human rights law, the laws of war, and the law applicable to the use of inter-State force. Moreover, the States concerned have often failed to specify the legal justification for their policies, to disclose the safeguards in place to ensure that targeted killings are in fact legal and accurate, or to provide accountability mechanisms for violations. Most troublingly, they have refused to disclose who has been killed, for what reason, and with what collateral consequences. The result has been the displacement of clear legal standards with a vaguely defined licence to kill, and the creation of a major accountability vacuum. This chapter spells out the appropriate legal framework and identifies measures that should be taken to ensure appropriate accountability.
Domestic Judicial Compliance with International Judicial Decisions: Some Paradoxes
Authors: Gattini Andrea
Published: May 2011

This chapter offers a short overview of different methods of compliance with international judicial decisions by the domestic judiciary. It focuses on judicial compliance in a broad yet technical meaning, leaving aside the no less fascinating, but fundamentally different, question of judicial reception, i.e., the use by a national court of the findings of an international court as authoritative interpretation of the content of an international norm. This chapter does of course encounter different normative settings, but it is confronted as well with questions appertaining to the self-understanding of each court and with different attitudes of States towards each of them. Taking such an insight, a dogmatic approach inevitably comes up against the realm of judicial policy and expediency, and the even broader field of the social acceptance of legal rules.