bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Olyan Saul M.
Published: May 2017

I begin my concluding remarks with a comparison of the representation of friendship in a number of distinct biblical literary types. Friendship is portrayed in the Psalms, particularly those of individual complaint; in legal materials such as Deut 13:7; in non-psalmic poetic texts such as “David’s Lament over Saul and Jonathan” (2 Sam 1:26); in prophetic passages such as Jer 9:3 and Mic 7:5–6; in prose narratives such as the stories of David and Jonathan, Ruth and Naomi, Job and his three comforters, Amnon, Absalom, and Jonadab, and Jephthah’s daughter and her companions; in pre-Hellenistic wisdom collections—both traditional and skeptical—such as Proverbs and the poetic sections of the book of Job; and in the Hellenistic wisdom collection Ben Sira. Friendship is represented both in biblical poetry and in prose narrative. Some of the texts of interest to us may be dated with confidence (e.g., Ben Sira, to the second century BCE), but most are difficult if not impossible to date. Ben Sira is not infrequently dependent on earlier biblical texts (both wisdom—traditional and skeptical—and nonwisdom); other texts in our purview display little or no evidence of dependence on earlier materials. Our texts sometimes share vocabulary, idioms, and ideas; sometimes they do not. The friends portrayed range from flat, one-dimensional types without any individuality to complex, strikingly singular people who may be conflicted and whose behavior is not necessarily consistent or predictable. We can chart the characteristics of friendship shared in common across literary types and bring the differences among those types into relief. In order to get a sense of the configurations of vocabulary, idioms, ideas, and portrayals pertaining to friendship across our sources, I focus my discussion on several important ideas about friends, with reference...
Introduction: Disrupting the Begats (tôlēdôt)
Authors: Chapman Cynthia R.
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines the critique of the patrilineal model within current anthropological literature in order to reconsider the claim that ancient Israel was a pure patrilineal society. While biblical writers valued patrilineality and preserved that value explicitly within the paternal begettings, known in Hebrew as the tôlēdôt, they consistently followed the exclusively paternal genealogies with narratives that introduced households. The biblical house, as opposed to the patriline, contained fathers, mothers, wives, concubines, slave wives, firstborn sons, second-born sons, daughters, foreigners, and slaves. The introduction of women and maternally defined subgroups of kin disrupts the neatness of a patrilineal genealogy, marking divisions within a paternal line. When the biblical patriline becomes a noisy, fully peopled house, we find not only a father and his firstborn son, but a series of maternally aligned kin groups with specific kinship labels that delineate maternal sub-houses within the larger house of the father.
House (bayit)
Authors: Chapman Cynthia R.
Published: May 2017

Ancient Israel was a house society that organized itself into concentrically larger social groupings and geographic areas under the rubric of the single Hebrew word for house: bayit. The Bible and the origin stories contained within it is the heirloom valuable of ancient Israel’s foundational houses. In the patrilineal genealogies of foundational men, we find an idealized memory of the direct and unmediated transference of material and immaterial inheritance from father to designated son within the fixed geography of a named house. At the same time, the house of the father subdivides into maternally named units that have significant social ramifications for the sons nested within them. Sons who trace their genealogical pathway to the house-founding father through a primary wife become heirs to their father’s house. Sons who trace their pathway to the father through low-status wives find themselves nameless and socially and geographically peripheral. The division of a man’s house into hierarchically arranged maternal subunits is seen in the story of Abraham’s death and burial (Gen 25) and Joseph’s ascent to heir within the house of Jacob (Gen 37-48).
The House of the Mother (bêt ’ēm)
Authors: Chapman Cynthia R.
Published: May 2017

The term “house of the mother” (bêt ’ēm) is an indigenous Hebrew kinship designation for the “uterine family.” Comprised of a mother and her biological and adopted children, the house of the mother is distinct within yet supportive of the house of the father upon which it depends. In its most basic form, a bêt ’ēm represented a social and spatial subunit nested within the larger house of the father. Four biblical texts that contain the phrase bêt ’ēm (Gen 24:28; Song 3:4; 8:2; Ruth 1:8), and one additional biblical text, Gen 34, contain explicit cues that evoke the house of the mother. Taken together, the house-of-the-mother texts demonstrate that this was a space and a kinship unit associated with the marriage negotiations for a daughter who would marry out of her birth home and into the house of her husband. Uterine brothers played key roles in these negotiations and maintained economically significant relationships with their married sisters for life.
My Brothers, the Sons of My Mother (’aḥay bĕnê-’immî)
Authors: Chapman Cynthia R.
Published: May 2017

The biblical kinship designation “brother, son of mother,” which is often expressed as a word pair, communicates a uterine sibling relationship. The brother, son-of-mother relationship emerges within house-of-the-mother texts and narratives that describe maternal subunits within a larger, polygynous house of the father. Heightened emotional ties, public displays of physical affection, mutual loyalty, and a perceived duty to enact revenge on one another’s behalf characterize the uterine sibling relationship. If a daughter is raped, her uterine brother will take on the responsibility for avenging the rape and providing a house to his sister. Within a polygynous house of the father, sons of the same mother form a maternal alliance and support one another’s aspirations to ascend to the position as heir.
Like a Brother to Me, One Who Had Nursed at My Mother’s Breasts (kĕ’aāḥ lî yônēq šĕdê ’immî)
Authors: Chapman Cynthia R.
Published: May 2017

Anthropological literature on milk kinship helps to establish that the Hebrew phrase “O that you were like a brother to me, one who had nursed at my mother’s breasts” (Song 8:1) was a kinship designation similar to, though not an exact substitute for, “brother, son of my mother.” Biblical narratives that contain references to breastfeeding attest to the understanding that a mother or wet nurse transmitted her ethnicity and status (royal or priestly) to her suckling through the act of breastfeeding. Specifically, biblical birth narratives of foundational male figures include breastfeeding episodes in order to bolster the hero’s royal or priestly credentials and to establish his insider ethnicity. Through breastfeeding, a mother establishes bonds of loyalty within her own maternal clan; she creates an allied group of children who trace their relationship to each other through her.
The House of the Father of His Mother (bêt-’ă bî ’immô)
Authors: Chapman Cynthia R.
Published: May 2017

For Jacob, Abimelech, and Absalom, the house of the father of their mother proved to be a crucial staging ground for a coup attempt in the house of their father. These men enjoyed years of safety in the houses of the father of their mothers, and during these years of refuge, each aspiring heir acquired financial backing and support from his mother’s brothers. During the flight to and residence within the house of the father of the mother, sons claimed direct and unmediated kinship to their mother and her brother; they were of the same “bone and flesh” as their maternal uncles who claimed them as “brothers.” However, in order to be successful, a son had to use the house of the father of his mother as a temporary training camp, a place he would ultimately leave in order to return to his father’s house and attempt to become his father’s heir.
Like Rachel and Leah Who Together Built Up the House of Israel (kĕrāḥēl ûkĕlē’â ’ăšer bānû šĕtêhem ’et-bêt yiśrā’ēl)
Authors: Chapman Cynthia R.
Published: May 2017

The national history of the “House of Israel” was a contested history of a divided house. Maternal subunits within the house of Jacob came to define the Rachel-born northern kingdom of Israel, known as “Ephraim,” and the Leah-born southern kingdom of Judah, known as the “House of David.” Peripheral territories and nations traced their ancestry to foundational mothers whose houses had become satellite houses, no longer nested within the father’s house. Sons who inherited the satellite houses of their mothers became “seeds of women,” inheritors of a maternal covenant. Sent out from their chosen brothers in the Promised Land, unchosen sons dwelled “alongside” their brothers. Far from being reproductive “vessels” who produced male heirs to continue the tôlĕdôt of their husbands, foundational mothers become nations, kingdoms, military units (’ummōt), and household alliances. Mothers served as the building blocks for the biblical house of the father and its attendant kinship structures; their breasts and wombs defined social and political alliances within the house of the father.
Introduction
Authors: Kessler Amalia D.
Published: May 2017

The Introduction outlines the book’s argument, structure, and source base. It provides an overview of the distinction between the adversarial and inquisitorial models of procedure. So too, it explores the problem of methodology, rejecting the prevailing tendency among legal historians to insist on a necessary opposition between internalist and externalist approaches. While historians of procedure have tended to embrace internalism, the methodology pursued in this book combines elements of both approaches. As the Introduction details, the book explains the American turn toward adversarialism partly in relation to contemporary developments within the law. Key among these is the remarkable fact (neglected by scholars to date) that the category of “procedure” emerged only around the mid-nineteenth century. But so, too, the book adopts an externalist perspective, seeking to relate procedural change to the grand arc of nineteenth-century American history—including such fundamental developments as democratization, the market revolution, religious revivalism, and Reconstruction. Debates over the nature and purposes of procedure thus ended up playing a key role in defining not only American law, but also its social structures and values, and indeed national identity as a whole.
The Non-Revolutionary Field Code
Authors: Kessler Amalia D.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 3 shows how in the 1820s and 1830s, with the rise of the political party machine known as the Albany Regency and the democratization of politics that followed, many politicians sought to demonstrate their populist credentials by lambasting chancery and its quasi-inquisitorial procedure as elitist. While top-down legislation and constitutional law played a relatively minimal role in causing the turn toward oral adversarial procedure, policy makers’ critique of chancery and its quasi-inquisitorial procedure served to undermine the legitimacy of the institution and its procedural system. This, in turn, facilitated the process of change that lawyers litigating in chancery had themselves initiated. The precise arguments raised against chancery varied across the decades from the constitutional convention of 1821 to that of 1846, but—whether focused on chancery’s association with the spoils system, its troubling relationship to the market revolution, or the problem of mounting docket pressures—they were all framed as defenses of democratization. The end result was to smooth the way for lawyers’ embrace of oral, adversarial procedure. Thus, when the Field Code of Procedure was enacted in 1848, it was largely a fait accompli, reflecting changes that had already occurred, rather than, as long assumed, initiating a procedural revolution.
Cultural Foundations of American Adversarialism
Authors: Kessler Amalia D.
Published: May 2017

Chapter 4 inquires into lawyers’ motivations for embracing oral, adversarial procedure. It notes that lawyers had strategic interests for preferring adversarialism, and most especially, cross-examination. Antebellum lawyers, however, viewed procedure not only as a mechanism for winning cases, but also as a means of improving their status and standing within both the legal profession and the community at large. These were heartfelt goals during a period in which lawyers believed themselves to be in fierce competition with one another and in which they were subject to enormous public animosity. With these goals in mind, lawyers drew on the pervasive discourse of civic or classical republicanism, claiming to be modern-day Ciceros and seeking to create a distinctively American model of courtroom oratory. In so doing, they came to conclude that the Ciceronian model of oratory that they favored—one requiring grand public performances in defense of civic virtue—implied a particular model of procedure. This was the model afforded by the common law and its practices of public jury argument, as well as oral, adversarial witness examination and cross-examination. Because equity’s written and secrecy-oriented, quasi-inquisitorial procedure denied antebellum lawyers the opportunity for republican self-display, they turned away from it.
Translator’s Introduction
Authors: ‘Alī al-Sha‘rānī ‘Abd al-Wahhāb ibn Aḥmad ibn
Published: May 2017

This translator's introduction provides an overview of the Middle East in the sixteenth century, with particular emphasis on the rise of two major powers: the Safavid dynasty in Iran and the Ottoman Empire. It also considers the fall of the Mamluk Empire at the hands of the Ottomans led by Selim in 1516. Finally, it discusses the life of ʻAbd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʻrānī and his involvement in Sufism, along with his writings on Sufi political theology. More specifically, it looks at the two books written by al-Shaʻrānī and dedicated to the relations between Sufi shaykhs and emirs: Advice for Callow Jurists and Gullible Mendicants on Befriending Emirs, completed in December 1544, and The Abbreviation of Advice for Callow Jurists and Gullible Mendicants on Befriending Emirs, completed in May 1562.
Advice for Callow Jurists and Gullible Mendicants on Befriending Emirs
Authors: ‘Alī al-Sha‘rānī ‘Abd al-Wahhāb ibn Aḥmad ibn
Published: May 2017

This section presents the English text of Advice for Callow Jurists and Gullible Mendicants on Befriending Emirs. ʻAbd al-Wahhāb al-Shaʻrānī begins by emphasizing that his book explains the conditions under which a mendicant may befriend an emir, and vice versa, as well as the appropriate code of conduct of each toward the other. He declares that he wrote it for “our gullible brethren” among the jurists, mendicants, and emirs. He goes on to enumerate his blessings which Exalted God has bestowed upon him regarding his relationship with an emir. Among such blessings is that he was to agree to befriend only an emir who respects him too much to send him any gifts or alms. The book concludes by discussing the etiquette of mendicants in befriending emirs and vice versa.
Why Supermarket Organic Matters
Authors: Fitzmaurice Connor J. , Gareau Brian J.
Published: May 2017

In 2000, a radical shift occurred in the organic food system: the majority of organic food in the United States began to be sold in ordinary supermarkets. This chapter examines how the regulatory focus on chemical inputs facilitated the fragmentation and homogenization of organic farming, yielding a conventionalized organic industry capable of delivering food at a supermarket-sized scale. It also examines how these processes limit organic agriculture’s potential to represent a sustainable solution to the problems of modern food systems. This chapter begins with a discussion of what environmental, social, and economic sustainability in the food system would entail. It then examines the concentration of industrial influence in the organic sector in the wake of the federal organic standards, and looks critically at whether industrial organic practices can meet the challenges of sustainability. Finally, the chapter points to theories of bifurcation, which examine structural positions within capitalist agriculture that may offer spaces for alternative farming practices, particularly in places like New England. This chapter also notes, however, that such approaches focus on the political economy of agriculture, leaving the relational strategies alternative farmers use to take advantage of such structural holes unexplored.
Prelude: A Sense of Place
Authors: Fitzmaurice Connor J. , Gareau Brian J.
Published: May 2017

The conventionalization of the organic sector has led many to be skeptical about the possibility of organic in and of itself promoting a meaningfully sustainable alternative to the modern agricultural paradigm. However, the bifurcation of the organic market into both mainstream and alternative spheres provides places within the food system where investigating the work involved in creating new economic and social relations of farming practice makes sense. We may very well have come to an era in which most organic products pass through the same types of industrial commodity chains as organic initially set out to challenge. But more and more people desire a new type of economy, one that fosters social connection, meaning, and new relationships of exchange (...
Amid the Chard: Cultivating the Diverse Landscapes and Practices of a New England Organic Farm
Authors: Fitzmaurice Connor J. , Gareau Brian J.
Published: May 2017

This chapter introduces Scenic View Farm and its owners and principal operators, John and Katie. After an overview of the farm’s history and characteristics relative to other New England farms, the chapter captures the sights and sounds of its picturesque landscape. Such natural beauty drew many of the farmers whose stories are included in this book into a life of farming. However, Scenic View’s landscape is commingled with countless decisions John and Katie have made, balancing their need to stay in business with countless other commitments, including the struggle to achieve sustainability. Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) programs, which many farmers like those at Scenic View depend upon for stable sales, require diverse crops to meet consumer demand. Flowers spruce up the property and yield consistent profits when other crops break even season after season. The chapter also introduces challenges organic farms face, like an outbreak of tomato blight that swept the region. Scenic View’s CSA helped them weather the blight and maintain their organic certification. However, the availability of supplemental income is critical. The chapter shows how farmers try to make good matches in their businesses allowing them to farm responsibly, even those who feel they cannot eschew pesticides completely.
A Sea of Brown Bags and the Organic Label: Organic Marketing Strategies in Practice
Authors: Fitzmaurice Connor J. , Gareau Brian J.
Published: May 2017

John and Katie’s choice to use the CSA as their primary sales strategy and their decision to keep their farm certified organic are both central to how they market crops and run their business. This chapter examines the opportunities and challenges of both. CSA marketing strategies overwhelmingly helped the farmers we studied run their businesses: providing cash in hand early in the season, easing the financial strain when crops failed, and promoting a sense of community connection—at least with the few volunteers who visited their farms. Likewise, while many critics see organic certification as costly, burdensome, and watered-down, certification still fits with the business practices of some small farmers. But neither CSA programs nor organic certification were a cure-all. Many of the CSA farmers we spoke with still struggled, and continued to shoulder most of the risk of crop failure. Meanwhile, for the majority of the noncertified farmers we spoke with, the choice to forgo certification was a practical decision. The bureaucratic regulations of certification were incompatible with the real world of agrarian life—a life where a year’s worth of literal blood, sweat, and tears can be undone in nearly an instant by unforeseeable pestilence, disease, or weather.
Introduction
Authors: Starr Chloë
Published: May 2017

A mirror called theology has been given to us to reflect the image of God implanted in those of us Christians who are also heirs to Chinese civilization.

—C. S. Song1

In an ideal world, this volume might have two separate introductions, like those children’s books with multiple narrative threads where you can choose your own beginning and ending: one for theologians, and one for readers interested in Chinese literature. Word counts and press deadlines join with the argument of the book to insist on the less amusing but perhaps more radical task of integrating the two. If this causes any dissonance, the tension only reflects something of that which Chinese theologians have faced as they tried to write of and conceive of a Christian God in a language in which the concepts did not readily exist and in literary forms that bore little relation to those in which they themselves had inherited the gospel....
From Missionary Writings to Chinese Christian Texts: An Introduction
Authors: Starr Chloë
Published: May 2017

Chapter One presents three texts from the late sixteenth and early to mid seventeenth centuries to show the evolution from a Chinese language to a Chinese-authored theology. The theology of the early encounters of Chinese with Christianity was naturally strongly influenced by missionaries’ own backgrounds and theological training, tempered over time by their improved grasp of Chinese language and understanding of what was most helpful or acceptable to their audience. As missionaries’ appreciation of Chinese literary texts developed, and as Chinese Christians began writing their own philosophical essays or evangelistic tracts, the form and scope of the dialogue evolved. The three texts discussed in Chapter One (catechisms by Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci and a record of conversations between missionaries and Li Jiubiao and other late Ming scholars) trace the development from missionary to Chinese theology.
Zhao Zichen and a Creative Theology: The Life of Jesus (1935)1
Authors: Starr Chloë
Published: May 2017

The Christian intellectuals and leaders who inherited the mission legacy and its rhetoric and remained within historic denominations occupied a demanding mediating position: interpreting Christian thought to China and Christ into Chinese modes. Zhao Zichen (T. C. Chao) was at the forefront of those conceptualizing and realizing a Chinese Protestant church. Chapter Three discusses Zhao’s 1935 Life of Jesus (Yesu zhuan), a semi-fictional biography written to respond to the call for a new “Chinese Christian Literature.” In its study of this highly readable short work, replete with Chinese literary references, the chapter focuses on the structure of the narrative, on Jesus’ self-understanding as the Messiah and on the role of landscape in the novella.
Ding Guangxun: Maintaining the Church
Authors: Starr Chloë
Published: May 2017

Ding Guangxun (K. H. Ting, 1915–2012) was heralded during his lifetime as the premier church statesman of the PRC era, a figure whose leadership of the authorized Protestant church and its national seminary spanned five decades and whose theological thought guided the church through much of that period. Ding’s theology is highly pragmatic in orientation, and his effect as a church leader was as important as his effect as a theologian. This chapter concentrates on the early writings of Ding Guangxun, from the 1940s and 1950s, to create a base understanding of his theological position in the first years of his ministry as comparator for later developments. The period encompassed intense debate on the relationship of church and state and includes Ding’s difficult debates with the staunchly separatist church leader Wang Mingdao—debate that precipitated the split of the Chinese Protestant church and whose ramifications are still ever-present.
Visible and Voluble: Protestant House-Church Writings in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Starr Chloë
Published: May 2017

The growth of unregistered churches, which now surpass state churches in number, is one of the remarkable stories of modern China. This chapter presents an initial survey of the writings of three Protestant Christians whose theological allegiance is to the house churches: Lü Xiaomin, Wang Yi, and Yu Jie. The chapter begins in the countryside, the nucleus of growth for house churches during the 1980s, where the itinerant evangelist Lü Xiaomin expressed her faith in the medium of the hymn. Lü’s work from the 1990s and 2000s represents an enduring acceptance of persecution, a “suffering servant” model of Christian living. More recently, certain new urban house-church ministers have enjoyed a strong media presence as they have argued with the government over their right to worship and to register their churches. The chapter considers the work of Wang Yi, the pioneer Reformed minister from Sichuan, and his joint writings with émigré dissident Yu Jie. The work of such house-church leaders and their experience speaking nationally and internationally represent a new stage in the history of the Chinese Protestant church.
Afterword
Authors: Starr Chloë
Published: May 2017

Standing in a Sunday service at a Roman Catholic church in central China recently, an impressive and lively church with discreet electronic boards on the pillars displaying the liturgy in real time, I was struck with renewed force by the difficulty of worshipping with a sense of inauthenticity. This was a rare occurrence; there is usually no occasion to doubt a priest’s or minister’s faith as expressed in the sermon or worship. That morning, however, a disturbing unease at the perception of an inauthentic leader—perhaps not even in the sense of unbelieving, but for presenting a homily that did not ring true and came across as a government circular or directive—was a bleak reminder of the choices that Chinese congregations and theologians have faced for decades....
In the Beginning
Authors: Blanc Paul David
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines the nature of viscose manufacturing and the known or suspected toxic effects of carbon disulfide. It begins with a history of carbon disulfide, which was first synthesized in 1796 by a German mining and metallurgical chemist named Wilhelm August Lampadius. Soon the potent anesthetic effects of carbon disulfide were revealed in various experiments. An outbreak of disease due to carbon disulfide in a prerevolutionary Russian viscose factory was an important early report of worker ill health and only the second one specific to the nascent viscose rayon industry. In 1892 it was discovered that carbon disulfide was uniquely capable of liquefying cellulose without fundamentally changing its structure, which became the basis for producing artificial silk. However, treating cellulose with large quantities of carbon disulfide was a highly dangerous process. This chapter considers the evidence showing that viscose rayon caused worker disease and death in factories.
The Crazy Years
Authors: Blanc Paul David
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines various incidents attesting to the toxic health effects of artificial silk production on workers employed in factories. The British Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, published in 1925, was the first to capture carbon disulfide poisoning as a reportable disease. Fifteen cases of carbon disulfide toxicity were identified in that year. In that same year, La Medicina del Lavoro published a very brief notice of a British report on carbon disulfide exposure under the heading “Cause of poisoning in the artificial silk industry.” While the Italians were amassing important new information on the health risks of viscose rayon, a representative committee of U.S. textile manufacturers voted to discard “glos” and adopt “rayon” as the commercial term of choice for artificial silk. In 1931 the Statesman and Nation published a report by Sir Thomas Legge, “An Industrial Danger,” devoted to the subject of the artificial silk industry.
Wrapped Up in Cellophane
Authors: Blanc Paul David
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines how cellophane, viscose rayon's sister industry, caught the fancy of the elites during the 1930s. It first considers how cellophane enabled the concentration of corporate power in the global viscose trade. In her 1929 book Labor and Silk, Grace Hutchins probed the interlocking corporate spheres of rayon manufacturing interests. In August 1931 Frank William Taussig and Harry Dexter White published “Rayon and the Tariff: The Nature of an Industrial Prodigy,” an essay addressing the financial advantages the viscose rayon industry had obtained through tariff protections. Over the 1930s, viscose rayon and cellophane, despite being chemically identical and produced by the same technology, traveled widely divergent paths in the public imagination. Cellophane became emblematic of something entertainingly novel, the camp chic of its day. In contrast, rayon assumed a tawdry, even sinister aspect. Viscose even became the stuff of medical quackery, with a special flourish of imitation hucksterism.
Body Count
Authors: Blanc Paul David
Published: May 2017

This chapter considers the growing body of evidence confirming the health hazards of carbon disulfide in the viscose rayon industry. In her report Industrial Poisons Used in the Rubber Industry, Alice Hamilton, a leading U.S. expert on the toxicity of carbon disulfide, provides a technical primer on the rubber manufacturing process, including the carbon disulfide–based cold curing method for vulcanization. Hamilton's report also details the toxic materials used in the rubber industry, with particular emphasis on the toxic effects of carbon disulfide. In a June 1940 meeting of the American Medical Association, Friedrich Lewy presented an overview of nervous system damage from carbon disulfide, based on experimental animal research along with the limited human pathological data that were available. Lewy covered carbon disulfide's past uses in rubber vulcanizing but pushed the viscose rayon industry to the forefront.
A Progressive Conundrum
Authors: Eisenach Eldon
Published: May 2017

This chapter discusses the three conundrums that have all come to bear on Progressives' struggles with the relationship of nationality to institutions and to issues of political authority and legitimacy. It argues that without closer attention to the persistent series of conundrums that pervaded Progressives' political ideas, it is hard for us today to reconstruct and reinvigorate their reform vision. The first conundrum is the Progressives' stance toward the U.S. Constitution. The second conundrum appeared in Progressive understandings of the historical relationship between constitutional development in America and American nationality. A third conundrum in Progressive thinking was the relationship of political parties to democratic governance.
Progressivism and the Disenchanted Constitution
Authors: Rana Aziz
Published: May 2017

This chapter begins by recovering the basic social democratic critique of the Constitution during the Progressive era, especially in the context of worries about the incompatibility between Tocquevillian myths and industrial realities. It then works through the political disagreement among Progressives over whether citizens needed to engage in a formal act of wholesale textual revision and even refounding. Both sides agreed that the 1787 framework had to be fundamentally altered, but internal and external critics reached different conclusions about whether change could be achieved without explicit rupture and whether surface constitutional fidelity would necessarily reproduce exceptionalist tropes. Finally, the chapter focuses on lessons for the present—especially on how Progressive-era critics press Americans to disenthrall themselves and to conceive of the Constitution instrumentally, to judge questions of constitutional support not by expectations of national fulfillment or on aspirational desires for the text, but instead by debates over political utility and effective freedom.
Rights as Process
Authors: Orren Karen
Published: May 2017

This chapter focuses on the distance between rights as claims and rights in practice. To survey rights in the Progressive century, it proposes to define rights less as a thing and more as a process, to wit: “A right is a claim, made against a person or action of another, either a citizen or governmental officer, enforceable in a court of law.” Like other processes, a “right” has a beginning and an end. The beginning is the claim itself; the end, its anticipated enforcement. The chapter begins by briefly situating the Progressive era in a broader story of rights as defined above. It then discusses a handful of rights disputes in state and federal courts from the Progressive era forward, and the definition proposed is briefly applied to particular cases. The cases were not selected on any special basis; others would have served as well. They are discussed only to give the approach a trial run. The point is not to put things in boxes but to consider rights in a fresh way, both over this historical span and in general.
Reclaiming the Conceptual Legacy of the Progressives’ Critique of Rights
Authors: Bedi Sonu
Published: May 2017

This chapter assesses the legal implications of the Progressive agenda by drawing attention to the distinction between rights and state or governmental powers. First, it presents the Progressive critique of rights and its view of the Constitution as a document centrally about the powers of government and not about rights. In doing so, it argues that repudiating Lochner v. New York (1905) means that although the state may act on reasons relating to health or safety, other reasons may be constitutionally off-limits. Second, it illuminates this argument by analyzing the Court's jurisprudence on certain laws that discriminate against gays and lesbians. These cases point to a doctrinal framework that is not so much about vindicating rights as about ensuring that the state does not act on a bare desire to harm. Third, it considers this framework in light of the Court's jurisprudence on race.
Constitutional Conservatives Remember the Progressive Era
Authors: Kersch Ken I.
Published: May 2017

This chapter maps the contemporary right's nascent obsession with the Progressive era as a developmental phenomenon—as a stage in the trajectory of a political-intellectual movement advancing through time. To that end, it ventures three main claims. First, the recent conservative focus on Progressivism represents a shift on the right of understandings of the historical location or source of contemporary constitutional problems, an understanding informed by the sequence of constitutional conservatism's development through time: whereas (old) “originalist” legal conservatives adopted Progressive thinking in focusing their attention on countermajoritarian “activist judges” and criticized the New Deal for its weightless, substance-free pragmatism, recent conservatives have forged a more global critique of contemporary constitutional practice that moves beyond judges to the entire modern structure and theory of American government, finding its weighty and substantive blueprint in the Progressive era, and its extension and institutionalization in the New Deal. Second, this more foundational and comprehensive constitutional critique was forged outside legal academia in political science, particularly by Straussian political theorists. And third, the overarching character of this critique centered on the Progressive era serves a movement-building function by offering a set of understandings that can win the assent of the movement's diverse factions, including social conservatives and religious traditionalists, on the one hand, and economic conservatives and libertarians on the other.
The Progressive Party and the Rise of Executive-Centered Partisanship
Authors: Milkis Sidney M.
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines the wayward path of Progressivism from Roosevelt's Bull Moose campaign to the Obama presidency. Committed to “pure democracy,” many early-twentieth-century reformers hoped to sweep away intermediary organizations like political parties. In their disdain for partisan politics and their enthusiasm for good government, they sought to fashion the Progressive Party as a party to end parties. However, the Progressives failed in that ambition, and their shortfall has had profound effects on contemporary government and politics. By transforming rather than transcending parties, they fostered a kindred, though bastardized, alternative: executive-centered partisanship. The transformation of parties set in motion by the Progressives has subjected both Progressivism and conservatism to an executive-centered democracy that subordinates “collective responsibility” to the needs of presidential candidates and incumbents.
Progressivism, Liberalism, and the Rich
Authors: McGerr Michael
Published: May 2017

This chapter discusses the indictment of wealthy Americans by progressives and liberals alike. Both effectively demonized the rich as alien beings who threatened the national community. The campaign against great wealth produced a paradoxical denouement. By the 1940s, the liberals' crusade helped create the seemingly homogeneous, essentially middle-class national community they wanted. But by the end of the twentieth century, the liberals' very success undermined their vigilance against the threat of wealth, helped make the rich seem safely like other Americans, and, paradoxically, made a liberal governmental elite appear to be the true threat to national community. As a result, liberalism has, in recent years, proved too conservative and too ineffective against the continuing resurgence of great fortunes in the early twenty-first century.
The Progressives’ Deadly Embrace of Cartels
Authors: Epstein Richard A.
Published: May 2017

This chapter traces the comparative logic of the traditional classical liberal and the Progressive approaches to problems of industry concentration, with special reference to agriculture and labor. Part 1 addresses the question of how the Old Court conservatives—the targets of the Progressive movement—addressed the unified treatment of industrial and labor combinations that acted in restraint of trade, and it defends their analytical approach. Part 2 switches focus to address the institutional challenges and resource misallocations that took place once the Clayton Act irretrievably split the regulation of business from the regulation of labor and agriculture. It covers the economic effects of cartel arrangements as well as evaluates why the electoral systems set up in labor and agricultural markets sparked political success of Progressive politicians. These politicians used those devices to consolidate political support, especially in the 1930s, by the active promotion, organization, and support of these cartel arrangements.
A Century of Reason
Authors: Jasanoff Sheila
Published: May 2017

This chapter rejects any a priori division between finding facts and determining values. It takes as its starting point the basic proposition of science and technology studies that, in the policy domain, resolving matters of fact inevitably entails resolving questions that are part of politics. Epistemic and normative orders are, in this respect, coproduced. From this standpoint, delegation to experts—authorizing the few to know for the many—is not simply a question of deciding who knows best about the factual matter at hand. It involves a characterization of the public's intellectual capacity, in particular its ability to understand and critique exercises of expert judgment. During the hundred or so years since the end of the Progressive era, two broad movements have sought to balance the demands of scientific and political representation in the United States. One is a wide-ranging effort to create administrative forums and processes through which laypeople can access and question technical information, and thus enjoy greater parity with experts. The second is a characterization of the political subject as hampered by built-in cognitive biases and unable to recognize its own interests, let alone to further them through rational action.
From Science to Alchemy
Authors: Skrentny John D. , Novick Natalie
Published: May 2017

This chapter details the historical developments that have gradually obviated any perceived need for a nuanced causal theory of the relationship between scientists and national performance. Contemporary political rhetoric expressing a faith in a hypothesized (yet little understood) causal connection between scientific expertise and jobs and wealth creation has roots in Progressivism. It also marks a significant transformation of the Progressive vision of how the federal government should use the natural sciences. Even as Progressives embraced vague and sometimes contradictory impulses and beliefs, Progressive governance sought social betterment primarily through the use of existing scientific expertise to achieve specific, identified goals. The Progressives' typical use of science was to develop standards and measures (for example, to ensure safe food). Recent decades, however, have seen the rise of vaguer measures of success—the overall number of scientists and engineers, working in any field, or the overall number of federal dollars allocated to research.
Barack Obama and the Traditions of Progressive Reform
Authors: Kloppenberg James T.
Published: May 2017

This chapter discusses the Progressivism of President Barack Obama. Obama's progressivism is broadly based. First, he aspired to the ideals of the Social Gospel and invoked the idea of a shared national purpose, a common good that transcended the particular interests of the separate classes, ethnic groups, and regions that have shaped American political struggles. Second, he resurrected the Progressives' emphasis on political and economic reforms. Third, Obama inherited the Progressives' pragmatism, their uneasiness with dogma, their commitment to achieving moderate, incremental progress through trial and error, and their confidence in the application of the scientific method to politics. The obstacles to Obama's progressivism run deep as well. He has had to wrestle with four stubborn features of American culture that have hamstrung reformers since the nation's founding: persistent localism; distrust of the federal government; a deep ambivalence about engaging in world affairs; and a racism that appears nearly as entrenched in the twenty-first century as it was in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth.
How the Progressives Became the Tea Party’s Mortal Enemy
Authors: Teles Steven M.
Published: May 2017

This chapter first traces the roots of the stylized history of Progressivism's role in American liberalism found in the pronouncements of Glenn Beck and the Tea Party to a small cadre of conservatives grouped around the Claremont Institute, with the political philosopher Charles Kesler at its center. It explains how the ideas of these political thinkers spread through the conservative movement, with particular attention to the Heritage Foundation as a central node of the network, and how it came to be available when the opportunity for wider dissemination opened. The second section examines how this critique exploded into broader circulation within the conservative movement. The third section investigates why the attack on Progressivism was so avidly embraced by Tea Party conservatives at this precise time, how it provided a coherent story of America and, with that, the emotional energy needed to mobilize an already historically inflected movement. The fourth section discusses how this fundamentalist perspective on the nation's history, and on President Obama's place in it, has more than its share of outright lunacy. The wilder versions of antiprogressivism advanced by Beck and the less cautious scholars who influenced him have obscured and overtaken a more nuanced critique within conservatism, one that liberals would do well to take seriously. The wrong response to Tea Party fundamentalism is to respond in kind and simply hunker down in an alternative belief system.
The Unhidden City
Authors: Thrush Coll
Published: May 2017

This chapter adds to the canon of secret Londons through the inscription of another layer, another arcane and invisible text in the palimpsest that is the urban landscape. Such accounts of other Londons gesture toward the irreducible survivals of past landscapes in a place that constantly unearths its own history. As stated by Prof. Timothy Morton, “the streets beneath the streets, the Roman Wall, the boarded-up houses, the unexploded bombs, are records of everything that happened to London.” London's history exists in its form. From histories of the Underground to accounts by urban explorers entering the city's sewers and crypts, from compendia of obscure folklore to catalogs of nearly forgotten ghost stories, London provokes a predilection with the hidden.
Dawnland Telescopes
Authors: Thrush Coll
Published: May 2017

This chapter examines how London had to learn to be colonial. From the very first moments of sustained encounter in the late sixteenth century, places like Ossomocomuck and London were entangled through the creation of knowledge. Even before explorers stepped ashore in “Virginia,” they were propelled there by an unprecedented urban crisis that threatened the stability of London society. This urban context shaped how English explorers and colonists saw the territories and people they encountered and how they attempted—often unsuccessfully—to organize themselves and others in these unfamiliar places. Meanwhile, the experiences of Indigenous travelers to London, and in particular those originating in the homelands of the eastern Algonquian peoples suggest that parallel Indigenous processes of exploration were taking place.
Alive from America
Authors: Thrush Coll
Published: May 2017

This chapter looks at how Indigenous North Americans have become emissaries seeking to cement political, military, and economic relations with the Crown within a deepening transatlantic system of trade, political alliance, and warfare. In 1710, four men—three of them Mohawk, the fourth from the allied Mahicans—captivated the city, becoming known as the Four Kings. In 1734, a group of Yamacraw elites came from the new colony of Georgia to establish themselves as brokers between their Mvskoki relations and the British. Meanwhile, the 1762 visit of Utsidihi, Atawayi, and Kunagadoga came some three decades after another Cherokee delegation achieved celebrity status in 1730. These visitations became a way for Londoners to make sense of their own urban world, particularly focusing on three aspects of city life: violence, alcohol consumption, and the changing roles of women.
Atlantes, 1761
Authors: Thrush Coll
Published: May 2017

Atlantes (n. pl.): The plural form of atlas; stone carvings of male figures, used as columns to support the entablature of a Greek or Greek-style structure.

    What a cannonball does to a human body:    blossoms it in pink and white and red and grey and yellow,...