bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perfil do atendimento odontopediátrico no setor de urgência e emergência da clínica odontológica do Centro Universitário do Pará – CESUPA
Authors: Figueiredo Priscilla Bittencourt de Almeida , Silva Alexandre Roberto Queiroz da , Silva Antônio Irlan , Silva Bruna Queiroz da
Published: November 2013

Objetivo: Avaliar o perfil do atendimento odontológico de urgência e emergência em crianças na faixa etária de 0 a 12 anos atendidas no setor de Urgência e Emergência do curso de odontologia do Centro Universitário do Pará. Materiais e Métodos: Este estudo foi do tipo analítico observacional retrospectivo, cujos dados foram coletados a partir das fichas clínicas, utilizadas no serviço de urgência e emergência do Centro Universitário do Pará (CESUPA), no período de janeiro de 2007 a dezembro de 2011. Buscou-se traçar um perfil dos usuários pediátricos, assim como avaliar as principais causas e tratamentos. Resultados: Os resultados mostraram que a maioria dos pacientes atendidos era do gênero masculino (50,4%) e na faixa etáriade 7 a 12 anos de idade (65,2%). O principal motivo da procura ao atendimento foi a dor de dente, sendo esta provocada na maioria dos casos por lesão de cárie (53,7%), acometendo principalmente crianças em fase dedentição mista. Quanto ao tratamento executado, a exodontia (73,4%) foi o mais realizado. Conclusão: A cárie é a principal ocorrência de atendimento no serviço de urgência e emergência da clínica odontológica doCESUPA, e o tratamento de escolha, na maioria das vezes, infelizmente, foi a exodontia, indicando assim, uma maior necessidade de programar estratégias educativas e preventivas na comunidade avaliada com base napromoção de saúde bucal. Descritores: Tratamento de emergência. Odontopediatria. Cárie dentária - Terapia.
A New Species of Melaleuca (Myrtaceae) from north-east Queensland
Authors: Ford Andrew James , Craven Lyn , Brophy Joe
Published: November 2013

Melaleuca lophocoracorum A.J.Ford, Craven & Brophy is described, illustrated and diagnosed against allied species. Notes on habitat, distribution, conservation status and leaf essential oil content are provided.
Characterization of double diffusive convection steps and heat budget in the deep Arctic Ocean
Authors: Zhou Sheng‐Qi , Lu Yuan‐Zheng
Published: November 2013

In this paper, we explore the hydrographic structure and heat budget in the deep Canada Basin by using data measured with McLane‐Moored‐Profilers (MMP), bottom pressure recorders (BPR), and conductivity‐temperature‐depth (CTD) profilers. Upward from the bottom, a homogeneous bottom layer and its overlaying double diffusive convection (DDC) steps are well identified at Mooring A (
). We find that the deep water is in weak diapycnal mixing because the effective diffusivity of the bottom layer is
, while that of the other steps is
. The vertical heat flux through the DDC steps is evaluated by using different methods. We find that the heat flux (
) is much smaller than geothermal heating (
). This suggests that the stack of DDC steps acts as a thermal barrier in the deep basin. Moreover, the temporal distributions of temperature and salinity differences across the interface are exponential, whereas those of heat flux and effective diffusivity are found to be approximately lognormal. Both are the result of strong intermittency. Between 2003 and 2011, temperature fluctuations close to the sea floor were distributed asymmetrically and skewed toward positive values, which provide a direct observation that geothermal heating was transferred into the ocean. Both BPR and CTD data suggest that geothermal heating and not the warming of the upper ocean is the dominant mechanism responsible for the warming of deep water. As the DDC steps prevent vertical heat transfer, geothermal heating is unlikely to have a significant effect on the middle and upper Arctic Ocean.
Absorbing aerosol‐induced change in the early monsoon Arabian Sea low‐level jet: Modeled transfer from anomalous heating to nondivergent kinetic energy
Authors: Martin Andrew C. , Krishnamurti T. N. , Lau William K. M.
Published: November 2013

This study examines the impact of anomalous differential generation of available potential energy by absorbing aerosols on the transition and early active phases of the South Asian summer monsoon. Aerosol direct and indirect radiative forcings can modify tropospheric temperature profiles through direct absorption, scattering, and extended cloud lifetimes. Recent studies have suggested that over monthly and seasonal time scales, these effects can lead to modified flow and rainfall regimes in the South Asian monsoon region. Of special interest is the covariance of heating and temperature prior to active monsoon onset. It can be shown that anomalous generation of available potential energy due to absorption of shortwave radiation by aerosols can impact the cascade of energy from the local Hadley circulation to the monsoon nondivergent flow. In order to quantify the potential impact of aerosol radiative forcing and the resulting changes in monsoon onset timing and intensity, an ensemble of Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry regional weather and chemistry model forecasts are created for the South Asian summer monsoon region during May, June, and July. The forecasts including shortwave absorption by aerosol are compared to control forecasts in which aerosols only scatter shortwave radiation. The evolution of irrotational and nondivergent kinetic energy, generation of available potential energy and rainfall are presented. It is found that the ensemble with aerosol shortwave absorption contains on average a more intense dynamical onset over South India which is statistically significant compared to the ensemble variability. The more intense monsoon onset is related to a more intense Arabian Sea low‐level jet. In the ensemble with shortwave absorption by aerosol, the early season monsoon rainfall is diminished over South India and enhanced over the Northeastern Indian states.
Validation of the Cooray‐Rubinstein (C‐R) formula for a rough ground surface by using three‐dimensional (3‐D) FDTD
Authors: Li Dongshuai , Zhang Qilin , Liu Tao , Wang Zhenhui
Published: November 2013

In this paper, we have extended the Cooray‐Rubinstein (C‐R) approximate formula into the fractal rough ground surface and then validate its accuracy by using three‐dimensional (3‐D) finite‐difference time‐domain (FDTD) method at distances of 50 m and 100 m from the lightning channel. The results show that the extended C‐R formula has an accepted accuracy for predicting the lightning‐radiated horizontal electric field above the fractal rough and conducting ground, and its accuracy increases a little better with the higher of the earth conductivity. For instance, when the conductivity of the rough ground is 0.1 S/m, the error of the peak value predicted by the extended C‐R formula is less than about 2.3%, while its error is less than about 6.7% for the conductivity of 0.01 S/m. The rough ground has much effect on the lightning horizontal field, and the initial peak value of the horizontal field obviously decreases with the increase of the root‐mean‐square height of the rough ground at early times (within several microseconds of the beginning of return stroke).
Monitoring daily evapotranspiration in Northeast Asia using MODIS and a regional Land Data Assimilation System
Authors: Jang Keunchang , Kang Sinkyu , Lim Yoon‐Jin , Jeong Seungtaek , Kim Joon , Kimball John S. , Hong Suk Young
Published: November 2013

We applied an approach for daily estimation and monitoring of evapotranspiration (ET) over the Northeast Asia monsoon region using satellite remote sensing observations from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Frequent cloud cover results in a substantial loss of remote sensing information, limiting the capability of continuous ET monitoring for the monsoon region. Accordingly, we applied and evaluated a stand‐alone MODIS ET algorithm for representative regional ecosystem types and an alternative algorithm to facilitate continuous regional ET estimates using surface meteorological inputs from the Korea Land Data Assimilation System (KLDAS) in addition to MODIS land products. The resulting ET calculations showed generally favorable agreement (root‐mean‐square error  < 1.3 mm d−1) with respect to in situ measurements from eight regional flux tower sites. The estimated mean annual ET for 3 years (2006 to 2008) was approximately 362.0 ± 161.5 mm yr−1 over the Northeast Asia domain. In general, the MODIS and KLDAS‐based ET (MODIS‐KLDAS ET) results showed favorable performance when compared to tower observations, though the results were overestimated for a forest site by approximately 39.5% and underestimated for a cropland site in South Korea by 0.8%. The MODIS‐KLDAS ET data were generally underestimated relative to the MODIS (MOD16) operational global terrestrial ET product for various biome types, excluding cropland; however, MODIS‐KLDAS ET showed better agreement than MOD16 ET for forest and cropland sites in South Korea. Our results indicate that MODIS ET estimates are feasible but are limited by satellite optical‐infrared remote sensing constraints over cloudy regions, whereas alternative ET estimates using continuous meteorological inputs from operational regional climate systems (e.g., KLDAS) provide accurate ET results and continuous monitoring capability under all‐sky conditions.
Peer Assessment in the Classroom
Authors: Edwards Jette G. Hansen
Published: November 2013

The focus of this chapter is on the use of peer assessment (PA) in rating oral and written language skills. The chapter commences with an overview of PA, outlining the various theoretical stances that have been cited in support of PA. The potential benefits and drawbacks of PA are then discussed. The chapter then examines the use of PA in language classrooms, specifically in relation to modes of PA such as face to face, online, and pen and paper; and forms of the assessment task itself, such as the use of rubrics and open‐ended questions. The chapter also examines the reliability and validity of PA. It concludes with a discussion of how to successfully implement PA activities in the language classroom and how to train both teachers and students for the PA activity.
The Use of Generalizability Theory in Language Assessment
Authors: Marcoulides George A. , Ing Marsha
Published: November 2013

The chapter provides an overview of generalizability theory and shows how generalizability theory can be used in language assessment. In particular, the chapter describes how generalizability theory can be used to design, assess, and improve the dependability of measurement procedures, and provides current conceptualizations of the relationship between generalizability theory and latent trait (item response) theory. Challenges and future directions for research on linking and using these two approaches as a way to improve the quality of behavioral measures common in language assessment are also presented.
Item Response Theory in Language Testing
Authors: Ellis David P. , Ross Steven J.
Published: November 2013

Language test tasks and items are particularly susceptive to factors that make responses by test candidates ambiguous. Such factors include random error, guessing, compromised test security, and systematic bias. Test analysis technology has evolved since the 1970s to reduce the influence of such construct‐irrelevant factors on test score interpretation. The focus of the present chapter is to introduce different options for undertaking item analysis, with particular focus on item response theory.

The different options afforded to language testers are outlined and demonstrated with a working example taken from an authentic foreign language test. A subset of reading comprehension items is analyzed with the use of a classical test theory item analysis approach, which is contrasted with Rasch, two‐parameter IRT, and three‐parameter IRT models. Emphasis is placed on discussion of different measurement assumptions and fit criteria each approach entails, and how item deletion based on each of the four approaches potentially impacts score interpretation and the rank ordering of test candidates.
Criterion‐Referenced Approach to Language Assessment
Authors: Hudson Thom
Published: November 2013

The growing influence of outcomes assessment has raised an awareness of the need for language assessment that reflects the specific learning objectives of a program or the defined abilities needed for certification of language ability. This is the function of criterion‐referenced measurement (CRM) testing. This chapter discusses the types of interpretations that are made with CRM assessment and examines how CRM testing differs from norm‐referenced measurement (NRM) testing. This distinction reflects whether the examinee score is compared to a relative position within the scores of other examinees or to a defined set of material to be learned. The chapter provides an overview of issues concerning CRM assessment, particularly in terms of test purpose, test content and structure, and test development. It discusses CRM assessment as the primary type of assessment carried out by most teachers in classroom settings. That is, most language teachers are less interested in how their students rank in relation to other students than in what their students can do with the language feature that has been taught. Additionally, the chapter discusses the role of CRM testing as part of the standards movement for foreign and second language assessment in national, state, and local accountability practices. The role of CRM assessment concerns in the development and interpretation of foreign language rubrics and benchmark frameworks for assessing proficiency levels in foreign language learning is examined. The chapter discusses how CRM concerns are reflected in discussions of the World‐class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA) standards, the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for languages, and the Assessment of Language Performance (ALP). The chapter ends with caveats about the use of CRM tests and CRM test development. Throughout the discussion, the chapter emphasizes that while we talk of CRM tests and NRM tests, we are actually concerned with CRM and NRM interpretations of test scores.
Assessing
Norwegian
Authors: Carlsen Cecilie , Moe Eli
Published: November 2013

Norway is a small country with relatively few inhabitants. We have long socio‐democratic traditions with a strong focus on principles of equality, not least in the schools system. This is reflected in the tradition of strong public schools, very little testing, and no formal grading in primary school. The last 10 years have, however, witnessed a change in attitude towards testing from something that should be avoided to a useful tool to promote learning. This chapter provides an overview of language assessment in Norway. After a short introduction to the Norwegian language and language situation, characterized by two written forms and a high tolerance for dialectal variation, the chapter looks at the teaching and assessment of Norwegian. It starts by looking at the teaching of Norwegian in an L1 and L2 context, before turning to assessment practices. As it attempts to show, the attitudes towards assessment and the professionalization of the field of assessment differ considerably for L1 and L2 contexts. Finally, the chapter draws the lines for future directions and discusses some challenges the field will have to deal with in the years to come.
Eye‐Tracking Technology for Reading
Authors: Winke Paula M.
Published: November 2013

Technology for measuring eye movements is becoming more affordable, and applied linguistics and second language studies programs are beginning to purchase eye‐tracking equipment that they dedicate to second language acquisition and to language testing research. The two main types of eye‐tracking technology commonly used for L1 and L2 reading processing research appear to be SR Research's EyeLink 1000 and Tobii Technology's TX300. This chapter reviews what eye movement data are used for, overviews the technology for recording eye movements, outlines what the two systems can and can't do, and presents reasons why these two systems are preferred by reading researchers. The chapter concludes by suggesting ways in which second language testers may capitalize on eye movement research already conducted and ways in which future L2 testing research may be better informed by conducting studies on eye movements.
Assessing
Greek
Authors: Papageorgiou Spiros
Published: November 2013

Modern Greek is the official language of Greece and one of the two official languages in the Republic of Cyprus. It is also spoken in the Greek and Cypriot diaspora in many countries. In the last two decades there has been a growing interest in learning and assessing modern Greek, most probably as result of wider sociopolitical and economic developments that have contributed to a significant increase in the number of speakers of languages other than Greek, who now reside in Greece. Naturally, demographic changes have also been observed in schools, where some students attend classes without being speakers of the language of instruction. This chapter first provides a short description of the Greek language and then presents the educational systems of Greece and Cyprus and the assessment practices in both countries. The challenges these educational systems face and directions for future research are also discussed.
AssessingHindi
Authors: Chandra Pritha
Published: November 2013

The present chapter explores the evaluation methods adopted for Hindi, an Indo‐Aryan language spoken in India. The chapter examines the goals of learning Hindi as a first language (L1) and second language (L2) at primary and advanced school levels, and then moves on to analyze some materials prepared for these purposes. It illustrates actual methods adopted for teaching Hindi and developing the basic skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking, especially at primary level. This is followed by a detailed examination of the methods adopted to assess the knowledge of the learner, first at the classroom/school level and then at the national level. Finally, some suggestions are made to fill the gaps that may exist between actual Hindi teaching and evaluation practices, and the recommendations of the National Curriculum Framework.
Portfolio Assessment in the Classroom
Authors: Yin Muchun
Published: November 2013

Portfolio assessment (PA) is an important and increasingly common means of recording and judging language learners’ development and achievement. This chapter begins with a brief history of PA, from its earlier identity as an “alternative assessment” to its significant role in current assessment regimes in both general and language education. This is followed by a review of research on the effectiveness of PA for improving language learning and on students’ and teachers’ views of portfolio use in language classrooms. A conceptual distinction is then made between the portfolio “product” on one hand and the portfolio implementation “process” on the other, with the latter being the determinant of usefulness. Central to this chapter is a discussion of how teachers’ personal teaching beliefs and approaches will set the parameters for that process. For example, a teacher's views about the roles and responsibilities of the teacher vis‐à‐vis students and about the importance of student self‐assessment will crucially shape how portfolios are used. The chapter then considers both macro‐ and micro‐level decisions involved in the implementation process. Macro‐level decisions include whether portfolios will be used for formative or summative purposes or for both, how self‐assessment will be incorporated, and who conducts grading. Micro‐level decisions include the language skills to be assessed via portfolio, the types of materials to be included in the portfolio, the portfolio medium (e.g., paper or online), the grading rubric, and the types of feedback given to the student. In the final section, the author points out how PA can align with current principles and practices of assessment for learning purposes.
Assessing
Mandarin Chinese
Authors: Qi Luxia , Zhang Kai
Published: November 2013

Chinese is taught as a first language in China and as a second or foreign language both in and outside China. As L1 in mainland China, Chinese is a compulsory course for all throughout primary and secondary education, and a core course at college. Teaching objectives include knowledge of the linguistic system and Chinese literature, ability to use the language to communicate, and capacity to think logically and critically. To reflect these objectives, large‐scale tests of Chinese and formative assessments in schools measure linguistic and cultural knowledge and reading and writing skills which give a demonstration of analytical skills and creativity. The most important Chinese test in mainland China is the University Entrance Chinese Test (UECT). As a second or foreign language, teaching objectives vary according to learners' needs and their learning contexts. However, the main objective is still the ability to communicate in Chinese. To assess this ability, the Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK), a proficiency test of Mandarin Chinese, is designed and administered in China and many other countries for L2 learners of Chinese. The assessment methods of most Chinese tests include more indirect methods such as multiple choice and true–false items, as well as more direct methods like writing and speaking. As assessment results are sometimes used to make important decisions, as in the case of UECT and HSK, washback (influence on teaching and learning) has been observed in teaching Chinese both as L1 and as L2.
Assessing
Japanese
Authors: Watanabe Yoshinori , Koyanagi Kaoru
Published: November 2013

The purpose of the chapter is to critically appraise four major tests of Japanese as a foreign language: the Japanese Language Proficiency Test, the Business Japanese Proficiency Test, the J.TEST, and the Examination for Japanese University Admission for International Students. These tests are examined in terms of the following features: basic information, including its history, purpose, the number of test takers each year and the types of information available for them; the structure of the tests, including the number of items, the length of time, task types, etc.; the types of specifications and their availability; the method of informing test takers of the test scores and the type of information included in the score report; the information that is not publicized (e.g., the procedure of choosing the supervisor, the method of computing scores, validation processes, the process of checking reliability, etc.); the way in which the test taker uses the test scores; and the body or organization that receives the test scores, and the purpose(s) for which they use the test scores (e.g., the method of setting a cut‐off score). In addition to these major tests, one framework for assessment called JF‐Standard is presented with its purposes and unique feature, and prominent issues about assessing Japanese as an L1 are also presented and discussed. The chapter concludes by summarizing the contributions that the tests have made to the field of teaching Japanese as a foreign language to date, and offering suggestions for improving the testing development process for test takers and test users as well as for test developers.
AssessingGerman
Authors: Perlmann‐Balme Michaela
Published: November 2013

This chapter distinguishes between assessment of German as mother tongue (L1) within the German school system, German as a foreign language in national school systems and international institutions of adult education, and German as second language (L2) as currently defined in the political debate on migration and integration in the German‐speaking countries. Challenges in the assessment of German arise from its “pluricentric” constitution. A short overview of German testing on the six levels of the Common European Framework of Reference is followed by a description of its current main target groups and their teaching/learning contexts: young learners in the national and private learning institutions, adults in courses of adult education, and tests for special purposes such as study, migration, business/professional development. The discussion of current and future directions focuses on the role of international certificates and courses for migrants and for persons with disabilities.
Assessing
Tamil
Authors: Sankar Vyjayanthi
Published: November 2013

The wide geographical spread and the number of people who speak Tamil across different countries, either as a first language (L1) or as a second language (L2), have created a need for adequate systems of teaching, learning, and assessing Tamil. However, the robust diglossia this language exhibits, the existence of several dialects, and the ongoing anglicization (among other things) pose several challenges, especially for assessment. The present chapter discusses these challenges and takes a look at the assessment of Tamil for educational purposes, specifically at the school level.
Assessing
Polish
Authors: Lewkowicz Jo , Smolik Marcin
Published: November 2013

This chapter introduces the assessment systems used for assessing Polish both as a first language (L1) and as a foreign language (PFL). It starts by providing some background about speakers of Polish and the structure of the language. It then considers Polish as L1, focusing on current reforms of teaching and assessment across all levels of schooling. The section on assessing Polish as a foreign language looks at the recent introduction of official certificate exams of Polish as a foreign language and at the impact these are having on learning, teaching, and assessment. The chapter concludes by outlining some of the outstanding issues and challenges that face those responsible for the testing and assessment of Polish as L1 and PFL.
Monitoring Progress in the Classroom
Authors: Mathew Rama , Poehner Matthew E.
Published: November 2013

The chapter proceeds from the perspective that assessment can best support teaching and learning when these two activities are aligned. It is concerned with assessments undertaken forformative(assessmentforlearning) rather thansummative(assessmentoflearning) purposes and reflects a commitment to understanding learner abilities while they are in the process of developing. Feedback is seen as an important dimension that helps to adjust classroom instruction according to varying learner abilities.

Situated broadly within a learner‐centered approach to language teaching, various models are presented that focus on ongoing, formal and informal, planned and unanticipated outcomes in which all the three agents (teacher, learner, and peer) are accorded equal status. Dynamic assessment is also discussed, which maintains that to fully capture the range of an individual's capabilities it is necessary to examine both the products of past development (i.e., abilities that are fully formed) as well as abilities that are currently in the process of their formation.

Issues and challenges, conceptual and implementation‐related, that this kind of assessment gives rise to are discussed in the last section. One issue involves establishing effective practices in contexts traditionally dominated by summative tests and a high stakes testing culture. The need for training teachers and learners in formative assessment as well as making space and time available in their everyday teaching and learning is also recognized. Further, it suggests that reforms would have to address all three components—teaching, learning and assessment—simultaneously, as piecemeal approaches are not likely to be effective.
AssessingEnglishin theMiddle East and North Africa
Authors: Gebril Atta , Hozayin Russanne
Published: November 2013

This chapter briefly describes the current English language assessment practices in both academic and professional settings in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The first section provides background information about the current status of English in this region. The second section looks briefly at the teaching and learning of English in both academic and professional contexts. The core section presents a critical analysis of the different English language assessment practices in MENA. It also offers a list of English language assessment resources that teachers can consult. The final section provides some conclusions about assessment‐related challenges facing MENA professionals in the field of English language and future directions to be considered.
The Interface of Language Assessment and Forensic Contexts
Authors: van Naerssen Margaret
Published: November 2013

“Forensic,” before an area of study and as popularized through television shows, has promoted interest in the forensic sciences. Forensic science is a general category for a wide range of sciences used to address questions in a legal context. For acceptability in the legal system, tools, methods, and analyses used should be scientifically grounded. Language assessment refers here to the assessment of abilities in an additional language, other than one's own native language. Is language assessment a forensic science? Or is it hybrid discipline drawing primarily from linguistics (scientific study of human language) and the scientific discipline of test development and theory. In this chapter the latter is assumed. Another focus for this chapter is specified, the role of an assessment instrument. Is the test itself “being taken to court” for challenges about the claims made by test developers or companies regarding its validity, reliability, and security? Or, is the language assessment process a tool in the legal process, in an examination of language evidence produced by unknown persons or by specific witnesses, suspects, or defendants? The focus here is on language assessment as a tool.

This interface of language assessment and forensic contexts begins with a brief overview of the common contexts in which an expert in language assessment might be called on. This is followed by a review of key legal and assessment concepts. The interface is then further illustrated through five topics: differences between language assessment for large populations and single subjects, the relationship between language assessment and the legal question, the tension between court expectations regarding “scientific reliability” and the need for validity, the linkage of language assessment to legal interpreting needs, and the challenge of trying to determine the truthfulness of a person's language proficiency for the examiner and for police on the streets in the line of duty.
Diagnostic Feedback in the Classroom
Authors: Jang Eunice Eunhee , Wagner Maryam
Published: November 2013

Diagnostic assessment enables teachers to make inferences about learners’ strengths and weaknesses in the skills being taught. Teachers may provide students with diagnostic feedback to make positive changes in their learning. This pedagogical desire for classroom diagnostic assessment resonates well with formative assessment and differentiates it from clinical diagnosis. However, this formative potential to advance student learning is only realized when diagnostic feedback is used by teachers and learners. The ways in which this feedback is interpreted and utilized depend on a range of variables at individual and structural (e.g., classroom, schools, and community) levels. Questioning the assumption that learners are passive recipients of feedback, the chapter probes conditions and variables that enable or inhibit the maximal use of diagnostic feedback. While the focus of diagnosis is students’ cognitive competence, the parameters of diagnostic assessment involve more than a cognitive dimension. Viewing students as change agents in diagnostic assessment requires consideration of noncognitive learner characteristics such as students’ attitude to learning and assessment, especially their goal orientations. Students’ mastery goals are shown to be related to adaptive outcomes, persistence, and effective self‐regulatory strategies that facilitate performance on assessment tasks. Few studies have examined whether there is a direct link between students’ goal orientations and their attitudes to and use of diagnostic feedback. The chapter examines whether students’ goal orientations serve as a gateway to understanding how students may interpret assessment feedback and use it in their learning. Other structural conditions, beyond individual orientations, are also explored in order to understand the role of context, where individual learners’ attitudes and goal orientations are shaped and influenced through the interaction with other learners, teachers, parents, and social norms. The chapter examines these relationships by drawing from multiple small‐scale studies engaging English language learners, and argues that the effectiveness of diagnostic feedback is achieved when the complex nature of language learners’ goal structures situated in sociocultural learning contexts is considered.
Assessing Speaking
Authors: O'Sullivan Barry
Published: November 2013

While there have been some significant advances in our understanding of spoken language, in terms of both production and interaction, over the past decades, there remain a number of areas of significant concern to the test writer. These are most notably construct definition (what exactly we are assessing), predictability of task response (task description), the effect of characteristics of the test taker on performance, the effect of characteristics associated with the interlocutor (the person with whom the candidate is interacting) on performance, the appropriateness of the scoring system (i.e., rating scale validity and reliability, and the reliability of the rating process). Before exploring these concerns, it is important to acknowledge the central role in test development of validation by first making explicit the model of validation that underpins this chapter. Thus, the chapter outlines a view of testing speaking that is based on a model of test validation. The chapter also addresses issues in testing speaking such as the test taker (in terms of physical characteristics, psychological characteristics, experiential characteristics, and cognitive aspects), the test system (performance parameters such as live, recorded, and automated formats, linguistic demands, and test administration), and the scoring system (theoretical fit, accuracy of decisions, and value of decisions).
Score Dependability and Decision Consistency
Authors: Brown James Dean
Published: November 2013

This chapter explains options available to language testers for analyzing test score dependability and decision consistency. The chapter first explains generalizability theory (GT) in norm‐referenced testing (NRT) consisting of explanations of GT strategies for studying the proportion of NRT generalizability, estimating NRT score error, and calculating signal‐to‐noise ratios for NRT scores. The chapter then describes estimation of decision dependability with explanations of the threshold loss agreement and squared error loss agreement approaches. Next the chapter covers CRT dependability, with a focus on phi dependability, the standard error for absolute decisions, and signal‐to‐noise ratios for CRTs. The chapter concludes with sections on (a) which of all these statistics might be best suited to particular testing situations, (b) what factors in testing contexts affect the generalizability and dependability of test scores, and (c) what directions research in language testing might beneficially take in the future with regard to test score dependability and decision consistency.
Adapting or Developing Source Material for Listening and Reading Tests
Authors: Green Anthony
Published: November 2013

The ability to understand spoken or written language cannot be observed directly but must be inferred. In tests of reading and listening, test takers are given input in the form of texts or recordings of spoken language and are asked to perform tasks as evidence of their comprehension. This chapter traces how the choice of texts or recordings for use in such tests has been shaped by trends in language education. The last century saw a decisive movement away from translation and reading aloud toward the use of comprehension questions as evidence of understanding. Considerations in selecting and preparing material are outlined. Methods that have been used by developers to gauge the difficulty of texts and recordings are described. The role of item writers in shaping or adapting material for use in tests is discussed, and predictions are made about future developments, including a growing role for technology in the selection of material.
Assessing
Welsh
Authors: Davies Emyr
Published: November 2013

This chapter focuses on the assessment of Welsh language in schools and adult education. The context and background of the Welsh language and Welsh education is described, with reference to governmental legislation. A brief description of the language outlines some salient linguistic features, for example, the consonantal “mutation” system, as well as sociolinguistic issues.

Welsh is taught and assessed in schools either as a “first” language or a “second” language in Wales. This is compulsory until the age of 16. Learners can take Welsh as a subject at further and higher education levels (post‐16), and study other subjects through the medium of Welsh. This chapter also describes the work done in teaching Welsh to adults in Wales.

Assessment practices vary across sectors, and the main focus of this chapter is on Welsh as a second language in schools and assessing Welsh for adult learners. Challenges for both sectors involve recruiting qualified teachers, improving teaching methods, and providing learners with opportunities to use the language. In conclusion, appropriate qualifications and assessment are viewed as a means of providing motivation and improving attainment, thereby increasing the number of people able to speak and use Welsh effectively.
AssessingEnglishinEurope
Authors: Lim Gad S.
Published: November 2013

One of the results of integration in the European area has been the development of a unified language policy promoting “plurilingualism,” providing some measure of coherence to the learning, teaching, and assessment of language ability. In practice, English has been the primary additional language learned, and it is learned in and out of school systems from ever earlier ages by ever more people, for purposes of personal development, migration, survival, education, and employment.

A long tradition of formal English language assessment exists in parts of Europe, often for high stakes purposes, though informal and formative assessments have also been promoted in such projects as DIALANG and the European Language Portfolio. In recent years, language assessment has been discussed with reference to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Examinations claim “alignment” to the CEFR, and test users ask for results in terms of the six levels into which the CEFR divides language ability.

There is debate, however, as to whether using the CEFR for such alignment is possible, defensible, or even desirable. The meaning and role of the framework remains to be agreed. The direction of this debate, the language‐related policies of users, and the changing demographic of English language learning will influence future ESL assessment practice in Europe and beyond.
AssessingAustralianandNew ZealandIndigenous Languages
Authors: Wigglesworth Gillian , Keegan Peter
Published: November 2013

The assessment of children's indigenous language has, in general, received very little attention despite the fact that it is a worldwide issue with children in every continent growing up in multilingual situations. In this chapter we focus on approaches to assessing children's indigenous language knowledge in two very different contexts—Australia and New Zealand.

Indigenous languages in Australia are in rapid decline. At the time of European settlement there were in the region of 250 languages, many of which were spoken by only a small number of people. However, there are now few indigenous communities where children are growing up learning their traditional indigenous language, and it is predicted that at the current rate of loss there will be no indigenous languages by 2050. The situation in New Zealand is quite different, with Māori being the single indigenous language. However, it is spoken by less than 25% of the Māori population (approximately 15% of New Zealand's population of 4 million are Māori) and is also in decline.

In these different contexts, therefore, approaches to assessment are necessarily different. In Australia the limited amount of research that has been undertaken has focused on receptive skills, arguing that these measures can provide a useful picture of children's current language knowledge.

In New Zealand, all Māori children are exposed to both English and Māori while growing up, but given the prevalence of English in New Zealand society it is difficult to determine how many Māori children truly are first language speakers of Māori or Māori dominant. Almost all Māori‐speaking children attendkōhanga reo(early childhood education centers based on Māori culture and using Māori as the medium of communication) and some form of Māori bilingual/immersion education in the compulsory school sector. Assessment tools developed for the Māori‐medium sector have focused on numeracy and literacy, although recent research has attempted to develop measures to assess students' proficiency of spoken Māori.
Raters and Ratings
Authors: Van Moere Alistair
Published: November 2013

The rating process involves transforming a candidate's written or spoken performance into a score, usually with reference to a set of rating criteria. This chapter provides an overview of the practicalities and theory of the rating process in language assessment. It discusses practical considerations for the test designer, including the training of raters, conducting rating during an assessment, and analysis of ratings to investigate reliability. Theoretical frameworks are presented that illustrate why two different raters might assign different scores to the same performance. Following this, statistical techniques are introduced that analyze the raters' scores and reveal possible sources of inconsistency. Examples from recent studies show how language testers have attempted to improve the reliability of ratings by, for example, training raters or refining the rating criteria. The chapter ends with suggestions for how to validate a set of rating criteria and how ratings might be combined or weighted to produce a final score.
Effect‐Driven Test Specifications
Authors: Kim Jiyoung , Davidson Fred
Published: November 2013

This chapter commences with an overview of test specifications (test specs) and of both traditional and new conceptualizations of their utility. Test specs are generative blueprints specifying important attributes of items or tasks. The classical, fundamental utility of specs lies in generating equivalent items or tasks over time; however, recently we have seen theories and research suggesting a broader and more profound impact of specs on test development and validation. Just as a spec itself evolves, our conceptualization of its utility and role in test development has evolved over time. Specs are now seen as a collection of validity evidence, as a tool for maximizing alignment between teaching and learning, and as a more public document with diverse audiences or readers. These notions all suggest that specs take a critical role in infusing intended effects or outcomes of a test into test design. In other words, test specs are the engine power of “effect‐driven testing.”

The chapter then introduces “effect‐driven test specs” and shares recent research implying their necessity and benefits. Effect‐driven test specs bring intended effects into the test design process by asking test developers to explicitly show evidentiary links between the intended effects and specific characteristics of specs. Effect‐driven specs are still generative blueprints for test design; however, because the specs are written and used in accordance with intended effects and outcomes, they become more tailored tools. The notion of effect‐driven specs acknowledges that we are seeing increasing diversity in terms of test effects (as well as related validity evidence to support the effects), purposes (summative, formative, or both), and audiences (designers or users of a test). To help readers understand the evidentiary links between test effects and design decisions and feel the benefits of effect‐driven specs, an example of an effect‐driven spec and an associated thought exercise are provided. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research.
Bilingual Assessment
Authors: Lakshmanan Usha
Published: November 2013

This chapter focuses on issues central to bilingual assessment. It sets the stage by highlighting the complexities involved in the definition and classification of bilingualism and the need for appropriate bilingual assessment practices in research, educational, and clinical settings. Next, the chapter analyzes the weaknesses of traditional approaches to bilingual assessment. Historically, the assessment of bilingual children and adults has tended to follow monolingual norms, which stems from a fractional view of the bilingual. The monolingual bias is still in evidence today, as bilinguals tend to be assessed only in one language (often the L2). Furthermore, standardized tests, which entail discrete item testing of single measures (e.g., vocabulary and grammar), rather than the use of language for authentic communication, have commonly been used in educational and clinical settings. A problem with standardized testing is that the norming is typically based upon a monolingual native speaker population. A challenge facing researchers, educationists, and clinicians when assessing bilinguals is how not to underestimate or overestimate the bilingual individual's linguistic abilities. Recent (and current) research on bilingual assessment, based upon a more holistic view of bilingualism, has paved the way for the development of nonbiased approaches to bilingual assessment. These recent developments emphasize assessing bilinguals in each of their two languages, adaptation (of standardized tests) to local norms (rather than literal translation), the use of less formal alternatives (e.g., dynamic assessment, language samples analysis), as well as the use of language general measures (e.g., processing capacity). The chapter examines the change in perspective underlying current conceptualizations of bilingual assessment, and presents highlights of current research in the field. The article concludes with a consideration of the challenges involved in the implementation of nonbiased and less formal alternatives to bilingual assessment and the future initiatives necessary to meet these challenges.