bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spontaneity and Naturalness
Authors: Wyatt Thomas A.
Published: March 2007

This article explores the limiting and liberating aspects of spontaneity and naturalness. Although both are depicted as desirable ends, this article emphasizes the trap in pursuing these goals. Both spontaneity and naturalness are identified in Taoist and Buddhist ways as ideal qualities that are characterized by a state of egolessness. Seeking after spontaneity and naturalness is seen to be a direct contradiction of these qualities. Instead, a kind of letting go is advocated, which is achieved by altering the usual goal-directed, striving stance.
Alternative Views on the Evolution of Consciousness
Authors: Coan Richard W.
Published: March 2007

Contemporary theories of the evolution of human consciousness vary with respect to the nature of the direction and assumed goal of evolutionary change. The most conspicuous positions on this issue emphasize what the author has called the modes of efficiency, inner harmony, relatedness, and transcendence. Nearly every theorist posits a universal course of change corresponding to one of these modes. Available evidence on historical developments in different cultures does not support such a position. It is more reasonable to assume many possible evolutionary pathways, but there may be a natural tendency for the pathways to converge ultimately toward a condition of flexible access to all modes of consciousness.
Henry A. Murray (1893-1988)
Authors: Smith M. Brewster
Published: March 2007

Henry A. (Harry) Murray, organizer and primary author of Explorations in Personality = = w (Murray et al., 1938) and, with his long-time partner and collaborator Christiana Morgan, deviser of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), was a humanistic psychologist on the grand scale. Since he felt alienated from the irrationalistic, antiscientific aspects of the humanistic psychology movement when it became substantially captured by the counterculture of the 1960s, and therefore limited his participation, probably rather few HENRY A. MURRAY participants in humanistic psychology remember that along with other major figures in the founding generation ofAmerican personality psychology (Allport, Murphy, and Kelly), Murray was part of the Old Saybrook Conference of 1964 that launched the so-called Third Force of humanistic psychology. His name remained on the masthead of this journal until his death on June 23, 1988.
William James and the Humanistic Tradition
Authors: Taylor Eugene
Published: March 2007

A review is presented of the life and work of William James, followed by four lines of thought linking James to modern humanistic psychology: psychical research, classical Eastern psychology, existential and phenomenological psychology, and personality-social psychology. A humanistically oriented and Jamesean interpretation is offered of present-day scientific psychology, followed by prescriptions for humanistic psychologists if they have any interest in being at the forefront of the coming transformation in the social and medical sciences.
Learning to See
Authors: Kramer Aaron
Published: March 2007

This essay chronicles a series of profound learning experiences. Thanks to the dynamism and confidence of the director of a prominent center for the blind, Kramer had the opportunity first to conduct weekly poetry sessions with a small group, then to present a full evening of Shakespeare before hundreds of unsighted people with virtually no literary background, and finally to direct blind actors in complete staged productions of Our Town and The Time of Your Life. Although he abhorred society's tendency to categorize and isolate blind people, Kramer discovered he had some preconceptions of his own about the blind that were proved wrong. Their zest for learning and doing was as limitless as was their capacity to achieve; all they required was to be seen and challenged as dimensional individuals rather than as disabled stereotypes. Despite personality clashes and formidable setbacks, their flowering was swift and beautiful, more surprising to their sighted family members, the center's staff, and Kramer than to themselves.
Survival of Suicide as an Opportunity for Transcendence
Authors: Levington Caryn , Gruba-Mccallister Frank P.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the experience of surviving a suicidal act. An existential-phenomenological approach is used to discuss this complex and intense human experience. Survivors' psychological suffering and their potential for finding in this experience an opportunity for growth are addressed. A dialectical resolution of the paradox of life and death is described as the catalyst for transcendence. Particular attention is given to the promotion of such healing in the course of psychotherapy with survivors of suicide.
Confronting Carl Rogers
Authors: Quinn Ralph H.
Published: March 2007

The author argues that person-centered therapy in its pure form is too person-centered. An overly optimistic belief in the actualizing tendency and organismic valuing process has led to de facto passivity on the part of the therapist through an almost exclusive reliance on empathy and unconditional positive regard in the psychotherapeutic encounter. A solution is sought through a more interactive and developmental emphasis in the person-centered theory of personality and through a greater role for genuineness in psychotherapeutic and other important human interactions.
The: Shadow Side of Systems Theory
Authors: Berman Morris
Published: March 2007

Systems theory, and holistic thinking in general, has become very popular as a worldview and mode of explanation in recent years because of a number of epistemological advantages it displays over positivist science and the mechanical paradigm. It has been applied to the analysis of major historical changes, the etiology of certain diseases, as well as to ecology and basic perceptions of the earth. Yet a closer look at the systemic or holistic paradigm also reveals a number of significant disadvantages: a tendency to ignore crucial social and historical contexts, as well as individual differences and aspirations; the fallacy of generalizing from specific laboratory experiments to wide-scale social metaphors; and a strong religious orientation, including unreflective thinking and a potentially authoritarian outlook, frequently justified by cultural relativism and the supposed need for a "paradigm shift." However, cultural relativism and notions of the plasticity of reality have their limits, for there is no getting around the reality of certain stubbom facts; and in the case of paradigm shifts, we need to be clear about what we are shifting to before we embrace such changes in a zealous or unreserved way. In this regard, it is significant that the systems search for "order out of chaos" corresponds so clearly to the emerging global corporate economy with its demands for worldwide political stability. Systems thinking will undoubtedly continue to be part of contemporary scientific and philosophical discussions; however, uncritically promoting it as a worldview will not serve our interests, philosophical or otherwise.
Discovering the World in the Individual: the World Channel in Psychotherapy
Authors: Mindell Amy
Published: March 2007

Many therapists today are raising questions about psychotherapy's contribution to politics, its responsibility, view, and influence on the world. This article addresses one aspect by elucidating the reciprocal relationship between the world and the individual as this relationship appears in individual therapy. It offers a process-oriented theory in which the individual's relationship to the world appears in what is called the "world channel." Clients can find world channel phenomena emerging spontaneously from their experience and can, with or without the help of a therapist, unfold the events in this channel. This theory does not prescribe how to act in the world or how to be politically correct or even socially aware. Rather, the theory and method allow unexpected and individual behavior to emerge from a client's signals, dreams, and fantasies. By caring for and unfolding individual experiences in the world channel we learn more about our specific roles and contributions to global history.
Maslow's "Transhumanism": Was Transpersonal Psychology Conceived as "A Psychology without People in it"?
Authors: Koltko-Rivera Mark E.
Published: March 2007

What we may call the transhuman/inhuman critique states that transpersonal psychology is centered on cosmic issues rather than on human ones and so is not a human psychology at all. Abraham Maslow's statements to the effect that the transpersonal is "transhuman, centered in the cosmos rather than in human needs" are considered evidence of this position. Analysis of Maslow's lesser known writings indicates that Maslow, somewhat like J. Huxley, used "transhuman" to indicate the essentially human capacity to desire universal values like justice and truth over the satisfaction of purely personal needs. Thus, the transhuman/inhuman critique is based on a misreading of Maslow. The transpersonal is not inherently unpsychological or divorced from human concerns; rather, it represents an extension of psychology's vision of the human.
An Intellectual Renaissance of Humanistic Psychology?
Authors: Taylor Eugene
Published: March 2007

A review is presented of the historical background of humanistic psychology, which flourished as a distinct movement roughly between the early 1940s to the late 1960s when it fractionated into transpersonal interests in meditation and altered states of consciousness, experiential therapeutics such as body work and the group encounter, and an ultraradicalized form of political psychology, and then became absorbed into the psychotherapeutic counterculture. Having entered a period of relative eclipse since then, its status today after 50 years is assessed. The case is made that humanistic psychologists could potentially launch a renaissance of the movement if they were to dissociate themselves from their present near-pathological focus on the transpersonal, the experiential, and the political long enough to reclaim their rightful place in the history of American academic psychology and then go on to capture the attention of the discipline of psychology with an entirely new metaphysics of how first-rate science should be conducted.
Psychologists in China: National Transformation and Humanistic Psychology
Authors: Jenni Catherine B.
Published: March 2007

Psychology in the People’s Republic of China is experiencing rapid growth and redefinition in response to dramatic changes in economic, cultural, and political conditions. This article discusses the common points of agreement and opportunities for dialogue and collaboration between western humanistic psychology, Chinese psychology and the philosophical and religious traditions of Daoism and Mencian humanistic Confucianism. This article provides an historical and contemporary context for Chinese psychology. It discusses aspects of Chinese culture that interact with the development of a uniquely Chinese psychology. The emergent discipline of psychology in China and humanistic psychological approaches have much to offer each other in the understanding and solution of human and global dilemmas.
Examining the Relationship between Religious Spirituality and Psychological Science
Authors: Slife Brent D. , Hope Carolen , Nebeker R. Scott
Published: March 2007

Scientific interest in religious spirituality and mental health has increased dramatically. However, many researchers have tended to ignore the historic incompatibility between spirituality and traditional science. A review of the spirituality research suggests that important themes of this historic incompatibility persist in contemporary theories of spirituality. Yet, many spirituality researchers have proceeded as if this incompatibility does not exist. Indeed, there is evidence that spiritual conceptions have been altered to fit the requirements of science. No alteration would seem necessary if scientific method were a neutral tool of investigation that did not affect the conceptions themselves. However, if method has philosophical commitments, and if these commitments are incompatible with the conceptual foundations of spirituality, then spirituality researchers may be undermining their own conceptions in science. We outline the philosophical commitments of traditional scientific methods and the philosophical commitments of contemporary conceptions of spirituality to begin a conversation about this possibility.
Developments in Worker Participation in New Zealand
Authors: Smith David F.
Published: March 2007

Industrial democracy and worker participation have become important topics for international debate, with developments taking place in many countries. Despite its former reputation for advances in the social field, little has been heard about developments in worker participation in New Zealand. The aim of the present paper is to report and assess such developments whilst placing these within the context of developments in industrial relations in that country. The strong reliance upon legal arrangements and government intervention in industrial relations matters have had a marked effect upon the development of the industrial relations system in New Zealand. Yet, despite this tradition of legalism, successive governments remain singularly reluctant to legislate in the field of worker participation. Recent initiatives by employers have been strongly unitary in nature, whilst the trade unions appear to be concentrating their efforts upon extending the scope of collective bargaining, an opportunity afforded to them due to recent changes in the law. The present Government's wish that voluntary arrangements between employers and trade unions will eventuate to cover worker participation seems less than pragmatic, since employers, unions and the Government itself differ so fundamentally upon what constitutes worker participation, and the forms it might take.
Managers' and Union Officials' Perception of the Australian Commonwealth Government's Policy on Employee Participation
Authors: Goldstein S.G. , Johansen P.V. , Ng P.C.
Published: March 2007

The attitudes of managers and union officials to employee participation appear to have mellowed over time, although it is possible that forces favouring participation have emerged that only produce an impression of mellowing. Recent studies do, however, seem to indicate that there is a growing acceptance of the broad concept of participation by both managers and union officials. The Commonwealth Government's Policy on Employee Participation is analysed in the light of the recent evidence and, while the Policy promises very little, it is possible that it could provide the basis for substantial change. The present study attempts to analyse the responses of managers and union officials to 22 state ments abstracted from the Policy. The results indicate a generally favourable response although there is substantial divergence between the two groups over a number of important issues. The area of most concern is in the practical application of employee participation programmes where managers appear to be in conflict with the Policy while union officials do not. The conclusion is that the overall acceptance of the Policy has been achieved at the expense of the role of the government and, because of this, rhetoric about employee par ticipation may, in the future, play a larger role than the implementation of definite programmes designed to put the concepts into practice.
East European Public Support for NATO Membership: Fears and Aspirations
Authors: Kostadinova Tatiana
Published: March 2007

A defining characteristic of democratic regimes is that they depend on widespread popular approval of domestic and foreign policy choices made by their elites. This article examines the sources of East European public support for NATO membership. It argues that citizens' attitudes in favor of participation in the North Atlantic defense system are affected, at the individual level, by their own values and characteristics, and at the aggregate level, by the national past experience and the domestic political context. The hypothesized effects of micro- and macro-level factors are tested through logistic regression analysis of data from the 1995 Central and East European Barometer Survey. The results suggest that perceptions of threat from Russia developed in nations occupied by the Soviet Union at the beginning of World War II and the ex-Communists' access to government are factors which mould public opinion and explain differences across countries. Pro-integration and pro-market attitudes emerge as influential determinants of NATO approval which account for the variation observed between individuals. These findings and their theoretical and practical implications are discussed in the context of the recent eastward expansion of NATO and the Kosovo crisis, demonstrating the need to study the dynamics in East European popular appreciation of foreign policy choices over time.
Uncertainty, Change, and War: Power Fluctuations and War in the Modern Elite Power System
Authors: Morton Jeffrey S. , Starr Harvey
Published: March 2007

This article examines the relationship between power fluctuations in the elite power system and the frequency of war. A theory is developed and tested using a new dataset of elite powers and elite power wars. The theory posits that fluctuations in the elite power system are related to war among elite powers due to an increase in uncertainty that accompanies such fluctuations. The theory is logically extended to contend that as elite power systems age (move temporally away from the point of fluctuation) the frequency of war will decrease, due to the decline of uncertainty. The theory is supported by analysis employing an existing dataset collected by Jack Levy, as well as a new elite war dataset. Additionally, in terms of the type of fluctuation and war, the study finds that as the system becomes more complex the incidence of war also increases.
Territorial Disputes and the Probability of War, 1816-1992
Authors: VASQUEZ JOHN , HENEHAN MARIE T.
Published: March 2007

This article provides a basic test of the territorial explanation of war, which maintains that territorial disputes are an important factor in increasing the probability of war. Using the `revision type' code in the Militarized Interstate Dispute (MID) data, the war-proneness of territorial disputes is compared to that of policy and regime disputes in three data samples. Controls for pre-1946 and post-1945 and the status of states (major-major, major-minor, minor-minor) are also introduced. It is generally found that territorial disputes increase the probability of war and have a higher probability of going to war than other kinds of disputes. Policy disputes are less likely to result in war than would be expected by chance. Regime disputes appear to have a probability of escalating to war more than would be expected by chance only in two-party disputes involving minor-minor states or occurring in the post-1945 period.
Conflict Resolution, Culture, and Religion: Toward a Training Model of Interreligious Peacebuilding
Authors: Abu-Nimer Mohammed
Published: March 2007

Recently, conflict resolution practitioners and scholars have begun exploring the application and compatibility of theory and practice to different religious and cultural contexts and conflicts. This article is aimed at, first, bridging conflict resolution and intercultural training concepts through the presentation of a training model in interreligious peacebuilding; second, examining the dynamics and participants' responses in an interreligious context to the intercultural sensitivity model, which is used in an intercultural communication training setting. The data and analysis are based on a series of workshops and interviews conducted between 1996 and 1999 with participants from diverse religious backgrounds. The narrative and stories illustrate the dynamics of the proposed training model and its impact on the participants. The analysis indicates that, with the exception of responses to the last two stages, participants in interreligious settings have similar types of responses to the Intercultural Sensitivity Model. Adaptation and integration responses not only did not exist, but were rejected by all participants on the grounds that moral, ethical, and spiritual religious dimensions would often prevent individuals from adopting integration or adaptation responses. Finally, the article proposes several questions and hypotheses to advance the research in this field.
Conflicting Identities: Solidary Incentives in the Serbo-croatian War
Authors: DUFFY GAVAN , LINDSTROM NICOLE
Published: March 2007

Conflict elites often mobilize by distributing to their constituents solidary incentives to participation. Although elites find this strategy relatively cost-free at mobilization time, it greatly limits their action possibilities at conflict settlement time. The non-retractability of solidary incentives limits the ability of leaders to accommodate their adversaries. It thereby tends to produce protracted conflicts. This article draws upon the Serbo-Croatian conflict to illustrate this general proposition. It shows how distributions of solidary incentives contributed to the protractedness of the 1990-95 conflict between Croatia and Serbia following the dissolution of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The reliance of political leaders on solidary incentives also helps account for subsequent difficulties in implementing the Dayton Peace Agreement. The article concludes by reflecting on how the non-retractability of solidary incentives could affect practical strategies for producing peace in this setting.
Towards a Social Psychology of Peace
Authors: Senghaas-Knobloch Eva , Volmerg Birgit
Published: March 2007

Why has the idea of a common humanity, as formulated in the Russell-Einstein appeal of 1955 and in the pronouncements of the contemporary peace movements, had so little practical impact? This article outlines some structures and processes in the social life of states and deals with the question of how collective learning is affected by them. Emphasis is put not on imperatives and rules determining actions in systemic processes, but rather on the way in which individuals, with subjective needs and wishes, cope with these imperatives and rules when acting as representatives of the state. Pathological traits within political roles in the realm of state sovereignty are exemplified in Robert Kennedy's book on the Cuban missile crisis. The institutionalized separation of the subjective-human and objective-systemic demands has also been analysed in the everyday life of citizens The dominating patterns of action in the roles of everyday life have been found, in an empirical investigation, to correspond to those in political roles. These findings support the thesis that suppressed subjectivity feeds a collective unconscious process of seeking compensation in the realm of national armament and security policy.
Over the Hill? The Anatomy of Revolution at Fifty
Authors: Knutsen Torbjørn L. , Bailey Jennifer L.
Published: March 2007

Crane Brinton's famous Anatomy of Revolution marks a watershed in the study of revolution. This essay celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of the book's publication. It discusses some of the reasons for the remarkable longevity of Brinton's study; it traces Brinton's influence through three generations of American students of revolution; and it suggests a new research agenda for the coming generation based on a re-examination of the concepts of `failed' and `successful' revolutions and of the locus of sovereignty. Here, too, Brinton can provide insight.
Grass-Roots Perspectives on Global Policies for Development
Authors: Alger Chadwick F.
Published: March 2007

Global policy for development emerges out of a process that reaches from the grass roots to global organizations. From a Third World perspective, several typologies of local, national, and international development organizations are presented, along with case studies examining problems encountered in their relationships. From a First World perspective, local development education and advocacy organizations are examined, along with links between these organizations and national organizations, international organizations, and grass-roots organizations in the Third World. Given the strong participatory assertions from the grass roots, is it possible that development (i.e. full development of human potential) can only be achieved by a highly decentralized global policy process? What kinds of state and global institutions, if any, would this imply?
Factors Predisposing Individuals to Support Nuclear Disarmament: An International Perspective
Authors: Rigby Ken , Metzer Jacques , Dietz Biruta
Published: March 2007

This study investigated whether selected social psychological factors predisposed individuals from four different countries to support the policy of nuclear disarmament. Social surveys were conducted during 1986 in Australia, West Germany, Netherlands and the United States. Community samples ( n>160) of residents in each of the countries completed measures of worldmindedness, attitude toward institutional authority and stress engendered by the prospect of nuclear war. Other questions tapped support for nuclear disarmament, both attitudinal and behavioural. Results of correlation and regression analyses showed that in each country residents who supported nuclear disarmament were significantly more likely than others to be relatively worldminded, less favourably disposed to institutional authority and more anxious about nuclear war. In addition, there was a tendency for support to be greater among young people and females. It is concluded that whilst local conditions may determine the degree of support for nuclear disarmament, predisposing factors, of which social attitudes are more important, may operate with similar effect across national boundaries.
Ethnicity versus Nationalism
Authors: ERIKSEN THOMAS HYLLAND
Published: March 2007

The aim of this article is to identify some conditions for peaceful coexistence between the state and populations in multi-cultural societies. Initially, the concepts of ideology, nationalism and ethnicity are examined briefly. It is argued that a successful ideology, such as a nationalist or an ethnic one, must simultaneously legitimize a social order, i.e. a power structure, and provide a meaningful frame for the articulation of important, perceived needs and wishes of its adherents. A few empirical cases are then considered. These examples, ranging from the multi-cultural island-states of Mauritius and Trinidad & Tobago to the Saami (Lappish) minority situation in northern Norway, involve conflicts between nation-states and ethnic groups, and between different ethnic groups within the nation-state. Some conflicts, and the methods employed to resolve them, are compared. The uniqueness of nationalism as a modern, abstract `binary' ideology of exclusion and inclusion, and its powerful symbolic as well as practical aspects, are stressed and contrasted with `segmentary' ethnic ideologies. Finally, the article proposes a list of necessary conditions for the peaceful coexistence of culturally diverse groups within the framework of a modern nation-state. The conclusion is that the main responsibility lies with the state insofar as it possesses a monopoly of political power and the legitimate use of force. State policies should genuinely attempt to decentralize power while at the same time recognizing the right of being culturally distinctive, even in matters relevant for political discourse. State nationalism should not be symbolically linked with the collective identity of only one of the populations. The culturally homogenizing tendencies of nationalism must in other words be counteracted through institutional arrangements which secure some form of ethnic autonomy and encourage cultural pluralism. The alternatives are violent suppression and the enforced assimilation of culturally distinctive groups.
Democracy, War, and Covert Action
Authors: FORSYTHE DAVID P.
Published: March 2007

It is well established that stable industrialized democracies do not use overt force against each other. But do democracies ever use covert force against other elected governments? This article confirms the US threat or use of forcible covert action against a series of elected non-European governments during the Cold War: Iran (1953), Guatemala (1954), Indonesia (1955), Brazil (1960s), Chile (1973), Nicaragua (1980s). There are other examples of US covert non-forcible action against elected governments. Three types of analysis are offered for this pattern. On the most obvious level, the US acted on the basis of an expansive conception of its perceived security interests, fearing future developments that would work to the advantage of the USSR, even though the US was not faced with clear and present dangers to its territorial integrity and political independence. A deeper unique explanation is that, as Michael Hunt has argued, the US was encouraged in these covert actions by an informal ideology entailing beliefs in US greatness, fears of social revolution, and racism. A deeper theoretical explanation is that the targeted regimes did not qualify as mature liberal regimes showing the characteristics of neo-Kantian liberalism: representative and specialized democracy, democratic alliance, and extensive private commerce. Moreover, the neo-Kantian reliance on representative decision-making to avoid major war did not affect secret decisions involving probabilty of few US deaths.
The Nordic Model as a Foreign Policy Instrument: Its Rise and Fall
Authors: Mouritzen Hans
Published: March 2007

This article hypothesizes that the `Nordic' model of society is primarily of Swedish origin, with the other Nordic countries as its first tier of followers. The idea of Nordic `progressivity' has been a useful instrument in individual Nordic foreign policies - primarily as a `bastion' in official rhetoric. Postwar examples of such usefulness are offered from three settings: the Nordic countries as a group in multilateral diplomacy, individual Nordic countries in multilateral diplomacy, and Nordic countries bilaterally in dealings with a great power. Whereas the Nordic bastion could still serve as a useful foreign policy instrument, it has actually been discreetly abandoned from 1991, as part of a deliberate policy on the part of Sweden. The symbol of stable innovation in Northern Europe is gone. The main reason for this abandonment lies in perceived Swedish national interests: how Sweden has chosen to adapt to the European Union. Domestic Swedish party polemics may also have played a (secondary) role. This abandonment has generally adverse implications for the foreign policies of the other Nordic countries, depending on which all-European scenario prevails. Prospects for a future revival of the Nordic bastion do not seem bright.
Collective Action in the Middle East? A Study of Free-Ride in Defense Spending
Authors: CHEN BAIZHU , FENG YI , MASROORI CYRUS
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the existence of the collective action problem among the Arab countries neighboring Israel. The central issue is the time-series pattern of their military expenditures. The collective action framework (Olson, 1971) provides a theoretical guidance for hypothesis testing. The empirical analysis using the cointegration approach has yielded highly consistent evidence that, up to the late 1970s, Egypt was involved in a fierce arms race with Israel, and little evidence that such intensive competition ever existed for Jordan, Lebanon, or Syria alone. The existence of long-run equilibrium relationships and a strong reciprocal impact in such relationships have been established for Egypt and Israel; in regard to minor Front-line Countries (FLCs), long-run relationships with the Israeli expenditure generally exist but the Arab response in the relationships is relatively weak. After the size of the economy is controlled, it is found that Jordan and Lebanon, however, did not take the opportunity to have a complete free-ride of contributing nothing at all, while Syria was least responsive to the increase in the Israeli military spending. Collectively, the minor FLCs added to the equilibrium of the arms races between Israel and the FLCs as a group, especially after the size of the economy for the FLCs as a group and that for Israel are controlled. The empirical findings and conclusion in the article indicate that Olson's original analysis of collective action may be valid in the case of the FLCs.
When Officers Need Internal Enemies: Aspects of Civil-Military Relations in Scandinavia between the World Wars
Authors: AGØY NILS IVAR
Published: March 2007

A main function of the secret security measures against internal enemies in Denmark, Norway and Sweden in the 1920s and 1930s was to provide, in a situation where the armed forces' traditional role of external defence was weakened, a satisfactory field of responsibility for the officer corps in the three countries. The security measures reflected specifically military enemy images, which saw an immanent Communist (or Socialist) threat to society. This allowed the officers to maintain a high opinion of their own importance, and confirmed their view of themselves as the real guardians of the nation's true interests, even if the job was thankless. Conceptually, these internal security measures may be seen as effects of an early form of `new' military professionalism. Such internal security work was one of several factors which alienated military officers from civilian society. The existence of secret armed forces, consisting of men chosen for their non-socialist political views and which could be mobilized on military initiative, in itself constituted a potential threat to the system which the officers were supposed to defend. The threat was never actualized, but there are several indications that military men involved in the internal security work were in fact willing to use the forces unconstitutionally.
Revisiting Economic Sanctions Reconsidered
Authors: Drury A. Cooper
Published: March 2007

Hufbauer, Schott and Elliott have written probably the most comprehensive empirical study of economic sanctions in their volume Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy. They conclude their analysis with several policy recommendations. However, there are problems with their empirical analysis that significantly affect these recommendations. To overcome these problems, I reanalyze their data using ordered logit estimation. In addition to modeling their policy recommendations, I add three hypotheses derived from the sanction literature. The results show that most of the relationships between the variables in their recommendations are insignificant, calling their accuracy and importance into question. In two cases, the original recommendations are accurate only when conditioned by other variables. Cooperation only has a negative effect on success when international organizations are not involved, and nations trying to subvert the sanctions only succeed when the target was originally dependent on the sender for its imports. I conclude by discussing the policy implications these findings have for the future use of economic sanctions.
The Propensity to Forgive: Findings from Lebanon
Authors: Azar Fabiola , Mullet Etienne , Vinsonneau Genevieve
Published: March 2007

The propensity to forgive a severe offense is studied in a sample of 48 people from three religious communities in Lebanon: Catholics, Maronites, and Orthodox. The effects of a number of circumstances: intent to harm, cancellation of consequences, religious and social proximity to the offender and apologies from the offender, on the propensity to forgive, and the variation of these effects as a function of age, gender, and educational level, were considered. The method was an application of Norman Anderson's functional theory of cognition. Twenty-four stories were constructed by varying systematically the levels of each of the four factors quoted above. Participants were asked to rate in each case their propensity to forgive on a forgiveness scale. The more important results concern: (a) the overall level of propensity to forgive, which was higher than expected, (b) the impact of the religious proximity factor, which was very slight, and (c) the effect of the apologies factor, which was extremely important.
How Could Trade Affect Conflict?
Authors: Morrow James D.
Published: March 2007

A common argument is that international trade prevents conflict because the possible loss of trade reduces the willingness of both sides to fight. I examine the logic of this argument in the light of game theoretic models of conflict. In such models, crises are contests of relative resolve. Neither side, however, can observe the other side's resolve in totality; resolve has observable and unobservable components. Instead both sides try to judge the other's unobservable resolve from their actions in the crisis. Costly signals play a critical role in the communication of unobservable resolve in these models. If higher trade flows reduce both sides' resolve for war, then the effect of trade on the likelihood of conflict is indeterminate. Trade flows are observable ex ante, and a state contemplating conflict considers its effect on both sides' actions before beginning a dispute. The initiator is less willing to fight, reducing the chance that it initiates a dispute. At the same time, the target is also less willing to fight, increasing the chance that it makes concessions to the initiator to avoid war, and thus increasing the chance that the initiator begins a dispute. The net effect of these two changes is indeterminate. Trade flows could reduce the risk of escalation by increasing the range of costly signals of resolve in a crisis. A greater range of available costly signals increases the efficiency of signaling between the disputants, increasing the chance that they will reach a peaceful settlement.
Crime and Risky Behavior in Traffic: An Example of Cross-Situational Consistency
Authors: JUNGER MARIANNE , WEST ROBERT , TIMMAN REINIER
Published: March 2007

This study looks at the relationship between risky behavior in traffic and criminal behavior. Analyses were based on a random sample of 1531 persons involved in traffic accidents. The data came from two independent police databases: the accident registration system and a national database on offending. Descriptions of the accidents by the police were used to identify individuals who had displayed risky traffic behavior contributing to or causing an accident; evidence of offending was based on a register of contacts with police. This methodology meant that there was no self-selection bias or self-report bias as may occur in survey data. Exposure to traffic accident risk was controlled for. Log-linear analyses, controlling for gender and age, revealed that persons who displayed risky traffic behavior leading to the accident had an odds ratio of 2.6 for having a police record for violent crime; of 2.5 for vandalism, 1.5 for property crime, and 5.3 for having been involved in traffic crime. The results were consistent with the idea of a common factor underlying risky behavior in traffic and criminal behavior. This underlying trait may represent a general disregard for the long term adverse consequences of one's actions and could be labeled risk-taking, impulsiveness, or lack of self-control.
The Nature of Compliance in Correctional Institutions for Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Jones James A.
Published: March 2007

Compliance consists of two dimensions: (1) acquiescence, agreeing or disagreeing with the directives of a superior; and (2) evaluation, a reason for agreeing or disagreeing. It has been shown to be related to many organizational variables and may prove frùitful in expanding knowledge about correctional insti tutions.

Data relating to compliance were drawn from a study of two correctional institutions for juvenile offenders, one public and the other private. The two institutions differed in their philoso phy of how to rehabilitate juvenile delinquents, in the kinds of offenders admitted to each institution, and in organizational structure.

It was found that inmates at the private institution were more likely to perceive staff wanting them to change, and were more likely to feel that the changes pertained to more than mere con formance to institutional rules and routines. Overall, inmates agreed that they should change as staff wanted in about five out of eight instances. There were no differences in the rate of agree ment between institutions nor for staff positions, but some cot tages consistently showed a higher rate of agreement than other cottages.

Staff directives for change appeared to be evaluated on two bases: (1) moral, whether the staff member had a right to request such a change; and (2) calculative, whether more was to be gained from agreeing or disagreeing to change. Inmates most often evaluated the directives of staff on moral grounds, although in some cottages calculative evaluations predominated. No dif ferences in the evaluation of staff directives were found between institutions, staff positions, or type of directive.

When the two dimensions of compliance were related, three types of compliance emerged: (1) normative compliance; (2) calculative compliance; and (3) alienation. The first is charac terized by agreement on a moral basis, the second by agreement on a calculative basis, and the third by disagreement on a moral basis. It was conjectured that the ability of these two institutions to evoke calculative compliance produced a relatively high rate of acquiescence, but that this kind of compliance is not likely to sustain law-abiding behavior after release from an institution.
Manifest Anxiety and the Postinstitutional Adjustment of Young Offenders
Authors: Holleman James L. , McCune John R. , Ray Thomas S.
Published: March 2007

Staff members of the Vocational Rehabilitation Project at Oklahoma State Reformatory noted an apparent relationship between the anxiety shown by inmates at the time of release and their subsequent adjustment to the rehabilitation program. This observation was investigated by a systematic study involving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and ratings of postinstitutional adjustment by a sociologist, who closely observed the young of fenders on their return to society. It was found that those who scored in the mid-range on the Manifest Anxiety Scale were rated as satisfactory in adjustment, without exception. All those scor ing below 5 were rated as unsatisfactory, while approximately half those scoring above 10 were rated as satisfactory and half as unsatisfactory.
Staff-Inmate Collaboration
Authors: Empey Lamar T. , Newland George E.
Published: March 2007

This paper utilizes "critical incident" data to analyze explora tory attempts to increase inmate-staff collaboration in a commu nity delinquency experiment. Analyses indicated that (1) in mates and staff liberally shared information regarding problem behavior; (2) the majority of incidents were precipitated by only a minority of persistently deviant persons; and (3) the emergent program culture was increasingly effective as a social-control mechanism. However, this institutional culture or code may have been overly punitive and restrictive. Discussion of the complex pressures which led to this situation highlight the consequences of individual and systemic interaction.
Scaling Juvenile Delinquency
Authors: Shannon Lyle W.
Published: March 2007

The basic data in this research consist of a 40 per cent systematic sample of police contacts with juveniles aged six through seventeen in Madison, Wis., over a six-year period. Earlier research reports have described the distribution of police contacts, referrals for official action, and the distribution of individual delinquents according to social areas of the city. No attempt has previously been made to place the various types or patterns of delinquent behavior on an empirically derived scale or delinquency continuum.

The data in this paper cast considerable doubt on the hypothe sis of unidimensionality and the hypothesis of distinctive types of delinquent careers. Actually, relatively few delinquents who had police contacts had what could be called a career in delinquency. Juveniles with multiple contacts and what might be defined as careers in delinquency engaged in quite diversified behavior. One must tentatively conclude that the total number of police contacts by a juvenile for those reasons that involve a violation of the law or more serious juvenile misbehaviors (serious as perceived by the public and authorities in the community) will serve as an index of juvenile misbehavior about as well as or better than either Guttman scale or geometric scores. However, this conclusion must be tentative, pending a similar analysis of juvenile contact data for Racine, Wis., since Madison may be an unusual case.
On the Validity of Official Statistics A Comparative Study of White, Black, and Japanese High-School Boys
Authors: Chambliss William J. , Nagasawa Richard H.
Published: March 2007

A continuing debate in the sociology of deviance is the degree to which official statistics are representative of the distribution and rate of deviance in the society. Some argue that official statistics are totally meaningless as indices of deviance rates; others maintain that, although official statistics are distorted, they nonetheless indicate important trends and distributions of real rates of deviance. Official and unofficial delinquency rates of black, white, and Japanese youths in a large metropolitan area were analyzed. Our conclusion is that official statistics are so misleading that they are virtually useless as indicators of actual deviance in the population. It is suggested that the visibility of the offenses, the bias of the policing agencies, and the demeanor of the youth account for the rate and distribution of delinquency among the three groups and that official rates are a complete distortion of the actual incidence.
A Computer-Made Device for Sentencing Decisions
Authors: Grygier Tadeusz
Published: March 2007

This paper reports a new device for predicting success on pro bation, developed in a study of 933 male probationers in Ontario. Discriminant function and related methods, association analysis, simple summation, and predictive attribute analysis were used, and their virtues and weaknesses compared. Predictive attribute analysis proved to be most efficient but least stable, and simple summation least efficient but most stable. On cross-validation the differences between the various techniques tended to disappear.

The new device consists of a table and a form on which the probation officer notes eight predictive attributes of an offender as present (+) or absent (-). This form is moved along the table until all the pluses and minuses agree. The risk category and the probability of success on probation can then be read off the table. The device is at present applicable only in Ontario and its life expectancy is short. A more lasting device with wider application could be constructed if cooperation from several jurisdictions is obtained and the standardization sample is representative of all offenders before the court for whom probation is available.
A Modern Information System for Uniform Parole Reports Data
Authors: Wenk Ernst A. , Gottfredson Don M. , Radwin Maric S.
Published: March 2007

New developments in computer technology will funda mentally change the relationship between man and the com puter. There clearly exist both the need and the capability for a flexible, adaptive technique for fulfilling user requirements of a spontaneous nature. Modern on-line information systems such as can be supported by third generation computer tech nology can provide the tools permitting the users to interact with the computer in a dynamic fashion. The application of such a system to the Uniform Parole Reports data is described and future developments of on-line statistical analyses and modeling and simulation techniques are mentioned as targets for collaborative research efforts.