bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Technology and Cultural Convergence
Authors: Fliegel Frederick , Sofranko Andrew J. , Williams James D. , Sharma Navin C.
Published: March 2007

Past research on individual modernity has concentrated on identification of the antecedents of more modern patterns of thinking, valuing, and behaving. The present study attempts to take a next step in this research tradition, to determine whether value modernization also implies cross-cultural value convergence. Data were obtained from samples at four levels of industry in each of three countries (Ghana, India, and Brazil) on 22 questions designed to assess modernity in values. Responses were submitted to a "points of view" and subsequent discriminant analysis. The findings provided no support for the convergence hypothesis. We did not find any greater cross-national similarity in values among workers in the more modern, capital-intensive technological settings than among workers in less modern, labor-intensive settings.
Alcohol Drinking Patterns among Asian and Caucasian Americans
Authors: Sue Stanley , Zane Nolan , Ito Joanne
Published: March 2007

Previous studies have attributed low rates of alcoholism and alcohol consumption among Chinese and Japanese to genetic or to cultural factors. The present study examined the responses of 47 Asian and 77 Causasian American students who completed questionnaires concerning their drinking patterns, their own and their parents' attitudes toward drinking, and the cues they used to control alcohol consumption. Asian students were also administered assimilation measures. Results indicated that (a) Asians reported more moderate drinking, (b) degree of assimilation was positively related to drinking, (c) attitudes toward drinking were related to reported drinking and were more negative in the case of Asians and their parents, and (d) Caucasians reported more extensive use of cues in the regulation of their drinking. The results suggest the importance of cultural factors in drinking patterns.
Maternal Strategies for Regulating Children's Behavior
Authors: Conroy Mary , Hess Robert D. , Azuma Hiroshi , Kashiwagi Keiko
Published: March 2007

The strategies that Japanese and American mothers use to gain compliance from young children were compared. Six hypothetical compliance-relevant situations were described to 58 Japanese and 67 American mothers. Their responses were scored for the rationale or cognitive structure they offered as a basis for compliance and the flexibility or psychological space evident in their negotiations with the child. Japanese mothers were more likely to utilize feeling-oriented appeals and demonstrated greater flexibility than their American counterparts. American mothers relied more extensively on appeals to their authority as mothers. The cultural contexts that contribute to these different responses are discussed.
Androgyny Across Two Cultures
Authors: Maloney Patrick , Wilkof Joy , Dambrot Faye
Published: March 2007

The present study involved a cross-cultural comparison of 320 Israeli and 333 American students using the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) as a measure of sex-role orientation. The results indicated that fewer Israeli males were classified as androgynous. No significant differences were found in the masculine or feminine categories. It was found that Israeli and American females were very similar in terms of mean masculine and feminine BSRI scores. However, Israeli males had significantly lower BSRI masculine scores than American males. The utility of the BSRI and other measures of sex-role orientation for cross-cultural research is noted and other studies using Israeli samples are discussed.
Language and Cognition
Authors: Foorman Barbara R. , Arias-Godinez Beatrlz , Gonzalez Juanita Y.
Published: March 2007

To examine the relationship between language and cognitive performance, 120 kindergarten and second grade children from three different language environments were given a perceptual matching test and a verbal communication test. The three language groups included 40 Mexican Spanish-speaking children from Monterrey, Mexico, and from Houston, Texas, 40 Chicano Spanish-speaking children and 40 English-speaking children. The English-speaking group had significantly lower performance on the communication task than the two Spanish-speaking groups. The processing demands imposed by English adjective ordering rules accounted for this difference in performance. The English speakers also performed significantly lower on the perceptual task, perhaps for the same reason. Implications for education were discussed.
Autonomous Versus Heteronomous Moral Judgment Types
Authors: Logan Regina , Snarey John , Schrader Dawn
Published: March 2007

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development differentiates moral types from moral stages; moral types are designated as Type A, heteronomous, and Type B, autonomous. This is a report of a six-year longitudinal cross-cultural study of moral types. The sample included kibbuz-educated Israeli adolescents, equally divided between kibbutz-born and city-born youth. Results indicated that when subjects changed from one type of reasoning to another, 83% of the changes were to Type B reasoning. The shift to Type B reasoning was positively associated with moral stage development; there were no significant differences in moral type between kibbutz-born and city-born or between males and females. Results further indicated that Israeli adolescents were more likely to exhibit Type B reasoning than similarly aged subjects from the United States, Turkey, Taiwan, or the Bahamas. The possibility of cultural bias is also discussed.
Cognitive Representation of Risk Perceptions
Authors: Kleinhesselink Randall R. , Rosa Eugene A.
Published: March 2007

An impressive body of research in the psychometric tradition has demonstrated systematic biases in the way Americans perceive risks associated with technologies, substances, and activities. The consistency of the findings has raised the question of whether these biases are culturally specific or reflective of more fundamental human thought processes. Do people in different cultures perceive technological and other risks differently or similarly? An answer to the question is also important to the development of effective communication strategies and international policies for addressing global risks. Recent empirical research to address the question has used psychometric techniques to-assess the risk perceptions of samples in Hungary, Norway, and Hong Kong. The research presented here, building and improving on the previous cross-cultural work, is a comparison of risk perceptions between American and Japanese people. The results from the concurrently collected perception data indicate both striking similarities and differences in the ways Americans and Japanese perceive risks.
Risk and Culture Research
Authors: Johnson Branden B.
Published: March 2007

Psychological study of cross-cultural differences in risk responses can be undermined by failure to take account of the challenges of such research. Investigators who see any differences found across populations as cultural, use other disciplines' theoretical models or culture-specific psychometric scales without realizing their limits, and uncritically accept standard categories of risks and risk responses may reduce the potential of this conjunction of culture, risk, and psychology.
Cultural Differences in Child Rearing
Authors: Kelley Michelle L. , Tseng Hui-Mei
Published: March 2007

To study cultural differences in child-rearing practices, 38 middle-class immigrant Chinese mothers and 38 middle-class Caucasian American mothers of 3- to 8-year-old children completed the Parenting Dimensions Inventory (PDI) and the Parenting Goals Questionnaire (PGQ). Comparison of the PDI scale scores revealed differences on all but the reasoning dimension. Caucasian American mothers scored higher on sensitivity, consistency, nonrestrictiveness, nurturance, and rule setting, whereas immigrant Chinese mothers scored higher on physical punishment and yelling at the child. Examination of the parenting goals revealed no cultural main effect, however, a main effect was found for child's age. Both immigrant Chinese and Caucasian American mothers place more emphasis on manners, school-related skills, and emotional adjustment during the early elementary school years (6 to 8 years of age) than during the preschool years (3 to 5 years of age). Results related to terns of the need for immigrant Chinese to maintain ties to their culture of origin and to accommodate to the socialization practices of the host culture.
Cultural Variability in Stress and Control
Authors: El-Sheikh Mona , Klaczynski Paul A.
Published: March 2007

Subcultural differences in the types of stressors, coping strategies, and control beliefs reported by thirty-two 10- to 14-year-old Egyptian girls from middle-class, countryside, and inner-city backgrounds were investigated. Girls were interviewed about the types of stressors they encountered in different life domains, their coping responses in dealing with these stressors, and their general control beliefs. A translated version of Connell's Multidimensional Measure of Children's Perceptions of Control (MMCPC) was administered to the middle-class and inner-city girls. All groups differed significantly in (a) the types of stressors reported in various life domains and (b) reported life control. Middle-class and inner-city girls showed different patterns of control beliefs on the MMCPC. The implications of these findings for the study of stress and coping from the cross-cultural perspective are discussed.
Who are We and Where are We Going?
Authors: Öngel Üstün , Smith Peter B.
Published: March 2007

All 721 articles in the 96 issues of the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology published between the years of 1970 and mid-1993 are reviewed by content analysis. Of the 21 coding categories used, 16 referred to objective indexes, such as normal location of authors, culture groups studied, focus of the study, and nature of samples. The remaining five categories required qualitative judgments, such as whether a study had an "eimic" or an "etic" orientation and how culture was conceptualized. The results indicate a growing emphasis on social psychological topics and use of more sophisticated types of data analysis. However, the field continues to give disproportionate emphasis to U.S. researchers and to theories and perspectives developed in the USA. Studies continue to use designs that are predominantly "imposed etic."
Differences in Self-Disclosure Patterns among Americans Versus Chinese
Authors: Chen Guo-Ming
Published: March 2007

The study investigates differences in self-disclosure, comparing patterns of Americans versus the Chinese. Two hundred American students and 144 Chinese students completed a questionnaire regarding the degree of self-disclosure on different conversational topics and to selected target persons. The results of MANOVA show that Americans disclose more than the Chinese in both categories. Sex differences are also found between the two nations.
A Cross-Cultural Examination of Racial Identity and Racial Preference of Preschool Children in the West Indies
Authors: Gopaul-McNicol Sharon-Ann
Published: March 2007

The present study investigated the racial attitudes of preschool children in the West Indies. The Clarks' 1947 study found that both Black and White preschool children evaluate White dolls more positively than Black dolls. In this study, 302 children from four islands in the West Indies were presented with Black and White Cabbage Patch dolls. A Black female examiner instructed the children to choose a doll to play with from two dolls identical in every respect except skin coloring. The standard Clark doll questions and four more questions added by the researcher were also individually administered. In addition, 34 of the 302 children were administered a multiple-alternative method instead of the original forced-choice method only. It was found the majority (71.9%) of West Indian children when presented with Black dolls and White dolls chose to play with the White doll. The implication is that in spite of the fact that the West Indies is composed of a majority Black population, the impact of colonialism has left a debilitating effect on West Indians.
Self-Serving Biases and Self-Satisfaction in East Versus West German Students
Authors: Hannover Bettina
Published: March 2007

Oettingen and Seligman, in their 1990 study, found more behavioral expressions of depression in East than in West Berliners. On the basis of their findings, we assumed that(a) East Germans are less likely to show self-serving biases when judging personal performances than West Germans and that (b) the absence of positively biased judgments would produce lower self-satisfaction in East than in West Germans. In a questionnaire study, we found more accurate self-related judgments in East than in West German students. This difference was especially pronounced in students who had obtained negative performance feedback. Further, West German students were found to be more self-satisfied than East German students. This difference was partly due to a lack of judgmental distortions in the East German students.
The Social Regulation of Emotions in Jealousy Situations
Authors: Zammuner Vanda L. , Fischer Agneta H.
Published: March 2007

Potential discrepancies between felt and communicated emotions elicited by two typical antecedents of jealousy that varied in terms of their seriousness were studied by means of a structured questionnaire. Italian (N = 301) and Dutch (N = 262) men and women attributed felt and shared emotions to a story protagonist. The emotions investigated included jealousy, anger, anxiety, sadness, insecurity, surprise, embarrassment, irritation, disgust, frustration, and depression. Event seriousness and nationality influenced the felt intensity of most emotions; sex influenced the intensity of only a few. Significant discrepancies between felt and shared emotions occurred for several emotions; jealousy was regulated by all respondents, and by Dutch subjects more than by Italians. Nation and sex significantly influenced the direction and magnitude of several observed discrep-ancies for one of the two antecedents only. The results supported our predictions that the ever bal communication of feelings about jealousy situations is subject to regulation. It is suggested that regulation is influenced by culture-specific norms and beliefs about social and personal implications of a given emotion.
Attributions and Discrimination
Authors: Moghaddam Fathali M. , Taylor Donald M. , Lambert Wallace E. , Schmidt Amy E.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the self-protective role of social attributions by comparing attributions made to the self, one's ethnic group and to factors external to oneself, and to one's ethnic group. Respondents were lower or middle-class White, Black, or Hispanic mothers living in Miami. When presented with the hypothetical case where they person-ally were successful in improving their employment status, all groups attributed success to the self. In the case of failure, the lower class Whites were the only group that attributed the failure to themselves personally; the middle-class Blacks attributed failure mainly to ethnic group membership (discrimination), the lower class Blacks to both group membership and factors external to individuals or groups, and the middle-class Whites exclusively to factors external to individuals or groups.
Psychosocial Determinants of Whether and How Much New Mothers Work
Authors: Pascual Liliana , Haynes O. Maurice , Galperín Celia Z. , Bornstein Marc H.
Published: March 2007

In this study, psychosocial predictors of mothers' decision to work and the number of hours worked (for working mothers) were examined in two contrasting cultural settings, the United States and Argentina. In total, 78 U.S. and 68 Argentine primiparous mothers of 5-month-old infants participated. In both settings, years of marriage and months that mothers worked during pregnancy predict whether mothers are employed after childbirth. By contrast, when the number of hours that mothers worked was predicted, different results were found in the two countries: Better educated women with higher status occupations work longer hours after childbirth in the United States, whereas better educated women with higher status occupations work fewer hours in Argentina. Different cultural and economic conditions in the two countries appear to mediate psychosocial determinants of women's decision to work.
Sojourner Adjustment
Authors: Hsiao-Ying Tsai
Published: March 2007

This article deals with the adjustment of sojourners in Japan. From a psychological perspective, adjustment is closely linked to the development of attitudes in a foreign country. The results of this investigation do not support the idea that foreigners' attitudes toward their host culture automatically improve once they have learned to cope with their new environment in everyday life. This idea has been implied not only by what is widely known as the U-curve theory of adjustment but also by the theory of culture learning. Generally, the results of this investigation suggest a more ambiguous and pessimistic picture of the prospect of overcoming culture shock in a culturally homogeneous environment.
Cultural Differences in the Self-Reported Experience and Expression of Emotions in Relationships
Authors: Aune Krystyna S. , Aune R. Kelly
Published: March 2007

This study investigated cultural differences in emotion experience and expression in romantic relationships. It was hypothesized that Japanese Americans would report experiencing and expressing emotion to a lesser degree than Filipino Americans, and Filipino Americans would report experiencing and expressing emotion less intensely than Euro Americans. It was also hypothesized that the perceived appropriateness of the expression of emotion would be lowest for Japanese Americans, followed by Filipino Americans, and Filipino Americans would perceive lower appropriateness of emotion expression than Euro Americans. A total of 134 respondents completed a self-report instrument, which assessed a positive and negative emotion instance experienced in their romantic relationship. Negative and positive emotion instances were analyzed separately and only positive emotions were found to vary as a set across culture. Results showed that Filipino Americans rated emotion experience intensity, expression intensity, and appropriateness higher than Japanese Americans; however, contrary to expectations, Euro Americans' means were as low as, or lower, than those of the Japanese Americans respondents on all three dependent measures.
Individualism-Collectivism and Global Self-Esteem
Authors: Tafarodi Romin W. , Swann William B.
Published: March 2007

How does the cultural construct of individualism-collectivism relate to global self-esteem? It is proposed that highly collectivist cultures promote the development of one dimension of global self-esteem (generalized self-liking) but challenge the development of the other (generalized self-competence), whereas highly individualist cultures are characterized by the inverse asymmetry. This cultural trade-off hypothesis was investigated by comparing a sample of 302 Chinese with a sample of 343 American college students. The cross-cultural equivalence of the two-dimensional model of self-esteem was first assessed and found to be adequate. Given the high intercorrelation of the 2 self-esteem dimensions, only the unique or non-common part of each dimension was used in hypothesis testing. As predicted, the Chinese were lower in self-competence but higher in self-liking than the Americans. Caveats and implications are discussed.
Demographic Correlates of Individualism and Collectivism
Authors: Freeman Mark A.
Published: March 2007

The demographic correlates of idiocentrism and allocentrism (the within-culture measures of individualism and collectivism) were investigated in Sri Lanka. A sample of 438 Sri Lankan respondents, from a wide variety of demographic contexts, provided data for the study. Factor analysis revealed that idiocentrism and allocentrism in Sri Lanka are independent, unipolar factors, rather than opposites on a single, bipolar dimension. Socioeconomic status was a strong negative correlate of allocentrism, and urban residence was a strong positive correlate of idiocentrism; English language fluency, overseas experience, age, occupational status, and educational level were also correlated with the value syndromes. The findings were discussed both within the context of Sri Lankan culture and in terms of their applicability to other cultural settings.
Rules in Context
Authors: Kroonenberg Pieter M. , Kashima Yoshihisa
Published: March 2007

Mann, Mitsui, Beswick, and Harmoni (1994) reported a study in which Australian and Japanese children's perceptions of interpersonal rules were compared. In this article, a secondary analysis of Mann et al.'s data was conducted with three-mode principal component analysis to examine both common and culture-specific patterns of interpersonal rules, which were only touched on in the earlier study. A large cultural similarity across samples was found with social status and social distance as the major dimensions that structure children's social world. The sizable cross-cultural differences could be understood as deviations from the common structure. Some of these deviations are explicable in terms of the general variables of individualism and collectivism.
A Cross-Cultural Developmental Study of Directional Asymmetries in Circle Drawing
Authors: Amenomori Mika , Kono Akiko , Fournier Jody S. , Winer Gerald A.
Published: March 2007

Results have indicated a decreasing tendency to draw circles in a clockwise direction and an increasing tendency to draw them in a counterclockwise fashion with increases in grade. Blau labeled the developmentally less advanced, clockwise circle drawing as "torque" and further proposed that torque was related to psychological difficulties. The present study compared the direction of circle drawing for American students, Japanese living in Japan, and Japanese living in America. Results showed that with advancing grade, Americans increasingly drew in a counterclockwise direction, whereas the Japanese increasingly drew in a clockwise direction. Also, Japanese living in America showed a less pronounced tendency to draw clockwise circles across grades than Japanese living in Japan. The results suggest that circle drawing movements are a function of culture and education in learning how to write.
Lingua Franca of Personality
Authors: Raad Boele De , Perugini Marco , Hrebícková Martina , Szarota Piotr
Published: March 2007

Data sets from seven original trait taxonomies from different languages, American English, Dutch, German, Hungarian, Italian, Czech, and Polish, are used for a cross-cultural study. The taxonomic procedures, involving culling trait terms from the various lexicons and the construction of representative samples of trait terms, are briefly discussed. Factor structures, presumably Big Five structures, within these languages, based on ratings from an average of about 640 subjects on an average of approximately 430 trait variables per language, are used for comparison. Congruence coefficients are calculated for the corresponding factors in the different languages, based on their independent positions and on their positions after rotations, using the American English solution as target. In a relative sense, the congruences show replicability of the first four American English, Big Five factors in the other languages.
Language of Response and the Spontaneous Self-Concept
Authors: Watkins David , Gerong Andres
Published: March 2007

Responses to the Twenty Statements Test were obtained from 166 Filipino secondary school children asked to respond either in English or Cebuano, their local language. Contrary to the cultural accommodation hypothesis, the respondents did not provide more independent self-references in the English language condition. Examination of responses indicated that when responding in English, the participants, particularly the males, were influenced by the school context. The females tended to provide more relational self-references.
Self-Esteem and the Cultural Trade-Off
Authors: Tafarodi Romin W. , Lang James M. , Smith Alyson J.
Published: March 2007

According to the cultural trade-off hypothesis, individualism and collectivism entail inverse costs and benefits for the two dimensions of global self-esteem. Specifically, individualism is described as promoting the development of self-competence but inhibiting the development of self-liking. Collectivism is described as doing the opposite. To examine the hypothesis, Malaysian (collectivist) and British (individualist) students were compared on their self-liking and self-competence. Consistent with predictions, Malaysians were significantly lower in self-competence when self-liking was held constant but were higher in self-liking when self-competence was held constant. The differences, however, were not reliable after statistically equating the cultural groups on two derived dimensions of individualism-collectivism—deference to the direction of relatives and connectedness to parents—suggesting that these dimensions might account for the trade-off in self-esteem.
Motherland or Home Country
Authors: Amir Marianne , Ayalon Liat , Varshavsky Sergei , Bulygina Natalia
Published: March 2007

The present study’s aim was to compare health-related quality of life (QoL) as measured by the SF-36 between 51 Jews from the former Soviet Union who immigrated to Israel between 3 and 8 years ago (Group 1) and 52 Jews who currently live in Russia (Group 2). Both were compared to a matched control group of 49 veteran Jewish nonimmigrant Israelis (Group 3). The results showed few differences between Group 1 and Group 2. However, both groups scored significantly lower than Group 3 on five of the eight subscales on the SF-36. It was concluded that Russian Jews who had immigrated to Israel did not differ significantly with regard to QoL compared to those who stayed behind in Russia and that more than 8 years are needed to reach the level of veteran Israelis who enjoy better QoL than both Jews in Russia and former Russians who immigrated to Israel.
Hope-Healing Communities in Contemporary Africa
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: March 2007

This article reports on the hope-healing communities organized by religious ministers in two regions of Africa. The author gives narrative accounts of the key hope-generating processes incorporated into the eight-stage structure of their practice, presenting new concepts and highlighting the healing factors in these communities intended to help people cope with the devastating conditions in today’s Africa.
Pseudo-Self-Actualization
Authors: Forest James J. , Sicz George
Published: March 2007

Although the concept of pseudo-self-actualization is potentially quite important, it has not developed, theoretically or empirically, beyond the level initially presented by Shostrom. Consequently, it is difficult to define exact standards for judging pseudo-self-actualizing, to determine its frequency, or even to test Shostrom's explanation for such behavior. If the concept were to be validated, however, it would appear to call into question some of the conclusions of those studies which have assumed that the inner-directedness scale is a linear measure of self-actualization.
Heuristic Inquiry
Authors: Douglass Bruce G. , Moustakas Clark
Published: March 2007

This article is a presentation of heuristics as an approach to human science research. In its purest form, heuristics is a passionate and discerning personal involvement in problem solving, an effort to know the essence of some aspect of life through the internal pathways of the self. The private and imaginative nature of heuristic inquiry introduces a unique challenge in research investigations and in philosophical conceptualizations of human science. When utilized as a framework for research, it offers a disciplined pursuit of essential meanings connected with everyday human experiences. Through discussion of its inherent processes and values, we hope to develop a fresh perspective for the understanding and application of a heuristic approach to scientific investigation. Our aim is to awaken and inspire researchers to make contact with and respect their own questions and problems, to suggest a process that affirms imagination, intuition, self-reflection, and the tacit dimension as valid ways in the search for knowledge and understanding. We do not intend for this article to present a "how-to-do" focus. We believe that that competence and skill can be learned only through practice. We also do not plan to include summaries of completed heuristic research. A few such studies are included in our reference list (Craig, 1978; Jourard, 1968; Moustakas, 1975; Pearce, 1971. A list of the titles of heuristic studies completed by graduates of the former Merrill-Palmer Institute and the Center for Humanistic Studies in Detroit, Michigan are available through the senior author of this article.
Technology and Language Use
Authors: Murphy John W. , Pardeck John T.
Published: March 2007

This article shows the relationships among computerization, cognition, and language style. Specifically important is that computerization is demonstrated to shape language and cognition in a way that diminishes the role interpretation plays in knowledge acquisition. This portrayal of knowledge has significant consequences for computer mediated therapy. That is, behavior is divorced from its social or interpretive context and thus little insight is gained into a client's problems. Diagnoses, simply put, are made to conform to technical criteria. Behavior is thus classified neatly but, most often, in an irrelevant manner. This article is based on Murphy's and Pardeck's research into the impact of technology on education and the delivery of social services.
Correcting Misperceptions in Soviet-American Relations
Authors: Chasin Richard , Herzig Margaret
Published: March 2007

As glasnost slowly warms U.S.-Soviet relations, and citizen diplomacy initiatives proliferate, the need for innovative strategies for enhancing U.S.-Soviet communication has increased. Gone are the days when any contact whatever between Soviet and American citizens was cause for celebration. Increasingly, the success of citizen exchange hinges on their productivity and their depth of communication. Now, more than ever, exchanges can be expected to demand of their participants more than superficial mutuality and to produce ongoing alliances for constructive cooperation. The two events reported in this article exemplify productive and probing exchanges. They owe their success to the creative application of theories and techniques from family therapy to the realm of Soviet-American dialogue.
Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy in Russia
Authors: Gilbert Richard Karman , Shiryaev Eric
Published: March 2007

In the summer of 1991, during the waning days of the Soviet empire, the first author served as a visiting professor of psychology at Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) State University. During this time, he collaborated with the second author on a study of the practice and profession of Russian psychotherapy. A series of interviews was conducted with Russian clinicians who were actively involved in outpatient psychotherapy. In these interviews, issues of psychological education, employment opportunities, and clinical training were addressed. In addition, clinical topics such as models of etiology and treatment, the mechanics of practice, law and ethics, and the impact of politics and culture on psychotherapy were also covered. What emerged from this investigation was a picture of a profession with some similarities, but with many differences, compared to that which exists in the United States. It was noted, for example, that humanistic-existential conceptions of personality and therapy are relatively more prominent in Russia, and that the long tradition of Russian authoritarianism has an important influence on the psychotherapy relationship. Collectively, the commonalities and differences across the two systems described in this article provide a baseline from which changes in the post-Soviet era can be understood and evaluated. The article concludes with some speculative comments on the future of Russian psychotherapy. It should be noted that, although the year following the failed hard-line coup has been one of great economic and political upheaval in the Russian republic, the state of clinical psychology and psychotherapy described in this article remains largely the same.
The Temperament/Actualization Concept: A Perspective on Constitutional Integrity and Psychological Health
Authors: Ford J. Guthrie
Published: March 2007

The tide in humanistic psychology has been running against the psychobiological perspective. In this climate, the author and his students have gathered a body of data showing that the nonactualization of a temperament, a psychobiological trait of personality, is a significant predictor of maladjustment (e.g., other directedness and anxiety). The findings have led the author to propose the temperament/actualization concept, which is developed and discussed in the first part of the article. He then discusses the relevance of this concept to theory and issues in humanistic psychology, a model of somatic and symbolic self-processing, the real self, and a parenting model attuned to the child's constitutional makeup.
Laing and Heidegger on Alienation
Authors: Burston Daniel
Published: March 2007

R. D. Laing's concept of alienation-evidenced in his theory of "true" and "false" guilt, social fantasy systems, and artistic creativity-is discussed in light of the ideas of alienation and authenticity in Hegel, Marx, and Heidegger. Despite a tendency to polemical excess, there is much in Laing's approach that merits further exploration and discussion.
A Critique of Nondirectivity in the Person-Centered Approach
Authors: Kahn Edwin
Published: March 2007

This article discusses the concept of nondirectivity in person-centered theory. It argues that, since personal and theoretical biases are unavoidable, it is impossible for a therapist to be consistently nondirective. Furthermore, the concept of nondirectivity, with its focus on the psychology of the client, implies that person-centered therapy is a one-person rather than a two-person psychology. The article quotes therapists who believe that when a client’s autonomy is respected, a wide variety of therapeutic interventions are possible. The argument is made that therapist fallibility may be a more relevant concept than nondirectivity. With the fallibility of the therapist and a respect for the autonomy of the client, therapeutic responses can become more flexible and innovative, increasing the power of the person-centered approach with its unique and admirable democratic ideals.
The Operation of Western Australian Unions and the Prospects for Collective Bargaining
Authors: Dufty N.F.
Published: March 2007

In an attempt to analyse the dealings of unions and management in Western Australia and to compare those findings with an earlier study in New South Wales, the author has conducted a direct negotiation survey utilising an inter view schedule developed for the New South Wales study. Union characteristics, especially the job of the union secretary, are examined in the light of the present conduct of direct negotiation in Western Australia. In attempting to gauge the prospects for the future development of collective bargaining, the author presents findings on the level of union resources, the degree of cohesive- ness of negotiating units, the likelihood of commitment to an agreement once it is signed and the current provision of third party neutrals within the Western Australian industrial relations system. The conclusion is that Western Australian unions operate largely within the State system and that direct negotiation is increasing despite difficulties over the lack of "industrial muscle", union size, union multiplicity and the lack of union resources. The data indicate that a number of steps need to be taken to provide a more comprehensive framework for the movement towards collective bargaining.
The Use of Seniority in Labour Selection and Job Allocation
Authors: Macdonald Duncan
Published: March 2007

One of the many causes of conflict within the labour process is choice of an appropriate criterion for the selection of labour and the allocation of work tasks. While merit, as a proxy for productivity or efficiency, is appropriate according to economic rationality and the principles of business management, evidence abounds of the prevalence of seniority as the criterion most used. In an attempt to explain this apparent contradiction it is hypothesised that, in many cases, management is obliged to utilise seniority because the costs of insisting upon merit are too high. These costs, in turn, are claimed to result from three factors: the difficulties of measuring merit, workers' attachment to the seniority principle and external constraints on having merit predominate. Evidence from a variety of case studies is presented in support of the hypothesis.
The Guns-Growth Relationship in Israel
Authors: DeRouen Karl
Published: March 2007

Israel has one of the highest defense burdens in the world because of security threats and the related need for domestic defense production in the face of uncertain suppliers. Its vote-conscious leaders also react to the domestic political implications of economic performance. Leaders must maintain a healthy growth rate while guarding against inflation. This milieu of sometimes competing phenomena operates in one of the most volatile regions in the world. Prior to the wars in 1967 and 1973, economic growth was healthy and the defense burden was much lower. Economic growth has since rebounded but not to pre-1967 levels. There are competing explanations of the effect of the Israeli defense sector on growth. I consider the determinants and potential effects of Israeli defense spending and then test a three-sector production function model sensitive to the effects of increases in civilian technology and defense and non-defense externalities. The results suggest that when controlling for technological growth, short-term increases in defense spending diminished growth. Non-defense spending fostered growth. I discuss the implications for the much-anticipated `peace dividend' in the Middle East. Based on the empirical findings of the model tested, the policy implication for long-term Israeli defense planning is that eventual savings from peace would be best used for non-defense spending on infrastructure and private investment.
Successful Negotiation in International Violent Conflict
Authors: Jackson Richard
Published: March 2007

Negotiation in violent international conflict has not often been studied using systematic large- N comparisons. This article utilizes an original dataset of international disputes and negotiation efforts occurring in the 1945-95 period to assess the character of international negotiation and to examine the contextual and process variables which affect negotiation outcomes. These variables are classed under three categories: (1) the nature of the dispute; (2) the nature of the parties and their ongoing relationship; and (3) conflict management characteristics, or process factors. In the study, a preliminary analysis is undertaken to determine the nature and degree to which the variables in each of these categories affect negotiation outcomes. The results indicate that from the first two categories, dispute intensity, dispute complexity, the underlying issues, the relative power of the parties, the alignment of the parties, and the parties' previous relations all impact on negotiation outcomes. In the third category, the timing, site, initiator, and rank of the negotiators all emerge as significant factors. The article presents conclusions on the effectiveness of international negotiation in resolving violent international disputes, and points the way for more much-needed empirical work in this area.
On Disruption of Trade by War: A Reply to Barbieri & Levy
Authors: Anderton Charles H. , Carter John R.
Published: March 2007

This response counters Barbieri & Levy's assessment of Anderton & Carter's empirical study of the disruption of trade by war. A close examination of Anderton & Carter's results shows significant trade disruption in 17 of 19 long war dyads and in 21 of 27 dyads in total. These results constitute reasonably strong evidence that war disrupts trade.
Paradise is a Bazaar? Greed, Creed, and Governance in Civil War, 1989-99
Authors: DE SOYSA INDRA
Published: March 2007

Some prominent recent studies of civil war argue that greed, not grievance, is the primary motivating factor behind violence, basing their conclusions on a strong empirical association between primary commodity exports and civil war. This study contrasts alternative propositions that see need-, creed-, and governance-based explanations that are intimately related to the question of primary commodity dependence and conflict. Maximum likelihood analysis on approximately 138 countries over the entire post- Cold War period shows little support for neo-Malthusian claims. Abundant mineral wealth makes countries highly unstable, whereas scarcity of renewable resources is largely unrelated to civil conflict. A positive effect of population density on conflict does not seem to be conditioned by renewable resource scarcity. Ethnicity is related to conflict when society is moderately homogenous; a highly plural society faces less risk. Very slight political liberalization leads to conflict, but larger increases reduce the danger considerably, supporting the view that conflict is driven by opportunistic behaviour rather than by grievance. Increases in homogeneity among Islamic and Catholic populations make them riskier. Perhaps institutional factors relating to separation of church and state rather than competing creeds explain culture conflicts. Larger shares of both Christians and Muslims within countries make them safer, contrary to claims of natural antagonism between the two. Governance, proxied by the ratio of total trade to GDP, predicts peace strongly, an under-theorized area within the study of civil war. Trade's relationship to peace is robust to specification and sample size, supporting the findings of the State Failure Project. Greater attention should perhaps be paid to formal and informal institutional factors that create the synergy between private and public spaces for overcoming collective action problems of maintaining peace.
Plunder & Protection Inc.
Authors: MEHLUM HALVOR , MOENE KARL OVE , TORVIK RAGNAR
Published: March 2007

When the state fails to supply basic security and protection of property, violent entrepreneurs not only seize the opportunity of plundering, but some also enter the protection business and provide protection against plunderers. This uncoordinated division of labor is advantageous for the entire group of violent entrepreneurs. Hence, in weak states a situation may arise where a large number of violent entrepreneurs can operate side by side as plunderers and protectors squeezing the producers from both sides. The problem reached new levels at the end of the Cold War. As military forces were demobilized without civilian jobs to go to, many countries got an oversupply of qualified violent people for crime, warfare, and private protection. In this `market for extortion' the entry of new violent entrepreneurs enhances the profitability of them all. The supply of violence creates its own demand - an externality of violence that is detrimental to the development in poor countries.
Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflict: The Role of International Nongovernmental Organizations
Authors: Weissbrodt David
Published: March 2007

The article identifies five principal reasons for international nongovernmental organizations to use humanitarian law in seeking to protect human rights during periods of armed conflict and also notes three difficulties in using humanitarian law. International nongovernmental organizations, aside from the International Committee of the Red Cross, possess an important role in assessing whether govern ments and armed opposition groups are respecting their human rights and humanitarian law obligations Americas Watch, Amnesty International, the International Commission of Jurists, and other organ izations have for some time been using humanitarian law and human rights law in armed conflict situations. They need to become more consistent and careful in using humanitarian law; they can also learn from the experience of the Red Cross in how to be more effective in safeguarding human rights during periods of armed conflict.
Review Essay : Probabilistic Behavior and Non-Myopic Equilibria in Superpower Games
Authors: Hovi Jon
Published: March 2007

The essay offers a review of Steven J. Brams' book Superpower Games. In this book, Brams uses 2 x 2 games to investigate important aspects of the superpower relationship. Particular attention is given to problems of deterrence, armaments, and verification — the aim being partly to explain actual behavior by the superpowers, and partly to provide possible solutions to their dilemmas. A number of models are presented and analyzed with great skill and imagination. In some cases, Brams considers the possibility that the players use probabilistic strategies, while in others, the models are analyzed by invoking the so-called Theory of Moves. While the present essay stresses the importance of some of Brams' results, it also questions the relevance of his argument at a few points. In particular, it is argued that the Theory of Moves may be less widely applicable than Brams seems to believe.
Review Essay : Defending Benign Mercantilism
Authors: Strange Susan
Published: March 2007

Clearly designed as a textbook for advanced students of international political economy, Gilpin's book is by far the best yet to come out of the American school. Students in Europe too will welcome his clear, fair-minded and comprehensive exposition of recent developments and debates in theories of the world economy-though Holsti's complaint in A Divided Discipline (1986), that American writers are oblivious to authors that are not American, with a few exceptions, still holds good. There is, however, a logical inconsistency at the heart of the book between his historical analysis and the conclusion that the United States has lost its hegemony and must share leadership with Japan. Alas, poor Europe!
West German Ostpolitik and the German Question
Authors: KRELL GERT
Published: March 2007

The specific problems of West German Ostpolitik during the Cold War and the period of detente have acquired new interest under the current conditions of radical systemic change. The various options pursued by the Federal Republic and their development provide criteria for an evaluation of the future course of the united Germany's foreign policy. The article starts with laying out the basic conditions of the FRG's Ostpolitik and their inherent contradictions: revisionism versus reconciliation, revisionism and the Cold War, the moral problems of the status quo. It then discusses four major variants: (1) military revisionism, which was never seriously considered; voluntary constraints form an important contrast to the foreign policy planning of the Weimar Republic; (2) revisionism from strength, the major strategy of the conservative governments in the 1950s and 1960s; (3) revisionism based on calculated weakness, the strategy followed by the SPD opposition; (4) the redefinition of the national question in the 1970s which prepared the ground for a new consensus in the 1980s about West integration and detente with the East. The development of West German Ostpolitik is characterized by the renunciation of force, the differentiation of revisionist aspirations, and the shift from classical power politics (policy of strength) to a policy of compromise and understanding. Thus the foundations for a new tradition of democratic foreign policy have been laid which the united Germany can build upon.