bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Camillus, Marcus Furius
Authors: Bruun Christer
Published: December 2012

A number of conspicuous deeds are attributed to the Roman military hero and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus (ca. 365
BCE
). There is much debate about the historicity of these events.
Gallic War (
Bellum Gallicum
)
Authors: Nice Alex
Published: December 2012

Caesar's
Gallic War (Bellum Gallicum)
is an autobiographical, third person, narrative of Julius Caesar's campaigns in Gaul and Germany, written between 58 and 50
BCE
. Seven books recount his actions from 58 to 52. An additional book by Caesar's legate, Aulus Hirtius (cos. 43), relates events from 51 and 50.
The Gallic War
offers an unparalleled opportunity to explore the linguistic, rhetorical, and historical processes of one of Rome's most dynamic politicians and outstanding intellectuals.
Brutus, Marcus Iunius
Authors: Mahy Trevor Bryan
Published: December 2012

Marcus Iunius Brutus (ca. 85–42
BCE
) is most famous for his role, along with C. Cassius Longinus, as one of the leaders of the conspiracy to assassinate Julius Caesar, an act that was accomplished during a Senate meeting in the
Curia Pompeia
on the Ides of March 44.
Lapis Satricanus
Authors: Gnade Marijke
Published: December 2012

Lapis Satricanus
is the name of an archaic Latin inscription, which was found in the settlement of ancient Satricum, 60 km south of Rome.
Lucullus, Lucius Licinius
Authors: Keaveney Arthur P.
Published: December 2012

Born in either 118 or 117
BCE
, Lucius Licinius Lucullus, a prominent figure in the later Roman republic, came from a plebeian noble family.
Mummius, Lucius
Authors: Graverini Luca
Published: December 2012

Lucius Mummius is especially famous for being the destroyer of Corinth in 146
BCE
.
Municipia, Roman Republic
Authors: Owens E. J.
Published: December 2012

Unlike colonies (seeColonies, Roman and Latin (Republican)), originallyMunicipia(sing.municipium) were existing Italian communities that Rome incorporated into the Roman state by means of sharing citizenship.
Pompilius Numa
Authors: Smith Christopher J.
Published: December 2012

According to the tradition, largely through Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Plutarch's important biography, Numa was Rome's second king.
Cato, Marcus Porcius (Cato the Younger)
Authors: Tempest Kathryn L.
Published: December 2012

Marcus Porcius Cato (95–46BCE), great‐grandson of M. Porcius Cato the Censor, was one of the most influential figures in the Late Roman Republic.
Social War, Roman Republic
Authors: Keaveney Arthur P.
Published: December 2012

The Social War began late in 91BCEwith the failure of the tribune Livius Drusus to obtain Roman citizenship for the Italian nations.
Tarquinius Superbus
Authors: Glinister Fay
Published: December 2012

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, seventh and last king of Rome (traditionally, reigned ca. 534–509
BCE
).
Spartacus
Authors: Nice Alex
Published: December 2012

Spartacus (ca. 106–71
BCE
) was a Thracian gladiator who led a slave revolt against Rome from 73 to 71.
Aedui
Authors: Thorne James
Published: December 2012

The Aedui were arguably the most powerful people of Gaul at the end of its independence, and most prominent until the end of the empire. This was chiefly due to their situation at a premier communication node in western Europe (the watershed of the Seine, Loire, and Rhône/Saône/Doubs basins), and their early alliance with Rome (no later than the First Transalpine War, 125–121
BCE
).
Ammisaduqa, Venus Tablet of
Authors: Loisel Anne‐Caroline Rendu
Published: December 2012

The so‐calledVenus Tablet of Ammisaduqais the sixty‐third Tablet of the Astronomical omen series Enuma Anu Enlil. The tablet records the heliacal risings and settings of the planet Venus (Ninsianna) for a period of twenty‐one years.
Archimedes of Syracuse
Authors: Roby Courtney
Published: December 2012

Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287–212BCE) was one of antiquity's most influential mathematicians and scientists.
Archytas of Tarentum
Authors: Berrey Marquis
Published: December 2012

Archytas of Tarentum (ca. 425–ca. 355BCE), philosopher, mathematician, and politician, is, after Philolaos of Kroton, the second oldest Pythagorean whose writings we possess.
Artemidoros of Ephesos
Authors: Kramer Bärbel
Published: December 2012

Artemidoros of Ephesos was one of the most important authorities in the field of Hellenistic geography.
Atomism
Authors: Campbell Gordon Lindsay
Published: December 2012

Atomism is the theory, first developed in the fifth centuryBCEby Leucippus and Democritus, that the universe is composed of microscopic particles and void.
Botany
Authors: Hardy F.G.
Published: December 2012

It is generally accepted that the title “Father of Botany” be accorded to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus of Eresos (370–287
BCE
): this is not, however, to say that there was no interest in or knowledge of plants before this, nor is it to deny that, at the same time, the discipline of botany was developing in parallel in china.
Contagion
Authors: Craik E. M.
Published: December 2012

It is difficult to dissociate the medical concept of contagion from religious and popular notions: the Greek term
miasma
“pollution” has a wide semantic range. The Homeric
Iliad
begins with the tale of a plague affecting the Greek army at Troy; this is a matter for the gods. Sophocles'
Oedipus Tyrannus
begins with a description of a devastating plague at Thebes; here too divine displeasure operates. According to Thucydides, religious and medical expedients alike were invoked against the great Plague at Athens (430/429
BCE
). There are traces of religious scruples and popular superstition in the medical works also. It is remarkable that temple and secular medicine coexisted at Kos, Epidauros, and (later) Pergamon.
Crito, Statilius
Authors: Petit Caroline
Published: December 2012

Titus Statilius Crito was the chief physician (archiatros) to the emperor Trajan. He is frequently mentioned and quoted by Galen, who holds him in high esteem, especially in his worksOn compound drugs according to places, andOn compound drugs according to kinds; Crito authored four books on cosmetic remedies (kosmetika), of which Galen provides a quasi‐full table of contents (K. XII, 446–9). According to Galen, Crito compiled virtually all known cosmetic recipes to his time (446). Galen explains, however, that for shame he will simply not report all of the cosmetic remedies that do not fit with medicine, especially the means to preserve the youthful appearance of young virgins and boys, and that have nothing to do with natural beauty (by contrast with artificial beauty). For those matters, Galen refers the readers to Crito's treatise, which is now lost.
Diagnosis, Mesopotamian
Authors: Heeßel Nils P.
Published: December 2012

Medical diagnosis in Mesopotamia served to prognosticate the course, duration, and outcome of the sickness and to diagnose the disease.
Diagrams, mathematical
Authors: Roby Courtney
Published: December 2012

Diagrams (diagrammata,katagraphai) were essential to Greek mathematics, as propositions were typically proved by means of operations carried out on geometrical figures, rather than operations on abstract algebraic symbols, as in modern mathematics.
Form
Authors: Zeyl Donald J.
Published: December 2012

The concept of
form
is central to the philosophies of Plato (427–347
BCE
) and Aristotle (384–322) and their followers. Both philosophers utilized this concept in explaining what it is for spatio–temporal particulars to possess the properties they do, i.e., what is the ontological backing for the predications we make. It is widely known that Plato proposes a “theory of forms” and that Aristotle is sharply critical of that theory. However, Aristotle's criticisms should not be understood as a repudiation of any theory of forms but as an insistence on a radical revision of the Platonic theory.
Goal‐year texts
Authors: Steele John M.
Published: December 2012

Babylonian goal‐year texts contain collections of astronomical observations to make predictions of future astronomical phenomena using known lunar and planetary periodicities.
Greek fire
Authors: Mayor Adrienne
Published: December 2012

The secret Byzantine incendiary, called “Greek fire” by later Crusaders, was invented by Kallinikos, a Greek whondashfled from Muslim‐occupied Syria to Constantinople in 668CE.
Hippasos of Metapontum
Authors: Roby Courtney
Published: December 2012

Hippasos of Metapontum (ca. 520–480BCE) was a Pythagorean mathematician and harmonicist.
Illustration, scientific
Authors: Touwaide Alain
Published: December 2012

Illustrations appear in the manuscripts containing texts of astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics (including pneumatics), medicine (including orthopedics, bandages, and toxicology),materia medica(mainly plants and animals), veterinary medicine (hippiatrica) botany, zoology (including cynegetic), ichthyology, and possibly also physiognomy.
Kallippos, astronomer
Authors: Bowen Alan C.
Published: December 2012

Kallippos was a Greek intellectual of the fourth century
BCE
.
Leptines, papyrus of
Authors: Evans James
Published: December 2012

This short work of the early second centuryBCE, addressed “to the kings” (of Egypt), is an elementary introduction to astronomy, now conserved in the Louvre.
Meton of Athens
Authors: Bowen Alan C.
Published: December 2012

Meton was a Greek intellectual satirized in 414
BCE
by Aristophanes as a surveyor armed with compass and rulers (bent and straight), and aiming to measure the air out into lots by squaring a circle, at the center of which he proposes to put an
agora
from which the streets would radiate like light from a star.
Nikomedes, mathematician
Authors: Jones Alexander
Published: December 2012

Nikomedes, a geometer who appears to have been active about 200
BCE
(and certainly not earlier than Eratosthenes), was the discoverer of a family of four curved lines useful for solving certain problems such as the trisection of a given angle that could not be effected using the postulates of Euclid's
Elements
, which limited the resources of plane geometry to straight lines and circles.
Papyri, astrological and astronomical
Authors: Jones Alexander
Published: December 2012

Fragmentary papyrus manuscripts from Hellenistic and Roman Egypt are an invaluable resource for the history of astronomy and astrology.
Papyri, mathematical
Authors: Imhausen Annette
Published: December 2012

Mathematical papyri are our main source of knowledge for ancient Egyptian mathematics. Only a few chance finds are extant, probably because the ancient Egyptian writing material, papyrus, only survived in conditions without humidity (i.e., locations in the desert, e.g., temples and tombs), and because mathematics, as a practical everyday matter, was rarely relevant in a temple or tomb setting.
Paulus of Alexandria
Authors: Greenbaum Dorian Gieseler
Published: December 2012

The fourth centuryCEastrologer Paulus of Alexandria wrote anIntroduction to Astrology(Eisagogika) in 378 (Boer 1958: ch. 20). We know little about Paulus' life apart from his provenance (Gundel 1949: 2376–7) and the dedication of his book to his son Kronamon.
P
hilo of
B
yzantium
Authors: Rance Philip
Published: December 2012

Philo of Byzantium (ca. 200
BCE
), or Philo Mechanicus, was a Greek writer on mechanics, and civil and military engineering.
Physics
Authors: Lang Helen
Published: December 2012

Physics was considered a branch of philosophy and was called “natural philosophy,” even as late as the seventeenth century.
Physiognomy
Authors: Favreau Anne‐Marie
Published: December 2012

Physiognomy is the study of the bodily features of an individual in order to find out his inner character. It became popular in modern Europe with the Swiss Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741–1801), but the interest in the relations between physical appearance and moral character dates back to Antiquity. The Mesopotamians had already codified their observations for the use of predictions. Physiognomy further enjoyed a great development in the Greek and Roman worlds where technical handbooks were written on the subject.
Physiologus
Authors: Touwaide Alain
Published: December 2012

The work transmitted by Greek manuscripts under the titlePhysiologusis a discourse on nature, specifically the way the natural world expresses Christian values and ethics through the animals (also including some plants and minerals) mentioned in the Bible and the New Testament.
Proof
Authors: Roby Courtney
Published: December 2012

The Greek tradition of proof, in the sense of an explicitly marked method of deriving conclusions using valid arguments, developed gradually, and the techniques and requirements of proof varied between disciplines and philosophical traditions.
Psychology
Authors: Green Christopher D.
Published: December 2012

There was no coherent discipline of “psychology” in the Ancient world. Ancient thinkers did, however, speculate on the nature of mind – the intellect, will, and emotions – and on the causes of behavior.
Public health, Greece and Rome
Authors: Koloski‐Ostrow Ann Olga
Published: December 2012

Public health today involves political officials working hard to make sure that diseases are controlled or eliminated, fresh water is available, and sanitation is in place for the well‐being of citizens.
Regimen
Authors: Hulskamp M. A. A.
Published: December 2012

(Gr.diaita; Lat.victus“lifestyle.”) According to Celsus, dietetics – the adjustment of a patient'sregimen, or lifestyle, to preserve or restore health – was one of the three branches into which medicine became divided after the time of Hippocrates (Cels.De Med. Prooem.9), and it permeated every aspect of life: diet, exercise, sexual activity, mental activity, and even what to wear (Hip.Epid.6.8.23).
Science, Mesopotamian
Authors: Ossendrijver Mathieu
Published: December 2012

Mesopotamian science covers all forms of scholarly inquiry into natural and cultural phenomena, both real and imagined.
Soranus, Physician
Authors: Langslow David
Published: December 2012

Doctor and medical writer,fl.ca. 100CE, most famous for his gynecology; the only Methodist accorded respect by Galen.
Šumma ālu
Authors: Heeßel Nils P.
Published: December 2012

Šumma ālu ina mēlê šakin
“If a City is Situated on a Height,” often abbreviated to
šumma ālu
, is the title of a Mesopotamian text series comprising one hundred and twenty tablets with more than ten thousand omens that could be observed within a city.
Surgery, Greek and Roman
Authors: Bliquez Lawrence J.
Published: December 2012

Descriptions of surgical procedures first occur in the Hippocratic works of the later fifth and the fourth centuriesBCE. Many of these operations were practiced for a long time before they were actually recorded. Depiction of bleeding cups on a grave monument of the early fifth centuryBCEand the recovery of contemporary cups matching the depiction are material evidence for at least this intervention, well before its attestation in Hippocratic literature. Herodotus' account of the renowned Demokedes of Kroton (3.131), said to have practiced without any tools at all, shows indirectly that physicians were expected to be equipped with an instrumentarium by the last quarter of the sixth century.
Thessalos of Tralles
Authors: Cronier Marie
Published: December 2012

Thessalos of Tralles, in Lydia, was a Greek physician who lived in Rome (fl. ca. 50–60CE), one of the main representatives of the Methodist school of medicine, as a successor of Themison of Laodikeia.
Time, measurement of
Authors: Hannah Robert
Published: December 2012

At a most basic level, human biorhythms provide the fundamental means of measuring human time through the day.
Volcanoes
Authors: Taub Liba
Published: December 2012

The modern word “volcano” is derived from the Italian meaning “burning mountain.” There was no corresponding term in ancient Latin or Greek. However, Volcanus (also known as Vulcanus or Vulcan) was the name of an ancient god associated with fire, worshipped at Rome from earliest times; the name has resonances with the modern word.
Zosimus, alchemist
Authors: Mertens Michèle
Published: December 2012

Born in Panopolis (present‐day Akhmim) in Upper Egypt, Zosimus (
fl
. ca. 300 Suda) appears to be the foremost figure of Greco‐Egyptian alchemy, to which he added a deep mystical dimension. Towards the end of the third century and the beginning of the fourth, he wrote a substantial work in Greek, of which only tiny portions have survived.
Adoption
Authors: Dry David D.
Published: December 2012

Adoption refers to a legal transfer of familial affiliation. Ancient adoption was often distinct from modern adoption and fostering in that it did not involve nurturing, took place between free, adult males, and was undertaken for economic or political purposes rather than emotional or humanitarian considerations.
Alimenta schemes
Authors: Fernández Damián
Published: December 2012

The
alimenta
schemes consisted of a government‐run program of low interest loans to Italian landowners whose returns were used to maintain sons and daughters of poor, free people until they reached adulthood.
Apprenticeship
Authors: Vuolanto Ville
Published: December 2012

Child labor, whether by freeborn or slave children, was commonplace in the ancient world.
Atrium
Authors: Goldbeck Fabian
Published: December 2012

(1) The Latin termatriumdenotes the central court of ancient Italian, especially Roman houses with several lateral rooms. In a central basin (impluvium), water for the house's cistern could be collected through a corresponding opening in the roof.
Augusti liberti
Authors: Liu Jinyu
Published: December 2012

TheAugusti liberti, or the freedmen of the emperor(s), belonged to the imperial household and constituted an elite group among the population of servile origins in Roman society. The imperialpraenomen, nomen gentilicium, andAug.lib. in the nomenclature of the imperial freedmen marked their status. Along with the literary evidence, thousands of inscriptions attest to the wide range of occupations and offices filled by theAugusti liberti, as well as their upward social mobility and influence both at Rome and in the provinces.
Baths, bathing
Authors: Fagan Garrett G.
Published: December 2012

Evidence for organized bathing in the ancient Mediterranean–as opposed to bathing in natural bodies of water–comes from the Bronze Age. Homer's heroes bathe in tubs of hot water (e.g.,Od. 4.128–89, 8.449–51, 10.358–63) and terracotta bathing tubs are known from Pylos, Knossos, and Akrotiri (among others).
Birthday
Authors: Salzman Michele Renee
Published: December 2012

In the Greek world, the birthdays (
genethlioshemera
) of important Olympian gods were celebrated on certain days of the month; so, for example, the seventh day of the new lunar cycle, when the moon was half full, was sacred to Apollo, whose festivals ordinarily were celebrated then, and whose birthday was supposed to be, in the Attic and Ionian calendars, on day 7 of the month Thargelion.
Body, human
Authors: Boozer Anna Lucille
Published: December 2012

Early scholars of the ancient world viewed the human body as an artifact. Researchers explored the body exclusively through physical indices, such as the remnants of foodways, tools, adornment, mummies, representations and skeletons.
Burial, Roman
Authors: Clark Christina A.
Published: December 2012

In historical times, proper burial was important in the Roman world, and at some point was legally mandated; heirs or others designated in wills had to pay burial costs unless the deceased had joined a burial club.
Councils, city
Authors: Meier Mischa
Published: December 2012

The administration of theImperium Romanumwas, on the one hand, based on the provincial system with its provincial governors, but, on the other hand, on a wide network of self‐administered cities (civitates,poleis; the Roman equivalents:municipium,colonia), whose elites were important intermediaries between empire and the population of the provinces. The organization of the cities followed Hellenistic administration practices in many cases (leitourgiai,euergesiai), but was unified by following the example of Rome and Roman legislation. The finer points of this administrative pattern were mostly regulated byleges municipales. Essentially, the principle of far‐reaching autonomy was valid, insofar as the cities were able to maintain it by themselves and their policies did not come into conflict with the interests of the empire.
Deafness
Authors: Baker Patricia A.
Published: December 2012

Little extant material survives on the subject of deafness in the ancient world.
Decurions
Authors: Fernández Damián
Published: December 2012

Decurions (decurionesorcuriales) were the members of local assemblies (ordo decurionumorcuria) who ruled the cities of the Roman Empire with municipal status. Membership into theordowas regularly decided by local magistrates, taking into account various, albeit vaguely defined, criteria, such as wealth, reputation, service, and ancestry. In practice, it was an almost hereditary position within the most prominent local families, although access to the order was never completely closed to new families. Whereas freedmen were forbidden from joining the ranks of the decurions, their descendents could eventually be admitted to theordo.
Deductio
Authors: Elise Phang Sara
Published: December 2012

Deductio
has several meanings in Roman culture and law: part of the Roman marriage ceremonies, the foundation of a colony, and an institution of Roman contract law. The first of these is most likely to be encountered.
Depopulation
Authors: Hin Saskia
Published: December 2012

Ancient authors regularly refer to the phenomenon of depopulation, or population decline, in the ancient world. These authors place particular emphasis on changes in fertility behavior as a causal factor. Avoidance of marriage and childbearing for selfish reasons explained depopulation in Greece, according to Polybius (36.17.5f.). Depopulation in the Roman Empire motivated Augustus to introduce a number of legal reforms relating to marriage (
see
Marriage Legislation of Augustus). Although a strand of scholarship has taken these references as accurate, and ancient concerns may, to some extent, have reflected reality (especially among elites), one should take into account that these remarks were as much a reflection of the authors' moral attitudes as they were of reality, associating moral or sociopolitical decay with demographic decline (cf. early modern Mercantilism).
Dogs
Authors: Brewer Douglas J.
Published: December 2012

All evidence compiled from genetic, morphological, and behavioral research points to the wolf as the sole progenitor of the dog.
Endogamy
Authors: Müller Sabine
Published: December 2012

In ancient societies, multiple forms of endogamy, or in‐marriage, existed.
Exile
Authors: Sánchez‐Moreno Ellart Carlos
Published: December 2012

Exile (phuge, phugas, pheugein) was the common consequence for a homicide in the Homeric poems (Il. 24.480–1;Od. 23.118–20), simply as a way of fleeing from private revenge.
Exogamy
Authors: Hin Saskia
Published: December 2012

Exogamy is the habit of marrying partners outside of one's own group.
Family, Greek and Roman
Authors: Bobou Olympia
Published: December 2012

When the Greeks thought of “family,” they used the termoikosoroikia.
Fathers‐in‐law
Authors: Wilgaux Jérôme
Published: December 2012

The various terms used to denote a father‐in‐law in Indo‐European languages are often linked to the Proto‐Indo‐European root
*swekuros
(Latin:
socer
, Greek:
hekuros
); these words may be construed, in relation to the Greek
kurios
(“master”), as meaning “his own master” (in relation to the bride) or “the master of the joint family” (Benveniste 1969: 249–51; Szemerényi 1977: 63–7).
Horse racing
Authors: de Rossi Filippo Canali
Published: December 2012

Although horse racing was a very popular sport throughout the ages of ancient Greece, we only have a passage concerning gambling in Homer's description of the chariot race at Patroclus' funeral games (Hom.
Il
. 23.473–98).
Gender, Greek and Roman
Authors: Hallett Judith P.
Published: December 2012

The English word “gender,” which derives from Latingenus, kind or type, has lately come to signify “sexual identity, especially in relation to society and culture.”
Godparents, godchildren
Authors: Schwartz Daniel L.
Published: December 2012

Godparenthood was a relationship created when a fully initiated Christian acted as the sponsor for someone undergoing the rite of Christian baptism.
Homosexuality (male)
Authors: Meister Jan B.
Published: December 2012

There is abundant evidence for male homoerotic practices in the ancient world. The modern term “homosexuality” is, however, misleading, because it implies a specific gender‐identity which hardly fits the way in which homoerotic experiences were conceived in ancient Greece and Rome.
Hostage
Authors: Walker Cheryl L.
Published: December 2012

Guaranteeing political agreements, both public and private, by exchanging or exacting individuals of value to the ruling elite was commonly accepted diplomatic practice among many ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies (e.g., Assyria, Carthage, Greece, and Rome).
Hygiene, Greece and Rome
Authors: Baker Patricia A.
Published: December 2012

The Greek and Latin words for hygiene,hygieinosandsalubrisrespectively, can be translated to mean health‐giving and a healthy state of conditions.
Identity, personal
Authors: Boozer Anna Lucille
Published: December 2012

The concept “identity” expresses the ways in which specific individuals and groups are distinguished in their social relations with other individuals and groups (Jenkins 1996: 4).
Kissing
Authors: Wiater Nicolas
Published: December 2012

Kissing was a multifaceted and important medium of nonverbal communication in many social contexts of the Greco‐Roman world.
Marriage legislation of Augustus
Authors: Severy‐Hoven Beth
Published: December 2012

In 18–17BCE, Augustus, the first Roman emperor, passed several laws regulating social behavior, including two aimed at marriage. Thelex Iulia de maritandis ordinibusprohibited intermarriage between senatorial families and ex‐slaves, and between all citizens and disreputable persons, such as prostitutes (seeInfamia). Otherwise the law rewarded male and female citizens who married and raised children, and penalized those who did not (Treggiari 1991: 60–80;seeLEX IULIAANDLEX PAPIA). Thelex Iulia de adulteriis coercendismade sex with a respectable woman to whom one was not married illegal (seeADULTERY); previously, the monitoring of female sexual behavior was left to private families.
Minores
Authors: Vuolanto Ville
Published: December 2012

In Roman law,minoreswas a legal category denoting persons no longer below the age of puberty (impuberes), but who still had not achieved their full independence, as they were less than twenty‐five years old (aetas perfecta).
Mothers and motherhood, Greece and Rome
Authors: Vester Christina M.
Published: December 2012

Becoming a mother was the principal function of married citizen women in Greece and Rome. Motherhood – with its practices, duties, and rewards – was significantly circumscribed by status.
Nudity
Authors: Vout Caroline
Published: December 2012

Nudity is one of the greatest legacies of Classical Antiquity.
Perfumes and unguents, Greece
Authors: Touwaide Alain
Published: December 2012

Coming after a long tradition of classical studies on perfume(s) in literature (e.g., Faure 1987), including a cultural and, more recently, anthropological approach (e.g., Detienne 1972), the study of perfumes in Greco‐Roman Antiquity was transformed in the 1970s thanks to the research activity of Giuseppe Donato in Italy.
Portraiture, Greece and Rome
Authors: Dillon Sheila
Published: December 2012

The portrait is undoubtedly one of the most familiar and distinctive achievements of Greek and Roman art.
Prison, prisoners
Authors: Rohmann Dirk
Published: December 2012

Prisons in pre‐modern societies, unlike in the modern age, generally served the purpose of keeping prisoners only for either investigation or eventual execution (Foucault 1977; Ulp.
Dig
. 48.19.8.7).
Promiscuity
Authors: Harders Ann‐Cathrin
Published: December 2012

The standards for acceptable sexual behavior differ from time to time and from culture to culture; they also depend on civil and social status and gender – and this is especially true in regard to promiscuity.
Stepfamily
Authors: Watson Patricia
Published: December 2012

In Greece and Rome, the frequency of remarriage following death or divorce ensured that stepfamilies were relatively common. Yet although conflicts arose as a result of disputes over inheritance, hostility between stepmothers and stepchildren, or stepfamily “incest,” it is only stepmothers who consistently received a bad press.
Teeth
Authors: Felton D.
Published: December 2012

Literary and archaeological evidence indicates that toothcare in the ancient Mediterranean and Near East dates at least to 5000BCE(seeDentistry).
Theater, Greek and Roman
Authors: Sear Frank
Published: December 2012

The origins of Greek tragedy are usually traced back to Thespis (hence “Thespian”), who, according to Aristotle, acted the part of different characters by wearing different masks and exchanging words with the leader of the chorus.
Toga
Authors: Cleland Liza
Published: December 2012

The Romans saw themselves astogati(“people of the toga,” Verg.Aen. 1.282): the importance of this garment, which distinguished male citizens from non‐citizens, to Roman life and culture can hardly be overestimated.
Virginity
Authors: Vuolanto Ville
Published: December 2012

Throughout antiquity, virginity had “great metaphorical and mythical power … generating and representing a whole complex of cultural beliefs” (Kelly 2000: ix–x).

Associating integrity, perfection, and purity with virginity was a commonplace, and virginity (of the chosen individuals) was seen as the best guarantee for (the communal) fertility.
Akitu
Authors: Pongratz‐Leisten Beate
Published: December 2012

The festival termed akitu is attested since the Sumerian period for every city god. In
UR
, for instance, the rites included a boat ride of the moon god to the rural sanctuary outside the city, offerings, a circumambulation of the fields combined with offerings to the standard of the moon god, an anointing of Nanna's temple gate as of a purification rite, sports activities performed by athletes, and a tithe paid by the merchants for the temple treasury.
Anunnaki and Igigi
Authors: Villard Pierre
Published: December 2012

The Sumerian terms Anunna and Igigi designate two groups of Mesopotamian gods. Their precise meaning and the relationship between them evolved over time.
Apadana
Authors: Stronach David
Published: December 2012

The word apadana denoting a tall, squareshaped audience hall, occurs in only four Old Persian texts.
Aram, Aramaeans
Authors: Younger K. Lawson
Published: December 2012

The earliest attestation of the term Aram is in an Egyptian toponym list from the reign of Amenhotep III, which locates Aram in central Syria.
Assinnum
Authors: Nissinen Martti
Published: December 2012

Persons termed
assinnu(m)
(Sum. UR. SAL, “man‐woman”) appear in both Sumerian and Akkadian texts, from the mid‐third to the mid‐first millennium
BCE
, as devotees of the goddess Ishtar (Sum. Inanna;
see
Inanna (Ishtar)). They engaged in various functions, including cross‐dressing, ritual dance, healing, and prophecy. For instance, in the
Hymn of Iddin‐Dagan to Inanna
, they walk in front of the goddess, dressed in both men's and women's clothing. At Mari, two
assinnu
s are attested as prophets of the goddess.
Assyrian kings, Neo‐Assyrian period
Authors: Cogan Mordechai
Published: December 2012

The Neo‐Assyrian period may be divided into two stages: the first, the ninth century
BCE
, during which Assyria sought to control sources of wealth by force of arms; the second, the mid‐eighth century to the late‐seventh century, the imperial stage.
Balih
Authors: Emberling Geoff
Published: December 2012

The Balih River, called Balihu in Cuneiform texts of the second and first millennia
BCE
, rises in the plain of Harran, is fed by several springs along its course, and runs south to join the Euphrates River at a confluence that has been the location of important settlements throughout history: Tell Zeidan in prehistoric times, later the town of Tuttul (Tell Bi'a), and the early Islamic and modern city of Raqqa.
Dilmun
Authors: Crawford Harriet
Published: December 2012

Dilmun is a toponym that describes both an actual geographic location and a mythical one.
Elamite kings, Sukkalmah period
Authors: Graef Katrien De
Published: December 2012

The Sukkalmah period, spanning roughly the first half of the second millenniumBCE, was the longest uninterrupted period in Elamite history. It is named after a dynasty of Elamite rulers that initially reigned under the authority of the kings of Šimaški, who contributed to the downfall of the Sumerian Ur III Dynasty . Under Šimaškean hegemony, sukkalmahs ruled in Susa, Anšan (Anshan), Šimaški, and Elam.
Emar
Authors: Cohen Yoram
Published: December 2012

The city of Emar (modern Tell Meskene; next to Qal'at Balis, classical Barbalissos) lies some 60 km south of the Syrian–Turkish border on the west bank of the Euphrates.
Enlil
Authors: Hess Christian W.
Published: December 2012

Enlil, the etymology of whose name is uncertain, was the patron god of the city of Nippur and head of the Mesopotamian pantheon during the third and second millenniaBCE. His titles include “lord of the lands,” “king of heaven and earth,” and “father of the gods.”
Hattusili III
Authors: Beckman Gary
Published: December 2012

Thanks to a text scholars refer to as his “Apology,” the career of Hattusili III (mid‐thirteenth centuryBCE) is better known than that of any other Hittite monarch. The youngest son of Mursili II, Hattusili survived a sickly childhood to rise through the military and governmental ranks during the reigns of his father, his brother Muwattalli II, and his nephew Urhi‐Teššub, (Mursili III).
Hezekiah
Authors: Cogan Mordechai
Published: December 2012

Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, was king of Judah from 727–698BCE.
Lamashtu
Authors: Scurlock Joann
Published: December 2012

Lamashtu was a minor Mesopotamian divinity and a daughter of the sky‐god Anu. According to the story of Atrahasis, Lamashtu was assigned the task of ensuring that the human population did not spiral out of control, which was beneficial to humankind in that it averted any future Great Flood.
Lilitu
Authors: Scurlock Joanne
Published: December 2012

Like Biblical lilith, the demons called
lilû, lilÏtu
, and
ardat lilî
in Akkadian were the ghosts of persons who had failed to complete parts of the human life cycle and thus bore grudges against the living.
Nabopolassar and the Chaldaean Dynasty
Authors: Joannès Francis
Published: December 2012

The dynasty that founded the Neo‐Babylonian Empire began with Nabopolassar (Nabu‐apla‐uṣur, r. 626–605BCE). Though he presents himself as the “son of an unknown,” Nabopolassar may actually have been a general in the service of Sin‐sar‐iskun, king of Assyria, and very likely he was born into the ruling elite of Uruk, in southern Mesopotamia. Nabopolassar exploited the civil war tearing apart the Assyrian Empire to proclaim the independence of Babylon, where he had himself officially recognized as king on 23 November 626.
Nadītum
Authors: Seri Andrea
Published: December 2012

The Akkadian term
nadītum
(Sumerian L U K U R) refers to a class of Mesopotamian women who were dedicated to a particular god, for instance, Šamaš, Marduk, or Ninurta.
Nidaba (Nissaba)
Authors: Michalowski Piotr
Published: December 2012

Nidaba was an early Mesopotamian goddess of grain, accounting, and writing.
Puduheba
Authors: Miller Jared L.
Published: December 2012

Puduheba was the influential queen of Hattusili III, king of Hatti ca. 1260s–1230s. In his
Apology
, Hattusili relates how he married Puduheba, daughter of Benti‐Šarri, priest of Šawuška of Lawazantiya in Kizzuwatna (van den Hout 1997). While returning from the Battle of Qadesh in 1274 (
see
Qadesh, Battle of), Hattusili dreamt that Shawushka (the Hurrian Ištar;
see
Inanna (Ishtar)) instructed him to marry Puduheba. During Hattusili's subsequent reign as king, Puduheba becomes visible in practically every sphere of Hittite documentation.
Ur, Royal Tombs of
Authors: Porter Anne
Published: December 2012

The so‐called “royal tombs of Ur” were discovered by Sir Leonard Woolley at the ancient city of that name in 1922.
Sanga
Authors: Pongratz‐Leisten Beate
Published: December 2012

The Sumerian word S A N G A (Akkadian
sangu
) designated the chief administrator of a temple; the term is attested beginning in the Early Dynastic period (early to mid third millennium
BCE
) in southern Mesopotamia.
Tiamat
Authors: Sonik Karen
Published: December 2012

A female personification of the primordial sea, Tiamat is best known for her role in the Babylonian Creation Epic.
Adû
Authors: Villard Pierre
Published: December 2012

The word
adê
(adû), a
plurale tantum
possibly of West Semitic origin, denotes a formal agreement sworn before the gods. It became one of the most important terms in the Neo‐Assyrian Empire's political vocabulary.
Sumerian King List
Authors: Michalowski Piotr
Published: December 2012

The Sumerian King List (SKL) is a Sumerian school composition that records a sequence of hegemonic cities and kings from primordial times to the dominion of the Isin Dynasty in the eighteenth century Bce.
Yadnana
Authors: Livingstone Alasdair
Published: December 2012

Yadnana or Adnana was an ancient name of the island of Cyprus and is believed to mean “island of the Danunians.”
Mita of Mushki
Authors: Rollinger Robert
Published: December 2012

The Phrygian king Midas of Greco‐Roman legend is often identified with one Mitâ, king of Mushki, known from Neo‐Assyrian sources of the late eighth centuryBCE. Information about Midas in the classical tradition is of dubious historical value.
Übergangsmetallvermittelte Hydrothiolierung ungesättigter Kohlenstoff‐Kohlenstoff‐Bindungen: ein mechanistischer Ausblick
Authors: Castarlenas Ricardo , Di Giuseppe Andrea , Pérez‐Torrente Jesús J. , Oro Luis A.
Published: December 2012

Die Hydrothiolierung ungesättigter Kohlenstoff‐Kohlenstoff‐Bindungen ist eine praktische und atomökonomische Methode zum Einbau von Schwefel in organische Grundgerüste. In den letzten Jahren haben wir die Entwicklung einiger Übergangsmetallkatalysatoren zur Kontrolle von Regio‐ und Stereoselektivität beobachtet. In diesem Kurzaufsatz beleuchten wir den mechanistischen Hintergrund dieser Transformation, um die Planung spezifischerer und aktiverer metallorganischer Hydrothiolierungskatalysatoren zu erleichtern.
Dual rheological responses in Ag pastes
Authors: Zhou Hu , Hong Junui , Piao Longhai , Kim Sang‐Ho
Published: December 2012

Highly concentrated suspensions have complex structures that complicate their characterization and study. Highly concentrated suspensions of Ag particles in ethyl cellulose solutions (Ag pastes) were thus studied and dual rheological responses were observed. Under rotational shear, the unpredicted enhancement of shear moduli occurred in the low frequency regime, showing that rheological responses of Ag pastes were strongly influenced by fillers. Under large‐amplitude oscillation, the hydrodynamic‐induced enhancement effect was observed over the whole frequency range, showing that rheological responses of Ag pastes were dominated by the binder solutions. Further studies showed that this dual behavior arose from the dual nature of structures in Ag pastes. The different shear types promoted the development of different structures in rheological experiments. Rotational shear promoted cluster formation, resulting in the unpredicted enhancement; while large‐amplitude oscillation broke the clustering, leading to the hydrodynamic enhancement. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
UV‐curing and mechanical properties of polyester–acrylate nanocomposites films with silane‐modified antimony doped tin oxide nanoparticles
Authors: Sung Sihyun , Kim Dae Su
Published: December 2012

Antimony doped tin oxide (ATO) nanoparticles were used as nanofillers to improve mechanical properties of UV‐cured polyester–acrylate films. To improve the dispersion of ATO nanoparticles in the polyester–acrylate resin matrix and to strengthen interfacial interactions between ATO nanoparticles and the resin matrix ATO nanoparticles were first organically modified with 3‐methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPS). The modification of ATO nanoparticles with MPS was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). UV‐curing behaviors of the nanocomposites films were investigated by FTIR spectroscopy. Compared with the film with neat ATO nanoparticles, the film with the same amount of MPS‐modified ATO nanoparticles showed slightly higher UV‐curing rate and final conversion. The mechanical properties of the nanocomposites films were measured by universal testing machine. The MPS‐modified ATO nanoparticles could improve considerably the mechanical properties of the UV‐cured polyester–acrylate nanocomposites films. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2013
Identification of metabolites in WZS‐miniature pig urine after oral administration of Danshen decoction by HPLC coupled with diode array detection with electrospray ionization tandem ion trap and time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry
Authors: Zhao Xin , Yang Dong‐Hui , Zhou Qi‐Le , Xu Feng , Zhang Lei , Liang Jing , Liu Guang‐Xue , Cai Shao‐Qing , Yang Xiu‐Wei
Published: December 2012

Danshen (DS) is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine for treating cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. A simple, rapid and sensitive method was developed for identification of the in vivo metabolites in urine of WZS‐miniature pigs after oral administration of DS decoction by HPLC coupled with diode array detection with electrospray ionization tandem ion trap and time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry. This method has been successfully applied to simultaneous identification of 50 compounds (including 11 new ones) in pig urine. In addition, one new compound, (3‐hydroxyphenyl) crylic acid glycine methyl ester (C1), along with eight known ones were first isolated by column chromatography and identified by spectroscopic means, including 1D/2DNMR and mass spectrometry, as reference substances. Ten phenolic compounds (protocatechuic aldehyde, protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, danshensu, ferulic acid, isoferulic acid, rosmarinic acid and salvianolic acid A/B/D) were found to be the main absorbed original constituents of DS decoction, which underwent the metabolic reactions of glucuronidation, sulfation, methylation, hydrogenation and glycine conjugation in vivo. In conclusion, the developed method is applicable to the analysis and identification of constituents in biological matrices after administration of DS decoction. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Does modern high standard life style cause type 1 diabetes in children?
Authors: Ludvigsson Johnny , Holmqvist Britt‐Marie , Samuelsson Ulf
Published: December 2012

Background

Type 1 diabetes is a serious disease which, in spite of intensive treatment, causes serious complications and increased mortality. The incidence is increasing, but the aetiology is unknown. As part of modern lifestyle, increased hygiene has been suspected as one contributing cause but so far there is no evidence. Several large epidemiological studies, mainly restricted to children with increased genetic risk for type 1 diabetes, have so far given no clue.

Methods

All Babies in Southeast Sweden is unique in its design as it has followed an unselected group of children from birth 1997–1999 and onwards with regular follow‐ups. This report is based on questionnaires from initially 16 051 children of whom 80 have later on developed type 1 diabetes. The parents answered questionnaires at the birth of their child and then after 1, 2–3, 5–6 and 8 years. A number of parameters possibly related to hygiene were analysed with several statistical methods, both with univariate and in regression models.

Results

Our study cannot identify any crucial environmental factor. This indicates that hygiene‐related parameters traditionally regarded as part of ‘modern life style’ do not play any important role for the aetiology of type 1 diabetes.

Conclusions

There is no reason to recommend a change of that part of our lifestyle. We find weak associations to previous gastrointestinal infections, which gives a hint that development of type 1 diabetes may be related to problems in the gut and maybe one should look closer into the microbes living in the gut. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Insulin secretion is increased in non‐diabetic subjects with fasting hypertriglyceridaemia
Authors: Simental‐Mendía Luis E. , Rodríguez‐Morán Martha , Simental‐Saucedo Luis , Guerrero‐Romero Fernando
Published: December 2012

Background

The elevation of triglycerides is strongly linked with insulin resistance, but it has not been evaluated in relationship to insulin secretion. The aim of this study was to determine whether hypertriglyceridaemia is associated with abnormal insulin secretion.

Methods

A cross‐sectional study was carried out. Eligible subjects, apparently healthy men and non‐pregnant women aged 20–65 years were recruited. According to the triglyceride levels, subjects were allocated in the groups with hypertriglyceridaemia and normotriglyceridaemia. Hypertriglyceridaemia was defined by serum triglyceride levels ≥150 mg/dL. Insulin secretion was evaluated by the first phase of insulin secretion (1st PIS) and the second phase of insulin secretion (2nd PIS). A regression linear analysis was performed to evaluate the association between hypertriglyceridaemia (independent variable) and the first and second phase insulin secretion (dependent variables).

Results

A total of 247 apparently healthy subjects were enrolled; 113 (45.7%) with hypertriglyceridaemia and 134 (54.3%) in the control group. The simple regression linear analysis showed a significant association between hypertriglyceridaemia and the 1st PIS [B = 207.0; 95% confidence interval (CI) 33.5–380.5, p = 0.02] and the 2nd PIS (B = 48.7; 95% CI 9.2–88.2, p = 0.01). A multiple regression linear analysis adjusted by age, sex, body mass index and waist circumference was performed showing that fasting hypertriglyceridaemia remained significantly associated with the 1st PIS (B = 184.3; 95% CI 13.0–355.7, p = 0.03) and the 2nd PIS (B = 43.1; 95% CI 4.2–81.9, p = 0.03).

Conclusions

The results of this study show that hypertriglyceridaemia is associated with the increase of the 1st PIS and the 2nd PIS in apparently healthy subjects. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.