bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Macrocyclic Lactone Endectocides
Authors: Woodward K N
Published: January 2012

The macrocyclic lactone endectocides such as ivermectin, abamectin, selamectin and moxidectin have revolutionized the treatment of parasitic diseases in animals, being active against internal and external parasites. Ivermectin was introduced into veterinary medicine in the 1980s and since that time a number of related compounds have been introduced. In the treatment of internal parasites they complement the use of levamisole and the benzimidazoles, but in recent years they have found utility in treating external insect parasites. These agents show very low levels of toxicity under most circumstances. However, they are neurotoxic particularly in subpopulations of animals with mutations in the MDR1 gene. Toxicity may be also seen during off-label use, possibly because the doses used have been extrapolated from use in other animals. Regardless of these considerations, the macrocyclic lactone endectocides are extremely effective and safe drugs in the treatment of parasitic diseases of animals.
Translational study of microRNAs and its application in kidney disease and hypertension research
Authors: Kriegel Alison J. , Mladinov Domagoj , Liang Mingyu
Published: January 2012

MicroRNA research in humans and mammalian model organisms is in a crucial stage of development. Diagnostic and therapeutic values of microRNAs appear promising, but remain to be established. The physiological and pathophysiological significance of microRNAs is generally recognized, but much better understood in some organ systems and disease areas than others. In the present paper, we review several translational studies of microRNAs, including those showing the potential value of therapeutic agents targeting microRNAs and diagnostic or prognostic microRNA markers detectable in body fluids. We discuss the lessons learned and the experience gained from these studies. Several recent studies have begun to explore translational microRNA research in kidney disease and hypertension. Translational research of microRNAs in the kidney faces unique challenges, but provides many opportunities to develop and apply new methods, and to merge complementary basic and clinical approaches.
Assessing Cognitive Functioning in Older Patients: The Why, Who, What, and How
Authors: Murray Laura L.
Published: January 2012

In the coming years, speech-language pathologists (SLPs) can expect the numbers of older patients on their caseloads to increase. Epidemiological data indicate that the elderly represent one of the fastest growing segments of the U.S. population as national life expectancy continues to increase (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Unfortunately, as people age, they become more vulnerable to medical conditions and diseases (e.g., hypertension, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease) that compromise the integrity of their brain structures and functioning (Alzheimer's Association, 2011; Roger et al., 2010). These conditions and diseases negatively affect our cognitive and communication abilities. In this article, I will focus on cognitive assessment, an important component of service provision to older patients. More specifically, I will review the rationale, issues, and procedures pertaining to evaluating attention, memory, and executive functioning abilities in older patients.
MicroRNA regulation of plant innate immune receptors
Authors: Li Feng , Pignatta Daniela , Bendix Claire , Brunkard Jacob O. , Cohn Megan M. , Tung Jeffery , Sun Haoyu , Kumar Pavan , Baker Barbara
Published: January 2012

Plant genomes contain large numbers of cell surface leucine-rich repeat (LRR) and intracellular nucleotide binding (NB)-LRR immune receptors encoded by resistance (
R
) genes that recognize specific pathogen effectors and trigger resistance responses. The unregulated expression of NB-LRR genes can trigger autoimmunity in the absence of pathogen infection and inhibit plant growth. Despite the potential serious consequence on agricultural production, the mechanisms regulating
R
-gene expression are not well understood. We identified microRNA (miRNA) progenitor genes precursor transcripts, and two miRNAs [nta-miR6019 (22-nt) and nta-miR6020 (21-nt)] that guide cleavage of transcripts of the Toll and Interleukin-1 receptor-NB-LRR immune receptor
N
from tobacco that confers resistance to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). We further showed that cleavage by nta-miR6019 triggers RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 6- and ribonuclease Dicer-like 4-dependent biogenesis of 21-nt secondary siRNAs “in phase” with the 22-nt miR6019 cleavage site. Furthermore, we found that processing of the 22-nt nta-miR6019 depended on an asymmetric bulge caused by mismatch in the nta-miR6019 precursor. Interestingly, coexpression of
N
with nta-miR6019 and nta-miR6020 resulted in attenuation of
N
-mediated resistance to TMV, indicating that these miRNAs have functional roles in
NB-LRR
regulation. Using a bioinformatics approach, we identified six additional 22-nt miRNA and two 21-nt miRNA families from three
Solanaceae
species—tobacco, tomato, and potato. We show that members of these miRNA families cleave transcripts of predicted functional
R
genes and trigger production of phased secondary 21-nt siRNAs. Our results demonstrate a conserved role for miRNAs and secondary siRNAs in NB-LRR/LRR immune receptor gene regulation and pathogen resistance in
Solanaceae
.
Three differentiation states risk-stratify bladder cancer into distinct subtypes
Authors: Volkmer Jens-Peter , Sahoo Debashis , Chin Robert K. , Ho Philip Levy , Tang Chad , Kurtova Antonina V. , Willingham Stephen B. , Pazhanisamy Senthil K. , Contreras-Trujillo Humberto , Storm Theresa A. , Lotan Yair , Beck Andrew H. , Chung Benjamin I. , Alizadeh Ash A. , Godoy Guilherme , Lerner Seth P. , van de Rijn Matt , Shortliffe Linda D. , Weissman Irving L. , Chan Keith S.
Published: January 2012

Current clinical judgment in bladder cancer (BC) relies primarily on pathological stage and grade. We investigated whether a molecular classification of tumor cell differentiation, based on a developmental biology approach, can provide additional prognostic information. Exploiting large preexisting gene-expression databases, we developed a biologically supervised computational model to predict markers that correspond with BC differentiation. To provide mechanistic insight, we assessed relative tumorigenicity and differentiation potential via xenotransplantation. We then correlated the prognostic utility of the identified markers to outcomes within gene expression and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue datasets. Our data indicate that BC can be subclassified into three subtypes, on the basis of their differentiation states: basal, intermediate, and differentiated, where only the most primitive tumor cell subpopulation within each subtype is capable of generating xenograft tumors and recapitulating downstream populations. We found that keratin 14 (KRT14) marks the most primitive differentiation state that precedes KRT5 and KRT20 expression. Furthermore, KRT14 expression is consistently associated with worse prognosis in both univariate and multivariate analyses. We identify here three distinct BC subtypes on the basis of their differentiation states, each harboring a unique tumor-initiating population.
Medication-Assisted Therapy for Opioid-Dependent Incarcerated Populations in New Mexico: Statewide Efforts to Increase Access
Authors: Trigg Bruce G. , Dickman Samuel L.
Published: January 2012

An acute awareness of the profound social and medical costs associated with heroin and opiate addiction in New Mexico has led a group of advocates from public health, state and local governments, corrections, academia, and community activists to collaborate for the purpose of increasing access to medication-assisted therapy (MAT) with buprenorphine and methadone in New Mexico. This paper describes these collaborations, with a focus on the evolution of harm reduction approaches to substance abuse disorders and successful efforts to make MAT available to incarcerated persons.
Evaluation of the Viability and Growth of Walleye Embryos and Larvae after Antiviral Iodine Treatment
Authors: Bowzer John , Dabrowski Konrad , Jaroszewska Marta , Ware Kyle , Kwasek Karolina
Published: January 2012

Avoiding the transmission of viral disease and securing the health of fish populations are vital for hatchery-based stocking programs in regions affected by viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS). Iodine compounds are nonselective antiviral substances that are widely used as disinfectants, but their effects on survival and growth during early life stages of fish require further study. Two groups of walleyes Sander vitreus were collected from the Maumee River (Perrysburg, Ohio) in March 2009. Group 1 (6 females and 3 males) was collected midmorning, and group 2 (10 females and 4 males) was collected that evening. Gametes were collected on site for group 1; group 2 fish were held in tanks overnight, and their gametes were collected the next morning. Gametes were transported (3–4 h) to the laboratory, where eggs from individual females were fertilized with the combined sperm of three to four males. Directly after fertilization and tannic acid treatment, embryos were exposed to iodine at 0 mg/L (control) or 100 mg/L (triplicate) for 30 min. Survival to the eyed embryo stage was estimated for both groups. Only larvae from group 1 were sampled prior to first feeding (live nauplii of brine shrimp Artemia spp.) at 9 d posthatch (dph) and approximately every 10 d thereafter until 48 dph to assess growth. Samples of eggs, ovarian fluid, larvae, and juveniles were collected for VHS testing. Survival to the eyed embryo stage for group 1 was not affected by treatment, but iodine treatment significantly decreased survival for group 2. Growth was unaffected by iodine treatment, and all samples that were tested for VHS were negative. Histological analysis of swim bladder morphology revealed that larvae with noninflated swim bladders had features of an undeveloped organ with hyperplastic epithelium consisting of vacuolarized cells. Walleye eggs that are collected according to the procedures used for group 1 can be treated with 100-mg/L iodine for 30 min without sacrificing survival or growth in regions affected by VHS.
Efficacy of Common Aquaculture Compounds for Disinfection of Aeromonas hydrophila, A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida, and A. salmonicida subsp. achromogenes at Various Temperatures
Authors: Mainous Mary E , Kuhn David D , Smith Stephen A
Published: January 2012

Aeromonas spp. bacteria are important causes of infection in freshwater and marine fishes. Thus, the reduction or elimination of these pathogens from an aquaculture facility or aquarium is important. We evaluated a variety of commercially available chemicals for their efficacy in reducing or eliminating A. hydrophila, A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida, and A. salmonicida subsp. achromogenes at four different temperatures. The various concentrations of chemicals were tested in vitro in microcentrifuge tubes with a known concentration of bacteria at 5, 10, 15, and 22°C. In this study, ethanol (50% and 70%), benzyl-4-chlorophenol/phenylphenol (1%), sodium hypochlorite (50, 100, 200, and 50,000 mg/L), n-alkyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride (1:256), povidone-iodine (50 and 100 mg/L), glutaraldehyde (2%), and potassium peroxymonosulfate–sodium chloride (1%) were effective disinfectants: each eliminated or reduced the number of detectable organisms within 1 min of contact time at all temperatures. Chloramine-T (15 mg/L) was effective within 10 min against A. hydrophila and A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida at all temperatures but required 60 min of contact time to be effective against A. salmonicida subsp. achromogenes. Formalin (250 mg/L) did not substantially reduce counts of any bacterial species tested at any temperature, even after 60 min of contact time. Only ethanol (30%) demonstrated an apparent temperature dependence; this chemical killed organisms within 1 min at room temperature (22°C) but required a longer exposure time at lower temperatures.
Effects of Stargrass Hay Supplementation on Growth and Survival of Juvenile Redclaw Crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus
Authors: Garza de Yta Antonio , Davis D Allen , Rouse David B , Saoud I Patrick , Ghanawi Joly
Published: January 2012

Hay is used as supplementary forage for crayfish aquaculture in many farms around the world. However, our understanding of the relative contribution of hay to crayfish dietary requirements is limited. In the present work, 36 juvenile redclaw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus were stocked into each of 28 tanks that received water continuously from a pond. Four replicate tanks were assigned to each of seven dietary treatments: commercial formulated feed (FF) only, at a ration calculated to produce optimal growth; 100% of the calculated FF ration plus the hay of stargrass Cynodon nlemfuensis added at 150 kg·ha−1·week−1; 75% of the FF ration plus hay; 50% of the FF ration plus hay; 25% of the FF ration plus hay; hay only; and no feed (control). At the end of 8 weeks, the crayfish were harvested, counted, and weighed. There were no significant differences in survival among treatments (α = 0.05), and crayfish growth did not differ among tanks that were offered FF. Redclaw crayfish in the hay-only treatment grew less than those that were offered FF, but growth did not differ between crayfish that were offered only hay and crayfish in the no-feed control. Although hay did not contribute to the growth of redclaw crayfish that were offered the high-protein shrimp feed, it did allow for survival and minimal growth of crayfish that were not offered FF. Accordingly, hay might contribute to growth if a low-protein, low-energy diet is developed specifically for crayfish.
Introduction
Authors: Schoenbach Lisi
Published: January 2012

The introduction articulates the distinction between the shock-based aesthetic of avant-garde modernism and the “recontextualizing” mode represented by pragmatic modernism. It does so by examining Gertrude Stein’s expulsion from “the Transition crowd,” a community of avant-garde artists and writers that included Tristan Tzara, Eugene Jolas, and Georges Braque. Stein, the introduction argues, rejected the avant-garde ideology of rupture and opposition and embraced instead a nuanced and institutionally based vision of change. Her vision hinged on the concept of habit, which she reconceptualized, following pragmatist philosophy, as a dialectical process.
Prediction Theories
Authors: Schoenbach Lisi
Published: January 2012

Chapter Four claims that James’s remarkably subtle and nuanced registry of emotions and personal interactions-long taken to indicate an apolitical aestheticism-should be linked directly to his engagement with pressing political and social questions. These include the ongoing debate about “bigness” which preoccupied many of the leading intellectuals of his day, including his brother, William James. Despite its idiosyncratic and intensely personal aspect, The American Scene provides an acute theoretical analysis of the limitations and challenges of democratic institutions, and even offers a coherent and distinctive theory of the State.
Epilogue
Authors: Schoenbach Lisi
Published: January 2012

The epilogue revisits the contributions of pragmatic modernism through a discussion of Marcel Proust, whose own novelistic meditations on habit rival in their complexity and meticulousness the philosophical analyses of Dewey and James. Proust’s surprisingly intense engagement with pragmatist philosophy, and the larger networks of connection between French and American philosophy it illustrates, shows how the idea of pragmatic modernism might help reunite discourses too often separated by national and disciplinary traditions. Proust offers our richest treatment of habit’s centrality to change; he also offers a final opportunity to consider pragmatic modernism as a transnational intellectual movement.
The General Framework of the Abuse Tests in EU Law
Authors: Nazzini Renato
Published: January 2012

This chapter identifies the key principles of the abuse test under Article 102. It starts by laying down the conceptual and contextual premises of the test under Article 102. These are the development of proportionality as an analytical structure and the application of the principle of proportionality in Union law in general and under Article 101 in particular. It goes on to analyse the proportionality test under Article 102 and the key principles that shape the concept of abuse, namely the definition of abuse in the case law, effective competition, and the ‘doctrine’ of the special responsibility of the dominant undertaking. Then, the chapter examines the causal link between dominance, conduct, and effect. Finally, conclusions are drawn.
Collective Dominance
Authors: Nazzini Renato
Published: January 2012

This chapter begins by examining the emergence of the concept of collective dominance. It demonstrates that there are two separate concepts of collective dominance governed by different legal tests. It then goes on to identify the principles that define the scope of abusive conduct by undertakings that are collectively dominant. Finally, conclusions are drawn.
General Conclusion
Authors: Nazzini Renato
Published: January 2012

This chapter brings together the different strands of the analysis developed throughout the book. It sets out the main conclusions. It does so in three ways: firstly, by setting out the main reasoning of the book, from the identification of the normative objective of competition law to the development of the tests; secondly, by setting out the main principles and tests developed in the analysis so as to present a coherent analytical framework for the assessment of abuse under Article 102; and, finally, by pointing out the main areas in the case law of the EU courts and in the enforcement practice of the Commission that need to be reviewed in order to bring the current application of the law into line with the purpose and principles of Article 102.
The Aim and Approach of this Book
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter sets out the purpose of this book, which is to describe and analyse certain aspects of the administration of the European Union, and more specifically and intensively, the legal framework within which that administration operates. In essence, then, the work addresses the legal regulation of the administration of the EU. It doing so it recognizes a central scholarly objective of both administrative science and administrative law, namely the examination of multifarious approaches, techniques, and structures of public administration in order to systematize and assess the solutions they offer to political, social, and economic problems and, where appropriate, to compare their responses to common, or at least similar, subjects and issues. An overview of the subsequent chapters is also presented.
Interdisciplinary Foundations of European Administrative Law
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter deals with a selection of interdisciplinary factors which contribute to an understanding of the relationships within and rationales of European administrative law. The first section begins with an analysis of the concept of cycles and phases of administrative activities. Next, it considers the application and comparison of state administrative models to those of the EU. It then turns to the debate concerning the concept of ‘new public management’, which has attempted to identify areas of public administration in need of reform and to put forward alternative concepts for its structuring and direction. The second section offers reflections on two approaches: first, the application of principal-agent theory in the context of the delegation and organization of competences on the EU level; secondly concepts of regulatory competition which arise in the context of multi-level regulatory systems.
General Principles Framing European Union Administrative Law
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter examines the overarching principles which frame the EU's administrative law. It looks at the meta-principles of democracy, the rule of law, and the protection of fundamental rights. This is followed in more detail by a discussion of principles of very particular relevance for administrative action, such as transparency, legal certainty, and legitimate expectations, as well as the rights of defence and the principles underpinning the concept of good administration.
Delegation and the European Union Constitutional Framework
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter examines the concept of delegation in EU administrative law. It begins with the legal issues relating to the constitutional framework of delegation to EU institutions under the EC Treaty before discussing the new constitutional framework established by the Lisbon Treaty of delegated and implementing acts under Articles 290 and 291 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. It examines the increasingly important delegation of powers to European agencies in the light of the continuing relevance of the Meroni doctrine. It then turns to an assessment of the entrusting of EU powers to the Member States and gives consideration to the constitutionally challenging involvement of private bodies in the implementation of EU policies. It provides an account of the specific issues concerning delegations in respect of financial matters. It concludes with a consideration of the legal issues relating to intra-institutional delegation, in particular within the Commission.
Organizational Arrangements for European Union Administrative Action
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter discusses the organizational forms central to European administrative governance. It sets out the central features of these forms, their rationale(s) and, wherever possible, offers an assessment of the issues which they raise in terms of legitimacy and accountability. Specifically, it considers comitology, European agencies, various forms of European networks for administrative governance, the Open Method of Coordination, and organizational forms in which private parties play a dominant role.
Budget Implementation and Programme Management
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter discusses the implementation of the budget, including the supervision of expenditure by numerous recipients of EU moneys. The presently applicable Financial Regulation (Council Regulation 1605/2002), emanating from a reform process established a new framework for financial management of Union programmes, including inter alia provisions on budget implementation methods. Article 53 stipulates that the budget can be implemented in a number of ways: on a centralized basis; through shared or decentralized management; and through joint management with international organizations. Centralized administration allows the Commission to implement the budget directly through its own departments or indirectly though limited delegation to third parties. Shared management involves delegation of implementational tasks to Member States, particularly in relation to the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund and the Structural Funds. In the case of decentralized management, tasks of implementation are delegated to third countries subject to the conditions laid down in Article 56 and Part Two, Title IV of the Financial Regulation. Where the budget is implemented by joint management, certain implementing tasks are delegated to international organizations, which have to provide, in their accounting, audit, internal control, and procurement procedures, standards which offer guarantees equivalent to internationally accepted standards.
Rules and Principles Governing the Substance of Administrative Decision-Making
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter deals with the rules and principles governing the substance of administrative decision-making, focusing on the scope of the administration's influence over the substance of decisions. In many instances, the European administration has been allocated a discretion or a margin of appreciation linked to its perceived expertise, or to its political role in the decision-making process. In other instances the relevant law, the application of which is entrusted to the administrative authorities, is more restrictive and determinative of the decision-making outcome. It is shown that such categories are far from absolute, and the boundaries between them not impermeable. Indeed, the scope for appreciation and the exercise of a discretion by the administration is rather to be seen as being on a sliding scale. That scope is relevant not only as regards the range of policy considerations which the administration can pursue or take into account, and its freedom of movement in doing so, but also for the degree to which the European courts are willing to engage with the substance of administrative action when supervising these in the context of judicial review.
Agenda Setting, Preparatory Acts, Planning, and Framework Measures
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter addresses agenda setting and preparatory measures of specific acts as well as planning procedures. This subject matter covers an area of EU law which, in the light of the distribution of powers between the institutions, can be a prelude to both administrative measures of various kinds and legislative rule-making. In setting agenda and taking preparatory steps for other measures, whether its own or those of the legislative organs, the European Commission acts in its capacity as a political administration — indeed European executive — par excellence. The Commission's activity in this capacity is made very clear. The consideration given to the administrative determination of the course of future action and the agenda setting and the readying of future measures also raises important and interesting questions with regard to the distinction between binding and non-binding acts.
Subordinate Legislation
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter addresses rule-making by procedures outside the formal ‘ordinary legislative procedure’ (under Article 294 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, TFEU) and the various special legislative procedures defined in the TFEU. Such rule-making outside the ordinary or special legislative procedures can be conducted either by conferring upon the Commission the power to issue ‘delegated acts’, or by a delegation to the Commission, or exceptionally the Council, of the power to issue ‘implementing acts’. These forms of subordinate rulemaking share the characteristic that they require an explicit delegation of the competence to issue the act concerned. The conditions for such delegation, and by whom it can be conferred, and the limits to which it is subject, are treated within the chapter.
Decisions in Individual Cases
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter covers ‘unilateral’ determinations, not only those of European Union institutions and bodies, but also decisions by Member States when implementing European law through their administrative apparatuses. Such determinations comprise the full range of regulatory, distributive, supervisory, and enforcing decisions by administrative officials addressed both to individuals and to other public authorities on European or national level. Questions of their validity, revocation, and reversal, and the relationship between unilateral determinations and negotiated outcomes, in the form of agreements, are central to the legal understanding of the operation of the legal-administrative system of the Union. A particular matter of keen interest here is that of the transterritorial effect of Member State decisions within the framework of EU administrative law.
Factual Conduct by the Administration in Individual Cases
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

Not all actions of European Union or Member State authorities implementing European law are decisions ‘intended to produce legal effects’ in the sense of Article 263(1) TFEU (Article 230(1) EC) or of the equivalent Member State legal provisions. Frequently, administrative action is explicitly or implicitly designed to have factual, as opposed to legal, consequences or effects. Such ‘factual conduct’ or ‘factual acts’, as these phenomena of administrative action might be called in practice, in order to distinguish them from formal, legally effective measures, do not occur in a legal vacuum in the Union context, any more than they do in the context of national legal systems. Rules and principles of European administrative law frame cases of factual conduct, establishing both criteria for their legality and the consequences of the illegality, especially in situations involving violations of rights. This chapter discusses various categories of factual acts and factual conduct.
Purposes and Functions of Supervision and Enforcement
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter analyses the purposes and functions of supervision and enforcement of administrative activity generally in the context of the European Union. The first section presents some background reflection on the conditions applying to such activity in this specific context. The discussion covers interdisciplinary perspectives, supervision and enforcement in EU administrative law generally, accountability, and supervision through specialized and independent authorities. The second section addresses broad methodological approaches that apply to different categories of supervision.
Political Supervision
Authors: Hofmann Herwig C.H. , Rowe Gerard C. , TÜrk Alexander H.
Published: January 2012

This chapter focuses on political supervision in the multi-level system through the Council and the European Parliament, but Member States' structures of political supervision also play a role. Political supervision of administrative activity takes place horizontally between EU institutions and bodies within the concept of institutional balance. It also takes place vertically between Member States and the EU, which mutually control each others' activities in the realm of the implementation of Union law. Which forms of political supervision exist, and whether the available forms of political supervision are sufficient to hold EU administration actors politically accountable, are explored in the chapter.
Historical Overview
Authors: Bennett Robert J.
Published: January 2012

Because the book is mainly thematic, this chapter gives a historical overview to put the themes into a context. It traces the earliest chambers of commerce, from 1767, and ‘delegate’ bodies that participated in the General Chamber of Manufacturers 1785-7, and the Union of chambers 1793-1805. It demonstrates how the chambers of commerce developed in every major city, and were copied in smaller towns by chambers of trade. It describes how early societies for credit and debt collection worked with the chambers, and how chambers of agriculture competed. For the twentieth century the chapter traces competition from sector-based trade associations and national bodies such as CBI. It demonstrates the peripheralization of local voice up to the 1980s, but a revival as up to the present as providers of business services and partners with government in economic development and workforce training.
Concepts and Origins
Authors: Bennett Robert J.
Published: January 2012

This chapter searches for the proximate cause of chambers over 1760-1800. It reviews the discourse on ‘chambers’, how this linked with reassessing the trading relationships with the colonies, and how it interfaced with existing lobby mechanisms, including American agents. It analyses how a new ‘discourse coalition’ emerged supporting ‘reform’, and how this worked with the opposition, and the Rockingham, Shelburne, and Pitt administrations. It focuses on the role of American unrest leading to rebellion; how this was articulated through American merchants in New York, Boston, and Charleston; and how localities in Britain and Ireland responded. New analysis of the Stamp Act, Wilkes, and other petitions demonstrates how key participants became leading forces behind the early chambers on both sides of the Atlantic. Entirely new information on the first Liverpool, Manchester, and other early chambers is developed. Responses in Jersey, Guernsey, and Quebec echo the general pattern. Early chamber leaders are shown to be pro-reform, but treading an uneasy path between attacking the government and resisting revolution.
Diffusion
Authors: Bennett Robert J.
Published: January 2012

Chambers were initially small in number and focused in the main ports. This was explained by their political weight, experience of lobbying for private Bills for infrastructure development (especially wet docks and canals), and their focus on networks of economic and social exchange. This chapter shows that their diffusion was generally down the population rank-size distribution of cities, eventually penetrating the whole market for local voice. However, the chapter shows that there was important regional differentiation, and there were some notable barriers to diffusion as a result of resistance. In London this included resistance from central government. In centres, such as Bristol, Dublin, Cork, and Londonderry, it was resistance from the pre-Reform local corporation; other centres had mixed support from pre-existing bodies such as the Merchant Adventurers, Staplers, and commercial committees.
Recognition and Public Status
Authors: Bennett Robert J.
Published: January 2012

As voluntary bodies in Britain, Ireland, and America, chambers rely on the receptiveness of government. Public law systems, such as those in Europe, have automatic access, but lack independence of voice. This chapter analyses how chambers have tried to enhance their right to be heard: initially through charters and incorporation, then seeking to achieve a formal status in government consultations. Some advocates also called for public law chambers, from the earliest days; this led to a destructive internal debate in the 1980s. In modern times involvement in government contracts, and a chamber Act to protect title in 1999 have achieved many of the former aims. A separate track, for chambers to have a formal legal status as commercial arbitrators through tribunals of commerce achieved notable success in the 1880s, but the impact was limited by lawyers. This chapter presents the first detailed analysis of these developments.
National Voice and Local Voice
Authors: Bennett Robert J.
Published: January 2012

This chapter provides the first overview of how tensions between local chambers and national bodies were resolved. Early initiatives were a Union of Chambers, the General Chamber of Manufacturers, and agents in London. The National association for chambers of commerce, established in 1860, was replicated in the chambers of trade, trade protection societies, etc.; and in Ireland in 1923. The chapter shows that these associations were slow to settle down, with many major chambers not joining, and Liverpool prominently leaving after one year. Detailed analysis shows the clash of local independence with attempts to enforce a common view. Tensions continue to the present. The chapter analyses the tussles and different plans. Efforts by the association to improve local chambers have often been resisted; but after 1990 an accreditation and benchmarking system in the UK has been successful, and copied in Ireland and Canada.
Early Chamber Voice
Authors: Bennett Robert J.
Published: January 2012

This chapter is a radical reappraisal of the earlier academic literature. It shows the breadth, persistence, and impact of early chamber lobbies, with a strongly developing set of locally independent voices in Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow, Dublin, etc. They were important in Treaty negotiations, American debt compensation (Jay Treaty), over lighthouses, the post office, East India Company charter, and many other matters. The chapter reviews these developments, and the Union of chamber which formed in 1793. It analyses lobbies by all the early major chambers showing how North ‘s and Pitt's governments were influenced. The chapter also covers the short-lived General Chamber of Manufacturers. It demonstrates that the demise of that chamber was due more to personalities than economic tensions, and to an unworkable structure trying to relate national and local voices. Contrary to earlier academic opinion, it had little relation to, or effect on, the independent chambers.
The Tax Mix Matters Less Than We Thought
Authors: Kenworthy Lane
Published: January 2012

To provide transfers and services, governments must tax. In affluent countries the principal sources of government revenue are taxes on income (individual and corporate), payroll, and consumption. What is the optimal mix among these three types of taxes? The comparative empirical record suggests the following: Income taxes are the most progressive of the three. But taxation tends to have relatively little direct impact on the income distribution; transfers and services are far more important. Consumption and payroll taxes have not been the key to expansion of tax revenues in recent decades. The nations that have increased revenues (as a share of GDP) have done so as much via income taxes. Countries relying more heavily on income taxes have not suffered slower economic growth. Nations that rely more heavily on payroll taxes do appear to have had slower employment growth over the past few decades. For policy makers seeking an optimal tax mix, these findings suggest that countries have a good bit of leeway to choose.
Sub‐extraction
Authors: Uriagereka Juan
Published: January 2012

This chapter examines derivational vortices, i.e., points in a derivation that the MSO system predicts should spell out separately. In particular, it explores the possibility that such domains are opaque to chain relations spanning from inside them, into the rest of the derivation. It is the nuanced topology of derivations, as characterized in terms of the MSO architecture — but also other proposals that take the Bare Phrase Structure system in all seriousness — that yield some characteristic island effects. A large chunk of the chapter has been devoted to exploring the empirical challenge that Stepanov (2007) poses for this general view. Once irrelevant factors are cleared out of the way, there are situations in which conditions of sub-extraction from subjects improve for some reason, at least in some languages.
Antecedents and Consequents
Authors: Uriagereka Juan
Published: January 2012

This chapter situates the present system within the tradition it comes from, in the process examining foundational concerns about the overall architecture and how this has influenced other lines of research. It begins by reviewing earlier models (the Extended Standard Theory and the Principles and Parameters system) — precursors of the Minimalist Program — to show how the roots of how cyclicity is addressed in this book are very much within the spirit of earlier proposals. It then moves on to the best known cyclic system in contemporary studies, which proposes that derivations run transitioning from one phase to the next. It shows how this system is compatible with the MSO architecture, as they are addressing different aspects of cyclicity — a condition that makes good derivational sense. The theme of justifying the derivational nature of the linguistic architecture is further explored in the middle sections of the chapter. It concludes with two detailed case studies in the literature, which explicitly and creatively use the MSO architecture to make predictions about reanalysis in parsing and specific conditions that arise in language development.
13 Determinants of the Concentration in Beer Markets in Germany and the United States: 1950–2005
Authors: Adams William James
Published: January 2012

Between 1950 and 2000, the four-firm producer-concentration ratio for beer increased from twenty-two to ninety-five in the United States. In Germany, the four-firm producer-concentration ratio was just twenty-nine in 2000; and the eight-firm ratio in Germany was smaller than the one-firm ratio in the United States. In 2005, after five years of important mergers involving big brewers, the German beer industry was still much less concentrated than its American counterpart. This chapter discusses several candidate explanations for the failure of beer-producer-concentration to rise as much in Germany as in the United States: the relevance of the new technologies to German brewers, the preferences of German consumers, the rules for advertising on German television and other factors, largely absent from the consensus interpretation of American experience.
17 Opening the Beer Gates: How Liberalization Caused Growth in India's Beer Market
Authors: Arora Abhimanyu , Bhaskar Anjor , Minten Bart , Vandeplas Anneleen
Published: January 2012

The Indian beer market has been growing at a staggering rate of 11% annually between 1999 and 2009. This chapter looks at the determinants of this impressive growth. Rules and regulations in the Indian beverage sector, in an attempt to serve multiple purposes, have become quite complex, including licenses, trade and marketing restrictions, and price controls. However, the regulatory system has been relaxed in recent years, contributing to increased inflows of foreign direct investment, higher growth rates and modernization of the sector — with important impacts on quality standards and supply chain governance structures. The chapter traces these policy changes and their influence on the beer market in India.
EU Law Effects of EU Foreign Investment Law
Authors: Dimopoulos Angelos
Published: January 2012

Chapter 6 addresses the Union law effects of EU foreign investment law. It begins with identifying the EU law rights and obligations of EU institutions and Member States arising from the regulation of foreign investment by the EU, focusing on the Union law obligation to comply and perform EU IIAs. Chapter 6 looks also extensively into the scope and application of the Union law obligation to respect the primacy and autonomy of Union law in the field of foreign investment regulation. It examines the compatibility of EU IIAs and, more importantly, of Member States BITs with EU law, it identifies the violations of Union law and assesses the suggested proposals for their remedy. This chapter considers also the enforceability of these Union law obligations, focusing on the scope of judicial review of EU and Member States actions in light of EU IIAs and the creation of individual rights.
Conclusions
Authors: Dimopoulos Angelos
Published: January 2012

The most pertinent findings of this book are drawn together with a view to providing some final observations on the role of the EU as an international actor in the field of international law and regulation of foreign investment. Based on the developments of primary EU law and international investment law, this chapter provides forward-looking projections for building a comprehensive EU foreign investment policy in the future. Moreover, it discusses whether a comprehensive EU foreign investment policy would serve better the regulatory interests of the EU, Member States and third countries as capital importing and capital exporting countries and finally foreign investors.
Variants and Evidence of Oral-Written Transmission of Israelite Literature
Authors: Carr David M.
Published: January 2012

This chapter summarizes key insights from manuscript studies in the humanities and from studies of memory in psychology, summarizing insights into how texts are memorized and how manuscripts of pre-modern texts often bear marks of the role of memory in their transmission. In particular, the chapter develops the concept of “memory variant” to describe the type of variation typical of texts transmitted, in part, by memory. A “memory variant” involves changes of order, substitution of semantic equivalents, addition or subtraction of minor particles with minimal semantic impact, and other changes characteristic of divergent performances of texts that have been memorized. As such they are to be distinguished from aural variants (produced by errors in hearing of dictation) and graphic variants (typical of visually-copied texts).
Documented Cases of Transmission History, Part 1
Authors: Carr David M.
Published: January 2012

This chapter introduces the focus on documented cases of transmission history (also termed “empirical” study of biblical formation), starting with a brief survey of prior such studies by Jeffrey Tigay, Emanuel Tov, and others. The balance of the chapter is devoted to extended discussion of two such cases of documented growth of ancient texts far removed from each other both chronologically and geographically: the Gilgamesh Epic and Temple Scroll. Both cases display the sort of “memory variants” discussed in the previous chapter along with a range of other sorts of textual revision, including expansion, conflation, and even (in specific circumstances) omission of elements of prior sources.
The Hellenistic Period up to the Hasmonean Monarchy
Authors: Carr David M.
Published: January 2012

This chapter provides a brief overview of the pre-Hasmonean Hellenistic period and then proceeds to a survey of four types of texts most obviously datable to this period and consideration of their profile. These include apocalyptic texts, Second Temple wisdom, diaspora texts and priestly materials [e.g. Chronicles] along with post-P harmonizations/coordinations. The chapter concludes with a survey of other texts in the Hebrew Bible that may reflect each of these four profiles.
The Persian Period
Authors: Carr David M.
Published: January 2012

Once again, this chapter opens with a historical survey of the Persian period (including brief treatment of the order of Ezra and Nehemiah) and discussion of the question of broader Persian sponsorship for restoration of returnee community. Next comes a survey of texts likely dated to this period, from the Nehemiah Memoir and Rebuilding-Ezra narrative to early portions of Haggai and Zechariah, to Psalm 107 (in its present form) and the poetry of Job. This leads into discussion of the formation of the P/Non-P Hexateuch through combination of P and non-P traditions (possibly supported in some way by Persian governmental authorization) and the rise of a “Pentateuch” to prominence by the end of the period. Though the probability of other Persian-period reshaping of yet other biblical traditions is affirmed, questions are raised in the conclusion about their extent (especially given the limited scale of the scribal apparatus at the time) and identifiability (given the fact that they are modelled on and molded into older materials).
Bible for Exiles
Authors: Carr David M.
Published: January 2012

The starting point and focus of this chapter is an argument for an exilic “post-D Hexateuchal” compositional layer that united and reconstrued three earlier and originally separate compositions--a non-P proto-Genesis, a non-P Moses story (or possibly multiple Moses traditions) and a composition including (at least) some form of Deuteronomy-Joshua. Probably just slightly later in the exile, this Post-D Hexateuch received its Priestly counterpart in an originally separate P narrative, one that may have included a highly truncated series of notices now found in strategic loci in the book of Joshua. The chapter concludes with consideration of possible exilic dating for the original components used in the early post-exilic post-D Hexateuchal composition.