bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Charge transport in organic semiconductors
Authors: Forrest Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

In this chapter, the basic principles of the origins of transport levels and bands, charge conduction in disordered materials, and injection from contacts are introduced. Charge transport in organics is fundamentally different than in inorganic semiconductors due to narrow transport bands that, in general, lead to charge transport via hopping, resulting in carrier mobilities that are at most only a few cm2/V s. Processes of charge injection leading to space charge limited transport that defines the current vs. voltage characteristics of the materials are discussed. Methods of measuring mobility, background charge densities, and quantifying charge recombination are described. Doping of organics using both molecular and atomic species to modify their conductivity is also considered. The theory of transport in energetically and structurally disordered films is developed. The chapter closes by describing, from first principles, the theory of conduction over organic and organic/inorganic semiconductor heterojunctions that are used in almost all organic photonic devices.
Modern Angst
Authors: Biess Frank
Published: October 2020

This chapter shifts the focus from fears and anxieties that primarily resulted from the Federal Republic’s external situation to internal fears. The modernization and stabilization of West German society generated their own fears. This chapter focuses on fears of automation during the late 1950s and 1960s. Contrary to conventional wisdom, West Germans did not display an unabashed optimism about technology but were keenly aware of the ambivalent consequences of technological progress. In particular, they remembered the negative consequences of the rationalization movement of the 1920s and their impact on the political stability of the Weimar Republic. The chapter analyzes first the debate about technology among West German intellectuals such as Friedrich Pollock, Helmut Schelsky, and Arnold Gehlen. It then focuses on the broader cultural debate on automation that brought into view anxieties about structural unemployment, deskilling of workers, and psychological impact of automation. As a case study, the chapter then analyzes the confrontation of the largest West German industrial union, IG Metall, with automation. Labor unions did not respond to automation with optimism but were keenly aware of its potentially detrimental effects. A more skeptical attitude toward automation and technological progress more generally thus predated the economic crisis of the 1970s.
Revolutionary Angst
Authors: Biess Frank
Published: October 2020

This chapter analyzes the impact of the West German student movement on the history of fear and on emotional culture more generally. The “68ers” propagated an expressive emotional culture that partly displaced the older repressive emotional culture. The student movement celebrated the public display of emotions and enabled a new significance of emotions within political activism and for individual subjectivities. The chapter brings into focus the specific role that fear and anxiety played in shaping the political outlooks and subjectivities of student activities. While historians have often emphasized the optimism that drove the student movement, activists’ fears and disappointments resulted, in part, from their far-reaching, even utopian, ambitions. Fears also resulted from student activists’ confrontation with police and popular violence. Students’ politicization of sexuality turned personal relationships into a source of anxiety because many activists found it difficult to reconcile their political views with their private lives. Finally, the chapter analyzes conservative fears of revolution, as they were expressed by the conservative Bund Freiheit der Wissenschaft that sought to contain the influence of left-wing forces within the universities. The dialectic of fear that had already shaped the interplay between democratic fears and fears of democracy in the earlier period intensified further. Revolutionary fears and fears of revolution structured the political debate in the West German 1960s and beyond.
Moral Uncertainty
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

Very often, we’re uncertain about what we ought, morally, to do. We don’t know how to weigh the interests of animals against humans, or how strong our duties are to improve the lives of distant strangers, or how to think about the ethics of bringing new people into existence. But we still need to act. So how should we make decisions in the face of such uncertainty? Though economists and philosophers have extensively studied the issue of decision-making in the face of uncertainty about matters of fact, the question of decision-making given fundamental moral uncertainty has been neglected. In this book, philosophers William MacAskill, Krister Bykvist and Toby Ord try to fill this gap. They argue that there are distinctive norms that govern how one ought to make decisions given moral uncertainty. They then defend an information-sensitive account of how to make such decisions according to which the correct way to act in the face of moral uncertainty depends on whether the moral theories in which one has credence are merely ordinal, cardinal, or both cardinal and intertheoretically comparable. They tackle the problem of how to make intertheoretic comparisons, discussing several novel potential solutions. Finally, they discuss implications of their view for metaethics and practical ethics, and show how their account can shed light on the value of moral enquiry.
Introduction
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

We introduce our central question: ‘Given that we are morally uncertain, how ought we to act in light of that uncertainty?’ We define key terms to help us make that question more precise, and introduce the framework within which we work. The approach we take to answering the question is ‘divide and conquer’. We ask, for each of a number of different informational situations, what the correct theory of decision-making under moral uncertainty is given that informational situation. We pay particular attention to the situations of cardinal measurability and intertheoretic comparability, cardinal measurability with no intertheoretic comparability, and merely ordinal measurability with no comparability. We then discuss what is and isn’t included within the scope of the book, and give an outline of what’s to come.
Why We Should Take Moral Uncertainty Seriously
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

In this chapter we introduce the topic of moral uncertainty, argue that moral uncertainty is a real and significant issue, and argue that there are non-trivial answers to the question, ‘Given that we are morally uncertain, how ought we to act in light of that uncertainty?’ In particular, we argue that there is an answer to the question of what a morally conscientious agent rationally should do when she is morally uncertain. We shall also consider and defend against some recent objections to the very project of trying to develop an account of decision-making under moral uncertainty: we’ll call these the fetishism objection; the regress objection; the blameworthiness objection; the conscientiousness objection; and the disanalogy with prudence objection.
Interval-Scale Theories and Variance Voting
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses how to take into account moral uncertainty over interval-scale measurable but non-comparable theories. Once again, we make use of the analogy between decision-making under moral uncertainty and voting. We give examples of interval-scale theories where it’s plausible to think that these theories are incomparable with each other and discuss what to do in such cases. Arguing against the Borda Rule and Ted Lockhart’s Principle of Equity Among Moral Theories, we argue in favour of an account we call variance voting. Finally, we discuss what to do in conditions where one has positive credence in some merely ordinal theories, some interval-scale but non-comparable theories, and some theories that are both interval-scale measurable and comparable with each other. We discuss whether the normalization used by this account should be done only within the decision-situation at hand, or whether it should be done over all possible decision-situations.
Fanaticism and Incomparability
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

In this chapter, we discuss two further problems that face accounts of decision-making under moral uncertainty, and are particularly pressing for theories that involve maximizing expected choice worthiness. First, the fanaticism problem—that the expected choice worthiness of options might be primarily determined by tiny credences in theories that posit huge amounts of value. Second, the infectious incomparability problem—that any credence in theories with radical incomparability might render the expected choice worthiness of almost every option undefined. We argue that both problems can be overcome. The fanaticism problem is a problem for decision-making under uncertainty in general, not just for decision-making in the face of moral uncertainty. The infectious incomparability problem requires an account of decision-making in the face of both moral uncertainty and incomparability. We suggest one possible account.
Conclusion
Authors: MacAskill William , Bykvist Krister , Ord Toby
Published: October 2020

We summarize the argument of the book: the case for taking moral uncertainty seriously, and the case for an information-sensitive account: the correct rule for making decisions under moral uncertainty depends crucially on the information provided by the moral theories in which one has credence. We then note some open questions that would require further work to address, such as how to axiomatize decision-making under moral uncertainty, how we should assign deontic statuses, such as permissible and impermissible, under moral uncertainty, and what a reasonable credence distribution across different moral theories looks like. We end by considering what implications our argument has for the value of doing moral philosophy, suggesting we should conclude that further normative research is one of the most important moral priorities of our time.
The Emergence of International Standards
Authors: Morgera Elisa
Published: October 2020

This chapter provides a short theoretical discussion on the role of standards, as opposed to rules and principles, in the progressive development of international law. The chapter also assesses the conceptual and legal relevance of each initiative, namely: the UN draft Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations, the UN Global Compact, the UN Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with regard to Human Rights, the influential UN Framework on Business and Human Rights and its Guiding Principles, the Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and the Performance Standards of the International Finance Corporation. The chapter discusses the different conceptual approaches taken by these initiatives and assesses the extent to which current human rights-based approaches have built upon the earlier consolidation of international corporate environmental accountability standards and the extent to which they contribute to further detailing these standards.
Assessing the Convergence of International Standards on Corporate Environmental Responsibility
Authors: Morgera Elisa
Published: October 2020

This chapter carries out a critical analysis of the international standards on corporate environmental responsibility by relying on the normative advances made under the Convention on Biological Diversity. It focuses on the more recent emergence of these substantive standards that relate to the human rights of indigenous peoples to their territories, lands, natural resources, and traditional knowledge (environmental and socio-cultural impact assessments, free prior informed consent, fair and equitable benefit-sharing). The chapter also discusses other international standards of corporate environmental responsibility with regard to protected areas, and the sustainable use of natural resources, including in relation to ecosystem services, invasive alien species, threatened species, sustainable agri-business, and sustainable production more generally.
Time Compression
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Chapter 1 develops the concept of time compression in economic development and highlights how recent developers are experiencing simultaneity in processes which previously unfolded sequentially over extended periods of time, including industrialization and deindustrialization. Time compression has always been a feature of late development, but the extreme forms seen in recent and current developers alter development experiences and processes in important ways. Industrialization has become ‘thin’, reflecting specialization, global value chain engagement, leaps in capital intensity, and the simultaneous casualization and formalization of labour markets. ‘Out-of-sequence’ sectoral shifts, such as an early retail revolution and financialization, and sectoral blurring also contribute to time compression. Demographic transitions have accelerated, with ‘premature ageing’, especially in East Asia.
Eras
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Chapter 2 introduces the concept of development eras with the first of our two the co-evolutionary dyads, states and markets, and their Polanyian double movements. It both builds on and departs from Gerschenkron’s late-development thesis. Developing countries innovate institutionally, but they are influenced by the geopolitics, economic systems, and ideologies of the dominant power. Britain’s technologies, ‘liberal’ order, and gold standard created the first globalization and financialization, which collapsed with World War I and were eventually superseded by new dominant powers—the United States and the Soviet Union. US embedded liberalism was in turn transformed into neoliberalism, and a second period of globalization and financialization. Relatedly, through international organizations, treaties, and trade agreements, ‘policy space’ of developing countries has been compressed, marking a change from late development to the compressed-development era.
China’s and Japan’s Divergent Institutions
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

China and Japan share some historical affinities, and they faced similar challenges of foreign threats and unequal treaties in the nineteenth century. Their subsequent paths were very different, however. As a late developer, Japan experienced industrialization in two movements, the more recent being the postwar period under the strong influence of the United States and its New Deal institutions. After its 1949 revolution, China also underwent late-developer industrialization, but under the initial influence of the Soviet model. China’s rapprochement with the United States and subsequent opening led to massive institutional change and rapid growth as a compressed developer, with significant foreign direct investment and global-value-chain engagement. A comparison of education and skill development highlights just how different these paths were.
Varieties of Compressed Development
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Chapter 5 explores the ways in which less-developed countries experience the era-related effects of compressed development and try to cope with them. Chapter 4 compared late-developer Japan and compressed-developer China, but countries with poor or mixed records of economic development also face the opportunities and constraints of compression, and must do so with institutions, policies, and industries which emerged under prior conditions. Large-market less-developed countries such as Brazil, India, and even China face the era effects of compression, with legacies that are often poorly suited and sometimes antithetical to the demands of global value chains and technology ecosystems. Discontinuities and differences across sectors further complicate the role of the state in the era of compressed development.
Afterword
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

The onset of the Covid-19 pandemic has been traced to early December 2019, just as we were submitting our completed manuscript for publication. We were tempted to comb through the manuscript for ways to address what has rapidly emerged as an unprecedented global public health crisis, economic crisis, and more. But, we decided to leave the text be for several reasons. The first is the ongoing nature of the pandemic and its fallout. The scope of the damage and its long-term social, economic, and political effects will not be fully visible for years, and we are resistant to the business of prognostication. The second is that we believe the book, as it stands, can help make sense of some of the distinctive features of the pandemic, including its unprecedented speed of transmission to all corners of the globe and the economic chaos engendered by the disruption of industries embedded in the elaborate global supply chains and technology ecosystems that comprise GVCs. Third, it is very likely that the pandemic will intensify, if not actually cause, the overlapping and interacting crises that we depicted in ...
The Pythagorean Acusmata
Authors: Thom Johan C.
Published: October 2020

The collection of sayings known as acusmata represent some of the earliest evidence for Pythagorean teaching. The sayings are therefore potentially of extreme importance in determining the ethics and way of life of the early Pythagorean community; but their original meaning is often disputed. “The Pythagorean Acusmata” allows for both literal and non-literal interpretations, striving to achieve some balance between the two. The first part of the discussion is devoted to a survey of acusmata that have a bearing on ethics, followed by some general, tentative conclusions about the ethics of the sayings. These include that it is overly simplistic to postulate two mutually exclusive ancient approaches to the acusmata, that is, a literal approach and an allegorical one, or to try to distinguish between two types of ethics, an “acusmatic” ethics based on a narrow, literal interpretation, and a “mathematic” ethics based on a more open, rational interpretation.
Xenophanes on the Ethics and Epistemology of Arrogance
Authors: Tor Shaul
Published: October 2020

Xenophanes famously advanced certain views that found celebrated expressions in classical ethical philosophy. Most notably, his remarks on poetic depictions of gods and the social veneration of athletes echo the later criticisms of Plato’s Socrates. “Xenophanes on the Ethics and Epistemology of Arrogance” argues that the repeated echoes of Xenophanes in the words of Plato’s Socrates reflect an affinity that runs deeper than has been recognized. Xenophanes confronts us with a systematic attitude toward the ethical aspects and consequences of epistemic arrogance; in particular, he anticipates the central Platonic insight that epistemic arrogance manifests in, and leads to, ethical failure in human thought and action. Furthermore, Xenophanes—like Socrates—does not counter the arrogance he diagnoses with meek humility, but, instead, espouses a disillusioned recognition of human epistemic limitations while, at the same time, affirming the superiority of his own insight and value to human communities, partly on the basis of that very recognition.
The Sōphrosynē of Critias
Authors: Gottesman Alex
Published: October 2020

“The Sophrosynē of Critias: Aristocratic Ethics after the Thirty Tyrants” looks at the fragments of Critias and his reception in the works of Xenophon and Plato. In dealing with Critias, both Xenophon and Plato touch on the topic of sophrosynē, suggesting that it was of special interest to Critias and relevant to his memory. For Critias, the concept refers to a set of behaviors, demeanors, and dispositions that were the cornerstone of elite self-presentation and of its claim to political rule. The chapter suggests that in their contrasting portraits of Critias, Xenophon and Plato offer contrasting and, in all likelihood, competing accounts about what went wrong with the old aristocratic order that Critias represented, and about how to reform the ethics of the upper classes so that their leadership would be not only justified but also just.
Antisthenes and Allegoresis
Authors: Domaradzki Mikolaj
Published: October 2020

“Antisthenes and Allegoresis” examines the question of Antisthenes’ allegoresis. First, the chapter shows that persistent disagreement among scholars on this topic arises from divergent understandings of what qualifies as allegorical interpretation. Subsequently, the chapter demonstrates that those Antisthenean interpretations that are most frequently categorized as allegorical illustrate broader controversies in research on allegoresis such as whether allegoresis should be defined in terms of its intentionality and whether allegoresis should be defined in terms of its obviousness. Finally, the chapter suggests that Antisthenes’ diversified approach to epic poetry and traditional mythology was conducive to the development of two distinct traditions: a rationalist one and an allegorist one.
Aristippus of Cyrene
Authors: Tsouna Voula
Published: October 2020

“Aristippus of Cyrene” re-evaluates the evidence concerning, on the one hand, Aristippus’ alleged hedonism and, on the other, his affiliation with Socrates and the Socratic circle. The central thesis of the chapter is this: even though some sources attribute to Aristippus the sort of ethical hedonism that we know to have been held by his grandson (Aristippus the Younger), there is strong evidence that in fact Aristippus of Cyrene was not an ethical hedonist but endorsed Socratic concerns and values. These latter include philosophical inquiry focused on ethics, the paramount importance of philosophy for education and the care of one’s soul, concern to develop the virtues and assess the relative value of external goods, the crucial role of reason and prudence in ethical conduct, the ethical implications of systematically pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain, and the rationalism that should determine one’s attitudes toward relatives, acquaintances, fellow-citizens, and the city itself.
Ethics in Early Greek Medicine
Authors: Demont Paul
Published: October 2020

“Ethics in Early Greek Medicine” consists of two parts. The first examines analyses of emotions, character, and ethical conduct in the Hippocratic treatises; precisely in chapter 9 of Humors and its echoes in the Epidemics; and various theories of the physiology of ethical emotions developed in the Sacred Disease, Airs Waters Places, and On Regimen. The second part examines the ethics prescribed for the physician, his entourage, and patients; precisely the ethical function of the myth of Asclepius (particularly in terms of the question of the pursuit of profit and the limitations of medicine in the face of incurable diseases), the ethics of assisting nature (in view of the problem of violent therapies), and the duties of the physician and patient (in view of the—admittedly difficult to date—Hippocratic Oath).
The Ethics of Afterlife in Classical Greek Thought
Authors: Edmonds Radcliffe
Published: October 2020

The Greeks imagined the afterlife in a variety of ways, from a shadowy continuation of existence in the Homeric Hades to a dramatic compensation for one’s actions in life, either horrific torments in the underworld or blissful feasts and celebrations in paradise. Whether the afterlife was thought of as a continuation or a compensation, however, the same ethical standards govern existence in the afterlife as in life itself; virtues and vices deserve the same kind of recompense, and the overall happiness of the individual is reckoned in the same ways, even though the individual ceases to be an ethical actor after death. As “The Ethics of Afterlife in Classical Greek Thought” argues, the afterlife is always good to think with, and the Greek ideas of afterlife differ not so much from place to place or from time to time, but rather from text to text, as particular authors make use of different elements of the tradition to express their ideas.
Friendship in Early Greek Ethics
Authors: Murr Dimitri El
Published: October 2020

“Friendship in Early Greek Ethics” examines the accounts of friendship (philia) in the early philosophical literature and argues that there is a coherent narrative of philosophical theorizing of friendship prior to Aristotle, one which does not make the Presocratics and Socratics mere pre-Aristotelian. The main treatments of friendship considered in this chapter—namely, those in Empedocles, Democritus, the Sophists, and the Socratics—can be understood as efforts to provide a convincing explanation of what motivates the relation of philia and to isolate the conditions for and key features of this specific form of relation essential to the good life.
Justice and the Afterlife
Authors: Svavarsson Svavar Hrafn
Published: October 2020

Until the end of the fifth century BCE, there were few expectations of divine justice after death, or even of a meaningful afterlife. While such beliefs became ever more conspicuous after the fifth century, we do nevertheless find ideas of an afterlife before that time, and of divine justice for the dead. On the one hand, we find the idea of postmortem retributive justice as early as in Homer. On the other, we find promises of posthumous happiness and salvation for those who have lived justly and piously. Among the earliest instances is found in the Hymn to Demeter. Both conceptions express the workings of divine justice. Tracing them from Homer to the end of the fifth century, through such authors as Aeschylus and Pindar, “Justice and the Afterlife” attempts to shed some light on the emergence of this feature of ancient Greek thought.
Music and the Soul
Authors: Rocconi Eleonora
Published: October 2020

The belief that music can affect the human soul was deeply rooted in ancient Greece. Many philosophers tried to describe the sympathetic responses of human beings to musical performances and their ethical consequences, even without framing their remarks within a consistent and systematic theory. “Music and the Soul” aims at analyzing the cultural background and the contemporary intellectual milieu in which Plato operated, in order to assess earlier or alternative views of the ethical power of mousikē overshadowed by his influential theorization. To this end, the chapter focuses on the role of music in the early Pythagorean environment and the evidence for sophistic (in the broadest sense) epideixeis on the psychagogic effects of music and the anti-ethical reaction documented by the fourth-century Hibeh papyrus.
Diogenes of Sinope
Authors: Desmond Will
Published: October 2020

Diogenes of Sinope is the great exemplar whom later Cynics continually evoke. Yet despite the many vivid anecdotes told of him, he is historically a shadowy figure, and his ideas are difficult to pinpoint with absolute precision. In seeking to locate Diogenes somewhat precisely both in his own time and in the longer durée of Greek ethical thought, “Diogenes of Sinope” first surveys major themes of Cynicism that may be traced back to Diogenes himself: living according to nature, criticism of customs, shamelessness and parrhēsia, ascetic self-sufficiency, cosmopolitanism, and the pursuit of happiness through virtue. While there may be a general consensus on these topics, controversies remain, and perhaps must remain. In its second section, therefore, the chapter explores diverse, even opposite ways in which Diogenes has been construed and categorized. This series of antinomies again highlights the difficulties of precise interpretation, and suggests the deliberately elusive nature of Diogenes’ ethical thinking.
Parallel Scientific Computation
Authors: Bisseling Rob H.
Published: October 2020

This book explains how to use the bulk synchronous parallel (BSP) model to design and implement parallel algorithms in the areas of scientific computing and big data. Furthermore, it presents a hybrid BSP approach towards new hardware developments such as hierarchical architectures with both shared and distributed memory. The book provides a full treatment of core problems in scientific computing and big data, starting from a high-level problem description, via a sequential solution algorithm to a parallel solution algorithm and an actual parallel program written in the communication library BSPlib. Numerical experiments are presented for parallel programs on modern parallel computers ranging from desktop computers to massively parallel supercomputers. The introductory chapter of the book gives a complete overview of BSPlib, so that the reader already at an early stage is able to write his/her own parallel programs. Furthermore, it treats BSP benchmarking and parallel sorting by regular sampling. The next three chapters treat basic numerical linear algebra problems such as linear system solving by LU decomposition, sparse matrix-vector multiplication (SpMV), and the fast Fourier transform (FFT). The final chapter explores parallel algorithms for big data problems such as graph matching. The book is accompanied by a software package BSPedupack, freely available online from the author’s homepage, which contains all programs of the book and a set of test programs.
Enlightenment Ideals of Limited Warfare
Authors: Kalmanovitz Pablo
Published: October 2020

Chapter 4 looks at the doctrines of ius in bello and ius post bellum in the Enlightenment theory of regular war. It argues that the laws of regular war and its conclusion embody maxims of sound policy in the public administration of a war’s destruction. The laws of war are underwritten by the assumption that states share an interest in setting reciprocal limitations on their use of force. But while the rules of regular war can be upheld in self-enforcing equilibria, these are always fragile and unstable. The chapter proceeds by looking at several specific areas in the practice of regular warfare and identifying the strategic logic behind the law and its possible breakdowns. The task of the Enlightenment jurists, as they understood it, was to help rulers and military men better see that it was in their best long-term interests to sustain and comply with the laws of war.
Mapping Thoughts to Words
Authors: Malt Barbara C.
Published: October 2020

Languages differ in how they apply labels to aspects of human experience. Because the world-to-word mapping is, in part, language-specific, monolingual children cannot rely entirely on pre-existing conceptualization of a domain to bootstrap their way into the word meanings of their language. For people exposed to two languages from birth or acquiring a second after a first, the challenge is increased by the fact that they must contend with two different languages’ mappings from the world to words. This chapter first considers how and why languages come to differ in the meanings encoded by the words of a domain. It then addresses the problem of acquisition for learners of one and two languages and considers how exposure to each language may influence the use of the other. It also considers where miscommunications may arise between speakers and why such miscommunications are not more common.
Colour Categories in Context
Authors: Jraissati Yasmina
Published: October 2020

It is agreed that colour categorization is context sensitive, and that context plays a role in why colour categories are the way they are. Yet, the way context is supposed to influence colour categorization is never spelled out in the literature, the focus of which has mostly been to identify mechanisms at play in colour categorization, either perceptual and cognitive or, alternatively, linguistic. This chapter steers away from the wealthy categorization literature, and takes a different starting point by asking the preliminary question of how we categorize colour in our everyday interactions. The answer to this question makes important use of the notion of colour space and subspace. It leads to a unified framework that makes room for context sensitivity, while also accounting for colour categorization.
Variation in Natural Kind Concepts
Authors: Cohnitz Daniel , Haukioja Jussi
Published: October 2020

Since Kripke’s and Putnam’s work in the 1970s, most philosophers have assumed that our natural kind concepts are externally individuated. However, both psychologists and philosophers have questioned this assumption, partly on empirical grounds. There is some evidence of systematic variation in how subjects apply natural kind terms; it has been argued that this shows that natural kind concepts are not as universally shared, or temporally stable, as many philosophers have been assuming. Yet, it is not clear exactly what kind of variation in subjects’ application of natural kind terms would seriously cast doubt on the view that natural kind concepts are externally individuated. Here, we take a detailed look at this question, and argue that the existing studies do not call for dramatic revisions to the externalist mainstream, and conclude by exploring some possible new directions for the experimental study of natural kind terms and concepts.
The Folk Concept of Race
Authors: Machery Edouard , Faucher Luc
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines whether and how concepts vary across and within individuals (inter- and intra-individual variation) by examining what constrains variation of concepts. To address this issue, the chapter focuses on an independently interesting case study: inter- and intra-individual variation in the concept of race. The case study contrasts two competing hypotheses about the concept of race: the biological and the social hypotheses. According to the first hypothesis, the concept of race is a biological concept that is constrained by folk biology; according to the second, it is the concept of a social category. The chapter shows that people’s folk biology constrains the concept of race and thus limits how much concepts of race can vary within and across individuals.
Arcadia
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores the little-studied world of early nineteenth century consumerism. It argues that the West End became productive of new forms of shopping aimed principally at an elite market but one that was increasingly colonized by the growing middle classes. It looks at the development of Regent Street, at the construction of shopping arcades (including the Burlington Arcade on Piccadilly) and bazaars that, it argues, anticipated the department store. The chapter also looks at the development of elite tailoring (Savile Row) and the importance of West End bookshops such as Hatchard’s in the construction of intellectual networks.
The Beau Monde
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

Chapter 3 explores the world of elite leisure in both its high and low forms to uncover how the aristocracy continued to shape the West End in the first half of the nineteenth century. This chapter is devoted to nightlife and is intended to show that one purpose of pleasure districts was to construct the idea of the night-time economy. The chapter explores the world of gentlemens’ clubs and other locations of masculine pleasure before moving into an examination of opera, ballet, and gambling; both sources of aristocratic networks. The second half of the chapter then looks at the world of low life in the Covent Garden and Maiden Lane areas; territory of the ‘flash’ and the bohemians. Affluent gentlemen explored what they saw as the ‘underworld’. Here was a world of disreputable bars and spaces for popular song. There is a detailed analysis of venues such as the Cider Cellars which shaped the development of popular music and culture with its bawdy ballads.
Theatreland, 1880–1914
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines the period from 1880–1914 when the West End was established as theatreland. This was characterized by a huge wave of theatre building with new stages servicing the masses who were flooding into the district. Theatre was dominated by the titanic figures of Henry Irving and Herbert Beerbohm Tree. Shows would also tour, benefiting from the information that they had first been seen in the West End, thus enhancing the glamorous reputation of the district. The chapter argues that the West End stage was often conservative and reflected the values of Lord Salisbury’s Britain. It considers the West End theatre business in its different forms (including the world of the West End audience and the theatre critic) and builds to a case study of the rebuilt Her Majesty’s Theatre which exemplified many of the trends in the late-Victorian theatre world.
Eating Out
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

The restaurant in its modern form was an important addition to the nineteenth-century urban landscape. It epitomized the new forms of metropolitan culture. The restaurant is explored here through the way in which it developed forms of commercial hospitality, which were in turn, integral to the discourses of the West End. Pleasure districts function partly through a discourse of hospitality which makes them inviting. Eating out was never just about the consumption of food; it was about the facilitation of forms of social interaction. The chapter looks at elite restaurants such as Romano’s on the Strand, which were crucial to the nightlife of the rich. It then looks at the way the West End developed food for the masses by delving into two business empires. First, it studies the world of Lyons catering, which established a hugely successful franchise of tea shops, starting in the West End. It then looks at the world of the Gattis, who owned cafeterias, music halls, and theatres. The Gatti’s restaurant on the Strand was a major West End venue which attracted middle-class diners in an opulent setting but with affordable prices.
Grand Hotel
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

Hotels were not new, but the later nineteenth century witnessed a major innovation which shaped the West End: the Grand Hotel. This was part of a global trend with hotels becoming ever larger; monumental landmarks in the urban scene. The chapter decodes the pleasures and significance of the hotel and explores why such elite institutions entered the cultural imagination. It looks in particular at the figures of Richard D’Oyly Carte who built the Ritz, and at César Ritz who then ran it. The hotel aimed to emulate the domestic and provide a home from home. Yet the atmosphere was really a transformation of the domestic. It also reflected the influence of American and Parisian hotels. The Strand and Trafalgar Square were characterized by a profusion of hotels, the product of London’s role as a world city. This chapter explores the domestic interior of the hotel and analyses its different functions
The Other West End
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter provides a conclusion to the book. It shows that by 1900 the West End functioned as the heart of empire. This was evident in the Mafeking celebrations but also in the way West End shows helped explain the empire to the British. The conservatism of West End culture provided a backdrop for popular imperialism. Whilst the book has emphasized the West End as the source of a conservative consensus, it ends by drawing on the experience of working-class people to show how its opulence could be the source of resentment and conflict. The chapter discusses the Blood Sunday riots which took place in the pleasure district and ends with the Suffragettes window smashing campaign where women attacked an area that was built to attract them. On the eve of the Great War, the West End served as a magnet for protest and pleasure.
Introduction
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

This chapter introduces the main question of the book: how did mass violence come to be a primary—perhaps the primary—mode of making political claims in the twentieth and twenty-first century Middle East? It asks when mass violence became a constitutive aspect of the political landscape of the region, why it took precedence over other strategies of state building and establishing political authority, and how governments, armies, and civilians alike came to think of mass violence as a viable and legitimate mode of claiming political space and national rights. Drawing on several different and largely separate historiographies, this introduction argues, makes it possible to produce a synthetic account of violence in the twentieth century Eastern Mediterranean that takes account of regional developments as much as individual national histories.
Money, Arms, and the New Sectarian Violence, 1967–1988
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

This chapter looks at the international channeling of money and weaponry into local and regional politics in the context of the Cold War and the ways these Cold War formulations articulated and defined new identitarian blocs. It focuses on two regional phenomena: first, the sectarianization of the nominally Ba‘thist regimes in Syria and Iraq, their search for external partners as they sought control over state resources and expanded their military capacities, and their delegitimization of political opponents through domestically and internationally directed narratives of sectarian and Islamist resistance to their authority; and second, the violent intensification of ethnically and communally based political blocs in Israel and Lebanon in the late 1970s, as the United States moved beyond indirect influence to thoroughly involve itself in the affairs of each of these states as a way to maintain strategic access to the region as a whole and especially its oil supplies.
Violence and the New Internationalism, 1988–2003
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

This chapter looks at the first intifada—a grassroots resistance movement that emerged in the West Bank and Gaza in late 1987 and showed considerable promise before being crushed by Israeli military might. Its collapse also coincided with the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, marking the beginning of a new American tactic of supposed humanitarian concern for ethnically or communally defined victims of a regime as a pretext for military action intended to ensure resource access, especially to oil. These arguments for and practices of occupation not only invigorated and intensified internal ethnic and communal tensions within the Iraqi state, but also fueled new forms of Islamist opposition that had never before flourished in the Mashriq.
Epilogue The Triumph of Violence in the Middle East
Authors: Robson Laura
Published: October 2020

This final chapter offers the opportunity to think about the ways in which external powers have repeatedly and consistently made use of the Middle East to declare their participation in discursively liberal political formulations whose practice on the ground emerged as illiberal, antidemocratic, and focused on the extraction and exploitation of material resources. This long history of simultaneous appropriation of and violent opposition to liberalizing political agendas, from both within and without, serves as an important backdrop for contemporary developments—for instance, the slide from broadly based pro-democracy demonstrations to the violent reassertion of authoritarianism in the recent “Arab Spring.”
The linguistics of Arrival
Authors: Coon Jessica
Published: October 2020

If aliens arrived, could we communicate with them? What are the tools linguists use to decipher unknown languages? How different can languages be from one another? Do these differences have bigger consequences for how we see the world? This chapter addresses these questions through the lens of the 2016 science-fiction film Arrival and the real-life work of language documentation (in particular, the Mayan language Ch’ol). In Arrival, linguistics professor Dr. Louise Banks is recruited by the military to translate the language of the newly arrived alien heptapods. Her job is to find the answer to the question everyone is asking: why are they here? Language is a crucial piece of the answer. This chapter discusses the themes which Arrival has brought to the mainstream, including Universal Grammar, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and the importance of linguistic fieldwork.
Three conlang projects at three educational levels
Authors: Adger David , Urk Coppe van
Published: October 2020

This chapter reports on three distinct implementations of conlang projects: one for elementary school children aged 5–10 that was developed with the Centre for Literacy in Primary Education, one as a one-week summer program for secondary students aged about 15, as part of Queen Mary University’s Widening Participation initiative, and one for university students at Queen Mary College that was based on Adger’s experience creating languages for a television series. For each project, the development process, learning outcomes, and project mechanics are described. The projects vary considerably in structure and focus, and are shown to benefit students at all educational levels.
The design(ing) of language
Authors: Goodall Grant
Published: October 2020

Courses on invented languages can do much more than just introduce students to linguistics. Through three case studies, it is shown that as students learn how to design a language, they also learn about the design of human language in a way that is unlikely to occur in other courses. The first case study involves the creation of a lexicon, in relation to John Wilkins’ invented language of 1668 and to Saussurean arbitrariness, commonly regarded as a fundamental design property of human language. The second case study concerns phonemic inventories. By designing their own from scratch, students see the competing pressures that phonemic inventories must satisfy in all languages. The third case study concerns inflectional morphology and the pressures that determine the form of particular morphemes. All of these case studies are accessible to students and help them engage with important aspects of the design properties of human language.
Teaching invented languages as an introductory course
Authors: Berry James A.
Published: October 2020

This chapter focuses on the introduction of an invented languages course to the English Department of a comprehensive state university in the midwestern United States in Fall 2016. The department has limited offerings in linguistics, with no major or minor. The course acted primarily as an applied introductory class without prerequisites, open to students with varied academic backgrounds in linguistics. Because this course was the only exposure to linguistics some students would have in their academic careers, teaching it called for some constraints. An early-semester look at international auxiliary languages such as Esperanto inspired several students to create invented languages that were easy to learn. At the same time, those with a more extensive background created more complex structures. The resulting projects ranged from minimal to highly developed; overall, though, the students maintained a high level of enthusiasm and interest in their work.