bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Drag Queens and Drag Kings
Authors: Rupp Leila J. , Taylor Verta
Published: September 2017

Drag queens and drag kings are men, women, and transgendered people who perform femininity, masculinity, or something in between. Drag in various forms can be found in almost all parts of the world, and increasingly a transnational drag culture is evolving. Traditionally, drag queens have been gay men who cross‐dress and lip‐synch to recorded music in gay or tourist venues, but the world of drag has become much more complicated with the emergence of drag king troupes, ballroom in black and Latino communities in the United States, and the participation of transgender, transsexual, and even heterosexual people in drag performances. Much of the scholarship on drag has focused on the question of how much such performances reify or challenge femininity and masculinity. Drag king troupes, influenced by feminism and queer theory, tend very consciously to deconstruct masculinity and femininity in performances, including by “faux queens” – also called “bio queens” – women who perform femininity or femininity as performed by drag queens. But even traditional drag queens, a variety of scholars have argued, undermine the notion of a polarized gender system by displaying the performative nature of gender.
Drugs/Substance Use in Sport
Authors: Ritchie Ian
Published: September 2017

In theCommission of Inquiry into the Use of Drugs and Banned Practices Intended to Increase Athletic Performance(Dubin, 1990), commissioned by the Canadian government in the aftermath of the infamous Ben Johnson drug scandal at the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympic Games, Chief Justice Charles Dubin stated that the problem of drug/substance use represented the single greatest moral crisis in high performance sport. His statement was prescient in that there is no other issue that is seen by either the general public or the authorities in major sport organizations as a greater threat to the integrity of international sport than the use of banned drugs/substances. Certainly no other issue warrants the same commitment of resources and bureaucratic effort, especially since the creation of the World Anti‐Doping Agency in 1999, which now oversees antidoping efforts worldwide. The problem of drug use in sport also presents for sociologists and those in related academic disciplines in sports studies an opportunity to study the deviant subculture of drug use and the social and political dynamics of modern sport, and even more generally to explore the sociology of deviant behavior and the social construction of “normal” and “pathological” categories in a major sphere of social life.
Dual‐Earner Couples
Authors: Aronson Pamela
Published: September 2017

Dual‐earner couples are those in which both partners contribute to the financial support of their household through their work outside the home. These couples are diverse in their family situations and experiences, including marital status, presence of children, and number of hours worked. The number of dual‐earner couples has increased over the last half century, as there has been a shift away from the traditional male breadwinner and female homemaker family type. In 1970, for example, 30.3 percent of married women with preschool‐aged children worked outside the home; by 2009, 61.6 percent did so (US Census Bureau 2011a). These figures are significantly higher for women with school‐aged children and women who are not parents.
Dual Labor Markets
Authors: Elger Tony
Published: September 2017

The concept of labor market dualism was first developed by institutionalist economists critical of conventional analyses of the labor market (Peck 1996). They argued that different categories of workers faced contrasting management policies, as white male workers were preferentially recruited to jobs offering training, pay gains, promotion, and job security. This meant access to organizational job ladders which constituted “internal labor markets” governed primarily by organizational rules. Meanwhile, women and minority ethnic groups generally had access to insecure, low‐paid jobs without internal training and promotion prospects, and were confined to the external labor market constituted by such jobs. This analysis contested neoclassical economic models of the allocation of individual workers across a spectrum of jobs according to individual skills and preferences, and emphasized the ways in which organizational structures and management decisions generated a division between primary and secondary labor markets which operated according to different logics.
Death Row
Authors: Jacobs David
Published: September 2017

After reaching a postwar maximum of 157 in 1947, no US executions occurred from 1968 to 1977. In 1972 in
Furman
the Supreme Court ruled by a narrow 5–4 vote that the death penalty was unconstitutional. Some states then passed modified statutes. In 1976 the High Court in
Gregg
and other cases reversed and held that one version of these statutes was constitutional. After, relegalization executions grew sharply, reaching a peak of 98 in 1999 and then falling to 37 in 2008 but rising to 52 in 2009. In the postwar period, with but three federal exceptions, all remaining executions were conducted by the states. The condemned, however, could appeal to the federal courts after exhausting their state appeals. Largely due to appeals, less than 10 percent of all death row inmates have been executed since 1970.
Dialogical Self
Authors: Tsekeris Charalambos , Papadopoulou Olga
Published: September 2017

The social psychological and epistemological concept of the dialogical self, as originally conceived by Hermans, Kempen and van Loon (1992), refers to a dynamic multiplicity of I‐positions within both internal and external interchanges. It draws from the American theorists of the self, like the pragmatist William James and the symbolic interactionist George Herbert Mead, as well as from the Russian dialogical school in the tradition of Mikhail Bakhtin's innovative theory of dialogism and heteroglossia in literary creation (see Barresi 2002).
Ecological Models of Urban Form: Concentric Zone Model, the Sector Model, and the Multiple Nuclei Model
Authors: Schwirian Kent
Published: September 2017

Ecological models of urban form describe and explain the spatial patterns taken by the distribution of people, buildings, and activities across a city's terrain. This orderly set of spatial arrangements is known as the city's land use pattern or spatial form. Through the years ecological researchers have identified three major models of the geometry of city form: concentric zone, sector, and multiple nuclei. While the three models are conceptually distinct, in the actual development of most cities various elements from the three models become uniquely combined into a spatial pattern that gives each city its own individual spatial geometry. Each of the three models was developed to explain urban morphology in industrial cities of the twentieth century. The concentric zone model was presented by Ernest Burgess in 1925. The sector (Hoyt 1939) and multiple nuclei (Harris & Ullman 1945) models were presented later as alternatives to the concentric zone model. Through time the three have become intellectually linked and widely considered as “the classic models of urban land use.” They are “classic” in the sense that the three models have stood the test of time and have proven to be catalysts of research on cities in both developed and developing societies.
Economic Sociology: Neoclassical Economic Perspective
Authors: Zafirovski Milan
Published: September 2017

Neoclassical economics is the stage and branch of economic science since the 1870s through the 1930s and beyond. It was mostly the product or sequel of what economists (Schumpeter 1954) call the Copernican marginalist revolution in economic theory during the 1870–90s. Specifically, the crux of marginalism was a marginal‐utility theory of exchange value and its extensions (e.g., marginal‐productivity principle of income distribution) in reaction and contrast to the labor‐cost conception in classical political economy. The founders or pioneers of marginalism are commonly considered to be William Jevons (England), Carl Menger (Austria), and Leon Walras (Switzerland/France), who almost simultaneously in 1871–4 “discovered” marginal‐utility value theory as a putative revolutionary alternative to its labor‐based versions in Smith, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, and others. (For instance, Jevons specifically attacked Ricardo and Mill's theories, prompting neoclassical economists like Alfred Marshall to rise in their partial defense.) The term neoclassical economics was invented by (Thorstein Veblen Groenewegen 1995), a heterodox institutional economist, in the early 1900s to indicate that marginalism (e.g., marginal‐utility theory) was, in virtue of utilitarianism and hedonism, essentially continuous with and so “scarcely distinguishable” from classical political economy (which apparently overlooks the opposition of the marginalist revolution to Ricardo et al.'s labor theories of value). In this sense, the terms marginalism and neoclassical economics become interchangeable, though the first term is probably more accurate and precise for describing this stage and type of economic theory. Moreover, historians of economics such as Schumpeter (1954: 919) object that “there is no more sense in calling the Jevons‐Menger‐Walras theory neoclassic than there would be in calling the Einstein theory neo‐Newtonian.” This suggests that neoclassical economics is essentially marginalism (with partial exceptions like Marshall), but not conversely: the marginalist revolution is not newly, but counter‐classical (that is what makes it presumably “Copernican”).
Elementary Theory
Authors: Emanuelson Pamela
Published: September 2017

Consistent with the classical theories of Marx, Weber, and Simmel, elementary theory is a multilevel theory of interaction in social relations. For example, elementary theory (hereafter ET) predicts power exercise: who benefits in social relations such as exchange, coercion, and conflict. ET's actor‐level assumptions are (1) that actors pursue valued states called interests within social relations and (2) that an actor's interests can be inferred from the social relations and structures in which activity occurs. On a structural level, ET embeds social relations in social structures, which consist of two or more connected social relations. Social structures are in turn characterized by rules and restrictions, including but not limited to rules delimiting the maximum and minimum number of exchanges at a position and rules mandating the sequence of social interaction across a structure. ET makes predictions in light of the interrelations among relational and structural conditions and actor's interests.
E
llis,
H
avelock (1859–1939)
Authors: Weeks Jeffrey
Published: September 2017

Havelock Ellis was a pioneering British sexologist, critic, and essayist who was to have a major impact on the conceptualization of sexuality in the twentieth century. His intellectual formation was in the radical cultural and political fervent of London in the 1880s, though he himself tended throughout his life to avoid public controversies as best he could. More privately, however, his influence proved to be immense, both through his publications and his extensive correspondence with luminaries throughout the world. His major achievement was the multivolumed
Studies in the Psychology of Sex
published between the 1890s and the 1920s. The first volume, on sexual inversion, was a major contribution to the rethinking of homosexuality, while subsequent volumes described and categorized a vast array of sexual variations, and explored the nature of female sexuality.
Emerson, Richard M. (1925–1982)
Authors: Cook Karen S.
Published: September 2017

Richard Marc Emerson, a primary architect of social exchange theory and power‐dependence theory, received his PhD from the University of Minnesota in 1955 where his primary advisors were Don Martindale (sociological theory) and Stanley Schachter (psychology). He attended graduate school after serving during World War II in the elite 10th Army Mountain Division upon completing college at the University of Utah, where he majored in sociology and minored in philosophy. His first academic appointment was at the University of Cincinnati. He joined the faculty in 1955 and received tenure in 1957. While at Cincinnati he wrote a number of important papers and participated in research projects related to family relations (as a senior research associate in psychiatry) and in leadership training, a popular field of study post‐World War II. He was recruited to the Department of Sociology at the University of Washington in 1965, where he served on the faculty until his premature death in 1982 at the peak of his academic career.
Emotion Work
Authors: Eller Jackie , Alexandre Renata
Published: September 2017

Emotion, hence emotion work, has been considered in the work of many early sociologists, such as Durkheim, Simmel, and Weber (see Barbalet 2002; Turner 2006), but it was not until Hochschild's work in the 1970s and 1980s that a sociology of emotions was taken seriously. Although today's researchers do not always agree with Hochschild on a precise definition of emotions, or how best to study them, there is general agreement that emotions are socially defined, made meaningful within sociohistorical situations, and critical to any analysis of social interaction.
Empire
Authors: Cox Lloyd
Published: September 2017

The analysis of empire and imperialism has been reinvigorated since the early 2000s, largely in response to the United States' shift to a more muscular and unilateralist foreign policy. Routine comparisons are now made between the contemporary United States on the one hand, and the Roman, British and other empires on the other. This entry clarifies the terminological and conceptual issues at stake in these debates, as well as giving some historical depth to the development of empires from antiquity to modernity. Finally, it considers some of the more influential explanations of empire that have been proffered, paying particular attention to the critical reception of these ideas.
En
Authors: Nakamaki Hirochika
Published: September 2017

En
is originally a Buddhist concept for indicating causal relations, but it is also a term that is used regularly in Japanese social life. It has also proved to be a very convenient term in academic analysis. In Buddhist terms, the term “en” is used as a common idiom to refer to an individual's destiny from a previous reincarnation.
En
, however, refers to an indirect causal relationship, rather than a direct causal relationship. In Buddhist usage, the concept of
kechi‐en
refers to relations with a particular Bodhisattva. In Esoteric Buddhism, the “kechi‐en kanjou” is a rite based on
kechi‐en
. Here, in a secret ritual, the disciple throws flowers onto the top of a Mandala and establishes a relation or tie with the Bodhisattva hit by them.
Engels, Friedrich (1820–1895)
Authors: Staples Clifford L.
Published: September 2017

Without Karl Marx, of course, few people today would know the name of Friedrich Engels; but without Engels we might have heard much less from Karl Marx.
Enterprise Unions
Authors: Mouer Ross
Published: September 2017

The enterprise union (
kigyobetsu kumiai
) has been the dominant form of union organization in post‐war Japan. When the interest in Japan's economic prowess suddenly surfaced in the 1970s, the
kigyobetsu kumiai
was singled out as one of the three features constituting the Japanese model of industrial relations. Possibly the least understood of the three, the enterprise union was often confused with the company union and an approach to employee relations whereby the union is coopted by management to foster and to maintain a compliant labor force subservient to the needs of management (Galenson & Odaka 1976). The Japanese have a term (with a negative connotation) for this kind of unionism – the
goyo kumiai
, literally, a union at his majesty's (i.e., management's) service. The debate on the nature of the enterprise union in Japan brought to the general discussion of unions a more subtle delineation between different types of union organization (e.g., as in Kawanishi 1992).
Environment and Urbanization
Authors: York Richard , Rosa Eugene A.
Published: September 2017

The rapid urbanization of the world's population (accompanied by the rise of megacities) and the profound growth in the scale of impacts on the natural environment were two dominant trends of the twentieth century. Today over 3 billion people, nearly one‐half the human population, live in urban areas (United Nations 2004). Humans have altered the composition of the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change, have changed land cover over a large proportion of the earth's surface, and have contributed to a dramatic rise in the rate of species extinction.
Ethnic, Racial, and Nationalist Movements
Authors: Olzak Susan
Published: September 2017

Political expressions of ethnicity and nationalism range broadly, from small‐scale or sporadic protests that may be relatively peaceful (as in civil rights marches), to sustained campaigns of violence against authorities or others (such as ethnic cleansing). Though often analyzed separately, ethnic, racial, and nationalist (E/R/N) movements voice strikingly similar demands for sovereignty and invoke rights of self‐determination. The major E/R/N movement categories are distinguished by claims, goals, tactics, and organizational forms. Once these definitions are established, some key explanations of the emergence, persistence, transformation, and decline of these social movements are outlined.
Ethnicity
Authors: Jenkins Richard
Published: September 2017

The ancient Greek word
ethnos
, the root of “ethnicity,” referred to people living and acting together in a manner that we might apply to a “people” or a “nation”: a collectivity with a “way of life” – some manners and mores, practices and purposes – in common, whose members share something in terms of “culture.” Thus the anthropologist Fredrik Barth (1969) defined ethnicity as “the social organization of culture difference.” Ethnicity is not only a relatively abstract collective phenomenon, however: it also matters to individuals. To quote another anthropologist, Clifford Geertz, ethnicity is “personal identity collectively ratified and publicly expressed” (1973: 268).
Eurocentrism
Authors: Farid Alatas Syed
Published: September 2017

Eurocentrism is a particular case of the more general phenomenon of ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism refers to the regard of one's own ethnic group or society as superior to others. Other groups are assessed and judged in terms of the categories and standards of evaluation of one's own group. Eurocentrism, therefore, is defined as a thought style in which the assessment and evaluation of non$@#*^%#@#hyphen;European societies is couched in terms of the cultural assumptions and biases of Europeans and, by extension, the West. Eurocentrism is a modern phenomenon and cannot be dissociated from the political economic and cultural domination of Europe and, later, the United States. It may be more accurate to refer to the phenomenon under consideration as Euroamericocentrism. Eurocentrism is an important dimension of the ideology of modern capitalism (Amin 1989) and is manifested in both the daily life of lay people and the professional lives and thought of sociologists and other social scientists. Furthermore, although Eurocentrism originates in Europe, as a thought style it is not confined to Europeans or those in the West.
Exercise and Fitness
Authors: Grzywacz Joseph G.
Published: September 2017

Exercise, physical activity, and fitness are distinct but interrelated concepts (Caspersen et al. 1985). Physical activity is any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscle, while exercise is planned and repeated physical activity that is structured into individuals' lives with the purpose of maintaining or improving some attribute of either health or skill (i.e., fitness). Exercise, therefore, is a subset of physical activity that is characterized by being patterned and purposeful, and fitness is a consequence of exercise. Exercise and fitness are of major interest because they are implicated in premature death, a wide variety of disease states, and quality of life (US Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS] 1996).
Expectation States Theory
Authors: Berger Joseph , Wagner David G.
Published: September 2017

Expectation states theory is a theoretical research program concerned with processes by which social actors draw status and other information from their environment and organize that information into expectation states that determine their interaction with others. It encompasses areas as diverse as status organization, justice, and rewards, legitimation, the construction of status differences, and the role of significant others in self‐evaluation. The program also includes extensive application to the understanding and alleviation of gender and other status‐based inequalities.
Expectations and Aspirations
Authors: Morgan Stephen L.
Published: September 2017

Expectations and aspirations, within sociological research on education and social inequality, are stable prefigurative orientations composed of specific beliefs about one's future trajectory through the educational system and one's ultimate class or status position. As adolescents age, these expectations and aspirations are presumed to condition current behavior and, in the process, become self‐fulfilling prophecies.
Experimental Methods
Authors: Walker Henry A. , Willer David
Published: September 2017

An experiment is a research method for which the investigator plans, builds, or otherwise controls the conditions under which phenomena are observed and measured. Experiments are the investigative method of choice in the physical sciences, and increasingly in economics, but they are used less frequently in sociology. Experimental sociologists are disproportionately located in the research subfields of (small) group processes and social psychology.
Extracurricular Activities
Authors: Mueller Anna Strassmann
Published: September 2017

Extracurricular activities such as band, debate, or soccer are optional activities offered by the school that complement the academic curriculum and enhance the school's sense of community. These activities provide settings within schools for adolescents to develop facets of their personalities that contribute to their emerging independence and their eventual assumption of adult roles. Extracurriculars offer opportunities for leadership, travel, skill development, and social engagement and integration in the school. There is growing evidence that adolescents who are involved in extracurricular activities are generally happier and healthier than their uninvolved peers. In particular, research suggests that extracurricular participation positively influences adolescents’ psychosocial development, problem and risk behaviors, relationship formation, and perhaps most importantly, their academic achievement.
Exurbia
Authors: Crump Jeff
Published: September 2017

Exurbia is a form of residential development that straddles an often ill‐defined zone between densely packed suburbs and rural and small town locations. Although its boundaries are usually indistinct, exurban development begins somewhere beyond the sprawling suburbs and lies outside easy commuting distance to the central city. At its far reaches, exurbia does not so much end as it blends into the surrounding agricultural countryside. Residents of exurbia occupy an uneasy middle ground between the perceived ills of the city and adjoining suburbs and rural places where it is believed that people live in harmony with the bucolic rural landscape (Marx 1964).
Excuses
Authors: Everett Tiffani
Published: September 2017

Excuses are a strategy used to remedy interaction that fails to meet social standards. Important work by Marx and Goffman, and later Sykes and Matza (1957), addressed strained social interactions, but it was Scott and Lyman (1968) who created the first sociological taxonomy for accounting behavior. They divided accounts into two types: excuses and justifications. Excuses are techniques used by actors to relieve responsibility following a social transgression. When an individual makes an excuse, he admits to the behavior but rejects responsibility for the behavior or its consequences. Other definitions of excuses include pleas for mitigation in judgment, claims of impairment, and shifts in attribution from an individual to something external (see Ohbuchi $@#*^%#@#amp; Sato 2001; Sch$@#*^%#@#ouml;nbach 1990).
Elections, Sociology of
Authors: Qvortrup Matt
Published: September 2017

In the wake of World War II, political sociologists began to develop models and theories of electoral choice. An early version of the sociology of elections was the so‐calledopinion leaders model, also known as thetwo‐step hypothesis. Developed by Paul Lazarsfeld and his colleagues in the 1950s, the model sought to explain the 1948 US presidential election using the theories of primary and secondary groups, which were much in vogue at the time.
Education, Social Functions of
Authors: Kantzara Vasiliki
Published: September 2017

Education is commonly defined as cultivation, transmission of knowledge, and skill development that is imparted from an older to a younger generation. Historically, education is closely related to organized society. The institutionalization of the education system, more recently, posed a set of questions in social sciences that addressed and explored the link of education to society in a more systematic manner. Philosophy has customarily inquired into the nature of educational aims that best serve current or aspired forms of social organization. Sociology attempts to explore the relationship of education to the functioning of other societal institutions in causal terms, employing for this purpose the concept function; theorizing on this relation flared up during the 1960s to 1980s in western countries.
Erotic Capital
Authors: Hakim Catherine
Published: September 2017

Erotic capital is a new concept in social science, a label for the personal asset of physical and social attractiveness that has increasing importance in the twenty‐first century, and that offers substantial social benefits and economic value to those who choose to develop and exploit it.
False Consciousness
Authors: Starks Brian , Junisbai Azamat
Published: September 2017

False consciousness is a Marxist theoretical concept referring to the circumstance, or state‐of‐being, in which workers hold views that are contrary to workers' objective class interests. This subjective consciousness does not arise organically from among workers, but is imposed (or foisted) upon them by the dominant ideology of the capitalist class. False consciousness and class consciousness are intimately linked. Whereas class consciousness denotes workers' awareness of their historical position and enables the transformation of society, false consciousness denotes workers' failure to recognize their position and bring about the transformation of society. Because of its elitist and arguably negative view of workers (as dupes), the concept of false consciousness often offends modern democratic sensibilities. Not only that, but with its apparent reference to objective truth, false consciousness in an era of postmodernism smacks of intellectual arrogance. Perhaps for these reasons, the concept has fallen into disuse among sociologists.
Families and Childhood Disabilities
Authors: Leiter Valerie
Published: September 2017

Families of children with disabilities experience challenges that other families do not face. They may experience stigma as a result of having a child with a disability and may perform health care and advocacy work for their children beyond that performed by other families. The extent of these additional concerns varies tremendously across families, depending upon the nature and severity of the children's disabilities and the social context in which the meaning of the children's disabilities is interpreted and acted upon. At the individual level, some children may have disabilities that affect their functioning slightly, while others may have disabilities that affect their functioning severely, across multiple areas, including physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. At a broader social level, some children with disabilities live in families and communities that attempt to eliminate social barriers that could result from disability, while others live in social contexts that do not strive to promote children's full participation.
Fanon, Frantz (1925–61)
Authors: Bairner Alan
Published: September 2017

Born in Martinique and a psychiatrist by training, Frantz Fanon's sociological legacy lies mainly in the study of “race” and, above all, in the development of postcolonial studies. Having fought for the Free French Army during World War II, Fanon studied medicine and psychiatry in Lyon. In 1952 he began to practice psychiatry in Algeria and thereafter he became associated, particularly in the minds of the political left for whom he became an iconic figure during the 1960s, with the cause of Algerian independence. In arguably his most famous work,
The Wretched of the Earth
(1961), Fanon sought to combine traditional Marxist revolutionary theory with ideas more appropriate to struggles in the developing world.
Fanon, Frantz (1925–1961)
Authors: Bairner Alan
Published: September 2017

Born in Martinique in 1925 and a psychiatrist by training, Frantz Fanon left a sociological legacy that lies mainly in the study of “race” and, above all, in the development of postcolonial studies. Having fought for the Free French Army during World War II, Fanon studied medicine and psychiatry in Lyon. In 1952 he began to practice psychiatry in Algeria and thereafter he became associated with the cause of Algerian independence – particularly in the minds of members of the political left, for whom he became an iconic figure during the 1960s. What is, arguably, his most famous work,
The “Wretched of the Earth
, was published in 1961. In it Fanon sought to combine traditional Marxist revolutionary theory with ideas more appropriate for struggles in the developing world.
Fear
Authors: Eller Jackie , Eller Andrea
Published: September 2017

How do sociologists theoretically and empirically study fear? A simple answer is that the literature can be divided into two rather broad and overlapping areas of emphasis: fear as an emotion and fear as a consequence of or motivation for social relations.
Female Masculinity
Authors: Posocco Silvia
Published: September 2017

Female masculinity refers to a range of masculine‐inflected identities and identifications. Debates over the status and meaning of female masculinity and the bodies and selves to whom the terms may be ascribed emerge in the context of analyses of sex, gender, and sexuality.
Feminism, First, Second, and Third Waves
Authors: Reger Jo
Published: September 2017

The women's movement in the United States is generally broken into waves of protest, each set in different time periods with diverse tactics, ideologies, and goals. The waves are divided into a first wave, starting in the 1840s; a second wave, beginning in the late 1960s; and the third wave, emerging in the mid‐1990s. Although most scholars and historians use the analytical device of waves to discuss the movement, a variety of debates have arisen around the concept, with some arguing that the wave model ignores some forms of collective action and groups.
Feminism, First, Second, and Third Waves
Authors: Reger Jo
Published: September 2017

The women's movement in the United States is generally broken into waves of protest, each set in different time periods with diverse tactics, ideologies, and goals. The waves are divided into a first wave, starting in the 1840s; a second wave, beginning in the late 1960s; and a third wave, emerging in the mid‐1990s. Although most scholars and historians use the analytical device of waves to discuss the movement, a variety of debates have arisen around the concept, with some arguing that the wave model ignores some forms of collective action and groups and oversimplifies feminist history.
Feminist Criminology
Authors: Moe Angela M.
Published: September 2017

Feminist criminology represents an effort by social scientists to center research, teaching, and activism around issues of gender and justice. Feminist criminology as a whole stands as a critique of the sexist nature of theorizing within the discipline of criminology. The history of this movement extends back to the 1960s when scholars began testing the application of traditional criminological theories and applying the philosophical tenets of the women's liberation movement (also known as the second‐wave feminist movement) to female criminal offenders. Up until this time very little attention was given to women or girls in the justice system. Over the last four decades, feminist criminology has come to represent a conglomeration of conscientious efforts that focus on women and girls (and, to some extent, men and boys) in the justice system. The focus has extended beyond criminality to include the victimization of women and girls as well as women who work in criminal justice occupations. The intersections of race, ethnicity, social class, and sexual orientation with gender have also become significant to feminist criminological inquiries. A central tenet of such work, beyond theory development and empirical research, is activism (within both academe and the larger community).
Feminist Disability Studies
Authors: Casper Monica J. , Laine Talley Heather
Published: September 2017

Feminist disability studies is an emergent interdisciplinary field of inquiry shaped by a productive yet tense dialogue between feminist studies and disability studies. It is framed as a collaborative enterprise between feminist studies, which highlights vectors through which social relations and bodies are gendered and sexed, and disability studies, which focuses on the ways socio‐medico‐legal discourses and practices construct impaired bodies as disabled (Thomson 2002). Both feminist studies and disability studies emerged out of twentieth‐century political projects emphasizing social justice and collective action. Intellectually, both fields address questions about subject formation, power, bodies, subjugated knowledges, and normalization. Feminist disability studies is kin to and stands alongside other critical, identity‐based scholarship aimed at social justice, including queer theory, critical race theory, gender studies, and ethnic studies.
Fertility: Nonmarital
Authors: Musick Kelly
Published: September 2017

Nonmarital fertility, or having a child outside of marriage, has become an increasingly important phenomenon demographically and socially. The share of births to unmarried women in the United States has nearly quadrupled over the past 40 years: from 11 percent in 1970 to 41 percent in 2010 (Curtin, Ventura, and Martinez, 2014). The increase in births to unmarried women living with a coresidential partner has accounted for much of the increase in nonmarital fertility in recent decades, particularly the first decade of the twenty‐first century. Data from 2006–2010 show that over half of all nonmarital births, or one in five of all births, were to cohabiting parents (Curtin, Ventura, and Martinez, 2014). Unmarried parents are on average younger and less advantaged than married parents, their pregnancies are more often unplanned, and their relationships tend to be more fragile (Musick and Michelmore, forthcoming). Recent research on nonmarital fertility has focused on understanding these patterns and their potential implications for family complexity and well‐being.
Fertility: Transitions and Measures
Authors: Kirmeyer Sharon
Published: September 2017

Childbearing, or the fertility of human populations, has changed profoundly in the last several centuries. Four aspects are basic for measuring and studying human fertility:
age
,
parity
(number of children ever born), length of
birth interval
, and
population reproductivity
. Additionally, there are cross‐cutting issues of time perspective and of fertility dimensions. The variety of fertility measures at a given time is both a result of the data available and a precondition to expansions in data collection efforts.
Financial Sociology
Authors: Vitt Lois A.
Published: September 2017

Financial sociology is the study of the multiple relationships among finance, the financial system, and society. Finance is often defined simply as the management of money or “funds” management. Modern finance, however, is a family of business activities that includes the origination, marketing, and management of cash and money surrogates through a variety of capital accounts, instruments, and markets created for transacting and trading assets, liabilities, and risks. Finance is a social construction that is conceptualized, structured, and regulated by a complex system of power relations within political economies and across state and global markets.
Flânerie
Authors: Reible Heidi Franklin
Published: September 2017

Flânerie, in a narrow sense, refers to the act of idle strolling in nineteenth‐century Paris while visually collecting social artifacts of metropolitan life – the human sights and material culture of the urban crowd. In a wider sense, it is immersion in an anonymous, intellectual gaze that gives license to wandering, appropriating, and knowing.Flânerieengenders reflexivity as both an action and a process of observation that perceptively foregrounds social phenomena. Text and sketches of the passing moment serve as tangible witnesses to these random readings of the crowd.Flâneriemobilizes pleasure in the form of embodied observation. It is an aesthetic action, art form, and literary phenomenon that resonates in a masculine public space.
Fordism/Post‐Fordism
Authors: Prechel Harland
Published: September 2017

Taylorism and other forms of scientific management were implemented in many industries in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. However, the formalization of control over the labor process was accelerated when Henry Ford and his engineers systematically applied the principles of scientific management to the entire labor process.Fordismrepresents two critical changes in the historical process of fragmenting tasks and increasing the division of labor. First, whereas Taylorism developed work rules to standardize the production of parts, Fordism brought these standardized parts to the worker and further separated conception from execution by specifying how the assembly of parts was to be done. Second, using the assembly line to bring work to the worker made it possible to limit interruptions in the labor process and increase control over the pace of work.
Foucault, Michel (1926–1984)
Authors: Farrar Margaret E.
Published: September 2017

Michel Foucault was a French philosopher whose work has greatly influenced sociologists and many others, particularly in the areas of crime and deviance, gender and sexuality, health and illness, and social welfare.
Friendships of Adolescence
Authors: Crosnoe Robert
Published: September 2017

Friendships – intimate, ongoing relationships involving shared disclosure, sustained interaction, and strong feelings of connection – play a significant role in the human life course. The significance of these interpersonal relationships is heightened during adolescence, a period of life in which young people are particularly socially oriented and in which their self‐concepts are especially sensitive to the judgments of others. Consequently, friendships are a major component of adolescent life, in both positive and negative ways.
Fundamentalism
Authors: Pace Enzo
Published: September 2017

Roughly speaking, fundamentalism is a label that refers to the modern tendency – a habit of the heart and mind (Marty & Appleby 1991, 1993a, 1993b, 1994, 1995) – to claim the unerring nature of a sacred text and to deduce from that a rational strategy for instrumental social action. The final goal is to achieve the utopia of a regime of the truth (Pace 1998), gain political power, and rebuild organic solidarity, in jeopardy because of relativism, secularism, and weakness due to the eclipse of religion's social function of integration. This tendency has arisen in various socioreligious contexts: in Protestantism and Catholicism, Islam and the Jewish communities (both in Diaspora and in Israel after the 1967 Six Day War), in contemporary Hinduism and Buddhism, and, to some extent, even in a particular faction of Sikhism (the Khalsa, the religious order of warriors, defenders of the truth and the sacred boundaries of the Punjab). Fundamentalism made its appearance in contemporary times with such manifestations as the first march of the Moral Majority in the United States and the Iranian revolution (1979); the intensification in Sri Lanka of the tension between the Sinhalese Buddhists and the Tamil Hindu from 1977 to 1983; the appearance in Israel of many nationalist religious movements whose aim was to regain and defend the biblical boundaries of the people of Israel (
Eretz Israel
) from 1977 to 1980; and, in the Punjab, from 1984 to 1988 there was an acute crisis in relations between the Sikhs and the Indian government, culminating in an attack by the Indian army on the Golden Temple in Amritsar and the subsequent assassination of Mrs. Indira Gandhi by a Sikh.
Fundamentalism
Authors: Pace Enzo
Published: September 2017

Fundamentalism is a controversial issue. The social scientists who accept the concept and take a global, comparative approach are divided: some interpret the phenomenon as an expression (or the quintessence) of modernity; others see it as a reaction to modernity. This is part of a broader debate in social theory on the classical dichotomy between tradition and modernity, postmodernity and globalization. Fundamentalism and terrorism differ in principle, but the latter sometimes becomes a sort of senile disease of the former. The violent radicalization of some fundamentalist groups very often occurs when their fundamentalist project to gain political power or impose their cultural hegemony over society fails. Religious violence intensifies when those in power suppress such groups by violent means, prompting them to go underground, take up arms and use terrorist attacks to combat the political establishment. The holistic worldview very often degenerates into cleansing schemes to eliminate religious minorities or ethnic groups.
Fair Trade
Authors: Carducci Vince
Published: September 2017

Fair trade is an approach to market exchange that emphasizes equity and sustainability above profit. Fair trade is typically juxtaposed to free trade, the tenet of neoliberalism that advocates for the removal of all protective barriers that may cause restrictions in the flow of goods, services, and capital among countries in the global economy. Fair trade attempts to ameliorate competitive disadvantages and market failures ostensibly experienced under free trade by small producers, particularly those in lesser‐developed regions, who are ill‐equipped to deal on equal footing with transnational corporations and are thus subject to exploitation. It does this by establishing policies such as minimum pricing to cover the costs of production, including paying workers a living wage; establishing safe, fair, and environmentally friendly working conditions, including bans on child labor; and participating in other forms of social improvement, such as providing supplemental funding for infrastructure, educational, and social welfare enhancements. Fair trade is a complement to ethical consumption, a form of consumer activism whereby purchasing decisions are made based on moral or other principled considerations in addition to conventional economic criteria of rational calculation and marginal utility.
Fitness Culture
Authors: Sassatelli Roberta
Published: September 2017

In contemporary Western societies, the “fit body” has replaced body decoration as a potent symbol of status and character, both for men and for women. As clothes are ever more revealing, what is fashionable is the sculpting of the body itself. Fitness gyms and health centers have become highly visible as the sites where such a body is produced. Fitness gyms are a special breed of gyms: they are typically unisex, non‐competitive environments aimed at providing recreational exercise to boost physical form and well‐being (Sassatelli 1999). Fitness gyms are at the core of a much broader fitness culture, comprising a variety of commodities: news‐stands are full of magazines on physical exercise, health, and beauty that promote an increasingly nuanced vision of the “fit body” and offer advice about exercises and diet that may help in achieving it; bookshops have an increasingly large and varied collection of exercise manuals; and fitness festivals are getting more media coverage and contribute to the professionalization of trainers. Besides this, there has been a remarkable diffusion of fitness training aids – from aerobics videos to home‐fitness equipment – for individual use at home. Fitness culture can also be said to be much broader than the people who actually and regularly train, as the growing market for sportswear clearly testifies.
Film Analysis
Authors: Lydaki Anna
Published: September 2017

Since the 1960s the cinema has aroused the interest of social scientists, and films have been studied as a human cultural product with response from the masses that can constitute a document or a tool for social research. This is not because cinematic representation is an exact portrayal of the world; the characters and relationships represented on the screen do not always depict things as they actually are, even in documentaries. What renders a film as a document is the fact that, in every case, the creation of the artist is rooted in reality and, particularly, in the social–historical circumstances of life; and it is these that are expressed in his/her work.
Game Stage
Authors: Vail D. Angus
Published: September 2017

The game stage is one of three central components of George Herbert Mead's seminal discussion of the social foundation and development of the self. According to Mead, the self has a social genesis which becomes evident if one examines the ways that people develop a sense of their own being as something separate from, but also interdependent with, other people. In essence, the self is situated in the individual's capacity to take account of themselves. By examining children's styles of play, followed by the games they play, one can see how they develop a capacity to take into account not just the role of a singular other person, but also eventually the roles of many people simultaneously. It is only once a person has reached this stage of development that she or he is said to have developed a complete self. Mead (1962: 151–4) called the second stage the game stage.
Gellner, Ernest (1925–1995)
Authors: Tzanelli Rodanthi
Published: September 2017

Classed among the most renowned twentieth‐century intellectuals, Ern(e)st André Gellner's thought contributed to such diverse fields as philosophy, politics, sociology, history, and anthropology. He was born in Paris (1925), but was of Czech Jewish parentage and he grew up in Masaryk's Prague, when the city still acted as Central Europe's “intellectual capital.” In 1939, with the resurgence of anti‐Semitism in Central Europe, he moved to England, where he spent most of his life. The cosmopolitan yet ethnically charged nature of Czechoslovakia shaped Gellner's interests alongside his experience of World War II, during which he served in the Czechoslovakian Armoured Brigade (1944–5). He later graduated from Oxford as John Locke Scholar (1947) and moved first to Edinburgh and in 1949 to the Department of Sociology at the London School of Economics (LSE), where he served as Professor of Sociology (with reference to philosophy) and Philosophy (with reference to sociology), before becoming William Wise Professor of Social Anthropology at Cambridge in 1984. Between 1993 and 1995 he was Director of the Centre for the Study of Nationalism at the Central European University in Prague, where he died in 1995.