bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Equilibrium calculations for direct synthesis of dimethyl ether from syngas
Authors: Moradi G.R. , Ahmadpour J. , Yaripour F. , Wang J.
Published: November 2010

Thermodynamic analysis of single‐step synthesis of dimethyl ether (DME) from syngas over a bi‐functional catalyst (BFC) in a slurry bed reactor has been investigated as a function of temperature (200–240°C), pressure (20–50 bar), and composition feed ratio (H2/CO: 1–2). The BFC was prepared by physical mixing of CuO/ZnO/Al2O3 as a methanol synthesis catalyst and H‐ZSM‐5 as a methanol dehydration catalyst. The three reactions including methanol synthesis from CO and H2, methanol dehydration to DME and water–gas shift reaction were chosen as the independent reactions. The equilibrium thermodynamic analysis includes a theoretical model predicting the behaviour and a comparison to experimental results. Theoretical model calculations of thermodynamic equilibrium constants of the reactions and equilibrium composition of all components at different reaction temperature, pressure, and H2/CO ratio in feed are in good accordance with experimental values.
Evaluation of Function in Single Segments of Isolated Renal Blood Vessels, Nephrons, and Collecting Ducts
Authors: Grantham Jared J. , Welling Larry W. , Edwards Richard M.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Glomerulus and Vessels

Mammalian

Nonmammalian

Proximal Tubule

Mammalian

Nonmammalian

Thin Limbs of Henle's Loop

Mammalian

Thick Ascending Limbs of Henle's Loop

Mammalian

Nonmammalian

Distal Convoluted and Connecting Segments

Mammalian

Nonmammalian

Collecting Tubules and Ducts

Mammalian

Nonmammalian
Application of Tissue Culture Techniques to Study of Renal Tubular Epithelia
Authors: Handler Joseph S. , Burg Maurice B.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Types of Renal Epithelial Tissue Cultures

Continuous Lines from Dispersed Cells

Primary Cultures

Continuous Lines from Dissected Renal Epithelia

Immortalization of Renal Epithelial Cells

Epithelial Cell Biology

Plasma Membrane Polarity

Intercellular Junctions

Junctional Complexes

Gap Junctions

Differentiation

Control of Renal Epithelial Cell Growth

Composition of the Medium

Substrata

Transport

Transepithelial Transport and the Formation of Domes

Transcytosis

Sodium, Potassium, and Chloride Fluxes

Na+,K+−ATPase

Cellular Electrophysiology

Cellular pH Regulation

Regulation of Cell Calcium

Sodium‐Coupled Hexose Transport

Sodium‐Coupled Phosphate Transport

Amino Acid Transport

Adjustment to Altered Osmolality

Effects of Hormones on Cultured Epithelia

Adenosine

Adrenergic Agents

Aldosterone

Atrial Natriuretic Factor

Calcitonin

Glucagon

Insulin

Parathyroid Hormone

Prostaglandins

Vasopressin

Activators of Protein Kinase C

Somatic Cell Genetics

Conclusions
Comparative Physiology of the Kidney
Authors: Dantzler William H.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Morphological Relationships

Initial Process in Urine Formation

Filtration of Fluid by Glomeruli

Regulation of Number of Filtering Nephrons and ofSNGFR

Secretion of Fluid by Tubules

Transport of Inorganic Ions By Tubules

Sodium and Chloride

Potassium

Calcium

Phosphate

Magnesium and Sulfate

Transport of Fluid by Tubules

Fluid Absorption

Fluid Secretion

Transport of Organic Substances by Tubules

Glucose

Amino Acids

Urea

Organic Acids and Anions (Other Than Amino Acids, Urate, and Lactate)

Urate

Lactate

Organic Cations

Diluting and Concentrating Processes

Range of Urine Osmolality

Process and Sites of Dilution

Regulation of Changes in Urine Osmolality

Integrative Summary of Some Renal Functions

Fishes

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds
The Kidney During Development
Authors: Spitzer Adrian , Schwartz George J.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Historical Perspective

Standards of Reference for Comparison of Renal Function Between Infants and Adults

Morphogenesis of the Kidney

Embryologic Origin of the Kidney

Subsequent Development of the Kidney

Glomerulus

Renal Tubule

Renal Blood Flow and its Control During Development

Total Renal Blood Flow

Intrarenal Distribution of Blood Flow

Renal Microvasculature

Control of Renal Circulation

Glomerular Filtration

Net Ultrafiltration Pressure

Hydraulic Conductivity and Ultrafiltration Coefficient

Glomerular Capillary Surface Area

Factors That AffectGFRduring Development

Autoregulation ofGFR

Renal Energy Metabolism

Development of Renal Cortical Metabolic Pathways

Tubular Functions

Renal Reabsorption of Sodium

Reabsorption of Bicarbonate and Excretion of Hydrogen Ions

Glucose Transport

Transport of Amino Acids

Transport of Organic Acids

Phosphate Transport

Control of Renal Transport during Development

Calcium Transport

Magnesium Transport

Potassium Transport

Concentration of Urine

Developmental Renal Physiology as A Tool for Understanding the Emergence and Integration of Renal Transport Systems
Renal Acidification: Cellular Mechanisms of Tubular Transport and Regulation
Authors: Alpern Robert J. , Rector Floyd C.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Newer Techniques

Carbonic Anhydrase

Mechanisms of Proximal Tubular Acidification

Apical Membrane

Basolateral Membrane

Leak Pathways

Carbonic Anhydrase

Mechanisms of Loop of Henle Acidification

Mechanisms of Distal Nephron Acidification

Mechanism of Proton Secretion (Bicarbonate Absorption)

Mechanism of Bicarbonate Secretion

Leak Pathways

Cells Mediating H+/Transport

Carbonic Anhydrase

Mechanisms of Regulation of Acidification

Proximal Tubule

Distal Tubule
Control of Sodium Excretion: An Integrative Approach
Authors: Knox Franklyn G. , Granger Joey P.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Intrarenal Hemodynamic Control of Sodium Excretion

Effects of Peritubular Starling Forces on Sodium Excretion

Effects of Medullary Blood Flow on Sodium Excretion

Effects of Renal Perfusion Pressure on Sodium Excretion

Neural Control of Sodium Excretion

Sodium Intake and Body Fluid Volumes

Low‐Pressure Baroreceptors

Renal Sympathetic Nerve Activity

Hormonal Control of Sodium Excretion

Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System

Renal Prostaglandin System

Renal Kallikrein–Kinin System

Natriuretic Hormone

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Renal Ammonia Production and Excretion
Authors: Tannen Richard L.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Role of Ammonia Excretion in the Maintenance of Acid–Base Balance

Overview of Acid–Base Balance

Renal Acidification Mechanisms

NH4Excretion in Response to Acute and Chronic Acidosis

Relationship between Amino Acid Metabolism and Acid–Base Balance

Renal Ammonium Excretion

Nephron Sites of Ammonia Transport

Mechanism of Ammonia Transport across the Tubular Epithelium

Integrative View of Ammonia Excretion

Factors Altering Ammonia Excretion

Renal Ammonia Production

Substrates for Ammoniagenesis

Pathways of Ammonia Metabolism

Nephron Sites of Ammonia Production

Contribution of Extrarenal Organs to Ammonia Homeostasis

Response of Renal Ammonia Production to Acid‐Base Perturbations

Acute Acidosis

Chronic Acidosis

Acute Alkalosis

Chronic Metabolic Alkalosis

Response of Ammonia Production to Alterations in K+Homeostasis

Hypokalemia and Potassium Depletion

Hyperkalemia and Ingestion of a High‐Potassium Diet

Influence ofNH3Production on K+Excretion

Other Factors that Influence Ammoniagenesis

Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Intermediates

Prostaglandins

Intracellular Mediators (CyclicAMP, Calcium, Phorbol Esters)

Adrenal Hormones

Other Hormones (Insulin, Growth Hormone, AngiotensinII)

Other Factors

Altered Ammonia Metabolism in Disease

Chronic Renal Failure

Ammonia‐Induced Renal Injury

Reflections on the Future
Molecular Mechanisms of Vasopressin Action in the Kidney
Authors: Skorecki Karl L. , Brown Dennis , Ercolani Louis , Ausiello Dennis A.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Localization of Vasopressin Action in the Kidney

Glomerulus

Vasa Recta

Medullary Thick Ascending Limb

Collecting Duct

Renal Medullary Interstitium

Molecular Mechanisms of Vasopressin Receptor (V2) Activation of Adenylate Cyclase

General Characteristics of Adenylate Cyclase Activation

Development of a Model for Vasopressin Receptor Stimulation of Adenylate Cyclase in the Renal Epithelial Membrane

Modulation of the Vasopressin‐Sensitive Adenylate Cyclase Response

Role of Water Channel Recycling and Cytoskeletal Changes in the Hydroosmotic Response to Vasopressin

Overview

Cellular and Molecular Events at the Apical Plasma Membrane

Role of the Cytoskeleton in Vasopressin Action

Isolation and Identification of the “Water Channel”

Future Directions
Vitamin D Endocrine System and Calcium and Phosphorus Homeostasis
Authors: Gross Myron , Kumar Rajiv
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Physiological Effects of Vitamin D and its Active Metabolites on Calcium and Phosphorus Homeostasis

Sources of Vitamin D

Transport of Vitamin D and its Metabolites in Plasma

Metabolism of Vitamin D3to 25‐Hydroxyvitamin D3

Metabolism of 25‐Hydroxyvitamin D3

Regulation of the 25‐Hydroxyvitamin D3–1α‐Hydroxylase Enzyme

Parathyroid Hormone

Phosphorus Concentrations

Calcium: Direct Effects

1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3

Calcitonin

Hydrogen Ion

Sex Steroids

Glucocorticoids

Pituitary Hormones

Thyroid Hormone

Pregnancy

Catabolism of 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3

Physiological Adaptations that Occur in Response to Changes in Serum Calcium and Phosphate Concentrations

Hypocalcemia and Hypercalcemia

Hypophosphatemia and Hyperphosphatemia

Pathophysiology and Physiology of the 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3System

Mechanisms of Action of 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3

1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3in the Intestine

Processes in the Cell That Are Mediated by 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3

Intestinal Brush Border Events Induced by 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3

Events at the Contraluminal Border

Effects of 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3on the Intestinal Cell

1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3in the Kidney
Biochemical Characterization of Individual Nephron Segments
Authors: Guder W. G. , Morel Francois
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Biochemical Basis of Active Tubular Transport

Biochemical Mechanisms of Hormone Action

CyclicAMPas Intracellular Messenger of Hormones

Inositol Polyphosphates, Diacylglycerol, and Ca2+as Hormone Messengers

Insulin and Growth Factors

Action of Steroid Hormones Including Vitamin D Hormone

Thyroid Hormones

Biochemical Functions of the Proximal Tubule

Coupling of Metabolism and Transport

Brush‐Border Enzymes

Renal Gluconeogenesis

Amino Acid and Peptide Metabolism

Biotransformation Reactions

Thin Limbs of Henle's Loop

Thick Ascending Limb of Henle's Loop

Tamm‐Horsfall Glycoprotein

The Distal Convoluted Tubule

The Collecting Tubule

Metabolism and TransportATPases

Organic Osmolytes
Extraauditory Effects of Acoustic Stimulation
Authors: Cohen Alexander
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Neurophysiological Basis for Extraauditory Effects

Specific Extraauditory Effects

Aspects of Sensory Interaction

Reflex Response to Sound

General Extraauditory Effects

Effects of Sound Stimulation on Psychological State

Effects of Sound Stimulation on Physiological State

Special Considerations Regarding Extraauditory Response to Sound

Exposure to Infrasound and Ultrasound

Stress‐Sensitive Groups
Control of Body Temperature
Authors: Stolwijk Jan A. J. , Hardy James D.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Development of the Model

Controlled System

Heat Loss to the Environment

Heat Production

Controlling System

Temperature Sensing System

Integrating System

Effector System

Heat Production — Work and Chill

Evaporative Heat Loss and Sweating

Blood Flow — Vasomotor

Performance of the Thermoregulation Model for Human Beings at Rest

Thermoregulation During Exercise

Evaluation of Model Performance
Heat Exchange Between Human Skin Surface and Thermal Environment
Authors: Gagge A. Pharo , Nishi Yasunobu
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Body Heat Balance Equations

Independent Variables in Human Thermal Environment

Ambient Temperature

Dew‐point Temperature and Ambient Vapor Pressure

Air (and Fluid) Movement

Mean Radiant Temperature or Effective Radiant Field

Clothing Insulation

Barometric Pressure

Time of Exposure

Dependent Physiological Variables in Body Heat Balance Equation

Mean Skin Temperature

Skin Wettedness

Body Heat Storage and Rate Change of Mean Body Temperature

Metabolic Energy

Sensible Heat Exchange by Radiation and Convection

Operative Temperature

Clothing in Sensible Heat Exchange

Radiation Exchange

Mean Radiant Temperature and Effective Radiant Field

Direct Evaluation of Effective Radiant Field

Solar Radiation

Measurement of Radiation Exchange

Convective Heat Exchange

Heat Transfer Theory

Free and Forced Convection

Measurement of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

Effect of Barometric Pressure

Evaporative Heat Exchange

Direct Measurement of Evaporative Heat Loss

Maximum Evaporative Heat Loss from Skin Surface

The Lewis Relation Between Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients

Skin Wettedness vs. Efficiency of Evaporative Regulation

Special Environments

Water Immersion

Hyperbaric Helium‐Oxygen Atmospheres

Rational Temperature Indices of Thermal Environment

Operative Temperature

Humid Operative Temperature

Standard Operative Temperature

Standard Humid Operative Temperature

Standard Effective Temperature

A New Effective Temperature Index
Chemical Agents in Air
Authors: Barth D. S. , Black S. C. , Hammerle J. R.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Nature of Chemical Agents in Air

Gases

Aerosols

Origin of Chemical Agents in Air

Natural sources

Man‐made sources

Distribution of Chemical Agents in Air
Chemical Agents from Occupational Sources
Authors: Kay Kingsley
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Effective Physiological Activity

Acids and Alkalies

Chemical Carcinogens

Plastics

Production Hazards

Processing Hazards

Concluding Remarks
Chemical Agents in Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Falk Hans L.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Smoking

Variations in Smoke Composition and Smoking

Sidestream Smoke Inhalation

Oxides of Nitrogen and Reaction Products

Other Compounds Containing Nitrogen

Amines

Nitrites

Alkaloids

Heterocyclics

Compounds Containing Oxygen and Sulfur

Alcohols

Phenols

Carbonyl Compounds

Acids

Heterocyclics

Compounds Containing Sulfur

Hydrocarbons

Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkines, and Simple Aromatics

Poly cyclic Aromatics

Effects of Soil Composition or Agricultural Practices on Smoke Composition

Trace Elements

Organic Pesticides

Biological Contaminants and their Toxic Metabolites in Smoke

Fungi

Viruses

Summary: The More Hazardous Substances in Smoke
Immunological Reactions to Inhaled Physical and Chemical Agents
Authors: Burrell Robert
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Classification of Types of Immune Injury

Type I: Reagin‐Dependent Reactions

TypeII: Cytotoxic Reactions

TypeIII: Immune Complex Disposition Reactions

TypeIV: Cell‐Mediated or Delayed Hypersensitivity Reactions

Nonspecific Complement Activation

Inhalants

Physical Agents

Chemical Agents

Antigens of Plant Origin

Antigens of Animal Origin

Immunosuppressive Inhalants

Halothane and Other Inhalant Anesthetics

Cigarette Smoke
Retention and Excretion Kinetics of Chemical Agents
Authors: Piotrowski Jerzy K.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Metabolic Models and Compartmental Analysis

Exponential Models

Reliability of Concepts Underlying Compartmental Analysis

Simplification of Exponential Models

Power Function Model

Kinetic Solutions for Various Patterns of Exposure

Single Instantaneous Exposure

Continuous Exposure

Interrupted Exposure Cycles

Accumulation of Chemicals
Bone Storage and Release
Authors: Smith Frank A. , Hursh John B.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Bone Structure

Skeletal Uptake of Foreign Ions: Their Migration and Release

Skeletal Metabolism of Selected Airborne Contaminants

Fluoride

Lead
Pulmonary Excretion of Absorbed Gases
Authors: Klocke Robert A.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Factors Involved in Inert Gas Exchange

Solubility Effect

Interaction of Ventilation, Blood Flow, and Solubility

Measurements

Transport of Carbon Monoxide

Exposure to Exogenous Carbon Monoxide

Endogenous Production of Carbon Monoxide

Elimination of Carbon Monoxide

Theory: Steady State

Theory: Unsteady State

Experimental Verification

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Treatment

Physiological Alterations
Altered Permeability of Cell Membranes
Authors: Kinter W. B. , Pritchard J. B.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Membrane Theory of Toxicity

Heavy Metals — Mercury and its Compounds

Passive Ion and Water Permeability of Cells

Carrier‐Mediated Ion Transport

Inhibition of Other Transport Systems

Environmental Role

Organochlorines —DDTand its Metabolites

Passive Na+and K+Permeability of Axolemma

Active Na+Transport in Epithelia and Cells

Inhibition of Other Active Transport Systems

Conclusions and Speculations
Altered Protein Synthesis
Authors: Sidransky Herschel
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Inhibition of Protein Synthesis

Puromycin

Ethionine

Sparsomycin

Hypertonicity of Portal Blood

Enhancement of Protein Synthesis

Alterations or Imbalances in Nutrition

Hormones, Toxins, Physical Agents, Chemicals

Altered Metabolic States

Induced Synthesis of Specific Proteins

Correlation Between Structural and Functional Changes

Discussion
Surface and Internal Morphology of Skeletal Muscle
Authors: Ishikawa Harunori , Sawada Hajime , Yamada Eichi
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Methods for Surface Morphology

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Freeze‐Replica Technique

Organization of Muscle Tissue

Fiber Surface

Endomysium

Basal Lamina

Sarcolemma

Fiber Interior

Exposure of Fiber Interior

Myofibrils

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum and T System

Mitochondria

Neuromuscular Junction
Immunological Techniques in Fluorescence and Electron Microscopy Applied to Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Authors: Pepe Frank A.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Myofibrillar Proteins

A Band

M Band

I Band

Z Band

Nonmyofibrillar Proteins
Structure of Vertebrate Striated Muscle as Determined by X‐ray‐Diffraction Studies
Authors: Haselgrove John C.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Muscle Structure: An Overview

Description of Low‐Angle Diffraction Patterns

Interpretation of X‐Ray Patterns

Theoretical Aspects

Experimental Approaches

Filament Lattice

Lattice Spacing

Filament Orientations

Radial Electron‐Density Distribution

Actin‐Containing Filaments

Helix Parameters

Thin‐Filament Regulation of Contraction

Myosin‐Filament Backbone

Axial Packing of Myosin

Helical Packing of Myosin

Axial Repeat of C Protein

Cross Bridges

Relaxed Muscle

Rigor Muscle

Contracting Muscle

Analogues ofATP
Conformational Changes and Molecular Dynamics of Myosin
Authors: Gergely John , Seidel John C.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Myosin Structure

Subunits

Actin Interaction Site

Myosin Interaction withATPand its Analogues

Conformational Changes

Ultraviolet Spectral Changes

Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectra

Relation toATPaseMechanism

Rod Conformational Changes

Chemical Modification

Cysteine Residue Modification

Lysine Modification

Two‐Headed Nature of Myosin

Are the Two Myosin Heads Identical?

Interactions of the Two Myosin Heads

Molecular Mechanism of Cross‐Bridge Cycle

Segmental Flexibility of Myosin

Measurement of Correlation Time

Local Fluctuations in Myosin Structure

Organized Systems

Motion of Myosin Heads

Orientation of Myosin Heads

Force Generation and Elasticity

Rotating‐Head Models

Helix‐Coil Melting Model

Actin Motions

X‐Ray Studies

Correlation Functions
Inward Spread of Activation in Twitch Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Authors: Gonzalez‐Serratos Hugo
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Inward Spread of the Excitatory Process

Development of the Problem

Role of the Action Potential

New Facts and Theories

Morphological Evidence

Hypothesis

Morphological Corroboration

Mechanism of Inward Spread of Activation

Some Physiological Properties of the T‐Tubule System

Some Electrophysiological Properties of the T‐Tubule System

Mechanism of Inward Spread of the Excitatory Process
Aging: Current Concepts
Authors: Masoro Edward J.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Aging at The Population Level

Life Tables

Survival Curves

Maximum Life Span

Age‐Specific Mortality Rates

Universality of Aging

Aging at the Individual Level

Concept of Primary Aging Processes

Classification of Theories of Aging

Genetic Programs Akin to Development and Morphogenesis

Homeostatic Failure

Current Status of the Concept of Primary Aging Processes

Evolutionary Biology of Aging

Manifestations of Aging Processes

Age‐Associated Disease Processes

Age‐Associated Physiological Changes

Summary and Conclusions
Respiratory System
Authors: Sparrow David , Weiss Scott T.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Pulmonary Mechanics

Respiratory Muscles and Chest Wall

Lung Recoil

Lung Volumes

Flow Rates

Gas Exchange

Respiration

Respiratory Control

Respiratory Sensation

Exercise Capacity

Defense Mechanisms

Airway Responsiveness

Natural History of Disease
Renal and Urinary Tract Function
Authors: Lindeman Robert D.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Age‐Related Changes in Kidney Function

Cross‐Sectional Studies

Modification of View of Inevitable Change from Results of Longitudinal Studies

Age‐Related Proteinuria and Glomerular Lesions in Rodents

Pathophysiology of the Decrease in Renal Function with Age

Age‐Related Changes in Renal Control of Fluid and Electrolyte Homeostasis

Control of Sodium Balance

Control of Potassium Balance

Control of Water Balance and Susceptibility of Older Individuals to Dehydration (Hypernatremia)

Susceptibility of Older Individuals to the Development of Hyponatremia

Aging and Kidney Disease

Acute Renal Failure

Glomerular Disease (Nephrotic Syndrome)

Chronic Renal Failure

Urinary Tract Infections

Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction with Aging

Anatomy and Physiology of the Lower Urinary Tract

Effect of Age on Lower Urinary Tract

Transient Incontinence

Established Incontinence

Pathophysiology of Voiding Dysfunction in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia

Other Diseases of the Lower Urinary Tract
The Gastrointestinal Tract
Authors: Holt Peter R.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Salivary Glands

Stomach

Gastric Secretion

Small Intestine

Morphology

Brush Border Membranes

Enzymes

Intestinal Permeability

Protein Synthesis

Intestinal Absorption

Gut‐Associated Immune System

Splanchnic Blood Flow

Gastrointestinal Motility

Esophagus

Stomach

Neuromuscular Functioning

Colon and Rectum

Pancreas

Liver and Biliary Tree

Morphology

Age‐Associated Effects

Consequences of Aging

Bile

Gastrointestinal Hormones

Cellular Proliferation

Esophagus and Stomach

Small Intestine

Colon

Effects of Caloric Restriction
Neural Control of Stereotypic Limb Movements
Authors: Rossignol Serge
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Kinematics and Muscle Activity

Hindlimb Locomotor Movements

Forelimb Locomotor Movements

Walking at Different Speeds, Slopes, and Directions

Interlimb Coordination

Other Stereotypic Movements

Stereotypic Movements in Spinal Animals

Stereotypic Movements after Complete Spinal Lesions

Stereotypic Movements after Partial Spinal Lesions

Pharmacology of Stereotypic Patterns

Central Generation of Stereotypic Patterns

Locomotion

Interneurons

Scratching and Paw Shake

Ontogeny of Stereotypic Movements

Central Pattern Generator(s)

Afferent Controls

Proprioceptive Control

Cutaneous Control

Mechanisms of Reflex Modulation

Supraspinal Control

Initiation of Locomotion

Posture and Corrections

Concluding Remarks
Central Neural Control of Respiration and Circulation During Exercise
Authors: Waldrop Tony G. , Eldridge Frederic L. , Iwamoto Gary A. , Mitchell Jere H.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Respiration

Circulation

Central Command Mechanisms

Central Drive of Locomotion

Locomotor Pattern Generator

Supraspinal Locomotor Sites

Central Command Control of Respiration and Circulation in Animals

Cerebral Cortex

Hypothalamic Locomotor Region

Mesencephalic Locomotor Region

Amygdala

Awake, Exercising Animal Studies

Short‐Term Potentiation

Respiration

Central Command Control of Respiration and Circulation in Humans

Respiration

Circulation

Interactions Between Central Command and Peripheral Feedback

Interaction of Central Command with Cardiorespiratory Reflexes

Baroreceptor Reflex

Hering‐Breuer Reflex

Chemoreceptor Reflexes

Conclusions
Lipid Metabolism in Muscle
Authors: Van Der Vusse Ger J. , Reneman Robert S.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Supply and Cellular Uptake of Upids in Skeletal Muscles

Albumin‐Bound Fatty Acids

Fatty Acids in Circulating Lipoproteins

Skeletal Muscle Fatty Acid Uptake

Fatty Acid Metabolism in the Skeletal Muscle Cell

Activation and Oxidation of Fatty Acids

Intramuscular Triacylglycerols

Supply and Utilization of Upids During Exercise

Albumin‐Bound Fatty Acids in Plasma during Exercise

Circulating Lipoprotein‐Triacylglycerols as a Potential Source of Fatty Acids during Exercise

Contribution of Intramuscular Triacylglycerols to Fatty Acid Oxidation during Exercise

Relative Contribution of Various Sources of Lipids to Overall Fatty Acid Utilization during Exercise

Gender Differences in Lipid Utilization during Exercise

Effect of Training on Skeletal Muscle Lipid Utilization

Advantages of Enhanced Lipid Utilization by Trained Muscles during Exercise

Possible Causes of Increased Lipid Consumption by Trained Muscles during Exercise

Utilization of Plasma‐Borne Fatty Acids by Trained Muscles

Circulating Lipoproteins as an Additional Source of Lipids for Trained Muscles

Utilization of Intramuscular Triacylglycerols in Endurance‐Trained Muscles

Regulation of Fatty Acid Release from Intramuscular Triacylglycerols in Trained Muscles

Effect of Diet on Muscle Lipid Metabolism

High‐Carbohydrate vs. High‐Fat Diets in Relation to Physical Performance

Shift from Carbohydrate to Lipid Utilization by High‐Fat Diet

Source of Lipid for Muscles during High‐Fat Diet Feeding

Possible Mechanisms Underlying Increased Muscular Lipid Utilization during High‐Fat Feeding

Interrelationship Between Muscular Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism

The Glucose–Fatty Acid, or Randle, Cycle

The Existence of the Randle Cycle in Skeletal Muscle

Possible Mechanisms Underlying the Glucose‐Fatty Acid Cycle in Skeletal Muscle

A Role for Malonyl CoA in Fuel Selection in Skeletal Muscle Cells

Defects in the Skeletal Muscle Fatty Acid Oxidative Pathway

Concluding Remarks
Influence of Exercise on Protein and Amino Acid Metabolism
Authors: Rennie Michael J.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

General Aspects of Amino Acid and Protein Metabolism in Muscle

Amino Acid Transport and the Free Amino Acid Pool

Outline of the Metabolism of Amino Acids in Muscle in Relation to Exercise

Interrelationship ofBCAA, Alanine, and Glutamine Metabolism

The Purine Nucleotide Cycle in Muscle

Amino Acid Catabolism and Gluconeogenesis from Amino Acids in Liver and Kidney

Training Effects on the Capacities of Muscle Enzymes of Amino Acid Metabolism

The Effects of Contractile Activity on Ammonia Production and its Relation to the Free Amino Acid Pool

Alterations of Muscle and Blood Amino Acid Concentrations during Exercise

Production and Consumption of Amino Acids by Muscle during Exercise

Effects of Training on Amino Acid Metabolism during Exercise

Interrelationships between Working Muscle and the Viscera during Exercise

Protein Turnover During Exercise

Effects of Acute Contractile Activity on Protein Turnover

Postexercise Alterations in Muscle Protein Synthesis

Effects of Habitual Exercise on Whole‐Body Protein Turnover

Effects of Immobilization and Disuse

Collagen Turnover in Muscle

Physical Activity and Protein Requirements

Outstanding Questions
Temperature Relationships: From Molecules to Biogeography
Authors: Somero George N.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Temperature Effects on Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Systems: Basic Considerations

Temperature Effects on Proteins

Determinants of Thermal Sensitivities of Protein Structure and Function

Protein Structural Stability and Adaptation Temperature

Adaptations in Enzyme Kinetic Properties Lead to Conservation of Metabolic Regulation and Rate of Function

Rate Compensation to Temperature Through Alterations in Enzyme Concentration

The Heat Shock Response

Molecular Chaperones: Assistants in Protein Folding, Compartmentation, and Renaturation

The Heat Shock Response and Induced Thermal Tolerance

Acclimatization‐Induced Differences in the Heat Shock Response

Interindividual and Intertissue Differences in the Heat Shock Response

Evolutionary, Interspecific Differences in the Heat Shock Response

Cellular Thermometers and Regulation ofHSPSynthesis

Cold Shock May Induce Stress Proteins

Temperature Effects on Lipids and Membrane‐Localized Functions

Temperature Effects on Membrane Lipids: Changes in Phase and Fluidity

Membrane Fluidity and Compositional Changes Correlate With Effects on Membrane Functions

Homeoviscous Adaptation: Occurrence and Efficacy

Adaptation of Membrane Lipids: Regulation and Biophysical Effects

Adaptive Regulation of Depot and Membrane Lipid Fluidity in Hibernators

Membrane Lipids of Thermophilic Archaebacteria

Membrane Adaptations Involving Extrinsic Factors: pH and Solutes

Cuticular Waxes: Regulation of Body Temperature and Control of Water Loss

Evaporative Cooling in Insects

Temperature–pH Interactions

Temperature Dependence of Body Fluid pH Values

The Imidazole Alphastat Hypothesis

Functional Manifestations of the Advantages of Alphastat Regulation

Deviations from Alphastat Regulation in Small Mammalian Hibernators

Variation in Alpha Imidazole among Species, Tissues, Histidyl Residues, and Methodologies

Biogeographical Implications of Temperature Adaptation
Of Membrane Stability and Mosaics: The Spectrin Cytoskeleton
Authors: Morrow Jon S. , Rimm David L. , Kennedy Scott P. , Cianci Carol D. , Sinard John H. , Weed Scott A.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

The Red Cell Membrane Skeleton

How Does the Spectrin Membrane Skeleton Stabilize the Red Cell?

The Trilayer Couple—Spectrin as A Membrane Organizer

Components of the Erythrocyte Membrane Skeleton

Spectrin

Actin

Ankyrin

Protein 4.1

Adducin

Dematin (Protein 4.9)

Pallidin (Protein 4.2)

p55 (an Erythrocyte Membrane‐Associated Guanylate Kinase)

Stomatin

Tropomyosin and Tropomodulin

Dynamin

Interactions with Phospholipids

The Spectrin Skeleton of Non‐Erythroid Cells

Spatial and Temporal Polarization

Proteins Interacting with Spectrin in Non‐Erythroid Cells

Cytoskeletal Elements

Adhesion Proteins

Evolving Concepts

Conclusions: The Linked Mosaic Model
Microtubule Motors in Cell and Tissue Function
Authors: Sheetz Michael P.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Why Motors—and Where—in Tissues?

Basic Cellular Motor Mechanisms

Organization of Microtubules in Tissues

Organelle‐Motor Complexes

Microtubule Motor Structure

Mechanism of Conversion ofATPEnergy into Motility
Regulated Exocytosis in Mammalian Secretory Cells
Authors: Sengupta Dola , Valentijn Jack A. , Jamieson James D.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

Entry of Proteins into the Secretory Pathway

Mechanism of Sorting of Membrane and Secretory Proteins into the Secretory Pathway

Mechanism of Movement of Secretory Vesicles to the Plasma Membrane and Endocytic Vesicles from the Plasma Membrane

Mechanisms of Membrane Interactions on the Secretory Pathway

TheSNAREHypothesis of Vesicular Targeting and Membrane Fusion

Control Proteins in Exocytosis

The Role of rab Proteins in Exocytosis and Endocytosis

Membrane Retrieval Following Regulated Exocytosis
Regulation of Development: Differentiation and Morphogenesis
Authors: Kleinman Hynda K. , Bernfield Merton
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

The Cellular Processes of Determination and Differentiation

Cell Determination

Cell Differentiation

Genes Regulate Determination and Differentiation

The Process of Morphogenesis

Cell Adhesion

Change in Cell Shape

Localized Cell Proliferation

Localized Cell Death

Strategies of Development

Cell Lineage

Cell Interactions

Tissue Interactions

Effect of the Cellular Microenvironment on Morphogenetic Behavior

Extracellular Matrix Components

Matrix‐Associated Effectors of Cell Behavior

Biological Activities of Extracellular Matrix Components

Peptide Growth Factors

Reparative Responses to Injury Analogous to Developmental Processes
Cellular Mechanisms During Mammalian Fertilization
Authors: Wassarman Paul M. , Florman Harvey M.
Published: November 2010

The sections in this article are:

General Introduction

Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis

Oogenesis: Primordial Germ Cells to Eggs

Spermatogenesis: Primordial Germ Cells to Spermatozoa

Final Preparation of Gametes for Fertilization

Eggs: “Meiotic Maturation”

Regulatory Aspects of Oocyte Maturation

Sperm: “Capacitation”

Sperm Activity States

Binding of Sperm to Eggs

Structure of the Zona Pellucida

Identification of a Mammalian Sperm Receptor

Other Mammalian Sperm Receptors

The Acrosome Reaction

Anatomy of the Acrosome

Stages of Exocytosis

Functions of the Acrosome Reaction during Fertilization

Site of the Acrosome Reaction

Mechanisms of the Acrosome Reaction

Initiators of Exocytosis

Conclusions

Signaling at the Sperm Plasma Membrane

Mediators of Receptor‐Activated Second‐Messenger Production in Sperm

Second‐Messenger Production

Ca2+and Ca2+Channels

Internal pH

Downstream Effectors of Receptor Activation

Gamete Fusion and Cortical Granule Exocytosis

Cortical Granules

Gamete Membrane Fusion and the Receptor Question

From Oolemma to Cortical Granule—Signal Transduction Pathways
Peptide hormones regulating appetite—focus on neuroimaging studies in humans
Authors: Schloegl Haiko , Percik Ruth , Horstmann Annette , Villringer Arno , Stumvoll Michael
Published: November 2010

In recent years, knowledge about hormonal feedback from the gastrointestinal tract and adipose tissue has increased tremendously. Peptide hormones modulating hunger have been intensively studied, mostly in animals but increasingly also in humans. The first therapeutic agents, such as GLP‐1 analogues, are in successful clinical use for T2D and may beneficially affect hunger and reduce weight. Data from in vitro studies and animals provide detailed insight into regulatory mechanisms leading to peptide secretion and receptor bindings, as well as to the distribution of receptors involved in different parts of the body. With neuroimaging techniques human brain structures have been identified that play a role in hunger, satiety and eating behaviour. These include the primary gustatory (insular) and olfactory (pyriform) cortex and regions with a highly permeable blood‐brain barrier (hypothalamus, brain stem), which facilitates humoral input via gut peptides and leptin. In addition, cerebral networks involved in higher cognitive functions, especially those relevant to reward, pleasure and also addiction (ventral and dorsal striatum, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), prefrontal cortex (PFC)) were shown to be involved. First indications of direct influences of peptide hormones on these networks have become available from neuroimaging studies administrating synthetic PYY, ghrelin and leptin. Insulin also appears to play an important role as a central satiety hormone, and evidence indicating the possibility of central insulin resistance in obesity is available. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The effect of glycaemic control and glycaemic variability on mortality in patients hospitalized with congestive heart failure
Authors: Dungan Kathleen M. , Binkley Philip , Nagaraja Haikady N. , Schuster Dara , Osei Kwame
Published: November 2010

Background

Diabetes and CHF are common comorbidities in hospitalized patients but the relationship between glycaemic control, glycaemic variability, and mortality in patients with both conditions is unclear.

Methods

We used administrative data to retrospectively identify patients with a diagnosis of CHF who underwent frequent glucose assessments. TWMG was compared with other measures of glycaemic control and a time‐weighted measure of glycaemic variability, the glycaemic lability index. The outcome was hospital mortality.

Results

A total of 748 patients were included in the final analysis. Time‐weighted mean glucose was higher than unadjusted mean glucose (137 + /− 44.7 mg/dL versus 167 + /− 54.9, p < 0.001), due in part to shorter sampling intervals at higher glucose levels. Hypoglycaemia, defined as a glucose level < 70 mg/dL, occurred during 6.3% of patient‐days in survivors and 8.4% of patient‐days among nonsurvivors (p = 0.05). Time‐weighted mean glucose was similar (128 + /− 33.1 mg/dL versus 138 + /− 45.1 mg/dL) in nonsurvivors versus survivors, p = 0.19). However, relatively few patients had were significantly elevated readings. Median GLI was higher in nonsurvivors compared with that in survivors (18.1 versus 6.82, p = 0.0003). Increasing glycaemic lability index (odds ratio 1.32, 95% confidence interval 1.05–1.65), and hypoglycaemia (odds ratio 2.21, 95% confidence interval 1.07–4.65), were independently associated with higher mortality in logistic regression analysis. Respiratory failure was associated with mortality, but not standard deviation of glucose.

Conclusions

Future studies analysing glycaemic control should control for variable sampling intervals. In this analysis, glycaemic lability index was independently associated with increased mortality, independent of hypoglycaemia. Prospective studies are needed to evaluate these findings. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator modulates synaptic chloride homeostasis in motoneurons of the rat spinal cord during neonatal development
Authors: Ostroumov Alexey , Simonetti Manuela , Nistri Andrea
Published: November 2010

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a cAMP‐regulated Cl− channel functional in neonatal rat spinal motoneurons. The present study investigated the developmental (P1–P8) expression of CFTR, its impact on motoneuron excitability and Cl− homeostasis in relation to canonical Cl− transporters. The Cl− outward transporter KCC2 gene was upregulated in females over males and increased from P1 to P8. The gene activities of the Cl− inward transporter NKCC1 and CFTR were positively correlated and grew between P1 and P8. P1 motoneuronal somata were immunopositive for CFTR whose expression later (P8) extended to cell processes. KCC2 immunopositivity outlined somata and cell processes at P1 and P8. Electrophysiological recording with sharp electrodes showed that the CFTR blocker glibenclamide increased motoneuron input resistance, suggesting functional CFTR in P1–P8 motoneurons. Whole cell patch‐clamping of spinal motoneurons to study CFTR contribution to postnatal synaptic Cl− regulation indicated that glibenclamide or the selective CFTR blocker diphenylamine‐2,2′‐dicarboxylic acid produced a negative shift in GABA/glycine reversal potential (EGABA/Gly) of spontaneously occurring synaptic events measured after block of excitatory transmission. A similar effect on EGABA/Gly was induced by the NKCC1 inhibitor bumetanide. A 3D reconstructed motoneuron model suggested that CFTR activity contributes to set the EGABA/Gly positive to the resting potential. The functional outcome of these Cl− mediated synaptic events depended not only on the postnatal age of the animal but also on their timing with respect to the excitatory synaptic signals. We propose that CFTR operated together with NKCC1 to produce depolarizing GABA/glycine mediated synaptic events. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 71:253–268, 2011.
Developmental changes in intrinsic excitability of principal neurons in the rat medial nucleus of the trapezoid body
Authors: Rusu Silviu I. , Borst J. Gerard G.
Published: November 2010

The calyx of Held synapse is a giant axosomatic synapse that has a fast relay function within the sound localization circuit of the brainstem. In the adult, each principal neuron of the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB) is contacted by a single calyx terminal. In rodents, the calyx of Held synapse forms around the third postnatal day (P3). Here, we studied the developmental changes in the intrinsic excitability of the principal neurons during the first postnatal week by making whole‐cell recordings from brainstem slices. In slices from P0–1 rats, about 20% of the principal neurons were spontaneously active, whereas after P3, no spontaneously active cells were observed. Already at P0, principal neurons received both glutamatergic and GABAergic/glycinergic inputs. The occurrence of spontaneous action potentials depended upon the presence of spontaneous glutamatergic inputs; summation of only a few quanta was enough to reach action potential threshold. The main cause for this high excitability was a high resting membrane resistance, which decreased at least four‐fold during the first postnatal week. A relatively slow decay of synaptic currents and a relatively depolarized membrane potential may have contributed as well. We conclude that the decrease in the excitability of principal neurons in the MNTB matches the increase of the strength of the synaptic inputs resulting from the formation and maturation of the calyx of Held synapse during the first postnatal week. This decrease in excitability will make it progressively more difficult for non‐calyceal inputs to trigger action potentials. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 71: 284–295, 2011
Nonclassical Ruthenium Silyl Dihydride Complexes TpRu(PPh3)(η3‐HSiR3H) [Tp = Hydridotris(pyrazolyl)borate]: Catalytic Hydrolytic Oxidation of Organosilanes to Silanols with TpRu(PPh3)(η3‐HSiR3H)
Authors: Lee Ting Yan , Dang Li , Zhou Zhongyuan , Yeung Chi Hung , Lin Zhenyang , Lau Chak Po
Published: November 2010

An X‐ray crystallographic study showed that it is more appropriate to describe the complexes TpRu(PPh3)“H2SiR3” as TpRu(PPh3)(η3‐HSiR3H), a static structure containing H···Si···H bonding rather than a highly fluxional pair ofσ‐silane hydride species TpRu(PPh3)(Ha)(η2‐HbSiR3) [rlhar2] TpRu(PPh3)(Hb)(η2‐HaSiR3). One of the complexes was used for the catalytic hydrolytic oxidation of organosilanes to silanols. A mechanism, which does not involve the usual oxidative addition of silane to the metal center to form the silyl hydride species, is proposed, which is supported by theoretical calculations.
Microencapsulation of extra‐virgin olive oil by spray‐drying: Influence of wall material and olive quality
Authors: Calvo Patricia , Hernández Teresa , Lozano Mercedes , González‐Gómez David
Published: November 2010

Encapsulation is a process by which small particles of core products are packaged within a wall material to form microcapsules. One common technique to produce encapsulated products is spray‐drying which involves the conversion of liquid oils in the form of an emulsion into dry powders. Emulsification conditions, wall components, and spray‐drying parameters have been optimized for the microencapsulation of different extra‐virgin olive oils. To achieve this goal, the influences of emulsion conditions have been evaluated for different wall components such as proteins (sodium caseinate and gelatin), hydrocolloids (Arabic gum), and hydrolyzed starches (starch, lactose, and maltodextrin). In addition, for each of the tested conditions the ratio of wall solid‐to‐oil and spray‐drying parameters were as well optimized.

The microencapsulation effectiveness was determined based on process yield and the ratio between free and encapsulated oil (microencapsulation efficiency). Highest encapsulation yields were achieved when gelatin, Arabic gum and maltodextrin and sodium caseinate and maltodextrin were used as encapsulation agents and the ratio of wall solid‐to‐oil was 1:4 and 1:2, respectively. Under these conditions, 53% of oil was encapsulated. The influence of olive oil quality in the microencapsulation process was evaluated in terms of fatty acids profile alteration after the microencapsulation process.
The Reaction of Carboxylic Acid Esters with RfMgBr: A Convenient Synthesis of Perfluoroalkyl Ketones
Authors: Xue Can , He Guangke , Fu Chunling , Xue Liqin , Lin Zhenyang , Ma Shengming
Published: November 2010

An efficient method for the preparation of the synthetically attractive perfluoroalkyl ketones through the reaction of readily available alkenoates, alkynoates, or regular carboxylic esters with perfluoroalkyl Grignard reagents at –70 to –60 °C in diethyl ether with moderate to good yields was developed. The reaction stopped at the ketone stage, with no further reaction to form the tertiary alcohols being observed. DFT calculations confirmed that the perfluoroalkyl‐substituted ketones are less electrophilic as compared to ordinary ketones.
Generation and characterization of a specific polyclonal antibody against the mouse serotonin receptor 1A: A state‐of‐the‐art recommendation on how to characterize antibody specificity
Authors: Heo Seok , Lubec Gert
Published: November 2010

A series of different antibodies against serotonin receptor 1A (5HT1A_R) have been reported although only limited information on the specificity of these antibodies and the antigens recognized is available. Herein, we characterized reactivity of an antibody by a gel‐based proteomics method that should represent a model how antibodies may be defined in the future. An antibody against the 5HT1A_R was generated, used for immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting on blue‐native gels containing a 5HT1A_R complex. The 5HT1A_R was isolated from tissue and was defined by nano‐LC‐ESI‐MS/MS. A single band on the native gel and a single spot representing the denatured receptor in the 3rd dimensional step of gel electrophoresis was detected. Immunoprecipitation revealed a single band for the denatured 5HT1A_R. Herein, a procedure is proposed to characterize an antibody by the use of a robust method unambiguously identifying and characterizing the antigen, 5HT1A_R, from mouse whole brain.