bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Intellectual Assessment of Deaf People: A Critical Review of Core Concepts and Issues
Authors: Maller Susan J. , Braden Jeffery P.
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses cognitive assessment of deaf children and adults. Emphasis is placed on the psychometric properties (e.g., reliability, validity, norms, item analysis) of published intelligence tests when administered to this population. The use of intelligence tests with deaf people has a long history that can be traced back to the early years of formal intelligence testing aimed at identifying those students in need of special education due to “mental retardation.” Intelligence tests continue to serve as a primary component of the assessment process for special education. Practitioners who serve deaf children regularly are faced with the dilemma of choosing from a variety of published tests that often lack sufficient evidence of validity (i.e., that the test score represents what it claims to represent) for this population. There are several potential reasons psychometric evidence is lacking for tests when administered to deaf people. First, deaf people constitute a low-incidence population, and sufficient sample sizes are difficult to obtain to conduct the necessary investigations. Second, the deaf population is composed of a diverse group in terms of a variety of variables, such as communication modalities, degree of hearing loss, parental hearing loss, age of onset, etiology, presence of additional disabilities, race/gender, socioeconomic status (SES), and educational placement. Third, funding is often not available to support investigations by test publishers and independent researchers for low-incidence populations. Finally, many independent researchers may lack the skills both for working with deaf people and in psychometrics that are required to conduct the necessary studies. Thus, valid cognitive assessment remains a difficult dilemma for practitioners whose goals may include helping educators understand a deaf child’s intellectual abilities and educational needs.
Systematic Review and Evidence Synthesis as a Practice and Scholarship Tool
Authors: Briner Rob B. , Denyer David
Published: February 2013

Reviews of existing research evidence have the potential to inform both practice and scholarship. This opportunity is currently not being fully realized in management and organization studies due to the limitations of traditional methods of review, which fail to identify clearly what is known and not known about a given topic. For practitioners, systematic review can help address managerial problems by producing a reliable knowledge base through accumulating findings from a range of studies. For scholars, systematic review can enhance methodological rigor as well as highlight opportunities for further research. Systematic reviews are guided by a set of principles rather than a specific, inflexible, and restricted protocol. By revealing these principles, outlining a systematic review methodology, and offering examples, we hope that this chapter helps both practitioners and scholars to use systematic review to inform their practice.
The Constitutional Frameworks of State and Local Government Finance
Authors: Kincaid John
Published: February 2013

This article provides a primer of the fiscal frameworks set forth in the US Constitution and the fifty state constitutions. Recognizing that neither the United States nor any constituent state has a free-standing fiscal constitution, the article works through the labyrinth of fiscal provisions that are embedded in the constitutions and constitutional law. Because what the US Constitution “says” about the practice of fiscal federalism is largely about what the federal courts (past and present) have decided it should be (ostensibly based on what the framers meant by federalism), the article begins with a review of The Federalist on federal and state fiscal powers. It then lays out the core public finance provisions in the federal Constitution.
Real Property Tax
Authors: Bell Michael E.
Published: February 2013

A good place to start a discussion of the United States' state and local revenue systems is with the single largest source of state and local own-source revenues—the property tax. Beginning with a comparative review of traditional measures used to examine tax trends, this article proceeds to an analysis and evaluation as to that tax's performance in recent years and through the Great Recession, concluding with a look to the fiscal future. The property tax today still remains as the local government revenue “mainstay”—97 percent of property tax revenue accrues to local governments. Over the past four decades, however, the property tax has declined in its relative importance as a share of local government revenues (43 percent of local general revenues in 1968 to 28 percent in 2008), and as a percentage of local own-source revenues (56 percent in 1968 to 45 percent in 2008).
Local Revenue Diversification: User Charges, Sales Taxes, and Income Taxes
Authors: Sjoquist David L. , Stoycheva Rayna
Published: February 2013

From broad-based taxes on sales and income and employer payrolls, to fees and charges on school lunches, medical equipment, parking, etc., few topics take us into more aspects of public economics than the study of local revenue diversification. This article provides a thorough review of this topic, bringing to the discussion new data as well as some new evidence on the measurement of the degree of revenue diversity among the states. The article begins with a set of measures as to the growth of the level and degree of revenue diversification by type of government, and, from there, it addresses the questions of “why diversify,” where diversification works well, and where, in contrast, it has led to unintended negative outcomes. It presents several reasons that justify local revenue diversification, beginning with the fundamental proposition that, just as is true for nations and states, different localities have different revenue-raising capacities.
Children and Families in Poverty: Federal Perspectives on Applied Research and Evaluation
Authors: Webb Mary Bruce
Published: February 2013

A substantial body of research and evaluation is conducted through agencies whose primary mission is not research, but service delivery. This chapter will highlight some of the applied research, initiated by federal program offices, that shows promise for moving forward the knowledge base about disadvantaged children and families. Examples include large-scale longitudinal studies that have provided foundational information about the characteristics and life histories of individuals who live in poverty as well as large-scale evaluations and smaller research and evaluation programs that target issues of particular relevance to low-income families. The chapter also includes discussion of issues that arise in promoting the use of research evidence in federal programs and policy.
Maternal Mental Health and Child Health and Nutrition
Authors: McCurdy Karen , Gorman Kathleen S. , Kisler Tiffani S. , Metallinos-Katsaras Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, the family stress model provides a framework for exploring the relationships between maternal mental health and child health and nutrition, in the context of poverty. Specifically, we examine what is known about the links between maternal depression and anxiety with the increased rates of overweight, nutritional deficiencies, food insecurity, and overall poorer health observed among low-income children. We then explore how maternal psychological distress may impact three parenting practices linked to these child health domains: (1) health-related parenting behaviors, such as monitoring the child's access to television; (2) parental feeding strategies, such as how long the mother breast-feeds; and (3) food-related coping strategies, such as the need to shop in a variety of stores for the best food bargains. We conclude with three key directions to advance our understanding of the pathway from maternal mental health to child outcomes.
Fatherhood and Fathering Among Low-Income and Minority Men
Authors: Gorman-Smith Deborah , Hunt Elizabeth Grisa , Robertson Dylan
Published: February 2013

In earlier empirical research and policies, fathering was often reduced to 2 aspects of father involvement, focused financial support and residence in the child's home, with these most often measured as simply absent or present. More recent theory and study suggest fathering should be considered multidimensionally, with the 2 broad constructs of involvement and parenting skills as major components. In this chapter we review the research on fathering, with a particular focus on minority men living in urban neighborhoods. We discuss data collected from a sample of approximately 300 young adult men who had taken part in the Chicago Youth Development Study (CYDS) beginning when these young men were between the ages of 11 and 13. Initial and descriptive results of this study are presented, along with findings from the larger body of research in this area.
The Dynamic of Poverty and Affluence in Child Adoption
Authors: Grotevant Harold D. , Grant-Marsney Holly A. , French Quade Y. S. , Musante Danila S. , Dolan Jen H.
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines connections among poverty, adoption, and child outcomes in (1) child welfare adoptions, (2) domestic private adoptions, and (3) international adoptions. We discuss ways in which poverty plays a central role in the movement of children from their birth families to adoptive families and argue that adoption is a powerful intervention in the lives of children whose development might have been at risk because of poverty. Because adoption involves a legal relationship, it must be considered within the national context in which the relevant laws and policies are situated. Therefore, this chapter focuses on adoption in the United States. Each of the three primary sections includes a brief overview and history of that type of adoption in the United States followed by a discussion of current policies linking poverty, adoption, and child outcomes. Implications for practice and policy are presented, and future directions for the field are suggested.
SES, Childhood Experience, and the Neural Bases of Cognition
Authors: Farah Martha J. , Hackman Daniel A.
Published: February 2013

Understanding how low childhood socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with lower cognitive and educational outcomes has the potential to reduce the intergenerational transmission of poverty, to level the societal playing field, and to enhance the world's human capital. This chapter provides a review of the literature on neurocognitive development and poverty, shedding light on the potential influences and causal relationships. We discuss our research, which offers a neuropsychological profile of children in poverty, and we conclude with a discussion of areas where more research is needed.
Extrafamilial Contexts and Children's Conduct Problems
Authors: Ingoldsby Erin M. , Shelleby Elizabeth , Lane Tonya , Shaw Daniel S.
Published: February 2013

As children transition to school, their environment rapidly expands and they spend increasing amounts of time in contexts outside of the family and home. This chapter reviews extant research on key factors that may facilitate or mitigate risk for child conduct problems in three extrafamilial contexts: school, after-school, and neighborhood. Evidence, albeit preliminary in some cases, consistently suggests that structural/organizational features, monitoring and supervision processes, and children's relationships with adults and peers in these settings are related to children's risk of conduct problems within and across these settings, with robust associations emerging for low-income children who experience multiple contextual risks. Future directions for research are raised, including the need for longitudinal and developmentally focused investigation of direct and interactive associations among contextual characteristics, parent involvement in these contexts, and individual and family factors in the prediction of children's conduct problems.
Homelessness and Child Outcomes
Authors: Park Jung Min
Published: February 2013

This chapter aims to extend our knowledge base of the relationship between homelessness and child outcomes in order to contribute to developing effective strategies to better serve children and families who are experiencing homelessness. This chapter first goes over who is defined as homeless, how many children and families are counted as homeless, how homelessness and poverty are intertwined, and what characteristics are common among homeless families and their children. This chapter then reviews the relation of homelessness to child outcomes, such as physical and mental health, out-of-home placement, parent-child interactions, cognitive development, and educational outcomes. Lastly, this chapter discusses directions for future research in this area, including the need for further investigation of the independent effect of homelessness on child outcomes, differential service needs among subgroups of homeless families, both risk and protective factors for child problems, and methodologically rigorous intervention studies for children who are homeless or at risk for homelessness.
Addressing the Consequences of Concentrated Adversity on Child and Adolescent Mental Health
Authors: Betancourt Theresa S. , Beardslee William R.
Published: February 2013

We concentrate on the psychosocial and developmental consequences of major life adversity on child and family mental health, with particular attention to regions affected by communal violence and regions affected by HIV/AIDS. In both of these contexts, there is an overlap of several forms of family adversity that commonly characterize large proportions of developing children and their caregivers. As opposed to a simplistic view of children in adversity which ascribes their long-term well-being as mainly linked to traumatic exposures or individual characteristics, a developmental and ecological lens is used to consider the many ways in which mental health and well-being are shaped by the interplay between individual, family, community, and societal factors. We conclude with a series of recommendations illustrating the interplay between building the evidence base, increasing political will to make change, and improving the implementation of high quality and sustainable services for children, youth, and families.
Everyday Distress: Psychosocial and Economic Impact of Forced Migration on Children and Families
Authors: Wessells Michael G. , Kostelny Kathleen
Published: February 2013

Worldwide, many children grow up in zones of political violence and armed conflict, where they are affected not only by acute, traumatic events but also by slower, ongoing distresses of everyday life. Everyday distresses often stem from economic and political problems and arise at levels such as individual, family, community, and societal levels. Among war-affected children, common sources of distress include inability to meet their basic needs and those of their families, family separation, family violence, lack of access to education, gender-based violence, stigmatization and lack of social acceptance, perceptions of spiritual contamination, community violence, refugee status, unemployment, and lack of positive life options. Although these distresses have significant psychosocial impact, many war-affected children demonstrate significant resilience due largely to protective factors in their social environments.
Firearm Violence
Authors: Cook Philip J. , Ludwig Jens
Published: February 2013

This article begins by characterizing the nature and scope of the gun violence problem, including a discussion of the potential benefit from use of guns in self-defense. The next section is devoted to a discussion of guns and it gives some basic facts on the patterns of private gun ownership and gun misuse. The article then discusses policies designed to discourage gun misuse directly by making guns a liability to criminals. Studies using a same basic research design have found evidence of some decline in gun use in crime. The article shows the importance of assessing the effects of overall rates of gun ownership within a community. The descriptive and analytical information summarized here opens the door to favorable consideration of a variety of other interventions.
Child Abuse
Authors: Malley-Morrison Kathleen , Hines Denise A.
Published: February 2013

This article summarizes current knowledge concerning child abuse in the United States. It discusses major approaches to assess the incidence and prevalence of child abuse, including the national family violence surveys (NFVS), national incidence studies (NIS), and national child abuse and neglect data system (NCANDS) surveys. It mentions the estimates of abuse rates provided by the different data sources, apparent changes in prevalence rates over time, and possible explanations of these changes. This article considers ethnic differences in rates of child abuse and data relating to these differences. It provides an overview of competing definitions of child abuse and the major theories for its occurrence. It concludes with the description of the criminal justice system's response to the problem and implications of research for public policy.
Cybercrime
Authors: McQuade III Samuel C.
Published: February 2013

This article begins by discussing cybercrime as an evolving technology-based crime construct. Cybercrime includes existing and emerging forms of criminality carried out with electronic IT devices and information systems. This is followed by examples and explanations of emerging IT-enabled abuse and crime and discussion of major types of cybercrime and categories of cyber offenders. This article reviews cyber offending and victimization on the basis of a limited number of available studies. It then discusses responses to cybercrime by numerous investigative, regulatory, and technical assistance entities. There is broad consensus that cybercrime threatens many institutional sectors and critical information infrastructure. Finally, the article concludes with suggestions for research and discussions of possibilities for mounting and sustaining coordinated research, evaluation, and prevention initiatives.
Drugs
Authors: Maccoun Robert J. , Martin Karin D.
Published: February 2013

This article sets out an analytical framework for thinking about drug use and abuse and about drug policy. It summarizes current knowledge about patterns of drug use and patterns of drug-related harm. It presents an overview of policy responses to drug abuse and trafficking, which includes interdiction and source-country programs, arrest and imprisonment, treatment, and prevention. This article discusses a range of programs and offers a number of proposals—centering on the need to investigate not only the prevalence of drug use but also quantities consumed and harms associated with both drug use and drug policy strategies—for increasing our understanding of current patterns of drug use and of effects of drug policy. It concludes with two trends that have the potential to challenge current cultural assumptions about drugs and drug control.
Crete
Authors: Schoep Ilse
Published: February 2013

This article suggests that the emergence of the “First” or “Old” Palaces is generally considered to be the main event of the Middle Bronze Age on Crete. These “palaces” are widely believed to have emerged in Middle Bronze Age in several places on Crete (Knossos, Malia, Phaistos, Petras). In the last couple of years it has become clear, however, that some of these structures have a much older biography and in fact go back to the Early Minoan period. The designation “palace” and its interpretation as the residence of a king, as with many of our ideas about Minoan society, go back to Arthur Evans. The traditional definitions of “palace” were created on the basis of a single palace and a single phase, and any variation in time, form, and scale were not taken into account, thereby generating confusion as to whether some buildings should be identified as palaces or not.
Mycenaean Religion
Authors: Lupack Susan
Published: February 2013

The evidence for the Mycenaean period is different from that for the Minoan in two important respects. First, in general the Mycenaean evidence is not as abundant as it is for the Minoan culture. In light of this, scholars can be dismissive of the evidence presented in this article, thereby giving the impression that not much can be said about Mycenaean religion. However, the body of archaeological material is now not as scanty as is often portrayed and positive information can be gleaned from the sites that have been discovered. When the archaeological evidence is combined with the information provided by the Linear B tablets, a fairly informative picture of Mycenaean religion results. Evidence for communal sacrificial rites has been found on the Kynortion hilltop above Epidauros. The types of bones and the associated pottery indicate that the sacrifices were probably followed by communal feasts.
Death and Burial
Authors: Mee Christopher
Published: February 2013

Funeral practices were already well developed before the start of the Neolithic period. As the population increased with the growth of settlements, one would expect more graves. However, the number of excavated Neolithic burials can be counted in the hundreds, whereas tens of thousands of people lived and died in Greece between 7000 and 3000 bc. Intramural burial within settlements was not common for adults. Most of the cases that have been recorded were infants or young children. The situation is different in caves that were occupied at this time, such as Franchthi and Alepotrypa in Laconia. The remains of adults and children have been found at both of these sites, but few of the skeletons were articulated. Although some may have been disturbed, it is clear that secondary burial was a regular practice. Although Neolithic cremations have been found at a number of other sites, inhumation was probably the most common practice.
Textiles
Authors: Burke Brendan
Published: February 2013

Spinning fibers and weaving garments predates by thousands of years nearly every other known craft or technology, including freestanding architecture, metallurgy, and ceramics. Unlike contemporary Egypt, scant traces of cloth from the Aegean Bronze Age survive, yet by using multidisciplinary approaches, including visual culture, textual sources, and tools of production, it is possible to understand cloth manufacture, distribution, and consumption. In this article, the tools of cloth production are contextualized within their economic, political, and social realms and thereby show that this was one of the most important economic activities of the Bronze Age Aegean. Within the Minoan and Mycenaean spheres, many craft activities, including the many phases of textile production, were controlled by elites in order to maintain and finance social, religious, and military institutions.
Kato Zakros
Authors: Platon Lefteris
Published: February 2013

Zakros was known as an archaeological site from the reports of nineteenth-century travelers T. Spratt and L. Mariani. Nevertheless, its significance was first understood by Sir Arthur Evans, who visited it during his travels across the island in 1894. Evans pushed David Hogarth, at that time director of the British School at Athens, to investigate the site by excavation. The site lies at the southeastern end of Crete, south of Palaikastro, where another important Minoan settlement is located. Sixty years later, in 1961, Nikolaos Platon, Ephor of Cretan Antiquities at the time, started a trial trench in the gulf of “Kato Zakros,” as the site is now known. Zakros, the ancient—probably prehistoric—name today has been transferred inland to the nearest, probably nineteenth-century, village.
Kommos
Authors: Shaw Joseph , Shaw Maria
Published: February 2013

Kommos was lightly settled as early as the Late Neolithic/Early Minoan period, especially on the sloping side of the small southernmost hills known as Tou Spanou Ta Kephalia. Like most Minoan sites, Kommos was mainly an agricultural community, with its inhabitants sustained by farming and herding but also by the sea. In about 1020 bc, locals established a small temple upon the Minoan ruins. With this broad review in mind, this article turns to specific aspects relating to the town: its topography, the architecture of the houses, and the activities as implied both by architectural features and finds. With regard to town planning, the article talks about one main road that ran north to south, which it nicknamed the Rampa dal Mare.
Malia
Authors: Driessen Jan
Published: February 2013

The ancient name of the site of Malia is still unknown. Some suggestions have included setoija and Milatos, a place name assumed to have later moved eastward. Located in a fertile, terra rossa coastal valley a few hours by foot from the main Minoan site of Knossos and majestically encircled by the Selena mountains, Malia is a type site for Minoan archaeology for several reasons. Not only was it abandoned at the end of the Bronze Age and hence its ruins were less affected by later occupation, but it has also been more thoroughly excavated and documented than other Cretan sites. Its main contribution to Minoan archaeology concerns its Middle Bronze Age remains, which are exceptionally rich and well preserved. The site was discovered in 1915 by S. Xanthoudides, who, after making the discovery, grasped the size of the operation and invited the French School at Athens to continue his work from 1920 onward.
Phaistos
Authors: La Rosa Vincenzo
Published: February 2013

Phaistos, identified by Captain T. Spratt in 1851–1853 and known then as Kastri, was systematically investigated by an Italian mission from June 1900 to 1909. Investigations were resumed from 1928 to 1932, during which time small soundings were conducted in order to verify the stratigraphy encountered, and a number of restoration and consolidation works were conducted that were concluded in 1936. The site is located in a readily visible position in the Mesara plain, which is crossed by the Ieropatomos River and bordered by Mount Ida to the north and the Asterousia mountain chain to the south. The earliest sign of frequentation dates back to the Final Neolithic period and is contemporary with the most recent of the ten levels identified in the test pits opened beneath the palace at Knossos.
Tiryns
Authors: Maran Joseph
Published: February 2013

Tiryns is the one closest to the sea of all of the palatial centers in Mycenae. This fact, together with the strong archaeological indications for its participation in long-distance exchange, underlines the site's importance as a major Mediterranean harbor during the Bronze Age. Geoarchaeological research by Eberhard Zangger points to significant changes of the distance from the site to the coast during the Holocene. In Mycenaean times, the shoreline had moved outward due to massive sedimentation as a consequence of soil erosion, reaching a position approximately half as far as the current modern coast. In the late 1950s, restoration works under the direction of Nikolaos Verdelis revealed the underground cisterns in the Lower Citadel and thereby initiated the resumption of fieldwork by the German Archaeological Institute. These excavations extended the focus to areas that had been neglected until then, namely the Lower Citadel and the Lower Town.
Egypt
Authors: Phillips Jacke
Published: February 2013

Ancient Egypt essentially encompassed some 1,180 kilometers of the Nile Valley where the river fans out into multiple branches and ultimately reaches the Mediterranean Sea. The ancient Egyptians themselves viewed their homeland as the “Two Lands,” Upper (southern, riverine) and Lower (northern, Delta) Egypt, unified by a king traditionally named Meni and over which his successors ruled for nearly three millennia. Bronze Age Egyptian history after this unification and its succeeding Early Dynastic period is divided into the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, periods of centralized royal authority, separated by numbered “Intermediate Periods,” when instability and loss of this authority divided Egypt into multiple smaller political units, some even ruled by foreigners. Despite these interruptions, the concept of Egypt as one unified “Two Lands” remained unshakeable and all pervasive to the ancient Egyptians themselves.
GOAT vowel variants in the Diachronic Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English (DECTE)
Authors: Corrigan Karen P.
Published: February 2013

The Diachronic Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English (DECTE) is the product of two earlier corpora: the Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English (NECTE) and a monitor sub-corpus, the Newcastle Electronic Corpus of Tyneside English 2 (NECTE2). Both corpora record synchronic generational differences as well as diachronic communal change in North-East England. Researchers on NECTE transformed sound-data collected in the 1960s–1970s and in 1991–1994 into an electronic resource that conformed to the latest standards for encoding text. DECTE is a constituent element in a collaborative programme called the “Enhanced Repository for Language and Literature Researchers” (ENROLLER), completed in 2011 and linking it to documents such as the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the Historical Thesaurus of the OED, and the SCOTS Corpus. This article explores how DECTE and its constituents capture both residualisms from earlier periods of English as well as local innovations. It focuses on variants of the GOAT vowel, which is of interest not only for the historical phonology of the English language but also with respect to regional and social variation in Modern English.
Analyzing the ONZE data as evidence for sound change
Authors: Hay Jennifer
Published: February 2013

Launched in 1989, when Elizabeth Gordon became aware of the existence of a set of recordings of early New Zealand English, the Origins of New Zealand English Project (ONZE) provides a unique opportunity to investigate sound change. These “Mobile Unit” (MU) recordings were made in the 1940s for radio broadcast, and included reminiscences from speakers born as early as the 1850s. The recordings are significant because they date to the first stages of large-scale immigration to New Zealand from the British Isles, representing the first generation of English speakers born in New Zealand. These recordings, which are in the possession of the University of Canterbury, form the core of the ONZE project. Interviews with more than 100 of these early speakers have now been compiled, digitized, transcribed, time-aligned, and then automatically segmented at the phoneme level. The Mobile Unit recordings have been a valuable tool for testing theories of the formation of new dialects.
Variability-based neighbor clustering: A bottom-up approach to periodization in historical linguistics
Authors: Gries Stefan Th. , Hilpert Martin
Published: February 2013

One of the linguistic sub-disciplines that has benefited most from corpora is historical linguistics, and many new diachronic resources have become available especially during the last ten to fifteen years. However, the longitudinal nature and the more constrained sampling of diachronic corpora present a number of challenges for historical linguists. One central problem that has received little attention is the periodization of a linguistic phenomenon P; that is, how the development of P over time can be divided into periods or stages. Because neither the year-by-year development of P nor the pre-defined historical periods distinguished by corpus compilers may be particularly meaningful or revealing for P, a bottom-up approach might be more appropriate for determining the stages of P’s development. However, this is difficult to accomplish using existing methods. This article describes a new clustering method, “Variability-based Neighbor Clustering” (VNC), to identify periods in the historical development of P that accounts for the temporal ordering of the data.
The commodification of language: English as a global commodity
Authors: Cameron Deborah
Published: February 2013

When languages are called “commodities,” it suggests the existence of a market or markets in which languages and language varieties, like other tradable commodities, have an economic exchange value. The concept of a “linguistic market” is not a new idea; linguists can trace it to the work of Pierre Bourdieu. This article focuses on the transnational or global linguistic market in which English is a highly-valued commodity. One area of activity in which languages have long been treated as commercial commodities is foreign language instruction; English has been commodified by the modern English Language Teaching industry. However, this is only one of the possible forms of language commodification. This article considers some other forms which are associated with recent processes of economic globalization, and how an analysis of them may contribute to rethinking the history of the English language. English has played, and is expected to continue to play for some time, a significant role in the new forms of capitalism which have emerged in the global era.
Democratization
Authors: Farrelly Michael , Seoane Elena
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the “democratization” of discourse in the history of the English language. An important aspect of rethinking the study of the history of English, in terms of democratization, is the relationship between the democratization of language and the wider democratization of social life and of politics. This article first considers the duality in the way language and discourse can be understood in the context of socio-cultural processes: people alter their use of language in response to social change and people influence social change through their use of language. Through a greater recognition of both sides of the language/socio-cultural change duality, historical linguists could come to a richer account of democratization. The article summarizes work that has addressed the first half of the duality: democratization understood as a discourse-pragmatic process present in the evolution of English as a response to social change and which is different from colloquialization and informalization. It then suggests areas in which study of the democratization of discourse could engage with work on the study of wider social and political democratization.
Attitudes, prescriptivism, and standardization
Authors: Percy Carol
Published: February 2013

The prescriptive dictum that some linguistic variants are superior to others has strong roots in the eighteenth-century grammatical tradition. Synthesizing contemporary research on prescriptivism, this chapter uses the grammarian Robert Lowth as a lens for reinvestigating its linguistic and social dynamics. Eventually elevated to a bishopric, Lowth is popularly stereotyped as imposing latinate rules on English usage. Yet recent corpus-based studies suggest that prescriptive rules sometimes reflected rather than triggered standardization of such variants as adjective comparison, negative concord, preposition placement, and the subjunctive. Such studies also confirm that when tracking prescriptive traditions we need to consider media other than grammars and codifiers earlier than Lowth, such as James Greenwood. Indeed, linguistic variation in a corpus of Lowth’s own correspondence reminds us of the social distinctions and dynamics that can be correlated with prescriptivism. Though many professional linguists have traditionally dismissed prescriptivism, others are redirecting this attention into research and public outreach.
Assessing the role of contact in the history of English
Authors: Hickey Raymond
Published: February 2013

Language contact has long been the subject of extensive research in linguistics, but has recently been the object of increased attention by scholars working on both the history of English and varieties of English worldwide. Most language contact studies that have appeared in recent years rely on databases that differ from those typically used in histories of the English language. Assuming that code-switching refers to instances where bilingual speakers alternate between codes within the same speech event, this process can be hypothesized to be the source of borrowing when the code-switching occurs repeatedly with the same lexical items or sentence structures such that these are no longer felt to be foreign in the receiving code. Both the degree of bilingualism necessary for code-switching and the number of individuals who engage in code-switching are a matter of debate. This article discusses language contact, language ecology, and grammaticalization.
Early English and the Celtic hypothesis
Authors: Hickey Raymond
Published: February 2013

This article examines Celtic influence on early Old English, an issue that has recently been debated in detail, and re-examines arguments presented in studies of language contact and change. Scholars argue that Brythonic, the language spoken in England by the Celts at the time of the Germanic invasions, had a significant effect on the development of English. This is known as the Celtic hypothesis. The standard wisdom on contact and transfer has been based on the notion that the language with more status influences that with less. In other words, borrowing is from the superstrate into the substrate, as seen with Latin and French borrowings into English. However, this is a simplistic view of possible influence in a contact scenario. Vocabulary, as an open class with a high degree of awareness by speakers, is the primary source of borrowing from the superstrate. However, borrowing from closed classes in language, chiefly phonology and syntax, often characterises influence of a substrate on a superstrate. A number of key phenomena are considered in this light and reassessed in terms of possible origin.
Language contact and linguistic attitudes in the Later Middle Ages
Authors: Machan Tim William
Published: February 2013

Thinking and talking about language contact in the abstract, especially in the case of the Middle Ages, offers limited evidence. Although large sociolinguistic generalizations have the potential to influence speakers in individual interactions, such generalizations are produced by specific domains that are often bypassed in conventional histories of the language. For the English later Middle Ages, these domains included the domestic, the social, and the political. Throughout the period, merchants introduced goods and services from across Western Europe, bringing with them, particularly to port cities and major trading centers, their languages. Within the context of late-medieval England’s diglossia, English, Latin, and French all helped maintain stable social institutions and point to little inter-language conflict. Beginning with the Norman Conquest, English politics was likewise a stable multilingual matter, involving Latin, Italian, Dutch, and (especially) French.
Pidgins and creoles in the history of English
Authors: Winford Donald
Published: February 2013

English colonial expansion and pursuit of trade during the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries gave rise to a wide array of colonial Englishes, among them the pidgin and creole varieties that arose in the plantation colonies of the Atlantic and Pacific. This article examines the processes of change that produced these pidgins and creoles, and what they imply for the place of these languages in the history of English, and for their genetic relationship to their lexifier language. It argues that the processes of change that led both pidgins and creoles were not that different from those which have affected most languages, including English, at one time or another. Such changes include simplification, admixture, and both internally and externally-motivated grammaticalization. Since pidgins and creoles only carry further the same tendencies that have operated in the history of English and other languages, it seems odd to deny them status as continuations of their lexifiers, while granting such status to other colonial Englishes.
Lexical typology and typological changes in the English lexicon
Authors: Haselow Alexander
Published: February 2013

Whereas the typological change of the English language from syntheticity towards analyticity has been described almost exclusively for the inflectional domain, little attention has been paid to the developments in derivation. Focusing on the changes in inflection, however, ignores the fact that this change was embedded in more general trends which also affected the derivational component of English and thus the lexicon. This article describes an alternative perspective on the change of English’s typological profile by analyzing three major changes (one quantitative and two qualitative ones) that occurred in the English lexicon: changes in the frequency of use of bound morphemes (affixes) employed for the indication of lexical categories; changes in the morphological status of lexical bases and thus in the structure of “words”; changes in how a language packages semantic material into words, that is, in the internal semantic structure of words (conflation).
Grammaticalization in nonstandard varieties of English and English-based pidgins and creoles
Authors: Schneider Agnes
Published: February 2013

There are many different varieties of the English language all over the world, but it is not clear which of the grammatical properties displayed by these different varieties are innovations and which are directly related to and/or probably descended from English (in the British Isles). This question has been a major challenge for linguists, particularly in the areas of contact linguistics, creolist studies and English dialect studies (for example, of the Celtic Englishes). This article investigates morphosyntactic variation in varieties of English from the perspective of grammaticalization in non-standard varieties of English and English-based pidgins and creoles. It focuses on grammaticalization phenomena found in the domain of the noun phrase, an area of English grammar which has received less attention in the typological and dialectological literature on grammaticalization. The article discusses the distinction between varioversals, angloversals, and areoversals.
Continua and clines in the development of New Englishes
Authors: Sharma Devyani , Wiltshire Caroline R.
Published: February 2013

Research on language change has revealed a number of systematic clines along which changes seem to progress. Monolingual, native dialects of English generally involve established norms of use, and so change often takes the form of gradual, incremental shifts along such clines. By contrast, New Englishes (varieties of English spoken in regions where English is neither indigenous nor predominantly native for its speakers) often have fewer established norms, and so change can take place more radically and rapidly. Influenced by the grammars of their native languages as well as by universal cognitive principles, second language (L2) speakers receiving limited native English input may generate similar reanalyses or regularizations. This article assesses the behavior and claimed universality of structural continua and cycles in English within bilingual, postcolonial settings. The discussion examines universal markedness gradients in phonetics, syntax, and semantics, as well as grammaticalization clines.
The loss of local anchoring: From adverbial local anchors to permissive subjects
Authors: Los Bettelou , Dreschler Gea
Published: February 2013

Until about the fifteenth century, main clause word order in English was to a large extent subject to the verb-second (V2) constraint; this order was achieved by (i) movement of the finite verb into second position and (ii) topicalization of a constituent from the clause into first position. The loss of V2 syntax led to a change in the function of first constituent adverbial phrases, which had mostly been used as local anchors in Old English, i.e. links to the immediately preceding discourse. In Early Modern English, the system of local anchoring by adverbials was largely lost; links to the previous discourse came to be expressed primarily by the subject. This added to the functional load of the subject, and led to subjects being able to encode a wider range of semantic roles. The emergence of such "permissive” subjects in PDE, then, developed as a response to the loss of V2.
Community Music Therapy
Authors: Aigen Kenneth
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview of community music therapy (CoMT). The discussions cover the origins and foundations of CoMT; the spectrum of CoMT practice; music therapy outside of a closed therapy room; performing with clients; conceiving of a community as the client; and broadening the scope of legitimate therapy goals.
An International Perspective on Music Education for Adults
Authors: Drummond John
Published: February 2013

This article examines why and when adults participate in music learning experiences, and what, where, and how they study. Music learning in group settings helps adults attain a high level of personal well-being, both physically and psychologically, as a result of interaction with the music and the social interactions involved. Adults learn music for the same reasons that anyone learns music: to learn more about themselves, and to develop their sense of identity in a familiar or unfamiliar community setting.
Communal Creativity as Sociomusical Practice
Authors: Lapidaki Eleni , Groot Rokus de , Stagkos Petros
Published: February 2013

This article demonstrates the importance of communal music creativity in music education. The first part reviews the theoretical framework surrounding the relationship between practical socialization and creativity. The second part discusses music creativity as socio-musical practice. The third part describes the creativity-based project C.A.L.M. (Community Action in Learning Music), which aims to help students enrich their experiential learning through the development of musical practices that take place in, and through, the intersection of the musical worlds of the university and the school.
Creativity in Partnership Practices
Authors: Colley Bernadette D. , Eidsaa Randi Margrethe , Kenny Ailbhe , Leung Bo Wah
Published: February 2013

Collaborative partnership is becoming an increasingly popular instructional method in arts education. This article examines the relationship between policy agendas and creativity in music education partnerships. It presents four cases from Ireland, Hong Kong, Norway, and the United States. When viewed as a policy option, partnerships—despite their varying missions, structures, participants, forms, processes, and functions—share the key component of commitment to creativity.
Commentary: Music Learning and Teaching through Technology
Authors: Himonides Evangelos
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of Section 5 of the Oxford Handbook of Music Education, Volume 2. The section commences a critical but also constructive discourse about the role of “any” technology within the broader fields of music and education. The contributors have chosen different perspectives and foci in instigating this discourse, all of them diverse but, arguably, all celebrating how essential technology is (or should be) in our music infused modus vivendi.
Music Therapy in Schools: An Expansion of Traditional Practice
Authors: McFerran Katrina
Published: February 2013

This article examines the role of music therapy in schools. One important aspect is the relationship between music teachers and music therapists. In some schools the availability of both professionals results in a great deal of overlap (i.e., the intuitive and empathic music teacher and the skills oriented music therapist), while in others the combination results in two distinct possibilities for engaging with music.
There is Nothing Complex about a Correlation Coefficient
Authors: Webster Peter R.
Published: February 2013

This article suggests the music teacher educators have failed their students over the years by not doing more to teach them about systematic inquiry. Professional curiosity has not been encouraged in novice teachers. It suggests that weaving the research mindset into music education instruction could have made a difference in the way research impacts on practice today.