bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
TIMOR GAP ZONE OF CO-OPERATION TREATY: TAXATION ISSUES ARISING FROM THE CONDUCT OF PETROLEUM OPERATIONS IN AREA A
Authors: Williamson Max
Published: August 2017

It is commendable that our governments have reached agreement on the delicate and difficult issues which are the subject of the Treaty and have provided a leading example of international co-operation. Nonetheless, whilst oil industry participants may be pleased at this major development and encouragement to future exploration for oil reserves, many practical issues still need resolution during the legislative stage of 'bedding down' the Treaty initiatives.Other authors have reviewed the legal and operating regimes of the Timor Gap Zone of Co-operation Treaty.This paper is therefore only concerned with a review of the taxation implications which are likely to arise for those petroleum explorers and potential producers who will hold contracts to explore for and produce petroleum in Area A, and an identification of questions on tax issues which require resolution at an industry and government level. Needless to say not all issues are recognizable at this stage and thus some time will elapse before it is possible to be totally comfortable with the taxation arrangements in a technical sense.This review is accomplished by generally overviewing the Zone of Co-operation Treaty. The reader is then introduced to concepts of the Australian and Indonesian petroleum tax regimes, with explanation as to how those concepts will apply once overlaid by the Taxation Code for Avoidance of Double Taxation. This review raises various tax issues and questions which require resolution during the legislative phase. Perhaps industry will take up some of the questions raised so that when legislation is enacted to incorporate the Taxation Code into Australian tax law, the majority of issues will have been settled.
CONSERVATION, DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTALISM: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND FUTURE IMPERATIVES
Authors: Purcell P.G.
Published: August 2017

Throughout history the city and the wilderness have been both idea and environment for urban man. The conflict between them is expressed in the earliest mythology and manifest today in the conservation versus development debate. The conflict is misdirected: conservation and development are interdependent. They are the same process on different time scales: the sustainance and security of life on earth. Their reconciliation is proposed in the concept of sustainable development.The widespread concern about the environment in the industrialised, developed societies today combines scientific and emotional components. The scientific component is a new and valuable appreciation of, and commitment to, the global ecology. The emotional component is more an anti-technology mood, an historically cyclic phenomenon of complex origins. Modern environmentalism is a complex amalgamation of those environmental concerns with wide ranging socio-economic and political reforms. Those reforms frequently involve the concept of no-growth or very limited economic growth, especially in Western industrial society, and derive from a pessimistic world view historically common among intellectuals. It is environmentalism, not conservationism, which is in conflict with the concept of development.A successful petroleum industry is vital to Australia's future security and welfare. The main threat to the industry comes from environmentalism, and the confusing myriad of legislation and regulation it has sponsored. Of particular significance is the policy of excluding exploration from conservation areas, rather than adopting a multiple and sequential land use approach. The single-usage approach to land management is inefficient balancing of resources and, correspondingly, is poor conservation practice. Multiple land use is a fundamental tenet of the sustainable development and the National Conservation Strategy of Australia.APEA, and business and industry generally, must improve communications with the public. The significance of primary resources in the daily life and national economy must be retaught. Industry must play a leading role in defining and implementing sustainable development, and in championing the concept. The concept will be attacked and manipulated by no-growth environmentalists, but they must not be allowed to prevail.Sustainable development offers the present generations the chance to reconcile conservation and development. That reconciliation is an imperative for the future.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR MAJOR TERMINALS AND SENSITIVE AREAS
Authors: Jones C. , Hartley J. P.
Published: August 2017

The BP Exploration approach to oil spill control can be summed up as prevention and preparedness. In all cases our primary objective is to prevent oil spills occurring. However despite careful attention to plant design, staff training, auditing etc., oil may sometimes be spilled.For any operation, effective oil spill ontingency planning depends on having a sound understanding of the local ecological and environmental sensitivities, physical conditions and the nature, size and risks of potential spills. This information allows the definition of response strategy and appropriate resource levels (equipment and personnel). However the mere provision of resources is insufficient; equipment maintenance, staff training, oil spill exercises (planned and unannounced), agreement of responsibilities with external authorities and periodic reviews are regarded as essential to ensure adequacy of response.The implementation of these principles is demonstrated using the development and continued evolution of the oil spill plan for Sullom Voe, a major North Sea oil terminal handling ca 1 million barrels of crude per day. Changes have been made to the plan to take account of technological advances and the lessons learned from actual spills in Sullom Voe, Port Valdez and elsewhere.Oil spill contingency arrangements for onshore and nearshore exploration drilling are also considered, illustrated with recent English (on and offshore Wytch Farm) and Scottish west coast examples. The principles adopted for spill planning at oil terminals have been found to apply equally to E & P operations in sensitive areas.The paper concludes with a brief comparison of the relative costs of efforts to prevent spills with the costs of spill cleanup and damages.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW TREATMENT FACILITIES FOR WASTEWATER AT ESSO LONG ISLAND POINT TERMINAL, WESTERN PORT VICTORIA
Authors: Birch C. , Gibbs G. , Palmer D. , Tait R. , Terrens G.
Published: August 2017

Occasional high loadings of ethylene glycol have caused problems for Esso in meeting an existing Environment Protection Authority (EPA) licence condition for total organic carbon (TOC) in a discharge of waste water to Western Port. The main constituent of the waste stream was crude tank water (CTW) which is mainly residual formation water that separates in oil tanks at Long Island Point terminal. Discussions and co-operation between Esso, the EPA and government laboratories has led to the development of a new water treatment process and a revised licence. The process and licence are both oriented to minimising the toxicity of the effluent, rather than to meeting traditional chemical criteria alone.The median lethal concentration (LC30) and chemical characteristics of CTW were determined before and after modification of the effluent by a range of laboratory treatments. The test organism for toxicity was the marine gammarid amphipod Allorchestes compressa. This combination of toxicological and chemical testing showed that the toxicity of CTW to marine organisms was largely due to volatile and oxidisable components, particularly sulphide and lower aromatic hydrocarbons. This suggests that aeration was likely to be the most cost-effective treatment to achieve acceptable toxicity levels for the final effluent.Testing of CTW passed through a pilot air stripping plant (again for toxicity and chemical content) confirmed the effectiveness of the process in reducing toxicity. A full scale plant was constructed and is operating satisfactorily. The water after treatment is led to the existing diffuser in Western Port. The volatile toxic chemicals are destroyed in an existing acid gas incinerator operating under an air discharge licence.
IN PURSUIT OF A DREAM — SOME ACHIEVEMENTS, FAILURES, HOPES AND DISAPPOINTMENTS IN AUSTRALIA'S UPSTREAM PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
Authors: Wilkinson Rick
Published: August 2017

Historically, Australia's oil explorers have been dreamers. They have endured numerous setbacks along the road to eventual vindication of their beliefs. Some problems stemmed from outright shysters, others from well-intentioned but misguided meddlers, and some from professional disbelievers who felt the country was too old to contain oil. Public subscriptions and sympathy were lost by chasing sprites like marsh gas and coorongite (recent algal matter) and putting faith in diviners.Through it all there has been a parade of 'hit and miss' explorers who left a lot of information in the ground, but who at least had the determination to try.Like so much in Australia it took a national crisis to bring support in the form of government subsidies for exploration. Despite faults, the schemes encouraged activity and included the pioneering scientific work of the Bureau of Mineral Resources. The advent of war also brought with it technology to strengthen the search.Then came the long-awaited success, public support and a welding of small explorers to oil majors. There was also the start of productive dissemination of information and ideas through organisations like APEA and PESA.But when discovery rates declined again, disbelievers returned and many explorers now have taken their eyes off the goal. They are content to shuffle permits instead of drilling wells and have returned to diversions like poor prospectivity and attacks on taxation on which to blame their declining activity.Only a few see that the course for Australia's oil future is to blend modern technology with the determination of the pioneers and recapture the dream of old.
FLANK PLAYS AND FAULTED BASEMENT: NEW DIRECTIONS FOR THE COOPER BASIN
Authors: Taylor S. , Solomon G. , Tupper N. , Evanochko J. , Horton G. , Waldeck R. , Phillips S.
Published: August 2017

The Moomba and Big Lake Gas Field area has been actively explored for 25 years. However, recent drilling and field studies have identified new reservoir objectives for appraisal of established fields and for exploration in wildcat areas. Cooper Basin reserves have been increased and further additions are likely. Integration of drilling, production and pressure data for the Moomba and Big Lake Fields has resulted in the discovery of a structural-stratigraphic trap on the south-west flank of the Moomba Dome. Moomba-65 flowed gas at 9.8 MMCFD (0.27 Mm3/d) from deltaic sandstone of the Epsilon Formation (Early Permian). Similar plays are likely to be found on the flanks of other Cooper Basin fields and will become increasingly important as opportunities for conventional crestal tests of anticlines diminish.Exploration to the south-west of the Moomba Field has established the first significant gas flows from rocks beneath the conventional reservoirs of the Cooper Basin. Lycosa-1 drilled a faulted anticline and achieved a maximum gas flow of 5.0 MMCFD (0.14 Mm3/d) from fractured metasiltstone of the Dullingari Group (Ordovician). Moo- lalla-1 drilled a low-side fault terrace and flowed gas at 9.6 MMCFD (0.27 Mm3/d) from 'protoquartzite' tentatively assigned to the Dullingari Group. Consequently, structures where 'basement' reservoirs are faulted against mature Patchawarra Formation source rocks are attractive exploration targets.Petrological studies have identified 'glauconitic illite' in the Cooper Basin sequence suggesting hitherto unrecognised marine conditions. A reassessment of the source and reservoir potential of the region will be necessary if the presence of marine environments is substantiated by further studies.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN EXPLORATION FOR OIL IN TASMANIA
Authors: Bendall M.R. , Volkman J.K. , Leaman D.E. , Burrett C.F.
Published: August 2017

Recent work on oil seeps, organic geochemistry, geophysics, structural geology and palaeontology suggests that there is considerable potential for onshore petroleum in Tasmania.Archival research has shown that hydrocarbon seeps were commonly reported in the first half of this century and that wildcats produced gas (at Port Sorell in the north) and oil (at Johnson's Well on Bruny Island, in the south). Almost all of the 270 historical hydrocarbon occurrences lie on lineaments revealed independently by gravity and magnetic surveys. The thermal maturity of conodonts from Ordovician and Siluro-Devonian carbonates suggests that much of the pre-Upper Carboniferous beneath the Tabberabberan unconformity is within the oil and gas windows.Organic geochemistry reveals a very close similarity between hydrocarbons from Ordovician limestones, those from the drill site at Bruny Island and with tar samples from the Tasmanian coast, but little similarity with the Permian Tasmanite Oil Shale, or with the Gippsland crudes and botryococcane-rich South Australian bitumens. The predominance of C27 steranes in Tasmanian bitumens suggests a widespread algal source and the abundant diasteranes imply a clay or silt-rich source that extends across much of Tasmania.Recent geophysical and structural work suggests that a thin skinned interpretation of Tasmania's structure is reasonable. Most sightings of hydrocarbons are associated with either faults or fractures which have post-Jurassic displacements or with intersections of major high angle faults with thrusts. The delineation of reservoirs within the thrust sheets is a priority.
STRATIGRAPHIC MODELLING OF THE GIPPSLAND BASIN
Authors: tone P. Feathers , Aigner T. , Brown L. , King M. , Leu W.
Published: August 2017

The Gippsland Basin is an asymmetric graben which initially formed during the break-up of Australia and Antarctica in the Early Cretaceous. During continental rifting the basin was filled by volcano-clastics of the Strzelecki Group. The overlying alluvial sediments of the Golden Beach Group represent a second phase of rift fill associated with the Tasman Sea rift. Following continental break-up in the Campanian, the Latrobe Group was deposited as a transgressive sequence of marine and coastal plain sediments. Thermal subsidence from the Oligocene to Recent was accompanied by the deposition of marine marls and limestones of the Lakes Entrance Formation and Gippsland Limestone.A north-south cross-section through the basin, based on regional seismic data and nine exploration wells, has been used to study the tectonic, thermal and basin-fill history. A detailed basin subsidence history based on a crustal rifting model was constructed, constrained by stratigraphic data and palaeo-water depth estimates at well locations. The history of sedimentation was then modelled by a Shell proprietary package, using the subsidence history and published eustatic sea level variations. This numerical model is based on a forward time-stepping scheme using semi-empirical algorithms to define the facies deposited. The gross basin architecture of the Gippsland Basin is successfully reproduced by the model. In addition the model details the timing and extent of marine incursions in the Golden Beach Group and the eustatic control on facies patterns in the Latrobe Group.The method has potential for predicting the sedimentary facies in undrilled parts of the Gippsland Basin and in frontier areas in general.
A NEW MODEL FOR THE MID-CRETACEOUS STRUCTURAL HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN GIPPSLAND BASIN
Authors: Lowry D.C. , Longley I.M.
Published: August 2017

The tectonic history of the northern flank of the offshore Gippsland Basin can be divided into three phases:an Early Cretaceous rift phase (120-98 Ma) with deposition of the Strzelecki Group and extension in a northeast-southwest direction.a mid-Cretaceous phase (98-80 Ma) with deposition of the Golden Beach Group and extension in a northwest- southeast direction anda Late Cretaceous to Tertiary sag phase with intermittent compression or wrenching.Previous workers have described the first and third phases. This paper argues for a distinctive second phase with extension at right angles to the first phase. The complex Cretaceous structure in the Kipper-Hammerhead area is interpreted in terms of a model in which transfer faults of the first phase became domino faults of the second phase.
DISCOVERY OF SALT IN THE VULCAN GRABEN: A GEOPHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL EVALUATION
Authors: Smith P.M. , Sutherland N.D.
Published: August 2017

The Paqualin-1 well in Permit AC/P2, Timor Sea, was drilled to test a large structural closure against the flank of an interpreted piercement structure located in the Late Jurassic Paqualin Graben. Prior to drilling the well interpretation of geological, seismic, gravity and magnetic data supported both a salt diapiric and/or an igneous intrusive structural model for the origin of the piercement feature. On drilling the Paqualin-1 well in December 1988, a 627 m thick evaporitic sequence was encountered in the post-rift Tertiary sequence indicating that the well had penetrated a salt overhang close to the main diapiric stock.The age of the evaporitic sequence is unclear but is considered coeval with Palaeozoic salt diapirs in the Bonaparte Basin to the east. Growth of the Paqualin diapir and a similar feature to the south, the Swan structure, which is also interpreted to be a salt diapir, appears to have been triggered initially by the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous breakup of the Australian north-west continental margin (doming and pillowing), and then again by a second major tectonic event in the Late Miocene associated with the collision between the Australian and Eurasian plates (diapir- ism and collapse structures).A distinctive cap rock occurs at the top of the evaporitic sequence characterised by an unusual accessory suite of primary and secondary minerals including euhedral magnetite, bipyramidal quartz, biotite, chlorite, sphene, amphibole and feldspar. The high magnetite component is considered responsible for the positive magnetic anomaly observed prior to drilling. The presence of magnetite and the other minerals in the cap rock appears to be related to the presence of exotic igneous material incorporated in the salt stock and the restricted activity of sulphate reducing bacteria in the crest of the diapir.The discovery of the Paqualin salt diapir and the interpretation of a similar structure in the adjacent Swan Graben has lead to the recognition of new play types related to the diapirs.
THE POTENTIAL OF THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) IN PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
Authors: Mack Giles , Daly Peter
Published: August 2017

The exploitation of offshore hydrocarbon reserves needs consistent high accuracy positioning in many applications throughout all operational stages from exploration to development and subsequent field maintenance.Traditionally, this requirement has been met by a variety of terrestrial electronic position-fixing aids all of which have advantages and disadvantages in relation to different offshore tasks. Now satellite systems are being developed which will have a major impact on offshore positioning and the most important of these is the American NavStar Global Positioning System (GPS).In GPS the marine navigator and surveyor at last has a system that potentially can give him a truly global 24-hour real-time high-accuracy system which will meet or assist with many of his requirements for positioning.However, great care must be exercised in the use of this military system over which the civil user has no direct control. In addition, errors in the system, some inherent and some deliberately applied, must be monitored and if possible corrected. Consequently, significant civil user infrastructure must surround the application of GPS for offshore work in order to achieve the high-quality accurate service demanded.This paper discusses the current and future performance of GPS and looks at the sources of error, with particular attention to the deliberately applied Selective Availability, arguing the need for a robust, monitored, differential environment, but noting the problems of providing a dependable data link.
HORIZONTAL DRILLING IN AUSTRALIA: THREE CASE HISTORIES
Authors: McNicoll Russell
Published: August 2017

Three horizontal wells with horizontal sections of up to 331 m were drilled successfully during the development of the marginal North Herald and South Pepper oil and gas fields, which have relatively thin oil columns (6 to 12 m) at a depth of some 1200 m sub-sea. A steerable motor system was used to maintain directional control within the design parameters. This system proved to be successful from the start and no major changes to the bottom hole assembly design were required to drill all the wells. Average drilling time including running and setting the seven inch liner amounted to 12 days. The wells were tested with rates up to 7500 BOPD through a one inch choke.
COAL SEAM METHANE: THE FUTURE OF OPERATIONS IN NEW SOUTH WALES
Authors: Hill Michael , Armstrong Michael
Published: August 2017

The coal seams of the coal basins in New South Wales contain vast resources of methane. The gas has been of interest in the past, principally because the inflow of significant quantities into coal mine workings is a danger to mine safety and reduces production. Drainage techniques have been introduced into deeper collieries but they have not proved to be totally effective.Surface pre-drainage operations using hydraulic fracturing to stimulate gas production have been successful in the United States over recent years. The technique has yet to be successfully tested in New South Wales but if effective it will enable future mining areas to be drained prior to commencement of mining. The technique will also enable commercial production of large quantities of methane from both within and outside the coal mining areas.Seven organisations have commenced or will soon commence the exploration and development of the State's coal seam methane resources. Total planned expenditure over the next two years is over $4 000 000. Other Australian and overseas organisations are actively reviewing investment opportunities.Detailed exploration programs will be required prior to the commencement of operations because of the relative lack of data on the geology and gas resources of the basins. Differences exist between Australian and American coals and comparative reservoir and pilot studies will be required to determine the most effective pre-drainage methods. Potential markets exist in the State for methane and changes have been made to relevant legislation and administrative procedures to create incentives for exploration and production. Careful land-use planning will be required to ensure that the gas resource is not sterilised.
A SIMPLE SUBSEA COMPLETION ON A NEW HYBRID MUDLINE SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Authors: Bottomley C. A.
Published: August 2017

A new subsea completion system has been designed to combine conventional mudline installation of the 30 inch and 20 inch casings, with a new 13⅝ inch mudline housing, new 13⅝ ft inch nominal tubing hanger and seal flange. The 13⅜ inch mudline housing features external running threads and replaces the conventional 13⅜ inch casing hanger, the 13 inch tie back adapter and tubing spool. The new tubing hanger features production annulus access through a vertical bore in the hanger body. The main advantages include increased safety due to decreased diver-assisted operations and cost savings due to easier installation of the system compared to a conventional subsea system.
A NEW PETROLEUM ACT FOR QUEENSLAND
Authors: North Roger
Published: August 2017

Secure title is necessary for petroleum exploration and production. Without it, he who spends the risk money may not reap the rewards. The Petroleum Act 1923-1990 is the Queensland legislation under which exploration and production titles are granted. It is 1923 legislation which has been amended from time to time. It suffers from uncertainties in areas including application and granting procedures, and title transfer and administration procedures. The Petroleum Act by its terms requires the provisions of the Mineral Resources Act 1989-1990 to be read into it and this has emphasised the need for amendment and preferably replacement. There are indications that a review of the Petroleum Act will be carried out in the near future. To minimise the possibility of unfavourable replacement legislation, the industry must address and decide the principles it favours.
AWARD RESTRUCTURING IN THE HYDROCARBONS INDUSTRY — PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS
Authors: Watson Graeme
Published: August 2017

Award restructuring is the most significant development in industrial relations reform in recent times. The process evolved from the Australian Industrial Relations Commission's concern for the economy and recognition of the need for micro-economic reform. It encourages a fundamental review of work practices, award structures, union coverage and the organisation of the workforce with a particular focus on the enterprise. Award restructuring has particular relevance to the upstream hydrocarbons industry in which stability, labour flexibility, efficiency, skill development and multi-skilling are of critical importance.It is acknowledged that the potential for change in the hydrocarbons industry is not as great as in most other industries. Award regulation in the industry is relatively new; it has been established with close regard to the needs of the industry and it has evolved to enable a greater enterprise focus prior to the adoption of award restructuring by the Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC). Nevertheless, there are a number of changes which can give rise to greater efficiency and productivity and these need to be developed. It may be that an innovative approach is required in view of the unique circumstances of the industry.
NEW TECHNOLOGY—A MAJOR IMPACT ON A PRODUCING FIELD: NORTH RANKIN GAS FIELD, NORTH WEST SHELF, AUSTRALIA
Authors: Tilbury L. , Barter T.
Published: August 2017

New technology, especially the significant advances in 3D seismic interpretation techniques and drilling technology, has had a major impact on the development planning for the North Rankin Field.Significant advances have been made through the application of: horizon attribute processing, seismic amplitude analysis and long-reach drilling technology.Horizon attribute processing, including image processing techniques, has led to a better understanding of the structurally complex region on the northern flank of the field. These studies, coupled with new geological concepts related to opposing fault regimes, have concluded that good reservoir communication should exist across a fault zone previously thought to subdivide the field into compartments. The drilling of expensive, long-reach wells into the northern sector has thus been deferred, and may never be required, because of the newly developed structural model.Seismic amplitude analysis, coupled with geological modelling, upgraded the North Rankin West area and culminated in the recent significant appraisal/development well NRA22. This well was drilled from the North Rankin 'A' (NRA) platform to a target outside the main North Rankin Field in the adjacent Searipple Graben. NRA22 encountered well developed gas-bearing sands of Bathonian age which flowed at high rates (140 MMSCFGD).The application of long-reach drilling technology within Woodside has also had significant impact on development planning. The original development plan for North Rankin included a second platform in the northeast of the field. Better than expected production performance from NRA, related to across-fault reservoir communication, removed the necessity for a second platform. Large gas reserves in the Lower Jurassic 'NC' unit in the northeast have, however, required dedicated wells to improve ultimate recovery from this unit. The drilling of long-reach wells (at record drift) into the NC unit has provided better access to these reserves.Although North Rankin has been producing for over seven years with a total of 23 development wells drilled, understanding of the geological structure is still being improved by using new technology and ideas.
DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY AND FACIES ANALYSIS OF THE UPPER JURASSIC SEDIMENTS IN THE EASTERN BARROW SUB-BASIN
Authors: Wulff Keiran
Published: August 2017

Callovian to Tithonian syn-rift sediments in the eastern Barrow Sub-basin can be subdivided into five depositional sequences, each separated by regionally correlatable unconformities. Sequence boundary development can be closely related to periods of major changes in basin configuration associated with the sequential breakup of eastern Gondwanaland. Synchronism of major faulting with sequence boundary development during the early and late Callovian, mid Kimmeridgian, and mid Tithonian times supports tectonism being a dominant control on the development of Type 1 unconformities in the eastern Barrow Sub-basin.Upper Jurassic depositional sequences in the eastern Barrow Sub-basin, whether of tectonic or eustatic origin, consist primarily of lowstand systems tracts comprised, wholly or in part, of detached basin floor fan complexes, channelised and canyon-fed fan systems, slump deposits, outer shelf to slope deposits, and deep marine claystones. Inner shelf to shoreface sediments of the transgressive and highstand systems tracts are absent due to episodic, post-depositional uplift and erosion along the Peedamullah Shelf and Flinders Fault System during the Late Jurassic. The periods of uplift and erosion provided much of the sediment redeposited in basinal areas during lowstand times.Depositional models based on regional sequence stratigraphic studies can be integrated with local seismic stratigraphy to provide a mechanism for estimating likely reservoir quality, once controls on sedimentation (namely tectonics, eustasy, and sediment supply) are understood. This is demonstrated by the recognition of at least seven sandstone facies within the Upper Jurassic sedimentary section. Each sandstone has particular characteristics which can be related to the depositional setting. Reservoir quality is best developed in dominantly medium grained, moderate to well sorted sandstones, deposited as detached, basin floor submarine fan sands or interbedded turbidites. In contrast, reservoir quality is poorly developed in the remaining sand-prone facies deposited as slope fans, slumps, or distal turbidites.
ADVANCES IN 3-D SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Authors: Allen T.J. , Whiting P.
Published: August 2017

Several recent advances made in 3-D seismic data processing are discussed in this paper.Development of a time-variant FK dip-moveout algorithm allows application of the correct three-dimensional operator. Coupled with a high-dip one-pass 3-D migration algorithm, this provides improved resolution and response at all azimuths. The use of dilation operators extends the capability of the process to include an economical and accurate (within well-defined limits) 3-D depth migration.Accuracy of the migration velocity model may be improved by the use of migration velocity analysis: of the two approaches considered, the data-subsetting technique gives more reliable and interpretable results.Conflicts in recording azimuth and bin dimensions of overlapping 3-D surveys may be resolved by the use of a 3-D interpolation algorithm applied post 3-D stack and which allows the combined surveys to be 3-D migrated as one data set.
ACCURATE RECOGNITION OF SOURCE ROCK CHARACTER IN THE JURASSIC OF THE NORTH WEST SHELF, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Authors: Scott John
Published: August 2017

The main potential source rock intervals are generally well defined on the North West Shelf by screening analysis such as Rock-Eval. The type of product from the source rocks is not well defined, owing to inadequacies in current screening analysis techniques. The implications of poor definition of source type in acreage assessment are obvious. The type of product is dependent on the level of organic maturity of the source rock, the ability of products to migrate out of the source rock and on the type of organic material present. The type of kerogen present is frequently determined by Rock-Eval pyrolysis. However, Rock-Eval has severe limitations in defining product type when there is a significant input of terrestrial organic material. This problem has been recognised in Australian terrestrial/continental sequences but also occurs where marine source rock facies contain terrestrially-derived higher plant material. Pyrolysis-gas chromatography as applied to source rock analysis provides, by molecular typing, a better method of estimating the type of products of the kerogen breakdown than bulk chemical analysis such as Rock-Eval pyrolysis.
INTEGRATED SOURCE, MATURATION AND MIGRATION ANALYSIS, GIPPSLAND BASIN, AUSTRALIA
Authors: Moore P. S. , Burns B. J. , Emmett J. K. , Guthrie D. A.
Published: August 2017

Biomarker geochemistry, maturation modelling and migration pathway analysis have been used in a new, integrated analysis of the Gippsland Basin. The analysis has resulted in the development of a predictive model for hydrocarbon charge and oil versus gas split. The study was carried out in 4 parts: analytical geochemistry, source distribution mapping, maturation modelling and migration pathway analysis.New geochemical biomarker studies confirm a non-marine source for the oils, but place peak oil generation in the upper part of the traditional oil window. Gas in the basin is mainly derived from overmature source rocks. Coals were recognised to contribute significantly to oil generation.The source rock thickness and distribution for the entire basin were mapped using analytical techniques plus wireline log analysis, coupled with seismic structural mapping and facies analysis. Prime oil-prone source rocks were found to be located in the lower coastal plain depositional environment. Extrapolations were necessary for older rocks, using stratigraphic models.Maturation modelling modelling of selected wells and synclines was carried out and an overall basin model constructed. Post-structuring yields of oil and gas were also derived. A key result was the lack of post-structuring overmature gas generation in the oil prone southeastern part of the basin, owing to high palaeo-temperatures associated with earlier rifting.Analysis of present day and palaeo-migration pathways gave an excellent match between predicted oil versus gas ratios and discoveries, both geographically and stratigraphically. The tool is now being used in a predictive mode to highgrade basin prospectivity.
USE OF HEAVY MINERAL SUITES IN RESERVOIR SAND STUDIES IN THE HARRIET FIELD, BARROW SUB-BASIN, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Authors: Scott John , Bona Pete Di , Beales Vincent
Published: August 2017

Analysis of the heavy mineral suites in the reservoir at Harriet Field has significantly improved reservoir unit definition and correlation and provided information on facies changes and diagenetic history. It has provided further evidence for a stratigraphic barrier as a cause of the variation of the oil-water contact in the field.The reservoir consists of a number of discrete sandstone bodies which are arranged in a multistorey manner.The reservoir is further subdivided into compartments by minor faulting. Prior to the use of heavy mineral analysis, correlation between wells was often unclear. Such correlation is beyond the resolution of reflection seismology and the massive nature of the sandstones means that definition and correlation is uncertain when made on the basis of lithology combined with wireline logs. The time interval involved in the deposition of the reservoir sequence is too short to permit discrimination by palaeontological analysis.Eight distinct sandstone bodies can be defined on the basis of analysis of the heavy mineral suites in the 14 wells of the field. The total composition of the suites, certain 'marker minerals' and various statistical indices have been used to define these sandstone units which are interpreted to be individual lobes within a submarine fan complex. The methods and results are illustrated with examples from the field. The results of the analysis show that heavy mineral populations can provide critical information for accurate reservoir mapping and analysis.
ECONOMIC ARTIFICIAL LIFT INSTALLATION IN FLOOD PRONE AREAS
Authors: Mathers Harry , Selin Cameron
Published: August 2017

The development and exploration program in ATP 259P has evolved such that more discoveries are remote from the existing infrastructure of the Jackson Oil Field and Tickalara to Cooroo pipeline. To increase the likelihood for a commercial well completion, new ideas are being implemented, including use of a portable beam pump to test new completions, and placement of beam pumps on piles.A trailer-mounted portable beam pumping unit provides timely and cost effective data on the production characteristics of a new well, enabling more accurate designs for permanent artificial lift installations.An investigation into beam pump foundation systems was performed to establish the economics of pile mounted beam pumps for flood prone regions.The factors leading to the investigation were:flood waters had affected operations during the previous three years;floods weakened the existing shale pad foundations;pad integrity remained in doubt until access to them had been re-established;pump units had to be shut down and isolated for several months resulting in large volumes of deferred oil.The study revealed that a piled foundation could be installed at less expense than any shale system regardless of location.Erection of beam pumps on piles involved considerable investment to determine soil conditions at a range of remote locations. The soil surveys provided the required information to design suitable pile support for beam pumps. Consideration of water height at times of flooding, effect of ground water on the support-mechanism and future operations were paramount. Mounting a beam pump on piles is a method which provides rapid, inexpensive and permanent foundations suitable for flooded or dry operating conditions.A balance is struck between the commercial success of a new exploration venture versus the technical success of an expedient and permanent well completion and artificial lift installation.
PIPELINE FLOW OF WAXY CRUDE OILS
Authors: Wardhaugh L.T. , Boger D.V.
Published: August 2017

The various methods for handling waxy crude oils at temperatures below the pour point have been difficult to assess quantitatively owing to the lack of reliable measurement techniques for properties such as the non-Newtonian viscosity and yield stress. Research undertaken at The University of Melbourne has been aimed at the development of reproducible measurement techniques for laboratory scale rheometers and, in so doing, has provided an understanding of the rheology of waxy oils that is applicable to the design and operation of waxy oil pipelines and handling systems and in understanding the startup behaviour of pipelines.The equilibrium flow properties of waxy oils are determined by the shear and thermal history applied to the oil. In particular, the very strong shear history dependence influences the behaviour of pipelines servicing declining fields, leads to an over-estimation of the flowrate when conventional design methods are used, and provides a mechanism for wall deposition of wax that depends on the oil rheology rather than mass transfer mechanisms. Modified design methods are outlined for both laminar and turbulent flow which account for the effect of shear history and enable a quantifiable measure, under steady conditions, of the return on investment of alternative handling techniques such as the use of flow improver additives.Waxy crude oil that has been statically cooled develops solid-like character at temperatures below the pour point. The complex yielding process exhibits three distinct behaviours-yield, creep and fracture, each of which influences the startup behaviour of a gelled pipeline.
THE CHELONIA SEISMIC SURVEY: MINIMISING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON A NATURE RESERVE
Authors: Long P.J. , Long V.L.
Published: August 2017

Onshore seismic surveys are traditionally associated with wide straight tracks, required for access by seismic vehicles and denuded of vegetation. The proposal by Lasmo Oil (Australia) Ltd and its co-venturers to perform a seismic survey on the Muiron Islands Nature Reserve was therefore received with some concern by residents of nearby Exmouth in Western Australia. The proponent undertook extensive surveys of the existing environment, however, and produced a strict environmental management plan which featured innovative methods to minimise impacts on both flora and fauna — in particular the extensive Wedge-tailed Shearwater colony on the islands. These methods were executed much as planned and caused negligible destruction of vegetation and no known bird mortality. The results indicate the management plan was highly successful and established a new benchmark for exploration in sensitive areas.This paper outlines the environmental management plan developed for the work and documents the results of the procedures employed. It concludes that such methods could be applied to similar projects elsewhere.
PROJECT FINANCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NORTH WEST SHELF GAS PROJECT: BALANCING RISK
Authors: Ramsay Gordon
Published: August 2017

Project finance is a form of debt provided for the development of a project and repaid primarily from the future cash flows of the completed project. Project lenders focus on assessing the key technical, regulatory and commercial risk elements which may affect project development and its ongoing operations. Project finance arrangements put in place for Woodside's interest in the North West Shelf Gas Project Development have been an exercise in balancing risk.The early stages of a project development represent the highest relative risk. Accordingly, when Woodside entered into the initial US$1.4 billion project financing facility for its share of the estimated cost of the first phase domestic gas development of the North West Shelf Gas Project in January 1981, a number of factors resulted in the imposition of necessary but restrictive financing conditions on Woodside in order to balance project lenders perceptions of the various project related risk elements.By 1985, project risk reduced as Woodside began receiving revenue from the completed first phase development, strengthened its capital base and signed the second phase liquefied natural gas (LNG) Export Agreement with the major Japanese utilities. These factors allowed Woodside to refinance the original project finance facility on more favourable terms and obtain additional funds to meet its commitments for the development of the second phase.The risk profile of the North West Shelf Gas Project Development entered a mature stage in 1989. Second phase project risk had been reduced by the successful operation of the LNG production facilities and commencement of LNG deliveries to Japan. A new credit facility was arranged in 1989 which recognised the change in overall project risk and a new balance provided Woodside with increased flexibility through improved access to funding for non-project activities and other corporate purposes. The 1989 credit facility presently forms the main debt financing arrangement for Woodside's interest in the North West Shelf Gas Project.Other risks which exist in the economic environment outside of a project, caused by movements in exchange rates, interest rates, commodity prices and inflation, can have a very large influence on the ultimate success of a project. These economic risk elements can be managed and balanced by using various techniques.
PRODUCTION SHARING AGREEMENTS VERSUS THE ROYALTY REGIMES: WHERE IS THE BALANCE?
Authors: Cottee Richard
Published: August 2017

For many years the mining industry made its investment decisions safe in the knowledge that petroleum or minerals in the ground belonged to the State but upon severance of such petroleum from the ground the oil was vested in the miner. Commensurate with the ownership changing, a royalty was payable to the government at a fixed rate. With the enactment of the Petroleum (Australia-Indonesia Zone of Co-Operation) Act of 1990 (the 'Act'), serious consideration must now be given as to whether in the future this basic scheme may be dramatically and radically changed to a scheme based on a services contract whereby a certain percentage of the oil is paid in consideration of the miner 'managing the discovery and extraction of petroleum'.An increasing number of countries, including those such as Malaysia which have legal systems based on common law, have adopted petroleum sharing agreements as a basic method by which they 'encourage' petroleum exploitation. This paper:explores the major features of petroleum sharing agreements (which are now in use in the Timor Gap, Indonesia and Malaysia), and compares and contrasts those models with a regulatory scheme based on statutory leases with royalty payments (being the regulatory scheme used in Australia, New Zealand, Canada and elsewhere);reviews both the economic and legal consequences of the two regimes, assuming a constant Income Tax System.It concludes that whilst there are certain merits in both the royalty regulatory type regime and a production sharing regime it appears to the writer that on balance the royalty regulatory regime is much more beneficial to the industry than the alternate. This is particularly true given the fact that Australian governments generally should have sufficient confidence in their regulatory skills and Australian technology that it does not feel it necessary to be given a veto power for each and every decision made in respect of petroleum exploration or production.The major deficiencies of a production sharing arrangement are the fact that the risk taker does not obtain legal tide to the product until after it has either passed the point of tanker loading or been sold to some third party, and the concept of 'cost oil'. If the rates of government 'take' is so high that it is more profitable to obtain 'cost oil' for the company than to receive its 'share' under the production sharing agreement, then the petroleum industry as a whole will suffer gross inefficiency in that area.
EXPERIENCE WITH DETERMINATION OF WATER SATURATION FROM CORE IN THE COSSACK FIELD
Authors: Choo D. Lasserre & C.F.
Published: August 2017

Water saturation measurements were made on core in two Cossack field appraisal wells to investigate the discrepancy between the water saturation calculated from logs and that observed from the capillary pressure data in the Cossack-1 discovery well. The core measurements resulted in a more accurate water saturation parameter which was then used to estimate the volume of hydrocarbons in place. The core measurements also provided valuable information about the wettability of the reservoir rocks. The results of this exercise also highlighted the uncertainty attached to the water saturation determination from logs in what was an apparently simple case of a thick, clean sandstone reservoir.