bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Morality, Definition of
Authors: Wong David B.
Published: January 2013

Given the range and diversity in what could reasonably be called a morality, it is surprising that normative and metaethicists often simply presuppose a definition of morality. Even the apparently uncontroversial partial definition of morality as a “code” or “set of rules” excludes the view that morality is a sense or intuition of what is required and permitted (seeParticularism; Perception, Moral). To avoid prejudgment, morality will here be characterized as a guide for evaluating and engaging in attitudes and conduct. Distinction is sometimes made between a “normative” sense of “morality” that refers to the correct guide to follow and a “descriptive” sense that refers to guides that people have actually sought to follow and that are not necessarily correct. Philosophers often employ a conception of morality in the descriptive sense to argue for a conception of morality in the normative sense. Consider, for example, J. S. Mill's (1965–91) argument that the familiar secondary principles and precepts that most people regard as constituting morality are not competitors to the principle of utility, but in fact are justified because generally following them conduces to the greatest happiness (seeMill, John Stuart).
Bradley, F. H.
Authors: Sweet William
Published: January 2013

Francis Herbert Bradley (1846–1924) was one of the leading philosophers of late‐nineteenth‐ and early‐twentieth‐century Britain, a major critic of utilitarianism and pragmatism, and a defender of an ethics of self‐realization.
Deontology
Authors: Hurley Paul
Published: January 2013

A runaway trolley has been sent careening toward three innocent people who are trapped on the track. I can stop the trolley, thwarting the plot to kill the three, but only by pushing another innocent person into the trolley's path before it reaches them. Should I kill the one to save the three? Ordinary morality suggests not only that I am not required to kill the one to save the three, but that I am required not to do so – that morality prohibits me from killing in such a case even to prevent more killings from happening. Moral theories that take such ordinary moral judgments to capture legitimate and fundamental moral requirements are typically classified as deontological moral theories.
Synthetic Life Sciences
Authors: Selgelid Michael J.
Published: January 2013

The expression “synthetic life sciences” refers collectively to both synthetic genomics and synthetic biology (Samuel et al. 2009). Synthetic genomics involves the synthesis of genetic (e.g., DNA) sequences. While the Human Genome project depended upon (and itself accelerated) revolutionary developments in rapid DNA
sequencing
technology during the 1990s, synthetic genomics involves the more recent revolutionary development of technology that enables increasingly rapid
synthesis
of DNA sequences. It is now possible to synthesize entire genomes of some viruses and bacteria. The synthesis of virus genomes, furthermore, in some cases enables artificial synthesis of actual viruses. In the United States, for example, scientists used synthetic genomics to synthesize a polio virus (Cello et al. 2002). Following the published map of the polio genome, which is published on the Internet, they purchased and strung together corresponding DNA sequences. The addition of the synthesized genome to “cell juice” (a solution containing cellular ingredients but no live cells) resulted in a “live” virus that paralyzed and killed mice. Similar techniques enabled reconstruction of the 1918 Spanish Flu virus in 2005, and experts believe it would now be possible to synthesize the eradicated smallpox virus (
see
Dual‐Use Research).
Embryo Research
Authors: Baylis Françoise
Published: January 2013

In humans, the term “embryo” technically applies after implantation of the organism is complete (approximately 14 days after fertilization) until eight weeks of development, at which time the developing organism is referred to as a fetus. Prior to implantation, the scientific terms for the product of conception at different developmental stages are zygote, morula, and blastocyst. In common usage, however, the term “human embryo” refers to the human organism from the time of conception through to eight weeks' gestational age, and that is how the term is used below.
Frankena, William K.
Authors: Landesman Bruce M.
Published: January 2013

William Frankena was important both as a scholar and as a teacher of moral philosophy during the middle two quarters of the twentieth century. He was one of the foremost moral philosophers of that period. He was interested in and wrote about almost every question in normative ethics and metaethics (seeNormativity; Metaethics): the meaning of ethical terms, objective versus relativistic and egoistic accounts of morality, the most valid principles of right and wrong, the dispute between consequentialism and deontology (seeConsequentialism; Deontology), the reasons for being moral, the connections between morality and rationality, the difference between morality and other action‐guides, the relation between principle‐based and virtue‐based ethics, the connection between moral belief and motivation, the nature of justice and equality, the history of ethics, and the philosophy of education, especially moral education.
Trade Secrets
Authors: Ashcroft Richard E.
Published: January 2013

A trade secret is a piece of information, of commercial value, disclosed by one party to another in confidence. It may be a simple item of information, or a collection of items of information. The commercial value of this information may reside in the content of that information, or in the way in which it is compiled or collected.
Desert
Authors: Cupit Geoffrey
Published: January 2013

Popular discussions of justice and fairness are often couched in the language of desert: those who commit crimes are said to deserve punishment; those who work hard are said to deserve success; those in need are often categorized as the deserving or undeserving poor. Justice, it may be said, is happiness according to virtue, with each getting his or her deserts (seeJustice). Given the frequency with which desert is invoked in popular discussions, it might be expected that philosophical debate about justice and fairness would also focus on desert. But in recent times, this has often not been so. Indeed, in the mid‐twentieth century, Brian Barry was able to write of a “revolt against desert,” and describe desert as “a concept which is already in decline and may eventually disappear” (Barry 1965: 112).
Stewart, Dugald
Authors: Pritchard Michael S.
Published: January 2013

Scottish philosopher Dugald Stewart (1753–1828) succeeded his former teacher Adam Ferguson as chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh. He served in this capacity for 25 years. During the course of those years he became recognized as a leading philosopher in both Europe and the United States, championing the “commonsense” philosophy of his teacher Thomas Reid (
see
Reid, Thomas). Stewart is the author of nine volumes on a wide range of philosophical topics; his major published work in moral philosophy,
The Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Man
(=
AMP
), reflects the powerful influence that Reid had on him. Stewart also published lengthy biographical essays on Reid and Adam Smith (
see
Smith, Adam).
Solidarity
Authors: Scholz Sally J.
Published: January 2013

Solidarity is generally understood as a unity or bond between people who share interests, feelings of commonality, mutual support, or desire for social change. The specific nature of the moral relation of solidarity differs depending on the type of solidarity and the context. In addition, solidarity may alternately be considered a value, a virtue, a duty, a project, a relation, or the unity itself (seeVirtue; Duty and Obligation). Solidarity usually affects moral decision‐making beyond those decisions directly relevant to maintaining the social bond. For instance, when wealthy students in the Western world claim solidarity with sweatshop workers around the globe, they are asserting a connection with those workers which they will enact through advocacy against unjust conditions. They are also suggesting that the day‐to‐day decisions they make about what they purchase, how they vote, and what they consume will consider the effects of such actions on workplace conditions and social justice more broadly. In this sense, solidarity becomes a transformative value explicitly connecting individuals and their projects with others. Although it is sometimes understood in contrast to individualism or personal liberty, solidarity also may be conceived as facilitating greater degrees of personal liberty through collective actions aimed at that end.
Preference
Authors: Weirich Paul
Published: January 2013

Preference is a mental state that compares two situations. To prefer one situation to another is to favor the first situation; one would rather be in the first situation. People prefer experiencing pleasure to experiencing pain. Common principles of value hold that, other things being equal, it is better for a person with a preference between two situations to be in the first situation than to be in the second situation. Common principles of morality therefore recommend meeting a person's preference, other things being equal. This essay reviews the components of a philosophical theory of preference, mentioning controversies within each component, and examines preference's place in normative principles. It explains the grounding rational preferences offer utilitarianism, and through cross‐references indicates connections between points about preference and other topics in ethics.
Neuroethics
Authors: Levy Neil
Published: January 2013

Neuroethics is a relatively new subdiscipline of philosophy. It has two branches. The first, on which I will focus here, is concerned with the ethical issues arising out of neuroscience and the other sciences of the mind (psychiatry, social and cognitive psychology, and so on;seePsychiatric Ethics); the second is more theoretical and deals with how the sciences of the mind illuminate traditional philosophical questions, like the nature of persons and the existence of free will (Roskies 2002;seeFree Will). As a branch of applied ethics (seeApplied Ethics), neuroethics was born as a response to the expansion of our powers to intervene in the mind, in a manner parallel to the way in which bioethics (seeBioethics) was born as a response to advances in somatic medicine. Just as the medical advances of the past five decades – for example, advances in new powers to create human lifein vitro, and to preserve it when it no longer seemed to have much value for patients – provoked novel and pressing ethical issues, so advances in our ability to comprehend mental processes and to intervene in them have raised pressing questions about whether and when these powers should be exercised.
Duns Scotus
Authors: Guilfoy Kevin
Published: January 2013

John Duns Scotus (1265–1308) was known to his supporters asDoctor Subtilis, or the Subtle Doctor. His detractors are said to have coined the word “dunce” from his name. Moral truth, obligation, and many other central elements of Scotus' ethical theory are still contested by scholars. Scotus' views on God's power to will moral truths and the ability of human reason to know or discover moral truths require subtle explication. The same is true of Scotus' account of the powers and freedom of the human will. Scotus' intricate theories lead him to reject the eudaimonism of the scholastic Aristotelian tradition (seeEudaimonism).
Sentimentalism
Authors: Kauppinen Antti
Published: January 2013

Our ethical stance is manifest in our attitudes and reactions, in what inspires or outrages us, in what we admire or detest, in whom we praise or blame. For sentimentalists, these human reactions are what is fundamental about ethics. There is no need to assume a moral reality that transcends the natural world or find a moral law binding on all rational creatures. Ethics is all about practice. It emerges when, under pressure of social conflict, we come to regulate our emotional responses from a point of view that goes beyond self‐interest, and serves to foster mutually beneficial cooperation by guiding our choices. To understand ethics, sentimentalists hold, we need to investigate the practical aspects of evolved human nature as they manifest themselves in a social context. This naturalistic outlook need not mean giving up on notions like truth and objectivity, as long as we can make sense of suitable standards for fitting emotional responses.
Hate Speech
Authors: Brison Susan
Published: January 2013

Hate speech is speech that vilifies, harasses, intimidates, or incites hatred toward an individual or group on the basis of a characteristic such as race, ethnicity, religion, gender, or sexual orientation. The word “speech” here refers not only to verbal inscriptions and utterances, but also to pictorial representations and symbols, such as swastikas and Ku Klux Klan masks, and expressive acts, such as cross‐burning and the defacing of mosques (
see
Speech, Freedom of). While most people acknowledge that hate speech is often offensive and sometimes harmful, there is considerable debate about whether it is so harmful that it should be legally restricted (
see
Harm; Offense). In the United States, hate speech is generally considered protected speech, under the free speech clause of the First Amendment of the US Constitution, and most Anglo‐American philosophical writing about hate speech has discussed whether – and, if so, why – this position is justified. Although the right to freedom of expression, including the right to engage in hate speech, is widely considered in the United States to be a fundamental human right of virtually paramount value, in other countries, free speech rights are constrained by other rights, such as the rights to dignity, respect, and equality; and laws restricting hate speech, such as speech inciting racial hatred and Holocaust denial, are relatively uncontroversial (Bollinger 1986; Schauer 2005;
see
Civil Rights; Rights).
Game Theory and Rational Choice
Authors: McClennen Edward
Published: January 2013

The idea that game theory and rational choice theory have implications for ethical theory is first expressed in Plato'sRepublic, where Glaucon offers an account of justice as involving a rational agreement between individuals:
Friendship
Authors: Cocking Dean
Published: January 2013

Along with family and romance, certain types of friendship present ideals of a central kind of personal love, attachment, and identification with others. At their best, all these personal loves involve intimacy, deep affection, trust, loyalty, (desired) shared activity, mutual interest, valuing, and concern for one another's well‐being. It is also commonly agreed that, across these features of such personal loves, i.e., our intimacy, trust, loyalty, valuing, and so on, we will be guided by interest and concern for the particular person who is our beloved, and this will lead us to act for their sake (seeEmotion;Love;Loyalty;Personal Relationships).
Speech, Freedom of
Authors: McGowan Mary Kate
Published: January 2013

Freedom of speech is a legal right that protects speech against unwarranted state regulation (seeRights). It involves a presumption against the regulation of speech that makes it more difficult (but not impossible) for the state to regulate speech. The idea here is that because speech is so valuable, there have to be especially compelling reasons to regulate it. Consequently, it takes more to justify the regulation of speech than it does to regulate non‐speech. In this way, a principle of free speech extends special protections to speech that make it more difficult to regulate. Suppose, for example, that a government were to prohibit any criticism of the president. Such a prohibition would be unacceptable in any state committed to a principle of free speech. This is because being able to say what one thinks is valuable and unjustified restrictions on (political) speech are harmful (seeHarm). For this reason, a principle of free speech protects speech against regulations of this sort.
Hedonism
Authors: Heathwood Chris
Published: January 2013

Hedonism is among the oldest, simplest, and most widely discussed theories of value – theories that tell us what makes the world better or what makes a person's life go better. It is in fact among the very oldest of philosophical doctrines still defended today, dating back to the Indian philosopher Cārvāka around 600
BCE
and the Greek philosopher Aristippus around
BCE
. Hedonism, in a word, is the view that “pleasure is the good.” In its most comprehensive form, hedonism about value holds that the only thing that ultimately ever makes the world, or a life, better is its containing more pleasure or less pain. The term “hedonism” is also sometimes used to refer to doctrines about other topics. “Universal hedonism” sometimes stands for the view that we ought to bring the greatest balance of pleasure over pain into the world that we can (
see
Utilitarianism), and “psychological hedonism” the view that all human behavior is motivated ultimately by desires to obtain pleasure or avoid pain. Our topic here is hedonism about value.
Generalismvs. Particularism
Authors: McKeever Sean , Ridge Michael
Published: January 2013

Moral particularism challenges the long‐standing, though by no means universal, assumption that moral thought and discourse essentially involves rules or abstract principles. Such an assumption is at work if we expect that a successful normative moral theory must include general principles or if we expect that a virtuous person must be someone who “sticks to principles.” To this somewhat traditional view, moral particularism opposes a constructive alternative according to which the moral landscape is highly variable and context sensitive and the virtuous moral agent exercises discernment to navigate it (seeParticularism).
Musculoskeletal anomalies in a large cohort of boys with 49, XXXXY
Authors: Sprouse Courtney , Tosi Laura , Stapleton Emily , Gropman Andrea L. , Mitchell Francie L. , Peret Rick , Sadeghin Teresa , Haskell Kathryn , Samango‐Sprouse Carole A.
Published: January 2013

49, XXXXY is a rare aneuploidy and variant of Klinefelter syndrome, occurring in 1 per 80,000–100,000 live births. We present a cohort of 40 affected males, focusing on musculoskeletal problems. Subjects were participants in an annual 49er family support group meeting. Children were examined in a multidisciplinary clinic by a pediatric neurologist and geneticist, a pediatric orthopedist, a neurodevelopmentalist, and two physical therapists. The patient data were collected from this clinic from 2004 to 2012. All patients were required to have karyotypes that confirmed the presence of XXXXY. There was a high prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders, particularly hypotonia (34 patients [85%]), radioulnar synostosis (30 [75%]), pes planus (26 [65%]), asymmetric hip rotation (27 [67.5%]), and clinodactyly (24 [60%]). Other, less common lower‐extremity disorders, included, 5 patients (12.5%) with unilateral club foot, 5 boys (12.5%) with pes cavus, 10 patients (25%) genu valgum and 2 children with genu varus (5%). To our knowledge, this is the first large cohort of boys with 49, XXXXY that focuses on musculoskeletal disorders. There was an increased incidence of hypotonia, clubfoot, avascular necrosis of the femoral head, radioulnar synostosis, and pes planus compared to the normative population. Boys with 49, XXXXY would benefit from multidisciplinary evaluations, particularly from pediatric orthopedists, physical therapists, neurologists, and geneticists for appropriate medical care. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
On the South Atlantic Convergence Zone affecting southern Amazonia in austral summer
Authors: de Oliveira Vieira Samuel , Satyamurty Prakki , Andreoli Rita Valeria
Published: January 2013

Time series analysis of the average rainfall over a target area in southern Amazon Basin showed a spectral peak at 11 day period. An objective method for defining the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ) is used to identify 28 episodes affecting southern Amazon Basin during the 10 summers in the period 1999–2010. The 28‐episode composite precipitation anomalies show significant positive values over the target area. The convergence of moisture over the target area in the SACZ composites is about 35% stronger than the climatological value. Copyright © 2012 Royal Meteorological Society
Impact of variability in the Indian summer monsoon on the East Asian summer monsoon
Authors: Greatbatch Richard J. , Sun Xuguang , Yang Xiu‐Qun
Published: January 2013

We report on model experiments that support the hypothesis that the second mode of variability of the East Asian Summer Monsoon is influenced by the variability of the Indian Summer Monsoon. The results suggest that the recent trend towards drier conditions in northern China in summer is, at least partly, a consequence of the synchronous drying trend over India in summer noted by some authors.
Impact of Congo Basin deforestation on the African monsoon
Authors: Nogherotto R. , Coppola E. , Giorgi F. , Mariotti L.
Published: January 2013

The interactions between land cover change in Central Africa and the Africa monsoon is investigated using a regional climate model simulation (2000–2007) under a Congo Basin deforestation scenario. Decreased evaporation over the deforested area locally produces a heat low and reduced precipitation. In JJA, this low strengthens the West Africa monsoon causing increased precipitation over the Sahel and decreased precipitation over the Guinea coast. In DJF, it strengthens the south‐equatorial African monsoon causing an increase of precipitation over south‐equatorial Africa. Therefore our simulations indicate that the biosphere‐state in Central Africa may play an important role locally but also remotely via interactions with regional monsoon dynamics. Copyright © 2012 Royal Meteorological Society
All digital folded low‐area, low‐power maximum power point tracking chip for photovoltaic energy conversion system
Authors: Wey I‐Chyn , Kuo Shu‐Hao
Published: January 2013

In this paper, we propose and implement a 12‐bit area‐efficient folded all‐digital maximum power point tracking (MPPT) chip based on gain‐adaptive perturb‐and‐observe algorithm for photovoltaic energy conversion system. Alternative to DSP or micro controller, realizing the MPPT algorithm by using ASIC can achieve higher energy conversion efficiency, lower power consumption and smaller chip area. By using gain‐adaptive perturb‐and‐observe MPPT algorithm, overall system power consumption can be reduced by overcoming the periodic perturbation issues that occur in conventional perturb‐and‐observe MPPT algorithm. The utilization of proportional integral controller allows fast and stable tracking of the maximum power point. Under high intensity sun illumination, the gain‐adaptive perturb‐and‐observe algorithm performs three times faster than the conventional perturb‐and‐observe MPPT algorithm. Under low intensity sun illumination, the gain‐adaptive perturb‐and‐observe algorithm can provide the same power conversion efficiency as the conventional perturb‐and‐observe MPPT algorithm. By using folding VLSI architecture, the MPPT algorithm can be realized with 74% chip area saving and 77% power consumption reduction. Finally, our proposed MPPT chip is implemented in TSMC0.18‐µm process, with 0.85 mm*0.79 mm chip area and 97.9% power conversion efficiency. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Glycerol administration before endurance exercise: metabolism, urinary glycerol excretion and effects on doping‐relevant blood parameters
Authors: Koehler Karsten , Braun Hans , de Marees Markus , Geyer Hans , Thevis Mario , Mester Joachim , Schaenzer Wilhelm
Published: January 2013

Glycerol is prohibited as a masking agent by the World Anti‐Doping Agency and a urinary threshold has recently been recommended. However, little is known about urinary glycerol excretion after exercise, when (1) exogenous glycerol is metabolized increasingly and (2) endogenous glycerol levels are elevated. The purpose of the placebo‐controlled cross‐over study was to determine the effects of pre‐exercise glycerol administration on glycerol metabolism, urinary excretion, and selected blood parameters. After administration of glycerol (G; 1.0 g/kg body weight (BW) + 25 ml fluid/kg BW) or placebo (P; 25 ml fluid/kg), 14 cyclists exercised 90 min at 60% VO2max. Samples were taken at 0 h (before administration), 2.5 h (before exercise), 4 h (after exercise) and 6.5 h and additional urine samples were collected until 24 h. Exercise increased endogenous plasma glycerol (0.51 ± 0.21 mmol/l) but peak concentrations were much higher in G (2.5 h: 15.6 ± 7.8 mmol/l). Urinary glycerol increased rapidly (58,428 ± 71,084 µg/ml after 2.5 h) and was significantly higher than in P until 13.6 ± 0.9 h (p < 0.01). In comparison with placebo administration, G caused significantly greater changes in plasma volume and haemoglobin concentrations after 2.5 h. BW and urine production were significantly different between P and G after 2.5 h and post‐exercise. Despite exercise‐induced increases in endogenous glycerol in the control group, urinary excretion remained well below the previously recommended threshold. In addition, exercise‐related glycerol degradation did not appear to negatively affect the detection of exogenously administered glycerol. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Sex differences in health‐related quality of life impairment associated with eating disorder features: A general population study
Authors: Mitchison Deborah , Mond Jonathan , Slewa‐Younan Shameran , Hay Phillipa
Published: January 2013

Objective:

To determine sex differences in the prevalence and impact of specific eating disorder features on health‐related quality of life (HRQoL).

Method:

A general population sample of men (n = 1,479) and women (n = 1,555) completed interviews that assessed HRQoL (Medical Outcomes Study Short Form, SF‐36), and current regular occurrence of binge eating, extreme dietary restriction, purging, and overevaluation of weight or shape.

Results:

Men constituted a substantial minority (23–41%) of participants reporting eating disorder features. Objective binge eating had a greater impact on mental health impairment in men versus women, whereas the overevaluation of weight or shape had a greater impact on general and mental health impairment in women compared with men.

Discussion:

Eating disorder features that impact on HRQoL are now common in men; however, the impact of specific features may differ between sexes. © 2013 by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2013)
Deep eutectic solvents: Synthesis, application, and focus on lipase‐catalyzed reactions
Authors: Durand E. , Lecomte J. , Villeneuve P.
Published: January 2013

In recent years, a novel medium with similar properties to ionic liquids but with additional advantages regarding cost, environmental impact, and synthesis has been developed: deep eutectic solvents (DESs). These solvents result from the association between an organic salt (ammonium or phosphonium) with a hydrogen‐bond donor such as alcohols, acids, or amides. To date, the availability of green, inexpensive and easy to handle solvents is almost non‐existent. Therefore, DESs currently arouse growing interest in many research fields. This review deals with the major applications of this new family of solvents with a particular focus on lipase‐catalyzed reactions such as hydrolysis, aminolysis, or alcoholysis.
Oxidation of Propargylic Alcohols with a 2‐Quinoxalinol Salen Copper(II) Complex and tert‐Butyl Hydroperoxide
Authors: Weerasiri Kushan C. , Gorden Anne E. V.
Published: January 2013

The copper(II) complex of 2‐quinoxalinol salen (salqu) is an efficient catalyst for the selective oxidation of propargylic alcohols to yield the corresponding α,β‐acetylenic carbonyl compounds when used in combination with the oxidant tert‐butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP). Excellent yields (up to 99 %) are achieved for a variety of propargylic alcohols within 1 h of reaction time. The (salqu)copper(II) complex with TBHP can be used with propargylic alcohols that contain alkyl groups in the α‐position, which can be difficult to oxidize selectively with other commonly available methods. By using this catalytic protocol, excellent selectivity was also achieved for the oxidation of propargylic alcohols over that of isolated hydroxy groups, triple bonds, or propargylic methylene groups.
Inflammasome activation restricts Legionella pneumophila replication in primary microglial cells through flagellin detection
Authors: Jamilloux Yvan , Pierini Roberto , Querenet Mathieu , Juruj Carole , Fauchais Anne‐Laure , Jauberteau Marie‐Odile , Jarraud Sophie , Lina Gérard , Etienne Jérôme , Roy Craig R. , Henry Thomas , Davoust Nathalie , Ader Florence
Published: January 2013

Microglial cells constitute the first line of defense of the central nervous system (CNS) against microbial invasion. Pathogens are detected thanks to an array of innate immune receptors termed pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). PRRs have been thoroughly characterized in bone marrow‐derived macrophages, but the PRRs repertoire and functionality in microglial cells remain largely unknown. Microglial cells express various Toll‐like Receptors and the Nod1/2 receptors. Recently, a novel innate immune signalling pathway, the inflammasome pathway has been uncovered. Inflammasome activation leads to caspase‐1 activation, release of the proinflammatory cytokines, IL‐1β and IL‐18 and cell death in a process termed pyroptosis. One inflammasome receptor, NLRP3, has been characterized in microglial cells and associated with response to infections and in the initiation of neuro‐degeneration in an Alzheimer's disease model. Legionella pneumophila (L.pneumophila) is a flagellated bacterium replicating within macrophages. In bone marrow‐derived macrophages, L. pneumophila is detected in a flagellin‐dependent manner by the Naip5‐NLRC4 (Ipaf) inflammasome pathway. In this study, we decided to use L. pneumophila to investigate the presence and the functionality of this inflammasome in primary murine microglial cells. We show that microglial cells detect L. pneumophila infection in a flagellin‐dependent manner leading to caspase‐1‐mediated bacterial growth restriction, infected cell death and secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines IL‐1β and IL18. Overall, our data demonstrate that microglial cells have a functional Naip5‐NLRC4 inflammasome likely to be important to monitor and clear CNS infections by flagellated bacteria. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Olfactory ensheathing cells form the microenvironment of migrating GnRH‐1 neurons during mouse development
Authors: Geller Sarah , Kolasa Elise , Tillet Yves , Duittoz Anne , Vaudin Pascal
Published: January 2013

During development, GnRH‐1 neurons differentiate extracerebraly from the nasal placode and migrate from the vomeronasal organ to the forebrain along vomeronasal and terminal nerves. Numerous studies have described the influence of different molecules on the migration of GnRH‐1 neurons, however, the role of microenvironment cells remains poorly understood. This study used GFAP‐GFP transgenic mice to detect glial cells at early developmental stages. Using nasal explant cultures, the comigration of glial cells with GnRH‐1 neurons was clearly demonstrated. This in vitro approach showed that glial cells began migrating from the explants before GnRH‐1 neurons. They remained ahead of the GnRH‐1 migratory front and stopped migrating after the GnRH‐1 neurons. The association of these glial cells with the axons combined with gene expression analysis of GFAP‐GFP sorted cells enabled them to be identified as olfactory ensheathing cells (OEC). Immunohistochemical analysis revealed the presence of multiple glial cell‐type markers showing several OEC subpopulations surrounding GnRH‐1 neurons. Moreover, these OEC expressed genes whose products are involved in the migration of GnRH‐1 neurons, such as Nelf and Semaphorin 4. In
situ data confirmed that the majority of the GnRH‐1 neurons were associated with glial cells along the vomeronasal axons in nasal septum and terminal nerves in the nasal forebrain junction as early as E12.5. Overall, these data demonstrate an OEC microenvironment for migrating GnRH‐1 neurons during mouse development. The fact that this glial cell type precedes GnRH‐1 neurons and encodes for molecules involved in their nasal migration suggests that it participates in the GnRH‐1 system ontogenesis. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Involvement of nitric oxide through endocannabinoids release in microglia activation during the course of CNS regeneration in the medicinal leech
Authors: Arafah Karim , Croix Dominique , Vizioli Jacopo , Desmons Annie , Fournier Isabelle , Salzet Michel
Published: January 2013

The medicinal leech is notable for its capacity to regenerate its central nervous system (CNS) following mechanical trauma. Using an electrochemical nitric oxide (NO)‐selective electrode to measure NO levels, we found that the time course of NO release in the injured leech CNS is partially under the control of endocannabinoids, namely, N‐arachidonyl ethanolamide (AEA) and 2‐arachidonyl glycerol (2‐AG). Relative quantification of these endocannabinoids was performed by stable isotope dilution (2AGd8 and AAEd8) coupled to mass spectrometry in course of regeneration process or adenosine triphosphate (ATP) treatment. Data show that 2‐AG levels rose to a maximum about 30 min after injury or ATP treatment, and returned to baseline levels 4 h after injury. In same conditions, AEA levels also rapidly (within 5 min) dropped after injury or ATP treatment to the nerve cord, but did not fully return to baseline levels within 4 h of injury. In correlation with these data, chemoattraction activities of endocannabinoids on isolated leech microglial cells have been shown in vitro and in vivo reflecting that control over NO production is accompanied by the controlled chemoattraction of microglia directed from the periphery to the lesion site for neuronal repair purposes. Taken together, our results show that in the leech, after injury concurrent with ATP production, purinergic receptor activation, NO production, microglia recruitment, and accumulation to lesion site, a fine imbalance occurs in the endocannabinoid system. These events can bring explanations about the ability of the leech CNS to regenerate after a trauma and the key role of endocannabinoids in this phenomenon. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
On the role of retrosplenial cortex in long‐lasting memory storage
Authors: Katche Cynthia , Dorman Guido , Gonzalez Carolina , Kramar Cecilia P. , Slipczuk Leandro , Rossato Janine I. , Cammarota Martin , Medina Jorge H.
Published: January 2013

The retrosplenial cortex (RSC) is involved in a range of cognitive functions. However, its precise involvement in memory processing is unknown. Pharmacological and behavioral experiments demonstrate that protein synthesis and c‐Fos expression in the anterior part of RSC (aRSC) are necessary late after training to maintain for many days a fear‐motivated memory. Long‐lasting memory storage is regulated by D1/D5 dopamine receptors in aRSC and depends on the functional interplay between dorsal hippocampus and aRSC. These results suggest that the RSC recapitulates some of the molecular events that occur in the hippocampus to maintain memory trace over time. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Osteogenic potential of Sr‐doped calcium phosphate hollow spheres in vitro and in vivo
Authors: Hulsart‐Billström Gry , Xia Wei , Pankotai Eszter , Weszl Miklós , Carlsson Elin , Forster‐Horváth Csaba , Larsson Sune , Engqvist Håkan , Lacza Zsombor
Published: January 2013

Treatment of osteoporotic fractures with conventional surgical methods is associated with a high rate of complications. Intense search for new treatment options includes development of specific biomaterials aimed to be part of the surgical armamentarium. Strontium doped calcium phosphate spheres (SrCPS) is a new material that might be of interest due to the influence on osteoclast and osteoblast activity. In the present study, we successfully constructed hollow spherical SrCPS particles with a diameter of ∼700 nm and shell thickness of ∼150 nm. The Sr content was about 20 wt %. Cell viability and cytotoxicity were investigated in vitro with concentrations from 0 to 1000 μg/mL of SrCPS in medium extract in a day chase study. The in vivo biocompatibility was tested in a delayed bone‐healing model in a rat vertebral defect by histology, μCT, and nanoSPECT. The SrCPS showed no toxicity in vitro with comparable cell number in all concentrations. Increased metabolism was seen in the cell viability study in cells exposed to 400 and 600 μg/mL. SPECT showed good biocompatibility with no local adverse effects and an increased osteoblast activity as compared to adjacent vertebra. SrCPS implantation induced bone formation and resulted in complete resorption and defect consolidation. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 2013.
Influence of surface features of hydroxyapatite on the adsorption of proteins relevant to bone regeneration
Authors: Fernández‐Montes Moraleda Belén , Román Julio San , Rodríguez‐Lorenzo Luís M.
Published: January 2013

Protein–surface interaction may determine the success or failure of an implanted device. Not much attention have been paid to the specific surface parametes of hydroxyapatite (OHAp) that modulates and determines the formation and potential activity of the layer of proteins that is first formed when the material get in contact with the host tissue. the influence of specific surface area (SSA), crystallite size (CS) and particle size (PS) of OHAp on the adsorption of proteins relevant for bone regeneration is evaluated in this article. OHAp have been prepared by a wet chemical reaction of Ca(OH)2 with H3PO4. One set of reactions included poly acrylic acid in the reactant solution to modify the properties of the powder. Fibrinogen (Fg) Fraction I, type I: from Human plasma, (67% Protein), and Fibronectin (Fn) from Human plasma were selected to perform the adsorption experiments. The analysis of protein adsorption was carried out by UV/Vis spectrometry. A lower SSA and a different aspect ratio are obtained when the acrylic acid is included in the reaction badge. The deconvolution of the amide I band on the Raman spectra of free and adsorbed proteins reveals that the interaction apatite–protein happens through the carboxylate groups of the proteins. The combined analysis of CS, SSA and PS should be considered on the design of OHAp materials intended to interact with proteins. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 2013.
Antitumor and antiangiogenic active dendrimer/5‐fluorouracil conjugates
Authors: Lee Sun‐Mi , Bala Yerri Swamy , Lee Won‐Ki , Jo Nam‐Ju , Chung Ildoo
Published: January 2013

Antitumor and antiangiogenic active dendritic compounds conjugated with 5‐fluorouracil (5‐FU) were synthesized and characterized. First, the core structure based on ascorbic acid and dicarboxylic acid was synthesized, amidated with ethylenediamine. For the synthesis of higher generated dendrimer, it was reacted further with methyl acrylate to increase molecular weight through Michael addition reaction, followed by the continuous repeating amidation reaction, finally, used to synthesize covalently bound dendrimer/5‐FU conjugates. The in vitro cytotoxicities of the conjugates was evaluated with mouse mammary carcinoma, mouse leukemia, and human histiocytic lymphoma as cancer cell lines and mouse liver cells as a normal cell line, and showed lower values than 5‐FU. The in vivo antitumor activities of the conjugates against mice bearing sarcoma 180 tumor cell line were better than 5‐FU. Especially, Second generated dendrimer (G‐2)/5‐FU conjugates showed excellent in vivo antitumor as well as antiangiogenic activities evaluated by the embryo chorioallantoic membrane assay due to slow hydrolysis rate and the amount of 5‐FU released. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A, 2013.
Preparative and Structural Studies on [NiII(L)(N(CH2CH2S)2(CH2CH2SH))]0/1−1 (L = PEt3, SePh): A Thiol in the Secondary Coordination Sphere
Authors: Chen Chien‐Hong , Yen Shih‐Ying , Huang Tzu‐Ting , Lee Gene‐Hsiang , Kuo Ting‐Shen , Lee Chien‐Ming
Published: January 2013

A Ni(II)‐mixed‐chalcogenolate carbonyl complex, [PPN][Ni(CO)(SePh)2(S‐p‐C6H4‐Cl)] (1) was obtained from the treatment of [CpNi(μ‐S‐p‐C6H4‐Cl)]2 and fac‐[PPN][Fe(CO)3(SePh)3]. Using 1 as a precursor, two four‐coordinated square planar Ni(II)‐chalcogenolate/chalcogenol complexes, [PPN][Ni‐(SePh)(N(CH2CH2S)2(CH2CH2SH))] (2) and [Ni(PEt3)(N(CH2CH2S)2(CH2CH2SH))] (4) containing the thiol in the secondary coordination sphere have been synthesized and identified by single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction. Analyses of structural data and vibrational energy (νSH = 2431 cm−1 for 4) reveal that the pendant thiol in complexes 2 and 4, respectively do not form intramolecular interaction with the nickel and thiolato sulfur. Compared to previously reported analogues coordinated by [P(o‐C6H4S)2(o‐C6H4SH)]2−ligand (Chen, C.‐H.; Lee, G.‐H.; Liaw, W.‐F. Inorg. Chem. 2006, 45, 2307), the lack of intramolecular interaction in complexes 2 and 4 may be attributed to the rotatable C‐S and C‐C bonds of [N(CH2CH2S)2(CH2CH2SH)]2− ligand, precluding the pendant thiol from pointing a direction to the nickel and thiolato sulfur.
Hydrothermal Synthesis of High‐Surface‐Area Anatase TiO2 Nanoparticles for Enhancing the Photovoltaic Performance of Solar Cells
Authors: Yen Yin‐Cheng , Chen Jing‐Zhi , Lin Kuan‐Jiuh
Published: January 2013

To develop environmentally friendly, inexpensive, and high‐quality materials for photo‐electrodes to be used in dye‐sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), nanocrystalline TiO2 with an anatase phase and a high surface area was successfully synthesized through a hydrothermal process. The as‐prepared TiO2 was characterized by high‐resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR‐TEM), field emission scanning electron microscope (FE‐SEM), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) equation. Furthermore, we present a systematic study of its photovoltaic properties based on an as‐prepared TiO2 quasi solid‐state DSSC device. The quasi solid‐state DSSC was compared with a DSSC made with commercial P25. The results demonstrated that electrodes based on anatase TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) with high surface area are beneficial to improving the dye absorption and electron transport properties. These NPs are also highly efficient in terms of light harvesting and charge collection, which leads to the enhancement of the conversion efficiency. As expected, the results showed that the DSSCs employing the oligo‐polyethylene glycol dimethylether (PEGDME) electrolyte have long‐term stability.
Simultaneous determination of seven lignans in Justicia procumbens by high performance liquid chromatography–photodiode array detection using relative response factors
Authors: Luo Zuliang , Kong Weijun , Qiu Feng , Yang Meihua , Li Qian , Wei Riwei , Yang Xiaoli , Qin Jieping
Published: January 2013

A simple and sensitive HPLC coupled with photodiode array (HPLC–PDA) method was developed for simultaneous determination of seven lignans in Justicia procumbens using relative response factors (RRFs). The chromatographic separation was performed on a Shiseido Capcell Pak C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm id, 5 μm), a gradient elution of acetonitrile/water, and a photodiode array detector. The column temperature was maintained at 35°C and the detection wavelength was set at 256 nm. Chinensinaphthol methyl ether was selected as the reference compound for calculating the relative response factors of the lignans. It has shown that the RRFs for lignans are quite similar at 256 nm of detection under different analytical conditions (different columns and HPLC instruments). Using RRFs, not every lignan is needed as a reference standard, making the method ideal for rapid, routine analysis, especially for those laboratories where lignans standards are not readily available. An economic and practicable HPLC method using RRFs was established for the determination of seven lignans in J. procumbens. This method not only can determine multiple indexes in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) simultaneously, but also resolve the problem of lacking of chemical standards. It will be a good quality evaluation method and pattern for TCMs.
Graphene/poly(ethylene‐co‐vinyl acetate) composite electrode fabricated by melt compounding for capillary electrophoretic determination of flavones in Cacumen platycladi
Authors: Sheng Shijun , Liu Shuang , Zhang Luyan , Chen Gang
Published: January 2013

In this report, a graphene/poly(ethylene‐co‐vinyl acetate) composite electrode was fabricated by melt compounding for the amperometric detection of capillary electrophoresis. The composite electrode was fabricated by packing a mixture of graphene and melted poly(ethylene‐co‐vinyl acetate) in a piece of fused silica capillary under heat. The structure of the composite was investigated by scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results indicated that graphene sheets were well dispersed in the composite to form an interconnected conducting network. The performance of this unique graphene‐based detector has been demonstrated by separating and detecting rutin, quercitrin, kaempferol, and quercetin in Cacumen platycladi in combination with capillary electrophoresis. The four flavones have been well separated within 9 min in a 50‐cm‐long capillary at a separation voltage of 12 kV using a 50 mM sodium borate buffer (pH 9.2). The graphene‐based detector offered significantly lower operating potentials, substantially enhanced signal‐to‐noise characteristics, lower expense of operation, high resistance to surface fouling, and enhanced stability. It showed long‐term stability and repeatability with relative standard deviations of <5% for the peak current (n = 15).