bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Contact vécu avec les étrangers
Authors: Tyblewski Tyburcjusz
Published: March 2008

Le contact avec la nature, avec la culture et avec les hommes constitue le but fondamental du tourisme dans son sens le plus ancien — classique pourrait‐on dire. La conséquence d'un tel contact est un sentiment, défini en psychologie comme le processus d'expériences vécues et le reflet du contact de l'homme avec l'environnement et avec lui‐même.
Employment opportunity through tourism
Authors: Vroom Janhendrik A.
Published: March 2008

Tourism generating areas provide employment for thousands with the outlook for future growth surpassing all estimates. To create jobs and to increase the influx of tourists, promotion of the sociocultural aspects of tourism are of prime importance. New York in its advertising campaign «I love New York», provided a $ 491 million boom in travel earnings with some $ 60 million added to the state's treasury in taxes. Not a bad return ([5] : 1).
La formation scientifique en matière de tourisme dans le cadre académique
Authors: Schmidhauser H.P.
Published: March 2008

Comme le suggèrent à juste titre souvent des auteurs de différentes provenances, le changement constant et progressant dans toutes les conditions de la vie actuelle est la seule constante à laquelle on peut vraiement se fier. De la dernière on peut déduire que toute formation doit être considérée comme un processus dynamique. Les connaissances, le savoir et les facultés acquises à l'école, au cours de l'apprentissage ou à l'université, ne suffisent pas toujours. Pour s'accoutumer à un monde changeant si rapidement, une formation progressive et constante est nécessaire.
Recherches scientifiques et formation du personnel dans le domaine du tourisme en Bulgarie
Authors: Guéorguiev A.
Published: March 2008

Pendant les vingt dernières années la République Populaire de Bulgarie a réalisé des succès considérables dans le développement du tourisme : ils concernent non seulement l'édification de l'infrastructure et la superstructure touristique mais aussi l'augmentation du nombre des paricipants — étrangers et autochtones — dans le flux touristique. Les don‐nées statistiques dans les rapports précédents soulignent très clairement ce fait.
Future trends in international tourism
Authors: Kibedi George
Published: March 2008

According to the Delphi Survey organized during the International Symposium on Tourism in Washington, D.C., 1979, with the active participation of leading experts from every continent, the events which would probably influence most tourism businesses during the eighties, will be the following (ranked by likelihood of occurrence):
Devisenbeschränkungen für westdeutsche Auslandstouristen — Ein Rezept zum Abbau des Leistungsbilanzdefizits?
Authors: Bleile Georg
Published: March 2008

Erstmals seit vielen Jahren geriet die Leistungsbilanz der BR‐Deutschland im Jahr 1979 mit 10 Mrd DM in eine Defizitposition, im Jahr 1980 stieg das Leistungsbilanzdefizit auf 28 Mrd DM an. Ein erheblicher Teil dieser hohen Leistungsbilanzdefizite musste durch Rückgriff auf die Währungs‐reserven der Deutschen Bundesbank finanziert werden. Nachdem die deutschen Gold‐ und Devisenreserven bis zum Jahr 1979 aufgrund nachhaltiger Ueberschüsse in der Leistungsbilanz ständig gestiegen waren, beurteilten viele Beobachter in Deutschland die negative Entwicklung der Leistungsbilanz des Jahres 1980 als ein sehr bedrohliches Alarmzeichen. Um einen weiteren Verlust von Devisenreserven in der Zukunft zu verhindern, wurde insbesondere von einigen Politikern die Forderung nach einer Devisenbeschränkung für westdeutsche Touristen, die ins Ausland reisen wollen, in die öffentliche Diskussion eingebracht. Der in den vergangenen Jahren unaufhaltsam wachsende Strom von westdeutschen Auslandsreisenden, in Zeiten steigender Devisenüberschüsse von den deutschen Wirtschaftspolitikern nicht ungern gesehen, war einigen Leuten nun plötzlich ein Dorn im Auge. Tatsächlich sind die Westdeutschen seit 1973 Rekordhalter bei den internationalen Touris‐musausgaben. Im vergangenen Jahr gaben westdeutsche Touristen im Ausland rund 38 Mrd DM aus. Gleichzeitig betrugen die Deviseneinnahmen von ausländischen Touristen in der BR‐Deutschland nur etwa 12 Mrd DM. Der Passivsaldo der Reiseverkehrsbilanz kletterte in den siebziger Jahren sprunghaft von 5,4 Mrd DM (1970) auf ca. 26 Mrd DM (1980). Die näherungsweise grössenmässige Gleichheit von Leistungsbilanzdefizit und Passivsaldo der Reiseverkehrsbilanz im Jahr 1980 dürfte den Gedanken an eine Devisenbeschränkung für Auslandsreisen sehr stimuliert haben. Ist die Ansicht ökonomisch begründet, dass mit Hilfe einer Beschränkung von Reisedevisen das deutsche Leistungsbilanzdefizit wirksam reduziert werden kann?
Szenario: Freizeit und Tourismus im Zeithorizont 2000–2010
Authors: Schwaninger Markus
Published: March 2008

Dieses Szenario befasst sich mit den wahrscheinli‐chen Entwicklungen von Freizeit und Tourismus in einem Zeithorizont von rund 20 Jahren. Es wird dabei vor allem auf die Situation in den europäischen Industrieländern Bezug genommen.
Airtransport and international tourism: An examination of the distribution of the benefits between developed and developing countries
Authors: Van Houts Didier
Published: March 2008

Tourism and airtransport, although mass tourism was possible by other transports facilities, the great step forward was put with developments in airtransport.
Les centres culturels de rencontre — l'hôtellerie
Authors: Blanchet Jean‐Roger , Cauet Jean‐Michel
Published: March 2008

La valorisation touristique du patrimoine bâti peut revêtir des formes très diverses, allant des pré‐occupations quotidiennes aux créations de grands mouvements intellectuels ou artistiques. Dans le même ordre d'idée, une telle valorisation peut concerner des entités géographiques et humaines de toute taille et nature, allant du hameau à la province à la nation.
Der Wert der Freizeit für die Gesundheit
Authors: Luise Geller med.
Published: March 2008

“Freizeit” ist ein Begriff, der mit Freiheit zusammenhängt und die Befreiung vom Zwang der Arbeitswelt, in die der Mensch eingeschlossen ist, in sich trägt oder in der die zweckbewusste Anstrengung oder Arbeit von einer zweckfremden Entspannung abgelöst wird.
L'accueil au cœur de la politique touristique
Authors: José Seydoux dr.
Published: March 2008

La thèse 1) que j'ai consacrée à l'accueil répond à une démarche inédite, dans la mesure ou, constituant l'aboutissement de toute une pensée qui n'a cessé d'inspirer mon activité professionnelle au service de la communication dans le tourisme, elle se propose d'analyser le phénomène de l'accueil dans sa globalité, d'en redéfinir les tenants et aboutissants et d'en refaire l'élément un du tourisme dont il assura la dimension humaine en tant que gardien de certaines valeurs fondamentales.
The cyclic behaviour of tourist flows: Tourist arrivals in Mexico
Authors: Husbands Winston C.
Published: March 2008

It is widely known, for most tourist destinations, that tourist arrivals tend to be seasonal — there tends to be a tourist season, or high season and low season. However, it is important to grasp whether or not the fluctuating pattern of arrivals manifests itself with regularity: is it a case of random fluctuation or cyclical behaviour? In view of the massive scale and importance of tourism, both globally and for several nation states individually, knowledge of the cyclical complexity of tourism is essential if description, prediction, and control, are to be undertaken with acceptable accuracy.
The tourism phenomenon: An examination of important theories and concepts
Authors: Papadopoulos Socrates I.
Published: March 2008

Tourism may be described variously because of its “close” relationships with other social sciences, including economics, politics, sociology, cultural anthropology, psychology and even law and statistics. As per Wahab (1971) tourism is a “system” that relates to the sociosphere and is a complex combination of interrelated industries and trades. Although it would be very difficult to describe tourism under one definition due to its many facets, a clear concept and a precise definition of the terms related to the phenomenon of tourism is required before we proceed with the analysis of determinants and motivations of tourism in the world economy.
World Tourism: An economic analysis
Authors: Papadopoulos Socrates I.
Published: March 2008

Although interest in international trade is of long standing, economists and policy makers have seldom attempted to link international tourism with trade theory — despite the growing importance of international tourism as a component of international trade. As per Wahab (1975), there is a dearth of scientific books covering the wide range of tourism subjects. In fact, he says “not more than half a dozen books have appeared in the English language in Europe and America on the subject of tourism between 1970–1975”.
The Role and impact of mega‐events and attractions on regional and national tourism development resolutions
Authors: Marris Tyrrell
Published: March 2008

Now that we have reviewed the basic reports, the published special reports and the discussions of the working groups let us see what can be high‐lighted as a conclusion. How has this Congress advanced the science of tourism applied to mega‐attractions and to mega‐events?
Tourism in China
Authors: Zhao Jian
Published: March 2008

Main Difficulties Traditionally agriculture and industry were — until recent times — the only real resources. Historical events and the political situation empeded the government to pay the necessary attention to the economical and cultural advantages of national and international tourism. Another hindrance was the negative opinion — one of the long‐lasting consequences of the “Cultural Revolution” — about Lu‐lio (travel and sight‐seeing), which made the natives shrink from the latest ideas about tourism.
The analysis of group size in visitor surveys
Authors: Latham J.
Published: March 2008

Data relating to group composition are collected in most sample surveys of visitors, both at frontiers and within a tourist region. A vital element is that of size of group. It is important that the distribution of group sizes within the population under consideration is reflected accurately by the sample, possibly after some weighting procedures. A sampling procedure which is biased in terms of size of group will provide biased results concerning any variable that is related to group size. In particular it would lead to false information on the proportions of different types of visitor (eg businessmen, who are more likely to travel alone than are holiday‐makers) and inaccurate estimates may therefore be produced of, say, expenditure. Marketing plans also often depend on results obtained for group composition.
Social tourism: The Korean case
Authors: Pyo Sungsoo , Howell Richard L.
Published: March 2008

During the early 1970s, per capita income of Koreans increased rapidly. The increased income was due to the speedy industrialization. Both increased income and mounting stress from jobs and the industrialized environment together induced Koreans to travel away from home to relax and regain strength to work.
The significance of enterprise culture for tourism enterprises
Authors: Kaspar Claude
Published: March 2008

Two events caused the world of Swiss tourism to sit up and take notice in 1988: the rejection of the collective employment agreement in the hotel industry by the delegates of the Swiss Hotel‐Association and the turbulence in the Kuoni travel firm in connection with the replacement of Jack Bolli by Michel Crippa at the head of the Kuoni AG, which is considered to be an international front‐runner firm.
Pour un thermalisme différent ‐considérations sur le cas de l'Italie
Authors: Carone Giuseppe Dott. G.
Published: March 2008

Santé et vacances. Quel est le juste équilibre? Et quel est le rle du Sud de l'Italie? Hypothèse pour un projet de développement du thermalisme italien
Thermalisme et remise en forme dans les villages de vacances familiaux
Authors: Guignand André
Published: March 2008

Les villages de vacances familiaux, construits voici deux ou trois décennies, répondaient à deux motivations essentielles:
Modelling AIEST Congress attendance
Authors: Witt Stephen F. , Dartus Mireille , Sykes Alan M.
Published: March 2008

The 3 following tables named in the article were omitted in no. 2/92 of the Review: (To improve the layout Table 2 has been put first.)
Motivations for freedom of movement in the year 2000
Authors: Adejuwon Franklin J.
Published: March 2008

The subject‐matter of the congress is “The freedom of travelling in the year 2000 — Rights and duties of the tourist”.
World Travel & Tourism Environment Research Centre Oxford Brookes University, UK
Authors: Middleton Victor T.C. , Hawkins Rebecca
Published: March 2008

Sponsored by the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) (1), the World Travel & Tourism Environment Research Centre (WTTERC) is an independent research unit launched in September 1991 by the Hon. Michael Howard Q.C, M.P, then UK Secretary of State for Employment. The initiative reflects the growing concern within the travel and tourism industry to manage its environmental impacts and maximise its potential to bring about environmental improvement. Based within Oxford Brookes University and with a global remit, WTTERC aims to “monitor assess and communicate effective environment strategies, objectives and programmes for world travel and tourism”.
Responsible marketing of ecotourism destinations and attractions: A commercial sector perspective
Authors: Brackenbury Martin
Published: March 2008

This year celebrates the 40th anniversary of the ascent of Everest when man first stood upon the highest mountain on earth.
Qualitätstourismus in ostdeutschland — realisierungschancen?
Authors: Grossmann Margita
Published: March 2008

Qualität — verstanden als Markenzeichen für ein optimales Wirkungsresultat des Tourismus in Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft und Natur — wird für die ehemaligen Ostblockländer vielfach ganz global als kaum vorhanden und erst in weiter Feme in breitem Maße realisierbar angesehen. Am Beispiel von Ostdeutschland soll der Frage nachgegangen werden, welche Position gegenwärtig in diesem Prozeß tourismuspolitisch bestimmend ist.
Become your own marketing information consultant: A synopsis of the workshop contents
Authors: Sherry Dean Mrs.
Published: March 2008

One of the positive developments created by an era of grim economics in industry at large, is a phenomenally enhanced awareness of the need to be market rather than product driven. Financial pressure has forced companies and organisations urgently to seek ways and means to broaden and deepen their customer bases. Out of this has arisen not only the need to reassess market targeting. It has also led to a need to record, track and respond to the business and human needs of their potential customers. This emphasises the importance of two parallel activities: Continually finding new target markets, and developing sophistication in client contact skills.
A knowledge‐based system in the travel business
Authors: Vanhoof Koen , Molderez Ingrid
Published: March 2008

In the tourism sector it is often impossible for an travel agent to answer all the specific questions about destinations in a certain area. The tourist expects an expert in front of him, but a travel agent can't know everything about all the holiday resorts. Also taking into account his lack of time due to the enormous number of tourists, the travel agent will overwhelm the client with detailed brochures. Unfortunately, this service doesn't fulfill the requirements of quality management. The travel agent needs a tool to give better advice to the tourist. At the same time this can result in a strategic differentiation from competitors. Together with the students of the special licentiate in Tourism at the Limburg University Centre, Faculty of Applied Economics, we have designed such an advice system. It should lead to an improvement in the quality of advice given to the tourist who is looking for the appropriate holiday destination. We used the technology of an expert system. The experiment was limited to the 13 seaside resorts on the Belgian Coast.
Deconstructing destination image construction
Authors: Fesenmaier Daniel , MacKay Kelly
Published: March 2008

Tourism is leisure commodified. As a commodity, the actuality of tourism has been suggested as less important than its expressive representations. What is depicted or not depicted in destination image advertising, and on whose authority it is selected, involves a more complex question of what comprises the destination and who has the power to define its identity. Recently, there has been a shift in the promotional role of destination marketing organizations where it has broadened to include product (attraction) development and industry relations. This role extension enables a matching of authoritative voice and reconstructed reality in order to verify official imaging. The symbolism and meaning of destination image can be interpreted through a deconstructionist analysis of tourist destination advertising. This paper explores significance of tourism promotion on tourist culture as it packages touristic representations.
You'll better stay at home? Studies on the recreational effects of holidays and holiday tourism
Authors: Lohmann Martin
Published: March 2008

The paper describes the method and the results of a pilot‐study on recreational effects of holidays. The objective of the study was to get first insights in the psychological process of recreation during holidays: E.g. How can recreation be measured? What kind of changes in the emotional state do occur during long term recreational processes? Do people perceive themselves as «recreated» during or after a holiday? A sample of 59 German teachers were asked to fill in psychological questionnaires before, during and after their summer holiday 1992. The questionnaires used measured different dimensions of personal condition (mood), individual effects of work load, and some data concerning organisational and motivational aspects of the holiday trip as well as sociodemographic data.
Le concept “produire plus propre” et l'industrie hôtelière: des principes à la pratique
Authors: Perera Oshani
Published: March 2008

To develop more sustainable tourism, the Cleaner Production approach in sitting, designing, building and managing tourism facilities and hotels appears essential.
The dialogue of school exchanges with the tourism system
Authors: Macchiavelli Andrea
Published: March 2008

Generally, school exchanges in foreign countries are not understood as a tourism phenomenon. From the statistical point of view, these stages of visiting student abroad, normally for a period of a week, are clearly defined as tourism. The motivations which lead to undertake an exchange experience are similar to the motives in cultural tourism. Moreover, a stay abroad offers the students an opportunity to learn how to travel. Local tourism offices should attach mire importance to student exchange programs in general and also include them in their marketing planning. The schools offering student exchange programs should put their efforts together by building up networks in order to support mutual interests.
A review of the 47th AIEST Congress quality and quality management in tourism: Towards a synthesis of the Congress
Authors: Keller Peter , Weiermair Klaus
Published: March 2008

The 47th Congress attempted to answer the following key questions: What exactly does quality mean in tourism? How can general and/or total quality be produced and marketed? How important is it to include the customer (tourist) in the process that leads to the provision of tourism services? In what way does quality create competitive advantages? How can the quality of a destination be assured in the same way as that of a corporation?
Education — As a quality factor of tourism
Authors: Jandala Csilla
Published: March 2008

This article analyses the current tourism education system in Hungary as a key factor of quality improvement. The case of the Veszprem University is present. It is proposed to build up a competitive education system in tourism for this important tourism country.
The status of the visiting friends and relatives category in recent tourism analysis
Authors: Seaton A.V.
Published: March 2008

This paper provides an overview of the visiting friends and relatives category in international tourism researchover the last decade. It was delivered as a keynote paper at the international conference, “VFR Tourism: Issues and implications” held at the Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia, in October 1996.
Nationalpark‐tourismus in Chitawan (Nepal)
Authors: Müller‐Böker Ulrike
Published: March 2008

A future‐oriented study of behaviour and of the effects on the structure of tourism in Nepal of increasing numbers of tourists, using seasonally adjusted criteria.
Reengineering destination marketing organisations: The case of Switzerland
Authors: Bieger Thomas
Published: March 2008

Like most traditional forms of tourism also alpine tourism has lost its strategic success positions due to the ongoing globalisation of the tourism sector. The traditional structures in tourism marketing — based on political and institutional boundaries — have to make place to a more market oriented structure. The association of swiss tourism managers decided to follow a destination management approach that will lead to corresponding tourism structures. A proposition for such structeres has been presented last year.
Designing and implementing a system of surveys of inbound tourism: The Eurostat project
Authors: Manente Mara , Minghetti Valeria
Published: March 2008

This paper presents the UE‐Eurostat methodology to design and implement a system of surveys of inbound tourism. It has been thought for the homogeneisation of the information systems of the EU countries and for the development of the cooperation in the field of tourism statistics between the European Union and other relevant extra‐Europe regions. Furthermore, the methodology wants to give a common framework of analysis for the collection and processing of comparable statistics at each territorial level. The general research process has been split up into nine fundamental steps which represent the stages a researcher has to follow in order to obtain reliable data on visitor flows, visitors' and trip characteristics, consumption behaviour and opinions and impressions on the trip and the visit. It has been implemented for closed areas (areas with political borders, e.g. a country, geographical borders, e.g. a island, artificial borders, e.g. a museum, a theme park, an archaeological area) and open areas (a macro‐region, a region, a single tourist destination, e.g. a city, or tourist site, e.g. a square).
Zukunftsorientierte tourismuspolitik — synthese des 49. AIEST kongresses
Authors: Keller Peter
Published: March 2008

Unvermeidliche Politisierung des Tourismus Konservative bedauern, dass immer mehr Lebensbereiche Gegenstand der Politik werden. Dieses Bedauern könnte besonders für den Tourismus geltend gemacht werden. Er gilt als einer der letzten Bereiche, wo Freiheit in unserer Gesellschaft individuell erlebt werden kann.
Measuring destination image an approach by an attribute‐based analysis
Authors: Gallarza Martina G. , Cil Saura Irene , Calderón García Haydée
Published: March 2008

Product image formation process is a valuable insight for correct understanding of consumer behaviour. When product is a tourism destination, image formation is even more important due to the inability of pretest the tourist product. This framework gives place to the present research on tourism destination image. The paper starts with a litterature review on the meaning and measurement of destination image divided into two main approaches: the conceptual and the methodological. Secondly, the results of an empirical investigation are reported: it deals with the assessment of attribute‐based destination image of sun and beach resorts on the Spanish Mediterranean coast. The aim and contribution of the paper are to provide an example of one methodological procedure for measurement of destination image (the Principal Component Analysis) which allows, in a first step, to obtain a structure of perceptions on sun and beach destinations. A description of the images of the resorts investigated is also reported in order to understand better perceptions on the tourism market.
Focus and mechanisms of control used by German tour operators in their relationships with hotels
Authors: Medina‐Muñoz Rita D. , Medina‐Muñoz Diego R.
Published: March 2008

Hotels offer a product of strategic interest to tour operators as far as it determines the cost of a package vacation to a great extent, while it also significantly influences the degree of satisfaction of the tourists who purchase such packages. That, together with the increasingly competitive rivalry among German tour operators, suggests how important it is for the tour operators to exercise some control over the hotel companies they deal with. This study identifies the aspects over which German tour operators exercise control in their relationships with hotel companies they do business with, including the mechanisms or tools used to exercise control.
Report on workshop II: Air transport and sustainable tourism development
Authors: Bischof Lukas
Published: March 2008

Three case studies about “air transport and sustainable tourism development” were presented in the second workshop of the AIEST‐conference.
Growth perceptions of small and medium‐sized enterprises (SME's) — The case of South Tyrol
Authors: Pechlaner Harald , Raich Frieda , Zehrer Anita , Peters Mike
Published: March 2008

Globalization and internationalization tendencies imply new challenges for small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs), which are either facing the pressure to achieve short‐term profits, or have to attract new market segments by means of long‐term strategies. This trend raises the question of growth perspectives of SMEs and their future development. The paper gives an insight into selected growth theories, entrepreneurship and SMEs, firm competencies, core competencies and the wellbeing of entrepreneurs as a growth indicator. The majority of SMEs are run by the family and characterized by low growth rates or even stagnation, and relatively low market entry and qualification barriers. An exploratory study was carried out among 3‐ and 4‐star hotels in South Tyrol (Italy) in 2004 for a better understanding of the driving forces, growth barriers, entrepreneur's satisfaction, and prerequisites and incentives of growth.
Succession in tourism familiy business: The motivation of succeeding family members
Authors: Peters Mike
Published: March 2008

The paper deals with succession processes in tourism family enterprises. Beginning with a literature review on succession in family firms, the paper focuses on the motivation structure of successors and his/her perceived problems associated with succession in family enterprises. A survey carried out in the Italian Alps during 2003 analyses ex‐post evaluations of succession processes by successors. In a first attempt, the author establishes the importance of family business succession research in terms of the available literature. Relevant succession models to be found in the social sciences literature are discussed in order to deduce relevant research questions for the empirical study at hand. The focus of the paper is an analysis of success in family firms succession processes, based on varying motivation structures (factors) of the successor.
Euroregions — new potential destinations
Authors: Studzieniecki Tomasz
Published: March 2008

Europe as a destination seems to be in a critical stage. There is more competition than cooperation between European nations and regions Our continent needs new solutions and patterns of tourism development. As new initiatives take place in transborder regions it is important to analyze opportunities for transborder tourism development. Several euroregions function only as “umbrellas” facilitating tourism development in national components however some of them are becoming attractive transborder destinations. The author tries to compare regions and euroregions as destinations. The paper shows the role of structural funds (e.g. Interreg), in transnational cooperation and to describes examples of good practice in transborder tourism. According to Association of European Border Regions, “the border regions themselves would not be able to overcome their problems without being granted assistance from the UE. The Oresund is one of the first euroregions promoted as transnational destination. The creation of a transborder destination is a long term process. It requires stable partnership between national components that leads from alienation to integration
Call for papers for workshop contribution (work in progress)
Authors: Keller Peter , Bieger Thomas
Published: March 2008

As announced earlier, the next AIEST Congress will take place in Moscow/Russia from 27th August — 1st September 2006. The theme of the Congress is “Dealing with volatile demand in tourism — how can marketing become more efficient and effective?”
Food trends and food science in the 1970's
Authors: Spicer A.
Published: March 2008

Man is foremost a creature of habit and strong beliefs and disbeliefs. Some of these are part of our inheritance and some are formed and formulated by us as environmental reactions. In each part of the world food trends vary considerably. They do so because the underlying causes vary. A country experiencing a large population explosion will go a different way to one of moderate population growth. Large immigration will influence the pattern; also great differences in the social strata have considerable effects on the lines of development.
FREEZERMEALS
Authors: Glew G.
Published: March 2008

In 1949, the usage of the School Meals Service by children in Britain was 52%. It is now 70% or 1,000 million meals per year. This growth in numbers must be set against the present facilities, which are already stretched to the limit in many areas. Restrictions have had to be imposed, so that not every child who wishes to have a school meal can do so. Central kitchens, which send out hot meals in bulk to the schools, are coming to the end of their useful lives. But in Leeds central kitchens still provide nearly half the daily quota of meals which are transported in insulated containers to schools without their own kitchens. These are eaten, because of the location of the older schools, by infants from the poorer residential districts of the city, for whom the school meal is particularly important. The transport of hot cooked foods results in reduced palatabiliy and reduced vitamin retention (Table 1). The meal is ready for despatch from the central kitchens between 10.30 a.m. and 11 a.m., so the cooking equipment is almost unused for the rest of the day. Fig. 1 shows the results of a study of major equipment utilisation in a central kitchen. The highest utilisation of equipment is during the morning and reaches a peak about 10 a.m., after which utilisation rapidly falls and during the afternoon major equipment is used very little. Table 2 shows the percentage of the working week when various items of equipment were in use. It can be seen that usage is very low, particularly simultaneous usage of all pieces of one type of equipment.
Anorexia nervosa
Authors: Walker Lumsden
Published: March 2008

Anorexia nervosa is the term used to describe a specific disorder of appetite. The name of this complaint is to some extent misleading as it implies loss of appetite of nervous origin. While this is in part true, it is inaccurate. The non‐medical reader may be left with the impression that the description includes all those rather ‘nervous’, tense or over anxious people who also have a poor appetite and occasional refusal of food or excessive faddiness about their food. This, of course, is not so.
THE HUNTINGDON RESEARCH CENTRE
Authors: Jolly Donald W.
Published: March 2008

The most progressive nations are those whose dietary status is good and where food is abundant and cheap. This needs a highly productive agricultural industry which in turn demands the opportunity to cultivate a wide variety of foods from mushrooms to maize, beef to broilers, and tomatoes to trout. While necessity may be the mother of invention, modern food is often the brain child of agricultural and nutritional research. In this connection research ranges from the development of rapidly maturing wheats for Arctic summers to the freeze drying of strawberries or the production of synthetic milk.
Meat Research
Authors: Gardner Cynthia
Published: March 2008

The Low Temperature Research Station was established in Cambridge in 1922 to investigate scientific problems arising out of the preservation and handling of foods, and particularly their refrigerated transport and storage. In 1967, the Research Station moved from Cambridge and divided into two larger units; the Meat Research Institute, situated on the campus of the Veterinary Departments of Bristol University, and the Food Research Institute at Norwich, adjacent to the University of East Anglia.
Essential Fatty Acids
Authors: Taylor R.J.
Published: March 2008

Essential fatty acids are substances that an animal organism — which includes that of humans — needs for certain physiological and metabolic processes. This is almost a definition of vitamins, and they were indeed known as vitamin F in the early days, but the daily requirement of them is so much greater than that of vitamins that the name has lapsed for them. The need for them was discovered in 1929 when two American scientists, G. O. and M. M. Burr, were studying the effect on rats of fat‐free diets. Many of the effects that were noted and traced to an absence of certain fatty acids could be generalised as the results of an impairment of biological membrane function.
The national food survey
Authors: Baines A.H.J. , Buss D.H.
Published: March 2008

Any Government needs to make sure that its citizens have enough of the right kinds of food to eat. After air and water, there is no more basic human need; but in assessing the adequacy of food supplies most Governments rely on data relating to production and external trade, rather than on a more direct measurement of food consumption. The statistical series Food Consumption Levels in the United Kingdom (which, despite its name, shows total amounts of foodstuffs available at a primary stage of distribution) can be matched in most developed countries; but such series cannot give any indication of the claims of different sections of the population on total supplies. In contrast, the annual reports of the National Food Survey Committee of Great Britain, entitled Household Food Consumption and Expenditure, provide a continuous evaluation of the amount and cost of food used by different types of household, a record on which a nutritional assessment can be based.
Toxicological Testing and Research
Authors: Seeley A.M.
Published: March 2008

The establishment of the British Industrial Biological Research Association in October 1960 was preceded by complex discussions, which continued for a number of years. The prolonged nature of the negotiations was understandable, however, since the project under consideration was unique. Unlike most of the Research Associations with which BIBRA eventually took its place, the new organization was not intended directly to promote technological development or improve manufacturing efficiency and, therefore, profitability. Rather it was envisaged that BIBRA would give advice and carry out research to assist the food and related industries in their task of ensuring that foods complied with the requirements of the Food and Drugs Act, that it would provide data to aid the Government in establishing regulations concerning the composition of foods and that, in performing these functions, it would act also as a ‘watch‐dog’ for the general public. It was in furtherance of these aims that BIBRA was eventually established as one of the industrial research associations, working under the auspices first of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and its successor the Department of Trade and Industry, and later (since 1970) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. The Association receives financial support both from industry and from the Government and, in addition, has been fortunate to receive generous grants for specific research projects from various independent bodies, including the Nuffield Foundation, the British Nutrition Foundation and the Wellcome Trust.
Monitoring for heavy metals
Authors: Tolan Alan
Published: March 2008

There appears to be no clear chemical definition of the term, heavy metal, but in the broadest sense the term seems to be restricted to metals of greater atomic number than calcium. Thus, nutritionally essential trace elements such as copper, zinc and manganese are heavy metals along with others which are not regarded as serving any useful function in the body such as lead and mercury. It is not certain how many metals are naturally present in food and clearly this will depend on factors such as the source and type of food but it is probable that many metals which occur in nature will also occur in minute traces in food. In practice most of these present no problem and from the point of view of food contamination only a few of the heavy metals, in particular lead, mercury and cadmium, at the present time are of real interest. It is worth noting that some of the essential trace metals may act as contaminants if certain levels are exceeded.
Nutritional value for money
Authors: Christie Hazel
Published: March 2008

What is good nutritional value for money? A 5 oz can of peas costing 4p; a 4 oz packet of frozen peas costing 5½p; or a 2 oz packet of dried peas at 7½p? To answer this question, we have to know two things: the number of edible portions in each purchased unit, and the effect of the processing method on the nutritional value of that food
INTERMEDIATE MOISTURE FOODS
Authors: Cook D.J.
Published: March 2008

Fresh foods which contain a high proportion of water have a limited shelf life and spoil quickly. Dehydrated foods containing a very low percentage of water have a long storage life and if kept in good storage conditions do not spoil easily. Dehydration of foods consumes a lot of valuable energy, dried foods need reconstituting and there are problems with the use and acceptance of dried foods.
PRUDENT DIET FOODS
Authors: Stone Michael
Published: March 2008

In most of the ‘developed’ countries of the western hemisphere, heart disease has become the major killer disease not only of the upper age groups, but also of the middle age groups of 35 to 45 years. In the U.K. for example, three‐quarters of all deaths in the male community aged above 65 are due to C.H.D. Even in the 35–45 category, the disease is second only to road accidents as a cause of death. Females are relatively immune from the disease until after the menopause, although they are subsequently as vulnerable as males.
THE CONSUMER AND THE FOOD LABEL
Authors: Salmon Jenny
Published: March 2008

Today there is an abundance of legislation to help ensure the consumer gets a fair deal when she buys durables, services and food. Indeed, many people believe that we have adequate laws and that the major effort now should be directed towards telling the consumer what these laws are and how to use information already provided.
The tendency to fatness
Authors: Ashwell Margaret
Published: March 2008

The opening paragraph of Report on Obesity published by the DHSS and the MRC stresses the importance of obesity. “We are unanimous in our belief that obesity is a hazard to health and a detriment to well‐being. It is common enough to constitute one of the most important medical and public health problems of our time, whether we judge importance by a shorter expectation of life, increased morbidity or cost to the community in terms of both money and anxiety.”
HOW BREASTFEEDING WORKS
Authors: Stanway Penny
Published: March 2008

Once you understand the physiology of milk production (lactation) and breast feeding it is very easy to work out how to help mothers prevent or overcome any problems they might have. Everyone knows that the hormonal changes of pregnancy and childbirth prepare and trigger the breasts to produce milk, but did you know that a woman can induce a milk supply even if she hasn't breast fed for many months or even years? Indeed, even a woman who has never been pregnant can stimulate her breasts to produce milk, though not enough to breast feed a baby fully. Pregnancy hormones set the stage for breast feeding by causing proliferation of the milk glands and ducts in the breasts. Each milk gland is surrounded by a fine network of blood vessels and it is through this blood supply that the hormones reach the milk‐producing cells. Blood also provides the materials from which milk is actually made by the cells. Prolactin is the main milk‐producing hormone and appears from the eighth week of pregnancy onwards, reaching its peak with the birth of the baby. It is prevented from producing milk in any volume during pregnancy by the high levels of oestrogen made by the placenta. After the baby is born and with the loss of the placenta, the oestrogen ‘brakes’ are removed and prolactin starts milk production in earnest. This usually occurs between the second and fourth days. The milk can come in earlier in women feeding their babies frequently and in those having their second or subsequent babies. The more stimulation of the breasts, the more milk is produced, probably by a simple nervous reflex pathway to and from the pituitary gland in the brain, which makes the hormones prolactin and oxytocin, responsible for milk production and letting down the milk, respectively.
The heart of the wheat
Authors: Barnes Peter
Published: March 2008

The domestication of grasses took place some 8,000 to 10,000 years ago. Strains were gradually selected whose seeds remained attached to the fruiting head long enough for the crop to be harvested and these strains gave rise to the wheat and barley we know today. Wheat grain was ground between stones to a coarse flour and as early as the Roman period sieves were used to separate bran from the fine flour to allow a more palatable bread to be baked. Even when advanced to the watermill and windmill, stone‐grinding still left a proportion of the germ in the flour in a powdered state. We now know that this flour must have stored badly, soon gone rancid and lost its baking qualities due to the presence of oil from the fine particles of raw germ. With the advent of the roller‐mill in the nineteenth century came the possibility of removing the intact germ to produce a stable flour and to yield wheat germ which could be stabilised, safely stored and used in its own right as a nutritious food. The purpose of this article is to discuss the nature, source, applications and composition of wheat germ and in particular its nutritional value.
Vegan diets for young children
Authors: Purves Rebecca
Published: March 2008

In 1944 a group of strict vegetarians formed the Vegan Society and called their diet a vegan diet to distinguish it from an ordinary vegetarian diet. Vegans are people who do not eat any food of animal origin. Their diet therefore consists of cereals, pulses — beans, peas, lentils — nuts, fruit and vegetables. A vegetarian diet is similar except that it also includes eggs and/or milk. In recent years vegetarian and, to a lesser extent, vegan diets have increased in popularity. The usual reason is ethical: a distaste for eating animal flesh and the abhorrence of animal suffering. It should be emphasised that veganism is a way of life, and is not a form of food faddism.
ABOVE THE WATER LEVEL
Authors: Wells Dilys
Published: March 2008

Imported bottled waters have been commercially available in the UK since 1861 and long before that the famous spa towns like Bath, Harrogate and Leamington Spa were fashionable places to visit in order to recuperate, usually from food and drink excesses which were common among the wealthy people in those days. In spite of the unpleasant taste of many of these heavily mineralised waters, they were 'taken' in liberal quantities, probably in the belief that anything which tasted so horrid was bound to be good for one.
Gluten Part2
Authors: Schofield J. David
Published: March 2008

The biochemical basis for differences in wheat protein functionality A great deal of research has been carried out to try to determine, in chemical terms, why wheat proteins are so unique from a functional viewpoint. Although some progress has been made, a complete understanding of the molecular properties that are important to the functionality of these proteins is still distant. The reasons for this are that wheat proteins are extremely complex and they are difficult to study, using the more usual techniques of protein chemistry, because of their insolubility except under rather extreme conditions.
The Refreshing Grapefruit
Authors: Gunston David
Published: March 2008

There are people who think that the grapefruit is the result of a man‐made cross between orange and lemon, but in fact it is a natural fruit, the largest of the citrus tribe. Recent research into its origins suggest that it may well be a natural mutation from the pear‐shaped, coarser, bitter shaddock, or pomelo. Occasional ‘sports’ from established species of the citrus family are not uncommon, and in this case, the result has been of particular benefit to man.
THE SPANISH TOXIC OIL SYNDROME
Authors: Kochhar S.P. , Rossell J.B.
Published: March 2008

In May 1981, disease broke out in Spain and quickly became of epidemic proportions, although the incidence of the disease was limited to a relatively small area around Madrid. The most commonly reported symptoms were fever, respiratory distress, nausea and vomiting, headaches, various skin eruptions, general discomfort, abdominal pain, and myalgias. The respiratory distress was initially the major symptom but later neuromuscular changes predominated, ranging from simple myalgia to muscular weakness and atrophy involving peripheral neuropathy, severe weight loss, scleroderma‐like skin changes, and pulmonary hypertension. The epidemic affected more than 20,000 people in Spain and claimed about 400 lives between May 1981 and October 1983. Afflicted patients are still dying, and it is feared that the eventual death toll may exceed 500.
THE LIVING DESERT
Authors: Shrimpton Derek H
Published: March 2008

When Sir David Attenborough used this term, it conveyed a dramatic impression of animal life and its vitality in the desert which, to the uninitiated, could be considered as a wasteland. Equally dramatic is the variety and richness of plant life, evident occasionally and appearing as if by magic in response to a few drops of rain; but now in the days of intensive agriculture, the desert is producing richly, and to order, an abundance of crops. Has the technology bringing abundant water to areas which were arid for most of the year changed the eating habits of the Saudi? What are his traditional patterns of eating and would they be considered satisfactory both to prevent deficiency and to maintain harmony within a ‘NACNE’ style guideline? Have the traditional patterns of eating changed after the opening up of the country and, more recently, the development of intensive agriculture within the country? Derek H Shrimpton PhD provides some answers to these questions.
POTATO TEXTURE
Authors: Faulks Richard
Published: March 2008

The texture of cooked potato is an amalgam of those physical characteristics perceived during preparation and consumption. They may range from a visual assessment of disintegration and flouriness, hardness or crispness, physical work needed to mash, cut, or penetrate with a fork, through to the more subtle sensations of bite, smoothness or graininess sensed in the mouth. Different criteria for the assessment of textural quality will be applied to different cooked potato products, such as boiled, mashed, chipped, roast or baked potatoes, and it is therefore important to understand the underlying physical, compositional and chemical properties of the tuber and how they contribute to the production of textural attributes.