bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Behavioural Reactions, Semen Quality and Testosterone Levels in Cocks: Genetic Implications
Authors: Ferrante V , Verga M , Mangiagalli M G , Carenzi C
Published: January 2023

Intense selection for productivity may have indirectly affected some behavioural traits in poultry. Intensive husbandry systems change rapidly, and the animals may have difficulties in coping with their environment and management. The aims of this study are to examine the fear reactions of two strains of chicken(Gallus gallus domesticus)and to test the relationship between these fear reactivity levels and the chickens’ semen characteristics. Semen characteristics may indicate the effect of genetic selection both on the productivity and fitness of the animals. Forty cocks of two genetics strains (an egg-type strain and a meat-type strain), housed in single cages, were used in the study. During the breeding period, semen was collected twice a week from each animal. Each cock was submitted to an open-field test and a tonic immobility test. The results show that strong genetic selection, carried out over a long period on domestic chickens in order to improve egg and meat production, seems to affect some aspects of behaviour. The reactions to the fear tests show many differences between the two strains: in the open-field test, the egg-type cocks show higher levels of exploratory behaviour and lower general fearfulness (eg lower frequency of vocalisations and head movements). On the other hand, the meat-type cocks show a significantly lower duration of tonic immobility, indicating a lower level of fear specifically towards humans. Moreover, a key nearest neighbours analysis carried out using the behavioural data allows us to discriminate between the two strains with an error rate of 0%. These results suggest the potential for genetic selection aimed at reducing fear reactions, both towards novel environments and towards human beings, which may significantly improve the welfare of cocks.
Relationship Between Rooting Behaviour and Foraging in Growing Pigs
Authors: Beattie V E , O'Connell N E
Published: January 2023

The objective of the present study was to investigate the relationship between rooting behaviour and foraging in growing pigs. In study 1, forty-eight 11-week-old pigs were housed in eight groups of six with access to a rooting substrate in the form of spent mushroom compost. In half of the groups the rooting substrate contained food rewards, and in the other half of the groups it did not. All pigs had ad libitum access to feed. In study 2, one hundred and ninety-two 11-week-old pigs were housed in thirty-two groups of six, all with access to spent mushroom compost, and eight groups were each fed to 70, 80, 90 or 100% appetite. Treatments were applied over a two-week period in both studies. The number of pigs involved in active rooting (rooting in substrate while standing), inactive rooting (rooting in substrate while sitting or lying) or non-rooting activity (standing in substrate area and involved in any activity except rooting) was recorded by scan sampling. These behaviours tended to reach a peak in the morning and again in the afternoon. Inactive rooting was not significantly affected by treatments in study 1 or study 2. Food rewards in the rooting substrate led to a significant reduction in active rooting behaviour and in non-rooting activity during peak periods of the day (P < 0.05). It is suggested that learned associations between rooting behaviour and acquisition of food caused the pigs to stop rooting when all the food rewards had been consumed. The fact that rooting was performed in the absence of nutritive feedback suggests that this behaviour is performed independently of its appetitive foraging function. Restricting feed levels to 70 or 80% of appetite led to a significant increase in active rooting and in non-rooting activity during peak periods (P < 0.05). The relationship between feed restriction and active rooting behaviour tended to be linear (P < 0.08). This suggests that levels of rooting behaviour are flexible in response to nutritional needs.
Oral Administration of a 12% Sucrose Solution Did Not Decrease Behavioural Indicators of Distress in Piglets Undergoing Tail Docking, Teeth Clipping and Ear Notching
Authors: Rand J S , Noonan G J , Priest J , Ainscow J , Blackshaw J K
Published: January 2023

Sucrose has been shown to attenuate the behavioural response to painful procedures in human infants undergoing circumcision or blood collection via heelstick. Sucrose has also been found to have a behaviour-modifying effect in neonatal rats exposed to a hot plate. The effect was abolished in neonatal rats by injection of the opioid antagonist naltrexone, suggesting that it was mediated by endogenous opioids. In this experiment, the behaviour of 571 newborn Large White x Landrace hybrid piglets in a specific-pathogen-free piggery of the University of Queensland was recorded during and after the routine management practices of tail docking, ear notching and teeth clipping. Piglets were randomly assigned to receive 1.0 ml of a 12% sucrose solution (treatment group) or a placebo (1.0 ml of air) administered via syringe in the mouth, 60 s before commencement of one of the management procedures. Behaviours were recorded at the time of the procedure, and then 2 min after completion of the procedure. Piglets that received the sucrose solution did not behave significantly differently from piglets receiving the placebo. Regardless of whether sucrose or placebo was administered, piglets undergoing the routine management procedures showed significantly greater behavioural responses than piglets undergoing no procedure. It was concluded that under commercial conditions, a 12% sucrose solution administered 1 min prior to surgery was not effective in decreasing the behavioural indicators of distress in piglets undergoing routine management procedures. Further research into methods of minimising distress caused to piglets by these procedures is recommended.
Effect of Catching Broilers by Hand or Machine on Rates of Injuries and Dead-On-Arrivals
Authors: Knierim U , Gocke A
Published: January 2023

Catching of broilers is the first stage in the transfer of birds to the slaughterhouse. The catching process entails a high risk not only of stress but also of injury and death to the birds. Associated injury and mortality rates have important implications not only for animal welfare but also for the economics of the procedure. Catching machines are advantageous with regard to labour costs and standards, and they may also reduce damage to the birds. In the present investigation the use of a sweeper-type catching machine was compared with manual catching under commercial conditions, data being collected during 43 mechanical and 40 manual catching events evenly distributed over one year. Dead-on-arrival rates were recorded, and 108 068 mechanically caught and 87 916 manually caught birds were examined for injuries on the shackles at the processing plant. Injury rates of all types were significantly reduced after mechanical catching. This improvement was highest with respect to leg injuries. There was no significant difference in the number of dead-on-arrivals except during the spring period, when there were higher losses of birds caught mechanically; this was thought to be attributable to climatic conditions. The loading of the transport containers with equal numbers of birds and the initial familiarisation period of the catching team with the machine are potentially problematic factors with potential for improvement. The catching machine investigated here, with its lower risk of injury to broilers than commercial manual catching, has the potential to limit impairment of bird welfare during catching.
A Continuous-Choice Assessment of the Domestic Fowl's Aversion to Concurrent Transport Stressors
Authors: MacCaluim J M , Abeyesinghe S M , White R P , Wathes C M
Published: January 2023

Characterisation of the effect of transport on the welfare of fowl requires common currency methods that can compare the effects of diverse stressors using the same unit of measure. Aversion of broiler chickens (42 ± 1 days old) to vibrational and thermal stressors was investigated in a continuous free-choice procedure. Each choice-chamber had four compartments, connected via a central zone, offering a thermal stressor (T: 40°C, relative humidity 21%), a vibrational stressor (V: 2 Hz, 1 ms−2), concurrent vibrational and thermal stressors (VT), or no applied stressors (N). In experiment 1, there were no significant effects of stressor on the latency to leave the compartments after initial introduction (n = 24). In experiment 2, 12 subjects were introduced individually to a chamber for 4 h during each of a control and two treatment sessions. The results indicated that chickens did not avoid vibration, but significantly avoided the thermal stressor overall (T and VT; P < 0.001). As no interactive effect of the stressors was observed, all avoidance of the combined stressors can be attributed to the effects of the thermal stressor alone. Further work is required to establish ways in which delayed stressors can be studied using behavioural methods before common currency methods can be practicable.
The Effect of Nose Ringing on Exploratory Behaviour in Gilts
Authors: Studnitz M , Jensen K Hjelholt , Jørgensen E , Jensen K Kjær
Published: January 2023

Outdoor sows with nose rings can perform most of their natural behavioural activities except rooting. The prevention of rooting through surgical intervention (nose ringing) may be detrimental to welfare, although the behavioural and welfare consequences of rooting deprivation are not well documented. The present experiment examines exploratory behaviour in unringed, ringed and deringed gilts by repeatedly exposing the gilts to a sandbox supplied with bark chips. Four months prior to the experiment, 16 gilts, eight with nose rings and eight without, were housed in four fields. Over a period of 12 days, the 16 gilts, in pairs from the same field, were walked to the sandbox; each gilt visited the sandbox six times in total. After deringing of the ringed gilts (and a control procedure for the unringed gilts), all of the gilts were exposed to the sandbox twice. During each visit, the exploratory behavioural patterns of rooting, sniffing, manipulating, and chewing were observed using 30 s scan sampling. The ringed gilts showed no rooting behaviour in the sandbox; on the other hand, their mean frequency of chewing behaviour was significantly higher than that of the unringed gilts (19.89 versus 13.54; P < 0.05). When all of the exploratory behavioural patterns were summed, no significant differences were found between ringed and unringed gilts. On the second day after deringing, the previously ringed gilts started to root, and no significant difference in the incidence of rooting behaviour between unringed gilts and newly deringed gilts was found. We discuss whether rooting behaviour can be substituted by chewing in order to explore an environment. Gilts that are prevented from rooting are found to explore as much as rooting gilts, and they achieved an adequate knowledge of the sandbox (as demonstrated by the fact that they did not show increased exploration after deringing), although rooting was the preferred exploratory behaviour. In this study, we did not find serious symptoms of chronically reduced welfare as a result of nose ringing.
Behavioural and Physiological Differences Between Silver Foxes Selected and Not Selected for Domestic Behaviour
Authors: Harri M , Mononen J , Ahola L , Plyusnina I , Rekilä T
Published: January 2023

The degree of domestication of an animal is difficult to estimate because the animal's phenotype depends not only on its genetic make-up but also on its experiences during ontogeny. In addition, comparisons between wild and domestic animals suffer from the lack of a proper reference population. In this study, we compared the offspring of silver foxes (Vulpes vulpes) that had been selected specifically for tameness for more than 30 generations (NOVO) with normal Finnish farmed foxes (FIN) and with reciprocal hybrids between these two strains. All animals were housed under standard farm conditions without any extra handling. The NOVO foxes had higher domestication indexes and lower fearfulness scores than the FIN foxes, with their hybrids showing values in between. Almost all NOVO foxes started eating in the presence of a human and took a titbit from him, whereas only a few FIN foxes did so. Open field and urinary cortisol tests failed to discriminate between the genotypes. The NOVO cubs had lower levels of serum cortisol both before and after a stressful situation or ACTH injection and showed lower stress-induced hyperthermia than the FIN cubs, with the hybrids showing results in between. NOVO foxes can be used as a reference when developing and validating behavioural tests for use in the selection of less fearful silver foxes. The observed low fear levels and low stress hormone levels suggest better welfare in the NOVO foxes under standard farm conditions.
Maternal Response to Mother-Offspring Separation in the Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes)
Authors: Bloomsmith M A , Tarou L R , Lambeth S P , Haberstroh M D
Published: January 2023

For management and/or research purposes, chimpanzee mothers and their offspring are often physically separated from one another at an earlier age than they would be in the wild. Studies of the behavioural and physiological effects of mother-infant separation on infant behaviour have been conducted in both human and nonhuman primates. However, few studies have been conducted to examine the response of the mother to separation from her infant, particularly in great apes. The current study opportunistically examined the response of twelve chimpanzee mothers to separation from 15 of their offspring ranging from 1.8 to 5.4 years of age. Behavioural data (proximity of the mother to other group members, and fifteen behaviours representing six categories [agonistic, prosocial, vocalisations, abnormal, locomotor, inactive]) were collected for three weeks prior to and three to five weeks following the permanent removal of the offspring from their mothers. A repeated measures MANOVA conducted on all subjects revealed no significant change in behaviour following separation. There was a significant increase in inactivity following separation of the offspring (F2.21 = 5.47, P < 0.05) in a subgroup of mothers (n = 8) that was studied more intensively on the first day of separation. Maternal age, infant age, presence of other offspring, and past experience with mother-offspring separation had no effect on response to separation. These results contradict those of mother-infant separation studies in monkeys and indicate that most behavioural indicators of well-being are stable in chimpanzee mothers that remain in their familiar environment and social group following offspring separation.
Assessing Pain, Suffering and Distress in Laboratory Animals: An RSPCA Survey of Current Practice in the UK
Authors: Hawkins P
Published: January 2023

A survey was undertaken to evaluate how animal discomfort, pain, suffering and distress are recognised and assessed in UK scientific procedure establishments. In total, twenty-eight establishments were visited between 1999 and 2001 and 137 people participated, including animal technicians, veterinarians and scientists. The full results, conclusions and recommendations of the survey have been published elsewhere (Hawkins 2002). The study showed that people are concerned about animal suffering, want to be able to prevent and alleviate it, and are aware that there are a number of practical problems that need to be overcome. These include animals concealing clinical signs, which leads to difficulties in detecting incipient discomfort and distress, and human subjectivity when assessing animals. The clinical signs used as indicators of potential pain, suffering and distress are largely subjective. Participants at all establishments agree that a ‘team’ approach to animal monitoring is the best way to ensure consistency and effectiveness. All twenty-eight establishments use clinical observation sheets to assist with animal assessment and monitoring, nine also use score sheets and seven use computerised data management systems. This paper concludes with recommendations based on the survey findings, with respect to monitoring techniques, assessment protocols and training issues, which aim to facilitate more effective animal assessment and monitoring.
Safeguarding the Welfare of Livestock Grazing on Nature Conservation Sites
Authors: Grayson F W
Published: January 2023

Nature conservationists frequently use domestic livestock to graze unimproved semi-natural vegetation in order to achieve the ecological objectives that they are seeking for the sites that they manage. This paper reviews the role of the Grazing Animals Project in raising awareness of the factors that affect the health, safety and general welfare of the animals involved in this activity. It also describes the measures being undertaken to ensure that the people charged with the care of grazing livestock on nature reserves are best equipped to deliver the management targets for the land without compromising the well-being of the animals.
The assessment of bar chewing as an escape behaviour in laboratory mice
Authors: Lewis RS , Hurst JL
Published: January 2023

The ability to measure objectively how an animal perceives its home environment is essential for improving the housing and husbandry conditions of laboratory animals. Chewing at cage bars by a rodent may reflect the animal's desire to escape from its home cage and thus provide a measure of the relative aversiveness or inadequacy of different housing conditions from the animal's viewpoint. To assess whether bar chewing by laboratory mice is an escape behaviour, adult male and female ICR-(CD-1) mice were housed individually or in same-sex groups of three in modified shoebox-type cages. Cages had two sets of external bars in the side walls, an equivalent set of bars fixed internally and a Perspex lid. One set of external bars opened daily, allowing the mice to escape into a larger arena. All mice showed a strong preference for chewing at external bars over those that were internal to each cage. After one week of experience, mice also preferred the external bars that opened daily to those that did not open. Behaviour directed towards the cage lid declined over time as the mice experienced the new escape route in the cage side. Interest in the external bars correlated positively with time since last escape. Results confirm that bar chewing reflects an attempt to escape the cage and explore the surrounding area and may provide a suitable behavioural measure of perception of the cage environment for use in welfare assessment.
The effects of road traffic accidents on domestic cats and their owners
Authors: Rochlitz I
Published: January 2023

Six veterinary practices participated in a study of cats involved in road accidents. Of 127 cats, 93 survived, of which 58 had moderate to very severe injuries. The mean period of hospitalisation was five days and the mean length of veterinary treatment was 23 days. The cost of treatment was less than £400 for 84% of cats. Owners of 51 surviving cats completed questionnaires within three to five months of the accident. The mean time it took for their cats to recover was 47 days (n = 41; range 1-150 days). Eight cats had not recovered within five months, four of which had had a limb amputated. The severity of the cats’ injuries correlated positively with the cost of treatment, length of hospitalisation and treatment, and time to recovery (rs > 0.69, P < 0.001). Behavioural changes were noted in 34 cats; 23 were described as being more nervous, going outdoors less, or being more fearful of cars, roads or going outdoors. Half of the owners treated their cat differently: 17 restricted the time their cat spent outdoors and II worried more about their cat. The effects of the accident on the owner's emotions and finances were measured using a scale from I (minimum) to 7 (maximum). Most owners registered a score of 5, 6 or 7 for effect on emotions and I, 2 or 4 for effect on finances; the scores were not correlated. Road accidents are an important cause of poor welfare in cats and their owners.
Automated recording of stress vocalisations as a tool to document impaired welfare in pigs
Authors: Schön PC , Puppe B , Manteuffel G
Published: January 2023

The vocalisations of animals are results of particular emotional states. For example, the stress screams of pigs may be indicators of disturbed welfare. Our objective was to develop a system to monitor and record levels of stress calls in pigs, which could be employed in environments of breeding, transportation and slaughter. Using a combination of sound analysis by linear prediction coding and artificial neural networks, it was possible to detect the stress vocalisations of pigs in noisy pig units with few recognition errors (<5%). The system (STREMODO: stress monitor and documentation unit) running on PCs is insensitive to environmental noise, human speech and pig vocalisations other than screams. As a stand-alone device it can be routinely used for the objective, non-invasive measurement of acute stress in various farming environments. The system delivers reliable, reproducible registrations of stress vocalisations. Its detection quality in commercial systems was found to correlate well with that of human experts. STREMODO is particularly well-suited for comparisons of housing and management regimes. Since the system can be trained to recognise various animal vocalisations, its use with other species is also well within its scope.
Differences in the acute pain responses of two breeds of lamb following castration and tail docking with the rubber ring method
Authors: Archer N , Johnston AM , Khalid M
Published: January 2023

Charolais × and Suffolk × Mule lambs of less than one week of age were castrated and tail docked using a standard rubber ring technique. After these procedures, their behaviour was monitored for I h. Their respiration rates and scrotal sac measurements were also recorded. Both breeds of lamb exhibited abnormal behaviour patterns following these procedures. The recumbent behaviour pattern of both breeds was remarkably similar but their standing behaviour differed markedly. The Charolais × lambs were significantly more active and had significantly higher respiration rates compared with the Suffolk × lambs. They also took a greater amount of time to recover to a normal posture. Their abnormal behavioural responses suggested that both breeds of lamb experienced acute pain following castration and tail docking, but the type of behaviour exhibited was breed-dependent. The findings suggest that different breeds of lamb may experience different levels of distress in response to the same husbandry procedure. Alternatively, they may simply reflect a difference in the character and temperament of the breeds studied.
APC Advisory Document on Differences Between UK and Revised European Codes of Practice for the Housing of Research Animals
Authors: Hubrecht Robert
Published: January 2023

Within the UK the Home Office sets standards for the care accommodation of animals used in research through inspection and through codes of practice.
Government Response to the FAWC Report on the Welfare Implications of Animal Breeding and Breeding Technologies in Commercial Agriculture
Authors: Carter E
Published: January 2023

The Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) is an independent advisory body tasked with reviewing the welfare of UK farm animals and informing the Government on any legislative or other changes that may be necessary. In 2004 FAWC published a 43 page report on welfare implications relating to animal breeding and animal breeding technologies. FAWC believes that breeding practices have the potential to both positively and negatively affect farm animal welfare and that it is an area requiring consideration of both the needs of animals, to ensure their good welfare, and the needs of producers, to remain viable in a highly competitive and global market.
A new Animal Health Strategy for the European Union (2007-2013) Where “Prevention is Better Than Cure”
Authors: Carter E
Published: January 2023

Animal health is only a part of animal welfare but still a very important part, and one which has been firmly brought home to livestock industries in recent years with the re-emergence of diseases such as avian influenza, foot and mouth and, more recently, bluetongue.
The effect of a new vertical structure in mitigating aggressive behaviour in a large group of chimpanzees(Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Caws CE , Wehnelt S , Aureli F
Published: January 2023

The availability and complexity of escape routes are key aspects in modulating aggression. The effect of increased vertical space on the occurrence and severity of aggression was studied in a large group of chimpanzees(Pan troglodytes). Fifty wooden poles were added to the outdoor enclosure at Chester Zoological Gardens, England, UK. Connected with ropes and nets to form a complex vertical structure, they substantially increased the potential for escape routes during aggression. This study is an investigation into whether the use of the new vertical structure reduced the severity of aggression. Aggressive interactions among 29 chimpanzees (five adult males, 15 adult females, and nine immatures) were recorded whenever observed. We found that the proportion of total aggression involving the use of the vertical structure was much lower than expected based on the time individuals spent on the structure. We also found that no severe aggression was initiated when individuals were on the vertical structure. Most importantly, the proportion of severe aggression was lower when recipients of aggression moved onto the vertical structure than when they stayed on the ground. Furthermore, incidents of serious injuries were reduced after the vertical structure was added. The vertical structure appeared to function as a deterrent of aggression and an important escape route during aggressive interactions, which reduced the severity of aggression. Our results suggest that complex vertical structures are highly beneficial for semi-arboreal species with the potential for severe aggression and should be strongly considered by zoos housing such species.
European Union Regulation (EC) No 1523/2007 Covering Use of Cat and Dog Fur in the EU
Authors: Carter E
Published: January 2023

A regulation banning the production, marketing, import and export of both dog and cat fur throughout the European Union (EU) was approved in December 2007 and will apply from December 2008. Over recent years European consumers have increasingly raised strong objections to both the farming of dogs and cats for their fur and to the possibility that they may unknowingly purchase unlabelled products made from dog or cat fur. Consequently, 15 member states brought legislation into force, at a national level, to address consumer concerns including: prohibiting the rearing of cats and dogs for fur purposes, banning the production and/or import of products containing cat or dog fur and instigating specific labelling requirements. It was thought that variations between national laws would be likely to hamper the free movement
Animal Welfare (Leg-hold Traps) Order 2007 in New Zealand
Authors: Carter E
Published: January 2023

Leg-hold traps are metal devices with sprung jaws designed to catch and hold an animal by a limb when triggered. They can be used legally in New Zealand to trap possums, ferrets, stoats and feral cats. The humaneness of leg-hold traps has been questioned, however, with regard to the degree of injury and distress caused to trapped animals, the possibility of trapped animals escaping in an injured state and the suffering that may be experienced by animals whilst held in traps. There are also concerns that non-target, domestic or endangered animals may be caught and injured.
Effect of an open window and conspecifics within view on the welfare of stabled horses, estimated on the basis of positive and negative behavioural indicators
Authors: Ninomiya S , Kusunose R , Obara Y , Sato S
Published: January 2023

The effect of environmental enrichment on the welfare of stabled horses was estimated on the basis of positive and negative behavioural indicators. Six stabled horses were exposed for seven days to each of two conditions in early spring: i) a window at the back of the loose box was opened, but no horses were within the view of the subject horses (OW) and ii) the window in the loose box was opened and two horses that had been in the same stable as the subject horses were turned out to the paddock next to the stable and were within view of the subject horses (OWH). The window in the loose box had been closed prior to the start of the study for protection against the cold during winter months (CW condition) but horses could see outside the loose box through the grille door. The behaviour of the subject horses was recorded by video camera from 1300 to 1530h, firstly, in the CW condition for the three days prior to treatment as the control condition, and then for the last three days of each week in the OW and OWH conditions. The behaviour was focal- and instantaneous-sampled at 30-s intervals. Significant differences between the effects of the loose box conditions on the mean percentage of time spent in standing behaviour, looking behaviour, and bedding investigation behaviour (which may be an indicator of frustration) were observed but no significant difference in the mean percentage of time spent in standing-sleep behaviour (which may be an indicator of behavioural satisfaction) was observed. When the window was opened, bedding investigation and standing behaviour decreased and, when the conspecifics were within view, bedding investigation behaviour decreased and looking behaviour increased. The results suggested that the OW and OWH treatments suppressed the frustration of stabled horses which did not perform any abnormal behaviour, but may not increase the behavioural satisfaction of stabled horses.
Enriching the metabolic cage: effects on rat physiology and behaviour
Authors: Sørensen DB , Mortensen K , Bertelsen T , Vognbjerg K
Published: January 2023

Metabolic cages are used for housing rats and mice for up to five days for collection of urine and/or faeces. The small, barren area of the metabolic cage compromises animal welfare as the animals lack a solid floor, shelter, nest material and social contact. We constructed and tested a practically-applicable enrichment device designed to meet behavioural needs for environmental complexity. The influence of this device on the cage preferences and stress levels of the animals was evaluated. A box-shaped enrichment device was designed and implemented in existing metabolic cages. Male Tac:SD rats were housed for five days in an enriched metabolic cage (EMC; n = 12) or a standard metabolic cage (SMC; n = 12), and data were collected on bodyweight, food and water intake, urination and defaecation, as well as urinary corticosterone and creatinine. Moreover, open-field behaviour and cage preferences were assessed. Rats in both groups gained significantly less weight when housed in metabolic cages. Furthermore, SMC rats failed to increase their weight gain after being housed in the metabolic cage. Defaecation was significantly higher in the SMC than in the EMC and so was urinary creatinine. No group differences were found in open-field behaviour. However, in comparing activity before and after housing in the metabolic cage, only SMC animals exhibited significantly lower total activity. In a preference test, a preference for the tunnel connecting the cages in the preference test and a side preference for the left side were found. This side preference was eliminated when the EMC was placed on the right side, whereas the right side was significantly avoided when the EMC was placed on the left side. Based on these results, we conclude that, to some extent, the enrichment device improved the welfare of rats housed in EMC, compared to those in SMC.
How has the risk of predation shaped the behavioural responses of sheep to fear and distress?
Authors: Dwyer CM
Published: January 2023

To use behaviours as indicators of stress it is important to understand their underlying causation. For a prey animal in the wild, such as a sheep, behavioural responses have evolved to evade detection and capture by predators. The behavioural responses of the wild ancestors of domestic sheep to the threat of predation are characterised predominantly by vigilance, flocking, flight to cover and behavioural inhibition once refuge has been reached. Some limited defensive behaviours are seen, mainly in females with young against small predators. Vigilance and flight distance are affected by the animal's assessment of risk and are influenced by the environment, social group size, age, sex and reproductive condition, as well as by previous experience with potential predators. Under conditions of stress, domestic sheep show similar behavioural reactions to wild sheep, although the threshold at which they are elicited may be elevated. This is particularly evident when comparing less selected hill breeds with more highly selected lowland breeds, and suggests that a continuum of responsiveness exists between wild and feral sheep, through hill breeds to the lowland sheep breeds. However, this may be confounded by the previous experience of the breeds, particularly their familiarity with humans. Behavioural and neurobiological evidence suggests that, although the behavioural response to predators (vigilance, flight) is innate, the stimuli that elicit this behavioural pattern may have a learned component. Since vigilance and flight distances are affected by the animal's perception of threat, they may be useful indices of stress in sheep and, as graded responses, give some indication of the level of threat experienced by the sheep. Thus they may indicate the amount of fear or distress experienced by the sheep and hence have the potential to be used in the assessment of welfare states.
Effects of cage height and stocking density on the frequency of comfort behaviours performed by laying hens housed in furnished cages
Authors: Albentosa MJ , Cooper JJ
Published: January 2023

Spatial restriction and low cage height can reduce the rate at which comfort activities, such as wing flaps, stretching, body shakes and tail wags, are carried out by laying hens in conventional wire cages. In this study we investigated the performance of these activities in laying hens housed in furnished cages with perches and nest boxes, similar to those required in EU legislation from 2012. We compared the behaviour of groups of eight hens at a stocking density of 762 cm2 per bird with that of pairs of hens housed at a lower stocking density of 3048 cm2 per bird at two minimum cage heights of 38 cm and 45 cm. The rates of wing/leg stretches (0.80 stretches per hen per hour), tail wagging (0.76), body shaking (0.48), wing raising (0.19) and feather raising (0.05) were low, whilst full wing flaps were not observed during the study. Hourly rates of performance of wing/leg stretches (0.45 vs 1.06) and tail wags (0.34 vs 1.25) were significantly lower in eight-bird cages than in two-bird cages. We conclude that reducing the number of hens in furnished cages increases opportunities to perform certain comfort activities, but that, even at low stocking densities, comfort activities are rarely observed.
The use of a cat-flap at the nest entrance to mimic natural conditions in the breeding of fattening rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
Authors: Baumann P , Oester H , Stauffacher M
Published: January 2023

Management systems allowing free nest access are widely used in commercial rabbit breeding, but these produce a potential conflict with the doe's behavioural goal of a closed nest entrance. Furthermore, the restricted space in commercial breeding units prevents the doe from achieving a sufficient distance between her and the nest, another highly adaptive behavioural goal. This can lead to behavioural problems and pup mortality higher than 20%, attributable to hypothermia, injuries, weakness caused by the scattering and crushing of pups, or even cannibalism. In this study we tested a type of nest entrance (a metal cat-flap) that visually closed the nest box while still allowing the doe free access during the first 15 days after parturition. The effects of a cat-flap access (group CF) and of a permanently open nest box (group O) on nest-related behaviour, general activity, and plasma corticosterone concentration of the does, and on the mortality and weight of the pups, were compared using 15 ZIKA does in each group. Over 24 h, there was no difference between the groups in the frequency of ‘nest controls’ (approaches or entries to the nest without nursing of pups). However, outside nursing hours, does in group O showed more ‘head contacts’ with the nest, whereas does in group CF performed more nose contacts and nesting activities outside the nest. Does in group O performed twice as many potentially disturbing nest contacts in this time than does in group CF and had a higher increase of corticosterone after the administration of exogenous adrenocorticotrophic hormone. Pup mortality from days 16 to 35 was significantly higher in group O, and pups born to does in group O left the nest earlier. There was no significant difference in the weaning weights of pups between the two groups. As does with a cat-flap at the nest entrance still showed repeated nest approaches, the cat-flap possibly did not block all nest stimuli from the does. Alternatively, it is possible that the repeated approaches to the next box result from its being one of very few attractive or interesting features in an otherwise barren environment. Removal of the nest box from the cage is an effective method to eliminate nest stimuli, but this increases work for the staff without improving the barren environment for the rabbits. A better way of increasing the distance between the doe and the nest, as well as presenting a number of other attractive features, is group-housing of does.
The effects of novel floorings on dustbathing, pecking and scratching behaviour of caged hens
Authors: Merrill RJN , Nicol CJ
Published: January 2023

From the year 2012, conventional battery cages for laying hens will be banned under the European Union Council Directive 1999/74/EC. Enriched cages, which include a perch, a nest area, and a pecking and scratching area will not be banned, and have certain advantages over other systems of egg production. Previous studies have shown that even when a pecking and scratching area is provided, most dustbathing occurs on the wire floor as sham dustbathing. This study investigated whether novel cage floor types could stimulate full expression of dustbathing behaviour, similar to that seen on loose litter. One hundred and forty four hens were housed in pairs in non-commercial enriched cages that differed only in that they contained one of four randomly allocated floor types. Floor types were conventional wire ('wire'), wood shavings ('litter'), conventional wire wrapped with garden twine ('string') and perforated rubber matting ('rubber'). Birds on litter or rubber performed fewer bouts of dustbathing than those on wire and string. However, bouts on litter were longer than those on the three other floor types. Overall, birds on litter or string showed a greater total duration of dustbathing than those on rubber, and birds on litter had a richer repertoire of dustbathing elements. Birds on litter performed significantly more pecking and scratching than those on string or rubber, which did not differ from those on wire. Birds on rubber and litter had poorer foot and feather condition than those on wire or string. Altering the cage floor produced minor changes in behaviour, and further novel floor types should be evaluated.
A comparative study of the influence of social housing conditions on the behaviour of captive tigers (Panthera tigris)
Authors: De Rouck M , Kitchener AC , Law G , Nelissen M
Published: January 2023

Nowadays, zoos are increasingly concerned with animal welfare as public expectations and knowledge of the needs of captive animals increases. Although many zoos try to provide all sorts of enrichment for their big cats, the importance of social enrichment is not yet fully understood. This study investigates the effect of different social housing conditions on the behaviour exhibited by captive tigers (Panthera tigris). It was found that paired tigers performed a wider variety of behaviours than single tigers (mostly direct social interactions). Single animals spent significantly more time rolling, auto-playing and performing flehmen. Moreover, paired tigers without neighbouring tigers exhibited significantly less pacing than those with neighbouring tigers. These results suggest that housing tigers in pairs is preferable for the animals as they are able to perform a wider range of natural behaviours, and that the presence of neighbouring tigers causes stress and frustration, and hence more pacing.
The welfare and scientific advantages of non-invasive imaging of animals used in biomedical research
Authors: Hudson M
Published: January 2023

At present, animal experimentation remains central to our understanding of human disease-related processes and of the biological effects of many substances. Traditional experiments have relied heavily on invasive techniques to monitor changes in blood biochemistry, tissue structure or function, or to phenotype or genotype genetically modified animals. In some cases, a proportion or all of the animals used during the course of a study may be sacrificed for histopathological assessment. In most cases, this is to track the progression or regression of a disease over time, or to determine the levels of toxicity evident in specific organs or tissues. However, many of these techniques fail to provide details of how a disease develops or how a substance elicits its effects. In recent years there has been a gradual increase in the application of imaging techniques that were originally developed and used in fundamental research or in medicine. These non-invasive techniques allow diseases, and responses to exogenous substances, to be monitored in a temporal and spatial manner, therefore allowing a greater amount of information to be derived from smaller numbers of animals, which in turn, increases the statistical validity of the data by reducing the level of experimental variation. Non-invasive imaging also allows more informative and humane endpoints to be used and, perhaps most importantly, allows functional details to be studied in the context of a living animal. Some of the recent developments within the field of non-invasive imaging and their significance with respect to animal welfare and the understanding of human physiology are discussed.
The interplay between replacement, reduction and refinement: considerations where the Three Rs interact
Authors: de Boo MJ , Rennie AE , Buchanan-Smith HM , Hendriksen CFM
Published: January 2023

Russell and Burch's Three Rs principle of replacement, reduction and refinement offers a useful concept for the scientific and ethical evaluation of the use of animals in scientific procedures. Replacement, reduction and refinement are often considered separately, but when applied, one of the Three Rs may have a positive or negative effect on one or both of the other Rs. This paper explores the interplay between the Three Rs and provides examples where the Three Rs have a positive interaction and where they are in conflict with each other. For example, all Three Rs positively interact in the use of cell cultures, but validation studies of replacement techniques may initially increase the numbers of animals used; therefore replacement and reduction are in conflict. Several models of cost-benefit analyses, used by animal ethics committees to justify or reject animal experimentation, contain elements such as quality and significance of the research, the credibility of the research group and the discomfort caused to the animals. Although these models consider the Three Rs, each R is considered independently of the others. Consequently, moral dilemmas may arise when reviewing proposals in which the Three Rs conflict. Currently there is no legal guidance relating to the prioritisation of the Three Rs, but guidance is required to facilitate their use. For example, does a significant reduction in animal numbers justify increased individual suffering? Moral justifications deserve more attention when considering the Three Rs in general, and when considering the application of one or more Rs to a procedure, to a protocol, or to the wider research programme.
Reducing the number of animals used in behavioural genetic experiments using chromosome substitution strains
Authors: Laarakker MC , Ohl F , van Lith HA
Published: January 2023

Chromosome substitution strains (also called consomic lines or strains) are strains in which a single, full-length chromosome from one inbred strain — the donor strain — has been transferred onto the genetic background of a second inbred strain — the host strain. Based on the results obtained from behavioural tests with the two parental strains, the minimum number of animals from each of the host and consomic strains that are required for a successful behavioural genetic analysis can be estimated. Correct application of statistical knowledge can lead to a further reduction in the number of animals used in behavioural genetic experiments using chromosome substitution strains.
Food distribution effects on the behaviour of captive common marmosets,Callithrix jacchus
Authors: Bjone SJ , Price IR , McGreevy PD
Published: January 2023

Common marmosets,Callithrix jacchus, are widely used by research laboratories and are commonly provided with food in bowls. These centralised, unchallenging sources of food result in high foraging success for low foraging effort. Foraging devices, which require more skill and effort for foraging success, may broaden the behavioural profiles of marmosets by including more elements of their natural ethogram, reflecting improved welfare. The behaviour of eight female common marmosets was examined as a function of four different food distributions: food centrally located in a stationary bowl; food in a bowl that changed location each day; food centrally located in a stationary bowl, in addition to hidden food in a clustered food source (cluster feeder) or hidden food in dispersed food sources (dispersed feeders). Both the cluster and dispersed feeder distributions increased foraging, and there was a trend for reduced scratching and grooming in the presence of the feeders compared with the bowl-only treatments. The cluster feeder increased the amount of time a marmoset spent in a large room annexed to the home rooms more than the dispersed feeders, and this effect was sustained throughout the day after the feeders had been removed. Both feeders increased activity and movements within all areas of the annexed room compared with the bowl-only treatments; therefore, both feeder types improved the welfare of the captive marmosets more than the provision of food bowls.