bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Avaliação do repertório comportamental de bebês nos quatro primeiros meses de vida: uma proposta de análise
Authors: Taques Dora Carolina Silva Ribeiro , Rodrigues Olga Maria Piazentin Rolim
Published: March 2017

O presente projeto avaliou o desenvolvimento de 40 bebês, utilizando o Inventário Portage Operacionalizado (IPO), durante os primeiros quatro meses de vida. Neste período foi avaliada a ocorrência, a cada mês, de 45 comportamentos, previstos no protocolo de Estimulação Infantil. Esta avaliação pretendeu identificar diferenças de freqüência destes comportamentos a cada mês. As avaliações mensais ocorreram em data próximo ao aniversário de mês de cada bebê, em agendamento prévio. Os bebês eram oriundos de uma maternidade que atende, prioritariamente, usuárias do SUS. Os critérios de análise foram: condições de estabilização (ocorrência para mais de 75% da amostra), normalização (de 25% a 75% da amostra) e aparecimento (menos de 25% dos bebês) a cada mês. Os resultados obtidos apontaram para a existência de comportamentos típicos (estabilizados) e prováveis (normalizados) para cada mês. No primeiro mês, os bebês apresentaram 25% (estabilização) dos 45 comportamentos avaliados. Do restante deles, os bebês apresentaram 26% no segundo mês. No terceiro mês, dos comportamentos que não estavam ainda estabilizados os bebês apresentaram 36% e, no quarto mês apresentaram 44% dos que restaram. Tais resultados permitem concluir que um número menor de comportamentos avaliados facilitaria sobremaneira o processo de avaliação de bebês e orientação de pais, resultando em economia de tempo e desgaste emocional dos cuidadores e aplicadores. Estudos conduzidos com populações maiores poderão validar estes resultados.
Bem-estar emocional de mães e pais e o exercício do papel parental: uma investigação empírica
Authors: Ribas Adriana F. Paes , Ribas Junior Rodolfo De Castro , Valente Andréa Araújo
Published: March 2017

A presente pesquisa teve três objetivos principais: 1) avaliar o bem-estar emocional, inferido como níveis de estresse de sobrecarga de tempo (ST) e sintomas de depressão (SD), em um grupo de mães e pais; 2) investigar algumas dimensões do exercício do papel parental entendidas como importantes componentes dos esquemas parentais (Ex. auto-percepção, estabelecimento de interações positivas com filhos), e 3) investigar associações entre os indicadores de bem-estar emocional parental e os diferentes componentes dos esquemas parentais. Participaram 51 casais, residentes no Rio de Janeiro, com diferentes níveis de escolaridade, maiores de 18 anos, com pelo menos um filho natural com idade inferior a 5 anos. As mães e pais responderam questionários que avaliaram ST, SD, componentes dos esquemas parentais, desejabilidade social, e dados sócio-demográficos. Os resultados, compatíveis com estudos anteriores, indicaram que uma parcela importante dos pais entrevistados apresentou níveis elevados de estresse de sobrecarga de tempo e queixas de depressão. Foram identificadas diversas associações significativas (p < 0,05) entre medidas do bem-estar e dimensões dos esquemas parentais. Foram identificadas, por exemplo, correlações entre ST e SD (r=0,24), ST e auto-percepção do papel parental (r=-0,48); SD e auto-percepção do papel parental (r = -0,45); ST e interação positiva dos pais com os filhos (r = 0,22). Entre outros aspectos, os resultados obtidos podem contribuir para um melhor entendimento das associações entre bem-estar emocional e esquemas parentais e poderão fundamentar futuros projetos de intervenção com pais e mães.
As representações sociais do trabalho entre adolescentes aprendizes: um estudo piloto
Authors: Mattos Elsa De , Chaves Antonio Marcos
Published: March 2017

O presente estudo investigou as representações sociais de adolescentes aprendizes sobre o trabalho e a relação entre trabalho e estudo. Setenta jovens com idades entre 15 e 18 anos, participantes de um programa de aprendizagem desenvolvido em uma ONG situada em Salvador (Bahia), responderam um questionário aberto contendo três questões abertas: Para você, o que é trabalho? O que significa para você ser adolescente e trabalhar? Como é para você estar estudando e trabalhando ao mesmo tempo? As respostas foram submetidas à análise de conteúdo temática. Os resultados apontam para três tipos de representação social do trabalho entre adolescentes aprendizes, relacionadas aos resultados do trabalho, às atitudes frente ao trabalho e ao desenvolvimento pessoal. Dentre os resultados do trabalho destacam-se elementos como a obtenção de salário e o cumprimento de tarefas. As atitudes mais significativas referem-se à responsabilidade e ao desenvolvimento da competência. No que se refere ao desenvolviemento pessoal, aparecem aspectos ligados à aprendizagem e à aquisição de experiência. A relação entre trabalho e estudo aparece como algo complexo, que exige um esforço de conciliação por parte dos jovens, mas não tem necessariamente uma conotação negativa.
Spatial patterns of HIV prevalence and service use in East Zimbabwe: implications for future targeting of interventions
Authors: Schaefer Robin , Gregson Simon , Takaruza Albert , Rhead Rebecca , Masoka Tidings , Schur Nadine , Anderson Sarah‐Jane , Nyamukapa Constance
Published: March 2017

Introduction: Focusing resources for HIV control on geographic areas of greatest need in countries with generalized epidemics has been recommended to increase cost‐effectiveness. However, socioeconomic inequalities between areas of high and low prevalence could raise equity concerns and have been largely overlooked. We describe spatial patterns in HIV prevalence in east Zimbabwe and test for inequalities in accessibility and uptake of HIV services prior to the introduction of spatially‐targeted programmes.

Methods: 8092 participants in an open‐cohort study were geo‐located to 110 locations. HIV prevalence and HIV testing and counselling (HTC) uptake were mapped with ordinary kriging. Clusters of high or low HIV prevalence were detected with Kulldorff statistics, and the socioeconomic characteristics and sexual risk behaviours of their populations, and levels of local HIV service availability (measured in travel distance) and uptake were compared. Kulldorff statistics were also determined for HTC, antiretroviral therapy (ART), and voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) uptake.

Results: One large and one small high HIV prevalence cluster (relative risk [RR] = 1.78, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.53–2.07; RR = 2.50, 95% CI = 2.08–3.01) and one low‐prevalence cluster (RR = 0.70, 95% CI = 0.60–0.82) were detected. The larger high‐prevalence cluster was urban with a wealthier population and more high‐risk sexual behaviour than outside the cluster. Despite better access to HIV services, there was lower HTC uptake in the high‐prevalence cluster (odds ratio [OR] of HTC in past three years: OR = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.66–0.97). The low‐prevalence cluster was predominantly rural with a poorer population and longer travel distances to HIV services; however, uptake of HIV services was not reduced.

Conclusions: High‐prevalence clusters can be identified to which HIV control resources could be targeted. To date, poorer access to HIV services in the poorer low‐prevalence areas has not resulted in lower service uptake, whilst there is significantly lower uptake of HTC in the high‐prevalence cluster where health service access is better. Given the high levels of risky sexual behaviour and lower uptake of HTC services, targeting high‐prevalence clusters may be cost‐effective in this setting. If spatial targeting is introduced, inequalities in HIV service uptake may be avoided through mobile service provision for lower prevalence areas.
Differential bicodon usage in lowly and highly abundant proteins
Authors: Diambra Luis A.
Published: March 2017

Degeneracy in the genetic code implies that different codons can encode the same amino acid. Usage preference of synonymous codons has been observed in all domains of life. There is much evidence suggesting that this bias has a major role on protein elongation rate, contributing to differential expression and to co-translational folding. In addition to codon usage bias, other preference variations have been observed such as codon pairs. In this paper, I report that codon pairs have significant different frequency usage for coding either lowly or highly abundant proteins. These usage preferences cannot be explained by the frequency usage of the single codons. The statistical analysis of coding sequences of nine organisms reveals that in many cases bicodon preferences are shared between related organisms. Furthermore, it is observed that misfolding in the drug-transport protein, encoded by MDR1 gene, is better explained by a big change in the pause propensity due to the synonymous bicodon variant, rather than by a relatively small change in codon usage. These findings suggest that codon pair usage can be a more powerful framework to understand translation elongation rate, protein folding efficiency, and to improve protocols to optimize heterologous gene expression.
Modeling slow‐slip segmentation in Cascadia subduction zone constrained by tremor locations and gravity anomalies
Authors: Li Duo , Liu Yajing
Published: March 2017

Along‐strike segmentation of slow‐slip events (SSEs) and nonvolcanic tremors in Cascadia may reflect heterogeneities of the subducting slab or overlying continental lithosphere. However, the nature behind this segmentation is not fully understood. We develop a 3‐D model for episodic SSEs in northern and central Cascadia, incorporating both seismological and gravitational observations to constrain the heterogeneities in the megathrust fault properties. The 6 year automatically detected tremors are used to constrain the rate‐state friction parameters. The effective normal stress at SSE depths is constrained by along‐margin free‐air and Bouguer gravity anomalies. The along‐strike variation in the long‐term plate convergence rate is also taken into consideration. Simulation results show five segments of ∼Mw6.0 SSEs spontaneously appear along the strike, correlated to the distribution of tremor epicenters. Modeled SSE recurrence intervals are equally comparable to GPS observations using both types of gravity anomaly constraints. However, the model constrained by free‐air anomaly does a better job in reproducing the cumulative slip as well as more consistent surface displacements with GPS observations. The modeled along‐strike segmentation represents the averaged slip release over many SSE cycles, rather than permanent barriers. Individual slow‐slip events can still propagate across the boundaries, which may cause interactions between adjacent SSEs, as observed in time‐dependent GPS inversions. In addition, the moment‐duration scaling is sensitive to the selection of velocity criteria for determining when SSEs occur. Hence, the detection ability of the current GPS network should be considered in the interpretation of slow earthquake source parameter scaling relations.
Stable water isotopes and large‐scale vertical motions in the tropics
Authors: Torri Giuseppe , Ma Ding , Kuang Zhiming
Published: March 2017

A complete understanding of the interaction between convection and the large‐scale circulation in the tropics remains an outstanding problem. Although there is evidence that the vertical structure of convective heating has great influence in the large‐scale response and that this structure also presents considerable geographical variations, more need to be done. One of the questions that are still unanswered is how the vertical structure of the convective heating, or, similarly, of vertical velocity, varies across the tropical Pacific. Here it is suggested that some light can be shed on this debate by considering stable water isotopes. Because these tend to be progressively less abundant with increasing height, precipitation associated with top heavy profiles should be expected to be more depleted than that associated with bottom heavy profiles. This claim is verified with a variety of data: first, using observations from IAEA/WMO Global Network of Isotopes in Precipitation stations; then, using a simple model based on the budget of water isotopes in precipitation; finally, using a more complex isotope‐enabled general circulation model. Evidence provided by these sources confirms that different structures of vertical velocities are associated with different isotopic abundances, with top heavy profiles giving rise to more depleted rainfall. Finally, the data from over the Pacific, although scarce, seem to suggest that precipitation in the eastern part is more enriched than in the western, thus hinting at velocity profiles over the East being more bottom heavy than over the West Pacific.
Top‐down estimate of methane emissions in California using a mesoscale inverse modeling technique: The San Joaquin Valley
Authors: Cui Yu Yan , Brioude Jerome , Angevine Wayne M. , Peischl Jeff , McKeen Stuart A. , Kim Si‐Wan , Neuman J. Andrew , Henze Daven K. , Bousserez Nicolas , Fischer Marc L. , Jeong Seongeun , Michelsen Hope A. , Bambha Ray P. , Liu Zhen , Santoni Gregory W. , Daube Bruce C. , Kort Eric A. , Frost Gregory J. , Ryerson Thomas B. , Wofsy Steven C. , Trainer Michael
Published: March 2017

We quantify methane (CH4) emissions in California's San Joaquin Valley (SJV) by using 4 days of aircraft measurements from a field campaign during May–June 2010 together with a Bayesian inversion method and a mass balance approach. For the inversion estimates, we use the FLEXible PARTicle dispersion model (FLEXPART) to establish the source‐receptor relationship between sampled atmospheric concentrations and surface fluxes. Our prior CH4 emission estimates are from the California Greenhouse Gas Emissions Measurements (CALGEM) inventory. We use three meteorological configurations to drive FLEXPART and subsequently construct three inversions to analyze the final optimized estimates and their uncertainty (one standard deviation). We conduct May and June inversions independently and derive similar total CH4 emission estimates for the SJV: 135 ± 28 Mg/h in May and 135 ± 19 Mg/h in June. The inversion result is 1.7 times higher than the prior estimate from CALGEM. We also use an independent mass balance approach to estimate CH4 emissions in the northern SJV for one flight when meteorological conditions allowed. The mass balance estimate provides a confirmation of our inversion results, and these two independent estimates of the total CH4 emissions in the SJV are consistent with previous studies. In this study, we provide optimized CH4 emissions estimates at 0.1° horizontal resolution. Using independent spatial information on major CH4 sources, we estimate that livestock contribute 75–77% and oil/gas production contributes 15–18% of the total CH4 emissions in the SJV. Livestock explain most of the discrepancies between the prior and the optimized emissions from our inversion.
Models of transport and reaction describing weathering of fractured rock with mobile and immobile water
Authors: Reis Fábio D. A. Aarão , Brantley Susan L.
Published: March 2017

We propose models for calculating the rate of chemical weathering of minerals as a function of depth in the weathering zone. A macropore network is assumed to be responsible for the transport of mobile water, which removes soluble weathering products at the interface of that network and the matrix. Conditions of infrequent rainfall (A) and of very frequent rainfall (B) are separately modeled, but both lead to a volumetric weathering rate with the general form, where the amplitudeν0and the equilibration lengthξdepend on the pore geometry of regolith and on parameters describing transport across the macropore‐matrix interface (A) or mineral dissolution (B). This is obtained with no assumption of steady state for regolith evolution. Extrapolating these end‐members into intermediate conditions, the model is consistent with the exponential decay of regolith production rate versus depth reported by several authors and yieldsξin a variety of regolith types in the range from centimeters to meters. The velocity of the regolith‐bedrock interface also shows an exponential decay with weathering zone thickness and is enhanced by bedrock fractures when compared to models of unfractured bedrock. When the residence time of fluid in the weathering zone,τf, is large, the bulk weathering rateRbis inversely proportional to this time, and for smallτf,Rbreverts to the laboratory rate. Application to compiled data from several sites leads to estimates of a dissolution rate constant and specific surface area consistent with those of albite.
Repeated Measurements, Design and Analysis for
Authors: Wiener Laura E. , Koch Gary G.
Published: March 2017

This article discusses important aspects of the design and statistical analysis of repeated measurements studies. The scope of study designs includes split‐plot experiments, longitudinal studies, crossover study designs, and sources of variability studies. Analysis methodologies are organized by univariate and multivariate methods, along with comparable nonparametric strategies. ANOVA and ANCOVA methods are discussed for univariate summary functions of the repeated measurements for each subject, while mixed models for repeated measurements (MMRM) are presented for continuous outcome data and generalized estimating equations (GEE) are presented for categorical outcome data. Nonparametric methods include versions of the extended Mantel–Haenszel statistic, extensions of the Wilcoxon signed ranks statistic, the multivariate Kruskal–Wallis statistic, and multivariate Mann–Whitney estimators. Nine examples are provided to illustrate applications of the statistical methods to specific study designs.
Media Use:
U
nited
K
ingdom
Authors: Gunter Barrie
Published: March 2017

Media use in the United Kingdom has a history spanning 200 years, but has witnessed the most dramatic transformation over the last decade of the twentieth century and early years of the twenty‐first century. The numbers of print publications, radio stations, and TV channels have expanded but the greatest change of all has accompanied the emergence of the Internet and mobile technology. In the digital online world, formerly distinct media that operated in different markets and were consumed in different modalities now compete directly for audiences over the same technology platforms. They have also been confronted with competition for consumers from new suppliers that have entered from outside the traditional media industries. These changes have altered the media consumption patterns of people in the United Kingdom by giving them more choices of content and ways and places of consumption.
Media Use:
S
candinavia and the
B
altic
S
tates
Authors: Kaun Anne
Published: March 2017

Media and communication studies in Scandinavia and the Baltic states has a relatively short institutional history but has been flourishing, particularly since the mid‐1990s. One key perspective in developing a (critical) understanding of media usage is mediatization, which is particularly rooted in the Scandinavian research tradition of media and communications but has also flourished within the Baltic states. This entry briefly presents the notion of mediatization from a Scandinavian perspective and discusses some adaptations in the Baltic states. It also reviews dominant trends and patterns in media usage in Scandinavia and the Baltic states and concludes by presenting major research hubs in the area.
Political Economy of Communication and Culture:
L
atin
A
merica
Authors: Bolaño César , Távora Bruna , Cabral Adilson , Oliveira Paulino Fernando
Published: March 2017

The question of media effects pertains to all areas of the communication field. It must be understood in a historical perspective and also as a theoretical and epistemological challenge to the Latin American context. This entry presents a broad view of the most important theoretical perspectives of the Latin American field. It then considers theories of cultural studies and reception. Finally, it addresses the importance of the political economy of communication and culture, which, though it has traditionally not focused its reflections on the issue of mediation (except for one case, which will be considered here), is fundamental to the epistemological delimitation of the communication field and will be presented here as an alternative paradigm.
News Media Use: International Comparative Research
Authors: Esser Frank , Steppat Desiree
Published: March 2017

This entry discusses the current state of research on news media use from an international comparative perspective. Although mono‐national studies on news consumption are easy to obtain anywhere, international comparative research in this area can be considered a real shortcoming. This entry presents an overview of important comparative analyses that consider media use for political information as their key variable and that were published between 2006 and 2016. In this short time span, fundamental changes in news media habits can be identified across media systems around the world. The entry discusses the research questions and methods of these studies, as well as their findings and shortcomings. In conclusion, opportunities and challenges for future studies in the field of international comparative media use research are addressed.
Globalization and
A
mericanization
Authors: Chadha Kalyani
Published: March 2017

Globalization implies a world reconfigured economically, politically, and culturally. Crucially implicated in this process are media and communication technologies, which are widely accepted as sine qua nons of globalization. A substantial thrust of the globalization debate within communications research has thus centered on examining the role of media and communication in the transformations of cultural landscapes all over the world. On one side of this debate are scholars who argue that globalization results in the growth of global cultural uniformity and homogeneity. On the other are theorists who argue that globalization reduces cultural coherence in all societies and gives rise to cultural hybridization. Since the late 1990s, however, some scholars have sought to move away from this polarized debate by suggesting a middle ground between these positions by linking local dynamics manifest at the micro level to the operation of macro forces, notably the workings of global capitalism.
Measuring Media Use
Authors: Marshall Laura H. , Southwell Brian G.
Published: March 2017

Measuring media use has been a central activity for mass media organizations for at least a century. Advertisers and media researchers around the world often need to know how many people—and who—have engaged with particular media content. Despite these needs, measuring media use continues to be a challenging area of research. Audience measurement professionals continue to draw upon self‐report survey techniques and have been active in developing new measurement technology.
Media Effects: Methods of Hypothesis Testing
Authors: Arendt Florian , Matthes Jörg
Published: March 2017

One defining element of science is the systematic observation of real‐world phenomena using rigorous research methods. Media effects researchers mostly relied on experiments and surveys. While experiments have most of the time been used to investigate short‐term effects, surveys have been used to reveal longer term effects as well. Further, other methods such as observation of actual behavior, epidemiological approaches, and meta‐analyses are used as supplements to obtain a more thorough understanding of the phenomena of interest. Although current media effects research has a diverse methodological toolbox, future research should pay greater attention to the replication of previous findings, multimethod approaches (to increase confidence in the revealed effects), and moderation and mediation analyses (to study the mechanisms by which the effects operate as well as their boundary conditions). Future research should also apply more dynamic perspectives, analyze nonlinear effects, and use implicit measures as a supplement to explicit self‐report measures.
Spiral of Silence: Fear of Isolation and Willingness to Speak Out
Authors: Kim Sei‐Hill
Published: March 2017

This entry presents a review of spiral of silence studies that examine the influence of perceived opinion climates on individuals' political outspokenness. The entry first reexamines Noelle‐Neumann's conceptualizations of the key variables in the spiral of silence theory. Also examined is how the key variables have been conceptualized and operationalized in previous studies. Finally, this entry addresses several conceptual and methodological issues in testing the spiral of silence, and discusses a few aspects of the theory that have been underresearched in previous studies.
Cultivation Theory: Idea, Topical Fields, and Methodology
Authors: Morgan Michael , Shanahan James , Signorielli Nancy
Published: March 2017

Cultivation is the research field that investigates relationships between media exposure (usually television) and beliefs about the world. Heavy viewers of television often hold beliefs that are congruent with what they experience on television. Cultivation has investigated media effects in relation to violence, sex role perceptions, political attitudes, and many other domains. The idea of
mainstreaming
suggests that heavy viewers, in subgroups that would otherwise differ, are more likely to hold similar conceptions about the world than light viewers. Despite the emergence of many new technologies and dramatic transformations in the TV industry, the theory and practice of cultivation analysis remain relevant in the changing media world.
Framing: Media Frames
Authors: D'Angelo Paul
Published: March 2017

A media frame is a written, spoken, graphical, or visual message modality that a communicator, by means of a technological channel, uses to contextualize a topic, such as a person, event, episode, or issue, within a text. Frames of emphasis and frames of equivalency are the two main types of media frames. The bulk of research on media framing deals with emphasis frames. Media frames are communicated in texts situated within various topic domains, including news, sports, entertainment, and advertising. Because a media frame contextualizes a topic in terms of a value, theme, stereotype, ideological principle, or visual icon, detecting it depends on careful and systematic observation of framing devices in mediated texts. Content analysts use a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques that incorporate both inductive and deductive approaches in order to identify framing devices located within mediated texts.
Multistep Flow of Communication: Online Media and Social Navigation
Authors: Stansberry Kathleen
Published: March 2017

The process of message dissemination has been a rich area of mass media scholarship since the early twentieth century, but the popularity of social media and rise in participatory communication have brought renewed interest to the topic. This entry explores the study of information flow and social navigation in online spaces. It describes the ways that information flow theory has been used to conceptualize the transmission of information in Web‐based communication, considers the emergence of social navigation research, and looks at emerging scholarship in the field.
Diffusion Theories: News Diffusion
Authors: Cohen Yoel
Published: March 2017

News diffusion is a branch of mass communications research dealing with how news is circulated among publics. Two phases of research have occurred in news diffusion research. The first phase began after World War II and continued to the 1980s, and the second began with the arrival of the Internet and social media in the 1990s. Key questions raised during the first phase of diffusion research included whether media or interpersonal ties are the sources of information about an event; the type of event; and media structure. In the second phase, citizen journalists and others became participants in the news production and diffusion process—which until the advent of new media had been entirely controlled by professional journalists.
Exemplification Theory
Authors: Brosius Hans‐Bernd , Peter Christina
Published: March 2017

Exemplification theory investigates why and under which conditions people integrate single‐case information provided by the news into their personal judgments. These so‐called exemplars are widely used by journalists to make news reports more vivid and comprehensible. Research has consistently shown that, when forming judgments, people strongly rely on these exemplars, even if they contradict more valid base‐rate information. Exemplars are often selected one‐sidedly, and this can lead to a distorted perception of public opinion and influence people's personal opinions.
Parasocial Interaction and Beyond: Media Personae and Affective Bonding
Authors: Konijn Elly A. , Hoorn Johan F.
Published: March 2017

In research covering media entertainment, media effects, and media psychology, many concepts denote the state of viewers in response to media personae in a way that resembles human–human interaction. One such concept is parasocial interaction (PSI). This entry positions PSI in its original academic context of the 1950s, when mass communication emerged as a new discipline. Central to the notion of PSI is how the persona is defined; this is also discussed within its original academic context, with further reflections on how it has been used in subsequent studies. Thus far, media personae have been evaluated using a dimensional view. Discrepancies with media figures presented through sophisticated new technology are reviewed in the context of contemporary mediated communication. From there, the entry summarizes findings into an up‐to‐date media psychological approach to explaining how viewers become affectively attached to media figures: A theory of affective bonding. The perspective is the experiences of the media user rather than the media's techniques, and may jumpstart future research and novel hypotheses.
Social Comparison Theory
Authors: Greenwood Dara
Published: March 2017

Social comparison theory encompasses a rich and complex array of interpersonal motivations, processes, and outcomes. Both before and after Festinger's original set of propositions about our
drive
to evaluate the self in comparison to similar others, many other theorists have provided nuances and updates. This entry reviews some of the central propositions and additions to the social comparison literature and also provides three media‐specific applications of the theory (body image ideals, social media use, and comparison to fictional others).
Social Information Processing Theory and Hyperpersonal Perspective
Authors: Sumner Erin M. , Ramirez Artemio
Published: March 2017

Social information processing theory offers a testable set of theoretical mechanisms regarding how and why individuals are able to engage in interpersonal communication inleanonline environments that lack most nonverbal cues. The theory was developed in response to early scholarly claims that the relative absence of cues in computer‐mediated interaction created an inherently problematic environment for impression formation and relationship development. The theory identifies sender, receiver, message, and feedback dynamics under which communicators may achieve outcomes that are less than or comparable to those achieved through face‐to‐face interaction. The hyperpersonal perspective, a special case of social information processing theory, extends the dynamics to explain the circumstances under which communicators may achieve outcomes that exceed those of their face‐to‐face counterparts. This entry describes the emergence of the perspective, theoretical approaches used in its study, and empirical findings resulting from its investigation.
Social Identity Model of Deindividuation Effects
Authors: Spears Russell
Published: March 2017

The social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE model) and the research it has generated are outlined. This model arose in order to fill key theoretical lacunae in the literatures on crowd behavior and on the effects of computer‐mediated communication (CMC). Early explanations of CMC, addressing differences between CMC and face‐to‐face communication, invoked the concept of deindividuation, widely used in social psychology to explain the apparent breakdown of normative behavior in the crowd. Anonymity in cyberspace (analogous to immersion in the crowd) was then used to explain negative aspects of CMC (e.g., “flaming,” extreme decisions). The SIDE model presents a theoretical critique of deindividuation theory, also demonstrating it to be empirically unsubstantiated. It argues that effects in CMC are not inherently antisocial or devoid of social regulation and that social processes, especially those relating to group identity, can, paradoxically, be strengthened by anonymity in CMC.
Racism and Orientalism: Role of Media
Authors: Banaji Shakuntala
Published: March 2017

This entry defines racism and orientalism and describes the ways in which theorizations of orientalism and racism have helped to elucidate the connections between certain key aspects of media representation and geopolitics, past and present. It pays attention to the work of key theorists, particularly those who have discussed media in the context of colonialism, imperialism, and stereotyping. It describes recent challenges to hypodermic models of media effects in relation to representations of race and culture in the form of assumptions that audiences have the potential to express their agency through complicity and resistance. It concludes with a discussion of changing practices in representing race and the orient, and draws attention to self‐orientalism practiced by media from the global south.
M
c
L
uhan,
M
arshall
Authors: Murdock Graham
Published: March 2017

This entry traces the evolution of McLuhan's approach to media effects, from his early work on advertising and the engineering of consumption through successive stages in the development of his later argument that “the medium is the message” and that the most important and far‐reaching impacts of media are attributable to way their core technologies privilege particular senses and modes of experience that then provide the essential building blocks for intellectual and institutional formations. On this basis he argues that the introduction of the alphabet and its later mechanization in printing dismantled the auditory, inclusive, and communal culture of tribal societies, imposing a rationalized and hierarchical culture based around visuality, which is now being undermined in turn by new electronic media offering the possibility of
retribalization
and the formation of a
global village
. This perspective, which is deeply rooted in McLuhan's religious faith, is open to strong charges of reductionism and determinism.
Mediatization
Authors: Hjarvard Stig
Published: March 2017

Mediatization research shares media effects studies' ambition of answering the difficult questions with regard to whether and how media matter and influence contemporary culture and society. The two approaches nevertheless differ fundamentally in that mediatization research seeks answers to these general questions by distinguishing between two concepts: mediation and mediatization. The media effects tradition generally considers the effects of the media to be a result of individuals being exposed to media content (i.e., effects are seen as an outcome of mediated communication). Mediatization research is concerned with long‐term structural changes involving media, culture, and society (i.e., the influences of the media are understood in relation to how media are implicated in social and cultural changes and how these processes come to create new conditions for human communication and interaction). From the perspective of mediatization research, the most importanteffectof the media stems from their embeddedness in culture and society.
Feminist Film Analysis
Authors: Cerqueira Carla
Published: March 2017

In this entry the main paradigms and studies of feminist film theory are outlined, particularly with regard to the discussion concerning masculinities, femininities, and sexualities. The exponential increase in the research conducted in recent years shows that this is an area characterized by dynamism, but also by the complexity of epistemological positions, theoretical approaches, methodologies, and analyses. This diversity raises many challenges for the field, which must be addressed according to a situated and interdisciplinary approach.
Bricolage: Role of Media
Authors: Schmidt Leonie , de Kloet Jeroen
Published: March 2017

This entry engages with questions like: What does bricolage theoretically mean? How has bricolage traveled across different academic disciplines? How did it make its way into media studies research? And what are examples of bricolage? Answers are provided through two case studies. The first case study, on the Song of the Grass Mud Horse, shows how censorship in China becomes a creative force that inspires the proliferation of all kinds of bricolage that help evade or mock the system. The second case study, on the fictive Dutch TV station Lucky TV, shows how bricolage is both a cheap way of producing media contents and a way to generate new meanings by recycling fragments.
Content Effects: Advertising and Marketing
Authors: Weber Patrick , Schweiger Wolfgang
Published: March 2017

The study of advertising effects usually follows two traditions. The first relates the intensity of advertising input (mostly ad expenditures and exposures) to behavioral and market outcomes (mostly sales and market share) by using statistical modeling techniques designed to determine advertising effectiveness. The second seeks to uncover individuals' mental responses to advertising stimuli that are associated with memory, attitudinal, and behavioral effects of advertising. This entry describes the logic of research and central concepts and theories in these two traditions and outlines long‐term trends in academic advertising research.
Content Effects: Entertainment
Authors: Bartsch Anne
Published: March 2017

What is media entertainment? What makes it so attractive? And what are the positive and negative side effects of exposure to popular entertainment media? On the basis of a review of past and current entertainment research, entertainment can be characterized as an intrinsically gratifying form of media use that is enjoyed or appreciated by audiences for the sake of the media experience itself. Among the functions that account for the intrinsic appeal of entertainment media are mood management, meaning making, attentional absorption, character affiliation, and self‐affirmation. In addition to these rewarding functions that are actively sought by entertainment audiences, exposure to popular entertainment media can also result in unintended side effects such as the stimulation of aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors or biased perceptions of reality. But entertainment can also be harnessed for prosocial purposes such as contributing to entertainment education or raising public awareness about social and political issues.
Content Effects: Educational Media for Children
Authors: Piotrowski Jessica Taylor
Published: March 2017

In this entry educational media are defined as media content that has been designed with research‐based knowledge of how the target audience uses and understands media and that systemically incorporates academic or social curricula into its core. This entry highlights key findings for educational media effects in childhood, in particular illustrating how educational media can support a range of cognitive (e.g., literacy, mathematics) and behavioral (e.g., prosocial) outcomes. Additionally, the entry presents two main theories—SCT and the capacity model—that are most frequently offered to explain these effects. It concludes with a discussion on future directions, both practical and empirical, for the field of educational media.
Mobile Communication: Media Effects
Authors: Fortunati Leopoldina , Taipale Sakari
Published: March 2017

This entry introduces the reader to various media effects of mobile communication devices. The special focus is on mobile phones. The entry begins with a presentation of media effects on communication practices, on users, as well as on interlocutors and bystanders. It continues by analyzing the reverse effects of users on the redesign of mobile media. Lastly, the issues of how mobile communication is connected to social and geographical surroundings and how the use of mobile communication devices is related to the social structures of society are addressed. The entry concludes with a discussion of the media effects of mobile communication in the future.
Socialization as Media Effect
Authors: Genner Sarah , Süss Daniel
Published: March 2017

Socialization is a lifelong process in which individuals learn and interact with social standards, rules, and values. Media are a key socializing influence among other major agents of socialization. Media effects on socialization have been identified in research in developmental psychology, sociology, media and communication studies, and pedagogy. Findings suggest that repeated mass media exposure has potential for learning (cognitive, social, or cultural skills) and long‐term implications for behavior (prosocial or violent) and the cultivation of worldview and values (political views, gender stereotypes, body images). Increasingly pervasive information and communication technologies play a crucial role in socialization processes. Some of the most important aspects of socialization are formed in childhood and youth. Thus “digital natives” have been the subject of intense academic debates about the impact of the Internet on the socialization of younger generations. Media literacy can be considered a developmental task and a goal of media socialization.
Risk Perception as Media Effect
Authors: Frh Hannah
Published: March 2017

Risk perceptions are anticipations of possible future harmful events (sometimes connected to potential gains) that are typical for individuals or stakeholders in decision contexts. Risk perceptions might be connected in a complex manner to behavior, either as its result or as its antecedent. Media may play an important role in the context of risk perception, since they can evoke or shape such perceptions. Recipients can be informed through the media or can actively look for information in them, or the acceptance of new risks can be negotiated in public, for instance between different stakeholders. Especially when risk perceptions refer to impersonal, abstract, or long‐term risks, recipients have to rely on media content in order to perceive risk. This entry provides a short overview on risk perception and on well‐established models and concepts of risk perception in the context of media effects.
Visual Communication Effects: Photography
Authors: Bock Mary Angela
Published: March 2017

Photographs are a key concern for communication researchers, and their ubiquity in today's mediatized culture render them even more important. Even though visual communication has only been a formal part of the academy since the latter half of the twentieth century, researchers in political, nonverbal, advertising, and newspaper research have long been concerned with how the audience processes images. Neurobiological research indicates that images are processed differently from words, and this has been borne out through social science. One key finding is that, even when viewers know they are looking at a photograph, the latter is perceived, at least initially, as reality. Images can call attention to information, increase recall, and cause users to spend more time reading a text. Images might also reinforce prejudicial judgments, confuse memory, and interfere with accurate cognition. Increased mediatization and digitization add urgency to the need for more research on photographic effects.
Media Representation: Health and Body Images
Authors: Vandenbosch Laura P.
Published: March 2017

The current chapter presents a review of the portrayal of appearance ideals in popular entertainment media. It examines the literature on the components of the ideal and on the nature of portrayals of appearance standards in popular media. First, study findings on the characteristics of appearance ideals presented in the media demonstrate that popular media frequently glamorize curvaceously thin female and mesomorphic male characters with flawless faces and a suntanned white or lighter black skin tone. Second, younger characters are more likely to adhere to media standards of appearance than older characters. Moreover, the ideal appearance is considered to be malleable. Characters with an ideal appearance also outperform characters that deviate from the ideal at a sexual, social, and professional level. Lastly, appearance standards in the media are inherently related to stereotypes of gender and ethnicity. Several recommendations for future research are made.
Media Representation: Minorities
Authors: Merskin Debra
Published: March 2017

This entry describes media representations of minority groups. It defines key terms in this area of inquiry and examines primary stereotypes of ethnic and racial groups in American mass media. Stereotypes are constructed to support dominant groups retain power and resources. The primary representational conventions of four major racial–ethnic groups are described and illustrated through examples, along with their potential global impact.
Media Representation: Environment
Authors: Hansen Anders
Published: March 2017

Charting the historical development of research on media and the environment since the emergence of the environment as an issue of public and political concern in the 1960s, this entry outlines the key theoretical influences and approaches to mediated representations of the environment and environmental issues. Dominant trends and findings from research on news media coverage of environmental issues and controversy are outlined and discussed in relation to research on environmental journalism, source influence on media coverage, agenda‐setting processes, and wider implications for public and political understanding and action with regard to the environment. The advantages of longitudinal and comparative research are outlined, as is their contribution to understanding key influences on the media and the public career of environmental issues. The emergence of visual environmental communication research is discussed and key findings outlined. Finally, an outline of nonnews media representations (film, entertainment television, advertising) of the environment is offered.
Media Representation: Sports
Authors: Beck Daniel
Published: March 2017

The entry focuses on the entertainment value of media sports, the actors in the sports–media complex (sports associations, media, and sponsors), the function of sports coverage in different media, and findings about the content of sports coverage. Television is still a leading medium for sports coverage, thanks to the popularity of live broadcasts. The sports press provides more background information, including on economic and political aspects of sports, but strongly concentrates on reports and analyses from sporting competitions in few selected media sports. Besides the topics of sports coverage, notable research fields are the stereotypical depiction of nations and social groups and the celebrity status of athletes. Thanks to new communication technologies and revenues from sponsoring and selling broadcasting rights, sports organizations could professionalize their own communication channels and gain influence at the expense of traditional media.
Culture, Nationality, and the Media
Authors: Kramer Stefan
Published: March 2017

This entry introduces the concepts of “culture” and “nationality” as media events of the modern industrial age. It also discusses the ontological concept of “difference,” which primarily constituted those of culture and nation, and all three are looked at in their historical derivations, anthropological connections, and interactions among themselves. The entry is to be understood as a description of the role of the media in the development of cultures and nations and as a guide to overcoming the hegemonial concepts of cultures and nations.