bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What are Actions?
Authors: O'Brien Lucy
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the essential elements of an account that must be in place for the consequent discussion of self knowledge to be intelligible. It sets out the bare bones of an account of actions that takes them to be, at the personal level, primitive psychological phenomena. It articulates a view of actions that denies that they are composable into more primitive personal-level psychological events, such as intentions, willings or trying, and movements of the body. In short, the chapter's main goal is to do little more than make the view of actions assumed in Chapter 9 seem a possible, and not obviously unreasonable, view.
The Low-Countries wars
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

The English and Scots volunteers who fought in the Dutch army during the Eighty Years War were conscious of participating in a Protestant crusade as well as countering Spanish power in the Low Countries. They assimilated the neo-Stoic values of constancy, devotion to military duties, and the acceptance of perpetual warfare while serving an apprenticeship in the most advanced school of war in Europe under the tutelage of Maurice of Nassau. While these gentlemen volunteers learned much about modern siege warfare and were exposed to a martial culture based upon technical expertise and merit, their commanders, such as the earl of Leicester and the third earl of Essex, were chosen on the basis of noble rank and tended to pursue individual honour and glory rather than rational military and political objectives. Catholic Irish volunteers learned the theory and practice of modern warfare in the opposing Spanish Army of Flanders.
British manpower and the States' Army
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

Military service was not linked to patriotism in the Dutch Republic, and the Dutch army was a mercenary force consisting mostly of foreigners. The native Dutch soldiers were usually found in garrisons, and in the time of Maurice of Nassau, the English and the Scots comprised a large part of the Dutch field armies. While the English and Scots officers were all volunteers and eagerly pursued careers in the States’ Army, the private soldiers were mostly impressed, although many English lawyers regarded the practice as illegal. Both the English and Scots governments allowed military enterprisers to recruit for mainland European armies whether Catholic or Protestant. Moreover, wastage resulting from death, disease, and desertion required that regiments raised for foreign service be subsequently replenished.
Military and naval expeditions of the 1620s
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

The Jacobean Peace — which followed James VI and I’s accession to the English throne and the end of the Anglo-Spanish war — was characterized by the official pursuit of diplomacy rather than war in order to resolve the religious and dynastic conflicts of Europe, and led to a neglect of the arts of war and the decay of the military forces of the crown. James’s policy of peace sought marital alliances with the leading Protestant and Catholic powers. His son-in-law Frederick V, elector palatine’s unwise acceptance of the Bohemian crown precipitated the Thirty Years War and provoked the Hapsburg invasion of the Rhenish Palatinate. James’s Puritan subjects were dismayed at the king’s slow response in defending the Protestant cause and his family’s honour, and the military and naval expeditions to the Palatinate, Cadiz, and the Isle of Rhé demonstrated the military ineffectiveness of the governments of James I and his son and heir Charles I, as well as the incompetence of the royal favourite and chief minister, the duke of Buckingham.
Mercenaries and gentlemen
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

Because of lingering prejudices against soldiers of fortune at the beginning of the British and Irish civil wars, Scottish and English aristocrats believed that they possessed the best claim to military command because of their superior social rank and the military exploits of their ancestors, despite evidence of the military experience and competence of the British and Irish veterans of the mainland European wars. The concept that military hierarchies were necessary for order and discipline still had not etched itself upon the English military mentality at home. It was thought that the king’s honour required that armies be commanded by men of noble birth, and this emphasis upon social hierarchy made some sense as long as noblemen could recruit their tenants or kinsmen to fill their regiments; the actual command of such units in the field could be entrusted to experienced professionals. This arrangement worked well in Scotland, parts of Ireland, and in Wales and northern England, but was a notable failure throughout the remainder of England where rents rather than loyalty had become the nexus between lord and smallholder. The Parliamentary New Model Army gained an advantage when the grandees, such as the third earl of Essex and the earl of Manchester, who belonged to the peace party which advocated limited war aims, were purged in favour of generals and officers who gained promotion by merit and seniority, and aimed at total victory.
Atrocity, plunder and discipline
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

Professional officers who kept abreast of military innovations understood the need to discipline their soldiers and keep them focused on achieving military goals. Armies which foraged and plundered often became involved in secondary wars with local communities, and forfeited the goodwill of those who might offer intelligence and assistance. Regular payment of troops and developed systems of supply obviated the need for plunder, while improved discipline reduced the incidence of mutiny. The articles of war of various British and Irish armies — which were based upon mainland European models — attempted to regulate crimes and depredations by soldiers, generally secured the more humane treatment of prisoners of war, and restrained plundering and atrocities committed against civilian populations. Ireland was an exception to this trend to improve discipline and limit the destructiveness of war. Here, the parliamentary forces, which became captives of their own anti-Catholic propaganda and the determination of Cromwell to achieve total victory, pursued a policy of ‘fire and sword’ and committed atrocities which made the war in Ireland more bitter.
Standing armies in the Three Kingdoms
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

The Restoration settlement which placed Charles II on his throne allowed the king a small defensive military establishment consisting of guards and garrisons. But since it could not deploy a field army, it barely qualified as a standing army. The subsequent expansion of the English army during the Second and Third Anglo-Dutch Wars and the suppression of the Monmouth Rebellion revived the fear of a standing army as a tool of absolutism and popery in the French manner. Moreover, the need to buy or reward the support of the aristocracy wiped out whatever progress toward a merit system of awarding military offices had been achieved in the Parliamentarian and Royalist armies during the civil wars, and reasserted the distinction between gentlemen and professional officers. A purchase system for commissions took root and received official sanction. This system reserved the choicest military offices in the home army for courtiers and noblemen, and drove experienced officers and soldiers into destitution or military service in foreign armies.
English, Irish and Scots in mainland European armies
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

At the Restoration, there were limited places for Cromwellian and Cavalier veterans in the standing armies of the Three Kingdoms. Consequently, there was a considerable exodus of professional soldiers and men who had grown up knowing none other than the military life. Once again, they served in the same armies they had before the civil wars, including Sweden, Denmark-Norway, Poland, Imperial Austria, France, Venice, and especially the Dutch Republic. They also served in the newly independent kingdom of Portugal and Muscovite Russia. Those who wished to pursue careers as officers continued to serve a military apprenticeship in the ranks as gentlemen volunteers, and volunteers who desired adventure were especially attracted to the campaigns and sieges of the Imperialist and Venetian forces in their struggles to drive the Ottoman Turks from Europe and the Mediterranean world. Until William of Orange’s invasion of England and conquest of Scotland and Ireland — which together with England’s involvement in the Nine Years War brought an expansion of the English/British armies — the British Isles continued to be a significant source of manpower for mainland European armies. Since the Anglo-Dutch forces drew heavily upon these manpower sources during the Nine Years War, those (including the ‘wild geese’) who continued make careers in continental European armies came largely from the Catholic populations of the British Isles.
Conclusion: military professionalism
Authors: Manning Roger B.
Published: September 2007

At the end of the 17th century, it was still possible to become an officer in the English army by serving an apprenticeship in arms, but purchasing a commission became the more usual way of gaining entry into the officer corps. Although William III and Queen Anne disapproved of the purchase system, most members of Parliament approved of it as a means of weeding out soldiers of fortune, of favouring aristocrats from their own ranks, and maintaining political loyalty and stability. In contrast to the strides made towards a system of advancement based upon proficiency and merit in the Royal Navy, the purchase system delayed professionalization in the English/British army. William III preferred officers from the Dutch army for the highest commands in the English army because he did not trust many of James II’s officers who had changed their colours in the middle of battle. Those British and Irish officers whom he did promote were usually veterans of the Dutch army or other mainland European armies. Because he assigned a higher priority to raising larger armies quickly, William did little to promote professionalization in the English army as he had done in Dutch army.
An Introduction to British Management History
Authors: Wilson John F. , Thomson Andrew
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter lays out the book’s aims and examines the historical origins of management. It presents the three main ways in which the term management is commonly used: modern management as an organizational process, activity or system; as an organizational structure of evolving complexity up to the ‘M-form’ associated with managerial capitalism; and as an occupational grouping or class of people carrying out managerial roles within the workforce. There are two other issues to consider: a developmental periodization of management in Britain that provides a chronological framework; and an international economic comparison from 1820 onwards against which our story can be told, since the underlying question of the book is essentially a comparative one to explain Britain’s relative performance.
Managers—The Social and Cultural Environment
Authors: Wilson John F. , Thomson Andrew
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the role of industry in British society, reflecting Rubinstein’s argument that ‘Britain’s was never fundamentally an industrial and manufacturing economy; rather, it was always, even at the height of the industrial revolution, essentially a commercial, financial, and service-based economy’. Thus, the energies, esteem, and recognition that an elite put into manufacturing industry in other countries were, in Britain, channelled into other activities. The psychology of industrialists is considered, followed by attitudes to management as a career. The final part of the chapter looks at the managerial labour market to examine management backgrounds, education, and progression, and uses surveys from the 1950s to provide a snapshot in historical time.
Conclusions
Authors: Wilson John F. , Thomson Andrew
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews the frames of reference that have been used throughout the book, especially the development models and the changing implications of the drivers. It then examines the developments in the four themes, in particular how they have changed very considerably to bring Britain’s management systems and structures into line with those of other countries, especially in the last three decades or so. A further section seeks to identify changes in the managerial role during the 20th century and to place the very large increase in managerial numbers into perspective. The final section provides some reflections about the transition to managerial capitalism and financial capitalism, the possible trend to managerialism, and the potential for further change in the future.
Default Meanings
Authors: Jaszczolt K.M.
Published: September 2007

This chapter briefly reviews approaches to default interpretations in semantic and pragmatic theories then proposes a classification of presumed, salient, default interpretations. Cognitive defaults are discussed at length and derived from the phenomenological principle of intentionality of mental states that underlie acts of communication. Cultural and social defaults are introduced and the problem of the fuzzy boundary between default interpretations and conscious pragmatic processing is addressed.
Concluding Remarks and Future Prospects
Authors: Jaszczolt K.M.
Published: September 2007

The advantages of mixing together dynamic, truth-conditional semantics, and truth-conditional pragmatics are discussed. The chapter stresses the need to develop a precise algorithm of the interaction of information that constitutes merger representation, and the need to research further applications of the theory.
The Institutional Nature of ICT and Organizational Change
Authors: Avgerou Chrisanthi
Published: September 2007

This chapter draws on institutionalist theory, which takes social structures and long-enduring organizing processes to be historically formed and culturally sustained. From this general theoretical perspective, both management and ICT are seen as institutionally constituted. The chapter draws from studies which argued that far from being merely the outcome of rational knowledge, management know-how is the result of specific social processes. Rather than seeing ICT as a set of converging technologies that spread everywhere by virtue of their technical functionality, ICT is discussed as a network of industries, professions, and widely cultivated assumptions about the value of information, computers, and telecommunications in modern society.
Gellius the Etymologist
Authors: Cavazza Franco
Published: September 2007

Gellius often discusses questions of etymology, sometimes following other writers' work, sometimes apparently offering suggestions of his own. This chapter employs source-criticism to isolate etymologies that seem to be his own (while acknowledging the possibility that they may not be), compares them with the findings of modern linguistics, and relates them to the etymological principles current amongst ancient grammarians, in particular borrowing from Greek, suffixation, composition out of two words, or use by antiphrasis to mean the opposite of the expected sense. He makes intelligent and informed use of these principles, proving himself an expert in the ars grammatica. Most of his derivations by suffixation or composition are correct, as are most derivations from Greek if the category is extended to include the common Indo-European descent of which antiquity had no notion.
Genre, Conventions, and Cultural Programme in Gellius' Noctes Atticae
Authors: Vardi Amiel
Published: September 2007

The chapter aims to delineate Gellius' view of knowledge and intellectual life by examining his adhesion and departure from the generic conventions of ancient miscellanies and similar works. His professedly selective assemblage of a broad range of learned material presented as an disarrayed sequence of self-contained items reflects a perception of the body of knowledge as an unsystematic congeries of isolated pieces of information, which stands in sharp contrast to the view of knowledge as an organic system that modern science shares with the main stream of ancient scholars. At the same time, the arrangement of the book as a whole and the variety of dramatic settings of its individual chapters also creates a model of intellectual life in which knowledge is assiduously sought, but randomly encountered and accumulated throughout one's adult life, and which thus conveys no sense of a linear progression in learning.
Gellius, Apuleius, and Satire on the Intellectual
Authors: Keulen Wytse
Published: September 2007

This chapter compares Gellius' and Apuleius' techniques of characterizing and satirizing certain types of intellectuals. These techniques are shown to be often common to both authors and to rely on a wide and long tradition of satirical portrayal of intellectual that goes back to Aristophanes, the Platonic dialogue and the role assigned to the figure of Socrates therein, and up to Plutarch's Table Talks. Both authors are also shown to direct their censure at shared targets, especially pseudo-intellectuals, pedantry, polymathy, incredible stories, and the resort to alleged autopsy to establish credibility. Finally, the chapter examines to what extent Gellius and Apuleius satirize themselves through their ‘autobiographical’ portrayals, Apuleius mainly through the portrayal of Lucius, his satirical alter ego in the Metamorphoses, and Gellius in a series of anecdotes in which the author's ‘I’ or one of his admired teachers are made to face justifiable criticism.
1 New Managerialism and Public Services Reform: From Regulated Autonomy to Institutionalized Distrust
Authors: Deem Rosemary , Hillyard Sam , Reed Mike
Published: September 2007

This chapter has five purposes. First, to provide a general theoretical orientation and framework to analyse changes in UK higher education at the institutional, organizational, and individual academic and manager-academic levels. Second, to provide an analytical narrative about the emergence and subsequent development of ‘New Managerialism’ (NM). Third, to review the discursive strategies and control technologies embodied in different formulations of NM and New Public Management (NPM). Fourth, to identify and assess the endemic contradictions, tensions, and conflicts within and between these discursive strategies and control technologies, as well as their broader implications for longer-term institutional change and organizational innovation. Fifth, to provide an initial interpretation of the process of ‘hybridization’ in public services domains and organizationals, and its wider significance for the development of universities as ‘knowledge-intensive organizations’.
2 Alternative Comedy: The Language of the Theatre
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines Augustine's use of Roman comedy and mime in the Confessions, through a consideration of a series of incidents where comic language is used. It is suggested that the Confessions may be read as a sort of anti-comedy, where the ‘happy ending’ consists not in his lawful marriage but in his renunciation of sexuality. While Augustine himself plays the part of the jeune premier, his mother Monica is cast as a comic ancilla domini. This comedy would then offer the educated reader with a real-life alternative to that offered at the theatre.
Biblical Idioms in theConfessions
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: September 2007

This chapter charts two of the strategies by which Augustine justifies the language of the Latin Bible, a style he himself had previously found unattractive. First, it can be located within the classical categories of rhetoric as belonging to the ‘humble style’, a description which is naturally rich in theological associations. Second, the arbitrary nature of language makes ‘biblical Latin’ as valid an idiom as any other form of Latin. It is argued that biblical usage gives Augustine a new range of linguistic options, which derive much of their force precisely from their opposition to classical norms. This is illustrated through consideration of his use of unusual plurals and of loan-words.
Constructions at Work
Authors: Goldberg Adele
Published: September 2007

This book investigates the nature of generalizations in language, drawing parallels between our linguistic knowledge and more general conceptual knowledge. The book combines theoretical, corpus, and experimental methodology to provide a constructionist account of how linguistic generalizations are learned, and how cross-linguistic and language-internal generalizations can be explained. Part I argues that broad generalizations involve the surface forms in language, and that much of our knowledge of language consists of a delicate balance of specific items and generalizations over those items. Part II addresses issues surrounding how and why generalizations are learned and how they are constrained. Part III demonstrates how independently needed pragmatic and cognitive processes can account for language-internal and cross-linguistic generalizations, without appeal to stipulations that are specific to language.
How argument structure constructions are learned
Authors: Goldberg Adele
Published: September 2007

Advances to our understanding of statistical learning mechanisms were not envisioned in the 1960s when the notion that critical aspects of grammar were unlearnable became dogma in the field of linguistics. This chapter joins the growing body of literature that detracts from the poverty of the stimulus argument by presenting evidence that the language input children receive provides more than adequate means by which learners can induce the association of meaning with certain argument structure patterns. Well-established categorization principles apply straightforwardly to this domain. This chapter outlines the first experimental studies to investigate novel construction learning. Results demonstrate that skewed input such that a single verb in a novel construction accounts for the preponderance of tokens, facilitates learners getting a ‘fix’ on the construction's meaning. One verb accounts for the lion's share of tokens of each argument frame considered in an extensive corpus study. In this way, grammatical constructions may arise developmentally as generalizations over lexical items in particular patterns.
Variations on a constructionist theme
Authors: Goldberg Adele
Published: September 2007

This chapter briefly surveys various constructionist approaches, comparing and contrasting several closely related frameworks. In addition, certain mainstream generative grammar approaches that have also argued for relating semantics to formal structures are critiqued. It is argued that the generative proposals underestimate the necessity of item-specific meaning; a combination of morphologically specific and constructional generalizations are required to account for the richness and complexity of language.
Introduction: Americanization and Its Limits: Reworking US Technology and Management in Post-War Europe and Japan
Authors: Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter is divided into three main sections. The first section re-examines the historiography of post-war Americanization, highlighting the theoretical assumptions underlying contending perspectives in order to bring out the distinctive features of the conceptual approach developed in this book. The second section draws together the empirical findings of the individual chapters to sketch out a complex, multi-level comparative analysis of similarities and variations in post-war European and Japanese engagements with the American model across firms, sectors, and national economies. This stresses the creativity and reflexivity of local actors together with the resulting proliferation of hybrid forms and practices. The third and final section of the chapter considers the implications of the book's interpretation of post-war Americanization for current debates on the transfer and diffusion of foreign productive models across national borders, underlining the historical grounds for scepticism about the likelihood and desirability of international convergence around any single ‘best practice’ model of economic and technological efficiency, whether Japanese or Anglo-American.
The Explicit Economics of Knowledge Codification and Tacitness
Authors: Cowan Robin , David Paul A. , Foray Dominique
Published: September 2007

This chapter attempts to provide greater precision and clarity toward the understanding of the nature and economic significance of knowledge and its variegated forms by presenting the sceptical economist's guide to ‘tacit knowledge’. It critically reconsiders the way in which the concepts of tacitness and codification have come to be employed by economists, and develops a more coherent reconceptualization of these aspects of knowledge production and distribution activities. The chapter also shows that a proposed alternative framework for the study of knowledge codification activities offers a more useful guide for further research directed to informing public policies for science, technological innovation, and long-run economic growth.
Introduction: Comparative Perspectives on London and Paris as International Financial Centres in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Cassis Youssef
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter begins by describing London and Paris as the world's two leading financial centres in the 19th century. It goes on to discuss their diverging paths after the 1950s. The performances of London and Paris as financial centres are compared. An overview of the chapters in this volume is presented.
The City of London and British Imperialism: New Light on an Old Question
Authors: Ferguson Niall
Published: September 2007

This chapter seeks to reassert the importance of Britain's formal empire in the ‘unofficial mind’ of the late 19th-century City of London, suggesting that even if they did not initially see independent gold standard countries as more risky than colonies, investors learned through experience that they were. The reality was that membership of the British Empire was a more reliable ‘no default’ guarantee than adherence to the gold standard by itself. The political upheavals of the period before, during, and after the First World War revealed the limits of commitments to gold in the face of war and revolution. By the 1920s, bitter experience combined with a new regulatory environment to increase substantially the proportion of overseas investment going to the Empire.
French Banks and the Eurobonds Issue Market during the 1960s
Authors: Bussière Eric
Published: September 2007

The first section of this chapter analyses the way the two banks fitted into the international market and managed, by putting their advantages and international alliances to good use, to win an enviable position in the Euroissues sector. The second section analyses the options open with regard to the positioning of French banks on that particular market once the initial leadership of the City banks had been challenged. The third second shows that the opening-up was embryonic and too short term. In the fourth section, however, it emerges that the activity of French banks on the international market was one of the means by which rivalry and competition were reintroduced, and that existing analyses of the role of the state in the liberalization of French banking and development of the French economy need some further thought.
Conclusion
Authors: Casper Steven
Published: September 2007

Governments around the world are investing resources and designing policies aimed at promoting competitiveness in new technology industries. This chapter summarizes key findings from the study, emphasizing the on-going importance of national institutional frameworks in structuring patterns of innovation within the economy. While evidence from the US, UK, Germany, and Sweden support comparative institutional approaches such as the varieties of capitalism theory, evidence from the study does show that public policy is an important complement to institutions, and can be used to enhance national competitiveness in new technology industries.
Corporate Governance in International Joint Ventures: Toward a Theory of Partner Preferences
Authors: Child John , Rodrigues Suzana B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter broadens current agency approaches by exploring CG in international joint ventures (IJVs) as investments that entail more pronounced risks than usual and ‘multiple agency’ problems. A typology of those risks is offered, and appropriate CG structures are made contingent to the relevance of different types of risk, under the assumption of partners' preference for risk reduction. The argument, substantiated by various examples of IJV in China and Brazil, leads to the identification of four main governance configurations, and draws out the implications of these solutions for economic development.
The Death of Government by Consensus, 1630–1648
Authors: Lockhart Paul Douglas
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses how Christian IV's reign constituted an important precursor to the establishment of hereditary, absolute monarchy in Denmark. The political dysfunction of the period 1629-48 created the conditions that made the imposition of a new regime possible. Topics covered include war finance, foreign policy, constitutional conflict, and the end of the regime.
The Argument from Religious Experience
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

Large numbers of people have religious experiences in the sense of experiences which seem to them to be experiences of God. It is a basic epistemological principle, the principle of credulity, that — in absence of counter-evidence — we should believe that things are as they seem to be. The only kind of counter-evidence which would tend to show a religious experience not to be veridical would be any evidence tending to show that there is no God. In the absence of any such evidence, any religious experience is evidence for the subject (and via his testimony, for others) of the existence of God.
2 Modern Liberalism and its Critics
Authors: WATERS BRENT
Published: September 2007

This chapter assesses the rise of modern liberalism by examining the works of selected theorists and their fellow liberal critics. The first section summarizes the origins and subsequent development of modern liberal thinking on the family by examining the works of Hugo Grotius and Johannes Althusius, followed by contractarian (Thomas Hobbes and John Locke) and Kantian revisions. The following two sections contrast the works of leading liberal theorists John Rawls and Susan Moller Okin with critics Peter and Brigitte Berger and Christopher Lasch.
John Norton/Teyoninhokarawen
Authors: Fulford Tim
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers the writing of Indian author Norton/Teyoninhokarawen. Themes covered include culture crossing, hybridity, how whites are represented by Indians, and colonial politics.
Ussher and the Defence of Episcopacy
Authors: Ford Alan
Published: September 2007

In 1640, Ussher went to England for the first time in fourteen years. Though his ostensible reason was to present the subsidies of the Irish convocation to the King, it is clear that his visit was also a product of the new political environment in England, following the King's problems with Scotland and the resultant recall of parliament. Ussher soon fitted back in to his routine of study in Oxford and Cambridge, but he was also consulted by leading figures in London on important ecclesio-political issues. In particular, following the meeting of the Long Parliament, Ussher came increasingly to be seen as someone whose learning — particularly his study of the early church father, Ignatius — could offer a way out for those moderate protestants seeking to replace the Laudian episcopate with an alternative, without opting for presbyterianism. In 1641, Ussher produced for private circulation his Reduction of Episcopacy, a draft constitution for a new Church of England which sought to combine bishops with synods. In the end, the growing extremism meant that such a compromise had no hope of success.
Multinationals and National Business Systems: A ‘Power and Institutions’ Perspective
Authors: Ferner Anthony , Tempel Anne
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents a conceptual framework for understanding the cross-national transfer of human resource management and employment relations policies in US multinationals. The framework draws on institutionalist theory, arguing that multinationals’ embeddedness within the institutions of their parent-country business system influences how these firms operate abroad. However, weaknesses in current strands of institutionalism need to be addressed. In particular, existing theory has tended to neglect questions of power. The chapter considers how institutional and power perspectives may be integrated. It focuses on the interaction between power and institutions at multiple levels, notably at the organizational level of ‘micropolitics’ within multinationals, and at the macro-level of nation states. The cross-national transfer of HR policies and practices within multinationals is seen as the movement of practices across institutional domains by actors with divergent interests in the transfer, and with differential power resources with which to effect or inhibit it.
Theto-infinitive as goal-argument
Authors: Los Bettelou
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that some purpose adjuncts were reinterpreted as GOAL-arguments of conatives and verbs of persuading and urging. This involved a semantic change of the higher verb. Verbs meaning ‘exert oneself’ came to mean ‘exert oneself in order to’, hence ‘strive, try’, i.e., a conative, with the following to-infinitive, originally there as purpose adjunct, becoming a GOAL-argument of that verb. The GOAL-argument of verbs of persuading and urging underwent a similar change. That these to-infinitives are indeed arguments in Old English and no longer adjuncts is shown by syntactic tests. That the to-infinitive after these verbs started out as a purpose adjunct is clear from the fact that the other two expressions that are available to encode the GOAL-argument are the to-prepositional phrase and the subjunctive þæt-clause — both, like the to-infinitive, regularly used to encode purpose adjuncts.
The rise ofto-infinitival Exceptional Case-Marking
Authors: Los Bettelou
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the rise of to-infinitival Exceptional Case-Marking (ECM) constructions as in, He believes the results to be unscientific, in late Middle English. It argues that a distinction should be made between the construction after verbs like want (I want you to do it), which appears to arise out of a reanalysis of the to-infinitive as THEME with verbs of commanding and permitting, and the construction after verbs like believe (‘the verbs of thinking and declaring’). It is argued that emergence of ECMs with believe-verbs is connected with changes in information structure causes by the loss of verb-second. The register restriction on this type of ECM, as well as the restriction on embedded subjects (witness *They alleged the results to be unscientific), appears to suggest that the construction is still outside the core grammar of English and requires additional routines (viruses) that are acquired after the core grammar is in place.
Associating Local Strategies of Global Reach: Horsens, Lake Mills, Eastbourne, and APV
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

This chapter tells the story of the growth of the MNC using the example of four distinct firms, which after struggling for survival as more or less independent entities for over a century, came together in the 1970s and 1980s to form a single MNC. These independent firms each entered into the MNC for their own reasons, seeing this as the preferred alternative among several possibilities. In two out of three cases, the firms in question were already pursuing a multinational strategy of their own, whether individually or as part of a larger group. Since these efforts had failed or were about to, with their prospects looking bleak, each firm opted instead to become part of APV. But as their separate histories reveal, it was by no means predetermined that APV would become the firm that constituted the MNC headquarters and thereby end up seeing itself as acquiring the right to manage the others.
Pragmatic Solutions: From Procedural Justice to Learning by Monitoring
Authors: Kristensen Peer Hull , Zeitlin Jonathan
Published: September 2007

The process of learning by monitoring may be initiated at many different levels within an MNC, but the key question is to what extent it spreads to involve all relevant parties. If learning by monitoring is to make full use of the tacit and informal knowledge available within the firm, employees and their representatives must be able to play an active part in shaping the discursive standards used in the mutual assessment of projects and performance. Without such involvement, what can be learned through monitoring may be restricted to certain positional strategies and routines whose effects depend on being balanced by other positional strategies that remain unrecognized. And without broad participation by the workforce and its representatives in the learning-by-monitoring process, it may prove difficult to overcome the organizational barriers to the development of pragmatic collaboration presented by managerial opportunism and traditional conceptions of ownership rights.
The Common Sense and the Related Capacities
Authors: Gregoric Pavel
Published: September 2007

The conceptual division of the soul enables Aristotle not only to proceed systematically by explaining one capacity of the soul after another, but also to divide the soul along different joints , and thus to account for other, more complex, activities of animals. This is what Aristotle does in some treatises from the collection Parva Naturalia. In this chapter some crucial distinctions are drawn. First, there is the perceptual capacity of the soul which can operate not only as this or that individual sense, but also, on account of its unity, as a higher-order perceptual power which co-ordinates and monitors the senses. This power is known as the ‘common sense’ in the Aristotelian tradition, and it is the subject of the rest of this book. Second, there is the sensory capacity of the soul which comprises the perceptual capacity described above plus the imaginative capacity. This more general capacity can operate not only as perception or as imagination, but it can also combine their activities. It will be shown that this latter power is what Aristotle himself calls the ‘common sense’. Failure to observe these distinctions is the main source of problems surrounding Aristotle's notion of the common sense.
Overlooked Occurrences of the Phrase ‘Common Sense’
Authors: Gregoric Pavel
Published: September 2007

It has often been claimed that the phrase ‘common sense’ occurs only three or four times in the Aristotelian corpus. However, the phrase ‘common sense’ can also be found in Historia Animalium I.3 489 a 17 and Metaphysics I.1 981 b 14. This chapter examines the two overlooked occurrences to see what the phrase ‘common sense’ means there. In the overlooked occurrences the phrase ‘common sense’ refers to the individual senses, to the sense of touch in particular, or to the five individual senses indiscriminately. There the phrase is not a proper name for any particular perceptual capacity, but rather a description applicable to the individual senses in certain contexts. Aristotle describes the individual senses as ‘common’ to bring out the fact that they are shared by animals of different species.
Introduction: Setting the Scene
Authors: Mariah Yarrow Liv
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the historians included in this book: Nicolaus, Memnon, Diodorus, Trogus, Posidonius, and the author of 1 Maccabees. They are, consciously or unconsciously, post-Polybian in their choice of subject matter and thematic approach. Although several of the historians in question wrote on diverse matters, even within their histories, their common element is a treatment of contemporary history from 146 BC onwards. Moreover, they all address the role of Rome in the wider Mediterranean.
The Power of the Intellectual: Leading Thinkers, Thinking Leaders
Authors: Mariah Yarrow Liv
Published: September 2007

The essential question of this chapter is the limitations on and sources of power available to the provincial intellectual. The type of power in question here is twofold, the ability to control one's own circumstances and the ability to control those of others. After a preliminary discussion of the nature of intellectual activity and its relationship to elite culture in the ancient world, the discussion will be divided into two overarching sections. The first explores constraints on an intellectual's ability to determine his own destiny, that is to say his lack of freedom to choose his geographical location, political allegiances, and the effects of restricted personal liberty through enslavement and manumission. The second section lays out those situations in which intellectuals achieved authority and influence over others, namely through association with political dynasts and by taking up magisterial roles within their local communities. The chapter concludes with two case studies, focusing on the career paths of Theophanes of Mytilene and Nicolaus of Damascus.
Theory and Method
Authors: Mariah Yarrow Liv
Published: September 2007

It is not a new idea that in antiquity intellectual activity could have a political dimension, particularly among non-Romans during the Late Republic. However, the poor survival rate of the relevant texts has meant that little attention is given to the writings themselves. Most of the intellectuals of central political influence are known only through testimonia, instead of via their own words. These difficulties can be overcome partially by positing a certain degree of unity amongst the intellectual elite throughout the Mediterranean. This premise allows for a reconstruction of the range of representations of and responses to a particular stimulus, namely the development of Roman hegemony. Statements made by non-Romans regarding Roman engagements outside Italy are not just reflections of reality, but are also attempts to direct the perspective of the elite, both Roman and provincial, and thereby redirect their future interactions.
From the Outside Looking in: Roman Culture and Domestic Politics
Authors: Mariah Yarrow Liv
Published: September 2007

This chapter investigates the characterization of Rome particularly with reference to her domestic affairs. It also looks at the presentation of Rome's actions outside Italy and progresses from instances in which Rome treats the peoples and lands as separate sovereign bodies to those instances where Rome is the primary authority within the region in question. Of course, the distinction between these two sorts of case allows for much interpretation and many intermediary steps. Again, it is important to recall that the discussion is not concerned with ‘reality’ per se, but the authorial representations and evaluations of Roman actions.
The Romans Abroad: Force, Diplomacy, and the Management of Empire
Authors: Mariah Yarrow Liv
Published: September 2007

As the Romans expanded their hegemony over the Mediterranean basin and beyond, their methods of engagement varied to suit individual situations and shifting objectives. These methods moulded the impressions of the local elite and their attitudes to the new ruling power. In composing the contemporary historical record of Roman dominion, the core authors in this book had the greatest opportunity to express their views on the approach of the new ruling power and its representatives. All the events discussed in this chapter took place within the living memory of the authors and were decisive in shaping the world in which they lived. As members of the provincial elite, the core authors offer unusual perspectives on these events originating from the subjugated peoples.
Aspects of the ‘Great’ Persecution
Authors: Croix G. E. M. De Ste.
Published: September 2007

This chapter reprints Ste. Croix's 1954 Harvard Theological Review article on the ‘Great’ Persecution of the early 4th century, when Diocletian and his imperial colleagues issued four edicts of persecution between 303 and 304. The thrust of these edicts was to reverse a generation of toleration which the Church had enjoyed, but their enforcement was patchy and needs to be understood within the context of the operation of Roman imperial administration, which depended to an extent upon the preferences of individual governors for the implementation of imperial legislation. The contrasting implementation of the edicts between the eastern and western halves of the empire is investigated, with particular reference to the evidence from North Africa and Eusebius' account of the Palestinian martyrs.
Heresy, Schism, and Persecution in the Later Roman Empire
Authors: Croix G. E. M. De Ste. , Streeter Joseph
Published: September 2007

This chapter analyses how the Church, after enduring persecution during its first three centuries, emerged as a triumphant and highly effective persecuting force during the next three centuries, with pagans, Jews, Manichees, and Christian heretics as its victims. In contrast to the pre-Christian Roman Empire, which was remarkably willing to accept most new religions, Christianity was a jealous religion and quickly used the privileges secured through Constantine's conversion to involve the Roman state in enforcing its wishes. The conflict in North Africa between Donatists and Catholics provided the trigger, but also demonstrated the problems of enforcing imperial wishes on groups whose earlier experience of persecution had stiffened their resolve. The evidence for the rigour of the Church's views on the persecution of heresy is analysed, before an editorial appendix considers the wider issue of religious toleration in classical antiquity and how the triumph of Christianity affected this.
Back to the Trimeter
Authors: Dik Helma
Published: September 2007

This chapter looks at some of metrical characteristics of the iambic trimeter, concentrating on the line break, the strongest rhythmical boundary available to the poets. The interaction between clause and line is most evident at the line break, but similar phenomena can be observed at the midpoint of the line. The chapter illustrates the major ways in which Sophocles exploits the line break as a ‘chunking device’, to use the terminology introduced to Greek literature by Slings (1997).
Conclusion: Reading Word Order, Slowly
Authors: Dik Helma
Published: September 2007

This concluding chapter begins with a brief review of the preceding chapters. It then discusses how to read word order slowly. It is argued that order is bound up with the essence of communication between individuals and thereby, with the essence of what makes drama work. Word order is one dimension of what a Greek clause communicates, and it is worth paying attention to.
Introduction
Authors: Yu Alan C. L.
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the meaning of the term ‘infixation’. It then explains the purpose of the book, which is to provide an overview and synthesis of the results of current research on infixation, to highlight questions which remain open, and to lay out the challenges infixation phenomena present for linguistic theory. An overview of the succeeding chapters is presented.