bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Entrevista a Belén Gopegui
Authors: Peris Blanes Jaume
Published: February 2014

La propuesta narrativa de Belén Gopegui supone un pulso a las ideologías literarias dominantes a través de una preocupación fundamental: hacer del relato un espacio de indagación política consciente. Su obra nace, como ella misma ha señalado, del rechazo a una concepción de la literatura que, más que hacer visible lo invisible (según la definición que Paul Klee hizo del arte), torna invisible lo visible: la explotación, por ejemplo, la relación entre las emociones y las formaciones sociales, el vínculo entre los trayectos personales de vida y las condiciones sociales en los que toman cuerpo… Frente a esa literatura que naturaliza el orden social existente, la obra de Gopegui se propuso desde el principio como la búsqueda de un lenguaje capaz de sustraerse a los mandatos culturales de las élites: “o nos organizamos para intentar elegir, siquiera en parte, quién nos escribe, o, si nos limitamos a escribir, continuará escribiendo por nosotras y nosotros la clase dominante”, señala en esta entrevista. Por ello, desde el principio su literatura se basó en un trabajo de exploración crítica y creativa de las formas de narrar que constituía, al mismo tiempo, una exploración de la producción posible de sentido sobre la sociedad en la que vivimos. En 1993, Gopegui publicó su primera novela, La escala de los mapas, a la que siguió Tocarnos la cara (1995). En 1998 publicó La conquista del aire, abriendo una línea de exploración literaria que continuaría en Lo real (2001) y El padre de Blancanieves (2007), en torno a la relación entre las dinámicas del capitalismo y la construcción de los afectos y las relaciones personales. En 2004 publicó El lado frío de la almohada, con la problemática cubana como elemento de reflexión. Sus últimas novelas han abierto nuevas líneas de indagación: Deseo de ser punk (2009) se centra en el universo de la adolescencia y la música rock y Acceso no autorizado (2011) en la política parlamentaria y sus límites. Ha escrito también guiones de películas, ensayos y novelas juveniles.
The Caenorhabditis elegans microtubule minus-end binding homolog PTRN-1 stabilizes synapses and neurites
Authors: Marcette Jana Dorfman , Chen Jessica Jie , Nonet Michael L
Published: February 2014

Microtubule dynamics facilitate neurite growth and establish morphology, but the role of minus-end binding proteins in these processes is largely unexplored. CAMSAP homologs associate with microtubule minus-ends, and are important for the stability of epithelial cell adhesions. In this study, we report morphological defects in neurons and neuromuscular defects in mutants of the C. elegans CAMSAP, ptrn-1. Mechanosensory neurons initially extend wild-type neurites, and subsequently remodel by overextending neurites and retracting synaptic branches and presynaptic varicosities. This neuronal remodeling can be activated by mutations known to alter microtubules, and depends on a functioning DLK-1 MAP kinase pathway. We found that PTRN-1 localizes to both neurites and synapses, and our results suggest that alterations of microtubule structures caused by loss of PTRN-1 function activates a remodeling program leading to changes in neurite morphology. We propose a model whereby minus-end microtubule stabilization mediated by a functional PTRN-1 is necessary for morphological maintenance of neurons.
Wafer-bonded coupled multilayer cavity with InAs quantum dots for two-color emission
Authors: Harayama Chiho , Katoh Sho , Nakagawa Yoshinori , Morita Ken , Kitada Takahiro , Isu Toshiro
Published: February 2014

A GaAs/AlAs coupled multilayer cavity structure with InAs quantum dots (QDs) was fabricated by wafer-bonding of two cavity structures grown individually. The wafer-bonding technique is important to control the spatial distribution of nonlinear polarization for strong terahertz emission by the differential frequency generation of the two cavity modes of the coupled cavity. Three layers of self-assembled InAs QDs were inserted in a cavity grown on a (001) GaAs substrate as optical gain materials for two-color emission of the cavity mode lights. The other cavity with a GaAs cavity layer was grown on a (113)B GaAs substrate. Two-color emissions with a 3.8 THz frequency difference were successfully observed from the wafer-bonded coupled cavity by cw optical pumping at room temperature.
Developmental Toxicity Assays Using the Drosophila Model
Authors: Rand Matthew D. , Montgomery Sara L. , Prince Lisa , Vorojeikina Daria
Published: February 2014

The fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) has long been a premier model for developmental biologists and geneticists. In toxicology studies, Drosophila has only recently gained broader recognition as a tool to elaborate molecular genetic mechanisms of toxic substances. In this article, two practical applications of Drosophila for developmental toxicity assays are described. The first assay takes advantage of newly developed methods to render the fly embryo accessible to small molecules, toxicants, and drugs. The second assay engages straightforward exposures to developing larvae and easy‐to‐score outcomes of adult development. With the extensive collections of flies that are publicly available and the ease of creating transgenic flies, these two assays have a unique power for identifying and characterizing molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways specific to the mode of action of a number of toxicants and drugs. Curr. Protoc. Toxicol. 59:1.12.1‐1.12.20. © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Comparative Human and Rat “Neurosphere Assay” for Developmental Neurotoxicity Testing
Authors: Baumann Jenny , Barenys Marta , Gassmann Kathrin , Fritsche Ellen
Published: February 2014

The developing nervous system is highly vulnerable to the adverse effects of chemical agents. Currently, there is an increasing need for testing and regulating chemical compounds in general use and, due to the lack of available data, to identify those which are developmental neurotoxicants. In this context, alternative testing strategies are needed in order to allow fast and cost‐efficient screening and to reduce the number of animal experiments usually required. In this unit we present an in vitro three‐dimensional model for developmental neurotoxicity screening based on human and rat neural progenitor cells. This model enables the detection of disturbances in basic processes of brain development, such as proliferation, migration, differentiation and apoptosis, and allows the distinction of these specific disturbances from general cytotoxicity. Furthermore, the comparison of human and rat data provides useful insights into species differences for toxicodynamics of compounds contributing to human risk assessment of developmental neurotoxicants. Curr. Protoc. Toxicol. 59:12.21.1‐12.21.24. © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
High‐Content Imaging Assays for Identifying Compounds that Generate Superoxide and Impair Mitochondrial Membrane Potential in Adherent Eukaryotic Cells
Authors: Billis Puja , Will Yvonne , Nadanaciva Sashi
Published: February 2014

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are constantly produced in cells as a result of aerobic metabolism. When there is an excessive production of ROS and the cell's antioxidant defenses are overwhelmed, oxidative stress occurs. The superoxide anion is a type of ROS that is produced primarily in mitochondria but is also generated in other regions of the cell including peroxisomes, endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane, and cytosol. Here, a high‐content imaging assay using the dye dihydroethidium is described for identifying compounds that generate superoxide in eukaryotic cells. A high‐content imaging assay using the fluorescent dye tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester is also described to identify compounds that impair mitochondrial membrane potential in eukaryotic cells. The purpose of performing both assays is to identify compounds that (1) generate superoxide at lower concentrations than they impair mitochondrial membrane potential, (2) impair mitochondrial membrane potential at lower concentrations than they generate superoxide, (3) generate superoxide and impair mitochondrial function at similar concentrations, and (4) do not generate superoxide or impair mitochondrial membrane potential during the duration of the assays. Curr. Protoc. Toxicol. 59:25.1.1‐25.1.14. © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Morphology of sporadic E layer retrieved from COSMIC GPS radio occultation measurements: Wind shear theory examination
Authors: Chu Y. H. , Wang C. Y. , Wu K. H. , Chen K. T. , Tzeng K. J. , Su C. L. , Feng W. , Plane J. M. C.
Published: February 2014

On the basis of the Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC)‐measured fluctuations in the signal‐to‐noise ratio and excess phase of the GPS signal piercing through ionospheric sporadic E (Es) layers, the general morphologies of these layers are presented for the period from July 2006 to May 2011. It is found that the latitudinal variation in the Es layer occurrence is substantially geomagnetically controlled, most frequent in the summer hemisphere within the geomagnetic latitude region between 10° and 70° and very rare in the geomagnetic equatorial zone. Model simulations show that the summer maximum (winter minimum) in the Es layer occurrence is very likely attributed to the convergence of the Fe+ concentration flux driven by the neutral wind. In addition to seasonal and spatial distributions, the height‐time variations in the Es layer occurrence in the midlatitude (>30°) region in summer and spring are primarily dominated by the semidiurnal tides, which start to appear at local time around 6 and 18 h in the height range 110–120 km and gradually descend at a rate of about 0.9–1.6 km/h. In the low‐latitude (<30°) region, the diurnal tide dominates. The Horizontal Wind Model (HWM07) indicates that the height‐time distribution of Es layers at middle latitude (30°–60°) is highly coincident with the zonal neutral wind shear. However, Es layer occurrences in low‐latitude and equatorial regions do not correlate well with the zonal wind shear.
Nutrient dynamics in an oligotrophic arctic stream monitored in situ by wet chemistry methods
Authors: Snyder Lisle , Bowden William B.
Published: February 2014

Diurnal trends in hydrochemical components of stream and river water, especially nutrients, is growing in interest as instrumentation capable of measuring at fine time scales becomes increasingly available. In this growing body of work, there are few studies that simultaneously report the dynamics of the major nutrients nitrate, phosphate, and ammonium through time. We used an in situ nutrient autoanalyzer to simultaneously measure nitrate, phosphate, and ammonium concentrations with wet chemistry methods in an arctic headwater stream. We operated the analyzer under two sampling regimes: (1) time interval (hourly) sampling to examine fine time scale nutrient dynamics and (2) continuous sampling (1 s data) to evaluate nutrient uptake from a pulse solute addition experiment. Hourly sampling showed inverse diurnal oscillating trends of nitrate and ammonium concentrations for several days during base flow conditions. We propose that this trend is a result of in‐stream nutrient processing (autotrophic demand and nitrification) combined with increased lateral inputs of water from the active (thawed) soil layer at night, after evapotranspiration (ET) has ceased. Pulse additions of ammonium resulted in rapid increases in nitrate concentration, confirming potential magnitude of nitrification in this system. Phosphate concentrations were usually at or below detection limits, consistent with results from previous manual sampling of this stream. We conclude that as studies examining fine time scale nutrient trends in streams and rivers increase, the ability to examine the behavior of multiple nutrients simultaneously will be pertinent to assess the underlying mechanisms driving those trends.
Universal scaling of gas diffusion in porous media
Authors: Ghanbarian Behzad , Hunt Allen G.
Published: February 2014

Gas diffusion modeling in percolation clusters provides a theoretical framework to address gas transport in porous materials and soils. Applying this methodology, above the percolation threshold the air‐filled porosity dependence of the gas diffusion in porous media follows universal scaling, a power law in the air‐filled porosity (less a threshold value) with an exponent of 2.0. We evaluated our hypothesis using 71 experiments (632 data points) including repacked, undisturbed, and field measurements available in the literature. For this purpose, we digitized Dp/D0 (where Dp and D0 are gas diffusion coefficients in porous medium and free space, respectively) and ε (air‐filled porosity) values from graphs presented in seven published papers. We found that 66 experiments out of 71 followed universal scaling with the exponent 2, evidence that our percolation‐based approach is robust. Integrating percolation and effective medium theories produced a numerical prefactor whose value depends on the air‐filled porosity threshold and the air‐filled porosity value above which the behavior of gas diffusion crosses over from percolation to effective medium.
Nonparametric estimation of groundwater residence time distributions: What can environmental tracer data tell us about groundwater residence time?
Authors: McCallum James L. , Engdahl Nicholas B. , Ginn Timothy R. , Cook Peter. G.
Published: February 2014

Residence time distributions (RTDs) have been used extensively for quantifying flow and transport in subsurface hydrology. In geochemical approaches, environmental tracer concentrations are used in conjunction with simple lumped parameter models (LPMs). Conversely, numerical simulation techniques require large amounts of parameterization and estimated RTDs are certainly limited by associated uncertainties. In this study, we apply a nonparametric deconvolution approach to estimate RTDs using environmental tracer concentrations. The model is based only on the assumption that flow is steady enough that the observed concentrations are well approximated by linear superposition of the input concentrations with the RTD; that is, the convolution integral holds. Even with large amounts of environmental tracer concentration data, the entire shape of an RTD remains highly nonunique. However, accurate estimates of mean ages and in some cases prediction of young portions of the RTD may be possible. The most useful type of data was found to be the use of a time series of tritium. This was due to the sharp variations in atmospheric concentrations and a short half‐life. Conversely, the use of CFC compounds with smoothly varying atmospheric concentrations was more prone to nonuniqueness. This work highlights the benefits and limitations of using environmental tracer data to estimate whole RTDs with either LPMs or through numerical simulation. However, the ability of the nonparametric approach developed here to correct for mixing biases in mean ages appears promising.
Effort–Reward Imbalance
Authors: Kivimäki Mika
Published: February 2014

The concept of Effort–Reward Imbalance (ERI), describing a source of work‐related stress, was developed by Johannes Siegrist of the University of Dusseldorf (Siegrist 1996, 2010). According to the ERI model, the experience of imbalance between high efforts spent at work and a perception of low reward received in return is stressful, as this imbalance violates core expectations about reciprocity. According to the ERI model, high demands at work and heavy obligations in private life (e.g., large debts) may lead to a high expenditure of effort. The reason for high efforts can also be intrinsic, reflecting an employee's excessive work‐related commitment (“overcommitment”). Low rewards refer to three factors: insufficient pay, low esteem (e.g., lack of help or acceptance by supervisors and colleagues), and poor career opportunities (no promotion prospects, job insecurity, and/or status inconsistency).
Gender and the Professions
Authors: Riska Elianne
Published: February 2014

This entry examines the theoretical perspectives on gender and the health professions. With the increasing number of women in the medical profession, the gender aspects of practice and medical careers have generated new research and theories on gender and the professions.
Interprofessional Conflict
Authors: Adams Tracey L.
Published: February 2014

Interprofessional conflict occurs when two or more professions with related scopes of practice contest for privileges, responsibilities, authority, autonomy, and/or rewards. Sociologist Andrew Abbott has argued that conflict is endemic amongst professions where jurisdictions or scopes of practice overlap, and groups strive to stake a claim to an area of expertise. This appears to be particularly true in the occupationally crowded and highly specialized health care field. This entry explores what interprofessional conflict entails, what factors shape the outcomes of interprofessional conflict, and future prospects for conflict and collaboration.
Neuroscience, Health, and Medical Sociology
Authors: Pickersgill Martyn
Published: February 2014

Neuroscience – the study of the brain and nervous system – is an interdisciplinary field that has garnered significant attention in biomedicine and beyond. To date, sociological engagement with the neurosciences has not been substantial; however, there is a growing sociology of neuroscience (and even a subfield of “neurosociology”). Neuroscience is interesting to sociologists not just because of the ways it promises to transform ideas about health, illness, and treatment, but also as a consequence of the diverse social practices that have been stimulated by it in fields as diverse as aesthetics and education in response to these claims.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
Authors: Whooley Owen
Published: February 2014

Published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM) is the standard classification of mental disorders in the United States. Often called the “bible of mental illness,” the DSM provides criteria for making psychiatric diagnoses and, in turn, a common language with which to discuss mental disorders. The most recent edition is DSM‐5, which was released in May 2013.
Complementary and Alternative Medicine Usage among Men and Women
Authors: Goldner Melinda
Published: February 2014

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) refers to a broad range of practices and beliefs that consumers, especially women, increasingly turn to in the United States. A growing body of literature in sociology has examined how socio‐demographic factors affect usage. One consistent finding is that, given their differing health needs and behaviors, women are more likely than men to try CAM. Women may be drawn to CAM by the ideology or their frustration with the type of care or results that their physicians provide. Future sociological research should continue to explore why gendered patterns exist and how they vary by other social factors such as race and education.
Medical Systems, Mixed Utilization of
Authors: Quah Stella R.
Published: February 2014

Mixed utilization of health services refers to a person's use of healing solutions from more than one healing system; that is, the combination of biomedicine – Western medicine – and any of a wide array of traditional healing systems. Research findings in medical sociology and anthropology over the past five to six decades show that the main questions for anyone feeling ill are about the cause of the illness and finding a cure. This entry examines the patterns, conceptual definition, and empirical manifestations of mixed utilization of health services.
Health Care Delivery System: Singapore
Authors: Quah Stella R.
Published: February 2014

This entry presents and discusses the distinguishing features of Singapore's health care system: the island republic's distinctive pragmatic approach balancing the principles of universal access, public sector scrutiny, and private sector development. The analysis is based on relevant figures on inputs and outcomes from Singapore discussed in a comparative fashion
vis‐à‐vis
five countries that illustrate three main health care system models: the United Kingdom and New Zealand representing the national health service; Germany and Japan representing the social security model; and the United States illustrating free market model.
Alienation
Authors: Yuill Chris
Published: February 2014

Alienation is an underused theory in the sociology of health and illness, but it offers potential in understanding the complex interactions between social structures, human abilities and poor health. Associated with Karl Marx, the theory of alienation rests on a particular understanding of human nature that turns on the unique and transformative ability of humans to labor cooperatively on nature and the world around them in order to meet a range of natural and social needs. Alienation occurs when this fundamental human capacity is distorted and inverted by certain types of society, where people lose control over how and why they work. Labor then ceases to be rewarding and a moment of self‐realization, and instead is experienced as routine, unrewarding, and exploitative. People who are alienated can potentially experience a range of negative mental and physical health outcomes.
Healing and Gender Roles
Authors: Quah Stella R.
Published: February 2014

Differential gender morbidity is used here as a suitable background for the discussion of gender and healing. The substantive aspects of gender differences in healing are best understood in terms of the social setting where they evolve: informal and formal settings. Each of these settings is examined separately.
Rationalization
Authors: Quah Stella R.
Published: February 2014

This entry reviews the concept of rationalization and discusses the different forms of rationalization as they are manifested in three dimensions of health care: health systems, health care providers, and users of health care.
Eating Disorders
Authors: Giordano Simona
Published: February 2014

Eating disorders (EDs) refer to a wide spectrum of self‐harming behaviors involving eating. There is a proliferation of names that seem to capture “variants” of EDs (anorexia athletica, healthism, orthorexia, and others). However, in clinical psychology and psychiatry, anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) are thought to be the major EDs.
Biobanks and
DNA
Databases
Authors: Tutton Richard
Published: February 2014

In Spring 2009
Time
magazine produced a list of ten ideas which it considered were changing the world. At number eight was biobanks. Since the late 1990s, significant investment has been made in the creation of biobanks all over the world, with industry analysts claiming that more than US$1 billion has been invested in biobanking by research agencies, governments, academic institutions, pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, medical charities, and disease advocacy organizations. To some extent, these initiatives build on a longer history of medical and genetic registers and epidemiological cohort studies. The term biobank itself describes a diverse range of activities, from research in epidemiology of common complex diseases, pharmacogenetics, rare genetic diseases, oncology, and stem cells, to therapeutic applications such as blood transfusion or organ transplantation. Given this, biobanks are also characterized by multiple expectations about their potential to be used to develop new scientific knowledge and new diagnostics and therapeutics.
Health Care Delivery System: Brazil
Authors: Nunes Everardo Duarte
Published: February 2014

The central idea is to work within a framework of general information and texts regarding Brazilian health, placing it in a broader context – social, economical, and political. In a general sense, Brazilian history can be analyzed through long periods marked by phases: colonial Brazil, from the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500 to its independence; independent Brazil, from the proclamation of independence in 1822 to the installation of the republic in 1899; and the Brazilian republic, from 1899 to the present day. The emphasis in this entry will be on the occurrences of the last century. Even in the earlier periods, it is possible to perceive the evolution of a social system, although it was not much in evidence during the colonial period; the first sanitary actions took place in the early twentieth century. The building of social policies from 1930 through 1960 was first marked by individual medical assistance and its extension to various categories of workers: rural households, housemaids, and the self‐employed. Finally, the new constitution in 1988 led to the institutionalization of the Unified Health System, which is organized in accordance with the following directives: decentralization, full‐scale care from prevention to rehabilitation, and participation of the community, but not to the exclusion of a strong private system.
Traditional Health Services Utilization among Indigenous Peoples
Authors: Suwankhong Dusanee , Liamputtong Pranee
Published: February 2014

Traditional health services (THS) play a significant role in the health care systems of developed and developing nations. Traditional healing can satisfy health care needs by improving access to alternative choices of care, especially in rural areas. It is increasingly adopted around the world because it has demonstrated beneficial health results and has existed as a health care resource in most settings. In particular, its practices have been linked with historical circumstances, social contexts, and the cultural beliefs of indigenous people.
Aging
Authors: Higgs Paul , Gilleard Chris
Published: February 2014

Conventionally, aging is considered the consequence of a long life; and a long life typically (a) exceeds the age of reproductive fitness and (b) approximates to the “natural” human lifespan. Since there have always been some people living such conventionally “long” lives, there have always been opportunities for people to witness the bodily changes of aging and form ideas about what it is and what might be its cause. In contrast to old age, which is a status or social category conferred on individuals at a particular chronological age and/or as the result of a particular combination of physical signs and social markers, aging is a more diffuse process, referring to almost everything that takes away or lessens “youth” and “fitness.” Older mechanistic models of aging that sought to explain aging as the result of some singular fundamental process of decay have largely been abandoned. Researchers now acknowledge that multiple complex interacting processes probably account for the changes that take place as and when we grow old. We outline how it is necessary, therefore, to separate the processes of aging from the state or status of old age and show that while aging has become more heterogeneous, old age, on the other hand, has become more narrowly focused.
Mental Health and Work
Authors: Tausig Mark
Published: February 2014

The relationship between the work that people do to earn a living and their psychological well‐being has been the object of study by sociologists since the writings of Engels, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber (i.e., on alienation and anomie). These early sociologists viewed work conditions and the psychological reactions of workers to their work as outcomes of structured social and economic relations. Thus, to understand the relationship between work and mental health we require a systematic sociological study of the way that various social and economic structures affect work conditions that are known to affect the mental health of workers.
Health Care Delivery System: China
Authors: Jin Lei
Published: February 2014

China's health care delivery system mainly consists of village health stations, township health centers and country hospitals in rural areas, and hospitals and community health care centers in urban areas. Traditional Chinese medicine is an established component of the system. In the 1950s and 1960s, an extensive health care delivery system was set up to provide basic health care to the majority of China's vast population. After marketization reforms were initiated in 1978, the Chinese government withdrew from financing and managing health care provision. The pre‐reform system was greatly weakened, which exacerbated existing problems and created new challenges, such as lack of insurance coverage, soaring costs and spending, distorted provider incentives, patient–provider conflicts, lack of a functioning referral system, and inequality in access to available services. Since 2003 the Chinese government has led a campaign to address the problems. The most dramatic development has been the rapid expansion of public health care insurance programs, which now cover the majority of China's population, although the reimbursement rates are generally low. The government has recently professed its commitment to continue to improve health care provision; reform efforts to realign provider incentives and build a functioning referral system are unfolding. Rigorous examination is needed to assess their effects.
Chiropractors
Authors: Baer Hans A.
Published: February 2014

Chiropractic, invented by Daniel David Palmer, blended together elements from various healing and metaphysical systems. At the therapeutic level, the development of US chiropractic was shaped by fierce battles between the “straight” and the “mixers.” Despite opposition from biomedicine, chiropractic has evolved into a semi‐legitimate manual medical system in not only the United States, but also numerous other countries around the world.
Osteopaths
Authors: Baer Hans A.
Published: February 2014

Andrew Taylor Still developed osteopathy in the US Midwest as a manual medical system in the late nineteenth century. In the United States, osteopathy evolved into osteopathic medicine and surgery, or a parallel medical system to biomedicine, with an emphasis on primary care. In various other countries, such as the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, osteopathy functions primarily as a manual medical system, in much the same manner as chiropractic.
Concordance
Authors: Britten Nicky
Published: February 2014

Although the term “concordance” has a generic meaning, its use in the context of medicine taking was stimulated by the publication in 1997 of a report entitled “From Compliance to Concordance: achieving shared goals in medicine taking.” The report was written by a working party tasked with reviewing the causes and consequences of “non‐compliance” and making recommendations about how to improve the taking of medicines. Since 1997 the term “concordance” has gained currency in the medical literature, although not always as originally intended. For many writers, concordance appears to be a politically correct substitute for compliance. Others have criticized the term on a range of grounds, from the medico‐legal point of view to repudiation of the assertion of the centrality of the patient's role.
Mental Health and Neighborhoods
Authors: Hill Terrence D.
Published: February 2014

Residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods suffer higher levels of depression, anxiety, and anger than do residents of more advantaged neighborhoods. In this entry, we define neighborhoods and discuss objective and subjective measures. Then we describe the processes by which neighborhoods might influence psychological well‐being and distress, and the conditions under which neighborhood disadvantage and disorder may be more or less stressful.
Epidemiologic (Observational) Studies
Authors: Greenland Sander
Published: February 2014

Epidemiologic studies focus on measurement or estimation of health‐related properties of populations, such as distributions of diseases and their causes. This focus is shared with social sciences, but there is a limited overlap in study methods. Differences arise from focus in classical epidemiology on downstream (proximal or immediate) causes of disease such as microbes, toxins, and vectors or mechanisms of transmission or exposure, rather than upstream (distal) causes such as social determinants like poverty and lack of social services. With these differences in view, this entry gives a brief overview of the most common types of epidemiologic studies and their limitations, including surveillance and case series studies, ecologic studies, case control studies, and cohort studies, and contrasts observational epidemiologic studies to randomized trials.
Patient/User Associations
Authors: Chamak Brigitte
Published: February 2014

In the 1920s, the history of patient associations began with the creation of associations of victims of war, of tuberculosis patients, and of persons disabled after accidents in the workplace. In the 1940s and 1950s the first organizations for people with chronic diseases and associations of parents with disabled children were founded. Currently, claims from parent associations and user associations show striking differences. User associations often reproach parent associations for speaking on their behalf. In the 1960s and the 1970s, different forms of action were introduced by disability associations, and, in the 1980s, by AIDS associations. Many studies demonstrated the construction of lay expertise and changes in the relationship between doctors and patients. The Internet plays a crucial role in the development of activism and new communities. Patient/user associations are included in the broader category of “social movements” and are an important political force for health care access and quality of care, as well as for broader social change. The study of health social movements enables us to understand how collective action develops around a health issue and what strategies were used to impact public policy.
Fat Studies
Authors: Evans Bethan
Published: February 2014

Fat studies is an interdisciplinary field which has its roots in feminist, fat activist, and size acceptance movements. The broad field of fat studies overlaps with those who would refer to their work as “critical obesity studies” and “critical weight studies.” In contrast to dominant discourse on obesity, those working within this field problematize the term “obesity” either by directly critiquing it or by using alternative terms. In particular, there is a move within this literature, especially for those steeped in or overlapping with activism, to reclaim the word “fat” so that it can be used as a marker of pride rather than as a means to stigmatize fat bodies. Drawing on feminist, poststructural, corporeal/critical realist, queer, and disability theories, several important texts and edited collections have been published in recent years which consolidate the critical scholarship in this area.
Gender Attitudes: Infertility
Authors: Greil Arthur L. , Johnson Katherine M.
Published: February 2014

Because parenthood is typically more central to women's identity than to men's, the effects of infertility on identity are more severe for women. Nonetheless, men suffer from infertility also. It is important to move beyond the question of whose infertility is “worse” and begin to discuss how women's and men's experiences differ. Women experience infertility as a direct blow to self‐identity, whereas men experience infertility indirectly through the effect it has on their partners. Because fertility is so central to women's identities in developing countries, the gendered nature of the experience of infertility may be more striking in such societies.
Brain Drain
Authors: Marchal Bruno
Published: February 2014

The brain drain of health personnel surged to the top of the global health agenda at the beginning of the new millennium. New studies have attempted to quantify the flows and assess the effects of the brain drain, but comprehensive, reliable studies remain scarce. Although the movement of health professionals seems to be increasing, it is striking that the terms generally used to describe this are “professional migration,” “professional mobility,” and “brain circulation,” rather than “human capital flight” and “brain drain,” despite the general acknowledgment that it is the countries in the global south, which are facing the highest burden of infectious and chronic illness, that are suffering the most significant losses.
Illness
Authors: Bury Mike
Published: February 2014

Illness may be distinguished from disease by its subjective character: we “feel ill.” Although doctors may be preoccupied with disease, everyday medical practice involves managing illness. For lay people the questions “Why me?” “Why now?” often arise in episodes of illness. Lay accounts of illness seek to complete knowledge gained from medicine in order to fashion a more rounded understanding of its meaning. Accounts of the causation and course of illness may take the form of expressions of normative values. The socially disruptive character of illness, especially chronic illness, has been widely debated. The sociological study of illness requires an analytic and interpretative approach to illness.
Emerging and Re‐Emerging Infectious Diseases
Authors: Heymann David L. , Dixon Matthew A.
Published: February 2014

Infectious diseases emerge and re‐emerge in humans, facilitated by a variety of factors and their ability to breach the species barrier between animals and humans. They emerge and re‐emerge in a world of rapid advances and ease in international travel and trade, and are carried around the globe in humans, animals, food and food products, and insects. The bacteria, viruses, and parasites that cause them are dynamic and ever changing, able to mutate into forms that at times make them more or less virulent, transmissible, and/or resilient. It is inevitable that emergence and re‐emergence will continue to occur. To reduce the impact, robust public health infrastructure must be maintained or developed to enable rapid detection and response.
Geographies of Care
Authors: Milligan Christine
Published: February 2014

Care in the field of health is widely defined as the provision of practical or emotional support to those who would otherwise be unable to undertake activities of daily life due to physical or mental disability, illness, injury, or an age‐related condition.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Falzon D. , Getahun H. , Raviglione M. C. , Migliori G. B. , Centis R.
Published: February 2014

Few conditions lend themselves as easily as tuberculosis (TB) to illustrate the intimate relationship between human behavior and the course of an infection. TB has afflicted mankind for millennia. But it was the social upheaval which started with the modern age and its repercussions on global demography, urbanization, and industrialization that propelled TB to the top of the public health agenda. The germ theory shifted a paradigm in our understanding of disease etiology and removed the mystery which had for long shrouded TB. However, despite neat scientific explanations for what causes and promotes TB, and what works against it, the prospect of eliminating its threat to global public health remains elusive. Improved knowledge has not alleviated the stigma that many TB patients and their families worldwide continue to endure. This entry focuses on the central role which human behavior plays in the epidemiology of TB as the world population continues to swell and mingle to an unprecedented degree.
Trust
Authors: Stevenson Fiona A.
Published: February 2014

Trust is a complex idea. It is a relational notion and secures cooperation between people, people, and organizations, and people and events. There is a key ambivalence at the core of all trust relations, as trust is only demanded where there is ignorance, yet ignorance always provides grounds for skepticism or, at least, caution. Therefore, for trust to operate successfully there has to be an acceptance of the risks associated with the interdependence required. There is an interrelationship between trust at the macro‐ and microlevels and changes at one level inevitably affect the operation of trust at the other. Thus, facework commitments – that is, the trust relations built through interpersonal interactions – are critical in sustaining system‐level trust. Medicine has long been among the most trusted of social institutions. Yet it has been argued that following changes in wider society there has been a diminution of trust at both the organizational and the personal level and that in many instances trust can no longer be assumed, but rather is conditional and has to be earned. Moreover, once trust is lost it may be difficult to re‐establish.
Psychiatry and Race
Authors: Schnittker Jason
Published: February 2014

Understanding racial/ethnic differences in psychiatric disorders and treatment requires a multidimensional approach. Research has focused on racial/ethnic differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, in the presentation and meaning of disorders, and in access to and quality of treatment. Racial/ethnic differences are not apparent for all of these dimensions.
Interprofessional Boundaries
Authors: Martin Graham P.
Published: February 2014

The boundaries between professional groups and their jurisdictions of work are a product of a system of professions in which each group claims exclusive authority over its area of practice. This entry considers the formation, maintenance and defense of interprofessional boundaries, the negotiation of boundaries between professional groups, and the changing pressures on these boundaries from within and outwith the professions.
Risk
Authors: Lupton Deborah
Published: February 2014

This entry discusses risk as a sociocultural construction and gives examples of how sociological and anthropological theorists have analyzed risk in relation to health. Three dominant theoretical perspectives are outlined: the risk society approach, based on Ulrich Beck's writings; the governmentality perspective, drawing on the work of Michel Foucault; and the cultural/symbolic approach, instigated by Mary Douglas's work. The entry shows how each of these perspectives may be used to understand the ways in which the health risks related to overweight and obesity are framed, represented, and understood.
Cancer Prevention Services, Utilization of
Authors: Carter Stacy M.
Published: February 2014

Cancer is a dread disease, and cancer prevention a high priority for governments and non‐governmental organizations. The most common cancer prevention activities aim to modify “behavioral risk factors” in populations and to screen for early‐stage cancer or pre‐cancer to enable early treatment. Cancer incidence, service utilization, and outcomes are associated with social, cultural, and economic disadvantage, leading to a desire to increase cancer screening service utilization in disadvantaged communities. However the epidemiology of cancer screening increasingly suggests that some forms of screening do more harm than good, contradicting public enthusiasm for this service. Paradoxically, this means that disadvantaged people may be better off, on average, if they do not participate in some forms of cancer screening. The large and convincing literature on the social determinants of health suggests the importance of improving living conditions and access to resources for disadvantaged people as a strategy for cancer prevention.
Holistic Therapies
Authors: Hoyez Anne‐Cécile
Published: February 2014

Holistic therapies cover a wide range of different health practices that are often defined or designated as being at the margins of biomedical norms, as indicated by the terminologies used to classify them (e.g., complementary and alternative medicines; unconventional medicine). Studying holistic therapies leads to many questions concerning the dichotomy between established and dissident forms of medicines. Despite its relative marginal position, the field of holistic therapies has been gaining popularity among the general public since the 1970s, and is therefore more and more regarded, in social sciences, as being a key domain for questioning the complex and varying factors intervening in health.
Privacy and Health
Authors: Abrahamson Kathleen , Anderson James G.
Published: February 2014

The concept of privacy is loosely defined as the ability to maintain control over one's own information, time, territory, body, or other domain culturally defined as belonging to an individual. The concept of privacy is, by nature, culturally defined, so discussion of privacy as an individual value or legal right will depend upon the norms of the culture in which the interaction takes place. Privacy norms are impacted by population density, family size, religious beliefs, gender identity, and technological developments, and thus will change within a given culture over time.
Geographies of Health and Well‐Being
Authors: Fleuret Sebastien
Published: February 2014

Redefining health as a state of well‐being carries implications and challenges with respect to how well‐being should be conceptualized as well as how it should be measured or assessed. Given the difficulty of defining the term, it is particularly open to interpretation, and the meanings given to it – as well as the uses made of it – can vary greatly in different social and spatial locations. The challenge of health geography is to study the spatial configurations which may be able to improve (or not) well‐being and, by extension, health.
Mental Illness and Suicide
Authors: Stack Steven John
Published: February 2014

Most suicides are marked by two or more mental disorders; 87 percent of suicides involve at least one. The most common of these disorders is depression; major depression increases the odds of suicide by fully 20 times that of comparison groups. However, few works rigorously analyze both mental disorders and social strains simultaneously; instead, they tend to focus on one or the other. As a result, the relative importance of mental disorders compared to social strains is not fully clear. Social strains can also foster mental illness, a pathway that needs further exploration. Available evidence suggests that social factors such as intimate partner problems and economic strain have strong associations with suicide, independent of mental illness. The relative effectiveness of pharmacological and psychological treatment of mental illness for suicide prevention is understudied. However, it is known that some treatment strategies (e.g., lithium for mood disorders such as manic depression) significantly reduce the risk of suicide.
Health Psychology and Health Promotion
Authors: Kok Gerjo
Published: February 2014

Health psychology is the scientific study of the psychological processes involved in health, illness, and health care. Health psychology is one of the major disciplines applied in health promotion. Health promotion is any planned combination of educational, political, regulatory, and organizational supports for actions and conditions of living conducive to the health of individuals, groups, or communities. Health promotion as an intervention for patient care and support is usually called patient education instead of health promotion. Health promotion is a planned activity. The best known and most often used planning model in health promotion is Green's “Precede–Proceed” model. The effectiveness of a health promotion intervention is determined by the quality of the planning process. Intervention Mapping is a protocol that describes a process for developing theory‐based and evidence‐based health promotion programs. Intervention Mapping applies theories in all phases, but especially in understanding of behavior and changing behavior. Some agreement is emerging regarding important theoretical constructs across theories that explain behavior. Other theories focus on change. Recently, the group of self‐management theories has become widely applied in health psychology and health promotion.