bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Inclusive Innovation Policy
Authors: Potts Jason
Published: August 2019

Chapter 9 draws out a particular formulation of the institutional approach to policy that is based around permissionless innovation and the work of Calestous Juma. It distinguishes between two types of innovation policy from the perspective of government: (1) being supportive of “friends of innovation,” or (2) being against “enemies of innovation.” It argues from a public choice theoretical perspective that modern innovation policy is usually configured as (1), i.e., supporting investment in innovation, but it would actually be better if it were (2), namely configured so as to seek to oppose those who seek to stifle new ideas in order to protect their existing investments and economic rents. The chapter proposes inclusive innovation as a new social contract for innovation. I argue that this is a long run social welfare maximizing policy approach, but implies that the role of policy is largely to facilitate social Coasean bargaining in order to compensate the losers.
The Politics of Intrinsic Worth
Authors: Bennett Gaymon
Published: August 2019

Talk of “protecting human dignity” has become a fixture of modern counterpolitics. Indeed, it has become so widespread, some in bioethics have suggested the term now means too little by being made to do too much. This chapter argues that however philosophically “thin” it has become, bioethics still needs talk of dignity. It proposes that the power of the concept lies less in clear philosophical definitions and more in how notions of intrinsic worth evoked by human dignity offer a language for critiquing the sometimes-violent ways science and technology have been used to “normalize” human life. Working historically, the chapter concludes that giving up on dignity would mean giving up a key resource for asking not only what we might gain in transforming ourselves with new biotechnologies, but also whether there is something inviolably precious we might lose.
Bioethics Contra Biopower
Authors: Jennings Bruce
Published: August 2019

This chapter engages two issues as they bear on genomic editing and the effects of biotechnology on human well-being: (1) how technology influences a reductionistic and manipulative understanding of biopower and biopolitics, fundamentally at odds with the worldview of bioethical humanism; and (2) how the reconceptualization of human flourishing in capability theories of justice bears on the ethics of biotechnology. The argument of this chapter appeals to a relational or “ecological” humanism that will assist bioethics in developing a critique of the technologies and knowledges of molecular reductionism. In the perspective of relational humanism, human beings are empowered as subjects of value and agents of self-realization, and mutual relations of interdependence and solidarity are affirmed. Along these lines, a reframed debate concerning the governance of biopower and the promotion of just human flourishing in an age of biotechnology can take place.
Growing Up Indian, Becoming Immigrants
Authors: Saunders Jennifer B.
Published: August 2019

Chapter 3 focuses on narratives about immigration and reveals performers’ interpretations of the immigration experience and the processes by which they shape their transnational social realities. A close reading of their performances uncovers the ways that dharm (“religion” or “duty”) shapes the Guptas and their social networks’ understandings of immigration, adjustment, and the identities that both precipitate and result from these experiences. Interpreting the Guptas’, their family’s, and their community’s narrative performances of immigration within the context of dharm demonstrates their participation in creating identities, shaping community, and reinterpreting dharm in a transnational context. Two features of the Guptas’ immigration narratives—ambivalence and comparison—work together to help these immigrants and their families enact their imagination in co-constructing their experience as transnational.
Movies, Modernism, and the Science Fiction Pulps
Authors: Telotte J. P.
Published: August 2019

This book considers the impact that the new art of film had on the development of the emerging science fiction (SF) genre during the pre- and early post-World War II era, during the time that the genre was trying to locate an identity, develop its key themes, and even settle on a name. Focusing on the primary venue for early SF literature, the popular pulp magazines such as Amazing Stories, Wonder Stories, and Astounding Stories, it traces this early film/literature relationship by examining four common features of the pulps: stories that involve film or the film industry; film-related advertising; editors’ commentaries and readers’ remarks on film; and cover and story illustrations. All these features demonstrate an interest and even a fascination with the movies, which, as many of SF’s readers, writers, and editors recognized, demonstrated a modernist agenda similar to that which characterized the literature. By surveying these haunting traces of another medium in early SF discourse, this book shows how that cinematic influence penetrated and, both consciously and unconsciously, helped shape the experience of SF, as well as the cultural idea of SF during this formative period.
Soot, Dirt, and Human Flesh Packed Together
Authors: Pollock Ethan
Published: August 2019

For the first half of the nineteenth century, the banya remained popular with the people, but was generally ignored by medical professionals in Russia. Ironically, in Western Europe, doctors began to explore the potential of steam bathing for treating ailments and improving health. In the West, public bathhouses were new and could be considered modern. In Russia they had always existed and were considered traditional. In 1812 a popular broadside depicted Napoleon suffering in the Russian banya. In his fiction, the author Fyodor Dostoevsky used the banya as a place of ambiguity: it was clean and dirty, pure and corrupt, a potential gateway to hell and salvation.
In the Banya I Changed My World View
Authors: Pollock Ethan
Published: August 2019

The Soviet Union collapsed, but banyas remained. After 1991, various threads of the banya’s history were taken up by different parts of the Russian population. Some saw them as places for contemplation and camaraderie; others went for sex, to conduct business deals, to connect with tradition, or to feed their souls. Still others saw them as primarily about health. But it was also a place of corruption, suspicion, danger, and transgression. In the West, they went from being an odd habit restricted to immigrants from the former Soviet Union to a mainstay of American cities catering to people seeking an authentic spa experience. Banyas showed up in films, novels, and journalistic accounts of Russia as a key to understanding Russian culture.
The evidence for species—phenotypic and genetic clustering
Authors: Barraclough Timothy G.
Published: August 2019

This chapter discusses how to detect evolutionary species, and how to test whether species are real and to evaluate the alternative hypotheses for the structure of diversity described in chapter 2. After outlining evidence from phenotypic data, such as surveys of morphology, it describes population genetic methods for delimiting species from single-locus genetic data, of the kind gathered by DNA barcoding and taxonomy initiatives. All forms of life display the same pattern of discrete clustering of genetic variation that is indicative of the existence of independently evolving groups, that is, species. This is perhaps the best comprehensive evidence we have for the reality of species, but it leaves open many further questions about the causes of that pattern, and does not rule out more complex models for the structure of diversity.
How does species richness accumulate over time?
Authors: Barraclough Timothy G.
Published: August 2019

Species are units for understanding the evolution of diversity over large geographical scales and long timescales. This chapter investigates the processes causing proliferation and demise of species diversity within lineages and regions. Phylogenetic approaches have focused on documenting speciation and extinction rates, but mechanistic theory explaining variation in rates is scarce. Diversity patterns are better explained by geographical and ecological opportunity than by correlates of speciation and extinction rates per se. The neutral theory of biodiversity provides a framework that can be adapted to predict diversity patterns in terms of limits due to competition for space and resources, and species turnover (which cannot be detected directly from phylogenetic trees). These theories bring macroevolutionary and microevolutionary theories closer together. In particular, diversity patterns are the outcome of individual selection and dispersal playing out over long timescales. Some of the processes influencing species patterns can also structure diversity at higher taxonomic levels.
Conclusions
Authors: Barraclough Timothy G.
Published: August 2019

This final chapter summarizes conclusions from the book and highlights a few general areas for future work. The species model for the structure of diversity is found to be useful and largely supported by current data, but is open to future tests against explicit alternative models. It is also a vital component for understanding and predicting contemporary evolution in the diverse systems that all organisms live in. The common evolutionary framework for microbial and multicellular life is highlighted, while drawing attention to current gaps in understanding for each type of organism. Future work needs to scale up to develop model systems of diverse assemblages and clades, including time-series data ranging from contemporary to geological scales. The imminent avalanche of genome data for thousands of individuals sampled within and between species is identified as a key challenge and opportunity. Finally, this chapter repeats the challenge that evolutionary biologists should embrace diversity and need to attempt to predict evolution in diverse systems, in order to deliver solutions of benefit to society.
Hinduism and New Age
Authors: Frøystad Kathinka
Published: August 2019

One of the latest transformations of Hinduism concerns the appropriation of Western New Age influences, which in the 1990s and 2000s gave rise to a burgeoning spiritual field dominated by urban middle-class Hindus. This chapter discusses its growth and fuzzy contours and analyses its rapid growth. Drawing on psychology-inspired social theory, the chapter argues that the rapid societal changes brought about by the liberalization of India’s economy created a demand for self-development techniques that facilitated adjustment to these changes, some of which were spiritualized in the guru movements that began to mushroom. Cultivating a New Age emphasis on human oneness in a country as hierarchical and multi-religious as India makes Indian New Age stand out in at least two respects. First, by the friction between oneness, class-stratified organization, and religious philanthropy, here conceptualized as ‘patrimonial oneness’. And, secondly, by its self-conscious effort to bridge religious boundaries, though religious cosmopolitanism was difficult to accomplish in practice.
Enacted Context
Authors: Fitzgerald Louise
Published: August 2019

This chapter presents a distinct perspective on context, adopting an interactionist view that includes the interaction of context, actors, and action. The chapter traces the gradual development of this interactionist perspective and then provides three illustrative examples from which to develop further the concept of context. First, it is argued that the actor fluidly blends context into form by selectively melding contextual elements, with the crucial difference between the elements of the external context and the elements of the personal context being one of distance. Second, it is suggested that attention to certain elements of context is dynamically driven by focus, and selective attention is framed by sensemaking and is driven by an individualized judgment of what is “relevant.” This explanation perceives the bounding of context as an act of individual sensemaking, embodied cognition, and judgment.
Technology in Context
Authors: Wentzer Helle Sofie
Published: August 2019

The phrase “technology in context” contains a paradox, because much technology is assumed “context-free.” Information and communication technology (ICT) in health care, including telemedicine, electronic patient records, and other forms of ICT are often presented as virtual—free of time and space. This chapter argues that technology development and implementation, as drivers of modernity, make attention to context more relevant than ever in both practice and research. High-tech and information technologies transcend the traditional understanding of context to become something multilayered and relational, with the risk of blurring borderlines of tasks, roles, and responsibilities. Research into disrupted and decontextualized spaces of action offers insights into the dependencies and vulnerabilities of ICT-mediated health care practices. Here, surgery is chosen as a learning aid to understand the mediated character of context, its dependencies and vulnerabilities, and how it must be continuously reproduced at different levels of understanding and organization.
Knowledge and Conditionals
Authors: Stalnaker Robert C.
Published: August 2019

A set of interconnected chapters on topics in the theory of knowledge. Part 1 considers the concept of knowledge, its logical properties, and its relation to belief and partial belief, or credence. It includes a discussion of belief revision, two discussions of reflection principles, a chapter about the status of self-locating knowledge and belief, a chapter about the evaluation of normative principles of inductive reasoning, and a development and defense of a contextualist account of knowledge. Part 2 is concerned with conditional propositions, and conditional reasoning, with chapters on the logic and formal semantics of conditionals, a discussion of the relation between indicative and subjunctive conditionals and of the question whether indicative conditionals express propositions, a chapter considering the relation between counterfactual propositions and objective chance, a critique of an attempt to give a metaphysical reduction of counterfactual propositions to nonconditional matters of fact, and a discussion of dispositional properties, and of a dispositional theory of chance.
Essays in Experience
Authors: Milnes Tim
Published: August 2019

This chapter argues that the familiar essay becomes an important analogue for communicative reason through its connections with three crucial features of socialized empiricism: scepticism, dialogue, and philosophical thought as performance. The first of this trio of concerns stems from a connection between the activity of ‘essaying’ and philosophical doubt. The second emerges around the genre’s association with ideas of sociability and the activities of dialogue and conversation. Addison’s declared intention to bring philosophy and science out of the academies and into the coffee houses is radicalized by Hume’s endeavour to incorporate the language of sociability into the principles of philosophy itself. Consequently, in the familiar essay, Hume and Johnson find a generic trope for an active and engaged (rather than receptive and contemplative) empiricism, one which implies that the truth of any empirical statement ultimately depends upon the manner of its performance.
Semantics
Authors: Weaver Bryan R. , Scharp Kevin
Published: August 2019

Chapter 3 presents a semantic theory for reasons locutions. The semantic theory pairs a Kaplanian semantic framework with Craige Roberts’s question under discussion (QUD) pragmatic theory. The result is QUD Reasons Contextualism, which specifies eight distinct kinds of contexts of utterance for reasons locutions and the truth conditions for each one. The chapter then explains how each of the six reasons distinctions surveyed in Chapter 1 is related to the semantics for reasons locutions. In particular, the chapter shows that the agent neutral/agent relative distinction is a presemantic distinction, the normative/motivating/explanatory, objective/subjective, and permissive/obligatory distinctions are content distinctions, the adaptive/evaluative/practical and internal/external distinctions are domain distinctions, and the contributory/conclusive/sufficient distinction is a nonsemantic distinction. In addition, the chapter presents an extended example and an analogy with love locutions to illustrate the results. Finally, the chapter suggests a formal semantics for reasons locutions in the style of Kratzer’s semantics for modals.
The Competition
Authors: Weaver Bryan R. , Scharp Kevin
Published: August 2019

Chapter 4 shows why QUD Reasons Contextualism is preferable to its competitors. In particular, it considers Stephen Finlay’s conceptual analysis of reasons locutions, an expressivist view of reasons locutions based on the work of Simon Blackburn, Tim Henning’s information contextualism, and Niko Kolodny’s semantic relativism.
Implications
Authors: Weaver Bryan R. , Scharp Kevin
Published: August 2019

Chapter 5 lays out some of the implications of QUD Reasons Contextualism for five issues in the philosophy of normativity: the ontology of reasons, indexical facts, the reasons to be rational debate, the difficulty of defining moral reasons, and the reasons-first debate. The chapter shows that the ontology of reasons is a pseudo-problem and agent-relative reasons are not indexical facts. It offers replies to Kolodny’s arguments for the claim that we do not have reason to be rational. The chapter also offers a novel account of moral reasons and an initial statement of a reasons-first supervenience view. It also offers replies to objections to the reasons-first approach by Snedegar and Daniel Fogal.
Introduction
Authors: Weaver Bryan R. , Scharp Kevin
Published: August 2019

The Introduction provides some background on the huge role that reasons play in the literature on metaethics and epistemology over the past five decades. It also introduces the reader to why an understanding of the semantics for ‘reason’ is essential to making sense of the myriad ways reasons have been used across philosophy. Moreover, it presents the distinctions among kinds of reasons that have been prevalent in the literature and summarizes the overarching framework for understanding these distinctions and how they relate to one another.
Term Limits and Succession in Dictatorships
Authors: Ezrow Natasha
Published: August 2019

This chapter explores executive term limits in authoritarian regimes. Though it may seem counter-intuitive, authoritarian regimes often willingly implement term limits. This chapter explains why this is the case and how term limits might help to maintain autocratic stability. The chapter also explains how term limits are enforced and what type of authoritarian regime is most likely to have term limits, looking at personalist regimes, single-party regimes, and military regimes. As the chapter will argue, many single-party regimes implement executive term limits because they ensure leadership turnover and prolong the tenure of the regime. Nevertheless, term limits do not always lead to stability. This chapter also explores the cases where term limits may lead to the downfall of a regime or at least have a liberalizing effect on the regime.
The Politics of Presidential Term Limits in Malawi
Authors: VonDoepp Peter
Published: August 2019

Malawi witnessed the institution of a “life-presidency” shortly after gaining independence in 1964. With the transition to democracy in the mid-1990s, term limits became a central component of the country’s constitutional order. While they have survived intact, they have been targeted for revision or removal on two occasions. In particular, President Bakili Mulizi (1994–2004) and his allies attempted (and failed) to amend the constitution to allow himself to stand for a third term. Prior to the 2009 elections, he also was associated with a court case arguing that the constitutional stipulation did not prevent him from running again. The successful preservation of Malawi’s term limits has reflected the operation of several important accountability mechanisms that undermined projects to remove them. These included checks on powerful political actors that emerged from “formal” institutions, such as parties, legislatures, and the judiciary. It also involved resistance from civil society and the donor community.
Senegal (1970–2016)
Authors: Heyl Charlotte
Published: August 2019

In Senegal, the presidential term limit and term length rule was subject to nine reforms and one circumvention from 1970 to 2016. This chapter analyses the context, justifications, and repercussions of these reforms. The recurring tenure rule reforms reflect the Senegalese regime’s oscillating trajectory between authoritarian and democratic proclivities. These reforms were frequently part of larger reform packages in which measures to liberalize political competition coincided with measures to constrain competition. Through such strategic reforms, Senghor and Diouf managed to preserve the PS hegemony, but the first electoral turnover in 2000 could ultimately not be prevented. Over the years, tenure rule reforms gained in symbolic value and served as a reference point for electoral promises as well as for public contestation. The strong societal mobilization did not prevent Wade’s third-term bid in 2012, but it did prevent his electoral victory. The contestation of the tenure rule has continued during Sall’s presidency.
Presidential Term Limits in Burkina Faso
Authors: Moestrup Sophia
Published: August 2019

Burkina Faso exemplifies the consequences of presidential hubris, when a president tinkers with term limits to remain in power. Term limits became the rallying cry for opponents to President Blaise Compaoré’s attempts at perpetuating his rule. Compaoré, in power since 1987, was forced out by massive demonstrations in October 2014, as the country’s National Assembly was poised to pass constitutional revisions allowing him to stand again. The term limit issue provided a common cause for ex-regime insiders and opposition political party and civil society activists. Technical arguments in favour of the legality of changing term limits lacked legitimacy in the eyes of opponents, who saw the move as a breaking of promises previously made. The impact of term limits on political outcomes in Burkina Faso illustrates how institutions can become a constraint on those same rulers who adopted the institutions in the first place.
Presidential Term Limits in Bolivia
Authors: Doyle David
Published: August 2019

The current 2009 Constitution of Bolivia specifies that the president may serve for a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. This constitution however, is the latest in a long line of constitutional reforms, which have seen term limits repeatedly altered. Across seventeen different constitutions since 1826, Bolivia has overseen twelve reforms to term limits. As argued in this chapter, constitutionalism and term limits in Bolivia, partly due to the period of near constant constitutional reform in the latter half of the nineteenth century, were part of the wider political battle waged by rival caudillos in their pursuit of the presidential prize. Term limits became an instrumental concern, not a normative legal issue, and this legacy has important implications for the debate over term limits in Bolivia today. As such, support for, or opposition to, any reform of term limits tends to be shaped by partisan concerns above all else.
Essentials of Landscape Ecology
Authors: With Kimberly A.
Published: August 2019

Essentials of Landscape Ecology is a new, comprehensive text that presents the principles, theory, methods, and applications of landscape ecology in an engaging and accessible format, supplemented by numerous examples and case studies from a variety of systems, including freshwater and marine “scapes.” Human activity has transformed landscapes worldwide on a scale that rivals or exceeds even the largest of natural forces, giving rise to a new geological age, the Anthropocene. As humans alter the structure and function of landscapes, the biological diversity and ecological relationships within those landscapes are also inevitably altered, to the extent that this may interfere with humanity’s efforts to sustain the productivity and multifunctional use of these landscapes. Landscape ecology has thus emerged as a new, multidisciplinary science to investigate the effects of human land use and environmental heterogeneity on ecological processes across a wide range of scales and systems: from the effects of habitat or resource distributions on the individual movements, gene flow, and population dynamics of plants and animals; to the human alteration of landscapes affecting the structure of biological communities and the functioning of entire ecosystems; to the sustainable management of natural resources and the ecosystem goods and services upon which society depends.
Landscape Effects on Individual Movement and Dispersal
Authors: With Kimberly A.
Published: August 2019

Movement is a fundamental process that enables individuals to find food or mates, locate suitable habitat, and colonize new areas. The effect of environmental heterogeneity on individual movement behavior is the finest scale at which organisms respond to landscape structure, and can be used to define different species’ perceptions of landscape structure. This chapter discusses different types and scales of movement, how patch structure is expected to influence movement, and various methods for tracking and analyzing animal movement. Because animal movements are typically bounded in space, the estimation of space utilization and home-range size is also considered in this chapter. The chapter concludes with a discussion of various approaches to measuring plant dispersal, which is likewise important for evaluating how movement (via propagules) translates into the redistribution or spread of populations across the landscape.
Landscape Effects on Population Distributions and Dynamics
Authors: With Kimberly A.
Published: August 2019

The distribution and dynamics of populations reflect the interplay between dispersal and demography with landscape structure. Understanding how landscape structure affects populations is essential to effective habitat management and species conservation, especially within landscapes undergoing habitat loss and fragmentation as a result of human land-use activities. This chapter thus begins with an overview of the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on populations, followed by a discussion of species distribution modeling. Then, because population assessment figures so prominently in evaluating a species’ extinction risk to landscape change, the chapter considers the different classes of population models used to estimate population growth rates and population viability, including the use of metapopulation and spatially explicit simulation models.
A Primer of Molecular Population Genetics
Authors: Cutter Asher D.
Published: August 2019

The study of molecular population genetics seeks to understand the micro-evolutionary principles underlying DNA sequence variation and change. It addresses such questions as: Why do individuals differ as much as they do in their DNA sequences? What are the genomic signatures of adaptations? How often does natural selection dictate changes to DNA and accumulate as differences between species? How does the ebb and flow in the abundance of individuals over time get marked onto chromosomes to record genetic history? The concepts used to answer such questions also apply to analysis of personal genomics, genome-wide association studies, phylogenetics, landscape and conservation genetics, forensics, molecular anthropology, and selection scans. This Primer of Molecular Population Genetics introduces the bare essentials of the theory and practice of evolutionary analysis through the lens of DNA sequence change in populations. Intended as an introductory text for upper-level undergraduates and junior graduate students, this Primer also provides an accessible entryway for scientists from other areas of biology to appreciate the ideas and practice of molecular population genetics. With the revolutionary advances in genomic data acquisition, understanding molecular population genetics is now a fundamental requirement for today’s life scientists.
Group Duties
Authors: Collins Stephanie
Published: August 2019

Moral duties are regularly attributed to groups. We might think that the United Kingdom has a moral duty to defend human rights, that environmentalists have a moral duty to push for global systemic reform, or that the affluent have a moral duty to alleviate poverty. This book asks (i) whether such groups are apt to bear duties and (ii) what this implies for their members. It defends a ‘Tripartite Model’ of group duties, which divides groups into three fundamental categories. First, combinations are collections of agents that do not have any goals or decision-making procedures in common. Combinations cannot bear moral duties. Instead, we should re-cast their purported duties as a series of duties—one held by each agent in the combination. Each duty demands its bearer to ‘I-reason’: to do the best they can, given whatever they happen to believe the others will do. Second, coalitions are groups whose members share goals but lack decision-making procedures. Coalitions also cannot bear duties, but their alleged duties should be replaced with members’ several duties to ‘we-reason’: to do one’s part in a particular group pattern of actions, on the presumption that others will do likewise. Third, collectives have group-level procedures for making decisions. They can bear duties. Collectives’ duties imply duties for collectives’ members to use their role in the collective with a view to the collective doing its duty.
Power and Equality
Authors: Viehoff Daniel
Published: August 2019

Several democratic theorists have recently sought to vindicate the ideal of equal political power (“political equality”) by tying it to the non-derivative value of egalitarian relationships. This chapter critically discusses such arguments. It clarifies what it takes to vindicate the ideal of political equality, and distinguishes different versions of the relational egalitarian argument for it. Some such arguments appeal to the example of a society without social status inequality (such as caste or class structures); others to personal relationships among equals, like friendship. Each strategy faces problems. After discussing what social status consists in, the chapter argues that social status equality does not require an equal distribution of power, but only that unequal distributions are not justified on grounds incompatible with the citizens’ fundamental equal moral standing. By contrast, personal relationships among equals do require equal power; but establishing that their norms apply to our political community is challenging.
Localized Restricted Aggregation
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: August 2019

This chapter defends a restricted aggregationist view about harm prevention. Restricted aggregationist views claim that preventing an aggregation of smaller harms to many people can justify failing to save a smaller number of people from larger harms in cases where the difference between the harms is not too great. The view defended here is that even if preventing an aggregation of smaller harms cannot justify failing to save a person from a much larger harm by counting against preventing the larger harm, they can justify the decision not to save a person from a much larger harm by counterbalancing other reasons there might be to save the person from a much larger harm. This view is shown to be preferable to a more familiar restricted aggregationist view, where the prevention of smaller harms makes no contribution to the decision not to save a person from a larger harm at all.
Blockchain-Based Insurance
Authors: Abramowicz Michael
Published: August 2019

To date, the insurance industry’s interest in the blockchain has focused largely on the possibility of recording insurance entitlements in a transparent way. While the blockchain may produce significant efficiencies of this sort, it has considerably greater transformative potential. Smart contracts could serve as a substitute for insurance companies, conventionally conceived. Such contracts could perform the function of deciding whether claims should be paid, without the need for or possibility of judicial intervention. The blockchain and smart contracts are difficult to regulate, because ownership and decision making can be decentralized. Blockchain-based insurance may successfully provide a means of avoiding expensive regulation and could have a competitive advantage over regulated insurance. This chapter discusses how blockchain-based insurance might work and identifies some technical challenges and other obstacles that it may face.
‘A Man Having Died’: Watching Achilles and Hector
Authors: Myers Tobias
Published: August 2019

Chapter 5 focuses on the poem’s two final prominent scenes of divine viewing: when Achilles pursues Hector around Troy, and when he drags Hector’s corpse around Patroclus’ burial marker. The first sections argues that the confrontation between Hector and Achilles is presented so as to make audiences feel that they are attending an event that resembles both a formal duel and an athletic competition (aethlos). The second section shows how the gods’ viewing can be read as a mise en abyme that brings to the surface the tensions latent in this hybrid spectacle. The third and final section argues that the funerary imagery in the Iliad’s final representations of the contests of the Trojans and Achaeans suggests ‘suspension of temporal verisimilitude’. Ann Bergren has used this phrase to describe moments when the Iliad not only depicts multiple moments of mythic history at once, in defiance of temporal naturalism, but draws attention to the fact that it is doing so. Given the prominence of the divine gaze in these final scenes, the point of the reflexivity is not so much to emphasize the poem’s human artistry, but rather to seduce audiences with the sense that what they are seeing is something like what the gods must see: a spectacle at once ephemeral and eternal, the most absorbing moments of which are inextricably linked to each other through time.
Introduction: Institutions and Organizations
Authors: Reay Trish , Zilber Tammar B. , Langley Ann , Tsoukas Haridimos
Published: August 2019

Institutions—the taken-for-granted structures, practices, and meanings that define what people and organizations within their jurisdiction think, do, and aspire to—are all about process, even though this may not always have been evident in some of the institutional theory literature. In this introduction, the editors call for a strong process approach to institutional dynamics, one that highlights institutions as emergent, generative, political, and social. They first relate “weak” and “strong” process views with the two metaphors commonly used to explain institutionalization—diffusion and translation. After reviewing some of the recent developments within institutional theory that set the ground for a strong process view, they move to exemplify the potential of a strong process view for institutional theory. They then end the introduction with some suggestions that will contribute positively to the ongoing development of institutional theory through a strong process view.
Data as Process
Authors: Jones Matthew , Blackwell Alan F. , Prince Karl , Meakins Sallyanne , Simpson Alexander , Vuylsteke Alain
Published: August 2019

Adopting a strong process perspective, this chapter seeks to problematize the way in which data are typically conceived in the information sciences and in contemporary organizational discourse. Drawing on evidence from an ongoing multidisciplinary study of data reuse in acute healthcare we argue that, contrary to the prevalent conception of data as a fundamental, natural resource that exists “out there” in the world, data are constituted through complex activities and transactions. They are a contingent record of a contingent selection of what is paid attention to in the world. Not all data that are recorded, moreover, may be looked for, and of these not all may be found or be accessible. Much of what gets described as data are therefore “data in principle” only, with just a proportion becoming “data in practice,” able to contribute to organizational processes. Some implications of this process view of data are explored.
Cognition
Authors: Smithies Declan
Published: August 2019

Chapter 4 explores the epistemic role of consciousness in cognition. Section 4.1 argues that all beliefs provide epistemic justification for other beliefs. Section 4.2 contrasts beliefs with subdoxastic states, which provide no epistemic justification for belief. Section 4.3 argues that this epistemic distinction between beliefs and subdoxastic states cannot be explained in terms of the functional criterion of inferential integration. Section 4.4 argues that this epistemic distinction must be explained in terms of the phenomenal criterion of conscious accessibility: the contents of beliefs are accessible to consciousness as the contents of conscious judgments. Section 4.5 argues that conscious judgments have phenomenal contents that supervene on their phenomenal character. Section 4.6 concludes with some proleptic remarks to explain why beliefs can provide epistemic justification for other beliefs only if their contents are accessible to consciousness.
The Value of Green Energy: Optimal Investment in Mutually Exclusive Projects and Operating Leverage
Authors: Detemple Jerome , Kitapbayev Yerkin
Published: August 2019

We study investments in exclusive projects with different cost structures. Our analysis incorporates the possibility of producing a stochastic revenue stream from two alternative technologies with a stochastic variable cost and a fixed cost, respectively, and accounts for project managers’ endogenous operating decisions. The optimal investment decision is characterized by two possibly nonmonotone boundaries. We examine the effect of operating leverage on managerial policies, investment decisions, and values and carry out an application to power generation projects. We assess the impact of knowledge acquisition, that is, investments in growth options. (JEL G13, Q40, Q42, L94)
Proposed Dose Constraints in the Duties of Radiation Workers at the Department of Nuclear Medicine
Authors: Chung Woon-Kwan , Yang Nam-Hee , Dong Kyung-Rae , Choi Jiwon
Published: August 2019

This study aimed to set a dose constraint for certain duties of radiological technologists in the department of nuclear medicine. From 2013 to 2017, the 5 y radiation exposure data of employees performing PET-CT and γ-CAMERA of eight hospitals in Korea were measured individual exposure doses to estimate the frequency and set a representative dose of 75 and 95% from the low dose in the whole category is presented. The dose constraint was 5.5 mSv for PET-CT, 4.5 mSv for γ-CAMERA and 3.5 mSv for Positron Emission Tomography (PET)-Computed Tomography(CT) and Gamma CAMERA (γ-CAMERA). Therefore, it would be appropriate to set a dose-limit value of ~5 mSv corresponding to 75–80% of the individual exposure dose of radiological technologists in the department of nuclear medicine. The finding of this study may be used as reference data for setting future radiation dose limits.
Macroevolutionary trends in the genus Torvoneustes (Crocodylomorpha: Metriorhynchidae) and discovery of a giant specimen from the Late Jurassic of Kimmeridge, UK
Authors: Young Mark T , Foffa Davide , Steel Lorna , Etches Steve
Published: August 2019

The metriorhynchid crocodylomorph fauna of the Late Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay Formation (KCF) of the UK was highly diverse. One genus from this Formation, Torvoneustes, was unique in evolving dentition similar to known chelonivorous crocodylomorphs and enlarged attachment sites for the pterygoideus adductor musculature. Here we report the largest known Torvoneustes specimen, the occipital region of a large cranium that was discovered on the shore of Brandy Bay, Dorset, UK (KCF). We also report three tooth crowns discovered during the 19th century from Oxfordshire that can also be referred to Torvoneustes. The partial braincase is unique in having: verticalized basioccipital tuberosities that have thickened ventral margins, the notch between the basioccipital tuberosities is a narrow inverted ‘U’-shape and a subrectangular-shaped carotid canal foramina. The presence of ‘occipital fossae’ (deep concavities with the hypoglossal foramina in their dorsomedial corners) and carotid foramina with raised rims relative to the basioccipital posterior surface, allow us to refer it to Torvoneustes. Although incomplete, the exceptional size of the specimen demonstrates that Torvoneustes attained larger body lengths than previously supposed (3.7–4.7 m). Comparing the dimensions of this specimen to other metriorhynchids suggests that at least some Torvoneustes specimens rivalled Plesiosuchus manselii in body length.
Evaluation of the Phytopathological Reaction of Wild and Cultivated Olives as a Means of Finding Promising New Sources of Genetic Diversity for Resistance to Root-Knot Nematodes
Authors: Palomares-Rius Juan E. , Belaj Angjelina , León Lorenzo , de la Rosa Raúl , Rapoport Hava F. , Castillo Pablo
Published: August 2019

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the most important fruit crops in the Mediterranean Basin, because it occupies significant acreage in these countries and often has important cultural heritage and landscape value. This crop can be infected by several Meloidogyne species (M. javanica, M. arenaria, and M. incognita, among others), and only a few cultivars with some level of resistance to these nematodes have been found. Innovations in intensive olive growing using high planting densities, irrigation, and substantial amounts of fertilizers could increase the nematode population to further damaging levels. To further understand the interactions involved between olive and pathogenic nematodes and in the hope of finding solutions to the agricultural risks, this research aimed to determine the reaction of important olive cultivars in Spain and wild olives to M. javanica infection, including genotypes of the same and other O. europaea subspecies. All olive cultivars tested were good hosts for M. javanica, but high levels of nematode reproduction found in three cultivars (Gordal Sevillana, Hojiblanca, and Manzanilla de Sevilla) were substantially different. In the wild accessions, O. europaea subsp. cerasiformis (genotype W147) and O. europaea subsp. europaea var. sylvestris (genotype W224) were resistant to M. javanica at different levels, with strong resistance in W147 (reproduction factor [Rf] = 0.0003) and moderate resistance in W224 (Rf = 0.79). The defense reaction of W147 to M. javanica showed a strong increase of phenolic compounds but no hypersensitive reaction.
Contribution of DNA methylation in chronic stress‐induced cardiac remodeling and arrhythmias in mice
Authors: Zhang Peng , Li Tao , Liu Ya‐Qin , Zhang Hao , Xue Si‐Meng , Li Guang , Cheng Hai‐Ying Mary , Cao Ji‐Min
Published: August 2019

It is recognized that stress can induce cardiac dysfunction, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. The present study aimed to test the hypothesis that chronic negative stress leads to alterations in DNA methylation of certain cardiac genes, which in turn contribute to pathologic remodeling of the heart. We found that mice that were exposed to chronic restraint stress (CRS) for 4 wk exhibited cardiac remodeling toward heart failure, as characterized by ventricular chamber dilatation, wall thinning, and decreased contractility. CRS also induced cardiac arrhythmias, including intermittent sinus tachycardia and bradycardia, frequent premature ventricular contraction, and sporadic atrioventricular conduction block. Circulating levels of stress hormones were elevated, and the cardiac expression of tyrosine hydroxylase, a marker of sympathetic innervation, was increased in CRS mice. Using reduced representation bisulfite sequencing, we found that although CRS did not lead to global changes in DNA methylation in the murine heart, it nevertheless altered methylation at specific genes that are associated with the dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) (e.g., desmin) and adrenergic signaling of cardiomyocytes (ASPC) (e.g., adrenergic receptor‐α1) pathways. We conclude that CRS induces cardiac remodeling and arrhythmias, potentially through altered methylation of myocardial genes associated with the DCM and ASPC pathways.—Zhang P., Li, T., Liu, Y.‐Q., Zhang, H., Xue, S.‐M., Li, G., Cheng, H.‐Y.M., Cao, J.‐M. Contribution of DNA methylation in chronic stress‐induced cardiac remodeling and arrhythmias in mice. FASEB J. 33, 12240‐12252 (2019). www.fasebj.org
Susceptibility of microtubule‐associated protein 1 light chain 3β (MAP1LC3B/LC3B) knockout mice to lung injury and fibrosis
Authors: Kesireddy Vidya Sagar , Chillappagari Shashi , Ahuja Saket , Knudsen Lars , Henneke Ingrid , Graumann Johannes , Meiners Silke , Ochs Matthias , Ruppert Clemens , Korfei Martina , Seeger Werner , Mahavadi Poornima
Published: August 2019

Insufficient autophagy has been reported in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) lungs. Specific roles of autophagy‐related proteins in lung fibrosis development remain largely unknown. Here, we investigated the role of autophagy marker protein microtubule‐associated protein 1 light chain 3β (LC3B) in the development of lung fibrosis. LC3B–/– mice upon aging show smaller lamellar body profiles, increased cellularity, alveolar epithelial cell type II (AECII) apoptosis, surfactant alterations, and lysosomal and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Autophagosomal soluble N‐ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor attachment protein receptor syntaxin 17 is increased in the AECII of aged LC3B–/– mice and patients with IPF. Proteasomal activity, however, remained unaltered in LC3B–/– mice. In vitro knockdown of LC3B sensitized mouse lung epithelial cells to bleomycin‐induced apoptosis, but its overexpression was protective. In vivo, LC3B–/– mice displayed increased susceptibility to bleomycin‐induced lung injury and fibrosis. We identified cathepsin A as a novel LC3B binding partner and its overexpression in vitro drives MLE12 cells to apoptosis. Additionally, cathepsin A is increased in the AECII of aged LC3B–/– mice and in the lungs of patients with IPF. Our study reveals that LC3B mediated autophagy plays essential roles in AECII by modulating the functions of proteins like cathepsin A and protects alveolar epithelial cells from apoptosis and subsequent lung injury and fibrosis.—Kesireddy, V. S., Chillappagari, S., Ahuja, S., Knudsen, L., Henneke, I., Graumann, J., Meiners, S., Ochs, M., Ruppert, C., Korfei, M., Seeger, W., Mahavadi, P. Susceptibility of microtubule‐associated protein 1 light chain 3β (MAP1LC3B/LC3B) knockout mice to lung injury and fibrosis. FASEB J. 33, 12392–12408 (2019). www.fasebj.org