bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Italian line in English after Chaucer
Authors: Duffell Martin J.
Published: April 2009

This article argues that the English iambic pentameter (EIP) has other important features in addition to the five parameters identified by Hanson and Kiparsky’s (1996) parametric theory ( position number and size, orientation, prominence site and type). One of these features is that EIP contains a mixture of pausing (French) and running (Italian) lines, as determined by whether the syllable in position 4 is word-final. A study of the frequency with which the Italian line is used in the two centuries after Chaucer’s death reveals that Hoccleve and the Scots poets, Henryson, Dunbar and Douglas, adhered fairly closely to Chaucer’s EIP verse design. On the other hand, several generations of English poets, Lydgate, Wyatt, Surrey and Sidney, experimented with alternative types of line that might well have developed into the canonical English long-line metre. Ultimately, however, the examples of Spenser and Shakespeare proved decisive in ensuring the victory of Chaucer’s metre. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, Donne, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Wordsworth, Keats and Browning were among the major poets who consolidated that victory and exploited the Italian line in order to accommodate their own or their age’s choice of diction. The mixture of French and Italian lines in decasyllabic verse is one of the distinguishing features of EIP. Although other factors affect the proportions in this mixture to a small extent, they are primarily the result of individual poets’ aesthetic choice. Significantly, all the English poets after Spenser whose verse is analysed in this article have favoured a more evenly balanced mixture of French and Italian lines than the random deployment of their lexicon would have produced.
Evidentiality and affect: a quantitative approach
Authors: Watson Greg
Published: April 2009

During recent years there has been a great deal of interest in the various ways in which features of language are used to involve, implicate, entangle or engage a reader with a text. One difficulty lies in trying to quantify such a qualitative concept. Biber and Finegan (1989) have designed a model which seems to be useful for this purpose. This article offers a revised version of this model and then applies it to a representative corpus of the early prose fiction of Mudrooroo,1 a prominent Australian author, in order to test its effectiveness. The findings suggest that although there are certain limitations, the revised version of Biber and Finegan’s basic model is indeed useful for extracting broad stylistic trends of evidentiality and affect which may exist in written, and spoken, texts.
Tanzanian Micro Enterprises and Micro Finance
Authors: Ssendi Lucy , Anderson Alistair R.
Published: April 2009

This article explores the nature of micro finance, or micro credit, in rural Tanzania. It begins by examining the types of finance available to the poor who operate micro enterprises. We then consider the intended role and availability of micro credit in alleviating poverty. We find that most institutes which offer loan facilities operate mainly in urban centres, thus restricting accessibility for the rural poor. Moreover, the modest lending conditions have also created an obstacle for the poorest women. The empirical part of our study examines the impact of one institution, the SELF project which is specifically intended to address these issues. By means of a survey, we find that SELF loans have had some benefits in improving the profitability of micro enterprises run by rural poor women, but there seems to be little long–term effect as measured by increases in household assets.
Contact Sport
Authors: Crick Emily
Published: April 2009

Cricket is the favourite sport throughout South Asia. It can unite and divide polities, both internationally and intra-nationally. The history of bilateral cricket matches between India and Pakistan has always been closely connected to Indo-Pak relations; when diplomatic relations were at their lowest, the Test series were halted. However when bilateral relations were good enough for matches to be played, they were largely played in good spirit and the positive effects could be felt throughout both countries. Cricket has the ability to work on a multitude of ‘tracks’ through unofficial meetings with high level leaders, middle ranking elites, the media, business and the common man, to increase communications and break down negative stereotypes across the border.
Perceptions of Urinary Incontinence Among Syrian Christian Women Living in Sweden
Authors: Andersson Gunnel , Johansson Jan Erik , Nilsson Kerstin , Sahlberg-Blom Eva
Published: April 2009

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to describe the perception of urinary incontinence (UI) among Syrian women living in Sweden. Design: A qualitative, descriptive design with focus group discussions (FGDs) was used and analyzed with content analysis. Fourteen Syrian women were interviewed in three FGDs. Findings: Three categories emerged, “Thoughts on UI,” “Managing UI,” and “Communication With the Health Care System.” Among the interviewees, UI was a common, and expected, problem, which could be managed. However, some expressed shame and embarrassment. Some talked about communication problems with health care. Discussion and Implications for Practice: The health care system should be adjusted to the women's needs, with awareness of the communication difficulties, which could result in misunderstanding and neglected treatments.
Steering Currents for the Future of Social Work
Authors: Sowers Karen M. , Ellis Rodney A.
Published: April 2009

In considering the future of the social work profession, three influences must clearly be considered: increasing cultural diversity, expanding technological development, and managed care. Although the profession of social work has responded successfully to many challenges in the years since its inception, it has faced perhaps no greater challenges than these. As the diversity of the population of the United States increases, social workers must respond with flexibility and openness. As the already burgeoning field of electronic technology continues to enhance information storage and processing, communication, and perhaps even therapeutic processes, social workers must be willing to learn, adapt, and implement.
The Cuyahoga County Community Mental Health Research Institute: An Academic-Public Mental Health Research Partnership
Authors: Biegel David E. , Johnsen Jeffrey A. , Shafran Robert
Published: April 2009

This article presents a case study of the Cuyahoga County Community Mental Health Research Institute (CCCMHRI), a public-academic partnership in the field of mental health services research. The institute has been engaged in an ongoing process of addressing barriers to the application of research findings in mental health practice and policy. The challenges that the CCCMHRI has faced over the course of its development are presented. The unique nature of its partnership and the opportunities that this relationship affords are also discussed.
The Effectiveness of EMDR in a Child Guidance Center
Authors: Rubin Allen , Bischofshausen Sharon , Conroy-Moore Kelly , Dennis Beth , Hastie Mike , Melnick Linda , Reeves Donna , Smith Teresa
Published: April 2009

Objective: This study evaluated the effectiveness of adding EMDR to the routine treatment regimen of child therapists. Method: Thirty-nine child guidance center clients were randomly assigned to an experimental group that received EMDR plus the center’s routine treatment package or a control group that received only the center’s routine treatment package. Results: Analyses of variance found no significant differences in Child Behavior Checklist scores between groups. Subanalyses conducted for 33 clients with elevated pretest scores found moderate effect sizes that approached, but fell short of, statistical significance. Conclusions: These findings raise doubts about notions that EMDR produces rapid and dramatic improvements with children whose emotional and behavioral problems are not narrowly connected to a specific trauma and who require improvisational deviations from the standard EMDR protocol. Further research is needed in light of the special difficulties connected to implementing the EMDR protocol with clients like those in this study.
Social Support in Alcohol Dependence and Social Phobia: Treatment Comparisons
Authors: Thevos Angelica K. , Thomas Suzanne E. , Randall Carrie L.
Published: April 2009

Objective: This study investigated whether different alcoholism treatment approaches differentially impact social support scores in individuals with concurrent alcohol dependence and social phobia. Method: Individuals (N = 397) were selected retrospectively from a larger pool of participants enrolled in a multisite randomized clinical trial on treatment matching. Three standard treatments were delivered over 12 weeks: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Twelve Step Facilitation Therapy (TSF), and Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET). Social support measures were analyzed to test the effects of treatment group and gender. Results: For men, there was significant improvement on two measures of social support regardless of treatment group. Women who received CBT or TSF had better support outcomes than women who received MET. Conclusions: These data suggest that social support can be improved through alcohol treatment in individuals with coexisting social phobia, particularly if social workers emphasize skills training and facilitating involvement in 12-step groups.
Evaluating an Educational Intervention With Relatives of Persons in the Early Stages of Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Kuhn Daniel R. , de Leon Carlos F. Mendes
Published: April 2009

The objective of this article was to describe the results of an educational intervention for family caregivers of persons in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease. A total of 58 family caregivers participated in this intervention, which consisted of five weekly educational sessions about the disease and various aspects of caregiving. Measures of knowledge about Alzheimer’s disease, reactions to patients’ impairments, and levels of depression at pretest, posttest, and follow-up at 9 months posttest were analyzed. The results showed that modest benefits were derived by participants at the three points in time, with knowledge about the disease improving significantly, reactions to patients’ impairments improving slightly, and level of depression increasing slightly. This preliminary study reveals that the educational intervention has merit for family caregivers coping with the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, but new or different outcome measures could possibly better assess its impact.
The Empirical Validation of an Instrument to Predict Risk of Recidivism Among Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Krysik Judy , LeCroy Craig Winston
Published: April 2009

An increase in the number of juveniles entering the juvenile justice system in the past 10 years has heightened the demand for rehabilitation services. Because the demand for rehabilitative services is greater than resources allow, efforts are underway to predict who is a high risk for recidivism so that services may be focused on these juveniles, while reducing efforts to those who are low-risk. In addition, statistical risk prediction is intended to infuse the decision-making process with greater equity and objectivity because the same factors are considered for every juvenile. This article describes the use of statistical risk prediction for first-time juvenile offenders. Suggestions for implementation are provided based on lessons learned from this research.
School Attendance Demonstration Project: An Evaluation of a Program to Motivate Public Assistance Teens to Attend and Complete School in an Urban School District
Authors: Jones Loring P. , Harris Ron , Finnegan Daniel
Published: April 2009

Objective: This article reports on the evaluation of The School Attendance Demonstration Project (SADP). SADP is an intervention aimed at improving the school attendance rates of 16- to 18-year-olds receiving public assistance. Method: Experimental group students attending school less than 80% of the time received a notice to attend an orientation for services. Students who continued to attend school less than 80%, did not attend the orientation, and could not show good cause for attendance were sanctioned. The study used a control group with random assignment. Results: Data show that in any month, more experimental group students met the attendance rule than did control group students. Logistic regression predicted that females, Hispanics, students from single-parent families, and those attending alternative schools had difficulty meeting attendance requirements. Conclusions: The findings suggest that at-risk teens need alternative strategies from sanctions to encourage school attendance.
The Lesbian Partner Abuse Scale
Authors: McClennen Joan C. , Summers Anne B. , Daley James G.
Published: April 2009

Objective: The Lesbian Partner Abuse Scale-Revised (LE-PAS-R) was designed and construct validated to assess power imbalance between lesbian couples resulting in partner abuse. Method: The 135-item Lesbian Partner Abuse Scale (LE-PAS) was content validated. Implementing a nationwide survey using convenience sampling, an assessment packet containing the LE-PAS, two established scales (the Index of Self-Esteem and the General Contentment Scale), and demographic information was completed by 45 abused and 33 nonabused lesbians. Results: A series of factor analyses resulted in six factors (communication and social skills, substance abuse, intergenerational transmission of violence, fakes illness, internalized homophobia, and status differentials) accounting for 77.3% of all item variance. The 25-item LE-PAS-R shows evidence of strong reliability (r = .94), credible concurrent validity (p < .01), and the ability to differentiate between abused and nonabused lesbians (p < .01). Conclusions: Further validation of the LE-PAS-R will provide evidence of its ability to assist clinicians in identifying lesbian relationships in which power imbalance may result in partner abuse.
The Campbell Collaboration
Authors: Schuerman John , Soydan Haluk , Macdonald Geraldine , Forslund Mari , de Moya Dorothy , Boruch Robert
Published: April 2009

This article describes the development, organization, and operation of the Campbell Collaboration, an international network of academics and practitioners who prepare, maintain, and make accessible authoritative systematic reviews of the effectiveness of interventions in the fields of social welfare, education, and criminal justice. The Campbell Collaboration is modeled after the successful Cochrane Collaboration, established in 1993 to produce reviews of the evidence relating to the effectiveness of services in the field of health care. The aim of such reviews is to provide practitioners with a summary of the best available empirical evidence on which to base practice decisions.
Predictors of Competitive Employment Among Consumers With Co-Occurring Mental and Substance Use Disorders
Authors: Biegel David E. , Stevenson Lauren D. , Beimers David , Ronis Robert J. , Boyle Patrick
Published: April 2009

Objectives: This study examines consumer and agency level predictors of competitive employment for consumers with co-occurring disorders. Methods: The study sample included 191 consumers from mental health agencies receiving Integrated Dual Diagnosis Treatment services, including a subgroup which was referred for Supported Employment Services. Results: Logistic regression analyses show consumers with schizoaffective disorder, greater psychiatric distress, and those not referred for Supported Employment services were less likely to enter competitively employment. Lack of previous employment and consumers’ perceived disability negatively affected employment through referral status. Conclusions: Implications for mental health practice, service delivery, and future research are discussed.
Treatment of Antisocial Behavior in Adolescent Inpatients: Behavioral Changes and Client Satisfaction
Authors: Wong Stephen E.
Published: April 2009

This study examined antisocial behavior and consumer satisfaction of 29 adolescents in a long-term psychiatric unit with a modified Achievement Place program. Unit staff recorded the daily frequency of 27 inappropriate behaviors exhibited by individual clients. Time-series data on specific problem behaviors were analyzed with change scores and graphic displays. Prior to discharge, clients also completed questionnaires that rated the helpfulness of program components. Change scores for severe behavior problems gradually declined to near zero levels for almost all clients. Scores for moderate and minor problem behaviors showed smaller declines, which were offset by concomitant increases within this same category. Off-unit activities and point store, individual and group therapy, and behavior reduction procedures received the highest, intermediate, and lowest ratings, respectively. Data indicate that long-term treatment within a structured behavioral program may be associated with substantial improvements in serious conduct problems, and that this intervention is generally acceptable to clients.
Scholarly Achievements of the Social Work Editorial Board and Consulting Editors: A Commentary
Authors: Pardeck John T. , Meinert Roland G.
Published: April 2009

The present study centers on the distinction and achievement levels of Social Work’s editorial board and its supporting consulting editors. The findings suggest that the editorial board and consulting editors of Social Work studied during the 6-year time period (1990 to 1995) were un-distinguished in the area of scholarly productivity. The authors offer strategies for improving the quality of the peer reviewers for one of the profession’s most important journals.
Academic Merit, Professional Needs, and Social Work Education
Authors: Midgley James
Published: April 2009

It may be claimed that journals catering primarily to the needs of social work practitioners should place more emphasis on the practice wisdom and experiences of reviewers than on the academic criteria normally used by scholarly journals. This claim is rejected by the author, and instead, it is argued that social work journals need to be doubly vigilant to ensure that work only of the highest quality is published. Strict adherence to academic merit will not only serve the needs of social work educators but also of professional practitioners.
Social Skills Training With Youth in School Settings: A Review
Authors: Moote Gerald T. , Smyth Nancy J. , Wodarski John S.
Published: April 2009

This article is a critical review and synthesis of the current state of practice research involving social skills training (SST) with adolescents and preadolescents within educational settings. The article begins with a brief description of challenges and behaviors facing adolescents in the 1990s. This is followed by an overview of terminology, problems, and methods related to SST. Intervention research conducted within educational settings over the past 12 years (N = 25 studies) is reviewed in terms of sampling, conceptual adequacy, research method, and interpretation. Key findings are highlighted and include the presence of positive or mixed results for SST participators in 23 of the 25 studies, whereas 2 studies indicated no change for the SST groups. The article concludes with recommendations for future research and a discussion of applications to social work practice.
Postgroup-Casualty Status, Group Events, and Leader Behavior: An Early Look Into the Dynamics of Damaging Group Experiences
Authors: Smokowski Paul R. , Rose Sheldon , Todar Kathleen , Reardon Katherine
Published: April 2009

Objective: The purpose of this investigation was to obtain information about factors that lead to damaging experiences in social work groups. This study examined specific effects that damaging group experiences have on group participants and characteristics shared by group participants who were psychologically damaged. Method: Eighty-three clients from various group settings were interviewed. Logistic regression analyses were used to delineate a model predicting group-casualty status. Results: Thirty-three clients (40%) met the study’s definition of group casualty. Significant differences arose between casualty and noncasualty groups on types of damaging group events that occurred, reactions to the event, and postevent variables. Being in the casualty group was associated with perceiving the group leader as the perpetrator of a stressful event, having an intense emotional reaction, and being discouraged from pursuing further help. Conclusion: Implications for social workers are discussed and recommendations are given.
Considering Culture in Physician— Patient Communication During Colorectal Cancer Screening
Authors: Ge Gao  , Burke Nancy , Somkin Carol P. , Pasick Rena
Published: April 2009

Racial and ethnic disparities exist in both incidence and stage detection of colorectal cancer (CRC). We hypothesized that cultural practices (i.e., communication norms and expectations) influence patients' and their physicians' understanding and talk about CRC screening. We examined 44 videotaped observations of clinic visits that included a CRC screening recommendation and transcripts from semistructured interviews that doctors and patients separately completed following the visit. We found that interpersonal relationship themes such as power distance, trust, directness/ indirectness, and an ability to listen, as well as personal health beliefs, emerged as affecting patients' definitions of provider—patient effective communication. In addition, we found that in discordant physician—patient interactions (when each is from a different ethnic group), physicians did not solicit or address cultural barriers to CRC screening and patients did not volunteer culture-related concerns regarding CRC screening.
Childhood Obesity Study: A Pilot Study of the Effect of the Nutrition Education Program Color My Pyramid
Authors: Moore Jean Burley , Pawloski Lisa Renee , Goldberg Patricia , Kyeung Mi Oh , Stoehr Ana , Baghi Heibatollah
Published: April 2009

The need for successful nutrition interventions is critical as the prevalence of childhood obesity increases. Thus, this pilot project examines the effect of a nutrition education program, Color My Pyramid, on children’s nutrition knowledge, self-care practices, activity levels, and nutrition status. Using a pretest–posttest, quasiexperimental design, 126 fourth- and fifth-grade students from experimental and control schools are compared. The intervention program incorporates an online component www.MyPyramid.gov , Orem’s Self-Care Deficit Nursing Theory, and consists of six classes taught over a 3-month period. Results indicated that the program increased nutrition knowledge in the control group. Furthermore, it increased activity time from pretest to posttest and decreased systolic blood pressure for children in both groups; however, there were no significant differences in BMI percentiles. The findings indicate that Color My Pyramid can be successfully employed in school settings and thus support school nursing practice.
Understanding HPV Disease and Prevention: A Guide for School Nurses
Authors: Lockwood-Rayermann Suzy , McIntyre Susan J.
Published: April 2009

Oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) causes 99.7% of all cervical cancers. HPV Types 16 and 18 are responsible for approximately 77% of cases, and peak prevalence occurs in females younger than 25 years of age. The recent implementation of HPV vaccination provides females with the opportunity to prevent infection. School nurses are advocates of student health and often a primary source of information. Therefore, they can play a key role in promoting vaccination prior to sexual debut. They can also promote regular cervical screening postvaccination, which may not be apparent to many students and parents. To deal with such issues, school nurses need a firm understanding of HPV and its role in cervical cancer. A greater understanding of HPV disease and prevention among school nurses, students, and parents may lead to greater reductions in the burden of cervical and other HPV-related diseases.
The Behavioral Ecological Model as a Framework for School-Based Anti-Bullying Health Promotion Interventions
Authors: Dresler-Hawke Emma , Whitehead Dean
Published: April 2009

This article presents a conceptual strategy which uses the Behavioral Ecological Model (BEM) as a health promotion framework to guide school-based bullying awareness programs and subsequent anti-bullying strategies for school nursing practice. Anti-bullying frameworks and tools are scarce despite the extent of the problem of bullying. This article reviews existing literature centered on the BEM and illustrates how the model can be applied to the school-setting. This is the first time that a multilevel framework has been proposed for school-based anti-bullying in the form of a model. The BEM is a useful tool for assisting in the development of more comprehensive programs to influence anti-bullying intervention in school-based nursing practice.
Evaluating Parent Satisfaction of School Nursing Services
Authors: Read Mary , Small Patricia , Donaher Kathleen , Gilsanz Paola , Sheetz Anne
Published: April 2009

The Conceptual Model of Nursing Health Policy (CMNHP) was used to guide this study of client satisfaction as one component of an ongoing assessment of the Essential School Health Service (ESHS) Programs conducted by the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Random samples of parents/guardians of students who use the school nursing services were surveyed to determine the extent to which they were satisfied with school nursing services. The results indicate that parents/guardians have a high level of satisfaction with school nursing services. Mean rank satisfaction scores of parents of children with special health care needs were significantly higher then those parents of children without special health care needs. School nurses were encouraged to share the results of the study with various stakeholders in their school district.
Use of Evidence-Based Practice in School Nursing: Survey of School Nurses at a National Conference
Authors: Adams Susan
Published: April 2009

Primary and acute care settings are the focus of a concerted effort to implement evidence-based practice (EBP) in health care; yet, little attention has been given to use of EBP among school nurses. The aims of this study were to (a) describe current use of EBP among school nurses attending a national school nurse conference, (b) describe demographic, individual, and organizational factors associated with EBP use, and (c) identify resources needed to enhance EBP use. A survey designed for this study was distributed during a national school nurse conference. Descriptive statistics, correlations, and independent t tests were used to analyze respondent data regarding the current level of EBP use, awareness, skills, and information sources. Respondents also identified resources needed to increase use of EBP, which included networking opportunities, predeveloped EBP guidelines, and education on outcome evaluation. The results from this study will be used to develop strategies to increase the use of EBP in the school setting.
The Integration of Children Dependent on Medical Technology Into Public Schools
Authors: Raymond Jill A.
Published: April 2009

Advances in medicine have increased the survival rates of children with complex medical conditions, including those who are dependent on technology such as ventilators and tracheostomies. The process of integrating children dependent on medical technology into public schools requires the collaboration of a multidisciplinary team to ensure that both their educational and health care needs are met. As coordinator of the school health program, the school nurse plays a vital role throughout the integration process and during the time the student is enrolled in the school. This article presents a case study that demonstrates the steps in the integration process, the roles of the team members, and implications for school nursing practice.
Governors, Legislatures, and State Budgets across Time
Authors: Dometrius Nelson C. , Wright Deil S.
Published: April 2009

Prior research by Abney and Lauth concluded that governors were losing ground to legislatures in shaping the state budget. Goodman examined Abney and Lauth’s explanations for this change and found empirical support for some but not others. This article’s findings reveal that governors, as a group, have not declined in budgetary influence, although some have gained and others lost during recent decades. The longitudinal analysis arrives at two major conclusions: (1) executive—legislative influence changes that take place stem primarily from political rather than structural changes, and (2) budgetary influence is not unidimensional as governors and legislatures compete in a non-zero-sum game in pursuit of different budgetary outcomes.
Exporting Air Pollution? Regulatory Enforcement and Environmental Free Riding in the United States
Authors: Konisky David M. , Woods Neal D.
Published: April 2009

Political jurisdictions have incentives to promote pollution spillovers to capture the benefits of economic production within their borders while exporting the environmental costs to their neighbors. The authors examine the extent to which U.S. states engage in this type of free-riding behavior. Studying enforcement of the federal Clean Air Act from 1990 through 2000, the authors employ zero-inflated negative binomial regression to predict the number of state-initiated enforcement actions conducted in counties bordering other jurisdictions. They find that states perform fewer enforcement actions in counties adjacent to international borders but no evidence that states conduct less enforcement in counties that border other states.
Brains Rule! Fun = Learning = Neuroscience Literacy
Authors: Zardetto-Smith Andrea M. , Mu Keli , Phelps Cynthia L. , Houtz Lynne E. , Royeen Charlotte B.
Published: April 2009

Brains Rule! Neuroscience Expositions is a project designed to improve neuroscience literacy among children and the general public by applying a model where neuroscience professionals transfer knowledge and enthusiasm about neuroscience through fun, engaging hands-on activities. This educational model draws strength from many national and local partnerships of neuroscience professionals to coordinate expositions across the country in a variety of local communities. Brains Rule! Neuroscience Expositions uses a flexible science fair-like format to engage children in the process of science and teach about neuroscience concepts, facts, and professions. Neuroscience literacy is important to everyday life and helps individuals better understand themselves, make informed decisions about health and drug use, participate knowledgeably in governmental and social issues, and better understand scientific advancements. In this study, children’s ratings of Brains Rule! Neuroscience Expositions activities were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Analysis of the responses revealed that overall the children perceived the learning activities as fun and interesting and believed that they learned something about the brain and nervous system after engaging in the activities. The Brains Rule! Neuroscience Expositions education model can be an effective tool in improving neuroscience literacy for both children and adults.
Book Review: Modular Organization of Spinal Motor Systems
Authors: Bizzi E. , D’Avella A. , Saltiel P. , Tresch M.
Published: April 2009

The vertebrate nervous system produces a wide range of movement flexibly and efficiently, even though the simplest of these movements is potentially highly complex. The strategies by which the nervous system overcomes these complexities have therefore been of interest to motor physiologists for decades. In this review, the authors present a number of recent experiments that propose one strategy by which the nervous system might simplify the production of movement. These experiments suggest that spinal motor systems are organized in terms of a small number of distinct motor responses, or “modules.” These distinct modules can be combined together simply to produce a wide range of different movements. Such a modular organization of spinal motor systems can potentially allow the nervous system to produce a wide range of natural behaviors in a simple and flexible manner.
Book Review: Activity-Dependent Synaptic Plasticity: Insights from Neuromuscular Junctions
Authors: Personius Kirkwood E. , Balice-Gordon Rita J.
Published: April 2009

Experience-dependent editing shapes synaptic connections throughout the developing nervous system, but the underlying cellular mechanisms remain poorly understood. A useful model synapse for addressing these mechanisms is the neuromuscular junction, the connection between spinal motor neurons and skeletal muscle fibers. Here the authors review current ideas about the role of activity in editing neuromuscular synaptic connections. A variety of new tools are being used to address some unanswered questions in vivo and in vitro. Understanding activity-dependent plasticity at developing neuromuscular synapses may reveal how neural circuits in the central nervous system are altered by experience throughout life.
The Wnt Signaling Pathway in Bipolar Disorder
Authors: Gould Todd D. , Manji Husseini K.
Published: April 2009

The Wnt signaling pathway is a highly conserved pathway critical for proper embryonic development. However, recent evidence suggests that this pathway and one of its key enzymes, glycogen synthase kinase 3β, may play important roles in regulating synaptic plasticity, cell survival, and circadian rhythms in the mature CNS—all of which have been implicated in the pathophysiology and treatment of bipolar disorder. Furthermore, two structurally highly dissimilar medications used to treat bipolar disorder, lithium and valproic acid, exert effects on components of the Wnt signaling pathway. Together, these data suggest that the Wnt signaling pathway may play an important role in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Here, the authors review the modulation of the Wnt/GSK-3β signaling pathway by mood-stabilizing agents, focusing on two therapeutically relevant aspects: neuroprotection and modulation of circadian rhythms. The future development of selective GSK-3β inhibitors may have considerable utility not only for the treatment of bipolar disorder but also for a variety of classical neurodegenerative disorders.
ATP as a Messenger in Astrocyte-Neuronal Communication
Authors: Cotrina M. L. , Nedergaard M.
Published: April 2009

Astrocytes are activated during both excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission and respond with intracellular Ca2+i elevations. Ca2+i oscillations and waves in astrocytes now appear to represent the glial arm of a dynamic neuronal-glial signaling process. Advances within the last year have shown that stimuli that elevate Ca2+i in astrocytes have the potential to modulate synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that astrocytic calcium waves, initially believed to depend on the integrity of functional gap junction channels for the passage of intercellular signals, are actually mediated by release of ATP and subsequent activation of purinergic receptors on neighboring cells. ATP release is in turn regulated by the expression of gap junction proteins, establishing a novel dimension between gap junctions and extracellular-mediated signaling events. The role of ATP and its breakdown product, adenosine, on synaptic transmission are discussed.
The Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): A Neuro-Molecular Hypothesis
Authors: Mitterauer Bernhard , Garvin Alex M. , Dirnhofer Richard
Published: April 2009

Most of the children who die before age 1 in developed countries do so for unknown reasons, and these deaths are attributed to the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Prospective cardiorespiratory monitoring of infants has revealed that SIDS victims have subtle differences in breathing and heartbeat patterns compared to controls. Because death must involve cardiorespiratory arrest, a straightforward explanation for SIDS is failure on the part of pacemaker neurons controlling the rhythmical processes of breathing or heartbeat. Genes coding for hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker cation channels have recently been isolated and are expressed in the heart and the brain. The authors propose that mutations in these genes and in other genes required for cardiorespiratory pacemaker activity will predispose an individual to SIDS during a window of vulnerability present in the first year of life. Furthermore, mutations in clock genes can alter a variety of rhythmical processes and may indirectly disturb cardiorespiratory function as well.
A Model Program for Bringing Neuroscience to Children: An Informal Neuroscience Education Program Bridges a Gap
Authors: Zardetto-Smith Andrea M. , Mu Keli , Ahmad S. Omar , Royeen Charlotte B.
Published: April 2009

Growing concern about science literacy in the United States has led to the active involvement of scientists in educational reform. Yet scientists have often found it difficult to communicate content knowledge in an effective manner to both teachers and children. This model project, funded by the National Institute of Drug Abuse, has been aimed at increasing the awareness and understanding of neuroscience among elementary school children to indirectly decrease drug use and unhealthy behaviors. The project created a partnership between neuroscientists, health professionals, and the Boys and Girls Clubs of Omaha, Nebraska, to present hands-on activities about basic and applied aspects of the nervous system in a “reverse” science fair setting. Neuroscientists and health professionals created hands-on, interactive exhibits that the children judged. This particular study examined the perceptions of neuroscientists and allied health professionals regarding their ability to communicate neuroscience knowledge to school-age children and their understanding of the knowledge and interest of children about neuroscience in relation to children’s self-reports of knowledge and interest in neuroscience. Participation in a fair significantly raised professionals’ perceptions of their ability to communicate science content to fourth- and sixth-grade children. There was considerable discrepancy between the professionals’ assessment of what children know, and want to know, about neuroscience, and what the children do know and want to know about the nervous system. After observing children engaging in neuroscience activities, many presenters rated children’s interest levels in neuroscience and in their projects considerably higher than before. Presenting neuroscience concepts to the children was thus less difficult than the professionals had perceived prior to the fair. The reverse science fair approach is one way to foster the involvement of neuroscientists and health professionals in increasing knowledge transfer, and neuroscience literacy, in the formative childhood years.
Molecular Etiology of Parkinson Disease: Recent Progress
Authors: Shastry Barkur S.
Published: April 2009

Parkinson disease (PD) is one of the most widespread neurodegenerative disorders. In North America alone it affects 1 million people. It is a multifactorial disorder caused by genetic, various biological and environmental factors. One of the important features of PD is the dementia, which is believed to be due to the loss of dopaminergic neurons. In some cases the disease can be inherited as an autosomal dominant or recessive trait but in the majority of cases it is acquired. The biological causes of the disorder are unknown. The identification of mutations in the parkin gene in the autosomal recessive case and alpha-synuclein gene in autosomal dominant cases has opened a new avenue for studies to understand the basic biochemical mechanisms of pathogenesis. Although several types of treatments such as transplantation of cells that produce L-Dopa and direct gene delivery using adeno-associated viral vectors may correct animal models of PD, their usefulness in the human is not yet clear. A better understanding of the causes of neurodegeneration may lead to better therapies in the future.
New Views of the Primary Motor Cortex
Authors: Schieber Marc H.
Published: April 2009

For 100 years, from the 1870s to the 1970s, somatotopic organization was considered the hallmark of the primary motor cortex (M1). M1 neurons were viewed as upper motor neurons, implying that their organization and function were upstream versions of the spinal motoneurons to which they project. Taken together, the notions of somatotopic organization and upper motor neurons established a view of M1 as a sheet of somatotopically arrayed neurons that controlled either the muscles or the movements of different body parts. Evidence accumulating since the 1970s, however, has generated new views of M1 at an accelerating pace. Here, I briefly review evidence leading to three new views of M1. First, whereas the gross somatotopic organization of M1—with the head represented laterally, the lower extremity medially, and the upper extremity in between—is unquestioned, we now view representation within the upper extremity region (from which the most evidence is available) as widely distributed. Second, rather than a fixed array of representation, we now view M1 as capable of considerable, and surprisingly rapid, reorganization. And third, rather than simply controlling the parameters of movement execution, we now view M1 as participating in aspects of sensorimotor transformation that include some representation of the sensory cues leading to voluntary movement. Although these new views account for a good deal of recent experimental evidence, they also open many new questions about the primary motor cortex.
Porocytosis: Fusion Pore Array Secretion of Neurotransmitter
Authors: Kriebel Mahlon E. , Keller Bruce , Holsapple James , Fox Geoffrey Q. , Pappas George D.
Published: April 2009

We believe that there is sufficient experimental evidence to support the premise that transmitter is secreted by the simultaneous activation of arrays of fusion pores at docked vesicles. This process is initiated by the action potential that activates calcium channels to increase the number of cytoplasmic calcium ions. Calcium ions trigger fusion pores to flicker open causing transmitter to diffuse from vesicular stores. We define the term porocytosis to identify this process and use the term synaptomere to indicate the anatomical and physiological functional unit of the synapse or junction. Our model shows that the simultaneous flicker of fusion pores in an array can generate unitary-end plate potentials (u-EPPs) and miniature end plate potentials (MEPPs) and that activation of all fusion pores produces EPPs. U-EPPs and EPPs generated with the model show mean values and coefficients of variation similar to experimental observations. The model is robust in that the number of docked vesicles can vary and these can be full to empty depending on nerve frequencies and vesicular traffic. The model shows that the overall process of excitation-secretion coupling is highly deterministic. At the neuromuscular junction, secretion from arrays of fusion pores ensures that a muscle fiber action potential is always produced over a range of frequencies because all transmitter release sites are activated. Our model shows that transmission at the synaptomere guarantees fidelity of information transfer at different frequencies. This characteristic shows a dynamic relationship of the secretory process to memory and learning.
Molecular Genetics and Inherited Ataxias: Redefining Phenotypes and Pathogenesis
Authors: Sobrido Maria J. , Geschwind Daniel H.
Published: April 2009

Genetic research on inherited ataxias has transformed our understanding of these conditions. The availability of genetic testing has shown that a classification based solely on clinical and pathologic findings is not adequate, and molecular genetic analysis is now mandatory for diagnostic accuracy and prognostic purposes. The epidemiology of these disorders is also being rewritten under the light of molecular genetic analysis. In this review, we discuss some of the recent advances on the hereditary cerebellar degenerations without a known metabolic defect, focusing on genotype-phenotype correlations in the spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) and Friedreich’s ataxia (FRDA). Three main biochemical pathways seem to be involved in the pathogenesis of inherited ataxias: 1) expansion of (CAG)n repeats within genes coding for polyglutamine-containing proteins (SCAs); 2) impairment of mitochondrial function (FRDA); and 3) dysfunction of ion channels (episodic ataxias, EA1, EA2). It is likely that many neurodegenerative conditions will prove to share basic molecular mechanisms, and therefore, data provided by the investigation of a particular disease is likely to be relevant to our global understanding of spinocerebellar degenerations and other degenerative disorders of the nervous system. A better knowledge of the molecular and cellular routes leading to neurodegeneration will provide a key to the design of rational therapies.
MALDI-TOF-MS Analysis of Protein and DNA
Authors: Bonk Thomas , Humeny Andreas
Published: April 2009

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) has become a powerful and widespread analytical tool in all fields of life science. The wide mass range (1-300 kDa), high accuracy, and sensitivity make it a superior method for analysis of all kinds of biomolecules including proteins, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates. In combination with 2D-gelelectrophoresis, MALDI-TOF-MS is particularly suitable for the identification of protein spots via mass fingerprint or microsequencing. Furthermore, the method allows a detailed analysis of posttranslational protein modifications. Recently, the method was also successfully applied to DNA sequencing as well as screening for mutations. Thus, high-throughput genotyping of single nucleotide polymorphisms has the potential to become a routine method for both laboratory and clinical applications.
Neurotrophic Factors: Important Regulators of Nociceptive Function
Authors: Bennett David L. H.
Published: April 2009

Neurotrophic factors have an established developmental role in regulating the survival and specification of sensory neurons. However, these factors continue to exert an important influence on sensory neurons throughout the postnatal period and into adult life. In adulthood, approximately one-half of nociceptors are dependent on nerve growth factor (NGF) for trophic support, whereas the other half are sensitive to glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). It is now known that many chronic pain states are maintained by widespread changes in the anatomy, neurochemistry, and function of the sensory nervous system both at the level of the primary sensory neuron and the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Trophic factors appear to orchestrate many of these dynamic changes. This review highlights some of the key roles played by these molecules and in particular the role of NGF in the peripheral sensitization of nociceptors and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) as a central pain modulator.