bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction The Birth and Growth of Judicial Review: 1607–2020
Authors: Calabresi Steven Gow
Published: May 2021

This introductory chapter discusses how judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation has usually emerged historically for a combination of four reasons. First, judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation is a response to a nation’s need for an umpire to resolve federalism or separation of powers boundary line disputes. The second main cause of the origins and growth of judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation is what can be called the rights from wrongs hypothesis; judicial review very often emerges as a response to an abominable deprivation of human rights. The third major cause is the out-and-out borrowing of the institution of judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation from either the United States’ model; the German Civil Law model; and, most recently, from the Canadian Second Look judicial review constitutional model. The fourth major cause is the existence of a system of checks and balances, which gives Supreme Courts and Constitutional Courts political space to grow in. Revolutionary charismatic constitutionalism can also lead to the growth of judicial review as Professor Bruce Ackerman has explained in an important new book, Revolutionary Constitutions: Charismatic Leadership and the Rule of Law (2019).
The Diffuse and Second Look Models of Judicial Review
Authors: Calabresi Steven Gow
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines the two models of judicial review that exist in the common law countries: the Diffuse Model and the Second Look Model. The Diffuse Model of judicial review originated in the United States and has spread to India, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, most of the countries of Latin America, the Scandinavian countries (except for the Netherlands), and Japan. It is premised on the idea that a country’s written constitution is its supreme law and that courts, when deciding cases or controversies that are properly before them, are thus duty-bound to follow the constitution, which is supreme law, and not a contrary statute whenever those two items conflict. Meanwhile, the essence of the Second Look Model of judicial review is that a Supreme or Constitutional Court ought to have the power of judicial review, subject to some kind of legislative power of override. This, it is said, best harmonizes the advantages of a written constitution and a bill of rights enforced by courts with the imperatives of democratic self-government. The underlying goal is to obtain the advantages of both constitutional government and also of democratic government.
Trade and the Roots of Disaffection
Authors: Jones Kent
Published: May 2021

This chapter introduces the issue of populism and trade. Populism is defined as a political movement based on social, economic, and political discontents, based on conflict between a ruling elite and the genuine people. It discusses the sources of populist anger, including disruptions of import competition, changes in technology, cultural influences, governmental corruption, and immigration. It proposes an assessment of populist regimes based on their impact on economic welfare and democratic processes. The chapter briefly reviews current trends in populist regimes and provides a historical review of populist movements, concluding with a brief overview of the book’s chapters.
Populism and Trade Around the World
Authors: Jones Kent
Published: May 2021

This chapter uses a regression study to attempt to identify the link between populist governments and the country’s degree of trade openness, based on data from 1995 to 2018. The degree of protectionism associated with populism depends in part on its left-wing, right-wing, or anti-establishment orientation. Left-wing populist regimes tend to be more protectionist, and anti-establishment regimes more favorable to open trade, for example, but the results are often inconsistent and insignificant. Trade policy in populist regimes appears to depend in large part on the national context, export profile, and populist leader. A review of trade policy in several recent populist regimes reveals that Latin American populist governments tend to be the most protectionist. Smaller open economies, or those either participating in or seeking integration trade agreements with larger countries, tend to have more open trade policies.
Assessing the Cost of Populism to Global Trade
Authors: Jones Kent
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses the cost of populist protectionism, beginning with the traditional measures of welfare cost from trade restrictions, as well as the institutional disruption it often entails, which amplifies these costs. One distinctive impact of Trump’s trade policies as well as from Brexit, for example, is the uncertainty it creates in the business environment, which itself tends to diminish business investment and trade. Populist protectionism, by flouting established rules, also tends to provoke retaliation, further compounding its cost. The systemic cost of eroding long-standing trade practices and norms also diminishes trust between populist governments and other countries, which may move global trade toward discriminatory, defensive trade blocs. Reduced trust may spill over into nontrade issues in which cooperation is required to solve cross-border or global problems, such as with the coronavirus crisis. Populist restrictions on immigration also have negative trade effects in terms of inefficient labor allocation, reduced output, and diminished trade opportunities.
Res Publica
Authors: Seal Carey
Published: May 2021

Discussion of Seneca’s political thought has tended to concentrate on his relationship to and views about the emperors under whom he lived, in particular Nero. This chapter aims instead to explore how Seneca’s commitment to philosophy as a way of life shapes his political ideas, and vice versa. Seneca uses arguments about the unique value of philosophy to reconfigure and reinvigorate received accounts of the nature of the Roman commonwealth. He also draws on the inheritance of Roman political thought to offer new solutions to some long-standing lacunae in Stoic cosmopolitanism. This chapter’s account of Seneca’s politics emphasizes the diachronic continuities between the Roman republic and the principate in his thought and the richness of his engagement with previous Greek and Roman political theory.
Hotelling Conservation
Authors: Perrings Charles
Published: May 2021

Chapter 3 explores the Hotelling theory of conservation. It shows how the Hotelling arbitrage condition provides a test for whether it is optimal to convert or conserve a resource in some state. If the value of a resource when conserved is expected to grow faster than its value when converted, it will be optimal to conserve it. The chapter shows how the arbitrage condition applies to both nonrenewable and renewable resources, and how it is embodied in the conditions required for the optimal conversion/conservation of natural resources of both kinds. It also introduces Hamiltonian methods commonly used to optimize natural resource management, and shows the relation between Lagrangian and Hamiltonian methods. Finally, it discusses the relation between Hotelling conservation and the methods applied in conservation biology.
Environmental Public Goods
Authors: Perrings Charles
Published: May 2021

Chapter 8 considers the conservation of environmental public goods. The nonexclusive and nonrival nature of public goods provide an incentive to free-ride on the efforts of others. The result is that such public goods are systematically undervalued and the underlying environmental assets—such as watersheds, habitats, and ecological communities—are underconserved. It shows how individuals determine their contribution to public goods (via a Nash-Cournot reaction curve), and compares the result to the contribution that would be made if resources were being allocated efficiently from the perspective of society. Types of environmental public goods considered include additive (climate change), best- and better-shot (defence), weakest- and weaker-link (infectious disease control), and local public goods (common pool resources). The chapter also shows how strategic behavior by the beneficiaries of public goods may lead to socially undesirable outcomes (such as prisoner’s dilemmas).
Conservation at the International Level
Authors: Perrings Charles
Published: May 2021

The conservation of ecosystems that either span national jurisdictions or extend beyond areas of national jurisdiction requires the establishment of governance mechanisms that operate above national governments, and hence that involve some cession of national sovereignty. This involves the coordination of national action, usually through the negotiation of bilateral or multilateral agreements. Chapter 14 considers the problem of conservation across national jurisdictions, focusing on ecosystems that span jurisdictions, migratory species, and the international movement of pests and pathogens as an incidental effect of trade and travel. It explores the impact of strategic behavior on the effectiveness of multilateral agreements, and the institutions developed to supply transboundary public goods such as climate mitigation.
Why Nations Rise
Authors: Miller Manjari Chatterjee
Published: May 2021

What are rising powers? Do they challenge the international order? Why do some countries, but not others, become rising powers? Why Nations Rise answers these questions and shows that some countries rise not just because they develop the military and economic power to do so, but because they develop particular narratives about how to become a great power in the style of the great power du jour. These active rising powers accept the prevalent norms of the international order in order to become great powers. On the other hand, countries that have military and economic power but not these narratives do not rise enough to become great powers—they remain reticent powers. This book examines the narratives in historical (the United States, the Netherlands, Meiji Japan) and contemporary (Cold War Japan, post–Cold War China and India) cases to show patterns of active and reticent rising powers. It ends with lessons for how to understand two rising powers today, China and India.
Shifting Paradigms
Authors: Graber Naomi
Published: May 2021

Two of Weill’s first compositions written for U.S. audiences show the composer mixing German and U.S. aesthetics, sometimes in awkward ways. His first Broadway show, Johnny Johnson (1936), combines aspects of U.S. musical comedy, German expressionist drama, and neue sachlich ideas. Although not a commercial success, critics were supportive, and it led to other opportunities. The composer also tried his hand at a film musical with You and Me (1938), directed by Fritz Lang. They tried to combine a Hollywood gangster story with a Brechtian Lehrstück, but the result proved confusing for U.S. audiences. Both projects show a composer in the process of adapting to a new culture.
Living History
Authors: Graber Naomi
Published: May 2021

The national conversation about immigration shifted as the Great Depression gave way to World War II. This is apparent in two works that concern the “origin story” of America: the musical Knickerbocker Holiday (1938) and the film Where Do We Go from Here? (1944). Whereas Knickerbocker Holiday paints America as vulnerable to the fascism that had taken hold in Europe, Where Do We Go from Here? holds up the nation as a bastion of freedom and democracy. Weill also tried to feel out the international market with The Firebrand of Florence (1945), but that proved to be the greatest professional miscalculation of his U.S. career. This chapter also discusses the composer’s other wartime activities.
Kinesic Humor
Authors: Bolens Guillemette
Published: May 2021

Literature is one of the richest sources of information concerning the ways in which human beings are able to play with cognition. According to the theory of embodied cognition, human cognition is grounded in sensorimotricity, i.e., the ability to feel, perceive, and move. The pervading cognitive process called perceptual simulation, which is activated when we cognitively process a gesture in a real-life situation, is also recruited when we read about actions, movements, and gestures in texts. Kinesic Humor examines literary works written by major authors—including Chrétien de Troyes, Cervantes, Milton, Saint-Simon, Rousseau, Sterne, and Stendhal—in which perceptual simulations of complex sensorimotor events and kinesic interactions trigger humorous effects. Such works create anticipations regarding movements and sensations, which are unexpectedly thwarted, thus producing cognitive shifts typical of humor. By bringing together literary studies, cognitive studies, gesture studies, and humor studies, this book offers original perspectives on such important artworks as Paradise Lost, Don Quixote, and Le Rouge et le Noir. In it, the importance of rhythm and tonicity in the perception of movements and gestures is a focus of attention. The interactional significance of gestures often lies in their dynamics, and this fact also applies to the cognitive retrieval of narrated gestures during the act of reading. The method of kinesic analysis practiced in this book takes into account such cognitive features in correlation with the historical and cultural contexts in which the literary works were written.
Milton
Authors: Bolens Guillemette
Published: May 2021

John Milton plays with his readers’ embodied cognition. Reading Paradise Lost triggers complex perceptual simulations that are fascinatingly conflicting at the level of sensorimotricity. The carefully crafted effects thus elicited lead to a possible experience of humor. Kinesic incongruities in Paradise Lost are studied in this chapter to show how critics and expert readers respond to them, and to suggest that such effects are correlated with Milton’s investment in the notion of free will. The fact that Milton was able to create suspense in a plot known by all is addressed in relation to surprisingly dynamic gestures and the impact they may have on the ways in which readers conceive of the Fall of humankind.
Cervantes
Authors: Bolens Guillemette
Published: May 2021

Dynamic shifts in tonicity and tempo are numerous in Don Quixote. This chapter focuses, however, on a single action: Montesinos explains how he cleaned blood from Durandarte’s heart with a handkerchief. This narrated movement requires an analysis that takes into account the historical context in which Cervantes was writing, and the threat of censorship in early modern Spain. The text conveys a type of humor that overflows readers’ reception with sensorimotor over-specifications, thereby triggering perceptual simulations that implicitly debunk the validity of key social metaphors. Two such metaphors call for attention. The first is la limpieza de sangre, the name of an ideology relative to blood purity; the second is the metaphor of the stain, la mancha, prominent in the same ideology. A close analysis of reiterated lexical choices suggests that Cervantes was reclaiming in his work the pluricultural reality of the Spain in which he was living.
Mutinies and Ethnicity
Authors: Grint Keith
Published: May 2021

The complexity of the causes of mutinies are captured in this chapter that focuses upon the role of ethnicity. Starting with the British West India Regiment in 1801, we examine the importance of the slave trade in supporting the recruitment to the British Army in the West Indies and consider how the ‘alternatives’ of slavery or forced recruitment are not regarded as alternatives by many ex-slaves. The chapter then moves on to the largest event to rock the early British Empire, the ‘mutiny’ or ‘1st War of Independence’ in India between 1857 and 1858. The nomenclature is a signal of the meaning of the events for different actors involved, and this ambiguity runs into the Curragh ‘Incident’ that has all the hallmarks of a mutiny, except it is staged by the military establishment not by the military subordinates. And if the British thought 1858 was the last time they would see Indian soldiers or sailors mutinying against them, they were wrong: in Singapore in 1915 and then in the Royal India Navy in 1946, the British Empire is forced to look at itself—but chooses not to. Finally, we consider the way British Foreign Labour Battalions were treated in France, compared to the treatment meted out to domestic units, and then consider the role of racism in the Port Chicago mutiny of 1944 which has echoes of the contemporary situation in the Black Lives Matter movement in 2020.
The Park Movement Picturesque rus in urb
Authors: Evelev John
Published: May 2021

In the mid-nineteenth century, the urban bourgeoisie sought to respond to challenges of city life through the creation of public urban parks in a wide-scale project that has been termed the “park movement.” The park movement involved not only the design and development of parks, but also extensive writings starting in 1840s that depicted the social benefits to be gained by building picturesque rus in urbe (“country in the city”) spaces. The writings of the park movement, dominated by the topic of New York’s Central Park but also encompassing comparisons between European and American public spaces and the broader possibilities of U.S. urban parks, included work by Andrew Jackson Downing, Frederick Law Olmsted, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and even a novel by Sylvester Judd that centered on public park design. This chapter argues that although the park was ostensibly envisioned as an egalitarian instrument of social reform, bringing together the genders and classes in an idealized intimate public sphere, ultimately the literature of the park movement most fully addressed the anxieties of bourgeois men about their authority over female-dominated domestic spaces, as well as seeking to reclaim moral order against working-class men’s domination of the city streets.
Terminology: Aboutness, Representation, and Metasemantics
Authors: Cappelen Herman , Dever Josh
Published: May 2021

This short chapter does two things. First, it shows that in fact workers in AI frequently talk as if AI systems express contents. We present the argument that the complex nature of the actions and communications of AI systems, even if they are very different from the complex behaviours of human beings, and the way they have ‘aboutness’, strongly suggest a contentful interpretation of those actions and communications. It then introduces some philosophical terminology that captures various aspects of language use, such as the ones in the title, to better make clear what one is saying—philosophically speaking—when one claims AI systems communicate, and to provide a vocabulary for the next few chapters.
Quantum field theory (QFT)—built-in combinatorics
Authors: Tanasa Adrian
Published: May 2021

We briefly exhibit in this chapter the mathematical formalism of QFT, which actually has a non-trivial combinatorial backbone. The QFT setting can be understood as a quantum description of particles and their interactions, a description which is also compatible with Einstein's theory of special relativity. Within the framework of elementary particle physics (or high-energy physics), QFT led to the Standard Model of Elementary Particle Physics, which is the physical theory tested with the best accuracy by collider experiments. Moreover, the QFT formalism successfully applies to statistical physics, condensed matter physics and so on. We show in this chapter how Feynman graphs appear through the so-called QFT perturbative expansion, how Feynman integrals are associated to Feynman graphs and how these integrals can be expressed via the help of graph polynomials, the Kirchhoff–Symanzik polynomials. Finally, we give a glimpse of renormalization, of the Dyson–Schwinger equation and of the use of the so-called intermediate field method. This chapter mainly focuses on the so-called Phi? QFT scalar model.
What Is a Poet?
Authors: Park Simon
Published: May 2021

This chapter considers what it meant to call someone a poet in sixteenth-century Portugal. Drawing on word historical and sociological methods, the chapter focuses on the word poeta (poet) as it appears in the poetry of the period. Many writers sought to articulate the specialness of the poeta and their art, making distinctions between poetas and mere versifiers or those who were dismissed as writing only frivolous or slanderous verse. In a bid to legitimize a particular kind of poetry as valuable, writers compared the work of poets with that of other professionals such as lawyers, doctors, and builders. These moments of self-justification are taken here as versions of what has become known in sociology as ‘professional legitimization talk’. Horace emerges as an important figure in these discussions for modelling in his Ars poetica a kind of professional ethos that enables writers to regulate who belonged among the ranks of poetas and who did not. Horatian guidelines become in the period less extracts of an instruction manual and more of an oath of professional conduct.
What Do Poets Want to Write?
Authors: Park Simon
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores the careers of sixteenth-century Portuguese poets as articulated by themselves and their contemporaries. It draws on scholarly work in the developing field of career criticism to consider moments when poets discussed what they had written and what they one day hoped to produce. For all that writers wrote a lot about what they had achieved or wanted to achieve, this chapter shows that their careers rarely proceeded in a purely linear fashion as was claimed for some ancient authors, such as Virgil. The chapter suggests that when we refuse the lure of hindsight or look beyond the ways that writers tried to iron out their own careers, we see that lots of anxiety attended moments of career reflexivity, that choices of genre were determined by a mixture of personal, economic, political, and social motivations and, moreover, that writers would foreground different motivations when writing in different contexts or addressing different individuals.
Other US Value Assessment Frameworks
Authors: Peter J. Neumann , Joshua T. Cohen , Daniel A Ollendorf
Published: May 2021

The Institute for Clinical and Economic Review (ICER) is not the only organization that has attempted to bring value assessment to the United States to address high pharmaceutical prices. With the federal government’s continued reluctance to embrace formal value assessment during the 2010s, other organizations introduced their own approaches. These groups included medical societies with a history of evidence-based clinical guideline development. Examples include the American Society of Clinical Oncology, National Comprehensive Cancer Network, and the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association. Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centre weighed in with its online “DrugAbacus” tool. This chapter argues that these other frameworks have serious limitations, including a focus on a single clinical area, use of arbitrary scoring systems, and a lack of transparency. ICER has therefore emerged as the dominant framework for assessment of drug pricing and coverage policy.
Exemplars of Basic Motivic Analysis
Authors: Auerbach Brent
Published: May 2021

Chapter 6 demonstrates the BMA method from start to finish by applying it to two complete sonata movements by Beethoven. The first section presents a pitch/pitch-class motivic analysis, and the second a rhythm motive analysis. The results of investigation across these two pieces shed light on a remarkable, shared trait. Both works pose a prime motive at the start and telegraph a set of expectations of how that motive will combine with itself. Paired fifth pitch-class motives chase each other over the course of Beethoven’s First Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, no. 1 (I). Paired six-note rhythmic motives do the same over the course of his Fifth Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 10, No. 1 (III). The pairs are always in flux, redefining their interrelations across their respective movements.
Galápagos Derailed
Authors: Durham William H.
Published: May 2021

The same species of Galápagos rail, a 6-inch insectivorous ground bird, has been reported on all eight islands with a highland humid zone. Evidence suggests that the rail colonized Galápagos at roughly the same time as giant tortoises, which evolved into 15 species with life spans of 150 years. So why is there just one species of rail? The question is especially germane given reports of the rail’s “reduced flight ability” (as is true of many island-dwelling rails), which would effectively isolate different island populations. And why has the species survived when so many similar rails have succumbed to human influence on other Pacific islands? The human history of Galápagos helps to answer these questions. Two things have saved the Galápagos rail from extinction: (1) It remains capable of flying between islands, which explains why it failed to differentiate like tortoises. (2) There have been massive efforts to eradicate or control invasive species, restoring habitat for rails to repopulate.
Afro-Textured Hair and the CROWN Act
Authors: Brown Nadia E. , Lemi Danielle Casarez
Published: May 2021

This chapter traces the historical development of the politics of Black women’s appearances in the United States by assessing the sociological, political, and legal forces that have built the political opportunity structure for Black women politicians. The chapter presents a thorough overview of Afro-textured hair and Black protective hairstyles to provide a primer on why Black (women’s) hair is political. Through a case study of the Creating a Respectful and Open World for Natural Hair (CROWN) Act, it examines how New Jersey state lawmakers successfully passed legislation to end hair discrimination. In this chapter, we make a connection to contemporary policy and how Black women lawmakers bring uncrystallized issues to legislative bodies.
Vestiges of Virtuosity
Authors: Parr Sean M.
Published: May 2021

The specificity of late coloratura’s function in arias has its roots in operatic writing before mid-century. Examining the role pairings in Meyerbeer’s popular nineteenth-century repertory opera, Les Huguenots, serves as a starting point for understanding the transition from coloratura as a normative singing style to one that functions as an uncommon and conspicuous gesture in operas like Offenbach’s Les Contes d’Hoffmann, Delibes’ Lakmé, and Massenet’s Manon. The soprano roles in these operas hark back to the zenith of coloratura singing at mid-century, when high notes and melismas were an aural analogue to the ornamental decadence of Second Empire Paris. Coloratura arias in these operas are the late-century exceptions that prove the rule; they are echoes of the virtuosic vocality of the mid-century examples explored in the book. And they help codify the establishment of the modern French coloratura soprano.
Respect
Authors: Debes Remy
Published: May 2021

Remy Debes provides a historical background for the prominent role that respect plays in current moral discussion. But, true to the spirit of this volume as philosophical rather than encyclopedic, Debes does not just describe texts and list dates. Instead, he raises doubts about the standard story about the rising influence of the idea of respect for persons, that it comes mainly and directly from Immanuel Kant. Debes offers evidence that by the time Kant’s writings gained influence in the English-speaking world, the movement toward the importance of respect for all persons already was well underway, albeit often using terminology other than “respect.” This movement grew partly among moral and political philosophers, and political activists, but also in underappreciated literary writing, often written by women and men of color.
Technologies for Optical Networking
Authors: Datta Debasish
Published: May 2021

The technologies used in optical networks have evolved seamlessly over the past six decades. Optical fibers with extremely low loss and enormous bandwidth are used as the transmission medium, while semiconductor lasers and LEDs serve as optical sources, and the photodetectors – pin and avalanche photodiodes – are used to receive the optical signal at the destination nodes. The transmitted optical signal has to pass through a variety of network elements, which in turn need a wide range of passive and active devices, carrying out the necessary networking functionalities. For WDM optical networks, many of these tasks need to be accomplished in the optical domain itself in a wavelength-selective manner, calling for various types of WDM-based networking elements. In this chapter, we present a comprehensive description of the optical and optoelectronic devices that are used in today’s optical networks. (137 words)
Optical Network Control and Management
Authors: Datta Debasish
Published: May 2021

The task of network control and management is generally realized in two logical planes – control and management – which collaboratively operate to ensure smooth, secure, and survivable traffic flow in the data plane of the network. Some of the functionalities are realized in the control plane, needing real-time execution, such as recovery from network failures, and network reconfiguration due to traffic variation. Other functionalities deal with performance monitoring, configuration management, network security, accounting and billing etc., which are less time-sensitive and are addressed by the management plane. We first discuss the philosophy of multiple-layer abstraction of telecommunication networks, including control, management, and data planes, and then describe various network control and management techniques used in optical networks: operation, administration, and management (OAM) in SONET, generalized multiprotocol label switching (GMPLS), automatically switched optical network (ASON), and software-defined optical networking (SDON) in WDM networks. (141 words)
Optical Packet and Burst-Switched Networks
Authors: Datta Debasish
Published: May 2021

In order to address poor bandwidth-utilization in circuit-switched WRONs, various techniques for optical packet-switching (OPS) have been explored, but needing complex technologies, such as real-time header extraction/insertion, packet alignment, etc. An intermediate solution between the WRONs and OPS networks – the optical burst-switched (OBS) network – has been explored, where several packets are clubbed together at ingress nodes to form optical bursts, which are transmitted with the headers sent as control packets ahead of each bursts. With this prior resource-reservation scheme at en-route nodes before burst arrivals, OBS networks overcome the challenges of OPS networks, while improving bandwidth utilization as compared to WRONs. We first present the node architectures, followed by header-processing schemes and switch designs for OPS networks. Next we present the basic concepts of OBS networking and describe the necessary network protocols, including burst assembly scheme, just enough time (JET) signaling, resource-reservation and routing schemes. (145 words)
State and Nation in the United Kingdom
Authors: Keating Michael
Published: May 2021

The United Kingdom is not a nation-state but a political union. It was formed by the coming together, over centuries, of territories which retained their own national identities and institutions. Key questions of demos (the people), telos (the purpose of union), ethos (binding values) and the locus of sovereignty were never definitively resolved. Since 1999, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have had their own self-governing institutions within the Union. Devolution was an effort to stabilize the Union in the face of centrifugal pressures, but it left the same key questions unresolved. The Union is now contested in all four of its component parts and fundamental questions are raised about the meaning of political, social and economic union. Unionism, as doctrine and practice appears to have lost its way, unable to adjust to devolution. Brexit has added to the strains because membership of the European Union provided an external support system for the union of the United Kingdom itself. Yet the UK cannot easily fall apart into its constituent nations, and public opinion still appears largely content with the idea of a plurinational union. There is no definitive answer to the question of state and nation within the United Kingdom.
Wilhelmine of Bayreuth and the German Enlightenment
Authors: Rumore Paola
Published: May 2021

The chapter focuses on the figure of Princess Wilhelmine of Prussia (Friederike Sophie Wilhelmine, 1709–1758), Frederick the Great’s older and favourite sister, then Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. Wilhelmine plays a central role within the German philosophical debate in the 1740s. Her intellectual engagement comes out in an extraordinary clear way in her commitment to making Bayreuth one of the main intellectual centres of the Holy Roman Empire. The chapter focuses on Wilhelmine’s cultural and institutional engagement in the philosophical debate of the German Enlightenment on the basis of her philosophical reflections both in her correspondence with the most representative personality of the time and in her works.
The Role of Writing and Sociability for the Establishment of a Persona
Authors: Pollok Anne
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines the various strategies of intellectual self-formation by female intellectuals. While Henriette Herz created the public persona of the nurturing muse in her salon and established the idea of mutual exchange between the sexes, Rahel Varnhagen took the idea of self-reflection in the eyes of others one step further and, together with her husband, created a monument of remembrance with her collection of letters, fashioning the modern persona as fundamentally constituted through her exchange with others. Bettina von Arnim, finally, had no qualms using the most prominent poet, Goethe, as a prop in her writings, exercising the subversive power of remembrance to establish herself. Even though all these strategies build on the (male) other, they showcase the potential to subvert traditional gender roles.
Visuo-tactile predictive mechanisms of peripersonal space
Authors: Dijkerman H.C. , Medendorp W.P.
Published: May 2021

Our daily living includes bodily contacts with objects and people. While this physical contact occurs naturally, it could also pose a risk of bodily harm—for example, when objects are sharp, or people have bad intentions. It is therefore imperative to have a mechanism that predicts the consequences of bodily contact before it occurs, to guide our interactions appropriately. Evidence from a range of studies suggests a neurofunctional coupling between external visual or auditory stimuli near the body and tactile stimuli on the body. While these multisensory peripersonal representations have been linked to spatial attention, motor control, and social behaviour, a discussion on whether these functions involve a similar mechanism has been missing. Here we suggest that prediction is central to this multimodal coding: visual or auditory stimuli near the body predict tactile consequences of bodily contact. This predictive mechanism is based on learned visuo-tactile associations and modulated by higher-order visual contextual information.
Functional actions of hands and tools influence attention in peripersonal space
Authors: Reed Catherine L. , Park George D.
Published: May 2021

Human perceptual and attentional systems operate to help us perform functional and adaptive actions in the world around us. In this review, we consider different regions of peripersonal space—peri-hand space, reachable space, and tool space when used in both peri- and extrapersonal space. Focusing on behavioural and electrophysiology/event-related potentials (EEG/ERP) studies using comparable target detection paradigms, we examine how visuospatial attention is facilitated or differentiated due to the current proximity and functional capabilities of our hands and the tools we hold in them. The functionality of the hand and tool is defined by the action goals of the user and the available functional affordances or parts available to achieve the goals. Finally, we report recent tool-use studies examining how the distribution of attention to tool space can change as a result of tool functionality and directional action crossing peripersonal and extrapersonal space boundaries. We propose that the functional capabilities of the hand and tools direct attention to action-relevant regions of peripersonal space. Although neural mechanisms such as bimodal neurons may enhance the processing of visual information presented in near-hand regions of peripersonal space, functional experience and the relevance of the space for upcoming actions more strongly direct attention within regions of peripersonal space. And, while some aspects of functionality can be extended into extrapersonal space, the multimodal nature of peripersonal space allows it to be more modifiable in the service of action.
The dual structure of touch
Authors: Matthen Mohan
Published: May 2021

Touch gives us tactile sensations that inform us of events that happen in and on our bodies (T), and haptic perception of things with which we are in direct or indirect contact (i.e. through intervening objects) (H). In the first part of this paper, I argue that these are distinct mental states (i.e. that T≠H). My strategy is to establish a double dissociation between T and H. Thus, it is possible to have similar sequences of tactile sensations T1 and T2, such that one yields a haptic perception and the other does not. And it is also possible to have the same haptic perception through different sequences of tactile sensations. This contradicts the idea that the switch from touch-awareness of one’s own body and touch-awareness of external objects is merely attentional: that being aware of something that you are touching is merely a matter of attending to your own body, but in a different way. In the second part of the chapter, I argue that tactile sensation does not represent space, but rather represents the relationships among parts of the body. This argument involves a reinterpretation of experimental results regarding touch-awareness by Patrick Haggard and co-workers.
Sameness of place and the senses
Authors: Mandrigin Alisa , Nudds Matthew
Published: May 2021

When we watch a film at the cinema, we typically experience the speech we hear as coming from the mouths of the actors depicted on the screen, rather than from the loudspeakers. This is an everyday example of the spatial ventriloquism effect. In this chapter, we are interested in what it is for things that we are aware of through different senses to appear to be in a single space, or even—as in spatial ventriloquism—at the same place. The answer may seem trivial: all that is required is that we pick out places in the different senses in the same way. However, as Millikan (1991, 2000) has argued, representing a single location in the same way is not the same as representing sameness of location. What we need, either instead of, or as well as, sameness of reference frame, is for sameness of place to be a part of the content of experience. Empirical evidence suggests that there exist peripersonal representations that encode multisensory information about the region of space that immediately surrounds the body. Their existence generates a puzzle for accounts of perception—namely, what is the relation between peripersonal representations that figure in empirical discussions and our everyday perceptual experience of ourselves and the world? Here we examine whether peripersonal space representations might play a role in our conscious awareness of the spatial relations between entities experienced in vision, audition, and touch.
“Stumbling up the Steps to Calvin’s Pulpit”
Authors: Tietz Christiane
Published: May 2021

Barth started his time as vicar in the German Reformed congregation in Geneva in the spirit of his Marburg professor Wilhelm Herrmann. He was disappointed that his sermons and other offerings found only little resonance. In his first confirmation instruction Barth tried to demonstrate to the youth the experience of the inner life of Jesus. He started evenings for the confirmed to help them deepen their knowledge about Christianity. In this context he discovered major gaps in his knowledge of the theology of the Reformers and the older theological tradition. He became more open for the societal aspects of religious life. In one of the pastoral conferences of the German-speaking pastors in French Switzerland, which he found dreadfully pious, Barth lectured on “Christian Faith and History,” critically engaging with Ernst Troeltsch. 1911 was the year of Barth’s engagement with Nelly Hoffmann who had been in his first confirmation class.
Accounting for Taste: Calculating Columns Quickly
Authors: Lipscombe Trevor Davis
Published: May 2021

This chapter presents methods by which to add up columns exactly, or to estimate them, more swiftly. As a consequence, these methods can be used in practical situations, such as trips to the local grocery store where you wish to keep an eye on the bill, or a cricket match, where you want to calculate the score. Examples include the number of gifts in “The Twelve Days of Christmas,” the average ages of US presidents, and the number of attendees of the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Also included is the methods used by Gauss to sum the first 100 digits, and Benford’s Law, regarding the distribution of first digits.
High-Level Perception and Multimodal Perception
Authors: Cavedon-Taylor Dan
Published: May 2021

What is the correct procedure for determining the contents of perception? Philosophers tackling this question increasingly rely on empirically oriented procedures. This chapter argues that this strategy constitutes an improvement over the armchair methodology of phenomenal contrast arguments, but that there is a respect in which current empirical procedures remain limited: they are unimodal in nature, wrongly treating the senses as isolatable. The chapter thus has two aims: first, to motivate a reorientation of the admissible contents debate into a multimodal framework. The second is to explore whether experimental studies of multimodal perception support a so-called Liberal account of perception’s admissible contents. The chapter concludes that the McGurk effect and the ventriloquist effect are both explicable without the postulation of high-level content, but that at least one multimodal experimental paradigm may necessitate such content: the rubber hand illusion. One upshot is that Conservatives who claim that the Liberal view intolerably broadens the scope of perceptual illusions, particularly from the perspective of perceptual psychology, should pursue other arguments against that view.
Expectations
Authors: Johnston Jean-Michel
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses upon the 1830s, when intellectuals, scientists, state officials, and entrepreneurs throughout Germany placed their hopes on the possibility of instantaneous, long-distance communication and increasingly became aware of the practicalities of bringing this vision to life. The correspondence of the scientists Carl Friedrich Gauß and Carl Steinheil illuminates their research into telegraphy and the networks connecting academics across Germany, through which it was discussed. Railway companies took an interest in this research, as they began to see in the technology a potential means of improving the efficiency and profitability of their services. The writings of the political theorists Friedrich List and Robert von Mohl, meanwhile, demonstrate the growing recognition that telegraphic communication could unleash the economic energies inherent in society, while also presenting new challenges for the administration of the state. Bremen is introduced as a counterexample to developments taking place across Germany. By the late 1830s these ideas were brought together as scientists and entrepreneurs turned to one another and to the state as a means of gathering the financial, logistical, and technical resources which they required to develop the technology.
Disappearing Errors in a Conversion Model
Authors: Fan David P.
Published: May 2021

The same basic differential equation model has been adapted for time-dependent conversions of members of a population among different states. The conversion model has been applied in different contexts such as epidemiological infections, the Bass model for the diffusion of innovations, and the ideodynamic model for public opinion. For example, the ideodynamic version of the model predicts changes in public opinions in response to persuasive messages extending back to an indefinite past. All messages are measured with error, and this chapter discusses how errors in message measurements disappear with time so that predicted opinion values gradually become unaffected by past measurement errors. Prediction uncertainty is discussed using formal statistics, sensitivity analysis, and bootstrap variance calculations. This chapter presents ideodynamic predictions for opinion time series about the Toyota car manufacturer calculated from daily Twitter scores over two-and-a-half years. During this time, there was a sudden onslaught of bad news for Toyota, and the model was able to accurately predict the accompanying drop in favourable public opinion towards Toyota and rise in unfavourable opinion.
The Rule of Law, the Principle of Legality and Due Process
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: May 2021

This chapter evaluates the rule of law, the principle of legality and due process. The creation of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in the early 1990s marked the dawn of a new era in international law and opened the way for the founding of a host of international and hybrid criminal tribunals, including the world’s first permanent International Criminal Court (ICC). Over nearly three decades, these international criminal tribunals have not only demonstrated that just and fair trials of some of the worst crimes imaginable are possible, they have also striven to serve as an embodiment of rule of law ideals—as highly visible examples of rule of law principles put into practice. The chapter then looks at the legality principle and due process. The legality principle, as enshrined in the principal conventions on human rights, is a basic component of the rule of law and serves as a fundamental check on the ability of courts to push the progressive development of the law, no matter how much the Judges of that court might believe that certain conduct deserves punishment.
Trying Violations of Human Rights in International Criminal Tribunals
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: May 2021

This chapter details the ways in which international criminal tribunals such as the ICTY have contributed to human rights law and protections. In construing the material elements of crimes under international humanitarian law, international criminal tribunals have had recourse to human rights law and jurisprudence, thereby strengthening human rights law and opening new avenues for its penal enforcement. The beginnings of these developments can be traced, first, to the drafting of crimes against humanity clauses in the Nuremberg Charter and, second, to the drafting of Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions. The tribunals have also made immense contributions to strengthening the proscriptions of rape as war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocidal acts. With respect to persecution, the ICTY held that persecution is the gross or blatant denial, on discriminatory grounds, of a fundamental right, laid down in international customary or treaty law, reaching the same level of gravity as the other acts prohibited as crimes against humanity.