bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The impact of brain injury on the family
Authors: Demellweek Colin , Appleton Richard
Published: November 2023

When a child suffers a brain injury, other family members are likely to be affected and, indeed, such an injury has been referred to as being a ‘family affair ‘ (Lezak 1988). Family members may be there at the time and place of the injury itself or be called to the hospital afterwards, and even quite a mild head injury appears to cause parents anxiety. In more severe cases, the child may be in a coma and family members may spend long and often uncertain hours at the child ‘s bedside, disrupting family routines. If and when the child emerges from the coma they may, for example, be unable to walk or talk. A lengthy rehabilitation process may then begin, again requiring family members to spend long periods of time in the hospital and suspend or defer other activities.
Oncology
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

As well as being an essential attachment in undergraduate medicine programs, oncology has a pervading importance throughout medical education from the undergraduate years and beyond. With the highly acclaimed first edition of this book as a foundation, the second edition presents a clear and compact survey of oncology, which equips students for their oncology attachment, and informs the study of cancer in related disciplines, particularly nursing and radiotherapy. The book also provides the basics for treating cancer patients in the early years as a doctor. Many of those health care professionals involved in the care of patients in the community have given up trying to understand the complexities of oncology management. In part this is due to a lack of familiarity with novel cancer treatments but also due to the centralizing of care at regional tertiary centres. Oncology, An Oxford Core Text provides a gateway to understanding the key issues involved. Online Resource Centre: What are the five commonest cancers, and how might their medical management typically unfold? The On-Line Resource Centre profiles cases of the five major forms of cancer, to increase familiarity with the presentations most likely to seen during attachments. The case studies are interactive, and reflect diagnostic, therapeutic and management pathways. Coverage includes a variety of patient histories, examinations, investigations, features, staging, interventions (surgical, non-surgical and adjuvant), prognosis and outcomes. Multiple choice questions are also available for each category, offering invaluable feedback on the submission of responses. Together, the interactive cases and multiple choice questions consolidate the learning opportunities in the book, allowing students to test and refresh their knowledge.
Oncological surgery
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

In the past, many patients suspected of having cancer required surgery to confirm the diagnosis. The ability to perform diagnostic biopsies using radiological guidance or endoscopy now often permit accurate diagnosis without recourse to open surgery. Patient morbidity is significantly reduced now that major diagnostic surgical procedures are often no longer needed and radiological staging is much improved. The number of ‘open and close’ laparotomies for unresectable cancer, for example, has fallen to < 5% in recent years largely because of advances in imaging and laparoscopic techniques.
Patients with breast cancer
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

If a tumour is small, the prognosis is good, and the smaller the tumour the better the survival. Clinical examination can detect a carcinoma about 1.5 cm in diameter and the hands of an experienced clinician can detect tumours as small as 1.0 cm in diameter. Screening tests should be simple to perform, cheap, easy, and unambiguous to interpret, and able to identify women with cancer and to exclude those without cancer.
Patients with skin cancers
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

The UVB spectrum (290–320 nm) is the major carcinogenic wavelength. Basal cell carcinomas (BCC), in particular, but also squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), are more prevalent on light-exposed areas of the body, especially the dorsum of the hands and the face. Areas of vitiligo (depigmentation) lead to increased susceptibility. This is a hyperkeratotic tumour, which clinically resembles a squamous cell carcinoma. It usually arises on sun-exposed skin in the central face but may also be seen on the dorsum of the hands and forearms. It is characteristically dome-shaped with a central plug of keratin. It usually has a short history of 2–4 weeks and tends to involute spontaneously over the next 4–5 months, often leaving a scar. These features distinguish it from squamous carcinoma, which has a longer history. If there is doubt, a wedge biopsy may be necessary.
ICPC-2-R
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

This fully revised and corrected edition of the International Classification of Primary Care 2e (ICPC-2) is indispensible for anyone wishing to use the international classification system for classification of morbidity data in a primary care setting. The concept of ICPC-2 has not been changed but the main body of the actual classification has been completely revised to reflect the adequate use for an individual patient record and for research purposes. This now brings the printed version of ICPC-2 completely in-line with the electronic version previously only available through the Oxford Website for the journal Family Practice. ICPC-2 is patient-oriented rather than disease or provider-oriented. It encompasses both the patient's reason for encounter and the patient's problem. ICPC-2 is extensively used internationally and includes a detailed conversion system for linking the ICPC and ICD-10 codes published by WHO, additional inclusion criteria, and cross-referencing rubrics. ICPC-2 has been developed based on the recognition that building the appropriate primary care systems to allow the assessment and implementation of health care priorities is possible only if the right information is available to health care planners.
The capsaicin receptor controls sensitivity and stimulated neuropeptide release in rodent meninges
Authors: Reeh P W , Zimmermann K , Fischer M J M , Sauer S , Messlinger K
Published: November 2023

Based on the consensus that headaches derive from activation of meningeal primary nociceptive afferents of trigeminal nerves, we introduced a simple isolated rodent skull preparation that exposes most of these nerve fibers and allows us to assess their lump activity by measuring their neuropeptide release. The majority of these thin sensory fibers contain calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) that is continuously released to a small degree and vividly secreted upon adequate stimulation. Release sites are the sensory terminals in the dura mater, but by analogy to other preparations trigeminal ganglion cells and axons of meningeal nerves can also be assumed to contribute to the vesicular exocytosis of CGRP into the subdural, arachnoideal, cleft.
Cytokines in inflammatory pain
Authors: Sommer Claudia
Published: November 2023

Cytokines are extracellular signaling proteins which mediate activation of the immune system and inflammatory responses. They can be produced in many cell types and provide a means of communication between the immune system and the nervous system. Cytokines comprise the interleukins (IL), the tumor necrosis factors, the chemokines (CXC, CC, and other subfamilies), the interferons (IFN), and the mesenchymal growth factors (transforming growth factor (3, TGF(3, and others). Cytokines act at hormonal concentrations through high-affinity receptors and produce endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine effects onto nearby cells. Their activation is relevant in a variety of inflammatory diseases, for example sepsis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn’ s disease, multiple sclerosis, and leprosy. Recently, evidence has emerged that cytokines are involved in the generation of pain and hyperalgesia in inflammatory and neuropathic conditions.
Vascular and neuronal mechanisms related to the trigeminovascular system
Authors: Edvinsson Lars
Published: November 2023

The primary headaches include migraine, tension-type headache, cluster headache, other trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, and other primary headaches. At present migraine and cluster headache are considered as neurovascular headaches in which the trigeminal cervical complex is involved. Although the exact causes of the primary headaches remain unknown, some pieces of the pathophysiological puzzle are starting to fall into place, particularly after a series of elegant positron emission tomography (PET) studies. During the last 20 years there has been a heated debate as to whether the primary headaches are neurogenic or vascular in origin. However, current molecular and functional studies suggest a way to incorporate the different aspects into an integrated hypothesis as neurovascular headaches.
Central projections of sensory innervation of the rat superior sagittal sinus
Authors: Liu Yi , Broman, Jonas , Edvinsson Lars
Published: November 2023

The central projections of the rat superior sagittal sinus (SSS) sensory innervation were studied by transganglionic tract tracing techniques. Cholera toxin subunit b (CTb) or wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase conjugate (WGA-HRP) was applied on the overlying dura of the SSS and labelled terminations in the brainstem and cervical spinal cord were examined under the light microscope. Labelled cell bodies were seen bilaterally in the trigeminal ganglia and in the C2 dorsal root ganglia following both CTb and WGA-HRP applications. In the brainstem, labelled terminations were mainly found in the caudal and interpolar parts of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. In the CTb cases, terminations were also found in the dorsolateral part of the cuneate nucleus.
Migraine facilitates high frequency of tension-type headache
Authors: Russell Michael Bjørn
Published: November 2023

A random sample of 3000 men and 1000 women, 40 years old, and residing in 11 municipalities around the Copenhagen County Hospital in Glostrup was drawn from the Danish Central Person Registry. The sample size was reduced to 3985 owing to decease (n = 2) and an error in the address list (n = 13). The total population of the sampling area was 328,070, i.e. 54 per cent of the Copenhagen County population and 6 per cent of the total Danish population.
Efficacy of eletriptan in improving functional impairment in migraine Results using a multidimensional functional and work productivity battery
Authors: Silberstein S D , Cady R K , Sheftell F D , Almas M , Parsons B , Albert K S
Published: November 2023

Functional impairment is one of the core criteria for diagnosing migraine. The WHO Burden of Illness survey rates migraine as one of the top 20 most disabling disorders in developed countries.Despite its importance as a key outcome domain, clinical trials in migraine typically evaluate the effect of treatment on attack-related disability using a single-item Functional Impairment Scale (FIS), which rates severity of impairment on a four-point scale. Consequently, very little information is available regarding the extent to which migraine might differentially affect individual functional domains (social, occupational, recreational, cognitive and psychomotor, etc.).
Protozoa
Authors: Knight-Jones, W , Wright J M
Published: November 2023

Protozoa form a subdivision of the Kingdom Protista, which comprises organisms not divided into different kinds of cells. Their general characters are treated in most introductory textbooks of biology, so knowledge of these can be assumed. Their diversity in the sea is vast, but here we omit the five exclusively parasitic phyla recognized by Levine et al. (1980). We deal only with benthic representatives of the two remaining phyla, Sarcomastigophora (flagellates and rhizopods) and Ciliophora (ciliates).
Geological Context and Palaeoenvironments
Authors: Isaac Glynn Ll. , Behrensmeyer Anna k.
Published: November 2023

Geological studies contribute to the understanding of the archaeological record by providing information on such topics as the sequence and chronology; the palaeogeographic settings of sites, both regional and local; and site-formation processes (i.e. the mechanisms whereby artefacts, bone assemblages, and associated materials enter the stratified record by becoming encased in sediment, with or without displacement). This chapter will deal with these topics in general, regional terms. During the course of research into the sedimentary history and palaeoenvironments of the Koobi Fora formation, three different levels of resolution have emerged as critical to comprehensive understanding of the depositional record. we will refer to these as the micro-scale, intermediate, and macro-scale approaches to stratigraphy and palaeogeographic reconstruction. The first part of this chapter provides summaries of the macrostratigraphy of the whole sedimentary formation in which the archaeological evidence is embedded.
The Artefact Assemblages in the Light of Experimental Studies
Authors: Toth Nicholas
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides information on the nature of the stone technologies from the Koobi . Fora assemblages, using experimentation as a means to advance understanding of how the artefacts from these early assemblages were manufactured. It will also report on enquiries as to the possible roles of stone artefacts in early hominid adaptation. The research operations reported in this chapter represent a holistic approach to lithic technology in which the technology is treated as a system. Materials flow through the system, starting with the selection and acquisition of raw materials and going on through various modifying actions to eventual discard or abandonment, after which geological and taphonomic processes begin to operate. The chapter has three major components: (1) studies of raw materials; (2) studies of artefact manufacture; and (3) studies of artefact use and discard.
Aspects of the foliose lichen flora of the southern-central coast of Sao Paulo State, Brazil
Authors: Marcelli M P
Published: November 2023

The southern-central littoral of Sao Paulo State at 23°25 ‘S has an equatorial climate with 2000 ±500 mm annual rainfall. Principal habitats for lichens include mangroves and restinga formations, rocky shores, and urban environments and substrates. The present work compares the foliose lichen floras of these habitats. At present 161 species in 28 genera are recognized, most of them (84 per cent) foliose. The family Parmeliaceae contributes some 56 per cent of the foliose lichen flora, followed by Physciaceae (17 per cent), Pannariaceae (7 percent), Stictaceae, Coccocarpiaceae, Collemataceae, and others. Fruticose species (Usnea and Ramalina) account for only about 14 per cent of the flora. Parmeliaceae are much more abundant than any other family and Parmotrema alone represents 66 per cent of that family with many species of the P. gardneri complex. All species with cyanobacterial symbionts are found in mangroves. Many species with green algae are specific to certain habitats, substrates or hosts. Higher air humidity and wind protection are necessary for most of the species to become fertile.
Function And Molecular Biology Of Photosystem Two
Authors: Barber James
Published: November 2023

The term 1photosystem two’ originates from the paper of Duysens and Amesz published in 1962. The need for this terminology emerged from the classical paper by Hill and Bendall (1960) in which it was suggested that in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms, the light driven transfer of reducing equivalents from water to NADP+ requires the cooperation of two distinctly different light reactions. It seemed, at that time, that one of the two photosystems was comparable with that found in anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria, in that it could photoreduce NADP+ but not oxidise water (Arnon et al., 1965). It was therefore reasoned by Duysens and Amesz (1962) that the ‘bacterial like’ photosystem was, in evolutionary terms, more ancient and therefore they called it photosystem one (PSI). They therefore argued that the appearance of a second photosystem (photosystem two or PSII) which was able to oxidise water would have come later in evolution and have given rise to the build-up of substantial levels of oxygen in the atmosphere. Today these notions are too simplistic and the origin of PSII, as well as PSI, can be linked with bacterial systems.
Evolutionary Explanation
Authors: Stearns Stephen C
Published: November 2023

This book is organized into two parts. Part I presents the tools needed to analyse variation in life history traits; Part II analyses that variation, trait by trait. This chapter introduces Part I. It discusses why life history theory was developed and what role it plays in evolutionary explanation. The major life history traits and the explanatory framework are introduced. That framework could be used to explain any pattern of phenotypic variation. Such explanations are illustrated with an example, human age at maturity. Life history theory deals directly with natural selection, fitness, adaptation, and constraint. It contributes to evolutionary thought the analysis of the phenotypic causes of variation in fitness and exposes the pervasive tension between adaptation and constraint, brought here into especially sharp contrast by the simultaneous applications of optimality theory, quantitative genetics, tradeoffs, and the comparative method to the explanations of the same patterns.
Lineage-Specific Effects
Authors: Stearns Stephen C
Published: November 2023

This chapter begins with examples of lineage-specific effects on life histories. Some of these depend allometrically on body weight; others describe patterns associated with higher taxonomic groups after the effects of weight have been removed. It then discusses what a lineage is and how to define it using phylogenetic systematics, a method used in historical explanations of life history patterns. Those using multivariate statistics to analyse extant variation within and among lineages concentrate on patterns of covariation among traits and between traits and environmental factors. Some of them interpret the patterns as adaptive. Those using functional morphology and developmental biology locate the irreversible evolutionary transitions that have created major new opportunities and constraints. Some of them interpret the patterns as evidence for constraint. Both view patterns of variation among species, genera, and higher taxa as influenced by history. The approaches answer different questions. Comparative evidence brings generality, suggests hypotheses, and places intraspecific patterns into context.
Organization of the bodonid flagellates
Authors: Vickerman Keith
Published: November 2023

The bodonids are biflagellated kinetoplastid protists. Their distinctive flagella lack association with the nucleus; basal bodies insert on the mitochondrial envelope and are linked to a cortical microtubule cytoskeleton. The single mitochondrion contains abundant DNA in the form of non-catenated circular molecules aggregated into one or more stainable masses or kinetoplasts. Free-living bodonids are phagotrophic, ingesting food through a microtubule-lincd cytostome-cytopharynx close to the anterior flagellar pocket into which the contractile vacuole empties.
Cellular And Molecular Biology Of Pathogenesis Related Proteins
Authors: Eyal Y , Fluhr R
Published: November 2023

Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins are host-encoded polypeptides that accumulate as a result of infection by pathogens or elicitors. The first forms to be described were acid soluble protease resistant proteins of relatively low molecular weight, which appeared in tobacco leaves reacting hypersensitively to TMV (Gianinazzi et al., 1970; Van Loon and Van Kammen, 1970). Their electrophoretic characteristics and abundance made them facile subjects to study. PR proteins have now been described in many monocot and dicot species. As new proteins are being characterized and gene families defined, previously assigned categories of PR proteins are less useful. Undoubtedly, as our understanding of signal transduction of pathogenesis and mechanisms of gene activation increases, new functional definitions and generalizations will be realized. With this caveat in mind, we will focus our review on some of the recent cellular and molecular studies related to the expression of PR proteins. Excellent related reviews have recently appeared and should be consulted (Van Loon, 1985; Collinge and Slusarenko, 1987; Fraser 1987; Boller, 1988; Bal and Van Kan 1988, Bal et al., 1990).
Inventories of Biodiversity: more than a Question of Numbers
Authors: Stork N E
Published: November 2023

Estimates for the number of described species in the world of 1.4-1.8 million, and for the total number of species of around 5-15 million, would suggest that we know only a fraction of the Earth’s fauna and flora. Other data would suggest that we know little even of the majority of described species. To comprehend the implications of environmental change on biodiversity we need a better understanding of the distribution of species and of the role they play in ecosystems. Increased efforts are required towards compiling inventories of the world’s fauna and flora, and monitoring changes. The importance is stressed of focussing such efforts on a range of sites, with the biota of some being intensively studied and fully documented. For wider biodiversity inventories it is necessary to select a range of indicator groups, and criteria for their selection are suggested. The importance is stressed of using ‘sampling packages’ for study of hyperdiverse groups such as insects. The organisation of international efforts to provide inventories is discussed and a list of recommendations is proposed on these and other relevant issues.
Ecology of Phaeocystis: the key role of colony forms
Authors: Lancelot Christiane , Rousseau Veronique
Published: November 2023

Species of Phaeocystis exhibit phase alternation between individual cells and gelatinous colonies. They regularly form dense, nearly specific blooms, in very contrasting nutrient-rich areas of the world’s oceans. The uniqueness of this genus of marine phytoplankters rests not only in its ubiquity but mostly in its peculiar physiology and ecology. No other marine phytoplankter has ever been shown to dominate an entire ecosystem; no other marine species distinguishes itself by a complex polymorphic life cycle that induces dramatic changes in the structure and functioning of planktonic and benthic food-webs as well as in the biogeochemistry of trace elements. The main features of the ecology of Phaeocystis-dominated ecosystems are analysed with regard to the Phaeocystis life cycle, and to recent data on the biochemistry and nutrient (major and trace element) metabolism of the different morphological forms that succeed each other during Phaeocystis bloom development, in relationship to the behaviour of bacteria and micro-, mesa-, and meta-zooplankton and the physical structure of the marine habitat. Particular emphasis is given to the biological functioning of Phaeocystis colonies that constitute by far the most important morphological forms in natural environments, as determined from the analysis of the structure and function of the mucilaginous matrix embedding the cells. Evidence is presented that the most remarkable ecological and biogeochemical properties of Phaeocystis-dominated ecosystems are attributable to the capacity of Phaeocystis colonial cells to synthesize, in nutrient-deprived conditions, exopolysaccharides capable of gelation.
Lipid biomarkers of the Haptophyta
Authors: Conte* Maureen H , Volkman John K , Eglinton Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Lipid biomarker composition (fatty acids, sterols, alkenones, alkenoates, alkenes) of the Haptophyta is reviewed, and new data are presented on strain variability in the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi. Groupings in both fatty acid and sterol profiles are consistent with taxonomic divisions. The Pavlovales are distinct in their higher relative concentrations of the polyunsaturated acid 20:5w3 and in the presence of 4-methyl sterols. Biomarker profiles indicate significant genetic variability within the Isochrysis and Phaeocystis genera. Eleven strains of Emiliania huxleyi, cultured at 15 °C, had largely similar alkenone and alkenoate compositions and cellular abundances, although tetraunsaturated alkenones were present in higher concentrations in some coastal strains. In contrast, alkene composition and cellular abundance differed greatly, especially in the presence or absence of C37 and C38 alkenes. Field studies indicate biogeographical variability in the primary production of alkenones and alkenoates in cold surface waters, suggesting genetic differences in E. huxleyi populations. The closely related Gephyrocapsa oceanica also contains alkenones and alkenoates and may be an important source in warm water regions.
Molecular biology and systematics
Authors: Medlin* L K , Barkert† G L A , Baumann* M , Hayest† P K , Lange* M
Published: November 2023

Sequence data from both the nuclear and plastid encoded small subunit ribosomal RNA (ssu rRNA) gene have been used to infer the phylogenetic position of the haptophyte host cell and its plastid. Both are in distinct lineages that do not share a recent evolutionary history with their chromophyte counterparts. Within the haptophyte lineage ssu rRNA sequence data support the recognition of at least three colony forming species within the ubiquitous genus, Phaeocystis. In contrast, the two distinct morphotypes of the cosmopolitan bloom-forming coccolithophorid, Emiliania huxleyi, are identical in the sequence of both their ssu rRNAs and the spacer regions between the plastid encoded large and small Rubisco subunits. The sensitive technique of RAPD fingerprinting has revealed the presence of genotypic variation between geographically isolated clones of E. huxleyi. The impact of these findings on the taxonomy of E. huxleyi is discussed.
Physiography, geology, and soils
Authors: Millington A C
Published: November 2023

Egypt is a large, arid, and, for the most part, low-lying country on the north-east African peneplain. Exceptions to this general rule can be found along the northern coast, where the climate is semi-arid, and in the tectonically active Jordan and Red Sea Rift Valley zone, where earth movements have created rugged mountainous terrain bordering the Red Sea and in the Sinai Peninsula. The total land area is 1 001 449 km2.
Climate and hydrology
Authors: Beaumont P
Published: November 2023

The climate of Egypt is governed mainly by its location in the north-eastern part of Africa on the margin of the largest desert in the world. Its latitudinal position, between 22 and 32°N places it firmly in the sub-tropical dry belt, although conditions on its northern coast are by the presence of the Mediterranean Sea. Egypt’s climate can best be expressed as a contest between the hot, dry air masses over the Sahara and the cooler, damper maritime air masses from the north carried by eastward moving depressions. Throughout most of the year the hot, dry tropical continental air masses dominate, but during the winter period air masses of both tropical maritime and polar maritime origin make brief incursions into Egypt from the north, frequently bringing rain with them.
Summary and conclusions: the characteristics and problems of Chinese agriculture and prospects for the future
Authors: Guohua Xu
Published: November 2023

1. A long history of cultivation. Cultivation has been practised in China for at least six thousand years, and when it is considered that Chinese civilization has been continuous, it follows that there are numerous fields which have already been cultivated for thousands of years, and that Chinese peasants have accumulated a very rich experience of farming.
Computers Ltd
Authors: Harel David
Published: November 2023

Computers are incredible. They are one of the most important inventions of the 20th century, dramatically and irrevocably changing the way we live. That is the good news. The bad news is that there are still major limitations to computers, serious problems that not even the most powerful computers can solve. The consequences of such limitations can be serious. Too often these limits get overlooked, in the quest for bigger, better, and more powerful computers. In Computers Ltd., David Harel, best-selling author of Algorithmics, explains and illustrates one of the most fundamental, yet under-exposed facets of computers - their inherent limitations. Looking at the bad news that is proven, lasting and robust, discussing limitations that no amounts of hardware, software, talents or resources can overcome, the book presents a disturbing and provocative view of computing at the start of the 21st century. Along the way he shows just how far from perfect computers are, while shattering some of the many claims made for these machines. Though we may strive for bigger and better things in computing, we need to be realistic: computers are not omnipotent - far from it. Moreover, the problem is real and here to stay.
Sometimes we just don’t know
Authors: Harel David
Published: November 2023

Have you ever tried putting together a class schedule, pairing courses, time slots, and classrooms with teachers and instructors who have all kinds of constraints? Ever tackled a really hard jigsaw puzzle, full of look-alike pieces? Ever had to pack lots of bulky items of varying sizes and shapes into given boxes, trying to get them all in? These are difﬁcult tasks, you would have to admit. In carrying them out we seem to make local decisions one at a time, often reaching a dead end. If that happens, we backtrack a little, undo a recent decision and try something else instead. We then make some more progress, then backtrack again, maybe even further back than before, and so on. The entire process can take a long, long time.
Trying to ease the pain
Authors: Harel David
Published: November 2023

The fact that computing doesn’t bring only good news has pushed researchers in a number of directions, intended to try to alleviate the problem. In this chapter we shall discuss some of the most interesting of these: parallelism (or concurrency), randomization, quantum computing, and molecular computing. Each of the ﬁrst two represents a new algorithmic paradigm by relaxing a fundamental assumption underlying conventional computing. The third transfers computation into the mysterious realm of quantum mechanics, and the fourth represents an attempt to have molecules do the work.
Can we ourselves do any better?
Authors: Harel David
Published: November 2023

Our treatment of the ‘hard-core’ bad news inherent in computing was actually completed at the end of Chapter 4, and the story we have set out to tell could have ended there. Chapters 5 and 6 were concerned with the questions of whether, when, and how things can be turned around, and we could have stopped there too. Nevertheless, it seems appropriate to end the book with bad news of a different kind, taking a brief look at some of the difﬁculties that arise when we think of computers as potentially intelligent.
Living with the Double Heleix
Authors: Wilkins Maurice
Published: November 2023

The excitement of the extraordinary discovery stressed and bewildered us. Jim was sensitive to the tension between his work with Francis and ours at King’s. Soon after the Double Helix was announced he was invited to talk on the DNA structure at the Hardy Club, the leading scientific society in Cambridge, and he was concerned that I should come to hear what he had to say. Since Jim had favoured the co-authorship idea, I could under- stand he might wish me to hear how he acknowledged the contribution from our lab.
Introduction
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

Languages are not static, but are constantly changing: the latest slang comes and goes, our own language is subtly, but noticeably, different from that of our grandparents, and the further back we go in time the more remote and incomprehensible the language seems to be. Shakespeare's language is difficult for us; Chaucer's even more so; and should we be bold enough to peruse the writings of King Alfred, who lived in the ninth century, we will barely understand a word, even though he wrote in 'English'. At the same time, we also notice that some foreign languages, such as German or Dutch, have some similarities to English, which we assume to be the result of the common origins of English and these languages. Over the course of time the languages have diverged, to the point where they are mutually incomprehensible.
Internal Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Comparative Method is widely acknowledged to be the method of reconstruction par excellence. The classical reconstructions, in particular that of Proto-Indo-European, were based entirely on it, and it is still considered to be the most reliable, and the most legitimate, of the available methods. Nevertheless, it is not the only method, as we have already noted, and other techniques are available, of which the most important is INTERNAL RECONSTRUCTION, which relies not on comparison of languages but on examination of forms within a single language. As we shall see, it is an extremely powerful method, which is able to go beyond the Comparative Method in a number of ways, but for that reason it has also been viewed with suspicion by some comparative linguists, who have considered its results too speculative, lacking the sound basis of evidence which the Comparative Method is thought to provide. In addition to presenting the method itself, therefore, we shall need to consider this wider issue of its status and validity.
Quantitative Methods in Reconstruction
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

Language is usually assumed to function by means of qualitative, discrete differences between linguistic units, items, rules, and so on, and this characteristic of discreteness has even been included among its 'design features' (Hockett, 1958: ch. 64, 1965). Apart from the study of linguistic performance, such as some aspects of phonetics, where experimental methods have long been quantitative, it is not immediately obvious how quantitative techniques can be used in analysing or describing it.
List of Chapter Topics
Authors: Coles Waltraud , Dodd Bill
Published: November 2023

In the second sentence (Aber nicht alle deutschsprechenden Leute wohnen in Deutschland.) the finite verb is ‘wohnen’ (live). This verb follows a pattern different to the one for ‘sprechen’ in the first sentence. wohnen (live) requires a WHO (Not all German­speaking people) and a WHERE (in Germany) to form a complete sentence.
List of Topics
Authors: Coles Waltraud , Dodd Bill
Published: November 2023

This is the type of clause used for statements. It is the basic form for simple sentences. The finite verb is always the ‘second idea’ (but not necessarily the second word). English almost always has the order SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT (svo), but German allows several variations, including ovs.
Foundations and Methods
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we introduce the study of language as part of the study of the human mind, draw distinctions between what is in the mind and what people say, and relate the theory of language to the innate human capacity to learn language.
Arguments, Government, and Case
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider the properties of arguments of a sentence. Arguments are most commonly associated with verbs, but they are also associated with nouns and adjectives. Verbs and adjectives, and some nouns, express properties of things (e.g. John is sleeping) or relationships between things (e.g. John sees Bill). The arguments are the phrases that denote the things that have such properties or are involved in such rela¬tionships.
A-Movement
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

Having developed Case theory, which concerns properties of A-positions, we are now in a position to consider the passive and other constructions that involve relations between A-positions. These constructions involve movements to A-positions, that is, A-movements.
LF Representations
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider some of the motivations for and uses of the level of syntactic representation called Logical Form, or LF. Intuitively, LF is the level at which the logical properties of a sentence are repres¬ented. By Syntacticization, LF is a syntactic level, subject to the principles that govern syntactic representations.
Text I: editing and reception
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

Editing is always an intervention between reader and text. If there is only one previous edition of a play, or a text seen through the press by the author which may be taken to represent the author’s intentions, it will usually be chosen as the copy-text for the new edition (the basic source compositors follow) and reprinted closely. But should obvious mistakes be reproduced? If the copy-text reads ‘That’s very wind of you.’, do you change it to ‘That’s very kind of you’? Probably yes, and probably rightly; but matters get tricky fast.
What is genre?
Authors: Lennard John , Luckhurst Mary
Published: November 2023

In one way that makes it easy to use: ‘What genres do you like?’ ‘I like comedies and thrillers.’ ‘And what genres does she like?’ ‘Oh, she prefers novels.’ The meaning seems clear, but ‘novel’ is not the same kind of category as ‘comedy’ or ‘thriller’, and the confusion is plain if you compare artistic genre with scientific genus. In the Linnaean classification of living things ‘genus’ occupies a specific place in a descending order-kingdom (animals), sub-kingdom (metazoa), phylum (chordates), sub-phylum (vertebrates), class (mammals), order (primates), sub-order (anthropoids), family (hominids), genus (humans), and species (homo sapiens). In the case of homo sapiens genus and species are effectively the same, for human beings are the only living hominids; but there are extinct members of the family and genus (such as Neanderthal Man) and every possible level of classification may be needed to distinguish one species from another.
Language and Gender
Authors: Romaine Suzanne
Published: November 2023

The first non-sexist Bible to be published in Britain was launched yesterday. The revisers have systematically changed expressions such as ‘any man’ to ‘anyone’, but have kept the masculine, especially for God, on the grounds that this is faithful to the original. (Guardian, 4 October 1985) IN Chapter 3 we saw that one of the sociolinguistic patterns established by quantitative research on urban social dialects was that women, regardless of other social characteristics such as class, or age, use more standard forms of language than men. Although many reasons, such as women’s alleged greater status consciousness and concern for politeness, have been put forward to try to explain these results, they have never been satisfactorily accounted for.
Language Change in Social Perspective
Authors: Romaine Suzanne
Published: November 2023

As I was writing this book in Sweden, an interesting case of linguistic change came to my attention. It seems that young people in Sweden have begun using the word nord (from American English nerd) to refer to someone who is stupid. There is also an adjectival form nordig ‘nerdy’. This new usage has been commented on by the newspapers and the radio, and some of my Swedish colleagues began noticing it over the summer of 1991. After some discussion, my colleagues and I concluded that nerd probably crossed the Atlantic to Sweden via the American film Revenge of the Nerds, which was translated in Swedish as Nordama kommer ‘The nerds are coming’. Some young people have apparently also picked up the word through visiting the United States. It has now been noticed in Denmark too. The influence and prestige of American pop culture on youth everywhere has no doubt been responsible for the introduction of a number of new English words into other languages.
Causation: The Evideuce and its First Effect on Us
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

In the last three chapters the emphasis has been on the shortcomings of Hume’s theory of mind. Its failure to deal with the problem of meaning separately from the problem of truth and evidence, its excess ive assimilation of thought to perception, and its consequent under estimation of the importance of activity were all serious faults. It emerged as a loosely constructed theory, based on an intuition of empiricism and worked out With insufficient care. However, when he applied it to the three problems, causation, personal identity, and perception, he turned its loose construction to advantage. His best ideas were not hampered by it, but were able to develop with a large measure of freedom in the open interstices.
Causation: The Second Effect of the Evidence
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

The second effect produced on us by the evidence for a causal inference must now be examined in greater depth. The first effect was the laying down of the associative track in the observer’s mind, and the second one is the internal impression of constraint or inevitability that he feels when on some later occasion he moves along this track from the premiss to the conclusion of a causal inference:
Sense-Perception: Hume’s Heroic Solution
Authors: Pears David
Published: November 2023

If neith er sensation nor reason are capable of producing our belief in the continued and distinct existence of objects, then ‘that opinion must be entirely owing to the imagination: which must now be the subject of our inquiry’.1 So there has to be something which puts into our minds the ideas of objects existing in the gaps in our observation, and there also has to be something which gives them the vivacity which, according to Hume, constitutes belief. But what are die causes which produce these two effects? As usual, the inquiry belongs to die scientific investigation of the human mind.
Truth- Functors
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

The most elementary part of logic is often called ‘propositional logic’ (or ‘sentential logic’), but a better title for it is ‘the logic of truth-functors’. Roughly speaking, a truth-functor is a sign that expresses a truth-function, so it is the idea of a truth-function that first needs attention.
Axiomatic Proofs
Authors: Bostock David
Published: November 2023

The idea of using semantic tableaux to provide a proof procedure is a recent invention. (In effect it stems from work done by Gentzen (1934), but the main ideas were first clearly presented by Beth (1955). The tree format used in the last chapter is due to Jeffrey (1981).) Originally proofs in elementary logic were quite differently conceived.
Introduction
Authors: Millican Peter
Published: November 2023

Hume’s Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (standardly referred to as the first Enquiry) has long been recognized as one of the best available ‘classics’ for introducing students to the study of philosophy; indeed in this role probably only Descartes’s Meditations enjoys a comparable popularity. The Enquiry is therefore well known, but tends to be considered rather lightweight-a useful stepping-stone for those approaching epistemology for the first time, or those wishing to sample Hume’s philosophy in a relatively undemanding way, but a work destined to be put on one side once the reader has graduated to the more serious business of his earlier Treatise of Human Nature.
Clarifying Mathematical Analysis
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

In the early decades of the twentieth century, mathematicians showed an unprecedented concern for the foundations of their subject, not just in expressions of disquiet but also in attempts to find a secure basis. This search for certainty and the crisis that sparked it off is the subject of the central parts of this book. The aim of Part I of the book is to give the mathematical setting of this story, so that it is possible to see how the foundational endeavours grew out of the nineteenth-century quest for clarity and rigour in mathematics. We should not assume that mathematical progress prior to the twentieth century had been untroubled. Advances in mathematics, especially the introduction of new kinds of entity and new methods, often produced puzzles and paradoxes. Sometimes these were easily solved, but not always; until solutions were found the new ideas were regarded with suspicion. But eventually ideas would be clarified and doubts dispelled. A case in point is the introduction of negative integers.
Paradoxes of Truth
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

This paradox was first discovered by Russell, who regarded it as variant of his class paradox.1 The best known version of this paradox, known as Grelling’s paradox, will be presented after Russell’s original version, which is as follows. Some conditions seem true of themselves; others not. For example, the condition ‘xis expressible’ is expressible, but ‘xis inexpressible’ is not inexpressible. What of the condition ‘xis not true of itself’? If, on the one hand, it is true of itself, it satisfies the condition ‘xis not true of itself’, which is just to say that it is not true of itself. If, on the other hand, it is not true of itself, it satisfies the condition ‘xis not true of itself’; but this is the condition itself, and so it is true of itself. Hence, it is true of itself if and only if it is not true of itself.
Hilbert’s Finitism
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

It must be admitted, Hilbert said in 1925, that the present situation in which we run up against the paradoxes is intolerable. ‘Where are we to find certainty, if even mathematical thinking fails us?’ This lament is followed by the cheerful declaration that ‘there is a completely satisfactory way of escaping the paradoxes without betraying our science.’1 In fact, neither Hilbert nor his co-workers believed that the paradoxes showed that mathematics, in particular set theory and analysis, was in any way defective. Hilbert stoutly assert ed that there is nothing wrong with Zermelo’s axioms, but if we use them ‘as starting points and foundations for the proofs, mathematics thereby loses the character of absolute certainty’.2 To settle what Hilbert called the foundational question, it is not enough to find axioms for set theory which do not generate contradictions, as it was believed Zermelo had done; it was also necessary to prove that the axioms do not generate contradictions or patent falsehoods.
Underivability of ‘Consistency’
Authors: Giaquinto M
Published: November 2023

Godel’s Second Underivability Theorem is widely thought to pose a direct threat to Hilbert’s Programme. It is sometimes referred to as the ‘unprovabil ity of consistency’ and glossed as showing that a proof of the consistency of a theory that contains a bit of arithmetic must depend on assumptions that lie beyond the theory itself. It is impossible to assess such claims about the implications of Godel’s Second Underivability Theorem without going some way into the fine print. This requires that we keep in mind the facts about coding and arithmetization of syntax mentioned in the last chapter. This chapter outlines the proof and then turns to the controversial matter of the theorem’s significance for Hilbert’s Programme.