bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Early Years and Education 1920-1939
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce
Published: November 2023

Peter Dennis N[itchell was born on 29 September 192() in a two-story semi-detached house at H) Rustic Avenue in the middle-class London suburb of Mitcham, Surrey. His fother, Christopher Gibbs Mitchell, was 31 and his mother, Kate Beatrice Dorothy (nee Taplin) Mitchell, was 27. They had married in 1914 just before World War l broke out An older son, Christopher John (Bill) Mitchell, was born in 1916.The Mitchell family was from DorSE>t, but it is not dear how many generations may have lived there or what occupation they followed. Family lore was that they were descended from seventeenth-century French Huguenot immigrants named Nfichelle and the name had beenanglicized to Mitchell. Although some of the family suspect that a few of their ancestors were engaged in smuggling,l Peter Mitchell liked to think that at least some of his forebears had been pirates in the English Channel.2 What is certain is that Peter Mitchell’s grandfather, Christopher Mitchell, was trained as a stone mason but rose to be manager of a quarry in Portland, the Portland Stone Works. Christopher Mitchell was ambitious and an able businessman whose investments included the firm Minimax, which made fire extinguishers and of which he later became director. Probably in the 188ns he moved to Peckham, London, and became a clerk of works employed by the London County Council. His quMrying expertise led to his forming a pMtnership with Matthew Ascot Rowe, who had made his fortune in the United States. The firm Rowe and Mitchell brought granite from quarries in Alderney to London to make road surfacing for the various London boroughs. Christopher Mitchell married Margaret Way of Weymouth and had two sons, Christopher Gibbs Mitchell, born in 1889, and Godfrey Way Mitchell, born in 1891.
Daily Rhythms In Single-Cell Organisms
Authors: Palmer John D
Published: November 2023

We will now leave human-rhythm studies and return to other interesting members of the living kingdom; the next few chapters will build a background of knowledge leading to the discoveries of the clockworks described in Chapter 9.

The majority of chronobiologists work only on multicellular organisms, but, as you have already seen, single-cell plants and animals also undergo clock-controlled rhythms that are fascinating and fundamental to the arcana surrounding the living clock. We will look at a few more examples in this chapter.

Let’s begin with algal rhythms that do not match the period of the tide; these rhythms are equal in length to the interval of a day.

One reads—usually annually—of the appearance of large colored stains forming in the ocean just offshore. If that is all that happened, even though it could be pictured by a TV camera, and even though the spot may be blood colored as it sometimes is, it would probably not be worthy of news hype.
Chaeronea 2 August 338 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

In 359 B.C., Philip of Macedon became king of his country. For some time, he had to suppress rival contenders to the throne, but he managed to solidify his claim and began turning Macedon from a second-rate power into the base of a world empire. He did this through the development of the Macedonian army into the finest fighting machine of the age. Spending time in Thebes in his early twenties, Philip became an admirer of things Greek and fashioned his political skills after the best minds of Greece at the time. The timing of his rise to power is key, for the Greek city-states were more divided than usual. Philip was able to play power politics in Greece by cajoling, complimenting, threatening, or bribing various factions into cooperating with him.
Kai-Hsia 203 B.C.
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Established in the eleventh century B.C., the Chou dynasty had been seriously weakened after the loss of its capital city in 771. The dynasty reestablished itself to the east in Loyang in the central Chinese plains. It flourished for a time, but by the fourth century B.C. a number of rulers began to claim independence for their regions. Eight kingdoms emerged, and, although the Chou dynasty officially still existed, each of the kings strove to establish his for a century and a half(401-256 B.C.) in what has come to be called the Era of the Warring States. In 256, a new ruler came to the throne of the westernmost state, Ch’in. As ruler, his title was Ch’in Shi Huang-ti. Between 230 and 221 B.C., Shi Huang-ti conquered his seven rivals and unified China into an empire. His reign was relatively brief, and he left behind no strong successor after his death in 210, so rebellions quickly began breaking out across the new empire.
Beth-Horon October(66)
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

War between the ancient Jews and the Romans seems, in retrospect, almost a foregone conclusion. Since the first direct Roman influence in the area, that of the consul Pompey in 63 B.C., the worldly Romans and the religious Jews had too little in common to ever live together peacefully. Pompey’s support of one claimant to the Judean throne over his brother led to a long series of incidents in which the ruling power of Rome offended the Jews. For the next century, Rome installed one ruler after another, each loyal to his benefactor to the detriment of the locals. Under the reign of King Herod (43-4 B.c.), foreign culture, especially foreign religious practices, became an everyday and much resented part of Jewish life. Herod’s Hellenistic views, as well as his brutal actions toward anyone he perceived as a threat, provoked an orreaction led by the Pharisee sect-pious legalises with a reverence for the Torah as it applied to all facets of everyday life.
Chalons 20 June 451
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

The population called Huns by Europeans emigrated from Asia, where they were probably called the Hsung-nu of modern China. Their origins are impossible to define accurately, but it is supposed that they were a forerunner of the Mongols and were possibly the reason the first section of the Great Wall of China was built. Unable to expand into the more settled regions of China, the Hsung-nu migrated westward over several centuries, driving other populations before them. Other peoples of similar stock may have populated as far as Finland, and the “barbarian” invasions that aided in toppling the Roman Empire were both racially similar to and driven westward by the Hsung-nu. They spread over a vast area and fought everyone with whom they came in contact, defeating and demanding tribute from tribes south of the Caucasus that were part of the later Persian Empire. After they crossed the Don River in modern Russia in 375, these nomads came to be called “Huns,” and their arrival put pressure on the Alans, Goths, and other eastern European tribes. Through the latter part of the fourth century into the first quarter of the fifth, they conquered territory north of the Danube as far west as modern Germany, with occasional raids against the Eastern Roman Empire’s capital of Constantinople.
Constantinople August 717-15August 718
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Mohammed the Prophet had a public career of 10 years, 622-632. He died without publicly naming a successor, and his close associate Abu Bakr was elected to succeed him. His time in power was only 2 years. Upon his death, Omar reigned as caliph, or deputy, the religious and political head of lslam. For 10 years, Omar oversaw the spread of lslam into Byzantine territory, Persia, Syria, modern Iraq, and Egypt. It spread farther under the caliphate of Othman (644-656), ultimately reaching the Atlantic shore of North Africa, as well as Armenia and Afghanistan in the east. Othman was assassinated, however, and thereafter Islam split into two major factions: the followers of Mohammed’s nephew Ali became the Shi’ites, and the supporters of the Syrian governor Muawiya started the Sunni faction. Muawiya finally came to exercise control by establishing the Umayyad dynasty, which ruled from Damascus between 661 and 750.
Hakatabay November 1274 and June-August 1281
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

In 1259, Kubilai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, established himself as the first monarch of the Yuan dynasty in China. As he was in the process of imposing Mongol rule over all of China, only the crumbling Sung dynasty in southern China remained as yet unconquered. With Mongol hegemony in place over Korea, Kubilai looked at the island nation ofJapan as his next target. In 1268, he sent envoys to theJapanese government, demanding recognition of his suzerainty over Japan. The alternative, Kubilai was clear in pointing out, was war. The Japanese leadership at the time was in the hands of an 18-year-old, Hojo Tokimune. He was head of the bakufu, the military administration that ruled in the name of the emperor. The threat could not be treated as anything but genuine; Japanese contacts in Koreaand ship captains from the Sung ports assured the bakufu of the aggressive Mongol nature.
Trafalgar 21 October I 805
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

After his failed venture in Egypt in 1798, Napoleon managed to land squarely on his feet. He overthrew the ruling body of the French government, the Directory, and established a three-member Consulate, with himself as First Consul. He broke up the alliance of countries arrayed against him, the 2nd Coalition (England, Austria, and Russia), by defeating the Austrians at Marengo in June 1800. Then he faced his greatest enemy, England. Napoleon knew that to make successful war against England he would need both allies and ships. To this end, he attempted forming a coalition of his own, but the Royal Navy’s victory in the Battle of Copenhagen in April 1802 scuttled it. Still, he hoped that by negotiation or conquest he could control the ports of Europe. That would give him, he reasoned, the bases to amass a multinational fleet and at the same time deny the English trade access into the Continent. In the meantime, a naval demonstration toward Egypt should draw the bulk of the English Royal Navy there, giving Napoleon the opportunity to rush an invasion fleet of small craft across the English Channel.
Antietam (Sharpsburg) 17 September 1862
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

After the election of 1860, the prospect of living under Republican President Abraham Lincoln held no appeal for Americans in the Southern states. They viewed him as an abolitionist who would work to end slavery, upon which the economy of the South was largely based. The Southern states had long held views of states’ rights, wherein the federal government in Washington should have little influence over the decisions made at the state level. Starting in mid-December, Southern states followed South Carolina’s lead in seceding from the Union, the ultimate states’ rights action. By early February 1861, seven states had formed the Confederate States of America and elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as their president. This may have proven a viable attempt at independence, but on 12 April 1961 the newly formed Confederate army opened fire on Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. The fort was garrisoned by Union troops, who surrendered after some 38 hours of artillery fire. Until this point, the actions of the Southern states was one of political theory. Once that first shot was fired, however, Lincoln’s decisions were made for him. This was rebellion, and he had no choice but to call for volunteers.
Sedan I September 1870
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Prussia was the dominant state of Germany in the middle 1800s. It rose to prominence mainly through the quality of its military. Ever since its defeat at the hands of Napoleon Bonaparte at Jena and Auerstadt in 1806, the Prussian military had dedicated itself to becoming the best in the world, both to return to the glory days of Frederick rhe Grear and to ensure that no such embarrassment as that at the hands of the French was ever repeated. They developed the world’s first General Staff, promoting excellence in all phases of military activity. The system proved itself in 1866 when Prussia easily defeated their former ally Austria in a I pute over the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein; that war seemed almost a tune-up for a return match with France. Under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Prussia gathered the lesser German states around itself in a North German Confederation and aimed toward the unification of all Germanic principalities into one nation. A war with France would serve as a focus for that German nationalism.
Marne, First Battle (1914) 5-10 September 1914
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

To ask what caused World War I is almost like asking, “Who killed John Kennedy?” The answers are numerous and varied: France’s desire for revenge after its humiliating loss in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871; the alliance system, which created an antagonistic balance of power resulting from France’s desire to gain allies for the inevitable next war with Germany; rampant nationalism, which begat militarism and imperialism; a lack of government leaders after the removal of the chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck, who had been somewhat able to control the erratic and aggressive nature of Kaiser Wilhelm; German desire for a navy that rivaled Britain’s; Germany’s desire to create Mitteleuropa, a central European customs union stretching from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf; the struggles of ethnic groups in the Balkans that involved their respective major-power champions, Austria Hungary and Russia; and Britain’s need for allies in an increasingly hostile world. Any or all of these answers apply.
Brusilov Offensive 4 June-20 September 1916
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

When World War I began on 4 August 1914, German military leaders assumed that the extremely slow Russian mobilization process would keep it out of the war for weeks, if not months. Surprisingly, Russia launched its first offensive against East Prussia within 2 weeks. Poor Russian leadership kept the offensive from succeeding completely, but it made enough progress to frighten the German commander in the area, General Max von Prittwitz. He was replaced by General Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich von Ludendorff, who planned an immediate counterattack. The result was a double envelopment at Tannenberg (26-31 August) that cost the Russians 125,000 men killed, wounded, and captured. Two weeks later, the Russians lost a similar number of men at the battle of Masurian Lakes.
Pearl Harbor 7 December 1941
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Starting in 1931, Japan began aggressively expanding its domain. Its first acquisition was Manchuria, the resource-rich northeastern province of China. Although the League of Nations condemned the aggression, no international action was taken. As the United States and most of the industrialized world was suffering from a severe depression, any nations that might otherwise have acted were too busy with their own problems. Japan declared Manchuria to be the independent state of Manchukuo, under Japanese suzerainty.
Midway 4-6 June 1942
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

After their attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese were successful in all their endeavors to control as much of the western Pacific area and Southeast Asia as possible. They met little effective resistance as they acquired U.S. islands from Wake to the Philippines. British forces at Singapore also put up little resistance to the Japanese invasion there, and the British were threatened by Japanese forces approaching India via Burma. For 6 months, the Japanese were unstoppable, but they met their first check in early May 1942 at the Coral Sea, northeast of Australia. There an attempt to bypass Australian forces and land on the southern coast of New Guinea was turned back by a U.S. fleet in the first naval battle in history in which ships never engaged, only aircraft against ships. Although tactically a draw, the battle proved a strategic defeat for Japan. It stopped the juggernaut.
Normandy 6June 1944
Authors: Davis Paul K
Published: November 2023

Since the autumn of 1940, when Hitler postponed and ultimately abandoned the invasion of Great Britain, Allied forces had been looking forward to the day when they could take the war to the Germans on the Continent. With the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the Nazi declaration of war on the United States in December 1941, those two powers had been working with Britain on the planned assault on Europe. When Prime Minister Winston Churchill met with President Franklin Roosevelt in August 1941 at the Atlantic Conference, they had decided that, if or when the United States got involved in the war and if or when the Japanese got involved, the primary adversary was to be Hitler. U.S. Army Chief of Staff George Marshall proposed a landing in Europe in 1943, but Churchill wanted to postpone that until stronger forces could be amassed. As an alternative, the Americans landed in Morocco and Algeria in November 1942 and drove eastward toward the British, who began driving the German Afrika Korps backward from Egypt at about the same time. By May 1943, all German and Italian forces in North Africa were captured or forced out. This led to subsequent invasions of Sicily in June and Italy in September.
What Sociobiologists Study
Authors: Alcock John
Published: November 2023

When a male tarantula hawk spends hours every day of its short adult life perching alertly on a paloverde tree, ever ready to dash out to meet intruders and challenge them to an elaborate aerial contest, the obvious question is, Why? What’s the point? As noted earlier, sociobiologists find this kind of question intriguing. They wish to understand why organisms like the tarantula hawk come with special attributes that seem designed to achieve particular social goals. What makes the tarantula hawk male especially interesting is the obvious costliness of its actions, the clear survival disadvantages associated with its particular brand of social behavior. Males spend hours and hours on their territories, and yet they almost never encounter females. By the end of a couple of weeks, the males’ wings are faded and worn from the wear and tear of their repeated flights out and back to their perches. In two more weeks, if they survive even that long, the wasps are barely able to fly. Why do it this way? What reproductive benefits come from territorial possession that might counterbalance the costs to survival that come with (defending) the territory?
What Have Sociobiologists Discovered?
Authors: Alcock John
Published: November 2023

For some time now, sociobiologists have been trying to figure out how natural selection might have been responsible for the evolutionary spread or maintenance of particular traits. As sociobiologists have examined social behavior from this perspective, they have uncovered no end of worthy puzzles—complex, apparently well-designed attributes of individuals that seem nevertheless to have major reproductive disadvantages. How could such traits spread or remain in species when the genes associated with their development would seem to have been selected against? These Darwinian questions provide challenges for evolutionary researchers, who gain social rewards from their fellow scientists if they can answer the questions convincingly. In this chapter I provide a few examples of the kinds of Darwinian puzzles that have been solved by sociobiologists working on organisms other than humans. In later chapters we will explore some sociobiological conclusions about our own species.

I claimed earlier that George C. Williams deserves primary credit for the revolution in evolutionary biology that led to the emergence of sociobiology as an active, vibrant discipline. His contributions were partly corrective in the sense of removing group-benefit selection theory as the basis for evolutionary hypotheses while restoring Darwinian individual-level selection to its rightful place of preeminence.
Playing in the Moment: Using Improvisation to Be Believable
Authors: Ostwald David F
Published: November 2023

Improvising is the single most potent technique you can use to improve your believability on stage. It gives you an opportunity to arouse and share your feelings in imaginary situations, to stimulate specific feelings, and to intuitively find the actions that express those feelings. It allows you to practice spontaneously acting and reacting in situations with predetermined circumstances.
“Unruly and Let Loose” Myth, Ideology, and Gender in Song of Solomon
Authors: Awkward Michael
Published: November 2023

IN several respects, Song of Solomon is perhaps the most challenging text that Toni Morrison has yet produced. The interpretive challenges presented by the novel have as their primary source the nature of the author’s appropriation of the myth around which she structures what has been called a tale of Afro-American “genealogical archaeology” (Fabre 105). As Dorothy Lee asserts in her discussion of the epic qualities of Morrison’s text, the author “draws on specific Afro-American legends of Africans who could fly and who used this marvelous ability to escape from slavery in America; that is, literally to transcend bondage” (64). However, Morrison does not simply “draw on” this myth; rather, what she offers in the narrative of Solomon’s mythic flight is a radically transformed version of this legend which suggests the immense, and in many respects injurious, changes that have occurred over the course of the history of blacks in America. Indeed, a careful analysis of the subtle, appropriative nature of Morrison’s mythic figurations (including what is apparently a traditional heroic male act of archaeology−its protagonist Milkman Dead’s “archetypal search for self and for transcendence,” Lee 64) reveals her complex inscription of ideology or, more accurately, ideologies: the Afrocentric and feminist politics that inform Song of Solomon.
Toni Morrison’s Song of Solomon A Blues Song
Authors: Wegs Joyce M
Published: November 2023

For Thos Enteres Ted in Toni Morrison and her work, a valuable side effect of her recent critical and popular success is the rush of interviewers to query her about her interests, themes, and purpose in writing fiction. One of the most valuable interviews is by Thomas LeClair in the New Republic for March 21, 1981. When LeClair asked Morrison how she conceived of her function as a writer, she replied by describing how her writing belongs to the continuing traditions of black communal life: I write what I have recently begun to call village literature, fiction that is really for the village, for the tribe. Peasant literature for my people, which is necessary and legitimate but which also allows me to get in touch with all sorts of people. I think long and carefully about what my novels ought to do. They should clarify roles that have become obscured; they ought to identify those things in the past that are useful and those things that are not; and they ought to give nourishment.
Dead Teachers Rituals of Manhood and Rituals of Reading in Song of Solomon
Authors: Krumholz Linda
Published: November 2023

Iambs Baldwin Argued Thirty Years Ago for the importance of teaching black history in the United States for ie construction of identity both of black and white students. He writes: So where we are now is that a whole country of people believe I’m a “nigger,” and I don't, and the battle’s on! Because if I am not what I’ve been told I am, then it means that you're not what you thought you were either!... What is upsetting this country is a sense of its own identity. If, for example, one managed to change the curriculum in allthe schools so that Negroes learned more about themselves and their real contributions to this culture, you would be liberating not only Negroes, you’d be liberating white people who know nothing about their own history. (8) Baldwin goes on to argue that the sense of identity in the United States is based on myths that have no basis in historical reality. His argument points out the power of pedagogues to control the definitions that shape identity, which today may be described as the perpetuation of hegemonic ideologies of oppression through the educational institutions.
The Reverent Leader
Authors: Woodruff Paul
Published: November 2023

Pericles is no tyrant in Athens. He is a leader of a people who detest tyranny, who follow him freely because they recognize his wisdom and virtue (2.65). But there is a great irony in the story as the historian tells it: These people who hate tyrants have themselves become tyrants. The Athenians have made them- selves masters of an empire by brute force, and Pericles, who led the Athenians to the flowering of their democracy, has now led it to its precarious position as tyrant of an empire.
Phage and the Early Development of Molecular Biology
Authors: Summers William C
Published: November 2023

Molecular biology evolved from multiple origins including the antivitalist biology of the early twentieth century which attempted to explain complex biological phenomena in terms of physical and chemical phenomena (16, 21), the Rockefeller Foundation program, led by physicists and mathematicians who believed the ‘‘human sciences’’ were ripe for deeper understanding based on chemistry and physics (29), research by physicists and chemists who saw life as a challenge to their burgeoning understanding of the fundamental structure of matter (2, c22), and work by a few microbiologists and geneticists who sought better understanding of the natures of genes and microbes (23). Although on one hand profoundly reductionistic, molecular biology eventually drew its boundaries to encompass organizational principles of cells and even organisms. These research pathways took two distinct routes starting in the 1930s. One route employed the new macromolecular chemistry of proteins pioneered by Svedberg, Pauling and like-minded chemists, and X-ray diffraction analyses being developed by the mineralogists and physicists such as the Braggs, father and son, and Astbury and colleagues, mainly in Great Britain. Another route was taken by biologists and some curious physicists who approached complex biological problems with a combination of reductionism and holism.
Classification of Bacteriophages
Authors: Ackermann Hans-W
Published: November 2023

Bacteriophages or ‘‘phages’’ were discovered twice in a short time. The British pathologist Frederick William Twort described in1915 the glassy transformation of ‘‘Micrococcus’’ colonies by an unknown agent. Fe¤lix Hubert d’He¤ relle, a French Canadian then working at the Pasteur Institute of Paris, observed the destruction of Shigella bacteria in broth (5). Contrary to Twort, he clearly recognized the viral nature of this phenomenon and devoted the rest of his scientific career to it. He coined the term ‘‘bacteriophage,’’ devised several techniques still in use, and introduced the phage treatment of infectious diseases. For him, there was only one bacteriophage species with many races: the Bacteriophagum intestinale (6).
ϕX174 et al., the Microviridae
Authors: Fane Bentley A , Brentlinger Karie L , Burch April D , Chen Min , Hafenstein Susan , Moore Erica , Novak, Christopher R , Uchiyama Asako
Published: November 2023

Sometime in the 1920s, a plaque was placed in a test tube labeled #174. It must have had a certain luster. Since then that phage has challenged genetic, biochemical, and biophysical dogmas. From the very beginning, it was unique. It was unusually tiny, readily passing through the smallest of ultrafilters. Sertic and Bulgakov (111) used its size to define a ‘‘race’’: race X (ten). Hence the name became fX174. The first electron micrographs revealed a small, isometric particle without an elaborate, and to some unseemly, tail structure. As the study of molecular biology progressed, the particle refused to behave. Its genome was single-stranded DNA (117), not a double stranded molecule. Although the data used to draw the first genetic maps were accurate, revealing the existence of the overlapping reading frames, the cistrons were arranged in an orderly and linear manner (12). However, when the genome was sequenced (1, 107) the raw data were proved correct. This complex genetic arrangement was so unexpected that many suspected an extraterrestrial origin. As the New York Times reported the theory (127), an advanced race engineered fX174 and disseminated it into the cosmos where it would ‘‘persist until the evolution of intelligent life and finally of investigators interested in the genetics of phage.’’ Attempts were made to find the hidden message in the genome, a holy truth or grail, maybe directions to an inhabited planet; however, none was uncovered. Perhaps the only aspect of fX174 that lends itself to science fiction is its name.
The P2-Like Bacteriophages
Authors: Haggård Ljungquist Elisabeth , Nilsson Anders S
Published: November 2023

Bacteriophage P2 was isolated by G. Bertani, together with two other prophages, from the Lisbonne and Carrère re strain of Escherichia coli (the oldest known lysogen) (8). The three phages were named P1, P2, and P3, based on different plaque morphology, and their partial serological crossreactivity. Phage P1 was later shown by E. Lennox to be a general transducing phage and to belong to a group of phages that differs from P2 in many respects (82) (see chapter 24). Phage P3 has not been studied as extensively as the other two. Since that time, a number of temperate phages that grow on E. coli have been isolated that share some, but not all, characteristics with phage P2. These P2-like phages are similar in traits such as morphology and host range, are serologically unrelated to phage λ and not inducible by UV light. Of these P2-like coliphages P2 and 186 are the best characterized, and they have in addition the capacity to function as helpers for phage/plasmid P4. For a list of other known P2-like E. coli phages, see reviews by Bertani and Bertani (11) and Bertani and Six (12), and for phage/plasmid P4 see chapter 26.
The Satellite Phage P4
Authors: Deho Gianni , Ghisotti Daniela
Published: November 2023

P4, the Satellite Phage, the PlasmidIn the early 1960s Erich Six isolated a temperate bacteriophage, P4, that formed plaques only on Escherichia coli strains lysogenic for P2 or a P2-related phage (90, 91). Before long, it was established that P4 depended on the P2 helper phage for all morphopoietic and lysis ‘‘late’’ functions, and that the head and tail proteins of P4 virions were encoded by P2 (51, 92). Interestingly, the smaller P4 genome, encapsidated into a smaller head (figure 26-1), did not bear any substantial similarity to P2 DNA and was independent of the helper for DNA replication and host lysogenization (68, 91, 92). The functional and structural unrelatedness of the two replicons clearly indicated that P4 was not a defective P2 but an independent entity and the prototype of ‘‘satellite viruses,’’ genetic elements that exploit unrelated viruses for viral propagation.
Yersinia Phages
Authors: Hertwig Stefan , Mikael Skurnik , Appel Bernd
Published: November 2023

The genus Yersinia contains 11 species, of which Yersinia enterocolitica,Yersinia pestis, and Yersinia pseudotubercu-losis are pathogenic for humans and animals (5). While Y. pestis is the causative agent of plague, Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis are mainly enteropathogenic. In comparison with the other pathogenic Yersinia species, Y. enterocolitica is very heterogeneous, comprising pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains which belong to about 70 serogroups. In order to differentiateYersinia strains, a number of phages were isolated and used for typing. Several phage typing sets have been worked out for Y. enterocolitica (4, 30, 38). The sets contain temperate phages isolated from Yersinia strains (37, 39) or phages isolated from sewage (2, 8), whose origin is unknown. Three yersiniophages have been sequenced: phages fA1122, fYeO3-12, and PY54. This chapter is primarily an overview of the properties of those three phages.
The Listeria Bacteriophages
Authors: Loessner Martin J , Calendar Richard
Published: November 2023

Bacterial viruses specific for the genus Listeria were discovered almost 60 years ago (57), and were early reported for their usefulness in phage typing (61) of isolates of the pathogen Listeria monocytogenes (65). In the following years, phage typing of Listeria isolates has proven to be a very useful method, and led to the isolation of more than 400 phages for L. monocytogenes, L. ivanovii, and the nonpathogenic species L. innocua, L. seeligeri, and L. welshimeri (5, 9, 16, 19, 22, 25, 26, 31^33, 48^51, 53, 55, 63). To date, no phages infecting organisms of the species L. grayi have been found. This chapter briefly summarizes our present knowledge on Listeria phages, and gives an overview on their general and particular properties, with respect to both the basic science and the various practical applications. Ultrastructure, Composition, and Taxonomy of Listeria Phages
Mycobacteriophages
Authors: Hatfull Graham F
Published: November 2023

Mycobacteriophages are viruses of the Mycobacteria. The interest in these phages derives in large part from the medical significance and biological idiosyncrasies of their hosts. Mycobacteria are acid-fast staining bacteria with characteristic waxy cell walls that can be readily divided into two groups based on their growth rate: slowgrowers such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis that have a doubling time of 24 hours and fast-growers such as Mycobacterium smegmatis with 3^4 hour doubling times (for reviews see 8, 32) Several mycobacterial species are important human and animal pathogens, with the most notorious being M. tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae, the causative agents of tuberculosis and leprosy, respectively (8). The extent of these diseases is alarming-M. tuberculosis is the leading cause of human mortality from a single infectious disease and the increased prevalence of multiple drug-resistant M. tuberculosis strains greatly complicates its treatment. A study of the mycobacteriophages offers potential for the development of novel methodologies for the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of these diseases as well as revealing interesting biological features of their unusual bacterial hosts (30, 32, 33).
Phage Therapy
Authors: Merril Carl R , Scholl Dean , Adhya Sankar
Published: November 2023

The ability of bacteriophage (phage) to replicate exponentially and lyse pathogenic strains of bacteria suggests that they should play a vital role in our armamentarium for the treatment of infectious diseases. However, in spite of an initial enthusiasm, early clinical applications resulted in a negative shift of opinion concerning the therapeutic potential of phage. There are a number of factors that may have been responsible for this rejection of the use of phage as antibacterial therapeutic agents, particularly in countries that require certification based on the results of efficacy and pharmacokinetic studies in animals and humans. These factors include an initial lack of understanding of the relatively narrow host range of phage and an inability to purify phage preparations from bacteria products and debris. These contaminating materials often include bacterial exoand endotoxins along with bacterial cellular components that tend to inactivate phage preparations when they are stored without further purification (60). Another major factor that affected the development of phage therapy was the successful introduction of antibiotics effective against a broad range of bacterial strains. With such antibiotics physicians could often successfully treat infections even before they determined the causative bacterial strain. The narrow host range of phage made duplication of such a practice questionable at best.
July 27 The Man Who Came to Dinner
Authors: Suskin Steven
Published: November 2023

While preparing to go off to the 7:00 P.M. official opening of the new American Airlines Theatre and The Man Who Came to Dinner, I received an e-mail from the author of one of the most controversial musicals of the 1999-2000 season castigating me for a comment I had made on the Internet about his work. Not castigating me, exactly, but upset by a comparison I’d made between his show and a similar one.
March 15 Design for Living
Authors: Suskin Steven
Published: November 2023

Noel Coward’s 1933 comedy Design for Living is famously about a menage a trois. Or is it, exactly? Act 1: Gilda lives with Otto, a bohemian painter, in squalor in Paris. Leo, their best friend, is a playwright who has just begun to achieve success. While Otto’s away, Leo unexpectedly turns up and immediately lands in Gilda’s bed. Otto is immensely pleased by Leo’s return, until he realizes what has happened. Gilda runs off with Leo.
The Season’s Toll
Authors: Suskin Steven
Published: November 2023

The following people, who worked on Broadway or made an important contribution to the legitimate theatre, died between May 29, 2000, and May 27, 2001. Steve Allen, 78; died October 30, 2000, of a heart attack, in Los Angeles. Influential talk show host and originator of the Tonight Show in 1953. A prolific songwriter, Allen wrote the score for the musical Sophie (based on the life of Sophie Tucker), which ran for eight performances in 1963.
Mixed-Up Shook-Up Girl” (1964)
Authors: Jackson John A
Published: November 2023

In Some Ways, The 1960s Did Not Begin Until 1964. For the most part, the earliest years of the decade were merely an extension of the conventional cold war 1950s of the Eisenhower years. As late as 1963, there was little if any cause to think that radical changes were brewing. But by the end of the year Kennedy was dead at forty-three and the winds of change that brought both excitement and strife to America began to blow. The country’s pop music industry did not escape the coming social upheaval.
“Am I Black Enough for You?’’(1973)
Authors: Jackson John A
Published: November 2023

In 1973, Philadelphia International Records became one of America’s most important record companies just one year after asserting its influence on the pop music industry. The elimination of Philadelphia Intemational’s initial promotional problems helped a great deal, and once the hits began, a snowball effect was created. Whereas, not long ago, Philadelphia International faced difficulty getting its records played on the air, now, said disc jockey Georgie Woods, “If Kenny Gamble came to the studio with a record that sounded like it could be a hit, boom, we put it on the air and played it.”
“Tsop (The Sound of Philadelphia)” (1975)
Authors: Jackson John A
Published: November 2023

By 1974, AMERICA WAS IN A FULL-BLOWN RECESSION. The Dow-Jones average, after plunging 45 percent in less than two years amid the worst economic climate the country had experienced since the Great Depression, bottomed out. Inflation, unemployment, and oil shortages continued to rise. New York City, the financial capital of the country, was on the verge of going broke, and American industry appeared to be in an irreversible decline. There were predictions that the oil-producing countries, or perhaps the Japanese, would soon be able to buy America. The country finally extricated itself from the Vietnam morass, only to have its citizens’ faith in the government shaken to the core by the Watergate scandal. In turn, America did what it usually did in the face of hard times: It danced in the face of its troubles. Given the bleak domestic climate and the fact that America was due for a dance fad (they usually occurred about every ten years; the last one involved the twist), disco was a phenomenon waiting to happen. Stressful times for the American people necessitated active physical releases such as athletics and sex. Disco dancing offered tens of millions of people a sublime blend of the two. As a result, dance clubs called discotheques became extremely popular.
Organizational Plasticity in Sensorimotor and Cognitive Networks
Authors: Dobkin Bruce H
Published: November 2023

Function follows structure. The central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS) nervous system matrix is a rich resource for learning and for retraining. This chapter begins with the structural frame-work of interconnected neural components that contribute to motor control for walking, reaching, and grasping, and to cognition and mood. I then review what we know about cellular mechanisms that may be manipulated by physical, cognitive, and pharmacologic therapies to lessen impairments and disabilities.
Assessment and Outcome Measures for Clinical Trials
Authors: Dobkin Bruce H
Published: November 2023

Is our approach to therapy for an individual patient’s specific disability better than another approach? This question fuels scientific, social, ethical, economic, and political facets of the practices of neurologic rehabilitation. At a time when public health initiatives tend to defer to the marketplace and to consumer choice, disabled people need evidence about rehabilitation practices, not slick advertisements and untestable claims. Measured outcomes in comparison studies must be interpreted in relation to their statistical significance and clinical importance.
Traumatic Brain Injury
Authors: Dobkin Bruce H
Published: November 2023

Patients with serious traumatic brain injury (TBI) test the mettle of clinicians, families, and community health, educational, social, and vocational providers. The rehabilitation team must engage the ebb and flow of a patient’s cognition, motivation, and behavior within the undertow of myriad interacting impairments. The disabilities and residual abilities that follow a moderate to severe TBI differ quite a bit across patients, perhaps more than for any other acute neurologic disease.
Other Central and Peripheral Disorders
Authors: Dobkin Bruce H
Published: November 2023

Inpatient therapy can enable the patient with MS who suffers an exacerbation or the patient with Parkinson’s disease whose mobility deteriorates during an inter current illness to return home. Ideally, a rehabilitation life management plan can be developed for patients whose course is not static. Impairments that increasingly interfere with activities in the home and workplace can be anticipated within the framework of long-term management of chronic diseases.
Introduction
Authors: Hopwood David A
Published: November 2023

When we go for a walk in the woods, or spread compost on our garden, we smell a lovely earthy odor. If we visit the doctor with bronchitis or a septic finger, we will almost certainly be prescribed an antibiotic that will usually cure our symptoms in a few days, or if we are unlucky enough to get tuberculosis (TB) we will be put on a long course of antibiotic treatment. The connection between these topics is the subject of this book: microbes that live in the soil and make most of the antibiotics that are used around the world. These organisms, as well as evoking the outdoors, grow into strikingly beautiful colonies. They carry out amazingly complex processes on a tiny scale. They are among the most beautiful, fascinating, and useful of microbes. The actinomycetes, as these microscopic chemists are called, manufacture antibiotics to help them compete with countless other microbes in the soil for space and food. By an amazing set of molecular switches, they sense the myriad opportunities and threats they meet in the soil and react appropriately. From the human perspective, antibiotic production is their most significant response. The actinomycetes were discovered in the last few decades of the 19th century, but they were a minority interest until streptomycin, the first really effective treatment for TB, was discovered in 1943. It was named after the most important genus of actinomycetes, Streptomyces.
From Chromosome Map to DNA Sequence
Authors: Hopwood David A
Published: November 2023

By the mid-1980s, many questions still remained about the Streptomyces coelicolor chromosome. Was it linear or circular, and how big was it? Many genes had been cloned piecemeal, but how were they arranged on the chromosome, and how did this reflect their functioning? What about all the genes that had not been studied? Fortunately, entirely new methods for analyzing chromosome structure were invented around this time. In 1987, Georges Carle and Maynard Olson at Washington University, St. Louis, and Cassandra Smith and Charles Cantor at Columbia University, New York, discovered how to physically map DNA molecules as large as whole bacterial genomes and eukaryotic chromosomes; it came to be called pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Meanwhile, genetics was undergoing a momentous change with another development, whole genome sequencing, pioneered by Craig Venter at The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) in Rockville, Maryland.
Matters of Interpretation
Authors: Swain Joseph P
Published: November 2023

When one finishes graphing all the individual dimensions, the analysis of a passage’s harmonic rhythm is complete. Example 8-1 shows all the dimensions of harmonic rhythm in Arcangelo Corelli’s Adagio from his “Christmas” Concerto, a movement that has illustrated almost every stage in the development of this analytical method.
Epilogue
Authors: Swain Joseph P
Published: November 2023

The analyses in the previous chapter and the other major analyses show unequivocally that assessments of a passage's harmonic rhythm profit most when made in conjunction with other critical evaluations. Harmonic rhythm rarely determines the shape of a work by itself; rather, it is part of the fabric of musical syntax in polyphonic musical languages. Its tensions and textures contribute to the whole effect without slighting any of the other manifold musical wonders that are rightly prized.
Introduction
Authors: Brody Howard
Published: November 2023

Ivan Ilich, as a result of the illness that will soon end in his death, has been turned into a different person. This is true in a physical sense. If a stranger were given the photograph of Ivan Ilich with his wife and told to look out for that man in the street, he might well pass by today’s Ivan Ilich as not being the same man. Also, Ivan Ilich is different in a psychological sense, as this entire train of morbid analysis shows. The Ivan Ilich who existed before the illness was never given to this sort of introspection and questioning. Later it will occur to the sick Ivan Ilich to wonder whether he has lived his entire life the wrong way, and whether everything he had previously sought in life was empty and trivial; the healthy Ivan Ilich never entertained any such concerns.

Yet, in a different sense, there can be no doubt that Ivan Ilich is the same person, sick or well: “He was the former little Vania with his mummy and daddy, with his brothers Mitia and Volodia, with his toys, with their coachman, with their nanny, and later with Katia, with all the joys, sorrows, and enthusiasms of youth”” (273).
What is Narrative Ethics?
Authors: Brody Howard
Published: November 2023

I paid a visit recently to the home of a retired professor of family practice, B. Lewis Barnett, who had been head of the department in which I did my residency training. He is nationally respected as a leader in the discipline, a wise, “old time country doctor” who nevertheless managed to make a successful transition into academic medicine. The respect in which Dr. Barnett (or “Dr. B.,” as we tended to call him) is held is attested to by one of his regular occupations while in retirement. Nearly every day he receives one or two e-mail messages from former residents asking his advice on medical dilemmas—usually “psychosocial” problems rather than purely technical diagnostic or treatment decisions.