bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Walls of Song
Authors: Reitz-Joosse Bettina
Published: January 2022

Chapter 5 deals with a mythical version of the construction metaphor: the Greek hero Amphion sang a song which bewitched stones to form themselves into the walls of Thebes. In this myth, poetic composition is not only like building, it is building. Literary representations of this myth are used by many Greek and Roman authors to illustrate the creative power of poetry. Statius’s Thebaid, however, offers a different perspective: as the poem’s nefarious war progresses, Amphion’s musical magic and his walls are shown gradually to lose their power. Victorious at the end of the Thebaid is not the mythical founder-poet, but the poetic narrator, who has sung Thebes into destruction. The myth of Amphion thus reveals troubling implications of the construction metaphor for the wholeness and stability of poetic artefacts: what has been built can also be destroyed.
Constructing Romanità
Authors: Reitz-Joosse Bettina
Published: January 2022

The Epilogue shines a spotlight on one particular moment in the reception of Roman constructions: the staging and representation of construction in Fascist Italy (1922–43). Ancient Roman representations of construction have shaped modern conceptions of architecture and ‘Romanness’. Conversely, modern receptions of ancient Roman construction have influenced our image of what ancient construction looked and felt like. As an example, the Epilogue focuses on the transportation and erection of the marble obelisk on the Foro Mussolini (today’s Foro Italico). It considers representations of this process in film, photography, and mass media, but focuses especially on one consciously antiquarian mode of representation: a Fascist Latin text (the Codex fori Mussolini), composed in 1932, which contains a detailed account of the transportation and erection of the obelisk.
Recognizing Extremist Islam in Indonesia
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar
Published: January 2022

This chapter examines Salafabist extremism in the contemporary Indonesian context, employing the case of the well-known Salafabist extremist Aman Abdurrahman, putative leader of the pro-ISIS Jemaah Ansharut Daulah (JAD) terrorist network, as an entry point into the discussion. Arguing that Aman is best understood as a Salafabist extremist ideologue, the chapter, as in the previous cases, teases out the extent to which Aman displays the seven key characteristics of the religious—and in this case Salafabist—extremist, before, as previously, exploring the persons, places, and platforms of the Salafabist ecosystem in Indonesia and beyond that socialized Aman into his extremist beliefs. The chapter concludes by exploring the contemporary relevance of Aman Abdurrahman, arguing that his ideas and influence go well beyond operational direction of terrorist attacks. Indeed, they encourage the worrying wider trend of the “creeping Salafabization” of moderate, progressive Indonesian Islam.
Human-Machine Teams
Authors: Payne Kenneth
Published: January 2022

Humans and AI can collaborate in Human Machine Teams to expand the scope for creative strategy. They already collaborate in creative fields like music, painting and writing. The ways in which the Human Machine Team will affect strategy, for example in escalation, are only beginning to be understood, via experimentation and wargaming. New forms of human machine team may involve neural interfaces, cyborgs or gene editing to produce chimeras. The implications are unclear, but ethically troubling.
City of Illusions
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

Granada is a deceptive city, concealing a layered past and a complex character. The last Muslim capital in Western Europe, over the centuries it has captured hearts and imaginations, inspiring countless myths and legends. Yet its history reveals even more fascinating tales: secrets and follies, victory and failure, poetry and art.
City of Illusions brings together Granada's many stories - the archaeological forger, the renegade French general, the garroted liberal heroine, the Jewish poet who served two Muslim rulers. This colorful cast of characters takes us from the founding eleventh-century dynasty and the building of the Alhambra, through the Reconquista, French occupation and Spanish Civil War, right up to the present day.
Granada's history has long been fought over, rewritten, idealized or buried. This rich, elegant book sets the record straight on a beautiful, elusive city, with all its quirks, mysteries, intrigues and triumphs.
Moriscos
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

This chapter looks at the city following the conversion of the Moriscos up until their eventual expulsion in the late 1560s. After the forced conversions, Granada’s Moriscos saw their way of life gradually outlawed despite the moratorium given by Charles V in exchange for a tax to pay for his new palace at the Alhambra. Early immigrants such as Archbishop Talavera and the Mendoza family had tended to treat the native Moors with respect but later-arriving powerful immigrant Castilians were less accommodating and attempted to eradicate any lingering Moorish elements in Granada. When Philip II’s 1566 pragmatic banned all aspects of Morisco heritage, tensions between the Old and the New Christians arose and these ignited the second Alpujarra war. In the 1570s, tens of thousands of Moriscos were expelled from Granada, causing massive economic collapse and leaving the former great capital a depopulated backwater.
Granada Today
Authors: Rodgers Helen , Cavendish Stephen
Published: January 2022

Since the end of the Franco era, Granada has been conflicted by its own visions of its past. Essentially conservative and at times slow to address the wrongs of the Civil War and subsequent dictatorship, at the same time it has actively promoted its Nasrid past, based on an ideal, to great success in terms of attracting ever more visitors the city. The restoration and expansion of the Albaicin, now, alongside the Alhambra, a UNESCO World Heritage site, the opening, in 2003, of the first officially sanctioned mosque in the city since 1492, and the transition of holidaymakers from hotel-based tourism to the self-catering Airbnb model are among the various controversial developments of recent decades. Tourism has brought jobs; recessions and a pandemic have destroyed these. Yet, much as it has always done, Granada continues to flourish, imperfect yet still undeniably beguiling.
Missing Resilience as Survival
Authors: Lewis Joanna
Published: January 2022

This chapter details the trauma, suffering and loss experienced because of the civil war in Somali. It includes stories of resistance during the Said Baree regime and the sudden shock for civilians when caught up in a devastating campaign by forces from the south against the Somaliland Nationalist Movement. It includes some of the traumatic experiences women remembered going through including fleeing across the desert, imprisonment, life in refugee camps, and arriving in London as a ‘freshy’. The early pressures on single mothers and daughters who had lost their fathers are given prominence.
Where Credit is Due
Authors: Smith Gregory
Published: January 2022

Borrowing is a crucial source of financing for governments all over the world. If they get it wrong, then debt crises can bring progress to a halt. But if it's done right, investment happens and conditions improve. African countries are seeking calmer capital, to raise living standards and give their economies a competitive edge. The African debt landscape has changed radically in the first two decades of the twenty-first century. Since the clean slate of extensive debt relief, states have sought new borrowing opportunities from international capital markets and emerging global powers like China. The new debt composition has increased risk, exacerbated by the coronavirus pandemic: richer countries borrowed at rock-bottom interest rates, while Africa faced an expensive jump in indebtedness. The escalating debt burden has provoked calls by the G20 for suspension of debt payments. But Africa's debt today is highly complex, and owed to a wider range of lenders. A new approach is needed, and could turn crisis into opportunity. Urgent action by both lenders and borrowers can reduce risk, while carefully preserving market access; and smart deployment of private finance can provide the scale of investment needed to achieve development goals and tackle the climate emergency.
Accessing Global Debt Markets
Authors: Smith Gregory
Published: January 2022

The main types of global capital market access have been eurobonds, sukuks, syndicated loans, and foreign investment into local bond markets. As foreign aid promises fell flat, market access became more easily available. The total of outstanding African sovereign eurobonds reached $123 billion at the start of 2021 from twenty issuers, eleven of whom had received HIPC debt relief. The theory behind eurobond borrowing was that the money could be borrowed and then invested. Those investments would increase the size of the economy, so that a larger pool of government revenue and foreign exchange would be available by the time the bond matured.
Risks of Financial Market Debt
Authors: Smith Gregory
Published: January 2022

Although markets can be a useful source of financing, their loyalty is not guaranteed. Sentiment can shift quickly if a sovereign’s policies change, its outlook deteriorates, or even if something goes wrong in another part of the globe. African countries can often find themselves shut out of the markets during a bout of global risk aversion. The strength of market access varies across African sovereigns and can be assessed by looking at credit ratings, bond yields and bond spreads. The positives and negatives of market access need to be carefully weighed.
War-Torn
Authors: Vignal Leïla
Published: January 2022

Syria as we knew it does not exist anymore. However, all conflicts change countries and their societies. Such an obvious statement needs to be unpacked in specific relation to Syria. What has happened, what does it mean, and what comes next? In order to consider the future of Syria, it is crucial to assess not only what has been destroyed, but also how it was destroyed. It is equally vital to address the structural and possibly enduring results of large-scale destruction and displacement. These dynamics are not only at play in Syrian society, but are tearing at the economic fabric and very territorial integrity of the country. If war is a powerful process of human and material destruction, it is equally a powerful process of spatial, social and economic reconfiguration. Nor does it stop at national borders--the unravelling of Syria, and of the idea of Syria, has affected and will continue to affect the entire Middle East. War-Torn explores these transformations and the processes that fuel them. It is an indispensable account throwing light on neglected aspects of the Syrian war, and a much-needed contribution to our understanding of conflicts in the twenty-first century.
Destruction-in-Progress
Authors: Vignal Leïla
Published: January 2022

The chapter analyses the destruction of the urban and material environment in the war. The destruction patterns reveal that destruction was not only a collateral damage of military confrontation. Indeed, it played a full part in the large-scale violence that descended upon Syria. The chapter shows that the Assad regime developed a systematic, although multifaceted, strategy of destruction for its own benefit: the scorched-earth tactics allowed it to regain military control, while large-scale bombardment spread terror among the population. This strategy is paradoxical in that the victory achieved through the destruction of the country and its physical and human resources is necessarily elusive. As such, the strategy of destruction illustrates the blindness of the regime towards the collective well-being of future Syria. In this particular political configuration, destruction has ensured the survival of the regime.
Daily Economic Life in Times of War
Authors: Vignal Leïla
Published: January 2022

The chapter explores the consequences of the destruction of the country on the economic life of Syria and Syrians. It examines different aspects of the Syrian economy in the war. It first shows how what remains of the economy has adapted to the conflict. It then analyses the development of an economy that is directly linked to the war, and explore what is conceptualised as the “economy of passage” which is based on the taxation of the mobility of goods and people. The chapter finally turns to the permanent self-organisation and readjustment that characterise the reproduction of daily economic life for ordinary Syrians in times of war – an economy of survival for the many. It aims to understand how people “cope in” but also “cope with” a new environment marked by conflict.
Reimagining Christianity and Sexual Diversity in Africa
Authors: van Klinken Adriaan
Published: January 2022

Religion is often seen as a conservative and retrogressive force in contemporary Africa. In particular, Christian beliefs and actors are usually depicted as driving the opposition to homosexuality and LGBTI rights in African societies. This book nuances that picture, by drawing attention to discourses emerging in Africa itself that engage with religion, specifically Christianity, in progressive and innovative ways--in support of sexual diversity and the quest for justice for LGBTI people.
The authors show not only that African Christian traditions harbour strong potential for countering conservative anti-LGBTI dynamics; but also that this potential has already begun to be realized, by various thinkers, activists, creative artists and movements across the continent. Their ten case studies document how leading African writers are reimagining Christian thought; how several Christian-inspired groups are transforming religious practice; and how African cultural production creatively appropriates Christian beliefs and symbols to affirm the dignity and rights of LGBTI people. In short, the book explores Christianity as a major resource for a liberating imagination and politics of sexuality and social justice in Africa today.
Foregrounding African agency and progressive religious thought, this highly original intervention counterbalances our knowledge of secular approaches to LGBTI rights in Africa, and powerfully decolonizes queer theory, theology and politics.
Introduction
Authors: van Klinken Adriaan , Chitando Ezra
Published: January 2022

Positioning the book in wider scholarship and debates, this chapter offers a general introduction to the subject of sexuality and Christianity in contemporary Africa. It discusses (1) how sexuality has become a key site of struggle where postcolonial African identity is imagined, negotiated, contested, and transformed; (2) how Christianity is a critical discursive field in which this struggle over sexuality in Africa takes place; (3) how African Christian thought, practice, and creative arts also constitute a site for a progressive re-imagination of sexual diversity in contemporary Africa. The chapter further provides a rationale for the selection of the case studies presented in this book, and acknowledges some limitations. It explains the way in which the book is organized, and introduces each of the main chapters.
Race and Sexuality in a Theology of Ubuntu
Authors: van Klinken Adriaan , Chitando Ezra
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on Desmond Tutu, Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town, South Africa, and his contribution to debates about sexual diversity and Christianity in Africa. It examines how Tutu’s progressive stance on same-sex sexuality gradually developed over the years and is informed by his long-standing resistance against apartheid and his defense of black civil rights in South Africa. It argues that at the heart of both struggles – around race and sexuality – is Tutu’s strong commitment to affirming human diversity and to defending the dignity and rights of all people. The chapter locates this commitment in Tutu’s African black theological thinking that centers around the biblical notion of the Imago Dei (the image of God) and the indigenous notion of ubuntu.
Gender, Sexuality and a Theology of Fruitfulness
Authors: van Klinken Adriaan , Chitando Ezra
Published: January 2022

This chapter focuses on Ghanaian feminist theologian, Mercy Oduyoye, and her contribution to debates about sexual diversity and Christianity in Africa. Profiling Oduyoye as a leading figure in African women’s theology, the chapter discusses her analysis of gender and patriarchy in African religions and cultures, especially in the Christian church. It further reconstructs how Oduyoye came to draw critical connections between patriarchy and misogyny in Africa, on the one hand, and homophobia and heterosexism, on the other hand. Oduyoye’s proposal for an alternative understanding of fruitfulness is important for women as well as sexual minorities confronted by the religio-cultural norm of procreation. The chapter argues that Oduyoye’s African feminist cultural hermeneutics and narrative theology present a model for queer theology in Africa.
The Art of Words
Authors: van Klinken Adriaan , Chitando Ezra
Published: January 2022

In addition to storytelling, poetry has also been adopted by African LGBTQ communities as a creative method to give voice to deeply personal struggles and experiences of trauma, but also to express glimpses of faith, hope and love, and expectations of the future. This chapter focuses on a collection of LGBTQ poetry from across Africa, titled Walking the Tightrope (2016). The chapter examines how selected poems represent and reflect the ambivalent experiences of LGBTQ people with religion, specifically Christianity. These poems engage with religion critically, but also creatively, as through the arts of language LGBTQ writers give sacred meaning to their struggles, signify their lives with religious idiom, reclaim biblical and theological concepts, and give voice to their life experiences. Thus, the chapter foregrounds poetry as a creative method of queer African religious critique as well as reimagination.
Conclusion
Authors: van Klinken Adriaan , Chitando Ezra
Published: January 2022

By means of a conclusion, this chapter addresses some of the objections or concerns some people might have about the idea of Christianity, as a colonial religion, contributing to a postcolonial African queer political imagination. Although acknowledging the problematic history and legacy of Christianity on the continent, especially in relation to sexuality, this conclusion draws the threads from the previous chapters together to outline the contours of an emerging decolonial and queer African Christian imagination. These contours centre around intersectionality, communality, and the relationship between bodies and spirits.
Determining a Purpose and a Focus
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y.
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores the nature of programs and contexts and how problems or needs from within are discovered and addressed. The chapter briefly addresses the idea of data literacy using theory from both the action research and evaluation fields to address a variety of problems. This information will assist the reader with identifying the gap or need and with choosing an approach to explore that gap or need in the reader’s own context. The chapter introduces the logic model, a visual representation of a program, and demonstrates how the logic model can assist with both problem identification and the research approach. The chapter emphasizes the importance of (1) clear problem identification and (2) inclusion of stakeholders. The chapter explains the authors’ positionality with regard to problem identification and the research approach, and it provides vignettes from the field.
Ethical Challenges in Action Research and Evaluation
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y.
Published: January 2022

Many authors have written about ethical issues associated with their and others’ research and evaluations. Some have discussed the unintended consequences of working with participants in their research, whereas others have argued the need for researchers to accept some risk in order to make advances in knowledge. Still others have equated adherence to professional standards in the field as representative of an ethical stance. This chapter addresses ethical considerations ranging from participant respect to institutional review board (IRB) approval. It discusses procedural ethics and practice ethics. The nature of standards in the evaluation and action research field is explored. The chapter explains the nature of IRB as a historical, international, and federal entity designed to guide the ethical treatment of humans within research. The chapter connects the idea of ethics to researchers’ own positionality and includes vignettes.
Interlude
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y.
Published: January 2022

Data is what one collects from participants and/or the setting. Data can be numerical (counts, comparisons, etc.), textual (text-based), picture-/video-/audio-based, or observation-based. Once data is collected to answer a study or examination question, researchers have to make sense of it. Only with a rigorous collection of data and analysis of all the data required for the purpose of a study can a determination about merit or worth, or about the usefulness of the procedure, be made. This interlude provides a preparatory discussion of analysis, including what data is and what data is not and what that means for ethical practice and stakeholder inclusion.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y.
Published: January 2022

Qualitative data analysis differs substantially from quantitative data analysis. Qualitative data analysis is often iterative, which means procedures are repeated until there is a sufficient amount of data to provide information about a phenomenon or case. Qualitative data analysis is recursive, which means the analysis is repeated so researchers are immersed in data. Qualitative data analysis is holographic, which means that researchers are responsible and represented in our writing. Qualitative data analysis is critical, which means researchers are constantly reflecting on the process and questioning the outcomes. This chapter explores the process of analyzing and interpreting qualitative data, connecting data analysis to stakeholder inclusion, positionality, and ethics.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y.
Published: January 2022

Many people tend to privilege evidence generated from quantitative research over, for example, qualitative research. Politicians and the public often demand “hard evidence” to support decisions. The descriptor ‘hard” often implies evidence generated by quantitative research. Although quantitative research and methods can provide good evidence, it is important for novice researchers to learn basic elements of quantitative data analysis in order to better understand and interpret their own research or that of others. This chapter discusses how to analyze and interpret quantitative data and connect data analysis to stakeholder inclusion, positionality, and ethics. The chapter provides additional resources for further exploration of quantitative data analysis.
Governing in the Shadows
Authors: Roque Paula Cristina
Published: January 2022

This book traces three decades of securitization in Angola. As a governing strategy during war and peacetime, it muted the aspirations of those on opposing sides, distorted the state, emboldened elites and redefined the identity of Angolans. Through this lens, Paula Cristina Roque provides an original account of Angola's post-conflict state-building.
Securitization protected the interests of President dos Santos, the ruling MPLA party and the elites supporting the regime. Angola's array of security forces and infrastructure provided an alternative to a fully functioning executive, at national, provincial and local levels. The intrusive way in which any form of dissent or activism was crushed allowed the presidency to control the direction and narrative of the post-war years. But the façade of democracy, development and stability hid a very different reality for the majority of Angolans, who remained poor, disenfranchised and marginalized.
Roque explores the inner workings of the intelligence services, army and presidential guard, explaining the trajectory of a survivalist and fearful regime presiding over scarcities and injustices. She shows that the survival of national security and governing elites was the highest priority. The "shadows" held far more power than institutions, and weakened them-widening the gap between government and governed.
The Angolan Armed Forces
Authors: Roque Paula Cristina
Published: January 2022

Chapter 4 traces the trajectory of the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) as a founding pillar of the state, albeit a weakened one, in the post-war years. For decades the army was a vital conduit between the people and the government. As the only remaining institution of the peace process that retained former UNITA officers in leading positions and was racially and ethnically diverse, the FAA would experience several pathologies in peacetime. It would begin a re-edification process aimed at modernizing and transforming the military while remaining a large and inactive army, with a depleted air force and a residual navy. With equipment in disrepair and corruption running deep inside the command structures, the FAA was impacted by the presidency’s manipulation, subverting professionalism, effectiveness, and morale. The chapter briefly discusses the FAA’s foreign deployments in Africa, and ends by analyzing its domestic role in two of the most marginalized and underdeveloped areas: the oil rich enclave of Cabinda and diamond rich Lunda-Norte and Lunda-Sul provinces.
King Abdullah and Nuri al-Maliki
Authors: Harvey Katherine
Published: January 2022

This chapter explores Saudi King Abdullah’s perception that Nuri al-Maliki, a Shia Islamist who became prime minister of Iraq in 2006, was an untrustworthy Iranian agent and therefore an enemy to Saudi Arabia. However, in contrast to Abdullah’s perception, an examination of Maliki’s background, as conducted in this chapter, demonstrates that he had never been particularly close to the Iranian regime. In fact, Zalmay Khalilzad, then the U.S. ambassador in Iraq, had decided to support Maliki’s bid for the premiership because, of the viable candidates, he had assessed that Maliki was the least susceptible to Iranian influence. Moreover, as a condition of his support, Khalilzad had obtained a promise from Maliki that as prime minister he would engage with Saudi Arabia. Maliki, for his part, wanted to engage with Saudi Arabia to reintegrate Iraq into the Arab fold and help quell Iraq’s sectarian conflict. Thus, on his first trip abroad as premier, Maliki traveled to the kingdom. The outcome of Maliki’s trip is closely examined in this chapter.
Saudi Arabia Shuns Iraq
Authors: Harvey Katherine
Published: January 2022

Constructivists argue that enmity often becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy: when one actor casts another into the role of an enemy, the second actor, feeling threatened by the first, is forced to mirror back this representation, creating a relationship riven by conflict. In 2007 and 2008, King Abdullah categorically refused to engage with Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki or his government – Abdullah thereby rejected continual outreach by the Iraqis, as well as the counsel of the Bush administration, his own senior foreign policy advisers, and other Arab leaders who themselves began to engage with Iraq at this time. In shunning Maliki so absolutely, Abdullah cast the Iraqi prime minister into the role of an enemy. This chapter explores Maliki’s perception of having been cast into this role, examining the sense of threat he perceived from the Saudis. Furthermore, the chapter demonstrates that Maliki took a significant action during this period, which contradicted Abdullah’s image of him as an Iranian agent. In spring 2008, he initiated a confrontation with Iranian-backed Shia militias in Basra and Baghdad, and the success of this campaign was seen as a setback for Iran.
Saudi Arabia and Iraq after the Arab Spring
Authors: Harvey Katherine
Published: January 2022

The self-fulfilling prophecy whereby Saudi Arabia pushed Iraq toward Iran, which started to come to fruition following Iraq’s 2010 elections, became more stark after the Arab Spring. For years the Saudis had projected a deep hostility to Iraq’s new Shia-led order. As early as 2007, Maliki had begun to suspect that the Saudis sought to unseat him, and in the aftermath of the Arab Spring and the Syrian uprising, members of the Maliki government came to believe that the Saudis were interfering not only in Syria to undermine the Assad regime, but also in Iraq to undermine them. The result was that Maliki and his government turned to an Iranian regional axis for protection. This chapter argues that, whether or not it was accurate, their perception that Saudi Arabia sought to undermine their government, which pushed them into an Iranian embrace, derived from the Saudis’ hostile attitude to Iraq. The final section of this chapter addresses new developments in the Saudi-Iraq relationship since 2015, following the death of King Abdullah and the ouster of Nuri al-Maliki.
‘Say What the Government Wants and Do What Is Good for Your Family’
Authors: Tufa Fekadu Adugna , Deshingkar Priya , Mengiste Tekalign Ayalew
Published: January 2022

Contemporary dominant literature and media reports on irregular migration portray migrants as victims of human trafficking and smuggling rings. They focus on the criminal aspects of the roles of those who involve in migration facilitation. This chapter challenges such arguments for downplaying the dynamism and social complexity of the organization of migration facilitation. With a visible departure from the existing hegemonic statist arguments, the chapter emphasizes the views from below. It highlights the roles of aspiring migrants, their families, and other social relations such as religious networks. In other words, it presents the active agency of the migrants and their families in planning, finding brokers, financing and playing active part in initialising the smuggling process with a purpose of realising the migrants’ desired future and the wellbeing of their families.
The Drivers of Youth Migration in Addis Ababa
Authors: Sintayehu Firehiwot
Published: January 2022

This chapter investigates the drivers of youth migration from Addis Ababa looking into structural and non-structural issues. It draws on the micro, meso, and macro level explanations in responding to the question: what motivates the youth of Addis Ababa to migrate? Macro theories of migration such as equilibrium and neo-classical theories provide economic justifications to explain migration trends which are found to elucidate the influx of migrants from Addis Ababa. However, in order to broaden our understanding there is a need to further look into social networks as well as the agency of migrants in migration decision making. Social networks serve as a catalyst of migration as the experience of pioneer migrants eases the journey for potential migrants. The chapter also applies the human agency perspectives as they inform individual’s decision whether to migrate or not.
Conclusion
Authors: Gebresenbet Fana , Kefale Asnake
Published: January 2022

The conclusion chapter weaves the major insights presented in each of the chapters. The conceptual discussions presented in the book emphasized the need for the development of a nuanced approaches in the study of migration. The chapter also highlighted the importance of appreciating the agency of migrants, their families and local communities in the assemblage of irregular migration. In addition, the chapter also discussed how youth migration from Ethiopia is related with aspiration and morality at households and grassroots communities. Moreover, the chapter explained such key issues to migration discourse as: understanding of risk by migrants and their families, regulation of irregular migration and impacts of ‘everyday globalization’ on migration.
The Structure of Tort Law
Authors: Jansen Nils
Published: January 2022

This book presents a unified explanatory account of the different grounds of tort liability in German law. It seeks to show that the different liability rules—strict, and fault-based—are united by the fundamental idea of outcome responsibility. The book argues that the modern tendency in German scholarship to consider strict liability and fault liability as different in kind and resting upon different normative foundations is mistaken. It also traces the history of fundamental tort concepts—individual rights, duty, fault—through important stages of their development. The book then uses this historical treatment to illuminate the modern position in German tort law, and European tort law more generally.
Delictual Liability in Roman Law
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy
Published: January 2022

This chapter discusses delictual liability in Roman law. The early Roman law of delict and, in particular, the lex Aquilia with the requirement of iniuria, conformed to the sanction model of liability described in § 1. And quite unlike in the modern law, this was, at first, thoroughly justifiable, since the ancient law was indeed sanction-orientated and not focused upon compensation for a loss. It did not originally aim at the corrective distribution of losses to either individual legal subjects or society as a whole. Rather, the law of delict aimed solely at delimiting individuals' rights in relation to each other and thus at ensuring the actual, as opposed to simply financial, security of people's interests. It served as an avenue of retribution for wrongdoing, not the correction or undoing of loss. The fact that the sanction made reference to the loss suffered was grounded thus in the idea of justly assessing the poena, not in achieving a fair distribution of loss between the parties.
Sanction and Duty, Individual Rights, and Compensation: On the Rebirth of the Roman Law of Delict in Natural Law Discussions
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy
Published: January 2022

This chapter evaluates how natural law has had a long-lasting, and still continuing, effect on the doctrinal understanding of the Roman law of delict. The unlawful act constitutes the basic category of the law of delict, and liability requires the breach of a duty of conduct; the notion of duties of care (Verkehrspflichten) is a clear expression of this. If Christian Thomasius sought to rip off the Aquilian mask of the actio de damno dato, as the Aquilian terminology of iniuria and culpa no longer reflected the reality of the compensatory tort law of his time, this applies all the more to the reformulation of tort law through the natural law doctrine of Christian Wolff. The elevation of the fault principle to axiomatic status was thus not only established in the nineteenth century, but was already in evidence in the natural law discussion of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—the idea of liability for the breach of standards of conduct, and the accompanying fault principle, were necessary elements of the sanction-based system of liability of the dominant natural law literature. At least in theory, therefore, there is no more place for a compensation-oriented distribution of risks and liability: the idea of delimitation of domains of individual freedom has occupied the territory.
Steps towards a Modern Tort Law
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy
Published: January 2022

This chapter assesses how the gemeines Recht tort law system displays extensive similarities to the ancient Roman law, but seems to have little connection to the modern law. The most important of the original Roman law claims were the actio iniuriarum and the actio de dolo, which provided some protection against immoral infliction of economic loss; however, special actions, such as the actio de deictis vel effusis and the actio de pauperie, continued to exist for particular cases of property damage or bodily injury. In legal experience, the shift in understanding of tort law has not been limited to a few exceptional liability rules; it is really a shift which has also occurred within the traditional law of delict. The latter is also generally understood today to be part of a compensatory tort law which, as a whole, is geared towards fair distribution of protected positions and risks of loss between potential injurers and victims. It would be surprising if this development were not accompanied by difficulties within the doctrinal system, as it must ultimately lead to a decoupling of the law of delict from actual duties of conduct, with the result that the injurer's duty to insure could be a liability-grounding argument just as much as a victim's failure to do so could be a reason for denying their claim.
The Structure of Tort Law
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy
Published: January 2022

This chapter explains that the structure of tort law considerations, contrary to a widely held view, provides no reason for a multiple-track systematization of tort law. Indeed, the splitting up of tort law into cause of action groups like delict, strict liability for risk, and sacrifice liability is a product of historical accident. Moreover, the separation of unlawfulness from fault is not convincing so far as unlawfulness, with the dominant doctrinal view, is understood in a conduct-focused way. Such a conception of unlawfulness leads, teleologically, to error because it implies a sanction model of liability. The law of delict is, however, best structured according to a legal-good-oriented model which justifies liability by recourse to considerations which may be decoupled from wrongdoing. The chapter then offers a doctrinal reconstruction of the current tort law, which satisfies the earlier elaborated requirements of normative appropriateness, clear liability rule formulation, and historical linkage. This restatement is restricted to the foundations of tort law, which have been the object of this study.
Introduction
Authors: Hayes Patrick
Published: January 2022

In this period life-writing started to command an unprecedented level of cultural importance. A diverse range of texts, from biographies and memoirs to lyric poems and blogs, exposed human relationships to a new kind of public scrutiny, helping to challenge and revise longstanding imbalances of power. Yet while it was deeply implicated in the wider social process, it is a mistake to think of life-writing as having a merely supplementary role to the various kinds of moral and political discourse on the self that emerged in this period. Here I argue for the potential for literary inventiveness within life-writing. Throughout this book, I explain, there is an emphasis on how the most compelling texts have the power to revise and recreate, rather than merely reflect, the forms of identity that became most popularly affirmed.
Autoethnography
Authors: Hayes Patrick
Published: January 2022

The multilingualism of postcolonial life-writing brought new attention to how the self is situated within and between wider cultural frameworks not necessarily of one’s choosing, and a much sharper understanding of the relationship between language, identity and power. Yet at the same time, as various critics have been quick to observe, to emphasise non-translatable cultural differences is also to risk commodifying identity in a way that underlines (rather than transforms) historical legacies. This chapter explores the intricate and wide-ranging debates about language and identity that took place in this period between such figures as Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, Kamau Brathwaite, Grace Nichols, Wole Soyinka, Sally Morgan, Michelle Cliff, Daljit Nagra, Derek Walcott, V. S. Naipaul, and Arvind Krishna Mehrotra.
Why Should I Pay? A Cognitive Theory of Tax Morale
Authors: Steinmo Sven , D’Attoma John
Published: January 2022

Chapter 1 presents our theoretical framework. We put forward what we call a “Reasonable Choice” approach. Reasonable Choice observes that human beings are social animals. Instead of seeing human decisions as simply a product of utility maximizing autonomous individuals, we argue that humans are driven by multiple motivations. First, self-interest is clearly one of these motivations, but we show that how people define their “self”-interest is embedded in the institutional context in which those decisions are made. Secondly, humans have profound needs to be part of a group. Therefore, they are strongly motivated to act in accord with the dominant social norms in their society. Finally, values matter. People internalize values which can also structure the choices they make. Taken together, we argue that these three variables go a long way to explaining how and why people comply with social rules and pay their taxes.
Kalecki’s Monetary Theory before the Second World War
Authors: Toporowski Jan
Published: January 2022

The starting point of Kalecki’s monetary theory is not the abstract properties or functions of money, or the suppliers of that money, whether bankers or the state, but the possession of money by capitalists or firms. This chapter examines Kalecki’s pre-war monetary analysis. In his business cycle theory he put forward for the first time his idea that, from the point of view of the economy as a whole, investment finances itself, because investment raises the circulation of already existing money held by businesses in the economy. Investment merely redistributes that money as profits among those businesses. Investment is limited by the liquidity that enterprises possess. External finance, in the form of bank borrowing, incurs financial risk and requires higher rates of interest as that borrowing rises.
The Wartime Fragments II
Authors: Toporowski Jan
Published: January 2022

Working on government finance during the Second World War, Kalecki addressed the question of how the government can manage a rapidly growing debt. This should cause no problem because the money from government expenditure ended up in the bank accounts of capitalist businesses, so the problem of financing that expenditure is reduced to the technical one of taking that money through taxation on profits and capital to finance government borrowing. Kalecki also criticized Pigou’s attempt to resolve the problem of unemployment by price and wage deflation, pointing out that downward movements in prices raise the real value of business debt, and thereby reinforced lower production and investment.
The Monetary Consequences of Financing Full Employment in an Open Economy
Authors: Toporowski Jan
Published: January 2022

Early on, Kalecki recognized that moving to full employment may not always be compatible with full employment, and efforts to balance trade impart deflationary pressures to the world economy. In discussing the Keynes and White Plans for Bretton Woods, Kalecki emphasized the need not only to have adequate reserves in the system to facilitate international payments, but also to have mechanisms directing imports in surplus countries towards deficit countries, and special arrangements to allow developing to industrialize without trade constraints. These considerations were explored with Ernst Schumacher and Thomas Balogh. After the war, Kalecki stressed the importance of long-term loans to support industrialization and trade imbalances.
Capitalist Money
Authors: Toporowski Jan
Published: January 2022

The chapter outlines the fundamental principles of Kalecki’s monetary economics. These are that in a capitalist economy, money belongs ultimately to capitalists, to whom it reverts when workers consume, and the function of the price system is to distribute the resulting accumulations of money among capitalists. For individual capitalists money originates through production and exchange, but also through the credit creation of banks. Additional money is not necessary to finance economic growth or investment, since these can be accommodated by an increase in the velocity of circulation of money. Money is therefore endogenous to the system, if not to individual capitalists. The function of fiscal policy and debt management is to recycle money from idle balances into circulation in the real economy, or to stabilize money holdings.
Non-Binding Instruments in International Humanitarian Law
Authors: Crawford Emily
Published: January 2022

This chapter will examine similar instruments and documents that have been adopted to guide practice, but that are dissimilar to the instruments discussed in previous chapters, either because they are directed only at very specific non-State entities (such as private military and security companies, or armed non-State groups), or because they have originated from civil society organisations, like the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). These instruments include the ICRC Study into Customary International Humanitarian Law, the International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers, the ICRC’s Interpretive Guidance on Direct Participation in Hostilities, and Geneva Call’s Deeds of Commitment.
The Benefits of Soft Law in International Humanitarian Law
Authors: Crawford Emily
Published: January 2022

This chapter will explore why there has been a turn to non-binding norms in international law more generally, and international humanitarian law (IHL) specifically, to see if common motivations can be found. The statements of purpose behind the adoption of the various manuals, codes of conduct, and other non-binding norms will thus be examined, to ascertain whether any common reasoning underpins the adoption of such instruments and documents. This chapter will do this by looking only to the primary documentation of the instruments themselves—i.e., only the officially released document containing the instrument. The discussion of these documents will be framed by a discussion and analysis of theories of soft law compliance, looking at why other branches of international law—such as economic law and environmental law—have embraced non-binding norms. Does the theory of why soft law norms are created match the practice of creating soft law norms? This theoretical analysis of why soft law norms are adopted, coupled with the practical examination of why particular IHL non-binding norms have been developed, will set the parameters for the discussion and analysis that will take place in the remainder of the book.
Under Siege
Authors: Pettitt Clare
Published: January 2022

Chapter 5 moves back to the Continent of Europe to find Margaret Fuller and Arthur Clough both locked down in the siege of Rome. This chapter examines the writing that they produced under siege conditions and explores the differently gendered routes by which they both arrived at a ‘serial-epistolary’ form. Clough’s modern verse epistle on the fall of a Roman Republic in 1849, Amours de Voyage, knowingly echoes Horace’s Epistles. Fuller’s letters to the New York Tribune newspaper joined a Romantic epistolary tradition which allowed women writers to write about politics. Both writers produced experimental work which was very modern in its hyperconsciousness of its own provisionality. The chapter ends by following Clough to America where, at Emerson’s suggestion, he emigrated in 1852. Clough’s enthusiasm for an idea of a transatlantic liberal isopolity is the direct result of the emergence in 1848 of the possibility of ‘serial citizenship’.