bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Free-Agent Performance in Major League Baseball: Do Teams Get What They Expect?
Authors: Ahlstrom David , Si Steven , Kennelly James
Published: August 2016

Under certain conditions, equity and expectancy theories yield opposite predictions. This study examines one such situation. Performance statistics from a sample of 172 Major League Baseball free agents were collected for the 2 years before and 1 year after each player's free agency filing. Equity theory suggests that performance decrements will occur when players perceive they are undercompensated in their free-agent year. In contrast, expectancy theory suggests that players' performance will be superior when they are up for new contracts. During the 1st year of a free-agent player's new contract, equity theory predicts that his performance will be superior, whereas expectancy theory predicts that it will be lower. Free agents' performance tended to decline after they signed contracts with new teams. This study suggests that if Major League Baseball teams pay free agents based on free-agent-year performance, they might not be satisfied with the results.
Policy Harmonization: The Example of Global Antidoping Policy
Authors: Houlihan Barrie
Published: August 2016

The article provides an analysis of the transition of antidoping policy from a series of relatively discrete processes, confined to individual sports, events, or countries, to a global policy that comprises a complex network of relationships involving governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Regime theory is used to examine the nature of the policy process at the international level, focusing particularly on the difficulties of defining the objective of harmonization and of achieving compliance. The characteristics of the regime are identified, and issues of resource dependence, capacity building, verification of compliance, and the increasing centrality of government to policy implementation are examined. Despite the constant risk of defection and the tensions within the regime, the conclusion is drawn that the regime should not be deemed ineffective. Increasing effectiveness, however, is likely to occur at the cost of progressive marginalization of sports organizations.
The Cultural Significance of Athletics in U.S. Higher Education
Authors: Beyer Janice M. , Hannah David R.
Published: August 2016

Critics of intercollegiate athletics in the U.S. have identified many negative consequences for universities, individual players, students, and other fans. In this paper, we take a cultural perspective to explore both the positive and negative consequences of college athletics. First, we show how athletics function as cultural forms that carry cultural meanings and argue that many of the meanings carried by athletics reflect cultural ideologies of the wider society. We then enumerate and discuss many of the positive and negative consequences that have been attributed to athletics at societal, organizational, group, and individual levels. Finally, we discuss the implications of our analysis for current reforms, arguing that the cultural significance and positive functions of university athletics represent formidable barriers to reform.
Context Receptivity: Innovation in an Amateur Sport Organization
Authors: Caza Arran
Published: August 2016

The Amateur Boxing Association (ABA) is a Canadian provincial sport organization. Recently, the ABA has attempted many innovations in response to strong pressure for change. The success of these attempts has been mixed. This study uses Pettigrew, Ferlie and McKee's (1992) metaphor of context receptivity to explain this outcome variability. Context receptivity is a process-oriented perspective on organizational change behavior. This research is a qualitative, ethnographic case study focussing on two particular ABA innovations. One innovation failed; the other succeeded. These results are consistent with the expectations of context receptivity, which is a useful framework for understanding change outcomes in sport organizations.
Women and Sport in the 1990s: Reflections on “Embracing Stars, Ignoring Players“
Authors: Spencer Nancy E. , McClung Lisa R.
Published: August 2016

Numerous scholars have assessed the status of women in sport during the last decade of the 20th century (Acosta & Carpenter, 2000; Andrews, 1998; Borcila, 2000; Cole, 2000; Eastman & Billings, 1999; McDonald, 1999; Starr & Brant, 1999). Perhaps the nineties can be best characterized by the familiar Dickens adage that “it was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” At a time when the 1999 U.S. Women's soccer team captured the World Cup and the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) enjoyed increasing popularity, it seemed that women's sports were never more visible. So, how could this be the worst of times? While women now receive heretofore-unprecedented coverage, evidence suggests that certain images continue to be privileged over others. In this paper, we assess the current status of women in sport in light of an article that appeared on the subject a decade earlier.
Economic Impact of a Future College Football Program
Authors: Chang Semoon , Canode Shelia
Published: August 2016

This study is a summary of our report that measured the potential economic impact of a football program that the University of South Alabama was considering developing at the Division 1-A level. In our study, direct expenditures impact is limited to net additional expenditures that are expected to be generated by the new football program. Direct expenditures impact has three components: (a) expenditures by visitors to home games, excluding expenditures made by visiting team athletes, coaches, cheerleaders, band members, and their family members that are likely reciprocated when the home team visits opponents; (b) expenditures by the athletic department on operating the football program from which the amount of ticket sales and concession sales made to county residents is subtracted; and (c) expenditures by increased enrollment including athletes, cheerleaders, band members, and other support group members. The employment impact and the tax impact of the new football program are also presented.
Reconsidering the Relationship between Sensation Seeking and Audience Preferences for Viewing Televised Sports
Authors: McDaniel Stephen R.
Published: August 2016

Some research suggests that males and females differ in terms of their enjoyment from viewing televised sports characterized as either violent combative (e.g., football and hockey), violent aggressive (e.g., basketball and soccer), or stylistic (e.g., figure skating and gymnastics) in nature. However, no theory-based explanation for the above differences has been supported. Zeckerman's (1994) theory of sensation seeking offers face validity in this context, as gender differences have been associated with the personality trait as has the consumption of violent media and contact sports (Krcmar & Green, 1999; Schroth, 1994). A snowball quota sample (n = 305) was employed to investigate adults' (18+) interest in viewing different types of sports telecasts (i.e., combative and stylistic). Four hypotheses were formulated based on the existing literature, with two of them being fully supported and a third receiving limited support. Among the key results, adult respondents' interests in viewing telecasts of combative or stylistic sports differed significantly by gender. In addition, reported interest in watching coverage of violent combative sports was positively related to sensation seeking for both sexes. Meanwhile, interest in viewing stylistic sports on television was a negative function of the trait for females. The theoretical and applied implications of the results are discussed, along with directions for future research in this area.
Managing Program Excellence during Our Transition from Potential to Merit
Authors: Cuneen Jacquelyn
Published: August 2016

Sport management was acknowledged early in its formative years as an academic area with great potential for success in the academy. Due largely to the efforts of members of the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM), sport management quickly became entrenched in academe and is starting to be recognized as an academic area of merit. It is important to manage our overall program excellence as we move from “potential” to “merit” if sport management is to thrive as an academic discipline and profession. It is particularly important to mange our merit since our transition phase occurs amidst many changes and challenges (e.g., the student as consumer; under-representation of National Association for Sport and Physical Education/NASSM Approved Programs; under-recognition of sport management teaching excellence, and diminishing service roles and interests within industry and academe). The purpose of this essay is to posit approaches through which sport management’s educational programs might maintain their well-earned meritorious reputations amid shifting academic and social cultures. This essay is the text of the 2003 Dr. Earle F. Zeigler Lecture presented on May 30 at the 18th Annual Meeting of NASSM in Ithaca, New York.
Dominance in College Football and the Role of Scholarship Restrictions
Authors: Baird Katherine
Published: August 2016

This article examines the relationship between player compensation in college football and competitive balance on the field. It shows that National Collegiate Athletic Association rule changes restricting football-player compensation are not associated with an improvement in football’s competitive balance. Although college football is marginally more balanced than professional sports in any given year, an examination of cumulative records spanning numerous seasons proves college football to be as unbalanced as professional sports. The movement toward reducing player compensation, coincident with an increasing value to player talent, raises issues over how the financial gain from college football talent should be used. The significant degree of talent (and financial) imbalance among college football teams suggests that more attention should be paid to the determinants of talent distribution in college football.
Reconsidering the Use of the Term Student-Athlete in Academic Research
Authors: Staurowsky Ellen J. , Sack Allen L.
Published: August 2016

Although the term student-athlete does not appear in any standard English dictionary, it is routinely used in the United States in reference to athletes who participate in secondary and post-secondary school sport programs. Popular usage of the term student-athlete suggests widespread agreement in the culture and among academics that it is a term with either a favorable meaning or, at the very least, a benign or neutral one. In recent years, however, scholars who have explored the evolution and etymology of the term report that its introduction into the language of sport in the United States was an NCAA tactic in the 1950s to counter negative publicity and political pressure created by its newly instituted athletic scholarship policy. The focus of this research perspective is on the history of the term student-athlete, the propaganda mechanism used to encourage and perpetuate acceptance of the term in the United States, and the reasons why scholars might wish to avoid its use when writing about college and high school sport.
The Status and Future of Sport Management: A Delphi Study
Authors: Costa Carla A.
Published: August 2016

Ongoing debates about appropriate foci and growth of sport management research, application, theory, and training are evidence of the field’s growing pains. These growing pains also occur in other fields in which they function as a means to expand and elaborate the paradigms through which fields of inquiry grow and mature. In this study, a panel of 17 leading sport management scholars from around the globe responded to three iterations of a Delphi questionnaire probing their views about the status and future of the field. Panelists agreed that stronger research, additional cross-disciplinary research, a stronger link between theory and practice, enhanced infrastructure, and improved doctoral training are desirable objectives. They disagreed, however, about the appropriate academic home for sport management, what constitutes quality research, the roles of qualitative vs. quantitative research, and the relative value of basic vs. applied research. The results show that by actively engaging in debates over the issues identified in this study, sport management scholars can explore new ways of perceiving, thinking, and valuing that could enable proficient and constructive development of the field.
The Role of Gender in Leadership Positions in Female Sport Programs in Texas Colleges
Authors: Lovett Dorothy J. , Lowry Carla
Published: August 2016

This study compared the number of sports offered to males and females in Texas colleges (N~ 113) to determine if a gender difference existed among leaders, coaches, and athletic directors of the female sport programs. In addition, predictions of gender for leaders were made based on the 10-year trend that the data covered. The data were collected by surveying annual issues of Sport Guide of High Schools and Colleges—Coaches Directory and revealed there were significantly more sports for males than for females at both the junior and senior college level. At the junior college level the mean for sports in the male programs was M=3.28, and for female programs it was M=2.09, t(9)=22.37, p > .0001. The results at the senior college level were also significant. The mean for sports in male programs at that level was M=5.67, and for females it was M=4.14, t(9)=6.68,p> .0001. There were significantly more males than females in leadership roles in female sport programs. The results of the correlated t test between the means of all positions of leadership held in female sport programs was significant. The mean of the positions held by males in junior colleges was M=90.2, and the mean for females was M=40.3, t(9) = 11.82, P> .0001. The mean of the positions held by males in senior colleges was M= 186.6, while that for females was 128.3, f(9)=6.68, p > .0001. Various causes for the reduction in the number of female coaches and implications of the current trends are discussed.
Using Simple Simulation Models to Manage Sports Services
Authors: Haywood-Farmer John , Sharman Todd , Weinbrecht Markus S.
Published: August 2016

A simple Lotus 1-2-3 model of the flow of golfers through a high-demand championship golf course was developed to help course managers understand the course’s queuing problems better. The nature of the queuing problem, the Lotus 1-2-3 model, and its use in golf course management are discussed. The key to understanding the dynamics of golf is to recognize the similarities (and differences) between golf and assembly lines. Extension of this idea and computer simulation modeling to other recreational services is proposed.
Integrating Quality Circles into College Athletic Departments
Authors: Hunnicutt David
Published: August 2016

A serious problem facing contemporary athletic departments is increasing bureaucratization. Further, many management scholars feel that bureaucracies inhibit human creativity and organizational communication. Ironically, the traits of creativity and communication are the very ingredients that helped athletic departments achieve success. This paper discusses the idea of integrating athletic administration and staff into a unified community of achievers by implementing a Japanese participative management technique known as quality circles into the organization. The paper (a) defines quality circles, (b) gives their origin, (c) presents an overview of quality circles in U.S. industry, (d) points to the need for quality circles in university athletic departments, and (e) discusses the implementation of quality circles into athletic departments.
Toward a Distinctive Sport Management Discipline
Authors: Chalip Laurence
Published: August 2016

The current malaise over sport management’s place and future as an academic discipline provides a useful basis for envisioning the needs and directions for the field’s growth and development. The field’s development requires two complementary streams of research: one that tests the relevance and application of theories derived from other disciplines, and one that is grounded in sport phenomena. The legitimations that sport advocates advance for sport’s place on public agendas are useful starting points for research that is sport focused. The fi ve most common current legitimations for sport are health, salubrious socialization, economic development, community development, and national pride. The value of sport in each case depends on the ways that sport is managed. Factors that facilitate and that inhibit optimization of sport’s contribution to each must be identified and probed. Identifying and probing those factors will be aided by research that confronts popular beliefs about sport, and by research that explores sport’s links to other economic sectors. The resulting research agenda will foster development of a distinctive sport management discipline.
A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Spectator-Based Brand Equity
Authors: Ross Stephen D.
Published: August 2016

Despite the general understanding that spectator sport is a service-oriented product, sport brand equity research has overwhelmingly relied on models pertaining to physical goods and has been slow to acknowledge service marketing principles and the unique characteristics of team sport in understanding this topic. This article proposes a framework for the development of spectator-based brand equity by which the characteristics of spectator sports are recognized through organization, market, and experience-induced antecedents that contribute to spectator-based brand equity. It is suggested that the key components of brand equity for spectator sports consist of brand awareness and brand associations, and the result of these components is revealed in a set of consequences contributing to the value of a sport brand.
Competitive Balance in Team Sports and the Impact of Revenue Sharing
Authors: Kesenne Stefan
Published: August 2016

This article uses economic theory to examine the variables that affect the competitive balance in a professional sports league and the impact of revenue sharing. The generally accepted proposition that revenue sharing does not affect the competitive balance in a profi t-maximizing league has been challenged by many. It is shown that the competitive balance and the impact of revenue sharing not only depend on the relative size of the market of the clubs, but that they are also affected by the objectives of the club owners and the importance to spectators of absolute team quality and uncertainty of outcome. Furthermore, the clubs’ hiring strategies, including the talent supply conditions, turn out to be important elements affecting competitive balance and the impact of revenue sharing.
The Underrepresentation of African Americans in NCAA Division I-A Head Coaching Positions
Authors: Cunningham George B. , Bruening Jennifer E. , Straub Thomas
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine factors that contribute to the under representation of African Americans in head coaching positions. In Study 1, qualitative data were collected from assistant football (n = 41) and men’s basketball (n = 16) coaches to examine why coaches sought head coaching positions, barriers to obtaining such positions, and reasons for leaving the coaching profession. In Study 2, assistant football (n = 259) and men’s basketball coaches (n = 114) completed a questionnaire developed from Study 1. Results indicate that although there were no differences in desire to become a head coach, African Americans, relative to Whites, perceived race and opportunity as limiting their ability to obtain a head coaching position and had greater occupational turnover intentions. Context moderated the latter results, as the effects were stronger for African American football coaches than they were for African American basketball coaches. Results have practical implications for the advancement of African American football coaches into head coaching roles.
Attitudes and Sexual Prejudice in Sport and Physical Activity
Authors: Gill Diane L. , Morrow Ronald G. , Collins Karen E. , Lucey Allison B. , Schultz Allison M.
Published: August 2016

This study focused on attitudes and sexual prejudice as part of a larger project on inclusive practice in sport and physical activity settings. Questionnaires were administered to a large sample of undergraduate students and to selected samples of upper-level preprofessional students and a campus pride group to investigate attitudes toward gays and lesbians, and other minority groups. Attitude scores were in the middle range, with females more positive than males toward gay men. Evaluation Thermometer scores were generally positive, but markedly lower for gay men and lesbians than for other minority groups. Upper-level preprofessional students were more positive than other undergraduates, but still expressed negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. These results confirm persistent sexual prejudice, suggest that attention to sexual minorities is particularly important for effective diversity management, and underscore the need for continuing research and educational programs to enhance cultural competence among sport management professionals and future professionals.
The Value of Public Goods Generated by a National Football League Team
Authors: Johnson Bruce K. , Mondello Michael J. , Whitehead John C.
Published: August 2016

Using the contingent valuation method, this article estimates the value of public goods the National Football League’s Jaguars produce for Jacksonville, Florida, including the value of elevating Jacksonville to “major league” status and the value of improving racial relations. It also estimates the incremental value of public goods potentially produced by a National Basketball Association team in Jacksonville. The present value of public goods created by the Jaguars is $36.5 million or less, far below subsidies provided to attract the Jaguars. For a basketball team, the figure is less than $22.8 million. The results add to the growing body of CVM literature indicating that sport public goods probably cannot justify the large public expenditures on stadiums and arenas.
Athletic Success and Private Giving to Athletic and Academic Programs at NCAA Institutions
Authors: Stinson Jeffrey L. , Howard Dennis R.
Published: August 2016

As both academic and athletic programs have become increasingly reliant on private support, the relationship between academic and athletic fund-raising has drawn increased research attention. The current study seeks to clarify the disparate findings of previous research by using the Voluntary Support of Education database of private support to colleges and universities to examine giving by alumni and nonalumni to academic and athletic programs at institutions participating in NCAA Division I-A football. Linear mixed-model analyses revealed the moderating role of academic reputation on institutional giving. Total giving to schools with the strongest academic reputations was less susceptible to the changing fortunes of athletic teams than total giving to institutions not included in the top tier of academically ranked schools. Although the top-ranked schools appeared immune to the influence of athletic performance, analysis of allocation patterns indicated that an increasing percentage of total dollars donated was directed to athletic programs at all levels of schools.
Evolution and Issue Patterns for Major-Sport-Event Organizing Committees and Their Stakeholders
Authors: Parent Milena M.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to develop a framework of how organizing committees operationally evolve and the types of issues with which they and their stakeholders must deal. Based on a combination of stakeholder theory and issues management, a case study of the 1999 Pan American Games held in Winnipeg, Canada, was built using archival material and interviews. Three major organizing-committee operational modes emerged: planning, implementation, and wrap-up. Issue categories faced by the organizing committee and its stakeholders included politics, visibility, financial, organizing, relationships, operations, sport, infrastructure, human resources, media, interdependence, participation, and legacy. Issue-category prominence depended on the operational mode and organizing-committee member hierarchical level, such that issues became less strategic and broad as one moved through operational modes or down the hierarchy. Issue categories also differed within stakeholder groups, whereas stakeholder interests (material, political, affiliative, informational, and symbolic) differed between stakeholder groups.
Team Performance between Change and Stability: The Case of the Italian ‘Serie A’
Authors: Montanari Fabrizio , Silvestri Giacomo , Gallo Edoardo
Published: August 2016

This article studies the role of stability in team members’ relations as a determinant of performance in the Italian ‘Serie A’ Soccer League. The dataset includes all the players in the 35 teams that have competed in the ‘Serie A’ from the 1994–95 up to the 2002–03 season. The results show that team stability and longevity of team relationships have a positive impact on performance. Moreover, there is weak evidence that team stability is beneficial up to a critical point, after which it might be detrimental. The article discusses these and other findings, and also how these results contribute to the literature on teams.
Moderating and Mediating Effects of Team Identification in Regard to Causal Attributions and Summary Judgments Following a Game Outcome
Authors: Madrigal Robert , Chen Johnny
Published: August 2016

Fans’ causal attributions for a game outcome refer to their assessments of the underlying reasons for why things turned out as they did. We investigate the extent to which team identification moderates fans’ attributional responses to a game outcome so as to produce a self-serving bias that favors the preferred team. Also explored is the ability of team identification to mediate the effect of attributions on the summary judgments of basking in reflected glory (BIRG) and satisfaction with the team’s performance. Consistent with a self-serving bias, we found that highly identified fans were more likely to attribute a winning effort to stable and internal causes than were lowly identified fans. Moreover, the extremity of response between winners and losers was greater among highly identified fans than lowly identified fans. Team identification was also found to mediate the influence of (a) stability on BIRGing and (b) internal control on BIRGing. No such mediation effects were observed in the case of satisfaction. Managerial implications are discussed.
The Role of Web Site Content on Motive and Attitude Change for Sport Events
Authors: Filo Kevin , Funk Daniel C. , Hornby Glen
Published: August 2016

Sport event tourism is a major component of sport related tourism in many countries. Sport event organizations should strive to develop Internet marketing communication that features event information relevant to potential sport tourists. Using the Psychological Continuum Model (PCM) as its theoretical framework, this article presents two studies examining information requirements for sport event Web sites and evaluating the impact of Web site communications on consumer motivation and attitudes toward the event. Study 1 first used an open-ended response listing exercise to identify 15 information themes that should be accessible on a sport event Web site (N = 54) and then demonstrated in a between-subjects experimental design that providing these information themes increased satisfaction with the Web site (N = 40). Study 2 used a within-subjects experimental design to reveal that provision of these information themes had no impact on travel motives, but did increase favorable attitudes toward a sport event and intention to attend the event (N = 39). This research provides evidence that Web site marketing communication does activate attitude change within consumers, as well as empirical support for attitude change within the PCM framework. Findings highlight the potential strategic use of Web site communication for sport event organizers to enhance consumer attitudes toward the event and increase attendance.
Fostering Community Development through Sporting Events Strategies: An Examination of Urban Regime Perceptions1,2
Authors: Misener Laura , Mason Daniel S.
Published: August 2016

This article examines the perceptions of members of urban regimes in three cities: Edmonton, Manchester, and Melbourne, regarding the use sporting events for broadbased community outcomes. In Edmonton, members of the urban regime interviewed did not perceive the sporting events strategy to be directly tied to community development objectives. In Manchester and Melbourne, regime members believed that the use of events for development was uniquely tied to communities and community development goals. In addition, regime members in the latter two cities provided examples of symbolic attempts to foster community around the sporting events strategies. While this study could not reveal whether attempts to meet the needs of local communities were being achieved through the sporting events strategies, it is at least encouraging to note that those who control resources and conceive of, oversee, and implement growth strategies within cities view community development as important to these strategies.
The Lesbian Label as a Component of Women’s Stigmatization in Sport Organizations: An Exploration of Two Health and Kinesiology Departments
Authors: Sartore Melanie , Cunningham George
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this inquiry was to explore the meanings and organizational implications of lesbianism and the lesbian label within the sport organization context. Fourteen faculty members from two health and kinesiology departments were asked how they, their colleagues, and their departments defined, responded to, coped with, and managed the lesbian label. First and foremost, the words of these faculty members identify the lesbian label as a component of a lesbian stigma at both the individual and departmental levels and within the field of health and kinesiology as a whole. The consequences of the stigma, however, varied by department suggesting the importance of departmental culture and atmosphere. Implications of these findings, as they pertain to sport managers, are discussed.
Evaluating Sport Club Board Performance: A Customer Perspective
Authors: McDonald Heath , Sherry Emma
Published: August 2016

When assessing board performance, customers are often overlooked as a stakeholder group. Yet, dissatisfied customers have successfully acted to have boards removed, and we have seen this scenario occur repeatedly among professional sport organizations governed by boards. The purpose of this research was to identify the factors affecting customer perceptions of sport club board performance, and guide organizations in the management of those perceptions. After extensive qualitative research, over 20,000 season ticket holders (STHs) from 14 different professional sport clubs were surveyed. The results suggest that a combination of overt performance measures (e.g., profits) and subjective, nonfinancial measures (e.g., feelings of inclusion) are used by customers to assess sport boards. Overall perceptions of the board directly influence customer satisfaction, and are strongly correlated with on-field performance and customer inclusion, suggesting boards are perceived to have a role to play in both areas. Perceptions of board performance are, therefore, worth managing in a holistic manner, balancing strong financial and club management with a particular emphasis on inclusive practices.
“You’ll Never Walk Alone”—How Loyal Are Soccer Fans to Their Clubs When They Are Struggling Against Relegation?
Authors: Koenigstorfer Joerg , Groeppel-Klein Andrea , Schmitt Marco
Published: August 2016

This article reports results from a longitudinal field study examining the psychological processes underlying soccer fans’ loyalty toward their clubs and fans’ emotional states depending on the seasonal outcome of the clubs. We found that fans’ perceptions of three relationship strength indicators—satisfaction, self-connection, and intimate commitment—and the levels of basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) did not decrease and cutting off reflected failure (CORFing) did not increase when soccer clubs of the German Bundesliga were relegated to a lower division. The levels of BIRGing, self-connection, and intimate commitment in fact increased after this event, producing intense positive, negative, and mixed emotions in fans. The results support the notion that fandom is about expressing identity and attitude to life, sharing intimate details with the club, and standing by it, in both good and bad times. Thus fans and their clubs are strongly bound to each other.
The Economic Benefits of Mega Events: A Myth or a Reality? A Longitudinal Study on the Olympic Games
Authors: Tien Chengli , Lo Huai-Chun , Lin Hsiou-Wei
Published: August 2016

This study concerns research related to mega events, such as the Olympic Games, to determine whether the economic impact of the Olympic Games on the host countries is significant. This study uses two methods, panel data analysis and event study, to test hypotheses based on the data from 15 countries that have hosted 24 summer and winter Olympic Games. The results indicate that the economic impact of the Olympic Games on the host countries is only significant in terms of certain parameters (i.e., gross domestic product performance and unemployment) in the short term. These findings provide decision makers with comprehensive and multidimensional knowledge about the economic impact of hosting a mega event and about whether their objectives can be realized as expected.
Women’s Sport Spectatorship: An Exploration of Men’s Influence
Authors: Farrell Annemarie , Fink Janet S. , Fields Sarah
Published: August 2016

While women are increasingly becoming vested fans of men’s football, baseball, hockey, and basketball, the perceived barriers—sociological, psychological and practical—to watching women’s sports still appear formidable for many female fans. The purpose of this study was to investigate the lack of female consumption of women’s sport through the voices and perspectives of female spectators of men’s sport. Based on interviews with female season ticket holders of men’s collegiate basketball who had not attended women’s basketball games for at least 5 years, the most robust theme to emerge was the profound male influence in the spectator lives of women. This influence was a lifelong phenomenon spanning generations, beginning with grandfathers and brothers and continuing through husbands and sons. Other factors combined with this strong influence to block participants’ consumption of women’s sport. These include a lack of awareness and access to women’s sport and the existence of socializing agents who empasized and prioritized male leisure interests.
Ambush Marketing and the Right of Association: Clamping Down on References to That Big Event with All the Athletes in a Couple of Years
Authors: Scassa Teresa
Published: August 2016

Ambush marketing activities—such as advertisements that obliquely reference a major event—have frustrated major sport event organizers and sponsors for years. Nevertheless, these activities, so long as they stopped short of trademark infringement or false advertising, have been perfectly legal. In the last decade, major sport event organizers such as the International Olympic Committee and the Fédération Internationale de Football Association have pressured national governments to pass legislation prohibiting ambush marketing as a condition of a successful bid to host an event. Such legislation has already been enacted in the United Kingdom, Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand, and the statutes in these jurisdictions reveal an emerging right of association. In this paper, the author surveys the evolution of this right and its key features. She offers a critique of this right, and argues that the need for it has never been properly established, and that the legislation is overly broad, does not reflect an appropriate balancing of interests, and may infringe upon the freedom of expression.
A Structural Model of the Relationships Between Sport Website Quality, E-Satisfaction, and E-Loyalty
Authors: Hur Youngjin , Ko Yong Jae , Valacich Joseph
Published: August 2016

The Internet website has become an effective marketing vehicle for sport organizations. The purpose of this study was to examine theoretical relationships between key variables of online sport consumption behavior such as sport consumers’ perceptions of sport website quality, satisfaction, and behavioral loyalty to the websites. In addition, the mediating effect of e-satisfaction between website quality and e-loyalty was examined. The results of data analyses using structural equation model tests revealed that loyalty to a sport team’s website was more likely to occur as sport fans developed positive perceptions and satisfaction with the website. The results also suggested that consumer e-satisfaction is an important mediating variable between sport website quality and e-loyalty.
The Process of Organizational Identity: What Are the Roles of Social Responsiveness, Organizational Image, and Identification?
Authors: Sartore-Baldwin Melanie L. , Walker Matthew
Published: August 2016

Despite anecdotal claims attesting to the influence that social responsiveness has on the purchase behaviors of consumers, this article examined if a specific initiative could result in such outcomes. We investigated the extent to which the Drive for Diversity (D4D) initiative affected consumers’ perceived image and patronage directed toward NASCAR. This study was partially motivated by the importance of social initiatives in practice to underscore their influence on customer-related outcomes. As such, the findings indicated that the NASCAR’s D4D and the perceived image of the organization are key variables in the model. The results also highlighted the mediating role of image and the moderating role of identification on the proposed relationship. More specifically, the authors found that the socially responsive initiative only moderately influenced consumers’ intentions but when coupled with the image of the organization, this relationship became far more impactful.
Competition: The Heart and Soul of Sport Management
Authors: Shilbury David
Published: August 2016

Understanding competition is central to the task of strategy formulation and implementation and it is the link between competition and strategy that was explored in the 2011 Dr. Earle F. Zeigler Lecture. It was argued that strategy, given its centrality to organizational phenomena, and strategy research in particular, provides rich and diverse competitive contexts with the potential to reveal some of the unique properties of sport management. To ascertain the prevalence of sport-related strategy research, three sport management journals were subject to content analysis to identify published manuscripts related to strategy. Before presenting the results, the Lecture considered competition on and off the field, the origins of competitive behavior in sport management and a brief review of the major research themes in the generic strategic management literature. Results revealed that 20 (2.5%) of the 805 manuscripts published in the three journals were strategy focused. Research themes and contexts were presented as well as a bibliometric analysis of the reference lists of the 20 identified strategy manuscripts. This analysis highlighted the journals that are influencing published sport management strategy-related research. It was concluded that strategy research specific to sport management has been sparse to date, yet the role of strategy formulation is central to the role of management and should also be central to sport management scholarship.
Coping with a Cluttered Marketplace: Athlete Choice of Products to Support Training*
Authors: Newland Brianna L. , Chalip Laurence , Ivy John L.
Published: August 2016

To determine whether athletes are confused about supplementation, this study examines the relative levels of adult runners’ and triathletes’ preferences for postexercise recovery drink attributes (price, fat, taste, scientific evidence, and endorsement by a celebrity athlete), and the ways those preferences segment. It then examines the effect of athlete characteristics on segment and drink choice. Only a plurality of athletes (40.6%) chose a carbohydrate-protein postexercise recovery drink (the optimal choice), despite the fact that they valued scientific evidence highly. Athletes disliked or were indifferent to endorsement by a celebrity athlete, moderately disliked fat, and slightly preferred better tasting products. Cluster analysis of part-worths from conjoint analysis identified six market segments, showing that athletes anchored on one or two product attributes when choosing among alternatives. Multinomial logistic regression revealed that media influence, hours trained, market segment, gender, and the athlete’s sport significantly predicted drink choice, and that segment partially mediated the effect of sport on drink choice. Findings demonstrate confusion among athletes when there are competing products that each claim to support their training.
Exploring Organizational Culture Through Artifacts in a Community Figure Skating Club
Authors: Mills Cathy , Hoeber Larena
Published: August 2016

Although some elements of community sport organizations (CSOs) are welcoming and shared across all members, others may be contested. Organizational culture provides a conceptual lens through which to understand the meaning and experiences associated with CSOs. As the outer layer of organizational culture (Schein, 1985), artifacts can give further insight into participant experiences. The purpose of this study is to examine members’ perceptions of artifacts in a local figure skating club. We used Martin’s (1992, 2002) three perspectives to illuminate integrated, differentiated, and fragmented perspectives of The Club’s organizational culture. Eight skaters and seven adults from a midsize figure skating club in Canada participated in photo-elicited interviews. We found integration in participants’ discussion of the unique figure skating facility, differentiated perspectives of achievement-oriented artifacts, and fragmented perspectives of the skaters’ dressing rooms. Our research demonstrates the importance of examining the meanings associated with artifacts in sport organizations.
Factors Affecting Attendance at Professional Sport Events
Authors: Hansen Hal , Gauthier Roger
Published: August 2016

Forty attendance items comprised a questionnaire using a Likert 5-point scale to describe the relative importance of each factor from the YÍew of the following sample of 117: CFL (8), NFL (28), NHL (21), NBA (23), M1SL (11); American Baseball (14), and National Baseball (12). It was hypothesized that no difference exists between leagues on attendance factors; on factor categories; between winning, moderately winning, and losing teams; and between indoor and outdoor leagues. ANOVA and Tukey tests were used for significant differences. Factor analysis using the principal component model followed by Varimax rotation was applied to the 40 items. The response rate was 46%. Significant differences resulted. Factor analysis derived 10 factor categories. Baseball and the NFL accounted for most of the differences, followed by the MISL. Items generating differences were scheduling, team roster quality, price, forms of entertainment competition, and convenience for fans. This study provides current status, factor categories, and preliminary trends that point to the need for former study with a larger sample.
Proposed Creed and Code of Professional Ethics for the North American Society for Sport Management
Authors: Zeigler Earle F.
Published: August 2016

Explanatory Note: Beginning his term of office, President David Matthews appointed an ad hoc committee to work toward development of a code of professional ethics for the Society. (The Society may eventually wish to make this a standing committee.) Professor Earle Zeigler (Univ. of Western Ontario) was appointed chairperson, and Professors Joy DeSensi (Univ. of Tennessee) and Pat Galasso (Univ. of Windsor) were appointed to this committee as well. This is intended to be a 2-year project, and the present report is considered a draft statement (progress report) to be examined by the Executive Committee in the fall of 1988. This draft report, if tentatively approved, would then be made available to all members through our regular publications in adequate time for foil reaction including recommendations and suggestions for change. The ad hoc Ethics Committee would consider all responses and issue a final report in 1990 for consideration by the Executive Committee and, we hope, subsequent ratification by the membership at its annual business meeting.
Equipment and Facilities in School-Sponsored Sport Programs: A Case Law Analysis
Authors: Gaskin Lynne P.
Published: August 2016

This study determined what the courts have said regarding the condition of equipment and facilities in physical education, athletic, and intramural programs and developed guidelines to assist sport managers. Four trends emerged from the study: (a) In comparison with the 14 equipment cases, the larger number of 60 facility cases is significant, (b) The number of reported cases based on the doctrine of governmental immunity did not decrease through the years, as was anticipated, but remained relatively constant within and across the decades, (c) The number of equipment and facility cases supports the observation that America is becoming an increasingly litigious society. (d) Generally neither age, role, sex of the injured party, nor the sport or activity within which the injury occurred would appear to influence the decision of the court. Court decisions consistently have been based on the presence or absence of the four elements necessary to prove negligence and the legal principle applied. Guidelines were extracted from the cases.
Identifying Those Ready to Make a Voluntary Commitment to Fitness
Authors: Granzin Kent L. , Olsen Janeen E.
Published: August 2016

Using survey data from personal interviews, this study investigated the relationship between voluntary commitment to physical fitness and three categories of predictor variables. Voluntary commitment was explored conceptually and then operationalized as membership in a health club or organized exercise class. The principal findings are as follows: (a) involvement in fitness activities can be usefully considered in terms of voluntary commitment; (b) commitment is empirically related to demographics, attitudes, and both passive and active leisure pursuits; (c) persons who commit to physical fitness programs have the characteristics of youth; (d) persons who commit hold a self-image of fitness and athletic ability, have been influenced by friends on how to spend their time, and have a higher level of self-motivation and mental ability; and (e) persons who make a commitment to formal physical fitness programs are more involved in a variety of active and passive leisure pursuits.