bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Faunal remains on the Ross Ice Shelf in McMurdo Sound
Authors: Holdgate M. W.
Published: October 2009

In February 1902, members of Scott'sDiscoveryexpedition found the remains of a fish 18 in. long on the surface of the “pinnacled ice” near the ice front of the Ross Ice Shelf in McMurdo Sound. In 1903, a party under Wilson found three Nototheniid fishes, sponges, shells, and seaweeds among similar ice on the floating section of the Koettlitz Glacier. The fishes, which were up to 48 in. in length, were all headless. They resembled a specimen caught in a seal blow-hole near theDiscoverywinter quarters, whose head was bitten off by a seal before it could be landed, but whose body weighed 40 Ib. and was 46 in. long. This fish was aNotothenia, close toN. colbeckiBoulenger. In 1911, a party under Taylor found another large headless fish, which may have been as much as 4 ft. long, embedded in the ice of the Lower Koettlitz Glacier some 5 miles from its seaward end, and among the pinnacled ice near the Dailey Islands the same party found corals, shells, sponges, patches of sediment, and about a dozen small fish. The ice in this region was so rich in sponges that it was difficult to get spicule-free ice for cooking.
Further observations on sastrugi, snow dunes and the pattern of surface winds in Antarctica
Authors: Mather K. B.
Published: October 2009

Surface winds are responsible for the two main types of feature observed on the Antarctic plateau: (a) sastrugi, produced by katabatic (gravity) winds, and (b) snow dunes, which are raised by blizzard winds. The two are often associated in the sense that the severest patches of sastrugi seem to be eroded out of dunes deposited by a previous blizzard. However, sastrugi are by no means limited to this; they may occur more or less continuously, merging one into the next over a wide area of plateau.
Some developments in Antarctic whaling, 1962–64
Authors: Bannister J. L.
Published: October 2009

Since Brown (1963) wrote his comprehensive review of Antarctic whaling, the course of events has given 1963 some prominence in the history of this remote industry. Most significant was the fifteenth meeting of the International Whaling Commission, held in London in July, which had as one of its most important agenda items consideration of the reports of the special committee of three experts in population dynamics. This committee had been set up in 1960 to investigate Antarctic stocks, to work with the Commission's Scientific Committee, and to advise on conservation.
Ionic content of Antarctic ice samples
Authors: Angino Ernest E. , Armitage Kenneth B. , Tash Jerry C.
Published: October 2009

During the past few years, interest in the physicochemical properties of ice has expanded considerably (Gorham, 1958; Sugawara, 1961; Coachman, Hemmingsen & Scholander, 1956; Langway, 1962). Little, however, is known of the chemical composition of precipitation in the polar regions or of the chemical composition of different types of ice. Consequently, it is thought that the following information, compiled as a part of a much larger chemical study of several Antarctic lakes, might be of some interest to students of chemical meteorology and to those workers investigating the physical properties of ice.
Electronic components and apparatus for use in polar field operations
Authors: Collins D. H. , Dummer G. W. A. , Evans S.
Published: October 2009

The increasing use of electronic techniques in making measurements in all branches of science has been evident for many years in laboratories, and we must expect the same trend at scientific stations and in field operations in the polar regions. The aim of this and a later article is to provide information about polar conditions for those already familiar with electronic methods in the laboratory, and to call attention to the variation in properties and reliability of components for which allowance should be made in specification and design of electronic apparatus.
Branding Elephant Seals for life-history studies
Authors: Ingham Susan E.
Published: October 2009

In 1949 the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) began a long-term ecological study of the Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina) at HeardIsland. The biologists devised a method of branding seals for individual recognition (Chittleborough and Ealey, 1953) which has been modified only in detail since then (Carrick and Ingham, 1962a). At Heard Island, pups were branded every year until 1953, but the study here came to an end with the closing of the ANARE station in 1955. At Macquarie Island, pups have been branded every year from 1951 to 1965, giving a sample of individuals of known age and known history.
The trapping and study of Polar Bears, Spitsbergen, 1966
Authors: Larsen T.
Published: October 2009

Plans for a long-term study of Polar Bears (Ursus maritimus) in Spitsbergen were initiated in Norway in 1964. The programme is a joint operation between the University of Oslo and Norsk Polarinstitutt. It is divided in two-main projects:

1. Ecological investigations under T. Larsen, Institutt for Marin Biologi Avd A [Institute of Marine Biology AJ], University of Oslo.

2. Physiological investigations under N. A. Øritsland, Zoofysiologisk Institutt [Zoophysiological Institute], University of Oslo.

A third project, ecological and ornithological studies is under M. Norderhaug, Zoologisk Laboratorium [Zoological Laboratory], University of Oslo.

The preliminary plan for the biological programme in Spitsbergen was presented at the First International Scientific Meeting on the Polar Bear in Fairbanks, Alaska, in 1965.
Development of the co-operative movement in northern Canada since 1963
Authors: Sprudzs Aleksandrs
Published: October 2009

The Second Conference of the Arctic Co-operatives was held at Poyungnituk, 19-28 April 1966. The first conference, held three years earlier at Frobisher Bay, had asked the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, which is sponsoring the co-operative development programme in the Canadian north, for assistance in establishing a strong central co-operative marketing agency to develop new markets for the increasing volume of crafts, and to exercise quality control. The Department agreed to discuss this proposal with the Co-operative Union of Canada and the Conseil Canadien de la Cooperation and to prepare a paper outlining its findings in detail. The delegates were to recommend to their co-operatives that they should consider the idea of a central marketing agency.
Education in the Canadian Arctic
Authors: Wattie D. K. F.
Published: October 2009

Children in the Canadian north—the children of hunters and trappers, of miners and prospectors, of bush-pilots and government workers—all attend school together. This year over 8500 pupils are enrolled in the sixty-seven schools of the Northwest Territories and Arctic Quebec comprising some 3600 Eskimo pupils, 1500 Indian pupils and 3400 white and Metis. It is estimated that about 13 per cent of school-age children in the north still do not attend school; these are children whose families live outside the settlements, mainly in the Upper Mackenzie, Nahanni and Central Arctic coast areas. Camp life, however, is swiftly disappearing and a much higher percentage of school-age enrolment is expected within the next few years.
William Penny, 1809–92: Arctic Whaling Master
Authors: Holland Clive A.
Published: October 2009

During the first quarter of the nineteenth century, British Arctic whaling enjoyed a prolonged period of expansion and prosperity. The industry began to grow rapidly after about 1812, and between 1814 and 1817 engaged the largest fleet in its history, an average of nearly 150 ships each year. After 1816, the whalemen embarked on an adventurous programme of geographical expansion, which brought extensive new whaling-grounds within their reach. This enterprise proved highly successful at first, but later brought the industry to the threshold of financial ruin.
Norwegian Antarctic whaling, 1905–68: an historical appraisal
Authors: Tønnessen Joh. N.
Published: October 2009

In the 1860's, Svend Foyn laid the foundation of modern whaling in north Norway. In 1904, whaling was prohibited by the Norwegian Storting because fishermen claimed that it was detrimental to the cod fisheries, and, in the same year, whaling was begun in the Antarctic. Most accounts find a causal connection between the two events: whaling was begun in the one place because it had been prohibited in the other. This was not the case, for none of the whaling companies that were stopped from whaling in north Norway turned straightaway to Antarctic waters. The pioneer in 1904 was a completely new Argentine company, and the first three Norwegian companies to start whaling in the Antarctic, between 1905 and 1907, had never been whaling from north Norway. It has also been said that whalers had over exploited the Norwegian Sea by 1904 and that they had, therefore, to find new whaling grounds. But this is not true, either. From the whaling stations on the Norwegian Sea (excluding Norway), 1 427 whales were killed in 1901, 1 614 in 1902, 1 769 in 1903, 1 921 in 1904, and 2 613 in 1905. There was, therefore, a definite increase in the northern catches in precisely the year that Norwegians started whaling in the south. The reason for the development of whaling in Antarctic waters was neither the prohibition of 1904 nor a decease in the catches in the old northern grounds. The reason lay, in facf, partly in a steep fall in the price of whale oil and partly in a newly awakened global interest in the Antarctic continent and Antarctic waters.
International petroleum and the economic future of Alaska
Authors: Rogers George W.
Published: October 2009

The year 1969 was a watershed in Alaska's history. This was the year when the full extent of the international petroleum industry's invasion became apparent to all Alaskans. Most viewed it as a cause of rejoicing and optimism. Overnight, the State of Alaska had become rich as the industry made bonus payments of over $900 million for oil and gas leases on the North Slope, and the prospects loomed of literally hundreds of millions of dollars of annual royalty and tax payments during the decade to come. The state no longer had to worry about where its money was coming from but could concentrate on spending. Private employment climbed, and all the gold rush legends of quick wealth resumed currency. The magnitude of what the oil developers and promoters had accomplished and what they proposed went beyond anything the most enthusiastic Alaskans had ever dreamed of. No physical barrier and no financial cost seemed too great to hinder a prolonged boom. All that Alaskans had to worry about was how to take their share.
Reindeer ownership in Alaska
Authors: Olson Dean F.
Published: October 2009

Domesticated reindeer are not indigenous to North America. Between the years 1892 and 1902, some 1 280 reindeer were imported into western Alaska from Siberia as a supplemental food item for the Bering Strait Eskimo, a novel attempt to introduce a herding technology among hunting societies. Very little is known about the experiences of Eskimo reindeer herdsmen or about the probable success or failure of this particular approach to the economic and social development of remote Arctic regions.
The manuscript collection of the Scott Polar Research Institute
Authors: Savours Ann
Published: October 2009

The Scott Polar Research Institute possesses a notable collection of manuscripts relating to the polar regions. An appeal through the Press in 1956 resulted in the acquisition of a number of interesting manuscripts which might otherwise have remained unnoticed in store, or been destroyed for want of storage space. The Institute is always anxious to. increase its collection, and is grateful for the gift, or notice of the whereabouts, of any journals, logbooks, letters and other material of polar interest. New accessions are listed in. the annual report of the Scott Polar Research Institute, published in the Polar Record and the Cambridge University Reporter, and are summarized in the Bulletin of the National Register of Archives (London).
Skin diving in polar waters
Authors: Fane Francis D.
Published: October 2009

For some years members of the Underwater Demolition Teams of the United States Navy have been carrying out experiments in skin-diving in Arctic and Antarctic waters, with the object of determining the limits of man's endurance in these conditions. The main military purposes of swimming in polar waters are to assist the escape of ships beset in ice by blasting channels out to open water, and to reconnoitre landing beaches which are protected by ice. Secondary operations include inspection and repair of under-water damage to ships and the recovery of submerged equipment.
Early photographers of the Arctic
Authors: Wamsley Douglas , Barr William
Published: October 2009

By the early 1840s photographers were travelling widely to obtain photographic images of remote and interesting areas. Attempts at photography in the Arctic lagged slightly at the start, but these attempts were no less determined than elsewhere, despite the additional problems that the Arctic environment presented. The first Arctic expedition on which photographic equipment is believed to have been taken was Sir John Franklin's ill-fated expedition of 1845–1848. However, the first Arctic expedition from which photographic images have survived was Sir Edward Belcher's expedition (1852–1854) in search of the missing Franklin expedition; these were calotypes taken by Dr William Domville of HMS Resolute in West Greenland in the spring of 1852, and by Captain Francis Leopold McClintock of HMS Intrepid at Beechey Island in August 1854. This article examines all the expeditions that are believed to have attempted photography in the Arctic from the Franklin expedition to the British Arctic Expedition of 1875–1876, in terms of their equipment, problems, and degree of success. During this period, Arctic expeditions were sufficiently innovative to utilize the latest available technology, and, in many cases, successful results were achieved under difficult circumstances. The results of these early efforts at photography in the Arctic provide an extremely valuable record of the exploration vessels, crews, and equipment, and of Greenlanders and Greenland settlements.
Universals in cognitive theories of language
Authors: Smolensky Paul , Dupoux Emmanuel
Published: October 2009

Generative linguistics' search for linguistic universals (1) is not comparable to the vague explanatory suggestions of the article; (2) clearly merits a more central place than linguistic typology in cognitive science; (3) is fundamentally untouched by the article's empirical arguments; (4) best explains the important facts of linguistic diversity; and (5) illuminates the dominant component of language's “biocultural” nature: biology.
If language is a jungle, why are we all cultivating the same plot?
Authors: Tallerman Maggie
Published: October 2009

Evans & Levinson (E&L) focus on differences between languages at a superficial level, rather than examining common processes. Their emphasis on trivial details conceals uniform design features and universally shared strategies. Lexical category distinctions between nouns and verbs are probably universal. Non-local dependencies are a general property of languages, not merely non-configurational languages. Even the latter class exhibits constituency.
Syntax is more diverse, and evolutionary linguistics is already here
Authors: Croft William
Published: October 2009

Evans & Levinson (E&L) perform a major service for cognitive science. The assumption of Chomskyan generative linguistics – that there are absolute unrestricted universals of grammatical structure – is empirically untenable. However, E&L are too reluctant to abandon word classes and grammatical relations in syntax. Also, a cognitive scientist can already draw on a substantial linguistics literature on variationist, evolutionary models of language.
The best-supported language universals refer to scalar patterns deriving from processing cost
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: October 2009

Conditional universals have always interested linguists more than unrestricted universals, which are often impossible to demonstrate empirically because categories cannot be defined in a cross-linguistically meaningful way. But deep dependencies have not been confirmed by more recent empirical research, and those universals with solid empirical support mostly relate to scalar patterns that can plausibly be related to processing cost.
Universal grammar and mental continuity: Two modern myths
Authors: Penn Derek C. , Holyoak Keith J. , Povinelli Daniel J.
Published: October 2009

In our opinion, the discontinuity between extant human and nonhuman minds is much broader and deeper than most researchers admit. We are happy to report that Evans & Levinson's (E&L's) target article strongly corroborates our unpopular hypothesis, and that the comparative evidence, in turn, bolsters E&L's provocative argument. Both a Universal Grammar and the “mental continuity” between human and nonhuman minds turn out to be modern myths.
Universal grammar is dead
Authors: Tomasello Michael
Published: October 2009

The idea of a biologically evolved, universal grammar with linguistic content is a myth, perpetuated by three spurious explanatory strategies of generative linguists. To make progress in understanding human linguistic competence, cognitive scientists must abandon the idea of an innate universal grammar and instead try to build theories that explain both linguistic universals and diversity and how they emerge.
The universal basis of local linguistic exceptionality
Authors: Harbour Daniel
Published: October 2009

Evans & Levinson (E&L) claim Kiowa number as a prime example of the semantically unexpected, threatening both Universal Grammar and Linguistic Universals. This commentary, besides correcting factual errors, shows that the primitives required for Kiowa also explain two unrelated semantically unexpected patterns and derive two robust Linguistic Universals. Consequently, such apparent exceptionality argues strongly for Universal Grammar and against E&L.
Modelling complex conflicts: formalism or expertise?
Authors: Bennett Peter G.
Published: October 2009

The use of game theory to study international conflict has seen peaks and troughs of enthusiasm, high hopes alternating with disillusionment. A revival in recent years is evidenced by the wide interest aroused by non-technical, accessible applications—notably Axelrod’s work on cooperation. Meanwhile, the increasing use of computers to analyze many types of decision lends credence to the notion that with this new-found analytical power, one can move beyond the simplified models previously on offer. Indeed, several pieces of game-based software are now commercially available. The enthusiastic might claim that we stand on the threshold of an age in which no important decision involving conflict should be made without the backing of powerful, on-line analysis. The even more enthusiastic (of whom more below) are prone to claim that the threshold has already been crossed. However, there remain those for whom such claims cut very little ice, and there Is little consensus amongst theorists as to what sort of practical help can be offered to decision-makers.
Soviet reform and the end of the Cold War: explaining large-scale historical change
Authors: Deudney Daniel , Ikenberry G. John
Published: October 2009

Introduction

After years of retirement in the academy, macro’historical commentary on contemporary events has returned to fashion. Radical domestic changes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and new patterns ofEast’West relations-in short, the collapse of communism and the end othe Cold War’mark the end of an era and present an invitation to international theorizing.1Few would deny that these changes are momentous, but there is little consensus concerning their origins, trajectory, and implications. Explaining these events will necessitate a reweighing of fundamental theoretical issues. Thesize and speed of these changes were largely unexpected,reminding us how primitive our theories really are and encouraging us to broaden our theoretical perspective. To capture these events, theorists must reach across the disciplinary divides of Sovietology, international relations theory political economy, and political sociology.
The character of the history of the philosophy of international relations and the case of Edmund Burke
Authors: Boucher David
Published: October 2009

I doubt whether the history of mankind is yet complete enough, if ever it can be so, to furnish grounds for a sure theory on the internal causes which necessarily affect the fortune of a state. I am far from denying the operation of such causes: but they are infinitely uncertain, and much more obscure, and much more difficult to trace, than the foreign causes that tend to raise, to depress, and sometimes to overwhelm a community.

Edmund Burke
Britain and the new UN agenda: towards global riot control?
Authors: Kostakos Giorgios , Groom A. J. R. , Morphet Sally , Taylor Paul
Published: October 2009

The fading away of the Cold War has allegedly shifted the attention of the Western members of the United Nations, as demonstrated by General Assembly speeches, towards issues like the environment, drugs and terrorism. The new issues moving towards the top of the international security agenda are more elusive than the traditional Peace- and War-related ones; nobody has control of a ‘button’ regarding these issues. An overall assessment of the situation shows that there is a great variety of actors involved, both governmental and non-governmental. It is also increasingly recognized that the East has similar interests to the West. As a result, the East–West divide is being bridged to a significant extent, while the North–South divide is being defined in new ways.
The CSCE: a reassessment of its role in the 1980s
Authors: Birnbaum Karl E. , Peters Ingo
Published: October 2009

At the beginning of the 1990s the European political scene is in a state of rapid transformation. While the East–West conflict may not be over, it is clearly undergoing a fundamental change from an ideologically charged contest to a ‘normal’ competition between major actors in the anarchical international system. This change may well entail the elimination of some of the most dangerous threats to peace, whilst at the same time generating requirements for a new framework of European and East–West security. As the ideological conflict fades, so the bipolar alliance system which, in spite of all its shortcomings, burdens and injustices, provided some measure of stability to Europe, is also about to vanish.
Resolutions and vetoes in the UN Security Council: their relevance and significance
Authors: Morphet Sally
Published: October 2009

Introduction

The aim of this paper is to look at the United Nations Security Council and certain of the 646 resolutions and 232 public vetoes (vetoing 192 draft resolutions) cast between 1946 and the end of 1989, and to discover in what ways both it and they have been legally and politically relevant and significant. Security Council resolutions are, of course, passed by majority vote. This had to be 7 out of 11 votes until the end of 1965 when the Council was enlarged from 11 to 15. Security Council resolutions have had since then to be passed by at least 9 votes: these can only be vetoed by the five Permanent Members (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France and China) if the resolution would otherwise have been passed. By the end of 1989 the veto total for each Permanent Member (the Peoples Republic of China took over the China seat in 1971) was as follows: Soviet Union 114; United States 67; United Kingdom 30; France 18 and China 3.
Rethinking the Pacific
Authors: Segal Gerald
Published: October 2009

Have you noticed how academics specializing in British or American foreign policy are considered generalists while specialists on Chinese or Japanese foreign policy are considered 'mere' practitioners of area studies? Is it not curious when supposed journals of International Relations (like this one) have special numbers on balance of power theory and rarely draw examples from East Asia? This myopic mid-Atlanticism among students of International Relations reaches 'down' to the media world: how many realize that the majority of the troop cuts announced by Mikhail Gorbachev in December 1988 are coming from Asia.
Western Europe's presence in the contemporary international arena
Authors: Allen David , Smith Michael
Published: October 2009

Western Europe's status and impact within the contemporary international arena is a matter of contention and debate, reflecting its often elusive and intangible nature. On the one hand, enthusiasm for the notion of a ‘European foreign policy’ and for the idea that Western Europe can play a constructive role in the world is evident both in academic analysis and in the pronouncements of West European political leaders. On the other, there is often a yawning gap between the promise or the prescription and the reality of European disunity and pluralism. One possible reason for this gap between enthusiasm and reality is that concepts fail us when the discussion turns to Western Europe's international role: the notion of ‘Europe’ or ‘Western Europe’ is often taken to be consubstantial with the European Community, and the notion of a European ‘foreign policy’ carries with it a conceptual framework which is inseparable from the state-centric view of world politics. Thus, the idea of ‘Western Europe’ as an international actor of the conventional state-like kind based on the EC leads inevitably into the analysis of European Political Co-operation as a pro to-foreign policy; it can extend into evaluation of the ‘external relations’ encompassed by the Treaty of Rome; and it may entail a consideration of the potential for further development in the security field by the European members of NATO. At its most ambitious, it might lead to the proposal that these three areas could be combined to produce an integrated, state-like policy mechanism. Although there are few who would explicitly argue that the EC is on the verge of emerging as a ‘European state’, it is the ideal type of a state-based foreign policy which lies behind much contemporary analysis of Western Europe's international status.
1939: the origins of liberal realism
Authors: Hill Christopher
Published: October 2009

1939 was neither one thing nor the other. It was not the last golden year of peace at the end of a period of expansion and confidence, as 1914 had seemed to be, and it was not the start of a dramatic new era, as war had been in 1775 and revolution in 1917. Rather, 1939 was the ante-chamber through which the nations of Europe were slowly ushered into war, and its association with reactive and hesistant policy–making has compounded the sense of determinism. This article will challenge such a perspective in two ways: first it will suggest that the events of 1939 are in themselves rather more significant than is sometimes assumed, and second it will see 1939 and the war which then unstoppably unrolled, as having initiated changes which are still being worked out in the nature and quality of international relationships, as well as major particular developments like the rise of American power and the division of Germany.
Economic diplomacy at the Atlantic Conference II: a reply to Pressnell and Hopkins
Authors: Dobson Alan P.
Published: October 2009

I am flattered that Professor L. S. Pressnell and Sheila V. Hopkins took the time to write a commentary on my ‘Economic Diplomacy at the Atlantic Conference’, which was published in the Review of International Studies in 1984, and am grateful to them for pointing out a number of errors which I made.
The realism of Realism: the state and the study of International Relations
Authors: James Alan
Published: October 2009

On the face of it, the title of this article must look rather odd, especially to any non-specialist who happens to light upon it. For ‘Realism’ surely connotes enterprises and appraisals of a realistic kind, ones which take full account of the facts and constraints of life. Accordingly, it might well be thought clearly superfluous to assert that such things, already identified as realistic, are indeed so.
Morgenthau's theory and practice: a response to Peter Gellman
Authors: Nobel Jaap W.
Published: October 2009

In his lively essay on Hans Morgenthau Peter Gellman points out that the school of realism was essentially ‘an association based upon a common repudiation of unfounded hopes for a new world’. But he cautions that ‘beyond this shared purpose, the diversity of theoretical priorities among “Realists” … limits the utility of realism as a word that can either describe or enlighten’. Certainly, on the nature of power, the ends of politics, the role of morality, the national interest, the meaning of theory itself Morgenthau had his own views. On many of these matters Gellman sets us right. We have here, I believe, a fair account of Morgenthau's views and a profound analysis of his theoretical approach.
On the health of International Relations and the international relations of health
Authors: Thomas Caroline
Published: October 2009

Disease is a transnational phenomenon which pays no heed to territorial state boundaries; yet it rarely features in the discussion of International Relations. It is important that the discipline should address the issue of disease and more broadly, health, not simply to facilitate containment of disease transmission across international borders but also because central notions of justice, equity, efficiency and order are involved.
The balance of power revisited
Authors: Claude Inis L.
Published: October 2009

In 1962 I published Power and International Relations, a book in which I undertook to analyse, criticize, and compare balance of power, collective security, and world government, treating these as the three leading theoretical approaches to the management of power in the global arena. Each of these approaches had its band of adulators and advocates who doubtless found my efforts at critical appraisal offensive. For a young American scholar of that era the adoption of an irreverent attitude toward balance of power was particularly problematic, because that approach figured prominently in the prevailing orthodoxy of Political Realism. It would have been safer to assume, rather than to examine, the merits of balance of power. I gave balance of power, like its two competitors, a mixed review.
The elusive explanation: balance of power ‘theory’ and the origins of World War I
Authors: Gellman Peter
Published: October 2009

Martin Wight once asked why the balance of power ‘has inspired no great political writer to analysis and reflection’?

Looking back in 1923, Winston Churchill wrote:

One rises from the study of the causes of the Great War with a prevailing sense of the defective control of individuals upon world fortunes. It has been well said, ‘there is always more error than design in human affairs’. The limited minds even of the ablest men, their disputed authority, the climate of opinion in which they dwell, their transient and partial contributions to the mighty problem, that problem itself so far beyond their compass, so vast in scale and detail, so changing in its aspect—all this must surely be considered before the complete condemnation of the vanquished or the complete acquittal of the victors can be pronounced.
Hegemonic stability theory: an empirical assessment
Authors: Webb Michael C. , Krasner Stephen D.
Published: October 2009

Hegemonic stability theory, which argues that international economic openness and stability is most likely when there is a single dominant state, is the most prominent approach among American political scientists for explaining patterns of economic relations among the advanced capitalist countries since 1945. It has provided a research programme for scholars, both as a positive guide and as a foil against which to test alternative theoretical explanations.
David Davies: a hunter after peace
Authors: Porter Brian
Published: October 2009

David Davies, or Lord Davies as he became in 1932, was a remarkable man who achieved some remarkable things. In the academic sphere he is perhaps best remembered for his founding of the Chair and Department of International Politics at Aberystwyth, but establishing a new university discipline was only part of a larger vision and concern: that of securing, no less, the peace of the world. Lord Davies was not alone in this, nor in the inter-war period did such an endeavour appear as farfetched and quixotic as it does when viewed from the more sceptical and worldly-wise perspective of the late twentieth century. There were many who harboured similar ideas and ideals, but few had the energy, time and money to do what he did in attempting to translate thoughts and hopes into schemes of positive action.
The English school of international relations: a reply to Sheila Grader
Authors: Wilson Peter
Published: October 2009

There is increasing acceptance among International Relations scholars that there is a group of writers which should be recognized as constituting a distinct school of thought. More often than not this school is called, following Roy E. Jones, the ‘English school’. However, acceptance of such a school is often accompanied by disagreement and confusion as to its definitive or unifying characteristics. In the January 1988 issue of thisReview, Dr Sheila Grader directly confronted this disagreement and confusion by rejecting wholesale the assertion that there is an English school. However, her own assertions and arguments fail to convince. Indeed they serve to cast the matter into deeper obfuscation.
Deterrence
Authors: Reynolds Charles
Published: October 2009

These three books cover the gamut of argument about deterrence, ranging from its politics to its theoretical status and its morality. The authors, while diverse in their professional status, being government 'experts', lawyers, theologians, political scientists and philosophers, all have this in common: they seek to tell us what to do. They attempt to relate theory to practice either to justify instrumental means or goals or to prescribe them. In this sense they are all contributors to the field of strategic reasoning.
Harts J. Morgenthau and the legacy of political realism
Authors: Gellman Peter
Published: October 2009

It is over fifty years since a young scholar named Hans J. Morgenthau sought refuge in the United States, and forty years since the publication of his influential text, Politics Among Nations. Morgenthau's ‘theory’ of political realism figures prominently in the academic study of international relations during these years and shows no sign of disappearing. Many of those scholars who differ markedly from Morgenthau regard it as worthwhile or.at least necessary to respond to his arguments. If perhaps for no other reason than that it is an appealing target, Morgenthau's political realism remains an important subject of evaluation for even its most serious and most severe critics.
The myth of the special case in International Relations
Authors: Jones Roy E.
Published: October 2009

The notion of the sovereign was one response to social disorder; obsession with witchcraft was another. Neither reaction is far distant from us. Not long ago public-spirited men condemned large numbers of innocents on witchcraft charges which they, and in many cases their victims, believed to be true. What was illusory was explained by an elaborate mythology to which rulers, jurists, and academics devoted detailed study. What was not the case was exactly described in learned and reputable volumes. A modern founder of the notion of sovereignty, Bodin, was familiar to many of his contemporaries for the handbook on witchcraft that he published in 1586. Demons and spirits might be a source of disorder. Its cure, in Bodin's view, lay in the creation of a supreme centralized power.
The Foreign Office and political intelligence 1918–1920
Authors: Goldstein Erik
Published: October 2009

In 1918 Harold Nicolson in discussing the problem of political intelligence observed that ‘any forecast of diplomatic development must inevitably deal, not with concentric forces, but with eccentric tendencies; such data as are available emerge only from a mass of heterogeneous phenomena, mutually conflicting, mutually overlapping, and striving each towards some distinct and often incompatible solution’. At the time Nicolson was writing the Foreign Office was embarking upon an early attempt to assist diplomacy through analysing these eccentric tendencies and coordinating the information emanating from the heterogeneous phenomena of foreign affairs. The vehicle for this experiment was the Political Intelligence Department (P.I.D.), and its experience contains elements common to intelligence activity throughout this century: the need for co-ordination which in turn leads to a struggle for control of the co-ordinating body, the suspicion aroused in traditional departments by any group involved in intelligence work, the pressure of the Treasury to cut costs even at the expense of useful intelligence operations, and the struggle between the prime minister's office and the Foreign Office for the control of policy. Since the turn of the century there had been a growing awareness of the need for foreign intelligence, a development which finally resulted in the creation of an espionage service in 1909 (the ancestor of the Secret Intelligence Service). This department, however, concentrated on military related intelligence. During the First World War it became evident, particularly to Lord Hardinge, the Permanent Under-Secretary at the Foreign Office, that while there were numerous sources of political intelligence, no systematic method had been established for collecting and collating this information, verifying it against collateral sources, and synthesizing the result in succinct reports which would be of value to the policy-makers. Military intelligence was clearly the preserve of the Admiralty and the War Office, and the Foreign Office decided to establish that political intelligence fell within its purview. In the process of establishing Foreign Office primacy in this sphere, Hardinge had to fend off attempts by Lord Beaverbrook who as Minister of Information tried to use his personal political clout to control such intelligence. This was, however, only one of several bureaucratic difficulties, the P.I.D. was forced to struggle with. Finally in 1920 the P.I.D. was closed through a combination of financial and bureaucratic pressures. During its brief existence, though, it was able to prove the utility of a centralized body concerned with political intelligence. In some ways it presaged the work of the Joint Intelligence Committee (J.I.C.), which in a more sophisticated and elaborate way is meant, to achieve the same ends.
Old and new diplomacy: a debate revisited
Authors: Sofer Sasson
Published: October 2009

There are two popular claims about diplomacy in the modern history of international relations. According to the first, World War One constituted a decisive turning point in the modern era, marking the emergence of a new diplomacy, distinct in both essence and style from that which had existed previously. The second maintains that diplomacy is in a state of continuous decline. This study proposes that the distinction between old and new diplomacy is simplistic and inaccurate, and that the argument regarding the decline of diplomacy is not a valid one, Raymond Aron's observation that ‘diplomacy, in the traditional sense of the term, functions up to a certain degree between allies, but hardly any longer among enemies, or even between the blocs and the neutral nations’ is only partially correct, and reflects its time of writing at the height of the cold war.
Ethics of coexistence: the international theory of Terry Nardin
Authors: Brown Chris
Published: October 2009

Normative international theory addresses the moral dimension of international society and the logic of ‘ought’ statements in international relations. The traditional content of normative international theory has been dominated by such issues as: the nature of international law and the moral basis of the rights and duties it imposes on states and individuals; the ethics of pacifism and the theory of the 6just war’ the morality of intervention; and, most fundamentally, the nature of the ethical requirements that need to be met if a system of inter-state relations can justly be characterized as an ‘international society’. While such issues have never disappeared from academic study, the dominant modes of international relations theorizing in the 1960s and 1970s—whether realist, neo-realist, pluralist or structuralist—were at one, if for different reasons? in keeping them at the bottom of the agenda paper. And yet, the 1980s has seen a revival of normative international theory. The reasons for this renewal of interest are two-fold. On the one hand, the traditional agenda of normative theory, as outlined above, has never lost its salience in the real world even if unfashionable in academia; since it is in the nature of fashions to change some sort of revival of interest in the old questions was to be expected. But of rather more importance has been the emergence of a new range of normative issues: demands from the ‘south’ for a New International Economic Order have placed the politics of redistribution on the international agenda for the first time—revisionist states in the 1980s no longer make territorial demands but appeal to status quo oriented states to make concessions on the basis of economic justice. In today's world normative statements are as likely to be about the debt crisis as they are to be about the conduct of the Gulf War or the US intervention in Grenada. Mainstream international relations theory has generally refused to ask or answer moral questions, but this strategy of avoidance has not succeeded. Questions such as ‘what ought to be our attitude to poverty in the South?’ or ‘how ought the world' financial system respond to the debt problems of Brazil or Zambia?’ cannot be wished away—as anyone who has taught international political economy will be well aware. Normative theory cannot answer questions like this but it can help each individual to provide his or her own response—and no more important task exists for the discipline of international relations.
Paradigms in conflict: the strategist, the conflict researcher and the peace researcher
Authors: Groom A. J. R.
Published: October 2009

The purpose of this article is to compare three approaches to conflict, those of the ‘strategist’, the ‘conflict researcher’ and the ‘peace researcher’. Strategic studies, our starting point, are usually seen exclusively within the framework of power politics and the manipulation of threat systems. This approach to conflict is clearly of great importance, especially as it is the one most frequently adopted by decision-makers. It is not, however, the only possible approach, and the lineage of each of the three approaches can be traced back to antiquity.
Intercultural communication between Israel and Egypt: deterrence failure before the Six-Day War
Authors: Cohen Raymond
Published: October 2009

Can cultural differences between states affect the chances of success of deterrence strategy? If so, what differences are relevant and how do they influence outcomes? The following paper seeks to suggest some answers to these questions in the context of a discussion of the crisis that preceded the 1967 Arab-Israeli war.
Power politics and war cultures
Authors: Gallie W.B.
Published: October 2009

Much as I admire E. H. Carr's work in the international field, I intend to question the main assumption upon which it is based: namely, that it is power which always has decided and always will decide major political issues. In this respect my argument points in the same direction as two earlier lectures in this series, although my method of approach is different from theirs. My aim is to show with some precision why power, as used in political theorizing, is not only an inadequate but a confusing and even a deceiving notion. And I will begin by indicating the three main areas in which the confusions and deceptions arise.
ANZUS: A blow to Britain's self-esteem
Authors: Williams John
Published: October 2009

It took some time for Labour and Conservative politicians to come to terms with the modest though useful role that Britain performed in Asia after the withdrawal from the Indian sub-continent. Old perceptions and postures were slow to fade aways a fact that was clearly demonstrated by their response to the ANZUS treaty. For three years nostalgia and a desire to remain a global power distorted their assessment of this new pact in the western Pacific. They were far more myopic on this occasion than their military and civilian advisers, who found it easier to adjust to the post-imperial situation.
Strategy, the state and the Weberian legacy
Authors: Lawrence Philip K.
Published: October 2009

This article seeks to take further some themes that were touched on in an exchange of views that the author had with Gerald Segal in the Review in 1985. It aims to widen the scope of the theoretical discussion, to stipulate a more specific target for criticism and to clarify why the issues under scrutiny are so important.
British defence policy: the breakdown of inter-party consensus
Authors: Jones Peter M.
Published: October 2009

In 1983, for almost the first time since the end of the Second World War, defence became a major party political issue at a general election. In that year it was one of the major campaign issues between the political parties and, according to one poll, ranked second only to unemployment as an issue influencing voter behaviour. Indeed, poll evidence indicated that the Conservatives held an unprecedented and overwhelming 54 per cent lead over Labour on the question of British retention of nuclear arms. Furthermore, of those who thought of defecting from the Labour Party, 42 per cent gave defence as the main reason. Such figures as these suggest strongly that by 1983 the inter-party consensus which had governed defence issues since 1945 had broken down, particularly in view of the fact that the question of defence had not been raised as an issue affecting voting intentions in the 1979 election. The breakdown of consensus may thus be judged by the emergence of defence as a party political issue. It might even be said that in 1983 it was an electiondeciding issue, especially when one set of policies could be represented by opponents as being contrary to the continuation of British membership of NATO, the one issue on which all parties were agreed. Defence thus moved from being a peripheral issue to one at the centre stage of the election campaign and it had a major impact on the outcome of the election. However, the.demise of inter-party consensus was not reflected in the electorate as a whole, which chose to continue to support the tried, and trusted policies of the past rather than adopt the radical alternative presented by the Labour Party, If a new consensus is to emerge—and it is beyond the limits of this particular paper to consider whether a consensus in defence policy is desirable—then all parties will have to review their present policies. However, before turning to the reasons for the breakdown, it is instructive to consider the nature of the post-1945 consensus and the origins of its apparent demise.
Optimists and pessimists about nuclear arms
Authors: Keohane Dan
Published: October 2009

Since the end of the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union have engaged in an intense and often deeply hostile contest for predominance in the international system. The dedication by each superpower of its most valued technological, engineering and economic resources first to acquiring and thereafter to ceaselessly enhancing a comprehensive inventory of nuclear arms, is an especially prominent and important manifestation of USA-USSR rivalry.