bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Using a Microscope to Measure the Glue that Holds us Together
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W
Published: March 2018

We think that adhesion molecules hold cells together. This is the "glue" that holds us, and every other multicellular life form on this planet, together. Intriguingly, the atomic force microscope has recently been used to directly measure the binding force of one of these adhesion molecules. We now have direct evidence that adhesion molecules have the physical properties required to hold cells together. This essential new information shows that these molecules can perform the function that have been assigned to them. You'll be delighted to know that this molecule is more than strong enough to do its job!
On LaserJet Printers:
Authors: Peters Klaus-Ruediger
Published: March 2018

LaserJets, like many other printers, print in lines per inch (Ipi). The lines represent in digital image printing lines of pixels. If the pixels are printed squarely than each square area (of a width equal to that of the actual line width) must be printed with a desired amount of ink variations in order to generate the gray levels (see John Russ’ book for a nice illustration on how this is done in a LaserJet). LaserJets and Inkjets use dots as the smallest printed entity.
Tripod Polisher™ Tip #1 Fast Grinding to Optical Transparency on the Second Side
Authors: Walck Scott
Published: March 2018

With the new "L" brackets that are available for the Tripod Polisher™ (South Bay Technology, Inc.) which allow the sample to be easily backlit with room lights, it is relatively easy to grind away most of the material to be removed when polishing the second side of a sample. The following steps outline the procedure that I have been using for rapidly removing material and getting the samples very thin prior to starting the final wedge polishing. The samples that I have been preparing with this technique are approximately 1µm thick, pulsed laser deposited ZnO-WS2 films on SiC substrates.
Long-Lasting Aqueous Mountants for Light Microscopy
Authors: Kiernan John A
Published: March 2018

The requirements for such a medium are that it won't deposit crystals when it evaporates and that it won't be incapable of evaporating. The second condition probably excludes anything containing glycerol. The first is more difficult. A polymer such as gum, polyvinylpyrollidone or gelatin might fiil the bill, especially in the presence of a sugar that can form a syrup that1 s almost solid. Fructose (levulose) has this reputation, and is a good aqueous mountant. Very cheap, but for some reason somewhat too acidic for basic dyes, but can be buffered. Its not 100% predictable. l've had fructose crystallize under coverslips, but you can quickly remove ail the mess with water and then try again.

An old and certain way to make a solid and perhaps permanent aqueous mount is to use a smaller-than-usual coverslip and as little aqueous mountant as possible.
Making Anaglyph Images From SEM Images Using Adobe PhotoShop
Authors: Sherman Debby
Published: March 2018

Three-dimensional images, or anaglyphs, can provide useful information as to height relationships between components of an image. They can also enliven presentations before diverse groups. Imagine a boardroom full of executives having their 5th straight meeting of the day. You are there to present preliminary research information that could lead to a major contract. After requesting that everyone to put on red/blue glasses (not exactly the height of fashion), you proceed to show stereo images of hair samples with obviously different degrees of roughness. Correlation is drawn between the different samples and the nutritional components of the dietary supplement being tested. A picture not only saves a lot of words. It also leaves a lasting image in the minds of the observers that could easily translate into $$$. Besides, it's fun to look at neat 3-D images!
A Response to the Response
Authors: Rittman Barry R J
Published: March 2018

The purpose of my previous article was to identify many of the potential sources of error to be considered when evaluating quantitative data from immunohistochemistry (IHC) and histochemical reactions on sections.

Factors that may affect the evaluation of quantitative IHC data were listed but not necessarily placed in their order or importance. This would be difficult to do, as the relative importance of factors may differ for different antigens and histochemical procedures.

As far as can be determined, there appear to be no definitive articles that unequivocally show that IHC reactions are stoichiometric. In most laboratories, it is impractical to accurately determine section thickness, and furthermore many of the image analysis systems used may be somewhat rudimentary. Accurate determination of section thickness may therefore be somewhat of a moot point.
What is the Dual-Detector FEG SEM, and Why use it?
Authors: Chapman Steve
Published: March 2018

The world of scanning electron microscopy seems to spin in such a way that every four years there is a dramatic step forward. Field emission sources (FEG), developed in the late 1960's, started life as a commercial disaster. In spite of the problems, certain manufacturers persisted with the first really user friendly FEG SEM reaching the market in the early 1980s. The FEG has been developed through the 1990's to be, without doubt, the source for SEU. But other advances in SEM performance have added to the instrument's performance, the most recent dramatic step being the introduction of semi-inlens imaging, a technique based upon 1980's dual detector imaging systems.
A Hint for Fixing Tissues for Better Staining
Authors: Kiernan John A
Published: March 2018

For beautiful colors in near perfectly preserved cells and connective tissue, immerse carefully cut pieces, no more than 2 mm in least dimension, overnight in either Heidenhain's SUSA or Helly's fluid or Zenker's fluid without the acetic acid (which is the same as Helly's without the formalin). Wash thoroughly in water (tap water is OK) for several hours (overnight is sensible) and then dehydrate, clear, infiltrate, embed and cut paraffin sections.

After dewaxing and hydrating the slides, put them in an iodine solution (Lugol's, Gram's or 0.5% I2 in 95% ethanol), then in sodium thiosuifate (2-6%) to remove the brown iodine color. Wash in running tap water for a minute to get rid of the chemicals. (This step Is a must after any mercury-containing fix.) Stain by any good, interesting method (meaning almost anything other than hematoxylin & eosln).
Microscopy Yesterday, Today and the Future
Authors: Reffner John A
Published: March 2018

With the approach of a new century everyone is getting nostalgic; we just can't resist reflecting on the past and envisioning the future. This struck me with renewed passion on 26 January 1999 when my latest patent (with co-inventor Steven H, Vogel) on a new Confocal Microspectrometer System was issued by the U.S. Patent and Trademark office, What resonated in my mind was the sage advice I received from an admired and distinguished scientist nearly forty years ago, The learned professor opined, "Why do you want to be a microscopist? That's old stuff. No scientific discoveries can be made in microscopy; it is just not a research field. Microscopists never amount to more than glorified technicians". Since then I have seen Professor Dr, J, S, Ploem develop Epf Fluorescence, which revolutionized cytology and expanded the way we think of fluorescence microscopy, I have seen the introduction of the scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive x-ray spectrometers, ESCA, Auger, acoustic microscopes, scanning probe microscopy, confocal microscopy, quantitative image analysis, video-microscopy, FT-IR microspectrometry and many more.
The Accurate Control of the Thickness of Evaporated Carbon Films
Authors: Eades Alwyn
Published: March 2018

There are two approaches to determining the thickness of a carbon film evaporated onto a specimen. One approach is to do the evaporation first and to measure the result afterwards. There are several ways to do this. The second approach is to put down a determined amount of carbon in the first place. This clearly has advantages in many cases. The method described here is of this second kind. The thickness of the carbon coating is not measured, but by a predetermined recipe, the amount put on is controlled at the time of evaporation, In principle, the thickness could be measured during the evaporation with a quartz-crystal thickness monitor. However, we find that the monitor we have does not work well with carbon.
So You're Trying to Choose a Confocal Microscope
Authors: Inoue Ted
Published: March 2018

If you are one of the many people who are currently considering the purchase of a confocal microscope, you may be asking yourself, "How can 1 be sure that the microscope I choose is the right one?"

Before proceeding, take a step back. Ask yourself: "Why use a confocal?" A confocal microscope is, by definition, a microscope which optically "slices" the sample by showing only those details which are at or near the plane of focus. This results in a clearer image than might be possible with a conventional (also called "wide-field") fluorescence microscope - a microscope in which every pixel in every image is corrupted by light from its neighbors. The optical slicing of the sample done by the confocal microscope lets you construct a 3-D representation of the sample that can be very useful for image visualization or analysis.
Measuring SPM Piezo Displacement Responses
Authors: Sturm Heinz , Heyde Markus , Radernann Klaus
Published: March 2018

Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPU) is a versatile tool for the investigations of surfaces. Additionally to the three-dimensional examination of surface topography, local mechanical or electrical properties can be measured1. In this work we present a short contribution on the performance and reliability of piezoelectric transducers in a SPM, which take care of the fine positioning of the tip relative to the sample. Some of the calibration procedures known in literature [cited in 2] are: laser interferometry, scanning a slightly tilted surface, a grid, a crystallographic or artificial step of a known height or by using a reference piezo. To measure slow and fast piezo response simultaneously, we use a non-contact calibration procedure with a high dynamic range (Angstrom to several hundred micrometers) and high frequency range (D.C. to 200 kHz(-3dB)).
A Rapid Cleaning Technique For EM Cathode Assemblies
Authors: Chapman Steve
Published: March 2018

During a recent one week "Intensive SEM" course that took place in Johannesburg, South Africa, the students came up with a superb cleaning technique that they wished to report upon. The results are, or should be, interesting to everyone who has to clean a cathode assembly! This note was originally posted on MSA's microscopy listserver and generated several replies. I have included more information below in response to these replies.

Often the most time consuming operation during the routine use of a SEM or TEM is the cleaning of a cathode assembly. The procedure, outlined as follows, requires little operator intervention, is free from possible cathode contamination by the cleaning media, and takes comparatively very iittle time
Virus Identification by Electron Microscopy
Authors: Miller Sara E
Published: March 2018

Electron microscopy is clearly the best way to look at enteric viruses, many of which do not grow in tissue culture, and those that can be so coaxed, do so under special conditions that are not routinely found in the culture lab. Biochemical identification (e.g., immunological kits, PCR, Western Blots) require a specific reagent to recognize the virus, and if the right reagent is not used, the viruses will be missed (e.g., if you run a test for rotavirus, you will miss adenovirus, etc.). Furthermore, there are not biochemical reagents for all viruses. With electron microscopy, one can see a wide variety of viruses by doing a negative stain of an aqueous extract of stool.
Isolation of Single Crystals from Liquid Drops
Authors: McCrone Walter C
Published: March 2018

Microscopists often recrystallize or precipitate compounds for purposes of identification. Almost as often, a few crystals form that are irresistibly beautiful and demand isolating for single-crystal x-ray diffraction, spindle stage, polarized IR absorption, or remounting in a crystal-rolling medium like Aroclor® 1260.

The isolation of one such crystal among hundreds from the center of a drop is not as difficult as it sounds. It is done at 50-100X under a stereomicroscope using a fine, usually a tungsten, needle. The needle may (rarely) need to be surface-treated by rubbing with a water-insoluble wax (then tissue-wiped “clean”) to prevent creeping of the solution up the needle and causing solution (and crystal) movement.

The needle is used to clear a path for the desired crystal by pushing the edge crust and other intervening crystals to one side. Complete clearance is not necessary. The desired crystal is then pushed with the needle along the slide to the edge and then well outside of the drop. A few smaller crystals and much solution may accompany it.
Exploiting the Binocular Head in Polarized Light Microscopy
Authors: McCrone Walter C
Published: March 2018

Having been brought up on monocular microscopes I find the omnipresent binocular systems a luxury. To support this viewpoint I'd like to suggest some benefits you may not have considered.

Because I'm used to monocular viewing I sometimes use two different oculars, say 10X and 25X, in order to scan quickly to find an area of interest and then to examine the detail with higher magnification. Occasionally I use both oculars simultaneously and “concentrate” on either image to the exclusion of the other. A better way is to set the interocular distance at the extreme setting most different from your own interocular distance. By moving your head about a centimeter either way you can use either ocular.

A variation of this theme is very helpful when you are trying to find good crystals showing useful interference figures.
Notes On Vacuum Techniques For Microscopists
Authors: Walck Scott D
Published: March 2018

It was suggsted by a few that since the film is outgassing it is OK to backfill a TEM with lab air which has a high moisture content because the film in the camera chamber has a significant outgassing rate. My general comment is that you want to keep as much water and oxygen out of a vacuum system as possible. There is no need to add more to what may already be there.

In a vacuum system without any leaks or severe outgassing problems and with properly cleaned surfaces, the major factor which limits the ultimate pressure and pumpdown time is the water adsorbed on the exposed surfaces of the system. Depending on the type of surface, water molecules car either adsorb or chemisorb onto the surface. A chemisorbed species is characterized by having an exchange of electrons with the atoms on the surface and will have a higher energy associated with the desorption of the molecule from the surface.
Exploiting the Binocular Head in Polarized Light Microscopy
Authors: McCrone Walter C
Published: March 2018

Having been brought up on monocular microscopes I find the omnipresent binocular systems a luxury. To support this viewpoint I'd like to suggest some benefits you may not have considered.

Because I'm used to monocular viewing I sometimes use two different oculars, say 10X and 25X, in order to scan quickly to find an area of interest and then to examine the detail with higher magnification. Occasionally I use both oculars simultaneously and “concentrate” on either image to the exclusion of the other. A better way is to set the interocular distance at the extreme setting most different from your own interocular distance. By moving your head about a centimeter either way you can use either ocular.
A New Universal Acrylic Embedding Resin for Both Light and Electron Microcopy
Authors: Cox Donald P
Published: March 2018

Successful immunolabeling in electron microscopy of animal and plant tissues requires a combination of excellent antigen preservation while maintaining the original structure of the tissue. One important element is tissue embedding which accomplishes two goals for the immunohistochemist, the preservation of tissue specimen structure and maintenance of biological antigenicity. Tissue embedding in plastic resins is a common method in which several important elements must be considered.

1. Fine tissue structure must not be damaged by the polymerization. 2. The plastic must be stable to the electron beam. 3. Light scattering properties of the plastic should be minimal. 4. The plastic should cut easily. 5. The plastic must be of sufficiently low viscosity to infiltrate the tissue.
Through A Cracked Lens: Alternate Views Of Optical Microscopy Part III: Galilean Microscopes
Authors: Lund Mark W
Published: March 2018

The first man-made optical instruments were the looking glass, the magnifying glass and the burning glass. These were known by the fifth century BC. The next advance was eighteen centuries later when similar positive lenses were used to correct presbyopia. As lens making technology advanced to fulfill this demand, negative lenses were invented and used to improve the vision of near sighted people. Soon there were spectacle shops dotting Europe, and it was inevitable that people would start to play with combinations of lenses. This all came together at the end of the sixteenth century when the microscope and the telescope were invented in several places independently.
The Scanning Electron MACROscope
Authors: Robinson Vernon E
Published: March 2018

A good scanning electron microscope is not measured only by its ultimate resolution but often by its flexibility as well. In the real world not many samples require their surface to be examined at 100,000X to 300,000X. Other real considerations are its analytical capabilities, such as EDS and WDS for chemical analyses and its flexibility to handle odd samples or odd applications, such as STEM imaging, electron channeling, cathodoluminescence, etc.

Have you ever wished that the lowest magnification of your SEM wasn't 10X or 20X, but rather 5X or 2X or 1X or even lower? This can be especially useful in a forensic application where large samples are common and cutting them or using other destructive techniques would render the sample useless in court.
Field Emission Basics: The Water Bucket Analogy
Authors: Rathkey Doug
Published: March 2018

In the water bucket analogy (Figure 1), the water level in a bucket represents the Fermi level - the highest occupied energy level in the cathode material. The work function is the energy required to get the “water droplets” (electrons) from the top of the liquid out of the bucket and ever the side (i.e., the distance equivalent to the potential energy barrier).

In photoemission, the energy of a photon can remove an electron at the Fermi level from the cathode material and can impart enough kinetic energy of travel to allow it to escape from the bucket (Figure 1a). In thermionic emission, heat provides the energy to boil the electrons off and out of the bucket (Figure 1b). Finally, in field emission, a high electric field can thin the side of the bucket enough so that the electrons can tunnel right through it (Figure 1c). There are two types of field emission: cold field emission (CFE) and Schottky emission (SE).
Building Data Storage Systems And Data Networks To Support Digital Microscopy
Authors: Dodson TA , Nolan TA , Allard LF , Völki E
Published: March 2018

As laboratories like the Materials Analysis User Center (MAUC) in the High Temperature Materials Laboratory, at Oak Ridge National Laboratory move from analog to digital imaging systems, the process for acquiring, processing, analyzing, and publishing research results is changing. In this case since original scientific data exist only in digital form, analog systems for gathering, staring, and transmitting data are being set aside in favor of digital systems. In order to adequately protect original scientific data and to ensure that digital laboratories have the same (or greater) functionality as analog laboratories, scientists must focus on building information systems that make data highly available, highly reliable, and quickly accessible. Meeting these three objectives imposes special requirements for both data storage systems and data networks.
One Nanometer Resolution With An Optocal Microscope! Impossible You Say?
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W
Published: March 2018

When physicists of the last century were studying the nature of light and its application to the newly-refined microscopes, they devised certain laws relating to physical limitations to resolution. These laws had something to do with the wavelength of light being proportional to the limit of resolution. Lately these laws haven't just been broken, they've been shattered! But in all fairness to our predecessors, light is being used now in a manner that they could not have imagined. The scanning interferometric apertureless microscope (SIAM) recently refined by a team led by H. Kumar Wickramasinghe with colleagues Frederic Zenhausern and Yves Martin is a prime example.
Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscopy For Nonconductive and Volatile Samples
Authors: Hanke Larry D
Published: March 2018

During the past two decades, the scanning electron microscope (SEM) has become an indispensable tool for morphological observation in materials and biological sciences. With energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (WDS), rapid chemical characterization of microscopic features has also become commonplace. As developments in manufacturing methods allow fabrication of ever smaller devices and quality control has achieved higher priority, demand for microscopic characterization by SEM has continuously increased.
Introduction to Automated Particle Analysis
Authors: Wood TB Vander
Published: March 2018

A microscopist is presented with a special problem when asked to characterize a population of particles. In order to adequately describe the sample, it may be necessary to examine hundreds or even thousands of individual particles, recording the size, shape, identity or other parameters of interest. To manually characterize a statistically significant fraction of the sample could require many hours of tedious work at the scope, followed by still more tedious hours of data reduction. What is needed is a technique to automate the repetitive parts of this process; the recognition and characterization of particles in the sample and the reduction of data and presentation of results. This technique is automated particle analysis.
Combining Imaging and Spectroscopy: Solving Problems with Near Infrared Chemical Imaging
Authors: Lewis E Neil , Lee Eunah , Kidder Linda H
Published: March 2018

Historically near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has enjoyed significant success as the industrial ‘cousin’ of the mid-infrared FTIR spectrometer. Most NIR spectrometers are significantly more rugged than their MIR counterparts, and are therefore suited for use as a QA/QC tool. Sample preparation is trivial or non-existent for most solid-state or liquid samples and data collection is rapid, while still achieving excellent signal to noise. All these factors combine to produce an analytical measurement technology with widespread applicability. Until relatively recently, its capabilities as a microspectroscopy and chemical imaging tool has been largely underutilized. Most NIR spectra have been collected from bulk, not microspectroscopic samples.

Mid-infrared (MIR) microscopy, based on a Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer, has been the infrared microspectroscopy technique most readily available up to now. It is a broadly employed chemical identification tool that is used to complement traditional light microscopy.
Color Matching to Ink Jet Printers from a Computer Screen, Part 1
Authors: Sedgewick Jerry
Published: March 2018

The ability to print what is seen on a computer screen so that it matches a printer (color matching) confounds even the most experienced. That's because computer monitors, even from the same manufacturer, cannot be made to display colors identically. Also, printers from different manufacturers contain several “libraries” of replacement colors in order to replace pixel values in an image from light (red, green and blue: RGB) to the primary colors for pigments (cyan, magenta, yellow and black: CMYK). Cameras use the primary colors for light and that is the way the digital image is stored and displayed; printers use the primary colors for pigments in ink. Thus, a printer must have a pixel by pixel list of replacement CMYK values for every RGB value in any image for that manufacturer's idea of faithful color matching.
Broadband CARS Microscopy
Authors: Cicerone Marcus T , Kee Tak W
Published: March 2018

A major challenge in optical microscopy is to develop techniques with high spatial resolution, sensitivity, and chemical specificity. The latter, chemical specificity, is typically achieved through some form of labeling, which has potential to alter the nature of the sample under investigation. Raman or infrared (IR) microscopy can be utilized to image samples in their natural form using molecular vibrations as a contrast mechanism. IR microscopy suffers from spatial resolution issues, and spontaneous Raman microscopy suffers from low scattering cross-sections, so that high laser power is often required, introducing the possibility of sample photo-damage. Scattering cross-sections for Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) are typically several orders of magnitude greater than those of spontaneous Raman Scattering. This, in addition to the high spatial resolution inherent in nonlinear optical microscopy, has led CARS microscopy to begin emerging as a powerful, noninvasive technique for biological and material imaging.
Mechanical Polishing Methods for Metal Samples for EBSD
Authors: Roberts S , Flatoff D , True B
Published: March 2018

Electron backscatter diffraction is a powerful technique that has gained momentum in materials science research over the last ten years. Recent advances in electron microscope technology and automation has made EBSD a more viable and routine analytical tool.

Sample preparation is a key component in the use of EBSD due to the nature of the backscattered signal. Pattern formation is from the top 10-50 nm of the sample surface, and therefore, mechanical damage remaining from sample preparation will result in a poor quality signal. Several methods of sample preparation have been investigated that vary in abrasive material used, preparation time, and material system. Some approaches have used a combinatorial approach of silicon carbide papers, aluminum oxide papers, and aluminum oxide suspension with a polishing cloth to prepare tantalum.
The Microscopy Society Of America Project Micro
Authors: Schooley Caroline
Published: March 2018

The Microscopy Society of America (MSA) is a vigorous professional society of close to 3000 members, founded more than a half century ago. The membership is an unusual mix of scientists, engineers, and technologists in diverse fields of biological, materials, medical, and physical science and technology.

Education is a primary function of a scientific society. Microscopists exchange professional information at meetings and in technical publications, but MSA is also very conscious of the importance of improving the scientific awareness of the general public. MSA has chosen to do so with an educational outreach program at the middle school level, called Project Micro (Microscopy In Curriculum - Research Outreach). Our goal is to place MSA-member volunteers in the classroom, to help teachers use microscopes to introduce scientific inquiry.
Sample Preparation for X-Ray Microanalysis
Authors: Chernoff Don
Published: March 2018

Looking at samples in a scanning electron microscope often involves some type of sample preparation. The most common form of sample prep is coating the sample, usually with a heavy metal. The most common metal used for sample coating is gold. The need for coating samples is taken as a given by many people, but is it always necessary? To answer this question let us take a look at the reasons for coating a sample.
Issues in Cathode Performance Part 3-Cathode Emitter Material
Authors: Heer Damon
Published: March 2018

Part 1 of this article series (October 1994 issue) covered the performance features of various tip shapes and explained why the <100> crystal orientation is the industry standard. Part 2 (January/February 1995 issue) covered cathode mounting design and explained how the Mini Vogel Mount cathode design provides high-stability and long-lifetime performance.

LaB6 and CeB6 cathodes are used as high-brightness, high-stability, longlifetime cathodes in a variety of electron beam applications. A high-brightness source provides small spot sizes for high resolution and improved analytical results from high beam currents.
More than One Ever Wanted to Know about X-Ray Detectors Part VI: Alternate Semiconductors for Detectors
Authors: Lund Mark W
Published: March 2018

X-ray spectrometers give the capability to determine chemical element composition in electron microscopes. The semiconductor with the most experience as an x-ray detector is silicon. Silicon is the most highly developed material on earth, and has a lot of good things going for it, but for some applications we crave something with other good properties. For example, for room temperature detectors it would be best to have a semiconductor with a wider band gap. For higher resolution it would be better to have a semiconductor with a smaller band gap. For these reasons a number of other semiconductors have been developed as x-ray detectors. In this article I will talk about narrow band gap semiconductors. Next time I will discuss large band gap semiconductors.
More Than One Ever Wanted To Know About X-ray Detectors
Authors: Lund Mark W
Published: March 2018

A combination of electron microscope and x-ray spectrometer is a very powerful tool. Not only can one see a sample in great detail, but one can determine, and even map, the chemical elements. In Part 1, I discussed some of the basics of energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS or EDX). The heart of the spectrometer is a small piece of single crystal silicon about the size and shape of a shirt button, and about twice as thick. It has been selected for high purity, and then lithium drifted to compensate the remaining impurities.

The lithium is carefully drifted into the crystal button in order to exactly compensate the impurities in the crystal that would create leakage current. This is done at about 60° C under an electric field. It is then evaluated and re-drifted for a final clean up of any uncompensated impurity atoms that remain.
The Largest Possible Microscope
Authors: Newberry Sterling P
Published: March 2018

In this day of resistance toward big science projects it may be futile to worry about how to produce the largest possible microscope. But since it doesn't cost anything to day dream, and times may change, it is fun to consider superlative enterprises.

One must grant that Ultra High Voltage Electron Microscopes are much larger than we wish they were, and one wonders if there is a contest afoot to see which AEM can have the largest foot print, but a new possibility has arisen which, seriously, could dwarf them all - yet have some possible use.

I am referring to the discovery of an example of a gravitation lens for ordinary light. Now the distinguishing characteristic of a microscope from a telescope is that the object eyepiece and the object near the focal length of the lens.
Hard-Copy Imaging Options
Authors: Polizzotto Leonard
Published: March 2018

Photographic film has played a central role in the recording of microscope images since the invention of photography in the 1830s. Photography rapidly creates an accurate record of the microscopic specimen and avoids the subjectivity that was inherent in written and artistic descriptions of visual observations. Both instant and conventional films offer high resolution, the ability to record a large tonal gradation, and a stable media for long-term data storage.

Newer techniques, such as thermal, ink jet, and laser prints, have grown in popularity because they offer ease-of-use or lower per-image cost. Despite recent improvements, none of these techniques offer the resolution or stability of a photograph. In general, people have been forced to sacrifice quality and permanence in order to achieve the lower per-image cost and ease-of-use promised by alternative recording systems.
Evolution and Revolution in Microscopy - II
Authors: Revel Jean-Paul
Published: March 2018

While today a picture of a serious looking person peering into a microscope may suggest “science” to the general public, we noted in our last column that this was not always so. In the early 19th century, for example, the microscope was seen by many as a hobby, interesting yes, but not as worthy of respect as an amateur's telescope.

Microscopes improved and soon, through the insight of the likes of Ernst Abbe, reached a state of perfection which was not greatly improved upon until recently. Once aberrations were well corrected for and glasses of high refractive index commonly utilized, further improvements in numerical aperture became increasingly difficult to receive. The only way to improve resolution seemed to be to decrease the wavelength of light used to illuminate the sample.
Scanning Probe Microscopy: A Rapidly Emerging Instrumental Method
Authors: Yaniv Daphna R , Ramakrishna BL , Glaunsinger William S
Published: March 2018

Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) was introduced to the scientific community twelve years ago, and its inventors (Binning and Rohrer) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986. In the last decade it expanded from a single technique limited to a single medium of imaging, namely ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), to an array of techniques operating in essentially any medium (vacuum, air or solution with and without electrochemical control). In all of these techniques, a probe, positioned in close proximity to the sample, scans its surface and monitors some property that is related to the surface topography or to any other surface property. Not only can surface structures and properties be investigated at ultrahigh resolution with SPM, but surfaces can also be modified by design. The latter capability is ushering in a new era of nanotechnology.
Moving Vesicles from the Golgi
Authors: Carmichael Stephen W
Published: March 2018

We know that material within a cell is “packaged” within the Golgi apparatus. These “packages” (vesicles) bud off from the trans face of the Golgi and proceed to their destination. Just what drives this budding off process is closer to being understood, thanks to a recent report by Steven Jones, Kathryn Howell, John Henley, Hong Cao, and Mark McNwen. They presented morphologic and biochemical evidence that dynamin plays a role in this process.

The dynamins are a family of 100-kD guanosine triphosphatases that are thought to be involved in the budding off of vesicles from the plasma membrane during endocytosis. Whereas some forms of dynamin are restricted to specific cells, such as neurons, the form known as dynamin II (Dyn2) is present in all tissues, including epithelium.
The Evolution of Chemical Analysis
Authors: McCrone Walter C
Published: March 2018

On the eighth day, chemical analysis began. Adam, recovering after cooperating with God in creating Eve, felt the first pangs of hunger. Looking around, he spied a pile of stones left over after creation of some nearby mountains. He rejected a soft friable sandstone and chose a hard granite rock, took careful aim at a rabbit, and hit it squarely between the eyes. This was the basis for the first real meal in the Garden of Eden. A day or two later, Eue took a whiff of the rabbit carcass, thought for a moment, then fed it to the dog.

Thus, the first chemical analytical instruments were Adam's eye and hand and Eve's nose. These, plus taste, sufficed by themselves for a long time thereafter but, eventually, refinements were necessary.
EM Site A.C. Magnetic Field Sources, Surveys and Solutions Part III: Survey Instrumentation and Methods
Authors: Dunnam Curt R
Published: March 2018

A.C. magnetic fields exist throughout every EM site. For a given site, then, how does one predict when EM interference problems are likely to occur? Obviously, an accurate, meaningful magnetic field survey is the first step toward evaluating site EM magnetic field compatibility. Consequently, this article in our series will describe measurement equipment and techniques for achieving accurate, unambiguous magnetic field characterization.

In a previous article (Part II: “ACMF/EM Antipathy”, Microscopy Today, November ‘95), we examined several types of sources which produce alternating current magnetic fields (ACMFs). In near proximity, or at sufficiently high power levels, any of these sources (e.g., transformers, power cabling, ground currents, and/or combinations thereof) can affect EM operation. In this article, we will review specific instrumentation and methods for accurate magnetic field survey data collection and interpretation, a necessary prior step for EM interference prediction and resolution.
Practical Electron Tomography
Authors: Woodcock CL
Published: March 2018

Despite the potential of the technique, electron tomography has yet to be widely used by biologists. This is in part related to the rather daunting list of equipment and expertise that are required. Thanks to continuing advances in theory and instrumentation, tomography is now more feasible for the non-specialist. One barrier that has essentially disappeared is the expense of computational resources. In view of this progress, it is time to give more attention to practical issues that need to be considered when embarking on a tomographic project. The following recommendations and comments are derived from experience gained during two long-term collaborative projects.
Scanning Slit Confocal Microscopy of the Living Eye
Authors: Masters Barry D
Published: March 2018

The living human eye is in constant motion. The cornea, which is the transparent front surface of the eyeball, is a formidable specimen for microscopy. How can we use a microscope to obtain sufficient contrast in order to observe cellular and subcellular details on a moving, transparent specimen? Although the normal human cornea is free of blood vessels, there are many nerves within the 500 μm thickness of this tissue. How can we observe these nerves in the living human eye?

To accomplish these aims, use a new real-time, scanning slit confocal microscope that was developed by Dr. A. Thaer for imaging the in vivo human cornea. The optical design of the real-time, scanning slit confocal microscope is shown as follows in Figure 1. The confocal microscope is a modification of the real-time, scanning slit confocal microscope based on an oscillating too-sided mirror (bi-lateral scanning) which was designed and first constructed in 1969 by G. M. Svishchev in Lenningrad.
Image Processing and Scientific Misconduct
Authors: Oliver William R
Published: March 2018

In a recent microscopy discussion group, a correspondent questioned the use of a contrast enhancement method applied to a microscopy image for publication. What kinds of image processing, folk asked, are “acceptable” in a general sense? What kinds of image processing should be noted in the text or caption and what kind of images should be archived?

It is an interesting set of questions, and I face them wearing three hats, I am a forensic pathologist who performs forensic image interpretation in the investigation of homicide and assault, an anatomic pathologist with an interest in confocal microscopy, and a computer scientist with training in image processing and computer vision. Image processing is part and parcel of my everyday work. I use tools such as contrast enhancement, debarring, and photogrammetry for image interpretation. I build tools for visualization in my confocal work. I collaborate in the design of data acquisition devices for the evaluation of crime scenes and bodily injury.
Using a SEM to “Write” Sub Micron Structures
Authors: Jede Ralf , Lanzarotta George
Published: March 2018

Electron beam lithography is a term well known in the world of microelectronics. It provides an effective but costly solution for producing the smallest electronic devices (transistors, memories, etc). Many fields of science and research also require small structures below the one micron dimension. The ability to generate these structures “in house” without going to external sources has been a luxury only the largest corporations and universities could afford. Even when a production lithography system is available, the time allocated for research work can sometimes be extremely limited. Those with the need for these small devices are now realizing there is new way to get the most use from their SEM, STM or STEM.

In the past few years, experimental e-beam systems have been developed by making use of the basic capabilities of the scanning electron microscope. Mow a variety of home built and commercially available systems are being used throughout the world. The mast basic system can take control of the e-beam in the SEM and write a simple pattern on a sample coated with materials sensiiive to electrons.
Remote Control of a Scanning Electron Microsocpe Using Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Authors: Smith Nancy R , Pardoe Don , Pelote Corinne , Honer Mark , Morgan Christopher L
Published: March 2018

California State University, Hayward has successfully demonstrated remote control of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) using Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). The development of digital imaging technology has iead to exploration and testing of networking strategies for sharing scientific instrumentation. The concept of shared instrumentation is appealing to both academia and private enterprise. Networking access presents the opportunity to teach scanning electron microscopy to a large number of students using multiple desktop computers. Video images can also be projected onto large screens in classrooms or as a distant learning resource. Remote shared access to scientific equipment provides certain advantages such as access to a wider variety of resources, direct interaction without hazard to people or equipment, ability to combine resources into larger virtual instruments, rapid access to available resources, and pooling of knowledge by a larger community.The advent of high speed networks such as ATM offers the possibility of integrated solutions to communication and control.
Digital Composite Imaging for High Resolution Specimen Analysis
Authors: Laferty Donald R
Published: March 2018

Recent advances in digital image processing hardware providing very high pixel resolutions can be exploited to solve problems in correlating high magnification feature analysis with specimen macrostructure. In neuroscience, for instance, analyses such as neuron counting which are performed at high magnification often need to be correlated with the overall structure of the specimen. Typically these procedures involve tediously moving between very low and very high power objectives. Once at high power, the positional knowledge of the objects of interest can be difficult to maintain.

By integrating high resolution image capture with precise microscope automation, a digital composite image of the specimen can be created. Such composite images show the researcher a high resolution “map” of the specimen, facilitating the analysis of both macro- and microstructure characteristics from a single view.
Basic Introduction to Image Processing Using NIH-lmage as a Model
Authors: Mansfield John
Published: March 2018

Advances in camera technology and digital instrument control have meant that in modern microscopy, the image that was, in the past, typically recorded on a piece of film is now recorded directly into a computer. The transfer of the analog image seen in the microscope to the digitized picture in the computer does not mean, however, that the problems associated with recording images, analyzing them, and preparing them for publication, have all miraculously been solved. The steps involved in the recording of an image to film remain largely intact in the digital world. The image is recorded, prepared for measurement in some way, analyzed, and then prepared for presentation.
Mothballing Si-Li EDS Detectors Successfully
Authors: Harmsen Luc
Published: March 2018

We have looked at the problem of mothballing EDS detectors for clients going on long leave or over the Christmas period, and in some cases for indefinite periods.

The secret to storing the detectors is the pumping of the detector when you allow it to warm up. This results in pumping off all the contaminants, which are caught up in the molecular sieve in the dewar, before they can settle on the crystal and FET package. For this purpose we made up a T piece pumping port adapter.

There is a red or blue cap on the side or bottom of the detector, depending on the make. Open that and there will be the plug that needs to be removed under vacuum to pump down the detector, The pumping port adapter can be made up by your local engineering workshop.
Comments on “Technical Excellence in Muscle Biopsy Preparation” by Clint Lincoln (April, 1996)
Authors: Kitabayashi Linda R
Published: March 2018

I use any type of “tin” can, of various sizes, for my isopentane container, and they are free!

Parafilm can be placed between the cork and specimen to prevent it from sticking to the cork. This is helpful when re-embedding for cross-sections. Specimens can also pinned to the cork to maintain correct lengths.

I have frozen large muscle specimens, average size about 5 cm x 2 cm x 1 cm, but they must be left in isopentane for at least one minute or even longer. If the specimen is not completely frozen, it will have “moth-eaten” fiber artifacts in the center.

After freezing large specimens, they can be put in polypropylene centrifuge tubes cooled in liquid nitrogen.
About Hardware
Authors: Levy Gabor B
Published: March 2018

There seems to be a consensus among both the scientific and lay communities in according the highest rank, in terms of prestige, to theoretical scientists. This may seem justified because theoreticians understand the thought processes and activities of the experimentalists, the laypeople, and even the artists, excepting perhaps poets, but the reverse is not the case. Virtually nobody can understand the theoretician. Thus, in order of prestige, after the theoreticians come the experimental scientists and then the technologists, but the lowest on the totem pole are the designers of hardware, of scientific instruments. This towly rank does not seem to bother them, and they are happy in their field. As a matter of fact, many who earn royalties or actually manufacture the hardware are laughing ail the way to the bank.
Relaxation in the Institute of Muscle Research Marine Biological Lab, Woods Hole, MA
Authors: Philpott Delberi E
Published: March 2018

Our boss, the Nobel Prize winner Dr. Albert Szent Gyorgyi, believed in working hard and playing hard. He expected dedication and esprit de corps to come from the intermingling of work and special moments of relaxation. Our respect and dedication to him and his philosophy was never more evident than on April Fool's Day.

The Institute consisted of 12 to 13 scientists, each working on some aspect of muscle structure or function. Its location in Woods Hole, MA, at the tip of Cape Cod was ideal. Dr. Szeni Gyorgyi had gazed out the window of my laboratory on my first day saying, “if I ever walk in and see you staring out the window at the sailboats and fishing vessels I will know you are just recharging your battery.” His warm friendly approach, the seashore and the visiting scientists from all over the world made me feel that this was as close to heaven as I would ever get.