bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
INTRODUÇÃO À CONSTITUCIONALIZAÇÃO DO DIREITO À PROTEÇÃO DE DADOS PESSOAIS NO BRASIL
Authors: Silva Lucas Gonçalves da , Nascimento Reginaldo Felix , Costa Camilla Ellen Aragão
Published: December 2024

O trabalho intitulado Introdução à constitucionalização do direito à proteção de dados pessoais no Brasil aborda o processo histórico-evolutivo de elevação constitucional do direito de proteção de dados pessoais, analisando suas principais características. Destaca-se o direito à privacidade como um direito indispensável para o sucesso do Estado Democrático de Direito, considerando sua contribuição para a inviolabilidade política do corpo. Além disso, o trabalho emprega uma abordagem jurídico-comparativa, demonstrando a interação entre o sistema latino-americano e o sistema europeu de proteção de dados pessoais. Observa-se que o primeiro representa um marco importante para a análise da constitucionalização do direito, evidenciando uma forte cultura jurídica de constitucionalização do direito à proteção de dados pessoais na América Latina, desde o século XX até os dias atuais. As conclusões são derivadas do método hipotético-dedutivo, com enfoque na abordagem temática histórico-evolutiva e comparativa, utilizando recursos bibliográficos e documentais para a estruturação dos conceitos.
DECISÕES JURÍDICAS E TEORIA LINGUÍSTICA
Authors: Freitas Filho Roberto
Published: December 2024

O presente artigo tem por objetivo apresentar de forma sistematizada o prescritivismo universal e justificar sua aplicação no discurso jurídico. Trata-se de teoria moral proposta por Richard Hare cuja aplicação permite a análise lógica dos argumentos utilizados pelos tribunais desde as perspectivas da identidade e da não contradição, sendo um importante instrumento analítico para a apreciação das decisões em que são utilizados princípios e cláusulas gerais. Permite também investigar se o requisito de coerência de sentido, empregado nos conceitos com os quais se fundamentam as decisões é observado. Aplicou-se o método dedutivo, valendo-se referencial teoórico sobre o tema, para apontar a importância do prescritivismo universal na decisão judicial.
Reclaiming Indigenous Sign Languages and Supporting Accessibility and Inclusion for Indigenous Deaf Children and their Families
Authors: Snoddon Kristin , Ireland Dominique , Abram Joel , Ireland Marsha , Ireland Max , Osawamick Elizabeth , Tanner Shelly , Osawamick-Sagessige Miigwaans , Tanner Shayla-Rae
Published: December 2024

This paper reports data from a research study and workshop about reclaiming Indigenous sign languages and cultures, and strengthening services for Indigenous deaf children and their families and communities. The purpose of this workshop was for presenters to share their lived experiences and knowledge as deaf and hearing Elders, parents, and youth, including what resources were and were not available to them. Findings revealed themes including the importance of support for accessibility and inclusion from First Nations political and community leadership; the importance of supporting children’s intersectional identities; the need for greater resources for First Nations communities to access services and supports for deaf children; and youth experiences of learning about deaf culture and sign language, and attending deaf schools. These findings also suggested innovative models for including deaf children and their families.
Learning, Indigenizing, and Delivering Forum Theatre Activities in Indigenous Communities: Reflections of Community Facilitators
Authors: Lines Laurie-Ann , Anderson Shaun , Jardine Cindy , Marty Casadaya
Published: December 2024

In many Indigenous communities, wellness is a holistic balance of spiritual, physical, mental, and emotional wellbeing through connections with self, family, community, and environment. Interventions to promote mental wellness (as a means of suicide prevention) with Indigenous youth thus need to focus on strengths and promoting these relations. First Nations and Métis communities in Alberta and the Northwest Territories in Canada partnered with academic researchers to adapt Forum Theatre as a mental health intervention for Indigenous youth. Forum Theatre, developed by Brazilian activist Augusto Boal, is based on playing games that encourage laughter, trust, and cooperation to build a community. The games lead to creating images with participants' bodies to reflect different life events, which are developed into a play with conflict and oppression. Through interaction with the play, community members explore solutions to the conflict.

Indigenous community partners handpicked community members to train in facilitating Forum Theatre activities to deliver this mental health intervention. Our video showcases the reflections of a group of community facilitators and researchers on the process of being trained in Forum Theatre and indigenizing it for delivery to the participating communities. Community facilitators explain how they came to understand the potential and power of Forum Theatre activities. They describe their training experiences and briefly explain how they indigenized Forum Theatre in a manner that prioritized each community's assets and needs. Their description of the impact they saw in themselves, participants, and communities emphasizes the transformative nature of delivering indigenized Forum Theatre in communities.
Supporting School Attendance Among Indigenous Children and Youth in Canada: A Rapid Review and Call to Action
Authors: Rogers Maria , Aglukark Karen
Published: December 2024

Many community leaders in Canada have asserted the need for improved school attendance to promote educational success and well-being among Indigenous students. This paper reviews the extant literature from researchers, government agencies, school districts, and other organizations that have identified factors that improve school attendance among Indigenous students in Canada. The reviewed literature and reports indicate a need for more culturally relevant supports, as well as a more wholistic approach for Indigenous students and their families. This review also highlights the dearth of research on this topic and demonstrates the need for studies and initiatives that closely examine contributing factors at various levels (i.e., administrative, policy, community, classroom, household, individual), and that deeply engage families and communities.
Increased inflammatory signature in myeloid cells of non-small cell lung cancer patients with high clonal hematopoiesis burden
Authors: Sim Hyungtai , Park Hyun Jung , Park Geun-Ho , Kim Yeon Jeong , Park Woong-Yang , Lee Se-Hoon , Choi Murim
Published: December 2024

Clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential (CHIP) allows estimation of clonal dynamics and documentation of somatic mutations in the hematopoietic system. Recent studies utilizing large cohorts of the general population and patients have revealed significant associations of CHIP burden with age and disease status, including in cancer and chronic diseases. An increasing number of cancer patients are treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), but the association of ICI response in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with CHIP burden remains to be determined. We collected blood samples from 100 metastatic NSCLC patients before and after ICI for high-depth sequencing of the CHIP panel and 63 samples for blood single-cell RNA sequencing. Whole exome sequencing was performed in an independent replication cohort of 180 patients. The impact of CHIP status on the immunotherapy response was not significant. However, metastatic lung cancer patients showed higher CHIP prevalence (44/100 for patients vs. 5/42 for controls; p = 0.01). In addition, lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) patients showed increased burden of larger clones compared to lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients (8/43 for LUSC vs. 2/50 for LUAD; p = 0.04). Furthermore, single-cell RNA-seq analysis of the matched patients showed significant enrichment of inflammatory pathways mediated by NF-κB in myeloid clusters of the severe CHIP group. Our findings suggest minimal involvement of CHIP mutation and clonal dynamics during immunotherapy but a possible role of CHIP as an indicator of immunologic response in NSCLC patients.
Reversing protonation of weakly basic drugs greatly enhances intracellular diffusion and decreases lysosomal sequestration
Authors: Dey Debabrata , Marciano Shir , Poryval Anna , Groborz Ondřej , Wohlrabova Lucie , Slanina Tomás , Schreiber Gideon
Published: December 2024

For drugs to be active they have to reach their targets. Within cells this requires crossing the cell membrane, and then free diffusion, distribution, and availability. Here, we explored the in-cell diffusion rates and distribution of a series of small molecular fluorescent drugs, in comparison to proteins, by microscopy and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). While all proteins diffused freely, we found a strong correlation between pKa and the intracellular diffusion and distribution of small molecule drugs. Weakly basic, small-molecule drugs displayed lower fractional recovery after photobleaching and 10- to-20-fold slower diffusion rates in cells than in aqueous solutions. As, more than half of pharmaceutical drugs are weakly basic, they, are protonated in the cell cytoplasm. Protonation, facilitates the formation of membrane impermeable ionic form of the weak base small molecules. This results in ion trapping, further reducing diffusion rates of weakly basic small molecule drugs under macromolecular crowding conditions where other nonspecific interactions become more relevant and dominant. Our imaging studies showed that acidic organelles, particularly the lysosome, captured these molecules. Surprisingly, blocking lysosomal import only slightly increased diffusion rates and fractional recovery. Conversely, blocking protonation by N-acetylated analogues, greatly enhanced their diffusion and fractional recovery after FRAP. Based on these results, N-acetylation of small molecule drugs may improve the intracellular availability and distribution of weakly basic, small molecule drugs within cells.
Nonlinear relationship between circulating natural killer cell count and 1-year relapse rates in myasthenia gravis: a retrospective cohort study
Authors: Zhang Yifan , Wen Zhiguo , Chen Meiqiu , Xia Cong , Cai Fang , Chu Lan
Published: December 2024

Background

The relapse rate in myasthenia gravis (MG) is high, and promising therapies have emerged; however, identifying potential predictive factors for relapse remains a challenge. This study aimed to explore the association between circulating natural killer (NK) cell levels and the risk of recurrence in MG.

Methods

This retrospective cohort study included 265 patients with MG whose data were included in the Neurology Department of the Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University database between March 2015 and March 2022. Data from electronic medical records were collected, which included the patients’ circulating NK cell count (exposure variable) and demographic/clinical characteristics (covariates). The primary outcome was the 1-year MG recurrence rate.

Results

The study revealed a non-linear relationship between peripheral NK cell count and MG recurrence, with an inflection point at 5.38. Below this threshold, the risk of recurrence was low with higher NK cell counts (relative risk (RR): 0.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.11–0.490]); above this threshold, no significant association was observed (RR: 1.43, 95% CI [0.62–3.34]). Furthermore, the NK cell proportion showed no significant linear or non-linear association with MG recurrence risk (RR: 0.84, 95% CI [0.57–1.2]).

Conclusion

This study provides epidemiological evidence of a potential association between peripheral NK cell count and MG recurrence risk, suggesting an immunoregulatory protective effect within a specific NK cell count range. These findings may inform more personalized MG treatment strategies, warranting further validation in larger and more diverse cohorts.
Effects of combined immunosuppressant and hepatitis B virus antiviral use on COVID-19 vaccination in recipients of living donor liver transplantation
Authors: Lee Ryunjin , Choi Jiwan , Lee Eunkyeong , Lee Jooyoung , Kim Jiye , Kang Seoon , An Hye-In , Kim Sung-Han , Kim Sung-Min , Jwa Eun-Kyoung , Park Gil-Chun , Namgoong Jung-Man , Song Gi-Won , Yoon Young-In , Tak Eunyoung , Lee Sung-Gyu
Published: December 2024

Background & Aims

The global pandemic caused by the highly contagious SARS-CoV-2 virus led to the emergency approval of COVID-19 vaccines to reduce rising morbidity and mortality. However, limited research exists on evaluating the impact of these vaccines on immunocompromised individuals, such as recipients of living donor liver transplantation, highlighting the need for further studies to better understand their effectiveness in this specific population.

Methods

From June 2021, we followed up on the effectiveness of the vaccine for patients taking immunosuppressive drugs after living-donor liver transplantation (LDLT). A total of 105 immunocompromised individuals participated, of which 50 patients with hepatitis B were taking antiviral drugs. Patients were assessed to analyze how the combination of immunosuppressive and antiviral drugs affected the efficacy of the BNT162b2, mRNA-1273, and ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 COVID-19 vaccines.

Results

Before and after the vaccinations, patients were monitored to establish differences between immunosuppressed patients and those additionally taking antiviral drugs. In immunocompromised patients taking antiviral drugs for hepatitis B, we confirmed that the effect of the COVID-19 vaccine was reduced when compared to immunocompromised patients. Interestingly, 23 patients (11 without and 12 additionally with hepatitis B drug administration) encountered breakthrough infections, and although there was a minor discrepancy in vaccine efficacy among the patients taking antiviral drugs for hepatitis B, it did not reach statistical significance.

Conclusions

Additional COVID-19 vaccination is recommended for patients taking immunosuppressive drugs and hepatitis B antiviral drugs after LDLT.
Fragilidade ambiental da sub-bacia hidrográfica do Arroio João Dias, Minas do Camaquã/RS
Authors: Borges Isabel Cordeiro , Bruch Alexandre Felipe , Camargo Karina Retzlaff , Carneiro Marciano , Lima Tassius Pereira , Rodrigues Milene de Lima
Published: December 2024

O estudo realizou o mapeamento da fragilidade ambiental da Sub-bacia Hidrográfica do Arroio João Dias (SbHAJD), localizada na porção central do estado do Rio Grande do Sul. A justificativa do trabalho tange os significativos impactos das atividades humanas e as vulnerabilidades naturais da área, sendo utilizada a metodologia de Ross (1994), que considera fatores como declividade, pedologia e uso e cobertura do solo. O mapeamento da fragilidade ambiental foi realizado através do programa de geoprocessamento QGIS, onde os planos de informação intermediários foram gerados, convertidos para matrizes ponderadas com os pesos das classes e por fim aplicada a média simples dos fatores e classes através da ferramenta calculadora raster. O mapeamento demonstrou que a SbHAJD possui uma fragilidade ambiental que varia de fraca a muito forte, predominando a fragilidade média e forte. As áreas de maior vulnerabilidade estão associadas a encostas e locais antropizados, como a antiga área industrial e depósitos de rejeitos. Esses fatores resultam em processos erosivos intensos, assoreamento de rios e comprometimento do equilíbrio ambiental. O estudo destaca a importância do planejamento integrado e de práticas conservacionistas para mitigar impactos e promover a sustentabilidade, enfatizando a necessidade de políticas públicas baseadas em diagnósticos ambientais detalhados.
Front Matter
Authors: Editors
Published: December 2024

Front Matter
Review of The Iberian Qur’an: From the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Edited by Mercedes García-Arenal and Gerard A. Wiegers
Authors: Hamilton Alistair
Published: December 2024

The Iberian Qur’an: From the Middle Ages to Modern Times. Edited by Mercedes García-Arenal and Gerard A. Wiegers. The European Qur’an, vol. 3. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2022. Pp. ix + 549. $118.99.
Abortion and the Law
Authors: Karakoulaki Marianna
Published: August 2019

Following years of political turmoil, public debating, and campaigning over reproductive rights the US Supreme Court passed the historicRoe v. Wadelegislation which decriminalized abortions. To this day abortion remains a sensitive issue within society and attempts to overruleRoe v. Wadeare continually made. Although still legal, several state laws have been introduced in order to restrict access to abortion, to abortion providers, and to practitioners.
Addicted Women in Prison
Authors: Bögelein Nicole
Published: August 2019

High levels of substance abuse have been found among female prisoners. Their pathways into drug addiction are highly interrelated with victimization during childhood. As prisons are not drug‐free environments, substance abuse continues intramurally, which creates further problems in prison, such as an illegal economy and a high demand for treatment as a result of prisoner addiction.
A
dler,
F
reda
Authors: Lasky Nicole V.
Published: August 2019

Freda Adler (b. 1934) is one of the leading female criminologists. Her groundbreaking research was the first to draw attention to the relationship between gender and crime. She proposed, in her liberation hypothesis of female criminality, that women's increasing participation in legitimate activity spaces would likely extend to illegitimate activity, that is, crime. Despite the controversy generated by her hypothesis, Adler's research solidified female criminality as a valid topic of research both separate from and in relation to male criminality.
A
frican
A
merican Female Offenders
Authors: Henriques Zelma W.
Published: August 2019

The rise in incarceration in the United States has been dramatic over the past 40 years. Most dramatically, the number of female offenders has increased by approximately 700% between 1980 and 2010. In 2012, approximately 108,800 women were in prison; by 2013 this number had increased to 111,300. The surge in women's imprisonment has disproportionately affected women of color in the United States, with African American women feeling the brunt of the impact. Among other things, drug sentencing guidelines and targeted police enforcement in African American communities have played a chief role in the disproportionate representation of African American women among the incarcerated. The probability for negative outcomes for this population extends beyond concerns about recidivism and into the foster care, public assistance, and public health arenas as well.
Alternatives to Incarceration
Authors: Mathew Mathai Vairamon
Published: August 2019

Alternatives to incarceration include intensive court and community supervision. Alternatives to incarceration can also include attempts to repair harms suffered by victims, to provide benefits to the community, to treat the drug addicted or mentally ill, and to rehabilitate offenders. Alternatives to incarceration may also reduce prison and jail costs as well as being effective in reducing reoffending. Prison or jail time separates offenders from the community, spouses, and children; but incarceration alternatives keep offenders in the community and with their families (where they have families) and facilitate the retention of employment (where the offender is employed). Alternatives to incarceration are considered appropriate sentences for nonviolent and nonserious offenders. Probation, community services, and restitution, in particular, are seen as appropriate alternatives to incarceration.
A
sian Female Offenders
Authors: Shen Anqi
Published: August 2019

This entry acknowledges the cultural and intellectual context of female criminality in Asia – a large continent with considerable racial, cultural, and linguistic diversity, and regional differences in sociopolitical settings, economic development, law, religion, and cultural traditions. It starts with pointing out the scarcity of international literature on Asian female offenders and seeks to make sense of it. It then turns to examine the high female imprisonment rates among some Asian countries, which reflect the local sociocultural and legal contexts. Furthermore, it highlights recent developments in scholarly research into female offending in Asia. Finally, it argues that it is important to shed light on the nature of female criminality and the socioeconomic conditions surrounding it when it comes to inform policy and practice that deals with women's problems.
B
arfield,
V
elma
Authors: Davies Kim
Published: August 2019

Margie Velma Barfield was executed on November 2, 1984, for the poisoning murder of her boyfriend, Stuart Taylor. She was the first woman executed after the 1976 Supreme Court decision allowing for the resumption of capital punishment. At the time of Velma's execution, it had been 22 years since a woman had been executed. She was also the first woman to be executed by lethal injection.
B
eets,
B
etty
L
ou
Authors: Carter Lisa M.
Published: August 2019

Betty Lou Beets was executed by the state of Texas in 2000. She was the second woman to be executed in Texas after the reinstatement of the death penalty. This entry will describe the marital history, related crimes, and eventual conviction and punishment for the final crime of Betty Lou Beets.
B
obbitt,
L
orena
Authors: Gibson Camille
Published: August 2019

Lorena Bobbitt cut off the penis of her husband John Wayne Bobbitt in 1993 after years of mental, physical, and sexual abuse. The case brought attention to the circumstances of women in domestic violence situations and the matter of responding to abuse victims who react criminally when their danger is not imminent.
B
orden,
L
izzie
Authors: Lasky Nicole V.
Published: August 2019

In 1893, Lizzie Borden was tried for the 1892 murders of her father and stepmother, both of whom were killed with a hatchet found in the basement of their Falls River, Massachusetts, house. Despite the large amount of circumstantial evidence pointing to Lizzie as the murderer, she was found not guilty on all counts. Her trial and her not guilty verdict have had a lasting impact on society, inspiring children's rhymes and other forms of media, as well as highlighting issues related to female criminality and to gender and class discrepancies in the treatment of accused offenders by the criminal justice system.
Bride Capture
Authors: Burmon Kate Melody
Published: August 2019

Bride capture, or bride kidnapping, derives from ancient customs and occurs when a man, generally with the help of male family members and friends, abducts a woman with the intention of making her his bride. This practice generally involves both families and levels of consent among the bride and her family can vary, depending on the suitability of the groom and whether or not a previous relationship existed between the bride and the groom. International convention defines bride capture as a sex crime.
British Crime Survey
Authors: Bain Andy
Published: August 2019

The British Crime Survey (BCS), now titled the Crime Survey of England and Wales, is just one of a number of victim surveys which have been conducted in an attempt to better understand the disparities between the official and the real crime figures – either at a national or local level. This short discussion highlights the development of the survey, provides a brief summary of criticisms of the survey, and notes some of the recent changes taking place with the British Crime Survey.
B
rownmiller,
S
usan
Authors: Brenner Hannah
Published: August 2019

Susan Brownmiller is a feminist, civil rights activist, journalist, and author who made significant contributions to the discourse surrounding violence against women in the midst of the second wave of the feminist movement. Her ideas were most notably conveyed through the 1975 publication of the now classic book,
Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape
, which provides historical context for and defines the rape culture in which we live. She both dispels widely held myths about rape and informs the dynamics that separate it from other crimes. She specifically situates sexual violence within the context of power, emphasizing an expansive definition of this concept beyond just the physical.
“Burning Bed” Defense
Authors: Harper Shannon B.
Published: August 2019

The Burning Bedwas a popular TV movie released in 1984 based on the true story of Francine Hughes who endured more than 13 years of brutal domestic violence and killed her abuser by setting fire to the bed where he slept. During Francine's trial, her attorney used a temporary insanity defense, which resulted in her acquittal. In female‐perpetrated intimate partner homicide trials, the insanity defense can also be referred to as the “burning bed” defense. This defense argues that persistent victimization interferes with the defendant's mental capacity making her unable to tell right from wrong. However, women who kill their abusers usually perceive their actions as reasonable and necessary. The use of the insanity defense is best analyzed in context with alternative defense mechanisms, including self‐defense and battered woman syndrome in support of self‐defense claims. It is argued that gender bias and sexism in the law operate in similar ways across each mechanism.
Civil Commitment Laws
Authors: Connor David Patrick , Hiden Sarah Maurya
Published: August 2019

Civil commitment laws in the United States represent efforts to incapacitate certain types of convicted criminal offenders who are deemed particularly dangerous and very likely to reoffend after their criminal sentences are completed. Historically, such mandates have targeted sex offenders as a special population of lawbreakers in need of maximum social control. Civil commitment of sexual psychopaths emerged in the early twentieth century; however, this approach was largely abandoned by the 1970s due to constitutional concerns and lack of empirical support. Nonetheless, civil commitment laws have resurfaced through a wave of statutes in the late 1990s that aimed to confine certain sex offenders indefinitely and keep them away from larger society. Today, 20 states, the District of Columbia, and the federal government enforce civil commitment legislation, although the utility of such policies is frequently criticized.
Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn
Authors: Cintron Myrna
Published: August 2019

This case juxtaposes state law, the freedom of the press, and victims' rights. A television station broadcasted the name of Cohn's murdered daughter after obtaining the information from a public document. State law prohibited media outlets from publishing the identity of crime (rape) victims. Using a three‐pronged rationale, the US Supreme Court held that the state law violated the US Constitution, thus giving primacy to the protection of the press.
Cyberstalking
Authors: Marganski Alison J.
Published: August 2019

Cyberstalking is a behavior that has emerged in recent years with the advent and accessibility of technology. It is “stalking with technology.” Increasing attention has been paid to this issue by researchers, practitioners, and society following reports in the late 1990s. Initially perceived as innocuous due to a lack of physical presence, research now suggests that it may be equally if not more harmful than in‐person stalking experiences. Consequently, legislation to criminalize cyberstalking has emerged and organizations have formed to educate, respond to, and raise awareness on this contemporary issue.
Death Penalty for Sex Offenders
Authors: Call Corey
Published: August 2019

Sex crimes, particularly those against children, illicit some of the strongest responses from the public and legislators. While a bevy of policies aimed at managing sex offenders in the community have surfaced over the last several decades, attempts have also been made to enact legislation enabling the death penalty for sex offenders. Sex offender capital punishment policies, however, have been challenged and addressed by United States Supreme Court. Currently, sentencing an offender to death for a sex crime that did not result in the death of the victim is considered unconstitutional.
Disasters and Rape
Authors: Larson Samantha June
Published: August 2019

Rape is an act of sexual assault committed against a person without his/her consent. Criminalization of rape has changed throughout the course of history, and many variations exist across the globe today. Despite differences in legal protections, universal trends indicate that rape increases in the context of disaster. Heightened vulnerability of women has been linked to factors such as care‐taking roles, lower economic status, and the proportion of elderly. Recommendations for prevention and care include policy development, integration of disaster management and women's services programs, and increased education regarding the relationship between rape and disaster.
Domestic Violence Prevention Initiatives
Authors: Galli Phillip M.
Published: August 2019

The term
prevention
implies that some act will be halted before it is ever begun. As this relates to instances of domestic violence, both scholars and practitioners in the criminal justice system have fallen behind the research that needs to be conducted and the programs to be implemented. Forward‐moving initiatives need to include programs that connect with youths in elementary, middle, and high school. The data that does exist regarding domestic violence prevention initiatives indicates that waiting until college or adult life to intervene is too late. It has been shown through the use of interventions such as Shifting Boundaries that a theory of reasoned action will assist in changing attitudes as well as behaviors.
D
othard

v.

R
awlinson
Authors: Gonzalez Arleen C.
Published: August 2019

Dothard v. Rawlinson
(1977) is a landmark US Supreme Court case that examined employment discrimination on the basis of sex under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Dothard established that facially neutral standards could be unlawfully discriminatory when they resulted in disparate impact on one gender. Further, it defined a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) as a job qualification based on sex that would be necessary to the normal operation of a particular business.
Extralegal Factors in Sentencing Decisions
Authors: Noble Jennifer Coleman
Published: August 2019

Though state and federal sentencing laws are structured to encourage a uniform system of proportional sanctions, research indicates that extralegal factors of gender, race, and age influence sentencing decisions. Studies that examined whether female offenders receive more lenient treatment than males suggest there is a gender gap. Women are less likely to be sentenced to imprisonment and, if sentenced, the prison term is shorter than those given to men. The gender gap can be explained by the effects of multiple extralegal factors on sentencing outcomes.
Families and Female Victimization
Authors: Grant Tanya M.
Published: August 2019

Violent victimization of women is a serious public health concern that is frequently encountered by the criminal justice system, community agencies, and the medical field, besides our society in general. Feminist theory suggests that there is something fundamentally unique about the victimization experiences that predominantly affect women. Due to the significant personal and societal effects of female victimization, it is imperative that victims receive appropriate support from both family and friends, as well as victim service providers. In order to improve the support services provided, and thereby continue to reduce the prevalence of violence against women in our society, further research regarding its causes, effects, and effective treatments is needed.
Felony Drug Provision of the Welfare Reform Act of 1996
Authors: Wincup Emma
Published: August 2019

The US Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act 1996 introduced far‐reaching welfare reform with specific drug provisions, including a lifetime ban for those convicted of drug offenses and suspicionless drug testing for all claimants. While there is some evidence that welfare reform has led to reduced levels of illicit drug use among women at risk of relying upon welfare, the Act has excluded some of the most vulnerable women from state assistance.
Female Death Sentences
Authors: Albertson Stephanie L.
Published: August 2019

Consistently throughout history, female death sentences are uncommon within the United States, constituting only 2% of all executions. Several theories, such as the chivalry hypothesis, have been proposed in an attempt to explain the gender disparities between male and female death sentences. Characteristic differences appear between males and females with the commission of murder. Each of these factors and their impact on female death sentences are discussed.
Female Incest Offenders
Authors: Wijkman Miriam
Published: August 2019

Sexual offending is generally regarded as a typically male phenomenon. This is reflected in the fact that research on female sexual offenders is scarce: the majority of the studies focus on men. This entry on female incest offenders will provide an overview of the methodological issues that emerge while studying this offender group. Furthermore, the prevalence rates of female sexual offenders, their offender and offense characteristics, and the recidivism rates and respective risk predictors will be described.
Female Inmate Subcultures
Authors: West‐Smith Mary , Pogrebin Mark
Published: August 2019

Women's prisons have traditionally been viewed as less violent compared with men's prisons. While the male inmate subculture has long been studied and theories developed to explain the existence of such a subculture, women's prisons and female inmate subcultures have not been examined as thoroughly. Compared to men's prisons and male inmates, female prisons were viewed as less volatile, the relationships between female inmates were described as attempts to replicate family relationships in the community, and interactions between female inmates and correctional officers were seen as being less antagonistic. However, women's prisons may differ significantly from how they have been perceived and the existence of a female inmate subculture that includes aggressiveness, violence, and victimization may play a larger role in women's prisons than originally believed. Given the common and extensive histories of victimization and trauma that many female inmates bring to prison, in addition to the losses associated with motherhood, facing a more aggressive and violent inmate subculture may make incarceration especially trying for women. In addition, the effects of loss and victimization prior to and during incarceration may make the challenges of reentry even more difficult for women leaving prison.
Female Offenders and Property Crime
Authors: Piper Doshie , Guerrero Georgen
Published: August 2019

Females have the reputation of committing crimes consistent with the stereotypical gender role of females, such as petty theft, shoplifting, credit card fraud, and welfare fraud. However, recent examinations of female criminality have started to expose the level of female offending. Through the study of female criminality, many different explanations have been offered as to why females commit property offenses. There are a multitude of reasons why women engage in property crimes. These may include internal or external justifications, such as to support themselves, their children, or even to support a chemical dependence. An examination of the research clearly supports that there is a strong correlation between property crime and female addicts. Overall, female crime has been described as less serious than male crime.
Female Probation and Parole Officers
Authors: Petrillo Madeline
Published: August 2019

The impact of gender on women working in probation and parole has not benefited from the same level of research as in other criminal justice professions. There are more women in probation and parole than any other criminal justice role. This implies that female probation and parole officers do not experience professional gender marginalization in the same way as women police or corrections officers. Yet, female probation and parole officers work closely and for extended periods with offenders who are predominantly male. The research that exists suggests women in this field bring attributes to the role by virtue of being female. There is also evidence that female probation and parole officers make similar efforts as women in more male‐dominated criminal justice professions to manage aspects of their gender in order to gain and maintain legitimacy with those under their supervision.
Female Police Officers and Use of Force
Authors: Koski Connie M.
Published: August 2019

The use of force by all officers, despite modern media coverage, is a relatively rare occurrence. Nonetheless, understanding the factors that influence use of force by both female and male police officers is important when considering organizational policies and training implications. Although the research on the differences and similarities in use of force by male and female police officers has been mixed, new research has emerged indicating the possibility that the increase in female officers among the ranks may play an important role in reducing the use of force by all members of the organization.
Female Serial Killers
Authors: Fridel Emma E.
Published: August 2019

While rare in comparison to their male counterparts, female serial killers have unique motives and methods that fall into discrete typologies including black widow, angel of death, revenge killer, profit/crime killer, team killer, and sexual predator. The typical female serial killer has longer cooling off and active periods than comparable male murderers as well as a similar or higher average victim count; she usually targets family, friends, children, and the elderly, uses poison as a weapon of choice, and murders for material gain rather than sexual pleasure. Despite her atrocious crimes, the female serial murderer traditionally has received leniency from the courts and is often considered a willing victim of male partners.
Fisher, Amy
Authors: Copenhaver Brandi W.
Published: August 2019

At the age of seventeen, Amy Fisher became known as the “Long Island Lolita” when she severely wounded by shooting Mary Jo Buttafuoco in the head after Joey Buttafuoco refused to leave Mary Joe for Fisher. Fisher served seven years in prison for aggravated assault and was released in 1999. She pursued a career in journalism and writing, which ended after she began her career as an adult entertainer, which ended in 2011.
Gender Disparity and Arrests
Authors: Gould Laurie A. , Hulon Kayla
Published: August 2019

Although men continue to commit the vast majority of crime in the United States, women are increasingly becoming involved in criminal activity. Based on an examination of total arrests, it appears that the gender gap is beginning to narrow and a closer examination of arrests for different types of offenses reveals some notable gender differences in offending. With the exception of larceny‐theft and rape, male arrests have declined (in some cases quite substantially) for all offense categories included in the Uniform Criminal Report. Conversely, female arrests for property crime have increased an estimated 20.2% since 2006, and the rate of decline for many other offenses is much smaller for women, compared to men.
Gender Disparity in Bail and Bond Release Decisions
Authors: del Carmen Sara Jane
Published: August 2019

Women have long received greater leniency than men regarding release via bail and/or bond. Scholars speculate that this is either due to the view that mothers are needed at home, or, alternatively, could be a result of women statistically committing lower‐end offenses which attract shorter sentences than men. The literature lacks empirical research on this disparity; thus these hypotheses are untested.
Girls and Sentencing Disparity
Authors: Henriques Zelma W. , Nicholas Lorie A. L.
Published: August 2019

In 2013, over 7,500 girls were placed in juvenile justice facilities compared to over 45,000 boys detained or committed that same year. Such a dramatic difference in the number of boys in the juvenile justice system often results in the needs and concerns of system‐involved girls being overshadowed by the exponentially larger number of boys. Despite their small numbers, disparities do exist in arrests, detention, and placement of girls for status offenses, technical violations, and prostitution. Currently, the unique needs of system‐involved girls are receiving more attention including a promising reform effort that seeks to address trauma, racial, gender, and sexual orientation discrimination that exists for adjudicated girls. Reformers believe creating “off‐ramps” that divert girls from the juvenile justice system and providing gender‐specific responses to girls in custody will reduce sentencing disparities that exist.
Girls Transferred to Adult Courts
Authors: Bryson Sara L.
Published: August 2019

This entry provides an overview of the process and prevalence of transferring girls from juvenile courts to adult courts. Overall, girls being transferred to adult courts is a rare event. The current state of the literature illustrates the need for more research, especially qualitative research, on the different decision‐making processes involved in transferring boys and girls.
Girls' Diversion Programs
Authors: Burke Alison S.
Published: August 2019

Youth diversion programs are designed to help at‐risk teens who have had contact with the police to avoid formal involvement with the juvenile justice system. Female delinquents have special needs and unique underlying causes for their delinquency. Effective programming for female juvenile offenders must specifically address those needs. This means that programs must be carefully designed and developed with a gender‐specific philosophy and focus that targets the needs of girls.
Girls' Pathways to Crime
Authors: Piper Doshie
Published: August 2019

Girls' pathways to crime can be explained by combining the life‐course perspective of crime with the gender‐pathway perspective. These two perspectives account for the early onset of female offending, thereby accounting for girls' delinquency trajectories into crime. Girls tend to follow four pathways into delinquency and crime, containing the following themes: abuse, relationships, mental illness, and substance use.
Glueck, Eleanor
Authors: Warner Jessica J.
Published: August 2019

Eleanor Glueck was a prolific female criminologist who valued social work and studied juvenile delinquency. She is most famous for her work with her husband Sheldon on their book,
Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency
(1950). In this study, the Gluecks identified factors that could predict with reasonable success the likelihood of criminal behavior as early as the age of six. Considered to be one of the first female criminologists, Eleanor was described as determined and persistent, and her commitment to ethical and quality research methods led to sole author publications and notoriety for longitudinal methods and life‐course criminological theory.
Hate Crime and Female Victimization
Authors: Squire Greta
Published: August 2019

Hate crime is any offense in which some aspect of the victim's identity – their race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, or transgender identity – plays a role in their victimization. There are different categories of offense, ranging from a hate incident, which may include verbal abuse, threats of violence, bullying, and intimidation all the way through to a hate crime, which could include actual assault, criminal damage, hate mail, and even murder. This range of offenses is covered already under existing laws in the United States and the United Kingdom; however, if an incident is regarded as a hate crime, then an enhanced penalty can be applied to the police charge, which involves a more severe sentence if found guilty. Hate crime is regarded as a symbolic crime in that it is viewed as not only perpetrated against the individual victim but also as an act which intimidates and subjugates members of the wider community. This entry examines the key debates and issues relating to hate crime legislation.
Indigenous Female Offenders
Authors: Bartels Lorana
Published: August 2019

Indigenous women are overrepresented in the Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand criminal justice systems, and their populations are increasing. This entry presents the available data on offending and imprisonment patterns, before identifying some common themes across the three jurisdictions. Specifically, Indigenous women offenders in all three countries display poorer outcomes in areas such as health, education, employment, and exposure to family violence. It is argued that this subpopulation has long been overlooked, and an intersectional analysis is required to highlight the singular disadvantages experienced by Indigenous female offenders.
Infanticide
Authors: Brennan Karen , Milne Emma
Published: August 2019

Several jurisdictions have special infanticide laws that allow for lenient treatment of women who kill their infants. These laws, based on the English legislative model, typically allow for an infanticide charge/conviction where women kill their infants in mitigating circumstances. The rationale for lenient treatment is medical, namely that the woman was suffering from a disturbance in the balance of mind caused by the effects of childbirth or lactation consequent upon childbirth. Historically, infanticide laws were enacted because widespread sympathy for unmarried women who killed their infants caused difficulties for the efficient and effective prosecution of this offender. Infanticide laws sought to address these difficulties by formalizing lenient treatment. In the contemporary context, several problems with these laws have been identified, not least of which is the dubious medical rationale. Some jurisdictions have reformed their laws to address these criticisms.
Internet Sales of Minors
Authors: Reid Joan A.
Published: August 2019

Recent technological advances in online communication have led to new avenues for commercial sexual exploitation of children facilitated by the Internet. Unprecedented technological accessibility coupled with online anonymity raises concerns regarding the proliferation of child pornographic exploitation (CPE) and the purchasing of sex with minors around the world. Advances in technology now allow an offender to request a specific type of exploitive image or recording, and even to communicate and direct the sexual exploitation of a child in real time. Anonymous online forums allow individuals to connect with other offenders and share abusive practices thereby normalizing sexual exploitation of children and desensitizing participants to the consequences suffered by exploited children. Analysis of seized CPE content uncovered a growing number of occurrences of rape or sexual torture involving prepubescent children, raising concerns over the young age of CPE victims and increasingly violent CPE content.
Intimate Partner Violence in Minority Communities
Authors: Kalunta‐Crumpton Anita
Published: August 2019

Following the birth of the concept of intersectionality, research on intimate partner violence (IPV) has expanded to recognize experiences of victimization in minority communities. Studies of intersectional dimensions of IPV in a range of minority communities have shown that these communities, individually and collectively, experience violence in intimate partner relationships in ways unique to them. Not only have these studies made valuable contributions to knowledge, they have also drawn attention to the needs of minority women in victim support services. However, despite the growing research interest in IPV in minority communities, existing studies reveal the marginalization of certain immigrant communities in IPV research.