bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Patterns and Processes of Change in the Spatial Distribution of Foreign-Controlled Manufacturing Employment in the United Kingdom, 1963 to 1975
Authors: Dicken P , Lloyd P E
Published: October 2006

Considerable changes occurred between 1963 and 1975 in the absolute and relative importance of foreign-controlled manufacturing employment both nationally and regionally. Its spatial distribution became rather more even, but there were substantial spatial and temporal variations in the rate and direction of foreign-controlled employment change. Such changes were brought about by the interaction of several components of which only one—new foreign openings—has been monitored at the national level. Case studies of the foreign sector in two large metropolitan areas, however, show that similar aggregate changes may be produced by quite different combinations of components. The in situ expansion of foreign branch plants explained most of the increase in the size of the foreign sector in Merseyside. By contrast, acquisition of United Kingdom enterprises explained most of the change in Manchester. Such differences raise a number of policy-related issues.
Air Pollution and Human Health in Greater Manchester
Authors: Wood C , Lawrence Margaret
Published: October 2006

The background to air pollution control in Manchester and the resulting falling pollution concentrations and consequent damage to health are described, and an analysis is made of the statistical relationships between mortality and air pollution in Greater Manchester. Other work has always shown significant relationships between smoke and sulphur dioxide concentrations [above World Health Organisation (WHO) goals] and mortality from pollution-related diseases. Social factors (for example, overcrowding, owner-occupation) have often been found to be weakly related to mortality. This research reports no significant correlations between mortality and current smoke concentrations (which have mostly fallen below the WHO goal), weak correlations with sulphur dioxide levels, and fairly strong correlations with a number of social factors. The WHO goal therefore appears appropriate for smoke, and the results (including estimates of excess deaths) indicate that sulphur dioxide levels need to be reduced further. Social parameters are thought to be acting as proxies for causal factors (for example, smoking, diet).
The Analysis and Forecast of Housing Requirements: Tenure Switching in a Local Housing Market
Authors: Wilkinson R K , Law I A
Published: October 2006

Data collected by a local authority housing department are analysed in order to test a model forecasting the annual number of households moving out into owner occupation. The reduced form of the model is estimated by means of ordinary least squares multiple regression analysis, and the demand structure is estimated by means of two-stage least squares for comparison. Despite problems of autocorrelation the results are sensible and suggest that further work on these lines is likely to be worthwhile not least for a local authority involved in planning the housing requirements of a region.
Spatial Interdependencies in Population Distributions: A Study in Univariate Map Analysis. 2 Urban Population Distributions
Authors: Haining R P
Published: October 2006

This paper starts by discussing the relationships between process and map structure and the nature of certain types of geographical spaces. There is then a discussion of urban population distributions, which are here classified as statistically nonhomogeneous. This leads to the use of different statistical techniques from those employed in the previous paper, and a simple example based on the Beckmann–McPherson model with the use of the SW Wisconsin data is presented.
Proximity and the Formation of Public Attitudes towards Mental Illness
Authors: Smith C J , Hanham R Q
Published: October 2006

This paper investigates the effect of proximity on attitudes towards mental illness. One outcome of the policies referred to as deinstitutionalization is an overall reduction in the social and geographical distance between members of the public and the mentally ill. For deinstitutionalization to be successful, it is important that residents in impacted communities become more accepting, both in a passive and in an active sense. A survey was made of residents in two neighborhoods of the city of Norman, Oklahoma, one of which was adjacent to a large mental health facility. In a causal model framework, the relationship between proximity and public attitudes is investigated; and the results suggest an important and significant relationship. The implications of the study for public education campaigns about mental illness, and for facility location strategies, are discussed.
Urban Evolution, Self-Organization, and Decisionmaking
Authors: Allen P M , Sanglier M
Published: October 2006

A dynamical model of a central place system is described which, derived from the concepts underlying dissipative structures, takes into account the self-organizing aspects of urban evolution, and shows the importance both of chance and of determinism in such systems. A theoretical evolution is discussed together with the modified dynamics of different possible decisions showing the long-term consequences of these. A recent application of this new theory to the evolution of the Bastogne region of Belgium is briefly described, and conclusions are drawn as to the real difficulties involved in decisionmaking on the part of national, regional, and municipal authorities.
On the Relationship between Alonso's Theory of Movement and Wilson's Family of Spatial-Interaction Models
Authors: Ledent J
Published: October 2006

This paper compares the system of equations underlying Alonso's theory of movement with that of Wilson's standard family of spatial-interaction models. It is shown that the Alonso model is equivalent to one of Wilson's four standard models depending on the assumption at the outset about which of the total outflows and/or inflows are known. This result turns out to supersede earlier findings—inconsistent only in appearance—which were derived independently by Wilson and Ledent. In addition to this, an original contribution of this paper—obtained as a byproduct of the process leading to the aforementioned result—is to provide an exact methodology permitting one to solve the Alonso model for each possible choice of the input data.
Can Agglomeration Economies Explain Why People are Leaving Large Cities?
Authors: Hawley C B , Fogarty M S
Published: October 2006

In this journal, Vining and Kontuly recently posed the question “Is out-migration from large cities consistent with agglomeration economy advantages that these cities are commonly said to enjoy”. Previous authors who have responded to this query have supplied an indifference curve analysis that examines the trade-off individuals face between income and urban size (environmental goods). This paper instead provides a general equilibrium model that explicitly incorporates urban agglomeration economies to examine the conditions under which out-migration and those economies may simultaneously exist. Under the assumption that the elasticity of substitution between the outputs of large and small cities is unity, four cases can be distinguished. Our conclusion is that labor will unambiguously migrate from large cities with an increase in agglomeration economies only if large city goods are income-inelastic and large cities are relatively capital-intensive. The more reasonable hypothesis, that out-migration is a result of shrinking productivity advantages of large cities, can also be investigated by means of this general equilibrium framework.
Program GROUP: The Identification of All Possible Solutions to a Constituency-Delimitation Problem
Authors: Rossiter D J , Johnston R J
Published: October 2006

A computer program is designed to produce all of the electoral constituencies for an English local authority, within the constraints imposed on the Parliamentary Boundary Commissioners. This builds on the seminal work of Gudgin and Taylor, and introduces size constraints, evaluates shape, and evaluates the electoral consequences of swings in voter opinion.
On the Use of Bregman's Balancing Method for the Solution of Relaxed Distribution Problems
Authors: Lebeuf R , Stewart N F , Jörnsten K
Published: October 2006

Relaxed distribution models have recently been proposed by several authors. In this note we point out that Bregman's method may be applied directly to these problems, to yield very simple balancing methods. The convergence of these methods follows directly from Bregman's general proof.
New Industry Input Linkages in Ireland: An Econometric Analysis
Authors: O'Farrell P N , O'Loughlin B
Published: October 2006

This paper analyses the input linkages of manufacturing projects in Ireland which have been grant-aided under the New Industries programme. The Hirschman concept of linkages is adopted and the propensity of individual enterprises to purchase inputs is analysed at two spatial scales: (a) the national economy; and (b) the local area within a twenty-mile radius of the plant. Econometric methods are used to test a series of hypotheses at plant level, and implications for industrial and regional policies are discussed.
Unidimensional Seriation: Implications for Evaluating Criminal Justice Data
Authors: Hubert L J , Kenny T , Golledge R G , Richardson G D
Published: October 2006

The problem of validating a given unidimensional scale (that is, an ordering of a set of objects along a single dimension) is discussed in terms of a few simple properties of the data used to obtain the scale. Based on a set of asymmetric proximity values as raw data, a distinction between analyzing absolute-value information or sign information is presented that leads to a formal test of whether a given scale is being reliably represented. In short, a scale is generated from absolute-value information, but validated through sign information. A numerical example which deals with the perception of homicide rate over fifteen of the largest Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas is included as an illustration of the general methodological discussion.
Flows, Hierarchies, Potentials
Authors: Sonis M
Published: October 2006

This work deals with the analysis of interregional flows. The central idea is the decomposition of the origin–destination flow matrix into the additive weighted sum of basic matrices. Each basic matrix represents an extremal flow which optimizes some objective function corresponding to some extremal tendency acting in the real flow. The weight of the extremal flow can be treated as the frequency of the choice of the fixed extremal tendency.

The geometrical and algebraic algorithm of the decomposition of the flow matrix is based on the Minkovsky theorem about the center of gravity of convex polyhedra. Its spatial content is Weber's well-known principle of industrial location (in inverted form), and Stouffer's principle of intervening opportunities.

Each extremal flow defines the spatially represented hierarchy of the regions of origin and destination. The successive selection of the ‘most probable’ tendencies defines the set of changing hierarchy relationships between the regions. The construction of the successive hierarchies is an elaboration of Nystuen and Dacey's ideas about the use of graph theory in flow theory.

The most interesting and important fact is the nonuniqueness of the expansion of the real flow by the shares of extremal tendencies, that is, nonuniqueness of results of analysis. This ensues from the fundamental statement that the analysis depends on the investigator's point of view.
Factors Affecting the Development of New Towns in Israel
Authors: Borukhov E , Werczberger E
Published: October 2006

This paper explains the differences in success among twenty-nine Israeli new towns as measured by their ability to attract migrants. It begins with a description of the background of the new-town policy in Israel, and presents comparative data on the development of the various towns. This is followed by a discussion of the alternative theories proposed to explain the great differences in the development of the new towns. Empirical evidence is presented which supports the hypothesis that the social composition of the population in each town has become the major determinant of the ability of these towns to attract additional migrants.
Regional Inequalities in Israel
Authors: Shachar A , Lipshitz G
Published: October 2006

This paper deals with the magnitude and dynamics of regional inequalities in Israel during the period 1962–1976. Economic well-being is measured by regional motorization rates, which were found to be highly correlated with personal income levels. Various measures point towards a divergence in regional inequalities, although the rates of change of these measures are declining with time. An analysis of the spatial pattern of the regional levels of economic well-being indicates a well-defined core–periphery structure which is significantly stable over time. Spread and backwash effects are examined within the labour markets of the primary and secondary cores. This examination shows that backwash effects were the dominant factor in shaping the space-economy within the regional systems. The levels of economic well-being within the labour markets were found to be positively related to the levels of the respective cores. From a policy point of view it can be concluded that the persistent pursuit of the national objective of dispersal of population has been concomitant with an increase in the levels of regional inequalities within a national framework, and that backwash effects have caused an increase in the regional imbalances between the cores and their respective peripheries.
Social Needs, Political Representation, and Federal Outlays in the East North Central United States of America
Authors: Hoggart K
Published: October 2006

The objectives of this paper are first, to examine whether the distribution of federal outlays in the USA are responsive to variation in social needs, and second, to establish whether areas with political representatives on key Congressional committees receive higher levels of federal outlays than might be expected given their needs and resources. The study region is the East North Central region, the observation units are counties, and the outlays examined are for the Departments of Agriculture, and Health, Education and Welfare (to investigate the effects of political representatives), as well as total outlay levels (for evaluating responsiveness to social needs). The study's conclusions are that total outlays are poorly related to social needs, although outlays for specific departments (Agriculture and Health, Education and Welfare) are strongly related, and that political representation has little impact on the distribution of Agriculture, and Health, Education and Welfare outlays in the study area.
A Hicksian Model of Labour Turnover and Local Wage Determination
Authors: Clark G L
Published: October 2006

Employers have a variety of reasons for attempting to stabilize turnover in their labour force. For example, specific skill requirements, the added costs of training inherent in hiring new workers, and the absolute demand for labour may stimulate firms to minimize labour turnover. One way of reducing turnover is for the individual firm to raise its wage rates. However, depending upon the relative tightness of the local labour market (reflected in the rates of hiring and unemployment), this could result in widespread wage competition amongst employers and general increases in the aggregate local wage rate. The significance of quits, hires, and unemployment are explored, in an attempt to explain differential urban wage inflation in the United States. Emphasis is placed on Hicks's model of labour turnover which emphasizes the firm's management of its labour needs. This model is analysed in a time-series framework over the period 1970–1979; a decade of rapid inflation and general stagnation in the United States.
The Environment and Planning of Alaska
Authors: Catanese A J , Snyder J C
Published: October 2006

This paper describes a planning effort that is unique in United States history. Notwithstanding US Constitutional constraints, a joint Federal-State effort attempted to plan for the State of Alaska's 375 million acres of land, following statehood in 1959. The study focuses on the seven-year life of the Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission (FSLUPC) and the competing interests of resource development, environmental preservation, and subsistence life-styles. A consensus decision mode resulted in considerable success in resolving conflicts among competing interests, but failure in consolidating a constituency and developing a land-use plan. The FSLUPC closed its doors in 1979, and in 1980 Congress passed an Alaskan Wilderness Bill the effect of which is so large that it doubles American conservation lands.
Operational Models in Urban Planning
Authors: Webber M J
Published: October 2006

This paper evaluates the role of operational models in urban, physical planning. A theory of planning is proposed and used to guide discussion of the experience of urban development planning in the USA and UK during the last two decades. It is concluded that physical planning is an institution which controls the location and level of public investment in urban infrastructure and which produces plans of the development of urban areas as a means of increasing the profitability and reducing the risks associated with private land development. Operational models are used in this process to provide forecasts of development; the nature of these models can then be deduced.
Identification of a Frequency Distribution: An Application to Duration in Dwelling Tenure
Authors: Crouchley R
Published: October 2006

It is not uncommon in the social sciences to have vague prior substantive theory, and this is illustrated for the distribution describing duration in dwelling tenure. The various discriminating criteria of Pearson and Ord are investigated as a means of identifying a distribution, and the existing method for obtaining the confidence regions to the β1, β2 statistics is reviewed. A means of obtaining the confidence regions/limits for the various discriminating measures based in the sample moments is presented, and the results derived are applied to some data on duration in dwelling tenure.
Modelling the Dynamic Effects of Multiperiod Allocation Decisions
Authors: Truscott W G
Published: October 2006

Decisions regarding the allocation of demand centres to distribution facilities over a multiperiod planning horizon have disjointed single-period implications. However, interperiod effects of assignment decisions are potentially as significant. Often these dynamic forces are neglected in distribution system planning. This paper focuses on approaches for analyzing the consequences of interperiod allocation relationships. A mathematical program is developed to provide a comprehensive treatment of dynamic implications and their interactions with single-period effects. Then, special cases of the model are examined. The paper shows that these specific approaches contain dynamic counterparts of treatments which are used in static (single-period) formulations. The general model and its special cases are the basis of a conceptual structure that is presented as a frame of reference for multiperiod allocation analysis.
An Efficient Approach to the Estimation of Regional Input—Output Multipliers
Authors: West G R
Published: October 2006

Analysts constructing, updating, and/or applying regional input-output tables normally have limited budget resources. Once a prototype table has been produced, it is inefficient to spread these resources evenly over all the cells in order to obtain superior or updated estimates; primary attention should be given to the key sections of the table. This paper demonstrates that it is possible to rank the technical coefficients in order of the importance that errors in these coefficients have on the multipliers. It is then demonstrated how this ranking can be used as an input to an optimization model in order that multiplier accuracy is maximized subject to limited budget resources.
Market-Area Analysis with a Rectangular Grid Network
Authors: Anjomani A
Published: October 2006

In this paper, the case of diamond (hexagon) shaped market areas based on a rectangular (triangular) transportation network has been analyzed, and it has been shown that consideration either of free entry or of no entry cases will result in the diamond (hexagonal) shaped market area being the most profitable shape for such an area. Therefore, this shape of market area will always emerge and in the case of free entry will exhaust the region. Of particular merit is the fact that these market areas are closer to reality. Further, weaknesses in the analyses of Mills-Lav and Greenhut-Ohta were exposed and some corrections made.
The Problem of Aggregation and Distance for Analyses of Accessibility and Access Opportunity in Location-Allocation Models
Authors: Bach L
Published: October 2006

The acceptability of information stemming from analyses of accessibility and access opportunity for social, educational, and cultural infrastructure facilities largely depends on two factors: exactness and efficiency. Both of these factors are influenced by the data bases available for the analyses. This paper will focus on the problem of data requirements for spatial distributions of demand as well as on data requirements for spatial distances with respect to the exactness of the results of analyses and on the efficiency of preparing analyses. The effects of different levels of aggregation and of different types of distance measures are investigated.
Structural Stability and Change in Geographical Space
Authors: Puu T
Published: October 2006

Structural stability and structural change in a continuous two-dimensional model of a space economy are considered, and it is suggested that structural stability of flows or parametric families of flows is a reasonable assumption and secures the robustness of the models constructed. Within the format of continuous flows it is possible to characterize globally the structurally stable flows, by use of the generic theory of differential equations, and to characterize locally, the structural change of flows up to topological equivalence, by use of two-dimensional catastrophe theory.
The Effects of Redevelopment Schemes on Inner-City Manufacturing Activity in Glasgow: Some Evidence from Two Central Development Areas
Authors: Bull P J
Published: October 2006

With evidence on the components of change of manufacturing establishments in two central development area schemes in Glasgow the view expressed in the West Central Scotland Plan that urban redevelopment did not adversely affect manufacturing activity in central Glasgow is contested.
Conjoining an Input-Output Model and a Policy Analysis Model: A Case Study of the Regional Economic Effects of Expanding a Port Facility
Authors: Stevens B H , Treyz G I , Kindahl J K
Published: October 2006

A 484-sector Massachusetts static input-output (MIO) model is conjoined with the Massachusetts Economic Policy Analysis (MEPA) model which includes supply relationships, industrial location responses to changing costs, and a production function allowing substitution among inputs. This makes it possible to draw upon the distinctive features of both models. The technique is demonstrated by a study that analyzes the effect on the Massachusetts economy of the expansion of a container port facility at Boston. The approach presented here has general applicability to policy analysis and planning studies that require both the detailed regional interindustry interactions captured by a disaggregated input-output model and the cost, price, supply, location, and demand interdependencies which are endogenous in the best regional forecasting and policy simulation models.
Demographic-Economic Forecasting within an Activity-Commodity Framework: Some Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Results
Authors: Batey P W J , Madden M
Published: October 2006

This paper presents a methodology which allows demographic and economic forecasting models to be integrated in a consistent manner. By embedding a conventional static Leontief input-output model within an activity analysis framework, a number of interesting results are obtained. First, a new series of production, income, and employment multipliers is derived which offers considerable advantages over those currently in use. Second, partitioning the framework provides fresh insights into the complex relationships between demographic and economic variables. These developments in methodology are tested in a case study of Mersey side where an operational version of the framework is applied in a forecasting context.
A Unifying Framework for Public Facility Location Problems—Part 2: Some New Models and Extensions
Authors: Leonardi G
Published: October 2006

This second part of the paper describes mathematical models for static, single-service, facility location problems and their possible extensions and improvements. The first part that appeared in the last issue (pages 1001–1028) gave a nontechnical description of the proposed general framework for analyzing location problems.
The Interpretation of House Price Statistics for the United Kingdom
Authors: Fleming M C , Nellis J G
Published: October 2006

A survey is made of all official and unofficial sources of statistics on house prices in the UK. This is followed by a critical appraisal of the evidence they provide about national and regional price levels and about house price inflation. Attention is focused on two crucial factors: the representativeness of the data and the heterogeneity of houses. It is concluded that incomplete coverage of all house transactions means that most series tend to overstate price levels and that intertemporal and interregional comparisons are sensitive to the composition by type of houses traded.
Law, the State, and the Spatial Integration of the United States
Authors: Clark G L
Published: October 2006

The rules and standards of law both regulate behavior (individual or group) and provide the context within which behavior occurs. By means of a hermeneutic framework, the spatial integration of the United States economy is interpreted in terms of the structure and application of laws adjudicated by the Supreme Court. Emphasis is placed, in particular, upon the substantive aspects of law which have provided the conditions for national economic growth. It is argued that spatial integration can be derived as an outcome from earlier debates between competing classes of the revolutionary era and from an agreement between these classes that the basic unit of American society would be the individual. However, it is also shown that control of the state by the ruling class also enabled the implementation of a policy of spatial integration as part of an overall agenda of national economic development. Evidence in support of this interpretation is drawn from Supreme Court decisions relating, for example, to the Commerce Clause and relative legal autonomy of the local state.
Local Implementation Strategies in the Urban Built Environment
Authors: Fincher Ruth
Published: October 2006

The implementation of built-environment policies by the local state in the City of Boston in the last three decades is examined, and the contextual limits placed on the local state in devising and implementing policies is discussed. Two Boston neighborhoods, the Waterfront and the South End, are introduced as political spaces whose experience identifies three themes in the local state's management of possibly contentious built-environment policies: the encouragement of citizens' interest groups; the spatially differential targeting of public investment; and the awarding of advantage to large-scale capital.
Local Land-Development Policies and Urban Housing Values
Authors: Wolch Jennifer R , Gabriel S A
Published: October 2006

This paper evaluates the urban housing price impacts of local state land-development policy, and suggests that local governments have multiple objectives and constraints which shape their policy stance toward growth. Based on analyses of San Francisco Bay Area suburban cities, we find that land-use policies of the local state have important housing price effects, with restrictive policies increasing average home values by approximately 15%. Findings on local motivations for use of land-use controls suggest that such policies are adopted to protect private and public consumption levels of residents and thus insure reproduction of social relations. However, constraints on development policy, deriving from historical conditions of urbanization and configuration of the local economic base; development policies of neighboring jurisdictions; and past development policies in a locality, are important factors shaping land-development policy of the local state.
The Housing Corporation, 1974–1979: An Example of State Housing Policy in Britain
Authors: Kirby A
Published: October 2006

This paper consists of three main sections. The first provides a brief outline of the form and activities of the British Housing Corporation, a state housing agency. The second attempts to account for the growth of the Corporation, drawing on various models of state behaviour. The final section assesses the geographical implications of the Corporation's investment within the United Kingdom.
Location of Firms with Input Transactions
Authors: Fujita M
Published: October 2006

The locations of two firms with input-output linkages are studied. First, from a study of the equilibrium locations it is shown that there are generally an infinite number of equilibrium locational patterns for such a system, and it is argued that the actual equilibrium locations can only be determined by considering the dynamic process of the equilibrium. Then, the optimal locations are obtained, and compared with equilibrium locations. A mechanical model and a programming model are proposed to obtain the optimal locations and the equilibrium locations, respectively.
Testing a Disaggregated Residential Location Model with External Zones in the Amersfoort Region
Authors: Floor H , de Jong T
Published: October 2006

An analysis is made of the consequences of some extensions of a residential location model on the performance of the model. These extensions are disaggregation, quasidynamics, and the introduction of external zones. The model is calibrated for the Amersfoort region, and the results are compared with home-survey data for 1975.
Log-Linear Modelling of Geographical Contingency Tables
Authors: Fingleton B
Published: October 2006

Salient features are outlined of hierarchical log-linear models appropriate to the analysis of associations between categorical variables. Comparisons are made with alternative methods, and the rationale of the Aitkin simultaneous test procedure for minimal model selection is discussed in detail and compared with screening and stepwise selection strategies.
The Analysis of Motivation-Specific Migration Streams
Authors: Gordon I
Published: October 2006

This paper investigates the usefulness in migration analysis of disaggregation according to motives, constraints, and/or search procedures. A two-stream gravity model distinguishing between ‘long-distance’ and ‘short-distance’ migrational types is developed and applied to the analysis of intercounty flows in Great Britain, by means of a distance cut-off algorithm. The results confirm the distinctiveness and importance of these two streams which account for almost all the variance in flows at the intercounty level. The two streams are shown to respond differentially to environmental, housing, and employment factors. The two polarised types of movement cannot be equated simply with particular motives, however, but reflect basic decisions about search strategy.
Travel Demand and the Evaluation of Transportation System Change: A Reconsideration of the Random Utility Approach
Authors: Sasaki K
Published: October 2006

Williams formulated a consistent analytic representation of the trip decision process and developed compatible measures of user benefit arising from the transportation system change within the framework of random utility theory. Here, the random utility approach is reconsidered and reformulated with the aim of describing individual behavior more precisely and more realistically. The model introduces explicitly the income-time constraint imposed on an individual and permits an individual to choose multiple destinations and determine the number of trips freely. Special attention is also paid to the form of utility function which allows the consumer's surplus to be rigorously defined and to be exactly measured by the area under the demand curve.
Land Use in Leeds 1957–1976: Two Decades of Change in a British City
Authors: Dickinson G C , Shaw M G
Published: October 2006

How do development and change occur in British cities, which have been subjected for over thirty years to a planning system which has generally adopted a restraining attitude to urban growth? A point-sampling technique is used to provide answers to this question for one city, Leeds, during the period 1957–1976. The approach is through the basic questions “how much change was there?”, “where did the land for change come from?”, “who caused the change?”, and “how was it effected?”. Reuse of land already in urban use, or lying unused, is seen to be a far more important contributor to change than is extension by development on agricultural land, and the contribution of unused land in particular to the dynamic aspects of urban change is found to be both complex and important.
Integration of Multiregional Models for Policy Analysis
Authors: Isard W , Anselin L
Published: October 2006

An initial conceptual framework is presented for the integration of a number of multi-regional models, and a modular structure is outlined. This structure consists of a national econometric model; an integrated comparative cost, industrial complex, input-output, and programming module; a transportation module; a demographic module; a multiregion econometric module; and a factor demand-investment supply econometric module. Fruitful directions for partial or full integration of these modules are suggested with particular emphasis on intermodule and intramodule linkages and on several necessary consistency checks.
Domains of Structural Stability for Minimal-Cost Discrete Flows with Reference to the Hierarchical Central-Place Models
Authors: Sonis M
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this paper is to construct the domains of structural stability for optimal discrete flows, to compare the discrete case with the case of the Beckmann model of continuous flows, and to find the structurally stable minimal-cost flows for the hierarchical central-place models. The mathematical basis for this construction is the sensitivity analysis of the linear programming problem instead of the generic theory of differential equations and the catastrophe theory in the continuous case.

The domain of structural stability is the Cartesian product of the domain (cone) of the existence of flow with a preset topological structure and the domain (wedge) of optimality of the flow with the same structure.

A detailed algorithm for the construction of these domains of structural stability is given. This algorithm leads to the vector generalization of method of potentials of Kantorovitch-Dantzig for the transportation problem and also gives a description of structural change for dynamic flows.

As an application, the generalized (Christaller-Parr) hierarchical three-level central-place models are investigated, for which structurally stable optimal flows exist.
Disequilibrium Adjustment Processes in the Local Tax-Expenditure System
Authors: Lim G C
Published: October 2006

Various studies have examined the equilibrium relationship between the local public sector and residential location. However, little is known about the disequilibrium adjustment processes in the provision of local public services. The present paper analyzes the dynamic process of disequilibrium adjustments in the local public sector in a realistic context. After deriving conditions for optimal provision of local services, factors displacing the initial equilibrium are analyzed, and the processes of adjustment are discussed.
Exploring Decisions in Public Policymaking: Strategic Allocation, Individual Allocation, and Simulation
Authors: Clarke M , Prentice R
Published: October 2006

The allocation of scarce resources in public policy planning is seen to operate at a number of different levels: the strategic allocation of resources between and within different types of broad service types and categories of need; the allocation of services to individuals most in need of them; and the allocation of resources over time in response to changing demand.

In this paper we argue that although these processes are related different methods need to be employed at each stage. It is suggested that whereas programming models are suitable for strategic decisions a more detailed consideration of individual attributes is required for individual allocation. For forecasting the impact of present allocation policies and determining future levels of needs a microsimulation model is developed. The integration of the different methodologies outlined is sought, and the models developed in a way which allows policymakers to explore the consequences of their decisions. It is thus seen to allow planners to search the decision space in which they operate and pick the best set of policies considered.
On Population Growth of Cities in a Region: A Stochastic Nonlinear Model
Authors: Sikdar P K , Karmeshu P K
Published: October 2006

A stochastic migration model describing the population dynamics in a region is investigated. The model is described by a pair of coupled differential equations with state-dependent stochasticity. Explicit expressions for the time evolution of the moments for the population sizes of cities are obtained from the Fokker-Planck equation. The Stratonovich calculus is employed in the analysis.
A Family of Hypothesis Tests for a Collection of Short Event Series with an Application to Female Employment Participation
Authors: Davies R B , Crouchley R , Pickles A R
Published: October 2006

Data comprising a collection of short event series are increasingly encountered in social science research. Such series may be expected to be heterogeneous and nonstationary precluding conventional inferential methods. Tests are presented for homogeneity, nonstationarity, and zero order, with appropriate controls. The test procedures are based upon the subdivision of each series into a ‘conditioning sequence’ and an ‘experimental observation’. The tests are applied to data on labour force participation by married women.
Spatial Aggregation in Gravity Models: 3. Two-Dimensional Trip Distribution and Location Models
Authors: Batty M , Sikdar P K
Published: October 2006

This is the third of four papers and in it the methodology for analysing spatial aggregation in gravity models outlined in the first paper is further elaborated. In the second paper, the methodology was applied to one-dimensional spatial interaction models of the population density type, with some success; and here it is proposed to apply the methodology to two-dimensional spatial interaction models using the same data base, the Reading (UK) region. Accordingly, the methodology is first stated for linking information in data measured by spatial entropy to the parameters of models generated from spatial entropy. The family of four spatial interaction models due to Cordey-Hayes and Wilson is then derived, the canonical forms of their associated spatial entropy functions presented, and the analytic properties of such models explored. These four models are then fitted to spatial aggregations of the Reading region, and various empirical relationships between their entropies and parameters described. The results are not as regular as those of the models in the second paper because of more variable model performance, but nevertheless a means of approximating scale parameters from data based on the work of Kirby is outlined. This enables estimates of the dispersion parameters to be made through the canonical forms. Although the results are poor because of model performance, the methodology outlined here serves as a basis for the more fully fledged application to be discussed in the final paper.
A Spatial Interaction Model with the Distance Decay Function Based on a Random Variable Distribution
Authors: Mazurkiewicz L
Published: October 2006

A geometric distribution is used as the distance decay function in a spatial-interaction model, and the model based on this distribution is shown to have a production-constrained form.
A Representative Need Index of Local Authority Expenditure in England and Wales 1974/1975–1980/1981
Authors: Bennett R J
Published: October 2006

Six main approaches to the determination of the expenditure needs of the local authorities in England and Wales are discussed. A representative needs index is then chosen which is based on multiplying the average local authority service costs by the size of client group and summing over each service group in any authority. This index is estimated for 1974/1975–1980/1981 both for discretionary and for nondiscretionary services. The index is then compared with the grant-related expenditure (GRE) used for rate support grant purposes in 1981/1982. Discrepancies are shown to arise from particular choices of GRE assessment which exclude the large discretionary spending of some large central cities and some Inner London boroughs.
The Financial Health of Local Authorities in England and Wales: Resource and Expenditure Position 1974/1975–1980/1981
Authors: Bennett R J
Published: October 2006

This paper describes the spatial distribution of tax base, local expenditures, and local tax rates over the period from 1974/1975 to 1980/1981. The paper then analyses the extent to which resource and expenditure patterns are related to inner-city stress (as measured by partnership and other statutory status following the 1978 Inner Urban Areas legislation) and local political party colour. From the use of analysis of covariance methods, the conclusion is drawn that urban stress has little relation to resource and expenditure differences, but that local party colour is strongly correlated with expenditure and tax base differences. Deriving from the role of the rate support grant, tax rates show no significant relation to urban status or local party colour.
Accessibility to Hospitals: A Practical Application
Authors: Riley M
Published: October 2006

This paper reports the methods used in Tyne and Wear for the analysis of the relative merits of two alternative locations for a new hospital. Experience gained in the course of the work and more integrated approaches to such analyses are discussed.
Simon's Steady State Assumption: A Critique of Okabe's Critique
Authors: Kim Y-S
Published: October 2006

Simon's model of city-size distributions has been a classical way of explaining the rank-size rule. But the steady state condition he uses to solve his model was shown by Okabe to be mathematically inconsistent with the basic postulates of the model. Okabe is correct as long as the difference between individual city size and total population is small. But when t (total number of population units) is only moderately larger than i (individual city size), as it always would be in actual applications of this model, Simon's steady state assumption is found to be very reasonable. Thus, users of the Simon model need not concern themselves with the fine points and complexities of Okabe's exposition since Simon's steady state assumption holds for any value of t that might be empirically observed.
The Influence of Environmental Factors on Daily Behaviour
Authors: Herz R
Published: October 2006

The question of the extent to which the concrete physical environment allows, causes, or even forces certain forms of behaviour to occur has been excluded from social sciences literature for a long time. More recent studies from environmental psychology show that the built environment, filtered by subjective perceptions, very probably influences the experience and actions of individuals. Town planning and transport planning is orientated towards the needs, demands, or simply the observed behaviour of social groups, segments of the population, and target groups of individuals. However, at this level the evidence about whether a spatiospecific determinant should be added to the sociodemographic, sociocultural, or socioeconomic determinants is very inconclusive. This paper investigates the influence of certain types of area on behaviour, and uses about 70000 weekday records at the level of differentiated groups of people. Everyday behaviour of the groups is quantified by their time budgets and daily programmes with broad groupings of out-of-house activities as well as various indicators of transport mobility. This study shows that with given characteristics of the individual and his household a series of behavioural parameters does not vary in space and thus these parameters can be used as input for behaviourally orientated transport demand models and transferred from one planning area to another.
Constrained Minimum Discrimination Information: A Unifying Tool for Modeling Spatial and Individual Choice Behavior
Authors: Haynes K E , Phillips F Y
Published: October 2006

Mathematical programming and statistical inference are combined in a constrained minimum discrimination information (MDI) method to provide a basis for a wide range of spatial and individual choice behavior problems. This approach offers an alternative to linear and loglinear regression estimation methods as well as probabilistic models of the logit and probit variety. Some logical and computational difficulties inherent in these approaches are resolved. Further, the approach leads endogenously to alternative hypotheses if the null hypothesis is rejected, and hence has implications for the interaction between research that is oriented toward theory construction and applied research that is empirically oriented.
Macroaccessibility and Mesoaccessibility: A Case Study of Sapporo, Japan
Authors: Black J A , Kuranami C , Rimmer P J
Published: October 2006

Accessibility measures are presented which provide a means of understanding the internal spatial structure of radically different urban forms and of assessing the impact on residents of land-use and transport policies. It discusses the results of the application to Sapporo in Japan of a set of measures intended for the comparison of accessibility patterns between, within, and across cities in Pacific Rim countries. After detailing an appropriate conceptual framework attention is focused on measuring the opportunities various groups have of participating in urban activities. Mesoaccessibility and macroaccessibility measures are both used for this purpose. First, Sapporo is put into its regional and national context. Then the mesoaccessibility measures are presented as a means of understanding the local area impact of national and metropolitan level policies. Macroaccessibility measures are illustrated with specific reference to the labour market in 1975 before they are applied as a means of ‘teasing out’ the distributional consequences of the proposed Sapporo regional land-use and transport plan for 1995. The implications of the results of these analyses for Japanese planners are specified, and a reassessment is made of the accessibility measures as the basis for comparative urban studies in the Pacific Rim.
The Spatial Sciences and the State
Authors: Green D G
Published: October 2006

This paper responds to an essay by Dear entitled “The state: a research agenda” published in a special issue of Environment and Planning A on ‘the state, the law, and the spatial sciences’. The narrowness of Dear's proposed research programme is criticised, and two additional questions for students of the spatial sciences are raised: is a nonsectional state feasible, and to what extent could urban services be supplied by mutual aid rather than by governments or commercial interests?