bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Multiple testing for bioequivalence with pharmacokinetic data in 2 × 2 crossover designs
Authors: Chen Yuh‐Ing , Huang Chi‐Shen
Published: September 2009

To evaluate globally the average bioequivalence of a test drug to a reference drug in a pharmacokinetic (PK) study under a 2 × 2 crossover design, we consider directly comparing the associated drug concentration–time curves. Statistical models for the drug concentrations are suggested when the concentrations measured at different time points are distributed according to a generalized gamma distribution and the mean concentrations over time is described by a one‐compartment PK model. A multiple test based on the supreme distance between the two curves over the time interval under study is then proposed for testing the equivalence of the two drug concentration–time curves. The results of a Monte Carlo study suggest that, comparative to the conventional univariate and bivariate tests, the proposed test is more powerful for detecting the global bioequivalence and superior on maintaining its level when the global bioequivalence is violated. The application of the proposed tests is finally illustrated by using the data in a PK study involving two brands of benzbromarone tablets for reducing the uric acid. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
β‐benzene hexachloride induces apoptosis of rat sertoli cells through generation of reactive oxygen species and activation of JNKs and FasL
Authors: Shi Yuqin , Song Yang , Wang Yuping , Wang Yinan , Liang Xianmin , Hu Yafei , Yu Haige , Guan Xia , Cheng Jin , Yang Kedi
Published: September 2009

β‐benzene hexachloride (β‐BHC), the major metabolite of benzene‐hexachloride (BHC), is a weak estrogen‐like chemical. It is a known persistent organic pollutant and male reproductive toxicant. However, the mechanism by which β‐BHC exposure causes male reproductive toxicity remains unknown. In the present study, rat Sertoli cells were used to investigate the molecular mechanism involved in β‐BHC‐induced toxicity in male reproductive system. The results indicated that β‐BHC exposure at over 30 μM showed the induction of apoptotic cell death. β‐BHC could induce elevation in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, increase in the leakage rate of LDH and MDA level, and decrease in SOD activity. In addition, there was an increase in the cellular levels of phospho‐JNKs and FasL in the β‐BHC‐induced apoptosis; and a significant reduction of procaspase‐3 and ‐8 was observed over 30‐μM β‐BHC treatment. The translocation of NF‐κB enhanced with the increase of concentration of β‐BHC. Furthermore, NAC administration, a scavenger of ROS, reversed β‐BHC‐induced apoptosis effects via inhibition of JNKs activation, FasL expression, and NF‐κB translocation. These results lead us to speculate that ROS generation may play a critical role in the initiation of β‐BHC‐induced apoptosis by activation of the JNKs, translocation of NF‐κB, expression of FasL, and further activation of caspase cascade. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 26: 124–135, 2011.
The Health and Mortality of Women and Children, 1850–1860
Authors: Steckel Richard H.
Published: September 2009

I investigate health as determined by nonsurvival in manuscript schedules of families matched in successive censuses. Losses were systematically greater for infants of the unskilled and of residents in large cities; for young children who lived on the frontier or had more young siblings; and for women who lived on the frontier or in the South. The findings have implications for fertility studies based on child-woman ratios, estimation of interregional migration, generality of regional mortality studies, slave-white differences in health, the modern rise of population, and wealth estimation from probate records.
The Remarkable Efficiency of the Dollar-Sterling Gold Standard, 1890–1906
Authors: Officer Lawrence H.
Published: September 2009

The article develops a model of gold-standard efficiency in the context of the theory of efficient asset markets. Efficiency is measured by the ratio of experienced disutility to the hypothetical loss under perfect gold arbitrage and neutral exchange-rate speculation. Dollar-sterling gold-point estimates for 1890 to 1906 are generated using the methodology of focusing on the dominant arbitrageurs, the prevailing exchange instrument, and the primary form of gold shipped. Gold- standard efficiency is remarkably high and only marginally below exchange- market efficiency from 1950 to 1966 under Bretton Woods.
Technological Adaptation in Canadian Manufacturing, 1900–1929
Authors: Wylie Peter J.
Published: September 2009

This article estimates biases to technical change in Canadian manufacturing from 1900 to 1929, and compares these to estimates of biased technical change in U.S. manufacturing. Significant differences are found between similar industries in the two countries, indicating that Canadian manufacturers did not use U.S. technology in unaltered fashion, but adapted it to be more cost efficient under Canadian factor market conditions.
Emigration and the Standard of Living: The Seventeenth Century Chesapeake
Authors: Carr Lois Green
Published: September 2009

Seventeenth-century English immigrants to the Chesapeake and their children experienced a trade-off. They died early and raised few children who survived to adulthood, most worked harder than in England at more boring tasks, and, except for food, they had a material standard of living inferior to what the homeland could offer at equivalent levels of wealth; but people ate well, there was work for all, and until late in the century the poor who lived long enough found opportunities not available in England to exercise control of their lives—opportunities to acquire land and the economic independence and community standing that it brought.
Last Hired, First Fired? Unemployment and Urban Black Workers During the Great Depression
Authors: Sundstrom William A.
Published: September 2009

Throughout the Great Depression, the unemployment rates of blacks exceeded those of whites in urban areas of both North and South. Among men, this difference was largely due to racial differences in occupational status, whereas among women, unemployment rates were dramatically higher for blacks even within specific occupations. The occupational pattern of the unemployment gap suggests that labor market discrimination played a role, especially in unskilled service jobs.
“Square Deal” or Raw Deal? Market Compensation for Workplace Disamenities, 1884–1903
Authors: Fishback Price V. , Kantor Shawn Everett
Published: September 2009

Early twentieth-century social reformers claimed that public insurance was necessary because employers ignored the financial needs of their unemployed, injured, or ill workers. Reformers dismissed the idea that competition in the labor market would boost the wages of workers who faced greater chances of job-related financial distress. This article reports a test of the compensating-wage-difference hypothesis on wage samples of men, women, and children from 1884 to 1903. We found mixed support for the reformers' claims: unemployment risk tended to be fully compensated; accident risk was only partially compensated; and occupational illness went unremunerated.
The Best and Worst of Currencies: Seigniorage and Currency Policy in Spain, 1597–1650
Authors: Motomura Akira
Published: September 2009

The Spanish Monarchy pursued a rational policy of price discrimination among its Castilian currencies while financing its early-seventeenth-century wars. Large-denomination gold and silver coins circulated internationally, forcing the Monarchy to act more competitively and not seek additional short-run revenue. In contrast, petty coinage was a local monopoly. The Monarchy raised seigniorage rates and issued large quantities, generating large revenues. The nominal petty money stock grew rapidly, then fluctuated. The real petty money stock grew, then varied little as petty currency depreciation dampened nominal changes.
The Perils of Lifetime Employment Systems: Productivity Advance in the Indian and Japanese Textile Industries, 1920–1938
Authors: Wolcott Susan
Published: September 2009

In the interwar period, Japanese textile firms were able to greatly increase labor efficiency and become the world's main exporter of cotton textiles. Meanwhile, the Indian industry stagnated and was forced to retreat behind tariff walls. This paper argues that the flexibility of the Japanese work force stemmed from its high turnover; the Indian laborers were collectively inflexible in defending lifetime careers against technical changes that reduced labor demand. As the industry requires only a few easily acquired skills, a committed work force was actually a disadvantage to Indian management.
Wage Compression and Wage Inequality Between Black and White Males in the United States, 1940–1960
Authors: Maloney Thomas N.
Published: September 2009

The gap between the mean wages of black men and white men in the United States narrowed substantially between 1940 and 1950. There was, however, almost no change in this wage gap between 1950 and 1960. Some of this discontinuity in the path of black progress can be explained by general changes in the wage structure—wage compression in the 1940s and slight expansion in the 1950s. However, most of the gains of the 1940s were driven by race-specific factors, including increasing relative wages controlling for worker characteristics. These race-specific gains ceased in the 1950s.
The Savings of Ordinary Americans: The Philadelphia Saving Fund Society in the Mid-Nineteenth Century
Authors: Alter George , Goldin Claudia , Rotella Elyce
Published: September 2009

We explore the savings behavior of ordinary Americans through their accounts at the Philadelphia Saving Fund Society, the oldest mutual savings bank in the United States. Our sample contains all 2,374 accounts opened in 1850. Savings accounts were generally brief affairs, but median balances mounted to about three-quarters of annual income in three years. Deposits and withdrawals were infrequent, but substantial. Only female servants, as a group, used their accounts for life-cycle savings, eventually amassing large nest eggs. Men often used them to hold funds before acquiring physical property. We estimate saving rates between 10 and 15 percent on active accounts.
Married Women's Property Laws and Female Commercial Activity: Evidence from United States Patent Records, 1790–1895
Authors: Khan B. Zorina
Published: September 2009

Nineteenth-century laws granted wives previously withheld rights to their own property and earnings as well as liability for debts and contracts. I use 4,198 women's patents to assess whether these laws encouraged greater female commercial activity. Patentees were motivated by potential profits and were responsive to market incentives. Women's patenting jumped significantly in states with legal reforms and was lowest in states without such laws. Much of the subsequent increase occurred in metropolitan centers where property rights were of greater concern. Thus, by reducing transactions costs and increasing expected benefits, legal reforms arguably stimulated women's investments in patenting and commercial activities.
Two Views of the British Industrial Revolution
Authors: Temin Peter
Published: September 2009

There are two views of the British Industrial Revolution in the literature today. The more traditional description sees the Industrial Revolution as a broad change in the British economy and society. This broad view of the Industrial Revolution has been challenged by Crafts and Harley who see the Industrial Revolution as the result of technical change in only a few industries. This article presents a test of these views using the Ricardian model of international trade with many goods. British trade data are used to implement the test and discriminate between the two views of the Industrial Revolution.
Bourgeois Virtue and the History ofPandS
Authors: McCloskey Deirdre N.
Published: September 2009

Since the triumph of a business culture a century and half ago the businessman has been scorned, and so the phrase “bourgeois virtue” sounds like an oxymoron. Economists since Bentham have believed that anyway virtue is beside the point: what matters for explanation is Prudence. But this is false in many circumstances, even strictly economic circumstances. An economic history that insists on Prudence Alone is misspecified, and will produce biased coefficients. And it will not face candidly the central task of economic history, an apology for or a criticism of a bourgeois society.
Nativity and Wealth in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Cities
Authors: Conley Timothy G. , Galenson David W.
Published: September 2009

This article uses evidence from the manuscripts of the 1860 federal census to analyze the wealth of adult males in Boston, New York, Chicago, and Indianapolis. Previous multivariate analyses of wealth from the census have been flawed by reliance on ordinary least squares; we instead use quantile regression. Immigrants fared considerably better in the Midwest than the East: immigrants in the midwestern cities held more wealth than their eastern counterparts, both absolutely and relative to the native-born in their respective cities. We explore the causes of these differences and their consequences for nineteenth-century Americans and their communities.
To Raise the Golden Anchor? Financial Crises and Uncertainty During the Great Depression
Authors: Ferderer J. Peter , Zalewski David A.
Published: September 2009

This study examines the interplay between financial crises, uncertainty, and economic growth during the interwar period. Comparing the experiences of ten countries, we provide evidence that reductions in the credibility of a country's commitment to the gold standard generated capital flight and higher interest rate volatility. This volatility, in turn, was inversely correlated with economic growth. These results suggest that financial crises helped propagate the Great Depression, in part, by increasing uncertainty.
A Troublesome Caste: Height and Nutrition of Antebellum Virginia's Rural Free Blacks
Authors: Bodenhorn Howard
Published: September 2009

Formal rules and informal customs created innumerable obstacles to the socioeconomic advance of Virginia's free black population. Laws prohibited free blacks from some activities and occupations and restricted their participation in others. Racism and Klan-like terrorism also made advancement difficult. Despite these disadvantages, Virginia's free black population fared rather well. They grew nearly as tall as white Americans and towered over contemporaiy Europeans. Primary sources and the secondary literature are consistent with the anthropometric evidence.
The Great Strike at Nushagak Station, 1951: Institutional Gridlock
Authors: Hughes Jonathan
Published: September 2009

In the summer of 1951 the Bering Sea fishermen's union strike against the Bristol Bay salmon packers signaled the end of old-time industrial labor relations there. The issues of the strike and its conduct offer a case study of deteriorating symbiosis in industrial relations, which is not untypical elsewhere in American industry. This paper concentrates on events in 1951 and 1952 at a remote cannery site on the Nushagak River as a partial microcosm of larger evolutionary consequences in American industry.
Factors, Bankers, and Masters: Class Relations in the Antebellum South
Authors: Feiner Susan
Published: September 2009

The paper will show how the Marxian concept of class can be applied to the processes of slavery in the American antebellum South. The use of the notion of classes, and particularly the reconceptualized concepts of fundamental and subsumed class processes, provides an alternative to the received non-Marxian categories of plantation capitalism and planter hegemony. These concepts are developed and applied to Southern class conflicts over both state banking and national monetary policy. Competition among various classes is shown to have had significant influences on the nature of these conflicts.
Primitive Accumulation in the United States: The Interaction between Capitalist and Noncoapitalist Class Relations in Seventeenth-Century Massachusetts
Authors: Weiss Rona S.
Published: September 2009

Capitalist relations do not develop “naturally,” nor are the preconditions for capitalism assured by the rise of markets alone. This paper takes seventeenth–century Massachusetts as a case in point. Class relations there were noncapitalist. A brief exploration of these class relations as well as their economic, political, and cultural conditions of existence will show how complex interaction between classes produced the conditions necessary for capitalism.
The Proximate Determinants of Domestic Investment in Victorian Britain
Authors: Eichengreen Barry J.
Published: September 2009

This paper attempts to shed new light on the proximate determinants of domestic investment in Victorian Britain by focusing on the relationship between asset markets and investment behavior. It demonstrates that Victorian investment fluctuations were associated with divergences between the valuation of installed capital as determined in asset markets and the supply price of new capital as determined in commodity markets. After showing how investment fluctuations in Victorian Britain were related to real equity prices, the paper concludes with a summary of findings on the determinants of real share prices.
The Agrarian Depression in Seventeenth-Century Spain
Authors: Weisser Michael R.
Published: September 2009

This article summarizes recent research on the agrarian depression in seventeenth-century Spain, relying primarily upon data from the provinces of Segovia and Toledo. Both regions suffered sustained losses of population and stagnation of production and failed to develop a permanent interior market structure. Due to its reliance upon sheepherding, the Segovian rural economy recovered slightly by the end of the century, but in Toledo, an economy almost entirely dependent upon grain production, demographic and economic indices were negative throughout the entire period.
The Rise of the Cotton Industry in California: A Comparative Perspective
Authors: Musoke Moses S. , Olmstead Alan L.
Published: September 2009

By 1950 cotton had emerged as one of California's leading crops and California had become an important cotton producing state. The institutional and environmental settings associated with cotton cultivation in California differed markedly from those found in the Cotton South. Both institutional conditions, such as the size of farms, and environmental factors, such as the region's dry weather during the harvest season, help explain the more rapid mechanization of picking in California.
The American Challenge of the Twenties: Multinationals and the European Motor Industry
Authors: Foreman-Peck James
Published: September 2009

The different rates of technical progress in Western Europe and the United States, exemplified by the motor industry, created a problem of adjustment in international payments by the 1920s. American direct investment in manufacturing in Europe was a manifestation of technological superiority and a partial solution to the payments problem. The scale of their operations gave the American motor vehicle firms an advantage even in foreign production. An alternative way of closing the technological gap, the transfer of machine tools and trained men from America to Europe, allowed the European motor vehicle producers to compete without becoming entirely American-owned.
The Life Cycle in Economic History
Authors: Kearl J. R. , Pope Clayne L.
Published: September 2009

The life cycles of income and wealth form important traces of the economic history of households. Comparisons of cross-sectional estimates of the age-wealth profiles from 1774 to 1962 reveal little change in the basic pattern although crosssectional age-income or earnings profiles peak later in modern periods because of the increased investment in human capital.The wealth-income ratio appears to be declining. Multivariate regressions for Utah households show wealth-income patterns consistent with a life cycle model based on smoothing of consumption with little interaction between age and other determinants of economic position. Foreign birth has a positive effect on income while reducing wealth.
Commercialization of Agriculture and Rural Living Standards: El Palmar, Colombia, 1960–1979
Authors: Reinhardt Nola
Published: September 2009

The effect of the commercialization of traditional agriculture on the levels of living of peasant households is examined through a case study of El Palmar, Colombia. While there appear to have been widespread, positive, short-mn effects, the long-run consequences appear to be more problematic. It is suggested that commercialization and its consequences are more complex than can be grasped from available aggregate data, and a historical, case-study approach to this topic is recommended to complement macroeconomic studies.
Dollar-Sterling Mint Parity and Exchange Rates, 1791–1834
Authors: Officer Lawrence H.
Published: September 2009

Two series of the dollar-sterling exchange rate are presented for the 1791–1834 period, both series based on actual transactions and corrected for the component of interest in bills of exchange and for episodes of floating exchange rates. Expressed as deviations from a true parity measure and conjoined with existing data for 1835–1900, the series permit an examination of the stability of the gold points over the entire nineteenth century. The steady narrowing of metallic points, previously found for 1835–1900 and confirmed here, does not apply to the earlier period; but evidence suggests that movement to an integrated market in foreign exchange developed in the 1820s.
Agriculture and Cottage Industry: Redefining the Causes of Proto-Industrialization
Authors: Gullickson Gay L.
Published: September 2009

Prevailing theory regards subsistence or pastoral agriculture as a prerequisite for the spread of proto-industry. Commercial agriculture and proto-industrialization are viewed as incompatible. The expansion of the cotton industry in the pays de Caux, a fertile cereal-producing region in Normandy, contradicts the theory and indicates that seasonal unemployment and landleness, not subsistence agriculture, were the distinguishing features of proto-industrial regions. When these regions were located near market towns, the peasants' need for off-season work complemented the growing demand of eighteenth-century merchants for a large labor supply and determined the location of proto-industries.
Life Under Pressure: France and England, 1670–1870
Authors: Weir David R.
Published: September 2009

Comparative methods are used to examine two hypotheses derived from Wrigley and Schofield's Population History of England. Contrary to their expectations, economic shocks produced greater marriage responses in France than in England, and the early onset of family limitation in France did not increase the responsiveness of marital fertility to living standards in the aggregate. Mortality was strongly dependent on economic shocks only in France prior to 1740. The results question the usefulness of Maithusian models for early modern European economic history.
Economic Growth in France and Britain, 1830–1910: A Review of the Evidence
Authors: Crafts N. F. R.
Published: September 2009

Recent revisionist treatments of nineteenth-century French economic growth are examined and reveal that the pattern of economic growth in France was indeed substantially different from the unusual pattern in Great Britain. Labor productivity in French industry was probably lower than in Britain, contrary to the claims of O'Brien and Keyder, and neither growth of per capita income nor the level of income in France in 1910 was remarkable. The article thus supports a position between that of early writers and that of the recent revisionists.
On the Profitability of Russian Serfdom
Authors: Domar Evsey D. , Machina Mark J.
Published: September 2009

The paper examines the thesis, popular among Russian Marxists, that Russian serfdom had become unprofitable for the serfowners before the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. Four theoretical models are constructed in order to determine the effects on serfdom of population growth, rise in grain prices, certain restrictions on the serfs' labor obligations, and the replacement of labor services with money payments. Prices of serfs for the several regions and provinces are estimated by regression.With the exception of Lithuania, neither the theoretical
nor the empirical results confirm the Marxist hypothesis.
Agrarian Change in Seventeenth-Century England: The Economic Historian as Paleontologist
Authors: Kussmaul Ann
Published: September 2009

The seasonality of weddings molded itself to regionally specific patterns of labor in early-modern England. Advantage can thus be taken of the widely available if unlikely source of parish registers of marriages to reveal the timing of regional specialization, defined narrowly as the ability of regions to forgo the production of the staples of local consumption and concentrate on whatever production best suited local resources of land and labor.
Labor Costs, Paternalism, and Loyalty in Southern Agriculture: A Constraint on the Growth of the Welfare State
Authors: Alston Lee J. , Ferrie Joseph P.
Published: September 2009

We examine the role of southern legislators in resisting the early expansion of the welfare state in the 1930s. A desire to keep agricultural labor cheap and dependent on southern landlords motivated the resistance. Dependence promoted a loyal labor force and thereby reduced monitoring costs in the labor-intensive production of cotton. Federal and state welfare programs would have substituted for landlord paternalism and hence made labor less loyal. Evidence on the federal Old-Age and Unemployment Insurance systems and state Old-Age Pension and Mothers' Aid programs are found consistent with our hypothesis.
Self-Sufficiency, Cotton, and Economic Development in the South Carolina Upcountry, 1800–1860
Authors: Ford Lacy K.
Published: September 2009

The expansion of short-staple cotton production into the southern backcountry during the nineteenth century opened opportunities for backcountry planters and yeomen alike. But contrary to the claims made by agricultural reformers, South Carolina upcountry farmers did not neglect the production of foodstuffs. The Upcountry as a whole was self-sufficient in foodstuffs though a significant minority of farms failed to achieve self-sufficiency. Thus a limited local market in foodstuffs developed, but it did little to stimulate the development of towns in the region.
The Numbers Game and the Profitability of the British Trade in Slaves
Authors: Darity William
Published: September 2009

More than a century after its termination the slave trade in Africa remains a controversial topic. In particular, disputes continue to wax strong over the profitability of the Atlantic slave trade, on three major dimensions: first, the degree of competition characteristic of the market in slaves; second, the typical magnitude of the rate of profit achieved by enterprises engaged in the “peculiar” industry; third, the status of Eric Williams's hypothesis on the contribution of the slave trade to European industrialization.
Did the Great Irish Famine Matter?
Authors: Rourke Kevin O'
Published: September 2009

This article tests the hypothesis that price shocks in international commodity markets would by themselves have led to a fall in agricultural labor demand in rural Ireland in the absence of the Famine. This hypothesis has been used by revisionist historians to argue that the Famine was not a structural break between two distinct eras in Irish economic history. In refuting the hypothesis, this article joins a more recent cliometric tradition that has sought to restore the Famine to its rightful place as a major watershed in nineteenth-century Ireland.
The Prudent Peasant: New Findings on Open Fields
Authors: McCloskey Donald N.
Published: September 2009

The usual picture of the medieval peasantry is based on nineteenth-century scholarship, which has proven difficult to dislodge from educated minds. This article continues the revision of an important detail in the picture, the scattering of plots in open fields. Some recent work on the subject by Robert Allen and Gregory Clark is midly disputed, and new evidence is presented that risk avoidance is the key to understanding peasant behavior. The reason for the scattering was not sentiment or socialism. Peasants were not perhaps rational in every detail; but they were prudent.
Redistribution and Long-Term Private Debt in Paris, 1660–1726
Authors: Hoffman Philip T. , Postel-Vinay Gilles , Rosenthal Jean-Laurent
Published: September 2009

Based on a large sample from Parisian notarial records, this article examines the long-term private credit market in Paris in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries and analyzes how it was affected by government-caused redistribution. It estimates the level of private indebtedness from 1662 to 1789, explains the problems the credit market faced, and determines who profited and who lost when government defaults, banking reforms, and currency manipulations struck private borrowers and lenders. It concludes by accounting for the expansion of the credit market in the last half of the eighteenth century.
The Political Economy of Public-Private Compensation Differentials: The Case of Federal Pensions
Authors: Craig Lee A.
Published: September 2009

Numerous empirical studies indicate that, as a result of rent-seeking behavior, public-sector workers are overcompensated relative to their private-sector counterparts, with pensions representing part of the difference. I present a history of the Federal Employees Retirement Act of 1920 and show that rent seeking by federal workers cannot explain several features of the act. Instead, I argue that the act represented an optimal incentive contract between Congress and civil service employees in which civil servants accepted mandatory retirement and a compensating wage differential in exchange for the federal pension plan.
The Total Product of Barbados, 1664–1701
Authors: Elitis David
Published: September 2009

Estimates of total and per capita product for Barbados are derived for 1665 and 1666 and 1699 to 1701 from trade statistics and new data on the distribution and composition of produce entered into the customs books of the island. The share of exports in total product–central to the estimate of total product–is linked to the share of the labor force in the export sector. Per capita Barbados product is estimated to have been one- to two-thirds higher than in England and Wales, and per capita exports are estimated well above those of their Chesapeake counterparts.
Collective Action and Assisting the Poor: The Political Economy of Income Assistance During the Lancashire Cotton Famine
Authors: Kiesling L. Lynne
Published: September 2009

Problems of poverty are exacerbated by uncertainty.1 This uncertainty means that one role of an income-assistance system is insurance, which in the modern world has often taken the form of government welfare or unemployment insurance. However, various private methods have also been important. The episode known as the Lancashire cotton famine reveals this institutional diversity in a region with a dominant geographically concentrated industry. A cyclical downturn in the cotton textile industry coincided with the Union blockade of Southern ports during the American Civil War, bringing four years of distress to the towns in the cotton manufacturing district concentrated in Lancashire. The unanticipated and unprecedented depth and duration of this shock unveiled both the responses of preexisting income assistance institutions and the institutional change that occurred to spread income losses after the cotton famine struck.
The Causes and Origins of the North American Fur Trade Rivalry: 1804–1810
Authors: Carlos Ann
Published: September 2009

Two ideas contrary to those of the existing literature are advanced. First, the early years of the Hudson's Bay Company/Northwest Company duopoly were characterized by passive rather than by predatory competition. Second, the Hudson's Bay Company initiated the changes that eventually led to predatory competition. The Company's financial crisis of 1809–1810 brought about by the decline in demand due to the Napoleonic Wars shocked it out of complacency and into aggressive competition.
Dowry Increase and Increments in Wealth in Medieval Ragusa (Dubrovnik)
Authors: Stuard Susan Mosher
Published: September 2009

Certain data from the familial world have value as a means for charting increments in wealth over the long term. Dowries from medieval Ragusa (Dubrovnik), 1235 to 1460, provide such evidence where other surviving records prove inadequate. Social cohesion and endogamy allowed the noble merchant citizenry to utilize dowries to redistribute personal fortunes broadly, thereby creating broad-based wealth. Comparisons with Italian towns indicate dowry increase was widespread but often served different social and economic purposes. Analyzing dotal strategies at Ragusa allows a glimpse of the means a cohesive elite could employ to promote economic growth.
Race, Educational Attainment, and the 1940 Census
Authors: Margo Robert A.
Published: September 2009

Decreases in the racial schooling gap have been shown to account for one-third of the increase in the black-white income ratio from 1930 to 1970. But the usual measure of the gap, based on census educational attainment data, is flawed. Data on school enrollment rates and months of school attended reveal that schooling levels of blacks born in the late nineteeth century were far lower than census data indicate. With the corrections proposed, the narrowing of the racial schooling gap explains two-thirds of the rise in the black-white income ratio from 1930 to 1970.
British and American Horology: Time to Test Factor-Substitution Models
Authors: Hoke Donald
Published: September 2009

This article examines the productivity of American watch manufacturing technology between 1850 and 1900 as representative of the industries collectively known as the American System of Manufactures. It then compares and contrasts products and responses to market events in British and American horology in the nineteenth century. Finally it weighs factor-substitution models which purport to explain the sharply different British and American responses to mechanization, specifically why the American System of Manufactures is indeed American.
French Colonialism, Imported Technology, and the Handicraft Textile Industry in the Western Sudan, 1898–1918
Authors: Roberts Richard
Published: September 2009

European technology, both practical and managerial arts, had an impact on the well-established cotton and handicraft textile industries of the Western Sudan during the first twenty-five years of colonial rule. But French efforts to shape cotton production for export did not always have the intended results. Indigenous historical processes as well as French colonial policy account for the changes in these industries.
Object Perception, Perceptual Recognition, and That-Perception Introduction
Authors: Hope Vincent
Published: September 2009

The philosophy of perception currently considers how perception relates to action. Some distinctions may help, distinguishing object perception from perceptual recognition, and both from that-perception. Examples are seeing a man, recognising a man, and seeing that there is a man. Perceiving an object controls self-location by its recognising an object, which depends on memory of how it looks, controls looking for it and interacting with it, or not, and that-perceiving controls saying that an object exists. Perception controls action. Milner and Goodale, Jacob and Jeannerod, and Noë are considered.
A REVISION OF SCAPHIUM (STERCULIOIDEAE, MALVACEAE / STERCULIACEAE)
Authors: Wilkie P.
Published: September 2009

Species delimitation in Scaphium (Sterculioideae, Malvaceae/Sterculiaceae) has been problematic and has led to confusion in identification of species. The genus was last revised in 1953 and at that time comprised four species. Since then five new species have been published. This revision of Scaphium recognises eight species, with other names being accounted for in synonymy or by exclusion from the genus.
Multi-word combinations and the emergence of differentiated ordering patterns in early trilingual development
Authors: MONTANARI SIMONA
Published: September 2009

This study examines word order differentiation in early trilingual development through an analysis of the combinations produced by a Tagalog–Spanish–English trilingual child with an MLU of less than 1.5. Same- and mixed-language combinations were tracked down from diary data and weekly recordings to assess (i) whether word order significantly varied cross-linguistically, and (ii) whether mixed utterances originated from vocabulary gaps rather than from an undifferentiated syntax. The results indicate that (a) argument/predicate sequences were differentially ordered depending on their language and following input-dependent preferences, (b) mixed utterances were generally caused by vocabulary gaps, and (c) they displayed the same order as those single-language combinations produced in the same language context. These findings suggest that evidence for early word order differentiation can be found before the appearance of inflectional morphology and even when three – rather than two – languages are being acquired, indicating that trilingual exposure does not slow down the process of differentiation.
Impacts of climate change on historical locust outbreaks in China
Authors: Yu Ge , Shen Huadong , Liu Jian
Published: September 2009

To probe if greenhouse‐effected climate warming strengthens severe locust outbreaks that would cause continental‐scale crop failures in China, we studied their statistical relationships in history and examined the impacts of climate change on the long‐term locust outbreaks. According to analysis for interannual time series during the past 100 years, the most severe locust outbreak years were in the warm‐dry years with warm‐dry summers and warm‐wet winters in the Yellow River–Haihe River region, northern China, and warm‐wet years with warm‐wet springs in the Yangtze River–Huihe River region, southern China. Checking wavelet‐analyzed variance series, these interannual time scale synchronous changes with 2–10 periodicity years were 58–60% among the total locust outbreak years of the past 1000 years. Locust outbreak correlation analysis with decadal time scale temperature proxy and general circulation model–simulated climate during the past 1000 years showed significant correlations in warm‐winter‐half years and in warm‐dry May–June and annual means in the northern region (p < 0.05), where p is probability, and in warm years and warm‐dry August–September years in the southern region (p < 0.10), while these decadal time scale synchronous changes with 20–110 periodicity years were 56–65% of the total locust outbreak years of the past 1000 years. Historical records on “drought locust” were true, as we found that the drought of spring‐summer season in the northern region caused the highest regional locust outbreaks, but it is not a sensitive factor for locust outbreaks in the wet‐humid Yangtze River region. Although warm winter condition is a key factor for locust egg survival and preservation, it works well when winter temperatures reach to −10° to −30°C in the northern region but is not a limiting factor for locust survival in the warm southern region. We found that both interannual and decadal variability of higher temperature changes have led to the highest locust outbreaks in the past 1000 years, so as to suggest that greenhouse‐effected climate warming would increase the severe locust outbreaks in the area.
Improved Measurement of Drug Exposure in the Brain Using Drug-Specific Correction for Residual Blood
Authors: Fridén Markus , Ljungqvist Helena , Middleton Brian , Bredberg Ulf , Hammarlund-Udenaes Margareta
Published: September 2009

A major challenge associated with the determination of the unbound brain-to-plasma concentration ratio of a drug ( Kp,uu,brain), is the error associated with correction for the drug in various vascular spaces of the brain, i.e., in residual blood. The apparent brain vascular spaces of plasma water ( Vwater, 10.3 μL/g brain), plasma proteins ( Vprotein, 7.99 μL/g brain), and the volume of erythrocytes ( Ver, 2.13 μL/g brain) were determined and incorporated into a novel, drug-specific correction model that took the drug-unbound fraction in the plasma ( fu,p) into account. The correction model was successfully applied for the determination of Kp,uu,brainfor indomethacin, loperamide, and moxalactam, which had potential problems associated with correction. The influence on correction of the drug associated with erythrocytes was shown to be minimal. Therefore, it is proposed that correction for residual blood can be performed using an effective plasma space in the brain ( Veff), which is calculated from the measured fu,pof the particular drug as well as from the estimates of Vwaterand Vprotein, which are provided in this study. Furthermore, the results highlight the value of determining Kp,uu,brainwith statistical precision to enable appropriate interpretation of brain exposure for drugs that appear to be restricted to the brain vascular spaces.
Effect of poly(amido)amine (PAMAM) G4 dendrimer on heart and liver mitochondria in an animal model of diabetes
Authors: Labieniec Magdalena , Ulicna Olga , Vancova Olga , Kucharska Jarmila , Gabryelak Teresa , Watala Cezary
Published: September 2009

Diabetes‐induced injury related to hyperglycaemia is associated with impaired function of mitochondria. Regardless of their cytotoxicity, PAMAM [poly(amido)amine] G4 dendrimers lower plasma glucose and suppress long‐term markers of diabetic hyperglycaemia in experimental diabetes. In the present study, we aimed at verifying whether such modulatory effects of PAMAM G4 (0.5 μmol/kg of body weight daily for 60 days) may contribute to improved respiration in heart and liver mitochondria from streptozotocin‐diabetic rats. PAMAM G4 alleviated long‐term markers of hyperglycaemia and reduced blood and tissue lipophilic antioxidants in diabetic animals, but did not restore mitochondrial function. In hearts, but not livers, dendrimers further reduced respiratory function and oxidative phosphorylation. Thus ameliorating effects of PAMAM G4 on glycation and glycoxidation in experimental diabetes are not sufficient to restore the impaired mitochondrial function in diabetes.
Statistical Estimation and Adaptation for Visual Compensation in Object Tracking
Authors: Jung Sangkil , Lee Jinseok , Hong Sangjin
Published: September 2009

The multi-modal tracking model in [ 1 ] enables the on-the-fly error compensation with low complexity by adopting acoustic sensors for the main tracking task and visual sensors for correcting possible tracking errors. The visual compensation process in the model is indispensable to the accurate tracking task in a dynamic object movement.

This article proposes an algorithm to approximate the successful visual compensation rate appearing in the multi-modal tracking system. The acoustic sampling interval of the object signal and the random occurrence of transmission delays of multi-modal data are critical to the compensation process. Therefore, by using the two key factors as parameters, the algorithm called SEA can estimate the successful visual compensation of a tracking system. After we build up a tracking system, it is required to maintain the system at a certain level of tracking accuracy. This task can be done by controlling the aforementioned parameters since the visual compensation influences the tracking accuracy. Thus, we propose another algorithm called SEA2 for the parameter adaptation. The algorithm controls only acoustic sampling interval due to the easiness of adjustment and having the main impact on the success of the visual compensation. From the algorithm validation, we show the SEA properly quantifies the visual compensation process successfully occurring in the tracking scenarios, and SEA2 is feasible for parameter adaptation and achieving the target level of accuracy.
Seroprevalence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1, Hepatitis B Virus, and Hepatitis C Virus in Patients Having Major Surgery
Authors: Montecalvo Marisa A. , Lee M. Sung , DePalma Helene , Wynn Pe Shein , Lowenfels Albert B. , Jorde Ulrich , Wuest David , Klingaman Arlene , O'Brien Thomas A. , Calmann Mark , Wormser Gary P.
Published: September 2009

Objective:

To determine the proportion of major surgical procedures that involve patients having serologic evidence of infection with human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV) in a single center in Westchester County, New York.

Methods:

Blood samples sent for transfusion screening or cross-match were tested blindly for HIV antibody (anti-HIV), HBV core antibody, HBV surface antigen (HBsAg), and HCV antibody (anti-HCV). Demographic characteristics and operation category were correlated with serologic results by univariate and regression analyses.

Results:

Of 1,062 operations evaluated, 71 (6.7%, 95% confidence interval [CI95], 5.2% to 8.4%) were performed on patients with either anti-HIV, HBsAg, or anti-HCV. In 17 (1.6%, CI95, .93% to 2.5%) of these operations, the patient evidenced anti-HIV; in 15 (1.4%, CI95, .79% to 2.3%), HBsAg; and in 55 (5.2%, CI95, 3.9% to 6.7%), anti-HCV. Anti-HCV was detected significantly more often than anti-HIV (5.2% versus 1.6%, P<.001) or HBsAg (5.2% versus 1.4%, P<.001). Operations involving women aged 25 to 44 years had the highest proportion with serologic evidence of at least one of the three viruses (17.2%); of anti-HCV (15.3%); and of anti-HIV (6.7%). Logistic regression analysis found that being in the 25- to 44-year age group was associated significantly with infection with any virus (P<.001) and with anti-HCV (P<.001). The strongest logistic predictors of anti-HIV seropositivity were having anti-HCV seropositivity (P<.001), being age 25 to 44 years (P<.001), and having a general surgery operation (P=.002).

Conclusion:

The prevalences of serologic evidence of at least one of the three viruses (16.7%), of anti-HCV (14.5%), and of anti-HIV (5.6%) are high in patients aged 25 to 44 years undergoing major surgery at a tertiary-care medical center located in Westchester County, New York. Anti-HCV is more prevalent than anti-HIV or HBsAg and is predictive of anti-HIV seropositivity. Testing for anti-HIV alone would have detected only 24% of patients infected with a bloodborne pathogen. These data strongly underscore the importance of universal precautions.
Molecular Aspects of Bacterial Colonization
Authors: Bisno Alan L.
Published: September 2009

Bacteria have developed a wide variety of molecular mechanisms that permit firm adherence to a biologic surface. This review summarizes basic principles involved in this process, as exemplified by adherence of the group A streptococcus to oral epithelium, staphylococci to indwelling prostheses, and Escherichia coli to uroepithelium and enterocytes.