bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Curly-Haired Heroes and the Legacy of Akkadian Seals
Authors: Eppihimer Melissa
Published: July 2019

Cylinder seals potentially played a key role in the visual legacy of Akkadian kingship, but the post-Akkadian history of one Akkadian seal motif, the contest scene, suggests that cylinder seals were not major instruments of image-based responses to and recollections of Akkadian kingship. Instead, the seals’ abundance and accessibility prevented a strict monopolization of their imagery by kings and other agents of cultural memory. Foremost, the colossal lion-wielding heroes from the Neo-Assyrian palace of Sargon II at Khorsabad do not use imagery from Akkadian seals to allude to the historical Akkadian kings, but instead represent a timeless cosmos at home in the Assyrian visual tradition. The tendency to view the Khorsabad heroes as royal figures derives in part from nineteenth-century associations with a legendary king, Gilgamesh.
Allusions and Illusions
Authors: Eppihimer Melissa
Published: July 2019

The visual legacy of Akkadian kingship in Mesopotamia was the product of a series of individual engagements with Akkadian images and memories that collectively suggest a shift over time from direct engagement with Akkadian models to mediated access to Akkadian models. Beyond consolidating the ideas presented in earlier chapters, chapter 6 opens up further lines of inquiry into the relationship between cultural memory and images in the ancient Near East. First, memories of the Akkadians in Hittite Anatolia raise the possibility of a visual legacy in Hittite art. Second, the Akkadian legacy is compared to the legacy of the Ur III kings. In the latter, a set of late Neo-Assyrian “basket-bearer” steles display interpictorial links to Ur III foundation figures.
A Legal History of Intimate Deception
Authors: Hasday Jill Elaine
Published: July 2019

This chapter places modern law in historical context. Over the course of the twentieth century, some legal remedies for intimate deception disappeared or became much less valuable. First, starting in 1935, a wave of state “anti-heart balm” laws abolished causes of action for seduction and breach of promise to marry that some women had been using to sue intimates who deceived them. Courts then interpreted anti-heart balm statutes expansively, relying on the laws to block a wide array of claims against deceptive intimates. Second, changing norms about race and gender left judges unwilling to grant redress for some types of intimate deception that they had once been willing to remediate. Third—and most significant in diminishing the volume of litigation—the advent and swift spread of no-fault divorce starting in 1970 meant that securing an annulment or fault-based divorce because of intimate deception became a much less valuable remedy.
Modern Law’s Sharp Divide Between Deception Within and Outside Intimacy
Authors: Hasday Jill Elaine
Published: July 2019

This chapter explores the judiciary’s routine refusal to allow deceived intimates to access the remedies that are available for deception in other contexts. The persistently differentiated treatment of intimate deception has heightened consequences because courts often define intimacy broadly to include relationships that were not developed or long-lasting. One woman did not even meet the person who targeted her for a relentless campaign of deceit until close to the time when her deceiver was unmasked, but lost her suit because the court concluded that she was deceived within a “personal relationship.” Judges frequently stress their overarching commitment to shielding intimate deceivers even when ruling for the occasional plaintiff. For example, a court will make clear that it is allowing a particular deceived intimate to pursue her suit only because the litigation advances other public policy goals, such as the public health interest in deterring the spread of sexually transmitted disease.
Intimate Deception Outside of Romantic, Sexual, or Marital Relationships
Authors: Hasday Jill Elaine
Published: July 2019

This chapter explores deceit between family members who are not connected to each other as spouses, sexual partners, or romantic interests. The premise that the law should protect intimate deceivers still appears here, but is almost exclusively confined to cases considering parents who have deceived their children—including their adult children. Judges are often unwilling to penalize deceptive parents and quick to blame children for having been duped. When the parties are reversed, however, courts are frequently eager to grant remedies to parents suing deceitful adult children and willing to empower parents to inflict their own penalties on deceptive children below the age of majority. Moreover, when courts move beyond marital and parental relationships to consider deception by other relatives, they routinely presume that the judiciary should treat these family members—deceitful siblings, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, and the like—as if they were unrelated to the people they deceived.
Signaling with Secrets
Authors: Green Brendan Rittenhouse , Long Austin G.
Published: July 2019

How do you credibly communicate a threat that you cannot reveal? This problem is endemic for modern space and cyberspace capabilities, but the challenge of secrecy constraints in cross-domain deterrence is not a new phenomenon. During the late Cold War, nuclear forces deterred conventional attack, theater nuclear forces deterred strategic nuclear escalation, and conventional threats to nuclear capabilities deterred conventional attack. Some of these capabilities, particularly intelligence collection and electronic datalinks, depended on sensitive tactics and technologies that could not be revealed lest the enemy develop effective countermeasures. Secrecy created uncertainty about the true balance of power, which should have made conflict more likely, according to rationalist theory. This chapter shows, however, that the United States was able to use several mechanisms to communicate its capabilities to the Soviet Union without thoroughly compromising the ability to use them. Leveraging historical evidence from senior Soviet leadership, the chapter argues that U.S. nuclear counterforce strategy, which leveraged clandestine capabilities in many domains, nevertheless was effective in shaping Soviet perceptions and influencing Soviet policy.
Linkage Politics
Authors: Shifrinson Joshua R. Itzkowitz
Published: July 2019

Most discussions of cross-domain deterrence focus on variation in the means of coercion, but variation in political ends can be just as consequential. Cross-domain deterrence in the context of linkage politics, in which disparate political interests are tied together to create incentives for favorable outcomes, gives potential adversaries the opportunity to avoid confrontational meeting engagements by playing for time to clarify interests and choosing the means most suited to achieving new goals. A broader diplomatic conception of cross-domain deterrence can also highlight the potential of using financial, institutional, or other nonmilitary actions that render the threat or use of force less attractive. This chapter draws on newly available archival evidence to examine issue linkage politics in the context of changing strategic interests in the case of U.S. efforts to deter Soviet repression in Poland and East Germany at the end of the Cold War. In both cases, U.S. policymakers used diplomatic reassurance and threats of isolation to shape Soviet policy as the United States pressed its new-found political interests in Eastern Europe rather than its traditional preoccupation with military affairs.
Beyond Military Deterrence
Authors: Huang Chin-Hao , Kang David C.
Published: July 2019

States interact in a multiplicity of domains, and most of them are not military in nature. Situating the security domain alongside economic and social domains of interaction among countries is important for creating a full analysis of a state’s priorities in a particular region, or with any particular other state. Failure to appreciate the nonmilitary dimensions of international relations in Asia in particular can lead one to misdiagnose the prospects of conflict and cooperation, potentially leading to tragic spirals. Data on East Asian defense spending over twenty-five years appears to present a puzzle: by many measures, East Asian military expenditures have declined significantly over the past quarter century. This finding appears starkly at odds with the conventional wisdom that Chinese bellicosity, its expenditure on anti-access/area-denial capabilities, and the United States’ reallocation of forces are increasing tensions in the region. Any policy of cross-domain deterrence that fails to appreciate interactions across the full multiplicity of domains of international intercourse risks courting deterrence failure.
Paris, Poets, and Poverty
Authors: Curtis Cathy
Published: July 2019

Freelance income and frugality allowed Nell to embark on her first trip abroad in 1950. In Paris, she felt as though she had stepped into an Impressionist landscape. Bowled over by Chartres Cathedral and the museums, she also visited two of her art idols, Jean Hélion and Fernand Léger. She became involved with a German woman with whom she traveled to Florence and Rome. Back in New York, while living with Midi Garth, she enjoyed hanging out with several of the poets later known as the New York School: Frank O’Hara, John Ashbery, and Kenneth Koch. Bebop records played at her boisterous parties, which often included marathon games of poker. In her painting, she had embarked on a period of experimentation with figurative imagery. Midi and Brook evokes a pastoral scene in Vermont, where the women vacationed. Meanwhile, her freelance work included serving as designer of the Village Voice.
Embracing Sensation
Authors: Curtis Cathy
Published: July 2019

For many months after Dilys’s departure, Nell was inconsolable. Then, when painter Carolyn Harris entered her life, Nell began a long-lasting relationship. Her ongoing concern was hiring, training, and retaining aides. Many women attempted the job, with little success. It was not until the arrival of Jestina Forrester in 1976 that the turnover stopped. But Jestina’s personality and Nell’s demands made for a volatile combination. Carolyn’s own role—lover, studio assistant, cook, and sometime aide—was not an easy one. Her studio time was severely circumscribed by Nell’s needs. The two women would have many serious quarrels, which Nell tried to analyze. During these years, summer visits to the homes of friends in Vermont and upstate New York, and to a rented cottage in Gloucester, yielded many new paintings. Nell’s mother died in 1970, leaving her surprised daughter a nest egg, but her financial situation remained dire throughout the decade.
Introduction
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

The introductory chapter provides an overview of the book, the level of interest in the subject, and how shariah crimes and penalties feature in the larger discourse of Islamic revivalism/resurgence. Then it offers a bird’s-eye view of the major themes and outstanding issues in the book. It also discusses how the Muslim masses experience public sensitivity about scriptural issues. These factors present limitations for researchers generally, with a greater effect perhaps in some Muslim countries more than others.
Islamic Criminal Justice
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

This chapter examines the characteristic features of the Islamic criminal justice system and shows how the Islamic system may differ from other systems. One of the distinctive features of the Islamic system is that it relies on scripture as the basis of juristic doctrines. These doctrines have been developed by scholars in tandem with the cultures and customs of their communities.
Ḥudūd in the Qur’an, Sunnah, and Fiqh
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

This chapter explores the hypothesis that the juristic concept of ḥadd and ḥudūd in the fiqh expositions differ from what they mean in the Qur’an. Some contend that the rigidities attendant in the juristic doctrines are not Qur’anic. The chapter is presented in five sections, discussing ḥudūd in the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and fiqh. It is stated at the outset that nowhere has the Qur’an used ḥudūd in the sense of punishment, fixed or otherwise. Two other sections that follow discuss the role of repentance and remorse in ḥudūd.
Prescribed Ḥudūd Crimes
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

This introductory note introduces the author’s preliminary remarks on ḥudūd crimes and how the succeeding chapters on the subject will address the topics.
Banditry and Terrorism (Ḥirābah, also Qaṭʿ al-Tarı̄q)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Beginning with the meaning and definition of the Qur’anic concept of ḥirābah, the chapter proceeds to examine its meaning in the hadith. Then it discusses juristic discourse on how Muslim scholars understood and interpreted the source data on ḥirābah and the impact of repentance on its punishment thereon. Since ḥirābah is the nearest shariah concept to contemporary terrorism, the chapter also examines contemporary global terrorism and its manifestations, such as suicide bombing, and how Muslim thinkers have responded to these developments. The chapter ends with a fresh assessment of ḥirābah in the Qur’an.
Issues over Apostasy (Riddah)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Three issues are addressed in this chapter: one concerns the definition and scope of apostasy, which is so broad as to clash with basic freedoms of religion and belief. The second issue involves reducing the Qur’anic provision on repentance (tawbah) in the fiqh works to a mere mechanical exercise. And the third issue asks whether apostasy is a prescribed (ḥudūd) crime at all.
Slanderous Accusation (Qadhf)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

The chapter begins with a definition of slander (qadhf) and the typical expressions that carry its meaning. This is followed by juristic opinions on the characteristics of this offence, whether it belongs to the Right of Man or Right of God category of offences, and the conditions attached to the enforcement of punishment.
Discretionary Punishment of Taʿzīr
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Juridically, taʿzīr signifies unquantified punishment for wrongdoing that is not included in ḥudūd and retaliation (qiṣāṣ) offences. This chapter highlights the uses and abuses of taʿzīr in a legal system that subscribes to the principle of legality. It also explains the limits of taʿzīr and proposes reforms for its contemporary applications.
Judicious Policy (Siyāsah Sharʿiyyah)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Siyāsah sharʿiyyah is a broad doctrine of Islamic public law that authorises the ruler to determine the best manner in which shariah can be administered. The ruler often considers a variety of other considerations, some even outside shariah, to realise the objective of good government and justice. There are a set of guidelines, however, in the textual sources and juristic doctrine that signify the correct objectives of siyāsah sharʿiyyah.
Just Retaliation (Qiṣāṣ)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Qiṣāṣ under Islamic law applies to a murderer who kills with the intention to kill or to cause grievous bodily injury. Issues addressed in this chapter relate to how qiṣāṣ is often said to be obsolete, that it is juristically classified as a private law matter, and that a certain gap has developed between scripture and juristic doctrine and whether any reforms may be needed to the law of qiṣāṣ.
Blood Money and Financial Compensation (Diya)
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Whereas qiṣāṣ is the principal punishment for murder, payment of blood money (diya) is the principal punishment for unintentional killing and culpable homicide. Diya can also be paid in murder cases in which the relatives of the victim waive their right to qiṣāṣ and choose to receive blood money. Issues relating to diya arise in the context of modern conditions, especially pertaining to its related concepts of ʿaqīlah and qasamah, quantity of diya, and how is it applied in modern laws.
Hudud Bill of Kelantan 1993
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

The discussion of Islamic criminal law in Malaysia presented in this part is based mainly on a detailed review and analysis of the two State Enactments introduced by the states of Kelantan (1993) and Terengganu (2002). No other state of Malaysia (which consists of a total of thirteen states and a federal territory) has introduced Islamic criminal law, an Islamic state, or ḥudūd. The four short chapters in this part are: chapter XIX, “Hudud Bill of Kelantan 1993: Issues in Rape and Zina, Witnesses, and Confession”; chapter XX, “Hudud and Qisas Bill of Terengganu 2002”; chapter XXI, “Problematics of the Hudud Bills”; and chapter XXII, “The Hudud Debate Continued: An Update 2012–2017.”
Problematics of the Hudud Bills
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

This chapter focuses on problems that the two Hudud bills of Kelantan and Terengganu pose: constitutional issues, position of non-Muslim residents of those states, PAS Islamic party splits and a splinter party (Amanah) emerges, suggestions for amendments are voiced by the politicians, yet debates over issues continued and unresolved issues still remain.
Shariah Penal Code in the Islamic Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

In October 2013, the sultan of Brunei made a widely publicised announcement that he would introduce a shariah penal code in Brunei. The announcement became a worldwide media event. The sultan added that punishments could include amputation for theft, stoning for adultery, and flogging for violations ranging from abortion to consumption of alcohol. As time went by, the initial rigour of these announcements was toned down and a more gradual approach was subsequently put in place.
Islamic Criminal Law in Saudi Arabia
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

On 1 March 1992, King Fahad announced the introduction of three fundamental laws by Royal Orders, which changed the domestic legal and political environment of Saudi Arabia: · The Basic System of Governance; · The Consultative Council Law; and · The Regional Law. The rest of the chapter elaborates these developments.
Shariah Punishments in the Islamic Republic of Iran
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Iran’s experience of Islamic criminal law is closely connected with Ayatollah Khomeini and the Islamic Revolution of 1979. A new constitution and a set of criminal and civil laws were introduced in the early 1980s and eventually culminated in introduction of the Islamic Penal Code 2013. This chapter provides an overview of that code and its provisions on Islamic punishments, the controversies it has generated, and how the legislative bodies and the government took measures to address them.
Islamic Criminal Law in Republic of Nigeria
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

The story of Islamic criminal law in Nigeria is one of uneasy coexistence between the constitution and the state shariah penal codes, especially since 2000 when Zamfara introduced such a code and was followed by other Muslim states in the north. The anomalies are also reflective of the dual legal heritage (Islamic and colonial) of Nigeria. Challenges thus remain on how to harmonise the two systems and communities without infringing on the general interests of the nation and the country’s constitution.
Shariah Punishments in Republic of Sudan
Authors: Kamali Mohammad Hashim
Published: July 2019

Although the Muslim influence on Sudanese law remained important, British colonial rule left the country with a mixed legal system. The primary legal influence remained British, yet the constitution of Sudan 1973 proclaimed shariah as the principal source of legislation. The 1998 constitution only adopted Islam as the state religion, which was followed by Nimeiri’s Penal Code 1983 episode. Al-Bashīr announced new amendments to Islamic criminal law, yet court sentences imposing shariah punishments often remained unenforced.
Conclusion
Authors: Nassauer Anne
Published: July 2019

The Conclusion discusses the implications of the book’s findings. It highlights the crucial role of situational interactions, interpretations, and emotions for surprising social outcomes. A section on external validity discusses whether other researchers in the field found similar patterns when examining brawls, atrocities, or revolutions. A second section discusses theoretical implications of the findings regarding the role of motivations versus situations, emotions versus rationality, collective and individual decision-making and reinterpretations, expectations and culture, as well as human inhibition to violence. A section on research implications reflects on what findings mean in particular for future research on protest policing, forward panics, other types of protests, and the roots of violent action. Lastly, a section on everyday life and the fear of violence discusses the social implications of the findings.
Forms of Indeterminacy
Authors: Lanius David
Published: July 2019

In the first chapter, linguistic indeterminacy is defined in terms of unclarity in linguistic content. Based on this general definition, three main forms of linguistic indeterminacy are differentiated:there is semantic indeterminacy, pragmatic indeterminacy, and conversational vagueness. Lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity and polysemy as well as semantic vagueness are forms of semantic indeterminacy. Speech act ambiguity, presupposition indeterminacy, and implicature indeterminacy obscure what the utterance's illocutionary force is, what it presupposes, and what it implicates, respectively. They are forms of pragmatic indeterminacy. Another form is impliciture indeterminacy, which is most relevant when a contextually valued standard is implicited, i.e., in the form of standard-relativity. Conversational vagueness, finally, appears most commonly when an utterance is unclear due to the over-generality of its expressions.
Strategic Indeterminacy in the Law
Authors: Lanius David
Published: July 2019

The last chapter identifies five basic functions of indeterminacyin laws, verdicts, and contracts.First, indeterminacy can facilitate the finding of compromise in the light of conflicting interests and beliefs. Second, indeterminacy can be used to counter the over- and under-inclusiveness due to an unforeseeable and complex world by delegating power or deferring decisions to better informed parties. Third, indeterminacy can be used to reduce drafting costs.Fourth, indeterminacy can be used as double talk, for example, to save face or gain deniability. Fifth, indeterminacy can be used to improve compliance, for instance, by exploiting asymmetrical information. The results of this chapter also confirm the main argument that semantic vagueness is overrated. While there are numerous functions of indeterminacy, there is no evidence that semantic vagueness has any value in the law. The forms of indeterminacy identifiable as valuable in the law are polysemy, conversational vagueness, and pragmatic indeterminacy.
Empires of the Senses
Authors: Rotter Andrew J.
Published: July 2019

This book offers a sensory history of the British in India from the formal imposition of their rule to its end and the Americans in the Philippines from annexation to independence. A social and cultural history of empire, it focuses on quotidian life. It analyzes how the senses created mutual impressions of the agents of imperialism and their subjects and highlights connections between apparently disparate items, including the lived experience of empire, the otherwise unremarkable comments (and complaints) found in memoirs and reports, the appearance of lepers, the sound of bells, the odor of excrement, the feel of cloth against skin, the first taste of a mango or meat spiced with cumin. Men and women in imperial India and the Philippines had different ideas from the start about what looked, sounded, smelled, felt, and tasted good or bad. Both the British and the Americans saw themselves as the civilizers of what they judged backward societies and believed that a vital part of the civilizing process was to put the senses in the right order of priority and to ensure them against offense or affront. People without manners who respected the senses lacked self-control; they were uncivilized and thus unfit for self-government. Societies that looked shabby, were noisy and smelly, felt wrong, and consumed unwholesome food in unmannerly ways were not prepared to form independent polities and stand on their own. It was the duty of allegedly more sensorily advanced westerners to put the senses right before withdrawing the most obvious manifestations of their power.
Introduction
Authors: Rotter Andrew J.
Published: July 2019

The introductory chapter of Empires of the Senses looks at the meaning of empire. Empire means many different things at different times: economics, geopolitics, a desire for greatness but also violence, an imposition of control, and resistance. This book, the introduction explains, argues that all human relationships, including imperial ones, are shaped by all five senses; how we understand others, also how we feel about them, and thus how we act toward them. The introduction outlines the arguments presented in the rest of the book. The chapters are organized by sense, but they also overlap in their treatment of the senses and empire.
The Senses and Civilization
Authors: Rotter Andrew J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter introduces the idea of how the senses were important to Britons arriving in India and Americans arriving in the Philippines. It provides examples of reactions in terms of sensual responses to illustrate this. British and American senses told them many things about their hosts. Indians and Filipinos were, they believed, different from themselves, or, in other words, fundamentally Other. The chapter asks what this Other was to the new arrivals. Violations of sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste represented to the westerners a lack of refinement and decency in those they encountered. They construed difference in several ways, but most of all as racial ones. They recoiled in fear and sought to distance themselves from those whose habits reflected their crudeness and terrified them so.
Nourishing
Authors: Rotter Andrew J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter argues that taste is in many respects the most malleable of all the senses. Food plays an important part in shaping new encounters of empire. Along with smell, taste is an intimate sense, one drawn deep into the body by its presence in the mouth and through the nose. It profoundly affected the perceptions of the Others encountered by Britons and Americans. Metaphors of empire were haptic, as the previous chapter argues, but many were also gustatory. This chapter looks at the tastes in Britain and the United States in the late nineteenth century and how they relate to empire in India and the Philippines.
Conclusion
Authors: Rotter Andrew J.
Published: July 2019

This chapter asks: how does a nation leave its imperial possessions when the period of empire ends? There are complicated logistics involved in this. The main focus of the conclusion is what happens when the conquerors leave the conquered—in other words, when empire is over. It gives an historical account of how independence occurred in each of the two countries, and relates the history of the end to the senses. The end of empire in India and the Philippines brought changes to the Britons and Americans that were in their own ways as profound as those felt by its subjects.
Cases and Concepts
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di
Published: July 2019

There are many ways to define religion, such as a system of beliefs about God, higher powers, or other supernatural or superhuman entities, or an organized belief system taught and shared by a specific community. Scientist respondents in this study provided various understandings and definitions of religion as well as their understandings of spirituality. Respondents came from the disciplines of biology and physics. These disciplines are considered classic natural-science disciplines, and some consider them to be at the top of the hierarchy of science. In addition, religion interacts with each discipline in specific and meaningful ways. Each of the eight nations and regions was chosen for inclusion in the study for scholarly and practical reasons with characteristics of religion and science in each country heavily influencing case selection. Religion in the scientific workplace and comparing scientists with the general public were central to studying religion and science in each context.
Italy
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di
Published: July 2019

Italy is an overwhelmingly Catholic nation. Roman Catholicism is pervasive in Italy and an integral part of Italian culture. Because of this, most Italian scientists are of the same faith background, at least raised nominally Catholic. The majority of Italian scientists identify as Roman Catholic and also see themselves as at least slightly religious. The majority of scientists also believe in God or some form of higher power. They see Catholicism as relatively free from conflict with science, but are critical of what they see as its occasional intrusions into science-related policies. Most Italian scientists also see religion as totally separate from science. Nevertheless, the Italian context also provides opportunities for dialogue between science and religion, which could be a model for other countries.
India
Authors: Ecklund Elaine Howard , Johnson David R. , Vaidyanathan Brandon , Matthews Kirstin R. W. , Lewis Steven W. , Thomson Robert A. , Di Di
Published: July 2019

India’s unique brand of secularism is accommodating to religion and diverse forms of religious expression, including within the scientific workplace. Religion is deeply ingrained in cultural and social life in India, and thus it plays a significant role in family life, even for those who do not consider themselves religious. Although most scientists view religion and science as belonging to separate realms, religious is a pervasive presence in Indian society, and extends its influence even into scientific institutions. Most scientists do not view religion in science as negative, but instead as a normal part of life.
Traditionalism and Universalism
Authors: Manis R. Zachary
Published: July 2019

This chapter begins with some remarks about what traditionalism, for all its difficulties, gets right, and why orthodox Christians are rightly reticent to abandon it. The author then moves on to universalism, first identifying what he takes to be its most plausible variety and then presenting select arguments on its behalf that are especially powerful and that pose the greatest challenge to anti-universalists. The most basic and fundamental argument in support of universalism is that the salvation of all persons seems to follow from two theological assumptions that are central to orthodox theism: that God is perfectly loving and that God is perfectly sovereign. Some further arguments from two of the foremost defenders of universalism, Marilyn Adams and Thomas Talbott, are given special consideration.
All the State’s Proxies in Turkey and Russia
Authors: Biberman Yelena
Published: July 2019

This chapter considers the applicability of the balance-of-interests framework beyond South Asia with cases drawn from Turkey (1984–1999) and Russia (1994–96 and 1999–2002). Despite their differences, these states behaved very similarly to Pakistan and India. When, in the mid-1980s, the Kurdish rebels came to dominate the Kurdish countryside, the Turkish army allied with nationalist clans. Once a rough balance of local power was achieved, opportunists joined the counterinsurgency. Then, as in Kashmir, the rebels relocated. This prompted the Turkish army to ally with Islamist militants operating in the rebel-controlled urban areas. It was not until the Russian army achieved parity with the Chechen rebels that the likes of Bislan Gantamirov and Akhmad Kadyrov opportunistically joined the Russian side. The former, a convicted criminal, helped Moscow recapture the capital city of Grozny. The latter, a former rebel leader, and his son, Ramzan Kadyrov, helped Moscow regain control of Chechnya.
The Twentysomething Soul
Authors: Clydesdale Tim , Garces-Foley Kathleen
Published: July 2019

Few realize how much Americans’ journey through their twenties has changed during the past half-century or understand how incorrect popular assumptions about young adults’ religious, spiritual, and secular lives are. Today’s twentysomethings have been labelled the “lost generation”—for their presumed inability to identify and lead fulfilling lives, “kidults”—for their alleged refusal to “grow up” and accept adult responsibilities, and the “least religious generation”—for their purported disinterest in religion and spirituality. These characterizations are not only unflattering, they are deeply flawed. The Twentysomething Soul tells an optimistic story about American twentysomethings. Drawing on hundreds of interviews and a survey of thousands across America, it introduces readers to the full spectrum of American young adults, many of whom live purposefully, responsibly, and reflectively. Some prioritize faith and spirituality. Others reject their childhood religion to explore alternatives and practice a personal spirituality. Still others sideline religion and spirituality until their lives get settled or reject organized religion completely. There is change occurring in the religious and spiritual lives of young adults, but little of it is among the 1 in 4 American twentysomethings who have consistently prioritized religious commitment during the past half-century. The change is rather among the now 3 in 10 young adults who, though intentionally unaffiliated with religion, affirm a variety of religious, spiritual, and secular beliefs. The Twentysomething Soul will change the way readers view contemporary young adults, giving an accurate—and refreshing—understanding of their religious, spiritual, and secular lives.
Invisibility and Hypervisibility
Authors: Cerón-Anaya Hugo
Published: July 2019

Chapter 2 analyzes the class composition of golf clubs, demonstrating that class dynamics cannot be solely reduced to economic relations. The first part shows how players commonly framed the broader golf community in terms of similarities. This, however, does not mean that all golfers and golf clubs were regarded as equal. There are tensions and antagonism, particularly among players situated at the extreme ends of the internal socioeconomic hierarchy, i.e., between golfers belonging to the least expensive and most exclusive clubs. The second part examines how clubs erected firm social boundaries with the outside world, creating spaces that are invisible to the larger city but hypervisible to the internal group. This analysis demonstrates how class dynamics modified spatial perceptions. The chapter ends by illustrating how gender intertwines with the class system, creating a class- as much as gender-based privileged space.
Caddies
Authors: Cerón-Anaya Hugo
Published: July 2019

Chapter 5 uses the racialization-of-class thesis to demonstrate how the exclusion of caddies is based on class and racial dynamics, which are commonly conveyed through spatial arrangements. The analysis starts by showing how caddies’ low status is linked to their working-class origins as much as a narrative that justifies their impoverished condition on racialized grounds. The analysis then explains that although caddying offers a higher salary than most other working-class jobs, there are still multiple mechanisms that perpetuate caddies’ economic subordination. Interviewed club members constantly articulated a racialized discourse to speak about the spaces that caddies occupied. The chapter reveals how in a country that assumes that race (as a concept) and racism (as its manifestation) do not exist, space and spatial dynamics are highly effective ways to convey racialized hierarchies without the need to openly verbalize them.
Philosophies of Creation
Authors: Kerr Gaven
Published: July 2019

In this chapter the philosophies of creation with which Aquinas himself was familiar are explored. Accordingly, Aquinas’s engagement with the creationist metaphysics of the Presocratics, Plato and Aristotle, and their followers is considered. It is noted that in his engagement with these thinkers, Aquinas articulates a basic deficiency in many of them to the effect that they do not isolate the actual existence of things as a feature of them without which they would not be and thus calling on a cause for all things that in any way exist. Accordingly, many of these thinkers fail to arrive at the notion of a creator, and those who do so because they have reached a universal consideration of things in terms of their very being.
The Meaning of Creation
Authors: Kerr Gaven
Published: July 2019

In this chapter the very meaning of creation is considered. It is noted that for Thomas creation involves the production of the total substance in being, and that the philosopher can establish a number of things about this on the basis of natural reason. However, as is well known, Thomas stops short of saying that the beginning of creation can be established by the philosopher. Thus, the consideration of the meaning of creation in this chapter is limited to details which can be established by the philosopher, in particular how it is to be taken as ex nihilo, as a relation, and whether or not creatures can create. The issue of the beginning of creation is dealt with in a later chapter.
The History of Creation
Authors: Kerr Gaven
Published: July 2019

In this chapter the history of creation is considered, and the focus is on two key issues: (i) whether or not there is a beginning to creation, and (ii) the consistency of Aquinas’s views with the biblical account of Genesis. There are two main parts of this chapter. The first part deals with Aquinas’s view that the arguments both for and against a beginning of creation are unsatisfactory. The second part deals with Aquinas’s reading of the creation narrative in Genesis, how this reading fits in with his metaphysics of creation, and how it entails that one need not be committed to a literal six-day creation story in order to take the Genesis account seriously.
Maximalism and the Ought-Most-Reason View
Authors: Portmore Douglas W.
Published: July 2019

Maximalism forces us to deny either that we ought to do whatever we have most reason to do or that how much reason there is to perform a given option is directly proportional to how good that option is. In this chapter, I argue that we should deny the latter. We should instead hold that how much reason there is to perform a given option is directly proportional to how good the best version of that option is. Thus, how much reason I have to kiss my partner is not a function of, say, the bad consequences that would result from my doing so (for assume that I would in fact kiss her nonpassionately if I were to kiss her), but a function of the good consequences that would result from my kissing her passionately.
Which, if Either, Are We to Assess Directly in Terms of What Ultimately Matters
Authors: Portmore Douglas W.
Published: July 2019

This chapter argues that our uncertainty with respect to whether a subject has violated a constraint in ϕ-ing can stem not only from our limited knowledge of the actual world but also from the indeterminacy that’s inherent in certain possible worlds. And this means that constraint-accepting theorists will need to find a way to deal with such uncertainty even when it comes to giving an account of objective rightness. And it’s argued that the best way for constraint-accepting theorists to deal with this issue is to adopt a teleological theory. In doing so, she needn’t give up on any of our common-sense moral intuitions. Nor would she need to give up the deontological idea that constraints are ultimately grounded in our duty to respect people and their capacity for rational, autonomous decision making. Thus, it’s argued that we should accept a teleological version of rationalist maximalism.
Rationalist Teleological Maximalism
Authors: Portmore Douglas W.
Published: July 2019

This chapter demonstrates how rationalism, maximalism, and teleology operate together to determine the deontic statuses of our options. And the chapter explains what rationalist teleological maximalism’s main virtues are. Last, the chapter explains why it’s important to work out the structure of our normative theories.
Other People's Struggles
Authors: Owen Nicholas
Published: July 2019

Other People’s Struggles is the first attempt in over forty years to explain the place of “conscience constituents” in social movements. Conscience constituents are people who participate in a movement but do not stand to benefit if it succeeds. Why do such people participate when they do not stand to benefit? Why are they sometimes present and sometimes absent in social movements? Why and when is their participation welcome to those who do stand to benefit, and why and when is it not? The work proposes an original theory to answer these questions, crossing discipline boundaries to draw on the findings of social psychology, philosophy, and normative political theory, in search of explanations of why people act altruistically and what it means to others when they do so. The theory is illustrated by examples from British history, including the antislavery movement, the women’s suffrage and liberation movements, labor and socialist movements, anticolonial movements, antipoverty movements, and movements for global justice. Other People’s Struggles also contributes to new debates concerning the rights and wrongs of “speaking for others.” Debates concerning the limits of solidarity—who can be an “ally” and on what terms—have become very topical in contemporary politics, especially in identity politics and in the new “populist” movements. The book provides a theoretical and empirical account of how these questions have been addressed in the past and how they might be framed today.
The conscience constituent reconsidered
Authors: Owen Nicholas
Published: July 2019

Chapter 1 provides a critical account of the conscience constituent in social movement theory. It identifies the points at which conscience constituents are deployed in social movement theory: in resource mobilization theory, rational choice accounts of mobilization, political process theory, and framing theory. It considers the weaknesses of the conscience constituent theory both in terms of supply (why conscience constituents participate) and demand (why social movements make use of them). It introduces four puzzling empirical cases the existing theory struggles to explain: women’s movements and their male supporters, anticolonialism and its British friends, labor representation and its professional advocates, and Victorian socialists and middle-class fellowship. The chapter also provides a roadmap to the book as a whole and explains and justifies methodological and definitional choices.
Problems of accountability in outward work
Authors: Owen Nicholas
Published: July 2019

Chapter 5 considers the dilemmas that arise in the outward orientation, when movements seek to define and pursue interests. The key difference is between constituents who define and pursue their own interests and adherents who define and pursue the interests of others. The chapter focuses on the work of representation and the accompanying dilemma of accountability. It argues that adherents, as supposedly disinterested non-beneficiaries, can be effective as representatives, but may also be harder to trust. It distinguishes between three approaches: disjoint “championing,” conjoint “allying,” and “self-representation.” The chapter also considers the difficulties that may arise when a movement is defining emerging interests rather than pursuing crystallized interests. The supporting case study considers labor representation and its professional advocates. The historical puzzle is why it has sometimes (but not always) been possible for workers to be represented in Parliament by middle-class Labour MPs.
Problems of authenticity in expressive work
Authors: Owen Nicholas
Published: July 2019

Chapter 6 considers work in the expressive orientation, which concerns the articulation and expression of identities. The dilemma is one of authenticity, and it turns on questions of provenance. When the identity is grounded in shared experiences, needs, and desires, the adherent may be well placed to help. When the experiences, needs, and desires are unshared, she is a less possible and less useful ally. Three approaches are distinguished: disjoint “validation,” in which the adherent attests, on the basis of her expertise, that the claimed identity is valid; conjoint “crossing-over” in which the adherent seeks to share the identity-forming experiences of the constituents; and “self-expression,” in which constituents seek to secure their identities alone. The supporting case study for this chapter contrasts the mobilization of male sympathizers in the Edwardian women’s suffrage movement with their demobilization in the Women’s Liberation Movement of the 1970s.
On having to be what we cannot be
Authors: Owen Nicholas
Published: July 2019

Chapter 9 sums up the findings of the historical case studies by looking at the long-run changes and making a conjecture about the trajectory they indicate from the beginnings of modern social movements to the late-modern present day. The conjecture is that adherent selves can no longer act for others with the same confidence and authority as they once did. Nor can they give up their desire, based in part on others’ expectations, to assist in other people’s struggles. Nor is it easy for them to change themselves as required to belong in those struggles. The late-modern adherent is therefore cross-pressured. She has to be what she cannot be. The claim is illustrated and supported with empirical examples from contemporary social movements, especially the changing nature of charitable participation.
Utilitarianism
Authors: Tännsjö Torbjörn
Published: July 2019

Utilitarianism is the idea that we ought to maximize the sum total of happiness. The notion of happiness is clarified. Happiness is taken in a subjective and empirical sense, as a kind of mood. Affirmative answers to the following questions are provided: What is happiness? Can it be measured? Can we compare it between persons? Can it function as a common currency when the different theories of distributive justice are compared? What about the heterogeneity objection? Can very different kinds of happiness be measured on a single scale? In the answers to these questions the idea of a least noticeable difference with respect to happiness plays a crucial role. It is conjectured that, if a person is in a certain mood (momentarily), then there exists an exact number of just noticeable changes for the worse or the better to the point where life is just worth living. Many different conditions can contribute to cause a person to be at the state where she is. A distinction of the utmost importance between physical and subjective time is introduced and a claim is made that what matters, from the point of view of moral theory, is subjective time.