bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Psychology of Knowledge Ascriptions
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 5 surveys some empirical psychology and outlines some folk epistemological principles. By considering the heuristic and biases tradition, it is argued that ordinary knowledge ascriptions are standardly driven by heuristic processes and, therefore, associated with biases. This idea is integrated with a dual process framework for mental state ascriptions. On this basis, some of the central heuristic principles that govern intuitive judgments about knowledge ascriptions are articulated, and some of the biases associated with these principles are identified. The result is an account of an epistemic focal bias in intuitive judgments about knowledge ascription. Thus, Chapter 5 provides both a survey of relevant psychology and a development of the folk psychological principles governing knowledge ascriptions.
Staging a Strict Purist Invariantist Comeback
Authors: Gerken Mikkel
Published: October 2017

Chapter 9 responds to arguments for pragmatic encroachment that appeal to the communicative functions of knowledge ascriptions or genealogical assumptions. The methodology of such arguments is criticized by way of a dilemma—the Functional Role Dilemma. A further dilemma for pragmatic encroachment—Pandora’s Dilemma—is then raised: many factors other than stakes can have an effect on knowledge ascriptions. So, pragmatic encroachers must either accept that these factors are partial determiners of knowledge or reject this. However, both options lead to trouble. Since these dilemmas are indicative of the mistakes in our intuitive judgments, Chapter 9 serves both the purpose of compromising mistaken appeals to folk epistemology and the purpose of guiding a positive account.
Guan Yu
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

Guan Yu was a minor general in his own day, who supported one of numerous claimants to the throne in the early third century CE. He was captured and executed by enemy forces in 219. He eventually became one the most popular and influential deities of imperial China under the name Lord Guan or Emperor Guan, of the same importance as the Buddhist bodhisattva Guanyin. This is a study of his cult, but also of the tremendous power of oral culture in a world where writing became increasingly important. The book follows the rise of the deity through his earliest stage as a hungry ghost, his subsequent adoption by a prominent Buddhist monastery during the Tang (617–907) as its miraculous supporter, and his recruitment by Daoist ritual specialists during the Song dynasty (960–1276) as an exorcist general. It continues on with his subsequent roles as a rain god, protector against demons and barbarians, and, eventually, moral paragon and almost messianic saviour. Throughout his divine life, the physical prowess of the deity, more specifically Lord Guan’s ability to use violent action for doing good, remained an essential dimension of his image. Most research ascribes a decisive role in the rise of his cult to the literary traditions of the Three Kingdoms, best known from the famous novel by this name. This book argues that the cult arose from oral culture and spread first and foremost as an oral practice.
Demon and Monastic Protector
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

The worship of Guan Yu started where he had been executed in late 219 or early 220, in the Jing region just north of the Yangzi River in modern Hubei. Sometime during the Tang dynasty, the cult of Lord Guan was appropriated by the increasingly well-known Buddhist Jade Spring Monastery in the nearby hills. Throughout this period, Lord Guan continued to be seen as a violent demonic figure, awe- and fear-inspiring, but also potentially helpful. Most of the extant sources used in this chapter reflect collective memories as they have crystallized after long periods of oral transmission. This chapter also shows that the Buddhist origin of the cult was certainly significant in the early centuries, but actually does not explain many foundations of the cult outside of the Jing region.
Martial Keeper of Morals
Authors: ter Haar Barend J.
Published: October 2017

Religious activities traditionally served an important role by providing ethical rules and values with supernatural legitimation, but also by providing occasions on which these values were performed in the form of rituals, exorcist theatre, and the retelling of moralistic stories. Lord Guan as an enforcer of moral values had an important place in this discourse, because he could reward and punish with the utmost authority. As an overseer of moral behaviour, the deity also became the putative author of moralistic texts, produced through spirit writing. In the course of the nineteenth century, spirit writing groups in Sichuan and elsewhere started adding a new layer to the deity’s mythology, in which he became increasingly seen as a saviour of humanity and eventually even replaced the Jade Emperor himself.
Recording Environmental Assets in the National Accounts and the Australian Experience
Authors: Obst Carl , Vardon Michael
Published: October 2017

Accounting information is a core element of economic decision-making in government and business. It is widely accepted that much economic activity is dependent upon natural capital and natural resources—generically termed environmental assets in an accounting context. Environmental assets are under threat of depletion and degradation from economic activity. Consequently, the incorporation of information on environmental assets into standard accounting frameworks is an essential element in mainstreaming environmental information and broadening the evidence base for economic decisions and the assessment of sustainability. This chapter describes the treatment of environmental assets within the national economic accounts and summarizes recent developments that extend the accounting approaches as described in the United Nations System of Environmental–Economic Accounting (SEEA). The potential for implementation of accounting standards for environmental assets is shown through a description of work in Australia on environmental–economic accounting.
Conclusion
Authors: Hamilton Kirk , Hepburn Cameron
Published: October 2017

Investors regularly interrogate corporate balance sheets; citizens should be able to interrogate their national balance sheets in much the same way. This chapter advances the view that the widespread adoption of national wealth measures could soon become a reality if demand from key actors in policymaking and civil society is sustained. What would this mean for future policy directions? Just as there has long been a fixation on increasing the rate of GDP growth, it is plausible that the availability of national wealth measures could lead to calls for greater wealth. This would lead to a focus on policies different from those targeted at increasing output. As the concept and definition of national wealth become more established, six dimensions arise to drive policy and implementation questions such as this one. These dimensions are wealth measurement, composition, distribution, generation, management, and sustainability. This chapter considers the emerging questions and possible conclusions.
Yogins and Yoga
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: October 2017

Examination of the fortunes of various Hinduism-inspired new religious movements (such as Rajneeshism and Transcendental Meditation) shows that the most successful were world affirming rather than world rejecting, and that their relative success was bought at the price of becoming patently more secular. Transcendental Meditation’s project to create the core of an alternative society in Lancashire failed and its meditational technique became well known only once it was marketed as an entirely secular psychotherapy. Positional yoga has become popular as an exercise programme. That reincarnation and karma have become at all popular ideas shows Christianity’s loss of the power to stigmatize alternative religious cultures; that they have not become more popular shows the largely secular society’s indifference to religion and spirituality.
Islam: The Unpillaged Eastern Religion
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: October 2017

Understanding why Islam has contributed little to contemporary religious and spiritual innovations allows us to see the principles underlying cultural borrowing. With its creator God, authoritative text, religious dogmas, and defined ways of life, Islam is too much like Christianity for cultural appropriation, and there is a considerable Muslim presence in the West that constrains borrowing. Such appropriation is easiest when ideas are not embedded in a large faith community (feng shui is an example), when they are retrieved from an ancient and undocumented past (as with Celtic Christianity), or when they are entirely fictional (as with the supposed characteristics of Atlantis).
Comparative anatomical studies of the hypothalamus that led to studies of thalamic synapses
Authors: Guillery Ray
Published: October 2017

The first part of this chapter illustrates the role of serendipity in science. We started a comparative project to understand the differences between reptiles and mammals in terms of their hypothalamic pathways; these studies of reptilian brains revealed tiny fibrillar rings present in axon terminals of lizards kept at low temperatures but absent in those kept warmer. These temperature-dependent fibrillar increases resembled changes seen in some synaptic terminals after their axons have been cut, so we briefly turned our attention to the changing appearances of the fibrils. Mammalian optic nerve fibres that had been cut were known to show particularly dramatic increases of fibrillar structures. Our study of these did not show anything relevant for understanding the functions of the fibrils or their changes; instead they revealed the surprisingly complex system of synaptic structures in the thalamus, clearly demonstrating that the thalamic relay is not as simple as was generally believed. This provided a key to what follows in the rest of this book. This chapter serves to introduce synaptic structures in general, and those of the thalamus in particular. We still do not understand the differences between reptiles and mammals in terms of their hypothalamic pathways, nor do we understand the nature of the fibrillar changes.
Translating Practices and Normative Orders
Authors: Berger Tobias
Published: October 2017

This chapter analyses, firstly, the translation of a key practice of the rule of law—the formal documentation of court proceedings in writing. It shows how the grassroots-level NGO fieldworkers do not use the official paperwork provided by the project to neutrally record village court sessions. Instead, they use the documents as symbolic capital that allows marginalized people to access local elites they could have otherwise not have accessed. Secondly, the employees of the local NGOs also translate the normative vocabularies in which the rule of law is justified. Instead of advocating access to village court justice in the secular registers of human rights and the rule of law, the fieldworkers draw on Islam and Islamic law to enhance participatory spaces in non-state courts, particularly for women. This, however, leads to contestations with established religious authorities over competing interpretations of Islam and Islamic law.
The Puzzle of Populism
Authors: Kenny Paul D.
Published: October 2017

This chapter sets out the puzzle at the center of the book: what explains the success of populist campaigners in India, Asia, and beyond? It summarizes the existing literature on populist success both in Latin America and Western Europe and argues that these explanations do a poor job of explaining Indian and Asian cases in particular. Populists win elections when the institutionalized ties between non-populist parties and voters decay. However, because different kinds of party systems experience distinct stresses and strains, we need different models of populist success based on the prevailing party­–voter linkage system in place in any given country. The chapter then sets out the rationale for concentrating on explaining populist success in patronage-based party systems, which are common not only to Asia, but also to Latin America and Eastern Europe.
A Theory of Populist Success in Patronage Democracies
Authors: Kenny Paul D.
Published: October 2017

This chapter details the theory and sets up the predictions to be tested. Drawing on principal–agent theory and social network theory, it argues that in patronage democracies an increase in broker autonomy weakens the ties between parties and voters as it exacerbates conflicts of interest between central leaders and subnational brokers. The main hypothesis is that in patronage democracies where subnational brokers have greater autonomy from central leadership, fragmentation of the party-system between national and subnational levels is likely, resulting in populists successfully appealing directly to a disorganized populace. Programmatic responses are unlikely because of the cross-class organization of patronage networks, which tends to inhibit the consolidation of programmatic parties. It then presents both a strong version of the theory, in which broker autonomy or decentralization is exogenously determined, and a weak version, in which it is potentially endogenous. Finally, it sets out how the following chapters test the arguments.
Inspiration and Authority in the Middle Ages
Authors: FitzGerald Brian
Published: October 2017

Inspiration and Authority rethinks the role of prophecy in the Middle Ages by examining how professional theologians responded to new assertions of divine inspiration. The book argues that the task of defining prophetic authority became a crucial intellectual and cultural enterprise as university-trained theologians confronted prophetic claims from lay mystics, radical Franciscans, and other unprecedented visionaries. In the process, these theologians redescribed their own activities as prophetic by locating inspiration not in special predictions or ecstatic visions but in natural forms of understanding and in the daily work of ecclesiastical teaching and ministry. Instead of containing the spread of prophetic privilege, however, scholastic assessments of prophecy from Peter Lombard and Thomas Aquinas to Peter John Olivi and Nicholas Trevet opened space for claims of divine insight to proliferate beyond the control of theologians. The book ends with the examination of an early fourteenth-century debate in Padua between a Dominican theologian and the lay Italian humanist Albertino Mussato regarding the nature of poetry, prophecy, and sacred authority. This debate, the first of many similar ones over the course of that century, shows how the promotion of a more natural form of prophecy helped lay humanists on the cusp of the Renaissance stake their claims to prophetic inspiration on their intellectual powers and literary practices. These conflicts reveal medieval clerics, scholars, and reformers reshaping the contours of religious authority, the boundaries of sanctity and sacred texts, and the relationship of tradition to the new voices of the Late Middle Ages.
Polemic, Preaching, and Early Dominican Assessments of Prophetic Authority
Authors: FitzGerald Brian
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the emergence of theoretical treatises devoted to understanding the nature of prophecy. Emerging out of polemical works against Islam and its prophet, such treatises eventually addressed disagreements within Christianity itself about the nature of inspiration and the boundaries of sacred authority. A significant element of theoretical reflection, particularly among the Dominican Order, came from discussions of the nature of preaching, which was often viewed as a contemporary manifestation of prophecy. Preaching as prophecy raised questions about the relationship between natural virtue or talent and supernatural gifts. The chapter concludes by focusing on the contributions of Hugh of St Cher and Albert the Great to a Dominican tradition of prophetic theory, and it shows that they did not agree on how to assess those claiming to be current-day prophets within the Church.
Government
Authors: Conway Stephen
Published: October 2017

This chapter examines the ways in which, and the reasons why, British governments sought to facilitate what they regarded as benign forms of European penetration of the empire. Ministers successfully piloted through Parliament legislation designed to encourage foreign sailors to serve on British merchant ships in wartime. British governments, the Westminster Parliament, and colonial governors and their assemblies offered a range of incentives to encourage Europeans to migrate to the North American colonies. And the crown, ministers, and their agents negotiated inter-state agreements to enable regiments of German soldiers to be deployed for service in North America and India. The British state’s willingness to use continental European resources is not simply exemplified; the chapter also attempts to explain why, sometimes in the face of significant public opposition, ministers, officials, and other state servants encouraged and facilitated the deployment of foreign human capital in the empire.
The Contents of CETA, TTIP, and TiSA
Authors: Vranes Erich
Published: October 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the trade disciplines envisaged in CETA, TTIP, and TiSA. While focusing on CETA, it also takes into account available information and negotiating materials on TTIP and TiSA, concentrating on essential structures and contents and the ‘WTO plus’ dimensions of CETA, TTIP, and TiSA. The chapter outlines the main trade in goods and services disciplines of CETA and points to some fundamental issues that have remained unclear in this agreement. It also stresses essential structural differences, such as the divergent scopes of application, substantive disciplines, and scheduling approaches under the GATS agreement and CETA. Moreover, this contribution deals with the framework for regulatory cooperation to be established in CETA. Finally, this chapter turns to an analysis of available TTIP and TiSA materials, contrasting these initiatives with the contents and structures of WTO law and CETA.
CETA, TTIP, TiSA, and Their Relationship with EU Law
Authors: Mayr Stefan
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the multifaceted relationship between EU trade agreements of a new generation (like CETA and TTIP) and other plurilateral trade agreements (like TiSA) and EU law. CETA, TTIP, and TiSA raise many intricate legal questions touching upon fundamentals of the EU legal order and illustrating the complex interplay between the EU and its Member States and also between EU institutions. A particularly contentious issue concerns the competence to conclude the various agreements. While a decision of the CJEU in the context of the EU–Singapore FTA is still pending, this chapter argues that mixity, albeit only a ‘second best solution’ with regard to the effective representation of EU interests at the international level, is obligatory in the cases of CETA and TTIP. Further aspects explored include the legal effects of the agreements in EU law, their provisional application, and potential conflicts with the autonomy of the EU legal order.
French Sins, II
Authors: Kirkpatrick Kate
Published: October 2017

Chapter 3 considers French literature, to see examples of the ‘literary fate’ of Jansenism in the works of Racine, Voltaire, and Hugo. After having sketched this literary trajectory, we turn to the renaissance of sin in the Catholic novelists of the 1920s: Mauriac, Bernanos, and Claudel. It was in this literary context that—before Sartre’s discovery of phenomenology—he studied Christian mystics when preparing his thesis on the imagination under the guidance of Henri Delacroix. And it was in this literary context that the hamartiological figure Søren Kierkegaard was first published in France. This part concludes with a summary of the presentations of sin in The Concept of Anxiety and The Sickness unto Death.
Freedom
Authors: Kirkpatrick Kate
Published: October 2017

Chapter 7 (on Being and Nothingness Part IV) turns to consider Sartre’s technical and philosophical concept of freedom. Reading his engagement with Leibniz here alongside his discussion of Descartes in La Liberté cartesienne (1946), the chapter argues that Sartre’s phenomenology of freedom in Being and Nothingness can be read as anti-theodicy. Sartre rejects ‘freedom’ as a ‘sufficient reason’ for the world’s ills: it is the source of too many of them. Moreover, the resulting Sartrean pessimism is more extreme than that of his Jansenist predecessors. The for-itself is free to the extent that it refuses any possibility of grace.
Death of God, Death of Love
Authors: Kirkpatrick Kate
Published: October 2017

Part IV (Chapters 8 and 9) constructively argues that Sartre is a useful resource for contemporary hamartiology. Chapter 8 argues (i) that Sartre’s account of love provides further evidence of the Jansenist inflection of his pessimism. On this basis, it makes the case that (ii) Being and Nothingness presents a ‘hermeneutics of despair’ (to adapt Ricoeur’s phrase). It then asks (iii) whether—and if so, how—this reading of Sartre might usefully inform contemporary hamartiology, arguing that some theological categories (such as sin and love) cannot be known merely conceptually, but must be acknowledged personally. Finally (iv) it presents the ‘original optimism’ of the Christian doctrine of sin, which is lacking in the situation Sartre describes. In both the Augustinian and Kierkegaardian accounts of Christianity, an important component of this original optimism is love.
Implementing Reforms
Authors: Brunsson Nils
Published: October 2017

This chapter continues to analyze the relationship between decision and action using a case study on Swedish Rail (Statens Järnvägar, SJ). In February 1987, the board of directors of SJ met to consider a plan drawn up by an international consultancy company to implement a radical reform, the ‘New SJ’. The basic idea was to make the company more businesslike. SJ was to be run as a company and not as a government service, and its corporate aim was to be a profitable business. The chapter addresses the question of why reforms may be difficult to implement. It suggests that there are certain fundamental and common characteristics of administrative reforms which make them difficult to implement by nature.
Ideas and Actions: Justification and Hypocrisy as Alternatives to Control
Authors: Brunsson Nils
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the relationship between ideas and actions. It is not easy either for individuals or for groups to reconcile ideas and actions. The world of ideas is very different from the world of action. Three differences in particular between the conditions for ideas and action can create difficulties in achieving consistency and control. The first concerns the actual content of ideas and actions. Second, ideas may develop one way in contexts in which ideas are of central importance, and in another way in contexts in which action is the more crucial. This can give rise to problems of control. Finally, ideas may sometimes arise and change and disappear more rapidly than actions. This affects the possibility of reconciling consistency with control. The discussion focuses on the problem as it affects groups with a constituency-actor structure, although some problems may be similar to those experienced by individual human beings.
Plankton Biodiversity and Biogeography
Authors: Beaugrand Gregory
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses the biodiversity and main biogeographic patterns of marine plankton, the causes of such patterns, as well as factors that influence spatial and temporal plankton distribution. Plankton are influenced by a large number of environmental factors and as a result are not distributed randomly in the oceans and seas. Plankton biodiversity is constrained by hydroclimatic parameters such as temperature, bathymetry, and oceanic surface currents or large-scale hydrodynamic features such as the subarctic gyre. Plankton also follow most of the main divisions of the pelagic realm. The marine ecosphere can be divided into three main ecomes: (1) cold regions (Arctic and Antarctic), (2) cold-temperate regions, and (3) warm-temperate regions.
Introduction to Taxonomy
Authors: Stern Rowena , Marianne Wootton , Castellani Claudia
Published: October 2017

This chapter provides a general introduction to taxonomy. Taxonomy is the scientific discipline of describing, delimiting, and naming organisms. It is the foundation of biodiversity science, and taxonomic identification underpins studies of ecology, physiology, conservation, evolution, and more recently environmental policy, as issues and new legislation regarding sustainable management of our oceans have come to the forefront. Being able to identify and recognize planktonic organisms is key to both the protection and the sustainable management of marine resources.
Crustacea: Copepoda
Authors: Wooton Marianne , Castellani Claudia
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes the taxonomy of copepods. Copepods are small aquatic crustaceans and are considered to be one of the most abundant and diverse multi-cellular organisms on earth. Populating a wide range of aquatic habitats, from the deep ocean floor to high Himalayan freshwater lakes, copepods have many free-living as well as highly modified parasitic forms. The chapter covers their life cycle, ecology, and general morphology. It includes a section that indicates the systematic placement of the taxon described within the tree of life, and lists the key marine representative illustrated in the chapter (usually to genus or family level). This section also provides information on the taxonomic authorities responsible for the classification adopted, recent changes which might have occurred, and lists relevant taxonomic sources.
Crustacea: Branchiopoda
Authors: Castellani Claudia
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes the taxonomy of Branchiopoda. Branchiopoda are small crustaceans commonly known as cladocerans or water-fleas. They are epiplanktonic zooplankton seasonally abundant mainly in coastal waters and over the continental shelf of warm temperate and tropical areas, with a few species found in oceanic areas and colder Arctic seas. The chapter covers their life cycle, ecology, and general morphology. It includes a section that indicates the systematic placement of the taxon described within the tree of life, and lists the key marine representative illustrated in the chapter (usually to genus or family level). This section also provides information on the taxonomic authorities responsible for the classification adopted, recent changes which might have occurred, and lists relevant taxonomic sources.
Crustacea: Cirripedia and Facetotecta
Authors: Southward Eve C.
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes the taxonomy of Cirripedia and Facetotecta, two crustacean infraclasses of the subclass Thecostraca. The larvae of the Cirripedia and Facetotecta are fairly common in the plankton of the North Atlantic. The chapter covers their life cycle, ecology, and general morphology. It includes a section that indicates the systematic placement of the taxon described within the tree of life, and lists the key marine representative illustrated in the chapter (usually to genus or family level). This section also provides information on the taxonomic authorities responsible for the classification adopted, recent changes which might have occurred, and lists relevant taxonomic sources.
Crustacea: Euphausiacea
Authors: Lindley Alistair J.
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes the taxonomy of Euphausiacea, exclusively marine holoplanktonic crustaceans commonly known as krill. Although not highly diverse, with only two families and ~ 86 species worldwide, they are often a major component of the biomass of the plankton and micronekton of the world's oceans. This chapter covers their life cycle, ecology, and general morphology. It includes a section that indicates the systematic placement of the taxon described within the tree of life, and lists the key marine representative illustrated in the chapter (usually to genus or family level). This section also provides information on the taxonomic authorities responsible for the classification adopted, recent changes which might have occurred, and lists relevant taxonomic sources.
Bryozoa
Authors: Fuchs Judith , Bishop John
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes the taxonomy of Bryozoa, a phylum of small, aquatic invertebrates that comprises ~6000 known species. Bryozoa are meroplanktonic with a planktonic larval stage and a colonial, usually sessile, adult. The chapter covers their life cycle, ecology and distribution, and general morphology. It includes a section that indicates the systematic placement of the taxon described within the tree of life, and lists the key marine representative illustrated in the chapter (usually to genus or family level). This section also provides information on the taxonomic authorities responsible for the classification adopted, recent changes which might have occurred, and lists relevant taxonomic sources.
Chordata: Thaliacea
Authors: Licandro Priscilla , Brunetta Martina
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes the taxonomy of Thaliacea, a class of the subphylum Tunicata encompassing pelagic organisms that, as all the other tunicates, have a body covered by a transparent cellulosic tunic. Thaliaceans are ubiquitous and they are common from coastal waters to the open ocean at all depths. The chapter covers their life cycle, ecology, and general morphology. It includes a section that indicates the systematic placement of the taxon described within the tree of life, and lists the key marine representative illustrated in the chapter (usually to genus or family level). This section also provides information on the taxonomic authorities responsible for the classification adopted, recent changes which might have occurred, and lists relevant taxonomic sources.
Chordata: Fish eggs and larvae
Authors: Munk Peter , Nielsen Jørgen G.
Published: October 2017

This chapter describes the taxonomy of fish eggs and larvae. Most fish eggs and larvae are planktonic, and are commonly found in plankton net tows. Collectively these fish stages are referred to as ichthyoplankton. The chapter covers their life cycle, ecology, and general morphology. It includes a section that indicates the systematic placement of the taxon described within the tree of life, and lists the key marine representative illustrated in the chapter (usually to genus or family level). This section also provides information on the taxonomic authorities responsible for the classification adopted, recent changes which might have occurred, and lists relevant taxonomic sources.
AD 750–1100 Climate Change and Critical Transitions in Classic Maya Sociopolitical Networks
Authors: Kennett Douglas J. , Hodell David A.
Published: October 2017

Multiple palaeoclimatic reconstructions point to a succession of major droughts in the Maya Lowlands between AD 750 and 1100 superimposed on a regional drying trend that itself was marked by considerable spatial and temporal variability. The longest and most severe regional droughts occurred between AD 800 and 900 and again between AD 1000 and 1100. Well-dated historical records carved on stone monuments from forty Classic Period civic-ceremonial centers reflect a dynamic sociopolitical landscape between AD 250 and 800 marked by a complex of antagonistic, diplomatic, lineage-based, and subordinate networks. Warfare between Maya polities increased between AD 600 and 800 within the context of population expansion and long-term environmental degradation exacerbated by increasing drought. Nevertheless, in spite of the clear effects of drought on network collapse during the Classic Period, one lingering question is why polities in the northern lowlands persisted and even flourished between AD 800 and 1000 (Puuc Maya and Chichén Itzá) before they too fragmented during an extended and severe regional drought between AD 1000 and 1100. Here we review available regional climate records during this critical transition and consider the different sociopolitical trajectories in the South/Central versus Northern Maya lowlands.
Thirteenth Century AD
Authors: Stahle David W. , Burnette Dorian J. , Griffin Daniel , Cook Edward R.
Published: October 2017

The hypothesis that a prolonged drought across southwestern North America in the late thirteenth century contributed to the abandonment of the region by Ancestral Pueblo populations, ultimately including the depopulation of the Mesa Verde region, continues to be a focus of archaeological research in the Pueblo region. We address the hypothesis through the re-measurement of tree-ring specimens from living trees and archaeological wood at Mesa Verde, Colorado, to derive chronologies of earlywood, latewood, and total ring width. The three chronology types all date from AD 480 to 2008 and were used to separately reconstruct cool and early warm season effective moisture and total water-year precipitation for Chapin Mesa near many of the major prehistoric archaeological sites. The new reconstructions indicate three simultaneous cool and early growing season droughts during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that may have contributed to the environmental and social factors behind Ancestral Pueblo migrations over this sector of the Colorado Plateau. These sustained inter-seasonal droughts included the “Great Drought” of the late-thirteenth century, which is estimated to have been one of the most severe regimes of cool and early summer drought in the last 1,500-years and coincided with the end of Puebloan occupations at Mesa Verde. The elevation of the 30 cm isohyet of water-year precipitation reconstructed for southwestern Colorado from the new ring-width data is mapped from AD 1276–1280 and identifies areas where dry-land cultivation of maize may not have been practical during the driest years of the Great Drought. There is no doubt about the exact dating of the tree-ring chronologies, but the low sample size of dated specimens from Mesa Verde during the late-thirteenth and fourteenth centuries contributes uncertainty to these environmental reconstructions at the time of abandonment.
Practical Evaluation Tools and Uses
Authors: Cho Jeasik
Published: October 2017

This chapter discusses a number of practical evaluation tools used by qualitative research journals. First, the chapter discusses the American Educational Research Association’s “Standards for Reporting on Empirical Social Science Research,” which emphasizes warrantability and transparency. Second, many ideas on reviewing qualitative research are briefly presented. Third, current qualitative research journals that use and those that do not use specific evaluation tools are discussed. The reasons why some journal editors do not use such specific evaluation tools are identified: trust, freedom, the nature of qualitative research, and “it works.” Other journals that use specific review guides are analyzed. This chapter suggests a holistic way of understanding the evaluation of qualitative research by taking three elements (core values, research processes, and key dimensions) into consideration. The seven most commonly used evaluation criteria are discussed: importance to the field, qualities, writing, data analysis, theoretical framework, participant, and impact/readership.
Energy flow in organisms
Authors: Clarke Andrew
Published: October 2017

An organism is an open thermodynamic system exchanging both energy and materials with its environment. Organisms exchange energy with their environment by radiation, conduction, convection and evaporation of water. The relative importance of these varies with the organism and its situation. Newton’s Law of Cooling is a simplification that is useful only for warm endotherms in a still, cool environment. For all other circumstances a full biophysical treatment is necessary. Flows of chemical potential energy can be captured by a balanced energy budget. A full description of the energy balance of an organism requires the coupling of a biophysical model of heat flow with an energy budget model. This combination provides a powerful tool for modelling the thermal and energetic niches of organisms, and to predict how these might change in the future.
The Moral Significance of Risking
Authors: Oberdiek John
Published: October 2017

Chapter 3 explores the moral significance of risking. What is it about imposing risk upon others that matters morally? This is a live and vexing question in large part because the concept of imposing risk owes its place in our conceptual scheme to our epistemic bounds. The chapter argues against the view that risk inherits what moral significance it has from the harm that any risk imposition risks. It argues instead that risk impositions as such bear moral significance because they can have a negative impact on people’s lives and thus constitute harms, though not material harms. For imposing risk can diminish the autonomy of those subject to the risk, and this diminution in autonomy constitutes a setback to wellbeing. It does not follow that imposing risk is therefore wrong. Rather, that imposing risk can diminish autonomy shows why imposing risk is morally significant and therefore calls for moral justification.
Parasitic Fitness of Fungicide-Resistant and -Sensitive Isolates of Alternaria solani
Authors: Bauske Mitchell J. , Gudmestad Neil C.
Published: October 2017

Resistance to chemistries of the succinate dehydrogenase inhibiting (SDHI) and quinone outside inhibiting (QoI) fungicides has developed rapidly in populations of Alternaria solani, the cause of early blight of potato. Reduced sensitivity to the anilinopyrimidine (AP) fungicide pyrimethanil has also been identified recently, determining that resistance to three chemical classes of fungicides is present within the A. solani population. Although no mutations have been characterized to confer resistance to APs, in A. solani five point mutations on three AsSdh genes have been determined to convey resistance to SDHIs, and the substitution of phenylalanine with leucine at position 129 (F129L) in the cytb gene confers resistance to QoIs. The objective of this study was to investigate the parasitic fitness of A. solani isolates with resistance to one or more of these chemical classes. A total of 120 A. solani isolates collected from various geographical locations around the United States were chosen for in vitro assessment, and 60 of these isolates were further evaluated in vivo. Fitness parameters measured were (i) spore germination in vitro, (ii) mycelial expansion in vitro, and (iii) aggressiveness in vivo. No significant differences in spore germination or mycelial expansion (P = 0.44 and 0.51, respectively) were observed among wild-type and fungicide-resistant isolates in vitro. Only A. solani isolates possessing the D123E mutation were shown to be significantly more aggressive in vivo (P < 0.0001) compared with wild-type isolates. These results indicate that fungicide-resistant A. solani isolates have no significant fitness penalties compared with sensitive isolates under the parameters evaluated regardless of the presence or absence of reduced sensitivity to multiple chemical classes. Results of these studies suggest that A. solani isolates with multiple fungicide resistances may compete successfully with wild-type isolates under field conditions.
Learning from Clinical Experience with Necrotizing Fasciitis: Treatment and Management
Authors: Liu Yukun , Guo Ke , Sun Jiaming
Published: October 2017

GENERAL PURPOSE:

To provide information about necrotizing fasciitis (NF), how to recognize it, and evidence-based treatment.

TARGET AUDIENCE:

This continuing education activity is intended for physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and nurses with an interest in skin and wound care.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES:

After completing this continuing education activity, you should be able to:

Necrotizing fasciitis is a threatening, rapidly progressive, infectious disease of the soft tissue. In this article, based on 3 cases, the authors aim to summarize the clinical experience of patients with necrotizing fasciitis and the current concepts of the treatment and management of this disease.
The Association between Tinea Pedis and Feet-Washing Behavior in Patients with Diabetes: A Cross-sectional Study
Authors: Takehara Kimie , Amemiya Ayumi , Mugita Yuko , Tsunemi Yuichiro , Seko Yoko , Ohashi Yumiko , Ueki Kohjiro , Kadowaki Takashi , Oe Makoto , Nagase Takashi , Ikeda Mari , Sanada Hiromi
Published: October 2017

OBJECTIVES:

To examine the correlations between elements of feet-washing behavior, presence of tinea pedis (TP), and patients’ background characteristics in order to identify a concrete intervention method to prevent TP.

DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS:

A cross-sectional study of 30 patients with diabetes (16 with TP) who were admitted to or visited the university hospital.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:

The presence of TP was confirmed by the detection of dermatophytes by direct microscopy. Data on elements of feet-washing behavior, such as scrubbing between the toes, were collected by observing recorded videos of participants normally washing their feet as they do at home. The patients’ background characteristics included demographic data; diabetes-related factors; patient knowledge regarding diabetes, foot problems, and TP prevention; purpose for feet washing; and any difficulties in feet washing.

MAIN RESULTS:

The number of times patients scrubbed between their toes while washing with soap was significantly lower in patients with TP (odds ratio, 0.95; P = .036; with a cutoff value of 35 times) and those who had difficulty in reaching their feet with their hands (B = −14.42, P = .041).

CONCLUSIONS:

An effective foot-washing protocol should include specific instructions for patients to scrub between their toes at least 35 times in all 8 spaces while washing with soap. Appropriate advice is also needed for individuals who have difficulty reaching their feet with their hands. Education about appropriate foot-washing behavior may potentially prevent TP.
Medical-Grade Honey Dressing Use in Developing Countries
Authors: Winter George Frederick
Published: October 2017

Compared with other medical honeys, SurgihoneyRO (H&R Healthcare Ltd, Southmoor, Abingdon, United Kingdom), a bioengineered medical-grade honey, delivers low concentrations of reactive oxygen to wounds over a sustained period. This article describes how one provider, Dr Jill Brooks, has successfully used this new antimicrobial dressing in Africa and examines the potential positive impact this dressing could have on wound care in developing countries.
Safety and Feasibility of Early Physical Therapy for Patients on Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenator: University of Maryland Medical Center Experience*
Authors: Wells Chris L. , Forrester Jenny , Vogel Joshua , Rector Raymond , Tabatabai Ali , Herr Daniel
Published: October 2017

Objectives:

To examine the feasibility and safety of mobilizing patients while on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation support.

Design:

Retrospective cohort study.

Setting:

Medical and Surgical ICUs in a large tertiary care hospital in the United States.

Patients:

Adults supported on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation from January 2014 to December 2015.

Measurements and Main Results:

We reviewed the medical records from physical therapy, perfusion, and intensivists to obtain the number and type of physical therapy interventions and discharge status; extracorporeal membranous oxygenation type and description of support, cannulation sites; and risk management details of adverse effects, if any. Of 254 patients supported on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation, 167 patients (66.7%) received a total of 607 physical therapy sessions while on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation support. In this cohort, 134 patients (80.2%) had at least one femoral cannula during physical therapy intervention. Sixty-six of the 167 patients (39.5%) were supported on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation with bifemoral cannulas, and 44 (26.3%) were on veno-arterial extracorporeal membranous oxygenation. A dual lumen catheter was only used in five cases. Twenty-five patients (15%) (13 bifemoral cases) participated in standing or ambulation activities. Seventy-five patients (68.8%) who were successfully weaned from extracorporeal membranous oxygenation were discharged to a rehabilitation facility; 26 patients (23.8%) went home. Three minor events (< 0.5%) involving two episodes of arrhythmias and a hypotension event interrupted the therapy sessions, but mobility activities and exercises resumed that day. No major events were reported.

Conclusions:

With a highly trained multidisciplinary team and a focus on restoring function, it is feasible and safe to deliver early rehabilitation including standing and ambulation to patients on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation support even those with femoral cannulation sites with veno-arterial extracorporeal membranous oxygenation and veno-venous extracorporeal membranous oxygenation.
Integrated Hepatitis C Testing and Linkage to Care at a Local Health Department Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic: Determining Essential Resources and Evaluating Outcomes
Authors: Rhea Sarah , Seña Arlene C. , Hilton Alison , Hurt Christopher B. , Wohl David , Fleischauer Aaron
Published: October 2017

Guidance about integration of comprehensive hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related services in sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics is limited. We evaluated a federally funded HCV testing and linkage-to-care program at an STD clinic in Durham County, North Carolina. During December 10, 2012, to March 31, 2015, the program tested 733 patients for HCV who reported 1 or more HCV risk factor; 81 (11%) were HCV-infected (ie, HCV antibody-positive and HCV ribonucleic acid-positive). Fifty-one infected patients (63%) were linked to care. We concluded that essential program resources include reflex HCV ribonucleic acid testing; a dedicated bridge counselor to provide test results, health education, and linkage-to-care assistance; and referral relationships for local HCV management and treatment.
Kidney Transplant Recipients With Primary Membranous Glomerulonephritis Have a Higher Risk of Acute Rejection Compared With Other Primary Glomerulonephritides
Authors: Singh Tripti , Astor Brad , Zhong Weixiong , Mandelbrot Didier , Djamali Arjang , Panzer Sarah
Published: October 2017

Background

Despite being the leading cause of graft failure, there is a lack of published data about the rates of rejection in kidney transplant patients with glomerulonephritis as the cause of end-stage renal disease.

Methods

We examined all consecutive adult (>18 years) renal transplant recipients with biopsy-proven native renal glomerular disease who underwent kidney transplant between 1994 and 2013. Glomerulonephritis groups included were IgA nephropathy (IgAN) (N = 306), focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) (N = 298), membranous nephropathy (MN) (N = 81), and lupus nephritis (LN) (N = 177).

Results

In the total cohort of 862 patients, 363 patients had an episode of acute rejection during the follow-up period of 19 years (incidence rate of 7.2% per year). Forty-five of 81 patients with MN had an episode of acute rejection during the follow-up period. Patients with MN had significantly higher incidence of acute rejection (12.1 per 100 person years, P < 0.05) in comparison to IgAN (7.2 per 100 person years), FSGS (7.4 per 100 person years), and LN (7.9 per 100 person years). Patients with MN had 1.9 times higher risk of developing acute rejection after transplant in comparison to IgAN (P < 0.005). In patients with MN, 33 of 45 (73.3%) rejection events were acute cellular rejection, 8 (17.8%) of 45 were acute antibody-mediated rejection and 6 of 45 (13.3%) were combined cellular and antibody-mediated acute rejection. Despite higher rates of acute rejection, 10-year allograft survival was similar in all subgroups.

Conclusions

Patients with MN have higher incidence of acute rejection after kidney transplant but have similar 10-year allograft survival in comparison to the other glomerular diseases like IgAN, FSGS, and LN.