bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
H
aydn,
F
ranz
J
oseph (1732–1809)
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin
Published: January 2012

Franz Joseph Haydn was a pious, though not sanctimonious, Catholic who had a sincere trust in the mercy of God. He began his manuscripts with the Latin inscription “In nomine Domini” and ended “Laus Deo.” Like most composers of the time, Haydn's output of sacred music was largely determined by his employment and patrons. He received a solid grounding in (sacred) music as a chorister in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna (1740–1750). In 1761, after a brief first appointment as music director to Count Morzin in Lucave, he began his lifelong association with the Esterházys, a Hungarian noble family of vast wealth and power. At first Vice‐Kapellmeister, then Kapellmeister, he served Prince Nikolaus the Magnificent for nearly 30 years, and continued with the prince's son and grandson. As with Mozart, Haydn's small output of sacred music (until 1796) has been ascribed to the liturgical reforms of Joseph II, but he was undoubtedly very busy with his patron's demands for instrumental and theater music, which was to be composed and directed by the Kapellmeister. Nevertheless, his command of the language of sacred music is evident even in his early works, e.g., the
Missa Cellensis
(1766),
Stabat Mater
(1767),
Grosse Orgelmesse
(c.1768), and the
Missa Cellensis
(1782). The
Kleine Orgelmesse
(?1777) is a gem, albeit with telescoped treatment of the Gloria and Credo. On a commission from Cádiz Cathedral in 1786, he composed seven orchestral interludes for “The seven last words of our Saviour on the cross.” In 1796 he adapted this work, which circulated throughout Europe, for chorus, using a pietistic German text.
H
aywood,
G
arfield T. (1880–1931)
Authors: Gerloff Roswith
Published: January 2012

The African American G. T. Haywood, pastor, evangelist, bishop, editor, gospel song writer, and author, was one of the most influential leaders in early Pentecostalism in the United States and a friend of W. J. Seymour. Being black, he was a symbolic figure with whom people of the African Diaspora could identify. He was born in Greencastle, Indiana, on July 15, 1880, to a poor family, descendants of slaves. Early he discovered his educational zeal and his particular talent for cartooning, which helped his ministry and turned him almost into a professional journalist. His Christian background was predominantly Baptist, but he received the Pentecostal experience in a small interracial storefront church connected with the Azusa Street Revival. Against his own intentions, he felt, after an accident, called to the ministry and became a pastor in 1909. This marks the beginning of a success story of the
Apostolic Assembly
in Indianapolis which soon moved from the black ghetto to the more integrated north of the city, building Christ Temple in 1924 with space for 1,500 members of all races, cultures, and professions. Thus Haywood rose from an obscure “Jack Leg Preacher” to the presiding bishop of a large interracial Pentecostal church. He was known as the “walking bible,” a “mighty sledge hammer in the circles of Christian journalism,” a dynamic preacher, a progressive leader, a friend of the outcasts, and a man of tolerance and an infectious smile.
Heaven
Authors: Moore Russell D.
Published: January 2012

Heaven is the expectation of Christians that life does not end with physical death but, for the redeemed, continues eternally in the presence of Christ.
H
ebrew
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

With few exceptions, the original autographs of the Old Testament canonical books were written in the Hebrew language. Two words in Genesis 31:47, Ezra 4:8–6:18, 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, and Daniel 2:4b–7:28 were written in Aramaic. The Hebrew Bible contains 10,000 basic words, with only 1,000 occurring more than 25 times. From the perspective of an Indo‐European language, there are two primary difficulties in learning Hebrew: (1) the script reads from right to left; and (2) there are only two basic tenses, the perfect (completed action) and the imperfect (incomplete action). As Hebrew communicates distinct patterns of thought, and therefore expresses a unique Middle Eastern perspective, it provides an essential context for understanding the New Testament.
H
eidegger,
M
artin (1889–1976)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

No 20th century philosopher has so strongly influenced Christian thought as Heidegger, and only Wittgenstein approaches his impact within philosophy itself. Yet despite his strongly Christian background, it is questionable whether Heidegger considered himself to be a Christian during most of his career. His work is controversial, both because of his political past, but also because while many see his work as achieving an epochal breakthrough in non‐objectifying language, others see it as merely obscure.
H
egel,
G
eorg
W
ilhelm
F
riedrich (1770–1831)
Authors: Hector Kevin W.
Published: January 2012

Any interpretation of Hegel is bound to be controversial, but in order to understand his intellectual contributions to Christian civilization, we can safely begin by characterizing Hegel as a peculiarly
modern
thinker. Hegel's thought counts as “modern” in at least two respects. On the one hand, Hegel took seriously Kant's famous injunction to “think for oneself”: rather than believing or doing something because it is “what one does” or “what one has been told,” Hegel tries to determine the conditions according to which one could identify certain commitments as one's own. On the other hand, Hegel's thought counts as “modern” because he was concerned to explain how God and free human beings were related to a “world” now construed in causal‐mechanistic terms. Hegel's intellectual contribution to Christian civilization can be understood as a response to these problems.
H
enry,
C
arl
F
.
H
. (1913–2003)
Authors: Mullin Miles S.
Published: January 2012

Journalist, author, professor, and theologian, Carl Ferdinand Howard Henry was born in New York City in 1913. The son of German immigrant parents, he was raised in a nominally Christian home. As a young man, he launched a successful journalism career, but an evangelical conversion in 1933 led him to Wheaton College, where he married Helga Bender. At Wheaton, he received both a B.A. and an M.A. before earning divinity and doctorate degrees at Northern Baptist Theological Seminary. Henry earned a second doctorate from Boston University in 1949 under the supervision of liberal theologian Edgar Brightman.
Hermeneutical Theology
Authors: Werntz Myles
Published: January 2012

Hermeneutical theology emerged in the 1960s in response to systematic theology, emphasizing the particularities of time and place in theo‐logical formulation, and calling for the rethinking of classical theological formulations. Taking many of its initial philosophical cues from Paul Ricoeur and Hans‐Georg Gadamer, hermeneut‐ical theology traces its roots to the methodology of Schleiermacher and, later, the hermeneutical work of Bultmann. Based in the assertion that God is a self‐communicating God, hermeneut‐ical theology is concerned primarily with questions of reception and understanding, of how this self‐communicating God is understood and responded to. As a result of the rise of hermeneutics, the task of theology shifted from a primarily dogmatic task to a descriptive, particular, and localized one.
Hermeneutics
Authors: Lee Jason K.
Published: January 2012

Hermeneutics is the science or art of interpreting texts. Written texts of various types, lengths, and genres can be the subject of hermeneutics. Within Christianity, the Bible has been the object of obvious hermeneutical interest. The application of hermeneutics to biblical texts argu‐ably traces back to the Hebrew Bible in the interpretations of the Law in the Prophets and Writings. Many early Christian interpreters used methodologies similar to that of some of their Jewish predecessors and contemporaries as they investigated the texts of the Hebrew scriptures. Scholars differ on how much New Testament authors or other early Christian exegetes relied on the Jewish interpretive methods of peshat, midrash, pesher, and allegory. Christian herme‐neutics focused on the idea that the ministry of Jesus fulfilled the Hebrew scriptures (or Old Testament) and how the resultant apostolic tradition, encapsulated in the New Testament texts, completed the canon.
Hildegard ofBingen (1098–1179)
Authors: Yardley Anne Bagnall
Published: January 2012

German abbess, born in Bermersheim, tenth child of Hildebert and Mechtild of Bermersheim, Hildegard was the author of many literary, theological, medical, scientific, and musical works and the founder of two abbeys. She also preached throughout Germany and corres‐ponded with important ecclesiastical authorities of the day.
J
esus
S
eminar, the
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The term “historical Jesus” refers to efforts trying to reconstruct Jesus of Nazareth. Those in this pursuit argue that the four Gospels do not necessarily give an accurate account of the life of Jesus because much of the Gospels present a Christ of faith, not as an historical figure. The search for the historical Jesus has its roots in the writings of men such as the German skeptic Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694–1768) and David Friedrich Strauss (1808–1874). As a disciple of the Enlightenment, a rationalist, and a deist, Reimarus rejected the historicity of the New Testament's four Gospels. And in 1835, Strauss published his book
Leben Jesu
(The Life of Jesus) in which he rejected all supernatural events and miracles in the four Gospels.
H
offman (or
H
offmann),
M
elchior (1495?–1543)
Authors: Blakeley James J.
Published: January 2012

German Anabaptist lay preacher, reformer, self‐proclaimed charismatic prophet, and “Father of Dutch Anabaptism.” Although the exact date is unknown, he was born around 1495 in Swabia.
H
olbein,
H
ans (1497–1543)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

German painter and designer. He was the scion of a German family of painters that included his father Hans Holbein the Elder (1460–1524), his brother Sigmund (1470–1540), and his sons Ambrosius (1495–1519) and Hans the Younger (1498–1543). Hans Holbein the Elder was one of the foremost artists of his generation and he was the head of a busy workshop in Augsburg. Hans Holbein started work as a journeyman designing prints for publishers, including the title page for Sir Thomas More's
Utopia
. He was in Basle from 1520, where his early religious paintings include the
Oberreid Altarpiece
, which included
Nativity
and
Adoration of the Kings.
In the
Nativity
, the room is lit by the light from the Infant Christ. The
Passion Altar
is a series of eight scenes from Gethsemane while the
Solothurn Madonna
and
The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb
are more traditional. In Basle, Holbein also designed the title page for Luther's Bible (1522) and 41 wood‐cuts for the original edition of the
Dance of Death
, which was an enormous success and remains his most famous work. Around 1524 Holbein went to France, where he painted
Noli Me Tangere
, the
Last Supper
, and the
Meyer Madonna
. The harrowing
Christ in the Tomb
(1521) shows a mastery of chiaroscuro that rivals Leonardo. In 1526 he left for England encouraged by Erasmus' reports and the rise to prominence of Sir Thomas More. However, with the Reformation there were fewer patrons for religious art. By 1529 he had become a Protestant and thereafter turned away from religious imagery. He made some polemical prints against the papacy and turned to classical themes. He eventually became court portraitist for Henry VIII, glorifying the Tudor king as the head of the church.
Holiness
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Holiness is the exclusive and defining characteristic of God and distinguishes the divine from the profane and human. Its primary attributes are sinlessness, incorruptibility, and purity in the sense that light is free of darkness. It is one of the characteristics that cannot be transferred in its fullest sense to human beings because human beings are mired in space and time and Original Sin. In Isaiah the angels cry (addressing God) “Holy, Holy, Holy is the Lord of Hosts … the whole earth is full of his glory.” Because holiness is built into the very nature and essence of divinity and is part of the divineding an sich(German: the essence of being) it is permanent and not affected by time and space. There is a secondary holiness that is associated with human spirituality and sanctification but it is always a journey, not a state of being. Holiness in the first sense cannot be directly transferred to holiness in the second sense. Significantly, the English word ‘holiness’ has no verb form.
Holy Spirit
Authors: Burgess Stanley M.
Published: January 2012

The Holy Spirit, the third member of the Christian Trinity, has been until recently relatively ignored by Christian theologians and writers. Participants in recent movements, such as Classical Pentecostalism and various Charismatic renewals, have reversed this neglect by claiming to be Spirit‐gifted and Spirit‐led. They liken themselves to first‐century Apostolic Christians, who either were present on the Day of Pentecost or experienced the fall‐out of that first outpouring of the divine Spirit.
Holy Week
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Holy Week, the last week in Lent, begins with Palm Sunday and ends with Easter Sunday. Liturgically, it is especially observed by Catholics, Anglicans, Lutherans, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The first day of Holy Week is Palm Sunday, on which Christians commemorate Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, as crowds hailed him as their earthly Messiah, waving palm branches and cheering, “Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord, even the King of Israel!” By riding on a donkey, Jesus fulfilled the prophecy of Zechariah 9:9.
Hospice
Authors: Shields Candace C.
Published: January 2012

It is believed that the concept of hospice was developed in the Middle Ages when provisions were made for the sick and the weary as they went on journeys throughout the country. At that time, sources of comfort were commonplace. The nuns and monks who cared for the dying did so as a result of a worldview that saw caring for another as a sign of love and devotion to God. During those times the dying were not separated from the living, but were made comfortable and given a chance to settle their affairs before they died. This makes hospice care not a new concept but a return to the caring for the dying that has always been part of everyday life.
Huguenots
Authors: Lilliback Peter
Published: January 2012

The Huguenots began as the French followers of the Protestant Reformation. The forerunners of the French Reformation were the humanist biblical scholars from “the little flock of Meaux” led by Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (Stapulensis, c.1455–1536) and Guillaume Briçonnet (bishop of Meaux, 1470–1534). While there is considerable discussion about the origins of Protestantism in France, John Calvin (1509–1564) was a foundational leader. Other forces for the reformation of the French church included Luther's writings and the reformers of Strasbourg. While the French reformers had great respect for Calvin and the reformation from Geneva, they exercised a measure of independence.
H
ungarian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Hungarian Christianity traces its origins to the 3rd century when the faith was brought to the land through Pannonia and Dacia by Arian, Orthodox, and Catholic missionaries. The greatest of these missionaries were Cyril and Methodius. Moravian Catholics introduced the Greek Rite and translated the Bible and liturgy into Slavic. The Magyars who invaded the country from the east chose the Latin rather than the Byzantine Rite with the aid of Italian, German, and Bohemian missionaries and under the guidance of their rulers, Geza and his son Stephen I. The latter received from the pope the title of Apostolic King, and he and his son were canonized. Catholicism was fully established as the religion of the Magyars by 1001.
H
us,
J
ohn (c.1371–1415)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

John Hus was born of Czech (Bohemian) parents relatively close to Prague around 1371. In 1400 he was ordained as a priest, and in 1401 he became dean of the philosophy faculty. In 1409, he became rector of the University of Prague. He also held an appointment as preacher at the “Bethlehem Chapel” in Prague, where he preached in the Czech language, a language into which he also wanted the Bible translated.
Hyperdulia
Authors: Haile Getatchew
Published: January 2012

The Ethiopian Church believes that Mary is, in accordance with the witnesses of the Gospels, the virgin mother of Jesus the Messiah: “before they [Mary and Joseph] lived together, she was found to be with child [Jesus] from the Holy Spirit” (Matt. 1:18). She is described as “virgin in two [ways],” that is, in body and mind or thought. The church emphasizes that her physical virginity was not affected by the birth of Jesus, the Messiah; and the marriage between her and Joseph was never consummated. The tradition, based on
Mashafa Ledata
or “Book of Her Nativity,” the major nonbiblical source on the Blessed Virgin, states that the brothers of Jesus mentioned in the Gospels are the children of Joseph from a previous marriage. As Jesus is perfect man and perfect God, Mary is not only the mother of the man Jesus but also the mother of God Jesus; she is called
waladita amlak
, “Mother of God,” the equivalent of Cyril's
theotokos
.
H
ypostatic
U
nion
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

The hypostatic union of Christ is an essential Christological designation; it answers the question relating to the amalgamation of Christ's humanity and deity. The phenomenon of the two natures is known as the “hypostatic union,” as it is derived from the definition of faith in Hebrews 11:1 (“the assurance [subsistence, essence] of
things
hoped for”). The doctrine designates the actual and complete union of the human and divine natures of Christ. At the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), the church declared the doctrine as describing the amal‐gamation of two genuine natures (
phuseis
) into one person (
hupostasis
). One may consider four requirements of a biblically based conception of the full humanity and deity of Christ, developed by the early Church: (a) he is truly and properly God; (b) he is truly and properly human; (c) the two genuine natures of deity and humanity are united in one person; and (d) each of the two genuine natures is properly distinct in one person. The New Testament assumes that Jesus Christ is one person who is both fully divine and fully human. John 3:13 refers to his descent from heaven as authentication of his deity, and yet he was called “the Son of Man,” which was used to mean the authentication of his humanity. Christ's encounter with the woman of Samaria affirms the hypostatic union. Christ's weariness “from his journey” (John 4:6) confirms he is truly and properly human. Moreover, when the Samaritan woman confessed, “Come, see a man who told me all the things that I
have
done” (John 4:29), it was confirmation of his omniscience. He is called “a descendant of David according to the flesh” (fully human) and “the Son of God” (fully divine) (Rom. 1:3–4). Christological controversies are always characterized by a violation of the four requirements previously stated.
Icons and Iconography
Authors: Jorgenson Cameron H. J.
Published: January 2012

An icon is an image used for the purposes of religious devotion, typically depicting Christian figures (e.g. Christ, the Virgin Mary, or one or more of the saints and martyrs), or scenes from Scripture and Christian lore. Iconography, the practice of icon making, is steeped in traditions that govern the styles and themes employed by the iconographers who make the images. Icons have been a constant, though disputed, element in Christian worship throughout the history of the church.
Image of
G
od
Authors: Peterson Ryan S.
Published: January 2012

The
imago Dei
, or image of God, has been central to Christian anthropology since the writings of the early fathers. Irenaeus was first to make it central to his overall theology. Not a few theologians have followed this path, and they have tended to agree that the
imago Dei
refers to a similarity that humanity had or has or will have to God.
Imitation of Christ
Authors: Maclean Iain S.
Published: January 2012

Jesus throughout his ministry called men and women to follow him and become his disciples (Mark 1:17f; 2:14; 8:31f; 10:21, 32, 35–36). The call to service required leaving old relationships and professions, and might lead to humiliation, suffering and even death. This imitation was encouraged by the apostle Paul himself (1 Cor. 11:1). The early Church, persecuted during its first 300 years, gathered many examples of those who followed and so imitated Jesus in his trial and death. The imitation was often literal, following the example of the first Christian Martyr, St. Stephen (Acts 7).
I
mmaculate Conception
Authors: Lang David P.
Published: January 2012

The adjective “immaculate” derives from the Latin
macula
, meaning any of the synonyms “stain,” “blot,” “blemish,” “spot,” “flaw,” or “fault” — with the prefix “im” functioning as a negating particle. The Catholic Church teaches that Mary, the mother of Christ, was free from the flaw of original sin from the very first instant of her existence in the womb of her mother. This doctrine must not be confused with the different doctrine of Mary's Perpetual Virginity (before, during, and after the birth of her divine Son), which encompasses the conception of Jesus in his mother's womb rather than the (passive) conception of Mary.
Immortality
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Immortality in its proper sense of deathlessness is an attribute of God and other celestial beings. In the Greek New Testament, the terms used are
athanasia
(deathlessness) and
aphtharasia
(incorruptibility). Human beings are by definition mortal and therefore do not qualify for immortality. However, the term has profound theological implications in the context of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
Incarnation
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The word “incarnation” comes from the Latin
incarnatio
, being in flesh. The Christian doctrine of the incarnation (God having assumed human flesh in Jesus Christ) is a fundamental and distinctive doctrine of Christianity. It is clearly taught in the Gospel of John, which declares, “the Word (Logos) became flesh [in Jesus Christ] and dwelt among us …” (John 1:14). It was also taught by St. Paul, who wrote, “God [in Jesus Christ] was manifested in the flesh …” (1 Tim. 3:16). Similarly, in Paul's letter to the Colossian Christians he assured them that in Christ dwelt “the fullness of the Godhead bodily” (Col. 2:9). The incarnation of God in Jesus Christ was also evident in Christ's own words when he told Philip, “He who has seen me as seen the Father” (John 14:9). And it is worthy to note that, particularly during the busy Christmas season, when Christians observe Christmas Day, they are underscoring the incarnation.
Inerrancy of the Bible
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

A doctrine maintained historically by all branches of the Christian church but today maintained chiefly by evangelical Protestants and by conservative American denominations (the largest being the Lutheran Church‐Missouri Synod and the Southern Baptist Convention, both of which underwent intense internal struggles over the issue). Among American evangelicals are institutions, such as the Fuller Theological Seminary, which have removed biblical inerrancy from their doctrinal stance. On the English ecclesiastical scene, the general spiritual authority of Scripture is stressed, but there is considerable reticence toward the use of the terminology of scriptural inerrancy.
Infallibility
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Christians use the term “infallibility” to designate the inability to err in the teaching of revealed truth. As God is in principle infallible, the term normally has been used by theologians to refer to human agents, who teach revealed truth on God's behalf.
I
nnocent
III
,
P
ope (1160/1161–1216; Pontificate from 1198)
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

The most powerful pope of the Middle Ages, Innocent III was famous for raising the influence and prestige of the papacy to its highest ever level. He was born Lothar of Segni, and his family was from the Lombard and Roman nobility, with extensive contacts in the Roman aristocracy. Educated at a monastery in Rome, he then studied theology in Paris and, as was traditional, law in Bologna. His intellectual ability was such that he could have achieved prominence in either field; instead, he entered papal service and rose rapidly, becoming a cardinal at 30, and pope (by unanimous election) at 38, the youngest in history.
I
renaeus,
S
aint (
d
. 202)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Irenaeus' name is derived from the Greek work
irene
(peace). Even though he is known as one of the more important church fathers, relatively little is known regarding his life. Some historians believe he was born in Proconsular Asia, a Roman province in the western part of Asia Minor, where the seven churches mentioned in the book of Revelation were located. The exact year of his birth is not known. Some sources list his birth between AD 115 and 125, and some think he was born between AD 130 and 142. The exact year of his death is also not known, although some sources indicate he died in 202.
I
sidore of
S
eville (c.560–636)
Authors: O'Loughlin Thomas
Published: January 2012

Educated in a Latin Christian milieu where there were still clashes between Byzantine forces and the new rulers of Spain, the Visigoths, Isidore of Seville can be regarded as a transition figure between the world of late antique Latin theology and the world of early medieval theology in the new kingdoms of the west. He was educated in Seville under his brother Leander (Seville's bishop from c.580, and a friend of Gregory the Great), succeeding him as bishop c.600. Isidore devoted his episcopate to clerical education (most of his writings serve this end), promoting uniformity of practice in liturgy and canon law (several works promote these themes; he presided over the Second Council of Seville (619) and the Fourth Council of Toledo (633), and became a force in collecting canonical materials into great reference collections), and toward establishing a stable Visigothic kingdom (he forged close links with King Sisebut (r. 612–621) and worked to evolve a model of close support between the monarchy and the church: the legislation of Fourth Toledo setting out the ideal relationship). While today he is not remembered as a major theologian, his work in digesting virtually all the Latin theologians prior to his time allowed him to establish the structures in which their theology was approached in later centuries; and in some areas, such as his approach to the Eucharist as a sacred object, his influence is still felt.
Islam and Christianity
Authors: Cate Patrick O.
Published: January 2012

For 14 centuries followers of Islam and for two millennia followers of Christianity have each claimed that their scripture is God's final written revelation and that salvation comes uniquely through their faith. Both are missionary religions. So inherently there have been 14 centuries of conflicts, theologically, socially, and politically. Muslims have been more resistant to Christianity than any other community of faith and make up the largest religious bloc outside of Christianity (1.5 billion).
I
talian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Christianity took deep root in Italy early in the 1st century although it remained a minority religion until the 4th century. The faith was introduced by Peter and Paul and their fellow believers soon after the resurrection and the earliest adherents of the new religion outside of the Near East and Asia Minor were found in Italy, particularly in Rome. After the 11th century Rome became the capital of Catholicism just as Byzantium (Constantinople) became the capital of Orthodoxy. Rome was the scene of the severest persecutions and the greatest triumphs of the early church. Other cities like Milan, Ravenna, Aquileia, and Florence became cradles of Christian art, music, and architecture. Some of the greatest Christian artists, musicians, and architects have been Italians. Cassiodorus and John Cassian introduced monasticism to the west, Benedict of Nursia drafted the rule that became the standard for all monastic communities, and Ambrose defended the church against the ravages of heresy. After the Napoleonic era the eventual unification of Italy under Victor Emmanuel II in 1870 led to the emergence of the Holy See as a separate state.
J
aki,
S
tanley (1924–2009)
Authors: Watts Thomas D.
Published: January 2012

Stanley L. Jaki O.S.B. was a Benedictine priest and physicist, and a seminal thinker in the philosophy of science, theology, and the intersecting points where these disciplines meet. He was born in Gyôr, Hungary, in 1924. After his undergraduate studies in philosophy, theology, and mathematics, Fr. Jaki completed a Doctorate in Theology in 1950 from the Pontifical Institute in Rome, and then obtained a Doctorate in Physics from Fordham University in 1958. He also did postdoctoral research in philosophy of science at several universities. He lectured at several universities, in the US, Europe, and Australia. He was awarded the prestigious Templeton Prize for his work in furthering science and religion in 1987.
J
ansenism
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: January 2012

Jansenism was a heretical sect that sprang up within the Catholic Church during the 17th century. Its adherents were at the centre of the church's bitterest religious quarrels of the period — particularly in France where Jansenism took hold — concerning such matters as grace, free will, predestination, and the proper interpretation of St. Augustine.
J
ehovah's Witnesses
Authors: Lasater Gayle Ann Spiers
Published: January 2012

Jehovah's Witnesses are one of the new religious movements that claim to restore primitive Christianity, emerging from the long shadow of the Second Great Awakening in North America, with an active missionary corps engaged in worldwide proselytizing. The movement was founded by Charles Taze Russell, a former Presbyterian influenced by the millennialism of American Adventism. Russell first published
Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence
in 1879. The faith took as its official name the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1896, incorporating in 1956. With authority centralized in New York, the publishing houses print literature in 180 languages and distribute 15,000 tons of publications annually (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1993). Today's most popular bimonthly publication,
The Watchtower
, is distributed in 235 countries. According to the annual
2006 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses
, attendance at the 2005 worldwide Memorial Service was 16,383,333. In 2005, 6,613,829 active “publishers” conducted missionary work resulting in 247,631 new baptisms around the world.
J
esus Movement
Authors: Lindley W. Terry
Published: January 2012

The Jesus Movement began in late 1967 in the Haight‐Ashbury section of San Francisco, when Ted Wise, a former drug user and born‐again Christian, set up a coffee house named the Living Room. Other such establishments soon sprang up across America, for example Arthur Blessitt's His Place in Los Angeles and Scott Ross's Love Inn in Freeville, New York. These coffee houses often became communes for hippie/counterculture believers, frequently referred to as Jesus People or Jesus Freaks. Other groups of Jesus People included the Jesus People Army in Seattle and the Milwaukee Jesus People, which split into several groups, one of which, Jesus People USA, continues to be active today in Chicago. By the early 1970s, the national news media —
Time
,
Newsweek
,
Life
, CBS News, NBC News, and even
Rolling Stone
magazine — were covering the movement. In 1971 the Jesus Movement was named the religious news event of the year by the Religious News Writers Association. However, by the mid 1970s, the movement was beginning to disappear.
J
ewish
K
abbalah, influences on
C
hristian traditions
Authors: Bush Randall
Published: January 2012

From the 13th to 15th centuries
ce
, a Hebraic form of Neo‐Platonism known as Kabbalah evolved that would significantly alter conventional Platonic and Neo‐Platonic interpretations of the relationship between physical and spiritual dimensions of existence.
J
ohn of the Cross (1542–1591)
Authors: Egan, S.J. Harvey D.
Published: January 2012

John of the Cross has been called the greatest mystic in the Christian tradition. His extraordinary contemplative experiences, sublime poetry, and mystical theology offer such a sure guide to the life of perfection that his writings have become almost the norm for interpreting the ascent to God. Thus, in 1926, Pope Pius XI proclaimed him a Doctor of the Church.
J
ohn
XXIII
,
P
ope (1881–1963)
Authors: Coulter Michael
Published: January 2012

Pope John XXIII, born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli on November 25, 1881, was the 261st Pope of the Roman Catholic Church. He was elected as pope in 1958 and was best known for calling the Second Vatican Council in January 1959, just a few months after becoming pope, to achieve the
aggiornamento
(“updating”) of the Church, though he did not live to see its completion.
J
ones, Bob Sr. (1883–1968)
Authors: Mickle Allen R.
Published: January 2012

Robert Reynolds Davis Jones or simply Bob Jones (affectionately known as “Dr. Bob” by his friends and students) was born on October 30, 1883, on a farm near Dothan, Alabama. He was the 11th of 12 children in the family of William Alexander (Alex) Jones and Georgia Creel. Alex was a Confederate veteran of the Battle of Chickamauga Creek, Tennessee. Dr. Bob's father was a Methodist and his mother, a Primitive Baptist. Both parents had died by the time he was 17. He was converted at the age of 11 in a rural Methodist Episcopal (South) church, and immersed in a nearby creek.
J
udson,
A
doniram (1788–1850)
Authors: Anderson Jeffrey
Published: January 2012

The first American missionary to Burma, Adoniram Judson was born on August 9, 1788 in Malden, Massachusetts. Adoniram demonstrated remarkable abilities even while very young. His mother taught him to read in one week when he was only 3 years old. When he was 10 he learned navigation from a retired sea captain; and he could read classical Greek by the time he was 12.
Just War
Authors: Hampsher Joshua A.
Published: January 2012

While there are several forms of just war theory, it is the Christian forms that concern us here. Just war theory is designed to permit (
ius ad bellum
) and limit (
ius in bello
) the use of war. In order for a war to be permissible or just, six criteria must be met (see below).
Justification
Authors: Posset Franz
Published: January 2012

The theological doctrine of justification was of central importance for the Lutheran Reformation of the 16th century and is defended in its Reformation shape and special valuation over against the Roman Catholic Church and theology of that time. The doctrine of justification is more than just one part of Christian doctrine. It stands in an essential relation to all truths of faith, which are to be seen as internally related to each other. It is an indispensable criterion which constantly serves to orient all the teaching and practice to Christ.
JustinMartyr,Saint (d.c.165)
Authors: Rhee Helen
Published: January 2012

The preeminent 2nd century Christian apologist and martyr Justin Martyr was born in the Roman colony of Flavia Neapolis (Nablus) in Syrian Palestine (1 Apol. 1.1). Justin experienced a philosophical pilgrimage as a Stoic, a Peripatetic, a Pythagorean, and a Platonist. He was then led by an old man to the revealed truth of Christianity, “the only sure and worthy philosophy” (Dial. 3–9). After conversion, he continued to wear philosopher's garb and conducted a Christian school in Rome, championing Christian faith and practice against heretics (e.g. Marcion), Jewish claims, and pagan accusations and violence. He was the first theologian who seriously engaged with Greco‐Roman philosophy and culture in expounding Christian truth. His disciples included Tatian the Syrian who produced his own diatribeapology,Oration to the Greeks, and the Gospel harmony,Diatessaron. According to the reliableActs of Justin, he faced martyrdom with six other Christians under the prefect Junius Rusticus (162–168).
K
epler,
J
ohannes (1571–1630)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

This world‐renowned astronomer was born prematurely to a pauper family on December 27, 1571, in Weil der Stadt, near Stuttgart, Germany. From childhood on, his life was difficult. At the age of 4 he almost died of smallpox, which left him with defective eyesight. He was physically frail and beset with a number of ailments, consisting of skin rashes, boils, chronic putrid wounds on his feet, stomach ailments, gall problems, and a mild form of hemophilia. He had a quarrelsome mother and an illtempered, spiteful father who was a drifter. Johannes could only attend school irregularly. From the ages of 9 to 11 he was totally absent from school, for he had to do menial farm work to help alleviate the family's poverty. His schoolmates disliked him, apparently because of his precocity. In time, his exceptional intelligence stood him in good stead, for at the age of 17 in 1588 he passed the baccalaureate examination at the university in Tübingen, where in 1589 he began studying for the Lutheran ministry.
K
erygmatic Theology
Authors: Lewis B. Scott
Published: January 2012

The descriptive term “kerygmatic” comes from the Greek word
kerygma
, meaning to preach or proclaim. The term is frequently used by kerygmatic theologians (e.g. Rudolf Bultmann, Karl Barth) to describe the act of preaching that calls for an existential faith in the meaning of Jesus. The term
kerygma
was used by theologians to denote the content of apostolic preaching which consisted of historical facts about Jesus' life and ministry (e.g. death, burial, resurrection, and ascension) for understanding the meaning Jesus (e.g. C. H. Dodd). According to kerymatic theologians, when the content of the primitive
kerygma
is preached today (i.e. Jesus' death and resurrection) it is understood that God calls upon hearers to believe in God's act in Christ, so that hearers recognize their judgment of sin and receive grace in the present. In other words, this “proclaimed word” is an existential encounter with Jesus where the saving event of God — as described in the historical content of the
kerygma
— reoccurs in the proclaiming act in the present. Although less concerned with the historical sources for understanding the meaning of Jesus, kerygmatic theologians understand the proclaiming act to be God calling upon unbelievers to encounter the meaning of Jesus in an existential manner. This kerygmatic theology as articulated by Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann, and others became a unified theological position during the 20th century.
K
eswick Convention
Authors: Kreider Glenn R.
Published: January 2012

The Keswick Convention refers to both an annual Bible conference and the theological perspective on the Christian life taught at these conferences. It is a nondenominational movement with the aim of deepening the spiritual life of Christians, as well as an informal, loose association of Bible teachers who hold to a similar viewpoint on Christian spirituality.
K
ierkegaard,
S
øren
A
abye (1813–1855)
Authors: Cantrell Michael A.
Published: January 2012

Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher, theologian, and literary figure. The youngest of seven children, Kierkegaard was born in Copenhagen, where he spent the vast majority of his short 42 years. Kierkegaard received an uncommonly rigorous religious upbringing at the hands of his strict father, who expressed his high expectations for his son in no uncertain terms. Endowed with uncommon intellectual capacities, Kierkegaard became a remarkably prolific writer, producing a body of work noted for its literary brilliance, psychological perceptiveness, and uncompromising ethical rigor.
K
imbangu,
S
imon (1889–1951)
Authors: Poston Larry
Published: January 2012

Simon Kimbangu was the Congolese founder of the Church of Jesus Christ on Earth Through his Special Envoy Simon Kimbangu (EJCSK), the largest of the African Independent (Initiated) Churches.
K
ing,
M
artin
L
uther Jr. (1929–1968)
Authors: Mullin Miles S.
Published: January 2012

Martin Luther King Jr., African American Baptist pastor, civil rights leader, and Nobel Peace Prize recipient was born in Atlanta, Georgia, USA in 1929.
K
ingdom of
G
od: Biblical Perspectives
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

The Synoptic Gospels make clear that the Kingdom of God was at the very heart of Jesus' proclamation. John's Gospel, on the other hand, transmutes Jesus' teaching regarding God's Kingdom into his provision of eternal life for believers (though see John 3:3, 5; 18:36). While the exact phrase “Kingdom of God” is not found in the Old Testament, the concept certainly is, harking back to the notion of God's rule over his creation and specifically as king over Israel. This divine kingship, in turn, was exercised during the days of Israel's monarchy through human kings, particularly David and his dynasty, who became the focus of future expectations centered on the hope of a coming messianic king and deliverer.
K
nights of Malta
Authors: Phillips Benjamin Blair
Published: January 2012

The Order of Malta was founded by Pope Paschal II's bull of February 15, 1113. Its official name is “The Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem of Rhodes and of Malta,” but it is informally called the Knights of Malta. The Order's motto is
Tuitio Fidei et Obsequium Pauperum
(Defense of the Faith and Assistance to the Poor and Suffering). Its initial purpose was to aid poor and sick pilgrims in the Holy Land. The second Grand Master, Raymond of Provence, oversaw construction of a large infirmary in Jerusalem and established the knights who escorted Christian pilgrims.
Korean
C
hristianity
Authors: Wook Chung Sung
Published: January 2012

Roman Catholic mission began in Korea in 1784 and Protestant mission started in 1884. Therefore, Korean Christianity including both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism has a history of some 220 years. Nevertheless, according to some ancient historical records, there was a Christian presence in the ancient kingdom of Kaya in the 7th and 8th centuries. It seems that these early Christians were Nestorians, who were influenced by Chinese Nestorians. During the middle ages of Korea (14th–16th centuries), several Roman Catholic priests and laypeople visited Korea but their impact was negligible.
K
uyper,
A
braham (1837–1920)
Authors: Warmath Thomas
Published: January 2012

Abraham Kuyper's first parishioners led him from the convictions of 19th century liberal theology to those of evangelical Calvinism that would characterize the rest of his life and influence Dutch society. Kuyper became the editor of many Christian publications, an MP, leader of the Antirevolutionary Party (the first modern mass political organization in the Netherlands), founder of the Free University of Amsterdam, and Dutch prime minister. Though largely abandoned by Dutch culture, Kuyper's evangelical Calvinism remains influential on contemporary American evangelicalism.
K
yrie
E
leison
Authors: Nichols Larry
Published: January 2012

Still longer versions of the
Kyrie Eleison
are found in the liturgies of St. John Chrysostom and other Eastern forms. It has its origin in the east dating back to the 4th century, and was probably introduced into the west by Pope Sylvester (d. 335).
L
agrange,
M
arie‐Joseph (1855–1938)
Authors: Morrow Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2012

Marie‐Joseph Lagrange was born Albert Lagrange in Bourg‐en‐Bresse, France on March 7, 1855. He died on March 10, 1938. He became a Dominican and was ordained a Catholic priest. He studied numerous ancient languages, philosophy, theology, and the Bible. In 1880, because of anticlerical matters in France, Lagrange and many of his fellow Dominicans were exiled to Spain. In 1890 Lagrange founded the École biblique, the famous Dominican biblical school in Jerusalem. As head of the École biblique, Lagrange also founded and edited the international biblical journal,
Revue biblique
. He was later caught up in the Catholic controversies during the Modernist crisis when, in 1907, Pope St. Pius X issued his encyclical
Pascendi Dominici Gregis
which condemned what the Pope labeled Modernism. This was the official beginning of the Modernist crisis. It officially ended after Vatican II, when, in 1965, the Oath against Modernism (begun in 1910) was no longer imposed upon Catholics. The Modernist controversy focused primarily upon the historical critical study of the Bible, and was especially directed against the works of Alfred Loisy. Lagrange was implicated in this controversy, not only because he was a personal acquaintance of Loisy (although he criticized in print Loisy's works), but also because of Lagrange's own use of the historical critical method to study the Bible. Lagrange was even removed from his capacity as editor of the
Revue biblique
, and a number of his works, including a commentary on the Book of Genesis, have to this day not been published. Lagrange was a prolific author. He published over 1,700 books and articles. An early 1943 bibliography of Lagrange's, which was not exhaustive, included 1,786 of his publications. Most of his works dealt with the Bible, and many explicitly used the historical critical method.
Laity
Authors: Shields Candace C.
Published: January 2012

Laity is a term used to designate the individuals in the church who are not ordained or licensed. It is a term used in religious circles to recognize those who are not ordained, but are nonetheless a vitally important part of the church. The ministry that is conducted by laypersons is a very productive and useful ministry of the church. However, the term laity is from the Greek word
laos
which means the people at large, thereby designating any person who is a part of the Body of Christ as a layperson. Churches are thereby predominately populated by lay membership. However, this does not mean that the people who are sitting within the congregations of the church do not have a ministry, although they may not be ordained. On the contrary, the ministry of the laity is an important aspect of the church. Laity is a ministry within the church that gives the church the ability to move in areas where it would not be able to move if only the leadership were permitted to do ministry. The laity is made up of the congregation of a church for the congregation of the church. While the laity may be trained to do work within the church, the laity is not licensed or ordained within the Protestant church to do the work. This would be in accord with the early church. In the beginnings of the early Christian church, the church was a church of laypeople. The early church began with the individuals of the church working in the church together, side by side, shoulder to shoulder, doing the work of Christ. It was in the 1st century that distinction of those who are considered to be clerics and those who are just laypeople became significant. The use of the term laity has caused deep consternation among the people of the church because it separates the individual workers from the clergy. This gives the impression that the ministry of the laity is not as important nor does it carry as much prestige as the clergy.