bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Deep Ecology
Authors: O'Ryan Leslie W. , Glazier Jake W.
Published: April 2016

Deep ecology is an environmental movement initiated by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess. The foundation of deep ecology is based on the interconnectedness and equal value of all life organisms. Deep ecology differentiates itself from traditional environmental movements by distinguishing between “deep” and “shallow” approaches. It describes itself as “deep” because of its focus on an ecocentrism perspective that takes a nature‐centered as opposed to an anthropocentric “shallow” human‐centered stance. The philosophy of the movement is based on a platform of eight principles that give shape and unity to the movement's vision of what is necessary to protect the well‐being of the Earth. Naess and others such as Fox, Devall, and Sessions have written extensively about the concept of “self‐realization.” The concept addresses the importance of asking deeper questions about human life and that role within the larger context of nature. The deep ecology movement is viewed by some as controversial because of its views surrounding human overpopulation, economic development and conservation approaches that have to do with managing natural resources for human pleasure. In particular, ecofeminists have challenged deep ecologists to recognize the historical connections of domination particularly found in patriarchal and hierarchical structures as well as imperialistic, racist, and classist structures and practices that continue.
Womanist Theology
Authors: Miller Khadijah O.
Published: April 2016

Womanist theology is a God‐centered conceptual framework and practice by African American women and women of color. Created by African American women in the 1980s, carving a space between Black liberation theology and feminist theology to speak to the specific realities, experiences, and needs of women of color. Initially a Christian African American woman effort, womanist theology has expanded to cover the multiple religious experiences of women of color.
Leadership and Gender
Authors: de Alwis Rangita de Silva
Published: April 2016

While leadership styles of men and women may not always differ, women provide a broader lens and focus than men on different issue areas. By including more women in leadership positions companies increase their bottom line, governments expand their focus and provide more social support, and institutions become more effective because more points of view are represented in their leadership.
Cross‐Dressing
Authors: Flanagan Victoria
Published: April 2016

“Cross‐dressing” is a relatively neutral term that allows for multiple interpretive possibilities. If it is dissociated from the popular presumption that it is inherently entwined with the issue of sexual, rather than just gender, identity, it linguistically marks a very simple act – the crossing of cultural boundaries related to the wearing of various articles of gender‐specific clothing. The plethora of motivations behind the act of cross‐dressing, and the issue of whether such motivations can be categorized as either transvestite or transsexual (or otherwise), are left “veiled.”
Heterosexual Marriage Trends in the West
Authors: Banens Maks
Published: April 2016

Over recent decades, marriage rates have decreased throughout Europe and North America. At the same time, unmarried cohabitation and divorce have risen steeply. Van de Kaa and Lesthaeghe linked these evolutions to birth control, women's labor force participation, and postmodern individualism in what they called the “second demographic revolution.” More recently, these trends have stabilized in most countries. Marriage, cohabitation, and divorce practices have reached comparable levels. Most individuals now experience unmarried cohabitation at least once in their lifetime and about half of each generation will marry. This new stable marriage regime seems to be based on shared labor and domestic participation.
Intersexuality
Authors: Davis Georgiann
Published: April 2016

Intersex medical care, specifically the unnecessary surgical interventions that are often involved, has been the subject of critique for decades now by feminist scholars and individuals with intersex traits. In the 1990s, we saw the rise of the intersex rights movement with a number of goals including raising public awareness about intersex and most importantly changing medical care. While the medical profession has responded to its critics with two medical statements in less than 10 years, a jurisdictional struggle over intersex remains with the renaming of intersex as a disorder of sex development at its core.
Desexualization
Authors: Giuffre Patti , Caviness Courtney
Published: April 2016

Desexualization is the process by which sexuality is extracted from an identity (or presentation of self), interaction, setting, or discourse. Application of the term is contextual, and its meaning varies based on several factors, including who does the desexualizing, who (or what behavior) is desexualized, and why the desexualization occurs. Individuals can desexualize themselves through how they dress or behave. Cultures, governments, and workplaces can desexualize via laws, policies, and norms. This entry describes the varied meanings and consequences of desexualization in three areas of research: workplaces, rape, and sex education.
Gender, Politics, and the State in
W
estern
E
urope
Authors: Calloni Marina
Published: April 2016

Since the French Revolution, women have struggled for the recognition of their rights as human beings and citizens. The history and transformation of European nation‐states to welfare states thus cannot be fully understood without recognizing the fundamental contribution of women's movements at both the domestic and transnational levels. Democratic regimes have been established as a result of challenges from those at the bottom of society, particularly challenges related to inequality and discrimination experienced by women in daily life in both the private realm and public space.
Volunteerism and Charitable Giving
Authors: Einolf Christopher J. , Wiepking Pamala
Published: April 2016

Gender differences in overall levels of volunteerism and charitable giving are small but vary across countries. While women are more motivated to help others, men have more of the resources of income and education that facilitate giving and volunteering. Structural inequalities tend to depress women's volunteerism and giving, and women's lower than expected volunteerism and giving may contribute to the perpetuation of gender inequality.
Community and Grassroots Activism
Authors: Hanna Karen B.
Published: April 2016

Community and grassroots activism takes various forms. One form bypasses traditional negotiation channels to demand changes to policies and practices that activists believe are unjust. Through direct action, activists mobilize and educate the public while pressuring those in power to change policy. Another form of community and grassroots activism creates new structures and alternatives to the dominant system in society. A third form, revolutionary activism, advocates for radical change beyond reforms. These three types of activism often overlap. Some activists apply intersectional and transnational frameworks and use art and the Internet to further their goals for change.
Gender, Politics, and the State in
N
orthern
A
frica
Authors: Carlisle Jessica
Published: April 2016

Gender and sexuality in North Africa have become intensely contested topics. In particular, the legal treatment of, and social attitudes toward, women is frequently understood in terms of a binary between Western tolerance and Muslim repression. Moral arguments about appropriate gender behavior and licit sexual relationships have become central to national debates about social and religious integrity and cultural authenticity. Contentious practices include the wearing or non‐wearing of the headscarf and face veil; polygamy, divorce, and post‐divorce child custody and guardianship; “honor killing”; female genital mutilation (FGM); and homosexuality. Much of the contemporary international and national discourse on these topics assumes fixed religious interpretations and static social practice.
Rape and Re‐Victimization, Treatment of
Authors: Messman‐Moore Terri L. , Kaplinska Julia
Published: April 2016

Re‐victimization occurs when an individual experiences child abuse (sexual, physical, or psychological) and later victimization (rape, sexual assault, or domestic violence) during adolescence or adulthood. Re‐victimized individuals present with a complex array of symptoms resulting from a cumulative impact of abuse, including chronic post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, dissociation, affect dysregulation, dysfunctional interpersonal beliefs, and risky behavior (i.e., substance use). This complex presentation requires a sequential, phase‐based approach to intervention, focusing on (1) stabilization and establishing safety, (2) trauma processing, and (3) functional reintegration. Cognitive‐behavioral and interpersonally based interventions that focus on psychoeducation, affect regulation skills, processing traumatic memories and challenging maladaptive trauma‐related cognitions, and adaptive interpersonal functioning have been shown to reduce symptoms and improve functioning among re‐victimized individuals.
Orientalism
Authors: Winter Bronwyn
Published: April 2016

This entry first defines the different meanings of the word “orientalism,” provides a short history as concerns primarily to the development of French and British orientalism in relation to the Middle East and North Africa, and then examines both some critiques of orientalism and some critiques of its critics. It finishes with a brief discussion of the roles of women in orientalism and feminist readings of it.
Life Expectancy
Authors: Zhao Yuejen
Published: April 2016

Life expectancy is the average survival time of individuals at a specific age, subject to genetic and environmental influences. Life expectancy is calculated by means of life tables to estimate the remaining years a person is expected to live at a specific age, either by applying probability of death from a given birth cohort over their lifetime (cohort life tables), or assuming the age‐specific probabilities of death from a given population in a given year prevail to the end of life for a hypothetical cohort (period life tables) (Shryock, Siegel, and Larmon 1980). The life expectancy at birth represents the average lifespan of a newborn infant, which summarizes the lifetime mortality experience of a population (World Health Organization 2014b). The higher the life expectancy at birth, the better overall health of the population. Lifespan measures how long people can live. The longest human lifespan is claimed to be 122 years 164 days (Jeanne Calment, 1875–1997, France; Guinness World Records 2014). Longevity means living longer than average life.
Law of the Father
Authors: Murray Mary
Published: April 2016

The “law of the father” is a term usually associated with the work of Jacques Lacan in his psychoanalytic account of the way in which children enter into patriarchal culture. Lacan identified three phases of psychosocial development involved in this process: the “imaginary order,” the “mirror stage,” and the “symbolic order.” Lacan's work has been contested to the extent that it has been interpreted as a justification for patriarchal social relationships, as well as being developed and utilized by feminists, particularly French feminists. Marxist feminists have also utilized the work of Lacan.
Gender and the Death Penalty in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Williams Marian R.
Published: April 2016

There are a number of issues involved with gender and the death penalty. For example, women are less likely to be given the death penalty than men and those who kill females are more likely to receive a death sentence than those who kill males. Clemency is also more likely to be extended to women on death row than to men. Internationally, women are also more likely to be spared the death penalty due to their status as mothers.
Feminist Movements in Historical and Comparative Perspective
Authors: Linders Annulla
Published: April 2016

Originating in the late eighteenth century in the nascent democracies of the West, the feminist movement has grown and spread exponentially over the past two centuries, both socially and geographically. At its core, the movement has always been committed to improving the social conditions that bring hardship to women and prevent women from determining the contours of their own lives. But, given the extensive variations in women's experiences across time and place, there are significant differences in the concerns that propel women to mobilize and act. At the same time as these variations and differences have introduced tensions and conflicts among feminist movements, they have also inspired efforts to build coalitions across social and geographical divides.
Gender and History of Revolutions inEastAsia
Authors: Gill Jungyun
Published: April 2016

China, Vietnam, and Korea were all characterized by repressive Confucian gender systems that strictly subordinated women to men. Yet women in each of these societies played major roles in their countries' revolutions. Revolutionary movements in East Asia have been of three major, sometimes overlapping, types: Marxist; nationalist; and pro‐democracy. Each of these has required large‐scale involvement of women in order to be able to overthrow the pre‐revolutionary regime, and each movement has provided its own rationales for why women should participate. This entry explores gender and revolutions in China, Vietnam, and Korea, why and how women participated, what they accomplished, and evidence that gender equality continues in the post‐revolution periods.
Women's and Feminist Activism amongMāori
Authors: Dominy Michèle D.
Published: April 2016

In postwar Aotearoa/New Zealand, women who migrated to urban centers addressed social welfare issues through their activity in women's groups such as the Māori Women's Welfare League. They focused on health, education, and housing needs and drew upon traditional social structures. By 1970, Māori women leaders joined a new generation in radical protests, including the Land March on Parliament in 1975 and the occupation of contested sites such as Bastion Point and the Raglan golf course. From these protests, university‐educated women drew on feminism and other liberation movements to promote the Māori Renaissance, taking its most radical form in Donna Awatere's manifesto for Māori Sovereignty in 1984. Influenced initially by lesbian separatism in equating patriarchy with the state, this movement developed a model of race, gender, and class as inextricably linked. From the mid‐1980s, women activists turned their attention away from feminism to indigenous activism in promoting cultural nationalism, land restitution through the Treaty of Waitangi Act of 1975, and indigenous scholarship and decolonizing methodologies.
Gender Inequality and Gender Stratification
Authors: Bills David B.
Published: April 2016

Gender is one of the principal dimensions of inequality and stratification in any society. It intersects in multiple and complex ways with such other dimensions of inequality and stratification as race and ethnicity, social class, and age, and with such broad social processes as fertility, globalization, technological change, and patriarchy. Gains in educational achievement for women have narrowed but not eliminated socioeconomic disparities between men and women, in part because the sex typing of occupations has been persistent even as more women have moved into “male” occupations.
Feminist Design in Computing
Authors: Bardzell Shaowen , Bardzell Jeffrey
Published: April 2016

Feminist design in computing refers to IT design practices that are substantially informed by feminist thought and activism. It brings together research, design, and administrative initiatives, including feminist technology studies, women in computing, gender science and technology studies (STS), gender human–computer interaction (HCI), feminist HCI, and critical design. Its agendas include explaining and improving gender equality in relation to technology, both in terms of everyday access to technologies and within the computer science professions, both in industry and academia. Academic studies have applied gender theory to computing professions to account for how they are the way they are. Gender theory is increasingly being applied in design research, in areas such as information communication technologies for development, domestic violence, and identity. IT design processes and products increasingly reflect feminist theories, methods, and commitments, but much work remains to be done.
Feminism and Psychoanalysis
Authors: Kamber Natalie Kate
Published: April 2016

This entry provides an outline of the various feminist critiques of Freudian psychoanalytic theory and discusses its political and ontological significance. In its broadest sense, “feminist critiques” of Freudian psychoanalysis offer a distinctively psychical understanding of sexual difference, providing inquiries into how we come to (mis)inhabit our bodies and our identities, an inquiry that is reducible to neither social nor biological classifications. Feminist attempts to both critique and reclaim Freudian psychoanalysis offer a rendering of the forces that impel us to make, break, and mend the bonds that hold us together. By offering an awareness of the formation of subjectivity and the fantasies of social life, feminist revisions of Freudian psychoanalysis in turn enable a feminist critique of patriarchal social relations, including the symbolic bonds and subjective forces that reinforce identity and bind sexed subjects to relations of dominance and subordination. From feminist psychoanalysis comes the concept of what it means to enter the social realm as a gendered subject.
Performance Art
Authors: van den Hengel Louis
Published: April 2016

Performance art, also referred to as “body art” or “live art,” is a time‐based form of contemporary art that takes the human body, both as a material entity and in its relation to the cultural politics of gender, sexuality, race, and class, as the primary medium of creative expression. This entry examines the history of performance art from its roots in the modernist movements of the historical avant‐garde to its emergence as an autonomous art form during the 1960s and 1970s and to the mainstreaming of performance in contemporary art in the twenty‐first century. It pays special attention to the ways in which feminist art and queer performance have turned the human body into a site for the traversal of aesthetic experience, for the affirmation of the agency and subjectivity of minority groups, and for the enactment of progressive personal, social, and political change.
Indigenous Knowledges and Gender
Authors: Hinzo Angel M.
Published: April 2016

This entry discusses how each indigenous community has their own approaches to gender, gender roles, and sexuality that differ from settler perspectives. Indigenous people's conceptualization of gender and gender roles is reflected in their traditional social systems and governance. Within indigenous societies, men and women had their own roles and spheres of influence that were linked to political power. Gendered indigenous languages are included in this discussion as an example of the connection between indigenous culture and gender construction. The connection between indigenous belief systems and the construction of gender and gender roles is also included. The roles of both men and women were viewed as essential in contributing to the community's social systems and for creating balance within the world. Indigenous views towards gender diverge from the settler's gender binary of male/female. Many indigenous communities recognize the presence of third‐gendered and multi‐gendered people in addition to the roles of males and females. However, colonization has led to acts of violence against women and gender variant individuals, and the erasure of indigenous people from the politics of settler states. This entry concludes by introducing current scholarship that aims to revitalize and reinstitute indigenous knowledges and views of gender.
Backlash
Authors: Bean Kellie
Published: April 2016

The backlash against feminism was first defined in
Backlash: The Undeclared War Against Women
, by Susan Faludi, in 1991, and the term has inflected discussions of feminism ever since. Faludi identified the “backlash” as a widespread, deeply conservative media response to feminist progress during the Reagan era which sought to undermine the victories of the feminist movement by claiming that women's equality was leading to their unhappiness. Within the media of the time, any choices by women that could be defined as anti‐family, such as remaining single or putting off having children, were pathologized and blamed on feminism. Indeed, feminism created all kinds of new suffering, such as infertility, divorce, stress‐related disorders, sexual confusion, infidelity, identity crises, hair loss, depression, the feminization of men, spinsterhood, and increased likelihood of rape. Faludi carefully defines the backlash as a trend, not a conspiracy; she describes the backlash as a media development that grew to have tremendous impact due not to a concerted strategy, but rather to a cultural zeitgeist already anxious about feminism's apparent successes.
Sexual Coercion
Authors: Waldner Lisa K.
Published: April 2016

Sexual coercion research has changed greatly over the past 60 years by expanding definitions of victim, outcomes, and perpetration tactics. This has resulted in measurement instruments that can be used to assess both male and female and also heterosexual and same‐sex coercion experiences. Prevalence estimates rely on victim reporting and most studies on perpetration focus on males. This research is more empirical than theoretical, but criminological and feminist perspectives tend to dominate. Minority stress theory is a potential avenue for future research assessing same‐sex coercion experiences.
Adultery, Cultural Views of
Authors: Fife Stephen T.
Published: April 2016

Marriage and other committed relationships typically include a stated or implied commitment to sexual and emotional fidelity to one's partner. Adultery refers to a violation of sexual fidelity within marriage. Infidelity is defined more broadly as a betrayal of the commitment to sexual or emotional exclusivity in a relationship without the partner's consent. Infidelity is also known by other terms, such as affair, cheating, unfaithful, extramarital sex, and extradyadic relationship. Infidelity applies to a variety of relationships such as dating, cohabiting, heterosexual, homosexual, and marriage. Contemporary technological advances have created new avenues for cheating, such as the Internet, cell phones, and social media. Although most societies and nearly all major world religions have standards that discourage infidelity, there are cultural variations in terms of attitudes and behaviors. Additionally, there are historical and cultural differences between the attitudes and behaviors of men and women regarding infidelity.
Fertility Rates
Authors: Short Susan E. , Bouek Jennifer W.
Published: April 2016

Fertility rates measure the number of children born or expected to be born within a particular group, commonly defined by geographical boundaries or demographic features. Changes in fertility rates can have profound impacts on the way a society operates and, conversely, societal institutions and cultural norms influence fertility rates. The gender organization of society is associated with fertility rates. The freedom and ability to decide on the number, timing, and spacing of births is often referred to as reproductive rights. Governments sometimes intervene to shape fertility rates with anti‐ or pro‐natalist policies, policies which can reflect ethno‐nationalist projects or gendered ideolgies.
B
ollywood
Authors: Banaji Shakuntala
Published: April 2016

This entry summarizes trends in Hindi film representations of gender, sexuality, and religion over the past few decades. It briefly notes the common aesthetic and technical features, themes, and discourses of Hindi films and positions these in relation to large‐scale social changes in India. Debates around the potentially harmful ideological effects of Hindi films are introduced via reference to key theorists. These are brought into debate with insights from more recent work in the cultural studies tradition which examines the meanings audiences take from gender and sexual representation in Hindi films. Tensions may be seen between theories that see ideological and affective meaning as determined by producers and immanent in the texts and those that see it as fluid and dependent on discourses circulating in contexts of reception.
Recovered Memories
Authors: Lynn Steven Jay , Baltman Jessica
Published: April 2016

The controversy surrounding recovered memories that was prominent in the field of psychology in the 1990s persists today. The hypothesis that psychological symptoms are caused by repressed memories of trauma, and that it is necessary to recover these memories in psychotherapy to achieve symptom relief, has been challenged by basic memory research. Traumatic experiences are typically highly memorable, rather than inaccessible, and the use of suggestive techniques (e.g., hypnosis, guided imagery) in psychotherapy may increase the risk of false memory formation.
Sex and Culture
Authors: Winterich Julie A.
Published: April 2016

Sexual beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors vary across cultures and historical periods, and are influenced by dominant constructions of gender and sexuality. Social institutions such as medicine, the law, and the education system socially control cultural beliefs and behaviors about sex and sexual deviance. Scholars in the United States debate conflicting findings and methodological issues in research about gender, sexuality, and sex. Recent theory and scholarship focus on gender and sexual fluidity in identity and sexual behaviors.
Health Careers
Authors: Mishra Manasee
Published: April 2016

Careers in health are diverse, evolving, and not restricted to “caring” professions alone. They present a broad canvas where gender and sexuality issues can be discerned. Women's participation in health careers is historical, gendered, and qualitatively inferior to men's participation. Women are socially disadvantaged since formal education is a prerequisite for entry level jobs in many health careers. Gender‐based violence can impede women's effective participation in the workforce. The trajectories of women belonging to privileged social groups of society may be more favorable, but they are also not immune to the lived experiences of a gendered existence. Professions such as nursing are overwhelmingly associated with women. Certain low paying jobs in the health sector have witnessed feminization. Moreover, the sexualization of the female human body in a globalized world witnesses a political economy where women participate both as producers and consumers. Health careers operate in the broader sociopolitical context where sexuality is straitjacketed, conforming to heterosexuality and monogamy. This is in spite of the public health recognition of alternate sexualities. Workplace diversity has been more responsive to issues of gender than sexuality.
UnitedStates' Women's Movements in Historical Perspective
Authors: Pedriana Nicholas
Published: April 2016

The US Women's Movement has gone through several stages, or “waves” beginning around 1840s up to the present day. This entry outlines the highlights of each wave. Key issues, conflicts, objectives, and outcomes of the respective periods of US women's activism are summarized, compared, and contrasted, and each placed within its broader historical, cultural, and political context.
Emotion Work
Authors: Klimczuk Andrzej , Klimczuk‐Kochańska Magdalena
Published: April 2016

Emotion work is usually defined as the psychological processes necessary to regulate emotions that are desired in specific private life conditions. When controlling the intensity and quality of the individual's feelings is related to the public sphere and undertaken for reasons associated with paid work it is called emotional labor. Such employment occurs in contemporary service economies where the provision of services is often related to “selling feelings,” which is mainly performed by women.
Femicide
Authors: Khetrapal Neha
Published: April 2016

Femicide as a term was first used in 1800s in Britain to describe the killings of women. A widely accepted and modern day explanation was developed by Diana Russell in the 1970s to explain the killing of women based on their gender. Femicide is often contrasted with its gender neutral counterpart, “homicide.” This entry briefly describes the nature of femicide by reporting few statistics and situational contexts. Women can be targeted for different reasons like dowry, trafficking, racism, and killings in the name of honor. Often femicide has religious or familial sanction and hence goes unreported. The most common context is killings perpetuated by intimate partners. This accounts for nearly 35 percent of killings worldwide. The entry concludes by focusing on multifaceted efforts like implementing legislation for crime against women, promoting awareness, and empowering women that may help in reducing the incidence of femicide.
Child Sex Offenders
Authors: Pruitt Doyle K. , Dulmus Catherine N.
Published: April 2016

Juvenile sex offenders (JSO) are individuals under 18 years old who engage in harmful or inappropriate sexual acts. Treatment of JSO begins with a comprehensive risk assessment that evaluates static and dynamic factors in the youth and their environment that may have contributed to the behavior. Psychoeducation and individual, family, and group therapy, driven by social learning theory or attachment theory are common treatment approaches in community‐based and residential care.
I
slam and Homosexuality
Authors: Jaspal Rusi
Published: April 2016

While homosexuality has gained greater social acceptance in many Western societies, it remains highly stigmatized and, in most cases, forbidden in mainstream Islam. Theologically based homophobia has given rise to negative social representations of homosexuality in Muslim communities around the world. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) Muslims themselves are acutely aware of the stigma of homosexuality, and the prejudice and, in some cases, harsh punishment that they may face if they disclose their sexual identity. This can in turn induce threats to identity and compromise psychological well‐being. This entry pieces together emerging empirical evidence on the interface of (male) homosexuality and Islam, focusing upon the theological (meso), social (macro), and psychological (micro) levels of analysis.
Dowry and Bride‐Price
Authors: Conteh John A.
Published: April 2016

The predominance of dowry and bride‐price practices dates back to centuries of human existence as a way of meeting the requirements of marriage. Dowry and bride‐price are two forms of alliance building exchanges between couples – and families. The exchange or transfer of goods and services signifies a form of contract between and among groups of people with a negotiated interest. The transfer of wealth during the process of marriage is a significant aspect of inheritance as well as an invaluable cultural practice that carries far more connotation than any argument as to whether or not it is important. Implications for dowry and bride‐price practices span across historical, economic, public health, mental health advocacy, and diversity.
Age of Consent and Child Marriage in
I
ndia
Authors: Anagol Padma
Published: April 2016

Anti‐colonial struggles have been narrowly interpreted so far, in terms of political self‐determination in the making of sovereign nation‐states. However, the impressive historical literature on Indian child marriage and the age of consent for girls has provided a context for locating the overlapping of the politics of nationalisms and sexualities. This entry reveals how imperialism as a global system allowed Britain to legitimate its continued rule in nineteenth century colonial India by denigrating the marriage and family sexual norms of India as “degraded.” Equally it outlines the assertion and resistance of Indian women whose campaigns gained a small victory in raising the age of consent from 10 to 12 years in 1891. The parallel strength of the powerful anti‐imperial cultural movements is also scrutinized with the conclusion that new conjugal arrangements were forged by Indian men who succeeded in retaining older forms of patriarchal hierarchies through the instruments of “respectable” sexuality and nationalism.
Nationalism and Sexuality
Authors: Maxwell Alexander
Published: April 2016

Nationalism and sexuality interact in a several different ways. Patriot men generally view the nation as a masculine brotherhood and treat national women as the brotherhood's collective property, though efforts to imagine a more gender‐inclusive nation have enjoyed some success. Patriotism can affect attitudes toward different aspects of human sexuality, supporting compulsory heterosexuality, national endogamy, sexual “purity,” the ethnicization of prostitution, and sexual violence in wartime. Sexual feelings, meanwhile, contribute to patriotic pride in national beauty. Activists can manipulate national anxieties to promote feminist goals.
Pro‐Choice Movement in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Allen Mallary
Published: April 2016

The struggle for abortion rights in the United States is a complex history spanning more than one hundred years. That history encompasses early feminist anxieties in regard to what birth control would mean for the status of women in the United States at the turn of the twentieth century, efforts to expand abortion access in the 1960s through policy reform, feminist struggles for abortion on demand in the 1970s, morally centered prochoice rhetoric in the 1990s, and a mainstream cultural presence amid new communication technologies as well as growing attention to the reproductive experiences of marginalized women in the 2000s.
Sexuality and Human Rights
Authors: Adur Shweta Majumdar
Published: April 2016

This entry discusses the major developments in the international human rights framework that address gender and sexuality. It outlines the major chronological events since World War II that shaped the discourse, advantages, and challenges of using the human rights framework.
Women's Ways of Knowing
Authors: Bong Sharon A.
Published: April 2016

The evolution and consolidation of women's ways of knowing are feminist standpoint epistemologies. They are evolutionary (as a successor epistemology) and revolutionary (as an oppositional epistemology). Feminist thought and practice are successor epistemologies to bodies of knowledge that privilege men's ways of knowing which are exclusionary to those on the margins, in particular, women's experiences. Feminist thought and practice are subjugated knowledges as they debunk positivistic Truth claims of universality, hegemony, objectivity and abstraction in the production of knowledge and show how real knowledge is political. The three criteria of feminist standpoint epistemology that question underlying assumptions and grounds of knowledge production are: whose knowledge counts (and by inference, who is counting), who knows, how women know and have it both ways – universalized
and
particularized truth claims.
Judaism and Gender
Authors: Baskin Judith R.
Published: April 2016

Traditional rabbinic Judaism maintained distinct gender roles for women and men based on perceived essential differences in female and male bodies, reproductive functions, spiritual and intellectual capacities, and personal qualities. Rabbinic Judaism deemed women subordinate to and dependent on men, including in the covenantal connection to the divine. Female activities, acknowledged as praiseworthy and essential to the smooth functioning of rabbinic society, were best confined to the domestic domain. Among diverse contemporary Judaisms, gender attitudes differ; most forms of Orthodox Judaism remain traditional, while progressive Judaisms, especially since the 1970s, have become wholly egalitarian in worship, religious education and ordination, congregational and communal leadership, and welcome Jews of all sexual orientations. Judaism is highly conscious of sexuality and traditionally channeled sexual energies and fulfillment for women and men through marriage, linked to but not dependent on procreation. Contemporary liberal Jewish denominations acknowledge sexual diversity and encourage caring and committed relationships.
Higher Education and Gender in theUnitedStates
Authors: Glazer‐Raymo Judith
Published: April 2016

Higher education is undergoing transformation as the nation's 4755 colleges and universities adapt to rapid changes in the economic, technological, and political environment. The scale of these changes influences continuing efforts to achieve gender equity for higher education's stakeholders – students, faculty, professional staff, and academic leaders. In analyzing current data that measure women's progress in the academy, issues are also addressed regarding persistent barriers to women's successful participation. Problems that continue to affect women in early, mid, or late career status, relate to generational shifts in priorities, manifested in a retreat from tenure and full‐time employment, persistent and impervious glass ceilings, and inattention to issues of gender equality and its intersection with race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and changing concepts of gender identity. Questioning the system and amending existing policies to be more equitable are viewed as ways to reform the campus culture and create more diverse academic systems.
Islam and Gender
Authors: Haniffa Farzana
Published: April 2016

Gender and sexuality in the Muslim world is decided both on interpretations of the Qur'an and on the respective social and political contexts in which people live. Edward Said argued that the Middle East and the Muslim world were imagined in particular ways by the Orientalists that had little to do with the Middle East itself. The manner in which Islam and its gender prescriptions were understood constitutes a large part of such an imagining. While long understood in terms of the global narrative of modernization and progress, the place of women in the Muslim world and the Middle East in particular has come to stand for the success and the failure of these countries. Today, scholars have found new ways to both critique the modernization narrative and also explore alternative understandings of developments in the Middle East. At the same time, Islamic feminist are exploring ways of challenging the “textual misogyny” they claim is ingrained in the secondary Islamic literature oftafsir,fiqh, and hadith. They are doing this through the analyses of the Qur'an using contemporary poststructuralist textual reading techniques in order to reclaim women's humanity and the liberatory promise of the Qur'an.
J
udaism and Sexuality
Authors: Drinkwater Gregg
Published: April 2016

Judaism is a highly decentralized religion, thus there is no single or unified Jewish perspective on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender issues. Some Jewish communities ordain openly LGBT rabbis and celebrate sexual and gender diversity, while in other communities, Jewish leaders denounce homosexuality and demand clear boundaries and distinctive roles for women and men. But the majority of the Jewish world lies somewhere in between. In the Jewish tradition, “homosexuality” is not prohibited. Jewish law focuses on specific sexual acts, not a person's sexual orientation, identity, or desires. Sex between men has generally been understood as prohibited by two verses in Leviticus (Lev. 18:22 and 20:13). Sex between women is not prohibited in the Torah. However, it is seen as a violation of Jewish law based on rabbinic interpretations of passages in the Torah that are seen as indirectly referencing female–female sexual intimacy.
Sexual Slavery
Authors: Chapkis Wendy
Published: April 2016

Sexual slavery is sexualized abuse of a continuing nature enacted in the context of a severe deprivation of physical liberty. Victims are predominantly women and girls, perpetrators men. Sex slavery can involve individual or organized acts of sexual violence. In its more organized forms, sexual slavery includes forced prostitution and war‐related sexual violence. Sexual slavery is prohibited under international law. The magnitude of the problem of sexual slavery and the most effective responses to it are the subject of continuing debate.
Hate Crimes and Hate Crime Law
Authors: van Kirk Amy , Hodge Jessica P.
Published: April 2016

Hate crimes are offenses committed against an individual or an individual's property because of an offender's bias toward the individual's actual or perceived characteristic (e.g., the individual's race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, etc.). Hate crime laws exist to protect people who have been targeted solely because of their membership within a legally protected category; these categories generally include groups that have been historically oppressed within the larger society. The use of specific hate crime laws varies around the world, as do the arguments for and against the development and implementation of such laws. Organized hate groups are often perceived to be the perpetrators of hate crimes, yet research indicates that typical offenders are more likely to be labeled as thrill seekers and not necessarily members of a formal hate group.
Feminism, Existential
Authors: Quinan Christine L.
Published: April 2016

Feminist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir's pronouncement “One is not born, but rather becomes, woman” could rightfully mark the birth of an existential feminism. Indeed, de Beauvoir'sSecond Sex, originally published in 1949 in French and first translated into English in 1953 and again in 2009, remains the founding work for an existential philosophical approach to examining the condition of women. Existential feminism takes as its point of departure the notions that (1) woman is the product of social and cultural construction and (2) woman is Other, but this approach also explores how freedom can only be achieved through the freedom of all human beings. The legacies of existential feminism are wide‐ranging, as it went on to shape later feminist theoretical engagements, including “French feminisms” and postmodern feminist theory.
Tokenism
Authors: Niemann Yolanda Flores
Published: April 2016

Tokenism is a perceptual, psychological, and behavioral state imposed upon persons with visible racial/ethnic or gender distinctions in a work environment. Consequences of tokenism include isolation, loneliness, visibility, distinctiveness, representativeness, role encapsulation, stereotyping, stereotype threat, and attributional ambiguity. Tokenism results from the context, not from the competence or character of the tokenized person, nor necessarily from intentional prejudices of workplace colleagues, whose biases may be unconscious.
Women's Movements: Early International Movements
Authors: Spagnuolo Natalie
Published: April 2016

This entry discusses international networks of women active between the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Emphasis is placed on differences between movements and the challenges of identifying any singular movement. Special attention is given to eugenic connections, links between motherhood and nationalism, issues of eurocentrism in scholarship, and significant occlusions that occurred within these historical movements and also within the histories of these movements. Major organizations discussed include the World Women's Christian Temperance Union, the International Women's Suffrage Alliance, and the Second International's women's branch.
Women's Movements: Modern International Movements
Authors: Winter Bronwyn
Published: April 2016

This entry follows on from the preceding entry on the early international movement and takes as its starting point the creation, in 1915, of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. The entry considers the themes around which international women's activism has developed since World War I, notably peace and conflict, violence against women, and economic justice, and looks at various framings that have been suggested as alternatives to the “international,” such as global and transnational feminisms. It also looks at debates over the extent to which the international movement has been properly representative, and over‐autonomous organizing versus working with institutions such as the United Nations (UN).
Feminism, Materialist
Authors: Winter Bronwyn
Published: April 2016

The term “materialist feminism” has two main versions: the original “French” version, which was developed by in the 1970s by Christine Delphy and subsequently others, using historical materialism to analyze gendered power relations as sociohistorically contsructed; and the “US” version, developed in the 1990s by Rosemary Hennessy and subsequently others as a response to the postmodern and “cultural” turn in feminist theory. Both versions have in common the premise that gender is not natural or presocial but socially constructed through history as a material power relation. Gender, and male domination, being historically constructed and grounded in social relations, are thus open to interrogation and change.
Women's and Feminist Activism in the
U
nited
S
tates and
C
anada
Authors: Craven Christa
Published: April 2016

This entry documents key moments in collective organizing for women's rights and feminist activism in the United States and Canada over the past 150 years. It highlights the intersections among efforts toward women's suffrage, anti‐racism and civil rights organizing, reproductive rights/justice activism, anti‐violence campaigns, indigenous activism, and LGBTQ rights organizing. In conclusion, the entry considers North American contributions to transnational feminist organizing.
Feminism inNorthAfrica
Authors: Ali Nada Mustafa
Published: April 2016

This entry reviews feminisms and women's activism in colonial and postcolonial North Africa, including challenges and opportunities arising from nationalism, extremism, and the “Arab Spring.” It includes a discussion of the impact of feminist studies, pedagogies, and intellectual production in the subregion.
A
rab
S
pring Movements
Authors: Khamis Sahar
Published: April 2016

The term “Arab Spring” or “Arab Awakening” refers to the massive wave of political upheavals and citizen revolts which have been sweeping many parts of the Arab region since 2011. This wave started in Tunisia, with the young man who set himself on fire to protest his poverty and harsh living conditions, as well as the humiliation and degradation he suffered. His story became symbolic of the plight of many others across the Arab region, who suffered from economic distress, as well as social marginalization and lack of dignity, freedom, and political participation, under long‐term, repressive, dictatorial regimes. Therefore, the “flames” of the Tunisian revolution were said to set the whole region on fire, as this wave of rebellion and protest spread to Egypt, followed by Libya, and, subsequently, Syria, Yemen, and Bahrain. However, each of these countries witnessed different developments and, ultimately, had varying outcomes, based on a myriad of political, social, and economic factors.