bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
9. Discursive Approaches
Authors: Wæver Ole
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines discourse analysis as an approach to the study of European integration. It first provides an overview of the basic idea(s) underlying discourse analysis before tracing its philosophical roots. It then considers when and how discourse analysis entered political science, international relations, and European integration studies. It also explores three examples of bodies of work that have each operationalized discourse analysis in a particular way in order to make it speak to European integration: the first covers governance and political struggle; the second approach posits the configuration of concepts of nation, state, and Europe as the basis for building theory of discourse as layered structures able to explain foreign policy options for a given state; and the third focuses on the project of European integration as a productive paradox. The chapter concludes by discussing the application of discourse analysis to the nature of the European Union enlargement process.
3. Measuring Democracy and Democratization
Authors: Bernhagen Patrick
Published: September 2017

This chapter considers problems associated with classifying countries as democracies and non-democracies and measuring the extent to which a country has advanced on the path of democratization. It first examines different concepts and dimensions of democracy such as political sovereignty, political liberty, competition, participation, freedom of expression and belief, and rule of law. Using publicly available quantitative indices of democracy, the chapter illustrates the problems faced by researchers of translating these concepts into measures. It also asks whether democracy should be thought of as a property that is either present or absent, or, alternatively, a characteristic that can be present to a greater or lesser extent. Finally, it discusses various hybrid regime categories for their contribution to efforts of classifying and measuring political regimes.
6. Theories of Democratization
Authors: Welzel Christian
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the factors that have been proposed as determinants when, where, and why democratization happens. Several of these factors are synthesized into a broader framework that describes human empowerment as an evolutionary force channelling the intentions and strategies of actors towards democratic outcomes. The chapter first provides an overview of the nature and origin of democracy before discussing how democracy and democratization are affected by social divisions and distributional equality as well as modernization, international conflicts, regime alliances, elite pacts, mass mobilization, state repression, colonial legacies, religious traditions, and institutional configurations. The chapter concludes by presenting a typology of democratization processes, which includes responsive democratization, enlightened democratization, opportunistic democratization, and imposed democratization.
9. Political Culture, Mass Beliefs, and Value Change
Authors: Welzel Christian , Inglehart Ronald F.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role of mass beliefs and value change in democratization processes. Building on one of the central assumptions of political culture theory — the congruence thesis — it argues that mass beliefs are of critical importance for a country’s chances to become and remain democratic. Mass beliefs determine whether a political system is accepted as legitimate or not, which has a major impact on a regime’s likelihood of surviving. The chapter first considers how the role of mass beliefs in democratization is addressed in the literature before discussing mass demands for democracy vs popular preferences for democracy. It then discusses regime legitimacy and its relation to economic performance and asks whether emancipative values are caused by democracy. It also explains changes in many countries’ level of democracy and concludes with an analysis of the influence of religion on democratization.
10. Gender and Democratization
Authors: Paxton Pamela
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role of gender in democracy and democratization. It first considers how gender figures in definitions of democracy, noting that while women may appear to be included in definitions of democracy, they are often not included in practice. It then explores women’s democratic representation, making a distinction between formal, descriptive, and substantive representation. Women’s formal political representation is highlighted by focusing on the fight for women’s suffrage, whereas women’s descriptive representation is illustrated with detailed information on women’s political participation around the world. Finally, the chapter discusses the role of women in recent democratization movements around the world.
14. Political Parties
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role of political parties in the processes of democratization, that is, during transition, installation, and consolidation, and the possible phases of democratic crisis. It first considers the definition of a political party within the processes of democratization before discussing how parties can be indispensable for the actual working of democracy. It then explores the actual role of political parties during transitions to democracy and during democratic consolidation, and in different types of crises. It also describes basic patterns of transition to democracy as well as key elements of democratic consolidation, including electoral stabilization and emergence of recurring patterns of party competition. The chapter shows that parties are dominant in the process of transition, even if not always hegemonic.
22. Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Bratton Michael
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines efforts to introduce multi-party politics into Sub-Saharan Africa during the 1990s. It first considers regime changes in the region and shows that they result from the ‘conjuncture’ of various forces. Some of these forces are structural — such as the decline of African economies, the end of the Cold War — but political actors produce others, like incumbents’ concessions, opposition protests, and military withdrawals from politics. With reference to various African examples, the chapter emphasizes the important role played by certain structural conditions in transitions to democracy during the 1990s, but suggests that outcomes more often hinged on purposive political action. It also analyses the quality of resultant African regimes and concludes by identifying several fundamental constraints on further democratization including endemic poverty and weak states.
23. East Asia
Authors: Shin Doh Chull , Tusalem Rollin F.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the processes of democratization in East Asia over the past two decades. It first provides a historical background on transitions to democracy in the region before assessing the extent to which third-wave democracies have consolidated by appraising the quality of their performances. Analyses of Freedom House and the World Bank data show that the East Asian region has been slow in responding to the surging wave of global democratization in terms of not only transforming authoritarian regimes into electoral democracies, but also consolidating electoral democracies into well-functioning liberal democracies. The Asian Barometer surveys, on the other hand, reveal that the mass citizenries of China and Singapore endorse their current regime as a well-functioning democracy, and are not much in favour of democratic regime change in their country. The chapter concludes with a discussion of prospects for democratic regime change in China and Singapore.
24. Conclusions and Outlook: The Future of Democratization
Authors: Haerpfer Christian W. , Bernhagen Patrick , Inglehart Ronald F. , Welzel Christian
Published: September 2017

This volume has demonstrated how societies struggle to become and remain democratic. It has shown that democracy is not complete without the rule of law and that democracy does not include every political, social or economic condition that people consider desirable. It has highlighted the causal and contextual factors that affect the process of democratization and the consolidation of new democracies, including the international environment, the economy, business elites, mass beliefs, gender, social capital, social movements and transnational advocacy networks, voter behaviour, political parties, electoral systems, party systems, forms of government, and the media. This concluding chapter discusses a series of facilitating and impeding factors of democratization, including tactical, strategic, and developmental factors. It also considers factors shaping shallow democratization as well as factors shaping deep democratization. Finally, it identifies a number of challenges on the democratic agenda.
10. Romania–Uneven Europeanization
Authors: Papadimitriou Dimitris , Phinnemore David
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the Europeanization effects associated with Romania’s effort to begin and, later, complete its accession negotiations with the European Union. The road to EU membership in 2007 was a long and hard one for Romania. While public and political opinion remained solidly in favour of integration, and ultimately membership, institutional fluidity, poor administrative capacity, political factionalism, and corruption posed significant challenges to processes of domestic adaptation. The chapter first provides an overview of the changing pattern of Romania’s relationship with the EU before discussing some of the early evidence of the impact of EU membership on Romanian public opinion, party politics, and public policy. It also looks at important factors that have affected both the ‘production’ and ‘reception’ of the Europeanization pressures associated with the EU’s most recent enlargement. Finally, it compares Romania’s EU membership experience with those of other member states, particularly Poland and Bulgaria.
11. Contrasting States of Europeanization?
Authors: Bulmer Simon , Lequesne Christian
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines recurrent themes in the experiences of the countries discussed earlier in terms of European Union membership. It first considers the contribution of Europeanization as an analytical tool for understanding EU member state relations on a country-by-country basis before discussing emergent themes and issues. In particular, it assesses the significance of timing of accession for the member states’ Europeanization experience, showing how timing has often interacted with a geographical focus to each enlargement wave. It also asks whether the Europeanization experience is different for large states rather than small states, or whether the embeddedness of member states’ political systems plays a role. The chapter concludes by identifying different impacts of Europeanization along the dimensions of politics, polity, and policy.
6. Charles de Gaulle’s Uncertain Idea of Europe
Authors: Vanke Jeffrey
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how policy towards the European Economic Community (EEC) fitted in with French leader Charles de Gaulle's broader European and international objectives and how the international constraints on his certain vision of France gave rise to his evolving, uncertain idea of Europe. Having denounced the Treaty of Rome before coming to power in 1958, de Gaulle ensured the EEC's survival by undertaking financial reforms in France and warding off Britain's effort to negotiate a wider free trade area. He linked these initiatives to implementation of the common agricultural policy (CAP). The chapter also considers de Gaulle's proposal for an independent and intergovernmental European Union and his role in the so-called Empty Chair Crisis of 1965–6. Finally, it discusses the impact of de Gaulle on the course of European integration.
1. Theories of US foreign policy
Authors: Schmidt Brian
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines some of the competing theories that have been advanced to explain U.S. foreign policy. In trying to explain the foreign policy of the United States, a number of competing theories have been developed by International Relations scholars. Some theories focus on the role of the international system in shaping American foreign policy while others argue that various domestic factors are the driving force. The chapter first considers some of the obstacles to constructing a theory of foreign policy before discussing some of the competing theories of American foreign policy, including defensive realism, offensive realism, liberalism, Marxism, neoclassical realism, and constructivism. The chapter proceeds by reviewing the theoretical debate over the origins of the Cold War and the debate over the most appropriate grand strategy that the United States should follow in the post-Cold War era.
3. The US rise to world power, 1776–1945
Authors: LaFeber Walter
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how the United States evolved as a world power during the period 1776–1945. It first considers how Americans set out after the War of Independence to establish a continental empire. Thomas Jefferson called this an ‘empire for liberty’, but by the early nineteenth century the United States had become part of an empire containing human slavery. Abraham Lincoln determined to stop the territorial expansion of this slavery and thus helped bring about the Civil War. The reunification of the country after the Civil War, and the industrial revolution which followed, turned the United States into the world’s leading economic power by the early twentieth century. The chapter also discusses Woodrow Wilson’s empire of ideology and concludes with an analysis of U.S. economic depression and the onset of the Cold War.
4. American foreign policy during the Cold War
Authors: Saull Richard
Published: September 2017

This chapter offers a theoretically informed overview of American foreign policy during the Cold War. It covers the main historical developments in U.S. policy: from the breakdown of the wartime alliance with the USSR and the emergence of the US–Soviet diplomatic hostility and geopolitical confrontation,to U.S. military interventions in the third world and the U.S. role in the ending of the Cold War. The chapter begins with a discussion of three main theoretical approaches to American foreign policy during the Cold War: realism, ideational approaches, and socio-economic approaches. It then considers the origins of the Cold War and containment of the Soviet Union, focusing on the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. It also examines the militarization of U.S. foreign policy with reference to the Korean War, Cold War in the third world, and the role of American foreign policy in the ending of the Cold War.
15. The USA, China, and rising Asia
Authors: Cox Michael
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the United States’ relations with China and other countries in Asia. It considers how a region wracked by insurgencies and wars for almost forty years was transformed from being one of the most disturbed and contested in the second half of the twentieth century, into becoming one of the more stable and prosperous by century’s end. The chapter begins with a discussion of the United States’ relations with Japan and then with China and Korea. It shows that at the end of the Cold War in Europe, hostility continued in the Korean peninsula, and that North Korea has consciously used nuclear weapons as a bargaining chip in order to ensure the survival of the regime. The chapter concludes by assessing the outlook for the Asia-Pacific region and future prospects for American hegemony in East Asia.
19. Global terrorism
Authors: Rogers Paul
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the U.S. response to global terrorism, starting with the United States’ experience of terrorism prior to 9/11 as well as the political environment in Washington at the time of the attacks. It then considers U.S. foreign policy under George W. Bush and the response of his administration in Afghanistan and Iraq, along with the nature and aims of the al-Qaeda movement. It also discusses the Arab Spring, the death of Osama Bin Laden, and the conduct of the war on terror in the first nine years. Finally, it assesses the options available to the United States in what came to be called the ‘Long War against Islamofascism’.
22. The future of US foreign policy
Authors: Lieven Anatol
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines possible futures for American foreign policy in terms of the interests and ideology of the U.S. elites (and to a lesser extent the population at large), the structures of U.S. political life, and the real or perceived national interests of the United States. It first provides an overview of the ideological roots of U.S. foreign policy before discussing key contemporary challenges for U.S. foreign policy. In particular, it considers American relations with China, how to mobilize U.S. military power for foreign policy goals, and the issue of foreign aid. The chapter proceeds by analysing the most important features of America’s future foreign policies, focusing on the Middle East, the Far East, Russia and the former Soviet Union, and Europe and the transatlantic relationship. It concludes by describing some catastrophic scenarios that could accelerate the decline of US power.
Introduction
Authors: Wolff Jonathan
Published: September 2017

This text explores the main questions of political philosophy and looks at some of the most influential answers, from the ancient Greeks to the present day. Each chapter takes on a particular question or controversy. The natural starting-point is political power, the right to command. The first chapter considers the question of what would happen in a ‘state of nature’ without government, while the second tackles the problem of political obligation. The third chapter is concerned with democracy, asking whether a state should be democratic, for example, or whether there is any rationale for preferring rule by the people to rule by an expert. The next two chapters deal with liberty and property. The text concludes by focusing on questions that have drawn greater attention in more recent decades, such as issues of gender, race, disability, sexual orientation, immigration, global justice, and justice to future generations.
3. Who Should Rule?
Authors: Wolff Jonathan
Published: September 2017

This chapter considers the question of what sort of state and government we should have. A common assumption is that only a democracy is ever fully justifiable. Anything else — a tyranny, an aristocracy, an absolute monarchy — lacks justification. But what is a democracy? Is it really so attractive? The chapter explores some of the most fundamental problems in formulating democratic theory before looking at arguments for and against democracy itself. It first examines the tension between the idea of democracy as a system of ‘majority rule’, and the idea of democratic ‘consideration for individuals’. It then analyses Plato's arguments against democracy, focusing on his use of the so-called craft analogy to defend his position, along with his concept of guardianship. It also discusses Jean-Jacques Rousseau's notion of the general will and concludes with an overview of representative democracy.
6. Justice for Everyone, Everywhere?
Authors: Wolff Jonathan
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines some issues that have come to greater attention in more recent decades, with particular emphasis on what it calls ‘oversights’ of justice. It begins by arguing that some of the greatest political philosophers had suffered from ‘oversights’, notably Karl Marx, Mary Wollstonecraft, and John Stuart Mill. It then considers some of these oversights of justice, first by looking at issues of gender equality, then at racial justice, followed by issues of disability and sexual orientation, each from the standpoint of what is known as ‘domestic justice’: justice as it operates within a single state. It also explores questions of global justice, including immigration, and global inequalities of wealth, along with justice to future generations, especially in relation to climate change. These discussions reflect areas of great contemporary concern, both in political philosophy and in real life.
3. Toleration
Authors: Galeotti Anna Elisabetta
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the philosophical and political problems associated with toleration. The philosophical problems relate to the nature and justification of toleration, while the political problems relate to the question of whether contemporary democracy can or cannot afford to tolerate this or that practice, and, more specifically, whether a worse danger for liberal society and liberal values is represented by toleration or intolerance. The chapter first provides an overview of the traditional doctrine of toleration before discussing the moral analysis of toleration. It then explores the contemporary liberal theory of toleration, along with toleration as recognition. A case study addresses the contest over purpose-built mosques in Europe. Key Thinkers boxes featuring John Milton and Pierre Bayle are also presented.
12. Gender
Authors: Chambers Clare
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the main themes of feminism and the role that feminism plays in political theory. Much progress has been made towards sex equality, but there is still a long way to go. The chapter first considers the three theses that all feminists support, in one form or another: the entrenchment of gender, the existence of patriarchy, and the need for change. It then discusses the role of family life, the distinction between sex and gender, feminism and liberalism, and the relevance of sex and violence to feminism. A case study on pornography is presented, along with Key Thinkers boxes featuring Andrea Dworkin and Catharine A. MacKinnon.
1. Introduction
Authors: Kenealy Daniel , Peterson John , Corbett Richard
Published: September 2017

This introductory chapter discusses the practical and analytical reasons for studying the European Union. It also considers some of the main conceptual approaches to understanding the EU: international relations approaches, the comparative politics approach, the sociological/cultural approach, and the public policy approach. Furthermore, it outlines three broad themes that help the reader make sense of the EU: experimentation and change, power sharing and consensus, and scope and capacity. Finally, it provides an overview of the chapters that follow, which cover topics ranging from an historical overview of the EU's development to the EU's relations with the wider world, EU enlargement, the EU's foray into security policy, and the EU's growing role as a global actor.
6. How Policies Are Made
Authors: Hayes-Renshaw Fiona
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines how European Union policies are made. Most EU legislation is now adopted according to the Ordinary Legislative Procedure, under which the Council and the European Parliament have equal powers. The basic policy-making rules laid down in the Treaties have been supplemented over the years by formal agreements and informal understandings between the main actors in the decision-making institutions. EU policy-making is open to criticism on grounds of democracy, transparency, and efficiency, but it continues to deliver an impressive amount and array of policy outcomes. The chapter considers the basic rules and principal actors involved in EU policy-making and how the policy-making process works in practice. It also asks whether the EU policy-making process is democratic, transparent, and efficient before concluding with an assessment of the theory and practice underlying the process.
10. The EU as a Global Actor
Authors: Peterson John , Gottwald Marlene
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the European Union as a global actor. The EU's ambitions to be a global power are a surprising by-product of European integration. Students of European foreign policy mostly focus on EU trade, aid, and the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), but cannot neglect the extensive national foreign policy activities of its member states. The EU's external policy aspirations now extend to traditional foreign and security policy, but distinct national policies persist and the EU suffers from weak or fragmented leadership. The chapter first provides an overview of European foreign policy before discussing the EU's trade policy, development aid, and CFSP. It also examines theories that explain the EU's role as a global actor.
5. From the End of the War to the Schuman Plan (the late 1940s to the early 1950s)
Authors: Bache Ian , Bulmer Simon , George Stephen , Parker Owen
Published: September 2017

This chapter charts the long history of plans for European unity, from the end of the Second World War to the Hague Congress, the Cold War, the Schuman Plan, and the Treaty of Paris. It also considers European federalism and the practical reasons why some moves to European unity found favour with the new governments of the post-war period: the threat of communism and the emergence of the Cold War; the so-called German Problem; and the need to ensure adequate supplies of coal for the post-war economic reconstruction. As a solution to these intersecting problems, Jean Monnet, came up with a proposal that paved the way for the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community. The chapter examines Monnet’s proposal, national reactions to it, and the negotiations that led to the creation of the first of the European communities.
6. The ‘Other’ European Communities and the Origins of the European Economic Community (the Early 1950s to the 1960s)
Authors: Bache Ian , Bulmer Simon , George Stephen , Parker Owen
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the ‘other’ European communities and the origins of the European Economic Community (EEC). Negotiations over a plan for a European Defence Community (EDC) ran parallel to those over the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Connected with the EDC was a proposal to create a European Political Community (EPC) to provide democratic European structures for co-ordinating foreign policies. This chapter first considers the Pleven Plan for a EDC before discussing the development of the EDC/EPC plan and the ultimate failure to reach agreement in 1954. It also analyses the Messina negotiations and the road to the Treaties of Rome. Finally, it looks at the experience of the other organization that was created at the same time as the EEC, the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), which, like the ECSC, was institutionally merged with the EEC in 1967.
9. Maastricht and Amsterdam (the Late 1980s to the Late 1990s)
Authors: Bache Ian , Bulmer Simon , George Stephen , Parker Owen
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines two important developments in the history of the European Union: the signing of the Maastricht and Amsterdam treaties. In June 1989, the European Council agreed to European Commission president Jacques Delors’s three-stage plan for monetary union by 1999, despite British opposition. In 1991, intergovernmental conferences (IGCs) were held on both monetary union and political union. The proposals of these IGCs were incorporated into the Treaty on European Union (TEU), agreed at Maastricht in December 1991. The TEU marked a major step on the road to European integration. It committed most of the member states to adopting a single currency and introduced the concept of European citizenship, among others. The chapter considers the events leading up to the signing of the TEU, from the Maastricht negotiations to the issue of enlargement, the 1996 IGC, and the Treaty of Amsterdam.
15. The European Parliament
Authors: Bache Ian , Bulmer Simon , George Stephen , Parker Owen
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the European Parliament (EP), the one directly elected institution of the European Union. It first provides an overview of the EP’s composition and functions before discussing the struggle for increased powers within the EP. It then considers debates and research on the EP. The focus of contemporary research on the EP include political behaviour and EP elections, the internal politics and organization of the EP, and inter-institutional bargaining between the EP, the European Council, and the European Commission. One theme of the academic debate is the extent to which the EP has become an effective independent actor in the affairs of the EU, and how far it will continue to move in that direction in the future.
18. Policies and Policy Making in the European Union
Authors: Bache Ian , Bulmer Simon , George Stephen , Parker Owen
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines policies and the patterns of policy making in the European Union. The formal EU policy process begins with the European Commission (EC) drawing up proposals for legislation, at which stage it will consult widely with interest groups, technical experts, and national government officials. It will also consult members of the European Parliament (EP). The open method of co-ordination (OMC) has been introduced into what was the EC pillar, giving the member states stronger control and excluding the EP and the European Court of Justice. The chapter first considers how the European policy agenda is formed before discussing the EU policy process. It then explores minor policy areas such as the Common Fisheries Policy, fraud, and the information society, and major policy areas such as competition, employment and social policy, energy, research, and transport.
25. Trade and Development Aid
Authors: Bache Ian , Bulmer Simon , George Stephen , Parker Owen
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the European Union’s external trade relations in the context of the wider framework of global trade agreements, along with its related policies on development aid, particularly with the African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) states. It first looks at the history of the EU’s trade and development aid before discussing its external trade policy, its relations with the ACP states, and its European Neighbourhood Policy. It then considers theoretical explanations of the EU’s external trade and development aid policies as well as criticisms against such policies. Analysis of the EU’s external economic relations brings to the fore a number of theoretical themes, such as the tension between nationalism and supranationalism, the complexities of bargaining within multiple international forums, and the dominance of particular ideas across different forums.
1. Tensions in the Grand Alliance and Growing Confrontation, 1945–7
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines tensions in the grand alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union as well as the growing confrontation involving the three countries during the period 1945–1947. It begins with a discussion of the Yalta Conference held in February 1945, taking into account the US, Soviet, and British approach to Yalta as well as the conference proceedings. It then considers the Potsdam Conference and how the issue of atomic bombs was addressed at the Council of Foreign Ministers meetings in 1945. It also analyses the growing confrontation in the Near East and Mediterranean, focusing on the crises in Iran and Turkey. Finally, it explores containment, confrontation, and the Truman Doctrine during the years 1946–1947.
15. The Return to Confrontation, 1979–80
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines why the United States and the Soviet Union returned to confrontation during the period 1979–1980. Despite the slow progress of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II), there were at least some efforts to control strategic weapons. Short-range and intermediate-range nuclear weapons, in contrast, continued to grow in number and sophistication, particularly in Europe, where NATO and Warsaw Pact forces still prepared for war against each other, despite détente. The failure to control theatre nuclear weapons led to a new twist in the European arms race at the end of the 1970s which helped to undermine recent improvements in East–West relations. The chapter first considers NATO’s ‘dual track’ decision regarding theatre nuclear weapons before discussing the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan. It concludes with an assessment of the revival of the Cold War, focusing on the so-called Carter Doctrine.
16. The ‘Second’ Cold War, 1981–5
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the so-called ‘second’ Cold War spanning the years 1981–1985. Ronald Reagan came to power on the back of a general rightwards shift in the political mood. He concentrated on a presentational role in government and pursued a simple foreign policy. He dismissed détente as a communist trick, was initially determined to resist the spread of the Soviet Union’s influence wherever it threatened and, going beyond that, wanted to carry the new Cold War into the Soviet camp. The chapter first considers US–Soviet relations during the new Cold War, paying attention to ‘Reaganomics’, before discussing the crisis in Poland in 1980–1982. It then explores the issue of nuclear weapons control and the ‘Year of the Missile’ and concludes with an assessment of the war in Afghanistan up to 1985.
19. The Decline of the Cold War, 1985–9
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the decline of the Cold War during the period 1985–1989. It begins with a discussion of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev’s ‘new diplomacy’, a more flexible, less ideological foreign policy based on his belief that ‘a less confrontational stance towards the outside world would provide greater security than endless rearming’. It then considers Gorbachev’s reforms, the Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty signed in December 1987 by Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan, and US–Soviet relations under George H. W. Bush and Gorbachev. It also analyses the end of the Cold War in less developed countries such as Afghanistan, Angola, and Cambodia before concluding with an assessment of the demise of Soviet communism in Eastern Europe.
21. US Predominance and the Search for a Post-Cold War Order
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the United States’s predominance and the search for order in the post-Cold War period. George H. W. Bush, who came to power in January 1989, concentrated on world affairs and had a series of foreign successes before the end of 1991. Bush’s cautious, pragmatic, orderly approach carried both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand he escaped any major disasters abroad and avoided antagonizing the Soviet Union or rekindling the Cold War. On the other hand, he seemed to be undynamic and at the mercy of events — he failed to provide a sense of overall direction to US foreign policy once the Cold War ended. The chapter first considers US foreign policy in the 1990s before discussing the Gulf War of 1990–1991, US–Soviet relations in the 1990s, US policy towards the ‘rogue states’ during the time of Bill Clinton, and ‘humanitarian intervention’ in Somalia and Haiti.
22. Stability and Instability in the Less Developed World
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on stability and instability in less developed countries in the post-Cold War period. One of the signs, alongside the end of the Cold War, that old enmities were breaking down and that a more liberal-democratic world order might be emerging, was the end of apartheid in South Africa. This development followed a long period in which White supremacy had been in decline in southern Africa, leaving the home of apartheid exposed to strong external pressures. After discussing the end of apartheid in Southern Africa, the chapter considers developments in Central Africa, in particular Rwanda and Zaire, as well as the Middle East and East Asia. It concludes with an assessment of the rise of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967–1989, the emergence of the ‘tiger’ economies in the 1990s, and the post-1997 economic crisis.
25. The Shifting Global Balance
Authors: Young John W. , Kent John
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the shift in global balance that began in the post-2007 economic crisis. For a considerable time before the 2008 crisis, the United States and most European states had been living on high levels of debt both national and individual, public and private. Manufacturing in the developed West, and its provision of secure jobs for many workers, was undermined by the new economic environment of globalization, as well as the growth of cheaper manufacturing in China and the other BRIC countries. A new epoch of financial capitalism, which had emerged since the 1980s, was in full swing by the start of the Noughties. The chapter first considers the post-2007 economic crisis before discussing the continuing rise of China and Russian foreign policy under Vladimir Putin. It concludes with an assessment of international reactions to China’s rise, including those of East Asia, international organizations, and Taiwan.
Matrix Inequality for the Laplace Equation
Authors: Park Jiewon
Published: September 2017

Since Li and Yau obtained the gradient estimate for the heat equation, related estimates have been extensively studied. With additional curvature assumptions, matrix estimates that generalize such estimates have been discovered for various time-dependent settings, including the heat equation on a Kähler manifold, Ricci flow, Kähler–Ricci flow, and mean curvature flow, to name a few. As an elliptic analogue, Colding proved a sharp gradient estimate for the Green function on a manifold with nonnegative Ricci curvature. In this article, we prove a related matrix inequality on manifolds with suitable curvature and volume growth assumptions.
Weighted density fields as improved probes of modified gravity models
Authors: Llinares Claudio , McCullagh Nuala
Published: September 2017

When it comes to searches for extensions to general relativity, large efforts are being dedicated to accurate predictions for the power spectrum of density perturbations. While this observable is known to be sensitive to the gravitational theory, its efficiency as a diagnostic for gravity is significantly reduced when Solar system constraints are strictly adhered to. We show that this problem can be overcome by studying weighted density fields. We propose a transformation of the density field for which the impact of modified gravity on the power spectrum can be increased by more than a factor of three. The signal is not only amplified, but the modified gravity features are shifted to larger scales that are less affected by baryonic physics. Furthermore, the overall signal-to-noise ratio increases, which in principle makes identifying signatures of modified gravity with future galaxy surveys more feasible. While our analysis is focused on modified gravity, the technique can be applied to other problems in cosmology, such as the detection of neutrinos, the effects of baryons or baryon acoustic oscillations.
Observational demonstration of a high image rejection SIS mixer receiver using a new waveguide filter at 230 GHz
Authors: Hasegawa Yutaka , Asayama Shinichiro , Harada Ryohei , Tokuda Kazuki , Kimura Kimihiro , Ogawa Hideo , Onishi Toshikazu
Published: September 2017

A new sideband separation method was developed for use in millimeter-/submillimeter-band radio receivers using a novel waveguide frequency separation filter (FSF), which consists of two branch line hybrid couplers and two waveguide high-pass filters. The FSF was designed to allow the radio frequency (RF) signal to pass through to an output port when the frequency is higher than a certain value (225 GHz), and to reflect the RF signal back to another output port when the frequency is lower. The FSF is connected to two double sideband superconductor-insulator-superconductor (SIS) mixers, and an image rejection ratio (IRR) is determined by the FSF characteristics. With this new sideband separation method, we can achieve good and stable IRR without the balancing two SIS mixers such as is necessary for conventional sideband-separating SIS mixers. To demonstrate the applicability of this method, we designed and developed an FSF for simultaneous observations of the J = 2–1 rotational transition lines of three CO isotopes (12CO, 13CO, and C18O): the 12CO line is in the upper sideband and the others are in the lower sideband with an intermediate-frequency range of 4–8 GHz at the radio frequency of 220/230 GHz. This FSF was then installed in the receiver system of the 1.85 m radio telescope of Osaka Prefecture University, and was used during the 2014 observation season. The observation results indicate that the IRR of the proposed receiver is 25 dB or higher for the 12CO line, and no significant fluctuation larger than 1 dB in the IRR was observed throughout the season. These results demonstrate the practical utility of the FSF receiver for observations like extensive molecular cloud surveys in specified lines with a fixed frequency setting.
Acupuncture for the Treatment of Chronic Pain in the Military Population
Authors: Plunkett Anthony , Beltran Thomas , Haley Chelsey , Kurihara Connie , McCoart Amy , Chen Louis , Wilkinson Indy , Cohen Steven P.
Published: September 2017

Objectives:

Acupuncture is characterized as an alternative or complementary medicine with a low complication rate and minimal side effects. There is a lack of robust evidence that shows acupuncture is an effective treatment for chronic pain. The purpose of this study was to determine which (if any) characteristics can predict successful response to acupuncture in chronic pain patients treated at military treatment facilities.

Methods:

Data from 222 patients who received treatment for a chronic pain condition were collected from 2 medical centers. The patients underwent at least 4 acupuncture treatments and had an average pain score of 4 or higher on a 0- to 10-point numerical rating scale or visual analog scale in the week before treatment initiation. A successful outcome was defined to be a 2-point or greater reduction on the numerical rating scale or visual analog scale 12 weeks postinitial treatment.

Results:

The overall treatment success rate was 42.3%. Multivariate logistic regression found a higher baseline pain rating and the use of stimulation needles to be associated with a positive outcome (odds ratio [OR]=1.26; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.03-1.55; P=0.02 and OR=2.73; 95% CI, 1.39-5.32; P=0.03, respectively). Only the presence of one or more psychological comorbidities was found to be associated with treatment failure (OR=0.67; 95% CI, 0.49-0.92; P=0.01).

Discussion:

The use of electrical stimulation and higher baseline pain score were associated with a positive treatment outcome, while the presence of a psychological comorbidity diminished the likelihood of treatment success. Practitioners should consider using electrical stimulation more frequently, and addressing psychopathology before or concurrent to treatment, when initiating acupuncture.
Effects on Pulmonary Vascular Mechanics of Two Different Lung-Protective Ventilation Strategies in an Experimental Model of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Authors: Santos Arnoldo , Gomez-Peñalver Eva , Monge-Garcia M. Ignacio , Retamal Jaime , Borges João Batista , Tusman Gerardo , Hedenstierna Goran , Larsson Anders , Suarez-Sipmann Fernando
Published: September 2017

Objectives:

To compare the effects of two lung-protective ventilation strategies on pulmonary vascular mechanics in early acute respiratory distress syndrome.

Design:

Experimental study.

Setting:

University animal research laboratory.

Subjects:

Twelve pigs (30.8 ± 2.5 kg).

Interventions:

Acute respiratory distress syndrome was induced by repeated lung lavages and injurious mechanical ventilation. Thereafter, animals were randomized to 4 hours ventilation according to the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network protocol or to an open lung approach strategy. Pressure and flow sensors placed at the pulmonary artery trunk allowed continuous assessment of pulmonary artery resistance, effective elastance, compliance, and reflected pressure waves. Respiratory mechanics and gas exchange data were collected.

Measurements and Main Results:

Acute respiratory distress syndrome led to pulmonary vascular mechanics deterioration. Four hours after randomization, pulmonary vascular mechanics was similar in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network and open lung approach: resistance (578 ± 252 vs 626 ± 153 dyn.s/cm5; p = 0.714), effective elastance, (0.63 ± 0.22 vs 0.58 ± 0.17 mm Hg/mL; p = 0.710), compliance (1.19 ± 0.8 vs 1.50 ± 0.27 mL/mm Hg; p = 0.437), and reflection index (0.36 ± 0.04 vs 0.34 ± 0.09; p = 0.680). Open lung approach as compared to Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network was associated with improved dynamic respiratory compliance (17.3 ± 2.6 vs 10.5 ± 1.3 mL/cm H2O; p < 0.001), driving pressure (9.6 ± 1.3 vs 19.3 ± 2.7 cm H2O; p < 0.001), and venous admixture (0.05 ± 0.01 vs 0.22 ± 0.03, p < 0.001) and lower mean pulmonary artery pressure (26 ± 3 vs 34 ± 7 mm Hg; p = 0.045) despite of using a higher positive end-expiratory pressure (17.4 ± 0.7 vs 9.5 ± 2.4 cm H2O; p < 0.001). Cardiac index, however, was lower in open lung approach (1.42 ± 0.16 vs 2.27 ± 0.48 L/min; p = 0.005).

Conclusions:

In this experimental model, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network and open lung approach affected pulmonary vascular mechanics similarly. The use of higher positive end-expiratory pressures in the open lung approach strategy did not worsen pulmonary vascular mechanics, improved lung mechanics, and gas exchange but at the expense of a lower cardiac index.
Rituximab Monotherapy Is Effective in Treating Orbital Necrobiotic Xanthogranuloma
Authors: Sagiv Oded , Thakar Sudip D. , Morrell Gail , Tetzlaff Michael T. , Esmaeli Bita
Published: September 2017

The authors report a case of a patient with bilateral orbital necrobiotic xanthogranuloma and no associated systemic paraproteinemia. Orbital biopsy showed strong expression of CD20-positive cells. The patient was treated with systemic rituximab monotherapy, with excellent clinical response and marked regression of the orbital lesions on imaging. At the time of writing, the patient has been treated with bimonthly rituximab maintenance therapy for 22 months and has stable clinical and imaging findings with sustained response to treatment and no reported side effects. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first reported case of orbital necrobiotic xanthogranuloma successfully treated with rituximab monotherapy. They hope that this well-documented case will encourage clinicians to consider rituximab monotherapy as a possible treatment option, albeit one entailing an off-label use of this drug, for patients with necrobiotic xanthogranuloma of the orbit.