bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Meaning of Power
Authors: Parietti Guido
Published: May 2022

This chapter spells out a more apt definition of power, by examining both its form (what kind of concept “power” is) and its substantive meaning. “Power” will be preliminary defined as the status, or condition, enjoyed by someone who objectively has possibilities available and subjectively perceives them as such. However, we shall see that “objective” and “subjective” are not entirely appropriate terms. This is made clear by a deeper examination of the formal type of our concept, starting from the fact that it denotes a condition and not an object, which leads us to consider Arendt’s phenomenological approach as the most appropriate for our inquiry. This will allow us to understand the aforementioned definition in the more precise, and metaphysically less onerous, terms of the possibilities represented to and by persons in the world. The semantic of power is discussed through contemporary and historical examples of linguistic usage, with particular attention to the distinction between possibility (which is the actual root of power) and potentiality (which has nearly universally been confused for being the root of power).
Introduction and Update on the Grand Challenges
Authors: Barth Richard P. , Flynn Marilyn L. , Shanks Trina R. , Williams James Herbert , Messing Jill T. , Silk Kira
Published: May 2022

This chapter reflects on the process and progress that brought the Grand Challenges for Social Work to the midway mark of an ambitious ten-year initiative. Critical partnerships and support enabled the initiative to expand its reach and impact on the field. Responding to early critiques of the original selection and development of the Grand Challenges, the initiative added the Grand Challenge to Eliminate Racism and strategically examines the intersection of gender inequality with each challenge by mainstreaming gender throughout the GCSW. Progress in education, policy, and research is chronicled. The chapter outlines the initiative's vision and goals for the remaining five years of the original timeline through interdisciplinary innovation and collaboration to tackle some of society's grandest challenges.
Promoting Smart Decarceration
Authors: Charles Pajarita , Epperson Matthew W. , Copeland Phillipe , Pettus-Davis Carrie
Published: May 2022

The Grand Challenge to Promote Smart Decarceration was launched more than 5 years ago to advance strategies to reform the criminal legal system. Smart decarceration aims to decrease the use of incarceration, reverse disparities, and maximize community safety and well-being. Ultimately, smart decarceration seeks to build social capacity through robust and community-driven responses to local issues without resorting to the default incarceration approach. This updated chapter expands on these original goals, bringing attention to historically underrepresented groups, emphasizing “front-end” actions needed to prevent future criminal legal system involvement, and discussing decarceration strategies that are antiracist and diverse. The chapter also updates readers on the progress to date of promoting smart decarceration and proposes a vision for the future of the Grand Challenge to Promote Smart Decarceration.
The Reactions of Anti-Coup Ulama to the Rabaa Massacre
Authors: Al-Azami Usaama
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers the horror with which anti-coup ulama responded to the Rabaa massacre of August 2013. It begins with a consideration of the sermon of a relatively junior Azhari scholar, Rajab Zakī, illustrating the eloquent condemnation of one anti-coup scholar in Egypt at the time. Qaradawi's reaction to Ali Gomaa's pre-Rabaa private support for the coup regime is also presented here. This would be aired on Qaradawi's Al Jazeera show nearly two weeks after the Rabaa massacre. As it would turn out, that episode would be Qaradawi's last. Muḥammad ʿImāra and Aḥmad al-Raysūnī would also briefly join the show to criticize Gomaa's remarks. By the time Gomaa's post-Rabaa video was made public in October, Qaradawi's and Raysūnī's responses would only be offered in written form. These are considered towards the end of the chapter.
Connecting Cybersecurity and Middle East Politics
Authors: Shires James
Published: May 2022

This chapter connects theories of cybersecurity and Middle East politics, placing the argument in both theoretical contexts. It first locates this book in Middle East studies, exploring in more depth the political, economic, and social factors relevant to the development of cybersecurity in the region. Here, it argues that the concept of moral maneuvers contributes to scholarship on digital authoritarianism by revealing how the appropriation of cybersecurity is a unique way in which states can suppress popular dissatisfaction and instability. The chapter then moves to cybersecurity studies and international relations theory more broadly. Here, it argues that the concept of moral maneuvers extends the work of theorists of norms and securitization who have analyzed why international cyber norms have achieved far less acceptance than their original proponents hoped, instead sinking into broader geopolitical schisms.
The Homily
Authors: Lehner Ulrich L.
Published: May 2022

The Catholic Reform stressed the importance of the homily as indispensable part of the pastoral care of souls. This chapter outlines the pastoral and rhetorical instructions priests received for their preaching and what the role of the homily was in the liturgy (usually after a Mass). The homily increased the public stature of a priest, who now appeared prophet- or apostle-like. While some homilies focused on the biblical reading for the day, others were about catechetical issues. Most often an hour long, a homily was considered successful if it engaged its audience and kindled not only their imagination but also feelings of remorse as well as love for God.
Teaching the Faith in a Parish
Authors: Lehner Ulrich L.
Published: May 2022

Religious education was not a priority of the medieval church. The Catholic Reform after the Council of Trent, however, made it one. Such instruction was to instill adherence to the normative expectations in questions of faith and morality in the faithful. These initiatives certainly disciplined the masses and created a culture in which confessional differences became identity markers. Focusing on these aspects, however, has largely eclipsed that religious instruction also had a spiritual dimension, which is the focus of this chapter. Learning about the expectations of the church made the faithful aware not only of what they had to know to be saved but also of how to live their faith and transform their lives. Thereby the parish gained theological and ecclesial prominence.
Lay Movements Transforming the Church
Authors: Lehner Ulrich L.
Published: May 2022

While the influence of religious orders and leaders on the Catholic Reform is well researched, the work and influence of lay people is often overlooked. This chapter introduces the reader to the history of early modern lay movements in confraternities and sodalities. While medieval confraternities had seemingly few demands on a person’s spiritual and moral life, the Catholic Reform infused zeal and rigor into these communities, particularly into Third Orders and the Jesuit Marian Congregations. A focus of confraternity life was played on almsgiving, which was, however, often reduced to prayers for the dead. The Marian Sodalities and Congregations, which were founded by the Jesuits, aimed at transforming whole segments of society by reforming the inner self. Religious superachievers joined Third Orders, which had stricter demands on their members, and devout women created their own spiritual niches.
Hollywood Sports Movies and the American Dream
Authors: Wiedenfeld Grant
Published: May 2022

Through the heart of Hollywood cinema runs a surprising current of progressive politics. Sports movies, a genre that has flourished since the mid-1970s, evoke the American dream and represent the nation to itself. Once considered mere credos for Reaganism, on closer view, movies from Rocky (1976) to Ali (2001) dream of democratic participation and recognition more than individual success. In every case, off-field relationships take precedence over on-field competition. Arranged chronologically, this critical study of six major sports films also tells the story of multiculturalism’s gradual adoption. The mainstream’s first minority heroes are paradoxically white ethnic, rural, working-class men, exemplified by Rocky, Slap Shot (1977), and The Natural (1984); Black, brown, and women characters follow in White Men Can’t Jump (1992), A League of Their Own (1992), and Ali. But despite their insistence on community and diversity these popular dramas show limited faith in civic institutions. Hannah Arendt, Jeffrey Alexander, and others inform original analysis and commentary on the political significance of popular culture. Reading these familiar movies from another angle paints a fresh picture of how the United States has imagined democracy since its bicentennial.
The Natural (1984)
Authors: Wiedenfeld Grant
Published: May 2022

Chapter 4 reads The Natural (1984) through the context of the 1980s farm crisis. The New Deal–era setting, an aging yeoman hero, and a rapacious owner compose an allegory for the economic plight of small farmers. The heartland parable stands with Farm Aid in support of grassroots agrarian movements against the laissez-faire policies of Reagan and the GOP. This interpretation challenges the general association of sports history, pastoralism, and fantasy genres with reactionary nostalgia and utopianism. Many have considered the adaptation of Bernard Malamud’s novel, from a tonic of disillusionment into a tale of victory, to be emblematic of the regressive culture industry. Beneath the surface of white skin and sepia tones, however, themes of equality and justice pump through the drama. Considering the reverent legend as part of American civil religion reveals a progressive and multicultural ethos that is both unexpected and knotty.
Genus dialogorum meorum
Authors: Zetzel James E. G.
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines De oratore and De re publica in terms of their models and the originality of their form. In some respects, the obvious model is Plato: Cicero and his characters draw attention to the similarities. On the other hand, Cicero himself generally describes his dialogues as Aristotelian, not Platonic, and his dialogues set in the past are sometimes said to be modeled on the work of Heraclides of Pontus. Examination of fragments of the latter shows how little Cicero owes to him. What these dialogues owe to Aristotle is the use of prefaces in the author’s own voice. What is most striking is the way Cicero combines the historical settings used by Plato with the personal prefaces used by Aristotle. The combination is something completely original, and creates a sense of historical depth not found in any of Cicero’s Greek antecedents.
Vetera repetenti
Authors: Zetzel James E. G.
Published: May 2022

De oratore is a text filled with historical detail; the present chapter examines several different aspects of history in De oratore. First is the historical setting itself. It is a very selective portrait, and Cicero both idealizes the speakers and makes it clear to the reader that it is an idealized portrait. Second is the set of connections between Cicero himself and the speakers in the dialogue, which again harmonizes a complicated set of conflicting connections. Third is the choice of speeches and trials referred to in De oratore: some of the cases, notably the trial of Norbanus, reflect Cicero’s own forensic career, and the overall pattern of citations of cases by the speakers reveals their divergent understanding of what an orator is and does in public life. The chapter demonstrates how differently Crassus and Antonius approach their task and shows that there are two quite different but equally valid approaches to oratory in De oratore.
Eloquentem adhuc neminem
Authors: Zetzel James E. G.
Published: May 2022

This chapter explores the way in which in De oratore Cicero simultaneously asserts and denies the need for a Roman orator to study Greek philosophy extensively. This involves the double question of whether rhetoric is an ars and what an ars actually is. De oratore exemplifies the technique of Academic skepticism, offering at least two images of oratory, one ideal and one difficult but possible; it keeps the two in tension throughout. The different approaches to Greek learning are exemplified through the visits of the three main speakers (Crassus, Antonius, Scaevola) to Greece and their discussions there with rhetoricians and philosophers. While these visits probably never took place, they provide a set of linked anecdotes exploring the relationship of Rome to Greek intellectual culture in the late second century.
The Lost Republic
Authors: Zetzel James E. G.
Published: May 2022

The chapter begins with an exploration of the different places occupied by rhetoric and political theory in the structure of Roman intellectual life. It goes on to explain the fragmentary nature of the text of De re publica and the related limitations on our ability to interpret it. The most important source is the palimpsest P (Vaticanus Latinus 5757); it contains a large portion of the first two books (of six) of the dialogue, but gives out early in Book 3. There are two important Christian sources, Lactantius and Augustine; the biases and distortions of their quotations from Cicero are explained. So too, the single largest fragment of De re publica, the Dream of Scipio at the end of the dialogue, is preserved separately by the Neoplatonist Macrobius; he too distorts the meaning of the text by eliminating all historical context in favor of highly abstract philosophical speculation. The final important source, Nonius Marcellus, has the disadvantage of quoting only small scraps of text in order to explain obscure words, but has the compensating advantage that unlike the other sources he does not bring any doctrinal bias to bear on his quotations.
Rerum publicarum natura
Authors: Zetzel James E. G.
Published: May 2022

The second half of Scipio’s narrative of Roman constitutional history is more difficult than the first, in part because it is much more fragmentary, in part because it considers less the narrative of events than the causes of change in government. There are several important issues. One is the nature of the natura that causes change. Another is the way in which reason can anticipate or avoid constitutional decay. A third is the proper balance of elements in a mixed constitution and how it can be maintained. And a fourth, perhaps most important, is the role of individual character in constitutional change. The fragmentary state of the text makes it harder to define the role of the individual described as tutor or rector—the group of potential leaders who can step forward in a crisis. The very fragmentary Book 4 will have explained the social and governmental institutions that produce such men, and are in turn kept alive by them.
Endless Books
Authors: Ball Warwick
Published: May 2022

Books in Lewis’s life and background—books as a source for the oriental elements—books as a theme in Narnia—the phenomenon of books about Lewis—the author’s personal background in archaeology and the East—the evocation of Eastern ruins in Narnia from Petra, Palmyra, and Persepolis to Bam and Fatehpur Sikri—the imagery of Zenobia—Oxford pubs and their associations with archaeology and the East—tales of Eastern travel reflected in Narnia—the plot of Last Battle in an Afghan legend—the name of Aslan—other Narnian names—the Arabian Nights stories in the Chronicles—Firdausi and other Eastern epics in Narnia—other Persian sources—plots drawn from Herodotus and the Alexander Romance.
Mere Christianity?
Authors: Ball Warwick
Published: May 2022

The non-Christian elements in the Chronicles—Lewis and Christian apologetics—Lewis in America—Lewis and Protestant evangelicalism—Lewis and the joys of beer, and wine—children and wine—pubs again—Omar Khayyam, Hafez, and Persian literature and wine—the creation of Narnia in song and literature—the Kalevala and the Golden Bough—Finland and ‘northern-ness’—Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, dualism, and Lewis—the end of Narnia and Manichaean eschatology—Lewis’s and Muhammad’s night-time journeys to heaven—the Zoroastrian and Sufi Senmurv/Simurgh and bird imagery and Farid ud-Din Attar—Sufi messages.
Farther Up and Farther In
Authors: Ball Warwick
Published: May 2022

Conscious and subconscious themes by an artist and by Lewis—is it right to be wrong?—reading too much in the Chronicles?—Chronicles of Narnia: satanism and Dark Materials Christian apologetics?—Michael Ward and Planet Narnia—Narnia and the seven heavenly bodies—Nizami and the Seven Images—Edward Said, the Second World War, and ‘orientalism’—Arabian Nights again, origins and influences—the many messages in the Chronicles—the inexactness of the messages—Lewis’s complex philosophy—general conclusions—‘It’s all in Plato.’
First Impressions of a War
Authors: Moir Nathaniel L.
Published: May 2022

This chapter describes Bernard Fall's early life as an Austrian Jew and how his family emigrated to France after the Anschluss of Austria in 1938. The chapter describes social conflict in Vichy France; how a French Jewish Council denounced Fall’s family, and how this denunciation led to his parents' murders by German forces. The second half of the chapter subsequently recounts Fall’s experience in the French Resistance and French Army during the liberation of Europe.
1961–1967
Authors: Moir Nathaniel L.
Published: May 2022

This chapter recounts developments in Laos between 1961 and 1963 and in Vietnam during the years preceding conventional military operations by the United States in 1965. After focusing on Laos, Bernard Fall increased his efforts to teach and write about Revolutionary Warfare--a form of political warfare through guerrilla warfare tactics, psychological operations, and other "grey-area" forms of conflict. The chapter also examines how Fall, along with Marcus Raskin, contributed to ideas which evolved through the "New Left" in American domestic and foreign politics.
Interlude
Authors: Baird Bruce
Published: May 2022

This chapter analyses the various factors that enabled butô artists to be more successful in France than they had been in Japan. Among these was simple exoticism, but differences between France and Japan contributed to success of the performers. These differences included the structure of the performing arts world, evolutions in theatre and modern dance, and the financial relationship between theaters and artists.
Amagatsu Ushio and Sankai Juku
Authors: Baird Bruce
Published: May 2022

This chapter tracks the career of the most internationally successful butô artist Amagatsu. Sankai Juku performed in over 700 cities in more 47 countries around the world. The chapter starts with their first major dance, Kumquat Boy, in order to sketch a starting point for choreographer Amagatsu Ushio after he split from Dairakudakan. Then the chapter switches to dances created in Paris and seeks to describe what made their performances appealing to so many people. Part of their success lay in tapping into an Orientalist fascination with Japanese religion and thought. They benefited from an association with New Age thought and music. They were also exploring the same issues as the other butô choreographers, such as nature, universality, and the place of the body in the world. Specifically, the chapter explores the ideas of Amagatsu with a special emphasis on his idea of dialogue with or synchronization with gravity and the lowest possible effort. Featured performances also include Homage to the Cord Pattern Era (also called Homage to Prehistory or Jomonsho, 1982), Egg Heat: From/Starting with Standing an Egg (Unetsu, 1986), and Kagemi: Beyond the Metaphor of Mirrors (2007).
Conclusion
Authors: Baird Bruce
Published: May 2022

This chapter sums up the argument for seeing butô as connected to the most intense questions of the contemporary age such as the relationship between humans, technology and new media, and the status and role of gender and ethnicity in society. It also presents the commonalities and differences that connect the various artists together who all claim the label butô (as well as the ones who reject the label but are seen from the outside as belong). Finally, it gives a sense of the flowering of butô in the present by highlighting the activities of many of the people who have come along after the founders and made butô their own.
Introduction
Authors: Waseem Mohammad
Published: May 2022

The introduction lays out four clusters of themes which the book covers: clash of institutions within the state, patterns of ethnonationalism, Islamization of law as a divine source of legitimacy, and the subaltern's situation of non-conflict expressed through the bondage which is territorially localized and transactionally personalized in the context of patronage politics. Conflict is both destructive in the context of loss of peace, prosperity, and security and constitutive of a new social order such as divination of the political landscape in Pakistan. The introduction brings out the sources of conflict in Pakistan as rooted in the slippage from design to practice. It discusses postcolonialism as the second wave of intellectual decolonization couched in the "orientalist" framework of Islam versus the West. Nationalism has the overtones of pre-destinationism. The introduction argues in favour of systematicity of conflict beyond a mere breakdown of the political system.
An Establishmentarian Democracy
Authors: Waseem Mohammad
Published: May 2022

This chapter analyzes the origins of the divergent paths taken by India and Pakistan in the context of democracy. First, the areas constituting Pakistan inherited relatively underdeveloped representative institutions. Second, the migrant elite which dominated the ruling dispensation within and outside the parliament feared that an exercise in mass polls would mean its exit from power. However, after four stints of military rule a perception set in that democracy was the only game in the town. That led to an elaborate exercise in management of elections and control over policy. While expanding the concept of hybrid regime, this chapter considers Pakistan an establishmentarian democracy. In this context, "military metaphysics" presided over dissemination of the cults of soldier, martyrdom, war, unity and guardianship. Similarly, the judiciary has had a tug of war with the executive through its use of judicial review that worked against consolidation of democracy, especially in its populist mode of action.
Libya and the Global Enduring Disorder
Authors: Pack Jason
Published: May 2022

We no longer live in a world governed by coherent international coordination, a unified NATO bloc, or an American hegemon capable of solving collective action problems. The post-Cold War Order is history. Libya and the Global Enduring Disorder argues that Libya's ongoing conflict constitutes an ideal microcosm for examining the salient features of this new era of geopolitics, especially its self-reinforcing nature. Libya's post-Qadhafi turmoil is facilitated by the absence of coherent international cooperation, while the country's incremental implosion gives rise to cross-border contagion--corroding global institutions and further gumming the gears of diplomacy. Full of unexpected takes and gripping anecdotes, Jason Pack draws on over two decades of work focussing on Libya and Syria to highlight the Kafkaesque aspects of today's global affairs. He shows how even the momentous and tragic events of the Arab Spring uprisings and the assassination in Benghazi of his friend Ambassador Christopher Stevens failed to occasion a unified Western response. Actually, they further undercut global coordination and indirectly led to both Brexit and Trump's election. Pack draws back the traditional veil of secrecy surrounding Washington lobbyists to share his counterintuitive discovery that in key industries certain dominant multinationals behave as a cartel, seeking to block new entrants to their market niche. By eschewing positive-sum thinking, such incumbent psychology creates lose-lose, beggar-thy-neighbour, self-reinforcing conflicts. This dynamic mirrors the fear-based, zero-sum thinking that animates trade wars, nativist anti-migrant sentiment, and neo-populist leaders like Trump, Orban, Bolsonaro and Putin. Welcome to the Enduring Disorder.
The US–Libya (Anti-)Business Association
Authors: Pack Jason
Published: May 2022

Pack uncovers the traditional veil of secrecy surrounding Washington lobbyists to share his counterintuitive discovery that in key industries certain dominant multinationals behave as a cartel, seeking to block new entrants to their market niche. The chapter describes, upon seeking to advance US business interests in Libya, he discovered that the most deeply entrenched companies in Libya do not necessarily seek to increase their profit margins nor find new business opportunities. In fact, they act quite similarly to the peculiar institutions created by Qadhafi with which they do business, obscuring transparency and protecting their ensconced fiefdoms. An episode is detailed in which decision-makers at top global firms in "old school industries," like oil or security, act according to "incumbent psychology," fearing change and seeking to block new entrants. This goes against received wisdom suggesting that the primary danger of public companies' quests to increase shareholder value inherently stems from the "problem of the commons." Companies' "rational" pursuit of profit puts them at odds with larger public goals, like protecting the environment. This chapter's perspective is more alike breakthroughs in behavioural economics, which demonstrate that in certain cases neither firms nor individuals seek to maximize their profit or utility.
Optimism and Self-Devaluation #2
Authors: Segev Mor
Published: May 2022

This chapter examines Maimonides’s optimistic theory and its roots in Aristotle’s philosophy and the Hebrew Bible. Maimonides’s solution to the problem of evil rests on the devaluation of human beings by comparison to higher beings, such as the heavenly bodies and separate intellects. In establishing his devaluation of humanity for this purpose, Maimonides relies both on Jewish sources and on Aristotle. Various biblical (and Talmudic) texts venerate viewing oneself, and indeed humankind, as lowly. Maimonides harmonizes these sources with his own ideal of the righteous person and prophet—a philosopher who, like Aristotle’s magnanimous person, devalues humanity and herself and devotes her life and efforts to the divine. Based on these views, Maimonides is able to sustain an optimistic worldview which, far from implying the impeccability of human beings, is in fact grounded in the devaluation of humanity.
Decent Jobs
Authors: Kenworthy Lane
Published: May 2022

Would democratic socialism be better than capitalism at ensuring decent work? The case that it would is weak. The available data suggest that work conditions, job security, working time, and job satisfaction in capitalist economies have been getting better, not worse.
Gender and Racial Equality
Authors: Kenworthy Lane
Published: May 2022

Would democratic socialism be better than capitalism at achieving gender and racial equality? It surely isn’t needed for gender equality. In most of the affluent capitalist nations, women have surpassed men in educational attainment and life expectancy, and they are at least equally happy. In employment, pay, and top-level positions in business and politics there is still a gap in men’s favor, but in the leading countries, including the social democratic capitalist ones, that gap is now quite small. The toughest case for between-group equality is probably Blacks and whites in the United States. Here we see persistent inequality on many outcomes yet also significant reductions in inequality on nearly all of them, including education, employment, pay, health, happiness, and top-level corporate and political positions. Could democratic socialism help? Maybe, but the evidence suggests no reason to think it is necessary.
Rationalization, Creativity, and Imaginative Resistance
Authors: D’Cruz Jason
Published: May 2022

The author proposes that rationalization should be modeled as pretend deliberation rather than as faulty deliberation. His model puts into relief the cognitive and creative achievement that consists in crafting a narrative whose rehearsal has the effect of eliciting desirable emotions and mitigating feelings of guilt or shame. Unlike inquiry, rationalization is an inherently creative undertaking. It consists in generating and rehearsing narratives that have the credible appearance of genuine deliberation and inquiry but whose narrative arc aims at exculpation or self-justification. Rationalization should be understood as a kind of morally distorting fiction where one comes to root for the person one knows to be the “bad guy” and the bad guy is oneself. The intended audience for the story is sometimes other people but most often also the rationalizer themselves. The rationalizer spins a tale for themselves whose major theme is their own exculpation and self-justification. This tale is expertly crafted so as to circumvent imaginative resistance.
Dogmatism and the Epistemology of Covert Selection
Authors: Tucker Chris
Published: May 2022

Perceptual dogmatism is a prominent theory in epistemology concerning the relationship between perceptual experience and reasonable belief. It holds that, in the absence of counterevidence, it is reasonable to believe what one’s perceptual experience tells one. Thus, if one is not aware of an experience’s causal history, then it doesn’t matter. Critics object that the causal history does matter: When a perceptual experience is caused in certain ways, it is unreasonable to trust what it tells you. These objections regularly appeal to cognitive penetration and biased searches for evidence. Given the myriad accounts of what covert attention is, one wonders if biased patterns of covert attention could raise a new objection to dogmatism. The author argues that, while covert selection might raise various problems for dogmatism, none of them are new. This is good news for dogmatism because the fewer distinct problems it faces, the more likely it can resolve them all.
Novices and Expert Disagreement
Authors: Ballantyne Nathan
Published: May 2022

One knows little about the world without trusting experts. Experts themselves are in a similar predicament because the proliferation and growth of expert knowledge requires experts to trust other experts. But when one defers to experts, one sometimes encounters a serious challenge: expert disagreement. Novices must trust experts, but novices face uncertainty when the experts do not agree. To defer reasonably to one expert over another, one needs to identify an epistemological asymmetry between them, but this chapter argues that people are often not well poised to distinguish between rival experts in light of what they know about the psychology of perceiving expertise and the social conditions that produce misinformation about experts.
Cyber Behavior and Dynamics
Authors: Fischerkeller Michael P. , Goldman Emily O. , Harknett Richard J.
Published: May 2022

Cyberspace is an initiative persistent environment of opportunity and vulnerability wherein States face a structural imperative to persist in seizing and maintaining the initiative to set favorable security conditions in and through cyberspace. The dominant State security-seeking behavior is exploitation below the level of armed conflict, primarily manifesting in the cyber fait accompli—a limited unilateral gain that is retained when the target is unaware of the loss or is unable or unwilling to respond. A less frequent behavior is direct cyber engagement, a mutually dependent competition for control of key cyberspace terrain, whose prevalence may increase with advances in artificial intelligence. States are strategically incentivized in cyberspace to not breach the armed-attack equivalent ceiling. This produces a dynamic of competitive interaction, not escalation, and the inter-State phenomenon of cyber agreed competition, a tacitly bounded strategic competitive space inclusive of operational restraint and exclusive of operations causing armed-attack equivalent effects.
Cyber Stability
Authors: Fischerkeller Michael P. , Goldman Emily O. , Harknett Richard J.
Published: May 2022

Cyber stability is a condition in which States are not incentivized to breach the tacit upper bound of cyber agreed competition by pursuing armed attack-equivalent cyber operations or conventional/nuclear armed attack. Cyber persistence theory predicts that States will continually seek gains in cyberspace but bounded within a range of exploitative behaviors, the cumulative effects of which do not threaten the overall integrity of cyberspace because of its systemic resilience. Instability results when an imbalance of initiative degrades a State’s relative power and the State acts to arrest relative power loss. 5G technology and artificial intelligence–enabled cyber operations may introduce instability. However, stabilizing factors exist that reduce the likelihood of escalation into armed conflict. While explicit bargaining is the primary source of non-binding, voluntary international cyber norms, tacit coordination and tacit bargaining are better suited for constructing mutual understandings of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors that could lead to binding international law.
Introduction
Authors: Basu Amrita
Published: May 2022

The volume explores elements of change and continuity in Hindu extremist nationalism over the last two decades. Sarkar deploys fieldwork and closely reads and analyzes Hindutva's cultural, social, pedagogical, ritual, and visual messages to understand their ideological purpose, political movements, organizational networks and techniques of mobilization. She particularly focuses on their social ideas and women's work, the particularities in their notions of Hindu faith and Indian nationalism, their remaking of Indian history and their modes of disseminating their ideological literature.
The Woman as Communal Subject
Authors: Sarkar Tanika
Published: May 2022

The chapter describes the women's organization of the RSS, narrating its history, training program and its ideological orientation. It focuses on the ways in which, to a limited extent, an ideology of intercommunity hatred can empower women's activism.
Hinduism, Hindu Nation, and History
Authors: Sarkar Tanika
Published: May 2022

The chapter explores how Hindutva successfully combines the energies of faith and nationalism. It looks at its ideas about Hinduism and its ritual calendar. It probes how it tries to merge India with Hinduism and alters standard meanings of both in the process.
A World Without Monsters
Authors: Jackson Leonie B.
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers the consequences of the metaphors, exemplars and depictions used by journalists to frame IS women by exploring the representations of two high-profile "jihadi brides": Sally Jones (killed by a drone strike in 2017) and Shamima Begum (whose citizenship was removed in 2019). As ideal types of monstrosity and vulnerability, the media conversation on how to deal with these two women allows us to trace the implications of the social constructions explored in this book and understand how media frames made certain approaches to dealing with these women more or less possible. The chapter argues that the monstrous/vulnerable binary had material consequences for women constructed as "jihadi brides," and that rescue-ability and the capacity to be deradicalized and repatriated depended on these constructions.
Conditional Credences
Authors: Titelbaum Michael G.
Published: May 2022

This chapter introduces the notion of a conditional degree of belief, then explains the Ratio Formula-a mathematical rule connecting conditional credences to unconditional. This allows us to prove Bayes’ Theorem, and apply it to assess the impact of probabilistic evidence. We discuss probabilistic relevance and independence, and related notions such as screening off. The chapter covers the Gambler’s Fallacy, and connections between correlation and causation. We conclude by investigating possible links between conditional credences and conditionals in the philosophy of language
Pāṇini
Authors: Kiparsky Paul
Published: May 2022

Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī, the most complete generative grammar of any language yet written, is based on a consistent set of principles and formal techniques, many of which have been adopted in modern linguistics. The grammar emerges solely from jointly maximizing empirical coverage and formal economy (Minimum Description Length). These twin imperatives determine its overall structure, its categories and levels of representation, its types of rules and constraints, and their application and interaction. Major economies are achieved by blocking, which organizes grammar into a vast network whose every rule or principle is defeasible by a more specific one, in a hierarchy that terminates in individual listed words. Economy dictates that featurally definable phonological classes are privileged, and that transparent sequential rule application is the default. I also review some Pāṇinian phonological principles which have not yet been adopted in linguistics.
The (early) history of sign language phonology
Authors: Hulst Harry van der
Published: May 2022

This chapter addresses the history of sign phonology, starting with some early pioneers (specifically Bébian 1825 and West 1960) who developed notational systems, which fully (although often implicitly, as in Bébian’s case) acknowledge that signs can be segmented into smaller, meaningless parts. The seminal work of William Stokeo (1960) is commonly mentioned as the first publication claiming that signs can be analysed into meaningless form elements. The reception of this is compared to the reception of the work of Edward Klima and Ursula Bellugi (1979). The chapter then reviews the transition from American structuralist linguistics to generative approaches after which the focus is on a new era in sign phonology, viz. the ‘rise of sequential structure’, discussing various strands of research that break with Stokoe’s conception of the sign as a simultaneous bundle of properties. The chapter concludes with briefly reviewing research in some specific topics.
Developments leading towards generative phonology
Authors: Dresher B. Elan , Hall Daniel Currie
Published: May 2022

This chapter discusses key figures in the 1950s and 1960s whose work led to the theory of generative phonology. Generative phonology developed in part from the collaboration of Roman Jakobson and Morris Halle, continuing the Prague School approach by elaborating and modifying earlier ideas concerning distinctive features and relating them to mathematical models from the then-new field of information theory. Another source was the formalization of American structuralist phonology by Zellig Harris and the critique of that theory by Noam Chomsky. These sources merged in the collaboration of Chomsky and Halle and their criticisms of prevailing notions of the phoneme. Another fruitful area of collaboration was their account of English stress and the cycle. We will show how the emerging synthesis both built on and diverged from earlier ideas, and discuss some of the controversies of the years leading up to the appearance of The Sound Pattern of English.
The study of variation
Authors: Fruehwald Josef
Published: May 2022

The study and formalization of intra-speaker variation within variationist sociolinguistics has followed a largely parallel history with generative phonology, always borrowing heavily from the generative theories of the day. More recently, structured probabilistic variation has become enshrined as a fact-to-be-explained by any theory of human sound systems in more mainstream phonology. This chapter outlines this parallel history of variation study from its origins in dialectology, the evolution of modern variationist sociolinguistics, and the development of more contemporary variation focused phonological theory, as well as critiques that have been posed over this history. The chapter reviews in considerable detail how the original notion of ‘variable rule’ was elaborated and complexified, and how variation is treated in constraint-based approaches. It concludes with a look towards the future of variation study that is incorporating more insights from psycholinguistics.
Phonetic explanation in phonology
Authors: Kingston John
Published: May 2022

This chapter reviews the history of phonetic explanations of phonological patterns from the 1920s to the present. Structuralist efforts to separate phonology from phonetics are sketched first, and the eventual development of distinctive feature theory from those structuralist arguments is then traced. Contemporaneous research on the relationship between speech perception and production that should have but did not inform this development is reviewed, as are later reactions that provided various kinds of phonetic explanations of recurrent phonological patterns. Phonological patterns that are unexpected on phonetic grounds, including crazy rules, are discussed before turning to Natural Phonology’s explanations. A review of recent efforts to distinguish phonological form from phonetic substance follows, and the chapter closes by showing that contemporary disagreements are so deep that no consensus is currently possible as to whether and how phonological patterns can be explained phonetically.
Corpora and phonological analysis
Authors: Hall Kathleen Currie
Published: May 2022

This chapter discusses the use of corpora in phonological analysis, both historically and with an eye to the future. A corpus can be generally defined as any collection of linguistic data, such that most empirical phonology is in some sense ‘corpus-based’ phonology, but the term is most commonly associated with work that involves answering a research question using pre-existing data of an appropriate type. Although corpora vary widely, they offer a number of advantages for phonologists. In particular, they often provide large, accessible bodies of relatively naturalistic data on which many different types of analysis can be run and replicated, and lend themselves particularly to statistical investigations of frequency, probability, and variation in phonology. This chapter discusses both advantages and limitations of corpora, providing examples of how they can and have been used for doing phonological analysis as well as information on tools and resources available for conducting such work.
Phonology and evolution
Authors: de Boer Bart
Published: May 2022

This chapter reviews the history of the interaction between theories of evolution and phonology. It starts by looking at very early work on the origins of speech and then proceeds to present the (absence of) influence of theories of sound change on Darwin’s thinking about biological change, as well as Darwin’s and other late 19th-century ideas about evolution of speech and language derived from their ideas on biological evolution. It then reviews the debate, which has lasted for about a century, on the influence of vocal tract anatomy on the sound systems that humans can use, and whether the vocal tract has played a crucial role in evolution. Finally, it reviews the more recent use of evolutionary theory for understanding cultural processes, and specifically those of phonological change and emergence of systems of signals.
The Thesaurus of Thomas Cooper
Authors: Considine John
Published: May 2022

Chapter 8 is devoted to the largest Latin–English dictionary of the sixteenth century, the Thesaurus linguae Romanae et Britannicae of Thomas Cooper. In terms of authorship, it might be seen as a continuation of the tradition which originates with Elyot’s Dictionary, from which it takes many of its English equivalents. But here it is treated as fundamentally a new arrangement by Cooper of material ultimately from Elyot in a structure provided by Johannes Fries’s Dictionarium Latinogermanicum, a German derivative of one of Robert Estienne’s dictionaries. The Thesaurus is rich in phraseological material, and has a substantial appendix of proper names. Its later editions are discussed (including some bibliographically elusive eighteenth-century reissues), as is the evidence for its place in the history of reading, and particularly for its use as a schoolbook.
Introduction
Authors: Crone Rosalind
Published: May 2022

The Introduction outlines the parameters of this study of the provision of education in English prisons over the course of the nineteenth century. Unlike previous studies, it includes both convict and local prisons, and eschews an analysis based on case studies by collecting, comparing and contrasting data from all 465 prisons and hulks operational between 1800 and 1899. This evidence, when viewed alongside institutional records and documents which chart penal policymaking, challenges previous accounts of the history of the prison, suggesting instead a longer history of rehabilitation which begins in the early nineteenth century, persists in spite of the increasing emphasis on punishment in the 1860s, and continues right up to the present day. This study of prison education also presents an alternative account of the history of education. It revises key milestones, such as the beginning of state-funded elementary schools and reveals the importance of adult education. Although curriculum in prisons reflected that of mainstream elementary schools, the delivery of education, shaped by the penal environment, created an experience of learning which was entirely different and often contrary to that in the civil sphere.
The Attempt to Achieve a National System
Authors: Crone Rosalind
Published: May 2022

Between 1869 and 1895, the retributionist and deterrent ambitions of the mid-Victorian penal reformers were fully realised as convict prisons and then local prisons were turned into a ‘huge punishing machine’. Still, the provision of education in prisons persisted, and the period presented opportunities for radical change, including for an enlarged role for education within the penal regime. However, these opportunities were by and large missed. Chapter 7 examines the opportunity presented by the achievement of uniformity in prison discipline under the chairman of the Directors of Convict Prisons and the new Prison Commission, Sir Edmund Du Cane, which coincided with the advent of compulsory and universal elementary schooling for children in England. Between 1868 and 1883 a national system of prison education in England was created, as the content of instruction and modes of delivery became standardised across the penal sector. The process began in convict prisons with the adoption of the 1862 Revised Code and the introduction of examination books to ensure that learning was not interrupted by necessary transfers between prisons. The nationalisation of local prisons in 1878 led to the establishment of a departmental committee on prison education (the Fenwick Committee), who devised a new scheme to enable prisoners who behaved well and were imprisoned for four months or more to raise their literacy and numeracy skills to the limit of compulsory schooling outside prison. It also ended the employment of professional teachers in the local prison sector.
Jurisdiction and the Types of Companies that May Propose Schemes and Restructuring Plans
Authors: O'Dea Geoff
Published: May 2022

This chapter considers the jurisdiction of the UK and Irish courts in relation to schemes and restructuring plans. The chapter considers these under the statutory jurisdictional requirements and the judge-made jurisdictional elements, such as sufficient connection and the ‘substantial effect’ doctrine. The chapter also discusses the pre- and post-Brexit jurisdictional position of UK schemes, restructuring plans, and Irish schemes under the EU Judgments Regulation, the Lugano Convention, the EU Insolvency Regulation, the Hague Convention, the UNCITRAL Model law, and private domestic international law.