bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
23. Free movement: social rights
Authors: Woods Lorna , Watson Philippa , Costa Marios
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the social rights that arise as part of free-movement rights under Articles 21, 45, 49 and 59 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). It highlights the extensive interpretation given by the Court of Justice (CJ) to these rights ensuring equality of treatment for migrants. As well as dealing with the provisions in the Citizens’ Rights Directive (CRD) (Directive 2004/38), it deals briefly with the provisions relating to social security.
25. Free movement of persons: limitations on grounds of public policy, public security or public health
Authors: Woods Lorna , Watson Philippa , Costa Marios
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the European Union (EU) law concerning the free movement of persons and the limitations of this right on grounds of public health, public security, or public policy. It analyses the relationship between the Citizens’ Rights Directive (CRD) (Directive 2004/38/EC) and its relationship with Treaty provisions. It considers the substantive scope of the derogation provisions and the procedural guarantees in the CRD.
26. The Area of Freedom, Security and Justice: EU justice and home affairs law and policy
Authors: Woods Lorna , Watson Philippa , Costa Marios
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the European Union (EU) home affairs law and policy, particularly in relation to freedom, security and justice (AFSJ). It discusses the provisions of EU law on immigration, distinguishing between legal and unauthorised entry, and the protection given to third country nationals by a range of legislative measures. It also introduces the legal framework for the EU's criminal justice policies.
3. Certainty and the intention to create legal relations
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2017

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter discusses certainty and the intention to create legal relations. It first considers cases where the parties have used ambiguous or unclear language and then looks at cases where the parties have deliberately left terms to be agreed at a later date. In the former cases the agreement is often described as ‘vague’ in the latter cases it is described as ‘incomplete’. The chapter then turns to domestic agreements, commercial agreements, and executory and executed agreements.
8. Mistake
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2017

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter discusses the various ways of classifying mistakes including communication mistakes, mistakes of fact, common mistake and unilateral mistake. It then looks at the case law on mistaken identity and the distinctions between face-to-face and correspondence contracts. Finally, it looks at the restrictive rules on common mistake, including the difference between fundamental mistake and mistake as to quality, and their relationship with the doctrine of frustration and the demise of the category of equitable mistake.
10. Frustration
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2017

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter examines the frustration of a contract. Fundamental changes in the facts assumed by the parties ‘frustrating events’ such as natural disasters and less catastrophic events, may fundamentally change the parties’ obligations and frustrate the contract. Frustration of a contract brings the parties’ obligations to an end; a less substantial, non-frustrating event will have no effect and the parties must continue to perform their obligations even if they have become more onerous. The discussions cover the allocation of risk; examples of frustration; limits on frustration; effects of frustration; and the Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943.
11. Damages
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2017

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter examines the principles by which contractual damages are assessed. The discussions cover the aim of contractual damages, the difference between damages in contract and in tort; the relationship between the expectation interest and the reliance interest; cost of cure and difference in value; remoteness of damage; foreseeability and assumption of risk; non-pecuniary losses; mitigation; contributory negligence; and penalties, liquidated damages and forfeiture.
13. Privity and the interests of third parties
Authors: Taylor Richard , Taylor Damian
Published: August 2017

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter examines the privity rule, which states that only a party to the contract can sue upon it. It discusses the development of the privity rule; distinguishing the privity rule from the consideration rule; evading the privity rule; techniques for giving a right directly to a third party or apparent third party; specific performance in favour of a third party and damages for a third party’s loss and the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
1. An introduction to commercial law
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter introduces the reader to commercial law. It first considers the nature of commercial law by focusing on the definitions offered by Roy Goode, Tony Weir, and G. Samuel. It then examines the function of commercial law and the historical development of commercial law, tracing its roots to the lex mercatoria (law merchant) of the Middle Ages. It also discusses various sources of commercial law such as contracts and national legislation, along with the role of equity in commercial law, public law in the commercial arena, the philosophy and concepts of commercial law, and the codification of commercial law. Finally, it assesses the challenges for commercial law in the twenty-first century and the impact of Brexit on English commercial law.
5. Creation of agency, and the authority of the agent
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter focuses on the creation of principal–agent relationship and the authority of the agency. The relationship between principal and agent may be created in four ways: through express or implied agreement between principal and agent; under the doctrine of apparent authority; by operation of law; and through ratification of an unauthorised agent's acts by the principal. Agency arising out of agreement will always be consensual, but it need not be contractual. An agency may be gratuitous. Even in the commercial context, the agency may not be contractual (although this is rare). After explaining how the agency relationship is created, the chapter examines the authority of the agent such as actual authority, apparent authority, and usual authority. A number of relevant cases are cited throughout the chapter.
6. Relations with third parties
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines how contracts made by the agent affect the legal relations of the principal with regard to third parties. When considering the rights and liabilities arising under a contract made by an agent, it is important to ascertain whether the agent was acting for a disclosed or undisclosed principal. A disclosed principal is one of whose existence the third party is aware at the time of contracting with the agent. If the third party is unaware of the existence of the principal at the time he contracts with the agent, i.e. the third party thinks the agent is contracting on his own behalf and not for someone else, the principal is described as undisclosed. This chapter discusses the relations between principal and third party, and between agent and third party, in the context of disclosed and undisclosed agency.
10. Transfer of title
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the transfer of title from the seller to the buyer. It first provides an overview of the rule nemo dat quod non habet (‘no-one can transfer what he does not himself have’) before discussing various exceptions to the rule, including estoppel, sale under the Factors Act 1889, sale under a voidable title, sale by seller continuing in possession, and sale by buyer in possession. Other exceptions to the nemo dat rule include sale by unpaid seller under s 48 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979, private purchase of motor vehicle held on hire-purchase, and sale under general power of sale or court order.
15. International sales
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the rules of English law governing international sales as they affect buyer and seller. There is more than one way in which a sale of goods contract may have an international element. For example, the seller and buyer may be in different jurisdictions, or the contract of sale may contemplate that the goods are to be carried from one country to another. A surprisingly large proportion of international trade is carried on under contracts governed by English law by choice of the parties. This chapter begins with a discussion of typical export transactions under INCOTERMS 2010, a set of international rules for the interpretation of trade terms promulgated by the International Chamber of Commerce. It then considers sales via sea carriage, along with other contracts involving international sales. It also analyses payment in international sales transactions and concludes with an overview of future prospects for international sales.
19. Bills of exchange
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter focuses on the use of bills of exchange as a mode of payment in commercial transactions, especially in the area of international trade. It first provides an overview of how bills of exchange are used as method of payment before discussing the relevant provisions of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882. It then considers the definition of a bill of exchange, how a bill of exchange is transferred, and persons entitled to the benefit of the obligation on the bill. It also examines the general principles governing liability on the bill of exchange as well as the enforcement and discharge of the bill. Finally, it looks at mistaken payment, focusing on cases where the payment was received in good faith and in ignorance of the mistake.
20. Cheques and other instruments
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter focuses on the use of cheques and other instruments as a mode of payment in commercial transactions. Under Section 73 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882 (BEA), a cheque is defined as ‘a bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable on demand’. Section 73 also states that except as otherwise provided in the part of the BEA relating to cheques, the provisions of that Act applicable to bills of exchange payable on demand apply to cheques. All cheques are bills of exchange, and the Section 73 definition of a cheque must be read together with that of a bill of exchange set out in Section 3. In truth, however, a cheque differs significantly from a bill of exchange in a number of ways. This chapter first explains what a cheque is before discussing promissory notes, banker's draft, and travellers' cheques.
28. Insolvency
Authors: Clarke MA , Hooley RJA , Munday RJC , Sealy LS , Tettenborn AM , Turner PG
Published: August 2017

This chapter deals with insolvency and the principles of insolvency law. It begins with a brief historical background on the evolution of insolvency law, from the Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1914 to the Insolvency Act 1986 and its amended versions, along with the Cross-Border Insolvency Regulations 2006. It then considers the basic objectives of insolvency law as it relates to the bankruptcy of individuals and to corporate insolvency. In particular, it highlights the importance of the pari passu principle, as illustrated by the case British Eagle International Airlines Ltd v Cie Nationale Air France (1975). The chapter goes on to discuss the various definitions of insolvency before concluding with an overview of insolvency procedures for both individual insolvency and corporate insolvency.
Political Research
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: September 2017

Political Research: Methods and Practical Skills provides a practical and relevant guide to their to this area of studies. It equips readers with the knowledge and skills needed to evaluate research findings and successfully carry out independent study and research. Taking a helpful step-by-step approach, the chapters guide the reader through the process of asking and answering research questions and the different methods used in political research, providing practical advice on how to be critical and rigorous in both evaluating and conducting research. Topics include research design, surveys, interviewing and focus groups, ethnography and participant observation, textual analysis, quantitative analysis, bivariate analysis, and multivariate analysis. With an emphasis throughout on how research can impact important political questions and policy issues, the book equips readers with the skills to formulate significant questions and develop meaningful and persuasive answers.
2. Forms of Knowledge
Authors: Halperin Sandra , Heath Oliver
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on fundamental assumptions that researchers make about how we can know and develop knowledge about the social world, such as assumptions about the nature of human behaviour and the methods appropriate to studying and explaining that behaviour. The main objective is how to carry out a systematic and rigorous investigation of social phenomena. The chapter considers three different answers to the question of how to approach the study of social phenomena: those offered by positivism, scientific realism, and interpretivism. It also explores the differences among these answers and their implications for conducting political research. Finally, it discusses the use of a positivist (rational choice) and interpretivist (constructivist) approach to the analysis of ethnic conflicts in Yugoslavia in the 1990s.
11. Executives, Bureaucracies, Policy Studies, and Governance
Authors: Ferdinand Peter
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores the relations between the executive and legislative branches of government, along with their role in formulating government policy. It first describes the general framework of legislature–executive relations before discussing the civil service and its embedded autonomy. It then examines theories of bureaucratic policy-making, with particular emphasis on the problem of facilitating policy innovation, as well as the more recent proliferation of government agencies and the concepts of governance and good governance. It also considers the spread of the domain of policy-making beyond state officials or civil servants to issue networks and policy communities and concludes by analysing the emergence of a ‘network state’ and its implications for civil servants.
15. Traditional Theories in Global Politics
Authors: Lawson Stephanie
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines traditional theories in global politics. It begins with a discussion of early liberal approaches, with particular emphasis on liberal international theory whose proponents include U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and Norman Angell. Liberal international theory is characterised by an optimism concerning the prospects of a peaceful international order established through strong international institutions underpinned by international law. The chapter proceeds by considering the emergence of ‘realism’ as a general approach to the study of politics, along with the different approaches to the study of international politics following World War II, including positivism. It also explores the rise of the English School and the concept of international society before concluding with an analysis of neo-liberalism and neorealism that resulted from revisions of both liberalism and realism in the post-war period.
7. The Politics of Identity in Middle East International Relations
Authors: Hinnebusch Raymond
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines identity politics in the Middle East, focusing on Arabism and other regional ethnicities as sources of political identity in the region. It argues that the persistence of conflict in the Middle East stems from the incongruence of identity and material structures. It shows how the interaction of identity with state formation and development has contributed to numerous wars, and most recently to the evolution of regional developments following the Arab Spring. The chapter first considers the problem of nation-building where identity and territory are incongruent before explaining how irredentism generates interstate conflict. It then explores the impact of identity on perceptions of interest in foreign policymaking, along with the rise, decline, and evolution of pan-Arabism. It also describes the instrumentalization of identity in the post-Arab uprising regional power struggle, asserting that identity has motivated, but material power structures have frustrated, efforts to create a regional security community.
Human Rights: Politics and Practice
Authors: Goodhart Michael
Published: September 2017

Human Rights: Politics and Practice provides an introduction to human rights. Combining political science, philosophy, law, and policy-making, the text provides a broad range of perspectives on the theoretical and practical issues in this constantly evolving field. In addition to in-depth theoretical content, the text also features coverage of human rights issues in practice, with a wide range of case studies to explore concrete examples from around the world. The third edition has been brought fully up-to-date with the most recent events and latest research developments in the area. Two new chapters have been added: one on religion and human rights, and one on sexual orientation and gender issues and human rights, introducing students to these important topics and expanding the theoretical and practical discussion of issues of universalism and relativism. The new edition also features a range of carefully developed pedagogical features to aid learning, encourage critical analysis, and challenge students to question their own assumptions.
5. Aristotle
Authors: Burns Tony
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the argument of Aristotle's Politics in relation to the theory of justice that he articulates in his Nicomachean Ethics. It first provides a biography of Aristotle before discussing his view of human nature, the starting point for understanding his views on both ethics and politics. In particular, it considers what Aristotle means when he describes man as a ‘social and political animal’ (zoon politikon). It goes on to explore the theory of justice developed in Aristotle's Ethics, focusing on the notions of proportional and arithmetical equality. It also analyses the two areas of social life in which the concept of justice has a practical application: the spheres of rectificatory and distributive justice. The chapter concludes with an assessment of the continuing relevance of Aristotle for political philosophy today, especially for the debate between John Rawls and his communitarian critics.
9. Marsiglio of Padua
Authors: Nederman Cary J.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Marsiglio of Padua's political theory, tracing it to his opposition to the pope's interference in secular political affairs, especially Italy and the Holy Roman Empire. Marsiglio formulates theoretical principles to explain the origins and nature of the political community that depend upon a strict distinction between the temporal and spiritual realms. For Marsiglio, government and law exist in order to support the civil peace. After providing a short biography of Marsiglio, the chapter analyses his views on peace, conciliarism, consent, and ecclesiology. It also considers Marsiglio's claim that all secular governments should oppose the ecclesiastical hierarchy, that political society arises from infirmities of human nature, and that citizenship derives from all vital functions in society.
31. Habermas
Authors: Baynes Kenneth
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Jürgen Habermas's major contributions to social and political thought. Habermas is regarded as one of the most influential figures in contemporary political theory. In his later work Habermas has begun to expand the normative political implications of his work in social theory and philosophy, culminating in Between Facts and Norms. This chapter first provides an overview of Habermas's earlier work, especially his study on the transformation of the liberal or bourgeois public sphere, before discussing his theory of communicative action (or action based on mutually supposed validity claims). It then considers Habermas's attempt, in Between Facts and Norms, to develop an account of deliberative politics anchored on the idea of political legitimacy and concludes with an analysis of cosmopolitanism as well as his views on discourse theory, democracy, the system of rights, and ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ publics.
33. Foucault
Authors: Patton Paul
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines Michel Foucault's approach to the history of systems of thought, which relied upon a distinctive concept of discourse he defined in terms of rules governing the production of statements in a given empirical field at a given time. The study of these rules formed the basis of Foucault's archaeology of knowledge. The chapter first considers Foucault's conception of philosophy as the critique of the present before explaining how his criticism combined archaeological and genealogical methods of writing history and operated along three distinct methodological axes corresponding to knowledge, power, and ethics. It then describes Foucault's archaeological approach to the study of systems of thought or discourse, along with his historical approach to truth. It also discusses Foucault's theory of freedom, his views on the nature and tasks of government, and his ideas about subjectivity in relation to care for the self.
12. The Court of Justice of the European Union
Authors: Kapsis Ilias
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), the judicial arm of the European Union. The CJEU consists of three courts: the Court of Justice, the European General Court, and the Civil Service Tribunal. Its mission is to ensure that ‘in the interpretation and application’ of the treaties of the Union ‘the law is observed’. The chapter first traces the history of the CJEU before discussing issues of structure and procedure, the extent of the Courts' jurisdiction, and their role in the promotion of European integration. It then considers the criticism directed at the CJEU for the way it exercises its judicial powers, and more specifically the reaction of member states to its ‘judicial activism’. It concludes with an assessment of the main challenges facing the EU courts.
3. The European Council: A formidable locus of power
Authors: de Schoutheete Philippe
Published: September 2017

This chapter focuses on the European Council as a locus of power. Created in 1974, the European Council plays a key role in the development of European integration. It gives political guidance and impetus to the European Union and, by virtue of the Lisbon Treaty, has the formal status of an EU institution under the leadership of a full-time President. This chapter discusses the European Council’s origins, composition, meetings and euro summits, and legal nature and characteristics. It also provides an overview of the debates and decision-making that take place at the Council, along with its functions, which can be grouped under: strategic guidelines, decision-making, economic governance, foreign policy, Justice and Home Affairs, and Treaty amendment. The chapter considers whether the European Council is an intergovernmental or hybrid institution before concluding with an assessment of its strengths and weaknesses.
5. Democracies
Authors: Pérez-Liñán Aníbal
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the key features of modern democracy as well as its origins. It first explains what democracy means in the field of comparative politics before discussing different models of democracy, including presidential democracy, parliamentary democracy, and democracies oriented towards consensus or majoritarian rule. It then describes the conditions — economic and political, domestic, and international — that allow some countries to become democratic but preserve others under the rule of dictatorships. In particular, it analyses the variables that facilitate the democratization of dictatorships and the factors that place democracies at risk of becoming authoritarian regimes. Finally, it reflects on the future of democracy and looks at the challenges that lie ahead for new generations of citizens.
6. Authoritarian regimes
Authors: Brooker Paul
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the concept of an authoritarian regime. Aside from the fact that they are not democracies, authoritarian regimes have little in common and are considerably diverse: from monarchies to military regimes, from clergy-dominated regimes to communist regimes, and from seeking a totalitarian control of thought through indoctrination to seeking recognition as a multiparty democracy through using semi-competitive elections. The chapter first traces the historical evolution of authoritarian regimes, with particular emphasis on the three-phase modernization of dictatorship in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It then explores the key questions of who rules an authoritarian regime, why they rule (their claim to legitimacy), and how they rule (their mechanisms of control). Finally, it considers two differing perspectives on the past and future of authoritarianism: the extinction interpretation and the evolution interpretation.
22. The impact of public policies
Authors: Andersen Jørgen Goul
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the effects of public policy. It first considers economic paradigms and approaches to welfare and documents the overriding historical changes in approaches to the economy, from Keynesian ideas of macro-economic steering to more market-oriented economic perspectives. It then explores the idea of institutional complementarity as expressed in the typologies of welfare regimes, varieties of capitalism, and flexicurity. It also looks at some of the empirical analyses of the effects of welfare policies and the tension between welfare and economic efficiency. Finally, it looks at policy feedback, path dependence, policy learning, social learning, policy transfer and policy diffusion, and policy convergence.
25. From supporting democracy to supporting autocracy
Authors: Burnell Peter
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the controversies surrounding democracy support and its significance for comparative politics. It first compares definitions of democracy support and provides an overview of the basic vocabulary of democracy support, focusing on concepts such as democracy assistance and political conditionality. It then considers whether democracy support is now fit for purpose in a world where economic performance in the West is faltering in contrast to China and Russia which continue to expand their international presence. It also discusses democracy support strategies and challenges facing democracy support before concluding with an assessment of the rise of autocracy support. It suggests that democracy support has yet to devise adequate strategies to counter international autocracy support.
5. Governance Approaches
Authors: Peters B. Guy , Pierre Jon
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the European Union’s capacity to govern effectively. It argues that the creation of governance capacity for the institutions within the EU is the goal of much of the process of integration. While European integration is to some extent an end in itself, it may also be the means for attaining the capacity to govern a large territory with complex economic and social structures. The chapter first explains what governance is before discussing various criticisms levelled against it and how governance works in Europe. It then outlines a number of propositions about European governance, focusing on multilevel governance, the role of governance in output legitimization, and the claim that European governance remains undemocratic, is highly segmented, and is transforming. The chapter proceeds by looking at changes in European governance styles and policy issues, along with their implications for European integration. Finally, it explores the consequences of enlargement for EU governance.
11. Social Capital and Civil Society
Authors: Letki Natalia
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role of civil society and social capital in democratization processes. It begins by reconstructing the definitions of civil society and social capital in the context of political change, followed by an analysis of the ways in which civil society and social capital are functional for the initiation and consolidation of democracies. It then considers the relationship between civil society and attitudes of trust and reciprocity, the function of networks and associations in democratization, paradoxes of civil society and social capital in new democracies, and main arguments cast against the idea that civic activism and attitudes are a necessary precondition for a modern democracy. The chapter argues that civil society and social capital and their relation to political and economic institutions are context specific.
16. The Media
Authors: Voltmer Katrin , Rawnsley Gary
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the role of the media in processes of democratization. It considers the media’s political, economic, and social environment both in their domestic and international contexts. It also explains how new communications technologies have made it increasingly difficult for authoritarian regimes to hermetically seal their borders to prevent the flow of information in and out of the country. The most noticeable influence of international communications in the process of democratization is the ‘demonstration effect’. The chapter also discusses media-state relations, how market conditions and commercialization affect the media’s ability to fulfil their democratic role, and issues of journalistic professionalism and the quality of reporting. It argues that democracy and the media need each other.
2. Europeanization: Concept, Theory, and Methods
Authors: Graziano Paolo R. , Vink Maarten P.
Published: September 2017

This chapter explores a number of fundamental issues that arise when studying Europeanization. It first explains what Europeanization is and what it is not, why some parts of political life seem more affected by the process of European integration than others, and how to interpret variation between member states of the European Union. It then considers the theoretical debates about the relevance of Europeanization, focusing on new institutionalism, goodness of fit, mediating factors, and domestic compliance. It also provides examples of Europeanization studies and shows how to design a good Europeanization study. Aside from Europeanization, the chapter examines public opinion and parties, political institutions and governance, and public policy, along with methodological issues such as operationalization, the use of counterfactuals, and different qualitative, quantitative, and mixed approaches.
7. Under the Shadow of Stagflation
Authors: Griffiths Richard T.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines European integration during the 1970s. The 1970s is often portrayed as a dismal decade in the history of European integration, when the European Community (EC) experienced severe turbulence as it digested Britain's accession and was buffeted by the global economic downturn. Stagflation and Eurosclerosis — sluggish economic growth combined with institutional immobility — ensued. At the same time, however, the Community developed in important ways. The European Court of Justice generated an impressive body of case law, and the EC coped with the challenges of enlargement, the break-up of the international monetary system, and the consequences of slower economic growth. The chapter rejects the notion that the 1970s was a dismal decade in the history of European integration and describes it as a transitional period between the launch of the Community in the 1960s and the acceleration of European integration in the 1980s.
12. The Enlarging European Union
Authors: Michalski Anna
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the pervasiveness and importance of enlargement in the history of European integration. It first considers the principles, conditions, and instruments of enlargement before discussing the roles of various institutional actors and the candidate states. It then shows how, faced with the likelihood of large-scale Central and Eastern European accession, the European Union extended the requirements for membership to include the candidate countries' democratic credentials and economic competitiveness. The first enlargement included Britain, Denmark, and Ireland, followed by Greece, Spain, and Portugal, the European Free Trade Association, the Central and Eastern European countries, Cyprus, and Malta. The chapter also explains how the EU has developed a variety of strategies to deal with growing differences among the member states' socio-economic situations and policy needs without formally resorting to a division of its membership in concentric circles, core and peripheral groups, or alternative frameworks.
Politics in the European Union
Authors: Bache Ian , Bulmer Simon , George Stephen , Parker Owen
Published: September 2017

Politics in the European Union examines the theory, history, institutions, and policies of the European Union. The EU is a unique, complex, and ever-changing political entity which continues to shape both international politics and the politics of its individual member states. The text provides a clear analysis of the organization and presents a well-rounded introduction to the subject. Complete and detailed in its coverage, with a consolidated and updated history section, this text weaves together material on key contemporary concerns including the eurozone crisis and the implementation of the Treaty of Lisbon with a thorough consideration of the workings and remit of the EU.
2. Theorizing EU Policy-Making
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines various theories on European Union policy-making and policy processes. It begins with a discussion of theories of European integration: neo-functionalism, intergovernmentalism, liberal intergovernmentalism, the ‘new institutionalisms’, constructivism, and realism. It then considers the increasing number of studies that approach the EU through the lenses of comparative politics and comparative public policy, focusing on the federal or quasi-federal aspects of the EU and its legislative, executive, and judicial politics. It also explores the vertical and horizontal separation of powers in the EU and concludes by looking at the ‘governance approach’ to the EU, with emphasis on multi-level governance and EU policy networks, Europeanization, and the question of the EU’s democratic deficit.
10. Cohesion Policy A New Direction for New Times?
Authors: Bache Ian
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the European Union’s cohesion policy, aimed primarily at reducing the social and economic differences between EU regions. Academic analysis of cohesion policy has generated insights that have framed wider debates about the nature of the EU as a whole, particularly through the concept of multi-level governance. Moreover, while cohesion policy has taken up a growing share of the EU’s budget, its purpose, effectiveness, and durability have been increasingly challenged. Before analysing these issues, the chapter provides an overview of the emergence of cohesion policy, taking into account the Cohesion Fund and policy reform in the 1990s, 2006, and 2013. It then considers the implementation of cohesion policy and discusses five variants of the modes through which the policy handles day-to-day policy-making: the classical Community method, the regulatory policy mode, the distributional policy mode, policy coordination, and intensive transgovernmentalism.
18. Foreign and Security Policy
Authors: Giegerich Bastian
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines the gradual development of foreign and security policy cooperation among European Union member states. It begins with a discussion of the hesitant moves from European political cooperation (EPC) to a common foreign and security policy (CFSP), along with the emergence of a common security and defence policy (CSDP) as part of CFSP. It then considers CFSP in the context of eastern enlargement and the significance of the Treaty of Lisbon for EU foreign and security policy. It also looks at the intervention in Iraq and the adoption of a European Security Strategy, as well as CSDP missions and operations. Finally, it analyses the underlying theme of national sovereignty combined with EU-level capacity through a range of examples.
19. Policy-Making in a Time of Crisis Trends and Challenges
Authors: Pollack Mark A. , Wallace Helen , Young Alasdair R.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines trends and challenges in European Union policy-making during times of crisis. It first considers the main trends in EU policy-making that emerge from policy case studies, including experimentation with new modes of policy-making, often in conjunction with more established modes, leading to hybridization; renegotiation of the role of the member states (and their domestic institutions) in the EU policy process; and erosion of traditional boundaries between internal and external policies. The chapter proceeds by discussing the issue of national governance as well as the interaction between European and global governance. Finally, it explores how the EU has responded to the challenges of coping with enlargement from fifteen to twenty-eight member states, digesting the reforms adopted following the implementation of the Treaty of Lisbon, and responding to the economic dislocation associated with the global financial crisis.
5. Leave it to the People: Democratic Pragmatism
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: September 2017

This chapter examines democratic pragmatism, a discourse of environmental problem solving that emerged as a corrective to administration. Democratic pragmatism may be characterized in terms of interactive problem solving within the basic institutional structure of liberal capitalist democracy. The word ‘pragmatism’ can have two connotations: the first is the way the word is used in everyday language, as signifying a practical, realistic orientation to the world, the opposite of starry-eyed idealism; the second refers to a school of thought in philosophy, associated with names such as William James, Charles Peirce, and John Dewey. This chapter treats democracy as a problem-solving discourse reconciled to the basic status quo of liberal capitalism. It first considers democratic pragmatism in action before discussing democratic pragmatism as government and governance. It also explores the rationality of democratic pragmatism, the discourse analysis of democratic pragmatism, and the limits of democratic pragmatism.
Constitutive phenolic biomarkers identify naïve Quercus agrifolia resistant to Phytophthora ramorum, the causal agent of sudden oak death
Authors: Conrad Anna O , McPherson Brice A , Wood David L , Madden Laurence V , Bonello Pierluigi
Published: September 2017

Sudden oak death, caused by the invasive pathogen Phytophthora ramorum Werres, de Cock & Man in't Veld, can be deadly for Quercus agrifolia Neé (coast live oak, CLO). However, resistant trees have been observed in natural populations. The objective of this study was to examine if pre-attack (constitutive) levels of phenolic compounds can be used as biomarkers to identify trees likely to be resistant. Naïve trees were selected from a natural population and phloem was sampled for analysis of constitutive phenolics. Following P. ramorum inoculation, trees were phenotyped to determine disease susceptibility and constitutive phenolic biomarkers of resistance were identified. Seasonal variation in phloem phenolics was also assessed in a subset of non-inoculated trees. Four biomarkers, including myricitrin and three incompletely characterized flavonoids, together correctly classified 80% of trees. Biomarker levels were then used to predict survival of inoculated CLO and the proportion of resistant trees within a subset of non-inoculated trees from the same population. Levels of five phenolics were significantly affected by season, but with no pronounced variation in average levels among seasons. These results suggest that pre-infection levels of specific phenolic compounds (i.e., biomarkers) can identify trees naturally resistant to this invasive forest pathogen. Knowledge of resistant trees within natural populations may be useful for conserving and breeding resistant trees and for disease management.
Association between Intrapartum Magnesium Administration and the Incidence of Maternal Fever
Authors: Lange Elizabeth M. S. , Segal Scott , Pancaro Carlo , Wong Cynthia A. , Grobman William A. , Russell Gregory B. , Toledo Paloma
Published: September 2017

Background

Intrapartum maternal fever is associated with several adverse neonatal outcomes. Intrapartum fever can be infectious or inflammatory in etiology. Increases in interleukin 6 and other inflammatory markers are associated with maternal fever. Magnesium has been shown to attenuate interleukin 6–mediated fever in animal models. We hypothesized that parturients exposed to intrapartum magnesium would have a lower incidence of fever than nonexposed parturients.

Methods

In this study, electronic medical record data from all deliveries at Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago, Illinois) between 2007 and 2014 were evaluated. The primary outcome was intrapartum fever (temperature at or higher than 38.0°C). Factors associated with the development of maternal fever were evaluated using a multivariable logistic regression model. Propensity score matching was used to reduce potential bias from nonrandom selection of magnesium administration.

Results

Of the 58,541 women who met inclusion criteria, 5,924 (10.1%) developed intrapartum fever. Febrile parturients were more likely to be nulliparous, have used neuraxial analgesia, and have been delivered via cesarean section. The incidence of fever was lower in women exposed to magnesium (6.0%) than those who were not (10.2%). In multivariable logistic regression, women exposed to magnesium were less likely to develop a fever (adjusted odds ratio = 0.42 [95% CI, 0.31 to 0.58]). After propensity matching (N = 959 per group), the odds ratio of developing fever was lower in women who received magnesium therapy (odds ratio = 0.68 [95% CI, 0.48 to 0.98]).

Conclusions

Magnesium may play a protective role against the development of intrapartum fever. Future work should further explore the association between magnesium dosing and the incidence of maternal fever.
The Effect of Signal to Noise Ratio on Cortical Auditory–Evoked Potentials Elicited to Speech Stimuli in Infants and Adults With Normal Hearing
Authors: Small Susan A. , Sharma Mridula , Bradford M. , Mandikal Vasuki Pragati Rao
Published: September 2017

Objectives:

Identification and discrimination of speech sounds in noisy environments is challenging for adults and even more so for infants and children. Behavioral studies consistently report maturational differences in the influence that signal to noise ratio (SNR) and masker type have on speech processing; however, few studies have investigated the neural mechanisms underlying these differences at the level of the auditory cortex. In the present study, we investigated the effect of different SNRs on speech-evoked cortical auditory–evoked potentials (CAEPs) in infants and adults with normal hearing.

Design:

A total of 10 adults (mean age 24.1 years) and 15 infants (mean age 30.7 weeks), all with normal hearing, were included in the data analyses. CAEPs were evoked to /m/ and /t/ speech stimuli (duration: 79 ms) presented at 75 dB SPL in the sound field with a jittered interstimulus interval of 1000–1200 ms. Each of the stimuli were presented in quiet and in the presence of white noise (SNRs of 10, 15, and 20 dB). Amplitude and latency measures were compared for P1, N1, and P2 for adults and for the large positivity (P) and following negativity (N: N250 and/or N450) for infants elicited in quiet and across SNR conditions.

Results:

Infant P-N responses to /t/ showed no statistically significant amplitude and latency effects across SNR conditions; in contrast, infant CAEPs to /m/ were greatly reduced in amplitude and delayed in latency. Responses were more frequently absent for SNRs of 20 dB or less. Adult P1-N1-P2 responses were present for all SNRs for /t/ and most SNRs for /m/ (two adults had no responses to /m/ for SNR 10); significant effects of SNR were found for P1, N1, and P2 amplitude and latencies.

Conclusions:

The findings of the present study support that SNR effects on CAEP amplitudes and latencies in infants cannot be generalized across different types of speech stimuli and cannot be predicted from adult data. These findings also suggest that factors other than energetic masking are contributing to the immaturities in the SNR effects for infants. How these CAEP findings relate to an infant’s capacity to process speech-in-noise perceptually has yet to be established; however, we can be confident that the presence of CAEPs to a speech stimulus in noise means that the stimulus is detected at the level of the auditory cortex. The absence of a response should be interpreted with caution as further studies are needed to investigate a range of different speech stimuli and SNRs, in conjunction with behavioral measures, to confirm that infant CAEPs do indeed reflect functional auditory capacity to process speech stimuli in noise.