bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
State intervention and agrarian class formation: Dimensions of the access problem in the Kosi Development Region of NE Bihar, India
Authors: Wood Geof D.
Published: July 2007

The theme of this paper is that access has to be discussed along a number of dimensions simultaneously, and that the language of discussion must discard the ‘David and Goliath’ metaphor of the individual versus the large organization. Access is a relationship which occurs systematically, not by chance. Its structural forms are determined by the formation and dissolution of social classes. Although access is more about power than rationality, to be examined more by reference to class struggle than culture, certain groups and classes are structurally unable through both processes to connect with alien criteria of resource allocation. At the same time the development of the bourgeois state and the transformation of rich peasants into rural capitalists cannot be completed without the incorporation of petty owners, tenants and labourers for the appropriation of their surplus value. This is maintained through the ideology of inclusion (populism) which presents access as an opportunity rather than a problem, and operates through the language of community, target groups, special programmes, extension and decentralization. The discussion in this paper is pursued in the context of material collected during fieldwork in the north‐east of Bihar State, India where land reform, irrigation and intensive agricultural programmes have been undertaken since the early sixties.
Field‐level perspectives on Maharashtra's Employment Guarantee Scheme
Authors: Lieberman Samuel S.
Published: July 2007

This paper examines the implementation of the Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS), the large scale rural works programme in operation since 1974 in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The analysis of programme management and execution of individual EGS projects draws on the experiences and observations of the unique cadre of employment officers, from different departments, with field‐level responsibilities. The first section of the paper describes the organization which administers EGS and reviews the body of directives which guides EGS field operations. Subsequent sections discuss the background characteristics of field functionaries and focus on various problems encountered and solutions adopted by these officers in implementing EGS projects. The discretionary powers enjoyed by field officers as a result of the absence or impracticality of government guidelines for many issues influence the implementation of the project and make officials vulnerable to political pressures. The implications of this discretion need to be recognized by the Government of Maharashtra. Knowledge gained from EGS operations needs to be used to prepare officials for project work.
Evaluating development policies and programmes in the third world
Authors: Smith Thomas B.
Published: July 2007

The issues and methodologies of programme evaluation have largely been developed within the North American context of an open and competitive political process. The policy cycle in Third World nations, especially authoritarian regimes, is a closed system with little consultation with affected target groups, suppression of criticism of government officials and policies, and a severe weakness in policy implementation. Third World governments prefer evaluation methods such as cost‐benefit analysis which will not undermine fragile regimes by indicating problems in the policy formulation and implementation process. However, the most useful form of evaluation is implementation analysis, which can pinpoint the reasons why policies succeed or fail.
Brazilian technocrats and economic development policy
Authors: Bruce David C.
Published: July 2007

Are there factors of continuity that help in predicting economic development policy in Third World countries? What groups will influence policy as regime types change? In Latin America today several military regimes are shifting to civilian leadership. Technocrats could provide continuity as new decision makers face difficult economic choices. The Brazilian case provides a dramatic example, given the prominent role played by technocrats during the military regimes since 1964 and the increased electoral activity begun in 1982. This study evaluates the role and potential future impact of Brazilian technocrats. It uses the example of Brazilians trained or otherwise influenced by the U.N. Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA). Given that ECLA has been a major force in promoting development policy involving planning and import substitution, the Brazilians in question could affect major policy change during the current economic crisis.
Mobilisation and legitimisation: The political ambiance of plan implementation
Authors: Bernard Deryck M.
Published: July 2007

The paper examines the structure of political decision‐making which forms the context of regional plan generation and implementation in inchoate states. The established ideas of political science are built upon to suggest a three‐tiered structure of power brokerage in which the planner as bureaucrat and technocrat functions in the middle tier. The constraints and opportunities which affect the functions of planning are related to the priorities of government and political elites. The regional planning paradigm is highlighted as an example of the problems of the conflicting interests of professional planners and the state. Whereas regional planning is directed at spatial equity and local development, states are preoccupied with political legitimacy and the spaljialisation of power. Further, the regional paradigm does not recognise that the way in which a state derives its ideology and development strategy impinges on the political interpretation of the aims of planning. The paper concludes that planning and implementational mddes need to make explicit recognition of the political conditions in inchoate states and develop more realistic forms of action.
Trends in development administration: The continuing challenge to the efficay of the post‐colonial state in the third world
Authors: Luke David Fashole
Published: July 2007

‘Development administration’ has become established and recognized as a distinct enterprise of academic study and practice. This paper visits some of the major themes that have been examined by. the ‘development administration community’ by focusing on common concerns with (1) building effective administrative capacity as part of the development process that is also. (2) responsive and accountable and (3) equitable. It is argued that these persistent themes—amid the diversity of approaches and ideological susceptibilities‐constitute a continuing challenge to the efficacy of the post‐colonial state in the management of development activities.
Managing public commercial enterprises in Nigeria: The case of Kwara State commercial parastatals
Authors: Ihimodu Ifeyori I.
Published: July 2007

Employing the usual profit criterion to evaluate performance of the commercial parastatals in Nigeria, as revealed in the case of Kwara State, the enterprises are a failure. The differences in the management of the parastatals and similar but private enterprises may have accounted for differences in performance. Among the features of management of the parastatals are the role of government in the appointment of chief executives without necessary regard to merit; the relatively poor conditions of service as obtained in the civil service; and the huge debts owed the parastatals by governments. To improve performance, the following measures should be adopted. There is need to remove commercial parastatals from the civil service to attract quality management staff while government control should be substantially relaxed. Improved funding should be guaranteed through the financial houses while government should settle their debts to the organizations. The issue of privatization is worth proper consideration with a view to selling the companies to the private sector.
Risk, insurance and small farm credit in developing countries: A policy proposal
Authors: Mosley Paul
Published: July 2007

Lending to small farmers is often too risky for commercial banks; consequently extremely high interest rates have to be paid. Agricultural development banks go some way towards solving the problem. However, default rates tend to be high, so that credit has to be subsidized by government grants or overseas aid. One cause of the problem is that loans lack proper security. Risks are increased by uncertainties of weather, disease and produce prices. The paper proposes a system of compulsory insurance of crops and livestock. The risks and associated costs are quantified for one particular case: the Small Farmer Development Programme administered by the Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal. The scheme is assumed to run on a no‐profit, no‐loss basis. The data suggest that the cost of insurance premiums, when added to Bank interest rates, would still leave the Bank competitive as a source of rural credit. The practical problems of implementation are considered and deemed surmountable by reinsurance and graduated premiums.
Regionalization, administrative reform and democratization: Nicaragua 1979–1984
Authors: Downs Charles
Published: July 2007

The article discusses the major events and debates that have taken place during the reform and democratization of subnational government in Nicaragua from the overthrow of the Somoza dictatorship to late 1984. Developments during this period highlight five distinct areas of reform that must be addressed as part of any process of state democratization: (a) selection and maintenance of local officials; (b) integration of popular participation; (c) definition of the range of local authority; (d) resources for local development; and (e) relation to other levels of government. These issues are addressed through a discussion focusing heavily on local government during the first 3 years, then on the experience of the newly created regional governments and decentralization beginning in mid—1982, and finally on the early—and quite divergent—experience with the development of zonal government between the municipal and regional levels. The specific resolution of these five sets of issues is part of the development of the revolutionary process in Nicaragua, and will strongly shape the political and developmental significance of the resulting local government.
The implementation of decentralization: A case study of district planning in Agra District, Uttar Pradesh, India
Authors: Sanwal Mukul
Published: July 2007

Though the literature on decentralization has clarified some issues, it has left unsettled the question of the administrative structure for its implementation: who should take what decisions, and at what level? There are limits to the conventional methods of classification. where answers have been sought in terms of Western experience, participation and management. and a legal perspective has been adopted with decentralization seen in terms of fully elected local governments. semi‐autonomous local governments. or coordinating committees. Rather than stress procedures of participation. the substantive content of decision‐making needs to he analysed. A classification of rural development programmes provides an alternative model for the reallocation of functions within the system of government to meet development needs. The case of district planning in Agra District. India. illustrates the process of decentralization. underlines its composite character. and shows the importance of the budget in initiating reform in the political‐administrative system. Since decentralization is now motivated by different factors than in the past. the requirements of the anti‐poverty programmes will move the decision‐making process closer to the cutting edge of the village level, with even greater responsiveness to demands from below.
Development administration in the context of world economic recession: Some ideas on service provision in southern Sudan
Authors: Curtis Donald
Published: July 2007

This papers brings together several strains of thought around an outline suggestion for reform of education administration and finance in the Southern Sudan. Administration has to be seen in terms of incentives and disincentives to action. The administration of the Southern Sudan constitutes the largest part of the elite of that part of the country and consumes most public funds as salaries. In political interactions with sections of the public there is a more pressing need to respond to the demands of educated youth for salaries than to make adequate provision for non‐salary expenses of services to the public. But the system is not in a stable state and the full contradictions of the situation, for politicians, bureaucrats and public, are revealed by the financial restrictions enforced as a result of national debt and international recession. Politically leaders in government service and disaffected leaders in military opposition in the bush both continue to demand a fairer distribution of central resources. But the possibility of generating, at the grass‐roots, both the resources necessary for non‐salary costs and the necessary influence to demand services, is something which could be further explored in the interests of all parties. This is a potential new direction for reform in development administration.
Property tax administration in developing countries: Alternatives for land registration and cadastral mapping
Authors: Kent Robert B.
Published: July 2007

The property tax is a widely used fiscal tool in many developing countries. However, property tax evasion and underpayment are common. This fact underscores the need for governments to administer the property tax effectively if they are to maximize revenue for development. A workable system of land registration and cadastral mapping is one of the principal prerequisites for efficient administration of the property tax. This paper examines alternative methods of land registration and cadastral mapping appropriate for governments in developing countries. The registration of deeds and titles is discussed, as are the most appropriate means for their implementation. Similarly, the different types of cadastral systems, fiscal, legal and multi‐purpose, and the survey methods necessary for their implementation, are reviewed.
Decentralization within the United Nations system
Authors: Ghazarbekian Sahak
Published: July 2007

Since 1977 there have been two major efforts by the General Assembly to restructure and improve the economic and social sectors of the United Nations (UN). The first was an attempt to restructure the UN system, and the second, currently in early stages of implementation, is the result of the work of a high‐level group of intergovernmental experts established in 1985 to review and recommend measures for improving the efficiency of the administration and financial functioning of the UN. The first effort gave an impetus to decentralization, which had already been the subject of earlier discussions. Decentralization has affected, in varying degrees, many organizations of the system. With respect to the UN and its regional commissions, it has been raised in connection with decentralizing operational and programme activities to the commissions and in giving them the means to exercise team leadership within the system at the regional level. Only in the first instance has there been some success, with the transfer to the commissions of management support functions for project implementation previously carried out by UN Headquarters. The structural difficulties and organizational complexities of the UN system are explained, to show why achievements in decentralization have been limited. In spite of expectations and possibilities for decentralization which exist in the framework of current reforms, action on decentralization will continue to remain rather contained.
Policy is what it does: State trading in rural south India
Authors: Harriss B.
Published: July 2007

This paper explores why the Indian central government's legal obligation to distribute grain is not matched in practice by a right to claim it on the part of those who need grain most. The public distribution of rice is examined at state and village levels using a framework for policy analysis developed by Schaffer. Laws enacted are compared with the political objectives lying behind such legislation. The process of administration of public resources for state trading betrays the unprogressive management of capital and labour and the subordination of state trading to private mercantile interests. The expansion and diffusion of grain allocation is examined via the experience of access of targeted groups in a time of severe drought. The perverse mobilization of grain in scarcity, and its allocation in times of plenty, are mirrored by the reduction of grain quotas in the months of greatest need, and by their restoration afterwards. The ration system is subordinated to a politically more conspicuous child nutrition scheme. But both are affected by the interests of private grain merchants, by the tactics of bureaucratic coercion, by short‐term financial policy and by the use of food as a currency in political transactions between state and central governments. Grain, a symbolically powerful medium of political appeasement, fails to have a socially progressive distributional impact.
Rehabilitating the disabled rural poor: A case of transfer of medical technology
Authors: Trivedi K. D.
Published: July 2007

The transfer of technology to the Third World is often accompanied by a mystique that inhibits the solution of problems faced by the rural poor. An important innovation in medical technology‐the so‐called ‘Jaipur foot’–illustrates what can be done in the way of rehabilitation work that uses culturally suitable technology and local craftsmen. The experiment required a special mix of organizational and technological inputs. Innovative design was combined with the mobilization of indigenous craftsmanship and the involvement of a voluntary organization. Community support has strengthened the acceptability of technology. Relations between medical personnel and craftsmen benefited the contribution made by both sides. The advantage of local craftsmen over trained limb‐makers became apparent. The voluntary body helped the project to avoid bureaucratic obstacles. The very success of the project, however, has produced its own problems, and crucial decisions have to be made about the future of this kind of strategy for a more appropriate technology.
Institutional innovation, development and environmental management: An ‘administrative trap’ revisited. Part I
Authors: Baker Randall
Published: July 2007

In the first section of this two‐part study the author considers the relationship between administrative structure and the persistence of broad ecological problems. This is set in the context of the issues leading to, and identified at, the Stockholm Conference on the Environment in 1972. It is evident that, despite all the interest and effort, the main parameters of environmental well‐being show that the situation remains at least as bad. The case is made that there is a considerable dysfunction between the nature of ecological problems and the ‘problem‐solving’ structures within the public arena. This dysfunction is here termed the ‘administrative trap’. This section concludes by reviewing three areas in which administrative innovation resulted very largely from the Stockholm initiative: Global Conferences and their attendant Global Institutions; Ministries of the Environment; and ‘reforms’ in the legislative apparatus.
Doubts and directions in Nigerian urban policy
Authors: Nwaka G. I.
Published: July 2007

The paper discusses urban policy and performance in Nigeria against the background of the development of ideas and institutions affecting the cities since the early colonial period. It critically examines the patterns of rural‐urban relations, the policies for urban land‐use control, town planning and municipal government, pointing out the inadequacies, especially the inefficiency of the machinery for implementing otherwise well‐intentioned policies and programmes. The paper is especially critical of the lack of coordination and imagination in urban management, as well as the elitist orientation in urban planning and housing. It explores the potential value, as well as the limitations, of community self‐help programmes for housing and sanitation in towns, in circumstances of worsening economic difficulties and drastic cutbacks in public funding and private investments. Finally, while endorsing the vigorous programmes now under way for rural development, the paper points out the futility of the current aggressive anti‐urban back‐to‐land crusade, even in the legitimate concern to meet the basic needs of the predominantly rural majority.
Strategic planning for state enterprise performance in Africa: Public versus private options
Authors: Collins Paul D.
Published: July 2007

This article presents methodologies to assist government officials in various African countries who have to deal with ill‐defined policy problems arising out of perceived performance shortcomings on the part of state enterprises. It reviews the historical role and record of state enterprise in African economies, the assumptions and major arguments of the ‘privatization option’ and the major forms in which the latter may be carried out. In a situation where debate has tended at times to generate more heat than light, the approach is a pragmatic one, involving careful review of all policy alternatives, including public enterprise rehabilitation and a step by step application of privatisation feasibility analysis in cases where public enterprise rehabilitation proves unviable.
Project identification, formulation and start‐up by voluntary organizations (NGOs) in Thailand's rural development
Authors: Narkwiboonwong Werachai , Tips Walter E. J.
Published: July 2007

This paper presents an overview of issues in NGO project identification, formulation and start‐up in the context of rural development in Thailand. It identifies the types of projects, the methods used to identify them, the initial activities in projects, the problems faced in project formulation and the influence of various factors on the process, e.g. government regulations and the NGO staff in the organization. There is limited pressure on NGOs from the government even though recent regulations may lead to more control of their activities. The importance of leadership training in the initial stages of a project is emphasized. In particular, when comparing small with larger NGOs, the technical inputs in project identification and formulation seem to be a constraint for small NGOs. Usually project identification methodology consists of following up on existing projects. In larger NGOs more bureaucratic or formalized methods are used and the ideology of the organization is more important.
Bureaucracy as an issue in Third World management: An African case study
Authors: Brown David
Published: July 2007

Organizational theory has been of surprisingly limited value in illuminating the problems of public sector management in the Third World. One reason for this is the ideal‐typical bias of most studies of Third World management. This has led to an emphasis on assumed optimal performance criteria to the detriment of an understanding of how Third World organizations actually perform. The case of public sector administration in Liberia is used to illustrate this theme. The major role of administrative incorporation in the stabilization of the Liberian State is established, and consideration given to the ways in which the span of administrative employment and the extent of its popular impact were maximized through the elaboration of an idiosyncratic bureaucratic ideology. Central features of the Liberian bureaucracy are discussedthe over‐definition of its external boundary; the weakness of its internal boundaries; the relative insignificance of specialized expert knowledge to bureaucratic roles; and the idiosyncratic nature of the bureaucratic career. While Weberian standards did not apply in the Liberian instance, it cannot be assumed that the latter was therefore a ‘failed bureaucracy’; for the Liberian administration was arguably effective in relation to certain goals, even if these were not ones which would have applied in the ideal‐typical case. These goals were essentially political and must be understood in relation to political constraints, rather thanas is often suggested in studies of Third World managementas ‘cultural’ phenomena. Attempts to improve public sector managerial performance in the Third World need to give as much attention to operational issues as to conventional targets.
PPBS in Nigeria: Its origin, progress and problems
Authors: Omolehinwa Eddy
Published: July 2007

One of the normative models of budgeting prescribed for the Third World countries is PPBS. This paper examines the attempts made by the Nigerian Federal Government to make PPBS part of its budgeting system. Although the idea of PPBS was first highlighted by the 1974 Udoji Public Service Review Commission, it was only in 1980 that a serious attempt was made to start experimenting with PPBS. It was hoped that, by the end of the 1983, PPBS would be fully utilized in all the government ministries and departments. It was the intention of the government to use PPBS to achieve a ‘coordinated and comprehensive’ budgetary system that relates cost with output in order to achieve ‘quick results’ in the implementation of its programme. However, as at the end of 1986, apart from documentary reform (that is improvement in classification of expenditure categories in the budget documents), not much was achieved in Nigeria. In addition to the general difficulties encountered with PPBS in other places where it was tried, the effectiveness of PPBS was circumscribed by a variety of institutional, economic and political factors. The paper concludes by asking whether the exercise was not a retreat from the reality facing the country.
Theory and practice of foreign assistance to regional development planning: The case of peripheral rural areas in Aceh, Indonesia
Authors: Veenstra Jan
Published: July 2007

This paper deals with the pilot case of Dutch technical and financial assistance to the provincial planning board in Indonesia's most western Special Territory of Aceh. With specific reference to the two districts of Aceh Utara and Aceh Tengah, the picture of dependency relationships is sketched for rural peripheries in the Third World. Development planning efforts have not successfully addressed persistent problems, either because they were based upon urban‐biased policy prescriptions wrongly transferred from the northern hemisphere, or because rational‐comprehensive planning procedures were too arbitrarily blueprinted. Focusing upon the latter misapplication, the paper presents a practical working procedure for managing, through five stages, a multi‐annual and rationalizing exercise, such as Dutch assistance to improving regional planning methods employed by low‐level administrative units in peripheral rural regions. There follows a critical review of nine years of Dutch regional planning assistance by comparing theory and practice of three approaches applied to the two districts of Aceh Utara/Tengah. The Dutch lessons learned underline inter‐sectoral programme preparation, institutionalization and training components. A 6‐7 years working procedure for future foreign‐assisted district planning projects is proposed.
Housing and the working class in an Indian metropolis
Authors: Blore Ian
Published: July 2007

The paper examines a part of the housing market in the Indian metropolitan city of Bangalore. Some problems of housing finance from the viewpoints of families and of public authorities are indicated. It is argued that it is these financial problems that make access difficult for the poorer half of the population of Bangalore to forms of housing other than inner city slums or urban fringe informal housing. Public housing with its unrealistic standards of service provision, but especially its high initial access costs is not well designed to meet the needs of the majority of families. The paper concludes that unless public housing authorities emulate the private housing market they will continue to play a marginal role in housing in a city such as Bangalore. There are signs that this is happening in India with experimentation in both housing finance and lower service standards.
Land settlement in Jamaica: The implementation of socialist experience
Authors: Drori Israel
Published: July 2007

This article reviews the development of Land Settlement in a Jamaican sugar belt area. It traces the evolution of the implementation process during the project's formative years (1980‐81) and the outcome in later years. The article argues that the project's operation and institutional framework was shaped through the inter‐relationship between its administrative‐managerial sub‐systems. Three major characteristics of the administrative‐managerial system were identified: symmetry, latency and adaptation. Symmetry expresses the need for simultaneous implementation of the project's production and infrastructural components; latency exposes the ‘politics’ behind the implementation process and the conflict over the project's resources and benefits; and adaptation reflects the settlers' response to the slow implementation pace. The weak vertical integration within the administrative‐managerial system and the change of government in Jamaica were the main constraints on the achievement of the project's objectives and the reason for its transformation from co‐operative to village.
Controllable growth of α‐ and β‐FeSi2 thin films on Si(100) by facing‐target sputtering
Authors: Pan S. S. , Ye C. , Teng X. M. , Fan H. T. , Li G. H.
Published: July 2007

Single‐phase β‐ and α‐FeSi2 thin films can be grown on Si(100) with and without a thin Fe buffer layer by adopting a facing target radio‐frequency magnetron sputtering method. The role of the buffer layer on the formation of β‐ and α‐FeSi2 thin film was discussed. The composition of β‐FeSi2 thin film can be tuned from Fe enrichment to Si enrichment by altering the radio‐frequency input power applied on the Si or/and Fe target, and the β‐FeSi2 thin film has a high (202)/(220) orientation. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)
Quantitative demonstration and cost considerations of a software fault removal methodology
Authors: Lipow M.
Published: July 2007

This paper presents a demonstration of a methodology for fault removal during software development. The methodology encompasses the entire development history, from system and software requirements generation to system test. Thus it considers not only the faults during software testing after formal configuration controls have been invoked, but also the faults discovered prior to that phase: during system and software requirements generation, preliminary design, detailed design and code and unit testing.

The agents for fault discovery used in verification and validation are called activities, techniques and tools (AT & Ts) in this paper, each having a certain maximum potential or capability for fault discovery. The AT & Ts considered include the usual specification review activities, and also certain tools not normally applied in ‘standard’ software development, such as automated requirements aids.

Application of the methodology yields numbers of residual faults as of each phase of development, including those remaining to be discovered during operations and maintenance. Some previous experience and data on residual faults correspond to these results, indicating that the methodology and choice of parameters are reasonable.

The methodology also allows one to calculate a relative loss due to delay in fault discovery, which, as is well known, rises rapidly when faults are not discovered during the phase in which they are generated.
Research into the use of statistical quality control in british manufacturing industry — part I
Authors: Followell Roy F. , Oakland John S.
Published: July 2007

The work described in this paper is part of a large, Government‐funded investigation into the usage of statistical methods of quality control (SQC) in British manufacturing industry. This paper reports the results of an investigation of fifteen firms which claimed in earlier work to be successful users of SQC. It is shown that six of the companies were in fact not regularly using recognized SQC techniques. Some general conclusions are drawn from the activities of these, and the remaining nine companies which were examined in detail.
A management view of software reliability
Authors: Wingrove Alan
Published: July 2007

Projects with a high software content are frequently completed late, with overrun costs and inadequate performance. Much of this is due to inadequate management, mainly caused by a lack of availability or knowledge of the criteria, methods and tools on which effective management should be based. Examples are given of the most frequent problems met by project managers. A plea is made for a vigorous effort to be made in developing management strategies which will allow the tools and techniques now being researched and developed to be used effectively for producing the high quality software needed for systems.
Mechanical reliability, how do we advance?
Authors: Loll Valter
Published: July 2007

The development of theory and practice for electronic and mechanical reliability is described, and mechanical reliability is seen to be lagging in practice. Theory and practice are described for a project from conception to market feedback for mechanical as well as for electronic reliability. It is noted that for each phase theoretical and practical methods exist for mechanical as well as for electronic reliability analysis. Activities are listed which can strengthen mechanical reliability theory and practice.
Random failures not allowed here—the u.s. roland case history
Authors: Currie Warren D. , Stauss Edwin G.
Published: July 2007

When U.S. ROLAND production hardware was first assembled, the resulting reliability was far below the requirement. Rather than rationalizing the failures as ‘random’, each was pursued to correct the cause in design, manufacturing processes, or workmanship. A process and quality plan was implemented with improvements to such items as soldering techniques and circuit‐board fabrication. Many design improvements were also incorporated. The test programme was halted and replanned to benefit from an iterative test‐fix‐test process. The final result was an increase in the reliability to 3.6 times the contract MTBF.
The robustness of markov reliability models
Authors: Edgar John F. , Tonybendell
Published: July 2007

Markov models are an established part of current systems reliability and availability analysis. They are extensively used in various applications, including, in particular, electrical power supply systems. One of their advantages is that they considerably simplify availability evaluation so that the availability of very large and complex systems can be computed. It is generally assumed, with some justification, that the results obtained from such Markov reliability models are relatively robust.

It has, however, been known for some time, that practical time to failure distributions are frequently non‐exponential, particular attention being given in much reliability work to the Weibull family. Morover, recently additional doubt has been case on the validity of the Markov approach, both because of the work of Professor Kline and others on the non‐exponentiality of practical repair time distribution, and because of the advantages to be obtained in terms of modelling visibility of the alternative simulation approach.

In this paper we employ results on the ability of the k‐out‐of‐n systems to span the coherent set to investigate the robustness of Markov reliability models based upon a simulation investigation of coherent systems of up to 10 identical components. We treat the case where adequate repair facilities are available for all components. The effects upon the conventional transient and steady‐state measures of Weibull departures from exponentiality are considered. In general, the Markov models are found to be relatively robust, with alterations to failure distributions being more important than those to repair distributions, and decreasing hazard rates more critical than increasing hazard rates. Of the measures studied, the mean time to failure is most sensitive to variations in distributional shape.
Quality and reliability assurance for electronic systems—actions and results
Authors: Ender Urs
Published: July 2007

The changes in the quality assurance organization introduced in recent years in a Swiss firm have led to a substantial improvement in the production quality of electronic circuit boards and to an increase in the reliability of electronic systems. This article demonstrates that the operational reliability of such systems is determined to a great extent by weak points in the electronic components. It follows that an analysis of the causes and the avoidance of such weak points are paramount in controlling the reliability of electronic systems.
Calculation of optimum proof test intervals for maximum availability
Authors: Duke Geoff R.
Published: July 2007

Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) is often performed when assessing equipment reliability. Some failure modes can occur that are only revealed when a demand is placed upon the system, thus causing a hazard. Such failures are only detectable by regular proof testing of the system. Availability calculations generally do not take into consideration down‐time caused by the duration of such proof tests. Testing of a large system is both laborious and time consuming, and may cause either partial or total system unavailability. Microprocessor based equipment reduces the duration of this task, but the question arises of how often?' The following method shows how the optimum proof test interval can be determined based on Markovian reliability models. It should be borne in mind that figures used in reliability prediction should not be considered to be precise data. Such figures should be treated as approximations for comparative use only. The purpose of this paper is to provide a guide for use by engineers involved in reliability/availability prediction; it serves to replace intuitive decisions.
The test needs of application‐specific integrated circuits
Authors: Davison Chris
Published: July 2007

This paper discusses the particular test needs of non‐standard, application‐specific integrated circuits (ASICs). It covers the need for accurate device simulation integrated with a post‐processor and test system software, to enable cost‐effective testing to be performed.
Surface mount digital package reliability
Authors: Roesch William J.
Published: July 2007

This paper compares the reliability of four surface mount package styles with the standard through‐hole package. Three test boards were fabricated and subjected to environmental and electrical stresses. The relative package performances of SOICs, butt‐soldered DIPs, surface mounted DIPS, and through‐hole DIPs were found to be equal when subjected to stresses exceeding those expected in normal use. PLCC packages were found to be slightly less reliable in humidity environments than the other packages.
FAILURE ANALYSIS ON BIPOLAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ATTRIBUTES DAMAGE TO ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE
Authors: Wills G. N.
Published: July 2007

Investigation into the failures of input modules at functional testing after assembly revealed unique damage to the emitters of the bipolar custom integrated circuit used as a receiver. Using a form of reverse engineering revealed that the damage could only be produced by a high energy pulse of short duration. Simulating the input circuit using discrete devices confirmed that similar circuit structures with the same applied stresses gave identical results. It was found that an energy level of 275 μJ gave a similar type of damage to that observed from the assembly failures.

The mechanism of failure had to explain why this unique damage was produced at random on any one of four input transistors together with the occasional failure (around one in ten) which did not show this type of damage. This type of failure was traced to short circuits breaking down the insulation oxide to supply lines underlying the input track. Because the damage to the emitters of the input transistors could only be produced by pulsing the discharge from input to input, it was concluded that the damage could be electrostatic in nature. When electrostatic protection precautions were introduced at the delivery of the circuit modules and the earlier assembly stages of the equipment, these failures were totally eliminated.
Semiconductor device burn‐in, is there a future?
Authors: Parsons Ron
Published: July 2007

The arguments for and against burn‐in are discussed. Conclusions are made on likely future requirements for burn‐in systems for integrated circuits.
Monte carlo methods in reliability engineering
Authors: Goldfeld A. , Dubi A.
Published: July 2007

The potential of the Monte Carlo method as a common place tool for a broad range of reliability and logistic problems is discussed. The mathematical features of the method are illustrated and biasing methods aimed at reducing the cost of the calculation are described. These methods combine efficiency with simplicity of implementation in multipurpose computer codes. A multipurpose computer code package developed on the basis of the Monte Carlo method is described.
Parameter estimation for the two‐parameter weibull distribution using sample statistics and the Jack‐Knife
Authors: Bissell A. F.
Published: July 2007

Approximations are given relating the shape parameter of the two‐parameter Weibull distribution to the coefficient of variation of a complete (uncensored) data set. The accuracy of the approximations over 0.4 < β < 5 is such as to give adequate estimates in most practical applications. For 0‐25 < β < 0.4 and 5 < β < 10, the estimates from the approximation may provide initial values for iterative procedures using moments, maximum likelihood, minimum x2, etc.

The simplicity of the functions means that jack‐knife methods may be used to obtain standard errors of estimates, including the scale parameter (9) where a suitable gamma function approximation is incorporated.
Early life failures
Authors: Unger Burton A.
Published: July 2007

Device failures can be classified as event‐dependent, time‐dependent, and a combination of the two, event/time‐dependent failures. Early life failure are dominated by event‐dependent failures, i.e. Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) failures, and mechanical failures (bonds, cracks, etc.) that result from a stress event. Test and failure analysis results supporting the above are reviewed. This paper was presented at the 1985 Semiconductor Device Reliability NATO Workshop.
Strategies for planning experiments using orthogonal arrays and confounding tables
Authors: Tsui Kwok‐Leung
Published: July 2007

Genichi Taguchi has popularized a robust design method which employs experimental design techniques to help identify the levels of design factors to improve the quality of products and manufacturing processes. Experimental design techniques are extremely effective for identifying improved factor levels in problems that involve a large number of factors. Taguchi's success in getting engineers to use experimental design techniques is due, at least in large part, to his use of tools and techniques that simplify the experiment planning process. Recognizing the advantages of this approach, this paper proposes a new set of tools, confounding tables, which offer more guidance to experimenters. Confounding tables provide a clear and systematic representation of confounding relationships. They are simple and useful tools for constructing experiment plans, and they enable users easily to evaluate the confounding patterns of a completed plan. We show how confounding tables provide more information than Taguchi's linear graphs, and are useful for a large class of experiment plans.
Use of 2k‐p designs in parameter design
Authors: Song Jae , Lawson John
Published: July 2007

This article shows that a single 2k‐p fractional factorial design matrix and the traditional data analysis techniques associated with this design can be used effectively to achieve the goal of parameter design while reducing the total number of experiments required. A real example is used to compare Taguchi's two‐part design, and S/N analysis to a 2k‐p design and its associated analysis. Also, a flow diagram is presented to guide a practitioner through the parameter design process using a 2k‐p design. This flow diagram provides an annoted guide to the literature on 2k‐p decision and shows the design processes leading to proper choice of design and appropriate data analysis techniques.
The bathtub does not hold water any more
Authors: Wong Kam L.
Published: July 2007

This is the first part of a three part article under the general heading of ‘Off the bathtub onto the roller‐coaster curve’, a short version1 of which was presented at the 1988 Annual Reliability and Maintainability Symposium in U.S.A. The other two parts, to be published in later issues of this journal, are entitled ‘The roller‐coaster curve is in’ and ‘Physical basis for the roller‐coaster hazard rate curve’. This three‐part article provides detailed discussions of the findings leading to the conclusions on the roller‐coaster characteristics for the hazard rate curve for electronics. Part 1 being presented here covers the discussions on problems with the bathtub curve. The problems include making erroneous decisions resulting in reliability demonstration risks against the manufacturers, windfall profits for satellite manufacturers, false claims in reliability growth and reliability prediction accuracy and stress screening shortfalls. More important than the erroneous short‐term decisions is the long‐term reliability engineering methodology development. It is critical that we must reshape the course of reliability methodology development away from the bathtub misconception.
An observation on taguchi methods
Authors: Ganter William A.
Published: July 2007

A Taguchi example is used in this note to look at statistical significance under assumptions that may not hold true in a given experiment. I also make a case for including physical reasoning in the experimental process as a way to help in making close calls and to help avoid pitfalls.
The application of statistical process control in U.K. automotive manufacture: Some research findings
Authors: Dale B. G. , Shaw P.
Published: July 2007

This paper reports on the findings of a questionnaire survey into the use of statistical process control (SPC) in a sample of United Kingdom automotive suppliers. All the 76 respondents had attended the Ford‐approved three‐day course on SPC held at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST). The survey investigated the following broad issues of SPC: motivation, implementation, application, suppliers and customers, and benefits. A number of findings surprised the authors; these included the number of organizations who had not appointed a SPC facilitator, organizations experiencing difficulties in deciding what type of control charts to use, control charts being ‘filled‐in’ by people not directly responsible for control of a process, charts being displayed away from work areas and the frankness of some suppliers in declaring that the vast majority of their manufacturing processes are not in a state of statistical control. If there is an overall message arising from the findings it is that the introduction and application of SPC should not be overcomplicated.