bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
9.1 In Sacco Degradability Characteristics of Two Contrasting Grass Silages
Authors: Catton R. , Chamberlain A. G. , Paine Christine A. , Crawshaw R.
Published: June 2019

The degradability characteristics of a wide range of grass silage types have been studied using the in sacco technique over a 48-hour period. Each silage was examined in three steers on two occasions, with pairs of bags being withdrawn at each sampling time. The steers had an average live weight of 270 kg and were fed once daily on silage, molassed sugar beet pulp and barley meal (5:3:2 on a dry matter basis), which supplied an average of 55 MJ ME per head daily.

The losses of dry matter, nitrogen, cell contents, hemicellulose and cellulose were followed. For the carbohydrate fractions, modifications of the methods of van Soest were used. For each of these components, asymptotic equations of the form: p = a + b (1-e−ct) were fitted, where a and b represent percentages of the amounts originally present in silage, c represents the proportional rate of degradation and t represents hours of incubation.
The effect of host diet on the cumulative gas production profile of grass hay and high temperature dried grass
Authors: Huntingtont J. A. , Givens D. I.
Published: June 2019

The gas production (GP) technique (e.g. Theodorou et al., 1994; Cone, 1994) is increasingly used as an indirect measure of substrate fermentability in the rumen. However, there are few data concerning the effect of making changes to the various integral steps of the GP procedure. This experiment was designed to study the effect of the host diet on the gas production profiles of grass hay and high temperature dried grass (HTDG).

Two cows were given either a silage:barley diet (80:20 dry-matter (DM) basis) or barley straw (ad libitum). Four experimental periods with an adaptation period of 3 weeks were used so that each animal experienced each diet type twice. Rumen fluid and solids were collected at the end of each 3-week period, prepared and used to inoculate the cultures. Duplicate samples (milled, 1-mm screen) of either hay or HTDG were accurately weighed (̴ 0-5 g DM) into 250 ml bottles, 85 ml anaerobic buffer (as Theodorou et al., 1994) were then dispensed into each bottle before being connected to the automated GP data logger (as Cone, 1994). After 16 h bottles were inoculated with rumen fluid (15 ml) according to the experimental design and incubated at 39°C for 48 h. The GP data were fitted to the model suggested by France et al. (1993). A representative sample (8 ml) of final culture fluid was preserved with 1 mol/1 orthophosphoric acid (2 ml) and stored frozen (-20°C) to await analysis for volatile fatty acids.
The use of the gas-test technique for predicting the feeding value of forage plants
Authors: Chenost M. , Deverre F. , Aufrère J. , Demarquilly C.
Published: June 2019

The ‘gas test’ technique (Menke and Steingass, 1988) is becoming popular for predicting the feeding value of forages. However the relationships observed by Khazaal et al. (1995) between in vivo data and prediction measurements on grasses and legume hays were less good with the gas test technique than with the in situ technique. The present results are part of the work undertaken at the laboratory with the aim of improving the accuracy of the technique on various types of foods (Chenost et al., 1997).

Seventy-nine forages (24 green (G) grasses, 38 grass hays (H), five G lucernes and 12 lucerne H) of known in vivo organic matter apparent digestibility (OMD) out of which 45 (17 G grasses, 16 grass H, five G lucernes and seven lucerne H) of known voluntary dry-matter intake (DMI), both measured with sheep, were chosen based on the range of variation of their OMD (from 0-490 to 0-808) and of their crude protein content (CP from 48 to 253 g/kg DM).
Relationship betweenin vitrogas production and NIRS predicted enzymatic digestibility and chemical composition
Authors: Piva A. , Meola E. , Biagi G. , Ricchi M. , Panciroli A. , Champion M. , Mordenti A.
Published: June 2019

Rumen fermentability of raw materials and foods can be evaluated by different means. Recently a large interest has been generated by the use ofin vitrogas production associated with the degradation and fermentation kinetics of forages and concentrates. Measuring and modelling gas production have been studied (Beuvink, 1993) and implemented by automation (Theodorouet al., 1994). This approach has been applied to a variety of foods with different purposes: estimating the effect of maturity on alfalfa and brome hay digestion (Stefanonet al., 1996), evaluating the role of genetic variation on perennial ryegrass rumen fermentation (Looet al., 1994) and comparing rice-straw fermentability (Williamset al., 1996).

This research has been designed to rank maize silages according to their fermentability and to evaluate possible correlation to the near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) predicted wet chemistry values andin vivocalculated organic matter digestibility (OMD).
Prediction of the rumen fermentable organic matter content by an enzymatic method
Authors: de Boever J. L. , Cottyn B. G. , Vanacker J. M. , Boucque Ch. V.
Published: June 2019

In the Dutch protein evaluation system (Tammingaet al., 1994) microbial protein synthesized in the rumen is estimated from the fermentable organic-matter (FOM) content. The reference method to determine FOM is byin situincubations of food in the rumen of fistulated animals. However, this is a cumbersome, time-consuming and expensive procedure. In practice, FOM is estimated from the digestible organic-matter content (DOMD) corrected for crude fat (Cfat), rumen escape protein (EP) and starch (ES) and the fermentation products (FP), using tabular values. Apart from being indirect, this approach takes little or no account of the variability within foods. Although anin vitromethod based on rumen fluid may give a good prediction ofin situFOM for the majority of the foodstuffs (Coneet al., 1994), an enzymatic method is preferable for practical reasons. From the organic-matter (OM) degradation by a mixture of amylase and other carbohydrate degrading enzymes at 39°C during 0, 2, 6 and 24 h, Coneet al. (1996) obtained a moderate correlation within situFOM for 29 grass and grass silage samples (R2= 0.88; residual s.d. = 37 g/kg dry matter (DM)) and 80 samples of concentrates, maize and clover (R2= 0.77; residual s.d. = 42 g/kg DM). In this study a modified version of the enzymatic method of de Boeveret al. (1994), normally used to predict thein vivoOM digestibility and energy value of concentrates, was tested for its reliability to predictin situFOM of compound foods and forages.
Transport from farm to slaughter
Authors: Harris T.
Published: June 2019

Live animal transport has a long history, dating back to biblical times. Today, the national and international transport of live animal is governed principally by a number of European Union Directives. In the UK these have been distilled into the welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 1997. This is primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food but in practice the day-to-day administration of the regulations is devolved to local authorities. It is feared that this may lead to regional differences in interpretation. The situation is made more complex by the addition of further layers of bureaucracy from, for example, the Road Haulage Association, supermarkets and the multiplicity of quality assurance schemes. The responsibility for the lawful transport of live animals from farm to market or abattoir lies with the supplier who, under recent legislation, must satisfy himself or herself that the carrier is competent to transport the particular class of livestock. Similarly, the insurance of the animals during transit is the supplier's responsibility. The multiplicity of rules and regulations governing stocking densities, journey times, lairage, the cleaning and disinfection of vehicles and vehicle construction standards is resulting in many carriers deciding not to continue in the business of live animal transport.
Welfare in abattoirs
Authors: Murray E.
Published: June 2019

The Meat Hygiene Service (MHS) is responsible for the enforcement of the welfare legislation governing the slaughter of a wide range of food animal species. The principal legislation is contained in the Welfare of Animals (Slaughter or Killing) Regulations 1995 (WASK) which give effect to the Provisions of Council Directive 93/119/EC on the Protection of Animals at Time of Slaughter or Killing, as contained in the EU Official Journal No. 340, 31/12/93. Codes of practice, prepared and issued by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food after consultation with all interested parties, provide guidance in respect of these welfare regulations. The legislation governing animal transit are contained in the Welfare of Animals (Transport) Order 1997 (WATO) which is enforced by local authorities, although MHS officers at abattoirs monitor the unloading of livestock and carry out ante-mortem inspections. Animal welfare standards, which must never be compromised, should be continually improved and based on sound science rather than on uninformed opinion and anthropomorphism. There is a need for more high quality research on animal welfare, for clear concise user-friendly codes of practice for the industry, and for continued education of all parties involved, including consumers.
Breathing and bleeding – the problems of being big and running fast
Authors: Marlin D
Published: June 2019

The ability to use oxygen during exercise is determined by a combination of the muscle mitochondrial density, the relative proportion of total body mass consisting of locomotory muscle, the gas exchange surface area and the capacity for conduction of oxygen from the gas exchange surface to the muscle cells, i.e. the heart and circulation. Other factors include: the ability to ventilate the lungs to ensure that a high gradient is maintained between the alveolar oxygen tension and that in the pulmonary capillaries to facilitate diffusion; the capillary density within muscle, the size of the muscle cells and the blood oxygen carrying capacity, which is primarily determined by the total blood volume and haemoglobin concentration.

In absolute terms, the fastest animal on land is the Cheetah, which can reach speeds of up to 120 kmh. However, the Cheetah is a “sprinter” and can only achieve these speeds for distances of around 200 metres (<10 seconds).
Mapping the grey gene in Thoroughbred horses
Authors: Binns M. M. , Swinburne J. E.
Published: June 2019

During the past eight years a comprehensive genetic linkage map for the horse has been generated in Newmarket, through a fruitful collaboration between the Genetics section at the AHT and Professor Twink Allen at the TBA Equine Fertility Unit (Swinburne et al., 2000). In order to assess whether the map was adequate to start mapping disease traits in which we are interested, it was decided to attempt to map a clear, easily scoreable trait such as grey coat colour in the Thoroughbred horse. Grey coat colour is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. Thoroughbred horses are fairly inbred, and as such they represent one of the more difficult horse breeds for genetic mapping. The majority of grey Thoroughbreds trace their ancestry back to Allcock's Arabian who was born in 1700, and horsemen have long noted an association between grey coat colour and the incidence of melanomas. It is hoped that characterizing the mechanism of grey coat colour formation might also lead to an improved understanding of the molecular basis of melanoma formation.
Evolution of Heritage GeneBank into The Sheep Trust: conservation of native traditional sheep breeds that are commercially farmed, environmentally adapted and contribute to the economy of rural communities
Authors: Bowles D. , Gilmartin P. , Holt W. , Leese H. , Mylne J. , Picton H. , Robinson J. , Simm G.
Published: June 2019

The Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) epidemic of 2001 clearly illustrated the fragility of the UK's farm animal genetic resources. In particular, millions of sheep were killed by the disease and by the ‘stamping out’ policy chosen for disease control. Loss of genetic resources was not evenly spread throughout the UK, nor throughout the many different sheep breeds that are native to the UK and for which the UK has a formal responsibility for protection to the United Nations. In fact, the FMD epidemic demonstrated for the first time that sheep breeds comprising large numbers of individuals which are commercially farmed, can nevertheless be at considerable risk of extinction. The breeds most affected were those restricted to geographical regions of the UK into which the FMD spread. These regionally important breeds are adapted to their particular regional environments, represent an important living heritage for the UK and are a key component in sustaining the rural economies of sheep farming communities.

The events of 2001 provided clear proof that there are two components of the UK's farm animal genetic resources demanding protection. One component is already recognised as a priority and is composed of the numerically rare breeds of all domesticated species: these are already under the protection of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST). The second component has not previously been recognised as a priority for protection. The FMD crisis proved that sheep breeds could exist as large numbers of individuals, but nevertheless face extinction due to their regional location. Urgent attention must be focussed on our Heritage Breeds of sheep. The UK has one of the greatest number of native sheep breeds of any country in the world. The Heritage Breeds provide potentially valuable genetic resources for environmental, low-input farming systems.

Heritage GeneBank was founded during the FMD epidemic specifically to protect sheep breeds at threat of extinction from the disease. A group of academic research scientists established a genetic salvage programme: collecting semen and embryos for protection in a gene bank. Germplasm from seven breeds is in long-term storage. Following the crisis, the scientists involved in the gene bank made a commitment to continue their conservation work in recognition that the Heritage Breeds of sheep in the UK continue to require protection.

This paper describes: (1) the work of Heritage GeneBank (HGB); (2) the threefold mission of The Sheep Trust, the new national charity that evolved from HGB (http://www.thesheeptrust.org); and (3) the ongoing urgent need for conservation of the UK's Heritage Breeds of sheep threatened by genetic erosion.
UK rare breeds: population genetic analyses and implications for applied conservation
Authors: Townsend S.J.
Published: June 2019

Since the establishment of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) in 1973, rare breed genetic conservation has only gradually emerged as a major key to the continued success and survival of populations. Thus, although basic population and demographic data have been recorded for all breeds listed by the Trust and most rare breeds have kept detailed pedigrees, there is still little information available about current population genetic structure and dynamics over time. Consequently, the majority of rare breed population meta-analyses based upon pedigree data are yet to be carried out. Transfer of rare breed records onto a computer database is therefore a current priority for the RBST, in addition to making available software to provide rare breed organisations with breed profiles to describe founder effects, effective population size (Ne), rate of inbreeding (ΔF), and kinship patterns. Results from rare breed pedigree analyses using this software can now be used to a) illustrate where and how loss of genetic diversity has taken place in rare breeds and b) enable decision processes concerning conservation strategy in future. Conservation strategy informed by such analyses can only be successfully implemented if due regard is given to the realities imposed by the need to maintain rare breed populations within an agricultural context, however. In light of these recent improvements to data recording and access to studies of population genetic structure, some of the traditional limitations to advances to rare breed conservation strategy may now need to be re-examined.
Scientific methods used to measure the efficacy of alternative therapies in animals
Authors: Ellis A. D. , Hopegood L. , Hunter K.
Published: June 2019

The aim of this report was to evaluate the methods used to test the efficacy of complementary and alternative veterinary medicine. A general review of available literature in this area was carried out and experimental design of 26 reported trials was analysed in detail. Quantitative evidence must form the basis of medicinal treatments, whether they fall under the traditional western medicine genre or whether they are seen as complementary or alternative therapies. Results from the quantitative characterisation of publications showed that within the ‘animal’ sector, the majority of work published is nonexperimental. Medline PubMed, for the years 1975 to 2005 returned a total of 400 review papers incorporating work from the human sector in alternative animal therapy in comparison to only 75 papers on experimental work. Of the 26 alternative veterinary medicine papers reviewed in detail 19 trials used a control group to assess the efficacy of the therapy tested. The experimental designs applied in clinical trials within this area are acceptable, using high levels of control and quantitative measurements. Improvements could be made through increased use of blind and double blind designs. Although there is lack of scientific evidence for alternative therapies, the application of these is continuously growing. This imbalance should be acknowledged and rectified.
Behavioural reactivity and ensuing temperamental traits in young Thoroughbred racehorses (Equus caballus)
Authors: McGee S.
Published: June 2019

Three behavioural reactivity studies and a single temperament study were conducted over a four–year period. The first found that accompanying preweaned foals while separated from their dam during covering of the mare significantly reduced the frequency of vocalisations (z=3.88; p<.001) and pawing (z=2.50; p<.05) and eliminated the performance of self–harm behaviours (χ2=19.18; df=1; p<.001), namely hurling their body against a door or wall. The second measured behavioural reactivity of 1771 foals in the auction ring. Tentative evidence was found for relationships between different aspects of behavioural reactivity and variables such as age, gender, pedigree, inbreeding, whether the foal was bred for Flat racing or National Hunt (NH) racing, or had also been assessed in the separation study (N=7). The third measured behavioural reactivity of 2430 yearlings in the auction ring. Tentative evidence was found of a relationship between different aspects of behavioural reactivity and variables such as age, gender, pedigree, inbreeding, whether or not the horse was Flat bred or NH bred, whether it had also been assessed in the separation study (N=13) or as an auction ring foal (N=438). The fourth analysed temperament questionnaires for 395 horses that had been previously assessed. Relationships were found between some aspects of behavioural reactivity in the auction ring and different temperamental traits when in training. Factor analyses of the questionnaire suggested that young racehorses are generally well adjusted and content with their lives. Overall the findings make a valuable contribution to what is known about racehorse behaviour and temperament.
Testing a method of equine personality assessment
Authors: Lloyd A. S. , Martin J. E.
Published: June 2019

To date there have been few studies on equine personality, with many equine studies on individual differences focussing on the measurement of temperament. Personality is defined by Pervin and John (1997, ) as “Those characteristics of the person that account for consistent patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving” and is different to temperament in that it has a greater emphasis on social aspects of behaviour. Interest in this area of research has recently increased, which could be attributed to the potential implementation of personality assessment in management practices, welfare issues and potential applications in equine veterinary medicine (Mills, 1998).

Assessment of animal personality often involves using human raters to assess the personality of animals familiar to them. In order to demonstrate reliable personality data three criteria should be met, these are as follows; 1) assessments made by independent observers must agree with one another, 2) these assessments must predict behaviours and real-world outcomes and 3) observer ratings must be shown to reflect genuine attributes of the individual rated and not just the observers’ implicit theories about personality (Kenrick and Funder, 1988; Gosling and Vazire, 2002).
An investigation into the texture preferences of horses using novel objects
Authors: Rousell H. , Dumbell L.
Published: June 2019

The majority of horses in the U.K. are confined to a stable at some point in their life. If the environment of an individual is unacceptable, abnormal behaviours can result as the horse's way of coping. This could potentially decrease the welfare of the individual due to reduced health caused by the performance of locomotor and, or, oral stereotypies (Nicol 1999, Waterset al., 2002, Garrett 2002). Studies have shown the stable environment (and the management methods usually associated with it) to frequently affect the time budgets of horses in a way consistent with lack of stimulation (Young, 2003). Many products claim to provide the horse with stimulation and so reduce ‘boredom’. The effectiviness of these products remains uncertain although some studies have shown changes to time budgets on their addition to the stable environment (Winskillet al., 1996; Henderson and Waran, 2001). However, little research has been done, on what qualities these objects should possess.
Event horse production, does it pay?
Authors: Hennessy K. D.
Published: June 2019

The Irish Sport Horse has commanded huge respect amongst horse owners and competitors of other nations, winning international, championship and Olympic medals for Great Britain (Shear L’eau, Supreme Rock), USA (Custom Made and Brazil (Special Envoy). The Irish Studbook continues to top the World Breeders Federation of Sport Horse (WBFSH) rankings for event horses based on competition results. The production of young horses through competition (training, novice and intermediate levels) has been an acknowledged format for identifying horses with the potential to excel at the highest levels of competition. However increasing production costs may be affecting the profitability of sport horse production. Reduced profit margins or possible negative returns may reduce the number of producers and this combined with the scientific improvements within other studbooks may threaten to reduce the potential for the Irish Sport Horse to retain its WBFSH event horse ranking. Furthermore, prize money offered in novice and intermediate competition appear to represent only nominal returns and fail to meet the costs of training and production.
How useful is the Burghley Young Event Horse Competition as a predictor of performance in British Eventing?
Authors: Kingston D. , Milmine R. , Nankervis K. , Wolframm I.
Published: June 2019

The Burghley Young Event Horse (BYEH) competition attempts to identify young horses with the potential to excel in the sport of eventing. The competition includes a basic dressage test, a show jumping course and a conformation assessment. Judges are advised to reward potential rather than the degree of training or rider ability. The main aim of this study was to determine whether a correlation exists between scores achieved in the finals of the four and five-year-old sections of the final of the BYEH competition and British Eventing (BE) points achieved by age eight. A second aim was to determine whether or not the BYEH scores of horses that go on to achieve points in BE differed significantly from those that do not.

Data were obtained from the Burghley Direct Web Page and from records supplied by British Eventing. Data were analysed for 43 four-year-olds and 77 five-year-olds that competed between the years 1998 and 2001. The BYEH scores for horses with and without BE records were compared using Student's t-test.
The relationship between facial whorl direction and sidedness in ridden horses
Authors: Randle H. , Elworthy E.
Published: June 2019

The influence of Natural Selection on the evolution of the horse (Equus callabus) is minimal due to its close association with humans. Instead Artificial Selection is commonly imposed through selection for features such as a ‘breed standard’ or competitive ability. It has long been considered to be useful if indicators of characteristics such as physical ability could be identified. Kidd (1902) suggested that the hair coverings of animals were closely related to their lifestyle, whether they were active or passive. In 1973 Smith and Gong concluded that hair whorl (trichloglyph) pattern and human behaviour is linked since hair patterning is determined at the same time as the brain develops in the foetus. More recently Grandinet al.(1995), Randle (1998) and Lanieret al.(2001) linked features of facial hair whorls to behaviour and production in cattle. Hair whorl features have also been related to temperament in equines (Randleet al.,2003).
Stallion Monogramm – improver of Arabian horse breeding in Poland
Authors: Pieszka M. , Kulisa M. , Luszczynski J. , Dlugosz B. , Bacik K.
Published: June 2019

The chestnut stallion Monogramm was born in 1985 at Kay Patterson stud in Oregon (USA); by Negatraz out of Monogramma by Knippel. His basic measurements were: height at withers – 152 cm, girth circumference -170 cm, cannon circumference 18.5 cm. PASB (Polish Arabian Stud Book) T. XIII, Suppl. I, page 85; He came from USA to Poland on 04.12.1992.

Monogramm drew the attention of Michalów stud director, Mr Ignacy Jaworowski, who wanted to extend the sire line of great stallions Ofir and Witraz. This chestnut stallion was distinguished among his rivals by his beauty, harmony and great movement (Jaworowski 2001). After long discussion a contract was negotiated for his stay in Poland, particularly in Michalów stud, where he was used for covering mares for two seasons 1993-1994. His frozen semen was then used between 1995-1997. This valuable grandson of Bask by his best son Negatraz is from dam line of Mammona mare (by Ofir) (Chmiel 2002).
The measurement of patient outcomes
Authors: Naji Simon A. , Sheldon Trevor A.
Published: June 2019

In this chapter, we describe the role of patient outcome measurement in quality assurance under six main section headings. In the first section: ‘Why measure outcomes?’, we attempt to state a clear and logical case for considering the inclusion of patient outcome measurement in all systematic assessments of the quality of health care. In, ‘Problems of measuring patient outcomes’, we acknowledge and elaborate upon some of the commonly encountered theoretical and practical difficulties of patient outcome measurement, and upon some of the ways in which such issues might be addressed within specific contexts. The third section: ‘Characteristics of a good measure’, considers some of the basic scientific and practical properties which should be considered when choosing a patient outcome measure for a particular context. ‘Types of measures’ considers some of the general features of the different types of measures currently available. ‘Quality of Life’, looks more closely some theoretical and practical aspects of that particular, and increasingly popular, area of patient outcome measurement. The final section offers a summary description of where we are now, and where we can go from here.
Quality assurance in surgical practice
Authors: Nixon S. J.
Published: June 2019

Audit is the critical evaluation of medical practice to effect an improvement in quality of service. Quality has been described as ‘getting it right the first time’ and audit as asking ‘whether you are doing the right thing and you doing it right?’. Surgeons are acutely aware of the penalty paid by the patient when he ‘gets it wrong’. Immediate complications such as wound infection and anastomotic leakage may require additional therapy, delay discharge from hospital, necessitate further surgery or even lead to death. Late complications may result in recurrence of the presenting pathology or complications which cause more distress than the original disease. Surgery and audit seem to be closely linked and naturally associated. Surgical skills have developed immeasurably, no doubt accelerated by the realisation of the penalties of failure. Fortunately the cost of poor performance to the surgeon is no longer to have ones hand cut off as it was in 1750 BC under the rule of King Hammurabi of Babylonia.
Drug compliance
Authors: Lee M. R.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Compliance with drug therapy is a much neglected part of the science of therapeutics. It is a particular problem with certain chronic diseases, for example, hypertension and diabetes; and certain classes of therapeutic agent, for example, anticoagulants and antiepileptics. Methods for the monitoring of compliance are discussed and it is concluded that the best available are either the electronic drug delivery system or chemical monitoring with a suitable long half-life compound. Until modern methods of measuring drug compliance are introduced, patients will surfer disability and even death. It should also be mandatory for controlled clinical trials of new therapeutic entities to include an acceptable mechanism (or method) for the assessment of adherence to the protocol. If not, the results will be vitiated.
Quality assurance in clinical biochemistry
Authors: Fraser Callum G.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

There are many steps in the process between the clinician requesting a clinical biochemistry test and receiving a numerical result. Each of these steps must be subject to quality assurance techniques. Clinical biochemistry laboratories now have mature, integrated systems of internal quality control, external quality assessment and quality assurance to ensure that the results issued do aid in the provision of optimum patient care. The recent advent of a professionally led laboratory accreditation scheme will stimulate further improvements in quality. Enthusiastic adoption of the techniques of quality management science, in the form of total quality management systems, will focus future attention on laboratories providing services to the standards dictated by consumers. Translation of these standards into objective operational specifications will then allow laboratories to adopt appropriate comprehensive quality assurance techniques which will guarantee the quality demanded.
Quality assurance in radiology
Authors: Dixon Adrian K. , Freer Charles E. L. , Appleton Derek S.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Most radiology departments have had comprehensive quality assurance programmes up and running for many years. There are several tangible measures of the output of a radiological department in the form of workload, staffing, film quality, film retrieval, accuracy of reports, availability of reports, etc. There are also many less tangible aspects. In this paper, which attempts to cover most of the practical aspects of quality assurance in radiology, the programme is followed through from the initiation of the request for a radiological investigation right up to its possible influence on the outcome of the patient. The educational aspects are also addressed in this rapidly evolving field.
Chemical monitoring in Sullom Voe: the SOTEAG and statutory programmes
Authors: Davies J. M. , Matheson I.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Two chemical monitoring programmes have operated in Sullom Voe since 1978, a statutory programme which measures levels of contaminants in the area of the diffuser outfall and the SOTEAG programme which measures contamination in the wider area of Sullom Voe and Yell Sound. Both programmes were in place prior to the operation of the terminal and had gathered useful information. The subsequent information provided annually by the two monitoring programmes during the operations of the terminal has allowed accurate assessment of the levels of contamination in the area of operation and has shown that the contamination from heavy metals and hydrocarbons in the Sullom Voe area is at the lower end of the range of levels encountered in mainland estuarine regions.
Tributyltin contamination and its impact on Nucella lapillus populations
Authors: Bailey S.K. , Davies I.M. , Harding M.J.C.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Common dogwhelks (Nucella lapillus) show a characteristic response to exposure to tributyltin compounds. Females develop male sexual characteristics, a phenomenon termed imposex. Dogwhelks have been collected for assesment of imposex from sites throughout Sullom Voe and Yell Sound in 1987, 1990 and 1991.

Results of the 1991 survey have indicated that dogwhelks were completely absent from the terminal area, on the promontory of Calback Ness. The degree of imposex was highest in the population from Kames, the site closest to the terminal. Juveniles were completely absent from this site. Incidence of imposex was high in populations throughout the Voe and 91% of the females examined from within the Voe were reproductively unviable due to blockage of their reproductive tracts with vas deferens tissue. Outside the Voe, in the well flushed waters of Yell Sound, imposex was much lower, but only fell to levels associated with populations from areas distant from tributyltin (TBT) contamination in the two most northerly sites surveyed.

Results of the survey have indicated that activities associated with the oil terminal are the source of TBT contamination to the area, and that contamination arising from the terminal operations has not only affected dogwhelks in Sullom Voe, but populations throughout Yell Sound.

Comparison of the imposex levels from 1987 and 1990 data indicates that the reproductive capacity of females has progressively declined and that populations within the Voe are gradually being eliminated. Forty-six percent of females sampled from populations within the Voe were sterile in 1987, compared to 65% in 1990, and 91% in 1991. In 1987, both adult and juvenile dogwhelks were present in the jetty area, although 94.5% of the females were sterile. In 1990, juveniles were absent from this area, and all females were sterile. No dogwhelks were found in the terminal area during the 1991 survey and, at Kames, the next closest site, juveniles were absent.
The involvement of oestrogen in the development and function of the normal breast: histological evidence
Authors: Anderson Thomas J. , Battersby Sharon
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The modifications that occur to breast tissue as a consequence of different physiological states of the female are considered with particular respect to oestrogen. Various tissue responses can be noted and the implications of modulation in cell proliferation, as a consequence of menstrual cycles, pregnancy, oophorectomy and oral contraceptive use, are considered. Assessment of oestrogen receptor by immuno-cytochemistry confirms the involvement of the steroid as a cell stimulant. Evidence from a variety of sources indicates the role in normal breast epithelium is more permissive than deterministic.
The involvement of oestrogen in the development and progression of breast disease: epidemiological evidence
Authors: Vessey M. P.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The epidemiological approach to the investigation of breast cancer is briefly described with special reference to case-control and cohort studies. Risk factors for breast cancer are then reviewed, paying particular attention to menstrual and reproductive factors and to body weight. Some of the hypotheses which attempt to draw the epidemiological observations together are also outlined.

The effects of exposure to exogenous oestrogens are considered in more detail. There is evidence from one study that the administration of large doses of stilboestrol during pregnancy increases breast cancer risk after a latent interval of about twenty years. Conjugated equine oestrogens administered to postmenopausal women may also slightly increase breast cancer risk after prolonged use. Little information is available about the effects of any other type of “hormone replacement therapy”. Combined oral contraceptives do not appear to have any general effect on breast cancer risk, but prolonged early use, especially use before first term pregnancy, may be harmful to the breast.
Immunohistochemical expression of oestrogen receptor in normal breast tissue
Authors: Carpenter Sarah , Georgiade Gregory , McCarty Kenneth S. , McCarty Kenneth S.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The human breast undergoes profound changes during the menstrual cycle. The development of monocloiial antibodies to oestrogen-receptors (ER) allows study of receptor content and distribution in individual components of breast tissue. Forty-one specimens from premenopausal patients who underwent bilateral mastectomy for benign conditions were evaluated. The patients were categorised into early follicular, late follicular, early luteal, late luteal, and menstrual phases. An HSCORE, a semiquantitative evaluation of the intensity and distribution of receptor antigen localisation, was evaluated for the ductal and lobular epithelia as a tissue mean HSCORE. ER localised to the nuclei of the epithelium and was not observed in stromal elements. Receptor concentration was greater for ER in the follicular phase but this finding was not as striking as differences between lobules in a single breast and even between breasts. This heterogeneous expression between lobules was in contrast to the relatively uniform expression of receptor within a lobule of a given specimen.
Oestrogens in breast tumours and fat
Authors: Thijssen J. H. H. , Blankenstein M. A.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The levels of endogenous steroids in the target tissues are thought to be more closely related to the biological effects than their concentrations in plasma. Therefore studies on oestrogen levels in malignant and non-malignant breast tissues (expressed per g wet weight) were conducted and the following conclusions were drawn:

(1) malignant tumours contained higher oestradiol levels than normal or benign breast tissues, whereas oestrone levels were more comparable;

(2) in contrast to the large decrease in plasma concentrations after menopause, the levels of oestradiol in tumours and in normal breast tissue did not change with advancing age;

(3) the oestradiol levels in breast tissues were lower than in uterine tissues, particularly in women before menopause; oestrone levels were very similar in all tissues studied;

(4) the mean oestradiol level was higher in oestrogen-receptor-positive tumours, but no correlation between the two parameters was found;

(5) preliminary results indicated lower oestradiol levels in tumours obtained from countries with a lower incidence of breast cancer;

(6) as far as available, oestrone levels were comparable and those of oestradiol were lower in fat tissues than in breast tumours;

(7) neither in vitro studies with breast tumours, nor in vivo results using myometrial tissues support a prominent role of the metabolism of oestrogens at the 16α-position in the development of tumours;

(8) the role of local factors in the production, retention and metabolism of oestradiol in the breast remains to be elucidated.
Novel methods of oestrogen deprivation for treatment of breast diseases
Authors: Santen Richard J.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The breast can be deprived of oestrogen by blockade of the synthesis of oestradiol or of its precursors. In postmenopausal women, oestrogen synthesis occurs almost exclusively in extraglandular tissues. Thus, liver, muscle and fat, as well as other tissues, convert precursor androgens such as androstenedione and testosterone of adrenal origin to oestrone and oestradiol through the enzyme, aromatase. Breast cancer tissue and its surrounding stroma also contain aromatase which could potentially convert a biologically important amount of androgen to oestrogen. Sulphatases are present in multiple tissues including breast and act to reform free oestrogens from their conjugated derivatives. Each of the steps outlined (i.e. precursor androgen formation, aromatase, and sulphatase), serve as potential sites of blockade of oestrogen synthesis. Aromatase can be inhibited by either suicide or competitive inhibitors. In our studies, an imidazole inhibitor of aromatase which acts competitively (i.e. CGS 16949A) is 1000-fold more potent than aminoglutethimide and ten-fold more potent than 4-hydroxyandrostenedione in vitro. In sixteen postmenopausal women, doses 500-fold less than standard doses of aminoglutethimide inhibited plasma and urinary oestrogens measured by radioimmunoassay or GLC mass spectrometry to the same extent as with aminoglutethimide. The use of sulphatase inhibitors, another means of oestrogen deprivation, may potentially be feasible. Sulphatase inhibitors are active in vitro but currently lack potency and specificity for the sulphatase in breast cancer tissue itself.

In premenopausal women, the oestrogens are directly aromatised from androgens in ovarian tissues through the stimulatory influence of LH and FSH. Suppression of these gonatrophins with or without additional aromatase inhibitors provides a means of inhibiting oestrogen in premenopausal women. Aromatase inhibition, alone, will probably not be effective because of the reflex rise in LH and FSH observed. Our studies indicate effective suppression of oestradiol in premenopausal women with the GnRH superagonist analogue, Leuprolide. However, combined use of this superagonist analogue plus an aromatase inhibitor would have the advantage of blocking synthesis of oestrogen, both in ovary and in extraglandular sites.
Inhibitors of oestrogen biosynthesis: preclinical studies with CGS 16949A, a new nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor
Authors: Bhatnagar Ajay S. , Schieweck Klaus , Häusler Albert , Browne Leslie J. , Steele Ronald E.
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

Inhibitors of the aromatase enzyme represent a class of therapeutic agents which potently inhibit oestrogen biosynthesisin vivo. This inhibition of oestrogen biosynthesis is well established as effective therapy in the treatment of oestrogen-dependent breast cancer. CGS 16949A [4-(5,6,7,8-tetrahydroimidazo-[l,5-a]pyridin-5-yl)-benzonitrile hydrochloride] is a non-steroidal imidazole derivative which is a potent competitive aromatase inhibitorin vitro. At a maximally effective concentration, it selectively inhibits aromatase and does not affect glucocorticoid production from the adrenalin vitro.

In vivoin the rat, CGS 16949A effectively reduces ovarian oestrogen content and potently inhibits an aromatase-mediated androgen-induced uterine hypertrophy. Oral treatment of adult, cyclic female rats with CGS 16949A disrupts cyclicity, inhibits ovulation, reduces uterine weight and suppresses serum oestradiol, all expected sequelae of oestrogen deprivation. At maximally effective doses, there is no evidence of adrenal hypertrophy, indicating that adrenal steroidogenesis is unaffected. In the DMBA-induced mammary carcinoma model in the rat, CGS 16949A caused almost complete regression of palpable tumours and significantly suppressed the appearance of new tumours at a maximally effective oral dose. Thus, CGS 16949A is a potent and selective inhibitor of the aromatase enzyme. In the rat, it is very efficacious in inhibiting oestrogen biosynthesis and in suppressing the growth of DMBA-induced mammary tumours.
The ecology of plankton in Scottish coastal waters
Authors: Tett Paul
Published: June 2019

Synopsis

The lives of the plants, animals and bacteria of the plankton are ruled by the diffusive nature of their fluid medium, in which vertical turbulence is sometimes checked by density gradients caused by surface heating or inflow of freshwater. Seasonal and spatial changes in the production and species composition of phytoplankton and associated microheterotrophs result from interactions amongst light penetration, supply of mineral nutrients, and vertical mixing; many species are capable of rapid increase when multiplication exceeds losses by dispersion and predation. Water depth, currents, dispersion and food supplies control mesozooplankton.

Although Scottish coastal waters include a variety of pelagic environments, there is little evidence of site-specific flora or fauna. Planktonic assemblages are, however, locally more diverse than expected. If this excess diversity is a result of ever-changing conditions, the composition of microplanktonic associations may be largely decided by chance. Explanations based on niche theory seem to apply convincingly only to the larger, semi-nektonic, pelagic crustaceans. Thus, consideration of issues relating to conservation raises fundamental and difficult questions about the biology of plankton.

Conservation of species is impractical if accident plays a large part in recruitment and replacement. Conversely, the dispersive nature of the pelagic environment and the weakness of interspecific relations may lessen the sensitivity of plankton to anthropogenic perturbations. Nevertheless, eutrophication and climatic change can disturb pelagic communities, especially in enclosed waters.
Paleoecology of Bryozoa
Authors: Blake Daniel B.
Published: June 2019

Duncan (1957) and Osburn (1957) provided excellent literature surveys on the paleoecology and ecology of bryozoans; this report is intended as an updating of Duncan's work. Publications on modern bryozoans are not included here except for certain papers directed toward paleontologic problems. Since Duncan, and Osburn, ecological and paleoecological summaries have been published by Hyman (1959), Cheetham (1963), Ryland (1970) and Cuffey (1970). Schopf (1969) surveyed bryozoan paleoecology from the viewpoint of colony growth habits and Heckel (1974) and Cuffey (1977) summarized knowledge of bryozoan occurrences in reefs. Most authors have emphasized cheilostomes; information on stenolaemates is limited.
Ecology of Living Brachiopods
Authors: Thayer Charles W.
Published: June 2019

Over a decade has passed since Rudwick (1965b, 1970) and Ager (1967) reviewed the ecology of brachiopods, a hiatus partially filled by Brunton (1975) and Steele-Petrovic (1979). With the widespread use of SCUBA, we are finally beginning to learn about these dominantly subtidal (both Recent and fossil) organisms in their proper environment. A renaissance of ecologic interest in the phylum has produced much, and promises more. Already many text-book dogmas have been refuted and others questioned.
Biology/Paleobiology of Foraminifera
Authors: Lipps Jere H.
Published: June 2019

Foraminiferida are an order of rhizopod protozoans characterized by the presence of granuloreticulopods and a test. Together with the Order Athalamida, they are the only Rhizopoda with anastomozing pseudopodia that contain granules (Fig. 1). The difference between the Athalamida and Foraminiferida is arbitrary because some foraminifera are known to leave their tests and move about, later returning to them (Marszalek, 1969), and some Athalamida attach foreign particles to the cell surface.
Classification of the Foraminiferida
Authors: Loeblich Alfred R. , Tappan Helen
Published: June 2019

A systematic classification generally reflects accurately the state of knowledge of a group. As information concerning the group increases, both similarities and differences become more apparent. New characters then may be utilized to develop a more complex classification, that better serves to indicate presumed relationships. Assuming that organisms have evolved through time, the more detailed classification may also prove more valuable to the biostratigrapher.