bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Are You My Type?: Blood Groups, Individuality, and Difference
Authors: Lederer Susan E
Published: November 2023

One of the great achievements in understanding blood and advancing transfusion in the twentieth century was the discovery of difference. As historian Pauline Mazumdar has noted in her elegant reconstruction of the early twentieth-century science of serology, “species and specificity are the concepts that lie at the heart of the modern science of immunology.” Earlier experiences with transfusion had already suggested that blood from one animal might be harmful when introduced into the body of an animal of another species. In the early nineteenth century, James Blundell offered this as rationale for his resolution to use only human blood when attempting a transfusion.
Medicalizing Miscegenation: Transplantation and Race
Authors: Lederer Susan E
Published: November 2023

“Americans,” noted historian David Hollinger, “have mixed in some ways and not others, and they have talked about it in certain ways and not others.” Hollinger was referring to the American experience of “amalgamation,” the word generally used before the Civil War to describe race mixing and, after 1863, “miscegenation,” a word introduced by an anonymous American to characterize “mistaken mixtures” between the races. In American history, intimacies across the color line have a long and complex history, punctuated by violence, legislation, and Supreme Court decisions.
Restoring Rationality in Punishment Policy
Authors: Blumstein Alfred
Published: November 2023

One of the dominant features of Norval Morris’s concerns over his entire professional career was seeking ways to maintain a level of reasonableness and rationality in the punishment process. This is clearly reflected in his The Honest Politician’s Guide to Crime Control (1970) with Gordon Hawkins. His volume with Michael Tonry, Between Prison and Probation: Intermediate Punishments in a Rational Sentencing System (1990), called attention to the many opportunities possible with community-based treatment. Given the punitive context of the times, they obviously felt that they had to label such treatments as “punishment” in order to make it politically acceptable for their proposals to be implemented. Yet however much they worked at it, intermediate punishments—to create meaningful alternatives between the intensity of prison and the extreme casualness of most probation—still have a hard time getting much attention in most jurisdictions. Perhaps states facing severe budget problems will begin to give them more attention in the near future.
Nutritional Support Following Injury
Authors: Mayes Theresa , Gottschlich Michele
Published: November 2023

The stress of trauma invokes a multitude of physiological events that affect the individual’s nutritional status by altering substrate production and utilization, thus changing the dietary requirements. In addition, the hypermetabolism and hypercatabolism that accompany critical injury result in rapid weight loss, erosion of muscle mass, severe nitrogen depletion, and decreased visceral protein nutriture. Untoward outcomes such as poor wound healing, depressed lung function, increased risk of infection, extended hospital stay, and higher mortality are characteristic of the posttrauma state. Appropriate provision of nutrients after injury promotes anabolic adaptation and thus improves these outcomes.
Nutrients, Neurotransmitters, And Brain Dysfunction
Authors: Ekvall Valli K , Ekvall, Shirley W , Bonsall Eric
Published: November 2023

As the executive center of the central nervous system (CNS), the brain modulates the complex, dynamically integrated biological network that determines mood, cognition, and behavior and controls physiological homeostasis. The brain comprises only 2% of the adult body weight but requires 15% of the total cardiac output and, remarkably, consumes 20% to 30% of the body’s resting metabolic energy. Afferent inputs provide signals to the CNS for the control of satiety or food seeking, and an organism’s subsequent nutritional status affects CNS chemistry. The brain does not have large energy stores and thus depends on a continuous supply of oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients for optimal development and function. In a multifactorial study in Chile, the prenatal nutritional indicators were the most important independent variables for head size. The CNS is impacted greatly by various neurotransmitters and neuropeptides that are affected by diet and specific dietary precursors. This chapter reviews the current research linking nutritional state with CNS activity and the role of nutrients in the modulation of neurotransmitter synthesis and action related to cognition and the maintenance of homeostasis.
Down Syndrome
Authors: Capone George , Muller, David , Ekvall Shirley W
Published: November 2023

Down syndrome (DS) is a chromosomal disorder that occurs in approximately 1 in 700 live births. It typically results from trisomy of chromosome 21 due to nondisjunction during gamete formation, which is generally of maternal origin. The DNA sequence of human chromosome 21 was published in 2000 and is predicted to contain 225 genes, many of which probably contribute to the phenotype of the condition. Despite the rapid increase in knowledge of chromosome 21, the mechanism(s) by which trisomy, and therefore increased gene dosage, results in the characteristic phenotype is largely unknown. A presumptive diagnosis of DS is usually made by a physician or other hospital staff member shortly after birth. In the newborn period, infants with DS may be difficult to distinguish from infants with other chromosome anomalies. A karyotype performed on blood lymphocytes or skin fibroblasts is mandatory to confirm the diagnosis, even in cases where the phenotypic appearance is obvious. For purposes of genetic counseling, it is critical to distinguish complete trisomy 21 from trisomy 21/mosaicism or an unbalanced translocation. However, mothers on a vegetarian diet while pregnant may show a false positive screening test of the alpha-fetoprotein and beta-human chorionic gonadotropin reference levels for Down syndrome.
Botanicals in Pediatrics
Authors: Bauer Rudolf , Hrastinger Andrea , Dietz, Birgit , Mahady Gail
Published: November 2023

Consumers in the United States are increasingly using botanical dietary supplements (herbal preparations) to treat or prevent a wide array of ailments, including the common cold, depression, and other non-life-threatening medical conditions. In a recent survey of women between the ages of 40 and 60 years, 79% were found to be using botanical dietary supplements, with over 20% using three or more different ones. Since women make up the largest percentage of botanical users, it is not unexpected that many of these women would also be administering herbal remedies to their children. Results from a recent survey of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) practices have suggested that the use of CAM by parents/caretakers was the single best predictor of CAM use in children. In fact, a number of national and international surveys indicate that herbal use in pediatric patients is on the rise. It is estimated that approximately 28%–40% of children may be exposed to herbal preparations for the management of asthma, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, insomnia, and respiratory infections. Unfortunately, many women never discuss these treatments with their attending pediatrician. This trend presents both interesting opportunities and dilemmas for health-care professionals and parents, as many supplements have not been clinically tested for safety and efficacy in pediatric populations.
Chronic Renal Disease In Children
Authors: Beto Judith , Bansal Vinod
Published: November 2023

The kidney is an excretory organ that filters, reabsorbs, and excretes electrolytes, protein by-products, glucose, amino acids, and toxic substances. Through nephron filtration and urine production, all these substances are removed from the body. The kidney also functions as an endocrine gland, producing hormones involved in growth (human growth factor), blood pressure regulation (renin), red blood cell production (erythropoietin), and the absorption of calcium (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol). Chronic renal disease involves a progressive decline in the number of functioning nephrons that may result ultimately in kidney failure. The rate of progression is fastest with children with glomerulonephropathies, followed by hereditary nephropathies and renal dysplasia, and is slowest in children with urinary tract malformations. The National Kidney Foundation (NKF) has established the Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI), which convenes work groups to develop clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with renal impairment and failure. The clinical practice guidelines are focused on the predominantly adult population, but modifications are included for children when sufficient evidence or professional opinion existed. The NKF K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) defined stages for classification based on stratifications of glomerular filtration rate (GFR), a measure of kidney function. These are listed in Table 33–1.
Maple Syrup Urine Disease
Authors: Singh Rani
Published: November 2023

Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD) is a heterogeneous genetic disorder resulting from over 50 known mutations that impair the mitochondrial branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKD) complex. The components of the BCKD complex include E1, a decarboxylase; E2, an acyl transferase; and E3, a lipomide dehydrogenase (dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase). The defect in this multienzyme complex results in accumulation of the branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) leucine, isoleucine, and valine and their respective a-ketoacids (BCKAs) in body fluids (Fig. 38–1). Maple syrup urine disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. Its incidence varies with the population studied, from 1/760 in selective screening of an inbred Mennonite group to 1/290,000 in a New England newborn screening program. Molecular mutation analysis has not revealed a strong genotype-phenotype correlation to date. Numerous variant forms of MSUD resulting in a spectrum of BCKD insufficiency (3% to 40% normal) have been reported. The clinical outcome appears to be associated with the age at diagnosis, the degree of enzyme impairment, the time at which diet therapy is begun, and the degree of metabolic control. Five clinical and biochemical phenotypes have been reported and used based on clinical presentation and therapeutic responses to thiamin observed in patients.
Urea Cycle Pathway
Authors: Huntington Kathleen , Harding Cary
Published: November 2023

The function of the urea cycle is twofold: (1) to convert waste nitrogen into urea and (2) to synthesize the amino acid arginine. Waste nitrogen in the form of ammonia is derived from the breakdown of protein in the tissues and bowel. It is transported in the blood to the liver, where it is converted to urea (Fig. 41–1). The urea cycle operates primarily in the liver and is compartmentalized between the cystolic and mitochondrial components of the cell. At each of the six steps of the pathway, enzyme deficiencies have been identified that lead to the accumulation of ammonia and associated toxicity. Inherited disorders of dibasic amino acid transport (lysinuric protein intolerance), mitochondrial ornithine transport (HHH syndrome), and the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier (citrullinemia type II) also result in hyperammonemia and are therefore included under the umbrella of urea cycle disorders (see Table 41–1, which describes enzymes, general symptoms, treatment, and monitoring parameters). Clinical monitoring should also include growth assessment and developmental and neurological assessment as well as liver examination.
Mitochondrial Disorders
Authors: Boles Richard , Moseley Kathryn
Published: November 2023

The mitochondrial disorders represent a very large number of separate inborn errors of metabolism. They result from defects in the genes encoding proteins involved in cellular energy metabolism, including pyruvate dehydrogenase complex subunits, Krebs cycle enzymes, electron transport chain (ETC) components, ETC assembly proteins, mitochondrial inner membrane transporters, mitochondrial nucleotide pool regulators, and factors that interact with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). In most cases, the ETC is involved, either primarily or secondarily. Components of the ETC are encoded by nuclear genes, in which case disorders are usually inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, and by mtDNA genes, in which case disorders are usually maternally inherited. Mitochondrial medicine is exceedingly complex. Mitochondrial disease is highly variable in degree of severity, age of onset, organ/tissue involvement, and mode of inheritance. In terms of severity and age of onset, mitochondrial disease can cause anything from migraine headaches in an adult to lethal multisystem disease in an infant and every degree of illness in between. In terms of organ/tissue involvement, as energy is a universal cellular requirement, essentially any organ or tissue can fail and result in disease. However, since disease manifestations occur in general when the local energy supply is inadequate to meet the local energy demand, disorders of tissues with the highest energy requirements usually predominate: nerve, muscle, endocrine gland, and renal tubular epithelium.
Galactosemia
Authors: Calcar Sandy Van , Wolff Jon
Published: November 2023

Galactose metabolism involves three enzymes: galactokinase, galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase (GALT) and uridine diphosphate-4-epimerase (Fig. 49–1). Inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) have been described for all three enzymes. The most common inborn error in galactose metabolism is deficiency of the GALT enzyme. Its incidence in North America is approximately 1 in 60,000. Galactose levels and/or GALT activity are routinely tested in all infants by newborn screening programs. Infants with elevated galactose and/or decreased enzyme activity should be referred to a biochemical genetics program that specializes in treatment of IEM. This chapter will focus on GALT deficiency since the classical form of the disease requires lifelong dietary treatment. In classical galactosemia, the GALT enzyme is not produced and the affected individual has no enzyme activity. Neonates with untreated classical GALT deficiency present a few days after starting milk-based formula or breast milk feeding. The initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, and jaundice. Failure to thrive, hepatomegaly, edema, splenomegaly, and sepsis can follow. The disease is rapidly fatal if milk feedings continue. For surviving infants, mental retardation and behavioral problems are common.
Celiac Disease
Authors: Heubi James , Carlsson Annelie
Published: November 2023

Celiac disease or gluten-sensitive enteropathy, was first described by the English physician Samuel Gee in 1888. In the 1940s, Dicke was the fist to link the ingestion of gluten-containing foods with symptoms. Over the past two decades, a considerable body of knowledge about this condition has accumulated. Previously considered a rather unusual disease with a prevalence of 1:3000 in the United States, except in children and adults of western Irish background, it is now recognized to be much more common. With the development of reliable screening tests using antibodies to gluten, endomesium, and tissue transglutaminase, the disease is now believed to affect as many as one in 300 Europeans and Americans.
Brain and Spinal Cord
Authors: Hunter Alasdair G W
Published: November 2023

Anencephaly is immediately apparent at birth and represents the end stage of degeneration and regeneration of the exposed cephalic neural tissue (Fig. 16-1). Failure of the cephalic neural tube to close appears to be the primary defect. The neural groove and folds can be seen by embryonic stage 8 (day 18) and have deepened and begun to fuse by stage 10 (day 22). The cephalic neural tube closes in a bidirectional fashion by stage 11 (day 24). It has been argued, based primarily on experimental animal models, examination of the pattern of neural tube defects (NTD) in humans, and the different sex ratios associated with lesions at different levels of the neural axis, that there are up to five initiation sites for fusion in humans.
Limbs
Authors: Stevenson Roger E
Published: November 2023

Limbs share with the craniofacies great susceptibility to mal- formation, disruption, deformation, and morphologic varia- tion. The susceptibility of the limbs to morphologic alteration can be attributed in part to their developmental complexity, the extended period of morphogenesis, and the exposure of the limbs beyond the protection of the body wall. Normal limb development also requires movement, a function influenced primarily by the nervous system and muscles. A vast number of single gene muta- tions and nearly all human teratogens and cytogenetic aberrations affect limb morphology in some way.
Introduction
Authors: Okamoto Shigeko , Shibamoto Smith Janet S
Published: November 2023

Models of Japanese society and culture, in particular the Nihonjinron ‘theories on the Japanese’ literature, commonly stress such attributes as homogeneity, harmony, consensus, and hierarchy, including gender stratification (Yoshino 1992, Befu 2001, Sugimoto 2003). In line with this framework, Japanese sociolinguistic practice (e.g., the use of honorifics, address terms, and indirect speech styles) as part of Japanese cultural behaviors has been described primarily based on context-independent, abstractly normative usage in Standard Japanese.
The Burials: Ritual and Taphonomy
Authors: Svoboda Jiří A
Published: November 2023

All Gravettian burials of Moravia (in contrast to the cave burials of the Gravettian and Epigravettian in Italy, for example) share the same practice of burying in the open air. However, the details of the deposition show considerable variability as a result of human decisions and mortuary behavior. The human burials within the Dolní Věstonice–Pavlov area have patterns of uniformity, depositing either complete human bodies or small fragments in the central parts of the settled areas.
The Human Remains: A Summary Inventory
Authors: Holliday Trenton W , Hillson Simon W , Franciscus, Robert G , Trinkaus Erik
Published: November 2023

The human remains have been inventoried almost completely and in detail by Sládek et al. (2000). However, to provide a quick reference for the material in the context of its discussion in this volume, we present below a summary inventory of the remains. This starts with an overall list of the remains discovered since 1925 at the sites of Dolní Věstonice I (Table 5.1); Pavlov I (Table 5.2); and Dolní Věstonice II, top and upper western slope, western objects from these sites (Vlček, 1951, 1991; Králík et al., 2002) are not addressed here.
The Ages at Death
Authors: Hillson Simon W , Franciscus Robert G , Holliday, Trenton W , Trinkaus Erik
Published: November 2023

The assessment of the ages at death of the skeletal and dental remains from Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov involves both the consideration of associated skeletons for whom there are multiple lines of evidence and the evaluation of isolated remains for some of whom it is possible to provide a reasonable age at death other than immature or mature.
The Cranial Remains
Authors: Franciscus Robert G , Vlček Emanuel
Published: November 2023

The human remains from Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov include a number of relatively complete crania (Chapter 5; Sládek et al., 2000). Specimens with essentially complete neurocrania and splanchnocrania include Dolní Věstonice 3 and 13–16. Less complete specimens include Pavlov 1, which retains a calvarium with small portions of the basicranium and left zygomatic, as well as portions of the left and right maxillae, and Dolní Věstonice 11/12, which retains a less complete calotte. There are also alveolar fragments associated with maxillary teeth that make up Pavlov 2. The Dolní Věstonice 3 and 13–16 crania, although largely complete, were reconstructed from a number of fragments, in most cases suffered ground pressure deformation, and have been restored to varying degrees with insoluble filler and painted. This condition of the crania frequently makes it difficult to ascertain exact bone joins and details of surface anatomy. The last point is particularly true for Dolní Věstonice 3. The neurocrania are generally better preserved than the splanchnocrania throughout the sample, although in some cases basicranial portions are also relatively more incomplete or damaged. All of the cranial specimens except Dolní Věstonice 11/12 also retain relatively complete mandibles, which are considered in Chapter 10.
The Costal Skeletons
Authors: Holliday Trenton W
Published: November 2023

The costal skeleton [costae (ribs) and sternebrae] is reason- ably well represented among the skeletons from Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov. It is best preserved in the triple burial individuals: Dolní Věstonice 13–15, each of which preserves at least one (and more often both) rib(s) from each thoracic level (Sládek et al., 2000; Chapter 5). In this chapter, detailed morphological description of each individual costal element is given, working craniocaudally through the ribs and ending with the sternebrae. Following these descriptions, osteometric analyses are under- taken. These analyses compare the Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov costal morphology with that of recent and penecontemporary humans. Discussion of the measurements and indices used in these analyses, as well as the compositions of the comparative samples, comes at the beginning of each analytical section. As mentioned in Chapter 14, the less complete axial remains of Dolní Věstonice 16 and Pavlov 1 were separated during excavation and partially reconstructed in the laboratory. In contrast, the costal skeletons of the triple burial individuals were removed en bloc to the laboratory, cleaned, and then reconstructed.
Introduction: Corporate Governance and Capital Flows in a Global Economy
Authors: Cornelius Peter K , Kogut Bruce
Published: November 2023

The most important challenge of the early part of the 21st century is to foster the prospects for improvement in the quality of life of citizens in the poorest countries in the world. Investment is a critical ingredient to meeting this goal. For investment to take place, capital must be borrowed on international markets and invested in poorer countries. The resources of official development agencies are far from sufficient for this task. Over the past decade the private sector has become the primary source of funds for emerging-market economies; only the poorest countries receive the plurality of their funds from official sources. The challenge of addressing the poverty that affiicts billions of people will require the flow of private international capital.
Corporate Risk Assessment and Business Strategy: A Prime Task for Senior Management
Authors: Henisz Witold J , Story Jonathan
Published: November 2023

How can we make corporate strategy in such a volatile world economy? Answering this question requires us to look at a much broader canvas than we do when we consider business strategy conventionally. Conventional business strategy divides conveniently into three parts, like Caesar’s description of Gaul: what’s going on inside the corporation; what is happening in terms of competition in the firm’s markets; and, by deduction, what both inquiries hold for the firm’s future. The recent pressure for improved corporate governance is but one example of this approach, which no doubt has the advantage of bringing management to focus on essentials-but in a world undergoing complex transformation, it is an approach that we believe is-to say the least-inadequate.
Corporate Governance and Private Capital Flows to Latin America
Authors: Chong Alberto , lzquierdo Alejandro , Micco Alejandro , Panizza Ugo
Published: November 2023

Following the debt crisis of the 1980s, Latin America was subject to a surge in private capital flows in the early 1990s. Net private capital flowing to the seven biggest Latin American economies representing about 90 percent of total net flows to the region for the period 1990-2001 not only quadrupled but exceeded official flows by five times.The obvious question is, why? In fact, to some extent, capital inflows were due to two factors: external developments mainly in the United States and the introduction of Brady bonds. Evidence on the importance of external factors has been provided recently. For instance, Chuhan, Claessens, and Mamingi (1993) show that equity flows seem to be more sensitive to external factors than bond flows, and that bond flows are generally more sensitive to a country’s credit rating than equity flows.
That Man In The White House
Authors: Jackson Robert H
Published: November 2023

In February Of 1934, I went with the Administration as counsel to the Bureau of Internal Revenue and shortly thereafter began to attend occasional meetings with the President in reference to a new tax program and other tax problems. These early meetings left a deep impression because, in contrast with what I had known of him before his election, I was some what surprised at his ease and aptitude for the role of Chief Executive of a nation in distress.

He had realized his ambition and fulfilled his idea of his own destiny. He took over his high office as if born for the part. He never appeared selfconscious about his position or surprised to find himself in it. He never tried to impress one with the magnitude or the difficulty of his job—he simply went ahead and did it. He made no self-deprecating remarks about his adequacy for its tasks. He was so self-assured that I never heard him assert his right to command or remind anyone that it was he who was President.
Cross-Sectional Determinants of Expected Returns
Authors: Brennan Michael J , Chordia Tarun , Subrahmanyam & Avanidhar
Published: November 2023

In theory, the primary determinant of the cross section of expected returns on securities is risk, although other factors such as taxes, liquidity, agency, and informational considerations can also, in principle, affect the demand for securities and therefore expected returns. The measure of risk that is relevant for pricing is the covariance of the security’s return with the pricing kernel, which may be expressed in terms of one or more return factors, depending on the particular equilibrium model. Thus, in the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), the pricing factor is the return on the market portfolio; in the consumption CAPM, it is the return on the portfolio that is most highly correlated with the growth rate of consumption; in the Epstein and Zin (1989) recursive utility CAPM, it is a linear function of the return on the market and the return on the maximum consumption correlation portfolio; and in the Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT) it is a linear function of a set of priced factors that span the pricing kernel.
Introduction
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A
Published: November 2023

International law has long been burdened with the charge that it is not really law. This misleading claim is premised on some undeniable but misunderstood facts about international law: that it lacks a centralized or effective legislature, executive, or judiciary; that it favors powerful over weak states; that it often simply mirrors extant international behavior; and that it is sometimes violated with impunity. International law scholarship, dominated for decades by an improbable combination of doctrinalism and idealism, has done little to account for these characteristics of international law. And it has made little progress in explaining how international law works in practice: how it originates and changes; how it affects behavior among very differently endowed states; when and why states act consistently with it; and why it plays such an important role in the rhetoric of international relations. This book seeks to answer these and many other related questions.
Case Studies
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A
Published: November 2023

Customary international law fills volumes of treatises, and we cannot try to show that all of it follows the logic of our models. Instead, we examine in detail four areas of customary international law chosen on the basis of their prominence and on the availability of a detailed historical record. The four case studies we examine are the “free ships, free goods” rule of wartime maritime commerce; the breadth of the territorial sea; ambassadorial immunity; and the wartime exemption from prize for coastal fishing vessels. We show that these areas of supposedly robust customary international law never reﬂected universal behavioral regularities and that the actual state behaviors associated with these laws are most easily and parsimoniously explained using our four models.
In Substance, and in Principle, the Same as It Was Heretofore the customary constitution
Authors: Kramer Larry D
Published: November 2023

The idea of a “constitution” was not new in 1787 or even in 1776. Americans had a concept of constitutional law and well-developed ideas about the nature of a constitution long before they sat down to write any of their own. From a historian’s perspective, this concept reached back at least as far as the struggles between James I and Parliament, though men of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries liked to speak of an “Ancient Constitution” whose practices had been followed since “time out of mind.” Colonial Americans were wedded to the principles of this constitution, intimately familiar with its terms and convinced of its essential rightness and wisdom.3 The patterns of thought and action formed by this experience naturally shaped their understanding of the task of writing new constitutions after the Revolution and thus provide a necessary starting point in recovering the original Constitution.
Implied Volatility Surface: Calibrating the Models
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

The valuation of interest rate derivatives using an arbitrage-free interest rate model requires the inputs of the spot yield curve and the term structure of volatilities (or a volatility surface). We have discussed the importance of volatilities for option pricing. Without volatilities, options simply reduce to cash flows, which can be valued by the bond model. Volatilities affect the option value.
High-Yield Corporate Bonds: The Structural Models
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

Credit risk is an important determinant of the value of a corporate bond. It is important because credit risk is prevalent in corporate bonds and may affect the bond value significantly. Few corporate entities (if any) have investment grade ratings which could match the creditworthiness of the U.S. government. One can then say all corporate bond issues have credits risks that vary by a matter of degrees. Many firms have such significant credit risk that they are on the verge of bankruptcy. In this case, their bonds are trading at a fraction of their principal value.
Strategic Value of a Firm: Real Options
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

Thus far, we have discussed two aspects of shareholders” value. Chapter 11 described the financial models for the assets and liabilities to determine their fair value, as opposed to the book value. Market equity value, which is the asset fair value net of the liability fair value, is a measure of the value that the shareholders would claim on the firm if the firm were to liquidate by retiring all the debts at the market prices and selling the remaining assets to investors. In chapter 12, we described how a relative valuation model can be used to determine the market capitalization of the firm. Market capitalization of the firm is the shareholders” value of the firm as a going concern.
Structured Finance: Foreign Exchange Models
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters, we have described some of the financial models used in investment and financing decisions, and we have shown how capital market financial models and corporate finance are often inseparable. We will illustrate this idea further in this chapter by considering a case study of a structured finance deal. We will also describe some of the financial models in foreign exchange markets.
Culture, Social Capital, Institutions
Authors: Meier Gerald M
Published: November 2023

When analyzing why there are crosscountry differential rates of growth, it may be tempting to appeal to national “culture.” In the early days of the subject there were studies of the sociocultural and social psychology aspects of development problems and modernization (Hagen 1968; Hoselitz 1967; McClelland 1961). These efforts, however, did not make much of an impression among economists, and mainstream thinking about development did not focus on the social and institutional dimensions of economic development.
Global Trade Issues
Authors: Meier Gerald M
Published: November 2023

A central feature of globalization is the growing importance of international trade. The share of world trade for many developing countries has increased, but for the poorest countries the share has actually declined. For the “globalizers,” their increase in trade and their gains from trade contribute to their gains from growth. Trade policy, however, affects the amount and distribution of the gains—both from trade and growth. Trade policy, in turn, is shaped to a large extent within the context of the GATT/WTO system. As nations undertake another round of trade negotiations under the new Doha Development Agenda (2001), the overriding challenge is to establish a global rule-based trade architecture that is more supportive of development.
Setting the Scene
Authors: Barabba Vincent P
Published: November 2023

The following story represents thirty years of practical experience and observation. It reveals several major issues faced by any enterprise trying to transform itself so that it can grow and increase its operating margins and services to society. It also sets the stage for thinking about how to start with your destination. Traditionally, there have been two primary approaches used in attempting to grow and increase margins: (1) improving the manner in which the enterprise is currently doing business, or (2) moving into promising areas of new business. This story focuses on the interaction between the two traditional approaches and describes demonstrated processes for addressing the interactions of both-doing one and the other versus doing one or the other. The story also identifies the manner in which strategic thinking procedures, including creating an idealized design of what you want to be, can assist leaders interested in transforming the enterprise-without destroying it in the process. The story is hypothetical, but most readers will have experienced something like the #x201C;problems#x201D; the participants face, though perhaps not the outcome.
Solving the Right Problem the Right Way
Authors: Barabba Vincent P
Published: November 2023

Anyone who has taken an introductory statistics course is familiar with Type I and Type II errors. A Type I error is a false positive, or the mistake of accepting a hypothesis as true when in fact it is false. A Type II error, on the other hand, is a false negative, or the mistake of rejecting a hypothesis when it is actually true. Ian Mitroff of the University of Southern California introduced me to Type III errors: the probability of solving or working on the #x201C;wrong#x201D; problem when one should have worked on (attempted to solve) the #x201C;correct#x201D; problem.
Solving a Divergent-Views Problem Developing the Right Pickup Truck Portfolio and Getting the Right Engine in the Camara and Firebird
Authors: Barabba Vincent P
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter addressed a messy problem, a problem associated with divergent views across multiple organizations. This chapter addresses problems that also involve divergent views based on different mental models, but, although the decisions are affected by external interests, they are focused within fewer organizations. The role of market research in two examples that will be used here is much more specific than the role of more general market research as applied to the development of the entire car product portfolio. The two examples are (1) an important business issue, the design of a platform for pickup trucks, and (2) an important technical issue, the selection of the right engine for a specific vehicle.
Discovery: Gaining a Foothold for the Defense
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R
Published: November 2023

Within a time schedule set by the court, our lawyer responds with an appearance, that is, a letter to the plaintiff’s attorney setting down the ground rules agreed to by both lawyers. These terms of engagement allow the defense to challenge, through filing arguments, the “sufficiency” of the plaintiff’s case. This instrument also defers a formal filing of the answer to the charges until this phase, known as the “pleadings,” is completed.
The Trial
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R
Published: November 2023

From October 11, 1984, until February 18, 1985, CBS News reporter Mike Wallace and U.S. Army General William Westmoreland stare at one another in a New York courtroom, the honor of each at stake in legal combat over differences in the re- porting of certain incidents in the Vietnam war. The emotionally burdened pro- tagonists, almost overwhelmed by the adversarial nature of the trial, come to resent their advocates’ obvious ease and bantering old boy exchanges in the embattled atmosphere of the courtroom. Crowded to the side of the stage as the curtain rises on the trial, they feel stripped of their presumption that they are the principal fig- ures in its drama. The lawyers move easily into the limelight, sure of themselves, accustomed to playing the leading roles in a small ensemble cast whose influence is enormous.
Politics
Authors: Rosen Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

When the Supreme Court decided the presidential election of 2000 in Bush v. Gore, liberals and conservatives accused each other of opportunism and hypocrisy. Liberals insisted that conservatives had abandoned their purported commitment to having political questions decided by political actors (if the Court had not intervened, the electoral dispute would have been resolved by Congress) by inventing a novel judicial theory for one time only. Conservatives countered that liberals were happy to use the courts when it suited their purposes and insisted that the U.S. Supreme Court had to intervene to prevent the election from being stolen by the Supreme Court of Florida. Although the election of 2000 is now a distant memory, the constitutional drama that it precipitated reveals something stark and unsettling about American judicial politics at the moment: neither liberals nor conservatives are consistently committed to the proposition that political questions should be resolved in legislatures rather than courts.
Nixon, Kissinger, and Détente
Authors: Gaddis John Lewis
Published: November 2023

The 1968 presidential campaign was unusual in that, unlike those of 1952 and 1960, it provided little indication of the direction in which the new administration would move once in office. Richard Nixon had made an issue of Johnson’s inability to end the Vietnam War and had promised that he would do so, although without saying how or when. He had also implied, with references to an era of confrontation giving way to one of negotiation, a continuation of the previous administration’s efforts to arrange a relaxation of tensions with the Soviet Union. There had even been hints, in a Foreign Affairs article the previous year and in occasional campaign speeches, of a willingness to consider a new relationship with the People’s Republic of China.1 But, in general, voters going to the polls on election day, 1968, had no idea that they were ushering in the most sweeping changes in United States foreign policy since the idea of containment had first emerged two decades earlier.
Introduction:Financial Innovations in History
Authors: Rouwenhorst William N K Geert , Rouwenhorst K Geert
Published: November 2023

The essays in this volume are written by a distinguished and adventurous set of historians and economists who have been willing, in many cases, to step beyond their typical field of inquiry and explore the historical foundations of financial innovation. First and foremost, the essays are motivated by the need to place our current age of financial revolution in historical perspective. Innovations in the modern world of finance have come to be almost expected, financial instruments spring from the mind of investment bankers almost overnight, and then are analyzed, valued, traded, saved, and hedged themselves-sometimes to be replaced by new financial instruments, and other times to be part of the permanent toolkit of financial engineers and investors. This continuing process of in novation, as sophisticated as it may seem to most of the modern world, is in fact built on surprisingly few basic principles.
Fibonacci and the Financial Revolution
Authors: Goetzmann William N
Published: November 2023

Present value analysis is a method for comparing the relative economic value of differing payment streams, taking into account the time-value of money. Mathematically reducing all cash flow streams to a single point in time allows the investor to decide which is unambiguously the best. According to a recent survey of corporate financial officers, the present value criterion is now used by virtually all large companies in the capital budgeting decision. The modern present value formula was developed by economist Irving Fisher in 1930; however, it originates deeper in the tradition of Western thought. Geoffrey Poitras’s excellent survey of the early history of financial economics traces related interest-rate problems back to fifteenth-century Europe. The roots of the present value criterion may lie deeper still. In this chapter, I argue that an important early formulation of the present value criterion appeared in the work of one of the most famous mathematicians of the Middle Ages, Leonardo of Pisa (1170-1240), commonly called Fibonacci.
The Origins of Mutual Funds
Authors: Rouwenhorst K Geert
Published: November 2023

Over the past two decades, mutual funds have become the primary investment for small investors. At the turn of the twenty-first century, the number of mutual funds in the United States exceeded the number of securities listed on the New York Stock Exchange. Compared to direct investments in individual stocks and bonds, mutual funds offer the advantages of liquidity and diversification at a relatively low cost. While the popularity of mutual funds is relatively recent, the origins of mutual funds date back to the early days of organized stock trading.
Mystification, Neutrality, And Same-Sex Couples In Marriage
Authors: Cruz David B
Published: November 2023

In “Just Marriage,” Mary Lyndon Shanley raises vital issues about the future of marriage and marriage law in the United States. In contrast to marriage exclusionists—my term, not hers—who would perpetuate the denial of civil marriage to same-sex couples, Professor Shanley would open civil marriage to adult couples regardless of the partners’ sexes. Shanley’s essay, however, is not primarily a response to marriage exclusionists. Rather, she aims to defend civil marriage against what she calls “contractualism”—primarily but not exclusively feminist calls for the abolition of marriage as a legal category and its replacement with a regime of private contracts for ordering the relationships of adult couples. Justice in marital relationships can better be achieved, Shanley argues, by transformations in law and policy than by abandoning marriage as a legal category.
Sickle Cell Anemia
Authors: Quirolo Keith
Published: November 2023

The patient was an 11-year-old girl diagnosed at birth by newborn screening as having hemoglobin F and hemoglobin S.She was subsequently determined to be hemoglobin SS. She had a long history of complications of her sickle cell disease, beginning with splenic sequestration at 6 months of age.At that time, she was treated with transfusions and eventually required a partial splenectomy. She was admitted to the hospital at 19 months of age with acute chest syndrome as a complication of respiratory syncytial viral infection.
Cardiac Troponin: Clinical Role in the Diagnosis of Myocardial Infarction
Authors: Apple Fred S , Jaffe Allan S
Published: November 2023

The patient, a 63-year-old Caucasian female,was hospitalized on 4 April 2002 though 10 April 2002 for a non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (non-Q-wave MI per chart documentation). She had a negative adenosine stress test after the initial event. Her serum cardiac-specific troponin I (cTnI) concentration 24 hours after her onset of chest pain was 1.4 μg/L (upper limit of normal is 0.3 ng/mL), and her creatine kinase (CK) MB level was 12.5 μg/L (upper limit of normal 6.0 ng/mL).Three days post-event her cTnI level was 0.5 μg/L and her CK-MB level was 4.5 μg/L (Fig. 5-1). MB refers to one of the isoenzyme forms of CK found in serum. The form of the enzyme that occurs in brain (BB) does not usually get past the blood-brain barrier and therefore is not normally present in the serum. The MM and MB forms account for almost all of the CK in serum.Skeletal muscle contains mainly MM, with less than 2% of its CK in the MB form. MM is also the predominant myocardial creatine kinase and MB accounts for 10%–20% of creatine kinase in heart muscle.
Systemic Carnitine Deficiency: A Treatable Disorder
Authors: Brass Eric P , Paul Harbhajan S , Sekas Gail
Published: November 2023

A 3.5-year-old boy presented to the emergency room with hypoglycemia. The patient’s history was remarkable for multiple episodes of altered consciousness resulting in hospital admissions since age 3 months. These episodes were characterized by depressed mental status or coma and hypoglycemia (blood glucose typically 15 mg/dL, normal 75–105 mg/dL). Seizure activity was noted on several admissions. On evaluation, the patient was consistently noted to have proximal muscle weakness, hepatomegaly, congestive heart failure, elevations of serum transaminases (aspartate aminotransferase [AST], and alanine aminotransferase [ALT]) to greater than 2000 IU/L (normal values 10–30 IU/L and 10–40 IU/L for AST and ALT, respectively) and elevated serum creatine phosphokinase to greater than 1500 IU/L (normal <175 IU/L).
Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptors and Familial Hypercholesterolemia
Authors: Cuchel Marina , Rader Daniel J
Published: November 2023

A 10-year-old girl from China was evaluated at the University of Pennsylvania for homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) and possible participation in an experimental gene therapy protocol for her condition. Cutaneous xanthomas (lesions characterized by abnormal accumulation of lipids in macrophages) were first observed at 3 months of age. However, the origins were not fully investigated until the age of 3 years, when she was found to have a total cholesterol level of 1150 mg/dL (desirable levels are < 200 mg/dL) with normal triglyceride levels, and the diagnosis of homozygous FH was made. Both of her parents’ total cholesterol levels were in the range of 300–400 mg/dL, consistent with the diagnosis of heterozygous FH. A positive family history for premature coronary artery disease was present on both sides.