bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia in Children
Authors: Dhingra Dhulika , Singh Amitabh , Mandal Anirban
Published: July 2017

Pneumocystis jirovecii (previously known as Pneumocystis carinii), a yeast-like, atypical fungus, is an important human pathogen especially in the immunocompromised hosts. It primarily causes pneumonia (P. jirovecii pneumonia or PJP), but rarely can infect other extrapulmonary sites, such as lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and bone marrow. Though an early age of colonization/infection has been documented even in healthy children, children with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, those with immunosuppression secondary to malignancies, cancer chemotherapy, and other immunosuppressive agents, and primary immunodeficiency are the ones primarily affected with the disease. The mode of presentation is variable depending on the underlying disease, immune status, and age of the patient, but clinical features of PJP are largely nonspecific. Though diffuse, perihilar predominant, bilaterally symmetrical interstitial infiltrates with apical sparing is characteristically seen in pulmonary imaging, it is very difficult to differentiate between PJP and other causes of pneumonia in immunocompromised hosts. The growth of the organism being extremely difficult in the laboratory, direct demonstration of the organism or its DNA in pulmonary secretions (induced sputum, bronchoalveolar lavage [BAL], etc.) by either direct stains or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the predominant mode of diagnosis. Chemoprophylaxis is indicated for HIV-infected infants and other children with profound immunosuppression. Co-trimoxazole is the drug of choice for both prophylaxis and therapy in children with PJP; pentamidine, atovaquone, dapsone, and clindamycin/primaquine are other alternatives. Following the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of HIV disease and co-trimoxazole prophylaxis, both the incidence of PJP and associated mortality have decreased dramatically in the developing regions. Developing countries still have very high morbidity and mortality with PJP, especially in HIV-infected children.
PT bei Patella-Luxation
Authors: Dölken Mechthild
Published: July 2017

Luxationen der Patella kommen in verschiedenen Formen vor. Lesen Sie, welche Ursachen Patellaluxationen haben und wie die Physiotherapie so
angepasst werden kann, dass sie in allen Heilungsphasen mit unterschiedlichen Belastungen in der geschlossenen Kette möglich ist.
Ist Alter eine Komorbidität?
Authors: Hoffmann Ute , Sieber Cornel
Published: July 2017

Aging is normal process, only somehow questioned by the "anti-aging wave". Normal and pathological aging are therefore separate developments. Older adults often suffer from the frailty syndrome, partly due to diminished resilience. Aging per se is not a comorbidity.
Calcium Homeostasis in Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Hundehege Petra , Epping Lisa , Meuth S.
Published: July 2017

Calcium is the signal molecule crucial for almost all cellular processes. Disturbances in calcium homeostasis are responsible for a variety of pathological conditions. This review article summarizes recent findings on the influence of calcium in multiple sclerosis.
Coupling of statistics and math models identifies power tail jump patterns in time series
Authors: Blaustein Rich
Published: July 2017

Researchers provide a framework that accounts for the proximity of nonlinear models with power tail jumps to time series.
Rapid, chemical-free breaking of microfluidic emulsions with a hand-held antistatic gun
Authors: Karbaschi Mohsen , Shahi Payam , Abate Adam R.
Published: July 2017

Droplet microfluidics can form and process millions of picoliter droplets with speed and ease, allowing the execution of huge numbers of biological reactions for high-throughput studies. However, at the conclusion of most experiments, the emulsions must be broken to recover and analyze their contents. This is usually achieved with demulsifiers, like perfluorooctanol and chloroform, which can interfere with downstream reactions and harm cells. Here, we describe a simple approach to rapidly and efficiently break microfluidic emulsions, which requires no chemicals. Our method allows one-pot multi-step reactions, making it useful for large scale automated processing of reactions requiring demulsification. Using a hand-held antistatic gun, we pulse emulsions with the electric field, coalescing ∼100 μl of droplets in ∼10 s. We show that while emulsions broken with chemical demulsifiers exhibit potent PCR inhibition, the antistatic-broken emulsions amplify efficiently. The ability to break emulsions quickly without chemicals should make our approach valuable for most demulsification needs in microfluidics.
On the sources of forgetting in working memory: The test of competing hypotheses
Authors: Barrouillet Pierre , Uittenhove Kim , Lucidi Annalisa , Langerock Naomi
Published: July 2017

Whether forgetting from working memory (WM) is only due to interference or is also caused by temporal decay is still a matter of debate. In the present study, this question was examined using complex span tasks in which each memory item was followed by a series of processing episodes, the duration and number of which were varied. It is known that recall performance in these tasks depends on the cognitive load ( CL) of concurrent processing conceived as the ratio between processing time and free time, higher CL resulting in lower spans. The decay-and-refresh hypothesis accounts for this effect by assuming that memory traces decay during processing but are refreshed during free time. This hypothesis predicts lower recall performance with longer processing episodes, but no effect of their number as long as CL remains constant. The interference-only hypothesis supposes that free time is used to alleviate the interference created by processing distractors. This hypothesis is potentially compatible with an effect of the duration of processing episodes through increased interference, but predicts a detrimental effect of their number. In three experiments, the recall pattern fitted the predictions of the decay-and-refresh hypothesis for verbal WM, but that of the interference-only hypothesis for visuospatial WM. Although the entire pattern of data is more easily accommodated by the decay-and-refresh hypothesis than by its interference-only contender, our results suggest that it is unwise to aim at identifying a unique source to a complex phenomenon like WM forgetting.
Recruitment Patterns of Juvenile Fish at an Artificial Reef Area in the Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Arney Rachel N. , Froehlich Catheline Y. M. , Kline Richard J.
Published: July 2017

In 2011 the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and the Coastal Conservation Association of Texas deployed over 4,000 concrete culverts in a designated artificial reef area off Port Mansfield, Texas, to enhance habitat for sport fish species in the Gulf of Mexico. A study was conducted to assess juvenile fish recruitment at varying culvert densities within the artificial reef area. Standard monitoring units for the recruitment of reef fish (SMURFs) were used to sample juvenile fish, and these collections were compared with visual scuba surveys. The 0.027-m3 SMURFs were placed at four different culvert densities (0, 1–50, 51–100, and 101+ culverts in a 30-m radius) and sampled during 2013 to 2014. Measurements of rugosity, vertical relief, and percent cover were collected to elucidate factors that drive juvenile recruitment. Average species richness was highest at sites with no culverts and lowest at dense culvert sites. Species compositions were significantly different between sampling locations with no culverts and all locations with culverts; average similarity was 33.8%. Belted Sandfish Serranus subligarius was the most ubiquitous species among all sampling locations. Visual scuba surveys at the same locations showed lower diversity indices of the juvenile fish community than observed by SMURFs and were only 14% similar to the community sampled by the SMURFs. These findings suggest SMURFs are a more effective tool for examining juvenile fish at an artificial reef due to the cryptic nature of juveniles and the low visibility around shallow reefs. Additionally, commercially important Yellowedge Grouper Hyporthodus flavolimbatus, Warsaw Grouper H. nigritus, and Red Snapper Lutjanus campechanus juveniles were only found at SMURFs at sampling locations with no culverts. The presence of juveniles of these key species suggest that fisheries management may benefit from creating low-relief reef patches away from the main reef where juvenile fish can recruit and grow.
Size and concentration analyses of extracellular vesicles by nanoparticle tracking analysis: a variation study
Authors: Vestad Beate , Llorente Alicia , Neurauter Axl , Phuyal Santosh , Kierulf Bente , Kierulf Peter , Skotland Tore , Sandvig Kirsten , Haug Kari Bente F. , Øvstebø Reidun
Published: July 2017

Current methods for characterisation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) need further standardisation in order to obtain an acceptable level of data comparability. Size and concentration of EVs can be determined by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). However, both the heterogeneity of EVs and the choice of instrument settings may cause an appreciable analytical variation. Intra‐assay (within‐day, n = 6) and inter‐assay (day‐to‐day, n = 6) variations (coefficient of variation, % CV) of different preparations of EVs and artificial vesicles or beads were determined using two NanoSight NS500 instruments, located at different laboratories. All analyses were performed by the same operator. The effect of applying identical software settings or instrument‐optimised settings for each sample type and instrument was also evaluated. Finally, the impact of different operators and the use of two different software versions were investigated. The intra‐assay CVs were 1–12% for both EVs and artificial samples, measured on the same instrument. The overall day‐to‐day variation was similar for both instruments, ranging from 2% to 25%. However, significantly different results were observed between the two instruments using identical software settings. The effect of applying instrument‐optimised settings reduced the mismatch between the instruments, resulting in little to no significant divergences. The impact of using different operators and software versions when analysing silica microspheres and microvesicles from monocytes using instrument‐optimised settings on the same instrument did not contribute to significant variation compared to the overall day‐to‐day variation of one operator. Performance differences between two similar NTA instruments may display significant divergences in size and concentration measurements when analysing EVs, depending on applied instrument settings and technical conditions. The importance of developing a streamlined and standardised execution of analysis, as well as monitoring longitudinal variation parameters on both biological and synthetic samples, should be highlighted.
Sociological history of New England Town Meetings: The question of their deliberative culture
Authors: Cossart Paula , Felicetti Andrea
Published: July 2017

Historical New England Town Meetings have long had an important role in the collective imaginary as exemplary models of democratic participation. However, scholarly investigation has pointed to important limitations with respect to the democratic credentials of these assemblies. In this paper, we engage with recent theorising from deliberative democracy to provide an updated historical examination of the deliberative and democratic qualities of Town Meetings from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. We show that Town Meetings provided a space to engage in meaningful deliberation in the context of settlers’ communities. Nonetheless, through analyses using the notions of deliberative culture and group style, we show that these communities featured deep anti-democratic norms that curtailed the democratic potential of these assemblies.
The College Bundle
Authors: Archibald Robert B.
Published: July 2017

This chapter explores the bundle of services on offer at most colleges and universities. There are sound economic and historical reasons for why the bundle includes most of its items, and for why the bundle is so similar across institutions. This chapter divides the bundle into three separate categories by how close they are to the educational mission. The primary services include teaching, research, and the support services they need. The secondary bundle includes room and board, and other services provided to undergraduates. The tertiary bundle includes things that enhance campus life but that are even less directly connected to the primary mission of educating, retaining, and ultimately graduating students, such as intercollegiate athletics.
The Evolutionary Future
Authors: Archibald Robert B.
Published: July 2017

The higher education system is resilient. Disruption is not around the corner. Yet the future is not secure. There has been a growing bifurcation of the system into a set of well-resourced institutions that serve families with means and a group of underresourced institutions that serve the bulk of the nation’s underprivileged students. The schools most at risk are nonselective public institutions and financially weaker small private colleges. This chapter describes how the turbulence buffeting the higher education system is likely to play out among our diverse higher education institutions, and how this may affect social mobility in the future.
(Re)presenting Romanitas at Sir John Soane’s House and Villa
Authors: Kuttner Ann
Published: July 2017

This paper considers the houses of Neoclassical British architect Sir John Soane (1753–1837): his famous House Museum in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London; and the considerably less-well known Pitzhanger Manor House, Ealing. With architectural precedents set by Sir Francis Bacon and Lord Burlington, nothing could have been more Roman in Soane and his contemporaries than the conviction that a house and its decor express the persona of the inhabitant. Soane was a working-class Englishman with enormous social and professional ambitions. Both Pitzhanger Manor and the house at Lincoln’s Inn Fields and drew inspiration and showcased materials from Soane’s travels in Italy with Frederick Hervey, Earl-Bishop of Derry and the design of his classicizing estate at Downhill; contemporary excavations at Pompeii and the Villa Negroni; and Soane’s own collection of Classical sculpture, and plaster casts. These houses, with their faux-ruins and talismanic interiors of “Pompeiian red,” were not only dwelling places for Soane and his family, they signaled his gentrification, while simultaneously advertising what he could produce for elite clients. Soane’s interpretation of Classical forms and creation of Neoclassical forms was grounded in archaeological discoveries and a knowledge of Classical antiquity, marking an important distinction between him and many of his contemporaries.
Afterword
Authors: von Stackelberg Katharine T. , Macaulay-Lewis Elizabeth
Published: July 2017

The papers in this volume have considered the reception, translation, transcription, and appropriation of Classical and Ancient Egyptian architecture in spaces of dwelling from the mid-eighteenth to late twentieth centuries. A complex picture emerges from these diverse analyses that points to future avenues for research. Most fundamentally, these essays demonstrate that scholars should approach much of the reception of ancient architecture not solely through a Neoclassical or Neo-Egyptian lens, but also through that of the Neo-Antique. Broader in concept, a Neo-Antique framework encourages us to make connections between the silos of knowledge, specifically here the Neoclassical and the Neo-Egyptian, to understand that the processes guiding the reception of Classical and Egyptian architecture were often similar, and part of the larger reception of antiquity in Europe and the United States. The Neo-Antique framework also challenges established conceptions of the Neoclassical’s limitations—an aristocratic and elite, derivative phenomenon—and redefines it as diverse, innovative, and original. These essays demonstrate that interest in ancient architecture was not limited to the civic and/or public sphere, but rather, that ancient architecture appealed to a wide range of patrons, architects, and artists in their creation of dwelling places—from dining rooms and bedrooms to tombs and gardens....
Conclusion
Authors: Sytsma David S.
Published: July 2017

This chapter summarizes the findings of the book and briefly discusses how Baxter’s relation to mechanical philosophy relates to later nonconformist and Puritan tradition. Although Baxter’s response to mechanical philosophy included Cartesianism, he gave greater weight to Pierre Gassendi’s Christian Epicureanism than theologians in the Netherlands, and this fact points to the importance of Gassendi’s philosophy in seventeenth-century England. Baxter’s negative response to the philosophy of Descartes and Gassendi points to an important discontinuity in early modern Puritanism and nonconformity. Later theological leaders working in this tradition such as Isaac Watts, Philip Doddridge, and Jonathan Edwards were far more favorable toward mechanical philosophy. This discontinuity highlights the variegated nature of the larger Puritan and Reformed tradition.
A Twenty-First Century Approach to Community Change
Authors: Allen-Meares Paula , Shanks Tina R. , Gant Larry M. , Hollingsworth Leslie , Miller Patricia L.
Published: July 2017

Urban renewal has been the dominant approach to revitalizing industrialized communities that fall into decline. Detroit, with its vast majority Black population and struggling auto industry, encountered such decline. The Skillman Foundation sought to engage in a joint effort to bring Detroit back to its position of strength. With its mission of enhancing the development and well-being of children, Skillman entered partnerships with six Detroit neighborhoods with the largest concentrations of children whose well-being and development was at risk. The Foundation solicited the technical assistance of the University of Michigan School of Social Work. This book introduces readers to the environment within which the work of technical assistance began. The work is placed within a theoretical and practice context. This includes conducting needs assessments at multiple levels, engaging community members in identifying strategies for problem-solving, assistance in developing community goals for immediate and long-term success, and implementing social work field instruction opportunities. Lessons learned and challenges are described as they played out in the process of creating partnerships for the Foundation with community leaders, engaging and maintaining youth involvement, managing roles and relationships with multiple partners recruited by the Foundation for their specialized expertise, and conducting the work of technical assistance within a context of increasing influence of the city’s surrounding systems (political, economic, educational, and social). Readers will note the role of technical assistance in an evolving theory of change. Case vignettes, case-based discussion questions, and additional resources in each chapter provide an excellent opportunity for classroom use.
Introduction to Good Neighborhoods
Authors: Allen-Meares Paula
Published: July 2017

This introductory chapter describes the Skillman Foundation’s vision for the Good Neighborhoods program and introduces the six communities that were the target of the Foundation’s work for change and the theories of change. The chapter further addresses the emergence and development of the partnership between an embedded foundation and the University of Michigan School of Social Work, which led to the creation, organization, and funding of the Technical Assistance Center (TAC). The organization, processes, and planning required for the implementation of the change process is described. The chapter provides a context for the process that evolved during the economic and social catastrophes that impacted Detroit.
Community Change Process
Authors: Hollingsworth Leslie , Gant Larry M. , Miller Patricia L.
Published: July 2017

Abstract: This chapter summarizes and discusses the planning phase of the community change process that comprised the three Good Neighborhoods phases (planning, readiness, and transformation). The purpose of the planning phase was to engage neighborhood residents and stakeholders in a community-wide planning process that would result in a community goal and action plan that was community-owned and -driven. In this chapter, the authors describe and discuss the process by which engagement of the community, needs assessment, and planning took place. The authors use the Osborn neighborhood as the case, recognizing that, as much as possible, the same process was followed in each of the six neighborhoods.
The Promises and Perils of Subjecthood and Jurisdiction
Authors: Muller Hannah Weiss
Published: July 2017

Chapter 5 moves to the Indian Ocean and centers on the vibrant trading community of Calcutta. The East India Company’s assumption of the diwani for Bengal in 1765 and its accelerating territorial expansion in the Indian subcontinent provoked concerns about subject status and jurisdiction over those residing in Company territories. These concerns were never fully resolved by the 1773 Regulating Act and were intimately connected to struggles over authority between the British government and the East India Company. This chapter identifies the range of individuals actually subject to the Supreme Court of Judicature, founded in 1774, at the same time as it focuses on the political and jurisdictional repercussions of subject status. It underlines why the judiciary became a central site for negotiations over subjecthood and how subject status became a malleable tool in the hands of judges.
Conclusion
Authors: Muller Hannah Weiss
Published: July 2017

The Conclusion synthesizes the commonalities between the case studies and argues that a flexible and expansive subject status ultimately served to bind this empire of diverse peoples and colonies. Subjecthood provided millions throughout the empire with a common status and language, imbuing the imperial entity with a degree of symbolic coherence that it might otherwise have lacked. Perhaps just as significant, expansive interpretations of subject status were instrumental to integrating the British Empire at a functional level. The very absence of a uniform definition of subjecthood provided administrators with tremendous flexibility in responding to demands in individual colonies, offering or withholding concessions and incentives as needed. This chapter concludes by looking ahead to debates over subject status that would continue in subsequent centuries, revealing subjecthood’s enduring vitality and relevance.
Josquin Desprez – Missa Pange Lingua
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

The historical portion of this chapter presents material about Josquin’s artistic status during the Renaissance, including testimonies by Martin Luther, Hans Ott, and Heinrich Glareanus. Included also is an overview of Josquin’s Masses, with focus on his final Mass—the Missa Pange lingua, composed sometime after 1515 but not published until 1539, after Josquin’s death. However, numerous copies of the Mass existed during and shortly after Josquin’s lifetime. The analysis portion of the chapter discusses Josquin’s imitative technique, extensive use of ostinatos, and paraphrase of Gregorian chant. Performance practices include numbers, types, and placements of singers; meter, tactus, and tempo; text underlay; and musica ficta and music recta.
Joseph Haydn – The Creation
Authors: Shrock Dennis
Published: July 2017

This chapter discusses Haydn’s employment history with the Esterházy family and its important role in his musical development and in the establishment of his fame, his introduction to Handel oratorios during travels to London, his relationships with Johann Peter Salomon and Gottfried van Swieten, factors regarding the history and development of the libretto of The Creation, and circumstances surrounding the composition and premiere of the oratorio. Musical topics focus on Haydn’s particular manner of text expression as well as organization of musical material in terms of structure. Performance practice topics include discussion of the oratorio’s editions, performance language in German or English, scoring, meter and tempo, metric accentuation, recitative, and ornamentation.
Thy Rod and Thy Staff, They Discomfort Me
Authors: Heine Steven
Published: July 2017

This chapter examines the role of the staff as perhaps the primary religious symbol representing the profound aptitude of the spiritual authenticity as well as institutional authority of Zen masters. By virtue of evoking and embodying an adept’s greatest levels of accomplishment, the staff serves as an especially expedient means for implementing his particular method of instructing disciples and, thereby, also becomes an effective method of transmitting the teaching style and legacy of his lineage. Through examining the history and symbolism of more than half a dozen varieties of canes, rods, sceptres, sticks, and whisks, the chapter explores the material and rhetorical elements of Zen staffs.
Form and Function
Authors: Pitelka Morgan
Published: July 2017

The institutional and discursive connections between Zen Buddhism and the ritualized culture of tea (chanoyu) in Japan are clear, but the ostensible link between Zen and the material culture of tea (i.e., tea houses, gardens, and both imported and domestically produced utensils such as tea bowls and calligraphy) is less evident. This chapter will consider the problem of Zen’s inconsistent and historically contingent relationship to the material culture of tea with particular reference to the history of the tea bowl in Japan. It considers well-known examples of tea bowls in Japanese tea culture and the changing social and political contexts for their production and use, and it argues that for some, drinking tea from a bowl may indeed trigger satori, but for others, a bowl is just a bowl.
The Importance of Imports
Authors: Graham Patricia J.
Published: July 2017

This chapter explores the cultural identity of Ōbaku Zen, which played a crucial role in the sixteenth century as a vehicle for importing Chinese culture. This was manifested in Manpukuji’s initial trove of material culture associated with the temple’s founder, Ingen Ryūki (Ch. Yinyuan Longqi, 1592–1684). It also touches upon the reception and legacy of Ingen’s material objects to demonstrate how naturalized into Japanese life Ōbaku’s presence became. This greatly affected other sectarian traditions and even diverse aspects of Japanese intellectual and artistic life and popular culture outside the religious sphere from the Tokugawa era up to the present.
Visual Culture in Japan’s Imperial Rinzai Zen Convents
Authors: Fister Patricia
Published: July 2017

This chapter focuses on the lives and creative output of two Rinzai nuns, Daitsū Bunchi (1619–1697) and Tokugon Rihō (1672–1745). They both served for decades as abbesses of imperial convents, and both created chinzō portraits, paintings and/or sculptures of Kannon, Bodhidharma, Ś
ākyamuni, and other images that distinguished them from their male counterparts (e.g., images made of needlework, hair, and other bodily relics). Relying on their own written accounts, this chapter demonstrates that these two women were motivated to create votive objects, images, and calligraphies themselves as an integral aspect of their practice, rather than commissioning them from professional artisans, which as imperial nuns they had the financial means to do.
Gassendi on the Problem of Universals
Authors: LoLordo Antonia
Published: July 2017

Gassendi argues against universals and claims that the work traditionally thought to require them can in fact be done by general ideas. His arguments against universals are puzzling because they are almost entirely aimed at the doctrine of universals in re, a kind of realism which none of his contemporaries accepted. This chapter argues that Gassendi’s attack on universals is mainly intended to serve a rhetorical function—to emphasize the newness of his system and its anti-Aristotelian credentials. The chapter also provides an explanation of Gassendi’s theory of general ideas, focusing on its application to natural kinds. Finally, it analyzes Gassendi’s distinction between two different kinds of general ideas and how it bears on the distinction between intellect and imagination.
Universals and Individuals in Malebranche’s Philosophy
Authors: Priarolo Mariangela
Published: July 2017

In Malebranche’s work, universals are identified with God’s ideas, which are the same ideas by means of which human beings know the world. However, because Malebranche states, at least in his mature writings, that all ideas are universal, general, and infinite, the knowledge of particulars appears problematic. This chapter addresses this question by showing that a consideration of the medieval sources of Malebranche’s theory of knowledge—the vision in God—allows for not only a better understanding of the problem but also its solution. In fact, as with Aquinas’s God, whose definition of divine ideas is here recalled, Malebranche’s God gives rise to individual ideas by looking at His essence. In this sense, Malebranche seems to propose a theory of knowledge of individuals both for human beings—as Martial Gueroult has already suggested—and for God.
Berkeley on Abstraction, Universals, and Universal Knowledge
Authors: Stoneham Tom
Published: July 2017

This chapter includes three claims. The first is that while Berkeley treated the metaphysical problem of universals as unproblematically resolved in favor of nominalism (which he interpreted in an extreme form), he recognized the epistemic problem as a separate issue he needed to engage with and this is the primary positive contribution of his attack on abstraction. The second is that his solution to the epistemic problem is semiotic, but his semantics here is anthropocentric and pragmatic (in contrast to the semantics of visual language). The third is that this semantic theory, while it emphasizes the role of signs and thus has some affinities with formalism, has no special role for formal properties of signs and in fact makes formalism hard to achieve.
Legal Socialization and the Elements of Legitimacy
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Trinkner Rick
Published: July 2017

The chapters in Part I discuss the two basic models for understanding the relationship between people and law: coercive and consensual. The consensual model relies upon people’s willingness to obey laws because they think it is appropriate and proper to do so. The belief that law and legal authorities are legitimate and ought to be voluntarily obeyed develops during the childhood and adolescent socialization process. A coercive model of authority relies upon the use of force and credible threats of detection and punishment for rule-breaking to promote compliance. As children mature they move through three spheres of authority: family, school, and juvenile justice. In each sphere children and adolescents can develop the belief that the law is legitimate, and feel a duty to defer to law or they can come to view the law as coercive and comply out of fear of punishment.
Legal Socialization across the Life Course
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Trinkner Rick
Published: July 2017

Every developing child goes through a series of stages associated with childhood and adolescence. This is the focus of chapter 3. To some extent development is an invariant progression shaped by cognitive and biological growth, and the capacities and limits that exist at any stage of individual growth. At the same time, the progression reflects the unique experience of each individual over their life course, particularly with nonlegal and legal authority figures. Beyond that, every child grows up during a particular period in history that has particular events such as the war in Vietnam or the 9/11 terror attacks, which create a unique social climate and produce common concerns and outlooks among the members of a particular age cohort. These common elements have been widely discussed in popular writing that has sought to distinguish among the silent generation, baby boomers, generation X, millennials, and generation Z.
Developing Values and Attitudes about the Law
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Trinkner Rick
Published: July 2017

The chapters in Part II focus on different theoretical models of the legal socialization process. The development of legitimacy is only one facet of a general process of socialization through which children and adolescents develop. Their legal development involves value acquisition, attitude formation, and the growth of reasoning skills. All of these processes occur over time amid a general biological and neurological growth process that enables more advanced reasoning skills, emotional maturity, and capacities to think about the meaning and purpose of rules and systems of authority. We review of each of these theoretical frameworks to provide an overview of whether the field stands at a conceptual level.
Conclusions and Final Thoughts
Authors: Tyler Tom R. , Trinkner Rick
Published: July 2017

In this final part, a review of the findings in three distinct areas of development—family, school, and juvenile justice—suggests common support for the distinction between two models of legal authority. Consensual authority is possible when legal actions are legitimate. Experiencing procedural justice from authorities facilitates the development of a framework for consenting to rules and regulation. Once such a framework exists people voluntarily defer to authorities, feeling it is appropriate to do so, if those authorities are recognized as being legitimate. To be legitimate an authority needs to make decisions justly, treat people respectfully, and recognize the range of their authority, distinguishing it from areas of personal autonomy. Evidence suggests that consensual systems are superior, yet in each of the arenas studied there are strong proponents of strategies that do not promote legitimacy and that lead to coercive systems of law.
Finding Meaning in an Imperfect World
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

After explaining what meaning in life is, the book moves to criticizing certain presuppositions about the meaning of life that unnecessarily lead many people to believe that their lives are meaningless. Among others, it criticizes perfectionism about meaning in life, namely, the assumption that meaningful lives must include some perfection or some rare and difficult achievements. It then responds to recurring arguments made by people who take their lives to be meaningless, such as the arguments claiming that life is meaningless because death eventually annihilates us and everything we do; whatever we do is negligible when examined in the context of the whole universe; we have no free will and, thus, deserve no praise for what we achieve; everything, including meaning, is completely relative; we do not know what the purpose of life is; whenever we achieve something we stop sensing it as valuable; and there is so much suffering and evil in the world. The book also offers strategies that may help people identify what is meaningful in life and increase its meaningfulness. The final chapters consider questions such as whether only religious people can have meaningful lives; whether meaning of life should be discussed only by psychologists; and whether existentialism is a good source of guidance on the meaning of life.
Introduction
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

The introductory chapter sets out the aims of the book and the issues it discusses, and then explains the term “meaning of life.” It shows that meaning of life has much to do with value. This analysis is shown to cohere with the claims made by many laypersons about the meaning or meaninglessness of their lives and with assertions made by Tolstoy, Frankl, Thoreau, Nagel, and others. The analysis also makes sense of such questions as whether “This is all there is to it” or whether “This is as good as it gets,” and with complaints about alienation and boredom with life.
Against Perfectionism
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

Of all the presuppositions that lead people to believe that their life is meaningless, probably the most common and harmful is the perfectionist presupposition, according to which meaningful lives must include some perfection or rare and difficult achievements, and have to transcend the common and mundane. The chapter presents six arguments against perfectionism about meaning in life. One is that many perfectionists about meaning in life are upholding double standards and are discriminating against themselves. Another is that perfectionism often involves a great deal of cruelty. And a third is that perfectionism about meaning in life is often based on hypercompetitiveness.
Death and Annihilation II
Authors: Landau Iddo
Published: July 2017

While the previous chapter responded to arguments that, it was claimed, fail to show that life can be meaningful despite our mortality, this chapter presents an argument that succeeds at showing this. True, death diminishes meaning, and an infinite life would have been more meaningful than a finite one. But this does not mean that a finite life is devoid of all meaning (unless, of course, one is a perfectionist). A finite life can have considerable, albeit not absolute, meaning. The chapter presents examples that undermine the view that all experiences and lives are equal because of their transience. It shows that the myth of Sisyphus and Tolstoy’s fable offer inaccurate portrayals of the human condition.
Ordinary Language and Philosophical Conversion
Authors: Norris Andrew
Published: July 2017

This chapter evaluates Cavell’s reception of Austin’s ordinary language philosophy, showing it to be more critical than it has been understood to be. For Austin, the ordinary language philosopher speaks in the first-person plural to remind other philosophers of “what we say when” so as to correct the mistakes those philosophers have made in writing about ethics, epistemology, etc. But Austin cannot give a compelling explanation of why those other philosophers require such reminders: how can they have been wrong about their language and its implications, since they too are one of us who speak the language? On Cavell’s account, we forget what we say when—or, what comes to the same thing, fail to mean what we say—because we evade ourselves. Ordinary language philosophy does not correct mistakes but addresses the uncanny nature of the ordinary, that it is not yet what it is.
Walden and the Foundations of True Political Expression
Authors: Norris Andrew
Published: July 2017

This chapter turns to Cavell’s first encounter with American transcendentalism and his initial exploration of views he would later characterize as “Emersonian perfectionism.” As read by Cavell, Thoreau’s Walden is a sustained attempt to wake his readers that bears comparison with Socrates’s attempt to wake his fellow citizens. Thoreau’s attempt is a provocative one in the sense that he must at once attract and disturb or repel his reader. Cavell’s reading of Thoreau both brings out and draws upon hitherto unnoticed resemblances between Walden and Being and Time. The chapter concludes by considering the manner in which a proper understanding of these works throws into high relief the profound differences between their authors’ respective understanding of politics and of the place of philosophy in public life.
From New Liberalism to Neoliberalism
Authors: Nishizawa Tamotsu , Ikeda Yukihiro
Published: July 2017

The chapter explores the intellectual background of the shift toward neoliberal policymaking in Japan. There existed a variety of New Liberal and neoliberal traditions in the Japanese economic thought, which meant the transition from one welfare regime to the next did not necessarily rest on imported ideas. The chapter describes New Liberalism and social liberalism between the wars and the intellectual basis of the postwar welfare regime (focusing on Fukuda, Ishibashi, and Ueda). It then describes the New Liberalism and neoliberalism in the postwar business world (focusing on Keizai-doyukai, the Japan Economic Research Institute, and the Institute of World Economy). The chapter describes the rise of neoliberalism, first under the radar, then explicitly after the mid-1970s (when Hayek won the Nobel Prize), focusing on Nishiyama.
Between Business and Academia in Postwar Britain
Authors: Rollings Neil
Published: July 2017

This chapter examines the attitudes of three neoliberal business economists about the welfare state in postwar Britain. The three—John Jewkes, Arthur Shenfield, and Barry Bracewell-Milnes—had some degree of economic literacy, and each was active in neoliberal circles and critical of Britain’s welfare state in the 1960s along typical neoliberal lines. Significantly, all three provided economic advice at the heart of the British business community. This illustrates three main points. First, neoliberals were not as isolated before the 1970s as commonly presented and had good links with parts of the business community. Second, the focus on the intellectuals in the Mont Pelerin Society (MPS) distorts our understanding of the organization and the dissemination of its ideas. Third, we need to be aware of the growing number of business economists in Britain and other advanced economies after World War II and the role that they played.
The Initiative for a New Social-Market Economy and the Transformation of the German Welfare Regime after Unification
Authors: Kinderman Daniel
Published: July 2017

This chapter focuses on how business interests and neoliberal ideas have come together in Germany during the past two decades. It is based on a detailed analysis of the INSM, a large-scale campaign founded and funded by the metal industry employers’ association Gesamtmetall in 2000 to shape public opinion. Since its origination, the INSM has launched a systematic attack on the German welfare state. As part of a business-led public relations campaign, the purpose of the INSM is to propagate market-oriented reforms and influence public opinion and policymaking rather than to develop new economic ideas. Nevertheless, a group of economists associated with the Mont Pèlerin Society have actively supported and campaigned for the INSM. The INSM exposes a serious problem with the academic literature that characterizes Germany as an exemplar of “nonliberal” capitalism: the positions of leading German business officials and economists are fundamentally and unmistakably liberal.
Election Audits
Authors: Shein Erica , Vickery Chad
Published: July 2017

This chapter examines the role of the international community when using audits as a way of settling disputes about election results. Examples include Afghanistan in 2014, Haiti in 2010, and Kosovo in 2010. The aim of these audits is to resolve allegations of fraud, to mediate peacefully among disputing parties, and to establish credible evidence about the results. This process is thought to be particularly important for peace building in fragile states where governance structures and rule of law are weak and fraud allegations over election outcomes may easily trigger further conflict and violence. The chapter examines the standards that should be used in any audit process, including considering issues of ownership; clearly defined principles; rigorous, impartial, and consistent methods to establish the factual evidence; and the need for a timely evaluation of the outcome and resolve disputes.
Domestic Monitors
Authors: Grömping Max
Published: July 2017

This chapter analyzes the roles of domestic election observers who are monitoring contests in countries around the world where elections have been commonly undermined by malpractices such as clientelism, fraud, intimidation, and vote buying. It predicts that the formation and maintenance of domestic election watchdog groups depends primarily on a combination of grievances (incidents of serious electoral malpractice) and political opportunities (the freedom of civil society groups to mobilize around such issues). Moreover, these factors are theorized to interact. As a result, domestic monitors are expected to be strongest in hybrid regimes that are neither established democracies nor electoral autocracies, displaying an inverted U-shape pattern across levels of democratization. The chapter presents evidence supporting this proposition by drawing from a new data set documenting the global distribution of domestic monitoring groups.
Cognitive Development and Evolution
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

When acknowledging that the mind is embodied, cognitive development and evolution must determine how the body and environment shape the mind. Evolution has evolved structures and computational mechanisms in the body, and the brain that predispose ontogenetic development. Starting with conception, brain, body, and mind co-develop, and shape each other. An infant first develops rudimentary bodily representation and control capabilities, and concurrently uses them to abstract from and generalize over the gathered sensorimotor experiences to develop conceptual understandings and language. Evolution, on the other hand, works on a different time scale. Evolutionary pressures towards survival-suitable cell and bodily structures have dominated much of evolutionary progression. Benefits due to social interactions and coordinated cooperation have led to the evolution of the human brain, enabling the development of human minds. Some details on genetics and on evolutionary computation shed further light on how evolution must have brought about human minds. Thereby, the evolution of suitable bodily structures, of brain modularizations, developmental pathways, adaptive behavioral capabilities, and predispositions for social interactions constitute critical components. Subsequent chapters focus on the computational mechanisms behind embodied cognitive development.
Language, Concepts, and Abstract Thought
Authors: Butz Martin V. , Kutter Esther F.
Published: July 2017

Language is probably the most complex form of universal communication. A finite set of words enables us to express a mere infinite number of thoughts and ideas, which we set together by obeying grammatical rules and compositional, semantic knowledge. This chapter addresses how human language abilities have evolved and how they develop. A short introduction to linguistics covers the most important conceptualized aspects, including language production, phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. The brain considers these linguistic aspects seemingly in parallel when producing and comprehending sentences. The brain develops some dedicated language modules, which strongly interact with other modules. Evolution appears to have recruited prelinguistic developmental neural structures and modified them into maximally language-suitable structures. Moreover, evolution has most likely evolved language to further facilitate social cooperation and coordination, including the further development of theories of the minds of others. Language develops in a human child building on prelinguistic concepts, which are based on motor control-oriented structures detailed in the previous chapter. A final look at actual linguistic communication emphasizes that an imaginary common ground and individual private grounds unfold between speaker and listener, characterizing what is actually commonly and privately communicated and understood.