bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effective Altruism’s Unsuspecting Twenty-First-Century Colonialism
Authors: de Lima Simone
Published: February 2023

This chapter discusses the role played by Effective Altruism (EA) in the Global South, focusing on its impact in the animal rights movement in Brazil. It historically situates the arrival of EA ideology in the country through large US- and Europe-based organizations and analyzes how the efficacy paradigm affects movement dynamics. Three main issues in EA’s top-down approach are identified: (1) the trend toward campaigns for “low-hanging fruit,” with little consequences for the lives of animals exploited in the industry; (2) the choice to co-opt social media influencers disconnected from the reality of the population; and (3) the superficial, decontextualized analysis of food systems, lending itself to the promotion of companies that are major drivers of deforestation, involved in human and labor rights infringements and the exploitation of animals. The chapter closes by offering by a counter-perspective to colonialism in the movement: a collaborative approach between organizations in the North and South.
Queer Eye on the EA Guys
Authors: jones pattrice
Published: February 2023

Effective Altruism is popular because it promises to satisfy deep-seated human desires, but it falls far short of this goal due to the same human fallibility that has led to the problems EA claims to be able to solve. In so doing, EA leads people who want to be maximally helpful to unintentionally cause harm. At this time, humans face three interrelated emergencies: (1) the climate emergency, (2) a worldwide pandemic, and (3) cascading collapses in consensus reality. But is the common-sense utilitarian precept of “the greatest good for the greatest number” the best approach to moral and practical decision-making? Unfortunately, this chapter argues that, the promise made by EA—we can show you how to most effectively expend your resources—is factually false. It offers instead, a queerer, and therefore more ecological, approach to efficacy that would be a more appropriate response to the multifaceted and intersecting emergencies confronted by humans today, including the climate crisis and cascading collapses in consensus reality.
Effective Altruism and the Reified Mind
Authors: Sanbonmatsu John
Published: February 2023

This chapter interprets Effective Altruism as a symptom of reification, or the process under advanced capitalism by which thought and culture progressively come to resemble the commodity form. Drawing on the Marxist theory of Georg Lukács, the chapter argues that Effective Altruism’s embrace of calculability or quantitative measurement as the basis for ethical and social reasoning results in a naive empiricism rooted in the fragmentation of knowledge, leaving objects of cognition to be viewed as discrete facts, without reference to complex social geographies. As a consequence, Effective Altruism remains oblivious to the totality of social relations that together constitute the epistemic ground beneath its own feet. Reverting to a purely voluntarist and ahistorical conception of social change, Effective Altruism mystifies the nature of praxis, strengthens existing structures of domination, and obscures paths to genuine freedom.
Conclusion
Authors: Li Ji
Published: February 2023

This concluding chapter illustrates Caubrière’s murder in June 1948 when the Chinese Communist army was advancing across the region. His death soon made the headlines in local newspapers, and the murder was afterward subjected to repeated examination and interpretation in official discourses. This chapter compares different versions of the story of Caubrière’s murder that appear in the church records and official Chinese narratives, respectively. The Catholic publications blamed the Communist Party for Caubrière’s death. In contrast, the Chinese Communist Party included this murder case in its official documents as an example of praising the Party’s protection of human rights and property. The Communist Party’s discourse of sovereignty was rooted in its appropriation of imperialism. The missionary enterprise Caubrière represented complicated Manchuria’s transformation from a contested frontier of empires to the heartland of China’s socialist industrialization and “the eldest son of the People’s Republic of China” after 1949.
Alternate Possibility Arguments for Varieties of Incompatibilism
Authors: Haji Ishtiyaque
Published: February 2023

The chapter presents, explains, and evaluates two “alternate possibility” (AP) arguments, one for the incompatibility of determinism and obligation (AP-Obligation), and the other for the incompatibility of determinism and blameworthiness (AP-Blameworthiness). These arguments share the premise that if determinism is true, no one can do otherwise. The skeptical conclusions are reached by drawing on the intermediary premise that obligation and responsibility require freedom to do otherwise. Argument AP-Obligation appeals to the following two principles: if one ought to do something, then one can do it (OIC); and one ought to do something if, and only if, it is wrong for one not to do it (Equivalence). In addition to OIC and Equivalence, argument AP-Blameworthiness calls on a third principle: one is blameworthy for doing something only if it is wrong for one to do it (BRI). Frankfurt examples are examples that seek to show that moral responsibility does not require freedom to do otherwise. The chapter explains why appropriately adjusted versions of such examples do not undermine AP-Obligation. The chapter concludes that even if Frankfurt examples have merit, determinism still imperils blameworthiness by precluding freedom to do otherwise because there are apt conceptual connections between blameworthiness and impermissibility.
Obligation Semicompatibilism
Authors: Haji Ishtiyaque
Published: February 2023

Semicompatibilism regarding moral obligation is the thesis that even if determinism is incompatible with freedom to do otherwise, it is compatible with obligation. The driving force of this variety of semicompatibilism is the assumption that obligation does not presuppose that one could have refrained from behaving as one did. Against this assumption, this chapter offers considerations for the view that there is a requirement of alternative possibilities for right, wrong, and obligation. For example, nothing can be obligatory for one unless one could have done otherwise. The principle that if it is impermissible for one to do something, then one can do this thing (principle “impermissibility” implies “can”) is introduced and defended. This principle in conjunction with two others—one ought to do something if, and only if, it is wrong for one not to do it, and if one ought to do something, then one can do it—sustains the view that obligation, right, and wrong require alternatives. Assuming that determinism precludes freedom to do otherwise, this view, in turn, imperils obligation semicompatibilism.
Internalism and Externalism
Authors: Haji Ishtiyaque
Published: February 2023

Externalism about responsibility or obligation is the view that how one acquires apt antecedents of action, such as beliefs, desires, and values, may influence whether one is responsible for, or morally obligated to do, something. Externalism implies that the history of how one procures one’s springs of action may affect responsibility (or obligation). What are called “radical reversal cases” in the philosophical literature, which feature invasively manipulating an agent without the agent’s awareness of being manipulated, are invoked to support responsibility externalism. It is argued that such cases do not sustain obligation externalism. Hence, obligation is not historical in the way responsibility is. A hypothesis is offered to explain this difference. Appraisals of responsibility are agent-focused appraisals: agents are the primary objects of appraisal. Radical unsolicited changes in an agent’s mental repertoire can affect responsibility. In contrast, appraisals of obligation are act-focused: agents’ behavior is the fundamental object of appraisal. Radical changes in an agent’s psychological life need not have the relevant sort of bearing on her obligations.
Concluding Reflections
Authors: Haji Ishtiyaque
Published: February 2023

This chapter assimilates the primary conclusions of the book. First, there are strong reasons to believe that obligation requires freedom to do otherwise: nothing can be obligatory for one unless one could have done otherwise. Owing to conceptual links between obligation and responsibility, with certain caveats, there is good reason to think that responsibility, too, requires alternate possibilities. Thus, again with apt qualifications, the freedom requirements of obligation and responsibility are symmetric. Second, semicompatibilism regarding responsibility (or obligation) is the thesis that even if determinism is incompatible with freedom to do otherwise, it is compatible with responsibility (or obligation). Given the first conclusion, both these sorts of semicompatibilism are suspect. Third, many concur that whereas one may now no longer have an obligation that one previously had, one cannot now fail to be blameworthy for something for which one was formerly to blame. This immutability thesis about blameworthiness is shown to be false. Both obligation and blameworthiness can change, in the relevant fashion, with the passage of time. Fourth, and finally, while how one acquires ones values may significantly influence whether one is responsible for much of one’s conduct, obligation is not “historical” in this way. The overall conclusion is that obligation is more similar to responsibility in various respects than many believe.
Prisoner of War Status in the Context of Naval Warfare: On the Status of Masters and Crews of Neutral Merchant Vessels
Authors: von Heinegg Wolff Heintschel
Published: February 2023

The chapter deals with the legal status of the masters and crews of neutral merchant vessels in naval warfare, an issue that is not regulated in the 1949 Geneva Conventions II and III. The Geneva Conventions only apply to the masters and crews of enemy merchant vessels. Therefore, it is important first to identify the criteria determining the enemy or neutral character of merchant vessels. The fact that a vessel is flying a neutral flag does not provide sufficient evidence as to its true nature. The chapter identifies five criteria according to which neutral merchant vessels can be distinguished from enemy merchant vessels. Next, the circumstances rendering neutral merchant vessels liable to be attacked as lawful military objectives and the circumstances rendering them liable to be captured under prize law are summarized. In its final section, the chapter addresses the conditions under which the personnel of neutral merchant vessels are entitled to prisoner of war status or whether they may be held criminally liable for having directly participated in hostilities.
Protecting Prisoners of War in Contemporary Conflicts
Authors: Jinks Derek
Published: February 2023

What protection must be accorded prisoners of war (POWs) in international humanitarian law (IHL)? How might this protection scheme shed light on the role of personal status categories in IHL? IHL accords substantial legal protection to POWs. Many of these protections closely track the increasingly robust fundamental guarantees accorded all conflict-related detainees. Some POW protections, though, reflect a different protective logic. Indeed, POWs are overprotected with respect to the humanitarian baseline because of special considerations of fairness, honor, and respect tightly linked to the specific requirements for POW status. The analysis in this chapter provides (1) a detailed catalog and assessment of the protections accorded POWs; (2) an account of the role of personal status categories in contemporary IHL; and (3) a qualified normative defense of special protections accorded POWs.
Parole of Prisoners of War Under Article 21 of the Third Geneva Convention: The Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Crawford Emily
Published: February 2023

Article 21 of the Third wGeneva Convention contains something of a historical anomaly—the possibility of granting parole to prisoners of war (POWs). An Article 21 parole is an agreement on the part of the captive soldier to refrain from participating in hostilities in return for limited or unrestricted release from POW captivity. Parole—from the French “word” or “promise,” as in “to give one’s word”—is a concept grounded in medieval notions of chivalry and honor, underpinned by both pragmatic and humanitarian objectives, traceable as far back as ancient Roman times. By the eighteenth century, it was a given that POWs could be paroled during their captivity, with parole agreements established during conflicts such as the Franco-Prussian War, the Boer War, and the American Civil War. However, by the time of the adoption of Article 21, the practice of parole was far less common, with exceptionally limited employment of parole during the First and Second World Wars. With this historical background in mind, this chapter will examine the history of parole of POWs—why it was adopted, and why it has fallen into desuetude. The chapter will also examine whether the tradition of parole remains a viable or useful option for States, in light of new technologies and new practices in the conduct of armed conflicts.
The Lieber Code and Prisoners of War: A Legacy of Practical Humanitarianism
Authors: Wallace David , Reeves Shane
Published: February 2023

The Lieber Code succinctly and comprehensively clarified and summarized the customary laws of armed conflict through a practical humanitarian lens. Of particular contemporary relevance is how the Lieber Code addresses prisoners of war (POWs). Though some of the thirty-eight articles in the Code on POWs are undoubtedly anachronistic, the provisions on categorization and treatment continue to inform the law of armed conflict. His contribution to the development of the law of armed conflict was particularly significant in this regard, as it was the first instrument to contain a clear articulation of which persons were entitled to protection as POWs and which were not. Additionally, he addressed not only the treatment of POWs, but also confronted the horrendous discrimination and maltreatment of Black soldiers by confirming the law of nations knows of no distinction of color. Finally, the Lieber Code confronted the thorny issues of paroles, prisoner exchanges, and reprisals under the law of armed conflict. Of course, some provisions of the Code did not survive the test of time. But, for those that did, commanders, legal advisers, policymakers, and scholars will continue to look to them as they shape the law of armed conflict into the twenty-first century.
Marx, Revolution, and Social Democracy
Authors: Kain Philip J.
Published: February 2023

Many people think Marx a totalitarian and Soviet Marxism the predictable outcome of his thought. How might one combat this completely mistaken image? What if one could demonstrate that Western European social democracy represents Marx’s thought far more than did Soviet Marxism? What if one shows that Marx and social democracy are quite compatible? What if one shows that Marx actually supported social democratic parties? If social democracy is closer to being the true face of Marxism after Marx, then all claims of totalitarianism evaporate. There is nothing remotely totalitarian about social democracy. And from the start, social democrats were highly critical of the undemocratic tactics of Soviet Marxism. To demonstrate the relationship between Marx and social democracy it will be necessary to show that, for Marx, socialist society is compatible with a market economy—as long as markets are controlled to eliminate alienation. It will also be necessary to show that markets can be controlled democratically, that Marx was very much a democrat, and that he and Engels worked quite actively with democratic parties. It will also be necessary to show that Marx developed a theory of revolution compatible with a democratic electoral movement engaged in by a social democratic party. It will also be necessary to show that Marx and Engels, from the late 1860s on, worked extensively with and supported the Social Democratic Party (SPD) of Germany—which eventually became the largest party in Germany and the largest socialist party in the world.
Introduction
Authors: Kain Philip J.
Published: February 2023

This chapter sorts out ways the term “socialism” has been used. It proposes envisioning a spectrum. At one end would be a capitalist laissez-faire economy—with all means of production privately owned, unregulated markets, and no governmental planning. At the other end would be a full communist society—with no markets, no private ownership of means of production, and central planning. There would be no buying or selling—indeed, there would be no money. Between these ideal types we have social democratic and socialist societies. They replace private ownership to one degree or another with public ownership and planning. They keep a market but to varying degrees control it to prevent social ills. They are led by strong labor parties (backed by powerful labor unions) that decide democratically how far and how fast to move toward full socialism; that is, full public ownership of the means of production.
Abandoning Public Goods
Authors: Cate Sarah D.
Published: February 2023

Chapter 1 begins by laying out the relationship between juvenile justice policy and broader social policy. The overview of several major themes of post–New Deal policy developments—devolution, privatization, individualization of social problems, and punitiveness—provides the important context for understanding the effects of the community-based reform movement today. Each of these shifts in social policy marks a substantial departure from the idea of government for the public good. Leveraging this historical institutionalist approach helps to explain why the community-based reform movement mirrors these broader policy developments, and it also helps illuminate why the reforms are largely failing to improve the experiences of youth caught up in the justice system. Pursuing devolution, privatization, and individual solutions within the context of decades of austerity politics and the retrenchment of public goods makes the current community-based reform movement particularly inadequate and ineffective.
Devolution, Not Decarceration
Authors: Cate Sarah D.
Published: February 2023

Chapter 2 shows in detail what community-based reforms look like in practice and argues that these reforms lead to devolution, not decarceration. Shifting youth from large state-run facilitates to the “community” is entrenching punishment at the local level. This chapter relies on a careful tracing of grant funding and local-level policy changes associated with community-based reforms. The chapter demonstrates that reform efforts and funding get funneled into traditional punitive responses to youth offending, such as more incarceration and probation. The problems that occur in large state-run facilities are replicated at community-level facilities, but with even less oversight. These reform policies are part of a broader austerity politics that provides little room for proposals to expand public goods and address economic inequalities and therefore perpetuates the same punitive and damaging policies that have long plagued the juvenile justice system.
Privatizing Punishment
Authors: Cate Sarah D.
Published: February 2023

Chapter 3 shows how the community-based reform movement contributes to increased privatization in the juvenile justice system. The MacArthur Foundation and Annie E. Casey Foundation are central leaders in juvenile justice policy today, controlling research, grants, and policy proposals that have coalesced around technocratic, pro-privatization approaches to reform under the mantle of the community-based reform movement. This chapter demonstrates how foundations have facilitated the antidemocratic privatization of the policymaking process, with little input from those most effected. These foundations have also encouraged substantial increases in the privatization of secure detention and other programs and services of the juvenile justice system. Privatization has introduced more juvenile justice stakeholders with interests that often run contrary to downsizing the reach of the carceral state or investing in public institutions and oversight necessary to ensure more equitable and safer outcomes for youth.
Strand 8
Authors: Goff James
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces Chile, beginning with its geography and its vast range of climate and topography adjacent to one of the most significant subduction zones in the world. Here, people have lived with the threat of earthquakes and tsunamis for thousands of years and the geology, archaeology, and anthropology provide a rich vein of information. While research in central and southern Chile provides textbook examples of historical and prehistoric tsunamis, the story is completely different in northern Chile along the coast of the Atacama Desert. Here, until very recently, scientists have tried and failed over the years to find any significant evidence for past events. The search starts with a reassessment of purported Eltanin Asteroid tsunami deposits, an event 2.5 million years ago that many think devastated the Chilean coast, and then comes forward in time.
Strand 9
Authors: Goff James
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces the human history of the Atacama Desert coast over the past 12,000 years, highlighting an odd anomaly between 3500 and 4500 years ago. This information coupled with evidence for some ancient earthquakes was the catalyst for my invitation to search for tsunami deposits. The geomorphology of the coastline is described and the difficulties of finding useful sites is discussed in detail. The ensuing research points to a massive (Magnitude 9.5) earthquake equivalent to the largest known historical event, the extent of which rewrites the earthquake history of northern Chile—it is by far the biggest event ever reported from the region. The resultant tsunami was also huge along the Atacama Desert coastline, but by searching throughout the wider Pacific the link is made with the evidence found on the Chatham Islands (Chapter 5) and in other Pacific Island countries.
Cultural Studies, Literature, and Religion
Authors: Lederhendler Eli
Published: February 2023

This chapter assesses Fragile Spaces: Forays into Jewish Memory, European History, and Complex Identities (2018), a collection of 20 essays. Divided into four parts—“History, Memory and Genocide,” “Culture and Complex Identities,” “Politics,” and “Scholarly Dilemmas and Personal Confrontations”—the book’s most rewarding essays address issues of politics, philosophy, Holocaust memory, and the history of German-speaking Jewish intellectuals in relation to European culture and modernity. The essays of Fragile Spaces make for a compelling volume, precisely because of the way editor Steven E. Aschheim draws upon an extensive cast of characters in a highly charged historical drama or, rather, several dramas, whom he explores and confronts amidst the responses they offered to rupture and fragility in society, politics, and culture, Jewish and otherwise. Various personages, ideas, events, and concerns reappear in various essays, continually re-arranged to form a new and dynamic pattern so that the essays become mutually illuminating. Ultimately, Aschheim’s concerns and approach to issues show him to be a true heir to the German Jewish intellectual legacy he so often explores.
Respectful Deflationism
Authors: Hall Edward
Published: February 2023

Philosophical inquiry about metaphysically loaded expressions like “law of nature,” “essence,” and “ground” faces a choice point: Do we need the word, and the concept that goes with it, in order to facilitate thought and communication about some distinctive, explanatorily important metaphysical structure? Or does their value for us consist in the way they play some crucial epistemic role, a role that can itself be characterized without reference to any such metaphysical structure? Here I explore the latter option, in the form of “respectful deflationism”: roughly, the position that we can in good conscience take some putatively metaphysical expression to be of central philosophical importance, but for entirely non-metaphysical reasons. I use recent debates between Humeans and anti-Humeans about laws of nature as a case study.
‘The three principal manufactories at Paris are conducted by Englishmen’
Authors: Bensimon Fabrice
Published: February 2023

This chapter addresses the sectors that migrant workers joined because most migration flows were organised within individual industrial sectors. Four sectors were especially important and will be the focus of this chapter. The first was iron and steel. South Wales had developed a dynamic iron and then steel industry and several continental ironmasters set up ‘forges à l’anglaise’ for which they were willing to hire Welsh puddlers or rollers, despite the high costs of such labour. The second major sector that shaped continental labour migration was machinery. British expertise in steam-powered machinery was unrivalled. The third major sector was textiles. William Cockerill set up a thriving woollen industry in Belgium, while thousands of lace workers from the East Midlands, especially from Nottinghamshire, went to northern France, especially to the Calais area. This craft-based, hand-worked industry shifted to factory production in the 1850s, but British input persisted until the 1870s. The fourth and final sector considered in this chapter is railways. British engineers and investors were instrumental in the early stages of European railway construction, in France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain. In other sectors, such as mining, some smaller-scale recruitment was also organised. This chapter addresses the diversity and specificities of labour migration flows. Such migration brought together workers from different regions and prompted settlement in an array of different areas.
Introduction
Authors: Berman Ayelet , Büthe Tim , Maggetti Martino , Pauwelyn Joost
Published: February 2023

International institutions frequently make rules, standards, or policies that affect stakeholders who did not have a say in the process. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, for example, whose standards are set by a small group of states, have been adopted in more than a hundred jurisdictions. Historically, developing countries and representatives of non-commercial interests in civil society have been mostly marginalized or even entirely excluded. Scholars and practitioners alike have called for greater participation of such disregarded stakeholders. Against this background, in the past decade, many global governance bodies have undertaken institutional reforms with the declared purpose of boosting stakeholder participation. This book brings together scholars and practitioners to investigate the consequences of these stakeholder participation reforms: Have these reforms resulted in actual increases in participation? Have they improved the voice and influence of marginalized stakeholders? What effect have the reforms had on the legitimacy and effectiveness of rule-making? The book focuses on global finance governance and global health governance, covering treaty-based intergovernmental organizations alongside new forms of global governance, such as transgovernmental regulatory networks, multi-stakeholder partnerships, and private standard setting bodies. It compares the experiences of large emerging powers and smaller or lower-income developing countries (Brazil vs. Argentina, China vs. Vietnam, India vs. the Philippines) in a diverse set of organizations, including the World Bank; the World Health Organization; the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision; the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; the International Accounting Standards Board; the Codex Alimentarius Commission; and more.
India and Bangladesh in Global Finance Governance
Authors: Mukherji Rahul , Jha Himanshu
Published: February 2023

This chapter discusses India and Bangladesh’s emergence in the global economy in the area of climate politics. It examines two global institutions involved with climate finance: the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF) from the standpoint of stakeholder participation in global governance. Results show that both the countries have embarked on a successful strategy of globalization. Both countries have made the transition from conflict towards an embedded liberal mode of cooperation. They are concerned about the ill-effects of climate change and both have also made the transition from structural conflict to embedded liberalism. They are actively participating in global negotiations, demanding resources as well as contributing substantially to domestically driven adjustment. Bangladesh and India are also actively contributing to global norms—India as an emerging power and Bangladesh as a leader among least developed nations.
Assessing Stakeholder Participation Reforms in Global Finance Governance
Authors: Maggetti Martino , Kovarzina Olga
Published: February 2023

This chapter provides a comparative discussion of the type and intensity of stakeholder reforms in global finance governance institutions. It then examines the media coverage of these reforms to gauge their perceived importance for the public, and it explores possible pre-conditions associated with a higher intensity of reforms. To conclude, it distils comparative lessons from the paired case studies presented in the previous chapters, concerning Brazil–Argentina, China–Vietnam, and India–Bangladesh. In this regard, we highlight country-level patterns of commonalities and variations in the representation of previously marginalized stakeholders. What is more, we look at the demand-side of participation to assess whether institutional reforms improved the participation of previously marginalized stakeholders. Finally, this chapter shows that there were non-negligible reforms concerning the participation of stakeholders, both from an organizational perspective and in terms of media salience. However, these reforms were uneven across institutions and selective with respect to stakeholders.
Comparing Formal and Informal Bodies in International Finance
Authors: Gindrat Ronald , Inderbinen Paul
Published: February 2023

This chapter discusses the differences in policy-making between formal and informal bodies in the arena of international finance. Alternative forms of global governance have emerged since the financial crises of 2008–2009. The limited memberships of the G20 and the Financial Stability Board, as well as the informality of the agreements upon which they are based, give rise to questions about their legitimacy. By analysing these forms of governance from the angles of stability, accountability, and efficiency, this chapter suggests that informal settings do not yield inferior outcomes when compared with traditional international bodies that have established formal statutes.
Stakeholder Participation Reforms in Global Health Governance
Authors: Berman Ayelet
Published: February 2023

This chapter surveys the main stakeholder participation reforms introduced in several global health institutions: the WHO, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the International Council on Harmonization, the International Medical Devices Regulators Forum, the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, the GAVI Alliance and the GlobalG.A.P. The chapter distinguishes between two types of reforms: reforms granting the opportunity to participate, and ‘good participation’ reforms, which seek to advance balanced and fair rule-making. It finds that the general trend in global health is one of increased participation opportunities for developing countries and non-state actors. That said, imbalances in participation between developing and developed countries and between business and civil society interests remain. Non-state actor participation also introduces risks of undue influence. Only few global bodies have introduced good participation reforms targeting such risks.
Brazil and Argentina in Global Health Governance
Authors: de Mello e Souza André , Aznar Facundo Pérez
Published: February 2023

This chapter explores the consequences of institutional reforms in global health governance. Specifically, it investigates and compares changes in the voice and influence of Brazilian and Argentine stakeholders—and assesses whether and to what extent these changes are attributable to recent institutional reforms. Global health governance is highly salient for Brazil and Argentina. Brazil has increased its presence and voice in such governance and has been more engaged and influential than Argentina in the World Health Organization and its multi-stakeholder institutions, in the International Council for Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH), and arguably also in the Codex Alimentarius Commission. At the same time, both countries’ participation in the Global Fund and GlobalG.A.P. is similarly low. The contrasting patterns of economic growth and foreign policy positions of Brazil and Argentina help to explain their variation in engagement and influence in global health institutions. The engagement and influence of Brazil and Argentina in these institutions are undermined by the insufficiency of institutional reforms, as well as the lack or shortage of human and material resources.
The Stakeholder Participation Triangle
Authors: Berman Ayelet
Published: February 2023

Chapter 23 presents the stakeholder participation triangle, which visualizes the factors— trusteeship, functionality, and efficiency—that theoretically determine with whom global bodies engage in the decision-making process. Trusteeship asserts that global bodies should give a voice to those affected by the decision, whereas functionality asserts that global bodies should engage those stakeholders who contribute to the achievement of their mission. A rise in participants, however, results in a likely decrease in efficiency. Thus, while trusteeship or functionality justify engaging stakeholders, concerns over efficiency act as a counterforce, which curbs where, when, and how global bodies engage entitled stakeholders. To test these concepts in practice, I examine whether or how they explain participation in four global health organizations: the World Health Organization (WHO), Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (Global Fund), and the Global Vaccine Alliance (GAVI).
Axial spondyloarthritis
Authors: Khan Muhammad Asim
Published: February 2023

Spondyloarthritis (SpA) is a blanket term encompassing a family of chronic inflammatory joint diseases that commonly involve the SI joints, spine, and the limbs, and share many clinical features, including frequent association with inflammation affecting the eyes, the gut, and the skin. The patients whose arthritis primarily affects the spine are sub-classified as having “axial SpA” (axSpA), best represented by AS, whereas those with predominantly limb joints involvement are labeled as having “peripheral SpA,” that is best exemplified by psoriatic arthritis (PsA). Diagnosis at an early inflammatory stage of the disease is crucial because of increasingly effective treatment choices that markedly reduce the risk of long-term disability and deformity and enhance quality of life. Patients need appropriate counseling and education about their disease, self-management issues, and potential lifestyle modifications to achieve sustained health benefits. This facilitates compliance with the recommended treatment regimen.
Diagnosis and management of other forms of SpA and “look-alikes”
Authors: Khan Muhammad Asim
Published: February 2023

Asymptomatic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) may be present in close to 60% of all patients with AS, and 5– 20% of such patients develop Crohn’s disease (CD) within the first 5 years of AS presentation. Patients suffering from psoriasis, IBD, acute uveitis, and reactive arthritis have increased risk of development of AS or related forms of SpA. For example, up to 30% of people with psoriasis develop psoriatic arthritis (PsA), a form of SpA, and anywhere between 10% and 40% of people with IBD (especially CD) develop SpA. The reverse is also true: patients with AS/axSpA are more likely than the general population to suffer also from IBD or psoriasis. Luckily, patients with these various forms of SpA that share many clinical features respond very well, with very few exceptions, to many of the currently available biologics and some of the JAK-inhibitors.
Exercise and physical therapy
Authors: Khan Muhammad Asim
Published: February 2023

Regular range of motion exercise is of fundamental importance in preventing or minimizing stiffness and deformity. A life-long regular physical exercise regimen and proper posture control are of fundamental importance in the successful long-term management of AS/axSpA. Unsupervised exercises at home or supervised single or group physical exercises (on ground and/or in water) are necessary to complement the increasing number of currently available and remarkably effective pharmacological therapies. But such physical exercises and other non-pharmacological measures are generally under-utilized by both patients as well as their healthcare providers. Randomized controlled trials have shown that physiotherapy with disease education is effective in the treatment of people with AS, and group physical therapy is cost-effective compared to individualized therapy. Patients’ posture problems and difficulties in performing activities of daily living should be identified, and workplace modifications may be needed.
Management
Authors: Khan Muhammad Asim
Published: February 2023

In most countries, rheumatologists are board-certified internists with additional two or more years of fellowship training to diagnose and treat arthritis and other musculoskeletal diseases. Their most important role is to decide on the diagnosis and then educate the patient about the disease for which they prescribe appropriate treatment and monitor and adjust it when appropriate. They may also work closely with other health professionals such as orthopedists and physiatrists, physical therapists (physiotherapists), psychiatrists, psychologists, podiatrists, and dieticians. Well-established rheumatology centers also have trained professionals, such as nurse practitioners, specialist nurses, and medical social workers. It is important for the rheumatologists to let the patients’ primary care physicians (PCPs) or general practitioners (GPs) know that their perspectives are also incorporated in a “shared decision-making” process.
NSAIDs and conventional DMARDs
Authors: Khan Muhammad Asim
Published: February 2023

NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) reduce pain and inflammation that are different from cortisone and, unlike narcotics, they are not habit-forming. Some NSAIDs are available without a doctor’s prescription (“over-the-counter”) but at a lower dose. Their use should be based on the person’s prior tolerance, risk factors for adverse effects, for example, on the stomach, heart, liver, or kidneys, and any coexisting illnesses, such as hypertension. There is an increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding from gastritis and ulcers, especially in the elderly population and those with a previous history of peptic ulcer disease. Women who are pregnant or are breastfeeding should not take them without their doctor’s advice. Sulfasalazine and methotrexate are DMARDs (disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, also called slow-acting anti-rheumatic drugs because any benefit from these drugs takes some time to manifest) but they are not particularly effective in managing spinal disease of patients with AS/axSpA.
Charisma
Authors: Lloyd Vincent
Published: February 2023

Religious and political awakenings have been central features of US democratic life, with the Second Great Awakening and the abolition movement sharing important features. Charismatic movements pull in a democratic direction, activating mass participation and engagement in questions of common life, but they also pull in an anti-democratic direction, habituating subordination to unelected leaders. At the heart of this tension is the concept of charisma, at once religious and political, at once a tool of mass mobilization and empowerment of elites. Moving between conceptual reflection and analysis of Herman Melville’s The Confidence Man, this essay explores the centrality and ambivalence of charisma—and urges us to shift focus from the charismatic performer to democratic virtues of attention to be found in charisma’s audience.
Settlement
Authors: Roberts Alaina E.
Published: February 2023

Native Americans have often been left out of discussions about American democracy. Attempting to correct that, this essay uses Congressional records, federal treaty negotiation documents, and letters to and from the Department of the Interior to argue that an examination of the Five Tribes (the Chickasaw, Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, and Seminole Nations) in the post-Civil War period demonstrates that our modern democracy is inseparable from the settler-colonialist system that allowed for its formation. More specifically, the United States voided its own treaties and sanctioned mass white settlement on land it had promised indefinitely to Native people; this is key to understanding the extent of the contradictions inherent in this country’s supposed founding upon self-evident truths of liberty and equality for all.
A Mirroring Brain
Authors: Rizzolatti Giacomo , Sinigaglia Corrado
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces a definition of the mirror property and provides evidence that far from merely identifying a small subset of neurons in a small area of the premotor cortex, this property can be considered a fundamental principle of the functioning of the entire nervous system. The chapter includes reviews of the early studies leading to the discovery of mirror neurons in the macaque, of subsequent research revealing the presence of mirror neurons in other areas of the frontal, parietal, and prefrontal lobes, and of the vast literature that contributed to individuating human brain areas endowed with the mirror property in structures such as the insula, the amygdala, and the cingulate gyrus. Finally, it offers a panorama of the research done on other species such as marmosets, birds, rats, and bats, providing an initial characterization of the mechanism underlying what can justifiably be called a mirroring brain.
The Importance of Sentimental Values
Authors: Justin D’Arms , Daniel Jacobson
Published: February 2023

The sentimental values play an important role in moral psychology even when they conflict with each other, and with morality. All natural emotions are sometimes fitting, even such morally dubious ones as envy. Hence, all the sentimental values are sometimes instantiated. These values entail practical reasons to act in service of an emotional goal, though the reasons may be overrident or silenced by moral concerns. For instance, fitting anger implies the existence of retributive reasons to blame and punish. Finally, the nature of guilt, as well as the positive moral emotions, constrains which moral theories are tenable for human beings. Strictly impartial theories, such as those given by Sidgwick’s axioms of ethics, cannot be internalized by even admirable people and are therefore alienated from some of the most important sources of human motivation.
Mathematics and Society
Authors: D. Senthil Babu
Published: February 2023

Mathematics and Society studies a regional tradition of mathematics in Tamil-speaking South India. It questions a received picture of Indian history of mathematics. It reflects on how specific, historically situated mathematical practices reveal the limitations of nationalist frameworks of narrating histories of science. But it shall not endorse a Tamil nationalist reading of this tradition either. On the contrary, this book explores the history of mathematics in south India in terms of its varied public circulation. It tries to capture imagined audiences for various experiments and investigates modes of mathematical practice, teaching and learning. It engages with historical sources as records of practice, and brings the world of the practitioners as central to a social history of mathematics in India. It demonstrates how such an approach would help us depart from the cultural and intellectual preoccupation with dualisms of theory and practice, nation and region, Sanskrit and the vernacular, pure and applied. Rather, it situates practices and pathways of mathematization in early modern south India within the political economy of resource distribution to interrogate the character of abstraction in and from practices. It asks how do we understand and contend with the quest for universalism in knowledge amidst social segregation and fragmentation and caste-bound occupational hierarchies. How could such an inquiry help us with the task of annihilation of hierarchies in knowledge, work, and in society to re-imagine modes of democratisation and freedom in our own pedagogic practices.
Record Labels and Value Creation in the Streaming Economy
Authors: Miller Larry S.
Published: February 2023

This chapter examines critical changes in the recorded music industry during its transition from physical products to on-demand streaming services in the way record labels create value for artists and fans. In the modern streaming-driven music industry it has become optional for artists to sign with labels. Artists without a label can independently self-release and make their music available on streaming services and become theoretically discoverable at the touch of an upload button. Record labels today discover and develop artists, connect them with creative collaborators and make great records, promote and position them wherever fans go to discover music, and reward successful outcomes—but how labels perform those functions has changed forever. This chapter distills nearly fifty conversations with senior executives from across the U.S. recorded music business to describe the transformation of value creation in the recorded music industry.
Race and Clinical Work
Authors: Archer Deborah N.
Published: February 2023

This chapter focuses on clinical legal education, which plays an increasingly central role in legal education as it was founded on the goal of providing professional education in the interests of justice. It describes the broadly applicable and intensely personal skills taught in clinical programs that guide students to their own personal understanding of the social responsibilities of lawyers and issues of social justice and equality. It also defines social justice advocacy as advocacy on behalf of poor or marginalized individuals or communities that advances liberty, privacy, autonomy, and equality. The chapter highlights how race continues to have a profound impact on life in America, such as on housing, education, health care, and the criminal legal system. It emphasizes the opportunity that clinical legal education offers in teaching the skills of cross-cultural, cross-racial, and racially conscious advocacy.