bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Legal Epistemology
Authors: Gardiner Georgi
Published: February 2019

Legal practice is up to its neck in epistemology. Legal practice involves proof, evidence, doubt, testimony, arguments, witnesses, experts, and so on. The epistemology of legal practice, often referred to as legal epistemology, examines epistemological questions raised by legal practice. It can also apply legal insights to illuminating perennial epistemological problems. Legal epistemology investigates whether standards of proof, such as “beyond reasonable doubt” or “preponderance of evidence,” are best understood as credences, statistical likelihoods, or as qualitative standards. It asks what, if anything, legitimates these standards and in what ways legal standards of proof should be sensitive to practical factors. Legal epistemology examines when and why evidence has a probative value; that is, it investigates how evidence makes a litigated claim more likely. It illuminates what reasons—moral, political, economic, practical, epistemic—justify excluding probative evidence. It questions whether particular kinds of evidence are apt to mislead factfinders. Perhaps some kinds of character evidence, for example, are prejudicial. Legal epistemology asks whether particular aspects of evidence law contribute to epistemic injustice, including hermeneutical injustice, and illuminates sources of legal injustice. It investigates the normativity of profiling. Legal epistemology questions the epistemic and legal values of epistemic properties such as safety, sensitivity, reliability, coherence, intelligibility, knowledge, justification, explanation, narrative structure, epistemic virtue, and truth. Legal epistemology asks whether and how juries and judges can form collective beliefs; it examines features of effective deliberation and judgment aggregation, and studies the effect of disagreement and dissent on legal judgments. Legal phenomena such as expert testimony raise distinctive epistemological questions, such as how to adjudicate and manage expertise in the courtroom. Legal epistemology studies the legal posit of reasonableness, which arises in the reasonable person standard, reasonable doubt standard, and various other areas of legal practice. Legal epistemology can also illuminate the role of knowledge and ignorance in culpability: How should we understand the epistemic criteria for recklessness and negligence, for example, and what precisely is mens rea? Law varies by jurisdiction; different legal systems create and resolve epistemological challenges in different ways. This is evident in topics such as the admissibility of character evidence or hearsay evidence, the permissibility of inferences from silence, or the exclusion of improperly obtained evidence. Legal epistemology is deeply interdisciplinary. In addition to law and philosophy, it involves research in psychology, forensic science, sociology, anthropology, criminology, history, theology, politics, economics (particularly behavioral economics), artificial intelligence, computing, and statistics.
Brunetto Latino
Authors: Holloway Julia Bolton
Published: February 2019

Scholarship on the 13th-century Florentine Brunetto Latino, usually cited by modern writers as “Brunetto Latini,” has been impeded by Dante’s assignment of him to Inferno, by the Victorian editions of the Tesoro wrongly ascribing the work to Bono Giamboni on the basis of a late Venetian manuscript, Carrer 1839, (cited under Il Tesoro), etc., and by Imbriani 1878 (cited under Biography), claiming that Latino was too busy a man to teach Dante. But primary research of archival documents and manuscripts in libraries reveals Latino’s Pan-European politics at the same time that he taught statesmanship through dictating encyclopedias to students in his legal chambers, in exile, or abroad on diplomacy or home in Florence. Latino wrote in Latin, French, and Italian, influenced by the education of notarial families in Roman history and oratory, particularly Sallust, Lucan, and Cicero. From his 1260 embassy to Alfonso X the Wise, he added to these Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and Ptolemy/Alfraganus’s astronomy, and, from his exile in France, the Roman de la Rose. There are a hundred documents in archives referencing Brunetto Latino, of which eleven are written in his own beautiful chancery hand, including pages in the Libro di Montaperti, his signature and notarial sign of a column and fountain given thirteen times. He writes of Cicero as “quasi per una mia sichura cholonna, sicchome una fontana che non è istagna” (as if for me a secure column, as an unstagnant fountain). Latino had his French and Italian manuscripts copied in Bolognan libraria using the efficient Arabic book production methods he observed at the court of King Alfonso X the Wise in Spain. He likely dedicated the Rettorica to a fellow Florentine in exile, the Tesoretto to Alfonso the Wise, and Li Livres dou Tresor, usually in Picardan French, and its translation back into Tuscan Italian, as Il Tesoro, to Charles of Anjou. Between 1282 and 1292 his students were Guido Cavalcanti, Dante Alighieri, and Francesco da Barberino, the latter continuing publishing the texts of his master, Brunetto, and his colleague, Dante, through 1347.
Bystander Intervention
Authors: Urschler David F. , Fischer Peter
Published: February 2019

In March 1964, a man chased a woman in Kew Gardens, Queens, New York City. After he caught her, he stabbed her, raped her, left, returned, stabbed her again, and, finally, left her to die in front of her apartment. This murder case was one out of 9,360 killings in the United States in 1964, which did not attract much media attention in the beginning. However, after a meeting between a police commissioner and the New York Times editor, this murder attracted massive media attention. In that meeting, the police commissioner claimed that he had the names of allegedly thirty-eight neighbors who watched the attack from the safety of their apartments without assisting the victim, Catherine “Kitty” Genovese (see Historical Background – The Kitty Genovese Case), for over half an hour. The media coverage was echoed by a huge public debate. In this debate, many experts testified the breakdown of moral and social values. Particularly, they claimed that, in general, witnesses of an emergency (bystanders) are apathetic, indifferent, and unconcerned. However, the social scientists Bibb Latané and John M. Darley were not convinced by claims that Kitty’s murder reflected processes of a social breakdown. Instead, they argued that maybe more generic psychological factors might be at work during the intervention process that hinders intervention. Latané and Darley argued furthermore that when each member of a group of bystanders is aware that other people are also present, each would be less likely to notice the emergency, less likely to decide that it is an emergency, and less likely to act. Consequently, they concluded that the presence of other people inhibits the impulse to help. To test this conclusion, Latané and Darley designed some of the most influential experiments in the history of social psychology. In those experiments, participants were faced with a variety of staged emergencies, either alone or in the presence of other people. These classic experiments provided encompassing evidence for the bystander effect, that is, that the presence of others decreases the likelihood of intervention in emergencies. Although the bystander effect has been one of the most robust and reliable findings in social psychology, more recent research also shows that the presence of others reduces or even reverses the bystander effect. In sum, research on bystander behavior has provided evidence that the presence of others can both inhibit and foster emergency intervention.
George of Trebizond
Authors: Monfasani John
Published: February 2019

George of Trebizond (born in Crete, very probably in Candia [modern Heraklion], 4/5 April 1396; died, Rome, after 28 November 1473) was one of the most significant figures of the Renaissance. He emigrated to Venice in 1416 and established himself with remarkable rapidity as a teacher of Latin and rhetoric in Venice and the Veneto. In the late 1430s he entered the papal court, then resident in Florence. In 1444, after the papacy had returned to Rome, he gained the office of papal secretary and spent the rest of his life, apart from some notable absences, in the Eternal City. Already by 1434 he had published what became one of the classic Neo-Latin texts of the Renaissance, the Rhetoricorum Libri V, to which in Florence in the late 1430s he added the Isagoge Dialectica, which in turn became a best seller to the mid-16th century. Once arrived in Rome, however, George embarked on a new career as a translator from the Greek, becoming in the end one of the greatest of Renaissance translators. Between 1442 and 1459, he translated most of the Aristotelian corpus, Plato’s Laws and Parmenides, Ptolemy’s Almagest, Demosthenes’ Oration on the Crown, and the Church Fathers Basil the Great, Clement of Alexandria, Eusebiusof Caesarea, Gregory Nyssenus, and John Chrysostom. Then, in the 1450s and 1460s, he got involved in the Renaissance Plato-Aristotle controversy, writing the first major Latin work in the controversy, the Comparatio Philosophorum Platonis et Aristotelis, which is a passionate defense of Aristotle and condemnation of Plato and the spread of Platonism in the Latin West. Underlying George’s attack on Plato was an apocalyptic vision that demonstrably motivated him from the 1430s to the 1460s, when he went to Constantinople to convert Mehmed the Conqueror to Christianity in order to save the world from the onslaught of Gog and Magog. Upon his return to Rome in 1466, his extravagant praise of Mehmed resulted in his spending four months in jail under suspicion of treason. In August 1469, his great opponent, Cardinal Bessarion (b. 1403–d. 1472), came out with the In Calumniatorem Platonis, which successfully set the parameters of the Plato-Aristotle controversy for the rest of the Renaissance. George outlived Bessarion and remained famous throughout the Renaissance, but because the unique 1523 printing of his Comparatio was so miserably done (based on an enormously flawed manuscript to which the editor added a new set of errors), in the end he lost the one great intellectual-theological battle of his life.
Jyotirliṅga Tradition: Pilgrimage, Myth, and Art
Authors: Fleming Benjamin J.
Published: February 2019

A jyotirliṅga (“liṅga of light”) is one of the foremost ways that the deity Śiva has been represented in mythology and art. It is an important sub-type of the deity’s liṅga (mark, sign, phallus). A well-known example is the network of twelve pilgrimage sites spread across the Indian subcontinent. In their related mythology each site accounts for a theophany of Śiva in light form, descending from heaven and remaining at the pilgrimage center in the form of a liṅga. The development and growth of this pilgrimage network within the sacred topographies of Śiva is relatively understudied, but new scholarship in the Purāṇas and Śaivadharma traditions as well as the archaeology of individual sites connected to these texts are helping to alleviate this paucity. Beginning in roughly the 10th century, fire and light imagery is integrated into different forms of Śaiva ritual, myth, and art as part of a strategy to popularize Śaivism. While the theme ‘God is light’ (numen lumen) is ubiquitous across religious traditions, its integration within Śaivism occurred for particular historical, theological, and sectarian reasons. One is the development of mythic themes related to light and fire as seen through the liṅgodbhavamūrti (form arising from the liṅga) and Devadāruvana (Pine Forest) mythemes. The earliest example of the liṅgodbhavamūrti likely dates to the 7th century, while the Devadāruvana can be traced to the Mahābhārata (Book 10.17). A second reason for the development of fire and light imagery is seen through the Śaiva encounter with Gupta period images of the Buddha’s fiery form and Buddhist commentarial literature. In addition, Śaiva encounters with universalizing tendencies within Islam, especially seen through the rise of Viśveśvara (Lord of the Universe) in Vārāṇasī, informed this developing tradition. Scholarship and sources about jyotirliṅgas can be structured around three major categories: the network of twelve jyotirliṅgas, the liṅgodbhavamūrti, and the Devadāruvana. Each of these categories has a diverse body of textual, inscriptional, art historical, and archaeological sources.
Status in International Relations
Authors: Renshon Jonathan
Published: February 2019

Scholars from disparate traditions in political science and international relations (IR) agree that status—standing or rank in a hierarchy—is a critical element of international politics. It has three critical attributes—it is positional, perceptual, and social—that combine to make any actor’s status position a function of the higher-order, collective beliefs of a given community of actors. The term is commonly used in two ways. The first refers to status in its most purely positional sense: standing, an actor’s rank or position in a hierarchy. “Status community” is defined as a hierarchy composed of the group of actors that a state perceives itself as being in competition with. “Rank” is one’s ordinal position and is determined by the collective beliefs of members of that community. Status has long been a focus of IR scholars, dating back to (at least) the beginning of the “scientific study of international relations” that developed in the 1960s. Since then, two different strains of work—status inconsistency theory and social identity theory—have provided the basic theoretical scaffolding for much of the empirical research done since then. After the initial wave of research in the 1960s and 1970s, IR scholars seemingly moved on from the subject for a few decades. However, recent years have seen a renaissance in the study of status, with novel work being done across methodological and epistemological boundaries.
Foreign Policy of Non-democratic Regimes
Authors: Siverson Randolph M. , Easton Malcolm
Published: February 2019

The literature on the foreign policies of non-democratic regimes has grown significantly in the last decades. To be sure, there is a tradition of analyzing the foreign policy of individual authoritarian states from the totalitarian regimes of the Axis, to the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China. The literature on individual states is legion and too large to be considered here. What has developed more recently in the study of authoritarian states is a focus on the general behavior of these states and not just their individual policies, even though these policies are often puzzling and sometimes perplexing. One of the implications of this mode of analysis is that it is usually data based and often draws inferences from extremely large data sets, sometimes using hundreds of thousands of cases. This is not to say that there is something inherently wrong with the analysis of individual states, and indeed below we single out a few such studies. It is to say, however, that the general analysis of authoritarian regimes has yielded insights into their behavior that would never be found through the analysis of individual states. Finally, there is an odd difficulty in considering the literature on non-democratic regimes. A great deal of what we know about their behavior has emerged from the huge body of research on the democratic peace. So, we know that democratic states tend to win the wars in which they participate and hence non-democratic states must lose these. The list of comparisons could be a long one. The difficulty of these comparisons is to make non-democratic regimes a residual category of the behavior of the democratic governments. This in turn renders the behavior of these regimes as relatively opaque. While we cannot totally escape a comparison between these types of regimes, our primary focus will be on the research that centers on the behavior of authoritarian regimes themselves. For a bibliography on authoritarian regimes generally, see the Oxford Bibliographies in International Relations article by Vesna Danilovic, “Authoritarian Regimes.” The principal interests of those who study international politics are two: conflict and cooperation. Accordingly, after a few foundational items, we divide our organization of the literature into these two admittedly broad categories, with several subcategories in each to reflect particular strands of research.
Digital Diplomacy
Authors: Holmes Marcus
Published: February 2019

Digital diplomacy has no shortage of synonyms or terminology debates (digital diplomacy has been variously referred to, or described, as “e-Diplomacy,” “cyber Diplomacy,” “net diplomacy,” “#diplomacy,” “diplomacy 2.0,” “public diplomacy 2.0,” “networked diplomacy,” “real-time diplomacy,” “21st-century statecraft,” “diplomacy in the digital age,” “digitalization of diplomacy,” or “digidiplomacy”), yet each term shares a common perspective: the use of digital information communication technologies, such as the Internet, to achieve diplomatic objectives. While foreign ministries have used newly available technologies throughout their history for various purposes—including cable wire, radio transmissions, telephone, television, video conferencing, among others—the advent of the Internet ushered in an explosion both in the use of digital technologies in diplomacy and in scholarly interest in how those technologies may be changing the role of diplomacy in world politics (see Oxford Bibliographies article in International Relations “History of Diplomacy”). Digital diplomacy scholarship has developed through two fairly distinct phases, with different emphases and from two different, and distinct, vantage points. Early work in digital diplomacy attempted to answer broad theoretical questions about the activity itself: What is digital diplomacy? How is it different than traditional diplomacy (see Oxford Bibliographies article in International Relations “Face-to-Face Diplomacy”)? How does digital diplomacy affect traditional diplomacy, if at all? Subsequently, scholars have built upon these theoretical perspectives and asked specific methodological questions and interrogated critical issues of measuring causal effects: How can scholars empirically demonstrate the effect of digital diplomacy? What is the baseline upon which we can judge “successful” or “unsuccessful” digital diplomacy initiatives? What are the practical policy implications, and recommendations, that follow from these empirical perspectives? These two phases of development—theorization and measurement—have developed contemporaneously with two distinct substantive perspectives on the focus of digital diplomacy initiatives: projection and retrieval. Digital diplomacy projection refers to the ways in which states use information communication technologies to transmit information to statespersons, diplomats, or, as in the case of public diplomacy, foreign publics. Digital diplomacy retrieval refers to the ways in which states use these same technologies to gather information from these same actors, such as in the overlap between diplomacy and intelligence gathering. Some digital diplomacy endeavors accomplish both. The future of digital diplomacy study likely involves more refining of theoretical propositions regarding projection and retrieval, as well as development of more sophisticated, and precise, methodological tools to help study projection and retrieval empirically.
Framing Effects in Political Communication
Authors: Lecheler Sophie
Published: February 2019

How the media and journalists “frame” politics has been the subject of a great many theoretical and empirical investigations by political communication scholars over the past three decades. In political communication, a frame can be understood as a journalistic or elite viewpoint or angle, which highlights one aspect of a political issue over another. The existence of frames in political communication has been shown conclusively, so a logical next question for many scholars is whether and how frames actually influence citizens’ understanding of political issues and processes. These framing effects can help us explain in what ways subtle differences in the presentation of a political issue can lead to changes in interpretation, attitudes, emotions and behavior. When looking at the political arena, framing effect studies have investigated all sorts of issues and events, ranging from social protest, to elections, government spending, and European Union (EU) integration. However, perhaps because the idea of framing effects proved to be so valuable for studying different political issues and contexts, studies have often neglected to incorporate their findings into a comprehensive theory of framing effects. So, we have many case studies of framing effects, but many questions regarding the theoretical underpinnings of the concept are still unanswered. Among other things, this has led to a fierce debate on the value and future of framing effects within political communication research. This article therefore focuses only on scholarship of framing effects that have significantly advanced its theoretical development, rather than specific political issues or events.
Learning Strategies
Authors: Yip Michael C. W.
Published: February 2019

“Learning strategies” is a generic term that normally refers to the cognitive processes of learners in learning. Learning strategies comprise a variety of learning behaviors of learners or students; for example, notetaking, organizing information, time scheduling, concentration capacity, self-motivation, and ways of memorizing information. Students will make use of the different learning strategies in their studies in order to attain a certain level of academic achievement. There are two types of learning strategies: basic and advanced learning strategies. Basic learning strategies are those lower-level cognitive abilities used by younger children in school, usually below the age of six, for example, rote memorization and simple elaboration. When the students grow older and the brain development becomes more mature, the advanced learning strategies will eventually be developed and used; such advanced learning strategies include organization of information, evaluation of information, use of external study aids, etc. Those advanced learning strategies developed and used by adolescent students can be described by the concept of metacognition. Metacognition or metacognitive thinking involves three issues: (1) metacognitive knowledge, or our knowledge about knowledge; (2) metacognitive skills, or our currently used learning strategies doings; and (3) metacognitive experiences, or our current experiences of knowing. Scholars further conclude that student learning would be more effective and efficient if students could engage themselves in this kind of metacognitive thinking when they learn. The development of metacognition and the transformation from basic to advanced learning strategies naturally coincide with the different learning phases of the learners.
Tonality
Authors: Christensen Thomas
Published: February 2019

Tonality is a ubiquitous term in musical discourse as indispensable as it is obfuscating. Typically, the term tonality (and more generally, “tonal music”) references the pitch-centric “common-practice” language of the transposable major and minor key system within which most classical music has been composed in the West from at least the mid-17th century through the early 20th century. Many theorists have highlighted certain empirical features of melody or harmony as being particularly characteristic or even essential to the tonal system (e.g., the content and structure of the diatonic scale, hierarchies of scale degrees and chord functions, or the cadence in defining or stabilizing tonal centers). At the same time, many theorists have emphasized the psychological power of tonal music for evoking strong affective responses from listeners by arousing strong expectations of tonal behavior that may be realized, delayed, or even thwarted. Clearly, then, any study of tonality needs to take into account the varying and often conflicting ways the concept is understood and used by given writers. But the concept of tonality has also been useful to musicologists for constructing evolutionary models of musical development while also describing—and contrasting—other musical styles and historical languages of music that do not always follow the norms of Western “common-practice” music. Particularly important in this regard is the chromatic language of many late-19th- and early-20th-century composers that is thought to have extended, deviated from, or even negated normative tonal syntax. Here Wagner’s use of chromaticism and extended modulation is usually cited as the progenitor of this process, one that is seen by many of these same observers to have led in the 20th century to the gradual dissolution of classical tonality in favor of a non-hierarchic kind of pitch organization, termed by neologisms such as “suspended tonality,” “post-tonality,” and perhaps most conventionally, “atonality.” Of course, tonality did not pass away; it continued to thrive as a common musical language through the 20th century, particularly in popular music idioms, even as it evolved into numerous dialects and hybrid forms within our globalized and digitalized musical marketplace. Yet the persistence of this myth of tonal evolution and devolution in Western histories of music suggests how high the stakes are in defining the content and perimeters of tonality. Tonality seems to be simultaneously an object and an ideal that continues to exert unparalleled influence—and not a little anxiety—to this day.
Growing Up with HIV/AIDS
Authors: Shiau Stephanie , Reif Lindsey
Published: February 2019

Largely due to increased success in prevention of mother-to-child transmission, new HIV infections among children globally have declined by 47 percent since 2010, from 300,000 in 2010 to 160,000 in 2016. However, the epidemic continues. In 2016 2.1 million children under fifteen years old were estimated to be living with HIV globally, with 85 percent living in sub-Saharan Africa. Without access to HIV care and antiretroviral therapy (ART), infants and younger children living with HIV are at high risk for mortality, with a mortality rate of about 30 percent by the first year of life and 50 percent by their second year. Therefore, prompt diagnosis and adherence to effective ART is critical. Early infant diagnosis is becoming more widely available globally, allowing for earlier identification of infection close to birth and opportunities to start treatment early in infants and the potential for cure strategies. With effective treatment, pediatric HIV infection has been transformed from a fatal disease to a lifelong chronic disease. Much of pediatric HIV care focuses on co-morbidities related to long-term HIV infection and its treatment. In addition, children living with HIV require close monitoring as they age into adolescence, a high-risk period when they navigate mental, physical, and emotional development. As adolescents become independent from parents or guardians and face choices regarding relationships, sexual behavior, and alcohol and drug use, they are at high risk for poor adherence to ART.
The Coen Brothers
Authors: Adams Jeffrey
Published: February 2019

The Coen brothers, Ethan and Joel, launched their career as independent filmmakers in 1984 with the debut of Blood Simple, a low-budget neo-noir. Since then, they have written and directed sixteen feature films in a variety of generic styles, including film noir, crime comedy, gangster movie, neo-western, and screwball comedy. The Coens are auteurs who consider themselves storytellers as much as filmmakers; their screenplays borrow heavily from or re-create the texts of venerable literary precursors, especially the pulp fiction of James M. Cain, Dashiell Hammett, and Raymond Chandler. From the beginning, journalistic commentators have been divided in their assessments of the Coens’ films. Despite widespread acclaim and praise for their filmmaking technique, popular movie reviewers have accused them of cynicism and misanthropy, criticizing their films for a lack of purpose or meaning and for a perceived lack of realism and authenticity. More tolerant of the hermeneutic ambiguity that characterizes Coen films, academic scholars have made various attempts to reassess the films more favorably. Although Coen movies have been widely reviewed by journalists from the start, scholarly publications on the Coens did not begin to appear with any regularity until after the commercial and critical success of Fargo in 1996. Since then, scholars from a wide range of disciplines have published increasing numbers of books, anthologies, and journal articles addressing the Coens’ innovative use of genre and pastiche, their treatment of philosophical and religious themes, and the incongruous mixing of humor and violence that has become a Coen trademark. The large fan cult that emerged in response to The Big Lebowski stimulated heightened academic interest; more research has been published on Lebowski than any other Coen film to date. Likewise, their award-winning adaptation of Cormac McCarthy’s No Country for Old Men has received increased scholarly attention.
Social, Psychological, and Evolutionary Perspectives on Adoption
Authors: Franklin Prarthana , Volk Anthony
Published: February 2019

Adoption is the process in which adults usually permanently, but also temporarily, care for a child that is not their biological child. Adoption differs from foster care because the latter involves shorter-term placements of a child who is a formal ward of a state or governmental agency. Adoption thus represents an interesting divergence from typical biological families because the primary evolutionary reason biological families are hypothesized to cooperate with and invest in each other is that they share genes with each other. However, adoption of genetically unrelated children is also quite prevalent across cultures. This suggests that there may be other motivations and benefits for adoptive parents, unrelated to directly propagating one’s genes, that are contributing to the prevalence of this behavior. Therefore, this article reviews related sociological, psychological, and evolutionary literature in order to provide a broad understanding of adoption.
Environmental Justice: Approaches, Dimensions, and Movements
Authors: Temper Leah
Published: February 2019

Environmental justice (EJ) is the struggle for access to a safe and healthy environment free from pollution and for access to the environmental resources needed for survival, well being, and social reproduction. The term environmental justice was originally born in the United States from the resistance of African American communities linked to the civil rights movement protesting toxic dumping and the siting of hazardous facilities in their communities. Scholars soon joined activists, concerned citizens, and religious leaders and communities to systematically document injustices and demonstrate that “pollution is not color blind” by demonstrating that disparities of environmental exposure exist among racial lines. EJ provided a powerful challenge to the mainstream current of the environmentalism definition of environment and nature, which focused on wilderness conservation and natural areas, such as national parks and endangered species. Environmental justice considers the inseparability of the environment from everyday life and redefines the environment as “the places where people live, work, and play.” Over time, the environmental justice framing has continually expanded to engage with multiple spatialities and forms of inequalities and has brought a far wider range of issues under the umbrella of what is the environment. In the early 21st century, environmental justice can best be understood as a shared frame and coalition of anti-toxics; labor, civil rights, indigenous, environmental, and feminist movements; and radical scholars, among others. Their common conviction is that environmental problems are largely structural and political issues that cannot be solved apart from social and economic justice and that these call for a transformative approach and the restructuring of dominant economic models, social relations, and institutional arrangements. From an initial focus on the socio-spatial distribution of “bads” (emissions, toxins) and then “goods,” (parks, green spaces, services, healthy food), environmental justice in the early 21st century encompasses a huge array of issues and has increasingly taken on transnational and transdisciplinary character and has become a meeting place for action-research among a growing network of activists, scholars, and nongovernmental organizations. EJ can be said to be a “theory in practice,” in constant coevolution and redefinition by many activist groups, international coalitions, and intellectuals.
Rewilding
Authors: Root-Bernstein Meredith
Published: February 2019

Rewilding is an increasingly recognized approach to conservation and restoration, among academics, land managers, and the public. Although a number of different definitions have been proposed for rewilding (see Definitions of Rewilding), most approaches called “rewilding” include ideas about restoring a habitat to a less-anthropogenic state, restoring ecological processes and allowing them to take their own course without managing for a target ecosystem condition and (re)-introducing missing (usually large) species as a way to restore those ecological processes. Conceptualizations of rewilding and actual rewilding projects draw on a wide range of cultural and ecological ideas and practical knowledge, which are detailed in this article. Several organizations now represent rewilding interests to policymakers and the public and set up or facilitate rewilding initiatives in Europe and the Americas. Much of their philosophies, practice, data, and outcomes are not published. The Wildland Research Institute is an influential source of research on wilderness mapping, rewilding, restoration, and policy analysis in Europe. The European Centre for Nature Conservation (ECNC) supports and facilitates the conservation of large herbivore populations and their habitats at large scales in Eurasia through its Large Herbivore Network. Rewilding Europe implements rewilding projects throughout Europe, bringing together financing for large herbivore reintroductions and luxury wilderness tourism. Their European Rewilding Network brings together rewilding-related services and knowledge exchange. Similarly, the True Nature Foundation is a European foundation that works to restore habitats, reintroduce primarily large herbivores, and create sustainable tourism in nature areas. Wild Europe seeks to promote and lobby for the protection of large, “wild” natural areas. Similarly, the European Wilderness Society is an advocacy organization that identifies and promotes the stewardship and protection of large wilderness areas. The Rewilding Foundation is an international organization promoting and working toward the conservation of large areas of habitat and corridors for large carnivores. The Wildlands Network is an American organization that similarly seeks to conserve and connect large habitat areas and reintroduce apex predators. The Rewilding Institute in the United States also promotes protecting large habitats and creating corridors for large carnivores. There are also numerous site-based rewilding projects, which largely preceded the consolidation of rewilding as a concept. Many of these, through their creative rethinking of ecological and paleo-ecological orthodoxy, have influenced the development of rewilding practice and theory.
Alternative Work Arrangements
Authors: Cameron Lindsey D. , Garrett Lyndon , Spreitzer Gretchen
Published: February 2019

The literature on alternative work arrangements is broad, spanning multiple disciplines, including economics, sociology, information sciences, management, and organizational psychology. Alternative work arrangements are loosely defined as jobs that occur outside of a traditional employment context with the expectation of a long-term employment contract. Given the breadth of the topic this review limits its scope to alternative work arrangements in the United States, unless otherwise noted. Taken together, the literature broadly explores the social, economic, and legal trends influencing the growth of alternative workplace arrangements and the different configurations within the workplace.
Comprehensive Clinical and Laboratory Follow-up of a Female Patient With Ebola Virus Disease: Sierra Leone Ebola Virus Persistence Study
Authors: Liu William J , Sesay Foday R , Coursier Antoine , Knust Barbara , Marrinan Jaclyn E , Whitmer Shannon , McDonald Suzanna L R , Gaillard Philippe , Liu Yang , Su Qiudong , Zhang Yong , Crozier Ian , Ariyarajah Archchun , Carino Marylin , Massaquoi Thomas , Broutet Nathalie , Xu Wenbo , Wu Guizhen , Ströher Ute , Gao George F , Formenty Pierre , Sahr Foday , Deen Gibrilla F ,   Sierra Leone Ebola Virus Persistence Study Group, Bangura James , Jambai Amara , James Faustine , Wurie Alie , Yamba Francis , Sahr Foday , Fornah Halima , Kamara Richard , Massaquoi Thomas A , Sesay Foday R , Davies Tina
Published: February 2019

The clinical, virologic, and immunologic findings in a female Ebola virus disease patient are described. During the long-term follow-up, Ebola virus RNA was detectable in vaginal fluid before 36 days after symptom onset, with nearly an identical genome sequence as in acute phase blood. Ebola-specific T cells retained activation at 56 days after disease onset.
Ankle Microinstability
Authors: Vega Jordi , Guelfi Matteo , Heyrani Nasser , Malagelada Francesc , Dalmau-Pastor Miki
Published: February 2019

Ankle sprains are one of the most common injuries in foot and ankle, and the superior fascicle of the anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) frequently is injured as a consequence. Patients with isolated rupture of ATFL’s superior fascicle can sustain a subtle ankle instability or ankle microinstability. Patients with symptomatic ankle microinstability may describe a subjective feeling of ankle instability, recurrent symptomatic ankle sprains, chronic anterolateral pain or a combination of any of them. When conservative management fails, anatomic all-inside ATFL’s superior fascicle repair under direct arthroscopic visualization is the preferred surgical technique.
Ankle Ligament Reconstruction: The Role of Augmentation
Authors: Coetzee J. Chris , Ellington J. Kent , Nilsson Lawrence J. , Stone McGaver Rebecca
Published: February 2019

The most reliable reconstruction for chronic ankle ligament instability continues to be debated. The conventional Broström is widely used, but there are limitations to the technique. By virtue of the tissue repair a conservative rehabilitation approach is advocated, and there is an increasing concern that the repair does not match the strength of the native ligament. That begs the question of whether an augmentation is needed and if it is done, how does it affect the native ligament repair and how does it stand up over time? This chapter will discuss these questions as well as our current approach to lateral ligament reconstruction.
Knowledge Deficit of Sickle Cell Trait Status
Authors: Arhin Afua O.
Published: February 2019

Sickle cell disease and sickle cell trait are identified through universal newborn screening, which has been implemented in all hospitals across the United States since the 1970s. Yet, studies report that only 16% of Americans with sickle cell trait know their status. Despite these striking statistics, there appears to be no standardized methods for reporting positive sickle cell trait results of newborn screening to doctors or families of affected persons. This article will demonstrate how current literature supports the gaps in knowledge of trait status and its implications as well as knowledge deficit of inheritance patterns of prospective parents. The article will also elucidate how knowledge deficit in this subject adversely affects primary prevention strategies including genetic counseling. Primary prevention of sickle cell disease is a public health area that can be championed by registered nurses who have the tools and experiences to effectively handle case management and patient education.
Persistent Muscle Twitching With Phenobarbitone in a Preterm Neonate—Lack of Response or Manifestation of Toxicity?
Authors: Krishnamurthy Bhaskar , Pattanaik Smita , Dudeja Sankalp , Dutta Sourabh
Published: February 2019

Background:

Phenobarbitone is frequently used for the treatment of seizures in neonates, but it has a narrow therapeutic index.

Case presentation:

A 28-week preterm infant born of vaginal delivery developed signs and symptoms suggestive of ventriculitis on day 9. After an episode of clonic seizures on day 11, phenobarbitone was administered intravenously at a loading dose of 20 mg/kg followed by maintenance doses of 6 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses for 5 days. Due to suspected recurrence of seizures, a mini-loading dose of 10 mg/kg was administered on day 16; after which the child became unresponsive, hypotonic, and comatose with generalized slowing on electroencephalography. Pupils were dilated and fixed, and deep tendon reflexes were absent. Spontaneous respiration was depressed which resulted in ventilatory support. While awaiting the therapeutic drug monitoring results, 2 additional doses of 5 mg/kg of phenobarbitone were administered due to the persistence of muscle twitching. The phenobarbitone level (164 mcg/mL) was alarmingly above the normal range, warranting immediate discontinuation of the drug. This led to reduction in the plasma phenobarbitone levels into the therapeutic range (37 mcg/mL) over the next 10 days with subsequent improvement in the neurological status and respiration.

Conclusions:

Phenobarbitone levels are reported to be greater in preterm infants as compared to term infants. Persistence of seizures and muscle twitching on phenobarbitone could either be due to a lack of response or a manifestation of drug toxicity. This case underlies the importance of therapeutic drug monitoring, which can distinguish between the 2 causes, thus enabling the clinician to make an appropriate decision.
Associations between hospital structures, processes and patient experiences of preparation for discharge in breast cancer centers: A multilevel analysis
Authors: Nowak Marina , Swora Michael , Karbach Ute , Pfaff Holger , Ansmann Lena
Published: February 2019

Background

Discharge management is a central task in hospital management. Mitchell's quality health outcomes model offers a contextual framework to derive expectations about the relationship between indicators of hospital structures and processes with patient experiences of preparation for discharge.

Purpose

The aim is to analyze the association between hospital structures and processes with patient experiences of preparation for discharge in breast cancer centers.

Methodology

The data were collected between February 1 and July 31, 2014–2016, with annual cross-sectional postal surveys on patient experiences of preparation for discharge in breast cancer center hospitals in Germany. These data were combined with secondary data on hospital structures, obtained from structured quality reports 2014 and the accreditation institution certifying breast cancer centers, constituting a hierarchical data structure. A total of 10,750 newly diagnosed breast cancer patients from 67 hospitals were analyzed. Following listwise deletion, 9,762 patients could be included in linear hierarchical regression analyses.

Results

Patients felt better prepared for discharge in hospitals that communicate the discharge date timely to patients, with good coordinative processes, and which cooperate with two other breast cancer center hospitals. Hospital structures, size, teaching status, and ownership were not associated with the patient experiences of preparation for discharge.

Conclusion

The results suggest that timely and informative communication, well-organized care processes, and the network structure of centers allow for an improvement of preparation for discharge. Current and future approaches for the improvement of hospital discharge should consider the identified hospital resources.

Practice Implications

Hospital management should increase the focus on structured communication and coordination processes to improve the discharge process. Cooperating networks should be expanded to increase expertise and resources. Results can be generalized to other care domains with caution. Patients' characteristics should further be assessed in order to use resources efficiently.
Surveying ADR Knowledge and Practices Among US Gastroenterologists
Authors: Peng Michael , Rex Douglas K.
Published: February 2019

Background:

The adenoma detection rate (ADR) is of primary importance to the quality of screening colonoscopy. An online survey was conducted to assess knowledge and practices on ADR.

Methods:

Paid questionnaire distributed by email. Eligible respondents were board certified gastroenterologists who perform >80 colonoscopies per month with 3 to 35 years practice after fellowship.

Results:

There were 250 respondents. In total, 39% were unaware that ADR applies only to screening colonoscopies and 76% incorrectly answered that ADR includes sessile-serrated polyps/adenomas. A total of 51% of respondents incorrectly believe the threshold is set at 25% because 25% is a national ADR average. Many also believe the threshold depends on the patient population (current evidence suggests adjusting ADR for factors other than age and sex is unnecessary). 75% ranked ADR as highly important. 80% reported tracking ADR. A busy practice was the most common reason for not tracking ADR. Caps, chromoendoscopy, and good bowel preparation were viewed as valuable for improving ADR (this is true except for caps). High-definition colonoscopes and education were considered less valuable, despite evidence indicating that both are associated with improved ADR. In total, 57% reported not sharing ADR information with their patients, and 59% reported that no patients in the last 6 months asked for their ADR.

Conclusions:

The importance of ADR as a quality measure is well understood, but there are misconceptions among gastroenterologists regarding the definition and measurement of ADR, and which methods are proven to increase ADR. Patients are having very little impact on ADR measurement.