bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Olbian–Scythian Trade: Exchange Issues in the Sixth to Fourth Centuries bc
Authors: LEYPUNSKAYA N. A.
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on the trade between the Greek and the Scythian worlds on the north coast of the Black Sea. The majority of previous articles and topics on this subject tended to revolve around the issue of the significance for the Scythian society of exchange with Greek cities, ignoring the significance of such exchange and trade for the Greek cities particularly for Olbia. Furthermore, little work has been devoted to the change of such significance for Olbia over time. Hence, this chapter sheds a new and fresh look at the Olbian-Scythian relationships, their beginnings and their developments. Exchange relationships between Olbia and Scythia began in the early sixth century BC and persisted through the fifth and the fourth centuries BC. These trade exchanges resulted in significant economic development and a great deal of exchanges were made during the fourth century. This slowly waned towards the end of the fourth century. The diminished trade exchanges between Olbia and Scythia were caused by a number of complex factors. Although Olbia's economical and market development depended on trade exchanges, its whole economy was not truly defined by the city's exchange, rather it was based on agriculture.
Dio Chrysostom’s Construction of Olbia
Authors: BÄBLER BALBINA
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Dio Chrysostom, a wealthy Greek who was banished from Prusa and who was exiled to Olbia. It focuses on his construction and illustration of Olbia through his thirty-sixth speech entitled Borystheniticus Or. 36. This speech is assumed to be written during his exile in Olbia and was delivered on his return to Prusa. His Borystheniticus themes are ‘harmony, good order, and regular and predictable change on earth as in heaven’. His speech consists of a large introduction that narrates the location of Olbia. Out of the 61 pages of his Borystheniticus, 13 are devoted to the exterior setting of the city, the city itself, its inhabitants and its surrounding, giving the impression that the introduction was not intended as a mere introductory part. His account of Olbia in his speech was not just an indulging innocent reminiscence, rather it was a description aimed for a larger audience. Behind his illustration of the Obliopolitans as early Greeks lies a traditional and elaborate theory that suggest that the technical and cultural evolution, development and progress of civilization came at the same time as moral degeneration. He painted a gloomy picture of Olbia as a rhetorical strategy that allowed him to illustrate a society on the brink of extinction as a result of the severe threat to its historical and religious identity and yet still holding out because of the sense of unity of the community. This concept was aimed to remind the inhabitants of Prusa of proper and responsible behaviour.
Trafalgar: Back on the Map of British Popular Culture? Assessing the 2005 Bicentenary
Authors: Connelly Mark
Published: February 2012

This chapter explores the current state of knowledge about, and national identification with, Nelson, Trafalgar, and Britain's maritime past, based on observations of a wide range of academic and public bicentenary events, media, and interviews with several groups of (primarily young) people over the course of 2005. The chapter strikes a sceptical note on the long-term impact of 2005 on historical awareness: without direct state intervention in the National Curriculum, it appears difficult to see how the role of the Navy, Nelson, and the sea can be more fully instilled in British life.
The EU–China ‘Strategic Dialogue’: Pathways in the International System
Authors: SCOTT DAVID
Published: February 2012

By examining the strategic dialogue process, this chapter conducts a wider evaluation across time and the issue areas of the relationship. It provides a careful textual analysis of the discourse mechanisms that Europe and China are using to develop their political language; but it also points to the gaps, inconsistencies, and slippages between what is being said and what is being understood. The discussion considers the emergent actors to be seeking pathways in a fluid international environment, in which they sometimes seem to be on parallel paths, at other times on divergent ones, with the result that it cannot easily be deduced at this stage whether these pathways will lead to a common end destination or not. Still, if liberalism-functionalism has any credence, then EU multilateralism may also be encouraging similar multilateralism trends in China.
The Multilateral Security Regime in the Asia-Pacific Region and China’s Choice
Authors: LINHONG ZHANG
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents a view of China's approach to security multilateralism in Pacific Asia. It argues that the three main challenges that China faces in regional security are the potential for conflict on the Korean peninsula, Japan's politics of military aggressiveness and the meaninglessness of its non-violent constitution, and the Taiwan separatists' denial of ‘One China’. Despite the likely persistence of these problems, the discussion presents some grounds for optimism in building regional security multilateralism, in terms of the modes, fields, and driving forces of cooperation. Nevertheless, it indicates how far the prospect for multilateralism is dependent on the emergence of a consensus between China, Japan, and the USA as to its desirability, capability, and purposes.
Promoting the Deeper Development of China–EU Relations
Authors: ZHONGPING FENG
Published: February 2012

In order to promote the further deepening of relations, this chapter provides a critical examination of four major issue areas: the nature of strategic partnerships, the particularity of Europe as an international actor, the resolution of the arms embargo issue, and the granting of China's market economy status. Nevertheless, China as a sovereign and unitary actor will still find itself having to negotiate the complexities of the multi-level, multi-mode European relationship, a factor rendered all the more difficult by the enlargement process. The discussion identifies two further obstacles to deepening: the role of the USA in influencing the position of European member states towards the arms embargo; and the question of China's poor governance record on intellectual property rights, which may be the most significant barrier to market economy status.
A Non-Canonical Pattern of Deponency and Its Implications*
Authors: Stump Gregory T.
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses a proposal of a conception of canonical dependency in language. It demonstrates that the instances of canonical dependency are prone to two very different analyses. It also examines a particular pattern of non-canonical deponency and its implications for choosing between the contrasting analyses canonical dependency is being subjected to. In this chapter, Latin deponent verbs are regarded as an instance of canonical deponency.
Deponency in Latin*
Authors: Xu Zheng , Aronoff Mark , Anshen Frank
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses an analysis of Latin deponents using two perspectives: a syntactico-semantic perspective and a morphological analysis. It shows that several factors play a role in predicting whether a verb in Latin may be deponent or not. Semantically, Latin deponent verbs have been determined not to take physically affected objects. The chapter also notes that a Latin verb derived from a noun or adjective tends to be deponent if its meaning is non-causative.
Slouching Towards Deponency: A Family of Mismatches in the Bantu Verb Stem*
Authors: Good Jeff
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses some morphological idiosyncrasies that involve the four Bantu verbal suffixes. The terms passivization and applicativization are used in the chapter to refer to abstract morphological processes that can be applied to basic verb roots. These can create derived verb stems that show the syntax and semantics that are associated with those terms. Background information on the Bantu verb stem is provided in the second section, while the third section features a simpler morphological irregularity found in the verb stem. The chapter also discusses morphological mismatches in the verb stem and various classes of deponent verb stems.
Rulers
Authors: Haour Anne
Published: February 2012

This chapter compares the privileges and duties of rulers in central Sahel and north-west Europe. It provides a factual overview of the political history of the central Sahel and north-west Europe and compares their rulers in terms of boundary control, economic control and taxation, and religious and social roles. It suggests that many medieval polities in north-west Europe and central Sahel were the result of economic interference or of military campaigns imposing a new framework on disparate societies.
Thessalian Personal Names and the Greek Lexicon
Authors: Ramón José-Luis García
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the Greek lexicon and Thessalian personal names. It provides an overview of personal names according to the current conventional classification and a more detailed analysis of some nicknames belonging to a variety of concrete semantic groups that will cast light on the Greek lexicon in Thessaly. The chapter highlights the richness and variety of Thessaly's contribution in providing information about the Greek lexicon and suggests that some lexical items transmitted only by Glosses which turned out to be real in the light of the latent vocabulary from which Thessalian names were derived.
Was there an Anthroponymy of Euboian Origin in the Chalkido-Eretrian Colonies of the West and of Thrace?
Authors: Knoepfler Denis
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the onomastics of the Euboian colonies of Sicily, Magna Graecia, and Thrace to determine the continuities with the names of the mother cities of Eretria and Chalkis. The findings indicate that the limited Archaic evidence at both Eretria and Chalkis makes it impossible to measure exactly the extent to which the Euboian colonists retained or renewed their stock of personal names in their new environment. Despite this, the analysis of personal names confirms the historiographical tradition concerning the foundation of the settlements by the cities of central Euboia.
Petrarch and the Italian Reformation
Authors: Brundin Abigail
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the discreet Reformation content inside the deeply conformist structure of Petrarch's sonnet. It investigates the manifestation of the link between vernacular literature and reformed spirituality in Italy in the sixteenth century and the potential evangelising role of the former. It analyzes the poetry of Vittoria Colonna whose works can be considered the clearest manifestation of literary evangelism.
Petrarch, Sidney, Bruno
Authors: Hilary Gatti
Published: February 2012

This chapter traces the more secular spirit of Giordano Bruno's Petrarchism. It suggests that Bruno's originality can be seen in the fact that he brings his Italian experience of the Petrarchan and anti-Petrarchan debate to Britain and that he confronted the principal English Petrarchan poet of his time, Sir Philip Sidney. It discusses Bruno's dedication of the Gli eroici furori to Sidney and his belief that the Petrarchan sonnet is a suitable vehicle for philosophical enquiry in the post-Copernican, infinite universe.
Leopardi and Petrarch
Authors: Williams Pamela
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines Giacomo Leopardi's own imitation of Petrarch. It describes Leopardi's major engagement with Petrarch including his commentary on the Canzoniere and explains the similarities and differences between his All sua donna and Petrarch's Chiare, fresche e dolci acque. It suggests that the most striking similarity between the two poets is that they both are concerned with illusions without self-delusion.
Introduction: transitions and transformations
Authors: Whittle Alasdair , Cummings Vicki
Published: February 2012

This introductory chapter begins with a brief discussion of the significance of the transition from hunter-gatherer existence to farming society. It raises the following question: What if we started with the radical premise that most or all societies in the post-glacial period – whatever their subsistence or technological base – were normally in a state of transformation, which would offer a quite different perspective on the holy grail of finding moments of Mesolithic–Neolithic transition? The chapter then sets out the focus of the book, namely the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition in north-west Europe.
From Mesolithic to Neolithic modes of thought
Authors: Barnard Alan
Published: February 2012

This chapter begins by outlining two proposed modes of thought, which are characterized by opposite perceptions in at least four domains: saving versus consumption (which reflect notions of time and work); decision-making and political hierarchy; degree and kind of kin category extension; and notions of land, place, and settlement. All of these have implications for understanding group structure, transhumance, migration, and so on. The chapter then addresses the question of whether Mesolithic thought persisted into the Neolithic. It argues that mode of thought is much slower to change than mode of production. Social relations retain the structures of hunter-gatherer times if these are deeply rooted in cultural understandings of sociality. The existence nearby of agro-pastoralists does not make former hunter-gatherers think more like agro-pastoralists; it may even accentuate the differences in their thinking by making each side more aware of what makes them, say, Mesolithic or Neolithic.
Beyond the models: ‘Neolithisation’ in Central Europe
Authors: Gronenborn Detlef
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the Neolithization process in Central Europe. The process began during the latter half of the seventh millennium cal bc, then experienced a major shift with the expansion of the Linear Pottery Culture (LBK), and ended in the mid-fifth millennium cal bc. During these two thousand years a multi-faceted combination of migrations, adaptations, and acculturations, together with socio-political cycling, led to the fundamental transformation of Central European societies from segmented tribes to emergent complex chiefdoms. The trajectories were triggered by external parameters like climatic fluctuations, and internal factors such as human agency.
The neolithisation of the Scheldt basin in western Belgium
Authors: Crombé Philippe , Vanmontfort Bart
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on the neolithization process in two different landscape zones of the Scheldt basin extending over western Belgium: first, the northern coversand lowland bordering the Atlantic coast; and second, the southern loess area of Middle Belgium. Although the neolithization of both areas seems to have had a different course, there is evidence of continuous and increasing contact and interaction between population groups occupying each region. In the loess hill land, neolithization can be distinguished in two phases, separated by an archaeological hiatus of several centuries. The first phase is related to the arrival of the Linearbandkeramik (LBK) and the Groupe de Blicquy (BQY), while the second is connected with the Michelsberg culture (MK) occupation of the area. Unfortunately, it is difficult to determine the place of local hunter-gatherers in this process. In the sandy lowland, on the other hand, Mesolithic hunter-gatherers culturally belonging to the Swifterbant culture seem to have survived much longer, probably until the end of the fifth millennium cal bc.
The gradual transition to farming in the Lower Rhine Basin
Authors: Louwe Kooijmans Leendert P.
Published: February 2012

The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research finances a research programme directed towards a new synthesis of the transition to farming in the Netherlands, viewed in its wider geographical context, profiting from the new wealth of data made available by modern large-scale field research. The programme encompasses various projects: a critical approach to the sitebound evidence by Luc Amkreutz, a regional approach by Bart Vanmontfort (Leuven), the first physical anthropological and isotopic study of the area by Liesbeth Smits, the acquisition and distribution of raw materials and prestigious items by Leo Verhart, and a re-evaluation of the various sources of palaeobotanical evidence from the delta district by Welmoed Out. This chapter serves as a short interim report, anticipating the synthetic volume planned for the year 2008. Comments are made especially on the seemingly parallel developments at the other end of the North German Plain in the Baltic coastal area.
The temporality of transformation: dating the early development of the southern British Neolithic
Authors: Whittle Alasdair
Published: February 2012

This chapter has three aims: first, to draw attention to now-routine methods of refining radiocarbon chronologies; second, to sketch some of the first results from the application of such methods to early (but not yet really the earliest) parts of the southern British Neolithic sequence; and third, to discuss on a provisional basis the implications of a more refined sequence for our understanding of the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition and the very early development of the southern British Neolithic. In so doing, the distinctions between chronology, history, and temporality become harder to sustain.
Music, Science, and Culture
Authors: IAN CROSS
Published: February 2012

Music is conceptualized as a product and a process of imagination. It is often assumed that engagement in music initiates the developmental and evolutionary emergence of imagination. This conception of music and its relationship to human powers of imagining is treated differently in science and musicology. For science, music is simply a complex pattern of sound or the experience of structured sound. For musicology and ethnomusicology, music cannot be separated from the cultural contexts in which they are embedded. This chapter proposes a broad operational definition of music which can be acceptable and applicable cross-naturally. This radical redefinition of music may provide ways of understanding music as both a culturally embedded practice and biologically grounded structure. Apart from providing a redefinition of music, the chapter also investigates some of the potential implications and consequences of this radical redefinition of music such as the possibility that the human capacity for culture may have been supported and consolidated by the emergence and presence of musicality.
A Module for Metaphor? The Site of Imagination in the Architecture of the Mind
Authors: NETTLE DANIEL
Published: February 2012

Contemporary psychology claims an influential position that suggests that the mind is made-up of constellations of domain-specific, specialized computational mechanisms. Controversy remains on how integrative cognitive processes such as imagination fit into this suggested architecture of mind. This chapter considers some of the three possible conceptualizations of imagination. The first conceptualization purports imagination as an operation of the domain-general central process in a Fodorian mind. The second suggests imagination is an operation of a specialized module in a massively modular mind, and the third conceptualization asserts imagination as a product of low binding selectivity in Clark Barrett’s ‘cogzyme’ mind. Of the three conceptualizations, the last one is the most promising, as the key to the imagination seems to be the mapping of meaningful representations between dissimilar cognitive domains. Imagination is thus a consequence of the incomplete insulation between parallel specialized processes. Such de-insulation initiates novelty and innovation but it also allows possible delusional beliefs and psychotic illnesses. Like evolutionary development, imagination has benefits and costs as well.
Plato’s Sun and Descartes’s Stove: Contemplation and Control in Cartesian Philosophy
Authors: COTTINGHAM JOHN
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines contemplation and control in Cartesian philosophy and sets out some of the Platonic strands in Descartes’ cosmology, metaphysics and moral theory. It argues that Descartes’ philosophy is deeply imbued with ancient and medieval views of humanity’s place in the divine order, and yet is also the harbinger of a modern conception of a value-neutral and impersonal natural universe. It considers the tension between Descartes’ natural philosophy and account of physical law and suggests that these two mindsets represent a certain opposition within people’s thinking that still needs a resolution.
Peter Frederick Strawson 1919–2006
Authors: Snowdon Paul
Published: February 2012

Peter Frederick Strawson's life as a philosopher was spent mostly in positions at Oxford, first as a Fellow at University College, and then, after 1968, as Ryle's successor as Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy, at Magdalen College. Writing primarily about the philosophy of language, metaphysics, epistemology, and the history of philosophy, he succeeded in redirecting Oxford philosophy away from the limitations that had to some extent been accepted under the influence of J. L. Austin, towards a re-engagement with some traditional and also some new abstract philosophical issues. Strawson established from the early 1950s onwards a pre-eminence within Oxford philosophy, both through his publications but also by his quite exceptional, although never brutal, critical abilities. Simultaneously, he established himself as one of the leading philosophers in the world.
Coercion and Consent in Nazi Germany
Authors: Evans Richard J.
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses three central propositions to a new consensus that the Third Reich was a ‘dictatorship by consent’. The first proposition states that the Nazis did not seize power; rather, they won it legally and by consent. The second is that the Nazi repression, which was exercised through the Gestapo and the concentration camps, was on a small scale and did not actually affect most of the population. The third proposition discussed in this lecture is that the overwhelming popularity of the regime was demonstrated by the staggeringly successful results it achieved in national elections and plebiscites.
The Origins of Fair Play
Authors: Binmore Ken
Published: February 2012

This lecture gives a brief overview of an evolutionary theory of fairness. Most of the ideas discussed in the lecture can be found in the book Natural Justice. The lecture begins by determining how and why the norms of fairness evolved, and examines the device of the original position. This device is the stylised form of the common structure underlying all fairness norms. The lecture then looks at the possibility of having justice as fairness, pure foraging societies, and the basics of game theory. Coordination games, reciprocity, the folk theorem, selecting equilibria, and the deep structure of fairness are some of the concepts discussed in detail in this lecture.
‘Now Shall I Make My Soul’: Approaching Death in Yeats’s Life and Work
Authors: Foster R. F.
Published: February 2012

This lecture traces W. B. Yeats' preoccupation with the changing forms of death throughout his life, from his fin-de-siécle love-poetry to his poems of death. These poems of death were linked to his interest in Celtic legend, Irish intellectual influences and conjunctions, and magical ritual and psychic research. The lecture considers Yeats' approach to death in his later work, concluding with his creation of a structured canon of work in the light of his own death and the work that he wrote on his deathbed.
The Devil in the Holy Water: Political Libel in Eighteenth-Century France
Authors: Darnton Robert
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses an investigation of the vast but unstudied literature of libel that appeared in the French book market during the eighteenth century. It concentrates on four interconnected libelles from 1771 to 1793, and combines an analysis of the genre with an account of a colony of French refugees in London. These refugees were noted to have made slanderous attacks on public figures in Versailles, and even grafted a blackmail operation on to their literary speculations. The lecture shows how an ideological current was able to erode authority under the Ancien Régime and became absorbed in a new political culture.
Board to Council
Authors: Herbert James
Published: February 2012

The AHRB was given the core responsibility to produce 12,000 active arts and humanities researches over the UK. As of 1998, the Board had made over 4000 awards involving over 5000 researches. Across the UK, in the institutions of the government and the academy, several have been engaged with the AHRB and were actively committed to the fulfilment of the AHRB as a true Research Council. In 2005, the Arts and Humanities Research Council achieved its desired transformation after having built an impressive array of assets. This chapter discusses the transformation of the Arts and Humanities Research Board to a Research Council. In the process of the transformation of the Board, several changes were made. Among of these are the transition of the charitable status of the board and the transition of the AHRB's assets and obligations in to the new Non-Deparmental Public Body (NDPB). It also meant that the now AHRC must provide multi-year funding and the creation of strategic initiatives that would support intellectual urgency. The integration of the AHRC within the Research Councils also meant the restoration of arts and humanities to the circle of serious sciences and knowledge.
Giuseppe Mazzini and Irish Nationalism, 1845–70
Authors: Barr Colin
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on Mazzini's profound effect on Irish political life. As elsewhere in Europe, Mazzini, with his vision of Italian nationalism, was influential in Ireland, despite his own doubts about the reality of Irish nationality. At least some Irish nationalists found in Mazzini's account of Italy under foreign rule echoes of Ireland's own experience in the United Kingdom. In 1848, for example, a group called Young Ireland attempted a rebellion against British rule. Despite the apparent similarity with other parts of Europe that also experienced nationalist revolts more or less influenced by Mazzinian ideas and models, in Ireland Mazzini's influence took a radically different turn from 1848. In Irish circumstances, no nationalist movement could hope for long-term success without the support of the Roman Catholic Church. The paradox was that that Church was both Irish and transnational; it had direct experience of Mazzini and the consequences (for the Church) of Mazzinian ideas in Italy. The course – and essential failure – of Irish nationalism in the mid-Victorian period can be traced to the influence of Mazzini on the minds of Catholic bishops who saw Irish events through Italian eyes.
The Politics of Italian Romanticism: Mazzini and the Making of a Nationalist Culture
Authors: Riall Lucy
Published: February 2012

Mazzini's contribution to political change has always been controversial and difficult to assess. This chapter argues that his different activities – as journalist, as head of a vast associational network, and as political conspirator – should be taken as the expression of a single political strategy which was to make his revolutionary idea of a unitarian, republican Italy convincing to as wide a public as possible. Taking Massimo D'Azeglio's Ettore Fieramosca as an example, it looks at Mazzini's attempts to identify the Romantic narratives of historical novels with his political ambitions. The chapter also analyses in some detail the propaganda work of the Mazzinian journalist Giovan Battista Cuneo in the Rio de la Plata, and the efforts of both Cuneo and Mazzini to promote the cult of Cuneo's colleague Giuseppe Garibaldi in the early 1840s. It concludes that Mazzini's main political achievement was to have created an enduring nationalist culture in Risorgimento Italy, and that his effectiveness as a political leader has been misunderstood and underestimated.
Esteban Echeverría’s Critique of Universal Suffrage: The Traumatic Development of Democracy in Argentina, 1821–52
Authors: Gallo Klaus
Published: February 2012

Mazzini's Young Italy had a notable influence on the dissident youth of the River Plate region; one of their intellectual leaders, Esteban Echeverría (1805–51) – Romantic poet, socialist utopian, pioneer of Argentina's ‘Generation of 37’, and author of Dogma socialista – proclaimed a Young Argentina, as he firmly believed that it was necessary to establish Mazzinian-style associations to help reformulate the direction of political and literary culture in both Argentina and Uruguay. Both these nations were in those years suffering the consequences of the dictatorial regimes of Juan Manuel de Rosas and Manuel Oribe, respectively, which would later be confronted by Garibaldi and other European legionaries who had crossed the Atlantic to assist the local adversaries of these two governments. This chapter focuses on certain aspects of Echeverría's democratic thought, and particularly the criticism he directed towards the law of universal male suffrage decreed by the government of Buenos Aires in 1821 when he was a youngster. He claimed that this decree had been largely responsible for the rise to power in Buenos Aires of Rosas (in power 1829–32 and 1835–52), which he and other prominent members of Generation of 37 fiercely opposed.
Giuseppe Mazzini and the Emergence of Liberal Nationalism in the River Plate and Chile, 1835–60
Authors: Myers Jorge
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the reception of the political and social thought of Giuseppe Mazzini in the River Plate (Buenos Aires and Montevideo) and Chile, and its contribution to the development of native currents of liberal and democratic nationalism there. Focusing on the writings of the leaders of the Association of the Young Argentinian Generation – Juan Bautista Alberdi, Esteban Echeverría, Bartolomé Mitre, and Vicente Fidel López – it analyses the forms in which certain key concepts drawn from Mazzini's political vocabulary played a crucial role in the early elaboration of an Argentinian liberal nationalism. The chapter also stresses the importance of cultural intermediaries such as Giovanbattista Cuneo and Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose presence in the River Plate during the 1830s and 1840s was of decisive importance in the transmission of the programme formulated by Mazzini for his Giovine Italia movement. The chapter also explores the possible presence of Mazzinian themes and rhetorical patterns in the writings of the Chilean radical republican Francisco Bilbao, whose career as a publicist took place in three Latin American countries: Chile, Peru, and Argentina.
James Barr 1924–2006
Authors: Nicholson Ernest , Barton John
Published: February 2012

James Barr (1924–2006), a Fellow of the British Academy, was a biblical scholar, Semitist, and theologian, who combined these three skills with exceptional brilliance. He was among the foremost biblical specialists of his generation, and for his depth of insight into the study of the Bible he was in a class of his own. Barr was born on March 20, 1924 in Glasgow. He never considered any other profession than the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and upon graduating proceeded to New College, Edinburgh to study theology and prepare for ordination. Barrs's first book, The Semantics of Biblical Language (Oxford, 1961), was a ‘landmark’ contribution in the history of twentieth-century biblical studies. In 1961, he migrated to the United States to take up an appointment as Professor of Old Testament Literature and Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary. Barr returned to England in 1965 as Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures at the University of Manchester. Despite his many honours, he retained a simplicity and straightforwardness of manner that endeared him to family and friends alike.
Robert Norman William Blake 1916–2003
Authors: Shannon Richard
Published: February 2012

Robert Norman William Blake (1916–2003), a Fellow of the British Academy, had published admired revisionist studies of the soldier Lord Haig (1952) and the politician Andrew Bonar Law (1955), but unquestionably it was the brilliant success of his biography of Benjamin Disraeli in 1966 that stimulated support for his election to the Academy. He was born in the Manor House, Brundall, on the Yare, Norfolk, a little outside Norwich, on December 23, 1916 to William Joseph Blake and Norah Lindley. In 1935, Blake went to Magdalen College, Oxford, with a view to preparing for a legal career. He read ‘Modern Greats’, philosophy, politics, and economics. Blake was eloquent on the depressing peculiarities of World War II. He related in a manuscript fragment, ‘Memories of Christ Church’, that his two closest friends in the Senior Common Room were Hugh Trevor-Roper and Charles Stuart. In his biography of Disraeli, Blake made the British prime minister much less convincing as a heroic legend, but made him much more interesting as a man.
Laurence Jonathan Cohen 1923–2006
Authors: Levi Issac
Published: February 2012

Laurence Jonathan Cohen (1923–2006), a Fellow of the British Academy, was one of two sons of Israel Cohen and Theresa Jacobs. His parents were orthodox Jews who were active in the World Zionist Movement. Although Cohen gradually became less strict in his observance, he remained committed to his Jewish origins both in his private and his public life. He was educated at St Paul's School in London, where he excelled at mathematics and classics. Cohen went up to Balliol College, Oxford, in 1939 planning to read Greats. He served as Chair of the British Academy's Philosophy Section from 1993 to 1996. For several years after his official retirement, Cohen served as placement officer for the philosophy faculty at the University of Oxford. He offered a compelling case, holding that both in the natural sciences and in the law, one should accept a proposition if its Baconian probability is sufficiently high rather than the Pascalian probability. Cohen's central and original contributions are to the philosophy of inductive reasoning.
Peter Malcolm Holt 1918–2006
Authors: Hawting Gerald
Published: February 2012

Peter Malcolm Holt (1918–2006), a Fellow of the British Academy, was an historian of the Sudan, of the Middle East more widely, and of the development of Arabic studies in early modern England. Born at Leigh in Lancashire, he went to Lord Williams's Grammar School at nearby Thame, and then read History at University College, Oxford from 1937 to 1940. Having obtained a Diploma of Education (1941), he joined the Education Department of the Government of the Sudan, where he worked as a secondary school teacher and inspector. In the year before the Sudan became independent in 1956, Holt was appointed as a Lecturer in the History Department of the School of Oriental and African Studies. Articles investigating aspects of the earlier period of Sudanese history represent part of his scholarly output during the 1960s. While the main body of Holt's academic research occupied three, approximately successive, phases (the Sudan, Egypt under Ottoman rule, and the early Mamluk sultanate in Egypt and Syria), the development of Arabic studies in seventeenth-century England remained an abiding interest.
Maurice Frank Wiles 1923–2005
Authors: Williams Rowan , Young Frances
Published: February 2012

Maurice Frank Wiles (1923–2005), a Fellow of the British Academy, was an Anglican theologian who was able within that tradition to develop the field of ‘doctrinal criticism’. He began his career concentrating on the period of the early Fathers of the Church, and it was this grounding that sowed the seeds of his later work on modern doctrine. Arianism would remain a particular interest. Yet Wiles retained a profound respect for tradition and, like the Fathers, constantly measured his doctrinal critique against the experience of believers in life and worship, regarding theology as second-order discourse – reflection on the significance of what was primary for Christianity, such as the experience of salvation. During his student days two people particularly influenced him: Ian Ramsey, who was Chaplain of his college and his first Theology tutor; and Henry Chadwick, who encouraged his early research in the Church Fathers. The evolution of Wiles' thinking is perhaps best observed in the collection published as Working Papers in Doctrine.
Austin Herbert Woolrych 1918–2004
Authors: Morrill John
Published: February 2012

Austin Herbert Woolrych (1918–2004), a Fellow of the British Academy, was a scholar whose career, distinguished though it was, really only blossomed after his 60th birthday. By the age of 60, he had published just over 500 pages of academic prose; between his 60th birthday and his death 25 years later, he had published another 2,000 pages. Two terms into graduate study, Woolrych was recruited to join the rapidly expanding History Department at the University of Leeds. One of his books was Battles of the English Civil War, a study of three battles (Marston Moor (July 1644), Naseby (June 1645) and Preston (August 1648)). Woolrych was credited for creating an excellent History Department at Lancaster University. As he neared his 80th birthday in 1998, he decided to devote himself more single-mindedly to his last great work, his single-volume history of Britain in Revolution 1625–1660.
Architectural Politics in Renaissance Venice
Authors: HOWARD DEBORAH
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about the architectural politics in Renaissance Venice delivered by the author at the 2007 Italian Lecture held at the British Academy. It explores the role of architecture in the self-definition of a political regime and the extent to which state ideologies are communicated in public space. The lecture discusses the role of architecture in controlling the ideological meaning of public iconography.
Artists and Craftsmen in the Late Bronze Age of China (Eighth to Third Centuries bc): Art in Transition
Authors: THOTE ALAIN
Published: February 2012

This lecture presents the text of the speech about artists and craftsmen in the late Bronze Age of China delivered by the author at the 2007 Elsley Zeitlyn Lecture on Chinese Archaeology and Culture held at the British Academy. It describes dramatic changes in the arts that took place around the turn of the fourth century bc which deeply affected the nature of artistic creation, and provides examples drawn from two major artistic categories of artistic production, lacquer and bronze.
Embedded Selves, Transnational Duties, and Distant Strangers
Authors: Erskine Toni
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the groundwork for constructing a qualified ethical cosmopolitan position. It maintains that normative International Relations (IR) theory must respond to the attempts to challenge the very nature of morality. The chapter distinguishes between two distinct aspects of any moral perspective, namely: the understanding of the moral agent upon which it relies, and the ‘sphere of equal moral standing’ that it allows.
Remapping the Community: Feminist Ethics and the Challenge to ‘Communities of Place’
Authors: Erskine Toni
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses an outline of the shared ground between communitarian political thought and one branch of feminist ethics. These claim to reject abstraction and impartiality in ethical reasoning. The central argument is that this antagonism yields very useful insights for normative IR theory.
Colonial Emigration, Public Policy, and Tory Romanticism, 1783–1830
Authors: O’Brien Karen
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on white colonial emigration and the settlement of the British and Irish following the loss of the first British Empire. In particular, it examines the British imaginative engagement with the figure of the colonial settler as a casualty of war, industrialization, and poverty, as well as an economic migrant who nevertheless appeared to signify the potential for the recuperation of British society in the future. The chapter is also concerned with the role of the Romantic writers and literature in the new national imaginative investment in colonial settlement. It furthermore discusses Tory arguments and policy making, which encouraged state involvement and planning of the colonization of the white-settler territories in New South Wales, Canada, the Cape, and New Zealand. This Tory strain of British imperialism was issued out from the Romantic critique of classical political economy and the Romantic assault on Malthus’s non-interventionist stance on poverty. In contrast to the liberal economists, proponents of the Tory arguments advocated the active involvement of the state in managing poverty, and the export of the excess of the population to the overseas colonies. By focusing on the Tory outlook and its implications for the settler colonies, including the imaginative dimension of the literary writers, the chapter gives a profound understanding on the strand of imperialism that evolved together with the nineteenth-century imperial liberalism, yet substantially differed from it.
Credit and Village Society in Fourteenth-Century England
Authors: Briggs Chris
Published: February 2012

Exploring the role of credit is vital to understanding any economy. In the past two decades historians of many European regions have become increasingly aware that medieval credit, far from being the preserve of merchants, bankers, or monarchs, was actually of basic importance to the ordinary villagers who made up most of the population. This study is devoted to credit in rural England in the middle ages. Focusing in particular on seven well-documented villages, it examines in detail some of the many thousands of village credit transactions of this period, identifies the people who performed them, and explores the social relationships brought about by involvement in credit. The evidence comes primarily from inter-peasant debt litigation recorded in the proceedings of manor courts, which were the private legal jurisdictions of landlords. A comparative study that discusses the English evidence alongside findings from other parts of medieval and early modern Europe, the book argues that the prevailing view of medieval English credit as a marker of poverty and crisis is inadequate. In fact, the credit networks of the English countryside were surprisingly resilient in the face of the fourteenth-century crises associated with plague, famine, and economic depression.
‘Aqaba Castle in the Ottoman Period, 1517–1917
Authors: PRINGLE DENYS
Published: February 2012

For most of the period during which 'Aqaba belonged to the Ottoman Empire, the precise nature of its frontier status needs to be nuanced, since, in theory at least, all of the provinces adjoining it formed part of the same political unit, and the Red Sea itself was a largely Ottoman lake. In practice, however, Ottoman political and military control in the Syrian and Arabian deserts was often tenuous and reliant on individual deals struck with Bedouin leaders, often within the context of the sultan's fulfilment of his obligation to protect the pilgrimage to the Holy Places of Arabia. From this perspective, forts along the pilgrimage routes such as that at 'Aqaba, were none the less frontier places, mediating relations, whether peaceable or belligerent, between populations who regarded themselves as either belonging to or extraneous to the polity of the Ottoman state.
The Ottoman Northern Black Sea Frontier at Akkerman Fortress: The View from a Historical and Archaeological Project
Authors: OSTAPCHUK VICTOR , BILYAYEVA SVITLANA
Published: February 2012

The northern frontiers of the Ottoman Empire lay across a swathe of lands between Hungary and Iran, arcing through the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, then north of the Black Sea through the steppes of southern Ukraine, and finally proceeding further east along the Caucasus Mountains as far as the Caspian Sea. In a frontier region such as the one on the northern Black Sea, where environment, human geography and historical traditions made the steppe an alien place that did not readily yield to control and assimilation, the fortress was indispensable for maintaining the centre's presence. As imperial presence in such an area was anchored at and emanated from the fortress, the fortress can be seen as a prime target of a strategy aimed at learning about this frontier of the Ottoman world.
Understanding Archaeology and Architecture through Archival Records: The Restoration Project of the Ottoman Fortress of Seddülbahir on the Gallipoli Peninsula of Turkey
Authors: THYS-ŞENOCAK LUCIENNE , ÇELİK RAHMI NURHAN , ÖZSAVAŞÇI ARZU , TANYELİ GÜLSÜN
Published: February 2012

The Ottoman fortress of Seddülbahir on the European shores of the Dardanelles and Kumkale, its sister fortress on the opposite side of the Straits, were both built in 1658 by Hadice Turhan Sultan, the queen mother or valide sultan of Sultan Mehmed IV. The Seddülbahir restoration project illustrates that the type of information that can be extracted from the Ottoman building and repair records is invaluable for guiding decisions concerning potential excavation sites. Along with the non-invasive techniques that are increasingly a part of pre-excavation archaeological planning, a thorough investigation of the extant physical remains, and the visual records provided in engravings and other representational sources, an examination of the building and repair records in the Ottoman archives should be standard methodological practice for any Ottoman era archaeological or restoration project.
Ottoman Frontier Policies in North-East Africa, 1517–1914
Authors: ALEXANDER JOHN
Published: February 2012

This chapter suggests that insufficient attention has been paid in accounts of north-east African history to the role of the Ottoman Turks. With the capture of Egypt from its Mamluk rulers in 1517, the Ottomans established their first foothold in Africa. However, several factors drew them further into the region. First, there was a threat presented by the Portuguese, who sought to establish a monopoly on the valuable Indian Ocean trade and who challenged Ottoman control of the Red Sea and the pilgrimage routes to Mecca and Medina. Second, the Ottomans wished to secure control over Africa's valuable exports, slaves and gold. Third, in accordance with the sultans' quest for legitimacy as rulers of an Islamic empire, their long-term aim was the inclusion of all north-east Africa into Ottoman territory and hence the Dar al-Islam.
Garrisons and the Local Population in Ottoman Hungary: The Testimony of the Archaeological Finds
Authors: GERELYES IBOLYA
Published: February 2012

It is generally accepted in Hungarian scholarly literature that Ottoman soldiers stationed on Hungarian territory did not mix with the local Hungarian population during the Ottoman period in Hungary (1541–1699). However, the written historical sources attest direct contact between Ottoman garrisons and the Hungarian population. This chapter attempts to examine how the picture drawn by the historical sources can be supplemented by archaeological evidence, in particular ceramics. This can be seen in the records of shops owned by the Ottoman Treasury and in customs registers. These sources attest that craftsmen and traders settling in the wake of the soldiers and supplying them were employed in the production and sale of goods that were almost exclusively for the satisfaction of basic everyday needs.