bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Science education journal/periodical reading patterns of senior level undergraduate education students at the university of Oklahoma, 1973‐1982
Authors: Butler Charles E.
Published: October 2006

This study analyzed 103 articles from journals/periodicals related to science education submitted to the author over a period often years. This study sought to determine which journals/ periodicals were most popular, as indicated by frequency of reportings. It, secondarily, attempted to verify or refute the paucity of research data currently available related to journal/ periodical reading patterns on the part of teachers, specifically those in secondary schools. Finally, it attempted to study reading patterns within specific secondary school teaching areas, about which this author was unable to find any research. The findings indicated that there were several popular science education‐related journals/periodicals. American Biology Teacher, the Journal of Research in Science Teaching and Science Education were the top three journals/ periodicals reported. Most of the findings of earlier research were confirmed.
A comparison of the development of spatial conceptual abilities of students from two cultures
Authors: Cohen Herbert G.
Published: October 2006

Efforts are underway to determine if there are any ways unique to Navajo thinking and thus to the way that they might learn. Studies have shown a consistent lag in achievement levels for Native Americans. The purpose of this investigation was to examine spatial thinking abilities of sixth and tenth grade students from 2 locales—a school on the Navajo Reservation and schools in Mesa, Arizona. A battery of 10 Piagetian‐type tasks were administered individually to the subjects. A chi‐square one sample procedure was used to test for significant differences between subsamples at each grade level. Significant differences were detected for two of the tasks at the sixth grade level, and one task at the tenth grade level. The overall findings of this study support the contention that there were no substantial time delays or advances in the development of selected spatial abilities of Navajo sixth and tenth grade students compared to those of parallel non‐American Indian students. The concern of modifying instruction in science courses in order to adapt them to supposed 'different' spatial structures possessed by Navajo students appears to be unfounded.
Classroom factors related to changes in students' conceptions of the nature of science
Authors: Lederman Norman , Druger Marvin
Published: October 2006

Scientific literacy implies an adequate understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge. However, little is known about classroom factors that can influence students' conceptions of the nature of science. In the present study, classroom variables that were related to changes in students' conceptions of science were identified. Particular attention was directed toward students' overall conceptions of scientific knowledge and their views of its tentative nature. Twenty‐five classroom variables were found to be significantly related to both overall and tentative conceptions, while 12 variables were found to be scale‐specific. A comparison between teacher and student conceptions of science did not support the prevalent assumption that a teacher's conception of science is significantly related to changes in students' conceptions of science. “Successful” classes were defined as those exhibiting the greatest student conceptual changes toward the viewpoint held by the teacher, irrespective of the “adequacy” of the teacher's viewpoint. In general, these classes were typified by frequent inquiry‐oriented questioning with little emphasis on rote memory. Implicit references to the nature of science were commonly observed. Furthermore, where greatest changes in student conceptions of science were observed, the teachers were pleasant, supportive, and frequently used anecdotes to promote instruction and establish rapport. Emphasis on the depth, breadth, and accuracy of content statistically differentiated between “successful” and “unsuccessful” classes with respect to students' overall conceptions. However, this emphasis on content presentation did not differentiate classes with respect to students' conceptions of the tentative nature of science.
Responsibility for student success/failure and observed verbal behavior among secondary science and mathematics teachers
Authors: Pratt Donald L.
Published: October 2006

The study compared selected teacher beliefs and verbal behaviors among secondary science and mathematics teachers. Teacher beliefs included teacher responsibility for student success and failure. These beliefs were measured by the Responsibility for Student Achievement (RSA) Questionnaire which has the locus of control construct as a theoretical basis. Teacher verbal behavior included (1) indirect and (2) direct behaviors and (3) praise and (4) criticism. These behaviors were measured with the Reciprocal Category System (RCS) which is consistent with the methodology of interaction analysis. Comparisons were made on the basis of the following teacher classifications: (1) science/mathematics, (2) junior high/senior high, and (3) teachers of advanced classes/basic classes. Teacher beliefs were not significantly different except for the advanced/basic comparisons. These comparisons produced significant differences in both teacher beliefs and behaviors. Teachers of basic students assumed more responsibility for student success, less responsibility for failure, and were more direct in verbal behavior. In gender comparisons, female teachers were significantly higher in incidences of indirect behavior and combined indirect‐direct behavior. These findings suggest that further study of “self‐fulfilling prophecy” in terms of these variables may be fruitful. Also, verbal behavior may sometimes be inadequately represented by the common practice of using ratios.
The effect of imagery generation on science rule learning
Authors: McIntosh William J.
Published: October 2006

This study was designed to investigate the effect of teacher‐induced imagery generation on rule recall and transfer. The independent variables were the degree of imagery encouragement during instruction and the reported utilization of images while performing problem solving tasks on a criterion test. The dependent variable was scores on the criterion test. The results of the study indicate that imagery utilization significantly facilitates rule recall and also that imagery encouragement during instruction leads to significant rule transfer gains for low imagery students. The implications of these findings for teaching are addressed.
Exploring relationships among four science teaching‐learning affective attributes of sixth grade students
Authors: Harty Harold , Samuel K. V. , Beall Dwight
Published: October 2006

The intent of this study was to investigate possible relationships among the constructs of attitudes toward science, interest in science, science curiosity, and self‐concept of science ability. Data were collected from 228 sixth‐grade students by way of four Likert‐type instruments, each of which measured a given attribute. Statistical procedures included univariate and multivariate analysis of variance, product‐moment correlations, canonical correlations, multiple regression analysis, and factor analysis. The results indicated that attitudes toward science, interest in science, and science curiosity are highly related. Implications for classroom science teaching and suggestions for future research have also been discussed.
Research interests of secondary science teachers
Authors: Gabel Dorothy L. , Samuel K. V. , Helgeson Stanley , Novak Joseph , Butzow John
Published: October 2006

In the past few years, science educators and the nation at large have become increasingly concerned about the “Crisis in Science Education.” An underlying cause of this crisis is the nonuniform quality of instruction delivered by secondary science teachers. One way to improve the quality of teaching in the schools is the application of science education research findings to teaching. Most teachers are unaware of the research findings and/or do not apply them in their classrooms. This study helps determine the areas of research which are of greatest interest to secondary science teachers. Results will be used by NSTA to determine the contents of future volumes of the monograph What Research Says to the Science Teacher. A random sample of 600 secondary science teachers was obtained from the National Registry of NSTA. Teachers were sent a 23 item questionnaire that asked them to rate their interest in each research topic on a five point scale. The questionnaire contained the 12 items prepared by a NARST‐NSTA committee in 1979 and an additional 11 items using the same format. Demographic data collected from the survey included sex, teaching assignment, role in school, type of school, type of community, years of teaching experience, and familiarity with What Research Says. … Data were analyzed using this demographic data as well as according to whether teachers returned the original or a follow‐up questionnaire. Teachers who returned the first questionnaire had basically the same preferences as those who returned the follow‐up questionnaire. Sixty percent of the teachers completed the questionnaire in usable form. Overall results of the study based on both frequency of response and on mean rating indicate that the following five topics are of greatest interest to secondary science teachers: laboratory experiences, motivational techniques, effect on college courses, problem solving, and meaningful learning. Analysis of data according to the subject taught indicated that chemistry and physics teachers are more interested in problem solving than biology teachers, and that chemistry, physics, and earth science teachers are also interested in the sequence of the content. Males and females had the same top five interests but in a different order. The same is true for teachers of grades 7–9 versus grades 10–12. Rural teachers preferences varied substantially from those in other settings and differences were also found for teachers familiar with What Research Says … compared to the rest of the sample. For every classification of teacher, the area of least interest was sex difference research.
Human and machine diagnosis of scientific problem‐solving abilities
Authors: Good Ron , Kromhout Robert , Bandler Wyllis
Published: October 2006

Diagnosis of the problem‐solving state of a novice student in science, by an accomplished teacher, is studied in order to build a computer system that will simulate the process. Although such “expert” systems have been successfully developed in medicine (MYCIN, INTERNIST/CADUCEUS), very little has been accomplished in science education, even though there is a reasonably close parallel between expert medical diagnosis of patients with physiological problems and expert instructional diagnosis of students with learning problems. The system described in this paper, DIPS: Diagnosis for Instruction in Problem Solving, involves a new line of research for science educators interested in interdisciplinary efforts and ways in which computer technology might be used to better understand how to improve science learning. The basic architecture of the DIPS system is outlined and explained in terms of instruction and research implications, and the role of such “intelligent” computer systems in science education of the future is considered.
Teaching hands‐on science activities: Variables that moderate attitude‐behavior consistency
Authors: Koballa Thomas R.
Published: October 2006

The relationship between prospective elementary teachers' attitudes, subjective norms, and intentions to teach science using hands‐on activities at least twice a week during their first year of employment was investigated. The findings suggest that measuring prospective teachers' attitudes toward science cannot adequately predict nor provide a satisfactory explanation of their science teaching behaviors. The findings also provide clear support for two hypotheses derived from Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action regarding the predictability of prospective teachers' intentions to teach science from their attitudes and subjective norms.
Student gain in reasoning ability as a function of teacher reasoning level and teaching style preference
Authors: Lawrenz Frances , Lawson Anton E.
Published: October 2006

This study examines the effect of teacher reasoning level (i.e., concrete versus formal) and teaching style preference (i.e., inquiry vs. expository) on improvement in student reasoning ability. A random sample of fourth and seventh grade teachers and their students were selected to participate over one school year. Students completed a reasoning test in the early fall and late spring. Teachers completed two instruments in the Spring, a reasoning test and a teaching style preference questionnaire. Students of concrete operational teachers showed greater gains in reasoning ability than students of formal operational teachers while students of inquiry teachers showed slightly greater gains than students of expository teachers. Possible explanations are discussed as are suggestions for future research.
Predicting elementary science learning using national assessment data
Authors: Welch Wayne W. , Walberg Herbert J. , Fraser Barry J.
Published: October 2006

This study made use of data collected during 1981—1982 from a random sample of 1960 nine‐year‐old students from 124 elementary schools involved in a national assessment of educational progress in science sponsored by the National Science Foundation. This data base was used in secondary analyses which probed the validity of a model of educational productivity involving a set of nine aptitudinal, instructional, and environmental variables which require optimization to increase student learning. When controlled for other factors, ability, motivation, class environment, home environment, amount of television viewing (negative direction), gender, and race were all found to be significantly related to achievement. For an attitude outcome, the factors linked with attitudinal attainment were ability, motivation, class environment, and race. Overall the findings supported the model of educational productivity and suggested that elementary science students' achievement and attitude are influenced jointly by a number of factors rather than one or two dominant ones. Also the study attests to the potential value of science education researchers performing secondary analyses on the high‐quality random data bases generated as part of this national assessment.
Cognitive strategies used by chemistry students to solve volumetric analysis problems
Authors: Anamuah‐Mensah J.
Published: October 2006

The study investigated the strategies used by 47 high school students to solve volumetric analysis problems in chemistry. Using the talking‐aloud technique, the students were required to calculate the concentration of hydrochloric acid used in a titration with NaOH after having performed the titration themselves. Students were met individually and their verbalization audiotaped. After making this calculation, each student was asked to use the same data to predict the concentration of acid in three situations involving different mole ratios. It was found that two main strategies, Formula Approach and Proportional Approach with their variants, were employed by the students during the problem solving process. The Formula Approach was found to be used mainly by the students in the high ability group while students in the low ability group used the Proportional Approach. It was also found that problems involving 2:1 stoichiometric ratios presented a number of conceptual problems to the students. These conceptual problems were found to be related to their inability to write balanced equations or write correct formulas, focusing on only the strength of acid, inability to use the mole ratios in the calulations and deriving the mole ratios from the formulas of reactants.
Does the presentation style of questions inserted into text influence understanding and retention of science concepts?
Authors: Leonard William H.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this research was to determine the relative effects of the presentation style of questions inserted into text materials for students in university introductory biology. The sample was randomly assigned to seven treatment groups of approximately equal size and read a 2,354‐word passage on bacterial adaptations taken from a popular university general biology textbook. Experimental treatment groups read the same passage with (1) questions placed at the beginning of selected paragraphs and with the questions presented with (2) underlining, (3) in uppercase, (4) set above the paragraph, (5) underlined and set above, and (6) set above in uppercase respectively. The criterion variable was a 20‐item multiple‐choice exam with five possible answers per question given once to all students immediately after they read the passage and again exactly four weeks later. Presentation strategy groups were contrasted against the reading without questions groups. Four of the six groups reading with questions at the beginning of the paragraph scored significantly higher on the test given immediately after the reading than the group reading without questions. There were no significant differences between any of the group scores for the test given four weeks after reading. Other differences in results between these strategies and implications for text writers are discussed.
The effect of real‐time laboratory graphing on learning graphic representations of distance and velocity
Authors: Brasell Heather
Published: October 2006

Extended Microcomputer‐Based Laboratory (MBL) experience has been shown to be effective in improving middle‐school students' graphing skills. This study reports evidence that a treatment period as short as a single class period with a motion MBL unit was sufficient for high school physics students to improve their comprehension of distance and velocity graphs when compared with a pencil‐and‐paper graph‐construction control treatment. Most of the improvement appears to be attributable to the real‐time graphing feature of the MBL. A delay of only 20–30 seconds in displaying the graphed data inhibited nearly all of the learning.
Some benefits of creating macro‐contexts for science instruction: Initial findings
Authors: Sherwood Robert D. , Kinzer Charles K. , Bransford John D. , Franks Jeffery J.
Published: October 2006

The national concern over the development of higher order thinking and problem solving skills reinforces the assumption that science education must involve more than the mere memorization of factual content. Nevertheless, research also indicates that effective thinking and problem solving depends on the availability of domain‐specific knowledge, hence science content cannot be ignored. Our goal in this paper is to present initial data indicating that learning can be enhanced when information is presented in the context of video‐based macro‐contexts that illustrate how science information can be used to solve meaningful problems. The experiments show positive results through simple uses of technology. The results suggest that more sophisticated uses of technology, especially computer‐controlled interactive videodisc technology, would have even greater benefits on comprehension and learning in science. We discuss what some of these more sophisticated uses might be.
The four‐card problem resolved? Formal operational reasoning and reasoning to a contradiction
Authors: Lawson Anton E.
Published: October 2006

To test the hypothesis that adolescents classified as formal operational, based upon use of proportional reasoning on the “Pouring Water Task” (Lawson, Karplus, & Adi, 1978) have acquired the mental structures necessary to comprehend hypothetico‐deductive arguments of a pattern referred to as “reasoning to a contradiction,” while adolescents classified as concrete operational, based upon use of additive reasoning on the same task have not, a sample of 100 high school students were administered the task and three versions of a problem requiring use of reasoning to a contradiction before, immediately after, and one month after brief verbal instruction in use of that reasoning pattern. Results were generally supportive of the hypothesis as most of the concrete students failed the immediate and delayed posttest problems (62 and 80%, respectively) while most of the formal students succeeded (80 and 71%, respectively). Group differences were significant (p < .001) in both cases. These results suggest that, contrary to those who have argued that content plays a substantial role in logical performance, a general hypothetico‐deductive reasoning competence exists in some adolescents and is applicable across a wide variety of task domains. Science instruction which aims to teach this competence is recommended.
Science education research interests of elementary teachers
Authors: Gabel Dorothy , Samuel K. V. , Helgeson Stanley , McGuire Saundra , Novak Joseph , Butzow John
Published: October 2006

Science education researchers have always sought to improve the quality of our nation's schools. One way of doing this is to make research findings on the teaching of science available to teachers. Perhaps an even more effective way is to plan research studies with teachers' interests in mind. The purpose of this study was to determine the science education research interests of elementary teachers and to examine the data according to certain demographic variables. The sample consisted of 553 elementary teachers in 98 schools from across the nation. The survey instrument contained 28 items, 16 of which were included on a survey instrument prepared by White et al. The data collected using the Likert‐type questionnaire were dichotomized as “1” important and “O” not important and were analyzed using the Cochran Test and the McNemar Test for post hoc comparisons. Results of the study indicate that the top five research interests of teachers in the order of preference are: hands‐on experiences, science content of the curriculum, cognitive development and learning styles, problem solving, and teaching strategies. The area of lowest interest was research on sex differences.

Results of the survey have several important implications for science education. First, they can be used to help science educators plan research that may be of interest to elementary teachers. Second, they can be used by groups such as NSTA who publish research reviews, and by colleges and universities that prepare elementary teachers, as a guide to not only what is of interest to elementary teachers, but to identify those areas of research for which dissemination has been lacking.
The influence of role‐specific self‐concept and sex‐role identity on career choices in science
Authors: Baker Dale R.
Published: October 2006

Despite much effort on the part of educators the number of females who choose science careers remains low. This research focuses on two factors which may be influencing females in their choice of careers. These factors are role‐specific self‐concept in science and self perception in terms of stereotypical masculine and feminine characteristics. In addition logical ability and mathematics and science courses were also examined as factors in career choice. Females preferring science related careers and females preferring nontraditional careers such as police, military and trades were found to have a positive role‐specific self‐concept and a masculine perception of themselves. Females preferring traditional careers such as teacher or hairdresser had a poor role‐specific self‐concept and a more feminine perception of themselves. Males as a group were found to have a more positive role‐specific self‐concept than females. Logical ability was also related to a science career preference for both males and females. Males expected to take more higher level math courses than females, while females preferring science careers expected to take the most higher level science courses.
Decision making: Influence of features and presentation mode upon generation of alternatives
Authors: Heath Phillip A. , White Arthur L. , Berlin Donna F. , Park John C.
Published: October 2006

Decision making can be defined as the process of making reasoned choices among alternatives based upon judgments consistent with the values of the decision maker. Models describing decision making generally include: identification of the problem, collection of relevant information, generation of alternatives, identification of consequences of alternatives, and selection of alternatives. This research focuses on the ability of children to generate alternatives in decision‐making tasks. The problem was to determine the differential effects of the number of features of a decision‐making situation in interview and computer‐simulation modes on the number of alternatives children generate. The study involved 208 children with equal numbers of 2nd and 4th grade boys and girls. Each child responded to three decision‐making situations either in an interview or computer‐simulation mode. The three situations varied on the number of features of the award objects. An increase in the number of features (color) of the award objects (jelly beans) in a decision‐making situation increased the number of alternatives generated. The children in this study generated more alternatives in the interview setting than with the computer simulation.
Student perceptions on the conditions of learning the proportion concept in canadian upper secondary science (physics, chemistry, biology) classes; results from the second international science study (S.I.S.S.) in Canada
Authors: Menis Joseph H.
Published: October 2006

Correlates of Canadian upper secondary science students' achievement in the proportion concept were studied from data collected as part of Canada's participation in the Second IEA Science Study. Average class achievement on 14 items concerning the proportion concept was calculated and related to students' reports of teachers' instructional approaches. The study analysis revealed that classes where the proportion content was well covered by the teachers demonstrated higher achievements. Students whose teachers perceived as making science relevant and interesting did well on the test items, and the use of lab work and being task oriented were also related to students' higher achievement.
Instructional objectives: What effects do they have on students' attitudes towards integrated science?
Authors: Olarewaju Adedayo O.
Published: October 2006

The effect of instructional objectives on students' attitudes towards integrated science was investigated in this study. The sample consisted of 291 class one (seventh grade) students who were pretested before being exposed to the experimental situations. There were two experimental groups (objective and no objective) and a control group. A posttest was administered after the completion of the treatment. Results showed that the experimental groups had more favorable attitudes towards integrated science than the control group; the no objective group had better attitudes than the objective group. There was no significant effect due to the type of school or sex of the students. Implications for science teaching are considered.
Successful and unsuccessful problem solving in classical genetic pedigrees
Authors: Smith Mike U.
Published: October 2006

Using the think‐aloud interview technique, 16 undergraduates and 11 genetics graduate students and biology faculty members were asked to solve from 1 to 3 classical genetics problems which require pedigree analysis. Subjects were classified as either successful or unsuccessful and the performances of these groups were analyzed from videotaped recordings of the interviews. A number of previously reported findings were corroborated. Additional observations are discussed in terms of genetic knowledge, use of production rules, strategy selection, use of critical cues, hypothesis testing, use of logic, understanding of issues of probability, and the thinking process itself. Taken collectively, these findings evidence a remarkable similarity between the successful solution of pedigree problems and the processes of medical diagnosis and scientific investigation. This convergence of research findings suggests a qualitative advance in the understanding of problem solving. Based on this understanding, recommendations for classroom instruction are presented.
Persuading girls to take elective physical science courses in high school: Who are the credible communicators?
Authors: Koballa Thomas R.
Published: October 2006

Eighth‐grade girls (N=257) randomly selected from nine different public junior high schools in central Texas were questioned in order to identify the communicators whom they perceive as highly credible regarding reasons for taking elective physical science courses in high school and the attributes associated with these communicators. Four persons were each identified by better than 10 percent of the sample as the best person to try to convince junior high school girls to take elective physical science courses in high school. In order of perceived credibility, these persons are “father,” “woman science teacher,” “mother,” and “boy high school student.” Slight variations in the order of perceived credibility were found when the responses from girls of the different ethnic groups represented in the sample (Caucasian, Hispanic, Black, and Asian) were examined separately. Attributes listed by the respondents for “father,” “woman science teacher,” “mother,” and “boy high school student” were examined and classified into the categories of prestige, trustworthiness, similarity, attractiveness, and power. Prestige and trustworthiness are the attributes associates most frequently with communicators identified as highly credible. Implications of the present study and suggestions for further research are discussed.
Computer education in secondary schools in the people's Republic of China
Authors: Qi Chen
Published: October 2006

Based on Ershov's address at the World Conference on Computer Education in 1981, Chinese educators decided that learning computer programming would prepare students for the information age. Accordingly, China introduced microcomputers into secondary schools to prepare students for widespread use of computers in all aspects of society. Microcomputers had already been used to facilitate administration, commerce, and other aspects of education.

An optional computer‐programming course was initiated in several secondary schools. The experiences in China parallel in many ways the experiences encountered by other countries when computers were introduced. This article reports on the selection, development, and evaluation of the first computer‐programming courses in China.
Jordanian and Malaysian science teachers' prominent perceived professional needs: A comparison
Authors: Bakar Jkamariah H. Abu , Rubba Peter A. , Tomera Audrey N. , Zurub Abdel Rahman
Published: October 2006

The prominent perceived professional needs of 365 Jordanian and 1,162 Malaysian secondary‐level science teachers were examined using the Science Teacher Inventory of Need. These were compared across subgroups of the respective samples and across the two samples. The Jordanian science teachers' needs were in the areas of delivering science instruction, managing science instruction, administering science instructional facilities and equipment, and improving one's competence as a science teacher. The Malaysian science teachers' needs came from those four areas plus the area specifying objectives for science instruction. Needs from the first four areas were shared across the two samples. These needs were similar to ones observed in U.S. samples. The reason for the similarities is questioned.
The influences of sequenced instructional strategy and locus of control on preservice elementary teachers' understanding of the nature of science
Authors: Scharmann Lawrence C.
Published: October 2006

The intent of this study was to investigate the influence of both locus of control as well as three instructional strategies, which differed in their respective emphases on science content, teaching methods, and process science, to foster an understanding of the nature of science. Data were collected from 135 elementary preservice teachers enrolled in science teaching methods courses at the endpoint of three sequences: (a) introductory process instruction with three subsequent semesters of integrated science content and teaching methods, (b) process instruction with separate subsequent content and teaching methods, and (c) only science content with subsequent teaching methods. Statistical procedures included ANOVA, regression, and correlation. Results revealed that the nature of science was most predictable for a separate process/content/teaching methods strategy. Major conclusions were (1) logical thinking ability was the most influential predictor of understanding the nature of science and (2) separate rather than integrated experiences in content and teaching methods were superior in developing an understanding of the nature of science. Implications for preservice elementary teacher preparation are discussed.
The role of language in children's formation and retention of mental images
Authors: Howe Ann C. , Vasu Ellen S.
Published: October 2006

Two studies were conducted to determine the effect of verbalization on the formation and retention of mental images in children in kindergarten, first, and fifth grades. In the first study 51 children were presented a series of tasks designed to determine their ability to represent mental images of cross sections of familiar fruits and to test the hypothesis that self‐generated verbalization would aid in image formation. The hypothesis was not confirmed and no significant differences were found to be associated with gender or ability level. Individuals varied widely in the image produced. In the second study 32 subjects from first grade and fifth grade took part. Two treatment groups were formed. One group listened to a verbal description of an unfamiliar fruit, drew a cross section, and gave a description. The other group observed the fruit, then drew it from memory and described it. Both groups were brought back two weeks later and instructed to draw and describe the fruit. Children who had observed the fruit scored higher on drawings immediately and after two weeks; there were no differences between groups on scores of the verbal descriptions. Implications for science teaching are discussed.
Proportional reasoning: The effect of two context variables, rate type, and problem setting
Authors: Heller Patricia M. , Ahlgren Andrew , Post Thomas , Behr Merlyn , Lesh Richard
Published: October 2006

This study investigated the effects of two context variables, ratio type and problem setting, on the performance of seventh‐grade students on a qualitative and numerical proportional reasoning test. Six forms of the qualitative and numerical tests were designed, each form using a single context (one of two settings for each of three ratio types). Different ratio types appear to have a stronger impact on the difficulty of the qualitative and numerical proportional reasoning problems than small differences in problem setting. However, the familiarity of problem setting did show an increasingly large effect on qualitative reasoning as the difficulty of ratio type increased. We also investigated the nature of the relationships between rational number skills, qualitative reasoning about ratios, and numerical proportional reasoning. Qualitative reasoning appears to be sufficient, but not necessary for numerical proportional reasoning. The evidence for the requisite nature of rational number skills for proportional reasoning was equivocal. The implications of these findings for science education are discussed.
The role of cognitive style and its influence on proportional reasoning
Authors: Niaz Mansoor
Published: October 2006

It has been suggested that proportional reasoning tasks contain field effects. Field‐dependent students are considered to be highly influenced by the structure of the perceptual field and lack an articulated conceptual framework. To test the hypothesis that there is a significant correlation between field independence and proportional reasoning tasks, a sample of science students were tested to determine performance in proportional reasoning and degree of field independence. It was found that even students who are normally capable of proportional reasoning can be misled by the presence of field effects. A significant correlation (r = 0.50; p = 0.001) was found between the test of field independence and the nine items of proportional reasoning. Educational implications are drawn.
Problem solving and chemical equilibrium: Successful versus unsuccessful performance
Authors: Camacho Moises , Good Ron
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to describe the problem‐solving behaviors of experts and novices engaged in solving seven chemical equilibrium problems. Thirteen novices (five high‐school students, five undergraduate majors, and three nonmajors) and ten experts (six doctoral students and four faculty members) were videotaped as they individually solved standard chemical equilibrium problems. The nature of the problems was such that they required more than mere recall or algorithmic learning and yet simple enough to provide the novices a reasonable chance of solving them. Extensive analysis of the think‐aloud protocols produced 27 behavioral tendencies that can be used to describe and differentiate between successful and unsuccessful problem solvers. Successful solvers' perceptions of the problem were characterized by careful analysis and reasoning of the task, use of related principles and concepts to justify their answers, frequent checks of the consistency of answers and reasons, and better quality of procedural and strategic knowledge. Unsuccessful subjects had many knowledge gaps and misconceptions about the nature of chemical equilibrium. Even faculty experts were sometimes unable to correctly apply common chemical principles during the problem‐solving process. Important theoretical concepts such as molar enthalpy, heat of reaction, free energy of formation, and free energy of reaction were rarely used by novices in explaining problems.
Attitude modification in health education through an interventive, antismoking program incorporated within traditional science curriculum
Authors: Zoller Uri , Maymon Tsipora
Published: October 2006

The effectiveness of a smoking‐prevention program—incorporated within a traditional science curriculum—was assessed in terms of attitude modification in such categories as health, peer pressure, and social image as related to smoking. The study indicates that most relevant attitudes, the emotionally intense in particular, are modifiable in the desired direction, although the changes are small. Some gender differences in the recorded changes suggest a difference in the dynamics of the response to smoking intervention between male and female high school students. A desired change of attitude frequency distributions (e.g., from less extreme to more extreme responses) has also been found. In addition, the tendency of the experimental students to actively act against smoking within family circles increased, although not significantly. All the above was accompanied by a decrease in the number of smokers in the experimental group and a significant increase in the number of smokers in the control group. These results suggest that it is educationally possible to modify attitudes in health education in the desired direction by means of a properly designed interdisciplinary science curricular unit implemented within ongoing traditional science teaching.
The effects of testing on science process skill achievement
Authors: Strawitz Barbara M.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of testing on the achievement of students using self‐instructional materials to learn science process skills. In one section of an undergraduate science method class, students were paced through a programmed textbook and were given short quizzes in class after each of the process skill lessons was assigned, while in another section, students worked at their own pace and were held responsible for completing the lessons by the end of the semester. Students taking the quizzes throughout the semester were expected to attain a higher level of process skill proficiency because previous studies have shown that taking a test immediately after learning leads to better retention of the material. Results indicated that taking frequent quizzes did not differentially affect process skill acquisition.
An investigation of the semantic meaning assigned to concepts affiliated with sts education and of STS instructional practices among a sample of exemplary science teachers
Authors: Rubba Peter A.
Published: October 2006

The semantic meaning assigned to concepts associated with science‐technology‐society (STS) education, the percentage of science course time allotted to STS instruction, the categories of STS issues infused into sciences courses, and the instructional procedures used to do so, were examined among a sample of 65 exemplary secondary‐level science teachers. The teachers were volunteers from the 87 science teachers from a Midwestern state locally nominated for the Presidential Awards Program. Data were collected using the Science Teaching Issue Opinionnaire (STIO) and a questionnaire, both developed and validated by the investigator. The STIO used a semantic differential format; it was composed of 23 STS education affiliated concepts (e.g., science; technology; students' need to understand the interrelationships among science, technology, and society; my ability to teach …), each followed by 13 seven‐point bipolar adjective scales (alpha reliability = 0.97). The instruments were distributed and returned by mail. The exemplary science teachers were found to hold positive opinions of (1) science, (2) technology, (3) their understanding of science, and (4) their ability to teach science. The teachers expressed slightly positive opinions of (1) students' understanding of STS, (2) students' need to understand STS, (3) their own understanding of STS interrelationships, and (4) their ability to teach STS. The teachers suggested that 15% of secondary science course instructional time be dedicated to STS, but did not appear to dedicate near that amount of time to STS. “Pollution” headed a brief and rather predictable list of STS issues infused into science courses. On average a teacher infused 2.5 STS issues into a science course. The discussion, lecture, and a combination of these dominated the list of 35 instructional procedures which are not unique to or necessarily appropriate for STS instruction.
Developmental influences of science process skill instruction
Authors: Scharmann Lawrence C.
Published: October 2006

Science educators have claimed that well‐conceived instructional strategies and curricular sequences, emphasizing the process aspects of science, will foster an understanding of the nature of science. Furthermore, a process emphasis on science has been cited for its ability to promote logical thinking skill, develop a locus of control “shift,” and enhance science content acquisition. The intent of this investigation was to examine the purported influence and developmental nature of a science process emphasis during a given semester of study, as well as over extended curricular sequences, each sequence being representative of three recognized preservice elementary science teacher preparatory programs. Data were collected from 135 elementary preservice teachers enrolled in science teaching methods courses at the endpoint of one of three sequences: (a) introductory process instruction with three subsequent semesters of integrated science content and teaching methods, (b) process instruction with separate subsequent content and teaching methods, and (c) only science content with subsequent teaching methods. Another 29 preservice teachers, assessed prior to entry into instructional sequences, provided a cross‐sectional sample for examining developmental changes in locus of control, logical thinking, nature of science, and science content knowledge. Statistical procedures included Kruskal‐Wallis ANOVA and Wilcoxon tests. Results indicated that a one‐semester process skills course was influential in developing a basis for science content acquisition and in fostering an understanding of the nature of science. Results further indicate that expected additional gains are significant in science content acquisition through matriculation in an extended curricular sequence. Implications for science educators are discussed.
Translation of algebraic equations and its relation to formal operational reasoning
Authors: Niaz Mansoor
Published: October 2006

A large proportion of science major college students are unable to translate even simple sentences into algebraic equations. Given the following sentence: There are six times as many students (S) as professors (P) at this university, most students write the following equation: 6S = P, referred to as the reversal error. In order to overcome the reversal error students need to operate in a hypothetico‐deductive manner, i.e., performing a hypothetical operation that makes the group of professors six times larger than it really is (S = 6P). The objective of this study is to investigate the relation between student ability to translate sentences into equations, equations into sentences, and student performance in the following variables: formal operational reasoning, proportional reasoning, and introductory freshmen‐level chemistry course. The results obtained show that as the student ability to translate sentences into equations and equations into sentences increases, their mean scores in Chemistry I, formal operational, and proportional reasoning increases. This study has found support for the hypothesis that students who lack formal operational reasoning skills (hypothetico‐deductive reasoning) may experience more problems in the translation of algebraic equations.
Toward a clearer representation of the crisis in science education
Authors: Staver John R. , Small Larry
Published: October 2006

The authors' purpose in this study was to compare the integrated science process skill development of a cohort of American youngsters who studied science for several years in an activity‐based, materials‐oriented program to a group of Japanese youth whose science program is also activity based and a group of American youth whose science programs are textbook based and reading oriented. The means and standard deviations from Japanese and American textbook‐based data on eighth graders were available from earlier research. The authors administered an integrated science process skills test to 1,291 eighth graders in a northwest suburban Chicago school district whose activity‐based elementary science program is nationally recognized. Eight hundred twenty‐five students who had begun school in the district by the second grade were used for the comparison. Ninety‐nine percent confidence intervals were calculated about the scale and total score means for all groups. Results show that for all scales and the total score, the confidence intervals of the American activity‐based science group are above and do not overlap the corresponding confidence intervals of the American textbook science group. For three out of five scales and the total score, the confidence intervals of the Japanese group are above and do not overlap the corresponding confidence intervals of the American textbook science group. For two scales the confidence intervals overlap. For four test scales, the confidence intervals of the Japanese and American activity‐based science groups overlap. For one scale and the total score, the Japanese confidence intervals are above and do not overlap the corresponding confidence intervals of the American activity‐based science group. Discussion focuses upon an explanation of the more favorable performance by the Japanese group on the total score and implications of the results for representing more clearly the crisis in science education.