bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Entanglement, computation and quantum measurements
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces a method that combines the concepts of quantum entanglement with those of quantum algorithms. In particular, some bounds are placed on the efficiency (speedup) of quantum computations by using the fact that there is a limit to how quickly entanglement can be generated with some operations. This method will truly exploit the “many-worlds” nature of quantum superpositions. By solving one problem using a superposition of qubits as well as solving a superposition of problems, the efficiency of some quantum tasks can be evaluated. This chapter demonstrates that a quantum search cannot be performed faster than the square root of the time of the corresponding classical search (winch is still very much faster). The use of entanglement to optimise quantum searches is discussed, along with a model for quantum measurement, similarity between quantum computation and a quantum measurement as described by von Neumann, correlations and quantum measurement, and the Bekenstein bound as an example of the ultimate limits of quantum computation.
Quantum mechanics
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: January 2010

This chapter reviews all the rules of quantum mechanics and their mathematical notation. It also considers quantum entanglement, a fundamental resource in quantum information. There are four basic postulates of quantum mechanics, that indicate how to represent physical systems, how to represent observations, how to carry out measurements, and how systems evolve when “not measured”. Before describing the laws of quantum mechanics, their mathematical background is first described, along with a Mach Zehnder interferometer experiment in which the (strange) readings on the detectors can be explained by quantum mechanics. This chapter also discusses the Dirac notation, qubits, Hilbert spaces, projective measurements and operations, unitary operations, eigenvectors and eigenvalues, spectral decomposition, applications of the spectral theorem, Dirac notation shorthands, and mixed states.
Quantum information—the basics
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: January 2010

Quantum mechanics is a more accurate description of the microscopic world than classical mechanics, and quantum information, which is governed by the laws of quantum mechanics, is a more accurate description of information theory. The quantum laws of physics are fundamentally different from the classical laws and so, therefore, is the resulting information processing. In one limit, quantum information reduces to classical information; otherwise, quantum information is a much more general concept that allows information-processing protocols that have no classical analogue whatsoever. This chapter discusses the basics of quantum information, some differences between bits and qubits, quantum cryptography, trace and partial-trace operations, extension of Hilbert spaces, Schmidt decomposition, generalised measurements, CP-maps and positive operator-valued measurements, and the postulates of quantum mechanics.
Measures of entanglement
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses how entangled two states are. One obvious way is to consider the distillation procedure, in which the entanglement of any state is quantified by how many fully entangled qubits can be distilled from an entangled state. However, it is not easy to see how to distil singlets out of n copies of a general mixed state. Hence, it is necessary to first see what can be done with pure states. This chapter discusses the distillation of multiple copies of a pure state, analogy between quantum entanglement and the Carnot cycle, properties of entanglement measures, entanglement of pure states, entanglement of mixed states, measures of entanglement derived from relative entropy, relationship between classical information and entanglement, and links between entanglement and thermodynamics.
Quantum error correction
Authors: Vedral Vlatko
Published: January 2010

Quantum error correction is a very advanced field, and researchers have invested a great deal of time in trying to find the best ways of combating errors in quantum computers, winch occur when the computer is not properly isolated from its environment. Theoretically, quantum computation can be stabilised against any kind of influence of the environment. Classical error correction has been generalised to quantum mechanics to show that a reliable quantum computer can be constructed out of unreliable simple elements, or quantum gates. This chapter discusses the basic techniques of quantum error correction and looks at some general conditions which a quantum error correction code has to satisfy, explains how to protect qubits against general errors and achieve fault-tolerant computing, compares quantum error correction with Maxwell's demon, and performs error correction for pure states and mixed states.
12 The Panathenaea
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the processions, sacrifices, religious symbols, and rituals associated with the Greater Panathenaea, one of the four Attic festivals in ancient Athens that stand out for the frequency with which they are mentioned and the abundance of evidence that survives in relation to them. The visibility of the Greater Panathenaea within the Greek world was great, through the concrete symbols of it obligingly taken home by visitors: not just the famous amphorae received by victors, but also smaller vessels evoking the larger in shape and decoration and probably sold as souvenirs. Only one of the ritual symbols deployed, the famous ship on land, is out of the ordinary. But commonplace elements are combined in ways that illustrate several potentialities of the festival form with great clarity. The prominence of the Greater Panathenaea in the administrative or organisational year is a demonstration of embedded religion in action in ancient Athens.
16 Festivals, Rituals, Myths: Reprise
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: January 2010

This chapter looks at the festivals, rituals, and myths associated with ancient Athens. A central dilemma in the analysis of ritual has been that of giving it an effective definition, and, although the difficulty is compounded once so-called secular rituals are taken into account, it quickly emerges even within the confines of religious activity. Not all Greek rituals are festivals, obviously; an oath sworn, a vow contracted, a sacrifice performed by an individual is not a festival. But are festivals rituals, and in what sense? Whether one favours the language of ritual or of ritualisation, the difficulty is in fact, in relation to festivals, the same. A central issue is the way in which the festivals defined and prescribed the social roles of those who participated in them. What is clear, though, is that whatever intensity there was in Greek religious experience was a product of ritual, and of festivals above all.
Constitutional Goods
Authors: Brudner Alan
Published: January 2010

Most constitutional theorists have despaired of a liberal consensus on the fundamental goals of constitutional order. Instead they have contented themselves with agreement on lower-level principles on which those who disagree on fundamentals may coincidentally converge or else with a process for translating fundamental disagreement into acceptable laws. The book suggests a conception of fundamental justice that liberals of competing philosophic schools may accept as fulfilling their own basic commitments. It argues that the model liberal-democratic constitution is best understood as a unity of three constitutional frameworks: libertarian, egalitarian, and communitarian. Each is based on a particular conception of public reason. The book criticizes each of these frameworks insofar as its organizing conception claims to be fundamental and then moves forward to suggest a Hegelian conception of public reason within which each framework is contained as a constituent element of a whole. When viewed in this light, the liberal constitution embodies a surprising synthesis. It reconciles a commitment to individual liberty and freedom of conscience with the perfectionist idea that the state ought to cultivate a type of personality whose fundamental ends are the goods essential to dignity. Such a reconciliation may attract competing liberalisms to a consensus on an inclusive conception of public reason under which political authority is validated for those who share a confidence in the individual's inviolable worth.
Hegel’s Idea of Sittlichkeit
Authors: BRUDNER ALAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces the communitarian conception of public reason, called living ethos. This idea involves the mutual recognition of community and individual, such that the individual's free commitment to a way of life is met by the community's deference to individual agency as to the vehicle of its vibrant actualization. The chapter discusses the new interpretation of rights implied by a fundamentalist communitarianism and illustrates the latter's illiberal implications in practice. It criticizes Kymlicka's attempt to accommodate communal membership within egalitarian liberalism and moves on to a new conception of public reason implied by the self-contradictory realization of the communitarian one. This conception is called dialogic community, whose structure of mutual recognition is exemplified in the constitutional paradigms previously considered.
Lying, Cheating, and Stealing
Authors: Green Stuart P.
Published: January 2010

The picture of crime that dominates the popular imagination is one of unambiguous wrong-doing — manifestly harmful acts that are clearly worthy of condemnation. The accompanying picture of the criminal — the thief, the murderer — is a picture of society's failures, to be cast out and re-integrated through a process of punishment and penance. Our understanding of white-collar crime, by contrast, is pervaded by moral and imaginative ambiguity. Such crimes are committed by society's success stories, by the rich and the powerful, and frequently have no visible victim at their root. The problem of marrying these disparate pictures has led to a confusion of the boundaries of white-collar crime. How is it possible to distinguish criminal fraud from mere lawful ‘puffing’, tax evasion from ‘tax avoidance’, insider trading from ‘savvy investing’, obstruction of justice from ‘zealous advocacy’, bribery from ‘log rolling’, and extortion from ‘hard bargaining’? How should we, as scholars and students, lawyers and judges, law enforcement officials and the general public, distinguish the lawful from the unlawful, the civil from the criminal? This study exposes the ambiguities and uncertainties that pervade the white-collar crimes, and offers an approach to their solution. Drawing on recent cases involving such figures as Martha Stewart, Bill Clinton, Tom DeLay, Scooter Libby, Jeffrey Archer, Enron's Kenneth Lay and Andrew Fastow, and the Arthur Anderson accounting firm, this book weaves together disparate threads of the criminal code to reveal a complex web of moral insights about the nature of guilt and innocence and what, fundamentally, constitutes conduct worthy of punishment by criminal sanction.
A Three-Part Framework for Analysis
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on three kinds of moral element found in any criminal offense: (1) mens rea (or omission of mens rea), (2) harmfulness, and (3) moral wrongfulness. This three-part framework is used as an analytical framework for describing white-collar crime's moral complexity.
Deception
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the formal structure of deception, rather than explaining why it is morally wrong. In particular, it describes the difference between four analytically distinct kinds of deception referred to, respectively, as ‘lying’, ‘merely misleading’, ‘falsely exculpating’, and ‘falsely inculpating’.
Coercion and Exploitation
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

There are at least two ways in which the concept of coercion figures in the criminal law. One is as an excusing condition: a defendant who, under the effects of coercion or duress, commits what would otherwise be a criminal act is regarded as blameless for his act, or at least as less blameworthy than he otherwise would have been. The second is as an ‘element’ of an offense: one who unjustifiably uses coercion on another does a blameworthy act, which will, if other conditions are also met, constitute a criminal offense. This chapter focuses on the second sense of coercion: it offers a brief account of what coercion means in the sense that it occurs in crimes such as extortion and blackmail, and says something about how the concept of coercion differs from that of exploitation, and why the latter form of moral wrongfulness is less comfortably subject to criminalization than the former.
Disloyalty
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

The significance of the norm against disloyalty (and the closely related concept of breach of trust) to our understanding of white-collar crime has been both over- and underestimated in the scholarly literature. On one hand, there are writers, such as Susan Shapiro, who have argued that violation of trust is the defining characteristic of white-collar crime. On the other hand, there are scholars such as John Coffee who have expressed considerable skepticism about the role that breach of trust should play in the criminal law. A more accurate assessment would arrive at a conclusion somewhere between these extremes. While the concept of disloyalty does play a significant role in defining certain key criminal offenses, such as bribery, treason, some acts of insider trading, and some frauds, it has little to do with many other core white collar offenses. This chapter explains the meaning of disloyalty, and foreshadows some of the ways that it plays a role in defining white-collar crime.
A Final Thought on Moral Wrongfulness
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

The focus in Part II has been on the various distinct ways in which people commit wrongful acts. The attempt has been to think about each kind of wrong in isolation — separated both from harms and one another. But it is important to recognize that such concepts are not wholly separable, and that there is in fact a potential for overlap among them. The chapter focuses on the nature of such overlap.
Extortion and Blackmail
Authors: GREEN STUART P
Published: January 2010

From the perspective of criminal practice, blackmail and extortion seem like fairly exotic offenses; prosecution for either is a relatively rare event. Yet no white-collar offense has received more serious and sustained philosophical attention than blackmail (and, indirectly, extortion). What explains this anomaly? The answer is that the very factors that make the so-called ‘blackmail paradox’ such a compelling subject of theoretical analysis — in particular, the uncertain moral basis on which the offense rests — also make blackmail and extortion disfavored in the real world of criminal prosecutions. This chapter does not attempt to resolve the blackmail paradox, but rather shows how it fits into the broader theory of white-collar criminal law that is being developed.
The Nature of Responsibility
Authors: TADROS VICTOR
Published: January 2010

This chapter is concerned with how we should understand responsibility in general. It provides the foundation of the discussion of criminal responsibility in Chapter 2. A version of compatibilism (the argument that responsibility is compatible with determinism) is outlined and defended.
The Characters of Excuse
Authors: TADROS VICTOR
Published: January 2010

This chapter is concerned with excuses. It is argued that there are different kinds of excuse claim. Some are based on the fact that the defendant could not have done otherwise than he did. Others are based on the fact that, for good reason, the action of the agent was not reflective of her character. In this case, the defendant must show that there was good reason why she was not guided by the reasons that would normally guide her. This involves showing that her capacity for being guided by the right reasons was interfered with.
Shifting Standards and Criminal Responsibility
Authors: TADROS VICTOR
Published: January 2010

It is sometimes argued that it is wrong to adjust standards of reasonableness that are imposed in the criminal law to accommodate particular characteristics or deficiencies that the defendant might have. That view is attacked in this chapter. It is suggested that we may adjust standards according to the expectations that we can reasonably have of people with various different characteristics. This allows a principled line to be drawn between factors which tend to erode criminal responsibility and those that do not. This argument is developed in the context of the law of provocation where the issue has been most thoroughly examined.
4 Germany: Balancing Rights and Duties
Authors: Donald P Kommers
Published: January 2010

Germany's constitutional charter, adopted in 1949, is entitled the Basic Law. The Basic Law had evolved into one of the world's most admired constitutions, even rivalling that of the United States in influence and prestige around the world. So when the day of unity finally arrived in 1990, East and West Germany merged under the imprint of the Basic Law itself. Today, in both structure and substance, although frequently amended, it remains the constitutional text of reunited Germany. This chapter discusses the constitutive assembly of Germany, constituent power and reunification, general features of the Basic Law, supremacy of the constitution, constitutional structure, amending process, the Federal Constitutional Court, problems of constitutional interpretation, conception of the constitution, negative and positive rights, horizontality of rights, sources of interpretation, approaches to interpretation, the civil law tradition, and style of judicial decision-making.
France
Authors: van Dam Cees
Published: January 2010

In France, tort law is characterised by its broad general principles and its general lack of detail. The rule of strict liability has been developed by the Cour de cassation, which also developed a general strict liability rule for damage caused by other people. This rule supplements the more specific strict liability rules for parents (for damage caused by their children) and for employers (for damage caused by their employees). Hence, in France, in cases of personal injury and property loss, strict liability is the rule and fault liability the exception. This chapter presents general observations on France's fault liability (including abuse of rights), general rule of strict liability for things, specific rules of strict liability for things, general rule of strict liability for persons, and specific rules of strict liability for persons.
Coreference and Non-Coreference
Authors: BHAT D.N.S.
Published: January 2010

This chapter differentiates between logophoric and anaphoric pronouns by showing that the former is used to denote non-coreference between reported and reporting speech roles, whereas the latter is used to denote coreference between two linguistic expressions. The former occurs among personal pronouns, the latter among proforms. The chapter also shows that reflexive, reciprocal, switch-reference and modal devices differ from the above two in being predicative (affecting the meaning of the predicate) rather than nominal.
The Position of Third Person Pronouns
Authors: BHAT D.N.S.
Published: January 2010

This chapter establishes a typological distinction between two-person and three-person languages. In the former case, third person pronouns are identical or derivationally related to demonstratives, whereas in the latter, the two are quite distinct from one another. Languages that show gender distinction among their third person pronouns tend to be two-person languages, whereas the ones that manifest person-oriented (rather than distance-oriented) demonstrative systems tend to be three-person languages.
Interrogative–Indefinite Puzzle
Authors: BHAT D.N.S.
Published: January 2010

The occurrence of one and the same set of proforms as indefinites and interrogatives in many languages, and the derivation of indefinites from interrogatives in many others is considered to be rather puzzling. This chapter resolves this puzzle by regarding the proforms occurring in constituent questions of such languages as indefinites rather than as interrogatives. That is, the proforms are considered to have only an information gap as their meaning. Additional meanings that need to be expressed in constituent questions – namely (i) making a request for information (interrogation) and (ii) restricting the request to a single constituent (focusing) – are assigned to other devices which co-occur with proforms in constituent questions, such as interrogative particles or moods, focus markers, and interrogative intonation.
Lacan, Irigaray, and Beyond: Antigones and the Politics of Psychoanalysis
Authors: Leonard Miriam
Published: January 2010

In her recent book Antigone's Claim, Judith Butler returns to a question once posed by George Steiner: What would have happened if psychoanalysis had taken Antigone rather than Oedipus as its point of departure? This chapter explores how the figure of Antigone has played a crucial role in the history of psychoanalysis in post-war France. As Luce Irigaray and Jacques Lacan compete for the figure of Antigone, Greek myth becomes the battleground for psychoanalysis and its definitions of woman. If psychoanalysis had taken Antigone rather than Oedipus as its point of departure, it would have given rise to a more explicitly politicised understanding of the psychoanalytic sexual subject. The debate about ethics and politics in Antigone is also fundamentally a debate about feminism's relationship to politics.
The Philosopher and the Mother Cow: Towards a Gendered Reading of Lucretius, De Rerum Natura
Authors: Sharrock Alison
Published: January 2010

This chapter highlights the way Lucretius's poem, De Rerum Natura, has become part of science's investigation of its own genealogy. It analyses the tropes of personification and abstraction and their gendering in scientific discourse and asks why Lucretius's scientific manifesto is framed by accounts of female mythical characters. De Rerum Natura is read positively in the present day precisely because of the contemporary high valuation of science and also the contemporary interrogation and deconstruction of scientific discourse. One element in Lucretius's representation of gender is that ‘female myth undermines male science’, that in the interstices of this scientific ‘male’ text there is evidence of alternative points of view that might reasonably be categorised as ‘feminine’. An underlying tension that has pervaded so much of Lucretian study is between ‘poetry’ and ‘philosophy’. It seems impossible for the philosopher to take up the subject-position of the mother cow (the representative of the poet = female side).
Putting the Women Back into the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women
Authors: Doherty Lillian
Published: January 2010

Women's oral traditions have been largely effaced, or at least muted, in the canons of literate cultures and in the intellectual movements or disciplines they have identified as central, including history and literary criticism. Myth is important to feminism because it is one element of literate culture that has the potential to incorporate women's traditions and perspectives. This chapter examines possible traces of women's traditions in a fragmentary Greek work of the archaic age — the poem Catalogue of Women attributed to Hesiod — and considers how and why these traces have been effaced, both in the composition of the poem itself and in the practice of classical scholarship. It examines the disruption of patrilineal narratives within the poem, drawing attention to the way most commentators have stubbornly refused to acknowledge women as the subject matter of this text.
Defying History: The Legacy of Helen in Modern Greek Poetry
Authors: Spentzou Efi
Published: January 2010

The stories woven around Helen of Troy represent a microcosm of the troubled and inspired itinerary of classical myth in the cultural mosaic of modern Greece. This chapter looks at some of these stories, which speak of complex and far-reaching issues that lie at the heart of the political as well as the cultural life of modern Greece, and the legacy of Helen in modern Greek poetry. The stories covered in this chapter make their appearance at a time when the long-standing dialogue between the intelligentsia and the ghosts of the classical past is at a particularly transitional stage, experiencing a fluidity triggered by landmark changes in Greek society before, during, and in the immediate aftermath of, the Colonels' dictatorship (1967-1974). Additionally, Helen's stories are implicated in yet another ground-breaking development in Greek society, as feminine expression and feminist movements acquire an altogether new significance within the wider political discourses of the period.
Iphigeneia’s Wedding
Authors: Cook Elizabeth
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents a fictional account that gives expression to Iphigeneia's ambivalent reaction to her metamorphic body and her impending marriage to Achilles. Unlike most classical accounts of this myth that first depict Iphigeneia approaching her father at the scene of her sacrifice, the chapter begins the story in Mycaenae, where it is Iphigeneia's relationship with her mother Clytemnestra that predominates. Here, myth becomes a space ‘far from kingdoms, from caesars, from brawls, from the cravings of penis and sword’. In its potential for independence and creativity the autonomous space of myth becomes the contemporary ‘room of one's own’. When the call from her mother came, Iphigeneia felt something like guilt — a confusing, unclear emotion that was new to her. When she approached her mother, holding her head high as was her custom, she felt that she was imitating her usual stance.
Dancing thePyrrhichēin Athens
Authors: Ceccarelli Paola
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the pyrrhichē and provides a detailed investigation into the iconographic, textual, and epigraphic evidence for this dance. Particular attention is paid to the contexts in which it was performed, notably at the Panathenaia, the Tauropolia, and the Apatouria festivals, in the dances of tragedy, comedy and choral lyric, and in association with Dionysiac cult and funerary ritual. What seems to link these different contexts is the theme of the (re)integration of individuals into society. Although the military significance of the dance had largely disappeared by the 5th century, it retained a symbolic value, constituting a fundamental element in the Athenians' perception of themselves.
Transforming the Nightingale: Aspects of Athenian Musical Discourse in the Late Fifth Century
Authors: Barker Andrew
Published: January 2010

This chapter offers an interpretation of Aristophanes' Birds, focusing on the character of the Nightingale. It argues that the type of music she performs shows all the hall-marks of indiscriminate vulgarity associated with the New Music. Far from being a figure of beauty and charm, she represents the New Music, figured as a low-class female aulētris. It further argues that the part of the Nightingale might have been played by the regular aulete. By identifying this character with everything that is musically debased Aristophanes presents a satirical parody of the musical avant-garde.
The Politics of the New Music
Authors: Csapo Eric
Published: January 2010

This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of the New Musical ‘revolution’ by examining its historical context, its style, and its reception. It shows how the most radical innovations are to be found in the dithyramb, which came to typify the characteristics of New Music. Musicians themselves became increasingly professionalized, with pipers at the fore-front in developing techniques and styles which extended the range and versatility of instrumental performances. The consequent prioritization of sound over sense was another significant feature of New Music. But the critical responses it provoked have an important political dimension: for conservatives like Plato, one of our principal sources, New Music came to symbolise everything that was wrong with the radical democracy of late 5th-century Athens. But the timeless Dorian-inspired musical tradition to which it was allegedly opposed was itself a fiction embodying the values of the old fashioned political élite.
Damon of Oa: A Music Theorist Ostracized?
Authors: Wallace Robert W.
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines the evidence for the career of Damon of Oa, music theorist and friend of Pericles, who was said to have been ostracised for his dangerous activities. It defends that tradition, arguing that music and politics were intimately connected in 5th-century Athens. The sources suggest that Damon developed what was later called the ethos theory of music which believed in the power of music to influence character and behaviour. Given the centrality of mousike in 5th-century Athenian society, it is entirely plausible that a theorist who emphasised music's potential to change or disturb the social order might be perceived as a threat.
Dirty Dancing: Xenophon’sSymposium
Authors: Wohl Victoria
Published: January 2010

This chapter centres on Xenophon's Symposium and the significance of dance within the dialogue. Beginning with a discussion of dancing, pleasure, and paideia in Plato's Laws, it suggests that Xenophon's text is concerned with the same philosophical issues surrounding mousike, mimesis, pleasure, and the good. The dialogue stages a competition between the pleasure of dance and the pleasure of philosophical discourse. But Socrates himself is figured as a dancer, an image which is explored within the context of two interconnected sympotic themes, paideia, and eros. The contest proves to be less straight-forward than might first appear, for the lascivious dance with which the dialogue ends threatens to undermine Socrates' earlier insistence on the superiority of ouranian pederastic eros.
The Muses and their Arts
Authors: Murray Penelope
Published: January 2010

This chapter investigates the meaning of the Muses in Greek culture. Their sphere is mousike in general, but the activities over which they preside change over time. Their connection with poetry remains constant, but a crucial development took place when Plato appropriated them for the new discipline of philosophy, a prose art-form. Rhetoric, on the other hand, a self-styled techne, dispensed with the Muses, despite the early association of these goddesses with eloquence in Hesiod's Theogony. The process of differentiating between Muses and ascribing specific functions and attributes to each of them began to take shape in the Alexandrian era when collectively they represented paideia. But their significance varies in accordance with the prevailing art forms of different periods. Hence, in the prose-dominated centuries of the Second Sophistic, the absence of a relationship between the Muses and rhetoric becomes problematic.
Dead or Alive? The Status of the Standard Language
Authors: VERSTEEGH KEES
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the value of written records as evidence of the historical linguistic circumstances. The focus is on the status of the standard language, that is, the language of prestige in the speech community. Specifically, two tendencies that have to do with the dichotomy ‘dead’/‘alive’ underlying many discussions about standard languages are considered. This dichotomy reflects the metalinguistic attitude of the speakers and corresponds with the subconscious tendency of many linguists to think of languages as existing entities, even when they reject the Schleicherian paradigm of language as an organism. The first tendency is to regard the standard language in the written texts as ‘alive’, which leads to an overestimation of its importance for a reconstruction of language change. The second tendency is to regard the standard language in the written record as ‘dead’, which leads to an underestimation of the role of the standard in the speech community.
From Contact to Mixture: Bilingual Inscriptions from Italy
Authors: LEIWO MARTTI
Published: January 2010

Speakers of Greek and Latin were in contact for several hundred years. This chapter proposes a typology for distinct language contact features in the light of epigraphy, and discusses Latin-Greek contact in Italy through the language transmitted by Christian and Jewish speech communities from the third to the sixth century AD. Two distinct conceptions should be kept in mind: languages in contact and contact languages. When languages are in contact, the contact may create linguistic change and even structural similarity in the course of time. The chapter examines what kind of contact situations can be seen in the epigraphic evidence, for example, whether the features of linguistic mixture are caused by bilingual code-switching.
Bilingualism and Diglossia in Late Antique Syria and Mesopotamia
Authors: TAYLOR DAVID G. K.
Published: January 2010

This chapter investigates the nature and consequences of language contact, bilingualism, and diglossia in Syria and Mesopotamia during the late antique period, focusing particularly on evidence for Greek-Aramaic interaction. Evidence for this contact is drawn primarily from the Greek and Syriac inscriptions of north Syria, bilingual Palmyrene inscriptions, and early Syriac literature, because each of these raises a number of distinct questions and theoretical issues. In late antique Syria and Mesopotamia, the experience of Aramaic-Greek linguistic contact was almost universal, although there was considerable variation in the local circumstances. In north Syria, the local Aramaic dialects were widely spoken but rarely written down, whereas to the north (Edessa), to the east (Ilatra, Palmyra, and Babylon), and to the south (Nabataea, as well as the Palestinian Jewish and Christian communities) there were well-established literary dialects of Aramaic.
Aspects of Bilingualism in the History of the Greek Language
Authors: JANSE MARK
Published: January 2010

This chapter contrasts two historical Greek varieties from the perspective of language contact, one ancient and one modern. The two varieties are complete opposites in almost every respect. The ancient one is the Septuagint (LXX), the collection of Jewish writings mainly translated from the Hebrew (and in some cases Aramaic) Scriptures, which also includes some original Greek pieces. The modern variety is the Cappadocian Greek dialect which used to be spoken in central Asia Minor until the population exchange between Greece and Turkey following the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. Hebrew interference in the LXX is due to a translation technique, typical of religious translations, which is at once calqued and word-for-word to produce a mimetic text. As a result, interference is almost limited to lexical and syntactic extension.
Latin–Frankish Bilingualism in Sixth-Century Gaul:The Latin of Clovis
Authors: FLOBERT PIERRE
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines linguistic relations between the Gallo-Romans and their Frankish conquerors in the 6th century by considering the Latin of Clovis. The bilingualism of the Franks became active as they began reading religious, and then literary, texts. To write was the distinguishing characteristic of the most highly cultured, who as a rule were clerics. This bilingualism is uneven and lacks reciprocity, with the Latin speakers remaining reticent. Yet although this phenomenon was by no means universal, even among the Franks, the existence of numerous loanwords proves that the two languages were in close contact for a prolonged period of time.
Decision-Making in Medieval Agriculture
Authors: Stone David
Published: January 2010

This book uses manorial account rolls innovatively to reconstruct the economic mentalities of medieval farmers and, by so doing, argues that they have been unfairly stereotyped. It overturns the traditional view of medieval countrymen as economically backward and instead reveals that agricultural decision-making was as rational in the 14th and 15th centuries as in modern times. It investigates agricultural mentalities first in a detailed case study of the exceptionally well-documented demesne farm of Wisbech Barton, analysing the sale and consumption of produce, cereal-cropping strategies, crop rotations, the use of agrarian techniques, and livestock husbandry in four periods between 1313 and 1429. The last third of the book then tests the findings of this case study across medieval England as a whole. The book argues that human action shaped the course of the rural economy to a much greater extent than has hitherto been appreciated, and challenges the commonly held view that the medieval period was dominated by ecological and economic crises. In particular, it argues that rational decision-making rather than soil exhaustion or climatic change lay behind declining arable and pastoral yields at this time, and that the change in demesne management from direct cultivation to leasing during the later Middle Ages was partly the result of a managerial crisis. Although focused chiefly on well-documented farms of great landlords, the book also has crucial implications for our understanding of medieval peasant farming, not least the yield of their land, which may well have been significantly higher than is generally assumed.
The ‘Indian Summer’ for Demesne Farming
Authors: Stone David
Published: January 2010

The evidence from Wisbech Barton broadly supports the notion that the quarter century after the Black Death witnessed an ‘Indian summer’ for demesne farming, for the rural economy here was surprisingly buoyant. However, it also suggests that the implications of this metaphor can be misleading. Farm officials faced significant economic and environmental difficulties, not least a more grudging workforce and severe flooding. Moreover, reeves worked with great skill to overcome these and other problems, and implemented considerable change in order to ensure economic success. In order to achieve a high net income it was often necessary to reduce the costs of cultivation, whether through operational changes, such as substituting customary for hired labour or grazing livestock on marshland rather than demesne grassland, or by reducing inputs. Falling yields of corn, hay, and livestock were often again the result of a series of deliberate and rational decisions.
Standards of Demesne Farm Management in England
Authors: Stone David
Published: January 2010

This chapter examines demesne management in medieval England generally and suggests that efficiency was dependent upon person, period, and place. It highlights the general competency of demesne management on other manors before the Black Death, and argues that management became more efficient around 1300 as economic conditions deteriorated and levels of taxation rose, and that remote commercial manors were the most efficient of all. The chapter goes on to examine standards of demesne management after the Black Death, arguing that the great estates generally experienced a managerial crisis as the difficulties of managing a large farm increased and as other opportunities for skilled reeves became plentiful and available. Not only did this hasten the decision to lease demesnes on such estates, but it implies that smaller estates and farms, which were individually managed by their landlords or tenant farmers, did not experience the same degree of economic difficulty.
The Use of Agricultural Techniques in Medieval England
Authors: Stone David
Published: January 2010

The Wisbech accounts indicate that medieval farmers employed yield-raising techniques, such as legume cultivation, weeding, and the spreading of manure, only when it was in their interests to do so. It explores the broader ramifications of this point and argues that demesne evidence of declining yields in the early 14th century does not imply an ecological crisis, for inputs were often scaled down as prices dropped. Likewise, falling yields in the later Middle Ages were caused primarily by the deliberate reduction of such techniques; even extra manure was simply too expensive to spread. The chapter goes on to discuss geographical and social variations in the intensity of medieval agriculture; controversially, it argues that land productivity on peasant smallholdings may generally have exceeded that on demesne farms. It concludes that conscious choices and decisions played a major role in shaping economic trends and patterns in this and other ages.
Past and Future: The Case for a Threshold Notion of Harm
Authors: MEYER LUKAS H.
Published: January 2010

Liberal cosmopolitans often take the view that currently living people, wherever they may live, and future people, whenever their lives take place, have, qua human beings, the same moral status. Cosmopolitans are inclined to deny the relevance of the special features of our relations to future people. Liberal cosmopolitans also commonly take the view that currently living people cannot be said to have claims to compensation because their predecessors were badly wronged in the past. Instead, they claim that the significance of history lies in the consequences of past events for the well-being of currently living and future people. This view is termed the forward-looking understanding of the significance of past wrongs. This chapter defends the cosmopolitan view on the status of future people by turning on the adoption of a subjunctive-threshold notion of harm. It discusses the rights of future persons, currently living people's claims to compensation due to injustices committed against their predecessors, problems for a threshold conception of harm, and Derek Parfit's no-difference view.
Recognition of Governments in International Law
Authors: Talmon Stefan
Published: January 2010

This book studies the recognition of governments in international law. It is based on an analysis of the diplomatic practice of states as well as decisions by national and international courts. It explores the two central questions of the recognition of governments: what are the meanings of the term ‘recognition’ and its variants in international law such as de facto, de jure, and diplomatic recognition?; and what is the effect of such recognition on the legal status of foreign authorities, and in particular, of governments in exile? Along the lines of these questions the study is organized in a general introduction and two main parts which are followed by three appendices: replies received from various states in response to a questionnaire on the recognition of governments, short profiles of authorities in exile claiming to be ‘governments’, and a list of treaties concluded by authorities in exile recognized as governments. The book is comprehensive in its analysis of the issues, and covers material of historical interest, as well as recent developments in Angola, Kuwait, and Haiti.
Preliminary Considerations
Authors: Talmon Stefan
Published: January 2010

A government possesses the plenary and exclusive competence in international law to represent its state in the international sphere. This is the case for both in situ and governments in exile. This chapter examines the legal effects of recognition by looking at the different treatment accorded to authorities in exile recognized as a government and those not recognized as a government in the various areas of international intercourse not dependent on the exercise of effective control over territory. It argues that the legal status of a government does not prescribe a certain competence, privileges, and immunities which all authorities in exile must, to be governments, possess; rather it is a presumption that an authority in exile which is recognized as a government possesses that competence as well as those privileges and immunities unless otherwise provided for by the recognizing state.
Jurisdiction
Authors: Talmon Stefan
Published: January 2010

Jurisdiction refers to particular aspects of the general legal authority of states usually referred to as sovereignty. It denotes the legislative, judicial, and executive authority of states under international law over persons, property, and events. As jurisdiction refers to the legal authority of states, only authorities in exile recognized as representative of the state's sovereign authority, that is, as governments, may exercise the state's jurisdiction in the recognizing state. However, while full recognition of an authority in exile as a government is the basic precondition for the exercise of jurisdiction within the recognizing state, recognition does not establish that jurisdiction. This chapter examines the extent to which recognized governments in exile have been allowed to exercise jurisdiction in their host state, as well as their legislative jurisdiction, enforcement jurisdiction, and recognition and enforcement of legislation in exile by foreign courts.
1 ‘Una República de Curas’: Church and Politics
Authors: Londoño-Vega Patricia
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by considering local reactions to the return of the Jesuits in 1844, an event that defined some of the interests and positions that would emerge recurrently during the third quarter of the 19th century. It then examines the effect on the Antiqueño Church of two rounds of Liberal reforms introduced on a national scale. It comments on the local suspension of discord between Church and state achieved in Antioquia by Pedro Justo Berrio’s Conservative administration, ended by the national civil war of 1876-7. It explains that with the occupation of Antioquia by Liberal forces, the region’s clergy experienced another difficult period. It discusses the ideological ascendancy of the Church with the compliance of civil authorities, and the questioning to its authority posed by the new realities of the early 20th century.
2 Towards a Greater Presence of the Church
Authors: Londoño-Vega Patricia
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes the ecclesiastical structure, geography, and sociology of dioceses, churches, chapels, parishes, and clergy. It explains that ecclesiastical jurisdictions varied a great deal in physical extent from one diocese to another. It mentions several male as well as female orders established in Antioquia. It discusses that the positive local attitude towards religion not only influenced a fertile milieu for religious vocation, but also encouraged the lay citizens and authorities to sponsor the activities of the religious communities. It explains that the work of friars and nuns in education, catechising, social assistance, and missions was an important factor in the expansion of the institutional presence of the Catholic Church in the region. It adds that these congregations provided social coherence and, by offering instruction to people from all ranks, opened channels of upward mobility within the society of Antioquia.
3 Proliferation of Devotional Associations
Authors: Londoño-Vega Patricia
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins by discussing that the number, variety, and importance of religious associations active in Antioquia steadily increased between 1850 to 1930. It explains that these associations were promoted mainly by parish priests and by the Jesuits, and to a lesser extent by the other congregations and the laity. It mentions some of the goals performed by these religious associations: caring for spiritual salvation of deceased brothers, honouring a particular saint, disseminating Catholic doctrine, sponsoring of charities. It notes that the peak of intense activity of religious organisations was during the 1970s. It also describes the development and achievements of the main religious organisations, following a chronological sequence according to the date of their foundation.