bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Input‐Based Instructional Approaches
Authors: Zyzik Eve
Published: December 2012

An observable fact of the language acquisition process is that no language, be it the first (L1) or the second (L2), can be learned successfully without extensive and meaningful exposure to that language. Accordingly, all theories of second language acquisition (SLA) attribute a significant role toinput, which can be succinctly defined as the language in the learner's environment. Input is often referred to as “raw data,” “primary linguistic data,” the “stimulus array,” or the “positive evidence” available to learners. Input can be both aural and written. One of the fundamental questions in SLA is whether input is a sufficient condition for acquisition to occur, or whether other elements (e.g., attention, noticing, feedback, and output) are equally essential. Thus, many instructional approaches combine exposure to the target language with opportunities for output and interaction. Nevertheless, there are some approaches to L2 instruction that prioritize input, many of them proposing innovative ways of manipulating the input in order to maximize learning outcomes.
Institutional Pragmatics
Authors: Nguyen Hanh Thi
Published: December 2012

Institutional pragmatics is an umbrella term that refers to research on how linguistic utterances obtain their meanings in the context of institutions, that is, the workplace.
Instructional Computer‐Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Chapelle Carol A.
Published: December 2012

In second language teaching and learning, computer technology extends the types of interactive activities that learners can work on in and outside of the classroom, and therefore it has affected the way that many teachers teach and learners learn. Teachers might, for example, ask students to seek specific information on the Internet in preparation for an information gap activity in class; teachers might indicate awkward expressions in a student's essay and show the student how to find examples of target language collocations in a corpus; and teachers might organize a virtual collaboration between their students and proficient speakers of the target language in another country. These activities and many more add significantly to the repertoire of activities that learners can engage in because of three affordances offered by technology: human‐computer interaction, distance written and oral communication, and access to a community with data and creative opportunities on the Internet.
Intelligent Computer‐Assisted Language Learning
Authors: Heift Trude
Published: December 2012

Intelligent computer‐assisted language learning (ICALL) integrates natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence (AI) modeling into CALL.
Intelligibility in World Englishes
Authors: Nelson Cecil L.
Published: December 2012

Intelligibility
comes into English ultimately from the Latin verb
intellegere
, “to perceive.”
Interaction Approach in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Mackey Alison , Goo Jaemyung
Published: December 2012

The interaction approach to second language acquisition posits that learners can benefit from taking part in interaction because of a variety of developmentally helpful opportunities, conditions, and processes which interaction can expose them to. These include input, negotiation, output, feedback, and attention.
Interactional Sociolinguistics as a Research Perspective
Authors: Pan Yuling
Published: December 2012

Interactional sociolinguistics (IS) refers to an integrated approach to discourse and language use in interaction.
Intercultural Rhetoric in Language for specific Purposes
Authors: Moreno Ana I.
Published: December 2012

Intercultural rhetoric (IR) is a research field that seeks to identify and explain some of the rhetorical and stylistic accommodations that multilingual writers need to make in order to achieve their communication goalsinterculturally.
Intercultural Understanding With Literary Texts and Feature Films
Authors: Bredella Lothar
Published: December 2012

Is it possible to promote intercultural understanding with literary texts and feature films? What has to be considered in answering this question? In the first section I shall outline the structure of intercultural understanding (Fremdverstehen).
Interlanguage Pragmatics
Authors: Félix‐Brasdefer J. César
Published: December 2012

Interlanguage pragmatics (ILP), or second language (L2) pragmatics, is the study of how learners, whether adults or children, acquire the ability to produce and understand communicative action in an L2, such as refusing an offer for food, asking a professor to write a letter of recommendation, complaining about an unfair grade on the final exam, or knowing when it is appropriate to remain silent in conversation.
Internalization in Second Language Acquisition: Social Perspectives
Authors: Negueruela‐Azarola Eduardo
Published: December 2012

A social perspective to teaching and learning a second language in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) utilizes the notion of internalization to capture both the social origin of learning—even in private settings—and the non‐mechanistic or simplistic quality of the processes involved in learning and communicating in new languages (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; Lantolf & Poehner, 2008).
International Phonetic Alphabet
Authors: Brown Adam
Published: December 2012

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a set of symbols designed to be used for representing the speech sounds of languages of the world. This set of symbols has many uses.
Interpreting Techniques and Modes
Authors: Ahrens Barbara
Published: December 2012

Interpreters provide communication between persons who do not speak the same language.
Invented Languages in Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Tonkin Humphrey
Published: December 2012

The impulse to create languages has a long history, extending back at least to the “Lingua Ignota,” essentially a simplified Latin, devised in the 12th century by the Abbess Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179).
Johansson, Stig
Authors: Lindquist Hans
Published: December 2012

Stig Johansson (1939–2010) was born in Sweden but later became a Norwegian citizen. He studied at Lund and then at Indiana University, where he received a PhD in linguistics in 1968. After working as a lecturer and research fellow in Lund (1968–76) he was professor of Modern English Language at Oslo University between 1976 and 2008. He was Doctorhonoris causaat Lund University, Sweden (1999), member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, and honorary member of the Japan Association for English Corpus Studies.
Johns, Ann
Authors: Hyon Sunny
Published: December 2012

Known internationally for her expertise in English for specific purposes (ESP), genre studies, and second language (L2) writing, Ann Johns has been influential in various applied linguistics contexts.
Jones,Daniel
Authors: Collins Beverley , Mees Inger M.
Published: December 2012

Daniel Jones (1881–1967), the greatest British phonetician of the 20th century, was born in central London on September 12, 1881. Excelling in phonetic observation and description, and the application of phonetic science to the problems of the real world, Jones always regarded himself as being first and foremost an applied linguist.
Jones, Rodney H.
Authors: Lou Jackie Jia
Published: December 2012

Rodney H. Jones (b.1959) is currently the Associate Head of the Department of English, City University of Hong Kong, where he has been teaching since 1995 (home page:http://personal.cityu.edu.hk/∼enrodney). Jones received a BA in English Literature from the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, an MFA in Creative Writing from the University of Kansas in Fayetteville, an MPhil in English from City University of Hong Kong, and a PhD in Linguistics from Macquarie University, Sydney. His research interests include youth cultures, computer‐mediated communication (CMC), multimodal discourse analysis, mediated discourse analysis, discourse and sexuality, and health communication.
Kniffka, Hannes
Authors: Howald Blake Stephen
Published: December 2012

Hannes Kniffka (1942‐ ) is emeritus professor of general linguistics at the University of Bonn, Germany.
Knowledge Claims
Authors: Dahl Trine
Published: December 2012

Knowledge claims are very basic units in research communication.
Ladefoged, Peter
Authors: Keating Patricia A.
Published: December 2012

Peter Ladefoged (1925–2006) was one of the great phoneticians of the 20th century, a pioneer in instrumental phonetic fieldwork who was equally interested in theoretical linguistics, especially distinctive feature theory.
Language Analysis for the Determination of Origin (LADO)
Authors: Fraser Helen
Published: December 2012

Language analysis for the determination of origin (LADO) is a relatively new branch of applied linguistics. Generally considered a forensic application, it is used by governments to assess asylum seekers applying for refugee status.
Language and Globalization
Authors: Hammill Matthew J. , Diniz De Figueiredo Eduardo H.
Published: December 2012

The termglobalizationis used in a wide range of contemporary discussions in academic contexts and as a result has been defined and applied according to the needs of diverse fields such as economics (Bhagwati, 2004), education (Suarez‐Orozco & Qin‐Hilliard, 2004), and cultural anthropology (Appadurai, 1996).
Language and Identity in Africa
Authors: Makoni Sinfree , Makoni Busi
Published: December 2012

A central theme in discussions about language and identity is homogeneity and dissimilarity based on categories such as language, ethnicity, nationalism, and, to some extent, religion, all of which are highly contestable in their own right.
Language Assessment Methods
Authors: Fox Janna
Published: December 2012

The first step in an assessment process is a clear definition of the assessment mandate: “the mandate is the constellation of forces that shape design decisions for a test”.
Language Endangerment
Authors: Romaine Suzanne
Published: December 2012

Over the past few decades linguists have become increasingly concerned about the problem of endangered languages (Robins & Uhlenbeck, 1991; Krauss, 1992; Crystal, 2000; Nettle & Romaine, 2000; Gibbs, 2002; Abley, 2003, Dalby, 2003).
Language for Specific Purposes in Asia
Authors: Kanoksilapatham Budsaba
Published: December 2012

Asia, the largest of all continents, consists of over forty countries.
Language for Specific Purposes in Eastern Europe
Authors: Ene Estela
Published: December 2012

Eastern Europe is an area of constant change.
Language for Tourism
Authors: Ruiz‐Garrido Miguel F. , Saorín‐Iborra Ana María
Published: December 2012

Language for tourism has developed relatively recently as a field within languages for specific purposes (LSP), joining other more widely known and longer‐established specific language disciplines such as business, science and technology, and academic purposes.
Language Ideology, Translation/Interpretation, and Courts
Authors: Mazrui Alamin
Published: December 2012

A domain that demonstrates a particularly high incidence of the interplay between language ideology and translation/interpretation is no doubt the law court. The linguistically embedded power relations that are integral to the interactional process between various parties in a law suit often become accentuated when meaning has to be mediated between two or more language varieties through the agency of a court interpreter. Contrary to the common belief that court interpreters are unobtrusive parties in the court process, they can make a significant difference in the outcome of cases partly because of the influence of the respective language ideologies they imbibe (Berk‐Seligson, 2002).
Language of Courtroom Interaction
Authors: Matoesian Gregory
Published: December 2012

The language of courtroom interaction provides an exciting context not only to the study of written and verbal language but also to the analysis of language as a form of copresent communicative practice that integrates language, bodily conduct, and other semiotic resources (see Goodwin, 1994; Manzo, 1996; Matoesian, 2010).
Language Planning and Multilingualism
Authors: Baldauf Richard B. , Kheng Chua Catherine Siew
Published: December 2012

Although multilingualism can be said to be the societal norm, and monolingualism the aberrant condition, classical language policy and planning (i.e., macro planning) has focused on the latter with the development of a single national language within each polity as its primary goal, i.e., the so called “one nation, one language” policy.
Language Planning: Qin Shihuangdi's Contribution
Authors: Xiaomei Wang
Published: December 2012

Qin Shihuangdi (259–210 BC) was the first emperor of unified China. Although he was a controversial figure in Chinese history, he did contribute significantly to the development of China from different perspectives. One of his contributions to Chinese culture was the unification of Chinese writing, which has drawn debate in the academic field (Chen, 1997, pp. 594–6).
Language Policy and Planning: Overview
Authors: Bianco Joseph Lo
Published: December 2012

Human intervention to shape and direct both form and use of language must be as old as language itself, while by contrast the academic field analyzing conscious policy making or deliberate planning is very recent. Human societies have always been multilingual and language planning, whether overt and conscious or covert and implicit in other activity, has always existed.
Language Problems as Constructs of Ideology
Authors: Ozolins Uldis
Published: December 2012

This entry details how the field of language policy and planning (henceforth LPP) began as largely a technical endeavor, often linked to development issues in third world countries, but increasingly became subject to and in part reflected significant ideological divisions over language and society.
Language Rights in Language Policy and Planning
Authors: McGroarty Mary , Fitzsimmons‐Doolan Shannon
Published: December 2012

In this entry we outline some of the principal questions regarding relationships between ideas about linguistic human rights (LHR), also called language rights, and selected theoretical and practical issues in language policy and planning (LPP).
Language Teacher Development
Authors: Bailey Kathleen M.
Published: December 2012

Teachers'professional developmenthas been defined as “a process of continual intellectual, experiential, and attitudinal growth of teachers” (Lange, 1990, p. 250). The term refers to teachers' need for “continued growth both before and throughout a career” (p. 250). No matter how well prepared teacher candidates may be at the end of their preservice training, throughout their professional lives they will need to update existing skills and knowledge, and add new skills and knowledge to their repertoires.
Language Learning and Teaching: Mixed Methods
Authors: Lamb Martin
Published: December 2012

Creswell (2009) has pointed out that “mixed method thinking” is ubiquitous in everyday life, with media investigations routinely mixing quantitative and qualitative reports on contemporary events.
Language Testing and Accountability
Authors: Llosa Lorena
Published: December 2012

Language assessments are typically used to make decisions about individuals and programs. These decisions affect a number of stakeholders directly or indirectly.
Language Testing and Immigration
Authors: Saville Nick
Published: December 2012

The outcomes of language tests have important consequences for test takers and for society more widely (see Wall, 1997, on impact and washback). This is particularly true when tests are used in the context of immigration. For this reason the decision to use language tests, either to support learning or as instruments of policy, should not be taken lightly.
Language Testing in Second Language Research
Authors: Marsden Emma
Published: December 2012

Researchers investigating second languages (L2) use tests for many purposes and, therefore, use many different ways of defining, eliciting, measuring, and analyzing what it is to know and use a second language (for in‐depth discussion see Bachman & Cohen, 1998).
Language Teacher Training in Technology
Authors: Kessler Greg
Published: December 2012

Teacher training in computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) is an emergent area of increasing interest and varied influences. As CALL has evolved in recent decades, it has resulted in a complex and diverse array of instructional opportunities.
Lantolf, James P.
Authors: Verity Deryn P.
Published: December 2012

James P. Lantolf (1947– ) is the scholar whose name is most closely associated with the development of the Vygotskyan, or sociocultural (SCT), paradigm of second language acquisition research.
Larsen‐Freeman, Diane
Authors: Todeva Elka
Published: December 2012

Diane Larsen‐Freeman is Professor of Education and Linguistics, Research Scientist at the English Language Institute, and Faculty Associate at the Center for the Study of Complex Systems at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Learner Corpora
Authors: Granger Sylviane
Published: December 2012

Learner corpora are electronic collections of language data produced by L2 learners, that is, second or foreign‐language learners. This relatively new resource is of great relevance for both second language acquisition (SLA) research and foreign‐language teaching (FLT).
Language for Specific Purposes Learner Corpora
Authors: granger Sylviane , paquot Magali
Published: December 2012

Learner corpora are electronic collections of (near‐)natural foreign or second‐languagelearner (L2) language assembled according to explicit design criteria (Granger, 2008).
Learner Readiness
Authors: Lightbown Patsy M.
Published: December 2012

Readiness is a concept that is relevant to all aspects of learning and development.
Learner Varieties
Authors: Dimroth Christine
Published: December 2012

The notion oflearner variety(LV) refers to a coherent linguistic system produced by a language learner. The term highlights the fact that the standard variety as well as learner languages, dialects, and so forth are but variants of a given language and should not primarily be approached from a perspective of correctness or deviation from the “norm.” The term is often used in the plural (learner varieties) in order to emphasize the dynamic and unstable nature of developing learner languages. It is mainly employed in second language acquisition (SLA) studies but the concept can in principle also be applied to first language (L1) acquisition.
Legal Disputes Over Second Language Instruction in the United States
Authors: Valle Sandra Del
Published: December 2012

Legal disputes over second language instruction in the United States began as far back as the World War I era and have continued into the 21st century. For the most part, litigation has pitted language minority parents seeking second language instruction in the public schools for their children as part of a basic, quality education, against school districts or state actors which seek to negate or limit those rights.
Legal Language
Authors: Goźdź‐Roszkowski Stanisław
Published: December 2012

It is generally acknowledged that law does not exist without language. Legal rules and regulations are coded in language. Legal concepts and legal processes are accessible only through language. If a legal text is criticized for being abstruse and incomprehensible to the general public, the problem most probably lies with the language.
Lexical Borrowing
Authors: Daulton Frank E.
Published: December 2012

As seen in ancient Coptic codices containing Hebrew loanwords, virtually every language has increased its vocabulary by borrowing from other languages.Lexical borrowingtypically is the adoption of individual words or even large sets of vocabulary items from another language or dialect. It can also include roots and affixes, sounds, collocations, and grammatical processes. It has profound implications for various aspects of applied linguistics, including sociolinguistics and foreign‐language learning.
Lexical Bundles and Grammar
Authors: Cortes Viviana
Published: December 2012

Early studies that identified and analyzed recurrent multiword units were conducted from a rather impressionistic perspective.
Lexical Bundles and Technology
Authors: Cortes Viviana
Published: December 2012

The study of frequently occurring word combinations has been an important focus in the linguistic field for several decades, but it was the appearance of corpus‐based methodologies and the advancement of computer technology that prompted the design of new research questions and the empirical rather than intuitive investigation of such linguistic phenomena.
Lexical Syllabus
Authors: Szudarski Pawel
Published: December 2012

Rapid developments in corpus linguistics in the 1980s and 1990s have had a considerable impact on the study of language.
Linguaculture
Authors: Risager Karen
Published: December 2012

Linguaculture (or languaculture) is a term that focuses on culture in language or the cultural dimensions of language.
Linguistic Analysis of Disputed Meanings: Threats
Authors: Gales Tammy
Published: December 2012

Threats are intentional speech acts that use “language to send a message” and “bring about a desired transfer of information” (Fraser, 1998, p. 160).
Linguistic Analysis of Disputed Meanings: Trademarks
Authors: Butters Ronald R.
Published: December 2012

Trademark(legally often shortened tomark) is a term used commonly to describe words and images that are intended to distinguish uniquely the commercial source of a product or service from that of competitors.
Linguistic Disadvantage of Children in Legal Contexts
Authors: Aldridge Michelle
Published: December 2012

Talking with anyone in authority is a challenging prospect for most people. This claim is true for all in the legal setting but especially so for those who, for whatever reason, are not competent in language and communication. In this entry, we review the experiences of people who are linguistically disadvantaged within the legal setting.
Linguistic Diversity
Authors: Grenoble Lenore A.
Published: December 2012

Although it is somewhat difficult to count languages and to measure linguistic diversity with exact precision, there are estimated to be between 6,000 and 7,000 languages spoken in the world today. Languages can be classified genetically or typologically. Genetic classification involves the relationships of languages from a common ancestor, how they are related in terms of linguistic families. Typological classification involves how languages are more or less similar in terms of type of linguistic structures.
Linguistic Human Rights
Authors: Skutnabb‐kangas Tove
Published: December 2012

If the search engine Google had existed some 30 years ago, searching on the term “linguistic human rights” (in English) would probably have given maximally a dozen hits or so, if any. Today (October 2011), there were around 9,260,000 hits. Even Google Scholar returns 579,000 entries. It seems that the concept resounds with many people. Language endangerment, maintenance, and revitalization and general protection of both users of various languages and the languages themselves are central topics, with both Indigenous peoples and various minorities (urban, rural, national, immigrant, refugee, asylum‐seekers, etc). Linguistic human rights (LHRs) in education combine many of the interests in this multi‐ and transdisciplinary area.
Literacy and Heritage Language Maintenance
Authors: Sook Lee Jin
Published: December 2012

Heritage language (HL) maintenance refers to the preservation of an immigrant (e.g., Japanese, Chinese, Hebrew, Russian), an indigenous (e.g., Cherokee, Zuni, Chumash), or a colonial (e.g., Spanish, French, or German from earlier settlers in North America) language (Fishman, 2001).
Literacy and Multicultural Education
Authors: Rosario‐Ramos Enid M. , Nieto Sonia
Published: December 2012

Multicultural education has always been concerned with furthering social justice and providing children with a relevant and rigorous education. This concern involves an understanding and appreciation of diversity, the examination of power structures and relationships, a close look at the ideological underpinnings in the construction of knowledge, and the development of culturally responsive pedagogy. Even though we recognize that multicultural education has addressed a broad range of issues related to social justice and education, in this entry we will focus on the links between literacy and multicultural education.
Literacy in Community Settings
Authors: Prinsloo Mastin
Published: December 2012

A rich direction of research in literacy studies in recent decades has been around literacy in community settings. The impetus for such work has been the challenges coming from linguistic anthropologists and literacy ethnographers to the notion of literacy as the same thing across all kinds of settings and under all kinds of conditions.
Literacy: Mixed Methods
Authors: A. Baker Elizabeth (Betsy)
Published: December 2012

The purpose of this entry is to briefly describe a study for which mixed methods were best suited. This study examined the growth of two groups of preservice literacy teachers in their abilities to recognize salient features of children's reading development. Quantitative data were used to ascertain growth, while qualitative data were used to situate the learning experiences in which this growth occurred. A purely quantitative study could have revealed growth but little would be known about how that growth occurred. A purely qualitative study could have provided a rich description of two different ways to implement case‐based instruction but would not provide information about the growth of the learners. A mixed design helped to account for both growth of the learners and an understanding of the interventions experienced by each group of learners.
MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventories
Authors: Jackson‐Maldonado Donna
Published: December 2012

There are multiple means for obtaining information about how children develop language. They can be observed in natural play situations, elicitation techniques may be employed, or parents can report on what they observe in everyday activities.
Maritime English
Authors: Bocanegra‐Valle Ana
Published: December 2012

Maritime English is an umbrella term which refers to the English language used by seafarers both at sea and in port and by individuals working in the shipping and shipbuilding industry.
Materials Development
Authors: Tomlinson Brian
Published: December 2012

If you wanted to learn a foreign language how would you do it? Whichever means of learning you chose you would almost certainly need to use materials to help you.
May, Stephen
Authors: McCarty Teresa L.
Published: December 2012

The son of a community worker and an Anglican clergyman, Stephen Andrew May grew up in Canterbury, on New Zealand's South Island, in what he describes as “a resolutely monocultural” and “faux colonial” environment (May, 2009).
McCarty, Teresa L.
Authors: Brayboy Bryan McKinley Jones , Nolan Erin
Published: December 2012

Born and raised in Columbus, Ohio, Teresa McCarty is the daughter of a high school English teacher and a homemaker and office manager, and the great‐granddaughter of Irish immigrants.
Measures of Lexical Richness
Authors: Malvern David , Richards Brian
Published: December 2012

Lexical richness is about the quality of vocabulary in a language sample. For some, this is equated with the variety of lexis, while for others it is a multidimensional concept.
Measuring the Effectiveness of Second Language Instruction in Research
Authors: Polio Charlene
Published: December 2012

An evaluation of second language instruction often includes some of type of measurement of its effectiveness.
Media Interpreting
Authors: Sergio Francesco Straniero
Published: December 2012

Media interpreting (MI) falls under the domain of both interpreting studies and audiovisual or screen translation.
Medical Discourse
Authors: Iedema Rick
Published: December 2012

This entry addresses the discourse of contemporary western medicine. Modern western medicine occupies a unique and prominent position among cultures' attempts to defeat illness.
Medical Translation
Authors: Montalt Vicent
Published: December 2012

Translation can be classified in a variety of ways, mainly by type (technical, legal, etc.), mode (written, audiovisual, etc.), method (literal, free, etc.), and the nature of the process (professional, pedagogical, etc.).
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Norris John M.
Published: December 2012

Meta‐analysis is a secondary research methodology consisting of techniques for reviewing quantitative primary research studies; extracting, combining, and comparing findings; and interpreting what is known about particular questions, variables, or other foci that have generated substantial empirical attention.
Methods for Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Northcott Jill
Published: December 2012

This entry begins with a general consideration of whether or not LSP has distinctive teaching methods and it then gives an overview of seven common methodological features of LSP instruction. The entry concludes with developments in LSP which have led to methods now considered as distinctive areas of language teaching in their own right.
Minority Languages in Education
Authors: Gorter Durk
Published: December 2012

Minority languages are commonly defined in relationship to the country where they are spoken.
Mixed Methods
Authors: Kim Dan
Published: December 2012

Although the dichotomy between quantitative and qualitative methodology traditions still stands with a considerable weight in applied linguistics research, the mixed methods approach has strengthened its position as an alternative to single‐method research.
Modality
Authors: Boye Kasper
Published: December 2012

The term “modality” is used in linguistics for a variety of distinct but related phenomena.
Models of Interpreting
Authors: Setton Robin
Published: December 2012

Interpreting is a complex and unique activity whose social, cognitive, and linguistic features are not captured in any existing discipline.
Mohanty, Ajit
Authors: Misra Girishwar
Published: December 2012

Ajit Mohanty has made significant contributions to research on multilingualism, bilingualism, multilingual education, interventions for cognitive development, poverty issues, language processing, and socialization.
Motivation in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Ushioda Ema
Published: December 2012

The word
motivation
derives from the Latin verb
movere
meaning “to move.” What moves a person to make certain choices, to engage in action, to persist in action—such questions lie at the heart of motivation theory and research.
Bilingual and Multilingual Education: Overview
Authors: Cenoz Jasone
Published: December 2012

Multilingualism is common in modern society due to different historical, social, political, and economic reasons.
Multilingual Education in Australia
Authors: Lambert Brigitte
Published: December 2012

Simply put, multilingual education refers to the teaching or learning of more than one language.
Multilingual Education in China
Authors: Feng Anwei
Published: December 2012

China has been experiencing a linguistic situation that is far more complex than it used to be a decade ago with regard to both language use and language education for both the majority Han and the 55 officially recognized indigenous minority groups.
Multilingual Identities and Multilingual Education
Authors: Creese Angela
Published: December 2012

Identity is a topic of considerable interest in the field of applied linguistics.
Multilingualism
Authors: Cenoz Jasone
Published: December 2012

One of the earliest references to multilingualism can be found in the book of Genesis, where people who spoke only one language had tried to build a tower “whose top may reach unto heaven” and, in order to prevent this, God made them use different languages: “Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech” (Gen. 11:1–10, King James Version).
Multilingualism and Aphasia
Authors: Park Youngmi , Obler Loraine
Published: December 2012

Over half of the world's population speaks more than one language (Garcia, 2002) and everywhere a percentage of individuals will become aphasic as a result of brain damage, losing previously acquired language abilities to a greater or lesser extent in various patterns, linked to which regions of the brain are damaged.
Multilingualism and English
Authors: Alcón Eva , Safont Jordà Maria Pilar
Published: December 2012

The overwhelming spread of the English language around the world has given rise to various phenomena, such as the recognition of New Englishes varieties, multilingualism, and multilingual education.
Multilingualism and Higher Education
Authors: Martyniuk Waldemar
Published: December 2012

Monolingualism is a term that refers to an individual person's ability to use one language only or to a community or society or nation or state where only one language is used as a means of communication.
Multilingualism and Language Rights
Authors: May Stephen
Published: December 2012

The growing presence of language rights (LR) in the disciplines of applied linguistics and sociolinguistics can be attributed to four distinct, albeit closely interrelated, academic movements.
Multilingualism and Philosophy
Authors: Aronin Larissa , Singleton David
Published: December 2012

It might have been imagined that a philosophy of multilingualism could draw copiously on the long‐established concepts and procedures of the philosophy of language.
Multilingualism at Work
Authors: Gunnarsson Britt‐Louise
Published: December 2012

The conditions for workplace discourse have been influenced by a series of changes taking place in recent decades.
Multilingualism in Economic Activity
Authors: Grin François , Vaillancourt François
Published: December 2012

The interest in the links between multilingualism and economic activity is relatively recent.
Multimodel Computer‐Mediated Communication and Distance Language Learning
Authors: Hampel Regine
Published: December 2012

With the development of digital technologies over the past decades, distance language learning has changed dramatically.
Multimodal Discourse Analysis
Authors: Jones Rodney H.
Published: December 2012

Multimodal discourse analysis is an approach to discourse which focuses on how meaning is made through the use of multiple modes of communication as opposed to just language.
Multimodal Interaction Analysis
Authors: Norris Sigrid
Published: December 2012

Multimodal interaction analysis (Norris, 2004) is a holistic methodological framework that allows the analyst to integrate the verbal with the nonverbal, and to integrate these with material objects and the environment as they are being used by individuals acting and interacting in the world.
Multimodal Teaching and Learning
Authors: Jewitt Carey
Published: December 2012

Multimodal perspectives on teaching and learning build on the basic assumption that meanings are made (as well as distributed, interpreted, and remade) through many forms and resources of which language is but one—image, gesture, gaze, body posture, sound, writing, music, speech, and so on (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001; Jewitt, 2009).
Multimodality and Culture
Authors: Lane Pia
Published: December 2012

The world we live in and our research have become increasingly multimodal and culturally complex.
Multimodality and Displayed Art
Authors: O'Toole Michael
Published: December 2012

In the 1970s and 1980s M. A. K. Halliday's systemic functional (SF) grammar was being used extensively for discourse analysis, critical discourse analysis (CDA), and stylistics of both literary and nonliterary texts.
Multimodality and Hypermedia
Authors: Djonov Emilia
Published: December 2012

No longer reserved for hypertext that includes sound or video, nowadays the term “hypermedia“ refers to any hypertext featuring both typographic and non‐typographic elements and has become interchangeable with the term “hypertext.“ Hypertext consists of nodes and hyperlinks.
Multimodality and Identity Construction
Authors: Geenen Jarret
Published: December 2012

Multimodality refers to a field of social science research interested in describing the ways in which multiple modes of communication or semiotic systems are used to construct recognizable meanings.
Multimodality and Rhythm
Authors: Van Leeuwen Theo
Published: December 2012

Rhythm plays a crucial role in creating cohesion and meaningful structure in multimodal texts and communicative events that unfold over time.
Multimodality and Ritual
Authors: Frommherz Gudrun
Published: December 2012

The systematic use of multimodal methodology to investigate human ritual behavior is relatively new.
Multimodality and Systemic Functional Analysis
Authors: S. Knox John
Published: December 2012

Multimodality is the study of how multiple communication modes combine to make meaning (e.g., language, gesture, and proxemics; language, image, and layout). But multi‐modality is not a discipline or a theory; it is “a field of application” (Jewitt, 2009, p. 2) which transcends and draws on different disciplines and theories. The recognition that all communication is multimodal has profound implications for applied linguistics, and questions long‐standing assumptions about the nature of language, and how it should be learned, taught, researched, and theorized.
Multimodality and Technology
Authors: O'Halloran Kay L. , Smith Bradley A.
Published: December 2012

There is a close historical association between multimodality and technology, in two senses. First, technologies have enabled a significant expansion of the range of media by which humans communicate, especially in terms of recording, replaying, and transmitting across time and space (that is, mediating) multimodal discourse.
Multimodality and the Senses
Authors: Loenhoff Jens
Published: December 2012

The ordinary or commonplace conception of the “senses“ treats them as physical capabilities associated with specific organs, that is, the sense organs. It is believed that one can grasp the world of things, events, and existence by means of them.
Multimodality in Corporate Communication
Authors: Daniela Maier Carmen
Published: December 2012

Multimodal texts making meaning in multiple semiotic articulations and multimedia contexts are central in contemporary corporate communication.
Multimodality in Workplaces
Authors: Iedema Rick
Published: December 2012

In recent times, applied linguistics has broadened its analysis from language to include meaning‐making phenomena other than language.
Multiple Regression
Authors: Lee Yong‐Won
Published: December 2012

Multiple regression is a statistical technique used to examine which among independent variables are related to a dependent variable, and to explore the forms of the relationships between these variables. Multiple regression can also be used to predict scores of a dependent variable based on the scores of a set of independent variables. An applied linguistic researcher may have some theoretical relationships hypothesized a priori between a dependent variable and a set of independent variables (e.g., between English as a second language [ESL] students' reading proficiency and a set of predictor variables, such as years of Englishlanguage study, aptitude, motivation, gender, etc.). In such a case, multiple regression analysis can be used not only to test or confirm such theoretical relationships among the variables but also to predict someone's ESL reading score given his or her scores on a set of independent variables.
Myths About Second Language Vocabulary Learning
Authors: Folse Keith S.
Published: December 2012

In gaining proficiency in any second language (L2), learners have to grapple with new pronunciation, syntax, pragmatics, spelling, composition, and vocabulary.
Narrative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Pomerantz Anne
Published: December 2012

Narrative approaches to second language acquisition (SLA) research begin from the premise that human beings are storytellers (Polkinghorn, 1988).
National Language and English in India
Authors: Ramanathan Vaidehi
Published: December 2012

This short entry focuses on a small cluster of issues relating to English instruction in India.
Native Speaker
Authors: Davies Alan
Published: December 2012

what is it we are appealing to? What is it that human native speakers know? What sort of knowledge does the native speaker have? The answer is ambiguous: on the one hand there is the knowledge that an individual has of his/her own linguistic system.
Nativeness and Language Pedagogy
Authors: Cook Vivian
Published: December 2012

A native speaker is typically defined as “a person who has spoken a certain language since early childhood”.
New Literacies of Online Reading Comprehension
Authors: Leu Donald J. , Everett‐Cacopardo Heidi , Zawilinski Lisa , McVerry Greg , O'Byrne W. Ian
Published: December 2012

Literacy has become deictic (Leu, 2000); the meaning of literacy is rapidly changing as new technologies for literacy continually appear and new social practices of literacy quickly emerge.
News Discourse
Authors: Bell Allan , Smith Philippa
Published: December 2012

Applied linguists have long been intrigued by the language and discourse of news media.
Nolan, Francis
Authors: Lindh Jonas
Published: December 2012

Francis Nolan (1952– ) is professor of phonetics in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Cambridge.
Non‐Native‐Speaker English Teachers
Authors: Braine George
Published: December 2012

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) is the largest international organization in the world for teachers of English as an additional language.
Norms of Translation
Authors: Hermans Theo
Published: December 2012

If we assume that translation serves a communicative purpose, some degree of coordination between the participants in the process—sender and receiver,egoandalter—will be necessary.
Nunan, David
Authors: Bailey Kathleen M.
Published: December 2012

David Charles Nunan was born in Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia in 1949. He describes himself as the child of working‐class parents and says he might have been destined to a life in the mines, had he not been passionate about surfing and writing.
Ochs, Elinor
Authors: García‐Sánchez Inmaculada M.
Published: December 2012

Elinor Ruth Ochs (1944– ) is a linguistic anthropologist who has devoted her career to the study of discourse structures and grammar in their larger cultural contexts. Always an avid researcher, theoretically innovative, and committed to cross‐cultural ethnography, Ochs has conducted extensive fieldwork on interaction and communicative practices in Madagascar, Italy, Samoa, and the USA. In the USA alone, Ochs has carried out research on topics as diverse as the social construction of scientific knowledge in a physics laboratory, language and social identity, the sociality of autism, language and affect, and the construction of morality as a family discourse practice, among many others. Having accumulated a substantial number of research findings throughout her career, Ochs has made significant contributions to the field of applied linguistics, being perhaps better known for her work on language socialization, narrative, and the analysis of family discourse. A driving impetus in Ochs's work has been her emphasis on the importance of quotidian practices and everyday language use as a rightful locus of inquiry to ground larger concerns about the role of linguistic and cultural practices central to human learning and development throughout the life span.
Odlin, Terence
Authors: Jarvis Scott
Published: December 2012

Terence Odlin, PhD, is a well‐known and respected American linguist who holds emeritus status in the Department of English at the Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio.
Official Translation
Authors: Monzo Esther
Published: December 2012

Official translation can be understood both as a translation activity and as a translated document.
Online Psycholinguistic Methods in Second Language Acquisition Research
Authors: Marinis Theodoros
Published: December 2012

Second language acquisition (SLA) research has traditionally used paper‐and‐pencil tasks, such as grammaticality judgment and completion tasks.
Language for Specific Purposes Research Methods
Authors: Tardy Christine M.
Published: December 2012

The study of language for specific purposes (LSP) uses a range of research methods, including qualitative and quantitative analysis of texts, contexts, and practices.
Paired and Group Oral Assessment
Authors: Van Moere Alistair
Published: December 2012

The paired and group oral assessment formats involve candidates interacting together to perform a task while one or more examiners observe their performances and rate their language proficiency.
Participation Frameworks and Production Formats in the Analysis of Discourse and Interaction
Authors: Thompson Carol C.
Published: December 2012

When people talk they do so in organized ways.
Pattern Grammar
Authors: Hunston Susan
Published: December 2012

Pattern grammar is based on corpus investigation, which encourages the observation of items that regularly occur together.
Paulston, Christina Bratt
Authors: Tucker G. Richard
Published: December 2012

Christina Bratt Paulston has been a prolific contributor to the applied linguistics literature for more than 40 years with contributions ranging from her early work on teaching English as an additional language (e.g., Paulston & Bruder, 1975) to her subsequent work in the general area of sociolinguistics with a special focus on diverse aspects of language education policy and planning.
Pavlenko, Aneta
Authors: Dewaele Jean‐marc
Published: December 2012

Aneta Pavlenko rose to prominence in the late 1990s with a number of highly original contributions in various areas of applied linguistics and bilingualism research.
Peer Response in Second Language Writing
Authors: Liu Jun
Published: December 2012

‘Peer response’ refers to the use of learners as sources of information and interactants for each other in such a way that learners assume role and responsibilities normally taken on by a formally trained teacher, tutor, or editor in commenting on and critiquing each other's drafts in both written and oral formats in the process of writing.
Personality in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Dewaele Jean‐Marc
Published: December 2012

The intuition that certain stable and distinctive personality traits may be linked to success in second language acquisition (SLA) has proved irresistible among many foreign‐language teachers and applied linguists over recent decades.
Phenomenology and Hermeneutics
Authors: Cammarata Laurent
Published: December 2012

Phenomenology is an umbrella term encompassing hermeneutics, a distinct branch that emerged from a schism within the phenomenological school of thought.
Phonological Analysis
Authors: Major Roy C.
Published: December 2012

Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function as a system, and phonological analysis involves analyzing the sound systems of languages.
Phonetics and Phonology: Historical Overview
Authors: Brown Adam
Published: December 2012

At the outset, it is necessary to clarify the terms
phonetics
and
phonology
, and to distinguish them from two other confusable terms:
pronunciation
and
phonics
.
Phonology: Mixed Methods
Authors: Isaacs Talia
Published: December 2012

A growing number of researchers in the area of second language phonology have employed a mixed methods approach to better understand the research problem and to strengthen the quality of their inferences or interpretations (e.g., Zielinski, 2008; Derwing & Munro, 2009). However, not all published mixed methods phonological studies are explicitly labeled as “mixed methods,“ which may make them difficult to locate in tables of contents or online searches. Furthermore, the authors may not emphasize their reasons for using more than one method or describe the research design in much detail. The following is an example of a mixed methods study situated within the subdiscipline of second language (L2) phonological research. The focus is to address the rationale for integrating quantitative and qualitative methods, to discuss the nature of the mixing that occurred in the data collection and analyses, and to emphasize how quantitative and qualitative data were converged to yield rich empirical outcomes relevant to the research purpose.