bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
FungiExpresZ: an intuitive package for fungal gene expression data analysis, visualization and discovery
Authors: Parsania Chirag , Chen Ruiwen , Sethiya Pooja , Miao Zhengqiang , Dong Liguo , Wong Koon Ho
Published: February 2023

Bioinformatics analysis and visualization of high-throughput gene expression data require extensive computer programming skills, posing a bottleneck for many wet-lab scientists. In this work, we present an intuitive user-friendly platform for gene expression data analysis and visualization called FungiExpresZ. FungiExpresZ aims to help wet-lab scientists with little to no knowledge of computer programming to become self-reliant in bioinformatics analysis and generating publication-ready figures. The platform contains many commonly used data analysis tools and an extensive collection of pre-processed public ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNA-seq) datasets of many fungal species, including important human, plant and insect pathogens. Users may analyse their data alone or in combination with public RNA-seq data for an integrated analysis. The FungiExpresZ platform helps wet-lab scientists to overcome their limitations in genomics data analysis and can be applied to analyse data of any organism. FungiExpresZ is available as an online web-based tool (https://cparsania.shinyapps.io/FungiExpresZ/) and an offline R-Shiny package (https://github.com/cparsania/FungiExpresZ).
Refining the moose serum progesterone threshold to diagnose pregnancy
Authors: Struck Madeline , Severud William J , Chenaux-Ibrahim Yvette M , J. Isaac Edmund , Brown Janine L , Moore Seth A , Wolf Tiffany M
Published: February 2023

Pregnancy determination is necessary for sound wildlife management and understanding population dynamics. Pregnancy rates are sensitive to environmental and physiological factors and may indicate the overall trajectory of a population. Pregnancy can be assessed through direct methods (rectal palpation, sonography) or indicated using hormonal assays (serum progesterone or pregnancy-specific protein B, fecal progestogen metabolites). A commonly used threshold of 2 ng/ml of progesterone in serum has been used by moose biologists to indicate pregnancy but has not been rigorously investigated. To refine this threshold, we examined the relationship between progesterone concentrations in serum samples and pregnancy in 87 moose (Alces alces; 64 female, 23 male) captured from 2010 to 2020 in the Grand Portage Indian Reservation in northeastern Minnesota, USA. Pregnancy was confirmed via rectal palpation (n = 25), necropsy (n = 2), calf observation (n = 25) or characteristic pre-calving behavior (n = 6), with a total of 58 females determined pregnant and 6 not pregnant; 23 males were included to increase the non-pregnant sample size. Using receiver operating characteristic analysis, we identified an optimal threshold of 1.115 ng/ml with a specificity of 0.97 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.90–1.00) and a sensitivity of 0.98 (95% CI = 0.95–1.00). Progesterone concentrations were significantly higher in cases of pregnant versus non-pregnant cows, but we did not detect a difference between single and twin births. We applied our newly refined threshold to calculate annual pregnancy rates for all female moose (n = 133) captured in Grand Portage from 2010 to 2021. Mean pregnancy rate during this period was 91% and ranged annually from 69.2 to 100%. Developing a reliable method for determining pregnancy status via serum progesterone analyses will allow wildlife managers to assess pregnancy rates of moose without devoting substantial time and resources to palpation and calf monitoring.
Grandparent-Headed Families in University-Assisted Community Schools: Application of Social Capital Theory
Authors: Lee Youjung , Young Sarah R
Published: February 2023

University-assisted community schools (UACS), which work as partnerships between schools and universities that assist the mobilization of coordinated services to children, families, and communities, can build capacity for schools and neighborhoods to better serve the needs of marginalized families, such as grandparent-headed households. Despite the increase of grandparents raising grandchildren, school staff are often ill equipped with the necessary skills and resources to support these children and their caretakers, who have multifaceted needs and complicated family contexts. In this conceptual article, the authors utilize social capital theory to propose social work practice implications for implementing UACS to support grandparent-headed families, focusing on three target areas: (1) social obligation and social trust, (2) network and information flow, and (3) norms and effective sanctions. The UACS model can be a vehicle for building social trust among grandparent-headed families, schools, and local communities that can lead to a shared model for grandchildren’s academic success. Strengthened networks and information flows are necessary to enhance engagement with these marginalized caregivers. Last, details of how to create norms of cooperation that utilize grandparent-headed families as partners and experts are suggested for effective implementation of the UACS model that engages grandparent-headed families.
Coronary disease in refractory cardiac arrest undergoing resuscitation with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
Authors: Franco Danilo , Goslar Tomaz , Radsel Peter , De Luca Nicola , Mancusi Costantino , Barbato Emanuele , Noc Marko
Published: February 2023

Aims

Because re-establishment of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) in patients with cardiac arrest is frequently not achieved by conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (C-CPR), selected patients may undergo resuscitation with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (E-CPR). We compared angiographic features and percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) between patients undergoing E-CPR and those with ROSC after C-CPR.

Methods and results

Forty-nine consecutive E-CPR patients undergoing immediate coronary angiography admitted between August 2013 and August 2022 were matched to 49 patients with ROSC after C-CPR. Multivessel disease (69.4% vs. 34.7%; P = 0.001), ≥ 50% unprotected left main (ULM) stenosis (18.4% vs. 4.1%; P = 0.025), and ≥1 chronic total occlusion (CTO) (28.6% vs. 10.2%; P = 0.021) were more often documented in E-CPR group. There was no significant differences in the incidence, features, and distribution of acute culprit lesion which was present in >90%. Synergy between Percutaneous Coronary Intervention with Taxus and Cardiac Surgery (SYNTAX) (27.6 vs. 13.4; P = 0.002) and GENSINI (86.2 vs. 46.0; P = 0.001) scores were increased in E-CPR group. Optimal cut-off predicting E-CPR was 19.75 for SYNTAX (sensitivity 74%, specificity 87%) and 60.50 (sensitivity 69%, specificity 75%) for GENSINI score. More lesions were treated (1.3 vs. 1.1 lesions/patient; P = 0.002) and stents implanted (2.0 vs. 1.3/patient; P < 0.001) in E-CPR group. Final TIMI three flow was comparable (88.6% vs. 95.7%; P = 0.196) but residual SYNTAX (13.6 vs. 3.1; P < 0.001) and GENSINI (36.7 vs. 10.9; P < 0.001) scores remained increased in E-CPR group.

Conclusion

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation patients have more multivessel disease, ULM stenosis, and CTO but similar incidence, features, and distribution of acute culprit lesion. Despite more complex PCI, revascularization is less complete.
El estado constitucional mexicano: una constelación de autonomías
Authors: Ugarte Pedro Salazar
Published: February 2023

This article describes the emergence, evolution, and current crisis of autonomous constitutional bodies in Mexico. To this end, it begins by portraying the context in which they emerged, emphasizing four fundamental elements that explain and situate them historically and politically. It then describes certain distinctive features of these bodies and how they represent a change in Mexican constitutional democracy. Finally, it refers to the ongoing challenge these autonomous constitutional bodies face due to the adversarial stance that the President of the Republic has adopted against them.
Competitive Neutrality: OECD Recommendations and the Australian Experience
Authors: Smith Rhonda L , Healey Deborah , Bai Xue
Published: February 2023

The OECD in May 2021 adopted a recommendation that governments “ensure competitive neutrality to the maximum extent practicable and unless overriding Public Policy Objectives require otherwise.” This article discusses practical issues surrounding the formal implementation of competitive neutrality in a jurisdiction, using the well-established Australian framework as an exemplar. It illustrates the strengths and weaknesses of the Australian system and provides guidance to other jurisdictions in formulating their approaches to implementing the Recommendation. It demonstrates that implementation of competitive neutrality at a practical level is a complex exercise, which demands both strategic vision and detailed planning.
Completeness in partial type theory
Authors: Kuchyňka Petr , Raclavský Jiří
Published: February 2023

The present paper provides a completeness proof for a system of higher-order logic framed within partial type theory. The framework is a modification of Tichý’s extension of Church’s simple type theory, equipped with his innovative natural deduction system in sequent style. The system deals with both total and partial (multiargument) functions-as-mappings and also accommodates algorithmic computations arriving at various objects of the framework. The partiality of a function or a failure of a computation is not represented by a postulated null object such as the third truth value. The logical operators of the system are classical. Another welcome feature of this expressive system is that its consequence relation is monotonic.
Shell shape as a potential predictor of age class in the invasive snailLissachatina fulica
Authors: Marins Gabriel , Patiño-Montoya Angie , Tidon Rosana
Published: February 2023

Understanding the life-history traits of invasive species can increase the effectiveness of eradication efforts and decrease costs. In the giant African snail Lissachatina fulica, one of the 100 worst invasive species on the planet, age structure can be an important indicator of invasiveness. Here, we associated variation in snail size with variation in weight and shell shape, in an effort to better understand the growth pattern in this species. Our study involved two components: we estimated the allometric relationship between weight and length in a natural population and monitored developmental variation in snail shape, weight, length and nutritional condition (condition factor) in a lab population. The weight and length growth patterns of the lab population were estimated independently using exponential regressions based on weekly measurements; shell shape was quantified using geometric morphometrics. In both populations, we found negative allometry between weight and length, suggesting that snail shells tend to elongate during growth. Geometric morphometrics confirmed this pattern and revealed that the change from a rounded to an elongated shell shape does not occur at a constant pace but during a specific growth interval (i.e. at a shell length of 55–65 mm), which is described in the literature as the size when the animal becomes hermaphroditic. Future studies should test whether the shape change reported here corresponds to the transition to the hermaphrodite age class, and with this in mind, we provide two simple morphological indexes that allow us to characterize shell shape as rounded or elongated. If shell size and shape are indicative of the transition to the hermaphroditism, then our findings can help to place individuals of L. fulica into appropriate age classes, and this will represent a useful baseline for development of eradication policies.
Posthumanism
Authors: Nayar Pramod K.
Published: February 2023

Posthumanism is a mode of thinking about the intersecting human, nonhuman, and technological worlds that has gained theoretical currency in the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries, especially in the wake of ecological consciousness and environmental campaigns that call into question the role of humans in shaping the fate of the Earth. The interconnectedness of humans with other life forms and the planet has been a commonplace in Asian, African, and Aboriginal thought as embodied in Yoruba, the subcontinent’s tribal myths, folklore, creation stories of the Native Americans, and literatures from these continents. Posthumanism as a school of theory in the West draws on a Eurocentric tradition of humanism and its critique—some of which emerges from critical race theory—and disciplines as diverse as animal studies and social studies of technology. Euro-American posthumanism calls for a reevaluation of traditional humanistic myths, such as the human as the center of the universe, or the instrumental attitude toward other life forms and nonliving matter. A contribution of posthumanist thought has been to decenter the human and to demonstrate how all matter is interlinked, mutually dependent and co-evolved, whether this is the animal forms on Earth or the impact humans have on technology and vice versa. Gender, sexuality and social relations, and families and communities have all been reconfigured through the arrival and incorporation of technology. Posthumanism demolishes the Nature/Culture binary as it has been enshrined in the Euro-American tradition. Technologies and humans, it argues, co-evolve, just as humans and nonhumans do. It also examines the prospects of human enhancement, the expansion of artificial intelligence (AI), and the ethics of these developments as they affect humans, the law, concepts of “personhood,” and the social order. Popular culture, performance arts, and even architectural styles have been known to incorporate posthuman themes. Popular culture, in particular, has made cyborgs, chimeras, human-animal hybrids, and techno-dystopias—dwelling on rampaging artificial intelligence and cyborgs, usually—a commonplace motif. Finally, posthumanist thought treats animals and plants as companion species to humans, and numerous studies now explore “vegetal thinking,” animality, and the entanglements of humans with other life forms as well as nonliving matter. More recent work in posthumanism and the fiction of NK Jemisin and others seeks to link race in history with the history of particular practices that dehumanized humans (such as colonialism and slavery). Introducing race into the debate when speaking of, say, the Anthropocene or technology enables a provincializing of posthumanism.
Antislavery Movement
Authors: Minardi Margot
Published: February 2023

In the eighteenth and especially nineteenth centuries, the antislavery movement attracted a significant number of Americans who believed that slavery was a moral evil and a political and economic detriment to the United States. Although abolitionists were, throughout most of their struggle, a beleaguered minority in the United States, their efforts to uproot an entrenched institution constituted one of the most significant social movements in American history. Abolitionists were a diverse lot in terms of their backgrounds, and they often disagreed intensely with one another about how broadly to define their movement’s aims and how best to achieve them. This complexity has engendered rich and multifaceted scholarship, and the bibliography that follows emphasizes several recent developments in that literature. While earlier generations of scholarship sometimes lionized (or reviled) individual white abolitionists, recent studies emphasize the many ways in which Black activists were at the vanguard of the movement. This new work highlights the connections between the antislavery struggle and early efforts to secure racial equality in both the North and the South. It also suggests that enslaved people ought not to be considered as merely the objects of abolitionists’ benevolent regard but instead active participants in antislavery struggles in their own right. Recent scholarship has also expanded the chronological and geographical scope of the antislavery movement. While studies of abolitionism have often focused on the decades just before the Civil War, recent work has shown antislavery to have been a century-long struggle extending from the American Revolution through Reconstruction (and even beyond). Scholars of antislavery have also traced the movement’s robust transnational dimensions by tracking fugitives from slavery across the borders of the United States and making connections between antislavery activism in the United States and in other places throughout the Atlantic World. It should be noted that some scholars differentiate “antislavery” and “abolitionist,” with the latter term connoting opposition not only to the institution of slavery but also to anti-Black racism more broadly. However, this distinction is not employed consistently across the scholarship, and it does not line up with 19th-century usage. Consequently, in this bibliography, the terms “antislavery” and “abolitionist” are used more or less interchangeably.
Wilson Brothers
Authors: Thomas George E.
Published: February 2023

In the 1950s when Victorian architecture was still reviled by architectural historians, historian of engineering Carl Condit looked dispassionately at the 19th century through the lenses of construction and engineering. Architects who had been attacked for the flamboyance of their designs were rediscovered for their creativity in utilizing the new materials and systems of the Industrial Age. One of the designers that Condit rediscovered was Joseph M. Wilson and his future firm, Wilson Brothers & Co., whose quarter century of work for the Pennsylvania Railroad, the generating force behind Philadelphia’s applied science revolution, spread their influence across the industrialized United States. Unlike Wilson’s contemporaries, such as Frank Furness, whose records had been thrown out when his office closed in the 1930s, the work of Wilson Brothers & Co. could readily have been found through their publications, Catalog of Work Executed and Architectural Work of the Wilson Bros. & Co. They described the firm’s engineering and architectural work for the Pennsylvania Railroad through to their new form of practice, which combined architecture with civil, structural, and hydraulic engineering for the design of bridges, railroad stations, hotels, houses, and commercial and industrial buildings across the entire United States and the Caribbean. Their structural daring and originality led Condit in American Building Art: The Nineteenth Century to place Wilson and his partners in the line that led to modern architecture. He summarized their achievement in his discussion of the great train sheds that “Joseph Wilson & Brothers” had designed: “Although Wilson’s primary concern was functional, with emphasis on the validity of pure empirical form, he anticipated three cardinal doctrines of modern architectural theory—simplicity, volume rather than mass, and free-flowing space.” Despite the vast numbers of his projects, Wilson found time to be an active participant in the principal professional organizations of his day, including the Franklin Institute, the city’s leading research institution, serving as its president between 1887 and 1896; the American Institute of Architects (1870; Fellow, 1876); the American Society of Civil Engineers (1873); and the American Philosophical Society (1874). In 1876, he was voted into membership in the British Institution of Civil Engineers, beginning a cross-Atlantic conversation that lasted until his death. Futurist William Gibson tells us that the future is already here—it is just unevenly distributed. At the end of the 19th century, the industrial future had arrived early in Philadelphia’s giant industries, guided by Joseph Wilson and his fellow engineers.
Maecenas
Authors: Le Doze Philippe
Published: February 2023

Maecenas, a descendant of Etruscan kings and a friend of Emperor Augustus, was a leading figure in both the late Roman Republic and the early Empire. During the civil wars that followed Julius Caesar’s death, he acted as a diplomat, a close adviser to the future Augustus, and for a time was even in charge (with Agrippa) of the government of Rome and Italy. He is also believed to have played a major role in the emergence of the imperial regime. Although rarely present on the battlefield, he is often seen as Caesar the Younger’s right-hand man. Above all, from the late 40s bce, he was the patron of some of the most famous Latin poets. He symbolized from very early on the golden age of literary patronage and it is mainly to this activity that he still owes his fame today: for example, Virgil’s Georgics and Aeneid, Horace’s Odes or Propertius’s Elegies were composed under his aegis. He also left behind the image of a bon vivant with an unusual, one might even say eccentric, personality, and of an epicurean who preferred staying in the shadows to the limelight. The very limited and scattered data from ancient sources (even his date of birth is uncertain) derives in part from opponents who did not appreciate the fact that a simple knight, who had refused to be a magistrate and privileged his personal relationship with Caesar the Younger, played a leading role in Rome at a time when the city was in the throes of transformation. The singularity of his behavior, in a very normative society, accentuated certain misunderstandings. Thus, Maecenas left a controversial image which is still widely debated today. In all likelihood, if he became involved in Roman politics, alongside the future Augustus during the civil wars, it was out of duty, as he was probably convinced that troubled times required action. After Caesar the Younger’s victory over Antony and Cleopatra, in 31–30 bce, he felt the need to regain his freedom and, at the end of what was a political epiphany (Maecenas remained in the political limelight for only a few years), only retain his role as a discrete personal advisor. He also continued to spearhead a movement to turn Rome not only into a political and military power, but also a cultural one. The death of this faithful and loyal companion in 8 bce was experienced by Augustus, his friend, as an irreparable loss.
Social Work and Islam
Authors: Al-Krenawi Alean
Published: February 2023

The roots of the professional practice of social work lie in 19th-century philanthropic efforts in the United States and Europe. By the early 1900s, according to James Midgley in Professional Imperialism: Social Work in the Third World (1982), the profession had been established and programs were founded to train social workers in these regions. For H. Nagpaul in Analysis of Social Work Teaching Material in India: The Need for Indigenous Foundations, the educational values of social work have been “dominated by ideologies of capitalism, Social Darwinism, the Protestant Ethic and individualism” (1993, p. 214). These ideologies also shaped the social welfare policies of a number of European nations. In turn, such policies served as the basis for parallel policies implemented in various colonized territories. Such cultural and historical framing has rendered social work education and practice deeply situated in professional domains. Indeed, in Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples, L. T. Smith argued that it is difficult to discuss research from indigenous perspectives, “without understanding the complex ways in which the pursuit of knowledge is deeply embedded in the multiple layers of imperial and colonial practices” (1999, p. 2). Drawing on this insight, this article lays the ground for a discussion of Islamic social work by providing a brief overview of four relevant concepts: colonialism, modernization, globalization, and indigenous ways of knowing.
Twelver Shi'ism in Modern India
Authors: Jones Justin
Published: February 2023

Shiʿi Muslims represent a sizeable minority of Muslims across South Asia, including in India; while there is no official enumeration, Shiʿis are often said to comprise approximately 10–15 percent of India’s Muslim population, which may put the current population at around 20 million. The Indian subcontinent has long been home to a range of Twelver Shiʿi communities, many of elite ancestry with Iranian or Arab heritage, and many of whom have historically exacted strong political influence. Significant semi-autonomous Shiʿi ruling dynasties emerged in the era of Mughal decline prior to the formation of the British Raj, including the Nawabs of Bengal, who ruled from Murshidabad (1717–1757), and most notably, the Nawabs (and, later, “Kings”) of Awadh: a dynasty of Nishapuri origins who founded their semi-autonomous North Indian state in 1722. Awadh, centered on the city of Lucknow, was revered as a center of Shiʿi learning and culture with close ties of pilgrimage and learning to Iraq, before it was finally annexed by the British Raj in 1856. Another Shiʿi community of great significance is located in the Deccan region in South India, especially the city of Hyderabad, where the political patronage of Shiʿism as state religion under the Qutb Shahi dynasty (1512–1687) ensured that the community remained politically and culturally significant, with this influence being maintained even in the court of the predominantly Sunni Asif Jahi dynasty (1724–1948). While Shiʿi political influence diminished during British rule, these and other Shiʿi ruling elites remained influential as major landholders and rulers of princely states, among them the Qizilbash dynasty in Punjab, Rajas of Mahmudabad, and Nawabs of Rampur in North India. Moreover, as an influential section of India’s Muslim elites, Shiʿis played a role in most currents of Muslim modernism and Muslim politics throughout the colonial period. However, Shiʿis had a largely ambivalent relationship with the major currents of Muslim political mobilization in British India. Ultimately, prominent Shiʿis participated actively in the Pakistan movement, but many Shiʿi groups opposed the creation of Pakistan. In independent India, Shiʿis have sometimes framed themselves as a “minority within a minority,” marginalized both as Muslims and by Muslims. Nevertheless, remnants of Shiʿism’s historic importance still inflect broader Muslim cultural life in many regions. Shiʿi communities are most visible and organized during the annual commemoration of Muharram, which is often marked by major public demonstrations of mourning, and which has occasionally led to local conflicts with Sunnis. (Note that this entry covers only the Twelver Shiʿis of modern India [i.e., British India since c. 1857, and independent India since 1947]; readers may wish to read it in conjunction with separate entries elsewhere on Ismaʿili Shiʿism in South Asia and/or Shiʿism in Pakistan.)
The Bible and the American Civil War
Authors: Harvey Paul
Published: February 2023

The American Civil War is sometimes considered one of the most religious wars in modern history. The contending sides each drew from evangelical ideas of understanding the world and their cause; each experienced great revivals in their respective armies; each claimed the Bible for its own side. Abraham Lincoln perfectly captured these ironies in his Second Inaugural Address in March 1865. Just a little over a month before his assassination, he reflected on how each side had “looked for an easier triumph, and a result less fundamental and astounding. Both read the same Bible and pray to the same God, and each invokes His aid against the other.” Lincoln’s perception of the limits of human knowledge of divine purposes was rare. More commonly (though not universally), Americans expressed righteous certainty about how biblical passages applied to contemporary events. These might include the results of the latest battle, the “message” God might be sending in the outcome of this or that event, or the meaning of vast social transformations such as emancipation. Clergy, laypeople, and soldiers on both sides freely divined God’s purposes in history and suggested scriptures to back up their prognostications. On the key issue of slavery and the coming of emancipation, African Americans found in the Bible the clearest connection to the apocalyptic events they experienced. Verses about Ethiopia stretching out its arms to God came to have a special meaning in an age when the war produced the one thing that most whites had little intention of fighting over when the war came: the freeing of nearly four million slaves. In the spirituals, African American slaves had developed a profound theology of how contemporary lives and events fit into biblical passages and stories. The Bible served one other, more grim, function as well—to bolster two armies armed with increasingly lethal weaponry. As men learned to place their own actions within a biblical cosmological framework, they also came to understand how crucial their role was in realizing a narrative foretold or sanctioned in the biblical passages. Chaplains carried a similar message to the men in both armies. Soldiers on both sides, however, most often turned to the Bible for personal encouragement rather than national ideology, as they memorized verses, quoted Scripture in letters, and remembered Bible stories. Ultimately, the battle for the Bible during the slavery controversy and over the course of the Civil War helped to displace a world in which the Bible itself was the primary mode of interpreting contemporary events.
Gilbert Ryle
Authors: Dougherty Matt
Published: February 2023

Though best known and often identified with his work on concepts of mind, Gilbert Ryle (b. 1900–d. 1976) was no monoglot. He was a broad thinker, with broad influences, invested in various philosophical issues—perhaps chief among them, the status and methods of philosophy itself. Eventually becoming one of the twentieth century’s most famous English-speaking philosophers—due to the publication of his classic The Concept of Mind (cited under Monographs and Collected Papers)—his philosophical education focused largely on the history of philosophy, which he drew on throughout his career. His interest in Plato and Aristotle, especially, can be seen not only in his work on concepts of mind but also in his work on language and action, on ethics, on philosophical method, and in scholarly work in ancient philosophy. And though heavily influenced in his contemporary thinking by the analytic philosophy of Frege, Moore, Russell, and Wittgenstein, he did not limit himself to it. He helped it evolve, and he drew on and made important contributions to the understanding of the phenomenological tradition as well, including Brentano, Husserl, Meinong, and Heidegger. Ryle’s best-known work is often taken to have been quickly superseded—whether by new philosophical or psychological theories or by Wittgenstein—but a number of current philosophical ideas can be construed as neo-Rylean, and there is good reason to think that aspects of his work have been substantially underestimated and misunderstood, in no small part due to an underestimation of the breadth of his interests and influences. Much current work on Ryle and in a Rylean spirit aims to correct these misunderstandings. This article surveys the main philosophical topics to which Ryle made significant contributions—to which his contributions are either seminal or else still part of the current debate. His contributions to the understanding of the mind (see Mind) and of knowing-how (see Knowing-How) remain the most significant. However, there is growing interest as well in his work on moral education and moral memory (see Ethics), and his work in ancient philosophy is still regularly cited as well (see Ancient Philosophy). Finally, no good history of analytic philosophy can be written without reference to his part in bringing it to and reinterpreting it in Oxford, in dialogue with phenomenology (see Philosophical Method). This article begins, however, with an overview of his life and work.
Female Monasticism to 1100
Authors: Bitel Lisa
Published: February 2023

By 500 ce, Christian women monastics lived in almost all the corners of the former western Empire and beyond, in places like Frisia and Ireland. These religious communities were not guided by the same rules. They differed in size, number and sex of inhabitants, wealth, architecture, and many other ways. However, all women’s religious communities faced gender-specific difficulties. Women were disenfranchised and unlikely to inherit property upon which to build monasteries, so they typically depended upon gifts from family and donors to maintain their communities. Hence, some small communities might last only as long as their foundresses’ lifetimes. Like male monastics, vowed women battled with both kin and local bishops for control of their monasteries. Unlike monks, they needed bishops and priests to perform the principal rituals of their religion. They also required male laborers to help till their fields and shepherd their animals, maintain their buildings, and protect them against violence. Women’s communities were always under the cura monialum—churchmen’s care or oversight of nuns. Despite the disadvantages, the documentary record suggests that women found satisfying ways to practice Christian monasticism, whether living in large communities, in family homes, or dwelling in isolation. Letters, religious treatises, saints’ vitae, and monastic rules, among many other documents, reveal the astonishing variety of women’s monastic practices and spiritualities across medieval Europe and Byzantium. Annals and chronicles, as well as charters and individual wills, attest to the wealth of some women’s monasteries. Archaeological evidence supports the documentary picture of monastic women and their communities. However, most of the written evidence for women’s monasticism comes from men’s pens, as monastic women were less likely to be literate and their communities were often too poor to support a scriptorium. Male authors typically wrote about women monastics in selected genres of texts, such as saints’ vitae; or in particular situations, as when advising vowed women on monastic rules or imposing canonical or conciliar decrees. These writers emphasized what religious women should do or did not do, rather what they did every day as vowed monastics. Critical re-revaluation of the documents, along with recent archival discoveries of women-authored books, has helped scholars sketch a positive and more authentic counter-narrative of women’s monastic history.
Criminal Justice Fines and Fees
Authors: Farrell Mitchell , Northcutt Bohmert Miriam
Published: February 2023

In the United States, the criminal justice system’s use of fines and fees has increased dramatically in recent decades. This increase is largely attributed to tough-on-crime polices, subsequent mass incarceration, and budget cuts to state and local criminal justice agencies. Additionally, due to economic downturns, fines and fees imposed on individuals who encounter the criminal justice system have been increasingly used to fund a system which was previously supported by federal and state monies. Whereas fines are generally understood to refer to monetary sanctions for felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions, fees refer to legal financial obligations (LFOs) surrounding the areas of court processing, incarceration activities, and community supervision. The increased reliance on user fees for basic goods and services often contributes to financial strain on justice-involved individuals and their families. Though the distinction between legal fines and fees may seem rather small, fines were designed as part of the punishment process whereas fees were generally designed to supplement the operational costs of the Criminal Justice system. The sources presented provide important information in each of their respective categories related to differing aspects of LFOs.
Iberian Inquisitions
Authors: Fowler Jessica
Published: February 2023

Only the early modern Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions extended their reach across the Atlantic; however, they did so in very distinct ways. The Spanish would establish three independent tribunals in the Americas, the first two in Mexico and Lima in 1570, and later another in Cartagena (in the colony of New Granada, essentially modern Colombia) in 1610. On the other hand, the Portuguese would entrust the orthodoxy of its Atlantic holdings, even its largest colony of Brazil, to representatives of the institution, known as comissários, dependent on the tribunal in Lisbon. Both structures fostered a wealth of transatlantic exchange, of both people and communication, which brings to light the ways in which this institution, often assumed to be European-bound, also took on Atlantic dimensions as these empires expanded. However, studying Inquisitions in their full transatlantic scope is a daunting task, requiring the mastery of the history and historiography of far-flung locations and, potentially, if studying both Inquisitions, multiple languages. This means that truly transatlantic work on Inquisitions remains limited. However, there is significant work on the Holy Office in individual locations around the Atlantic Basin. Thus, this bibliography will begin by highlighting transatlantic studies, in the sense of tracing processes or people across the Atlantic, before delving into those works that treat individual locations around that basin. An additional consideration to keep in mind is that research on Inquisitions is most frequently divided between those studies interested in the institution and those interested in the defendants that institution tried. While such a division sets up a false dichotomy, because in studying the defendants we inherently learn about the institution, and vice versa, most researchers seem to embark on their studies from one direction or the other. It seemed therefore necessary, if crude, to divide the works in this bibliography into what could broadly be categorized as “institutional histories” and “histories of heterodoxy.” While acknowledging that such a division is problematic, it nonetheless seems the most accessible for those new to the field of Inquisition studies and those who use this resource as a reference guide. It likely goes without saying that much of the work on these Inquisitions remains in Spanish and Portuguese; however, considering the expected audience of this bibliography, English language work has been privileged when and where possible.
Time(scapes) in the Atlantic World
Authors: van der Velde Adrian
Published: February 2023

Timescapes are integral to understanding the rhythms of daily life in the Atlantic world between the 17th and 19th centuries, and they both intersect with and help define the major historical movements connected to the early modern and modern eras such as the Age of Discovery, the Enlightenment, the Scientific Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution. Despite this, they are an understudied subsection of the historiography. Due to increased urbanization, the processes of globalization, and changes in technology and production, the ways in which people interacted with and understood time evolved between the 16th and 19th centuries. Cities were unlike rural areas in that they did not push waking and sleeping patterns to meet the luminance demands of agricultural production. Instead, people expanded the usability of the day by shifting work and sociability patterns outside daylight hours. The sailors who connected the Atlantic world to the rest of the globe worked through days and nights that were split into shifts determined by time, not light. Temporal exactness increased in importance with the proliferation of clocks and watches. New lamps and fuels provided brighter, cheaper, and cleaner light. This could be for labor—such on sugar plantations, in cloth mills, or in the home—or for social interactions, including in coffeehouses, residences, or theatres. And with the growth of the modern state, cities began to systematically police the night, using lighting technology from streetlamps in a way to see and control parts of the population that had historically remained hidden. As an analytical concept, the idea of “timescapes” incorporates multifaceted notions of stasis and movement, blurred temporal boundaries, intersections between individual and collective memory, social divisions between public and private life, and questions of place. Historians and philosophers have discussed the difficulty of dividing time, such as differentiating between day from night during the hazy boundaries of twilight. Within the confines of a day, people have divided time into recognizable sections such as morning or evening, but rather than being immutable these are often relative to an individual’s social or political context. Most historical analysis of time has focused on the night and activities related to it including entertainment, sleep, and technology, a fact reflected in this bibliography.
The Fur Trade
Authors: Pastore Christopher , Petty Daniel
Published: February 2023

By the late Middle Ages, populations of fur-bearing animals had been heavily depleted across Europe. Conferring wealth and privilege, furs were symbols of superiority for the nobility and success for the upwardly mobile. Elites spent lavishly on furs, which sent merchants and monarchs alike in search of new sources. The most sought after fur-bearing animal was the beaver, whose winter coat was soft, warm, and could be easily felted. In search of beavers, some fur traders, including those from the English Muscovy Company (c. 1555) looked east, primarily to Russia. Others looked west to the New World. As a result, the pursuit of fur skins became an important driver of Atlantic expansion. The search for furs shaped the contours of European and Native American cultural contact and exchange and played a central role in the Atlantic contest for empire. Long before European contact, Native Americans valued fur skins for clothing, art, and as spiritual symbols. Traded among Native nations, furs later became important objects of exchange with Europeans. By the 17th century, Native hunters and French explorers had scoured waterways from Newfoundland to the St. Lawrence River and west to the Great Lakes. The English and their Indian allies hunted Hudson Bay to the north as well as the rivers of New England and the mid-Atlantic to the south. The Dutch and their Native partners scoured the region between the Delaware and Connecticut Rivers but were particularly attentive to the Hudson and Mohawk River watersheds—that is, until the English takeover in 1664 and again (and for good) a decade later. In search of furs, the Spanish and French pushed north from New Orleans into the plains, mountains, and deserts of the continental West. During the 18th and 19th centuries increasing numbers of Europeans and Euro-Americans ventured across continental North America on foot and by oar and paddle. Others crossed via the Panama isthmus or sailed around Cape Horn into the Pacific in search of furs. In some cases, they traded with Natives, and in others they trapped. They established corporations, which organized new economies of extraction, decimating populations of fur-bearing animals from the Missouri River to the Bering Strait. This reshaped river, prairie, mountain, and coastal ecologies across North America, which transformed European and Native American cultures and economies in return.
Outdoor Play and Learning
Authors: Morgan Alun
Published: February 2023

Play in outdoor contexts is an important yet contentious theme in contemporary educational and developmental discourse. The prevailing contemporary structures, practices, and pedagogies of the Western model of formal schooling, which has been exported worldwide, sees ‘play’ and/or being ‘outdoors’ as trivial distractions, or occasional releases from, the real serious ‘work’ of education that occurs in the proper learning setting, namely ‘indoors’ at desks in classrooms. In contrast, many scholars critique this hegemonic model, advocating instead outdoor learning and/or play as more appropriate for proper human flourishing in terms of learning and health and well-being (both physical and mental). Furthermore, an additional association in terms of this flourishing, whether explicitly or implicitly, is often made between the efficacy of outdoor places that are more ‘natural’ vis-à-vis those that are less so (i.e., human-made or ‘built environments’). Hence there is something of a countervailing emerging orthodoxy emphasizing strong associations between play-outdoors-nature and children or youth. Such thinking has been a recurring leitmotif in the history of educational theory, particularly since the 18th century with Romantic ideas on children and humanity following Rousseau. This has represented an influential yet marginal position historically, but one which has become more mainstreamed in recent years. More recent scholarship has sought to move from earlier speculative and philosophical thinking to provide more empirical and ‘scientific’ justification drawing on fields such as psychology (including sub-branches of environmental, evolutionary, and developmental); ethnography; sociology; and human geography (notably the new field of children’s and young people’s geographies). There have also been attempts to extend the application beyond childhood and youth toward a more inclusive and lifelong orientation (i.e., being playful outdoors, particularly in natural settings, being efficacious for all people). This bibliography attempts to provide a range of resources germane to this emerging orthodoxy, which relate to ‘terms of reference’ (e.g., what is actually meant by ‘play’?) and characteristics and typologies (e.g., types of play, or outdoor spaces). However, still more recent scholarship has cast a more critical eye even over this emerging orthodoxy, seeing it as continuing to be principally informed by (Western) modern modes of thinking which tend to generate binary categorical disassociations between nature-human/culture, natural/urban, children/adults, and work/play. Such scholarship is associated with posthuman and feminist scholarship that advocates more relational perspectives, which are providing an important additional critical dimension to these debates noted in this bibliography.