bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The New Political Science of Italy
Authors: LaPalombara Joseph
Published: November 2009

This account of reoriented Italian political research is one result of the author's recent Fulbright year in Florence. A dozen social research centers have developed in the peninsula over the past decade, staffed by younger men who, inspired by modern social science thought, are producing good research in quantity.
Six Texts in Methodology
Authors: Russett Bruce M.
Published: November 2009

It is again the season for drawing up course syllabi. This comparative analysis of six current works on social science methodology may prove of particular value to teachers on the scope and method of Political Science. It also points towards an ideal integration of materials on political methodology.
Realities and Limits of the Russian Presence in Central Asia
Authors: Carrere d'Encausse H.
Published: November 2009

A study, drawn from Russian sources, of the more than twelve million Muslims who coexist with some eight million Russians in the five Soviet Republics of Central Asia. In a century of contact there has been surprisingly little assimilation between the two cultures. In rural areas traditional Muslim ways of life predominate, and most urban areas consist of two distinct cities, colonial and native. There is little intermarriage, and the native languages have not been supplanted by Russian. Though there is broadening contact in academic, military and work situations, and in cities that are being modernized and integrated, Muslims still effectively oppose russification of their culture and ethnic groupings.
In Criticism of Opinion Research
Authors: Lieber H.J.
Published: November 2009

While recognizing the numerous techniques of opinion research that follow the Socratic educational interrogation, the author concentrates his attention on the internal and external psychological, ideological, social and political meanings of the extensive sample survey process. He insists upon the fundamental dependence of questions and answers on the theory of the whole survey. Why the opinion survey is a vital part of scientific progress, despite its essential limits, is analyzed and its possibilities for social enlightenment are considered.
The Problems of Contemporary Political Science
Authors: Leiserson Avery
Published: November 2009

Political scientists include philosophers of the good life, institutionalists, and behaviorists. The "policy science" approach is encroaching on the "value-free" approach but is not assured of success. The classic and contemporary formulations of the major problems of political science are presented in tabular form.
Congressional Predictions of Judicial Behavior
Authors: Ulmer S. Sidney
Published: November 2009

Members of Congress as well as the President make varying and usually implicit requirements of men whom they consider eligible for the Supreme Court. The author proposes studies that would make explicit the relations between formal requirements and subsequent judicial behavior; the information obtained would prove essential to presidential and congressional decision-making in selecting justices.
Research, Participation, and the Teaching of Politics
Authors: Matthews Donald R.
Published: November 2009

The director of the Political Studies Program at the University of North Carolina discusses the program's outstanding features. Both graduate and under-graduate courses in American government and politics have accompanying laboratory sessions that permit student observation and participation in politics in a research-oriented situation. Begun in 1957, the program has already had excellent results.

The following article discusses another aspect of social science research at North Carolina.
The University of Michigan Graduate Degree Program in Political Behavior
Authors: Miller Warren E.
Published: November 2009

In submitting this announcement of a new program to PROD, the co-director stated, "We are all most excited about this development within our Department. If the demand we anticipate comes from really good students, we shall look for some unusually rewarding teaching experiences in the next few years.... Any top notch student that appears on the scene will be taken care of one way or another. Consequently, if you have a young and brilliant scholar thirsting after our brand of intellectual nectar, we would be pleased to have an application sent to us post haste."
The SPSSI: An Action Perspective
Authors: Clark Kenneth B.
Published: November 2009

The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), with headquarters at the Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, has about one thousand members; it is a division of the American Psychological Association, and is guided by a ten-member Council. Its 1959 president suggests its future roles in an article that first appeared in the November, 1959, issue of the SPSSI Newsletter.
Two Critical Comments
Authors: Rustow Dankwart A. , Tresolini R.J.
Published: November 2009

One of PROD's readers takes issue with Peter Rohn's somewhat negative conclusions on "Testing Deutsch's Indices of Community" (PROD, III [ September, 1959 ], pp. 7-9). Another expresses pleased surprise at the appearance of Frank Freidel's "Research on Roosevelt" (III [ January, 1960], pp. 11-12) in a journal that assumes the "stance and speech of science."
Changes in the Concept of the Emperor
Authors: Sakata Yoshio
Published: November 2009

This is the first example of Japanese scholarship to appear in PROD Translations. The author examines the historical role of the Emperor in Japanese political life, especially in relation to the shogunate, or military government, that ruled in his name until the 1860's. The shogunate was overthrown by members of the feudal nobility who professed a return to the traditional idea of the effective absolute authority of the Emperor, and demanded the expulsion of foreigners, yet who paradoxically destroyed the feudal order, organized the Japanese government along Western lines, and developed a new concept of the Imperial role. The historical material presented here is not new to Western scholars; its interpretation very likely is new.
The Sociological Sciences in France: Organization and Development Since 1945
Authors: Lanfant Marie L.
Published: November 2009

Sociological research in France is conducted by governmental research organizations, notably in the national ministry of education, and by a few non-governmental groups. The most important of the many organizations is the Centre d'etudes sociologiques, whose staff both conducts investigations and coordinates the work of numerous related bodies. French sociology is suffering from growing pains, however. The demands of fundamental and applied research sometimes conflict, research groups and the university system are often inflexible, and there is a need for more personnel. There is also the problem of meager funds and the sensitivity of government-financed research to political trends.
Law and Behavior: A Unified Approach to their Study
Authors: de Grazia Alfred
Published: November 2009

In seeking a position from which all political phenomena might be viewed, political scientists are frequently blocked by the intransigence of legal materials. Some scientists impatiently consign legal data to the age of alchemy. Most of the same people, probably for similar reasons, banish values as unfit company to behavioral science. Certainly those who attend strictly to behavior without concern for evaluational and legal contexts can answer questions that for long were buried beneath social and legal myth. Yet this primitive progress of political science should not continue indefinitely. New modes of assimilating legal and evaluative data are suggested as cures for naive behaviorism.
The Influence of the Social Factor upon the Voting Behavior of South Carolina Urban Negroes
Authors: McConaughy John B. , Gauntlett John H.
Published: November 2009

Sampling within five wards in five cities, the authors find striking relations between organizational membership and political behavior: voting participation increases as organizational membership increases and, in the group studied, the more organizations to which the respondent belonged, the more likely he was to be a Republican or independent voter. The most general conclusion is that the conflict of opinion encourages the voter to question conformity and adopt a new diversity - a conclusion that requires further research in other environments.
Political Decision-Making in North Carolina Cities
Authors: Walter Benjamin
Published: November 2009

This is both a report of research in progress and a commentary on the various approaches to the study of decision-making. The essential question asked by the current project is, "How (or by what processes) are decisions made?" Data is being obtained primarily through the use of observers, and the results are expected to support one or another of several hypotheses on the nature of community elites. The article originally appeared in RESEARCH PREVIEWS, VII (January, 1960), pp. 15-20, a publication of the University of North Carolina's Institute for Research in Social Science.
Measuring Ideational Identity by Pairing Justices
Authors: Spaeth Harold J.
Published: November 2009

Similarities in beliefs among Supreme Court justices can be determined by comparing the voting behavior of any two of them, taking into account the clarity of issues, the formal circumstances of disagreement, and other factors. The method permits the use of qualitative as well as quantitative data.
Gustatology and the Individual
Authors: Meadows Martin
Published: November 2009

The author of the following proposal remarks, "I hope that this essay meets the standards of PROD." Frankly, it does not; it is somewhat pedantic and prolix.
The Unhuman Meaning of the Social Sciences: A Review
Authors: Rothman Stanley
Published: November 2009

Daniel Lerner's introductory essay to the Human Meaning of the Social Sciences is charged with a disregard of certain fundamental issues, and with a tautological or false identification of progress with the advance of the social sciences. The " unhumanness " of the approach is essentially the unwillingness of some social scientists to face squarely the relations between their social knowledge and human values.
Turkey's Path of Development
Authors: Miller A.
Published: November 2009

This interpretation of the economic and political development of modern Turkey is asserted to be an answer to a "letter to the editor" from one Comrade V. I. Smoliakov, who wrote: "It is a well-known fact that after having rid herself from the rule of imperialists in the 1920's, Turkey followed an independent foreign policy and became a champion of peace and anti-colonialism. Why has Turkey recently become the bulwark of imperialism in the Near East?" Two unusual interpretive elements are present: the positive evaluation of Kemal Ataturk's role, and, more striking, a view of present-day Turkey as retrogressive.
The Social and Political Value of Sociometric Groupwork
Authors: Floeter Hans H.
Published: November 2009

The art of oral communication is essential to democracy, bridging the gap between the rulers and the ruled. Carefully-organized group discussions and sociodrama, as developed by J. L. Moreno, are methods of studying and implementing such communication patterns. This article first appeared in ZEITSCHRIFT FUR POLITIK, IV (No. 3, 1957), pp. 249-62, and was translated by Andrew Janos. It is presented here in abridged form ; the deleted material deals with the minutiae of discussion procedure.
Putting a Face on the Issue
Authors: Walker Edward T.
Published: November 2009

Business scholars pay increasing attention to the expanded influence of stakeholders on firm strategies, legitimacy, and competitiveness. At the same time, analysts have noted that the transformed regulatory and legislative environments of recent decades have encouraged firms to become much more politically active. Surprisingly, relatively little research has tied together these two trends. The present study integrates perspectives on stakeholder management with research on corporate political activity to develop an understanding of the structural sources of stakeholder mobilization in professional grassroots lobbying campaigns. This study employs a unique, original data source to consider how the adoption of grassroots lobbying by a firm relates to its industry, degree of inside lobbying, partisan PAC contributions, and more. This research shows that corporate grassroots lobbying is shaped most significantly by a firm’s degree of inside lobbying, as highly active firms take a diversified strategy for gaining influence. Firms in industries with a heavy public presence as well as those concerned with taxation, government appropriations, and economic development also adopt these strategies readily. PAC contributions to Republican, but not Democratic, candidates also heighten firms’ propensity to lobby the public.
Death of the Partisan? Globalization and Taxation in South America, 1990—2006
Authors: Hart Austin
Published: November 2009

Correcting the relative lack of attention to the revenue side of public finance, this article examines to what extent globalization constrains partisan tax policy. The author hypothesizes that political ideology is still a good predictor of taxation in the neoliberal era, advancing this argument against the prominent globalization thesis: that global economic pressures have supplanted political ideology as the driving force of revenue policy. Although research in developed democracies identifies a resilient link between partisanship and policy outcomes, the impact of the drastic neoliberal transition on partisan policy making in the developing world remains poorly understood. Using time-series cross-section data to evaluate partisan taxation in South America, the author finds that partisanship is a reliable indicator of tax revenue in the neoliberal era. Counterintuitively, however, the promarket Right generates more tax revenue than the interventionist Left. The author argues that this previously unexpected revenue gap is driven by ideological concerns for equity versus growth.
Student Discipline Problems and the Transition From Elementary to Middle School
Authors: Theriot Matthew T. , Dupper David R.
Published: November 2009

The transition from elementary to middle school is difficult for many students. However, the association between such transitions and changes in the types and frequencies of student discipline problems has not been adequately investigated. Using data from two school years, infractions and dispositions for all 5th-grade students ( N = 4,196) from one school district are followed from the final year of elementary school through the first year of middle school. Results show a substantial increase in reported student discipline problems and the use of in-school suspension in middle school.This increase is most dramatic for subjectively defined infractions like “class disturbance” and “failure to follow rules” compared to more concrete, objective infractions. Implications for educators and school administrators are discussed.
India and the World Court
Authors: Anand R.P.
Published: November 2009

ON I4 September I959 India filed with the Secretary-General of the United Nations a declaration accepting the compulsory jurisdiction of the World Court under the Optional Clause 1 of the Court's Statute. This declaration, which replaces the earlier declaration of 9 January I956, is important because it has been made after a thorough examination of India's position with regard to international adjudication and makes some significant changes in her earlier stand. Before, however, examining the full import of this acceptance, it would be interesting to see in brief the general position of the compulsory jurisdiction of the World Court, which is accepted by all to be essential if the Court is to fulfil the objectives for which it had been created.
Determinants of Third World Hostility Toward the United States
Authors: Nincic Miroslav
Published: November 2009

The article examines a set of hypothesized determinants of hostile foreign policy stances emanating from the Third World in an attempt to derive simple models accounting for their targeting toward the international system in general and toward the United States in particular, as well as for the ratio of the latter to the former. The first two classes of hostility seem to obey very similar causal mechanisms. Relative deprivation assessed through intertemporal comparisons of one's value positions is found to be a good predictor of hostility as are defense expenditures and, to a lesser extent, domestic instability. The proportion of hostility preferentially directed toward the United States has been less successfully predicted although links of a military-political character would seem to be a more likely determinant than those of a more economic nature.
Linear Learning Models for Two-Party Negotiations
Authors: England J. Lynn
Published: November 2009

Three mathematical models of two-party bargaining are developed. Each of them is based on the Bush-Mosteller linear operator model of learning. The first model includes an assumption that the probability a negotiator is cooperative is subject to Bush-Mosteller learning. The second model is basically the same as the first, except learning is assumed to depend on the reward from the other and the type of stimulus (in the form of an offer) he presents. The third model assumes that the conditional probability the negotiator is cooperative given his last offer and that of the other party is subject to learning modification. The three models were tested by having nine experimental groups of fifty subjects each negotiate with a preprogrammed stooge. The data were used to estimate the models' parameters. Computer simulations of the bargaining based on the models and their estimated parameters were run. The results of the simulations were compared with the experimental data. The simulations based on first and third models successfully predict the probability a negotiator will cooperate and the trial of agreement in the experimental groups.
Nature/Nurture Revisited II
Authors: Nelson Stephen D.
Published: November 2009

Because the literature on the biological bases of human conflict deals nearly as much with extrascientific issues as with the purely scientific issues reviewed previously in these pages, the present review directly examines the former to illustrate the social and political context within which the scientific controversy must be understood. The discussion centers on three principal themes: (a) the distinction and often divergence between scientific knowledge and its public uses; (b) the highly selective and often partisan uses to which particular kinds of scientific knowledge about human behavior can be put; and (c) the necessity for scientists to understand the ways in which, and the reasons for which, scientific knowledge can be used in the public arena. It is concluded that safeguards must be instituted to minimize abuses of the biological approaches, and that future research on human aggression should continue to focus predominantly on structural-environmental causes.
Theory, Policy, and Resource Cartels
Authors: Bobrow Davis B. , Kudrle Robert T.
Published: November 2009

Our choice of theoretical perspectives to apply to resource cartels seriously affects the questions we ask, the predictions we make, and the policy suggestions we draw. In this paper we examine the implications (and the limitations) of five perspectives for the analysis of resource cartels in general and the Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC) in particular: the theory of cartels; the theory of depletable resources; coalition theory; internal politics approaches; and the theory of collective action. Three classes of actors are considered-exporting producers, importing consumers, and multinational resource exploitation firms. We gain in realism by proceeding from simple to more complicated situations by including political concerns, bureaucratic divisions, and the prospect of military coercion. Yet, we do so at the price of rigorous deductive frameworks with clear and coherent predictions.
War, Peace, and Marital Residence in Pre-Industrial Societies
Authors: Divale William Tulio , Chamberis Frosine , Gangloff Deborah
Published: November 2009

Tefft and Reinhardt recently reported that peacemaking mechanisms and periods of stable peace are associated with internal warfare, while peacemaking mechanisms are absent and peace is unstable in societies with external warfare. We suggest an explanation for these findings based on the argument that in pre-state level societies internal and external war are entirely different types of conflict. Internal war (conflict between communities of the same society) is part of a system of population control in pre-state level societies which also involves female infanticide, polygyny, and patrilocal residence. Internal war is thus a regulatory type of warfare requiring several mechanisms to initiate and inhibit it. In contrast, external warfare among pre-state level societies occurs between societies which have recently migrated to their locales and adopted matrilocal residence. External war is thus an intense struggle for survival between two or more societies trying to occupy the same niche in an ecosystem that cannot support all of them. There can be no regulation of this type of warfare–only victory–and hence there can be no peacemaking mechanisms.
A Research Note on the Predictive Adequacy of the Kernel
Authors: Michener H. Andrew , Sakurai Melvin M.
Published: November 2009

The kernel, a game-theoretic solution concept, was tested competitively against minimum resource and pivotal power theories. Experimental data from six veto and six nonveto weighted-majority games served as the basis of the test. The kernel proved to be consistently inferior to both minimum resource and pivotal power theories in predicting payoffs.
Conflict and Cohesion
Authors: Stein Arthur A.
Published: November 2009

The paper reviews the theoretical formulations and the empirical tests of the proposition that external conflict increases internal cohesion. Literature from sociology, anthropology, psychology, and political science is discussed. Though it is often assumed to be true and is easily illustrated, the empirical studies suggest that there are a number of intervening variables and that the hypothesis is not uniformly true. While hardly adequate, these empirical studies provide a subtler specification of the hypothesis, knowledge of which can lead researchers to structure their studies differently. Examples of this are provided and other areas of application are also discussed.
The Changing Role of Congress in Defense Policy-Making
Authors: Laurance Edward J.
Published: November 2009

The role of Congress in defense policy-making has clearly been changing since 1968. The objective of this study is to describe and explain this change through the use of systemic indicators. A set of behavioral rules for the 1947–1967 period is developed by examining previous studies. Then empirical indicators are developed for the inputs, conversion processes, and outputs of the Congressional defense policy system. These indicators point to an increased role for Congress in the 1968–1974 period. Major factors explaining this change include the Vietnam War, decreased public perception of external threat, a rise in non-DOD defense policy alternatives, increased control of military procurement, a balanced Senate Armed Services Committee, continuing debate on national priorities, and the rise of a legitimate Congressional bloc critical of defense policy. Key variables in assessing the permanence of the change appear to be public perception of threat stemming from U.S.-Soviet relations and the conflict between foreign and domestic spending.
Some Determinants of Preference for Modes of Conflict Resolution
Authors: LaTour Stephen , Houlden Pauline , Walker Laurens , Thibaut John
Published: November 2009

This experimental study manipulated presence or absence of temporal urgency, presence or absence of a judgmental standard, and the correspondence or noncorrespondence of outcomes among disputants in a factorial design to assess their effects on preferences for five dispute-resolution procedures arranged along a continuum of decreasing third-party intervention: autocratic decision-making, arbitration, a moot, mediation, and bargaining. Arbitration was the most generally preferred means of settlement, followed in order by the moot, mediation, autocratic, and bargaining procedures. The independent variables modified these preferences, however, such that procedures with a high degree of third-party intervention were preferred more when there was temporal urgency, outcome noncorrespondence, and a standard. Interactions revealed that correspondence affected preferences only when there was no temporal urgency, and presence-absence of a standard affected preferences only when there was temporal urgency and outcome correspondence.
Criteria of Choice in Non-Constant-Sum Games
Authors: Tyszka Tadeusz , Grzelak Janusz L.
Published: November 2009

Experiments were performed on single-shot 2×2×2×2×2 games (five players with two strategies each). Variants of the following types of games were used: (1) no conflict, in which the “cooperative” strategy C is always more advantageous than the “noncooperative” strategy D; (2) Steering Others' Fate, in which any single player is indifferent between C and D but, by choosing D, increases the others' payoffs; (3) five-person Prisoner's Dilemma; (4) Justified Trust, in which it is most advantageous to choose C only if everyone else does so; and (5) five-person Chicken. As expected, the fraction of players choosing C was largest in no-conflict games and smallest in Prisoner's Dilemma. The behavioral results were compared with players' and control nonplayers' predictions about the fractions of C choices. Fractions predicted were consistently larger than those observed. In all games, Ss who chose predominantly C expected higher levels of C than those who chose predominantly D.
Overwhelming Preponderance as a Pacifying Condition Among Contiguous Asian Dyads, 1950–1969
Authors: Weede Erich
Published: November 2009

It has been proposed that preponderance of power is favorable to the prevention of war, whereas relative equality of power is conducive to war. Here, the “preponderance promotes peace” proposition is applied to dyads. The author modifies this proposition by claiming that only overwhelming or ten-to-one preponderance substantially reduces the risk of war. Moreover, the “overwhelming preponderance promotes peace” proposition is placed in a wider theoretical framework that identifies dyadic and regional background conditions affecting the likelihood of hostilities. It is argued that more irreconcilable confliets of interest are found in conjunction with the absence of multilateral conflict neutralization among contiguous Asian nations than elsewhere during the fifties and sixties. These considerations determine where the peace by preponderance proposition is tested. By and large the data support the proposition, but only in conjunction with other explanatory variables is statistical significance achieved.
Cultural Differences in Bargaining Behavior
Authors: Druckman Daniel , Benton Alan A. , Ali Faizunisa , Bagur J. Susana
Published: November 2009

The bargaining behavior of children and adolescents from three cultures on a competitive resource distribution task was examined. Subjects played a game in which they alternated suggestions until they agreed on a distribution. The strongest effects were those obtained for culture. Indian bargainers negotiated longer, were more competitive, were more symmetrical in their competitiveness, and had larger discrepancies in their settlements than did either the Argentineans or the Americans. Americans were most compromising in their trial-by-trial offers and in their final outcome, suggesting a convergent bargaining style. Additional data suggest that the bargaining differences may reflect differences among the cultures in their general orientations, with Indians emphasizing both competitiveness and need derived from a “view of the world” that is based on scarcity or limited resources. Other findings indicate that the effects of age, sex, and experimental condition vary among cultures. An age effect was obtained only in India, where older bargainers negotiated longer and rejected a higher proportion of their opponent's offers than did younger bargainers. Male bargainers were more competitive than females in India and the United States, but a trend in the opposite direction was obtained for Argentinean bargainers. And a different pattern of condition effects for length of negotiations was obtained for the three cultures.
An Experimental Test of the Core in a Simple N-Person Cooperative Nonsidepayment Game
Authors: Berl Janet E. , McKelvey Richard D. , Ordeshook Peter C. , Winer Mark D.
Published: November 2009

This essay reports on seventeen experiments that test the validity of the Core as a solution to n-person cooperative games in a nontransferable utility context. Money is used to induce preferences, but subjects are not permitted to negotiate about nor transfer money amongst themselves. Instead, using majority rule, subjects must negotiate over and choose some policy in a two-dimensional “issue” space. Five 5-person games are run in which the subjects' utility is a function of the Euclidean distance from their ideal policy. Twelve 3-person games are run using a city-block representation of preferences. Both series of experiments strongly support the Core as a solution concept when it exists.
Foreign Direct Investment, Industrialization, and Social Change
Authors: Kobrin Stephen J.
Published: November 2009

Indicators of the changes in social structure which result from the industrialization of traditional societies are developed via factor analysis of data from 59 developing countries. Multiple regression is then used to investigate the relationship between industrialization, social change, and the relative economic importance of foreign direct investment. The relationship is found to be interactive; foreign direct investment intensifies the pressures for changes in social structure produced by industrialization. The paper concludes that this finding is inconsistent with a theory of underdevelopment in which integration into the world capitalist system inhibits, or even prevents, broadscale industrialization. Rather it requires a transformation of the concept of dependence which recognizes the possibility of capitalist industrialization through foreign investment.
Foreign Involvement in the Preconditions for Political Violence: The World System and The Case of Chile
Authors: Kerbo Harold R.
Published: November 2009

Current theories of internal political violence and revolution view foreign influence on these events as most often coming in two general forms: (1) direct and intentional involvement through various types of support for one side or another after a conflict has developed; and (2) the indirect and unintentional influence on the “preconditions” for political violence through such things as “cultural contact,” disruption associated with international war, or “diffusion effects.” Focusing on this second category (foreign influence on the preconditions for political violence), this paper charges that current theories have neglected the extent to which powerful nations today can have direct and intentional influence on the preconditions for political violence in highly dependent Third World nations. In attempting to account for political violence in Third World countries, recent research indicates that development must be viewed in terms of a world economic system. These findings are used in this paper, along with the recent case of Chile, to show that variables must be built into current theories of political violence to account for direct, intentional foreign involvement in the “structural strain,” “system disequilibration,” or “potential for collective violence” that must be present for the development of political violence.
Cooperators and Competitors in Conflict: A Test of The “Triangle Model”
Authors: Schlenker Barry R. , Goldman Howard J.
Published: November 2009

Kelley and Stahelski's “triangle model” describes differences in the perceptions and behaviors of cooperative versus competitive personality types and has important implications for theories of social influence and conflict. However, the generality of the model has been seriously questioned, data exist that seem to contradict some of its basic predictions, and the findings can be “conceptualized in terms of an alternative information-processing approach. To test predictions of the triangle model against those derived from the alternative, 158 male and female subjects were classified as cooperators or noncooperators, paired with a cooperative or noncooperative partner, and participated in a mixed-motive game that had a cooperative or competitive payoff structure. The results largely supported the predictions of the triangle model and showed high general-izability across situational demands and subject's sex. Noncooperators expected others to be primarily competitive, misidentified cooperative opponents, and their other perceptions were unaffected by the situation or partner. Cooperators were more flexible in that they expected others to have diverse dispositions, based their inferences about the opponent on the opponent's behavior, and their other perceptions were affected by the situation and partner. Minor revisions of the triangle model were suggested to account for mutual behavioral assimilation in mixed-disposition pairs and other anomalous data.
National Security and the Concept of Strategic Stability
Authors: Steinbruner John D.
Published: November 2009

Strategic stability has been defined as a characteristic of deterrence based on mutual assured destruction and has been measured largely in terms of the potential vulnerability of strategic force components, notably land-based missiles. This conception does not incorporate the effects on the strategic balance of the opposing systems of command, communications and control which given current force levels constitutes perhaps its most sensitive dimension. The implications of command structure stability are explored and found to contradict the prescriptions derived from the standard definition. This fact poses a major analytic problem and casts serious doubt on any conclusions about desirable changes in force structure until reasonable trade-offs are established between the conflicting principles.
Determinants of the Effect of Intergroup Cooperation on Intergroup Attraction
Authors: Worchel Stephen , Axsom Danny , Ferris Frances , Samaha Gary , Schweizer Susan
Published: November 2009

It was hypothesized that intergroup cooperation would increase intergroup attraction to the extent that previous group identities were erased. In the first phase of the present study, two groups of subjects either competed or acted interdependently. Members of the two groups either wore similar uniforms or different uniforms to distinguish the groups. In the second phase of the study, the two groups were combined and worked cooperatively on two tasks. The outcome of the cooperative endeavor was manipulated so half the groups succeeded and half failed. The results indicated that attraction for out-group members following the first phase was the lowest when the groups wore distinctive uniforms and competed. Intergroup cooperation increased attraction for outgroup members except when the cooperative endeavor resulted in failure and the two groups had previously competed. Further, there was less intergroup attraction following cooperation between members of groups distinguished by uniforms than between groups not wearing distinctive dress. It was reasoned that previous intergroup competition, distinctive dress, and failure at a task hindered the elimination of former group identities during intergroup cooperation.
“Public” Choice and Cooperation in n-Person Prisoner's Dilemma
Authors: Fox John , Guyer Melvin
Published: November 2009

Four-person groups played repeated trials of an n-Person Prisoner's Dilemma game under two information conditions. In one condition, each player's choice was made known to the others following each trial. In the other information condition each subject was informed only of the number of others who cooperated or competed on each trial. The first condition was a “public choice” situation while the second was an “anonymous choice” situation. The data supported the hypothesis that there would be greater cooperation in the “public choice” condition than in the “anonymous choice” condition since the former created a situation in which the individual would be made accountable to the group for the consequences of his choices. The results are discussed in terms of the various manipulations of group process which can produce deindividuation, that is, a lessening of the individual's propensity to behave in a socially approved manner.
Inducing Cooperation by Groups and Individuals: Applying Osgood's Grit Strategy
Authors: Lindskold Svenn , Collins Michael G.
Published: November 2009

Thirty-two groups and an equal number of individuals opposed one of four programmed strategies, presumably carried out by an individual, in a 30-trial Prisoner's Dilemma situation. The programmed strategies included (a) a GRIT strategy involving a general statement of intent, specific announcements of choices, and some retaliation to exploitation; (b) a competitive strategy in which announcements were used deceitfully; (c) a tit-for-tat strategy without any verbal communication; and (d) a 50% cooperative control strategy. For both groups and individuals the GRIT strategy promoted more cooperation than any of the other three. This difference vanished toward the end of the third block of ten trials in which all four strategies involved consistent, unannounced cooperation. Females were more cooperative than males. It was concluded that GRIT is as effective with groups as with individuals, even though prior research indicates groups to be less conciliatory in their preference for influence modes and at times less cooperative than individuals.
Evaluating Coalition Theories: Some Indices
Authors: Komorita Samuel S.
Published: November 2009

Until recently the choice of methods to evaluate coalition theories has not been a serious problem because the vast majority of studies has been restricted to simple, three-person games. When larger groups are used to test various theories, a larger number of coalitions is possible and the coalitions may also vary in size; hence, it is difficult to compare and evaluate theories when group size is varied. Accordingly, some indices measuring the accuracy of theoretical predictions of coalition likelihood are proposed, compared, and evaluated. Indices to evaluate theoretical predictions of reward division among the coalition members are also compared, and some problems of data analysis are discussed.
Arms Races and Escalation
Authors: Wallace Michael D.
Published: November 2009

Although major power arms races have been the subject of a great amount of mathematical modelling, there has been little data-based research concerning their impact on international war. This study attempts to determine whether or not these arms races affect the probability that a serious dispute between major powers will escalate to all-out war. To do this, an arms race index is constructed in the following manner: a curve-fitting technique is employed to calculate changes in arms expenditures for each major power as a function of time. The smoothed rates of increase for each of the parties to a dispute are multiplied together, yielding an index whose values will be high only if the two powers have engaged in rapid and simultaneous military expansion prior to the dispute. It was found that disputes preceded by such an arms race escalated to war 23 out of 28 times, while disputes not preceded by an arms race resulted in war only 3 out of 71 times. It was concluded that at the very least, arms races are an important early warning indicator of escalation potential, and may well play a central role in the escalation process. The implications of this finding for the current debate over SALT II were noted.
Changes in the Values of Arms Race Parameters
Authors: Lucier Charles E.
Published: November 2009

The functional relationship among the armaments of states has been the principal focus of most arms race research. The other factors which might affect armaments and which are captured in the parameters of the functional relationship, are assumed to remain constant. I argue that the assumption that parameter values remain constant imposes significant limitations upon our understanding of arms races. In this paper, I begin a systematic investigation of changes in parameter values by deducing two propositions about the occasions for changes in the value of the parameter of the organizational process model, and by demonstrating that the naval expenditures of Britain, Japan, and the United States during the period between the World Wars are consistent with both propositions.
Patterns of Conflict Preceding the 1964 Riots
Authors: Monti Daniel J.
Published: November 2009

Data on racial controversies involving New York's black and Puerto Rican population between 1960 and July 1964 were obtained from an analysis of New York Times articles. These data deal with “events” or exchanges between representatives of the city's minority populations and public officials or nonminority actors. An analysis of these exchanges for the four and one-half year period preceding the July riots reveals that violence followed unsuccessful efforts by minority actors to alter the behavior of nonminority and government actors toward them through peaceful and nonviolent strategies. This pattern of conflicts conforms to the general idea that mass violence by aggrieved groups or classes is more likely to occur when: (1) conventional channels for solving problems fail to resolve differences between groups; (2) nonviolent strategies fail to evoke positive responses from the targets of grievances; and/or (3) they have few strategies to choose among in order to make their case before the public. It also offers support for the “solidarity theories” of collective violence which link the genesis of violence to everyday political life, and specifies a connection between the frequency and intensity of conflictive actions.
Roots of the Modern Interstate Border Dispute
Authors: Mandel Robert
Published: November 2009

Recently there has been a flare-up of several significant international border disputes. This study examines when these disputes are most likely to arise, when they will escalate into war, and when they will spread beyond the original national participants. Specifically, this article hypothesizes that the frequency of border disputes is highest between nations that have (1) roughly equal levels of power and (2) relatively low levels of technology; that the severity of these disputes is highest when there is (3) a low level of technology, (4) contention on ethnic rather than resource issues, and (5) a two-state rather than three-state “mutually-contiguous” set; and that the scope of these disputes is highest between nations that are (6) members of opposing blocs rather than the same bloc. Data on 66 border dispute cases during 1945–1974 confirm these hypotheses.
Motivational Bases of Sex Differences in Choice Behavior
Authors: Hartman E. Alan
Published: November 2009

Previous studies comparing male and female choice behavior in a prisoner's dilemma game (PDG) have often confounded contingency of strategy with level of cooperation. Also the motivational basis of the choices was often unclear. A standard PDG and a six-alternative matrix, which separated the various motivations for making the noncooperative alternative, were employed. The subjects, 64 males and 64 females, played under one of four simulated strategies created by crossing two levels of cooperation with two levels of contingency. There were no sex differences under the PDG but there were under the six-alternative matrix. Females, in comparison to males, chose the maximum absolute gain alternative more and the minimize risk alternative less. The results were used to clarify the research on the generalizability of game-playing behavior to other settings.
Nationalization of the Suez Canal
Authors: Shupe Michael C. , Wright William M. , Hipel Keith W. , Fraser Niall M.
Published: November 2009

A new conflict analysis technique is employed to analyze the international crisis that was created when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956. The Suez Crisis involved the use of strategic surprise by the Egyptians and it is clearly demonstrated how this type of situation can be readily modelled by utilizing contemporary methods from conflict analysis. The analysis algorithm provides a procedure for systematically studying the implications of the Suez Crisis and also for predicting what possible scenarios could have taken place.
A Note on the Zeuthen-Harsanyi Theory of Bargaining
Authors: Crawford Vincent P.
Published: November 2009

This article shows that the conclusions of the Zeuthen-Harsanyi theory of bargaining, which is widely regarded as an alternative justification for Nash's solution of the bargaining problem, can be extremely sensitive to small changes in the assumption that both bargainers have identical perceptions of the costs of disagreement. Whether this is the case depends on whether bargainers' priors about those costs are optimistic, in a sense made precise in this article. An axiomatic framework for modeling bargaining outcomes when bargainers perceive the costs of disagreement differently is proposed, and it is shown that a class of solutions that generalize Nash's satisfy the natural generalizations of Nash's axioms.
In Defense of a Collective Goods Theory of Alliances
Authors: Sandler Todd , Cauley Jon , Forbes John F.
Published: November 2009

This article defends the collective goods theory of alliances by showing that club theory is an appropriate tool for analyzing allocative issues of alliances from a positive prospective. The article concludes with a demonstration that Oppenheimer made an analytical mistake when he questioned the normative importance of Pareto optimality.
Appositional Bone Formation by OCP-Collagen Composite
Authors: Suzuki Y. , Kamakura S. , Honda Y. , Anada T. , Hatori K. , Sasaki K. , Suzuki O.
Published: November 2009

Synthetic octacalcium phosphate (OCP) has been shown to enhance bone formation and to biodegrade if implanted into bone defects. Here, we hypothesized that an OCP-atelocollagen complex (OCP/Col) is biodegradable and can induce bone formation in a thickness-dependent manner when implanted into the calvaria. OCP/Col disks (diameter, 9 mm; thickness, 1 or 3 mm) were implanted into a subperiosteal pocket in the calvaria of 12-week-old Wistar rats for 4, 8, and 12 weeks and subsequent bone formation was monitored. X-ray diffraction analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that OCP in the OCP/Col implants was converted into a carbonate-rich apatite after 4 weeks. Although thinner disks tended to be replaced by new bone, thicker disks were progressively resorbed by osteoclast-like cells until 12 weeks, possibly via the increased mechanical load in the subperiosteal pocket. Therefore, OCP/Col can increase appositional intra-membranous bone formation if the appropriate size of the implant is applied.