Interoperability in Digital Healthcare: Enhancing Consumer Health and Transforming Care Systems
Authors: Adegoke Kola , Adegoke Abimbola , Dawodu Deborah , Bayowa Ayoola , Adekoya Akorede 
Published: February 2025

Background: Interoperability is a central pillar of digital healthcare transformation that enables the smooth transfer of healthcare information, care coordination, and the performance of healthcare systems. Complete interoperability is still a daunting vision with the existing advancements due to disconnected standards, policy alignment problems, cybersecurity threats, and digital infrastructure inequities within healthcare. Adopting the Fast Healthcare Interoperability Resources (FHIR), the Trusted Exchange Framework and Common Agreement (TEFCA), and the ISO 23903:2021 frameworks laid the foundation for structured health data integration. However, further governance and technological innovations are required to facilitate scalable, cross-border, and AI-driven health data exchange.Objective: This narrative review examines the potential of interoperability to empower the healthcare consumer and revolutionize the healthcare system. It combines current challenges, the key technologies involved, and emerging policy frameworks with a detailed examination of the potential of FHIR, the Trusted Exchange of Health Information (TEFCA), the standard ISO 23903:2021, AI, and blockchain. It also examines international efforts, the WHO Global Strategy on Digital Health (2020–2025) and the WHO European Digital Health Transformation Report (2024), to provide best practices and digital health governance regulation trends.Methods: This study employs a narrative review methodology to examine advancements, challenges, and future directions in health information interoperability. Unlike systematic reviews, which follow strict inclusion criteria, this approach integrates peer-reviewed research, policy documents, technical standards, and real-world case studies to provide a thematic synthesis of interoperability frameworks.Literature Selection and Thematic AnalysisA structured literature search was conducted across PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Google Scholar, WHO, ISO, and government policy databases. Relevant sources were selected with a perspective toward digital health interoperability with a focus on the technologies (FHIR, TEFCA, ISO 23903:2021), emerging technologies (AI, blockchain), and policy frameworks (GDPR, digital strategies of the WHO). Three significant themes guide the review: · Technological Foundations – Analyzing syntactic and semantic interoperability, AI-enabled data standardization, and FHIR-enabled data exchange· Policy and governance – Evaluating TEFCA, ISO 23903:2021, WHO digital health frameworks, and regulatory harmonization across different jurisdictions· Real-World Implementation – Assessing interoperability adoption through case studies, including the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), EU Digital Health Action Plan, and WHO interoperability initiatives.A comparative analysis was made to measure the interoperability frameworks' adoption, performance, and regulatory hurdles among the healthcare systems and regional locations. Areas of major priority include standardization deficiencies, security concerns, infrastructure variability, and the roles of blockchain and AI in deploying interoperability. This structured methodology enables a thorough synthesis of existing interoperability innovations to determine key areas of shortfall and make practical policy and technological recommendations.Key Findings:· Technological Progress: FHIR and ISO 23903:2021 present supplementary methodologies for data structuring and semantic compatibility, while blockchain and AI are being established to drive the secured, automated, and real-time exchange of healthcare information.· Regulatory Landscape: The 2020–2025 WHO Strategy on Digital Health and the 2024 WHO Report on the Transformation of Digital Health underscore the need for harmonized interoperability frameworks, AI governance, and cybersecurity to deliver equitable access to digital healthcare innovations.· Challenges and Barriers: Regulatory fragmentation, security risks, and infrastructure disparities in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) remain key obstacles to achieving full interoperability.· Future Directions: Expanding public-private partnerships, strengthening FHIR-TEFCA alignment, and implementing ISO 23903:2021-based integration models will be critical for ensuring scalable, cross-border health information exchange.Conclusion: Achieving full-scale interoperability will require a multi-dimensional solution that integrates state-of-the-art technological frameworks with harmonization of the regulatory environment and sustained investments in digital healthcare infrastructure. Convergence of the intersection of FHIR, ISO 23903:2021, AI, and blockchain with international policymaker efforts is a potential opportunity to build a patient-driven, data-driven, and secure digital healthcare ecosystem. Future research should aim at AI-driven models of semantic interoperability, blockchain-enabled governance of the data, and international policymaker coordination to accelerate digital healthcare transformation.