bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Augustine's Critique of Dialectic: Between Ambrose and the Arians
Authors: Heßbrüggen-Walter Stefan
Published: October 2011

Ambrose of Milan is cited by Augustine as a great ‘despoiler’ of the Egyptians, and also as the teacher who decisively reorientated him to the ‘auctoritas’ of Scripture. As the chapter argues, he may also have been partly responsible for a major revision in Augustine's thinking about dialectic. Especially when rendered by more Latinate terms, dialectic continues to hold great sway in Augustine's mature thought. The chapter looks into another aspect of dialectic, namely its power to generate ontological truths. It suggests that Augustine may have been helped to this position by arguments or gestures used by Ambrose in polemic against some of the more skillful Arian dialecticians, who allegedly sought to derive theological truths independently of divine revelation.
Problems
Authors: SIMONS PETER
Published: October 2011

Extensional mereologies are mostly very similar to Boolean algebras or complete Boolean algebras in their algebraic structure, and this similarity is not accidental. It can be accounted for by considering the jobs which they were and are called upon to perform. In most applications of mereology, the natural rival is some kind of set theory, and mereology is usually preferred, when it is preferred, for philosophical rather than mathematical reasons. This can be seen by examining both the development of the main systems of extensional mereology and more recent applications. The resulting systems have tended to be strong, to hold their own more readily against their inherently more powerful set-theoretic rival. This heritage has had detrimental effects on mereology, which are considered in some detail in the present chapter. The genesis of extensional mereology is first outlined to help explain why the main systems are as they are.
Occurrents, Classes, and Masses
Authors: SIMONS PETER
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the mereology of three kinds of object for which it is reasonable to suppose the extensionality principle PPP holds: occurrents, classes, and masses. Classes and masses provide the most plausible concrete interpretations of classical extensional meteology. The ontological categories of class and mass have been relatively neglected by comparison with that of individuals, and they are introduced in the present chapter. The concept of class is not that found in contemporary set theory, but what is argued to be the old-fashioned notion of a plurality of individuals; this view is also explained in this chapter. Activities and performances are also discussed, along with plural reference, pluralities, analogies between ontology and mereology, mass reference and masses, parts of groups, and further possible applications of extensional mereology.
Minimal Truth?
Authors: Price Carolyn
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines two crucial objections to the teleological theory. The first is that the teleologist is unable to ascribe determinate content to the intentional device and the second is that the teleologist is unable to allow for the possibility that the content of intentional devices is marked by a certain kind of objectivity. This chapter evaluates the ability of teleologists to provide a complete account of intentional norms and discusses the connection between the notions of determinacy and objectivity and the notion of truth.
Conclusion: Constructing Content
Authors: Price Carolyn
Published: October 2011

This concluding chapter sums up the key findings of this study about intentional content. The findings suggests that there are not intentional norms in nature because there are no biological norms in nature and that claims about function and content are claims about objective causal relations between natural items. The results also indicate that determinacy objection against a teleological approach to intentional explanation can be answered using the proposed account of the theory of functions.
Land Rights and Natural Resource Management in the Transition to Individual Ownership: Case Studies from Ghana and Indonesia
Authors: Otsuka Keijiro , Quisumbing Agnes R.
Published: October 2011

Some of the fundamental concerns of property rights institutions involves the allocation of land particularly to pasture, crops, and forests, and how this land is further utilized and managed. If property rights are not well established, whether these may be in terms of family, individual, or group ownership, incentives to preserve various natural resources and investing on a wide variety of land improvements will probably be to no avail since the quality of land use and the nature of access rights have a direct relationship. In communal or customary tenure situations, the uncultivated forest land belongs to the community and is essentially controlled by the village chief, and land which is prepared for cultivation is perceived to be ‘owned’ by the family of those who cleared the land. While communal land tenure is intended for equitable distribution, this chapter looks into specific cases from Indonesia and Ghana to examine the transition from communal to individualized systems and its effects.
O'Neill and the Obligations of Justice
Authors: Jones Charles
Published: October 2011

Onora O'Neill made several interesting contributions to the debates on international distributive justice in her 1986 book, ‘Faces of Hunger: An Essay on Poverty, Justice, and Development’. This chapter outlines O'Neill's Kantian strategy for tackling the moral problems of international poverty and defends a human rights approach against her objections. There are, however, seemingly fatal problems with the Kantian approach that render it less useful than a rights-centered strategy for justifying judgements about global justice. This chapter also discusses the pros and cons of three central cosmopolitan theories of justice: utilitarianism, human rights theories, and O'Neill's maverick Kantianism. The chapter concludes that a theory of basic human rights is a plausible approach for the cosmopolitan to take to the problems of international distributive justice.
International R&D Spillovers and Economic Growth
Authors: MOHNEN PIERRE
Published: October 2011

Economists have made countless efforts to understand Robert Solow's productivity paradox wherein computers have somehow become present in several different aspects except in the productivity statistics since evidence has yet to be derived from empirical studies that suggest the link between productivity growth and investing in information technology (IT). However, some studies have found important links which involve how the information and communications technology sector plays no small part in terms of R&D endeavours, and that the leading industrial countries have allocated much of their resources to R&D because this entails significant returns. This chapter aims to examine the empirical findings regarding R&D spillovers in the international scene, specifically the ones which concern IT and the spillovers from developed to developing countries.
Computers and Labour Markets: International Evidence
Authors: KRAMARZ FRANCIS
Published: October 2011

The consequences of utilizing computers for the labour market has changed over time because of how computers have become rapidly dispersed and easily available. Compared to how computers were initially perceived as an advantage, not possessing a computer today presents several difficulties across different industries. Skill-biased technical change has become evident across North America because of changes observed in the wage structures while similar patterns may be observed across Europe. As such, the chapter attempts to analyze the empirical evidence regarding the link between the outcomes of the labour market and the use of computers, particularly on the issues which concern the expansion on computer use and workforce's skill-composition, wages, and unemployment.
Computers and Economic Growth in Finland
Authors: NIININEN PETRI
Published: October 2011

The potential of using computers has been evident in how the prices of information processing has experienced a sharp decline, and in how computing power has undergone rapid development and expansion. As such, several governments and companies have opted to invest on IT, emphasizing how these organizations tend to be optimistic about future gains and possible payoffs. However, certain doubts have been expressed, such as the ‘Solow paradox’ which question the role of IT in improving productivity. As can be observed in the data of Finland' nonresidential business sector, productivity has not exhibited rapid growth through investing on computer use. This chapter looks into the economic impacts of computer technology in Finland and investigates the underlying policy issues for such large-scale efforts.
The Economic Impact of Information and Communication Technology in Korea
Authors: JEONG KUK-HWAN , OH JEONG HUN , SHIN ILSOON
Published: October 2011

In line with how our society is undergoing a transition towards a more information and knowledged-based society, questions have been raised regarding the contributions of investing on information and communication technology (ICT) for the economy. In identifying policy issues that are connected with such questions, it is important first to understand the implications of ICT developments and diffusion, and how these may be experienced differently across several regions and sectors. This chapter attempts to determine appropriate data to conduct an empirical analysis specifically for Korea through examining ICT-related data on the labour force, capital stock, and investments during the period between 1980 and 1995. Here, the chapter makes use of the Korean Standard Industrial Classification (KSIC) and the Korean input/output (IO) table for ICT investment and capital stock data.
The historical and philosophical background
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

Part I of this book examines the accounts the medievals gave of the hypostatic union as such — the union of the divine and human natures in the person of the Word, or, equivalently, the union of the human nature to the divine person. Underlying the medieval discussions is the insight that the assumed human nature is something like an individual substance. This chapter, by way of background to the more theological material that follows, examines some of the philosophical theories about substances and accidents that were current in the 13th century. Doing this shows why many thinkers found the analogy appealing; and why at least one thinker (Thomas Aquinas) was less happy with it. It begins by describing the state of the question during the 12th and early 13th centuries. By doing this, it provides some idea of the theological background to the more sophisticated later discussions.
Negation Theories of Subsistence (2) Duns Scotus
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

Duns Scotus accepts the negation theory of subsistence, and provides a considerably more sophisticated account of it than either Olivi or (especially) Godfrey. Scotus also provides arguments to defend the theory from possible attacks. This chapter looks at Scotus's account of the theory, examining some of his arguments in favour of accepting such a theory. These arguments all focus on the incoherence of any theory that would explain subsistence in terms of some positive entity added to a nature.
The Debate
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines suffragist tactics and methods by emphasizing the initial difficulties involved in pushing the issue to the fore even within the context of the women's movement itself. Early emphasis on a parliamentary strategy was both rational and successful. This chapter also highlights some of the inherent weaknesses in the movement — its loose federal structure, the lack of inspirational leadership, the avoidance of party political commitments, the narrow nature of suffragist demands, especially the reluctance to incorporate married women, and the broader issue of adult suffrage. Female enfranchisement was a good cause effectively propagated but frustrated by trickery and weakness on the part of dishonourable politicians. This examination of suffragist tactics and strategy suggests that this is an inadequate explanation for the protracted struggle to win the vote. Despite the skill and determination of its advocates, the cause suffered from some serious operational flaws.
The Anatomy of Militancy
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This chapter approaches suffragism through the perspective of its opponents. It shows the fitful nature of organized anti-suffragism and emphasizes that its chief efforts came too late in the day to offer any effective check to the long-term social and political trends which worked in the suffragists' favour. It also underlines the fundamental flaws in anti-suffragism, notably its attempt to combine male Antis with female Antis who were often feminists. As late as 1912 the Antis themselves faced as great a crisis as the suffragists. They were finding it difficult to obtain speakers and to maintain local branches; defection and disillusionment especially among female members weakened the organization; and even the defeat of the Conciliation Bill could not obscure the minority status of Anti-Suffragism in the Commons.
The Revival of Non-Militant Suffragism, 1912–1914
Authors: Pugh Martin
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes the renewed emphasis and promotion of non-militant suffragism. By seeking a more democratic approach to suffragism, a left-wing alliance, and the mobilization of working-class men and women Sylvia Pankhurst heralded a more realistic strategy. The key development in this period consists in the expansion of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies and the shifts in its political tactics in 1912. Important trends in the explanation for the eventual outcome of the campaign is highlighted: while militant suffragism was diminishing before 1914, suffragism expanded significantly; this growing movement was moving in the opposite direction to the WSPU; and that suffragism began belatedly to cross the class barrier and to develop into something like a mass movement which was more difficult for the Asquith government to ignore. The changes during 1912 to 1914 proved to be complicated, and the war interrupted the process before the new strategy had been fully tested.
Introduction
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

This book investigates the fiscal crisis being experienced by Japan, focusing on the Ministry of Finance (MOF) and its central budgetary system in the last quarter of the 20th century. It examines the MOF's functions and roles, as well as its relationships with the Spending Ministries and Agencies and the Liberal Democratic Party, in the performance of the core activity of government—deciding how much to spend and on what. It shows how budgets were made, and by whom, situated within the historical contexts of the evolution and development of the economy, the polity, and the administration. It deals mainly with the two central government budgets: the General Account Budget, and the Fiscal Investment and Loan Programme (FILP), the so-called ‘second budget’. Its main concern is with the processes that determined the amount and distribution of public spending, and with the consequential budget deficits and debts to which they gave rise. The book focuses on the pre-Diet stages of budget planning, formulation, and allocation.
The ‘Second Budget’: The Fiscal Investment Loan Programme
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

Japan's Fiscal Investment Loan Programme (FILP), also known as the second budget, was a policy-based public finance system through which traditionally the national government transmitted the accumulated savings of small investors to dedicated governmental and quasi-governmental organizations for investment in projects and programmes designed to achieve prescribed national economic and social (and party political) objectives. Since its inception in 1953, FILP has been characterized, first, by the unique source of its funds, and the control of their allocation by the Ministry of Finance for the development of economic, industrial, and social infrastructure; second, by the methods of financing capital projects and programmes through investments, loans, and the underwriting of bonds issued by a number of eligible national, regional, and local organizations; and, third, by the provision of loans and subsidies to some Special Accounts, and the General Account Budget itself.
Economic Forecasts and Fiscal Projections
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

In Japan, the general context of budget-making, up to the Cabinet's approval of the Ministry of Finance's draft budgets for both the General Account Budget and the Fiscal Investment Loan Programme in December, was shaped by a combination of short-term and medium-term political and economic factors. The medium-term context was set by the five-year National Economic Plan and the Medium Term Fiscal Projection. Revised and rolled forward each year, the latter provided stylized projections of aggregate expenditures and revenues for the upcoming fiscal year and three years ahead, based mainly on the (equally stylized) economic growth assumptions in the National Economic Plan. The shorter-term macroeconomic context was provided mainly by the annual estimates of GDP (and other key economic variables), and the consequential projections of revenue and borrowing.
The Role and Influence of the LDP in the Budgetary Processes
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The management and manipulation of budget outputs in Japan helped the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) to maintain itself in power for thirty-eight years until 1993 and, less certainly, after its return to the leadership and domination of the coalition governments from 1996. Through governmental and party organizations, the LDP had begun to play a more active and interventionist role in policy-making generally from the early 1970s. Opportunities for the LDP to influence those processes and their outputs occurred at four main stages: first, at the time of the formulation of the overall budget strategy, and the prescription of the ceilings for the General Account and Fiscal Investment Loan Programme Budgets; second, at the stage of compiling budget requests within each Spending Ministry and Agency; third, after the submission of formal budget requests, at the successive stages of hearing, examination, negotiation, and ‘revival’ conducted by the Ministry of Finance's Budget Bureau; and fourth, at the point of delivery of benefits, services, investments, grants, subsidies, and so on.
A ‘Public Works State’
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

Historically, Japan invested, and continues to invest, a greater proportion of its gross domestic product (GDP) in gross fixed capital formation than comparable industrialized countries. General government gross fixed capital formation accounted for about a fifth of the total, but on a rising trend in the 1990s, reaching 6.7% of GDP in fiscal year 1995, as government made repeated attempts to kick-start the economy with public works spending. As private investment declined after the collapse of the bubble economy, general government claimed an increasing proportion. Public investment by central government was planned and financed partly through the General Account Budget, partly through the Fiscal Investment Loan Programme (FILP), and partly through some of the thirty-eight Special Accounts. Some of the public investment schemes financed by public banks and finance corporations, and public corporations and special companies, apart from substantial FILP funding, were self-financed and/or financed by approved borrowing in domestic and overseas capital markets. This chapter discusses how Japan had become a public works state by the 1990s.
Fiscal Reconstruction: ‘Smoke and Mirrors’
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The main objective of the Ministry of Finance (MOF) from the emergence of the fiscal crisis in 1975 onwards was to reduce the fiscal deficit on the General Account Budget and, in the longer term, to eliminate it, as well as restore the balanced-budget characteristics that prevailed in the high-growth era. This chapter assesses the MOF's claim to have made substantial progress towards the achievement of that aim by the end of the 1980s, until the onset of economic recession in the early 1990s first slowed then halted that progress, and ultimately reversed it as the economic imperatives triggered more public spending, higher levels of government borrowing, and tax cuts and concessions. It analyses and assesses the effects and effectiveness of the policies that the MOF initiated, and attempted to implement, under the broad banners of fiscal reconstruction and fiscal consolidation in the 1980s and early 1990s, and the counter-cyclical expansionary policies that succeeded them in the recessionary conditions that prevailed for most of the remainder of the decade.
5 Gladstone and Peel
Authors: Ghosh Peter
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses Sir Robert Peel, the founder of modern Conservatism, and his role in nineteenth-century politics as the pioneer of ‘Gladstonian Liberalism’. One of the most fundamental assumptions underlying our understanding of nineteenth-century politics, although it has never been explicitly worked out, is that Peel remained a central presence in later Victorian England; in particular, that he was a decisive influence on W. E. Gladstone and on the Liberal Party he led between 1867 and 1894. Instead of being represented as a bilateral constitutional and party contest, nineteenth-century politics is more conveniently construed along the single axis supplied by ‘Peel-Gladstone’. But if Peel had become an anomaly in his own day, it is unlikely that he should have had any more relevance to succeeding generations, since they, like their predecessors, also believed in a party system as the best means of organizing public opinion in the country and of representing it in Parliament.
9 Liberal Passions: Reason and Emotion in Late- and Post-Victorian Liberal Thought
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter characterizes liberalism and presents diverse approaches to the dissemination of liberal thinking. Liberalism is regarded as the epitome of a rational political theory. It is based on notions of human autonomy, reflective self-direction, considered judgement, and purposiveness. It has employed formal and carefully controlled models of human relationships embodied in the device of the contract, both among individuals and between individuals and society, a contract to which the participants are conscious and willing signatories. Lately, it has endorsed a range of models exploring free, equal, and transparent communication as applied to deliberative democracy, from which a shared or common good may emerge. Liberal reason is not necessarily incompatible with emotion, sentiment, and passion, though obviously not with all of their manifestations; and it is quite proper, as well as inevitable, for a healthy political ideology both to display and to embrace emotion as a rich and creative force in political life.
14 Victorian Interpretations of Thomas Hobbes
Authors: Harris Jose
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the Victorian interpretations of Thomas Hobbes and the pursuit of Victorian Hobbesian revival. Studies have varied in detail, but have concurred in claiming that arguments derived from Hobbes were systematically deployed by Victorian theorists, in order to resist the rise of democracy and to foster new forms of state power on a scale undreamt of by ‘absolutist’ rulers of Hobbes's own era. By the 1890s Hobbes was widely referred to, even by those who disliked his ideas, as England's ‘greatest’ political philosopher. His most important work, Leviathan, was portrayed as ‘one of the English bibles’, ‘the first great fountain of original ideas’, and ‘nothing less than the cornerstone of the science of politics’.Yet it had not always been thus. After his death in 1679 detailed knowledge of Hobbes's life and thought had largely disappeared from the mainstream of intellectual debate in Britain for well over a century.
Nationalism and Economic Policy in the Era of Globalization
Authors: Bhaduri Amit
Published: October 2011

Nationalism is a complex notion, which encompasses society, the state, and the economy. It comprises a complex nexus of multiple loyalties of an individual as a member of the society, duties and rights of the citizen in a reciprocal political arrangement with the state, and the role of the individual as a producer and consumer in the economy. While the balance among these different aspects of nationalism evolved historically, in the present area of globalisation this balance seems to be shifting in favour of global market forces. Its consequences for the nation state, and the new role that it needs to define for itself, especially in terms of economic policy, is the theme of this chapter. Through several centuries in Western political philosophy, the relationship between the political authority of the state and the historical formation of the society, viewed as the voluntary association of individuals, posed a major problem.
Global Macroeconomic Management
Authors: Taylor Lance
Published: October 2011

The most important development in the global macroeconomic system over the past few decades has been the liberalisation of international capital markets that got underway in the 1970s. This sea of change from the Bretton Woods system has had enormous consequences for both developed and developing economies. This chapter begins by recalling the history of world capital markets — especially changes that have occurred since World War II. One important outcome has been a marked increase in the volatility of capital movements and asset prices, amplified by international contagion. In forward markets, conventions about the future determine these expectations. International payments flows have been profoundly affected by liberalisation, and the peculiar role the American economy plays in regulating them. How shifting conventions led to crises in developing economies is discussed. A stylised model of cycles of capital movements and macroeconomic performance is sketched. The chapter closes with a review of international financial regulation and governance.
Reforming the International Financial Architecture: Consensus and Divergence
Authors: Ocampo José Antonio
Published: October 2011

The Asian crisis and its rapid spread to Russia and Latin America in 1997 and 1998 gave rise to a broad consensus on the need to reform the international financial architecture in order to reduce the inherent instability of the current system. This chapter critically reviews the ongoing debate from the developing country perspective and argues the case for a thoroughgoing reform of the current architecture. It looks at the current controversy which is organised in terms of distinguishing the areas in which there is some agreement from those in which there is still a considerable divergence of opinion. This is an expository device, based on the chapter's perception of existing consensus and divergence. The chapter focuses on reforms needed to prevent and manage financial crises — what may be called the ‘narrow’ financial architecture — leaving aside issues relating to development finance, in particular.
Developing Countries in Global Economic Governance and Negotiation Processes
Authors: Helleiner G. K.
Published: October 2011

This chapter on the roles and objectives of developing countries in global economic governance is organized around themes in negotiation processes rather than the specific objectives of improved global governance themselves. These objectives are considered, of course, but they are discussed within the context of a discussion of better process. The chapter addresses the prospect for fairly short-term and modest reforms, mainly relating to governance and negotiation processes for reform, within the key current multilateral economic institutions — the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the World Trade Organiszation. It focuses upon the importance of the selection of the agenda and the choice of appropriate forums and processes for moving toward longer-term and more fundamental reforms in the global economic governance system. The particular problems of the smallest and poorest countries in the global economic system are considered in the chapter. It also addresses the potential for improved developing country cooperation within existing systems.
The limits of expression
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines how the limits of expression or limits of the inexpressible, one of the four limits of thought, arose in pre-Kantian philosophy. It explains three reasons for assuming that there are features of the world that transcend language. Good examples of these features are the ones that might be thought to constitute ultimate reality, such as the fundamental matter or God. This chapter analyses these two things based on Aristotle's account of prime matter and Nicholas Cusanus' account of God. It also discusses Cratylus' view of the flux of meaning.
Absolute infinity
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the relevance of mathematician and philosopher George Cantor's views on infinity to the contradictions in the limits of thought. Cantor's work has clarified with an unprecedented rigour that contradictions do occur and he has narrowed down the field of possible solutions to a very small surveyable class. His notion of diagonalization has provided the cornerstone for an adequate understanding of boundary-transcendence. However, it is shown that Cantor's theory of the transfinite is not successful in removing the paradoxes of the infinite, it merely relocates them.
Vicious Circles
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the relevance of philosopher Bertrand Russell's views and works on absolute infinity to the contradictions in the limits of thought. It is shown that Russell's paradox is the simplest of all the set-theoretic paradoxes and it demonstrate that the paradoxes of the set theory could not be blamed on a mistake in the relatively subtle arguments required to establish the Burali-Forti contradiction. This chapter also shows that the limit of iteration and the limit of conception are intimately related to the Inclosure Schema.
Sets and classes
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the relevance of theories on sets and classes to the contradictions in the limits of thought. It analyses possible solutions to the set-theoretic paradoxes based on Ernst Friedrich Ferdinand Zermelo's Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory and John von Neumann's notion of a proper class. It shows that, like other contemporary solutions to inclosure contradictions, Zermelo's and von Neumann's are not adequate even in the limited domain for which they were designed. This chapter suggests that the only uniform approach to all these paradoxes is the dialetheic one, and that the limits of thought which are the inclosures are truly contradictory.
Consciousness, rules, anddifférance
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the views of philosophers Ludwig Wittgenstein and Jacques Derrida on the theory of meaning. Both philosophers reject accounts of meaning based on semantic correlates but they accept the consequent indeterminacy of sense and the relationship between consciousness and meaning. Wittgenstein and Derrida share another similarity in that their views all trespass over the limits of the expressible, and so deliver contradictions at the limits of thought.
Analysing Buyer Behaviour
Authors: Dowling Grahame R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter analyses buyer behaviour, taking an outside-inside view of the organization. It looks at buyer behaviour from the perspective of a marketing manager. Part A describes some simple data about the brands a consumer has recently bought. The analysis of this type of purchase-history data helps marketers to understand how typical their brand is relative to other brands in their market and in other similar markets. Part B of the chapter provides a brief discussion of research techniques for generating insight into consumer behaviour. It suggests two clear messages to marketing managers — make the brand salient, and make it available to as many target customers as possible.
Market Segmentation and Targeting
Authors: Dowling Grahame R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines market segmentation, one the basic ideas on which much of modern marketing is built. For most organizations, market segmentation is a primary way to search for and exploit market opportunities. Part A of this chapter describes three broad types of segmentation — corporate, product-market, and tactical. Part B examines product-market segmentation and strategic market selection. One of the key issues here is the issue of how many segments should organizations compete in. Part C examines tactical segmentation and targeting. The emphasis is to ‘get close to customers’ by developing an understanding of their needs, wants, and how they go about buying products and services.
Working with External Service Providers
Authors: Dowling Grahame R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses primarily on advertising agencies and market research firms, the two principal outside suppliers of professional services to most marketing managers. The issues that govern the working relationship between the organization and these two agents are similar to those for other service providers. To implement many of the organization's marketing programmes requires working with outside suppliers of services, such as consultants, distributors, advertising agencies, and market research firms. Being outside the organization enables them to look at the marketing issues with more detachment than most insiders. Good working relationships with service suppliers provide leverage for the marketing team's internal capabilities. However, to gain the most benefit from these professional service firms requires the development of a commercial arrangement that is based on sound economic foundations.
Real numbers
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

It was noted in the Introduction to this part of the book that Weierstrass based his rigorous presentation of the calculus on the assumption that the real numbers form a complete ordered field — that is to say, a continuum on which are defined operations of addition and multiplication satisfying the familiar algebraic laws. This chapter constructs such a set in this book's default theory ZU. The previous chapter went some way towards this when it showed how to construct a continuum. But an ordering is not enough structure for the purpose of measurement: addition and multiplication cannot be defined in terms of order structure alone. To carry out this programme the strategy is to use the set ω of natural numbers to construct in turn sets Z (of integers), Q (of rational numbers), and R (of real numbers) endowed with an algebraic structure as well as an ordering.
Further cardinal arithmetic
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

The axiom of choice leads to a considerable simplification of the arithmetic of cardinals, but even so it leaves some questions in this domain unsettled. This chapter focuses on these issues. Topics discussed include the arithmetic of alephs, counting well-ordered sets, cardinal arithmetic and the axiom of choice, the continuum hypothesis, the axiom of determinacy, and the generalized continuum hypothesis.
Of the Origin of Ideas
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

David Hume begins with a distinction that everyone will readily allow, that there is a difference of intensity between feelings and sensations on the one hand, and the deliverances of memory and imagination on the other. The latter may mimic or copy the former, but, unless people are disordered by disease or madness, they never reach such a pitch of vivacity to rival them. The point is that while people take their thoughts to be wholly mental events, whereas people take their sensations to be of external objects, people's means of distinguishing the two is wholly in terms of the vividness of their different perceptions, and vividness per se justifies no external reference. Therefore, there is no reason to suppose that sensations are of external objects after all: phenomenalism stands at the door.
Of the Idea of necessary Connexion
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

David Hume has argued that the contents of people's minds depend wholly on experience, and that through experience, they gain no insight into the natures or essences or powers of objects. They are able to function effectively in the world only because they are creatures of habit: they are so geared that, without understanding why things occur as they do, they just expect the world to go on in the way that it has. Human beings are crude inductivists, and cannot but be so. However, people are not hopelessly crude, because their expectations are themselves capable of nuance: the more or less frequently something has occurred, the more or less confidently they expect it. Where experience has been entirely uniform, expectations are unshakeable.
Of the Reason of Animals
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

David Hume argues that animals as well as humans learn from experience by means of customary connections between causes and effects. The title is provocative, in that it implicitly denies that reason is the mark of the human. It is best regarded as debunking in intent, since the argument is to the effect that all learning from experience, whether by animals or humans, is founded not on reasoning, but on instinct; that is, animals learn from experience according to the same non-rational process by which human beings also learn. The section's modern career is characterised largely by neglect: its significance, and even the reason for its inclusion in the Enquiry, are rarely considered. The section thus seems only to be filling in the details, not extending the fundamentals of Hume's position.
Of a particular Providence and of a future State
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

The explicit subject of this section is the prospect of those special future rewards and punishments, beyond the ordinary rewards and punishments to be expected in the common course of life, that are the stuff of religious systems. That is, it is concerned with the grounds for believing in particular, as distinct from general, Providence. The latter lies open to view: it is the implications, for human beings, of the general economy of the created order, the fortunes and misfortunes that arise predictably from the normal course of human affairs in the world. The former, in contrast, concerns the special stuff of religious hopes and fears, especially of Christian hopes and fears: of divine judgement, of the reward of the virtuous and punishment of the wicked, of heaven and hell.
Quantifiers and Characterization
Authors: Forbes Graeme
Published: October 2011

It is possible that propositionalism is the worst semantics for intensional transitives, except for all the others. At the start of Chapter 4, it was noted that there is a higher-order alternative to propositionalism. It is championed most prominently in (Montague 1974) and this chapter begins with an outline of Montague's approach. It then argues for a variant of it that employs ideas taken from (Davidson 1967) and (Goodman 1949, 1976).
Wage Behaviour: the Evidence
Authors: Layard Richard , Nickell Stephen , Jackman Richard
Published: October 2011

Wages differ in industries and companies in ways that go beyond the effect of differences in ability plus working conditions. These extra differences rise for the reason that wages reflect not only the outside forces but also the internal forces (value added per worker). There is sufficient evidence that inside factors are more significant when wage-bargaining is decentralized and when product markets are less competitive. Wages are higher in larger corporations. This is for the reason that large corporations have higher product market power and more powerful labour unions, in some cases.
Classical Logic
Authors: Beall JC
Published: October 2011

Logical pluralism addresses the following conditions. First, the settled core of consequence is given in the Generalised Tarski Thesis (GTT). Second, an instance of GTT is obtained by a specification of the cases in GTT, and a specification of the relation is true in a case. Such a specification can be seen as a way of spelling out truth conditions. Third, an instance of GTT is admissible if it satisfies the settled role of consequence, and if its judgements about consequence are necessary, normative, and formal. Fourth, a logic is given by an admissible instance of GTT. Lastly, there are at least two different admissible instances of GTT. Logic is a matter of preservation of truth in all cases, which lies at the heart of logical consequence, the settled core of follows from. This chapter considers two well-known specifications of casesx: possible worlds and models for classical predicate logic. It notes the extent to which the canvassed accounts of consequence are admissible: the extent to which their respective judgements are necessary, normative, and formal.
Other Directions
Authors: Beall JC
Published: October 2011

This chapter looks at just a few of the ways in which a pluralistic view of logical consequence could be developed. It considers the upshot of recognising the plurality of consequence relations; how the plurality can be exploited; and ways that pluralism might be further developed in the theory of proofs. The moral of logical pluralism is that not every consequence relation needs to do everything that must be done by consequence relations. Failure to learn that (pluralistic) moral unnecessarily hinders logical theorising. It is one thing to recognise plurality in the development of a logical system, but something more interesting to let pluralism go somewhere. We can exploit the fact that we have more than one consequence relation, and allow the presence of a number of distinct consequence relations to do some work for us.
A Journey into Hope—Discovering Partial Solutions
Authors: Starbuck William H.
Published: October 2011

In contrast to Chapter 2 which focused on problems, this chapter presents possible solutions or constructive ways to take on the problems highlighted from the 1950s to the 1990s. The situations presented here involve the following: the ‘black-box problem’; Ame's law on the use of verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and nouns; risk and return; the validity of Bonini's paradox; and taking a passive-retrospective mode. In the later parts of the chapter, the chapter recalls earlier encounters with similar problems, like that of Ame's law, where a modified rule was constructed that would make writing more readable and interesting. The general theme of this chapter, perhaps, suggests that it is possible to realize something regarding a problem that brought about a solution, even through modification.
Quantifiers in Language and Logic
Authors: Peters Stanley , Westerståhl Dag
Published: October 2011

Quantification is a topic which brings together linguistics, logic, and philosophy. Quantifiers are the essential tools with which, in language or logic, we refer to quantity of things or amount of stuff. In English they include such expressions as no, some, all, both, or many. This book presents the definitive interdisciplinary exploration of how they work — their syntax, semantics, and inferential role.
Type 〈1〉 Quantifiers of Natural and Logical Languages
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes quantifiers related to natural languages with the logically simplest case: type ‹1›. These quantifiers are, on each universe, sets of subsets of that universe. Here the denotations of noun phrases, a fundamental syntactic category in many — if not in all — languages are found, along with a few of the classical logical quantifiers. Among noun phrases are the proper names, which, although they denote individuals, are sometimes conveniently treated as type ‹1› quantifiers as well. Of course, languages that do not have any other noun phrases than pronouns might still have constituents that can be taken to denote type ‹1› quantifiers. But however a natural language may use type ‹1› quantification, if it does at all, this chapter claims that the linguistically important type is ‹1, 1›. Various examples of phrases denoting type ‹1› quantifiers are given. Two fundamental properties of quantifiers, isomorphism closure (ISOM) and extension (EXT), are also discussed.
Type 〈1, 1〉 Quantifiers of Natural Language
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the most important quantifiers for natural language semantics: the class of type ‹1, 1› quantifiers. The term ‘quantirelation’ was introduced for expressions in natural languages that denote in this class. Prime examples of quantirelations are determiners, quantificational adverbs, and in some languages classifiers of nouns, quantificational agreement affixes on verbs, etc. A linguistically important class of determiners (and corresponding quantifiers), the definite ones, is presented using a semantic definition of definiteness. This chapter also looks at determiners which take more than one restriction argument, along with the quantifiers they denote, and the effect of isomorphism closure. Numerous examples of quantirelations — indeed, determiners — are given. With reference to the Aristotelian square (or rather its modern version), negations and other Boolean operations on type ‹1, 1› quantifiers are discussed.
Some Polyadic Quantifiers of Natural Language
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

This chapter looks at some instances of polyadic natural language quantifiers, beginning with the most common way of combining monadic quantifiers, in ordinary clauses with more than one noun phrase: iteration. Such combination does not lead outside the class of monadic quantifiers, but the iteration operation has interesting properties both from a logical and a linguistic point of view. Another operation, cumulation, which is also monadically expressible, is also mentioned. This chapter also deals with an operation that lifts monadic quantifiers to irreducibly polyadic quantifiers, along with resumption (that is, applying monadic quantifiers to pairs, triples, etc. rather than to individuals, as can be done with certain instances of adverbial quantification), what resumption has to do with ‘donkey’ anaphora, and some useful (mainly logical) characterisations of resumptive quantifiers in terms of certain properties. The putative examples of branching quantification in natural languages are given.
Definability and Undefinability in Logical Languages: Tools for the Monadic Case
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

To prove a positive definability result, one usually has to exhibit the defining sentence, and it helps if this sentence belongs to a well-defined language. To prove a negative undefinability result, on the other hand, one needs to verify that no sentence works as a definition. Then it is crucial that the eligible sentences are generated by a precise grammar and have precise truth conditions. This chapter examines the notion of relative expressive power for logical languages as well as two measures of the syntactic complexity of their formulas, which is used to prove claims about all formulas of a given logic by induction. It considers the appropriate notion of definability of a quantifier in a logic to show that relative expressive power can be cashed out in terms of definability. A number of examples of definable quantifiers are given, and the crucial role of isomorphism closure in logical languages is pointed out. The principal strategy for proving that a quantifier is not definable in a given logic is discussed.