bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Favelas
Authors: Saborio Sebastian , Spesny Sara León
Published: April 2019

Favelasis the word used in Brazil to designate areas commonly known as slums. However, the term suggests more than territories defined by scarcity, lack of basic services, and poor housing. Favelas expanded as a colonial legacy of slavery and of the growing divide between the urban haves and have‐nots. Today they are present in most metropolises in the country; although varying in size and location, they shape the urban and social landscape of Brazilian cities. Largely interpreted by simplistic dichotomic categories, such as formal/informal, legal/illegal, security/insecurity, hillside/asphalt, favelas should be analyzed through more comprehensive and historically situated approaches that integrate stigmatization, marginalization, and otherness.
Feminist Interventions: French Connections
Authors: Louargant Sophie
Published: April 2019

Gender theories and studies in geography first appeared in France 20 years ago. Largely connected to work in French‐speaking Quebec and North America as a whole, researchers (of both sexes) committed to such approaches built up a singular corpus on gender relations to space in a wide range of fields. Analysis of their work has revealed many transatlantic connections but also the major results they achieved (women's strategies in the face of domination, gendered use of urban space, bodily stigma). Looking back at the contributions of pioneering women geographers in France, while highlighting past and present sources of resistance, this paper reviews in chronological order the effects of the French connection on urban and territorial thinking.
Feminist Interventions: Central and Eastern Europe
Authors: Timár Judit
Published: April 2019

Feminist perspectives were introduced into urban and regional studies in Central and Eastern Europe only after the fall of state socialism and seem to be taking a long time to become widespread in the region. Mapping gendered space was a typical means of introduction in a number of countries. Analyses of new social roles that evolved, as well as spatial processes such as suburbanization that emerged and gathered momentum in the postsocialist era, were other common types of “early” research with a gender perspective. Researchers, mainly of a younger generation, have been addressing issues like urban spaces and representations of the body, homosexuality, heteronormativity, or fear since the 2000s. The number of studies presenting the gendered nature of space and society as a matter‐of‐course phenomenon is on the rise.
Feminist Interventions: Voices from the South
Authors: Bhattacharya Sayan , Konitshek Hale , Nagar Richa
Published: April 2019

This entry surveys feminist interventions under way across three major continents and demonstrates their lasting impacts on regional and urban development studies. Chalo Nagpur of South Asia, indigenous resistance of Latin America, and Feminist Africa together interrogate the monolingualism of academic feminisms, and complicate how we come to know the proverbial “Global South” amid the privileged locations of the “Global North.”
Feminist Interventions: Anglophone World
Authors: Kern Leslie
Published: April 2019

Feminist interventions explore and theorize gendered experiences of urban life, and conceptualize the complex relationship between urban space and social relations of difference and inequality. Addressing urban themes such as housing, labor, planning, safety, transportation, care work, social reproduction, and the public/private distinction, anglophone feminists have illustrated the significance of gender in shaping cities over time. Methodological innovations in qualitative as well as quantitative research have developed a rich empirical body of work addressing difference, power, and agency. Concern with both representation and redistribution is a hallmark of anglophone feminist work. As this scholarship moves forward, increased attention to the Global South and non‐anglophone research will help to break down geographic and conceptual barriers in feminist interventions.
Flash Mobs
Authors: Nicholson Judith A. , Daley Rachelle
Published: April 2019

The flash mob is a global cultural phenomenon with numerous forms, and yet questions about its purpose, appeal, and significance persist. This entry defines the classic flash mob and compares it to other flash mobs with different purposes, including branded flash mobs, flash robs, vote mobs, cash mobs, and Mass mobs. As a revolt against the status quo, the flash mob's appeal is linked to how it challenges the commercialization of public spaces through appropriating them for performance. As a conformist practice, the flash mob's appeal is linked to its imbrication with social media. The significance of the flash mob is read through a brief genealogy of other mob performances, such as Critical Mass Ride and Zombie Walk, and through a variety of scholarly studies including performance studies, media studies, and mobilities studies.
Gated Communities (
CID
)
Authors: McKenzie Evan
Published: April 2019

The term “gated community” is used generically to describe private common interest housing known as “CIDs,” and specifically to describe neighborhoods with entry controls, hardened perimeters, and internal surveillance. CIDs, including gated communities, have become the predominant form of new housing construction in the United States and many other countries. The academic literature on these communities focuses on the ways in which their private governance structures depart from liberal‐democratic norms, and how they are related to increasing segregation by income. There is an emerging literature on their financial sustainability.
Gated Urbanism
Authors: Pow C. P.
Published: April 2019

Gated urbanism is often traced to the spread of enclosed urban developments, the most vilified being gated communities. In much of the critical urban studies literature, such gated forms of development are often treated as the products of neoliberalism that allegedly transform cities everywhere into urban fortresses. To the extent that these critiques have become the dominant narratives, they also risk foreclosing critical debates on gated urbanism by overgeneralizing without carefully contextualizing when, where and how gating takes place in differing urban contexts. As such, it is necessary to unpack these well‐worn arguments on gated urbanism and offer a more nuanced perspective that underscores the differentiating dynamics and contingent nature of urban gating.
G
eddes,
P
atrick
Authors: Paba Giancarlo
Published: April 2019

Patrick Geddes (1854–1932), Scottish biologist, sociologist, and planner, was one of the fathers of urban and regional planning. His career as theorist and planner spread from Edinburgh and Britain to Europe, the United States, the Middle East, and India. A generalist, scholar of a number of human and natural sciences, and advocate of the unity of knowledge, Geddes developed a planning practice that put together a creative vision of urban and regional evolution, the reading of historical and geographical contexts, sensitivity toward the social aspects of urban life, and confidence in the possibility of improving the city based on the active involvement of its inhabitants.
Gendered Space
Authors: Myrdahl Tiffany Muller
Published: April 2019

Gendered space refers to the myriad ways in which space in all its forms – material, discursive, metaphorical, emotional, and the like – is produced by and productive of gender norms and relations. Like other social relations, gender is a sociospatial phenomenon that becomes material through enactments which reinforce and/or challenge dominant norms and relations. Because the meaning of gender changes over time and space, understanding the spatial manifestations of gender provides a powerful window into how categories of gender are defined, embodied, and imbued with specific characteristics and significance. The gendering of space has specific, material consequences for people's daily lives, their mobility, and their sense of identity.
Global
S
outh/
N
orth
Authors: Lemanski Charlotte
Published: April 2019

A variety of labels are used to categorize the world: First/Third, East/West, developing/developed, and recently Global South/North. While most urban theory derives from Global North cities, contemporary urbanization is primarily situated in the Global South. This urban theory/practice spatial divergence has been critiqued by postcolonial scholars. Furthermore, while urban theory based on examples and empirical trends from the Global North are framed around modernity and innovation, the Global South city is overwhelmingly conceptualized through a development lens. This entry outlines the postcolonial call to internationalize urban studies via three different approaches: Southern urbanism, the ordinary city, and comparative urbanism.
Globalization
Authors: Schoenecker Amy Beth
Published: April 2019

In a relatively short period of time we have become accustomed to connecting with friends and relatives instantaneously regardless of location. Despite this, a strong connection to place persists. Globalization, the very set of processes that reduce the importance of location, has also created a renewed emphasis on place by prioritizing urban and regional areas as sites of global capital and production. The changes have created uneven results – from deindustrialization and urban blight, to swelling populations in megacities, to global cities marked by both wealth and poverty. This entry explores both the urban constraints and opportunities of globalization.
Globopolis
Authors: Rozpedowski Joanna K.
Published: April 2019

There is an established scholarly view that cities of multiethnic and multicultural and therefore contemporary cosmopolitan character distinguish themselves from global hubs by being both democratic and inclusive, allowing the civil society to avoid the pitfalls of gentrification, exercise sufficient control over urban planning, participate in the city's political process, and take an active part in governance. The entry traces the philosophical origins of contemporary accounts of cosmopolitanism and its material manifestations in the global city – that is, the globopolis – paradigm.
Glurbanization
Authors: Matusitz Jonathan
Published: April 2019

As an urban model, glurbanization – a combination of the words “global” and “urbanization” – postulates that important urban transformations and reconfigurations through rescaling processes (called interscalar strategies) are taking place and are greatly enhancing the status and potential of cities (and their regions) so as to increase global competitive advantages. An essential premise of glurbanization is that large cities on the planet, called “global cities,” eventually come to have the same attributes (i.e., cityscapes, skyscrapers, financial districts, cultural hubs, etc.). This occurs as a result of major urban developments that take place.
G
urgaon
Authors: Narain Vishal , Singh Aditya Kumar
Published: April 2019

Gurgaon is located in the northwest Indian state of Haryana. It has been growing since the 1980s as a recreation, residential, and outsourcing hub. This has been led predominantly by private initiative, though the state has provided a policy environment conducive to this. This process was shaped by the acquisition of agricultural land and water resources from the periphery; this has spawned debates about the equity and justice implications of such growth. Village settlement areas coexist with urban high rises. The city has expanded beyond its carrying capacity; water resources are overstressed and infrastructure falls way short of the requirements.
Heterotopia
Authors: Dehaene Michiel
Published: April 2019

Heterotopia is a term coined by Michel Foucault and literally means “other space.” The term is used to refer to spaces that constitute a break with normal spaces and can accommodate practices that cannot exist in these normalized situations. The exact interpretation is contested. Discussions typically include the relationship to utopia; the nature of what makes these spaces other; the interpretation of space; and the relative position of other spaces to normalized space. The term is particularly popular in the field of urban studies. It offers a site and interpretative framework to a broad range of interdisciplinary discussions.
HOPE VI
Authors: Williams Cameron
Published: April 2019

In 1992, the
US
Department of Housing and Urban Development (
HUD
) created the Housing Opportunities for People Everywhere (
HOPE VI
) program to help revitalize the nation's aging and declining subsidized housing stock. The program strove to improve the nation's aging housing stock by demolishing or rehabilitating the worst units and redeveloping some into mixed‐income developments. The mixed‐income developments that were built contain a mix of deeply subsidized, affordable, and market‐rate units. The goal of
HOPE VI
was to integrate public housing developments into the surrounding communities to end the decades‐long isolation of residents living in concentrated poverty. The framers of
HOPE VI
claimed that an end to social isolation, living near middle‐class families, and more amenities would provide public housing residents with the resources they needed to become self‐sufficient. The program also increased the allocation of Housing Choice Vouchers to help relocated residents to rent apartments in the private market.
Housing Estates
Authors: van Kempen Ronald , Bolt Gideon
Published: April 2019

Housing estates should not be seen by definition as the worst places in the city. Although quite a number of these estates do suffer from very bad stigmatization and heavy concentrations of all kinds of social and socioeconomic problems, other estates function very well and have an important housing function in the housing market and for those with lower incomes. Processes of urban restructuring have physically improved a number of estates in the past decade or two, although this did not automatically lead to social improvements. At the same time, research has indicated that many residents of large housing estates are fairly satisfied with, or even take some pride in, living there.
Land and Housing Tenure
Authors: Mejica María Soledad Arqueros , Ostuni Fernando
Published: April 2019

This entry focuses on how the problem of land and housing tenure has been addressed by different scholars and academic traditions. Revisiting the inputs of critical urban studies, the entry presents private property as a key aspect that needs to be considered when analyzing land and housing tenure within the capitalist city. In addition, Latin American urban research has shown how the characteristics of cities in this region, caught in the tension between development and dependent capitalism, is inevitably related to urban informality while addressing the topic of urban land tenure, ownership, and tenure security.
Image of the City
Authors: King Colby R. , Leandres Samantha
Published: April 2019

The image of the city is an ever‐evolving representation of a city's character, unique for each observer, and is socially constructed based on the observer's mental maps of both objectively and subjectively observed characteristics of the city. A term originally coined by Kevin Lynch, the “image of the city” is comprised of both the stationary elements of design and the mobile elements represented by the people and social activities within the city. With globalization, cities increasingly compete to construct images, through place branding, to attract businesses, tourism, and other economic investment.
Immigrant Residential Segregation
Authors: Barbosa Guillermo Yrizar
Published: April 2019

Immigrant residential segregation is the physical or geographic separation of two or more socially constructed groups into residential spaces, usually neighborhoods, and when at least one of the groups is constituted by international migrants in comparison to another group, usually the native nonimmigrant majority. This is a form of segregation that sorts immigrant groups into different social and urban spaces across cities, regions, or metropolitan areas. The residential patterns of immigrant groups in receiving contexts has been a field of continuous interest and research for social scientists in contemporary North American and Western European societies. Since the 1960s, the growing urbanization and ethnoracial diversity of foreign‐born migrants and their offspring have raised empirical questions and theoretical frameworks about their spatial distribution and socioeconomic or demographic characteristics compared to native‐born populations. Immigrant residential segregation varies across and within countries and social groups, and happens for several reasons, including housing market discrimination and individual choices.
Informal Economy
Authors: Coletto Diego
Published: April 2019

The informal economy is huge: recent estimates have confirmed its importance in terms of employment and gross domestic product in many countries in the Global North and South. Over the years many attempts have been made to define and explain the informal economy. While the past approaches were essentially based on dichotomies, in recent years attention has shifted to the continuum between formal and informal economy and to informality's segmentation. Although knowledge about the informal economy has improved over the years, some dilemmas are still unresolved, and the relationship between informality and globalization processes seems to demand more empirical research in order to understand how informality works in different contexts.
Informal Settlements
Authors: Jimenez‐Huerta Edith Rosario
Published: April 2019

Most people in developing countries have to house themselves, because neither the market nor the public sector is offering affordable land or housing to cover their needs. Informal settlements are the largest physical feature of cities throughout the developing world, housing between 30 and 70 percent of the urban population. Public policies designed to reduce their number have failed, and the global trend is actually rising. In some countries, including China and India, single informal settlements can house millions. Today overurbanization is making it increasingly difficult for inhabitants to find a secure place to live and to consolidate their settlements. Current debate suggests that ambiguous terms such as the widely employed “informal settlements” should be discarded. Instead these areas of the city should be considered simply as what they are: socially produced spaces. The definition of these settlements is complex and elusive and their characteristics change over time, by region, by country, and even within a single city. However, the central question of informal settlements is that their informality, and all its synonyms, stem from a definition of property rights according to civil law, where individual rights prevail over social rights.
Informality
Authors: Bardhan Ronita , Jana Arnab , Sarkar Sayantani
Published: April 2019

The progress of urbanization in the developing world has had various consequences. Of these, informality is one of the most significant. The complex demographic makeup of the developing world has made the difference between formality and informality vague. In this entry, urban informality is examined by looking at evidence from the city of Mumbai. Mumbai's urban fabric is a complex mosaic of formal and informal spaces. The study analyzes the phenomenon of informality from various aspects of the urban system of Mumbai city, such as settlement and socioeconomic setup, and shows that the existing informality extends to the multi‐tiered cultural strata of the city. Therefore, to manage informality, it becomes necessary to understand the nature and extent of this phenomenon and also to identify the significant role that it plays in the development process of the city.
Innovation Districts
Authors: Belussi Fiorenza , Sedita Silvia Rita
Published: April 2019

This entry aims to clarify the origin and development of the notion of innovation districts. The definition includes the recognition of the debate around two of the most relevant concepts in the management and economic geography fields: those of industrial districts and clusters. The content spans from the Marshallian echo to the Porterian view and up to the most recent conceptualization of territorial agglomerations, which assigns a crucial role to the complex system of interactions between district firms and external organizations. Innovation processes in districts are triggered by the international exposure of local firms, by networking abilities, and by knowledge recombination, which also allow firms to face periods of global crisis, enhancing the resilience capacity of innovation districts. Finally, a discussion of the most common measures of the innovation performance of districts closes the entry.
Jakarta
Authors: Kusno Abidin
Published: April 2019

This entry offers an overview of Jakarta and major dimensions of scholarship over time following the changes in the social and political contexts of Indonesia. It also indicates future directions in the research on the city.
Kampung
Authors: Guinness Patrick
Published: April 2019

Kampungare off‐street neighborhoods found in the cities of Malaysia and Indonesia. Condemned by urban planners for their untidy appearance and feared by middle‐class and elite urban residents for their diverse and often unlicensed housing, livelihoods, and sociopolitical governance,kampunghave more recently been acknowledged for their residents' contribution to city life and economy. As urban migration continueskampungpopulations expand, providing security and hope for new migrants within the rich and creative neighborhood groupings of thekampung.
K
erner Commission Report/1968 Riots
Authors: Ribeiro Alyssa
Published: April 2019

The Kerner Commission Report sought to understand the context of riots in the 1960s. Released in 1968, it outlined conditions in black neighborhoods and offered policy recommendations for improvement. Weeks after the report's release, widespread disorder erupted in response to the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Political and budgetary constraints prevented adoption of the report's recommendations to address the widening gap between black and white Americans.
L
agos
Authors: Bigon Liora
Published: April 2019

With a projected population of 18.9 million residents for 2025, Lagos, Nigeria, is the largest urban agglomeration on the African continent. This primate coastal city is located in Western Africa, which is the second most rapidly urbanizing subregion in Africa. In light of the city's history in the precolonial, colonial, and postindependence eras and its present infrastructure crisis, current challenges and new perspectives in urban studies research are brought to the fore.
Land Titling
Authors: Ugartamendía Mariana Relli , Rio Juan Pablo Del
Published: April 2019

Land titling involves the transfer of real property rights over a certain portion of land, accredited through a public document that entitles the owner(s) to exclude others from their use and usufruct. Of the multiple available forms of land tenure, public policies have predominantly conceived the transfer of individual land titles as the most effective way to ensure the security of land tenure for its beneficiaries. In addition, since the 1990s, ensuring real property rights, developing markets, and enhancing credit access have consistently been part of the policy prescriptions within the poverty reduction agenda of development and international lending agencies. However, multiple controversies have surrounded land titling policies. There is a growing international consensus that questions the paradigm of transferring individual land titles as being the most effective mechanism to provide secure land tenure.
L
atino Gentrification
Authors: Inzulza‐Contardo Jorge
Published: April 2019

“Gentrification” is a term that Ruth Glass coined to describe the particular social displacement in the early 1960s in London. Fifty years later, this concept has found a wider context around the globe, with different approaches including more urban settings, key actors, and policies when compared to its foundations. “Latino gentrification” is one of these contemporary explanations, used to describe the physical and socioeconomic patterns of change that have modified the urban morphology and the social capital of Latin American inner cities, mainly since the 1990s. Thus, the key patterns discussed here – urban setting, globalization and capital accumulation, gentrifier profile and new trends in housing, and active state intervention – help in understanding the contemporary trends in gentrification and cultural impacts in Latin American neighborhoods. Replacement rather than displacement and the strong links between gentrification and globalization are raised as the main differences between European and Latin American cities.
Local and Transnational Citizenship
Authors: Faist Thomas
Published: April 2019

Citizenship constitutes a mechanism of social closure, securing opening toward the members and closing against aliens. Over the past decades, political discourses, practices, and legislation have reflected not only changing understandings of national citizenship but also the emergence of citizenship “below” on the local and regional level and “above” on the trans‐ and supranational level, in the guise of dual citizenship and European Union citizenship. These forms of citizenship carry the potential to alleviate the exclusions produced by national citizenship.
London
Authors: del Cerro Santamaría Gerardo
Published: April 2019

This entry discusses the main aspects of London's development since the expansion of the British empire in the nineteenth century. The keys to the city's transformation from imperial to postimperial urban center in the mid‐twentieth century are highlighted in the first section. The entry then reviews restructuring and globalization in London starting in the 1970s, a set of processes that significantly altered the city's socioeconomic structure. During those years, London became a city at the top of the global hierarchy and a center of command for the global financial economy, and it still plays these roles today. The entry goes on to discuss urban megaprojects in London, which have long shaped the city's physical form and, importantly, influenced its economy. Some of the main contemporary megaprojects in the city are Thames Gateway, Battersea Power Station redevelopment, King's Cross redevelopment, East–West Crossrail and DP World London Gateway. The entry concludes with a reflection on the challenges and prospects for the British capital in its role as a quintessential global city.
L
os
A
ngeles School
Authors: Esfahani Azadeh Hadizadeh
Published: April 2019

The Los Angeles (LA) School of urbanism emerged as a critique of the Chicago School and its perceived insufficiency in representing contemporary cities and urban processes. It flourished through the research and study of a group of scholars based in Los Angeles during the 1980s and 1990s. Scholars associated with the LA School argued that restructuration happened in an urban context and that the Chicago and the modernist approaches linked to it could no longer explain present‐day cities and their processes, whereas LA, as emblematic of postmodern urbanism, provides guidelines and principles for interpreting the sociospatial context of late twentieth‐century cities. In contrast to the Chicago School, the LA School does not regard the development of cities as occurring linearly and as based on a general order; rather, random and chaotic process influenced by global structures influence urban processes and forms. Therefore, instead of centered cities with homogeneous districts, we have polynucleated cities full of difference and diversity.
M
angunwijaya,
Y
.
B
.
Authors: Widodo Johannes
Published: April 2019

Yusuf Bilyarta Mangunwijaya (familiarly known as “Romo Mangun”) was born in Ambarawa, Central Java, on May 6, 1929, and died in Jakarta on February 10, 1999. He is known as a Catholic diocesan priest, architect, humanist, writer, novelist, social worker, human rights activist, and recipient of the Aga Khan Award in 1992 for his project in Kampung Kali Code, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Megaprojects
Authors: Smith James M.
Published: April 2019

Megaproject developments (large‐scale, expensive, urban development projects) and political discussions regarding their necessity, or feasibility, are often framed from the perspective of a city's economic growth and competitiveness with other cities. In addition to altering the physical landscape of cities, megaprojects also affect the mode and character of local governance. While requiring the interaction of several levels of government, they also induce a politics of expertise that has the potential to push discussions about project feasibility out of the spotlight, with clear implications for the character of urban democracy and transparency. Thus, megaprojects should be viewed as a central aspect of contemporary urban planning, governance, and economics.
Metropolitan Resilience
Authors: Kegler Harald
Published: April 2019

In recent years, the term “resilience,” or “metropolitan resilience,” has positioned itself for a precipitous career in research and urban policy. Resilience as a concept is becoming more and more widely accepted and is likely to become the standard for urban development policy. The worldwide program of the Rockefeller Foundation's 100 Resilient Cities is an expression of this. Generally, resilience is a fundamental property of natural and social systems that include the city, region, or metropolis. The term means self‐renewal in a broad sense. Resilience itself as a term is neutral and is derived from the Latinresilire(rebound). It concerns how individuals or communities deal with environmental changes in the sense of preserving the system. It is a matter of survivability, safeguarding the habitat, adaptation to global challenges, and renewal following crises. Resilience refers to the ability of societies or ecosystems to respond to disturbances or shocks and to maintain their system functions. Resilience refers to a capacity for resistance to disturbances and crisis phenomena combined with a learning capacity for future challenges.
Mumbai
Authors: Shaban Abdul
Published: April 2019

Mumbai is the largest city of South Asia and the commercial and financial capital of India. The city is known for its Bollywood movie industry and also its underworld. The city attracts migrants from across India and is known for its large slums. It is also known as “slumdog city” and “city of dreams,” from where many have risen to repute and fame through its vibrant industries and Bollywood.
Municipal Socialism
Authors: Copus Colin
Published: April 2019

The entry explores how the term municipal socialism can be seen as somewhat of a misnomer and more generally refers to a period of social reform introduced through municipal government by those that were often far from socialist in their political views. The entry, using English local government as a context, examines two identifiable phases of what might be termed “municipal socialism”: the first, when early municipal reformers used local government to introduce service and infrastructural improvements through the ownership or provision of basic service such as water, gas, electricity, and transport. The second phase, in the 1980s, had a more explicitly socialist context where a number of Labour‐controlled councils engaged in political warfare against the Conservative governments of Margaret Thatcher. The article deliberately challenges what we might understand by the term municipal socialism.
Narco‐Culture
Authors: Ruiz Juan Carlos
Published: April 2019

Narco‐culture is a Latin American phenomenon derived from drug traffickers' subculture. It involves a disregard for life, flirting with death, ostentatious displays of money, extravagant desires, and certain musical styles like the Mexican narco ballad or funk from the Brazilian slums. Narco‐cultures legitimize social practices that in turn normalize the actions associated with narco‐trafficking, via diverse objects, products, meanings, and codes. It has grown and is now accepted at a national level throughout Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil. This includes not just the narcos' self‐representations but the complex network of cultural practices and representations, ambiguous and sometimes contradictory, that has become the way in which we understand that world.
Neighborhood Effects in
E
urope
Authors: Musterd Sako
Published: April 2019

Neighborhood effects in Europe seem to be milder than in the USA. This relates to the differences between their institutional contexts and welfare regimes. However, in Europe too, neighborhood effects are significant and nontrivial. This entry focuses on Europe and discusses experiences and expectations regarding neighborhood effects, methodological challenges, and some examples of findings of recent research, taking contextual differences into account. Some European countries have high quality large‐scale longitudinal data, allowing for less biased and more detailed investigations of neighborhood effects on various outcomes at different geographic scales. However, this does not make qualitative research superfluous. In this entry examples will be given of both types of approaches to studying neighborhood effects.
N
eo‐
M
arxian Analysis
Authors: Nevarez Leonard
Published: April 2019

Neo‐Marxian analysis in urban and regional studies emerged in the 1960s to address contemporary elements of capitalist society that Marx overlooked in his nineteenth‐century writings: the role of cities in capitalist accumulation, the persistence of landed capital, and the contested, potentially revolutionary features of social space. Neo‐Marxian analysis originally developed along dual approaches found in Marx's writings, philosophical humanism and scientific structuralism, to debate the phenomenal primacy of the city as social space and collective consumption. Class conflict has been emphasized as a force in industrial location, while neo‐Marxian and neo‐Weberian analyses have been synthesized to interpret the centrality of urban growth in urban politics. The entry concludes by addressing new inquiries into scalar shifts of capitalist accumulation and urban governance.
New Economic Geography
Authors: Hassink Robert , Gong Huiwen
Published: April 2019

New economic geography is a term used in two ways in the international literature. First, and foremost, it is used to refer to the work done by Paul Krugman and other economists, who developed abstract models to explain spatial concentration and specializations leading to persistent regional economic disparities. Their main contribution has been to put geography back on the map of economists. According to economic geographers, however, geographical economics has not taken geography seriously enough. This criticism mainly stems from scholars who have themselves been active in a strand of literature in economic geography, which, rather confusingly, has also been called new economic geography or the cultural turn in economic geography. The evolutionary economic geography paradigm provides solutions to some of the shortcomings of both strands of research going on in new economic geography.
New Urbanism
Authors: Trudeau Dan
Published: April 2019

New Urbanism is a contemporary movement within the urban design and planning fields to change the ways in which cities and neighborhoods are built. Initiated by architects, urban designers, and other urbanists concerned with the built environment, this movement's proponents advocate the development of compact, mixed‐use, mixed‐income, and pedestrian‐oriented built environments. Emerging in the USA, the movement draws together a number of ideas about urbanism and urban design from European and American contexts. Efforts to leverage these ideas to influence design has been most apparent in North America, especially at the scale of neighborhood development. While New Urbanism has been incorporated into development, debate continues about its effects. This entry explores the origins of New Urbanism, the current state of scholarship on the movement, and opportunities for future directions in understanding this movement.
Niemeyer,Oscar
Authors: Lara Fernando Luiz
Published: April 2019

Oscar Niemeyer deserves worldwide acclaim as an architect who anticipated by 20 years the modernist need for expression and subjectivity. When he designed the Pampulha buildings in 1941–1942 the world was not ready, and he was criticized for being too sensuous, too expressive, too baroque. When, two decades later, modern architects all over the world were claiming that less is more, very few remembered that in Brazil such freshness and freedom had been built since the 1930s. Niemeyer himself loved to recall that when Walter Gropius visited his house at Canoas in 1953 he dismissed it by saying that it was beautiful but could not be mass produced. As time would prove, Niemeyer's forms, not all mass produced, were reproduced all over the world, the Pampulha and Alvorada curves used in structures from Canada to India, from Australia to Russia. Living two weeks short of 105 years, he certainly enjoyed seeing his curves everywhere.
Orangi Pilot Project
Authors: Hasan Arif
Published: April 2019

The Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) in Karachi was established in 1980 to upgrade the informal settlements in Orangi Township. Its first program was in sanitation. A component‐sharing model was developed whereby communities built and financed on‐site infrastructure and the government built and financed offsite infrastructure. The OPP supported the communities with technical assistance and managerial guidance and supported the state with participatory mapping and community support. The sanitation program led to a number of other community initiatives, not only in Karachi but all over Pakistan, such as housing, savings, disaster relief and rehabilitation, health and education. It has influenced policy and government implementation methodologies and reached out to a population of over 2 million.
Pearl River Delta
Authors: Yeh Anthony G. O. , Yang Fiona F. , Xu Jiang
Published: April 2019

At the forefront of China's economic reforms and open door policy in 1978, the Pearl River Delta (PRD) has been one of the most frequently studied Chinese economic regions. This entry examines the economic growth and transformation of the PRD from special economic zones to “world factory” in China through the influence of the “front shop, back factory” model with Hong Kong. It also discusses the impacts of the recent industrial restructuring, characterized by the decline in export‐oriented industries and the rise of producer services. In a new regional production and operation environment, the urban problems of the PRD cities, which pose new challenges for urban and regional planning in managing the growth and transformation of the PRD are identified.
Postmodernism
Authors: Leontidou Lila
Published: April 2019

Debates on postmodernism (the cultural and aesthetic movement) and postmodernity (the historical period) may have petered out during the twenty‐first century, but the marks they have left on geography and urban studies – as well as architecture, literature, and so on – are quite deep. This entry focuses on debates especially since the 1990s, distinguishing postmodernism from postmodernity and poststructuralism. It is structured on the basis of the disciplines affected by its advances and innovations: art, architecture, science, literature, geography. It then differentiates Northern from Southern postmodern cityscapes in the course of the twentieth and twenty‐first centuries, expanding on Southern alternatives to capitalism and modernity.
Production of Space/Lefebvre
Authors: Goonewardena Kanishka
Published: April 2019

The production of space is a concept produced by the prolific French Marxist philosopher Henri Lefebvre (1901–1991), who proposed a novel conception of totality as a mediated articulation of three levels of social reality: the immediate level of everyday life; the intermediate level of the urban; and the global or the most general level of state and capital. The strategic mediating position occupied by spatial production in this Lefebvrean view of the world suggests that space plays a pivotal – and potentially revolutionary – role in the making and unmaking of everyday life as much as state and capital. Lefebvre's wide‐ranging oeuvre, including
The Production of Space
and
The Urban Revolution
, can therefore be read today as a prophetic theorization of the centrality of architecture, urban planning, and other modes of producing space to the greatest contemporary challenges before humanity, especially sociospatial polarization, political alienation, and climate change.
Public Transportation Systems
Authors: Mulley Corinne , Nelson John D.
Published: April 2019

Public transportation systems are important in a world where our cities need sustainability to mitigate the costs of transportation and climate change. This entry examines the connections between transport policy and public transport delivery, how public transport systems impact on land use and vice versa, and the take‐up of public transport by users. In terms of public transportation planning the entry discusses how modern network planning points to policy decisions which frame the type of urban area that emerges. Also discussed is the role of new information in terms of geographical information systems and big data on planning outcomes. Regulatory frameworks and reform are addressed for impact on the delivery of public transport. The entry also looks to the future and highlights the role of new modes of public transport and new forms of delivery and hypothesizes how this might change the view on what is meant by public transportation systems.
Public–Private Partnership
Authors: Corcoran Thomas
Published: April 2019

Public–private partnerships have shaped the development of geographic regions and cities in industrialized nations since at least the early eighteenth century. Today, new accords between business interests and city governments continue to shape paths for capital to flow across the globe. As industry and technology transform the way populations communicate, travel, and labor, collaboration between the state and private enterprise morph along with changes in capitalistic production. Globalization too has proved to be a windfall for public–private partnerships; emerging markets embedded within burgeoning metropolises entice capital investment alongside the undertakings of new experiments for urban governance.
Queer Spaces
Authors: Schuster Nina
Published: April 2019

The concept of queer spaces conveys a critique of heteronormativity in society and its inherent spatial dimensions. This involves criticizing comprehensively the dominance structures and power‐ridden spatial dimensions of society. Queer space is neither a homogeneous concept – a space container – nor a static one; it is rather an interrelational concept that shows how power and dominance structures are enacted by means of social hierarchies, categorizations, and their intersections. Debates in queer urban studies show that social processes always have a spatial dimension that is dynamic in terms of the appropriation of space and the struggles of radical social alliances over power and against hegemonic and neoliberal developments, while producing new normalizations, violent exclusions, and contested interpretations at the same time.
Red Vienna, 1919–1934
Authors: Kadi Justin , Suitner Johannes
Published: April 2019

“Red Vienna” refers to a phase of urban development in Vienna, Austria, between 1919 and 1934. Inspired by ideas of municipal socialism, the Social Democratic Workers' Party implemented local social reforms to improve the living conditions of the working class. Policies were aimed particularly at the fields of housing, welfare, and healthcare, as well as education. While Red Vienna came to an end more than 80 years ago, the reforms continue to shape Vienna's urban development today. Moreover, Red Vienna remains a key reference point in contemporary debates about egalitarian and progressive modes of urban planning.
Regional Innovation
Authors: Coenen Lars
Published: April 2019

Since the early 1990s, social scientists and policy‐makers have been paying increasing attention to regions as designated sites of innovation. The popularity of this argument can be traced back to a number of regional success stories such as Silicon Valley or the industrial districts in the Third Italy as well as Michael Porter's work on clusters. Regional innovation is generally defined as a localized learning process in which knowledge is commercialized into new products, processes, or services through interactions between firms and knowledge‐creating and ‐diffusing organizations. An important topic for studies on regional innovation is the (positive and negative) role of proximity for innovation. The regional innovation systems (RIS) approach has emerged as a unifying framework to analyze conditions for and processes of regional innovation. Empirical RIS studies developed various typologies that characterize and distinguish regions' uneven capacity to innovate. Future research is primarily taking shape along two (related) dimensions: first to move beyond a static and towards a more dynamic (evolutionary) perspective on regional innovation and, second, in light of an increasingly globalized economy, to unpack proximity effects on innovation beyond geographical proximity.
Rental Housing
Authors: Blanco Andres , Razu David
Published: April 2019

One out of five people across the world live in rental housing. Despite the existing bias of housing policies toward homeownership, the rental housing market is indispensable as for many households it represents the only affordable choice, and for many others it is the only option that fits their personal preferences. Besides catering for those needs, rental housing brings about social benefits as it tends to be located in central areas of cities and towns, thus reducing urban sprawl and its associated high infrastructural and environmental costs. Rental housing transactions happen in formal and informal submarkets and under different institutional and social environments that shape their dynamics. Although rental housing is almost always a more affordable choice than ownership, affordability is still an issue most governments are concerned about, so they have designed and implemented different models of social rental programs to address the problem. Finally, in the wake of the new schemes of the sharing economy, the rental housing market faces a relevant challenge as it will have to adapt to lowered transaction costs and the short‐term rental models that are increasingly having an impact on the feasibility of traditional rental arrangements.
Residential Choices
Authors: Cosacov Natalia
Published: April 2019

Residential choices refer to the decision‐making process by which households choose among dwelling and location options. The concept highlights theneeds and preferences, theresources(both monetary and nonmonetary), and theconstraints(limits, pressures, and obstacles) that are at stake when households choose a place to live. Although these decisions occur at the household level, in explaining residential choices researchers have shown the influence not only of microlevel but also macrolevel factors such as housing market, labor market, housing policies, economic situation, institutional context, demographic circumstances, and the urban dynamics themselves. Residential choices are a way into understanding larger urban dynamics and configurations.