bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Cranial Nerves of Chimæra monstrosa
Authors: Cole Frank J.
Published: June 2019

This work was commenced at the suggestion of Prof. Ewart, F.R.S., to whose kindness I am indebted for the material used, and for much assistance and advice during the progress of the investigation. Prof. Ewart placed two specimens at my disposal—a male and a female, both of which were about 43 cm. long, excluding, of course, the lash. As, however, the male had been partly dissected for special points in connection with another investigation, it was only available for the study of the IXth and Xth cranial nerves; the main bulk of the present work, therefore, having been carried out on a single specimen. Hence there are several points on which my work will require confirmation.

As the dissection of the cranial nerves of Chimæra elucidated facts of a more interesting character than I had anticipated, it was thought desirable to publish a preliminary statement containing a brief account of the facts, and to leave the full description with figures and morphological deductions for a future communication, which I hope to lay before the Eoyal Society in a few weeks' time. The present paper, therefore, pretends to be a brief review of the more important facts and nothing more.

Having nothing new to describe with respect to the olfactory and optic nerves, I shall commence with the oculo-motor:—

Third Nerve.—This is a large nerve, and arises from the crus cerebri by two principal roots just behind the pituitary body. On emerging from its foramen in the orbit, it immediately gives off a branch to the superior rectus muscle of the eye, and divides into two large dorsal and ventral branches running respectively over and under the optic nerve.
Preliminary Note on the Structure and Affinities of Phoronis
Authors: Masterman Arthur T.
Published: June 2019

In spite of the great amount of attention which has been bestowed upon this group by many workers, it must still be said that our knowledge of its systematic position is very meagre and uncertain, and that there are points in its anatomy which require elucidation. Through the kindness of Professor M‘Intosh I have been enabled to examine some specimens of P. australis, and also a Phoronis, which appears to be a new species. I reserve a detailed account of my results for later publication, and here only refer very briefly to leading points. I may mention that Professor M‘Intosh has also allowed me the inspection of his serial sections of P. buskii. M‘Intosh, and after a careful comparison I have not the slightest doubt that this is a distinct species from P. australis—it has been usual to regard the distinction between these two forms as not of specific value.

Divisions of the Body.—It is usual, in describing the structure of Phoronis, to refer to two different parts of the body which lie before and behind the septum respectively. I propose, for reasons shown later, to emphasise the division of the body into—(1) The epistome, lying dorsally to the mouth, and having very definite, though somewhat involved, relationship to the next part; (2) the tentacular region, which I prefer to call the collar, consisting of a ring round the mouth region, the oral part being produced into two arms or processes which bear tentacles and are coiled, and the aboral end being limited superficially by the nerve ring and fundamentally by the so-called septum; (3) the trunk, including all the region behind the septum.
On the Path of a Rotating Spherical Projectile. Part II
Authors: Tait
Published: June 2019

In addition to the authorities quoted in the first part of the paper, memoirs by Clerk-Maxwell and by Lord Rayleigh are referred to, also a passage in the Beiblätter zu den Ann. d. Physik. (1895, p. 289), which cites Hélie, Traíté de Balistique.

The Author then considers the more obvious defects of the rudely approximate solution of the differential equations which is given in Part I., especially the omission of the direct gravitational effect on the speed, and shows how to take account of the effect of the observed gradual diminution of the angular velocity of the projectile. An improved solution of the problem of § 8 of the paper is also given.

The Author stated that lie had occasionally succeeded in obtaining the kink spoken of in Part I., the projectile being a humming-top made of very thin metal. He had also occasionally obtained a cusp, thus exhibiting the paradoxical result of a projectile's path which is at no point concave downwards.
Note on Centrobaric Shells
Authors: Tait
Published: June 2019

It is singular to observe the comparative ease with which elementary propositions in attraction can be proved by one of the obvious methods, while the proof by the other is tedious.

Thus nothing can be simpler than Newton's proof that a uniform spherical shell exerts no gravitating force on an internal particle. But, so far as I know, there is no such simple proof (of a direct character) that the potential is constant throughout the interior.

On the other hand the direct proof that a spherical shell, whose surface-density is inversely as the cube of the distance from an internal point, is centrobaric is neither short nor simple. (See, for instance, Thomson and Tait's Elements of Natural Philosophy, § 491.) But we may prove at once that its potential at external points is the same as if its mass were condensed at the internal point.
On the Motion of a Heterogeneous Liquid, commencing from Rest with a given Motion of its Boundary
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

I use the word “liquid” for brevity to denote an incompressible fluid, viscid or inviscid, but inviscid unless the contrary is expressly stated. A finite portion of liquid, viscid or inviscid, being given at rest, within a bounding vessel of any shape, whether simply or multiply continuous; let any motion be suddenly produced in some part of the boundary, or throughout the boundary, subject only to the enforced condition of unchanging volume. Every particle of the liquid will instantaneously commence moving with the determinate velocity and in the determinate direction, such that the kinetic energy of the whole is less than that of any other motion which the liquid could have with the given motion of its boundary. This proposition is true also for an incompressible elastic solid, manifestly ; (and for the ideal “ether” of Proc. R.S.E., March 7, 1890; and Art. xcix. vol. iii. of my Collected Mathematical and Physical Papers). The truth of the proposition for the case of a viscous liquid is very important in practical hydraulics. As an example of its application to inviscid and viscous fluid and to elastic solid consider an elastic jelly standing in an open rigid mould, and equal bulks of water and of an inviscid liquid in two vessels equal and similar to it. Give equal sudden motions to the three containing vessels: the instantaneous motions of the three contained substances will be the same.
On the Reproduction of some Marine Diatoms
Authors: Murray George
Published: June 2019

The subject of the production within Diatoms of spores, en docysts, &c., has been worked at by several observers, principally Castracane in recent years, and before him O'Meara and Rabenhorst. Some of these observers have noted ciliated, spore-like bodies, probably parasitic or casual intrusive organisms; others, notably Castracane, have recorded oval and other cysts winch have not been figured and the characters of which are difficult to realise. Miquel has made an experimental examination of the subject without being able to confirm Castracane's results. Castracane has also recorded the presence, as he thinks, of “gonids or embryonal forms” within a fossil Diatom (Coscinodiscus punctatus) in a marine deposit of miocene age. During March of this year I tow-netted near the Bell Rock a large quantity of Coscinodiscus concinnus — with many dead valves separated at the girdle. These frequently contained not only other and smaller individuals of the same species, but other species of diatoms and casual objects as well, and the observation makes one cautious about accepting evidence of the character brought forward by Castracane as to his fossil form.

Lauder, in describing forms of Bacteriastrum and Chœtoceros, observed the formation of endocysts. “At certain times, or under certain circumstances, the endochrome does not divide after the lengthening of the frustule, but secretes a siliceous envelope and becomes a gonidium or sporangium, consisting of a cell with two rounded ends, and a connecting hoop, one end being smaller than the other ….
Note on the Sensitiveness of the Skin to Weak Electric Currents, as compared with the Sensitiveness of a Telephone to the same Currents
Authors: McKendrick John G.
Published: June 2019

On 7th December last, I showed to the Society a method by which the skin might be stimulated by electric shocks from an induction coil corresponding in rhythm and intensity to the notes and chords of music given off by the phonograph. The pressures from the disk of the phonograph act on a variable resistance microphone transmitter. and the current passing through the latter also passes through the primary coil of an induction machine. From the secondary coil wires pass to two strips of platinum, immersed each in a beaker containing ·75 per cent. of salt solution. When the fingers are dipped into the salt solution, and the phonograph is set in motion, thrills are felt by the fingers corresponding to the intensity and rhythm of the music.

Deeming it of interest to have some data regarding this experiment, I have modified it in the way shown in the diagram, and the E. M. F. of the battery employed and the resistances of the various pieces of the apparatus were measured. Into the circuit of the secondary coil, f, a resistance box, g, and a telephone, t, were introduced; and the circuit was completed when the fingers were immersed in the salt solution h, i. When the phonograph was in action and gave out a well-known military march, the thrills could be felt in the fingers, and at the same time the telephone, which was fixed in a stand at the level of the ear, gave out the music.
A Research into the Nature of the Nucleins and Paranucleins of the Animal Cell
Authors: Milroy T. H.
Published: June 2019

There are two constituents of the cell which have, during the last few years, attracted a great deal of attention, namely, the nucleins and paranucleins.

The nucleins are essential constituents of the cell nucleus, appearing there in different forms of combination. The true nucleins possess at least three characters in common.

In the first place, they have a high percentage of phosphorus. Secondly, they offer great resistance to the action of peptic digestion.

Thirdly, they furnish nuclein bases on being subjected to the action of weak acids at moderate temperatures (about 100° C). They may be regarded as representing combinations between a rich phosphorus-holding acid—nucleic acid—and albumin. These combinations may either be of a firm or loose character, that is to say, in the case of the former it is difficult to split off the nucleic acid from the nuclein by the action of hot saturated baryta solutions, while in the latter the decomposition takes place easily.

It seems probable that there are four or more different nucleic acids, according as they give on decomposition certain definite nuclein bases. In other words, each nuclein base may have its corresponding nucleic acid from which it is derived. From this it follows that there may be also different nucleins corresponding to each nucleic acid. As examples, one may take thymus nuclein, which gives in decomposition with weak acids adenin and guanin, while, from the nuclein of the pancreas, only guanin has been obtained. This acid constituent of the nuclein possesses the property of precipitating proteids out of their solutions.
On a New Form of Constant Volume Air Thermometer, which shows the Total Pressure directly, and may be graduated in degrees by Temperature
Authors: Murray J. R. Erskine
Published: June 2019

§ 1. The thermometer described in the present communication is a constant volume one. Its advantages proceed mainly from a simple arrangement whereby the total pressure of the enclosed air, and hence its temperature, since these are proportional, is measured directly by the height of one column of mercury. The external atmospheric pressure is eliminated by the adjustment of an auxiliary reservoir of mercury.

§ 2. In fig. 1, A is the air-bulb, B is the pressure-gauge, which is an ordinary barometer tube with a vacuum above the mercury connected at its lower end to the bent stem of the air-bulb and also by a flexible tube to the reservoir C. D is the constant volume mark on the stem of the air-bulb. The part of the instrument which is filled with mercury when the air is at 0° C. is shaded in the diagram.

§ 3. To make an observation of temperature the mercury is adjusted to the mark D by raising or lowering the reservoir. The height of the column in B above the level of the mark D now gives the total pressure of the enclosed air. The air-bulb and pressure-gauge may be cut off entirely from external pressure by closing the stop-cock between the pressure-gauge and the reservoir. If the absolute temperature corresponding to any given value of the pressure be known, we can calculate that corresponding to any other pressure by simple proportion.

Thus, in order to graduate the thermometer in degrees of temperature, it is only necessary to find the total pressure for any one temperature; that of melting ice, which we may take as 273° on the absolute scale of temperature, is the most convenient.
On Photo-Chemical Action
Authors: Gibson John
Published: June 2019

A chief difficulty in the study of photo-chemical action lies in its variety, for it gives rise not merely to changes of a chemically simple kind, but also to the innumerable complex changes of plant-life and photography.

The difficulty is further increased by the extremely small proportion of material substance, chemically altered in a limited time by the action of those vibrations of the ether which we call light. To this, perhaps, more than to any other cause, must be attributed our continued inability to ascertain the true nature of photo-chemical changes so constantly observed as the decomposition of silver haloids by light.

Repeated attempts have been, made to connect particular chemical effects, such as oxidation and reduction, with greater or smaller wave-length; but all such attempts have ended in self-contradiction (1, 2).

Now, if there be any single characteristic associating all photochemical actions together, this characteristic must be present in the simplest as well as in the most complex cases, and the consideration of the former seems, therefore, most likely to lead to definite conclusions.

Perhaps the most striking and the most simple case that presents itself is the increased electric conductivity imparted to crystalline selenium on exposure to light.

Monkmann has shown that pure soluble sulphur also acquires increased conductivity when exposed to light, though to a less degree than selenium (3).

Ultra-violet light (4), and also the Röntgen rays, impart electric conductivity to the air.

In these eases the change is a temporary one.
On Electrical Properties of Fumes proceeding from Flames and Burning Charcoal
Authors: Kelvin Lord , Maclean Magnus
Published: June 2019

§ 1. Many experimenters have investigated the electrical properties of flames and incandescent solids. The methods usually employed have been (1) to examine the electric conductivity of different parts of the flame; (2) to measure the difference of potential between platinum wires in different positions in the same flame; (3) to find the leakage of a charged conductor when placed near, or in view of, a flame or an incandescent solid; (4) to observe the leakage of a conductor, raised to a red or white heat, by an electric current, and electrically charged; and (5) to observe the production of electrification or diselectrification by a glowing wire, through which a current is passing, in neighbouring insulated conductors separated from it by different gases.

§ 2. This short communication divides itself into three separate inquiries: 〈1〉 to test by one of our electric filters the electric quality of the fumes from different flames and burnings (this method has not, we believe, been tried before); (2) to observe the difference of potential maintained between two wires of the same metal connected with a copper plate and a zinc plate when the fumes from different flames and burnings at different distances from the plates passed between them and round them; and 〈3〉 to observe the leakage between two parallel metal plates with any difference of electric potential when the fumes from flames and burnings were allowed to pass between them.
On the Expression of any Bordered Skew Determinant as a Sum of Products of Pfaffians
Authors: Muir Thomas
Published: June 2019

1. Cayley commences his third paper on Skew Determinants (May, 1854) by recalling his development of them in terms of Pfaffians, and then goes on to say:—

“J'ai trouve recemment une formule analogue pour le developpement d'un déterminant gauche borde, tel que

Cette formule est:

and he explains that the expressions 12, 1234, etc., are Pfaffians, whose law of formation is—

12 = 12,

1234 = 12·34 + 13·42 + 14·23,

123456 = 12·34·56 + 13·45·62 + 14·56·23 + 15·62·34 + 16·23·45 + 12·35·64 + 13·46·25 +14·52·36 +15·63·42 + 16·24·53 + 12·36·45 + 13·42·56 + 14·53·62 + 15·64·23 + 16·25·34.

No proof is given, and the law of formation of the development itself is not explained.
Experiments on the Electrical Phenomena produced in Gases by Röntgen Rays, by Ultra Violet Light, and by Uranium
Authors: Kelvin Lord , Beattie J. Carruthers , de Smolan M. S.
Published: June 2019

§ 1. To test whether or not the Röntgen rays have any electrifying effect on air, the following arrangement was made.

A lead cylinder 76 cms. long, 23 cms. diameter, was constructed; and both ends were closed with paraffined cardboard, transparent to the Röntgen rays. Outside the end distant from the electrometer (see diagram 1) a Röntgen lamp was placed. In the other end two holes were made, one in the middle, through which passed a glass tube (referred to below as suction pipe) of sufficient length to allow the end in the lead cylinder to be put into any desired place in the cylinder. By means of this, air was drawn through an electric filter by an air pump. The other hole, at a little distance from the centre, contained a second glass tube by which air was drawn through india-rubber tubing from the open-air quadrangle outside the laboratory.

In one series of experiments the end of the suction pipe was kept in the axial line of the lead cylinder at various points 10 cms. apart, beginning with a point close to the end distant from the Röntgen lamp.

In every case the air drawn through the filter was found to be negatively electrified when no screen or an aluminium screen was interposed between the Röntgen lamp and the near end of the lead cylinder. The air was found not electrified at all, or very slightly negative, when a lead screen was interposed.
On Supersaturation and its Dependence on Crystalline Form
Authors: Nicol W. W. J.
Published: June 2019

The phenomenon of Supersaturation in certain well-marked instances is familiar to every student, and may briefly be defined as consisting in the retention in solution at a low temperature of a quantity of a substance sufficient to form a saturated solution at a higher temperature. So long as the temperature is not allowed to fall below a certain point, and the solution is not brought in contact with a particle of the solid substance or with a substance isomorphous with it, the solution is in perfectly stable equilibrium. The researches of Gernez and many others have established this now generally accepted fact, that, the temperature remaining constant, the sole cause which is able to disturb the equilibrium of the solution is contact with a crystal of the same form as that which will crystallise out from the solution.

In a paper communicated to this Society nearly twelve years ago, I described a series of experiments on supersaturation which had forced me to the conclusion that in the strict sense of the word no solution is ever supersaturated, a conclusion which I found had been reached by Loewel nearly fifty years before, as the result of his investigations on the solubility of sodium sulphate. Shortly stated, the views of Loewel and myself were that a supersaturated solution is a saturated or non-saturated solution of the anhydrous salt, the term anhydrous being used by me as a convenient means of indicating that no definite hydrate exists in the solution, but that the whole of the water is in the same relation to the salt.
Note on the Calcutta Earthquake (June 12, 1897), as recorded by the Bifilar Pendulum at the Edinburgh Royal Observatory
Authors: Heath Thomas
Published: June 2019

On the 12th of June a disastrous earthquake occurred in North-Eastern India. The violence of the shock was first felt in Calcutta (at least, the first report of it reached us from that quarter), and spread with destructive violence, north-easterly through Assam along the valley of the Brahmapootra, and north-westerly along the course of the Ganges and the base of the Himalaya Mountains. We may form some idea of the violence of the shock from the disastrous effects produced by it. From Calcutta it is reported that few houses have escaped without damage of some description, that part of the Cathedral spire has fallen, and that many public buildings have been injured. At Darjeeling many houses were destroyed, and the district left without railway communication. In Bengal the destruction of property was apparently not so great; but in Assam the shock is reported to have spread ruin far and wide, and to have been attended with serious loss of human life.

The destructive energy of the earthquake appears to have been exhausted within the area thus briefly indicated. The undulatory movements set up by it in the earth's crust have, however, been detected at great distances from the centre of the disturbance, and already from three stations in Western Europe reports are to hand showing that seismographic apparatus have recorded the phenomenon beyond any possibility of doubt. These stations are Grenoble in South-Eastern France, Prof. Milne's Seismological Observatory in the Isle of Wight, and the Royal Observatory on Blackford Hill. Doubtless in time we shall hear of similar records obtained at many other places.
Note on the Solution of Equations in Linear and Vector Functions
Authors: Tait
Published: June 2019

In a paper read to the Society on March 1 (ante, p. 310) I spoke of the application of some of its results to the solution of equations involving an unknown Linear and Vector Function. These results depended chiefly upon the expression of the function in terms of its roots, scalar and directional; and I now give a few instances of their utility, keeping in view rather variety of treatment than complexity of subject. The matter admits of practically infinite development, even when we keep to very simple forms of equation, and is thus specially qualified to show the richness in resources which is so characteristic of quaternions. But it will be seen also to be strongly suggestive of the extreme caution required even in the most elementary parts of this field of inquiry.
Observations on the Migratory Movements of Salmonidæ during the Spawning Season
Authors: Calderwood W. L.
Published: June 2019

The fact that the salmon comes from the sea and spawns in the river has induced the supposition that this fish ascends the river only for the purpose of spawning. That the supposition is not always justifiable seems, however, sufficiently shown by the fact that clean-run salmon with undeveloped reproductive organs may be found in fresh water during the spawning season, and indeed at any season of the year, and also by the fact that a spring run of fish is usual. “When we regard the head waters of many of our rivers as localities for the natural propagation of the salmon, we find, however, that, except at the spawning season, adult fish are never present. When, at the same time, we remark that the fish which ascend to those waters during the winter months are all sexually ripe, we may fairly conclude that the fish are impelled to migrate to those head waters for the express purpose of spawning.

It has been said that the shads (Clupea allosa, and C. finta) and the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) are examples of fishes which have a spawning habit analogous to that of the salmon, since they also ascend rivers for the purpose of propagating their species. Their habit is, however, more analogous to that of the comparatively few salmon which penetrate at once to head streams and tributaries, than to the fishes which inhabit the lower reaches of a salmon river. They ascend for a limited period only, and seek again the salt water whenever the operation of spawning is completed. They are marine fishes which spawn in fresh water. The common eel may be taken as an example of a fresh water fish which spawns in sea water.
A Relation between Permanents and Determinants
Authors: Muir Thomas
Published: June 2019

1. If all the negative terms of the determinant ∣ a1b2c3 … ∣ be changed in sign, we obtain a symmetric function, dealt with by Borchardt and Cayley, known as a Permanent and denoted by

The more important elementary properties of such functions are given in a paper published in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., xi. pp. 409–418. As might be expected, relations are found to exist between them and determinants, an important instance being the theorem of § 7 of the said paper. Another theorem, not hitherto noted, deserves now to be put on record.

2. For the case of the 2nd order it is

the truth of it being self-evident.

For the case of the 3rd order it is

which is easily verified by observing that the coefficients of a1, a2, a3 in the expression on the left-hand side are respectively

and that by the previous case each of these vanishes.
On the Generalization of Josephus' Problem
Authors: Tait
Published: June 2019

In the third Book of The Wars of the Jews, Chap. VIII. § 7, we are told that Josephus managed to save himself and a companion out of a total of 41 men, the majority of whom had resolved on self-extermination (to avoid falling into the hands of Vespasian) provided their leader died with them. The passage is very obscure, and in a sense self-contradictory, but it obviously suggests deliberate fraud of some kind on Josephus' part.

“And now,” said he, “since it is resolved among you that you will die, come on, let us commit our mutual deaths to determination by lot. He whom the lot falls to first, let him be killed by him that hath the second lot, and thus fortune shall make its progress through us all; nor shall any of us perish by his own right hand, for it would be unfair if, when the rest are gone, some-body should repent and save himself.” Whiston, Works of Flavius Josephus, IV. 39.

Bachet, in No. XXIII. of his Problèmes plaisants et délectables, makes a definite hypothesis as to the possible nature of the lot here spoken of; so that the problem, as we have it, is really his.

“Supposons qu'il ordonna que comptant de 3 en 3 on tuerait toujours le troisième, …. il faut que Josèphe se mît le trenteunième après celui par lequel on commençait a compter, au cas qu'il visât à demeurer en vie lui tout seul.
Some Contributions to the Spectroscopy of Hæmoglobin and its Derivatives
Authors: Harris David Fraser
Published: June 2019

1. Apparatus.—The following are needed:—Electric or lime light; standard hæmatinometer (i.e., of 1 cm. between the parallel sides) entirely of glass (for many pigments white glass flat-sided stoppered bottles do perfectly well); large direct-vision spectroscope (Messrs Hilger), or a Tollen's carbon-disulphide glass prism (base 5 inches, refracting angle 45°); a well-stretched dead-white screen to receive the spectrum 4 feet long at least, about 12 feet from the lantern.

Following Preyer (1), one can with such apparatus first of all demonstrate the different spectroscopic appearance according as blood is or is not diluted. Placing blood newly received from the slaughter-house (defibrinated blood) in the hæmatinometer, we show that it is opaque in a thick layer, no light passes to the prism at all, there is no spectrum, we can say that the percentage of HbO2 is, at least, greater than 7·3. Dilute with pure cold water until a faint gleam of red light appears at the extreme left, the concentration of HbO2 is now not less than 1 per cent.; continue the dilution until the first glimmer of extra-linear green appears, the percentage is now about ·9 per cent.; dilute until the first glimmer of intra-linear green appears, when the percentage is now ·7; add to this its own volume of water, making the percentage fall to ·35. From this point further dilution caused progressive faintness of the two bands, until the vanishing point of the fainter β band is just reached when the hæmoglobin is ·01 per cent.; continue the attenuation until the α band is alone visible, at which point the percentage can be stated to be certainly less than ·01 per cent.
Note on the Effect of Mixed Diet as Regards Salivary Digestion
Authors: Robertson W. G. Aitchison
Published: June 2019

The following research was made with the object of determining whether the digestion of starch is affected favourably or unfavourably by its admixture with other articles of food.

As regards the quantity of saliva secreted per twenty-four hours, this is stated to vary from 200 to 1500 grammes. Investigating this in my own case I found that the average amount was 400 grammes.

Method of Investigation.—Ten grammes of each of the various foods as prepared for the table were accurately weighed out, placed in a large tube, and heated to 38° C. Two cubic centimetres of mixed human saliva were then added. A series of these tubes were prepared, and the whole was placed on a water-bath kept at a uniform temperature of 38° C. At intervals a tube was removed, and the condition of its contents noted.
The Strains produced in Iron, Steel, Nickel, and Cobalt Tubes in the Magnetic Field. Part II
Authors: Knott C. G.
Published: June 2019

The most important part of the paper has to do with the behaviour of certain iron and nickel tubes, considerably shorter and narrower than those discussed in Part I. Two iron bars, A and B (A being twice the length of B), and a nickel bar, B, were bored out by successive stages, so as to give three series of tubes of increasing bore. Each tube was subjected to four distinct experiments. These were—

1. Measurements in various magnetic fields of the corresponding changes of volume of bore.

2. Measurements in the same fields of changes of length.

3. Measurements in the same fields of changes of volume of the material of the tube.

4. Measurements in the same fields of apparent external changes of volume, the tube being plugged and treated as a bar.
Note on Finding the Logarithmic Sines and Tangents of Small Arcs
Authors: Burgess J.
Published: June 2019

In geodetical and astronomical computations it frequently happens that we have to use the logarithmic sines or tangents of small arcs, or to find the small angles corresponding to their artificial sines or tangents; and in all trigonometrical tables directions are given to guide the learner in these operations. It might seem, then, superfluous to refer to such a matter. A variety of methods in the solution of a simple problem has, however, sometimes advantages, and the method I have been in the habit of using, though obvious enough, is not usually given.

In Vega's great Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus (1794), based on A. Vlack's Tables, the rules for the functions of small arcs make use of second differences; and the 7th and later editions of Hutton's Tables (1830, 10th ed., 1846) follow the same method.
Note on Dew Bows
Authors: Knott C. G. , Lundie R. A.
Published: June 2019

A dew bow differs from a fog bow in being formed by minute globules of water resting on the ground; but these globules may or may not have been produced by the usual process of dew formation. In the Proceedings of the Society (vol. vii., 1870), Clerk Maxwell has published a note on a bow seen on ice. With the exception of this record, we have been unable to find any distinct account of observations of the phenomenon, although no doubt it must have been occasionally observed soon after sunrise.

The peculiarity of the bows we observed was that they were seen by night, the sources of light being the gas lamps and electric lights of the city. It was on the evening of Friday, November 11, after several days of thick foggy weather. The tiny fog particles seem to have gradually settled down in the still air, the fog steadily clearing the whole time. These globules, in spite of their contact with the damp ground, must have retained their spherical form almost perfectly; for they were able to throw back to the eye, with a rainbow deviation of approximately 42°, the light incident upon them.

In the neighbourhood of every lamp where the surface of the ground had been undisturbed by traffic the bows were seen as bright streaks, which shifted position with the observer. Any disturbance of the surface, a wheelmark, a footprint, a finger drawn across the pavement, obliterated the bright streak; and it was not seen on the surface of puddles.
On the Eliminant of a Set of Quadrics, Ternary or Quaternary
Authors: Nanson E. J.
Published: June 2019

1. There are two methods for expressing in determinant form the eliminant of three ternary quadrics. If u, v, w are the quadrics and J their Jacobian we may eliminate dialytically the ten quantities x3, y3, z3, y2zyz2, z2x, zx2, x2y, xy2, xyz from the ten cubics xu, yu, zu, xv, yv, zv, xw, yw, zw, J. This is in effect the process given by Sylvester in 1841. The other method is to eliminate dialytically the six quantities x2, y2, z2, yz, zx, xy from u, v, w and the three differentials of the Jacobian.

2. The eliminant of four quaternary quadrics may be found in determinant form by a process having points in common with each of these two methods. Multiplying each of the quadrics by the variables x, y, z, w in turn we get sixteen quaternary cubics, and we have also the four differentials of the Jacobian. Thus we have in all twenty quaternary cubics, or just sufficient to eliminate dialytically the twenty expressions x3, …, x2y, … xyz, … The result is a determinant of order 20, and of the correct degree, viz., 8, in the coefficient of each quadric.

It does not appear to be possible to extend this process so as to obtain, in determinant form, free from extraneous factors, the eliminant of a set of quadrics in more than four variables.
Note on the Compressibility of Solutions of Sugar
Authors: Tait
Published: June 2019

In continuation of former investigations of the alteration of compressibility of water, which is produced by dissolving various salts in it, I was led to imagine that some instructive results might be furnished by solutions such as those of sugar, whose bulk is nearly the sum of the bulks of their constituents:—for, in them, we might expect little change in compressibility from that of water itself; i.e. in accordance with my hypothetical formula, little change in the term regarded as representing the molecular pressure.

The following preliminary results have recently been obtained for me by Mr Shand, Nichol Foundationer, who employed the Fraser gun and the Amagat gauge procured for my “Challenger” work:—and a new set of piezometers of the same (Ford's) glass as that whose compressibility I had determined to be 0·0000026. These have been carefully gauged, but have not as yet been directly compared with those formerly employed.

The solutions experimented on were prepared, in Dr Crum Brown's Laboratory, by Mr W. W. Taylor, M.A., B.Sc., and contained respectively 5, 10, 15, 20 parts, by weight, of sugar to 100 of water. The temperature varied but slightly from 12°·4 C. during the whole course of the experiments.
Dust Figures of Electrostatic Lines of Force
Authors: Robertson David
Published: June 2019

When lecturing on Electrostatics at the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, the author endeavoured to impress upon his students the identity of the laws of force for magnetism and electricity at rest. He thought it would further this idea if he could get pictures of electrostatic lines analogous to those obtained from magnets by means of iron filings, and an analysis of the difference of the conditions in the two cases led to the conclusion that there was no reason why this should not be done.

When we shower iron filings upon a glass plate, or a sheet of paper, under which a magnet is placed, unlike poles are induced at the ends of each filing, and it becomes for the time being a little compass needle. Since it is very short, the total action upon it will be a couple turning it into the direction of the force at its centre, unless it be close to the magnet, in which case there will be, in addition, a translation along a line of force. This latter effect causes the filings to crowd towards the edges of the magnet.

Now, in electrostatics we also have an inductive action, opposite charges being induced in the near and far ends of each particle as it comes into the field, but we have the important difference, that whereas the magnetic poles are attached to the filing and cannot be separated from it, the electric charges will leave a body if they have an opportunity of doing so.
On some Oceanographic Problems
Authors: Makaroff Vice-Admiral S.
Published: June 2019

I am very glad to embrace the opportunity of addressing the Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, many of whose members have contributed much to our knowledge of Oceanography. For instance, your President, Lord Kelvin, besides his researches on the tides, is well known to practical seamen from his excellent compasses and sounding machines; your Secretary, Prof. Tait, is well known from his researches on the pressure errors of deep-sea thermometers; Dr Alexander Buchan has a world-wide reputation in the department of oceanic meteorology; the late Prof. Dittmar was a great authority on the chemistry of sea water. It is enough to say that Sir Wyville Thomson, Mr J. Y. Buchanan, and Sir John Murray, were members of the “Challenger” Expedition, which has given the world such valuable information about the depths of the sea.

Of course, it is not with the intention of giving to such scientific authorities a lesson that I address the Society, but if you represent scientists, I represent the seamen, and it is useful from time to time to have a talk between these two classes of men. Every scientific study should be started by the scientist, but the sooner they can associate ordinary practical men with the work the better it will be. We practical seamen are more numerous than scientists; we constantly navigate the sea, and we have more opportunities of making contributions to science than they have. Certainly, they can make their observations in a more exact way than we can, but the laws of nature—particularly those concerning Oceanography—are so imperfectly known, that there is very much to be done even by the rough hands of the ordinary seamen.
On the Survey by the S.S. ‘Britannia’ of the Cable Route between Bermuda, Turk's Islands, and Jamaica
Authors: Peake R. E. , Murray Sir John
Published: June 2019

The following is a brief account of the principal points of interest resulting from the survey lately made to find a suitable route for a cable to be laid from Bermuda to Turk's Islands and from thence to Jamaica.

As engineers to the Direct West India Cable Co., my firm, Messrs Clark, Forde, & Taylor, strongly advised that a more than usually complete set of soundings should be taken along the route over which it was proposed that the cable should be laid, our principal reason being that, as the Bermuda group has been raised almost vertically from the bed of the Atlantic by volcanic action, it was impossible, with the limited information available, to say whether similar action might not have taken place elsewhere on the proposed route for the new cable.

The task of carrying out this survey was undertaken by the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co. with their s.s. ‘Britannia,’ which was fitted up with all necessary apparatus, and was also well adapted for the work.

Sounding operations were commenced off Grand Turk Island on the 4th November 1897, and completed on the 2nd December following at Bermuda, during which time 182 soundings were taken, apart from the profile soundings taken off Grand Turk. The laying of the cable was commenced at Bermuda on the 5th January 1898, and completed on the 18th of the same month.

As a result of this work the following suggest themselves as points worthy of notice:—

(1) The even slope of the ground from the neighbourhood of Bermuda to the deepest water found in Lat. 24° 50′ N., no indication being discovered of any upheaval similar to that which has produced the Bermudas with their adjoining shoals.
The Energy of the Röntgen Rays
Authors: Moffat Alexander
Published: June 2019

The number of experiments that have been made on the Röntgen rays is already very large, and much has been learned from them regarding the properties of these rays. There has been, however, as yet, but little done to determine their energy. Indeed, the only accurate work which has been carried out in this direction is that of E. Dorn (Wied. Ann., Bd. 63, p. 160), who measured the heat produced by Röntgen rays falling on a metal plate. This investigation is, however, not complete, as Dorn did not determine the number per second or the duration of the discharges of the Röntgen rays.

On the suggestion of Professor E. Wiedemann (Erlangen), in whose laboratory I have been working, I have tried to investigate this subject; and, although I have not had time to complete my experiments, as I now find I have to return to India much earlier than I expected, I shall describe the methods adopted and the results obtained, in the hope that they may not be without interest.

I first sought to determine in absolute measure the quantity of light produced on a screen of barium platino-cyanide by Röntgen rays. For this purpose I used an optical bank with the barium platino-cyanide screen and the Röntgen lamp at one end, the source of light which I used as a standard of comparison at the other end, and between them a movable photometer. The arrangement of the apparatus is shown in the following diagram.
On the Development and Morphology of the Marsupial Shoulder-Girdle
Authors: Broom R.
Published: June 2019

An examination is made of a series of early stages in the development of the shoulder-girdle in the common Phalanger (Trichosurus vulpecula), and of early stages in the development of that of the Ring-tailed Phalanger (Pseudochirus peregrinus), and of the Rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata). Though in their main features there is much similarity between the girdles of the different genera, there are certain peculiar features in each.

In a Trichosurus fœtus of 8·5 mm., though the main part of the scapula is chondrified, together with the glenoid portion of the coracoid and a portion of the acromion, the rest of the arch, the sternum, and the greater part of the clavicle, are still mesenchymatous. The coracoid can be traced downwards as a fan-like expansion, which meets the first rib and the sternum. Between the coracoid and the clavicle a feebly-developed thin sheet apparently represents the precoracoid (epicoracoid). The clavicle is partly ossified at its upper part, and it is very manifest that there is no cartilaginous basis.

In the Trichosurus fœtus, at birth (14 mm.), the scapula is well developed. The acromion is a large process which springs from the anterior border of the blade. The spine is not yet formed, though its basis can be distinctly traced as a membranous structure stretching from the acromion upwards along the outer side of the scapula in its anterior third. There is no cartilaginous basis for this part of the spine. The coracoid is of large size, and its lower part, which is somewhat bulbous, articulates with the sternum and with the first rib.
Application of Sellmeier's Dynamical Theory to the Dark Lines D1, D2 produced by Sodium-Vapour
Authors: Kelvin Lord
Published: June 2019

§ 1. For a perfectly definite mechanical representation of Sellmeier's theory, imagine for each molecule of sodium-vapour a spherical hollow in ether, lined with a thin rigid spherical shell, of mass equal to the mass of homogeneous ether which would fill the hollow. This rigid lining of the hollow we shall call the sheath of the molecule, or briefly the sheath. Within this put two rigid spherical shells, one inside the other, each movable and each repelled from the sheath with forces, or distribution of force, such that the centre of each is attracted towards the centre of the hollow with a force varying directly as the distance. These suppositions merely put two of Sellmeier's single-atom vibrators into one sheath.

§ 2. Imagine now a vast number of these diatomic molecules, equal and similar in every respect, to be distributed homogeneously through all the ether which we have to consider as containing sodium-vapour. In the first place, let the density of the vapour be so small that the distance between nearest centres is great in comparison with the diameter of each molecule. And in the first place also, let us consider light whose wave-length, is very large in comparison with the distance from centre to centre of nearest molecules. Subject to these conditions we have (Sellmeier's formula)

where m, m denote the ratios of the sums of the masses of one and the other of the movable shells of the diatomic molecules in any large volume of ether, to the mass of undisturbed ether filling the same volume; k, k the periods of vibration of one and the other of the two movable shells of one molecule, on the supposition that the sheath is held fixed; ve the velocity of light in pure undis turbed ether; vs the velocity of light of period τ in the sodium-vapour.
Decorated and Sculptured Skulls from New Guinea
Authors: Turner Sir Wm.
Published: June 2019

The ten skulls to which I would direct attention this evening were collected in the island of New Guinea. The first to come into my possession was given to me in 1895 by one of my pupils, Mr F. N. Johnston, the nine others have been recently purchased from dealers. I am not able to name the tribe or tribes by whom the skulls had been sculptured, neither can I state the precise locality at which they were obtained; but the dealer from whom I bought eight specimens told me that they came from the Purari River district. This river rises in the range of the Albert Victor Mountains, and after a known course of 130 miles, it discharges its waters by several mouths into the head of the great gulf of Papua. It is said to be the largest river in the British territory, next to the Fly River.

In a valuable memoir by Messrs Dorsey and Holmes, on a collection of sixteen decorated skulls from New Guinea, published in 1897, the authors state that although they cannot give the locality from which the specimens came, it is probable that they were collected on the northern shore of the Papuan Gulf, in the British Protectorate. Mantegazza and Regalia have figured a skull from Canoe Island in the Fly River, where the frontal bone was sculptured with four concentric circles. Professor Haddon, in his elaborate memoir on the Decorative Art of New Guinea, says that in the museum at Florence are seven skulls, collected by D'Albertis in the Fly River district, which have designs carved on the frontal bone.