bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prologue
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

ROGER MARTYN lived at Long Melford in Suffolk through much of the sixteenth century. He died there in 1615, aged 88. Towards the end of his long residence he wrote a brief description of ‘the state of Melford church and of Our Lady’s chapel at the east end, as I, Roger Martyn, did know it’. It is a nostalgic evocation of village religion, as remembered from his childhood in the 1530s. The church’s interior had been dominated by the great rood or crucifix, standing high in the rood-loft between nave and chancel, and flanked by images of the Virgin Mary and St John the Evangelist. On the front of the loft, facing the congregation, the twelve apostles were painted, and the roof above was decorated with gilded stars. Beyond the rood was the high altar; to the left of it was a large statue representing the Trinity, patron of the church; to the right were images of saints. Above the high altar stood a gilded carving of Christ’s passion, closed behind painted doors except on high feast days. In the aisle was the Jesus chapel, maintained by the Martyn family; on its altar was a crucifix with the two thieves, to the left an image of Christ, and to the right a pieta, an image of the Virgin bearing her crucified son.
Parishes and Piety
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

IN 1530 the London printer Robert Redman published a best-seller. It was A Work for Householders, or for them that have the guiding or governance of any company. Despite its unpromising title, the book went through two editions in 1530 and three more in 1531; by 1537 it had been printed eight times. A convenient little handbook of practical family religion, A Work for Householders was one of the most popular new publications of the decade. It had been written by Richard Whitford, a scholar-monk at the fashionable Bridgettine house of Syon in Middlesex. Whitford’s earlier writings had been specialist works of piety for monks and nuns, but his new book had been drafted for the household of a lay friend; this friend had seen its sales potential, and encouraged publication. Whitford was an instant success. As well as A Work for Householders, in I 530 he also published his own adaptations of short works of private devotion by St Bonaventura, Bernard Sylvester, and St Bernard, the last reprinted twice in the following year.
The Priests and Their People
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

IN 1530, the year when Richard Whitford published his devotional best-seller and Robert Jannys gave half his wealth to religion, the English Church nevertheless faced problems. John Stokesley, the newly appointed and energetic bishop of London, conducted a personal examination of curates in his diocese. He assessed their educational and pastoral qualifications to serve as parish priests, and of the fifty-eight curates whose examinations survive only fourteen were declared adequate. Twenty-one priests, including two Frenchmen and an Irishman, were banned from service in the diocese because of their ignorance, and sixteen others were suspended as unsuitable; one curate resigned, and four were told to undertake further study and present themselves for re-examination later. Stokesley’s survey seems to confirm the criticisms of parish priests by some contemporaries and many later historians; only a quarter of London curates were thought to be satisfactory, and two-thirds were found in some way inadequate. It was apparently a damning indictment of the capital’s clergy.
Books Banned and Heretics Burned
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

IN 1530 Nicholas Field, a Londoner who had recently travelled in Germany, addressed a small gathering of Chilterns Lollards at the house of John Taylor in Hughenden. He read to them from an English Bible, probably Tyndale’s New Testament, and told them what he had seen and learned ‘beyond the sea in Almany’. Pilgrimages, images, saints’ days, fasting, and offerings to the church were unnecessary observances; services should be in the vernacular; and the eucharist ‘was not, as it was pretended, the flesh, blood, and bone of Christ, but a sacrament, that is a typical signification of his holy blood’.
Resistance and Rebellion, 1530–1538
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

HENRY VIII took part in the trial of the heretic John Lambert in November 1538 as a dramatic demonstration of his Catholic orthodoxy. The king told Lambert, ‘If you do commit yourself unto my judgement you must die, for I will not be a patron unto heretics. ‘ The gesture was a reminder to the monarchs of Europe that, despite schism from Rome and suppression of monasteries, Henry was no heretic. It was also a warning to English evangelicals and Protestants that though the king would reform abuses he would not tolerate heresy, especially on the eucharist. And primarily it was a signal to Henry’s Catholic subjects that he was, after all, one of them. The proclamation of16 November pronounced the same message: by condemning the free circulation of the Bible, denial of the real presence, and the marriage of priests, Henry was endorsing popular hatred of the ‘new learning’ and its supporters. By the autumn of 1538 he really had no choice. He had to make concessions to that fear and resentment of religious change which had been a growing political problem for six years and more.
Evangelists in Action
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

IN 1574 the earl of Huntingdon appointed Peter Eckershall curate of Measham, a mining village in the archdeaconry of Derby. The new curate was the parish’s first Protestant minister, and, as villagers soon admitted, ‘at his coming to them they were ignorant and obstinate papists’. Eckershall began a campaign of Protestant evangelism, preaching sermons, holding catechism classes for the young, and teaching the adults the essentials of the faith. Within two years all communicants could recite a basic Protestant confession, and some had been led ‘to a comfortable feeling of their salvation in Christ’. In 1576, when Eckershall was threatened with suspension for failing to wear a surplice at services, the parishioners successfully pleaded with their bishop not to remove the minister who had brought them the truth. A Protestant patron had given Measham a Protestant preacher, and ‘obstinate papists’ had been made into defenders of the gospel. But only a minority of parishes had experienced the evangelistic efforts of a preacher such as Eckershall, for in the mid-1570s about four-fifths of ministers could not preach.
A New Middle Ages
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: November 2023

Readers may find the title of this first chapter pretentious, but it claims no more than to provide an outline of ‘a’ new middle ages, a particular view of the period, and one of many alternative and valid perspectives. It has some slight connection with ‘the’ new middle ages of the cultural historians, which offers new insights based on the close analysis of texts. But it has nothing to do with ‘the’ New Middle Ages hailed as the next phase of history by a school of German philosophers who are expressing their frustrations with the impersonal and individualistic spirit of the modern age. The choice of title is partly designed to attract the curiosity of non-specialists, as one of my concerns is to create links between medieval historians and those of the modern period.
Community and Privacy
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: November 2023

In all societies—and that of medieval England was no exception—a tension existed between public obligations and private rights. Collective activities, family interests, and communal values were of great importance, but at the same time individuals had possession of land, and private space was maintained, for example, in houses. At the end of the middle ages an episode that has attracted much attention was the appropriation of common pastures by the lords of manors, the enclosures of common fields, and the exclusion of the peasantry. This seems to represent a triumph of private interests over the common good.
Authority and Freedom
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: November 2023

The first part of this chapter is about those who exercised the strongest authority in medieval society, especially the landed aristocracy, both laymen and clergy. It attempts to make some assessment of their influence as producers in their own right, and their impact on the production of others. It makes a brief consideration also of the economic role of the state. The final section considers those below the ranks of the gentry.

It is easy to gain the impression that the lords controlled the heights of the economy in the thirteenth century. We are told directly of their ability to command others, notably in the various treatises on estate management.
Consumption and Investment
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: November 2023

The study of consumption in the middle ages is a relatively new field of enquiry; it repays investigation because it tells us about material conditions, levels of individual wealth, the dynamic forces behind production, and mentalities. In this chapter I have linked consumption and investment, partly so that I can consider the relative importance of these rival claims on resources, but also because investment was closely linked to the demand for consumer goods.

Consumption has been studied by anthropologists and sociologists who specialize in field of material culture, as well as historians. Much of the enquiry into material culture in the later middle ages has been advanced by archaeological research into structures and artefacts.
Work and Leisure
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: November 2023

This final chapter explores the nature of work, and especially employment, at the end of the middle ages. It will address the question, central to the ‘transition from feudalism to capitalism’ debate, about the existence of a proletariat, and about the increase in the number of wage-earners in the long term. The discussion will be extended to consider attitudes to work, leisure, and charity, with the aim of understanding the ‘work ethic’.

Historians have come to emphasize the number of wage-earners in preindustrial English society. For example, Hoskins, writing about the early sixteenth century, stated that two-thirds of the population ‘consisted of wage-earners and their dependants’.
Agricultural Production: The Limits of Growth?
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Jn 1842, on the death of Thomas Coke, the second earl of Leicester, his tenants erected a monument to celebrate his encouragement of agricultural ‘improvement’. A column was surmounted by a sheaf of wheat and flanked by a massive cow, plump sheep, and modem plough; the frieze around the base showed Coke passing on his advice to a prosperous and grateful tenantry. The monument symbolizes one view of the process and chronology of agricultural growth: a ‘modernizing’ landowner swept away ignorance, breaking the shackles of tradition, and allowing yields and output to rise at the close of the eighteenth century. But should the monument be read instead as an exercise in deference and self-justification? The analysis of Malthus and Ricardo would suggest a different interpretation: by the end of the eighteenth century, growth of output could only be achieved at the expense of decreasing marginal returns, and prices and rents rose as population growth outstripped the capacity of the land to provide food. Perhaps the monument, on the hill above Coke’s lavish Palladian house, symbolized Ricardian rent rather than an agricultural revol¬ ution, marking the increased power and wealth of great landowners at the expense both of consumers who paid more for their food and of farmers who paid more for the use ofland.
Integration and Specialization
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Prosperity, argued Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations, depended on the pursuit of ‘comparative advantage’. No family would make at home any article which it could buy more cheaply: a tailor would not make his own shoes, or a shoemaker his own clothes, for they would produce more, and be more prosperous, by specializing on the tasks at which they were most adept. ‘All of them’, argued Smith, ‘find it for their interest to employ their whole industry in a way in which they have some advantage over their neighbours.’ What was true of the conduct of families applied equally to national policy: each country should specialize in the goods to which it was most suited, removing barriers to free exchange of goods and allowing comparative advantage to flourish.
The Visible Hand: The State and the Economy
Authors: Daunton M J
Published: November 2023

Britain in the eighteenth century, it was sometimes suggested, had a ‘Venetian constitution’, with a small, closed group of landowners dominating the state like the elite of Venice. Britain, contended Benjamin Disraeli, suffered from a combination of ‘Venetian politics, Dutch finance and French wars’ by which Whig aristocratic landowners controlled the state, raising loans in London to finance war on the lines established by Dutch financiers who had been introduced into England by William of Orange. The ‘triumph of the Venetian oligarchy’ has been linked, above all, to the political career of Robert Walpole who, according to his modern biographer, ‘fused the interests of aristocracy, high finance, and executive government’:The Revolution of 1688 and all that followed were retrogressive from the point of view of the emergence of the middle class into political power. Socially and economically they continued to thrive, but not politically. The power of the land and of commerce fused to create a paradise for gentlemen, for the aristocracy of birth; it thus became much easier for England to adopt an imperial authority, to rule alien peoples, and to train its ruling class for that purpose, rather than to adjust its institutions and its social system to the needs of an industrial society.
Background and Family Origins
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

Paul I was born in St Petersburg on 20 September/I October, 1754, but his story actually began thirteen years earlier when Elizabeth, Peter the Great’s youngest daughter, captured the throne in a coup d’état. There had been no law of hereditary succession in Russia since 1722 when Peter legislated the tsar’s right to choose his own successor. Peter then died without making a choice, but a court faction headed by his close lieutenant, Alexander Menshikov, placed his widow, Catherine, on the throne. Until Paul himself reestablished the hereditary succession in 1797, the Russian crown became a prize which was contested among various parties seeking to protect their several interests. Foreign diplomats were often involved, the elite guards regiments provided conspirators with military support, and the coup d’état became a political art form. The candidates were not wholly without credentials. In one way or another, at least until 1762, they were linked with Peter the Great, the last unequivocally legitimate tsar, who had already become a Russian legend. In Elizabeth’s case, this connection was both close and very important to her success. As great Peter’s daughter, she could present herself as Russia’s defender against the foreign adventurers who had gained control over the Russian state, a posture that was particularly attractive to discontented officers, to the guards who were imbued with the Perrine heritage, and to that segment of the privileged class which had been displaced by the ruling clique.
On being Grand Duke at Home and Abroad: I776-I783
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

During the decade from 1773 to 1783 Paul’s situation was transformed. At the beginning of the period, he was the acknowledged heir and a person of recognized importance. He had been raised to maturity by one of the most powerful men in the empire, and he retained close ties with his governor after the household was dissolved. Catherine accepted her son’s standing. She put herself on a footing of intimacy with him, she briefed him on affairs, and she mildly astonished court observers by giving Count Razumovskii and Prince Alexander Kurakin, Paul’s nearest friends, appointments of some importance. Paul’s health and welfare, as in earlier years, remained a matter of concern for everyone with political interests in Russia, while after his first marriage, the intrigues and conspiracies which swirled around his small court attracted wide attention. By 1783, virtually none of this was true. Paul’s court was drawing away from the great court into isolation. Personal relations between Catherine and Paul were strained to the breaking point. They never significantly improved. What status Paul retained owed entirely to Catherine’s reluctance to change the succession, a decision which she repeatedly considered from as early as 1782.
The Long Wait: I783-I796
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

Paul and Mariia returned from Europe to a cold, even hostile, reception. Their first meeting with Catherine was very brief, and over the next several months she continued to show that she was out of countenance with them. The English minister remarked that ‘From all I can learn, they [Paul and Mariia] are as displeased at their Reception as the Empress is sorry for their Return’, and, a few days later, that ‘nothing the Great Duke and Dutchess can do seems to please the Empress … who apparently made up her Mind to be displeased with them and insists on being so’. Indeed, the empress, it was said, was so irritated with her son that she was considering removing him from the succession, though there was no independent confirmation for this assertion.
Tsar Reformer
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

Paul entered on his inheritance quietly. Neither peals of bells nor cannonades announced him. To have indulged in public celebrations (as was done when his mother seized the throne) woulq have insulted the memory of a deceased ruler and was unnecessary to the investiture of a legitimate heir. Or so Paul declared. Legitimacy and the revolution of 1762 were very much on his mind. Even as the oath of allegiance was administered he noticed that Count Alexis Orlov, a central figure in the conspiracy thirty-four years earlier, was not present to be sworn. He did not want Orlov to forget that 23 June. When the ceremony was ended, he sent two of his most trusted subordinates, Fedor Rostopchin and General Nikolai Petrovich Arkharov, to find him. There was nothing sinister in his absence. Though still physically active, Orlov was 80 years old and feeling the burden of his years. He had maintained the vigil as long as he could through Catherine’s last hours, but fatigue finally drove him home and into bed. It was there Paul’s emissaries found him. Arkharov wanted to put him under arrest and drag him back to the palace, but Rostopchin stopped him. Once Orlov had been made to understand what had happened, he insisted on taking the oath at once. He did so in a loud voice before an ikon in his bedroom.
Peace and War: 1797-1801
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

Though domestic questions dominated the first year of Paul’s reign foreign policy was never far from his mind. When he came to the throne, the drama of the first coalition against revolutionary France was in its last act. Prussia, never an enthusiastic participant, had withdrawn in 1795 to take up what proved to be an unshakeable neutrality. Britain and Austria soldiered on though without much hope until Catherine dispatched an auxiliary force of 60,000 men to support her beleaguered allies. Though firm in her determination not to interfere with the internal situation in France (this was not a crusade to overthrow the republic), she believed that a victory for the monarchists was essential to stem the spread of revolutionary influence.
The End of the Beginning
Authors: McGrew Roderick E
Published: November 2023

On 7 November (os) 1800, Paul had ruled Russia for precisely four years. During that time, he had reorganized the empire’s governing institutions to fit his conception of a centralized, chain-of-command administration; he had imposed his authoritarian values on the court and the country; he had reshaped the army to conform with the Frederickian example he admired; he had attacked budget deficits, foreign debt, and currency problems, and having identified revolutionary subversion as the major issue of the day, he had built barriers against foreign influences while instituting comprehensive controls on thought and social behaviour.
The Company 1929–1960
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

This book is not primarily a company history, nor is it a study of the growth of a firm. Its function is to describe the interaction between a European merchant firm and its customers and suppliers in Africa and elsewhere. Yet to understand both ends of this relationship it is essential to have a grasp of the character of UAC as a business enterprise and what may be called the corporate ‘mind’ of the company.
Sidelines: Shipping and Plantations
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

The main focus of UAC’s activities was always West Africa and the greater part of its profits came from trading or investing there. It is for this reason that most of this book concentrates on that region and these activities. Yet UAC was born a conglomerate and it remained one until the rationalization of the 1980s. Some of its activities that lay outside West Africa or were not integral with the trading role were of limited importance. Others-notably, its shipping (both ocean and river transport) and plantations-were of considerable significance. Not to provide some account of at least the more important of these ‘sidelines’ would be to give an oversimplified picture of UAC; yet they do not fit easily into the central narrative of this book, nor with the chronological divisions, which are determined by the West African theme.
Imports, Industry, and Politics
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

War and its aftermath inevitably affected the merchandise trade to Africa as much as the produce trade. Shortages both of imported goods and shipping led again to import licensing, price-fixing, and attempts at import-substitution by local manufacture. The longer-term consequences also were profound, but they were different. Import-licensing did not lead to permanent state control of merchandising, though under quite different circumstances most African states were to resort to it a couple of decades later. The two most important direct consequences of wartime shortages were industrialization and political agitation leading to the transfer of power. In this chapter the trading activities of the merchants during the war will be described briefly in Section I and their role in import-substituting industry in Section II. Section III will examine the role of UAC in the political struggles of the Gold Coast in 1947-8, which some would regard as the real starting-point of West African decolonization.
UAC and African Politics
Authors: Fieldhouse D K
Published: November 2023

There are no neat, self-contained time periods in history which can be encapsulated in single titles or by unitary themes. From one standpoint the decade which began with the political independence of most of Black Africa in about 1960 and ended with the start of the oil crisis in 1973 was the classical period of post-colonial economic growth for most of the continent. According to World Bank statistics, the weighted average annual rate of growth of GDP between 1960 and 1970 for SubSaharan Africa was 3.8 per cent, with generally very favourable indicators for key areas such as investment, infrastructure, and industry. For firms such as UAC this was also the period when, in many territories, the transition from general trader and produce-buyer to provider of technical goods and services and manufacturer was virtually completed. By the early 1970s it could reasonably have been assumed that UAC, along with its traditional competitors such as SCOA, CF AO, Holts, and PZ (with all of which, in fact, relations were much more cordial than ever before) had adapted itself successfully to the radically new conditions of post-colonial Africa and that it had an assured and profitable future there.
Other Forms of Royal Control
Authors: Tibble Steven
Published: November 2023

The crown could manipulate the nobility on the broadest political level through the creation of new seigneuries and the natural reversion of lordships to the king. These were not the only means of control, however; other methods, often more subtle, could also be employed, which would have had an important cumulative effect and would have impinged directly on the day-to-day running of every seigneury in the kingdom.
Religious Life
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

Like most religions, medieval Christianity designated certain persons, places, objects, and times as holy. They were to be treated with special reverence and were exempt from many of the normal rules that applied to the mundane. The Church possessed an extensive repertoire of rituals designed to set aside people, buildings, and objects in this way. In his service book a twelfth-century bishop had directions not only for ordaining clerics and dedicating churches but also for consecrating bells, candles, church ornaments, branches for distribution on Palm Sunday; salt for use in baptism, a pilgrim’s staft a knight’s sword, and the fire and water used for trial by ordeal.
The Course of Life
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

Although there were no effective artificial restraints on fertility in this period, the standard of nutrition and health probably meant that more women were naturally infertile than today. The desire for a child was as deeply felt then as now. The risks of childbirth and childhood were far greater. It was strongly suggested that women who expected to give birth should have water at hand, not for medicinal purposes, but to baptize the child if it seemed about to die. Unbaptized children went to hell. Pregnant women were urged to make their confession in good time, ‘lest they be suddenly taken by surprise and have no access to a priest when they would’.
The Environment
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

Life was hard in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Most men and women lived in cold, damp, uncomfortable, and unhygienic dwellings. They were at the mercy of the weather, and were exposed to a range of unpleasant and sometimes fatal diseases. Even good harvests were poor by the standards of more recent periods. Both the achievements of the period and the disasters need to be set against this physical backcloth. In 1289 there was a great storm, which caused widespread Wooding and battered down the standing corn, ruining the harvest. That, for the St Albans chronicler William Rishanger, marked the end of good weather.
Raymond Carr: Approaches to the History of Spain
Authors: Deas Malcolm
Published: November 2023

I guess that many of his old friends would be surprised to realize how little they know for certain about Raymond Carr—surprised because they would all agree about the strength of his personality: once encountered, never forgotten. I have known him for thirty years, but found myself with few facts. I therefore interviewed him.
An Élite of Grace: The Spanish Bishops in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Lannon Frances
Published: November 2023

Twentieth-century Spanish bishops owed and still owe their most characteristic and enduring influence to their traditional role as leaders of dioceses within the Roman Catholic Church. The pivotal position between the diocesan faithful and the ultimate ecclesiastical authority in Rome was established by episcopal consecration. It could be enhanced by a man’s gifts of leadership and—for much of the century—by political office, but the pivot remained consecration and appointment to a particular see. In the course of this century, however, the Spanish hierarchy has also emerged as an organized élite with both the means and the will to act collectively in national politics. Internal ecclesiastical factors, including more frequent communication between bishops, improved bureaucratic resources, and new ideas about how the episcopacy should function, contributed decisively to this new phenomenon. It seems that the bishops acquired the group consciousness, coherence, and common will to action often identified as necessary by the major classical theorists of effective élite formation. Often they intervened dramatically and controversially in national policies.
The Political Mobilization of Landowners in the Province of Badajoz, 1931-1933
Authors: Rees Timothy
Published: November 2023

The proclamation of the Republic found landowners socially isolated and politically vulnerable in the countryside of Badajoz. Their position in rural society was based on the control of a system of great estates (latifundios) which had been consolidated by the purchase of lands, beginning with the ecclesiastical and civil disentailments of the 1830s and 1850s. Concentration of ownership led to some 26.6 per cent of the total area of the province, 32.5 per cent of the cultivated area, accumulating in the hands of only 400 persons. The families they came from, mainly of bourgeois origins but also including some powerful nobles, were at the heart of a pattern of provincial landownership in which just 1.74 per cent of all those owning rural property had control over the use of 61.94 per cent of available land. These large landowners (latifundistas) relied on the labour of the majority of rural society to work the estates, some 80,000 families in 1930, who were either landless or held insufficient property to support themselves. This rural work-force was divided into a majority of jornaleros (day labourers), who lived a precarious and dependent existence working the latifundios, and a less numerous group of yunteros (labourers with teams of ploughing mules or oxen), perhaps 30 per cent of the total, some of whom sharecropped the parcels of land allocated to them by landowners.
Anarchists in Government: A Paradox of the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939
Authors: Bolloten Burnett , Esenwein George
Published: November 2023

Of all the European upheavals of the twentieth century, the Spanish Civil War and Revolution stands out as a milestone in the history of the European left. This is because it was the first time that so many diverse ideological movements were simultaneously engaged in a common struggle against the forces of the right. This joint effort was beset with problems, since the various leftist groups held fundamentally divergent views, not only with regard to their respective interpretations of the war but also in their overall aims. For the Stalinist Partido Comunista de España (PCE), the war was a contest between Fascism and democracy, whereas for the Marxists of the Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista (POUM), and the anarcho-syndicalists of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI), Spain’s classic revolutionaries, the war was a revolutionary struggle of the working classes against the bourgeoisie.
Élites in Search of Masses: The Traditionalist Communion and the Carlist Party, 1937-1982
Authors: Blinkhorn Martin
Published: November 2023

Nine months after the start of the Spanish Civil War, on 19 April 1937, General Franco announced the arbitrary creation of Nationalist Spain’s single party. The principal components of the Falange Española Tradicionalistay delas JONS, later more generally known as the Movimiento, were the two main mass parties of the pre-war extreme right, the Fascist Falange and the Carlist Comunión Tradicionalista. In officially extinguishing Carlism as an independent force, Franco was dealing with no ordinary political party. Whereas the Falange and the other leading organizations of the pre-Unification Spanish right—the Catholic—conservative CEDA and the rival monarchist party, Renovación Española-were creations of the 1930s, the Traditionalist Communion was heir to a century of history.
Decay, Division, and the Defence of Dictatorship: The Military and Politics, 1939-1975
Authors: Preston Paul
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, General Mola stated that ‘the reconstruction of Spain on a new basis is the exclusive task of the military, a task which corresponds to us by right, because it is the desire of the nation and because we have an exact concept of our power to do so’. Mola’s brutal statement could not have more clearly revealed the arrogance typical of certain parts of the military establishment. The idea that the nation’s political destiny lay in the hands of soldiers was a commonplace of military ideology. Moreover, it was a belief readily accepted by the beleaguered upper and middle classes. They turned to the army in 1936 precisely because of their confidence that the military conception of the national destiny was such as to guarantee the defence of oligarchical privileges and middle-class social, economic, and religious interests.
On Visitation
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

Each bishop listened to the balanced cadences of this charge as the archbishop handed him a Bible in the concluding moments of his consecration to the episcopal office.1 His first and most important opportunity to pursue this pastoral ideal was on visitation. A bishop was canonically required to visit his diocese, preferably in person, within a year of his appointment to a see, and to revisit it at regular, usually triennial, intervals. The episcopal visitation contained significant judicial, administrative and pastoral features as the bishop toured his diocese, ‘uprooting vice and planting virtue’*, in the words of Archbishop Abbot,2 and familiarizing himself with its population and temper. It was an occasion, too, for the diocese to judge whether a bishop was more intent on fleecing or feeding his flock.
Ecclesiastical Justice
Authors: Fincham Kenneth
Published: November 2023

So wrote Archbishop Bancroft in the course of a lengthy letter of July 1 6 1O to the episcopate of the southern province. ‘We may’, he added, ‘noe longer to our utter discreditt leave theise abuses unreformed.‘1 This was the third call in nine years for tighter episcopal control over diocesan officials.2 No one doubted that delegation was the hallmark of any diocesan administration, in view of the extensive size of many English dioceses and the very varied roles that the episcopate were expected to fulfil, including commissioners of the peace, preachers, lords of Parliament and provincial agents of the Crown. The procedures of the diocesan courts had evolved to function smoothly in the absence of the bishop, for whom the canons of 1604 reserved only the formal act of ejecting a minister from his benefice.
The New Urbanism: Building the Convivial City
Authors: Ley David
Published: November 2023

It is Plantagenate Days, 1980s style, at Hazelton Lanes. Here in Toronto’s Yorkville, the site of coffee houses, street artists and hippy communes fifteen years before, is a maze of designer stores crowned by luxury condo miniums. Across Avenue Road from the renovated professional homes of the Annex, Yorkville is now a place of consumption with style in mid-town Toronto, a tangle of galleries, French restaurants and boutiques that it would be boorish to call trendy.
Epidemics as Diffusion Waves
Authors: Haggett Peter
Published: November 2023

In this opening lecture, I wish both to pose and to try to answer three questions. First, what do geographers mean by diffusion waves and why is it a deserving topic for research? Second, what are epidemics and how can an understanding of diffusion concepts help to understand them? Third, how can we build usable models of the way in which epidemics move through geographical space? These basic questions form the foundations from which we go on to explore specific examples of geographical work on epidemics (Lecture 2) and to enquire how geographical work can throw light on the emergence and spread of new diseases (Lecture 3). Finally, in the fourth lecture, we turn to the practical questions of whether geographical concepts have any part to play in the containment of epidemic diseases.
A Place Apart
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

A Place Apart offers a rich and reflective representation of Iceland and Icelanders today. Kirsten Hastrup draws upon extensive first-hand research, but also upon her original theory of what anthropology is and should be, which this book exemplifies. In two previous books she studied the processes and patterns which shaped Icelandic society from medieval times to the nineteenth century; now she brings this historical study up to date by drawing out the dominant themes in present-day Icelandic self-understanding. In many ways Icelanders' sustained image of themselves as a singular people in the world refracts the actual social reality. The image tends to favour particular interpretations of history as well as particular social groups, as Hastrup shows through analyses of tradition and ideology, landscape and memory, community and honour. She investigates the ways in which everyday life is informed by a living tradition and a stress on the historical depth and cultural uniqueness of this place apart. The result is a renewed sense of the texture of the Icelandic world, seen not as a static and prescriptive culture, but rather as a space within which Icelanders are suspended between modernity and consciousness of the antiquity of Icelandic values, between presentness and pastness.
Prelude
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

Imagine yourself suddenly set down surrounded by all your gear, alone on a subarctic coast, while the bus which has dropped you drives away on the dirt road out of sight, and you stand there like a misplaced Malinowski, whose ‘arrival story’ from tropical Trobrianders (1922: 4) I am here adapting to my own experience of arriving at one of my Icelandic fieldsites, a farm situated on a narrow strip of farm land on the south-eastern coast of Iceland.
Time: Uchronia
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

We have reached a point where we may generalize some of the dominant themes in the Icelandic world, as they relate to time, space, and people, seen also as forceful elements in the contexture of that world as lived. Regarding time, the ambition is to discuss some of the ways in which time and history are salient features in social life and discourse. I am not primarily concerned with matters of classification or ways of explicitly conceptualizing time; my focus is on the role played by Icelandic views of past and present in practice. In other words, the idea is to show how an implicit historical consciousness embraces current notions of selfhood and collective identity.
Cultural Diversity
Authors: Widlok Thomas
Published: November 2023

When doing ethnographic field research, apparently simple questions about the subjects of one’s research easily become complex matters. What are these people called? Where do they live? How many of them are there? Consequently this account of social relations among the Hai‖om of northern Namibia has to begin with an overview of the problems of delimiting the scope of the study, the field of research, and the groups and areas discussed. The State and its administrators, and in Namibia’s past this also included State-employed ethnologists, have a vested interest in these processes of delimitation. This chapter therefore assesses past research on the Hai‖om and other people classified as ‘Bushmen’, research which also reflects the cultural diversity of the investigators and administrators. At the same time I contextualize my own efforts to come up with an adequate nomenclature, an appropriate selection with regard to the number of people I decided to work with, and an informed delimitation of my field research area.
Creating Name and Kin Relations
Authors: Widlok Thomas
Published: November 2023

As the previous chapter has shown, continuity and change in Hai‖om camps are only inadequately captured by ideal-type settlement layouts. The same applies to the analysis of Hai‖om kinship relations, which are insufficiently summarized on the basis of genealogical kin diagrams. While kin diagrams allow some comparison with other Khoisan systems of relationship terms, it is only in combination with case material that a more comprehensive and adequate description of the practices of establishing common ground is achieved. Such a description has to include reference not only to kin terminology and marriage preferences, but also to personal names and other modes of establishing links, identities, and boundaries. Gift-exchange and sharing access to land are important aspects of Hai‖om social relations which have been largely neglected so far.
Continuity
Authors: Galton Antony
Published: November 2023

I have had cause to refer to continuity on numerous occasions throughout the preceding chapters; it is now time to tum the focus of our attention on to this topic.

Continuity was an important topic in ancient Greek philosophy, and Aristotle in particular had a great deal to say about it; see White 1992 for a detailed discussion. The distinction between the continuous and the discrete can be applied to any of our key notions of space, time, matter, and change.
The Socialist Transformation of Society
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

From 1948 to 1956 the territory of what became the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region (IMAR) was enlarged as the new communist administration reassembled the regions of Inner Mongolia that earlier Chinese governments had placed under separate provincial administrations. Wherever he could, Ulanhu arranged for the inclusion of neighbouring districts with significant Mongolian populations. During the Civil War Ulanhu’s diplomatic efforts to construct and expand the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Movement had allowed the communists to extend the areas under their control in the north-east. The reward for this was to be some sort of autonomous status for Mongolian regions. In 1948, after the incorporation of the areas administered by the EMAG, Ulanhu’s Inner Mongolian autonomous administration included the regions of Shilingol, Chahar, Nonni-Muren, Hinggan, and Hulun Buir.1 In May 1949 two further leagues were included-Jirem and Juu Ud. The capital of Inner Mongolia was moved from Kalgan in the East to Kueisui in 1952, close to Ulanhu’s own home district, and the city’s Chinese name was changed to a Mongolian one-Hohhot.3 Ulanhu was able to persuade the Party leadership to extend the territory of the new Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region still further. In 1954 the province of Suiyuan was incorporated into the IMAR and the next year part of Jehol was also added.
Kinship, Clans, and History
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

Notions of kinship, and the obligations they imply, provide basic models for close social relations, both within the household, and beyond it. Longestablished networks are the basis of most social interaction beyond the household, and are relied upon to provide support and assistance in times of need. The idiom of kinship may be used to describe the members of an individual’s network. The term ah duu means’ brothers and sisters’ but can be applied to friends as well as relations (hamaatan). Kinship is traced bilaterally and networks usually include patrilateral, matrilateral, and affinal kin. The closest bonds are generally found between members of a minimal lineage of around three generations in depth (particularly if they live near each other). Beyond this, however, the incidence and importance of clans and lineages differs between different Mongolian groups. Clans are prominent in Hulun Buir among the Barga and Buryat groups, in Hinggan, Jirem, and Juu Ud leagues, among the Mongoljin and Turned Mongolians of Liaoning, the Chahar and the more western Mongol groups-the Turned, Ordos, Bayan Nuur, and Alasha Mongolians. In contrast, the Shilingol Mongolians, including the Sunid, Ujumchin, and Abaga (like most of the Halh Mongolians of’ Outer’ Mongolia) recognize the noble Borjigin clan, but apart from this have relatively little by way of widely extended kinship structures.1 The most widely used Mongolian term for the clan is obug but in Hulun Buir clans are known by the Manchu term hala, and in some areas they were traditionally known as yasan (which means bone), or aimag (a word that can be used used to mean tribe, but is mainly used to mean a large administrative district).
Conclusion
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

In the attempt to provide a synoptic account of the results of forty years of revolutionary social engineering on pastoral Inner Mongolia society, it is helpful to review briefly the political and economic processes that have framed this period of social change.
The Development and Delivery of Welfare in Japan
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

There is a popular and widely disseminated version of the development of social welfare in Japan that begins with the actions, in the sixth century AD, of Shoōtoku Taishi (574–622) (see e.g. Amenomori, 1977; JNC–ICSW, 1990; Koōseishoō Jidoōkateikyoku, 1998;Nagashima, 1996;Nomoto, 1998;Yamaoka, 1998). Shoōtoku, Japan’s first great state policy-maker, is the man widely credited with bringing Buddhism to Japan, and Buddhism is seen to have been the driving force behind most of the early welfare activities in Japan, including the establishment of the first welfare institute, Shika-no-In, in the compound of Shitennoōji Temple in Naniwa (present-day Osaka) in AD 591.
The Delivery and Development of Child Protection in Japan
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

Every year, in Japan as in every other advanced industrial society, a small proportion of children come into the care of the state because their parents either cannot or will not look after them to a level which society, in the form of the state, expects. In the case of Japan, the state is represented by the Children and Families Bureau which in 1964 emerged from the Children’s Bureau which had been set up in 1946 within the Ministry of Health and Welfare (Koōseishoō).
Kinship and Marriage
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Partly employed as a kin term for siblings, ka’e ari, a pairing of the terms for ‘elder’ and ‘younger’ or ‘senior’ and ‘junior’, is of considerable analytical import. The expression obviously comprises categories articulated by an asymmetric contrast based on relative age or some other kind of temporal precedence. Yet, especially in reference to groups or collectivities, Keo further apply ka’e ari to a variety of social relationships characterized by reciprocity and mutual assistance. Consistent with their recognized equality or symmetry, parties involved in these relationships (for example, members of groups that regularly assist one another in ritual) are not distinguishable respectively as ‘senior’ (ka’e) and ‘junior’ (an).
Metaphors of Social Process: Origination, Derivation, and Incorporation
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Social relations discussed in previous chapters are informed by several complementary or mutually reinforcing metaphors. After exploring these in turn, I consider how the relations they articulate bear on incorporation and the standing of individuals within social groups. For students of Indonesia and other Austronesian-speaking societies, these metaphorical themes may appear all too familiar. Yet to obtain a fuller understanding of western Keo society, and to explore how they illuminate a more widespread symbolism, it is necessary to review the Keo variants in some detail.