bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Evolution of New Markets
Authors: Geroski Paul
Published: October 2003

Sheds some light on how markets develop. In particular, it suggests that the ‘new economy’ is not much different from the ‘old economy’ and that in general, the early evolution of markets can significantly shape their later structure. The main arguments are elaborated in four chapters, each of them extensively illustrated with product‐case studies (internet, automobiles, television, or mobile phones, etc.). Ch. 2 explores the drivers of innovation and concludes that new technologies are basically pushed on to the market from the supply side. Ch. 3 looks at the dynamics of entry in a new market. Ch. 4 deals with the emergence of a dominant design as a consensus good. Ch. 5 shows how the dominant design shapes the nature of the competition in the new mass market and describes the logistical growth pattern characteristic of most new markets. The last chapter is devoted to sketch out the basic features of market evolution that follow from the events in the early stages of development.
Where Do New Technologies Come From?
Authors: Geroski P. A.
Published: October 2003

Explores the drivers of innovation. It discusses, with the help of several product‐case studies (including television, e‐grocery, and internet service provision), whether innovation is induced by a demand pull or by a supply push. It argues that although demand (either inchoate or articulated) plays a role in technological change, it cannot fully explain it. It suggests that new technologies are pushed on to the market from the supply side, following the guideposts set out by scientific knowledge in the form of technological trajectories.
The Structure of New Markets
Authors: Geroski P. A.
Published: October 2003

Describes and analyses the evolution of the structure of new markets. It evaluates a few case studies (particularly that of automobiles) highlighting the dynamics of market entry and exit. After noting the typical early proliferation of firms and products in a new market, it devotes the rest of the chapter to explain the nature of this proliferation and of its speed of entry. Special attention is given to the role of entry barriers, product characteristics, and sources of the entrants.
The Growth of the Market
Authors: Geroski P. A.
Published: October 2003

Shows how the dominant design shapes the nature of the competition in the new mass market. Using the mobile market as an example, it describes the typical pattern of market growth as a logistic one, with an initial slow rate, followed by a sudden take‐off into a period of rapid growth, which, eventually, slows. It devotes the rest of the chapter to look into the factors that might explain this S‐shaped growth. Genetically modified food and shipbuilding are some of the product‐case studies used to illustrate the analysis.
The Place of Economic Values in Environmental Valuation
Authors: Turner R. Kerry
Published: October 2003

Various aspects of the environmental values debate are first examined within the wider context of the sustainable economic development strategy and goal. Next, an expanded values classification is set out in order to define the limits of the conventional environmental economics concept of total economic value (use plus non‐use values). Particular attention is paid to the definition and measurement of bequest and existence values, as well as to some recent findings in the newly emerging ‘ecological economics’ literature that have implications for resource systems valuation. The chapter concludes with some environmental conservation policy implications.
The Economic Theory of WTP and WTA
Authors: Hanemann W. Michael
Published: October 2003

The aim of this chapter is to examine the properties of welfare measures under alternative preference structures for q (the item being valued) and to identify the observable implications for measured WTA (willingness to accept) or WTP (willingness to pay), whether measured through indirect methods based on revealed preference or direct methods such as contingent valuation. Section 3.2 sets out the basic economic model of individual utility, Sect. 3.3 then reviews how WTP or WTA vary with the magnitude of the perceived change in the item being valued, and Sects. 3.4 and 3.5 deal with how WTP and WTA vary with the individual's income. Sect 3.6 deals with the theory of the disparity between WTP and WTA, and Sect. 3.7 considers a related phenomenon – the disparity between values for gains and losses. Section 3.8 reviews some other explanations of the gain/loss disparity that have appeared in the literature, including prospect theory and the concept of loss aversion, and Sect. 3.9 reviews explanations based on models of individual behaviour under uncertainty, including uncertainty about preferences or what the item might be worth. Section 3.10 touches on substitution and complementarity among alternative qs and how this affects WTP and WTA, and conclusions are summarized in Sect. 3.11.
Public Goods and Contingent Valuation
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: October 2003

Some of the special problems involved in eliciting preferences for public goods (with which many applications of contingent valuation are concerned) are considered. The defining characteristic of a public good is that the same units of the good are consumed by, or give utility to, more than one individual. The different sections of the chapter address: the theory of public goods, incentive compatibility—as a theoretical problem and as a problem for survey research, the link between preference and choice, voluntary contributions to public goods, and voting to elicit preferences.
Information, Uncertainty, and Contingent Valuation
Authors: Munro Alistair , Hanley Nick D.
Published: October 2003

The chapter is organized around two important questions. First, what are the consequences for contingent valuation (CV) of the fact that subjects are likely to bring a wide variety of beliefs to the issue being discussed, and second, what is the optimal amount of information that should be given in CV? This is an issue that need not be faced if information has no effect on valuation, so a short survey is provided of the empirical work done so far on the impact of the provision of information on the results of CV studies. The theoretical ideas underlying valuation under uncertainty and the effects of giving extra information are then considered before returning to the problem of the optimal level of information.
A Monte Carlo Comparison of OLS Estimation Errors and Design Efficiencies in a Two‐Stage Stratified Random Sampling Procedure for a Contingent Valuation Study
Authors: Choe Kyeongae , Parke William R. , Whittington Dale
Published: October 2003

In many settings, a random sample may not be cost‐inefficient, so that a two‐stage stratified random sample is adopted in contingent valuation (CV) studies. The first stage comprises identifying a number of enumeration areas from which to sample households in the second stage. The Monte Carlo simulation, from a CV case study, suggests that increasing the second‐stage sample size within a limited number of enumeration areas selected at the first stage of sampling will result in a greater return in statistical and sampling design efficiency than will increasing the number of enumeration areas with a limited second‐stage sampling size. In both approaches, the marginal return diminishes as the number of sampling units increases.
Multi‐Level Modelling and Contingent Valuation
Authors: Langford Ian H. , Bateman Ian J.
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores, in an introductory manner, the potential advantages of using multi‐level modelling in a range of contingent valuation (CV) survey designs. Section 12.2 briefly reviews the theoretical basis of the generalized linear model (GLM) most often used to model dichotomous‐choice (DC) willingness‐to‐pay data, namely, the logistic regression model. The reasons this model may not provide an adequate description of the data are discussed in Sect. 12.3, while Sect. 12.4 describes the statistical basis of random coefficient models as an extension to GLMs. Section 12.5 systematically develops an example of a random coefficient model called a multi‐level model, using data from a survey undertaken on the Norfolk Broads (a wetland resource in eastern England); the implications of using a multi‐level model are discussed in Sect. 12.6, and other applications are suggested. A summary of the main conclusions is given in Sect. 12.7.
Option and Anticipatory Values of US Wilderness
Authors: Walsh Richard G. , McKean John R.
Published: October 2003

The concept of an option is extended to an access right, and behavioural consequences of the concept and its economic significance is mapped out. An ex ante model of the planned expenditure function is specified and tested in a case study. Site visits are not essential to an indirect use value of options for resource‐related activities such as obtaining information from reading, watching TV, and discussing the site with other persons. Recreation options include both complementary and substitute linkages.
Willingness‐To‐Pay Question Format Effects in Contingent Valuation Studies
Authors: Bateman Ian J. , Langford Ian H. , Rasbash Jon
Published: October 2003

The willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) or willingness‐to‐accept (WTA) question is the central focus of any contingent evaluation (CV) exercise, and is the point at which the valuation being sought is elicited. However, a review of the literature reveals a variety of methods for asking such questions, and in this chapter results are presented from a study examining the impact of varying the elicitation method for WTP responses, and the results show that each is open to criticism. Five approaches are assessed: open‐ended, single‐bound dichotomous‐choice, double‐bound dichotomous‐choice, triple‐bound dichotomous‐choice, and iterative bidding. Particular attention is paid to the dichotomous‐choice approaches, which are dominant in recent literature.
Contingent Valuation Methodology and the US Institutional Framework
Authors: Loomis John B.
Published: October 2003

Contingent valuation has been used officially and unofficially by Federal and State agencies in the USA for a number of decades, although its use accelerated in the early 1980s. The results of CV studies have guided resource regulation and environmental protection, and they have been accepted by Courts in legal cases. Contingent valuation is one of the recognized valuation methods employed in assessments under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) (1980).
Green States and Social Movements
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans-Kristian
Published: October 2003

Social movements take shape in relation to the kind of state they face, while, over time, states are transformed by the movements they both incorporate and resist. Social movements are central to democracy and democratization. This book examines the interaction between states and environmentalism, emblematic of contemporary social movements. The analysis covers the entire sweep of the modern environmental era that begins in the 1970s, emphasizing the comparative history of four countries: the US, UK, Germany, and Norway, each of which captures a particular kind of interest representation. Interest groups, parties, mass mobilizations, protest businesses, and oppositional public spheres vary in their weight and significance across the four countries. The book explains why the US was an environmental pioneer around 1970, why it was then eclipsed by Norway, why Germany now shows the way, and why the UK has been a laggard throughout. Ecological modernization and the growing salience of environmental risks mean that environmental conservation can now emerge as a basic priority of government, growing out of entrenched economic and legitimation imperatives. The end in view is a green state, on a par with earlier transformations that produced first the liberal capitalist state and then the welfare state. Any such transformation can be envisaged only to the extent environmentalism maintains its focus as a critical social movement that confronts as well as engages the state.
States, Movements, and Democracy
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

The analysis of the book is grounded in the comparative history of states and social movements. A focus on the environmental movement is explained and justified. States are classified into four different types in terms of the kind of interest representation they feature, with major consequences that are elaborated in the chapters that follow. Social movements take form in a context largely shaped by the state, so the story begins with a history of the state and its basic priorities. Core concepts such as the state, social movements, and civil society are explained, and the strategy of inquiry is outlined.
The Perils of Political Inclusion: Moderation and Bureaucratization
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

This chapter looks at the implications of inclusion in the state for the movement itself, especially in terms of moderation and bureaucratization. Groups themselves can change in two ways as a result of being included within the state. First, they may have to moderate their positions substantially in order to be more consistent with the political mainstream—especially as conditioned by state imperatives. Second, they may have to develop a much more professional and bureaucratic character, replete with a large full‐time staff, internal hierarchy, and division of labour, and specialists in fund‐raising, organizational maintenance, and management. Moderation and bureaucratization compromise the ‘social movement’ character of environmental groups. Developments in the US, UK, Germany, and Norway are documented, and comparisons are made across time and space in their character and degree, and the possibility of movement resistance to them are considered.
Ecological Modernization, Risk Society, and the Green State
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

Ecological modernization now suggests that environmental values can be attached to the state's core economic imperative, while Ulrich Beck's risk society thesis suggests an environmental attachment to the state's core legitimation imperative. These developments could add up to a conservation imperative of the state—the green state—though no state is yet close to this situation. Norway has entrenched ecological modernization in a moderate weak form. Germany is closest to a strong form of ecological modernization that, in combination with risk‐induced legitimation crisis, points the way to a more reflexive and democratic political economy. The US has the sort of movement that could facilitate such a transformation—but its state has moved in exactly the opposite direction, casting economic and environmental values in old‐fashioned conflictual terms. Even the UK at long last appears to be capable of taking on board some of the key precepts of ecological modernization and democratization.
States and Social Movements: Conclusions
Authors: Dryzek John S. , Downes David , Hunold Christian , Schlosberg David , Hernes Hans‐Kristian
Published: October 2003

States and social movements cannot escape one another, and the outcomes of their interaction give shape to the political world. The state continues to be important in providing a large part of the structural context for movements, and the important possibility of movements transforming the state itself in a greener direction has been established. This dynamic entails reshaping of the state as it incorporates movements, but the ’life cycle’ of movements as they relate to states is much more than a one‐way drive to inclusion. Whether we care about the substantive ends sought by social movements, the transformation of the state, or the continued democratic well‐being of society, the conclusion is that civil society is not just a resting place for social movements on their way to the state . It is meaningful and sometimes crucial as a site of political action in its own right.
Kuwait
Authors: Koch Christian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Kuwait since 1961. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Kuwait's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Armenia
Authors: Grotz Florian , Rodriguez‐McKey Maria
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Armenia both during the short period of independence in 1919–1920 and since the establishment of the Second Republic in 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Armenia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Azerbaijan
Authors: Grotz Florian , Motika Raoul
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Azerbaijan since 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Azerbaijan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Georgia
Authors: Kuchinka‐Lančava Natalie , Grotz Florian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Georgia both during the short period of independence in 1918–21 and since the regaining of independence in 1991. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Georgia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Kazakhstan
Authors: von Gumppenberg Marie‐Carin
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Kazakhstan since 1990. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Kazakhstan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Tajikistan
Authors: Grotz Florian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Tajikistan since 1990. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Tajikistan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Uzbekistan
Authors: Grotz Florian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Uzbekistan since 1990. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Uzbekistan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Afghanistan
Authors: Sarabi Abdul Wahed
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Afghanistan since 1923. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Afghanistan's political history and outlines the evolution of electoral provisions in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes available electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Bhutan
Authors: Lehr Peter
Published: October 2003

The chapter presents all relevant information on elections in Bhutan. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Bhutan's political history, outlines the evolution of the not formalized electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral ‘legislation’ (based on royal decrees) in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections).
Maldives
Authors: Lehr Peter
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in the Maldives since the abolishment of the Sultanate in 1968. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Maldives’ political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates in presidential elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Nepal
Authors: Krämer Karl‐Heinz
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Nepal since 1959. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Nepal's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections and referendums at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Malaysia
Authors: Tan Kevin YL
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in the Philippines since 1907. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Philippine political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and parties in parliamentary and presidential elections at the national level and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Philippines
Authors: Hartmann Christof , Hassall Graham , Santos Soliman M.
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Singapore since 1955. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Singapore's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Vietnam
Authors: Hartmann Christof
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in the People's Republic of China since 1949. A comprehensive overview of Chinese political history is given. The chapter outlines the evolution of electoral provisions and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections).
China (People's Republic)
Authors: Gu Xuewu
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Japan since 1946. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Japan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Mongolia
Authors: Gluchowski Peter M. , Grotz Florian
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Taiwan since 1947. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Taiwan's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for candidates and/or parties in parliamentary and presidential elections at both the national and regional level, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Taiwan (Republic of China)
Authors: Rinza Marianne
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections and referendums held in Australia since federation in 1901. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Australia's political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections and referendums, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Federated States of Micronesia
Authors: Somoza Alexander
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in Fiji since its independence in 1970. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Fijian political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections at both the national level and according to ethnic group, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Samoa
Authors: So'o Asofou
Published: October 2003

Includes all relevant information on national elections held in the Solomon Islands since its independence in 1978. Part I gives a comprehensive overview of Solomon political history, outlines the evolution of electoral provisions, and presents the current electoral legislation in a standardized manner (suffrage, elected institutions, nomination of candidates, electoral system, organizational context of elections). Part II includes exhaustive electoral statistics in systematic tables (numbers of registered voters, votes cast, the votes for parties in parliamentary elections, the electoral participation of political parties, the distribution of parliamentary seats, etc.).
Democracy Promotion in the 1990s: Agency, Motives, and Strategy
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: October 2003

This chapter outlines the evolving international relations theory over the nature of international actors’ agency in promoting democratization. It explores the strengths and weaknesses of different strategies for encouraging political change, and examines the issue of political conditionality. The relationship between Western security and the spread of democracy is analysed.
The EU and the Mediterranean
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: October 2003

In charting European Union democracy promotion policy in the Euro–Mediterranean Partnership as it evolved during the 1990s, this chapter finds evidence of a genuinely new approach towards political change in the Mediterranean. The chapter analyses European approaches towards political Islam and security in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The analysis uncovers important ways in which EU measures were less than fully developed and argues that the EU failed fully to follow through the logic of its own change of approach.
The EU and Algeria
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: October 2003

Catalogues EU policies towards Algeria during the 1990s. It suggests that initial support for the military regime as a bulwark against the Frente Islamique du Salut (FIS) did weaken as the 1990s progressed. The relevance of the Euro–Mediterranean Partnership to political change in Algeria is examined, with particular attention paid to French–Algerian relations.
The EU and China
Authors: Youngs Richard
Published: October 2003

This chapter charts the evolution of European policies towards China since the early 1990s. It outlines the EU's tentative moves towards addressing human rights concerns in China and examines how China's changing politics conditioned the interests of European multinationals. Special attention is paid to EU good governance policies connected with China's preparations for WTO accession.
Political Ideas in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This essay examines the origins of three political doctrines of the twentieth‐century—Communism, Fascism, and Marxism—which Berlin linked through attributing to them the assumption that human life tended in ‘only one direction’. He contrasted this briefly with his own view that human goals were really various and ‘at times incompatible’.
From Hope and Fear Set Free
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

Berlin’s presidential address to the Aristotelian Society dealt with one important gap in his conceptual wall against totalitarianism. If to be free implied knowledge and the exercise of reason, then the distinction between negative and positive views of liberty might be hard to maintain. Berlin argued that knowledge does not always liberate, which implies that freedom does not always depend on knowledge.
The Birth of Greek Individualism
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This is the first of the three Storrs Lectures that Berlin gave at Yale University in 1962. It is part of the version of intellectual history that he developed to underwrite his views about politics. This focused especially on the fourth century b.c., the Renaissance and the Romantic movement. The contribution of the Greeks, in this respect, was the discovery that the life and destiny of the individual did not need to be necessarily conceived in terms of his society.
The Purpose Justifies the Ways
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This short story, written when Berlin was twelve, is his first surviving essay. It reveals the disposition that found expression in his more mature work. Berlin contrasts the settled life of ‘a cosy little home’ with the crude consequentialism of Commissar Uritsky and its destructive effects. The story is a morality tale: Uritsky meets his just end.
A Letter to George Kennan
Authors: Berlin Isaiah
Published: October 2003

This item of 1951 gives insight into the development of Berlin’s thinking about liberty and related themes. He identified the crucial importance of ‘the Kantian morality’ for his purposes, and contrasted this with consequentialists, Hegel and Marx.
Berlin and his Critics
Authors: Harris Ian
Published: October 2003

Ian Harris gives an historical exposition of the main lines of Berlin’s thought bearing on liberty, and within that structure provides a selective listing, with brief comments, on the literature about Berlin.
From Trade to Investment
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the diversification of British trading companies into foreign direct investment in natural resources, manufacturing, and other activities between 1870 and 1914. They built on knowledge and contacts within their host economies to create diversified business groups. There were considerable inter‐firm differences in performance, but profitability was often high.
Concentration and Diversification
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

Between 1945 and 1979, British trading companies continued to ‘re‐invent’ their strategies, by trading in more specialized products, such as automobiles, and from investment in manufacturing, and to benefit from the formatting asymmetries and accumulated knowledge and contacts. They almost disappeared from South Asia and Latin America, but expanded in South and Southeast Asia and Africa. A process of concentration sharply reduced the number of trading firms.
Business Groups
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter shows how British trading companies built extensive and complex business groups to facilitate diversification. They employed a variety of institutional and contractual modes—including contracts, equity, debt, cross‐directorships, and repeated trading transactions—and inside them, there were flows of managerial, financial, and trading information and relationships. The network‐style business groups contained multiple conflicts of interest, but rent‐seeking behaviour was constrained, and they had some positive benefits.
Traders as Manufacturers
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the limited investments of the British trading companies in manufacturing, and there are case studies of investments in sugar refining and cotton textiles. Before 1914, the search for profitable opportunities and the exploitation of scope economies led to investments in manufacturing jute and textiles, and processing raw materials, but in general, the merchant houses were more interested in earning commission on selling goods than owning equity in manufacturing. During the 1960s and 1970s, many companies tried to limit their manufacturing businesses in developed markets, but few possessed the skills needed to succeed.
End Game
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

This chapter investigates the disappearance of most of the British trading companies between the 1980s and 2000. Although some firms suffered from failed strategies to diversify into regions and industries where they lacked expertise, the main problem was that British capital markets regarded these firms as unfashionable, and falling share prices were the result. The principal survivors, John Swire & Sons and Jardine Matheson, were family controlled.
Conclusion
Authors: Jones Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

The conclusion highlights the importance of trading companies as large components of British foreign direct investment before 1914, and which continued to renew and ‘re‐invent’ themselves until the end of the twentieth century. Diversification strategies were initially shaped by the conditions of the nineteenth century, when the lack of infrastructure and local entrepreneurship in developing economies created many opportunities for trading firms, but there were strong internalization incentives for integration arising from asset specificity, uncertainty, frequency of transactions, and opportunism. Although the initial status of many developed countries helped the British firms, they were also deeply embedded in local economies with numerous ‘contracts’, and their longevity rested on core competences in knowledge, information, and external relationships.
The Emergence of the Canonical Heritage of the Church
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The Church of the first millennium assembled a complex canonical heritage of materials, practices, and persons. Minimally these involved various lists or canons of doctrine, scripture, saints, bishops, Fathers and teachers, ecclesial regulations, icons, and liturgy. These functioned together to initiate new believers into the life of faith, together they operated as a complex network of means of grace. While they mediated special divine revelation, they were not reducible to such revelation.
Initiation into the Rule of Truth
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The Reformation constituted a deep epistemological crisis for Western religion and culture. The Cartesian revolution sought to find a way beyond the wars of religion by using doubt as a weapon to secure proper foundations for belief. Descartes sought such foundations in the indubitable intuitions of reason. Whatever other sources may be at work, his work clearly represents the internal secularization of the epistemology of the Reformers. His aim was as much theological as it was philosophical, launching the Enlightenment as a solution to problems embedded in the life of faith.
The Canons of Common Sense
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The great Princeton theology of the nineteenth century sought to conserve the faith of the Church by combining a commitment to sola scriptura with the tenets of Common Sense philosophy imported from Scotland. Seeking certainty for the foundations of the faith, they vacillated between evidentialism and fideism. In the end, the early Princeton theologians lost their nerve and retreated to an exclusive appeal to scripture to ground their quest for an adequate theology and even for an adequate epistemology of theology.
The Rough Intellectualist Road of a Sound Epistemology
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The later Princeton theologians worked valiantly to develop a theory of inspiration and infallibility that would secure once for all their epistemic vision of scripture. Thus, while Benjamin Warfield, for example, sought to secure good evidence for his claims about revelation and inspiration, he was overtaken by sceptical worries that created a deep fissure in his thinking. Paradoxically, the Princeton theology operated out of fear rather than faith and badly misconstrued the inner witness of the Holy Spirit as a theological and pastoral category. Taken as whole, Princeton theology deepened the captivity of the Church and of genuine faith to epistemology.
Digging Still Deeper for Firm Ground
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

A fresh outburst of Liberal Protestantism represented by the work of Schubert Ogden in the middle of the twentieth century exposed afresh the captivity of Protestantism to epistemology. Reworking the New Testament canon to be a canon before the canon that operated as a criterion of identity, Ogden embraced a version of secularization that looked to secular science and history for the truth about the world. The Christian faith was, for him, a representation of truths that are given universally in experience. He embraced a vision of neoclassical theism that effectively aided in the creation of new post‐Christian religious tradition that systematically displaced the varied components of the canonical heritage of the Church.
Feminism and the Transgressing of Canonical Boundaries
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

Feminist theology began in part by making soteriology rather than epistemology central in its vision of canon. Unhappily scripture was, it was believed, deeply compromised as a means of liberation; hence other canonical materials were needed to secure salvation. The result was the creation of virtually a full‐scale competing canonical heritage to that developed in the Church. This was correlated with fresh epistemological proposals that reflected the continued captivity of the Church to changes in epistemology. More recently, feminist theologians have sought to retrieve scripture and the canonical doctrines of the Church as salutary and liberating.
The Canonical Heritage and the Epistemology of Theology
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: October 2003

The early Church was correct to develop a rich canonical heritage that works effectively in the arena of Christian initiation and ongoing ministry. The Church was also right in keeping epistemology secondary and diverse. The shift from canon to criterion was a tragic mistake that must now be overcome by sustained retrieval of the full canonical heritage of the Church. This does not mean the end of epistemology. On the contrary, it creates space for the exploration of neglected epistemic suggestions that are buried in the scriptures and elsewhere and for the development of rigorous proposals for the epistemology of theology.
The European Administration: Between Europeanization and Domestication
Authors: Kassim Hussein
Published: October 2003

An examination is made of the structure of the administrative system of the European Union (EU). Three general arguments are put forward: that the development of the EU’s administration has been conditioned by the nature of the EU as a political system, but that EU administration has similarly had an impact on the EU as a political system; that the entrenchment of national administrations in the EU bureaucratic system has had important consequences for its functioning and operation; and that national administrations have been affected, but not transformed, by the development of the EU. After outlining the features that characterize the EU’s political system, the chapter examines how national administrations have penetrated EU decision–making structures and institutions, and looks at the impact of this process at the European level. It then considers how national administrations have been affected by the development of the EU (European integration and Europeanization). Finally, the chapter provides an assessment of the EU’s administrative capacity.
Comparing Economic Interest Organizations
Authors: Crouch Colin
Published: October 2003

Organizations representing economic interests within individual nation states peaked in both social importance and academic interest during the 1970s and 1980s. It is often argued that since then they have declined in significance. There are four reasons for this: increasing economic globalization, the dominance of neo–liberal economic ideology, the rise of the individual enterprise, and the challenge of various non–functional (non–producer) interests. This chapter assesses the significance of each of these, paying attention to both general or convergent trends and to those that suggest differences of national experience among European countries. The range of organizations included in the discussion are first established, and the four types of interest relationships (contestation, pluralism, bargained corporatism and authoritarian corporatism) between the organizations and their members and those with whom they deal are identified.
Interest Groups and the Brussels Bureaucracy
Authors: Mazey Sonia , Richardson Jeremy
Published: October 2003

The chapter first discusses the logic of lobbying of the European Commission by interest groups. The rest of the discussion is divided into three parts. The first section highlights the organizational and cultural characteristics of the Commission bureaucracy and the implications of these characteristics for groups seeking to develop effective lobbying strategies. The second section examines in detail recent attempts by the Commission to structure and institutionalize interest group consultation; this analysis highlights the increasing importance of both ‘thin’ and ‘thick’ consultative structures. The concluding section briefly considers the utility and limitations of group pluralism within the Commission and asks whether the neo–functionalist predictions have, in the event, turned out to be surprisingly accurate.
From Popular Dissatisfaction to Populism: Democracy, Constitutionalism, and Corruption
Authors: Mény Yves
Published: October 2003

The lack of confidence of citizens in their democratic institutions is not new, although the current context differs in various ways: first, the unchallenged supremacy of the two victorious paradigms of market and democracy; second, the weaker capacity of new or old democracies to deal with the new challenges they have to face; and third, the relative position of market and democracy, which has changed in favour of the market and to the detriment of democracy. The chapter first considers the nature of the democratic malaise and its manifestations; has it to do with the democratic principle itself or is it only a temporary dissatisfaction with elites, parties and political organizations? Two complementary explanations are then offered to interpret the birth and expansion of this phenomenon: the structural explanation emphasizes the tension between the constitutionalist and the popular dimension of contemporary democracies; the conjunctural explanation relates to political corruption, which became so pervasive in the 1990s and contributed to the delegitimation of representatives and of the principle of representation in many European countries, populism and populist dichotomy.