bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conducting Pathways in North Temperate Deciduous Broadleaved Trees
Authors: Umebayashi Toshihiro , Utsumi Yasuhiro , Koga Shinya , Inoue Susumu , Fujikawa Seizo , Arakawa Keita , Matsumura Junji , Oda Kazuyuki
Published: March 2013

The interspecific variation of dye ascent in the stems of 44 broadleaved deciduous species growing in Japan was studied using freeze-dried samples after dye injection. The dye ascending pattern differed both within and between ring-porous and diffuse-porous species. In large earlywood vessels of all ring-porous species, the dye ascended only in the outermost annual ring, and the inner annual rings had lost their water transport function. The dye ascending pattern within the inner annual rings in the ring-porous species was categorized into three types: i) the dye ascended both in the many latewood vessels throughout the latewood and small earlywood vessels; ii) the dye ascended in the many vessels throughout the latewood; and iii) the dye ascended mainly in the late latewood vessels. In diffuse-porous species, the dye ascending pattern within the annual rings also was categorized into three types: i) the dye ascended throughout the annual rings; ii) the dye ascended mainly in the earlywood vessels; and iii) the dye ascended mainly in the latewood vessels. Xylem water distribution was also examined by cryo-SEM in three ring-porous and three diffuse-porous species that had different dye ascending patterns. The water distribution pattern within annual rings was correlated with the dye ascending pattern except for one diffuseporous species (Salix gracilistyla). In this case, water was distributed in the whole region of the annual rings although dye was mainly distributed in the earlywood. These results showed that the functional area of water transport within annual rings differed among ring-porous species and diffuse-porous species.
Nature and Periodicity of Growth Rings in two Bangladeshi Mangrove Species
Authors: Qumruzzaman Chowdhury Md. , Schmitz Nele , Verheydens Anouk , Sass-Klaassen Ute , Koedam Nico , Beeckman Hans
Published: March 2013

Nature and periodicity of growth rings were investigated in Sonneratia apetala and Heritiera fomes, two Bangladeshi mangrove species. From both species we collected three stem discs in the natural forest reserve of the Sundarbans. In addition, three discs were sampled from plantation- grown S. apetala trees of known age. Sanded stem discs revealed distinct growth rings but no periodic fluctuations in vessel variables (vessel density, vessel diameter, vessel grouping), which were measured at high resolution along a transect from pith to bark. The number of growth rings in plantation-grown S. apetala trees corresponded with the documented tree age, hence strongly suggesting the growth rings to be annual. Within species, the annual nature of the rings was further supported by a good match between the tree-ring series. The similar mean curves of S. apetala and H. fomes, growing at the same site in the Sundarbans, pointed to the presence of an external factor influencing their growth. A combination of precipitation and temperature was suggested influencing substrate salinity and phenological events. It became evident that tree-ring research in combination with the analysis of vessel patterns is a valuable tool to further investigate the complex interactions between tree growth and site ecology in mangrove forests.
Comparative Development of Intertracheary Pit Membranes in Abies Firma and Metasequoia Glyptostroboides
Authors: Dute Roland , Hagler LaToya , Black Adam
Published: March 2013

This study compares intertracheary pit membrane structure and ontogeny in Abies firma (Pinaceae) and Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Cupressaceae). Initial phases of pit membrane development are the same for both species. Branched plasmodesmata are present in the earliest stages of pit membrane development observed. Torus thickening of the pit membrane occurs early in pit development prior to pit border initiation. During pit border enlargement, plastids frequently occlude the apertures. Cell lysis is associated with complete wall matrix removal from pit membranes of Metasequoia. By contrast, cell lysis in Abies results in loss of matrix material from the margo, whereas the torus remains largely unaffected. Torus extensions in pit membranes of A. firma retain variable amounts of matrix material. Either a difference in chemical composition of the torus or a difference in autolytic enzymes is hypothesized to explain developmental differences between pit membranes of the two species.
Microfibril Angle: Measurement, Variation and Relationships – A Review
Authors: Donaldson Lloyd
Published: March 2013

Microfibril angle (MFA) is perhaps the easiest ultrastructural variable to measure for wood cell walls, and certainly the only such variable that has been measured on a large scale. Because cellulose is crystalline, the MFA of the S2 layer can be measured by X-ray diffraction. Automated X-ray scanning devices such as SilviScan have produced large datasets for a range of timber species using increment core samples. In conifers, microfibril angles are large in the juvenile wood and small in the mature wood. MFA is larger at the base of the tree for a given ring number from the pith, and decreases with height, increasing slightly at the top tree. In hardwoods, similar patterns occur, but with much less variation and much smaller microfibril angles in juvenile wood. MFA has significant heritability, but is also influenced by environmental factors as shown by its increased values in compression wood, decreased values in tension wood and, often, increased values following nutrient or water supplementation. Adjacent individual tracheids can show moderate differences in MFA that may be related to tracheid length, but not to lumen diameter or cell wall thickness. While there has been strong interest in the MFA of the S2 layer, which dominates the axial stiffness properties of tracheids and fibres, there has been little attention given to the microfibril angles of S1 and S3 layers, which may influence collapse resistance and other lateral properties. Such investigations have been limited by the much greater difficulty of measuring angles for these wall layers. MFA, in combination with basic density, shows a strong relationship to longitudinal modulus of elasticity, and to longitudinal shrinkage, which are the main reasons for interest in this cell wall property in conifers. In hardwoods, MFA is of more interest in relation to growth stress and shrinkage behaviour.
Visualisation of Metals in Pine Treated with Preservative Containing Copper and Iron Nanoparticles
Authors: Matsunaga H. , Kiguchi M. , Roth B. , Evans P.D.
Published: March 2013

In this study we compared the ability of conventional and field-emission scanning-electron-microscopy (FESEM) and energy-dispersive analysis of X-rays (EDX) to visualise and map inorganic nano and microparticles in Southern pine (Pinus sp.) treated with an aqueous dispersion of micronised copper-carbonate and iron oxide. Conventional SEM-EDX was able to detect areas of the wood microstructure that contained higher concentrations of copper and iron, but EDX maps were affected by drift and specimens suffered beam damage. The high brightness of the FESEM's electron beam at low accelerating voltages reduced beam damage and helped when mapping the distribution of copper and iron particles. The clarity of EDX maps was further improved by using drift-correction software and by mapping low energy X-rays. FESEM-EDX was able to resolve individual copper and iron microparticles. We conclude that FESEM-EDX shows promise as a means of resolving and mapping the distribution of inorganic metal particles in wood and that this may lead to greater use of the technology as interest in the treatment of wood with inorganic nano and microparticles grows.
A Visual Information Assessment Tool for Resin Canal Identification and Property Measurement
Authors: Chen Fang Fiona , Li Yang Jun , Downes Geoff
Published: March 2013

Resin canal studies rely on the accurate measurement of various resin canal properties. The conventional approach of manually marking resin canals on a wood sample is not only labour intensive but, more importantly, unable to quantify the visual information of resin canals, such as the size and contrast of a resin canal. This paper describes a semiautomatic visual information processing approach that was developed to identify resin canals and growth rings from colour-scanned images of the transverse surface of polished wood samples, and to quantify the characteristics of resin canals by ring-based statistical measures in terms of the area of a resin canal occupied, colour contrast of a resin canal to its surrounding material and resin canals occurrence frequency within a growth ring. The proposed approach endeavours to automate the analysis as far as practicable. Interactive facilities are provided for correcting decisions made by the automated analysis, wherever necessary. The method of resin canal detection, based on image processing techniques, provides an effective solution to many problems that require feature identification and assessment. The proposed approach was used to assess variation in axial resin canals in radiata pine across different sites.
Micromorphology and Systematic Distribution of Pit Membrane Thickenings in Oleaceae: Tori and Pseudo-Tori
Authors: Rabaey David , Huysmans Suzy , Lens Frederic , Smets Erik , Jansen Steven
Published: March 2013

Recent studies on the functional significance of pit membranes in water conducting cells have renewed general interest in their micromorphology. At least two types of pit membrane thickenings have been described in angiosperm families, i.e. genuine tori and pseudo-tori. This study explores the distribution and morphology of pit membrane thickenings in 69 species and 23 genera within Oleaceae using light and electron microscopy. Torus-bearing pit membranes are confirmed for Osmanthus, and new records are reported for Chionanthus retusa, Picconia azorica, and P. excelsa, but not for the other species studied of Chionanthus. This infrageneric variation suggests that tori represent a plastic feature that has evolved more than once within the family as the result of functional adaptation to efficient and safe water transport. Pseudo-tori are observed in species of Abeliophyllum, Fontanesia, Forsythia, Jasminum, Ligustrum, Menodora, and Syringa. Based on structural differences, we state that tori and pseudo-tori can be distinguished as non-homologous features.
Disconnection and Reconnection: Misconceptions and Recommendations Pertaining to Vouchers in Wood Science
Authors: Barker Jennifer
Published: March 2013

This paper aims to raise awareness of the importance of plant specimen vouchers in wood anatomy and wood identification in keeping abreast of plant name changes. It reveals the strong possibility that many wood specimens in xylaria are currently misidentified because corresponding plant specimen vouchers have been lost or separated from collections and not revisited. It appeals to the systematic wood anatomy community to reconnect wood specimens in xylaria with their corresponding plant specimen vouchers in order to update nomenclature. More specific recommendations are aimed at the International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA) to promote and educate those in the wood community on the importance and value of plant specimen vouchers in wood identification and systematic wood anatomy. Of equal importance is the adoption and promotion of a wood specimen citation system that unambiguously indicates whether research is based upon wood specimens with corresponding plant specimen vouchers and whether these vouchers have been consulted so that the research reflects current nomenclature.
The Wood Cross Sections of Hermann Nördlinger (1818–1897)
Authors: Bubner Ben
Published: March 2013

Hermann Nördlinger (1818–1897), forestry professor in Hohenheim, Germany, published a series of wood cross sections in the years 1852 to 1888 that are introduced here to the modern wood anatomist. The sections, which vary from 50 to 100 μm in thickness, are mounted on sheets of paper and their quality is high enough to observe microscopic details. Their technical perfection is as remarkable as the mode of distribution: sections of 100 wood species were presented in a box together with a booklet containing wood anatomical descriptions. These boxes were distributed as books by the publisher Cotta, from Stuttgart, Germany, with a maximum circulation of 500 per volume. Eleven volumes comprise 1100 wood species from all over the world. These include not only conifers and broadleaved trees but also shrubs, ferns and palms representing a wide variety of woody structures. Excerpts of this collection were also published in Russian, English and French. Today, volumes of Nördlingerʼs cross sections are found in libraries throughout Europe and the United States. Thus, they are relatively easily accessible to wood anatomists who are interested in historic wood sections. A checklist with the content of each volume is appended.
Axial and Radial Variations in Xylem Anatomy of Angiosperm and Conifer Trees in Yunnan, China
Authors: Fan Ze-Xin , Cao Kun-Fang , Becker Peter
Published: March 2013

The model of West, Brown and Enquist (WBE model) showed that lumen hydraulic resistance in trees can be independent of path length, provided that vascular conduits widen basipetally and sufficiently, and the number of functional conduits is constant from twigs to trunk. To test the anatomical realism of this model, we investigated axial and radial changes in xylem characteristics of six angiosperm tree species (fourteen trees, 15–25 m tall) and three coniferous tree species (seven trees, 16–45 m) in Yunnan, China. Conduit lumen diameter increased linearly with distance from the top of the bole to its base in six trees. In all but one of the fifteen remaining trees, lumen diameter increased from the top to near the base of the crown but remained constant or increased more slowly below the crown. Similar, but inverse patterns were found for axial variation in vessel density of the angiosperms, which indicated that the number of conducting vessels increases from trunk to twig as they become narrower. Vessel diameters increased almost linearly with cambial age for the first 20 to 40 years, and then stabilized or increased more slowly in eight trees of Fagaceae. Axial trends in conduit lumen diameter and number were consistent with only partial buffering of hydraulic resistance from pathlength effects, generally confined to the crown region. Neither conduit taper nor number was consistent with the WBE model.
Radial Variation in the size of Axial Elements in Relation to Stem Increment in Quercus Serrata
Authors: Tsuchiya Ryouta , Furukawa Ikuo
Published: March 2013

In Quercus serrata, radial variations of wood fibre length, earlywood vessel element length, and earlywood vessel lumen diameter were investigated and maturation ages of them were estimated using nonlinear segmented regression analysis as proposed by Peszlen (1994). In addition, the age at the maximum point of current annual increment and mean annual increment were estimated by using the Gompertz growth function fitted to the variation of cumulative ring width with ring number from the pith. In the same radial strip, the maturation ages both of wood fibre length and the earlywood vessel element length were similar, and those were close to the ages at the maximum point of current annual increment, whereas the maturation age of earlywood vessel lumen diameter was generally greater, close to the age at the maximum point of mean annual increment. These results indicate that earlywood vessel lumen diameter is the best indicator of the three anatomical properties tested and that a relationship exists between the maturation ages of the size of axial elements and radial stem increment.
Anatomical Changes in the Stems of Azadirachta Indica (Meliaceae) Infected by Pathogenic Fungi
Authors: Rajput Kishore S. , Sanghvi G.V. , Koyani R.D. , Rao K.S.
Published: March 2013

Development of gum ducts and chemical nature of occluding material was studied by histological and histochemical methods in the differentiating xylem of Azadirachta indica A.Juss. In response to injury and subsequent fungal infection the stem developed vascular occlusions and gum resin cavities. Fungal hyphae were observed in all the cell types of xylem including vessel elements and associated parenchyma cells. Chemical nature and forms of the occluding material in gum ducts/cavities differed from that of wound exudates. The occluding material was rich in proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, lignin and phenolics while the material exuded from wounds contained only lipids and proteins. The epithelial cells of the gum ducts showed intense staining for nucleic acids, proteins and insoluble polysaccharides as compared to the neighbouring cells. Some of the epithelial cells accumulated phenolics, which were later released into the duct lumen after dissolution of cell walls. Axial parenchyma cells near the cavities/ducts were free from starch while the vessels were plugged with gum-like material and tyloses. On the other hand, xylem parenchyma cells away from the infection site showed heavy accumulation of starch and negligible amounts of proteins and lipids. The boundary layer was characterised by the presence of few vessels and an abundance of axial and ray parenchyma with heavy accumulation of phenolics, particularly a catacholic type of tannin.
Diffusion Pathways for Heartwood Substances in Acacia Mangium
Authors: Zhang Chunhua , Abe Hisashi , Sano Yuzou , Fujiwara Takeshi , Fujita Minoru , Takabe Keiji
Published: March 2013

The cellular distribution of heartwood substances and the structure of the pathways for their diffusion were studied in Acacia mangium Willd. Apart from ray parenchyma cells, axial parenchyma cells also are involved in the formation of heartwood substances. Heartwood substances were unevenly distributed in the heartwood. A closer inspection of interfibre pit pairs revealed that, although many pit membranes were completely covered with encrusting materials, some pit pairs had many small openings on their pit membranes. The openings possibly function as intercellular diffusion pathways for heartwood substances. The sizes of the pits varied considerably, ranging from 0.4 to 2.3 μm in diameter. These structural variations in the interfiber pits might be one of the factors contributing to the uneven distribution of the heartwood substances. A large number of blind pits were present in the ray parenchyma cells and faced the intercellular spaces, into which heartwood substances from the ray parenchyma cells were released via these blind pits. Resin-cast replicas demonstrated that the intercellular spaces and the blind pits formed a three-dimensional network that is considered to serve as an extracellular diffusion pathway for heartwood substances.
The Effect of Mid-Rotation Fertilization on the Wood Properties of Loblolly Pine (Pinus Taeda)
Authors: Antony Finto , Jordan Lewis , Schimleck Laurence R. , Daniels Richard F. , Clark III Alexander
Published: March 2013

Mid-rotation fertilization is a common practice in the management of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantations, typically providing large improvements in growth. However, concerns exist about the quality of wood produced following fertilization. The objective of this study was to develop an understanding of wood property changes following fertilization. Wood samples from a study involving four levels of fertilization applied to a thinned mid-rotation loblolly pine plantation located on the lower coastal plain of North Carolina were sampled. The study was laid out in a randomized complete block design involving four blocks and four levels of nitrogen fertilizer: Control-000, 112, 224 and 336 kg/ha, along with 28 kg/ha of phosphorus with all treatments. Thirty-two trees were felled and disks were cut at five heights from each tree. Wood properties including modulus of elasticity, air-dry density and tracheid anatomical properties were measured for each of the three post-fertilization annual growth rings using near infrared (NIR) spectra obtained from the radial face of strips cut from the disks. An analysis of variance was conducted on three-year basal area weighted average stiffness, air-dry density, and tracheid anatomical properties. A decrease in stiffness, air-dry density, tracheid wall thickness, and an increase in tracheid radial diameter were observed for the heaviest fertilizer treatment (336 kg/ha) compared to the control and 112 kg/ha of nitrogen. Microfibril angle (MFA), cell tangential diameter, and tracheid perimeter showed little change. Wood properties of trees receiving fertilizer rates of 112 and 224 kg/ha were not significantly affected.
Detection and Classification of Norway Spruce Compression Wood in Reflected Light by Means of Hyperspectral Image Analysis
Authors: Duncker Philipp , Spiecker Heinrich
Published: March 2013

A methodology has been developed based on reflected light to detect compression wood in stem cross sections of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). In addition to quantify the spatial distribution of compression wood, the chronological pattern of its formation is recorded by cross linking the pixel classification to the tree ring sequence. An imaging spectrometer is used to record the spectral characteristics in the visible light and near infrared of the cross-sectional surface. Cross-sectional areas are classified by hyperspectral image analysis into severe compression wood, moderate compression wood, normal wood, and background/cracks. The classification is performed by the Spectral Angle Mapper algorithm, which compares the standardized spectrum of each pixel with reference spectra stored in a spectral library. The reference spectra are obtained from selected training areas of the different compression wood severity classes identified by cell characteristics under a light microscope. The tree ring boundaries are located in a grey scale image which shows the spatial information at wavelength 435 nm and the annual radial increment is measured. The classification accuracy is tested by a confusion matrix and cross-analysed with High-Frequency Densitometry.
Elementary Software for the Hand Lens Identification of Some Common Iranian Woods
Authors: Safdari Vahidreza , Devall Margaret S.
Published: March 2013

A computer program, “Hyrcania”, has been developed for identifying some common woods (26 hardwoods and 6 softwoods) from the Hyrcanian forest type of Iran. The program has been written in JavaScript and is usable with computers as well as mobile phones. The databases use anatomical characteristics (visible with a hand lens) and wood colour, and can be searched in English or Persian. Descriptions and images can be retrieved by their scientific name.
Artificial Neural Networks in Wood Identification: The Case of two Juniperus Species from the Canary Islands
Authors: Esteban Luis García , Fernández Francisco García , de Palacios Paloma de Palacios , Romero Ruth Moreno , Cano Nieves Navarro
Published: March 2013

Neural networks are complex mathematical structures inspired on biological neural networks, capable of learning from examples (training group) and extrapolating knowledge to an unknown sample (testing group). The similarity of wood structure in many species, particularly in the case of conifers, means that they cannot be differentiated using traditional methods. The use of neural networks can be an effective tool for identifying similar species with a high percentage of accuracy. This predictive method was used to differentiate Juniperus cedrus and J. phoenicea var. canariensis, both from the Canary Islands. The anatomical features of their wood are so similar that it is not possible to differentiate them using traditional methods. An artificial neural network was used to determine if this method could differentiate the two species with a high degree of probability through the biometry of their anatomy. To achieve the differentiation, a feedforward multilayer percepton network was designed, which attained 98.6% success in the training group and 92.0% success in the testing or unknown group. The proposed neural network is satisfactory for the desired purpose and enables J. cedrus and J. phoenicea var. canariensis to be differentiated with a 92% probability.
Safety Factors for Xylem Failure by Implosion and Air-Seeding Within Roots, Trunks and Branches of Young and Old Conifer Trees
Authors: Domec Jean-Christophe , Warren Jeffrey M. , Meinzer Frederick C. , Lachenbruch Barbara
Published: March 2013

The cohesion-tension theory of water transport states that hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together and that they are pulled through the xylem under tension. This tension could cause transport failure in at least two ways: collapse of the conduit walls (implosion), or rupture of the water column through air-seeding. The objective of this research was to elucidate the functional significance of variations in tracheid anatomical features, earlywood to latewood ratios and wood densities with position in young and old Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine trees in terms of their consequences for the safety factors for tracheid implosion and air-seeding. For both species, wood density increased linearly with percent latewood for root, trunk and branch samples. However, the relationships between anatomy and hydraulic function in trunks differed from those in roots and branches. In roots and branches increased hydraulic efficiency was achieved at the cost of increased vulnerability to air-seeding. Mature wood of trunks had earlywood with wide tracheids that optimized water transport and had a high percentage of latewood that optimized structural support. Juvenile wood had higher resistance to air-seeding and cell wall implosion. The two safety factors followed similar axial trends from roots to terminal branches and were similar for both species studied and between juvenile and mature wood.
Number of Cells in Xylem, Phloem and Dormant Cambium in Silver Fir (Abies Alba), in Trees of Different Vitality
Authors: Gričar Jožica , Krže Luka , Čufar Katarina
Published: March 2013

We investigated the anatomical structure of phloem and xylem growth rings as well as the dormant cambium in relation to vitality in 81 adult silver fir trees (Abies alba Mill.). Specifically, we investigated the number of cells produced in the current phloem growth ring (PR), xylem growth ring (XR) and their ratio, the number of cells in the dormant cambium (CC), and the structure of the PR, which included characterisation of the early phloem (EP), the late phloem (LP), and the presence, absence, and continuity of tangential bands of axial parenchyma (AP). EP was relatively stable with respect to number and types of cells as PR width changed, but LP was quite variable. The CC of more vital trees produced more xylem than phloem cells. The ratio of XR to PR number decreased with decreasing vitality of trees and in the most severely affected trees (4% of the study group), more cells were formed in the PR than in the XR. The number of cells in phloem, xylem and dormant cambium is positively correlated. The use of width and structure of phloem and the ratios between PR, XR and CC can provide information on tree conditions and, consequently, can be a useful tool for forest management.
“Ray-Intrusive” Laticifers in Species of Croton Section Cyclostigma (Euphorbiaceae)
Authors: Wiedenhoeft Alex C. , Riina Ricarda , Berry Paul E.
Published: March 2013

A description of the occurrence and structure of “ray-intrusive” laticifers in the rays of species of Croton section Cyclostigma is provided. The systematic significance of laticifers within Croton section Cyclostigma is briefly discussed in relation to the section’s known production of red latex, commonly called “dragon’s blood”. A developmental hypothesis is offered and discussed in the context of the assumption that all laticifers in wood rays are non-articulated.
Microstructural Properties of Common Yew and Norway Spruce Determined with Silviscan
Authors: Keunecke Daniel , Evans Robert , Niemz Peter
Published: March 2013

Yew wood holds a special position within the softwoods with regard to its exceptional elasto-mechanical behaviour. Despite a relatively high density, it is highly elastic in the longitudinal direction (the modulus of elasticity is low and the stretch to break high). In the radial-tangential plane, its elastic anisotropy is clearly less pronounced compared to other softwoods such as spruce. Knowledge of the anatomical organisation of yew wood is an indispensable precondition for the correct interpretation of this conspicuous mechanical behaviour. The aim of this study, therefore, was to interpret the difference in elasto-mechanical behaviour of yew and spruce (as a reference) through their relative microstructures as measured by SilviScan, a technology based on X-ray densitometry, X-ray diffractometry and optical microscopy. This system is able to measure a variety of structural features in a wood sample. The results reveal that the elasto-mechanical response of yew is primarily due to large microfibril angles and a more homogeneous cross-sectional tissue composition (regarding tracheid dimensions and density distribution) compared to spruce. With respect to structure-property relationships, it was concluded that yew wood combines properties of normal and compression wood and therefore takes an intermediate position between them.
Microcracks Occurring During Drying Visualized by Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy
Authors: Sakagami Hiroki , Tsuda Kosuke , Matsumura Junji , Oda Kazuyuki
Published: March 2013

The microcracks occurring during drying of wood were visualized under confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Precise control of relative humidity and temperature in a specialized environment chamber made it possible to acquire sequential images of the wood of Cryptomeria japonica during drying from the water-saturated condition. The images indicated that the microcracks occurred between tracheid and ray parenchyma in the latewood region and the crack tip advanced in both the bark and pith directions. Subsequently, the crack tip expanding towards the bark stopped at the earlywood region through the growth ring boundary. The other tip toward the pith stopped at the earlywood region before reaching the growth ring boundary. Our technique made it possible to generate microcracks and discuss the relationship between moisture content and microcrack formation during drying. We found the CLSM technique to be an effective method for visualizing microcrack propagation with time.
Are Rays and Resin Canals Causal Sites for Intra-Ring Checking in the Wood of Pinus Radiata?
Authors: Nair Hema , Butterfield Brian , Jackson Sandra
Published: March 2013

Pinus radiata D. Don (radiata pine) wood can develop a wood quality defect called ‘intra-ring checking’ (checks) during kiln drying. A study was conducted to examine if rays and resin canals were the initiation sites of checks, and if the presence of the rays and resin canals increased the susceptibility of radiata pine wood to checking. The structural features associated with checking were observed in images of thirteen oven-dried radiata pine disks. Six of the sixty checks observed were associated with rays and resin canals. It is clear from the observations that rays and resin canals could not be the primary sites for check development. A comparative study showed some differences between the checked and non-checked wood with respect to rays and resin canals. Checked wood showed a higher amount of tissue area occupied by rays than the nonchecked wood. Hence, it is possible that rays can influence the tendency of wood to check. Such a relationship was not seen with respect to resin canals. However, a difference in the arrangement of resin canals was observed between checked and non-checked wood. Checked wood showed a scattered arrangement of resin canals, while the non-checked wood showed a linear arrangement.
The Formation of Traumatic Rows of Resin Ducts in Larix Decidua and Picea Abies (Pinaceae) as a Result of Wounding Experiments in the Dormant Season
Authors: Gärtner Holger , Heinrich Ingo
Published: March 2013

Wounding experiments, imitating the impact of geomorphic processes such as rock fall, were performed on Larix decidua Mill. and Picea abies (L.) Karst., before the beginning and at the end of the growing season. This was done to evaluate the timing and spread of traumatic rows of resin ducts (TDs) as a result of wounding during dormancy, when most mass movements occur. All treatments were successful in inducing TDs. However, a high inter- and intra-species variability concerning the timing and position of the TDs was noted. In larch, TDs were formed as first cells after wounding (immediate reaction) only in the vicinity of the wound. In contrast, none of the spruce trees exhibited immediate reactions. Neither larch nor spruce formed continuous TDs around the stem. TDs in larch were more extensive if, in addition, stems were bent before the growing season. In contrast, spruce showed this reaction when bent at the end of the growing season. The results indicate that the varying lengths of the growing seasons at different geographical locations need to be taken into account before an immediate wound reaction can be clearly defined, if an increase of the reliability and accuracy of process reconstructions is aimed for.
Stress Generation In Aerial Roots Of Ficus Elastica (Moraceae)
Authors: Abasolo W.P. , Yoshida M. , Yamamoto H. , Okuyama T.
Published: March 2013

Release strain measurements were conducted on the aerial roots of Ficus elastica Roxb. to understand stress generation in roots. Regardless of whether the roots are small roots that are directly attached to the ground (Type I), small roots that have merged with other roots without reaching the ground (Type II), or large roots that are directly attached to the ground (Type III), all gave negative strain values indicating that they were under tensile stress prior to measurements. Such strains were inversely affected by the strain gauge distance from the root attachment (either to the ground or to other roots) and by the root diameter. Tensile stresses emanated from the gelatinous fibers found near the pith of the roots.
Wood Anatomy Of The Genus Abies A Review
Authors: Esteban Luis García , de Palacios Paloma , Fernández Francisco García , Moreno Ruth
Published: March 2013

The literature on the wood anatomy of the genus Abies is reviewed and discussed, and complemented with a detailed study of 33 species, 1 subspecies and 4 varieties. In general, the species studied do not show diagnostic interspecific differences, although it is possible to establish differences between groups of species using certain quantitative and qualitative features.

The marginal axial parenchyma consisting of single cells and the ray parenchyma cells with distinctly pitted horizontal walls, nodular end walls and presence of indentures are constant for the genus, although these features also occur in the other genera of the Abietoideae. The absence of ray tracheids in Abies can be used to distinguish it from Cedrus and Tsuga, and the irregularly shaped parenchymatous marginal ray cells are only shared with Cedrus. The absence of resin canals enables Abies to be distinguished from very closely related genera such as Keteleeria and Nothotsuga. The crystals in the ray cells, taxodioid cross-field pitting and the warty layer in the tracheids can be regarded as diagnostic generic features.
Wood Anatomy of Caesalpinia S.S., Coulteria, Erythrostemon, Guilandina, Libidibia, Mezoneuron, Poincianella, Pomaria and Tara (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae, Caesalpinieae)
Authors: Gasson Peter , Warner Kate , Lewis Gwilym
Published: March 2013

Caesalpinia s.l. traditionally comprised c. 140 species in the New and Old World tropics, and contained a maximum of 25 generic synonyms. The genus in its broadest sense has been shown to be polyphyletic in molecular studies, and most species have now been assigned to reinstated segregate genera: Caesalpinia s.s. (c. 25 spp.), Coulteria (10 spp.), Erythrostemon (13 spp.), Guilandina (c. 7 spp.), Libidibia (8 spp.), Mezoneuron (c. 26 spp.), Poincianella (c. 35 spp.), Pomaria (16 spp.) and Tara (3 spp.). About 15 Asian taxa remain unassigned pending more data, especially DNA sequences. In this paper we describe the wood anatomy of these nine segregate genera, outlining the features that consistently help define some of them. We have examined the wood of 27 species representing all the woody segregate genera and found wood descriptions of three more species in the literature. Most species lack well defined growth rings, vessels are solitary and in radial multiples, intervessel pitting is alternate and vestured, fibres are mainly non-septate, axial parenchyma is aliform to confluent and irregularly storied, and the rays are mainly 1–2-seriate, mostly non-storied, and of varying height. Prismatic crystals are in chambered axial parenchyma cells in all except Erythrostemon gilliesii (Hook.) Link, and in ray cells in many species. Libidibia is well defined, with storied axial parenchyma, narrow short storied homocellular rays and lacking crystals in ray cells. Tara is also well defined with non-storied heterocellular rays and some ray cells containing crystals. The other genera are less consistent in wood characters. In Caesalpinia s.s. the rays are not storied, and most species lack crystals in ray cells. Coulteria has some species with storied rays and all have homocellular rays and crystals in ray cells. Poincianella is particularly poorly defined from a wood anatomical point of view, perhaps indicating that it can be further segregated. A few Poincianella species have septate fibres, which are otherwise seen only in Libidibia corymbosa. Mezoneuron has non-storied, heterocellular rays. The two species of Guilandina we examined have wide vessels and heterocellular rays containing crystals. Only two species of Erythrostemon were examined and E. gilliesii was unusual in having ring porous wood and very wide rays (but the sample was cultivated at Kew, and we do not know its porosity in its native range). Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston (originally described as Reichardia decapetala Roth) and Caesalpinia sappan L. from the Old World have not been reassigned to a segregate genus. Pomaria is mainly herbaceous and we have included some information on it.
Wood Anatomy of Three Lesser Known Species from Mozambique
Authors: Junior Ernesto Uetimane , Terziev Nasko , Daniel Geoffrey
Published: March 2013

Three lesser known wood species from Mozambique were studied to generate information for identification purposes and facilitate the introduction of these species into the wood working industry by assigning or widening the potential uses of these species. Selected anatomical features were used to predict some important wood properties, subsequently confirmed by measurements of both density and impregnability. Comparative wood anatomy showed that all three wood species have anatomical features typical for their genus after comparisons with their closest relatives. Both ntholo (Pseudolachnostylis maprounaefolia Pax) and muanga (Pericopsis angolensis Meeuwen) are diffuse-porous (with 14–24 and 16–20 vessels/mm2 respectively), have extractives in the heartwood vessels and thick-walled fibres, features consistent with good natural durability and strength respectively. Metil (Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum.) is also diffuse-porous with very wide vessels at much lower frequency (<5/mm2), it lacks extractives in the heartwood vessels, and thin-walled axial and ray parenchyma constitutes the bulk of the ground tissue. This set of characteristics makes the wood light and satisfactory for construction purposes but highly vulnerable to biodegradation.
New Late Cretaceous and Paleocene Dicot Woods of Big Bend National Park, Texas and Review of Cretacous Wood Characteristics
Authors: Wheeler E.A. , Lehman T.M.
Published: March 2013

Three new wood types from the Late Cretaceous and one from the Paleocene of Big Bend National Park, Texas, U.S.A. add to our knowledge of North American Late Cretaceous and Paleocene plants. Sabinoxylon wicki sp. nov. provides further evidence of similarities in late Campanian-early Maastrichtian vegetation of Texas, New Mexico, and northern Mexico. This species is characterized by mostly solitary vessels, scalariform perforation plates, vessel-ray parenchyma pits similar to intervessel pits, vasicentric tracheids, and two size classes of rays. Storage tissue accounts for close to 50% of its wood volume. Another of the new Cretaceous wood types, referred to as Big Bend Ericalean Wood Type I, has more than 40% ray parenchyma. Both Big Bend Ericalean Wood Type I and Sabinoxylon have a combination of characters that occurs in the order Ericales (sensu APGII). The third new Cretaceous wood type is from a small axis (less than 3 cm diameter), and has a combination of features that is the most common pattern in extant eudicots (vessels solitary and in radial multiples randomly arranged, simple perforation plates and alternate intervessel pits, and heterocellular rays). The Paleocene wood (cf. Cunonioxylon sensu Gottwald) differs from all other North American Paleocene woods and has characteristics found in the predominantly Southern Hemisphere family Cunoniaceae. The characteristics of these new Big Bend woods contribute to a database for fossil angiosperm woods, and allow for comparison of incidences of selected wood anatomical features in Northern Hemisphere Cretaceous woods from Albian to Maastrichtian time as well as comparison with extant woods. Cretaceous woods as a whole differ from Recent woods in having higher incidences of exclusively solitary vessels, scalariform perforation plates, and wide rays (>10-seriate), and lower incidences of ring porosity, wide vessels (>200 μm), vessels in groups, non-random arrangements of vessels, and marginal parenchyma. The occurrence of relatively high percentages of storage cells (>40%) in some Cretaceous trees is noteworthy; the ability to produce wood with varying amounts and arrangements of parenchyma is likely to be a contributing factor to the success of angiosperm trees in a wide variety of environments.
Radial variation of vessel lumen diameter in relation to stem increment in 30 hardwood species
Authors: Tsuchiya Ryouta , Furukawa Ikuo
Published: March 2013

Vessel lumen diameter (VLD) is one of the most important anatomical indicators for demarcating juvenile wood and mature wood in hardwoods. In several species, we previously found that the age at which VLD stabilizes (maturation age) and the age at which the mean annual increment in radial stem growth was maximal were approximately the same. In the current study, we investigated the extent to which this relationship is true for 30 species of hardwoods. We found that two types of relation exist between the maturation age of VLD and radial stem growth, i.e., the type in which the maturation age of VLD was similar to the age at which the current annual increment was maximal (Type-I), and the other type in which the maturation age of VLD was similar to the age at which the mean annual increment was maximal (Type-II). Where more than one species was studied for a given genus, the type was shared. Porosity (ring- or diffuse-porous) is not related with maturation type.
Radial Variation of Anatomical Characteristics in Paraserianthes Falcataria Planted in Indonesia
Authors: Ishiguri F. , Hiraiwa T. , Iizuka K. , Yokota S. , Priadi D. , Sumiasri N. , Yoshizawa N.
Published: March 2013

Radial variation in anatomical characteristics of five 13-year-old Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen (syn. Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosberg), an important commercial tree species in Indonesia, were investigated in order to obtain basic information regarding breeding for wood quality. Both cell wall thickness in wood fibers and vessel percentage showed an almost constant value up to 10 cm from the pith and then increased toward the bark. In contrast, wood fiber percentage decreased from 10 cm toward the bark. The cell wall percentage was lower towards the pith and higher towards the bark. In the five sample trees, significant differences were found in the cell diameter of wood fibers, wood fiber percentage, axial parenchyma percentage, and cell wall percentage. Basic density was affected by the cell wall thickness of wood fibers, but not the vessel percentage and fiber percentage.
SEASONAL CAMBIAL ACTIVITY OF RELICT CHINESE PINE AT THE NORTHERN LIMIT OF ITS NATURAL DISTRIBUTION IN NORTH CHINA – EXPLORATORY RESULTS
Authors: Liang Eryuan , Eckstein Dieter , Shao Xuemei
Published: March 2013

The seasonal dynamics of cambial activity of Chinese pine (Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.) was studied at the northern limit of its natural distribution in a semi-arid grassland ecosystem in North China. We collected micro-cores from five even-aged trees at weekly intervals from April 15 to September 16, 2006. Cell division in the cambial zone of these trees started within the third week of May. In June and July the rate of xylem cell production was highest and around mid-August cell division ended. However, cell-wall formation was not yet completed around mid-September. The cell-division period appears to coincide with the time of highest monsoon precipitation and of above 0 °C daily minimum temperature. Moreover, the cambium activity period seems to be in agreement with the time of the highest number of sunshine hours/day. These preliminary results are important for dendroclimatic studies with Chinese pine in North China and can furthermore be used as a benchmark for future monitoring activities in ecologically similar areas.
TREE-RING WIDTH AND STABLE CARBON ISOTOPE COMPOSITION OF JAPANESE CYPRESS IN THE LAKE BIWA AREA, CENTRAL JAPAN, AND THEIR HYDROLOGIC AND CLIMATIC IMPLICATIONS
Authors: Sho Kenjiro , Takahashi Hiroshi Aoki , Miyai Hiroshi , Ikebuchi Shuichi , Nakamura Toshio
Published: March 2013

Chronologies of tree-ring width and stable carbon isotope composition of Japanese cypress were developed to help reconstruct a 300-year record of past hydrologic and climatic environments in the Lake Biwa area, central Japan. Site chronologies were built with 37 trees for ring width and four trees for carbon isotope composition, respectively. Correlation analysis with monthly climatic data revealed that radial growth of the trees is related to temperature in early spring, precipitation (or number of precipitation days) in early summer and precipitation in previous-year summer to autumn. Tree-ring cellulose carbon isotopic composition is correlated most significantly with the number of precipitation days in early summer months. Consequently, a chronology of the number of precipitation days in May was reconstructed by multiple regression analysis with ring-width and carbon-isotope predictors and was validated by comparison with the recent observed record.