bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Macronutrients—Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur
Authors: Keefer Robert F.
Published: November 2020

Application of limestone to a soil changes the (a) soil physical properties by encouraging granulation and improving tilth; (b) soil chemical properties by decreasing soil acidity, increasing availability of a number of essential plant nutrients, and decreasing levels of aluminum, iron, and manganese that potentially may be toxic; and (c) soil biological properties by improving conditions for micriobial organic matter decomposition with release of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur for plant use, and by stimulating root development. Granulation Encouraged. Applying lime to soils improves soil physical conditions by encouraging granulation and crumb formation and aggregation. Tilth Improved. Tilth is the ability to work or cultivate a soil. By improving physical conditions with more granulation and crumb formation, soil tilth is improved. Lowering H+ Concentration (Acidity). When lime is applied to a soil, acidity is reduced and pH is raised. This is especially important in the humid regions where rainfall and other factors constantly make a soil more acid (explained in Chapter 9). Plant Nutrient Availability Increased. Liming a soil will increase availability of plant nutrients by (a) increasing Ca and Mg in the soil from added liming material; (b) adjusting soil to a higher pH so that N, P, K, S, and Mo are solubilized; and (c) reducing solubility of potentially toxic levels of Fe, Al, or Mn. Lowering of Potentially Toxic Levels of Al, Fe, and Mn. At very low soil pH, Al, Fe, and Mn are soluble and may be present in a high enough concentration to be toxic to plant growth. When lime is applied, the pH increases and these three elements become less soluble and less available for plants. Microbial Decomposition Enhanced. Soils that are limed provide conditions for active microbial decomposition of organic materials in soils, resulting in mineralization and release of N, P, and S in forms that plants can use. Liming also increases the amount of humus formed, thereby improving water infiltration and water-holding capacity. Furthermore, liming soils stimulates other types of biological transformations, such as nitrification, N-fixation, and S-oxidation, that improve plant growth. Deep Rooting Stimulated.
Diagnosing Plant Disorders
Authors: Keefer Robert F.
Published: November 2020

Tools to use for diagnosing plant disorders include overall plant appearance, plant tissue testing, total plant analysis, soil testing and analysis, and soil and root abnormalities. Plant appearance will show animal damage, weather-induced problems, chemical injuries, mechanical damage, biotic-associated problems, and plant nutrient deficiency and toxicity symptoms. Many plant growth problems can be correctly diagnosed by skillfully examining the outward appearance of a plant. By knowing the appearance of a healthy plant, one can know what would be different to cause a plant disorder. Animals can damage plants in a variety of ways. Large animals, such as deer, squirrels, gophers, moles, mice, often graze on plant tops, may break off stems, or pull the plants out of the ground. These animals can be discouraged by electric or regular fencing or by placing some repellents close to the plants. Deer can be repelled by hanging small bars of odiferous deodorant soap on the plants; or by spraying the plants with a mixture of an egg in a bucket of water. They also do not like baler twine soaked in spent soil from automobiles. Rodents often live in mulch near trees and shrubs and feed on the roots or tender shoots sometimes killing the plants. Prevention of this kind of damage can be accomplished by placing a ring of gravel or hardware cloth around the shrubs or trees to discourage this feeding. Birds also can be a problem. Woodpeckers and sapsuckers may dig holes in trees looking for insects. By keeping your trees healthy, these birds are discouraged. Other birds are often attracted to new seedings. If shrubs or small trees are damaged by birds, netting can be used to cover the plants as a final resort. Dogs also can damage plantings, usually by urinating on them. There are repellants that can be used to discourage this. Man can cause damage to plants through accidents, neglect, or ignorance as to proper care. There are a number of ways that plants can be damaged mechanically, such as root damage, trunk damage, or leaf damage, usually resulting from accidents.
Engineering Aspects of Soils
Authors: Keefer Robert F.
Published: November 2020

Although most landscape architects use soils primarily for growing plants, sometimes they need to know how engineers look at soils. Engineers are not concerned about soil properties that relate to growing plants. Engineers consider soil as a support for building foundations, use in earthworks, a place for burying pipes that carry electricity, water, gas or oil, and as a tool for disposing of hazardous, municipal, industrial, and household wastes. Soil properties that engineers consider important are hydraulic conductivity (permeability), compressive strength, shear strength, and lateral pressures. Soil mechanics deals with stress/strain/time relationships. Some engineering properties of a soil that describe the relation of clays to water content were studied by a Swedish scientist, Atterberg, in 1911. Soil clays based on water content were categorized into solid, semi-solid, plastic, and liquid. The dividing lines between each of these four states are known as the “Atterberg limits,” that is, shrinkage limit (from solid to semisolid), plastic limit (from semi-solid to plastic), and liquid limit (from plastic to liquid). These points can be measured for individual clays. The Atterberg limits are used by engineers to classify soils based on their moisture properties. These limits are particularly useful for evaluating soil compressibility, permeability, and strength. The plasticity of a clay soil depends on the type and amount of clay mineral and organic materials present. Plasticity is the reaction a soil has to being deformed without cracking or crumbling. The “liquid limit” is a term indicating the amount of water in a soil between the liquid state and the plastic state. Soils are first divided into two categories of coarse-grained and fine-grained. Coarse-grained soils are those in which more than half of the material is larger than a no. 200 sieve. Fine-grained soils are those in which more than half of the material is smaller than a no. 200 sieve. Coarse-grained soils are further divided into two categories of gravels and sands. Gravels are those with more than half of the coarse material larger than a no. 4 sieve. Sands are those with more than half of the coarse material smaller than a no. 4 sieve.
Four Views of Nonlinearity
Authors: Pearson Ronald K.
Published: November 2020

The review of linear models presented in Chapter 2 was intended to provide a baseline, establishing notation and reviewing some important aspects of this reference class against which nonlinear models are necessarily judged. This chapter demonstrates that nonlinearity can be approached from at least two fundamentally different directions. The first of these directions is structural-— by far the most common approach—in which a class of nonlinear models is defined by specifying the basic structure of all elements of that class. The Hammerstein, Wiener, and Uryson model classes discussed in Chapter 1 illustrate this approach. The structurally defined model class considered in this chapter is the class of bilinear models discussed in Sec. 3.1, which may be viewed as “almost linear” for reasons that will become apparent. Alternatively, it is possible to adopt behavioral definitions of nonlinear model classes, although this approach is generally more difficult. There, a particular type of input/output behavior is specified and subsequent analysis seeks model structures that can exhibit this behavior. In practice, this approach tends to be difficult because it is often not clear how to constuct explicit examples that exhibit specified qualitative behavior. Of necessity, then, the primary focus of this book is structurally defined model classes like the bilinear models discussed in Sec. 3.1, although three behaviorally defined model classes are considered in some detail in Secs. 3.2 through 3.4. The first of these is the class of homogeneous models, obtained by relaxing one of the two defining conditions for linearity: homogeneous models do not obey the superposition principle of linear systems, but they are invariant under scaling of the input sequence by arbitrary real constants. Relaxing these conditions further and requiring only that this scaling hold for positive constants leads to the class of positive-homogeneous models, described in Sec. 3.3. Alternatively, requiring linearity to hold but only for constant input sequences leads to the class of static-linear models, described in Sec. 3.4. As these and subsequent discussions illustrate, some remarkably general results may be obtained concerning the structure of these three model classes.
Environmental Modifications
Authors: West-Eberhard Mary Jane
Published: November 2020

In Democracy (1985), a novel by Joan Didion, there is a dramatic scene where a woman strikes her grown son and then abruptly leaves the room. Later, the narrator reflects on the causes of that behavior: . . . Billy Dillon once asked me if I thought Inez would have left that night had Jack Lovett not been there. Since human behavior seems to me essentially circumstantial I have not much feeling for this kind of question. The answer of course is no, but the answer is irrelevant, because Jack Lovett was there,. . . In one short passage, Didion reveals a grasp of environmental influence on the unfolding of events that has eluded most biologists. Behavior, like every other aspect of the phenotype, is essentially circumstantial. A particular organismic form or event could not exist without particular environmental circumstances any more than it could exist without particular genes. In evolutionary biology, environmentally induced modifications come under unfinished business (e.g., see May, 1977). There have been repeated assertions of both their importance and their triviality, a lot of discussion with no consensus. More than 60 years ago Robson and Richards (1936) remarked, “This subject [the inheritance of induced modifications] has been discussed almost ad nauseum.” Yet the debate has continued over such concepts as genetic assimilation, the Baldwin effect, organic selection, morphoses, and somatic modifications. So much controversy over the span of a century suggests that a problem of major significance remains unsolved. Meanwhile, “biology lacks a theory of organization” (Fontana et al., 1994). I believe that there is a connection between these two things—between continued controversy regarding the evolutionary significance of environmental modifications, and the shortcomings of a biological theory of organization and development based primarily on genes. The growing awareness of the importance of development in evolution has not automatically secured a place for the environment as a source of evolutionary novelties. In developmental biology it is common to assume genetic determination of phenotypic change.
Adaptive Radiation
Authors: West-Eberhard Mary Jane
Published: November 2020

Adaptive radiation is the simultaneous diversification of a lineage into numerous sublineages and specializations (Simpson, 1953a). All of the species of a radiation constitute a monophyletic group, and they often share some innovative trait or set of traits (sometimes called a key innovation—Liem, 1973) that is thought to have allowed the lineage to undergo a major transition, moving it into a previously unoccupied zone of opportunity exploited in different ways by different branches A radiation is a proliferation of variations on a phenotypic theme, accompanied by a proliferation of species. Adaptive radiations are a major feature of the evolution of life. Biologists describe radiations at all phylogenetic levels—the radiation of the eukaryotes, the radiation of multicellular organisms, the radiation of vertebrates, of birds, of ungulates, of dung beetles, of a particular species complex of fish. The concept of adaptive radiation usually includes both lineage branching (speciation) and phenotypic diversification (Schluter, 2000). Speciation and phenotypic diversification are obviously related phenomena: the genetic isolation associated with speciation promotes phenotypic divergence between populations (Mayr, 1963; Futuyma, 1987), and phenotypic divergence within populations (polymorphism and polyphenism) can promote speciation, as discussed in chapter 27, so the two phenomena must often occur together. It does not follow, however, that adaptive radiation and speciation are inevitably linked (see Turner, 1999). Adaptive radiation can occur without speciation, as in the multiple individual trophic specializations of Cocos Island finches (see below) or in the diversity of human careers. And speciation can occur with little adaptive (ecological) diversification. Polistes, a cosmopolitan genus of social wasps (Vespidae), contains more than 300 species that differ primarily in their social and sexual behavior, with relatively little interspecific variation in trophic morphology and behavior, diet, size and shape, or habitat (reviewed in Turillazzi and West- Eberhard, 1996). The possibility of socially or sexually selected radiations with little ecological diversification is a neglected topic that deserves attention, but I do not pursue it here.
ATP-Dependent Synthetases and Ligases
Authors: Frey Perry A. , Hegeman Adrian D.
Published: November 2020

The joining of two molecules is energetically unfavorable in an aqueous medium when the substrates correspond to hydrolysis products. In biochemistry, such ligations are driven by the free energy released by the hydrolysis of MgATP or an energetically equivalent molecule. The ATP-dependent synthetases and ligases catalyze reactions in which water is extracted from two molecules that become joined. The amount of free energy available depends on the site at which the ATP molecule is cleaved. The most common cleavage modes and the free energy change under standard conditions, which are pH = 7.0, 25°C, and 1 mM free Mg2+, are given in (Alberty, 1994; Arabshahi and Frey, 1995). Hydrolysis of the α,β-phosphoanhydride linkage to form AMP and PPi releases 3.2 kcal mol–1 more free energy than hydrolysis of the β,γ-linkage. In the actions of ATP-dependent ligases and synthetases, the free energy released in the hydrolysis of MgATP is used to overcome the energetic barrier to the elimination of water. The general principle is exemplified by the free energy barrier for the formation of ethyl acetate from acetate and ethanol under standard conditions, which is ΔG' = +4 kcal mol−1 (Jencks and Regenstein, 1970) The free energy change in the hydrolysis of MgATP to MgADP and Pi is ΔG' = –7.7 kcal mol−1 under the same conditions (Alberty, 1994). If these two reactions can be made to be interdependent, or coupled, the overall process would be the reaction of acetate, ethanol, and ATP to produce ethyl acetate, MgADP, and Pi, and the overall standard free energy change would be ΔG' = –3.7 kcal mol−1, making it a spontaneous or energetically downhill process. In the action of an ATP-dependent synthetase or ligase, the enzyme links the hydrolysis of MgATP with the ligation of the molecules by catalyzing the phosphorylation or adenylylation of one substrate and then the displacement of phosphate or AMP by the other substrate. Two types of glutamine synthetases are found in bacteria and eukaryotes. The bacterial glutamine synthetases, designated GS I (EC 6.3.1.2), are the most thoroughly studied. All species of GS I are dodecameric, 600- to 640-kDa enzymes assembled as two layers of hexameric rings associated face to face (Eisenberg et al., 2000; Stadtman and Ginsburg, 1974). Eukaryotic synthetases, designated GS II, are less understood, but essential aspects of their reaction mechanisms appear to be similar to that of GS I (Eisenberg et al., 2000; Meister, 1974a). Both GS I and GS II can be found in bacteria, although GS I is predominant. Eukaryotes contain only GS II. In this chapter, we discuss the reaction mechanism of GS I and GS II and the structure of GS I.
Glycosyl Group Transferases
Authors: Frey Perry A. , Hegeman Adrian D.
Published: November 2020

Glycosyl group transfer underlies the biosynthesis and breakdown of all nucleotides, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and glycosylated nucleic acids, as well as certain DNA repair processes. Glycosyl transfer consists of the transfer of the anomeric carbon of a sugar derivative from one acceptor to another, as in, which describes the transfer of a generic pyranosyl ring between nucleophilic atoms :X and :Y of acceptor molecules. The stereochemistry at the anomeric carbon is not specified in eq. 12-1, but the leaving group occupies the axial position in an α-anomer or the equatorial position in a β-anomer. The overall transfer can proceed with either retention or inversion of configuration. In biochemistry, the acceptor atoms can be oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or in the biosynthesis of C-nucleosides even carbon. The great majority of biological glycosyl transfer reactions involve transfer between oxygen atoms of different acceptor molecules. Enzymes catalyzing glycosyl transfer are broadly grouped according to whether the acceptor :Y–R2 in is water or another molecule. In the actions of glycosidases, the acceptor is water, and glycosyl transfer results in hydrolysis of a glycoside, a practically irreversible process in dilute aqueous solutions. In the action of glycosyltransferases, the acceptors are molecules with hydroxyl, amide, amine, sulfhydryl, or phosphate groups. The simplest nonenzymatic glycosyl transfer reaction is the hydrolysis of a glycoside, and early studies revealed the fundamental fact that glycosides are much less reactive toward hydrolysis in basic solutions than in acidic solutions. This fact underlies much that is known about the mechanism of glycosyl transfer; that is, the anomeric carbon of a glycoside is remarkably unreactive toward direct nucleophilic attack, but it becomes reactive when one of the oxygens is protonated by an acid, as illustrated in fig. 12-1 for the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of a generic glycoside. The reaction by both mechanisms in fig. 12-1 proceeds by pre-equilibrium protonation of the glycoside to form oxonium ion intermediates, which are subject to hydrolysis by water. The two mechanisms in fig. 12-1 are of interest. The mechanism proceeding through exocyclic cleavage of the glycoside has historically been regarded as the more likely, and for this reason, the route through endocyclic cleavage has received little consideration.
Carbon-Carbon Condensation and Cleavage
Authors: Frey Perry A. , Hegeman Adrian D.
Published: November 2020

In chemistry, many methods are available to synthesize carbon-carbon bonds, and the reactions proceed by both polar and radical mechanisms. However, enzymatic ligation of two molecules through carbon-carbon bond formation invariably proceeds by a polar mechanism. Often, the reaction involves a carbanionic intermediate or a carbanion-equivalent species such as an enamine, but carbenium ion intermediates also participate in terpene biosynthesis. The only well-known enzymatic processes leading to carbon-carbon bonding by radical mechanisms are the adenosylcobalamin-dependent isomerization reactions discussed in chapter 7. The basic mechanisms illustrated in fig. 14-1 lead to the ligation of molecules through the synthesis of carbon-carbon bonds. Fig. 14-1A depicts the addition of a stabilized carbanion to an aldehyde or ketone to form an adduct. The carbanion can itself be derived from an aldehyde or ketone, as it is in the reactions of aldolases and transketolase. In chapter 1, we discuss the mechanisms of aldolase reactions in connection with the catalytic power of metal ions and of iminium ions formed between substrate carbonyl groups and the lysyl-ε-amino groups of enzymes. In the actions of class I aldolases, X=C in fig. 14-1A is an iminium group formed between a lysyl residue of the enzyme and an aldehyde or ketone group of a substrate. In this case, the carbanion is more accurately described as an enamine, a resonance form in which the charges are not separated. In the actions of class II aldolases, X=C in fig. 14-1A is a carbonyl group (i.e., C=O) coordinated to a divalent metal ion, usually Zn2+, which facilitates carbanion formation through enolization. In this case, the carbanion may be more accurately described as an enolate ion with the charge localized on metal-coordinated oxygen. Iminium ion formation and divalent metal ion ligation both lower the pKa value of the α-C(H) by 7-10 units, thereby facilitating enolization and carbanion formation (see chap. 1). An enolate carbanion may also be derived from a CoA-thioester such as acetyl CoA in the reaction of citrate synthase. Once the carbanion or carbanion-equivalent is formed in an active site, its addition to an aldehyde or ketone group in an adjacent cosubstrate proceeds rapidly.
Travel by Design
Authors: Boarnet Marlon , Crane Randall C.
Published: November 2020

Can transportation problems be fixed by the right neighborhood design? The tremendous popularity of the "new urbanism" and "livable communities" initiatives suggests that many persons think so. As a systematic assessment of attempts to solve transportation problems through urban design, this book asks and answers three questions: Can such efforts work? Will they be put into practice? Are they a good idea?
The Demand for Travel
Authors: Boarnet Marlon , Crane Randall C.
Published: November 2020

As described in chapter 1, the new urban designs are part philosophy, part art, part economics, and part social optimism. Still, a key to their popularity is the open embrace of conventional and even conservative standards of neighborhood form, scale, and style. Many new urban designs self-consciously recall small town settings where neighbors walk to get a haircut and stop on the way to chat with neighbors sitting on the front porch watching the kids play. The attraction of these ideas is subjective, personal, yet pervasive. After all, in principle, what is not to like about pretty homes in quiet, friendly, and functional neighborhoods? But will they improve the traffic? Chapter 3 concluded that existing evidence is unsatisfactory in several respects. Among the problems identified in the literature was the common absence of a conceptual framework for hypothesizing how urban form might be expected to influence travel behavior. In particular, only a small share of the studies in this area even attempt to model travel behavior in the conventional manner, that is, as travel demand. In this chapter, we develop a framework for consistently evaluating the net travel impacts of changing land-use patterns, such as many new urban designs propose. The idea is to adapt a simple model of travel demand to measurable urban form elements. This permits us to derive specific conclusions that follow directly from the assumptions of the model as well as specific hypotheses that can be tested only with data on observed behavior. These assumptions are summarized in figure 4.2. The last part of the chapter develops an empirical implementation of the model and these hypotheses, which is applied to data in chapter 5. The theory of demand provides perhaps the most straightforward way to analyze travel behavior, by emphasizing how overall resource constraints force trade-offs among available alternatives, such as travel modes and trip distances, and how the relative attractiveness of those alternatives in turn depends on relative costs, such as trip times. This framework assumes that individuals make choices, either alone or as part of a family or other group, based on their preferences over the goods in question, the relative costs of those goods, and available resources (e.g., Kreps, 1990).
Neighborhood Supply Issues
Authors: Boarnet Marlon , Crane Randall C.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 3 reviewed the literature regarding the influence of the built environment on travel behavior, and chapter 4 then described one way the issue might be usefully studied. The empirical work in chapter 5 provided intriguing results while illuminating some complex issues that remain unresolved in the analysis of urban design and travel behavior. Overall, our analysis thus far suggests that the link between the built environment and travel is intimately tied to the how urban form influences the cost of travel, and that the effect of design is complex in ways not adequately appreciated in most policy discussions. Neighborhood design in particular might affect automobile travel, but we still have much to learn about the nature, generality, and policy role of any such link. That said, our analysis so far has been conventional in that it has focused on travel behavior. Yet that is only half of the story. It is also important to understand whether and how alternative land-use strategies might be more broadly implemented. Having sketched out the role of the demand for travel in understanding the impacts of urban form on trip making, we now examine the supply of urban form. Put another way, how do communities shape cities toward transportation ends? As discussed in chapter 3, a major difficulty in empirical work on travel behavior and urban design is that persons might choose residential locations based in part on how they wish to travel. Those who prefer walking are more likely to choose to live in pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods. People who prefer to commute by rail are more likely to live in transit-oriented developments. If so, then simply looking at differences in travel patterns across different neighborhoods does not give insight into how urban design causes persons to travel differently. It is possible that urban design might not lead persons to travel differently at all, at least not in the sense of changing the way they desire to travel. If there are an adequate number of communities providing less auto-dependent environments, then building more might have no influence on travel behavior.
Transit-Oriented Planning
Authors: Boarnet Marlon , Crane Randall C.
Published: November 2020

There has been a boom in American rail transit construction in the past two decades. That new investment has prompted the question of what planners can do to support rail transit. One popular answer has been transit-oriented development (TOD), increasingly described as a comprehensive strategy for rail-based land-use planning throughout an urban area. This is most clearly illustrated by Bernick and Cervero’s (1997) description of how such projects can link together to create “transit metropolises” where rail is a viable transportation option for many of the region’s residents. In addition, TOD provides an opportunity to examine the regulatory issues discussed in chapter 6, both because it is an explicit attempt to use urban design as transportation policy and because the intergovernmental issues are especially stark in relation to these developments. Having discussed how travelers behave in the first part of this book, we now ask what we know about how cities behave. Stated in general form, the question is rather broad. It concerns the process by which cities and other land-use authorities decide where to put streets, how to structure the local hierarchy of streets, when to develop more or less densely, how to position employment centers relative to residential areas, and so on. Still, the feasibility of land-use plans with transportation goals depends critically on how such authorities behave. Any discussion of the effectiveness of these strategies must address both how communities plan for transportation and how travelers respond to those plans. The primary transportation goal of TOD generally, as currently practiced, is to coordinate land-use policies to support rail transit. In particular, focusing both residential and commercial development near rail transit stations is aimed at increasing rail ridership (e.g., Bernick, 1990; Bernick and Hall, 1990; Calthorpe, 1993; Cervero, 1993; Bernick and Cervero, 1997). Some evidence suggests that residents near rail transit stations are two to five times more likely to commute by rail when compared with persons living elsewhere in the same urban area (Pushkarev and Zupan, 1977; Bernick and Carroll, 1991; Cervero, 1994d).
The Social Origins of Mental Life
Authors: Berk Laura E.
Published: November 2020

Talia and Jim’s fear of helping 7-year-old Anselmo with his homework, lest they create a dependent, immature child, is a peculiarly Western—and profoundly American—preoccupation. American middle-class parents typically regard young children as dependent beings who must be urged toward independence. In response to researchers’ queries, they frequently say that babies should be trained to be self-reliant from the first few months. Consequently, they place a high value on children’s learning and doing on their own. Repeatedly relying on others for assistance is construed as weakness, uncertainty, and lack of capacity. In keeping with this view, many American parents worry that if their children seek help, they may become dependent. A similar view permeates traditional classrooms, where an individualistic value system prevails. Children must “do their own work.” In the most intensely individualistic of these settings, conferring with your neighbor is worse than dependency; it is cheating, and teachers go so far as to set up barriers between pupils, such as upright books and cardboard screens, to prevent it. This emphasis on independent accomplishment is not broadly accepted around the world. Indeed, adults in some non-Western cultures regard American parents as rather merciless in pushing their young children toward independence—for example, when they insist that infants sleep alone rather than with their parents, or when they take pleasure in the earliest possible mastery of motor skills, such as crawling and walking, long before the child has acquired the reasoning powers to avoid steep staircases and busy roadways. Diverse non-Western peoples and American ethnic minorities stress interdependence—that children must feel intimately linked to others to become competent and self-reliant. Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Guatemalan-Mayan, eastern Kentucky Appalachian, and many other cultural groups regard newborn infants as psychologically separate beings whose most important task is to develop an interdependent relationship with their community—an emotional and social foundation that is crucial for survival and learning. Witness the following conclusion by a researcher who compared American with Japanese infant rearing practices: “An American mother-infant relationship consists of two individuals ... a Japanese mother-infant relationship consists of only one individual, i.e., mother and infant are not divided.”
Helping Children with Deficits and Disabilities
Authors: Berk Laura E.
Published: November 2020

The movie Mr. Holland’s Opus, in its main plot and its subplot, is a thoroughly Vygotskian story. It chronicles a high-school music teacher’s metamorphosis from a detached instructor, cynical about his students’ interests and motivations, into an inspiring mentor for hundreds of young music appreciators and instrumentalists. Unable to make a living at his first love, composing, Mr. Holland turned to the professional safety net he had earned in college: his teaching credential. Reluctantly in the classroom, he drilled his students on textbook facts and conducted the school orchestra in a flat, lifeless fashion. Without a meeting of minds and a jointly constructed “zone,” teacher and students disengaged, growing further and further apart. Painfully aware of failing to “reach” his classes, Mr. Holland set aside assigned texts and musical scores one day and tried to “connect” with his students. “What kind of music do you like?” he asked. Noticing their shocked and confused expressions, he added sympathetically, “Don’t be afraid.” “Rock ‘n’ roll!” was the nearly uniform answer. Next, Mr. Holland began to build a tie between students’ current understandings and where he wanted to lead them. “What’s this?” he asked as he played a lively rock tune on the piano. The classroom came alive. For the first time, students smiled and looked alert. “‘Lovers Concerto’!” they chorused. Then Mr. Holland asked whether anyone liked the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. In the face of blank stares, he countered, “Sure you do,” as he demonstrated how “Lovers Concerto” is a variation on Bach’s “Minuet in G.” The “zone” under way, teacher and students began to extend it. “Hands were up in the air, they were answering questions. It was so much fun!” Mr. Holland reported enthusiastically to his wife that evening, in a reversal of his usual pessimistic recap of the school day. Mr. Holland discovered that teaching requires both “heart” and learning goals tailored to children’s interests, knowledge, and skills. Each is essential for building a relationship that engages the learner. Yet Mr. Holland could not transfer these basic realizations to the rearing of his own child, Col, born with a profound hearing loss.
Solute Interchange between Solid, Liquid, and Gas Phases in the Soil
Authors: Tinker Peter B. , Nye Peter
Published: November 2020

We noted in chapter 1 that the concentration of solute in the soil solution is buffered by solute adsorbed on the soil surfaces. We also show in chapter 4 that the overall mobility of ions is related to their amounts and mobilities in the solid and solution. In this chapter, we focus on the soil solution concentration, primarily to show how the factors controlling it can be incorporated in models of the growth of crops and the leaching of nutrients or pollutants, such as those described in chapters 10 and 11. We examine the general principles governing the interchange of solutes between all phases in the soil, dealing first with inorganic ions, especially plant nutrients and heavy metals; and later with organic solutes, including biocides, which may also occur in the vapour phase. We also consider the reactions between metal ions and other organic or inorganic ions in solution to form complexes, such as CuOH+. The method of displacing the pore solution from a column of soil with ethanol, introduced by Ischtscherikow (1907), has been examined by Moss (1963, 1969). He found, in accord with theory (section 3.1.3), that the activity ratios (K)/(Ca + Mg)1/2 and (K)/(Ca)1/2 determined in the displaced solutions remained constant over considerable changes in soil moisture level to the point of saturation. He also found that the activity ratio (K)/(Ca + Mg)1/2 in the extracts from a wide range of soils agreed well with the activity ratio determined by the null point method of Beckett & Craig (1964). In this method, the soil is shaken with dilute CaCl2 solution containing graded amounts of potassium, and the activity ratio at which the soil does not gain or lose potassium to the solution is determined. Ethanol appears to displace solution from the fine as well as the coarse pores, and successive fractions, devoid of alcohol, have the same composition. For small samples of soil, it is more convenient to add a heavy liquid that is immiscible with water, and extract the solution by centrifuging (Kinniburgh & Miles 1983). Suction methods are useful for following changes in composition of moist soils. They should be used with care since they change the pressure of CO2 and hence the concentration of the bicarbonate ion.
Solute Transport in the Soil near Root Surfaces
Authors: Tinker Peter B. , Nye Peter
Published: November 2020

We discussed in chapter 4 the movement of solute between small volumes of soil, and in chapter 5 some properties of plant roots and associated hairs, particularly the relation between the rate of uptake at the root surface and the concentration of solute in the ambient solution. In the chapters to follow, we consider the plant root in contact with the soil, and deal with their association in increasingly complex situations; first, when the root acts merely as a sink and, second, when it modifies its relations with the surrounding soil by changing its pH, excreting ions, stimulating microorganisms, or developing mycorrhizas. In this chapter, we take the simplest situation that can be studied in detail, namely, a single intact root alone in a volume of soil so large that it can be considered infinite. The essential transport processes occurring near the root surface are illustrated in figure 6.1. We have examined in chapter 3 the rapid dynamic equilibrium between solutes in the soil pore solution and those sorbed on the immediately adjacent solid surfaces. These sorbed solutes tend to buffer the soil solution against changes in concentration induced by root uptake. At the root surface, solutes are absorbed at a rate related to their concentration in the soil solution at the boundary (section 5.3.2); and the root demand coefficient, αa, is defined by the equation . . . I = 2παaCLa (6.1) . . . where I = inflow (rate of uptake per unit length), a = root radius, CLa = concentration in solution at the root surface. To calculate the inflow, we have to know CLa, and the main topic of this chapter is the relation between CLa, and the soil pore solution concentration CL. The root also absorbs water at its surface due to transpiration (chapter 2) so that the soil solution flows through the soil pores, thus carrying solutes to the root surface by mass flow (convection). Barber et al. (1962) calculated whether the nutrients in maize could be acquired solely by this process, by multiplying the composition of the soil solution by the amount of water the maize had transpired.
Biodiversity: Our Precious Heritage
Authors: Adams Jonathan S. , Stein Bruce A.
Published: November 2020

Unusually heavy rains in the winter of 1969 transformed California’s normally dry Owens Valley, causing an explosion of grasses and reeds along the edge of the Owens River. Lying in the eastern rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada, not far from Death Valley, the river flows south down the valley before disappearing into a dry lake bed. By summer the heavy vegetation along the river and its adjacent spring-fed marshes was sucking up moisture and releasing it into the hot, dry air. At the same time, the flow from one of these springs suddenly and mysteriously dropped, and parts of a wetland called Fish Slough began to dry up fast. The disappearance of the small pools that make up Fish Slough would have gone unnoticed in a world not reshaped by human hands. Desert springs and marshes can be verdant one year, parched the next. Human activity, however, had made Fish Slough a vital place. The need for water to support Los Angeles and other cities has led to all manner of water projects, including dams, reservoirs, canals, and aqueducts. One of those projects, the Los Angeles Aqueduct, diverted nearly all the water from the Owens River beginning in 1913, greatly reducing the flows that once created seasonally flooded shallows along the river’s edge. Those shallow, warm waters provided ideal habitat for a unique species offish, the Owens pupfish (Cyprinodon radiosus). The loss of habitat, along with the introduction of exotic species like largemouth bass, gradually eliminated the pupfish from most of its relatively limited range, until the species remained only in Fish Slough. If the marsh disappeared, so would the Owens pupfish. Alerted to the potential disaster, Phil Pister, a fishery biologist working nearby with the California Department of Fish and Game, and two colleagues grabbed nets, buckets, and aerators and raced for the pond (Pister 1993). They removed the last 800 of the two-inch-long pupfish to wire mesh cages in the main channel of the slough. As his colleagues drove off, thinking the pupfish at least temporarily secure, Pister realized that the cages were in eddies out of the main current and that the water in the eddies was not carrying enough dissolved oxygen.
More than the Sum of the Parts: Diversity and Status of Ecological Systems
Authors: Adams Jonathan S. , Grossman Dennis H.
Published: November 2020

On July 5, 1803, Captain Meriwether Lewis of the First Infantry left Washington, D.C., and headed west. His destination was St. Louis, Missouri, where he was to take command, with his good friend William Clark, of the aptly named Corps of Discovery. President Thomas Jefferson had long dreamed of exploring the West, and on the day before Lewis set out from the capital, Jefferson doubled the size of the country, purchasing 820,000 square miles from France for 3 cents an acre. Jefferson planned the expedition partly to expand commerce in the young nation—he sought the “Northwest Passage,” a water route from coast to coast—but, just as important, to further scientific understanding. Lewis shared with his commander in chief a deep curiosity about the natural world, and the expedition set out with a presidential charge to discover the flora and fauna of the United States. Jefferson, as talented a scientist as has ever held the office of president, introduced Lewis to the leading natural scientists of the day, and they trained him to collect samples of plants and animals. Jefferson instructed the two commanders to record everything they could about the countryside—“the soil and face of the country, its growth and vegetable productions . . . the animals of the country . . . the remains and accounts of any which may be deemed rare or extinct,” he said. And so they did, plainly but accurately. Jefferson’s personal library, one of the largest collections in the country and later the nucleus of the Library of Congress, included copies of works by Linnaeus and John Bartram, along with many other scientific texts. Meriwether Lewis served as Jefferson’s private secretary for two years before leading the expedition west, and Jefferson undoubtedly introduced his protégé to those works. The Corps of Discovery, like the Bartrams and Peter Kalm, played an important role in the ongoing effort to document the natural heritage of the United States.
Owning Up to Our Responsibilities: Who Owns Lands Important for Biodiversity?
Authors: Groves Craig R. , Weakley Alan S.
Published: November 2020

Standing watch over San Francisco Bay, Ring Mountain lies just a short stretch north of the Golden Gate Bridge. The mountain rises from the Tiburon Peninsula, lined with exclusive residential communities and one of San Francisco’s most desirable suburbs. The slopes of Ring Mountain are exclusive in another sense as well: Here lives the world’s sole population of the Tiburon mariposa lily (Calochortus tiburonemis). Found in the open grasslands near the summit of the mountain, this attractive flower grows only on an unusual rock type known as serpentine for its slick, scalelike, blue-green appearance. A product of California’s restless geology, these rock formations also support several other rare plant species, including the Tiburon paintbrush (Castilleja affinis ssp. Neglecta) and Tiburon jewelflower (Streptanthus niger). While serpentine occurs elsewhere in California and beyond, the Tiburon mariposa lily does not. The view from atop Ring Mountain, a spectacular vista of water, mountains, and skyscrapers, would fetch top dollar for residential development. Bulldozers may well have overrun this unique piece of real estate if The Nature Conservancy had not purchased and managed it as a nature preserve. In buying the land on Ring Mountain, the Conservancy also bought the earth’s entire population of the Tiburon mariposa lily. This created a weighty responsibility, but it also freed the organization to take any action necessary to ensure the survival of this flower and Ring Mountain’s other rare species. Ownership offers the most direct and absolute way to offer conservation to those plants and animals inhabiting a piece of land. On the other hand, land ownership also conveys rights that allow management of property in ways not nearly so beneficial to our native species. Of the four basic strategies for biodiversity conservation discussed in the previous chapter, three relate directly to land: owning and managing land; regulating land use; and influencing land use through nonregulatory means. If we are to understand not only the current condition of species and ecosystems in the United States but also the opportunities and challenges for their long-term protection, we must also understand how the underlying natural patterns relate to the patterns of land ownership and management that have been laid atop them.
Introduction
Authors: Goldberg Ann
Published: November 2020

In 1838, an indigent tailor arrived at the Eberbach asylum terrified, dazed, and repeatedly crossing himself. At home before his committal, Martin M. had become violent and been bound and beaten. He had experienced, as he later explained, “an irresistable urge to spit in people’s faces and hit them.” Now, during his eleven-month incarceration, he incessantly begged for “mercy” from the asylum physicians. Rituals of authority and submission were built-in features of doctor-patient relations in an institution where doctors wielded almost absolute power and where acts of submission were a necessity for any patient who wanted to leave the place. Curiously, Martin M. understood this fact in a language foreign to the medical designs of the asylum—a language (“mercy”) of the prisoner or penitent, of criminal justice or the church, not that of the patient. Martin M., it seems, felt he needed either divine salvation or judicial clemency, not medical treatment. The treatment of Martin M. in an insane asylum was an innovation of the nineteenth century. Just twenty-five years earlier, such a man would have been left at home to face the punishments of family and community or placed in one of the multifunctional work-, poor-, and madhouses that housed the castoffs of society—beggars, petty criminals, prostitutes, orphans, the insane, and the infirm. In contrast to these detention institutions, the new asylums of the nineteenth century contained only the mentally ill, with the aim of medically treating and rehabilitating them through methods that affected the mind. The birth of a new medical specialty and a new set of experts—the alienists, later known as psychiatrists—thus accompanied the founding of modern insane asylums in a movement that spread throughout Europe and North America beginning in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. As a result of these changes, masses of deviant and mentally ill people in the nineteenth century came to be incarcerated and subjected to new kinds of medical and psychological treatment (although their numbers remained limited in the first part of the century). We know that most of these people came from the lower classes; certainly such people made up the overwhelming majority of patients in public asylums.