bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Unentangled polymer dynamics
Authors: Rubinstein Michael , Colby Ralph H
Published: November 2023

A small colloidal particle in any liquid diffuses due to the fluctuations of the number of molecules hitting it randomly from different directions. Colloidal particles are significantly larger than the molecules in the liquid, but small enough that collisions with molecules noticeably move the particle. The trajectory of the particle, shown in Fig. 8.1, is another example of a random walk.
Simple principles for the evaluation of complex programmes
Authors: Pawson Ray
Published: November 2023

One of the most dramatic changes in public policy in recent years has been the rise of complex multi-objective, multi-site, multi-agency, and multi-subject programmes. The reason for all this multiplication is clear enough. The roots of social problems intertwine. A health deficit may have its origins in educational disadvantage, labour market inequality, environmental disparities, housing exclusion, differential patterns of crime victimization, and so on. By twisting the kaleidoscope and beginning this little list at any other point, one can make more or less the same argument about any social problem.
What evidence do we have on implementation?
Authors: Roberts Helen , Arai Lisa , Roen, Katrina , Popay Jennie
Published: November 2023

It is dangerous in more ways than one to be a poor child in the United Kingdom. Injury is the most important cause of child death in the UK, and has a steeper social class gradient than any other cause of death in childhood (Roberts and Power 1996). Child pedestrians in the UK are particularly vulnerable, and a child in the lowest social class is 15 times more likely to die in a house fire than a child from a more privileged background (Roberts 1997).
Tackling health inequalities: improving the health of poor groups, narrowing health gaps, and reducing health gradients
Authors: Graham Hilary
Published: November 2023

The last decade has been one of major developments in public health policy in the UK. A narrow concern with promoting population health has given way to a broader vision of policy. Central to the vision is tackling health inequalities.
Social categorization, collective beliefs, and causal attribution
Authors: Miles Hewstone Jos Jaspars
Published: November 2023

In the night of the first of February 1953 an exceptionally heavy winter gale and a spring tide coincided along the coast of Holland. The sea broke through the dikes and flooded 20 per cent of all the land that had been reclaimed by the Dutch in the course of centuries. It was the worst natural disaster that had ever occurred in the country; eighteen hundred people drowned overnight. When the Queen of the Netherlands addressed the nation over the radio a few days later, her speech was preceded by the recitation of a verse from the national anthem, one of the most beautiful poems in Dutch literature. Written at the time of the uprising against the Spanish in the sixteenth century as part of a collection of religious resistance songs, it has the Prince of Orange (William the Silent), in true Calvinist spirit, comfort and encourage the survivors of the first and failed military expedition along the River Maas by advocating resignation to an almighty God. The verse recited in the case of the flood of 1953 evoked this attitude in a way that was very appropriate for the occasion: ‘If it had been the will of the Lord at the time, I would have liked to turn from you this heavy tempest, but the Lord above, who governs everything, whom one must always praise, did not desire it’. It served as a poetic, public, and religious explanation comforting the nation and encouraging it to devise a plan to strengthen the dikes once more and shorten the shoreline by 450 miles.We thought of this unique and historic event when, many years later, some of our colleagues (Lalljee et al. 1985) planned to study the role of religious explanations in everyday life and concentrated almost automatically on causal attributions for rare events with negative outcomes. Predictably, the study showed that active members of institutionalized religions invoked divine intervention as an explanation of such events.
Ethnic Minority Identity
Authors: Hutnik Nimmi
Published: November 2023

What hopes are there for racial integration? What expectations may we reasonably have of ethnic minority groups? What hopes can ethnic minority groups nurture in their relations with society at large? In addressing these and many other questions, the author examines the theoretical perspectives, both sociological and psychological, of ethnic minority identity and reviews the empirical work done on ethnicity. She considers what constitutes an ethnic group, goes on to investigate the sociology of ethnicity from assimilationism to cultural pluralism, and discusses the psychological theories of ethnic minority identity. She then examines research issues in ethnicity, covering areas such as styles of cultural adaptation, strategies of self-categorization, and levels of self-esteem among members of ethnic minority groups. In conclusion, she examines the implications of these findings in relation to the integration of ethnic minority groups in Britain.
The social psychology of music
Authors: Hargreaves David J , North Adrian C
Published: November 2023

Music has many different functions in human life, nearly all of which are essentially social. We use music to communicate with one another: it is possible for people from widely differing cultural backgrounds to establish contact through music even though the languages they speak may be quite incomprehensible to one another. Music can arouse deep and profound emotions within us, and these can be shared experiences between people from quite different backgrounds. From the physicist’s point of view, music consists of a set of sounds with particular frequencies, amplitudes, and timbres which are organized by the composer and/or performer into highly organized and predictable patterns: what makes these sounds into music is the way in which people collectively imbue them with musical meaning, and a vital part of this process is the social and cultural context in which the sounds exist.
Gender and music
Authors: O’Neill Susan A
Published: November 2023

Historically in Western culture, men have dominated the music profession and occupied positions of power and privilege. Prior to the 1850s, the vast majority of orchestras refused to employ women. It was thought to be ‘improper’ for a woman to perform in public. Women were traditionally encouraged to play instruments such as the harp and keyboard which could be played as accompaniment to the voice and used to entertain family and friends in the home. They were discouraged from playing instruments such as the drums, woodwind, and brass, either because women were thought to be too weak (e.g. physical strength, lung capacity) or because it would ‘spoil their appearance’. In 1904, an American conductor was quoted as saying, ‘nature never intended the fair sex to become cornettists, trombonists, and players of wind instruments. In the first place, they are not strong enough to play them as well as men ... Another point against them is that women cannot play brass instruments and look pretty and why should they spoil their good looks?’ (cited in Pugh 1991, p. 7).
Experimental aesthetics and everyday music listening
Authors: North Adrian C , Hargreaves David J
Published: November 2023

We suggested in Chapter 1 that one important feature of the social psychology of music should be the reciprocity of the individual and the social world. The present chapter addresses this reciprocity directly by describing a small but growing number of studies which concern how theories of musical preference might be applied to and be mediated by the everyday environments in which people usually listen to music. Whilst the majority of research on the music-situation relationship has concerned various aspects of consumer behaviour (see Chapter 14), several studies conducted mainly by Vladimir Koneěni in California and ourselves and colleagues in Leicester have approached the issue from the perspective of traditional laboratory research on experimental aesthetics. This chapter reviews these studies.
Musical tastes and society
Authors: Russell Philip A
Published: November 2023

Links between musical tastes and society manifest themselves in various ways and at various levels, particularly those levels described as social positional and ideological (see Chapter 1). For example, different types of music tend to appeal to different social groups-the audience at a heavy metal concert will probably have little in common, in terms of age, social class, and lifestyle, with the audience at an opera house. One major section of the present chapter reviews empirical data on these sorts of associations between musical tastes and sociodemographic variables. A second major section is devoted to an analysis of social influences on musical tastes. People’s musical tastes do not develop in isolation-they are subject to a variety of social influences, including those stemming from family, peers, education, and the media. These two sections are prefaced by a brief consideration of the problems of measuring musical tastes and by an outline of the concepts of taste cultures and taste publics.
Performance anxiety
Authors: Wilson Glenn D
Published: November 2023

Performance anxiety, popularly known as ‘stage fright’, is the exaggerated and sometimes incapacitating fear of performing in public. It is not restricted to the inexperienced amateur but has been known to afflict some of the most famous performers in history, including Laurence Olivier, Richard Burton, David Niven, and Sergei Rachmaninov (Aaron 1986). There may be differences in the reasons: with the beginning performer, stage fright is likely to be connected with shyness and uncertainty about one’s ability (or even the recognition at some level of consciousness or unconsciousness that one is not really talented enough for the job at hand). With the established professional it may take the form of ‘bum-out’ similar to that experienced by sports stars like Bjorn Borg-the feeling that once on a pedestal there is nothing left but to be knocked off it again, and that only a disaster would be newsworthy. Some older actors also become frightened of memory loss, perhaps connected with alcoholism as well as age, and ageing instrumental players worry increasingly about tremor, just as singers are concerned about vocal steadiness.
Theory of mind and executive function: is there a developmental relationship?
Authors: Perner Josef , Lang Birgit
Published: November 2023

‘Theory of mind’ is a label for the conceptual system that underlies our folk psychology with which we impute mental states to others and ourselves, that is, what we know, think, want, feel, etc. We want to highlight some, for present purposes particularly important, points in children’s acquisition of these concepts. A first sign of understanding people’s intentions comes from a study by Spelke et al. (1995; replicated by Sodian and Thoermer 1998) that by twelve months but not yet at eight months infants infer people’s intentions to grasp objects they look at. There is richer evidence that around eighteen months infants infer more complex intentions since they imitate the intention behind failed action attempts (Meltzoff 1995) and they understand differences in food preferences (Repacholi and Gopnik 1997). By eighteen months signs of understanding the mind bloom: children engage in and understand pretence (Leslie 1987; Piaget 1945/1962), they understand distress and engage in empathic comforting behaviour (Bischof-Kö hler 1988; Yarrow and Waxler 1975), they understand goals and the standards which they have to live up to (Kagan 1981), etc. These abilities sharpen over the next years; this is also reflected in an increase in their use of corresponding verbs, e.g. feel, want, pretend, know, think (Bartsch and Wellman 1995).
Culture and understanding other minds
Authors: Vinden Penelope G , Astington Janet Wilde
Published: November 2023

Psychology has extended its borders during the decade since the first edition of this volume was published, or at least, psychologists have been active in collaborative work at the borders. One aspect of this activity is reflected in the subtitle for this volume: ‘Perspectives from cognitive neuroscience’. The addition-’cognitive neuro-science’-acknowledges a burgeoning field of research. This work focuses on the biological underpinnings of development that are universal across our species, even in cases where they may go awry. At the same time, however, there has been a flurry of activity at a very different place on the border. This is where psychology meets with anthropology, drawing attention to the different ways in which humans develop in different cultures.
Sexual behaviour, reward, and brain function
Authors: Rolls Edmund T
Published: November 2023

The first part of the chapter is therefore concerned with what is known of the brain mechanisms that underlie sexual behaviour. Understanding the actual neural mechanisms is important not only because this helps to clarify the behaviour itself, but also because this is a foundation for understanding medical and other disorders of these systems, and treatments for them.
Simple quantum systems
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to introduce the finite element method (FEM) in a familiar setting by treating two problems: the quantum harmonic oscillator and the hydrogen atom. We use linear interpolation functions for the wave functions in each finite element, so that all the matrix elements appearing in the discretized action integral are readily obtained analytically. The element matrices are evaluated first and these are inserted into global matrices. The principle of stationary action is used to derive a discretized version of Schrodinger’s equation in the form of a generalized eigenvalue problem. The results are compared with the exact analytical answers.
Mesh generation
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

In the finite element approach to problems in greater than one dimension we are immediately faced with the complex issue of discretization of the physical domain. In this chapter we shall consider the essentials of 2D mesh generation. It is evident that for simple rectangular regions a straightforward breakup into rectangles or triangles can be performed without any difficulty. As seen in Fig. 10.1, the region is divided into rectangles which are then split up into a total of 12 triangular elements. We employ the vector right hand rule to define the direction of the area vector of each triangle to be out of the page. We label the three local node numbers 1, 2, and 3 to correspond to this rule for each triangle. The global node numbers for a given triangle in the figure could have any value from 1 to the maximum number of nodes, and is determined by the mesh generator. While connecting the points in the desired manner to form the mesh, we define the connectivity relation between the elements and the global node numbers. For example, in Fig. 10.1, the triangular corner element with global node index 12 has the three global nodes (12,10,11), in this order. We require two sets of data, one to specify the global coordinates (xi,Yi) for each node i, and the other to specify the global node numbers for the nodes in each element, stated in the order consistent with the positive-area convention. This connectivity relation holds the key to placing the element matrices calculated in the finite element method (FEM) into a global matrix. The connectivity data should be generated and verified first, before any finite element calculation is performed.
Time-dependent problems
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter on the finite element method (FEM) we consider the essential features of modeling the time evolution of a quantum mechanical system. This problem has been investigated theoretically and numerically with great intensity over the past several decades, and deserves, at the very least, a separate volume to itself. However, of necessity, our treatment of the subject will provide no more than an introduction to the literature and describe some of the general methods of solving the initial value problem.
The BEM and surface plasmons
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

The boundary element method (BEM) can be used to advantage for solving differential equations in a region occupied by more than one material. Here the integral equations are formulated for each subregion, and the matrices obtained on discretization of the contour integrals are put together in a manner analogous to overlaying element matrices in the finite element method (FEM). In this chapter, we begin by solving Laplace’s equation for a physical domain having two rectangular regions with dielectric constants EJ and EIJ in a constant electric field. The example makes use of the calculations of Section 16.6, where the solution at the boundary is given in terms of the linear interpolation between nodal values of the potential, and also the normal derivatives of the potential, at the extremities of a boundary element. We then discuss the issues in using Hermite interpolation polynomials in a multiregion BEM. We note here that when the physical region has a large aspect ratio and is elongated in one direction the boundary integrals will be nearly equal for destination points along the shorter side with source points at the farther end. This leads to ill-conditioning qf the final matrices. The problem can be alleviated by breaking up the region into sub regions, each with its own boundary integral. Again, a multiregion BEM can be employed.
The BEM and quantum applications
Authors: Ram-Mohan L Ramdas
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we consider quantum applications of the boundary element method (BEM). We apply the BEM to the propagation of electrons through mesoscopic devices of dimensions less than 10-5 m, with thin metallic wire leads of widths :S 1000 A that are modeled as 2D waveguides. We also show how the BEM can be used to calculate quantum mechanical scattering in two dimensions. Bound state problems are of great interest in quantum mechanics, and we apply the BEM in this chapter to the eigenvalue problem of determining states of electrons bound in the transverse direction in quantum wires and in other 2D potential wells. Recently, it has been shown that two completely different 2D resonant cavities in which Helmholtz’s equation holds for the electromagnetic field or the electron wave function can be ߢisospectral.ߣ In other words, the two areas of different shape can have the same spectrum. We report on this very interesting effect, and suggest that the BEM may be the ideal method for computing the spectrum of such isospectral areas.
Antimicrobial drug resistance
Authors: Smith Richard D , Coast Joanna
Published: November 2023

We may look back at the antibiotic era as just a passing phase in the history of medicine, an era when a great natural resource was squandered, and the bugs proved smarter than the scientists. (Cannon 1995, p. 189) Over the last 50 years humankind has had a new weapon in the war against infectious disease: the antimicrobial “magic bullet’‘. However, it is becoming clear that although we have been winning many of the important battles, the war is far from over, and we may soon be forced into retreat.
Genomics knowledge
Authors: Thorsteinsd6ttir Halla , Daar Abdallah S , Smith, Richard D , Singer Peter A
Published: November 2023

It is clear that the increased molecular understanding of diseases and their causation will have a tremendous impact on the way we identify, prevent, diagnose, treat, and modulate diseases in the new millennium. At the same time, a balance has to be struck between genomics and more conventional health-care methods, and the complex economic, social, and ethical issues of genomics dealt with. This calls for societies to develop new norms and frameworks to ensure that the use of genetic technologies will be secure and palatable to peoples’ tastes and needs. This involves, for example, ensuring that peoples’ privacy is not violated, that the gains of genomics are accessible to rich and poor alike, and that they are accessible globally (WHO 2002).
International law and the international legislative process: The WHO framework convention on tobacco control
Authors: Taylor Allyn L , Bettcher, Douglas W , Peck Richard
Published: November 2023

The planetary context of development has profound implications for public health and, concomitantly, the expansion of international health law. In the global village of the early twenty-first century it is evident that the health of populations is increasingly affected by transnational economic, social, scientific, technological, and cultural forces. As a result, domestic and international spheres of health policy are becoming more intertwined and inseparable.
Monte-Carlo methods and integration
Authors: Lapeyre B , Pardoux É , Sentis R
Published: November 2023

The introduction of the Monte-Carlo method can be credited to Count Buffon who, in 1777, described a celebrated method of calculating 71” based on performing repeated experiments. However, the true origin of the Monte Carlo method lies with the introduction of the first computers and their use in the secret projects of the United States Department of Defense during the years 1940-5 with the aim of constructing the first atomic bombs. One of the first articles on this subject was published in 1949 (Metropolis and Ulam, 1949). Precursors of these methods include Ulam’s method, Von Neumann’s method, and the method of Metropolis.
Hamiltonian Chaos and Fractional Dynamics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

The dynamics of realistic Hamiltonian systems has unusual microscopic features that are direct consequences of its fractional space-time structure and its phase space topology. The book deals with the fractality of the chaotic dynamics and kinetics, and also includes material on non-ergodic and non-well-mixing Hamiltonian dynamics. The book does not follow the traditional scheme of most of today's literature on chaos. The intention of the author has been to put together some of the most complex and yet open problems on the general theory of chaotic systems. The importance of the discussed issues and an understanding of their origin should inspire students and researchers to touch upon some of the deepest aspects of nonlinear dynamics. The book considers the basic principles of the Hamiltonian theory of chaos and some applications including for example, the cooling of particles and signals, control and erasing of chaos, polynomial complexity, Maxwell's Demon, and others. It presents a new and realistic image of the origin of dynamical chaos and randomness. An understanding of the origin of randomness in dynamical systems, which cannot be of the same origin as chaos, provides new insights in the diverse fields of physics, biology, chemistry, and engineering.
Examples Of Hamiltonian Dynamics
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

which defines oscillations for κ < 1, rotations for κ > 1, and the separatrixfor κ = 1.
Beyond the KAM-Theory
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 3 we discussed different approaches based on the idea that a fairly strong non-linearity can stabilize the perturbed dynamics. KAM-theory is perhaps the most important example of this situation. As was mentioned, the main two parameters that characterize the evolution of the system under a perturbation are dimensionless perturbation parameter E and the non-linearity parameter α.
Fractals and Chaos
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

The structures generated by chaotic dynamics in the phase space are so complex that they cannot be described in a conventional way. One is therefore reduced to dealing with objects that are unusual, ‘wild’, and ‘strange’.
Dynamical Traps
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, dynamical traps will be considered in more detail. When the mixing process in phase space is uniform, escape of a trajectory from the selected small domain follows the Poissonian law and, consequently, there exists a characteristic time of the escape (see Sections 11.3 and 11.4). Typical Hamiltonian systems do not have uniform mixing and the escapes from a domain, recurrences, and targetings may not have a characteristic time.
Fractional Kinetic Equation (FKE)
Authors: Zaslavsky George M
Published: November 2023

Any kind of kinetic equation is an approximate way to describe an ensemble of trajectories or particles, while neglecting some details of dynamics. All this means that, depending upon the information about the system we would like to preserve, the type and specific structure of the kinetic equation depends on our choice of the reduced space of variables and on the level of coarse-graining of trajectories.
A Neural Model Of Speech Production And Its Application To Studies Of The Role Of Auditory Feedback In Speech
Authors: Guenther Frank H , Perkeu Joseph S
Published: November 2023

The overall objective of our research is to model the brain activity and the motor, biomechanical and sensory processes involved in speech production. Our approach is to use a combination of computational models and to develop and test them with brain imaging, psychophysical, physiological, anatomical and acoustic data. In particular, we have developed a neural network model of speech motor skill acquisition and speech production, called the DIVA model, that explains a wide range of data on contextual variability, motor equivalence, coarticulation and speaking rate effects (Guenther 1994, 1995a, b; Guenther and Micci Barreca 1997; Guenther et al. 1998; Perkell et al. 2000). This model is schematized in Fig. 2.1. In this chapter we provide a description of the model and its neural correlates, and we present results of studies on an important aspect of the model: the role of auditory feedback in the planning of speech movements.
Functional Brain Imaging Of Motoraspects Of Speech Production
Authors: Ackermann Hermann , Riecker Axel , Wildgruber Dirk
Published: November 2023

As compared to other domains of motor control, e.g. locomotion or upper limb movements, rather sparse data on the cerebral organization of speech production are available so far. This discrepancy is due, among others, to the absence of a homologous animal model of human verbal communication and the biomechanical complexities of the vocal tract, concomitant with restricted opportunities for kinematic and electromyographic (EMG) measurements (Barlow and Farley 1989). Prior to the introduction of brain imaging techniques, analyses of the cerebral network subserving speech motor control predominantly had to rely on detailed perceptual and parametric analyses of dysarthric deficits in patients suffering from focal cerebral lesions or degenerative disorders bound to a distinct functional component of the central motor system, e.g. Parkinson's disease or cerebellar atrophy (see, for example, Kent 1997).
Motor Control Perspectives On Motor Speech Disorders
Authors: Kent Ray D , Rosen Kristin
Published: November 2023

The heart of the perceptual method was a multidimensional perceptual description that assumed the independence of the 38 component dimensions used in their analysis. This was a good start, and one that remains influential, but we know today that perceptual dimensions such as the ones used by Darley and associates are not psychophysically uniform, and are not independent (Kent 1996). Rather, the dimensions are different in kind, are often interdependent, and are sometimes hierarchical. Which is to say, dysarthria assessment is not really a process of answering 38 sequential questions. Indeed, it is not the common clinical practice to assess dysarthria in this way. Instead, the clinician listens for the most salient perceptual dimensions and may disregard entirely the dimensions that do not apply (Duffy and Kent 2001).
Strategic signals and minimal-cost signals
Authors: Smith John Maynard , Harper David
Published: November 2023

The first two chapters have been primarily concerned with the evolutionary processes that ensure the reliability of animal signals, despite the potential advantages of lying. Our aim has been to emphasize that there is no single answer to this problem. In this chapter and the next, we pursue the matter further, by suggesting a number of specific examples of signals that fall into one or other category, and also some examples whose explanation seems to us doubtful.
Evolution of knowledge of the smoking epidemic
Authors: Doll Richard
Published: November 2023

The use of tobacco for pleasure was discouraged by Church and State and it was not until the end of the sixteenth century that it came to be smoked widely in Europe, at first in pipes in Britain, where it was popularized by Sir Walter Raleigh. Here it became so common that by 1614 there are estimated to have been some 7000 retail outlets in London alone (Laufer 1924). Attempts to ban its use for recreational purposes were made in Austria, Germany, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey, India, and Japan, but prohibition was invariably flouted and control by taxation came to be preferred. This eventually proved to be such an important source of revenue that, in 1851, Cardinal Antonelli, Secretary to the Papal States, ordered that the dissemination of anti-tobacco literature was to be punished by imprisonment (Corti 1931).
Patterns of smoking in Russia
Authors: Zaridze David
Published: November 2023

Russia is the fourth largest cigarette market in the world, and one of the fastest-growing. Russians consume about 300 billion cigarettes a year. According to official statistics in 1985 Russians consumed 240 billion cigarettes. The smoking rate in Russia was already quite high in mid-1980s, 46-48% among men and 3-12% among women (The principal investigators. The MONICA Project 1989). Since then smoking rates in men increased by about 10-15% and the rates in women have at least doubled. In the survey carried out in Karelia in 1992 (Puska et al. 1993), highest smoking rates were recorded among people aged 25-34 years, 77% and 20% in men and women, respectively. Proportion of smokers among men aged 35-44 and 45-54 was 61% and 68% respectively. In women, in these age groups smoking rates were lower, 13% and 3%, respectively. Lowest rates were observed in those aged 55-64 years, 57% in men and 3% in women (Table 12.1).
Smoking and ovarian cancer
Authors: Halick Crystal N , Risch Harvey A
Published: November 2023

Ovarian cancer causes more deaths than any other cancer of the female reproductive system and ranks second in incidence among gynecologic cancers, accounting for 4 per cent of all cancers, with 23 300 new cases estimated among women in the United States in 2002 (American Cancer Society 2002). Risk of ovarian cancer increases with age and peaks in the late 70s. Mutations in the genes BRCAJ or BRCA2 account for about 10 per cent of all epithelial ovarian cancers (Risch et al. 2001). Pregnancies and use of oral contraceptives are known to reduce the risk of developing ovarian cancer, and nulliparous women are more likely to develop it (Daly and Obrams 1998).
Impact of smoke-free bans and restrictions
Authors: Borland Ron , Davey Claire
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews the progress that is being made in protecting people from exposure to tobacco smoke in their environments, and on the impact that these changes are having on tobacco use. In doing so we attempt to explain the reasons for apparent differences in progress in different countries, and make some predictions as to future trends. Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is also known as passive smoking, involuntary smoking, or secondhand smoke. The terminology used varies, but all are intended to refer to pretty much the same thing, although subtle distinctions can usefully be made.
Liquid Crystal Elastomers
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M
Published: November 2023

Liquid crystals are fluids with a directionality defined. Polymers are long molecules with a shape that can be changed. As a network, polymers form rubber - a soft solid that is locally liquid-like and capable of huge extension. Liquid crystal elastomers are a combination of all these curious aspects, but with additional, revolutionary new phenomena - for example, spontaneous shape changes of several hundred percent induced by temperature change, with equally large opto-mechanical responses, shape change without energy cost ("soft elasticity"), colour change with strain, lasing and photonics, sensitivity to molecular handedness and soft solid ferroelectricity. This book is a primer for liquid crystals, polymers, rubber, and elasticity. It then describes the theory and experiment of these remarkable materials for the first time as a monograph. Worked examples are solved so that the reader can become proficient in the field himself. The book is directed at physicists, chemists, material scientists, engineers and applied mathematicians at the graduate student level and beyond.
Dynamics of Liquid Crystal Elastomers
Authors: Warner M , Terentjev E M
Published: November 2023

Among various dynamical properties of polymeric materials, an important and most fre-quently encountered is their mechanics. The equilibrium response of liquid crystalline elastomers can be soft or hard depending on the relation between the imposed strains and the nematic director, in particular, if the director is able to respond by rotating. With such unusual equilibrium elasticity one might expect dynamic mechanical response to be equally unusual. If the elastic forces are small, then the return to equilibrium is driven more weakly than in conventional systems.
Introduction
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

Light controls the key processes in nature. Light from the Sun provides our planet with energy and thus controls the evolution of its biosphere. The periodic absence of light stimulated the development of a wide variety of artificial light sources, starting with the candle, proceeding through the present-day electric light bulb, and ending with light-emitting diodes. Light from these sources originates from the heating of matter, the elementary act of light birth being the emission of a photon by an excited particle.
Elementary radiative processes
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

In this introductory chapter, we consider the elementary radiative processes for both free atomic particles (atoms, ions, and molecules) and particles interacting with a monochromatic laser field. For more advanced considerations, the reader is advised to refer to the classical textbooks (Loudon 1973; Sargent et al. 1974; Allen and Eberly 1975; Sobelman 1979; Haken 1981; Knight and Allen 1983; Meystre and Sargent 1990; Cohen-Tannoudji et al. 1992; Foot 2004). Extensions of this material are treated in subsequent chapters, wherein various light field configurations, atomic particles, and the processes of interaction between atomic particles and laser fields are considered in detail.
Laser velocity-selective excitation
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

In a gas, particles move in all possible directions. For this reason, the Doppler shift differs between individual particles. At thermal equilibrium, all directions are equiprobable, that is, the velocity distribution of the particles is isotropic.
Laser photoselective ionization of atoms
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

In this and subsequent chapters, we consider are other laser methods for controlling atoms and molecules that, in contrast to all the methods discussed above in Chapters 2–8, are destructive. They result in the ionization of the atoms or molecules being controlled and the dissociation and fragmentation of molecules. All these methods are united by the capability of the particles to be ionized or dissociated in a photo selective manner, which makes it possible to detect and separate atoms or molecules of certain species. They are based on the fact that all the structural details of atoms and molecules manifest themselves in their spectra, for example, some details manifest in the spectra of atoms are the atomic weight (the number of nucleons), the number of protons (the nuclear charge and the type of element), the number of neutrons (the isotopic state), and even the excitation energy of the nucleus (the isomeric composition). This enables one to excite, and, in some cases, ionize atoms and molecules in a photo selective way and thus accomplish their photo selective excitation and separation. Figure 9.1 lists all types of photo selectivity. All of them have been successfully realized by the method of resonance multistep ionization of atoms that is considered in the present chapter. Our primary attention here is concentrated on the realization of laser control of the photo selectivity of ionization. A detailed description of this method can be found in the monographs by Letokhov (1987) and Hurst and Payne (1988).
Photoselective laser control of molecules via molecular vibrations
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

The vibrational–rotational spectra of a polyatomic molecule contains information about its main structural properties. Information about the bonds and structures formed by the atoms in the molecule can be extracted from the IR and Raman spectra. Vibration frequencies that characterize a definite bond are nevertheless very sensitive to the rest of the molecular components. This circumstance provides potentially high selectivity in the effect that resonance laser radiation can have on molecular vibrations, as well as the possibility of implementing laser control of molecules via their vibrations.
Coherent laser control of molecules
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 9–11, we have considered methods for incoherent control of atoms and molecules, whose realization relies on differences in their spectra. Of course, coherent effects inevitably manifest themselves in these methods, especially in the case of atoms, but with rare exceptions, they play no crucial role here. Noncoherent control was quite natural for the first stage of laser control, when the duration τ  p of the laser pulses used is much longer than the coherence time T  2 of the quantum system being controlled. A typical case is that of polyatomic molecules (Chapter 11) in highly excited vibrational states and molecules in condensed media, where the relaxation time of the coherence induced by a coherent laser pulse falls within the subpicosecond range. The progress in the development of nanosecond, picosecond, and femtosecond pulsed lasers has led to the corresponding development of new avenues of noncoherent and coherent laser control of molecules (Fig. 12.1). The first wave of successful applications of lasers for the purpose of effecting noncoherent laser control of polyatomic molecules was associated with the development in the early 1970s of the relatively simple CO2 laser, generating high-power IR pulses in the range 9–11 μm with a duration of the order of 100 ns. The use of these lasers to excite vibrations in polyatomic molecules gave birth to multiphoton photoselective IR laser photochemistry, providing intermolecular selectivity, isotopic selectivity in particular (Chapter 11).
Related topics: laser control of microparticles and free electrons
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

The concept of the laser control of atomic motion, discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, was developed simultaneously and successfully for neutral microparticles, specifically with a view to creating optical tweezers. There are prospects for using the nonresonance gradient force produced by strong femtosecond laser pulses to control to some extent the motion of electrons and thus develop laser-induced electron optics in the future. It therefore seems quite natural to discuss, in conclusion, these problems related to the main subject matter of this book.
Concluding comments
Authors: Letokhov Vladilen
Published: November 2023

When I was writing this book, the names of many remarkable scientists from various countries, pioneers of new avenues of scientific exploration, whom I have already mentioned in this book, crossed my mind. I have had occasion to meet many of these scientists, who have worked during the past fifty years, in various countries and at various conferences and to receive them at the Institute of Spectroscopy of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the city of Troitsk and at my home in the village of Puchkovo, both near Moscow. I have kept many thousands of pertinent photographs and have decided to publish some of them in this concluding section, along with very brief commentaries.
Health Measurement Scales
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R
Published: November 2023

This is the new edition of the highly successful practical guide for clinicians developing tools to measure subjective states, attitudes or non-tangible outcomes in their patients. It is widely used by people from many disciplines, who have only a limited knowledge of statistics. This thoroughly updated edition of Health Measurement Scales, Third Edition gives more details on cognitive requirements in answering questions, and how this influences scale development. There is now an expanded discussion of generalizability theory, a completely revised chapter on Item Response Theory and many revisions are included, based on the latest research findings. These features combine to provide the most up-to-date guide to measuring scale development available. It synthesizes the theory of scale construction with practical advice, culled from the literature and the authors’ experience, about how to develop and validate measurement scales to be used in the health sciences. The theory goes into issues of reliability, generalizability theory, validity, the measurement of change, the cognitive requirements of answering questions, and item response theory. Practical issues cover devising the items, biases that may affect the responses, pre-testing and weeding out poorly performing items, combining items into scales, setting cut points, and the practical issues of using scales in various ways, such as face-to-face interviews; mailed or telephone-administered surveys; and over the internet. One chapter also discusses some of the ethical issues that scale developers and users should be aware of. Appendices lead the reader to other readings; sources of already developed scales and items; and a very brief introduction to exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.
Basic concepts
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R
Published: November 2023

One feature of the health sciences literature devoted to measuring subjective states is the daunting array of available scales. Whether one wishes to measure depression, pain, or patient satisfaction, it seems that every article published in the field has used a different approach to the measurement problem. This proliferation impedes research, since there are significant problems in generalizing from one set of findings to another. Paradoxically, if you proceed a little further in the search for existing instruments to assess a particular concept, you may conclude that none of the existing scales is quite right, so it is appropriate to embark on the development of one more scale to add to the confusion in the literature. Most researchers tend to magnify the deficiencies of existing measures and underestimate the effort required to develop an adequate new measure.
Reliability
Authors: Streiner David L , Norman Geoffrey R
Published: November 2023

Our reasons for this apparently single-minded viewpoint are simple. The technology of reliability assessment was worked out very early in the history of psychological assessment. We once traced its roots back to a textbook written in the 1930s, and the basic definitions were given without reference, indicating that, even seven decades ago, the classical definition was viewed as uncontroversial. There is complete consensus within the educational and psychological communities regarding the meaning of the term, and disagreement and debate are confined to a small cadre of biomedical researchers. Moreover, once one understands the basic concept it appears, in our view, to reflect perfectly the particular requirements of any measurement situation. Although there are some more recent theories in education and psychology, such as generalizability theory (see Chapter 9), these represent extensions of the basic approach. Other conflicting views which have arisen in the biomedical research community, such as the treatment of Bland and Altman (1986), offer, in our view, no advantage. This latter method, because of its recent popularity, will be discussed separately.
What imitation tells us about social cognition: a rapprochement between developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience
Authors: Meltzoff Andrew N , Decety Jean
Published: November 2023

Both developmental and neurophysiological research suggest a common coding between perceived and generated actions. This shared representational network is innately wired in humans. We review psychological evidence concerning the imitative behaviour of new born human infants. We suggest that the mechanisms involved in infant imitation provide the foundation for understanding that others are ‘like me’ and underlie the development of theory of mind and empathy for others. We also analyse functional neuroimaging studies that explore the neuro-physiological substrate of imitation in adults.
Introduction
Authors: Gell Chris , Brockwell David , Smith Alastair
Published: November 2023

The measurement of single fluorescent molecules is, in principle, straightforward as suitable detectors, light sources, and sampling optics are readily available. The major hurdle lies in the interference from the massive excess of other molecules that contribute to the background, along with photophysical artifacts from the dye labels, that both reduce the signal-to-noise of the measurement. So what is the motivation for facing the challenges of making measurements with single molecule resolution? The simplest reason is the need to achieve very high sensitivity.
Single molecule fluorescence instrumentation
Authors: Gell Chris , Brockwell David , Smith Alastair
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the greatest obstacle that prevents non-specialists utilizing a relatively new technique such as single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy is the apparently complex instrumentation. Whilst in recent years commercial systems capable of single molecule fluorescence detection have become available (see Section 3.9), it is often still necessary to make significant modifications to these systems. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the common experimental arrangements for single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy and to describe how they are implemented in a manner that makes them accessible to a broad range of potential users.
Cost-benefit analysis
Authors: Drummond Michael E , Sculpher Mark J , Torrance George W , O’Brien Bernie J , Stoddart Greg L
Published: November 2023

The feature that distinguishes among techniques of economic evaluation is the way in which the consequences of health care programmes are valued. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) requires programme consequences to be valued in monetary units, thus enabling the analyst to make a direct comparison of the programme’s incremental cost with its incremental consequences in commensurate units of measurement, be they dollars, pounds, or yen.
Measuring facial action
Authors: Cohn Jeffrey F , Ekman Paul
Published: November 2023

Of all the nonverbal behaviors—body movements, posture, gaze, proxemics, voice— the face is probably the most commanding and complicated, and perhaps the most confusing. In part, the face is commanding because it is always visible, always providing some information. There is no facial equivalent to the concealment maneuver of putting one’s hands in one’s pockets. Whereas sounds and the body movements that illustrate speech are intermittent, the face, even in repose, may provide information about some emotion or mood state. Many nonverbal behaviors simply do not occur when a person is alone, or at least do so very rarely.