bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Oppositional Defiant Disorder
Authors: Drabick Deborah A. G. , Cline Jessie I.
Published: January 2015

Oppositional defiant disorder (
ODD
) involves a recurrent pattern of angry and irritable mood, argumentative and defiant behavior, and vindictiveness.
ODD
co‐occurs with a variety of conditions, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, anxiety and mood disorders, and substance use disorders, and it developmentally precedes most co‐occurring conditions. A variety of risk factors and correlates for
ODD
have been identified, including child (e.g., difficult temperament), parent–child (e.g., harsh discipline and low warmth), family (e.g., high conflict), and peer (e.g., bullying and victimization) factors. A multimethod, multi‐informant assessment approach is recommended to determine whether youth meet criteria for
ODD
, as well as to identify risk factors, correlates, and comorbid conditions. The most effective treatment strategies for
ODD
use cognitive behavioral strategies. Changes to the diagnostic criteria in

DSM
‐5

include removal of the hierarchical exclusion criterion for conduct disorder, developmentally referenced frequency criteria, and addition of a severity rating based on the number of settings in which symptoms are present.
Forensic Evaluation/Assessment (versus Clinical Evaluation/Assessment)
Authors: Hunt Elizabeth , Kimonis Eva R.
Published: January 2015

Forensic assessment is a specific type of evaluation used to gather information to assist legal decision makers. It differs from standard clinical assessment in several ways, including its purpose, the evaluator's role/relationship with the examinee, the limits of confidentiality and voluntariness of the evaluation, and the type of testimony. Given the nature and context of forensic assessment, careful attention must be paid to the examinee's response style and the potential for malingering. Forensic assessment should be comprehensive by including multiple sources of information and approaches to collecting data. When appropriate, the information obtained through this evaluation should be presented clearly with explicit mention of the procedures used and the basis for each conclusion.
Autism Spectrum Disorder/Autism
Authors: Haisley Lauren , Barton Marianne , Fein Deborah
Published: January 2015

Autism spectrum disorder (
ASD
) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by a behavioral profile present in early childhood.
ASDs
are defined by deficits in communication and socialization, as well as the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviors. Among individuals with
ASD
, there is great heterogeneity in the severity and presentation of these symptoms. The conceptualization of
ASD
has changed over time. This entry provides a broad overview of the disorder's history as well as an overview of
ASD
's characteristics, epidemiology, etiology, assessment, and treatment.
Weight Management
Authors: Butryn Meghan L. , Raggio Greer , Lowe Michael R.
Published: January 2015

The obesity epidemic continues to grow, resulting in major harm to health and wellbeing. Behavioral interventions represent the most common type of weight‐loss program. They produce medically significant weight losses, but maintenance remains elusive. Bariatric surgery produces the largest and longest‐lasting weight losses, but it is expensive and requires dramatic, lifelong changes in eating behavior. Society‐wide changes in the food and physical activity environment appear to be necessary to reverse the obesity epidemic.
Gender Identity Disorder/Gender Dysphoria
Authors: Zucker Kenneth J.
Published: January 2015

Gender identity
refers to a person's basic sense of self as male or female.
Gender dysphoria
refers to the distress one experiences when one's gender identity does not match one's assigned sex at birth, which often leads to the strong desire to become a member of the other gender. Research suggests that gender identity differentiation is the result of a complex interplay among biological and psychosocial factors. There are various therapeutic approaches, including both psychosocial and biomedical interventions, designed to reduce gender dysphoria.
R
osenhan Pseudopatient Study
Authors: Ruscio John
Published: January 2015

In a famous study, professor of psychology and law David Rosenhan and seven other mentally healthy colleagues sought admission to mental hospitals to determine whether their “sanity” would be detected in these “insane” environments. Sufficiently distressed to seek professional help and complaining of auditory hallucinations, each “pseudopatient” was admitted, diagnosed with schizophrenia (or, in one case, manic depression), and ultimately discharged after an average stay of 19 days with a modified “in remission” diagnosis. Based on the pseudopatients' extensive notes of their experiences, Rosenhan criticized diagnoses as unreliable and invalid as well as implicating them in the mistreatment of patients. Though the logic and evidence supporting these conclusions has been challenged by many commentators, the classic pseudopatient study continues to exert an influence on clinical psychology.
Psychiatry
Authors: Noll Richard
Published: January 2015

Psychiatry is one of the oldest specialty professions in medicine, arising after 1800 in small communities of European, British, and American physicians who were physically, socially, and professionally isolated in asylums for the care and management of persons suffering from severe disturbances of thought, emotion, and behavior (“insanity”). In the twentieth century psychiatry turned its attention to milder psychiatric conditions (e.g.,“neurosis” or “neurasthenia”) in the general population, changing its mission and treatment methods. Competing views of mental disorder as biologically specifiable categories of disease (promoted by Emil Kraepelin), as dimensional psychosocial “reactions” (Adolf Meyer), or as mental mechanisms of personality (Sigmund Freud) have not been resolved by biomedical, psychological, or statistical methods.
Sexual Dysfunctions
Authors: Alavi Sanam Bamshad , Sanderson William C.
Published: January 2015

Sexual dysfunction refers to a cluster of disorders related to an individual's impaired sexual functioning. Characteristic symptoms vary across disorders, but may include lack of desire for sexual activity, inability to reach orgasm, and the experience of pain during sexual intercourse. While psychological variables may affect one's sexual functioning, it is important to note that physical and health‐related problems might have a significant impact as well. The diagnosis of a specific sexual dysfunction disorder requires identifying the particular symptoms experienced by an individual and ruling out medical conditions and other organic causes, such as substance use effects. This entry will provide a brief overview of the categories of sexual dysfunction and their prevalence, as well as psychological and emotional factors associated with them. In addition, psychotherapeutic options for treatment are briefly discussed.
B
andura,
A
lbert (b. 1925)
Authors: Davison Gerald C.
Published: January 2015

Reviewed here is the professional life of Albert Bandura, one of the most highly cited scholars in the entire history of psychology. From a modest childhood in rural Canada, Bandura emerged as an innovative theorist and ingenious experimentalist in the development of a social cognitive theory that placed strong emphasis on the human capacity to control both the external and internal environment. His work on modeling and complex social cognition has had a profound influence on our conceptions of personality development and change, including the burgeoning field of cognitive behavioral therapy. In recent years, his work has been applied to large‐scale societal efforts to improve human health and safety and to help people make choices in creating meaningful lives for themselves.
American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP)
Authors: Nezu Christine Maguth
Published: January 2015

The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) is a national‐in‐scope, nonprofit credentialing organization that has been awarding board certification in professional psychology specialties for 65 years. This entry provides a description of the organization's development, current membership, and importance as the gold standard for board certification in 14 professional psychology specialties currently under theABPPorganizational umbrella.
Addiction and Violence Risk
Authors: Douglas Kevin S.
Published: January 2015

An association between addiction (and other substance‐related problems) and violence has been found across hundreds if not thousands of studies. Converging evidence from multiple countries exists across epidemiological, longitudinal, experimental, and meta‐analytic studies. Addiction is associated with numerous forms and severities of violence. Alcohol has the strongest and largest body of evidence as a (potentially causal) risk factor for violence. Stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamines are also consistently found to be related to violence. Most major violence risk assessment instruments incorporate some index of addiction or other substance‐related problem as a risk factor. Four main explanatory models—psychopharmacological, systemic, economic compulsion, interactional—for the link between addiction and other substance‐related problems are reviewed.
Major Depressive Disorder
Authors: Samuel Winer E. , Salem Taban , Bartoszek Gregory , Snodgrass Michael
Published: January 2015

Major depressive disorder is a mood disorder that affects millions of people each year, in many cases leading to disability or even suicide. Its symptoms, as outlined in the

DSM
‐5

, include low mood, fatigue, loss of pleasure in previously enjoyable activities, difficulty sleeping or eating normally, trouble concentrating, and thoughts of death or suicide. These symptoms have been described in many forms throughout history, dating back at least to the time of Hippocrates (460–370 
BC
) and the ancient Greek diagnosis of melancholia. Modern clinicians and researchers have proposed a variety of cognitive, biological, and social/environmental theories to explain the cause of major depressive disorder. The disorder is commonly assessed via clinical interview and/or self‐report questionnaires. First‐line treatments for major depressive disorder include psychotherapy and antidepressant medications.
Thematic Apperception Test
Authors: Mihura Joni L. , Meyer Gregory J.
Published: January 2015

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a performance‐based personality instrument published by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan in 1943. For decades, the TAT has ranked among the three most widely used personality assessment instruments in clinical settings, along with the Rorschach inkblot method and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The test consists of 31 cards with achromatic images, typically involving people, a subset of which the respondent is given and instructed to tell a story. Storytelling tests like the TAT are unique in they rely on a person's implicit intrapersonal and interpersonal narratives. Some formal TAT scores exist but are rarely used in clinical practice. Instead, clinicians typically use a variant of Murray's original interpretive approach that evaluates the need (internal motivation), press (external influences), and outcome of each story. Although the TAT has wide research base, the lack of commonly accepted scoring guidelines and norms has impaired researchers' ability to systematically assess its validity.
Facilitated Communication
Authors: Mostert Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Facilitated communication (
FC
) is a technique used to enable non‐communicative individuals to communicate through the use of a communication device. The client's hands are placed on a communication keyboard, supported at the wrist by a facilitator. Typed content is assumed to emanate from the client, with facilitator support for stability purposes only. Empirical evidence, however, overwhelmingly demonstrates that the technique is ineffective and that the facilitator, not the client, generates the typed communications.
Qualitative Methods
Authors: Leitner Larry M. , Hayes, Katherine J. , Imai Hideaki
Published: January 2015

Qualitative research differs from quantitative scholarship in fundamental epistemological ways. This entry describes epistemological differences and explores their implications for issues such as reliability, validity, significance, generalizability, objectivity, and the nature of data. Each section focuses on one of six approaches to qualitative research (narrative, grounded theory, phenomenological, participatory action research, intuitive inquiry, and ethnography), and includes an illustration of how the approach has been used in clinical psychology. Finally, this entry discusses the ways in which qualitative researchers present their data, as well as issues for the field to consider for future development.
Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (
BASC
‐2)
Authors: Kamphaus R. W.
Published: January 2015

The Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition (
BASC
‐2), is indeed a system, in that it includes a wide range of measures and scales designed for the comprehensive assessment of child behavioral and emotional adjustment, mental health, subsyndromal mental health symptoms, and behavioral and emotional competencies. The system includes the widely used teacher, parent, and student self‐report ratings scale, as well as college and early elementary grade self‐report forms, progress monitoring forms, clinician and classroom intervention guides, the Parenting Relationship Questionnaire, a developmental history form, the Student Observation Scale for classroom observations, the Behavioral and Emotional Screening System, and other supplementary materials. Information about the administration, scoring, interpretation, and reliability and validity evidence related to the core
BASC
‐2 rating scales is presented.
Benchmarking Studies of Psychotherapy
Authors: Barkham Michael , Saxon David
Published: January 2015

Abenchmarkrefers to a point of reference against which other measurements can be compared, and it can be viewed as a static phenomenon, whereasbenchmarkingis a more dynamic process that goes beyond a direct comparison and is akin to the concept of continuous quality improvement. Four types of benchmarking have been described that reflect increasing sophistication and can be termedinternal,competitive,functional, andgeneric processbenchmarking. However, there are important methodological considerations to consider when carrying out benchmarking studies.
Child Custody
Authors: Kuehnle Kathryn , Kirkpatrick H. D. , Drozd Leslie
Published: January 2015

The meaning of the termfamiliesis changing. Divorce remains a possible significant psychosocial event for millions of American children. Even though divorce outcomes for children are complex, we know some of what can be done to predict negative and positive outcomes. Although the applied definition of thebest interests of the child(BIC) remains unclear across the United States, there are numerous, significant contextual factors that a parenting plan and timesharing evaluator can address that will likely be helpful to the family court. For good reasons, the termschild custodyandcustody evaluationsare being replaced byparenting planandtimesharing evaluations. Family law courts, practitioners, and family law forensic evaluators are urged to seek an applied consensus on BIC parenting plan and timesharing recommendations that are forensically sound (i.e., built on the relevant scientific literature) and derived from a psychological BIC analysis.
Mendelian and Molecular Genetics
Authors: DiLalla Lisabeth Fisher , Mullineaux Paula Y. , DiLalla David L.
Published: January 2015

Genetic influences are important for almost every psychological behavior, including clinically relevant traits and disorders. This entry reviews some basic genetic definitions, provides a discussion of the history of genetic research as it applies to human behavior, and then discusses behavior genetic research with a focus on clinical psychology findings. Mendelian genetics, behavioral genetics, and molecular genetics studies have demonstrated the value of considering genotype when investigating the etiology of psychological variables. Although the picture is complicated as genes correlate with and interact with the environment and other genes, nonetheless this is clearly a critical road to follow for future research as we strive to understand the underpinnings of psychological behaviors.
Rational/Theoretical Approach to Test Construction
Authors: Ruscio John
Published: January 2015

When creating self‐report measures of personality or psychopathology, a theory of the target construct is often used to guide the development of potentially useful items. Under the rational/theoretical approach to test construction, the process both begins and ends with informed judgments based on theory. This approach is a reasonable place to start but inadequate by itself. It encompasses three important strengths—the simplicity of the approach, the transparency of measures, and the intuitive appeal of test results—that also entail serious limitations. For example, there are no mechanisms to identify poorly functioning items, to evaluate whether scales or subscales include homogeneous items, to iteratively improve the psychometric properties of score reliability and validity, or to prevent the proliferation of measures of constructs that are differently named but that actually represent a common, core construct.
Difference Scores
Authors: Schoemann Alexander M. , Gallagher Matthew W. , Little Todd D.
Published: January 2015

Difference scores are used commonly in clinical psychology to characterize change across two time points. Traditionally difference scores are computed by subtracting each individual's score at Time 1 from his or her score at Time 2. An alternative method of estimating difference scores, residual difference scores, is through regressing Time 2 scores onto Time 1 scores and saving the unstandardized residual for each individual as the change score for each person. We contrast traditional gain with residual difference scores, discuss the limitations to estimating difference scores with manifest variables, and discuss a latent variable model to estimate difference scores.
Diathesis‐Stress Models
Authors: Monroe Scott M. , Cummins Lori F.
Published: January 2015

Diathesis‐stress models provide useful ways to think about and organize information about how external factors (e.g., life stress) and internal factors (e.g., constitutional vulnerability) may operate together in causing disorder and disease. In actuality there are several types of diathesis‐stress model. For example, there are several ways in which both the stress and the diatheses may be conceptualized and defined, and these may vary with respect to the particular kinds of disorder investigated. Furthermore, there are distinctly different ways in which stress and diatheses may operate in relation to one another to bring about illness. Recent advances in molecular genetics, as well as intriguing conceptual extensions of the diathesis‐stress model, hold promise for enhancing the utility of this general approach for better understanding the causes of mental and physical disorders.
Psychometric Validity
Authors: Brian Hood S.
Published: January 2015

Psychometric validity is one of the central concepts in psychological assessment. It is a characteristic the presence of which signifies that an assessment and the inferences drawn from the results of the assessment were executed properly and warrant endorsement. However, psychometric validity is also a concept surrounded by controversy. This controversy is largely philosophical and brings to bear classic debates in the philosophy of science over scientific realism and empiricism. Much of the current debate over psychometric validity is simply a debate over what constitutes measurement in the psychological sciences and what are reasonable aspirations for those who construct and administer psychological tests.
Efficacy Versus Effectiveness Research
Authors: Dalrymple Kristy L. , Gaudiano Brandon A. , Weinstock Lauren M.
Published: January 2015

Over the past several decades, researchers have sought to examine the beneficial effects of psychotherapy using methods that have been shaped over time by seminal studies. One such methodology considered to be the “gold standard” in psychotherapy research is the efficacy trial, which tests a treatment under highly controlled conditions. An additional approach, the effectiveness trial, tests an efficacious treatment under more naturalistic conditions to determine how it will perform in typical clinical settings. Examples of these two types of design are provided, as well as a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of methodology. Given these advantages and disadvantages, researchers often conduct studies that combine the best elements of efficacy and effectiveness trials based on their particular research question. The different ways that these two methods are combined in hybrid efficacy‐effectiveness studies also are discussed.
Epistemology
Authors: Worley Sara
Published: January 2015

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Questions important for epistemology include the nature and limits of knowledge and what distinguishes knowledge from mere belief or opinion. In recent years, epistemology has devoted a great deal of attention to the question of how knowledge should be defined. A traditional view, that knowledge is justified true belief, has proved not to be completely satisfactory. Another set of questions revolves around the idea of justification, including questions of how much justification is required for some belief to count as knowledge and what the structure of justification is.
Prefrontal Lobotomy
Authors: Roosevelt Rodney W.
Published: January 2015

The term prefrontal lobotomy, or leucotomy, refers to a variety of surgical procedures that functionally isolate the prefrontal cortex from the posterior portion of the brain for the purpose of treating various severe mental illnesses and for transforming normally agitated patients into docile individuals. In the era before psychosurgery and effective antipsychotic pharmacological therapies, insulin shock therapy, electroconvulsive shock therapy, psychotherapy, and physical restraints represented the entire span of available treatment. None of the available approaches yielded satisfactory results; hence, the medical community was anxious to adopt any new treatment that promised to alleviate refractory psychotic symptoms. The first prefrontal leucotomy was performed by Egas Moniz (1874–1955) in 1935 and was modified and popularized by Walter Freeman (1895–1972). Between the years 1935 and the mid 1960s thousands underwent the surgery before ethical concerns paired with the emergence of effective antipsychotic drug therapy ultimately lead to its disuse.
Descartes' Model of Mind
Authors: Percival Ray Scott
Published: January 2015

Rene Descartes (1596–1650) was an advocate of a particular form of dualist interactionism, in which the influential materialism of his day played a large role. Descartes argued that there was both mind and body and that these interacted with one another. Materialism, which had received a boost in the seventeenth century with the rise of Galileo's (1564–1642) approach to science, is the doctrine that everything is composed of matter or body and that this fills parts or perhaps the whole of space. Different parts of the world interact by one body pushing another body, making the whole world a clockwork mechanism in which all explanation is based on action by contact and push. Descartes' model of mind was an answer to the question how does the mind fit into such a machinelike world.
Symptom Checklist‐90‐Revised (
SCL
‐90‐R)
Authors: Hildenbrand Aimee K. , Nicholls Elizabeth G. , Aggarwal Richa , Brody‐Bizar Emily , Daly Brian P.
Published: January 2015

The Symptom Checklist‐90‐Revised (
SCL
‐90‐R) is a self‐report instrument designed to assess psychological symptomatology and distress in adolescents and adults. Overall, the
SCL
‐90‐R is considered a valid measurement of general psychological distress, with high internal consistency and test–retest reliability in both clinical and nonclinical populations. The
SCL
‐90‐R is most frequently used by mental health professionals to assess psychological symptoms and monitor patient progress during and after treatment. The
SCL
‐90‐R is also widely employed for research purposes with normative samples as well as inpatient and outpatient populations experiencing a range of mental health and medical conditions. Despite the instrument's clinical and research utility, findings suggest that the subscales do not adequately discriminate among clinical diagnoses. Thus, the consensus recommendation is that the
SCL
‐90‐R be used as a measure of general distress, rather than as an assessment of individual types of psychopathology.
Psychological Debriefing
Authors: Gist Richard
Published: January 2015

Psychological debriefing, particularly the critical incident stress debriefing (
CISD
) rubric, grew exponentially to become one of the most popularized approaches to psychological intervention. Despite its seemingly intuitive underpinnings and its facile training and application, controlled research has consistently demonstrated the approach to be inert at best and to present the possibility of paradoxical inhibition to the natural processes of recovery in at least some recipients. Authoritative guidelines now caution against or even contraindicate its routine application, although it remains in relatively common usage. New and more refined approaches are beginning to emerge but systematic study of their efficacy and impact has yet to be reported. Practitioners are offered recommendations for more responsible approaches to evidence‐informed intervention.
J
ackson,
D
ouglas (1929–2004)
Authors: Jackson Lorraine D. , Jackson Charles Ted
Published: January 2015

Douglas N. Jackson (1929–2004) advanced the science of psychological test construction, developed over 20 widely used psychological tests, and emerged as an authority on human assessment. A prolific scholar, he authored approximately 250 scholarly articles and book chapters, and was also successful at putting academic findings to practical use. He developed some of the most rigorous and valid assessments available, measuring personality, leadership, vocational interests, integrity, cognitive ability, psychopathology, and more. These include the Personality Research Form™ (
PRF
), Basic Personality Inventory™ (
BPI
), Jackson Vocational Interest Survey™ (
JVIS
), Multidimensional Aptitude Battery™ (
MAB
), Employee Screening Questionnaire™ (
ESQ
), and Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology™ (with W. J. Livesley), to name a few. His assessments are updated and distributed through the companies he founded, Sigma Assessment Systems, Inc., and Research Psychologists Press, Inc. and are used variously by individuals, professionals, educational institutions, companies, and government agencies.
Marriage and Family Therapy (
MFT
)
Authors: Fivecoat Hayley C. , Johnson Matthew D.
Published: January 2015

Marriage and family therapies (
MFTs
) are psychological interventions designed to alter the functioning between two or more individuals within a family.
MFTs
differ from individual therapies in a variety of ways. Therapeutic processes and outcomes of
MFTs
are often complex due to the dynamic nature of therapies involving multiple individuals. Family therapies are discussed with regard to the types of problems that can be addressed, therapeutic approaches, and effectiveness of treatments. Marital therapies are discussed with regard to the context of the intimate relationship, therapeutic modalities, and effectiveness of treatments. Moreover, primary, secondary, and tertiary marital interventions are discussed with regard to treatment procedures, foci, and efficacy.
Depersonalization Disorder/Derealization Disorder
Authors: Lynn Steven Jay , Merckelbach Harald L. G. J. , Giesbrecht Timo , Condon Liam P. , van der Kloet Dalena , Lilienfeld Scott O.
Published: January 2015

Depersonalization is marked by persistent or recurring symptoms, including perceptual alterations, distorted sense of time, feeling as though one is an outside observer of one's body, or feeling like an automaton or like one is living in a dream or a movie. These symptoms are often accompanied by derealization, the feeling that the world, oneself, or other people seem strange or unreal. This entry summarizes the literature on depersonalization and derealization, including (a) the newDSM‐5diagnosis of depersonalization disorder/derealization disorder, which combines symptoms of derealization and depersonalization into a single diagnostic entity; (b) prevalence data; (c) precipitants of symptoms; (d) course of the disorder; and (e) theoretical and treatment approaches for depersonalization/derealization.
Self‐Report Questionnaires
Authors: Demetriou Constantina , Ozer Bilge Uzun , Essau Cecilia A.
Published: January 2015

The self‐report questionnaire is one of the most widely used assessment strategies in clinical psychology. It consists of a set of written questions used for describing certain qualities or characteristics of the test subject. In this entry a brief overview of the main characteristics of self‐report questionnaires is presented along with advantages and disadvantages to be used in the field of clinical psychology, both in research and practice, the crucial steps to develop self‐report questionnaires, and description of the reliability and validity of self‐report questionnaires.
W
olpe,
J
oseph (1915–97)
Authors: Sy Megan , Hogan John D.
Published: January 2015

Joseph Wolpe (1915–97) is recognized as one of the founding fathers of behavior therapy. While obtaining his medical degree in South Africa, he conducted animal research that involved reciprocal inhibition and systematic desensitization. This pioneering research established the groundwork for behavior therapy as we know it today. In 1966 Wolpe founded the Behavior Therapy Unit at Temple University, which served as a research and training center for other behavior therapists. He played a crucial role in the foundation of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapies (now the Association of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies) and the journal
Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry
. Wolpe was a prolific writer and advocate for behavior therapy, and his work includes the books
Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition
(1958) and
The Practice of Behavior Therapy
(1969), as well as hundreds of articles.
Impulse Control Disorders
Authors: Dellis Andrew , Stein Dan
Published: January 2015

Impulse control disorders are characterized by repeated failures to overcome a harmful will to action within some defining behavioral domain (e.g., fire setting, aggressive outbursts, or theft). Impulse control disorders have recently been grouped alongside disruptive and conduct disorders in the American Psychiatric Association's DSM. Prior to this, impulse control disorders—including pathological gambling and trichotillomania—were classified as a residual class of disorders, falling outside of existing categories in the nomenclature that are also characterized by repeated and characteristic failures of self‐control or impulsive behavior (e.g., alcohol dependence, antisocial personality disorder, and cyclothymic disorder). Indeed, different clinical presentations of failures in impulse control may be organized in different ways as our knowledge about phenomenology and psychobiology increases. For example, new understandings of pathological gambling have led to its inclusion in the DSM‐5 section on “Substance‐Related and Addictive Disorders”—thus introducing the concept of behavioral addiction alongside substance addiction as both clinically useful and diagnostically valid. Similarly, trichotillomania has moved to a new chapter, “Obsessive‐Compulsive and Related Disorders.”
Board of Professional Affairs,
APA
Authors: Martino Sara M.
Published: January 2015

The Board of Professional Affairs (
BPA
) is a governance group within the American Psychological Association (
APA
). The group is made up of nine committee members. Their primary responsibilities include developing recommendations and watching their implementation within the
APA
in terms of policy, standards, and guidelines for the profession. Their duties include practice guidelines, treatment guidelines, and creating and maintaining awards given to psychologists in the field. The
BPA
has focused on practice guidelines for psychologists, including treatment of child custody evaluations and child protection matters and test user qualifications.
R
orschach Inkblot Test
Authors: Mihura Joni L. , Meyer Gregory J.
Published: January 2015

The Rorschach inkblot test is a popular performance‐based personality test developed by Hermann Rorschach (1884–1922). The test consists of 10 inkblots: 5 are achromatic and 5 include chromatic colors. Respondents are asked what the inkblots “might be.” Their responses are coded, tabulated, and compared with norms for interpretation. In the mid 1900s, several Rorschach systems emerged in the United States. In 1974 John E. Exner (1928–2006) surveyed the literature to compile the most empirically supported variables from these systems into one, called the Comprehensive System (
CS
). Regardless of the Rorschach system, there has long been controversy surrounding the reliability and validity of the test's scores. Recently there have been significant efforts to review and summarize the empirical Rorschach literature. Building on these literature reviews, and following Exner's death in 2006, there is also a new Rorschach system that attempts to address criticisms and increase the likelihood of its reliable and valid use.
Differential Deficit
Authors: MacDonald Angus W.
Published: January 2015

This entry defines a differential deficit, or a specific cognitive deficit, as a deficiency measured in a specific domain of functioning, often attributed to psychiatric patients or other experimental groups. It presents the reasons differential deficits are important for interpreting the nature of dysfunctioning in psychiatric patients and other populations. Finally, it summarizes the challenge of isolating a differential deficit and describes a number of valid, potentially valid, and several invalid techniques for demonstrating differential deficits.
Dismantling Studies of Psychotherapy
Authors: Papa Anthony , Follette William C.
Published: January 2015

A dismantling design is one type of therapy outcome study. This design investigates therapies that have multiple components with the goal of trying to identify those features of the therapy that are either the active mechanisms of change or identify the degree to which specific components add to the magnitude of change attributable to other components. Thus, dismantling studies serially decompose a multicomponent therapy. One method of conducting these designs is to compare discrete components of the therapy with the total combined treatment. Depending on the number of identifiable components, individual components may be studied in isolation or in combination with other components of the intervention. They are in contrast to additive designs that attempt to build interventions starting with one component and subsequently adding additional components with the goal of identifying the contribution of each new component.
Independent Practice
Authors: Borel Christina
Published: January 2015

This entry provides a definition and overview of the independent practice of clinical psychology. It includes demographic information, training principles, and information regarding professional organizations related to the independent practice of professional psychology. Additionally, a brief historical sketch of the emergence of independent practice as an arena for psychologists is included, as well as discussion of major issues currently facing independent practitioners.
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (
EMDR
)
Authors: Follette William C. , Papa Anthony , Davis Deborah
Published: January 2015

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (
EMDR
) was developed in the late 1980s as a treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. Since then the therapy has been shown to be efficacious for this and other disorders. It is broadly disseminated and widely practiced. There are several controversies surrounding this therapy. Though eye movements were originally proposed to be an important active component of the intervention, several studies have called that claim into question. Questions remain, including what the mechanisms of action are for
EMDR
, how distinctive this therapy is from other interventions that include exposure and information‐processing components, and what training is needed to be technically proficient? Moreover, use of
EMDR
for memory recovery poses significant risk, as it incorporates many features that memory researchers have shown to promote development of false memories.
Clinical Mathematical Psychology
Authors: Shanahan Matthew J. , Townsend James T. , Neufeld Richard W. J.
Published: January 2015

Clinical mathematical psychology is the application of mathematical thinking to the examination of significant problems in psychopathology. Examination of psychopathological conditions can be done using mathematical approaches tailored to detecting deficits in cognitive and other functioning that are characteristic of a given disorder. Examples exist for schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and several neurodegenerative disorders. Clinical mathematical psychology includes, more generally, the use of formal terms to specify interrelation of constructs of interest for pathological phenomena. This mathematically based way of addressing patterns of unhealthy psychological functioning provides more specified language for theory development and recruits advanced mathematics for formulating research questions. Clinical mathematical psychology can be a valuable tool for the scientific study of the causes, effects, and treatment of mental illness.
UnitedStatesPublicHealthService (USPHS)
Authors: Goodie Jeffrey L. , Dobmeyer Anne C. , Corso Meghan L.
Published: January 2015

The United States Public Health Service (USPHS) has had a significant influence on the practice and research of behavioral health care, and on the training of psychologists. Most clinical psychologists in theUSPHSserve as members of theUSPHSCommissioned Corps, one of the seven uniformed services in the United States. The Commissioned Corps is devoted to protecting, promoting, and advancing the health and safety of the nation. Clinical psychologists serve in a variety of roles, including participation in Commissioned Corps deployments, to support this mission. This entry reviews the history of theUSPHS, its role in the history of clinical psychology, and the current roles of psychologists within theUSPHS.
H
athaway,
S
tarke
R
. (1903–84)
Authors: Arbisi Paul A.
Published: January 2015

Starke Rosencrans Hathaway (1903–84) played a significant role in reifying “dust bowl” empiricism through the development, with his colleague J. Charnley McKinley (1891–1950), of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which became the most widely used broadband measure of personality and psychopathology in the world. Although the MMPI was his most recognized accomplishment, Starke Hathaway had a varied career, making significant contributions across a range of subareas within the broader context of applied clinical psychology. Hathaway was by nature an experimentalist, a theoretical skeptic, and a well‐informed agnostic with regard to the then‐current theoretical systems within psychology. He often challenged conventional wisdom and questioned the utility of established practice. These attributes allowed him to collaborate across disciplines and make significant contributions to psychological assessment, physiological psychology, and experimental psychology over the span of his highly productive career.
NIMHResearch Domain Criteria (RDoC)
Authors: Sanislow Charles A. , Quinn Kevin J. , Sypher Isaiah
Published: January 2015

The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) project is a framework for studying domains of biological and behavioral function that cut across traditional psychiatric diagnostic boundaries with the long‐term objective of creating a new nosology based on specific biobehavioral measures. The initial aim is to provide a framework to drive clinical research. One goal ofRDoCis to facilitate the development of biomarkers that could eventually be used for practical clinical diagnostic purposes and allow the development of new treatments targeting specific mechanisms of mental illness. In this entry,RDoC, its development, and the ways that it may evolve are described.
Coefficient Alpha and Coefficient Omega
hierarchical
Authors: Zinbarg Richard E. , Alden Alison R.
Published: January 2015

The ideal of measurement for a multiple‐indicator scale is that it should be unidimensional. However, there are many latent variables or constructs of interest within the field of clinical psychology widely believed to be inherently multifaceted. Although scales that adequately assess such constructs are unlikely to be strictly unidimensional, they should still
primarily
measure one latent variable. Though many believe that coefficient alpha is a good index of the extent to which a scale is primarily a measure of one underlying latent variable, it is not. This entry describes an alternative to alpha, which is derived from the hierarchical factor analysis model—coefficient omega
hierarchical.
This entry includes discussion of the extant research comparing different methods of estimating coefficient omega
hiearchical
to each other and to coefficient alpha, as well as some important future directions for research on coefficient omega
hieararchical.
Systems Theory
Authors: Thompson Jason M.
Published: January 2015

Systems theory emphasizes wholes instead of parts. Rather than understanding psychopathology by reducing it to its components, systems theory describes how those components interact with each other to create disordered states, and how such states remain static or change over time. For example, the concept ofhomeostasisrefers to the way a disordered state, such as depression, has a self‐perpetuating tendency. Conversely, the concept ofmultifinalitydescribes how changes in key variables can lead over time either to healthy or maladaptive outcomes. The application of these and other salient systems theory principles to psychotherapy and related clinical topics is reviewed.
S
pearman,
C
harles (1863–1945)
Authors: Revelle William
Published: January 2015

Charles Edward Spearman (1863–1945) was arguably the leading psychometrician of the early twentieth century. He was the founder and head of the “London school” of psychology at University College London (
UCL
) where he and his many students combined an experimental with a psychometric approach to the study of cognitive ability. He became Reader in Experimental Psychology at
UCL
in 1907 and was made the Grote Professor of Mind and Logic at
UCL
in 1911. This professorship was eventually (1928) renamed the “Professorship of Psychology.” He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1924. Although officially retiring from
UCL
in 1931, he continued an active research career for the rest of his life. Spearman's contributions to reliability theory, factor analysis, and the theory of “g” or general intelligence continue to influence psychometric and intelligence research more than 100 years later.
Eysenck, Hans J. (1916–97)
Authors: Revelle William
Published: January 2015

Hans Jürgen Eysenck (1916–97) was one of the most influential personality psychologists of the twentieth century. He was a champion of the scientific approach to psychology in general, and personality in particular. His approach emphasized the integration of basic psychological theory with an experimental approach to the study of individual differences. During his lifetime his work on behavior genetics, ability, dimensions of personality, and a biological basis to personality went from being disbelieved and controversial to accepted wisdom for the field.
Neurophysiological and Neuroimaging Techniques
Authors: Nusslock Robin , Young Christina B. , Pornpattananangkul Narun , Damme Katherine S. F.
Published: January 2015

This entry provides an overview of frequently used neurophysiological and neuroimaging methods in clinical psychological research. The methods that will be discussed are quantitative electroencephalography, event‐related potentials, and structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging. A detailed discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of these methods will be provided as it pertains to the tension between spatial and temporal resolution. Furthermore, this entry summarizes some of the contributions that these methods have made to our understanding of the pathophysiology of clinical psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia.
M
essick,
S
amuel
J
. (1931–98)
Authors: LoBello Steven G.
Published: January 2015

S
amuel
J
.
M
essick (1931–98) was an American psychologist who spent his entire professional career at the Educational Testing Service. Messick is best known for his contributions to test theory, particularly in the area of test validity.
Dissociative Disorders
Authors: Lynn Steven Jay , Merckelbach Harald L. G. J. , Giesbrecht Timo , Lilienfeld Scott O. , Lemons Peter , van der Kloet Dalena
Published: January 2015

Major dissociative disorders inDSM‐5include dissociative amnesia, depersonalization/derealization disorder, and dissociative identity disorder. The trauma model and the sociocognitive model are two perspectives that vie for empirical support as explanations of the genesis of dissociative identity disorder and perhaps other dissociative disorders. Nevertheless, there have been increasing signs of convergence between the trauma and sociocognitive models, and a more recent sleep‐trauma model represents an attempt partly to integrate them. Medication does not appear to be effective in treating dissociative disorders, and psychotherapies await evaluation with rigorously controlled clinical trials.
Growth Curve Modeling
Authors: Krull Jennifer L. , Arruda Erin H.
Published: January 2015

Growth curve modeling is a statistical analysis technique for longitudinal data that captures both intra‐individual (“within person”) change over time and inter‐individual (“between person”) variability in such change. Such models are more flexible and powerful than traditional
ANOVA
and
MANOVA
approaches to repeated measures. Growth models are extremely valuable for describing or making inferences about the shape, direction, and rate of change that best characterize a population trajectory as well as uncovering and predicting individual differences between growth trajectories for members of a population. This encyclopedia entry describes the fundamentals of growth modeling in both multilevel modeling and structural equation modeling frameworks, including fitting linear and nonlinear growth trajectories and testing effects of individual and time‐varying predictors. Extensions of the basic growth model, including clustering of individuals within groups, examining interrelationships among trajectories of multiple outcome variables, and incorporating measurement models of outcome constructs, are also discussed.