bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Variability of Partisanship and Turnout
Authors: Rush Mark E.
Published: March 2007

Research on the impact ot redistricting on the representational opportunity of political groups is frequently grounded on the assumption that a group's "fair representation" can be easily determined. In this article the author takes issue with this assumption and shows that because partisan behavior is quite sensitive to changes in the electoral environment, the partisan profile and, therefore, the fair representation of a given constituency is quite difficult to determine. As a result, theories of representation as well as the concept of its denial by gerrymander must be reconsidered.
Institutional Strength and Gubernatorial Elections
Authors: Holbrook Thomas M.
Published: March 2007

Gubernatorial power is a concept that has received considerable attention from students of comparative state politics. One aspect of gubernatorial power that has been overlooked is its relationship to gubernatorial elections. This article explores the relationship between gubernatorial power and incumbent security in gubernatorial elections from 1978-1990. The analysis, however, fails to support such a relationship.
Retrospective Voting and Future Expectations
Authors: Bratton Kathleen A.
Published: March 2007

According to theories of retrospective voting, voters hold an incumbent administration responsible for problems or achievements that occur during its term. During the Reagan administrations, the deficit was one such problem. In this article, the interplay between the deficit issue and the voting decision is investigated. The major findings of this study are the following: (a) The deficit was a salient issue in 1988, and for many voters it was the most important problem facing the nation; (b) voters recognized that the deficit was a Reagan-era phenomenon; (c) an individual's perception of which party was better able to solve the deficit problem strongly influenced the vote; (d) many thought the Republican Party would better manage the deficit issue in the future. Thus Republicans suffered very little at the ballot box as a result of the issue. Future refinements of retrospective-voting theory must take into account this failure to hold the incumbent party accountable for problems encountered during its term.
Religion and Foreign Policy Attitudes
Authors: Jelen Ted G.
Published: March 2007

The effects of religious memberships and beliefs on general foreign policy orientations and on attitudes toward aspects of the Gulf War are examined. Although the effects of religion on foreign policy attitudes are somewhat limited, certain patterns emerge. Roman Catholics take relatively "dovish" positions on several foreign policy issues, and Catholics who hold Evangelical theological beliefs are especially skeptical of the necessity of bombing civilians. Among Protestants, the effects of membership in an Evangelical denomination are extremely limited, but Evangelical beliefs occasion hawkish attitudes on a number of international issues.
Politics, Bureaucracy, and Agricultural Policy
Authors: Meier Kenneth J. , Wrinkle Robert D. , Polinard J.L.
Published: March 2007

This study is a quantitative time-series analysis of politics and agricultural policy in the United States from 1950 to 1990. Agricultural policy is an area that generally does not fit the assumptions of the principal-agent model but rather relies on cooperative relationships between politicians and bureaucrats. Congress is the most active political institution, and bureaucracy has substantial expertise. The result is a mix of political controls and bureaucratic discretion that shapes major agricultural programs. The impact of these agricultural programs, especially those relevant to agricultural research, is assessed on several indicators of the farm sector's economic health.
The Rise of Ideology in the Post-New Deal Party System, 1972-1992
Authors: Levine Jeffrey , Carmines Edward G. , Huckfeldt Robert
Published: March 2007

Scholars argue that the social structural basis of the party system in the United States developed during the New Deal era has weakened, resulting in an increasing tendency for ideology to shape partisan support. We test this proposition by examining the role of ideology in the formation of partisanship in the United States over the last two decades. We find that, over the last 20 years, ideology has played an increasing role in shaping partisanship, one that cuts across traditional New Deal social group cleavages.
Politics Versus Policy in Public Works Grants
Authors: Hooton Cornell G.
Published: March 2007

It is commonly accepted that members of Congress influence federal agencies informally, and that in turn the federal agencies strategically accommodate members of Congress. However, in recent years allegations of accommodation of congressional interests by federal agencies has been met with some skepticism. In this study I frame a critical test of the informal gains of U.S. House subcommittee members and leaders against that of substantive policy criteria in the awarding of distributive grants, specifically with respect to the Title I public works program of the Economic Development Administration during the period from 1978 to 1982. Utilizing a multinomial probit model of grant distributions to House members' districts, I find no substan tively strong or statistically significant "political benefits" for subcommittee members. However, subcommittee leaders are found to receive political benefits only during the critical test, and only enough to return the flow of grants to that which prevailed before the critical period.
Witnesses for the Revolution
Authors: Gormley William T.
Published: March 2007

The Republican Revolution reshaped many congressional practices, including the mix of interest groups testifying before House committees, in ways that promote partisan responsiveness. A comparison of the 104th and 103rd Congresses reveals significantly more testimony in 1995 by groups sympathetic to the Revolution, less testimony by other groups. Comparisons of individual committees, although more ambiguous, also reveal differences between traditionally partisan and traditionally bipartisan committees.
Repeat Challengers
Authors: Mack W.R.
Published: March 2007

The role that challengers play in the electoral success of incumbents has long been a theme of research for students of congressional elections. This study focuses on the impact of a particular subset of challengers—repeat challengers. Through OLS and 2SLS analysis of electoral and personal candidate variables from House races in the 1980s, the influence of repeat challengers is assessed indirectly through their effect on challenger fundraising, as well as directly through changes in the shares of the district vote of challengers. The findings suggest that repeat challengers raise levels of campaign funds that are comparable to experienced first-time challengers in equally marginal or non-marginal districts. They also improve upon their previous vote totals, while experienced challengers (except those who presently hold statewide office) are not able to consistently add to the showing of the challenger from the previous election.
American Botanical Council Corrects Inaccurate Media Stories: Herbal Supplements Do Not Contain Animal Tissue
Authors: Blumenthal Mark
Published: March 2007

A July 30 Reuters News Service story wrongly implies that herbal supplements contain animal tissue. A letter to the editor, published in the July 27th issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, and the resulting media coverage incorrectly refer to dietary supplements that contain animal tissue as "herbal," according to the independent herb science group American Botanical Council (ABC). 1
The Professional Training Program
Authors: Gordon James S.
Published: March 2007

In ancient healing traditions and in contemporary indigenous societies, the education of healers is deeply experiential as well as didactic. It is understood that knowledge of specific therapies and the power that comes with the position of healer must be tempered by self-knowledge and wisdom.
Productivity Gains in High Barrier Medical Packaging
Authors: Starr Lawrence D.
Published: March 2007

Recently there have been significant advances in packaging those medical prod ucts requiring moderate and high barrier protection. Examples include intravenous drug solutions that require protection from evaporation; bacterial diagnostic mate rials that are highly sensitive to H2O; and medicated petrolatum burn wound dressings that need a nearly perfect O2 barrier for storage. The conversion of this type of package to horizontal dual web form/fill/seal machines has resulted in 1) lower costs due to labor and material savings and 2) improved package appearance and per formance. In addition to a discussion of applications, technical consideration is given to forming, registration, and package cutting.
Production of Ferroelectric Oriented Pvdf Films
Authors: Bloomfield Philip E.
Published: March 2007

Piezoelectric and pyroelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) films and coatings are currently being produced on a commercial basis in the United States, Europe, and Japan. PVDF is the resin of choice due to its high polarizability and ease of pro cessing. The resultant electro-activity depends on the orientation of the crystalline and amorphous regions of the polymer film, the amount of crystallinity, and the extent of dipole orientation.
Short Chain Branching Distribution of Uldpe
Authors: Dohrer K.K. , Hazlitt L.G. , Whiteman N.F.
Published: March 2007

Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) is manufactured by copolymerizing ethylene wih an alpha-olefin The most common and commercially important comonomers are butene-1, hexene-1, 4-methylpentene-1, and octene-1. This paper focuses on the use of octene-1. Ultra Low Density Polyethylene (ULDPE), a select case of LLDPE, has a density of ≤ 0.915 g/cc. Due to superior impact strength, optical properties, and heat sealing characteristics, ULDPE resins are beneficial to the packaging industry, particularly in food contact applications. Compliance with federal government Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations by ULDPE (and LLDPE, in general) must be met for such food contact. One test (n-hexane extraction) is used as an FDA approved method to assure that the control of produc tion is maintaining the previously demonstrated suitable level of extractability from a polymer by food. It is desirable for resin producers to control resin design such that maximum product performance results and regulatory guidelines are both met.

Control of the short chain branching distribution (SCBD) has been found to significantly affect product performance, especially for ULDPE. In addition to enhancing performance, the bonus of decreased n-hexane extractables has resulted from narrowing the SCBD.
Parametric Study of Extrusion and Thermoforming Conditions for CPET
Authors: Throne J.L.
Published: March 2007

Crystallized polyethylene terephthalate (CPET) is nearly transparent to microwave energy and can sustain 200°C convection oven temperatures for more than 60 min. without embrittling. As a result, it is a leading candidate for thermo formed freezer-to-oven portion servings. The rate of crystallization is controlled by adding small amounts of organic and/or inorganic nucleants. Nearly amorphous sheet of thickness of 60 mil or less can be extruded by casting onto chill rolls. This sheet is then rapidly heated to forming temperature with radiant and/or convection energy sources. The rapidly crystallizing sheet is finally formed against a heated mold. This paper proposes a way of understanding the time-dependent nature of CPET crystal linity during the typical thermoforming process. The results are compared with the patent literature.
The Mechanical Properties of Polyimide Films after Exposure to High pH
Authors: Croall C.I. , St. Clair T.L.
Published: March 2007

Wiring failures linked to insulation damage have drawn much attention in the aerospace industry and concerns have developed regarding the stability and safety of polyimide insulated electrical wire. Several polyimides were selected for evaluation for resistance to degradation by various aqueous alkaline solutions. The polyimides included commercially available films such as KAPTON®, APICAL®, LaRC™-TPI(Thermoplastic Polyimide) and UPI- LEX®R and S, as well as a number of experimental films prepared at NASA Langley Research Center, including LaRC™-ITPI(Isomeric Thermoplastic Polyimide) and LaRC™-CPI(Crystalline Polyimide). Thermally imidized films were studied for their retention of mechanical properties after exposure to high pH solutions under stressed conditions.
High Density Thermoplastic Polyesters for Sheet Extrusion
Authors: Clark A.H. , Walsh E.B.
Published: March 2007

High density thermoplastic polyester compositions which had been developed for injection molding were modified for sheet extrusion and thermoforming. Formulations were optimized to enhance processability for ex trusion and thermoforming by increasing melt strength at lower shear rates. A Design of Experiments was used to further optimize extrusion processing con ditions. Temperature and feed rate were found to be critical for optimum sur face appearance.
British Population and Society in 2025: Some Conjectures
Authors: Penn Roger
Published: March 2007

The paper examines three aspects of demographic change and conjectures about their wider impact on British society. Two features of fertility behaviour are highlighted. The first deals with ethnic variations and the likely continuation of high fertility rates amongst women of South Asian origin. The second involves the continued bifurcation between career women and those for whom motherhood remains a central life project. International migration is also assessed and the contradictions within the `Fortress Britain' strategy exposed. Britain will continue to receive migrants from overseas and British society will become increasingly multi-ethnic. The paper also examines the tensions between an increasingly ageing population and the development of increased ethnic and cultural diversity. The paper concludes with some implications of these changes for the discipline of sociology itself.
Interpretivism and Generalisation
Authors: Williams Malcolm
Published: March 2007

This article is concerned with the status of generalisation in interpretive sociology. The case made is that generalisation is inevitable, desirable and possible. It is held that interpretivism must employ a special kind of generalisation, characterised here as moderatum. However, an acknowledgement that such generalisations can be made must bring us to specify the limits of generalisation in interpretive research. These limits are the limits of interpretivism itself and the paper concludes that this implies the adoption of methodological pluralism in order to realise the full potential of the method.
Cultural Symbols and Landowners' Power: The Practice of Managing Scotland's Natural Resource
Authors: Samuel Andy M. M.
Published: March 2007

This article deals with the claim that Scottish landowners' power is directly related to their status in law, by arguing that it is, in fact, much more to do with their (inter) relationship with particular cultural symbols that can be associated with the land. However, this presents a sociological problem, for the dominant sociological purchase on land is one which routinely interprets it as a social construction. The paper presented here differs, as it focuses on particular cultural symbols which have a socio-historical resonance in relation to land, and makes the argument that they maintain this presence because of their (inter) connection with particular social groupings, notably landowners. Therefore, it is simply not enough to identify landowners' status in law as the root cause of their power, but instead it should be seen as only one facet of it. I conclude by suggesting that just as important is the way in which landowners have appropriated cultural interpretations of the land to forefront their powers.
The Nature of Trust: From Georg Simmel to a Theory of Expectation, Interpretation and Suspension
Authors: Möllering Guido
Published: March 2007

This article undertakes a substantial theoretical reorientation of research into the concept of trust. Analysing key passages in the work of Georg Simmel, it is argued that the link between trust bases and a trustful state of expectation is much weaker than is commonly assumed. In particular, Simmel recognises a `further element', a kind of faith, that is required to explain trust and its unique nature. His work has influenced key authors in the field such as Luhmann and Giddens, but the `further element' that concerns the crucial, proverbial leap of trust is still underdeveloped. Hence, the article proceeds to conceptualise trust as a mental process of three elements that further research should embrace: expectation, interpretation and suspension. Expectation is the state (outcome) at the end of the process. It is preceded by the combination of interpretation and suspension. The former concerns the experiencing of reality that provides `good reasons'. It is recognised that current trust research already moves away from the rational choice model and allows for affective and abstract (moral) trust bases. However, any form of interpretation is limited and does not inevitably enable expectation. Therefore, an additional element (in line with Simmel) is introduced in this article: suspension. This is the mechanism of bracketing the unknowable, thus making interpretative knowledge momentarily certain. Suspension enables the leap of trust. Functional consequences of trust such as risk-taking, co-operation, relationships or social capital should not be confounded with trust.
Metaphors of Spatiality and Networks in the Plural City: A Critique of the Ethnic Enclave Economy Debate
Authors: Werbner Pnina
Published: March 2007

This paper considers a particular debate in the scholarly literature on ethnicity in the United States regarding ethnic entrepreneurship which has come to be known as the `ethnic enclave economy hypothesis'. According to this hypothesis, ethnic enterprises and their workers benefit from clustering. The current consensus seems to be that the hypothesis is both redundant and misguided. In denying this critique, this paper draws on Lefebvre's theorisation of space and on industrial cluster and actor network theories to argue that the dominant interpretation of the notion of an enclave has been misconceived. Hence the need is to begin to theorise what ethnic enclave economies really are, beyond the spatial metaphor in which the hypothesis was first grounded, in order to interrogate generative processes of ethnic business formation.
Consumer Culture and the Commodification of Policing and Security
Authors: Loader Ian
Published: March 2007

This paper sets out to make sociological sense of some contemporary trends in the consumption of policing services and security products. I argue that the commodification of policing and security can fruitfully be theorised and investigated in terms of the spread of consumer culture, a contention that I demonstrate in three (related) ways. I begin by examining how a culture of consumption is pervading the practices and rhetoric of the public police and outlining the impact of `consumerism' on lay sensibilities towards policing. I then set out some prevailing trends in the consumption of protective services and hardware and consider the effects of a burgeoning `security market' on the construction of authority, subjectivity and social relations. Finally, I detail a number of possible points of resistance to the spread of commercially-delivered policing and security and argue that these provide both some potential cultural limits to the extension of a `consumer attitude' in this field, and a space within which to think about, and develop, modes of policing shaped by citizens acting in a democratic polity rather than consumers operating in the market.
Screening using whole-body magnetic resonance imaging scanning: who wants an incidentaloma?
Authors: Salman Rustam Al-Shahi , Whiteley William N , Warlow Charles
Published: March 2007

Objective: Some private health screening companies in the UK provide 'health check-ups' using whole-body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), in spite of the lack of evidence demonstrating that such screening is worthwhile. We discuss the issues surrounding the use of an MRI scan as a screening test in 'health check-ups' and set out our concerns.

Conclusion: Because of the five balance between the potential perils and benefits of the unselective use of brain MRI for 'health check-ups', its use should be restricted to a research setting.
Natural history of nonalcoholic steathepatitis: A longitudinal study of repeat liver biopsies
Authors: Fassio Eduardo , Álvarez Estela , Domínguez Nora , Landeira Graciela , Longo Cristina
Published: March 2007

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis may cause severe fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma, but supporting evidence is based on indirect data. Few publications have examined the results of repeat liver biopsies to evaluate progression of fibrosis. The aims of this study were to assess rate of fibrosis progression in untreated patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and to identify associated variables. Among 106 patients, a second liver biopsy was proposed to those who had undergone their first liver biopsy at least 3 years before. None of them had been given pharmacological therapy. Liver biopsy samples were evaluated blindly. Variables were compared between patients with (group P) and without (group NP) fibrosis progression, using a Wilcoxon rank-sum test for numerical variables and a difference of two binomial proportions for categorical ones. Twenty-two patients (median age, 45 years; age range, 20-69 years; 13 women; diabetes in 8 patients, obesity in 10 patients) underwent a second liver biopsy 4.3 years (range, 3.0-14.3 years) after the first. Fibrosis progression was found in 7 patients in group P (31.8%), no progression was found in 15 patients in group NP. There were no differences between both groups regarding age, gender, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, ALT levels, AST-to-ALT ratio levels, albumin levels, prothrombin activity, steatosis, or inflammation. Obesity was significantly more prevalent in group P (86%) than in group NP (27%;P= .01). Basal body mass index was higher in group NP (median, 33.2; range, 29.1-38.2) than in group NP (median, 29.0; range, 24.0-38.1;P= .024). Time between biopsies was not different between groups. In conclusion, progression of liver fibrosis was found in a third of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis patients 4.3 years after the first liver biopsy, and obesity and body mass index were the only associated factors with such progression. (Hepatology 2004;40:820-826).
A critical assessment of noise‐induced errors in 31P MRS: Application to the measurement of free intracellular magnesium in vivo
Authors: Golding Elke M. , Dobson Geoffrey P. , Golding Raymund M.
Published: March 2007

Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy (31P MRS) is a noninvasive technique that has been used to estimate free intracellular magnesium concentration (free [Mg2+]). Free [Mg2+] is computed from the chemical shift separation between the α‐ and β‐phosphate resonances of ATP. The current study was undertaken to critically assess the influence of noise effects in estimating free [Mg2+] in rat brain subjected to moderate parasagittal fluid percussion‐induced injury. We show that contrary to published data, free [Mg2+] does not significantly change for up to 4 h after moderate trauma in different rat strains and using different surface coils. Before injury, free [Mg2+] = 0.56 ± 0.11 (mean ± SD, n = 36) and 4 h post‐trauma, free [Mg2+] = 0.56 ± 0.28. Our results suggest that explanations for this discrepancy comprise errors of chemical shift assignments accompanying low signal‐to‐noise ratios and the method of analysis employed. Indeed, the authors propose that spectra of β‐ATP signal‐to‐noise ratio less than 5:1 will produce significant noise‐induced errors. We conclude that without knowledge of the inherent errors in 31P MRS spectroscopy and appropriate statistical analysis, caution should be exercised in calculating free [Mg2+] and using these changes as a basis for proposing pharmacotherapeutic interventions.
Hemodynamically independent analysis of cerebrospinal fluid and brain motion observed with dynamic phase contrast MRI
Authors: Alperin Noam , Vikingstad Eric M. , Gomez‐Anson Beatriz , Levin David N.
Published: March 2007

Brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) movements are influenced by the anatomy and mechanical properties of intracranial tissues, as well as by the waveforms of driving vascular pulsations. The authors analyze these movements so that the purely hemodynamic factors are removed and the underlying mechanical couplings between brain, CSF, and the vasculature are characterized in global fashion. These measurements were used to calculate a set of impulse response functions or modulation transfer functions, characterizing global aspects of the vasculature's mechanical coupling to the intracranial tissues, the cervical CSF, and the cervical spinal cord. These functions showed that a sudden influx of blood into the head was rapidly accommodated by some type of intracranial reserve or capacity. After this initial response, an equal volume of CSF was driven through the foramen magnum over the next 200‐300 ms as the intracranial reserve relaxed to its base‐line state.
Dynamic MRI sensitized to cerebral blood oxygenation and flow during sustained activation of human visual cortex
Authors: Krüger Gunnar , Kleinschmidt Andreas , Frahm Jens
Published: March 2007

Changes in cerebral blood oxygenation and flow during prolonged activation of human visual cortex (6‐min video projection) were monitored using high‐resolution T2*‐ and T1‐weighted gradient‐echo MRI in identical sessions. Oxygenation‐sensitive recordings displayed an initial signal increase (oxygenation “overshoot”), a subsequent signal decrease extending over 4–5 min (relative deoxygenation), and a signal drop after the end of stimulation that mirrored the initial response (oxygenation “undershoot”). How‐senstive MRI demonstrated that the inflow effect remained elevated during the entire period of stimulation. The observation of gradually decreasing cerebral blood oxygenation, despite persisting elevation of blood flow, may be understood to be an accumulation of deoxyhemoglobin due to the progressive up‐regulation of oxidative phosphorylation. The present findings support a concept in which transitions between functional states lead to an uncoupling of perfusion (oxygen delivery) from oxidative metabolism (oxygen consumption) whereas steady‐state activfty achieves their recoupling.
Spectroscopic imaging of human brain glutamate by water‐suppressed J‐refocused coherence transfer at 4.1 T
Authors: Pan Jullie W. , Mason Graeme F. , Pohost Gerald M. , Hetherington Hoby P.
Published: March 2007

The authors report the development and implementation of a water‐suppressed J‐refocused coherence transfer sequence to observe glutamate in human brain at 4.1 T. The sequence is modeled for I2S2 and I2S2M spin systems analytically and plotted for a range of echo times. In this sequence, water suppression and refocusing of J‐coupled resonances are achieved through a brief multiple quantum step without significant loss of signal. Phantom data are shown. Human brain spectroscopic imaging of glutamate, acquired with a total echo of 36 ms, demonstrates the application of the sequence to observe gray and white matter differences in glutamate content.
Variation of functional MRI signal in response to frequency of somatosensory stimulation in α‐chloralose anesthetized rats
Authors: Gyngell Michael L. , Bock Christian , Schmitz Bernd , Hoehn‐Berlage Mathias , Hossmann Konstantin‐Alexander
Published: March 2007

The dependence of functional MRI contrast on the repetition rate (1.5–9 Hz) of a sensory stimulus was investigated with a T2*‐weighted gradient echo method during forepaw stimulation of α‐chloralose anesthetized rats (n = 5). An activation area was observed in the left or right somatosensory cortex dependent on the stimulation of the right or left forepaw, respectively. The activation intensity decreased for stimulation frequencies above 3 Hz, and was negligible at 9 Hz. The interpretation is that at low stimulation rates the neurons can respond to each stimulus, but at higher rates there is insufficient recovery time so that the response is progressively occluded.
An in vitro evaluation of the effects of local magnetic‐susceptibility‐induced gradients on anisotropic water diffusion in nerve
Authors: Beaulieu Christian , Allen Peter S.
Published: March 2007

It has been suggested that the anistropy of the water‐diffusion coefficient measured in nerve and in white matter could arise from locally anisotropic background gradients induced by the static field, Bo. By utilizing 1) pulse sequences, which minimize the effects of background gradients, and 2) changes in sample orientation, which would maximize the change in the magnitude of these gradients if present, it is shown that in four excised nerves the background gradients do not play a measurable role in the anisotropy of the water‐diffusion coefficient at a field strength of 2.35 T. The excised nerves evaluated were the olfactory, trigeminal, and optic nerves of the garfish and the sciatic nerve of the frog.
Evaluation of multiple sclerosis by 1H spectroscopic imaging at 4.1 T
Authors: Pan Jullie W. , Hetherington Hoby P. , Vaughan J. Thomas , Mitchell Galen , Pohost Gerald M. , Whitaker John N.
Published: March 2007

The authors report on high‐field (4.1 T) magnetic resonance 1H spectroscopic imaging studies on eight patients with relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (mean expanded disability status scale (EDSS) 1.0) and eight normal controls. Using T1 weighted imaging to determine lesion position, the authors found the ratios of choline/N‐acetyl (NA) compounds and creatine/NA were increased significantly in the multiple sclerosis (MS) patients relative to controls in lesioned tissue, adjacent to lesion, far removed from lesions as well as in periventricular tissue. The gray matter creatine/NA was mildly increased (P < 0.01) in the MS patients, whereas the elevated gray‐matter ratio of choline/NA was of borderline significance (P = 0.13). A more detailed comparison of white‐matter and mean graymatter metabolite values indicates that creatine is increased greatest in areas far from lesions. This is in contrast to choline, which was greatest in lesions, and NA, which was smallest in lesions. It is postulated that the creatine increase may reflect an astrocytic (gliotic) or oligodendrocytic remyelinating process. The increased choline most likely reflects varying levels of inflammation and membrane turnover, whereas the NA decrease is representative of axonal dysfunction or loss.
Organizing Continuing Professional Education: A Comparative Case Analysis
Authors: Belsheim David J.
Published: March 2007

A conceptual basis for understanding the organization of continuing professional education across profession and type of parent institution is portrayed via three case studies of continuing professional education centers. The case studies reflect three orientations for organizing continuing professional education: a service orientation, an education orientation, and a hybrid orientation. In each case the organizing pattern was viewed in terms of the center's interaction with a complex environment. Several sectors of the environment were viewed as influential to the organizing patterns: the parent institution, the nature of any external funding, the practitioners served, the professionalization status of the group served, changing knowledge relevant to professionals' practice, the primary geographic region, and competition from other providers. The organizing of continuing professional education is discussed in light of selected literature.
Self-Directedness and Learning Contracts In Adult Education
Authors: Caffarella Rosemary S. , Caffarella Edward P.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether using learning contracts in higher education enhances adults' readiness and competencies for self-directed learning. One hundred and sixty-three students from six universities, enrolled in graduate courses in adult education where learning contracts were employed, were given pre and posttests to measure any significant gain in their competencies and readiness for self-directed learning. Findings suggest that the use of learning contracts has little impact on developing readiness for self-directedness, but does have some impact on developing competencies for self-directed learning.
Current Trends in Religion—A Summary
Authors: Lambert Richard D.
Published: March 2007

The decline in support for religion among the populace and the intelligentsia which marked the opening decades of the twentieth century has been reversed during the years since World War II. On the one hand, swelling church memberships have been accompanied by a bland popular piety. On the other hand, intellectuals have undertaken a challenging new era of revisionist theology. The supply of clergymen has not kept pace either with the increasing memberships or with the expanding functions of the churches. One result is the enhanced importance of the laity. The financial needs of the churches have induced them to approach ever more closely the methods and structures of business. The divisions between the various denominations on doctrinal and ethnic points have lost much of their relevance, and efforts at merger and unification have been productive. The splintering and growth of sects and cults continues.
Education as an Instrument of American Foreign Policy
Authors: Benton William
Published: March 2007

President Johnson's recent initiatives in interna tional education signal the further emergence of education as a characteristic form of American involvement in world affairs. Education is the key to economic progress in the developing countries. It is also the only solid basis for freedom, social jus tice, and equal opportunity. Almost by definition the "gospel of development"—the so-called revolution of rising expecta tions—will be accompanied by conflict and dissension. But there will be little hope of resolving the conflicts and of achiev ing peace in our century unless the world makes heroic efforts in education—sustained, imaginative, and ever greater efforts. The viewpoint must be long range. Education holds no quick promise of peace or even of understanding. Further, the prob lems of bridging the world's vast educational gap are too com plex to yield to an immediate or massive educational crusade. For example, nowhere are there enough teachers. The poten tialities of the new techniques of education—of radio, televi sion, programmed instruction, and film-must be drawn upon more and more if educational efforts in developing countries are to begin to meet the needs.
Control of Inflation and Recession
Authors: Schiff Frank W.
Published: March 2007

Simultaneous achievement of full employment and reasonable price stability, in ways consistent with sound long-term resource allocation, will require active and flexible use of a wide range of policy tools. Every effort should be made to meet the employment and price goals for mid-1972 cited in the President's economic messages. If additional demand stimulus should be required, the principal added thrust should come from fiscal rather than monetary measures. The full employment budget principle should be interpreted in a dynamic sense to permit use of such measures; even a deficit in the full employment budget may be appropriate at a time of inadequate economic expansion if there are advance prepa rations to avoid deficits at actual full employment—notably, through reliance on expansionary measures that are self- limiting once the economy recovers. Development of more flexible fiscal tools is also desirable. Fiscal measures that help meet long-term social and economic needs should, if at all possible, be given priority over those that do not. To guard against the risk of excessive cost inflation, a major need exists for numerous structural reforms and for more active and systematic use of "incomes" policies.
Student Unrest in the United States
Authors: Feuer Lewis S.
Published: March 2007

Student movements in the United States, since the year 1905, have shown roughly phases of activity for ten years alternating with phases of calmness. The decline in student activism has been marked by the tragic suicides of several of its leaders. These have reflected the alienation and bitter factionalism engendered among student activists within their movement itself. The last half of the sixties also saw the coalescence of student activism with the use of hal lucinogenic drugs; this has been the most distinctive charac teristic of the new revolutionary consciousness. By the seventies, however, the New Left activists began to lose their moral authority over students generally. Their insistence on generational rebellion as the primary aim, their emphasis on "barbarism" and violence, and their repudiation of honesty led students to reject their leadership. A legacy of regressive anti-intellectualism still persists in communes and campuses. The events of the last seven years have basically confirmed the predictions as to the development of student activism made in accordance with the theory of generational conflict.
Politics and Economics of Government Response to Drug Abuse
Authors: Mushkin Selma
Published: March 2007

Relative numbers and relative costs define the type and size of political response to drug abuse in the United States. Those who are damaged by the crime originating in drug abuse outnumber the abusers. While the total cost of crime attributed to drug abuse is high and exceeds efforts of control, intractability of the problem stands in the way of effective action. This paper presents an alternative to the "get-tough" policies represented by action recently taken in New York and the priorities of the federal 1975 budget. It is a second chance of self-help in a new life. Analysis of this proposal is a next step. Its potential adoption, given the relative numbers, is not favorable, and the preferred approach is likely to be incremental. But there is reason to expect that incremental solutions are not sufficient.
The Most Significant and Important Activity I Have Been Privileged to Engage in during My Years in the Senate
Authors: Fulbright J.William
Published: March 2007

After World War II, it was obvious that a new approach to international relations was essential to avoid in discriminate destruction of life and property. It was hoped that man could be diverted from military to cultural pursuits. The Fulbright Act was introduced in 1945 to enable Americans to study abroad at the graduate level and teach in an elementary or secondary school, lecture in a university, or conduct post doctoral research. Similar opportunities are offered to citizens of other countries to attend American-sponsored schools abroad or in the United States. The program's success depends largely on the support and cooperation of private organiza tions and individuals. After 30 years in the U. S. Senate, I re main convinced that educational and cultural exchange offers one of the best means available for improving international understanding. The inadequacy and peril of traditional methods of solving differences among nations and the hydro gen bomb put us on notice to find a better way to deal with in ternational human relations. Whereas we readily spend billions for the military and hundreds of millions for propa ganda abroad, it is incredibly difficult to get the administra tion and Congress to invest the few score millions necessary to sustain this activity most important to this country's future and world peace.
A Tale of Three Cities: Blacks and Immigrants in Philadelphia: 1850-1880, 1930 and 1970
Authors: Hershberg Theodore , Burstein Alan N. , Ericksen Eugene P. , Greenberg Stephanie , Yancey William L.
Published: March 2007

Determining whether the black experience was unique, or similar to that of earlier white immigrant groups, is central to the debate over whether blacks should be the beneficiaries of special compensatory legislation in the present. To answer this question requires interdisciplinary research that combines a comparative ethnic, an urban, and a historical perspective. Thus we observe the experience of three waves of immigrants to Philadelphia: the Irish and Germans who settled in the "Industrializing City" of the mid-to-late nineteenth century; the Italians, Poles and Russian Jews who came to the "Industrial City" at the turn of the twentieth century; and blacks who arrived in the "Post-tndustrial City" in their greatest numbers after World War II. Analysis of the city's changing opportunity structure and ecological form, and the racial discrimination encountered shows the black experience to be unique in kind and degree. Significant changes in the structures that characterized each of the "three cities" call into question our standing notion of the assimilation process.
Housing, Schools, and Incremental Segregative Effects
Authors: Taeuber Karl E.
Published: March 2007

Racial segregation in housing contributes to racial segregation in schools, and racially identifiable schools contribute to the development and maintenance of segregated neighborhoods. Examination of the reciprocal interplay between housing and school segregation has been spurred by the Supreme Court's decision in the Dayton school case, which calls for determination of how much incremental segregative effect the discriminatory actions of a school board had on the racial distribution of pupils compared to what the distribution would have been if the board had never practised discrimination. In recent hearings in the Milwaukee school case, plaintiffs sought to address this specific question through the testimony of a social scientist. Discriminatory actions with respect to teacher assignment, "intact busing," student transfers, school plant utilization, and attendance zone boundary changes were identified as having pervasive and enduring effects on racial residential segregation in Milwaukee. This case study illustrates that the Supreme Court's effort to construe school cases narrowly should fail, and that policymakers, whether they are concerned with housing, schools, or other domains, should cultivate a broad perspective on the unity of the nation's racial problems.
Transnational Communications and the International System
Authors: Deutsch Karl W. , Merritt Richard L.
Published: March 2007

Observable data on the relative share of transnational vs. national transactions in trade, travel, university studies, mail, and telephone calls reveal a common pattern. First, the absolute level of such activities has increased since 1900. Second, in developed countries the international share of these activities remained constant or declined after peaking. Third, although in such areas as science and technology international transactions have become a necessity, and in other respects an important consumer good, they cannot expand indefinitely. Limiting factors include social mobilization which increases national preoccupations, communications overloads of all kinds, and greater perceived relevance of and ease of dealing with domestic matters. The outcome is a paradox : Today's world is less interdependent and international than it was 50 or 100 years ago, and yet sensitivity in some sectors to the need for international communications has increased.
Environmental Alternatives and Social Goals
Authors: Heckert Richard E.
Published: March 2007

The main environmental decisions we have to make are social as well as scientific in nature. Lack of a consensus on environmental goals, insufficient understanding of opportunity costs, and the growth of an adversarial political process, all make informed decisionmaking difficult. These problems will not be solved quickly or easily, since varying definitions of environmental protection—providing healthful living conditions for man vs. minimizing man's effect on nature—combine with differing political and social beliefs to create basic conflicts. But the process can be improved if those who are able to look at issues holistically and objectively foster interdisciplinary research into environmental problems. Political and social scientists can help by assessing opportunity costs, by clarifying the issues through analysis of the basic values of contending groups, and by communicating research results to the public, which should then be able to choose more wisely.
Personnel Recruitment and Retention: Problems and Prospects for the United States
Authors: Schneider William
Published: March 2007

In the development of an adequate defense capability, the United States faces no more formidable problems than those associated with personnel recruitment and retention. The replacement of the draft by the All-Volunteer Force has resulted in substantially higher financial costs, which have been met by reducing force readiness and modernization. Because of its aging population structure, the United States is likely to face higher personnel costs in the next decade in competition with the civilian economy. The AV F has resulted in problems of productivity and quality of personnel needed to perform complex tasks and to operate complicated weapons systems. Although a return to conscription would provide the armed services with a broader cross-section of U.S. society and spread more equitably the burden of military service, the high turnover associated with conscription would increase training and operating costs. The author suggests that the United States, except in the event of a national emergency requiring rapid expansion of forces, will continue to rely on volunteerism. He addresses options such as lengthening the initial tour of duty and reforms is compensation structure as means toward the resolution of military personnel recruitment and retention problems.
Technological Activities of Less-Developed-Country-Based Multinationals
Authors: Lecraw Donald J.
Published: March 2007

In recent years firms in developing countries have begun to undertake direct investments abroad. Their competitive advantage over other multinational enterprises, locally owned firms, and imports lay in their possession of proprietary technology that cannot be transferred via the market developed in response to factor market and demand conditions in their home country. This technology was appropriate to the host country environment: labor-intensive, flexible between products and processes, operated at high rates of capacity utilization, and intensive in the use of locally produced inputs. These investments have typically been motivated by rising labor costs at home and threats to export markets both in the host country and in third country markets.