bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Overlap, relations and relatives
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: August 2021

This chapter argues that in extending Anaxagoras’s model of constitutional overlap, Plato uses it to accounts for how: (i) objects are qualified by properties, (ii) objects relate to other objects (and Forms relate to other Forms), (iii) necessity governs the qualification of objects, and (iv) objects are structured. The chapter shows that Plato develops a relationless ontology, wherein what we consider instances of symmetric, asymmetric, and even multigrade relations are all accounted for by a new type of constitutional overlap that involves plural participation. In addition, in the Sophist, Plato enriches his ontology with second-order Forms, the so-called Great Kinds, which, while helping solve some difficulties, are ultimately an unsatisfactory metaphysical experiment.
The Eye Is Not Enough
Authors: Lagunes Paul
Published: August 2021

As shown in Chapter 3, nonelected officials can and often do abuse their power. Hence, the question: under what conditions can anticorruption audits improve government accountability? In order to approach an answer, in this chapter, I describe a field experiment that relied on a unique collaboration with the city government of Querétaro in central Mexico. Fifty building permit applications were randomly assigned to enter into an experimental group. The officials responsible for reviewing the permits were made aware that, as an independent auditor, I was carefully examining all the physical documentation for applications within this group. The same permit reviewers did not realize that another set of fifty randomly selected permit applications were part of a comparison group and, thus, also subject to my scrutiny. This design tests whether permit reviewers improve their behavior when exposed to outside scrutiny. With implications for corruption control, the study’s results reveal that monitoring spurs greater diligence and stringency among officials, but only when they sense the risk of a top-down sanction. The eye is only effective when accompanied by a whip.
Scaling Up
Authors: Lagunes Paul
Published: August 2021

This chapter addresses the scalability and generalizability of an intervention like the one described in Chapter 4. In the construction of public works, a lack of accountability results in corruption and inefficiency. The question, then, is whether civil society oversight that is explicitly supported by a relevant public authority with sanctioning capacity will improve accountability. Or, as is sometimes argued, does the added scrutiny demoralize and distract officials, causing undesired delays? To approach an answer, this chapter describes a field experiment that builds on a sample of two hundred district governments in Peru. Half of the districts were randomly selected to enter into a control group. The other half received letters indicating that specific public works under their charge were being monitored by a civil society organization with the support of the country’s leading anticorruption agency. The results suggest that, even as districts in the two groups completed public works at a similar rate, the intervention lowered the cost of public works in the treatment group. This is evidence that the monitoring intervention resulted in overall efficiency gains.
Beyond the Duration of an Audit
Authors: Lagunes Paul
Published: August 2021

How can corruption control achieve a lasting impact? That is the question that my coauthor Yanying Hao and I seek to answer in this chapter. New York City relies on the revenue it collects from property taxes. However, local tax assessors have been known to accept bribes in exchange for reducing properties’ tax burden. Given this risk of corruption, we describe a field experiment that builds on a formal collaboration with the local government in order to test for the systematic undervaluing of properties in the city. Out of 211 properties, one-third was randomly assigned to a control group. The other two-thirds were randomly assigned to receive anticorruption audits. If there was widespread corruption in the city’s property tax system, then properties in the control group would tend to be assessed at a lower value compared to the properties that received added scrutiny because of the experimental treatments. However, the empirical results do not bear this out—there is no statistical difference in how properties were assessed across the three study groups. From these results, my co-author and I conclude that New York City is at a vantage point when compared with other places that seemingly suffer from endemic corruption in their built environment. This chapter theorizes as to why this might be the case.
The First Amendment During the Trump Era and Beyond
Authors: Ball Carlos A.
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the ways in which some progressives, in the years leading up to Trump’s election, had grown skeptical of expansive First Amendment protections, viewing them as impediments to the pursuit of equality objectives. Although some of that skepticism is understandable, the chapter details the multiple ways in which free speech and free press protections helped curtail some of Trump’s autocratic policies and practices. In doing so, the chapter argues that progressives, going forward, should not allow what it calls “First Amendment skepticism” to grow to the point that it undermines the amendment’s ability to shield democratic processes, dissenters, and vulnerable groups from future autocratic government officials in the Trump mold. The chapter ends with an exploration of future hate speech regulations. While it would be understandable for progressives, after Trump’s repeated use of hate speech, to call for greater regulations of such speech, the chapter urges progressives to be cautious in this area because of the real possibility that the regulations will be used by future government officials in the Trump mold to target and discriminate against both progressive viewpoints and racial and religious minorities.
Historical Foundations
Authors: Coughlin Steven S.
Published: August 2021

This chapter considers the history of the rise of ethical concerns in the public health movement and epidemiology, which is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in human populations. It explains that epidemiology is a basic science in public health. It also provides an overview of early developments in public health and ethics. The chapter looks at recent developments, including the origins of bioethics, regulatory safeguards for human subjects research, public health ethics, and contemporary epidemiological ethics. It begins with the end of the Middle Ages, wherein few advances were made in public health except for the control of a very limited number of communicable diseases achieved through the segregation and quarantine of persons thought to be infectious.
Risk and Precaution
Authors: John Stephen D.
Published: August 2021

This chapter develops schematic remarks on different aspects of the ethics of risk. First, it outlines some problems in the ethics of chance, paying particular attention to the prevention paradox. It turns to the ethics of certainty, sketching ongoing debates over the precautionary principle in public health policy and how they relate to the evidence-based medicine movement. It also explains emerging issues around concepts of risk and precaution in epidemiology that are linked to the rise of Big Data analytics. The chapter addresses problems concerning the uses of research findings by policymakers rather than their generation by epidemiologists. It points out how problems of chance and certainty complicate the task of balancing between individual interests and the collective good.
Ethical Issues in the Design and Conduct of Community-Based Intervention Studies
Authors: Kegler Michelle C. , Coughlin Steven S. , Glanz Karen
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines the scientific, methodological, and practical foundations of community-based intervention research that bear on ethical concerns. It begins with a description of community-based intervention research, including intervention strategies, study designs, and data collection methods. Given the major role of partnerships in community-based research, it also analyzes ethical issues along a continuum of community-engaged research and discusses the establishment, implementation and dissemination phases of community engaged research. The chapter covers considerations for working with vulnerable or disadvantaged communities, as well as considerations for ethical issues in a global context. It discusses traditional ethical principles in research and briefly reviews professional codes of ethics with implications for community-based intervention research.
Wild Bird Populations in the Face of Disease
Authors: Huyvaert Kathryn P.
Published: August 2021

Parasites and pathogens typically have detectable negative fitness impacts on individual avian hosts, but the role of parasites in driving population dynamics is less straightforward. Questions about whether and under what conditions parasites influence host population dynamics have been long-standing in infectious disease ecology for many years. Understanding the role of parasites in host population dynamics requires estimating statistical parameters such as infection prevalence and host abundance at population scales. Mathematical approaches such as process-based models are also often used to simulate population-level dynamics of host and parasite interactions over time. This chapter first describes tools commonly used in disease ecology to estimate these key parameters, with a focus on accounting for imperfect detection of individual animals or their disease or infection status and mark-recapture approaches. Some of the mathematical approaches, including SIR models, network approaches, and agent-based models, that are commonly used to simulate and predict the population dynamics of host–parasite interactions are presented. Through a series of case studies, the chapter finishes by considering whether and under what conditions parasites affect the overall growth of populations, whether parasites have a tendency to cause cycles or to regulate populations of wild birds, and some examples of parasite-induced local extinctions.
The Roman Annexation and Administration of Cyprus
Authors: Hussein Ersin
Published: August 2021

The events leading up to and surrounding the annexation of Cyprus from Ptolemaic Egypt by Rome and the administration of the island have been studied at length. For the sake of brevity, this chapter summarizes key details in light of recent scholarly interpretations of the events that occurred throughout this period of transition in the island’s history (from Ptolemaic to Roman, then back to Ptolemaic rule, before securely returning to Roman rule once and for all in 30 BC). Literary evidence has been crucial for understanding the organization and character of Roman administration of the island from 58 to 22 BC. After 22 BC, literary references of the identities and activities of Roman officials posted to the island are sparse, and from here on it is the material record that is most instructive. This chapter examines familiar, previously overlooked, and new material, to analyse further the nature of local interactions with Rome’s representatives. The available evidence for the proconsuls of Roman Cyprus significantly outweighs information for other officials; therefore, this study deals only with their representation and does not address records of their subordinates. The following features of the epigraphic, numismatic, and literary sources will be examined: where monuments were set up, by whom and why; the use of epithets; and in general, the use of epigraphic conventions and language. This chapter presents a revised list of proconsuls before closing with discussion of local levels of administration—notably the koinon Kuprion
Conclusion
Authors: Hussein Ersin
Published: August 2021

The Conclusion revisits the questions that lie at the heart of studies of the Roman provinces and that have driven this study. What is the best way to tell the story of a landscape, and its peoples, that have been the subject of successive conquests throughout history and when the few written sources have been composed by outsiders? What approach should be taken to draw out information from a landscape’s material culture to bring the voices and experiences of those who inhabited its space to the fore? Is it ever possible to ensure that certain evidence types and perspectives are not privileged over others to draw balanced conclusions? The main findings of this work are that the Cypriots were not passive participants in the Roman Empire. They were in fact active and dynamic in negotiating their individual and collective identities. The legacies of deep-rooted connections between mainland Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, and the Near East were maintained into the Roman period and acknowledged by both locals and outsiders. More importantly, the identity of the island was fluid and situational, its people able to distinguish themselves but also demonstrate that the island was part of multiple cultural networks. Cyprus was not a mere imitator of the influences that passed through it, but distinct. The existence of plural and flexible identities is reflective of its status as an island poised between multiple landscapes
The Nature of Legal Philosophy
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

Philosophy is general and systematic reflection about what there is, what ought to be done or is good, and how knowledge about both is possible. Legal philosophy raises these questions with respect to the law. In so doing, legal philosophy is engaged in reasoning about the nature of law. The arguments addressed to the question of the nature of law revolve around three problems. The first problem addresses the question: in what kinds of entities does the law consist, and how are these entities connected such that they form the overarching entity we call ‘law’? The answer is that law consists of norms as meaning contents which form a normative system. The second problem addresses the question of how norms as meaning contents are connected with the real world. The third problem addresses the correctness or legitimacy of law, and, by this, the relationship between law and morality.
The Existence of Human Rights
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

Human rights are first, universal, second, fundamental, third, abstract, and fourth, moral rights that, fifth, take priority over all other norms. For the question of the existence of human rights, the fourth defining element, the moral character of human rights, is of special significance. The purely moral character distinguishes human rights from constitutional rights. Constitutional rights are positive law at the level of the constitution. This, however, is not to say that no connection exists between human rights and constitutional rights. On the contrary, constitutional rights have to be defined as rights that have been recorded in a constitution with the intention of transforming human rights into positive law. In this respect, constitutional rights have, along with their real dimension, an ideal dimension, that is, they have a dual nature. This implies that the problem of the existence of human rights is essential for constitutional rights, too. Now, human rights exist if they are justifiable. Eight justifications of human rights are considered: the religious, the biological, the intuitive, the consensual, the instrumental, the cultural, the explicative, and the existential. The result of this analysis is an explicative-existential justification, which, while not a perfect justification, is a good justification.
The Absolute and the Relative Dimension of Constitutional Rights
Authors: Alexy Robert
Published: August 2021

The principle of proportionality is necessary if it can claim validity in all legal systems. What can claim validity in all legal systems has absolute validity. On the other hand, what can only claim to have validity in some legal systems has merely relative validity. This distinction is applicable not only to the principle of proportionality as a norm about the application of constitutional rights but also to the constitutional rights themselves, and the institutionalization of the protection of constitutional rights by means of judicial review. This leads to three questions, which are connected systematically: (1) Do constitutional rights have an absolute character? (2) Does the principle of proportionality have an absolute character? (3) Does constitutional review have an absolute character? In this chapter the first two questions are discussed.
Linear Models
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

The last chapter conducted a simple analysis of Darwin’s maize data using R as an oversized pocket calculator to work out confidence intervals ‘by hand’. This is a simple way to learn about analysis and good for demystifying the process, but it is inefficient. Instead, we want to take advantage of the more sophisticated functions that R provides that are designed to perform linear-model analysis. This chapter explores those functions by repeating and extending the analysis of Darwin’s maize data.
Linear Model Complexities
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This book began with the simplest types of linear model: one-way ANOVA and its simple linear regression equivalent. However, once more complex ANOVA and ANCOVA designs were encountered some complexities arose that were then skipped over. This chapter explores these complexities of linear-model analysis and some additional ones that arise with unbalanced designs—those with unequal numbers of replicates in the different treatment groups.
Conclusions
Authors: Hector Andy
Published: August 2021

This chapter reiterates some of the most important points made in the book. It comes full circle by revisiting the introductory motivating example and applying the methods learned in the previous chapter on binary GLMs. A list gives some parting words of advice, including some suggestions of where to go next for more advice and information. An annotated list of suggestions for further reading is provided. The details of an online support website and the materials that will be provided there are given.
Global Regulatory Standards in Environmental and Health Disputes
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

Potentially global regulatory standards are emerging from the environmental and health jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice, the World Trade Organization, under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and investor-state dispute settlement. Most prominent are the three standards of regulatory coherence, due regard for the rights of others, and due diligence in the prevention of harm. These global regulatory standards are a phenomenon of our times, representing a new contribution to the ordering of the relationship between domestic and international law, and inferring a revised conception of sovereignty in an increasingly pluralistic global legal era. However, considered with regard to jurisprudential theory on relative authority, the legitimacy of the resulting ‘standards-enriched’ international law remains open to question. Procedurally, although they are well-placed to provide valuable input, international courts and tribunals should not be the only fora in which these standards are elaborated. Substantively, challenges and opportunities lie ahead in the ongoing development of global regulatory standards. Debate over whether regulatory coherence should go beyond reasonableness and rationality requirements and require proportionality in the relationship between regulatory measures and their objectives is central. Due regard, the most novel of the emerging standards, may help protect international law’s legitimacy claims in the interim. Meanwhile, all actors should attend to the integration rather than the fragmentation of international law, and to changes in the status of private actors.
Conclusion
Authors: Foster Caroline E.
Published: August 2021

Regulatory disputes place significant demands on international courts and tribunals. At present the production of regulatory standards in the work of international courts and tribunals can be viewed in terms of an ordering of plural domestic and international legal orders rather than a process of constitutionalisation. Yet the new body of regulatory rubrics appearing across the jurisprudence addressed in this book and beyond marks a significant development globally. Collectively, these standards will set the terms for States’ exercise of public power with effects for populations beyond their own. However, international courts’ and tribunals’ contribution to the elaboration of global regulatory standards needs to be understood as part of a wider process involving intergovernmental negotiations and the administrative implementation of relevant norms. Public information and international engagement is essential. Meantime, transparent articulation of reasons for international adjudicatory decisions is needed, together with ongoing reflective interaction between judges, practitioners and the broader scholarly community.
Draco
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

The Romans loved their dragons (dracones, serpentes). Their narratives of the great dragon fights of Greek myth are more expansive, more detailed, and richer than any earlier accounts on the Greek side itself. These narratives typically focalize large parts of their accounts of the fights through the figure of the dragon himself, who is often anthropomorphized, endowed with a feisty personality and with the dignity and nobility of a warrior, and treated with a certain degree of sympathy. Paradoxically, the Romans had little interest in developing new dragon-traditions of their own. The single significant exception is the tale of the Dragon of the river Bagrada, which is defeated by distinctively Roman means, namely by their army with its ballistas. But the Roman world was full of the imagery of kindly dragons, including the genii loci that embellished every home.
Scripture and Shape
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

The culture of hagiography, that of the saints’ Lives, was deeply conservative, and there was little fundamental change in the way in which it represented dragons and their stories across the one and a half millennia in which it thrived. One consequence of this is that dragon’s physical evolution in the wider Christian world outside the Lives (as documented in Chapter 4) had relatively little impact on its representation within them, and for the most part the hagiographical dragon remains worm-style in form. The story-types in which the dragon is engaged in the Lives are strongly shaped by an agenda established by the representation of dragons, serpents, and sea-monsters in scripture, e.g. the Old Testament’s treatments of Leviathan, Rahab, the Serpent of Eden, Jonah’s fish, the Apocrypha’s treatment of the Dragon of Babylon, and the New Testament’s treatment of the Dragon of Revelation.
Close to the Point of Origin
Authors: Ogden Daniel
Published: August 2021

The earliest archaeology of the hagiographical dragon fight is investigated through the lens of a remarkable pagan parody of the story-type roughly contemporary with the earliest extant example of it, this parody being found in Lucian’s Philopseudes or Lover of Lies of around the AD 170s. The parody indirectly attests the prior existence of a number of motifs in the tradition not actually documented within it until some centuries later. Consideration is given to its allusions to the Gospels and to its proto-hagiographical motifs of: the serpent-brood presided over by an ancient drakōn; the last victim boy; the blowing upon the dragon to burn it; the magical healing of a workman’s snakebite; and the use of material from the tomb of a holy person.
International Legal Reasons for Countries to Address Environmental and Social Impacts of Trade and Investment Agreements
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter considers whether States are legally bound to address the sustainability impacts of trade and investment liberalization—at least to prevent harm, and potentially also to actually integrate environmental and social development considerations in order to strengthen and enhance the contribution of increased trade and investment flows towards achieving countries’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). To this end, it considers scholarly literature on the legal status of States’ commitments to sustainable development. It also discusses customary and interstitial norms, and whether international law requires States to integrate significant environmental and social considerations into economic development plans, including into the negotiations of new trade and investment agreements, noting the relevance of the maxim pacta sunct servanda. In particular, the chapter considers the relevance of the customary principle of integration to trade and investment policy, and how this principle might influence the interpretation of trade and investment agreements.
Bilateral and Regional Economic Rules and Regimes
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

This chapter canvasses the roles and nature of bilateral or regional economic treaties, and their potential implications for sustainable development. It then moves to analyse, firstly, whether and how, in bilateral and regional economic treaty texts, States provide exceptions in trade and investment treaties to prevent economic rules from constraining the regulatory flexibility of the Parties for social and environmental purposes in the field of sustainable development. Second, it discusses how States establish prescriptions and permissions for cooperation to resolve environmental and social problems that could be exacerbated by the bilateral or regional economic treaty, strengthening domestic laws and supporting efforts to mitigate potential environmental and social impacts. Third, it considers whether and how States agree permissions and prescriptions to liberalize trade and investment in specific economic sectors that they agree will contribute to sustainable development, encouraging technologies and industries prioritized in other international treaties on sustainable development.
Procedural Innovations Related to Sustainable Development
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

Research undertaken for the volume found that changes in the way that trade and investment agreements are negotiated, as well as sustainable development-related innovations contained in the procedural rules of the trade and investment treaties, from an interactional view, have implications for the way the treaty texts integrate for sustainable development. This chapter discusses four procedural innovations which are being used by Parties to identify potential environmental and sustainability impacts, and to consider innovative measures for inclusion in their trade and investment agreements. First, it considers impact assessments of trade and investment liberalization policies and draft treaties, focusing on the origins and scope of impact assessment processes, their mandates and methodologies, their role in integrating social and environmental issues into economic trade policy and how they could be improved. Second, it considers consultations between economic, environmental and social development authorities as a mechanism to secure more integrated and coherent trade and investment policy-making. Third, the chapter discusses transparency and public participation mechanisms, in agreement negotiations and the agreements themselves. Finally, it explores innovative dispute settlement provisions.
Trade and Investment Accords for Sustainable Development Goals 12–17
Authors: Cordonier Segger Marie-Claire
Published: August 2021

Chapter 21 focuses on how trade and investment agreements may contribute to international efforts to achieve SDGs 12 to 17, which address responsible consumption and production patterns (SDG 12), combatting climate change (SDG 13), conservation and sustainable use of marine resources (SDG 14), and sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15). SDG 16, which calls for peace, justice and strong institutions for sustainable development, is also canvassed in its links to securing stability, effective governance and human rights. Finally, SDG 17, which calls on all countries to build partnerships towards achieving sustainable development, is discussed as the foundation of all the SDGs in the concluding note to this chapter, particularly given its explicit provisions on economic cooperation, trade, investment and finance.
Introduction
Authors: Singh Shane P.
Published: August 2021

The introductory chapter addresses the need for a new full-length manuscript on compulsory voting and discuss the meaning of the term. The chapter then reviews arguments for and against the requirement to vote, focusing mostly on matters of duty, collective action, legitimacy, representation, and the putative downstream consequences of compulsory voting. The chapter subsequently briefly reviews the history of compulsory voting and the potential reasons for its implementation. The chapter then provides data on where and how compulsory voting is used today and gives a detailed overview of recent events surrounding compulsory voting throughout the world. From there, the chapter discusses various empirical methods available to the scientific community for assessing the effects of the legal requirement to vote.
The Consequences of Compulsory Voting
Authors: Singh Shane P.
Published: August 2021

This chapter reviews the growing literature on compulsory voting’s consequences. Compulsory voting has an unsurprising upward impact on voter participation, which lessens the impact of many socioeconomic and demographic forerunners of turnout, thereby making the composition of the voting population better reflect the distribution of eligible voters. Further, invalid balloting tends to be more common under compulsory voting. Compelled voters are also less likely to cast ballots that correspond with their preferences. Many studies indicate that mandatory voting has an educative effect and can socialize people into political engagement, with others casting strong doubt on this possibility. A small number of studies have assessed whether compulsory voting shapes attitudes, election outcomes, the behavior of political parties, policy characteristics, and income growth and inequality, with few clear patterns yet established. Compulsory voting laws have the greatest impact where sanctions for abstention are enforced and meaningful.
The Effects of Compulsory Voting on Political Parties
Authors: Singh Shane P.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 7 test the expectations about compulsory voting’s effects on political parties. Analyses shown in the first part of the chapter leverage data from the Comparative Study of Electoral Systems and the original survey data from Argentina. The results are somewhat perfunctory but suggest that parties may expend less effort mobilizing turnout under strict obligatory voting, especially of ideological moderates. The latter portion of the chapter presents multilevel analyses of data from the Comparative Manifestos Project. As anticipated in Chapter 6, it finds that mainstream parties de-emphasize ideologically salient issues in order to moderate their stances under enforced compulsory voting. It also finds some evidence that, as predicted, non-mainstream parties take more extreme positions where voters are compelled to the polls.
From European Colonial Enterprise to ‘Normative Empire Europe’
Authors: Del Sarto Raffaella A.
Published: August 2021

The chapter provides the historical context for contemporary relations between Europe and the Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa (MENA). It demonstrates that European policies towards its southern borderlands developed from the imperial policies of single European states during colonial times into the quasi-imperial policy of the common European bloc. When the beginnings and subsequent development of European integration are considered, the imperial foreign policies of the former colonial powers vis-à-vis the Middle East may be seen to have undergone a process of ‘Europeanization’. In this process, the European bloc developed into a ‘normative empire’, which selectively seeks to transfer its rules and practices, together with some border control duties, to peripheral areas for the sake of Europe’s stability, security, and economic benefits.
Introduction
Authors: Passingham Richard E.
Published: August 2021

This chapter explains why this book is organized as it is. Each neocortical area has a unique pattern of inputs and outputs. This means that the challenge is to understand the transformation that each of the prefrontal (PF) areas performs from input to output. Functional brain imaging allows us to visualize the human brain at work, but it does not have the spatial resolution to identify the mechanisms that support the transformations that the brain performs. It is neurophysiological recordings from cells that tell us how these are achieved. Chapters 3–8 are therefore mainly devoted to studies that have been carried out on the PF cortex of macaque monkeys because the methods are necessarily invasive. Apart from recording, the methods include making selective lesions in an area; it is these that identify the contribution that is unique to that area. The book ends by reviewing the evolution of the human PF cortex; and the final two chapters discuss the ways in which the human PF cortex is specialized in terms of function. In doing so, they attempt to account for the intellectual gap between humans and other primates.
Caudal Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E.
Published: August 2021

The caudal prefrontal (PF) cortex supports the visual search for objects such as foods both through eye movements and covert attention, and its connections explain how it can do this. The caudal PF cortex, which includes the frontal eye field, has connections with both the dorsal and ventral visual streams. The direction of eye movements depends on its connections with the superior colliculus and oculomotor nuclei. Covert attention depends on enhanced sensory responses that are mediated through top-down interactions with posterior sensory areas. Along with the granular parts of the orbital PF cortex, the caudal PF cortex evolved in early primates. Together, these two new areas led to improvements in searching for and evaluating objects that are hidden in a cluttered environment.
Prefrontal Cortex
Authors: Passingham Richard E.
Published: August 2021

The key to the granular prefrontal (PF) cortex is that it sits at the top of the sensory processing hierarchy, the motor hierarchy, and the outcome hierarchy. This means that it is a position to learn abstract task rules. These relate to conditional tasks that involve sequences, associations, and attentional performance. Because they can learn abstract rules, primates can show specific behavioural transfer from one problem to another when the problems share the same logic. And, since the different PF areas are closely interconnected, the PF cortex provides a general-purpose mechanism for the rapid solution of novel tasks.
Evolution of the Prefrontal Cortex in the Hominins
Authors: Passingham Richard E.
Published: August 2021

When body weight is taken into account, there was a rapid expansion of the brain during the evolution of the hominins, with the greatest increase occurring from around 400,000 years ago. After this time there is evidence of the bulging of the frontal lobe indicating the further expansion of the prefrontal (PF) cortex. Many selection pressures could have influenced these changes, but all of them involve a change in environment. This could occur via climatic change, via changes in the ecosystem, by migration, or by changes in the cultural environment. The cultural environment includes technology such as stone tool making, cooperation in hunting, and the improvements in communication that this required. The adaptation to new environments requires the solution of new problems, and this was aided by the ability of the PF cortex to support rapid transfer from one problem to another.
The Fragmented Mind
Authors: Kindermann Dirk , Onofri Andrea
Published: August 2021

This collection of new essays discusses the hypothesis that the mind is fragmented, or compartmentalized. This Introduction explains what this hypothesis amounts to. It begins by outlining what different approaches to fragmentation have in common and what motivates them, contrasting fragmentation with a rival model called ‘unity.’ It then discusses the relationship between fragmentation and theses about cognitive architecture, introduces two classical theories of fragmentation, and sketches recent developments of the idea in the literature. Finally, as an overview of the volume, it presents some of the open questions about and issues with fragmentation that the contributions to this volume address.
Fragmented but Rational
Authors: Yalcin Seth
Published: August 2021

Is it a failure of rationality for one’s belief state to be compartmentalized into fragments that don’t cohere with each other? More generally, is being fragmented itself a kind of rational failure? This chapter discusses both questions, favoring negative answers.
The space of the body schema: putting the schema in movement
Authors: Morris David
Published: August 2021

This chapter contributes to conceptual debates about the body schema and body image by studying the body schema’s role in shaping our sense of lived space. Contra ‘body-in-brain’ or representational views of the body schema as a centralized controller, the chapter supports ‘body-in-world’ views by showing how the body schema is itself of space, founded and actualized in schematizing movements of a body in the world. This suggests that capacities for, and divergences between, a body schema versus a body image emerge when body-schematizing activity runs into resistances or demands from environmental supports, including other perceiving bodies and the social sphere, over various timescales, e.g., of evolution, development, skill, and habit acquisition, as well as cultural formations. The chapter draws on phenomenological and psychological results concerning our sense of space in cases of directly touching and moving with things, but also in cases where movements coupled with surroundings through light (via our eyes or technological devices) yield a sense of distal things. These are complemented by conceptual insights from recent evolutionary-comparative approaches to the philosophy of mind and body, which give a new perspective on just where movement control arises in bodies.
A radical phenomenology of the body: subjectivity and sensations in body image and body schema
Authors: Preester Helena De
Published: August 2021

The role of sensations for body experience and body representations such as body image and body schema seems indisputable. This chapter discusses the link between sensory input, the experience of one’s own body, and body representations such as body image and body schema. That happens on the basis of Michel Henry’s radical phenomenology of the body, which unites body and subjectivity and reconsiders the role of sensory input for the experience of the body and related representations. Without supporting, but inspired by, Henry’s ontological dualism between subjective and objective body, it is argued that the traditional view that considers sensory signals as all-important for bodily experience misses out a bodily dimension crucial for subjectivity—the body’s subjective dimension, not reigned by current sensory input. Cognitive science seems willing to accept representations that are over and above sensory input but still experiential in nature. The exact status of these ‘offline’ representations is, however, unclear. If it is true that these offline representations are responsible for crucial aspects of bodily subjective life (e.g., unity, ownership, presence), then it is unclear how these representations bring this experience about. Whereas online bodily representations are based on sensory input, offline bodily representations seem to be based on bodily experience over and above sensory life. In other words, they seem to represent or mediate what they are supposed to explain—the subjective body.
Triadic body representations in the human cerebral cortex and peripheral nerves
Authors: Kanayama Noriaki , Hiromitsu Kentaro
Published: August 2021

Is the body reducible to neural representation in the brain? There is some evidence that the brain contributes to the functioning of the body from neuroimaging, neurophysiological, and lesion studies. Well-known dyadic taxonomy of the body schema and the body image (hereafter BSBI) is based primarily on the evidence in brain-damaged patients. Although there is a growing consensus that the BSBI exists, there is little agreement on the dyadic taxonomy because it is not a concrete and common concept across various research fields. This chapter tries to investigate the body representation in the cortex and nervous system in terms of sensory modality and psychological function using two different approaches. The first approach is to review the neurological evidence and cortical area which is related to body representation, regardless of the BSBI, and then to reconsider how we postulate the BSBI in our brain. It can be considered that our body representation could be constructed by the whole of the neural system, including the cortex and peripheral nerves. The second approach is to revisit the BSBI conception from the viewpoint of recent neuropsychology and propose three types of body representation: body schema, body structural description, and body semantics. This triadic taxonomy is considered consistent with the cortical networks based on the evidence of bodily disorders due to brain lesions. These two approaches allow to reconsider the BSBI more carefully and deeply and to give us the possibility that the body representation could be underpinned with the network in the brain.
From implicit to explicit body awareness in the first two years of life
Authors: Rochat Philippe , Botto Sara Valencia
Published: August 2021

What might constitute the awareness of an implicit body schema at the origins of development, and how does it develop to become also the awareness of an explicit body image? Those are the questions driving this chapter. The first part reviews past and more recent empirical research that demonstrates that an implicit body schema is evident from birth and in the first weeks of life. The second part of the chapter goes over a blueprint of cardinal progress in perception and action in relation to both the physical (objects) and social (people) domains. These advancements are presented as the driving force behind the development of a private and public body image emerging from the middle of the second year, as infants begin to manifest self-concept and self-consciousness proper via mirror self-recognition and the use of personal pronouns, as well as social emotions like embarrassment or pride. Lastly, the chapter further elaborates on the emergence of a public body image expressed in the first manifestations of an ‘evaluative audience perception’, or EAP, which was recently documented in 14- to 24-month-old toddlers. This development is construed as indexing the emergence of a public body image, adding to the more primordial and innate body schema that is expressed even in utero. The chapter also speculates that the development of a public body image and associated self-conscious emotions is a major trademark of what it means to be human.
Cross-referenced body and action for the unified self: empirical, developmental, and clinical perspectives
Authors: Imaizumi Shu , Asai Tomohisa , Miyazaki Michiko
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses how the self emerges in the brain through the body and bodily actions. In terms of minimal selfhood, self-representation has two aspects: sense of body ownership and sense of agency over action. In the rubber hand illusion paradigm, multisensory and sensorimotor signals induce illusory ownership over a fake hand. Studies in healthy adults suggest a cross-referenced relationship between body and action as a mechanism of the self-representation. Specifically, one’s own hand can spontaneously move towards the fake hand due to illusory ownership, suggesting a body-to-action relationship. In contrast, an object which is moving synchronously with one’s hand can entail a sense of body ownership as well as a sense of agency, suggesting an action-to-body relationship. The chapter also discusses developmental and clinical perspectives. Immature self-recognition and body part localization in children suggest a prerequisite of representations of the self and body. Although such representations can deteriorate due to damage to the body and brain, amputees can incorporate phantom limb and prosthesis into their body representation through visuo-motor rehabilitation, regaining senses of ownership and agency over these limbs once again. The chapter proposes generation-loss-regeneration dynamism in self-representation originating from the cross-referenced body and action.
Unilateral body neglect: schemas versus images?
Authors: Havé Laurence , Priot Anne-Emmanuelle , Pisella Laure , Rode Gilles , Rossetti Yves
Published: August 2021

Unilateral spatial neglect has been extensively described for visual and representational manifestations but tactile and motor manifestations as well as body neglect point to bodily manifestations of this neurological condition. This chapter reviews the perceptual, motoric and high-level representational symptoms manifested in neglect patients and attempt to classify them according to the body image/schema framework. One puzzling aspect of the wide spectrum of body neglect symptoms is that physiological bottom-up maneuvers, such as prism adaptation, which act at the level of body schema, do also efficiently improve body image manifestations of neglect. This relationship allows us to elaborate on the dialectical relationships between body image and body schema. Thus, understanding body neglect in terms of diagnosis, evaluation, physiopathology and therapeutics through the dynamical interactions between body schema and body neglect, provide perspectives to manage other lateralized body troubles, neglect-like manifestations of bodily attention or distorted representations.
Neural underpinnings of body image and body schema disturbances
Authors: Ho Jasmine , Lenggenhager Bigna
Published: August 2021

The sense of our body is fundamental to human self-consciousness. Many neurological and psychiatric disorders involve atypical corporeal awareness with symptomatology that might be very heterogeneous, affecting various aspects of the bodily self. A common dichotomy divides disorders of the bodily self into disorders affecting predominantly the body schema and disorders predominantly affecting the body image. Yet, increasing evidence suggests that body schema and body image are mutually dependent, making a clear categorization of most disorders difficult. This interdependence is illustrated with examples of a few selected disorders that encompass an atypical sense of the bodily self. A special focus is placed on underlying neural alterations in various body-related brain regions. While body schema-related disorders might rather be linked to a disruption in the integration of multisensory information into a coherent body representation, especially in premotor and posterior parietal areas, body image disturbances, particularly their affective and cognitive aspects, might be linked to a broader network centred around cortical midline structures that are crucially involved in self-referential processes.