bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transport and development
Authors: Tsekeris Theodore
Published: September 2017

Transport refers to the movement of people and goods from one location to another. It can be viewed as a key determinant and consequence of the social and spatial formation and development of contemporary cities and regions. The role of transport has been traditionally investigated within two (usually, interrelated) spatio‐economic and social frameworks of reference, i.e., those of urban and regional analysis. These frameworks are described here and particular emphasis is given to the relationship between transport and the social and economic inequalities among cities or regions. This relationship is principally governed by the existence of positive or negative externalities induced by the provision of (mainly, public) infrastructure in a region to and from other (principally neighboring) regions. On the one side, the positive externalities refer to the positive spillovers or “network effects” of transport supply yielding aggregate productivity gains beyond the sum of local gains. These effects are mostly observed at greater levels of geographical aggregation, i.e., at the regional and state level (e.g., Aschauer 1989; Munnell 1992), where the productivity gains are more pronounced, compared to the local or urban level of analysis. On the other side, the negative spillovers arise when productivity gains realized by transport investment in a region are to some extent cancelled out by productivity losses in neighboring regions (e.g., Boarnet 1998; Haughwout 2002). The latter case does not imply that the region receiving the investment does not benefit from the new (or expanded or upgraded) network by increasing welfare, but the final gains in accessibility may be higher for another (usually more developed) region, thus raising concerns of equity among regions (Vickerman et al. 1999; Martin 2000).
Accountability of the News
Authors: Min Young
Published: September 2017

The notion of media accountability concerns how to balance
freedom
and
social responsibility
in various aspects such as
media structure
,
performance
, and
products
. Accountability of the news is a notion concerning media products, especially
public affairs reporting
(→ news). News accountability may involve two different sub‐dimensions:
liability
and
answerability
(McQuail 2005). The former mainly addresses the issues of how to prevent or reduce potential harm or danger caused by news content and focuses on imposing on the media material penalties based upon private or public laws. The latter notion, on the other hand, concerns how to control and improve the
quality of news
and emphasizes more noncoercive measures such as debate, negotiation, and dialogue between the news media and their claimants (→ Quality of the News). The notion of answerability is most concretely expressed in various
codes of ethics
or professional conduct that journalists or media industries have voluntarily accepted as their own professional or managerial guidelines (→ Ethics in Journalism; Professionalization of Journalism). The answerability approach further underscores the role of news critics and those people affected by the news, beyond that of media owners and practitioners.
Advertising
Authors: Ambler Tim
Published: September 2017

Advertising has been defined as “Any paid form of non personal communication about an organization, product, service, or idea by an identified sponsor” (Alexander 1965, 9). Advertising intrudes into our lives and is not always welcome. Some scholars suspect that we are being manipulated by dark arts (e.g., Packard 1957). This entry examines current practice from three perspectives: the advertiser, the consumer, and society at large.
Advertising, Cross‐Cultural
Authors: Gelbrich Katja , Roschk Holger
Published: September 2017

With the globalization of markets, advertisers are faced with the question whether to internationally standardize their campaigns or to tailor them to each country's target audience. This controversial issue is discussed in the so‐calledstandardization/differentiation debatein international marketing literature. Although standardization has the advantage of saving cost, companies that stress global standardization do not necessarily perform better than others (Samiee & Roth 1992). This is because standardized advertising campaigns run the danger of misunderstanding and violating cultural rules in the target markets. Hence, cultural differences are a reason why many companies favor a more localized approach (Kanso & Nelson 2002).
Advertising, Economics of
Authors: McAllister Matthew P.
Published: September 2017

The economics of → advertising are crucially important in understanding the history of modern mass media as well as their current state and future directions. Sometimes called “indirect” funding (compared to the “direct” funding provided by consumers to such media as books and recorded music), advertising as an economic institution involves several different industries and collectives. Advertising's influence as a revenue stream for media is arguably a more significant social force than the symbolic power of explicit commercial content like television advertisements. Advertising revenue fundamentally influences not just the placement of ads in the media, but also the nonadvertising content and dissemination of funded media. This is increasingly true even for media and cultural forms that traditionally have not depended upon the generation of advertising revenue, such as theatrically released films and video games (→ Media Economics). The shift of advertising revenues to digital media and as a result of the 2008–2009 global recession have deeply altered the media landscape.
Advertising Effectiveness
Authors: Tellis Gerard J.
Published: September 2017

How effective is advertising in contemporary markets? What does advertising effectiveness mean? By the term “advertising effectiveness,” we mean what change → advertising achieves in markets. Advertising also creates changes in awareness, → attitudes, beliefs, and intentions. These are all valid effects of advertising. However, in the interest of focus and parsimony, this entry focuses on the effects of advertising on
only market behavior
.
Advertising Ethics
Authors: Richards Jef I.
Published: September 2017

Simply stated, “ethics” refers to standards of conduct derived from moral values. Those standards vary greatly from discipline to discipline and person to person, and even philosophers approach ethics from multiple directions (Spence & Van Heekeren 2005, 8). But in its most basic form these are concepts of right and wrong behavior, not limited to what is required by law (Drumwright & Murphy 2004; → Communication and Law; Advertising Law and Regulation). Law deals with only a limited range of “wrong” behavior, especially in the context of → advertising. In the US, for instance, the First Amendment, along with practical enforcement limitations, prevent it from addressing most issues (→ Right to Communicate; Freedom of Communication). For the remainder, only the ethical standards of those involved in the advertising process stand as protection for consumers.
Advertising Frequency and Timing
Authors: Hallemann Michael
Published: September 2017

The frequency and timing of advertising message exposures plays an important role in advertising campaign management, specifically media planning. However, when planning an advertising campaign, this is not as important as addressing questions about the advertising goal (what is to be achieved), the target groups (who is to be reached), and the budget (amount). The question at the heart of the overall strategy is how many exposures are ideally needed to reach a target person and within what time frame (→ Advertisement Campaign Management; Advertising Strategies; Media Planning).
Affective Disposition Theories
Authors: Raney Arthur A.
Published: September 2017

Media scholars and consumers alike ponder the question “why do we enjoy the stories we enjoy?” Affective disposition theory is one of the leading explanations of the enjoyment process. The theory – more accurately, set of theories – conceptualizes enjoyment of media content as a product of a viewer's emotional affiliations with characters and the storyline outcomes associated with those characters. Although the theory does not seek to predict whether an individual will like or dislike a specific character or story, it provides keen insight into the process through which people enjoy these things (→ emotion; Enjoyment/Entertainment Seeking).
Affective Disposition Theories
Authors: Raney Arthur a.
Published: September 2017

Media scholars and consumers alike ponder the question “why do we enjoy the stories we enjoy?” Affective disposition theory (ADT) is one of the leading explanations of the enjoyment process. The theory – more accurately, set of theories – conceptualizes enjoyment of media content as a product of a viewer's emotional affiliations with characters and the storyline outcomes associated with those characters. Although the theory does not seek to predict whether an individual will like or dislike a specific character or story, it provides keen insight into the process through which people enjoy these things (→ Emotion; Enjoyment/Entertainment Seeking).
Affects and Media Exposure
Authors: Konijn Elly a.
Published: September 2017

This entry covers the role of affect, mood, and emotions in exposure to media content. The influence of affect, mood, and emotions in media exposure on the impact of media is indisputable (Döveling et al. 2010; Konijn 2013). Formerly, the emphasis was largely on cognitive aspects such as recall, learning, thoughts, and beliefs. The affective aspects were reserved for entertainment media, mostly limited to processes of involvement and gratifications (→ Involvement with Media Content; Entertainment, Effects of). Nowadays, the borders between entertainment and → news and information are blurred. Entertainment programs likeThe SimpsonsandSurvivalclaim to be reality‐based (→ Reality TV), whereas news items and information programming (e.g., → Infotainment) increasingly make use of emotionalizing cues such as personal anecdotes and zooming in on “crying faces” (→ Narrative News Story; Soft News). For example, the Fox News broadcast of the invasion of Iraq by the US army in the Second Gulf War appeared like a → video game such as America's Army, including the upbeat music. The attack on the World Trade Center towers in New York (9/11) seemed a gruesome science fiction at first hand, whereas fiction‐based TV shows likeERinform on real‐life hospital affairs. Recently, Internet clips from the Islamic State (IS) showing beheadings are another example where “news” and “entertainment” become blurred.
Age Identity and Communication
Authors: Harwood Jake
Published: September 2017

Communication plays a substantial role in influencing understandings and self‐presentations with regard to age. While the immutable passing of time (and rising chronological age) is at the heart of life‐span development issues, our age group identifications and the age groups into which we are categorized are not deterministically organized by chronological age. Rather, age identities and categorizations are considerably more malleable. Gender or ethnicity category distinctions remain relatively impermeable over time, and the boundaries between such groups remain fairly rigid and clear for most people (people who are multiracial “passing” as members of other groups, or who are transsexual/transgendered, constitute exceptions here). In contrast, age group memberships change with time and divisions between age groups are fuzzy and highly negotiable. As a result, they are perhaps more open to social construction (→ Discursive Psychology). This provides opportunities to study the communicative practices that people employ to manage their age identities. Negative age stereotypes and prejudicial (ageist) attitudes are also common. Despite the fact that most of us will (or hope to) get old, many youngandold people hold negative views of older adulthood (Kite et al. 2005). Hence, age presents unique opportunities and points of interest for identity scholars.
Agenda Building
Authors: Nisbet Matthew C.
Published: September 2017

Agenda building refers to the process by which news organizations and journalists feature, emphasize, and/or select certain events, issues, or sources to cover over others. Research in the area is closely linked to but distinct from the agenda‐setting tradition which examines the connection between the issues portrayed in the news media and the issue priorities of the public (McCombs 2004). Agenda building is also related to work in political science onpolicy agenda setting, which focuses on how news coverage both reflects and shapes the priorities of government officials, decision‐makers, and elites (Baumgartner & Jones 1993; → Agenda‐Setting Effects).
Aging and Message Production and Processing
Authors: Kemper Susan , Schmalzried RaLynn
Published: September 2017

Aging affects many aspects of → Message Production and processing. The nature of conversation changes: unlike young adults, dyads of older adults mix talk about the past with talk about the present which may help them achieve a shared sense of → meaning and personal worth. Conversations with older adults are often marked by “painful self‐disclosures” of bereavement, ill health, immobility, and assorted personal and family problems which may maintain “face” by contrasting personal strengths and competencies with past problems and limitations, and coping with personal losses and difficulties. Older adults tend to adopt a “not‐listening,” “disapproving,” or “over‐protecting” style when interacting with young adults. Older adults are perceived as more rigid and negative in their speech which may provide a reason for avoiding conversations with older adults (Nussbaum & Coupland 2004; → Intergenerational Communication).
Anxiety Uncertainty Management Theory
Authors: Nishida Tsukasa
Published: September 2017

William B. Gudykunst (1985) extended Berger and Calabrese's (1975) → uncertainty reduction theory to explain the reduction of uncertainty in intergroup encounters as the first step in developing anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory. He developed a model of intergroup communication by integrating URT and social identity theory in several stages. Gudykunst and Hammer (1988) also developed a version of the theory that used uncertainty and anxiety to explain intercultural adjustment. This version contained 24 axioms. Uncertainty involves the inability to predict or explain others' attitudes, behavior, and feelings. Anxiety involves feelings of being uneasy, tense, worried, or apprehensive.
Applied Communication Research
Authors: Seibold David R.
Published: September 2017

Applied communication research refers to a
type of communication scholarship
as well as to a
sub‐field of communication
with which that research is identified. In the more specific sense, applied communication research is communication scholarship that emphasizes the creation of knowledge about communication in specific contexts, applicable to social issues, and often for the solution of societal problems. The research typically is theory‐driven or has the potential for (re)formation of theory, but theory building is neither the immediate nor the principal purpose of applied communication studies. Rather the hallmark of applied communication scholarship is its social relevance, for it is simultaneously (often primarily) directed by a concern with the usefulness of the research findings for illuminating pressing social issues, for improving practice, or for redressing societal problems. To a lesser extent, applied communication researchers therefore are concerned with the dissemination of that knowledge and its effective application by persons with a stake in the solution to social issues.
Appraisal Theory
Authors: Nerb Josef
Published: September 2017

The evening news on TV presents extensive coverage of an oil spill just off the Spanish coast. The audience sees the sinking of an oil tanker in a severe storm, learns that it has leaked tens of thousands of tons of heavy fuel oil, and watches pictures of birds fighting a hopeless fight for survival as their feathers are agglutinated. It will be mentioned that at the moment the cause of the accident is still obscure. To analyze the effects of this media coverage on the audience it will be crucial to know what kind of cognitive processes and emotional reactions are likely to occur (→ Emotions, Media Effects on; Information Processing). For example, the identification of a clearly responsible human agent is likely to elicit anger and anger‐congruent cognitions, whereas the recognition that matters were out of anyone's control more often leads to predominantly sad reactions. “Appraisal theories of emotions” offer a more complete and systematic linkage between such cognitive evaluations of a situation and emotional reactions (see Scherer et al. 2001, for an overview).
Argentina: Media System
Authors: Mastrini Guillermo
Published: September 2017

Argentina is located in the southernmost part of Latin America. It has more than 40 million inhabitants, the main language is Spanish, and the Catholic religion is predominant. Since 1983 it has had a democratic system of government which formally guarantees press freedom in its National Constitution. Article 14 of the Constitution sets the guarantees for
freedom of expression
. The legal framework limits itself to the regulation of citizens' rights and journalists' responsibilities. Since the return of democracy freedom of expression has been exercised, although it has sometimes faced legal challenges on interpretation (→ Freedom of Communication).
Arrangement and Rhetoric
Authors: Craig Christopher
Published: September 2017

The category of arrangement (Greekoikonomia,taxis; Latindispositio) in classical rhetoric includes both the “natural” ordering of the parts of a speech and the changing or truncating of that order to adapt to specific circumstances. While it may also embrace the ordering of premises in arguments, those concerns are fully treated under invention rather than arrangement. Similarly, the most basic level of arrangement, that of individual words and clauses, is properly subsumed under style (→ Rhetoric, Greek; Rhetoric, Roman; Style and Rhetoric).
Attitude Functions
Authors: La France Betty H.
Published: September 2017

The functional approach to → attitudes specifies that people hold attitudes because those attitudes serve a purpose. Functions address the psychological motivations
why
individuals hold their attitudes. Initial theorizing about attitude functions assumed that an attitude served a primary function (→ Functional Analysis). Shavitt (1990) demonstrated that although certain attitude objects (e.g., air conditioners) lend themselves to one primary function, other attitude objects (e.g., American flag) are more likely to be served by multiple attitude functions. Understanding
why
an attitude forms offers an insight into the process of attitude change. Although several functions have been identified, the conceptualizations scholars offer are similar to the functions established by Smith et al. (1956), Katz (1960), and Herek (1987).
Attitudes
Authors: Ewoldsen David R.
Published: September 2017

Attitudes have long been a focus of study by social scientists. In the first edition of theHandbook of social psychologyin 1935, Gordon Allport referred to attitudes as an indispensable concept for social psychology. Today, attitudes have become an essential concept for the social sciences. Attitudes, defined as an evaluative response to an object or thing, are critical to the study of → persuasion; person → perception; reactions to politicians, racism, and stereotyping (→ Stereotypes); responses to the media; and so on. This entry will provide an overview of the nature of attitudes and how to measure them, summarize the tripartite model of attitudes, and review recent research on explicit and implicit attitudes.
Audience Research
Authors: Webster James G.
Published: September 2017

Audience research is a broad term that, in principle, denotes the systematic study of any → audience for any purpose. In practice, the term usually connotes efforts to describe and analyze patterns of media consumption, often for some commercial or administrative purpose. Such research became commonplace in the early twentieth century as new forms of mass media were introduced (e.g., film and radio) and those media became increasingly intertwined with the business of advertising and marketing. Contemporary audience research uses a wide range of theories and methods, which can be organized using the familiar labels of theoretical vs applied, quantitative vs qualitative, and, somewhat less conventionally, syndicated vs custom research.
Audience Segmentation
Authors: Weber René
Published: September 2017

“Audience segmentation” or “audience fragmentation” is a phenomenon that describes the process of partitioning mass audiences into smaller and smaller segments. It is considered as an inevitable outcome of competition in media markets (→ Competition in Media Systems). Hence, audience segmentation is expected to be stronger in high‐ rather than in low‐competition media environments (→ Audience).
Canada: Media System
Authors: Beaty Bart
Published: September 2017

Canada is the world's second‐largest country by land area, occupying most of the northern part of North America between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and extending north to the Arctic Ocean. Originally founded as a union of British and former French colonies, Canada became a dominion in 1867 and gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1982. It is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy comprised of ten provinces and three territories. An officially bilingual nation, nearly 60 percent of the population have English as a mother tongue, while 23 percent have French. Canada adopted an official policy of multiculturalism in 1988, and its population of more than 34 million people is composed of no fewer than 34 ethnic groups that number at least 100,000 people. Canada is a technologically advanced and industrialized nation whose diversified economy is heavily reliant on trade with the United States, with which it shares land borders to the south and northwest.
Candidate Image
Authors: Hacker Kenneth L.
Published: September 2017

The candidate image construct is used in the study of political communication to explain how campaign messages affect voter perceptions of candidates. It is assumed that changes in the images of candidates lead to changes in candidate evaluations and choices in elections. This assumption is consistent with the vast voting behavior literature which indicates that there are numerous long‐term and short‐term determinants of voting choices. Candidate image is one type of short‐term voting determinant.
Caribbean States: Media Systems
Authors: James Canute
Published: September 2017

The Caribbean archipelago curves from Cuba in the northwest to Trinidad in the southeast. The islands have all been at some stage colonies, departments, or possessions of European or North American countries. This history has given the region a varied culture that has created divisions among groups of islands. The English‐speaking group, for example, traditionally has been apart from the others. These differences of language and other aspects of culture have created barriers in communication among the 38 million people of the islands.
Caricature
Authors: Knieper Thomas
Published: September 2017

A caricature is an exaggerated and distorted image of a person or thing, which is characterized by visual likeness, immediate recognizability, and pictorial wit, irony, or satire (→ Visual Representation). This visual burlesque can be insulting or complimentary. It is not uncommon that a caricature offends the sensibilities of a depicted person. Caricatures can serve editorial, illustrative, entertainment, or commercial purposes, as part of political cartoons, illustrations for books and articles, standalone artwork, or use in publicity and advertisements (→ Advertisement, Visual Characteristics of; Book; Cartoons; Political Communication). Caricatures can be standalone drawings or well‐integrated depictions in a broader context. For example, caricatures of politicians can be one part of an editorial cartoon that comments on a political issue (→ Political Media Use).
Cartography
Authors: Naismith Jacqueline
Published: September 2017

Cartography is the visual representation and communication of data, geospatial information, and relationships in the form of printed and digital maps. The form of the map and the visual systems of map‐making are determined by technologies of production and reproduction. The mass reproduction of maps has encouraged the dissemination of geospatial information, statistical data, and shared cultural and scientific understandings throughout history (→ Statistics, Descriptive).
Celebrity Culture
Authors: Caravelli Jill
Published: September 2017

Perhaps the most rapidly expanding facet of today's media landscape is celebrity culture; entertainers' work in the film, television, music, and fashion industries accompanies gossip about their personal lives in → magazines and → Newspapers, on → Television, and online (→ Internet). The major players in celebrity culture are known worldwide – today, there are few who do not know of American actors Angelina Jolie and Brad Pitt, English power couple Victoria and David Beckham, Australian singer Kylie Minogue, or Brazilian supermodel Gisele Bündchen (→ Stars). The ability of celebrity culture to cross national and cultural boundaries as well as media outlets has made it an important issue in communication studies.
Censorship
Authors: Ahmed Sameer
Published: September 2017

Generally speaking, censorship is the control of speech and other forms of human expression. For the most part, bodies that partake in censorship attempt to provide stability for and strengthen their control over certain individuals and groups under their authority. Censorship commonly takes place in the following areas: morally questionable material like pornography (→ Pornography, Media Law on), military intelligence, corporate secrets (→ Corporate Communication), government actions, and religiously objectionable material. Legally speaking, censorship involves the attempts of government agencies to restrict public forms of communication. These forms of communication include holding public meetings and protests, publishing books and other written materials, and providing viewpoints and information in → newspapers and → magazines, or on the → Radio, → Television, and → Internet.
Censorship
Authors: Ahmed Sameer
Published: September 2017

Generally speaking, censorship is the control of speech and other forms of human expression. For the most part, bodies that partake in censorship attempt to provide stability for and strengthen their control over certain individuals and groups under their authority. Censorship commonly takes place in the following areas: Morally questionable material like pornography (→ Pornography, Media Law on), military intelligence, corporate secrets (→ Corporate Communication), government actions, and religiously objectionable material. Legally speaking, censorship involves the attempts by government agencies to restrict public forms of communication. These forms of communication include holding public meetings and protests, publishing books and other written materials, and providing viewpoints and information in → newspapers and → magazines, or on the → radio, → television, and → Internet.
Chaffee, Steven H.
Authors: McLeod Jack M.
Published: September 2017

Steven H. Chaffee (1935–2001) was an internationally recognized mass communication scholar who had a crucial role in developing and shaping the field of communication during the last third of the twentieth century. He was born in Los Angeles on August 21, 1935. He received a BA in history (with distinction) from the University of Redlands in 1957, and an MA in journalism from UCLA in 1962. In 1965 he completed a PhD in communication at Stanford where he studied with → Wilbur Schramm and Richard Carter, who supervised his dissertation. He served in the US Navy as a public information officer (1958–1961) and worked as news editor and reporter for various Los Angeles newspapers (1961–1962).
China Central Television Channel 9 (CCTV‐9)
Authors: Jirik John
Published: September 2017

CCTV‐9 is the global 24‐hour English‐language channel run by China Central Television (CCTV), the state‐owned broadcaster of the People's Republic of China (PRC; → China: Media System; Newscast, 24‐Hour). CCTV‐9 has a dual function: (1) to provide → news and information about China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao in line with government policy, and (2) to provide news and information about world affairs from a PRC perspective. CCTV‐9 is available globally via satellite, cable, and the Internet (→ Satellite Television; Cable Television; Internet). Its target audience is foreigners, both inside and outside the PRC. It plays a key role in
wai xuan
or “external publicity,” projecting for the PRC what Joseph Nye (2004) calls “soft power.”
Cinema
Authors: Polan Dana
Published: September 2017

Provisionally, we might define cinema as on‐screen (especially large‐screen) presentation of moving images that, for most of the history of the medium, have been pre‐recorded photo‐chemically on some support (most often, strips of celluloid).
Cinematography, History of
Authors: McKernan Luke
Published: September 2017

Cinematography is the art of photographing motion pictures. All photographing of motion pictures is, in its broadest sense, → cinematography, but it is the special combination of aesthetics and technology that distinguishes the term. It is the art of the cinematographer that makes cinema compelling, the skillful blending of → Photography, lighting, composition, and the capture of motion that creates the essence of what is memorable in cinema. The cinematographer, also known as the director of photography (DP or DoP) or sometimes lighting cameraman, makes real a director's creative vision, establishing a sense of place, character, emotion, and drama, through the essential visualizing of the moment (→ Visual Communication).
Citizen Journalism
Authors: Atton Chris
Published: September 2017

Citizen journalism refers to journalism produced not by professionals but by those outside mainstream media organizations. Citizen journalists typically have little or no training or professional qualifications, but write and report as citizens, members of communities, activists, and fans (→ Activist Media). They are amateur media producers. The two broad types of citizen journalism are political and cultural.
Citizen Journalism
Authors: Atton Chris
Published: September 2017

Citizen journalism refers to journalism produced not by professionals but by those outside mainstream media organizations. Citizen journalists typically have little or no training or professional qualifications, but write and report as citizens, members of communities, activists, and fans (→ Activist Media). They are amateur media producers. The two broad types of citizen journalism are political and cultural.
Civil Rights Movement and the Media
Authors: Morris Aldon
Published: September 2017

Racism was an enduring part of American life before the modern civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. This was especially true for the southern United States, where racism was rooted in all aspects of society. Southern blacks were severely exploited economically, where they were forced to toil at the bottom of the occupational structure. Blacks had no political power because they were excluded from the formal political process (→ Power and Discourse). Because blacks were believed to be racially inferior, they were segregated physically and made to live in the confines of resource‐starved communities (Morris 1984). Southern racial oppression was designed to humiliate blacks daily so that both races understood their respective places in the racial hierarchy.
Classroom Questioning
Authors: Gayle Barbara Mae , Preiss Raymond W.
Published: September 2017

One important aspect of student–teacher classroom interaction involves the process of asking and answering questions. The proficient use of questioning in the classroom is often recognized as a significant tool for managing classroom discourse and motivating student participation in the learning process. Many of the published studies in this area pragmatically advise teachers about the process of designing and executing questioning strategies that enhance student comprehension and recall of course materials. Other studies investigate the efficacy of teacher and student questioning practices. Although there is considerable disagreement regarding the outcomes of, and explanations for, effective classroom questioning, all researchers concur that educational questions are one of the fundamental tools teachers use to promote learning (→ Pedagogy, Communication in; Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction; Learning and Communication).
Code as Law
Authors: Murray Andrew D.
Published: September 2017

In 1999 Professor Lawrence Lessig, then Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School, later Director of the Edmond J. Safra Foundation Center for Ethics at Harvard University, opened his new book,
Code and other laws of cyberspace
, with a chapter entitled “Code is law.” This short but complex phrase has, since then, found itself at the heart of a thorough interdisciplinary debate on how new media technologies and, in particular, the Internet have altered the configuration of centers of regulatory power and the application of regulatory control mechanisms. “Code is law” is, as a result, one of the most deceptively complex and debated phrases in contemporary regulatory theory (→ Internet Law and Regulation).
Coffee Houses as Public Sphere
Authors: Allan Stuart
Published: September 2017

The notion of a → “public sphere” is useful when thinking about the spaces available for public discussion and debate – and thus the formation of → public opinion – in different societies). The writings of → JürgenHabermas (1989; 1992) have proven to be especially valuable in this regard. It is Habermas' contention that under ideal conditions the public sphere serves as a discursive realm situated between the purview of the state on the one hand, and the economic dictates of the marketplace on the other, for public deliberations over social issues (→ Discourse; Argumentative Discourse). In his words, the public sphere represents a space for “rational‐critical debate” among citizens, where “a time consuming process of mutual enlightenment” may take place “for the ‘general interest’ on the basis of which alone a rational agreement between publicly competing opinions could freely be reached” (Habermas 1989, 195). This normative conception of open and free relations of communication, where people can engage in reasoned dialogue about the conduct of social life as equals, highlights a range of intriguing questions for communication scholarship.
Colombia: Media System
Authors: Kusche Dagmar
Published: September 2017

With an area of 1.14 million square kilometers, Colombia is the fourth largest country in Latin America. The population is 45 million. Geographical conditions impede the infrastructural development as well as the opening up of an efficient system of communication. For several decades, a violent conflict has been going on in Colombia. As a consequence of the peaceful disarming of more than 30,000 paramilitaries before April 2006, the situation became relatively quiet.
Comics
Authors: Lent John A.
Published: September 2017

Comics, either in the form of newspaper strips (funnies) or comic books, combine text and images to carry a narrative or a joke. Although semblances of comics can be found in Egyptian Pharanoic art, thousand‐year‐old Indian, Japanese, and Chinese scrolls, eighteenth‐century Japanese
kibyoshi
(yellow books), and thirteenth‐century European book illustrations, the nineteenth century is normally credited as their birth date. Strips by Rodolphe Töpffer appeared in Switzerland in 1827, and by Wilhelm Busch a few decades later in Germany, but it was in the US that newspaper comics flourished, especially after New York newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used them to lure readers in the 1890s. After
The yellow kid
, usually considered the first US strip, was created in 1895, several hundred new funnies were started during the next five years.
Commentary
Authors: Djerf‐Pierre Monika
Published: September 2017

A commentary is a genre of journalism that provides interpretations and opinions on current events, rather than factual reporting (→ news). Interpretations may include evaluating the motives behind actors' behaviors, interpreting the wider scope and meaning of events, and assessing the ramifications and significance of facts. It also includes speculation, such as forecasting future events and foreseeing the behaviors of actors in the news. Opinions, on the other hand, mean promoting or advocating specific standpoints, ideals, or policies.
Commercialization of the Media
Authors: Murdock Graham
Published: September 2017

“Commerce” is a longstanding synonym for business as it is conducted in capitalist societies. It refers both to the institutions and practices of market economies and to the imaginative landscapes they produce. Commercial systems have two defining characteristics. Organizationally, they rest on the assumptions that competition between privately owned companies is the most effective way to maximize the diversity and choice of products on offer, and that markets should be allowed to operate with the minimum of interference and regulation from government. Imaginatively, they present consumption as a unique sphere of personal freedom in which individuals can realize their aspirations and confirm their sense of self through the goods and services they choose to purchase and possess.
Communication as an Academic Field: Australia, New Zealand, Pacific Rim
Authors: McKenna Bernard
Published: September 2017

Considerable changes have occurred in the foci of regional research of the communication discipline in Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, and South Korea, as well as Japan. The maturity of the research in distinguishing itself from the strong US and British inception is now such that there is a distinct autonomous foundation which, though informed by the major western traditions, has its own identity and issues of concern.
Communication as an Academic Field: Middle East, Arab World
Authors: Ayish Muhammad I.
Published: September 2017

The history of communication as an academic field of study in the Arab world goes back to 1939 when the Higher Journalism Institute (HJI) was established within the College of Arts at Cairo University (Cairo University 2004). By the early 1970s, Egypt and Iraq (Baghdad University) were the only countries in the Arab region to have full‐fledged academic communication programs. In the early 1980s, however, mass communication programs mushroomed in many Arab universities, and as the third millennium dawned on the Arab world, almost all institutions of higher education offered some form of academic program in media studies.
Communication Accommodation Theory
Authors: Giles Howard , Baker Susan C.
Published: September 2017

In interpersonal situations, language can be used to convey information about one's personality, temperament, social status, group belonging, and so forth. Although many of us like to think that we interact essentially the same way to virtually every person we encounter, thanks to fairness and our integrity, this simply is not true. In most instances, it is desirable, and even necessary, to adjust our language patterns to our conversational partners, be they close friends or loathed felons. Sometimes we encode this deliberately and consciously, other times it emerges automatically and may not even be decoded overtly.
Communication Apprehension
Authors: Kim Joohan
Published: September 2017

Communication apprehension refers to one's anxious feelings about communication. McCroskey defines communication apprehension as “an individual's level of fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (1977, 78). Communication apprehension has been one of the most studied individual differences in the field of interpersonal communication, under a variety of labels such as social anxiety, reticence, shyness, unwillingness to communicate, and social‐communicative anxiety (Daly & McCroskey 1984). The scope of subjects includes dating anxiety, receiver apprehension or informational reception apprehension, singing apprehension, writing apprehension, and intercultural communication apprehension (Knapp & Daly 2002).
Communication Apprehension: Intervention Techniques
Authors: Hazel Michael , Hsu Chia‐Fang , Ayres Joe
Published: September 2017

Communication apprehension (CA) intervention techniques are systematic, empirically grounded methods employed in a variety of settings to reduce communication‐related anxiety, most commonly in public speaking contexts, where many speakers experience → stage fright. Communication scholars have developed, adapted, and tested a variety of effective methods to treat → speech anxiety due to its pervasive nature and deleterious effects. Although most contemporary CA theories view → communication apprehension as being a multidimensional construct comprised of interrelated cognitive, affective/physiological, and behavioral components, different interventions emphasize one component over the others. That is, some theorists viewed speech anxiety as stemming primarily from thoughts, internal dialogue, and/or images associated with public speaking (e.g., Ellis 2001). Others emphasized the physiological consequences of autonomic nervous system activation. And still others underscored the lack of public speaking skills as the primary reason people experience speech anxiety (e.g., Kelly 1997). Thus, treatments are typically categorized as cognitive, affective, or behavioral in nature, and instructors and counselors employ either one or a combination of the treatments outlined below.
Communication Apprehension and Social Anxiety
Authors: Booth‐Butterfield Melanie
Published: September 2017

Communication anxiety/avoidance is one of the most studied phenomena in the field of communication. Communication apprehension (CA) is defined as “the fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with others” (McCroskey 1984; → Communication Apprehension). CA is problematic when anxiety reaches levels that interfere with goal attainment (→ Goals, Social Aspects of).
Communication as a Field and Discipline
Authors: Craig Robert T.
Published: September 2017

The editorial structure of the
International encyclopedia of communication
offers one view on the present state of communication as an academic field. The 29 editorial areas range in scope from micro‐analysis of individual behavior (e.g., → Information Processing) to macro‐analysis of communication institutions on societal and international scales (e.g., → International Communication). Editorial areas also range across modes of inquiry, including those of quantitative social science (e.g., → Media Effects), interpretive social science (e.g., → Language and Social Interaction), critical and cultural studies (e.g., → Feminist and Gender Studies), humanities (e.g., → Rhetorical Studies), applied professions (e.g., → Journalism), and such varied other interdisciplines as → media history, → media economics, and communication and media law and policy.
Communication Law and Policy: Africa
Authors: Eko Lyombe
Published: September 2017

The media law regimes in Africa are the result of a confluence of historical and political factors: first, the authoritarian colonial systems inherited at independence; second, international communication policy transfers from the UN and its specialized agencies; and third, the post‐Cold War liberalization of the 1990s. The 53 countries on the African continent can be classified intofour major media law traditions: (1) the English‐speaking tradition, an eclectic mix of British colonial traditions and indigenous African communication values; (2) the highly centralized regimes of the French‐speaking countries; (3) the ideologically laden systems of the Portuguese‐speaking countries; and (4) the authoritarian media law regimes of North Africa. There is considerable diversity between and within these broad classifications. Each country's media law regime is a reflection of its specific political, economic, social, and cultural context.
Communication Management
Authors: Brønn Peggy Simcic
Published: September 2017

For some, communication management is a special way of managing; for others it is the steering of all communications in the context of the organization; for yet others it is the same as → public relations (PR), i.e., managing communication itself. This entry argues for the second approach, i.e., communication management is the steering of all communications in the context of the organization (→ Corporate Communication; Organizational Communication).
Communication and Media Studies, History since 1968
Authors: Parcell Lisa Mullikin
Published: September 2017

Communication and media studies matured into an integrated discipline in the years following 1968. Research and education became centralized in independent schools of communication, while at the same time drawing from related disciplines to improve methodology and explore new paradigms.
Communication and Media Studies, History since 1968
Authors: Simonson Peter
Published: September 2017

Over the last 50 years, communication and media studies have been among the fastest growing fields in the world, establishing themselves well beyond their earliest homes in the United States and Germany. Intellectually, their global growth has been characterized by a mix of US hegemony and international pluralism and by continuing struggles to establish full academic legitimacy. Contestation among competing paradigms has been pronounced, existing alongside efforts to establish an integrated discipline of communication science. Institutionally, growth has been driven by increasing demand for undergraduate education along with the formation of scholarly and professional infrastructures. Societally, it is tied up with the global proliferation of media and the increasing recognition of the social and vocational relevance of communication (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline; Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968).
Communication Modes, African
Authors: Hecht Michael L. , Ndiaye Khadidiatou
Published: September 2017

Defining communication in Africa as well as the African diaspora is a complex task involving both cultural commonalities and differences. African communication itself reflects a complex mix of cultural values from the cultures and traditions spread across the vast continent (→ Communication as an Academic Field: Africa; Africa: Media Systems; Communication Law and Policy: Africa). While some traditional values have been fervently preserved throughout the continent, the myriad of outside influences, including European colonizers and religious crusaders, cannot be ignored. Similarly, Hecht et al. (2003, 9) explain that African‐American communication builds from a “cultural amalgam of the cultural traditions, values, and norms of the indigenous African slaves as well as the European settlers who laid claim to what we know now as the United States.” Understanding African and African‐American communication involves a thorough analysis of this cultural amalgam, understanding the worldviews through cultural codes (e.g., values and norms), processes (e.g., communication patterns and practices), and sense of community. We begin with a discussion of African‐American communication.