bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Uncertainties in Rainfall and Water Resources in Maghreb Countries Under Climate Change
Authors: Meddi Mohamed , Eslamian Saeid
Published: May 2021

The vulnerability of the climate change in the South of the Mediterranean’s south regions varies depending on the part of their climate which is sensitive to the economy. In Tunisia, agriculture represents 16% of the workforce and 12% of GDP in 2006. In Algeria, agriculture represents 20% of the workforce and 8% of GDP in 2009. In Morocco, agriculture accounts for 40% of the workforce and 17.7% of GDP in 2006. The agriculture is directly related to the availability of water which in turn is directly related to rainfall. The drought has affected all countries of the Maghreb. It is considered the most severe in the history of these countries. The drought has forced the agricultural sector in Morocco to the limitation of annual crops which are not needed, the prohibition of any new tree planting and the ban on vegetable crops in dry years. During the years 1987, 1988, and 1989, Tunisia has experienced the most critical drought. It led to a water deficit of around 30%. For Morocco the rainfall shows a negative trend at national and regional scales, and spring rainfall has declined by over 40% since the 1960s. For Algeria, the western region has recorded a considerable reduction in rainfall. The winter rains have decreased between 40% and 70%. Contributions to dams have decreased between 30% and 50%. These changes had a negative influence on the water resource and crop yield. Many programs have been initiated since then to meet the growing demand.
Transformative Adaptations for Health Impacts of Climate Change in Burkina Faso and Kenya
Authors: Yeboah Edmund , Bunker Aditi , Dambach Peter , Mank Isabel , Sorgho Raïssa , Sié Ali , Munga Stephen , Bärnighausen Till , Danquah Ina
Published: May 2021

Climate change strongly affects the health of sub-Saharan African populations. Effective adaptation strategies are required in order to enhance their limited adaptive capacities. The DFG-funded Research Unit (RU) “Climate change and health in sub-Saharan Africa” unites nine research institutions from Burkina Faso, Kenya, Germany, and Switzerland that will design, implement, and evaluate four different adaptation projects in these two African countries from 2020 until 2022.

First, the effectiveness of an agro-biodiversification and nutrition program will be established for the reduction of child undernutrition of climate-sensitive nutrients in rural Burkina Faso and Kenya. Two respective cluster-randomized controlled trials (cRCT) will be conducted, each consisting of 2 × 600 children. Second, another cRCT will be conducted among 2 × 300 households in rural Burkina Faso to investigate how sunlight-reflecting cool-roof coatings affect human health outcomes, including cardiovascular and heat-related outcomes. Further outcomes comprise indoor temperature, carbon footprint, and productivity. Third, an index-based weather insurance (IBWI) will be introduced in rural Burkina Faso. The effects of IBWI on childhood nutritional status, dietary behavior, and healthcare seeking will be determined in 2 × 20 villages. Fourth, microbial larviciding has been evaluated as a promising environmental control for malaria vectors in Burkina Faso. Here, the interactions between climatic factors and the effectiveness of the intervention will be tested using spatiotemporal models.
Addressing Climate Change Vulnerability Through Small Livestock Rearingin Matobo, Zimbabwe
Authors: Phiri Keith , Ndlovu Sibonokuhle , Mpofu Moreblessings , Moyo Philani , Evans Henri-Count
Published: May 2021

Livestock rearing is a popular climate change adaptation strategy among farmers in Matobo District, Zimbabwe. In this chapter we reveal how farmers in Matobo District have benefited immensely from rearing small livestock in response to climate change. Although the descriptor “small livestock” generically refers to different types of livestock, in this chapter we limit it to goat and sheep rearing. The purpose of the chapter is (1) to discuss the efficacy of small livestock rearing as a response to climate change and (2) to use smallholder farmer’s narratives to evaluate the success of government interventions in enhancing small livestock production. Utilizing an inductive approach, data was gathered through five (5) key informants, five (5) focus group discussions, and 50 in-depth semi-structured interviews. Our study reveals that small livestock are suitable and adaptable to climate change impacts in Matobo. We recommend that government and its development partners prioritize and avail funds for the increased uptake of small livestock rearing among smallholder farmers in Matobo District and beyond.
Evidence-Based Policy Development: National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on Climate Change for Nigeria (NASPA-CCN)
Authors: Onyeneke Robert Ugochukwu , Nwajiuba Chinedum Uzoma , Tegler Brent , Nwajiuba Chinyere Augusta
Published: May 2021

Evidence-based policies are recommended for the enhanced chances of efficacy in achieving policy goals. Achieving this in the policy development process may however require approaches that are not as simple especially in less developed countries, where the research-policy linkage is not commonly the case. This chapter provides a guide to a practical approach that could assist policy makers in similar societies based on the steps adopted in the development of the National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on Climate Change (NASPA-CCN) for Nigeria. The NASPA–CCN has been acknowledged as among the models of climate change policy development that other countries could aim for. It is therefore positioned to offer lessons on policy development in a less developed country environment. The focus in this chapter however is not so much on the subject of climate change but the practical experiences and lessons learnt from the process involved in developing the NASPA-CCN providing lessons learned to mainstream climate change research evidence into policy.
Pathways to Enhance Climate Change Resilience among Pastoral Households in Northern Tanzania
Authors: Ndesanjo Ronald Boniphace , Theilade Ida , Nielsen Martin Reinhardt
Published: May 2021

The objective of this study was to evaluate the pathways to enhance resilience to increased climate variability and directional change among pastoral households in Simanjiro District in Northern Tanzania. The study used household survey and rainfall and temperature data. Results indicate increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation trends over the past four decades. Also, extreme climatic events, particularly drought, have become more frequent. Food and water insecurity are key factors causing an increased household vulnerability. Increased climate change-induced malaria prevalence poses additional health risks. Household adaptive strategies include livelihood diversification and migration. Local institutions are instrumental in enhancing climate change resilience at the local level. We conclude that livelihood diversification and migration are key pathways to enhancing households’ climate change resilience.
Rainfall Variability and Adaptation of Tomatoes Farmers in Santa: Northwest Region of Cameroon
Authors: Malyse Majoumo Christelle
Published: May 2021

The Santa agrarian basin being one of the main market gardening basins in Cameroon and one of the producers of tomatoes in the country is vulnerable to the impact of rainfall variability. The spatiotemporal variability of rainfall through the annual, monthly, and daily fluctuations has greatly affected the market gardening sector in general and tomatoes production in particular. Thus, given rise to the research topic “Rainfall variability and adaptation of tomatoes farmers in Santa North west region of Cameroon,” its principal objective is to contribute to better understanding of the recent changes occurring in tomatoes production and productivity in Santa. To attain this objective, a principal hypothesis was formulated that rainfall variability instead of unnatural conditions or human constraints justifies changes observed in tomatoes production in Santa and resulting adaptation strategies developed by peasants and stakeholders.

Our study came out with several findings, among which includes rainfall events in Santa fluctuate in time and in space with reduction in the number of rainy day and increase in the intensity of rainfall events causing soil erosion, infertility, and frequent crop diseases, insects, and pests. Extreme events such as drought and flooding have equally become frequent in the area especially during the different cycles of tomatoes production disrupting the agricultural calendar and causing crop failure and decrease in yields with Pearson’s correlation of 0.017. This positive value shows that there is a relationship between annual rainfall and tomatoes output in Santa. Tomatoes farmers in Santa are struggling to adapt locally to this situations, but their efforts are still limited especially due to their low level of education and poverty. Finally, it was seen that the output of tomatoes over the years in Santa has a strong correlation with rainfall. Based on the findings of this study, the government is called upon to assist farmers in their adaptation options.
Climate Change Adaptation: Implications for Food Security and Nutrition
Authors: Ajilogba Caroline Fadeke , Walker Sue
Published: May 2021

It is apparent that climate change affects every facet of life as no living organism lives outside of the universal environment (air, water, land), and all of these are affected by one or more climate or weather conditions. Climate affects agriculture and vice versa as they are deeply interconnected. The effect of climate change on agriculture goes a long way to increase or decrease food security and invariably food nutrition through its impacts on agricultural lands. This is because the more food insecurity there is, the more issues of undernutrition are observed.

This chapter studies the different ways climate and climate change affect crop production through the different sections of agriculture in terms of plant diseases and biocontrol, food production, livestock rearing, fish production, forestry, and microbial diversity. It goes further to look at the different ways nations and communities are adapting to climate change to mitigate the challenges of food insecurity and nutrition. Finally, some of the solutions that can be pilot tested at the community level, which can later be cascaded to national and regional levels, are also emphasized. Other recommendations that can become a research focus to forestall this threat are also highlighted and would be important in policy development.
Climate Change Adaptation Through Sustainable Water Resources Management in Kenya: Challenges and Opportunities
Authors: Asokan Shilpa Muliyil , Obando Joy , Kwena Brian Felix , Luwesi Cush Ngonzo
Published: May 2021

Water is the medium through which society experiences the most dramatic and direct manifestations of climate change. At the same time, water has a critical role to play in climate change adaptation and is central towards achieving Africa Water Vision 2025, and the targets set for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development as well as the Kenya Vision 2030. There are fundamental challenges that need to be addressed in order to achieve sustainable water resources management, mainly, the inherent uncertainty associated with the changing climate, the inflexibility in infrastructure and institutions that manage water, and the poor integration of all stakeholders and sectors in water resources management. This study investigates the challenges and opportunities in implementing integrated water resources management and its critical role towards climate change adaptation. A preliminary assessment of sustainable management of water resources and its role in effective climate change adaptation and resilience building in Kenya is carried out through questionnaire survey and stakeholder interactions. Climate change-induced uncertainty, diminishing water sources aggravated by growing water demand, weak institutional and financial governance, and lack of transparency and stakeholder inclusiveness are identified as the main challenging factors that need to be addressed to build a climate resilient society. The study furthermore emphasizes the critical role of water management in achieving Agenda 2030, the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
Data Collection Using Wireless Sensor Networks and Online Visualization for Kitui, Kenya
Authors: Mbandi Josephine , Kisangari Michael
Published: May 2021

Kenya is a developing country with a population of 47,213,282 people this comprises of 56% low-income earners. Small businesses and crop production represent 23% of the income within the country, which is at risk as soils become less productive. Various factors have led to this, climate change and land overuse being leading causes. Without adaptation, the rural to urban migration will continue to increase.

Through Internet of Things (IoT) and specifically wireless sensor networks, we can change how we obtain and consume information. Small-scale farmers can collect data and in exchange receive useful information about their soils, temperature, humidity, and moisture content hence make better choices during crop production. Connected end devices bring in data, which is currently sparse in relation to small-scale farming. IoT will enable analysis and informed decision-making including crop selection, support equipment, fertilizers, irrigation, and harvesting. The cloud-based analysis will provide information useful for policy making and improvement.

This chapter presents a wireless sensor network (WSN) in mesh topography using XBee communication module, communication, and raspberry pi, combined with a cloud-based data storage and analysis. We successfully set up a proof of concept to test a sensor node that sends information to a RPi and onto an online visualization platform.
Impacts of Environmental Change on Fish Production in Egypt and Nigeria: Technical Characteristics and Practice
Authors: Adeleke M. L. , Al-Kenawy D. , Nasr-Allah A. M. , Dickson M. , Ayal Desalegn
Published: May 2021

A survey approach was applied to examine the technical characteristics of fish farming practice in Egypt and Nigeria. Critical issues such as floods and other vices were considered in bringing out the inference and level of aquaculture in both countries. Multistage sampling technique was used to select the study area and the number of respondents. Both primary and secondary data were used in the analysis. Eighty fish farmers were randomly selected from each of the country, making a total of 160 respondents. The socioeconomic characteristics revealed that aquaculture is an antique venture in Africa with Egypt taking the lead, i.e., 99% of the respondents practice in large-scales production of more than 11 Fadden/acre per, and 100% males depend mainly on agricultural drainage water for their earthen ponds. Ninety-eight percent cultured tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) which was believed to have originated from the Nile River. In terms of financial performance and partial economic analysis, tilapia production commands more sales in Egypt, while catfish (Clarias) production is seen as a promising venture in Nigeria. The fish farmers have various perceptions and reactions toward environmental changes factors such as cost of labor/manpower and inputs, poor water quality, and fish extension services, and climate change impedes aquaculture development in the countries. To achieve the scale of aquaculture expansion as observed in Asian and other developed part of the world, efforts should be geared toward continental and regional integration in order to encourage aquaculture practices in Nigeria and other parts of Africa. More so, government intervention and incentives should be paramount in Egypt to reduce the excessive exploitation of the private input suppliers.
Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Ecosystem Nexus: Forest Communities in Agroecological zones of Nigeria
Authors: Fadairo Olushola , Olajuyigbe Samuel , Osayomi Tolulope , Adelakun Olufolake , Olaniyan Olanrewaju , Olutegbe Siji , Adeleke Oluwaseun
Published: May 2021

A top-bottom approach where local problems are treated in isolation has proven ineffective in achieving sustainable development. The need for inclusive approaches to managing the demand for arable lands, forest resources, and the problems of resource exploitation and climate change calls for local understanding of these elements’ interrelationship. Understanding the interrelationships among climate change, agriculture, and the ecosystems in different agroecological zones in Nigeria was the purpose of this chapter. Deforestation and forest degradation analysis approach was utilized. One state and two forest communities from each of the rainforest, savannah, and mangrove agroecological zones were purposively focused in this chapter based on forest distribution and cover. Focus group discussions involving 252 male and female farmers using 30 years as reference were used to garner relevant information. Climate variation caused a slight modification in cropping schedules of farmers due to prolonged dry season, mainly in the savannah region. Farmers engaged in mixed farming and also cultivate more hardy crops like cassava in response to climate uncertainties. Especially in the mangrove and savannah, ecosystem components such as agriculture and population showed increasing trends over the years as forest cover reduces. Downward trend in charcoal production was limited to mangrove and rainforest zones as fishing and hunting becomes vulnerable livelihoods across the zones. The degree and progression of climate change effects on the ecosystem in Nigeria agroecological zones is largely comparable and have both desirable and adverse livelihood outcomes. Affordable insurance policy, credit, agri-inputs, favorable forest regulatory framework, and youth empowerment supports would enhance sustainable adjustment to climate change.
Retooling Smallholder Farming Systems for Climate Change Resilience Across Botswana Arid Zones
Authors: Batisani Nnyaladzi , Pule-Meulenberg Flora , Batlang Utlwang , Matteoli Federica , Tselaesele Nelson
Published: May 2021

Background: Scientific progress and developments in technology have improved our understanding of climate change and its potential impacts on smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The persistence of such smallholder farming systems, despite multiple exposures to climate hazards, demonstrates a capacity to respond or adapt. However, the scale and intensity of climate change impacts on smallholder farming systems in SSA will overwhelm any indigenous coping mechanisms developed over centuries. Therefore, there is need to co-develop resilient farming systems with farmers and extension workers in anticipation of the looming food security challenges in the midst of climate change.

A survey comprising of participatory rural appraisal, focus group discussions, participatory resource mapping, and SWOT analysis was carried out for the purposes of farming systems diagnosis in reference to their resilience to climate change in three districts cutting across dry arid zones of Botswana agricultural landscape. The survey also sought to identify vulnerability of the farming systems to climate change and subsequently co-develop with farmers and extension workers new climate proofed farming systems.

Results: Detailed evaluation of current systems and their strengths and weaknesses were identified. Farmers highlighted constraints to their production being mainly drought related but also lack of production inputs. These constraints are location and context specific as extension areas within a district highlighted different challenges and even different CSA practices for similar production constraints. Through participatory approaches, farmers were able to identify and rank potential climate-smart agriculture practices that could ameliorate their production challenges and subsequently developed implementation plans for these practices.

Conclusions: The study demonstrates that climate change is already having significant adverse impacts on smallholder farming systems and therefore, climate proofing these systems is necessary if livelihoods of smallholder farmers are to be sustained. Therefore, retrofitting current farming systems to be climate resilient is the first step to climate proofing smallholder farmers’ livelihoods.
Livestock Breeders’ Adaptation to Climate Variability and Change in Morocco’s Arid Rangelands
Authors: Snaibi Wadii , Mezrhab Abdelhamid
Published: May 2021

Since the mid-1970s, the high plateaus of eastern Morocco have experienced proven trends of climate change (CC) such as a significant decrease in rainfall amounts and an increase in the droughts’ frequency. Consequently, the CC threatens the sustainability of this pastoral ecosystem and negatively affects the breeding of small ruminants, the main local-level livelihood, which becomes more vulnerable due to its high dependence on climatic conditions. This chapter aims to analyze breeders’ adaptation practices by taking into account their social stratification based on the size of the sheep flock in possession. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests to examine the differences in the adoption’ frequency of CC adaptation measures according breeders’ classes and Chi-square independence test to identify the factors explaining these observed differences. The analysis of local adaptation practices reveals that they are endogenous but above all curative, aiming at a short-term logic and have a low to medium relevance compared to the specific objective of adaptation to CC. In addition, there are significant differences in the frequency of adoption of CC adaptation strategies (chi-square value = 8.1112, p = 0.017, df = 2) within categories of breeders, in particular between small and larger breeders (U statistic = 58.000, p = 0.008). The significant factors explaining these differences are socioeconomic (age, household size, equipment, training, and membership of a basic professional organization). It is therefore recommended to target small breeders as a priority and to set up support measures (equipment, training, funding, organization of breeders).
Agroecology and Climate Change Adaptation: Farmers’ Experiences in the South African Lowveld
Authors: Zazu Cryton , Manderson Anri
Published: May 2021

Motivated by interest to increase the resilience of smallholder farmers to adapt to climate change through uptake of agroecology, two community development organizations commissioned a project evaluation upon which this book chapter is written. The chapter discusses how smallholder farmers were experiencing implementing agroecology, trying to understand the reasons for adopting such an approach to farming. The chapter also explores and problematizes the relationship between trends in adoption of agroecology and the smallholder farmers’ awareness of climate change and adaptation. The chapter confirms that agronomic and income generation are the key reasons for adoption of agroecology. Most of the farmers reminisced about how their crop yields had declined and soils no longer producing enough to feed the family. Other motivating factors for uptake of agroecology included lack of employment, limited income sources, access to health organic foods, and medicinal value of herbs grown. The chapter further concluded that the correlation between adoption of agroecology and farmers’ awareness of it as a climate change adaptation measure is generally weak. Smallholder farmers adopted agroecology more for responding to issues of food security, than any conscious desire to adapt to climate change. Implications of this observation is that practitioners working with smallholder farmers need to rethink their approaches and design of interventions to integrate climate change education and learning, so that strong connections between the agroecological practices promoted and adaptation to climate change are made. Such an approach has potential to improve the sustainability and value of the agroecological practices adopted.
Impact of Climate Change on Animal Health, Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases in Africa
Authors: Magiri Royford , Muzandu Kaampwe , Gitau George , Choongo Kennedy , Iji Paul
Published: May 2021

The threat of climate change and global warming is gaining worldwide recognition. The African continent, because of its size, diversity, and its new status as a “hub” of livestock production, need to gear up to mitigate the possible impacts of climate change on animal health. The aim of this review article is to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the influence of climate and climate change on the health of food-producing animals. Depending on its intensity and duration, heat stress may directly affect livestock health by causing metabolic disruptions, oxidative stress, and immune suppression, causing increased disease susceptibility, and death. Animal health could also be affected by emergence and re-emergence of vector- and non-vector-borne pathogens that are highly dependent on climatic conditions. The response to these challenges requires community participation in the adaptation of animal production systems to new environments and strengthening the efficiency of veterinary services delivery combined with well-coordinated public health services, since many emerging human diseases are zoonotic.
Climatepreneurship: Adaptation Strategy for Climate Change Impacts on Rural Women Entrepreneurship Development in Nigeria
Authors: Akinbami C. A. O.
Published: May 2021

Adequate and proper adaptation strategies to climate change depend largely on activities in the rural sector, which drives national economy through exploitation of natural resources. Consequently, actions in rural areas are essential to successful climate change adaptation. Rural communities are highly dependent upon natural resources that are affected by climate change, thus affecting their food security, livelihoods, health, and physical infrastructure. Women and their livelihood practices are thereby affected negatively, leading to increased poverty level and low income, because they find it difficult to respond adequately to climate change effects. This study examines the past and existing interventions on climate change adaptation strategies in two rural communities in Oyo State, introduces climatepreneurship strategy, and assesses its effectiveness. This is an explorative study, employing qualitative approach to gather information through in-depth interview (IDIs) from 50 farmers, before and after the interventions. Data collected were analyzed using Atlas ti. This is a powerful workbench for qualitative data analysis using coding and annotating activities to generate different thematic issues for discussions and interpretations with networks. Study revealed that communities had previously experienced some interventions. Such had no impact on livelihood practices because steps to successful intervention were not followed. Socio-cultural practices hinder women development. The newly introduced climatepreneurship strategy improved livelihood practices. Study outcomes will expectedly be integrated into policy framework for sustainable rural women entrepreneurship development and also replicated in other rural areas in Nigeria.
Intersectional Perspective of Strengthening Climate Change Adaptation of Agrarian Women in Cameroon
Authors: Ngum Faith , Bastiaensen Johan
Published: May 2021

It is a widely accepted notion that climate change affects men and women within agrarian populations differently; consequently, their adaptation strategies are gendered. Besides climate change, women’s vulnerability and their corresponding adaptation strategies are embedded within a complex web of social identities/status, agroecological location, gender norm/roles and power struggles within the plurality of normative orders governing land (property rights). This chapter focuses on Cameroon and seeks to analyze how the interactions between various normative orders governing access to land, co-dependent upon the multiple gendered identities (intersectionality), impact climate change adaptation strategies of female farmers. The results show that the degree of vulnerability and adaptation strategies of women are context specific and gendered across the five distinct agroecological zones of Cameroon. Furthermore, secured access to and ownership over land is crucial in determining the adaptation choices and options available to female farmers. A complex mix of state and non-state norms govern property rights in Cameroon, within which women have to constantly negotiate their land claims. These negotiations are influenced by marital status, ethnicity, educational level, and community/social relations, such that the outcome translates differently for women within the Muslim, Anglophone, and Francophone communities. The chapter concludes with context-specific recommendations to strengthen the adaptive capacity of agrarian women across Cameroon.
Multifunctional Landscape Transformation of Urban Idle Spaces for Climate Resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Yawson David O. , Adu Michael O. , Asare Paul A. , Armah Frederick A.
Published: May 2021

Poor physical and land use planning underpin the chaotic evolution and expansion in cities and towns in sub-Saharan Africa. This situation amplifies urban vulnerability to climate change. Worse, urban landscapes are rarely considered part of the discourse on urban development in sub-Saharan Africa, let alone in climate change adaptation. Yet, landscapes are known to play crucial roles in social, economic, and cultural resilience in cities and towns. Hence, designing basic forms of appealing and functional urban landscapes that support multiple ecosystem services is essential to the drive towards resilience, which relates to the ability to maintain or improve the supply of life support services and products (such as food and water) in the face of disturbance. In this chapter, the idea of transforming idle urban spaces into multifunctional edible urban landscapes is introduced and explored as instrumental for cost-effective adaptation and resilience to climate change in cities and towns in sub-Saharan Africa. Multifunctional edible urban landscape is defined here as a managed landscape that integrates food production and ornamental design, in harmonious coexistence with other urban structures to promote or provide targeted, multiple services. These services include food security, scenic beauty, green spaces for active living and learning, jobs and livelihoods support, environmental protection, climate adaptation, and overall urban resilience. This approach constitutes a triple-win multifunctional land use system that is beneficial to landowners, city managers, and the general community. This chapter explores the benefits, challenges, and prospects for practically transforming urban idle spaces into multifunctional edible urban landscapes using an example project from Ghana. The chapter shows that multifunctional edible urban landscape transformation for resilience is practically feasible, and sheds light on the possibility of the food production component paying for landscaping and landscape management. It concludes with thoughts on actions required across sectors and multiple scales, including mobilizing stakeholders, laws, policies, and incentives, to actualize multifunctional edible urban landscapes as key transformational components of resilience in sub-Saharan Africa.
Climate Change Impact and Adaptation: Lagoonal Fishing Communities in West Africa
Authors: Davies-Vollum K. Sian , Raha Debadayita , Koomson Daniel
Published: May 2021

Lagoons are a common feature of the low-lying West African coastline. These lagoons are resource-rich and biodiverse. The small-scale fishing communities, which border them, are dependent on the resources and ecosystem services for their livelihoods and well-being. Climate change has had significant and diverse effects on both the lagoons and their surrounding communities. Sea level rise has caused erosion of the coast and increased the risk of floods. Changes to rainfall patterns have caused shifts in lagoon ecosystems and physical cycles. Of particular relevance to lagoon fishing communities is the fluctuation in quantity and distribution of fish catch that they rely upon for economic livelihood. Understanding the vulnerability of these communities to the effects of climate change is critical to supporting and developing successful adaptations. Using a case study from Ghana, sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA) and vulnerability framework are used to characterize the community vulnerability, giving insight into the temporal and spatial dynamics of vulnerability and how subsections of the community may be identified and prioritized for adaptation interventions. A scalar analysis of the relevant coastal and environmental frameworks and policy to support climate change adaptation in coastal communities reveals the common challenges in implementing adaptation interventions and strategies in the region. A policy gap exists between high level, institutional coastal, and climate directives and implementation of climate adaptations at the local level. That gap might be bridged by a participatory approach that places coastal communities at the center of creating and enacting climate change adaptations.
Climate Change Adaptation Strategies Among Cereal Farmers in Kwara State, Nigeria
Authors: Aderinoye-Abdulwahab S. A. , Abdulbaki T. A.
Published: May 2021

Agriculture is the art and science of food production which spans soil cultivation, crop growing, and livestock rearing. Over the years, it has served as a means of employment and accounts for more than one-third of total gross domestic product. Cereals, which include rice, maize, and sorghum, are the major dietary energy suppliers and they provide significant amounts of protein, minerals (potassium and calcium), and vitamins (vitamin A and C). The growth and good yield of cereal crop can be greatly influenced by elements of weather and climate such as temperature, sunlight, and relative humidity. While climate determines the choice of what plant to cultivate and how to cultivate, it has been undoubtedly identified as one of the fundamental factors that determine both crop cultivation and livestock keeping. The chapter, though theoretical, adopted Kwara State, Nigeria, as the focus due to favorable weather conditions that support grains production. It was observed that the effect of climate change on cereal production includes: drastic reduction in grains production, reduction in farmers’ profit level, increment in cost during production, diversification to nonfarming activities, and discouragement of youth from participating in agricultural activities. Also, the adopted coping strategies employed by farmers in the focus site were early planting, planting of improved variety, irrigation activities, alternates crop rotation, and cultivation of more agricultural areas. The chapter thus concluded that climate change has negative impact on cereals production and recommends that government should provide communal irrigation facilities that will cushion the effect of low rains on farmers’ productivity, while early planting and cultivation of drought-resistant cultivars should be encouraged.
Tied Ridges and Better Cotton Breeds for Climate Change Adaptation
Authors: Mandumbu R. , Nyawenze C. , Rugare J. T. , Nyamadzawo G. , Parwada C. , Tibugari H.
Published: May 2021

Climate change and variability is already reducing agricultural productivity and opportunities for employment, pushing up food prices and affecting food availability and production of formerly adapted crop types. Such is the case in cotton production in Zimbabwe, where it was the only viable commercial crop in marginal areas. As a form of adaptation, there is need for African farmers to have a range of agricultural techniques as coping strategies and tactics to enable sustainable production of crops and deal with extreme events. Such techniques include water conservation and introduction of new adapted crop genetics to cope with the new environment. The emerging trends in climate change will force farmers to adopt new crops and varieties and forms of agricultural production technologies. The objective of this study is to determine the contribution of combining in-field water harvesting and early maturing cotton varieties in curbing drought in cotton in semiarid Zimbabwe. The results show that both water harvesting in form of planting basins significantly (P <0.05) increased boll number and branch number of cotton across all varieties. The varieties M577 and M567 out-performed the conventional varieties in early growth, branch number, and boll number. Tied contour ridges gave a significantly (P <0.05) higher moisture content in 0–5 cm and the 6–10 cm depth compared to conventional tillage. The new varieties displayed early phenological development. Despite the existence of rainfall gaps, the in-field water harvesting techniques captured enough moisture and prevented moisture losses through runoff which resulted successful flowering and fruiting in the short varieties compared to conventional tillage on conventional varieties. In this regard, water harvesting and early maturing varieties offer considerable hope for increasing crop production in arid and semiarid areas of Zimbabwe.
Managing Current Climate Variability Can Ensure Water Security Under Climate Change
Authors: Muller Mike
Published: May 2021

Water resources will be significantly impacted upon by climate change, and these impacts will be transmitted to the many sectors and services dependent on them. The nature, extent, and timing of these impacts remain uncertain, but the long lifetime of water infrastructures requires that their planning, development, and operations should be resilient to climate changes. An effective approach is to focus on the management of current climate variability as it relates to water, which strengthens the ability of communities and countries to foresee, manage, and adapt to the impacts of longer-term climate change on water-related activities. This approach is illustrated by cases from Southern and Eastern Africa.

Current “stationary” stochastic methods of hydrological analysis can still be used under assumptions of a “dynamic stationarity” although more regular updating of hydrological data will be required. Methodologies to evaluate economic dimensions of risk reduction introduce additional uncertainties but may help decision-makers to understand the risks and opportunities. Diversification of sources and sequencing of resource development pathways are helpful strategies to adapt to climate change but must ensure that risks affecting different sources are not correlated. Attention must also be given to demand-side interventions in order to reconcile supply and demand, and these perspectives must be shared with social, economic, and political actors to ensure that strategies are communicated, understood, and supported by the wider community.
Community Adaptation to Climate Change: Case of Gumuz People, Metekel Zone, Northwest Ethiopia
Authors: Wagino Abbebe Marra , Amanuel Teshale W.
Published: May 2021

The effect of climate change on agricultural-dependent communities is immense. Ethiopia in which more than 85% of its population is agrarian is affected by climate change. Communities in different parts of the country perceived climate change and practice different climate change adaptation strategies. This chapter was initiated to identify adaptation strategy to the impact of changing climate. Data on a total of 180 households were gathered using structured and semi-structured questioners. Focus group discussion and key informant interview were also used for data collection. Climatic data from the nearest meteorological stations of the area were collected and used in this chapter. The collected data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods. The upshot indicated that all the respondent communities experienced at least one of autonomous/self-adaptation strategies to cope and live with the impacts of changing climate. Though 33.6% complained on its accessibility and pricing, 66.4% of the respondents reviled as they do not have any awareness on improved agricultural technologies. The major adaptation strategies identified were collecting and using of edible wild plants and other forest products, hunting, renting/selling of own farm lands, livestock sell, selling of household materials/assets, collecting and selling of wood and wood products and depending on well-off relatives, using drought-resistant crop variety, changing cropping calendar, replanting/sowing, and increasing farmland size. Nevertheless, the communities are not yet fully aware and accessed to policy-driven options for climate change adaptation. Although they used different autonomous adaptation mechanisms, the households are not resilient to the current and perceived climate change. Finally, based on the findings, the recommendation is that besides encouraging the existing community-based adaptation strategies planned adaptation strategies have to be implemented: such as early-warning and preparedness programs have to be effectively implemented in the area, introduction of different drought-resistant locally adapted food crop varieties, and expansion of large-scale investment in the area has to be checked, and give due recognition to forest ecosystem–based adaptation mechanisms of the local community in the area.
Assessment of Farmers’ Indigenous Technology Adoptions for Climate Change Adaptation in Nigeria
Authors: Ologeh Idowu , Adesina Francis , Sobanke Victor
Published: May 2021

Agriculture has shown a considerable capacity to adapt to climate change. Many adaptations occur autonomously without the need for conscious response by farmers and agricultural planners. However, it is likely that the rate and magnitude of climate change may exceed that of normal change in agriculture that specific technologies and management styles may need to be adopted to avoid the most serious of effects. Thus areas likely to be most vulnerable to climate variability can be spared from its impacts through implementation of appropriate adaptation measures such as development of indigenous technologies.

Six hundred farmers from the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria were surveyed and they all possess different indigenous adaptation strategies ranging from swamp farming (Oyo State), application of neem seed (Kaduna State), soil erosion control (Enugu State), rainwater harvesting (Taraba State), land improvement (Cross River State) to farmland management (Benue State). They all have simple but profound technologies driving these schemes with much success. These indigenous adaptation techniques are majorly constrained by inadequate financial resources. Indigenous technology adoption is affordable with high revenue potential.
Rural Farmers’ Approach to Drought Adaptation: Lessons from Crop Farmers in Ghana
Authors: Dumba Hillary , Danquah Jones Abrefa , Pappinen Ari
Published: May 2021

Sub-Saharan Africa is considered to be highly vulnerable to climate change-related disasters particularly drought. Farmers in Ghana have learnt to co-exist with it by resorting to various approaches. This study sheds light on farmers’ adaptation to drought in Ghana. The cross-sectional survey design was used to collect data from a random sample of 326 farmers and six purposively selected lead farmers from six farming communities. Questionnaire and in-depth interviews were used for data collection. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The study revealed a significant variation between locations and use of drought adaptation approaches. The study showed that the most common drought adaptation measures comprise locating farms on riverine areas, drought monitoring, formation of farm-based organizations for dissemination of climate information, application of agro-chemicals, changing planting dates, cultivating different crops, integrating crop and livestock production, changing the location of crops, diversifying from farm to non-farm income-generating activities, and cultivation of early maturing crops. Therefore, it was recommended, among other things, that Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) should assist the government to construct small-scale irrigation facilities and provide drought-resistant crops to further boost the capacity of farming communities in Ghana.
Agricultural Interventions to Enhance Climate Change Adaptation of Underutilized Root and Tuber Crops
Authors: Gweyi-Onyango Joseph P. , Sakha Michael Ajanja , Jefwa Joyce
Published: May 2021

Agricultural intensification worldwide is increasingly relying on a narrow range of crops such as rice, wheat, and maize. The reliability on this relatively small numbers of food diversities raises a very serious concern about the sustainability managing our nutrition today and in the future. We conducted a scoping review using online databases to identify various agricultural interventions that can be utilized for enhancement of underutilized root and tuber crops adaptability under the current observable effects of climate change. This is because reports of underutilized crops’ adaptability to climate change continues to remain anecdotal with limited research capacity to support them. The results mooted a wide range of crop production techniques that can be utilized in production of root and tuber crops. They includes biofertilizers, tied ridging method, improved seed varieties, management of community seed banks, cropping systems, irrigation methods, exploiting abandoned lands, agroforestry practice, clean seed production technologies, and nutrient use efficiency. Based on the findings, each of these interventions plays different roles in management of the negative impacts brought up by climate change and thus they would be useful when adopted in combination since package adoption would enable farmers to benefit from the positive synergy of the selected interventions. The interventions are therefore recommended not only for sustainability but also for profitable production to meet feed, food, energy, and fiber needs and foster economic growth in the ever changing world. Therefore this chapter contributes immensely towards the development of innovative mechanisms for strengthening the resilience of root and tuber crop.