bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stakeholder analysis for natural resource management in developing countries
Authors: Grimble Robin , Chan Man‐Kwun
Published: October 2009

The purpose of this paper is to share our ideas and experience of developing and applying stakeholder analysis to natural resource management, and to stimulate further development of its concepts and methodologies. Stakeholder analysis emerged in response to the perceived deficiency of conventional economic and social approaches for assessing and designing projects and policies. It is emphasized, however, that it is intended to complement rather than replace existing methods. The paper sets out the principles of stakeholder analysis (SA) and provides indicative guidelines for conducting SA in different situations. SA is an approach and procedure for gaining an understanding of a system by means of identifying the key actors or stakeholders in the system, and assessing their respective economic interests in that system. It is shown to have particular advantages for getting to the heart of many natural resource problems and for understanding the conflicts of interest and trade offs that may threaten the success of a project or policy. The paper discusses the origins of SA, the contexts of its application, how one goes about it, and quotes examples from northern Thailand.
Market‐based mechanisms for controlling global emissions of greenhouse gases
Authors: Neto Frederico
Published: October 2009

Increasing worldwide concern about global warming has led to intensified international efforts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The most important outcome of these efforts is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which came into force in March 1994. Although its signatories are expected to draw up plans to curb greenhouse gas emissions, the Convention does not specify how these emissions should be controlled. Since market‐based mechanisms for emissions control have been increasingly emphasized at both national and international levels, this paper discusses both their advantages over regulation and the main obstacles to their implementation. The ultimate aim of the paper is to propose possible baseline criteria for the formulation of a global tradable permit system to control carbon dioxide emissions.
A model of costs and resources for rural and peri‐urban water supply and sanitation in the 1990s
Authors: Nigam Ashok , Ghosh Gourisankar
Published: October 2009

This article develops a model of cost and financing strategies for rural and peri‐urban water supply and sanitation. It suggests that significant progress towards the World Summit for Children's goal of universal access to water supply and sanitation can be made if a combination of strategies is adopted. On the cost side, significant cost reductions should be possible through efficiency in resource use and reduction of system management costs. On the financing side, it suggests restructuring the financing of the sector with improved efficiency and greater cost recovery in urban services; full recovery of operation and maintenance costs; cost sharing through community contributions in kind such as local labour and financially in rural and peri‐urban water supply for basic levels of service depending on willingness and ability to pay and full cost recovery for higher levels of service; a high degree of cost recovery in rural and peri‐urban sanitation; development of institutional structures for both collection and management of revenues; development of alternate financing mechanisms such as rural credit schemes and revolving funds, adapted in specific country contexts, including the required institutional mechanisms; and additional allocations from governments and external support agencies. Additional government or external financing alone, while critical, will not of itself lead to effectiveness in the use of resources. Equally, cost recovery alone cannot lead to universal access and sustainable solutions. A composite set of actions is needed within which building capacities of institutions and people is necessary for sustainability.
Sustainable rural development in Sokoto State, Nigeria
Authors: Cridland Wendy , Adeniyi Peter , Bullock Ronald , Mitchell Bruce
Published: October 2009

In Nigeria, as in most countries, institutional barriers to successful rural development exist and need to be addressed. In Sokoto State, a variable and unpredictable Sahelian climate in combination with conditions of high population growth, low levels of income, and environmental degradation, create and intensify institutional challenges. This study examines the sustainability of government initiatives regarding the provision of agricultural inputs, assistance and extension services to farmers, and the extent to which agency efforts are coordinated and integrated, particularly regarding water management. In some cases, rural development agencies demonstrated the capability to meet the needs of the people. Some farmers were satisfied with government assistance and in some areas the tube well programme was quite successful. Yet in Sokoto State many institutional barriers to sustainable rural development exist and need to be addressed. In general, implementation strategies and management procedures appeared narrowly focused and placed little emphasis on coordination and integration among rural development agencies. The result was often inappropriate overlap or oversights in activities.
Privatizing the minerals sector
Authors: Zank Neal S
Published: October 2009

The end of the Cold War presents new challenges for the dynamics associated with mineral resources development. Broader approaches are needed to help mineral rich developing countries develop their minerals sector. These countries need to embark upon programmes of policy reform and privatization in order to make their mineral resources industries more efficient and responsive to free market forces (such as supply and demand and price), and to turn mineral sector decision making over to the private sector. This article examines the use of policy reform and privatization strategies to increase mineral resource production in developing countries, thereby contributing to both developing country economic growth and developed country access to mineral supplies.
Mining disasters caused and controlled by mankind: the case for coal mining and other minerals
Authors: Ramani Raja V
Published: October 2009

In Part I of this two‐part paper, the characteristics of mine disasters and their effects are presented with case studies from coal, metal and non‐metal mines leading to an amplification of their causes and opportunities for control. The disasters discussed encompass those which threaten the health and the safety of miners and those which affect the general population. In Part 2 of the paper, which will be published in the November 1995 issue ofNatural Resources Forum, the approaches to hazard and disaster control are reviewed with particular attention to laws and regulations to promote health and safety at the workplace, and general welfare in mining communities. Further, a systems approach to disaster control is outlined.
Mining disasters caused and controlled by mankind: The case for coal mining and other minerals
Authors: Ramani Raja V
Published: October 2009

In Part I of this paper, published in the August 1995 issue of Natural Resources Forum, a review of several mining disasters around the world established the complex nature of their causation and their catastrophic effects. The involvement of human beings, either through acts of commission or omission, was highlighted. In Part 2, a discussion of the various approaches to disaster control, mostly as practised in the USA, is presented. A systems approach to disaster prevention incorporating elements of hazard identification, mine design, emergency response and post‐emergency audit is presented.
Analysis of cooking energy in developing countries
Authors: Pokharel Shaligram , Chandrashekar Muthu
Published: October 2009

Cooking is the major energy end use in most developing countries. A general model to calculate energy‐use cost for cooking with 15 combinations of fuel and end use device based on prevailing market conditions is proposed by this paper. The model has been implemented to develop an independent computer software which ranks the combinations on the basis of least cost. The model reflects cooking energy consumption patterns in urban Nepal, where it was tested. The results suggest that biomass energy used in efficient stoves is the most attractive option for cooking in Nepal. Hence, a policy for effective use of biomass is necessary.
Environmental issues for developing countries arising from liberalized trade in the mining industry
Authors: Warhurst Alyson , Isnor Richard
Published: October 2009

This review analyses some of the environmental and economic implications of current trade policies and changes in the world trading system for mineral producers and consumers. A principal factor which determines environmental performance is whether firms have the resources and capabilities to undertake innovation. We therefore place particular emphasis on the anticipated effects of liberalized trade on innovation and competitiveness at the firm level. Evidence indicates that improvements in environmental management would be expected to occur irrespective of the country hosting the investment. Due to the opening investment climate and relatively large quantities of mineral reserves, we expect these effects to be positive for many mineral producing developing countries. One difficulty which may arise is whether policy measures to promote production efficiency and develop innovation in mining and mineral processing operations could be interpreted as protectionism. The creation of new lines of credit, to promote, but not subsidize, technological and organizational innovation, may be the best way forward for developing countries.
The investment climate for gold mining
Authors: Slater C Linda
Published: October 2009

This analysis compares the gold mining industry investment climate in the USA to the investment climate in Australia. These two major gold producing nation's industries share many similarities; in both the USA and Australia, there is evidence of a maturing gold mining industry. Each country has experienced a dramatic increase in gold production and, more recently, greater mining of refractory ore and development of more underground operations. In the 1980s both nations experienced a pronounced rationalization trend that consolidated some gold producing operations and eliminated others. Each country commands a disproportionately large share of exploration expenditures. Land access, a major concern in the USA, has also become a critical issue in Australia as well. For all their similarities, however, the two countries have differences that are significant enough to influence mining company investment decisions. This paper explores those differences and how they may affect the future course of these nations' gold mining industries. Both effective government policy making and corporate strategic planning will occupy a major role in the future course of the two nations' gold mining industries.
Artisanal mining: an economic stepping stone for women
Authors: Labonne Béatrice
Published: October 2009

Artisanal mining is about reaping the riches of the earth to make a living. Artisanal mining is the informal, and more primitive type of small‐scale mining. It is usually characterized by individuals or groups who very inefficiently exploit superficial mineral deposits, often illegally and with simple equipment. Artisanal mining is also about women who take employment which involves dangerous working conditions and seldom leads to economic security. Artisanal mining is, furthermore, about women venturing into new and challenging territories and subsequently changing their role. This article on women and artisanal mining is a vignette that underscores all the obstacles to women's fulfilment. These critical and cross‐sectoral obstacles are, to cite a few, economic exclusion, discrimination in terms of access to land and natural resources, the increasing feminization of poverty and the lack of recognition of women's valuable work. Two‐pronged action is recommended: to give women themselves hope and recognition for their isolated efforts, and that their endeavours are acknowledged breakthroughs; and to reshape the environment, which is oppressing these women, to create a new one.
Planning for change and sustainability in water development in Lao PDR and the Mekong River basin
Authors: Jacobs Jeffrey W
Published: October 2009

With its recent opening to the global market economy, the natural resources of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR, referred to in this paper as Laos) – especially its water resources–have attracted external interest and investment. The overall level of water development is low. While even modest development would help Laos meet some of its urgent needs, past experience in Southeast Asia and other tropical regions suggests that fast‐paced water development may damage the natural resource base. This article examines some efforts in water development from Southeast Asia and other regions and their relevance to water policy formulation in Laos. Future social and environmental changes in Laos are inevitable, but the nature and direction of these changes are uncertain. It thus makes sense to design policies that are flexible and can be adjusted to, and even take advantage of, a changing social and environmental context. Smaller‐scale, deliberately‐paced projects which merge local knowledge and external expertise fulfil the requirements of flexibility and adjustability, and are also appropriate for other important reasons: they do not require massive inputs of funding, and they do not initiate large‐scale environmental and socio‐economic changes. Current knowledge of the complex ecological and social systems in Laos is only sketchy. A slower‐paced development will allow developers the necessary time to learn more about these important aspects.
Sustainable energy development in rural Asia
Authors: Mak Kui‐Nang , Shearer Walter
Published: October 2009

In considering the prospects for sustainable energy, most studies have focused on developments in the urban and industrial areas. However, in Asia where the bulk of the population continues to live in rural areas, it is essential to monitor the changes occurring in the countryside. Therefore, this paper examines the developments taking place in rural energy in Asia in general and focuses specifically on the situation in China. It is observed that a total reorganization of the energy picture is occurring in rural China with regard to both conventional and non‐conventional energy, as a result of the huge market for power and fuel created by rapid economic growth. This has led to new distribution networks for electricity (with the Chinese Government following the example of the US Rural Electrification Administration), fossil fuels and renewable energy systems. The growing affluence of the population coupled with rapid industrialization is producing far‐reaching changes in the transportation structure as well as in the household energy structure. The situation in China is seen to be comparable to that in other East and Southeast Asian countries, particularly those which combine a rapidly growing industrial sector with a large rural population engaged in agriculture, such as the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia.
Implications of environmental degradation in Nigeria
Authors: Akinbami J‐F K , Akinwumi I O , Salami A T
Published: October 2009

The environment can be broadly classified into two areas: physical and cultural. The interaction between these two categories have far reaching implications for both. Their interaction is already exerting a negative influence, in various ways, on man and on ecosystems. An urgent and enduring solution is therefore called for to ensure the survival of both man and ecosystems. This paper looks at three major environmental problems in Nigeria — gas flaring, soil erosion and solid waste. It analyses their causes, and socio‐economic and socio‐cultural implications for the country. In conclusion, a strategy of action is proposed to combat these problems and alleviate their pressure on the nation.
Alternatives for private participation in the provision of water services
Authors: Lee Terence R
Published: October 2009

Recent years have seen a region‐wide movement throughout Latin America and the Caribbean toward wider private participation in the provision of infrastructure, as well as in other public services. This paper discusses the possible benefits from the privatization of water services and illustrates the range of alternatives available for private participation in their provision. These alternatives are analyzed and their possible application in Latin America and the Caribbean is assessed on the basis of examples from the region and other parts of the world. However, the paper does not discuss, in any detail, the theoretical justifications for the movement back to a market system in the provision of public services.
Comparing theoretical and actual feasibility of transferring management of river lift irrigation systems in Sudan
Authors: Narayanamurthy S. G. , Samad M. , III Sam H. Johnson
Published: October 2009

This article focuses on agricultural production in lift irrigation schemes along the White Nile in the Sudan. A comparison is drawn between the theoretical forecast and actual practical experience regarding the feasibility of transferring management from government‐run parastatal organizations to private farmer organizations. Although the theoretical model indicates that farmers should be able to cover the cost of managing the river lift irrigation systems, field data show, however, that farmers growing wheat are barely able to break even. Even assuming a doubling of the present wheat yields, the cash surplus earned would only suffice for fuel to operate the pumps. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that, contrary to government expectations, the private sector has been unenthusiastic about taking over management of White Nile river lift schemes. The lessons that emerge from this study indicate that unplanned and rapid withdrawal of state management can lead to negative results. The transfer of management responsibility for the river pumps does not appear to influence economic performance considerably, which depends on the wider context of the country's economic, political and institutional environment, within which the agricultural sector functions.
Reducing conflict over the Danube waters: equitable utilization and sustainable development
Authors: Margesson Rhoda
Published: October 2009

This paper develops the idea that the principle of equitable utilization must be applied in concert with sustainable water use not only in the resolution of specific disputes but in the cooperative management of water resources in general. It illustrates this point with two different cases involving the use of the Danube River. The first is the conflict over the Gabcikovo Nagymaros Dam, which now rests before the International Court of Justice. The author argues that a narrow legal ruling that fails to take into account broader issues of equitable utilization as they relate to sustainable development will not satisfactorily address the long‐term questions at stake between the parties. The second involves the situation in the Danube Delta where the potential for conflict exists, but may be minimized through the convention and institutional framework developed to address the environmental degradation and pollution of the Danube River basin, which is based in part on the principle of equitable utilization and the goal of achieving more sustainable water use. The paper provides a brief overview of the geographical features of the Danube River and international water law. It then explores the principle of equitable utilization and sustainable water use in light of the two cases and discusses the implications for the resolution and management of conflicts involving internationally shared water courses.
Why institutional reforms in forestry? Lessons from international experience
Authors: D'Silva Emmanuel
Published: October 2009

Profound changes have taken place, worldwide, during the last decade. These political, economic, and institutional changes have contributed to redefine the role of the state in all sectors, including natural resources. This article discusses traditional shortcomings of forest departments and new challenges they face arising from the changes in national policies and global concerns. Worldwide trends, such as civil service reforms, decentralization of government, increased local community involvement in resource management, and divestiture of state‐owned enterprises impact the forestry sector, already faced with shrinking forest areas, decreased revenues, and government downsizing. To survive, forest departments need to form strategic partnerships with other stakeholders, get out of forest activities where they do not have a comparative advantage, and focus on core functions that governments do best. Examples are given from countries in Asia and the Pacific. Two country case studies are presented discussing Nepal's experience with Forest User Groups and New Zealand's experience with privatization of forestry.
Codifying the minimum standards of the law of international watercourses: remarks on part one and a half
Authors: Tanzi Attila
Published: October 2009

This article discusses the attempts by the Working Group of the UN General Assembly's 6th Committee, which held its first session from 7 to 25 October 1996, to elaborate a framework convention on the Law of the Non‐navigational Uses of International Watercourses. The Convention is based on the 1994 draft articles by the International Law Commission, and is intended to have a residual character. As such it will apply to States parties in the absence of specific watercourse agreements, and serve as a guideline. However, the persistence of a fragmented defence of short‐term national self‐interest on the part of many delegations prevented the finalization of a universal legal instrument in the first round of the negotiations. The major stumbling blocks relate to the natural adversarity between “upstream” and “downstream” riparians. Deep seated conflicts of interest were particularly prominent in discussions of concepts such as the “equitable utilization principle” vis‐à‐vis the “no‐harm rule” (art. 7), the concept of “optimal utilization” (art. 5); the determination of when a particular use is “equitable and reasonable” (art. 6); constraints on the freedom of exploitation of natural resources (art. 7); and the obligation to notify co‐riparians of planned measures which may have adverse effects upon other watercourse states (arts. 11–19). Despite many obstacles, the Working Group made considerable progress in identifying language that would balance respective interests in the Convention. It is hoped that agreement may be reached on the final text during the next session, scheduled for 24 March–4 April 1997 While the present article traces the deliberations at the UN in October 1996, and some of the main conflicts, a separate article by Maurizio Arcari in the forthcoming August 1997 issue of Natural Resources Forum will discuss the draft articles submitted by the International Law Commission.
Integrated water management for the Rhine river basin, from pollution prevention to ecosystem improvement
Authors: Wieriks Koos , Schulte‐Wülwer‐Leidig Anne
Published: October 2009

The river Rhine has been in humanity's use for many centuries for a variety of activities. However, in our time, considerable changes in the course and the natural conditions of the river and the increasing use of the river for the discharge of wastewater has caused serious floods and major ecological problems. Since 1950, the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) acts as the coordination point between the states bordering the Rhine for the development of programmes for river protection. The Sandoz disaster in 1986 was a turning point in the approach of the ICPR and the starting point for the present strategy of integrated riverbasin management. Recent developments have indicated the success of the current approach.
Energy and environmental issues in Vietnam
Authors: Tuan Nguyen Anh
Published: October 2009

This paper discusses the pattern of commercial and traditional energy use in Vietnam and its evolution. It presents the trend of energy‐related emissions of CO2, SO2 and NOx during the past decade with a methodology given in an Appendix. Recent developments of environmental policies and institutions in Vietnam are also discussed.
Particulate and lead air pollution control in Cairo: benefits valuation and cost‐effective control strategies
Authors: Raufer Roger K.
Published: October 2009

Recent research has suggested that health damage from air pollution—most notably from inhalable particulate matter and lead—is a serious concern in many cities in developing countries. A comparative risk assessment conducted in Cairo in 1994 found these two pollutants to be especially worrisome, and an analysis of the potential economic benefits associated with controlling these pollutants suggests that their economic damage is significant. Control strategies to reduce ambient pollutant levels are under development, with point source controls on major industrial facilities—especially in the secondary lead smelling industry—a cost‐effective initial step.
Mining during the next 25 years: issues and challenges
Authors: Crowson Phillip
Published: October 2009

This article examines possible future trends in the mining industry in the light of past developments. After a preliminary discussion, the article considers various aspects of demand, supply, corporate structures, geographic distribution of investment, and social and environmental factors influencing the minerals industry. Scepticism is expressed about the smooth, exponential growth envisaged by many commentators. Some risks are elaborated, and a digression about gold is included.

The article argues that, while the minerals industry has concentrated on reducing cash costs through technical innovation and productivity improvement, new approaches may be needed in future that are not directly linked to economies of scale. Contracting out is an interesting trend with major implications.

The view that the mineral industry's corporate structure is becoming increasingly concentrated is challenged. Developments in consumer countries as well as historical precedents strongly suggest a more diverse structure.

The spread of minerals investment from North America and Australasia, and the resurgence of foreign direct investment in minerals projects, are placed in context and discussed from the viewpoints of both companies and host countries.

Although the appropriate responses to many of these issues can only properly be made by governments at all levels, the industry has to play its part.
The sustainable intensification of agriculture
Authors: Pretty Jules N.
Published: October 2009

Agricultural development is currently facing unprecedented challenges. With 800 million people already having insufficient access to food, population growth estimates project an even bleaker situation in the future. The article summarizes the major schools of thought regarding how to face the dilemma, and advocates sustainable intensification of agriculture, relying on integrated use of a wide range of technologies to manage pests, nutrients, soil and water. Local knowledge and adaptive methods are stressed rather than comprehensive packages of externally‐supplied technologies. The article shows how regenerative, low‐input agriculture, founded on full farmer participation in all stages of development and extension, can be highly productive. It is stressed that policy must not prescribe specific, concretely defined technologies or practices, as this would restrict future farmer options. Farmers and communities should be allowed and encouraged to adapt to changing conditions; what needs to be sustainable are local processes of innovation and adaptation.

The article highlights environmental and economic benefits resulting from sustainable intensification practices, for farmers as well as communities and nations with examples are taken from Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Despite the increasing success of sustainable agriculture, it is clear that the challenge remains to ‘scale up’ the process from small ‘islands of success’ to fundamental reform of both policies and policy formulation processes.
Towards water security: political determination and human adaptation crucial
Authors: Falkenmark Malin , Lundqvist Jan
Published: October 2009

Although high‐level attention has been drawn to the escalating world water problems, few changes are noticeable in terms of actual management of the water resource. Politicians continue to be misled by the apparent simplicity of water. The environment‐oriented community tends to focus only on problems arising from man‐induced side‐effects, and most people tend to take water for granted. The double challenge of providing adequate water supplies and meeting increasing food requirements of expanding populations, in addition to already existing water management problems, requires special attention. In addition, the intensifying pollution of water systems will have to be dealt with. Considerable human adaptation to physical realities as well as ingenious action are needed.

There is a brief discussion of the risk of hydrocide, a condition of serious water‐quality degradation where available water is no longer sufficient, or cannot be used for the purposes needed. However, the main focus of the paper is on water quantity issues, highlighting the confusion arising from different methods of assessing water scarcity. Levels of regional water scarcity predicaments are discussed in terms of distinct regional clusters. Attention is drawn to the limitations of dry climate regions to achieve food self sufficiency, and the emerging need in many areas to import food; related trade and price aspects are also discussed. A distinction is made between efficiency of use and efficiency of allocation.

The need for a global ethic regarding upstream–downstream water‐sharing is stressed, especially in cases of consumptive (evaporative) use of water for cultivating crops, which may deplete river flows available to downstream users. In conclusion, four key concerns are highlighted that call for global consensus.
Support services for lift irrigation in Bangladesh
Authors: Johnson III S. H. , Bashar M. A. , Miah M. T. H. , Parker D. E.
Published: October 2009

The impacts of changing support systems for lift irrigation in Bangladesh from the public to the private sector are examined. Data are presented from an extensive study undertaken by IIMI and the Bangladesh Agricultural University. The results of the study clearly demonstrate that farmers, small dealers and input sellers all feel that transfer to the private sector has improved the quality of support services. As a result of the privatization of support services, more fuel is available, it is closer to the farms and there is less adulteration. A similar case holds for agricultural chemicals. In addition to improving the situation for small farmers, privatization has created thousands of jobs for small traders and repair shops. Data are presented that document the improvements in services and the expansion of small traders. The one issue that still must be solved is the future of deep tubewells, as the article documents that they are not economically vaiable without Government subsidies.
Making private capital flows to developing countries environmentally sustainable: the policy challenge
Authors: French Hilary
Published: October 2009

The 1990s have seen a dramatic shift in capital flows into the developing world. Despite pledges made at the 1992 UNCED Conference in Rio de Janeiro, official development aid has declined in real terms. At the same time, private direct investment and lending to developing countries has risen from $44 billion at the beginning of this decade to $256 billion in 1997, supporting a record economic boom in the developing world. Developing countries have become significant sources of capital, as well as hosts to transnational corporations.

Cases illustrating the negative impacts of large investments under environmentally lax conditions are contrasted with the rise of environmental screening of funds by commercial entities, such as banks, insurance companies and investors. Although the new inflows of foreign capital may have brought the spread of Western consumerism, this new economic potential has also contributed cutting‐edge environmental technologies, that may assist developing countries leapfrog over the most damaging phases of industrialization.

The article discusses the role of public lending agencies, international organizations and NGOs in setting the investment climate that determines the effects of foreign capital on the natural resources base, communities and the environment. Various mechanisms for defining environmental standards are discussed, and a more active role for governments and the United Nations is advocated.
Regulation and private participation in the water and sanitation sector
Authors: Rees Judith A.
Published: October 2009

Private‐sector participation is widely perceived to be the solution to the failure of many publicly owned and managed water utilities to operate efficiently and make the investments required to meet community needs. However, there are no guarantees that privatisation will actually yield the desired performance improvements. Simply converting a public‐sector monopoly into a private one provides no competitive incentives for the utility to operate efficiently, make appropriate investments or respond to consumer demands. Likewise, privatisation per se need do little to improve sector performance if governments are unwilling or unable to tackle such underlying problems as overmanning, uneconomic water pricing policies, financing the provision of public and merit goods, and restricting over‐intrusive political intervention.

Given the characteristics of the water and sanitation sector it is inevitable that some form of continued public regulation of the private companies will be necessary. The regulatory burden can be reduced by adopting a competitive form of privatisation, choosing a more competitive sector structure and devising an appropriate regulatory regime. However, it has to be recognised that there will be a trade‐off between making a venture attractive to private firms and introducing a notionally ‘ideal’ regulatory system. Regulation, in practice, is as much about creating the conditions under which private firms can operate effectively and efficiently as it is about protecting specific customer and public interests.
Environmental and community issues and the mining industry
Authors: Crowson Phillip
Published: October 2009

Much has been said and written in recent years about the greatly increased difficulties faced by the mining industry in meeting the expectations of local communities and in adequately protecting the natural environment. The impression is often given that the industry was completely oblivious of such concerns and needs until the present decade, and that it is now struggling to make up for past neglect. Certainly the standards required by society as a whole have risen, and there is more public discussion than in earlier times, but the managements of many major mining companies have long been fully aware of their obligations to the environment and local communities. To argue otherwise would be to misread the history of the industry and to perform a grave disservice to many dedicated managers of the mining projects of former years.
Innovative models of power generation: the captive‐collective experience of consumer participation in power development in India
Authors: Sankar T. L.
Published: October 2009

While the need for power increases, and costs of generation are on the rise, developing nations face the particular challenge of developing power systems despite a lack of national and local government funds. In this paper, it is suggested that consumer participation, technical innovation, and managerial flexibility may provide the answers, and the Andhra Pradesh Gas Power Corporation Limited in India is offered as a model venture which successfully responds to the region's power and resource specifications. Through the formation of a ‘captive‐collective’ and ‘capital‐cooperative’ plant, a joint venture of the Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Board and some bulk industrial consumers, the respective needs of all parties were met with great success. Such large‐scale power projects, set up and managed by consumers with the technical assistance of State Electricity Boards, can substantially reduce costs for consumers while engaging in technologies that reduce environmental pollution and resource degradation. Consumer participation is highlighted as the key element for positive power development, and it is argued that the success of projects such as the one undertaken in Andhra Pradesh illustrate the possibility and necessity for consumer‐initiated and consumer‐managed power ventures.
Restructuring the arrangements between government and state enterprises in the oil and mining sectors
Authors: Aharoni Yair , Ascher William
Published: October 2009

The article analyses the relationship between governments and state‐owned enterprises (SOEs) in the oil and minerals sectors. The case is made that SOEs in these sectors have distinct peculiarities of behaviour, and are beset with specific difficulties in addition to typical problems common to SOEs in all sectors. The reasons for the uniqueness of SOEs in the oil and minerals sector stem mainly from their large size, their capacity to earn and borrow foreign currency, their strategic importance and other factors.

The key to understanding and reforming state oil and mining enterprises lies in recognizing that their sub‐optimal behaviour is often caused by conflicts within government regarding control of the SOE's financial flows, including the natural resource rent. These conflicts are frequently aggravated by the inappropriateness of fiscal arrangements between these SOEs and their governments. Guidelines for reforming these arrangements are offered, which, in some respects, differ considerably from those applicable to conventional state‐owned enterprises outside the natural resources sector.
Property rights regimes and the management of resources
Authors: Bac Mehmet
Published: October 2009

The property rights regime is an important link between the yield of a natural resource and the appropriation and maintenance incentives of its users. This paper discusses the theoretical background for this link and provides insights as to the function of the property rights regime, drawing from recent developments in the economics literature on optimal ownership patterns and the theory of repeated games. The performances of different resource ownership patterns are evaluated using the criterion of economic efficiency. The economic theory of property rights is based on the idea that, because contractual arrangements are bound to be incomplete, there is scope for opportunistic behaviour and therefore the resulting resource management is likely to be inefficient. Optimal resource ownership patterns are viewed as solutions to the problem of structuring private users' incentives in accordance with the socially desirable management of resources.
Criteria for equitable allocations: the heart of international water conflict
Authors: Wolf Aaron T.
Published: October 2009

At the heart of most international water conflicts is the question of ‘equitable’ allocations, criteria for which are vague and often contradictory. However, application of an equitable water‐sharing agreement along the volatile waterways of the globe is a prerequisite to hydropolitical stability. This article explores the question of equity measures for water‐sharing agreements in the context of global hydropolitics and is divided into three parts. The Introduction provides a brief summary of the general principles of equitable allocations. The second part of the paper describes the practice of water resources allocations as exemplified in the Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database ‐ a computerized database of 149 treaties relating to international water resources compiled at Oregon State University; 49 of these treaties delineate specific water allocations. The third and fourth parts of the article contrast the principles and practice of water equity. It is noticeable how rarely the general principles are explicitly invoked, particularly the extreme principles of absolute sovereignty or absolute riverain integrity. Most treaties favor existing uses, and/or guarantees to downstream riparians. It is interesting that, while many international water negotiations begin with differing legal interpretations of rights, they often shift to a needs‐based criteria for water allocations. Mostly, one is struck by the creativity of the negotiators in addressing specific language to each very specific local setting and concerns.
Harnessing the bonanza: economic liberalization and capacity building in the mineral sector
Authors: Bridge Gavin
Published: October 2009

Over the past decade many developing and transition economies have liberalized their investment regimes for mining and privatized formerly state‐owned mineral assets. In response, these economies have witnessed increased foreign investment in exploration and development, growth in the number and diversity of mineral projects, and the opening up of new channels for harnessing increased economic and social benefits from development in the minerals sector. The restructuring of fiscal and regulatory regimes to encourage foreign investment, and the associated influx of mining capital, technology and skills, is transforming traditional relationships between mining firms, local communities and the government. This transformation necessitates a re‐evaluation of the most effective policy approaches to capture increased economic and social benefits from mineral production. This article considers effective mechanisms for improving the capacity of developing and transition countries to maximize the economic and social benefits of mineral production. Common challenges associated with minerals economies are reviewed. Consideration is given to the opportunities for harnessing foreign direct investment and the possibilities for creating new partnerships between local communities, industry, government, and multilateral development agencies through social investment projects. The article concludes with a series of recommendations for the design and implementation of policy approaches towards harnessing mineral production for economic and social benefit following the liberalization of investment regimes for mining.
Water resources issues of small island developing states
Authors: Falkland Tony
Published: October 2009

The water resources of most small island developing states (SIDS) are often very limited and require special consideration to ensure that they are developed and managed in a sustainable manner. Many small islands, typically located in the humid tropics, have no surface water resources and rely on limited groundwater resources in the form of thin freshwater lenses. The exposed location of small islands makes them particularly vulnerable to natural disasters such as cyclones, floods and droughts. Pollution from population centres and from agricultural and other activities is an increasing problem. This article provides an overview of the water resources of small islands, and the main problems and issues related to water resources. Some suggested solutions, based on practical experiences, are offered for water resource assessment and monitoring programmes, and water resource development. Water resource policy, planning and management issues are also addressed, and suggested approaches for resolving some of the major water resource problems presented.
The vulnerability and resilience of small island developing states in the context of globalization
Authors: Encontre Pierre
Published: October 2009

In spite of the wide diversity in the economic performance of small island developing states (SIDS), the apparent prosperity of several SIDS has entailed a global misrepresentation of the economic situation of these countries. While their vulnerability to natural disasters is not denied, the general risk of economic marginalization that many SIDS face in the context of globalization may not have received sufficient attention. The paper attempts to highlight what matters most in the consideration of the economic vulnerability of SIDS and in the debate to prevent their marginalization. It examines the main types of external shocks to which SIDS are vulnerable, and discusses the economic handicaps that are fundamental causes of this vulnerability. Economic specialization (with the predominance of international trade in services) is then a central notion in the analysis of island vulnerability: a better specialization, which may involve diversification and always implies greater international competitiveness, can reduce the exposure or vulnerability of SIDS to external shocks, and induce greater economic stability in these countries. Hence the importance of developing policies to circumvent the specific handicaps of islands and facilitate the realization of new trading opportunities through an emulative use of globalization forces.
Groundwater management and socio‐economic responses
Authors: Burke Jacob J. , Sauveplane Claude , Moench Marcus
Published: October 2009

The socio‐economic aspects of groundwater development and management are briefly examined and set against a background of highly technical management. The variability of socio‐economic responses to groundwater and the problems of engaging large numbers of individual users are highlighted. The paper argues that social, institutional and political factors are the primary obstacles to sustainable management of the world's groundwater resources.
The mining industry and the community: joining forces for sustainable social development
Authors: Labonne Béatrice
Published: October 2009

This article joins the continuing policy debate over the social responsibility of corporations, particularly in the mining industry. The author argues that the ‘old school mining orthodoxy’—approaching the exploitation of mineral deposits solely from the technical and economic points of view—is long dead. Mining companies must also encompass the social dimension.

New policies for the mining industry are discussed in terms of recent worldwide trends and movements, e.g. globalization, economic interdependence and decentralization of governmental authority, and the rise of civil society as a political factor. These trends, together with the United Nations policies in quest of sustainable development and the consensus expressed at international conferences during the last decade, have deepened social awareness and set the stage for enhanced social responsiveness from the private sector. Socially responsible corporate policies include decentralization of decision‐making to the field level, reaching out to stakeholders and shareholders, supporting governments which provide official development assistance for good governance and building broad partnerships to reduce social exposures.