bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Requirements and Policies for Managing Villages in Tehran Metropolitan Area
Authors: Khorasani Mohammadamin
Published: September 2018

Due to the spatial proximity to and spatial-physical dependence on cities, the villages of the cities have many facilities, constraints, opportunities and challenges that are not so extreme in other villages. The main objective of this research is to identify the features of villages located in the metropolitan areas of Iran and provide strategies for managing the problems and challenges of these villages, with emphasis on the villages of Tehran Metropolitan Area. The most important policy recommendations presented in this study are: considering an efficient public transportation system for servicing these villages; a strategic look of the municipality's collection on the issue of employment of people in the city villages which are increasingly migrating into Tehran to provide their livelihoods; the issue of green space in the metropolitan villages and their perspective, which is directly available to the villagers, but the municipality of Tehran can take steps in order to improve the indices related to green space and rural landscape in city areas by adopting due measures; Development of an intermediate facility in Tehran with the aim of preventing the city from spreading to the surrounding area and the villages therein; and finally, regionalism's strategy as the most reasonable, operational and efficient management strategy for investigating and managing the challenges of Tehran metropolitan area villages.
Microbial contamination in smoked tuna at traditional market of Tobelo, North Halmahera, Indonesia
Authors: Akerina Febrina Olivia
Published: September 2018

Smoked tuna is one of traditional fisheries product in Tobelo, North Halmahera. Tobelos people like this product because of its smoke taste. In Tobelo, there are many producer who sell this product, but information about its quality was unknown. In this research, the researcher wants to know about microbiology aspect of smoked tuna from three traditional market in Tobelo. The result of this research showed that Total Plate Count (TPC) value was from 7,5x1015,35x102 APM/g; smoked tuna from modern Market showed the highest Staphulococcus sp. colony at 1,3x103 CFU/g. colony of Salmonella sp. showed negative value for three different market. The highest fungy colony was 2,5x101 CFU/g from Gotong royong Market, for Escherichia coli analysis, smoked tuna from Gotong Royong Market showed high value at 23 CFU/g, it was exceed Indonesia National Standard.
Strategi Adaptasi: Kisah Desa Kawa dan Desa Morodemak dalam Menghadapi Perubahan Populasi dan Ekologi
Authors: Muttaqien Widhyanto
Published: September 2018

Population growth in coastal areas, especially as a result of migration, has put pressure on the environment, both the built environment and the community management environment in implementing sustainable livelihood strategies. This paper wishes to explain two models of community adaptation in two distinct areas, namely Morodemak Village on the north coast of Central Java, which began to recede in the management of common resources, and Kawa Village in Seram Barat coast, which is still strong in maintaining the tradition of coastal and terrestrial territorial management as a common resource. The research methodology used in this research is qualitative approach, with semi structured interview and focus group discussion. From the results of the study, it was revealed that people were able to reshape their resources based on ecological and social changes, as their adaptation strategy in sustaining sustainable livelihoods.
Estado del arte relativo al conocimiento tradicional de los hongos silvestres en el estado de Tlaxcala, México
Authors: Caamal-Caamal Laura Guideony , Montoya Adriana , Trejo-Hernández Laura , Castillo- Guevara Citlalli
Published: September 2018

El objetivo de este artículo es resumir la información existente a la fecha, sobre el conocimiento tradicional y uso de los hongos silvestres en varias comunidades de Tlaxcala, México. Hay registros de la importancia cultural, alimentaria, medicinal, económica, y sobre la problemática que presentan los hongos tóxicos en algunas de estas comunidades, así como, de los beneficios que se obtienen por la venta de este recurso fúngico. La comercialización se ha destacado como una actividad que complementa el ingreso familiar, por lo que es considerada importante, al menos en algunas localidades. En estudios recientes se ha mostrado que tradicionalmente el uso de los hongos se preserva y está en proceso de cambio, se sugiere que el proceso de recolección se realiza de manera sostenible.
Relación de la jerarquía de dominancia y abundancia en la estructura de la red de interacción planta-hormiga
Authors: Juárez-Juárez Brenda , Cuautle Mariana , Valenzuela-González Jorge E. , Castillo-Guevara Citlalli
Published: September 2018

Las hormigas al igual que otros organismos presentan una jerarquía de dominancia en donde cada individuo establece un rango que determina su acceso a los recursos. En las interacciones planta-hormiga, las especies de hormigas competitivamente superiores y territoriales pueden limitar el acceso al recurso a las especies sumisas. Algunos estudios mencionan que la abundancia contribuye a la organización de estas complejas redes de interacción. Sin embargo, se considera que la abundancia fuera de la red ecológica sólo explica parcialmente la probabilidad de que las especies de hormigas encuentren su recurso alimenticio. A pesar de la importancia de la competencia dentro de la estructura de la red de interacción planta-hormiga, se han hecho pocos estudios en cuanto al comportamiento de jerarquía de dominancia, lo cual nos podría ayudar a entender la complejidad estructural de la comunidad de hormigas en los diferentes tipos de ecosistemas. En este artículo haremos una breve revisión de como el comportamiento jerárquico de las hormigas y su abundancia pueden determinar la estructura de la red de interacción planta-hormiga.
Contribuições da estética à ação pedagógica na EJA: ressonâncias formativas na escola e na universidade
Authors: Haas Clarissa , Storck Karine
Published: September 2018

O estudo analisa a ação pedagógica na Educação de Jovens e Adultos (EJA) sob a ótica de seus demandantes e de estudantes universitários em formação para a docência. Por meio de pesquisa participante e com foco nas contribuições da estética e de suas relações com o campo da ética, a articulação entre os saberes da universidade e da escola possibilitou a reflexão sobre desafios atuais enfrentados na EJA: a infrequência, a evasão escolar e a juvenilização de seu público. Além disso, tal articulação propôs o olhar à diversidade e aos cotidianos como elemento enriquecedor da ação pedagógica.
Políticas de Educação Infantil: conquistas, embates e desafios na construção de uma Pedagogia da Infância
Authors: Carvalho Rodrigo Saballa de , Guizzo Bianca Salazar
Published: September 2018

A partir do campo das Políticas de Educação Infantil, o artigo tem como objetivo problematizar os modos de legislar a Educação Infantil no Brasil. Metodologicamente, é traçado um panorama das políticas de Educação Infantil com base na análise de documentos produzidos após a Constituição Federal de 1988. São destacados as conquistas, os embates e os desafios que têm sido enfrentados no campo da Educação Infantil. Conclui-se que os modos de educar as crianças têm constituído uma arena de disputas produzida em um sistema de relações de poder, no qual direitos sociais conquistados precisam ser reafirmados para que não sejam perdidos.Palavras-chave: Educação Infantil. Políticas Educacionais. Pedagogia da Infância.
Persistent Food Insecurity from Policy Failures in Pakistan
Authors: Zakir Hussain  , Waqar Akram
Published: September 2018

Food security means, “All the people, all the time, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preference for an active and healthy life” [FAO (1996)]. Three types of food insecurity generally exist in any country, which are: transitory food insecurity that is short time food insecurity occurs due to sporadic crises; chronic food insecurity that arises as a result of long term but not easily changed conditions; cyclic food insecurity that arises due to seasonal fluctuations. If cyclic food insecurity existed in any country for at least six months than it was called as chronic cyclic food insecurity and if it persisted less than six months than called as transitory cyclic food insecurity. Pakistan has made a lot of progress since independence in the field of agriculture in terms of production, yields, and growth in area under cultivation. Indus agriculture has experienced a Green Revolution and is striving for yellow and blue revolutions. However, it could have done far better. Though the overall growth of the Pakistan’s economy has largely been dependent upon the performance of agriculture, over the years, not much investment has been made for the development of this sector. Agriculture performance still depends upon, quite a lot, upon the weather conditions every year. The yields of most of crops are far below the levels achieved at the progressive farms (extension gap). From the Figure 1 it is evident that in the last decade (90s) food availability was increasing and then went down and formed the inverted u-shape. After that again fluctuating means there is no surety about food security. It is also comparable with agriculture growth rate. According to latest statistics in Pakistan as many as 50 million people are engaged in agriculture operations and produce only 25 million tons of food grains. As against this in India, 546 million people are engaged in agricultural operations and produce 176 million tons of food grains, in USA only 6 million people engaged in agriculture, produce 347 million of food grains.
Inter-city Variation in Prices
Authors: Sophia Ahmad  , Ahmed Gulzar
Published: September 2018

This research has been motivated by the fact that inter-city variation in prices and hence cost of living has implications for many aspects of development and public policy. This is true for all countries and especially for developing countries like Pakistan where one would expect differences in cost of living to be more pronounced (ceterus paribus) due to a relatively underdeveloped transport network and a lack of development of a national common market. A better understanding of the inter-city variation in prices indicates the extent to which markets within countries are integrated. A monitoring of the inter-city price index over time indicates whether the economy as a whole has become more or less integrated over time i.e. has there has been convergence or divergence within the local economy (which has also been one of the objectives of this research). Secondly, a quantification of inter-city variation in cost of living is essential to understand differentials in real incomes across the country. Such an understanding will yield fairer minimum wage legislation by the government and also wage remuneration packages by employers in both the public and private sectors operating in multiple cities thus leading to better equalisation of real wages across locations. As noted by Haworth and Rasmussen (1973) the pursuit of a uniform wage policy by the U.S. Post Office in the 1970s led to greater wage dissatisfaction among workers and labor strikes in areas where cost of living was relatively higher. Thirdly, allowing for cost of living differentials among cities will lead to better estimates of urban inequality and incidence of poverty. In this context it is particularly important to see if differences in cost of living mitigate or accentuate the difference in the magnitude of poverty between richer and poor jurisdictions. The estimation of cost of living differentials will also lead to much greater understanding of migration patterns within countries and the functioning of regional and interregional markets across the country which are directly related to cost of living, and real wages/incomes. For example, if the same minimum wage legislation is applicable to the whole country, it will lead to migration to those cities where cost of living is relative low and hence the real value of the minimum wages is high (ceterus paribus). This illustrates the important implications that uniform minimum wage legislation and welfare packages across the country have for migration patterns when cost of living differentials are significant.
Is There Any Role of Technological Inputs? A District-wise Analysis of Output Differential in Crop Sector
Authors: Abdul Jalil Khan
Published: September 2018

The idea of inclusive growth has emerged over time that highlighted systematically excluded segments of society from enjoying the benefits of growth on the basis of religion, ethnicity or location. In Pakistan, districts-wise allocation and usage of technological inputs is the outcome of growth and the important contributing elements as well to enhance specifically crop sector output under the advancement in growth prospective. It is reported that crop sector output contributes around 40 percent of the total agricultural GDP,1 where 2/3rd belongs to Punjab.2 The introduction of advance technological inputs provides an opportunity to enhance production potentials of crop sector in different provinces and their respective districts because Pakistan is also facing the problem of low agricultural productivity in comparison to many developed and developing countries of the world.3 Secondly, the expansion of opportunities to enhance economic freedom in long run has been considered an important issue that needs to be addressed in inclusive growth process. Hence, understanding the interrelationship among different farm related inputs effecting crop sector would help to measure (i) the impact of increased total traditional and technological inputs; (ii) contributive aspects of both types of technological inputs; machine and bio-chemical; and (iii) districtwise differential especially considering their resource endowments and availability.
Fiscal Decentralisation in Pakistan
Authors: Naeem Ur Rehman Khattak  , Jangraiz Khan  , Iftikhar Ahmad
Published: September 2018

Fiscal decentralisation is considered as an important policy instrument to achieve economic efficiency and ensure effective governance through financial autonomy of provincial governments. It integrates the smaller units of federation and ensures their participation in the economic development of country while at the same time capacitate the central government to fulfil the national level tasks more efficiently and effectively. It is considered as an important growth accelerating measure. It empowers the lower level governments through financial autonomy and administrative empowerment. Devolution helps the lower tiers of government to act as a powerful administrative agent of the central government. However, decentralisation helps units to be more innovative, responsible and efficient as they have more autonomous status. Decentralisation policy is believed to positively affect economic growth because it envisage better derivation and implementation of social policies. The decentralised setup of the government does not have any information barriers and lower level of government is better positioned to know the basic necessities and developmental needs of the people that are living in different regions of a country. Decentralisation brings up the true potential of a locality with the efficient resource exploration and its efficient utilisation. It furthers competition among the competing constituencies for better service provision which results in higher efficiency. This all has the potential to positively influence economic growth.
A Comparison of Fiscal Effort by Provincial Governments in Pakistan
Authors: Ijaz Hussain  , Sumbal Rana
Published: September 2018

Considerable variation exists among Provinces of Pakistan with respect to their abilities to raise revenues. This is due to underlying varied provincial characteristics like area, resources, population, nature of economic activities and provincial GDPs. The main focus of this paper is to make inter-provincial comparison of their fiscal efforts after allowing for difference in taxable capacity. Therefore, objective of such inter-provincial comparisons of fiscal effort is to identify whether provincial revenue collection is limited by capacity (revenue base) or if a province is unwilling to exploit the available capacity to generate revenues.12 This will enable development of the appropriate resource mobilisation strategy for each province and help in enhancing the overall provincial tax revenue to GDP ratio which is currently below 1 percent of the GDP. This analysis will also help policy-makers in designing fiscal equalisation formulae for assisting those provinces which have demonstrated lesser capacity to raise revenues from their own sources.
The Relationship between Federal Government Revenues and Expenditures in Pakistan
Authors: Fazal Husain  , Muhammad Ali Qasim
Published: September 2018

A sound fiscal policy is important to promote price stability and sustain growth in output and employment. Fiscal policy is regarded as an instrument that can be used to lessen short-run fluctuations in output and employment in many debates of macroeconomic policy. It can also be used to bring the economy to its potential level. If policymakers understand the relationship between government expenditure and government revenue, continuous government deficits can be prevented. Hence the relationship between government expenditure and government revenue has attracted significant interest. This is due to the fact that the relationship between government revenue and expenditure has an impact on the budget deficit. The causal relationship between government revenue and expenditure has remained an empirically debatable issue in the field of public finance. The question of which variable takes precedence over the other has been a central issue to this debate.
Monetary and Non-monetary Gift Exchange
Authors: Saima Mahmood  , Asad Zaman
Published: September 2018

A standard labour contract has two important components, agreed upon wage from principal and efforts that in return is provided by agent. On one hand both principal and agent have full knowledge of wage, while information on provided effort level is always incomplete due to its abstract nature. Principal can only observe output of agent, which is joint function of effort, skill level and work environment [Green (1992)]. Assuming economic agents strictly follow their material gain, the game theoretic model predicts that agent will utilise minimum possible effort level. Similarly, the principal will pay minimum wages, since additional wages cannot extract additional effort. In contrast, the gift exchange model (GEM) is based on the critical assumption that reciprocal behaviour creates a positive relationship between wages and workers‘ effort levels [Akerlof (1982, 1984)]. Workers are assumed to reciprocate higher wage levels from firms by increasing their effort (positive reciprocity) and /or by decreasing their effort in retaliation for low wage (negative reciprocity). In labour market as partial gift exchange, the loyalty of workers is exchanged for higher wage, and this loyalty then can be translated to higher productivity through effective management. Experimental evidence has supported the reciprocity hypothesis both in laboratory [Fehr and Falk (2008); Fehr, et al. (1993); Fehr and Tougareva (1995); Fehr and Falk (1999); Fehr, et al. (1998); Fehr, Gächter, and Kirchsteiger (1997)] and in the field [Falk (2007); Henning- Schmidt, et al. (2005); Bellemare and Shearer (2007)].
From GST to RGST: A Raucous Ride (PANEL DISCUSSION-II)
Authors: Ather Maqsood Ahmed
Published: September 2018

The transition from General Sales Tax (GST) to Reformed General Sales Tax (RGST) has become an intricate and controversial topic for no particular reason. Let me start the discussion by acknowledging that RGST is not a new tax as generally perceived, rather it is the old GST which when fully implemented would be a sufficiently broadened and extended version of the existing GST. The changes in the existing GST would include withdrawal of many of the exemptions and concessions that have been granted over time, gradual abolition of the zero-rating of domestic sales while maintaining zerorating of the export sector, and extension of the existing GST to services that are currently outside the tax net. Thus, those who are opposing RGST believing it to be a new tax are required to be properly educated by the Sales Tax and the Taxpayers’ Education and Facilitation wings of the Federal Board of Revenue (FBR).
The State of Food Security in Pakistan: Future Challenges and Coping Strategies
Authors: Munir Ahmad  , Umar Farooq
Published: September 2018

Pakistan is a low income developing country. Agriculture is the most important sector of the country meeting food and fibre requirements of the fast growing population. Although the rate of population increase has considerably slowed down from over 3 percent in 1980s to 2.09 percent in 2009-10, it is still considered high.1 With the current rate of population growth, the population is expected to get doubled by 2050—making Pakistan 4th largest nation by 2050 from current status of 6th most populous state of the world [Pakistan (2010)]. The total cultivated area has increased by just 40 percent during past 60 years, while there has been more than 4 times increase in population with urban expansion of over seven-fold—resulting into mega-cities2 as well as rising population pressure on cultivated land. Wheat production, a major food crop, has increased five-fold during the same period—yet the country is marginal importer of wheat. Tremendous efforts are needed both advances in technology and population control to narrow the food supply-demand gap.
Interlinked Factor Markets and Allocative Efficiency: Evidence from Rural West Bengal, India
Authors: Arindam Laha  , Pravat Kumar Kuri
Published: September 2018

The issue of the implication of interlinkage of factor markets on the allocative efficiency level of the farm households deserves a special attention in the light of the controversy among two distinct schools of thought: the Neoclassical and the Marxist. An attempt has been made in the paper to measure allocative and cost efficiencies of the interlinked holding vis-à-vis a comparable group of non-interlinked holding in the framework of Data Envelopment Analysis. Empirical evidence establishes the Neo-classical proposition that interlinked factor markets can be considered as one of the “efficiency improving institutional change” in rural agrarian economy. JEL classification: D61, C87, Q14. Keywords: Interlinkage, Allocative Efficiency, Rural Credit, Data Envelopment Analysis
Lopamudra Banerjee, Anirban Dasgupta, and Rizwanul Islam (eds.). Development, Equity and Poverty: Essays in Honour of Azizur Rehman Khan. India: Macmillan Publishers India Ltd. 2010. Hardback, 542 pages, Indian Rs 2100.00.
Authors: Sofia Ahmad
Published: September 2018

The book, as the title indicates, is collection of articles by the experts in the field of development economics. It is compiled in honour of Professor Azizur Rehman Khan, guru in the field of development economics. Unfortunately, I have not met Professor Khan but his writings were always a source of inspiration. This book is the best present to Professor Khan on his seventieth birthday. Acknowledging the fact that development challenges are becoming more complex and multidimensional, the collection of articles is based on following six themes: First theme focuses on Macroeconomics of Development. Second theme is Growth, Poverty and Inequality Linkages and third is Analysis of Poverty. The forth theme relates to issues of Employment-Intensive Growth. Fifth theme reviews the Labour Markets, Wages and Productivity and the final focus is on Rural Development. Three articles on Macroeconomics of Development focus on role of pricing structure, investment, sources and structure of growth in China and the macroeconomic policy framework to ensure stability, growth and employment. Keith Griffin critically evaluates the existing development theories. In the first instance, he questions the role of relative prices in resource reallocation resulting in change in economic structure. Griffin evaluates different dimensions of the argument. For example the degree of mobility of factors of production across sectors which can impose additional costs. Furthermore, he argues, it may not be the price signal that affects the resource allocation. It is the investment decision that, " ... determines how resources in fact are allocated".
David J. Grimshaw and Shalini Kala (eds.). Strengthening Rural LivelihoodsThe Impect of Information and Communication Technologies in Asia. International Development and Research Centre (IDRC). Canada: Replika Press Pvt. Ltd. 201 L 152 page
Authors: Sofia Ahmad
Published: September 2018

We live in the age of information in which Information and Communication Technonoly usage has diffused throughout the world. In many developing countries,
On measuring inclusiveness of growth in pakistan
Authors: Saima Asghar  , Sajid Amin Javed
Published: September 2018

Increasing level of inequilities in societies has diverted the attention of policy makers towards the new development paradigm of “Inclusive Growth” across the developing world especially. Despite the achievement of reduction in extreme poverty 60.3 percent of the population still lives under $2-a-day poverty line in Pakistan. Gini coefficient increased from 30.3 percent (1993), to 33 percent (2006)1 indicating that growth has been uneven and the gap between haves and have-nots widened over the time. A small segment of the population is benefiting fruits of growth to a large extent leaving large segment of the society deprived of basic needs; 51 percent of the population is suffering from severe deprivation of education and 29 percent with health.2 The prevailing inequalities in Pakistan have reslted in 31.5 percent3 loss in human development which could have been improved otherwise. Different socio-economic indicators show that the disadvantage groups including poor, people living in rural areas have not benefited proportionally from economic growth.4 Income inqualities can hamper the growth through lowering the impact on poverty reduction of a given rate of growth, and thereby reduce the growth. Furthermore inequalities can operate through political (in)stability and social cohesion channels to dissuade economic growth [Ali and Son (2007)]. In this back drop, reducing inequalities has become a major concern of development policy across the globe especially so for developing countries generating interest in inclusive growth. Inclusive growth ensures fair and equal access to all stratum of society, including disadvantaged and marginalised, to opportunities created [Ali and Son (2007)].
Fiscal Decentralisation and Economic Growth: Role of Democratic Institutions
Authors: Nasir Iqbal  , Musleh Ud Din  , Ejaz Ghani
Published: September 2018

This study attempts to analyse the impact of fiscal decentralisation on economic growth. It also examines the complementarity between fiscal decentralisation and democratic institutions in promoting growth. The modelling framework is the endogenous growth model augmented with measures of fiscal decentralisation through democratic institutions. To capture the multidimensionality, three different measures of fiscal decentralisation are used. The overall analysis shows that revenue decentralisation promotes economic growth while expenditure decentralisation retards economic growth. Composite decentralisation positively influences economic growth implying that simultaneous decentralisation of revenue and expenditure reinforce each other to promote economic growth. Analysis also shows that democratic institutions play a significant role in realising the benefits of fiscal decentralisation. Various policy implications emerge from this study. JEL Classification: C26, E02, H11, H72, O11 Keywords: Fiscal Decentralisation, Democracy, Economic Growth, Pakistan
Attitudes Towards Women’s Rights to Inheritance in District Lakki Marwat, Pakistan
Authors: Eatzaz Ahmad  , Anbereen Bibi  , Tahir Mahmood
Published: September 2018

This paper analyses the effects of various economic, demographic and social factors like marriage practices, education and awareness on the beliefs and attitudes regarding women’s rights to inheritance, ownership and management of property in Pakistan. Based on a random sample of 507 families from district Lakki Marwat, a backward northern district of Pakistan, the study finds that education level of respondents, including religious education, awareness of law and formal sources of information regarding women’s rights are the main factors shaping respondents’ perceptions about women’s right to inheritance, ownership and management of property. The other factors like economic status, family demography and marriage practices appear relatively less important.
Allan H. Meltzer. Why Capitalism? USA: Oxford University Press. 2012. 145 pages. US $ 21.95. Hardbound.
Authors: M. Ali Kemal
Published: September 2018

Why Capitalism? is written in response to the popular belief of “end of capitalism” that emerged in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis. In this book, the author criticises the anti-capitalism claim advocated by numerous writers who welcomed regulated markets and essential government intervention at the time of recession to fix the problems, which free markets cannot resolve by itself. While praising capitalism, the author argues that the success of capitalist system was inevitable over the last half decade in most of the countries. He believes that democracy along with capitalism is the best system since people, by their voting rights, choose their own tax rates and way of redistribution of wealth. Furthermore, according to him it is the only system, which faced many challenges, but not only survived but came out stronger and dominated the world. Theoretically, the author’s arguments, in this book are very attractive but in practice give rise to several questions.
Darn Acemoglu and James A. Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. New York: Crown Business. 2012. 529 pages. U.S $ 17.00.
Authors: Adnan Akram
Published: September 2018

“Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty” is an impressive book by Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson. In this book, the authors attempt to solve the longstanding puzzle that why some nations, such as the United Sates, Great Britain, Germany, etc. are rich today, and why the others, such as Zimbabwe, Ghana, Egypt, etc. are poor. The authors show with the help of substantial historical evidence that man-made economic and political institutions matter for the vast differences in the level of economic development among countries. They argue history is the key to understand the difference and evolution of economic and political institutions in different parts of the world. During historical evolution of the institutions, small differences and contingency (e.g., Black Death) matter a lot. According to them, it is not the geography, culture, weather or the choice of wrong policies that make countries rich or poor but it is the institutions that make countries rich or poor.
Fiscal Responsibility: A Critical Analysis of FRDL (2005) Pakistan
Authors: Muhammad Ali Qasim  , Mahmood Khalid
Published: September 2018

The term fiscal responsibility in financial dictionary is defined as “A balanced budget”. That is a budget wherein expenditures during a given period of time equal to revenues. The fiscal responsibility also includes a budget in which revenue is greater than the expenditures. Fiscal responsibility is achievable and most of the individuals in their private life practice fiscal responsibility. At individual level everybody knows that they have to live within the budget and usually they do not overspend. Usually overspending by individual results in bad crediting rating which one receives from their creditors due to non-payments or late payments of installments and thus denies future benefits to the person concern. Fiscal responsibility at national level implies that a government has a balanced budget and has sufficient revenue to pay for its all expenditures. There would be no overspending if government had a true balanced budget in each period. The economic future of a nation largely depends on the way fiscal responsibility is practiced. There is a direct link between budget deficit today and what nation can enjoy in future. Fiscal responsibility is crucial for a nation to remain prosperous and stronger in future. Fiscal responsibility will also determine what kind of future we are leaving to our children and grandchildren for the next 20 years and beyond. If the fiscal responsibility is not practiced the government would spend more money than its income and it borrows for the difference. If the money borrowed come from domestic savings or from domestic lenders the economy will have less money available for capital investment and future productivity growth rates and levels would be lower. If on the other hand deficit is financed by foreign organisation/country the country will be indebted with growing debt to the rest of the world, with growing interest costs which must be served every year. If we rely more on foreign sources to finance the resource gap the foreign ownership of our resources would grow and so has our dependences on the actions of foreign governments and investors.
Modelling Trade, Investment, Growth and Liberalisation: Case Study of Pakistan
Authors: Muhammad Arshad Khan  , Ayaz Ahmed
Published: September 2018

The role of trade in economic development as an engine of economic growth has been at the centre of hot policy debates over the past four decades. History supports the success of import liberalisation policy in the United States of America (USA) in the 1940s, Japan in 1960s and the exports promotion achievements of Asian Tigers in the 1970s and 1980s [Yen (2009)].1 There is no doubt that increased movement of goods and services across international borders over the past few decades has helped developing countries to achieve faster and sustainable growth. Many researchers argued that free trade has a key ingredient in facilitating transfer of technology from developed to developing countries [Heokman and Javorcik (2006) and Harding and Javorcik (2012)]. Theoretical literature suggest that trade liberalisation enhances economic growth and development through the specialisation and technological developments. The theoretical link between international trade and economic development can be traced back to the earlier writings of Classical Economists (Adam Smith and David Ricardo) and Neoclassical Economists (Heckscher and Ohlin) in the early part of nineteenth century. The Classical Economists hypothesised that nations gain from trade, and World production would grow when trading nations specialise according to the principles of comparative advantage. On the other hand, the Neo-classical Economists argued that countries will tend to specialise in those products that use abundant resources intensively in the production process. As a consequence, factors prices will tend to equalise across trading nations if production technologies remain identical throughout the world (Stolper-Samuelson approach).
Modern Services Exports from Emerging Countries—Perspectives and Opportunities
Authors: Shahbaz Nasir
Published: September 2018

Traditionally, developed countries are the major exporters of services; however, technological developments in IT and communications over the last two decades have made it possible for developing countries to exploit their comparative advantage in some modern services. The driving force for this comparative advantage is the large pool of semi-skilled and skilled graduates in emerging countries who can deliver their services across borders, using advanced communication technologies. Why do emerging countries have increasing modern services exports? How are these exports explained by theory? What are the factors behind this export growth and the reasons to expect future growth? These are some of the important questions that researchers and policy-makers would like to find answers to and an attempt has been made to answer these questions in this paper. Identification of the sources of services export growth from emerging and developing countries can be attempted through established theories of goods trade and production. This paper reviews selected theory and empirical work in order to explain the underlying causes for growing exports of services. Causes for the export of modern services may include a comparative advantage of the exporting country, cost reduction for the importing firm through outsourcing, reduction in trading costs due to technological improvements and an increase in gains from services trade.
Determinants of Export Performance in the Wake of the Global Financial Crisis: Evidence from South Asia
Authors: Hamna Ahmed  , Farah Said
Published: September 2018

The idea that trade is important for economic growth dates back to the nineteenth century when classical economists like Adam Smith, Ricardo, John Stuart Mill etc. advocated the favourable effects of international trade on output. Since then a rich body of both theoretical and empirical literature has evolved with regards to exports and trade policy. Within this overall literature, two competing approaches that can be broadly identified are Import Substitution industrialisation (IS) and Export-Led (EL) growth. According to the EL growth hypothesis, exports can promote economic growth through three main channels that are as follows: (i) trade enables firms (at the micro level) and countries (at the macro level) to gain through specialisation and economies of scale. The most efficient producers witness increasing market shares, that in turn lead to aggregate productivity gains through a reallocation of resources [Taylor (1981) and Melitz (2003)], (ii) Exports are an important source of foreign exchange. These resources are important not just for the purchase of vital inputs such as capital and machinery but are extremely valuable where balance of payments constraints are widespread [Faridi (2012)]. (iii) Trade is an important source of knowledge and technological transfers. New growth theory has shown that trade with technologically innovative countries allows access to the technological know-how of trading partners, and also has the potential of encouraging innovative activity by increasing the returns to innovate as traders have access to a larger market relative to non-trading firms.
Remittances from Saudi Arabia: A Community Phenomenon
Authors: Asha Gul  , Mahreen Mahmud
Published: September 2018

Remittances are increasingly becoming an essential source of foreign exchange in developing countries, in some cases, even more than official development assistance. Recent estimates from the World Bank indicate that global remittances are expected to exceed $590 billion, with almost 75 percent of these remittances flowing to the developing countries. Pakistan became the fifth largest remittance-recipient nation in the developing world in 2011,1 registering a strong growth of 25.8 percent, relative to a 10.1 percent growth in remittances to South Asia. According to an IMF research paper, workers’ remittances contribute almost 4 percent to the country’s GDP, and are equivalent to almost 22 percent of annual exports of goods and services.2 Remittances to Pakistan have shown a strong rising trend; from being less than $2 billion dollars in 1997 to reaching almost $10 billion in 2010. In fact, the total remittances sent home by overseas Pakistani workers have more than quadrupled in the last eight years to more than $13.186 billion,3 the highest-ever amount received in a year by the country in the last fiscal year, which ended in June 2012. Interestingly, the almost 1.5 million Pakistani expatriates residing in Saudi Arabia send more remittances to Pakistan than from expatriates working and residing in other countries
Agricultural Productivity Impact of a Mini-Dam: A Case Study of Ziarat, Balochistan
Authors: Zohaib Saeed  , Usman Mustafa  , Hafsa Hina  , Shazia Saeed
Published: September 2018

Water is the most important constituent of life without which, life cannot exist. Water is a natural resource which is also used as an input for producing different goods in factories for industrial use, productivity of crops for agriculture use also used in our daily life for domestic purpose. Despite such an importance, still the World is experiencing the issue of water scarcity [WCD (2000)]. The supply of water does not meet its demand [Bengali (2009)]. Pakistan is an agrarian economy which is also heavily dependent on water. About 45 percent of the total employment is generated from Agriculture sector [Pakistan (2011)]. Main sources of water are rivers and rainfall. Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan. Land size is 44 percent of the total land of Pakistan [Balochistan (2010)]. Land is fertile and provides conducive environment for Agriculture. Agriculture productivity is high in Balochistan. Many vegetables and crops are grown which results in many farmers and labours livelihood. It has got varieties of species of many fruits, particularly Apple. Important fruit crops grown are Apple, Grapes, Cherry and Peach. Climate is also suitable for crops growth particularly the deciduous fruits like apple, which requires low temperature during summer season. As far as quality is concerned, apple produced in Balochistan, especially at high altitude (1600 meters to 2000 meters) are superior in quality than that produced in the rest of the country. The main reason is that due to dryness of the climate in apple producing areas like Ziarat, Killa Abdullah, Pishin, Quetta etc. Apple is one of the most popular fruit. It is delicious and crunchy and is mostly liked by health conscious and fitness lovers as it is filled with rich phyto-nutrients, which is very essential for optimal health. It also contains antioxidants, which promotes health as well as prevents several diseases. Thus, apple truly justifies the famous sayings, “An apple a day keeps the doctor away.” One of the distinguishing features is that there are no fungal diseases and disease free apple can be stored for a longer period in cold storage. Also the abundance of sunshine in the growing season improves the colour of apple which fetches a good price in the domestic and foreign market.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Business in Pakistan: Perceptions and Realities
Authors: Ajaz Ahmed  , Aneel Salman
Published: September 2018

Climate change is the biggest challenge human family has ever faced in world history. It has local as well as global impacts and almost all the ethnic groups, communities, and geographical locations are exposed to it [Stern (2006)]. But comparatively developing countries are more exposed to the changes which are taking places due to climate [Stern (2006) and Barker (2008)]. The degree of their exposure which has a number of determinants varies across different regions [Karen, et al. (2004)]. Climate experts so far have proposed two broader solutions for this problem; mitigation of climate change by reducing the amount of emitted carbon from atmosphere, and adaptation to climate changes [Tompkins and Adger (2005) and Becken (2005)]. Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is dealing with climate change mitigation. It is the milestone towards global carbon mitigation efforts [Miriam, et al. (2007)]. This protocol has resulted in the establishment of carbon markets by adopting the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). Pakistan ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and implemented it in 2005. To ensure the smooth functioning of carbon trading business in Pakistan, CDM related infrastructure was developed. Mainly this includes the establishment of CDM Cell in Pakistan, but a number of private consultancies also came into being with the emergence of this mechanism.
Fiscal Discretion and Its Impact on Pakistan Economy
Authors: Muhammad Ismail  , Fazal Husain
Published: September 2018

Macroeconomics addresses output, employment and price fluctuations during business cycles. Business cycles which capture variation in economic activity emerge generally due to instable investment, frequent changes in money and credit through banking system and unmanageable haphazard proceedings of wars or political instability. Business cycles inherent features of mixed economic system where households and businesses composed of different motivations spend and produce, differ in their respective economic activities. The occurrence of this difference results in creation of waves in economic activities, which are the business cycles [Spencer and Amos (1993)]. Output variation in moderate context is either a recession or recovery. During recession the economic activity falls which not only reduces employment opportunities but creates gap between potential and actual output of an economy. The federal government tries to keep the adverse effects of business cycle at bay all together. Economists admit that private sector is unable to protect the economy from uncontrolled variations in employment and inflation. In this scenario the government’s fiscal management is corrective response for the problems of recovery and recession. The government makes use of public spending and taxes to minimise the gap of business cycles. This process is called fiscal policy and the deliberate government involvement to stabilise economy is regarded as discretionary fiscal policy. The government can make use either taxes or government spending or both to stabilise economy but in this study we only used government spending due to its larger and positive multiplier effects.
Analysis of Revenue Potential and Revenue Effort in Developing Asian Countries
Authors: Attiya Y. Javid  , Umaima Arif
Published: September 2018

Countries around the world are increasingly recognising that the effective revenue system is the most important factor for economic development. Factors effecting revenue potential measured as the revenue to GDP has been one of the most important issues that concerns to policy-makers from last three decades. Many developing countries face difficulties in generating sufficient revenues for public expenditure. In some countries budget deficits and the unproductive use of public expenditures have narrow the vital investments in both human resources and basic infrastructure that are necessary for providing base for sustainable economic growth and development. Too much dependence on foreign financing may cause problems of debt sustainability; therefore developing countries will need to depend substantially on domestic revenue generation. There is a large body of literature on tax revenue potential in developing countries [Bahl (1971); Tanzi (1987); Leuthold (1991); and Stotsky and Mariam (1997); Gupta (2007)]. However, there is few studies that examine institutional and governance quality as a factor influencing tax collection and tax revenue potential. According to Tanzi and Davoodi (1997) and Gupta (2007) these factors are responsible for low tax collection in developing countries by allowing citizens inappropriate tax exemptions and enabling tax evasion due to bad tax administration. Therefore, a precondition for ensuring adequate revenue collection is a legitimate and responsive institutions following the rule of law with control on corruption and having high quality bureaucracy to administer. Studies also confirm that a strong political will to reform is required for successful reform process [Bird (2004)]. Alm, et al. (2003) suggest that tax records of countries are reflection of their political or societal institutions.