bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geographic Variation in Animal Communication Systems
Authors: Wilczynski Walter , Ryan Michael J.
Published: November 2020

Intraspecific communication is fundamental to most social behavior. It is also a special problem in animal behavior because it necessarily involves the interaction of two systems within a species, a sender and a receiver (Walker 1957, Blair 1964, Capranica 1966, Schneider 1974, Hoy et al. 1977, Hopkins and Bass 1981, Gerhardt 1988, Brenowitz 1994). Sender and receiver components are almost always separable morphologically, physiologically, and behaviorally. Each may be under different mechanistic and developmental control, and, especially in those cases in which the senders and receivers are segregated by sex, the impact of selection pressures and constraints can be very different (Brenowitz 1986, Ryan 1986, 1988; Wilczynski 1986, Endler 1983, 1993). The presence of two different but necessarily interacting components make the evolution of communication systems a particularly challenging problem in behavioral biology. In any communication system, the interaction between senders and receivers dictates some degree of matching such that the signal emitted by one member of the communicating pair is effectively received, recognized, and assessed by the other member (Blair 1964, Gerhardt 1982, 1988; Capranica and Moffat 1983, Littlejohn 1988, Ryan 1988, 1991; Endler 1993). Effective coupling of senders and receivers is crucial when communication underlies mate choice. Communication systems that accurately discriminate between heterospecifics and conspecifics, while effectively linking conspecifics to each other, are important for ensuring mating with genetically compatible conspecifics. As such, communication systems can be integral parts of speciation and the maintenance of species isolation (Blair 1958, Mayr 1963, Paterson 1985, 1993; Littlejohn 1981, 1988; Butlin 1987, Coyne and Orr 1989, Claridge 1993, Moore 1993, Wood 1993). The natural variation among and within species in both signals and receivers provides a means for examining the factors contributing to the evolution of communication systems (Templeton 1981, Ryan and Keddy-Hector 1992, Paterson 1993). Among the different levels of variation observed, geographic variation provides the best material for disentangling the myriad factors shaping the evolution and divergence of communication systems and for testing fundamental ideas about the evolution of behavior (Endler 1983, Baker and Cunningham 1985, Nevo and Capranica 1985, Ryan and Wilczynski 1991, Loftus-Hills and Littlejohn 1992).
1989
Authors: Shklar Judith N.
Published: November 2020

I am a bookworm. Since the age of eleven I have read and read, and enjoyed almost every moment of it. Yet I was very slow to learn how to read at all, and I hated school, avoiding it as long and as often as I could, without being an actual dropout. It was certainly not in the various schools that I attended so unwillingly that I learned to read or to write. In fact, my exasperated parents had to hire a tutor to get me started. Nor were my first encounters with literature always happy, though they certainly made a deep impression upon me. The first book I ever read through by myself was a German translation of David Copperfteld. I read it over and over again and I still love it. The second book was a children’s novel about two boys in the Thirty Years War, which led me to look it up in a wonderful illustrated world history in many volumes in my parents’ library. I was hooked for life on fiction and history. It was not, however, all pleasure. One day I picked up the first volume of Shakespeare in the Schlegel-Tieck translation. The first play was Titus Andronicus, and I read it all. To this day I can still feel the fear and horror it inspired. I was so afraid and confused that I could not even bring myself to tell anyone what was bothering me. Finally I managed to spill it out to my oldest sister. As soon as I told her I, of course, felt infinitely relieved, especially as she assured me that these things did not really happen. The trouble was that both she and I knew that far worse was going on all around us. By 1939 I already understood that books, even scary ones, would be my best refuge from a world that was far more terrible than anything they might reveal. And that is how I became a bookworm. It was also the end of my childhood. Biography, novels, and plays are the delight of young readers, and they certainly were mine.
Introduction
Authors: Salzman Harold , Rosenthal Stephen R.
Published: November 2020

The concept of social values shaping technology design seems oddly out-of-place to many. Isn’t the design of technology the province of engineers? Aren’t values and technology and other social issues really outside the scope of engineering? Engineering decisions are not, after all, based on philosophy and sociology some would argue. Efficiency and economy are the objective criteria for making design decisions and these can be determined through a relatively precise calculus. Making these determinations is an objective engineering task not a matter of subjective preferences and interpretation. There is error, of course, and unintended consequences are inevitable, but these are matters to be corrected by better science and engineering. Following in this vein, one might argue that the link between technology design and quality of worklife is even further removed from the concerns of engineering. Technology is delivered “as is” and the work organization must accommodate it. Perhaps technology can be fiddled with at the margins for better ergonomics for example, but again, the essence of design is independent of quality of worklife concerns. To take this argument a step further, it is commonly stated that, for most people, work is not an activity for pleasure but for sustenance. We may wish it were otherwise, but it just isn’t so. Changing technology or other aspects of worklife is, therefore, of limited value in improving the human condition. (In fact, if changes made for worklife improvements decrease productivity, they could be detrimental by lowering prosperity and thus the quality of life outside of work.) One engineer (Florman, 1981, p. 103), writing that “blaming technology” is an “irrational search for scape goats,” states that “alienation cannot be cured by a fascinating job any more than it can be cured by a clean apartment.” Engineers should thus concentrate on designing technology the best they can and leave social issues or workplace concerns to others. It is only the application and implementation of technology that is relevant for social science. So runs the argument in many a discussion about how technology should be designed for the workplace.
Software in the Workplace
Authors: Salzman Harold , Rosenthal Stephen R.
Published: November 2020

“The Workplace” conjures up images of cavernous factories where people stand shoulder-to-shoulder, dwarfed by huge machines. Though probably a popular image, it describes the conditions of work for less than 15 percent of the working population. Instead, a greater number of people find themselves face-to-face with a computer monitor, whose small displays they depend on for conducting their work. The computer has come to be an intermediary as we do our work. The keyboard, replacing various tools of the trade, has become the common instrument of work, not just in services but also in manufacturing. Work now involves sending instructions to various machines that perform the required tasks, whether retrieving data or turning lathes. Within organizations it has also distanced supervision. Instead of the boss breathing down the worker’s neck, “objective” data on performance are collected and reviewed remotely, at a supervisor’s pleasure and leisure. The mediation of work and regulation of the workplace through use of computer software raises anew central questions about how work should be organized and how the design of software dynamically shapes and reflects the structure of the workplace. New software systems (which expanded, in part, because of new hardware technology) not only dramatically increase the use of information, but also change the structure and working conditions of organizations. The “conversations and connections” that constitute an organization or business are “embodied in the structure of the computer system,” according to Winograd and Flores (1986, p. 169), and thus software design is also the design of the user organization. Depending upon the choices made, computer systems can “reduce the space of possibilities open to workers in organizing their activities” or they can generate new possibilities. In this respect, software is increasingly significant in its effects as it has become an important “process technology” throughout the advanced industrial economies of the world. Until recent years, software was an adjunct technology for most organizations. It was used for a limited set of organizational functions and one or two specific departments were its only direct users. It was commonly viewed as a technology subsidiary to hardware, providing support functions rather than crucial operations for achieving the organization’s goals.
Software Design, Social Choices, and the Workplace
Authors: Salzman Harold , Rosenthal Stephen R.
Published: November 2020

Social choices characterize applications software design as much as technical engineering issues. In examining software design as a social process we have identified as important issues the tradeoffs and compromises among competing interests and objectives of users and of others in the user organization, the process by which decisions of designers are shaped by their organization, and the role of various pressures in the market. The chapters in Part I explained and justified our basic premise that the interplay of such factors would significantly influence both explicit and implicit design choices. We emphasized how software designs necessarily reflect organizational choices about objectives of different users and others in both the vendor and user organizations. Then in Part II, for each of the cases we studied, we identified a range of design influences and the specific values underlying the social shaping of particular software features and functions. This chapter considers what we have learned from our several case studies and survey. The final two chapters translate these findings into an action agenda for managers (Chapter 8) and consider the implications for research in this area (Chapter 9). Crucial design choices about software that regulates operations of the user organization reflect social choices that may not necessarily be optimal choices. In fact, we found that for many choices there may not be an objectively optimal design; rather, the choices will favor some objectives over others with decisions shaped by organizational politics for example. Indeed, by providing greater integration within the organization, software systems lead to tighter “coupling” of structures in organizations, among different groups and between formal policies and informal practices. The following discussion of the three industries, banking, field service, and hospitals, focuses on the consequences of different choices in software design. The software, as part of its substantive task (e.g., storing information), was designed to automate and control procedures by formalizing them in design, emphasizing managerial control objectives over operations objectives, as it integrated the work of functionally different groups. This emphasis can be traced to the initial choices about features and functions of the software.
Social Dimensions of Software Design: Challenges of Effective Design for the Workplace
Authors: Salzman Harold , Rosenthal Stephen R.
Published: November 2020

Software design is enmeshed in the social world of organizations. Software embodies characteristics of the organizations within which and for which it is created. This book has dealt with both of these dimensions; first, the social dimensions of the software design process and, second, the nature of work organizations that the user inhabits and the implications for software design. In this final chapter we develop some general propositions about social dimensions of software design and the implications of software adoption for organizational change. First we draw some concluding observations about two processes. Our research, coupled with related work of others, suggests that crucial to understanding software design (and technology design in general) are the role of history in the long life cycle of software design, especially the redesign of technology by its users, and the politics of software design. Technology design is a process with a life cycle of its own. During this process, design changes occur from the initial stage of determining user requirements through the design and development of the software and then continues during its implementation and use. In retrospect, it is possible to show how different aspects of any particular technology were established at various stages. However, it is not possible to deduce all the attributes of the technology without following the design process through implementation and ultimate use. Understanding the constraints that a technology will impose on the users’ (and the organization’s) “action space” thus requires an examination of the social as well as the technical history of its development. Organizational politics are crucial in the early phases of technology development and provide opportunities for those in positions of power in the user organization to exercise the most explicit influence. Furthermore, past technology and organizational choices form patterns that are institutionalized and form the structure shaping current technology choices (cf. Kling, 1987,1993; Thomas, 1993). Thus, the initial stages of technology definition provide partial constraints on the action of users when the technology is implemented. The late life cycle stages of design are the result of a continual process of actors interpreting and negotiating the technology design and use within structural bounds of hierarchical power, resources, authority and autonomy.
Convection and Substorms
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

The magnetosphere is the region where cosmic rays and the solar wind interact with the Earth's magnetic field, creating such phenomena as the northern lights and other aurorae. The configuration and dynamics of the magnetosphere are of interest to planetary physicists, geophysicists, plasma astrophysicists, and to scientists planning space missions. The circulation of solar wind plasma in the magnetosphere and substorms have long been used as the principle paradigms for studying this vital region. Charles F. Kennel, a leading scientist in the field, here presents a synthesis of the convection and substorm literatures, and an analysis of convection and substorm interactions; he also suggests that the currently accepted steady reconnection model may be advantageously replaced by a model of multiple tail reconnection events, in which many mutually interdependent reconnections occur. Written in an accessible, non-mathematical style, this book introduces the reader to the exciting discoveries in this fast-growing field.
Introduction
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

In the year 1600, the the man about to become physician to Queen Elizabeth I of England published a long treatise summarizing his two decades of experimentation on magnetism. After disposing of such issues as whether garlic causes magnets to “lose their virtue” William Gilbert recounted his observations upon moving a compass over the surface of a permanent magnet that had been specially fashioned in the form of a sphere (Gilbert, 1893, 1958). The similarity between the compass readings on the surface of his magnet and those recorded in mariners’ charts led Gilbert to conclude that his magnet was a terrella, a little earth, and that our big earth is (among other things) a giant magnet. Gilbert’s little earth organized the pattern of compass readings not only on its surface but also in the space surrounding it. From this, he boldly asserted that the big earth’s magnetic influence continues far into empty space, where no mariner of his day could ever go. The profundity of this remark was not lost on Gilbert’s younger contemporary, Johannes Kepler, who found in it an explanation of the earth’s annual motion around the sun. Kepler reasoned more or less as follows (in modern language): Since the earth and the sun are both celestial bodies, they both should rotate, and they both should have magnetic fields surrounding them in space. Their two rotating fields interact somehow, somewhere, in the space between them, communicating the sun’s rotational motion to the earth and pushing the earth around its orbit. In this curious way, Kepler might have been the first to perceive that the sun acts upon terrestrial magnetism. He was not the last. In 1580, Kepler’s teacher, Michael Maestlin, had recorded an observation of a distinct region of oscillating luminosity in the northern sky, an aurora. The aurora had been a topic of scientific interest since Graeco-Roman antiquity [of particular importance was Aristotle’s (384-322 B.C.) discussion of it in his Meteorology], but it had become an object of superstition in the European Middle Ages, and scientific interest in it only began to re-emerge in the second half of the 16th century (Link, 1957).
The Bell-Like Magnetosphere
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

The fact that the geomagnetic field “pulsates” was known a century before the space age opened. The century of ground-based observations did lead to an effective empirical classification of the pulsations based on period, wave form, and geographical distribution (Section 3.1), but why the magnetic field of an astronomical body should oscillate on short time scales was a first-class scientific puzzle that could only by solved in the space age. Low-frequency hydromagnetic waves were first observed in the distant magnetosphere on Explorer 6 (Judge and Coleman, 1962). The task for space research was to relate the oscillations of plasma and fields in deep space to the ground observations using the refined theoretical languages of magnetohydrodynamics and plasma physics. There have been two critical issues. The first was to understand how plasma instabilities generate some of the observed pulsations. The second, the subject of this chapter, has been to understand how motions of the magnetopause induced by the variability of the solar wind are communicated to the interior of the magnetosphere. The breakthrough came when it was understood that the MHD fast mode can cross field lines and couple resonantly to localized standing Alfven waves. What is seen on the ground is due primarily to the resonant Alfven waves (Section 3.3). In Section 3.4, we provide basic theoretical information about the eigenmodes of the “MHD box” as a conceptual framework for the observations of oscillating fields and particles in the magnetospheric cavity. Space observations provided convincing evidence for the existence of standing Alfven waves shortly after the fast-wave coupling theory was proposed (Section 3.5). The next issue was which standing wave harmonics are excited (Section 3.6). Multiharmonic excitations now seem to be a semipermanent feature of the dayside magnetosphere, attesting to the constant activity at the magnetopause. There have been a few observations of the “global mode,” the low-frequency, radially standing compressional wave that may be responsible for discrete frequency resonant oscillations (Section 3.7).
The Viscous Magnetosphere
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

This chapter describes how the magnetosphere is shaped by the tangential shear stress exerted at the magnetopause by collisionless viscosity. In Section 4.2, we discuss the low-latitude boundary layer (LLBL), which contains plasma of solar wind origin that has been transported across the magnetopause current layer. The velocity shear in the LLBL drives field-aligned currents into the ionosphere on the morning side and out of the ionosphere on the evening side (Section 4.3). These currents are of the appropriate sense to drive two-cell convection in the highlatitude ionosphere. The footprint of the LLBL in the ionosphere to which the field aligned currents connect is clearly identifiable by its characteristic particle precipitation (Section 4.4). The shear in the LLBL also generates 1-20 mHz PC 4- 5 micropulsations whose polarizations, tailward propagation, and phase speeds are consistent with the Kelvin-Helmholtz (K-H) instability (Section 4.5). The K-H vortices may couple to “vortex auroras” in the local afternoon sector of the auroral oval (Section 4.6). Vortex auroral dissipation may be responsible for a morningevening asymmetry in the viscous interaction and its manifestations. Organized vortical flows have been observed not only next to the magnetopause, but also near the center of the plasma sheet, accompanied by local quasiperiodic magnetic field oscillations and PC 5 micropulsations on the ground (Section 4.7). In Section 4.8, we discuss observations of a thick boundary layer flow on closed field lines next to the magnetopause 220 RE downstream. This puts us in a position to estimate the rates of particle and energy injection into the magnetosphere due to the viscous interaction (Section 4.9). Spacecraft crossings of the magnetopause last from a few seconds to a few minutes and are characterized by a rapid, distinct rotation of the magnetic field and striking changes in plasma density, pressure, flow velocity, composition, and energetic particle distribution (Williams, 1979a; 1980; Williams et al., 1979). A broader boundary layer lies just inside the magnetopause. The so-called low-latitude boundary layer was first identified at 18 RE radial distance in the magnetotail using Vela 4B (Hones et al., 1972) and Vela 5 and 6 (Akasofu et al., 1973b) low-energy plasma measurements.
The Reconnection Substorm
Authors: Kennel Charles F.
Published: November 2020

The reconnection model of magnetospheric substorms was designed 20 years ago to rationalize the time-dependent changes in the magnetospheric structure associated with auroral substorms. By 1970, it was becoming apparent that there was a characteristic sequence of events prior to auroral onset: The dayside magnetopause moved earthward, the inner edge of the cross-tail current sheet approached the earth, the field strength in the tail lobes increased, and the magnetic flux in the polar caps and tail lobes increased, all while the evening side aurora were migrating equatorward prior to onset. The increase in lobe magnetic field clearly suggested that the growth phase commenced with an increase in the dayside reconnection rate. By the early 1980s, studies quantitatively correlating the ionospheric electric field with southward interplanetary field had confirmed that the changes in structure accompanied enhanced convection as had been suspected all along. Both were related somehow to substorms. There was no other choice in the reconnection model but to spotlight its two reconnection events, at the dayside magnetopause and in the plasma sheet on the nightside, as the “main events” in the magnetospheric substorm. Dayside reconnection clearly initiated the growth phase, and tail reconnection had to follow with some delay. It seemed natural to associate tail reconnection with the onset of the auroral substorm. Sections 7.2 through 7.6 are devoted to growth-phase phenomenology. Section 7.2 deals with the changes in magnetopause position that follow a single isolated southward shift of the interplanetary field, and Section 7.3 deals with the changes in the geomagnetic tail that occur as a result. These changes take place as the rate of convection builds up in the ionosphere (Section 7.4) and the dayside magnetosphere (Section 7.5). A growth phase that begins with enhanced dayside reconnection has to lead to enhanced tail reconnection—the second key event in the reconnection model of substorms. In an MHD model, the time and place where the new reconnection event takes place is determined by the propagation of waves along the characteristics connecting the dayside reconnection region to the tail lobes (Section 7.6).
An Integrated Approach To Forward Modeling Carbonate Platform Development
Authors: Mayer Helmut
Published: November 2020

The forward model presented here is designed to simulate stratigraphic and geometric development of carbonate platforms. Starting from an initial basement geometry, the effects of a number of key variables on water depth are combined for each time increment. This procedure is repeated in an iterative fashion for subsequent time steps. The variables considered include subsidence, carbonate production, sediment redistribution, compaction, isostatic compensation, and eustatic sea-level change. Time- or depth-dependent functions are developed for these variables. Free parameters in these functions allow fitting to realistic magnitudes. A sample simulation demonstrates the characteristics of the model and indicates its usefulness in case studies and predictions. In recent years a number of studies on the modeling of sediment accumulation in various basin settings has been published. Most of them are concerned with clastic basin fill or do not discriminate lithologies (e.g., Turcotte and Kenyon, 1984; Kenyon and Turcotte, 1985; Tetzlaff, 1986; Bitzer and Harbaugh, 1987; Flemings and Jordan, 1987, 1989; Tetzlaff and Harbaugh, 1989; Jervey, 1989), while only few focus on mixed clastic/carbonate systems (e.g., Aigner et al., 1989; Lawrence et al., 1990) or carbonate platforms (e.g., Lerche et al., 1987; Bice, 1988; Demicco and Spencer, 1989; Scaturo et al., 1989). Sediment accumulation and distribution on a carbonate platform and the adjacent slope represent a highly complex system of numerous interdependent factors which in concert determine the development of the stratigraphy and geometry of the platform. The goal of this study is to develop a model that yields a "best compromise" between two principal targets: representation of all important variables in geologically reasonable functional relationships on the one hand, and simplicity on the other. Forward modeling of sedimentary systems serves to simulate the stratigraphic and geometric evolution of the system, dependent on variations in the input parameters. The purpose of this approach is to establish the critical variables and parameters which dominate the system and to produce a geologically reasonable generic stratigraphic pattern. The next step then would be to use the model to reproduce known patterns of actual modern or ancient sedimentary systems (inverse modeling).
Modeling principles
Authors: Schenck Douglas , Wilson Peter
Published: November 2020

We now look at some of the more general principles which should be applied when creating an information model. These principles have evolved through experience in creating a wide variety of models. We have tried to separate the topics but, as with any non-trivial subject, there are inevitably overlaps between these, and also some of the principles exhibit a creative tension between them. That is to say that complete adherence to one principle may prevent complete adherence to another; there are trade-offs that can be made and these will vary according to the modeling scope and purpose, and the choice of representation methods. In general, an information model should be precise, complete, non-ambiguous, minimally redundant and implementation independent. The modeling should tend towards clarity rather than conciseness. An information model, although if defined via EXPRESS is computer interpretable, should primarily be designed for a human reader. The modeling constructs should be chosen to aid the reader rather than obfuscate understanding by using complex, intertwined or opaque definitional relationships, particularly if they are comingled with obscure, pretentious, tautological and circumlocutory prosody. It is advantageous to present a model in more than one way, for example using both lexical and graphical representations. This, though, raises a potential ambiguity problem when the multiple representations are not in agreement. Any model that involves multiple representations must be clear about which representation is primary, so the ‘legal’ source is clear in case of disagreements between the various model forms. Define the scope and assumptions of the information model. This should be done at the start of the modeling project. It may turn out that for a complex model, the overall scoping statement can be partitioned into several more detailed scopes each of which serves a particular purpose in the overall model. A scope also defines a context in which the model items reside, thus providing a specific viewpoint in which the items are defined. One view of a model is that it can be considered to consist of a set of scopes and contexts within which the details are represented. The model should be documented according to these aspects.
EXPRESS Syntax
Authors: Schenck Douglas , Wilson Peter
Published: November 2020

Here is the entire syntax except for constant tokens (i.e., reserved words and such), character sets, standard constants, functions and procedures, and simple equates to tokens that create or reference identifiers. The following conventions will help to interpret the syntax presentation: • Identifiers written in upper case letters are keywords of the language. For example, when you see SCHEMA this means that the word ‘schema’ must be written at this place (using mixed case if you wish.) The names of these syntax productions are identical to the keywords of the language. • Elements that follow the pattern xxxDef represent an identifier declaration. For example, VarDef shows where a variable declaration takes place. This also implies that the name created at this place is subject to the scoping rules that apply to the object in question. • Elements that follow the pattern xxxRef represent a reference to some explicit definition. For example, a VarRef requires a VarDef.
Adsorption on metal electrodes
Authors: Schmickler Wolfgang
Published: November 2020

Whenever the concentration of a species at the interface is greater than can be accounted for by electrostatic interactions, we speak of specific adsorption. It is usually caused by chemical interactions between the adsorbate and the electrode, and is then denoted as chemisorption. In some cases adsorption is caused by weaker interactions such as van der Waals forces; we then speak of physisorption. Of course, the solvent is always present at the interface; so the interaction of a species with the electrode has to be greater than that of the solvent if it is to be adsorbed on the electrode surface. Adsorption involves a partial desolvation. Cations tend to have a firmer solvation sheath than anions, and are therefore less likely to be adsorbed. The amount of adsorbed species is usually given in terms of the coverage θ, which is the fraction of the electrode surface covered with the adsorbate. When the adsorbate can form a complete monolayer, θ equals the ratio of the amount of adsorbate present to the maximum amount that can be adsorbed. In a few systems the area covered by a single adsorbed molecule changes with coverage; for example, some organic molecules lie flat at low coverage and stand up at higher coverages. In this case one must specify to which situation the coverage refers. Another definition of the coverage, often used in surface science, is the following: θ is the ratio of the number of adsorbed species to the number of surface atoms of the substrate. Fortunately, most authors state which definition they use. The chemisorption of species occurs at specific sites on the electrode, for example on top of certain atoms, or in the bridge position between two atoms. Therefore, most adsorption studies are performed on well-defined surfaces, which means either on the surface of a liquid electrode or on a particular surface plane of a single crystal. Only fairly recently have electrochemists learned to prepare clean single crystal electrode surfaces, and much of the older work was done on mercury or on amalgams.
Rationalizing Economic Values
Authors: Lehmann Scott
Published: November 2020

The argument from productivity alleges that privatizing public lands would make them—and the resources now committed to their management—more productive. I have spent the last two chapters interpreting and evaluating this factual claim. In my view, there is no sense of “more productive” for which it is both interesting and clearly true. But if there were, it would not immediately follow that public lands should be privatized. In order to reach normative conclusions, we need normative premises. In the argument from productivity, these are essentially that situations are better as resources are more productively employed and that we should arrange for the best possible situation. In this chapter I consider how such assumptions might be rationalized. One of the attractions of productivity, I suspect, is that it seems to offer a way of evading this task, a way of taking values into account without taking sides. People disagree about ends, for example, about whether old-growth forest is best reserved for spotted owl habitat, or cut on a sustained-yield basis, or liquidated to improve quarterly reports to stockholders, or carved into woodland estates. It would be nice to resolve such disagreements by demonstrating the superiority of some particular end. But a demonstration would be an argument from normative principles, and such principles themselves are disputable. How, then, can policies or institutions designed to promote some particular end, such as preserving spotted owl habitat, be defended? Though they might be rational relative to that end, how is the end itself to be rationalized? Better to sidestep the problem by letting individual consumers rank ends (I prefer other consumption plans to those I characterize as “poor”), seeking only arrangements (such as private property rights) that serve whatever preferences they might have. While there are certainly difficulties here, it is a delusion to think we can avoid them by deferring to the desires of consumers. When privatization advocates claim that public lands and resources would be more productive under private management, they aren’t merely describing what they take to be facts.
Dynamics of Ground State Bimolecular Reactions
Authors: Wittig Curt , Zewail Ahmed H.
Published: November 2020

During the past decade, the study of photoinitiated reactive and inelastic processes within weakly bound gaseous complexes has evolved into an active area of research in the field of chemical physics. Such specialized microscopic environments offer a number of unique opportunities which enable scientists to examine regiospecific interactions at a level of detail and precision that invites rigorous comparisons between experiment and theory. Specifically, many issues that lie at the heart of physical chemistry, such as reaction probabilities, chemical branching ratios, rates and dynamics of elementary chemical processes, curve crossings, caging, recombination, vibrational redistribution and predissociation, etc., can be studied at the state-to-state level and in real time. Inevitably, understanding the photophysics and photochemistry of weakly bound complexes lends insight into corresponding processes in less rarefied surroundings, for example, molecules physisorbed on crystalline insulator and metal surfaces, molecules residing on the surfaces of various ices, and molecules weakly solvated in liquids. However, such ties to the real world are not the main driving force behind studies of photoinitiated reactions in complexed gaseous media. Rather, it is the lure of going a step beyond the more common molecular environments. Theoretical modeling, which in many areas purports to challenge experiment, must rise to the occasion here if it is to offer predictive capability for even the simplest of such microcosms. Subtleties abound. Roughly speaking, two disparate regimes can be identified which are accessible experimentally and which correspond to qualitatively different kinds of chemical transformations. These are distinguished by their reactants: electronically excited versus ground state. For example, it is possible to study the chemical selectivity that derives from the alignment and orientation of excited electronic orbitals, albeit at restricted sets of nuclear coordinates. This is achieved by electronically exciting a complexed moiety, such as a metal atom, which then undergoes chemical transformations that depend on the geometric properties of the electronic orbitals such as their alignments and orientations relative to the other moiety (or moieties) in the complex.
Desegregation Policy and the Law
Authors: Armor David J.
Published: November 2020

Between the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954 and Supreme Court decisions in 1991 and 1992, civil rights laws and policies, especially those affecting schools, have undergone dramatic transformations and fluctuations. After the elegantly straightforward but unprecedented principles propounded in Brown, which have not been seriously challenged in their application to schools, the Court entered what might be called the conceptual swamp of remedy. In a series of major school desegregation decisions during the 1970s, the Supreme Court grappled with a host of complex legal issues involving the definition of desegregation, the nature of remedies, the obligations of school districts, and the remedial powers of the lower courts. The period was marked by divided Supreme Court panels; conflict among numerous lower courts; intense debate among political groups, legal scholars, and social scientists; and heated controversy—and sometimes violence—in affected communities. These battles and disputes were not over the basic principles of Brown but over how school segregation should be remedied. In view of the difficult and often emotional questions involved, it is not surprising that the evolution of school desegregation law has followed a tortuous and convoluted path. Given the basic constitutional principle of nonracial classifications promulgated by Brown and related cases, there was little indication that the principle would be turned on its head in 1968 by Green v. New Kent County and the concept of affirmative integration and, even more explicitly, by the 1971 decision in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, which fostered policies of racial balance and racial quotas—in effect, a race-conscious policy of forced integration. In 1973 many people were surprised, if not shocked, when the Supreme Court applied the Swann concepts of mandatory busing and racial balance to northern school systems, most of which never had the statemandated “dual” school systems of the South (Keyes v. Denver). Then, when mandatory busing appeared likely to become commonplace and permanent throughout the country, the 1974 decision in Milliken v. Bradley severely restricted remedies by excluding the white suburbs surrounding the predominantly black Detroit schools.
The Effectiveness of Desegregation Remedies
Authors: Armor David J.
Published: November 2020

In the complex body of case law on school segregation and desegregation, there has been one enduring feature in an otherwise variable landscape. If a school board is held liable for intentionally segregating its schools, then a federal court is obliged to order remedies that “restore the victims of discriminatory conduct to the position they would have occupied in the absence of such conduct.” While legal scholars may disagree over the meaning of intentional segregation and social scientists may argue about the benefits of desegregation, no federal court since the 1971 Swann decision has failed to order some type of school desegregation remedy after finding de jure segregation. What constitutes an acceptable remedy? Three distinct but interrelated questions have dominated legal and social science discussions about desegregation remedies. The first is the proper scope of a remedy, particularly the conditions that trigger a systemwide desegregation plan, such as mandatory busing, that affects all schools. The second concerns the definition of desegregation and the standards that should be applied to judge whether a school or a school system is desegregated. The third is the effectiveness of particular types of plans or techniques in eliminating the dual school system and its vestiges as found by a court. Without question, the central and most difficult issue in effectiveness is the attainment of desegregated student bodies, given an appropriate standard for defining a desegregated school. All three of these areas have been subjected to vigorous debates over such concerns as the degree of court intervention in school operations, how desegregation should be measured, the problem of white flight, and the effectiveness of mandatory versus voluntary desegregation techniques. Although these issues are covered in a general way by a host of court doctrines and standards, laws, and regulations, there is much room for variations and disagreement on the specifics of desegregation remedies. There are, of course, legitimate differences among affected parties and constituencies on the questions of scope, definitions, and the types of outcomes for evaluating the effectiveness of a given desegregation remedy.
Geomorphology in Archaeology
Authors: Herz Norman , Garrison Ervan G.
Published: November 2020

Geomorphology is the study of the evolution of landforms. Analysis of surficial deposits provides much of the evidence for changes in landforms over time. These deposits may be residual materials, formed in place by weathering of underlying formations, or may have been formed elsewhere and then transported by wind, water, or humans to their present site of deposition. They include both sediments and soils, which are commonly confused in the field although each originates by different processes and each yields different kinds of information. Both geomorphology and surficial deposits are the principal subjects of several other publications and will not be covered in great detail here. This book aims to cover in more detail fields that are universally acknowledged to be important for archaeology but are generally ignored in the "geoarchaeology" literature. Those seeking more information on geomorphology and surficial deposits should refer to other publications. The kind and amount of surficial materials change with the changing land surface and climatic conditions and so offer the best evidence regarding the evolution of the landscape. An understanding of these changes on a site will allow a re-creation of the paleoenvironment at the time of occupation and a modeling of the prehistoric land-use patterns. Archaeological exploration in an area is facilitated by first pinpointing desirable habitation sites of the time and then targeting these sites for geophysical prospecting. After a site has been discovered, geophysical and geomorphic-sedimentologic information can help develop excavation strategies. Such information commonly allows a better idea of the distribution and nature of buried artifacts and may explain anomalous surficial redistribution of artifacts, for example, by downslope wash or sediment burial. The first study in a new area proposed for any detailed archaeological work should be geomorphic-surficial geology. It can be carried out in three distinct phases:1. Geomorphic mapping affords meaningful descriptions of the landforms, drainage patterns, surficial deposits, tectonic features, and any active geomorphological processes. 2. The erosional processes that carved the landforms—including soil formation, sediment removal or deposition, and tectonic uplift—are documented.
Other Chronological Methods
Authors: Herz Norman , Garrison Ervan G.
Published: November 2020

Dendrochronology relies on the seasonal changes in the wood growth of trees that result in the annual production of rings; each ring starts with large cell elements associated with spring and ends with small cell elements associated with summer and autumn growth. The age of the tree is known by counting these rings. The sequence of rings produced over the years is distinctive and shared by trees of the same species over a broad region. In the western and southwestern United States, the bristlecone pine from the White Mountains of California and the eastern Great Basin has allowed the establishment of a tree-ring chronology of 10,000 years. The California bristlecone pines are found west of the Sierra escarpment's White Mountains, on the Trans-Sierra Valley slopes. The oldest groves of the trees are at an altitude of 13,000 ft (3936 m), with a few hundred trees. The oldest living tree is "Methuselah," at 4,700 years, while some of the dead trees have ages of 8,000 years. Shaped by the wind, their silvery trunks have tightly packed ring sequences. The growth of trees, which occurs from spring to autumn, is marked each year by the formation of a new ring of wood cells. The thickness of the rings is a function of the temperature and precipitation at the time of their formation. The trees of a region experience the same variations in climate and, therefore, present the same series of growth rings for the same data (period) sequence. In 1911, an astronomer, A. E. Douglass, was studying tree rings to correlate them with s spots and climatic changes. He succeeded in establishing one of the most precise dating t hniques used in archaeology. In order for the technique to be used, the tree rings must contain an arrangement of both narrow and wide rings that vary considerably in width. Each of the rings found within the cross section is called an annual ring. A wide annual ring signifies plentiful moisture in the soil, whereas a narrow ring signifies insufficient moisture in the soil for robust growth.
Archaeological Materials :Rocks and Minerals
Authors: Herz Norman , Garrison Ervan G.
Published: November 2020

This chapter is only a brief introduction to lithic archaeological materials. Archaeologists with but little knowledge of rocks and rock-forming minerals are urged to learn about them in greater detail than that presented here. Lithic resources are abundant in almost every archaeological site, and lithic artifacts are invariably the best preserved of any remains. Early societies learned how to exploit these resources, and the use and production of lithics go back to the earliest known sites, at least 1.5 million years. In fact, the earliest cultures are distinguished on the basis of their lithic industries and lithic artifacts. Horror stories in misidentification of lithics abound. Not only have misidentified artifacts proven embarrassing to the archaeologist, but also they have made it difficult to make meaningful comparisons of different societies using published descriptions. In addition, conservation strategies for historical monuments cannot be developed without an understanding of the nature of the material used in their construction. Some egregious examples of ignorance of the rocks and minerals from our personal experience include the following: 1. An archaeologist asked if a quartzite scraper was either flint or chert. When told that it was neither, he asked, "Well then, which is it more like?" (answer, still neither). 2. Egyptian basalt statues have been called limestone in publications (and several other rock types). 3. Sources for alabaster were searched to explain a trading link between a site and elsewhere when the geological map showed the site was adjacent to a mountain of gypsum, the mineral component of alabaster (the gypsum may have merely rolled down the hillside to the workshops, where it became the more salable alabaster). 4. Conservators searched for methods to preserve an allegedly granitic historic monument, or so it had been identified. Chemical analysis revealed only abundant Ca, Mg, and carbonate. Fossils were also abundant in the "granite," which dissolved easily in hydrochloric acid (the "granite" was clearly limestone). Petrology is the branch of geology that deals with the occurrence, origin, and history of rocks. Petrography is concerned with descriptions of rocks, their mineralogy, structures, and textures.