bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ecological Momentary Assessment
Authors: Hoppmann Christiane A. , Ho Amy
Published: December 2015

Ecological momentary assessments represent a methodological tool that is uniquely suited to capture time‐varying behaviors, feelings, and experiences as individuals engage in their typical routines in their own environments. The purpose of this entry is to lay out specific questions that this methodological tool helps address that advance our understanding of developmentally meaningful phenomena; to identify recent trends and key challenges that characterize research using this method, and to highlight promising avenues for future research.
Compression of Morbidity
Authors: Utz Rebecca L. , Tabler Jennifer
Published: December 2015

The compression of morbidity hypothesis claims that as human life expectancy has increased, the onset of illness and disability has been delayed resulting in a larger proportion of the life course spent in a disease‐free and disability‐free state. Mixed empirical findings, misspecifications of the theoretical models, and ambiguous definitions cloud our ability to fully support or refute the compression of morbidity hypothesis.
Chemical Senses
Authors: Elsner Robert J. F.
Published: December 2015

Chemical senses, including taste, smell, and trigeminal stimulation, are essential for safety and quality of life throughout the lifespan. Changes in aging from the physiological, cognitive, nutritional, and other realms may limit the abilities of these sensory systems, thereby increasing risk of multiple causes of morbidity. These senses are often useful in diagnosing and differentiating various pathologies.
Sleep Disturbance and Insomnia
Authors: Cassidy‐Eagle Erin L. , Siebern Allison T. , Martin Jennifer L.
Published: December 2015

Sleep disturbances, and insomnia specifically, represent a significant and increasing problem with advancing age. Nonpharmacological treatment alternatives, such as multicomponent cognitive–behavioral therapy, significantly reduce symptoms and have the opportunity to positively impact other psychiatric and social factors in addition to improving sleep. Further, there is increasing evidence that treatments adapted for residential and/or cognitively impaired populations are also effective in improving disturbed sleep. Sleep is an ideal target of interventions with older adults due to the high prevalence of disturbed sleep, the effectiveness of available treatments, and the opportunity to impact additional aspects of functioning.
Mixed Anxiety and Depression
Authors: Cassidy‐Eagle Erin L. , Lauderdale Sean A. , Unti Lisa
Published: December 2015

The co‐occurrence of anxiety and depression symptoms, often referred to as mixed anxiety and depression, is a familiar clinical picture to clinicians in outpatient and primary care settings. This entry reviews the prevalence and challenges of the mixed diagnosis in older populations, evaluation and assessment techniques, and treatment options, along with future prevention efforts. Given older adults' preference for seeking help with their primary care providers, collaborative care or integrated care models are optimal.
Complicated Grief
Authors: Bentrott Merea D.
Published: December 2015

Personal loss is a difficult yet universal experience and the grief which naturally accompanies loss is multifaceted. There is no exact pattern for grieving or easily predictable method to anticipate the pathway that feelings of sorrow, anger, and loneliness will follow or how long those emotions will remain with the griever. The majority of individuals in a state of bereavement experience mental, spiritual, emotional, and even physical ups and downs, but gradually learn to manage feelings surrounding their loss and reengage in life. Alternately, complicated grief can settle into the lives of grievers who remain in an overpowering, intensely emotional, and unresolved state of grief which prevents them from recovering.
Vascular Dementia
Authors: Sullivan Kevin J. , Elias Merrill F.
Published: December 2015

Dementia is a debilitating aging‐related disease that has increased in prevalence because of longer life expectancies in developed nations. While Alzheimer's disease is the most recognized form of dementia, vascular dementia deserves attention as a serious health concern because of its underreported prevalence. Further, recent evidence suggests that the pathology of vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease may overlap more than originally thought. Vascular dementia results from a vascular insult or cerebrovascular disease and has a progressively worsening course, and may be predicted by presence of cardiovascular risk factors and cognitive decline. Additional diagnoses related to vascular dementia, such as vascular cognitive impairment, are becoming better defined. Development of a reliable diagnosis for a preclinical phase of vascular dementia is essential for the future of treatment for this costly disease.
Depression
Authors: Hinrichsen Gregory A.
Published: December 2015

The prevalence of major depressive disorder (MDD) in community‐residing older adults is lower among older compared with younger adults. For the minority of older adults who are depressed, multiple factors increase risk for MDD. The diagnosis of MDD in older adults needs to take into account the increasing social and medical complexity evident among many older people. Psychotropic medication and psychotherapy are the primary treatments for MDD. Many psychotherapies found effective in the treatment of depression in younger adults are also effective for older adults. Many primary care medical providers do not adequately assess or treat depression in older adults. Integration of mental healthcare into primary medical care has been found effective in the identification and successful treatment of late‐life depression. Despite the growing population of older adults, few mental healthcare professionals specialize in care of older adults or are knowledgeable of aging‐related issues.
Ageism
Authors: Perdue Charles W.
Published: December 2015

Ageism, one of the more commonly experienced forms of bias, is the systematic stereotyping of and discrimination against individuals based on their age; the most likely targets are the elderly. Age‐based stereotypes may be both negative and positive, but are more likely to be disparaging. These attitudes may be explicit or implicit; they may even be internalized by the targets of ageism. Ageist discrimination is evident in the workplace and in healthcare. Ageism is perpetuated by negative stereotypes in popular culture and the media. Proposed explanations of the origins of ageism include terror management theory and justification theories.
Medicaid
Authors: Chapin Rosemary K. , Wendel Carrie
Published: December 2015

Medicaid is a joint federal/state health insurance program which includes long‐term care and covers more than 60 million people with low incomes. Although Medicaid is the largest source of healthcare funding for low‐income people, it does not cover all Americans living in poverty. Children, pregnant women, and older or disabled adults are major enrolled groups. Today, many Medicaid healthcare services are delivered through managed care, and several states are moving toward managed long‐term care. Although the Medicaid program experiences challenges and constitutes a large portion of state and federal budgets, it is generally a cost‐efficient and effective program for delivering health and long‐term care to many of the poorest people in the United States. The aging of society will result in increased Medicaid spending, particularly for long‐term care. Additionally, Medicaid is being expanded to cover millions of additional low‐income beneficiaries through the Affordable Care Act.
Bipolar Disorder
Authors: Reiser Robert
Published: December 2015

Bipolar disorder, formerly known as manic‐depressive illness, is a cyclical mood disorder with extreme periodic highs and lows that greatly impair functioning with long‐term impact on quality of life, including work, social functioning, and interpersonal relationships. While the prevalence of bipolar disorder is lower in older adults, it still accounts for a significant proportion of admissions to psychiatric hospitals and the public health impacts of bipolar disorder are likely to rise given the aging of the population. Late‐onset bipolar disorder (especially mania) is more likely to be associated with comorbid neurological and medical illnesses. Bipolar disorder is treated with psychiatric medication including a mood stabilizer such as lithium. Additional structured psychosocial treatments, especially cognitive–behavioral therapy, may be helpful in maintaining mood stability, reducing or minimizing the severity of future episodes, reducing the likelihood of harmful social and work consequences, and improving functioning.
Animal‐Assisted Therapy for Older Adults
Authors: Virues‐Ortega Javier , Cox Alison D.
Published: December 2015

Animal‐assisted therapy comprises planned human–animal interaction episodes intended to induce a variety of behavioral and physiological responses in various clinical populations and in normal populations with special needs. Companion animals can cause stress‐buffering effects and the enhancement of social functioning in the normal adult population. Also, pets seem to induce gains in social functioning among both cognitively intact and cognitively impaired older adults. Individuals with dementia exposed to animal‐assisted therapy have shown reduced levels of behavioral disturbances. The effect sizes of these outcomes are compatible with clinically significant effects. No clear effects of animal‐assisted therapy have been reported for activities of daily living and cognitive functioning, while effects on anxiety and depression may not be clinically significant. There is preliminary evidence to suggest that guided, short‐term interventions delivered individually could help to maximize the effects of animal‐assisted therapy for older adults.
Structural Equation Modeling
Authors: Savla Jyoti , Carson Byrd W.
Published: December 2015

Scholars rely on a variety of structural equation models to study constructs that cannot be measured directly such as stress and coping. Structural equation models merge multivariate regression and factor analysis procedures to study a variety of models that assess causal relationships between variables to models that examine change over time. The components and applications of structural equation models in adulthood and aging research are discussed in this entry.
Life Story
Authors: McAdams Dan P.
Published: December 2015

The life story is a narrative of a person's past, present, and future. The term may refer to either an extended autobiographical account (typically written or told) that a person provides about his or her life or an internalized and integrative story of the self that functions (in the mind and in society) as a person's narrative identity. Life stories vividly convey lived human experience while expressing how people find meaning and purpose in life. Research suggests that people are first able to construe their full lives as ongoing narratives in the adolescent years. Up through midlife, life stories tend to increase in complexity and psychological sophistication, and in the later years stories tend to emphasize positive emotional themes. Culture provides the master narratives and frameworks of meaning for the construction of life stories.
Extended Kin: Aunts, Uncles, and Cousins
Authors: Milardo Robert M.
Published: December 2015

The relationships of aunts and uncles with nieces and nephews have important implications for parents and their children, as well as for the personal development of the aunts and uncles. Although not all adult siblings maintain close ties, many do and this closeness encourages relationships with their children. Aunts and uncles are close to their nieces and nephews when relationships between family members are active and lacking in habitual conflict, when careers and family obligations permit developing and maintaining relationships with the children, and when family norms regarding the responsibilities of members to one another are highly valued. Aunts and uncles can supplement the work of parents, act as surrogate parents, or develop complex relationships with their nieces and nephews that model peer‐based friendships.
Frontal Lobe Dysfunction
Authors: Golden Charles J.
Published: December 2015

Situated just behind the forehead are the frontal lobes of the brain, which play a major role in the development of human abilities. Specific functions of the frontal lobe include planning, self‐monitoring, use of complex and original concepts, insight, self‐awareness, cognitive flexibility, impulse control, delayed gratification, generating novel approaches to situations, effective memory, and regulation of emotions and behavior The impact of injuries to or dysfunction in the frontal lobes differs based on when the problems begin and the nature and speed of the etiology of the problem. A variety of measures have been used to assess frontal lobe dysfunction (or the numerous symptoms that accompany it). Treatment for clients with frontal lobe dysfunction is often very difficult from a psychological perspective because of the lack of insight and awareness on the part of the client.
Model of Selection, Optimization, and Compensation
Authors: Napolitano Christopher M. , Freund Alexandra M.
Published: December 2015

Across the entire lifespan, development entails resource gains and losses in all life domains. Consequently, Paul and Margret Baltes conceptualized successful aging as a lifelong process of maximizing gains and minimizing losses through the interplay of three processes: selection, optimization, and compensation. Selection involves the delineation of goals that allows focusing resources toward a limited number of possible developmental trajectories. Optimization entails the acquisition and investment of goal‐relevant means to maximize gains, whereas compensation refers to processes that minimize losses by changing lost goal‐relevant means that threaten functionality. A series of empirical studies have found evidence for the importance of selection, optimization, and compensation processes in the adaptive functioning and development of adolescents, adults, and older adults.
Grandparent–Grandchild Relations
Authors: Fruhauf Christine A.
Published: December 2015

Intergenerational family ties include relationships between grandparents and their grandchildren. Historically, scholars have examined intergenerational solidarity including the influences of contact, comfort, geographical proximity, beliefs, and values within the grandparent–grandchild relationship. In the early 21st century these issues are still important; however, scholars have become more interested in contemporary intersections between individuals and families, leading to advancing the understanding of the grandparent–grandchild relationship. Researchers have found that grandchildren provide care‐related tasks for grandparents when the latter are frail or sick. Further, regardless of sexual orientation of grandparents and/or grandchildren, close ties remain. Grandparents also continue to assume parenting roles to grandchildren as custodial grandparents. Issues related to grandparent–grandchild relations are likely to receive greater attention as the number of older adults who experience grandparenthood continues to increase.
Parent–Child Relations
Authors: Jill Suitor J. , Con Gulcin , Johnson Kaitlin , Peng Siyun , Gilligan Megan
Published: December 2015

Relations between parents and adult children play an essential role across the life course. Three topics of particular importance in the study of relations between parents and adult children are relationship quality, exchanges of support, and caregiving in later life. Parent–child relations are closest when children share their parents' values, when children and parents have a history of support, and when parents' marriages are intact. Although relations are closest between mothers and daughters, these dyads also experience the greatest conflict. Gender also plays an important role in exchanges between parents, with daughters and mothers being the most likely to provide one another with support. Gender continues to shape patterns of caregiving when parents experience health declines and need assistance, support that is much more likely to be provided by daughters than sons. Research from Asia, Europe, and the United States shows both differences and similarities in patterns of parent–adult child relations by race, ethnicity, and nationality.
Mental and Cognitive Health Following Retirement
Authors: Schauder Max J.
Published: December 2015

There is a general decline in mental and cognitive health among older individuals following retirement. Mental health can be affected by how individuals viewed their work roles and life when employed, whether retirement was voluntary, and one's family and financial well‐being. There is a general decline in cognition due to age, and the loss of a challenging environment such as work can further this trend. A possible option for older individuals to counter the mental and cognitive health decline following retirement is to engage in bridge employment, which can provide social contact, mental challenges, and financial support, all of which can have a positive effect on mental health and cognition.
Long‐Lived Human Populations (Blue Zones)
Authors: Dykes Kaitlyn , Bartz Ana Gronseth , Friedman James , Romportl Mark A.
Published: December 2015

A long‐lived population is defined as a cohort of individuals who share racial, environmental, or socioeconomic characteristics that facilitate aging for over a century. Blue Zone populations consist of individuals living in a defined geographical region who achieve extreme longevity in comparison to the average human lifespan. Identifying long‐lived populations, such as Blue Zones, can assist in highlighting factors that promote longevity. Genetic, socioeconomic, geographical, climatic, dietary, sociopolitical, and other general lifestyle factors all have been identified through observation as being associated with longevity. By continuing to study these factors through research, findings can be applied to non‐long‐lived populations through policy and through individual changes to promote longevity.
Physical Exercise and Activity
Authors: Maillot Pauline , Perrot Alexandra
Published: December 2015

The promotion of physical activity among older adults is a national public health priority. Indeed, the aging process is accompanied by a gradual decrease in individual adaptation capacity and in the effectiveness of several mechanisms. To date, science has recognized many beneficial practices (conventional or technological) that may have physical, psychological, and cognitive health benefits even at a very advanced age. Although some issues require a continuation of current work in terms of causality and the intensity of the program, the goal for future years appears to be preventing a sedentary lifestyle and promoting regular, moderate physical activity.
Occupational Health
Authors: Sinclair Robert R. , Cheung Janelle H.
Published: December 2015

In most industrialized nations the workforce is aging. This entry discusses the safety and health implications of an aging workforce in terms of four broad occupational health concerns: physical injury prevention, physical health promotion, psychological disorder prevention, and psychological health promotion. Although preventive health measures are important, organizations are also encouraged to accommodate older workers by creating more age‐adjusted and flexible working conditions through job design. Drawing from the job design literature, the entry provides practical recommendations on how organizations can improve and optimize workers' physical and mental health through redesigning task, knowledge, social, and contextual job characteristics.
Adaptability
Authors: Huang Jason L. , Bramble Reed J.
Published: December 2015

The term adaptability has been applied in several areas of psychological research to refer to overlapping but distinct phenomena. Adaptability predisposes individuals' adaptation and adjustment in novel, unaccustomed, and changed environments. While adaptability can be viewed as a composite trait, several distal antecedents such as cognitive ability, personality, and goal orientation have been explored. The conceptualization of adaptability across different areas and its relevant predictors will be discussed herein, followed by a summary of emerging research areas.
Narcissism
Authors: Konrath Sara , Bonadonna John Paul
Published: December 2015

Narcissism is a personality trait that is characterized by excessively positive self‐views and low empathy. It is a complex constellation consisting of mostly positive individual correlates and mostly negative social correlates. This entry presents two different theoretical models that attempt to reconcile these apparently contradictory implications of narcissism. There are predictable age and gender differences in narcissism. In addition, narcissism is relatively high in Western individualistic cultures, and increasing over time in the United States, yet it is relatively lower in Eastern collectivistic cultures. This suggests that cultural norms and developmental experiences can possibly influence it.
Multigenerational Households
Authors: Keene Jennifer Reid
Published: December 2015

Multigenerational households have been increasing in prevalence in the United States over the past several decades. These households vary in terms of the catalysts of their formation, gender composition, race and ethnicity, social class, and even geographical location. Most multigenerational households consist of parents and adult children (and often grandchildren) or grandparent‐headed households (with or without a middle generation). Although multigenerational coresidence has always existed, widespread unemployment during the Great Recession of the 2000s pressured many families to coreside and share resources. The economic benefits of multigenerational household arrangements help unemployed people and their families in times of crisis. Further, they may have an additional benefit for Hispanics, blacks, and immigrants, whose multigenerational households tend to have higher household incomes than those among other groups.
Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Authors: Dozier Mary E. , Ayers Catherine R.
Published: December 2015

Late‐life obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) prevalence rates are significant, with up to 1.5% of adults aged 65 and over meeting OCD criteria. The presentation of OCD in older adults is often different from that in younger adults. Antidepressants are the drug treatment of choice for late‐life OCD; however, Exposure and Response Prevention, a type of cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT), is considered to be the best initial treatment option for individuals with late‐life OCD. Several possible age‐related confounds to the efficacy of CBT‐based interventions include cognitive decline and sensory impairment.
Second Careers
Authors: Grimland Shmuel , Vigoda‐Gadot Eran , Baruch Yehuda
Published: December 2015

Contemporary careers and labor markets are dynamic and less stable than in the past. Employees are more self‐reliant and innovative in order to advance their own career paths. People tend to employ adaptive schemes in order to move from job to job or from occupation to occupation. Adaptation is indicated by success, satisfaction, and development. Currently, the aging segment of the labor market is an important part of the global workforce. Older workers tend to be motivated less by career progression and more by intrinsic rewards. Their professional vitality is associated positively with career and life satisfaction and negatively with staffing turnover intentions in work. The vitality function is an inverted U shape that peaks around a person's fifties. Decision makers, managers, and especially human resources managers need to be ready to manage workers who leave and enter an organizations at various career stages. At the society level, training and education should be fitted to various age levels.
Work Attitudes
Authors: Jex Steve M. , Liu Xuan
Published: December 2015

Research on retirement has increased dramatically since the mid‐1990s. Although many predictors of retirement decision making and adjustment have been examined, the focus of this entry is on work attitudes. Generally speaking, individuals who have more positive attitudes toward work tend to work longer and are more likely to maintain their involvement in the workforce through bridge employment compared to those with less positive attitudes. Comparatively less research has been done on the impact of work attitudes on retirement adjustment; however, it has been shown that individuals who are highly attached to work may have trouble adjusting to retirement, and that retirement may provide some relief for those with negative attitudes toward work. Since few studies have been done on the interactions between different work attitudes, this entry recommends that researchers take an interactive approach in the future when examining the impact of work attitudes on the retirement processes.
Neuropsychological Assessment
Authors: Barrera Kyrstle , Yochim Brian , Yutsis Maya
Published: December 2015

Neuropsychological assessment involves the evaluation of cognitive, neurobehavioral, and psychological functioning. When performed for adults, its primary focus may be differential diagnosis and determining whether there is an underlying neurological process (e.g., Alzheimer's disease) that is affecting daily functioning to the point of causing mild cognitive impairment or dementia (known in DSM‐5 as
mild or major neurocognitive disorder
). Neuropsychological assessment also enables assessment of the extent of cognitive difficulties that are due to a known neurological event (e.g., stroke or traumatic brain injury) and how the resulting cognitive impairment may affect caregivers and treatment. Neuropsychological assessment typically involves a thorough diagnostic interview with a patient and a caregiver and one to five hours of testing. It has developed within the broader field of clinical neuropsychology, which generally is the study of relationships between the brain and behavior.
Vision in Mid and Late Life
Authors: Sörensen Silvia , White Katherine , Ramchandran Rajeev S.
Published: December 2015

Normal age‐related vision changes as well as common eye diseases, including cataracts, macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, and stroke‐related vision loss, can negatively affect health and quality of life for middle‐aged and older adults. A large proportion of vision loss can be prevented through early screening, adequate eye care, and lifestyle adjustments. Once vision loss has occurred, adjustment must address both difficulties in everyday functioning and emotional sequelae, such as depression. Agencies serving senior citizens and vision care centers can serve the growing population need for vision care among older adults by improving education, access to care, and screening.
DSM
‐5
Authors: Carpenter Brian D.
Published: December 2015

The fifth edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐5) is the latest version of this comprehensive taxonomy of mental disorders. Used primarily by clinicians, but also researchers, educators, and students, DSM‐5 lists all mental disorders, their defining characteristics, and their associated features. In the latest edition, the DSM included changes in the diagnostic criteria for several disorders, removed some disorders altogether or combined them with others, and dropped its multiaxial reporting structure. Several of these changes are relevant to the psychiatric issues faced by older adults, most notably changes in the framework for diagnosing cognitive disorders.
Care Planning in Frailty
Authors: Moorhouse Paige , Mallery Laurie
Published: December 2015

Frailty
refers to the accumulation of health issues that occurs with aging, which is associated with vulnerability to poor health outcomes. Although the predictive validity of frailty for adverse outcomes has been well established, the recognition and measurement of frailty have yet to become part of standard clinical assessments, such as preoperative assessments that are used to inform care planning discussions. Recognition of frailty offers opportunities for appropriately targeted interventions that may incorporate less invasive treatment options.
Family Interventions
Authors: Allen Rebecca S. , Hilgeman Michelle M.
Published: December 2015

Family integrity
describes the normative developmental process for individuals as they age into the second half of life and strive to belong in a multigenerational system that sustains their individual purpose and meaning in life. Family members who provide care for others during chronic illness or near the end of life suffer along with the person for whom they are providing care. Systems that are successful in enacting family integrity successfully cope with transitions and reach family resilience. Interventions to promote family resilience across the adult lifespan depend upon the environmental context, including who is included in the definition of
family
. Culturally competent interventions respect the diversity in definitions of
family
that emerge across care settings, across cultural/ethnic variations in family systems, and among gender and sexual minorities.
Work–Family Issues
Authors: Mann Marissa , Chang Chu‐Hsiang
Published: December 2015

There are growing numbers of older workers in the United States whose caretaking responsibilities and preparation for retirement are having a major impact on organizations. Physical and psychological strain can result from work and family demands. Due to older workers' position in their lifespan, they experience unique challenges and opportunities in their work and family roles. Older workers often face simultaneous childcare and eldercare responsibilities, which may affect their retirement and bridge employment decision making. Having high‐quality experiences in the work or family role can balance the rewards and stress associated with managing multiple role demands. A number of interventions, such as flexible work arrangements, dependent care help, and retirement‐planning assistance, have been designed to assist employees to manage their work–life interfaces.
Expertise
Authors: Hambrick David Z. , Macnamara Brooke N.
Published: December 2015

Questions about how expertise is acquired, and how it changes with age in adulthood, have long been of interest to psychologists. Beginning in the late 1960s, research established that novices and experts differ in acquired skills, such as the ability to perceive meaningful patterns of information. The view that emerged from this research was that individual differences in expertise must largely—or even entirely—reflect training, with no significant contribution of basic abilities. An extension of this view to aging was that declines in expertise are caused by reduced training rather than declines in basic abilities. However, recent research has established that basic abilities contribute substantially to individual differences in expertise. Moreover, the question of whether age‐related decline in expertise reflects reduced training remains unanswered. This entry provides an introduction to research on expertise and a brief discussion of key findings and unresolved issues concerning the relationship between aging and expertise.
Hearing
Authors: Wettstein Markus , Wahl Hans‐Werner
Published: December 2015

Sensory functioning is of crucial importance for effective person–environment interaction. Regarding hearing abilities, efficient communication with the social environment requires intact auditory functioning. However, hearing acuity declines with advancing age. This entry describes age‐related changes in hearing and provides a range of prevalence estimates for hearing impairments in old age. It also discusses the implications of age‐related hearing loss for everyday life and psychosocial functioning. Finally, it addresses interventions that aim to improve hearing in older adults and to buffer negative consequences of age‐related hearing loss.
Caregiving: Adults With Developmental Disabilities
Authors: Woodman Ashley C. , Mailick Marsha R. , Greenberg Jan S. , Smith Leann E.
Published: December 2015

Caregiving spans several decades for mothers and fathers of children with developmental disabilities. As a result, this group experiences unique challenges related to aging. The demands of caregiving may accelerate natural processes of aging and reduce levels of well‐being in late life. Positive coping strategies and helpful social support networks may offset the impact of caregiving demands, however. It is critical that interventions be offered to support families in their caregiving role. Future research in this area should include fathers, greater racial and ethnic diversity, biological measures of well‐being, and intergenerational and population‐based samples.
M
edicare
Authors: Daaleman Timothy P.
Published: December 2015

Medicare is the United States' federal health insurance program for people aged 65 and older and nonelders who have permanent disabilities or end‐stage renal disease. The program provides a guaranteed set of benefits to all who meet basic eligibility requirements, regardless of prior medical history, preexisting conditions, personal assets, or income. There are four parts to the Medicare program. Part A pays for inpatient care in hospitals, short‐term stays in skilled nursing facilities, postacute‐hospitalization home healthcare, and hospice services. Part B helps cover outpatient services, such as physician visits, mental health and outpatient hospital care, and clinical laboratory services and radiographic studies. Medicare Advantage or Part C is a program that allows beneficiaries to be covered by private, commercial health plans as the insurance carrier that provides Medicare benefits. Medicare Part D pays for outpatient prescription drug coverage through private plans and carriers.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Brose Annette , Ram Nilam
Published: December 2015

Factor analysisis used to represent the covariation among a set of observed variables in terms of linear relations among a smaller number of latent variables. Applied in the study of human development, the underlying idea is that if multiple aspects of behavior covary they may indicate or be driven by a common underlying (set of) behavioral construct(s).Exploratory factor analysisis used when the underlying structure of the covariation among variables is unknown.Confirmatory factor analysisis used when testing whether the data conform to a specific theoretical proposition for the underlying structure. Important advancements of factor analysis in developmental research include latent growth curve models, models for testing factorial invariance, multilevel factor models, and dynamic factor analysis.
Culture, Cognition, and Aging
Authors: Gutchess Angela H. , Boduroglu Aysecan
Published: December 2015

This entry considers what is known about the effects of culture on cognitive aging. While this is a relatively new domain of investigation, some studies compare young and older adults across cultures on cognitive processes such as speed of processing, working memory, and long‐term memory, including for source, categorical, emotional, and autobiographical information. The results largely suggest universal effects of aging on cognitive processes across cultures, although some differences do emerge in the strategies employed or the content of memory. These conclusions, however, are largely limited to the comparison of Eastern and Western cultures, an approach that has dominated the literature thus far.
Distant Caregiving
Authors: Hahn Sarah J. , Kinney Jennifer M.
Published: December 2015

Within the mainstream family caregiving literature, the efforts of family members who provide care from a distance have been overshadowed by their local counterparts. Research suggests that translocal and local caregivers perform similar duties, despite the varying geographical distance. However, transnational caregivers take a more macrolevel approach to care than translocal caregivers, sending in‐kind transfers to substitute for their absence. Care provided by both translocal and transnational caregivers is enhanced by accessibility to formal and informal services that are growing, but still lag, in developing countries. With this new understanding of distant caregiving, researchers need to expand contemporary models of caregiving to encompass the increasingly global society.
Cognitive Processes
Authors: Smith Anderson D. , Kelly Andrew
Published: December 2015

Cognition includes basic mental processes such as sensation, attention, and perception. Cognition also includes complex mental operations such as memory, learning, language use, problem solving, decision making, reasoning, and intelligence. Cognitive aging researchers have found age differences in both basic and complex cognition, but the degree of these differences depends on what aspect of cognition is being examined. While mental or cognitive processes control behavior, they are inferred from observations of behavior. Cognitive aging researchers have used various techniques or paradigms to make these inferences. Experimental techniques are used with hypotheses to examine causal relationships. Differential techniques are used to study individual differences in cognition and to look for relationships among cognitive processes. Contextual approaches are used to understand the relationship of cognition to everyday activities. In addition to cross‐sectional studies, change is measured within participants in longitudinal designs. Neuroscience techniques are used to determine the relationship between the brain and cognition.
Physical Health ofAsianAmericans andPacificIslanders
Authors: Iwasaki Yoshitaka
Published: December 2015

Health disparities within Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs) are an ongoing concern and require a structural examination that considers power‐based hierarchies (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, disability) and how these intersecting systems of oppression shape health inequities within AAPI populations from a holistic perspective, inclusive of the voices of often “marginalized” AAPIs.
Latent Growth Modeling for Developmental Research
Authors: Gonzales Joseph E. , Ferrer Emilio
Published: December 2015

This entry reviews the formulation and application of latent growth modeling (LGM) and several of its adaptations with the intention of introducing researchers working with longitudinal data and designs to LGM. In particular, LGM is presented as an alternative to traditional modeling approaches used to describe mean differences and trajectories in repeated observations studies, such as the repeated measures ANOVA. Specifically, this entry describes the following LGM applications: univariate LGM; the application of LGM to change scores; LGM of factor scores, known as the curve‐of‐factor scores or second‐order growth model; the use of exogenous variables as predictors of LGM parameters; and the interrelation of LGM parameters (e.g., bivariate LGM).
Personnel Selection
Authors: Kammeyer‐Mueller John D.
Published: December 2015

Personnel selection involves analyzing job and organizational requirements, and the selection of candidates using techniques identified in the earlier periods of development. The empirical research underlying scientific personnel selection represents an intersection between human resource management and industrial/organizational psychology. The foundational models for personnel selection practices are based on psychometric and statistical foundations, informed by both managerial and legal considerations. Many techniques have been developed to link individual characteristics to job behavior, including interviews, tests, and work simulations. These techniques attempt to assess various aspects of a worker's knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes.
Bereavement/Widowhood
Authors: Utz Rebecca L. , Pascoe Anita
Published: December 2015

Bereavement is the state of mourning following the death or loss of a significant other. The reaction itself, which is mostly but not exclusively emotional, is called grief. For older adults, the death of a spouse is the most common cause of bereavement. Widowhood is not the only source of bereavement for older adults, who experience a series of deficits and losses as they age.
Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Dore Gregory A. , Elias Merrill F.
Published: December 2015

Diabetes mellitus is a group of diseases, including type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes, in which the body is unable to produce or use insulin properly. The primary clinical manifestation of diabetes is elevated glucose levels. The major cause of type 1 diabetes is autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells, resulting in an inability to produce insulin, while the primary cause of type 2 diabetes is less clear. Factors that place individuals at higher risk for type 2 diabetes included being overweight, central adiposity (excess fat tissue in the abdomen), physical inactivity, family history, race, and prediabetes (elevated but not diabetic glucose levels). The primary treatment for type 1 diabetes is insulin injection, while a healthy diet and, if necessary, oral glucose‐lowering medications are the primary therapies for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in general, stroke, lowered cognitive performance, and dementia.
Physical Health of Latinos
Authors: Sorkin Dara H.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides an overview of the health status and health behaviors of Hispanics in the United States. The first section presents data on the life expectancy of Latinos and comparisons with rates for other racial/ethnic groups. This section also highlights the Hispanic health paradox, a fascinating and controversial finding regarding the Hispanic mortality advantage. The remaining three sections examine chronic conditions for which Hispanics are disproportionately burdened, health behaviors, and key factors influencing the health status of Latinos.
Culture Change Movement in Nursing Homes/Person‐Centered Care/Household Models
Authors: Kaup Migette L.
Published: December 2015

In long‐term care, the phrase
culture change
(CC) is often used interchangeably with
person‐centered initiatives
to refer to an enhanced social model of care. Evolving from a growing concern about the oppression of traditionally institutional‐based nursing home care, the goal of CC is to create a system of
interdependency
that enhances the quality of life of residents as well as the quality of the work environment for staff. These models include Action Pact, the Eden Alternative, Planetree, and the Wellspring Model. This type of care requires changes across several dimensions of the nursing home setting: organizational, operational, and environmental. In more highly evolved CC, organizations' core services are decentralized and the physical environment is redesigned into a household, reducing the scale of the functional areas where residents live and staff work.
Patient Self‐Determination Act and do not Resuscitate
Authors: Bern‐Klug Mercedes , Stensland Meredith
Published: December 2015

Adults with decisional capacity have the right to make decisions regarding the type and amount of healthcare they would like to pursue and also to avoid. When the ability to communicate preferences is lost, decisions must still be made. The Patient Self‐Determination Act supports a person's right to appoint a decision maker and to communicate preferences through advance directives. A decision that is often confronted in advanced chronic illness is whether to attempt resuscitation in the event of cardiac arrest. One method for clarifying preferences related to resuscitation is the do‐not‐resuscitate order.
Person‐Centered Dementia Care
Authors: Lai Claudia
Published: December 2015

Person‐centered care (PCC) has been promoted for decades in many healthcare systems around the world. The essence of PCC lies in placing patients at the heart of the planning, delivery, and evaluation of services and care, and of power‐sharing and decision‐making opportunities. One of the key challenges in caring for those with dementia is that the person's voice is gradually “lost” through the deterioration of his or her abilities over the course of the disease. Therefore, PCC has special relevance to this particular group. This entry provides a definition of PCC and a description of its attributes, its particular relevance in dementia care, models of care delivery, and research findings in the evaluation of PCC outcomes.
Information Processing Theory
Authors: Pollock Joshua , Allen Philip A.
Published: December 2015

Information processing theory emerged from Turing's work in the 1960s in which humans' cognitive processing was compared to processing used in a computer. This was a response to radical behaviorism, which could not account for reading, perceptual inversion, and cognitive maps. Thissystems engineering of the mindattempts to isolate behavioral or electrophysiological effects to a given processing stage. This entry briefly applies information processing theory to age differences in processing speed, divided attention, and emotional threat perception.
Physical and Chemical Restraints in Long‐Term Care
Authors: Castle Nicholas G. , Handler Steven M.
Published: December 2015

This entry provides an account of the use of physical and chemical restraint in long‐term care. Physical restraints are described and a historical account of their significant reduction (from a more than a 44% use rate to less than 5%) is given. Chemical restraints (i.e., antipsychotic drugs) are described and recent events and initiatives aimed at reducing their use are given.
Meaning of Life
Authors: Hicks Joshua A. , Seto Elizabeth , Kim Jinhyung
Published: December 2015

In this entry, we discuss the state of research in the psychological sciences on the experience of meaning in life. We first argue that the scientific study of meaning in life has progressed slower compared to similar constructs (e.g., life satisfaction) in part due to difficulties defining the construct. Despite this concern, we next describe recent research demonstrating that self‐reports of meaning are linked to a host of important outcomes (e.g., depression, mortality rates) and are strongly associated with variables theorized to bear on meaning in life judgments (e.g., goal clarity). We then describe experimental studies illustrating how three of these latter variables—positive mood, social relationship functioning, and religious beliefs—are related to the subjective experience of meaning. Finally, we outline a number of future research topics for scholars interested in studying this important construct.
Continuing Care Retirement Communities
Authors: Shippee Tetyana P. , Henning‐Smith Carrie
Published: December 2015

Continuing care retirement communities (CCRCs), which include multiple levels of care—independent living (IL), assisted living, and skilled nursing living—are a popular housing option for older adults. Most enter CCRCs as IL residents and transition through levels of care as their health status changes. These communities vary by organizational structure, policies, and region. This entry reviews the history and describes commonly cited benefits of CCRCs and investigates whether these claims are supported by current research. Although most IL residents are satisfied and adjust well to their new settings, transitioning between levels of care in CCRCs disrupts community life. Overall, CCRC residents report satisfaction with the amenities and services offered, but use of services varies according to residents' health status and other characteristics. Finally, because CCRCs are rather costly and vary widely in their fee structure, consumers must be educated about contracts and benefits.