bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Factors affecting judgements of how much another likes us: A signal detection approach
Authors: Berman John J.
Published: May 2007

Investigated the effects of subjects' self‐concept and the attractiveness of the other on subjects' estimates of how much the other liked them. The use of a signal detection paradigm allowed the measurement of both the criteria and discriminability of subjects' decisions. Eighty mule and 80 female subjects participated in a computer match where they received either somewhat positive or somewhat negative feedback from their match. Besides sex and type of feedback, the factorial design included dating self‐concept (high vs. low) and other‐attractiveness (high vs. low). Results indicate that high dating self‐concept subjects had a lower criterion than low dating self‐concept subjects for saying that another liked them (p < .0l), and that the former group was superior to the latter at discriminating between the two types of feedback (p < .03). Also, males were more willing to say that the attractive match liked them than that the unattractive match liked them, while among females the direction of these differences reversed (p < .03). fie results were explained in terms of differential attention to pay‐off matrices and prior odds.
Caste attitudes of college students in India
Authors: Anant Santokh Singh
Published: May 2007

Data from college students in North and South India tend to support our earlier findings of a positive relationship between the educational level and the degree of liberalism (Anant, 1972). With few exceptions a higher percentage of students than respondents from the general population gave liberal responses to most of the items in our questionnaire. A higher percentage of North and South Indian students gave liberal responses to items dealing with general attitudes toward caste‐system and toward interaction with Harijans (former ‘untouchables’), but the differences were reversed in the responses to items dealing with special privileges for the depressed castes.
The effects of behavioural and cultural expectation cues on the perception of social episodes
Authors: Forgas Joseph P.
Published: May 2007

The effects of behavioural and cultural expectation cues on the perception of a dyadic encounter were studied, using realistic videotaped interactions as stimuli. Intimate and non‐intimate non‐verbal interactions and intimate and non‐intimate episode definitions were combined in a 2 × 2 design and presented to subjects who rated both information sources separately (N = 20) as well as in congruent and incongruent combinations (N = 48). The contribution of each of these two cues to ratings of the combined episodes was analysed by Frijda's (1969) average relative shift technique, and a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) procedure. Results indicated that behavioural cues dominate perceptions, but this dominance is reduced in incongruent cue combinations, suggesting a weighted averaging strategy. Perceptions of the relationship between the interactants were more resistant to behaviour cue dominance than perceptions of the interaction. An analysis of open‐ended accounts by subjects substantiated these findings. The results suggest that cultural expectations of interaction episodes have a salient and non‐obvious effect on social perception.
Intolerance of ambiguity and socio‐politico ideology: A multidimensional analysis
Authors: Sidanius Jim
Published: May 2007

This study tested the relative plausibility of three, main theories and/or hypotheses concerning the relationship between intolerance of ambiguity and socio‐politico ideology: (a) authoritarian personality theory, (b) the extremism hypothesis and (c) the context hypothesis. The sample consisted of 195 Swedish high school students randomly selected from five different high schools from greater Stockholm in the spring of 1974. Separate factor analyses of the Budner Intolerance of Ambiguity Scale and the S4 Conservatism Scale generated seven factors of ambiguity intolerance and five factors of socio‐politico ideology, Scattergram, correlation and trend analyses disclosed a number of statistically significant relationships between the various dimensions of ambiguity intolerance and socio‐politico ideology. The main trend of the results tended to confirm authoritarian personality theory concerning the relationship between intolerance of ambiguity and racism or ethnic prejudice. Furthermore, some support was found for the context hypothesis, with regards to the relationship between general intolerance of ambiguity and general conservatism, among other things. No support could be found for the extremism hypothesis.
Arbitrariness of frustration: Inhibition or instigation effects on aggression
Authors: Rule Brendan Gail , Dyck Ronald , Nesdale Andrew R.
Published: May 2007

The purpose of the present research was to assess the relative influence of instigation or inhibition in mediating retaliation after arbitrary or non‐arbitrary frustration. Sixty‐four men were asked to learn a concept that was being taught by a peer. Although all men were frustrated, half were deliberately frustrated while the other half were not deliberately frustrated by the teacher. Following the task, the learner was given the opportunity to prevent the teacher from gaining employment under conditions where his evaluation was either anonymous or to be made public. The results of a 2 × 2 analysis of variance yielded several significant effects. The data revealed that subjects rejected the teacher more when the frustration was arbitrary than when it was non‐arbitrary. Moreover, when the evaluation was anonymous, subjects rejected the teacher more than when the evaluation was to be made public. Furthermore, the difference in the amount of rejection expressed between arbitrary and non‐arbitrary conditions was greater when the evaluation was anonymous than when it was public. These results were interpreted as demonstrating the greater contribution of instigatory rather than inhibitory factors in expressing aggression following deliberate or non‐deliberate frustration.
Coalition formation: Political attitudes and power
Authors: Wilke Henk , Pruyn Jean , De Vries Gerjan
Published: May 2007

In this study 2 theories have been tested: Minimum Range theory (de Swaan, 1970; Leierson, 1970) and Minimal Resource theory (Caplow, 1956; Riker, 1962; Gamson, 1964). In an experimental simulation (Runkel and McGrath, 1972)political attitudes (left, centre and right) and power differences (40 seats in parliament, 30 seats and 20 seats) have been induced.

The results suggest that in the beginning of the bargaining process people communicate about the composition of the coalition programme. The minimal range theory may explain this behaviour: parties with more similar ideological interests do coalesce. Later on, one more often bargains about the division of the outcomes, i.e. portfolios. Minimum Resource theory only partly explains the formed coalitions. Minimal winning coalitions, which are predicted by Minimum Resource theory, are formed more often within centre‐left‐coalitions. This is not the case for centre‐right‐coalitions. It is discussed that the link between the parity norm and minimal winning coalitions, which is assumed by Minimum Resource theory, possiblv does not hold in this experiment. The parity norm being used by right together with centres strong position leads to the frequent occurrence of minimal winning centre‐left‐coalitions.
Social change and intergroup preferences in New Zealand
Authors: Vaughan Graham M.
Published: May 2007

Twelve hundred Maori and Pakeha (White, European) children in New Zealand ranging from five to twelve years of age, have been tested for intergroup preferences in a series of studies. These investigations spanned the years 1961–1970, and were conducted in four different regions, Previous analysis of these results had concentrated on the ontogeny of ethnic awareness and attitude development, and has not succeeded in relating distinct regional differences to population characteristics such as density or contact rate. The present study re‐examines available data, following Tajfe's recent theoretical developments relating social identity to the process of social change, Two judges independently rated the four New Zealand regions in question in terms of perceived status relationships between Maori and Pakeha, ranging from relatively static to relatively fluid. Both resorted to two major variables in the judging: rural versus urban, and year of study. Inter‐judge agreement for ratings was total across the four regions. The resulting dimension was conceived as one which could reflect a restructuring of intergroup choices as a consequence of social change. It was found that Maori children have shown a clear shift away from out‐group preference as a function of urbanism and of time. While the rural context may have offered a form of security via a more ‘classical’ Maori identity, the collapse of this system in an urban context reveals Maori/Pakeha social inequity for what it is, particularly in the eyes of older children. This trend has been accelerated in the seventies by a knowledge of minority group assertions elsewhere, particularly in the United States. There is some evidence of a shift in Pakeha behaviour too. Blatant in‐group preference has diminished as a facet of social change, though Pakehas could retrench if a militant pattern appeared in Maori behaviour.
Reactions to facial deformities: Autonomic and social psychological
Authors: Aamot Solveig
Published: May 2007

Studied the reaction to facial deformities and the evaluation of physical and social handicap in connection with rehabilitation.

Threshold and latency time of 40 male and 40 female normal subjects, reaction to male and female deformed and non‐deformed faces (Jive of each) was measured by tachistoscopic procedure. In test 1 subjects responded ‘man’/‘woman’, in test 11 ‘deject’/ ‘normal’. In test 111 seven additional and the pictures of the ten deformities of rests I, II were scored on degree of handicap.

Results by use of a quasi‐four‐way analysis of variance (tests 1, 11) and factor analvsis (III) show significant differences in reaction to deformity versus nondeformity (p < .01). Sex takes longer to report with deformed females (p < .05), deformity with females (p < .01); deformitylnormality is reported differently with own versus other sex (p < .05). Increasing degree of deformity does not correspond to increase in reaction time; slight deficiencies cause reactions indicating confusion.

Several levels of discrimination ‐ autonomic and social psychological ‐ and the possible use of evaluation scales to reveal psychological problems of facial deformities are discussed.
Personality inference from voice quality: The loud voice of extroversion
Authors: Scherer Klaus R.
Published: May 2007

Investigated the process of personality inference from voice quality using 24 male American stimulus persons who served as subjects in simulated jury discussions. Applying a Brunswikian lens model of the inference process, criteria, distal cues, proximal cues and attributions were measured by independent groups of judges: personality criteria by three peers of each stimulus person and, on the basis of content‐masked voice samples, distal voice quality indicator cues by six phoneticians, proximal voice percept by ten naive judges, personality attributions by nine naive judges. Only extroversion attributions correlate significantly with the criterion, replicating earlier findings. For the inference of extroversion, contrary to other traits which apparently cannot be inferred accurately from voice quality, the following conditions are met: (a) the criterion is associated with ecologically valid voice energy cues (vocal effort and dynamic range), (b) these indicator cues are adequately represented as proximal voice percepts (particularly loudness and sharpness), and(c) percept utilization in the judges' inferential strategy corresponds to the association between criterion and distal indicator cues. Path‐analytic procedures are used to test empirically the adequacy of the inference model to (a) account for the variance in the attributions, and (b) explain significant correlations between criteria and attributions in terms of mediating variables.
Information search and attribution: Cognitive processes mediating the effect of false autonomic feedback
Authors: Liebhart Ernst H.
Published: May 2007

All published experiments using false autonomic feedback are reviewed and four sets of necessary conditions mediating its effects are proposed. These conditions convern (a) search for an explanation of the feedback, (b) availability of potentially explanatory context features, (c) causal attribution of the feedback, and (d) salience of the perceived causes. Conflicting results, including outcomes of cognitive desensitization, are explicable by reference to these conditions. Evidence supports the attributional theory of emotional behaviour and the assumed equivalence of actual and fictitious arousal although the boundary conditions of the latter postulate need still be explored.
Attitudinal effects of the use of evaluatively biased language
Authors: Eiser J. Richard , Pancer S. Mark
Published: May 2007

In an experiment to study the effects on attitudes of requiring subjects to use evaluatively biased language, 84 schoolchildren aged 13–14 years completed a questionnaire to measure their attitudes on the issue of adult authority over teenagers, before and after writing an essay on this issue in which they were either required to incorporate words from a list all of which implied a positive evaluation of a pro‐authority position or a negative evaluation of an anti‐authority position (pro‐bias condition), or required to incorporate words where the implied evaluations were reversed (anti‐bias condition), or were given no words to incorporate (control condition). Relative to controls, pro‐bias subjects showed as a shift towards a more pro position and anti‐bias subjects became more anti irrespective of their initial attitudes (pro‐bias versus anti‐bias comparison, p<.01). However, when tested 6 days later most of this effect had disappeared, particularly in the case of subjects whose initial attitudes were least pro. At this final session, subjects also rated attitude statements on the issue in terms of scales constructed from the pro‐bias and anti‐bias word lists. In accordance with previous research, the more pro subjects' attitudes, the more they showed greater polarization of judgement on the pro‐bias than the anti‐bias scales (p<.000l). It is concluded that a person's attitude may be related to the kind of evaluative language he will apply to an issue, and that when a person is induced to use language implying a particular evaluation of an issue, he may change his attitude, at least in the short term, so as to be more congruent with the language he has used.
Factors affecting balance, agreement and positivity biases in POQ and POX triads
Authors: White C. J. Mower
Published: May 2007

This review considers experiments which have tested triadic balance in POX and POQ structures. It is pointed out that balance is only one bias which affects subjects' responses to these structures. Of the others the most important are agreement and P/O positivity; these three biases act independently of each other and therefore should be considered as separate influences on subjects' responses. In addition, because they act independently, Newcomb's (1968) theory of interpersonal balance cannot be an adequate explanation of their operation. In an attempt to discover the different influences on balance, agreement, and positivity biases, experiments concerned with balance theory are reviewed in three sections: (1) a classification based on experimental task, (2) a classification based on characteristics of the triad, and (3) personality variables. It is concluded that there are different influences on the different biases, and that any attempt to assess their relative strength must consider the influences upon them. Finally, it is suggested that the view of biases as methods of encoding information about social structures should consider that such methods can be varied by subjects' knowledge or assumptions about that social structure.
Effects of knowledge of self‐interest and social relationship upon the use of equity, utilitarian, and Rawlsian principles of allocation
Authors: Curtis Rebecca C.
Published: May 2007

Subjects played a game and were told they had the high score, low score, or were not informed which score was their own. They were previously led to like or dislike the other. Relative performance was generally considered in allocating rewards, indicating the use of an equity principle. Performance was not used as a criteria for allocation, however, by subjects who were uncertain of their score in positive social relationships and poor performers in negative social relationships. When given a chance to increase the total group reward by deviating from the distribution ratio believed most equitable, most subjects did so. This finding indicated that a utilitarian type of principle was clearly used in conjunction with the equity principle. Few subjects, however, followed the Rawlsian principle that inequality is only tolerable when an unequal allocation gives more to each person than an equal allocation.
Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favouritism
Authors: Turner J. C. , Brown R. J. , Tajfel H.
Published: May 2007

Studied the effects of reward magnitude and comparability of the outgroup on minimal intergroup discrimination where self‐interest was related to ingroup profit. Favouritism towards own group is hypothesized to arise from intergroup comparisons to enhance self‐esteem as well as instrumental rivalry for group and self‐interest. Sixty‐two fourteen to fifteen years' old school‐boys and girls were randomly assigned to a high or low reward condition in which they distributed monetary rewards, via choice‐matrices, to the ingroup and a relevant comparison outgroup, and the ingroup and an irrelevant comparison outgroup. Monetary self‐interest was explicitly and directly linked to ingroup's absolute profit. Ss sacrificed group and personal gain to achieve intergroup differences in monetary outcomes favouring the ingroup; and were less fair and more discriminatory towards the relevant than irrelevant outgroup. especially with High Rewards.
Categorization, attitude and memory for the source of attitude statements
Authors: Eiser J. Richard , Van Der Pllgt Joop , Gossop Michael R.
Published: May 2007

In a study of factors influencing recognition‐memory for the sources of attitude statements, a final sample of 107 subjects, aged 15–16, first rated their agreement with 24 statements concerning drug‐use, 12 of which were attributed to one, and 12 to another, fictitiously named newspaper. Later, the statements were re shown to subjects with half the names altered, and subjects had to indicate which names were correct (i.e., unaltered). Discrimination sensitivity was very significantly higher in a condition where the initial relationship between the sources and the statements was systematic, so that the 12 most pro‐drug statements were attributed to one newspaper and the 12 most anti‐drug statements to the other, than in two conditions where the initial relationship was random, in which discrimination was at chance level. In the first of these conditions, subjects were also more likely to claim that the attributed source was correct if they had previously agreed with the statement. overall, subjects were more accurate in discriminating correct and incorrect sources for statements to which they had previously given a more moderate, or a more negative response on the agreement scale.
Favourableness of leadership situations studied with information integration theory
Authors: Singh Ramadhar , Bohra Kayyum A. , Dalal Ajit K.
Published: May 2007

In Fiedler's contingency theory, situation favourableness for leader depends upon three situational variables — Group Atmosphere, Task Structure and Position Power. Each variable is dichotomized as high or low to define a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial cube with eight octants, and correlations between leadership style and effectiveness are plotted against the octants. To place these octants along a one‐dimensional scale of favourableness, Fiedler assumes that Group Atmosphere is most important and Position Power is least important, and that the situational variables combine according to an adding rule. In four judgmental experiments conducted during different periods of national emergency in India, favourableness of leadership situations was studied with the methods of Anderson's information integration theory. Results indicated (a) that relative importance of situational variables changed across situations, (b) that situational variables were averaged in judgment of situation favourableness, and (c) that spacing of octants on the horizontal axis according to their functional measurement values generated a considerably better bow‐shaped curve for correlation between leadership style and effectiveness than was obtained with Fiedler's octant scale. Judgmental experiments seemed to have great potential for providing a more analytic approach to further work on contingency theory and leadership behaviour.
Political socialization: A multivariate analysis of Swedish political attitude and preference data
Authors: Sidanius Jim , Ekehammar Bo
Published: May 2007

Studied the socio‐political attitudes and political party preferences of 532 Swedish high school students as a function of seven background variables: (I) the mother's political party preference, (2) the father's political party preference, (3) the mother's education, (4) the father's education, (5) the mother's income, (6) the father's income and (7) social class identification. Multiple classification analysis and multivariate nominal analysis were used to uncover the most important possible determinants of political socialization of the youth in both bivariate and multivariate aspects. The results showed that, of the seven predictor or background variables studied, only three had any substantial relationship with socio‐political attitudes and political party preferences of the youth: (a) the mother's political party preference, (b) class identification and (c) the father's political party preference in that general order of importance. Furthermore, the superiority of the mother's political party preference over the father's political party preference was especially marked for girls. Among other things, the results also disclosed that ‘left‐wing’ youth tended to be more loyal to parental political beliefs than ‘moderate’ and ‘right‐wing’ youth. Several alternative explanations were proposed for these findings.
Social psychology at the crossroads: Its encounter with cognitive and ecological psychology and the interactive perspective
Authors: Zavalloni Marisa , Louis‐Guerin Christiane
Published: May 2007

This article discusses the implications for social psychology of recent developments in the neighbouring fields of cognitive and ecological psychology. The authors stress the importance of studying the cognitive processes directly instead of inferring them as hypothetical constructs from aggregate responses. This paradigmatic shift implies a change in the conduct of research from the traditional nomothetic perspective to a neo‐idiographic one. A method of representational contextualization is offred to generate the affective and cognitive deep structure from surface, first order data. This structure identified as the internal environment, reflects simultaneously the construction of reality by a situated individual and the recoding rules operating in such a construction.
The Influence of structural relationships on coalition formation in four‐person apex games
Authors: Kahan James P. , Rapoport Amnon
Published: May 2007

Eight quartets of subjects each played eight different versions of a 4‐person apex game twice, in a computer‐controlled coalition formation experiment. The eight games were cast into a 2 × 2 factorial mold in which (i) the central apex player was either weak or strong in terms of the outcomes available to Apex coalitions, and (ii) the outcomes to players not in coalitions varied, such that the outside opportunities of the Base players were not necessarily equal.

The data were analyzed from the point of view of coalition frequencies, payoff allocations, and a bargaining process examination of the computer‐recorded protocols. The H competitive bargaining set is shown to be a first‐order predictor of payoff allocations, but differences not accountable by that model are also manifest. The manipulation of the strength of the Apex player affected coalition frequencies such that strong Apex players were in more coalitions than weak Apex players. Somewhat contrary to expectation, no effect for differential outside opportunities of Base players were shown. The analysis of the bargaining protocols revealed structural and psychological factors not considered in present mathematical models that must be incorporated into any model aspiring to provide a coherent description of coalition formation processes.
A modified proportional change model of attitude change by group discussion
Authors: Brandstätter Hermann , Klein‐Moddenborg Volker
Published: May 2007

The data of two experiments of dyadic group discussion have been reanalysed. An extended proportional change model was designed to explain the actual process of attitude change. The model is defined by two parameters. The first represents the impact of single pro‐arguments and single con‐arguments on the attitude or decision preference. The second describes the resistance to further change that increases with the distance from the initial position. It was hypothesized that the first parameter should be higher and the second lower, with a similar partner than with a dissimilar one. The prediction was confirmed for the first parameter only. A comparison of the extended proportional change model to related models concludes the report.
Behavioural style and group cohesiveness as sources of minority influence
Authors: Wolf Sharon
Published: May 2007

Behavioural style and group cohesiveness were tested as sources of minority influence under conditions in which rejection of the minority from the group was possible and under conditions in which it was not. Female subjects (N = 120) were led to believe that they were interacting as a group and that they held a majority position on a relevant issue. The influence agent, ostensibly one of the group members, advocated a minority position throughout their interaction. Three variables were manipulated: group cohesiveness (high or low), behavioural style of the deviate (high or low consistency) and opportunity for rejection of the deviate from the group (possible or not possible). It was predicted that the deviate would be more influential under high cohesive than under low cohesive conditions and that she would be most influential when she was highly consistent and there was no opportunity to reject her. Although both hypotheses were confirmed, unexpected minority influence effects were also found.
Ethology, ethogeny, etics, emics, biology, culture: On the limitations of dichotomies
Authors: Smith Peter K. , Sluckin Andrew M.
Published: May 2007

Ethogeny, supposedly patterned on ethology, differs as an approach to human social behaviour in obvious respects. Ethogenists follow an emic research strategy, whereas human ethologists have strongly favoured etic research options. However, recent trends to a broader, evolutionary approach in human ethology suggest that an avoidance or rejection of verbal reports and ethogenic methods merits reconsideration, The distinctions involved in the eticlemic contrast are examined, and compared to Richer's distinction between D‐ and N‐type agreements. It is argued that none of the distinctions are dichotomous. The useful aspects of the distinctions refer to the generality of findings, and the validity of evidence. Bearing these in mind, ethogenic methods have a place in a broader human ethology. So far as validity is concerned, the value of a comparison of information from different sources, such as verbal and non‐verbal data, is stressed. So far as generality is concerned, ethogenists may consider this to be very limited because of idiosyncratic cultural factors in the causation of human social action. A reconsideration of the biology/culture dimension in terms of function rather than causation may lead to more optimism in this respect, and be more productive scientifically.
Input integration and input weighting in decisions on allocations of gains and losses
Authors: Kayser Egon , Lamm Helmut
Published: May 2007

Although the concept of relevance (or weight) of inputs plays a central role in equity theory, it has not been clearly defined. The present investigation attempts to answer the question of when, and which, inputs are taken into account in allocation decisions. Subjects were given a stimulus story in which two fictitious persons had, through joint work, produced a monetary gain or loss; further, information was provided on the relative effort (amount of time worked intensively) and /or ability (as determined by a test) that each stimulus person had contributed. Subjects were asked how they would allocate the gain or loss.

Empirical evidence for the following three codeterminants of allocation decisions was obtained: (1) the type of input—personal and behavioural characteristics are [relevant] for allocation if they are perceived as (a) causallv important for outcome production, (b) variable, and (c) under the person's volitional control; (2) the type of outcome to be allocated—more equal allocations are observed when loss as opposed to gain must be allocated; and (3) the constellation of individual inputs on given dimensions—information is given on several input dimensions, a dimension which should be [irrelevant] according to criteria (a), (b), and (c) does codetermine allocations when recipients have contributed equally with respect to this dimension. The latter finding is discussed from the perspective of [cognitive algebra].
The identification of deviance: A conceptualization and initial test of a model of social norms
Authors: McKirnan David J.
Published: May 2007

This paper outlines and initially tests a conceptual model of social norms, within the context of a general research framework for examining how deviant behaviour is identified and responded to. Norms are examined vis‐a‐vis (a) the structure of beliefs and expectancies toward one's own and [deviant] individual's behaviour, and (b) normative focus, representing the social context of behaviour and the nature of the group the norm is shared within. The results showed both of these constituents to be salient to the application of the model to the identification of alcohol abuse, particularly in terms of (i) the relationship between normative structure and the recognition of and evaluation of deviant drinking, (ii) a strong influence of social context on norms and (iii) the finding of powerful differences in normative structure in socio‐economically different communities. This latter effect is discussed in terms of the [social ecology] of norms. It is hoped that this model will have heuristic value in expediting theory based studies of both normative regulation, and perceptions of abnormal behaviour.
Observers' reactions to an equal or equitable allocator in relation to allocator input, causal attributions, and value importance
Authors: Feather N. T. , O'Driscoll M. P.
Published: May 2007

Reactions to an equal or equitable allocator working with a partner in a team situation were investigated using a 5‐factor design with Sex of Subject, Sex of Allocator, Nature of Expectation (high or low expectation of success based upon either consensus or consistency information), Input of Allocator (high or low performance), and Type of Distribution (equal or equitable) as the 5 factors. Judgments concerning the fairness of the allocation, impressions of the allocator's personality, liking for the allocator, and the importance of possible causes of the allocator's performance were obtained from 339 male and female subjects for each hypothetical situation involving one of the combinations of the 5 factors. Rankings of the relative importance of the Rokeach terminal and instrumental values were also available for most of these subjects. Results were consistent with hypotheses and indicated that subjects use a range of cues and engage in a complex attributional process in making judgments about an allocator. In addition to replicating and extending past findings on the effects of allocator input, the results also indicated that confirmation and disconfirmation of expectancies affected subjects' judgments. Protestant ethic values, competence values, and the value assigned to wisdom also influenced reactions to the allocator, as did an Australian concern with [mateship]. Results were discussed in relation to the view that social justice may take different forms depending upon both situational context and task demands. The importance of further research into the effects of personal and cultural values on allocator decisions and reactions to them was emphasized.
The effects of information exchange and communication in an asymmetrical negotiation situation
Authors: Crott Helmut , Kayser Egon , Lamm Helmut
Published: May 2007

Seventy‐eight dyads of male university students participated in a bargaining experiment. The bargaining situation was asymmetrical insofar as the two players had different payoff possibilities. Experimental instructions did not provide information about the opponent's payoff possibilities but players could ask each other for such information (except in the control condition). It was found that the players in the advantaged position (with better payoff possibilities) bluffed more frequently and communicated less with the opponent than their disadvantaged opponents. But there were no differences in the frequency of refusing to give requested information, nor in the frequency of requesting information. Verbal communication opportunities reduced the frequency of bluffing (false information) but did not by themselves lead to smaller payoff differences between the two players. Payoff differences were smallest when information exchange was obligatory and truthful and they were greatest when neither information exchange nor communication was possible.
A comparison of ranking and rating procedures for value system measurement
Authors: Rankin William L. , Grube Joel W.
Published: May 2007

Compared the validity and reliability of 2 value measurement techniques. 296 Ss (161 females and 135 males) in introductory psychology filled out the 2 measurement techniques and an attitude survey. The Rokeach Value Survey instructed Ss to separately rank 2 sets of 18 values in order of importance. A rating version of the Value Survey instructed Ss to rate the same 36 values from 1 to 99. 236 Sreturned 6 weeks later and again filled out both measurement techniques. Results of the multimethod factor analysis indicate very good convergent validity among the 4 measures of a given value (2 techniques × 2 sessions) and very good discriminant validity between measures of different values. Probably due to the ipsative nature of the ranking procedure, the test‐retest reliabilities were higher for the ranked measurements than for the rated measurements. The construct validity of both measurement techniques, as determined by multiple regression and analysis of variance, were similar. Despite criticisms of ranking procedures, both the ranked and the rated versions were of equal reliability and validity.
The cold glow of success: Responses to social rejection as affected by attitude similarity between the rejected and chosen individuals
Authors: Nadler Arie , Jazwinski Chris , Lau Sing , Miller Arden
Published: May 2007

Studied the effects of attitudinal similarity between two males on reactions to social rejection by a female. Sixty‐five male undergraduate students had met an attitudinally similar or dissimilar male confederate. Later a female confederate either chose or did not choose the male confederate as a work partner. Following that, measures designed to tap subjects affective state and self evaluations were administered. Two way interactions for affect and self evaluations (p < 0.01 and p 7lt; 0.05 respectively) indicate that, relative to a control group, only subjects whose similar male partner was chosen expressed unfavorable affect and self‐evaluations. The relevance of these findings for the affective consequences of social comparison processes is discussed.
Changes in attitudes and beliefs in two‐person interaction situations
Authors: Peay Marilyn Y.
Published: May 2007

A number of studies have supported a model of attitudes and belie ft in which the attitude toward a given issue is viewed as a function of both the belie ft about that issue and their evaluative components (Fishbein, 1965a). The present study tested the predicative ability of this model against alternative models and its applicability to changes in attitudes and beliefs resulting from the interaction of disagreeing peers. Two attitudinal issues and two types of beliefs for each, instrumental and attributive, were used. Pairs of subjects who disagreed on an issue according to their pretest responses were asked to reach a consensus and then to complete a post‐test questionnaire. Pretest responses indicated that the predictions of the Fishbein model were supported for each type of belief considered separately and for both combined for both issues. The predictions of most of the alternative models were also significantly related to actual attitudes. Although some of these predictions closely approximated those of the Fishbein model, this model was, overall, the best predictor. When changes in pretest‐post‐test responses for experimental subjects were considered, the predictions of the model were supported for both issues when both types of belie ft were considered together and when attributive beliefs were considered alone, but only for one issue when instrumental beliefs were considered alone.
Meeting a deviant person: Subjective norms and affective reactions
Authors: Heinemann Wolfgang , Pellander Fritz , Vogelbusch Antje , Wojtek Barbara
Published: May 2007

Studied differences in verbal, nonverbal, and physiological responses during a confrontation with a male confederate role‐playing either a physically handicapped (PH), homosexual (HS), or normal (NOR) person. One hundred and eight males from colleges of economics and engineering listened in a laboratory experiment to personal introductions by two confederates in succession. Whereas the first confederate always appeared normal, the second took one of the three roles mentioned. A further informal meeting with this confederate was arranged outside the laboratory; all subjects had taken a stereotype test before. Normative differences between PH and HS (p ≤ 0.05) are found on verbal measures including the stereotype test, self‐rated emotion and consent to a further contact. General effects of deviance separating PH and HS from NOR (p ≤ 0.05) emerge on observed emotion, interpersonal distance during the informal meeting, and skin‐resistance responses. The results largely confirm the hypotheses. They are interpreted as supporting a distinction between intended (action‐type) components of behaviour which are strongly influenced by subjective norms, and unintended (reaction‐type) components reflecting undifferentiated reactions to deviance.
Dissimilation, differential assimilation and social identity
Authors: Lemaine Gérard , Personnaz Bernard
Published: May 2007

Studied the behaviour of subjects in a ‘normalization’ experiment: when a consistent confederate adopts the subject's norms (adoption situation); when the consistent response of the confederate deviates from the subject's norm (distance situation). We had three conditions for each of these two modes of response: we manipulated the C's image (C was always similar to the subject), and the image of a reference population: C and S were both either very similar (C and S in the majority) or very dissimilar (C and S in the minority) to the population. Or there was no image manipulation.

Sixty male subjects participated in this experiment: 10 subjects in each of the six experimental conditions.

In two adoption conditions (no image, C and S in the majority) the subjects changed their responses when the confederate adopted their norm. Our hypothesis on the resistance to influence in one of the distance condition (C and S in the minority) was not verified.

Thus we have shown that a phenomenon of differential dissimilation exists, but our previous results on differential assimilation are not replicated. These results are coherent with the social differentiation and originality theory which stresses the quest for social identity and distinctiveness by actors who do not ‘react’ but who, in certains situations, elaborate strategies.
Variation of the susceptibility to information according to sociometric position and focusing of attention
Authors: Alaphilippe Daniel
Published: May 2007

Studied the effect of social support and increased self‐attention on the ways of dealing with information of subjects who were suspicious about the influence of the experiment.

All 48 subjects were students from psychology classes who had previously been informed of the processes of social influence. The experimental design was based on two variables: on the one hand, the social support variable, ranging from a strong, medium, weak, to one with no reference at all to social support; the focus of selfattention variable, on the other hand, materialized in the videotaping of half of the subjects. Subjects were asked to make estimates on a number of points. During some of the trials, subjects were given a piece of information consisting of answers supposedly made by other subjects which were in fact their own estimates with a constant number added to them.

The experiment has shown that as the social support given to videotaped subjects increased, the subject's confidence in his own estimate increased.

This result is partly at variance with the objective self‐awareness theory and shows the importance of the subject's artitude towards the experimental situation (‘emprise experimentale’).
Feminist and sympathetic feminist consciousness
Authors: Kalmuss Debra , Gurin Patricia , Townsend Aloen L.
Published: May 2007

Data from the 1976 American National Election Study were used to assess the effects of one outgroup characteristic, belief similarity—dissimilarity, on the enhancement of women's feminist consciousness. Women were focused on as the ingroup and men as the outgroup. The sample consisted of 677 women who believed that women should have an equal role with men. Outgroup belief similarity referred to women's perception that most men supported an equal role for women and outgroup dissimilarity to the perception that men did not support an equal role. Results indicated that outgroup belief similarity significantly enhanced women's feminist consciousness. Women who supported an equal role and perceived outgroup belief dissimilarity scored higher on cognitive and behavioural measures of feminist consciousness than those who supported an equal role but did not perceive outgroup dissimilarity. Secondary analyses were undertaken assessing the effect of ingroup belief similarity dissimilarity on the enhancement of sympathetic feminist consciousness among men.
A social decision scheme approach on group size, task difficulty and ability level
Authors: Egerbladh Thor
Published: May 2007

Tested several social decision models—or problem‐solving models—on groups of different sizes working on a disjunctive task, that is, anagrams of two levels of difficulty. The subjects were 300 ten‐ and eleven‐year‐old Swedish boys and girls from Grades 4 and 5, a 2 × 5 × 2 (ability levels high and low × group sizes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 × task difficulties hard and easy) design was used. Support was found for the truth‐wins model as an explanation of the underlying processes in very small groups (2 and 3), while reasonable explanations for larger groups (4 and 5) were given by the truth‐supported wins and the majority if correct, equiprobability otherwise model. Slightly different group processes were inferred on the hard as compared to the easy tasks. The results also extend previous research on the generality of the models, especially the truth‐wins model.
Impression formation and repeated measures: The design as a stimulus
Authors: Bierhoff Hans Werner
Published: May 2007

This study investigates the possibility that results of within‐subjects studies tend to be design‐specific. In a study of impression formation 3×3 row‐by‐column designs were presented to two groups of judges. The first design (standard‐design) included high. Medium, and low levels of the independent variables. The second design (comparison design) included a high/medium/low variation of one independent variable and a high/medium/high variation of the second variable. The judges were asked to reproduce informations. They received relevant informations (which should be reproduced) and additional informations (which were irrelevant for their task). The pattern of results is different within the two designs. While the standard‐design reveals a significant main effect for the relevant information, the comparison‐design reveals an additional interaction effect between relevant and irrelevant information. The results are attributed to the fact that the design itself is a stimulus.
Ways of reacting to communication failure in relation to the development of the child's understanding about verbal communication
Authors: Robinson E. J. , Robinson W. P.
Published: May 2007

Tested the hypothesis that explicit identification of message ambiguity as a reason for failure in referential communication could help young children to gain understanding about the need for unique reference in communicative acts, in both experimental and natural settings. In the experiment each of 47 children aged 5‐2 to 6‐5 selected and then described clothes for a doll so that the experimenter could choose matching items. Ambiguous instructions from the children were consistently responded to with one of three reactions by the experimenter: (1) she guessed an item, (2) she asked ‘Which one?’ waited and chose or (3) she made explicit why she could not make a unique choice on the basis of the child's message. Both before and after this manipulation children were assessed for their understanding that messages can be ambiguous and can cause communication failure. Children accorded the third treatment improved most both in understanding and in reducing the ambiguity of their messages.

A similar assessment of understanding was made of 36 6‐year‐old children of whom recordings of interaction in the home had been made over several previous years. Children whose mothers had made explicit their lack of understanding of their child's utterances were more advanced than those whose mothers had not.
Development of concepts about people in interpersonal situations
Authors: Oppenhelmer Louis , De Groot Walga
Published: May 2007

The aim of the present study was to obtain some insight in how children structure and organize their knowledge about other people. Ten short descriptions of social situations (i.e., interactions) illustrated by pictures were presented to 48 children from four different age groups (mean ages 5.4, 6.7, 8.6, and 10.7 years). The situations were accompanied by questions pertaining to the story characters as individuals, their thoughts, their (re)actions, and the immediate causes of their behaviour. The results showed that the knowledge about each concept is highly age related. Partial correlations indicated that concepts about individuals and concepts about the immediate causes of behaviour are related to concepts about how people will (re)act in particular situations. In addition, the concepts about individuals are related to concepts about the thoughts and concepts about the immediate causes of behaviour. It appeared that the better the children seem to know other people the less certain they were in regard to their inferences about others.