bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Provider Characteristics Related to Antidepressant Use in Older People
Authors: Fillenbaum Gerda G. , Hybels Celia F. , Pieper Carl F. , Konrad Thomas R. , Burchett Bruce M. , Blazer Dan G.
Published: April 2006

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether the characteristics of the usual medical care providers of older antidepressant users changed between 1986 and 1997 with the introduction of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

DESIGN: Longitudinal study.

SETTING: Five‐county Piedmont area of North Carolina.

PARTICIPANTS: Stratified random sample of African‐American (n=2,261) and white (n=1,875) community residents aged 65 to 105.

MEASUREMENTS: Sample members provided information on prescription medications, demographic and health status, and usual medical care provider (matched to North Carolina Health Professions Data Systems files to ascertain provider characteristics) in 1986/87, 1989/90, 1992/93, and 1996/97. Most (77.5%) named a provider (name unmatchable for 4.1%). Sample member characteristics were aggregated into probability (propensity) scores summarizing predisposing (demographic), enabling (medical care access), and need (health status) categories. Along with wave of study and whether a provider was named, these were entered as control variables in generalized estimating equation models that examined the association between provider race (white vs nonwhite), sex, age, location of practice, and primary versus specialist care and antidepressant use.

RESULTS: The characteristics of the usual medical care providers remained stable over the decade, although prevalence of antidepressant use increased. Two provider characteristics—race and area of practice (but not the interaction between them)—were significantly associated with patients' use of antidepressants. Patients of white physicians and of physicians with urban practices were more likely to use antidepressants.

CONCLUSION: Although use of antidepressants has increased over time, there has been little change in the characteristics of users' usual medical care providers.
Long‐Term Risks of Death and Institutionalization of Elderly People in Relation to Deficit Accumulation at Age 70
Authors: Rockwood Kenneth , Mitnitski Arnold , Song Xiaowei , Steen Bertil , Skoog Ingmar
Published: April 2006

OBJECTIVES:To measure relative fitness and frailty in older people without specific frailty instruments and to relate that measurement to long‐term health outcomes.

DESIGN:Retrospective cohort studies.

SETTING:Two population‐based studies of people aged approximately 70 at baseline and followed up to 10 years (in the Canadian Study of Health and Aging (CSHA)) or 26 years in the Gothenburg H‐70 cohort study.

PARTICIPANTS:Nine hundred sixty‐two men and 1,178 women.

MEASUREMENTS:Deficit accumulation (the exposure) was counted using self‐reported (CSHA) or clinically designated (H‐70) symptoms, signs, diseases, and disabilities. Relative fitness and frailty were measured in relation to the degree of deficit accumulation evaluated in four quartiles, representing those most fit to those most frail. The items that made up the frailty index were selected randomly without replacement in 1,000 iterations. The outcomes were risks of death or residential long‐term care.

RESULTS:Worse frailty, however measured, was associated with worse survival; the Kaplan‐Meier curves of random iterations of the frailty definition showed virtually no interquartile overlap for mortality. For any given level of frailty, men died younger than women. Worse frailty was also associated with a higher risk of institutionalization.

CONCLUSION:Frailty appears to be a robust concept that is readily operationalized, with the risk of adverse outcomes being largely established by age 70.
Action Potential Duration, Rate of Stimulation, and Intracellular Sodium
Authors: CARMELIET EDWARD
Published: April 2006

In the first section of this short review the change of the cardiac action potential (APD) with the rate of stimulation under physiological conditions is described and mechanistically analyzed. A fast phase of adaptation is mainly caused by changes in gating characteristics of ionic currents, and rapid modulation of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger. The slower phase is largely conditioned by incomplete recovery from inactivation of the late Na+ current (late INa) and changes in ion concentrations of [K+]e, [Na+]i, and [Ca2+]i, which cause secondary changes in the permeation and the gating of ion channels and flux through transporters. In a second section, an analysis is presented of the rate dependence of APD in pathological conditions and its importance in the genesis of arrhythmias in hypertrophy, heart failure, congenital, and acquired LQT syndromes is summarized. The role of the late INa, Na+, and Ca2+ overload is emphasized. Special attention is given to the paradoxical transient lengthening of APD in LQT3 syndrome for the sudden increase in rate in this setting. The third section consists of a short commentary on Na+ and Ca2+ overload and drugs which block the late INa.
Mathematical Simulations of the Effects of Altered AMP‐Kinase Activity on INa and the Action Potential in Rat Ventricle
Authors: BAZZAZI H. , CLARK R.B. , GILES W.R.
Published: April 2006

Introduction: Alterations in the activity of a so‐called “metabolic switch” enzyme, adenosine monophosphate‐activated protein kinase (AMP kinase), in mammalian heart contribute to the conduction abnormalities and rhythm disturbances in the settings of Wolff‐Parkinson‐White syndrome and ventricular pre‐excitation. A recent study by Light et al. has shown that augmented AMP kinase activity can alter the biophysical properties of mammalian cardiac sodium currents. These experiments involved an electrophysiological analysis following heterologous expression of human Nav1.5 in tsA201 cells. Constitutive activation of AMP kinase followed by co‐transfection caused: (i) a hyperpolarizing shift in the activation curve for INa, (ii) a small change in the voltage dependence of steady‐state inactivation, and (iii) a significant slowing in the rate of inactivation of INa.

Methods and Results: We have attempted to simulate these results using our mathematical model of the membrane action potential of the adult rat ventricular myocyte. The changes in INa produced by AMP kinase activation and/or overexpression can be reconstructed mathematically by altering two rate constants in a Markovian model that governs the INa kinetics. Simulated macroscopic INa records in which a fraction (10–100%) of the Na+ channels had the appropriate rate constants for two state‐dependent transitions increased by a factor of 100‐fold exhibited: (i) slowed inactivation, (ii) a shift in steady‐state activation to more hyperpolarized membrane potentials, and (iii) a very small change in the voltage dependence of steady‐state inactivation.

Summary: Thus, straightforward modifications of a previously published kinetic scheme for the time and voltage dependence of mammalian heart INa, when incorporated into a mathematical model for the rat ventricular action potential can reproduce the main features of these AMP kinase‐induced modifications in INa in mammalian ventricle. Ongoing mathematical simulations are directed toward developing formulations that mimic the molecular mechanisms for the AMP kinase effects, e.g., changes in the kinetics of INa resulting from selective phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of sites on the alpha or beta subunits which comprise human Nav1.5. Thereafter, incorporation of these changes into a mathematical model for the action potential of the human ventricular myocyte is planned.
The Presence of Low IQ and Mental Retardation Among Murder Defendants Referred for Pretrial Evaluation*
Authors: Dwyer R. Gregg , Frierson Richard L.
Published: April 2006

ABSTRACT: After an overview of definitions of mental retardation and recent case law regarding mental retardation and the death penalty, this paper presents a study of factors associated with a mental retardation (MR) diagnosis among murder defendants. Subjects with a full‐scale IQ≤70 (n=42) were compared with other pretrial murder defendants (n=228) referred for forensic evaluation over a 5‐year period. Subjects with an IQ≤70 who were diagnosed with MR were compared with subjects with an IQ≤70 who did not receive this diagnosis. Female murder defendants were more likely to receive a diagnosis of MR (p=0.03). MR was also more commonly diagnosed in subjects with an Axis I cognitive disorder (p=0.018). Having an IQ≤70 was more common in subjects with a psychotic and substance use disorder (p=0.03) and did not necessarily lead to a diagnosis of MR in this subgroup. Implications for diagnosing MR among murder defendants are discussed.
On the virtue of being the first born: the influence of date of birth on fitness in the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis
Authors: Reznick David , Schultz Eric , Morey Steve , Roff Derek
Published: April 2006

We found in an earlier study that mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis and G. holbrooki) ceased reproduction in the late summer, long before the end of warm weather, stored fat, then utilized reserves to survive the winter and initiate reproduction the following spring. We hypothesized that this pattern of fat utilization was a life history adaptation that enabled the fish to acquire food resources in the autumn then allocate them to reproduction the following spring when the fitness of the young would be greater. Here we evaluate one aspect of this hypothesis by evaluating the probability of survival to maturity and fecundity of young as a function of date of birth. We placed cohorts comprising eight to ten litters of young born early‐, mid‐ or late in the reproductive season in replicate field enclosures. The entire experiment was repeated in two different years. Early‐born young had a significantly higher probability of survival to maturity but did not differ in fecundity relative to the last cohort of the season. Early‐born young also attained maturity early enough to reproduce in their year of birth while late‐born young had to overwinter before reproduction. The fitness consequences to the mother of either producing one more litter of young at the end of the season, versus instead storing fat and reproducing the following spring are not as determinate as are the effects of date of birth on offspring fitness. Females most often gain fitness by not producing one last litter and instead over‐wintering. If, however, the overwinter survival of offspring is not influenced by their size at the end of the season, then a female's fitness could be enhanced by producing one more litter late in the season. If instead the probability of overwinter survival is strongly influenced by the size of offspring at the end of the season, then our results suggest that a female gains more by deferring reproduction and storing for overwinter survival and reproduction the following spring.
ASYMPTOTICS OF THE QUANTUM INVARIANTS FOR SURGERIES ON THE FIGURE 8 KNOT
Authors: ANDERSEN JØRGEN ELLEGAARD , HANSEN SØREN KOLD
Published: April 2006

We investigate the Reshetikhin–Turaev invariants associated to SU(2) for the 3-manifolds M obtained by doing any rational surgery along the figure 8 knot. In particular, we express these invariants in terms of certain complex double contour integrals. These integral formulae allow us to propose a formula for the leading asymptotics of the invariants in the limit of large quantum level. We analyze this expression using the saddle point method. We construct a certain surjection from the set of stationary points for the relevant phase functions onto the space of conjugacy classes of nonabelian SL(2, ℂ)-representations of the fundamental group of M and prove that the values of these phase functions at the relevant stationary points equals the classical Chern–Simons invariants of the corresponding flat SU(2)-connections. Our findings are in agreement with the asymptotic expansion conjecture. Moreover, we calculate the leading asymptotics of the colored Jones polynomial of the figure 8 knot following Kashaev [14]. This leads to a slightly finer asymptotic description of the invariant than predicted by the volume conjecture [24].
Proinflammatory Cytokine-Induced NF-κB Activation in Human Mesangial Cells Is Mediated through Intracellular Calcium but Not ROS: Effects of Silymarin
Authors: Chang Jai Wong , Kim Choung Soo , Kim Soon Bae , Park Su Kil , Park Jung Sik , Lee Sang Koo
Published: April 2006

Background: It is not fully understood whether intracellular calcium and/or reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in nuclear factor-ĸB (NF-ĸB) activation by proinflammatory cytokines. Silymarin exhibits anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects but the effect of silymarin in human mesangial cells is largely unknown. Method: NF-ĸB binding activity was measured by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Intracellular calcium was monitored by confocal microscopy using Fluo-3 and intracellular ROS production was determined by flow cytometry. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) expression was measured by Northern blot analysis and ELISA. Results: NF-ĸB was activated within 30 min by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) or interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Intracellular ROS was not produced until 30 min and also antioxidants such as N-acetylcysteine and tiron had no effect on the TNF-α- or IL-1β-induced NF-ĸB activation. Intracellular calcium was increased by TNF-α and IL-1β. Furthermore, a calcium chelator, BAPTA-AM, attenuated the NF-ĸB activation. Silymarin dose-dependently inhibited the TNF-α- or IL-1β-induced NF-ĸB activation and MCP-1 expression. Silymarin also inhibited TNF-α-induced intracellular calcium. Conclusions: Induction of NF-ĸB within 30 min by TNF-α- and IL-1β was mediated through intracellular calcium but not ROS. Silymarin inhibited TNF-α-induced calcium-dependent NF-ĸB activation irrespective of its antioxidant effect.
T Cell Costimulation in the Development of Cardiac Allograft Vasculopathy
Authors: Isobe Mitsuaki , Kosuge Hisanori , Suzuki Jun-ichi
Published: April 2006

Cardiac allograft vasculopathy (CAV) is a form of coronary arterial stenosis and a leading cause of death in patients who survive beyond the first year after heart transplantation. Histopathologically, this lesion is concentric diffuse intimal hyperplasia of the arterial wall that is accompanied by extensive infiltration of inflammatory cells, including T cells. Many studies have explored the potential risk factors related to this arterial lesion and its pathogenesis. Continuous minor endothelial cell damage evokes inflammatory processes including T cell activation. Costimulatory molecules play crucial roles in this T cell activation. Many costimulatory pathways have been described, and some are involved in the pathogenesis of CAV, atherogenesis, and subsequent plaque formation. In this review, we summarize the present knowledge of the role of these pathways in CAV development and the possibility of manipulating these pathways as a means to treat heart allograft vascular disease and atherosclerosis.
Coronary Atherosclerosis and Alcohol Consumption
Authors: Femia Romana , Natali Andrea , L’Abbate Antonio , Ferrannini Ele
Published: April 2006

Objective—

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with reduced cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Whether this protection is based on a lesser degree of coronary atherosclerosis has not been established.

Methods and Results—

We studied 1676 men and 465 women consecutively undergoing coronary angiography. A score (ATS) was calculated by summing the percent lumen narrowing of all main vessels; alcohol consumption was quantitated by questionnaire. In univariate analysis, ATS was significantly (
P
≤0.001) associated with male sex, age, familial CVD, smoking, diabetes, hypertension, and serum cholesterol levels; alcohol consumption was associated with less frequent diabetes (
P
<0.001) and lower ATS (
P
=0.02). By multivariate analysis, alcohol intake was associated with lower ATS (
P
<0.01) independently of the other risk factors; the estimated effect size was comparable to that associated with a 1-mmol decrement in serum cholesterol. Over a median follow-up of 93 months, 37 women and 194 men died from a cardiac cause. By Cox analysis, positive predictors for cardiac mortality were male sex (hazard ratio [HR], 1.7; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.1 to 2.6]), age (HR, 2.1; 95% CI, 1.8 to 2.5 per decade) and diabetes (HR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.2 to 2.4), whereas alcohol consumption was the only negative predictor (HR, 0.84; 95% CI, 0.71 to 1.00).

Conclusions—

In a selected high-risk population, moderate alcohol consumption was independently associated with less coronary atherosclerosis and lower risk for cardiac mortality.
Proprotein convertase furin is preferentially expressed in T helper 1 cells and regulates interferon gamma
Authors: Pesu Marko , Muul Linda , Kanno Yuka , O'Shea John J.
Published: April 2006

Interleukin 12 (IL-12) is a major inducer of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and the principal mediator of T helper 1 (Th1) differentiation. To identify IL-12–regulated genes, which might contribute to Th1 differentiation and IFNG regulation, we employed microarray analysis. Surprisingly, a ubiquitously expressed proprotein convertase (PC), furin, was one of the most consistently IL-12–induced genes in T cells, and among PCs was the only one regulated by this cytokine. Furin was preferentially expressed in differentiated Th1 cells in a Stat4-dependent manner. Expression of furin enhanced IFN-γ secretion, whereas inhibition of furin interfered with IFN-γ production. Thus, we conclude that IL-12 induction of furin might represent a new aspect of IFN-γ regulation and control of Th1 differentiation.
Transcription profiles of non-immortalized breast cancer cell lines
Authors: Fernandez-Cobo Mariana , Holland James F , Pogo Beatriz GT
Published: April 2006

Background

Searches for differentially expressed genes in tumours have made extensive use of array technology. Most samples have been obtained from tumour biopsies or from established tumour-derived cell lines. Here we compare cultures of non-immortalized breast cancer cells, normal non-immortalized breast cells and immortalized normal and breast cancer cells to identify which elements of a defined set of well-known cancer-related genes are differentially expressed.

Methods

Cultures of cells from pleural effusions or ascitic fluids from breast cancer patients (MSSMs) were used in addition to commercially-available normal breast epithelial cells (HMECs), established breast cancer cell lines (T-est) and established normal breast cells (N-est). The Atlas Human Cancer 1.2 cDNA expression array was employed. The data obtained were analysed using widely-available statistical and clustering software and further validated through real-time PCR.

Results

According to Significance Analysis of Microarray (SAM) and AtlasImage software, 48 genes differed at least 2-fold in adjusted intensities between HMECs and MSSMs (p < 0.01). Some of these genes have already been directly linked with breast cancer, metastasis and malignant progression, whilst others encode receptors linked to signal transduction pathways or are otherwise related to cell proliferation. Fifty genes showed at least a 2.5-fold difference between MSSMs and T-est cells according to AtlasImage, 2-fold according to SAM. Most of these classified as genes related to metabolism and cell communication.

Conclusion

The expression profiles of 1176 genes were determined in finite life-span cultures of metastatic breast cancer cells and of normal breast cells. Significant differences were detected between the finite life-span breast cancer cell cultures and the established breast cancer cell lines. These data suggest caution in extrapolating information from established lines for application to clinical cancer research.
The Rhetoric of Friendship in Plato's Lysis
Authors: Garver Eugene
Published: April 2006

Abstract Rhetorical decisions, including the commitments of friendship and love, are responsive to the world without being determined by it. Therefore the dilemma: when we try to articulate our commitments we wind up talking either about ourselves—as though our decisions were not responsive to the world, but simply a matter of will—or about the evidence—as though our decisions were determined by the nature of things, reducing commitment to reason. The Lysis dramatizes the rhetorical nature of commitment by raising questions about the relation between being a friend and being able to talk about friendship and give reasons for one's friendship.
International Law: Its Present and
Future
Authors: Moore John Bassett
Published: April 2006

In entering upon the publication of a new
journal, professedly designed not only to advance
the knowledge of, but also to improve, the
principles of international law, it is not
inappropriate to make an estimate of the present
state of the system and to consider its future
needs.
Arctic Exploration and International Law
Authors: Scott James Brown
Published: April 2006

The announcement on September 1, 1909, by Dr. Frederick A. Cook, that he had discovered the north pole on April 21, 1908, and the almost contemporary declaration on September 6th, of Robert A. Peary, of the United States Navy, in command of the Roosevelt, that he had discovered the north pole on April 6, 1909, are, if substantiated, not only international events and scientific achievements of the greatest interest and value, but the culmination of centuries of effort, directed not merely to reach the pole, but to shorten commercial routes by the discovery of a northwestern and northeastern passage, to advance our knowledge of arctic geography and to make known in a disinterested and scientific spirit, the flora, fauna, and the physical configuration of the arctic regions.
The Beginnings of an Aërial Law
Authors: Kuhn Arthur K.
Published: April 2006

During the year which has elapsed since the writer first devoted attention to some of the legal aspects of aerial navigation, very material progress has been made in the art itself. Longer and more regularly controlled nights have been recorded by both the dirigible balloon and the aeroplane type of aircraft, between stated localities on land, over territorial waters and even over lanes of commercial importance upon the high seas. A great number and variety of aircraft are being built for state as well as. private uses in large establishments erected in many countries for that particular purpose. The field of experiment and demonstration has constantly broadened. Great nations have established a special aeronautic service for use in conjunction with both the army and the navy. So great is the importance ascribed to the function of aircraft in the next great war that much attention is already directed toward the construction of special means for effectual defense. Indeed, an entirely new type of ordnance has resulted, having, as we shall see, a notable influence upon some questions of international law.
The Hague Convention Concerning the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Land Warfare
Authors: de Bustamante Antonio S.
Published: April 2006

Hugo Grotius says, at the close of Chapter XVII, Book III, of his work De jure belli ac pacis, that it may be advantageous (for a neutral) to make a convention with each of the belligerents so that it may be allowed to abstain from the war with the consent of both sides. This opinion of the father of the law of nations might be deemed to be well reasoned in 1625, but it reads very strangely in 1908.
Status of Enemy Merchant Ships
Authors: Scott James Brown
Published: April 2006

When no distinction was made in theory and practice between the status of private property of the enemy upon land and upon sea it necessarily followed that such property was liable to seizure and confiscation wherever found.
The International Opium Commission
Authors: Wright Hamilton
Published: April 2006

The International Opium Commission proposed by the United States and accepted by Austria-Hungary, China, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, Persia, Portugal, Russia, and Siam convened at Shanghai on the 1st of last February, completed its study of the opium problem throughout the world, and based on that study, issued nine unanimous declarations. The Commission adjourned on February 27th.
General Arbitration Treaties
Authors: Olney Richard
Published: April 2006

It is undoubtedly desirable, in the interest of the arbitration of
international controversies, that at the next Hague Conference a form of
treaty should be presented which, while covering all differences between
states, shall steer clear of the difficulties which in the past have wrecked
important treaties of that character. It is a matter in which the United
States may be expected to lead, having by precept and example so often
distinguished itself as a pioneer in movements tending to do away with war
between nations. Facts must be looked in the face, however, and it is
apparent that the present position of the United States with reference to
this subject is not so advantageous as could be wished. No two countries of
the world are so favorably situated for the purposes of an arbitration
treaty between them inclusive of all differences as are Great Britain and
the United States. Through racial, social, and commercial ties ever knitting
them closely together, war between them has become almost unthinkable. Yet
two trials for such a comprehensive treaty have failed and the official
position of the United States to-day seems to be that there is a class of
questions which is necessarily to be excluded from any general arbitration
treaty. The class covers controversies described as affecting “the vital
interests, the independence, or the honor” of the parties. In the
English-American treaty of 1897 such controversies were disposed of by
sending them to arbitration but so constituting the arbitral court that an
award must have the assent of the representatives of the losing party or of
a majority of them. In the treaty of 1911 it was sought to meet the
difficulty by a joint commission of inquiry empowered to investigate and
decide whether a question was or was not arbitrable and should or should not
be arbitrated. But neither plan proved to be acceptable to the United States
acting under the treaty-making power vested jointly in the President and
Senate.
The Doctrine of Continuous Voyages in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Arias Harmodio
Published: April 2006

It would not be possible to understand, much less to state clearly, the origin, nature, and extent of the so-called Doctrine of Continuous Voyages without explaining, even in a succinct manner, the causes that contributed to the statement of this famous principle. There is hardly anything in the field of social conceptions that is not in some way or other connected with the past. For this reason when we want to ascertain the principles that obtained in a period gone by it is imperatively necessary that our inquiries should start from an age even more remote, so that the light of history may clear the paths that we intend to explore. During the middle of the eighteenth century nothing was heard of the doctrine which we attempt now to expound; it was only at the end of that century that its first manifestations appeared. But the examination of the navigation laws of the times and of the principles of international law that regulated the intercourse between neutrals and belligerents would at once suggest that the prohibition which the doctrine embraced is dependent on or complementary to the so-called “Rule of war of 1756.”
Is Hudson Bay a Closed or an Open Sea?
Authors: Balch Thomas Willing
Published: April 2006

Many of the foremost jurisconsults of the world, representing many nations, have in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries stated that Hudson Bay, a great North American sea, is a part of the open sea, and consequently free to the vessels of all nations for the purposes of navigation and fishing. This seems to have been a generally accepted doctrine until the close of the nineteenth century. Within recent years, however, the Dominion of Canada has set up the claim that all American vessels that enter Hudson Bay to catch fish or hunt whales must pay a license. The maintenance of such a policy would be tantamount to making of Hudson Bay a closed sea (mare clausum).
Observations on the New German Law of Nationality
Authors: Flournoy Richard W.
Published: April 2006

Among the most noteworthy phenomena of modern times are the extensive exploitation of new and thinly settled countries by citizens of countries older and more thoroughly developed, and the vast increase in international trade. These movements are, of course, due largely to the improved facilities for travel and communication, which have brought nations together and made their interests coincide in a way and to an extent unknown to former generations. One of the resulting problems is the question as to the attitude which a given country is to take towards its citizens who have settled permanently in foreign lands, without any definite intention of obtaining naturalization as citizens thereof, and particularly whether it is to undertake to extend its protection to them, and, if so, to what extent.
The Declaration of London of February 26, 1909: Part II
Authors: Scott James Brown
Published: April 2006

Chapter 3, devoted to unneutral service, has only three articles; but they are important and were debated perhaps with more spirit than any other articles of the Declaration. The general subject is one which has been treated by Lord Stowell in a series of masterly judgments, and it is believed that an examination of two or three of them would form the best introduction to this chapter.
The Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Nations Adopted by the American Institute of International Law
Authors: Root Elihu
Published: April 2006

With this meeting we finish the first decade of this Society. How great is the change of conditions in the field of international law during that period. Ten years ago all the governments of the world professed unqualified respect and obedience to the law of nations, and a very small number of persons not directly connected with government knew or cared anything about it. In this country at least international law was regarded as a rather antiquated branch of useless learning, diplomacy as a foolish mystery, and the foreign service as a superfluous expense. Now that governments have violated and flouted the law in many ways and with appalling consequences, the people of this country at least have begun to realize that observance of the law has a real and practical relation to the peace and honor of their own country and their own prosperity. They are beginning to take an interest in the subject, to discuss it in the newspapers, to inquire how observance of the law may be enforced. There appears a dawning consciousness that a democracy which undertakes to control its own foreign relations ought to know something about the subject. If we had not established this Society ten years ago to study and discuss and spread a knowledge of international law it would surely be demanded now, and we may be certain that our annual public discussions and the publication of the admirable Journal which we have always maintained, with its definite and certain informa-lion upon international events, its interesting and well informed discussion of international topics, and its supplements, with their wealth of authentic copies of international documents, have contributed materially towards fitting the people of our country to deal with the international situations which are before them.
The Relations Between the United States and Porto Rico Part II
Authors: Capó-Rodríguez Pedro
Published: April 2006

In approaching the discussion of the effects of the acquisition of Porto Rico as a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1899, we are confronted by one of the most difficult problems arising in the consideration of the relations between the United States and Porto Rico. The difficulty is due in a great measure to the absence of a positive, unequivocal and unanimous opinion of the Supreme Court in the decision of the so-called Insular Cases, which have given rise to so much doubt, uncertainty and difference of opinion among lawyers in regard to this vital subject.

If the acquisition of Porto Rico had been the only one made by the United States at that time, the problem would have been comparatively easy. It would have been enough, perhaps, to turn to the earlier precedents laid down by the Supreme Court to find sufficient guiding light and ample authority to arrive at a satisfactory solution. Congress itself, probably, would have rendered it unnecessary to appeal to the Supreme Court by doing complete justice to the people who had received the United States with such sincere demonstrations of rejoicing, friendship and affection.
Addresses by Elihu Root on International Subjects
Authors: Tower Charlemagne
Published: April 2006

The first impression that we obtain upon opening this book is one rather of surprise at the extraordinarily wide range of subjects which Mr. Root has treated in the course of his addresses and speeches on international questions, to which the volume is confined, — a range that covers the ground and sets forth the essential facts as well as the arguments which have served to build up American public opinion and to direct the international thought of this country for almost a generation. The relations with Japan, the Panama Canal, the Conferences at The Hague, the rights and duties of nations, and the protection of citizens residing abroad, have filled a large part of public attention during the last quarter of a century; indeed, some of the questions included here, like the intercourse with Mexico and the Monroe Doctrine, have held the public interest since long before our own time.
The Neutralization of the Aaland Islands
Authors: Gregory Charles Noble
Published: April 2006

In the April number of this Journal for 1921, Prof. Philip Marshall Brown discussed in a most interesting way “The Aaland Islands Question”.

He dealt with the claim of the islanders to determine by a plebiscite whether they should remain incorporated with the Republic of Finland or be transferred to the Kingdom of Sweden, a transfer apparently desired by almost their entire number, and with the advisory report of the Committee of Jurists thereon. This was, however, a mere step in extended transactions. Now they have been carried through, and not only the issue decided, but a precedent established as to the right of the Council of the League of Nations to intervene for the settlement of international disputes. Moreover, the practice and procedure which may be adopted therefor have been indicated. A review of the whole accomplishment and of the new methods employed seems, therefore, appropriate.
The Protection of American Citizens in China: Extraterritoriality
Authors: Williams Benj.H.
Published: April 2006

The most important single step taken by the western powers in protecting their nationals in China was the acquisition of extraterritoriality. This withdrew them from the jurisdiction of Chinese law and placed them under the laws and tribunals of the home country. As there is at the present time a great deal of discussion as to whether these rights should be withdrawn it may be worth while to glance for a moment at the reasons for the origin of the system, and this may in turn enable us to judge better whether the conditions which gave rise to it have as yet passed away.
The Origin, Meaning and International Force of the Monroe Doctrine
Authors: Tower Charlemagne
Published: April 2006

I Beg leave to present in this article for consideration, a few of the characteristic details of what we know, and what has come during the past century to be known generally in the international and political world, as the Monroe Doctrine. I would point out its origin, its meaning, its development with the extension and growing importance of American national influence throughout the nineteenth century, and the importance of its bearing upon the American national life of our day—as well as its compelling power in every great movement of political weight that has taken place in the course of our dealings with foreign nations since the establishment of the Government of the United States. Its ground principle is laid in the deeply-rooted sentiment of the people of this country, upon which the fabric of personal intellectual and political independence from all the rest of the world is built up; for it has for its object the safeguarding and defence of the essential qualities of American freedom. It began to make itself felt at the moment when American freedom came into existence and separated the people of this continent from those who still lived in the old world. The truth is, that at the end of the eighteenth century a revolution had taken place which had not only the result of taking away from Great Britain her North American colonies, but, what was of equal importance in the subsequent development of political relations between sovereign states,—a revolution had taken place in the minds of men. The feudal traditions of government which had obtained for a thousand years, carrying with them the accepted formulas of supremacy and control, on the one hand, and the obligation of obedience, with the duty of submission, on the other, were intentionally removed from the plan of life and from the rule of conduct of men in America.
The Constitution of an International Court of Justice
Authors: Root Elihu
Published: April 2006

Resolved, That the committee adopts as the basis for consideration of the subject referred to it, the Acts and Resolutions of the Second Peace Conference at The Hague in the year 1907.

That the provisions of the several plans for an International Court of Justice already elaborated by representative jurists of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, be laid before the committee and considered as the subjects to which they respectively relate, are taken up for consideration.
The Refusal of the President to Give Notice of Termination of Certain Treaty Provisions Under the Jones Act
Authors: Kingsbury Howard Thayer
Published: April 2006

There has been much discussion, in the public press and elsewhere, of the refusal of the President to give notice, pursuant to Sec. 34 of the Merchant Marine Act of June 5, 1920, of the termination of so much of the treaties with various foreign governments as restricts the right of the United States to impose discriminating customs duties on imports in foreign vessels and discriminatory tonnage dues on foreign vessels entering the United States. So far as this discussion is concerned with the proposed policy of assisting the American merchant marine by thus discriminating against foreign shipping, it is not within the province of this comment to venture an opinion. So far, however, as criticism has been directed against this action of the President upon the ground that in thus failing or refusing to carry out this direction of Congress he has exceeded his constitutional rights, an interesting and important question of constitutional law, affecting international relations, is presented.
Treatment of Enemy Aliens
Authors: Garner James W.
Published: April 2006

English and American Doctrine and Practice. The question of the right of enemy subjects to sue in the courts of an adversary can hardly be said to be regulated by international law, unless the muchcontroverted Article 23(h) of the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting the laws and customs of war on land, is interpreted to apply to the actions of the judicial authorities. Certainly it is not true, as is sometimes asserted, that it is a principle of international law that they have no right of access to the courts of the adverse power. Like the practice in respect to trading with the enemy the matter is determined by the municipal law of each belligerent and is based upon considerations of public policy.
Right of the Master and Crew of a Captured Ship to Effect her Rescue
Authors: Noble Gregory Charles
Published: April 2006

A Merchant ship captured in war by a cruiser is commonly put in the hands of a prize crew and, often with her own master and crew aboard, directed to proceed to the nearest port of the captor available for adjudication as to prize or no prize

The cases in which the original master and crew have, during such transit, risen against the prize crew and, by force or fraud or both regained control of the ship are fairly numerous. It is proposed to examine the legality of such a course, and the rights derived therefrom; also the rights in the premises of the belUgerent whose possession is displaced.
The Principle of Equilibrium and the Present Period
Authors: Wistrand Tor Hugo
Published: April 2006

Politics require principles. When it is a question on the one hand of acquiring a position, and on the other hand of defending it, the opposed interests seek bases upon which they can rest. The sovereignties feel the necessity of invoking the authority of a principle which seems to draw its force from considerations superior to those that can inspire the political pretensions of a particular state. An appeal is made to a common interest the supposed existence of which is taken for granted—namely, that of maintaining the peace and good relations among the states—and it is presented in a definite formula, the principle of equilibrium.
The American Reservations and the Permanent Court of International Justice
Authors: Hudson Manley O.
Published: April 2006

More than seven years have now passed since the treaty creating the Permanent Court of International Justice was opened for signature at Geneva.1 For more than six years, the court has been at work,2 and it is now holding its fourteenth session. In this period, it has handed down eleven judgments and fifteen advisory opinions, and has thus made a substantial contribution to the better ordering of the international life of our time.3 Few if any informed people had envisaged such a large measure of usefulness for the court before it was established, and most of us had not dared to hope that in such a short time it would have builded its foundations so firmly. As an agency for the extension of the application of law in international affairs, the court now holds an assured position, and it offers promise of large influence toward reducing international friction in the future. It now seems improbable that the world will ever again be willing to be without this or a similar tribunal, and if its present organization is not to be deemed as final, it seems clear that the existing court must serve a,s the basis of any future attempt to achieve a better administration of international justice according to law.
National Economic Independence in the Light of the International Economic Conference
Authors: McClure Wallace
Published: April 2006

The wave of exaggerated nationalism which has pervaded the nations of the earth generally since the World War has been accompanied by seemingly serious efforts on the part of national governments to arrange for the production within their territorial limits of as many as possible of the articles which their peoples consume, often quite heedless of the cost of home as compared with external production. Such disregard of economic laws could scarcely have failed to aggravate the poverty in which the world was inevitably left in the wake of the war. Political leaders have seemed wholly unmindful of the essential truth of economics, namely, that destruction and waste, the accompaniments of war, cannot be indulged in without a lowering of economic standards, that those standards can only be raised by production, and that recovery is accomplished in the measure that production is achieved at the place and by the methods which make possible the largest output of consumable goods in proportion to the labor and raw material involved.
The International Joint Commission between The United States and Canada
Authors: MacKay Robert A.
Published: April 2006

The preamble of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 between Great Britain (on behalf of Canada) and the United States declares its purpose to be:

To prevent disputes regarding the use of boundary waters and to settle all questions which are now pending between the United States and the Dominion of Canada involving the rights, obligations, or interests of either in relation to the other or to the inhabitantsof the other, along their common frontier, and to make provision for the adjustment and settlement of all such questions as may hereafter arise.
Protection of Minorities by the League of Nations
Authors: Rosting Helmer
Published: April 2006

Several of the treaties concluded after the World War contain clauses dealing with the protection of minorities. This protection is placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations. By minorities are meant groups of persons who differ in race, religion or language from the majority of the inhabitants of the country. But such persons may be further subdivided into two quite distinct classes: (a) nationals of a foreign Power; (b) nationals of the country concerned. The protection of minorities may also be regarded from two points of view: (1) it may be granted by the laws of the country and therefore be guaranteed by the state; (2) it may be dependent on treaties and be guaranteed by foreign Powers.
Citizenship of Married Women
Authors: Hill Cyril D.
Published: April 2006

Many recent comments have been made with respect to the wisdom of Congress in passing the Act of September 22,1922, entitled, “ An act relative to the naturalization and citizenship of married women, ” commonly known as the Cable Act, and which granted a form of independent citizenship to women.1 Among these comments we find the phrase, “ probably accidental reasons,” and an expressed sentiment that it is “ questionable whether the majority of the women of this country really wanted the new law, ” and simi- ‘lar suggestions. It has been intimated that the law was passed solely as the result of the persuasive efforts of a minority of women.2 In many instances little cognizance has been taken of the reasons for, and the actual facts involved in, the change.
The Treaty Making Power in Canada
Authors: Mackenzie N. A. M.
Published: April 2006

The growth of the treaty-making power in Canada is a very interesting
subject, but any attempt to state in a legal way the source of this power or
to give a clear, juridicial analysis of the international and inter-Empire
status of Canada is extremely difficult.