bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Critical Volume Fractions in Conductive Composites
Authors: Ruschau G.R. , Newnham R.E.
Published: March 2007

An empirical method to predict critical volume fractions for conduction in conductor-filled polymers is presented, based on the idea that a conductive composite can be thought of as a conductive skeleton with its packing geometry determined by the char acteristics of the conductive filler alone. Trends in critical volume fractions can thus be predicted based on the packing behavior of the filler, provided that the filler is well dis persed in the polymer. Critical volume fractions are generally —0.05 below the specific packing fraction for a given filler. All specific rules governing powder packing in general can therefore be applied to conductive composites.
The Effect of Thermal Processing on Residual Strain Development in Unidirectional Graphite Fibre Reinforced PEEK
Authors: Unger W.J. , Hansen J.S.
Published: March 2007

The effect of annealing on residual strain development in amorphous graphite fibre reinforced PEEK (APC-2) is studied experimentally. A method is presented for embedding strain gauges in a unidirectional laminate at the time of manufacture and then quenching the laminate into the amorphous state. With this method, thermal and crys tallization strains are measured directly during quasi-isothermal heating of the laminate.

Both longitudinal and transverse lamina strains resulting from contraction during crystallization are measured. Longitudinal crystallization strains are found to be negligible due to fibre stiffness. Transverse contraction due to crystallization is large and increases with anneal temperature.

A coefficient of crystalline expansion (CCE) is defined which is analogous to the CTE. This coefficient describes the permanent crystallization strain as a function of anneal tem perature and is determined experimentally.
Viscoelastic Effects on Intralaminar Fracture Toughness of Epoxy/ Carbon-Fibre Laminates
Authors: Frassine R. , Rink M. , Pavan A.
Published: March 2007

The Double Torsion technique has been applied to characterize the frac ture resistance of a unidirectional and a woven epoxy/carbon-fibre composite material. The crack speed has been varied by about four orders of magnitude for testing tempera tures ranging from below the glass transition of the rubber modifier of the epoxy matrix to the glass transition of the matrix itself. A noteworthy variation was found in the fracture toughness and surface morphology of the unidirectional composite. Decreasing fracture toughness values were observed by increasing crack speed at 23°C, which is somewhat unusual for viscoelastic materials. Results have been discussed in the framework of vis coelastic fracture mechanics, and the fracture behaviour at different rates and temperatures has been shown to be related to different viscoelastic mechanisms.
Stochastic Viscoelastic Delamination Onset Failure Analysis of Composites
Authors: Hilton Harry H. , Sung Yi
Published: March 2007

The previously formulated deterministic viscoelastic quadratic time de pendent delamination onset criterion is generalized to complete three-dimensional stochastic environments. The analysis includes stochastic processes due to combined ran dom loads and random delamination failure stresses as well as random anisotropic vis coelastic material properties including the influence of stochastic temperature fields, mois ture contents and boundary conditions. It is shown that times for delamination onset occurrences in composites can be predicted probabilistically depending on any one or all of the above conditions. Illustrative examples are presented showing the relationship in terms of parametric variations between times to delamination and corresponding probabil ities that such events will occur. Since uniaxial tension, compression and shear vis coelastic delamination failure stresses decrease in time, the loading history is of significant importance. For cases where deterministic criteria predict no delamination failures, the present stochastic failure theory indicates high probabilities of failure at either early or long times depending on the load-time relations. The early time high probabilities of delamination onset predict short lifetimes and occur in conditions where the composite in ternal stresses relax at faster rates than the failure stresses are degrading. The effects of fiber orientation and of number of plies on delamination probabilities are also examined.
Repairability of Impact-Induced Damage in SMC Composites
Authors: Liu D. , Lee C.Y. , Lu X.
Published: March 2007

This study discusses the repairability of impact-induced damage in an SMC composite which is made of chopped glass fibers and polyester matrix. The impact resistance and notch sensitivity of the composite material are characterized by tensile and flexural tests. Equivalent hole sizes for impact-induced damage are identified through the comparisons between the residual strengths of composites with impact-induced damage and artificial circular cutouts. It is concluded that no damaged portion should be removed from the impacted composites; otherwise more damage could be introduced to the com posites. The damaged composites are then repaired with a technique combining resin in jection and reinforcing patches. The resin injection is performed to seal the matrix cracks which would otherwise result in high stress concentrations due to geometrical discon tinuity. The reinforcing patches are employed to compensate for the strength reduction due to fiber breakage. It is revealed from the experiments that the repair technique is very effi cient for restoring the tensile and flexural strengths of the composite after impact-induced damage.
Perceived Parental Acceptance-Rejection and Artistic Preference
Authors: Rohner Ronald P. , Frampton Susan B.
Published: March 2007

Two earlier holocultural studies showed that institutionalized artistic traditions within societies worldwide tend to be complex to the degree that parents are harsh or rejecting toward their children. The present intracultural study within the United States of America, however, shows that preference for complex works of art is associated with parental warmth and acceptance. These two research strategics (holocultural research and intracultural research) yield diametrically opposing but nonetheless significant results. No adequate explanation has yet demonstrated the reasons for these contradictory results.
Wais-R Factor Structures in Two Cultures
Authors: Insua Ana María
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this research was to compare the level of performance and the factor structures of an American and an Argentine sample in the WAIS-R. The Americans had a better educational level than the Argentines and it was hypothezied that if the samples were not homogeneous in education the one with less school training would show a poorer performance than the other but the factor structures of the two samples should not be altered. The WAIS-R was translated into Spanish and adapted to the Argentine population. The modifications were extensive in Vocabulary, moderate in Information, and slight in Comprehension and Arithmetic. The remaining subtests had no changes at all. American norms were used to evaluate the performance of both samples. Americans were significantly superior to Argentines in the subtests of Vocabulary, Arithmetic, Similarities, and Digit Symbol, but the factor structures obtained in the American and Argentine samples were almost identical. That is, no cultural differences in the factor structures of the WAIS-R were noticed.
Appreciation and Production of Humor as an Expression of Aggression
Authors: Nevo Ofra
Published: March 2007

Two independent samples, each containing Jewish and Arab males in Israel, were tested in the production and appreciation of humor. In the appreciation sample, 50 Jews and 50 Arabs rated 35 jokes that included aggressive jokes, nonaggressive jokes, and jokes with a Jewish/ Arab butt. In the production sample, 139 Jewish and 111 Arab males gave humorous answers to a modified Rosenzweig's Picture Frustration Study, depicting conversations of two men in 13 situations. Two sets of hypotheses were compared. One was derived from the cathartic approach, and postulated that Israeli Arabs, being more frustrated, will express more aggression in humor and more aggression toward a Jewish butt. The second was derived from the social approach and claimed that social status determines the expression of aggression in humor. Members of a minority (Arabs) will express less aggression in humor, despite being more frustrated. Results supported hypotheses derived from the social approach both in appreciation and in the production of humor.
Social Interaction
Authors: Earley P. Christopher
Published: March 2007

A field study was conducted in the United States, England, and Ghana assessing the frequency of use and rated value of social interaction. Twenty-two American, twenty-six English, and nineteen Ghanaian workers from similar manufacturing plants participated in the study. Behavioral observations of the frequency of engaging in social interaction over a 14-day period as well as a survey of the importance of social interaction to the workers served as the dependent variables. The results confirmed the hypothesis that the frequency of use and rated importance of social interaction is culturally dependent. The role of societal norms and values is discussed within the framework of Organizational Behavior Modification.
A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Children's Drawings of Same-and Mixed-Sex Peer Interaction
Authors: Rubenstein Judith , Feldman S. Shirley , Rubin Carol , Noveck Ira
Published: March 2007

Children's art was studied as a function of (1) gender of child, (2) picture condition (drawings of same-sex versus mixed-sex dyads), and (3) child-rearing setting (U.S. town [N = 89] versus Israeli town [N = 132] versus Israeli kibbutz [N = 88]). Pictures were scored for theme or focus of activity (mastery versus social interaction) and for the nature of the interaction (cooperation, competition, aggression, power/ dominance). Boys drew more themes of aggression, competition, and dominance than did girls. U.S. boys portrayed more aggression than did Israeli town boys, and kibbutz children portrayed less competition and dominance than did Israeli town children. Of greatest interest, however, are cultural differences in the way mixed-sex dyads were portrayed relative to same-sex dyads. Whereas Israeli boys drew different themes in pictures of two boys than in pictures of a boy and a girl, they nonetheless depicted egalitarian relationships equally often in both pictures. In contrast, U.S. boys drew the same themes in pictures of two boys as in pictures of a boy and a girl, but they portrayed different power relations: Two boys playing together were depicted as equal in power, but boys were drawn as more powerful than girls in pictures of mixed-sex dyads. Similar, although less strong, results were found in the drawings of girls. The results are interpreted in terms of cultural practices and ideology with respect to sex typing.
Expanded Trade and GDP Data
Authors: GLEDITSCH KRISTIAN SKREDE
Published: March 2007

Many sources of economic data cover only a limited set of states at any given point in time. Data are often systematically missing for some states over certain time periods. In the context of conflict studies, economic data are frequently unavailable for states involved in conflicts, undermining the ability to draw inferences of linkages between economic and political interactions. For example, simply using available data in a study of trade and conflict and disregarding observations with missing data on economic variables excludes key conflicts such as the Berlin crisis, the Korean War, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the Gulf War from the sample. A set of procedures are presented to create additional estimates to remedy some of the coverage problems for data on gross domestic product, population, and bilateral trade flows.
Guess Who Did What
Authors: Chiozza Giacomo , Choi Ajin
Published: March 2007

The impact of the political characteristics of national leaders on the management of territorial disputes is investigated to learn what kinds of leaders are more likely to resort to strategies of peaceful resolution. The choice to pursue strategies of accommodation and compromise is in part a function of leaders' time in office and the reputation they have established through their international conflict behavior and their military expertise. This is because leaders face different incentives as their tenure in office grows longer and because their reputation can be a form of expendable political capital that enables leaders to initiate a significant foreign policy change. A territorial dispute data set and a leader data set for the period from 1950 to 1990 are used to test this argument. An analysis using ordered probit models gives credence to the conjecture that leaders' characteristics are systematically associated with the choice of pursuing a peaceful resolution of a territorial dispute.
The Cyprus Conflict as a Prisoner's Dilemma Game
Authors: Lumsden Malvern
Published: March 2007

One hundred thirty-four Greek Cypriot and 51 Turkish Cypriot student teachers evaluated Cyprus now and in five years' time under four contingencies (peace, war, Enosis, and Taksim) on self-anchoring scales. Presentation of the resulting measures of utility in matrix form shows that of the 78 possible nonequivalent 2 x 2 games, the Cyprus conflict may be regarded as a Prisoner's Dilemma game where war is not seen as the worst possibility by either side, and peace offers a Pareto-optimal solution. Measures to resolve such conflicts suggested by the experimental literature are discussed.
Sex, Matrix Variations, and Perceived Personality Effects in Mixed-Motive Games
Authors: Miller G.H. , Pyke S.W.
Published: March 2007

The effects of the perceived personality of the other player, player sex, and severity of conflict were examined in a mixed-motive game. It was found that players who believed that the other player was dominant expected fewer cooperative choices than players who believed that the other player was abasing. These expectations, however, were not reflected in the game-playing behavior of the players. There were no differences in cooperative behavior as a function of the perceived personality of the other player. An attempt to increase cooperative choices partway through the game was successful in increasing expectations of cooperation but unsuccessful in changing game behavior.
Equivalence and Stooge Strategies in Zero-Sum Games
Authors: Fox John , Guyer Melvin
Published: March 2007

Classes of two-person zero-sum games termed "equivalent games" are defined. These are games with identical value and identical optimal mixed-strategies but with different matrix entries and thus different opportunities for exploiting a nonrational opponent. An experiment was conducted to investigate the strategy-choice behavior of subjects playing pairs of these "equivalent games." Also investigated was the extent to which subjects would exploit a programmed stooge as a function of the degree to which the stooge departed from his optimal strategy mix. The results indicated that subjects learned to exploit the nonrational play of the stooge opponent. The game factor, on the other hand, seemed to have no significant effect upon the strategy-choice behavior of the players. The implications of these results are discussed in light of questions raised by previous research on decision-making in 2 x 2 zero-sum games.
Chlordiazepoxide (Librium
Authors: Stix Allen H.
Published: March 2007

The effects of two dosages of a widely used tranquilizer on strategic choice behavior in the Prisoner's Dilemma are reported relative to a placebo control group and a no-capsule control group. Present results are compared with those from an earlier study of drug effects on gaming by Hurst et al. (1969) in an attempt to begin developing a broader idea as to the effects of different varieties of psychopharma cologicals on strategic interchanges. Sociopharmacology is discussed as a social scientific specialization centered upon studying the effects of mind-affecting drugs on the person as a social actor and the courses followed by social processes.
Peace and the Demographic Future of Israel
Authors: Friedlander Dov , Goldscheider Calvin
Published: March 2007

This paper focuses on the demographic implications of alternative peace settlements between Israel and her Arab neighbors. Two sets of demographic issues are discussed: (1) variations in the types of territorial and implied population adjustments that may result from a peace settlement and (2) variations in demographic dynamics of Jewish and Arab populations over the next 30 years. Models based on a range of territorial and population alternatives (from minimum to maximum) illustrate the tradeoffs between territory and proportion Jewish and between population growth and the retention of a Jewish majority in Israel. Although there are many complicated issues involved in reaching a peace agreement in the Middle East, the analysis presented here reveals clearly that demographic issues are part of the context within which decisions have to be made and evaluation of trends undertaken.
Fiscal Politics and Regional Redistribution
Authors: Mytelka Lynn Krieger
Published: March 2007

Whereas many studies have catalogued the factors which contribute to the furtherance of conflicts over the distribution of costs and benefits within asymmetrical integrative systems, few attempts have been made to determine the kinds of bargaining behavior which are most conducive to producing decisional outputs with positive feedback for the integrative system or to analyze the conditions under which this type of bargaining behavior can emerge. This study is addressed to precisely these two points. The analysis starts from the assumption that flexible bargaining strategies are most conducive to producing compromise within any given bargaining situation. Through the analysis pursued in this paper it is thus possible to demonstrate the very strong likelihood that the flexibility of bargaining strategies tends to vary directly with the degree of dependence and the range of alternative options open to any given country.
Tactical Advantages of Opening Positioning Strategies
Authors: Ramberg Bennett
Published: March 2007

This study assesses Soviet and American positioning strategy dunng the negotiation of the 1971 treaty banning nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction from the seabed. It finds the superpowers employed both maximalist and equitable postures in the initial draft treaties they submitted. Evidence suggests that the negotiation would have been concluded more expeditiously, the outcome being the same, had the United States and the Soviet Union at the outset adopted equitable positioning strategies on the three focal points of the negotiation-the comprehensiveness of the prohibition, its geography, and verificanon-rather than opting for preferences commonly recognized as anathema to the other.
Petroleum-Related Foreign Policy
Authors: Whan Park Tong , Don Ward Michael
Published: March 2007

This study analyzes foreign policy behavior in the realm of international energy politics. The model we developed states that conflict and cooperation between importers and exporters of oil are related to the development of oil issues by the host countries which are undergoing the process of oil industrialization. Three issue sets are identified and each is related to the foreign policy behavior of the exporters directed toward the western oil importers. The issue sets include (1) development of the emergent oil industries, (2) distribution of the profits therefrom, and (3) the control and ownership of the oil industries. The model depicting aspects of the evolution of oil issues is operationalized utilizing difference equations, and correspondence with event/interaction data is tested for two cases: Iran and Saudi Arabia. Between 53% and 98% of the variance in measured cooperative and conflictual petroleum behavior is explained.
Multiple Aim Point Basing
Authors: Richelson Jeffrey T.
Published: March 2007

A major concern of some strategic analysts and Defense Department officials is the projected vulnerability of the U.S. land-based missile force. One proposed solution to this problem is the deployment of the MX in a mobile basing mode. A basing mode that received strong support from Department of Defense officials was the Multiple Aim Point (MAP) system In this article we examine vulnerability and verification problems associated with a MAP system as the ability to detect the location of a missile in a group of silos varies.
Siding and Other Reactions to a Conflict
Authors: Van De Vliert Evert
Published: March 2007

Siding in a dyadic conflict is important because it precipitates escalation. Nevertheless, little is known about how and why a nonprofessional outsider (P) reacts when a conflict party puts him under pressure to take sides. Coalition and role conflict theories suggest four behavior alternatives (taking sides, compromise, avoidance, and conflict resolution) and two behavior determinants: the sanction power and the legitimate power each of the conflict parties exerts over P. This article delineates the relationships among these variables (power hypothesis), and introduces the further assumptions that P will gather information before he selects one of the four behavior alternatives (process hypothesis) and that escalating siding behavior will be his most frequent reaction (escalation hypothesis). In a secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey data on behavior in role conflict situations, the power hypothesis and the escalation hypothesis are confirmed. Finally, the theoretical and practical significance of the theory are discussed.
Arms Transfer Data Sources
Authors: Brzoska Michael
Published: March 2007

Different issues related to arms transfers demand differing arms transfer data. At the moment, there are two sources available that aggregate data on military expenditures: the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) and the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA). The data given cover only part of the requirements for comprehensive arms trade data. SIPRI's definition is too limited to be of much value for serious research into the economic and social consequences of the arms build-up. ACDA, on the other hand, has a very serious coverage problem. Both sources are very confusing on pricing arms transfers. All in all, there is no good source on arms transfers on which detailed studies or judgments can be based.
Integrative Complexity Theory and Forecasting International Crises
Authors: Raphael Theodore D.
Published: March 2007

Can integrative complexity theory be successfully employed to forecast international crises? To answer this question this study focuses on the conflict-prone relationship between the United States and USSR in Berlin, 1946 to 1962. Two hypotheses were tested. Hypothesis 1 predicted that significant declines in the cognitive complexity of U.S. and USSR foreign policy elites would be exhibited just prior to the onset of crises in June 1948 and June 1961. Hypothesis 2 predicted, however, that following the onset of crisis, the participants would exhibit patterns of rising complexity leading to peaceful conflict resolution. The results generally supported the hypotheses. First, significant declines in complexity occurred from 1946 to 1962 only in the two periods ending six months prior to the two major crises. Second, significant phase-to-phase increases in complexity were exhibited by the participants in both crises. The study provides initial evidence of the theory's utility for crisis forecasting.
Politics in Latin America
Authors: Adelman Irma , Hihn Jairus M.
Published: March 2007

This article develops and tests a model of the socioeconomic origins of political change and development by means of an in-depth analysis of the contemporary political history of fifteen Latin American countries. The analysis uses the logical structure of catastrophe theory in order to incorporate the discontinuous changes that are so prevalent in political development. The model is used to determine some of the conditions for the emergence of political polarization, political instability, and authoritarian regimes. The conclusions are that catastrophe theory does provide a useful framework for analyzing political change in Third World countries and that to maintain a stable polyarchy requires a relatively specific combination of political participation, distribution of income, and levels of education.
Can Arms Races Lead to the Outbreak of War?
Authors: Intriligator Michael D. , Brito Dagobert L.
Published: March 2007

The possible relationships of an arms race to the outbreak of war are treated in the framework of a dynamic model of a missile war that could be used by defense planners to simulate the outbreak of war between two nuclear nations. It is shown that, depending on the initial and final configuration of weapons on both sides, an arms race could lead not only to war but to peace. Conversely, a disarming race could lead not only to peace but to war. The analytic framework is also applied to a qualitative arms race to show that such a race can promote crisis instability. These results are applied both to questions of disarmament and arms control and to the U.S.-Soviet postwar arms race. A conclusion of this analysis is that the quantitative U.S.-Soviet arms race of the 1960s and 1970s not only reduced the chances of war outbreak but also provided insurance against qualitative improvements in weapons.
Experimenting with the Arms Race
Authors: Pilisuk Marc
Published: March 2007

The study involves a game that simulates certain basic features of an arms race-disarmament dilemma. The game is a modification of the widely studied two-person prisoner's dilemma. The more complex conditions involve options for requesting or refusing a request for an inspection of the other player's armament level prior to the payoff move, or for engaging in a “sudden death” surprise attack. The manner in which the inspection opportunity is used as a vehicle for communicating intentions and the conditions under which each of these options tends to be selected are described. In addition to the deceptive propensity in inspection conditions, we found an unhappy tendency to engage in preemptive surprise attacks out of fear of the adversary, even when there was virtually no chance of success in such an attack. While all of the more complex variations are played with real subjects, two conditions are repeated with a stooge opponent preprogrammed to follow strictly either a matching (tit for tat) or a conciliatory strategy. Both of these strategies are markedly effective in moving the real subject toward a cooperative or mutually disarmed state.
More on the Evolution of Cooperation
Authors: Bartholdi John J. , Butler C. Allen , Trick Michael A.
Published: March 2007

New structure is discovered in the suggestive “world” created by Axelrod, which is based on iterated play of the Prisoner's Dilemma game, and was studied to reveal how cooperative behavior can arise in a world of egoists. One of Axelrod's conclusions is that the viability of a strategy depends on how heavily the future is discounted. Our results explain in additional detail the nature of this dependence and suggest how a specific cooperative strategy, tit-for-tat, might evolve from a world of defectors.
The People's Image of Conflict Resolution
Authors: Inbar Michael , Yuchtman-Yaar Ephraim
Published: March 2007

This article presents a comparison of political preferences for solutions to the Israeli-Arab conflict of three samples of respondents synchronously interviewed: Israeli Jews, Israeli Arabs, and West Bank Arabs. The results indicate no solution is simultaneously endorsed at the grass roots by a plurality of Israeli Jews on the one hand, and Israeli Arabs or West Bank Arabs on the other. Nonetheless, both Jews and Arabs distinguish between ideal (coveted) solutions, and reality-bound ones they could live with and would accept. Within nationalities, attitudes vary to a limited extent according to social characteristics such as education and religiosity. Additionally, among Israeli Arabs attitudes are significantly affected by locality of residence, especially among rural dwellers, which is a reminder of the enduring relevance of the traditional-modern dimension of analysis for this population.
The Global Conflict Process
Authors: Hoole Francis W. , Huang Chi
Published: March 2007

The relationship between domestic and international conflict serves as the primary focus of this article. A research approach is used that is different from that found in most previous studies. We use the international system as the unit of analysis and employ a dynamic time series research orientation. We suggest and present empirical evidence supporting the idea that the change in magnitude of domestic conflict and the change in magnitude of international conflict are intimately related in a behavioral pattern that we call the global conflict process.
Crisis Decision Making Reconsidered
Authors: Welch David A.
Published: March 2007

Serious problems may be found in Herek, Janis, and Huth's 1987 study of the relationship between the quality of the decision-making process in an international crisis and the desirability of its outcome. A closer look at the best understood and most thoroughly documented case used in their study (the Cuban missile crisis of 1962) reveals the chief cause of those problems to be the use of sources that appear to be incomplete in the light of new evidence. Both the conclusions of the Herek, Janis, and Huth study and the criteria with which they assess the quality of a decision-making process are called into question.
Mutual Perceptions of Religious and Secular Jews in Israel
Authors: Gordon Carol
Published: March 2007

Three hundred and eighty Israeli students in the eleventh grade, equally divided between children attending religious schools and children attending secular schools, completed questionnaires on the conflict between religious and secular Jews. Included were questions on ethnic and religious identity; amount and evaluation of interaction between the two groups; evaluation of the past, present, and future; and possible scenarios regarding solutions. In each set of questions the students were asked about their own views and how they believe the other group sees these issues. Analyses comparing the two groups revealed that in every set of questions, the secular viewed the religious significantly more negatively than the religious viewed the secular. The theory that equal status contact is a factor in conflict resolution was tested by correlating amount of actual contact and choice of solution. Correlations between evaluation of the relationship and choice of solutions showed that the more positively the students viewed the relationship, the less they accepted solutions with great intolerance and little contact. The major inference of this study, supported strongly and consistently by the data, is that the secular, believing their freedom of choice and style of life to be threatened, think, feel, and act accordingly. The religious, who do not face this problem, seem to be far less negative and extreme in their views.
Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression
Authors: Henderson Conway W.
Published: March 2007

The task of this study is to determine if certain political and socioeconomic variables have strong relationships with political repression conceptualized as disappearance, detention, torture, and political killings. The perspective of the study is from the question of why do people in power — with so many options available — choose repression as a method of rule. Repression is coded into numerical values from the State Department Country Reports, and then relationships with the degree of democracy, socioeconomic conditions, inequality, rate of economic change, and the level of economic development are tested in regression models. Significant relationships are found. The degree of democracy, the extent of inequality in society, and economic growth rate go a long way to explain and predict political repression in a parsimonious model.
Democratic Dominoes
Authors: Starr Harvey
Published: March 2007

This article is an attempt to indicate how diffusion approaches, based on the concepts of linkage and interdependence, can be of help in our thinking about the spread of democracy. The analyses address the existence or absence of diffusion effects in regard to changes in the degree of freedom in the world's governments, and whether or not there has been a more specific global movement towards democracy. The dependent variable is the set of “governmental transitions,” based on yearly Freedom House data. Diffusion analyses are at the global, regional, and neighbor-state levels (1974-1987). Thus analysis is limited to cues or prototypes from the external environment of states. Although neighbor effects are less than those found with the diffusion of war, all three levels support the proposition that there has been a diffusion of governmental transitions, including a movement towards democracy that provided a context for the dramatic events of 1988 and 1989.
Reciprocity and Cooperation in Social Dilemmas
Authors: Komorita S. S. , Hilty J. A. , Parks C. D.
Published: March 2007

In computer simulation studies of the prisoner's dilemma conducted by Axelrod (1984), the tit-for-tat (TFT) strategy was found to be most effective. Two important properties of the TFT strategy are based on the reciprocity norm: (1) It is “provocable” and immediately retaliates if the other person defects; and (2) it is “forgiving” and immedicately reciprocates cooperation if the other returns to cooperation after defection. Delay of reciprocity for the two types of TFT properties were varied: immediate versus one trial delay. In two experiments, a single naive subject (undergraduate male student) was led to believe that he was playing a two-person prisoner's dilemma, but he actually played against a programmed strategy. The results of both experiments yielded significant effects for delay of forgiveness: Mean proportion of cooperative choices was greater when cooperative overtures were reciprocated immediately than when they were delayed. Two other properties of TFT, “niceness” and clarity, were also assessed. The results are interpreted in terms of operant conditioning principles and in terms of Osgood's GRIT strategy.
Expectations, Emotions, and Preferred Responses Regarding the Arab-Israeli Conflict
Authors: Bizman Aharon , Hoffman Michael
Published: March 2007

Adapting Weiner's attribution theory, this study examines Israeli Jews' causal attribution for the Arab-Israeli conflict, their expectations and feelings regarding its course, and their preferred strategies of response. Expectations regarding continuation or escalation of conflict were found to be related to the stability dimension. Increased shame and guilt, as well as reduced pride as Israelis and anger toward Arabs, were associated with assigning the causes of the conflict to Israel. Relative preference for negotiation and concession rather than nonresolution were linked with attributions to uncontrollable, internal causes or to controllable unstable ones. Discussion focused on the role of attributional analysis as a heuristic in understanding and predicting individuals' expectations, emotions, and policy preferences regarding international conflict. Potential differences appear to arise in attributional analyses when moving from the interpersonal to the international frame, involving such factors as the meaning of controllability, the temporal focus of attribution, and the motive forces linking attribution to future action.
War Expansion and War Outcome
Authors: Gartner Scott Sigmund , Siverson Randolph M.
Published: March 2007

Most wars do not expand beyond the initial two participants. Why is this so? We argue that wars remain small because initiators select as targets states that they believe will not receive third-party help and that they can defeat without such help. Drawing on the idea of selection effect, a model of this choice is presented and a hypothesis is derived in which initiators (1) will win most often in wars of one against one and (2) will win least often when the target receives any help. This hypothesis is tested against war outcomes for initiators and targets in the period 1816-1975 using probit regression. The expectation is supported. The authors conclude that initiators act as predators and are likely to attack target states they know they can defeat if these targets are not joined by coalition partners. This selection pattern tends to make small wars likely.
Social Responses to Political Violence in the Basque Country
Authors: Funes María J.
Published: March 2007

In the Basque country of Spain, a violent political conflict has continued from the time of the Franco dictatorship. A terrorist group directs indiscriminate violence against the population. Over the past 10 years, a grassroots reaction against violence has built a pacifist protest. Groups of citizens have organized collective action. This article studies the strategies of these pacifist groups to gain support from Basque society. It shows how they gain an audience's attention in different sectors of the audience that tend to identify with each group. Through routine street mobilization and many other forms of social pressure, they have markedly changed the social landscape, constructing a new citizen consensus. Their activities affect political leaders, Spanish and Basque governments, and social conditions, seriously diminishing the terrorist group's influence.
The Relationship of the Five-Factor Model of Personality to Job Performance for a Group of Middle Eastern Expatriate Managers
Authors: Dalton Maxine , Wilson Meena
Published: March 2007

Studies in the United States and Europe have investigated the relationship of the Five- Factor Model of personality to effectiveness for domestic managers. This article reports on the relationship of the Five-Factor Model of personality to job performance for a group of Middle Eastern expatriate managers. Job performance ratings from the expatriate’s host- and home-country bosses indicate that agreeableness and conscientiousness were related to home-country ratings of job performance, but not host-country ratings.
Maternal Attributions of Taiwanese and American Toddlers’ Misdeeds and Accomplishments
Authors: Chiang Tsu-Ming , Barrett Karen Caplovitz , Nunez Narina N.
Published: March 2007

Parental beliefs are important influences on their child-rearing practices, which, in turn, affect their children’s personal-social development. Such parental beliefs are derived from the culture in which a parent and child reside. The differences might contribute to observed differences in children’s behaviors across nationalities. In the present study, parental beliefs (attributions) regarding the reasons for their children’s and their own positive and negative behaviors are examined. Five attributional orientations were assessed: (a) external/uncontrollable (situation), (b) external/unstable (luck-fate- chance), (c) internal/unstable (emotions), (d) internal/stable (traits), and (e) maternal socialization. Participants included 21 Taiwanese and 36 American mothers of children ranging from 24 to 36 months old. Results suggested that American mothers typically attributed positive behaviors to internal/stable dispositions and blamed external/unstable factors for negative behaviors, whereas Taiwanese mothers attributed positive behaviors to external/unstable factors and negative behaviors to internal/stable and/or external/ unstable characteristics. Implications are discussed.
Emotion Inferences from Vocal Expression Correlate Across Languages and Cultures
Authors: Scherer Klaus R. , Banse Rainer , Wallbott Harald G.
Published: March 2007

Whereas the perception of emotion from facial expression has been extensively studied cross-culturally, little is known about judges’ ability to infer emotion from vocal cues. This article reports the results from a study conducted in nine countries in Europe, the United States, and Asia on vocal emotion portrayals of anger, sadness, fear, joy, and neutral voice as produced by professional German actors. Data show an overall accuracy of 66% across all emotions and countries. Although accuracy was substantially better than chance, there were sizable differences ranging from 74% in Germany to 52% in Indonesia. However, patterns of confusion were very similar across all countries. These data suggest the existence of similar inference rules from vocal expression across cultures. Generally, accuracy decreased with increasing language dissimilarity from German in spite of the use of language-free speech samples. It is concluded that culture- and language-specific paralinguistic patterns may influence the decoding process.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Perceptions of Distributive Justice
Authors: Murphy-Berman Virginia , Berman John J.
Published: March 2007

Respondents in Hong Kong and Indonesia rated a hypothetical allocator depicted as distributing resources based on merit or need in either a positive (reward) or negative (cutback) resource context. Hong Kong respondents perceived that the use of merit was fairer and more principled than the use of need, but they also perceived that the allocator who favored merit was less nice, more selfish, and acted less because of concern for others’welfare. Indonesian respondents saw the use of need as being fairer than the use of merit, and they perceived that the allocator who favored the needy was nicer and acted more out of concern for others. Cultural differences in respondents’ perceptions were greater for the use of merit than for the use of need. Respondents from both cultures tended to rate the allocator more positively when resources were being given out than when resources were being taken away.
Infant-Caregiver Interaction in Kenya and the United States
Authors: Whaley Shannon E. , Sigman Marian , Beckwith Leila , Cohen Sarale E. , Espinosa Michael P.
Published: March 2007

This study explores infant-caregiver interaction in two cultures, replicating and expanding on previous cross-cultural comparisons. For this study, 132 Kenyan infants, 112 preterm U.S. infants, and 27 full-term U.S. infants were observed with their caregivers during multiple home observations. Results expand on previous work in Kenya, illustrating the importance of multiple caregivers in the lives of infants. When all care- givers are taken into account, as opposed to just mothers, similarities between Kenyan and U.S. cultures in styles of interacting with young infants become more apparent. In addition, when infant-caregiver interaction in Kenya is compared with infant-caregiver interaction with U.S. preterms, previously reported differences between Kenyan and U.S. caregiving behaviors also become less evident. These findings are particularly important in that they counter the concern that the development of children in environments such as rural Kenya is compromised by lower levels of stimulation from mothers.
Ethnic Identification: Honolulu and Seattle Japanese -Americans
Authors: Matsumoto Gary M. , Meredith Gerald M. , Masuda Minoru
Published: March 2007

This study compared the magnitude of ethnic identification among three generations of Japanese-Americans in Honolulu, Hawaii. Ethnic identification was measured by a recently constructed Ethnic Identity Questionnaire. The first generation Japanese immigrant (Issei) scored higher than the second (Nisei) and third (Sansei) generations. The EIQ scores between the Nisei and Sansei, although not significantly different, were in the hypothesized direction of attenuation with generations. This was attributed to intermingling of peer self-defined generation groups. The Honolulu sample was then compared to three generations of Seattle Japanese-Americans on the same questionnaire. The former were seen to be less ethnically identified than their Seattle counter-parts. Possible reasons for this unexpected result were discussed in terms of immigration and community history, greater structural assimilation in the areas of political and economic power and social interrelationships, middle-class status conformity, personality differences and varying definitions of ethnic identity.
A Comparative Study of the CPI Femininity Scale: Validation in Israel
Authors: Levin Joseph , Karni Eliezer S.
Published: March 2007

The 38-item Femininity Scale of the California Psychological Inventory has validly differentiated between males and females in seven countries, and the extension of these findings to other countries would help yield an instrument for further cross-cultural studies. A Hebrew translation of the scale was administered to a random sample of the Israeli population, consisting of 200 males and 200 females. The means were 16. 36 and 22. 02 respectively and the difference of 5. 66 is highly significant (p <. 001). All the items, except one, differentiated in the proper direction, though several items showed low discriminating power. The validity of Fe in Israel is one of the highest among the countries for which studies are available, and is next to the results obtained in U.S.A.
Effects of Ethnic Origin and Parental SES on WPPSI Performance of Pre-School Children in Israel
Authors: Lieblich Amia , Ninio Anat , Kugelmass Sol
Published: March 2007

A Hebrew translation of the Wechsler Preschool Primary Scale of Intelligence was administered to 1072 Israeli-born children aging 4 to 6 1/2 years. Groups originating from Israel, East Europe, Middle East and North Africa, all subdivided into High vs. Low SES groups, were identified. The eight groups differed significantly in the level but usually not in the pattern of the subtests' scores. First generation Oriental children performed relatively lower, but the gap between second-generation Israeli children of Oriental and Western origin is notably diminished.
Mother-Directed Achievement of Children in Two Cultures
Authors: Madsen Millard C. , Kagan Spencer
Published: March 2007

Mother-child pairs in a small Mexican town and in Los Angeles, California, were observed in two experimental situations in which the mother either controlled the rewards given to the child for success or failure or selected achievement goals for the child. The results of the first experiment were that mothers of both groups rewarded their children for success, but that Mexican mothers gave significantly more rewards for failure than did the Los Angeles mothers. The results of the second experiment were that the Los Angeles mothers chose significantly more difficult achievement goals for their children and did not lower the goal following failure, as did the Mexican mothers.
Acquiescence and Conventionality in a Communal Society
Authors: Boldt Edward D.
Published: March 2007

An attempt is made to test the hypothesis that the conventional behavior of individuals reared in "folk" societies is attributable to their tendency to acquiesce willingly to the expectations of the group. Utilizing a modified Crutchfield-type group pressure technique, children reared in the conventional, and structurally "tight," Hutterite communities are compared to a group of children from the host society. A sample of Old Colony Mennonite subjects, representing a conventional but "looser" society is also tested to assess the effect of social tightness/looseness on conformity. The findings indicate that Hutterites are only marginally more acquiescent than "worldly" subjects, whereas Mennonites score significantly higher. An alternative explanation of Hutterite conventionality is therefore suggested which reduces lack of deviance to lack of individual autonomy and the opportunity to be different.