bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
REDIRECTING THE SEARCH PROCESS*
Authors: NEISSER ULRIC , STOPER ARNOLD
Published: April 2011

Subjects scanned through lists of words looking for proper names. Some lists contained cue words which made it possible to skip a number of lines. One or two seconds were needed to make such a skip; hence cues for short skips were not used. Interpretation is in terms of a higher‐order process which controls the scanning pattern.
VISUAL IMPERCEPTION IN PSYCHOTIC CHILDREN
Authors: HERMELIN B. , O'CONNOR N.
Published: April 2011

Psychotic speaking and non‐speaking children and subnormal controls were compared on visual discrimination tasks. Tasks which could be solved through the use of kinaesthetic, brightness or size cues did not differentiate between the groups, while those which involved shape differences and directional orientation did.
EFFECTS OF INTERMODAL STIMULATION ON FIGURAL AFTER‐EFFECTS
Authors: SATINDER K. PAUL
Published: April 2011

Verification was sought for the assumption by Köhler & Wallach that figural after‐effect is a phenomenon specific to any given sense modality. Results contradicted Köhler & Wallach and Jaffe, as concurrent stimulation in different sense modalities affected significantly the figural after‐effects occurring in other sense modalities in the absence of any size relation between the stimuli. The results support the hypothesis of sensory interaction, suggested by Soviet researches.
UNCERTAINTY AND TRANSITIONAL PROBABILITY IN THE SPAN OF APPREHENSION
Authors: WARRINGTON ELIZABETH K. , KINSBOURNE M. , JAMES MERLE
Published: April 2011

Span of apprehension was measured for stimulus ensembles of various sizes, using letters, digits and an arbitrarily selected set of simple lines. Span was significantly decreased when letters and digits were presented as mixed sequences, in proportion to the number of letter‐digit juxtapositions. Span also varied with the serial position at which a single juxtaposition occurred, being greatest where this was near the mid‐point. These results were thought to arise from the higher transitional probabilities between items of the same class than of different classes, and the greater ease in grouping such items. No effect of stimulus uncertainty was found. Random letter span was significantly less than digit span, but span for sequences reflecting letter frequencies in the language did not differ significantly from digit span (at 100 msec exposure duration).

The unfamiliar line material yielded relatively lower spans, varying inversely with ensemble size (two, four and eight choice). This was determined not by overall stimulus uncertainty but by the degree of heterogeneity of the individual stimulus arrays. The relatively less heterogeneous stimulus assays were thought to lend themselves more readily to verbal recoding. With very familiar material transitional probability, in relation to previous experience of the language, determines span. With the less familiar material not subject to such response bias, it was the recodability of the individual display which determined the span. With only a single exception, comparable results were obtained at moderately and at very brief exposure durations.
VARYING THE NUMBER OF ALTERNATIVES IN SHORT‐TERM RECALL
Authors: WOODHEAD MURIEL M.
Published: April 2011

Performance on a task of continuing memory span improved as the number of alternative items increased, in contrast to short‐term recall from single presentations. The tentative explanation offered is that the difficulty of organizing items in chunks during continuing recall increases as the amount of information decreases.
THE RELATION BETWEEN BREADTH OF CATEGORY AND DECISION TIME
Authors: TAJFEL HENRI , BRUNER JEROME S.
Published: April 2011

Twenty‐four subjects were presented with a series of stimuli, all of equal length (5 in.), and asked to classify each as being or not being 5 in. long. The subjects were then divided into three groups (broad, middle and narrow categorizers) according to the number of including and excluding responses that they gave.

It was found that: (a) the decision times of both extreme groups were considerably shorter than those of the middle group; (b) there was a tendency for the extreme groups to have shorter decision times for their preferred type of response; but this tendency did not reach statistical significance.
MEMORY AND DISTORTION OF MEANINGFUL WRITTEN MATERIAL*
Authors: DAWES ROBYN MASON
Published: April 2011

A method is presented for measuring memory and distortion of meaningful written material. The method is based on the fact that since meaningful material asserts set relations, a subject's memory and distortion of such material may be measured by asking him to recognize or recall set relations, rather than specific verbal units. In addition, a measure of ‘simplification’, in terms of distorted set relations, is proposed. A series of experiments concerned with recognition and recall of set relations reveals that simplification, as defined, does occur. But it does not increase over time.
GEOMETRIC ILLUSIONS AND ENVIRONMENT: A STUDY IN GHANA
Authors: JAHODA GUSTAV
Published: April 2011

Segall, Campbell & Herskovits (1963, 1966) put forward the view that the Müller–Lyer illusion is a function of rectangularity in the environment, and that the horizontal–vertical one depends on openness of terrain. Existing contrasts in these two variables in Ghana were used in an attempt to investigate the hypotheses. A total of 213 illiterate subjects were tested, and 41 subjects in Britain. A significant overall difference in the expected direction between Ghanaian and British subjects was obtained with the Müller–Lyer, but no differences corresponding to environmental variations emerged on either of the illusions within the subgroups of Ghanaian subjects. The reasons for this partial failure to replicate are examined in the light of other studies, and some theoretical implications discussed.
THE EFFECT OF INFORMATIONAL FEEDBACK ON SIZE JUDGEMENTS OF SCHIZOPHRENIC PATIENTS
Authors: STANNARD R. , SINGER G. , OVER R.
Published: April 2011

This experiment studied visual size judgements of hospitalized schizophrenic patients and normal controls under two conditions of presentation. Sixteen patients and sixteen normal volunteers were required to match for size a graded series of disks at a distance of 14 ft 6 in. with a 4 in. standard at a distance of 5 ft 6 in. Both groups were tested under two conditions: verbal instructions, and verbal instructions with information feedback. The results showed a reduction in error for schizophrenics under the feedback condition. These findings are discussed with reference to the research methodology of procedures which are supposed to provide relative measures of the perceptual capacities of different diagnostic groups.
EFFECTS OF SEQUENTIAL ORDERING OF ADDED PAIRS AND OF CORRECTION V. NON‐CORRECTION PROCEDURES ON PAIRED‐ASSOCIATE PERFORMANCE
Authors: BATTIG WILLIAM F.
Published: April 2011

An 8‐pair list was learned with fewer errors to criterion under a correction procedure, which equated number of correct responses for each individual pair, than the standard non‐correction procedure. Both interpair differences in degree of learning and retention, and variability between subjects, were reduced under the correction procedure. Each of 7 non‐correction conditions was then used for a second list of 6 new pairs, learned either alone or in conjunction with the 6 best‐learned list 1 pairs (either grouped together, alternated with new pairs, or randomly intermixed), in either constant or varied serial order. Neither sequential grouping nor alternation facilitated list 2 performance, and alternation after non‐correction learning of list 1 elicited significantly more errors after the first correct response. Constant serial order for list 2 required fewer trials to criterion than varied serial order.
AGE DIFFERENCES IN ERRORS OF COMMISSION
Authors: TUNE G. S.
Published: April 2011

Subjects listened to a recording of groups of 10 digits (spoken at the rate of 1/sec) for 40 min; each was followed by 10 sec silence. The task was to report whether or not three consecutive and different odd digits occurred and to report the decision in the 10 sec silent periods. Correct detections did not vary either as a function of time or age. The number of errors of commission increased with time on task and the older subjects made significantly more of these errors than did the younger subjects. The results are discussed briefly in terms of the arousal hypothesis.
VISUAL MASKING AS A FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY
Authors: McLAUGHLIN R. J. , EYSENCK H. J.
Published: April 2011

Visual masking was related to the personality dimensions of introversion–extraversion and neuroticism. It was predicted and found that extraverts have a higher masking threshold than introverts. The function of reticulo‐cortical arousal and inhibition mechanisms is discussed in relation to extraversion–introversion as a possible source for an explanation of this phenomenon.
A PSYCHOLINGUISTIC INVESTIGATION OF A RULE THEORY OF ‘SENSE‘
Authors: ALKER HENRY A.
Published: April 2011

Sommers, formalizing some procedures of linguistic analysis used by Wittgenstein and Ryle, has proposed that the senses of a set of terms may be represented uniquely and unequivocally by a topological tree. This claim was tested by examining empirically its consequence that sets of terms not fitting on a tree must contain some equivocation. Each of four different measures of equivocation supported this prediction. Implications for current research on meaning are discussed.
REPETITION AND IMMEDIATE MEMORY
Authors: DALRYMPLE‐ALFORD E. C.
Published: April 2011

Subjects were presented with digit‐combinations one digit at a time, in such a manner that each succeeding digit was presented only after all the preceding digits had been repeated by the subject in correct order. The number of digits the subjects could ‘carry’ in general did not differ from their memory spans. This together with the distribution of serial positions at which repetition broke down is taken as evidence for the view that repetition restores but does not further strengthen memory traces.
DEUTSCH'S MODEL APPLIED TO A CONDITIONAL MAZE
Authors: HOLDING D. H. , PRITCHATT D.
Published: April 2011

Rodents (mice) were rewarded for running over, but not for running under, an obstacle giving access to a final common path. On the basis of Deutsch's postulates it was predicted that the proportion of correct responses during test trials should depend upon the distribution of reinforcement during training trials; the proportion being high following block reinforcement, low following alternated reinforcement and intermediate in a procedure used by Sheldon. These predictions were upheld throughout testing in a maze with a long final path, but only held good for the early test trials in a shorter maze for which predictions are equivocal.
RIGIDITY, DRIVE AND CONDITIONING IN NEUROTICS*
Authors: PAYNE R. W. , NETLEY C. T. , SLOANE R. B.
Published: April 2011

Four of Brengelmann's questionnaire measures of rigidity, Brengelmann's Drive Scale, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Maudsley Personality Inventory and the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale, were given to thirty neurotic and thirty normal female subjects. In the first of two conditioning experiments, the eyeblink response was conditioned to a tone, an air puff being the UCS. In the second, the finger flexion reaction to an unavoidable electric shock was conditioned to a tone. GSR and heart‐rate responses were measured simultaneously.

Brengelmann's previous findings that the rigidity questionnaire scores were significantly correlated with drive, anxiety and neuroticism questionnaire measure were confirmed. However, the predicted relations between rigidity and four of Malmo's physiological measures of drive (arousal) were not found. Although conditioning was clearly obtained, Brengelmann and Field's finding that eyeblink conditionability and questionnaire rigidity are related was not verified, nor did the conditioned finger response correlate with these rigidity measures. The data suggested that, for the GSR and heart‐rate responses, only ‘pseudo‐conditioning’ was obtained. The possible implications of this last finding are discussed.
REMEMBERING OF WORDS BY PSYCHOTIC AND SUBNORMAL CHILDREN
Authors: HERMELIN BEATE , O'CONNOR N.
Published: April 2011

It was predicted that recall of structured and unstructured verbal material would differ less in a group of psychotic children than in subnormal controls. This hypothesis was confirmed. In addition, psychotic children had better recall scores than the controls.
STRUCTURE AND CONTENT IN CONCEPT ATTAINMENT: EFFECTS OF VARYING PROBLEM CONTENT
Authors: WETHERICK N. E.
Published: April 2011

Three equivalent forms of a concept‐attainment task were employed on the hypothesis that both unfamiliar problem content (Hebrew letters) and relatively familiar problem content (simple verbal descriptions), which however exposed the problems to proactive interference from individual preconceptions, prejudices, etc., would have the effect of reducing the efficiency with which problems were solved by comparison with neutral problem content (English letters). The second part of the hypothesis was supported but not the first. Young, intelligent subjects may operate as easily with unfamiliar as with familiar symbols, though real verbal content significantly increases the difficulty of the task for them; but this possibility requires confirmation by a more fully balanced experiment.
PHRASE UNITS AND THE RECALL OF GRAMMATICALLY STRUCTURED NONSENSE
Authors: HERRIOT P.
Published: April 2011

Inflexions and function words were added to nonsense stems to form strings fitting three different sentence frames. These strings were then divided into phrase units, and also into units of the same size but with the inter‐unit boundaries not occurring at the phrase boundaries. Other conditions introduced the randomization of the order of the units, and also of the nonsense stems within units. Results, in terms of the number of trials to criterion, showed that there was a significant difference between the two groups learning the strings in the correct order, one in phrase units and the other in non‐phrase units; there was also a significant order effect, the strings with stems randomized being harder to learn than the strings with units randomized and the ordered strings. When transitional error probabilities were calculated, it was found, contrary to expectation, that error probabilities were higher between the non‐phrase units than between the phrase units. It was concluded that phrase units are basic in the recall of sentences, and that the sequential organization of stems is most important within phrase units.
AN ANALOGUE OF EXTRAVERSION AS A DETERMINANT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN BEHAVIOUR IN THE RAT
Authors: WELDON E.
Published: April 2011

The investigation was concerned with an analogue of extraversion—introversion in rats as precursor to a selective breeding experiment. Forty Maudsley reactive and forty Maudsley non‐reactive rats were tested in both the Mowrer box and in a spatial alternation T‐maze. It is argued that each of these test situations gives a measure of extraversion—introversion through the involvement of reactive inhibition in each case (cf. Eysenck, 1955, 1957). Both measures exhibited strain differences; but comparison of the scores of individual subjects also suggested individual differences that can be attributed to differences in stimulus hunger.
SOME PROBLEMS IN REPERTORY GRID MEASUREMENT
Authors: MAIR J. M. M.
Published: April 2011

Kelly (1955) assumed that constructs were bipolar, and developed the repertory grid as a method for measuring links between construct dimensions. In most grid applications implicit assumptions seem to be made that elements not chosen in grid sorts using one pole of a construct dimension will be chosen in sorts based on the other pole, and that relations between constructs derived from grid sorts using one pole of a construct will be the converse of the relations derived from sorts based on the other pole. The legitimacy of these assumptions was examined experimentally with the co‐operation of ten male medical students acting as subjects. Considerable overlap in element choices based on opposite poles of five construct dimensions appeared for each subject, and the practical effects of this overlap on various types of grid scores were demonstrated. Suggestions for modifications in grid usage, and for further exploration of construct functions, are discussed.
THE RELATION OF VERBAL RATE TO SYLLABLE LENGTH OF VERBAL ACTION IN TWO INTERVIEW SITUATIONS
Authors: WEBB JAMES T. , BRISTER DAVID M.
Published: April 2011

Undergraduate students were interviewed in standardized (SI) and non‐standardized (NSI) situations and their speaking rates measured in syllables per minute. Analyses of verbal rates supported Goldman‐Eisler's (1954b) finding of an inverse relation between subjects' verbal rate (VR) and length of action, and between the variance of subjects' VR and length of action, but these relations were observed only in the SI situation. Frequency distributions for VRs were found to be normal, by contrast with the positively skewed and leptokurtic distributions she reported. Homogeneity of VR variance across subjects was found in the SI situation, but not in NSI. Thus, the type of interview situation, i.e. the experimenter's behaviour, apparently influences subjects' VR in such a way that the more consistent the experimenter's interview behaviour, the less the variability of the subject's behaviour. Clinical implications are pointed out.
STEREOSCOPIC VISION AND ANISEIKONIC LENSES. II
Authors: SEAGRIM G. N.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are reported which examine some implications of earlier experiments (Seagrim, 1967). It is found that latency in the response to the effect of aniseikonic lenses persists under altered conditions but is radically reduced when an occluder is placed before either eye (but not both) for 10 sec while the lens is being placed in position. It is also found that latency is positively related to age.
EFFECTS OF A NOVEL SITUATION AND OF ANXIETY ON TWO GROUPS OF DEPENDENCY BEHAVIOURS
Authors: ROSENTHAL MIRIAM K.
Published: April 2011

The habituation of two groups of dependency behaviours in a novel situation was investigated under two levels of anxiety provocation. The two groups of dependency behaviours were ‘attention seeking’ and ‘proximity seeking’. Sixty‐four girls aged 3–5 were assigned to two experimental conditions: high and low anxiety. Each child was seen twice and each session lasted 30 min. Frequency of dependency behaviour was recorded by an observer according to previously defined behaviour categories.

The principal findings were: (1) under high anxiety conditions frequency of attention seeking decreases with time (habituation of curiosity) and frequency of proximity seeking increases when there is a gradual increase in number of fear‐provoking elements; (2) under low anxiety conditions frequency of attention seeking decreases with time while only a negligible decrease of proximity seeking takes place; (3) long‐term habituation, over 3 or 4 weeks, does not occur for either kind of behaviour; (4) an unexpected interaction indicated that attention seeking decreases significantly faster under conditions of low anxiety than under conditions of high and sustained anxiety, although no main effect of anxiety on attention seeking was found. The results are interpreted in terms of elements in the situation provoking curiosity or anxiety.
TEMPORAL EFFECTS ON RESPONSE DECREMENT AND STIMULUS SATIATION IN EXPLORATION
Authors: HUTT CORINNE
Published: April 2011

Some workers have shown the temporal course of exploration to be decremented with time, while others have shown it to be maintained at a constant level from day to day. It has been argued that different behaviours are involved in the two cases and that the latter effect is a function of the experimental conditions. Experiments with nursery‐school children substantiated this argument. A further experiment sought to establish the most appropriate theoretical construct to account for the decrement in exploration by manipulation of the temporal variable. It was found that two decremental processes were manifest: one due to response inhibition and the other to stimulus satiation. The former was seen to be primarily affected by the complexity of the novel stimulus rather than by temporal factors; the latter by both.
EFFECT OF DELAY OF ESCAPE REWARD AND RESPONSE COMPATIBILITY ON HUMAN REACTION TIME
Authors: KARRAS ATHAN
Published: April 2011

The gradient of escape reward under compatible and incompatible responses performed during delay of reward by human subjects was studied. A discrimination jump reaction time task was used; escape was from aversive noise. Subjects practised the same jump response and one of two delay responses on pre‐reward discrimination trials and were told that the pre‐reward jump response was the escape response on noise trials. During noise trials reward followed the escape response by 0, 0·4, 4·0 or 8·0 sec. A no‐noise control group for each kind of delay response was included. The jump speeds for both kinds of delay responses were the same for pre‐reward trials and also for reward trials for zero delay. For reward trials the delay groups with the incompatible response were slower than the compatible response group counterparts on all but 8·0 sec delay. The no‐noise controls did not improve. Extinction was immediate for all reward groups.
A COMPARISON OF VISUAL AND PSEUDO‐RECOGNITION THRESHOLDS AS A FUNCTION OF FREQUENCY AND RECENCY
Authors: PYKE SANDRA , AGNEW NEIL McK. , PEZER VERA
Published: April 2011

A series of experiments was conducted to investigate the effects of recency, duration of the interval following recency treatment, and frequency on recognition and pseudo‐recognition thresholds. Pre‐exposed stimuli were found to have significantly lower thresholds than those for material not pre‐exposed. There was no differential effect on performance with intervals of 30 and 60 sec between pre‐exposure and threshold determination. However, significantly lower thresholds were obtained with an interval of 30 sec as compared with an interval of 180 sec. Low‐frequency words were more influenced by recency of experience than high‐frequency stimuli. The effect of frequency on response bias was negligible in the pseudo‐perceptual situation and the trend favoured stronger response bias with low‐frequency material. The implications of the results are discussed.
RESPONSE LATENCY IN THE SERIAL LEARNING OF SHORT LISTS
Authors: KENNEDY ALAN
Published: April 2011

The relationship between serial position and response latency in the learning and recall of short lists of letters was examined. For a given length of list the relationship was non‐linear, responses to the first and final positions being faster in general than to other positions. Response‐latencies regardless of serial position tended to be longer for a seven‐item list than for a five‐item one. Rate‐of‐presentation was not a relevant variable within the limits of the experimental conditions employed.
VARIABILITY IN COGNITIVE CONTROL
Authors: HIGGINS JERRY , PETERSON JUDITH C. , DOLBY LISE‐LOTTE LEHD
Published: April 2011

Inconsistency in preference behaviour was predicted on the basis of variability in cognitive control. Twenty‐eight undergraduates performed an aesthetic preference task, and were subsequently assessed for intra‐individual variability on the cognitive‐control dimension of breadth of categorization. The results supported the hypothesis at better than the 0·01 level of significance by a one‐tailed test.
THE USE OF SYNTAX IN UNDERSTANDING SENTENCES
Authors: CLARK HERBERT H. , BEGUN JEFFREY S.
Published: April 2011

The present study explored the processes by which people understand sentences. Simple sentences with subjects, verbs and objects, but with specific semantic anomalies, were constructed from naturally occurring sentences. Sentences so derived were given to participants in Expts. I and III to judge for sensibleness and to participants in Expts. II and IV to alter so that they made more sense. The results showed the existence of two levels of processing: hierarchical and left‐to‐right. Participants judging sensibleness depended only on a sentence's deep structure, processing its functional relations according to hierarchical priorities—subject first, predicate second, and subject and predicate in combination last. This was true for both actives and passives. Participants altering sentences, however, depended on both deep and surface structure. They showed an additional left‐to‐right processing, preferring to change words near the end of both actives and passives. This effect was explained by thematic prominence. It was also found that participants treated actors as a restricted part of the universe of things which can be acted upon.
ODOUR QUALITIES: A GLOSSARY OF USAGE
Authors: HARPER R. , LAND D. G. , GRIFFITHS NERYS M. , BATE‐SMITH E. C.
Published: April 2011

The meaning of 72 odour qualities is reported in a Glossary. The information was derived from three main studies. Replies to two questionnaires provide information on frequency of understanding, and the meaning of the qualities understood, expressed in the respondents' own words. The odour stimuli used in the experimental investigations are specified and the rationale for their selection is outlined. In Expt. I, 53 odour stimuli were characterized spontaneously, apart from the aid of a Guidance List. The results are then expressed in terms of the frequency of use of the main qualities. In Expt. II the characterization of 45 odour stimuli was directed by the use of a five‐point rating scale with 44 carefully chosen qualities. Data are presented separately for experienced and inexperienced subjects. The experimental results relating to each quality are summarized. Some of the wider implications of these studies are discussed.
SUPPRESSION OF THE UCR IN HUMAN EYELID CONDITIONING AS A FUNCTION OF CS INTENSITY
Authors: FISHBEIN HAROLD D. , LEVY STUART
Published: April 2011

Subjects were run in an eyelid conditioning experiment with CS intensity as the independent variable. Strength of conditioning was assessed by measures of UCR suppression and percentage CRs. It was found that increases in CS intensity produced increases in both percentage CRs and UCR suppression. This supported the view that UCR suppression was an associative process. In that, across groups, increases in percentage CRs were accompanied by increases in UCR suppression and, within groups, the two measures were uncorrelated, it was suggested that inhibition of delay was not the underlying mechanism of UCR suppression.
THE NON‐RANDOMNESS OF ATTEMPTS AT RANDOM RESPONSES: RELATIONSHIPS WITH PERSONALITY VARIABLES AND PSYCHIATRIC DISORDER
Authors: RAMSAY R. W. , BROADHURST ANNE
Published: April 2011

Studies have shown that subjects are not random in their responses, even when attempting to achieve randomness. In this study, normal and schizophrenic subjects were asked to give numbers from one to nine at random and paced. They were given an interpolated task, and then retested. Some statistical tests of degree of randomness were devised and it was shown that no subject was random, but that stereotypy decreased within and over test—retest. The results are discussed in terms of learning and extinction of stereotypy. Differences between introverts and extraverts were almost significant in the opposite direction from that predicted. Schizophrenics were significantly more stereotyped than normals. Finally, it was shown that for a normal subject, his test could be identified from other subjects' tests on the basis of retest protocol, the test protocol providing a kind of psychological ‘fingerprint’.
THE REVERSE MÜLLER‐LYER ILLUSION AND ‘ENCLOSURE’
Authors: FELLOWS BRIAN J.
Published: April 2011

A reversal of the normal Müller‐Lyer illusion occurs when relatively short lines are placed midway between the ingoing and the outgoing fins (Fellows, 1967). Gregory's (1967) explanation of this effect in terms of constancy scaling is unsatisfactory. An alternative hypothesis is proposed in which the reverse illusion is due to the enclosing effect of the ingoing fins. This hypothesis is supported by an experiment showing that an equivalent‐sized non‐fin enclosure (rectangle) has the same expansion effect upon a short line. The experiment also supported the argument that the reduction in the extent of the reverse illusion with increases in the length of the inter‐fins line, and the eventual emergence of the normal illusion, are due to the progressive weakening of the enclosure effect and the strengthening of another effect specifically involving the pattern of the fins. The relation between enclosure and contrast is discussed.
ON THE RELATIVE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOURCES OF VARIATION IN DICHOTIC LISTENING PERFORMANCE
Authors: INGLIS JAMES
Published: April 2011

Among the many possible sources of variation in dichotic listening performance, two in particular have been accorded considerable theoretical importance. The influence of order effect has usually been regarded as an index of the functioning of some short‐term storage process. The influence of ear asymmetry has commonly been taken to reflect perceptual functioning.

Most published studies have examined only one or other of these influences, so that they have even come to be viewed as alternative ‘explanations’ of differential accuracy in dichotic listening performance. It is contended here that these alternatives are not in fact mutually exclusive, but merely define different sources of variation in the phenomena studied. A number of different comparisons must be made before the relative importance of each of these sources of variance in dichotic listening performance can be determined.
A FURTHER STUDY OF THE INFERENTIAL BASIS OF CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
Authors: WETHERICK N. E.
Published: April 2011

Time scores were obtained from five groups of subjects, ranging in average age from 8 yr. to 62 yr., on six types of concept‐attainment problem presented in familiar and unfamiliar symbols. The results for each group were subjected to analysis of variance. The effects of size of problem and type of symbol employed were highly significant irrespective of age. The effect of type of problem (presenting positive or mixed instances) was significant in all but the 62 yr. group, and the interaction between type and size of problem in all but the 38 and 62 yr. groups. The interaction between type of problem and type of symbol employed was, however, significant only in the 38 and the 62 yr. groups. An interpretation is suggested for these differences. In the three adult groups, problem‐solving proficiency was shown to correlate with short‐term memory capacity for the familiar and unfamiliar symbols employed.
THE EFFECTS OF ANXIETY ON THE RELATION BETWEEN REACTION TIME AND STIMULUS LIGHT INTENSITY
Authors: COSTELLO C. G.
Published: April 2011

A number of investigators have found that, under normal conditions, RTs grow shorter with an increase in stimulus intensity. Other investigators have found a flattening of the curve relating RTs to stimulus light intensity and in some instances a paradoxical increase in RTs at high intensities for schizophrenics, subjects with independently measured ‘weak’ nervous systems and subjects administered caffeine. The latter findings have been interpreted in terms of the development of transmarginal inhibition consequent upon high levels of excitation having been reached. The findings of the study reported here suggest that these paradoxical relations between RTs and stimulus intensity do not occur in subjects classified as anxious on the basis of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. They suggest that they do occur when subjects are threatened with shock for poor performance. The effect, however, appears to be a transitory one, disappearing with repeated testing.
IMPRINTING AND THE FOLLOWING RESPONSE AS A FUNCTION OF AMOUNT OF TRAINING IN DOMESTIC CHICKS
Authors: CONNOLLY KEVIN
Published: April 2011

Two groups of domestic chicks were given 30 min. training with a moving stimulus approximately 14 hr. post hatch. Following behaviour was measured at 24‐hourly intervals over 7 days, one group having a further 30 min. training each day. No differences in the amount of following was found between the groups though they both showed a steady decline in following over the 7 days of testing. Approach and free field responses were measured subsequently. The group which had the most visual experience with the training stimulus showed significantly more attachment responses. The results are discussed in terms of a perceptual learning model for imprinting and certain differences between following and approach are discussed.
CRITICAL NOTICE: THE ANALYSIS OF HIGHER NERVOUS ACTIVITY IN MAN
Authors: KINSBOURNE MARCEL
Published: April 2011

Higher Cortical Functions in Man. By A. R. Luria

Human Brain and Psychological Processes. By A. R. Luria
PERCEPTUAL—MOTOR BEHAVIOUR IN INFANCY AS A FUNCTION OF AGE AND STIMULUS FAMILIARITY
Authors: SCHAFFER H. R. , PARRY M. H.
Published: April 2011

Changes in visual and manipulative responses to repeated presentations of a stimulus object were studied in 6‐ and 12‐month‐old infants. It was found that the two groups resembled one another with regard to the perceptual measures, indicating that the younger group was as competent as the older in differentiating on the basis of familiarity. Manipulative latency, on the other hand, yielded a different picture, for whereas the older infants behaved differentially in this respect too in relation to the familiarity dimension, the younger infants showed immediate approach responses indiscriminately throughout the series of trials. A period of development extending into the second half‐year is thus indicated when approach–avoidance behaviour is as yet not guided by the ability perceptually to discriminate strange and familiar stimuli.
THE EFFECT OF CODABILITY OF THE STIMULUS ON RECOGNITION REACTION TIMES
Authors: COHEN Gillian
Published: April 2011

Recognition reaction times for four different kinds of stimulus are compared. The stimuli are simple lines, unpronounceable trigrams, three‐letter words and nonsense syllables. The results can be explained in terms of the codability of the stimulus array. The effects of acoustic and visual confusability, and of the position of the different sign within an array, are also examined.
SHORT‐TERM MEMORY AND THE LIMITED CAPACITY HYPOTHESIS
Authors: BADDELEY A. D. , SCOTT DENISE , DRYNAN ROSEMARY , SMITH JANET C.
Published: April 2011

Murdock has shown that the immediate free recall of a list of words is adversely affected by a concurrent card‐sorting task, with degree of impairment increasing with the number of sorting alternatives. He interprets this in terms of a limited capacity STM mechanism. The present study repeats Murdock's study with the addition of an STM control, a condition in which recall was delayed for 30 sec. by a rehearsal‐preventing task. Card‐sorting load influenced the long‐term component (measured by delayed recall), but not the short‐term component (measured by subtracting delayed from immediate recall). It is suggested that the limited capacity system affects input into LTM rather than STM.
SKIN CONDUCTANCE CHANGES AND WORD RECALL
Authors: CORTEEN R. S.
Published: April 2011

An experiment was carried out to test the hypothesis that size of phasic conductance response to an item is related positively to later recall of that item. Results confirmed the hypothesis with the additional finding that the positive relation increases with increasing delay in recall. Some attempt is made to explain the findings in terms of a simple memory process.
DETERMINATION OF A GUSTATORY L70 POINT FOR SODIUM BENZOATE
Authors: GREGSON R. A. M.
Published: April 2011

Determinations of an L70 point for sodium benzoate taste detection are reported for three different psychophysical methods: Wetherill's UDTR method with single stimuli; the UDTR method modified to incorporate relative judgements at each trial; and the ascending series modification of the method of limits as commonly used in gustatory psychophysics. The high false positive rate for water stimuli interposed with sodium benzoate samples was confirmed; only the modified UDTR and the ascending series methods could be made to yield meaningful L70 determinations, which were in mutual agreement. The L70 is at about 0·04 per cent concentration; responses to sodium benzoate which have been reported below 0·01 per cent are suspect and probably mediated by an after‐taste or contrast process. Qualitative variations in the taste of sodium benzoate are reinterpreted at and below threshold.
WATER DEPRIVATION AND PERFORMANCE IN THE CLOSED FIELD TEST
Authors: POLLARD J. S. , LYSONS A. M.
Published: April 2011

Twenty male and 20 female Wistar rats were run in the Hebb‐Williams closed field test after 6, 12, 24 or 47 hr. deprivation of water. Performance was divided into two major components representing problem‐solving and exploratory behaviour. Increasing the degree of water deprivation had only a slight effect on problem‐solving but a marked effect on exploration. It was concluded that variations in motivational level have their effects on competing responses rather than capacity to learn or solve problems and that, for the comparative psychologist, equation of motivational level in different species may not be a serious problem if competing responses can be eliminated.
REGISTRATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHYSICAL SYSTEM: A STUDY OF PRE‐ADOLESCENT CAPABILITIES
Authors: SEYMOUR P. H. K. , WILKINSON J. E.
Published: April 2011

Task‐analysis techniques (Gagné, 1962, 1967) were used to generate hypotheses about the order of difficulty of tasks involving a sonometer, a physical system in which the pitch of a note is reciprocally dependent on the length and tension of a vibrating string. Predictions relating task performance to level of mental maturity were formulated on the basis of results reported by Inhelder & Piaget (1958) for similar systems. Administration of the tasks to 42 children aged 6–12 yr. provided general confirmation of the predictions for task difficulty and age‐placement. An analysis of developmental trends across task blocks is reported. It is concluded that behaviour in this situation conforms to the behaviour of concrete operational children in related situations.
STEREOSCOPIC VISION AND ANISEIKONIC LENSES: FURTHER STUDIES IN LATENCY
Authors: SEAGRIM G. N.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are reported which examine changes in latencies in response to the wearing of size lenses as a function of the nature of the target and of target orientation. It is found that latencies, unlike the extents of the perceived displacements, are unaffected by the nature of the targets but are affected by the target's orientation to the subjective fronto‐parallel plane. These results are discussed in relation to a recent report by Gillam (1968).
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN MOTION SICKNESS SUSCEPTIBILITY: A FURTHER TEST OF THE ‘RECEPTIVITY’ HYPOTHESIS
Authors: REASON J. T.
Published: April 2011

In the first part of the investigation, two measures were obtained from each of 86 subjects: (i) the rate at which spiral after‐effect persistence increases as a function of stimulus intensity (spiral slope score), and (ii) a motion sickness susceptibility score obtained from a personal history questionnaire (MSQ). A positive and significant relation was found between these two measures, thus confirming previous findings. Two groups, termed receptives (R) and non‐receptives (NR), were constituted on the basis of their extreme spiral slope values (17 subjects in each group). They also differed markedly in their susceptibility to motion sickness. In the second part of the investigation, these two groups were compared on a variety of measures reflecting the response of the semicircular canals to a graded series of impulsive stimuli. The results indicated that the R group produced a greater sensory response than the NR group. This result was interpreted as providing further support for the hypothesis that variation in motion sickness susceptibility reflects characteristic differences in the way the central nervous system transduces sensory intensity. In addition, discrepancies were noted between the present results and those predicted by theoretical equations governing the mechanics of the semicircular canals.
STRUCTURE AND CONTENT IN CONCEPT ATTAINMENT: A FULL‐SCALE STUDY
Authors: WETHERICK N. E.
Published: April 2011

A full‐scale study is reported of the effects of varying problem content on speed and accuracy of concept attainment. A previous finding that university students did as well or better with unfamiliar content (Hebrew letters) as with familiar content (English letters) was not repeated. Subjects found the English letter form easiest, followed by the Hebrew and verbal forms. Intercorrelations between scores on the three forms of the task are presented as evidence of the existence of a capacity for inductive reasoning which is closely related to intelligence as measured by the Advanced Progressive Matrices.
PAIRED COMPARISON SCALING OF BRIGHTNESS JUDGEMENTS: A METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE
Authors: WORTHINGTON A. G.
Published: April 2011

Thirty‐two subjects made paired comparison judgements of the relative brightness of stimuli presented 0·1 log ft.‐l. below recognition threshold. All stimuli were objectively equal in brightness. Half the subjects made judgements under conditions of simultaneous presentation and half under conditions of successive presentation. The stimuli had previously been scaled for ‘emotionality’ by a sample of subjects drawn from the same population as the subjects who made perceptual judgements. A scale of apparent brightness was derived from the data obtained under the successive condition but the data from the simultaneous condition were not scaleable. The scale for the successive condition was significantly correlated with the ‘emotionality’ scale. These results support an arousal interpretation of perceptual defence and indicate that where appropriate techniques are employed it is possible to measure the perceptual component of perceptual defence. The method described would seem potentially powerful for further investigations in this and related areas.
VARIED AUDITORY STIMULATION, TEMPERAMENT DIFFERENCES AND VIGILANCE PERFORMANCE
Authors: DAVIES D. R. , HOCKEY G. R. J. , TAYLOR ANN
Published: April 2011

Three experiments are described which investigate the effects of varied auditory stimulation (VAS) on the visual vigilance performance of relatively introverted and relatively extraverted subjects and the preferences of these two groups for such stimulation. In Expt. I, 80 db VAS was found to be associated with a significantly lower commission error rate than was 50 db steady noise, but only in the case of the more extraverted subjects. VAS had no effect upon the detection rate, possibly because the task was too insensitive. In Expt. II a preference for VAS was found to a significantly greater extent among more extraverted subjects, while in Expt. III a preference for silence was found to a significantly greater extent among more introverted subjects.
THE CONSISTENCY OF GAZE PATTERNS IN SOCIAL INTERACTION
Authors: KENDON ADAM , COOK MARK
Published: April 2011

Previous work on gaze direction, in social interaction, is reviewed and suggestions made for further work: (1) study a larger range of gaze and action measures than mutual gaze (eye contact), (2) study subjects' gaze and action patterns over a number of interactions to find how consistent they are, (3) examine the effect of one subject's gaze and action patterns on the gaze and action patterns of the other subject, (4) examine the effect of one subject's gaze and action patterns on the way the other subject perceives him. Sex and personality differences are also studied. An experiment is performed in which 11 subjects interact with each of four other subjects. The subjects have consistent gaze and action patterns, although the person they are interacting with does have some effect. The data on the intercorrelation of the subject's gaze and action patterns show the amount the subject looks, and the length and frequency of his gazes, while speaking and listening, and while meeting the other's gaze, are all related. The correlation data, and the data on the relation of one subject's gaze and action patterns to those of the other subject, contain some complex relations that are interpreted as being concerned with the ‘smoothness’ of the encounter. The data on the perception of gaze patterns show that subjects who look in long gazes are liked more than subjects who look in short frequent gazes. Sex and personality differences are found, but they are not very clear‐cut. Suggestions are made for further research to clarify the interrelations of the two subjects' gaze and action patterns.
THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL EXPERIENCE ON BEHAVIOURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEONATAL DOMESTIC CHICKS
Authors: GUITON P. , SLUCKIN W.
Published: April 2011

Visually controlled modes of behaviour of domestic chicks, reared singly for 24 hr. either in light or in darkness, were studied. Expt. I provided data concerning the chicks' approach responses, Expt. II tested chiefly the chicks' avoidance of moving objects and attendant vocalizations, and Expt. III investigated their pecking. It was found that dark‐reared animals were less apt to make ‘distress’ calls, tended to approach a moving object more readily, tended to show fewer avoidance responses, and pecked more than light‐reared animals. These findings provide a measure of confirmation of the ‘incongruity hypothesis of fear’, although certain deficiencies of this hypothesis are recognized.
AN ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Authors: LYNN RICHARD
Published: April 2011

A questionnaire for the measurement of McClelland's concept of achievement motivation is presented. The scale was derived by factor analysis and shows that most of the components of achievement motivation are loaded on a single factor. Norms for several groups are given. Three criterion groups of successful people scored significantly highly on the scale, namely entrepreneurs, professors and managers. The scale is uncorrelated with neuroticism or extraversion, or with any of Cattell's 16 personality factors with the exception of superego strength and surgency.
A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY OF AFFERENT‐REAFFERENT INTEGRATION
Authors: CONNOLLY KEVIN , JONES BILL
Published: April 2011

Three groups of children, mean ages 5 yr. 4 mth., 8 yr. 3 mth., 11 yr. 1 mth., and a group of adults performed intra‐modal and cross‐modal matching tasks. The stimuli used were straight lines presented either visually or kinaesthetically. The results obtained were analysed in terms of absolute errors and variances in the two intra‐modal and two cross‐modal conditions. Performance on the tasks improved with increasing age. Intra‐modal matching was found to be more accurate and less variable than cross‐modal matching and the visual–visual condition was found to be less variable than the kinaesthetic–kinaesthetic condition. An asymmetry was observed in each group between the two cross‐modal conditions, kinaesthetic–visual performance being more accurate and less variable than visual–kinaesthetic performance. A model accounting for the developmental changes and the asymmetry between the cross‐modal conditions in terms of differences between the visual and kinaesthetic storage systems is described.