bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Threat‐sensitive predator avoidance by pike larvae
Authors: Engström‐Öst J. , Lehtiniemi M.
Published: July 2004

The threat‐sensitive predator avoidance (TSPA) hypothesis was tested on hatchery‐reared pikeEsox luciuslarvae. Larval swimming activity, food attacks upon zooplankton, escapes, immobility behaviour, vigilance, as well as time in vegetation under different predation risk were measured. Single larvae were video‐filmed in aquaria allowing them to have visual contact with a small or a large perchPerca fluviatilisas predator. The odds of fleeing increased significantly if the larvae were exposed to a large predator instead of a small one. Swimming activity and foraging decreased significantly in the presence of a predator compared to the control. On the other hand, no significant effect was detected in time spent in the vegetation, and in vigilance of larvae, measured as time intervals between food attacks. The findings suggest that pike larvae primarily flee in the presence of a large predator, whereas they remain immobile, and forage, when possible, in the presence of a small predator. Sometimes a lack of response between the large and the small predator treatments was detected, which suggests that the antipredator response has a threshold, and when increasing the threat, the prey response does not increase. In the present paper it is demonstrated that hatchery‐reared pike larvae respond to the level of threat, and thereby seem to be risk adjusting as predicted.
Estimation of evacuation rates in the field
Authors: Rindorf A.
Published: July 2004

Two methods are presented to calculate evacuation rates based on observed diel changes in occurrence and mean mass of prey in predator stomachs. The methods do not require predators to exhibit prolonged non‐feeding periods, but the ingestion of each particular prey type must be restricted to certain diel periods. Data from >7500 whiting Merlangius merlangus collected at five locations in the North Sea were used to demonstrate the methods. The evacuation rates estimated from field data were similar to laboratory results, though a tendency for estimates to exceed literature values slightly was noted. Bias was introduced if a large proportion of the prey was evacuated completely in the interval between subsequent samples and if significant amounts of other food were present in the stomach together with the prey in question. The methods can be used to supplement laboratory estimates of evacuation rates or provide first estimates for species that are not easily maintained in the laboratory.
Statistical methods for in situ hybridization: identification of autoradiographically labelled cells and structures
Authors: WESSENDORF M. W. , WANG H. , SCHNELL S. A.
Published: July 2004

In situ hybridization experiments frequently use autoradiography to identify labelled structures. Ideally, labelled cells will be overlain with a dense accumulation of particles, allowing one to discriminate them from unlabelled cells easily. However, if noise is high or the density of labelling is low, it can be difficult to distinguish bona fide labelling ‘by eye’. In such situations, labelled cells could be overlooked. This paper evaluates two statistical solutions to this problem: (1) a parametric method proposed by Hashimoto and co‐workers and (2) Wang & Wessendorf's non‐parametric method using contingency testing (i.e. the chi‐square or Fisher's exact tests). The Hashimoto method determines the mean and standard deviation of the density of background labelling, using sense‐strand controls as the source of background levels. Cells labelled at densities greater than two standard deviations above the mean (P < 0.0455) are defined as significantly labelled. Contingency testing determines whether the grain density over a cell is significantly higher than that over the remainder of the image. When compared, the two methods gave similar results. The Hashimoto method may be more sensitive if most cells are labelled but contingency testing requires no assumptions about the uniformity of non‐specific labelling.
A system for acquiring simultaneous electron energy‐loss and X‐ray spectrum‐images
Authors: FENG J. , SOMLYO A. V. , SOMLYO A. P.
Published: July 2004

A compositional imaging system based on simultaneous scanning electron energy‐loss spectroscopy (EELS) and energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDS) was developed. This system utilizes the combined power of EELS and EDS for quantitative compositional imaging at nanometre resolution. The system is particularly suitable for, but not limited to, biological research, as it simultaneously provides sensitive maps of an element such as Ca or P from EELS and of many other elements from EDS. Degradation of resolution by specimen drift is prevented by correcting for drift during data acquisition, using image cross‐correlation. Several advanced features are implemented for real‐time and/or off‐line quantitative analysis, and the performance of the system is illustrated with practical applications to compositional imaging of cardiac muscle.
Multi‐dimensional time‐correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) to detect FRET in cells
Authors: DUNCAN R. R. , BERGMANN A. , COUSIN M. A. , APPS D. K. , SHIPSTON M. J.
Published: July 2004

We present a novel, multi‐dimensional, time‐correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) technique to perform fluorescence lifetime imaging with a laser‐scanning microscope operated at a pixel dwell‐time in the microsecond range. The unsurpassed temporal accuracy of this approach combined with a high detection efficiency was applied to measure the fluorescent lifetimes of enhanced cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP) in isolation and in tandem with EYFP (enhanced yellow fluorescent protein). This technique enables multi‐exponential decay analysis in a scanning microscope with high intrinsic time resolution, accuracy and counting efficiency, particularly at the low excitation levels required to maintain cell viability and avoid photobleaching. Using a construct encoding the two fluorescent proteins separated by a fixed‐distance amino acid spacer, we were able to measure the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) efficiency determined by the interchromophore distance. These data revealed that ECFP exhibits complex exponential fluorescence decays under both FRET and non‐FRET conditions, as previously reported. Two approaches to calculate the distance between donor and acceptor from the lifetime delivered values within a 10% error range. To confirm that this method can be used also to quantify intermolecular FRET, we labelled cultured neurones with the styryl dye FM1‐43, quantified the fluorescence lifetime, then quenched its fluorescence using FM4‐64, an efficient energy acceptor for FM1‐43 emission. These experiments confirmed directly for the first time that FRET occurs between these two chromophores, characterized the lifetimes of these probes, determined the interchromophore distance in the plasma membrane and provided high‐resolution two‐dimensional images of lifetime distributions in living neurones.
Quantitative analysis and classification of AFM images of human hair
Authors: GURDEN S. P. , MONTEIRO V. F. , LONGO E. , FERREIRA M. M. C.
Published: July 2004

The surface topography of human hair, as defined by the outer layer of cellular sheets, termed cuticles, largely determines the cosmetic properties of the hair. The condition of the cuticles is of great cosmetic importance, but also has the potential to aid diagnosis in the medical and forensic sciences. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been demonstrated to offer unique advantages for analysis of the hair surface, mainly due to the high image resolution and the ease of sample preparation. This article presents an algorithm for the automatic analysis of AFM images of human hair. The cuticular structure is characterized using a series of descriptors, such as step height, tilt angle and cuticle density, allowing quantitative analysis and comparison of different images. The usefulness of this approach is demonstrated by a classification study. Thirty‐eight AFM images were measured, consisting of hair samples from (a) untreated and bleached hair samples, and (b) the root and distal ends of the hair fibre. The multivariate classification technique partial least squares discriminant analysis is used to test the ability of the algorithm to characterize the images according to the properties of the hair samples. Most of the images (86%) were found to be classified correctly.
Porosity variation in hydroxyapatite and osteoblast morphology: a scanning electron microscopy study
Authors: ANNAZ B. , HING K.A. , KAYSER M. , BUCKLAND T. , SILVIO L. DI
Published: July 2004

The biocompatibility of hydroxyapatite has been demonstrated by previous studies, with enhancement of osteointegration through the use of porous hydroxyapatite (pHA). Emphasis has been focused on the use of coralline hydroxyapatite or the introduction of macroporosity into synthetic hydroxyapatite. The current study investigates the role of macro‐ and microporosities in synthetic phase‐pure porous hydroxyapatite on the morphological aspects of human osteoblast‐like cells using scanning electron microscopy. Cells were seeded on four different types of porous hydroxyapatite (HA1, HA2, HA3 and HA4) and examined following 1, 2, 14 and 30 days of incubation in vitro. The results indicated that the cells had an affinity to micropores through filopodia extensions, at initial stage of attachment. Cellular proliferation and colonization was evident on all materials with cells forming cellular bridges across the macropores at day 14 with cellular canopy formation covering entire macropores observed by day 30. This study demonstrates that while the introduction of microporosity has no evident effect on cellular morphology at later time points, it seems to play a role in initial cellular anchorage and attachment.
Returning to the same area of hair surfaces before and after treatment: a longitudinal AFM technique
Authors: BREAKSPEAR S. , SMITH J. R.
Published: July 2004

We report the use of longitudinal (aspect ratio > 1 : 1) scanning atomic force microscopy as an aid in returning to the same area of hair fibres after bleaching, treatment with a commercial shampoo or the application of a ‘leave‐on’ conditioner product. The bleaching treatment used in this study was not found to affect the cuticular architecture and lateral force microscopy (LFM) also showed little difference after treatment, reflecting the homogeneity of the newly revealed surfaces. After treatment with a commercial shampoo, the hair sample again showed very little difference in topography or lateral force characteristics. Hair treated with the leave‐on conditioner product also showed no major topographical changes. LFM traces, however, showed regions between the ghost edge, marking the original position of the scale edge before cuticular erosion, and the existing scale edge, to have higher frictional properties than distal regions of the cuticle. A thin film of the leave‐on product thus seems to form in this region and extends from the foot of the scale edge.
Imaging enzyme activity with polarization‐sensitive confocal fluorescence microscopy
Authors: BIGELOW CHAD E. , VISHWASRAO HARSHAD D. , FRELINGER JOHN G. , FOSTER THOMAS H.
Published: July 2004

We describe a technique for imaging enzyme activity through steady‐state fluorescence anisotropy measurements on a per‐pixel basis with a confocal microscope. With this method, enzyme activity is reported by changes in the fluorescence anisotropy of a fluorescently labelled substrate. Enzymatic cleavage of the substrate yields smaller labelled fragments that tumble more readily than the intact substrate and therefore yield a lower anisotropy. Anisotropy is recovered to an accuracy of 7% or better on and off the optical axis to depths of 210 µm using objective numerical apertures as high as 0.75. Enzyme imaging experiments were performed with Bodipy‐FL‐labelled bovine serum albumin (BSA) attached to sepharose beads as a substrate for trypsin and proteinase K. Anisotropy images acquired up to 1 h after enzyme addition revealed more rapid digestion of BSA with proteinase K than with trypsin, but in both cases anisotropy decreased by at least five‐fold. Fluorescence lifetime and time‐resolved anisotropy decay measurements were made on the construct in fluid solution to reveal the effects of enzyme activity. The Bodipy‐FL lifetime increased from 1.34 ns for the construct without enzyme to 5.98 ns after 1 h in the presence of proteinase K. Anisotropy decays yielded average rotational correlation times of 1.13 ns before enzymatic action and 0.27 ns after enzymatic action, consistent with the presence of smaller Bodipy‐containing protein fragments. These results suggest wide applicability of the technique in biological systems when used in conjunction with appropriately designed constructs.
SPEAKING STATUES: BERNINI'S APOLLO AND DAPHNE AT THE VILLA BORGHESE
Authors: Warwick Genevieve
Published: July 2004

This essay extends recent debate on the performative aspects of art objects and the performance of spectators in viewing them. Seventeenth‐century commentators attributed lifelike qualities of speech and movement to Bernini's sculptures. This article focuses on his Apollo and Daphne, the work that established his international reputation. Using contemporary literary sources, including poetic evocations of the Borghese collection, guidebooks, diaries and biographies of the artist, it examines Bernini's theatrical conception of sculpture with specific reference to this early work. It considers Bernini's illusionistic means for engaging bodily and verbal responses on the part of his viewers, which in turn gave seeming movement and voice to his works.
PAINTERLY POLITICS: WÖLFFLIN, FORMALISM AND GERMAN ACADEMIC CULTURE, 1885–1915
Authors: Adler Daniel
Published: July 2004

At the turn of the twentieth century, Heinrich Wölfflin, August Schmarzow and other formalist art historians contributed greatly to the formation of their field's institutional identity. Art history, they believed, was falling prey to a ‘spiritless’ (geistlos) condition that supposedly existed among the student population and which was associated with rapid industrialization and the mechanization of society. Expressing themselves in pedagogical treatises – which have largely been unnoticed by historiographers of art history – formalists focused on the ability of the ‘painterly’ (malerische) aesthetic to convey ‘germanic’ moral and spiritual values to a student population that was being wrongly influenced by an ‘elitist’, traditional art history overly preoccupied with philological and contextual research.
Portraiture and the making of cultural identity: Pompeo Batoni's The Honourable Colonel William Gordon (1765–66) in Italy and North Britain
Authors: Johns Christopher M.S.
Published: July 2004

The study of national identity in eighteenth‐century visual culture sheds considerable light on the development of modern nationalism, ethnocentrism and contemporary identity politics. Pompeo Batoni's The Honourable Colonel William Gordon (1765–66) is placed within debates about Scotland and Scots cultural and national identity. What did it mean to be Scottish in eighteenth‐century Britain and how might cultural and national identity be visualized? This article examines the flamboyant pose, the martial and imperialist connotations of the conjunction between the colonel and a statue of Roma, and Gordon's unusual attire, which combines the scarlet tunic of English military dress with the belted plaid, banned from 1746 because of its usage by, and associations with, the Jacobite rebellion. The portrait emerges as a complex visualization of the ambiguity felt by many privileged Scots about the union with England. Painted in Rome for return to Fyvie Castle in Aberdeenshire, the portrait is also implicated in Enlightenment debates about Scotland as a ‘primitive’ land and as a centre of intellectual and cultural achievement.
Reforming paysage historique: Corot and the generation of 1830
Authors: Greenberg Susan
Published: July 2004

This article examines the relationship between French landscape painting and naturalism in the years immediately following the Revolution of 1830. It explores new conditions for the production and reception of art and how these changes affected the innovative landscape paintings by the ‘generation of 1830’– ambitious artists like Camille Corot and Théodore Rousseau. The focus of the article is Corot's acclaimed Salon painting Hagar in the Wilderness (1835), which reflects critically on ‘nature’ and naturalism as they came to be defined in the period. In this painting, Corot renewed the genre of paysage historique, deemed an obsolete and highly ‘unnatural’ mode of landscape painting by 1830, and, in doing so, he created a complex natural world through recourse to narrative and history. The painting parallels contemporary perceptions of the cholera epidemic in Paris, echoing themes of displacement, dislocation, illness and disconnection.
Painterly politics: Wölfflin, formalisn and German academic culture, 1885–1915
Authors: Adler Daniel
Published: July 2004

At the turn of the twentieth century, Heinrich Wölfflin, August Schmarzow and other formalist art historians contributed greatly to the formation of their field's institutional identity. Art history, they believed, was falling prey to a ‘spiritless’ (geistlos) condition that supposedly existed among the student population and which was associated with rapid industrialization and the mechanization of society. Expressing themselves in pedagogical treatises – which have largely been unnoticed by historiographers of art history – formalists focused on the ability of the ‘painterly’ (malerische) aesthetic to convey ‘germanic’ moral and spiritual values to a student population that was being wrongly influenced by an ‘elitist’, traditional art history overly preoccupied with philological and contextual research.
CpG‐containing ODN has a limited role in the protection against Toxoplasma gondii
Authors: Saavedra R. , Leyva R. , Tenorio E. P. , Haces M. L. , Rodríguez‐Sosa M. , Terrazas L. I. , Hérion P.
Published: July 2004

Bacterial DNA containing immunostimulatory motifs (CpG) induces the development of a TH1 immune response. Since protection against Toxoplasma gondii is correlated with this type of response, the aim of this work was to determine if a synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) containing CpG sequences could be useful as adjuvant for the induction of a long‐lasting protective immune response against T. gondii. BALB/c mice immunized with a total soluble antigen of T. gondii (TSA2) mixed with ODN‐containing CpG sequences developed a typical TH1 response, as determined by antibody isotypes and interferon‐γ (IFN‐γ) and interleukin‐4 (IL‐4) production by spleen cells. However, they did not resist a challenge with the virulent RH strain of the parasite. Absence of protection paralleled with lower levels of IFN‐γ, when compared with mice vaccinated with the live tachyzoites of the attenuated ts.4 strain of the parasite, which resisted this challenge. Intraperitoneal injection of ODN alone to mice induced a high degree of resistance to a lethal challenge inoculated by the same route. Nevertheless, this nonspecific protection was transient. Thus, the use of ODN containing CpG motifs as adjuvant is of limited value for the induction of a protective immune response against T. gondii.
Intestinal pathology during acute toxoplasmosis is IL‐4 dependent and unrelated to parasite burden
Authors: Nickdel M. B. , Lyons R. E. , Roberts F. , Brombacher F. , Hunter C. A. , Alexander J. , Roberts C. W.
Published: July 2004

The role of interleukin‐4 (IL‐4) during the course of Toxoplasma gondii infection was studied using IL‐4–/– mice and their wild‐type (WT) counterparts on a C57BL/6 background. Following oral infection with T. gondii tissue cysts an exacerbative role for IL‐4 was demonstrated and IL‐4–/– mice were found to be more resistant to infection than WT mice as measured by significantly reduced mortality. Furthermore pathology in the small intestine was less severe in IL‐4–/– mice although conversely liver pathology was greater than in wild‐type mice. Significantly, plasma IL‐12 and IFN‐γ levels, which peaked at days 6 and 8, respectively, were higher in IL‐4–/– mice. The exacerbatory role of IL‐4 in the intestine was found by competitive RT‐PCR not to be associated with increased parasite burdens but was related to comparative expression of IL‐10.
In vivo immunomodulatory effects of ixodid ticks on ovine circulating T‐ and B‐lymphocytes
Authors: Boppana Dharmendra K. V. , Dhinakar RAJ G. , John Lalitha , Wikel Stephen K. , Latha B. R. , Gomathinayagam S.
Published: July 2004

Selected aspects of the ovine immune system were examined during the course of repeated infestations with the ixodid ticks, Haemaphysalis bispinosa and Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum that naturally infest sheep, either individually or together. By the use of flow cytometry it was shown that total T‐lymphocyte numbers were significantly reduced from the sixth through the ninth days of all infestations. Gamma/delta (γδ+) and CD8+ T‐lymphocytes were significantly depleted during tick feeding in all infested groups. CD4+ T‐lymphocyte levels were significantly increased during secondary H. bispinosa and mixed species infestations. Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum caused a significant increase in circulating B‐lymphocytes over several days in both initial and secondary infestations. All infested sheep had increased CD4/CD8 and decreased T/B lymphocyte ratios during exposure to both ticks. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) ELISA was used to measure in vitro proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with the T‐lymphocyte mitogen Concanavalin A (Con A) after their collection from infested sheep. Significant suppression of in vitro proliferation occurred during first and secondary infestations with H. bispinosa, H. a. anatolicum and with both tick species together, beginning on the sixth day of infestation in all cases. These important tick species of sheep significantly modulate the numbers of immune effector cells and proliferation of T‐lymphocytes derived from infested animals.
Plasmodium Falciparum Transmission Blocking Immunity Under Conditions Of Low And High Endemicity In Cameroon
Authors: Boudin C. , Van Der Kolk M. , Tchuinkam T. , Gouagna C. , Bonnet S. , Safeukui I. , Mulder B. , Meunier J. Y. , Verhave J. P.
Published: July 2004

Transmission Blocking Immunity (Tbi) Was Studied In Relation To Age, Gametocyte Density And Transmission Intensity. Subjects With High Gametocytaemias Were Selected In A Hypo‐endemic Urban District And A Hyper‐endemic Rural Area In South Cameroon. Tbi Was Determined In Blood From Gametocyte Carriers In A Bioassay (Direct Membrane Feeding Assay), With Either Autologous Plasma (Own) Or Control Serum (Ab). Mosquito Infection Rates (Ir) Were Compared. Infection Rates Correlated Positively With Gametocyte And Oocyst Densities. Three Tbi Indicators Were Analysed: The Proportion Of Transmission Reducers (Irab > Irown, P < 0·01), The Mean Intensity Of Tbi (Irab – Irown), And The Contribution Of Tbi To Total Inhibition [(Irab – Irown)/(100 −irown)]. We Could Not Discriminate Between Areas With Regard To Either The Proportion Of Transmission Reducers (Urban 15% And Rural 29%) Or The Mean Levels Of Tbi (Urban 10% And Rural 9%), Or Contribution Of Tbi To Total Inhibition (Urban 10% And Rural 13%). There Was No Relationship Between Tbi Indicators And Age, But A Trend Of Increasing Values Was Observed With Rising Gametocytaemia, Which Was Considered As A Confusing Factor. A Multivariable Analysis Showed That The Probability Of Being A Reducer Was 4·6 Fold Higher In The Rural Area Than In The Urban District.
Book Reviews
Authors: Smith Preston G. , Klein Ruediger
Published: July 2004

Books reviewed in this issue:

Product Development for the Lean Enterprise: Why Toyota's System Is Four Times More Productive and How You Can Implement It

Project Management ToolBox: Tools and Techniques for the Practicing Project Manager

Building a Project‐Driven Enterprise: How to Slash Waste and Boost Profits through Lean Project Management

The Portable MBA in Project Management

How Breakthroughs Happen: The Surprising Truth about How Companies Innovate

The Slow Pace of Fast Change: Bringing Innovations to Market in a Connected World
Emphasizer now in colloquial South African English
Authors: Jeffery Chris , Rooy Bertus van
Published: July 2004

Abstract:  The British ICE corpus (ICE‐GB) shows that now normally functions as either time adjunct or conjunct in Standard English, and never as subjunct. The South African ICE corpus (ICE‐SA) shows that South African English (SAE) generally conforms to Standard English (StdE) usage, but that a significant minority of instances in colloquial registers show now functioning as subjunct, specifically as emphasizer. These instances conform more or less closely to one or other of two prototypical syntactic patterns, one of which has a clear parallel in Afrikaans and can reasonably be derived directly from Afrikaans. The other, however, is not closely paralleled in Afrikaans, and it appears to be an indigenous SAE development which takes advantage of the potential for emphasis offered by emphasizer now. It appears, therefore, that while it is Afrikaans in origin, emphasizer now has been nativized in SAE.
How to trace structural nativization: particle verbs in world Englishes
Authors: Schneider Edgar W.
Published: July 2004

Abstract:  This paper examines particle or “multi‐word” verbs in five ICE corpora: East Africa, Great Britain, India, the Philippines and Singapore. It begins with the hypothesis that particle verbs can develop variety‐specific properties in several areas, including incidence and frequency of use, structural behavior, and productivity range. Systematic differences were found between the varieties under investigation. In particular, Singapore English was found to exhibit not only the highest frequency of particle verbs, but also the widest range of types in its structural uses and its formal and semantic creativity. In the case of certain particle verbs, it was found that certain forms and meanings predominate in specific countries, although the limited size of the datasets, and the consequent low frequencies of individual particle verbs, makes generalization difficult.
Conceptualization specifics in East African English: quantitative arguments from the ICE‐East Africa corpus
Authors: Haase Christoph
Published: July 2004

Abstract:  Setting out from a cognitive perspective, lexical‐semantic content of verbal constructions in British and East African English will be quantitatively and qualitatively evaluated according to their componential profiles (conflation) in large collections of texts like the ICE corpora. Following landmark research by Talmy (1985) we will recognize motion, manner, path, and goal as components of event semantics. Results will be investigated concerning their metaphorical uses of motion for the expression of temporal configurations/arrangements. We hypothesize a continuum of conflation of path and goal with German and Spanish/Italian at the respective typological ends. As will be shown, British English exhibits – in contrast to, e.g., Choi and Bowerman (1995)– a latent conflation of path and manner, a trend that will have to stand the test for Kenyan and Tanzanian English.
Shared morpho‐syntactic features in contact varieties of English: article use
Authors: Sand Andrea
Published: July 2004

Abstract:  This paper deals with the use of the definite article the and the indefinite article a/an in various ICE corpora. The claims about article use in the varieties under analysis are reexamined in the light of corpus evidence. Distribution patterns of articles across different text types as well as specific usages are discussed in order to characterize the nature of contact varieties, such as Jamaican English, Irish English or Indian English, as opposed to ENL varieties such as British English or New Zealand English. The corpus data reveals the strong influence of text types on usage across all varieties under analysis, but also surprising parallels between the various contact varieties, especially with regard to the use of the definite article.
The Cognitive Consequences of Concealing Feelings
Authors: Richards Jane M.
Published: July 2004

When emotions arise, we are not powerless to overcome them: Adults actively regulate the extent to which their emotions are experienced and expressed in everyday life. Often, these efforts are aimed at looking and feeling better. However, theories of self-regulation and emotion suggest that some forms of emotion regulation may have unintended consequences for cognitive functioning. This article reviews studies that link expressive suppression, which involves concealing outward signs of emotion, with degraded memory, communication, and problem solving. Explanations for these consequences are considered, along with the possibility that not all forms of emotion regulation are cognitively costly. Recent research suggests that reappraisal, which entails changing how we think about an event to neutralize its emotional impact, leaves cognitive functioning intact. Thus, the cognitive consequences of keeping one's cool may vary according to how this is done.
What and When of Cognitive Aging
Authors: Salthouse Timothy A.
Published: July 2004

Adult age differences have been documented on a wide variety of cognitive variables, but the reasons for these differences are still poorly understood. In this article, I describe several findings that will need to be incorporated into eventual explanations of the phenomenon of cognitive aging. Despite common assumptions to the contrary, age-related declines in measures of cognitive functioning (a) are relatively large, (b) begin in early adulthood, (c) are evident in several different types of cognitive abilities, and (d) are not always accompanied by increases in between-person variability.
Memories of Things Unseen
Authors: Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: July 2004

New findings reveal more about the malleability of memory. Not only is it possible to change details of memories for previously experienced events, but one can sometimes also plant entirely false memories into the minds of unsuspecting individuals, even if the events would be highly implausible or even impossible. False memories might differ statistically from true ones, in terms of certain characteristics such as confidence or vividness, but some false memories are held with a great degree of confidence and expressed with much emotion. Moreover, false memories can have consequences for later thoughts and behaviors, sometimes rather serious ones.
The Quality of Early Child Care and Children's Development
Authors: Marshall Nancy L.
Published: July 2004

The past half-century saw dramatic changes in families that altered the daily experiences of many young children. As more mothers of young children entered the labor force, increasing numbers of young children spent substantial hours in various child-care settings. These changes gave rise to a large body of research on the impact of the quality of early child care on children's development. However, a full understanding of the role of the quality of early child care requires consideration of the interplay among child care, family, workplace, and society. This article places what we know about the quality of early child care and children's development in this larger ecological context, and suggests directions for future research and practice.
Who Develops Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?
Authors: Ozer Emily J. , Weiss Daniel S.
Published: July 2004

Nearly half of U.S. adults experience at least one traumatic event in their lifetimes, yet only 10% of women and 5% of men develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Why this is so is among the most central questions in current PTSD research. This article reviews the current status of knowledge about who develops PTSD, discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the evidence. We describe the major models used to understand responses to traumatic events, as well as future research directions. We also propose that an exclusive focus on individual differences and individual intervention overlooks opportunities to reduce the prevalence of PTSD by modifying factors at the neighborhood, community, or national level.
Liberal nationalist versus postnational social integration: on the nation's ethno‐cultural particularity and ‘concreteness’*
Authors: Abizadeh Arash
Published: July 2004

Abstract. Liberal nationalists advance two claims: (1) an empirical claim that nationalism is functionally indispensable to the viability of liberal democracy (because it is necessary to social integration) and (2) a normative claim that some forms of nationalism are compatible with liberal democratic norms. The empirical claim is often supported, against postnationalists' view that social integration can bypass ethnicity and nationality, by pointing to the inevitable ethnic and cultural particularities of all political institutions. I argue that (1) the argument that ethno‐cultural particularity demonstrates the need for nationalist integration depends on an implausible reification of national identity at the level of social theory, and that (2) this reification ironically serves to undermine liberal nationalists' normative claim.
The limits of constructedness: memory and nationalism in the Arab Middle East
Authors: Gerber Haim
Published: July 2004

Abstract.This paper examines the influence of the historical trajectory on the creation of nationalism in the twentieth century Middle East. While it is not claimed here that everything was decided in preexisting history, the paper claims that historywasimportant. If the story of Middle Eastern nationalism is the story of the tension between ethnic Pan‐Arabism and geographical state nationalism, the fact is both these phenomena are highly distinct in the sources used for this study, mainly seventeenth‐ and eighteenth century biographical dictionaries. The modern countries (Egypt, Syria) are in daily use, serving partially as terms of identity, non‐political though it might have been. A sense of Arabism existed as well, probably surviving from the early Islamic period. It had much to do with the survival of Arabic literary genres as the preoccupation of the intellectual elite. The Ottomans did their bit in this regard, by treating the Arabic‐speaking Middle East as substantially one unified unit, their provinces being superficial and unimportant barriers, mentally no less than physically. Thus, when the Ottoman Empire disappeared in the early twentieth century, the ambivalence between Arabism and state‐based nationalism already existed, and was by no means invented by colonialism. The later success of this or that version of nationalism could only be explained by reference to modern factors, but the repertory owed much to the cultural history of the region.
The orange and the ‘Cross in the Crescent’: imagining Palestine in 1929
Authors: Sorek Tamir
Published: July 2004

Abstract.This article analyses a public discussion held in Palestine during the last months of 1929 over proposals for a particular Palestinian flag. Based on readers' reactions published in the daily newspaperFilastinand on letters sent to the Arab Executive, the article examines the character of Palestinian identity as it was imagined by a certain segment of the Palestinian elite. The three main leitmotifs of the flag proposals – the four colors of the Arab flag, the color orange and the ‘Cross in the Crescent’ emblem – serve as a starting point for discussing the tensions between Palestinian particularism and pan‐Arabism, as well as the status of Muslim‐Christian partnership in a period of increasing Islamisation of Palestinian identity. The second part of the article incorporates a comparative discussion that aims to explain the failure of the color orange and the ‘Cross in the Crescent’ to be accepted as emblems in the national flag. By comparing the unsuccessful proposals with the Arab flag (that eventually became the official Palestinian flag) and with the Lebanese flag, the article suggests their failure was due to three main reasons: (a) they reflected the interests of relatively marginal social groups; (b) they were not raised at a time of sweeping change in the socio‐political order; and (c) they lacked a profound basis in local tradition and the potential to be attached to an ancient past.
A fine instrument: two nation‐building strategies in post‐Soviet Belarus*
Authors: Leshchenko Natalia
Published: July 2004

Abstract. This article pursues two aims. On the empirical level, it challenges the view of Belarus as a ‘denationalised’, or ‘failed’ nation, and exposes the country as an area of intensive nation‐building. The article demonstrates that, unlike most post‐communist states, two versions of national identity have been advanced in Belarus since 1989, with divergent results for their proponents. On the theoretical level, such an atypical experience places qualifications on the instrumentalist approach, that regards nation‐building as a political tool. The analysis of identity creation in Belarus suggests that nation‐building as a political strategy may be limited by the existing attitudes in the society in question, the socio‐economic structures, as well as by the influence of foreign actors.
Characterization of a proteinase inhibitor from Brachypodium distachyon suggests the conservation of defence signalling pathways between dicotyledonous plants and grasses
Authors: MUR LUIS A. J. , XU RENLIN , CASSON STUART A. , STODDART WENDY M. , ROUTLEDGE ANDREW P. M. , DRAPER JOHN
Published: July 2004

Proteinase inhibitors (PIs) are established markers for wound‐ and especially jasmonate‐mediated signalling in dicot species such as tomato and potato. Differential screening of a cDNA library constructed from RNA isolated from wounded leaves of the grass Brachypodium distachyon led to the identification of a proteinase inhibitor gene (Bdpin1). Bdpin1 exhibited the highest homology to the subtilisin/chymotrypsin‐inhibiting subgroup of the pin1 class of plant PIs. Northern analyses indicated that Bdpin1 was induced within 6 h at the site of wounding and systemically, by 24 h, thereby providing evidence for long‐distance signalling in grasses. Bdpin1 also proved to be more rapidly induced in susceptible than in resistant ecotypes of B. distachyon following challenge with the Rice blast pathogen, Magnaporthe grisea. Screening with chemical signals indicated that Bdpin1 could be induced with MeJA but not with the putative mimic of salicylic acid, benzothiadiazole. Genomic Southern hybridization was consistent with Bdpin1 existing at a single locus, which was isolated following screening of a genomic cosmid library. DNA upstream of the Bdpin1 coding sequence was characterized via fusion to a GUS reporter and was found to confer wound‐responsive transcription in B. distachyon and other cereals following biolistic bombardment. Both wound‐ and TMV‐activated Bdpin1‐GUS activity was detected in transgenic tobacco. Given that B. distachyon represents an ancestral grass species, our data suggest that there is considerable conservation in defence‐associated signalling between dicots and grasses.
Arabidopsis pathology breathes new life into the necrotrophs‐vs.‐biotrophs classification of fungal pathogens
Authors: OLIVER RICHARD P. , IPCHO SIMON V. S.
Published: July 2004

Fungal plant pathologists have for many decades attempted to classify pathogens into groups called necrotrophs, biotrophs and, more recently, hemibiotrophs. Although these terms are well known and frequently used, disagreements about which pathogens fall into which classes, as well as the precise definition of these terms, has conspired to limit their usefulness. Dogmas concerning the properties of the classes have been progressively eroded. However, the genetic analysis of disease resistance, particularly in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, has provided a biologically meaningful division based on whether defence against fungal pathogens is controlled via the salicylate or jasmonate/ethylene pathways. This mode‐of‐defence division distinguishes necrotrophs and biotrophs but it limits the biotroph class to pathogens that possess haustoria. The small number and limited range of pathogens that infect Arabidopsis means that several interesting questions are still unanswered. Do hemibiotrophs represents a distinct class or a subclass of the necrotrophs? Does the division apply to other plant families and particularly to cereals? and does this classification help us understand the intricacies of either fungal pathogenicity or plant defence?
Fungal dimorphism regulated gene expression in Ustilago maydis: I. Filament up‐regulated genes
Authors: ANDREWS DAVID L. , GARCÍA‐PEDRAJAS MARÍA D. , GOLD SCOTT E.
Published: July 2004

Ustilago maydis displays dimorphic growth alternating between a budding haploid and a filamentous dikaryon formed by mating of two haploid cells. This morphological switch plays a critical role in pathogenicity because only the filamentous dikaryon can infect maize. Previously we identified a role for the cAMP signalling pathway in dimorphism and pathogenicity. In the present work we used suppression subtractive hybridization to identify genes up‐regulated in filamentous cells in our search for new genes involved in morphogenesis. Differential expression was verified by Northern blot analysis. We isolated and sequenced full‐length genomic cosmid clones of two of these genes and produced disruption/deletion mutants to examine their roles in morphogenesis and pathogenicity. One of these genes encodes a putative member of the aldo–keto reductase family and is designated uor1. The other (ufu57) does not have significant similarity with any sequence previously reported. Partial deletion mutants of these two sequences have no apparent effect on morphogenesis, mating or pathogenicity.
13C‐ethanol breath test reveals impaired alcohol metabolism in patients with Helicobacter pylori infection
Authors: Suzuki M. , Maruyama K. , Suzuki H. , Tanaki S. , Suzuki K. , Ishii H.
Published: July 2004

Background : The gastric mucosal alcohol dehydrogenase activity was reported to be reduced in subjects with Helicobacter pylori‐associated chronic gastritis. However, the role of H. pylori infection in the metabolism of ingested ethanol has not been fully elucidated.

Aim : To clarify whether H. pylori infection exerts any influence on the metabolism of small amounts of ethanol in humans.

Subjects and methods : 13C‐ethanol (100 μL) diluted in 100 mL water was administered orally to 22 healthy volunteers before breakfast. Breath samples were then collected every 10 min for up to 60 min. The content of 13CO2 (‰) was analysed using a mass‐spectrometric method. The excretion rate of labelled CO2 was analysed by calculation of the following mathematical parameters, i.e., Tmax, Cmax, and AUC60.

Results : In H. pylori‐negative controls (n = 11), the Tmax, Cmax and AUC60 were 0.47 ± 0.13, 19.1 ± 6.0 and 13.7 ± 4.5, respectively. The corresponding values were 0.53 ± 0.16 (n.s.) and 12.7 ± 4.8 (P < 0.05) and 9.0 ± 3.6 (P < 0.05), respectively, in subjects with H. pylori infection (n = 11). Successful eradication of H. pylori was associated with significant increase of these parameters (Cmax and AUC60, n = 6).

Conclusions : The metabolism of small amounts of ethanol is attenuated in subjects with H. pylori infection.
Pharmacokinetic variations of acetaminophen according to liver dysfunction and portal hypertension status
Authors: Zapater P. , Lasso de la Vega M. C. , Horga J. F. , Such J. , Frances R. , Esteban A. , Palazòn J. M. , Carnicer F. , Pascual S. , Pérez‐Mateo M.
Published: July 2004

Aim: To study the pharmacokinetic and metabolism profiles of a single dose of acetaminophen in patients with cirrhosis.

Methods: Oral acetaminophen (1000 mg) was administered to seven healthy subjects and 14 patients with cirrhosis (nine Child‐Pugh A or B and five Child‐Pugh C grade), being five without and nine with oesophageal varices. Plasma levels of acetaminophen and its metabolites were determined by HPLC.

Results: Patients showed a higher mean area under the curve concentration‐time (67.4 ± 22.4 mg h/L vs. 38.8 ± 4.3 mg h/L;P = 0.01), a lower clearance (166.7 ± 85.0 mL/min vs. 367.8 ± 62.5 mL/min;P = 0.01) and higher elimination half‐life (3.8 ± 1.1 h vs. 2.0 ± 0.4 h;P = 0.01) of acetaminophen than healthy volunteers. The appearance in blood and the urinary excretion of metabolites in patients did not differ from healthy subjects. Absorption profile was faster in patients. Patients with lower mean and systolic arterial pressure had lower AUC of acetaminophen, independently of liver dysfunction stage.

Conclusions: Patients with cirrhosis had a higher AUC and lower clearance of acetaminophen. Acetaminophen attained earlier therapeutic concentrations in patients with oesophageal varices. Mean and systolic arterial pressures were significantly associated with AUC suggesting the importance of the haemodynamic function on the pharmacokinetics of acetaminophen in patients with cirrhosis.
Metformin in the treatment of non‐alcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot open label trial
Authors: Nair S. , Diehl A. M. , Wiseman M. , Farr G. H. , Perrillo R. P.
Published: July 2004

Background: Insulin sensitizing agents may be useful in treatment of non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Aim: A pilot study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of metformin in non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Methods: In an open labelled study, patients with histologically confirmed non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease were given metformin (20 mg/kg) for 1 year. Insulin resistance (by log homeostasis assessment model analysis for insulin resistance and Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index) and post‐treatment hepatic histology were compared with pre‐treatment histology.

Results: Fifteen patients completed 1 year of treatment. During the initial 3 months, there was improvement in alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase (P‐value 0.01 and 0.02, respectively) along with improvement in insulin sensitivity. However, after 3 months, there was no further improvement in insulin sensitivity and there was gradual rise in aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase back to pre‐treatment levels. Among the 10 patients with post‐treatment biopsy, three (33%), showed improvement in steatosis, two (20%) showed improvement in inflammation score and one (10%) showed improvement in fibrosis.

Conclusion: Metformin treatment was associated with only a transient improvement in liver chemistries. A progressive, sustainable reduction in insulin sensitivity was not noted during treatment.
Toward more effective antifungal therapy: the prospects of combination therapy
Authors: Kontoyiannis Dimitrios P. , Lewis Russell E.
Published: July 2004

The availability of new antifungal agents with unique mechanisms of action and improved tolerability has widened the possibilities for the use of combination antifungal therapy for difficult‐to‐treat opportunistic mycoses. However, the use of this therapy is largely governed by empiricism, especially in patients with invasive mould infections, for whom there is a tremendous need to improve outcomes. Because of the difficulties associated with the design and conduct of clinical trials of combination antifungal therapy for opportunistic mycoses, the majority of the studies evaluating antifungal combinations are still performed in the laboratory or using animal models of infection. However, the methods used to assess combined antifungal effects in vitro and in animals are poorly standardized, and there is little evidence that data generated from these studies can be translated in treating human mycotic infections. Despite the empiricism of combination antifungal therapy, certain principles help guide the use and study of these regimens.