bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Are Constructions Dialect-Proof?
Authors: Ziegeler Debra
Published: December 2014

The present chapter outlines the possible problems that may arise from applying a construction grammar approach to the study of international dialects of English. Using Singapore English as a base for comparison, it discusses construction types such as the progressive construction, the ‘false’ transitive construction, and the bare nominal construction (BNC), raising the question whether constructions in contact situations can be seen as constructions of the lexifier source language or the substrate languages which usually provide the syntactic source for the construction type. It also approaches the notion of ‘coercion’ often associated with construction analysis, and proposes that such a notion need not be evoked at all, given the hypothesis of ‘merger’ constructions, which in many cases can justify the selection of an ambiguous syntactic form across dialects by accommodating two (allo-construction) variants of the same construction type.
Television Uses and Effects in Emerging Adulthood
Authors: Ward L. Monique , Seabrook Rita , Giaccardi Soraya , Zuo Angie
Published: December 2014

Even though media platforms have multiplied in recent years, television viewing remains a prominent feature of the daily lives of emerging adults. The genres preferred and motivations for viewing are diverse, and many emerging adults report watching TV for relaxation, entertainment, and voyeurism. Despite their reasons for doing so, regular viewing of mainstream television content has many implications for emerging adults’ development. In this chapter, the authors review more than 150 studies that have examined television uses and effects among emerging adults. Overall, data gathered across both survey and experimental paradigms indicate significant effects in multiple domains, linking television exposure to higher levels of aggression, body dissatisfaction, alcohol consumption, sexualization of women, and the endorsement of racial, sexual, and gender stereotypes. The authors also review some positive effects on health beliefs and behaviors and discuss characteristics of the viewer and content that moderate these associations.
Developments in Islamic Education in the United States
Authors: Douglass Susan L.
Published: December 2014

This chapter describes efforts by the Muslim community in the United States to educate Muslims and the public about Islam. Historical background on the earliest forms of teaching in mosques, homes, and Islamic schools is introduced. The chapter surveys the most numerous Muslim educational institutions in the United States, namely, weekend schools and K‒12 full-time Islamic schools, analyzing issues such as the number of schools in operation, their curriculum, accreditation, physical plant, teacher certification, and funding. Other institutional developments surveyed include homeschooling, design and publication of educational media, higher education, and online education. Finally, teaching about Islam in US public schools is discussed in terms of the First Amendment guidelines, a voluntary framework for all religious curricula and standards as well as the textbooks that provide the content to which students are exposed.
The “True Enemy”
Authors: Gross Raphael
Published: December 2014

This chapter offers a fresh analysis of the structural significance of antisemitism for the work of Carl Schmitt. Following the end of the Nazi state, Schmitt denied both his National Socialist and his public antisemitic engagement, constructing elaborate autobiographical legends. Many researchers have rejected any relationship between the political-legal theorist’s publications and his antisemitism. Critical voices represented a small minority of Schmitt researchers. This situation has essentially not changed despite controversy sparked by the publication in 2000 of the author’s doctoral dissertation, with its argument that encoded antisemitic ideas play a prominent role in Schmitt’s writings. Scholars skeptical of this argument have insisted that no clear evidence exists for Schmitt’s antisemitism before 1933. But as this chapter demonstrates, Schmitt’s diaries are replete with often crude and vehement antisemitic ideas. Key terms and concepts in Schmitt’s discursive arsenal must now be read in a very different light.
Carl Schmitt’s Defense of Democracy
Authors: Rasch William
Published: December 2014

Carl Schmitt accommodated himself to the ascendency of democratic thinking in the post–World War I world of the 1920s. No sovereign authority, he argued, could fail to acknowledge “the people” as the constituent power of an established political order. Consequently, democracy and “the political” become synonymous in his Constitutional Theory (1928). To champion democracy, however, Schmitt emphasized the historical distinction between democracy, based on equality and homogeneity of the collective, and liberalism, which features the primacy of the private individual’s liberty. This chapter shows that key to understanding Schmitt’s defense of democracy against liberalism are his notions of representation, acclamation, and plebiscitary leadership, as well as a strong sense of the public persona of the citizen. The chapter argues that even though we shun his reading of democracy today, a full understanding of the liberal-democratic compromise that we now call democracy benefits from a close reading of Schmitt.
Animals in Religion
Authors: Clark Stephen R. L.
Published: December 2014

Both “animals” and “religion” are contentious concepts, with many possible meanings and associations. This chapter takes animals to be eukaryotes distinct from protists, plants and fungi, and “religion” as the attempt to “live a dream.” I describe four principal ways of dreaming animals: triumphalist humanism (for which only “human” beings are of any interest); traditional notions of good husbandry (which requires “human” beings to care for the non-human, within limits set by human interests); notions of metempsychosis and transformation (where “human” and “non-human” are constantly shifting characters); and awakening to the real presence of others, and so—paradoxically—evacuating them of merely “religious” meaning.
A New Chan (Zen) School in Taiwan
Authors: Yu Jimmy
Published: December 2014

Dharma Drum Mountain (DDM) is one of the largest and most influential Buddhist international organizations in Taiwan. Founded in 1989 by the late master Shengyan Huikong (Sheng Yen), DDM is a combination of monastic and academic institutions known for promoting Buddhist education and Chan (Zen) practice. To preserve and present Chan Buddhism as a form of moral and spiritual education, Sheng Yen established a new Chan lineage, the Dharma Drum Lineage (DDL), in 2006. This article focuses on the history of DDL in the contexts of the religious landscape in postwar Taiwan and Sheng Yen’s thought. It begins by considering the contexts of Sheng Yen’s emphasis on education and critique of his predecessors. It then examines the formation of Sheng Yen’s thought and the formation of DDL in the Taiwanese context. Finally, it highlights the unique features of DDL and compares them to popular and academic conceptions of Zen Buddhism.
Antenatal cardiotocogram quality and interpretation using computers
Authors: Dawes G. S. , Lobb M. , Moulden M. , Redman C. W. G. , Wheeler T.
Published: December 2014

Objective

To test the application in practice of computerized fetal heart rate (FHR) analysis in pregnancy.

Design

Randomized distribution of subjects with computerized analysis automatically revealed or concealed.

Setting

A district general hospital and a teaching hospital outside London.

Subjects

2869 pregnant women studied within a year.

Outcome measures

Quality and duration of the cardiotocogram; quantitative measurement of FHR variation; number of stillbirths.

Results

With interactive advice to the operator, records were of improved quality (up to 28% without signal loss) with potentially much reduced recording time. The short‐term FHR variation measured in the last records before intervention is reported for the first time.

Conclusion

The benefits of using the computers include improvement in record quality and saving of time. In addition, where interpretation depended on estimation of FHR variation there was prima facie evidence of observer misinterpretation; visual analysis was unreliable. A larger trial is now required with more rigorous constraints on intervention.
Placebo Effects in a Multiple Sclerosis Spasticity Enriched Clinical Trial with the Oromucosal Cannabinoid Spray (THC/CBD): Dimension and Possible Causes
Authors: Di Marzo Vincenzo , Centonze Diego
Published: December 2014

Regulatory authorities admit clinical studies with an initial enrichment phase to select patients that respond to treatment before randomization (Enriched Design Studies; EDSs). The trial period aims to prevent long‐term drug exposure risks in patients with limited chances of improvement while optimizing costs. In EDSs for symptom control therapies providing early improvements and without a wash‐out period, it is difficult to show further improvements and thus large therapeutic gains versus placebo. Moreover, in trials with cannabinoids, the therapeutic gains can be further biased in the postenrichment randomized phase because of carryover and other effects. The aims of the present review article are to examine the placebo effects in the enrichment and postenrichment phases of an EDS with Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol (THC/CBD) oromucosal spray in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) spasticity and to discuss the possible causes of maintained efficacy after randomization in the placebo‐allocated patients. The overall mean therapeutic gain of THC/CBD spray over placebo in resistant MS spasticity after 16 weeks can be estimated as a ~1.27‐point improvement on the spasticity 0–10 Numerical Rating Scale (NRS; ~−20.1% of the baseline NRS score). We conclude that careful interpretation of the results of EDSs is required, especially when cannabinoid‐based medications are being investigated.
Efficacy and safety of teneligliptin, a dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 inhibitor, combined with metformin in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a 16‐week, randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled phase III trial
Authors: Kim M. K. , Rhee E.‐J. , Han K. A. , Woo A. C. , Lee M.‐K. , Ku B. J. , Chung C. H. , Kim K.‐A. , Lee H. W. , Park I. B. , Park J. Y. , Chul Jang H. C. , Park K. S. , Jang W. I. , Cha B. Y.
Published: December 2014

The aim of the present study was to assess the efficacy and safety of teneligliptin in combination with metformin in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who were inadequately controlled with metformin monotherapy. Patients [glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) 7.0–10.0%, on stable metformin ≥1000 mg/day] were randomized 2 : 1 to receive 20 mg teneligliptin plus metformin (n = 136) or placebo plus metformin (n = 68). The primary endpoint was the change in HbA1c levels from baseline to week 16. The mean baseline HbA1c was 7.9% in the teneligliptin group and 7.8% in the placebo group. The differences between the teneligliptin and placebo groups regarding changes in HbA1c and fasting plasma glucose levels were −0.78 % and −1.24 mmol/l (22.42 mg/dl), respectively, at week 16. The incidence of adverse events was similar between the groups. The addition of teneligliptin once daily to metformin was effective and generally well tolerated in Korean patients with type 2 diabetes.
Thermal Luminescence of Ho2O3‐PbO‐Al2O3‐SiO2 Glasses Exposed to Gamma Radiation
Authors: Bhargavi Kanchu , Sundara Rao Mathangi , Veeraiah Nalluri , Sanyal Bhaskar , Gandhi Yerramreddy , Baskaran Gnanamuthu Sahaya
Published: December 2014

Thermoluminescence (TL) characteristics of PbO‐Al2O3‐SiO2: Ho3+ glass system mixed with different concentrations of Al2O3 were studied in the temperature range 0–300°C. The samples were exposed to γ‐rays in the dose range of 0–5 kGy. The glow curves of the samples exposed >1.0 kGy, exhibited a dosimetric peak at about 209°C. With the increase of the dose up to 5 kGy, the TL light output increased considerably, and the peak was shifted towards higher temperature. A linear dose‐dependent enhancement of the TL emission was also found for the glasses mixed with 5 and 8 mol% Al2O3. However, the glass mixed with 10 mol% Al2O3 exhibited supralinearity beyond 3 kGy. The mechanisms responsible for TL emission and enhancement of TL output were discussed in view of the results obtained from optical absorption, IR, and Raman spectral studies. The results suggested that both e− and h+ trapped centers were generated at the deeper trap levels and gave TL emission at higher temperatures. In the dose range of 2–5 kGy, the dose–response was found to be linear and could be useful for dosimetry in commercial radiation processing of perishable food commodities.
Is There a Correlation Between Androgens and Sexual Desire in Women?
Authors: Wåhlin-Jacobsen Sarah , Pedersen Anette Tønnes , Kristensen Ellids , Læssøe Nanna Cassandra , Lundqvist Marika , Cohen Arieh S. , Hougaard David M. , Giraldi Annamaria
Published: December 2014

Introduction

For women, the correlation between circulating androgens and sexual desire is inconclusive. Substitution with androgens at physiological levels improves sexual function in women who experience decreased sexual desire and androgen deficiency from surgical menopause, pituitary disease, and age-related decline in androgen production in the ovaries. Measuring bioactive testosterone is difficult and new methods have been proposed, including measuring the primary androgen metabolite androsterone glucuronide (ADT-G).

Aim

The aim of this study was to investigate a possible correlation between serum levels of androgens and sexual desire in women and whether the level of ADT-G is better correlated than the level of circulating androgens with sexual desire.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study including 560 healthy women aged 19–65 years divided into three age groups. Correlations were considered to be statistically significant at P < 0.05.

Main Outcome Measure

Sexual desire was determined as the total score of the sexual desire domain of the Female Sexual Function Index. Total testosterone (TT), calculated free testosterone (FT), androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), and ADT-G were analyzed using mass spectrometry.

Results

Sexual desire correlated overall with FT and androstenedione in the total cohort of women. In a subgroup of women aged 25–44 years with no use of systemic hormonal contraception, sexual desire correlated with TT, FT, androstenedione, and DHEAS. In women aged 45–65 years, androstenedione correlated with sexual desire. No correlations between ADT-G and sexual desire were identified.

Conclusions

In the present study, FT and androstenedione were statistically significantly correlated with sexual desire in the total cohort of women. ADT-G did not correlate more strongly than circulating androgens with sexual desire and is therefore not superior to measuring circulating androgens by mass spectrometry.
On to the ‘rough ground’: introducing doctoral students to philosophical perspectives on knowledge
Authors: Rehg Ellen , SmithBattle Lee
Published: December 2014

Doctoral programmes in nursing are charged with developing the next generation of nurse scholars, scientists, and healthcare leaders. The American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) endorses the inclusion of philosophy of science content in research‐focused doctoral programmes. Because a philosophy course circumscribed to the natural or social sciences does not address the broad forms of knowledge that are relevant to nursing practice, we have developed and co‐taught a course on the philosophy of knowledge that introduces students to competing claims regarding the nature of knowledge, truth, and rationality. In addressing broad themes related to science and knowledge of the body, health and illness, and ethics, the course equips students to tread the rough and shifting ground of nursing scholarship and practice. Providing doctoral students with this philosophical footing is intended to give future scholars, researchers, and healthcare leaders the intellectual skills to critically reflect on knowledge claims, to challenge the hegemony of science, and to recognize the disciplinary forms of knowledge that are left out or trivialized. Our pedagogical approach to knowledge development does not denigrate scientific knowledge, but elevates forms of inquiry and notions of clinical knowledge that are too often marginalized in doctoral education and the academy in general.
Jewish Responses to the Problem of Evil: Traditional Texts in Contemporary Categories
Authors: Goldschmidt Tyron
Published: December 2014

This essay outlines answers to the problem of evil (the problem of making sense of how a good God can permit evil) from Jewish perspectives. The essay uses traditional Jewish sources to illustrate theodicies (explanations of why God allows evil) familiar in other religious traditions, and introduces a few less familiar Jewish theodicies besides. Other responses to the problem of evil (skeptical theism and antitheodicy) are also considered. Jewish responses are not usually framed in contemporary philosophical categories, and mine is an attempt at categorization. The traditional Jewish sources might show some promise of contributing to contemporary philosophical debate.
What is the Second LAW?*
Authors: Gyftopoulos E. P. , Beretta G. P.
Published: December 2014

The thesis of this article is that thermodynamics is a rigorous science, and that the first law and the second law can be stated in an unambiguous and general way so that their implications are concrete and valid for both equilibrium and nonequilibrium states. In this light, we summarize the principles of thermodynamics, and introduce a graphical tool, the energy versus entropy diagram, that is very helpful to explain and grasp the general implications of these principles, especially in the nonequilibrium domain.
Measurements and Evaluation of Internal Wall Surface Roughness of Small Diameter Pipes for High Pressure Natural Gas Systems
Authors: Hartloper C. , Botros K. K. , Geerligs J. , Golshan H. , Jensen K.
Published: December 2014

The default roughness parameter values used in industry to determine the pressure loss through small diameter pipeline systems are much higher than the values employed in typical large diameter gas transmission and lateral systems. It is uncertain whether these higher roughness values are due to higher topological roughness of the internal wall of the small diameter pipes or if they are a result of other factors. Measurements were taken on 17 small diameter pipe samples in order to evaluate the pipe-wall roughness parameter. A model to calculate the effective roughness parameter, which takes into account pressure losses due to the measured roughness as well as internal welds and scaling, has been developed. The effective roughness parameter of these samples is found to range from 20.4μm to 62.9μm, an increase of 11.0μm to 23.3μm over the measured pipe-wall roughness parameter. This range of effective roughness parameters agrees well with the default range of 35μm to 65μm used in industry, as well as the literature quoted range for clean pipe of 40μm to 100μm. The measured roughness parameter on average increases with increasing nominal pipe size, a result that may be a characteristic of the extrusion or hot-rolling processes used to manufacture small diameter pipes. Additionally, there is a large variation in the measured roughness parameters of pipe samples of the same nominal pipe size, indicating that surface roughness can vary depending on the manufacturing source of these pipes.
Leakage Detection and Location of Compressible Flow in a Pipeline
Authors: Adair Desmond , Emara-Shabaik Hosam E. , Jaeger Martin
Published: December 2014

A methodology for pipeline leakage detection, together with isolating the size of the leak and the leakage location, using an evidential reasoning based approach is presented. Leakage in pipes produces two major effects, a change in the difference between inlet flow and outlet flow, and, an average pressure change over time. Each of these changes, although in reality coupled, can be thought of as providing two independent bodies of evidence (typically incomplete and non-specific) which can give hints of the occurance of a leak. Inference using traditional Bayesian analysis involves assumptions in cases of incomplete information and partial ignorance. Evidential reasoning, also called the Dempster-Shafer (DS) theory, has proved very useful for such situations and has the ability to incorporate both aleatory and epistemic uncertainities in the inference mechanism. The bodies of evidence from the changes mentioned above are mapped over a ‘frame of discernment’ of risk of leakage and subsequently the DS rule of combination is applied to make an inference on the occurence, size and location of a leak. What is described below is a novel methodology as to how a system based on the evidential reasoning approach may be trained to detect and locate leaks in compressible flow in a pipeline. The evidential reasoning based approach is trained off-line with the results encouraging.
Methanol-Induced Axial Stress Corrosion Cracking in a Northern Canadian Liquids Pipeline
Authors: Padgett Barbara N. , Chebaro Mohamed R. , Norfleet David M. , Beavers John A. , Ironside Scott D.
Published: December 2014

Three in-service leaks on a crude oil pipeline operating in Canada were investigated to identify their metallurgical cause(s). The releases were found to be associated with cracks originating from the internal surface of the pipeline. Further similarities between the releases included: (1) the axial directionality of the cracks, (2) the short crack length, (3) the crack location adjacent to girth welds, (4) the circumferential location of the cracks and (5) the intergranular crack morphologies. A comprehensive metallurgical investigation concluded that the likely crack-initiating mechanism was methanol-induced stress corrosion cracking (SCC). While this SCC mechanism is extremely rare in buried petroleum pipelines, all other plausible causes were considered and eliminated. Methanol-induced SCC, similar to other forms of SCC, requires three contributing factors: (1) a susceptible material, (2) a corrosive environment and (3) sufficient tensile stresses.

Although much research has been performed on the effects of ethanol on pipeline steels, published data on the effects of methanol is very scarce. A laboratory research program using slow strain rate (SSR) testing was initiated to determine if pipeline steels are susceptible to methanol-induced SCC and identify the conditions necessary to reproduce it in a laboratory environment. This paper outlines the major findings from this program.
Application of Reliability-Based Design Method of Pipeline Material Selection
Authors: Zhang Zhenyong , Zhang Wen Wei , Zhang Jinyuan , Liu Yuqing
Published: December 2014

A certain inland pipeline is located in a cold area and traverses the alpine-cold and permafrost region. For design and selection of steel grade pipeline in such an area, the resistance of X52 and X60 pipes is calculated and analyzed using the reliability design method for the first time based on a comparison of conventional economy and technical schemes, combined with the analysis on pipe failure, reason, and type as well as the ultimate limit state. According to calculation and analysis, the overall resistance of X52 9.5mm pipe is higher than that of X60 8.7mm pipe, except for the equal resistance against excavation and puncture by a third party. This is especially true in regard to the ultimate tensile strain and compression strain, increasing by 17% and 31% respectively. By adopting the Monte Carlo method using certain parameters about pipe material, construction and operational maintenance, the failure probability of X52 and X60 pipes under corrosion as well as excavation and puncture by a third party is calculated and analyzed quantitatively. The result shows that the failure probability of X52, 9.5mm pipe is 2.61 ×10−4 times per kilometer per year which is much less than that of X60 8.7mm pipe (5.50 ×10−4 times per kilometer per year). Considering the safe reliability of pipeline, the X52 9.5mm pipe scheme is far superior to X60 8.7mm pipe scheme. Therefore the former scheme is recommended for design which only increases the cost by 1.5%.
Study on Defect Formation Mechanisms in ERW for API Steel
Authors: Shin Min Hyo , Han Jong Man , Lee Young Su , Kang Hee Woong
Published: December 2014

In this study, defect formation mechanisms in the ERW (electric resistance welding) process for API pipe production were investigated. The results showed that defects observed in the weld joint of ERW pipe are a main factor in the deterioration of the mechanical properties of welded joints. From systematical research, it was clear that the crucial main defects of ERW pipe are caused by large inclusions with complex compositions after the steel making process and penetrators formed during ERW welding with excessive heat input condition. In order to guarantee the toughness of the weld joints, after theoretical and experimental considerations ERW pipe weld defect reducing methods can be recommended. According to previous test results, it was clear that the hook cracks caused by large inclusions were reduced by selecting the slag composition ratio of CaO and Al2O3 at the eutectoid point during steel making process. On the other hand, in case of the penetrator formation type defects, it was defined that by controlling of the heat input in the optimization range was the best solution for decreasing the penetrator formation.
When HDD Construction Shifts Happen: Insertion of a Casing Sleeve Mitigated a Major Threat to Completion of the Project
Authors: Kanzaki G. Arthur , Grant Stephen L. , MacKenzie Jarrod R.
Published: December 2014

This paper will discuss how the project team planned, designed and constructed a unique and innovative casing sleeve as one of the key solutions to overcome a major threat to the completion of a horizontal directional drilling (“HDD”) project (“Fraser River South Arm Crossing Upgrade Project” or “Fraser River Crossing”). In 2009 FortisBC Energy Inc. (“FortisBC”) started construction to upgrade its NPS 20 and NPS 24 pipeline crossings of the Fraser River, the largest river in the province of BC, Canada via HDD. Due to the poor surface geology at this location on the Fraser River, temporary surface casings were required on both sides of the crossing to get drilling activities into a formation suitable for conducting an HDD crossing. As a result, the Fraser River Crossing required an HDD rig to drill concurrently from either side of the crossing in order to create a continuous borehole (also known as an intersect crossing). During the pullback of the NPS 24 - 1.35 km crossing section, a major mechanical failure occurred when over 95% of the length had been pulled through. After multiple attempts to resume pullback by the HDD rigs and other onsite equipment were unsuccessful, the project team was left with the major challenge(s) of determining how else the crossing could be completed and the pipeline tied in on both sides of the river without incurring major business interruption in a busy industrial section of Richmond, BC. Moreover, FortisBC was faced with the possibility of having to abandon the project and the millions spent up to that point in time with no value. This paper will focus on how the project team overcame the challenge and mitigated long term operational issues that included maintaining adequate cathodic protection. Learn how the combined efforts of a multi-disciplined project team planned, designed, fabricated and ultimately successfully inserted an innovative casing sleeve, although unproven at the time and with its share of additional risks, after reviewing an extensive assessment of numerous alternatives as the optimum solution in order for FortisBC to finally complete the upgrade of its pipeline system.
Considerations for Hydrodynamic Slug Analysis in Pipelines
Authors: Galatro Daniela , Fürtbauer Daniel , Hu Xiangyu , Nerucci David-Emilio , Marín Flavio
Published: December 2014

Hydrodynamic slugs in pipelines are usually analyzed by using a steady-state flow assurance simulator as a first approximation. The pipelines are then modeled in transient simulation software to get more accurate values. Comparisons between an empirical and a mechanistic method are made in this work by running simulations in steady-state simulators in order to explain the differences in the calculated slug properties. It has been demonstrated that both methods cannot accurately estimate the maximum slug length in pipelines since the relative errors are significant; nevertheless the mechanistic model is more accurate than the empirical one with lower relative errors.

Additionally, slug sizes for operational slugging have been analyzed by using a new alternative pseudo transient approach to the Lagrangian slug tracking scheme. The model expresses an unsteady state mass balance in a pipeline, formulated utilizing the slip velocity written in terms of the void fraction and superficial gas velocity. Our model includes a constitutive equation for slip velocity, elevation changes to represent the hydraulic profile of the pipeline, a method for the calculation of the maximum slug length, a modified correlation for the slug length calculation and the variation of the fluid density along the pipeline profile. The results yielded by this model have been compared with field data and results performed by using a transient simulation software, showing fairly accurate values.
Traceable, Verifiable and Complete Pipeline Records
Authors: Naylor Joe , Lang Eric , Benson Tennille
Published: December 2014

Recent U.S. federal regulatory initiatives have focused on the requirement that pipeline operators know their systems and have documented records demonstrating the basis for establishment of MAOP. This has involved the location and cataloging of pipeline records, and verification of the existence of traceable, verifiable and complete pipeline records.

This paper provides a review of materials useful for compliance with the recently emphasized records requirements, including historic and recent regulatory requirements along with a concise summary of currently effective regulations. The requirement for traceable, verifiable and complete records is discussed and a proposed elaboration of the concepts is presented. Best practices for records management are outlined, and a methodology is proposed for quality ranking of located documents. Finally, common records problems are discussed and some possible technical approaches are suggested to address typical records issues.
Myanmar-China Oil and Gas Pipeline Project
Authors: Yu Zhifeng , Wang Xuejun
Published: December 2014

To meet the increasing energy demand, oil and gas pipelines from Myanmar to China have been planned since 2003. After 10 years’ hard work, Myanmar-China Oil and Gas Pipeline Project had been completed by the end of 2013. The project comprises one gas pipeline and one oil pipeline. The gas pipeline with a diameter of 1016 mm and a total length of 1727 km runs through great mountain areas in the southwest of China. The oil pipeline with a diameter of 813 mm and the first phase length of 606 km is laid parallel to the gas pipeline. The challenges of this project are long distant parallel large pipelines, undulant topography with high different elevation, complicated geological condition, vulnerable ecology, etc. This paper presents some design and construction issues concerned in the project, including the route selection in mountain areas, type of crossings and its design, type of ground movements and its design, special construction methods in these areas, etc. New technologies such as GIS-based route optimization, strain-based design, longspan suspension bridges, tunnels through mountains, multiple pipelines laid in narrow or steep areas and monitoring system for seismic and fault movement had been applied to conquer the challenges.
Best Execution Practices for Pipeline Projects
Authors: Klerian-Ramírez René , Parodi Félix , Carr Jennifer
Published: December 2014

A common perception is that detailed project execution planning (PEP) is not necessary for pipeline projects. In particular, project teams argue that it is not worth the time and effort for an owner to develop a detailed execution plan because the contractor will provide one before construction begins. In addition, project teams will also argue that developing a detailed, resource-loaded schedule is overkill for a pipeline project. This study was undertaken to test the importance of good PEP to pipeline project results.
Mechanical Integrity Evaluation of Unequal Wall Thickness Transition Joints in Transmission Pipeline
Authors: Huo Xiaotong , Kenny Shawn , Martens Michael
Published: December 2014

Transition welds joining pipe segments of unequal wall thickness are typically designed using back-bevel butt welds in accordance with industry recommended practices. An alternative approach, for joining transition pieces, would be the use of a counterbore-taper design, which has been successively utilized by TransCanada PipeLines.

In comparison with the back-bevel joint design, the counterbore-taper design provides a simple geometry that facilitates the welding process for joints of unequal wall thickness, improves the NDT quality and reliability, and increases the process efficiency for welding and NDT tasks. The counterbore-taper design reduces the effect of stress concentrations at the weldment and enhances fatigue life.

A parameter study, using continuum based finite element methods, was conducted to comparatively examine the mechanical performance of a pipe joint, using back-bevel and counterbore-taper designs, with unequal wall thickness and different material grade. The parameters examined include pipe diameter, D/t ratio, axial force and moment. The numerical study assessed the mechanical stress response, including stress path, initial yield and onset of plastic collapse, for back-bevel and counterbore-taper joint designs.

Based on these preliminary investigations, the performance of each transition joint design was evaluated and guidance on the selection of the joints design method was provided.
Probability Calculation of Equipment Impact Based on Reliability Method
Authors: Lu Jiang , Wu Wen , Zhang Zhenyong , Zhang Jinyuan
Published: December 2014

In order to apply the Reliability Based Design and Assessment (RBDA) methodology to evaluate the equipment impact on the onshore natural gas transmission pipelines in China, a research project was undertaken by China Petroleum Pipeline Engineering Corporation (CPPE) based on the framework developed by C-FER Technologies (C-FER) in “Guidelines for Reliability Based Design and Assessment of Onshore Natural Gas Pipelines” (sponsored by PRCI). The objective of the project was to collect native data and calibrate the probability models[1] in order to make it suitable for the situations in China where there is dense population and many newly-built high pressure and large diameter pipelines.

The equipment impact model consists of two components: a) the impact probability model which calculates the frequency of mechanical interference by excavation equipment; and b) the failure model which calculates the probability of failure in a given impact. A detailed survey was undertaken in 2012 in order to collect the data required to calculate the impact frequency and the load applied by an excavator to a pipeline. The survey data for impact frequency calculation was gathered based on 19,300km of transmission pipelines from 4 operating companies in China. They reflect current prevention practices and their effectiveness. The frequencies of basic events summarized in this survey used to calculate the probabilities of the fault tree are generally agreement with the data summarized in PRCI’s report. The impact frequencies calculated by the fault tree under typical prevention measures are 400%, 200%, 20% and 0% higher than that in PR-244-9910 report for class 1, class 2, class 3 and class 4 areas respectively, which is due to dense population and more construction activities. Bucket digging forces of 321 types of excavators from 20 manufacturers were gathered. The survey data of the forces are slightly higher than that in the PR-244-9729 report as a whole due to the increase in mechanical efficiency of excavators in recent years. The excavator maximum quasi-static load model was calibrated correspondingly. Equipment impact probability calculation and model sensitivity analysis results are described to present several characteristics of onshore transmission natural gas pipelines in China.
Leveraging HCA Results in an Advanced Pipeline Risk Assessment Model
Authors: Huisman Otto , Almandoz Ricardo , Schuster Thomas , Caballero Adriana Andrade , Forero Leonardo Martinez
Published: December 2014

Pipeline risk analysis is a common step carried out by operators in their overall Pipeline Integrity Management Process. There is a growing realization among operators of the need to adopt more proactive risk management approaches. This has brought about increased demand for more quantitative models to support risk reduction decision-making. Consequences of failure are a key component of these models where enhanced quantitative approaches can be deployed.

Impacts to the environment and upon populations are key issues which both operators and regulatory bodies seek to minimize. Pipeline risk models and High Consequence Area (HCA) analyses play an increasingly important role in this context by allowing operators to identify a range of potential scenarios and the relative impact to receptors based upon the best available data sources.

This paper presents the process and results of an HCA analysis project carried out by ROSEN for a major South American state-owned pipeline operator (hereafter referred to as ‘the Client’). This analysis was implemented using automated GIS processing methods and includes HCA analyses for approximately 2354 km of pipeline. The analysis was based on industry standards for both liquid and gas pipelines (i.e. American Petroleum Institute (API) and American Society of mechanical Engineers (ASME)), but customized for the specific needs of the Client and the South American geographical context.

A key use for the results of this analysis is to serve as input for the pipeline risk assessment model jointly developed by ROSEN Integrity Solutions, MACAW Engineering and the Client. The methodology for development of this model is briefly discussed, and operational uses of HCA results are illustrated. The benefits of this project include, but are not limited to, identifying areas that could be severely impacted should a pipeline failure occur, being able to assess the risk profile of credible threats in HCAs, but also being able to prioritize preventative and mitigation measures at HCAs to either reduce the likelihood of failure or the impact of failure upon various receptors.
Reliability Analysis of Corroding Pipelines Considering the Growth and Generation of Corrosion Defects
Authors: Qin H. , Zhou W.
Published: December 2014

This paper presents a methodology to evaluate the reliability of corroding pipelines by simultaneously considering the growth and generation of corrosion defects. The non-homogeneous Poisson process is employed to model the generation of corrosion defects, whereas the non-homogeneous gamma process is used to characterize the growth of corrosion defects once generated. The parameters included in the non-homogeneous Poisson process and non-homogeneous gamma process are evaluated from the inline inspection data using a hierarchical Bayesian model. The measurement errors associated with the inline inspection tools are taken into account in the Bayesian updating. The time-dependent failure probability of the corroding pipeline is evaluated using the Monte Carlo simulation technique. The methodology is illustrated using a natural gas pipeline that has been subjected to multiple inline inspections over a period of time. The results illustrate the necessity to incorporate the generation of new corrosion defects in the reliability analysis of corroding pipelines.
Condition-Based Optimal Maintenance Decision Modeling for Corroding Natural Gas Pipelines
Authors: Zhang S. , Zhou W. , Kariyawasam S. , Huang T.
Published: December 2014

This paper investigates the optimal timing of the first inspection for newly-built onshore underground natural gas pipelines with respect to external metal-loss corrosion by considering the generation of corrosion defects over time and time-dependent growth of individual defects. The non-homogeneous Poisson process is used to model the generation of new defects and the homogeneous gamma process is used to model the growth of individual defects. A realistic maintenance strategy that is consistent with the industry practice and accounts for the probability of detection (PoD) and sizing errors of the inspection tool is incorporated in the investigation. Both the direct and indirect costs of failure are considered. A simulation-based approach is developed to numerically evaluate the expected cost rate at a given inspection interval. The optimal inspection interval is determined based on either the cost criterion or the safety criterion. An example gas pipeline is used to examine the impact of the cost of failure, PoD, and the excavation and repair criteria on the optimal inspection interval through parametric analyses. The results of investigation will assist engineers in making the optimal maintenance decision for corroding natural gas pipelines and facilitate the reliability-based corrosion management.
Regulatory Next Steps in Addressing Pipeline Seam Weld Challenges
Authors: Nanney Steve
Published: December 2014

Since the beginning of pipeline transportation operations, pipe seam integrity and mitigation measures to prevent pipe seam leaks and failures have been a challenge for the industry and government regulators. The Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration’s (PHMSA) Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) has investigated leaks and failures, issued advisory bulletins, funded research projects, and developed regulations for integrity assurance of pipe seams during pipeline design, construction, and operations and maintenance (including integrity management).

This report will discuss PHMSA’s pipe seam efforts to date, framing leak and failure history, past advisory bulletins, United States (U.S.) Legislative and Executive actions (statutory actions), recent U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) findings, accident investigation findings, and ongoing research for pipe long seam welds. PHMSA will review challenges and summarize past and possible future regulatory considerations based on the research findings to date and pipe seam incidents.

In 2011 PHMSA initiated a long seam research project titled “Comprehensive Study to Understand Longitudinal ERW Seam Failures.” The program goals are to assist PHMSA in favorably closing U.S. NTSB Recommendations P-09-01 [1] and P-09-02 [1], which were issued after the Carmichael, Mississippi pipeline electric resistance welded (ERW) seam rupture, and recommended that PHMSA conduct a comprehensive study of ERW pipe properties and implement measures to assure that they do not fail in service.

The research objectives for Phase 1 were to review current ERW seam integrity assessment methods (hydrostatic testing and in-line inspection using a crack-detection tool) to understand measures needed to consistently identify subcritical seam defects in order to act in time to prevent ERW seam ruptures. Phase 2 objectives are to develop hydrotest protocols, improve anomaly characterization criteria, develop seam defect growth models, and develop seam integrity management techniques. Phase 1 was completed in early January 2014, and Phase 2 is scheduled to be completed in late fall 2014. To date, this study has led to 17 technical reports. These reports are publically available on the following PHMSA website: http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/matrix/PrjHome.rdm?prj=390.
Pipeline Separation: A Review of Requirements, Guidance and Best Practices
Authors: Demers Danielle , Bhatia Arti
Published: December 2014

Alliance Pipeline (Alliance), an integrated Canadian and U.S. high-pressure, high-energy natural gas transmission pipeline system, is committed to the development and application of best practices for the full lifecycle of its pipeline system. Currently, there are several publications which individually set out minimum pipeline separation requirements, and discuss considerations for establishing an appropriate separation distance between adjacent pipelines or other buried structures sharing the same right-of-way (RoW). Alliance has reviewed these existing publications, and has consolidated the requirements, guidance, and best practices discussed therein for application in its own company practices. This paper summarizes the review and consolidation of these requirements, guidance, and best practices.
Layout Optimization of Branch Pipeline Network on Curved Surface Using Genetic Algorithm
Authors: Zhou Jun , Li XiaoPing , Deng Tao , Cheng Mengya , Gong Jing
Published: December 2014

Branch structure is common in oil and gas field gathering system. The rational determination of the pipe network structure and pipelines trend is an important part of the gathering system design. The previous optimization of tree structure is usually studied under two dimensions and the distances between stations, which are represented by straight lines. The study can neither correctly reflect the real situation nor get the optimal solution, because of the dramatic topographic. This paper firstly deals with the shortest route issue on a curved surface. The common way to solve the problem is variational method. However, the method relies on the surface function, which becomes the constraints hard to deal with. The author would obtain the optimal route between two points with the genetic algorithm. Both steady state (SS) and generational (GN) GAs were implemented for the test problem. The performance of a GA generally depends on the selected GA parameters, in particular the crossover and mutation probabilities. Based on the variation of crossover and mutation probability CP and MP in the range of 0.4–1.0 and 0.0005–0.3, the sensitivity of GA to the Gas was therefore established. The best solution has been found by GN GA based on the average evaluation value of the best solutions, which obtained from fifty independent GA runs. According to the case analysis, a 21.73% reduction in total length of the pipeline has been found by using GA. The results presented show that the GA is a robust and stable technique for the solution of route optimization problem. According to further study, the practice of engineering designs are often carried out under two dimensions by using minimum spanning tree algorithm to realize the layout optimization of pipe network. On a curved surface, with the GA above, one can get the trends of each pipe section without changing the connection relationship and the total length of the network is reduced by 12.21%. Yet the connection within a plane cannot guarantee the optimum solution, thus the paper developed the optimization model of branch structure distribution within a curved surface. According to the case analysis, the previous connection relationship between points has been changed, further reducing the total length by 0.97%. In conclusion, the technique in this paper can determine the optimal pipeline laying route, effectively develop the network structure and reduce the total length of pipelines.