bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parental attributions as predictors of involvement and influences on child achievement
Authors: Georgiou Stelios N.
Published: February 2003

Background. This study, which was conducted in Cyprus, combines the theoretical framework of attribution research with that of parent involvement literature. Aim. Its aim was to investigate the role of parental attributions as predictors of parental involvement in their child's educational process and to examine the influence of both of these factors on the child's actual school achievement. Sample. The parents of 473 sixth grade students in 22 public elementary schools participated in the study. Data were also collected from students and their teachers. Method. Participating parents completed questionnaires regarding their attributions of their child's achievement and their own degree of involvement in his/her life. Results. It was found that parents who believed that their own role was important for their child's achievement tended to be more controlling and to be keener in developing the child's interests. Also, the parental attribution of the child's achievement to the child's own effort was positively related to the child's actual achievement results. Finally, it was found that the child's actual school achievement was directly related to the parental interest‐developing behaviour, but it was not significantly related to the parental controlling behaviour. Conclusions. Through a structural equation model and a path analysis procedure, it was shown that a line of influence exists between parental attribution style, the type and degree of parental involvement and the child's actual academic achievement.
Secondary school pupils’ perceptions of burnout among teachers
Authors: Tatar Moshe , Yahav Vered
Published: February 2003

Background. Numerous studies examined teachers’ self‐reports concerning their occupational burnout. Given that pupils are in a prime position to assess teachers’ burnout, due to their intensive daily contact with their teachers and because some of pupils’ behaviours can induce stress, the present study focuses on a relatively unexplored topic, namely the meanings that adolescents attach to burnout among their teachers. Aims. This study was aimed at examining pupils’ perceptions regarding burnout among their teachers, and to investigate the possible recommendations that the pupils would suggest to different constituents of the educational system for coping with burnout among teachers. Sample. A total of 297 Israeli secondary school pupils (approximately 57% girls and 43% boys) studying in 12 tenth grade classes (mean age 15 years 8 months, SD= 0.42 years) participated in this study. Methods. A questionnaire dealing with pupils’ perceptions of burnout among teachers was administered. It included four sections. The first part asked for background of the pupils (sex and age). Next, pupils were asked an openended question in which they need to describe the most salient behaviour of a burned‐out teacher in the classroom and to indicate the proportion of burnedout teachers among those teaching them. The third section consisted of a list of 14 items describing potential characteristics of burned‐out teachers. The respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which, in their opinion, each of the descriptors characterised burned‐out teachers. In addition, pupils were asked three open‐ended questions in which they were required to describe the most salient way for (a) the students, (b) the teachers themselves and (c) the school principal to cope with teachers’ burnout. Results. Findings showed that the most frequently mentioned characteristics of burned‐out teachers were: teachers who ‘ feel that working with pupils for a full day is an oppressive effort’, ‘ feel wiped out at the end of a teaching day’, ‘ feel that teaching is turning them into impatient persons’ and ‘ feel that teaching frustrates them’. No differences were found between girls’ and boys’ perceptions of burned‐out teachers: both emphasise the psychological exhaustion of teachers as the most salient characteristic of burnout among teachers. Pupils suggest that the better ways for coping with this phenomenon include a more positive behaviour of the pupils themselves towards teachers, that burned‐out teachers quit their jobs and that better work conditions be offered to them by the educational authorities. Conclusions. Our findings allude to the importance of analysing interactional phenomena like burnout among teachers from the perspectives of different actors in the school arena and allow us to broaden our understanding of pupils’ perceptions of teachers. Suggestions for further research and for the development of methodological refinements are discussed.
Promoting prosocial pupil behaviour: 1‐A multilevel theoretical model
Authors: Mooij Ton
Published: February 2003

Background. Usually much attention is given to different forms of antisocial pupil behaviour. One of the possibilities to prevent or reduce this behaviour is to stimulate educational conditions that foster prosocial pupil behaviour. Aim. To specify a theoretical multilevel model to promote prosocial pupil behaviour. The model should allow empirical checks on the occurrence of pupil level effects because of educational changes at the classroom and school level. Methods. Information from the literature and previous research is used to construct a three‐level model in which longitudinal pupil effects are caused by classroom and school characteristics, while controlling for covariables. The causal class and school variables mainly refer to pupils’ participation and responsibility in specifying and controlling behavioural and didactic rules, and are assumed to be related to didactic differentiation during lessons. Results. The multilevel theorising results in a model of social‐pedagogical and didactic class and school variables, of home and peer support variables, and of their potential effects on the development of a pupil's prosocial behaviour. The three‐level model will be empirically checked in a second article (this issue).
Promoting prosocial pupil behaviour: 2‐Secondary school intervention and pupil effects
Authors: Mooij Ton
Published: February 2003

Background. In an earlier article (Mooij, 1999 c) a theoretical multilevel model to promote prosocial pupil behaviour by stimulating specific educational conditions was developed. Aims. To carry out school interventions to check empirically whether pupil level effects occur because of educational changes at the classroom and school level. Samples. Seven secondary schools with relatively high degrees of pupil aggression were selected. Four schools took part as intervention schools, three schools served as control schools. In 1995 (pretest) and 1997 (post‐test) pupils and form teachers of the first and third school years participated by completing questionnaires. Within the pupil cohorts, a longitudinal group of 352 pupils was included. Methods. Pretest questionnaires in 1995 were followed by intervention in the intervention schools. Teachers collaborated with staff and researchers to increase pupils’ participation and responsibility in specifying and controlling behavioural and didactic rules, related to didactic differentiation during lessons. The validity of the intervention implementation was checked using qualitative information and quantitative data from both pre‐ and post‐test. Longitudinal intervention effects were tested by applying two‐level multiple regression analyses. Results. After controlling for pretest and covariables in school year 1, school intervention effects were found in school year 3 with the prediction of being a perpetrator of aggressive behaviour at school, aggressive behaviour outside school, and criminal behaviour. Some small effects were found with respect to victim behaviour. Conclusions. Social‐pedagogical and didactic class and school variables, but also home variables and support by peers without problematic behaviour, could be integrated more systematically to promote prosocial development of a pupil's behaviour from the beginning in school.
Name‐calling and nicknames in a sample of primary school children
Authors: Crozier W. Ray , Dimmock Patricia S.
Published: February 2003

Background. Name‐calling, unkind nicknames and other forms of verbal harassment represent some of the most prevalent forms of bullying in school but they have been little studied. Name‐calling and nicknames in particular are ambiguous social events that can serve positive as well as negative goals, and their adverse consequences can be difficult to identify. Aims. (i) To assess the incidence of nicknames and name calling as reported by a sample of primary school children; (ii) to examine the kinds of names reported by children, and to relate these to names reported in other social contexts; (iii) to explore the impact that name‐calling and nicknames have on children. Sample. Pupils (N = 60) from the top two classes in a British primary school completed a questionnaire; 20 of the children were subsequently interviewed. Method. Pupils completed a questionnaire that was constructed for this study. Pupils were asked to provide examples of nicknames and to report on the types and incidence of several forms of verbal harassment. The interview included questions which aimed to explore the children's reactions to harassment. Results. Being called disliked nicknames, called names, teased, and other forms of verbal harassment were reported by most of the sample, with more than 20% of children experiencing nasty comments and unkind nicknames on a daily basis. Girls reported more disliked nicknames than boys. The most common nicknames referred to the child's appearance, whereas nasty comments and untrue stories contained a preponderance of sexual references. In the interview, nearly all children reported that being called names and nicknames were negative experiences that caused distress. Conclusions. Name‐calling and the assignment of unkind nicknames are prevalent and hurtful features of school life. The kinds of names are similar to those reported in other studies of children, adolescents, and adults. It is proposed that these names are hurtful because they threaten the child's identity.
An investigation of coping strategies associated with job stress in teachers
Authors: Griffith Jayne , Steptoe Andrew , Cropley Mark
Published: February 2003

Background. School teaching is regarded as a stressful occupation, but the perception of the job as stressful may be influenced by coping responses and social support. Aims. To assess the associations between teacher stress, psychological coping responses and social support, taking into account the plaintive set engendered by negative affectivity. Method. Questionnaire survey of 780 primary and secondary school teachers (53.5% response rate). Results. In stepwise multiple regression, social support at work and the coping responses behavioural disengagement and suppression of competing activities predicted job stress independently of age, gender, class size, occupational grade and negative affectivity. High job stress was associated with low social support at work and greater use of coping by disengagement and suppression of competing activities. Conclusions. It is suggested that behavioural disengagement and suppression of competing activities are maladaptive responses in a teaching environment and may actually contribute to job stress. Coping and social support not only moderate the impact of stressors on well‐being but influence the appraisal of environmental demands as stressful.
Approaches to studying in people with hearing loss
Authors: Richardson John T. E. , Woodley Alan
Published: February 2003

Background. There has been little research on the experiences of students with hearing loss in higher education. It has, however, been suggested that children with hearing loss adopt different strategies and styles and that this leads to differences in their academic performance. Aims. This investigation compared students in higher education with and without hearing loss in terms of their approaches to studying. Samples. We compared 382 students with hearing loss taking courses by distance learning with the Open University and a comparison group of 190 students taking the same courses with no declared form of disablement. Methods. A questionnaire containing a shortened and adapted version of the Approaches to Studying Inventory was distributed in a postal survey. Results. Students with postvocational hearing loss obtained higher scores than the comparison group on deep approach, and those with postvocational deafness also obtained higher scores on the use of evidence and logic. Students with prevocational deafness obtained higher scores on reproducing orientation than the comparison group, and in particular on improvidence. All of the subgroups of students with hearing loss obtained higher scores than the comparison group on fear of failure. Conclusions. The impact of hearing loss on cognitive aspects of studying appears to be relatively slight. Future research might focus instead upon its affective consequences and its effects upon a student's self‐concept.
Pupils’ reasons for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving in English and maths lessons in a secondary school
Authors: Norwich Brahm
Published: February 2003

Background. There is renewed interest in motivation and school learning, though there has been relatively little theory‐linked research in English schools. Aims. In the first stage, to explore pupils’ reasons for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving in English, maths and other subjects. In the second stage, to examine differences in reasons across subjects, for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving for boys and girls in two year groups in one secondary school. Sample. Stage 1, 16 pupils in years 7, 8 and 9 in two London secondary schools; Stage 2, 267 pupils in years 7 and 9 in one of these schools. Methods. Stage 1 ‐ semi‐structured interviews were conducted to elicit different kinds of reasons conceptualised in terms of the Deci & Ryan's (1985) framework of self‐determination. From these elicited reasons, an inventory ‘ Why I Learn’ was designed. Stage 2 ‐ the inventory was administered to identify reasons for learning and behaving and for not learning and behaving in English and maths. Results. Parent introjected reasons were the highest for learning and behaving while teacher introjected and intrinsic reasons were the lowest. Intrinsic reasons were highest for not learning and behaving. Year group differences in reason levels were more significant than gender or subject differences. Reasons for learning and behaving were more differentiated from each other than reasons for not learning and behaving. Discussion. The results are discussed in terms of their significance for selfdetermination theory, research into the conditions promoting greater self‐determination in school learning and further development of the inventory for programme evaluation.
Problems of behaviour, reading and arithmetic: Assessments of comorbidity using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire
Authors: Adams John W. , Snowling Margaret J. , Hennessy Susan M. , Kind Paul
Published: February 2003

Background. Estimates of academic underachievement among school children vary widely, depending on the geographical location and on the criteria used to define attainment. Aim. To examine the relationship between behaviour problems and academic attainment in a large UK primary school. Method. A school population (364 children from Years 3 to 6 inclusive) were assessed on a range of cognitive ability tasks. These included standardised tests of reading, arithmetic and verbal and non‐verbal intelligence. Underachievement was assessed using different criteria. To assess behaviour, teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997) for each participating child. Finally, academic progress of a subset of children was assessed after one year. Results. Indicated a significant relationship between behaviour and academic attainment; prosocial behaviour was positively correlated with reading and arithmetic, hyperactivity and conduct problems were negatively correlated. This association was especially strong in the children rated by the questionnaire as hyperactive, where around 1 in 5 had a specific reading deficit. However, there was no evidence to indicate that children with behaviour problems made less academic progress over a one‐year period relative to their peers. Conclusion. The study highlights the importance of assessing both cognitive skills and behaviour, particularly when planning the educational management of children with reading difficulties.
Getting ready for reading: Early phoneme awareness and phonics teaching improves reading and spelling in inner‐city second language learners
Authors: Stuart Morag
Published: February 2003

Background. Previous studies demonstrate that phoneme awareness training, particularly when combined with letter‐sound teaching, results in improved reading and spelling development. Aims. This study seeks to extend previous findings by (a) including children learning English as a second language, who have typically been excluded from previous studies; (b) providing training for whole classes, rather than small groups; (c) using a commercially available programme; and (d) giving minimal training to teachers administering the programme. Sample. Two groups (N = 112) of 5‐year‐olds, 96 of whom were learning English as a second language, were enrolled into either the experimental (phoneme awareness and phonics) programme or the control programme, which took a more holistic approach based on Holdaway's (1979) use of Big Books. Method. Children were pretested on measures of spoken and written language, phonological awareness and alphabet knowledge, prior to a 12‐week intervention using either the experimental or control programme. Children were post‐tested on all measures immediately after intervention, and again one year later. Results. The experimental programme accelerated children's acquisition of phoneme awareness and of phonics knowledge, and their ability to apply these in reading and writing. In the year following intervention both groups made comparable progress in most areas; however, at the end of this year the experimental group were still significantly ahead in phoneme awareness and phonics knowledge, and on standardised and experimental tests of reading and spelling. Conclusions. Early concentration on teaching phoneme awareness and phonics can radically improve reading and spelling standards in inner city second language learners.
Three‐mode principal components analysis: Choosing the numbers of components and sensitivity to local optima
Authors: Timmerman Marieke E. , Kiers Henk A. L.
Published: February 2003

A method that indicates the numbers of components to use in fitting the three‐mode principal components analysis (3MPCA) model is proposed. This method, called DIFFIT, aims to find an optimal balance between the fit of solutions for the 3MPCA model and the numbers of components. The achievement of DIFFIT is compared with that of two other methods, both based on two‐way PCAs, by means of a simulation study. It was found that DIFFIT performed considerably better than the other methods in indicating the numbers of components. The 3MPCA model can be estimated by the TUCKALS3 algorithm, which is an alternating least squares algorithm. In a study of how sensitive TUCKALS3 is at hitting local optima, it was found that, if the numbers of components are specified correctly, TUCKALS3 never hits a local optimum. The occurrence of local optima increased as the difference between the numbers of underlying components and the numbers of components as estimated by TUCKALS3 increased. Rationally initiated TUCKALS3 runs hit local optima less often than randomly initiated runs.
Distribution of the standardized mean change effect size for meta‐analysis on repeated measures
Authors: Morris Scott B.
Published: February 2003

When conducting a meta‐analysis on studies with repeated measures, a useful measure of effect size is Becker's (1988) standardized mean change. This paper examines the distributional properties of the standardized mean change, and discusses potential problems with the variance formulae given in Becker (1988). First, an error in the exact variance formula can lead to severe underestimation of the actual sampling variance. Second, Becker (1988) recommended the use of an approximation which is shown to underestimate the sampling variance when sample size is small. Using the approximation can decrease the accuracy of meta‐analysis results; however, the degree of error is generally small.
Robust transformation with applications to structural equation modelling
Authors: Yuan Ke‐Hai , Chan Wai , Bentler Peter M.
Published: February 2003

Data sets in social and behavioural sciences are seldom normal. Influential cases or outliers can lead to inappropriate solutions and problematic conclusions in structural equation modelling. By giving a proper weight to each case, the influence of outliers on a robust procedure can be minimized. We propose using a robust procedure as a transformation technique, generating a new data matrix that can be analysed by a variety of multivariate methods. Mardia's multivariate skewness and kurtosis statistics are used to measure the effect of the transformation in achieving approximate normality. Since the transformation makes the data approximately normal, applying a classical normal theory based procedure to the transformed data gives more efficient parameter estimates. Three procedures for parameter evaluation and model testing are discussed. Six examples illustrate the various aspects with the robust transformation.
An examination of the robustness of the empirical Bayes and other approaches for testing main and interaction effects in repeated measures designs
Authors: Keselman H. J. , Kowalchuk Rhonda K. , Boik Robert J.
Published: February 2003

In a previous paper, Boik presented an empirical Bayes (EB) approach to the analysis of repeated measurements. The EB approach is a blend of the conventional univariate and multivariate approaches. Specifically, in the EB approach, the underlying covariance matrix is estimated by a weighted sum of the univariate and multivariate estimators. In addition to demonstrating that his approach controls test size and frequently is more powerful than either the ε‐adjusted univariate or multivariate approaches, Boik showed how conventional multivariate software can be used to conduct EB analyses. Our investigation examined the Type I error properties of the EB approach when its derivational assumptions were not satisfied as well as when other factors known to affect the conventional tests of significance were varied. For comparative purposes we also investigated procedures presented by Huynh and by Keselman, Carriere, and Lix, procedures designed for nonspherical data and covariance heterogeneity, as well as an adjusted univariate and multivariate test statistic. Our results indicate that when the response variable is normally distributed and group sizes are equal, the EB approach was robust to violations of its derivational assumptions and therefore is recommended due to the power findings reported by Boik. However, we also found that both the EB approach and the adjusted univariate and multivariate procedures were prone to depressed or elevated rates of Type I error when data were non‐normally distributed and covariance matrices and group sizes were either positively or negatively paired with one another. On the other hand, the Huynh and Keselman et al. procedures were generally robust to these same pairings of covariance matrices and group sizes.
Repeated measures ANOVA: Some new results on comparing trimmed means and means
Authors: Wilcox Rand R. , Keselman H. J. , Muska Jan , Cribbie Robert
Published: February 2003

This paper considers the common problem of testing the equality of means in a repeated measures design. Recent results indicate that practical problems can arise when computing confidence intervals for all pairwise differences of the means in conjunction with the Bonferroni inequality. This suggests, and is confirmed here, that a problem might occur when performing an omnibus test of equal means. The problem is that the probability of rejecting is not minimized when the means are equal and the usual univariate F test is used with the Huynh‐Feldt correction (ε) for the degrees of freedom. That is, power can actually decrease as the mean of one group is lowered, although eventually it increases. A similar problem is found when using a multivariate method (Hotelling's T2). Moreover, the probability of a Type I error can exceed the nominal level by a large amount. The paper considers methods for correcting this problem, and new results on comparing trimmed means are reported as well. In terms of both Type I errors and power, simulations reported here suggest that a percentile t bootstrap used with 20% trimmed means and an analogue of the ε‐adjusted F gives the best results. This is consistent with extant theoretical results comparing methods based on means with trimmed means.
Modelling sequentially scored item responses
Authors: Akkermans Wies
Published: February 2003

The sequential model can be used to describe the variable resulting from a sequential scoring process. In this paper two more item response models are investigated with respect to their suitability for sequential scoring: the partial credit model and the graded response model. The investigation is carried out by first deriving a property of sequential scoring, which will be called item characteristic curve invariance, and then demonstrating that the partial credit model and the logistic graded response model do not accommodate this property. Therefore, when either of these two models is applied to sequentially scored variables, a specification error is made.
Triadic distance models for the analysis of asymmetric three‐way proximity data
Authors: De Rooij Mark , Heiser Willem J.
Published: February 2003

Triadic distance models can be used to analyse proximity data defined on triples of objects. Three‐way symmetry is a common assumption for triadic distance models. In the present study three‐way symmetry is not assumed. Triadic distance models are presented for the analysis of asymmetric three‐way proximity data that result in a simultaneous representation of symmetry and asymmetry in a low‐dimensional configuration. An iterative majorization algorithm is developed for obtaining the coordinates and the representation of the asymmetry. The models are illustrated by an example using longitudinal categorical data.
Modelling asymmetric similarity with prominence
Authors: Johannesson Mikael
Published: February 2003

This paper introduces and discusses a geometrically based model, the relative prominence model, which is inspired by Tversky's finding that a factor behind asymmetric similarity seems to be ‘relative prominence’. The model proposes that the experienced directed similarity from I to J is proportional to some symmetric similarity measure between I and J, and the quotient between the ‘prominences’ for J and I. Analysis of several empirical data sets shows that it is possible for a procedure to estimate the parameters of the model quite well. The differences between the relative prominence model and related models that handle asymmetry in terms of ‘stimulus bias’ are discussed.
Rank‐based tests for interactions in a two‐way design when there are ties
Authors: Wilcox Rand R.
Published: February 2003

Among the non‐parametric approaches to defining and testing the hypothesis of no interactions in a two‐way design, the method by Patel and Hoel is appealing because it is a function of the ranks and therefore invariant under monotonic increasing transformations of the data, and it does not require the assumption of no main effects for the approach to be valid. Recently, Wilcox compared three different methods for implementing their method, each method differing in how the appropriate standard error is estimated. In terms of Type I errors, only one of the methods gave satisfactory results in simulations, but it assumes there are no tied values. Cliff has considered the problem of tied values in detail, and his results are easily extended to the problem considered by Wilcox. This paper describes this extension and compares it to the method recommended by Wilcox.
Confidence intervals for hidden Markov model parameters
Authors: Visser Ingmar , Raijmakers Maartje E. J. , Molenaar Peter C. M.
Published: February 2003

Three methods for computing confidence intervals (CIs) of hidden Markov model parameters are compared in the context of ‘long’ time series, T > 100, namely likelihood profiling, bootstrapping and CIs based on a finite‐differences approximation to the Hessian. First it is shown that with ‘long’ time series computing the exact Hessian is not feasible. In simulation studies quadratic and cubic interpolation polynomials for the likelihood profiles are compared. Likelihood profiling and bootstrapping produce similar CIs, whereas the CIs from the finite‐differences approximation of the Hessian are mostly too small.
Standard errors of the principal component loadings for unstandardized and standardized variables
Authors: Ogasawara Haruhiko
Published: February 2003

The asymptotic standard errors of the estimates of the principal component loadings for standardized variables are derived under the assumption of multivariate normality. The standard errors are obtained for the usual unrotated case where a loading matrix is orthogonal and for the cases with orthogonally or obliquely rotated components. The corresponding standard errors for unstandardized variables and the asymptotic correlations among the estimators of the parameters for the unstandardized and standardized variables are simultaneously derived, together with the standard errors for the standardized variables. Results of a simulation illustrate the accuracy of the theoretical asymptotic standard errors and correlations.
Testing treatment effects in repeated measures designs: Trimmed means and bootstrapping
Authors: Keselman H. J. , Kowalchuk Rhonda K. , Algina James , Lix Lisa M. , Wilcox Rand R.
Published: February 2003

Non‐normality and covariance heterogeneity between groups affect the validity of the traditional repeated measures methods of analysis, particularly when group sizes are unequal. A non‐pooled Welch‐type statistic (WJ) and the Huynh Improved General Approximation (IGA) test generally have been found to be effective in controlling rates of Type I error in unbalanced non‐spherical repeated measures designs even though data are non‐normal in form and covariance matrices are heterogeneous. However, under some conditions of departure from multisample sphericity and multivariate normality their rates of Type I error have been found to be elevated. Westfall and Young's results suggest that Type I error control could be improved by combining bootstrap methods with methods based on trimmed means. Accordingly, in our investigation we examined four methods for testing for main and interaction effects in a between‐ by within‐subjects repeated measures design: (a) the IGA and WJ tests with least squares estimators based on theoretically determined critical values; (b) the IGA and WJ tests with least squares estimators based on empirically determined critical values; (c) the IGA and WJ tests with robust estimators based on theoretically determined critical values; and (d) the IGA and WJ tests with robust estimators based on empirically determined critical values. We found that the IGA tests were always robust to assumption violations whether based on least squares or robust estimators or whether critical values were obtained through theoretical or empirical methods. The WJ procedure, however, occasionally resulted in liberal rates of error when based on least squares estimators but always proved robust when applied with robust estimators. Neither approach particularly benefited from adopting bootstrapped critical values. Recommendations are provided to researchers regarding when each approach is best.
Exact finite‐sample significance and confidence regions for goodness‐of‐fit statistics in one‐way multinomials
Authors: García‐Pérez Miguel A.
Published: February 2003

As multinomial processing tree models become more popular in psychology, appropriate methods for statistical inference also become more necessary. Conventional methods are all based on the asymptotic chi‐square approximation to the exact multinomial test, but the accuracy of this approximation has been shown to be poor in the usual small‐sample situation. This paper describes an efficient algorithm that allows the exact multinomial test to be applied without incurring prohibitive computational costs. The algorithm is well suited to addressing three different aspects of statistical inference in one‐way multinomials: (i) evaluating the exact significance of a multinomial test; (ii) determining significance at a given preset level; and (iii) enumerating exact confidence regions. Examples are given that illustrate how this algorithm accomplishes each of these tasks, and an analysis of its computational cost in some small‐sample situations is also provided.
Statistical analysis of nonlinear structural equation models with continuous and polytomous data
Authors: Lee Sik‐Yum , Zhu Hong‐Tu
Published: February 2003

A general nonlinear structural equation model with mixed continuous and polytomous variables is analysed. A Bayesian approach is proposed to estimate simultaneously the thresholds, the structural parameters and the latent variables. To solve the computational difficulties involved in the posterior analysis, a hybrid Markov chain Monte Carlo method that combines the Gibbs sampler and the Metropolis‐Hasting algorithm is implemented to produce the Bayesian solution. Statistical inferences, which involve estimation of parameters and their standard errors, residuals and outliers analyses, and goodness‐of‐fit statistics for testing the posited model, are discussed. The proposed procedure is illustrated by a simulation study and a real example.
Optimal scaling of a longitudinal choice variable with time‐varying representation of individuals
Authors: Adachi Kohei
Published: February 2003

A new method of homogeneity analysis is proposed for analysing the repeated measurements of n individuals' choices among m categories. In this method, time‐varying scores are assigned to each individual, while time‐invariant ones are assigned to each category. For obtaining such scores, a requirement of homogeneity for time‐varying individual scores is introduced in addition to the individual‐category homogeneity requirement underlying the existing homogeneity analysis. The loss function based on these two requirements is minimized under a suitable normalization condition. This minimization is explicitly attained through eigenvalue decomposition, and the graphical representation of the resulting scores allows us to easily find the longitudinal changes in individuals and the relationships among categories.
A local influence approach to identifying multiple multivariate outliers
Authors: Poon Wai‐Yin , Lew Shing‐Fong , Poon Yat Sun
Published: February 2003

We make use of Cook's local influence approach and its recent modification by Poon and Poon to develop measures for detecting multivariate outliers. The motivation and the foundation of the theory are geometrical and are different from classical approaches; however, whilst the proposed measure exhibits a form similar to those in the literature, it still has a considerable advantage in having transformed the classical measures to the unit interval. The new approach unifies outlier identification measures using geometrical concepts. It involves no distributional assumption or large‐sample properties, and allows the flexibility of identifying outliers with respect to different metrics. The approach therefore provides a valid reason for using the various measures in complicated situations, such as in non‐normal cases and in small‐sample problems.
Testing Thurstonian Case V ranking models using posterior predictive checks
Authors: Tsai Rung‐Ching , Yao Grace
Published: February 2003

This paper presents the results of a Monte Carlo study which investigates the validity of the method of posterior predictive checks (PPC) for testing the fit of a Thurstonian Case V ranking model. The PPC method is employed as an alternative to standard goodness‐of‐fit tests which are of limited use even when the number of items to be ranked is small. Several test quantities are formed to assess the fit of the Case V ranking model to data for various sample sizes and for two types of violations of the Case V assumptions: heterogeneous stimulus variances and rankers from different populations. The study concludes that the PPC method is useful in detecting local and global misfits of a Thurstonian Case V model, even when the ranking data are sparse.
Time‐dependent Poisson counter models of response latency in simple judgment
Authors: Smith Philip L. , Van Zandt Trisha
Published: February 2003

An important class of sequential‐sampling models for response time (RT) assumes that evidence for competing response alternatives accrues in parallel and that a response is made when the evidence total for a particular response exceeds a criterion. One member of this class of models is the Poisson counter model, in which evidence accrues in unit increments and the waiting time between increments is exponentially distributed. This paper generalizes the counter model to allow the Poisson event rate to vary with time. General expressions are obtained for the RT distributions for the two‐ and the m‐alternative cases. Closed‐form expressions are obtained for response probabilities under a proportional‐rates assumption and for mean RT under conditions in which the integrated event rate increases as an arbitrary power of time. An application in the area of early vision is described, in which the Poisson event rates are proportional to the outputs of sustained and transient channels.
The analysis of repeated measures designs: A review
Authors: Keselman H. J. , Algina James , Kowalchuk Rhonda K.
Published: February 2003

Repeated measures ANOVA can refer to many different types of analysis. Specifically, this vague term can refer to conventional tests of significance, one of three univariate solutions with adjusted degrees of freedom, two different types of multivariate statistic, or approaches that combine univariate and multivariate tests. Accordingly, it is argued that, by only reporting probability values and referring to statistical analyses as repeated measures ANOVA, authors convey neither the type of analysis that was used nor the validity of the reported probability value, since each of these approaches has its own strengths and weaknesses. The various approaches are presented with a discussion of their strengths and weaknesses, and recommendations are made regarding the ‘best’ choice of analysis. Additional topics discussed include analyses for missing data and tests of linear contrasts.
Effect of outliers on estimators and tests in covariance structure analysis
Authors: Yuan Ke‐Hai , Bentler Peter M.
Published: February 2003

A small proportion of outliers can distort the results based on classical procedures in covariance structure analysis. We look at the quantitative effect of outliers on estimators and test statistics based on normal theory maximum likelihood and the asymptotically distribution‐free procedures. Even if a proposed structure is correct for the majority of the data in a sample, a small proportion of outliers leads to biased estimators and significant test statistics. An especially unfortunate consequence is that the power to reject a model can be made arbitrarily ‐ but misleadingly ‐ large by inclusion of outliers in an analysis.
Conditional local influence in case‐weights linear regression
Authors: Poon Wai‐Yin , Poon Yat Sun
Published: February 2003

The local influence approach proposed by Cook (1986) makes use of the normal curvature and the direction achieving the maximum curvature to assess the local influence of minor perturbation of statistical models. When the approach is applied to the linear regression model, the result provides information concerning the data structure different from that contributed by Cook's distance. One of the main advantages of the local influence approach is its ability to handle the simultaneous effect of several cases, namely, the ability to address the problem of ‘masking’. However, Lawrance (1995) points out that there are two notions of ‘masking’ effects, the joint influence and the conditional influence, which are distinct in nature. The normal curvature and the direction of maximum curvature are capable of addressing effects under the category of joint influences but not conditional influences. We construct a new measure to define and detect conditional local influences and use the linear regression model for illustration. Several reported data sets are used to demonstrate that new information can be revealed by this proposed measure.
Some Mantel‐Haenszel tests of Rasch model assumptions
Authors: Verguts Tom , de Boeck Paul
Published: February 2003

A class of Rasch model tests is proposed, all of them based on the Mantel‐Haenszel chi‐squared statistic. All tests make use of the ‘sufficient statistics’ property the Rasch model possesses. One element of our general class, the test for item bias developed by Holland and Thayer, has been discussed extensively in the psychometric literature. Three applications of the general procedure are presented, two on unidimensionality and one on item dependence in educational testing. In each case, simulation results are reported. Our procedure is also applied to real data.
Inferences about correlations when there is heteroscedasticity
Authors: Wilcox Rand R. , Muska Jan
Published: February 2003

Let (Yi, Xi), i = 1,…, n, be a random sample from some bivariate distribution, and let ρ be the (Pearson) population correlation between X and Y. The usual Student's t test of H0: ρ=0 is valid when X and Y are independent, so in particular the conditional variance of Y, given X, does not vary with X. But when the conditional variance does vary with X, Student's t uses an incorrect estimate of the standard error. In effect, when rejecting H0, this might be due to ρ≠0, but perhaps the main reason for rejecting is that there is heteroscedasticity. This note compares two heteroscedastic methods for testing H0 and finds that in terms of Type I errors, the nested bootstrap performed best in simulations when using ρ. When using one of two robust analogues of ρ (Spearman's rho and the percentage bend correlation), little or no advantage was found, in terms of Type I error probabilities, when using a nested bootstrap versus the basic percentile method. As for power, generally an adjusted percentile bootstrap, used in conjunction with r, performed better than the nested bootstrap, even in situations where, for the null case, the estimated probability of a Type I error was lower when using the adjusted percentile method. As for computing a confidence interval when correlations are positive, situations are found where all methods perform in an unsatisfactory manner.
Three‐mode models for multivariate longitudinal data
Authors: Oort Frans J.
Published: February 2003

Multivariate longitudinal data are characterized by three modes: variables, occasions and subjects. Three‐mode models are described as special cases of a linear latent variable model. The assumption of measurement invariance across occasions yields three‐mode models that are suited for the analysis of multivariate longitudinal data. These so‐called longitudinal three‐mode models include autoregressive models and latent curve models as special cases. Empirical data from the field of industrial psychology are used in an example of how to test substantive hypotheses with the longitudinal, autoregressive and latent curve three‐mode models.
Using Johnson's transformation and robust estimators with heteroscedastic test statistics: An examination of the effects of non‐normality and heterogeneity in the non‐orthogonal two‐way ANOVA design
Authors: Luh Wei‐Ming , Guo Jiin‐Huarng
Published: February 2003

The present study proposes a procedure that combines Johnson's transformation and the trimmed means method to deal with the problem of non‐normality. An approximate test such as the Alexander‐Govern test or Welch‐James type test is then employed to deal with the heterogeneity of cell variance in the non‐orthogonal two‐way fixed effects completely randomized design. Both unweighted and weighted means analyses are considered. The empirical Type I error rates and the statistical power for comparing population means are investigated by Monte Carlo simulation. The simulated results show that Johnson's transformation with trimmed mean and the approximate test is valid in terms of Type I error rate control, and that the magnitude of the statistical power for non‐normal distributions is better than that of conventional methods.
A note on covariance structure analysis methods for testing invariance of reliability and stability in multi‐wave, multi‐indicator models
Authors: Raykov Tenko
Published: February 2003

Covariance structure analysis methods for testing invariance in reliability and stability coefficients in multi‐wave, multi‐indicator models are discussed. Alternative approaches are outlined, which are straightforward and simpler than the reparameterization recently proposed by Alanen, Leskinen and Kuusinen.
Modelling dissimilarity: Generalizing ultrametric and additive tree representations
Authors: Hubert Lawrence , Arabie Phipps , Meulman Jacqueline
Published: February 2003

Methods for the hierarchical clustering of an object set produce a sequence of nested partitions such that object classes within each successive partition are constructed from the union of object classes present at the previous level. Any such sequence of nested partitions can in turn be characterized by an ultrametric. An approach to generalizing an (ultrametric) representation is proposed in which the nested character of the partition sequence is relaxed and replaced by the weaker requirement that the classes within each partition contain objects consecutive with respect to a fixed ordering of the objects. A method for fitting such a structure to a given proximity matrix is discussed, along with several alternative strategies for graphical representation. Using this same ultrametric extension, additive tree representations can also be generalized by replacing the ultrametric component in the decomposition of an additive tree (into an ultrametric and a centroid metric). A common numerical illustration is developed and maintained throughout the paper.
A computationally efficient method for obtaining standard error estimates for the promax and related solutions
Authors: Yung Yiu‐Fai , Hayashi Kentaro
Published: February 2003

A computationally efficient algorithm for computing the asymptotic standard errors for the promax factor solution is proposed. The algorithm covers promax rotation with or without row normalization of the pre‐rotated factor matrix. It also covers situations with either even‐ or odd‐powered promax targets. With some modifications, the algorithm applies to Procrustean rotations with fixed or random independent targets. Simulation results show that the algorithm provides reasonable approximate standard errors for the promax solution with N = 200. In a real data example, the numerical results of the standard error computation using the proposed algorithm match those of an existing method based largely on the augmented information approach. The reasons why the proposed algorithm is more efficient than the augmented information approach are discussed.