bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Strategies for Improving Resilience against Abiotic Stresses in Summer Groundnut
Authors: J. B. Gajera , S. P. Kachhadiya , A. V. Rajani , K. V. Hirapara
Published: August 2024

A study was conducted during the summer of 2022 and 2023 at the Instructional farm of Junagadh Agricultural University, India, to assess various irrigation techniques (drip and surface irrigation), residue mulching and stress-mitigating chemicals (salicylic acid, potassium nitrate, and kaolin) in combating environmental stress on summer groundnut. The findings indicated that the implementation of drip irrigation at a 0.8 PEF led to enhanced growth, yield, physiological traits, water use efficiency and economics of summer groundnut led to enhanced soil water loss. The mulch rate of 5 t ha-1 was determined to be the most effective for growth, yield, physiological traits, water use efficiency and economics. Different chemical compounds for reducing stress also had a significant impact on these factors. During this study, combining drip irrigation at 0.8 PEF, mulching with 5 t ha-1 of residue and applying salicylic acid (foliar) at 100 ppm during 45 and 60 days after sowing enhanced the growth, yield and physiological traits, water use efficiency and economics of summer groundnut in areas with limited irrigation.
Effect of Different Phosphorus Levels and Mulch Types on Growth and Yield of Mung Bean
Authors: Solanki Akshayraj Singh , Jakhar Chandrakanta , Jain Neelu , Yadav Indra Raj
Published: August 2024

A field experiment was conducted at experimental farm, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, Mewar University Gangrar, Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) during Rabi season of 2022-23 to effect of different nutrient management practices on growth and yield of mung bean variety “SML-832‟ was used in this study. The required quantities of nutrient as per treatments were applied. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design with four replications combinations four phosphorus levels i.e. P0-Control- critical growth stages, P1-20 kg P2O5, P2-30 kg P2O5 and P3-40 kg P2O5 and mulch types i.e. M0-Control (No Mulch), M1-Organic Mulch i.e. Bajra Bhusa @ 5t ha-1, M2-Black Polythene Sheet and M3-Silver Colour Sheet. The increased growth attributes (Plant height, number of root nodules per plant, weight of nodules per plant and dry weight per plant), and yield parameter such as (Number of pods per plant, number of seed per pod, seed yield and stover yield was recorded treatment with P2 (30 kg P2O5) and M1-Organic Mulch i.e. Bajra Bhusa @ 5t ha-1.
Effects of Organic Amendments and NPK on Soil Chemical Properties in Kano Plains, Kisumu, Kenya
Authors: Balah Oyata E. B. , Thomas Rewe , Ogallo Leo
Published: August 2024

Agricultural lands in many parts of the world are threatened by soil degradation as indicated by their declining soil organic matter, loss of fertility, and low productivity. Organic amendments have the potential to alter the soil’s chemical characteristics as they can change the biotic and abiotic properties of the soil. The effect of six organic amendments applied each at 8.33 t/ha on the soil chemical characteristics, compared to NPK fertilizer applied at 250 kg/ha was investigated. The experiment was conducted at the Great Lakes University of Kisumu’s agricultural farm at Kibos in Kenya. To determine the effect of the organic amendments on the soil’s chemical characteristics, soil samples were collected once before the application of the organic amendments (initial) and thereafter at the end of every season. The results showed that the organic amendments affected the soil chemical properties. Compared to NPK fertilizer treatment, soil treated with organic amendments showed pH ranges (5.76 to 6.04) above that resulting from NPK application (5.59). All composts increased soil organic carbon (133, 298, 192 and 185%) for Boom Max, Ecoplanting, Evergrow, and Filter mud respectively compared to the initial levels. The total nitrogen was also increased to levels between 0.14 to 0.18 cmol/kg as compared to that of NPK treated plot (0.15cmol/kg), indicating close similarity. Available phosphorus increased by the application of Boom Max, Evergrow, Filter mud and Market waste slurry by 24, 44,39 and 1022% over the NPK effect, while exchangeable potassium increased by 9.5 and 24% by Evergrow and Market waste slurry over the effect of NPK. Exchangeable calcium increased by all the applied organics but only Evergrow and Market waste slurry exceeded that produced by NPK by 7.0 and 18.6% respectively. Likewise, all amendments increased soil exchangeable magnesium except dung slurry, but only market waste slurry exceeded that produced by NPK by 28%. All the amendments increased the cation exchange capacity compared to the original soil CEC but only Evergrow, Filter mud and Market waste slurry raised the soil’s CEC beyond that affected by NPK by 5.5, 10 and 40% respectively.
Optimization of Freeze-Dried Formulations for the Preservation and Viability of Human Mesenchymal/Stromal Stem Cells
Authors: Kardorff Markus , Mahler Hanns-Christian , Sorret Léa
Published: August 2024

Aim: To overcome the logistical hurdles associated with cryostorage, cell therapy products would benefit from being stored as a (freeze-) dried product. However, there is currently unfortunately not a lot of focus in the field to evaluate formulations for their capabilities to preserve cells, especially not in dried states. Current strategies to tackle this challenging task lack cohesive and translationally applicable approaches to select promising formulations. At early stages of freeze-dried cell therapy product development an efficient and reliable approach to select suitable formulations is key to enable the development process. It was thus the aim of this study to offer an applicable approach that screens for potentially viable formulations for dried cell therapy products.
Methodology: This comprehensive multi-step approach combines several reliable, complementary methods and comprises of measuring glass transition temperature, residual moisture, cell membrane integrity, morphology, viability, and proliferation to successively narrow the range of potentially applicable formulations. We employed this approach for a selected set of novel urea- and glucose-based formulations with clinically relevant human mesenchymal/stromal stem cells.
Results: Some evaluated conditions yielded partially dried products and up to 38% viable and proliferating cells were retrieved from a formulation comprising of urea, glucose, sucrose, and mannitol. Other formulations comprising of urea, glucose, sucrose, PEG 8000, and PEG 400 yielded elegant cakes and high numbers of membrane intact cells (up to 95%).
Conclusion: This approach presented here offers an efficient setup to screen formulations for their capabilities to protect cells during freeze-drying. The evaluated formulations benefit from employing well-tolerated pharmaceutical excipients, which makes them potentially applicable in cell therapy products. These promising findings invite for further investigations to improve (long term) product and cellular stability.
Managing Insect Pests in Millets: Harnessing Host Plant Resistance in Integrated Pest Management
Authors: Vijayashanthi V. A. , Tamilselvi C. , Yogameenakshi P. , Sivagamy K. , Preehi T. L. , Sathish G. , Banumathy S.
Published: August 2024

Insect pests are major constraints in the production of millets. Proper identification and timely management of insects are important to protect the crops. Chemical insecticides are being applied for the management of insect pests in high yielding varieties of millets. An integrated approach has to be followed for sustainable pest control, minimizing the reliance on chemical insecticides in millet crops. Ecology, evolutionary pest biology, knowledge of the local agro-ecosystem, host plant resistance and utilization of natural enemies must become the components of integrated pest management strategy for holistic management of pests in millets. A combination of cultural practices, resistant cultivars has proved to be effective in pest management. Plant defenses have generally been assumed to be constitutive, being always expressed in the plant. Host plant resistance is a reasonable and ecologically safe method wherein resistance mechanisms of crops could lower the insect infestation. The foremost challenge in understanding the mechanism would be to detect the genes of interest in the crop using novel biotechnological approaches. The fundamental criterion for developing insect-resistant lines relies on recognizing the mechanism of plant resistance. Recently it has come to be realized that induced responses reduce insect survival, reproductive output as well as the performance of the pest, so that the plant benefits from such responses. It is an important component of integrated pest management, which can be triggered by biotic or abiotic elicitors, and can be used very effectively when combined with selective pesticides and induced resistance techniques. Induced response in plants is one of the important components of pest control in agriculture, and has been exploited for regulation of insect herbivore population. Plants often increase their resistance to herbivores by locally increasing the production of defensive compounds at the site of damage, as well as systemically on undamaged leaves. Induced resistance in crop protection to herbivore pests have not exploited the full potential of induced resistance for agriculture. Hence, in this review, an attempt has been made to provide details on integrated pest management, host plant resistance, induced resistance mechanisms against insect pests and its perspectives in integrated pest management.
Tectonic and sedimentary controls on widespread gas emissions in the Sea of Marmara: Results from systematic, shipborne multibeam echo sounder water column imaging
Authors: Dupré Stéphanie , Scalabrin Carla , Grall Céline , Augustin Jean‐Marie , Henry Pierre , Şengör A. M. Celal , Görür Naci , Çağatay M. Namık , Géli Louis
Published: April 2015

Understanding of the evolution of fluid‐fault interactions during earthquake cycles is a challenge that acoustic gas emission studies can contribute. A survey of the Sea of Marmara using a shipborne, multibeam echo sounder, with water column records, provided an accurate spatial distribution of offshore seeps. Gas emissions are spatially controlled by a combination of factors, including fault and fracture networks in connection to the Main Marmara Fault system and inherited faults, the nature and thickness of sediments (e.g., occurrence of impermeable or gas‐bearing sediments and landslides), and the connectivity between the seafloor and gas sources, particularly in relation to the Eocene Thrace Basin. The relationship between seepage and fault activity is not linear, as active faults do not necessarily conduct gas, and scarps corresponding to deactivated fault strands may continue to channel fluids. Within sedimentary basins, gas is not expelled at the seafloor unless faulting, deformation, or erosional processes affect the sediments. On topographic highs, gas flares occur along the main fault scarps but are also associated with sediment deformation. The occurrence of gas emissions appears to be correlated with the distribution of microseismicity. The relative absence of earthquake‐induced ground shaking along parts of the Istanbul‐Silivri and Princes Islands segments is likely the primary factor responsible for the comparative lack of gas emissions along these fault segments. The spatiotemporal distribution of gas seeps may thus provide a complementary way to constrain earthquake geohazards by focusing the study on some key fault segments, e.g., the northern part of the locked Princes Islands segment.
Transient river flow into a fjord and its control of plume energy partitioning
Authors: O'Callaghan J. M. , Stevens C. L.
Published: April 2015

The influence of variable inflows on near‐field plume dynamics and energy partitioning was examined using observations of a controlled flow into Doubtful Sound, New Zealand. The high temporal changes in flows passing through the Manapouri hydroelectric power station mimic the magnitude and variability seen in small mountainous river systems (SMRS) globally. The variable flow coupled with strong vertical density gradients akin to ambient conditions in coastal systems enabled plume behavior to be characterized for differing flow, wind, and tidal inputs in a quasi‐idealized “laboratory” system. Comparisons of the frequency distributions of energy for different forcing conditions showed that baroclinic and barotropic processes were closely intertwined for transient forcing. The periodicity of density due to tidal oscillations was initially absent; headwaters of the fjord absorbed the momentum when inflows were substantially increased from the mean of ∼420 m3 s−1. From the buoyancy frequency squared N2, six events were identified when N2 was greater than 0.07 s−2. Seven occurrences of supercritical flow (Froude number,
 > 1) and associated transitions to subcritical flow were observed over the duration of mooring deployment. Transient inflows induced internal hydraulic jumps in the near‐field region which lead to a rapid breakdown of vertical stratification. The horizontal length scale of an internal hydraulic jump is O (1 km). Not all transitions from
 > 1 to <1 are explained by transient forcing and the role of strong, up‐fjord wind stress is likely to initiate supercritical flows via setup at the head of the fjord.
Prion Diseases of Humans
Authors: Ritchie Diane L , Peden Alexander H , Urwin Patrick JM , Ironside James W
Published: April 2015

Prion diseases are a group of rare fatal neurodegenerative diseases that occur in humans as well as in a number of animal species. Prion diseases are associated with the misfolding and aggregation of a normal host‐encoded cellular protein, the prion protein (PrPC), into a highly infectious and disease‐specific form (PrPSc). In humans, prion diseases are unique as they occur as sporadic, familial and acquired disorders. Prion diseases are heterogeneous in respect of their clinical, pathological and biochemical phenotype, but are generally characterised by spongiform vacuolation and the deposition of PrPScin the brain. Unlike other protein misfolding neurodegenerative conditions, prion diseases are transmissible by ingestion or inoculation. The potential impact of secondary transmission of variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease by donated blood components has intensified the development of potential diagnostic and screening assays for use on biological fluids such as blood and urine.

Key Concepts

Prion diseases are transmissible neurodegenerative disorders that occur in humans and in a wide range of animal species.

Prion diseases are characterised neuropathologically by spongiform vacuolation throughout the cerebral grey matter, reactive proliferation of astrocytes and microglia, neuronal loss and, in some types, the deposition of amyloid plaques within the brain.

Prion diseases are associated with the conformational modification of a normal host protein, the prion protein (PrPC), into a highly infectious, protease‐resistant and disease‐associated form (PrPSc).

Human prion diseases are unique in that they can occur as idiopathic (sporadic), familial (genetic) or acquired (infectious) disorders.

Diagnostic protocols for the confirmation of prion disease depend on the detection of PrPScwithin the central nervous system.
Glycolytic Pathway
Authors: Harris Robert A , Harper Edwin T
Published: April 2015

Glycolysis converts glucose into two molecule of the three‐carbon compound pyruvate with the production of two ATPs. Glycolysis provides metabolic intermediates needed for the synthesis of macromolecules, ATP needed to drive energy‐requiring processes and pyruvate needed to complete the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water. Cells that lack mitochondria (e.g. red blood cells) are completely dependent on glycolysis for ATP. Cells containing mitochondria use glycolysis as a preparatory pathway for the complete oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide with the production of larger amounts of ATP. Glycolysis produces ATP in emergency situations, for example, when hypoxia prevents ATP production by mitochondria. Oxygen normally suppresses glycolysis because mitochondria maintain ATP at levels that inhibit regulatory enzymes of the pathway (Pasteur effect). Lack of inhibition of glycolysis by oxygen in cancer cells (Warburg effect) is a phenomenon of great interest. Recent studies show that the Warburg effect promotes rapid growth of tumours by providing precursors for macromolecule synthesis.

Key Concepts

Glycolysis refers to a metabolic pathway by which organisms extract energy in the form of ATP during the conversion of glucose into pyruvate and lactate.

Glycolysis produces ATP required for energy‐requiring reactions and processes, for example, ion transport, protein synthesis and reactions catalysed by kinases.

Anaerobic glycolysis (glycolysis in the absence of oxygen) converts the six‐carbon compound glucose into two molecules of the three‐carbon compound lactate with the production of two molecules of ATP.

When oxygen is present, glycolysis produces two molecules of the three‐carbon compound pyruvate which can be used for the synthesis of other molecules or oxidised completely to carbon dioxide and water by the citric acid cycle.

The presence of oxygen suppresses the rate of glycolysis in normal cells because most of the ATP is provided by oxidative phosphorylation (Pasteur effect).

Lack of inhibition of glycolysis by oxygen in cancer cells (Warburg effect) is of great interest as a possible therapeutic target.

The Warburg effect maintains high concentrations of metabolic intermediates needed for rapid growth of tumours.

Phosphorylation of glucose sets up the molecule for splitting into three‐carbon fragments that undergo an oxidation reaction that traps energy by substrate‐level phosphorylation.

Glycolysis is controlled by the properties of three regulatory enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase 1 and pyruvate kinase.

Glycolysis is subject to feedback inhibition by its end product ATP at the levels of phosphofructokinase‐1 and pyruvate kinase.
Starvation: Metabolic Changes
Authors: Watford Malcolm
Published: April 2015

Animals, including humans, invoke a comprehensive programme of hormonal and metabolic adaptations that enable them to withstand prolonged periods of starvation. The brain is only capable of using glucose or ketone bodies as respiratory fuel. During prolonged starvation, the primary source of glucose is gluconeogenesis from amino acids arising from muscle proteolysis. To spare glucose use (and thus spare muscle protein) most tissues of the body utilise fat‐derived fuels (fatty acid and ketone bodies). As starvation progresses ketone bodies also become the major fuel of the brain, again reducing the need for glucose. High concentrations of ketone bodies result in significant ketonuria with ketones excreted as ammonium salts. The ammonia is derived from the catabolism of glutamine in the kidney with the carbon skeleton being recovered as glucose. This well‐orchestrated pattern of metabolism allows a consistent fuel supply to the brain and other tissues during prolonged starvation.

Key Concepts

Circulating glucose concentrations do not drop below 3.5 mmol L
−1
even in prolonged starvation.

During starvation, the brain must be supplied with fuel in the form of glucose or ketone bodies.

Carbohydrate reserves are depleted after 24 h of starvation.

In prolonged starvation, gluconeogenesis provides the glucose oxidised by the brain.

The major substrates for gluconeogenesis are amino acids derived from skeletal muscle protein breakdown.

Circulating ketone body concentrations rise during prolonged starvation.

During starvation, most tissues utilise fatty acids and/or ketone bodies to spare glucose for the brain.

Glucose utilisation by the brain is decreased during prolonged starvation as the brain utilises ketone bodies as the major fuel.

High concentrations of ketone bodies result in significant excretion of ketones.

Urinary ketones are excreted as ammonium salts derived from the renal metabolism of glutamine with the carbon skeleton being recovered through renal gluconeogenesis.
Secoviridae: A Family of Plant Picorna‐Like Viruses with Monopartite or Bipartite Genomes
Authors: Sanfaçon Hélène
Published: April 2015

Members of the family
Secoviridae
, referred to as secovirids, are plant viruses that share features with animal and human viruses of the family
Picornaviridae
and other insect or marine viruses of the order
Picornavirales
. These common features include a conserved structure of the icosahedral virus particles, the expression of viral proteins by proteolytic cleavage of large polyproteins and viral replication proteins with conserved sequence motifs, including the viral RNA‐dependent RNA polymerase and protease. Secovirids also share the distinguishing feature of encoding specialised proteins that enable their movement in plant and counteract plant defence mechanisms, such as RNA silencing. The family
Secoviridae
includes eight genera. Members of the genera
Comovirus
,
Fabavirus
,
Nepovirus
,
Cheravirus
,
Sadwavirus
and
Torradovirus
have a bipartite positive‐strand RNA genome, whereas members of the genera
Sequivirus
and
Waikavirus
have a monopartite genome.

Key Concepts

Many plant viruses are related to animal and human viruses of the family
Picornaviridae
and to other picorna‐like viruses infecting algae and arthropods.

A recent update in the taxonomy of plant picorna‐like viruses has led to the creation of the family
Secoviridae
which amalgamates the previous families
Comoviridae
and
Sequiviridae
as well as the genera
Cheravirus
,
Sequivirus
and
Torradovirus
.

Secovirids share common characteristics including having both similar virus particle structures and genomic organizations and requiring specialised proteins to facilitate their movement within the host plant or counteract plant defence mechanism.

Secovirids produce their proteins in the form of large polyproteins that are cleaved at specific sites by a viral protease.

Replication of the viral RNA occurs in large protein complexes in association with intracellular membranes from the host.

Plant cells infected with secovirids generally display tubular structures that are composed of the viral movement protein, contain virus‐like particles and traverse the cell wall. These tubular structures are involved in the movement of the virus from cell to cell.

Secovirids can be transmitted through seeds and pollen or with the help of nematode or arthropod vectors and their spread in the field is largely dependent on their mode of transmission.

Some secovirids have been successfully exploited as plant vectors, allowing epitope presentation for vaccine production, expression of proteins in plants and silencing of endogenous plant genes.
Viruses and Plant Disease
Authors: Loebenstein Gad
Published: April 2015

Viruses are submicroscopic obligate intracellular parasites that replicate only inside the living cells of other organisms. They contain nucleic acid (either
RNA
or
DNA
) and may cause a disease. Viruses are considered to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce and evolve through natural selection. Their size varies between 15 and 2000 nm (10
−9
m). Plant viral genomes encode between 1 and 12 proteins. Direct and indirect economic effects of major virus diseases such as citrus tristeza, cassava mosaic, virus diseases of potato and sweet potato, cacao swollen shoot, whitefly‐transmitted viruses in tomato and plum pox in stone fruits are described.

Key Concepts

This is a brief introduction to plant viruses and virus diseases.
Membrane‐Containing Bacteriophages
Authors: Poranen Minna M , Bamford Dennis H , Oksanen Hanna M
Published: April 2015

Viruses exhibit vast diversity in their form and function and are by far the most numerous (estimates 1030–1032) organisms on earth. The largest group among viruses is bacteriophages (phages), the viruses that infect bacteria, with over 6000 identified members. Vast majority of the phages are composed of protein and nucleic acid with a head–tail morphology. Polyhedral, filamentous or pleomorphic phages comprise only less than 4% of the described bacteriophages, and a minority of these has lipid constituents in addition to nucleic acid and protein. These membrane‐containing bacteriophages form a diverse group of viruses and the major virus morphotypes are represented by the members of the virus familiesCorticoviridae,Tectiviridae, CystoviridaeandPlasmaviridae. The lipids as a bilayer can either form the outermost layer of the virion or be enclosed within the virus capsid. In both cases, the viral membranes are involved in cell entry processes.

Key Concepts

Membrane‐containing bacteriophages are a diverse group of bacterial viruses.

Bacteriophages with a membrane are usually sensitive to organic solvents and detergents.

Lipids in the viral membrane have a bilayer structure.

The virion proteins are all virus specific, but lipids are derived from host cytoplasmic membrane.

During virus morphogenesis, the virus‐specific membrane proteins exclude host proteins during formation of the viral membrane.

The viral protein‐rich membranes have an essential role during entry mediating the translocation of the genome across the bacterial cell envelopes.
Immunoglobulin Superfamily
Authors: Natarajan Kannan , Mage Michael G , Margulies David H
Published: April 2015

The immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily (IgSF) consists of a group of proteins that exploit the structural robustness and fundamental stability of the Ig fold for a wide assortment of functions across a broad span of evolutionary time, extending from microorganisms to humans. Several classification schemes, based on three‐dimensional structure or amino acid sequence patterns, have been developed to assist in understanding functional and evolutionary relationships. Although the best‐understood activities of IgSF members are related to immunological recognition, a number of related molecules participate in developmental and homeostatic phenomena. Manipulation of the IgSF by recombinant methodologies including bacteriophage and yeast display offers
in vitro
approaches to increase the available diversity of novel structures for almost limitless functions.

Key Concepts

Immunoglobulin domains can be recognised by their three‐dimensional structure and organisation of secondary structural components.

Common features of
β
‐sheet organisation and stabilisation by a disulphide bond permit sub‐classification of the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) members into V, C1, C2 and I set IgSF folds.

Although exploited extensively for functional roles in immune recognition, such as for antibodies and T‐cell receptors (TCR), the immunoglobulin fold is also found in a wide variety of structures employed in cell–cell interactions.

The immunoglobulin fold offers a stable core upon which variable loops are grafted providing a scaffold for many functions.

Various display technologies have been used to generate high‐affinity antibodies and TCR.
Inflammation: Chronic
Authors: Kumar Rakesh K , Wakefield Denis
Published: April 2015

Chronic inflammation may result from failure to eliminate an irritant that causes acute inflammation, from an autoimmune response to a self‐antigen, or may be caused by an innately chronic irritant of low intensity that persists. It is a biologically distinct pattern of response in tissues that is characterised by simultaneous inflammation and repair. Recruitment and activation of macrophages is typical of chronic inflammation and is often accompanied by recruitment of cell types participating in an immunological response, notably T lymphocytes. Significant destruction of tissue may occur. Repair, which involves induction of granulation tissue, may lead to subsequent scarring. The chronic inflammatory response is regulated by the coordinated action of various cytokines and growth factors. Many common and clinically important diseases result from chronic inflammation, and this process also contributes to other diseases which are not primarily identified as inflammatory.

Key Concepts

Chronic inflammation is a key process underlying many common and important diseases, as well as other disease states which are not obviously inflammatory.

Compared to acute inflammation, chronic inflammation is a biologically distinct pattern of response, characterised by simultaneous inflammation and repair.

Macrophages and their derivatives are key participants in a chronic inflammatory response.

The immune response contributes to the pathogenesis of many chronic inflammatory diseases.

Chronic inflammation is regulated by a complex interaction among cytokines that promote inflammatory cell recruitment/activation and growth factors that promote healing.
Reproductive Immunology
Authors: Chaouat Gérard
Published: April 2015

Reproductive immunology is an interdisciplinary science, which deals with the role of immunocytes and cytokines in reproduction and, as a consequence, immune control of fertility and sexually transmitted diseases. In this article, we briefly discuss Veterinary Reproductive Immunology and then go back to the triggering concepts and focus on the foetus as an allograft paradox, if any (alternate theories to the self/non‐self vision of immunity, for which viviparity is not a problem, are dealt with). We then deal with various aspects of the materno‐foetal relationship at cellular and molecular level, both in the established pregnancy and at implantation. This leads us to discuss implantation failure(s) and recurrent spontaneous abortion as well as immune control of fertility and control of STDs.

Key Concepts

The foetus is usually seen as an allograft in mother's womb, which should be rejected by maternal immune system.

The placental (allo) antigenicity is severely reduced.

A complex cytokinic network specifically regulates some aspects of maternal immunity while sparing trophic and angiogenic circuits.

Uterine natural killer cells are a specialised subset with limited cytotoxicity but trophic, immunoregulatory and angiogenic properties.

Deregulations of the cytokinic uterine environment can lead to sterility.

Regulatory T cells are important in placental pregnancy, and their deletion enhances pregnancy loss.

Immune interception of fertility is feasible.
Regeneration of the Urodele Limb
Authors: Stocum David L , Crawford Karen
Published: April 2015

Urodele limbs regenerate via a blastema of mesenchymal cells derived from muscle, connective tissue and nerve sheath cells in the vicinity of the amputation surface by a process of histolysis, dedifferentiation and release of stem cells. Blastema cells replicate their DNA, arrest in G2 and accumulate under an apical epidermal cap (AEC). G2 arrest is broken by factor(s) expressed by the AEC that bind to receptors on the blastema cell surface. Expression of these factors is dependent on factor(s) provided by axons reinnervating the AEC. The blastema cells proliferate and are patterned into new limb structures by suites of signalling factors such as retinoic acid, sonic hedgehog and Wnt, in addition to homeobox transcription factors that endow the cells with positional identities expressed as axial gradients on the cell surface. The degree to which the early blastema is determined is controversial, with some evidence arguing for developmental plasticity and other evidence arguing that the blastema is self‐organising.

Key Concepts

Urodeles are unique in their ability to form a regeneration blastema in response to amputation.

The cells of the regeneration blastema are derived from resident stem cells and/or by the reprogramming (dedifferentiation) of differentiated cells.

Blastema cells derived from the different limb tissues redifferentiate in a lineage‐specific manner, but blastema cells derived from fibroblasts can also transdifferentiate into cartilage and tendon.

The apical epidermal cap (AEC) of the wound epidermis is induced by regenerating nerve axons to produce a mitogen(s) that drives the proliferation of blastema cells.

Patterning of the blastema involves region‐specific contributions of limb cells, lineage‐specific redifferentiation of blastema cells, interactions between blastema cells of different positions to eliminate discontinuities and sorting out of blastema cells with different cell surface adhesion.

Cell interactions are mediated during axial patterning of the blastema by several signalling molecules and homeobox transcription factors.

How the axial pattern and limb type of the early blastema is determined, whether by induction, self‐organisation or both, remains controversial.
Vesicle Transport Assay
Authors: Wöllert Torsten , Langford George M
Published: April 2015

Eukaryotic cells contain an extensive cytoplasmic network of actin filaments and microtubules that function as tracks for vesicle transport. The ability to visualise vesicle movement along both sets of filaments advanced rapidly when
in vitro
vesicle transport (motility) assays were developed. These assays utilise super‐resolution, contrast‐enhanced DIC microscopy to detect structures below the resolution of the light microscope including vesicles as small as 100 nm and microtubules 25 nm in diameter. Images are captured in real time and stored digitally for subsequent analysis. The standard motion analysis parameters include vesicle type, velocity, distances and path length.
In vitro
motility assays enabled the identification of important factors that are essential for the regulation of intracellular transport including motor proteins and their membrane receptors, the formation of hetero‐motor complexes and transported cargoes.

Key Concepts

The cytoskeleton contains actin filaments and microtubules, both of which serve as tracks for vesicle transport.

Vesicle transport is the directed movement of membrane vesicles on filaments of the cytoskeleton.

Microtubules function as intracellular tracks for transport of vesicles by two classes of motor proteins, kinesins and dyneins.

Actin filaments serve as tracks for vesicle transport by myosin motors.

Motor proteins are mechanochemical nanomachines that use the energy of ATP for muscle contraction, cell motility, cell division and transport of different cargoes along the cytoskeleton.

The superfamily of myosin motor proteins found in eukaryotic cells is known to contain over 20 different classes and of these, 12 classes are found in vertebrates, including humans.

The kinesin superfamily is subdivided into 15 classes and the dynein family is grouped into axonemal and cytoplasmic dyneins.

Motor protein defects are associated with diseases including Griscelli syndrome, Usher syndrome, myopathies, deafness, tumour progression and metastasis.

Differential interference microscopy, also known as Nomarski microscopy, uses polarised light to enhance gradients in the optical path length and phase shifts in unstained, transparent biological specimens.

Cell‐free extracts are important tools for cell biologists and have a variety of applications including cell cycle studies, intracellular transport mechanisms, signal transduction events and maintenance of cell architecture.
Protein Import into Peroxisomes: The Principles and Methods of Studying
Authors: Fujiki Yukio , Okumoto Kanji , Honsho Masanori
Published: April 2015

Peroxisomes are essential intracellular organelles that involve many metabolic processes, such as β‐oxidation of very long‐chain fatty acids and synthesis of plasmalogen and bile acids as well as generation and degradation of hydrogen peroxide. These peroxisomal functions are fulfilled by strictly and spatiotemporally regulated compartmentation of the proteins catalysing these reactions. Defects in peroxisomal protein import results in inherited peroxisome biogenesis disorders in humans. Peroxisomal matrix and membrane proteins are synthesised on free ribosomes but transported into peroxisomes by distinct pathways determined by specific targeting signals and their receptors. The mechanism by which this is achieved has been clarified by identification of many
PEX
genes and the products named peroxins, the essential factors for peroxisome biogenesis. This article introduces several basic methods to investigate protein import into peroxisomes.

Key Concepts

Peroxisome plays an essential role in various metabolic pathways.

Deficiency of peroxisomes in human causes severe foetal genetic diseases, peroxisome‐deficient disorders.

Functions and the integrity of peroxisomes are archived by proper import of both matrix and membrane proteins into peroxisomes.

Peroxisomal proteins are encoded by nuclear DNA, synthesised in cytosolic free ribosomes and post‐translationally imported into pre‐existing peroxisomes.

Peroxisomal matrix and membrane proteins are translocated into peroxisomes via different pathways in a manner dependent on their distinct targeting signals.

Many of peroxins encoded by
PEX
genes are responsible factors for peroxisome biogenesis and are involved in the import of peroxisomal proteins.

Various experimental approaches have elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying peroxisome biogenesis.

Post‐translational import of peroxisomal proteins into isolated peroxisomes can be reproduced
in vitro
.

Semi‐permeabilised cells, in which only the plasma membrane is selectively permeabilised, are used to investigate peroxisomal protein import, as with living cells.
F
ol,
H
ermann
Authors: Dröscher Ariane
Published: April 2015

Hermann Fol (1845–1892) – Swiss marine biologist and microscopist – made important contributions to the clarification of the process of fertilisation and to the study of the anatomy and development of marine organisms. He observed and depicted very neatly how the spermatozoon penetrates and transfers its nucleus into the egg cell. He also pioneered experimental embryology and experimental teratology, artificially inducing multiple fertilisations. Fol's greatest love, however, was marine biology. He undertook numerous expeditions with his boats and devised several oceanographic apparatuses. In late 1881, he co‐founded today's
Observatoire océanologique de Villefranche
.
K
horana,
H
ar
G
obind
Authors: Grote Mathias
Published: April 2015

Har Gobind Khorana (1922, Raipur, British India – 2011, Concord, MA, USA) was an Indian‐American biochemist most well known for his contributions to the elucidation of the genetic code in the 1960s, which earned him a share in the 1968 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. Later on, Khorana's laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology worked on molecular membrane biology. Khorana's scientific life stands exemplarily for the increasing role of chemical strategies in the life sciences (nowadays epitomised in the fields of ‘chemical’ or ‘synthetic biology’), as well as for the internationalisation of science in the second half of the twentieth century.
Genetics and Tradition: Competing Sources of Knowledge of Human History?
Authors: Schwartz‐Marin Ernesto
Published: April 2015

Genetic studies aiming to reconstruct the history of human migrations have made a claim to be able to contribute to the writing of history, with a precision and time depth unavailable to any other discipline. However, recent in‐depth ethnographic studies of genetic science have shown that folk knowledge and traditional ways to understand the difference in diverse locales around the world are integral to the way in which genetics produce knowledge of the history of humanity. Precisely because genetic projects are closely linked to sociocultural ideas about the categorisation of identity, race and ethnicity, they have raised a number of controversial cultural and political issues. Although some studies have played a positive role in helping the researched communities to reaffirm their identity, other projects yielded results that contradicted local narratives of origin. Furthermore, such studies are likely to have important sociopolitical consequences for the claims of sovereignty, auto determination and identity of vulnerable communities.

Key Concepts

Population genetics typically refers to the study of the genetic structure of human groups deemed to share a common history, geography or culture.

Haplotype maps are graphic representations of chunks of DNA that are inherited from one generation to the next, and thus are considered to be of importance for medical and anthropological genetic research.

Medical population genomics works under the assumption that knowledge about the genetic structure of populations will eventually translate into a more ‘predictive, preventive and personalised medicine’ in which each individual will know about their propensities and resistance to certain diseases.
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew
Authors: Hopper Stephen D
Published: April 2015

Located in London, the World Heritage listed Royal Botanic Gardens Kew is a scientific institution responsible for the largest plant and fungal collections on Earth. For 250 years, its focus has been on documenting plant diversity and economic botany, increasingly emphasising plant conservation in modern decades. RBG Kew played a key role in early European exploration of plant life, and in the establishment of major crops including tea, coffee, rubber and quinine. Kew's Millennium Seed Bank Project was successful in securing seed of 10% of wild plant species in seed banks in 54 countries of origin by 2010, backed up by the MSB collection in Kew's annexe garden at Wakehurst Place, Sussex. Kew's Breathing Planet Program, instituted in 2009, is focused on seven strategies to inspire and deliver science‐based plant conservation worldwide, enhancing the quality of life. RBG Kew exemplifies institutional persistence through times of both patronage and austerity.

Key Concepts

A botanic garden contains scientifically named collections of plants, living and preserved, for public study, enjoyment, education, conservation and use.

A herbarium is a plant museum of dried labelled specimens for taxonomic, ecological, conservation and geographic studies.

Taxonomy/systematics is the science of plant naming and classification.

Economic botany is concerned with useful plants involved in human commerce.

Molecular phylogenetics is the science of evolutionary relationships using DNA sequence data.

Restoration ecology aims to repair and remediate damaged natural habitats, primarily through plant cultivation and management.

A seed bank stores plant materials under cool temperature and low humidity for future study, conservation and use.
Molecular Genetics of Ewing Sarcoma
Authors: Ordóñez José L , Amaral Ana T , de Álava Enrique
Published: April 2015

Ewing sarcoma (ES) is an aggressive tumour affecting mainly children and young adults. When metastases are detected, the survival rate is compromised as a result of a lack of appropriated treatments. Balanced chromosomal translocations, present in all primary ES, originate gene fusions, such as EWSR1‐FLI1, which act as aberrant transcription factors. Targeting
EWSR1
‐
FLI1
by using RNA interference approaches reduced tumour growth and tumourigenicity of ES cells
in vitro
and
in vivo
and is a good tool in order to get knowledge in the ES biology. However, possibility of taking RNA interference into clinic is limited. At present, some drugs affecting gene fusion activity have been reported to reduce tumour growth. In addition, several approaches targeting ES genetic alterations not related to gene fusions or their genetic targets have been recently reported. The use of more appropriated animal models and the study of ES tumour microenvironment and epigenetics will unveil new therapeutic targets.

Key Concepts

ES is an aggressive developmental tumour.

Balanced chromosomal translocation and associated gene fusions are the primary molecular event in ES.

Secondary molecular events in ES can define new therapeutic targets and new prognostic markers.

The role played by epigenetics in ES and the regulation of chromatin remodelling is beginning to be known.

Detection of ES circulating cells or identification of gene expression profiles in peripheral blood cells could become good prognostic markers.

Identification of new markers of cancer stem cells could help improve ES therapy.

Endoglin could be a relevant therapeutic target in ES.

Osteolysis and bone remodelling are important mechanisms of ES tumour growth.

ES cells secrete extracellular vesicles, containing aberrant EWSR1‐FLI1 mRNA and other growth factors, which interact with surrounding tumour cells and extracellular matrix components.

Combination therapy of a dual inhibitor of IGF1R and IR pathways and a DNA damage agent can avoid resistance to IGF1R inhibitors.

At present, there is a lack of appropriate genetically engineered mice (GEM) of ES.
Mechanisms of Dendrite‐Specific Pruning in
Drosophila
Sensory Neurons
Authors: Zhang Heng , Yu Fengwei
Published: April 2015

During animal development, pruning of unwanted or exuberant neurites is essential for the precise wiring of the nervous system. Holometabolous insects, such as the fruit fly
Drosophila
, undergo complete metamorphosis to replace their larval nervous systems with distinct adult ones. Many neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems selectively prune away their larval dendrites and/or axons and regenerate their adult‐specific processes. Dendritic arborisation sensory neurons, ddaCs, specifically remove their larval dendrites in response to the steroid moulting hormone ecdysone and however keep their axons intact. Owing to their peripheral location, effectiveness of RNAi knockdown and convenience of single‐cell clonal analysis, ddaC neurons have emerged as an attractive system to dissect the pruning process for a decade. Some important genes and pathways, acting downstream of ecdysone signalling, have been discovered to enrich our understanding of neuronal pruning.

Key Concepts

Pruning is a mechanism for the refinement and maturation of the nervous system in various organisms including nematode, fruit fly and mammals.

ddaC sensory neurons undergo large‐scale dendrite‐specific pruning during early metamorphosis.

Ecdysone signalling is the master regulator of dendrite pruning in ddaC neurons.

A genetic pathway composed of Sox14 and Mical governs dendrite pruning in ddaC neurons.

Epigenetic factors regulate Sox14 expression and dendrite pruning in ddaC neurons.

Ubiquitin‐proteasome system (UPS) regulates different types of neurite pruning.

Endolysosomal degradation pathway downregulates the cell‐surface molecule Neuroglian (Nrg) to promote dendrite pruning.

Phagocytosis regulates fragmentation and clearance of severed dendrites.

Caspase is locally activated in the dendrites of ddaC neurons during pruning.

Calcium signalling is activated in the dendritic compartments to regulate dendrite pruning.
Investigation of the heat transfer intensification mechanism for a new fluidized catalyst cooler
Authors: Yao Xiuying , Zhang Yongmin , Lu Chunxi , Han Xiao
Published: April 2015

A small cold model was employed to investigate the heat‐transfer mechanism for a new fluidized catalyst cooler. Local heat‐transfer coefficients (h) and tube surface hydrodynamics were systematically measured by a specially designed heat tube and an optical fiber probe. The higher total h further validated the feasibility of the heat transfer intensification method used in the new catalyst cooler, which indicated that the induced higher packet renewal frequency due to the nonuniform gas distribution played a dominant role in its increased hs. Strongest heat transfer intensification effect was located at r/Rw>0.8 below the heat transfer intensification height. The changes of the mean packet residence time in the radial and axial directions and with superficial gas velocity were all agreeable with the measured hs according to the packet renewal theory. This further demonstrated the feasibility of the experimental method for tube surface hydrodynamics. © 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 61: 2415–2427, 2015