bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children
Authors: Dodge Kenneth A. , Crick Nicki R.
Published: March 2007

The ways that basic theories and findings in cognitive and social psychology (including attribution, decision-making, and information-processing theories) have been applied to the study of aggressive behavior problems in children are described. Following an overview of each of these theories, a social information-processing model of children's aggressive behavior is outlined. According to this model, a child's behavioral response to a problematic social stimulus is a function of five: steps of processing: encoding of social cues, interpretation of social cues, response search, response evaluation, and enactment. Skillful processing at each step is hypothesized to lead to competent performance within a situation, whereas biased or deficient processing is hypothesized to lead to deviant social behavior Empirical studies are described in which children's patterns of processing have been found to predict individual differences in their aggressive behavior The implications of this body of work for empirically based interventions aimed at reducing children's aggressive behavior are discussed.
Accountability and Risk Taking
Authors: Weigold Michael F. , Schlenker Barry R.
Published: March 2007

An experiment examined whether accountability causes people to prefer more cautious, less risky choice alternatives. Self described high and low risk takers chose between pairs of lotteries varying in riskiness under conditions where they either would (accountable condition) or would not (unaccountable condition) have to explain and justify their decisions to others. When accountable, low risk takers became extremely risk averse, whereas high risk takers became slightly but not significantly riskier in their decisions. A second study found that high but not low risk takers admired and thought other people admired risk takers more than risk avoiders, which may explain the former's preference for risk when they are accountable. When low risk takers are accountable, caution provides relative security as well as the satisfaction that their actions are at least as admirable as if they had taken risks.
The Generality of the Individual-Group Discontinuity Effect: Variations in Positivity-Negativity of Outcomes, Players' Relative Power, and Magnitude of Outcomes
Authors: Schopler John , Insko Chester A. , Graetz Kenneth A. , Drigotas Stephen M. , Smith Valerie A.
Published: March 2007

In a series of previous studies the authors have shown that intergroup interactions are dramatically more competitive and less cooperative than individual interactions. This phenomenon has been termed a discontinuity effect. The basic paradigm in this research measures competition and cooperation by choices made in a prisoner's dilemma game (PDG). Although a discontinuity effect has been observed in six separate studies, these have typically used a standard format. The present three studies extend the reliability and generality of the discontinuity effect by varying, respectively, the positivity-negativity of the outcomes in the PDG matrix, the power position of the players, and the magnitude of the PDG payoff values. In each of the three studies a statistically significant discontinuity effect was observed. The meaning of these studies is discussed, along with an unexpected interaction effect among gender, matrix type, and item sequence in the second study.
Personal Strivings and Motive Dispositions: Exploring the Links
Authors: Emmons Robert A. , McAdams Dan P.
Published: March 2007

This study sought to determine the relations among personal strivings, motive dispositions, and personality needs. Subjects generated lists of their personal strivings and completed a picture story exercise similar to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Affiliation, Achievement, Dominance, and Nurturance scales of the Personality Research Form (PRF). Personal strivings were correlated with relevant scores from both the TAT and the PRF. Scores on the TAT and PRF were also not independent. Results are interpreted using McClelland's operant-respondent distinction and McClelland, Koestner, and Weinberger's distinction between implicit and explicit motivation. Personal strivings would appear to be best regarded as thought-operant schemata in McClelland's terminology.
Referential Comparisons, Relational Comparisons, and Exchange Orientation: Their Relation to Marital Satisfaction
Authors: Buunk Bram P. , Van Yperen Nico W.
Published: March 2007

Employing a sample of 214 individuals, this study showed that most individuals felt the input/outcome ratio in their marital relationship was better than that of most same-sex others (referential comparisons) but equal to that of their spouse (relational comparisons). Perceptions of superiority in referential comparisons and of equity in relational comparisons were accompanied by the highest level of marital satisfaction. However, further analyses showed that only for individuals high in exchange orientation was equity related to marital satisfaction and that individuals low in exchange orientation were, overall, more satisfied with their relationship. Women were more deprived and less satisfied, especially when they were high in exchange orientation. The results are related to the controversy surrounding the application of equity theory to close relationships. In addition, the cognitive mechanisms that help individuals maintain a positive view of their marital relationship are considered.
Eminence in Social Psychology: A Comparison of Textbook Citation, Social Sciences Citation Index, and Research Productivity Rankings
Authors: Gordon Randall A. , Vicari Pamela J.
Published: March 2007

Individual eminence in social psychology was examined through a textbook citation analysis conducted on eight current (1987-1990) social psychology textbooks. These data were subsequently compared with data collected from an assessment of individual research productivity in psychology for the decade of the 1980s based on publications listed in the PsycINFO database and citation counts from the 1987-1989 volumes of the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI). Comparisons were made between the textbook citation results and findings from three previous related studies. The results revealed significant relationships between the different citation measures and between the research productivity and SSCI citation measure but not between the textbook citation and research productivity measures. The relative validity of each of the measures used in the study as an index of scientific eminence is discussed.
Changes in and Generalization of Unrealistic Optimism Following Experiences with Stressful Events: Reactions to the 1989 California Earthquake
Authors: Burger Jerry M. , Palmer Michele L
Published: March 2007

University students who experienced the 1989 California earthquake were asked a few days afterward to estimate the likelihood that they, the typical student at the school, and the average person their age would someday experience each of several negative life events, including being hurt in a natural disaster such as an earthquake. These responses were compared with those of a quasi-experimental control group of students 3 months later Unrealistic optimism about being hurt in a natural disaster, as indicated by the difference between the subjects' perceived vulnerability for themselves and for others, was not apparent immediately after the earthquake. However; unrealistic optimism for this item was found 3 months later Further analysis suggests that the loss of optimism after the earthquake was limited to natural disasters and did not alter perceived vulnerability to other negative events.
Sexual Precedence Reduces the Perceived Legitimacy of Sexual Refusal: An Examination of Attributions Concerning Date Rape and Consensual Sex
Authors: Shotland R. Lance , Goodstein Lynne
Published: March 2007

A hypothesis derived from marital rape laws suggests that women are perceived as obligated to have sex by precedence. Subjects who read a rape scenario were more likely to perceive that the resisting woman should have sex and less likely to label the act as rape if the couple had had coitus 10 times before (high precedence) than once or never An alternative hypothesis derived from the common law on `easements by prescription" suggests that sexual precedence should affect men and women equally. In a second study, either the man or the woman refused sex after foreplay. Men as well as women were perceived to be obligated by sexual precedence. Survey results are cited that show that male and female actors' compliant sexual behaviors are related to precedence. The results are explained as reflecting norms that function to preserve mutually satisfactory relationships.
Social Roles and Social Judgment: How an Impression Conveyed Influences an Impression Formed
Authors: Alicke Mark D. , Klotz M. L.
Published: March 2007

Two studies examined the effect of enacting a social role on perceptions of a partner in a simulated interaction. Subjects were led to believe they were interacting with a partner whom they saw on a TV monitor (which actually showed a videotaped recording). Subjects evaluated the introversion/extraversion of their 'interaction partner. " Those instructed to enact an introvert role saw the partner as more extraverted than those who enacted an extravert role. Study 2 showed that, compared with a control group that did not enact a role, extraverts saw the person as more introverted (though not statistically significantly so), whereas introverts saw the person as more extraverted. Neither study found an effect of subjects' actual personality classification as introverts or extraverts. These findings have implications for the relative importance of temporary and chronic construct activation in social perception.
Introspecting about Reasons can Reduce Post-Choice Satisfaction
Authors: Wilson Timothy D. , Lisle Douglas J. , Schooler Jonathan W. , Hodges Sara D. , Klaaren Kristen J. , LaFleur Suzanne J.
Published: March 2007

This study tested the prediction that introspecting about the reasons for one's preferences would reduce satisfaction with a consumer choice. Subjects evaluated two types of posters and then chose one to take home. Those instructed to think about their reasons chose a different type of poster than control subjects and, when contacted 3 weeks later, were less satisfied with their choice. When people think about reasons, they appear to focus on attributes of the stimulus that are easy to verbalize and seem like plausible reasons but may not be important causes of their initial evaluations. When these attributes imply a new evaluation of the stimulus, people change their attitudes and base their choices on these new attitudes. Over time, however, people's initial evaluation of the stimulus seems to return, and they come to regret choices based on the new attitudes.
The What, when, and How of Dispositional Inference: New Answers and New Questions
Authors: Trope Yaacov , Higgins E. Tory
Published: March 2007

The articles in this issue address three sets of questions: How do percievers draw dispositional inferences? What is being inferred? And when do perceives engage in dispositional inference? 'How "questions concern process issues, such as the encoding of behavioral data, the inferential calculi applied to the data, and, more generally, the different ways in which dispositional inferences can be made. 'What" questions concern content issues, such as whether perceivers conceive of dispositions as causal entities or mere descriptors of behavior, as temporally stable or unstable, as context dependent or independent, and as entailing an interpersonal or an intrapersonal standard of comparison. 'When " questions concern the condition under which perceivers engage in dispositional inference: Do perceivers spontaneously engage in dispositional inferences? To what extent do perceivers' informational goals and their conceptions of dispositions influence the likelihood of engaging in dispositional inferences?
Dispositional Knowing from an Ecological Perspective
Authors: Baron Reuben M. , Misovich Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

A direct perception analysis of dispositional knozwng, based on an ecological approach that is grounded in the use of activity to get mind into the world, is presented. It is proposed that social dispositions such as dominance or cooperativeness can be directly perceived, as opposed to inferred, if they are embodied in relational activities that activate the disposition. The choice of the particular activity as a way of turning dispositions into perceivable social affordances is related to an evolutionarily oriented analysis of dispositions as evolved adaptive solutions for solving basic social problems such as mate selection and group formation. Objections to the possibility of direct perception that are based on claims of insufficient or deceptive information are countered by the introduction of event-activity tests, modeled after perturbation and bifurcation processes in dynamic systems formulations. Comparisons are then made between the ecological claims of realism, mutualism, and activity and aspects of current constructive models of dispositional knowing, such as Wright and Mischel's conditional hedge model and Trope's Bayesian inference approach.
Trait Importance and Modifiability as Factors Influencing Self-Assessment and Self-Enhancement Motives
Authors: Dunning David
Published: March 2007

People's search for information about the self is governed by motives of self-enhancement (seeking feedback to the extent that it will be favorable) and self-assessment (seeking accurate feed-back regardless of its favorability). Which motive predominates as an ability under consideration becomes more important? An experiment suggested that both motives are evoked, depending on whether people believe the ability reflects a stable or malleable aspect of personality. When an ability was described as stable, subjects displayed a self-enhancing pattern, showing greater enthusiasm for feedback after success than after failure on an initial test for the trait, but only when the ability was deemed important. In contrast, when the ability was described as malleable, subjects followed a self-assessment pattern, being more solicitous of feedback when the trait was described as important as opposed to inconsequential, regardless of initial success or failure.
Group Versus Individual Training and Group Performance: The Mediating Role of Transactive Memory
Authors: Liang Diane Wei , Moreland Richard , Argote Linda
Published: March 2007

The task performance of laboratory work groups whose members were trained together or alone was investigated. At an initial training session, subjects were taught to assemble transistor radios. Some were trained in groups, others individually. A week later, subjects were asked to recall the assembly procedure and actually assemble a radio. Everyone performed these tasks in small work groups, each containing three persons of the same gender. Subjects in the group training condition worked in the same groups where they were trained, whereas subjects in the individual training condition worked in newly formed groups. Groups whose members were trained together recalled more about the assembly procedure and produced better-quality radios than groups whose members were trained alone. Through an analysis of videotape data, the mediating effects of various cognitive and social factors on the relationship between group training and performance were explored. The results indicated that group training improved group performance primarily by fostering the development of transactive memory systems among group members.
Cognitive Representation in Ethnophaulisms and Illusory Correlation in Stereotyping
Authors: Mullen Brian , Johnson Craig
Published: March 2007

Previous research has examined complexity in ethnophaulisms as an indicator of cognitive representations of minority ethnic groups. Smaller groups have been demonstrated to evoke greater prototype representations, as evidenced in less complexity in the ethnophaulisms ascribed to these smaller groups. The present research extends this approach to the study of developing stereotypes for novel ethnic groups in the distinctiveness-based illusory correlation paradigm. Results of three studies confirm that in the absence of any preconceived cognitive representations of, or evaluative responses toward, these novel groups, the more salient group is subject to greater prototype representation. In addition, this greater prototype representation for the more salient group predicts the distinctiveness-based illusory correlation effect and thereby predicts differential evaluations toward the ethnic groups. The implications of these results for the study of the distinctiveness-based illusory correlation paradigm in particular, and for cognitive representations of social groups in general, are discussed.
Thinking about Fashion Models' Looks: A Multidimensional Approach to the Structure of Perceived Physical Attractiveness
Authors: Ashmore Richard D. , Solomon Michael R. , Longo Laura C.
Published: March 2007

A functional framework for the perception of female physical attractiveness suggests that, at the least, perceivers should differentiate sexual (sexy), youthful, nonsexual (cute), and up-to-date clothed and groomed (trendy) dimensions. Further, it was hypothesized that these content-specific varieties of good looks would covary with physical features (the stimulus cues used by perceivers to decode particular attractiveness continua) and also with psychological inferences (the stereotypic expectations linked to each appearance dimension). Using 96 photographs of female professional fashion models as stimuli, a free-sorting method coupled with a multidimensional scaling analysis provided support for both of these expectations. Also, the results suggest areas of both convergence and divergence in how college student males and females view physical attractiveness in women.
Why Common Sense Goes Out the Window: Effects of Alcohol on Intentions to Use Condoms
Authors: MacDonald Tara K. , Zanna Mark P. , Fong Geoffrey T.
Published: March 2007

Four studies tested the hypothesis that alcohol decreases the likelihood of condom use during casual sex. First, in a correlational study, it was found that among men who reported that they usually use condoms, those who were intoxicated when they last had intercourse were less likely than sober men to have used one. Further, in two laboratory experiments and one field experiment, intoxicated people reported more positive intentions to have unprotected sex than sober people. These results are consistent with alcohol myopia as introduced by Steele and associates the notion that alcohol decreases cognitive capacity, such that intoxicated people are more likely to attend to the most salient cues in a situation. Intoxicated people may focus on the perceived benefits of having intercourse rather than on the negative consequences of not using condoms. These studies provide strong evidence that alcohol causes a decrease in condom use and suggest a mechanism for that relationship.
Perceptions of Purple: Counterfactual and Hindsight Judgments at Northwestern Wildcats Football Games
Authors: Roese Neal J. , Maniar Sameep D.
Published: March 2007

Previous research has supported the counterintuitive idea that counterfactual thinking (thoughts of what might have been) may increase rather than decrease the hindsight bias (post hoc certainty regarding a factual outcome) and that this effect is mediated by shifts in causal perceptions. Unlike previous research, which has been limited to simple laboratory demonstrations, the present studies assessed highly involved sports fans' perceptions before and after home football games. Participants induced to generate counterfactual thoughts after the game showed a greater hindsight bias than control participants. Participants induced to generate causal explanations evinced a similar exacerbation of the hindsight bias, supporting previous claims that the positive effect of counterfactual thinking on the hindsight bias is mediated by explanations that satisfyingly accountfor the outcome.
Culture, Dissonance, and Self-Affirmation
Authors: Heine Steven J. , Lehman Darrin R.
Published: March 2007

Within the framework of self-affirmation theory, the authors compared levels of dissonance reduction in the free-choice paradigm between a culture typical of an independent construal of self (Canadian) and a culture typical of an interdependent construal of self (Japanese). Whereas Canadian results virtually duplicated past self-affirmation findings with U.S. participants, Japanese results showed no dissonance reduction. This, the authors argue, is because such situations do not threaten core aspects of the interdependent self:
When Bad Things Happen to Good Feedback: Exacerbating the Need for Self-Justification with Self-Affirmations
Authors: Blanton Hart , Cooper Joel , Slkurnik Ian , Aronson Joshua
Published: March 2007

In numerous self-affirmation studies, Claude Steele and colleagues have demonstrated that self-affirmations reduce the need to justify dissonant behavior even when the affirmation is unrelated to the dissonance-evoking action. However, research has not sufficiently examined the impact of reaffirming self-aspects that are related to the dissonance. The authors argue that relevant affirmations of this sort can make salient the standards that are violated in the course of dissonant behavior; thereby increasing dissonance and the need for self justification. In a laboratory study using the induced-compliance paradigm, it was demonstrated that dissonance can be exacerbated by reaffirming standards that are violated in the course of the dissonant behavior.
Thinking about Choking? Attentional Processes and Paradoxical Performance
Authors: Lewis Brian P. , Linder Darwyn E.
Published: March 2007

When pressure to perform is increased, individuals commonly perform worse than if there were no pressure ("choking under pressure'). Two mechanisms have been proposed to account for this effect-distraction (cognitive load), wherein pressure distracts attention from the task, and self focus, wherein attention shifts inward interfering with performance. To distinguish between these two competing explanations, the current experiment manipulated pressure by offering performance-contingent rewards. For half the participants, cognitive load was increased by requiring participants to count backward from 100. Additionally, adaptation to self awareness was manipulated by videotaping half the participants during practice trials. Results show that pressure caused choking when participants were not distracted and had not been adapted to self awareness. This effect was attenuated when cognitive load was increased or when self-awareness adaptation had occurred. These results support self focus mediated misregulation as the mechanism for choking and disconfirm the distraction hypothesis.
Pursuing Personal Goals: Skills Enable Progress, but Not all Progress is Beneficial
Authors: Sheldon Kennon M. , Kasser Tim
Published: March 2007

Although goal theorists have speculated about the causes and consequences of making progress at personal goals, little longitudinal research has examined these issues. In the current prospective study, participants with stronger social and self-regulatory skills made more progress in their goals over the course of a semester. In turn, goal progress predicted increases in psychological well-being, both in short-term (5-day) increments and across the whole semester; At both short- and long-term levels of analysis, however, the amount that well-being increased depended on the "organismic congruence" of participants' goals. That is, participants benefited most from goal attainment when the goals that they pursued were consistent with inherent psychological needs. We conclude that a fuller understanding of the relations between goals, performance, and psychological well-being requires recourse to both cybernetic and organismic theories of motivation.
Affective Coloring of Personality from Young Adulthood to Midlife
Authors: Helson Ravenna , Klohnen Eva C.
Published: March 2007

New Adjective Check List (ACL) scales (Gough, Bradley, and Bedeian) to measure Tellegen's dimensions of positive emotionality (PEM), negative emotionality (NEM), and constraint (CNS) were scoredfor a longitudinal sample of women and their male partners over 25 years. For women, data were available to show that convergent and discriminant relations with life data and selected personality traits across time supported the construct validity and usefulness of NEM, PEM, and, to a lesser extent, CNS. Rank order stability coefficients ranged from .51 to .65 and were similar to those obtained for other personality scales. In line with expectations, the women increased in PEM and CNS and decreased in NEM. Analyses of 21 couples studied at two times suggested that both men and women decreased in NEM and that women may have increased more than men in PEM. In these and all other couples, women tended to score higher on NEM than partners in young adulthood and higher on PEM than partners in mature middle age.
Perceived Versus Actual Transparency of Goals in Negotiation
Authors: Vorauer Jacquie D. , Claude Stephanie-Danielle
Published: March 2007

Participants in Study 1 either engaged in a negotiation with a '"phantom "second negotiator or observed the negotiation. Negotiators judged whether the observer would be able to accurately discern their goals from their behavior; observers judged the negotiator's goals. Results indicated that negotiators overestimated the transparency of their objectives. An interaction between goal salience and constraints on communication was also evident: When communication was highly constrained, negotiators overestimated their transparency only when they were led to focus on their goals; when communication was less constrained, negotiators overestimated their transparency regardless of goal salience. Study 2 revealed that motivational forces are not necessary for transparency overestimation to occur: Observers informed about a negotiator's goals also overestimated the extent to which his or her goals would be transparent to an uninformed observer.
Enhancement Bias in Descriptions of Self and Others
Authors: Krueger Joachim
Published: March 2007

Self-enhancement bias is the tendency to describe oneself more positively than a normative criterion would predict. This article reviews the common-rater and common-target paradigms for the assessment of enhancement bias and proposes a social-normative paradigm as an alternative. In this paradigm, enhancement bias is conceptualized as an egocentric pattern of discrepancies between self-ratings and relevant social norms. Correlations between a person's ratings of trait descriptiveness and ratings of trait desirability indicate the degree of enhancement (or diminishment) when the group averages of these ratings are controlled. Two studies demonstrate that most people self-enhance, expect others to self-enhance, and abstain from self-enhancement when instructed to estimate the social norms. Results suggest that enhancement is a controllable bias rather than a cognitive illusion.
Diamonds in the Rough: Implicit Personality Theories and Views of Partner and Self
Authors: Ruvolo Ann P. , Rotondo Jennifer L.
Published: March 2007

Having negative views of oneself or a relationship partner is associated with low general or relationship well-being. This study examines the moderating effects of individuals' implicit personality theories-beliefs that people's attributes are either malleable or fixed. We predicted that individuals' beliefs about the malleability of attributes would moderate the relationship between views of the partner and relationship well-being and also the relationship between self-views and general well-being. These predictions were supported. When individuals had strong beliefs that people can change, the relationship between individuals' views of their partners and their relationship well-being was weaker; when individuals had strong beliefs that attributes are unchangeable, the relationship between views of partner and relationship well-being was stronger. The same moderating effect was found for self-ratings; individuals' self-ratings were less closely linked with general well-being when individuals believed that attributes are malleable.
Superficiality and the Dimensionality of Sexism
Authors: Korth Bruce
Published: March 2007

Good measurement of sexism depends on a determination of the dimensionality of this attitude, as well as on reliability and validity. Separate scales would need to be constructed for each of several distinct dimensions. If only one dimension exists, however, the best scale would sample from many areas along this dimension. Four studies investigat ed the dimensionality of sexism and the nature of the dimensions to assure that none represents superficial responding. A single, general attitude seems justified by the results: (1) transparent, easily distinguished pairs yield the same score as easily confused pairs in a forced-choice instrument; (2) fe males score higher, as do whites and non-singles; (3) feminists have higher scores but equal variances; (4) in the four separate samples only one factor is replicated.
Multiple Regression and Validity Estimation in One Sample
Authors: Claudy John G.
Published: March 2007

This study empirically investigated equations for estimating the value of the multiple correlation co efficient in the population underlying a sample and the value of the population validity coefficient of a sample regression equation. In addition to pre viously published estimation equations, several new procedures, including an empirically derived equa tion, were evaluated using 16 independent popula tions. Overall, the empirical equation was superior to any of the previously published estimation proce dures. It appears that cross-validation may no longer be necessary for certain purposes.
On the Robustness of a Class of Naive Estimators
Authors: Wainer Howard , Thissen David
Published: March 2007

A class of naive estimators of correlation was tested for robustness, accuracy, and efficiency against Pearson's r, Tukey's rt, and Spearman's ro. It was found that this class of estimators seems in some respects to be superior being less affected by outliers, reasonably efficient, and frequently more easily calculated. The definition and details of the use of these naive estimators are the subject of this paper.
The Effects of Item Calibration Sample Size and Item Pool Size on Adaptive Testing
Authors: Ree Malcolm James
Published: March 2007

A simulation study of the effects of varying the item calibration sample size on varying size item pools was run for the maximum information adap tive test. Items were calibrated on the three-pa rameter logistic model on sample sizes of 500, 1,000, and 2,000. Item pools of 100, 200, or 300 items were developed from the three calibration sample sizes. Fixed-length adaptive tests of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 items were given to a different group of 500 simulated subjects for each combina tion of item pool size and calibration sample size. Results indicated that high correlations between ability and estimated ability would be obtained in any testing if a sufficient number of items were ad ministered. The reduction of absolute error of abil ity estimation was found to require at least 200 items calibrated on 2,000 subjects.
O-Factor Analysis of Mood Ratings
Authors: Edvardsson Bo , Vegelius Jan
Published: March 2007

This paper demonstrates the usefulness of O- factor analysis in studying how feelings are struc tured and how situational factors influence feelings. Four subjects made self-ratings on several occasions using variables they had chosen themselves. Data were O-factor analyzed, and factors were inter preted in terms of feelings common for situations which loaded on the factors. Problems and appli cability of the method in psychotherapy research are discussed.
Problems With Individual Difference Measures Based on Some Componential Cognitive Paradigms
Authors: Dunlap William P. , Kennedy Robert S. , Harbeson Mary M. , Fowlkes Jennifer E.
Published: March 2007

This article demonstrates that slope and ratio scores may have the same psychometric difficulties—low re liability—as difference scores. Empirically, direct measures and derived scores from Baron's, Collins', Meyer's, and Posner's cognitive paradigms were ex amined in terms of their reliabilities and cross-correla tions. Reliabilities of the direct measures and their in tercorrelations were high. The derived measures, which were slope, ratio, and difference scores, had re liabilities near zero and, therefore, their cross-correla tions were also low. It is concluded that derived scores, although intuitively appealing as measures of mental operations, may have inherent psychometric difficulties that render them of little value for differen tial prediction. Index terms: cognitive paradigms, difference scores, individual differences, prediction, ratio scores, reliability, slope scores.
The Reliability of a Linear Composite of Nonequivalent Subtests
Authors: Rozeboom William W.
Published: March 2007

Traditional formulas for estimating the reliability of a composite test from its internal item statistics are in appropriate to judge the reliability of multiple regres sions and other weighted composites of subtests that are appreciably nonequivalent. Formulas are provided here for the reliability of such a composite given the reliabilities of its component subtests, followed by a comparison of the composite's reliability to that of its components. Compositing can easily incur a substan tial loss of reliability, though gains are entirely possi ble as well.
Theoretical and Empirical Comparison of the Mokken and the Rasch Approach to IRT
Authors: Meijer Rob R. , Sijtsma Klaas , Smid Nico G.
Published: March 2007

The Mokken model of monotone homogeneity, the Mokken model of double monotonicity, and the Rasch model are theoretically and empirically compared. These models are compared with respect to restrictiveness to empirical test data, properties of the scale, and accuracy of measurement. Appli cation of goodness-of-fit procedures to empirical data largely confirmed the expected order of the models according to restrictiveness: Almost all items were in concordance with the model of mono tone homogeneity, and fewer items complied with the model of double monotonicity and the Rasch model. The model of monotone homogeneity was found to be a suitable alternative to more restric tive models for basic testing applications; more sophisticated applications, such as equating and adaptive testing, appear to require the use of para metric models.
Coefficients for Interrater Agreement
Authors: Zegers Frits E.
Published: March 2007

The degree of agreement between two raters who rate a number of objects on a certain characteristic can be expressed by means of an association coefficient (e.g., the product-moment correlation). A large number of association coeffi cients have been proposed, many of which belong to the class of Euclidean coefficients (ECs). A discussion of desirable properties of ECs demonstrates how the identity coefficient and its generalizations, which constitute a family of ECs, can be used to assess interrater agreement. This family of ECs contains coefficients for both nominal and non-nominal (ordinal and metric) data. In particular, it is pointed out which infor mation contained in the data is accounted for by the various coefficients and which information is ignored.
Simplified Successive Intervals Scaling
Authors: Edwards Allen L. , Gonzalez Richard
Published: March 2007

A simplified version of successive intervals scaling is described. Scale values for various datasets obtained with simplified successive intervals scaling are approximately linearly related to those obtained with traditional successive intervals scaling and with the method of pair comparisons. Simplified successive intervals scaling can be used with any number of stimuli and is as easy to apply as the method of equal-appearing intervals. However, simplified successive intervals scaling does not assume, as does the method of equal-appearing intervals, that rating categories or intervals are of equal width.
Estimating Rater Agreement in 2 x 2 Tables: Correction for Chance and Intraclass Correlation
Authors: Blackman Nicole J-M. , Koval John J.
Published: March 2007

Many estimators of the measure of agreement between two dichotomous ratings of a person have been proposed. The results of Fleiss (1975) are extended, and it is shown that four estimators— Scott's (1955) π coefficient, Cohen's (1960) k, Maxwell & Pilliner's (1968) r,,, and Mak's (1988) p—are interpretable both as chance-corrected measures of agreement and as intraclass correla tion coefficients for different ANOVA models. Rela tionships among these estimators are established for finite samples. Under Kraemer's (1979) model, it is shown that these estimators are equivalent in large samples, and that the equations for their large sample variances are equivalent.
IRT-Based Internal Measures of Differential Functioning of Items and Tests
Authors: Roju Nambury S. , van der Linden Wim J. , Fleer Paul F.
Published: March 2007

Internal measures of differential functioning of items and tests (DHFIT) based on item response theory (IRT) are proposed. Within the DFIT context, the new differential test functioning (DTF) index leads to two new measures of differential item functioning (DIF) with the following properties: (1) The compensatory DIF (CDIF) indexes for all items in a test sum to the DTF index for that test and, unlike current DIF procedures, the CDIF index for an item does not assume that the other items in the test are unbi ased ; (2) the noncompensatory DIF (NCDIF) index, which assumes that the other items in the test are unbiased, is comparable to some of the IRT-based DIP indexes; and (3) COIF and NCDIF, as well as DTF, are equally valid for polytomous and multidimensional IRT models. Monte carlo study results, comparing these indexes with Lord's χ2 test, the signed area measure, and the unsigned area measure, demonstrate that the DFIT framework is accu rate in assessing DTF, COIF, and NCDIF.
MULTISIB: A Procedure to Investigate DIF When a Test is Intentionally Two-Dimensional
Authors: Stout William , Li Hsin-Hung , Nandakumar Ratna , Bolt Daniel
Published: March 2007

MULTISIB is proposed as a statistical test for assessing differential item functioning (DIF) of intentionally two-dimensional test data, such as a mathematics test designed to measure algebra and geometry. MULTISIB is based on the multidimensional model of DIF as presented in Shealy & Stout (1993), and is a direct extension of SIBTEST, its unidimensional counterpart. For an intentionally two-dimensional test, DIF is appropriately modeled to result from secondary dimensional influence from other than the two intended dimensions. Simulation studies were used to assess the performance of MULTISIB to detect DIF in intentionally two-dimensional tests. These results indicate that MULTISIB exhibited reasonably good adherence to the nominal level of significance and good power. Moreover, for each DIF model the average amount of DIF estimated over the 100 simulations of the model by MULTISIB was close to the true value, confirming its relative lack of statistical estimation bias in assessing true DIF. In addition, the simulation studies supported the importance of using the regression correction to adjust the scores on the studied item due to impact and the importance of matching examinees on two subtest scores instead of the total test score.
A Comparison of the Person Response Function and the lz Person-Fit Statistic
Authors: Nering Michael L. , Meijer Rob R.
Published: March 2007

In the past several decades, there has been an increasing interest in the development of statistics used to identify examinees who respond to test items in a manner that is divergent from the underlying test model. One statistic that has received a great deal of attention is the lz index (Drasgow, Levine, & Williams, 1985). Trabin & Weiss (1983) developed a slightly different approach for identifying model-divergent response patterns, based on the discrepancy between observed and expected person response functions (PRFs). Here, the PRF method was compared theoretically and empirically to 1z. Although the results suggest that the performance of lz was, in most conditions studied, superior to the PRF method, the PRF method was useful in investigating why a response vector was model divergent. The PRF method can be used along with lz to identify different types of model divergent response patterns.
Supply Response to the Housing Allowance Program
Authors: Rydell C. Peter
Published: March 2007

If there were no supply response to the housing allowance program, the demand shift caused by the program would be large enough to cause a serious increase in the price of standard housing services. How-ever, three supply responses prevent the potential price increase from occurring: repair of substandard housing, supply adjustment, and occupancy rate adjustment. The first supply response reduces the potential price increase by two-thirds, the first and second together reduce it by four-fifths, and all three together reduce it by 97 percent.
Growth Determinants in the Core-Periphery of Korea
Authors: Lee Hee-Yeon
Published: March 2007

This article describes the emergent spatial dispersion pattern of the urban system of the Republic of Korea, where the government has instituted a strong decentralization policy. Intraregional decentralization is underway within the core area, while intraregional polarization towards larger regional centers is evident in periphery areas. Through the use of step-wise regression analysis, determinants of the differential growth rates of urban centers in the core and periphery are identified. The different spatial development processes operating in the core and periphery have implications for growth pole theory and regional development planning.
The Restructuring of the Soviet Economy and Prospects for Siberia's Development
Authors: Granberg Alexandr G.
Published: March 2007

This article begins with a critique of American views regarding the declining importance of Siberian development under Gorbachev. Drawing on statements by Gorbachev, as well as planning documents and research, this article argues that increased Siberian development is both an important part of Soviet regional policy and in its national interest. The nature of this future development and spatial relationships within Siberia are also discussed.
Advances in the Spatial Equilibrium Modeling of Mineral and Energy Issues
Authors: Labys Walter C. , Yang Chin-wei
Published: March 2007

Spatial equilibrium programming methods are increasingly being applied to modeling regional mineral and energy issues. Spatial equilibrium models have been developed to analyze regional commodity trade problems in a national and international context. Mineral models deal with nonfuel minerals and energy models with fuel minerals. Recent modeling efforts focus on conventional fuel and nonfuel mineral trade problems, recognizing the importance of transport costs and political constraints in formulating an equilibrium that approximates competitive trade. Other recent efforts focus on the engineering processes required to transform primary mineral ores or fuels to their more useful processed stages. This paper reviews the theoretical approaches of spatial equilibrium models, compares them to other methods, introduces new modeling advances, and provides a perspective on future modeling directions.
Service-Led Rural Development: Definitions, Theories, and Empirical Evidence
Authors: Glasmeier Amy , Howland Marie
Published: March 2007

Two opposing views of service-led development contend, on the one hand, that services can be a propulsive force in rural economic development and, on the other, that services are neither independent of, nor a replacement for, older forms of rural industrialization such as agriculture, mining, and manufacturing. Both views fail to account for the dualistic nature of rural services growth, which does not mirror the developmental experience commonly associated with services in the nation's cities. This article reviews the literature on services and economic development, summarizes definitions, discusses national growth of rural services and recent trends, examines models of spatial distribution of services, and identifies gaps in existing knowledge.
Confirmational Response Bias Among Social Work Journals
Authors: Epstein William M.
Published: March 2007

This article reports the results of a study of confirmational response bias among social work journals. A contrived research paper with positive findings and its negative mirror image were submitted to two different groups of social work journals and to two comparison groups of journals outside social work. The quantitative results, suggesting bias, are tentative; but the qualitative findings based upon an analysis of the referee comments are clear and consistent. Few referees from prestigious or nonprestcgrous social work journals prepared reviews that were knowledgeable, scientifically astute, or objective. The best reviews came from journals outside of soccal work or from journals that are accepted as social work journals but originate with other disciplines.
Globalization of Science and Repression of Scientists in Mexico
Authors: Schoijet Mauricio , Worthington Richard
Published: March 2007

In this article, recent changes in the Mexican research system are examined. The restructuring of the global political economy and a severe crisis of legitimacy in the Mexican political system have generated a turn toward neoliberalism by the ruling party in a bid to attract foreign investment. A key component of neoliberal science policy is the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI), a system of salary increments for selected researchers instituted during the 1980s. Examination of SNI's decisions reveals numerous discriminatory and self-serving practices that are inconsistent with widely accepted norms in the scientific community. During the same period, repressive actions against researchers, such as the peremptory closure of research institutions, firings of research ers, and direct intimidation, have increased. The victims of discrimination and repression documented here are disproportionately foreign-born Mexicans, leftists, critics of the ruling party, and researchers in environmental and energy studies.
Accounting for Animal Experiments: Identity and Disreputable "Others"
Authors: Michael Mike , Birke Lynda
Published: March 2007

This article considers how scientists involved in animal experimentation attempt to defend their practices. Interviews with over 40 scientists revealed that, over and above direct criticisms of the antivivisection lobby, scientists used a number of discursive strategies to demonstrate that critics of animal experimentation are ethically and epistemologically infenor to British scientific practitioners. The scientists portrayed a series of negative "others" such as foreign scientists, farmers, and pet owners. In this manner, they attempted to create a "socioethical domain" which rhetorically insulated them from criticism while simultaneously problematizing the critiques of the anti- animal-experimentation public. Some of the implications for relations between science and the public, especially regarding scientific credibility, are discussed.
Science, Politics, and the Mass Media: On Biased Communication of Environmental Issues
Authors: Roll-Hansen Nils
Published: March 2007

When environmental science acts by enlightenment rather than instrumental use, that is, by changing the aims and values of politics rather than its means, adequate communi cation to the general public is crucially important. Based on the study of two issues, forest death from acid rain and the size of whale stocks, this article shows how the "constraints" of commercial mass media can be contrary to the task of enlightenment. It is also argued that skeptical and relativist views of science contribute indirectly to bias by undermining criticism.