bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Marxism
Authors: Le Blanc Paul
Published: September 2017

Marxism is a body of thought and a practical approach to reality based on contributions of two revolutionaries, Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), who were intent on developing what they called “scientific socialism.” This orientation was denounced as “Marxism” by its critics, but this would‐be negative label was, after Marx's death, embraced by those who sought to follow in his footsteps. A variety of interpretations and new – sometimes sharply divergent – paths of thought and action became associated with this “Marxism.” Some scholars have emphasized differences between the ideas Marx and the ideas of others (including his intellectual partner Engels) who have claimed to speak in his name. At the same time, it can be argued that a distinctive orientation emanating from Marx became the core around which a coherent political orientation evolved, contributed to by a number of revolutionaries, which can be termed “revolutionary Marxism.”
Mein Kampf
Authors: Cox John M.
Published: September 2017

Known to history for his unprecedented crimes against humanity during World War II, Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) first came to the attention of the German public as a rabble‐rousing leader of a small far‐right group in Munich in the early 1920s. Hitler joined the German Workers' Party in 1919, quickly became its central leader, and led his group (renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party, or Nazi Party) in the Munich “Beerhall Putsch,” an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in November 1923. After the suppression of the putsch, Hitler was convicted of high treason but served a mere 13 months in prison because of the leniency of the sympathetic local courts.
Menchú, Rigoberta (b. 1959)
Authors: Zito Dima
Published: September 2017

Rigoberta Menchú Tum is a Guatemalan Maya human rights activist and recipient of the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize. As a member of the indigenous population, whose 22 ethnic groups constitute 65 percent of the total population of Guatemala, she grew up in conditions of poverty and exploitation, witnessing human rights violations committed by the Guatemalan armed forces during the civil war (1960–96). The US‐backed Guatemalan military regimes followed a scorched earth policy to fight the left‐wing guerilla movements. This included massacres, torture, and the “disappearing” of opponents. At least 200,000 Guatemalans were killed, most of whom were members of the indigenous population.
Migration Struggles and the Global Justice Movement
Authors: BojadPijev Manuela
Published: September 2017

“Autonomy of migration” names a concept whose methodology enables a series of questions to be asked about the relationship between migration and capitalism, opening the horizon for a range of political perspectives on migration struggles taking place around the world and in the context of the alter‐globalization movement. The persistence of movements of migration in the face of the militarization of borders and an elaborate, if not always coherent, migration regime in the United States and Europe constitutes a component within the analysis, to the extent that it focuses on the agency of migrants. The concept opens up the possibility to question the contemporary formation of capitalist socialization and its imperial, postcolonial, and, therefore, global foundations.
Milosz, Czeslaw (1911–2004)
Authors: McQuillen Colleen K.
Published: September 2017

Upon receiving the Nobel Prize for literature in 1980 Czeslaw Milosz became a public icon, gaining a wide readership in the West and in Poland where his poetry had been banned from publication for thirty years. The award came two years after Karol Wojtyla was elected Pope John Paul II, and only one month after Solidarity emerged as the first non‐communist trade union in Poland and as a force in opposition politics headed by Lech Walesa. This historical coincidence magnified Poland's visibility in the world and amplified Milosz's reputation as a political dissident, a reputation rooted in his exile (1951–81) from communist Poland.
M
ondragón
C
ollective
Authors: Squire Heather
Published: September 2017

The Mondragón Cooperative Corporation (MCC) is the largest worker‐owned and controlled cooperative in the world, and the seventh largest corporation in Spain. Originally started as a 24‐member worker‐owned and controlled factory in the Basque region of Spain, MCC has grown to encompass more than 80,000 workers in 86 cooperatives throughout the country, 44 educational institutions, various consumer, service, and agricultural cooperatives, and a credit union, with well over a billion dollars in assets. The profitability, growth, and innovative management style of the MCC has drawn researchers from both the business and social science fields. At the same time, students of anarchism, mutualism, and workplace democracy continue to be impressed by it, albeit critically, as what Benello (1996) calls “an example of liberatory organization which, like its predecessors in the Spanish Civil War, has achieved success on a scale unequaled in any other part of the world.”
M
oplah Revolts
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

The Moplahs or Mappilas are located in Malabar, the northern part of present‐day Kerala. Their ancestry is often traced to Arabs and converts to Islam among natives of Malabar. Islam came to this region through trade and pilgrimage, and was well established by the ninth century. Nineteenth‐century British colonial rule identified them as “fanatics.” Moplahs formed a major portion of the
Kudiyan
(landless farmer) population in Ernaad and Walluvanad
taluks
(an administrative unit beneath a district) where the landlords were mainly upper‐caste Hindus.
M
oro National Liberation
Authors: Docena Herbert
Published: September 2017

Moro nationalism refers to the ideology or sentiment held by people who self‐consciously and deliberately identify themselves as “Moros” as opposed to “Filipinos,” believe in and appeal to a history and culture distinct from that of the rest of the Philippines, and consequently demand independence or greater autonomy from the Philippine state.
Most,Johann (1846–1906)
Authors: Nicholson C. Brid
Published: September 2017

Johann Most was, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, one of the most feared persons in the world. Known as a dangerous radical who promoted terrorism as a means to overthrow governments, Most spent time in jail in three different countries.
Movement of Recuperated Factories, Argentina
Authors: Ranis Peter
Published: September 2017

Contemporary Argentine factory and enterprise worker cooperatives were essentially born in the runup to and the massive popular societal demonstrations of December 2001. They owe much of their momentum to the social and economic crisis that offered little alternative to laborers and employees but unemployment and poverty. Factory and enterprise bankruptcies and employer abandonment of places of work forced the laborers and employees to seek redress of their grievances. One of the measures to which they turned, inspired by two nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), was the formation of worker cooperatives, which are sanctioned by historical Argentine law. Forming cooperatives became only the first step in the often long legal, community, and political struggles that gave the workers temporary rights to reenter the factories and enterprises and initiate or continue production and services.
Mpho,Motsamai (b. 1921)
Authors: Morapedi Wazha Gilbert
Published: September 2017

Motsamai Mpho, a key nationalist figure and champion of social justice, was born to a Bayei peasant family on February 3, 1921, in Maun, northwestern Bechuanaland (now Botswana). The Bayei were a non‐Setswana‐speaking ethnic group, subordinate to the Batswana majority, themselves dominated by the traditional nobility, thedikgosi, or chiefs. At the time of Mpho's birth, Bechuanaland was a British protectorate, based on indirect rule with a colonial administration that was dominated by the small white population.
Nagy, Imre (1896–1957)
Authors: Richardson Annette
Published: September 2017

Imre Nagy was prime minister during the Hungarian Uprising in 1956. He favored the “New Course” calling for gradual reforms to Communist Hungary, which put him in confrontation with the leadership of the Soviet Union and led to his execution.
Nasir, Hassan (1928–1960)
Authors: Sulehria Farooq
Published: September 2017

Hassan Nasir is an icon of the student movement in Pakistan who is remembered for his struggle, sacrifice, and bravery. Born on August 2, 1928, Hassan Nasir hailed from Hyderabad, a princely state during the British
raj
(rule). His well‐off family was famous for its commitment to nationalist politics. After his Senior Cambridge at Grammar School, he moved to Aligarh, a famous seat of learning for the Muslim elite during those days. As Hassan began college in Aligarh, India was rocked with mutinies, strikes, and student unrest. Hassan participated in the student movement launched for the release of Indian National Army (INA) leaders, but it was the communist‐led revolutionary peasant uprising in Hyderabad state in 1947 that radicalized him. He joined the communist movement and moved to Pakistan in December 1947. The left‐wing People's Publishing House in Karachi became his abode and he dedicated himself to organizing the workers in unions. Nasir gained attention and established himself as a student leader when he played a key role in founding the All Pakistan Students Organization. In 1951 he was arrested in connection with the Rawalpindi Conspiracy Case, launched by the Pakistan government in order to suppress the emerging Communist Party, and was released in 1952. His release proved short‐lived, as he was arrested again in 1954 and was exiled. He returned to Hyderabad, and in 1956 he moved to Pakistan yet again, becoming the National Awami Party's (NAP) office secretary in Karachi. It is suspected that he was also the general secretary of the illegal Communist Party. As the military imposed its first dictatorship in 1958, Hassan went into hiding, and the government announced a reward for his arrest. It is likely that one of his close associates betrayed him, leading to his arrest in 1960. He was sent to Lahore Fort where he was tortured to death and his body hastily buried by the authorities.
Nasser, Gamal Abdel (1918–1970)
Authors: Kurt Andrew
Published: September 2017

Colonel Nasser was a leader in the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 which ended British imperial dominance and the Egyptian monarchy. As Egypt's president for 14 years, he was a proponent of Arab socialism and pan‐Arabism. While his economic program is viewed as a mixed success for Egypt, and his military record against Israel was one of failure and disappointment, he was the foremost Arab leader of his day. The secular political order he instituted continues today in Egypt and has been copied in other Arab nations.
Nat Turner Rebellion
Authors: Kaye Anthony E.
Published: September 2017

Nat Turner led the last of the great slave rebellions in the United States. In the dark of a summer morning in 1831, he set out with just six comrades. As they marched across Southampton County, Virginia, their ranks grew to about sixty, and an equal number of white people lay dead. The revolt was swiftly crushed but shook slavery in Virginia to its foundations.
N
ational
G
uard,
M
ontmartre, 1871
Authors: Stewart Pamela J.
Published: September 2017

The association between the National Guard of Paris and the area of the city known as Montmartre did not become distinct or linked with revolution until 1871. The Marquis de Lafayette created the National Guard of Paris, a militia made up of Parisian middle‐class (bourgeois) men, and served as its commander from 1781 to 1791. By 1848, its members supplied some of the leaders of the insurrection known as the June Days, encouraging Emperor Louis‐Napoleon III to disband the National Guard in 1852.
N
epal, Protest Movements, 19th and 20th Centuries
Authors: Dhar Sushovan
Published: September 2017

The Himalayan kingdom of Nepal emerged from the
Gorkha
state, founded in 1559 by King Dravya Shah. Prithvi Narayan Shah (reigned 1743–75) conquered the valley and created a single autocratic state.
Neto, Agostinho (1922–1979)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

António Agostinho Neto was an Angolan nationalist leader who fought against Portuguese colonialism and became the first president of the People's Republic of Angola on November 11, 1975. He was born on September 17, 1922, in the village of Kaxikane, Icolo e Bengo, some 40 miles southeast of Luanda, the capital of the Portuguese colony of Angola. His father was a Methodist minister, and his mother was a teacher. He studied at Salvador Correia High School, and from 1944 to 1947 he worked in the Luanda Public Health Service. During this time he befriended Reverend Ralph Dodge, an American Methodist bishop. Through Dodge he gained a scholarship to the University of Coimbra in Portugal to study medicine, and later transferred to Lisbon University Medical School. Neto became an
assimilado
– that is, one of the tiny minority of colonial Africans and mulattos who were granted Portuguese citizenship on the basis of having been assimilated into Portuguese culture. Even so, he became interested in politics, gaining recognition as a notable nationalist poet and advocate of separatism. His poetry rapidly gained him the attention of writers and literary figures around the world. His first poems were published in book form in
Quatro Poemas
(Four Poems), published in 1961, followed by
Con Occhi Aschiutti
(With Dry Eyes) and
Sagrada Esperanza
(Sacred Hope), published in 1974.
N
ew
H
armony
Authors: Goff Richard
Published: September 2017

In 1825 British utopian socialist Robert Owen announced, “I am come to this country [the United States] to introduce an entire new system of society; to change it from an ignorant, selfish system to an enlightened social system.” While these words seem unlikely to come from a wealthy Welsh industrialist, few individuals are so closely associated with early socialist experimentation than Owen. Born to a family of modest means during the revolutionary turmoil of the 1770s, Owen quickly moved up through the economic ranks of industrial Manchester. After acquiring the New Lanark Mills in the early 1800s, Owen began construction of a model industrial town for the express purpose of bettering the poor and working classes.
NgoDinhNhu (1910–1963)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

The younger brother of Ngo Dinh Diem, the president of South Vietnam from 1955 to 1963, Ngo Dinh Nhu was his brother's closest confidant, serving as minister of the interior until they were both assassinated in 1963. Ngo Dinh Nhu was born in 1910, in Hue. His father, Ngo Dinh Kha, was an important figure at the Vietnamese Imperial Court. Nhu, the fourth of the six Ngo Dinh brothers, was educated in France where he attended university and became interested in the French philosopher Emmanuel Mounier (1905–50), who had developed his own political concept of “personalism,” which would later become the state ideology of South Vietnam – although some of Mounier's adherents were to decry any connection between the French philosopher and the concept of personalism in Vietnam. On his return to Vietnam, Nhu became active as an organizer of the Vietnamese Federation of Christian Workers, the Catholic labor union movement.
N
igeria, 1993 Political and Electoral Protest and Conflict
Authors: Akanle Olayinka
Published: September 2017

Nigeria is the most populous nation in Africa. Endowed with human and natural resources, it is also the continent's oldest federal polity and has great ethnic, religious, class, and linguistic diversity. Nigeria experienced one of the most popular pro‐democracy revolts in the history of contemporary African governance following the annulment of the free and fair presidential elections of June 12, 1993, which were presumed to have been won by Chief Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola.
Nigeria, Separatist Agitation, Contemporary
Authors: Adeniran Adebusuyi I.
Published: September 2017

Nigeria gained independence from British colonial domination on October 1, 1960 as a fusion of well over 250 ethnic nationalities. Intense competition for political power among postcolonial leaders has given rise to stiff divisions and suspicion among various nationalities, ethnic groups, and, indeed, religious associations within the country. By 1967, the bid to declare a state of Biafra by the Igbo secessionists of Eastern Nigeria had led to the outbreak of a fatal civil war, which lasted until 1970 and claimed an estimated three million lives.
N
krumah,
K
wame (1909–1972)
Authors: Olumide Olusanya
Published: September 2017

Kwame Nkrumah was a nationalist, African socialist leader, and anti‐imperialist president of Ghana. He was among the most influential, charismatic, and controversial leaders of newly independent sub‐Saharan Africa from the mid‐1950s to the mid‐1970s.
Non‐Interventionists, 1914–1945
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

The non‐interventionist movement in the United States serves as a foundation for dissent in America where involvement in international conflicts is concerned. In 1917, as the United States grew closer to entering the war in Europe, voices of dissent could be heard inside Washington circles.
Non‐Violent Movements: Foundations and Early Expressions
Authors: Ritter Daniel , Pieper Christopher
Published: September 2017

Contempt for abusive power is one of the most salient features of politics in world history. Examples of violent responses to such power abuses are numerous, and much of our written history revolves around the clash between rulers and ruled, challengers and insiders, indigenous and invaders. The most common result of these clashes has been asymmetrical suffering visited upon challengers, particularly when their main tactic is violent reprisal. However, throughout the ages, individuals and groups have also resisted oppression by non‐violent means, defined as “a general technique of conducting protest, resistance, and intervention without physical violence”(Sharp 2005).
N
orthern
I
reland Peace Movement
Authors: Halloway Nada
Published: September 2017

The Northern Ireland peace movement began as the result of a tragedy and developed as a resistance to the violence that had gripped Northern Ireland. On August 10, 1976, Mairead Corrigan Maguire, one of the founding members of the peace movement, experienced a personal tragedy when two of her nephews and one of her nieces were killed in a street in Belfast. The children paid the price for the constant battle between the British and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). On that day, a British army patrol spotted Danny Lennon, an IRA gunman, driving down a street in Belfast. The patrol shot and killed Lennon, whose car then plowed into the sidewalk, killing the children and severely injuring their mother and Corrigan's sister, Anne, who committed suicide in 1980. The deaths of the children shocked the people of Belfast and they realized that the killings had to stop. Betty Williams, who had witnessed the accident, contacted the
Irish News
and talked to its veteran reporter, Tom Samways. Williams's actions led to her friendship with Maguire and the development of the peace movement. Maguire also visited the Ulster Television Studios where she delivered an appeal for an end to the violence.
O
brador,
A
ndrés
M
anuel
L
ópez (b. 1953) and the
PRD
Authors: Espejel Leticia Pacheco
Published: September 2017

Andrés Manuel López Obrador was born November 13, 1953 in Tepetitán, Tabasco, Mexico. He studied political science and public administration at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). In 1977 he assumed office as director of the Instituto Indigenista (Indigenous Institute). Relocating to Mexico City in 1984, he became director of social promotion at the government's Instituto Nacional del Consumidor (National Consumers' Institute). At the same time he published his first books:
Los primeros pasos
(The First Steps) and
Del Esplendor a la Sombra
(From Shine to Shadow). After participating in the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) since 1976, he decided to join the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) in 1989.
O
'
B
rien,
B
ronterre 1805–1864)
Authors: Pickering Paul A.
Published: September 2017

Radical journalist James O'Brien was born in County Longford, Ireland and educated at a progressive school in Lovell Edgeworth and Trinity College, Dublin. After studying law at King's Inns, he removed to England where he was soon drawn into the world of politics. He joined the Radical Reform Association and met the leading radicals of the day, Henry Hunt and William Cobbett. Under the pseudonym Bronterre, he began contributing articles to the
Poor Man's Guardian
, a popular radical newspaper edited by Henry Hetherington.
O
'
C
onnor,
A
rthur (1763–1852)
Authors: Conner Clifford D.
Published: September 2017

Arthur O'Connor is the most important Irish revolutionary most people have never heard of. As one of the central leaders of the United Irishmen at the time of the 1798 Rebellion, he played a significant role in the origins of Irish republicanism and Irish nationalism. But for an accident of weather – a storm preventing a French army led by General Lazare Hoche from landing at Bantry Bay in December 1796 – English domination of Ireland would have received a severe challenge from a liberation army commanded by General Arthur O'Connor. Today, however, his name and reputation are not nearly as well remembered as are those of Theobald Wolfe Tone, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Robert Emmet, and several others of his United Irish colleagues.
O
neida
P
erfectionist
U
topians
Authors: Goff Richard
Published: September 2017

One of the more fascinating utopian experiments of the nineteenth century was the Oneida Community of New York. The “Perfectionist” religious group, organized along the teachings of John Humphrey Noyes, intrigued observers and scholars with their practice of complex marriage and communal living. Founded in 1848, the Oneida Community's membership peaked at 300 in 1878 before dissolving in 1881, eventually becoming Oneida Limited, a popular flatware manufacturer.
O
ntario
C
oalition
A
gainst
P
overty (
OCAP
)
Authors: Clarke John
Published: September 2017

From the late 1980s through the first decade of the twentieth century, the Ontario Coalition Against Poverty (OCAP) has mobilized communities suffering under neoliberal policies of the Canadian and provincial government. The organization's work is dominated by two major political factors – countering the aggressive agenda of corporate capital in dismantling the social infrastructure and the growth in poverty. OCAP sees itself as filling a decisive lack of opposition to the neoliberal attack in view of the ineffective challenge mounted by labor and older social movements rooted in earlier forms of compromise.
O
rtega,
D
aniel (b. 1945)
Authors: Sierakowski Robert
Published: September 2017

Daniel Ortega Saavedra was a guerilla
comandante
of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) who served as the president of Nicaragua on two occasions, most recently being elected in 2006. Born in La Libertad, Ortega was the son of a former collaborator of Augusto César Sandino, the nationalist guerilla leader who fought against the US occupation of Nicaragua. Ortega attended the best private schools in Managua, where he and his younger brothers were involved with Christian organizing and Bible lessons in slums. From his teenage years, Ortega was involved with political organizing against the Somoza regime, finding himself arrested on numerous occasions. He entered the law program at the University of Central America, only to drop out to focus on anti‐regime activities and join the FSLN, a leftist guerilla organization that modeled itself upon the example of the Cuban Revolution.
P
akistan,
B
engali Nationalist Struggles
Authors: Mamoon Muntassir , Khan Zarina Rahman
Published: September 2017

From 1900 to 1947 there were various types of movements in the Indian subcontinent, some local and others national. Two political parties became prominent: the Congress and the Muslim League. These two political parties became the symbol of hopes and aspirations of the ordinary people, particularly the Hindu and the Muslim middle class. The Communist Party of India (CPI) also flourished in this period and became strong in the 1930s and 1940s. In particular the CPI organized the movement of the peasants and workers.
P
akistan, Protest and Rebellion
Authors: Sulehria Farooq
Published: September 2017

Pakistan was declared independent on August 14, 1947. Its first government was sworn in on August 15. A constituent assembly, elected on the basis of general elections in British India in 1946, became the parliament of the new country. At that time, Pakistan consisted of two wings: East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (present‐day Pakistan). Political power was concentrated in West Pakistan, while East Pakistan had 60 percent of the total population.
Palmer Raids
Authors: Collins Tom
Published: September 2017

Between November 1919 and February 1920, the US Department of Justice carried out raids against suspected radical organizations, rounding up more than 6,000 “alien agitators” with the intention of deporting them. Many were arrested without warrants, denied legal counsel, and detained for months. Ultimately around 800 individuals, identified as communists or anarchists, were expelled from the United States.
Panama, Cemaco's Anti‐colonial Resistance, 1510–1512
Authors: Töller Inga
Published: September 2017

Cemaco was an indigenous leader in Darien Province in sixteenth‐century Panama who led his men in the struggle against the Spanish colonialists under the leadership of Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. In 1510 Cemaco and around 500 of his men clashed with the Spanish in an attempt to defend their territory. In this violent battle Cemaco lost a lot of his men and had to abandon his main town, which the Spaniard Vasco Nuñez de Balboa then called Santa María La Antigua, and which became the first Spanish town on the American mainland. Cemaco's first defeat was to mark the beginning of continuous battles by one of the most important Darien
caciques
(headchiefs) who, to defend the land against the Spanish, allied himself with other regional
caciques
such as Abenamaque, Abibeiba, Abraiba, Dabaiba, Eclava, and Zururiaga. On several occasions Cemaco and his allies attacked colonial expeditions in the area, who were on the search for gold.
Paraguay, Protests in the Liberal Era and the Triple Alliance
Authors: Turner Brian , Turner† Christina
Published: September 2017

Paraguay gained independence from Spain in 1811 under the leadership of Dr. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia. Francia ruled the country from 1814 to 1840. During this period Francia closed the borders and isolated Paraguay from its neighbors and the world. The economy shifted fundamentally from colonial elite control to state control, opening land for farming by thecampesinoclass.
P
aris Commune and Women
Authors: Stewart Pamela J.
Published: September 2017

The events of the Paris Commune unfolded in March 1871 when the seat of the French government was temporarily moved from the capital after France's defeat in the Franco‐Prussian War (1870–1). With executive functions moved to the comparative safety of Versailles, and Prussian troops poised to enter the city, Parisians felt betrayed by their own national government. As a result, they formed a popular socialist government known as the Commune, its name honoring the earlier Paris Commune of the late eighteenth century. During its brief reign in the spring of 1871, the Commune attempted to create an egalitarian government while it protected itself first against Prussian occupation, then against the moderate French republican government which attempted to retake the city. Though remarkable both for its radical socialism and its stalwart military resistance, one of the most noteworthy features of the Commune was the revolutionary participation of women in all phases and aspects of the city's governance, from political leadership to front‐line military service.
Paul, Alice (1885–1977)
Authors: Cyganowski Carol Klimick
Published: September 2017

Alice Paul brought to the US woman suffrage movement many radical tactics of the British movement: marches, outdoor public meetings, disruption, picketing, refusal to pay fines to avoid jail terms, prison disobedience, hunger strikes, and holding responsible the party in power. Acting to influence US circumstances, Paul developed prototype strategies for civil rights protest: non‐violent demonstrations, passive resistance, picketing the White House and Congress, using media coverage to provoke public opinion over assaults against demonstrators and brutality against prisoners. Thanks partly to this awakening, public outrage repeatedly pushed forward the Nineteenth Amendment. After suffrage, Paul's National Woman's Party (NWP) pursued women's equality through federal and state laws. She authored and fought for the first US Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) and worked for women's rights internationally.
Pelloutier, Fernand (1867–1901) and the Bourses du Travail
Authors: Zanco Jean‐Philippe
Published: September 2017

Fernand‐Léonce‐Emile Pelloutier was born to a middle‐class, Christian, monarchist family in Nantes. While he was still a pupil at the seminary of Saint‐Nazaire, in 1885, he began writing for a radical newspaper,
La Démocratic de l'Ouest
. He became the editor in 1892. In the same year, he joined the French Parti Ouvrier (Worker's Party) founded by Jules Guesde, and he helped create the Bourse du Travail of Saint‐Nazaire. In September he was made a representative for the Bourse of Saint‐Nazaire to the General Congress of Tours, where he called for the general strike. Because of this clearly revolutionary conception, he broke with parliamentary socialism and was classified as a “dangerous revolutionary” by the sub‐prefect of Saint‐Nazaire. Leaving for Paris, Pelloutier quickly made contact with anarchists such as Paul Delesalle, Pierre Monatte, and Jean Grave, editor of the anarchist paper
Les Temps Nouveaux
, and soon was personally engaged in action: in July 1894 he stood against the police with militant workers defending the Bourse du Travail of Paris against a government closure order. Because of his youth and enthusiasm, he soon gained influence throughout the syndicalist world: in June 1895 he became the secretary of the Fédération des Bourses du Travail.
Peronist Resistance
Authors: Salas Ernesto
Published: September 2017

The term
resistencia peronista
refers to the actions carried out by thousands of Peronist sympathizers in the five years following the 1955 coup d'etat that aimed to achieve the return of President Juan Domingo Perón. On June 16, 1955, military planes bombed the Casa Rosada, the Argentinian government headquarters, and its surrounding area in the Plaza de Mayo with the purpose of killing Peron. The uprising failed, but the bombing, witnessed by the city in the middle of the day during work hours, left a death toll of 300. Three months later, a new coup attempt that had the support of the political opposition and the Catholic Church succeeded. A military government, known as the Revolucion Libertadora, displaced the democratic government. Thus began a period of 18 years during which Peronism was proscribed.
P
hilippines, Protests, 1950s–1970s
Authors: Rousset Pierre
Published: September 2017

After the defeat of the Huk's revolutionary struggle in the Philippines, progressive politics focused on the moderate nationalism of Claro M. Recto. However, in the late 1960s, with a new wave of youth radicalization, communist groups took back the political initiative, before they split sharply over the Sino‐Soviet conflict.
Plaatje, Solomon Tshekisho (1876–1932)
Authors: van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

Solomon Tshekisho “Sol” Plaatje was an African intellectual, publisher, and prominent early nationalist. Like many other early African leaders, he was born to a Christian peasant family at Doornfontein, near Boshof in the independent Afrikaner republic, the Orange Free State (OFS). His father, Johannes Kushumane Plaatje (1835 — 96), was a Lutheran deacon, and Sol grew up on the Lutheran Berlin Missionary Society's station at Pniel in Britain's Cape Colony. Christianity would leave a deep imprint upon him, as would the example of the qualified franchise system in the Cape, which allowed a significant minority of Africans and Coloreds access to the voters' roll. A talented pupil, he received additional private tutoring and assisted the missionaries as a teacher at the age of 15. A Tswana‐speaker, he would eventually speak eight languages fluently. Nonetheless, with only three years of formal schooling, Plaatje lacked the impressive qualifications of many other members of the African elite.
Poland, Trade Unions and Protest, 1988–1993
Authors: Meszmann Tibor T.
Published: September 2017

In contrast to other communist states behind the former Iron Curtain, trade unions in Poland were central actors both during the events preceding the fall of communism in 1989 and during the first transition years to the promising world of market democracy. Trade unions' political involvement between 1989 and 1993 rested on a legacy of workers' protests and union activism during communism, most importantly the much‐celebrated “self‐limiting revolution' (Staniszkis 1984) of the Solidarity trade union in 1980–1. The particularly active and rebellious nature of Polish society during the transition was largely due to trade union involvement (Ekiert & Kubik 1999; Ost 2002). Union involvement expressed both hope and rising social expectations and, amid great economic hardships, social apathy and defensive employee protest.
Polish Revolution, 1905–1907
Authors: Linch Amy
Published: September 2017

By the turn of the twentieth century opposition to tsarist domination of Congress Poland had consolidated into two camps: the National Democrats and the Polish Socialist Party (PPS). The National Democratic Party had its roots in the Polish League, a secret society formed in 1886 to resist Russification and build a united Poland based on liberal principles. The League was reorganized in 1891 by Roman Dmowski into the National League, which rejected liberalism in favor of national autonomy through whatever means were necessary. By 1905 the League was established as the National Democratic Party. Among the various factions that formed the broad coalition of socialists represented in the other camp, many originally rejected nationalism in favor of anarchist cosmopolitanism. As the PPS was consolidated under the leadership of Bolesław Limanowski, however, many among the socialist leadership were persuaded toward support for Polish independence. Marx and Engels's anti‐tsarist views and prescription of the necessity of an independent Poland were more compelling than their economic ideas for many socialists. Initially there were strong sympathies between the two factions given the shared ideal of national independence and socialist leanings among several of the National Democratic leadership. The National Democrats ultimately represented the middle classes, however, while the PPS drew its base from among the workers. The outbreak of the Russo‐Japanese War in 1904 exacerbated these differences and the two groups worked at cross purposes during the ensuing period of revolutionary action.
P
rima
L
inea
Authors: Quadrelli Emilio
Published: September 2017

Prima Linea was formed in autumn 1976 by former members of the extraparliamentary group Lotta Continua and by activists from the organization Workers' Power. In total, the Italian government convicted 923 people for active membership in Prima Linea. For more than a year, the organization used at least ten different names, the most common of which were: Armed Struggle for Communism, Fighting Workers' Squads, and Proletarian Armed Patrols. Prima Linea was a leading organization of the Italian revolutionary movement, and was dominant during 1977.
Primera, Alí (1942–1985)
Authors: Scruggs T. M.
Published: September 2017

Alí Rafael Primera Rosell was born October 31, 1942 in Coro, Falcón State, Venezuela, and died in Caracas, November 16, 1985. Despite his untimely demise at the age of 43, Alí Primera remains the foremost singer‐songwriter of music with social comment in Venezuela in the last quarter of the twentieth century and one of the most prominent and influential in Latin America.
Propaganda by the Deed
Authors: Zimmer Kenyon
Published: September 2017

First used in the 1870s to describe rural insurrections organized by Italian anarchists, in the 1880s and 1890s the term “propaganda by the deed” became linked to individual acts of assassination and terrorism. Though originally meant to precipitate revolution, these acts of revolt instead soon came to be understood as a means of publicizing their ideals and “awakening” the masses. Numerous historians link the rise of propaganda by the deed to the disintegration of anarchist organizations, increasing isolation from working‐class movements, state persecution, and the growth of parliamentary socialism in this period. It was also closely related to the simultaneous emergence of anarchocommunism, alongside which it was endorsed by prominent anarchists like Errico Malatesta and Peter Kropotkin, and both doctrines were officially adopted at the International Anarchist Conference in London in 1881.
Protest and Revolution, Stages in
Authors: Rubinson Paul
Published: September 2017

Amid the passionate throes of a revolution, it may not appear to a revolutionary that he or she passed through a distinct set of stages in order to arrive at this moment. Indeed, a systematic analysis of stages and struggles leading to protest and revolution threatens to rob the events of their romantic appeal. Thus only relatively recently ‐as compared to the long history of protest and revolution – have scholars attempted to outline a coherent process that protests and revolutions go through. The first scholars to investigate collective action theorized that a mere accumulation of sufficient grievances would spur protest, thus oversimplifying the arduous process of collective action. Those closer to the ground, on the other hand, have long recognized that – even for the most moderate change – letting grievances naturally take their course rarely, if ever, works.
Punk Movement
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

The punk movement cannot be relegated to just a genre of music or dismissed as simply a passing fad. Punk gave a generation an ideology that was meaningfully their own, one that represented a counterculture to the counterculture. For those who began to come of age in the dwindling era of non‐violent cooperation, representative of the 1960s hippie culture, punk was fast, bizarre, and often outrageous. By the late 1960s, revolutionary changes in music were bringing Nico and the Velvet Underground, the New York Dolls, and Television to the forefront of pop culture. Iggy Pop and the Stooges began to communicate the violent contortions of a population that had been raised in a materialistic and violent society. Attitudes amongst the younger generation, mostly working class, no longer represented an interest in peaceful protest. In New York City, as the 1970s arrived, the Ramones, MCS, Television, and Patti Smith began to pave a new path and a new philosophy.
Q
adaffi,
M
uammar Al‐ (b. 1942)
Authors: Nickels Benjamin P.
Published: September 2017

Colonel Muammar al‐Qadaffi (variously spelled) has ruled Libya since coming to power in the september 1, 1969 coup d'état that deposed Libya's King Idris I. He retired from public office in 1979, but continues to rule under the ceremonial title “leader of the revolution.”
Qu Qiubai (1899–1935)
Authors: Pantsov Alexander V.
Published: September 2017

Qu Qiubai, whose real name was Qu shuang, was one of the most prominent leaders of the first generation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Qu was born in the town of Changzhou, Jiangsu Province, on June 18, 1899. In 1916 he entered a special Russian‐language school in Beijing. He soon became a cofounder of the patriotic magazines
Xin shehui
(New society) and
Rendao
(Human Path). He went to Moscow in January 1921 as a correspondent for the Beijing newspaper
Chenbao
(Morning), and in that capacity attended the Third World Congress of the Comintern in June‐July 1921.
Q
ueen
N
anny and Maroon Resistance
Authors: Aikins Joshua Kwesi
Published: September 2017

Queen Nanny (birth unknown, died post–1741) was the political and military leader of the Windward Maroons in Jamaica, a group of runaway enslaved Africans who fled the plantations and established independent communities, modeled on West African polities, in Jamaica's mountainous interior. Their relentless 85–year‐long resistance could not be crushed by the British Empire, which eventually signed peace treaties with them. Jamaican Maroon communities have retained an autonomous status as well as their unique cultural identity to this day.
Red Brigades
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

Brigate Rosse (BR) or Red Brigades, founded in Milan in 1970, were an Italian armed communist organization. The BR formed out of neighborhood collectives and committees at the Pirelli, sitsiemens, and Michelin factories in the Milan region at the end of a mass labor upsurge from 1968 to 1969. In 1969 the committees joined together under the coordination of the Metropolitan Political Collective (CPM). In the aftermath of the December 12, 1969 bombing in Milan, which killed 16 civilians in what many considered a state‐sanctioned action, the popular movements concluded that conventional forms of dissent were ineffective in reversing state repression, and decided that armed struggle was necessary in response to the class war declared by the ruling class. For many Italian movements, the presumption that the state was unresponsive to popular non‐violent protest created a sense of anguish and despondency, especially since the partisans had defeated the fascists in World War II, only to be once again repressed in the postwar political compact, for all practical purposes, invalidating legal means to advance working‐class power.
Red Scotland and the Scottish Radical Left, 1880–1932
Authors: Kenefick William
Published: September 2017

In January 1880, in a lecture presented by the statistical society in London on “The strikes of the Last Ten Years,” it was stated there had been some 2,352 strikes across Britain in that year, and that 473 strikes took place in Scotland. Indeed, Glasgow topped the league of the “Top‐Ten strike Towns” in Britain, with Edinburgh/ Leith and Dundee in fourth and eighth position, respectively. The report stated that wage demands were “in ninety percent of cases” the major source of dispute, but that north of the border other forces were at work, with labor leaders in Scotland fostering a “constant spirit of opposition” in the collieries and mines.
Reed, John (1887–1920)
Authors: Draper Timothy Dean
Published: September 2017

American‐born communist writer and journalist John “Jack” silas Reed took part in several principal, international radical events of the early twentieth century. Reed is perhaps best remembered for his works on the Mexican and Russian Revolutions, including the widely popular account of the Bolshevik Revolution,Ten Days that shook the World, published in 1919. He was the subject of the award‐winning 1981 filmReds, which revitalized interest in his life and career. As a journalist and writer, Reed circulated and befriended leading socialites, artists, poets, and radicals, including Mabel Dodge Luhan, Eugene O'Neill, Max Eastman, and Bill Haywood. He also became a close friend of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin.
Reform Bills, Britain, 1867 and 1884
Authors: Rutz Michael
Published: September 2017

The British Reform Bills of 1867 and 1884 continued the expansion of the parliamentary franchise begun with the Great Reform Bill of 1832. Neither bill passed as a result of extensive social or political unrest; rather, they were the result of parliamentary leaders' measured responses to the changing social and political climate of the mid– to late Victorian periods.
Reformation
Authors: Roldan‐Figueroa Rady
Published: September 2017

The Reformation of the sixteenth century can be seen as a series of localized and yet interdependent reactions to major shifts that marked the end of late medieval society. Among these the emergence of modern nation‐states, the rise of vernacular languages, and the reemergence and spread of urban centers are but a few of the best‐known markers of the early modern period. But the Reformation also signaled the demise of a powerful construct that dominated the minds of many in the higher rungs of medieval society. The medieval notion of the
corpus christianum
presupposed the existence of a seamless overlap between church and society. To be sure, it was never a stable construct. In fact, it was subject to a rather tenuous balance of power between the two most important institutions of medieval Europe, namely the papacy and the medieval monarchy, especially the Holy Roman Empire.
Republic of New Afrika
Authors: Leibensperger Summer D.
Published: September 2017

The Republic of New Afrika (RNA) was established in Detroit, Michigan in 1968 by Imari and Gaidi Obadele. Involved in the black liberation movement, RNA's primary aim was to form an independent black nation within the Us, demanding that the Us government concede five southern states and $400 billion in reparations for slavery and reconstruction to form RNA. RNA was one of many groups targeted by the Federal Bureau of Investigation's illegal COINTELPRO operations, which resulted in the conviction of several RNA leaders.
Resistenza
Authors: Pavone Claudio
Published: September 2017

In the European countries occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II, resistance movements arose that were characterized, to different degrees, by four essential factors: (1) a patriotic war against the occupying forces; (2) a civil war against local fascists or collaborators; (3) a class war against capitalists, aimed at social renewal; and (4) unarmed civil resistance. The common objective of all these factors was to drive fascism from Europe.
R
omania, Protests and Revolts, 18th and 19th Centuries
Authors: Bogdan Jolan
Published: September 2017

Romania's turbulent history of struggle and revolution dates back as far as the first century. The legacy of recent history, however, begins in the eighteenth century, when Romanians, swept up in the waves of nationalism and ambitions of self‐rule washing over Europe, began their struggle for establishing an independent Romanian state, free from foreign interference. The nationalist goal was to unite under one rule the three principalities in the Balkan region, which contained the majority of Romanians; they were Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania. The Romanians in these three regions each labored under a different foreign ruler. Even in the early twenty‐first century, Romania is mired in territorial disputes. Transylvania, the most contested region, receives special attention due to its vocal Hungarian minority. The Romanians in independent Moldavia, on the other hand, seek unification with Romania. These territorial disputes, along with worker struggles, constitute much of Romania's history.
R
omania, Student and Worker Protests, 1956
Authors: Deletant Dennis John
Published: September 2017

The Hungarian uprising of October 23, 1956 allowed the Romanian leadership to amply demonstrate its fidelity to the Soviet Union. Its repercussions were quickly felt in Romania. Convergence of interest with the Soviet Union and not just slavish obedience determined the stance adopted by the Romanian Communist Party leader Gheorghe Gheorghiu‐Dej and his colleagues. They had two main concerns: a successful revolt in Budapest against communist rule might spread to the 2–million strong Hungarian community in Transylvania, thus sparking an anti‐communist rising in Romania; and a non‐communist Hungary might lay claim to parts of Transylvania, which had been restored in its entirety to Romanian rule by Stalin in March 1945.