bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Decolonial Enactments of Human Resilience
Authors: Atallah Devin G.
Published: March 2021

Critical insights on multisystemic resilience are grounded in Global South knowledge on the complexity of human relationality, which underscores that resilience does not fit neatly into ecological models. These insights are rooted in colonized communities’ embodied and emplaced struggles for dignity and decolonization. Therefore, this chapter shares the author’s reflections on multisystemic dimensions of human resilience emerging from voices of two displaced Palestinian families who participated in one of the author’s previously completed studies in the colonized territory of the West Bank. When reading through the intergenerational narratives of the two Palestinian refugee families featured in this chapter, the author invites readers to accompany him in bearing witness to stories of profound suffering associated with colonial structural violence, yet also stories of radical rehumanization, which manifest as decolonial enactments of resilience.
The Embodied Multisystemic Resilience of Architecture and Built Form
Authors: McGrath Brian , Lei Dongxue
Published: March 2021

Architecture and built form embody resilience at multiple scales in time and space and are multisystemic. This chapter introduces the concept of operative panarchy, which combines Saverio Muratori’s project to activate the historical knowledge of architecture, cities, and territory and panarchy, based on Lance H. Gunderson and C. S. Holling’s description of adaptive transformations in human and natural systems. Operative panarchy, therefore, offers a framework for embodying multisystemic resilience, through incorporating the empirical evidence and historical analysis of human adaptation and ecosystem transformation in the historical evidence of architecture and built form. Archeological and cultural records, together with our common familiarity with the built environment, demonstrate how humans creatively reorganize and change in response to crisis, both minor everyday sensorimotor breakdowns and unprecedented catastrophic events. An operative panarchy diverges from previous discussions on applying various technical understandings of resilience to the professional practices of architecture and urban design and planning and proposes a more universal and embodied understanding of the multisystemic resilience of architecture and built form. Various examples will be presented, including a discussion on developing the concept of operative panarchy in response to the unprecedented speed and scale of urban development in contemporary China.
Multisystemic Resilience
Authors: Brown Katrina
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the extent to which cross-disciplinary understandings of resilience support the development and application of multisystemic resilience approaches based on evidence in current literature. It focuses on how systems thinking—especially complex adaptive systems—has informed the evolution of social-ecological systems resilience analysis and the extent to which this provides an example of multisystemic resilience. It reviews some of the underlying concepts and principles in the field and the boundary-pushing areas of recent research. Finally, it identifies how systemic resilience analysis can make a difference in understanding key global challenges and suggests ways forward for development of a multisystemic resilience field.
Curiosity
Authors: King Nathan L.
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores the intellectual virtue of curiosity, a trait that involves our having and cultivating a healthy appetite for knowledge. Curiosity is distinguished from its vice counterparts—indifference and gluttony. The former is a vice of deficiency, the latter a vice of excess. The chapter then explores what it is to “hit the target” in cultivating a healthy intellectual appetite by cultivating a desire for knowledge about the right objects that is exercised at the right times, cultivated in the right ways, and exercised with a motive for knowledge as such. The chapter aims to establish that, contrary to conventional wisdom, curiosity did not kill the cat.
How We Grow in Intellectual Virtue
Authors: King Nathan L.
Published: March 2021

This chapter provides a framework and suggestions for growth in intellectual virtue. It likens our growth in intellectual virtue to a trip to an important destination. Any well-planned trip requires a clear destination, an assessment of our current location, and a map from getting from where we are to where we want to go. Likewise, any good plan for growth in intellectual virtue requires a clear conception of intellectual virtue, an accurate assessment of our current intellectual character, and paths from getting from our current character to a more virtuous one. Chapters 1–11 provide the clear conception needed here. This chapter considers our current intellectual character by introducing the well-known categories of continence and incontinence. It suggests that many of us exhibit neither virtues nor vices, but rather, traits—like continence or incontinence—that lie between the two. It closes with several suggestions for growth in intellectual virtue, including help from friends and mentors, emulation of exemplars, and specific, intelligent practice.
Possibilities
Authors: Magnuson Doug , Jansson Mikael , Benoit Cecilia
Published: March 2021

Chapter 6 describes the desire for further change shown by the street-involved youth as they grew older and more mature. They were responding to recognition that their friendships need to change if their life is to change; boredom and wanting something more meaningful; unhappiness with their own drug use; weariness with being financially vulnerable; being frightened about the direction of their lives; a desire to be better than their parents; responsibilities to others, including a partner or a child; and utopian aspirations. The chapter also presents the experiences of some youth who had hopes but, at the time of the authors’ final meeting with them, were discouraged and had absorbed the street identity into their long-term idea about who they were.
NFA (No Fixed Address)
Authors: Magnuson Doug , Jansson Mikael , Benoit Cecilia
Published: March 2021

In Chapter 7, street-involved youth are expressing a desire for what other young adults want, that is, to accept responsibility for themselves, to make independent decisions, and to be financially independent. As Arnett found, this is what young adulthood looks like to most young people. Street-involved youth described it as the experience of being in-between, and feeling in-between childhood and adulthood is developmentally and existentially in part the search for and trying out of ways of finding meaning. Past experience with trauma and current financial difficulties contributed to their experience of feeling in-between.
Identity
Authors: Magnuson Doug , Jansson Mikael , Benoit Cecilia
Published: March 2021

Chapter 8 describes how identity exploration and “enduring choices” are more difficult for street-involved youth, in part because they do not receive much help from familial and societal institutions. Identity exploration is in large part the experience of disengagement from street life and engagement with something else. This process is interpretable as a change in worldview, from a reactive need for independence and self-determination, away from “not being who I want to be,” and toward a greater focus or need for meaningfulness, security, and support that comes with interdependence with others. This process was the mirror image of what these youth experienced during their separation from parents and guardians, a time when individuating themselves from their family was important. Identity achievement is a challenge for all youth, and it is an acute problem for street-involved youth who are not situated in social and structural locations where adult identities are easily accessible.
Organogenesis
Authors: Loose Günther , Vogt Günter , Charmantier-Daures Mireille , Charmantier Guy , Harzsch Steffen
Published: March 2021

This chapter reviews the development of the major organ systems in crustaceans, including musculature, nervous system, circulatory system, digestive system, osmoregulatory system, excretory system, reproductive system, and sensory organs. It describes the morphological unfolding of these organ systems, which generally follows cleavage, gastrulation, and segmentation in the course of ontogeny. Particular emphasis is given to the organ-specific temporal dynamics of development, the onset of functionality, and possible correlations with developmental mode, life history, and ecology. The anatomy and cellular characteristics of developing organs are generally better investigated than aspects of physiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Investigations in different crustaceans revealed that the speed of development of the various organ systems varies considerably within an individual and between species. As a rule of thumb, anlagen of the nervous tissue, muscular tissue, digestive system, and excretory organs appear first, followed by the circulatory system. Osmoregulatory organs are formed later. The reproductive organs are the last to emerge and to become functional. The mode of development, behavior, and ecology of the postembryonic stages seem to be major determinants that influence the speed differences of organogenesis. This is reflected by timing differences in development of the digestive system between directly and indirectly developing representatives or species with or without lecithotrophic larvae. Other features of the dynamics of organogenesis suggest evolutionary constraints, such as the delayed development of the nervous system in postnaupliar, relative to naupliar, segments in some species. Mechanistic constraints may be involved in heart development and development of nontransitory osmoregulatory organs.
Patterns of Larval Development
Authors: Møller Ole Sten , Anger Klaus , Guerao Guillermo
Published: March 2021

In this chapter, we explore the different patterns of development following the hatching of the crustacean larvae. For many groups of crustaceans, the free-living, postembryonic, and prejuvenile phase is by far the most important part of their life cycle, providing the link between different life modes in successive phases (e.g., between a sessile adult life and the need for long-range planktonic dispersal). Among the aspects covered, we discuss the specific criteria for what a “larva” is, including the necessity for defining specific larval traits that are lacking in other phases of the life cycle. We examine the typical anamorphic and hemianamorphic developmental patterns based on larval examples from a wide selection of groups from Decapoda to Copepoda, Thecostraca to Branchiopoda. In these groups, we examine the most common larval development patterns (including intraspecific variability) of, for example, the zoea, furcilia, copepodite, nauplius, and cypris larvae. We also expand on the importance of the molting cycle as the main driver in larval ontogeny and evolution. Finally, we discuss some of the more general trends of crustacean larval development in light of the general patterns and latest knowledge on tetraconate and arthropod evolution.
Metamorphosis in Crustaceans
Authors: Haug Joachim T.
Published: March 2021

Many crustaceans undergo considerable morphological and ecological changes throughout ontogeny. Especially drastic and rapid cases are generally addressed as metamorphosis, which cannot be easily differentiated from nonmetamorphic development; a comparative view is necessary. Evolutionary changes lead to a more metamorphic development either by changing the speed of the developmental process or the morphological difference between earlier and later stages. Five cases of evolutionary changes are differentiated: (1) Skipping stages: An ancestrally gradual developmental pattern becomes more metamorphic as the morphological changes of several molts occur in a single molt; the intermediate stage is skipped. (2) Peramorphosis: A developmental pattern becomes more metamorphic by increasing the morphological difference between early and late stages by “adding” new morphologies to the later part of individual development. (3) Delay and acceleration, single step: A single larval stage becomes delayed in development, more resembling the earlier stage, but differing more strongly from the next stage; hence, this later molt becomes more metamorphic. (4) Delay and acceleration, globally: Several larval stages are delayed in development and hence increase the morphological difference to the later larval stages; this stronger difference is bridged by a single, more metamorphic molt. (5) Caenogenesis: new structures evolve in earlier stages, increasing the difference to later stages; these structures become reduced usually in a single molt, making it more metamorphic. For all cases, examples are presented. Furthermore, terminological issues are discussed, as well as costs and benefits of metamorphic development, followed by a short comparison to insects.
Response to Visual, Chemical, and Tactile Stimuli
Authors: Cohen Jonathan H. , Epifanio Charles E.
Published: March 2021

Early life history in marine benthic crustaceans often includes externally brooded eggs that hatch into free-swimming planktonic larvae. These larvae are relatively strong swimmers, and movement in the vertical plane provides a number of advantages, including modulation of horizontal transport and assurance of favorable predator–prey interactions. Swimming behavior in larval crustaceans is regulated by predictable external cues in the water column, primarily light, gravity, and hydrostatic pressure. Light-regulated behavior depends upon the optical physics of seawater and the physiology of light-detecting sensory structures in the larvae, which overall vary little with ontogeny. Swimming in response to light contributes to ecologically significant behaviors in planktonic crustacean larvae, including shadow responses, depth regulation, and diel vertical migration. Moreover, the photoresponses themselves, and in turn the evoked behaviors, change with the needs of larvae as development progresses. Regarding other sensory modalities, crustacean embryos and larvae respond to chemical cues using bimodal sensilla (chemosensory and mechanosensory) as contact receptors, and aesthetascs for detection of water-soluble cues. Processes and behaviors are stimulated by larval detection of chemical cues throughout ontogeny, including egg-hatching, avoidance of predators during free-swimming stages, and, ultimately, settlement and metamorphosis in juvenile habitats. The latter process can also involve tactile cues. The sensory-mediated behaviors described here for crustacean larvae have parallels in numerous arthropod and nonarthropod taxa. Emerging directions for future research on sensory aspects of behavior in crustacean larvae include multimodal sensory integration and behavioral responses to changing environmental stressors.
Predation and Competition
Authors: Bashevkin Samuel M. , Morgan Steven G.
Published: March 2021

Crustacean larvae are subject to predation by a diverse assemblage of invertebrate and vertebrate predators. These predators can find larval prey through visual, tactile, or chemical means and then capture larvae with feeding currents, grasping appendages, suction, or filtering sieves. In response to this predation, crustacean larvae have evolved extensive morphological defenses such as long spines and hard chitinous carapaces. They also exhibit sophisticated behaviors, including extensive vertical and horizontal migrations to avoid encountering predators, rapid darting to evade attacks by nearby predators, and strong swimming to escape after an attack by a predator. Chemical defenses have not yet been documented in crustacean larvae. Interspecific differences in defensive capabilities can be profound, including crab zoeae with spines zero to seven times their body length, and copepod nauplii with dichotomous swimming behaviors that trade off detectability by predators with escape ability. Our review of the literature on predator gut contents and lab feeding experiments found that crustacean larvae are consumed by a vast diversity of predators of all feeding types. These include gray whales, fishes, ascidians, bivalves, octopus larvae, cnidarians, insects, and numerous other crustaceans. Crustacean larvae are important components of many predators’ diets, and the primary food for others, including larvae of commercially important species such as cod. Future research on chemical defenses and phenotypic plasticity are needed to fill gaps in our knowledge of crustacean larval defenses. The predatory threats faced by crustacean larvae and their defensive adaptations have important implications for our understanding of the evolution of larval forms in Crustacea and the factors determining crustacean abundance and distribution.
Costs and Benefits of Brooding among Decapod Crustaceans: The Challenges of Incubating in Aquatic Systems
Authors: Fernández Miriam , Brante Antonio , Baldanzi Simone
Published: March 2021

This chapter discusses general patterns of brooding in decapod crustaceans from aquatic to terrestrial environments, addressing behavioral adaptations as well as costs and benefits. Brooding embryos is a common feature among decapods. However, brooding exhibits a wide range of modes that are highly dependent on the environment. Brooding is less common in marine systems, whereas there is a general pattern of extended brooding with terrestrialization. Exceptions are crabs that have invaded land directly via the seashore, i.e. land crabs that have indirect development like their marine ancestors. During terrestrialization, adaption to environmental stressors like desiccation, UV radiation, temperature variability, mechanical support, and osmolality seemed to generally favor decreasing larval development and increasing duration of brood care. Thus, crustaceans developed more complex brooding mechanisms as adaptive responses to the colonization of land (e.g., osmoregulation of the maternal fluids, marsupial fluid, sealed and specialized marsupium, provision of nutritious material, grooming and cleaning, ventilation of the embryo masses). However, clear brooding behaviors are also observed among several marine species (e.g. grooming and cleaning, oxygen provision). The major efforts to characterize general brooding patterns among decapod crustaceans and describe brooding behaviors were not accompanied by comprehensive studies to understand the costs and the benefits of brooding. Several studies have addressed the positive influence of the mother on embryo development, but the efforts to quantify the impact on embryo survival are still limited. This chapter identifies problems that need further consideration to reach a deeper understanding of the evolution of brooding in decapod crustaceans.
Detecting Cryptic Female Choice in Decapod Crustaceans
Authors: McLay Colin L. , Dennenmoser Stefan
Published: March 2021

Decapod Crustacea (shrimps, lobsters, and crabs) employ a range of different reproductive mechanisms that affect paternity, but does it include cryptic female choice (CFC)? This chapter focuses on events surrounding the fertilization of an egg by a sperm and the opportunities where cryptic fertilization bias might occur. It presents a new model of decapod fertilization, defined in terms of space and time to fertilization. Females have several ways to store sperm and influence fertilization outcomes, which should be affected by (1) their growth pattern (indeterminate or determinate), (2) the link between molting and mating (soft-shell or hard-shell mating), (3) fertilization latency, and (4) how sperm are protected (no protection or storage is separate from the oviduct, or storage in a seminal receptacle is linked to the oviduct). Paternity data available for 26 decapods show that in 85% of species, females carry broods with multiple paternity and 15% have broods with single paternity. Therefore many (if not most) females mate with several males and so they certainly could make a choice. However, whether this pattern is due to CFC or merely reflects mating history is a matter of debate. At present, there are no unequivocal data that demonstrate CFC: outcomes caused by male mate guarding and sperm competition cannot be distinguished from female choice. The challenge is to understand what females might be choosing and how to detect that choice. Detecting CFC in field data is difficult, if not impossible, because both single and multiple paternities could be favored.
Alternative Reproductive Tactics
Authors: Garner Shawn , Neff Bryan
Published: March 2021

Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) describe variation among individuals of a single sex in the tactics used to obtain mating opportunities. In crustaceans, ARTs have been observed in multiple taxa and take a variety of forms. ARTs are most commonly observed in males and are generally associated with intense competition among males to monopolize access to breeding females. ARTs frequently involve a guard tactic that competes with other males to monopolize access to females, while a second usurper tactic foregos competition with other males and instead obtains mating opportunities through sneaking behavior. Guard and usurper tactics may be expressed conditionally based on a male’s ability to guard a female (e.g. his body size, the abundance of competitors), or may be expressed as discrete phenotypes that can also include morphological differentiation. For example, in Jassa amphipods the guard tactic is associated with large body size and an enlarged “thumb” on the claw that is used in aggressive interactions with other males, while the usurper tactic is associated with small body size and a reduced thumb. The usurper tactic can take two forms in a marine isopod: small males (gamma) use sneaking behavior to avoid competition with large males (alpha), whereas intermediate-sized males (beta) use female mimicry to avoid competition. Overall, ARTs are well-represented in crustaceans, with many opportunities for continued study to better characterize these unique adaptations.
Grand Strategy of the Master Class
Authors: Karp Matthew
Published: March 2021

This chapter discusses the role of Southerners and slavery in US foreign policy from the antebellum era to the Civil War. Studies that explore slavery's specific impact on foreign policy have generally confined themselves to the ways that slaveholders worked to secure fugitive slave laws, enact restrictions on black sailors, or, at most, fight to add new slave states to the Union. However, the kind of domination that slaveholders desired went beyond the need to reinforce their narrow property rights, or even the desire to expand the amount of territory under slave cultivation. Antebellum slaveholders assumed national Cabinet posts to command the power of the entire United States, and then, crucially, to use that power to strengthen slavery in world politics. If grand strategy is “the intellectual architecture that gives form and structure to foreign policy,” slaveholding leaders were not merely provincial sectionalists but bold and cosmopolitan strategic thinkers. Their profound ideological commitment to slavery did not merely affect domestic politics within a divided republic; it left a deep imprint on the “strategic culture” of American foreign policy.
Woodrow Wilson, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Beyond
Authors: Nichols Christopher McKnight
Published: March 2021

This chapter evaluates Woodrow Wilson's long-term impact on American internationalism. By chronicling the powerful influence of Wilsonianism—and even more of the variously interpreted political, economic, and social “lessons” of World War I—on internationalist as well as on isolationist ideas, it examines some of the ways in which an expanded definition of grand strategy should apply to Wilson, Jane Addams, and W. E. B. Du Bois. This analysis highlights the centrality of the “moment” from roughly 1914 through 1920 and into the 1920s in the development of varied internationalisms. Peace internationalism, black internationalism, isolationist-internationalism, and of course Wilsonian internationalism amounted to grand strategies aiming to remake the organization of the world and the place of the United States in global relations, and seeking to transform international relations in response to what most of those living at the time considered the most cataclysmic event in human history: the Great War. That these and other internationalist ideologies, primarily aimed at finding solutions to nationalist rivalry and conflict, did not prevent another world war should in no way undermine one's understanding of the power and ambitions of these competing as well as complementary internationalisms.
Foreign Policy Begins at Home
Authors: Moore Michaela Hoenicke
Published: March 2021

This chapter focuses on ordinary Americans, central figures in a foreign policy conditioned by democratic politics and popular opinion. It offers another look at World War II and its legacies with a view to broader societal debates about America's role in the world, highlighting the tension between grand strategy and democracy. Ordinary citizens were part of these debates to a much greater extent than is generally acknowledged. Apart from opinion and election polls, citizen voices have often been shunned by politicians and scholars, who have dismissed them as ineffective and marginal, deplored them as racist or sectarian, and criticized them as isolationist or detrimental to American strategic interests. Attending to what citizens had to say about their country's international role, especially over the course of the transformative 1940s, brings unsettling questions into clearer focus: what purpose and whose interests do grand visions of foreign policy serve?
George H. W. Bush
Authors: Engel Jeffrey A.
Published: March 2021

This chapter evaluates George H. W. Bush as a grand strategist. Determined above all else to preserve the elements of traditional American power amid a tumultuous world and to prevent as much as possible a rapidly transforming world from descending brinto chaos, Bush successfully achieved the markers he set in pursuit of this goal. These included sustaining relations with a reeling China, preserving the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), uniting Germany, negotiating a continental-wide free trade zone designed to counter the rise of Asian and European economic consolidation, and protecting the sanctity of international sovereignty and the import of the United Nations in a post–Cold War world. Ultimately, gauging Bush's success in 1991, or in 2001, or in 2011 produces different answers. A hero in the first instance, perhaps the reason Americans faced problems in the Middle East in the second, he was by the third date largely celebrated for the restraint his son never exhibited. Times changed, his actions in office did not, nor did the central tenets he embraced and embodied as a strategist: he faced instability, believed in the stream of history, and by acting to ensure the American stability he considered paramount to security, helped keep chaos at bay.
Foreign Missions and Strategy, Foreign Missions as Strategy
Authors: Conroy-Krutz Emily
Published: March 2021

This chapter describes how thinking about American foreign missions provides an essential reminder of the sometimes hidden or overlooked role of religion in the history of foreign relations and policy. Accordingly, attention to foreign missions reveals the multiple ways that religious belief and priorities could shape political strategies. In foreign missionaries, one can see a group of early nineteenth-century Americans who had a grand plan for the role of the United States in the world. The United States was, in their view, one of the two seats of “true religion” in the world and accordingly it had a duty to lead the rest of the world toward a particular type of Christianity and “civilization.” This can be seen in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions’ (ABCFM) general process of location selection as well as their early efforts in China, which they saw as a key strategic location in the overall project of the conversion of the world. Similar dynamics were at work in all of the board’s mission stations, but the particular interest that missionaries, merchants, and diplomats had in relations with China make it a particularly apt location for considering missionary and grand strategy.
The Unbearable Whiteness of Grand Strategy
Authors: Lentz-Smith Adriane
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores grand strategy as an intellectual and cultural project by considering its willful unseeing of race as a political project. To ignore race is to misapprehend how power works in the United States and how domestic formulations of subjectivity, difference, and racialized power imbue American foreign relations. The chapter focuses on African Americans in the era of Cold War civil rights. For Carl Rowan and Sam Greenlee, the two African American veterans who provide concrete cases for thinking about the United States and the world, their blackness and ambitions for their people would color how they interpreted America's role in political and military struggles in the Third World and beyond. As with other people of color, their encounters with white supremacy shaped their understandings of liberation, violence, and the United States security project. Their perspectives challenge scholars’ conceptions of the Cold War as a period of “defined clear national interests” and “public consensus.” Centering the stories of Rowan and Greenlee highlights not simply ongoing contestation over the myth and history of the Cold War, but, more fundamentally, the unthinking whiteness of grand strategy itself.
The Occupation of Justice
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

Judicial review by Israel’s Supreme Court over actions of Israeli authorities in the territories occupied by Israel in 1967 is an important element in Israel’s legal and political control of these territories. The Occupation of Justice, Second Edition, presents a comprehensive discussion of the Court’s decisions in exercising this review. This revised and expanded edition includes updated material and analysis, as well as new chapters. Inter alia, it addresses the Court’s approach to its jurisdiction to consider petitions from residents of the Occupied Territories; justiciability of sensitive political issues; application and interpretation of the international law of belligerent occupation in general, and the Fourth Geneva Convention in particular; the relevance of international human rights law and Israeli constitutional law; the rights of Gaza residents after the withdrawal of Israeli forces and settlements from the area; Israeli settlements and settlers; construction of the separation barrier in the West Bank; security measures, including internment, interrogation practices and punitive house demolitions; and judicial review of hostilities. The study examines the inherent tension involved in judicial review over the actions of authorities in territory whose inhabitants are not part of the political community to which the Court belongs. It argues that this tension is aggravated in the context of the West Bank by the glaring disparity between the norms of belligerent occupation and the Israeli government’s policies. The study shows that while the Court’s review has enabled many individuals to receive a remedy, it has largely served to legitimise government policies and practices in the Occupied Territories.
Israeli Settlers
Authors: Kretzmer David , Ronen Yaël
Published: March 2021

As nationals of the occupying power Israeli settlers are not ‘protected persons’ under GCIV. While the Court has recognised this, it has held that for the purposes of the Hague Regulations the settlers are part of the local population in the Occupied Territories for whose benefit the military commander must act. This chapter criticises this view, which runs contrary to the rationale and purposes of the law of occupation. It then examines the implications of this view, evident in the Court’s approach to measures taken to cater to settlers’ interests. It discusses the Court’s decisions on expropriation of land for use of settlers, and on special arrangements for governance of Israeli settlements that involved changes in the local law.
National to Transnational Legal Pluralism
Authors: Tamanaha Brian Z.
Published: March 2021

This chapter studies state law within the United States legal system(s), showing that law is not fully unified and hierarchically organized, a condition that also exists within highly developed national legal systems across Europe. It looks at pluralism internal to national legal systems before considering constitutional pluralism in the European Union, as well as global legal pluralism. Flowing through preceding chapters is the movement from decentralized community law to the consolidation of law within the territorial state—with regime law absorbing or trying to suppress or recognizing or accommodating or turning a blind eye to resilient forms of lived community law. The chapter leaves aside community law to center on the state legal system itself, and thereafter on manifestations of cross-polity laws. As with previous chapters, the focus is on legal pluralism while questioning the image of the monist law state. Unlike previous chapters, which have been largely descriptive, the last part of the chapter is more analytical and critical in discussing global legal pluralism.
“The Frog’s Courtship” and Other Sources
Authors: Stoia Nicholas
Published: March 2021

The stanzaic form of “The Frog’s Courtship” represents a second major branch in the lineage of the “Sweet Thing” scheme. Chapter 2 concerns its progress from Elizabethan England all the way to late nineteenth-century ragtime and early twentieth-century blues and country music. The stanzaic form appears in the United States by the early nineteenth century and then largely disappears from print until reemerging in several songs collected by folklorists in the early twentieth century, demonstrating its strong endurance in oral tradition. More often than “Captain Kidd,” this second stanzaic form appears in extensively abbreviated versions, reflecting its oral mode of transmission, which allows for more flexibility in length of bars. In early ragtime, the form unites with the harmonic language of contemporaneous popular music and acquires melodic and textual content that subsequently imbues early blues and country music as pervasive elements of the twentieth-century “Sweet Thing” scheme.
Poetic Forms and Rhythmic Types
Authors: Stoia Nicholas
Published: March 2021

Chapter 3 examines the poetic forms and rhythmic types of the “Sweet Thing” scheme in early blues, country, and gospel music. Approaching the scheme through its rhythmic profile and poetic form yields an accurate description of its consistent musical characteristics while simultaneously allowing enough flexibility to accommodate its substantial variation, especially with respect to its diverse harmonic progressions and melodic designs. Through a comparison of the rhythmic types identified in this chapter with the rhythmic characteristics of the earlier English, Scottish, Irish, and American sources, it becomes more apparent which ancient songs are the main sources for which modern variants of the scheme: “Captain Kidd” and “The Frog’s Courtship” each left their distinctive rhythmic fingerprint on the multitude of songs they each spawned, and this mark is still evident in many twentieth-century realizations of the “Sweet Thing” scheme.
Harmonic Progressions
Authors: Stoia Nicholas
Published: March 2021

Chapter 4 explores the combination of the poetic forms and rhythmic types with the harmonic language of early blues, country, and gospel music. The main harmonic building blocks of these genres are the major tonic (I), subdominant (IV), and dominant (V) chords, and these are the chords that make up the harmonic progressions in most realizations of the “Sweet Thing” scheme. The harmonic element of the “Sweet Thing” scheme is highly flexible, but this chapter demonstrates that its progressions nonetheless divide into broad comprehensible categories—namely blues-like progressions, periodic progressions, fragmented progressions, and amalgamated progressions—and that the harmony is always closely intertwined with text and rhythm.
Melodic Designs
Authors: Stoia Nicholas
Published: March 2021

The most flexible element of the “Sweet Thing” scheme is melody, the subject of Chapter 5. Because this component is so fluid, a great number of melodies defy categorization and seem largely unrelated to one another; and yet there are many that share noticeable characteristics of general shape and contour, which are here categorized under four titles: “Pirate,” “Stand By Me,” “Frog,” and “Blues Frog.” Moreover, these designs clearly relate back to earlier sources. The “Pirate” design, in particular, exhibits especially deep roots, extending back several centuries and ultimately adapted to the stylistic norms of twentieth-century popular music; but the “Stand By Me” and “Frog” designs also have clear origins in earlier music, the former in gospel hymnody and the latter in ragtime. In one of the most fascinating developments in the emergence of the “Sweet Thing” scheme, a melodic design descending from one branch mixes with a poetic form or rhythmic type—or both—descending from another, generating a new hybrid.
The New Entrepreneurial Advocacy
Authors: Halpin Darren R. , Nownes Anthony J.
Published: March 2021

The role of business in the American political system has always stirred emotions. Contemporary evidence of the clear and growing disparities in wealth between ordinary citizens and business elites has drawn new attention to this topic. Recently, the canon on the activities of business elites in politics has grown, as we have learned a great deal about how business firms and their ultra-wealthy leaders and investors seek to exert political influence. This book examines one form of business elite activity that has thus far received surprisingly little scholarly attention despite the high-profile political efforts of billionaire businesspeople such as Elon Musk and Mark Zuckerberg. Specifically, the book examines what we call the new entrepreneurial advocacy. Where previous work focuses on a cross section of either the wealthiest Americans or the largest firms in the United States, this book takes a deep dive into the political activities of a single yet pivotal cohort: the founders and CEOs of Silicon Valley firms. Leveraging a vast range of unique data sets—spanning the political donations of firms and their leaders; the local, state, and Washington lobbying of Silicon Valley firms; the social media and media commentary of Silicon Valley CEOs and founders; and the role of elites in supporting and founding new political organizations—this book shines a light on the role of this important set of elites in contemporary American political life.
Direct Advocacy by “Super Citizens”
Authors: Halpin Darren R. , Nownes Anthony J.
Published: March 2021

Chapter 4 explores the public pronouncements of SV150+ founders and CEOs. It does this initially by examining how publicly visible our CEOs and founders are. We find that by dint of their public statements, some CEOs and founders are far more publicly visible than others. We ask: Who is most visible? And why are they most visible? From here, Chapter 4 examines the nature and extent of a new form of corporate leader engagement in politics—taking politics public by posting on social media. Examining Twitter posts of SV150+ CEOs and founders specifically, we ask: When CEOs and founders engage politically via social media, do they engage the same issues that their companies do? Or do they “do their own thing,” focusing on issues of interest to them personally? Are CEO and founder tweets partisan and ideological? If so, which way do CEOs and founders lean?
Engineering Hollywood
Authors: Marzola Luci
Published: March 2021

Engineering Hollywood tells the story of the formation of the Hollywood studio system not as the product of a genius producer, but as an industry that brought together creative practices and myriad cutting-edge technologies in ways that had never been seen before. Using extensive archival research, this book examines the role of technicians, engineers, and trade organizations in creating a stable technological infrastructure on which the studio system rested for decades. Here the studio system is seen as a technology-dependent business with connections to the larger American industrial world. By focusing on the role played by technology, we see a new map of the studio system beyond the backlots of Los Angeles and the front offices in New York. In this study, Hollywood includes the labs of industrial manufacturers, the sales routes of independent firms, the garages of tinkerers, and the clubhouses of technicians’ societies. Rather than focusing on the technical improvements in any particular motion picture tool, this book centers on the larger systems and infrastructures for dealing with technology in this creative industry. Engineering Hollywood argues that the American industry was stabilized and able to dominate the motion picture field for decades through collaboration over technologies of everyday use. Hollywood’s relationship to its essential technology was fundamentally one of interdependence and cooperation—with manufacturers, trade organizations, and the competing studios. Accordingly, Hollywood could be defined as an industry by participation in a closed system of cooperation that allowed a select group of producers and manufacturers to dominate the motion picture business for decades.
A Community of Engineers
Authors: Marzola Luci
Published: March 2021

In the motion picture industry, large East Coast manufacturers such as Kodak, GE, DuPont, and Bausch & Lomb produced materials such as lights, film stock, and lenses for production. Beginning with a brief history of the motion picture technology field before 1915, this chapter describes how the industry increasingly became reliant on these American industrial concerns. Beginning around 1916, the manufacturing side of the business was professionalized and unified by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers (SMPE), while continuing to isolate itself from the production side of the industry for another decade. SMPE emphasized standardization across companies in the manufacturing of motion picture tools, creating a stable industry and a community for knowledge sharing that had little contact with the production center in the west.
Between the Lines
Authors: Marzola Luci
Published: March 2021

The film technicians who used and managed the technology within the Hollywood studios themselves, such as cameramen and electricians, take center stage in this chapter, focusing on how the technical work of motion picture production was understood, managed, and promoted within the new “factory” system of Hollywood. The primary case study here is the cameramen, who used their organization, the American Society of Cinematographers, and its publication, American Cinematographer, to establish their status as the chief technicians in motion picture production in the silent period, often by resisting unionization and by touting their special knowledge of the tools of the trade. The cinematographers positioned themselves as “engineers” within the studio, a position that the incursion of trained sound engineers into Hollywood challenged.
Inventing the Mazda Tests
Authors: Marzola Luci
Published: March 2021

The second part of the book begins with chapter 4, which explores the key events of 1927–1928, in which the motion picture industry began to bring together companies and workers from the East and West around strategic technological shifts. While the shift to sound was in process, it was not sound but lights and film stock that served as the vehicles for these early collaborative endeavors. With the formation of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) in 1927, the studios united behind a single organization designed to standardize both labor and technology practices across all the major producers. In order to gain the cooperation and favor of the studio technicians, AMPAS focused many of its early activities on collaborative technical projects. In the spring of 1928, the Mazda tests united the studio technicians, manufacturers, independent labs, and trade organizations to standardize lighting and film stock technology across the industry. This first “scientific endeavor” of Hollywood, followed immediately by the first Society of Motion Picture Engineers (SMPE) convention in the area, created a model for the institutionalization of technological management and innovation in the industry.
Conclusion
Authors: Joyce Rosemary A.
Published: March 2021

The concluding chapter explores the visions of the future that experts involved in advising the US Department of Energy developed, as formal parts of their planning documents. These narratives are almost the only place in the planning process where the specific local populations are mentioned. Turning to the question of the people who live in these areas, this chapter explores Native American responses to nuclear waste disposal planning. It contrasts the vision of the US West as an empty space appropriate for waste with indigenous ontologies in which space is full of animate force. The chapter explores the way fiction, narrative, and performances have been cited as possibly better ways to ward off intrusion in dangerous waste sites than any passive system of markers.
Aristocracy, Family, and Property
Authors: Clark Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2021

Chapter 3 describes the senatorial aristocracy of Rome and divisions within its ranks. Even after the seat of western government left the city for safer territory, its aristocrats retained their pride of place. When Constantine founded Constantinople as his capital in the East, an entire senatorial aristocracy was created for it, although its members could not claim the ancient lineage and traditions of their Roman counterparts. The chapter details senatorial wealth, including that of Melania and Pinian. It explores the diverse meanings of “family” in ancient Rome and relevant inheritance law. It traces the family trees of Melania and Pinian and their extensive real estate—mansions, villas, and agricultural properties, spread across eight Roman provinces. It analyzes the fraught question of whether an excavated palace on Rome’s Caelian Hill was Melania and Pinian’s, and its probable fate.
Levels of Intelligence
Authors: Lee Daeyeol
Published: March 2021

Intelligence is the ability to find solutions to complex problems a life faces in a complex and uncertain environment. This cannot be captured by a standardized numerical score, such as IQ, that focuses on a narrow range of cognitive capabilities, such as working memory or verbal fluency. Intelligence also cannot be separated from the most essential property of all life forms, which is self-replication. This chapter briefly reviews the evolutionary history and diversity of intelligence from single-cell organisms to humans. The chapter includes a definition of intelligence and a discussion of how the nervous system works, the simple behavior of reflexes and the limitations of reflexes, connectome (the comprehensive map of all the connections in an animal’s nervous system), the multiple controllers for muscles, and the social nature of many behaviors. The chapter also includes a case study on eye movements.
Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Lee Daeyeol
Published: March 2021

Compared to the human brain, current artificial intelligence technology is limited in that its goals are determined by human developers and users. Similarly, despite their superficial similarities, modern-day computers and human brains have many differences. Building blocks of human brain that are functionally equivalent to transistors, functional units of digital computers, have not been identified, and we do not know whether hardware and software are separable in the human brain. This chapter uses Mars rovers as a case study to illustrate the autonomy of intelligent robots, because machines dependent on human intelligence is not genuinely intelligent.