bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Environmental Permitting of British Columbia Oil and Gas Commission Regulated Pipelines: Lessons From the Trenches
Authors: de Jong Kristen L. , Blancher Patrick M. , Scoular Matthew G.
Published: December 2014

There are many projects proposed to transport oil and gas resources to British Columbia’s (BC’s) west coast. BC has multiple major pipeline transmission systems (e.g., Trans Mountain pipeline, Spectra Energy and Pacific Northern Gas), and at least six major oil and gas pipelines are planned for construction over the next decade [1]. Large pipeline projects like these that span hundreds of kilometres can involve multiple jurisdictions (federal, provincial or joint) and require considerable regulatory planning. Once a pipeline project is approved through an environmental assessment (EA) process, it must still undergo rigorous environmental review as part of regulatory permitting.

This paper provides an overview of oil and gas environmental regulatory processes in BC, with a focus on the role and process of the BC Oil and Gas Commission (BC OGC) as it pertains to environmental permitting requirements (i.e., legislation and regulation) for pipeline projects. Current regulatory application and review processes have been developed for small projects. This creates several unique considerations for major pipeline project applications. Among these is how best to coordinate the permit applications required for environmental management and protection of the diverse resource features of interest to BC regulatory agencies (e.g., culturally modified trees, riparian management areas, wildlife tree retention areas and old growth management areas).

This paper also highlights the need for an integrated multidisciplinary approach and discusses lessons learned related to strategic planning of permit applications. We provide examples of how collaboration among the proponent’s teams and multiple consultant teams is necessary to develop effective regulatory strategies and obtain timely approvals.
Characterization of Topside Mechanical Damage
Authors: Wang Rick Yahua , Kania Richard , Arumugam Udayasankar , Gao Ming
Published: December 2014

Mechanical damage, such as gouge, is the damage to the pipe surface caused by external forces and is usually caused by third-party damage during construction and excavation. This normally results in a highly deformed, work hardened surface layer with possible metal removal. In many cases, dents are coincident with gouges. Industry standards and regulators treat this type of mechanical damage as critical and require immediate investigation. Therefore, from a pipeline operator perspective, distinguishing between plain dent and dent with gouge is a great challenge for topside dents because quite often they are caused by un-authorized third party activity and contain gouge.

In a previous study[1,2], the present authors developed an approach that combines dent strain-severity criterion with MFL signal recognition to identify dent with gouge and crack. In this paper, an extension of the previous study to topside dents is presented. The enhanced approach for distinguishing between plain dents and dent with gouge/crack for topside dents is summarized. Case studies are given to demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach for identify topside dent with gouge.
Probabilistic Modeling of Crack Threats and the Effects of Mitigation
Authors: Nielsen Andrew , Mallet-Paret Julie , Griffin Kathy
Published: December 2014

In order to understand the probability of failure (PoF) of any system, we must first quantify the uncertainties in the system we are modeling. Common industry practice is to assess potential pipeline defects deterministically and account for uncertainty by taking conservative estimates or adding margins of safety to each parameter. This creates very conservative values for use in integrity management. Instead, probabilistic modeling enables sources of uncertainty, such as measurement accuracy, and their influence on PoF to be quantified and independently accounted for.

Assessing threats probabilistically allows for ease of integration of likelihood with consequence for risk modeling and enables a quantitative comparison of crack, corrosion, deformation and other potential threats.

Enbridge is developing probabilistic models to obtain PoF results and an overall line condition for crack threats on its crude oil transmission pipelines. These results will enable Enbridge to quantify the effects of its integrity programs, and allow for a comparison with other potential mitigations such as hydro-testing and pressure reductions.

Enbridge’s probabilistic modeling methodology includes the selection and justification of model parameters, analysis methods, inputs, and uncertainties. This includes but is not limited to a selection of a failure model, failure criteria, pipe properties, feature sizing, and operating conditions. The selected input distributions are then sampled using a Monte Carlo method in order to calculate mean burst pressure and the resulting PoF.
Brittle Fracture Arrest in High Charpy Energy Steels: Comparisons With Some Existing Data
Authors: Wilkowski G. , Shim D-J. , Hioe Y. , Kalyanam S. , Uddin M.
Published: December 2014

Current line-pipe steels have significantly higher Charpy upper-shelf energy than older steels. Many newer line-pipe steels have Charpy upper-shelf energy in the 300 to 500J range, while older line-pipe steels (pre-1970) had values between 30 and 60J. With this increased Charpy energy comes two different and important aspects of how to predict the brittle fracture arrestability for these new line-pipe steels.

The first aspect of concern is that the very high Charpy energy in modern line-pipe steels frequently produces invalid results in the standard pressed-notch DWTT specimen. Various modified DWTT specimens have been used in an attempt to address the deficiencies seen in the PN-DWTT procedure. In examining fracture surfaces of various modified DWTT samples, it has been found that using the steady-state fracture regions with similitude to pipe burst test (regions with constant shear lips) rather than the entire API fracture area, results collapse to one shear area versus temperature curve for all the various DWTT specimens tested. Results for several different materials will be shown. The difficulty with this fracture surface evaluation is that frequently the standard pressed-notch DWTT only gives valid transitional fracture data up to about 20-percent shear area, and then suddenly goes to 100-percent shear area.

The second aspect is that with the much higher Charpy energy, the pipe does not need as much shear area to arrest a brittle fracture. Some analyses of past pipe burst tests have been recently shown and some additional cases will be presented. This new brittle fracture arrest criterion means that one does not necessarily have to specify 85-percent shear area in the DWTT all the time, but the shear area needed for brittle fracture arrest depends on the pipeline design conditions (diameter, hoop stress) and the Charpy upper-shelf energy of the steel. Sensitivity studies and examples will be shown.
Effect of Chemistry on the Fracture Toughness of Low Carbon X70 Girth Weld Heat Affected Zone
Authors: Rashid M. , Collins L. E. , Bian Y.
Published: December 2014

Addition of alloying elements can alter the properties of high-strength linepipe steel. Particularly the addition of Chromium and Molybdenum acts to suppress ferrite nucleation and promote the formation of acicular bainite microstructures and thereby increase the tensile properties of modern linepipe steel. While chemistry is a factor, welding parameters can also be influential and affect the HAZ toughness. The present work compares the effect of C, Cr, and Mo on the girth weld HAZ fracture toughness of X70 in identical welds.

Three pipes of size 48″ OD × 0.528″ WT with different combinations of C, Cr, and Mo were produced. Identical welding procedures were employed to produce two girth welds so that a low-C, Cr pipe (CE = 0.238) was joined to a high-C, Cr pipe (CE = 0.268) which in turn was joined to a low-C, Mo pipe (CE = 0.224). By evaluating the HAZ properties on either side of a weld, it was possible to accurately assess chemistry affects on HAZ properties.

These girth welds were subjected to different testing for the evaluation of girth weld HAZ impact and fracture toughness. These included all-weld metal and pipe body tensile testing, micro hardness testing of HAZ, microstructure analysis, Charpy V-notch testing of weld metal and HAZ, and CTOD testing of weld metal and HAZ at −5 °C and −20 °C. In addition, to investigate the transformation behaviour, Gleeble simulations of coarse-grain heat affected zone (CG-HAZ) were conducted using skelp samples, which were taken from the same coils as the pipe samples.

The results demonstrated that among the low and high carbon equivalent (CE) alloys, materials with low CE values showed better toughness properties. While among the low CE materials, the material with high Mo performed better in terms of toughness. No clear effect of weld position around the pipe circumference on the CTOD values was observed.
Evaluation of EMAT Tool Performance and Reliability
Authors: Kania Richard , Rosca Gabriela , Tandon Samarth , Gao Ming , Krishnamurthy Ravi
Published: December 2014

From 2009–2013, 13 pipeline segments with an aggregated length of more than 1,300km were inspected with newer versions of EMAT tools for SCC and crack-like defects, and validated with more than 200 excavations. The EMAT tool performance is evaluated in terms of detection, identification, false calls, and sizing. The evaluation showed significant improvement in tool performance compared to previous years where older generations of tools were used. The performance was validated with confirmatory hydrotests. The reliability of using EMAT tools as the alternative to hydrotesting over a range of steel grades and vintage, coating types were assessed incorporating performance parameters like detection, identification, and sizing tolerance, with assessment methodologies. Based on the available historic data of hydrotesting, the reliability of EMAT ILI was compared to that of hydrotesting.

In this paper, the approach used for the evaluation of EMAT tool performance is presented first. The results and findings are then summarized. Hydrotest and EMAT reliability methodologies and results are presented next. EMAT application to gas pipeline SCC integrity management as an alternative to hydrotesting is discussed.
Parameters Affecting Dent Strain Using 3D Laser Scan Profile
Authors: Arumugam Udayasankar , Tinacos Katina , Gao Ming , Wang Rick , Kania Richard
Published: December 2014

Today’s in-ditch laser scan inspection technology provides pipeline operators with relatively accurate 3D dent profile data. Some of the benefits of using laser scan data are to accurately calculate dent strain and quantify its severity. However, there are some concerns regarding the scan parameters used such as; scanner resolution settings, scan coverage over the dent, and its surrounding area as well as repeatability and reliability of scanned dent data that could affect the accuracy of the calculated dent strains. Therefore, it is important to understand how these parameters affect the accuracy of calculated dent strains, which could lead to either over- or under-estimating equivalent strains and result in unnecessary repairs or leaving critical dents in the pipeline without mitigation. The benefit of this study is to help the pipeline operators to reduce in-ditch dent inspection time without compromising on the accuracy of dent geometry and its strain.

In this paper the effect of different scan resolutions on the calculated strain is studied first. Then, using high resolution, the effect of scan coverage on the dent strain is studied. In particular, the difference in the calculated strain among 60°, 90°, 180°, 360° scans coverage circumferentially. The repeatability of dent scan with two different resolutions is then evaluated with two real life dent samples. Finally, the findings from this study are summarized. This serves as the basis for developing an optimal procedure for dent laser scanning with acceptable level of scan parameters for a reliable strain assessment. The benefits and limitations of 3D laser scanning technology from this study are also presented.
Evaluation of New In-Ditch Methods for Measurement and Assessment of External Corrosion
Authors: Cazenave Pablo , Tiñacos Katina , Gao Ming , Kania Richard , Wang Rick
Published: December 2014

New technologies for in-ditch non-destructive evaluation were lately developed and are becoming of mainstream use in the evaluation of external corrosion features for both In-Line-Inspection performance evaluation and pipeline integrity assessment. However, doubt was cast about the reliability and repeatability of these new technologies (hardware and processing software) when compared with those used in the traditional external-corrosion in-ditch measurement and the reliability of the pipeline integrity assessment calculations (PBurst) embedded in their software when compared with industry-wide accepted calculation methods. Therefore, the primary objective of this study is to evaluate the variation and repeatability of the measurements produced by these new technologies in corrosion feature profiling and associated PBurst calculations.

Two new 3D scanning systems were used for the evaluation of two pipe samples removed from service which contain complex external corrosion features in laboratory. The reliability of the 3D scanning system in measuring corrosion profiles was evaluated against traditional profile gage data. In addition, the associated burst pressures reported by the systems were compared with results obtained using industry-widely used calculation methods. Also, consistencies, errors and gaps in results were identified. In this paper, the approach used for this study is described first, the evaluation results are then presented and finally the findings and their implications are discussed.
Pipeline Response to Slope Movement and Evaluation of Pipeline Strain Demand
Authors: Fredj Abdelfettah , Dinovitzer Aaron
Published: December 2014

Pipelines installed on active slopes can be exposed to slope failure mechanisms. The soil movement can introduce substantial axial and bending strains on buried pipeline, and possibly damage. The techniques to predict pipeline displacements, loads, stress or strains are not well described in design standards or codes of practice. The practice of using finite element analysis of soil-pipe interaction has developed in recent years and is proving to be a useful tool in evaluating the pipeline behavior in response to slope movement.

A description of advanced pipe soil interaction modeling tools and their validation against full scale trails has been previously presented. This paper describes the ongoing work involved in a study investigating the mechanical behavior of buried pipelines interacting with active slope movement and evaluation of pipeline strain demand. Detailed pipe-soil interaction analyses were completed with a 3D continuum SPH (Smooth Particle Hydrodynamic) model to examine the pipeline behavior and evaluate the pipeline strain demand in relation to key parameters. This includes the effect of soil movement mechanism, pipeline geometry (D/t), material grade, pipeline burial depth and soil conditions and properties.

Sample results of the application of the validated 3D continuum modeling process will be presented. The strain demand determined from the analyses were compared with calculated CSA-Z662 strain limit design, local FEA analyses and BS 7910. These results are being used to develop generalized trends in pipeline response to slope movements.
Use of Field-Owned Risk Registers as a Means of Improving Employee Awareness of Risk and Operational Safety
Authors: Weichel Megan
Published: December 2014

As pipeline operators strive for safe and robust operations, the desire for improved risk awareness and operational safety, or process safety, culture continues to grow. The need for improvements related to operational safety has been felt for years throughout the oil and gas industry, but in recent years, it has also come to the forefront of the minds of pipeline operators. While most operators do not “process” anything, the principles of effective operational safety management are being stressed in pipeline incident investigations and communications from regulators.

While many organizations have found ways to improve occupational safety concerns, operational safety has remained overwhelming. It is often easier for an employee to envision the consequence that could result if he or she is splashed with a chemical; however, even an experienced operator may have a hard time imagining how what seems like a minor integrity event could escalate to a major incident.

Two critical building blocks in developing awareness of risk and operational safety are 1) ownership of risks, and 2) the ability to speak one common risk language. By giving field personnel the opportunity to maintain registers of the risks that are important to them, not necessarily the largest risks, both of these building blocks can be developed concurrently.

This paper outlines how the use of field-owned risk registers can help companies of all sizes, heritages, and cultures to improve methods for hazard identification, risk analysis, and risk control. As field personnel learn the language of risk, become familiar with ways to analyze potential consequences, and begin to understand how likely it is that an operational upset or incorrect operation could result in a major incident, personnel who otherwise might not participate in these types of activities begin to take interest. The paper provides insight into how, if implemented correctly, these risk registers can introduce risk management at all levels of the organization and provide a sense of ownership in the field regarding risk and operational safety, while still improving integrity, personal safety, and environmental protection.
Managing Risk at Pipeline River Crossings in Changing Regulatory Settings
Authors: Kammereck Andreas , Ryan Kent , Moore Tammy Jacobson
Published: December 2014

Recent high profile exposure and rupture of pipelines at river crossings in the United States (U.S.) has raised the awareness of riverine hazards and the corresponding risks of operating pipeline river crossings. The decadal tendencies for rivers to change vertically (i.e. scour and deposition) and horizontally (i.e. channel migration) increases the risk to ageing pipeline systems. The corresponding cost of the consequences from potential exposures, damages or even ruptures at river crossings has re-defined the risk regime for planning, permitting, designing, installing, operating, and regulating river crossings. Pipeline systems installed decades ago frequently did not incorporate state of the art hydrotechnical engineering approaches, and did not address long-term channel scour and erosion dynamics, instead setting sagbends and burial depths relative to active (i.e. short term) channel conditions and not planning for long-term geomorphic trends. Planning for river crossing routing assessments now include increasing awareness of how riverine systems function. Hydrotechnical studies incorporate hydrologic, hydraulic, and fluvial geomorphic assessments and investigations, as well as environmental, social, and land inputs to the planning, permitting, design and construction processes. Recent high profile damage, exposure, and in some cases rupture of pipelines in river crossings has brought these issues into the public domain. Pipeline regulatory agencies and congressional oversight in the U.S. has responded to recent pipeline incidents in dynamic riverine conditions with increased permit planning, design and operation requirements. This paper will discuss the ways changing rivers are resulting in increasing challenges for pipeline operators, and discusses how Williams Northwest Pipeline (NWP) has implemented several practical mitigation measures to proactively address river crossing risks.
Implementation of Quantitative Risk Assessment: Case Study
Authors: Mangold David , Muhlbauer W. Kent , Ponder Jim , Alfano Tony
Published: December 2014

Risk management of pipelines is a complex challenge due to the dynamic environment of the real world coupled with a wide range of system types installed over many decades. Various methods of risk assessment are currently being used in industry, many of which utilize relative scoring. These assessments are often not designed for the new integrity management program (IMP) requirements and are under direct challenge by regulators.

SemGroup had historically used relative risk assessment methodologies to help support risk management decision-making. While the formality offered by these early methods provided benefits, it was recognized that, in order to more effectively manage risk and better meet the United States IMP objectives, a more effective risk assessment would be needed.

A rapid and inexpensive migration into a better risk assessment platform was sought. The platform needed to be applicable not only to pipeline miles, but also to station facilities and all related components. The risk results had to be readily understandable and scalable, capturing risks from ‘trap to trap’ in addition to risks accompanying each segment.

The solution appeared in the form a quantitative risk assessment that was ‘physics based’ rather than the classical statistics based QRA. This paper will outline the steps involved in this transition process and show how quantitative risk assessment may be efficiently implemented to better guide integrity decision-making, illustrated with a case study from SemGroup.
The Integrity Review Process for an Asset Acquisition
Authors: Figueiredo Cristina , Dawe Shaun
Published: December 2014

Frequently, a comprehensive due diligence process is required when a company evaluates a potential asset acquisition. It can become more complex in the pipeline industry considering the number of stakeholders that can be involved to assess scope, schedule, estimate and the risks associated with such a project.

When a pipeline company contemplates an acquisition of an existing pipeline system, the Integrity group becomes a key supporter during the process. The condition of the pipeline shall be scrutinized in order to evaluate and manage the integrity risks associated with the project, which will contribute to successfully securing the business opportunity.

A well-established process facilitates and supports effective analysis. This paper will review the methodology that has been used by a pipeline company to assess the integrity of potential asset acquisitions; challenges and the overall pipeline company’s experience will also be covered.
A Novel Approach for Automatic Matching and Updating Pipeline Data
Authors: Morgan Michel , Giles Lindsay
Published: December 2014

Pipelines are multidisciplinary projects from their planning, design, and construction to their maintenance and upgrade. The success of a pipeline project relies heavily on coordination among environmental assessment disciplines, clients, subcontractors, and vendors. Geographic information systems (GIS) play a major role in managing data and information across disciplines, and each environmental consulting company usually has at least one GIS department, which takes a lead role in maintaining current and historical data and information, and distributing it to various disciplines and business partners.

We are developing a novel algorithm to utilize spatial data and convert it into useful geo-spatial information that a GIS department can directly utilize. Pipeline and environmental data from different sources undergo automatic registration, where common features between datasets are automatically detected and geometric transformation functions are automatically estimated. Experimental results demonstrate the robustness of the algorithm against changes or outliners and the accuracy of the transformation.
Curved-Wide Plate Testing of X100 Girth Welds
Authors: Weeks Timothy S. , McColskey J. David , Richards Mark D. , Wang Yong-Yi , Quintana Marie
Published: December 2014

Curved-wide plate (CWP) tests are frequently used for assessing the quality of pipeline girth welds. Despite a large number of CWP tests having been conducted at great expense over many decades, an industry consensus standard remains unavailable. Considerable effort at several research institutions is focused on the standardization of test protocols. It is widely recognized that comparing results from CWP tests from different institutions is difficult without accounting for all the possible parametric differences.

This paper presents the procedural details recently used in testing X100 girth welds. The protocols cover (1) specimen design and dimensions, (2) instrumentation plan and data acquisition, (3) specimen fabrication and preparation, (4) preparing and executing the tests, (5) processing of raw test data and (6) post-test metallurgical examination.

The evaluation of specimen deformation, flaw growth, and comparison of test data with model predictions will be presented in a future paper. Selected CWP test data from this program were evaluated and compared to tensile strain models of the girth welded pipe in a recent paper [1].
Geometric Analysis of Pipeline Elbows Through Reverse Engineering and Their Associated Imperfections
Authors: Kainat Muntaseer , Cakiroglu Celal , Adeeb Samer , Cheng J. J. Roger , Martens Michael
Published: December 2014

Pipe elbow is a common feature in pipelines and piping systems as a means to changing directions of otherwise straight pipelines. Irrespective of the processes involved in manufacturing pipe elbows, it is of interest to investigate whether they have any geometric imperfections. Researchers at the University of Alberta have devised a technique to measure initial imperfection of straight pipes prior to testing, using high resolution 3D surface profiler in conjunction with 3D reverse engineering software. The objective of the current study is to extend the imperfections measurement technique from measuring straight pipe segments to pipe elbows. Six (6) ninety (90) degree elbows are measured in this research with outside diameters ranging from NPS 12 inch to NPS 42 inch. A 3D laser scanner is used to acquire surface data and create 3D models corresponding to each elbow. A method for the geometric analysis of the elbows is developed using 3D inspection and reverse engineering software Geomagic®. The geometric idealization of a pipe elbow is a torus, which can be defined by a circle revolving around an axis, coplanar with the circle. The idealized geometry for each elbow is obtained through the developed method of geometric analysis, which includes the diameter of the circle defining the torus, and its distance from the axis of revolution. The difference between the ideal torus and the scanned geometry is considered as imperfection of each pipe elbow. The wall thickness values at the ends or edges of select pipe elbows are also measured from the scanned data and are reported as percentage deviation from the specified wall thickness around the perimeter at different cross sections. The 3D reverse engineering of the elbows indicated that they resemble the ideal geometry very closely. The ovalization imperfections are seen to be well within the value specified by CSA Z662-11. The wall thickness deviations are seen to vary between −10% to +25% of the specified value, with increased thickness being more prominent in the elbows. Finite element analysis of an elbow with thickness imperfection shows that higher hoop stress appears on the intrados than initially intended.
Development and Implementation of a Liquid Pipeline Quantitative Risk Assessment Model
Authors: Perez Jerico , Weir David , Seguin Caroline , Ferdous Refaul
Published: December 2014

To the end of 2012, Enbridge Pipelines employed an in-house developed indexed or relative risk assessment algorithm to model its liquid pipeline system. Using this model, Enbridge was able to identify risk control or treatment projects (e.g. valve placement) that could mitigate identified high risk areas. A changing understanding of the threats faced by a liquid pipeline system and their consequences meant that the model changed year over year making it difficult to demonstrate risk reduction accomplished on an annual basis using a relative scoring system.

As the development of risk management evolved within the company, the expectations on the model also evolved and significantly increased. For example, questions were being asked such as “what risk is acceptable and what risk is not acceptable?”, “what is the true risk of failure for a given pipe section that considers the likelihood of all threats applicable to the pipeline”, and “is enough being done to reduce these risks to acceptable levels?”

To this end, starting in 2012 and continuing through to the end of 2013, Enbridge Pipelines developed a quantitative mainline risk assessment model. This tool quantifies both threat likelihood and consequence and offers advantages over the indexed risk assessment model in the following areas:

• Models likely worst case (P90) rupture scenarios

• Enables independent evaluation of threats and consequences in order to understand the drivers

• Produces risk assessment results in uniform units for all consequence criteria and in terms of frequencies of failure for likelihood

• Aggregates likelihood and consequence at varying levels of granularity

• Uses the risk appetite of the organization and its quantification allows for the setting of defined high, medium, and low risk targets

• Quantifies the amount of risk in dollars/year facilitating cost-benefit analyses of mitigation efforts and risk reduction activities

• Grounds risk assessment results on changes in product volume-out and receptor sensitivity

• Balances between complexity and utility by using enough information and data granularity to capture all factors that have a meaningful impact on risk

Development and implementation of the quantitative mainline risk assessment tool has had a number of challenges and hurdles. This paper provides an overview of the approach used by Enbridge to develop its quantitative mainline risk assessment model and examines the challenges, learnings and successes that have been achieved in its implementation.
Characterization of Thermal and Acoustic Profiles of Potential Underwater Pipeline Leaks
Authors: Siebenaler Shane , Tervo Eric , Kulkarni Mohan , Patni Sandeep , Gesoff Glenn
Published: December 2014

Reliable detection of small potential leaks is a topic of significant interest for remote offshore pipelines. Potential leak cases of interest are pinhole leaks out of the bottom of the pipe due to corrosion, weld or seam cracks, or damage due to third-party contact. There are several emerging technologies that may have the potential to provide a means of detecting such leaks over long segments of underwater pipe. These technologies include distributed acoustic and distributed temperature sensing.

A key element of evaluating the applicability of these systems is to characterize the behavior of leaks. It is critically important to understand how leaks behave when employing a technology that has only been previously used for other conditions. A joint-industry program was initiated to evaluate the thermal and acoustic behavior of hypothetical underwater leaks. The environments studied range from shallow, Arctic applications to deep offshore installations.

Analytical models were assessed to predict the jetting behavior of simulated leaks and their near-field thermal response. This analysis was performed for both liquid and gas media. These models were validated by means of laboratory experiments. Acoustic characteristics of hypothetical liquid and gas leaks were determined by means of testing with hydrophones.

This information can be leveraged by a number of technologies as the data are independent of the measurement mechanism. While the motivation of this work is to evaluate distributed fiber-optic systems, the data on leak characteristics may also provide indications on applicability of other techniques for detecting potential underwater leaks. The data from this project will allow the industry to improve the understanding of potential leaks from underwater pipelines and, hence, lay the foundation for determining appropriate detection systems.
Pump Station Design
Authors: Horner Jim W. , DeBusman Martin R.
Published: December 2014

This paper reviews Enbridge’s recent experience with the design and construction of new pump stations during its most recent wave of expansion that started in 2007. This expansion includes over $4 billion in pump station construction and upgrade. Enbridge is working on its third generation station design and is starting to benefit from a consistent design composed of standard elements.

The principle objective of this design effort was to improve environmental protection at pump stations. In the design’s development many different areas of concern were investigated including: building code compliance, pump shelter ventilation requirements, improvements to station metering accuracy, mitigations to improve fire safety, inclusion of an aboveground sump tank, and equipment access and removal to name a few. While work has been done to improve mechanical and structural systems, they have also been standardized in an attempt to develop consistent components. The objective of the paper is to provide a summary of these developments and some background on the thinking that shaped the design.
Different Failure Modes of Non-Metallic Pipelines at Connections
Authors: Tatarov Alex , Gareau Frank
Published: December 2014

The article provides an overview of different modes of failures in composite pipeline connections. Non-metallic spoolable (SCP) and reinforced thermoplastic pipelines (RTP) of different makes will be addressed. The article is based on actual case histories of pipeline failures (root cause analysis). Numerous factors contributing to failures and recommendations are discussed.
Probabilistic Bow-Tie Model to Predict Failure Probability of Oil and Gas Pipelines
Authors: Parvizsedghy Laya , Zayed Tarek
Published: December 2014

According to the 2013 Report Card, oil and gas pipelines of the United States of America are in poor condition. Pipelines are proved to be safer and more efficient than the other means of transportation of petroleum products. However, they have failed during their operation and sometimes their failures have caused catastrophic losses and serious injuries. Most of the pipelines are laid underground, thus their condition is very difficult to be evaluated. On the other hand, a comprehensive study of the previous works proves the lack of an integrated model on the failures of these pipelines. This paper aims to model the probability of failures based on the historical data on the incidents of oil and gas pipelines. After identification of the main sources of pipelines’ failures, historical data is used to build a Probabilistic Failures’ Bow-Tie Model for Oil and Gas Pipelines. The model will be able to recognize the potential failure sources of each pipeline and predict the probability of occurrence of the major hazards.
ModelCC — A Pragmatic Parser Generator
Authors: Quesada Luis , Berzal Fernando , Cubero Juan-Carlos
Published: December 2014

Syntax-directed translation tools require the specification of a language by means of a formal grammar. This grammar must also conform to the specific requirements of the parser generator to be used. Software engineers then annotate the resulting grammar with semantic actions for the resulting system to perform its desired functionality. Whenever the input text format is modified, the grammar has to be updated and the subsequent changes propagate throughout the entire language processing tool chain. Moreover, if several applications use the same language, multiple copies of the same language specification have to be maintained in sync, since language specification (i.e. the grammar) is tightly coupled to language processing (i.e. the semantic actions that annotate that grammar). In this paper, we introduce ModelCC, a model-based parser generator that decouples language specification from language processing, hence avoiding the aforementioned problems that are caused by grammar-driven parser generators. ModelCC receives a conceptual model as input, along with constraints that annotate it. It is then able to create a parser for a given textual representation format, so that the generated parser fully automates the instantiation of the desired conceptual model. ModelCC is also a powerful tool for the design of domain-specific languages.
Computing
Authors: Seidman Stephen
Published: December 2014

Computing has been an academic and industrial discipline for barely two generations. In this time, a worldwide community numbering millions of computing practitioners has emerged. Does this community now constitute a profession of computing? If not, is it in the process of becoming a profession? Does the emergence of the engineering profession provide an analogy for computing? Useful insights can be obtained from a close look at some aspects of professionalism: academic preparation, body of knowledge, codes of ethics, and professional status.
Medusa
Authors: Zhong Jianlong , He Bingsheng
Published: December 2014

Medusa is a parallel graph processing system on graphics processors (GPUs). The core design of Medusa is to enable developers to leverage the massive parallelism and other hardware features of GPUs by writing sequential C/C++ code for a small set of APIs. This simplifies the implementation of parallel graph processing on the GPU. The runtime system of Medusa automatically executes the user-defined APIs in parallel on the GPU, with a series of optimizations based on the architecture features of GPUs and characteristics of graph applications. In this paper, we present an overview of the Medusa system and a case study of adopting Medusa to a research project on social network simulations. With Medusa, users without GPU programming experiencecan quickly implement their graph operations on the GPU, which accelerates the discovery and findings of domain-specific applications.
Quantifying the Brown Side of Priority Schedulers
Authors: Çavdar Derya , Rosà Andrea , Chen Lydia Y. , Binder Walter , Alagöz Fatih
Published: December 2014

Scheduling is a central operation to achieve "green" data centers, i.e., distributing diversified workloads across heterogeneous resources in an energy efficient manner. Taking an opposite perspective from most of the related work, this paper reveals the "brown" side of scheduling, i.e., wasted core seconds (so called brown resources), using fleld analysis and trace-driven simulation of a Google cluster trace. First, based on the trace, we pinpoint the dependency between priority scheduling and task eviction that causes brown resources and present a brief characterization study focusing on workload priorities. Next, to better understand and further reduce the resource "inefficiency" of priority scheduling, we develop a slot-based scheduler and simulator with various system tunable parameters. Our key finding is that tasks of low priority suffer greatly in terms of response time as well as CPU resources because of a high probability of being evicted and resubmitted. We propose to use simple threshold-based policies that consider the trade-off between task drop rates and wasted core seconds due to task resubmission due to eviction. Our experimental results show that we are able to effectively mitigate brown resources without sacrificing the performance advantages of priority scheduling.
Factors Associated with Violent Behavior among Adolescents in Northeastern Brazil
Authors: Silva Roberto Jerônimo dos Santos , Soares Nara Michelle Moura , Cabral de Oliveira Antônio César
Published: December 2014

The aim of this study was to identify prevalence and factors associated with violent behavior among adolescents in Aracaju and Metropolitan region. The study included 2207 adolescents (16.03 ± 1.08 years old) enrolled in high schools of the State Public Network. Violent behavior was identified from question 14 of the YRBS-2007 questionnaire with responses categorized as “never” and “one or more times.” Higher prevalence in males in relation to risk factors for adoption of violent behavior was found: cigarette consumption (7.3%), alcohol consumption (39.1%), and marijuana use (3.4%). Data analysis used descriptive statistics and logistic regression with hierarchical model at two levels: (a) sociodemographic variables and (b) behavioral variables. For both sexes, association between violent behavior and cigarette smoking (OR = 3.77, CI 95% = 2.06–6.92 and OR = 1.99, CI 95% = 1.04 to 3.81, male and female, resp.) and alcohol consumption (OR = 3.38, CI 95% = 2.22 to 5.16 and OR = 1.83, CI 95% = 1.28 to 2.63, male and female, resp.) was verified. It was concluded that violent behavior is associated with the consumption of alcoholic beverages and cigarettes among adolescents.
Urinary Retention: A Cause of Hyponatremia?
Authors: Galperin Ilia , Friedmann Reuven , Feldman Helena , Sonnenblick Moshe
Published: December 2014

Background: Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) is the most common cause of hyponatremia in elderly hospitalized patients; however in many patients the etiology remains unclear even after routine investigations. Objective: To report our experience of the association of hyponatremia and urinary retention in elderly hospitalized patients. Patients: Six patients with hyponatremia and urinary retention who were admitted to the geriatric department in our hospital during a four-year period (2001–2004). Results: The mean age of the patients was 85 years. The mean serum sodium level was 120 mEq/l, average volume of retained urine was 933 ml (range 500–1,500 ml). All patients underwent a comprehensive work-up seeking a possible cause for the hyponatremia. The diagnostic work-up was negative. In 5 of the patients the laboratory findings fulfilled the criteria for SIADH. In all patients hyponatremia resolved following urinary catheterization and fluid restriction. All patients made a complete recovery. Conclusions: Potentially, urinary retention by itself may cause hyponatremia. The possible mechanism for this is SIADH, triggered by bladder distention or pain due to bladder distention. Urinary catheterization may be the key to treatment in these cases of hyponatremia.
Role of PGC-1α in Sarcopenia: Etiology and Potential Intervention - A Mini-Review
Authors: Ji Li Li , Kang Chounghun
Published: December 2014

Sarcopenia is age-associated deterioration of muscle mass and function caused by a wide scope of physiological and pathological changes ranging from hormonal disorders to loss of subcellular homeostasis. Recent research indicates that mitochondrial dysregulation with advanced age plays a central role in the development of sarcopenia due to the multifactorial functions of this organelle in energy supply, redox regulation, crosstalk with nuclear gene expression and apoptosis. In order to fulfill these roles, it is crucial that mitochondria maintain their own structural and functional integrity through biogenesis, antioxidant defense, fusion/fission dynamics and autophagy (mitophagy). Unfortunately, mitochondria undergo age-associated changes that compromise the above-mentioned properties that eventually contribute to the development of sarcopenia. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) is involved in the transcriptional regulation of numerous nuclear and mitochondrial gene products participating in the cellular events that control muscle mass and function. Thus, it is not surprising that maintaining an optimal intracellular PGC-1α level and signaling activity is crucial in protecting the muscle from many degradative and destructive processes, such as proteolysis, oxidative damage, inflammation, uncontrolled autophagy and apoptosis. Physical exercise is a powerful stimulus to PGC-1α expression and signaling. Recent research indicates that PGC-1α-controlled mitochondrial biogenesis is not limited by old age per se and that elderly individuals can still benefit from increased muscular activity in terms of skeletal muscle health that ultimately contributes to quality of life in old age.
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy and Chronic Renal Insufficiency in the Elderly
Authors: Leibowitz David
Published: December 2014

Background: The global population is aging. Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in both men and women older than 65 years. In particular, elderly patients have an increased prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and chronic kidney disease (CKD), both of which predict increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. LVH and CKD frequently coexist in the elderly, and LVH is a powerful predictor of mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease. Key Messages: Several hemodynamic factors contribute to LVH and CKD in the elderly. Increased arterial stiffness in the elderly is associated with LVH and CKD. Studies using noninvasive measures of arterial stiffening have shown a correlation between these measures and LVH in patients with CKD. Hypertensive patients with an altered circadian blood pressure pattern such as nondippers have an increased incidence of LVH and CKD. Anemia is a risk factor for LVH in patients in all stages of CKD, and studies have shown correlations between age, anemia and LV mass. Nonhemodynamic factors include chronic inflammation, increased oxidative stress, and reduced autophagy, all of which are present in the elderly. Disordered mineral metabolism in the elderly with reduced levels of vitamin D and elevated levels of parathyroid hormone and phosphorus is associated with LVH and CKD. Conclusions: Multiple pathophysiologic mechanisms contribute to the development of LVH and CKD in the elderly. Future research should be directed at interfering with this development and reducing the burden of cardiovascular and renal diseases in this growing population. i 2014 S. Karger AG, Basel
Left Adrenal Biopsy Using the Convex Curvilinear Ultrasound Scope
Authors: Meena Nikhil , Hulett Cidney , Jeffus Susanne , Bartter Thaddeus
Published: December 2014

Effective use of the convex curvilinear ultrasound bronchoscope in the esophagus (EUS-B) is well described. EUS-B has not been described for diagnostic sampling of the left adrenal gland. We describe 6 cases of diagnostic fine-needle aspiration of the left adrenal gland using EUS-B. This capacity increases the diagnostic capabilities of the pulmonologist experienced in EUS-B.
Improvement of Continence Rate with Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Post-Prostatectomy: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
Authors: Arroyo Fernández Rubén , García-Hermoso Antonio , Solera-Martínez Montserrat , Martín Correa Ma. Teresa , Ferri Morales Asunción , Martínez-Vizcaíno Vicente
Published: December 2014

Objective: The aim of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the evidence of the effect of pelvic floor muscle training on urinary incontinence after radical prostatectomy. Methods: A bibliographic search was conducted in four databases. Studies were grouped according to the intervention program (muscle training versus control and individual home-based versus physiotherapist-guided muscle training). Results: Eight studies were selected for meta-analysis after satisfying the selection criteria. The data show that pelvic floor muscle training improves continence rate in the short (RR = 2.16; p < 0.001), medium (RR = 1.45; p = 0.001) and long term (RR = 1.23; p = 0.019) after surgery. The number of randomized controlled trials and the heterogeneity in the study population and type of pelvic floor muscle training were the main limitations. Conclusion: Programs including at least three sets of 10 repetitions of muscle training daily appear to improve continence rate after radical prostatectomy. Our meta-analysis shows that muscle training programs for urinary incontinence provide similar results to those of physiotherapist-guided programs, therefore being more cost- effective.