bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
OIL SPILL CLEAN-UP TECHNIQUES FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN LEBANON
Authors: Middleton Curtis L.
Published: January 2013

A major oil spill impacted two-thirds of Lebanon'S shoreline in July 06 following the bombing of a power plant 30 km south of Beirut. After hostilities ceased, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funded an intensive, ten-week project, in consultation with the Lebanese Ministry of Environment, to clean up several high priority sites along Lebanon'S northern coast. Many of these sites were historically and archaeologically significant, including World Heritage Site (Byblos Port) and the Phoenician Wall (over 7,000 years old). This paper will review the response in Lebanon regarding techniques for cleaning archaeological sites and methodologies for joint-monitoring by local authorities, archaeological experts, and response managers. Given the recent conflict, access to equipment and supplies at the time of the response was severely limited. Clean up options were limited to techniques utilizing the resources at hand. Further challenges were the limited time window, due to impending winter weather, and limited funding.

The archaeological sites impacted within the operational area varied in size, physical characteristics, and degree of oiling. Site identification and assessment were key elements in preparing plans for the cleaning effort. With numerous sites and labor-intensive approved cleaning techniques, sites were prioritized in coordination with local authorities and archaeologists.

The primary composition of the sites is a hard, semi-porous stone in varying stages of deterioration from age, weather, and exposure to the sea. It was imperative that the cleaning not accelerate this deterioration; thus, mechanical cleaning was eliminated in favor of hand cleaning with low pressure flushing. All sites were cleared of debris prior to the initiation of cleaning operations. Next gross contamination was removed by hand wiping of surfaces and low pressure flushing of depressions, fissures, and other areas inaccessible to hand cleaning. The third step was hand cleaning with brushes with varying bristle types depending upon the particular surface being cleaned and incorporating approved de greasing compounds where applicable.

A very specific cleaning routine and expected endpoint was established for each site allowing for inspections at the completion of each stage of the work. The site cleaning operations were conducted under close supervision of Lebanese archaeologists.
MASSIVE USE OF BERM RELOCATION AND SURFWASHING DURING THE 2006 JYEH OIL SPILL (LEBANON): THE ACCURATE RESPONSE FOR BEACHES CLEANUP
Authors: Fichaut Bernard , Loubnan Bahr
Published: January 2013

Following the bombardment of the Jyeh power station in Lebanon on July 16 2006, about 10 to 15000 tons of heavy fuel oil drifted 150 km northward all the way to the Syrian border. Because of the continuing war, the cleanup operations could not start until early September. The response consisted of conceptually dividing the coast line into several sectors managed by various operators; from Jyeh to Beyrouth, a 34.5 km stretch of shoreline, the treatment of beaches was assigned to the lebanese N.G.O “Bahr Loubnan’. In this area, 5.3 km of sandy and gravel beaches appeared to be heavily oiled on a width that seldomly exceeded 10 m. Oil was found buried down to a depth of 1.8 m at several locations. Additionnally oil was also found sunken in shallow waters in the breaker zones of numerous beaches. In order to minimize sediment removal and production of oily waste to be treated, it was decided to operate massive treatmenN in situ. After manual recovery of stranded oil, about 12,000 m of sediment including 1,000 m of cobbles have been relocated in the surf zone. Despite the lack of tides and of the generally calm weather conditions, surfwashing was very efficient due mainly to the fact that, in non tidal conditions, sediments are continuously reworked by wave açtion which operates at the same level on the beaches. Only 540 m of heavily oiled sand, was removed from beaches and submitted for further treatment. The lack of appropriate sorbents material in Lebanon to capture the floating oil released by surfwahing was also a challenge. This was addressed by using locally Nmanufactured sorbents, which proved to be very efficient and 60 m of sorbent soaked with oil were produced during the cleanup.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Vanhaverbeke Mark G. , Cotton Bernard C.
Published: January 2013

Since the late 1960'S, the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), as well as many other agencies, academia, and industry, has spent millions of dollars on research and development (R&D) related to oil and hazardous material spill response. R&D projects were chosen by using a combination of methods: some started from regulations; some started from specific issues identified by the field or USCG program managers; and some were the result of workshops that brainstormed a list of prioritized projects. These methods were successful when multiple significant, manageable problems were identifiable, after the Exxon Valdez spill for example. With the changes initiated by the post-Exxon Valdez R&D effort in place, the response community has been more proficient, especially in responding to small oil spills. However, oil spill recovery rates are still low except under ideal conditions and it has been argued that, in the end, the results of a major spill have not significantly changed. A system might be defined as a group of processes or elements that function together towards some end result. Most systems don't function optimally due to gaps in capability. Not all gaps are equal in terms of impact on system performance. Systems analysis is a process of looking at a system holistically in an effort to identify the best opportunities, or leverage points, to improve overall system function. The USCG R&D Center and SAIC undertook a systems analysis of spill response in an effort to identify those leverage points that could significantly change the outcome of a large spill. Besides defining the response system, key elements of the analysis included system definition, expert evaluation of the system to identify capability gaps (potential leverage points), and system modeling to evaluate the impact of gap closure. This paper will lay out the process, the results of the expert evaluation, and what we learned from the system model.
PLAN TO DO WELL: USE A 4-LEGGED STOOL TO REACH YOUR PREPAREDNESS GOALS
Authors: Steen Alexis , Fritz David
Published: January 2013

The Tiered Response System and the Incident Management System are two oft-mentioned concepts in OSR planning. Their use is invaluable during a response. Increasingly, OSR planning is incorporating results from relative-risk comparisons to prioritize strategies and tactics for locations using a Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA). A fourth planning concept is proposed. It is the conscious balancing of costs and practicality versus OSR risks and consequences. The As Low as Reasonably Practicable concept (ALARP) may be new to many, it is used in other fields (esp., engineering and safety) to examine options to reasonably achieve desired levels of safety and for natural disaster response planning.
THE PLANNING PROCESS OF THE PANAMA CANAL AUTHORITY AND ITS RESULTS FOR OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS
Authors: P. Urho Gonzal
Published: January 2013

Ships from all parts of the world transit daily through the Panama Canal. Some 13,000 to 14,000 vessels with all types of cargo use it every year. In fact, commercial transportation activities through the Canal represent approximately 5% of the world trade. This waterway is managed by the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) and, consistent with sound emergency preparedness actions, the ACP has developed a comprehensive contingency plan to provide the organization with a response system to minimize the consequences of adverse scenarios. The plan includes operational, strategic, and information toolbox components. It also uses the Incident Command System (ICS) and the Planning “P” model as a methodology to conduct a proactive response. The ICS allows responders to be organized with a common terminology, with clear hierarchy and functions, and with a modular and flexible structure. In this way, it adjusts to the needs of an incident, instead of trying to adjust the incident or responders to the normal structures of their agencies. The Planning “P” aids the process for the ICS to manage the incident by objectives and to elaborate concrete actions to mitigate all aspects of an incident, not just tactical matters. During the planning process, the need to increase oil spill response capabilities was recognized. Consequently, the ACP presented to its customers a program known as the Panama Canal Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (PCSOPEP) that went into effect on January 1, 2005, after ample consultation and modifications with the international maritime community. The successful implementation of the PCSOPEP involved several stages. The Regulation on Navigation in Panama Canal Waters was updated, establishing the responsibility of vessels during spills, the presentation of an oil spill plan specific for the Canal as a transit requirement, the application of tariffs to cover the costs of maintaining equipment and training, and the designation of the ACP as the sole oil spill removal organization in Canal waters. The implementation of these policies also involved the development of strategies, outlining investment projects, and increasing the baseline number of employees with training in oil spill response. Initially, response strategies focused on mechanical recovery, but the program considered the evaluation and incorporation of alternative countermeasures as response protocols at the level of a national contingency plan.
MINNESOTA NORTH SHORE AND DULUTH-SUPERIOR HARBOR SPILL RESPONSE STRATEGIES
Authors: Leppälä Steven J.
Published: January 2013

The Minnesota Lake Superior shoreline (Minnesota'S “North Shore”) is characterized by a rocky shoreline with stretches of sand, gravel and cobble as well as several stream and ditch inlets into Lake Superior. The risk of spills is from both land and water. The 150 plus mile stretch of shoreline has a very limited amount of response equipment or nearby responders. The Duluth-Superior Harbor is at the estuarine mouth of the St. Louis River and is divided by the Minnesota and Wisconsin border. The harbor includes sensitive shorelines and habitats, numerous stream, ditch and storm sewer outfalls, as well as an active shipping industry.

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a great tool for conducting data analysis and planning. GIS allows users to analyze and visualize large volumes of data to make decisions quickly. While many spill response planners use GIS as a planning response tool, many responders do not have the training and equipment to make efficient use of the capabilities of GIS. This project uses GIS to gather and analyze available data and then put it into a useful “hardcopy” visual format for responders to use in the field.

Maps produced from various GIS data sources outline the response strategies for sensitive areas to be protected; types and quantities of response equipment needed; access areas; and other important features. These “hardcopy” displays can be included in contingency plans. Larger laminated versions can be stored with response equipment caches.

For response planners that are more familiar with GIS, the tool includes several useful features including “clickable” hyperlinks that connect to georeferenced oblique aerial photos of the Lake Superior shoreline. Also included are GIS data from U.S. EPA and NOAA, including sensitive environment, economic and cultural resources; potential spill sources; and response resources. Where available, sewer data for both sanitary and storm sewers is included, along with high resolution aerial photos; navigation charts; highway stream crossing data; and other habitat information. These various data sources are valuable tools for spill response planners to more accurately and effectively develop workable response strategies and also for use during an actual response to more effectively and efficiently direct responders and resources. This GIS product also incorporates an Access database which allows for easy report generation and information updating.
IMPROVISED RESPONSE SOLUTIONS
Authors: Foley Paul
Published: January 2013

The one truly common learning point coming out of every oil spill debrief is the understanding that no two spills are ever the same. This inherent variety coupled with the unpredictable nature of oil spills ensures that we can only ever aspire to attaining a level of preparedness somewhere short of being fully ‘response-ready’.

Indeed, as the search for oil takes the industry further into unknown and unpredictable regions, responders are increasingly reliant on their initiative as one of the primary tools in a response. Remote locations, inadequate logistical support, unpredictable customs and poor planning can all lead to an absence of dedicated operational oil spill equipment where and when you need it most.

Attending training courses and acting out drill after drill can teach core skills and impart confidence through repetition, but perhaps the most important skill of any responder is the ability to improvise and adapt. Rather than dispelling the importance of oil spill training and drills, this paper explains how a thorough knowledge of response strategies and techniques can allow a responder to adapt and engineer an effective response using limited resources.

Within this paper, corralling without boom, in-situ gravity separation and dispersant application, are some of the examples within the author'S experience that will highlight the importance of ingenuity during an oil spill where adaptation and innovation have ensured a successful response despite the absence of dedicated oil spill equipment. The author concludes by exploring the merits and shortfalls of this approach and asks, “Is the responder'S toolbox really only limited by his imagination?”
THE POTENTIAL USE OF SMALL UAS IN SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Lehr William J.
Published: January 2013

For the last several decades, the sensors available for remote sensing of oil spills have changed significantly while the platforms for these sensors have remained unaltered. The limitations on these platforms are well known. Satellites are expensive, remote, and inflexible. Fixed-wing aircraft cannot hover easily over the spill site and often fly too fast for good observations. Helicopters are expensive, require specially trained pilots, and can be more hazardous than other alternatives.

Unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) provide a potentially new alternative platform for monitoring spill location and clean-up operations. The aircraft (also called unmanned aerial or airborne vehicles) fit into three general categories. Very large aircraft require much or more of the infrastructure of manned aircraft and will probably be deployed only in spills of national significance. Mid-range vehicles have proven their worth monitoring forests fires, emergencies with many similar requirements to oil spills, but still require designated landing and take-off facilities. A rapidly expanding category is the very small UAS that can be field launched and recovered. The range, guidance, and sensor availability of these aircraft have improved considerably from early prototypes. This paper explores the possibility of incorporating particularly these smaller UAS into spill response. Potential roadblocks include weather limitations, operator training, payload restrictions and regulatory restrictions. This last roadblock is presently the most difficult to overcome although re-consideration at the Federal Aviation Administration could modify existing regulations, making use of low-flying unmanned aircraft more plausible. Assuming the necessary regulatory changes, the paper explores typical applications and expected benefits from such system.
SELECTION AND USE OF SHORELINE TREATMENT ENDPOINTS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Sergy Gary A. , Owens Edward H.
Published: January 2013

Shoreline treatment or shoreline cleanup endpoints are specific criteria assigned to a segment or unit of oiled shoreline or river bank that are used to define when sufficient treatment effort has been completed for that segment or unit. In effect, the endpoints are the practical definition of ‘clean for that particular segment of shoreline in that particular spill. The selection of appropriate and practical end points is part of the net environmental benefit evaluation in the decision process that is conducted during the development of the shoreline treatment plan. Endpoints affect the selection of response strategies and tactics, provide a target for the operations team, and are a standard against which the achievement of treatment can be compared so that closure can be achieved. This paper addresses endpoints in the context of the oiled-shoreline treatment decision process. The concepts and principles involved in the selection of endpoint criteria and measurement techniques are described. Explanations and examples are provided that can be used as a framework to guide and structure this vital element of the decision-making process. Three fundamentally different approaches to define and measure endpoints are identified; these being based on (a) analytical measurements, (b) judgements of impact assessment or (c) visual field measurements of the quantity and nature of oil. A step-wise guide is presented that can be used as a tool to assist in the selection of descriptors and phasing for endpoints based on qualitative/quantitative field observations using SCAT (Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Team) terminology.
TIER 3 RESPONSE FOR SOUTH AMERICA
Authors: Wegner Isaac
Published: January 2013

As an integral part of the new investment plan for the improvement of the Company'S environmental management capacity, Petrobras has set up then Environmental Defense Centers throughout important Brazilian regions. The Centers are endowed with ca. R$133 million investment for facilities and gear, and ca. R$ 65 million are to be devoted to operations and maintenance for one-year period. These Defense Centers are capable of facing the main emergencies that may spring out of oil and oil by-product spills. Together, they make up South America'S first environmental safety complex, a system that is fully capable of even providing services to other companies, thus foreseeing a demand that will certainly come through as oil E&P activities in the region grow.
RESOURCE TRACKING MANAGER: A DYNAMIC ELECTRONIC RESOURCE TRACKING AND MAPPING SYSTEM
Authors: Calderon Abram , Hielscher Al , Murphy John
Published: January 2013

Tracking resources in real time during response situations has proven to be an integral part of decision making within an Incident Command System (ICS) structure. To help with this process, a new and portable product called Resource Tracking Manager (RTM) was designed and developed. This product is built from two off-the-shelf technologies, ESRI ArcView® and Microsoft Access®. This paper discusses the use of both products in the RTM and explains how bridging them together creates a system that is accurate, easy to use, and informative. The primary features of this tracking system include: 1) The ability to edit resources on a map and have these edits reflected in the database. 2) The ability to edit resources in the database and have edits reflected on the map. The development of RTM has important implications for resource management in a response scenario. Knowing where resources are, and allocating them efficiently and effectively is key in responding successfully.
EFFECT OF WAVES ON A FLEXIBLE CONTAINMENT OIL BARRIER
Authors: Amini Azin , Boillat Jean-Louis , Schleiss Anton
Published: January 2013

The main aim of the research project is to investigate the efficiency limits of a flexible barrier in containment of oil spills in deep undulating water. For this purpose, two-dimensional experiments with a flexible oil containment barrier have been carried out in a laboratory flume equipped with a pneumatic wave generator. The results have been analyzed and compared with similar cases for a rigid barrier.

The hydrodynamic basics describing oil containment behind a rigid barrier have been reviewed. influence of waves on containment procedure was scarcely investigated even in case of a rigid barrier. The initial failure velocity of containment system was measured in presence of waves with different heights and periods. To take into account the effect of barrier'S geometry, different drafts and ballast weights were examined.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND TRIBAL EQUIPMENT CACHING IN WASHINGTON STATE
Authors: Boyle Sarah , Byers David
Published: January 2013

During the 2006 Legislative session, the Washington Department of Ecology received $1.45 million to pre-stage oil spill response equipment throughout the state.

In the event of a spill, this equipment can be rapidly mobilized and deployed for spill containment or to protect local resources.

Equipment caches are customized for each recipient. Available equipment includes storage trailers, boom vanes, containment boom, anchor systems, navigation lights, adsorbent materials, responder protective clothing, and safety and decontamination equipment. Recipients also receive equipment familiarization training with their mutual aid response agencies.

Eligible recipients include local government public agencies, such as Counties, Fire and Police Departments, Port Districts, Public Utility Districts, Emergency Management Departments, and Tribes.

Grant are awarded based on: substantial threat of an oil spill, resources that will be protected, recipient'S ability and willingness to deploy the equipment, proximity of nearby response equipment, and partnerships with other agencies.

As of March 2007, Ecology and its contractor, Global Diving and Salvage have:Delivered equipment to 36 of 60 recipients.Pre-staged 47 of 97 equipment caches.Pre-staged 32,600’ of 52,600’ of containment boomTrained approximately 400 of 1,000 first responders.

Equipment delivery and training will be completed by June 2007.

This equipment has been used to avert potentially devastating spills. Examples of successful use of the pre-staged response equipment include:The City of Gig Harbor initiated a spill response by deploying containment boom and adsorbent materials at the Peninsula Yatch Basin Marina when a vessel carrying 200 gallons of diesel caught fire.Tacoma'S Fire and Police Departments deployed adsorbent materials when a vessel sank at the Delin Docks Marina on the Thea Foss Waterway.The San Juan DEM and the Island Oil Spill Association established a protection zone with containment boom during the raising of the sunken F/V Stanley.
A SYSTEM FOR INTEGRATED SCAT DATA COLLECTION AND MANAGEMENT: ESCAT, SCATDB, AND PHOTOLOGGER
Authors: Lankford Jeffrey F. , Zelo Ian , Stumbaugh Matt R.
Published: January 2013

During response, oiled shorelines must be surveyed to guide cleanup operations. The Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Technique (SCAT) is a standard method for conducting these surveys. Multiple field teams often conduct SCAT. SCAT surveys quickly produce a large and complex dataset comprised of SCAT observations, GPS positions, and photographs. In order to guide response decision-making, SCAT field data must be processed and analyzed in a timely manner. Until recently, SCAT and GPS data were collected on standardized paper worksheets, transcribed to electronic form, and then incorporated into maps and other decision-making products. Photographs were not tightly managed alongside SCAT data. Today, with the emergence of robust handheld computing technology, the deficiencies inherent in paper data collection are no longer necessary or acceptable. Paper data collection can be slow, error prone, and lacking quality control and integration with GPS technology. Digital options are available to address these challenges. To improve methods, the Office of Response and Restoration is developing a digital field data collection and management system for SCAT data and photographs composed of: (1) specialized software for efficient SCAT data collection with GPS enabled handheld devices, (2) a relational SCAT database which expedites the synthesis of field data into decision making products, promotes community standards, and supports standard paper worksheet and digital data collection methods, and (3) an image database which allows for the processing, documenting, and sharing of large quantities of digital photographs. For this project, commonly used, readily available, and Open Source computing resources were chosen so that end-users could easily test, adopt, and improve this system.
PLANNING TO RESPOND DURING A PANDEMIC
Authors: Burton Sharon
Published: January 2013

Avian influenza, H5N1, may present the world with its next pandemic. Once a fully contagious virus emerges, its global spread is inevitable. During the last century Spanish Flu took 6 months to go around the globe since most international travel at the time was via ship. Today, with the speed and volume of international air travel, the virus could spread in as little as 3 months. The potential loss of life is conservatively estimated at 2 million to 7.4 million deaths globally, and hospitalisation cases at 8.1 million. The predicted high rates of illness and worker absenteeism will contribute to social and economic disruption. Organisations, including oil spill response entities, need to develop response strategies and create plans in advance of the problem.
REGULAR AND BREAKING WAVES IN WAVE TANK FOR DISPERSION EFFECTIVENESS TESTING
Authors: Wickley-Olsen Erik , Boufadel Michel C. , King Tom , Li Zhengkai , Lee Ken , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

The wave tank (32 m long × 2.0 m high × 0.6 m wide) at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography in Nova Scotia was used to simulate the propagation and breaking of deep water waves using a flap-type wavemaker. The water profile and velocity were measured using a wave gauge and an Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV). The wave periods of interest ranged between 1.18 and 2.08 seconds. A technique for generating breaking waves at the same location in the tank was used to obtain a spilling and a plunging breaker. We evaluated the energy dissipation rate at various depths in the tank for regular and breaking waves. Plunging breaking waves had heights of 0.25m. For the breaking experiments, the energy dissipation rate decreased from around 1.0 10−2 watts/kg a few centimeters below the surface to less than 5.0 10−4 watt/kg 20 cm deep in the water column. The regular waves had, on the average, an energy dissipation rate of 5.0 10−6 watt/kg deep in the water column. This indicates that breaking plays an important role in the dispersion of oil at sea.
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION FOR PREDICTING DISPERSION EFFECTIVENESS DUE TO WAVES
Authors: Boufadel Michel C. , Wickley-Olsen Erik , King Tom , Li Zhengkai , Lee Ken , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

The studies of dispersion of oil in wave tanks have reached their maturity in terms of analytical techniques for measuring and quantifying dispersion. However, there does not seem to be a theoretical framework for predicting or even interpreting the results based on the physics of the problem. One of the reasons is that the oil breakup studies were based on chemical reactors where the energy input is constant with time whereas the energy input to droplets varies with time under waves. For this reason, we present a holistic approach that accounts for the duration over which the oil is subjected to various intensities along with a droplet kinetics model that uses a variable energy dissipation rate function. A salient advantage of the droplet model is that it accounts for the effects of scale of problem, because it has been observed that large systems produce smaller droplets than smaller systems with the same average kinetic energy dissipation rate. We illustrate the usage of the model using simulated wave data.
DISPERSED OIL TRANSPORT MODELING CALIBRATED BY FIELD-COLLECTED DATA MEASURING FLUORESCEIN DYE DISPERSION
Authors: French-McCay Deborah P. , Mueller Christopher , Payne James , Terrill Eric , Otero Mark , Kim Sung Yong , Carter Melissa , Nordhausen Walter , Lampinen Mark , Ohlmann Carter
Published: January 2013

Oil-spill fate and transport modeling may be used to evaluate water column hydrocarbon concentrations, potential exposure to organisms, and impacts of oil spills with and without dispersant use. Important inputs to transport modeling for such analyses are current velocities and turbulent dispersion coefficients. Fluorescein dye studies off San Diego, California, were used to calibrate an oil transport model by hindcasting movement and dispersion of dye. The oil spill model was then used to predict subsurface hydrocarbon concentrations and potential water column impacts if oil were to be dispersed into the water column under similar conditions. Field-collected data included surface currents calculated from high-frequency radar data (HF-Radar), near-surface currents from drifter measurements drogued at several depths (1m, 2m, 4m or 5m), dye concentrations measured by fluorescence, spreading and dye intensity measurements based on aerial photography, and water density profiles from CTD casts. As the dye plume quickly extended throughout an upper mixed layer (7–15m), the horizontal dye movements were better indicated by the drifters drogued to a depth near the middle of that layer than the HF-Radar, which measured surface (∼top 50 cm) currents (including wind drift). Diffusion rates were estimated based on dye spreading measured by aerial photography and fluorescence-depth profiles. The model used these data as inputs, modeling of wind-forced surface water turbulence and drift as a function of wind speed and direction (based on published results of fluid dynamics studies), and Stokes law for droplet rise/sinking rates, to predict oil transport and dispersion rates within the water column. Use of such diffusion rate data in an oil fate model can provide estimates of likely dispersed oil concentrations under similar conditions, which may be used to evaluate potential impacts on water column biota. However, other conditions with different patterns of current shear (due to background currents, tidal currents, and wind stress) should be examined before these results can be generalized.
DECISION-MAKING PROCESS TO USE IN-SITUBURNING TO RESTORE AN OILED INTERMEDIATE MARSH FOLLOWING HURRICANES KATRINA AND RITA
Authors: Merten Amy A. , Henry C. B. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

In-situ burning was used to remove approximately 100–200 barrels (bbls) of Louisiana Sweet Crude (API 33.8) from an intermediate marsh of the Mississippi River delta oiled during the 2005 hurricanes. The marsh was heavily and moderately oiled (approximately 1.6–2.46 hectares and 5–6.5 hectares, respectively). Chevron conducted two burns on October 12 and 13, 2005, 6 weeks after the initial spill. A cooperative monitoring effort was established to quantitatively evaluate recovery in three areas:Oiled and burned;Oiled and unburned; andUnoiled and unburned.

Chemical analyses demonstrated that marsh surface soil concentrations of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) and total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons declined at similar rates after eight and five months, respectively. A variety of operational and environmental requirements were needed for a successful burn. This paper will:Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the site for conducting a burn;Discuss the rapid decision-making process to approve the burn during significant post-hurricane response activities;Describe pre-, during- and post-burn operations and observations;Report lessons learned; andHighlight recovery endpoints measured during the monitoring study.

This site represents a successful case study for using in-situ burn safely, effectively, and strategically.
MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION FLOW IN COMPLEX SHORELINE CLEAN-UP OPERATIONS THOUGH A COMMON SYSTEM FOR SITUATION OVERVIEW AND REPORTING IN THE “M/S SERVER” Incident
Authors: Spikkerud Cathrine S. , Skeie Geir M. , Hansen Tom W. , Hansen Ole , Jensen Stale
Published: January 2013

Clean-up operations following coastal oil spills may become complex with respect to handling the information necessary to keep all parts of the organisation updated on the situation and in line with recent developments. After the “M/S Server” struck aground off the island of Fedje, Norway on Friday 12th. of January 2007, and initially spilling 290 tonnes of bunker oil, the weather conditions caused the oil to break up into many small slicks and polluting a high number of shoreline segments. The weather conditions continued to prevent the safe survey of several polluted positions, further complicating the task of creating a full overview of the situation. The 201 positions of the polluted segments involved 13 municipalities, 2 counties and 3 different Regional Pollution Combat Groups as well as the overall management by the Norwegian Coastal Authorities.

Surveying of segments, prioritisation, and follow-up of progress involves both practical operational and scientific judgements, and creates paperwork. Both expert groups and on-site operative personnel will carry out surveys and report, and also need information for making decisions. Finding the right amount of data and level of detail to collect requires a common understanding of information needs, as well as the use of common forms. With the goal of reducing the overall time spent on reporting by collecting data centrally and providing a common site to stay informed, a data-based system for handling of information from shoreline clean-up operations was developed in the early days of the operation, as part of a cooperation project between The Norwegian Coastal Authority and NOFO on experience sharing and standardisation of information flow. An internet map service provided a common map of the positions and access to web-reports. Field equipment using semi-rugged PCs and mobile solutions was tried out. This paper focuses on the operational benefits and challenges of updating and coordinating information flow using a common web-based system, in an area where several different reporting procedures and forms had been previously used. Experience is shared with respect to making the system work as a useful true-time tool and not only as a hind-sight database.
ESTIMATING THE RESPONSE GAP FOR TWO OPERATING AREAS IN PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA
Authors: Robertson Tim L. , Kumar S. Anil
Published: January 2013

Technological advancements in oil spill response systems have contributed to more proficient oil spill response operations. Yet, there are still times when oil is being shipped but environmental conditions, such as wind, waves, temperature, and visibility, preclude effective spill response operations. The Response Gap is this window between the point of maximum mechanical response capacity and the weather-based limits of oil transportation.

To quantify the Response Gap for two operating areas in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska, historical datasets of the environmental factors known to affect the open-water mechanical response system were assembled. Each dataset contained observations related to four environmental factors: wind, sea state, temperature, and visibility. These datasets were used in a “hind-cast” to evaluate how often environmental conditions exceed the response operating limits.

Response operating limits were determined based on a thorough review of the published literature, existing contingency plans, regulatory standards, and after-action reports, with the objective of establishing realistic limits for the existing open-water response system. Response limits were then coded using the colors red (response not possible), yellow (response possible but impaired), and green (response possible) for a particular environmental factor during each operational period.

A Response Gap Index (RGI) was calculated to incorporate the interactions between environmental factors. Once the RGI was computed for each observational period, the dataset was summarized to produce an estimate of the amount of time that the Response Gap existed. The met-ocean climatology is characterized using histograms and joint-probability distribution plots, with the RGI superimposed.

At Hinchinbrook Entrance, sea state exceeded the operating limits 19.2% of the time and wind exceeded the limits 2.9% of the time. When the environmental factors were considered together, the response limitations were exceeded 37.7% of the time. Not surprisingly, the response limits were exceeded more often in winter (65.4% of the time) than in summer (15.6% of the time). Results for Central PWS indicated that the response limitations were exceeded only 12.6% of the time.

The paper discusses ways to improve the present subjective quantification of response limits, particularly through additional field trials and modeling of mechanical recovery systems.
EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL DISPERSANT ON OIL SEDIMENTATION DUE TO OIL-SPM FLOCCULATION: EXPERIMENTS WITH THE NIST STANDARD REFERENCE MATERIAL 1941?
Authors: Khelifa Ali , Fieldhouse Ben , Wang Zhendi , Yang Chun , Landriault Mike , Brown Carl E. , Fingas Merv
Published: January 2013

As it is well established that application of chemical dispersant to oil slicks enhances the concentration of oil droplets and reduces their size, chemical dispersants are expected to enhance oil sedimentation if applied in coastal waters rich in suspended particulate matter (SPM) and if flocculation between chemically dispersed oil and SPM, which leads to formation of oil-SPM aggregates (OSAs), occurs readily. New laboratory experiments were conducted to establish a quantitative understanding of the process and to verify this hypothesis. This paper presents findings from experiments conducted using Standard Reference Material 1941b prepared by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Arabian Medium, Alaska North Slope and South Louisiana crude oils, and Corexit 9500 and Corexit 9527 chemical dispersants. Results showed that OSAs do form with chemically dispersed oil. Oil sedimentation increases with sediment concentration and reach a maximum at a sediment-to-oil ratio of approximately 2:1 for most of the oils used. No obvious effect of chemical dispersant on oil sedimentation was measured for sediment concentration of 100 mg/L and higher. However, measured oil sedimentation was 3 to 5 times higher with chemical dispersant than with physically dispersed oil at low sediment concentration of 25 and 50 mg/L. UV epi-fluorescence microscopy showed that OSAs formed with chemically dispersed oil contain many oil droplets that are smaller than those trapped in OSAs formed with physically dispersed oil.
ULTRAVIOLET FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY (UVFS): A NEW MEANS OF DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF CHEMICAL DISPERSANTS ON OIL SPILLS
Authors: Kepkay P. E. , Yeung C. W. , Bugden J. B. C. , Li Z. , Lee K.
Published: January 2013

Crude oils dispersed in seawater produce distinct emission spectra when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. The spectra can be used to estimate how effectively oil is dispersed by chemical methods. Oil dispersants (such as Corexit 9500) have a pronounced effect on water-based UV spectra, strongly enhancing emission at 445 nm. This enhancement of fluorescence over the 455 nm bandwidth is the result of dispersant breaking up higher molecular weight (>3 ring) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) into stable suspensions of small droplets. Ultraviolet fluorescence spectroscopy (UVFS) has been tested as a rapid analytical tool in the laboratory and in a wave tank designed to investigate the response of crude oils to dispersants and a range of energy dissipation rates. The results obtained with UVFS are consistent with standard chemical analyses, confirming that the method can be employed as a rapid, quantitative measure of dispersed oil concentration. Given that higher molecular weight PAHs are associated with many of the persistent toxic effects of crude oils on marine organisms, UVFS may also prove to be a useful tool for tracking these fractions during dispersed oil toxicity assays.
OIL SPILL DISPERSION STABILITY AND OIL RE-SURFACING
Authors: Fingas Merv
Published: January 2013

This paper summarizes the data and the theory of oil-in-water emulsion stability resulting in oil spill dispersion re-surfacing. There is an extensive body of literature on surfactants and interfacial chemistry, including experimental data on emulsion stability. The phenomenon of resurfacing oil is the result of two separate processes: de stabilization of an oil-in-water emulsion and desorption of surfactant from the oil-water interface which leads to further de stabilization.

The de stabilization of oil-in-water emulsions such as chemical oil dispersions is a consequence of the fact that no emulsions are thermodynamically stable. Ultimately, natural forces move the emulsions to a stable state, which consists of separated oil and water. What is important is the rate at which this occurs. An emulsion is said to be kinetically stable when significant separation (usually considered to be half or 50% of the dispersed phase) occurs outside of the usable time.

There are several forces and processes that result in the destabilization and resurfacing of oil-in-water emulsions such as chemically dispersed oils. These include gravitational forces, surfactant interchange with water and subsequent loss of surfactant to the water column, creaming, coalescence, flocculation, Ostwald ripening, and sedimentation.

Gravitational separation is the most important force in the resurfacing of oil droplets from crude oil-in-water emulsions such as dispersions. Droplets in an emulsion tend to move upwards when their density is lower than that of water. Creaming is the de stabilization process that is simply described by the appearance of the starting dispersed phase at the surface. Coalescence is another important de stabilization process. Two droplets that interact as a result of close proximity or collision can form a new larger droplet. The result is to increase the droplet size and the rise rate, resulting in accelerated de stabilization of the emulsion. Studies show that coalescence increases with increasing turbidity as collisions between particles become more frequent.

Another important phenomenon when considering the stability of dispersed oil, is the absorption/desorption of surfactant from the oil/water interface. In dilute solutions, much of the surfactant in the dispersed droplets ultimately partitions to the water column and thus is lost to the dispersion process.

This paper provides a summary of the processes and data from some experiments relevant to oil spill dispersions.
HERDING AGENTS THICKEN OIL SPILLS IN DRIFT ICE TO FACILITATE IN SITU BURNING: A NEW TRICK FOR AN OLD DOG1
Authors: Buist Ian , Nedwed Tim , Mullin Joe
Published: January 2013

In situ burning is an oil spill response option particularly suited to remote ice-covered waters. The key to effective in situ burning is thick oil slicks. In loose drift ice conditions oil spills can rapidly spread to become too thin to ignite. Fire booms can collect and keep slicks thick in open water; however, even light ice conditions make using booms challenging. A multi-year joint industry project was initiated to study oil-herding agents as an alternative to booms for thickening slicks in light ice conditions for in situ burning.

Small-scale laboratory experiments were completed in 2004 and 2005 to examine the concept of using herding agents to thicken oil slicks among loose pack ice for the purpose of in situ burning. Encouraging results prompted further mid-scale testing at the US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL), the Ohmsett facility, and the Fire Training Grounds in Prudhoe Bay, AK.

The non-proprietary cold-water herder formulation used in these experiments proved effective in significantly contracting oil slicks in brash and slush ice concentrations of up to 70% ice coverage. Slicks in excess of 3 mm thick, the minimum required for ignition of weathered crude oil on water, were routinely achieved. Herded slicks were ignited, and burned equally well in both brash and slush ice conditions at air temperatures as low as −17°C. The burn efficiencies measured for the herded slicks were only slightly less than the theoretical maximums achievable for equivalent-sized, mechanically contained slicks on open water.
INTEGRATING YOUR RESPONSE ORGANIZATION INTO EVERYDAY SUPPORT ACTIVITIES – MORE BANG FOR THE BUCK
Authors: Majors Lee
Published: January 2013

In the mid 1990'S, Alaska Clean Seas transformed from a typical oil spill response organization into an organization more involved with day to day operations in member company fields. A typical oil spill response organization is a fire house type organization with a warehouse and personnel which maintain equipment and provide spill response training.

Today, ACS personnel are assigned to member company fields and provide other services such as hazardous waste handling, air opacity readings, small spill response services, environmental field sampling, environmental management program maintenance, and environmental inspections. This is combined with the spill response equipment maintenance and spill response team training.

The services provided are outline in a Customer Service Agreement which is signed with each operating area. It outlines the services the ACS technicians will provide, which training is provided by ACS, and which training is provided by the member company.

The financial obligations are outlined in the Cost Sharing Principles. These principles indicate which services are considered allocated in the normal ACS budget and which services are direct billed back to the member company operating areas. In general, response equipment maintenance and spill response training are allocated services with the remaining being direct billed.

The benefits to this type of arrangement are many. The member companies obtain services for every day type activities and build up a better working relationship with the response organization. The spill organization members become acquainted with member company personnel and resources. They also become familiar with the area and with other contract services in the area. During a spill event, this knowledge increases the efficiency of the response and increases the trust between the member company and spill response organization.

Also, on day to day spill responses, the spill response organization personnel work hand and hand with regulatory agencies which builds up the trust and familiarization for bigger events.

With this arrangement, ACS is also able to sustain a higher number of qualified personnel. This improves ACS'S capability during a spill event and assists the member companies with a higher quality of spill response services.

This paper provides information on methods that an Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO) can become more involved in member company daily activities for the benefit of both the member company and the OSRO.