bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Finding the Right Path: The Route Knowledge of the Yupno of Papua New Guinea
Authors: Wassmann Jürg
Published: November 2023

It does not contradict our commonsense impressions to assume that we all possess an inner mental image of our spatial environment. This allows us to find the way to our office, to come up with a faster way to the shopping centre, to take an alternative route if we are caught in a traffic jam (these, as the reader will have already noticed, are very American examples). These cognitive maps (Tolman 1948; Downs and Stea 1973) are the individual, internalized cognitive representation of our exterior geographical environment. It is the conceptual construction of space, not the perception of ‘space’ in the sense of ‘perceptual skills’ (Jahoda 1988; Deregowski 1989). It refers to the ‘models of macrospace’ (Siegel and White 1975) which are not only a static, visual image but ‘the symbolic and internalized mental reflection of spatial action’ (Piaget and Inhelder 1967: 454). At best, such cognitive maps are an analogous representation of the environment, fragmentary, distorted in an individual way, at the same time somehow an image, reduced to the essential (for the individual). Which form do these mental models take in the long-term memory? Frequently, two kinds of representation were distinguished, one analogous or ‘pictorial’, the other symbolic or ‘propositional’ (Kosslyn I 98I). It seems plausible to assume, following Piaget and Inhelder (1966) and Bruner et al. (1966), that spatial know ledge is more likely to be represented graphically, even though to date this has not been successfully proven in experiments (Kosslyn 1980).
Locative Classifiers in Tongan
Authors: Broschart Jürgen
Published: November 2023

It is a common belief that space relations are so fundamental that neither the semantics nor the grammar of space expressions is likely to show much variation, and it is only in recent times that researchers are becoming increasingly interested in the variability of space semantics and space expressions (see Levinson 1991).
What Mathematical Truth Could Not Be-I
Authors: Benacerraf Paul
Published: November 2023

The Cohens were very exacting in their requirements on just the right match for their only son Abie, and Hyman Lapidus, the shatchen to whom they had entrusted the search, at wits’ end after having proposed match after match to the Cohens only to have them all turned down, came by one day with a pro­posal, his ‘final ofter’: Mrs Cohen. I have just the right girl for Abie.
Language and Nationalism in Italy: Language as a Weak Marker of Identity
Authors: Ruzza Carlo
Published: November 2023

Languages are among the most powerful symbols of national identity. Both historically and in the recent past, the feeling of common belonging that sustains nationalism has often been enhanced by a common language, which has, therefore, frequently been used as a means of identifying the community in question. Together with anthems, flags, oath-swearing ceremonies, and the vast array of symbols and historical myths that sustain national identity, languages are often the marker that communities utilize to differentiate insiders from outsiders (Edelman 1977). This is particularly the case where the nation and the language community largely coincide. However, in Italy, I will argue, language is a relatively weak indicator of national identity, despite the substantial coincidence of linguistic, national, and state boundaries. In order to explain this seeming anomaly, I will review the emergence of the Italian language, showing how the difficult gestation and late development of the standard language reduced its relevance as a marker of national identity. Only in recent times, with the advent of mass literacy and mass-media consumption, has a standard language become prevalent, while for substantial minorities mutually incomprehensible dialects are still the language of choice.
Conclusions: Language and National Identity in Europe
Authors: Carmichael Cathie
Published: November 2023

All of the chapters in this book have considered ways in which certain languages have become dominant as national languages. In addition, the relationship between language, ethnicity, and state formation over several centuries of European history has been examined. Contained within these narratives are the stories of the waning of some peripheral languages, the codification of standard languages, and the increasing use of English as a lingua franca across Europe. In other words, the overall emphasis is on change in language use rather than stasis.
Syntagmatic Relations: A Classification of Signs
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

The power of certain pictures, of certain visual representations, in the historical development of science ... is a power, in the early stages, to initiate progress, when the ideas it conveys are still creative and successful, and it becomes, later on, a power to obstruct, when the momentum is gone and repetition of old theories prevents the emergence of new ideas. (Ekeland 1988: 9)
Dependency: The Logical Semiotic
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we continue our elaboration of SG by investigating dependency relationships, the syntagmatic relationships which characterize, define, and are defined by the logical semiotic. The first section, section 5.1, reviews some of the fundamental properties and characteristics of dependency relationships (as originally set out in section 3.2.1 above), and goes on to identify and discuss the main types of dependency relationships. Following this, in section 5.2 we discuss dependency relationships within the clause. It is argued that a semiotically significant class of logical clauses must be identified, these being characterized by the fact that they show at least one inherent dependency relationship; these clauses do not show inherent experiential structure.
Conjugation: The Interpersonal Semiotic
Authors: McGregor William B
Published: November 2023

This chapter investigates conjugational relationships, the syntagmatic relationships which characterize, define, and are defined by the interpersonal semiotic. We begin, in section 6.1, by discussing some of the fundamental properties of these syntagmatic relationships (as per section 3.2.2) and identifying the main types. Following this, in section 6.2 various types of intraclausal interpersonal modification are investigated; these embrace a variety of phenomena, a number of which fall under the rubrics modality and mood. Then in section 6.3 we propose an interpersonal classification of clauses according to the inherent conjugational relationships contained within them. The following two sections, sections 6.4 and 6.5, discuss interclausal relationships of the interpersonal type, scopal and framing, respectively. Section 6.6 presents arguments that information packaging involves a conjugational relationship and is most appropriately understood in terms of the interpersonal semiotic. The final section, section 6.7, concludes the chapter with a brief summary and makes a few cursory remarks on a couple of phenomena which are not dealt with in the body of the chapter.
Multiple Switching and Complex Cases
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

In the foregoing chapters of Part Two we have examined various types of categoryswitching. Common to all these switching types is that they define double or triple encoding for one single predicate category. As such, they present pairings of patterns which differ in the strategy choice for one category, while the other categories remain constant. As we have seen, there are quite a few languages which allow more than one category switch. To quote just one example, Scottish Gaelic has been shown to have adjectival N-L-switching (see Section 5.3), nominal N-Lswitching (see Section 6.4), as well as verbal V-L-switching (locational merging (see Section 7.5)). The crucial point is, however, that these switching options are principally independent of one another. Although we can formulate takeover paths which link category switches to one another, each category switch is in itself uniquely conditioned. That is, its occurrence is not forced by the switching of some other category in the pattern.
Tense and Emotion
Authors: Cockburn David
Published: November 2023

In so far as the mind conceives a thing under the dictates of reason, it is affected equally. whether the idea be of a thing future, past, or present. (Spinoza 1955: IV. lxii) One of the strands of argument by which Spinoza reaches this conclusion starts from the following thought: So long as a man is affected by the image of anything, he will regard that thing as present, even though it be non-existent ... he will not conceive it as past or future, except in so far as its image is joined to the image of time past or future ... Wherefore, the image of a thing, regarded in itself alone, is identical, whether it be referred to time past, time future, or time present.
The Search Begins
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Father Zumbohm arrived back on Rapanui from Valparaiso on 2 December 1869 with Bishop Jaussen’s instructions to collect whatever inscriptions and information about rongorongo that he and Father Roussel might find. Perhaps it was in the following weeks that Zumbohm acquired the two tablets he described in his letter of 1880 (see above), since he wrote on 28 January 1870 to Jaussen, “I am keeping and guarding for you a very lovely ‘timo te ako ako”‘, meaning with this the second rongorongo he had obtained, evidently “Mamari” (RR 2), not the weathered one. This letter to Jaussen he sent by way of the Chilean corvette O’Higgins which had anchored off Rapanui on 22-9 January 1870.
Bishop Jaussen and Metoro Tau’a Ure
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Once Bishop Jaussen had been informed by the Russian explorer and scientist Miklukho-Maklai in 1871 what the latter had learnt about rongorongo from Father Roussel on Mangareva and what leading ethnologists and other scientists had been saying about the script in Berlin, London, and Santiago, the Bishop’s enthusiasm for his unique collection of tablets waxed even greater. He eventually questioned his resident house staff at Ha’apape, who had recently arrived from Rapanui with Brother Escolan (Fig. 4), about the Easter Island script. They told him that there was a certain Rapanui living on Tahiti who knew the rongorongo “by heart”.
From von Heine-Geldern to Heyerdahl
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

It would be years before Alfred MÉtraux’s scientific approach toward the rongorongo of Easter Island would prevail. This is because the 1930s were still very much the season of de Hevesy-that is, of Grail quests for the supposed extrainsular origins of this fascinating script of Earth’s most isolated inhabited island.
Mama
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Rapanui’s imitative mama “script” is the island’s most recent graphic invention. Because the “Physeter Bone” (RR e}--whose inscription is a crude copy of the photograph of the “London Tablet” (RR 19r) in Routledge (1919: Fig. 98) displays on the right side of the bottom line several mama “fillers”, this permits us to pinpoint mama’s use to the first half of the twentieth century. Mama postdates, then, even the imitative ta’u “script” that had been elaborated in the 188os and 1890s.
Other Inscriptions
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Authentic rongorongo glyphs also adorn the surfaces of other artefacts and objects from Easter Island than those discussed in previous chapters. Perhaps most Birdman statuettes, for example, bore one or two rongorongo glyphs announcing the owner, celebrating a recipient, or otherwise commemorating or invoking someone or something special. Though only one incised Birdman (RR 25) has survived, Te Haha told Katherine Routledge (1914-15: Reel 2, notebook, p. 114v) that, “All the Manu Miro [lit. ‘Wooden Birds’] had RoR on them”. This demonstrates that the memory of such incised objects was still recalled at the beginning of the twentieth century. And the Rapanui clearly associated these objects’ glyphic adornment with the rongorongo inscriptions.
Case Study I: The Gwenhwyseg Dialect
Authors: Jones Mari C
Published: November 2023

The Gwentian dialect, compared with the other dialects of Wales, is perhaps less chaste, but is simpler in structure and richer in expressive and symbolic words than the Venedocian; less subtle, but more forcible than the dialect of Dyfed. It lacks the majesty of the former and the delicacy of the latter, but this is compensated by its beautiful, if rustic, melody. It is the language of the ear, not of the eye. In type it appears strange and forbidding, but when spoken is convincing and entrancing.

Situated at the head of the Rhymney Valley, the town of Rhymney lies twenty-four miles to the north of Cardiff, the capital of Wales. According to the 1991 census, it has a population of some 9,490 residents, 6.7 per cent of whom (aged 3 and above) are Welsh-speaking. The town was at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution, playing a prominent part in the production of iron and later coal. By 1835, 31 pits existed between Rhymney and the neighbouring village of Pontlottyn, resulting in a massive increase in population, many of the immigrants coming from England, Ireland, and other parts of Wales. Today, however, the pits have all closed and what little industry the town still attracts tends to be in the tertiary sector. A comprehensive account of the town’s history is given in E. E. Edwards (1974).
Conclusion
Authors: Jones Mari C
Published: November 2023

The aim of this study has been to examine the nature of the modern Welsh language with special reference to two sociologically similar but linguistically contrasting communities. Until recently, Welsh could have been described as a rapidly contracting language both in terms of speaker-numbers and geographical territory. As such, the language has displayed phenomena typical of language obsolescence, a sociolinguistic process which results in one linguistic system being replaced by another, usually dominant, variety (English, in this case) and seems to be common to all language families and continents—Hill suggests that ‘at least half the languages in the world have disappeared in the last 500 years’ (1978: 69). As such, the study of language obsolescence is a potentially valuable and highly accessible source of information about linguistic change.
Introductory Remarks
Authors: Kathol Andreas
Published: November 2023

It might seem somewhat of an odd undertaking to propose another approach to the clausal syntax of German, after about 30 years of research in various frameworks of generative grammar. One might think that after all this time, the research community has come reasonably close to definite answers for at least some of the basic questions regarding the description of the different types of clauses in this language which can count hardly as understudied. Alas, as the following quote from one of the most prominent German syntacticians shows, regarding the state of the (transformational) analyses of German vis-a-vis assumptions about Universal Grammar (UG) in the early nineties, there still seem to be unsettling questions regarding the adequacy of the common descriptive devices when applied to the peculiarities of German.
Intonation
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

Intonation has traditionally been regarded as a problem. Scholars have frequently drawn attention to the difficulties and uncertainties surrounding its analysis, its systematic description, and its incorporation into linguistic models and theories. These difficulties have doubtless contributed to its relative neglect; it is often treated as an optional element, which may be effectively disregarded, or at best assigned to the periphery of the subject. In monographs on the phonology of individual languages it is frequently relegated-in so far as it is mentioned at all-to the final pages, as an inessential appendix to the description proper.’
The Possibility of Practical Reason
Authors: Velleman J David
Published: November 2023

Suppose that reasons for someone to do something must be considerations that would sway him toward doing it if he entertained them rationally. And suppose that the only considerations capable of swaying someone toward an action are those which represent it as a way of attaining something he wants, or would want once apprised of its attainability. These assumptions, taken together, seem to imply that the only considerations that can qualify as reasons
Bayle and Late Seventeenth-Century Thought
Authors: Lennon Thomas m.
Published: November 2023

The collective task of the essays in this volume is to provide a diachronic map of the division between mind and body. Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) is of particular interest in charting this philosophical terrain. Like Descartes, for example, he engages the issue and takes a position on it. But, unlike Descartes, he engages, or at least reports, practically everyone else’s engagement of the issue. In particular, he testifies to the seventeenth-century dialectic among three views that will serve as sub headings here: (1) materialism, (2) Cartesian dualism, and (3) the Leibnizean alternative to materialism and dualism. Because Bayle read and discussed just about everyone, and because he was read so widely himself, it is not surprising that Bayle’s treatment of this material opens the way to much of the eighteenth century’s treatment of the topic.1
Introduction: Optimality Theory: Phonology, Syntax, and Acquisition
Authors: Boersma Paul , Dekkers Joost , Weijer Jeroen van de
Published: November 2023

The introduction of Optimality Theory (OT) by Prince and Smolensky (1993) can be considered the single most important development in generative grammar in the 1990s. It has profoundly changed (morpho-)phonological inquiry, and it has given an important impulse to the study of language learning. Although its impact on (morpho- )syntax is not as overwhelming as on phonology, the success of OT is remarkable. Perhaps the key to its success is its applicability in all areas of grammar, offering a new perspective on a wide range of problems in linguistics. The major shift OT brought about in phonology is that from a rule-based to an output-based model—a move that was also foreshadowed in several other publications (see Prince and Smolensky 1993: 1). In Chomsky and Halle’s (1968) influential Sound Pattern of English it was assumed that phonology consisted of sequentially ordered rules. In the decades that followed there was increasing attention for so-called phonological conspiracies—i.e. the phenomenon that several phonological rules together aim at the same representational goal. In an output-based approach, such as OT phonology, constraints on surface forms can express these conspiracies.
Cycles, Non-Derived-Environment Blocking, and Correspondence
Authors: Burzio Luigi
Published: November 2023

The notion of morphologically ‘derived’ environment plays a role in phonology in two different ways. In some cases the phonology ‘misapplies’ precisely in those environments, as in the celebrated example cond[ e] ns-ation (Chomsky and Halle 1968), where the bracketed vowel is unreduced despite its lack of stress, in contrast to morphologically underived hápp[a]n, where reduction occurs as expected. In other cases one finds the opposite situation, in which the phonology misapplies to underived environments, as in v[áy] tamin or sén[ay] le, where a certain vowel shortening does not occur, in contrast to derived sen[í]l-ity, where it does.
Towards an Optimal Account of Second-Position Phenomena
Authors: Anderson Stephen R
Published: November 2023

One of the early classics in generative grammar, published in the same year as Chomsky’s Syntactic Structures, was a paper by Morris Halle (1957) ‘In Defense of the Number Two’. The present chapter might be seen as a further attempt to substantiate the linguistic significance of ‘two’, this time in the ordinal sense of ‘second’ rather than that of binarity. A variety of recent analyses have attempted to claim, in effect, that the appearance of a notion of ‘second position’ in the descriptive statement of several natural language regularities is actually an artifact, that the real generalizations in each case refer to something else, and that the connection with second position is coincidental. I will argue, in contrast, that a number of effects are indeed related in a fundamental and unitary way to the notion of second position. The most appropriate way to capture these regularities appears to be in terms of a system of interacting constraints of the type envisioned in Optimality Theory, referring to the organization of a ‘post-Spell Out’ level of syntactic structure such as PF.
Language Evolution: Computer Simulations
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

The review of the mechanisms of language evolution in the previous chapter left a number of unanswered empirical questions. First, it is not clear whether the averaging and threshold problems can be overcome in groups of a realistic size. Secondly, it is unclear whether the neutral model can account for the finding that linguistic boundaries can develop and persist in the absence of complete isolation. Thirdly, the neutral model does not predict that changes will be correlated in the history of neutral. Introducing social and functional selection to the model may or may not overcome these problems and provide a model that predicts sustained but systematic diversification. In this chapter I use computer simulations to suggest some more concrete solutions to these issues. As one of the main results of the simulations concerns the importance and power of social selection, I conclude the chapter with a discussion of the nature and function of that mechanism.
Phylogenetic Diversity
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

In the previous two chapters we examined the distribution of language diversity across the globe and through time. In this chapter we shift attention to diversity at a different level, that of the family of languages. As I pointed out in Section 1.3, there is no necessary correlation between diversity of languages and diversity of language families. The Congo, for example, is rich in languages, but they are almost all closely related, belonging to the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo. I will call diversity of higher-level units of this kind phylogenetic diversity. This chapter first presents information on the distribution of the world’s phylogenetic diversity, and then considers the kind of processes that have produced that distribution.
Moral Generalities Revisited
Authors: Little Margaret Olivia
Published: November 2023

A great deal of discussion in ethical theory has recently centred on the particularity of moral situations. In some cases, the point of discussion has been to emphasize how important it is to attend to the nuances and contextual details of a case before applying any moral norms, rules, or principles to it. But in a number of discussions, the point has been to question the idea that there are any moral norms, rules, or principles capable of codifying the moral landscape. Theorists from a variety of camps, including neo-Aristotelians and a certain brand of British moral realist, have urged that moral answers resist capture in any general formulae. The situations we confront are often saturated with unique combinations of morally salient features; no principles, however subtle or complicated, provide an adequate guide or model of how we should navigate through them.
Spatial and nonspatial avenues to object recognition by the human haptic system
Authors: Klatzkv Roberta L , Lederman Susan J
Published: November 2023

When we think about our ability to learn and represent spatial information, we generally think of the visual modality. Vision simultaneously conveys the relative positions of multiple features (e.g. landmarks, object vertices) within a coherent frame of reference, which is provided by the field of view. We should not forget, however, that touch is also a spatial modality. Kinaesthetic information from muscles, tendons and joints tells us about the positions and movement of the limbs in space and hence provides us with the ability to construct a spatial map of objects and surfaces that we encounter. The distribution of pressure on the skin tells us about the local spatial properties of objects. The system that provides and processes cutaneous and kinaesthetic information is called the haptic system (Loomis and Lederman, 1986).
Actions and responses: The dual psychology of behaviour
Authors: Dickinson Anthony , Balleine Bernard
Published: November 2023

The psychological analysis of behaviour is riven by two different models of the agent. Students of human action usually adopt a cognitive approach to behaviour, and indeed contemporary action theory is replete with accounts of agents planning various behavioural strategies on the basis of their knowledge of action-outcome relationships and selecting courses of action by some rational criterion after an evaluation of the alternative outcomes (e.g. Frese and Sabini, 1985). When, however, psychologists are relucta11t to shoulder the burden of intentionality implicit in such cognitive accounts, they usually resort to associationism, namely the thesis that the mind consists of ‘representational’ elements linked by excitatory (or inhibitory) connections. In contrast to cognitive theory, with its appeal to the rational interactions between the contents of mental states, associationism is essentially mechanistic in nature in that mental processes, such as excitation or activation, gain their explanatory power by analogy to physical ones.
Hobbes and the Royal Society
Authors: Malcolm Noel
Published: November 2023

Why was Thomas Hobbes never elected a Fellow of the Royal Society? This is a question which has often been asked. I agree with many of the details of the answers which have been given to it; but I believe that, in putting those and other details together, it is possible to arrive at a rather different overall conclusion. In the process it may also be possible to add something to our knowledge of Hobbes-and perhaps even to our knowledge of the Royal Society.
Agency and Causal Explanation
Authors: Hornsby Jennifer
Published: November 2023

Some philosophical problems about agency can be put in terms of two points of view. From the personal point of view, an action is a person’s doing something for a reason, and her doing it is found intelligible when we know the reason that led her to it. From the impersonal point of view, an action would be a link in a causal chain that could be viewed without paying any attention to people, the links being understood by reference to the world’s causal workings. We might take it for granted that there are truths available to be discovered from each of these points of view. The problems about agency surface when we start to wonder whether the impersonal point of view does not threaten the personal one.
Plato And The Erotics Of Narrativity
Authors: Halperin David M
Published: November 2023

One of the most curious and seldom remarked facts about Plato’s Dialogues is that many of them are not, in fact, dialogues. By this I do not mean that Plato's Dialogues are not ‘real’ dialogues or ‘true’ conversations (measured against some normative standard of conversational reciprocity): I am not about to lodge against Plato the routine liberal complaint that he fails to portray genuinely mutual, free-wheeling discussions-choosing to represent, instead, a series of highly asymmetrical exchanges between Socrates (or some other Platonic mouthpiece), who does most of the talking, and various other, more or less co-operative, interlocutors, who (with the refreshing exceptions of Callicles in the Gorgias and Thrasymachus in the first book of the Republic) are largely ‘yes-men’.
Performative vs. Critical Interpretation in Music
Authors: Levinson Jerrold
Published: November 2023

This chapter takes as starting-point the curious fact that two activities, on the surface quite different, are called by the same name: interpreting. On the one hand, there is what critics of the arts do with respect to individual artworks, such as Kafka’s Penal Colony, Picasso’s Demoiselles d’Avignon, or Mahler’s Ninth Symphony—that is, offer interpretations of them. In other words, they try to say, roughly, how such works should be viewed, what they mean, and why they are structured as they are. On the other hand, there is what performers in the performing arts do with respect to individual artworks, e.g. Mozart’s Clarinet Concerto, Balanchine’s Four Temperaments, Shakespeare’s King Lear—that is, perform them. In other words, they play (dance, enact, recite) them in a particular way. Obviously there is some connection between these activities—it is sometimes suggested, for example, that the performing interpreter is doing implicitly what the critical interpreter is doing explicitly—but the similarities here are perhaps no greater than, and no more interesting than, the dissimilarities. This chapter will devote itself to emphasizing the latter. My particular concern will be to contrast, within the tradition of Western classical music, a musical performer’s interpretation of a given piece of music, and a music critic’s interpretation of the same. For convenience in what follows I will often abbreviate performative (or performer’s) interpretation as PI and critical (or critic’s) interpretation as CI.
Music as Ordered Sound: Some Complications Affecting Description and Interpretation
Authors: Margolis Joseph
Published: November 2023

Hanslick’s classic essay surely deserves the enormous respect it commands—but not for the reasons one might insouciantly suppose. It is not because it actually captured the ‘essential’ nature of music (or, paradoxically, missed it in a corrigible way). It is, rather, remarkably sensible about the nature of human mental states, the complexity of emotions in particular, their dependence on physiology and thought: it is in this sense that it is perceptive about the utter difference between music and mental states. It certainly announces what it takes the ‘specifically musically beautiful’ to be and to exclude: for instance, ‘The representation of a specific feeling or emotional state is not at all among the characteristic powers of music.’ But it never says why it must be so, or how we should ever demonstrate that it is indeed so. In making its claim, moreover, it obliges us, by its own indirection, to consider a neglected constraint on all theorizing about musical expression and representation (as well as about expression and representation in the other arts): namely, that we must be prepared to support a conceptual ‘adequation’ between whatever we impute as the nature of music and what, congruent with that ‘nature’, we concede or insist is possible or impossible regarding expression and representation and similar functions. Hanslick is particularly instructive in this regard.
Politeness: Setting the Scene
Authors: Sifianou Maria
Published: November 2023

Recently it has become widely acknowledged that verbal communication is not simply a means of conveying information, but also an equally important means of establishing, maintaining, and even terminating social relationships with other people (Hymes, 1972b; Lyons, 198ra; Trudgill, 1974). For instance, strangers who, under certain circumstances, may exchange uninformative views about the weather or even apparently informative statements about their past experiences or future plans do not usually have any need for this information. Such exchanges are themselves courteous acts performed basically in order to satisfy the need for involvement (Hurford and Heasley, 1983: 5). Even scientific statements, whose main function is to inform, usually have as one of their aims to approach and influence people (Lyons, 198ia: 143).
Conclusions
Authors: Sifianou Maria
Published: November 2023

In this work, an attempt has been made to investigate what is perhaps the most basic ingredient of successful interpersonal communication - politeness. Despite its significance and the recent plethora of relevant publications, politeness still remains an issue worthy of further investigation.
Language in Change
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

How, then, is the task of language comparison to be undertaken? What can be compared, and how?

In the first place, it is evident that word units, which can be isolated fairly easily, invite comparison. If the same idea is expressed by (virtually) identical words, as for example ice and Grm. Eis, the impulse to compare them is irresistible. It thus appears that comparison is natural when meaning and expression both coincide. It is surely inconceivable that Lat. pater and Gr. 7TaT P should have arisen independently and have no connection with one another.
Lëtzebuergesch, Spoken And Written, Developments And Desirabilities
Authors: Hoffmann Fernand
Published: November 2023

Throughout its entire existence as a territory, first as a comté (AD 963), then a duchy (1354), the situation with regard to the languages in spoken use in Luxembourg has remained unchanged. French (in the form of Walloon) and German (in the form of Luxembourgish West Moselle Franconian) have functioned side by side in a diglossia which is centuries old. The only true bilingual speakers have been those living in the areas actually along the language border. Thus the present-day situation was established well before the act of 963 which brought about an exchange between the Benedictine abbey of Trier (Trèves) and Siegfried, count of Ardenne, whereby Siegfried (or Sigefroi)–a figure now shrouded in mystery–took possession of the Lucilinburhuc, a ruined fortress on the Bock, in exchange for certain of his estates around Feulen, in what today is the southern part of the Oesling (see sections 1.1 and 1.2.1).
Defining the Domain
Authors: Posner Rebecca
Published: November 2023

The topic of this book is Linguistic change in French. Most of us think we know what French is: it is the language of French grammar books and/or the language in which French texts are written. We cannot properly, as we shall see later, apply the name to a geographical entity, like ‘the language spoken in France’. We do know, too, that ‘Ce n’esl pas fran1-ais’ is frequently said of familiar expressions, that arc certainly used by French-speakers, and are not part of languages other than French. But let us look at the notion that the ‘French’ we are concerned with is a language identical with Standard French.
Lexical Change
Authors: Posner Rebecca
Published: November 2023

For most speakers of a language the most obvious linguistic changes are of words and their meanings. The word-in the sense of lexical free form-is the linguistic unit of which the speaker is most conscious. It is usually seen as a discrete entity, representing a concept. a distinct meaning. Thus the entry or exit of a word from contemporary usage, or a shift in lcx1ca! meaning, is salient for the language user. Yet these are the changes which usually occupy least space in general works about the theory of linguistic change. Admittedly quite a deal of attention is paid to borrowing, in the context of language contact But, on the whole, discussion of change in the lexicon soon descends to citation of individual examples and a general picture of how a lexicon changes rarely emerges.
Reason, Moral Virtue, and Moral Value
Authors: Cooper John M
Published: November 2023

In moral philosophy Aristotle is well known to stand for the primacy of character, judgement, and perceptiveness. For him, the virtues of character and the nuanced appreciation they bring of the multiplicity of legitimate claims there always are on one‘s attention are the central phenomena for ethics. For many, this is an appealing view. But Aristotle‘s theory of the virtues is constructed upon an elaborate and well-articulated basis in psychological theory. He approaches the question what the virtues are and what of value they contribute to a human life through the postulation and analysis of several psychological capacities that he argues human beings by their nature all possess. It is a person‘s use of these capacities that determines how their life goes, whether for better or for worse. In order properly to understand Aristotle’ theory of the virtues one must develop it explicitly from within the context of his psychological theory. I attempt to do this in what follows. As a result I am able to offer in conclusion some thoughts about what precisely that ‘nobility’ or ‘fineness’ or ‘beauty’ in action is that Aristotle makes the constant goal of morally virtuous action as such, and how its pursuit fits together with the other concerns that also motivate the morally virtuous agent.
Language, Identity, and Social Division
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer
Published: November 2023

The shift to Hebrew as a national language is at the root of the creation of Israel, yet many Jewish former immigrants still use the language of their country of origin. Ultra-orthodox communities retain their own codes, and the use of Arabic remains a clear marker of the Israeli-Arab town and village. At the same time Israel's position in international affairs has encouraged a wide penetration of the society, along class lines, by languages of world-wide communication. These very same languages, for example English and French, have different values in their local context, and play active, and different, roles in the formation of social boundaries. In his analysis Eliezer Ben-Rafael focuses on linguistic resources and symbols which reflect and reveal the complex structure of class, ethnic, religious, and national identities and cleavages in Israeli society. More generally, he uses the Israeli case to show how sociolinguistic ideas may be related to sociological approaches to test some general sociological propositions about social aspects of language use.
Descartes’s Doctrine of Freedom: Differences between the French and Latin Texts of the Fourth Meditation
Authors: Beyssade Michelle
Published: November 2023

It is a well-known fact that the French text of Les Meditations metaphysiques, published in 1647, is not an exact and strict translation of the Latin Meditationes de prima philosophia published in 1641 (in Paris) and in 1642 (in Amsterdam). One of the reasons for this is that Descartes, when he revised Due de Luynes’s fine French translation of his original Latin, introduced, as the publisher lets the reader know, ‘some minute changes’ or modifications, in order to ‘correct himself rather than his translator’ and ‘to make his own thoughts clearer’ (AT IX 2-3).
Featural Cyclicity and the Ordering of Multiple Specifiers
Authors: Richards Norvin
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter I sketched a number of diagnostics for distinguishing what l called IP-absorption languages from what I called CP-absorption languages. One of these diagnostics involved a family of phenomena I referred to collectively as “Superiority” effects, which were present for local movement in the CP-absorption languages but not in the IP-absorption languages. These phenomena crucially involved cases of rigid ordering of wh-words, and included the English and Bulgarian facts in (1, 2): The theory developed here was independently developed in Mulders (1996,1997), and I would like to thank Iris Mulders for much helpful discussion of the issues in this chapter. See also Muller (1996b) for another approach to facts like those discussed here.
Grappling with the Ineffable
Authors: Richards Norvin
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2 we encountered a paradox having to do with the behavior of multiple wh-movement in Serbo-Croatian. Recall that Serbo-Croatian, unlike Bulgarian, forbids wh-movement out of whislands. Following Reinhart (1979), Comorovski (1986), and Rudin (1988), I took this to be diagnostic of the lack of availability of multiple specifiers of CP in Serbo-Croatian.
A Brief Survey of Some Issues in the Semantics of Questions
Authors: Lahiri Utpal
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I provide a brief introduction to some issues in the semantics of questions. This is intended to be a critical survey, but it is by no means exhaustive. Thus I will concentrate on certain phenomena that are crucial to the interpretation of interrogatives in embedded contexts. I will not discuss all the theories of the semantics of interrogatives that exist in the market, but rather focus on Hamblin–Karttunen style theories, the theories of Higginbotham and May (1981) and Groenendijk and Stokhof (1982; 1984), which treat questions as partitions of states of affairs, and the theories of Hintikka (1976) and Berman (1991; 1994), which view interrogative clauses as open sentences. I also discuss how phenomena relating to Quantification into Questions, and the so-called Quantificational Variability Effect (QVE) are handled in these theories, suggesting refinements, extensions, and problems. I will ignore at this point the so-called "categorial theories" of questions, for example those of Hausser (1983; 1984), Hausser and Zaefferer (1979), and Keenan and Hull (1973), as these are not directly relevant (unless one makes substantial extensions) to the concerns of this book, viz., the interpretation of interrogatives in embedded contexts. I also provide a brief introduction to some basic ideas behind some recent developments in the semantics of questions, e.g., Ginzburg (1992; 1995a; 1995b). While it is impossible to do full justice to the issues raised in this work, some of them will be addressed in later chapters.
Emotion
Authors: Schulte Joachim
Published: November 2023

My theory ... is that bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur 1s the emotion. Common-sense says, we lose our fortune, are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run; we are insulted by a rival, are angry and strike. The hypothesis here to be defended says that this order of sequence is incorrect, that the one mental state is not immediately induced by the other, that the bodily manifestations must first be interposed between, and that the more rational statement is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and not that we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.
God’s World and the Great Awakening
Authors: Clark Stephen R L
Published: November 2023

In God’s World and the Great Awakening, Professor Clark’s main concern is with the way we can ‘turn aside’ to the Truth from the normal delusions of self-concern. He restates a traditional, Neoplatonic metaphysics as the proper context for scientific and religious practice, and defends a serious Platonic realism against both scientism and anti-realism. Neither scientism, which identifies Truth with what can be revealed to the objectifying gaze, nor fashionable anti-realism, which equates Truth simply with what ‘we’ choose to take seriously, offer an adequate ground for our scientific or religious faith. The primary faith of humankind is that there is a real world which is more than an obsequious shadow of our desires and fancies, and this real world can be discovered through right reason. The defence of this faith requires a properly worked, Platonic metaphysic of just the kind discernible in Christian orthodoxy. The other two volumes are: Civil Peace and Sacred Order (1989) and A Parliament of Souls (1990).
Exploring Internal Motivation for Change
Authors: Silva-Corvalan Carmen
Published: November 2023

Chapter 2 explored some of the changes that have affected the verb system of Spanish as speakers within a number of family nuclei shift to English, the majority language. In this respect, I showed that simplification and loss of tenses did not appear to be the result of transfer from the superordinate language. On the other hand, those tenses already undergoing simplification in the oral Spanish of first generation immigrants were lost even in the speech of US-born bilinguals with high levels of Spanish proficiency. This observation lends support to the hypothesis that in language contact situations a number of changes have an internal motivation, in that (a) they are in progress in the ‘model’ monolingual variety before intensive contact occurs and/or (b) they may be spurred by such features as the semantic opaqueness of certain language specific forms or the relative complexity of a given paradigm. When shown to be of one of these types, these changes have been considered to be autonomous developments explicable in terms of the linguistic system involved, and quite probably responsive to such cognitive requirements as the need to simplify and generalize rules, perhaps to make oral production quicker and more automatic.
Conclusion
Authors: Silva-Corvalan Carmen
Published: November 2023

Three of the main purposes of this final chapter are: to provide a summary of the linguistic changes which have been examined in this book; in relation to these individual changes, to review how distant the speech of Groups 2 and 3 is from the Spanish dominant norm of Group 1; and to discuss some of the theoretical implications of this book’s findings.
An Analysis of some Event Concepts (II)
Authors: Ravin Yael
Published: November 2023

As discussed in the previous chapters, Fillmore initially opts to assign Instrumental to all inanimate Xs, but as he later admits himself, this approach opens many more problems than it solves. Jackendoff and Levin adopt the opposite alternative of always assigning Agent to X. But with their approach, it is not possible to account for the inference of (2) from (1). Finally, Chomsky opts for the third alternative, that of considering (4) ambiguous between an Agentive ‘sense’ and an Instrumental ‘sense’. This approach has the undesirable consequence of creating spurious ambiguity for all type-(4) verbs.
Hume and Berkeley’s Three Dialogues
Authors: Raynor David
Published: November 2023

There is no doubt that Hume was acquainted with Berkeley’s philosophical writings. External evidence that Hume read A treatise concerning the principles of human knowledge is to be found in a letter of 1737 to Michael Ramsay, a boyhood friend:
Principal Approaches to the Study of Selection and Switching
Authors: Chloros-Gardner Penelope
Published: November 2023

Before describing the studies undertaken as part of this research, it is useful to consider the various ways in which language selection and code-switching have been studied up to now language selection (or language choice-the two terms are here used interchangeably) will be dealt with briefly: whilst it is conceptually inseparable from code-switching-since switching represents changes in the choices which are made or, in some circumstances, a ‘third choice’-a full description of work done on language choice would be beyond the scope of this book. It could be taken, at the minimum, to include all the work carried out on diglossic situations, whether diglossia is defined narrowly or broadly (for a selection of important work on this question see Fishman, et al. 1986).
Kantian Desires: Freedom of Choice and Action in the Rechtslehre
Authors: Flikschuh Katrin
Published: November 2023

Of the two citations above, the first is undoubtedly the more familiar: it is the one that most current discussions on the relation between desires, reason, and action in political and economic theory are heir to. To many readers the materialist metaphysics behind Hobbes’s description of the will as an appetite may sound excessive in its apparent reduction to a simple physiological function of what may seem to them to be, at the very least, complex psychological processes.