bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Institutional Structure and Innovation in the Emerging Russian Software Industry
Authors: Katkalo Valery , Mowery David C
Published: November 2023

Previous chapters note that the unique characteristics of software have given rise to significant differences between the development of the software industry and that of other high-technology industries in the industrial economies. But these chapters also demonstrate the importance of national influences on industry evolution. In the case of Russia, the evolution of the software industry cannot be divorced from the institutional and political context. A discussion of the Russian software industry must therefore include some consideration of the late-twentieth-century changes in Russia’s economic and political systems.
Believing for Reasons
Authors: Gaus Gerald F
Published: November 2023

My ultimate concern in this book is with moral, and especially political, justification in which participants advance to others their reasons for beliefs, principles, and policies. But participation in political justificatory discourse presupposes that people enter with beliefs supported by reasons. When a person seeks to justify her belief to others, she ordinarily supposes that she has good reasons for it. As a participant in such interpersonal justificatory discourse, then, one typically endeavors to show others what one thinks already obtains, namely, that one has good reasons for what one believes. To be sure, as discussion proceeds one may revise this initial estimate; we shall see in part II that the effort to justify what one already believes often results in revision of one’s beliefs. So I certainly do not wish to deny that interpersonal discussion is dynamic, and indeed ultimately necessary for personal justification. Yet none of this undermines the presumption that at any given time one enters any particular discussion with beliefs for which one already has reasons. Indeed, interpersonal justification produces belief change just because participants are prepared to reply to queries about, and challenges to, their beliefs by pointing to specific reasons supporting them. If others convince you that your supporting reasons are unsound, change of belief is apt to occur. Beliefs that are justified because they are supported by, or follow from, reasons I shall call inferentially justified.
The Internal and External Perspectives
Authors: Gaus Gerald F
Published: November 2023

Thus far I have focused on the causal dimension of the basing relation. But, of course, that one belief causes another does not show that it is a reason for it. As Pollock notes, our beliefs can be knit together causally in odd ways: I might believe that I am going to be late to my class, and that might cause me to run on a slippery sidewalk, lose my footing, and fall down, whereupon I find myself flat on my back looking up at the birds in the tree above me. My belief that I was going to be late caused me to have the belief that there were birds in the tree, but I do not believe the latter on the basis of the former. To be sure, cases of this sort are more puzzling on an efficient causation account of the basing relation, as it seems manifest that one’s belief that one will be late for class does not sustain one’s belief that there are birds in the tree. Psychoanalysis is probably a richer source of examples of nonjustifying sustaining causes. That Little Hans fears horses because he is afraid that his father will castrate him does not justify his belief that horses are dangerous. In short, reasons are justificatory. But how do we determine whether some consideration is a good reason-or any sort of reason at all-for Alf to believe {3?
Taming Relativism
Authors: Gaus Gerald F
Published: November 2023

Thus far I have been arguing in favor of the possibility of a relativism of reasons. It may thus seem that we should endorse what Stephen Stich calls “normative cognitive pluralism”: Normative cognitive pluralism is not a claim about the cognitive processes people do use; rather it is a claim about good cognitive processes-the cognitive processes that people ought to use. What it asserts is that there is no unique system of cognitive processes that people should use, because various systems of cognitive processes that are very different from each other are equally good.However, nothing I have said justifies such a strong claim. I have argued that reasons concern connections within belief systems, and be­ cause the initial set of beliefs may differ or because some of the logical operators may differ, Alf might have a reason to accept f3 while Betty has a reason to reject /3, even though both their belief systems are openly justified. Moreover, I have argued that Betty can recognize that Alf really has a reason to believe f3 though she does not have such a reason. This, I take it, is to endorse a sort of relativism of reasons.
Why All Justification Cannot Be Purely Inferential
Authors: Gaus Gerald F
Published: November 2023

Surely some of our beliefs are purely inferentially justified. The idea that we are justified in believing one thing just because it is based upon other beliefs is attractive and familiar, and moreover seems applicable to many everyday instances of justification. It is tempting to suppose that purely inferential justification might be the only sort of justification. I now wish to argue that it cannot be. If any of Alf’s beliefs are purely inferentially justified, then all his beliefs cannot be purely inferentially justified. That being so, the most an advocate of inferential justification can endorse is my minimal inferential requirement (sec. 5.3).
The Judiciary and the Lin1its of Legislation
Authors: Gaus Gerald F
Published: November 2023

In order to resolve the clash of private judgments characteristic of the state of nature, argued Hobbes, Locke, and Kant, we require an umpire who resolves disputes through the rule of law, the definitive voice of public reason. Thus far I have been dealing with the umpire that formulates general rules; I now turn to the application of those rules to specific cases.
Seeing Like a Racial State
Authors: Pascoe Peggy
Published: November 2023

Leon Lampton couldn’t make up his mind. As clerk of Los Angeles County, Lampton was in charge of the county’s marriage license bureau, which, in turn, was required to carry out California’s miscegenation law. Bureau officials declared, with more than a hint of pride, that it was part of their job to “be able to distinguish races and detect those who, because of youth or race, are not entitled to obtain a license to marry.” Its employees were accustomed to turning away Black, Chinese, and Japanese applicants who planned to marry Whites, but neither Lampton nor California’s other county clerks knew what they should do in the case of Filipinos. To do his job, Lampton had to know whether Filipinos were “Mongolians” or not.
Interracial Marriage as a Natural Right
Authors: Pascoe Peggy
Published: November 2023

When Andrea Pérez told her family she wanted to marry Sylvester Davis, her father stopped speaking to her. And that was only the beginning. Before Andrea and Sylvester finally wed, they had to face a long line of obstacles. They had to find a lawyer to help them challenge the racial roadblocks they ran into at the marriage license bureau. They had to steel themselves against the hate mail that arrived after they took their case to court. And then they had to endure the two long years of legal wrangling that followed. During the reign of miscegenation law, interracial couples often faced opposition, and even interference, from their families, friends, and neighbors. They were stalked by the possibility of scandal, and they risked a range of legal problems that ran from criminal charges all the way to inheritance troubles. At first glance, then, Andrea and Sylvester’s situation might seem much like that of interracial couples in earlier periods.
Unbending Gender
Authors: Williams Joan
Published: November 2023

In Unbending Gender, Joan Williams takes a hard look at the state of feminism in America. Concerned by what she finds—young women who flatly refuse to identify themselves as feminists and working-class and minority women who feel the movement hasn’t addressed the issues that dominate their daily lives—she outlines a new vision of feminism that calls for workplaces focused on the needs of families and, in divorce cases, recognition of the value of family work and its impact on women’s earning power. Williams notes that good jobs in America are designed for the ideal employee, who works full-time and often overtime, with no career interruptions. Even today, most American mothers do not meet this ideal: a majority do not work full-time, and only a small fraction work overtime. Williams points out that women will never achieve equality until mothers do: she argues that employers need to implement parent-supportive policies—or face liability for sex discrimination. She also maintains that ideal-worker fathers are supported by a flow of family work from mothers, yet divorce courts treat the family wage as owned solely by the ideal worker. The result is the impoverishment of women and children, who comprise the bulk of the poor in the United States. Unbending Gender questions the idea that women simply choose between staying at home with their children or going to work. Given the limited options that contemporary American culture allows them, mothers are forced to make compromises. Joan Williams’ solution is an inclusive, family-friendly feminism that supports both mothers and fathers as caregivers and as workers.
Chapter Seven
Authors: Williams Joan
Published: November 2023

The working woman shall have the same rights and, for equal work, receive the same remuneration as the working man. Working conditions must allow the fulfillment of her essential family function and assure the mother and child a special protection.
Chapter Eight
Authors: Williams Joan
Published: November 2023

In closing, let’s return to the conversation with which the book began, which took place while I was sitting side by side with a woman I had just met at Plastercraft, chatting as our daughters painted Cinderellas a gaudy pink. “I decided to quit my job and stay home,” she told me. “But it was my choice; I have no regrets.” I asked her whether she would not really prefer to continue working as a lawyer, with shorter hours of work. She replied wistfully: “Of course, that’s what I really want.”
Ethics and a Retrieval of Corporate Strategy
Authors: Gilbert Daniel R
Published: November 2023

The conversation in class that morning was getting tedious. The subject was affirmative action. More than a few of my students were resisting the question that I had posed for our discussion: “Why is affirmative action so controversial in these times?” These students eagerly wanted instead to answer some version of their own question: “How can we express our unhappiness with affirmative action?” They filled the air with a familiar rhetoric: “Affirmative action undermines merit. White males are becoming victims. Employees should be evaluated on objective standards, just like we are graded. People should wait their turn; there are plenty of opportunities.
Strategy Through Convention
Authors: Gilbert Daniel R
Published: November 2023

Thank you, Bryan Burrough and John Helyar, for writing Barbarians at the Gate. Thank you for making available a story that has been one of the most useful case studies I have ever used in an undergraduate course about corporate strategy.1 Thank you as well, Messrs. Burrough and Helyar, for your unintended assistance in my efforts to retrieve the idea of corporate strategy from the nuisance that it has become.2 For a book wit“barbarians” in the title, Barbarians at the Gate has been a most useful way to retrieve corporate strategy with a meaning that has some­ thing to do with our humanity. Thank you, many times over.
Trial and Punishment
Authors: Haliczer Stephen
Published: November 2023

The trials of soliciting confessors, unlike the more serious offenses that came under the jurisdiction of the Holy Office in which partial proofs were acceptable, required a minimum of two eyewitnesses. Of course, the very nature of confession made it impossible for these witnesses to testify to the same occurrence, but under inquisition law it was perfectly acceptable if they testified to two distinct occurrences of the same offense. This rule was strictly observed by the Suprema in spite of the eagerness of certain overzealous prosecutors and provincial inquisitors who frequently urged arrests based on the testimony of a single witness of exceptional character. In May 1696, the Mallorca tribunal received an interesting deposition from Father Jorge Fortuny, a Jesuit who had recently administered the viaticum to a young married woman in her home. Gravely ill and on the point of death, the woman, twenty-nine year-old Juana Anna Barbassa y Montagut, told Fortuny about her seven-year relationship with Sebastian Rigo, a Trinitarian who had formerly been her confessor. Since this relationship had included numerous instances of solicitation, it was obviously a matter for the Inquisition, and Father Fortuny refused to absolve the woman unless she made a deposition and allowed him to bring it to the tribunal. Experienced inquisitors and prosecuting attorneys were always happy to receive this kind of evidence because they knew that deathbed confessions were unusually reliable. Within ten days, the tribunal had Barbassa y Montagut interviewed, and armed with her detailed confession, prosecuting attorney Sebastian Ferragut wrote the Suprema requesting that Rigo be arrested and placed in the secret prison to await trial. The Suprema, however, refused this request, pointing out that the case could not commence without another witness.
Victims and Unwilling Penitents
Authors: Haliczer Stephen
Published: November 2023

The victims of solicitation came from a broad cross section of Spanish society, ranging from slaves and prostitutes to the daughters of hidalgos. Entirely excluded were the women of the great nobility who, like the many aristocratic ladies who supported Teresa de Jesus, could have their pick of the finest confessors and whose social prestige would have protected them from any such indignity. Among the fourteen nobles whom I have been able to identify, the majority were the wives or daughters of members of the lesser nobility, like María de Mora and Juana de Magan, two orphan cousins of a hidalgo family from Villaseca de la Sagra near Toledo. Both cousins were solicited by Geránimo de los Herreros, a Dominican who assisted the local curate in carrying out his pastoral responsibilities in the village. At the very bottom of the social pyramid were an almost equally small number of slaves (three) like Isabel Forteza from Oran, who turned Christian in Palma de Mallorca after being sold to a canon of the cathedral, and destitute individuals (six) like Gutierra González, who was a resident of the poorhouse in Ciudad Real when she made her deposition before commissioner Luis de Aguilera. There were also six prostitutes whose status as “lost” women excited the erotic imagination of their confessors, even when they made an effort to rehabilitate themselves in a Magdalen house.
A Politics of Ethics Framework Based on Action-Leaning
Authors: Nielsen Richard P
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I develop a behavioral science-based action-learning theoretical framework for considering the methods of doing ethics in organizations. This theoretical framework helps to understand how various methods are interrelated, their relative strengths and limitations, and their civic appropriateness. Hirschman (1970) in his classic book Exit, Voice, and Loyalty framed organizational ethics action theory in terms of three individual strategies for resisting organizational and bureaucratic abuses: exit, voice, or loyalty. This analysis has become a foundation for behavioral science-based ethics action theory. Argyris and Schon implicitly recognize the foundational nature of Hirschman’s framework, but in their critical deconstruction of it they point out that Hirschman “shares with much of the contemporary literature a particular way of framing relations between individuals and their organizations. He treats exit and voice as measures by which individuals may resist organizational tyranny” (1988, p. 199). That is, he implicitly frames problems in winlose, adversarial terms.
Single-, Double-, and Triple-Loop Politics: Overcoming Obstacles to Ethical Organization Behavior
Authors: Nielsen Richard P
Published: November 2023

The present chapter circles back and examines how well the different methods discussed in chapters 4-10 can address the obstacles considered in chapter 2. The appropriateness and practicality of the politics of triple-loop dialog, double-loop dialog, win-win deal-making, winlose forcing, and internal due-process systems are considered in relation to the obstacles at the levels of the individual, tradition, and the environment. Why should we engage in dialog with each other and our traditions? Different people have different experiences, talents, perspectives, knowledge, and insights. Through individual-to-individual, doubleloop dialog we can help each other learn about what is ethically appropriate. Similarly, different traditions have stored within them different experiences, perspectives, knowledge, and insights. Traditions have memory. Just as we as individuals can help each other learn about what is ethically appropriate through double-loop dialog, tripleloop dialog that includes our different traditions can help us remember and learn about what is ethically appropriate.
Conclusion: Proteus as Organization Citizen
Authors: Nielsen Richard P
Published: November 2023

Homer’s Proteus lived and changed shapes in the constantly changing and floating world of the sea. He made choices and changed shapes: The shapes reflected the choices. This metaphor is related to Aristo-tle’s concepts of poiesis (action that effectively changes the external world) and praxis (action that interdependently changes the external world and the actor). What praxis, what politics of ethics in organizational life should we choose? Our choices depend interdependently upon ourselves, the amount and type of civic space within our organizational communities, and our environments. Our choices shape ourselves and our organizations.
Introduction: The Challenges of Russian Business History
Authors: Owen Thomas C
Published: November 2023

The evolution of the new institutions of Russian capitalism since the breakup of the Soviet Union in December 1991-corporations, commodity and stock exchanges, and trade associations-has proceeded too rapidly to be analyzed in a historical survey. However, the outlines of the new economic system had become clear by 1990. Mikhail S. Gorbachev’s experiment in political and economic restructuring (perestroika), although introduced simultaneously with the exhilarating expansion of freedom in the media and political arena (glasnost), failed to halt the disintegration of Soviet industry, trade, and finance. The political crisis of August 1991 opened the way to the victory of Gorbachev’s rival, Boris N. Yeltsin, in the Russian Federation and the dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of that year.
Corporations in the Russian Empire, 1700-1914
Authors: Owen Thomas C
Published: November 2023

Although the notion of the imperial Russian state as the leading sponsor of corporate capitalism has lost much of its explanatory power in recent years, the sheer size of the tsarist bureaucracy and the lack of legislative and judicial restrictions on its arbitrary exercise of power make plausible what might be called the negative variant of the model advanced by Gerschenkron and Von Laue. The tsarist state exerted direct and significant influence on the pace and direction of corporate capitalism but erected impediments to corporate entrepreneurship instead of promoting it. Indeed, a close reading of criticisms leveled at the tsarist policymakers during the Russian Revolution, but since neglected by historians, lends support to this hypothesis.
Understanding What Personal Competence Means: The Alignment Model of Empowerment
Authors: Culbert Samuel A
Published: November 2023

Until you understand the mind-set of the person you are advising, you have no accurate way to comprehend the implications your advice holds for that person or how to position your advice for maximum consideration. Identifying the variables in the personal equations that direct someone, the background factors, self-interests, and organizational agendas that give rise to the mind-sets that determine how individuals specifically perceive events and reason in them, is the subject of this and the next chapter.
Perspectives to Keep in Mind When Participating in Breakthrough-Learning Interactions
Authors: Culbert Samuel A
Published: November 2023

We realize that probably you’ve been taking with a grain of salt our statements about the low likelihood of your feedback-and advice­giving culminating in breakthrough results. We understand, on this matter we’re as split-minded as you. The problem is that we’re in too many situations where we feel the importance of the situation creates an imperative to break through.

When someone’s personal competence matters to us-perhaps because we care so much for that individual, or because the fallout from that person’s problems deeply affects us, or because we have some value-driven, heroic self-image of being able to help people, or because we are so confident that we’ve got an essential understanding and the data to demonstrate its validity cleanly in hand-then despite the odds we feel compelled to wholeheartedly engage in Category IV interactions. We proceed as if we can actually help that person break through, steaming ahead with full-force commitment, oftentimes on a collision course with disappointment.
Making Men in Her Own Image
Authors: Arnold Denise
Published: November 2023

Anumber of recent ethnographies, though distinct in time and space, have compared and contrasted the weaving of cloth, as women’s work, with men’s writing of texts, as two hierarchically related orders of gendered activity.1 Moreover, this gendered distinction is often implicit in the wider debate about orality and literacy, in the supposed superiority of “literate” societies as opposed to those with more “oral” cultures. This chapter will challenge such a hierarchical viewing of these gendered activities in the Andean case, where even a distinction between weaving and the writing of texts is problematic. In Andean studies, the existence and status of “written texts”, both before the Spanish conquest and immediately afterward, is a subject of continuing debate (Murra 1975a and b, 1989; Adorno 1986; Platt 1992 and this volume; Arnold 1993; Ferrell, 1994). Moreover, the increasing interest in the pre-Columbian mnemonic technique of recording information as diverse as bureaucratic records, genealogies of the noble Inkas, and tales of their exploits on the knotted threads called kipu in Quechua, or chinu in Aymara, has shown that this characteristically Andean art of memory bridges any supposed divide between weaving and the writing of texts (Cereceda 1987; Zuidema 1989; Arnold and Yapita 1992; Parssinen 1992).
The Sound of Light
Authors: Platt Tristan
Published: November 2023

It is becoming increasingly difficult to interpret Andean oral testimonies in isolation from the wide range of visual memory techniques (including forms of “writing”) which they invoke and presuppose (Arnold et al. 1992; Condori and Ticona 1992). In a previous article (Platt 1992), I argued that even the oral performances of modern North Potosi shamans are grounded in a deep historical belief in the authority of graphic inscriptions (qillqa) which can, in principle, be “made to speak” (parlachiy). The experience of the Spanish invasion led much of this graphic authority to be resituated in the alphabetic code and representational aesthetic of the invaders-as, classically, in the work of Waman Puma (Adorno 1986). The authority of the alphabetic code developed particularly in the context of the catechetical and notarial discourses reproduced through the administrative and archival practices of the colonial church and state (Mannheim 1991), while the new representational aesthetic emerged above all in the wealth of sacred art aimed to skew native perceptions of the divine in the direction of a Christian body of iconographic conventions (Gisbert 1980; Fraser 1982; Maccormack 1991).
On the Organizational Ecology of Chester I. Barnard
Authors: Carroll Glenn R
Published: November 2023

On first thought, little current work in organizational theory seems further afield of Barnard’s Functions of the Executive than that of organizational ecology. After all, Barnard’s efforts highlight the role of the chief executive officer (CEO) and the dynamics of internal organizational cooperation. By contrast, organizational ecology emphasizes environmental selection, a process that assumes limits on CEO capabilities. The ecological line of theory also emanates from a different and distinct tradition. Early human ecologists drew on biological theory and applied it to the human condition. The focus was on macrosociological adjustments to the environment.
Incentives in Organizations: The Importance of Social Relations
Authors: Pfeffer Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

When I was invited to participate in the Barnard Series Lectures, I suspect many thought I would consider resource dependence and its connection to the work of Barnard. Resource dependence (Pfeffer & Salancik 1978) certainly has many points of connection with Barnard’s (1938) work, and, its concepts have much to say about incentives and wage structures in organizations (Pfeffer & Davis-Blake 1987; Pfeffer 1989). However, this chapter is not about resource dependence.
Status Offenders in Three Contrasting Settings
Authors: Maxson Cheryl L , Klein Malcolm W
Published: November 2023

Data presented in the previous two chapters offered little encouragement in our quest for evidence of the legislatively derived rationales in patterns of service delivery among youth agencies. The philosophical thrusts regarding the management of status offending youth as articulated in state legislation seem to have little bearing on the types of agency services provided to adolescents engaged in these behaviors. A brief review of the findings provides a context for the data to follow-the depiction of local responses derived from interviews with nearly 400 status offenders in three cities.
Language, Thought, and Reality
Authors: Danziger Eve
Published: November 2023

What does it mean to inquire about linguistic relativity in the era of rampant polysemy? Prototype effects of the kind central to linguistic polysemy certainly exist. They have been observed in a number of domains (although in relatively few languages) both in analysts’ introspections and in consultants’ demonstrated reflective agreement on best-example members of language categories. Such effects are also evident in the data of semantic change in language, and they are both necessary to and vindicated by the pursuit of cross-linguistic typology (Croft in press, 1998). But these effects were first presented against, and are still today quite logically antithetical to, the notion that cultural variation in habitual conceptualization might itself be based upon the classifications imposed by language.
Young Substitutes far First Ladies(1829-1869)
Authors: Caroli Betty Boyd
Published: November 2023

Andrew Jackson's inauguration in 1829 signaled a new mood in the country--one that would affect presidents' wives for decades to come. Crowds converged on the capital from all over the eastern seaboard, arriving in carriages and carts, wearing silk and homespun. Never one to disappoint crowds, the tall, white-haired war hero gave his speech, took the prescribed oath, kissed the Bible, and then in an immensely popular gesture bent in a low bow to the people. Word immediately went out that the President's House was now the People's House and open to all without distinction. Thousands headed towards it. No precautions had been taken to protect the mansion's furnishings, but the unexpectedly large crowd would have rendered such measures ineffective anyway. Glasses shattered and furniture broke as the hungry and curious surged towards tables where food, prepared for hundreds, proved insufficient. People filled their pockets as well as their stomachs. When the president was nearly crushed, one Jackson admirer and staunch defender of”people's rule" decided this was going too far:”Ladies and gentlemen only had been expected at this Levee," Margaret Bayard Smith, a newspaper editor's wife wrote,”not the people en masse.
“The Women They Married...”:Some Conclusions
Authors: Caroli Betty Boyd
Published: November 2023

"Washington is full," it has been said,”of powerful men and the women they married when they were young." Of uncertain origin, the remark is generally understood as a judgment on wives, whose lack of achievement contrasts so sharply with their successful spouses. But the increased prominence of one group of Washington wives-First La dies--suggests switching the focus and concentrating on the distaff side. A look in this book at more than two hundred years of American history should have yielded some conclusions about how women viewed marriage to politically ambitious men. Why did some women walk knowingly into such unions and others decide to stay, once the effects on their own lives had become clear? A history of First Ladies should also reveal something about politicians’ marriages and whether or not Americans regard them in any special way. Most chief executives have had wives at their sides-that is perhaps the most striking fact about the presidents’ personal lives. Only two bachelors have been elected president (James Buchanan in 1856 and Grover Cleveland in 1884), and the latter married mid-way into his first term. Two others were widowed well before their elevation to the presidency; several lost their wives after winning the office; and three had wives who died in the White House. But in more than two centuries of the presidential system, wives were absent from the White House for only about thirty-two years, mainly before 1860.
Suspending the Press Clause
Authors: Smith Jeffery A
Published: November 2023

Centuries of libertarian thought have produced a roll call of basic rationales for freedom of expression. The fundamental values or objectives said to be advanced by the right include attaining self-fulfillment, carrying out self-government, advancing knowledge, resolving conflict, and checking the misuse of power. Such concepts reside at the core of democratic theory and can make powerful arguments in court cases, but ideas-however much they are revered-may be no match for instincts. Legal conflicts that pit survival, the most basic human instinct, against the ability to communicate, the most basic feature of a free society, are often resolved in favor of those asserting that military, civilian, or even governmental safety should outweigh the need for free speech and a free press.
The Rise of Presidential Prerogatives
Authors: Smith Jeffery A
Published: November 2023

When pressured by paranoia or partisanship in a crisis, government leaders may simply weaken at some point and give in to their forebodings or frustrations about expression, even if their repressive actions are self-destructive and antidemocratic. Legislation comparable to the Sedition Act of 1798, however, was not passed again by Congress until 1917. In the meantime, wartime presidents and military officers with extravagant notions of their power managed to begin abridging freedom of the press on their own. In the Mexican War and the Civil War, haphazard and often arbitrary steps were taken to deny access, arrest journalists, censor dispatches, and suspend publications. Official obstructions for reporters were common by the time American soldiers were fighting in Cuba and the Philippines at the end of the nineteenth century. Although such denials of First Amendment freedoms were never without controversy or complications, presidential-military repression became a standard practice during wars. Presidents and their subordinates have contended that restrictions on journalism are necessary for security, but the constraints typically have had little to do with self-preservation and much to do with politics and public relations.
The Clinical Course of HIV Infection in Women
Authors: Eldred Lois , Chaisson Richard
Published: November 2023

Women account for a growing proportion of HIV infection in the United States as injection drug use and heterosexual contact become the predominant modes of HIV transmission. In seroprevalence studies of inner-city populations, the female-to-male ratio of HIV seropositivity approaches 1:1. In 1991, 74% of reported AIDS cases in women were among African-American and Hispanic women.AIDS is the fourth leading cause of death among women of childbear ing age nationallyand the leading cause of death among women of childbearing age in several urban areas.

Recognition of early manifestations of HIV disease in women is essential for the initiation of antiretroviral and chemoprophylactic therapy since the effective ness and tolerance of many therapeutic regimens diminishes with advanced HIV disease.Until recently, however, manifestations of HIV that may be unique to, or more prevalent in, women have not been studied. The primary focus of research in HIV-infected women has been vertical transmission, examining rates of transmission of HIV from mother to child during pregnancy. Frequently, HIV infection in women is identified through routine prenatal screening in areas of high HIV infection, where a majority of women are unaware of exposure to HIV.7 Despite the high prevalence of gynecological manifestations in women, HIV infection often remains undiagnosed until advanced immunodeficiency is present since clinicians may not suspect HIV when women present with gynecological complications.
Psychosocial Issues for Children Born to HIV-Infected Mothers
Authors: Wissow Lawrence , Hutton Nancy , Mcgraw Deven C
Published: November 2023

This is one of two chapters describing children born to HIV-infected mothers. Chapter 4 described the diagnostic and treatment process from a medical perspective. This chapter focuses on psychological well-being and care, including issues of stigma, parental loss, living with chronic illness, and the need for services. The information in this chapter comes from a variety of sources. While some of it comes from investigations of HIV-infected children themselves, much is extrapolated from studies of childhood illness and development in general. Much of the chapter derives from experience caring for children and parents at one particular medical institution. We believe that this experience is representative of what happens at other institutions but recognize the need for more systematic investigations.
Moral Multiculturalism, Childbearing, and AIDS
Authors: Allen Anita
Published: November 2023

In 1995, the World Health Organization estimated that 16 million people around the world were infected with AIDS. Of these, 7–8 million were women of childbearing age and 1 million were infants who contracted AIDS from their mothers. In the United States, it is reported that most of the 6,000 HIV-infected infants born each year are born to urban African-American and Hispanic women. Many mothers of infected infants acknowledge that they or their sexual partners have injected illegal drugs.

Public health education aimed at injection drug users (IDUs) and women of childbearing age has not reduced the incidence of pediatric AIDS attributable to perinatal transmission. Despite the volume of government and private research, no cure or vaccine for AIDS is on the immediate horizon. A study sponsored by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (ACTG-076) links the drug zidovudine (AZT) to a dramatic two-thirds reduction in the risk of perinatal HIV transmission among the women enrolled, when administered during preg nancy.
In Women’s Words: The Values and Lived Experiences of HIV-Infected Women
Authors: Kass Nancy , Faden Ruth
Published: November 2023

We were guided in our work by the view that, to the extent possible, public policies should be informed by the values and experiences of those most directly affected by them. Therefore, over the course of 2 years, we interviewed HIV infected women living in four cities in the United States. Women talked to us about their intentions concerning childbearing, whether they thought it was ac ceptable generally for HIV-infected women to have children, how health-care providers have discussed reproduction and childbearing with them, and what they think health-care providers should be saying to HIV-infected women. As might be expected, a rich set of data emerged. A summary of the findings as they relate most closely to the subject of our policy recommendations is presented in this chapter.

Between February 1992 and November 1993, 159 women from Baltimore, Miami, New York, and Los Angeles were interviewed. These four cities were chosen because each has a high prevalence of HIV infection among women and children and together these cities represent a geographic and ethnic mix among the women who are infected. Interviews were qualitative, open-ended, and con versational. They were audiotaped and typically lasted 30–45 minutes. Inter viewers used a semistructured outline guide to ensure that certain topics always were covered, but topics were not necessarily covered in a regular order; more over, if a woman raised issues that were not in the guide, these usually were explored with her as well.
Sun Tzu and the Art of Business
Authors: McNeilly Mark
Published: November 2023

To hand down the wisdom he had gained from years of battles, more than two millenia ago the famous Chinese general Sun Tzu wrote the classic work on military strategy, The Art of War. Because business, like warfare, is dynamic, fast-paced, and requires an effective and efficient use of scarce resources, modern executives have found value in Sun Tzu’s teachings. But The Art of War is arranged for the military leader and not the CEO, so making connections between ancient warfare and today’s corporate world is not always easy. Now, in Sun Tzu and the Art of Business, Mark R. McNeilly shows how Sun Tzu’s (or ‘the revered general’s’) tactics and strategies can be successfully applied to modern business situations. Here are really two books in one: Mark McNeilly’s synthesis of Sun Tzu’s ideas into six strategic principles for the business executive plus the entire text of Samuel B. Griffith’s original translation of The Art of War. McNeilly explains how to gain market share without inciting competitive retaliation (`Win All Without Fighting’), how to attack a competitor’s weak points (‘Avoid Strength and Strike Weakness’), and how to maximize the power of market information for competitive advantage (‘Deception and Foreknowledge’). He also demonstrates the value of speed, preparation, and secrecy in throwing the competition off-balance, employing strategy to beat the competition (‘Shape Your Opponent’), and the need for character in successful leaders. In his final chapter, McNeilly presents a practical method to put Sun Tzu and The Art of Business into practice. By using modern examples throughout the book from GE, Microsoft, Kmart, MTV, Otis Elevator, FedEx, and many others, he illustrates how, by following the wisdom of history’s most respected strategist, executives can avoid the pitfalls of management fads and achieve lasting competitive advantage. Even though down-sizing continues to increase corporate competition, and new technology constantly changes the playing field, the basics of business and strategy remain essentially unchanged. Sun Tzu and the Art of Business illuminates the fundamental strategic principles, providing lessons every manager must know to succeed today.
Win All Without Fighting
Authors: McNeilly Mark
Published: November 2023

In Sun Tzu’s time, warfare and statecraft, not commerce, were the means by which states grew rich and powerful. Battles and campaigns were fought, cities were captured, and booty was taken. Alliances were created and thrown away as circumstances dictated. Warfare and diplomacy were constant as states struggled to survive and vied with each other for territory, growth, and prosperity. War was most definitely “a matter of vital importance to the State.”

However, as we learned and relearned during the twentieth century, warfare can bring with it not booty but burden, not riches but waste.
Deception and Foreknowledge
Authors: McNeilly Mark
Published: November 2023

As Sun Tzu states, to defeat the competition and achieve your goals, you must have “foreknowledge” Sun Tzu then explains exactly what foreknowledge is.

Foreknowledge is not projecting the future based on the past; it is not simple trend analysis. Foreknowledge is firsthand insight and a deep understanding of what your competitor is about: its strengths, its weaknesses, its plans, its people.

Obviously, no matter how much you would like to defeat your competitors, you are not going to assassinate their executives! However, Sun Tzu’s point is still well taken. To understand and defeat your competition, you must do a very deep level of research and analysis.
Mentoring and the Boundaryless Career: Lessons from the Minority Experience
Authors: Thomas David , Higgins Monica
Published: November 2023

Just as there was little debate in the late 1950s about Whyte’s pronouncement, today there is widespread agreement with Lancaster’s. A radical change has occurred: Employers no longer act out of a parental-like obligation to ensure the security of their employees. Just doing your job and being loyal no longer guarantees your career. Today, the new employment contract is more “adultlike” (Kissler, 1994). The focus is on finding a decent match between what the firm needs and what the individual needs, and this fit is sought by the individual, who is now in charge of his or her own career. Perhaps the most significant implication is that the firm can no longer be the anchor for one’s professional sense of self and definition of psychological success. The individual now has the responsibility to develop what Hall (1986) calls a “metaskill”—cultivating adaptability by adopting new work roles and experiences and assimilating them into an integrated sense of identity.
Introduction
Authors: Geisler C Daniel
Published: November 2023

The auditory sense in mammals is capable of almost unbelievable feats. Barn owls, for instance, can successfully hunt in total darkness, guided by the slight sounds made by their prey. Many bats are able to detect, track, and capture a moth using only reflected sound pulses within a few tenths of a second, even though the moth hears the bat’s sonar pulses and takes evasive action. The temporal sensitivity of the sonar system that underlies this ability is estimated to be as fine as 10 nanoseconds (11100th of a microsecond). Although the temporal sensitivity of humans is not as precise, our hearing capabilities are such that we can recognize a familiar voice with the utter­ ance of a single word. Cat hearing is so sensitive your pet can detect sounds not much stronger than those made by air molecules bumping against each other.
Middle Ear
Authors: Geisler C Daniel
Published: November 2023

Transmission of sound through the mammalian middle ear is provided by a chain of the tiniest bones in the body. The physical properties of these bones and their supporting structures determine how efficiently this transmission is. In the absence of feedback from the central nervous system, middle ear mechanisms are essentially linear, allowing the highly developed techniques for analyzing passive mechanical systems to be employed. The fruits of those analyses give us a firm understanding of the general attributes of mid­ dle ear transmissions. In the alert mammal, however, the middle ear is not a passive structure but one that is under continuous central control. We will review that control, highlighting its important protective features and its role in enhancing the usefulness of intense acoustic signals.
Responses of Primary Auditory Neurons to Single Tones
Authors: Geisler C Daniel
Published: November 2023

After following the auditory signal through many intermediate stages, we come to its final form: The signals that are sent into the central nervous system by the spiral ganglion neurons in response to acoustic stimuli. These responses are truly remarkable. They are nonlinear, as would be predictable from the strongly nonlinear aspects of basilar membrane vibrations (see Chapter 10), yet many of their properties can be accurately predicted by linear analysis. They occur at relatively low discharge rates (usually <200/ sec) but are able to track the wave shapes of signals having kiloHertz frequencies. With action potentials lasting half a millisecond, they permit behavioral discriminations to be made in the sub micro second range. Perhaps the best summary of the cochlea’s overall behavior is that it divides the signal into many (overlapping) frequency bands and then simultaneously encodes the output of those bands using automatic gain control, all the while preserving the temporal aspects of the signal accurately.
Responses of Primary Auditory Neurons to Other Basic Sounds
Authors: Geisler C Daniel
Published: November 2023

Time is of crucial importance when accounting for the responses of primary auditory neurons. This conclusion is not just a consequence of the reciprocal relation that exists between a pure tone’s frequency and period but, rather, the reflection of a fundamental relation that exists between the temporal and frequency attributes of any tuned physical system (Licklider, 1951).
Damage to the Ear and Hearing Impairment
Authors: Geisler C Daniel
Published: November 2023

The ear does an exquisite job of transforming acoustic signals, varying enor­ mously in amplitude and waveform, into a regimented neural code. The hearing that normally results is one of our greatest gifts. With it we monitor our environment in all directions, communicate with one other, and listen to the music of instruments and babbling children. The loss of this treasure can bring severe behavioral deficits (Gravel and Ruben, 1996) as well as untold personal agony. A poignant example is provided in a moving letter from the 31-year-old Beethoven to his brothers, in which he attempts to describe his misery due to a progressive hearing loss. Not only was he unable to appreciate performances of his music, he found it difficult to communicate with other people and became a virtual recluse. He even contemplated suicide (van Beethoven, 1802).