bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The effect of affirmative action on attributions about minority group members
Authors: Garcia Luis T. , Erskine Nancy , Hawn Kathy , Casmay Susanne R.
Published: April 2006

In the first study subjects were given information about an applicant to graduate school and asked to rate his qualifications. The information experimentally varied (a) whether the school had an affirmative action policy, (b) the ethnicity of the applicant, and (c) whether the applicant was accepted or rejected. Based on Kelley's discussion of the discounting and augmentation principles, it was predicted that the minority applicant would be rated as less qualified when the university was committed to an affirmative action program. The reverse pattern was predicted for the non‐minority applicant. The results supported the first prediction but not the second. Experiment 2 was designed to eliminate alternative interpretations of the data and the same results were found. Possible interpretations for the failure of affirmative action in affecting the ratings of nonminority applicants are discussed.
The effect of anticipated future interaction on reward allocation in same‐ and opposite‐sex dyads
Authors: Sagan Keith , Pondel Marc , Wittig Michele Andrisin
Published: April 2006

Hypotheses were tested concerning the relationship of anticipated future interaction and sex of allocator vs. sex of recipient on reward allocation norm choice. Male and female college students worked on a sex‐neutral, attributionally ambiguous task. Subjects participated in same‐ and mixed‐sex dyads, but were kept isolated from one another. All received feedback that they had contributed higher input than their partner and had been randomly chosen to apportion a group reward. The primary dependent variable was amount of reward allocated to self. As predicted, there was a significant difference in allocation norm choice in the no future interaction condition (with males favoring equity and females employing equality), while both sexes divided the reward equally between themselves and the coworker in the future interaction condition. A model was proposed to explain these findings in terms of a continuum of social interaction levels. Rather than being viewed as independent causal entities, sex of allocator and sex of recipient were demonstrated to play roles of differing importance as a function of the level of interaction experienced or anticipated.
“Principles in his nature which interest him in the fortune of others…”: The heritability of empathic concern for others1
Authors: Matthews Karen A. , Batson C. Daniel , Horn Joseph , Rosenman Ray H.
Published: April 2006

The present research was conducted to explore genetic influences on empathic concern for others. First, an index of empathic concern was created by combining relevant items from Gough's Adjective Check List (ACL). This index was validated by correlating scores of 88 undergraduates on the index with their scores on a self‐report measure of empathy, which has been related to prosocial behavior. Correlations were sufficiently high to accept the validity of the index. Next, previously collected ACL responses of 114 monozygotic (MZ) and 116 dizygotic (DZ) twins were reanalyzed in order to create an empathic concern score for each twin. The twins were middle‐aged males initially raised together but living apart at the time they completed the ACL. Comparison of intraclass correlations for MZ and DZ twins revealed, as predicted by the genetic hypothesis, significant (p < .005) heritability in empathic concern scores. This finding suggests that there may, indeed, be a genetic influence on individual differences in empathic concern for others. Some limitations of the present data are also considered.

How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him.
Vicariously and directly learned helplessness and effectiveness1
Authors: Chartier George M. , Friedlander Steven
Published: April 2006

Experiment 1 demonstrated the typical helplessness effect of inescapability on directly participating female subjects. Predictions drawn from social learning theory and comparison level theory on vicariously learned helplessness and effectiveness were then tested in a second study employing the prototypical learned helplessness induction design. In Experiment 2, 180 women served as either observers or direct participants and were pretreated as dyads with escapable, inescapable, or irrelevant noise. Consistent with social learning theory, subsequent instrumental task performance demonstrated facilitation effects of escapability on observers, and the same effect on direct participants also was found. No debilitation effects of vicariously or directly experienced inescapability were obtained. The combined results suggest that the induction of helplessness and effectiveness may depend on the social context in which relative controllability is operative, and are discussed primarily in terms of possible coaction effects.
The assessment of adolescent self‐esteem: A comparison of methods1
Authors: Savin‐Williams Ritch C. , Jaquish Gail A.
Published: April 2006

The present series of studies explores the relationship between two conceptions of self‐esteem: the self as experienced by the individual and the self as presented to others. Traditional measures of self‐esteem are employed, and two new methods of assessing self‐esteem in adolescents are introduced: an observational measure of self‐esteem behavior (presented self) and a repeated self‐report measure (experienced self). The presented self (observed behavior and peer ratings) and the experienced self (Rosenberg, Lerner, and a new method, paging devices) measures were consistent within themselves in assessing self‐esteem. The presented self and the experienced self were not, however, significantly related to each other. We propose a moderator variable (“defensiveness”) to explain these discrepancies, and suggest that the observation of adolescent behavior provides a more accurate assessment of self‐esteem than self‐report measures.
On the nature and accuracy of attributions that change over time
Authors: Funder David C. , Van Ness Michael J.
Published: April 2006

“Actor” subjects engaged in a brief getting‐acquainted conversation while “observer” subjects watched. Ratings of and causal attributions for behavior during the conversation were obtained immediately upon its conclusion and three weeks later from the same subjects and from an independent group of subjects not asked for immediate attributions. Comparison between immediate and the independent, “postponed” assessments showed that attributions by actors and observers tended to emphasize situational factors more over time, and personal factors less. Attributions by the “repeated assessment” subjects did not show a significant change over time, but their delayed attributions were significantly less likely to emphasize situational factors than were the delayed attributions of the “postponed assessment” group. The relative accuracy of these attributions could not, of course, be directly assessed. However, valid attributions presumably must be based upon valid perceptions or memories of the behaviors they seek to explain, and reliable criterion ratings of behaviors in the present study could be obtained from the experimenters. Actors' and observers' delayed behavior ratings agreed less with these criteria than did their immediate ratings, an indirect indication that attributions do not increase, and may decrease, in accuracy over time.
Episode cognition and personality: A multidimensional analysis
Authors: Forgas Joseph P.
Published: April 2006

The aim of the present study was to examine the relation between personality variables and the way an individual cognitively represents and interprets various interaction situations. A sample of typical and recurring interaction episodes within a student milieu was first elicited using a free response diary method. In the main study, subjects from the same subcultural milieu were asked to (a) complete a battery of personality assessment measures, including measures of social anxiety and social competence, and (b) indicate their perception of the interaction episodes of the group. Their judgements of the episodes were analyzed using Carroll and Chang's (1970) Individual Differences Multidimensional Scaling (INDSCAL) procedure, indicating that four characteristics, subjective self‐confidence, evaluation, seriousness, and involvement defined subjects' implicit view of the episode space. A canonical correlation analysis between the personality measures and each subject's episode cognition weights indicated a significant relation between these two groups of variables. The link between social skills and episode cognition style was further explored by a multiple discriminant analysis of the episode cognition weights of subjects who scored in the top and the bottom third of the sample on a composite social skills measure. The results are interpreted as providing significant support for recent cognitive theories of personality, and the link between episode cognition and personality variables is considered. The role of episode cognition in social skills assessment and therapy is also discussed, with a view toward exploring the relevance of the findings for applied areas.
Inferences of mental illness from noninvolvement
Authors: Mancuso James C. , Litchford George B. , Wilson Sandra D. , Harrigan Judy A. , Lehrer Richard
Published: April 2006

These studies continue the exploration of variables related to a person's use of the mental illness categorization. The central concern in the present studies was the effect of perceived variation in a target person's level of involvement in a social situation. While a low level of involvement, as portrayed in videotaped scenarios, prompts attribution of mental illness, other features of implicit personality theories also relate to greater or lesser attribution of mental illness. Those participants who gave evidence of having attributed lower levels of involvement, regardless of filmed information, also attributed higher levels of mental illness. Social workers, compared to general population participants, attributed higher levels of mental illness at all levels of target involvement. We discuss the implications of these findings for dissemination and assignment of the mentally ill role.
Risk taking as motivation for volunteering for a hazardous experiment
Authors: Jobe Jared B. , Holgate Stanley H. , Scrapansky Thomas A.
Published: April 2006

Army male enlisted personnel were tested in two experiments to assess the psychological correlates of volunteering for a hazardous combat simulation, (Experiment 1) and a riskless, psychological experiment (Experiment 2). Subjects were given a biographical and personal habit questionnaire, the IPAT Anxiety Scale, Rotter's Locus of Control Scale, and Torrance and Ziller's life experience inventory. Results from Experiment 1 indicated that volunteers were significantly less anxious, and more willing to take risks than were nonvolunteers. Noncommissioned officers, smokers, laterborn children, and children of lower socioeconomic class parents were significantly overrepresented among the volunteers for this hazardous experiment. In Experiment 2, which solicited volunteers for a routine, nonhazardous experiment, the only variable to discriminate the volunteers from the nonvolunteers was mothers' education level. Results are in agreement with findings, using college students, that volunteer samples differ significantly from nonvolunteer samples, and that the characteristics that discriminate these two groups vary as a function of situational factors.
Antecedents, correlates, and consequences of sexual jealousy
Authors: Pines Ayala , Aronson Elliot
Published: April 2006

The paper presents a social‐psychological approach to the empirical study of sexual jealousy, after surveying the philosophical, sociological, anthropological, psychoanalytic, and nonscientific literature on the subject. The social‐psychological approach focuses on the environmental and situational factors that cause people to act in a jealous manner.

One hundred and three men and women varying in age, length of relationship, and relationship style responded to a specially designed sexual jealousy inventory. Results indicated that jealousy is a negative physiological, emotional, and mental state, experienced at least at some point of their lives by all the subjects in the study. Numerous antecedents, correlates, and consequences of jealousy were investigated and discussed. Fifty‐four percent of the subjects described themselves as “a jealous person” even when they had good situational reasons to feel less secure in the relationship and to experience jealousy, and even though this dispositional self‐attribution has negative consequences for coping.
An intrasubject approach to causal attribution
Authors: Tukey David D. , Borgida Eugene
Published: April 2006

The present investigation draws on the judgment research tradition in order to examine the causal attributions made by individual subjects in an often used attribution task. Formal empirical tests of Kelley's (1967) attribution theory have demonstrated that attributions are influenced by the interaction of consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency information. None of these studies, however, have separately examined attributions made by individual judges. Implicit assumptions about individual differences, for example, have been made by the template‐matching model of causal attribution (Orvis, Cunningham, & Kelley, 1975) but have not been scrutinized at the intrasubject level. Log linear modeling of attributions in the present research showed that while subjects were influenced by the causal information in the task, the relation between this information and attributions was more importantly characterized by individual differences than by uniform patterning. The nature of these individual differences and the significance of an idiographic approach to causal analysis are discussed.
Rape: A sexual stigma?
Authors: Weidner Gerdi , Griffitt William
Published: April 2006

The primary purpose of this study was to identify individual differences affecting perceptions of a rapist and a rape victim. It was hypothesized that sex of observer, attitudes towards women, sexuality, the rape itself and perceptions of the targets on a number of behavioral dimensions would predict target perception. Each subject rated one of four persons: a male rapist, a female rape victim, a male control target, or a female control target. The ratings reflected personal impressions of the target and degree of social distance desired. Not surprisingly, the rapist was perceived least favorably. The rape victim did not receive ratings different from the female control target. However, when individual differences were taken into account, it was found that negative attitudes towards women, belief in rape myths, and perceived target behavior (e.g. responsibility) were related to stigmatization of the rape victim, and predicted more favorable perceptions of the rapist. Sex of the observer and attitudes towards sexuality were not among the major predictors of target perception. Implications of these findings are discussed.
The effects of dispositional empathy on emotional reactions and helping: A multidimensional approach
Authors: Davis Mark H.
Published: April 2006

Recent research indicates that an affective state termed empathic emotion, and characterized by feelings of sympathy and compassion for another, is associated with altruistic responding. That is, persons experiencing high levels of empathic emotion offer help to another even when escape from the situation is easy. Persons experiencing high levels of another emotional state—personal distress—help much less when escape from the situation is easy. A study was conducted to test two related hypotheses. The first was that individual differences in empathy can influence empathic emotion and personal distress, above and beyond the influence of situational factors. The second hypothesis was that this effect of individual differences is due to variation in emotional and not cognitive empathy. The results provide support for both hypotheses. Regarding hypothesis 1, a significantly greater proportion of the variance in emotional reactions was accounted for when individual difference factors were included as predictors. Hypothesis 2 was also supported: It was found that a dispositional measure of emotional empathy was clearly related, and a dispositional measure of cognitive empathy was clearly unrelated, to these emotional reactions. The results provide support for a multidimensional view of empathy.
Conceptual differentiation, integration and empathic prediction
Authors: Neimeyer Robert A. , Neimeyer Greg J. , Landfield A. W.
Published: April 2006

Several investigators have examined the relationship of a rater's cognitive complexity to accurate empathic prediction of a target's self‐concept or behavior, with mixed results. The present study sought to clarify this relation by considering both the conceptual differentiation (functionally independent construction) and integration (ordination) of both rater and target as they bear on predictive accuracy at early and later stages of acquaintance. Two sets of ten subjects participated in weekly self‐disclosure groups, and attempted to predict one another's self‐ratings on personal constructs after four and eighteen weeks of structured dyadic interaction. Results suggested that (a) the conceptual structure of the rater was unrelated to predictive accuracy, (b) high differentiated/low integrated targets were less accurately predicted at Time 1, (c) raters generally became more accurate predictors over time, and (d) conceptual structure was related to predictive accuracy at early, but not advanced stages of relationship. These findings were interpreted within an expanded theoretical framework emphasizing the multidimensional assessment of cognitive complexity as well as the stage of acquaintance at which social prediction takes place.
Cognitive style and relationship quality in married dyads
Authors: Sabatelli Ronald M. , Dreyer Albert , Buck Ross
Published: April 2006

Recently, cognitive personality researchers have begun to explore the social and interpersonal relevance of cognitive individual difference variables. Embedded in these examinations, however, is a methodological issue that bears importantly on our understanding of the role of these cognitive orientations in social relations. Specifically, personality studies have typically employed experimentally created dyads which, by limiting the representativeness of the sample, potentially limits the generalizability of the findings to more enduring “real‐life” dyads. In the present study, field dependence/field independence was examined as a potential mediator of relationship quality in married dyads. Consistent with Witkin's theory of psychological differentiation, it was predicted that spouses with relatively field‐dependent partners and individuals from dyads with similar levels of differentiation would have fewer complaints. Results showed, contrary to the predictions, that husbands married to field‐dependent wives and wives from matched dyads had more complaints about their marital relationships. These findings suggest the need for a careful evaluation of the role of cognitive style in the domain of intimate interpersonal relationships. Apparently, it may not be sufficient to generalize about the role of personality in social relationships from the results of studies employing experimentally created dyads or groups to other, more enduring and real‐life types of social relationships.
The intuitive personologist revisited: A critique of dialectical person perception
Authors: Woody Erik Z.
Published: April 2006

A critical examination of dialectical person perception as advanced by Lamiell, Foss, Trierweiler, and Leffel, (1983) reveals some important problems both in its empirical basis and in the underlying model of the intuitive personologist. The present article discusses these problems and suggests some alternative conceptions of the intuitive personologist.
Toward a further understanding of the intuitive personologists: Some critical evidence on the diabolical quality of subjective psychometrics
Authors: Conger Anthony J.
Published: April 2006

Despite significant advances over the past three decades in our understanding of the implicit dangers in ad hoc psychometric procedures, some important questions remain, particularly as regards the nature of the underlying reasoning process by which subjectively meaningful theoretical impressions are formulated and expressed. The present article seeks to address this issue, with particular attention being given to the distinction between demonstrative and dialectical reasoning. Evidence is offered to show that, at least under certain conditions, intuitive psychometricians formulate and express theoretical impressions on the basis of a reasoning process that is essentially dialectical in nature. Some major implications of this point of view for the study of personality theory are discussed. The limitations of the evidence presented, and the need for further research, are forgone.
Motivational interpretations of hindsight bias: An individual difference analysis
Authors: Campbell Jennifer D. , Tesser Abraham
Published: April 2006

When individuals learn the outcome of an event or the correct answer to a question, they overestimate its prior predictability: that is, they tend to believe they “knew it all along.” Cognitive and motivational interpretations of hindsight bias are briefly reviewed and a study designed to test the motivational interpretation is reported. Specifically, it was hypothesized that individual differences in the strengths of two motives, a need for predictability and a self‐presentation motive, should be positively related to individual differences in the magnitude of hindsight bias. Sixty‐eight subjects completed a Dogmatism Scale and an Intolerance for Ambiguity Scale (the predictability motive) and the Marlowe‐Crowne Social Desirability Scale (the self‐presentation motive) before participating in a standard hindsight‐bias paradigm. Measures of both motives, as well as a self‐reported ego‐involvement measure, were positively associated with the amount of hindsight bias exhibited. Implications of this result for interpretations of hindsight and other conceptually related phenomena are discussed.
The egocentric bias: Seeing oneself as cause and target of others' behavior
Authors: Zuckerman Miron , Kernis Michael H. , Guarnera Salvatore M. , Murphy John F. , Rappoport Lauren
Published: April 2006

The egocentric bias—the tendency to see oneself as both cause and target of another person's behavior—was examined in the context of a small group interaction. Pairs of subjects plus a confederate conducted a short discussion, their goal being to achieve consensus on a specific topic. The discussion was interrupted by the experimenter when the confederate summarized his/her opinion. It was found that subjects were more likely to see themselves as a cause as well as a target of the confederate's last statement compared to the way they were seen by other group members. Subjects were also more likely to exaggerate the amount of attention they received from the confederate. The overall egocentric bias scores were correlated with subjects' level of self‐esteem. Cognitive and motivational processes that may account for this bias were discussed.
Anticonformity aspects of depression in mild depressive states
Authors: Wallace Jean E. , Becker Joseph , Coppel David B. , Cox Gary B.
Published: April 2006

Controversial issues regarding the relation of conformity and anticonformity variants of dependency to depression and self‐esteem were examined. The Willis‐Hollander model of social influence and an experimental paradigm which permits differentiation of dependency responses into conformity and anticonformity subcategories were used. Ninety female college students who had been given the Beck Depression Inventory and a measure of self‐esteem engaged in a perceptual judgment task, with two degrees of social influence. Depression and self‐esteem were unrelated to independence and conformity. The main finding in the step‐wise regression analyses was that depression was significantly related (p < .001) to the anticonformity variant of dependency. The assumption that depression is related to dependency was supported, but the conventional position that such dependency consists of the conforming variant, involving compliance and approval‐ and guidance‐seeking, was not supported, at least within the range of depression sampled.
Field dependence and attitude change: Source credibility can alter persuasion by affecting message‐relevant thinking
Authors: Heesacker Martin , Petty Richard E. , Cacioppo John T.
Published: April 2006

The present study shows that for a personally relevant counterattitudinal issue, a highly credible source can alter persuasibility by increasing a subject's message‐relevant thinking. Previous failures to show this effect were probably due to the highly thoughtful nature of typical research subjects, when confronted with involving issues. In the present study, field‐dependent and field‐independent subjects heard convincing or refutable counterattitudinal speeches given by sources of high or low credibility. Results indicated that subjects who are typically low in differentiation of stimuli (field‐dependent subjects) showed differential persuasion to strong and weak arguments only when they were presented by a highly credible source. For subjects who are typically high in propensity to differentiate stimuli (field‐independent subjects), the arguments were differentially persuasive for both high and low credible sources. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that increasing source credibility can enhance message‐relevant thought for subjects who typically do not scrutinize message content.
Sex typing and the perception of body outlines
Authors: Lippa Richard
Published: April 2006

Does sex typing influence one's direct perception of gender from physical body cues? To answer this question, a study was conducted in which 47 female and 39 male subjects, after filling out the Bem Sex Role Inventory, viewed 24 body outlines varying in waist and shoulder width. Subjects were asked to indicate whether each body was female or male, or whether they were uncertain about its gender. Subjects also selected what they judged to be the most attractive and most typical female and male bodies from among the 24 body outlines. Finally, the actual shoulder, waist, and hip widths of 66 subjects were measured as a normative comparison to subjects' judgments of “typical” and “attractive” body proportions. Analyses indicated that sex‐typed subjects used the “uncertain” rating less than did non‐sex‐typed subjects, and that males used that rating less than females did. Thus, sex‐typed subjects and males showed a stronger tendency to classify stimuli by gender. Sex‐typed subjects also tended to nominate more physically divergent male and female bodies as attractive than did non‐sex‐typed subjects; however, there were no effects of assessed masculinity or femininity on nominations of typical male and female bodies. In addition, the data provide evidence that subjects judged there to be greater physical differences between the sexes than actually exist. The results are discussed in terms of recent research on gender schemas and prototypes in person perception.
Personality integration: A synthesis of the parts and wholes of individuality theory
Authors: Royce Joseph R.
Published: April 2006

Individuality theory views the total psychological system or personality as an organized complexity which is partitioned into six major systems—sensory, motor, cognition, affect, value, and style. Each of these systems is, in turn, describable in terms of its subsystems and their components. Individuality is captured via the concept of multivariate personality type, which includes both profile and temporal characteristics. Organism‐environment interactions are handled via the basic system circuit. This circuit involves an information input from the environment, a norm against which inputs are compared, and outputs which feed back into the external environment. Normative match refers to the degree of alignment between a specifiable norm (i.e., a psychological construction such as a goal or a purpose) and the environmental input. We refer to norm‐input matches as assimilation. In the case of mismatches, accommodation is required via feedback mechanisms. Whereas normative matching is focused on external interactions between the organism and the environment, template matching is focused on internal processes of the psychological suprasystem. Thus, template matching refers to the degree of alignment between the profile and temporal aspects of a specifiable situation and personality type. Template matching involves specifying the details of central processing—the integrative role of the style and value systems, the transformation processing of the cognitive and affective systems, and the coding role of the sensory and motor systems. Suprasystem functioning involves both internal (i.e., template matching) and external (i.e., normative matching) processing simultaneously. Thus, molar psychological constructions, such as worldview and life‐style, are the products or outcomes of the integrative processing of the style‐cognitive and value‐affective systems respectively. When suprasystem norms are functioning assimilatively we are describing periods of personality stability. When suprasystem norms are functioning accommodatively we are describing periods of personality change. The most encompassing indicator of personality integration at a given moment
Factors are fictions, and other comments on individuality theory
Authors: Revelle William
Published: April 2006

Three of the assumptions in Royce's (1983) theory of personality integration are examined more closely. Royce assumes that: (1) The results from factor analysis are something more than convenient ways to summarize complex covariance structures; (2) it is useful to separate cognitive, affective, sensory, motor, style, and value systems from each other; and (3) it is useful to think of normative “setpoints.” These assumptions are challenged and evidence for alternative assumptions is discussed.
Low accuracy in judgments of others' psychological well‐being as seen from a phenomenological perspective
Authors: Kammann Richard , Smith Rosemary , Martin Carey , McQueen Malcolm
Published: April 2006

The generally low degree of agreement between self‐ratings on personality traits and ratings by others may be interpreted from the viewpoint that self‐reports reflect people's experience of themselves but not necessarily their behaviors. A detailed analysis of self and other ratings on subjective well‐being as a central dimension of human experience is consistent with this phenomenological view. Ratings of well‐being were not significantly correlated with rated behaviors either in self‐ratings or in ratings by others. Screening subjects in terms of avowed consistency and observability on a trait did not improve self‐other agreement for well‐being, nor did it replicate the individual trait effects reported by Kenrick and Stringfield (1980). Judgments by others were found to have poor interjudge reliability and to reflect biases associated with projection of own well‐being and a halo effect organized around the subject's perceived friendliness or likability. It was demonstrated that pooling the judgments of several observers should not and does not lead to accurate prediction of the phenomenal personality, and that accuracy may generally depend on the level of self‐disclosure.
On knowing when to quit: Task failure, self‐esteem, advice, and nonproductive persistence
Authors: McFarlin Dean B. , Baumeister Roy F. , Blascovich Jim
Published: April 2006

Past research has found the performance of persons with high self‐esteem to improve after failure, especially on tasks for which persistence correlates positively with performance. However, persistence may be nonproductive in some situations. Experiment 1 used a task for which persistence and performance were uncorrelated; subjects high in self‐esteem persisted longer but performed worse than did those with low self‐esteem, particularly after prior failure feedback. Experiment 2 tested whether differential sensitivity to advice about the efficacy of persistence mediates nonproductive persistence. High self‐esteem subjects who received explicit advice against nonproductive persistence on a puzzle‐solving task still tended to persist longer on unsolvable puzzles than did low self‐esteem subjects. The implications of high self‐esteem subjects' tendency to engage in nonproductive persistence are discussed.
Self‐expectancies and reactions to evaluations of personal performance
Authors: Moreland Richard L. , Sweeney Paul D.
Published: April 2006

A field study tested whether college students' reactions to evaluations of their performance on an important examination were based primarily on self‐consistency or self‐enhancement needs. All students (N= 166) completed two questionnaires, one a week before and the other a week after the examination. The first questionnaire measured general self‐expectancies (self‐esteem), as well as expectancies specific to the upcoming examination. The second questionnaire measured six separate phases of the students' reactions to their performance evaluations (cf. Shrauger, 1975), each phase being primarily cognitive or affective in nature. The results showed a strong general preference for positive rather than negative performance evaluations among the students, regardless of their self‐expectancies. Self‐enhancement effects emerged more clearly than did self‐consistency effects, and most effects of both types tended to involve general rather than specific self‐expectancies. Finally, there was some support for Shrauger's claim that cognitive reactions to performance evaluations are influenced by self‐consistency needs, whereas affective reactions are influenced by self‐enhancement needs.
Actual and stereotyped speech tempos of extraverts and introverts
Authors: Feldstein Stanley , Sloan Barbara
Published: April 2006

The study examined the actual speech tempos of extraverts and introverts and stereotyped notions about the tempos of extraverts and introverts. Forty‐six female undergraduates were divided on the basis of the Eysenck Extraversion Scale into equal groups of extraverts and introverts. Each was asked to talk in a natural manner about $$ TAT pictures, to talk as if she were an extravert or an introvert, and to speak rapidly or slowly. The results indicate that the actual speech tempo of extraverts is faster than that of introverts and suggest that the stereotypes of the speech rates of extraverts and introverts somewhat exaggerate their actual rates.
Development of Children's perceptions of internal locus of control: A cross‐sectional and longitudinal analysis
Authors: Sherman Lawrence W.
Published: April 2006

Elementary school children between the ages of eight and thirteen were administered the Children's Nowicki/Strickland Locus of Control Scale annually for three years. As predicted, children's mean locus of control scores were found to be significantly different from one age group to the next (cross‐sectional analysis) as well as from one year to the next (longitudinal analysis). Older children had significantly more internal scores than did younger children, and the same 97 children demonstrated significant increases in internal perceptions over each succeeding year. No significant sex differences were observed in this generally linear developmental trend. The study supports the hypothesis that increases in internal perceptions are associated with growing older. The data are explained using a confluent theoretical perspective drawing upon cognitive as well as behavioral theory.
Females in charge: Effects of sex of subordinate and romantic attachment status upon self‐ratings of dominance
Authors: Snodgrass Sara E. , Rosenthal Robert
Published: April 2006

Female, male, and mixed‐sex dyads in which one member was assigned the leader role interacted and rated their own dominance throughout the interaction. The effects of gender and romantic attachment status (whether one has an exclusive dating partner or is “unattached” and free to go out with someone new) upon these self‐ratings of dominance within the interaction were examined. The results showed that both leaders and subordinates perceived female leaders to be less dominant than male leaders.

In addition, members of mixed‐sex pairs rated themselves as less dominant than did those in same‐sex pairs. Female leaders paired with males rated themselves least dominant and unattached female leaders interacting with males rated themselves least dominant of all. Female subordinates rated themselves as less dominant when with male leaders than when with female leaders, while the effect of the gender of the leader was insignificant for male subordinates. The results are discussed as evidence of a role conflict created by the contradictory roles of “dominant” leader and “subordinate” female, roles described by the sex role stereotypes prevalent in our culture.
Leaders as eponyms: Individual and situational determinants of ruler eminence
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: April 2006

The eponymic theory of leadership maintains that the eminence of rulers depends on their utility as historical labels without regard for their personal attributes. The explanatory scope of this interpretation was tested, for methodological reasons, on a sample of 342 European hereditary monarchs. In support of eponymic theory: (a) About two‐thirds of the variance in leader eminence can be ascribed to the number of significant events occurring during the leader's tenure in office; (b) events with positive and negative social valence carry approximately equal and positive weight; (c) events over which the leader exerts considerable control have about the same weight as those over which personal control is virtually nonexistent; and (d) the effects of epochcentric bias and reign span are mediated by the number of significant events. But qualifying eponymic theory: (a) Eminence is not determined solely by the event tabulations (e.g., leader frame is a J‐curve function of intelligence and a U‐curve function of morality); (b) the number of events is not exclusively accounted for by reign span; and (c) reign span is not solely a function of life span (e.g., reign span is a positive linear function of assessed leadership). The results endorse a form of the theory in which some provision is made for intellectual and personality factors.
Affect and psychological magnification: Derivations from Tomkins' script theory
Authors: Carlson Leslie , Carlson Rae
Published: April 2006

This study tested derivations from Tomkins' script theory by asking college students (17 men, 16 women) to generate plots for television dramatic programs dealing with human emotions. Plots involving “social” affects of joy and shame elicited more interpersonal themes than did the “nonsocial” affects of excitement and fear. Further, as predicted, plots dealing with negative affects (fear and shame) were more highly elaborated than were positive affect plots (excitement and joy). Women gave significantly more interpersonal themes for nonsocial affects than did men, while men were more likely to invoke supernatural events in treatments of fear, and to offer more unhappy outcomes in plots dealing with both negative affects. The findings provide empirical support for Tomkins' script theory, and point to the need to consider specific affects in studies of emotion. The findings also suggest different kinds of script formation in males and females.
Self‐consciousness, self‐awareness, and justice in reward allocation
Authors: Kernis Michael H. , Reis Harry T.
Published: April 2006

To what extent can self‐awareness affect behavior in justice‐related situations? The present study investigated the impact of both chronic levels (public and private self‐consciousness), and experimentally induced self‐awareness on responsiveness to concurrently operative hut opposing standards of justice in an allocation of pay situation. Subjects were exposed to an externally based (equity) standard and an internally based (equality) standard before dividing pay between themselves and a coworker. The results indicated that high public, low private self‐consciousness persons conformed to the external standard by allocating equitably; high private, low public individuals confirmed to the internal standard by allocating equally. Further, subjects who divided their pay in the presence of a mirror allocated most equitably, followed by those whose allocations were made public, while those allocating in private allocated most equally. These latter results were discussed in terms of Wicklund and Hormuth's (1981) vs. Hull and Levy's (1979) conception of self‐awareness phenomena. Finally, the importance of the self as a source for evaluating differing criteria of justice was discussed.
Exploring the relations between traits and emotions
Authors: O'Malley Michael N. , Gillette Craig S.
Published: April 2006

The relationships among traits and among emotions have been well researched and are well known, but few experimental probes of the relationships between traits and emotions have been undertaken. The present investigation sought to describe the relations that exist between traits and emotions. The Comrey Personality Scale (a trait inventory) and the Profile of Mood States (an emotion inventory) were administered to 140 students and the subscales were correlated using canonical procedures. The resulting canonical correlations may be specified in bipolar summary form as follows: Neurotic‐Stable was found to be correlated with Depressed‐Hopeful; Introverted‐Extraverted was found to be correlated with Quiescent‐Vigorous; and Empathic‐Egocentrical was found to be correlated with Content‐Confused. Furthermore, the predictive strength between the trait set and the emotion set was reasonably good, although substantially better when traits rather than emotions served as the predictors.
Two kinds of identity crisis
Authors: Baumeister Roy F , Shapiro Jeremy P , Tice Dianne M
Published: April 2006

In order to outline a model of identity crisis, it is necessary to distinguish two types In an identity deficit (“motivation crisis”), the individual experiences a lack of guiding commitments but struggles to establish personal goals and values In an identity conflict (“legitimation crisis”), the person has several commitments which prescribe conflicting behavioral imperatives in some situations, such that at least one commitment may have to be betrayed The literature on identity crisis is reviewed in connection with this distinction, and an attempt is made to delineate the causes, the subjective experiences, behavioral consequences and modes of resolution of each type of crisis
Self‐esteem and responses to success and failure: Subsequent performance and intrinsic motivation
Authors: Baumeister Roy F , Tice Dianne M
Published: April 2006

A model is proposed in which the goal of people with high self‐esteem is to cultivate personal strengths in order to excel, whereas the goal of people with low self‐esteem is to remedy personal deficiencies in order to become adequate In two experiments, subjects received initial outcome feedback of either success, humiliating failure (internal attribution), or failure that allowed face‐saving (external attribution) Experiment 1 then measured subjects intrinsic motivation to pursue the task during free‐choice time Subjects with high self‐esteem had the highest intrinsic motivation after success Subjects with low self‐esteem had the highest intrinsic motivation after the humiliating failure Experiment 2 required a second performance on a similar task Performance results were consistent with the intrinsic motivation results of Experiment 1, with one exception High self‐esteem subjects were sensitive to the different failure treatments, performing well after humiliation but poorly after face‐saving Subjects with low self‐esteem performed the same in both failure conditions The relation of the present model and results to previous work is discussed
Proneness to romantic jealousy and responses to jealousy in others
Authors: Greenberg Jeff , Pyszczynski Tom
Published: April 2006

An experiment was conducted to assess the relationship between dispositional proneness to experience romantic jealousy and perceptions of jealousy in others On the basis of cognitive and motivational constructs, it was hypothesized that (1) Persons high in proneness to jealousy perceive healthy jealous couples as more in love than healthy nonjealous couples, (2) persons high in proneness to jealousy perceive unhealthy jealous couples as less in love than unhealthy nonjealous couples, and (3) persons low in proneness to jealousy perceive healthy jealous couples as less in love than healthy nonjealous couples The latter two hypotheses were supported Results were discussed with regard to the roles of beliefs about jealousy and threats to the perceiver in individuals reactions to jealousy in others
Processing bias: Individual differences in the cognition of situations
Authors: Dworkin Robert H , Goldfinger Steven H
Published: April 2006

An approach to investigating individual differences in the cognition of situations is presented Situations are characterized in terms of Gibson s notion of affordances, and it is suggested that individuals differ in the extent to which they differentially process information specifying certain types of affordances rather than others This differential cognitive processing of a situational affordance is termed a “processing bias” It is proposed that processing biases are manifest in an individual's anticipation, perception, and memory of situations To illustrate the approach, a processing bias for social vs nonsocial affordances is investigated within and among these three cognitive domains The relationship of this processing bias to two facets of the personality trait dimension of sociability—overall level and self‐schemata—is also examined Such research on processing biases may help to clarify the role of cognition in person‐situation interactions The greatest strength of the approach is that its characterization of individual differences in cognition and behavior is complementary to a general approach to describing human environments
Individual differences as predictors of preference in visual art
Authors: Heinrichs R Walter , Cupchik Gerald C
Published: April 2006

A study was conducted to determine the value of personality and background variables (e g, emotional responsivity, anxiety, parental memories, art training) as predictors of painting preferences One set of 24 paintings was selected, holding theme (sexual or aggressive) constant while contrasting Idealized (12) with Expressionist (12) styles Another set contrasted paintings on the Representational vs Abstract (12) and Linear vs Painterly (12) stylistic dimensions Contrasting pairs of paintings were presented to 48 subjects who rated preference under two instructional sets (objective interest and subjective pleasing) Questionnaire measures of personality and background were entered into step‐wise multiple regression analyses, one for each type of preference and each stimulus contrast (8 altogether) Affective characteristics of the viewer (e g, anxiety, emotional responsivity) and parental memories (e g, of maternal affection or expressivity) predicted subjective preference For example, subjects who remembered their mothers as either expressive or affectionate preferred Idealized versions of sexual and aggressive paintings Artistic training and background emerged only in relation to objective preferences