bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
DrosophilaCAKI/CMG Protein, a Homolog of Human CASK, Is Essential for Regulation of Neurotransmitter Vesicle Release
Authors: Zordan Mauro A. , Massironi Michele , Ducato Maria Giovanna , te Kronnie Geertruy , Costa Rodolfo , Reggiani Carlo , Chagneau Carine , Martin Jean-René , Megighian Aram
Published: May 2005

Vertebrate CASK is a member of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) family of proteins. CASK is present in the nervous system where it binds to neurexin, a transmembrane protein localized in the presynaptic membrane. The Drosophila homologue of CASK is CAKI or CAMGUK. CAKI is expressed in the nervous system of larvae and adult flies. In adult flies, the expression of caki is particularly evident in the visual brain regions. To elucidate the functional role of CASK, we employed a caki null mutant in the model organism Drosophila melanogaster. By means of electrophysiological methods, we analyzed, in adult flies, the spontaneous and evoked neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) as well as the functional status of the giant fiber pathway and of the visual system. We found that in caki mutants, when synaptic activity is modified, the spontaneous neurotransmitter release of the indirect flight muscle NMJ was increased, the response of the giant fiber pathway to continuous stimulation was impaired, and electroretinographic responses to single and continuous repetitive stimuli were altered and optomotor behavior was abnormal. These results support the involvement of CAKI in neurotransmitter release and nervous system function.
Criminal Justice and the Future of Civil Liberties
Authors: Zalman Marvin
Published: May 2005

An earlier forecast that the criminal justice system will be effective in reducing crime and in preserving civil liberties is modified to account for an ambiguous criminal justice system that exhibits both autocratic and democratic policies and procedures. Social surveys confirm that the United States today enjoys a high degree of civil liberties. However, contemporary criminal justice is ambiguous, promoting policies that are autocratic and democratic. This is seen in the prevalence of police brutality at the same time that many police departments have adopted community policing, a democratic approach to police administration and operations.

This essay examines four sociopolitical concepts to explain the ambiguous criminal justice system within a liberal democracy: American exceptionalism, moral panics, "governing through crime," and the "great disruption" concept. Next, the construct of the quasi-autocratic state is proposed: a regime this is genuinely democratic and liberal for one part of its population (mostly white middle-class) while a distinct group of people (mostly lower-class people of color) live under autocratic conditions. The conclusion asserts that the criminal justice system is ambiguous and will continue to be so in the next 20 to 40 years. It also poses the lager question, without offering a definite answer, of whether the autocratic elements of criminal justice practice define the contemporary American polity as a quasi-autocratic state.
Community Policing and the Work Routines of Street-Level Officers
Authors: Smith Brad W. , Novak Kenneth J. , Frank James
Published: May 2005

Most of the literature on community policing suggests, either implicitly or explicitly, that the daily activities of community police officers will differ from the activities traditionally engaged in by police officers. The majority of studies examining officer work routines were conducted prior to the rapid proliferation of community policing throughout police departments in the United States. Any attempt to determine the nature and extent of community policing needs to include an examination of the daily activities of line-level personnel charged with its implementation. The current study, using systematic social observation data, provides a description and comparison of the work routines of both community-oriented and traditional police officers in a city implementing community-oriented policing. Many of the findings are similar to those of previous workload studies. However, the findings also indicate that community officers devoted significantly more time to nontraditional policing activities than beat officers. Further, 911 beat officers spent significantly more time engaged in traditional policing activities than community officers.
Waiting to be Caught: The Devolution of Health for Women Newly Released from Jail
Authors: Maeve M. Katherine
Published: May 2005

Traditionally understood ideas about health and criminal behaviors are integrally linked within an individual's health, as well as a community's health. In a time when women are increasingly jailed, it is important to examine the life ways of women who are newly released. This study, using participatory action research and critical hermeneutic data analysis techniques, examined women's health and social experiences following their release from jail. Findings suggest that women experienced an onward and downward momentum of health indices, or devolution, with regard to economic status, physical and mental health status, intimate and family relationships, and general social functioning. It is argued that basic public health and community nursing interventions would provide a more seamless transition from jail back into community and would positively impact the individual and community health issues that are embedded within the criminal activity.
The Perception of Gangs as a Problem in Nonmetropolitan Areas
Authors: Weisheit Ralph A. , Wells L. Edward
Published: May 2005

The emergence of gangs in nonmetropolitan areas is a phenomenon that has been neither well documented nor well accounted for. Ibis study utilizes telephone interviews with 216 nonmetopolitan police agencies that had previously reported gangs in their jurisdictions. The interviews focused on how respondents from these agencies defined gangs and gang-related problems and also focused on local strategies for responding to gangs. The criteria for determining whether gangs were present varied widely. There was a perception that rural gangs were often short-lived and that they were composed mostly of local youth engaged in minor delinquency, although there were some reports of more serious violence. The study illustrates the difficulty of defining gangs in universal objective terms.
Using Inmate Survey Data in Assessing Prison Performance a Case Study Comparing Private and Public Prisons
Authors: Camp Scott D. , Gaes Gerald G. , Klein-Saffran Jody , Daggett Dawn M. , Saylor William G.
Published: May 2005

The public sector needs to monitor the performance of the private prisons, and it is necessary to conduct the monitoring as objectively as possible. This article demonstrates that an often overlooked source of data, surveys of inmates, can be used to differentiate prisons on such Was a gag activity, and security, sanitation, and food service delivery. Hierarchical line models were used to generate the prison performance measures. We also show that inmates and staff largely agreed in in their assessments of conditions at the prison. Finally, we demonstrate that although there is considerable consistency for different measures within the topical areas that we examined, there is no necessary correspondence in performance across the different topical areas of gang management, safety and security, sanitation, and food service delivery. Although survey will never and should never replace operational reviews and audits, we demonstrate that they can be effectively used to obtain information about operational differences between prisons.
Does Participation in Conjugal Visitations Reduce Prison Violence in Mississippi? An Exploratory Study
Authors: Hensley Christopher , Koscheski Mary , Tewksbury Richard
Published: May 2005

Few studies have examined the relationship between participation in conjugal visitation programs and threats of or actual violent behavior facilities. In the present study, 256 men and women incarcered in two Mississippi prisons completed an anonymous questionnaire concerning institutional violence and participation in the conjugal visitation program. Using multiple regression analyses, this study was intended to determine whether conjugal visits reduce threats of and actual incidents of violent behavior in prison. Although a relationship was not uncovered between participation in conjugal visitation programs and the threat of or actual commission of violence, the study did reveal that inmates who had committed index crimes were more likely to commit violence against another inmate than inmates who had committed non-index crimes.
The Morality of Justice and the Morality of Care: Are there Distinct Moral Orientations for Males and Females?
Authors: Spader Dean J.
Published: May 2005

Domales and females possess different orientations toward ethics? Carol Gilligan answered this question in the affirmative with the publication of in a Different Voice, in which here empirical research demonstrated different moral orientations between the sexes. Since her 1982 publication, Gilligan and numerous other researchers have developed the “morality of care” as an alternative to the traditional “morality of justice” approach that has dominated moral and political philosophy for the past two centuries. Gilligan and others suggest that the morality of care reflects gender differences and highlights critical omissions of traditional ethics. The purpose of the present article is to provide an overview and analysis of the two moralities. The following examination includes (a) a review of Gilligan's early and later research, (b) a summary of the core distinctions with citations for further reading, (c) empirical and theoretical criticisms of the difference theory, and (d) an analysis of four major approaches that may be adopted with criminal justice applications. The article concludes that the field of criminal justice, and especially criminal justice ethics, might obtain significant benefits by recognizing the adequacy, and in some issues the superiority, of moral theories that integrate a care orientation. Criminal justice should join numerous other professions that are using the rich insights and practices emanating from the morality of care.
Sexual Assault of College Women: A Feminist Interpretation of a Routine Activities Analysis
Authors: Mustaine Elizabeth Ehrhardt , Tewksbury Richard
Published: May 2005

Sexual assault has been a frequent topic of research for several decades, especially for feminist researchers. Generally, feminist research suggest that there are high levels of sexual assault against women because of a patriarchal, rape-supportive culture. However, not all women have the same heightened risk for sexual assault victimization. Wh the feminist perspective does not adequately account for are the variations in rape victimization rates across the female population. This is where the importance of theory that focuses on individual statuses and lifestyles becomes important. By combining the two perspectives, explanations of sexual assault victimization can be made more vigorous and instructive. The data in this article come from 674 college and university women in 12 southern postsecondary institutions in eight states who completed an in-depth survey. Analyses focused on sexual assault in general and an more serious forms of sexual assault. Findings suggest tat the combination of feminism and routine activity theory enhances explanation of sexual assault victimization risks. Sexual assault victimization risks were influenced primarily by the amount of exposure that respondents had to potential offenders, especially to rape-supportive male per groups. Additionally, the finding between the models of differing degrees of sexual assault victimization are not particularly different.
Race and Presentencing Decisions in the United States: A Summary and Critique of the Research
Authors: Free Marvin D.
Published: May 2005

Examinations of racial disparity in criminal justice Processing have commonly focused on sentencing. However, many earlier decisions affect an eventual case outcome. To adequately assess the impact of race on criminal processing it is therefore necessary to analyze presentence decision making. In particular, the power of the prosecutor has burgeoned with the advent of sentencing guidelines, mandatory minimum statutes, and so-called three-strikes laws. A total of 68 studies are analyzed for evidence supportive of the discrimination thesis that African-Americans are subjects of racial bias in criminal processing. Bail and pretrial release decisions, the decision to prosecute or to dismiss, and capital charging decisions are examined. Shortcomings of the research are noted and the consequences of these shortcomings on the race-criminal processing nexus are discussed. The article concludes with a discussion of areas for future research, including (a) the impact of legislative mandates on the race-presentencing nexus, (b) the role of race in decisions to waive dug offenders into drug courts, (c) the impact of victim race on bail and pretrial release decisions and on offenses other than sexual assault and homicide, (d) the impact of prosecutor race on presentence decision making, (e) the impact of courtroom culture or environment on presentence decision making, and (f) the effect of "outside" influences on the decisions of courtroom actors.
Racial Desegregation and Violence in the Texas Prison System
Authors: Trulson Chad , Marquart James W.
Published: May 2005

This article examines the impact of desegregation on inmate-on-inmate violence in the Texas prison system. Desegregation resulted from Lamar v. Coffield (1977), a class action civil suit that forced the Texas prison system to racially integrate its double cells. We examine 10 years of data in the aftermath of desegregation to gauge the impact that Lamar had on violence in Texas prisons. This analysis is situated within two divergent literature bases that predict vastly different outcomes of inmate desegregation. This article represents the first long-term study of inmate violence following judicial intervention in general and inmate desegregation in particular.
Sex Offender Laws: Can Treatment, Punishment, Incapacitation, and Public Safety be Reconciled?
Authors: Farkas Mary Ann , Stichman Amy
Published: May 2005

Sex offenders are viewed a unique type of criminal offender, particularly as more "objectionable,' less treatable, more dangerous, and more likely to recidivate. In recent years, these offenders have once again become the focus of intense legal scrutiny, primarily through laws specifically targeting them for indefinite confinement, registration and community notification, polygraph testing, and chemical castration. This article examines the underlying assumptions and justifications for these sex offender laws. We ask whether treatment, punishment, and public safety can be reconciled as justifications for the laws. We conclude that, even though treatment is an implicit rationale in the laws' provisions, punishment, incapacitation, and public safety are the ostensive purposes of these special laws and policies directed toward sex offenders. Moreover, this article questions the constitutionality and rationality of sex offender laws and policies and their consequences for sex offenders, treatment professionals, the mental health and criminal justice systems, and society in general.
The Landrum-Griffin Act: A Case Study in the Possibilities and Problems in Anti-Union Corruption Law
Authors: Witwer David
Published: May 2005

The Landrum-Griffin Act (1959) emerged out of hearings held on union corruption by the U.S. Senate's Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor or Management Field(1957-1959). There form law reflected many conflicting goals, including the desire of business groups to hamper new union organizing, but five of d act's seven titles concerned union governance and reflected a belief that union corruption could be solved by fostering union democracy. Though the act did bring some successes, it failed to protect democratic reform in the Teamsters Union, one of its primary targets. The history of a reform group in Teamsters Local 282 in New York City highlights the ability of corrupt incumbent officers with organized crime connections to circumvent the intentions of the law and stifle dissent. The act's short coming up have led the federal government to resort to the more intrusive, and therefore more problematic, remedies provided by the RICO Act.
Civil Asset Forfeiture: Where does the Money Go?
Authors: Williams Marian R.
Published: May 2005

In the past 25 years, the "war on drugs" has continued despite evidence that it has not been successful. One aspect of this war, civil asset forfeiture, has been used as a tool by federal, state, and local law enforcement to "take the profit out of the drug trade" and to increase the amount of revenues that law enforcement may use to carry out the "war on drugs." The purpose of this research note is to examine federal and state studies to ascertain how proceeds from for features are used by the respective governments. It was determined that a vast majority of states (88 percent) as well as the federal government explicitly allow law enforcement agencies to benefit from the "war on drugs" by keeping the proceeds from civil asset forfeitures. Likewise, only a small number of states (fewer than 20 percent) mention treatment or education as beneficiaries of proceeds, even though it has been argued that treatment and education may be more successful in reducing drug-related crime.
Litigation Views among Jail Staff: An Exploratory and Descriptive Study
Authors: Lambert Eric G. , Hall Daniel E. , Ventura Lois
Published: May 2005

The staff at a county jail in Florida were surveyed concerning their attitudes, experiences, and perceptions about civil liability. Few of the jail staff surveyed reported that they had ever been sued, and the vast majority of those who had been sued were supervisors. The likelihood of being sued increased with tenure. Slightly less than half of the jail staff believed that they had been adequately educated in civil liability or that their department would support them if they were sued in the performance of their duties. The survey found that half of the jail staff supported civil liability against public employees and agencies who harm or violate the civil Eights of citizens. Most jail staff did not believe that threats of civil suits hindered their job performance. The study's findings have implications for jail administrations, particularly in terms of the need for staff training on civil liability, and support the need for additional research on jail staff as well as for comparative research on jail staff and police attitudes toward civil liability.
Class Acts: Outstanding College Teachers and the Difference they Make
Authors: Acker James R.
Published: May 2005

This article relies on research results and the reflections of professors who have been recognized for their outstanding teaching in order to identify attributes commonly associated with exemplary college and university teaching. Those attributes include having and showing enthusiasm for one's discipline and for teaching; emphasizing active, participatory learning and critical thinking skills; setting and enforcing high academic standards; genuinely caring about students; and possessing both a command of one's subject and essential teaching skills. The article presents recollections solicited informally from several criminal justice professors about their own best teachers and uses the responses to illustrate the previously identified attributes. It concludes by discussing the inspirational nature of truly outstanding teachers and suggesting how meaningful inspirational teachers can be to their students and to higher education.
Fear of Crime among Individuals with Physical Limitations
Authors: Stiles Beverly L. , Halim Shaheem , Kaplan Howard B.
Published: May 2005

Multivariate logistic regression models are estimated using survey data to test the relationship between health status and fear of crime. More specifically, this article examines the relationship between fear of crime and perception of health, versus an actual measure of health (i.e., having a physical disability or limitation). Along with sex and age, health status is considered a prominent indicator of personal vulnerability to crime. Nevertheless, support for health status as an indicator of fear of crime is contradictory, because it is the perception of health that has been measured and not actual illness or disability. Although much is known about the prevalence of fear of crime among populations who perceive themselves to be at a greater physical disadvantage, very little is known about the perceptions of individuals with physical disabilities, those who suffer from actual measurable physical limitations (such as the loss of one or more limbs or senses), as opposed to those who perceive themselves to be limited in the ability to protect themselves. Results indicate that impairment of ability has implications for fear of crime beyond the assessment of one's general health.
The "Worst of Both Worlds": School Security and the Disappearing Fourth Amendment Rights of Students
Authors: Beger Randall R.
Published: May 2005

This article examines two related themes: the increasingly restrictive security measures in public schools and the reluctance of the courts to protect the basic Fourth Amendment rights of students. Information from academic and journalistic sources is presented regarding the impact on students from greater police presence and restrictive school security measures, including the potential harm to the learning environment. Additionally, this article reviews recent state appellate court decisions empowering police to search students using the less protective guidelines of reasonable suspicion and the "special needs" doctrine. This article also evaluates the recent United States Supreme Court decision that permits schools to conduct suspicionless drug testing of students as a condition of participating in any extracurricular activities. The results of these disciplinary policies and search tactics can be described as the "worst of both worlds," with severe penalties for even minor student misconduct without the safeguards of the Fourth Amendment.
Probation Officers' and Judges' Discretionary Sanctioning Decisions about Sex Offenders: Differences Between Specialized and Standard Probation Units
Authors: Stalans Loretta J. , Juergens Rebecca , Seng Magnus , Lavery Timothy
Published: May 2005

This article focuses on discretionary judgements made about sex offenders on probation. The sample consisted of 567 sex offenders on standard adult probation and 395 sex offenders on specialized sex offender probation in four counties in Illinois. The authors found that probation officers in specialized sex offender probation units, which included intensive training on sex offenders and uniform sanctioning guidelines, made more predictable decisions to file violation of probation petitions (VOPs), and were more likely to file a VOP for treatment noncompliance, compared to probation officers in standard units. Moreover, specialized probation officers were more likely to consider chronic sexual deviancy and extra familial victims, which are two high-risk predictors of sexual recidivism, but also were found to be significantly more likely to file a VOP against noncompliant minorities than against noncompliant Caucasians. Judges were more likely to support specialized probation officers' decisions to request revocation when sex offenders committed a technical violation, treatment noncompliance, general recidivism, or violent recidivism, but not sexual recidivism. The article suggests that probation officers in standard probation and judges need additional training about sex offenders. This article suggests that uniform sanctioning guidelines and training on sex offenders may contribute to the criteria that probation officers use in deciding whether to file a VOP. The focus on discretionary judgments highlights the caveat that risk classification schemes should not be based on empirical analyses of predictors of probation termination, because this outcome entangles both discretionary judgments and noncompliant behavior.
The Nature of Work-Family Conflict among Correctional Staff: An Exploratory Examination
Authors: Lambert Eric G. , Hogan Nancy Lynne , Barton Shannon M.
Published: May 2005

Work in corrections is generally seen as a stressful occupation. There has been a fair amount of research to date on the possible causes of stress among correctional staff. Nevertheless, the issue of work-family conflict has not received much attention in the correctional literature. For the present article, a survey of correctional staff at a Midwestern prison was conducted in order to determine the effects of measures for educational level, gender, work position, race, and supervisory status. Four different forms of work-family conflict were extracted (time-based, strain-based, harm caused by, and family-on-work), and time-based and strain-based were found to be significantly related to personal characteristics. Specifically, correctional officers were impacted by work-family conflict more than other staff, as were staff who had less tenure and those without a college degree.
A Preliminary Examination of Presidential Anticrime Promises
Authors: Marion Nancy , Farmer Rick
Published: May 2005

Presidential candidates make many promises about crime control policies during a campaign. Once they are elected to office, do presidents follow through with their campaign promises about crime? Previous studies show that presidents tend to keep most of the promises that they make as candidates across a wide range of topics. However, a specific study of crime issues is heretofore lacking. Using a content analysis of campaign speeches, this article compares candidates' statements about crime control strategies to presidential crime policy since 1968 in order to discover whether one mirrors the other. Finding that fewer than half of the specific promises about crime policies were fulfilled by the presidents, the article posits that the general agenda of a campaign becomes the agenda of the presidency. It also shows that neither political party affiliation nor incumbency were factors that influenced the presidents' fulfillment of their anticrime promises. In general, anticrime promises were kept less often than campaign promises in other policy areas.
The Influence of Organizational Climate on Detention Officers' Readiness to Use Force in a County Jail
Authors: Griffin Marie L.
Published: May 2005

Jails are coercive organizations in which the use of force, or threatened use of force, in the control of inmates is a regular occurrence. Yet, with few exceptions, little attention has been paid to detention officers and their use of force against inmates. The present study explores use of force in the correctional setting, incorporating organizational climate variables as primary predictors of a detention officer's expressed readiness to use force against inmates. This analysis is based on a survey of all detention officers in Maricopa County, Arizona.

Eight scales measuring a detention officer's perception of three dimensions of the organizational climate test the hypotheses that perceptions of climate have a direct effect on a detention officer's readiness to use force and that these observed effects remain statistically significant when individual characteristics of the officer are controlled. Results of the analysis confirm these hypotheses, indicating that expressed readiness to use force is influenced differentially by the three dimensions of climate and that individual characteristics of officers do not affect the expressed readiness to use force.
Civic Culture and Criminal Justice in the United States
Authors: Ferdinand Theodore
Published: May 2005

How did civic culture evolve? How does civic culture define both the crime problem and America's response in criminal justice? Civic culture came out of the English Civil War and the Enlightenment, and it defines the dilemmas that confront both the citizens of civic culture and the criminal justice system. This article examines the meaning of civic culture, and it specifies America's crime problem by describing three types of offenders and the problems that the courts, the police, and penal institutions confront as they attempt to deal with offenders in civil society. It suggests that offenders should be dealt with in terms of their offense and justice, and in terms of their needs as members of civil society.
Recent Trends in Sentencing and Penal Policy in New Zealand
Authors: Brown Mark , Young Warren
Published: May 2005

The last quarter century in New Zealand has witnessed enormous social, economic, and cultural change. Criminal justice has not been spared in this process, and the present article considers five key areas of sentencing and penal policy where the pressures to review and reassess have perhaps been greatest. Examined here are the growth of prison populations and the rising intensity of penal measures, the reinvention of rehabilitation as a core goal of correctional programming, the increasing use of diversion from the formal processes ofjustice and new trends of experimentation with novel forms of diversion, the rise and rise of the importance accorded to victims of crime (both as individual victims and jointly as stakeholders in the criminal justice process), and, finally, the efforts undertaken over a long period to address concerns about consistency and coherence in sentencing while recognizing the special place of discretion in New Zealand's sentencing culture. Overall, the impact of changes and developments in these areas has been uneven. It is not possible, therefore, to characterize this period as one of penal modernization. A number of countervailing trends, such as political pressure for regressive measures directed toward particular groups of offenders, have meant that innovations must sit side by side with the tired and often discredited approaches of earlier eras.
The European Court of Human Rights and the Protection of the Rights of Prisoners and Criminal Defendants Under the European Convention on Human Rights
Authors: Ma Yue
Published: May 2005

The European Convention on Human Rights is one of several documents of international and regional protection ofhuman rights. The European Convention stands out from other documents in its creation ofenforcement machinery to ensure the observance of the obligations assumed by Contracting States under the Convention. The European Convention contains provisions hat relate directly to he acceptable standards ofcriminaljustice in Contracting States. In the 40 years of its existence, the European Court of Human Rights, as the chief enforcement organ of the Convention, has handed down decisions that address a wide anray of criminal justice issues. These Court decisions have brought about changes in Contracting States' criminal justice legislation and have played a crucial role in the development ofcriminaljustice standards in Europe. This articleisintendedtointroducetoreaders some major Court decisions concerning the rights ofprisoners and the rights ofcriminal defendants. The article will also provide readers with a preliminary view as to the status of the Convention and the impact of Court decisions in different Contracting States.
Secrecy and Persistent Problems in Sexual Assault Victims
Authors: Ensink Bernardine J. , van Berlo Willy , Winkel Frans Willem
Published: May 2005

A substantial number of victims of sexual assault refrain from disclosing to others the victimizing episode and its emotional consequences. A prospective study (n = 36 rape victims reporting theirvictimization to the police) and a retrospective study (n = 33) were conducted to examine the determinants of postponed disclosure and its impact on persistent problems. In the prospective study the time interval between trauma and disclosure was at most one month. In the retrospective study 33 percent postponed disclosure for two years or more. Both studies revealed that postponed disclosure is associated with type of perpetrator: Victims of intimate perpetrators were more inclined to postpone reporting than victims of unknown perpetrators. Postponed disclosure predicted health problems in both studies. In the prospective study postponed disclosure predicted frequency of visits to the doctor and use of medication. Initial feelings of numbness contributed to the use of medication as well. In the retrospective study postponed disclosure predicted psychosomatic complaints and use of medication, even when the time between the assault and the interview was taken into account. Type of perpetrator did not moderate the correlation between postponed disclosure and health problems. Some implications for victim support will be discussed.
The Debate on Capital Punishment in the Netherlands and Germany
Authors: Beijer Annemarieke
Published: May 2005

A comparison between the Dutch debate (in 1870) and the German debate (in 1949) on the abolition of capital punishment shows that the main arguments for and against capital punishment have changed little over the centuries. Despite the differences in social and political circumstances in Genmany and the Netherlands, the arguments that were advanced show a striking resemblance. In both countries the defenders of the death penalty recognized the weakness of the deterrence argument, and for this reason they opted for retribution as the principal argument for punishment.

Social science had little or no bearing on the forming of the opinion of the participants in the debate. Statistics were not regarded as a very reliable source of arguments for or against the death penalty. It was stressed that the issue had to be decided on principles ofjustice rather than statistical findings.

In both debates public opinion had little influence. It was recognized that opinions based on little or no knowledge on all the aspects of capital punishment form a dubious foundation for policy-making. At this moment, the death penalty is not a public debate, either in Holland or in Germany.
The Ethics and Law of Confidentiality in Criminal Justice Research: A Comparison of Canada and the United States
Authors: Lowman John , Palys Ted
Published: May 2005

The Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences Code of Ethics and the American Society of Criminology Draft Code of Ethics raise the possibility of a conflict arising between research ethics and the law relating to evidentiary and testimonial privilege. However, they say nothing about the form that legal threats to research confidentiality may take in Canada and the United States, the two countries where these codes apply, nor do they describe the strategies that researcher can employ to protect confidential research information in court. The purpose ofthis article is to address these matters. It begins with a brief description ofthe role that confidentiality plays in protecting research participants and maintaining the validity and reliability of criminal justice research. It then describes the legal context in which the researchers' ethical obligations unfold and the strategies that researchers can employ to protect confidential research information when third parties use legal force to try to obtain it. The article argues that the ethical responsibilities of rea s studying criminal justice issues are bet fulfilled and their research participants best protected when researchers ue their understanding of law to design research so as to anticipate the evidentiary requirements of the courts. It concludes with a discussion of the respective advantages and disadvantages of statutory as compared to common law protections for research confidentiality.
Social Control in the Oasis of Siwa: A Study in Natural Justice and Conflict Resolution
Authors: Souryai Sam S.
Published: May 2005

This article examines the legacy of "natural justice" as it is practiced in the remote Egyptian oasis of Siwa (pronounced See-wah), The selection of secludedlocationsforthis kind of research has been beneficial because such locations lend themselves to more manageable research assumptions. The finer shades of social justice can be better discerned when life is simple, laws natural, social control genuine, change slow, and government unintrusive. This Egyptian oasis was selected because it has been cited in three prominent historical references: Herodotus reported visiting the oasis and its famous Amunian Oracle, which was built possibly before the Athenian Oracle of Delphi; Plato and other Greek philosophers reportedly studiedatthe Amunian Oracle, where Plato presumably conceptualized his views on The Republic; and Alexander the Great visited the Siwan Oracle in 331 B.C., where he was crowned as an Egyptian pharaoh.
Offense Specialization among Serious Habitual Juvenile Offenders in a Canadian City during the Early Stages of Criminal Careers
Authors: Williams Ryan K. , Arnold Bruce L.
Published: May 2005

Given that social change has been historically associated with differentiation, we investigate this process within unconventional careers. Our study questions whether criminal careers may be the manifestation of time-invariant factors or whether they may vary as a result of social factors and circumstances at different transitional points. Using a sample of official police data (N = 191), this study examines offense specialization among serious habitual juvenile offenders as indicators of behavioral turning points in the onset and desistance of criminal careers. Using Farrington, Snyder, and Finnegan's Forward Specialization Coefficient analysis (1988), our findings suggest a reconsideration of the development of both stability and change, for different offenses at different age-related transitional stages in delinquent careers. Our analysis suggests that delinquency may be organizationally similartoconventional occupational formsofspecialization, differentiation, and social capital.
Prosecutorial Discretion and Plea Bargaining in the United States, France, Germany, and Italy: A Comparative Perspective
Authors: Ma Yue
Published: May 2005

Prosecutorial discretion has been apointof controversy in the United States. American prosecutors' essentially unchecked discretion and theiroverwhelming dominance in pleabargaining have long been criticized as inconsistent with the principles offairness, equity, and accountability on which the system ofjustice in the United States is based. In considering possible American law reform, scholars and commentators have suggested the possibilities of reforming the American system by referring to the experience of continental law countries. In the context of prosecutorial practice, these reformers are especially impressed by the principle ofcompulsory prosecution and the consistent control that is placed on the exercise of prosecutorial discretion in continental law countries. Continental law systems, however, have undergone significant changes in the past 20 years. This article documents recent developments in prosecutorial practices in the United States and in three continental law countries. It comparatively analyzes the differences between the American and continental prosecutorial systems and explores the possibilities ofreforming certain aspects ofthe American prosecutorial system by referring to the experience of continental law countries.
Policing the Brazilian Poor: Resistance to and Acceptance of Police Brutality in Urban Popular Classes (Salvador, Brazil)
Authors: Paes-Machado Eduardo , Noronha Ceci Vilar
Published: May 2005

This article discusses police brutality from the point of view of those social groups that are most affected by it-poor workers, nonwhites, and in particular the residents of the suburb of Novos Alagados, one of the areas most lacking in urban infrastructure in Salvador, Brazil. Through 31 extensive interviews and direct observation, the authors discuss in great detail the various forms of violence experienced by residents, criminal infractors, and police. In a context of poverty, unemployment, and a critical deterioration of the informal mechanisms of social control, police procedures generate ambivalent reactions, which reflect the difficulty of the local population in taking a critical position to confront abuse. The residents condemn abuses by the police when they themselves are the victims, but they acceptsimilarpractices directed againstcriminal elements, and in this way they legitimize the brutality consequent to the operative model of policing.
Public Reasons for Abolition and Retention of the Death Penalty
Authors: van Koppen Peter J. , Hessing Dick J. , de Poot Christianne J.
Published: May 2005

This article compares attitudes toward capital punisunent in the United States and in Europe. Views on the death penalty in the Netherlands are discussed, and similarities are drawn with opinions held throughout Western Europe. Data from several nations are compared, and the article examines why some countries retain the death penalty while most do not. The authors conclude that differences across countries may be explained by different political stuctue. Specifically, countries with two political parties are more likely to retain the death penalty than countries with multiple political parties.
Power, Corruption, and the Legal Process in China
Authors: Lu Hong , Gunnison Elaine
Published: May 2005

This article examines corruption-related white-collar crimes in China. The nature and characteristics of corruption offenses, the relevant laws, and the criminal justice responses to these crimes are discussed. An analysis of 1,554 criminal courtcases, adjudicated between 1986 and 2001, suggests that corruption offenses were significantly different from non-corruption offenses in both offender and offense characteristics and in key legal decisions. A further analysis of the impact of corruption cases on legal decisions reveals that, although corruption defendants were significantly less likely to be convicted, once convicted they were more likely to receive a lengthy sentence. The article explains the paradoxical treatment of corruption defendants pre-and post-conviction with reference to the unique cultural expectations of public officials in Chinese society: (a) Public officials enjoy privilege and power, and (b) they are expected to possess exemplary moral character. The findings suggest that the current Chinese legal system is embedded in its political and cultural conditions, especially with regard to the legal sanctions of corruption.
Martial Law as a Counterterrorism Response to Terrorist Attacks: Domestic and International Legal Dimensions
Authors: Wallace Donald H. , Kreisel Betsy
Published: May 2005

This article examines the extent to which severe U.S. counterterronsm measures, such as martial law, would fare by domestic and international legal standards. The primary concern in this article is with the indefinite detention of American citizens and noncitizens by executive order, without judicial oversight, under the executive branch's military authority. The article beginswith a discussion of the U.S.jurisprudence on emergency authority. The second part of the article examines the international legal regime regarding the suspension of civil liberties or human rights during times of national emergency; in this part of the article, selected U.S. counterterrorism measures are compared with international legal standards. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of these international standards for U.S. domestic law.
A Comparative Assessment of Criminal Involvement Among Immigrants and Natives Across Seven Nations
Authors: Lynch James P. , Simon Rita J.
Published: May 2005

This article examines the relationship between immigration policy and crime in seven nations. The countries involved are Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, and the United States. Immigration policy and the criminal involvement of immigrants are compared to determine whether there is a pattern between the two, what that pattern is, and why it exists. The nations examined have very different immigration policies. Some are "immigrant nations," where the volume of immigrants is high, barriers to entry are low, and naturalization is encouraged. Others are "nonimmigrant nations," in which the volume of immigration is relatively low, the barriers to entry are substantial, and permanent settlement and attainment of citizenship are not encouraged. There is a general (but not perfect) pattern in which "immigrant" nations have lower ratios of immigrant to native crime than nations with less liberal policies. It is not clear whether this relationship is due more to the general ability of these nations to integrate foreign populations or to immigration policies per se.
Social Capital and Covariates of Reoffending Risk in the Chinese Context
Authors: Liu Jianhong
Published: May 2005

This paper explores the concept of social capital as a covariate of reoffending risk in the Chinese context through semiparametric estimation of proportional hazard models. The paper extends the concept of social capital by proposing a new concept of "negative social capital," which exists in nonconventional relationships such as gangs. The nonconventional relations seem especially salient within Chinese gangs because of their special cultural roots. The findings show that, after controlling for the usual covariates of reoffending risk used in Western literature, social capital and negative social capital variables show significant effects. Being single entails a significantly higher risk of reoffending than being married. Job arrangement after release significantly reduces reoffending risk. Participation in legal education reduces the risk of reoffending. Being a Chinese gang member significantly increases the reoffending risk.
"Remember the Alamo": Action Research and Crime Prevention in a Igh-Crime Neighborhood
Authors: Marlow Alan , Pitts John
Published: May 2005

In this paper we identify some of the experiences of public professionals in a high-crime neighborhood in London, the Borough of Walford (a pseudonym), as their service agencies are attempting to move from a highly centralized service delivery model, in which professional roles are tightly demarcated and organizational outputs tend to be concrete and short-term, to a model in which they are required to contribute to the development of "corporate," local, multiagency strategies to reduce violent interracial youth crime, strategies that aim to achieve more complex medium and long-term outcomes.