bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Great Future Behind it? Scottish Commercial Law and the Millenium
Authors: Forte Angelo D.M.
Published: April 2022

Abstract. Has Scottish commercial law become Anglicised and lost its separate identity? The major exponents of the ‘civilian’ school of thought, with their emphasis on Roman Law, thought that it had but that the victim might still be rescued provided Scots lawyers remembered their civilian heritage. This paper challenges the view that a civilian and Romanist approach has anything to offer modem Scottish commercial lawyers. It argues that economic imperatives outweight nationalist and parochial arguments and that not only Scots but also English commercial law has to make compromises. The paper also asserts the importance of marketing commercial law and argues that, in this respect, Scottish lawyers have shown themselves to be no less adept than their English counterparts. Far from being moribund, Scottish commercial law is thriving and vigorous and, most importantly, relevant to the needs of commerce in the UK, Europe, and beyond.

Résumé. Le droit commercial écossais a-t-il commencé à être anglicisé et a-t-il de ce fait perdu son identitité? Les principaux tenants de l’école de pensée civiliste, qui insistent sur leur héritage romaniste, le pensent mais estiment que la victime pourrait en être sauvée si les juristes écossais se souvenaient de leur héritage civiliste. Le présent article défend l’idée selon laquelle une approche civiliste et romaniste a encore aujourd’hui quelque chose à offrir aux commercialistes écossais. Il y est en particulier soutenu que les impératifs économiques ont plus de poids que les arguments provinciaux et nationalistes et que ce n’est pas seulement le droit commercial écossais, mais aussi le droit anglais, qui doivent faire des compromis. L’auteur mentionne en outre l’importance du droit commercial relatif au marché et soutient à cet égard les juristes écossais ont montré qu’ils n’étaient pas moins habiles que leurs confrères anglais. Loin d’être moribond, le droit commercial écossais démontre ainsi sa vigueur et, ce qui est plus important, se révèle adapté aux besoins du commerce en Grande-Bretagne, en Europe, et au-delà.
The conflicts of jurisdictions – an economic analysis of pre-trial discovery, fact gathering and cost shifting rules in the United States and Germany
Authors: Adams Michael
Published: April 2022

Abstract. The extension of the American rules of procedure to foreign countries undertaken by US judges has led to conflicts of jurisdiction, which could become a threat to international trade. The essay compares the systems of civil procedure in the USA and Germany and also tries to analyse and evaluate them from an economic point of view. The investigation shows that the US-American rules of pre-trial discovery and the way that the procedural and lawyers’ costs are allocated are the source of various abuses within the American legal system and for this reason are rejected internationally. The American view that regulation of lawyers’ fees, like that applying in Germany, should simply be regarded as cartels, disregards the considerable damage to third parties that the American costs rules entail. In comparison with the European systems, the American rules of procedure give rise to too many unjustified and over-expensive legal disputes.

Zusammenfassung. Die von US-Richtern vorgenommene Ausdehnung amerikanischer Prozeßregeln auf das Ausland hat zu internationalen Justizkonflikten geführt, die zu einer Bedrohung des internationalen Handels werden können. Der Aufsatz vergleicht die Zivilprozeßstrukturen zwischen den USA und Deutschland und versucht diese auch aus der Sicht der Wirtschaftswissenschaften zu analysieren und zu bewerten. Die Untersuchung zeigt, daß die US-amerikanischen Regelungen der pre-trial-Discovery und der Verteilung der Prozeß- und Anwaltskosten ursächlich für verschiedene Mißstaäde im amerikanischen Justizsystem und damit deren internationale Ablehnung sind. Die amerikanische Sicht, Anwaltsgebührenordnungen nach deutschem Muster als bloße Kartelle anzusehen, übersieht die mit den amerikanischen Kostenregelungen verbundenen erheblichen Schädigungen Dritter. Die amerikanischen Prozeßregeln vemrsachen im Vergleich zu den europäischen Systemen zu viele unberechtigte und zu teure rechtliche Streitigkeiten.
Case C-398/92, Firma Mund & Fester v Firma Hatrex Internationaal Transport, 10 February 1994, [I994] ECR 1—467, European Court of Justice
Authors: Ehricke Ulrich , Ameli Francois , De Baets Caroline , van Haegenborgh Geert , Verschuur René
Published: April 2022

Abstract. The defendant company had transported goods to Germany, but under conditions of transport that had damaged them. Mund & Fester was the assignee of the consignee, and claimed damages. To ensure that funds were available for enforcement purposes, it sought to have the vehicle seized while it was still in Germany, under § 917 of the German Code of Civil Procedure (ZPO). This provision permitted provisional seizure of goods if enforcement was likely to be impossible or markedly more difficult in the absence of such an order and specifically provided that the fact that enforcement would have to take place abroad was sufficient justification for an order. On a preliminary reference by the Hanseatisches Oberlandesgericht the European Court concluded that the German provision in issue fell within the scope of the EEC Treaty and must be examined in the light of Art. 7 (now 6) EEC Treaty. Art. 7 prohibits all discrimination on grounds of nationality within the scope of the Treaty. The German provision constituted indirect discrimination which could not be justified on objective grounds and was therefore unlawful.
Contracts in Favour of Third Persons in Europe: First Steps Toward Tomorrowâ??s Harmonization
Authors: Palmer Vernon Valentine
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article discusses how the contract in favour of a third person made its way onto the European scene. It suggests why the practical advantages and efficiencies of the contract finally outweighed the traditional law’s attachment to the principles of privity and relativity of contract. The discussion then describes the various analogies, false leads, and inventive approaches that jurists pursued in their search for a coherent account of the institution. The article also attempts to compare, contrast, and evaluate current European approaches at codification and harmonization, including the recent contributions made by the Lando Principles of European Contract Law and the Gandolfi European Code of Contract. For comparative purposes the evaluation centres around four essential issues in the beneficiary puzzle and assesses to what extent a set of common principles or rules has developed in Europe. It is discovered that the principal areas in which the legal systems do not entirely agree are the methods to determine the favoured beneficiary, the point when the beneficiary’s rights arise, the power of revocation, and the perfection of revocations. The conclusion is that while this institution is recognized as valid in all European legal systems, Europe has not as yet developed a completely coherent account of the subsidiary rules. A foundation for an eventual harmonization certainly exists, but further study and reflection will be needed to deal with these questions.
On the Shoulders of Schlesinger: The Trento Common Core of European Private Law Project
Authors: Grosswald Curran Vivian
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Schlesinger’s Common Core methodology may be a theory that can be applied fruitfully, or, rather, an irreproducible result of Schlesinger’s individual interpretive talents. The Trento project also must face the challenge of whether it can realize its stated intention to reject any ideological point of departure, since that would require it to adopt Schlesinger’s principles without incorporating his preference for identifying similarity over difference.

Moreover, differing contexts are relevant to analyzing the utility of any given comparative approach. The same approach can have defects in the context of United States comparative law that may not affect European comparative law; it can have defects where the comparative undertaking is to form legal norms for the European Union that may not be an impediment where the goal of the comparative undertaking is to heighten intellectual understanding for scholarly purposes.

The Trento project’s objective of revealing the core characteristics of private law in the EU’s Member States is not unrealistic. While the differences that separate the common- and civil-law mentalities and cultures are irreducible and incommensurable, they nevertheless are not beyond the understanding of participants of both legal systems. These differences reflect the two great intellectual discourses of all of the Member States’ societies, corresponding to the fundamental characteristics of the Enlightenment and Romanticism, movements that have been integral to all of the EU Member States.

The modern challenge facing comparative law is that, just as a new generation of comparatists has unearthed differences often ignored in the past, the categories of relevance to the future may still be indistinct and in a formative stage, requiring comparatists to remain detectives of new future relevances as national, linguistic and geographical attributes are changing in valence in a rapidly altering world.
European Contract Law – The Action Plan Europäische Rechtsakademie Trier 3. – 4. April 2003
Authors: Heutger Viola
Published: April 2022

Fern ab der Geschäftigkeit von Brüssel fand am 3. und 4. April 2003 an der Europäischen Rechtsakademie in Trier eine Konferenz zum “European Contract Law – The Action Plan 2003” statt. Bei trübem Wetter versammelten sich etwa 60 europäische Juristen in der zehn Jahre alten Akademie. Die Initiatoren hatten Vertreter verschiedener europäischer juristischer Gruppierungen zur Podiumsdiskussion mit einem einzigen Vertreter der europäischen Kommission eingeladen. Umrahmt wurde die Diskussion durch Vorträge, die Hintergrundinformationen verschafften. Die Moderation der gesamten Veranstaltung lag in den bewährten Händen von Hugh Beale (London).
La Protection des Differents Membres de la Famille par le Droit Familial Patrimonial en Europe
Authors: Puelinckx-Coene Mieke
Published: April 2022

Abstract:In spite of largely different techniques in family property law of the many European countries in protecting family members (continental Europe has well structured matrimonial property regimes and a reserved portions in the estate of the deceased, which both are nearly unknown in Anglo-Saxon law), the author discovers similar trends in the pursued objectives: upgrading the succession status of the surviving spouse at the expense of the rights of the blood family and abolition of the discrimination of children born out of wedlock. Those trends should be encouraged. Few are the countries granting some protection to the ‘recent family members’ like the surviving unmarried partner and the children of a ‘recomposed family’, not affiliated to the deceased. The author is in favour of a pan-European equilibrated solution with more respect for the possible wish of the deceased to protect these recent members or to guarantee them a reasonable minimum protection in the absence of any provision by the deceased if they need it.
Supervening Hardship as Subdivision of the General Frustration Rule: A Comparative Analysis with Reference to Anglo American, German, French and Greek Law
Authors: Karampatzos Antonios G.
Published: April 2022

The problem of ?frustration of contract? concerns the effect of supervening changes in circumstances, unforeseen and unforeseeable at the time of conclusion of the contract, on the obligations stemming from it. The present article addresses the more specific problem of ?supervening hardship? which arises when the performance, though physically (and legally) still possible, has become excessively difficult, that is, economically far more onerous than anticipated by the parties. The article is mainly a comparative analysis with reference to Anglo?American, German, French and Greek law. The analysis focuses on the case law of each legal system, without neglecting, at the same time, significant new developments in the field of statute law (such as the new provision of the German Civil Code ? § 313 BGB ? concerning the fundamental change in circumstances).
House of Lords, 19 November 2003, Shogun Finance Limited v. Hudson - Effect of Fraudulent Misrepresentation on the Formation of a Contract
Authors: Fauvarque-Cosson Bénédicte , Van Rossum Madeleine , Fenoy Picón Nieves
Published: April 2022

In order to obtain possession of a car under a hire-purchase agreement with the claimant firm, a person who can only be described as a fraudster availed himself of a false identity, i.e. that of a Mr. Patel. The firm concerned, Shogun Finance, performed all the necessary identity and credit checks in relation to the Mr. Patel. The defendant duly paid a deposit, and the dealer delivered the vehicle to the fraudster. The latter then sold the car to a third party, one Norman Hudson, and disappeared with the money. Once it appeared that the fraudster had defaulted on the agreement, the claimants demanded that the vehicle be returned to them. Under S. 27 of the Hire Purchase Act 1964, Mr. Hudson could have retained the car lawfully if he could prove that the agreement between the rogue and Shogun was merely voidable by the latter. If, on the other hand, the contract had been void ab initio, the hapless Mr. Hudson would be compelled to return the vehicle to the claimants.

The House of Lords, by a majority of 3 to 2, awarded the action to Shogun. The basis for their ruling was that, since the pre-contractual negotiations had not been conducted on a face-to-face basis, and since the circumstance of Mr. Patel being the purchaser was fundamental to Shogun, no contract could have been made since no agreement had been reached. Had the negotiations taken place on a face-to-face basis, the Law Lords would probably have found in favour of Mr. Hudson.

In a dissenting opinion, Lords Millett and Nicholls of Birkenhead opined that, in today?s world of customer identification and credit checks, it was impossible to make a distinction between negotiations conducted face-to-face and those which took place by telephone, fax or even videolink.
’Unjust’ at Common Law: So Many Concepts, So Little Clarity
Authors: Hedley Steve
Published: April 2022

While each writer in the common law asserts that their definition of ?unjust enrichment? is the natural and inevitable one, it is clear that a number of views can rationally be held; and that these different views vary both in the precision used and in the extent to which ?unjust enrichment? is seen as vital tool for structuring the law. The writer describes the five main views currently attracting support, and considers whether any greater unanimity may be expected in the foreseeable future.
The Principle of Unjust Enrichment and Formation of Contract: The Importance of a Hidden Policy Factor
Authors: Smits Jan
Published: April 2022

The two types of situations discussed in this contribution show how the principle against unjust enrichment interrelates with formation of contract. It is defended that the wish to avoid unjust enrichment plays an important role as a policy factor in cases that are often regarded as contract cases. The situation in which goods are supplied or services are performed without a contract and the case of apparent intention are used to explain this. The contribution shows that in these cases it is the cumulative impact of reliance and enrichment that accounts for obligations coming about. Subsequently, the consequences this may have for the taxonomy of the law of obligations are discussed and a plea is made for the resurgence of a separate category of ?quasi-contract? at the European level to accommodate the cases discussed.
The Common Denominator of the Trafigura Case, Foreign Direct Liability Cases and the Rome II Regulation
Authors: Enneking Liesbeth
Published: April 2022

Abstract: As part of a current trend towards so–called ‘foreign direct liability cases’, attempts are being made to hold parent companies of multinational corporations liable in their home countries for damage caused in host countries. This trend, of which the Trafigura case serves as a recent example here, suggests that tort law may have a regulatory part to play when it comes to the transboundary activities of multinational corporations. However, the extent to which tort law can act as a regulatory mechanism is dependent on its applicability, which, in turn, is determined by private international law.

The recently adopted Rome II Regulation, which lays down conflict–of–law rules for non–contractual obligations, will only have a limited conducive effect on the feasibility of the regulation through tort law of the transboundary activities of multinational corporations. On the basis of this Regulation, it is only in cases where the resulting damage consists of environmental damage that home country tort law may be applicable. In all other cases, attempts to hold the parent company of the multinational corporation liable for damage caused in the host country will have to be based on the tort law of the host country.

This effectively diminishes the feasibility of home country tort law as a mechanism for the regulation of the transboundary activities of multinational corporations.
Notes on the Proposal for a New Directive on Consumer Rights
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The author asserts that the proposal for a new horizontal directive on consumer rights offers no substantial improvements to consumer protection while the full harmonization clause of the proposal will result in a reduced level of protection in all Member States. Surprisingly, the proposal makes little use of the terminology of the Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR).

Resumé : L’auteur estime que la proposition de directive horizontale relative aux droits des consommateurs n’apporte aucune amélioration notable à la protection des consommateurs. Au contraire, l’harmonisation complète prévue par cette directive aura pour conséquence de réduire leur niveau de protection actuel dans tous les États membres. Étonnamment, la proposition de directive s’inspire très peu de la terminologie employée par le projet de cadre commun de référence.

Zusammenfassung: Der Autor stellt fest, dass der Vorschlag für eine neue horizontale Verbraucherrechtsrichtlinie keine wesentlichen Verbesserungen des Verbraucherschutzes bewirkt. Die Vollharmonisierung führt vielmehr zu einer Absenkung des Verbraucherschutzniveaus in allen Mitgliedsstaaten. Überraschenderweise nimmt der Vorschlag wenig Bezug auf die Terminologie des Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR).
The Theoretical Foundations of the Common Core of European Private Law Project: A Critical Appraisal
Authors: de Boer Nik
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article develops a critical evaluation of the theoretical foundations of the Common Core of European Private Law Project, in particular, of the theory of Rodolfo Sacco. The overall aim of this exercise is to test to what extent the common core project can truly provide an accurate and relatively neutral description of European Private Law. First, it describes the comparative law theory of Rodolfo Sacco and describes briefly how this method is applied practically in the Common Core of European Private Law Project. Second, it describes a number of criticisms that can be raised against this method. In doing so, it defends the thesis that law has a multi-faceted character and that there is not one single method for the study of comparative law that is able to cover all of these different facets. Rather, in order to provide an accurate and precise description of a different legal system, one has to apply different comparative methods.

Zusammenfassung: Dieser Beitrag beabsichtigt, eine kritische Bewertung der theoretischen Grundlagen des Common Core of European Private Law Projektes, insbesondere der Theorie von Rodolfo Sacco. Das maßgebliche Ziel dieser Beitrags ist allerdings die Frage, in welchem Umfang das Common Core Projekt tatsächlich eine präzise und relativ neutrale Darstellung des europäischen Privatrechts bietet. Zunächst wird die rechtsvergleichende Theorie von Rodolfo Sacco näher dargestellt sowie auch erläutert, wie diese Methode im Common Core of European Private Law Projekt praktisch angewendet wird. Darüber hinaus wird eine Anzahl von Kritikpunkten näher aufgeführt, die gegen diese Methode vorgebracht werden können. Dabei wird die Ansicht vertreten, dass das Recht einen facettenreichen Charakter hat, sodass es nicht nur eine einzige Methode zur rechtsvergleichenden Untersuchung gibt, die es ermöglicht alle diese unterschiedlichen Facetten abzudecken. Zur Ermöglichung einer akkuraten und genauen Erläuterung eines anderen Rechtssystems ist es vielmehr erforderlich, verschiedene rechtsvergleichende Methoden anzuwenden.
The Liability of the Falsus Procurator
Authors: Verhagen H.L.E.
Published: April 2022

This lecture examines the liability of the falsus procurator: the liability vis-à-vis the third party of the agent who acts without sufficient authority. It critically discusses the following topics: the legal basis of the agent’s liability, the measure of the agent’s liability in the absence of fraud or negligence, the principal’s vicarious liability in tort for the agent’s lack of authority, and the law governing the liability of the falsus procurator in the Rome I Regulation. The lecture concludes with four propositions.
Retour sur la loi applicable aux intérêts moratoires – A propos de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour de cassation belge le 23 avril 2007
Authors: Boskovic Olivera
Published: April 2022

Résumé: L’arrêt rendu par la Cour de cassation belge le 23 janvier 2007 relance le débat sur la difficile question de la loi applicable aux intérêts moratoires. Censurant la Cour d’appel qui avait appliqué le taux de la loi du for pour toute la période postérieure au jugement, la Haute Juridiction belge affirme que c’est la loi du contrat qui est, en vertu de l’article 10)1)c de la Convention de Rome de 1980 relative à la loi applicable aux obligations contractuelles, applicable à cette question. Cette solution, cohérente, doit étre confrontée à une proposition qui recueille de plus en plus de suffrages doctrinaux, à savoir l’application de la loi de la monnaie dans laquelle est libellée la condamnation à la question des intérêts moratoires. A l’examen, il s’avére que cette dernière thèse ne permet pas de résoudre toutes les difficultés. Bien que des solutions optimales, quoique passablement complexes, existent sans doute en théorie, la solution adoptée par la Cour de cassation belge est satisfaisante et constitue probablement la réponse la plus adéquate à la situation qui lui était soumise.

Abstract: This decision of the Belgian Cour de cassation reopens the debate on the difficult question of the law applicable to interest by way of damages. Quashing the Court of appeal decision which had applied the rate of the lex fori for the post-judgement period, the Supreme Belgian Court held that, by virtue of article 10)1)c of the Rome Convention on the law applicable to contractual obligations, the governing law is the law of the contract. This solution although satisfactory, should be confronted to an increasingly welcomed proposition, i.e. the submission of interest by way of damages to the law of the currency in which the debt is expressed. On closer examination, it appears that the latter proposition does not resolve all problems. Although optimal solutions, inevitably complex, do exist in theory, the solution adopted by the Belgian Cour de cassation is satisfactory and was probably the most adequate response under the submitted circumstances.
A European Perspective on Data Processing Consent through the Reconceptualization of European Data Protection's Looking Glass after the Lisbon Treaty: Taking Rights Seriously
Authors: Ferretti Federico
Published: April 2022

Abstract: EU data protection law is undergoing a process of reform to meet the challenges of the modern economy and rapid technological developments. This study re-conceptualizes data protection in the EU in light of the enactment of the Treaty of Lisbon and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU. It focuses on data subjects' consent as a key component of data processing legislation - alongside the principles of purpose specification and data quality - to reinforce the view that it is a necessary, though not sufficient, tool to guarantee the declared high level of protection of individuals. To prevent confusion, conflation, or abuse of consent and safeguard the fundamental values to which it is tied, this paper puts forward that additional legal constraints and qualifications would be necessary for the enhancement of its application and enforcement. Soft or libertarian paternalism may be the key to nudge individuals towards the desired social outcome while preserving their individual autonomy. The ultimate suggestion is that EU policy makers should take rights seriously and not be seduced by and surrender to conflicting economic interests.

Résumé: La loi européenne sur la protection des données est en train de subir un ensemble de réformes afin de pouvoir faire face aux défis de l´économie moderne et des développements technologiques rapides. La présente étude re-conceptualise la protection des données dans l´UE à la lumière de l´adoption du Traité de Lisbonne et de la Charte des Droits Fondamentaux de l´UE. Elle se concentre sur le principe du consentement comme étant un composant-clé de la législation sur le traitement des données pour renforcer l´idée qu´il est un instrument nécessaire, bien qu´insuffisant, pour garantir le niveau dit élévé de protection des individus. Afin de prévenir la confusion, l'amalgame ou l'abus de consentementet de sauvegarder les valeurs fondamentales auxquelles il est lié, le présent article indique que des contraintes et des qualifications legislatives supplémentaires seraient nécessaires pour l'amélioration de son application et de son exécution. Un paternalisme souple ou libertaire pourrait être la solutionpour amener des individus vers le résultat social désiré tout en préservant leur autonomie individuelle. La dernière suggestion est de convaincre les décideurs de l´UE de prendre les droits au sérieux et dene pas se laisser séduire, ou soumettre, par des intérêts économiques incompatibles.
The Aim for Complete Uniformity in EU Private Law: An Obstacle to Further Harmonization
Authors: de Vries Anne
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The use of maximum harmonization directives in EU private law in combination with open legal concepts is controversial. Due to differing legal cultures, it is likely that open legal concepts will be interpreted differently in the Member States. This seems to conflict with the aim of maximum harmonization as put forward by the European Commission: reducing legal fragmentation and increasing legal certainty among consumers and businesses. Although supporting the notion that national interpretations of open legal concepts are likely to differ, this article posits that this is not incompatible with the aim of maximum harmonization. It proposes a different understanding of the concept of maximum harmonization that allows for different national applications of the rules. This understanding is based on the distinction between harmonizing a legal framework (the written rules) and harmonizing the application of this legal framework. By acknowledging the importance of fully harmonizing the written rules without harmonizing the national applications of these rules, it demonstrates that maximum harmonization does not necessarily conflict with the use of open legal concepts.

Résumé: L'usage de directives visant á un maximum d'harmonisation en droit privé européen combiné avec des concepts légaux ouverts est sujet á controverses. Etant donné l'existence de cultures juridiques différentes, les concepts légaux ouverts sont susceptibles d'être interprétés différemment dans les Etats membres. Ceci semble être contraire au but del'harmonisationmaximaletellequeprésentéeparlaCommissioneuropéenne:réduire la fragmentation juridique et accroître la sûreté juridique parmi les consommateurs et les entreprises. Quoique défendant la notion selon laquelle il est probable que les interprétationsnationalesdeconceptsjuridiquesouvertssoientdifférentes, leprésentarticle soutient que ceci n'est pas incompatible avec le but d'une harmonisation maximale. Il propose une explication différenteduconceptdel'harmonisationmaximalequipermetdesapplications nationales différentes de régles. Cette interprétation est basée sur la distinction entre l'harmonisationd'uncadrejuridique (les régles écrites) etl'harmonisationdel'application dececadrejuridique.Enreconnaissantl'importanced'unepleineharmonisationdesrégles écrites sans harmonisation des applications nationales de ces régles, il démontre que l'harmonisation maximale n'est pas nécessairement en conflit avec l'usage de concepts juridiques ouverts.
Kerpow! The United Kingdom Courts, West Tankers, and the Arbitration Exception in the Brussels I Regulation
Authors: van Calster Geert
Published: April 2022

Abstract: On 24 January 2012, the Court of Appeal for England and Wales upheld the decision by the High Court to grant leave for the enforcement of the arbitral award issued in favour of West Tankers against Erg and its insurers, Allianz and Generali. The conciseness of the ruling is in sharp contrast with its relevance. By allowing, in an almost matter-of-fact way, the enforceability in principle of the award, the Court of Appeal has almost certainly set in motion the next chapter in the long-running West Tankers litigation. At stake are the exact boundaries of the rule that excludes arbitration from the 'Brussels I' or 'Jurisdiction' Regulation (JR).

Résumé: Le 24 janvier 2012, la Cour d'Appel d'Angleterre et du Pays de Galles a confirmé la décision de la Haute Cour d'autoriser l'exécution de la sentence arbitrale prononcée en faveur de West Tankers contre Erg et ses assureurs, Allianz et Generali [1]. La concision de la décision contraste nettement avec sa pertinence. En permettant, d'une manière presque pragmatique, l'exécution de principe de la sentence arbitrale, la Cour d'Appel a entamé de manière presque certaine le prochain chapitre de la longue procédure West Tankers. L'enjeu, ce sont les limites exactes de la règle qui exclut l'arbitrage dans 'Bruxelles I' ou le Règlement sur la competence judiciaire ('Jurisdiction Regulation' ou 'JR').

Zusammenfassung: Am 24. Januar 2012 bestätigte der Court of Appeal für England und Wales die Entscheidung des High Court's , die Vollstreckung des Schiedsspruchs zu Gunsten von West Tankers im Rechtsstreit mit Erg und seinen Versicherern, Allianz und Generali, zu gestatten. Die geringe Aufmerksamkeit die der Gerichtsentscheidung zu Teil wurde, steht in einem deutlichen Widerspruch zu ihrer Bedeutung. In einer beinahe als gegebene Tatsache hinnehmenden Art und Weise erlaubte der Court of Appeal die Vollstreckung des Schiedsspruchs und eröffnete damit so gut wie sicher das nächste Kapitel des langwierigen West Tankers-Rechtsstreits. In Frage stehen die genauen Grenzen der Vorschrift bezüglich des Ausschlusses schiedgerichtlicher Verfahren der Brüssel-I-Verordnung (beziehungsweise der Verordnung über die gerichtliche Zuständigkeit).
United We Stand, Divided We Fall?: Collective Redress in the EU
Authors: Purnhagen Kai
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The lack of harmonized collective redress mechanisms in EU civil procedural law results in a substantial increase of litigation risks for insurers. The right to a fair trial, as well as the effect utile, enables the EU to introduce collective redress mechanisms under certain conditions. The doctrine of implied powers, Article 114 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), as well as Article 81 TFEU, can serve as competence norms in this respect. The introduction of harmonized rules on collective redress mechanisms is hence desirable from the perspective of European insurance law. To cope with the newly emerging risks, insurers have amended certain practices: In order to avoid litigation risks, the insurance industry requires establishing a steady communication strategy with private intermediaries, who have a special standing in collective redress mechanisms. Insurers might amend their insurance policies in order to cope with these risks. The development of a new insurance product coping with the special litigation challenges from collective redress procedures is advisable.

Résumé: L'absence de mécanismes harmonisés de recours collectif en droit européen de la procédure civile augmente les risques de litige pour les assureurs à un niveau guère gérable. Le droit à un procès équitable, tout comme l'effet utile du droit de l'Union, permettent à cette dernière, dans certaines conditions, d'introduire des mécanismes de recours collectif. En vertu de la doctrine des pouvoirs implicites, les articles 114 et 81 TFUE pourraient servir de base juridique à la compétence de l'Union dans ce domaine. L'introduction de règles harmonisées relatives aux recours collectifs apparait ainsi souhaitable du point de vue du droit européen des assurances. Pour faire face aux nouveaux risques émergents liés à l'incitation de l'utilisation des recours collectifs, les professionnels de l'assurance doivent modifier certaines de leurs pratiques. Afin d'éviter les risques de litige, l'industrie de l'assurance doit recourir à une stratégie de communication constante avec les intermédiaires privés qui jouent un rôle-clef dans le cadre des mécanismes de recours collectifs. Les assureurs devraient modifier leurs polices d'assurance pour prendre en compte ces risques. Le développement d'un nouveau produit d'assurance prenant en considération les défis, en termes de litige, soulevés par les recours collectifs est préconisé.
A Method to Substantively Guide the Involvement of EU Law in Private Law Matters
Authors: Sieburgh Carla
Published: April 2022

Abstract: EU law is a fact in private law. The influence of EU law in private law and horizontal relationships creates an incentive for actors to rely on that influence, both to invoke a right granted by EU law, to construe arguments and to elaborate creatively on existing possibilities. Therefore private law and horizontal relationships are of relevance for EU law.

To enable actors to clearly understand the law governing horizontal relationships, to weigh and balance the aims of both fields of law, and develop arguments, this contribution presents an approach taking into account the mutual dependence of EU and private law and consequently the need for exchange between both fields of law. The approach combines a top-down analysis of the effectuation of EU law in horizontal relationships (starting from the supremacy and direct effect of EU law) with a bottom-up approach taking into account the concrete horizontal relationship. To enable substantive guidance on the interaction between EU and private law the aims, requirements, possibilities and limitations which follow both from EU and private law are linked to principles used in EU and private law.

In this vein, the EU's Charter of Fundamental Rights has an important role to play. The Charter can be used to translate a private law principle into a principle that is recognized under EU law. It is for this reason that the Charter, which owes its existence to brilliant sources of inspiration mainly outside private law, has a promising future in private law.
Contractual Penalties in French Law
Authors: Cannarsa Michel
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Contractual penalties are a quite classical topic of doctrinal debate in France. The said debate focuses mainly on two issues: contractual freedom on one side and restrictions to it on the other side. In addition to that, the unclear distinction between contractual penalties and liquidated damages clauses in French law raises further questions. In legal practice, the use of contractual penalties is widespread because it reduces the uncertainty surrounding the judicial assessment of damages. Contractual penalties do not, however, exclude completely the judge's intervention. Indeed, a classification as contractual penalty will submit the contractual clause to the judge's moderation power. Drafters of contractual clauses make, therefore, sure not to rely on a wording that could refer to the penalty dimension of a contractual term in order to exclude judicial intervention. This judicial intervention could, however, rely on the unfairness of the clause, whatever the appellation given to it. Although limited to business-to-consumers (B2C) contracts at the moment, the 'contractual term unfairness' approach could be extended to business-to-business (B2B) contracts as well in the future, which would therefore limit to a large extent the debate surrounding the issue of classification as penalties of contractual clauses.

Résumé: Le sujet des clauses pénales est assez classique dans le débat doctrinal français. Deux enjeux déterminent plus précisément ce débat : la liberté contractuelle d'un côté et la limitation de cette liberté par le juge de l'autre. A cela s'ajoute le caractère imprécis de la distinction entre la notion de clause pénale et celle d'évaluation forfaitaire du préjudice, créant d'ultérieures interrogations. Dans la pratique, l'usage de ces clauses est particulièrement répandu car il réduit l'incertitude de l'évaluation judiciaire du préjudice. Il n'exclut toutefois pas toute intervention du juge en fonction de la qualification retenue du fait du pouvoir modérateur de la clause pénale qui est accordé au juge par le Code civil. Les rédacteurs de clauses veillent donc à exclure la référence au caractère punitif de la clause afin d'éviter cette intervention du juge. Mais ce dernier peut néanmoins trouver une autre voie d'entrée dans le monde contractuel, notamment en appréciant le caractère abusif de la clause. Cette faculté, qui est pour l'instant limitée aux contrats entre consommateurs et professionnels, pourrait être étendue à tous les contrats. Le débat autour du pouvoir modérateur du juge face aux clauses pénales perdrait ainsi une grande partie de son intérêt.
Penalty Clauses in Italian Law
Authors: Patti Francesco Paolo
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The Italian legislative provisions pertaining to penalty clauses are based on the French model in the Code civil. In contrast to the typical approach in common law systems, Italian law does not distinguish between penalty and liquidated damages clauses. A contractual penalty, agreed upon with the aim of causing the creditor to cease performance, is regarded as effective; however the extent of such penalty can be lowered by the court if it is clearly too high. Due to different matters at the European level, contract theory in the field of penalty clauses has focused on private law sanctions. Recent key decisions by the Italian Court of Cassation have, however, brought the compensatory function of the penalty clause to the fore. In this context, it is thus necessary to examine the relationship between contractual penalties, claims to performance, and compensation in order to assess the parties' autonomy when determining the function of penalty clauses. Where compensation is concerned, it is to be clarified whether the loss suffered is one of the criteria to be considered when assessing whether the extent of the penalty is appropriate. This article also refers to the content of the consumer code as well as other provisions concerning similar clauses, e.g., deposits. Finally, the Italian rules on contractual penalties will be compared with the corresponding rules in projects aimed at the harmonization of private law.
Contractual Discretion and the Limits of Free Movement Law
Authors: Babayev Rufat
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The article explores the interplay between the principle of freedom of contract and free movement law. The former is not only expressed in the freedom to choose with whom to enter into a contract and shape its content, but it is also manifested in the freedom to decide whether or not to opt out of non-mandatory contract law rules. In this regard, the article examines the extent to which the boundaries of free movement law in a contractual context could be considered to be essentially defined by the reach of such forms of contractual discretion. In addressing this query, it draws a distinction in the role of contractual discretion in the context of individual ways of coordination of contractual relationships in the form of individual contractual preferences and national ones in the form of non-mandatory contract law rules. Unlike the former, it is submitted that contractual discretion should not be taken as a decisive factor in determining the scope of free movement law as regards non-mandatory contract law rules. In particular, it is suggested to consider these rules to fall outside the scope of free movement law because of them themselves not having an effect on free movement as such, rather than due to contracting parties’ discretion over their applicability.

Résumé: Cet article explore les interactions entre le principe de la liberté contractuelle et celui de la liberté de circulation. La première ne s’exprime pas seulement à travers la liberté de choisir avec qui contracter et de déterminer le contenu du contrat mais elle se manifeste également par la liberté de décider d’être assujetti ou non aux règles non impératives de droit des contrats. À cet égard, cet article étudie la mesure dans laquelle les limites à la liberté de circulation dans un contexte contractuel pourraient être considérées comme étant essentiellement définies par la portée de ces formes de pouvoir discrétionnaire contractuel. Au cours de cette analyse, il établit une distinction entre le rôle du pouvoir discrétionnaire contractuel dans le contexte des modalités individuelles de coordination des relations contractuelles sous la forme de préférences contractuelles individuelles et des modalités nationales sous la forme de règles non impératives de droit des contrats. À l’opposé, il est soumis que le pouvoir discrétionnaire contractuel ne devrait pas être vu comme un facteur décisif dans la détermination de l’étendue de la liberté de circulation en ce qui concerne les règles non impératives de droit des contrats. Plus particulièrement, il est proposé de considérer que ces règles ne relèvent pas de la législation sur la liberté de circulation parce qu’elles n’ont pas en elles-mêmes un effet sur la liberté de circulation en tant que telle, mais plutôt en raison du pouvoir discrétionnaire des parties contractantes sur leur applicabilité.
The Indirect Effects on Domestic Law of the European Legislation on Payment Systems
Authors: Vardi Noah
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The article examines the impact that recent European Union (EU) legislation on payment systems has on domestic rules on payments in general. Given that the Payment Services Directive (PSD), for example, only regulates the payment service contract for the transfer of funds, without considering the underlying debt, the paper tries to assess whether, in the absence of a direct harmonization of national provisions on performance, discharge, and breach of a payment obligation, there is room for an indirect and gradual convergence in commercial practice and in judicial interpretation.

Résumé: L’article examine l’impact de la récente législation européenne relative aux systèmes de paiement sur les législations des Etats membres en matière de paiements en général. Dans la mesure où la Directive sur les Services de Paiement, par exemple, règle seulement le contrat de service de paiement pour le transfert de fonds sans considérer l’obligation sous-jacente, l’article vise à évaluer si en l’absence d’une harmonisation directe des règles nationales sur l’exécution, la libération et l’inexécution d’une obligation de paiement, il y a place pour une convergence indirecte et graduelle de la pratique commerciale et de l’interprétation judiciaire.
The Remediation of Contaminated Sites and the Problem of Assessing the Liability of the Innocent Landowner: A Comparative Law Perspective
Authors: Brans Edward
Published: April 2022

Abstract: On 4 March 2015, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU or Court) issued a preliminary ruling on the application of the Environmental Liability Directive (Directive 2004/35/EC; ELD). The ELD established an administrative law regime aimed at the prevention and remediation of environmental damage, including land (soil) damage. Case C-534/18 concerns soil pollution. The CJEU was asked whether the ELD permits Member States to order the owner of a polluted site to fund or to conduct safety and decontamination measures on that site even if they did not cause the pollution. This question is relevant in a comparative law perspective because Member States may impose more stringent provisions in relation to the prevention and remedying of environmental damage under the ELD, including the identification of additional activities subject to the prevention and remediation requirements of the Directive and the identification of additional responsible parties
Indirect Representation According to the Draft Common Frame of Reference
Authors: Kortmann Sebastian C.J.J.
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This essay discusses the so-called actio directa and actio contraria, as laid down in the final edition of the Draft of a Common Frame of Reference (DCFR), that is, the possibility of a direct relationship between the principal and the third party in case of indirect representation.

In 1998, Arthur Hartkamp wrote an article entitled ‘Indirect Representation According to the Principles of European Contract Law (PECL), the UNIDROIT Agency Convention and the Dutch Civil Code’. All three sets of rules contain a provision for the actio directa as well as one for the actio contraria. Hartkamp shows that the differences between the three regulations are not significant. At the same time, he concludes that the provisions in the PECL are more clear and more consistently drafted than the others.

The DCFR also contains an actio directa (Art. III.-5:401) and an actio contraria (Art. III-5:402). These provisions differ substantially from those in the other sets of rules.

In this essay, a brief comparative survey is made between the first three sets of rules and the DCFR. In the DCFR, the actio directa is limited to situations in which the indirect representative has become insolvent. The arguments for this limitation are not convincing. Furthermore, the DCFR only provides the third party with an actio contraria if the principal initiates an actio directa against the third party. Thus, the principal is provided with more protection than the third party. There is insufficient justification for such protection.

Based on this survey, it can be concluded that the rules in the PECL are more balanced and consistent and lead to more equitable results than the rules in the DCFR.