bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Measuring the Quality of Health Care
Authors: Petitti Diana B , Amster Andy
Published: October 2023

The measurement and improvement of quality of care have been a part of health care for decades. Recently, attempts to measure and monitor quality have become more intense as a response to demands for accountability in the delivery of services (Relman 1988) and as an outgrowth of the quality and outcomes “movement.” The development of systems to measure the performance of organizations that deliver health care is a part of the attempt to assure accountability. It is also a response to consumer concern-about how new ways of organizing and financing medical care effect quality.
National Initiatives
Authors: Milner Clyde A
Published: October 2023

Who owned the Louisiana Territory? Meriwether Lewis and Carlos Dehault Delassus could not agree on an answer. Delassus, a Spanish official, thought that he still administered lands controlled by the French. Rumors of the sale of Louisiana had reached St. Louis in August 1803, but no formal instructions had been sent to Delassus, lieutenant governor of the territory. On 8 December 1803, Captain Lewis had crossed the Mississippi River to meet with Delassus. Lewis knew that the United States had purchased Louisiana from Napoleon’s government, but he carried no official documents concerning the sale. So after presenting his credentials, Lewis informed Delassus that he planned to lead an expedition funded by the government of the United States. Perhaps the captain paraphrased the instructions that President Thomas Jefferson had sent to Lewis, his twenty-nine-year-old former secretary, in June. “The object of your mission is to explore the Missouri river, & such principal stream of it, as, by it’s [sic] course and communication with the waters of the Pacific ocean, whether the Columbia, Oregan [sic], Colorado or any other river may offer the most direct & practicable water communication across this continent for the purposes of commerce.” Delassus insisted that the American party not proceed up the Missouri until he received notification of Louisiana’s sale. Lewis willingly complied. He crossed back to the east side of the Mississippi and established his winter camp on easily recognized American soil. In January 1804, the residents of St. Louis officially learned that all of the Louisiana country had been purchased by the United States. In March, a formal transfer ceremony occurred in the town. In May, William Clark, who shared command of the expedition with Lewis, led the parry across the Mississippi. As many as forty-six men may have begun the ascent of the Missouri. Aside from the two commanding officers, twenty-seven young, unmarried recruits served as permanent members of the “Corps of Discovery.” Two nonmilitary personnel also accompanied the corps-York, an African-American slave whom Clark had inherited from his father, and George Drouillard, half French-Canadian and half Shawnee, who worked as a hunter and interpreter for twenty-five dollars a month. Over the journey of twenty-eight months and eight thousand miles, only one member of the corps lost his life.
Violence
Authors: Brown Richard Maxwell
Published: October 2023

The focus of this essay is the West from the middle of the nineteenth century to 1920-a period in which the violence of the region was not only heavy but destined to become an enduring aspect of the national mythology. First is a discussion of the values that impelled westerners of the time to be violent. Next is an extended treatment of what I have termed the Western Civil War of Incorporation, the key to so much violence from 1850 to 1920. The essay concludes with brief comments on western violence in recent decades, treats the images of western violence so deeply graven in the national consciousness, and closes by addressing two vital questions: Just how violent was the West? Is the West mainly responsible for the American heritage of pervasive violence? A cluster of beliefs mentally programmed westerners to commit violence: the doctrine of no duty to retreat; the imperative of personal self-redress; the homestead ethic; the ethic of individual enterprise; the Code of the West; and the ideology of vigilantism.
Angiogenesis in Nonischemic Myocardium
Authors: Tomanek Robert J
Published: October 2023

The high oxygen consumption of the myocardium necessitates abundant perfusion, which is facilitated by a rich vascular supply. Capillary density (number of capillaries/per mm2) is about 2,000 to >4,000, depending on the species and method of processing the tissue for microscopic analysis. Figure 9.1, a micrograph of the myocardium, illustrates the extensiveness of the capillary bed. Most capillaries are arranged parallel to the long axes of cardiac myocytes, but anastomotic channels and obliquely oriented segments occur. The latter are due to branching.
Growth Factor Delivery Strategies
Authors: Yu Chun , English Anthony , Edelman Elazer R
Published: October 2023

Growth factors are essential compounds in a wide variety of pathological and physiological states, not the least of which are vascular diseases. Elucidation of their mechanism of action would aid immensely in understanding a number of disease processes and biological phenomena including atherosclerosis. For the pharmacologists and controlled release engineers, these compounds are interesting for additional reasons. They are active in minute quantities (picograms-nanograms) with disparate effects at different concentrations, and despite recombinant technology in some instances they remain available in limited quantity or at some expense. In addition, they are often not as stable as other proteins. Prolonged storage may be accompanied by denaturation, degradation, or simply adhesion of the compound to container walls with actual or effective loss in material or biological activity.
Political Parties
Authors: Hofstadter Richard
Published: October 2023

In a certain sense American political parties were the first modem parties. They had, of course, their predecessors in the British Whigs and Tories of the eighteenth century. But if we define political parties not simply as aggregates of men who share certain interests or points of view, nor simply as coalitions of notables, but rather as broadly based social structures that mediate between public opinion and the processes of parliamentary decision-making in a fairly regular manner, the United States was the pioneer nation in the development of the modern political party. The phrase “His Majesty’s Opposition,” when first used in the House of Commons by Sir John Cam Hob house in 1826, was employed in a spirit of levity and greeted with laughter. At that point Americans had had more than a quarter century of fitful experiment with partisan opposition, and their two-party politics was even then in the process of being resuscitated after the lapse of a decade. In Britain the modem pro­ cedure for a change of ministry dates from 1830. The American precedent for the peaceful transition of power from a government party to an opposition party dates from the election of 1800-1801.
Social Democracy, 1900-1918
Authors: Mowry George E
Published: October 2023

When analyzing their own societies individuals often avoid certain emotion-laden words. “Social democracy” has been one such tabooed phrase in the United States, undoubtedly because of its association with social democratic and communist parties. Consequently, social legislation commonly described elsewhere as “social democratic” has been referred to usually by a variety of other terms, such as welfare, social service, or reform measures, and the parties proposing them as liberal or radical, or more often as progressive. The latter term stems directly from the progressive movement, which in essence was a reform mentality that animated both major political parties from about 1902 to 1918 and resulted in a series of significant political, economic, and social changes at all levels of the American government city, state, and national.
The Cold War
Authors: May Ernest R
Published: October 2023

In high school and college courses on United States history, the final topic of the year is usually entitled the “Cold War.” As a rule, the topic receives little classroom time. Even if the teacher has a special interest in the twentieth century, he is apt to stress events prior to 1945, skimping on what he says about his own generation. This practice has some justification, since courses on political science, economics, and sociology say much about the present era and not much about the past. Still, the result is that a long period-more than 10 per cent of the time since independence relatively little attention as history. The Cold War label is itself evidence. The twenty years between the wars are not treated as a unit.
Human-Based Institutions
Authors: Davis Howard
Published: October 2023

Many of the innovations described so far, although important examplars of process or product, are unique and were achieved at great expense: higher architectural fees or construction costs, fights with the bureaucracy, the need for particularly enlightened clients or extensive research and development. That extraordinary activity does not play a role in most building, and in order for such innovations to spread, institutional change is needed.
Bishops, Priests, and Nuns
Authors: Magray Mary Peckham
Published: October 2023

Timothy Murphy, Bishop Of Cloyne, wrote to Michael Slattery, arch bishop of Cashel, in 1851 complaining of what he believed was a serious problem in his diocese. As we have already seen, Angelina Gould was professed in the Presentation convent at Doneraile in 1829, bringing with her a fortune of approximately £60,000, which, from her profession until her death forty years later, she used to found a dozen convents in the dioceses of Cloyne and Ross.1 It was not until the early 1850s, however, that this woman came to be seen as a problem in the eyes of the church.
The Struggle for the Company
Authors: Staloff Darren
Published: October 2023

According to Samuel Eliot Morison, the 120 patentees of the Dorchester Company of Adventurers, the first organized effort to colonize Massachusetts Bay, represented a fair sample of the leading elements of the Puritan movement in south-western England. Among them were landed gentry, who probably exerted the political influence necessary to procure the patent; merchant adventurers, who no doubt supplied the bulk of the £3,000 of initial joint stock; and, of course, representatives of the thinking class. This heterogenous membership was reflected in the range of purposes the colony was intended to serve. A permanent base for the Newfoundland and New England fishing industry, a bulwark against French (and therefore Roman Catholic) expansion, and a trading and evangelical outpost to the natives, Massachusetts was least of all intended as the site of a Bible commonwealth or Puritan re-public. Nonetheless, when John Winthrop reached the shores of Massachusetts Bay in the summer of 1630, he came with the avowed purpose of erecting just such a Puritan “city upon a hill.”

The transformation of the projected colony from a source of mercantile profit to a holy commonwealth was the result of a dramatic shift of power within the Mas-sachusetts colonization movement. In the late summer of 1629, a group of well-organized East Anglian Puritan intelligentsia, with the aid of ministerial intellectuals and a handful of sympathetic merchants, seized control of the Massachusetts Bay Company. This power grab was perhaps the single most important event in the political history of Puritan Massachusetts. Having gained control of the mechanisms of government, the Puritan thinking class was able to retain its political dominance until the loss of the charter over half a century later.
What Is Hate Crime?
Authors: Jacobs James B , Potter Kimberly
Published: October 2023

We cannot talk about how much hate crime exists in the United States or what to do about it until we are clear about what a hate crime is. This chapter shows that the concept of hate crime is loaded with ambiguity because of the difficulty of determining (1) what is meant by prejudice; (2) which prejudices qualify for inclusion under the hate crime umbrella; (3) which crimes, when attributable to prejudice, become hate crimes; and (4) how strong the causal link must be between the perpetrator’s prejudice and the perpetrator’s criminal conduct.
Enforcing Hate Crime Laws
Authors: Jacobs James B , Potter Kimberly
Published: October 2023

Federal, state, and local hate crime laws were passed to satisfy JL political and symbolic needs, not to fill gaps in criminal law, sentencing law, or criminal procedure. Nevertheless, once these laws are on the books, police and prosecutors must decide how to enforce them. This chapter examines the challenges and enforcement dilemmas of hate crime laws for police, prosecutors, criminal courts, trial judges, juries, and sentencing judges. It also examines what little is known about how these laws are used, how often, and with what consequences.
The City Praetorships, 218-122
Authors: Brennan T Corey
Published: October 2023

Livy in Books 21-45 gives us a relatively full picture of activities in the urban and (to a lesser extent) peregrine provinciae. However, we possess only scattered information on the urban and peregrine praetors of the years 165-122. The identities of little more than a dozen city praetors are known for this period, only one of whom (Cn. Cornelius Scipio Hispanus, pr. 139) is specifically attested as praetor inter peregrinos. It is therefore nearly impossible to attempt to sketch developments in these two provinciae for these particular years.
The Special Provinciae, 218-122
Authors: Brennan T Corey
Published: October 2023

Praetors played only an ancillary role in the defeat of the Carthaginians in Italy, as well as in the conquest of north Italy which commenced (or rather resumed) after Hannibal’s departure from Bruttium in late 203. There were no praetorian triumphs during the Second Punic War. However, outside Italy in the years 218-166 the Romans let privati and then praetors do the bulk of the fighting in Spain, and used holders of praetorian imperium from time to time in important independent commands-particularly naval commands-in the Macedonian Wars, the war against Antiochus III, and the Third Illyrian War.
General Developments in the Praetorship, 122-82
Authors: Brennan T Corey
Published: October 2023

This chapter and the next attempt to trace further additions to the Roman administrative system in the period after C. Gracchus’ consequential reform of 122 B.C. that introduced a provincia repetundarum. Following the structure of chapter 9, in chapters 10 and 11 (the latter covering the years 81-50) discussion of the annexation of new territorial provinciae precedes permanent developments in the city. Then, in each of these two chapters comes an examination of special assignments in the spheres militiae and domi. Chapter u examines further select aspects of the city provinciae, while chapters 13-15 round off coverage of the various territorial provinces down to the year 50 B.C. At the end of chapter 15, I have summed up the principal ways in which the Senate staffed the various provinciae in the period 122-50 B.C. This is a sequel to the survey at 9.4.1-4 that treats this same question for the period down to 122 B.C. Commands in the permanent territorial provinciae discussed in chapters 10-11 and 13-15 are set out in tabular form in Appendices A.5, A.6, and A.7.
General Developments in the Praetorship, 81-50
Authors: Brennan T Corey
Published: October 2023

On 29 and 30 January 81, L. Cornelius Sulla formally entered Rome in triumph. Or, rather, re-entered. Sulla had taken the city almost three full months previously, through his victory over the Marians and their Italian allies at the Colline Gate. Not long afterward, he had excused himself from Rome. The idea was to exacerbate the constitutional crisis; at this point both consuls of 82 were dead. On Sulla’s request, the Senate did the only thing it could do, which was to select an interrex, with the expectation that this magistrate would hold consular elections. In a letter, Sulla offered the Senate an alternative, to revive the dictatorship (last seen in 202 B.C.), and suggested that it choose him for the position. The interrex L. Valerius Flaccus obliged, passing a law that set in motion the appointment of Sulla as dictator, technically “rei publicae constituendae causa” and (against precedent) for an indeterminate time. The new dictator reciprocated by appointing Flaccus as his magister equitum, though in his case for a fixed term.
Respect for Tradition
Authors: Macklin Ruth
Published: October 2023

a culture cannot serve to justify its perpetuation when it quite clearly violates general ethical principles. Principles of justice, nonmaleficence, beneficence, and respect for persons are abstract and difficult to apply, but they can and do serve as a moral yardstick to measure the behavior of individuals and groups.
International Research and Ethical Imperialism
Authors: Macklin Ruth
Published: October 2023

DESPITE the postmodern claim that there are no objectively right ethical standards, hardly anyone denies that ethically right standards must govern biomedical research involving human subjects. Yet the international research enterprise gives rise to many of the same debates surrounding cultural and ethical relativism as we have seen in other biomedical arenas. A prominent view holds that research involving human subjects must embody ethical universals rather than be tailored to the norms and practices of particular cultures. One expression of the universal view states: “If it is unethical to carry out a type of research in a developed country, it is unethical to do that same research in a developing country.” This requirement for uniformity seeks to ensure that justice prevails in the conduct of research that crosses national boundaries. It is also designed to protect vulnerable populations from exploitation. An underlying assumption of this “protectionist” stance is that people in developing countries are somehow vulnerable to exploitation in a way that people in developed countries are not. That assumption bears examination and is open to challenge as developing country researchers and ministries of health have begun to acquire the capacity for scientific and ethical review similar to what is already established in developed couritries.
What This Book Is About
Authors: Hatton Timothy J , Williamson Jeffrey G
Published: October 2023

This book is about the mass migrations that took place between Europe and the New World-North and South America and Australasia-between 1850 and 1914. About 55 million Europeans sought new lives in far-away places during this period of largely unfettered migration. The movement marked a profound shift in global population and economic activity. This book tries to do more than simply describe this mass movement: it explores cause and effect. As social scientists, we search for systematic fundamentals rather than idiosyncratic details.
Assimilating the Immigrant An American Melting Pot?
Authors: Hatton Timothy J , Williamson Jeffrey G
Published: October 2023

This chapter explores immigrant assimilation in the New World and the next explores their labor market absorption. The focus is exclusively on the United States, where about three fifths of European emigrants went and where a far wider range of origin countries was represented than was true of any other New World country. Indeed, this fact alone accounts for most of the unusual intensity of the American political debate over the migrations after the 1890s, a debate that was much more subdued in more immigrant-homogeneous Australia, Argentina, Canada, or Cuba. As a by-product of this debate about immigrant assimilation and absorption, a rich statistical database was generated by which the issues can be evaluated.
Coda The Evolution of a Global Labor Market
Authors: Hatton Timothy J , Williamson Jeffrey G
Published: October 2023

The time has come to take stock: what does history tell us about the evolution of a global labor market? The process was immensely complicated by cyclical instability, unpredictable policy intervention, racial discrimination in receiving regions, ecological disaster in sending regions, and the sociology of networks, but fundamental economic and demographic tides were at work underneath those choppy waves. The evolution of a global labor market was slow, and the final steady state did not imply equal wages for the same jobs everywhere. However, this book has shown that those economic and demographic fundamentals were at work for the century of relatively free migration that ended around World War I.
1924–1926
Authors: Yu Henry
Published: October 2023

In the first week of June 1924 a middle-aged missionary named J. Merle Davis paid a visit to the Chinatown of Fresno, California. The Chinatown was small, only a block or so along Tulare Street, and Davis would have had no trouble locating the building for which he was looking. If it had been nighttime, he could have been guided by the brilliant neon sign that announced the Yet Far Low Restaurant, but even in daylight the electric sign on the corner of Tulare and China Alley was easily visible.
The Treasure of the Incas
Authors: Gorriti Juana Manuela
Published: October 2023

The treasure of the Incas! These words take our minds immediately to the metropolis of the children of the Sun, to the center of their past grandeur-to Cuzco!

Cuzco is a city of fantastic legends, of wondrous myths and traditions. Its streets resound as if there were immense subterranean passageways beneath them; under the floors of its churches can be heard the roaring of unknown underground streams; the stones of its foudations lie atop mines of gold; and on dark nights when there is a conjunction in the vast skies, the common people look up at the pale celestial objects with as much longing as fear.
The Mazorquero’s Daughter
Authors: Gorriti Juana Manuela
Published: October 2023

Roque Black-Soul was the terror of Buenos Aires. He was a killer par excellence in an association of killers called the Mazorca; devoted body and soul to the dreadful founder of that horrible brotherhood, he counted the hours in the day by the number of crimes he commit ted, and his hand, perpetually holding a dagger held above his head, never came down except to stab someone. He left blood behind him wherever he went, and all traces of mercy had left him so long ago that his heart did not even have a memory of it; the cries of orphans, wives, and mothers found him as insensitive as the cold blade of steel that he drove deep into the chests of his victims.
GubiAmaya
Authors: Gorriti Juana Manuela
Published: October 2023

It was a fiery afternoon in October. The sky to the east was dark, covered by dense, threatening clouds, shattered repeatedly by flashes of lightning; to the west, some patches were clearer, the cloud cover burned through by the rays of the setting sun. The electricity from the storm made the leaves of the trees vibrate, and their shaking produced a dull rustling, like the sound of the distant ocean. The air was hot and stifling. The cicadas made their shrill and monotonous call from hiding places in the hollows of the tree trunks, and flocks of birds of all shapes and colors, brushing the tops of the trees with their wings, quickly fled the approaching, gloomy, and majestic tempest.

How can I put into words even part of what was taking place in my soul as, all alone, I traversed that forest, which in other times I had traveled with my cheerful family-a family that has since been torn from its native land by a blizzard of extraordinary misfortune, devoured in the midst of its full bloom by death, reduced now to five weak scions, thrown great distances from one another!
The Lymph Node Biopsy
Authors: Strauchen James A
Published: October 2023

Lymphadenopathy is an extremely common sign in clinical medicine which may accompany a wide variety of conditions. The diagnosis of the etiology of lymphadenopathy will not infrequently require biopsy of an enlarged lymph node for pathologic examination and study. Selection of patients requiring lymph node biopsy requires a good deal of clinical judgment. The significance of palpably enlarged lymph nodes ranges from the trivial (e.g., cervical lymph node enlargement accompanying an upper respiratory infection) to the life threatening (e.g., lymph node enlargement as a manifestation of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome [AIDS] or malignant lymphoma). Lymph node enlargement may be localized or generalized but will usually have been persistent and unexplained before lymph node biopsy is considered. The differential diagnosis of lymph node enlargement will vary with the age of the patient. Reactive lymphadenopathies are, in general, more common in childhood and young adulthood, whereas malignant neoplasms, both primary (i.e., malignant lymphoma) and secondary (i.e., metastatic carcinoma), are more common in adults. Similarly, clinical findings also affect the differential diagnosis. A lymph node which is tender to palpation and soft in consistency is most likely reactive, whereas a lymph node which is rock hard is most commonly maligant. The lymph nodes in malignant lymphoma typically have a firm or “rubbery” consistency on palpation. The size of the lymph nodes is also of significance. The largest lymph nodes are typically seen in neoplastic conditions, such as Hodgkin’s disease and non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas; however, striking lymph node enlargement may be seen in some reactive conditions, for example Rosai-Dorfman disease (sinus histiocytosis with massive lymphadenopathy). Similarly, lymph nodes which are only slightly enlarged may harbor malignant lymphoma, particularly if other suggestive clinical signs (i.e., hepato splenomegaly) are evident. Selection of patients for lymph node biopsy therefore requires consideration of all the clinical signs and symptoms. Laboratory evaluation may also be helpful prior to lymph node biopsy.
Kikuchi’s Disease ,Kawasaki’s Disease, and Kimura’s Disease
Authors: Strauchen James A
Published: October 2023

Kikuchi’s disease (Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease, histiocytic necrotizing lymphadenitis) is an idiopathic lymphadenopathy which was first recognized in Japan, from which the majority of cases continue to originate, but it has a worldwide distribution (Kikuchi, 1972; Kickuchi et al, 1977; Dorfman and Beny, 1988). The majority of patients with Kikuchi’s disease are young women presenting with persistent tender or nontender cervical lymphadenopathy (Turner et al, 1983; Unger et al, 1987). Fever and a viral-like prodrome are frequently present; mild leukopenia may be present. Cervical lymph nodes are most frequently involved; however, involvement of virtually any lymph node group has been described, including mesenteric and mediastinal lymph nodes. Patients with inconspicuous or inapparent lymphadenopathy may present as fever of unknown origin (Norris et al, 1996; Pearl and Strauchen, 1989). We have seen one case of mesenteric Kikuchi’s disease mimicking acute appendicitis. Extranodal cutaneous involvement is rare, but has also been reported (Kuo, 1995). The etiology of Kikuchi’s disease is obscure.
Peripheral B Cell Neoplasms: Ill. Marginal-Zone B Cell Lymphoma, Hairy Cell Leukemia, and Plasmacytoma/Plasma
Authors: Strauchen James A
Published: October 2023

Marginal-zone B cell lymphoma, splenic marginal-zone lymphoma, hairy cell leukemia, and plasmacytoma/plasma cell myeloma are B cell neoplasms which are frequently extranodal and exhibit plasmacytoid differentiation.
Peripheral T Cell and NK Cell Neoplasms: II. Peripheral T Cell Lymphomas
Authors: Strauchen James A
Published: October 2023

Peripheral T cell lymphomas include peripheral T cell lymphomas, unspecified, angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma, angiocentric lymphoma, intestinal T cell lymphoma, and adult T cell lymphoma/leukemia. REAL: Peripheral T cell lymphomas, unspecified. Provisional cytologic categories: medium-sized cell, mixed medium and large cell, large cell, lymphoepithelioid cell. Provisional subtype: hepatosplenic -y-S T cell lymphoma. Provisional subtype: subcutaneous panniculitic T cell lymphoma.
The Ph.D. Process
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

This guide is a lively chronicle of the graduate school years that describe the intellectual and emotional experience of obtaining a Ph.D. in a scientific field. Readers will learn what to expect from professors and advisors, and how to prepare for oral exams, simplify the dissertation writing, reap the long-term benefits of the Ph.D. process and acquire strategies for survival and success. Tips on applying, and information for foreign students, are included.
How You Learn
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

If professors are commonly absent from the lab bench, who then teaches the graduate students? Ask any new Ph.D. who taught her how to be a scientist, and she will have to stop and think; the answer is not immediately obvious, and no one person really was responsible. There are not any courses on how to be a scientist, and no one takes you aside and explains it all to you. Graduate students pick up their practical and conceptual knowledge of science similarly to the way children pick up their knowledge of the culture in which they are brought up: they observe others, they imitate others, they get some guidance from authority figures, they read, they speak to friends and acquaintances, they are criticized when they perform inappropriately, they learn from their mistakes, they are rewarded when they perform appropriately. Interestingly, acquiring knowledge by such experiential methods !versus being systematically taught), is considered by educators and psychologists to be the optimal way to learn.
Picking a Dissertation Committee, and Defending the Proposal at the Preliminary Oral Exam
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

There are two major oral exams associated with the dissertation research in most departments. For each, the student stands before the “dissertation committee” and “defends” the proposed, or the completed, research. The “final oral exam” (the “defense”) is taken after the student has submitted his or her dissertation, and marks the end of graduate school and the awarding of the Ph.D. The other oral exam, known as the “preliminary oral exam” (some departments consider this exam part of the “qualifying” exam), is taken at an earlier stage, and marks the point at which the student is formally approved to embark on the proposed dissertation research. Some departments require only one oral exam, either the preliminary or the final. (See Chapter 22 for more information on the final exam.) While passing the preliminary oral marks the committee’s acceptance of the student’s research plans, the student has actually been doing quite a bit-often a year or two-of research before introducing at this oral the exact experiments he “proposes” to con duct in depth for the dissertation research. These preliminary studies serve to find a line of experimentation that seems promising and technically doable; usually some positive findings have been noted that make further investigation of the issues, in terms of dissertation projects, encouraging.
Do I Belong Here: Insecurity and Stress
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

Grad school engenders insecurity simply by the way it is run. The research enterprise at a university is a massive operation with an administrative core, a conglomerate of dedicated personnel, vast capital, and ambitious plans. Although it springs from the combined efforts of individual researchers, it transcends any one individual or individual lab; it certainly does not start or stop with each new group of graduate students, and graduate education is not its only, or even main, concern. Grad students are not kept separate from the heart of the enterprise; they are not trained in isolated chambers until they are up to snuff. They are dropped into the research environment and they learn on the job: they participate in or attend key activities such as journal clubs and seminars right from the start, and many are expected to perform experiments in the lab or field shortly after their arrival. It is only in classes that students are solely with others at their own level. Otherwise, they are thrown in with more advanced students, post docs, and professors, and are expected to blend in and more or less keep up. There is a recognized disparity between new students and their more advanced colleagues, yet people act as if there is not any. Sure, beginners are taught techniques in the lab or field, but they are treated as professionals, and are expected to pick things up rather quickly so as not to slow down the research process.
What Should Your Goals Be While in Graduate School
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

It used to be that, during science’s heyday, one could get by largely on intelligence and a desire for knowledge alone. If you loved worms and wanted to do nothing but watch and study them, somewhere in academia there was probably a place for you. Those days are no more. The overwhelming feelings I have at this point in my life, having just finished my Ph.D. and begun work in a postdoctoral position, are worry and disappointment. I worry incessantly about my chances for landing a job doing what I was trained to do. This is not because I feel incapable. I am just continually bombarded with stories of failure and negativism from those who have gone before me. Reports in various scientific/academic journals are likewise bleak. Now that university/governmental purse strings are tight, the age-old recipe for success in science comes up lacking, and those who have invested such a large portion of their lives in this endeavor are left, after all of their sweat and tears, with little or nothing. The large majority of the new generation of scientists must now face the grim reality.
The Final Oral Exam (The Defense)
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

The final oral exam is the culmination of all that you have gone through since the day that you entered the graduate program. After years of taking tests, writing papers, making presentations, performing experiments, composing the dissertation, and jumping through numerous other hoops, it all boils down to this one-to three-hour question-and-answer trial before the dissertation committee. And as momentous as it is, it is all over in an adrenaline rush blur. Departments differ in how they run their final exams-a few do not even have them. Many require that their students give a one-hour public presentation of their research right before the closed grilling session with the committee; to this open talk come the student’s friends and relatives, lab members, and those who saw the notices about the talk that the department puts up on walls and bulletin boards, and thought the topic looked interesting.
Clintonian Culture
Authors: Cornog Evan
Published: October 2023

In Clinton’s time, culture and class had not yet formed into the congealed layers that the historian Lawrence Levine and others see later in the century. But even if Levine is right in perceiving a basic unity in American culture in the early nineteenth century, a ‘rich shared public culture,’ that is not the way it looked to Clinton. It was not the unity that was missing but, rather, the culture. Culture was the domain of the social elite, whose responsibility it was, under a kind of trickle-down theory of taste, to offer the blessings of culture to all the rest in the name of general advancement.
Clintonian Intellect
Authors: Cornog Evan
Published: October 2023

WHEN DEWITT CLINTON WAS ousted as mayor in 1815, he had been active in political life for twenty-five years and had held appointive or elective office, sometimes both simultaneously, for nearly all of those years. He now withdrew to his farm in Newtown and is said to have taken refuge in alcohol as he brooded over his defeats.1 His living expenses and his willingness to lend money to friends and acquaintances, together with his charitable contributions, had depleted his family’s finances so that, deprived of the income that came with the mayor’s office, he was in serious financial straits.
The Canal And Its Consequences
Authors: Cornog Evan
Published: October 2023

In New York State, it was the canal’s physical presence that was easiest to under stand. The Erie Canal was, in essence, a trench forty feet wide, four feet deep, and 363 miles long. Because Lake Erie was nearly 600 feet higher in elevation than the Hudson River at Albany, the waterway had to rise through eighty-three locks, including a five-tiered set of double locks at Lockport (near Buffalo) that Thurlow Weed pro claimed ‘will probably remain for ages as a monument of American Genius and American patriotism.’ To carry the canal across the Genesee River an aqueduct 802 feet long was raised, spanning the river on stone arches. The engineers in charge of work had limited experience, and their need for more trained help was one of the motives that led to the founding of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1824, the nation’s first school dedicated to civil engineering.
Some Reflections
Authors: Williamson Oliver E
Published: October 2023

Easy choices are always gratifying. The suggestion that I select an early trans action cost article for inclusion in this book presented an easy choice: “The Vertical Integration of Production: Market Failure Considerations” (American Economic Review, 1971) was the obvious candidate. Not only was this my first effort to use transaction costs to explain a puzzling economic condition, but also the essay employed and/or introduced many of the key ideas that would figure prominently as transaction cost economics played out in the years ahead.
Framing The Picture
Authors: Saler Michael T
Published: October 2023

This is the story of how the nineteenth-century English arts and crafts merged with the twentieth-century avant-garde, romantic medievalism with visual modernism, “functionalism” with “formalism.” It is the story of how the London Underground-one of the largest and most respected public transport systems in the world in the interwar period-conjoined with England’s artistic underground during these years; it is the story of how this modern and mechanized transport system paradoxically became the culminating project of the English arts and crafts movement. It is also the story of how a network of prominent individuals in England, inspired by the ideals of John Ruskin and William Morris, attempted to integrate modern art with modern life: an attempt that corresponded in some respects to the well-documented efforts of continental avant-garde groups like the Italian futurists, the French surrealists, and the Russian constructivists. The English version of this narrative has yet to be told, even though it was in interwar England that the avantgarde aim of abolishing the distinction between art and everyday life attained its widest realization.
The Demise of Medieval Modernism
Authors: Saler Michael T
Published: October 2023

The nineteenth-century distinction between art and design, which Frank Pick and other medieval modernists had come close to eradicating during the interwar period, was restored rapidly between 1939 and 1945-with Pick, as usual, having been in the vanguard. He had preceded official opinion in his own reconceptualization of the role of artist and industrial designer in the mid-1930s; it was not until after the outbreak of the war that officials at the Boards of Trade and Education began to think of the designer as a technician rather than as an artist. This new conception of the designer, and the reestablishment of the distinction between “fine art” and “design,” then became institutionalized when the government created the Council of Industrial Design in 1944 and the Arts Council in 1946. Pick had argued that the designer was a technician primarily for moral reasons-he had come to regard the artist as suspect-but the Board of Trade instituted this redefinition for economic reasons. This new conception of the designer contributed to the collapse of the medieval modern tradition.
Sample Size, Detectable Difference,
Authors: Murray David M
Published: October 2023

The power of a group-randomized trial is the power of the test of the intervention effect for the primary endpoint. More precisely, it is the probability that Letan intervention effect of a given size will be statistically significant. If the probability is 80% that a test will detect an intervention effect of one standard deviation in magnitude as statistically significant, the study has 80% power for an effect of that size or larger.
Evaluation And Reform
Authors: Johnson Dale A
Published: October 2023

While each of the theological colleges did what it could to promote its cause through the development of a constituency, recruitment of students, and in creased financial support, periodic wider review of their situation, needs, contributions, and difficulties also took place after 1840. By then the transition from “academy” to “collegiate” status was virtually complete and the two-course pattern of theological education generally established, with growing attention to the London examinations for the literary course. Two articles in the Eclectic Review in 1840 considered different aspects of the state of the colleges. One declared that, on the whole, the colleges had never been so healthy, particularly since any objections to a system of education for the ministry were now considered too absurd to need refutation. But both articles noted several problems that recurred frequently over the next several decades: widely varied abilities and preparation of students relative to the courses offered; insufficient support of the colleges, as missionary, Bible, and tract societies competed for funds and absorbed the attention of the congregations; and the logistical difficulties of having several colleges with too few students and an inadequate number of tutors to cover the de sired subjects. While the authors made some suggestions regarding an appropriate curriculum and recommended an increase in faculty so that more subjects could be taught well, they seemed content to identify the defects and leave them for others to solve. As one commented, “If longer time, greater inducements, a more extensive field of learning, and a greater number of tutors were granted to our students of theology, all our causes of complaint would be removed.”1 Of course, the issues were more easily identified than resolved.
The Shifting Sands Of Religious Authority
Authors: Johnson Dale A
Published: October 2023

And this, I think, we may fairly say, that until they meet the Christian argument in its best and most reasonable form, the form given to it by its most enlightened advocates; so long as they assume, for instance, that the Book of Genesis puts forward a scientific cosmology obviously untenable, or that the church still holds a miracle to be an in fraction of law, or that the New Testament either demands belief in doctrines rather than a good life, or teaches men to neglect the duties of this world in order to secure bliss in the world to come, and so makes selfishness rather than love its primary motive, or that it condemns the vast majority of men to endless torment-they shirk the real difficulties of the problem, evade the best and most advanced statement of the Christian hypothesis, and, in fine, behave themselves as foolishly as would the theologian or divine who should refute the scientific hypothesis in vogue a century ago, and pass by the science of today.
Childhood Victimization: Early Adversity and Subsequent Psychopathology
Authors: Widom Cathy Spatz
Published: October 2023

Childhood experiences such as physical and sexual abuse and neglect are adverse events with immediate and long-term consequences. However, in considering child abuse and neglect as examples of adverse life events that have the potential to affect development and subsequent psychopathology, the assumption of “well-being” in the child’s life prior to the victimization experience may not be a reasonable one. Although certain forms of childhood victimization may indeed be viewed as acute stressors, child abuse and neglect often occur against a background of more chronic adversity in multiproblem homes. Child abuse or neglect may be only one of a family’s problems. Thus the general effects of other family characteristics, such as poverty, unemployment, parental alcoholism or drug problems, or other inadequate social and family functioning, must be recognized and disentangled from the specific effects of childhood abuse or neglect.
Mathematical Modeling and Simulation in Studies of Stress and Adversity
Authors: Link Patrick E Shrout Bruce G
Published: October 2023

Randomized experiments are widely regarded as the best way to establish a causal link between a risk variable and an outcome, such as psychopathology (Holland, 1988). The logic is simple: Randomly assign subjects who do not have psychopathology into one of two groups, expose one group to the risk, and then follow them over time to see whether they exhibit signs and symptoms of mental disorder. The other group is left unexposed but is followed using the same procedures as the exposed group. The control group is included to inform us of what the exposed group would be like had they had not been exposed.
A Perspective on Adversity, Stress, and Psychopathology
Authors: Leighton Alexander H
Published: October 2023

As an orientation regarding the meaning of the words, adversity, stress, and psychopathology, let me begin with some recollections of a case of Graves’ disease that I encountered in the clinical literature while a medical student many years ago. The patient was a young woman who set out one day to ride her bicycle through the Blackwall Tunnel under the Thames in London. When she was part way along, a team of horses, coming behind her pulling a brewer’s wagon, escaped the control of their driver. The wagon was full of empty barrels, and the noise horrendous. The young woman peddled for dear life ahead of the plunging horses for the remainder of the distance through the tunnel, which was considerable. At length, she shot out the Greenwich end and leaped off her bike into the arms of a policeman. It was soon found that she had a full-blown case of Grave’s disease-bulging eyes, tachycardia, fine tremor, inability to keep still and all the rest. Moreover, in subsequent months, as I recall, the disorder persisted until a portion of her thyroid had been removed.
The Millennium Approaches
Authors: Galanter Marc
Published: October 2023

During the past decade, three cultic movements ended in disaster: the Branch Davidians, Aum Shinrikyo, and Heaven’s Gate. Each received enormous press coverage and alerted or alarmed the public about the potential for suicide and murder in charismatic groups. To clarify how such movements can come to a tragic end, we will consider what led these three groups to their fatal out comes, and how the psychology of the charismatic group can nullify the basic human value of preserving life.
Hard Times
Authors: Ayers Edward L , Mittendorf Bradley C
Published: October 2023

Between 1915 and 1940, the grandchildren of Confederates and freed­ men found themselves in a South replete with new opportunities to pursue and difficulties to endure. Military service during World War I provided many young Southerners, both black and white, with an expanded vision of the world. Whether out of desire or necessity, many ex;service­ men joined the others who abandoned the countryside. The fortunate ones found stable jobs in one of the growing industries; the majority endured hard times in a different setting.