bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Environmental controls of NDVI dynamics in Patagonia based on NOAA‐AVHRR satellite data
Authors: Paruelo José M. , Aguiar Martin R. , Golluscio Rodolfo A. , León Rolando J. C. , Pujol Gloria
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Variation in vegetation in extra‐Andean Patagonia (Argentina) was analyzed using spectral data derived from AVHRR/NOAA satellite. The study of seasonal dynamics of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI, i.e. a combined index of the reflection in the red and infrared bands) highlighted similarities in functional aspects between regional vegetation units which are dissimilar in a geographical, physiognomical and/or floristical way, and also suggested that gross primary production is correlated with mean annual rainfall.

The first axis in a Principal Component Analysis of NDVI data was correlated (r2 = 0.90) with NDVI as integrated for the study period. The second axis was correlated (r2 = 0.50) with the differences in NDVI during the growing season, reflecting seasonality. Mean annual rainfall accounted for 60% of integrated NDVI variability among vegetation units. Much of the residual variance (62%) was accounted for by the inverse of the distance to the Atlantic Ocean, which is interpreted as an ocean effect on vegetation functioning in the extra‐Andean Patagonia.
A comparison of three methods of multivariate analysis of upland grasslands in North Wales
Authors: Jin‐Tun Zhang , Oxley E.R.B.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. In a study of the relationships between vegetation and environment in North Snowdonian grasslands, 166 quadrats on 10 altitudinal transects were analysed with Detrended Correspondence Analysis, Detrended Canonical Correspondence Analysis and Fuzzy Set Ordination. These techniques provide consistent results. DCCA and FSO, both using floristic community data and environmental information, simplify the procedure of vegetation‐environment analysis. FSO analyses and synthesizes ecological information; it may yield more reasonable and interpretable results.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Kellman Martin
Published: May 2006

Book reviewed in this issue.

Leck, M. A., Parker, V. T. & Simpson, R. L. (eds.). Ecology of soil seed banks. 1989. 462 pp. Academic Press, San Diego ‐ New York Berkeley ‐ Boston ‐ London ‐ Sydney ‐ Tokyo ‐ Toronto. ISBN 0–12–44045–7. Price: USD 69.95.
Forest pattern, climate and vulcanism in central North Island, New Zealand
Authors: Leathwick J. R. , Mitchell N. D.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. A quantitative study of relationships between forest pattern and environment in the central North Island, New Zealand, is based on forest composition data from ca. 2000 existing plots distributed throughout the forests of the region. Estimates of mean annual temperature, rainfall, and solar radiation are derived for each plot from mathematical surfaces fitted to climate station data. Estimates of the depth of the last major rhyolitic eruption, (Taupo Pumice, ca. 130 AD) are derived from isopach maps. A classification procedure is used to identify broad compositional groups. Generalised linear models are used to examine relationships between major species and climatic and other physical factors. Significant relationships are identified between the distributions of both plot groups and species, and climate, vulcanism, topography and drainage. Among these factors, temperature and/or solar radiation are indicated as major determinants of the regional forest pattern, with rainfall, topography, and drainage acting at a secondary level. The role of the Taupo Pumice eruption is more difficult to interpret, and its effects seem to have been greatly influenced by topography. Deep extensive deposits of tephra on flat‐to‐rolling sites close to the eruption centre have probably favoured the current dominance of these sites by more rapidly dispersing conifers. In contrast, on adjacent steep sites where forest destruction was likely to be less severe, slow‐dispersing Nothofagus species are largely dominant. Further work is needed to understand the factors favouring conifer dominance of the central basins and the degree to which Nothofagus species might expand their range in the future.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Rapoport Eduardo H.
Published: May 2006

Sukopp, H. & Hejny, S. (eds.) & Kowarik, I. (co‐ed). 1990. Urban Ecology. Plants and Plant Communities in Urban Environments.

Short reviews

Holten, J. I. (ed.) 1990. Effects of climate change on terrestrial ecosystems.

Höner, D. 1991. Mehrjáhrige Beobachtungen kleiner Vegetationsfláchen im Raume von Karpathos (Nomos Dhodhekanisou, Griechenland).
Seed banks of a rare wetland plant community: distribution patterns and effects of human‐induced disturbance
Authors: Wisheu Irene C. , Keddy Paul A.
Published: May 2006

Seed banks in rare shoreline communities (Nova Scotia, Canada), were examined in order to determine their role in the persistence of rare plant species. A pristine shoreline which supports globally and nationally significant Atlantic coastal plain species averaged 8500 seeds/m2. Seedsweremost abundant high on the shore and where standing crop was greatest. Rare species, which made up 22% of the standing crop and litter of the adult vegetation, comprised only 4% of the seed bank. Common rushes such as Juncus canadensis and J. filiformis, were not well represented in the adult vegetation (5% of the standing crop and litter) but were abundant in the seed bank (52% of all seeds). Seed densities were on average, much lower on an intensely disturbed shoreline (1000 seeds/m2), where heavy all‐terrain vehicle traffic had destroyed the adult vegetation.

These results suggest that intense disturbances will destroy both existing vegetation and the seed bank and moderate disturbances will alter community composition so that common rushes will replace already endangered Atlantic coastal plain species.
Distribution of seedlings and saplings of Quercus robur in a grazed deciduous forest
Authors: Andersson Christian
Published: May 2006

Seedling and sapling distribution of the deciduous tree Quercus robur was, studied in a grazed, partly open forest, ca. 20 km S of Linkoping, Sweden. Numbers of seedlings and saplings were compared between open and shaded parts of the forest. Cover values for the shrub and tree layers, proportion of bare ground and of stones and soil water content were determined. Q. robur was shown to germinate equally well in open and shaded parts of the forest; however, most saplings were found in the shade. No correlation was found between seedlings or saplings and cover of shrub layer or proportion of stones in the soil surface or with soil water content.
Spatial models for spatial statistics: some unification
Authors: Ver Hoef Jay M. , Cressie Noel A. C. , Glenn‐Lewin David C.
Published: May 2006

A general statistical framework is proposed for comparing linear models of spatial process and pattern. A spatial linear model for nested analysis of variance can be based on either fixed effects or random effects. Greig‐Smith (1952) originally used a fixed effects model, but there are also examples of random effects models in the soil science literature. Assuming intrinsic stationarity for a linear model, the expectations of a spatial nested ANOVA and two term local variance (TTLV, Hill 1973) are functions of the variogram, and several examples are given. Paired quadrat variance (PQV, Ludwig & Goodall 1978) is a variogram estimator which can be used to approximate TTLV, and we provide an example from ecological data. Both nested ANOVA and TTLV can be seen as weighted lag‐1 variogram estimators that are functions of support, rather than distance. We show that there are two unbiased estimators for the variogram under aggregation, and computer simulation shows that the estimator with smaller variance depends on the process autocorrelation.
Riverine wetland vegetation: importance of small‐scale and large‐scale environmental variation
Authors: Jean Martin , Bouchard André
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relative importance of small‐scale variation in abiotic factors and large‐scale spatio‐temporal variation on the distribution of wetland vegetation of a section of the Upper St. Lawrence River in Québec. Vegetation data have been classified with agglomerative clustering into 11 community types, from Acer rubrum, Acer saccharinum and Fraxinus swamps, to scrubs dominated by Salix petiolaris, Alnus rugosa var. americana or Myrica gale, to Typha, Typha/Lythrum, Carex lacustris and Calamagrostis canadensis marshes. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CANOCO) suggested that peat thickness and water level are the most important abiotic variables correlated with plant community composition. As a whole, small‐scale variation accounts for 25.6 % of the species variation. Another 21.6% is explained by large‐scale variation based on location data summarizing large‐scale spatial distribution, and historical landscape dynamics differentiated into (a) no net loss of wetlands, (b) net loss of wetland, and (c) changes within wetlands, which are correlated with the actual variation in herbaceous and scrubby vegetation. The interaction between small‐scale and large‐scale variations explains another 1.7 %. In total, 48.9% of the species variation is explained by the two data sets, leaving 51.1% unexplained. Whereas the omission of some abiotic variables is possible, it is hypothesized that the abiotic conditions measured in this study play an important role, especially in the distribution of forested swamps. In addition, past history, particularly that of human interventions, becomes another important factor leading to the observed importance of large‐scale spatio‐temporal variables. This is particularly true for Alnus rugosa var. americana shrublands. Time lag between a relative stabilization of species distribution and the reduction of natural disturbances (water level fluctuations and fires) could be a possible cause of the importance of spatio‐temporal variables and the undetermined portion of species variation.
Soil seed banks in dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia
Authors: Teketay Demel , Granström Anders
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The soil seed bank was investigated in four dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia. At least 167 plant species were identified in the 0–9 cm soil layer with total densities ranging between 12 300 and 24 000 seeds/m2. Herbs were represented with the largest numbers of species and seeds in the seed bank, while the contribution of tree species was generally low. The overall vertical distribution of seeds was similar at all sites with the highest densities occurring in the upper three cm of soil and gradually decreasing densities with increasing depth. Relatively high densities also occurred in the litter layer. There were large differences in depth distribution between species, suggesting differences in seed longevity. A large number of species in dry Afromontane forests evidently store quantities of seeds in the soil and this is in contrast to the situation in most tropical rain forests, dry lowland forests and savannas, where both the number of seeds and the number of species are relatively small. It is possible that the strongly seasonal and unpredictable climate of this region may have selected for high levels of dormancy, and that herb regeneration is associated with small scale disturbance. The fact that most of the dominant tree species do not accumulate seeds in the soil suggests that their regeneration from seed would be unlikely if mature individuals disappeared. Most tree species have relatively large seeds and poor long‐distance dispersal; this implies that restoration of Afromontane forests after destruction would be difficult. Since there is a diverse seed bank of the ground flora, this component of the vegetation would have a better chance of reestablishing. However, because most cleared forest land is used for agricultural crop production, it is probable that the seed bank will be depleted in only a few years. Therefore, the future of the Afromontane forest flora seems to depend on the successful conservation of the few fragments of remaining natural forest.
Vegetation change following exclusion of grazing animals in depleted grassland, Central Otago, New Zealand
Authors: Allen R.B. , Wilson J. Bastow , Mason C.R.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Models of semiarid vegetation dynamics were evaluated to explain changes in the grassland of interior South Island, New Zealand. Annual records were taken for six years of plant species height frequency and percentage ground cover in five plots established in 1986. One subplot at each site was fenced to exclude sheep, one to exclude rabbits and sheep, and one remained unfenced as a control.

Records from 1986–1992 were analysed by ordination. The overall pattern of vegetation change shows considerable year‐to‐year variation. At some sites, variation in vegetation composition between years was as great as, or greater than, that between grazed and ungrazed subplots. Such variation is particularly evident in grazed vegetation, perhaps because it is under greater stress than ungrazed vegetation. At one site changes in vegetation total cover and species composition could be statistically related to rainfall during the first half of the growing season.

The only general trends following cessation of grazing were for perennials to increase in frequency, and for year‐to‐year changes to become smaller with time. Total vegetation cover values seldom changed as a result of cessation of grazing, but tended to follow year‐to‐year changes in species frequency.

The results do not in general support switch/state‐and‐transition models of semi‐arid vegetation dynamics. Vegetation change follows changes in grazing and climate with little lag. This most closely conforms with the Pulse‐phase dynamic model.
Changes in the ground flora in Wytham Woods, southern England from 1974 to 1991 – implications for nature conservation
Authors: Kirby K.J. , Thomas R.C.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The ground flora (vascular plants < 2 m high, excluding trees and shrubs) was recorded in 1974 and 1991 from 163 permanent 10 m x 10 m plots arranged on a systematic grid across Wytham Woods, near Oxford (UK). The Woods cover about 320 ha, are predominantly deciduous, but of varying ages and management types. The total number of species found (173, 167 respectively), the mean richness per plot (16.7, 17.2) and the breakdown of the species list between different species types (ancient woodland indicators, other woodland species, non‐woodland species) showed no significant differences between 1974 and 1991, but mean ground cover declined from 80% to 64%. Ancient woodland indicators as a group showed less change between the years than species associated with the open glades and grassland patches in the wood. Some species increased in frequency across the woodland including Arum maculatum, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Deschampsia cespitosa and Poa trivialis; while others such as Ajugareptans, Angelica sylvestris and Circaea lutetiana declined. Mean cover of Rubus fruticosus per plot declined from 35% to 6% and of Mercurialis perennis from 32 to 24%. More species were lost from plantations than from semi‐natural stands. The results are based on only two times, so inferences on possible causes must be drawn with caution. However the results are consistent with the effects of (1) the changing conditions associated with stand growth, particularly in the plantations, and (2) an increase in browsing/grazing by deer. No evidence was found for an effect of changing soil nitrogen levels on the vegetation. Changes in the ground flora as well as the woody layers, and in managed as well as unmanaged stands should be monitored, if nature conservation objectives are to be met.
Distribution of twelve moist forest canopy tree species in Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire: response curves to a climatic gradient
Authors: Bongers F. , Poorter L. , Van Rompaey R.S.A.R. , Parren M.P.E.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The occurrence and abundance of 12 canopy tree species from the moist tropical forests of West Africa have been studied in relation to a climatic gradient. We focused on environmental factors related to water availability: annual amount of rainfall, the length of the dry season, and cumulative water deficit. Species occurrence and abundance data are used for 39 forest sites in Liberia and southwest Côte d'Ivoire. Species responses are modelled using a set of five increasingly complex models, ranging from a no‐trend model to a skewed bell‐shaped response curve.

The study species show different distribution patterns. Most of them suggest a close relationship to climatic conditions. Fitting of species occurrence data to each of the three climatic factors results in most cases in simple models. In only one out of 36 cases a bell‐shaped response curve is needed to describe the data. Four of the 12 species show no response to the climatic factors when only occurrence is evaluated.

When abundance data are used, in 33 of the 36 cases significant response models are found. In general these are much more complex than in the cases of species occurrence data: in 10 of the 36 cases a bell‐shaped response model is found to describe the data best. This is in contrast with the widespread belief that species response curves are bell‐shaped: within the forest zone in the area studied this is not generally the case.

The importance of the three climatic factors for the distribution of the species is evaluated: for four species mean annual rainfall is the most important variable, for four species the length of the dry period, and for one species cumulative water deficit. Consequently, the assumption that mean annual rainfall is the most important factor determining tree species distribution in West African forests is not correct.

Species response models to climatic factors show where species have their geographical optima. Implications for forest management are briefly discussed.
Small‐scale species richness in forest canopy gaps: the role of niche limitation versus the size of the species pool
Authors: Duncan Richard P. , Buckley Hannah L. , Urlich Stephen C. , Stewart Glenn H. , Geritzlehner Julie
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The form of the relationship between local species richness and the number of species in the surrounding region can be used as a test between competing theories of community structure. For 32 canopy gaps in New Zealand Nothofagus forest, we examined the relationship between the number of vascular plant species in 0.2‐m2 quadrats within the gap and the species richness of the whole gap. We found no evidence that competition for a limited number of niches placed an upper limit on the number of locally co‐occurring species. Rather, the mean number of species in quadrats within canopy gaps increased in direct proportion to gap species richness. This relationship held after we controlled for potentially confounding factors, including variation in forest floor substrate, and gap size, age, shape and orientation. Our results suggest that even over relatively small spatial scales, local species richness can be constrained by the size of the species pool in the immediately surrounding region.
Effects of intensive harvesting on forest floor properties in Betula papyrifera stands in Newfoundland
Authors: Roberts B.A. , Deering K.W. , Titus B.D.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Betula papyrifera (White birch) is a common tree throughout the boreal forest of Canada; makes up 12% of the total tree volume in insular Newfoundland. It forms pure stands after harvesting and wildfire disturbance and it is a common component in most softwood stands. Little is known regarding the environmental impact of whole‐tree or conventional harvesting of this species and variation in impact related to variation in soil and site conditions.

This study investigates litter and organic matter production and related site ecology in nine medium to high quality Betula papyrifera stands in three locations in central Newfoundland on a variety of land form and drainage conditions. Three sites, Badger West (BW), Moose Pond (MP) and Middleton Lake (ML) were selected. The ML site has the highest quality (with the best height/age ratio, 18 m/60 yr, and height/DBH ratio, 18 m/30 cm, followed by MP and BW. Litter depth on well developed moders or mulls was usually 2 ‐ 3 cm and varied from 1 ‐ 15 cm. Forest floor depths (measured in 324 profiles) rarely reached 20 cm and was commonly 5 ‐ 10 cm; it varied with position and site. Total and available nutrients indicate that B. papyrifera produces one of the highest ‐quality organic matter types of the local forest types and is important in improving site quality. The mean N‐concentration in green foliage (2.21%) and trapped litter (1.03%) was highest at the best quality site ML, followed by MP and BW. The concentration of calcium, 0.85%, was highest at the poorest quality site. Four years after harvesting, litter depth significantly decreased in all sites and treatments with the exception of the BW whole‐tree harvest treatment. Total forest floor depth significantly decreased at all sites in the stem‐only harvest treatment as well as the MP whole‐tree harvest treatment.

There was a significant decrease in available nitrogen following harvesting in both treatments at both the MP and BW sites. Change in available phosphorus was insignificant, with the exception of an increase in the MP stem‐only harvest treatment. There was a significant decrease in available potassium at both the ML and BW whole‐tree harvest treatments, but a significant increase in the stem‐only harvest treatments at ML and MP. There was a significant decrease in available calcium in both treatments at both the MP and BW sites.
BOOK REVIEW
Authors: Andersson Lars
Published: May 2006

Book reviewed in this article:

Thompson, Ken, Bakker, Jan & Bekker, Renée 1997. The soil seed banks of North West Europe: methodology, density and longevity. 276 pp. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0‐521‐49519‐9 (hardcover). Price: USD 120.‐.
The Nordic Vegetation Survey ‐ concepts and perspectives
Authors: Lawesson Jonas E. , Diekmann Martin , Eilertsen Odd , Fosaa Anna Maria , Heikkilä Hanna
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The background of the Nordic Vegetation Survey is outlined and the concepts for this international collaboration project are reviewed. The project includes, so far, institutions in Denmark, Faeroes, Finland, Norway and Sweden. We are setting up a common basis for a vegetation database, with a Nordic species list, exchange of data and joint revisions of important Nordic vegetation types. Progress in the Nordic Vegetation Survey is described and the future perspectives indicated.
Relationships between floristic gradients in a primary succession
Authors: Vetaas Ole R.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Correlations between five floristic gradients at small spatial extents (10 ‐ 20 m) and one successional gradient over a larger spatial extent (1.5 km) are analysed. Floristic data (62 taxa) were sampled on five terminal moraines of known age deposited after the ‘Little Ice Age’ (1750–1930). The floristic gradients on the moraine ridges were sampled by two or three transects on each moraine, and the successional gradient by 114 plots on all moraines.

The sequential orders of species were determined by constrained and unconstrained Correspondence Analysis. The similarities between species order on the successional gradient and the exposure gradients at the same age were tested against the null hypothesis of no correlation. The null hypothesis was rejected using both Monte Carlo permutation tests and Spearman's rank correlations, except on the oldest moraine. Here a closed canopy has developed, which eliminates the environmental variability associated with ridge morphology. The similarity between the successional gradient and the moraine‐ridge gradients is attributed to variation in environmental severity, mainly caused by glacier wind and related factors such as temperature and moisture. Similarity was highest on the moraines in the middle of the glacier foreland, which have many successional stages present and have a relatively exposed relief.

The distribution of growth/life‐forms along gradients of small spatial extent are comparable to the successional gradient, but lichens, herbs and graminoids differ in their behaviour. The resemblance between species gradients at a small spatial extent and species gradients on a larger spatial extent is interpreted as an ecological self‐similar pattern, where young and old substrate are linked to exposed‐xeric and protected‐mesic habitats, respectively.
Floristical and ecological characterization of the polar desert zone of Greenland
Authors: Bay Christian
Published: May 2006

Abstract. Species composition and biomass of four plant communities were investigated in two coastal polar desert areas in eastern North Greenland, bordering the North East Water Polynya ‐ an ice‐free sea area kept open by upwelling ‐ and compared with inland areas in North Greenland. Herb barren, the poorest type, has a species richness of 6 species/m2, a cover of 0.7 %, and an aboveground biomass of 0.6 g/m2 (vascular plants). The richest type, Saxifraga oppositifolia snowbed, has 10 species/m2, 5.0 % cover, and 11.2 g/m2 biomass.

A floristic and vegetation boundary exists a few kilometres from the coast. The coastal areas bordering the North East Water Polynya had an impoverished flora and vegetation compared to areas near the ice‐covered sea, possibly caused by very low summer temperatures and high frequency of clouds.

A new delimitation of the polar deserts of Greenland is proposed on the basis of the number of vascular plant species, the occurrence of species with a specific inland distribution in North Greenland and the dominating life forms. At present the polar desert zone includes only areas within a zone up to ca. 15 km from the outer coast of high arctic Greenland ‐ north of ca. 80° N. Large areas formerly classified as polar deserts in eastern North Greenland, as well as in Washington Land in western North Greenland, are excluded. New floristic data confirm that Greenland is correctly included in the Canadian province of the arctic polar deserts, whereas there is no reason for subdividing the polar deserts of the Canadian province.
The Athenian amnesty and the ‘scrutiny of the laws’
Authors: Carawan Edwin
Published: May 2006

The ‘scrutiny of all the laws’ that Andocides invokes in his defenceOn the Mysteriesis usually interpreted as a recodification with the aim of barring prosecution for the crimes of civil conflict. This article advances four theses against that traditional reading: (1) In Andocides' argument the Scrutiny was designed for a more practicable purpose, not to pardon crimes unpunished but to quash any further action against formeratimoi, those penalized under the old regime but restored to rights in 403. In context, coming close upon the summary of Patrocleides' decree, ‘all the laws’ means all laws affectingatimoi. (2) The other evidence from inscriptions and literary testimony, for the Athenian Amnesty and similar agreements, supports this reading: the oath that closed the covenants,mê mnêsikakein, functions as a rule of estoppel or ‘no reprise’; it was not in itself a pledge of ‘political forgiveness’. In regard to the Scrutiny, as in Patrocleides' decree, the oath means that old penalties, now cancelled, can never again be enforced. (3) The Scrutiny itself was a reauthorization of the old laws for summary arrest and other standard remedies againstatimoiwho trespass or violate their restrictions. As a corollary to this re-enactment, the statute of limitations was introduced, ‘to apply the laws from Eucleides’: the rules punishing the disfranchised cannot be used against those whose liabilities were incurred before 403. (4) Teisamenus' decree for new legislation was prior to this revision; it is not the decree that Andocides read to the court as a document of the Scrutiny. An ancient editor simply inserted the wrong document. Teisamenus envisioned no alteration of the ‘Solonian Code’; the decree for Scrutiny was an unforeseen but necessary correction. These measures were successive reforms sorting out the new hierarchy of rules, a process whose complexity is attested in Diocles' law.
Climatic variation and simulated patterns in seedling establishment of two dominant grasses at a semi‐arid‐arid grassland ecotone
Authors: Peters Debra P.C.
Published: May 2006

Abstract. The objective of this study was to predict the effects of climatic variation at multiple temporal frequencies on seedling establishment by two congeneric C4 perennial grasses (Bouteloua gracilis and B. eriopoda) at the ecotone between shortgrass steppe grassland and Chihuahuan desert grassland in central New Mexico, USA. The approach was to use a daily time‐step simulation model to determine the occurrence of a recruitment event in each year based upon the amount and timing of soil water required for establishment. Historical weather data were used to predict effects of seasonal and inter‐decadal variation in climate on establishment. A sensitivity analysis was used to predict effects of directional climate change on establishment.

Bouteloua gracilis had a broad pattern of simulated establishment from May through September that included periods with high year‐to‐year variation in precipitation. B. eriopoda establishment events occurred primarily in July when precipitation amounts were most reliable. Climatic conditions from 1949 through 1968 were more favorable for B. eriopoda establishment compared to the cooler, wetter conditions from 1969 through 1988 that favored B. gracilis. Establishment of B. eriopoda was lowest in El Niño years whereas B. gracilis establishment was highest in La Niña years. Establishment of B. gracilis was most sensitive to temperature when precipitation was higher than current amounts. The greatest response to temperature by B. eriopoda for all precipitation amounts occurred at cooler temperatures than found currently.

These results indicate that climatic variation at multiple frequencies has differential effects on seedling establishment for these two perennial grasses, and may account at least in part for patterns in dominance at this biome transition zone.
The Triumph, the Praetors and the Senate in the Early Second Century B.C.
Authors: Richardson J. S.
Published: May 2006

Rome's decisive defeat of Carthage in the Hannibalic War led inevitably to an immense expansion of the area of Roman activity, both diplomatic and military. The numbers of men under arms for the period down to 167 B.C. obtained from Livy's history show hardly any decline, and this alone is a clear reflection of the new role that Rome had assumed as the major military power of the Mediterranean region. One immediate result of her changed situation was a commensurate expansion in the opportunities of Roman magistrates for military commands, and a more widespread expectation of that reward for military success which the republic valued above all others, the triumph.
The Festuca and the Alapa of Manumission
Authors: Nisbet R. G.
Published: May 2006

The central act of manumissio vindicta, the imposition of the rod on the slave by the two parties—assertor libertatis and dominus, has been sufficiently discussed and explained by the lawyers. But the subject is fringed with some minor points in regard to which an ordinary reader of the classics may feel a legitimate curiosity, or may be embarrassed, sometimes by the inadequate statement of the available evidence, sometimes by the conflict of ancient or modern opinion. Among these points I purpose to focus attention on the terms festuca and alapa.
The Shops of the Roman mint of Alexandria
Authors: Milne J. G.
Published: May 2006

During the fourth century A.D. the coins issued from the different mints of the Roman empire commonly bore, in addition to the name of the city where the mint was situated, a letter or number indicating the particular shop of the mint in which each coin was struck. In a recent article I made a study of the tetradrachms issued at Alexandria during the first twelve years of the reign of Diocletian— i.e. till the date when the Egyptian currency was assimilated to that of the rest of the empire—to see what evidence could be found as to the existence of marks distinguishing the shops in this series: and I propose now to pass the whole of the Roman tetradrachm issues of Alexandria in brief review for the same purpose.
Another Use of Set Theory
Authors: Dehornoy Patrick
Published: May 2006

Here, we analyse some recent applications of set theory to topology and argue that set theory is not only the closed domain where mathematics is usually founded, but also a flexible framework where imperfect intuitions can be precisely formalized and technically elaborated before they possibly migrate toward other branches. This apparently new role is mostly reminiscent of the one played by other external fields like theoretical physics, and we think that it could contribute to revitalize the interest in set theory in the future.
Accessible Recursive Functions
Authors: Wainer Stanley S.
Published: May 2006

The class of all recursive functions fails to possess a natural hierarchical structure, generated predicatively from “within”. On the other hand, many (proof-theoretically significant) sub-recursive classes do. This paper attempts to measure the limit of predicative generation in this context, by classifying and characterizing those (predictably terminating) recursive functions which can be successively defined according to an autonomy condition of the form: allow recursions only over well-orderings which have already been “coded” at previous levels. The question is: how can a recursion code a well-ordering? The answer lies in Girard's theory of dilators, but is reworked here in a quite different and simplified framework specific to our purpose. The “accessible” recursive functions thus generated turn out to be those provably recursive in ( –CA)0.
Set Theory Generated by Abelian Group Theory
Authors: Eklof Paul C.
Published: May 2006

Introduction. This survey is intended to introduce to logicians some notions, methods and theorems in set theory which arose—largely through the work of Saharon Shelah—out of (successful) attempts to solve problems in abelian group theory, principally the Whitehead problem and the closely related problem of the existence of almost free abelian groups. While Shelah's first independence result regarding the Whitehead problem used established set-theoretical methods (discussed below), his later work required new ideas; it is on these that we focus. We emphasize the nature of the new ideas and the historical context in which they arose, and we do not attempt to give precise technical definitions in all cases, nor to include a comprehensive survey of the algebraic results.

In fact, very little algebraic background is needed beyond the definitions of group and group homomorphism. Unless otherwise specified, we will use the word “group” to refer to an abelian group, that is, the group operation is commutative. The group operation will be denoted by +, the identity element by 0, and the inverse of a by −a. We shall use na as an abbreviation for a + a + … + a [n times] if n is positive, and na = (−n)(−a) if n is negative.
Some Questions concerning the Armour of Homeric Heroes
Authors: Leaf Walter
Published: May 2006

When Pandaros treacherously shoots at Menelaos (Δ 132 sq.), the arrow lights—

ὅθι ζωστῆρος ὀχῆεςχρύσειοι σύνεχον καὶ διπλόος ἤντετο θώρνξ·ἐν δ᾿ ἔπεσε ζωστῆρι ἀρηρότι πικρὸς ὀιστός·διὰ μὲν ἂρ ζωστῆρος ἐλήλατο δαιδαλέοιο,καὶ διὰ θώρηκος πολυδαιδάλου ἠρήρειστομίτρης θ᾿ ἣν ἐφόρει ἔρυμα χροός, ἕρκος ἀκόντων,ἥ οἱ πλεῖστον ἕρυτο· διαπρὸ δὲ εἴσατο καὶ τῆς.

A little later, Menelaos says of the same wound (Δ 185-187):

οὐκ ἐν καιρίῳ ὀξὺ πάγη βέλος, ἀλλὰ πάροιθενεἰρύσατο ζωστήρ τε παναίολος, ἠδ᾿ ὑπένερθενζῶμά τε καὶ μίτρη τὴν χαλκῆες κάμον ἄνδρες

And Machaon, after drawing the arrow out (Δ 215-6),

λῦσε δέ οἱ ζωστῆρα παναίολον, ἠδ᾿ ὑπένερθενζῶμά τε καὶ μίτρην τὴν χαλκῆες κάμον ἄνδρες.

The word ζῶμα occurs again only in ξ 482, a passage which we will postpone for the moment, and in Ψ 683 of the boxer's girdle, which does not require further consideration.

Comparing the second and third of the passages quoted with the first, it seems perfectly clear that the ζῶμα was a part of the θώρηξ, and not an appendage to it. The word, in fact, stands as a passive to the active correlative ζωστήρ, and means the part of the θώρηξ which was fastened down by the girdle. It is quite clear from the oldest vase paintings that the lower part of the θώρηξ was bent outwards into a sort of ridge all round, in order to make a hollow which should be capable of holding the ζωστηρ in its place. This is very well shown in the woodcut, which is taken from Conze's Melische Thongefässe, Leipzig, 1877. The is expressed by the parallel lines at the bottom of the thorax; this is clear from the Kameiros pinax, where the lines are diagonal, and therefore do not indicate anything in the nature of such a πτερύγιον as we shall presently have to discuss.
Athene and Enceladus: a Bronze in the Museo Kircheriano
Authors: Smith A. H.
Published: May 2006

Upon the discovery of any great monument of ancient art, a series of objects of minor importance which had hitherto been awaiting identification are immediately seen to connect themselves more or less closely with the newly discovered work. Whence it comes that the course of historical development of ancient art is continually being exhibited with a nearer approach to completeness. The present article is an attempt to add another minor work to the list of statues and reliefs which group themselves round the frieze of the Great Altar of Pergamon.

The plate represents a somewhat mutilated work, No. 679 in the gallery of bronzes in the Museo Kircheriano at Rome. The subject is Athene engaged in no uncertain combat with her constant antagonist the giant Enceladus. The goddess has drawn back a little from herenemy: and whilst herself protected by the shield with its gorgoneion which she carries on her left arm, she is on the point of delivering the final thrust with the weapon she holds in her right hand. Enceladus, on his part, is at the same time recoiling somewhat from Athene, and collecting all his force for a blow.
Odysseus and the Sirens—Dionysiac Boat-Races—A Cylix by Nikosthenes
Authors: Harrison Jane E.
Published: May 2006

Four years ago, in dealing with the Myths of the Odyssey, I raised afresh the time-honoured difficulty of the art-form of the Sirens: Why are the sweet singers of Homer pictured as hybrid monsters—birds with the faces of women ? Much that I then said about the Sirens may, I hope, still hold good; but the final solution or part solution of the difficulty which I arrived at, I now believe to be mistaken, and, with more complete material at hand, I hope in the present paper to offer a new, and possibly a more satisfactory, solution. I fell then into the not uncommon error of projecting into the mind of the Greek vase-painter a great deal of allegorizing tendency and somewhat mystical moral purpose which was really conspicuous by its absence; my familiarity with the literary forms and the literary growth of mythology was much wider than my acquaintance with the manner and the influence of artistic tradition. The power of tradition in an art and still more in a handicraft is not easily overestimated. The thought and expression of the handicraftsman is governed by the art forms that lie ready to his hand, just as the thought of a writer is moulded and fashioned by the language he employs. Each must use current phraseology, only elevating or debasing it a little according to his proper faculty.
A Terra-Cotta Diadumenos
Authors: Murray A. S.
Published: May 2006

The position of Polykleitos in the history of Greek sculpture is peculiarly tantalizing. We seem to know a good deal about his work. We know his statue of a Doryphoros from the marble copy of it in Naples, and we know his Diadumenos from two marble copies in the British Museum. Yet with these and other sources of knowledge, it happens that when we desire to get closer to his real style and to define it there occurs a void. So to speak, a bridge is wanting at the end of an otherwise agreeable journey, and we welcome the best help that comes to hand. There is, I think, some such help to be obtained from the terra-cotta statuette recently acquired in Smyrna by Mr. W. R. Paton.

But first it may be of use to recall the reasons why the marble statues just mentioned must fail to convey a perfectly true notion of originals which we are justified in assuming were of bronze. In each of these statues the artist has been compelled by the nature of the material to introduce a massive support in the shape of a tree stem. That is at once a new element in the design, and, as a distinguished French sculptor has rightly observed, this new element called for a modification of the entire figure.
A Stele Commemorating a Victory in a Boat-Race
Authors: Gardner Percy
Published: May 2006

When working last Spring in the Central Museum at Athens, my attention was arrested by a sculptured tablet having apparent reference to the Greek boat-races of which I have already treated in two papers in this Journal. This relief admits unfortunately of but partial explanation, but nevertheless, as it stands almost alone in its kind, I propose to publish it without waiting for more light on the subject.

The size of the whole stele is forty-one by twenty-six inches. All the middle part of it is blank: probably an inscription had been painted there which has now entirely disappeared. Had it survived, it would have explained the reliefs sculptured above and below it: as things are, we must explain these reliefs as best we can with the help of analogies. It is evident that they refer to a victory won in the boat-races at Athens; perhaps in one of those races of Ephebi at the festivals of Diisoteria, Aianteia, or Munychia which are spoken of in the Ephebic inscriptions.
Apollo Lermenus
Authors: Ramsay W. M. , Hogarth D. G.
Published: May 2006

In May of the current year, while Professor W. M. Ramsay, accompanied by Mr. H. A. Brown and myself, was travelling in the Tchal district, we were informed at Demirdjikeui of the existence of ruins in or near Badinlar, three hours away to the north. In a previous year Professor Ramsay had paid a hasty visit to this village and seen nothing of importance: on this occasion fortune favoured us: for, visiting the village a day or two later, we were guided on Whit Sunday to the site of a small temple situate on a conical eminence, which fell on the further side to the southern bank of the Maeander, which here enters on one of the narrowest passes of its gorge. Only the platform on which the temple had stood remained in situ, and very few fragments could we find of columns or cornice: such as remained of the frieze showed by their formal regular ornament the Ionic of Roman period. Overlooking the river was a vaulted tomb, and traces of sarcophagi were apparent among the heaps of grey stone covering the summit of the hill.
Archaic Reliefs at Dhimitzana
Authors: Richards G. C.
Published: May 2006

At Easter-tide last year, while returning through the Peloponnesus from Olympia to Megalopolis, I passed through the picturesque mountain town of Dhimitzana and had the opportunity of paying a short visit to its Museum. This collection is attached to the Hellenic or second-grade school, the successor of a famous institution, which did much to keep alive the Greek language and literature in the darkest days of Turkish rule, and has been almost entirely formed through the archaeological learning and intelligent energy of the Archimandrite Hieronymos Bogiatsés, who has himself conducted excavations in the neighbourhood and whose interest in the antiquities of his country is as keen as it is exceptional. The Arcadian objects preserved in the Museum are of less importance; but a connection with Sparta, where many natives of Dhimitzana are resident, has attracted to it presents of Laconian antiquities from patriotic townsmen. Among these are the two supplementary Spartan stelai, those of Timokles and Aristokles, published by Milchhoefer in his ‘Antikenbericht aus Peloponnesus’ in the Athenian Mittheilungen; and the three archaic bone plaques, which are now published at Father Hieronymos' request (see Pl. XI.) are part of a similar gift. Unfortunately the details of their provenance cannot be satisfactorily ascertained, as they are not the fruit of any regular excavation but only of an accidental tomb-find. They were presented to the Museum about four years ago by Mr. John Kazákos, director of the telegraph-office at Sparta, and had been shortly before found by a Mr. Chronópoulos in a tomb in the neighbourhood, on the left bank of the Eurotas, at a spot called the ‘Bath of Helen’ (τῆς Ἑλένης τὸ λοῦτρον). This tomb, according to the report, contained also pieces of mirrors, coins, broken ornaments, and some curious cone-shaped objects of gilded metal, two of which if placed together resemble an egg and were to all appearances thus originally attached. All these objects are now at Dhimitzana, but during my short stay I had no time to examine them; the coins however need no attention, whatever their date may be, as the archaic character of the reliefs makes it almost impossible that they can be contemporary. We have before us probably older objects, which found their way into a later grave.
An Inscription from Egypt
Authors: Rouse W. H. D.
Published: May 2006

A rectangular slab of marble, measuring 14⅜ in. × 12 in. × nearly 1's College, Cambridge; said to have been found in the neighbourhood of Memphis.

Dated the nineteenth year of Antoninus Pius, A.D. 157.

The letters are not all of the same size or shape, being squarer in the upper part of the inscription, 1–3, as and in the rest, especially the last three lines, approaching to the shape of written characters, as They have been coloured red, and many of them still are so.

(2) Μάλαλις, (4) Πιαθρηοῦς: I can find no trace of these places. The second, Prof. W. R. Smith suggests, may be the Place of Hathor.

(6) Iota adscript kept in this old formula, although it is omitted in (l).