bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Biogeochemical and historical drivers of microbial community composition and structure in sediments from Mercer Subglacial Lake, West Antarctica
Authors: Davis Christina L , Venturelli Ryan A , Michaud Alexander B , Hawkings Jon R , Achberger Amanda M , Vick-Majors Trista J , Rosenheim Brad E , Dore John E , Steigmeyer August , Skidmore Mark L , Barker Joel D , Benning Liane G , Siegfried Matthew R , Priscu John C , Christner Brent C ,   SALSA Science Team, Barbante Carlo , Bowling Mark , Burnett Justin , Campbell Timothy , Collins Billy , Dean Cindy , Duling Dennis , Fricker Helen A , Gagnon Alan , Gardner Christopher , Gibson Dar , Gustafson Chloe , Harwood David , Kalin Jonas , Kasic Kathy , Kim Ok-Sun , Krula Edwin , Leventer Amy , Li Wei , Lyons W Berry , McGill Patrick , McManis James , McPike David , Mironov Anatoly , Patterson Molly , Roberts Graham , Rot James , Trainor Cathy , Tranter Martyn , Winans John , Zook Bob
Published: January 2023

Ice streams that flow into Ross Ice Shelf are underlain by water-saturated sediments, a dynamic hydrological system, and subglacial lakes that intermittently discharge water downstream across grounding zones of West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS). A 2.06 m composite sediment profile was recently recovered from Mercer Subglacial Lake, a 15 m deep water cavity beneath a 1087 m thick portion of the Mercer Ice Stream. We examined microbial abundances, used 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to assess community structures, and characterized extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) associated with distinct lithologic units in the sediments. Bacterial and archaeal communities in the surficial sediments are more abundant and diverse, with significantly different compositions from those found deeper in the sediment column. The most abundant taxa are related to chemolithoautotrophs capable of oxidizing reduced nitrogen, sulfur, and iron compounds with oxygen, nitrate, or iron. Concentrations of dissolved methane and total organic carbon together with water content in the sediments are the strongest predictors of taxon and community composition. δ¹³C values for EPS (−25 to −30‰) are consistent with the primary source of carbon for biosynthesis originating from legacy marine organic matter. Comparison of communities to those in lake sediments under an adjacent ice stream (Whillans Subglacial Lake) and near its grounding zone provide seminal evidence for a subglacial metacommunity that is biogeochemically and evolutionarily linked through ice sheet dynamics and the transport of microbes, water, and sediments beneath WAIS.
A candidate transporter allowing symbiotic dinoflagellates to feed their coral hosts
Authors: Maor-Landaw Keren , Eisenhut Marion , Tortorelli Giada , van de Meene Allison , Kurz Samantha , Segal Gabriela , van Oppen Madeleine J H , Weber Andreas P M , McFadden Geoffrey I
Published: January 2023

The symbiotic partnership between corals and dinoflagellate algae is crucial to coral reefs. Corals provide their algal symbionts with shelter, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. In exchange, the symbiotic algae supply their animal hosts with fixed carbon in the form of glucose. But how glucose is transferred from the algal symbiont to the animal host is unknown. We reasoned that a transporter resident in the dinoflagellate cell membrane would facilitate outward transfer of glucose to the surrounding host animal tissue. We identified a candidate transporter in the cnidarian symbiont dinoflagellate Breviolum minutum that belongs to the ubiquitous family of facilitative sugar uniporters known as SWEETs (sugars will eventually be exported transporters). Previous gene expression analyses had shown that BmSWEET1 is upregulated when the algae are living symbiotically in a cnidarian host by comparison to the free-living state [1, 2]. We used immunofluorescence microscopy to localise BmSWEET1 in the dinoflagellate cell membrane. Substrate preference assays in a yeast surrogate transport system showed that BmSWEET1 transports glucose. Quantitative microscopy showed that symbiotic B. minutum cells have significantly more BmSWEET1 protein than free-living cells of the same strain, consistent with export during symbiosis but not during the free-living, planktonic phase. Thus, BmSWEET1 is in the right place, at the right time, and has the right substrate to be the transporter with which symbiotic dinoflagellate algae feed their animal hosts to power coral reefs.
Plasma from patients with pulmonary embolism show aggregates that reduce after anticoagulation
Authors: Baker Stephen R. , Halliday Georgia , Ząbczyk Michal , Alkarithi Ghadir , Macrae Fraser L. , Undas Anetta , Hunt Beverley J. , Ariëns Robert A. S.
Published: January 2023

Background

Microclots, a term also used for amyloid fibrin(ogen) particles and henceforth named aggregates, have recently been reported in the plasma of patients with COVID-19 and long COVID. These aggregates have been implicated in the thrombotic complications of these diseases.

Methods

Plasma samples from 35 patients with acute pulmonary embolism were collected and analysed by laser scanning confocal microscopy and scanning electron microscopy before and after clotting.

Results

Here we confirm the presence of aggregates and show that they also occur in the plasma of patients with pulmonary embolism, both before and after clotting. Aggregates vary in size and consist of fibrin and platelets. We show that treatment with low-molecular weight heparin reduces aggregates in the samples of patients with pulmonary embolism. Double centrifugation of plasma does not eliminate the aggregates.

Conclusions

These data corroborate the existence of microclots or aggregates in diseases associated with venous thromboembolism. Important questions are raised regarding their pathophysiological relevance and further studies are warranted to investigate whether they represent cause or consequence of clinical thrombosis.
B cell response after SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination in people living with HIV
Authors: Polvere Jacopo , Fabbiani Massimiliano , Pastore Gabiria , Rancan Ilaria , Rossetti Barbara , Durante Miriam , Zirpoli Sara , Morelli Enrico , Pettini Elena , Lucchesi Simone , Fiorino Fabio , Tumbarello Mario , Ciabattini Annalisa , Montagnani Francesca , Medaglini Donata
Published: January 2023

Background

Limited longitudinal data are available on immune response to mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in people living with HIV (PLWHIV); therefore, new evidence on induction and persistence of spike-specific antibodies and B cells is needed.

Methods

In this pilot study we investigated the spike-specific humoral and B cell responses up to six months after vaccination with two doses of mRNA vaccines in 84 PLWHIV under antiretroviral therapy compared to 79 healthy controls (HCs).

Results

Spike-specific IgG persisted six months in PLWHIV with no significant differences compared to HCs, even though a significantly lower IgG response was observed in patients with CD4+ T cells < 350/mmc. The frequency of subjects with antibodies capable of inhibiting ACE2/RBD binding was comparable between PLWHIV and HCs a month after the second vaccine dose, then a higher drop was observed in PLWHIV. A comparable percentage of spike-specific memory B cells was observed at month six in PLWHIV and HCs. However, PLWHIV showed a higher frequency of spike-specific IgD- CD27- double-negative memory B cells and a significantly lower rate of IgD- CD27+ Ig-switched memory B cells compared to HCs, suggesting a reduced functionality of the antigen-specific memory B population.

Conclusions

The mRNA vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 elicits humoral and B cell responses quantitatively similar between PLWHIV and HCs, but there are important differences in terms of antibody functionality and phenotypes of memory B cells, reinforcing the notion that tailored vaccination policies should be considered for these patients.
Point-of-Care/Collection Testing: Application to Drugs of Misuse Testing
Authors: George Claire , Pang Alan
Published: January 2023

Point-of-collection testing (POCT) is a relatively simple and rapid testing approach that can be applied in many areas, including infectious disease, the monitoring of cholesterol and drugs of abuse testing. Since its inception in the early 1970’s and subsequent commercialisation, initially in the form of a lateral flow pregnancy test kit, POCT has become recognised for its ability to provide the end user with rapid results. Some of the early drugs of abuse testing devices demonstrated poor performance when assessed against samples from known drug users. More recently, the sensitivity and specificity of these devices have greatly improved. However, it is still important to understand the expected performance characteristics of their intended use within the field, as well as to ensure that the degree of cross-reactivity to common substances has been well characterised. Today, there are multiple POCT devices available for drugs of abuse, covering a continually expanding testing panel in several different matrices. Whilst these devices can offer a direct benefit to the end user in terms of obtaining a rapid result, the limitations of this technology must also be taken into consideration when interpreting results obtained from these devices.
Dried Blood Spots for Testing Drugs of Misuse
Authors: Quraishi R. , Jain R. , Ambekar A.
Published: January 2023

Testing of drugs of abuse (DOAs) in blood samples is fraught with problems related to instability and half-lives. This calls for alternative sampling methods. Using dried blood spots (DBSs) for this purpose appears to be a promising approach. DBS techniques are in regular use to screen new-borns for metabolic disorders, in epidemiological studies and in toxicology. DBSs being used to detect the presence of DOAs is now increasingly being recognised since the development of sensitive detection techniques. The present chapter provides an overview of the use of DBS sampling methods for testing of DOAs, including DBS sample collection, storage and transportation. The techniques involved and the factors that may influence the accuracy and reproducibility of the DBS methods for the determination of DOAs are presented. The stability of DOAs in DBSs is also discussed and the advantages and disadvantages of DBSs for drug testing purposes are considered.
Ethanol Analysis in Blood, Breath and Urine: Interpreting the Results
Authors: Jones Alan Wayne
Published: January 2023

Among a plethora of recreational drugs in common usage, none is more problematic for the individual and society than the legal drug ethanol, which is the psychoactive constituent in all alcoholic beverages. The analysis of ethanol in blood and other biological specimens is the most common request made to forensic science and toxicology laboratories, because drunken people are involved in many types of crime. After drinking alcoholic beverages, the ethanol they contain is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and transported throughout the body. Ethanol molecules easily cross the blood–brain barrier, depressing the central nervous system and slowing down brain activity. Both cognitive and psychomotor functions are impaired by excessive drinking in a dose-dependent manner in relation to the blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) reached. At low BACs (20–30 mg 100 mL−1), people tend to feel more relaxed and are less inhibited. As drinking continues to reach higher BACs (50–80 mg 100 mL−1), it takes longer to react in critical situations, judgement is impaired and people are more likely to take risks. Epidemiological surveys of drivers killed in road traffic crashes verify that 20–50% of the deceased had consumed alcohol before driving and that their BACs at autopsy were above the legal alcohol limit for driving. This chapter gives a general overview of the forensic aspects of ethanol with a main focus on its disposition and fate in the body, the concentrations determined in blood, breath and urine and how these should be interpreted in a legal context, such as when drunken drivers are prosecuted.
‘Ecstasy’ Tablets: Batch Matching for Forensic Drug Intelligence Purposes in Malta
Authors: Mifsud Mario , Jickells Sue , Mifsud Janet , Wolff Kim
Published: January 2023

‘Ecstasy’ tablets normally have visual and physical characteristics that are usually produced during the tabletting process. The presence of these features often provides valuable information potentially linking tablets from different drug seizures. The distinguishing features (visual and measurable features) of batches of ‘ecstasy’ tablets seized in Malta were examined in order to determine whether these physical features could link or discriminate between post-tabletting batches for drug intelligence purposes. The hypergeometric sampling method was used to sample ‘ecstasy’ tablets from batches with similar visual features in order to measure the mass, diameter and thickness. Other physical features such as hardness, friability and disintegration rates were used to help discriminate or link the batches. The diameter of ‘ecstasy’ tablets is the most important feature from a forensic aspect because it is the fixed dimension of the hole in the die of the tabletting machine. The thickness, on the other hand, is determined by the quantity of the powder per tablet. Most of the examined batches had a mean diameter of between 7.02 and 9.32 mm and a mean thickness of between 3.04 and 6.30 mm. There was broad variability between the means of hardness (37.5–135 N), the disintegration rates (3 seconds–14 minutes) and friability (0.1–4.4%) of the samples taken from the batches of tablets. While hardness, disintegration rate and friability could be used for a detailed study of ‘ecstasy’ tablets, their poor measurable reproducibility would not make these features a first priority. The measurable features used, which included the mass, diameter, thickness, hardness, friability and disintegration rate, were found to be adequate for linking or discriminating between batches of ‘ecstasy’ tablets from the same or different post-tabletting drug seizures. The linkage or discrimination between the batches was examined by 2D and 3D scatter plots and confirmed statistically by one-way analysis of variance. More than half of the batches (68.9%) were discriminated by their different visual and measurable features, while 14 batches were linked.
Nucleic Acid Structure and Basic Analysis
Authors: Rapley Ralph
Published: January 2023

Substantial advances have been made in gene analysis and genomics in recent years, and this has been accelerated by the continued development and refinement of methods and techniques for studying nucleic acids. The application of molecular biology techniques has allowed understanding of cellular processes, both in normal and disease states. The advent of this type of DNA analysis has provided insight into the genetic make up of patients and their disease susceptibility and diagnostics. Prognostic analysis has also allowed the development of personalised or precision medicine and there is now great promise in further developments in drug discovery and molecular gene therapy. This chapter provides an overview of the general features of nucleic acid structure and function. It also describes some of the basic methods used in nucleic acid isolation and analysis, including restriction analysis, blotting, hybridization, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and associated methods, such as quantitative PCR and further genetic tests based on this method.
Introduction to Genomic Diagnostics
Authors: Frewin Gary , Whitehouse David
Published: January 2023

The outputs of the Human Genome Project (HGP) have enabled the development of clinical genomics. This chapter describes the background to modern genomics and the tools for polymorphism and mutation detection that are relevant to diagnostics. The strategies used for sequencing and mapping the human genome that were used to complete the HGP are summarised. Molecular methodologies, such as next-generation sequencing (NGS), whole-exome sequencing (WES) and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and developments in bioinformatics are essential for the identification of pathogenic mutations. Together with genetic variant detection technologies, these approaches should continue to lead the discovery and development of high-precision and cost-effective diagnostic tests for the clinic and doctor's office.
Comparative Genomics and the Improved Diagnosis of Trypanosomiasis and Visceral Leishmaniasis
Authors: Bhattacharyya Tapan , Marlais Tegwen , Hinckel Bruno , Mateus David , Le Hai , Murphy Niamh , Fongwen Noah , Yeo Matthew , Mertens Pascal , Miles Michael
Published: January 2023

This chapter focuses on trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis and demonstrates how comparative genetic and genomic analyses have informed and will continue to empower diagnostics discovery, and have led to the development of low-cost, point-of-care, rapid diagnostic tests, with both clinical and research applications. Also highlighted is the still underexploited potential of a systematic combined ‘omics’ approach to both the identification of candidate vaccines and production of prototype diagnostics.
Connective Tissue Disorders – Ehlers–Danlos Syndrome
Authors: Sawle P. J. , Pope F. M.
Published: January 2023

Ehlers–Danlos Syndrome (EDS) is a group of connective tissue disorders which are both heterogeneous and heritable. The condition is a result of collagen defects, which include genetic variations and collagen protein processing. Collagen is present in fibrous tissues, such as skin, tendons and ligaments, and is also found in cartilage, blood vessels, the cornea, bones and the gut, highlighting its importance and explaining the varied pathophysiology of collagen conditions. These disorders were classified into six major types based upon the genetic and diagnostic variability and pathophysiology which includes skin hyperextensibility, joint hypermobility and tissue friability, but this classification has recently been amended. Determining the type of EDS an individual suffers from is a multifaceted process which relies on clinical examination as well as multiple laboratory techniques. These include: collagen biochemistry; genetic sequencing of the collagen genes, light microscopy, electron microscopy and urinary cross-link analysis. Diagnosis is important to both identify EDS types, allowing management of the condition, and also to aid psychologically where sufferers can appear fit and healthy but in fact be suffering pain and remain undiagnosed. This chapter aims to give an overview of connective tissue disorders, specifically EDS, and to describe and discuss diagnosing EDS in an NHS diagnostic unit. Giving detail on the techniques involved and the interpretation of results obtained.
Antibody-based Diagnostics
Authors: Davis John M.
Published: January 2023

Antibody-based techniques have been used for diagnostic purposes in both human and animal healthcare for well over a century. This chapter reviews the science behind the most widely used techniques and provides examples of their various applications, predominantly in human medicine. A range of other techniques with potential in this area are described, and the future directions of the field are briefly examined.
Genomics for Clinical Practice in Oncology
Authors: Sharma Vandana , Chowdhry Mohit , Barh Debmalaya
Published: January 2023

Customizing the right drug for the right patient on the basis of the results of the patient's genomic analysis promises to improve quality of life and reduce the burden of disease cost. Technologies such as microarray, next-generation sequencing and scanning for sequence variation, combined with clinical factors, will establish genetic variants responsible for susceptibility to disease and its progression. In oncology, whole-genome expression data is being used to identify tumor subtypes of conditions, such as acute myeloid leukemia, or Burkitt's lymphoma from diffuse B cell lymphomas, as well as prognostic biomarkers, for example in early-stage non-small-cell lung cancer and also to determine the sensitivity and response to chemotherapeutic drugs. Moreover, disease monitoring has been in use for gene expression analysis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells to predict graft rejection in solid organ transplantation. Several clinical and research-based studies have already established the enormous potential of genomics in cardiovascular, neurological, organ transplantation and other disease-related areas. This chapter also focuses on the effects of genomics in the transition from conventional, ‘one-size-fits-all’ medicine towards the new paradigm of personalized medicine.
Protein Expression and Production
Authors: Patel Pryank , Harbron Stuart
Published: January 2023

Knowledge of the full sequence of many genomes has led to the identification of thousands of genes encoding proteins with unknown or poorly known activity, which can only be elucidated by expression of the genes and analysis of the expressed protein by various methodologies. Producing recombinant proteins in forms that are either suitable for elucidating function for investigative purposes or in amounts useful for therapeutic applications is a key challenge. Approaches and hazards relating to the production of the protein in good yield and in the right form are evaluated, including consideration of host-related issues and the use of cell-free systems. Expression vectors, particularly pBAD and pET and their derivatives, are described, including their use in one-step cloning and expression systems. Fusion proteins formed from the protein of interest are appraised in relation to tags that enhance solubility and/or purification and the ease with which they may be subsequently removed. Consideration of eukaryotic and cell-free expression systems is also included. Finally, proteomic requirements through high-throughput methodologies are described.
Proteins and Proteomics
Authors: Patel Hershna , Whitehouse David B.
Published: January 2023

Proteomics is the large-scale and high-throughput study of proteins. A proteome is the population of all proteins expressed by the genome in a specific cell type, tissue or biological fluid at a particular time and under specific conditions. It is assumed that 20 000 structural genes could give rise to perhaps one million or more different proteins. Individual cell types and tissues will contain a restricted repertoire of the total proteome, but taken together the numerical challenge for proteomics is enormous. The study of proteomics can allow studies of cells and tissues in health and disease and this chapter describes some of the current techniques and applications of the methods.
Genome Sequencing
Authors: Kotta-Loizou Ioly
Published: January 2023

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a rapidly developing technology with a wide range of applications in biological sciences. Historically, DNA sequencing has evolved from the first to the second and third generation in less than 50 years. This chapter aims to provide guidance for designing NGS studies, performing NGS experiments and analysing NGS data, focusing mostly on differential gene expression analysis.
Agricultural Biotechnology
Authors: Hefferon Kathleen
Published: January 2023

Agricultural biotechnology provides us with the potential to feed our burgeoning world population successfully, yet remains controversial in many parts of the world. This chapter discusses some of the recent advances in agricultural biotechnology, including plant pathogen resistance, tolerance to abiotic stresses such as drought, extreme temperature and salinity and improvements in crop yield. The chapter also describes how plants can be altered to improve nutrition, using strategies such as biofortification and the production of plant-made pharmaceuticals. The use of plants for environmental purposes such as phytoremediation and biofuel development is outlined. The chapter concludes with a consideration of public opinion and acceptance of agricultural biotechnology.
Filamentous Phage-templated Synthesis and Assembly of Inorganic Nanomaterials
Authors: Cao Binrui , Mao Chuanbin
Published: January 2023

Filamentous bacteriophage (also known as phage) is a naturally occurring, monodisperse, self-assembling, genetically modifiable biological nanofiber (∼900 nm long and ∼7 nm wide). Well-established phage display techniques can be used to identify material-specific peptides. Foreign peptides can be site-specifically displayed on the surface, leading to tunable surface chemistry. The elegant combination of the mature phage display technique and functional inorganic nanomaterials synthesis has resulted in novel nanostructures with promising applications. This chapter introduces the use of phage as a template in the synthesis and assembly of novel nanomaterials, summarizes inorganic-material-binding peptides discovered by using phage display, reviews recent progress in the phage-templated nanomaterials, and highlights exciting applications of such nanomaterials in the fields of battery fabrication, humidity sensing and nanomedicine.
Actions of Drugs in the Gastrointestinal Tract
Authors: Sanger Gareth J.
Published: January 2023

This chapter presents the physiological/pharmacological properties and therapeutic uses of drugs acting on the gut and stomach. The basic principles of pharmacology and development from physiology, medicinal chemistry to an increasing, sometimes vague understanding of the pathophysiology and the disease state are highlighted. The drugs used to treat GI diseases are summarized, and current gaps in research and treatments are identified.
Predictive Strategies for ADRs – Biomarkers and In Vitro Models
Authors: Antoine Dan , French Neil , Pirmohamed Munir
Published: January 2023

It has been widely reported that currently used biomarkers of drug toxicity lack sensitivity, specificity and a fundamental mechanistic basis. The lack of qualified mechanistic biomarkers has resulted in a significant challenge to investigate the true extent and diagnosis of ADRs. Two current organ systems that are frequent toxicology targets for marketed drugs or those in development include the liver and kidney. The currently clinical available biochemical tests used for both of these organ systems lack sensitivity and specificity. There is also increasing interest in genomic biomarkers in drug safety, with most of the advances being seen with HLA gene polymorphisms and the risk for immune-mediated diseases affecting different organ systems, most prominently the skin and liver. We will focus on all these areas in this chapter.
From Bench to Bedside: The First Studies of a New Molecule in Man
Authors: Darwin Kate , Thomsen Liv , Boyce Malcolm
Published: January 2023

Chemists are involved in much of the work that paves the way for clinical studies of a potential new medicine: synthesis and characterisation of the drug substance, method development, formulation of a medicinal product, and analysis. Chemistry continues to play an important role during the early clinical phases of drug development and beyond: clinical studies may lead to the development of a new drug candidate, guide formulation development, or reveal one or more metabolites, which must be identified and characterised. So, although clinical pharmacology is traditionally the realm of physicians, biologists and biochemists, it is important that medicinal chemists are involved in, and understand, the clinical development of potential new medicines. This chapter describes the chemistry data needed to support “first-in-human” clinical trials. It explains the aims and design of the classical single ascending-dose study, and outlines special considerations for those studies, such as choice of population, starting dose, and dose-escalation strategy. Flexibility of the study design and the ability to work within tight timelines in a highly regulated environment are essential, so the logistical challenges are substantial. The chapter closes with case studies that demonstrate how the value of early clinical studies can be maximised to show proof-of-concept and guide dosing regimens in patients.
Nonclinical Safety Assessment in Drug Development
Authors: Gad Shayne
Published: January 2023

Nonclinical Safety Assessment in Drug Development provides a fundamental coverage of what issues must be addressed (as well as means and timing of doing so) to advance a small molecule from discovery to marketplace approval – not only are the commonly considered issues of studies called out by ICH M3(R4), but also the more obscure but critical points of excipients, formulations, impurities, and route-specific local tissue tolerance all integrated into the process. The entire text is current as to early 2017 requirements and industry practices.
Follow the Scent – The Science Behind the Fragrance in Products
Authors: Daniau V.
Published: January 2023

If you have ever found yourself asking questions such as, How do we smell?, How are fragrances created and how are they constructed?, or even How is it possible to put flowers in a bottle?, then you are likely to find elements of the answers to these questions in this chapter. We dive into the world of perfumery together and uncover some of its secrets. Of course, not everything can be revealed at once, but you may find some surprising revelations.
Testing and More Testing – The Science Behind Keeping Your Skin Safe and Healthy
Authors: Kirk Stephen
Published: January 2023

This aim of this chapter is to give an insight into the philosophy and processes that are used to enable a cosmetic product to be placed on the market by a brand or high-street retailer. The European Union leads the world on cosmetic safety and efficacy legislation and this is being adopted by increasingly more countries around the world for their own. This can only be better for protecting the health and wellbeing of global cosmetic users.
Myths and Scares – Science in Perspective
Authors: Meredith E. , Polowyj R.
Published: January 2023

Cosmetic science is at the core of an industry worth around £9 billion in the UK and employing around 25 000 scientists across Europe. This science, however, is often subject to misinformation, myth creation and ‘miracle’ cures and is perceived by many as ‘science light’ when, in fact, the cosmetics industry is steeped in robust and innovative science. Scary headlines in the media, such as ‘Is your skin under chemical attack?’, also perpetuate myths about cosmetic products that can undermine consumers’ confidence in the personal care products they use and love every day. There is a real need to inform an increasingly sceptical public and the wider science community on the sound science underpinning cosmetics and personal care products to rebalance the debate on issues such as ‘chemical-free’ or ‘toxic cosmetics’. This chapter demystifies cosmetic science, providing factual and clearly laid-out information to help dispel the most common myths about cosmetic products and provides the science behind the industry's safe and innovative products.
Introduction
Authors: Rogerson C.
Published: January 2023

Conservation is a multidisciplinary profession, underpinned by the desire to prolong the life cycle of cultural materials to enable their interpretation and their use for the enrichment of society now and in the future. To be effective, a conservator must draw on information from the broad areas of both humanities and science, and then combine these by means of practical decision making and the application of hand skills; in this context, separating scientific data from cultural significance is artificial, if not impossible. This book aims to reinforce, enhance and support the understanding and interpretation of material culture by elucidating the science required for conservation purposes, and to draw the fields of practical conservation and conservation science closer together by emphasising their common aspirations. Therefore, the focus is on the application of established knowledge and analytical techniques and ensuring that this can form the basis of successful collaboration with other specialists. Individual chapters deal with the requirements of particular material types, their behaviour and properties, and the ways in which scientific knowledge can inform their understanding and preservation. An important lesson to be learnt from these chapters, and the case studies that illustrate them, is that every item has its own qualities and peculiarities, and that a ‘one size fits all’ approach to analysis will not work within the context of material culture; however, by bearing in mind that conservation is a holistic and connected process, the results of appropriately chosen and interpreted analysis will inform and guide decisions, adding to the body of knowledge.
Analytical Techniques in Conservation Science
Authors: Garside P. , Richardson E.
Published: January 2023

This chapter will provide an overview of the main analytical methods used for the study of historic and archaeological materials; techniques appropriate to particular material types will be discussed in more detail within the individual chapters, and more specific or specialist techniques may also be explored. Modern instrumental analysis can reveal a wide range of information about the provenance, history and use of an object, its composition and construction, and the ways in which it has changed, deteriorated or been altered. This can be of great value in the study and care of such items, and inform decisions about conservation, use and storage. However, it is important to ensure not only that an analytical technique is appropriate to the objects and materials in question, but also that the analysis is answering a specific and pertinent question. An understanding of the different techniques available ensures that time and resources are not wasted, and unnecessary interventions are avoided. Furthermore, it enables productive conversations between conservators and conservation scientists. Understanding the implications of different approaches to sampling is vital to choosing appropriate analyses, as is the way in which a single sample might be used for a sequence of investigations, so these factors are also discussed. Finally, the applicability and use of artificial ageing is considered.
Wood
Authors: Schofield E. J. , Chadwick A. V.
Published: January 2023

Wooden artefacts are widely discovered during archaeological excavations due to their common use for centuries in a variety of applications from everyday utensils to weaponry to ships. In addition, collections can often possess a large variety of wood in the form of furniture, picture frames or even building structures themselves. Wood can be a challenge to conserve due to the mechanical, biological and chemical changes which can occur, whether this is due to removal from its burial environment, or from prolonged exposure to aggressive environments. This chapter will explore the mechanisms by which wood degradation occurs, discuss the methods by which this damage can be detected and assessed, and give the currently available treatments to try and mitigate further degradation. A review will also be given of current research to further our understanding of the material properties of degraded wood, and the development of new treatments.
Dyes and Pigments
Authors: Bouchard M. , Hubert M.-O. , Gandini B.
Published: January 2023

The chapter “Dyes and Pigments” within this second edition of “Conservation Science: Heritage Materials” has the ambition to reset the fundamental differences as well as the similarities between pigments and dyes. Their classifications and their different ways of application on works of art are considered. The most appropriate analytical techniques for each of these materials is discussed, as well as the stability of pigments and dyes and, as examples, some concrete conservation and preservation studies. The second part of this chapter is dedicated to the study of the colouring material (pigments and dyes) used by Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret) in a major example of his architectural and furniture creation in France. The scientific results are considered in the context of the conservation and restoration understanding of these polychromatic works.
Research-based Teaching in Higher Level Chemistry Education
Authors: Goedhart Martin J. , Finlayson Odilla E. , Lindblom-Ylänne Sari
Published: January 2023

Many graduates from science programmes move on to higher research degrees (M.Sc., Ph.D) or pursue research careers in industry or research centres. This chapter addresses whether undergraduate programmes in chemistry adequately prepare graduates for such research and examines the relationship between teaching and research. Finally specific examples are given which show how undergraduate students can become engaged in research and research-like activities.
Assessment in Higher Level Chemistry Education
Authors: Bennett Stuart W. , Wilson Iain
Published: January 2023

Assessment represents a significant part of the workload of the teacher and much student activity (and concern) is motivated by assessment. There are good reasons for having assessment but the assessment is not always designed to promote effective learning. This chapter hinges on the essential mapping of learning outcomes and assessment and offers a critical view of the strengths and limitations of a range of assessment methods. Different modes of assessment can measure different attributes and it is important to take this into account when combining scores or grades.
Training Programmes for Newly Appointed University Chemistry Teaching Staff
Authors: Yates Paul C. , Maciejowska Iwona
Published: January 2023

It is increasingly recognized that newly appointed university teaching staff, in both chemistry and other disciplines, require training in order to teach effectively and promote student learning. This chapter considers the requirements of such training in order for it to be effective, and describes some of the programmes which are running in individual countries and across Europe, to provide this. Training is provided at the level of the institution, faculty and discipline representing considerable variation in practice. We also highlight a number of resources which may be helpful to the new chemistry lecturer; these include, books, journal articles, and electronic resources.
Biosensor Techniques for Environmental Monitoring
Authors: Palchetti Ilaria , Mascini Marco
Published: January 2023

Biosensors are considered to be devices of interest for environmental monitoring. The peculiar characteristics of biosensors allow them to complement current field screening and monitoring methods, especially when continuous, real-time, in situ monitoring is required. However, biosensors still face problems of stability, detection sensitivity, and reliability of the biomolecular recognition element. In recent years, new binding molecules have been introduced in many areas of science. In this chapter, the different natural or synthetic molecules employed in the development of biosensors for environmental monitoring are reviewed, with special emphasis on innovative (bio)receptors claimed to overcome stability concerns of traditional sensing elements. The key role of nucleic acids in the identification of new smart bioreceptors is described.
Genosensing Environmental Pollution
Authors: Palchetti Ilaria , Marrazza Giovanna , Mascini Marco
Published: January 2023

Scientific interest in nucleic acid based biosensors for hybridization detection has increased enormously in recent years. In this chapter the procedures for assembling a nucleic acid biosensor are described. Probe design and immobilization, hybridization at the transducer-solution interface, and approaches used for transducing the biorecognition event are discussed. Applications to environmental monitoring are presented.
Conclusions and Criticisms
Authors: Palchetti Ilaria , Mascini Marco
Published: January 2023

Nucleic acids are undoubtedly excellent molecules for the development of smart and innovative biosensors for environmental monitoring as summarized in this book. There are, however, some issues that should be considered when nucleic acid biosensors are viewed in the context of environmental monitoring requirements. The more important of these are briefly highlighted in this chapter.
Neuroprotection in Parkinson's Disease
Authors: Pascual Alberto , Villadiego Javier , Hidalgo-Figueroa María , Méndez-Ferrer Simón , Gómez-Díaz Raquel , José Toledo-Aral Juan , Lopez-Barneo José
Published: January 2023

Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) are small natural proteins that promote survival of nerve cells as well as the maintenance of their morphological and functional phenotype. NTFs, particularly the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), have aroused clinical interest as potential neuroprotective agents that could prevent or retard the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). Numerous studies have shown that intrastriatal administration of exogenous GDNF has protective effects of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons in vitro and in vivo. Similarly, intrastriatal grafting of dopamine- and GDNF-producing carotid body glomus cells has clinical benefit in parkinsonian animal models, and possibly in PD patients. However, the clinical effect of continuous intraputaminal recombinant GDNF infusion through a canula in advanced PD patients is practically negligible. These studies have, however, raised numerous concerns regarding the compatibility of recombinant GDNF and the route of administration of the protein. We have recently developed the conditional GDNF knock out mice in which GDNF production can be drastically reduced during adulthood. These animals develop a parkinsonian motor syndrome with selective destruction of dopaminergic substantia nigra neurons as well as noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus. These data suggest that GDNF is absolutely required for the survival of adult catecholaminergic neurons. They also strongly support the view that, if adequately designed, intrastriatal GDNF delivery should have a neuroprotective therapeutic action in PD.
Mouse Models of Prion Protein Related Diseases
Authors: Gasset María , Aguzzi Adriano
Published: January 2023

Prion protein (PrP) related diseases are a heterogeneous group of fatal neurodegenerative conditions featuring aberrancies in the metabolism of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) that lead to the formation of neurotoxic or propagative conformers. Commonly referred to as transmissible spongiform encephalopaties or prion disorders, these diseases can be inherited, sporadic or infectiously acquired. The classical histopathological features of prion diseases consist in spongiform change, neuronal loss, astro- and microgliosis, and in some cases PrP amyloid deposits. Clinical manifestations can include dementia and ataxia, and are dictated by the affected CNS region as well as by the specific pattern of lesions. This chapter summarizes the contributions of mouse models to the current knowledge of the molecular basis of these diseases and discusses the potential use of some of them for prophylactic intervention.
Contact Normalization: Mechanisms and Pathways to Biomarkers and Chemotherapeutic Targets
Authors: Ochoa-Alvarez Jhon Alberto , George Candacy , Krishnan Harini , Wu Xiaoxuan , Goldberg Gary S.
Published: January 2023

Identifying cancer biomarkers and chemotherapeutic targets has become an essential task for the successful treatment of cancer. In this chapter we describe how elucidating mechanisms that underlie contact normalization – the ability of non-transformed cells to normalize the growth and morphology of neighboring tumor cells – can be used to help identify these targets and elucidate their roles in transformed cell growth and migration. Contact normalization is mediated by junctional communication between transformed and non-transformed cells. Here, we describe the potential roles of cadherens junctions and gap junctions in this process. In addition, we describe recent findings of novel tumor suppressors and tumor promoters, including Fhl1, Sdpr, Pdpn and specific miRNA species, that are affected by contact normalization. The study of contact normalization can guide us toward more specific ways to diagnose and treat cancer in an efficient manner, as well as understand molecular mechanisms behind its pathophysiology.
Adipokines and Alzheimer's Disease
Authors: Sortino Maria Angela , Merlo Sara , Spampinato Simona
Published: January 2023

Alzheimer's disease pathology involves β-amyloid and tau. Various potential pharmacological targets are discussed that may be able to alleviate the accumulation of β-amyloid and tau. Possible causes of Alzheimer's disease are discussed involving impaired glucose and lipid metabolism and obesity. Adipokines may be involved in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease. An extensive discussion of the evidence concerning the adipokines leptin, adiponectin, resistin, visfatin, plasminogen activator inhibitor, interleukin-6 and transforming growth factor β1 as causes of Alzheimer's disease is presented.
Astrocyte Signaling in Neurological Disorders
Authors: Jayakumar A. R. , Norenberg M. D.
Published: January 2023

Astrocytes play crucial roles in the normal function of the CNS, including the regulation of synaptic activity, modulation of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, support of energy metabolism, maintenance of extracellular pH and ion homeostasis, detoxification processes and maintenance of blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. Astrocytes are also key players in almost all pathological processes affecting the CNS. The aim of this chapter is to review normal and pathological properties of astrocytes, focusing on the signaling mechanisms involved in the formation of reactive astrocytes and cell swelling. A fuller understanding of the signaling mechanisms involved in these responses may provide novel therapeutic targets for ameliorating the ravages brought about by neurologic disease.
Phytochemicals as Modulators of Signaling in Inflammation
Authors: Klaidman Lori
Published: January 2023

Inflammatory pathways are involved in numerous chronic conditions such as arthritis, autoimmune disorders, heart disease, neurodegeneration, cancer, diabetes and obesity. Inflammation is mediated primarily by NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light chain-enhancer of activated B cells) in cells. NF-κB is part of a signal transduction pathway activated by surface cell receptors, stimulated by ligands such as cytokines in immune cells. This triggers the translocation of activated NF-κB into the nucleus. NF-κB then binds to DNA response elements and promotes the transcription of inflammatory proteins. During chronic conditions, gene products of NF-κB activation tend to amplify injury to bystander tissues, resulting in further localized injury. Many phytochemicals can limit this excessive cellular damage by blocking translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus. Many natural products also exert indirect control over NF-κB, such as through peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) and liver X receptor (LXR). PPARγ and LXR are transcription factors that control lipid and cholesterol metabolism. However, the activation of PPARγ and LXR also promotes a simultaneous repression of NF-κB pathways and, hence, attenuates inflammation. A well-known class of drugs that act as gonists of PPARγ are the thiazolidinediones, used in diabetes. However, many agonists of PPARγ and LXR also consist of natural products. Thus, it may be possible to inhibit NF-κB pathways directly or stimulate PPARγ and LXR induced repression of inflammatory pathways using phytochemicals in physio-logic doses from moderate dietary intake.