bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Development
Authors: Kiely Ray
Published: March 2012

The relationship between globalization and development is a problematic one, not only in the real world, but also because there is a lack of clarity over both terms in the debate. For example, the study of development rose to prominence in the period after 1945, but classical political economy's focus on the wealth of nations had been effectively concerned with development. In the postwar period, development was something which largely focused on the nation‐state, but it was also a global phenomenon, much of which was concerned, as we will see, with whether the global context hindered or boosted developmental prospects. Most of the debate, however, is concerned with the relationship between the globalization of the past 30 years, and developmental prospects for poorer countries. But even this is complicated by the fact that there are different meanings of development, particularly as in recent years some critical thinkers have questioned the idea that development is desirable (Escobar 1995). The bulk of this entry will focus on the relationship between globalization and development in recent years, but to do this, some consideration of the postwar period is also needed. There are therefore three sections: the first examines development in the postwar period up until the neoliberal turn in the late 1970s and early 1980s; second, the question of globalization is briefly examined, and related to the development debate and, specifically, renewed modernization theory; and third, the relationship between contemporary globalization and development is examined in some depth, in part through a defense of the debates over development theory that are too often regarded as being out of date in the global era.
Diffusion, cultural
Authors: Tomlinson Alan
Published: March 2012

Diffusion, a term with powerful connotations whether as noun, verb, or adjective, has usually been used to refer to the transmission or transfer of social practices and cultural values between societies. Its strength is its broad applicability to almost unlimited historical and societal contexts; its weakness is the pseudo‐neutrality that is widely assumed in the usages in which an apparently descriptive category in fact veils a theory and/or an interpretation.
Disembedding
Authors: Stones Rob
Published: March 2012

Disembedding refers to the way in which contemporary social practices can no longer be primarily defined by their grounding, or embeddedness, in the local context of a restricted place and time. Social practices are now, in large part, removed from the immediacies of context, with the relations they involve typically being stretched over large tracts of time and space. Local experiences and events are shaped by processes taking place on the other side of the world, and vice versa. These are processes, moreover, that are primarily impersonal and abstract.
Disneyization
Authors: Andrews David L.
Published: March 2012

Most readily associated with the work of Alan Bryman (1999, 2003, 2004), the concept of Disneyization refers to the multifaceted process whereby “the principles of the Disney theme parks are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world” (Bryman 1999: 26). In short, Bryman's conceptualizing uses the Disney theme park as an environment illustrative of the “large social changes … in economy and culture … which are discernible in and have implications for late modernity” (1999: 29).
Economic Globalization
Authors: Tonkiss Fran
Published: March 2012

“Economic globalization” refers to the increasing integration of circuits of goods, production, images, information, and money across national borders. The concept of economic globalization suggests that current networks of transnational circulation are more extensive across space, more intensive in volume, and more accelerated in time than earlier patterns of cross‐border exchange. Economic globalization is characterized not only by high levels of trade, but by increasing levels of foreign direct investment and outsourcing, as well as the complex linkage of financial transactions across space.
Emerging Societies
Authors: Pieterse Jan Nederveen
Published: March 2012

Emerging societies are achieving the status of developed countries. In business and finance they are referred to as emerging markets, in global political economy, as newly industrializing economies (NIEs), and in international politics, as emerging powers. Their emergence is also talked about as the rise of the “second world” and the “rise of the rest” (Amsden 2001).
Environmental Change
Authors: Stehr Nico , Rhomberg MarCus
Published: March 2012

Many contemporary environmental issues such as climate change have to be considered to represent both global as well as regional phenomena. However, throughout much of history, human impacts on the natural environment had only local or regional reach. The first “natural” catastrophe that generated a worldwide sympathetic response for those affected was the Great 1775 Lisbon Earthquake. During historical times, the impact of nature on societies had been considerable. For many historians, philosophers, geographers, and economists, the natural circumstances, such as climate conditions, shaped in an almost fate‐like manner the existential conditions of humankind. The perspective of geographical determinism is a major representative of such views (e.g., Huntington 1924). More recently, geographical determinism has fallen into disrepute. From the onset of industrial society, it would be possible to write human history as the history of its
emancipation
from natural variability and change. Significant populations of humans now live in all climatic zones of the world.
Environmental Globalization
Authors: Grainger Alan
Published: March 2012

Environmental globalization increases global uniformity and connectedness in the language, regulations, and practices of environmental management. It is just one of many dimensions of globalization, the most well‐known of which is economic globalization (Gills 2004). Interactions are possible between different dimensions. Thus, economic globalization has significant environmental impacts (Bridge 2002), but these should not be confused with environmental globalization itself.
Environmental Protection Movement
Authors: Caniglia Beth
Published: March 2012

The environmental movement has been a major source of pro‐environmental reform. In fact, some scholars believe that the environmental movement is the best hope for surmounting the myriad of environmental problems we face today (Buttel 2003). Most scholars argue that the environmental movement is far from a unified front. Instead, a diversity of movements are focused on environmental issues. Sometimes these groups converge around particular environmental struggles to support a common set of policies; other times, they conflict with each other over either the causes of or solutions to particular environmental problems and find each other at odds over which policies or actions are needed.
Ethical Consumption
Authors: Timms Jill
Published: March 2012

Ethical consumption refers to a set of social practices whereby consumers consciously make decisions based on their own ethical criteria and priorities, and the perceived consequences of a purchase. Consumers constitute themselves as political and moral subjects who can and should “make a difference” through the type and volume of goods and services they select or reject. The ethical credentials of a purchase can be interrogated in terms of who made it or offers it; how it was made, when, and from what; how much it costs; how much it is needed; how any profit is used; where it can be bought and from whom.
Ethnography of globalization
Authors: RØyrvik Emil
Published: March 2012

To speak of an ethnography of globalization, even in the contemporary “global age,” seems to be quite a contradiction in terms. Whereas the sociology and anthropology of globalization have flourished in recent years, “ethnographies of the global” sit uneasily with the ethnographic research conventions of prolonged and deep engagements with everyday life in local situations at single sites. Ethnography's received mandate is a committed localism requiring fieldwork to include participation and observant attention to the everyday, to generate intimate knowledge of communicative interaction of face‐to‐face groups and communities (Gupta & Ferguson 1997; Marcus 1998). Nonetheless, it is not difficult to unearth a strong line of sustained ethnographic approaches to examining aspects of globalization, “world society,” the “global condition,” and the like.
Euro crisis
Authors: Riera‐Crichton Daniel
Published: March 2012

The euro crisis is an ongoing period of financial as well as governance tensions in the Eurozone triggered by the global financial crises of 2008–2009 and which threatened the sustainability of the membership to the common currency among member states and potential candidates. At the root of those tensions was the asymmetric response of different European economies to the global financial turmoil initiated by the collapse of the US real estate market after the summer of 2007. While some European economies, such as Germany, weathered the 2009 financial storm reasonably unharmed, other euro members such as Spain, Greece, Portugal, and Ireland saw their real asset bubbles burst leading to crumbling real estate prices, general deterioration of external competitiveness, high unemployment, and suddenly unsustainable fiscal and external positions. Without the possibility of currency devaluations, these countries were left to suffer a grinding general price deflation in their economies. The growing rifts between euro members demanded quick and strong signals of commitment to the common currency from key European powers, such as Germany and France. The late, and sometimes contradictory, statements of support from leaders in those countries led to foreign investors' fears and large investment withdrawals from the problem economies, increasing international debt spreads (the difference between the interest on German bonds and the country's own debt) in those countries. As a result, the possibility of rolling over their current debt obligations or selling new debt became increasingly expensive, leaving countries such as Greece, on the verge of default. The short run costs of the debt crises were a €110bn rescue package for Greece and an additional €85bn for Ireland. However, the long run costs could be substantially higher as the Eurogroup launched a provision of €600bn in the so‐called European Financial Stability Facility, which printed its first Eurobond on January of 2011.
European Union
Authors: Rumford Chris , Buhari Didem
Published: March 2012

Conventionally, discussion of the European Union's (EU) relation to globalization is framed by consideration of the ways in which EU integration has been a successful defensive response to aggressive forms of economic globalization. In contrast, and more recently, the EU has become acknowledged as a global actor capable of giving shape to instruments of global governance and serving as a model for the development of other regions in the world. Despite their obvious differences, these conventional frames of reference share a common viewpoint: that globalization should be seen from a European perspective. Accounts which view the EU from a global perspective are much rarer (Borocz & Sarkar 2005).
Europeanization
Authors: Headley John
Published: March 2012

The awkward termEuropeanizationappears to have first been coined by the Germans in the 1970s withEuropäisierungand later given some prominence by Anglophone commentators. The term itself pulls in at least three directions: the first, historically, the movement of European peoples in the wake of the Columbian encounter flooding to the Americas as well as, later, Asia and Africa, reaching a peak in the nineteenth century; the second, the terrain of the political scientist, toward the present efforts within and outside the European Union (EU) to create a more collective reality for Europe, or at least one as real as the former states of Europe; and finally, that of the intellectual historian, one charting a universalizing process attributable to Europe, and more specifically Western Europe, identifying and assessing those characteristics peculiar to Western civilization and understanding thereby the expansive powers of the West, which have extended by a process of globalization throughout the planet. It is the third and last of these meanings that will be examined here. These characteristics create and express a universalizing process that extends beyond the obvious influences of the West's scientific and technological achievements in serving to create a modern civilization insofar as the impact of the West is received and accepted by the countries and peoples of the globe. Indeed, “Europeanization” so thoroughly captures the unique energies of Western civilization – based in Europe yet, since the late eighteenth century, assumed and reinforced by the United States – that it provides the impulse toward globalization itself. Without Europeanization, there is no globalization, for no other civilization has had the capacity for expansion and extension to all humans.
Exploitation
Authors: Dinerstein Ana Cecilia
Published: March 2012

In the social sciences, the term “exploitation” has been used to designate (i) the “use or treat[ment of] somebody/something in an unfair and selfish manner for one's advantage or profit” (Oxford English Dictionary1995: 406) and (ii) the unfair relationship between developing and developed nations. After the first industrial revolution (late eighteenth‐ and early nineteenth‐century Britain), the industrial and commercial uses of “exploitation,” for example, the exploitation of raw material, begun to be applied to people, that is, the exploitation of labor, slavery, exploited classes (Williams 1988: 130). Exploitation now described the exploitation of the working class by capital in the form of wage labor (Encyclopedia of Marxism). Since its emergence in agrarian form, the capitalist system has undergone different stages underpinned by a ceaseless transformation in the forms of production and control of labor, seeking increases in productivity and profit. InCapital(1867/1990), Karl Marx (1818–1883) highlighted that, although exploitation had always existed, it adopts a peculiar form under capitalism, producing the indispensable constituent of accumulation of capital: value. By establishing a contract among practically equal and free citizens in the labor market, the capitalist hires the worker's labor power in exchange for a wage. Thus, under capitalism, labor power is a commodity. At the factory, the worker interacts with raw materials, tools, and other workers and, with the help of technology, produces goods. The working day can be analytically divided into (i) necessary labor time and (ii) surplus labor time. During the former, workers produce enough value to cover the costs of their own reproduction. During the latter, workers generate a surplus value, i.e., an additional value which is appropriated by the capitalist class. The surplus value generated by workers in the labor process will be realized (and then appropriated by the capitalist class) in the sphere of circulation through the exchange of commodities in the market, where commodities are sold.
Exploitation of Labor
Authors: Spector Alan
Published: March 2012

The concept of “exploitation of labor” is generally associated with the writings of Karl Marx. Class domination has existed for millennia, and the movement of people (and armies and culture) has existed for millennia; in pre‐capitalist times, however, these were intertwined primarily for the purpose of acquiring land and resources or enslaving populations. It has only been during the development of capitalist economic relations, and especially during the last century or so, that the modern incarnations – capitalist exploitation of labor and globalization – have mutually saturated each other and engulfed the entire planet. According to Marx and others, exploitation is at the core of economic relations under capitalism because the owners pay the workers less than the value of what the workers produce and the owners keep the surplus, which may include expenses the capitalists incur but also includes profit. Advocates of various forms of capitalism generally eschew this concept, arguing instead that free exchange takes place, where the workers agree to sell their labor (actually labor power) for the price that the capitalist employer offers. Critics point out that the exchange is seldom “free” because the capitalists have the state at their disposal to use the courts and even violence to protect the interests of the capitalist class, as well as other, more subtle means, including financial, to favor the capitalists over the working class.
Export Credit
Authors: Skully David
Published: March 2012

Export credit in the context of globalization usually refers to credit or insurance provided by government‐supported export credit agencies (ECAs) to facilitate exports (e.g., EXIM Brazil, Euler Hermes Kreditversicherungs‐AG (Germany), EXIMBANK (United States) ). Officially supported export credit usually accounts for about 10 percent of the value of global trade; roughly 80 percent of global trade is financed by private banks and insurers; another 10 percent occurs between segments of transnational firms – where there is no change of ownership – or in long‐standing relationships where payment is certain and external credit is not needed. Because officially supported export credit is an instrument of government foreign and commercial policy, ECA's are subject to domestic politics and are often the source of trade disputes with rival exporting countries and their ECAs.
Export Processing Zones
Authors: Engman Michael , Farole Thomas
Published: March 2012

Export processing zones (EPZs) are spatially delimited areas in which manufacturers produce goods that are largely aimed for export markets. EPZs generally offer export‐oriented investors a host of advantages in relation to the domestic investment environment. Trade transaction costs are normally reduced by allowing for a combination of duty‐free imports of raw materials, intermediate goods, and capital goods as well as streamlined and onsite customs services. Fiscal incentives like corporate tax holidays and various subsidies, for example for training of new staff, are often provided for a limited time period to reduce start‐up costs and accelerate the payback period. In addition, most EPZs offer a simplified administrative environment, enhanced infrastructure, access to land and factory shells, and reliable utility services. By overcoming national investment climate barriers within a limited area, the government seeks to avoid the adjustment and political costs of implementing the reforms at the national level. The objectives of EPZ policy are to create new jobs, boost growth in exports and foreign exchange earnings, facilitate economic diversification and industrialization, and provide access to foreign technology and management expertise.
Failed States
Authors: Bøås Morten
Published: March 2012

The “failed state” concept is commonly used to describe and categorize states such as Afghanistan and Somalia that are perceived as failing with regard to some basic conditions and responsibilities as a sovereign state. These include, but are not exclusive to, lack of control over own territory, widespread corruption and criminality, huge economic recession and/or hyperinflation, failure to provide basic services, and large flows of refugees and internally displaced persons. Whereas the intellectual foundation of the concept can be traced back to Max Weber's idea that the minimal criterion for a state is that it has monopoly on the legitimate use of force within its territory, prior to September 11, 2001, the United States and Western Europe paid little systematic attention to the phenomenon that analysts termed “state failure.” However, the attacks on New York and Washington, DC – and particularly the fact that al‐Qaeda planned the attacks in the safe haven provided by Afghanistan, considered to be a “failed state” – pushed the issue to the very top of the security agenda in Western capitals.
Fair Trade
Authors: Linton April
Published: March 2012

After a trip to Nicaragua in 1985, Paul Katzeff, the owner of the Thanksgiving Coffee Company, changed his company's slogan to “Not Just a Cup, but a Just Cup,” and labeled the Nicaraguan beans he roasted as “Coffee for Peace.” When the Reagan administration banned the import of all Nicaraguan goods, Katzeff evaded the embargo by having Nicaraguan beans shipped to Canada and roasted there. A year later, three men who had met while working in a food co‐op formed Equal Exchange. Their first product was “Café Nica,” Nicaraguan coffee brought to the United States via the Netherlands (Equal Exchange 2008). Following the lead of European activists, organizations such as the Thanksgiving Coffee Company and Equal Exchange built a small niche market of socially conscious coffee drinkers in the United States.
Families
Authors: Beck Ulrich , Beck‐Gernsheim Elisabeth
Published: March 2012

How do the concepts of family and love change in the global age? The belief in the Either/Or, which was once taken as self‐evident fact – either we or they, either here or there – seems to be on the wane or has actually disappeared from the horizon of love. Nothing now seems to separate human beings any more in any absolute way, neither skin color, nor national hostility, religious differences, the distance between continents, and so on. On the contrary, people are susceptible to the attractions, the lure even, of the unlimited possibilities in the global other, in those who are far away:
long‐distance love
(Beck & Beck‐Gernsheim 2011). This spells the disappearance of unbridgeable chasms, for since they now appear bridgeable they turn out, therefore, to be in the process of being bridged.
Fédération Internationale
de
Football Association
Authors: Roderick Martin
Published: March 2012

The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) is the international governing body of
football
(soccer) and the ultimate power within the football world. Formed in 1904 in Paris, seven nations attended FIFA's first meeting: Belgium, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. There are now 208 national associations recognized by FIFA, which has more member states than the United Nations. The “global game” spans culturally diverse societies in all continents, and figures estimate that there are 250 million participants in the game; the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany had a total cumulative television audience of 26.29 billion. FIFA organizes and controls football's World Cup finals and other competitions differentiated according to age and gender. FIFA's greatest asset, and football's flagship tournament, the men's World Cup, has become one of the biggest media spectacles and profitable cultural events in the world; valued also by politicians intent on nation‐building.
Feminization of Labor
Authors: Richer Zach
Published: March 2012

The feminization of labor is a term used to describe the generally observed phenomenon of women's increased participation in labor markets worldwide since the 1980s. Though various explanations have been offered for this trend, it was originally conceived by the economist Guy Standing (1989, 1999) as a result of the global regulatory environment put in place under the administrations of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan.
Field
Authors: Robertson Roland
Published: March 2012

The global field is a term first used by Roland Robertson, with JoAnn Chirico, in 1985 to indicate the form, or the pattern, of the world as a whole and elaborated more fully in his
Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture
(1992). The global field has been regarded as an alternative to concepts such as world system, world society, global society, global system, and others. The rationale for this is that the concept of field is more fluid than such alternatives. The idea of a “field” was inspired particularly by the work of Georg Simmel.
Flexibilization
Authors: Taplin Ian M.
Published: March 2012

Flexibility remains a powerful force in economic and organizational change, particularly in the area of work and employment relations (Thompson & McHugh 1990). Firms have historically sought flexibility with their labor force in a number of ways, each designed to give them operational gains and enhance their competitive advantage. Such flexibility can entail simply adjusting the size of the workforce, adding workers when needed or reducing their numbers whenever production needs are scaled back. This is referred to as
numerical
flexibility and is a constituent part of the flexible labor force that one finds in neoliberal economies. Notably, it occurs when institutional frameworks permit easy hiring and firing of labor, thus allowing firms to adapt very quickly to changing market conditions. It is also a part of broader (Fordist) management strategies to exert greater control over the production process as managers seek to downgrade, de‐skill, and sub‐divide labor (Taplin 1992).
Flows
Authors: Inda Jonathan Xavier
Published: March 2012

One of the key concepts in scholarly thinking about globalization is the idea of flows. Indeed, it is quite common to characterize globalization as involving flows of various kinds – from capital and people to goods, images, and ideologies. Significantly, these flows are said to be producing an intensely interconnected world – one where borders and boundaries have become increasingly porous, allowing more and more peoples and cultures to be cast into intense and immediate contact with each other.
Food Aid
Authors: Jachertz Ruth
Published: March 2012

Food aid is the provision of food on a grant basis or on concessional terms delivered at the request of governments for the benefit of hungry or undernourished people.
Football Violence
Authors: Esposti Piergiorgio Degli
Published: March 2012

Football was until recently considered to be a European and South American sport, even though the first football World Cup took place in 1930. Not until the World Cups in England in 1966 and Mexico in 1970 did football become a global phenomenon. From that point onwards, the football movement started to become increasingly managed like a global corporation. As more nations became involved in the World Cup, interest in football increased, along with the economic development of the countries involved, television rights, and potential marketing opportunities which all became key components in the process of football globalization (Foer 2004).
Foreign Direct Investment
Authors: Moran Theodore H.
Published: March 2012

Foreign direct investment (FDI) takes place when a corporation in one country establishes a business operation in another country, through setting up a new wholly‐owned affiliate, or acquiring a local company, or forming a joint venture in the host economy.
Fragmentation
Authors: Pumar Enrique S.
Published: March 2012

Fragmentation denotes the incremental erosion of norms of social solidarity and the fractioning of institutional arrangements over time. The term fragmentation implies that while the stability and integrity of society endure, the forms of association, the trust for authority, and the rules sustaining socialization gradually change. Fragmentation also accounts for rising social tensions short of civil strife and for the mechanisms that attempt to mediate these cleavages. History has demonstrated numerous times that even if societies are fragmented, this does not mean that they are on the verge of breakdown. A case in point of this paradoxical situation is that of Indonesia. Here, multiple ethnic and religious groups compete, but the identity of the nation is rooted precisely in its multiculturalism. Hence, it is often true that social groups compete among race, ethnicity, gender, social class, religious resources, or even political posture differences. Yet societies continue to safeguard some semblance of working social order and the integrity of the nation‐state endures.
Future, Globalization and the
Authors: Adam Barbara
Published: March 2012

Globalization is primarily concerned with social actions and the resulting dispersal of matter and knowledge across space. The inevitable extension and dispersal of these globalized knowledge practices across time tends to be bracketed and the temporal reach into the future left implicit.
Gastronationalism
Authors: DeSoucey Michaela
Published: March 2012

Gastronationalism is a new concept that describes the use of food production, distribution, and consumption to create and sustain the emotive power of national attachment. Furthermore, gastronationalism addresses the use and influence of nationalist sentiments in the production and marketing of food. From the standpoint of gastronationalism, food is a fundamental aspect of collective identity. As such, the concept is especially useful in the context of global and transnational markets, as it throws into sharp relief the political dynamics of connecting localized food cultures with nationalist projects (DeSoucey 2010).
Gender
Authors: Runyan Anne Sisson
Published: March 2012

Contemporary feminist inquiry into the relationship between gender and globalization examines relationally how the ideological foundations, material impacts, institutional formations, and symbolic constructs of economic, political, and cultural globalization are gendered – that is, (re)produce the hierarchical dualisms of masculinity over femininity, men over women, and masculinist priorities over feminist ones with the effect of (re)producing gender inequality and social injustice in myriad ways worldwide. Feminist scholars have repeatedly shown that gender not only operates at various levels but also intersects with class, ethnicity, race, nationality, and sexuality to (re)produce complex power relations between and among women and men through the construction of ideologies, social relations, and bodies. Developing a feminist analysis of globalization is not about simply inserting “women“ into already existing analyses, but rather restructuring our understandings of globalization in order to help us see how dependent it is upon the intersecting power relations of gender, race, class, nation, and sexuality. Feminist intersectional analyses of globalization draw from a host of older and newer feminist schools of thought, including socialist, postcolonial, poststructural, and queer feminisms, and are a major part of what has been called “critical globalization studies“ that are dedicated to analyzing power relations
and
resistances to them under globalization in furtherance of social justice.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Authors: Ritzer George
Published: March 2012

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was a system for the liberalization of trade that grew out of Bretton Woods and came into existence in 1947. It operated until 1995 when it was superseded by the World Trade Organization (WTO). While GATT focused on trade in goods, the WTO also took on responsibility for the increasingly important trade in services. While GATT was simply a forum for the meeting of representatives of countries, the WTO is an independent organization.
G
eneva Conventions
Authors: Epps Valerie
Published: March 2012

The four Geneva Conventions of 1949 (75 U.N.T.S. 31, 85, 135, & 287) and the two Additional Protocols of 1977 (1125 U.N.T.S. 3 & 609) contain the modern framework for the laws of armed conflict, both international and non‐international, and expand the protections provided for victims of conflict. Before outlining the provisions of the treaties, a brief introduction to some basic distinctions in this area of law are necessary.
Genocide
Authors: Karstedt Susanne
Published: March 2012

Genocide is a global phenomenon. Harff (2003) identified 37 genocides and “politicides” between 1955 and 2001, which took place in Europe, across Asia and Latin America. During the first decade of the twenty‐first century, mass atrocities in Africa and Asia have been added to this count with an estimated more than a million of victims of violence, violent ethnic cleansing, and serious sexual violence. The twentieth century started with genocides in Africa (the genocide of the Hereros by the Germans) and in Asia (the massacre of the Armenians in Turkey), and in its first half saw the genocide of the European Jews by the German Nazi‐State. Estimates for the victims of genocide and mass killings as distinguished from war deaths range from 60 to 150 million for the twentieth century alone (Valentino 2004: 1), with most estimates at about 80 million, and some considerably higher (Rummel 1998). For the second half of the twentieth century since 1945, estimates range between 9 and 20 million in more than 40 episodes of genocide (Gurr 1993; Valentino 2004: 255). Genocide has been termed the crime of the twentieth century, and in many ways it epitomizes this “age of extremes” (Bauman 1989; Hobsbawm 1994).
Geopolitics
Authors: Steinmetz George
Published: March 2012

The word geopolitics points to the interface between two distinct ontological realms and scientific disciplines, geography, and politics. The first of these root words, “geography,” is not necessarily restricted in this context to traditional geographic concerns like climate or the Earth's physical surface, but entails a much broader spatial perspective concerned with scale and location, the size, shape, and boundaries of territories, and the processes by which territories are socially defined. The other root word, “politics,” points toward subfields of political science like international relations which are also focused on states and empires, borders and frontiers, international alliances and polarizations, the balance and imbalance of global power, and war, imperialism, and diplomacy (Burchill & Linklater 1996).
Global Age
Authors: Albrow Martin
Published: March 2012

“Global age” refers to a period of time when there is a prevailing sense of the interconnectedness of all human beings, of a common fate for the human species and of a threat to its life on this Earth. It has featured frequently in the titles of books, conferences, and lectures since the 1960s and has become popular as a framing device in political rhetoric since the 1990s.
Governmentality
Authors: Inda Jonathan Xavier
Published: March 2012

Michel Foucault's (2000) reflections on governmentality have been an important source of inspiration for scholars of governance and modern political power. These scholars have generally located their investigations of power within nation‐states. However, some have begun to deal with the implications of Foucault's political thought for the governance of global, extra‐national spaces.
Green Revolution
Authors: Elliott David L.
Published: March 2012

The origin of the Green Revolution is attributed to Norman Borlaug. Dr Borlaug earned a PhD in plant pathology in 1941 and began work as a research scientist at the Rockefeller Foundation Cooperative Mexican Agricultural Program in 1944. In his position at the Mexican Agricultural Program, Borlaug addressed the problem of feeding Mexico's – and the world's – rapidly growing population by developing high‐yield strains of wheat through cross‐breeding. The resultant crops required closely regulated irrigation water, high levels of chemical fertilizers, high levels of pesticides, and in many cases the use of mechanized equipment in farming. The high‐yield varieties contributed to the tripling of Mexico's wheat harvest by 1960, a technological innovation that was quickly applied to rice and maize, and spread to India, Pakistan, and other developing countries. By 1970, the “father” of the Green Revolution, Norman Borlaug, had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for work that had saved countless lives from hunger and malnourishment. Even before 1970, and especially since the 1990s, the Green Revolution has been questioned, particularly its impact upon the environment and its association with economic globalization.
Group of Eight
Authors: Higo Masa
Published: March 2012

The Group of Eight (hereafter G8) refers to the eight member countries – France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada – which hold annual summit meetings aiming to address a wide range of global issues. The summit's agenda include issues pertaining to economic and social development, trade, energy, environment, foreign affairs, law and justice, and security and terrorism (Hajnal 2007). At the summits, the G8 also considers and takes on new global policy initiatives, and mass media around the world closely observe each summit as a major international event (Smith 2007).
H
eterogeneity
Authors: Van Der Bly Martha C.E.
Published: March 2012

Heterogeneity
is a generic term derived from the ancient Greek

signifying “other” or “different,” and

meaning “race” or “type, class.” In the globalization debate the term “heterogeneity” is generally used to describe a quality of cultural diversity, mostly as antidote of the cultural convergence‐thesis, which proposes an increasing homogenization of culture through globalization. Conceptualizations of heterogeneity are largely related to the interpretation of what culture and cultural identity are comprised of, as well as what globalization entails.
Hollywood
Authors: Miller Toby
Published: March 2012

Hollywood – shorthand for the mainstream United States film and television drama industry – has always been at the center of globalization, in three ways. First, export markets have always been crucial to it. Second, it has long drawn on creative labor from overseas, and shot movies overseas, in search of economies of production. And third, its export success has led to concerns about the exercise of cultural imperialism.
Immaterial Labor
Authors: Ieven Bram
Published: March 2012

Immaterial labor refers to those forms of work that produce immaterial goods such as communication, information, management, and cultural products. It is seen as the dominant form of labor in postindustrial societies, in which a transition took place from an industrial economy to a service economy (Bell 1973). Although the term may suggest otherwise, immaterial labor does not imply that all forms of labor are becoming immaterial or that there are no longer industrial forms of labor. All labor is material to some extent and there is still plenty of hard labor and industrial production (agriculture, mining, and production of cars and other goods). The dominance of immaterial implies, however, that all of these branches of hard labor are restructured by the immaterial practices of communication and management, which are becoming increasingly important in all production sectors. Communication and management are thus becoming the nexus of the economic system.
Imperialism
Authors: Brewer Anthony
Published: March 2012

Imperialism is the establishment and maintenance of a system of political and military dominance over other countries, peoples, or territories. There have been empires almost since the beginning of recorded history, but it is the European colonial empires which reached their peak in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that are relevant to the history of globalization. The word “imperialism” has come to be applied mainly to modern European empires, while “empire” retains a much wider meaning.
Regionalism
Authors: Söderbaum Fredrik
Published: March 2012

Regionalism refers to the body of ideas, values and objectives that contribute to the creation, maintenance or modification of a particular region or type of world order. It is usually associated with a formal policy and project, and often leads to institution building. Prominent examples include the European Union (EU), the African Union (AU), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
Revolutionary Movements
Authors: Sgrenci Adam
Published: March 2012

For some, the age of globalization marks the end of revolutionary struggle. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, capitalism had prevailed. For others, the defeat of totalitarian socialism combined with a more interdependent global society gave rise to a new form of network‐based struggle, one more difficult to understand than its hierarchical predecessor.
Security–insecurity
Authors: Béland Daniel
Published: March 2012

Globalization is widely associated with a broad range of security concerns from terrorism and nuclear proliferation to poverty and climate change. In the mind of many citizens, the very idea of globalization has become a source of insecurity. Like any other form of insecurity, global threats are at least in part social and political constructions because they only become prominent when actors make sense of them and push them onto the social and political agenda. Although most scholars would agree that many global threats are “real,” there is no consensus about the level of social and political construction associated with these threats. Although the debate on global security and insecurity is far from over, it is possible to stress the relationship between the concrete threats and their discursive amplification or denial (Béland, 2007). This means that global forms of insecurity are contested. From climate change to international terrorism, global forms of insecurity are political issues that are not immune from discursive manipulations, while reflecting cultural and institutional factors that shape the perceptions of these apparent threats. From social movements and journalists to state bureaucrats and elected officials, many actors are involved in the construction of global threats, which takes place at both the national and the supranational levels. With the advent of the Internet and other transnational media, the propagation of information and discourses about these threats is itself more global than ever before, which increases the risk of worldwide fears and political chain reactions. Increased transnational population mobility and the emergence of broad environmental issues like climate change exacerbate this globalization of collective insecurity.
Simulation
Authors: Korsten Frans‐Willem
Published: March 2012

Simulation is a noun indicating a form of action that originally goes back to the Latin
simulare
: to imitate, to feign, to depict in a visual way. The fact, however, that simulation is much more than simply faking or feigning is indicated by “to imitate.” If done correctly or radically enough, imitation can become indiscernible from what it is supposed to imitate, and in the case of simulation the idea is, indeed, to get as closely as possible to “the real thing.” This is why simulation is tied up with one of the most vexing and troubling or pivotal issues in the metaphysical, theological and political thought of the Middle East and Europe: the double structure and ambiguous dynamic of representation. Whereas representation is supposed to represent the real, or something that is the real origin of what is represented, the domain of this originally “real” has been hard to pin down, conceptually speaking. In this context simulation plays with the dynamic of representation, while at the same time not being truly representational. In trying to get as close as possible to something “real” simulation partly functions as a stand‐in. In this sense it represents. At the same time it is analogous to the real, and this analogy may go so far that the notion of the real becomes indistinguishable from simulation. Or to put this slightly differently: simulation is real itself. This is how one can understand that there is also such a thing as dissimulation, which means to dissemble, to cloak, to disguise. The bridge between the two might well be called fiction, from Latin
fingere
: to fake, dissemble or make. Fiction, as it is understood in modern times, is not “real” in terms of empirical reality, but can be very real nevertheless.
Slow Food Movement
Authors: Galli Anya M. , DegliEsposti Piergiorgio
Published: March 2012

Slow Food is an international movement opposed to the “standardization of taste and culture, and the unrestrained power of the food industry multinationals and industrial agriculture.” It envisions globalization as a process in which small and local farmers and food producers should be simultaneously protected from and included in the global food system: its web site claims, “we believe that everyone has a fundamental right to the pleasure of good food and consequently the responsibility to protect the heritage of food, tradition and culture that make this pleasure possible” (
www.slowfood.com
). Unlike many “anti‐globalization” movements that oppose global processes and markets, Slow Food encourages the global adaptation of local and traditional.
Tax, Economic Globalization and Development
Authors: Guerrero Alejandro
Published: March 2012

Fiscal economists formulated during the 1960s what came to be branded as the theory of tax structure developments. Governments update tax systems according to the evolving economic structure, administrative capacity and stage of development (Alt 1983; Tilly 1992). Ancient and medieval tax systems relied heavily on taxes associated with fixed assets, such as land tenure or mines. During the mercantilist age, trade tariffs and duties became the main source of government revenues, and remained hegemonic until the Industrial Revolution. New forms of taxation emerged as industrial societies became more complex, and there was a broadening and diversification of taxable sources of income. Consumption taxes and, later, income taxation emerged as the dominant sources of revenue for developed countries. Simultaneously, the expansion of pension programs and welfare states was associated with the emergence of social security contributions.
Technoscapes
Authors: Mele Vincenzo
Published: March 2012

The term
technoscape
was coined by the Indian cultural anthropologist Arjun Appadurai within the framework of his studies of the cultural dimensions of globalization.
Hacktivists
Authors: Taylor Paul A.
Published: March 2012

Hacktivists is the term used to describe those who engage in hacktivism – acts that combine technologically knowledgeablehacking techniques with the values and communicational strategies of political activism.
Neoconservatism
Authors: Kukreja Sunil
Published: March 2012

Neoconservatism as a worldview reached its zenith during the presidency of George W. Bush. It became the compelling and driving force that shaped the way that the United States, under the Bush Administration, conducted its foreign policy, and framed its role in the international community, particularly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (9/11).
Postglobalization
Authors: Coward Martin
Published: March 2012

Postglobalization refers to the potential temporal, empirical, conceptual, normative and political transcendence of the perceived limits of globalization. Typically, postglobalization implies that extant conceptual resources are inadequate for understanding the emergence of social, cultural, economic and political structures that are constituted by, and yet are themselves qualitatively different for, the supraterritorial dynamics associated with the period of globalization. As such, this historically specific transformation demands a novel concept, clearly differentiated from extant theories of globalization. In this sense, postglobalization refers to the historical surpassing of globalization (and globalization theory). Moreover, it is contended that this transformation will have either normative or political implications.