bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Human Dimension Impacts of Oil Spills and Social Responsibility: Evolving Needs
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward
Published: August 2014

Beyond the traditional ecological impacts of oil spills, oil spills can also affect people; these are the human dimensions of oil spills. Under current institutional procedures in the US, little attention is given during preparedness and response to social issues and implementing actions to mitigate the human dimension impacts of oil spills. Social responsibility is increasingly being used as a measure of the overall performance of businesses and organizations. Previous work recognized that public and stakeholder reactions to, and perceptions about, an oil spill response can influence the overall success of response. However, improvements in recent years to achieve the “best response” focus increasingly on operational aspects of oil spills. Human dimensions, representing the non-operational aspects of oil spills, generally remain unaddressed in the US regulatory framework.

With the widespread use of social media, stakeholders and the global public are able to express their concerns and objections about oil spills; demand transparency and aggressive action during an incident to protect people and the environment, mitigate all impacts; and call to punish those responsible. Spills which are perceived as technological disasters are viewed as preventable by those in affected areas. Spill management teams (SMTs) in the US typically are comprised of the organization of responsible party (RP) and government responders, which is integrated in function but necessarily aligned in their respective priorities. The influence of politics and legal teams on SMTs represents both opportunities for and barriers to addressing human dimension concerns and impacts during response.

This paper discusses the evolving needs for the USCG and EPA, as agency leaders in the US National Response System (NRS), to adapt existing preparedness and response practices. This paper also explores potential opportunities to incorporate social responsibility into oil spill preparedness and response strategies as ways to mitigate human dimensions impacts going forward. Research has shown that community adaptation and resilience is: at least in part related to a community having access to knowledge and resources which are possessed by oil spill experts; that transfer of knowledge takes time; and that building connections between local communities and oil spill experts helps promote community adaptation and resilience. The author suggests that within the existing regulatory framework there is conceptual space to leverage trusted networks of existing relationships and enhance our ability to carry out preparedness and response activities consistent with social responsibility.
Recent Advances by the API Remote Sensing Technical Working Group for Oil Spill Preparedness and Response
Authors: Sweeten David , Palandro David , Neuwirth Lindsey
Published: August 2014

In 2010, the American Petroleum Institute coordinated the establishment of an Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Joint Industry Task Force (JITF) comprised of experts from industry and government. The JITF was established to examine the efforts implemented during recent oil spill events, assess the current state of the industry's ability to respond to significant spills, and identify potential learnings. A remote sensing technical working group (TWG) was formed under the Oil Sensing and Tracking program to document current remote sensing technology and future research and development needs related to tracking oil on the water's surface.

Since its inception, the Remote Sensing TWG has held face-to-face meetings, engaged with other joint industry groups, and completed a planning guide, “Remote Sensing in Support of Oil Spill Response,” to assist in the identification of surveillance technologies, sensors, and platforms that could enhance response efforts. The document provides information related to both strategic and tactical response activities. The guide was designed as a practical “Users Guide” as well as a planning and preparedness tool for response personnel that may be required direct surveillance activities.

The group also identified key areas for industry and academia for future research and development, including:Quantifying the aerial extent and concentration of oil on the water's surface; andEnhancing ways to provide quality-assessed data in near real-time to both field resources and command centers.

In addition, the TWG is currently researching the development of a web-based tool that would aid in the selection of appropriate satellite sensors for a particular response scenario. The group is working with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to customize and expand an existing NASA satellite tool for use during oil spill response.

The TWG plans to continue collaboration and knowledge-sharing with other joint industry projects, and to continue to hold regular meetings to share recent experiences, collaborate on potential technology areas that need development, and disseminate scientific findings in the field of remote sensing that will enhance the capabilities and readiness for response.
The Application of RADARSAT-2 Quad-Polarized Data for Oil Slick Characterization
Authors: Staples Gordon , Touzi Ridha
Published: August 2014

Spaceborne radar data has been extensively used to monitor numerous oil spills worldwide. The radar imagery provides information on the spatial extent of the oil, but in general, there is limited information on the characteristics of the oil such as the discrimination of sheen from emulsion. The full polarimetry capabilities of RADARSAT-2 were investigated in this study using acquisitions collected over the Gulf of Mexico. In this study, the Cloude-Pottier target decomposition algorithm was used to extract polarimetric information from RADARSAT-2 quad-polarized images acquired over the Macondo oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. The Cloude-Pottier entropy (H) provides a measure of the amount of mixing between scattering mechanisms. For a wind-roughened ocean surface, the scattering is dominated by a single dominant scattering mechanism, namely Bragg scattering (H → 0). In the presence of an oil slick, however, the entropy increases (H → 1) which is due to the number independent scattering mechanisms increasing due to damping of the small-scale Bragg waves. Comparison of entropy with the over flight observations indicated that the variability of the entropy was consistent with the variability of the oil properties suggesting that the entropy was providing a qualitative measure of the oil characteristics. Specifically, when there was open water and a thin sheen, the entropy was close to 0, but in the presence thicker oil due to the presence of, for example, an emulsion, the entropy had values that were close to 1.
Overview of the American Petroleum Institute (API) Joint Industry Task Force Subsea Dispersant Injection Project
Authors: Nedwed Tim
Published: August 2014

The American Petroleum Institute has sponsored research on subsea dispersant injection since 2011. The research is studying issues related to subsea injection of dispersant as a response to a deep water oil release. This information will be used to develop and communicate acceptable methods for implementing this technology to ensure its availablity both within the U.S. and internationally. Project teams are looking into all aspects of subsea dispersant injection including its effectiveness, fate and effects, subsea plume monitoring, and numerical modeling. As a result of this research, the body of knowledge regarding subsea dispersant injection has grown. Laboratory studies have demonstrated the utility of directly injecting dispersants at the source of a blowout. Work has begun to understand the biodegradation potential and toxicity of a subsea plume to deepwater organisms. Additionally, progress has been made on enhancing numerical models to predict the fate of oil dispersed subsea. This paper provides the scope of the project and preliminary results.
Subsea Release of Oil & Gas – A Downscaled Laboratory Study Focused on Initial Droplet Formation and the Effect of Dispersant Injection
Authors: Brandvik Per Johan , Johansen Øistein , Farooq Umer
Published: August 2014

This article describes the SINTEF Tower Basin (located in Trondheim, Norway) and its use for examining droplet formation and the effectiveness of dispersant injection. The Tower Basin is 6 m high and 3 m in diameter, containing 42 m3 of natural sea water. Oil is injected from the base of the basin and oil droplets are monitored by laser diffraction and in-situ camera techniques.

Size distributions of oil droplets formed in deep water oil & gas blowouts have a substantial impact on the fate of the oil in the environment. However, very limited data on droplet size distributions from subsurface releases exist. The objective of this study has been to establish a laboratory facility to examine droplet size versus release conditions (flow rates and nozzle diameters), oil properties and injection of dispersants (injection techniques and dispersant types). Changes in the size of oil droplets that result from injection of dispersant are used to assess the effectiveness of the dispersant application (dosage and injection method).

This comprehensive dataset is used to develop and calibrate existing algorithms to predict droplet sizes from subsurface releases, and the effect of dispersant treatment. The improved algorithms are implemented in current operational models where they are used to describe subsurface use of dispersant and fate of the dispersed oil in the water column.
International Offers of Assistance Guidelines – Developing an IMO Tool to "Internationalize" Oil Spill Readiness and Response
Authors: Parker Heather A. , Knutson Scott R. , Nicoll Andy , Wadsworth Tim
Published: August 2014

During the Macondo 252 incident in 2010, it became apparent that the lack of clear guidance to effectively manage the flood of response assistance offered and required from other nations and organizations. To help address these concerns, the U.S. Coast Guard hosted an international ad hoc workgroup after the 2011 International Oil Spill Conference to discuss challenges and issues associated with sharing equipment, technology and expertise among nations and organizations to support a national response authority faced with a significant oil spill exceeding the domestic response capacity. Ideas and recommendations were captured and the need for the development of a comprehensive set of guidelines for International Offers of Assistance (IOA) was formed. The U.S. Coast Guard recognized the importance of establishing these guidelines with a broad, global perspective and proposed the concept to the International Maritime Organization's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC). In July 2011, MEPC approved the proposal submitted by the United States, and added this item to the work program of the Technical Working Group of the IMO Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances (OPRC-HNS TG). The OPRC-HNS TG began this work during its 13th session in March 2012, and continues to conduct the bulk of guideline development during intersessional periods via an International Correspondence Group, comprised of a range of national response authorities, spill contractors and industry representatives from around the world. These international guidelines will be available for use by nations as a tool to assist in managing a multitude of requests for and offers of assistance from other countries, regional coordinating bodies, or other entities. This paper summarizes work already completed and still in progress on the development of the IMO International Offers of Assistance Guidelines for oil spills. The ultimate goal for these Guidelines, once completed within the OPRC-HNS TG and approved by MEPC, will be adoption and utilization by IMO Member States, particularly those that are party to OPRC Convention and to the OPRC-HNS Protocol which require States to establish procedures for international cooperation during pollution incidents.
Response to Heavy, Non-Floating Oil Spilled in a Great Lakes River Environment: A Multiple-Lines-Of-Evidence Approach for Submerged Oil Assessment and Recovery
Authors: Dollhopf Ralph H. , Fitzpatrick Faith A. , Kimble Jeffrey W. , Capone Daniel M. , Graan Thomas P. , Zelt Ronald B. , Johnson Rex
Published: August 2014

The Enbridge Line 6B pipeline release of diluted bitumen into the Kalamazoo River downstream of Marshall, MI in July 2010 is one of the largest freshwater oil spills in North American history. The unprecedented scale of impact and massive quantity of oil released required the development and implementation of new approaches for detection and recovery. At the onset of cleanup, conventional recovery techniques were employed for the initially floating oil and were successful. However, volatilization of the lighter diluent, along with mixing of the oil with sediment during flooded, turbulent river conditions caused the oil to sink and collect in natural deposition areas in the river. For more than three years after the spill, recovery of submerged oil has remained the predominant operational focus of the response.

The recovery complexities for submerged oil mixed with sediment in depositional areas and long-term oil sheening along approximately 38 miles of the Kalamazoo River led to the development of a multiple-lines-of-evidence approach comprising six major components: geomorphic mapping, field assessments of submerged oil (poling), systematic tracking and mapping of oil sheen, hydrodynamic and sediment transport modeling, forensic oil chemistry, and net environmental benefit analysis. The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) considered this information in determining the appropriate course of action for each impacted segment of the river.

New sources of heavy crude oils like diluted bitumen and increasing transportation of those oils require changes in the way emergency personnel respond to oil spills in the Great Lakes and other freshwater ecosystems. Strategies to recover heavy oils must consider that the oils may suspend or sink in the water column, mix with fine-grained sediment, and accumulate in depositional areas. Early understanding of the potential fate and behavior of diluted bitumen spills when combined with timely, strong conventional recovery methods can significantly influence response success.
DISCOBIOL: Assessment of the Impact of Dispersant Use for Oil Spill Response in Coastal or Estuarine Areas
Authors: Le Floch Stéphane , Dussauze Mathieu , Merlin François-Xavier , Claireaux Guy , Theron Michael , Le Maire Philippe , Nicolas-Kopec Annabelle
Published: August 2014

Dispersants are known to be an appropriate solution for offshore spill response when sea conditions provide enough energy to disperse and then dilute oil into surface waters. In shallow coastal areas, the use of dispersant is restricted due to the potential that the dispersed oil might come into contact with sensitive resources before dilution can take place. However, after assessing the advantages and potential risks of dispersing oil in coastal areas, it may emerge after careful consideration that and in some cases the use of dispersants could provide a net environmental benefit.

The DISCOBIOL research program aimed to provide practical recommendations on dispersant use in coastal and estuarine areas by acquiring relevant (in terms of likely dispersed oil concentrations) and robust experimental information on the impact of mechanically and chemically dispersed oil on living resources. The main conclusion from these experiments was that there is no significant difference between the impacts from oil with and without dispersant use in terms of acute toxicity. However there are some observable sub-lethal effects from exposure to dispersed oil which do not persist more than a few weeks. In a natural environment, on a medium or long timescale, biota which have been exposed to oil (with and without dispersant) do exhibit some symptoms which could affect their survival rate in the field even though they do not lead to acute toxicity effects. However the DISCOBIOL project demonstrated that effects of dispersed oil were less severe than previously recorded for near shore environments.

In terms of applying these results to decision making at an oil spill, it highlights the need in coastal areas prior to the use of dispersant to complete a “Net Environmental Benefit Analysis” (NEBA) to determine whether the use of dispersant is expected to minimize the overall damage resulting from the pollution. As it is difficult to cover the number of possible spill scenarios at the contingency planning stage, instead of completing a NEBA, many countries define geographical limits where dispersion can be undertaken, based on the water depth and the distance to the shore as well as the presence of sensitive resources. The DISCOBIOL study confirmed the appropriateness of these pre-defined limits for France's coastal waters but demonstrated that they could be less restrictive since the exposure to dispersed oil could be at least five times higher than was previously considered the safe limit.
A HIGH RESOLUTION OPERATIONAL OIL SPILL MODEL AT SANTANDER BAY (SPAIN): IMPLEMENTATION AND VALIDATION
Authors: Castanedo Sonia , Perez-Diaz Beatriz , Abascal Ana J. , Cardenas Mar , Olabarrieta Maitane , Medina Raul , Receveur Justine , Evrard Esterine , Guyomarch Julien
Published: August 2014

A High Resolution Operational Oceanography System that provides decision makers with short-term (within 48 hours) oil spill trajectory forecasting at local scale, has been developed in the Bay of Santander (Spain).

The system is based on process models applied in a set of nested grids. Hydrodynamics in the study area are calculated with the COAWST modelling system which uses daily boundary conditions and meteorological forcing obtained from the European network MYOCEAN (http://www.myocean.eu/) and from the Spanish met office, AEMET, respectively. Daily COAWST's outputs and meteorological forecast are ready to be used by the oil spill transport and fate model, TESEO. A web service that manages the operational system and allows the user to run hypothetical as well as real oil spill trajectories has been implemented.

Data from two hydrodynamics field campaigns and from experimental tests carried out with two types of oils have been used to validate the hydrodynamic and the oil spill models.
Utilization of the Northern Gulf Operational Forecast System to Predict Trajectories of Surface Oil from a Persistent Source Offshore of the Mississippi River Delta
Authors: MacFadyen Amy , Wei Eugene , Warren Christopher , Henry Charlie , Watabayashi Glen
Published: August 2014

In this paper, we demonstrate the use of a new operational, unstructured-grid hydrodynamic model within the oil spill trajectory model GNOME (the General NOAA Operational Modeling Environment) to examine the transport of surface oil from a known source approximately 10 miles offshore of the Mississippi River Delta. At this location, a cluster of wells and/or contaminated sediments have been persistently leaking small amounts of oil since they were damaged in 2004. Slicks associated with this source are frequently detected in satellite imagery analysis, which indicates they are often oriented in the along isobath direction with typical dimensions of 0.5–2 km by 10–30 km varying with wind conditions.

The Northern Gulf of Mexico Operation Forecast System (NGOFS) has recently been deployed by NOAA and includes this region. The underlying hydrodynamic model is an unstructured grid finite-volume model which allows variable grid resolution ranging from 10 km offshore to ~600 m near the coastline. Unstructured grid models are ideally suited for coastal areas as they allow flexible resolution to resolve complex bathymetry and coastlines. However, large model domains combined with high grid resolution can provide a challenge for operational trajectory models as sub-setting the model grid is not as straightforward as in the structured grid case. The utility of any hydrodynamic model for emergency response depends not only on its accuracy, but on the trajectory modeler's ability to access and use the information in a timely manner. As part of this study, we have developed tools to allow the NGOFS results (in addition to other unstructured grid models) to be readily available to GNOME users. Using output from the NGOFS in GNOME, a one year modeled simulation was run in which surface particles were released continuously from the location of the damaged wells. Predicted trajectories of modeled particles less than ~24-hours in age compare qualitatively well with the satellite observations.
The Principles of Effective Post-spill Environmental Monitoring and their Application to Preparedness Assessment
Authors: Kirby Mark F. , Gioia Rosalinda , Law Robin J.
Published: August 2014

Understanding the fate and effects of spilled oil or chemicals in the marine environment is essential if the scientific and response communities are to develop best practices for the future. The timely and successful deployment of survey specialists, sampling strategy and scientific techniques to monitor the environmental consequences of an incident can be a complex challenge and, in the same way as for spill response and clean-up, requires effective planning and coordination. However, the delivery of the necessary guidance, skilled personnel and coordinated management are often not pre-identified, are rarely in the same organisation and the levels of preparedness to undertake complex monitoring programmes are often low. This paper identifies the 8 principles of effective post-spill monitoring programmes as; Scientific Guidance, Skills & Knowledge, Equipment, Funding, Responsibility & Management, Integration & Coordination, Support & Buy-in and Practice. Drawing on experience from the Premiam (Pollution Response in Emergencies: Marine Impact Assessment and Monitoring; www.cefas.defra.gov.uk/premiam) programme in the United Kingdom these principles are described and the approaches taken and challenges faced in the UK to improve post-spill monitoring practices are outlined.

This paper goes on to describe how these principles can be used as the basis for the assessment of monitoring preparedness through the generation of a Monitoring Preparedness Assessment Score (MPAS). This assessment approach can be used by local, regional or national authorities to establish the level of environmental monitoring and impact assessment preparedness for incidents in their areas and to highlight areas for improvement. In addition it is of use to responders, policy makers, environmental scientists and planners as a tool through which to assess preparedness and capability for specific scenarios. The use of the approach is demonstrated through the assessment of previous incidents and potential future scenarios.
TURBYLEC: DEVELOPMENT AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF AN INNOVATIVE CENTRIFUGAL OIL – WATER SEPARATOR
Authors: Maj G. , Laurent M. , Mastrangeli M. , Lecoffre Y.
Published: August 2014

An innovative oil/water separator (TURBYLEC) has been developed in the frame of the HOVERSPILLTM European project (Fast Air Cushion platform for Oil Spill Remediation), partly funded by the European Commission's 7th Framework Program.

Conventional separation solutions are not appropriate to the remediation scenarios targeted by the HOVERSPILLTM project, mainly because low weight and compactness are absolutely required for transportation on a hovercraft. Namely, high separation efficiency, imposed to satisfy environmental legislation for water release, is particularly difficult to achieve with a compact separator when skimmed flow rate, oil content and density contrast are submitted to large variations.

This paper describes the development of a customized patented centrifuge separator devoted to the specific needs of the HOVERSPILLTM project. Conceptual studies, prototype manufacturing and experimental validation are described.

The TURBYLEC prototype tested at CEDRE's facilities has a bulk (size and weight) compatible with its integration on the HOVERSPILLTM platform. Tests results show that TURBYLEC matches with expected use (i.e. downstream of a non-selective skimmer). In this configuration, TURBYLEC separator shows very good oil / water separation performances for inlet oil contents up to 25%. In this range of operating conditions its cut diameter has been evaluated to 60 μm. In order to achieve the same separation performances as with TURBYLEC, which weighs only 70 kg (with liquids), it would be necessary to install an 8 m3 gravity separator.

TURBYLEC separator has been developed for a very specific duty (i.e. for integration on an Hovercraft for Oil Spill remediation). Nevertheless, its proven performances render it particularly attractive, as a standalone system, for many other specific tasks in the field of oil spill remediation. It could also interest various other water treatment applications.
Dispersion of High Viscosity Oils
Authors: Ghurye Ganesh L. , Nedwed Tim J. , Tidwell Amy C. , Canevari Gerard P.
Published: August 2014

This study evaluated the effectiveness of three dispersants in simulated seawater on five different fuel oils (both intermediate fuel oils (IFOs) and heavy fuel oils (HFOs)) with viscosities ranging from 1,079 to 6,615 cSt and densities ranging from 0.995 to 0.998 g/cc. The three dispersants were COREXIT® 9500 dispersant, a dispersant under development by ExxonMobil – ED-6™ gel dispersant, and FINASOL™ OSR 52 dispersant. Testing was done at two dispersant-to-oil ratios (DOR) – 1:20 and 1:10.

All three dispersants were effective (70%+ dispersant effectiveness (DE)) for fuel oils with a viscosity less than 2,000 cSt - IFOs 180 and 380. The dispersants were less effective (16 to 58% DE) for the higher viscosity oils (ranging in viscosity from 4,258 to 6,615 cSt). Increasing the amount of dispersant from a DOR of 1:20 to 1:10 significantly improved DE. For example, the DE of the two HFOs studied increased from less than 42% to greater than 56% using COREXIT 9500™ dispersant.

The results of our bench-scale study indicate that dispersants can disperse heavy fuel oils and, therefore, could be a response option for spills of these products in a marine environment.
An Offshore Regulator's Perspective: Maintaining Focus on Managing Spill Risk
Authors: Grebe Cameron , Smith Matthew , Ball David
Published: August 2014

Lest we forget – three years after Macondo the focus on preparing for major oil spills and ensuring offshore petroleum companies have arrangements in place that match the specific risks of the activity is as critical as ever. The Australian regulator is resolved to continually challenge risk assessments and require companies to go beyond design events in order to meet their commitments for a world-class preparedness and response capability.

Established to independently administer an objective-based regulatory regime for the offshore petroleum industry in Australian Commonwealth waters, the National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Management Authority seeks to hold industry to account for its level of preparedness for a major incident. Challenged by remote and vulnerable areas, the Australian oil and gas industry has responded admirably, if not collectively.

The competitive nature of the industry, the necessary focus on prevention, emerging technologies and more difficult targets have influenced the level of enthusiasm for continually improving oil spill preparedness arrangements. As the regulator of offshore environmental management our focus is to ensure that as time progresses, and prevention measures prove themselves reliable, that these factors do not impede further progress in preparing for mitigating and remediating major oil spills.

There are paradoxical challenges for industry preparedness. No single company can or should hold the full range of resources for a preventable incident. Yet society expects exactly this standard from those developing Australia's riches. The radical centre of this paradox is where insightful and lasting solutions can and must be found - weak compromises such as showing preparedness for your last event will often fail when put to the test. Companies and Governments alike must maintain situational awareness of their spill risks and evaluate the circumstances they find themselves in and implement measures to manage this risk.

A regulator's role is only effective if they are challenging companies and asking questions: Have you done enough to understand and manage the risks? Are you implementing what is required? The regulator in Australia has implemented a way of regulating that, in part, aims to keep industry's focus on their next event and not their last. Its mechanism for doing so is to establish an improvement culture of open and transparent risk assessments that are subject to challenge against legislated risk acceptance criteria. This paper outlines the current challenges of an independent regulator and identifies the next steps in challenging industry to do more.
Advancing Oil Spill Response in Arctic Conditions: The Arctic Oil Spill Response Technology - Joint Industry Programme
Authors: Mullin Joseph V.
Published: August 2014

The oil and gas industry has made significant advances in being able to detect, contain and clean up spills in arctic environments. To further build on existing research and improve the technologies and methodologies for arctic oil spill response, nine oil and gas companies (BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Eni, ExxonMobil, North Caspian Operating Company, Shell, Statoil, and Total) established the Arctic Oil Spill Response Technology Joint Industry Programme (JIP). The goal of the JIP is to advance arctic oil spill response strategies and equipment as well as to increase understanding of potential impacts of oil on the arctic marine environment. Officially launched in January 2012 at the Arctic Frontiers Conference in Tromsø, Norway, the JIP has six technical working groups (TWG) each focusing on a different key area of oil spill response: dispersants; environmental effects; trajectory modeling; remote sensing; mechanical recovery and in-situ burning (ISB). There is also a field research TWG to pursue opportunities for field releases for validation of response technologies and strategies. Each TWG is led by recognized subject matter experts with years of experience in oil spill response research and operations. This JIP is bringing together the world's foremost experts on oil spill response research, development, and operations from across industry, academia, and independent research centres. Research integrity will be ensured through technical peer review and public dissemination of results. This paper describes the scope and current progress of this Joint Industry Program (JIP).
Lessons Learnt: Oiled Wildlife Response in Asia
Authors: Ling Ho Yei
Published: August 2014

In Asia, the concept of wildlife response is a novel idea. Unlike in Europe where there is various wildlife groups actively carrying out the conservation of wildlife, in Asia, wildlife conservation is not viewed with a high priority. Only a handful of wildlife organizations exist. Many of these have not had the opportunity to respond to an oiled wildlife incident. Due to the limited availability of regional resources in Asia to respond to wildlife impacted by oil, international assistance might be required. Since the closest available resources are located in the Oceania region, a significant delay is expected before a substantial wildlife response could be mobilized.

Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) collaborates with Sea Alarm Foundation, a wildlife non-governmental organization, to address issues related to oiled wildlife response. OSRL has stockpiles of wildlife response equipment in Southampton, Bahrain, Fort Lauderdale and Singapore, which can be mobilised in the event of an incident. Each stockpile consists of a combination of specialised scientific and basic equipment. However as transportation requires time, it could require several days for some equipment to arrive in remote locations.

In addition since Asia has a limited number of personnel who are trained to use this equipment, personnel will also have to be moved. One major concern is to manage the time of arrival of equipment and trained wildlife responders in-country, ensuring that they arrive at site together thus facilitating an effective and efficient response.

This paper will highlight the lessons learnt from various responses, which comprises the element of wildlife response, that OSRL was actively involved in and how these lessons have been used to enhance oiled wildlife response capability in OSRL to better serve Asia.
The role of small‐scale ion injections in the buildup of Earth's ring current pressure: Van Allen Probes observations of the 17 March 2013 storm
Authors: Gkioulidou Matina , Ukhorskiy A. Y. , Mitchell D. G. , Sotirelis T. , Mauk B. H. , Lanzerotti L. J.
Published: August 2014

Energetic particle transport into the inner magnetosphere during geomagnetic storms is responsible for significant plasma pressure enhancement, which is the driver of large‐scale currents that control the global electrodynamics within the magnetosphere‐ionosphere system. Therefore, understanding the transport of plasma from the tail deep into the near‐Earth magnetosphere, as well as the energization processes associated with this transport, is essential for a comprehensive knowledge of the near‐Earth space environment. During the main phase of a geomagnetic storm on 17 March 2013 (minimum Dst ~ −137 nT), the Radiation Belt Storm Probes Ion Composition Experiment (RBSPICE) instrument on the Van Allen Probes observed frequent, small‐scale proton injections deep into the inner nightside magnetosphere in the region L ~ 4 – 6. Although isolated injections have been previously reported inside geosynchronous orbit, the large number of small‐scale injections observed in this event suggests that, during geomagnetic storms injections provide a robust mechanism for transporting energetic ions deep into the inner magnetosphere. In order to understand the role that these injections play in the ring current dynamics, we determine the following properties for each injection: (i) associated pressure enhancement, (ii) the time duration of this enhancement, and (iii) the lowest and highest energy channels exhibiting a sharp increase in their intensities. Based on these properties, we estimate the effect of these small‐scale injections on the pressure buildup during the storm. We find that this mode of transport could make a substantial contribution to the total energy gain in the storm time inner magnetosphere.
Contribution from different current systems to SYM and ASY midlatitude indices
Authors: Dubyagin S. , Ganushkina N. , Kubyshkina M. , Liemohn M.
Published: August 2014

Using empirical magnetospheric models, we study the relative contribution from different current systems to the SYM and ASY midlatitude indices. It was found that the models can reproduce ground‐based midlatitude indices with correlation coefficients between the model and real indices being ∼0.8–0.9 for SYM‐H and ∼0.6–0.8 and ∼0.5–0.7 for ASY‐H and ASY‐D, respectively. The good agreement between the indices computed using magnetospheric models and real ones indicates that purely ionospheric current systems, on average, give modest contribution to these indices. The superposed epoch analysis of the indices computed using the models shows that, nominally, the cross‐tail current gives the dominant contribution to SYM‐H index during the main phase. However, it should be remembered that the model region 2, partial ring current, and cross‐tail current systems are not spatially demarcated (the systems are overlapped in the vicinity of geostationary orbit). For this reason, this result should be taken with a precaution. The relative contribution from symmetric ring current to SYM‐H starts to increase a bit prior or just after SYM‐H minimum and attains its maximum during recovery phase. The ASY‐H and ASY‐D indices are controlled by interplay between three current systems which close via the ionosphere. The region 1 FAC gives the largest contribution to ASY‐H and ASY‐D indices during the main phase, though, region 2 FAC and partial ring current contributions are also prominent. In addition, we discuss the application of these results to resolving the long‐debated inconsistencies of the substorm‐controlled geomagnetic storm scenario.
Effect of ray and speed perturbations on ionospheric tomography by over‐the‐horizon radar: A new method
Authors: Roy Corinna , Occhipinti Giovanni , Boschi Lapo , Molinié Jean‐Philippe , Wieczorek Mark
Published: August 2014

Most recent methods in ionospheric tomography are based on the inversion of the total electron content measured by ground‐based GPS receivers. As a consequence of the high frequency of the GPS signal and the absence of horizontal raypaths, the electron density structure is mainly reconstructed in the F2 region (300 km), where the ionosphere reaches the maximum of ionization, and is not sensitive to the lower ionospheric structure. We propose here a new tomographic method of the lower ionosphere, based on the full inversion of over‐the‐horizon (OTH) radar data. Previous studies using OTH radar for ionospheric tomography inverted only the leading edge echo curve of backscatter ionograms. The major advantage of our methodology is taking into account, numerically and jointly, the effect that the electron density perturbations induce not only in the speed of electromagnetic waves but also on the raypath geometry. This last point is extremely critical for OTH radar inversions as the emitted signal propagates through the ionosphere between a fixed starting point (the radar) and an unknown end point on the Earth surface where the signal is backscattered. We detail our ionospheric tomography method with the aid of benchmark tests. Having proved the necessity to take into account both effects simultaneously, we apply our method to real data. This is the first time that the effect of the raypath deflection has been quantified and that the ionospheric plasma density has been estimated over the entirety of Europe with an OTH radar.
Electron pitch angle/energy distribution in the magnetotail
Authors: Artemyev A. V. , Walsh A. P. , Petrukovich A. A. , Baumjohann W. , Nakamura R. , Fazakerley A. N.
Published: August 2014

In this paper we utilize 9 years of Cluster observations in the Earth's magnetotail to investigate electron pitch angle/energy distributions. We mainly concentrate on the population of anisotropic electrons with a dominance of the parallel phase space density and energies larger than 100 eV. The energy distribution of this population strongly varies with the downtail distance (the near‐Earth x>−12RE and the tail x∈[−20,−12]RE) and along the dawn‐dusk direction (the midnight |y|<10RE and the flanks |y|>10RE). In the tail‐midnight domain the electron anisotropic population is present at all energy ranges up to 20 keV, while at the tail‐flank domain only the energy range below several keV is filled by this population. In the near‐Earth domain the only anisotropic electrons are cold, with energies less than 1 keV. We investigate the dependence of the energy distribution of the anisotropic electron population on the system parameters for the midnight‐tail domain where the main statistics is collected. The increase of the Bz GSM component of the magnetic field corresponds to an increasing energy range filled by anisotropic electrons. The increase of the electron temperature anisotropy is provided by the enhancement of the anisotropic population at all energies up to 20 keV. There is no distinct dependence of the electron anisotropic population on the plasma flow velocity. The increase of the electron temperature corresponds to shifting of the electron anisotropic population toward higher energies. We propose a simple model of the pitch angle/energy distribution of this electron population and discuss the origin of anisotropic electrons in the magnetotail.
Representation of sharp rifts and faults mechanics in modeling ice shelf flow dynamics: Application to Brunt/Stancomb‐Wills Ice Shelf, Antarctica
Authors: Larour E. , Khazendar A. , Borstad C. P. , Seroussi H. , Morlighem M. , Rignot E.
Published: August 2014

Ice shelves play a major role in buttressing ice sheet flow into the ocean, hence the importance of accurate numerical modeling of their stress regime. Commonly used ice flow models assume a continuous medium and are therefore complicated by the presence of rupture features (crevasses, rifts, and faults) that significantly affect the overall flow patterns. Here we apply contact mechanics and penalty methods to develop a new ice shelf flow model that captures the impact of rifts and faults on the rheology and stress distribution of ice shelves. The model achieves a best fit solution to satellite observations of ice shelf velocities to infer the following: (1) a spatial distribution of contact and friction points along detected faults and rifts, (2) a more realistic spatial pattern of ice shelf rheology, and (3) a better representation of the stress balance in the immediate vicinity of faults and rifts. Thus, applying the model to the Brunt/Stancomb‐Wills Ice Shelf, Antarctica, we quantify the state of friction inside faults and the opening rates of rifts and obtain an ice shelf rheology that remains relatively constant everywhere else on the ice shelf. We further demonstrate that better stress representation has widespread application in examining aspects affecting ice shelf structure and dynamics including the extent of ice mélange in rifts and the change in fracture configurations. All are major applications for better insight into the important question of ice shelf stability.
Optimizing the scale of markets for water quality trading
Authors: Doyle Martin W. , Patterson Lauren A. , Chen Yanyou , Schnier Kurt E. , Yates Andrew J.
Published: August 2014

Applying market approaches to environmental regulations requires establishing a spatial scale for trading. Spatially large markets usually increase opportunities for abatement cost savings but increase the potential for pollution damages (hot spots), vice versa for spatially small markets. We develop a coupled hydrologic‐economic modeling approach for application to point source emissions trading by a large number of sources and apply this approach to the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) within the watershed of the second largest estuary in the U.S. We consider two different administrative structures that govern the trade of emission permits: one‐for‐one trading (the number of permits required for each unit of emission is the same for every WWTP) and trading ratios (the number of permits required for each unit of emissions varies across WWTP). Results show that water quality regulators should allow trading to occur at the river basin scale as an appropriate first‐step policy, as is being done in a limited number of cases via compliance associations. Larger spatial scales may be needed under conditions of increased abatement costs. The optimal scale of the market is generally the same regardless of whether one‐for‐one trading or trading ratios are employed.
Validation of a Novel Radiographic Scoring System for Calcinosis Affecting the Hands of Patients With Systemic Sclerosis
Authors: Chung Lorinda , Valenzuela Antonia , Fiorentino David , Stevens Kathryn , Li Shufeng , Harris Jonathan , Hutchinson Charles , Assassi Shervin , Beretta Lorenzo , Lakshminarayanan Santhanam , Rodriguez‐Reyna Tatiana S. , Denton Christopher P. , Taillefer Rebecca G. , Herrick Ariane L. , Baron Murray ,   for the Scleroderma Clinical Trials Consortium Calcinosis Working Group
Published: August 2014

Objective

There are currently no validated outcome measures to assess calcinosis severity in systemic sclerosis (SSc; scleroderma). We sought to develop and validate a novel radiographic scoring system for calcinosis affecting the hands of SSc patients for potential use in future clinical trials.

Methods

Following a 1‐hour teleconference training session, 12 investigators (8 rheumatologists, 1 dermatologist, and 3 radiologists) scored 12 hand radiographs in random order using 2 scoring systems (termed “simple” and “complex”) and re‐scored 2 randomly assigned radiographs after a minimum of 24 hours. Interrater and intrarater reliability were assessed using a weighted kappa coefficient for the simple system (κ), and an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for the complex system (ICC <0.4 for poor, 0.4–0.7 for moderate, and >0.7 for excellent).

Results

Mean time to complete the complex scoring system was significantly longer than the simple scoring system (4.0 versus 0.4 minutes; P < 0.0001). Overall interrater reliability for the simple scoring system was poor (κ = 0.39, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 0.1–0.52) but improved if dichotomized as mild/moderate versus severe (κ = 0.51, 95% CI 0.26–0.7). Interrater reliability was excellent for the complex scoring system (ICC 0.89, 95% CI 0.86–0.92). Intrarater reliability was moderate for the simple scoring system (κ = 0.67, 95% CI 0.37–0.96) but almost perfect for the complex scoring system (ICC 0.93, 95% CI 0.89–0.97).

Conclusion

We developed a novel radiographic scoring system that accounts for the area coverage, density, and anatomic location of calcinosis affecting the hands in patients with SSc. This scoring system is feasible with excellent reliability and should undergo further validation testing for use in clinical trials.
Uncovering Buried Structure and Interfaces in Molecular Photovoltaics
Authors: Gilchrist James B. , Basey‐Fisher Toby. H. , Chang Sharon C'E. , Scheltens Frank , McComb David W. , Heutz Sandrine
Published: August 2014

The processes that generate current in organic photovoltaics are highly dependent on the micro‐ and nano‐structure in the semiconductor layers, especially at the donor‐acceptor interface. Elucidating film properties throughout the thickness of the devices is therefore key to their further development. Here, a methodology is developed to gain unprecedented insights into the structure and composition of the molecular layers within the depth of device structure using high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The technique was applied to three archetypical solar cell configurations consisting of copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) and C60, which have been cross‐sectioned using a focused ion beam method optimized to minimize sample damage. The HRTEM images exhibit lattice fringes in both CuPc and C60, confirming the crystallinity and texture of both materials, and offering novel insight into the growth of C60 onto molecular materials. The donor‐acceptor interface morphology is further studied using scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) in combination with energy dispersive X‐ray (EDX) spectroscopy, extending the scope of our methodology to amorphous heterostructures.
Dual Roles of Graphene Oxide in Chondrogenic Differentiation of Adult Stem Cells: Cell‐Adhesion Substrate and Growth Factor‐Delivery Carrier
Authors: Yoon Hee Hun , Bhang Suk Ho , Kim Taeho , Yu Taekyung , Hyeon Taeghwan , Kim Byung‐Soo
Published: August 2014

Here, it is shown that graphene oxide (GO) can be utilized as both a cell‐adhesion substrate and a growth factor protein‐delivery carrier for the chondrogenic differentiation of adult stem cells. Conventionally, chondrogenic differentiation of stem cells is achieved by culturing cells in pellets and adding the protein transforming growth factor‐β3 (TGF‐β3), a chondrogenic factor, to the culture medium. However, pellets mainly provide cell‐cell interaction and diffusional limitation of TGF‐β3 may occur inside the pellet both of these factors may limit the chondrogenic differentiation of stem cells. In this study, GO sheets (size = 0.5–1 μm) were utilized to adsorb fibronectin (FN, a cell‐adhesion protein) and TGF‐β3 and were then incorporated in pellets of human adipose‐derived stem cells (hASCs). The hybrid pellets of hASC‐GO enhanced the chondrogenic differentiation of hASCs by adding the cell‐FN interaction and supplying TGF‐β3 effectively. This method may provide a new platform for stem cell culture for regenerative medicine.