bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Outer Eastern Polynesia
Authors: Gell Alfred
Published: November 2023

In view of the fame and relatively full documentation of Maori moko, it might be expected that the ensuing account of tattooing in New Zealand would be long and complicated. But I shall be relatively brief, for a number of reasons. First of all, Maori moko has already been the subject of two monographs (Robley 1896; Simmons 1986) not to mention a number of shorter but still informative articles, especially notable being those by Roth (1901), Simmons (1983), and Gathercole (1988). Unfortunately, the legacy of fine drawings, paintings, and prints showing tattooed Maori chieftains, is not matched by an equally rich array of documents giving insight into the meaning of Maori body art. It seems that this art was only loosely articulated to the major institutions of Maori politics and religion, at least, this is the impression one derives from an initial reading of the better-known sources. But scattered here and there in the literature, there are hints which suggest that Maori moko was rather more than a particularly striking form of personal adornment. Whereas in Samoa, the Marquesas, or even the Society Islands, it is relatively easy to establish the presence of political and cosmological elements in tattoo art—as I hope the preceding chapters have sufficiently demonstrated—the Maori material affords few such easy insights into deeper meanings.
Impartiality
Authors: Barry Brian
Published: November 2023

My choice of an epigraph drawn from Karl Popper’s The Open Society and Its Enemies  1 is not a casual one. Looking back later at the writing of that book, which was completed in 1943 (though only published later), Popper wrote: ‘My own voice began to sound to me as if it came from the distant past—like the voice of one of the hopeful social reformers of the eighteenth or even the seventeenth century.’ Those words were written in 1950, and Popper added that his mood of depression had by then passed. Fifty years later, I find the state of mind that Popper recalled having been in during 1943 only too familiar.
In Daur Landscapes
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

Urgunge’s fleeting observations about the world around his childhood village of Bokorchien never built up into a coherent picture. This chapter reveals several different kinds of discontinuity in his accounts and those of other Daurs. I briefly discuss this point here. Towards the end of the chapter I describe how the various disengaged domains of nature were, however, linked by one particular discourse, that of ‘power’ or ‘mastery’.
Space and Time Beyond the Village
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

One often meets in the literature the idea that the peoples of North Asia think in terms of a tripartite cosmos, consisting of an upper world (the sky), a middle world (the earth), and an underworld. However, listening to Urgunge and other Daurs talking I found they mentioned this structure only in a particular context, as destinations for souls after death and, less often, as sources for souls yet to be born. Such talk might go along the lines that souls of good people go to the sky and bad souls go to the underworld, and then of course there was our own visible world. So that makes three.
Male and Female Traditions in Ritual
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

The traveller’s tale shows how even a deliberately prosaic representation of reality has its subtleties and its point of view. Its facticity is not transparent but constructed. Ritualization introduces other kinds of construction that can intensify the particular interpretations of reality of social groups and individuals. Just as ‘reading a book’ evokes a different visualization of the places and characters from ‘seeing a film’, the particular compositions of rituals make possible their own otherworldly and enchanted ways of putting ideas together. But although ‘shamanism’ does not exist anywhere without ritualization, we should beware of thinking that rituals are all there are to it. It is interesting to think about which parts of religious life are not ritualized and why this should be so.
Shamans in Society and History
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

In the great ritual just described, shamans danced between the home trees, with their images of ancestral disasters, and the outer tree, bearing its spirits of double-edged fortune and maleficent void. Nothing in this shamanic universe was a single indivisible unit, and nothing was simple or devoid of threat. Such a universe arose, I suggest, from the shaman’s real-life practice, which was deeply implicated in the psychology of a knot of relationships. Although the individuals calling on the shaman’s services were different on each occasion, the shaman’s performance involved a necessary cast of intertwined roles. One can go further and say that shamans’ practice created its own social relations. Elucidating this can help us understand one of Urgunge’s most puzzling statements, his insistence that shamanism was about power, but Daur public life was without conflict.
Urgunge’s Way
Authors: Humphrey Caroline , Onon Urgunge
Published: November 2023

‘Shamanism’ as a whole conglomerate of beliefs and practices was not only about the knowledge we have, but about the various kinds of knowledge we ordinary people do not quite have. This knowing was not, however, thought of as supernatural. It was knowledge of what was there to be known, but only certain individuals were gifted to know it or discover it, and they did so in different ways. For this reason ‘shamanism’ could encompass and deepen ordinary knowledge of nature (including human nature), thus revealing what made the ordinary marvellous.
Regulatory Reform and Internationalization in Telecommunications
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: November 2023

After decades of stability, the 1980s and early 1990s witnessed large-scale regulatory reform in telecommunications in Western Europe, both at national level and European Community level. The previous regulatory arrangements were crucial in the relationship between governments and public telecommunications operators (PTOs), with the latter behaving as ‘national enterprises’. Over the 1980s and early 1990s, a new framework emerged which may both permit and oblige PTOs to internationalize, or at least Europeanize, by removing ‘special and exclusive rights’ in national markets in the EC. In examining the development of this framework, the focus of the analysis is the interaction between the changing strategies of governments and PTOs at national level, and regulatory reform at EC level.
Utilitarian Economics
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

IF a person says that he undertakes to look after the welfare of a child, then he takes it upon himself to be concerned with everything which may affect the well-being of the child. We are in this book interested in economicwelfare. There is no part of well-being called ‘ economic well-being’. The word ‘ economic’ qualifies not well-being, but the causes of well-being or changes in it. If I am interested only in someone’s economic welfare, then I interest myself only in the economic things which may affect his well-being.
The New Welfare Economics (1): Welfare Criteria
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

THE New Welfare Economics is new in that it claims to have established the ‘ optimum’ conditions of production and exchange without adding the ‘ utilities’ of different persons. In this respect it has broken with the utilitarian tradition in economics. The founder of the New Welfare Economics was Pareto, who not only used the concept of ordinal preference, but also defined, for a society, an ‘ optimum’ position which was independent of any necessity for adding satisfactions, or comparing the satisfactions of different individuals.
Indivisibilities And Consumers’ Surplus
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

THE ‘ optimum’ conditions of exchange and production which were developed in Chapter VIII, and discussed in Chapter IX, apply only to marginal changes. That is sufficiently obvious. The whole analysis was conducted in terms of rates of exchange or transformation; and wherever it makes sense to speak of rates, there, by definition, the marginal analysis is applicable. Where, however, the amount of a thing bought or produced can only be varied in jumps, i.e. where there are ‘ indivisibilities’, there, again by definition, the marginal analysis cannot apply.
The Effects of Exercise and Nutrition on the Menstrual Cycle
Authors: Cumming David C
Published: November 2023

Strenuous physical activity, particularly endurance training, is associated with delayed menarche, inadequate luteal phase, anovulatory cycles, and oligomenorrhoea. Sub-clinical changes occur in a majority of exercising women with as little as one month of strenuous physical activity (Prior, 1982a, 1982b; Bullen et al., 1985). However, the prevalence and long-term significance of exerciseassociated reproductive dysfunction are still debated. Suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis may also occur in male runners and other athletes.
Demographic Research on Lactational Amenorrhoea
Authors: Ford Kathleen , Kim Young J
Published: November 2023

The importance of lactational amenorrhoea as a determinant of fertility levels has long been recognized in demographic research. Breastfeeding practices vary widely across and within countries, and there is evidence of change in the extent of breastfeeding in several areas. Much work has been conducted in this area, including examination of data and measurement problems in population surveys, modelling of lactational amenorrhoea, and studies of its determinants. A sample of the range of international variation in the length of breastfeeding and post-partum amenorrhoea that has been found in demographic and epidemiological studies is shown in Table 21.1. The shortest mean or medianiength of post-partum amenorrhoea (1.8 months) occurred in Taiwan among women who did not lactate, while the longest lengths of post-partum amenorrhoea (14-15 months) were recorded where breastfeeding is prolonged: in Bangladesh and Guatemala. There is considerable variation within each geographical region shown in the table. These data are mainly from less developed countries. In more developed countries, the lengths of breastfeeding and amenorrhoea tend to be much shorter.
Breastfeeding and the Length of Post-Partum Amenorrhoea: A Hazards Model Approach
Authors: Rodriguez GermÁn , Diaz Soledad
Published: November 2023

It is now widely accepted that breastfeeding is associated with longer periods of post-partum amenorrhoea, a delay in the return of ovulation, and therefore longer birth ·intervals; see, for example, Van Ginneken (1977), SimpsonHebert and Huffman (1981), Howie and McNeilly (1982) and Diaz et al. (1982). Breastfeeding is also associated with reduced fecundability after the return of menses and ovulation (see McNeilly et al., 1982; John et al., 1987). There is also evidence that the effect of breastfeeding is substantially weakened with the introduction of food supplements (see, for example, Prema and Ravindranath, 1982). A key factor mediating the effect of breastfeeding on the length of post-partum amenorrhoea is the frequency of suckling through the day and night, as shown, for example, by Howie et al. (1982). Indeed, the apparent effect of the introduction of supplements could well be a consequence of a decrease in the frequency or intensity of suckling.
The Elements of Production Processes and the Role of Time
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto
Published: November 2023

In the course of this research it was found that the analysis of the relationship between scale and technical practice often requires a more detailed representation of production processes than is normally given in the economic literature. Both ‘neoclassical’ production functions and linear production models focus on the relationships between input quantities and output levels, and tend to overlook the complex organization of productive operations that is needed in actual processes. But there are important links between output levels and technical practices which cannot be seen at all, unless one looks behind the input-output relationships and examines how changes in output levels may depend on changes in the organization of productive operations within each productive establishment, or within any other type of productive unit.
Scale-Technology Contraction
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto
Published: November 2023

Since the writings of the classical economists, changes of technical practice due to upper bounds on the scale of the production process have been thought to be a major cause of decreasing productive efficiency as the output scale expands.’ However, it seems to have passed unnoticed that the change of practice and the decline in efficiency have two quite distinct causes: the contraction of the set of feasible technical practices as the output scale expands, and the substitution by producers of a less for a more ‘efficient’ practice.
Scale, Technology, and Technical Behaviour
Authors: Scazzieri Roberto
Published: November 2023

Changes of process scale are often associated with changes in the set of feasible technical practices. However, such changes do not necessarily bring about technical change: in many circumstances technology expansion and technology contraction may leave the technical practice unchanged. This is because the technical practice followed at any given scale of the production process is the result of two separate, though interrelated, causes: the scale, and the behaviour of producers, who each adopt precisely one of the feasible technical practices. Changes in process scale may change the set of feasible practices: new practices may become feasible and other practices may drop out of use. In general, however, more than a single practice is feasible at any given scale. This makes the technical practice in use depend on which practices are excluded by the producer at a given scale.
Introduction
Authors: Trussell James
Published: November 2023

This book emanates from a seminar on Event History Analysis, which was sponsored jointly by the Institut National d’Etudes Demographiques (INED) and the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), held in Paris from 14 to 17 March I 988. A selection of the papers presented at that seminar, some of which have been extensively revised to reflect the discussion there, forms this volume. During the past few years, advances have been made in the study of individual life histories (e.g. family or occupational histories) for two reasons. First, the number of surveys undertaken throughout the world to collect detailed information on the timing of events in individual lives (including fertility surveys, surveys on the family, and occupation and migration histories) is increasing. Such detailed information cannot easily be analysed with conventional statistical methods such as ordinary linear regression, so that the increase in data has not necessarily led to commensurate advances in knowledge. Simultaneously, however, there has been great progress in developing methods to analyse such data. Hazard models (or multivariate life tables) permit the investigator to disentangle the effects of several explanatory variables on the risk that an event will occur; they also provide an attractive alternative to conventional simultaneous-equations techniques for analysing concurrent processes such as female labour force participation and fertility.
Some Issues in the Quantitative Characterization of Heterogeneous Populations
Authors: Manton Kenneth G , Singer Burton , Woodbury Max A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss the analytic issues that arise in identifying, controlling, and-under certain circumstances-estimating the effects of unobserved variables in demographic analyses of a wide variety of time-to-occurrence data. In this discussion, we will argue that the treatment of the effects of unobservable variables in demographic modelling is a direct and natural extension of the evaluation of model specification for analyses where all relevant variables are assumed to be observed. Indeed, it will be suggested that model specification evaluation must involve considering the likelihood and testing for the presence of effects of unobservable variables in order to be considered complete. We begin by identifying necessary steps in the general evaluation of demographic time-to-occurrence models based on observed variables alone. With this foundation at hand, we then introduce the additional subtleties associated with unobservable variables.
Is there a correct answer?
Authors: Haslett D W
Published: November 2023

The critics of capitalism see the vast differences in wealth and opportunities between rich and poor that this system breeds, they see the unfair burdens that it places upon ordinary working people, and they conclude that capitalism cannot be justified. These vast inequalities and unfair burdens are indeed grave, moral deficiencies of capitalism, as it exists today. Can, however, these deficiencies be overcome, without abandoning capitalism and its traditional strengths? Or, as the critics contend, should we turn instead to some form of socialism; if not to central-planning socialism, which has fallen out of favour recently, then perhaps to market, or worker-control socialism? These are the questions to which this book is addressed.
Reciprocal Study of Interactions between Two Events
Authors: Courgeau Daniel , Éva Leliévre
Published: November 2023

We shall now examine the bivariate case, which makes it possible to study the interactions between two events-marriage and departure from the farming community, for example. We shall present the concepts underlying the analysis before formalizing it. In the univariate case, the problems posed by competing risks arise when only one occurrence is observed out of all the possible occurrences. However, study of behaviour patterns leads to the consideration of the more complex aspects of individual life-courses. As was seen in the introduction, individuals are not confronted with single choices: rather, their decisions are the result of arbitrage processes, whether objective or not, between systems in which they are implicated, and among which coherence must be maintained. Thus, if a demographic phenomenon is studied independently of its context, the analysis will be oversimplifying. In the same way, it is not enough to study the influence of a series of factors on a phenomenon. It is necessary to take account of the distribution of several competing phenomena in the course of an individual’s life.
Introduction
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

More than a century ago Alfred Marshall had an idea which he felt identified a systematic blemish on the proverbial invisible hand. He called this idea ‘external economy ’. Naturally it attracted attention, not only because of Marshall ’s stature, but because it raised the ever-contentious issue of governmental management of the economy. Not too long afterwards Sir John Clapham called Marshall ’s idea an ‘empty box’; a category that was empty because nothing in the real world corresponded to it. This was but one incident in a long, often heated, and largely unsettled battle over the significance of what came to be known as ‘externality ’.
A History of the Notion of Externality
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

At least one hundred years have passed since ‘external economies ’ entered into economists ‘ vocabulary. The concept has been used widely, but no precise and agreed-upon meaning of the term seems yet to have emerged. This might not be of much concern if it were just marginal differences of interpretation that were under discussion. But this is not the case, as the differ¬ences in meanings attributed to this notion are often fundamental in nature. Despite concerted attempts over the years by very prominent economists to zero in on the basic notion of externality, the claims regarding the true nature of externality have not converged. This is all the more striking given both the wide use of the notion, and the steadily growing volume of work done in the area known broadly as the ‘theory of externalities ’.
General-Equilibrium Approach
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

A different perspective on the nature of extemality was provided by economists approaching the question from a more analytical vantage point; specifically attempting to identify its meaning and place within the general-equilibrium framework. Rather than trying to identify some event or some feature of an agent ’s control variables, the focus was on finding the boundaries between such concepts as market failure, public goods, non-convexities, and externality. The main motivation was to fully grasp the sources, or causes, of market failure within the rigorous Arrow-Debreu framework. Understanding the consequences of externality in terms of efficiency took primacy over establishing its existence as a phenomenon.
Relevant Causality
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

A recurring theme in the literature on externalities is that of uncovering the causes of market failure. Although this is a central concern in the general-equilibrium approach, it is also an issue with the phenomenological characterizations when absence of property rights or consent are viewed with an eye to their effects. Is the non-existence of property rights a cause of market failure? Is the non-existence of markets a cause of market failure? It has been argued that the ultimate cause of market failure cannot be any institution, but the cost associated with institutions, that is the presence of transaction costs. Both Bator (1958) and Arrow (1969) treated the presence of high transaction costs as a cause of market failure. I argued that the simple presence of high transaction costs impeding the formation of property rights or markets was not sufficient for failure. It could be that no property rights should be assigned or enforced in the case in question, and this would be optimal. Lack of market or high transaction costs would not necessarily imply failure, On the other hand, if market institutions were present when other non-market institutions could allocate resources better, or at less organizational cost, then this would be market failure. The market would fail relative to other organizational modes.
Evaluating Institutional Change
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

Externality has proven to be a rather poor and often misleading classificatory principle. Attempts to define a certain class of events or phenomena, or a special cause of market failure, floundered as distinctions were made that were not differences. The few clear and consistent understandings, or characterizations of externality, do not seem to warrant a special distinction as ‘externality ’. The generic sense of externality as general interdependence should be called just that: general interdependence. Likewise the generic sense of externality as activity escaping the purview of institutions could be called institutional inefficiency. This way also they are not confused for one another. Efforts to narrow these broad categories, either by trying to form a special kind of interdependence, or a subset of causes of market failure, ultimately Jacked a good criterion demarcating external and internal activity, or associating this ‘external ’ activity with causes of market failure.
National Trends and Patterns of Instability, 1931-1984
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

The computed instability indices for the national grain-sown area, yield, and output, are presented in Fig. 3.1 for 1931-7 and the different post war policy periods. Breakdowns for the major grain crops are also given. The indices are plotted against the four categories of instability indices defined by Walker in order to suggest the relative magnitude of long-run changes in agricultural instability. Note that the periods are slightly different from those set out in Table 1.1. The modifications are necessary in order to align the national series with available weather and provincial data. This facilitates consistent verification of the national trends of instability against the regional sources of disturbance.
Regional Variations
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines regional trends in agricultural instability and its intraregional differentiation in terms of changes in provincial instability indices from 1931-7 to 1979--84. We focus exclusively on the three physical grain measures, i.e. sown area, yield per sown hectare, and total output, in order to show, first, how interregional differences in the degree of instability changed over time and whether there was an equalizing trend as a result of technological progress and enhanced collective control in the post-war years. In the second section, we examine the various provincial trends in each of our seven regions, with a view to verifying the sources of change in regional instability trends.
Precipitation Evidence of Yield Losses in 1959-1961
Authors: Kueh Y Y
Published: November 2023

The main purpose of this chapter is to compare the relative magnitude of grain-yield losses sustained in 1959-61 in a selected number of provinces (for which both sown area and output data are available) with the com parable loss rates which may be obtained by applying the available precipitation data for 1959-61 to the precipitation-yield regression as estimated in the previous chapter for the related agricultural areas for 1931-5. Such a comparison is based on the fact that the two periods, 1931-5 and 1959-61, are roughly comparable in terms of farm technology (as it bears on farm productivity), but diametrically different in the government’s agricultural policy and rural organization. Any observed discrepancy between actual yields and precipitation-predicted yields may thereby help to isolate the possible impact of the policy factors (as they may bear on peasants’ incentives or rural resource allocations) in 1959-61.
Introduction to an International Comparative Replication Study
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

Replication studies in the social sciences are a rare event: they are costly; they require repeated access to research sites; they demand the sustained interest and motivation of researchers over extended periods. No wonder then that international comparative replications of organization studies are seldom carried out (exceptions: Kern and Schumann 1984; Heller et al. 1987). There is a further deterring reason: the complexities of maintaining the co-operation of a large research team against the odds of long-distance communication, different time-schedules, lack of resources for international collaboration, the fear that replications might show deficiencies in earlier studies. However, this study tells the story of such a rare realization.
Are We Running Out of Time?
Authors: Gershuny Jonathan
Published: November 2023

At the heart of the current discussions of the relationship between economic development and the distribution of time lies the question of whether leisure increases or decreases as societies get richer.

There are two views of the historical evolution of the balance between work and leisure in societies. Some people believe in the possibility of progress through the development of new techniques for manipulating the physical environment so as to satisfy human wants, and for organizing the human efforts involved in the satisfaction of these wants.
A Concise Atlas of Time Use: Twenty Countries, Thirty-three Years’ Change
Authors: Gershuny Jonathan
Published: November 2023

We can now settle to the discussion of some more of the detail of the time use information in the multinational dataset. There is a mass of this detail to be summarized, and the analogy with the atlas is instructive: map makers must identify the most salient features of the landscape and simplify them. In this chapter we shall employ various different techniques to reduce the scale and simplify the dimensionality of our data. What follows should be viewed, as a concise atlas is, as no more than a partial guide to the real terrain. The tables and figures will also serve as an entry point for those who intend to make use of the survey data files.
Children and Intra-Household Inequality: A Theoretical Analysis
Authors: Kanbur Ravi
Published: November 2023

The issue of intra-household inequality has received increasing attention over the past decade. A number of authors (e.g. Sen 1984) have argued that resources within the household are not distributed according to need, and this has led to attempts by others to model intra-household allocative behaviour (see e.g. the discussion in the recent survey by Behrman and Deolalikar, 1989). The question of what happens to intra-household inequality when total household resources increase has been raised by Haddad and Kanbur (1990c). They argue, on the basis of empirical evidence on calorie adequacy from the Philippines, that as households become better off intra-household inequality first increases and then decreases; in other words, there appears to be an intra-household Kuznets curve. The behaviour of intra-household inequality as the household becomes better off is clearly important for policy, since interventions are often restricted to the household level while the objective is to improve the welfare of the least well-off individuals. It is also important as a reduced-form test of alternative models of intra-household allocation.
Cointegration
Authors: Forni Mario , Lippi Marco
Published: November 2023

9.1.1. As another important application of our method let us consider the problem of whether micro cointegration implies macro cointegration. We do not want to deal with the problem at a high level of generality. However, the reader will be easily convinced that our results, obtained in the two variable case, can be extended to any number of variables. whose denominators have no roots inside or on the unit circle. This means that (9.1) may be thought of as the result of pre multiplication by the autoregressive matrix.
State Intervention through Fiscal Policy
Authors: Patnaik Prabhat
Published: November 2023

The Keynesian tradition has emphasised fiscal policy as the primary instrument of State intervention. Monetary policy, as Keynesians like Mrs Robinson were wont to argue (Robinson and Eatwell 1974), does not necessarily act in an effective manner, at any rate in an expansionary direction if not in a contractionary direction, but fiscal policy which directly impinges on the expenditure flows, provides a surer means of influencing the level of activity in the economy. Keynes himself had not remained content with underscoring the benefits of monetary expansion during the slump, but had urged the State to undertake a public works policy, ‘digging holes and filling them up’ if necessary, financed by budget deficits; it is this advocacy in a sense which constituted the differemia specificaofKeynesianism in the realm of policy.The more radical of Keynes’s followers, struck by the futility of ‘digging holes and filling them up’ and by the dangers of piling up armaments which would fulfil the same function of boosting demand, went on to argue: the need for welfare expend iture, an argument which dominated the intellectual discourse in economics for a whole generation.
Accumulation and Unequal Interdependence: A Fuller Discussion
Authors: Patnaik Prabhat
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we assumed that the backward economy was producing only the primary commodity. The advanced economy’s interest lay entirely in its role as a supplier of that commodity. But of course the backward economy also produces some manufactured goods which are consumed within it or even outside. This gives the capitalists in the advanced economy a second kind of interest in the backward economy, as a potential market: to the extent that the manufactured goods produced by them can supplant those pro duced within the backward economy, they can enjoy a larger market than would have been possible otherwise. In the current chapter we incorporate this aspect of their relationship, which is logically quite distinct from the other aspect we had looked at earlier.
Beveridge meets Bismarck: Echo, Effects, and Evaluation of the Beveridge Report in Germany
Authors: Gründger Fritz
Published: November 2023

On his first visit to Germany in 1890, William Beveridge was too young to meet Prince Bismarck personally (Beveridge 1954: 30). On his second visit, in 1907, he was too late (ibid.: 55f.). He was not too late, however, to meet the spirit of this conservative revolutionist and to pay tribute to the heritage he had left in the form of the German social insurance. Meanwhile, Beveridge himself had become an expert and committed social security theorist. His study trip led him to intensive talks with the Reich Insurance Authority, the Reich Statistical Office and the Reich Ministry of the Interior. Besides Berlin he visited Nuremberg, Cologne, Munich and Frankfurt-on-Main (Harris 1977: 135).
France
Authors: Charkham Jonathan P
Published: November 2023

As elsewhere, corporate governance in France reflects the country’s political, economic, and social history. It does, moreover, do so to a marked degree, not least because many people think deeply about the origins and development of their institutions in an analytical, political, and historical way.
Enterprise Autonomy and Incentives
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie
Published: November 2023

One objective of economtc reform in China since 1979 has been to increase the degree of autonomy of the enterprises in making decisions. Under the planning system the enterprise was, in principle, given instructions by the planning apparatus in respect of all aspects of production and sales. Since 1979 these constraints have been relaxed, and Chapter 1 documents this process from official Chinese sources. The purpose of Section 2 of this chapter is to describe the evolution of greater autonomy over time, differentiated by sector, location, and other characteristics of the enterprise. This is done by analysing the quantitative data provided by the enterprises for the period since 1980.
Employment and Wages
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we turn our attention to incentives for the labour force. Three areas are explored. The first is the relationship between the contribution of the workers to the value added of the firm, and the wage that they may expect to receive. ‘Wages ‘ are defined here to include not only time-wages, but also piece-work wages, bonuses related to cost reduction, and payments in kind (represented by the current cost of welfare provision, such as housing, health, and pensions). The expectation is that we would expect output and worker rewards to be more closely related as the reforms developed.
Flow of Funds Analysis
Authors: Hay Donald , Morris Derek , Liu, Guy , Yao Shujie
Published: November 2023

Previous empirical chapters have looked at the employment, production, and profit elements of the behaviour and performance of large Chinese state-owned enterprises. In order to complete the picture of their economic activities we now need to explore their financing and investment. In simple schematic terms we may think of labour, which we have examined, combining with existing capital stock to generate output, as indicated by our production function analysis, generating profits. The determinants of retained profit have also been explored, mainly in terms of overall profit and capital requirements. In this chapter and the next two we look at external sources of finance, the determinants of investment expenditure on new capital equipment and their interrelation with each other, and with internal financial flows. This then provides a basis for constructing a fully integrated model of the behaviour of such enterprises.
Innovation and the Sectoral Sources of UK Productivity Growth*
Authors: Geroski Paul A
Published: November 2023

Identifying the sources of productivity growth is a popular pastime that combines interesting intellectual challenges with pressing topicality. To the extent that innovation is the engine that drives increases in productivity, then many of the interesting questions about the sources of productivity growth are likely to centre on the generation and application of new information by agents in the economy. Identifying the sectoral origins of productivity-enhancing innovations raises several further questions. Some sectors are more innovative than others, and it is of interest to ask whether this translates into a rate of productivity growth in these sectors that is sufficiently high to account for much of the aggregate productivity-growth performance that one observes. More subtly, one might ask whether the innovations produced in these sectors also have a significant impact on productivity growth in other sectors.
Some Reflections
Authors: Geroski Paul A
Published: November 2023

The substance of this book is the seven individual studies contained in Chapters 3—9. They represent a slightly unsystematic and definitely incomplete exploration of the relationship between innovation, market structure, and corporate performance. Although these studies have some value taken individually, the premiss underlying this book is that they also have some value when considered as a group. My goal in this chapter is to provide some substance for this assertion. In particular, I should like to close the volume with some personal and slightly speculative reflections stimulated by the various results reported earlier. I shall group these under five headings: the relationship between competition and innovation; the relationship between corporate performance and innovation; spillovers and the interindustry flow of knowledge; and policy implications.
Introduction
Authors: Sargent Thomas J
Published: November 2023

In 1989 the problem of ‘transition dynamics’ forced itself on economists and statesmen. Two generations of work on economic dynamics within parallel traditions in game theory, macroeconomics, and general equilibrium theory have given us theories of dynamics that have their best chance of applying when people are in recurrent situations that they have experienced often before. In Eastern Europe the transition is not like that: people there are confronted with unprecedented opportunities, new and ill-defined rules, and a daily struggle to determine the ‘mechanism’ that will eventually govern trade and production. Economists who dispense advice about governmental strategies to enable transitions to a market economy can do so with ample help from ‘equilibrium theories’ describing how to expect a system to operate after it has fully adjusted to a new and coherent set of rules and expectations, but with virtually no theories about the transition itself. We might have prejudices and anecdotes to guide our preferences among transition strategies, but no empirically confirmed formal theories.
Continuous Distillation and the Coffey Still
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

Before 1830 the most widely used distilling vessel was the pot still. The pot still’s great virtue was that it produced a full-flavoured spirit, but it also had several weaknesses. As a discontinuous process the still had to be filled, distilled, emptied, and recharged, which delayed the rest of the production process, limiting economies of scale from larger maltings, mash tuns, and fermenting backs. The first distillation produced a weak concentration of alcohol and a second or even third distillation was needed to raise the alcoholic strength. Recharging and inadequate concentration raised the cost of fuel and labour. Securing a proper fractionation of the spirit, so that the final product did not contain too large a proportion of secondary constituents, was difficult. When poor-quality raw materials were used, inadequate concentration and fractionation left the spirit tainted by their flavour. The pot still was heated by fire, and raising the contents to boiling-point was a slow process. Wear and tear from repeated heating and cooling were high, as was the danger of spoiling the spirit by charring the solid matter in the wash. It was these limitations that continuous distillation sought to overcome, and because the principle of distillation—that the boiling-point of alcohol was lower than that of water—was widely understood, the problem was how to turn principle into efficient practice.
The Capitalist and the Chemist Yeast-making and Marketing, 1881–1914
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

In October 1881 Dr W. S. Squire, a consultant chemical engineer, approached DCL with a new process for making yeast suitable for baking. The following month he made a preliminary offer ‘with the object, if his experiments were successful, of afterwards making a contract for the Company’s yeast in whole or in part’.1 In December, before the experiments had even begun, DCL signed a ten-year agreement with him for the manufacture of yeast for domestic purposes. Sales were to begin on 1 May 1882 and Squire was to receive 25 per cent of the profits from yeast after expenses. Thus began the relationship between Squire and DCL, between chemist and capitalist, which marked the tentative beginnings of a scientific approach to fermentation and the foundation of a vitally important source of revenue for DCL.
‘The Beginning of Bigger Things’, 1915–1918
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

Ironically, at the very moment Scotch Whisky Brands was formed, anti-drink measures were limiting competition much more effectively than the blenders could ever do. This was particularly true of the Immature Spirits (Restrictions) Act, passed on 19 May 1915, which made it compulsory to keep spirit in bond for two years, a limitation extended to three years in May 1916.1 Compulsory bonding had been rejected by two official inquiries. In 1890/1 the Select Committee on British and Foreign Spirits thought it would ‘harass the trade’ and was unnecessary because the increased value of mature spirit outweighed the cost of storage, giving the trade an incentive to supply a mature product. The Royal Commission on Whiskey of 1908/9 viewed bonding as a public health issue, but felt there was insufficient medical evidence to justify compulsion. It recognized that compulsory bonding would raise the price of spirits, possibly damaging the export trade, and believed there were practical difficulties in devising equitable arrangements for other types of spirit which did not require maturation, particularly gin. The Royal Commission also felt consumer choice would reward merchants who provided mature whisky.3 This assumed the public could discriminate between whiskies of different maturities and that some sections of the trade would not find it quite as profitable to sell raw spirit.
The Making of an Amalgamation
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

The meeting on 17 November had a different outcome, because James Stevenson proposed that the Haig & Haig problem could be solved if the much larger question of amalgamation was finally tackled. A single firm would find it easier to decide which brands to promote and which to withdraw. Marketing was thus the dominant consideration. Although all agreed amalgamation was the ideal solution, two issues were fiercely contested: the choice (and location) of the holding company and the valuation of the firms. For the Big Three finance was the more important issue, but the choice of holding company embraced wider questions about the future of the Scottish economy. Buchanan-Dewar and Walker were English-registered companies, while DCL was Scottish, with its head office in Edinburgh. If one of the blenders became the holding company, and Buchanan-Dewar was the only real candidate, the amalgamation would contribute to the southward drift of industrial ownership and expand the influence of the London capital market over Scottish industry. National sentiment and business instinct conflicted. These issues were resolved by mid-February 1925, only to be followed by the threat of a legal challenge to the amalgamation and a row over compensation for Walker’s directors. For a time it seemed as if the amalgamation might not proceed. The press saw the amalgamation as inevitable. For the men who made the merger, this was far from true. At no time was the outcome certain, and this deflected their thoughts from the future management of what, by 1930, would be the sixth largest firm in British manufacturing industry.1 The men who made the merger were W. H. Ross (aged 62) for DCL, Lord Forteviot (68), A. J. Cameron (55), Peter Dewar (54) and William Harrison (63) for Buchanan-Dewar, and Sir Alexander Walker (55) and Lord Stevenson (51) for John Walker & Sons.
The Great Dictator? DCL and Industrial Alcohol, 1918–1945
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

Even at the end of 1930s power alcohol accounted for less than a third of the demand for industrial spirit. The other markets were many and varied: the May Committee listed fifty-six different uses and this was not exhaustive. Some, like the preparation of incandescent mantles and felt hats, belonged to the technology and fashion of an age that had passed, or was passing, and held out no prospect for long-term growth. That was not true of the use of alcohol in paints and lacquers for car bodies, or in the manufacture of artificial fibres and electrical cables: motor vehicles, man-made fibres, and electrical engineering were among the new industries of inter—war Britain catering for a rising standard of living and a buoyant consumer demand. Above all, it was not true of the expanding organic chemical industry, whose demand for alcohol, both as a solvent and an intermediate, made the 1930s ‘the golden age of fermentation alcohol’.
The Dual Structure of the Japanese Economy
Authors: Odaka Konosuke
Published: November 2023

The term “dual structure” refers to an economy where (1) large-scale firms based on imported foreign technology (production technology, production control, and product design), engaged in capitalistic management based on bureaucratic and rationalized organization, coexist with small-and-medium scale businesses based on traditional technology, engaged in family-communitarian management. The “rationalization” of the former system implies adopting computable accounting as the stand ard (Weber 1927: 275-8). In principle, it eliminates private “connections” and/or family relations as factors in business transactions.
Japanese Empire and Colonial Management
Authors: Yamamoto Yuzo
Published: November 2023

Although Japanese colonialism has been the subject of numerous academic works, many have been ideologically inspired writings based on Hobbesian-Leninist theories of imperialism, containing little in the way of empirical research. Aside from such ideological biases, there are essentially two problems with the existing literature. First, previous works generally place too much focus on the specifics of the two major colonies of Korea and Taiwan, and consequently fail to grasp the overall structure of the Japanese colonial empire. Second, existing works fail to compare the economic structures and strategies of the various colonies, merely discussing the relationship of each colony to Japan proper in isolation from one another (Yamamoto 1992).
The Beginnings of High-speed Growth
Authors: Kosa Yutaka
Published: November 2023

The years 1945-55 are usually called the “economic recovery period.” This section summarizes the macroeconomic characteristics of this ten-year span. First, the postwar economy posted high growth rates of 9.2 percent for the period of 1946-55, and 11.0 percent for 1955-70 (long-term backward estimates) (Table 10.1). The difference between the two periods was less in the growth rates than in the qualitative aspects of economic activity.