bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Methods of studying functional characteristics of vegetable proteins
Authors: Hermansson A. ‐M.
Published: July 2007

In a functional characterization, a set of data is obtained which gives information on the fields of application for a certain protein ingredient. This fingerprint can be used as a guideline in product development and restricts the amount of tests on large scale. The function of a protein in a complex food system can be better understood if a functional characterization is combined with a microstructural investigation. This may be especially important in cases where proteins act by indirect functionality, i.e., when the prescence of one protein changes the function of another component. In order to improve the efficiency of functional characterizations, methodologies need to be further developed. This is especially important for characterization of gels, emulsions, and mixtures of structures.
Methods for detection and determination of vegetable proteins in meat products
Authors: Olsman W. J.
Published: July 2007

Soy protein is the vegetable protein that is most frequently used in meat products. Accordingly, detection and determination procedures have mainly been focused on soy proteins. Cereal proteins received far less attention analytically, let alone the less conventional vegetable proteins. Every method published has only a limited applicability, determined by both the type of soy preparation concerned and the heat processing of the sample. The methods may be divided into five categories. 1. Chemical methods are based on analysis of tracer substances accompanying the soy proteins by nature. Their specificity is rather low; other vegetable proteins may contain the same substances. Soy flour, concentrates and texturates respond quantitatively, and sometimes even qualitatively, different. The methods are almost useless for isolated soy proteins. 2. Microscopic methods may allow rapid detection of soy products except isolates. They may be used for quantitation purposes. However, representative results will only be secured at the expense of time and labor. 3. Electrophoresis methods rely on the recognizability of soy protein bands in the pherogram pattern. Field of application and specificity are satisfactory. Efficient media enable complete solubilization of soy protein from meat products, if not severely heat‐processed. 4. Immunochemical methods, although very sensitive and specific, are only suitable for detection purposes, provided the sample temperature did not exceed 100 C during processing. This holds, of course, only true if the soy produced used is not excessively heated during preparation. 5. Methods based on amino acid composition or sequence are based on computer matching of the amino acid pattern of the meat product sample with those of varying mixtures of all proteins that could be contained in the sample.
Two food applications of cottonseed flours and meals
Authors: De Buckle T. S. , Zapata L. E. , Silva G. , Cabrera J. A. , De Sandoval A. M. , Ben‐Gera I. , Riveros H. , Shomer I.
Published: July 2007

Procedures for preparing texturized cottonseed protein and isolate. In either case the free gossypol is effectively reduced. Further work is in progress especially on cottonseed protein isolate.
Technical application of protein whipping agents in sugar confectionery
Authors: Mansvelt J. W.
Published: July 2007

Conclusions

Aeration through the use of protein‐derived whipping agents provides a versatile tool for improving a number of aspects of candies, including their texture and consistency. Accurate control over the degree of aeration is essential. To achieve this whipping agents that show constant performance are needed. The products obtained through controlled modification of natural vegetable or animal proteins fill this need. By using formulas based on these products and modern continuous processing units, the large scale production of various types of aerated candies can be achieved consistently.
Some important fermented foods of Mid‐Asia, the Middle East, and Africa
Authors: Hesseltine C. W.
Published: July 2007

Other speakers in this Symposium discussed fermented foods of China, Japan, and Southeast Asia; I will describe several other fermented foods that are very important in Mid‐Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. These fermentations, unlike those of the Orient, use bacteria and yeasts instead of filamentous fungi. They are acid products prepared from cereals traditionally grown in the areas, notably sorghum, millet, maize, and wheat. Since African, Middle Eastern, and Mid‐Asian fermented foods are often supplemented with milk or legumes, the final protein content may be rather good. For example, bouza and ogi have a protein content of 11 to 13% on a dry weight basis, while in kishk the protein content is about 23.5%. In the Indian food idli, the protein average content is 15.3%. Advantages of acid fermented food products are:

• Preservation of the fermented product because of the organic acids produced. These acid products are sometimes dried to give even longer keeping times.

• They are high in fiber content.

• Because some are dried, they may be transported easily from one place to another.

• They probably have enhanced nutritional value because of the vitamins formed during production.

• They are foods used for centuries and therefore culturally acceptable.

• Unlike some of the other fermented foods discussed, they are used as main course dishes rather than flavoring agents.

An example of a Mideast food prepared by lactic acid bacteria is tarhana of Turkey, which consists of parboiled wheat meal, yogurt, and added vegetables which are then allowed to ferment and then sun dried. In Central and South Africa, kaffir beer (Bantu beer) is made by malting maize or sorghum, fermenting with lactic acid bacteria to give a low pH, and then finally fermenting with a yeast. The protein content ranges from 8.5 to 11.9%. A second commercially produced product is mahewu (magou) prepared by the natural fermentation of maize to produce an acid mash which is then dried. This food has a content of 7–9% protein.
Hydrolyzed and autolyzed vegetable proteins as functional food ingredients
Authors: Olsman H.
Published: July 2007

Hydrolyzed vegetable or plant protein (H.V.P. or H.P.P.) can be defined as mixtures containing amino acids and frequently other substances such as salt and peptides, obtained by hydrolysis of vegetable proteins. On an industrial scale two types of hydrolytic processes are applied: acid and enzymic hydrolysis. HVP estimated sales in the western world are at least $100 million. Most HVPs are produced for internal use by soup manufacturers, for use as vital meaty or savory flavoring ingredients in bouillons, soups, sauces, processed meat, fish and poultry products and snacks. Other HVPs are more ready‐made products, or have obtained additional meat flavor value by careful blending and/or by processes based on Maillard‐type reactions. Of substantially less importance is the use of HVP as whipping, foaming or areating agent, as nutritional ingredients or as bread or baking improver. Most of the HVPs used for these purposes are only partially hydrolyzed by enzymes or by alkaline treatment. The legal status of HVP, food ingredient or food additive, and its safety was discussed recently at various locations. So far these discussions have resulted in the tentative conclusions that HVPs are food ingredients which need standardization, and which, at their presently used levels, can be considered as being GRAS.
Marketing vegetable proteins— The need for a technical understanding of these new food ingredients
Authors: McAuley B. J.
Published: July 2007

The future marketing of soy products is a challenging task. Agricultural research and production have primed the pump. A process and produce development effort has maintained the pressure. Food legislators are urgently trying to find formulae for accommodating this “Novel Food.” Never before have legislators worked so closely with an evolving technology at such an early phase in the deliberations. It is essential that the delivery should do justice to the skills that have fed it. Soy producers must accept responsibility as an integral part of the food industry. The manufacturing food industry has become highly sophisticated and cost conscious, creating requirements for a wide range of food functionalities we can provide. Assignment of a new food ingredient can only be made with a thorough insight into application; its cost structure, its process machinery, its quality parameters, its nutritional significance, etc. Without this, either the wrong choice will be made, or equally dangerous, the wrong claims will be made for the correct choice. The consequent disappointment would at best delay the acceptance of what the soy food ingredient industry is trying to do. Only a commitment to understanding the food industry will allow us to define these requirements correctly and establish for our products a rightful position which we can maintain.
Processing of leaf proteins into food ingredients
Authors: Vinconneau H. F.
Published: July 2007

Many process alternatives are possible. Most of them are currently being investigated by laboratory or pilot tests. The successful future of some of these processes is certainly connected to the quality of the end product vs. market requirements and consumer acceptability. The status of development of the processes does not allow any economic forecast on profitability, but it is reasonable to think that the simplest techniques to produce acceptable leaf protein isolate and sufficient control on processing conditions could be profitable. These processes need further technological development and the end product market needs to be investigated further, but leaf proteins could be an alternative and complementary source of proteins for food ingredients in the predictable future.
Synthesis and purification of polyunsaturated triglycerides
Authors: Adlof R. O. , Emken E. A.
Published: July 2007

Triglycerides (TG) were prepared by the sodium methoxide‐catalyzed interesterification of triacetin and the appropriate methyl ester. Yields were optimized and side‐reactions were investigated. Silver resin chromatography, utilizing mixed solvent systems (acetonitrile/acetone) was used to separate the resulting TG/methyl ester mixtures. The isolated TG were analyzed by ultraviolet and infrared spectroscopy and were found to contain no conjugated ortrans isomers. They also were analyzed by thin layer chromatography and gas chromatography and found to contain no diacyl‐monoacetyl glyceride or other reaction components. Based on higher yield and lack of isomerized byproducts, this procedure was found to be superior in the synthesis of highly unsaturated TG.
Compositional analysis of natural wax ester mixtures by tandem mass spectrometry
Authors: Spencer Gayland F. , Plattner Ronald D.
Published: July 2007

Tandam mass spectrometry is particularly suited for the analysis of complex, natural wax ester mixtures R1‐CO2‐R2. Reduction of the mixture with deuterium provides species that are separble (through mass spectrometry) based on the number of original double bonds. Chemical ionization with isobutane produces high yields of protonated molecular ions and very little further fragmentation. These ions are separated by the first mass filter and then dissociated through collisions with argon. The positively charged dissociation products are almost exclusively the protonated acid ions (R1‐CO2 H2)+ that can then be separated by the second mass filter before detection and quantitation. The technique overcomes many of the obstacles previously faced during wax ester analysis. Results from this method are compared with those obtained by previous work, and the isomer composition of a new wax ester oil, orange roughy oil, is given. DIRECT SUPPORT A03O2445 00003
Polymorphism in single‐acid triglycerides of positional and geometric isomers of octadecenoic acid
Authors: Hagemann J. W. , Tallent W. H. , Barve J. A. , Ismail I. A. , Gunstone F. D.
Published: July 2007

The polymorphism of 25 glycerol trioctadecenoates with double bonds ranging from Δ4‐Δ17 was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry. Triglycerides withcis bonds in odd positions Δ7‐Δ13 exhibited three intermediate melting (β′‐) forms, but those withcis bonds in even positions, exceptcis Δ4, lacked β′‐forms. Among thetrans compounds, only Δ11, 13, and 14 showed β′‐forms. Thecis andtrans Δ5 triglycerides were unusual, because they readily assumed low melting (α‐) forms that were not easily converted to high melting (β‐) forms. β‐Form mp of compounds in each series (cis ortrans) alternated depending upon double bond position; an even position correlated with high mp. Heats of fusion (ΔHf) for β‐forms, likewise, fluctuated with double bond position but nonuniformly;trans Δ6 had the highest ΔHf (43 cal/g),cis Δ12 the lowest (21 cal/g).
Determination of total and water‐insoluble‐combined lactic acid in lactic acid modified fatty glycerides
Authors: Stetzler R. S. , Andress T. B.
Published: July 2007

Analytical methods for the determination of total and water insoluble combined lactic acid in lactic acid modified fatty glycerides are described. The acids are liberated from their esters by saponification. Lactic acid is determined by simple acid‐base titration after removal of fatty acids via liquid‐liquid extraction. Water soluble constituents are extracted from a dichloro‐methane solution of the esters with 5% aqueous sodium sulfate prior to determination of water insoluble lactic acid. Methods are rapid, simple, and suitable for use in a plant control laboratory. Extension of the procedure provides for the simultaneous determination of fatty acid and glycerine on a single sample.
Separation of fatty Ester‐Mercuric acetate adducts of alumina
Authors: White H. B. , Quackenbush F. W.
Published: July 2007

A Chromatographic procedure is described for the elution separation on alumina for 100‐mg samples of methyl palmitate and fatty estermercuric acetate adducts. Oleate and linoleate were obtainable in pure form; however, the linolenate adduct did not separate completely from the linoleate adduct. For quantitative results the use of alumina of proper activity and basicity is essential. Ether with small amounts of acetic acid is a suitable eluant. Since the original esters can be regenerated easily the ability to isolate individually the oleate and the linoleate adducts in high yield can be useful in radiobiochemical work.
A general method for the chromatographic analysis of mono‐, di‐, and triglycerides and the mono‐ and diesters of ethylene glycol and polyethylene glycol
Authors: Papariello Gerald J. , Chulkaratana Sunis , Higuchi Takeru , Martin J. E. , Kuceski V. P.
Published: July 2007

A procedure for the chromatographic separation and determination of the ester mixtures of glycerin, ethylene glycol, and polyethylene glycol is presented. The adsorbent is silea gel, and the mobile phase is a series of solvents with increasing polarity. A procedure for quantitative determination of small amounts of monoglyceride present in a glyceryl ester mixture is presented.

A solvent system different from that used for glyceryl and ethylene glycol ester mixtures was developed for ester mixtures of polyethylene glycols. The esters of polyethylene glycols with average molecular weights of 300–600 were shown to give the same chromatogram.
Morro seed oil
Authors: Van Séveren Mario Lewy
Published: July 2007

The quantitative production of malonaldehyde during the oxidation of pure, unsaturated fatty acids under controlled conditions, has been measured and correlated with their off‐odor. It was found that malonaldehyde does not accumulate as a stable end‐product of fat oxidation but reaches a peak at the same time that oxygen uptake begins declining. Oxidation products of all of the fatty acids investigated reacted slowly with TBA to give a compound absorbing at 450 mµ in addition to the malonaldehyde‐TBA complex absorbing at 538 mµ.
Evaluation of antioxidant activity: I. application of an enzyme‐ Catalyzed system
Authors: Rogstad Astri , Reinskou Truls
Published: July 2007

A study was made of the inhibitory effect of the antioxidants propyl gallate, tertiary butylated hydroxyanisol and ethoxyquin on the enzyme‐ catalyzed oxygenation of linolenic acid. Gas chro‐matography was used to measure unchanged fatty acid after varying incubation periods and at various concentrations of antioxidant. Propyl gallate was also tested for its influence on the oxygenation of an emulsion of linoleic acid. The effect of the antioxidants is compared with results obtained previously with a linoleic acid emulsion. It is concluded that it is advantageous to apply linoleic acid as substrate in the model system.
Biodegradation of long chain alkylamines
Authors: Yoshimura K. , Machida S. , Masuda F.
Published: July 2007

The relative biodegradability of long chain linear alkylamines has been studied under aerobic condition using the oxygen consumption technique and other methods. Primary and secondary alkylamines with C4–C18 were found to be readily biodegradable. Of the tertiary alkylamines, monoalkyldimethylamines were biodegradable whereas trialkylamines were less biodegradable. Alkylamine‐assimilating bacteria were isolated from activated sludge by enrichment culture technique. A strain isolated as PA12 (primary alkylamine)‐degrading bacterium was identified asPseudomonas putida. Biodegradability of various alkylamines by this isolated strain also is discussed.
Preparation of partial glycerides by direct esterification1
Authors: Gros Audrey T. , Feuge R. O.
Published: July 2007

A previously described procedure for the direct esterification of diglycerides without interesterification occurring has been evaluated for the preparation of mono and diglycerides. The esterifications were accomplished withp‐toluenesulfonic acid catalyst and with continuous removal of water of esterification by azeotropic distillation. The effect of such variables as unsaturation, chain length, mode of addition of solvent and reaction temp on the composition and yield of glycerides was observed. Chemical and chromatographic analyses were used to determine the composition of the glycerides and their component fatty acids and to detect the presence of isomeric glycerides. Simple esterification of 1‐monostearin with oleic acid at 80C yielded as much as 72.3% diglycerides, and esterification of glycerol with stearic acid at 100C yielded up to 70.1% monoglycerides, each calculated on a glyceride basis. It is concluded that simple esterification predominates with some intra‐ and interesterification occurring.
Determination of oligosaccharides in soybeans by high pressure liquid chromatography using an internal standard
Authors: Black L. T. , Bagley E. B.
Published: July 2007

A method was developed for the quantitative analysis of oligosaccharides in soybeans by high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC). The sugars were extracted from the soy flour using an ethanol‐water solution. Separation of the oligosaccharides was effected by injecting a sample extract onto an HPLC equipped with a μBONDAPAK/carbohydrate® column. Three quantitative techniques were investigated for determining the separate sugars: (a) repetitive injection (i.e., alternately injecting equal volumes of standards and samples); (b) extract analyzed before and after spiking with raffinose (one of the unknowns); (c) the addition of a pure inexpensive internal standard, β‐cyclodextrin, which was separated completely from the other oligosaccharides. These methods were successfully applied to the quantitative analyses of two varieties of soybeans and other soybean products such as soy milk and soy protein concentrate.
The synthesis of 2‐(1‐Pentenyl) furan and its relationship to the reversion flavor of soybean oil
Authors: Ho Chi‐Tang , Smagula Michael S. , Chang Stephen S.
Published: July 2007

Cis and trans‐2‐(1‐pentenyl) furan were postulated as possible contributors to the reversion flavor of soybean oil. These compounds were synthesized, and structures were confirmed by infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance, and mass spectroscopy. Organoleptic evaluation of them in oil suggested that they could contribute to the beany and grassy note of the reverted soybean oil. This approach to flavor problems of food was given a new name — reverse phase flavor chemistry.
Polymerization of safflower and rapeseed oils
Authors: Korus Roger A. , Mousetis Traci L.
Published: July 2007

Rates of polymerization of oils from 2 safflower and 2 rapeseed varieties were measured in the air and under vacuum. Thermal polymerization rates showed a stronger dependence on the degree of unsaturation than on oxidative polymerization. Molecular weight distributions of polymerized oils were determined by size exclusion chromatography, and the relationship between viscosity and weight‐average molecular weight was determined.
Effect of oil viscosity on recovery processes in relation to foam flooding
Authors: Sharma M. K. , Shah D. O.
Published: July 2007

Laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the effect of oil viscosity on the oil‐recovery efficiency in porous media. The pure surfactants (i.e., sodium dodecyl sulfate and various alkyl alcohols) were selected to correlate the molecular and surface properties of foaming solutions with viscosity, and the recovery of oil. Oil‐displacement efficiency was measured by water, surfactant‐solution and foam‐flooding processes, which included 2 types of foams (i.e., air foam and steam foam). A significant increase in heavy‐oil recovery was observed by steam foam flooding compared with that by air foam flooding, whereas for light oils, the steam foam and air foam produced about the same oil recovery. An attempt was made to correlate the chain‐length compatibility with the surface properties of the foaming agents and oil‐recovery efficiency in porous media. For mixed foaming systems (C12 SO4 Na + Cn H2n+1 OH), a minimum in surface tension, a maximum in surface viscosity, a minimum in bubble size and a maximum in oil recovery were observed when both components of the foaming system had the same chain length. These results were explained on the basis of thermal motions (i.e., vibrational, rotational and oscillational) and the molecular packing of surfactants at the gas‐liquid interface. The effects of chain‐length compatibility and the surface properties of mixed surfactants are relevant to the design of surfactant formulations for oil recovery under given reservoir conditions.
A modified spinning band column for low pressure fractionation
Authors: Murray K. E.
Published: July 2007

A spinning band fractionating column is described for operation at pressures down to 0.5 mm. of mercury. A study has been made of various designs of rotor. One type consisting of flat blades of stainless steel interspaced with bearings at regular intervals, which centered it in the column, gave an H.E.T.P. of 2.07 cm. at atmospheric pressure. At low pressures (0.5 mm.) its efficiency was found to be small, and a more suitable rotor has been developed in which strips of stainless steel gauze are attached to the blades. These wipe the walls of the column and provide an even film of reflux. Sharp separations of fatty, acid methyl esters, fatty alcohols, and acetates have been made, using this rotor at pressures of 0.5–2.0 mm. On account of the low pressure drop (0.4 mm. mercury) it is possible to fractionate compounds with 30 or 32 carbon atoms without decomposition.
Training programmes for developing countries
Authors: Solanki K. K.
Published: July 2007

Unprecedented gains have been made in the early detection and prevention of childhood metabolic diseases. Over the last 12 years under the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Technical Cooperation Programme there have been newborn screening (NBS) projects in all the key regions—Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe. A total of 29 projects have been undertaken at an estimated total cost of US$6.7 million, mainly focused on establishing and supporting NBS for congenital hypothyroidism. Under these projects professional training has been one of the key objectives. This short report provides a summary of the training efforts under these projects.
Secularism and the Gujarat State: 1960–2005
Authors: SUD NIKITA
Published: July 2007

Secularism has been a defining norm for the modern, liberal Indian state. The constitutionally secular Gujarat state is believed to have undergone a paradigmatic shift in 2002, when it supported a massacre of Muslim citizens. This article investigates the empirical as well as normative state in situations of inter-religious violence. It traces the journey of the secular norm over a 45-year period, in the context of contests over identity, political ideology and socio-political dominance. The picture that emerges is much more nuanced than that projected by stark pronouncements of paradigm shifts and the inauguration of a Hindu rashtra.2
Mechanisms for persistent microphthalmia following ethanol exposure during retinal neurogenesis in zebrafish embryos
Authors: KASHYAP BHAVANI , FREDERICKSON LOGAN C. , STENKAMP DEBORAH L.
Published: July 2007

The exposure of the developing human embryo to ethanol results in a spectrum of disorders involving multiple organ systems, including the visual system. One common phenotype seen in humans exposed to ethanolin uterois microphthalmia. The objective of this study was to describe the effects of ethanol during retinal neurogenesis in a model organism, the zebrafish, and to pursue the potential mechanisms by which ethanol causes microphthalmia. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to 1% or 1.5% ethanol from 24 to 48 h after fertilization, a period during which the retinal neuroepithelium undergoes rapid proliferation and differentiation to form a laminated structure composed of different retinal cell types. Ethanol exposure resulted in significantly reduced eye size immediately following the treatment, and this microphthalmia persisted through larval development. This reduced eye size could not entirely be accounted for by the accompanying general delay in embryonic development. Retinal cell death was only slightly higher in ethanol-exposed embryos, although cell death in the lens was extensive in some of these embryos, and lenses were significantly reduced in size as compared to those of control embryos. The initiation of retinal neurogenesis was not affected, but the subsequent waves of cell differentiation were markedly reduced. Even cells that were likely generated after ethanol exposure—rod and cone photoreceptors and Müller glia—were delayed in their expression of cell-specific markers by at least 24 h. We conclude that ethanol exposure over the time of retinal neurogenesis resulted in persistent microphthalmia due to a combination of an overall developmental delay, lens abnormalities, and reduced retinal cell differentiation.
The Critical Phase for Random Graphs with a Given Degree Sequence
Authors: KANG M. , SEIERSTAD T. G.
Published: July 2007

We consider random graphs with a fixed degree sequence. Molloy and Reed [11, 12] studied how the size of the giant component changes according to degree conditions. They showed that there is a phase transition and investigated the order of components before and after the critical phase. In this paper we study more closely the order of components at the critical phase, using singularity analysis of a generating function for a branching process which models the random graph with a given degree sequence.
Structure and mechanical properties of faults in the North Anatolian Fault system from InSAR observations of coseismic deformation due to the 1999 Izmit (Turkey) earthquake
Authors: Hamiel Yariv , Fialko Yuri
Published: July 2007

We study the structure and mechanical properties of faults in the North Anatolian Fault system by observing near‐fault deformation induced by the 1999 Mw 7.4 Izmit earthquake (Turkey). We use interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) and Global Positioning System observations to analyze the coseismic surface deformation in the near field of the Izmit rupture. The overall observed coseismic deformation is consistent with deformation predicted by a dislocation model assuming a uniform elastic crust. Previous InSAR studies revealed small‐scale changes in the radar range across the nearby faults of the North Anatolian fault system (in particular, the Mudurnu Valley and Iznik faults) (e.g., Wright et al., 2001). We demonstrate that these anomalous range changes are consistent with an elastic response of compliant fault zones to the stress perturbation induced by the Izmit earthquake. We examine the spatial variations and mechanical properties of fault zones around the Mudurnu Valley and Iznik faults using three‐dimensional finite element models. In these models, we include compliant fault zones having various geometries and elastic properties and apply stress changes deduced from a kinematic slip model of the Izmit earthquake. The best fitting models suggest that the inferred fault zones have a characteristic width of a few kilometers, depth in excess of 10 km, and reductions in the effective shear modulus of about a factor of 3 compared to the surrounding rocks. The characteristic width of the best fitting fault zone models is consistent with field observations along the North Anatolian Fault system (Ambraseys, 1970). Our results are also in agreement with InSAR observations of small‐scale deformation on faults in the Eastern California Shear Zone in response to the 1992 Landers and 1999 Hector Mine earthquakes (Fialko et al., 2002; Fialko, 2004). The inferred compliant fault zones likely represent intense damage and may be quite commonly associated with large crustal faults.
Dynamic coupling of a three‐dimensional hydrodynamic model with a laterally averaged, two‐dimensional hydrodynamic model
Authors: Chen XinJian
Published: July 2007

An efficient method to dynamically couple a three‐dimensional (3D) hydrodynamic model with a laterally averaged, two‐dimensional (2DV) hydrodynamic model is described. The method is a useful tool to incorporate narrow tributaries that have vertically 2D flow patterns into a three‐dimensional hydrodynamic simulation for a shallow and large water body that has a 3D flow pattern. The coupling of the two models is facilitated with a free‐surface correction (FSC) method that is unconditionally stable with respect to gravity waves, wind and bottom shear stresses, and vertical eddy viscosity terms. The coupled model solves laterally averaged (2DV) Reynolds‐averaged Navier‐Stokes (RANS) equations for the narrow tributaries and three‐dimensional RANS equations for the larger water body. The coupled 3D‐2DV model was used to simulate hydrodynamics and salinity transport processes in an idealized estuary with a large water body and two narrow tributaries. In the 3D‐2DV simulation, the entire simulation domain was split into one 3D subdomain and two 2DV subdomains. To illustrate the efficiency of the coupled 3D‐2DV model, a 3D simulation was also conducted for the entire simulation domain. It was found that the coupled 3D‐2DV model can generate the same model results as those by the 3D model but uses less than half of the computer time of the 3D simulation for this particular case. An application of the coupled 3D‐2DV model to the Lower Peace River‐Upper Charlotte Harbor (LPR‐UCH) system in southwest Florida, USA, shows that the dynamically coupled model retains the efficiency of both the 3D model and the 2DV model.
Fractal parameters of individual soot particles determined using electron tomography: Implications for optical properties
Authors: Adachi Kouji , Chung Serena H. , Friedrich Heiner , Buseck Peter R.
Published: July 2007

The morphologies of soot particles are both complex and important. They influence soot atmospheric lifetimes, global distributions, and climate impacts. Particles can have complex geometries with overlapping projecting parts and pores that are difficult to infer from the conventional techniques used to study them. We used electron tomography with a transmission electron microscope (TEM) to determine three‐dimensional (3D) properties such as fractal dimension (Df), radius of gyration (Rg), volume (V), surface area (As), and structural coefficient (ka) for individual soot particles from the ambient air of an Asian dust (AD) episode and from a U.S. traffic source. The respective median values of Df are 2.4 and 2.2, of Rg are 274 and 251 nm, of As/V are 9.2 and 13.7 × 107 m−1, and of ka are 0.67 and 0.71. The corresponding parameters, when calculated from 2D projections such as TEM images, are considerably less precise and commonly erroneous. Unlike other methods that have been used to derive fractal parameters, our method is applicable to particles of any Df. Using the 3D data, we estimate that mass‐normalized scattering cross sections of our AD and traffic soot particles are respectively about 15 and 30 times greater than those of unaggregated spheres, which is the shape assumed in global models to estimate radiative forcing. Accurate 3D information can be used to compute more precise optical properties, which are important for estimating direct radiative forcing and improving our understanding of the climate impact of soot.
Martian ice cloud distribution obtained from SPICAM nadir UV measurements
Authors: Mateshvili Nina , Fussen Didier , Vanhellemont Filip , Bingen Christine , Dodion Jan , Montmessin Franck , Perrier Severine , Dimarellis Emmanuel , Bertaux Jean‐Loup
Published: July 2007

The Spectroscopy for the Investigation of the Characteristics of the Atmosphere of Mars (SPICAM) instrument on board Mars Express has successfully performed one Martian year of measurements. Nadir UV (200–310 nm) measurements allowed it to build maps of ice cloud optical depth distribution for all seasons. The development and decay of the aphelion cloud belt (ACB) and polar hoods were observed. The characteristic values of the cloud optical thickness were 0.1–0.3 at the early stage of the ACB formation in the solar longitude range Ls = 20–60°. After Ls = 93°, the well‐developed ACB showed cloud optical thicknesses varying between 0.3 and 0.8. The ACB quickly decayed after Ls = 140°. Both polar hoods were observed during their development and decay stages, showing cloud optical thicknesses of about 0.35. The north polar hood started to develop at Ls = 160° and the south one at Ls = 330°. Estimates of water content in the ice clouds gave values of 0.35–1.8 gm−2 for ACB and 0.4 gm−2 for the polar hoods. A comparison with water vapor abundance showed that only a small fraction (10–20% for ACB and 30% for the polar hoods) of total water content in the atmosphere was accumulated in clouds. The Martian surface albedo at the wavelength 300 nm appeared very low (0.004–0.018) and exhibited anticorrelation with the visual albedo consistent with optical properties of iron oxides abundant in Martian soils. The investigation of a regional dust storm allowed the estimation of dust optical parameters at the wavelength 300 nm (asymmetry factor gd = 0.8 and single scattering albedo σd = 0.6).
Eddies enhance biological production in the Weddell‐Scotia Confluence of the Southern Ocean
Authors: Kahru M. , Mitchell B. G. , Gille S. T. , Hewes C. D. , Holm‐Hansen O.
Published: July 2007

Satellite data show that oceanic eddies generated in the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front (SACCF) are associated with increased phytoplankton biomass. Cyclonic eddies with high chlorophyll a concentration (Chl‐a) retain phytoplankton within the eddy cores and increase the light available for photosynthesis in the upper mixed layer by limiting vertical mixing and lifting of the isopycnal surfaces. Anticyclonic eddies have low Chl‐a in the core but increased Chl‐a in the periphery. Cross‐frontal mixing mediated by eddies transports nutrients (e.g., Fe and Si) to the north and contributes to the increased Chl‐a in the frontal zone. Interannual variations in the cyclonic eddy activity are positively correlated with variations in Chl‐a during the spring bloom in regions of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current around South Georgia.
Low‐latitude total electron content enhancement at low geomagnetic activity observed over Japan
Authors: Kutiev Ivan , Otsuka Yuichi , Saito Akinori , Tsugawa Takuya
Published: July 2007

Numerous total electron content (TEC) values derived from GPS signals are averaged within 1.5° × 1.5° cells in a 1‐hour time frame, and the relative deviations of these average values from corresponding monthly medians are used to produce latitude‐time plots over Japan. The paper analyzes the appearance and development of enhancements of TEC of equatorial origin (ETEs), occurring outside initial and main phases of geomagnetic storms. ETE structures appear mainly as single‐crest structures in the evening hours local time, with TEC peak around 1900 LT. TEC usually decreases with latitude, and the structures disappear below 40°N. In some cases the TEC peak is found above the plot boundary of 24°N, as depletions toward the equator are also observed. The observed enhanced structures are linked to the well‐known evening prereversal enhancement of ion drift in the equatorial F region. Double‐crest ETEs are also observed, with the second peak occurring in early morning hours. Most of the ETE events appear in periods of low geomagnetic activity, 1–3 days after the main phase of the storms. In some cases the time of rising of ETE structures coincides with the increase of interplanetary electric field (IEF), a fact showing the importance of directly penetrating electric field in formation of ETEs. Often, ETEs appear repeatedly in 2 or 3 consecutive days. It is supposed that planetary atmospheric waves are responsible for this phenomenon. Most of the observed features of ETEs can be explained by the published results of simulations of the coupled thermosphere‐ionosphere‐plasmasphere (CTIP) model and the thermosphere/ionosphere/electrodynamic general circulation model (TIEGCM). It is suggested that ETE structures are produced mainly by a disturbance winds dynamo electric field, built up after the main phase of the storms. Some ETE events, appearing at the end of a prolonged period of low geomagnetic activity, can be linked to directly penetrating IEF in equatorial ionosphere. The intensity of these electric fields is much smaller than is needed to explain the observations.
Human T Lymphocyte Colonies Require IL2 and are Inhibited by Anti‐Tac
Authors: Woods GM , Lowenthal RM
Published: July 2007

Human T lymphocyte colony formation can be induced in a two‐step culture system with phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) as the only exogenous growth factor. In this system the first step is the overnight pre‐incubation of mononuclear cells in a liquid medium in the presence of PHA (‘activation step’). The second step is the seeding of these PHA‐activated cells into semi‐solid agar, again in the presence of PHA, and their culture for 7 days (‘proliferative step’). We have previously proposed that interleukin 2 (IL2) is produced during the second (proliferative) step and that this IL2 facilitates the production of colonies from PHA‐activated colony‐forming cells. Here we substantiate this proposal by demonstrating that both highly purified IL2 and recombinant IL2 stimulate T colony formation from PHA‐treated cells. The monoclonal antibody anti‐Tac, which is specifically directed against the IL2 receptor, dramatically inhibited colony formation when it was included during the agar culture (proliferative step). There was no effect when anti‐Tac was included during the liquid pre‐incubation culture (activation step). These results provide strong evidence that IL2 is the critical factor in the development of T lymphocyte colonies at the stage of conversion of PHA‐activated cells into colonies.
The mode of action of methotrexate‐monoclonal antibody conjugates
Authors: Smyth Mark J , Pietersz Geoffrey A , McKenzie Ian FC
Published: July 2007

Drug‐monoclonal antibody conjugates have been evaluated for their specificity and toxicity towards tumour cells in vitro and in vivo; however, few studies have investigated their mode of entry into cells and mechanism of action. In this study the uptake and toxic effect of three different Methotrexate monoclonal antibody (MTX‐MoAb) conjugates (MTX‐anti‐transferrin receptor (TFR). MTX anti‐Ly‐2·1 and MTX‐anti‐L3T4) were examined and compared with free MTX. It was concluded that MTX and these MTX‐MoAb conjugates gain entry into tumour cells and are processed by different mechanisms, considering the following results: (a) alterations in temperature had a greater effect on the toxicity of MTX‐MoAb than on MTX; in addition, MTX and MTX‐MoAb had different rates of action on cells; (b) the specific MTX transport inhibitor, p‐chloromercuribenzene sulphonate (pCMS), reduced MTX toxicity but had no effect on specific MTX‐MoAb conjugates; (c) the concentration of various ions (Ca2+, Mg2+ and Mn2+) effected the entry of MTX MoAb but had no effect on free MTX. MTX enters by its own carrier mechanism, while MTX‐MoAb conjugates enter by endocytosis with release of MTX at the lysosomal membrane, demonstrated by the ability of chloroquine and NH4Cl (which inhibit lysosomal function) to inhibit the action of MTX‐MoAb but not MTX. Therefore, these MTX‐MoAb conjugates are not degraded at the surface but bind to their receptor and then enter the cell by endocytosis as one entity; the MTX‐MoAb conjugates are then degraded within the lysosomes, resulting in the release of free MTX into the cytoplasm where it acts on dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) to inhibit cell metabolism.
In vivo H‐2K and H‐2D antigen expression In two allogeneic mouse tumours of low immunogenicity
Authors: Ashley Michael P , Kotlarski Ieva
Published: July 2007

The B16 melanoma of C57BL/6 mice immunizes very poorly, even against its own major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens. B16 cells expressed both H‐2K and H‐2D antigens in vitro as judged by binding of monoclonal antibodies to these antigens in indirect immunofluorescence staining. The in vivo MHC antigen expression of B16 was examined and compared with that of a second C57BL/6 tumour, the Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL). whose defective immunogenicity has been attributed to a selective deficiency‐ in H‐2K antigen expression. We found that 125I‐labeiled cells of both tumours expressed sufficient allo‐antigen in vivo to be lysed in BALB/c mice which had been pre‐immunized with C57BL/6 lymphoid cells. 125I‐B16 cells were also lysed in MHC‐recombinant mice which had been immunized against either H‐2Kb or H‐2Db, indicating that B16 cells express both of these MHC antigens in vivo. This contrasted with our findings with 125I‐3LL cells which were destroyed in mice immunized against H‐2Db but not in those immunized against H‐2Kb. Thus, B16 illustrates a different deficiency in tumour cell immunogenicity which appears not to be attributable to an absence of either of the class 1 MHC antigens.
Characterisation and uses of a hypervariable DNA polymorphism associated with the human JH immunoglobulin gene locus
Authors: Trent RJ , Williams BG , Basten A
Published: July 2007

A DNA hypervariable polymorphism associated with the human immunoglobulin JH gene locus on chromosome 14 is described. Its potential applications include the distinguishing of cells as host or donor in a transplantation situation as well as characterisation of immunoglobulin gene rearrangements.
Responses in mice to Sj26, a glutathione S‐transferase of Schistosoma japonicum worms
Authors: Davern KM , Tiu WU , Morahan G , Wright MD , Garcia EG , Mitchell GF
Published: July 2007

The genetic variation in antibody responses of mice to glutathione S‐transferase (GST) enzymes of Schistosoma japonicum worms, and in particular to a Mr 26,000 species termed Sj26, was analysed. Sera from infected mice, or mice immunized with adjuvant and an Sj26 β‐galactosidase fusion protein produced in Escherichia coli (Sj26FP), or purified near‐native recombinant Sj26 produced in E. coli (rSj26), were assayed by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antibody titres to GST purified from adult worms. Anti‐GST antibody levels are high in a mouse strain, WEHI 129/J, that is genetically resistant to infection with S. japonicum. Antibody responses to GST are low in BALB/c mice and intermediate in most other mouse strains analysed such as CBA/H and C57B1/6. Responsiveness to Sj26 in adjuvant is dominant in (BALB/c × WEHI 129/J)F1 hybrids. BALB/c.H‐2b and BALB/c.H‐2k mice are higher responders than BALB/c. One feature of antibody responses to Sj26 is the variability within a group of mice. When rSj26 conjugated to the hapten azobenzenearsonate was used as immunogen, BALB/c mice produced substantial amounts of anti‐Sj26 antibodies. In an attempt to correlate antibody levels with resistance in infected mice, a new functional assay was devised to measure the ability of sera to inhibit the binding of rSj26 to glutathione. However, there was no correlation between inhibitory titre in this assay and the numbers of worms recovered. In regard to the candidacy of GST as a vaccinating antigen in schistosomiasis japonica, the data raise the problem of variable responsiveness to the antigen that will need to be overcome by antigen modification and/or powerful adjuvants.
Anti‐tumour activity of aminopterin‐monoclonal antibody conjugates; in vitro and in vivo comparison with methotrexate‐monoclonal antibody conjugates
Authors: Kanellos Jerry , Pietersz Geoffrey A , Cunningham Zita , McKenzie Ian FC
Published: July 2007

Two related folate antagonists aminopterin (AMN) and methotrexate (MTX) were used to produce drug‐antibody conjugates and their tumouricidal effects compared in vitro and in vivo. Active ester derivatives were produced with the use of N‐hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) and covalently coupled to monoclonal antibodies (MoAb) reactive with murine cell surface antigens; approximately 11 molecules of AMN or 13 molecules of MTX were specifically bound per molecule of anti‐Ly‐2.1, with good retention of antibody activity and protein recovery. AMN was a more effective inhibitor of tumour cell growth in vitro than MTX, and AMN‐anti‐Ly‐2.1 conjugates were also more potent in vitro than MTX‐anti‐Ly‐2.1 conjugates. Although there was some loss of drug activity on binding to antibody, AMN‐MoAb conjugates were as toxic as free MTX. However, in contrast to free drugs (which can act on any target), the toxicity of drug‐MoAb conjugates was entirely specific for the target cells. In addition, AMN‐MoAb conjugates were effective anti‐tumour agents in vivo, and in mice bearing established thymoma grafts AMN‐MoAb conjugates inhibited tumour proliferation better than MTX‐MoAb, free AMN or MTX or antibody atone. AMN coupled to specific MoAb is a potentially useful agent for immunotherapy and is of particular relevance in man as free AMN has been discarded because of its systemic toxicity. Now, coupled with antibody, there will be specific tumouricidal effects in the absence of toxicity.
Proliferative activity in the proximal and distal colon of the rat after fasting and refeeding
Authors: Butler RN , Lawson MJ , Goland GJ , Jarrett IG , Roberts‐Thomson IC
Published: July 2007

Several methods were used to assess proliferation of coloncytes in the proximal and distal colon of the rat after fasting and refeeding. Those applied in vivo included metaphase arrest, labelling with bromodeoxyuridine and uptake of tritiated thymidine. The latter two techniques were also applied after isolation of colonocytes in vitro. Methods applied in vivo showed similar proliferation in the proximal and distal colon after fasting and enhanced proliferation in both regions after refeeding. However, the degree of enhancement was greater in the distal colon than in the proximal colon. In vitro, proliferation was enhanced in both the proximal and distal colon after refeeding but the degree of variability was greater than after assessment in vivo. Methods applied in vivo are preferred for assessment of proliferative activity in the rat colon, and major changes in proliferation in both proximal and distal colon can be induced by fasting‐refeeding.