bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Determination of Radioactive Materials in Water
Authors: Barker Franklin B.
Published: August 2009

The U. S. Geological Survey has adopted methods for measuring the concentrations of certain radioactive materials in water. The methods described are useful in hydrogeochemical studies and for determining the conformance of potable water with health standards. Gross concentrations of alpha- and beta-emitting nuclides are determined by measuring with a suitable counter the activity of the residue left upon evaporation. Sensitivities of about 1 micromicrocurie per 100 mg of solids for the determination of alpha activity and of 1 to 5 micromicrocuries per 100 mg of solids for the determination of beta activity may be obtained. Radium is determined by either of two carrier-precipitation methods depending upon the accuracy desired or the necessity for measuring concentrations of individual radium isotopes. The sensitivities vary from 0.1 to 1.0 micromicrocurie per liter depending upon calcium concentration. Radiostrontium is determined by a multiple precipitation method having a sensitivity of about 1 micromicrocurie per liter. Uranium is determined to 0.1 ppb by a fluorometric procedure.
Utilization of Cooling Towers in Conservation and Pollution Control
Authors: Finnerty Joseph J.
Published: August 2009

With few exceptions, the largest single use of water by American industries is for cooling purposes. Because the requirements are so huge, industrial plants are generally located near natural sources of water. This arrangement favors once-through circulating systems in which water is discarded after initial use. When water supplies are either inadequate or unavailable as to quantity or quality, recirculating systems are utilized. A cooling tower represents the heart of many such systems. To keep pace with the ever mounting demand for goods and services during the past decade, almost every industry has had to expand its plants and facilities. Frequently, however, plants using water on a once-through basis find that they are limited in their expansion program by (1) overburdened circulating systems, (2) insufficient water supply, and (3) excessive wastes that must be handled in some way. These conditions have led to the development of water circuits that make novel use of cooling towers, three of which will be described in this paper. The first installation is unique because salt water is cooled in the tower instead of fresh water. The second tower, serving a condenser, in effect cools the river from which the circulating water is drawn. The third application is of interest because the tower is used as a process instrument. Excess heat is removed from a waste flow to make biological treatment possible.
Disposal of Oil-Field Brines in the Central Valley of California
Authors: Morris James M.
Published: August 2009

This paper presents a brief summary of a continuing program of the California Department of Water Resources for investigation of oil-field waste-disposal practices in the Central Valley of California. Basic objective of these studies is to obtain information necessary to prevent or alleviate water-pollution problems that might result from the disposal of wastes from oil-production activities. During the late 1940's, the California Legislature adopted a number of water pollution control measures, now referred to as the “Dickey Acts.” Under these acts, the state was divided into nine regions corresponding to the major drainage basins and a separate water-pollution control board established to administer water-pollution control activities within each of the regions. The legislature also directed other state agencies concerned with various aspects of water (Departments of Fish and Game, Public Health, and Water Resources) to provide technical advice and assistance to the regional boards. The area to be reported upon is under the jurisdiction of the Central Valley Regional Water Pollution Control Board. One of the first acts of this board, after it was formed in 1950, was to recognize the pollution potential involved in the disposal of oil-field brines. After several years of concerted effort, the board obtained specific authorization for the Department of Water Resources to conduct the geological and waste-disposal studies reported upon in this paper. Without the impetus provided by the Central Valley Regional Water Pollution Control Board, it is doubtful that these studies could have been completed within the same short period of time.
Mobile Field Testing of Missiles and Aircraft
Authors: Barath A. , Hagemaier D. J.
Published: August 2009

To maintain product reliability and dependability in missiles and jet transports, the Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc., is engaged in an extensive field-testing program. In this, nondestructive testing plays an important role. A fully equipped mobile nondestructive test laboratory was purchased to permit field testing with a greater degree of efficiency. The nondestructive test group at Santa Monica, Calif., has long been engaged in assisting customers in solving various problems pertaining to airframe structure. Nondestructive tests in the field usually required the transporting of equipment and personnel from the Santa Monica location. The customers have been encouraged to purchase nondestructive test equipment, and tests, techniques, and results were forwarded to the company's service department. A radiographic inspection manual was distributed to all customers operating DC-6 and DC-7 aircraft. As further information is developed, it is entered in the master manual, and copies are distributed to all bookholders so that techniques are kept up to date. If the customer cannot handle a problem, it is presented to the nondestructive test group at Santa Monica. This method proved so effective on aircraft in service that it was decided to make it part of the field test program.
Radiography of Weldments in Motion
Authors: Hitt W. C. , Hagemaier D. J.
Published: August 2009

In the spring of 1956, the Douglas Aircraft Co. was awarded a U. S. Air Force contract to fabricate Thor, the intermediate-range ballistic missile. A major problem facing the company's nondestructive testing group was to provide methods for the X-ray inspection of large tank weldments. This was imperative in order to meet schedule requirements for reliability, timely delivery of missile components, and to keep costs commensurate with those of an average product development. Conventional X-ray techniques seemed impractical and inadequate to meet requirements. Because of this, the radiography of weldments in motion (Fig. 1) was conceived by the Douglas Co. Trial exposures of a prepared weld sample were performed, using the standard and the in-motion techniques. Results compared so favorably that the in-motion technique was chosen for production inspection. Before the project could proceed, an X-ray laboratory had to be built and special equipment had to be purchased or designed. Because packaged strip film was not available, the Douglas Co. designed and built a machine to cassette 70-mm film (Fig. 2).
Determinant Sample Parameters in Radiation Effects Testing of High Polymers
Authors: Fritz E. G.
Published: August 2009

The effects of molecular weight, molecular architecture, reaction mechanism, and sample thickness on the radiation-induced response of high-polymer materials are analyzed. A statistical evaluation of the main-chain degradation process shows that, up to high doses, the molecular weight of the degraded system is a function of the initial molecular weight. Radiation-induced changes in physical properties also exhibit a sensitive dependence on the initial molecular weight distribution in the important early stages of degradation. Different degradative characteristics can arise from variations in mer sequence, mer orientation, branching, and crystallization. In addition, these elements of molecular architecture affect the diffusion coefficient and thus the residence time of free radicals in the sample. Considerable induction periods may precede steady-state conditions as a result of diffusion processes and chemical mechanism effects. Thus, if measurements are made during the induction period, they may lead to incorrect conclusions about the sample's ultimate behavior under steady-state conditions. It is concluded that test results are of little comparative value unless the polymer systems are defined in terms of their determinant molecular parameters. Sample thickness, test environment, and testing time should be chosen carefully to avoid vitiation by diffusion and mechanism effects.
Effect of Sample Parameters on Energy Absorption from a Neutron Beam
Authors: Johnston R. L.
Published: August 2009

A Monte Carlo Computer Program has been used to investigate the effects of sample size, shape, and composition on the amount of energy lost from a monoenergetic neutron beam incident upon one face of the sample. Cylinders, spheres, and rectangular parallelepipeds are considered. The composition calculations confirm that the energy absorbed by compound samples can be calculated, using a simple additivity assumption, from data obtained for pure element samples provided the pure element and compound samples are the same size and shape. The effect of sample shape was investigated by calculating the energy lost by monoenergetic neutrons in penetrating cylinders of identical mass but widely varying thickness and radius. It is apparent from these data that neglect of sample shape can lead to serious errors in the calculation of energy absorption values.
Radiation Damage in Steel: Considerations Involving the Effect of Neutron Spectra
Authors: Rossin A. D.
Published: August 2009

The mechanism of interaction between fast neutrons and atoms of a metal lattice is described. A cross-section for the production of vacancies in iron by neutrons, as a function of neutron energy, is derived and shown to be roughly proportional to the product of the neutron energy and the isotropic elastic scattering cross-section. The vacancy production cross-section is applied to several reactor spectra and the results show that an appreciable fraction of the radiation damage in crystalline solids, particularly metals, can be caused by neutrons having energies below 1 Mev. Also, the assumption that the neutrons responsible for radiation damage have a fission spectrum distribution appears to be inapplicable in reactor situations. In fact, no quantitative measure of total neutron exposure can be made without knowledge of the spectral shape. Steel is chosen as an example because of the interest in its properties as a function of irradiation; hence the model is developed based on interaction of neutrons with iron atoms. Some important limitations of the method are cited.
Arc Jet Measurements Related to Ablation Test Validity
Authors: Christensen Daphne , Buhler Rolf D.
Published: August 2009

This paper discusses the importance of obtaining an accurate, detailed calibration of arc jet tunnel flows in order that materials test data can be properly interpreted. Various measuring techniques useful in providing the gas dynamic calibration of the flow are described. Certain gas kinetic measurements (spectroscopy, Langmuir probes, etc.) are also briefly discussed. Experimental data from the 150-kw arc tunnel are presented. The necessary conditions for valid free-flight simulation, as well as the possibility of attaining these conditions in an arc jet, are defined briefly. Also, the problem of scaling is discussed and several possible methods of scaling are suggested.
Thermal Loading of Streams
Authors: Hoak R. D.
Published: August 2009

This paper discusses the methods used to accumulate the data necessary to formulate a set of regulations governing the discharge of heated water to streams. It includes the results of a series of temperature surveys covering about 100 miles of rivers and analyzes the findings. The effects of heat on streams is becoming a matter of concern in various industrialized sections of the country. The recommendations of an advisory committee adopted by the Pennsylvania Sanitary Water Board should provide a pattern for other states with the same problem. The work of the committee illustrates the value of cooperative studies in resolving controversial issues.
Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Aqueous Solutions
Authors: Baker R. A.
Published: August 2009

Gas chromatographic principles and recent applications to the determination of low levels of inorganic and organic substances in aqueous solutions are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the use of flame-ionization detection and gas-liquid chromatography. Applications to situations requiring rapid, accurate determination of dilute aqueous solutions are becoming more important in water treatment and quality control. Suggestions are made for extending the procedures to supplement sensory panel testing, monitoring water intake quality, providing an early warning of slug discharges at water plant intakes, and elucidating biological and chemical processes.
Electron Microautoradiography and Its Application to the Study of Hydrogen Distribution in Steel
Authors: Gilpin C. B. , Paul D. H. , Asunmaa S. K. , Tiner N. A.
Published: August 2009

Electron microautoradiography, a technique for observing distribution of radioisotopes in metals by electron microscopy, is described. The specimen is prepared, and a carbon layer is deposited on it. A silver halide emulsion is spread over the carbon as a monolayer. The emulsion is developed while still on the specimen, separated by immersion in acid, picked up on a grid, and examined by electron microscopy. To minimize hydrogen diffusion from the specimen during exposure, specimens should be kept at liquid nitrogen temperatures. Examples of use of this technique for studying hydrogen distribution in AISI 4340 steel during cathodic charging, delayed hydrogen cracking, and stress corrosion are given.
Transmission Electron Microscope Study of the Structures Produced During the First Stage of Tempering in a 1.40 Weight Per Cent Carbon Steel
Authors: Jackson M. R. , Krauss G.
Published: August 2009

The structure of a 1.40 weight per cent carbon steel during the first stage of tempering (up to 200 C) was studied by transmission electron microscopy. Distributions consisting of either randomly arranged spherical or aligned platelike carbide particles were observed after tempering at 150 C. The origin of both of these types of distributions can be explained by heterogeneous nucleation on and growth of carbide particles along the dislocation networks of the tempered martensite.
Environmental Effects Studies on Selected Titanium Alloys
Authors: Simenz R. F. , Orden J. M. Van , Wald G. G.
Published: August 2009

The elevated temperature stress-corrosion cracking behavior of several titanium alloys was investigated. The results indicate varying degrees of susceptibility, depending on alloy, test conditions, heat treatment, and so on. The need for additional work and refinement and standardization of test conditions is evident from the variations in test results reported here and by other researchers. Materials tested included sheet alloys Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V, Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-5Al-2.5Sn, Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al, Ti-4Al-3Mo-1V, and extrusion alloys Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V, Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn, Ti-6Al-4V, and Ti-7Al-4Mo. Test exposure temperatures from 500 to 650 F were used. Other test variables were salt type and thickness, heat treatment strength level, stress level, fabrication effects (spotwelding, fusion welding, bend forming, and so on) and exposure time. It has not been established whether laboratory stress-corrosion behavior in titanium alloys can be a problem in actual service; however, the approach at Lockheed will be to select and control materials for use in SST construction which are shown to be unaffected in laboratory elevated temperature stress-corrosion testing.
The Mechanism of Salt Attack on Titanium Alloys
Authors: Petersen V. C. , Bomberger H. B.
Published: August 2009

Stress corrosion in titanium is caused by complex oxidation reactions. Reaction products were identified by X-ray diffraction, mass spectrometry, and gas chromatography. Chlorine gas was identified as an intermediate and regenerable reaction product that has a strong tendency to crack titanium. No reaction occurs if oxygen or oxide is absent. Extensive damage can occur even if only a small amount of salt is present. This sensitivity is attributed to recycling of chlorine. Of several surface treatments tested, metal coatings are most promising. Electrolytic nickel coatings, dipped aluminum coatings, and zinc coatings were most effective.
The Diffusion of Corrosion Products in Hot-Salt Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Titanium
Authors: Kirchner R. L. , Ripling E. J.
Published: August 2009

An experimental technique is described for separating the gaseous, liquid, and solid reaction products generated by the hot-salt corrosion of titanium. By use of this procedure, it is shown that the product that causes cracking is not a gas and hence would not be expected to be washed away by a fast moving air stream in service.
Sea-Water Embrittlement of Titanium
Authors: Lane I. R. , Cavallaro J. L. , Morton A. G. S.
Published: August 2009

Tests on titanium alloy cantilever beam specimens indicate that sea-water embrittlement behavior is related to aluminum content, aging in the range 900 to 1300 F, presence of isomorphous beta stabilizers (molybdenum, vanadium, columbium), and rate of cooling from annealing temperatures. The authors believe that during thermal cycling, regions of coherent Ti3Al are nucleated in equilibrium with an alpha matrix. Composition and time at temperature influence this embrittling process. To reduce embrittlement, (1) lower aluminum content, (2) add elements (molybdenum or vanadium) that suppress the formation of coherent Ti3Al, and (3) avoid or minimize thermal cycling in the critical range. Test results indicate that sea water embrittlement is an environmental-dependent brittleness triggered by an aqueous corrodent.
Stress Corrosion Testing Methods
Authors: Ketcham Sara J.
Published: August 2009

Stress corrosion tests are conducted for a variety of reasons, the reason frequently determining the type of test. Some of the reasons are: (1) Evaluate a metal or alloy, or various heat treatments of one alloy for susceptibility to stress corrosion in certain environments. (2) Compare stress corrosion susceptibilities of various alloys.(3) Evaluate environments which might accelerate stress corrosion cracking in various alloys. (4) Evaluate a specific service requirement with regard to the possibility of stress corrosion. (5) Evaluate the effectiveness of coatings or other protective measures for reducing stress corrosion of susceptible metals and alloys. Stress corrosion tests may be conducted under conditions of either constant deflection or of constant load. An important difference between them is that under constant load general corrosion may cause a decrease in cross-sectional area with subsequent increase in stress per unit area. This can lead to mechanical rather than stress corrosion failure. Under constant deflection, the stress per unit area tends either to stay constant or decrease. Therefore, failure by stress rupture is not as likely to occur, but complete fracture from stress corrosion also may not occur because of stress relaxation during the earlier stages of cracking. For (1) and (2), both types of tests should be conducted in order to obtain a complete picture of the susceptibility of an alloy to stress corrosion, preferably using specimens oriented in more than one direction with respect to the rolling direction. Behavior in the short-transverse direction is especially important for study. For (3) and (5), the most important considerations should be selection of a specimen type and a stressing method which provide reproducibility of stress pattern and stress level from one specimen to another, and selection of a material known to be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. In materials that are notch sensitive, care should be taken to eliminate notches, scratches, etc., which might act as stress raisers.
Application of an Accelerated Stress Corrosion Test to Alloy Development
Authors: Denhard E. E. , Gaugh R. R.
Published: August 2009

A direct-tensile type of stress corrosion test was used to develop a corrosion resistant alloy that is relatively lean in nickel content as compared to other alloys that are immune to cracking in boiling magnesium chloride. This new alloy also is readily hot worked and welded. The same type of test specimen was used to evaluate the susceptibility of Type 410 and 17-4 PH stainless steels in several heat-treated conditions to stress cracking in environments containing hydrogen sulfide. The resistance of these alloys to cracking was found to be improved by tempering or overaging to lower strength levels, confirming earlier findings obtained on other types of tests. When heat treated to equal levels of yield strength, 17-4 PH was somewhat more resistant to cracking than Type 410.
A Rapid Stress Corrosion Test for Aluminum-Magnesium Alloys
Authors: Craig H. L. , Romans H. B.
Published: August 2009

The susceptibility of aluminum-magnesium alloys to stress corrosion cracking may be determined using a rapid, electrolytic test method. The stressed specimen, deflected as a beam, is made the anode in a 3.5 per cent salt solution by impressing a current of 40 ma/in. Prior to testing, a set of specimens may be heated, each one for an increased period of time over the previous one, to develop susceptibility in a part of the set of specimens. Test conditions have been chosen to maximize chances of failing materials with low degrees of susceptibility, while still not failing materials known to be nonsusceptible. Results with two commercially produced alloys are presented. Alloy 5083 shows less tendency to develop susceptibility than alloy 5456. The effect of cold work in accelerating the sensitivity to stress corrosion cracking is also shown.
Stress Corrosion of Magnesium Alloys—Environmental Factors
Authors: Pelensky M. A. , Gallaccio A.
Published: August 2009

Several years ago, members of ASTM Committee B-3, Subcommittee X (now Committee G-1, Subcommittee VI) on Stress Corrosion determined a need for review of work on stress corrosion testing prior to development of standards and criteria for determining stress corrosion susceptibility and behavior of various alloys. The subcommittee established three task groups to accomplish a review of the subject. Task group assignments were as follows: TG-1, sample selection and method of stress; TG-2, environments under which stress corrosion occurs and duration of tests; and TG-3, reporting of stress corrosion results and interpretation of results. This report is part of the TG-2 assignment. It concerns a review of reported stress corrosion investigations relating to the effects of various environments on specific magnesium alloys.
Some Techniques Used in the Study of Stress Corrosion Cracking
Authors: Logan H. L.
Published: August 2009

Techniques used at the National Bureau of Standards in the study of stress corrosion cracking of metals are described together with precautions taken in these investigations. Especially designed specimens of low-carbon and stainless steels and a titanium alloy and supplementary techniques for obtaining data as to the mechanism of the stress corrosion process are also described. A specimen and technique recently used to determine whether hydrogen plays a part in the delayed failures of high-strength steels in chloride solutions is described.
Reactions Contributing to the Formation of Susceptible Paths for Stress Corrosion Cracking
Authors: Vaughan D. A. , Phalen D. I.
Published: August 2009

Reactions between austenitic steels, martensitic steels, and ternary aluminum alloys have been investigated by optical and electron microscopy and by X-ray diffraction to evaluate metal-atomic hydrogen reactions as potential methods of generating susceptible paths for stress corrosion cracking of these materials. Significant structural changes are observed to result from cathodic charging treatments which have been compared with those that occur during stress corrosion. However, the reaction products are shown to be highly anodic to the uncharged metal and thus are very infrequently, if ever, observed in stress corrosion cracks. The mechanisms by which susceptible paths may be generated in stress corrosion cracking tests of these metals are discussed in terms of the observed metal-hydrogen reaction. Structural characteristics of these metals are shown to be contributing factors in the formation of these paths.
Evaluation of Various Techniques for Stress Corrosion Testing Welded Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Shumaker M. B. , Kelsey R. A. , Sprowls D. O. , Williamson J. G.
Published: August 2009

In the development of high-strength, weldable aluminum alloys it is necessary to determine the resistance to stress corrosion cracking of experimental combinations of parent plate and filler alloys. Several types of specimen and methods of loading have been studied to evaluate techniques suitable for rapid screening of alloys and for demonstrating the serviceability of alloys. Stress corrosion tests have been conducted in 3.5 per cent sodium chloride by alternate immersion and in seacoast and industrial atmospheres, comparing beam and tension specimens. The beam specimens were loaded by constant deformation, and tension specimens were loaded both by constant deformation and by constant load. Welded specimens designed to investigate the effect of residual welding stresses upon both butt welds and fillet welds also are included.
A Study of Temper Embrittlement During Stress Relieving of 5Ni-Cr-Mo-V Steels
Authors: Porter L. F. , Carter G. C. , Manganello S. J.
Published: August 2009

Extensive studies of the effect of alloying elements and residual elements on the susceptibility of Ni-Cr-Mo-V steels to temper embrittlement have led to the selection and evaluation of a preferred composition for a weldable quenched and tempered plate steel that is resistant to temper embrittlement during stress relieving. The embrittling effects of carbon, manganese, nickel, chromium, and molybdenum were determined in a statistically selected series of 27 composition modifications of a 5Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel. In addition, the effects of vanadium contents up to 0.19 per cent were investigated. The results of these studies showed that manganese and molybdenum were alloying elements primarily responsible for temper embrittlement in the steel. The effect of the residual elements phosphorus, aluminum, nitrogen, and oxygen on the susceptibility of 5Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel to temper embrittlement was determined. This study showed that although oxygen was detrimental to the notch toughness of the steels, only phosphorus contributed to temper embrittlement. On the basis of the preceding studies, a quenched and tempered plate steel with minimum susceptibility to temper embrittlement was selected; this composition exhibited good weldability and sufficient hardenability for 4-in.-thick plates. An 80-ton heat of this composition was produced, and the susceptibility of this steel to embrittlement during stress-relieving treatments was compared with that of a standard-composition 5Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel. The two steels were compared with and without 1 per cent prestrain. The modified-composition 5Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel exhibited about half the embrittlement of the standard composition. Embrittlement increased as the stress-relieving time increased and as the cooling rate from the stress-relieving temperature decreased. Prestraining produced no significant changes in the response of the steels to embrittlement.
Analysis of Rotor Steels for Residual Elements
Authors: Byrne F. P. , Nadalin R. J. , Penkrot J. , Rudolph J. S. , Wolfe C. R.
Published: August 2009

The general approaches to the analysis of rotor steels for antimony, arsenic, tin, lead, bismuth, selenium, tellurium, aluminum, and copper at the 15 ppm level are evaluated. Chemical methods are in existence but are slow. Polarography, with some further development, would also provide usable techniques which would be slow. The instrumental methods optical emission, X-ray fluorescence and atomic absorption do not yield adequate results upon direct application to the specimen. However, with suitable concentration techniques, these methods show considerable promise for rapid analysis of rotor steels. A number of concentration techniques are discussed. Of these, acid precipitation of the sulfides appears to be the best approach. Spark source mass spectrometry, while quite sensitive, is not yet developed to the point of supplying rapid, precise, and accurate quantitative analyses.
Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

There are several new additions to the bibliography this year which deserve special mention. Through the cooperation of I.B.M. Corp. and Mr. H. B. Ulsh of their laboratories, we have been given a list of some 131 papers on the subject of friction, lubrication and wear which had not been previously listed in the bibliography. These are all included in this supplement. Additional headings have been listed in the Subject Index to cover the areas presented in these papers. The lists of titles and authors of papers which were given at the Symposiums on Electromagnetic Relays which have been held at the Oklahoma State University under the direction of Charles F. Cameron, in association with the National Association of Relay Manufacturer's, are included. These conferences have been held for several years and cover work of considerable interest to those interested in the contact field in general. The same is true of the Engineering Seminars on Electrical Contacts conducted by The Pennsylvania State University under the direction of Professor Ralph Armington. Some of the papers in both of the above conferences have appeared in other publications and also appear in other places in the bibliography. In both cases, only the titles and authors are listed in this particular section.
Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

The seminars on electrical contacts continue to be held at the University of Maine under the direction of Prof. Ralph E. Armington with the co-sponsorship of ASTM Committee B-4. The conference last June, as well as the International Conference on Electric Contacts held at the University of Maine in November, 1961, are reported here in abstracts 3422z-4 and 3726. The Subject Index lists practically the same headings as were given in the 1962 edition. Most of the headings in the Subject Index will be self-explanatory. However, some of the headings are so broad that some additional information might be useful. For example, books which include the subject of electric contacts or cover the subject of electric contacts have been listed separately.
Use of Statistics in Identifying Problems in Ski Injury Research
Authors: Shealy Jasper E.
Published: August 2009

Epidemiological analysis of large numbers of ski injuries has been used over the last 20 years to identify trends and problem areas and to evaluate progress in the reduction of injuries. This paper reviews the ways in which modern epidemiological methods have been used and, in some cases, misused. Specific issues that are reviewed in this paper include (1) the 1962 Mount Snow study and the 1972 follow-up study, which failed in its follow-up to consider the rate of injury and concentrated on the percentages, thus causing the authors to reach conclusions that were not supported by the data; (2) the use of statistics to support the value of antifriction devices (AFDs) and ski brakes, in spite of reports to the contrary; and (3) the use of statistics to confirm the overall decline in injuries and, more specifically, in lower extremity equipment-related injuries.
Injury Risk in Alpine Skiing
Authors: Hauser Wolfhart , Asang Ernst , Müller Bernhard
Published: August 2009

Definitions and common problems of skiing injury statistics are discussed. The objective of the study is to make statements concerning special risk groups in alpine skiing. Injured skiers from a well-defined catchment area in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bavaria, are compared with a randomized control group of noninjured skiers. Injury patterns related to sex, age, skiing ability, equipment, and binding setting are established. The relatively high risk for beginners and children of experiencing lower extremity equipment-related injuries (LEER injuries) is mainly caused by bad equipment and incorrect binding settings. The severity of injuries of expert skiers is high, and these injuries are mainly of the non-LEER type; high-speed skiing, caused by good equipment and too perfect trail grooming, may be the reason. The deviations in binding setting are discussed in relation to injury patterns and are compared for several setting recommendation systems.
Collision Injuries in Downhill Skiing
Authors: Jenkins Raeburn , Johnson Robert J. , Pope Malcolm H.
Published: August 2009

Patients sustaining collision injuries, patients with noncollision injuries, and a control population were statistically compared to determine significant differences. All injury data gathered at the Sugarbush North Ski Area in Vermont from 1972 through 1982 were evaluated. Eighteen percent of all injuries observed in our study resulted from collisions. Collision injuries in general were less severe than noncollision injuries. However, collisions with trees produced a disproportionately high number of serious injuries. Collisions with man-made objects were relatively infrequent and resulted in less severe injuries than noncollision injuries. In general, skiers sustaining collision injuries were more skilled than skiers sustaining noncollision injuries. Proportionately, males tended to have a higher incidence of collision-type injuries than females, with the exception of collisions with other skiers, in which female injuries predominated.
The Effect of Environment on the Stress-Rupture Properties of Metals at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Shepard O. Cutler , Schalliol Willis
Published: August 2009

Stress-rupture tests in controlled atmospheres have been made with low-carbon steels and with Hastelloy “C.” Small differences in the composition of environment produced relatively large differences in the amount of intergranular cracking and in the time to failure. Attention is called to the need for making stress rupture tests of metals in environments similar to their service conditions.
Hydrogenizing Effect of Steam on Ferrous Alloys at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Zapffe C. A. , Landgraf F. K.
Published: August 2009

Several grades of stainless steel representative of alloys hardenable by the martensite reaction are heat treated in contrasting atmospheres of (a) steam and (b) carefully dried helium or air to demonstrate the severe damage to the ductility of the steel caused by hydrogen derived from the high-temperature metal-steam reaction. The damage is measured in terms of bendability of 1/4-in. round bar stock, using a specially designed bend test. The results substantiate the theory of the “hydrogen potential” of metal-steam reactions advanced by the senior author several years ago and suggest that an important extent of damage is being currently born by metallurgical applications where steam conditions are present and the hydrogenizing effect is not recognized. Hardened steels which endure a full bend after quenching from a dry atmosphere fail at a relatively low angle if steam is admitted into the heat treating furnace. This is specifically true of type 410 (or 403) stainless steel, which is designed for service in steam turbines. Furthermore, the effect of steam is extremely rapid, an exposure for one minute at the close of a heat treatment in dry helium causing virtually as much injury as a complete steam treatment. Recovery of the embrittled steel is studied, and an “aging minimum” is found similar to that observed in recovery from pickling brittleness.
Introduction
Authors: Geniesse J. C.
Published: August 2009

Some time ago Subcommittee V of ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants was requested to investigate methods for measuring viscosity at rates of shear up to 1,000,000 reciprocal seconds. Interest in the subject stemmed from the fact that the use of additives of various types in lubricants and fluids is increasing rapidly and the resultant viscosities of such products may vary with use, in which case, the values obtained in conventional equipment might not indicate their performance in use. Since previously published methods for measuring viscosity at high rates of shear had proved quite unsatisfactory due to unknown temperature values, Subcommittee V was requested to investigate the subject and, if necessary, to devise the equipment. Since a test program would necessitate the expenditure of funds, a request was made of the American Petroleum Institute Committee on Petroleum Products to finance the project, using funds collected from the sale of API viscosity standards. This project was approved and a subcommittee appointed by the API to supervise the program. The subcommittee's attention was called to the existence of two test methods which looked very promising. One of these methods incorporated the use of the Kingsbury tapered-plug instrument which had been used by Mr. S. J. Needs in his studies. The heart of this device is shaped much like a sleeve bearing; consequently, results from it should bear some relationship to bearing performances. The other test method had been in use at Pennsylvania State College by Mr. Fenske in his study of hydraulic liquids. In this case capillaries are used to measure viscosities. In view of the promise that these test methods indicated, arrangements were made to have some oils tested by those two procedures.
Practical Evaluation of Soiled Test Pieces
Authors: Mitchell R. B.
Published: August 2009

At present, the American Institute of Laundering offers a service to its members for determining whiteness retention and tensile strength loss, associated with a given commercial laundering procedure, as judged from the use of unsoiled white test pieces. In the past, several requests have been received concerning the availability and use characteristics of soiled test pieces relative to the measurement of soil removal. In most cases, the request was based on a desire to measure primarily the quality of laundered work as judged by constancy of results from both soiled and unsoiled test pieces. Of course, there are cases in which such test pieces would be used in an attempt to evaluate detergents, equipment, and washing formulae and other variables. Since we had no previous information relative to the over-all interpretation of soil removal results, as judged by soiled test pieces, a limited evaluation of such a service was attempted on a small scale. Sixteen laundries were selected as trial plants for judging the efficacy of soiled test pieces in determining soil removal properties of a given detergent process. These plants involved both the large and the small and encompassed fairly representative geographical sections of the country. It is well to keep in mind the many variables associated with a commercial laundry detergent process. It is doubtful that any unsoiled or soiled test piece could evaluate adequately such things as the effect of mechanical action, detergents, bleaching, bluing, sizing, equipment, and personal taste, particularly when these factors are all present in a given procedure. Yet, apparently the commercial laundry user of soiled or unsoiled test pieces expects them to do so. And what probably is more important from his viewpoint, he would like to use such results for comparative purposes with other laundries. Suffice to say, the variables encountered in an attempt to evaluate such a service are staggering.
An In-Vivo Method for Determining the Degerming Efficiency of Soaps Containing Hexachlorophene
Authors: Cade Arthur R.
Published: August 2009

A method is presented here for determining the efficiency of hexachlorophene in reducing the bacterial count on or in the normal human skin, and maintaining it there at an effective low level. In general the method comprises a modification of the original Price multiple-basin technique wherein the hands are washed according to a specified procedure as to time and method, followed by rinsing. The rinse water is then examined for its bacteria content by plating two 1-ml and two 0.1-ml samples respectively in agar, then incubating at 37 C for 48 hr, at which time the petri-plates are observed, and the number of viable bacteria which were present determined by counting the colonies growing on or in the agar, and multiplying by the proper factor to take care of the aliquot dilution used. From these counts are determined the percentage of reduction in numbers of bacteria as obtained through the use of the 2 per cent hexachlorophene soap employed three times daily during the two weeks' test period, as the normal hand-washing procedure. Blank soap, containing no hexachlorophene, is used for the test-washings. Details of the test technique and of the methods used for calculating the degerming efficiency of the product being tested are given.
Changes in Characteristics of Portland Cement as Exhibited by Laboratory Tests Over the Period 1904 to 1950
Authors: Gonnerman H. F. , Lerch William
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the changes in composition, fineness, and strength-producing characteristics of Type I portland cement as exhibited by laboratory tests over the period 1904 to 1950. The principal changes have been an increase in the average computed C3S content and an increase in fineness, each of which has contributed to higher concrete strengths at all ages up to 10 yr, the latest age of test reported in the paper. Most of these changes occurred during the period 1926 to 1940. Under given conditions of test, current Type I cements attain a strength of 3000 psi in about 4 days and 6000 psi in about 40 days whereas it required about 28 days and 8 years respectively to attain these strengths in comparable concretes made with cements purchased during the period 1916 to 1920. It is particularly noteworthy that, although the changes in composition and fineness have greatly increased the strength at early ages, the gain in strength of moist-cured concrete from 28 days to 10 years has remained approximately the same, about 3000 psi. Included in the paper are data comparing composition, fineness, strength-producing characteristics, volume change, heat of hydration, and sulfate resistance of the five types of portland cement covered by ASTM Specification C 150-49.
The Design of Laboratory Control of Laundry Washrooms Based on an Analysis of Variance
Authors: Freeman George S. , Cohn Morris I.
Published: August 2009

A method is described for employing an analysis of variance to determine the precision of a control service to commercial laundries. The statistical data accumulated by this method are also used to determine the number of specimens and tests per specimen that must be employed to achieve any desired precision or the expected precision for any given number of specimens and tests per specimen. A versatile method for the economic redesign of the testing procedure is also described. This method offers a technique for the research worker to determine what combination of specimens and tests per specimen will provide the desired testing precision at the minimum cost. This method of redesign is applicable to all types of testing and research programs where more than one specimen and one test per specimen are utilized to evaluate each datum point.
A Method for Evaluation of the Thermal Aging Stability of Flexible Sheet Insulation
Authors: Plettner R. M. , Currin C. G.
Published: August 2009

A method for evaluating the thermal aging stability of flexible sheet insulation has been developed using the dielectric strength of the insulation as the failure criterion. This test method has been designed for functional and statistical accuracy, simplicity, and economy of time, labor, materials, and equipment. Samples of flexible sheet insulation are aged at elevated temperatures. After periods of aging, the samples are subjected to a dielectric stress in an electrode system which elongates the sheet insulation approximately 1 per cent. The time required for the average dielectric strength to drop to a predetermined level is considered the life of the insulating material. By testing at several temperatures, the life-temperature relationship is established over a temperature range. This relationship is the goal of the test and from it the life at lower temperatures may be predicted. Preliminary experience has shown this test method satisfies the design goals.
Introduction
Authors: Amtsberg H. C.
Published: August 2009

Prior to 1947, A.S.T.M. Committee E-7 had confined its activities to the field of radiography. In that year the committee decided to broaden its activities to cover the development and dissemination of knowledge in other non-destructive testing fields as well. One of the committee's first tasks was to broaden the general knowledge of the various aspects of ultrasonic testing for the Society and industry in general. This technique employs ultra high frequency sound waves, generally in the order of a fraction to several megacycles, primarily to detect internal or external flaws or foreign bodies in otherwise homogeneous masses. Applications in this category have ranged from detecting and locating gall stones in humans to determining the presence of internal cracks in steel through distances of 25 ft. or more. Another category rapidly becoming of widespread interest is dynamic testing at ultrasonic frequencies. Actual use of the principle of reflecting sound waves for flaw detection is certainly quite old. Laboratory work of high precision has been conducted for about a decade.
Structure of Oxides Formed on High-Temperature Alloys at 1500 F
Authors: Radavich John F.
Published: August 2009

The high-temperature resistance of iron-nickel-chromium alloys is determined for the most part by the structural, chemical, and physical nature of the oxides formed on the surface; the physical properties of the metal are influenced by, among other things, the phases precipitated in the metal, the number of cracks formed in the metal, type of oxides formed, and the healing influence of the oxide films on crack formation. The base metal and the surface state determine largely the rates of oxide formation and the diffusion of metal and oxygen through the initial oxide layer. Additions of cobalt, molybdenum, and tungsten to iron-nickel-chromium alloys produce alloys that have superior high-temperature properties. Although the process of high-temperature oxidation has been studied by various investigators, relatively little is known about the oxides formed, the mechanism of oxide formation, or the healing effects of various types of oxide layers. Because data on the type of oxides formed on high-temperature alloys are very meager, work was undertaken to study the oxide structures formed on various high-temperature alloys by means of electron microscopy, electron diffraction, and X-ray diffraction.