bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Oil Behaviour in Ice-Infested Waters
Authors: Fingas M.F. , Hollebone B.P.
Published: August 2014

The current knowledge of the physical fate and behaviour of crude oil and petroleum products spilled in Arctic situations is reviewed. Oil in and under ice undergoes a variety of processes depending on location and environmental conditions. Modeling of oil in such environments becomes complex by the addition of these processes.

Spreading was evaluated for oil on ice, under ice, in snow, in brash ice, and between blocks of ice. Oil transport under sheet and broken ice are considered, both for sea and river conditions. The movement of oil under the ice may be governed by the undersea roughness as well as the relative velocity of the water with respect to the ice. The effects of oil on a growing ice sheet are examined, both for its effects on ice formation and for the thermal effects of oil inclusions in ice. The migration of oil through ice is examined, focussing primarily on the movement through brine channels. The effects of oil on the surface of ice are considered, with emphasis on the effects of surface pools on ice melt. Similar consideration is given to the effects of oil on snow on the surface of ice.

The quantitative studies of oil in open and dynamic ice conditions are reviewed. Observations of intentional small-scale spills in leads and ice fields are reviewed and compared with observations from real spills. The most common ultimate fate of oil in an ice field is release onto water.

Some of the measurements made in earlier years suffered from the lack of good measurement techniques. Further research is needed to improve the understanding of oil behavior in ice-infested waters.
Three Years of Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT) for the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Gulf of Mexico, USA
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Nixon Zachary , Holton William , White Mark , Zengel Scott , Csulak Frank , Rutherford Nicolle , Childs Carl
Published: August 2014

The oil from the 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico was documented as stranding on 1,773 kilometers (km; 1,102 miles) of shoreline as of May 2013. Of the shorelines oiled, beaches comprised 50.8%, marshes 44.9%, and other shoreline types 4.3%. One year after the spill began, oil remained on 830 km; two years later, oil remained on 685 km and three years later, oil remained on 632 km, with 74% of the shoreline classified as trace (<1%) oiling degree. Shoreline cleanup activities were authorized on 660 km, or 73.3% of oiled beaches. Because the oil stranded over a three-month period and at a period in time when the beaches were in a relatively eroded condition, the oil became deeply buried and posed many challenges to its removal. The continued remobilization of oil buried in both intertidal and nearshore habitats resulted in the chronic re-oiling of sand beaches at trace levels for over three years, thus the slow rate of decline in the shoreline oiled lengths. Treatment of sand beaches in the first year focused on use of mechanical beach cleaners and excavation and sifting of deeply buried oil to minimize clean sediment removal. Later treatments were mostly manual except for mechanical excavation of deeply buried oil in Louisiana beaches in 2012 and 2013. Passive, manual, and mechanical treatments were authorized on 71 km, or 8.9% of oiled marshes and associated habitats, though actual treatment was conducted in smaller zones within these segments. Intensive marsh cleanup treatments were limited to ~1-2% of oiled marshes Gulf-wide and focused on areas with thick persistent marsh oiling. The Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT) Program was the most complex and long lasting of any past spill. The SCAT Program evolved as needed to support the changing requirements and many challenges over the duration of the response. Many of the tools and products developed and used will be of value for future spill responses.
Upgraded RETOS™: An International Tool to Assess Oil Spill Response Planning and Readiness
Authors: Taylor Elliott , Moyano Miguel , Steen Alexis
Published: August 2014

In 2011 the Regional Association of Oil and Gas Companies - Latin America and the Caribbean (ARPEL) developed the “Oil Spill Response Planning and Readiness Assessment Manual” and its assessment tool, the “Readiness Evaluation Tool for Oil Spills (RETOS™)” with the support of regional and international experts from industry and government, including associations such as Clean Caribbean and Americas (CCA), RAC-REMPEITC-Carib, and IMO.

The ARPEL Manual and RETOS™ provide a general guide for industry and governments to assess their level of oil spill response (OSR) planning and readiness management in relation to pre-established criteria. These criteria are commonly agreed upon by the institutions involved in the project and consider international best management practices. The foundation for the ARPEL Manual's concepts and criteria is the “Assessment of Oil Spill Response Capabilities: A Proposed International Guide for Oil Spill Response Planning and Readiness Assessment”, a guideline developed for the 2008 International Oil Spill Conference.

RETOS™ adapts evaluation criteria according to the type of OSR program to be assessed.Seven different scopes from two perspectives (government and industry) are considered, including facilities, companies' business lines, and government national programs.For each scope there are three possible assessment levels for which OSR planning and readiness assessment criteria become increasingly more demanding.Each level contains criteria in 10 different categories (topic areas).

Training workshops on RETOS™ were held during 2011 and 2012. Field tests were conducted by experts and surveys were conducted among users including companies, governments and consultants. Feedback from workshops and the practical application of RETOS™ provided recommendations for upgrades that were reviewed by ARPEL. Subsequently, a proposal to upgrade RETOS was made to the IOSC Executive Committee, which decided to support the endeavor. This paper describes the upgraded version of RETOS and its availability.

The upgraded version of RETOS™ has garnered interest from several institutions that contributed to its completion as reviewers: a global Tier 3 organization (OSRL), Caspian and Black Sea's OSPRI, GI WACAF, and IPIECA. This multi-institutional review increased awareness of these readiness assessment tools, is expected to further expand worldwide awareness of the ARPEL Manual and RETOS™, and provides improved OSR planning and readiness management for industry and governments alike. A unique tool that is freely downloadable from the internet, the upgraded RETOS™ is being launched at the 2014 IOSC.
Resource Ordering and Tracking: Getting It Right in Exercises and Incidents
Authors: Callahan Thomas , Smiley Daniel
Published: August 2014

Tracking resources and implementing an effective resource ordering process within the Incident Command Post can seemingly be as challenging as the task of recovering spilled oil during an incident. A key goal of resource ordering is to get the right resources to the right place at the right time in order to mount a successful response to the oil spill incident. Resource tracking is essential to accurately know how many of what resources have been ordered or have arrived and where they are. Therefore addressing the challenges associated with resource ordering is a key element to implementing an effective and efficient response. This paper examines the resource ordering and tracking process, highlights lessons learned from exercises and incidents, and translates those lessons learned into recommendations for the resource ordering process.

This examination looks at the cutoff point between resources ordered during the initial OSRO callout and a more managed resource ordering process, applying Type and Kind to resources, use of the Resource Request Message (ICS 213RR) form, and integration with computer-based spill management tools. Lessons learned from exercises will be described and recommendations are put forward that may assist all elements of a spill management team (SMT) to efficiently and effectively order resources during exercises or actual incidents. A cohesive SMT that implements an effective resource tracking and ordering process will help ensure resource ordering does not slow the response, and the right resources get to the right place at the right time.
Oil Spill Preparedness and Response Capability in West, Central and Southern Africa: Sustaining momentum in a changing world of oil spill risks
Authors: Rhodes Anton , Chancerel Romain
Published: August 2014

The Global Initiative for West, Central and Southern Africa (GI WACAF Project) is a partnership between the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and IPIECA - the global oil and gas industry association for environmental and social issues, to enhance the capacity of countries to prepare for and respond to marine oil spills.

The GI WACAF Project was launched in 2006 and is jointly funded by IMO and eight oil company members in order to strengthen national oil spill response capability in 22 countries of West, Central and Southern Africa through the establishment of local partnerships between the oil industries and the national authorities in charge of oil spill preparedness and response at the national level. This paper will describe how the GI WACAF Project cooperates with local stakeholders in order to develop a structure for preparedness and response in the region, and to detail what are the challenges lying ahead in order to make this structure fully operational taking into account the changes in the region in terms of risk profiles, industry representation and national and regional governance.

The analysis of the exercises organised under the umbrella of the GI WACAF Project in Congo, Nigeria (2011), Gabon (2012), Cameroon, and Mauritania (2012) emphasises the needs in terms of international cooperation, integration of response capabilities at the national and regional levels and the development of effective incident management structures.

In conclusion, we will present how the GI WACAF Project has evolved in order to maintain its momentum for the continuous development of preparedness and response capabilities in the region.
Insights from Meta-Analysis of Recent Exercises
Authors: Narin van Court Wade A. , Robinson Mark B.
Published: August 2014

Oil terminals maintain and assess their oil spill response readiness by conducting drills and exercises in general accordance with the Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) guidelines; however, they often do not realize the full benefits of the time and effort they invest in their exercise programs. Specifically, the way many terminals conduct and evaluate their drill and exercise programs does not provide an in-depth understanding of the capabilities and competencies of their personnel and their response contractors. URS Corporation (URS) recently performed a meta-analysis of tabletop exercises (TTX), equipment deployment exercises (EDX), and unannounced spill equipment deployment drills (UDD) that we facilitated at terminals around the United States. The meta-analysis was performed as a combined review of the after action reports from the various exercises to identify common lessons learned and areas for improvement. Specifically, the objective of the meta-analysis was to develop recommendations, based on an in-depth understanding of the identified common lessons learned and insights from our exercise facilitators, to enhance or improve terminals' oil spill response performance when implemented in the design of future drills and exercises. Based on our study, URS identified and developed recommendations to address the following areas for improvement: training/exercises did not build on previous efforts; TTX were “walk through” or discussion type of exercises and not conducted in “real time”; UDD were conducted in similar ways each time and did not “stress the system”; exercises and drills did not involve upper level (e.g., regional or corporate) personnel who may have significant roles in the response; terminal personnel did not have relationships with staff of industries, contractors, and/or agencies in their area; terminal personnel were not familiar with the Geographic Response Plans or Area Contingency Plans for their area; and exercise programs and post-exercise reviews and critiques did not effectively assess all 15 response plan components. By implementing the recommendations from our meta-analysis, terminals can expect to obtain significantly greater benefits in terms of competence and confidence to respond to oil spills for a modest investment in additional time, cost, and effort.
Exercising the Recovery Phase: Taking the Next Step
Authors: Leonard Joseph J. , Karwan Kerry G. , Hahn John , Gibeault Carl
Published: August 2014

All responses reach a phase in which the primary concern shifts from protecting life and property by controlling and mitigating the incident to recovering from the incident and restoring as near as possible the pre-incident conditions. This phase is rarely the subject of exercises. The advantages to “exercising the recovery” are pre-identification of priorities, pre-identification of needs, increasing the visibility of recovery problems, and identifying recovery organizations strengths and weaknesses.

Recovery priorities are a sensitive topic. Responder priorities often are different from those of the population impacted. This can lead to great discontent, confusion, and wasted resources. A common example is focusing on restoring automated banking facilities before the restoration of electricity. The resources devoted to the former would be better used on the latter. Pre-identification of priorities and communicating those will reduce problems later.

“What is needed to recover from this incident?” is best asked before the incident. Identifying the most basic needs will lead to a very large list. If those needs are pre-identified by means of an exercise, then preparations to create stockpiles, contracts with response organizations, and perhaps even locating staging areas and transportation blocks can begin before an incident occurs.

Increasing the visibility of potential recovery problems will allow planners to more effectively provide decision makers and money managers justification for expending pre-incident resources on essential incident recovery assets. Assets that have been pre-identified are that much closer to use.

Exercises that identify a recovery organization's strengths and weaknesses prepare participants for eventual use and better integration into the overall response. Participants develop knowledge of each other's organizations and what that organization brings to the recovery efforts. That knowledge is at a premium during a response.

Using exercises to identify recovery priorities, identify recovery needs, increasing the visibility of recovery efforts, and evaluating recovery organizations should be an increasing part of the responder's exercise programs.
Update on Developing and Commercializing Oil Herders for In-Situ Burning
Authors: Buist Ian , Nedwed Tim , Tidwell Amy , Lane Peter , Newsom Peter , Flagg Ken
Published: August 2014

Since the 2011 Conference (Buist et al. 2011 and Buist and Nedwed 2011), work on advancing oil herding agents for in-situ burning (ISB) has focused on three areas:Obtaining regulatory approvals for their use in North America;Developing an application system for use in a helicopter; and,Researching the effectiveness of herders for rapid-response ISB in open water.

Desmi-AFTI worked in conjunction with S.L. Ross Environmental Research to get approval to use herders in North American waters. The proscribed test data from an accredited laboratory in Louisiana on three candidate herding agents (also called surface collecting agents) was submitted to the U.S. EPA for approval to list them on the National Contingency Plan (NCP) Product Schedule. Two herders have been placed on the list and are now commercially available. These two can be used, with the FOSC's concurrence, for spill response operations in U.S. waters. Samples of all three herders have been sent to Environment Canada, along with all the EPA test data, for their consideration. Quantities (200 L) of the two herders listed on the NCP Product Schedule have been produced and are stockpiled at Desmi-AFTI in Buffalo, NY.

An application system, consisting of a pump, controls and reservoir has been designed to be placed inside an appropriate helicopter. It incorporates a reel-able hose that is used to lower the application nozzle to the correct height above the water for herder application. Dry land, static trials were conducted in September 2013 and helicopter flight trials are planned for summer and fall 2014. A back-pack sprayer system for herder application from a small vessel is available off-the-shelf, with only minor modifications required for cold-temperature use.

The US Department of the Interior's Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement sponsored a series of laboratory and Ohmsett experiments to see whether herders could contract oil slicks in wave conditions in open water. The results showed that the monolayer of each of the two best herders will survive for more than 45 minutes in a calm sea. The presence of breaking or cresting waves rapidly disrupts the herder monolayer and the oil slick resulting in the production of many small slicklets from the herded slick and the re-spreading of the oil to thin slicks. The monolayer survives for considerable periods of time in a swell condition, but the constant stretching and contracting of the herded slick results in elongating the oil slick and slowly breaking the slick into smaller segments.

Testing of the helicopter application system with a herding agent on a 10 m3 experimental crude oil release in drift ice is planned for spring 2015. Further laboratory study of the approved herders is also planned with the goals of better understanding their toxicity and biodegradation and the window of opportunity for their effective use on weathered, emulsified and waxy oils.
Incorporating Traditional Knowledge and Subsistence Mapping into the Arctic Environmental Response Management Application
Authors: Merten Amy A. , Winters-Staszak Zachary , Kinner Nancy E.
Published: August 2014

Access to information from local and indigenous communities is vital to improving oil spill preparedness and response, and to ensuring efficient prioritization and protection of subsistence and culturally sensitive areas. The Environmental Response Management Application (ERMA®) is an online mapping tool that integrates both static and real-time data, such as Environmental Sensitivity Index maps, ship locations, weather, ocean currents, and more in a centralized format for environmental responders and decision makers. This allows for high-impact and fine-resolution visualization of data for solving complex environmental response and resource issues. As part of the overall ERMA project, baseline datasets have been collected from government sources, private corporations, universities, local entities, and non-governmental organizations (NGO). Arctic ERMA—a regional instance of the ERMA application—covers the U.S. high Arctic, with use in all of Alaska as well as internationally.

To identify and gather Arctic-specific data, workshops were conducted in the Northwest Arctic Borough (NWAB), North Slope Borough (NSB), and Edmonton, Canada focusing on oil spill scenarios that could affect villages in each region, and developing prioritized datasets needed to support planning, response, and natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) work. As part of the overall ERMA project, baseline datasets have been collected from government sources, private corporations, universities, local entities and non-governmental organizations. Most of these datasets are publicly available. ERMA has been tested in Arctic drills and was used to support the USCG's “Arctic Shield” exercise, September 2013. Through this exercise, ERMA was able to incorporate onboard ship information, field-collected data, photos, sensor data and other scientific input collected during the USCG Cutter Healy cruise. The exercise identified some of the challenges the response community could face during a spill in the Arctic and the region's dependence upon local knowledge in successfully minimizing environmental effects and human-dimension impacts. This presentation will discuss collaborations and next steps.
Enhancing the Utility of Community Health Workers in Disaster Preparedness, Resiliency, and Recovery
Authors: Nicholls Keith , Picou J. Steven , Lowman Janel
Published: August 2014

As part of the Deepwater Horizon Medical Settlement, the University of South Alabama's Coastal Resource & Resiliency Center is charged with preparing Community Health Workers (CHWs) to serve in areas affected by the oil spill. The immediate objective of this effort is to enhance primary and behavioral healthcare capacity and health literacy, especially among disadvantaged and underserved populations. A review of previous research confirms the utility of CHWs in accomplishing this objective. Findings further suggest that CHWs could play a crucial role in the area of oil spill response and recovery, but fulfilling this role will require appropriate training. In this paper, we provide an outline of CHW training that includes: 1) educational outreach to enhance literacy and promote preparedness; 2) identification and management of diseases and conditions associated with or exacerbated by such technological disasters; and 3) essential elements in the recognition and referral of psychosocial problems associated with the oil spill experience. Community Health Workers have great potential to contribute in the area of oil spill response and recovery by motivating maximum preparedness, speeding recovery, and increasing resiliency for future spills. It is important that institutional actors involved in the area recognize this potential and contribute to its realization.
ALASKA'S APPROACH TO DETERMINING OIL RECOVERY RATES AND EFFICIENCIES
Authors: Miller Sharry , Kotula John
Published: August 2014

The determination of effective daily recovery capacities for oil skimmers and pumps has been controversial and increasingly critical in recent years. Oil discharge events around the world have highlighted the importance of having effective oil spill response plans, equipment, and procedures in place and available for immediate activation. The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) has determined that the standard practice of using an effective oil recovery capacity equal to 20 percent of the equipment manufacturer's rated throughput capacity over a 24-hour period is not always realistic for predicting recovery capabilities during an oil spill response. Additionally, always using 20 percent does not give equipment manufacturers incentives to develop improved equipment, nor are plan holders motivated to use best available technology in their response systems.

The development of ASTM International (ASTM) “F 2709–08 Standard Test Method for Determining Nameplate Recovery Rate of Stationary Oil Skimmer Systems” (hereafter called ASTM 2709–08) provided a starting point for the assessment of realistic oil recovery rates (ORR) and oil recovery efficiencies (ORE). The standard states, “This test method defines a method and measurement criteria to quantify the nameplate recovery rate (capacity) of a stationary skimmer system in ideal conditions.”

The ADEC has worked with plan holders, oil spill response organizations, and oil shipping industry representatives to use the results of testing under ASTM 2709–08 (ideal conditions) as a baseline for determining ORR and ORE in realistic field conditions. This work has been based on a “systems approach” which takes into consideration the operating environments in which the skimmer will be used and the booms which will be used to concentrate and contain oil for skimming. The resulting “Request for Assessment of Skimmer System Efficiency” provides a means for plan holders to convey information which the ADEC can use to make a determination about the skimming system's recovery capabilities.
The risk based alternative to the prescriptive EDRC approach to oil spill preparedness and response.
Authors: Foley Paul
Published: August 2014

Every spill is different. This is the one globally accepted truth of oil spill response, and never more so than when responding on a global scale. The number of potential variables that combine to shape the event and the ensuing response are almost incalculable. Each incident produces a chain of events that must be analysed, assessed and acted on to build the most appropriate response with the effective application of the resources available. The amount, type and availability of such resources depend largely on the rigor and level of preparedness that the responsible party has put in place or that is required by the local regulator based on prescriptive criteria.

This paper explores the risk based approach to the development of oil spill preparedness, allowing mitigating measures to be tailored to the specific risks faced and offering an alternative approach to that offered by the more prescriptive and generic volume based approaches. Advantages and disadvantages of the risk based method are discussed and then anchored to the tiered approach to preparedness. The author draws on first-hand experience of how both approaches translate from the ‘page of preparedness’ to the ‘field of response’. Using international case histories as a reference the author draws conclusions as to whether the inherent variation experienced in spill response should translate to a more flexible, bespoke and risk based approach to the development of a robust and resilient level of preparedness.
Review of Emissions from Oil Fires
Authors: Fingas Merv
Published: August 2014

The concern over emissions often dominates concerns regarding in-situ burning of oil spills. This paper reviews the results of emission measurement from both test fires and full-scale fires. More than 50 meso-scale burns of crude and diesel were conducted to study various aspects of diesel and crude oil burning in-situ. Extensive sampling and monitoring of these burns were conducted at downwind stations, and in the smoke plume. Later, the burning characteristics of heavy oils and emulsified heavy oils were studied. More than 15 meso-scale burns of these heavy oils were conducted. Measurements of the volatile components and particulates were made. Finally, some measurements were made on the in-situ burns carried out during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill.

In summary, these measurements found that PAHs were found to be lower in the soot than in the starting oil, although somewhat higher concentrations of the larger molecular PAHs were found in the soot and residue. Particulates in the air were measured by several methods and were only found to be greater than recommended exposure levels at ground level if an inversion was present . Combustion gases including carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide did not reach exposure level maximums. Volatile organic compound (VOCs) emissions were found to be extensive from fires, but the levels were lower than an evaporating crude oil spill. Carbonyls, including aldehydes and ketones, were found to be higher from diesel burns than from crude oil burns.

Measurement of the highly toxic compounds, dioxins and dibenzofurans, were made during the test fires. None were found. Similar results were found for the 2010 Deepwater Horizon burns.

Water under the burns was analysed in the case of some of the test fires; no compounds of concern could be found at the detection levels of the methods. The burn residue was analysed for the same compounds as the air particulate samples. The concentrations of PAHs were lower in the residue than in the original oil, although the concentrations of some higher molecular weight species increased slightly. Furthermore, in all burns it was found that emissions of any type, did not exceed that of health concerns at distances greater than about 1 km, if the smoke plume did not impact the ground.
A Novel Low-Pressure Atomization Method for Burning Emulsified Crude Oil
Authors: Tuttle Steven G. , Farley John P. , Fleming James W.
Published: August 2014

A novel, air-assisted atomizer designed for low-pressures and high viscosity fluids was used to produce and burn a spray of emulsified crude oil with different fractions of seawater. For a set of spray nozzles, the operational stability limits based on the crude oil flow rate, atomizing air ratio, seawater fraction, and co-flowing air characteristics were established. The droplet diameter and velocity distributions in the non-reacting spray plume were measured using phase Doppler interferometry. The low air and oil pressure requirements permit low power compressors and pumps with a minimal infrastructure footprint. This technology can be a scalable, effective, and fieldable remediation method for benthic spills or crude oil too emulsified for traditional in situ burning.
Initiating In Situ Burning of Difficult-to-Ignite Oil Spills via an Aircraft-Deployable Igniter System
Authors: Goodman Benjamin T. , Davidson Ross A. , Sievert Eric S. , Wood Leslie , Homer Vincent H.
Published: August 2014

Igniting a crude-oil spill in situ is a two-step process. First, the oil must be heated above the fire point such that sufficient flammable vapors are present to allow sustained burning. Second, the flammable vapors must be ignited. Different crude oils have different fire points due to different chemical compositions and the fire point can change over time due to volatilization of the lighter components. Factors such as wind, current, water entrainment, oil spill thickness, and temperature can affect the heat transfer to the oil spill, preventing it from reaching its fire point. As such, a large amount of heat may not ignite an oil spill if it is not of sufficient duration because it does not first heat the oil to its fire point.

A light hydrocarbon such as diesel or gasoline is often used as an accelerant to ignite oil spills due to flexibility, low cost, and availability. The ignited accelerant creates a small pool fire in the middle of the larger oil spill that provides a sufficient heating rate over a sufficient duration. The heating rate of the initiating fire is proportional to the surface area of the burning accelerant. The duration of the initiating fire is proportional to the thickness of the burning accelerant. Surface area versus thickness can be controlled by use of a gelling agent. The largest challenge to deploying a liquid-accelerant igniter from an aircraft is safely lighting it in a manner that does not endanger the aircraft and will not extinguish when the igniter impacts the oil spill, especially when the oil spill is over water. A delayed-reaction, chemical ignition system paired with gelled accelerant in a manner that is suitable for deployment from aircraft is described. Test results of this ignition system against a weathered crude-oil surrogate are presented.
CAN OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLANS BE FUNCTIONAL AND REGULATORY COMPLIANT?
Authors: Cramer Martin , O’Farrell-Villareal Bridget , Miller Guy , Irvin Niell , Smith Phil , Johnson Dennis , Bush Earnest , Clark Patricia , Ambrosi Leo , Johnson Jennifer , McCarson William
Published: August 2014

In the event of an oil spill, rapid and effective response actions are the key to minimizing impacts to the environment and local communities. Consequently, oil spill response plans (OSRPs) should be prepared in a user friendly format that maximizes access to crucial information and focuses on the critical first few hours or days of a response. While existing OSRPs are generally adequate, they typically are not organized logically and contain fairly general information that focuses on the overall response rather than the initial stages. For many plan holders the primary, or in some cases the only, objective when preparing OSRPs is obtaining regulatory approval and believe there is little latitude in deviating from the format or content of previously approved plans to make them more functional.

Following the 2010 Macondo incident in the Gulf of Mexico, the American Petroleum Institute (API) sponsored Joint Industry Task Force (JITF) identified the need to enhance the usefulness of OSRPs. A workgroup was convened consisting of representatives from integrated and independent oil companies and spill response planning consultants to develop a guidance document for preparing OSRPs that are highly functional and regulatory compliant.

The JITF guidance document includes a detailed OSRP outline that provides the intended purpose and recommended content and format for each section. The primary features include:Information presented in the general order required when responding to an oil spillFocus is on the first 24 hours when guidance is needed the mostKey information is provided in tabular or graphical formats at the front of each sectionInitial responder health and safety issues are addressed that are often missing in OSRPsSimilar information is located in the same section to avoid searching multiple sectionsMore expansive and detailed information, response guidance and specific cleanup strategies are referenced, as appropriate, in other documents

The guidelines were designed to be Gulf of Mexico centric with the concepts being applicable to all industry sectors and regions of the world. Similar to the Integrated Contingency Plan concept developed in 1996, they can be adapted to comply with multiple oil spill planning regulations. They were, however, designed specifically to comply with the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) 30 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 254 and Notice to Lessees NTL 2012-N06. The draft guidelines were reviewed and well received by BSEE and the few regulatory compliance issues they identified were addressed in the final document. Therefore, it is possible to prepare OSRPs that are both functional and regulatory compliant.
Oil Spill Preparedness Response Capability and Capacity: Do we know what we want and how do we get what we need?
Authors: Salt David , Cox Rob , Cramer Marty , Davidson Dave
Published: August 2014

The oil industry has relied on the tiered response structure for over forty years to meet its oil spill response and preparedness needs. Over this time there have been significant changes in the oil spill threat potential and the expectations of stakeholders and regulators in respect of what represents acceptable levels of response preparedness and planning. Many of the existing Tier 2 and Tier 3 response equipment bases were developed based on the perceived threat from oil tanker spills, however the following decade saw rapid expansion of offshore exploration and production and the advent of using FPSOs and FSOs to enable rapid development of oil production facilities with limited shore support & infrastructure. The recent offshore incidents in Australia, UK and United States have altered perspectives on spill response and preparedness requirements, in particular in response to offshore operations. Many OSROs have changed little since their inception and the response arrangements have remained fixed to the original design criteria, in spite of changes in their operating and risk environment. Through the OGP-IPIECA Joint Industry Project on Oil Spill Response, an OSRO capability assessment tool has been developed based on the assessment protocols commonly used in military and defence operations, known as “Capability Management” frameworks. In a Capability Management framework, the interlinking functions and activities of an enterprise may be defined under several best-practice paradigms or frameworks, such as the Balanced Scorecard (BSC), the US Department of Defence Architecture Framework (DoDAF), the Ministry of Defence Architecture Framework (MODAF), and many other similar systems. The UK Ministry of Defence uses a similar breakdown of Defence Lines of Development (DLoDs) encompassing Training, Equipment, Personnel, Information, Concepts and Doctrine, Organisation, Infrastructure, and Logistics, known by the acronym “Tepidoil”. The assessment protocol described in this paper uses the “Tepidoil” methodology, modified for use in an oil spill response context with the addition of a safety component to enable assessment of Tier 2 (and possibly Tier 3) facilities. The purpose of this work was to develop a comprehensive and objective tool that can be used by industry members to ensure that OSRO facilities have the resources and infrastructure to address their current risk profile. In addition, it can potentially be modified for use as an OSRO “self-assessment” tool. The assessment criteria include:TrainingEquipmentPersonnelInfrastructureDoctrine – translates into Response PhilosophyOrganizationInformationLogisticsSafety
Evaluation of Triploid Oysters as a Tool to assess Short- and Long-term Seafood Contamination of Oil Spill-impacted Areas
Authors: Miles M. Scott , Malone Ronald F. , Supan John E.
Published: August 2014

The objective of this field and laboratory study was to evaluate the use of triploid Eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, as a bioindicator of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contamination in oil spill-impacted areas. Bivalve mollusks have shown to be valuable tools for assessing the short-term (weeks to months) bioavailability and impact of hydrophobic contaminants following oil and chemical spills. Approximately 1-year after the initial Deepwater Horizon spill, PAH concentrations were measured in sediment and caged oysters at sites within the Northern Barataria Bay. Two (2) seven-week large-scale mesocosm studies were conducted with diploid and triploid oysters to assess the effects of multiple whole South Louisiana crude (SLC) oil concentrations and seasonal water temperature variation on the PAH bioaccumulation and depuration rates within the test populations. Tissue analyses from the mesocosm study showed that PAH concentrations were generally higher and less variable in triploids than diploids. The studies showed that triploid Crassostrea virginica can be an appropriate organism to serve as a bioindicator of PAH contamination as they are abundant, stationary filter-feeders that provide ample tissue for analysis, and accumulate PAHs in response to contamination. Although diploid oysters are more representative of ecological impacts, triploid oysters are the only ploidy to have the capability to accurately assess oil and chemical spill impacts during oyster breeding season.
Potential for environmental impact from leaking World War II shipwrecks due to the relative bioavailability and toxicity of their fuel oils
Authors: Faksness Liv-Guri , Daling Per , Altin Dag , Dolva Hilde , Fosbæk Bjørn , Bergstrøm Rune
Published: August 2014

The Norwegian Authorities have classified 30 World War II (WWII) shipwrecks to have a considerable potential for pollution to the local environment, based on the location and condition of the wreck and the types and amount of fuel on board. Oil thus far has been removed from eight of these WWII shipwrecks. The water accommodated fractions (WAFs) of oils from the British sloop HMS “Bittern”, the British carrier tanker RFA “Boardale”, the German destroyer “Erich Giese”, and the German cargo ship MS “Nordvard” have been studied with special emphasis on chemistry and biological effects (algae growth (Skeletonema costatum) and copepod mortality (Calanus finmarchicus)). WAF is of special interest because components dissolved from an oil slick or from rising oil droplets in the water column are known to be bioavailable to marine organisms and therefore have a potential for causing toxic effects.

The total WAF concentration in the oils from the shipwrecks varied, and the highest concentrations are quantified in the WAFs from “Erich Giese”. These WAFs were also the most toxic for both algae and copepods, and it is suggested that the high content of phenols and other polar compounds have impact on the toxicity. WAFs from “Nordvard” were also more toxic than the WAFs from “Bittern” and “Boardale”. The results from these studies show that the more “synthetic” oils from German WWII shipwrecks seem to have higher toxicity to marine organisms than the “mineral” oils from the British shipwrecks studied. This observation has resulted in an altering of the priority list for oil recovery from WWII wrecks by the Norwegian Authorities.
Detection of Oil within the Water Column
Authors: Balsley Alexander , Hansen Kurt , Fitzpatrick Michele
Published: August 2014

Current technology makes it difficult to detect and locate oil in the water column and make timely decisions to prevent significant ecological and economic damages. There is a very short timeframe between the start of an oil spill and for the responders to make decisions to protect the environment, numerous water-intakes and commercial facilities located along the shorelines or rivers. Therefore, data needs to be gathered from subsurface detection systems in an accurate and timely manner. However, challenges in detecting oil within the water column include poor visibility in deeper waters, difficulty in tracking oil movements in fast-moving currents and current technological limitations to finding trace amount of oil or dispersed oil at any depth.

This paper captures the planning process, technological descriptions and prototype tests performed at Ohmsett. In November 2011, the Coast Guard Research and Development Center started a multi-year effort to come up with a detection and mitigation system for oil in the water column. The first phase was the design concept for a detection system with 18 goals to be met, including acquiring data in real time (less than one hour), calibrating easily for different types of oil and dispersed oil and working in currents or tow speeds up to 5 knots. Technologies include a multi-beam sonar, a flow-through multichannel fluorometer and a wide-angle scattering that measures the refractive indexes of particles. The second phase is currently underway and focuses on the development and testing of prototype systems. The multi-beam sonar and wide-angle scattering prototypes were tested at Ohmsett in December 2013 but quantitative test results are not yet included as they are still being analyzed at the Research and Development Center. Future plans include design concepts and prototype developments of mitigation systems.
Recovery of mangrove deforested areas from M/T Solar oil spill in Guimaras, Philippines
Authors: Barnuevo Abner P. , Sadaba Resurreccion B.
Published: August 2014

On August 11, 2006 more than 2 million liters of Bunker C oil spilled in southern Guimaras Island, central Philippines. Over 200 kilometers of coastline have been affected including the traditional livelihood in the island. The immediate effects involved death of marine fauna and massive mortality of mangroves which accounted to almost one hectare and two years after the incident some albino propagules of Rhizophora stylosa were observed. Additionally, some species of mangroves found in heavily impacted sites exhibited significant reduction of leaf sizes. Monitoring of the deforested mangrove areas three years after the incident showed a varying recruitment-to-mortality ratio. Recruitment and settlement of seedlings was impaired in areas where dead trees are extracted mainly for firewood purposes. The harvesting of dead trees created a forest gap, exposed the area to surging waves and thus increased the hydrodynamics. On the other hand, faster recovery dynamics was observed in area where the dead trees are not harvested. The presence of logs trapped the available propagules and facilitated the colonization of new cohorts. Quantification of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in mangrove sediments showed higher rate of decomposition. Three years after the oil spill, the level of PAHs in sampled sites were within the safe level based on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) standards. However, sub-lethal, long term monitoring should be carried out further to focus on the species-specific long term responses.
Washington State Case Study and Guidance Developed on the Closing and Re-Opening of a Shellfishery Due to Oil Contamination
Authors: Drury Alice , Shigenaka Gary , Toy Mark
Published: August 2014

The 128 foot F/V Deep Sea was illegally anchored on Washington state-owned aquatic lands in Whidbey Island's Penn Cove from December 24th 2011 until it sank on May 14th, 2012, following a fire aboard the vessel. Penn Cove is the home of Penn Cove Shellfish, LLC, the United States’ largest and oldest mussel farm. The Deep Sea sank within approximately 200 meters of Penn Cove LLC's mussel raft growing system with an unknown amount of oil aboard. After the vessel sank Penn Cove Shellfish, LLC, voluntarily ceased harvesting their shellfish. Not long after the Washington State Department of Health closed commercial and recreational harvest of shellfish in Penn Cove. Although efforts were made to plug the vessel's vents and seal the vessel's fuel tanks a cracked vent allowed fuel to leak from the sunken vessel, later identified as marine diesel by the Washington State Department of Ecology. Sheen was documented over the mussel rafts.

Based on sensory testing the Washington State Department of Health re-opened Penn Cove's shellfish harvest in stages, with sampling plan and testing assistance from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Following response to the F/V Deep Sea all agencies involved in the shellfish closure that was as result of this incident convened to establish guidelines on the best way to run the closure and subsequent re-opening process for inclusion in the Northwest Area Contingency Plan, based off of lessons learned from the response. This was especially important since shellfishery closures due to oil spill contamination are not common in Washington State. This paper outlines those lessons learned during the F/V Deep Sea response in regards to closing and then re-opening a shellfishery in Washington State, and includes the guidelines that were established and incorporated into the Northwest Area Contingency Plan as a result.
Offshore Oil Spill Incidents: Creating a Database in Brazil
Authors: Maggi Patricia , Morgado Cláudia do Rosário Vaz , de Almeida João Carlos Nóbrega
Published: August 2014

Brazil has performed an important role in the oil and gas industry mainly because its offshore E&P activities. The volume of oil produced in offshore fields had increased 88% in the last decade and correspond to more than 90% of national production.

The maritime Exploration and Production (E&P) operations in Brazil started in the middle of the 1970's. In 1981 a law was promulgated to establish a compulsory environmental permit to many activities, including oil and gas exploration and production activities. Although this regulation has existed for over 25 years, only in 1999 was it effectively brought into force to the E&P sector, with the creation of the oil and gas specialized office integrated to the Intituto Brasileiro de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis – IBAMA (Brazilian Federal Environmental Agency).

On January 2000 Brazil faced one its worst oil spills, in Guanabara Bay. A broken pipeline owned and operated by Petrobras spilt 1300 tone of bunker fuel into Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro. At that time, Brazil had no clear environmental scenario regarding the oil industry in Brazil: uncoordinated environmental regulations, debilitated environmental agencies and a relapse industry took part in the scenario.

As a result of the repercussion of the disaster, in the same year was enacted the Federal Law 9966/2000, the so called “Oil Law”, on the prevention, control and inspection of pollution caused by the releasing of oil and other harmful substances in waters under national jurisdiction. The provisions of the Law 9966 included, among other things, the requirement for the notification to the competent environmental authority, the maritime authority and the oil regulating agency, of any incident which might cause water pollution.

Although IBAMA receives the oil spill communications since 2001, only in 2010 the Agency began to include this information in a database.

This paper discusses the offshore oil spill data received between 2010 and 2012.