bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mercury
Authors: Grandjean Philippe
Published: July 2024

Mercury is a highly toxic metal. Methylmercury and elemental mercury are the two forms of mercury of greatest importance for children’s environmental health. Methylmercury is especially toxic to the developing human brain. Methylmercury is formed when particles of metallic mercury emitted to the atmosphere by coal-fired power plants and other industries precipitate into rivers, lakes, and oceans. It can accumulate in fish and shellfish to reach very high levels in predatory species at the top of the aquatic food chain. Consumption of contaminated seafood is the principal route of human exposure. The developing brain is particularly vulnerable to methylmercury. If exposure to methylmercury occurs during prenatal development, the mother may be completely unscathed, while the child can suffer permanent brain injury. The consequences can include mental retardation with blindness, deafness, microcephaly, and spastic paresis in the most severe cases, but much more commonly consists of subtle cognitive deficits with loss of IQ. Elemental mercury vapor also causes toxicity to brain function. Tremor is a common symptom. Diagnosis of methylmercury toxicity requires analysis of mercury levels in hair or whole-blood. Diagnosis of elemental mercury toxicity requires analysis of mercury levels in urine. Analyses must be performed in properly accredited laboratories.
Conclusion
Authors: Gorman Sara E.
Published: July 2024

The conclusion provides a summary of the main arguments that have led the reader to this point. These include the notion that lack of access to healthcare is a key determinant of medical mistrust and the need to widen and reconceptualize the view of medical mistrust as operating simultaneously on an interpersonal and on an institutional level. It also points out the unique impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the evolution of medical mistrust over the past several years. The author also revisits some of the potential ways forward in regard to the problems the book uncovers. There is a particular focus on: (1) promising models of healthcare reform that would improve both access and equity; (2) small-scale, interpersonal interventions to restore trust, collected through dozens of in-depth interviews with family members of people with low trust in the healthcare system; and (3) promising models of restoring faith in democracy.
Structurally Different Informants, Triangulation, and Falsifiability
Authors: De Los Reyes Andres
Published: July 2024

Chapter 5 of Discrepant Results in Mental Health Research introduces three concepts germane to discrepant results. First, the chapter describes the kinds of data sources used to assess domains in mental health research, namely structurally different informants who are distinguishable from one another by where they observe those who undergo evaluation (e.g., parents at home, teachers at school, coworkers at the office). Second, the chapter describes strategies for optimizing the validity of assessments that use structurally different informants, with an emphasis on strategically selecting informants whose reports disagree with one another for valid reasons (i.e., triangulation). Third, detecting discrepant results that contain valid data requires procedures that distinguish these kinds of results from those that reflect measurement confounds (e.g., error, bias). This requires procedures that are falsifiable or can be subjected to empirical scrutiny.
Meta-Analysis
Authors: De Los Reyes Andres
Published: July 2024

Chapter 15 of Discrepant Results in Mental Health Research articulates how research on discrepant results informs the interpretability of findings from meta-analytic or quantitative reviews. The chapter highlights how discrepant results frequently appear in the findings of studies designed to estimate the effects of mental health treatments (i.e., randomized controlled trials). These discrepant results also have been observed in the findings of meta-analytic reviews of treatment outcomes. The chapter describes how research on discrepant results facilitates extracting findings from meta-analytic reviews that normally go unnoticed with traditional meta-analytic approaches. The chapter uses findings from mental health treatments for adolescent depression to illustrate the applicability of discrepant results to interpreting findings from meta-analytic reviews.
From Policy to Doctrine, 1830–1949
Authors: Harris Matthew L.
Published: July 2024

This chapter chronicles how the church’s policies and practices relating to people of African descent evolved into doctrine. Black and biracial men were ordained to the priesthood during the tenure of church founder Joseph Smith Jr., but his successor, Brigham Young, changed the policy to deny Black men the priesthood and Black families access to Mormon temples. This chapter also probes racial identity by examining how the church used a “one-drop” rule to determine Black African lineage. In addition, it uses as case studies the experiences of two Black Latter-day Saints—Elijah Abel and Jane Manning James—to show how they struggled to fit into the church’s conception of soteriology. Finally, it examines the influence of Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith—the man most responsible for codifying the church’s race teachings into doctrine. Smith’s ideas influenced a seminal 1949 statement on race and priesthood from the church’s governing First Presidency.
Civil Rights Resistance, 1962–1967
Authors: Harris Matthew L.
Published: July 2024

This chapter explores five interrelated events that LDS church leaders faced in the 1960s: criticism from the NAACP, a mission in Nigeria, George Romney’s presidential aspirations, Ezra Taft Benson’s right-wing extremism, and Hugh B. Brown’s ill-fated attempt to lift the priesthood and temple ban. As church leaders discussed opening a mission in Nigeria, they came under siege from the NAACP, a prominent civil rights organization in the United States. The NAACP criticized the church for its inaction on civil rights, and also Michigan governor George Romney, whom they deemed unfit to be president based on his church’s antiblack theology. Also discussed is Apostle Ezra Taft Benson’s crusade against the civil rights movement, which put LDS church leaders on the defensive. Throughout it all, First Presidency counselor Hugh B. Brown sought to counter critics by lobbying his colleagues to lift the ban.
Debris in the Streets, 1978–1985
Authors: Harris Matthew L.
Published: July 2024

This chapter discusses why LDS church leaders sought to reaffirm the church’s traditional narrative relating to Kimball’s revelation. While scholars affirmed that the priesthood and temple ban began with Brigham Young, church leaders defended the long-held belief that it originated with Joseph Smith. This chapter also probes the rumors that accompanied the revelation, in particular, the notion that President Jimmy Carter used the IRS to pressure Mormon leaders to lift the ban. It also discusses Apostle Bruce R. McConkie’s embellishment of the revelation, which prompted Spencer W. Kimball to correct him. And it focuses on how LDS church members and nonmembers responded to the ban. As this chapter asserts, most Latter-day Saints enthusiastically supported it, while a vocal minority of members and nonmembers opposed it.
The Stigma Still Goes On, 1985–2000
Authors: Harris Matthew L.
Published: July 2024

This chapter focuses on why some Latter-day Saints opposed the federal holiday honoring Martin Luther King Jr. Influenced by Apostle Ezra Taft Benson’s right-wing extremism, Utah lawmakers opposed naming the holiday after King, opting instead to call it “Human Rights Day.” Black Latter-day Saints, however, rejected Benson’s claim that King was a communist and urged Utah state lawmakers to support the King holiday. This chapter also explores how Black Latter-day Saints tried to remove Mormon Doctrine from print, finding it racist and offensive. While church leaders refused to pull Mormon Doctrine from church bookstores, they waged a quiet campaign to de-emphasize McConkie’s antiblack teachings. In their writings and sermons, leaders declared that all races and lineages were equal, thus challenging a prominent McConkie teaching that God privileged certain races and lineages over others.
Epilogue
Authors: Harris Matthew L.
Published: July 2024

The epilogue traces the church’s effort to confront the residual effects of the priesthood ban, most notably by commissioning a study at BYU to assess structural racism at the church-owned school. The church also made its literature and paintings more culturally inclusive and published books by its publishing house, Deseret Book, allowing authors to discuss their experience with racism in the church. This parallels church president Russell M. Nelson’s and senior Apostle Dallin H. Oaks’s vigorous denunciations of racism during the Black Lives Matter movement. The epilogue also traces the church’s partnership with the NAACP in an effort to fight inequality and racism.
Faces and Institutions of the Tradition
Authors: Svensson Manfred
Published: July 2024

In chapter 2, the tradition of Protestant commentary on Aristotle’s practical philosophy is presented in its full breadth. There is much to be gained by becoming aware of the tradition in such broad terms. Without the whole tradition in sight, it is tempting for those who know one of its parts to single out one commentator as the greatest of Protestant Aristotelians, to affirm a given moment as the real beginning, or to describe any given author as “the last great scholastic.” Instead, the focus of this chapter lies not on any one individual figure, but on the fact that this was an influential and even dominant tradition, exerting its influence over 140 years through strong centers and numerous satellites, with substantive shared commitments but also with great internal variation. Combining biographical discussion, literary output, and institutional history, this chapter offers an introduction to the wide-ranging presence of Aristotelian commentators across the Protestant world.
The Late Emergence of the Socioeconomic Gradient in Adult Mortality
Authors: Bengtsson Tommy , Dribe Martin , Helgertz Jonas
Published: July 2024

Previous research has shown that class differences in adult mortality in the study area emerged only in the mid-twentieth century. Such findings question a universal association between socioeconomic status and mortality. This chapter examines whether these class differences in adult mortality emerged at the same time in urban as in rural areas. The analysis shows that the social class gradient in mortality was more pronounced in the urban than in the rural area, and hence that it was primarily an urban phenomenon. The urban mortality penalty in the study area lasted considerably longer than has been found for Sweden as a whole, but presumably with changing explanations over time. In the early twentieth century, the higher urban mortality was probably connected to poor living conditions in the city, while in the late twentieth century it was likely more related to differences in lifestyle and possibly work-related stress.
The Voice of America
Authors: Wright Kate , Scott Martin , Bunce Mel
Published: July 2024

This historical chapter provides an overview of the evolution of the Voice of America (VOA), from its establishment in World War II until Michael Pack took office in June 2020. It outlines longstanding tensions about the direction, purpose, and governance of VOA. This discussion explores Republican concerns over the liberal “bias” of VOA and its potential infiltration by foreign spies, but it also shows that politicization of VOA has always been a bipartisan issue. Both parties have periodically sought to control VOA’s output, have advocated using VOA as a partisan form of strategic communication, and have used the network instrumentally within domestic struggles for power. It also explains why VOA’s Charter and related legislation have been left open to interpretation, as well as demonstrating that the Obama administration did not fully consider the potential consequences of transferring authority to a single political appointee.
Information Technologies at the Fringe
Authors: Whyte Christopher
Published: July 2024

This chapter describes the motivation for and shape of the book’s study. It describes the meteoric rise in visibility of fringe narratives and activities in the public eye in the early years of the 21st century and aligns with others that attribute this development to the management and development of web technologies, as well as the shaping effects of those technologies on civil society and shifts in elite political behaviors. Of these, the second factor—the impact of the internet on fringe advocacy and antagonism—remains perennially underspecified. This chapter also addresses a set of necessary initial clarifications, particularly around the conceptual lens of the book, the focus on cyber activities of fringe actors around the world and the implications of the study.
Fringe 1.0
Authors: Whyte Christopher
Published: July 2024

Chapter 3 describes the experiences of early fringe web colonizers. In an interview-aided exploration of diverse subversive digital experiences, the chapter shows that actors as distinct as countercultural artist collectives, White supremacist communities, neo-Marxist hacking groups, extreme conservationists, and jihadist sympathizers “figured out the network.” Specifically, early experiences and emergent fringe ecosystems online emphasized the construction of social control systems. Information presentation in social forums was, for many groups, increasingly geared toward funneling user attention to core rallying nomenclature and symbology. The value of automation for attempts to disrupt other fringe elements and the mainstream was likewise emphasized by those few elements that bowed to some form of central control, as was the need for close coordination between back-end moderation, information curation tactics, and the significance of rallying mechanisms. The result was the persistent goal of generating convergence cultures with distinct fringe-specific mechanisms of information control and manipulation.
Introduction
Authors: Holvikivi Aiko
Published: July 2024

In recent decades, gender training has emerged as an institutional default solution to any number of gendered harms. Ranging from corporations to universities, and from the United Nations to national militaries, gender training is now a practice that disseminates feminist concepts and analyses across diverse spaces. But what happens to the concept of gender as it travels? This introductory chapter describes how gender training has become established practice for military and police peacekeepers and unpacks the feminist political anxieties the practice provokes. It provides an overview of the book’s research into gender training and argues that peacekeeper gender training is a paradoxical pedagogical exercise which co-opts the concept of gender to the service of martial logics at the same time as it provokes moments of instability for these same logics.
Resistance
Authors: Holvikivi Aiko
Published: July 2024

Peacekeeper gender training is structured by a set of founding contradictions between feminist politics and analyses on the one hand; and the martial culture of institutions of hegemonic masculinity on the other. Against the backdrop of this contradiction, this chapter focuses on how training participants come to accept, modify, or reject knowledge presented to them in the training setting. It conceptualizes resistance as something that follows patterns or scripts that can be performed by both trainers and training audiences. Importantly, this conceptualization of resistance insists on keeping alive the political ambiguity that inheres to the term itself. Chapter 4 thus charts different scripts through which trainers and trainees alike seek to undermine the radical potential of gender knowledge, suggesting that resistance involves ways of undermining the training through humour, distancing gender from feminist politics, and projecting the issue of gender onto racialized others.
Poetry in the City with No Horizon
Authors: DeKoven Ezrahi Sidra
Published: July 2024

This essay examines the poetry of three of the most prominent poets of modern Jerusalem. We begin with a glance at the ways Jerusalem is grounded in biblical and postbiblical sources and for two thousand years has remained the center of Jewish yearning. The lack of a horizon in this landlocked city contributes to the centripetal pull towards the Sacred Center. Operating in a culture defined by a binary mindset, modern Hebrew poetry has to soar to some heights in order to register other places. Beginning by evocating the spirit of Else Lasker-Schüler and the café culture of the 1940s, we move to consider a few of the most resonant poems of Goldberg, Zelda and Amichai, and examine the ways in which each of them, coming from elsewhere and writing in a particular idiom, invokes his/her place of origin while embedding their resonant lines in the particular landscape of Jerusalem.
The New “New Jerusalem” as Gateway to the East
Authors: Dubnov Arie M. , Rubin Noah Hysler
Published: July 2024

The Hebrew University is often described as a “German” university. What happens when we turn our attention to the somewhat forgotten British conceptions and visions of Jerusalem and its university? By exploring English romantic and religious revelations, the paper shows how the British “Garden City” movement and far-reaching theories of “applied sociology” set the stage for the earliest campus plans prepared in the wake of WWI by the Scottish sociologist and urban planner Patrick Geddes (1854–1932). The paper also reveals the critical role performed by the British-Jewish psychoanalyst and political activist Montagu David Eder (1865–1936), who invited Geddes to Jerusalem, and the way in which Geddes’s experiences in India were tied to his attempts to “re-orientalize” the Jews, casting them as those opening the gate to an enchanted “East.” Ultimately, these revelations also explain why the plan failed to materialize and was not endorsed by the Jews themselves.
The Wandering Hebrew University, 1914–1967
Authors: Selzer Assaf
Published: July 2024

Between the Years 1914 – 1967 the Hebrew University of Jerusalem changed its location in the city. Its first location was a symbolic one, on a hill in the east part of the city (Mount Scopus) viewing on the old city. After the war of 1948 the university had to be moved from Mount Scopus and Between the years 1948 – 1958, the university faculties were located in many buildings all over the west side of the city. On June 8 1967, just one day after the conquest of the Old City by the Israel Defense Forces, university president announced the return of the university to mount Scopus! By revealing the reasons for the different locations of the university in the city the article will be conclude with explanation what we can learned from HU location within the changing borders of the city about the history of the institute and its relationship with the city.
Jerusalem, 1968
Authors: Shelleg Assaf
Published: July 2024

The chapter discusses the first Testimonium concert, which was held at David’s Citadel on July 30, 1968, a year after the occupation of Jerusalem’s Old City. The commissioned works for the event, seven in number, amounted to a colossal 82-minute piece titled Jerusalem, for orchestra, mixed choir, soloists, tape (prerecorded music), and narrators (live and prerecorded) in various combinations. Six of the movements set textual portrayals of Jerusalem from the Bible, the Apocrypha, the Pseudepigrapha, the Koran, and the Zohar. Each movement resonated with contemporary compositional attitudes, yet the narrators’ recited parts (written by the librettist of the event and founder of Testimonium, Reicha Freier), engulfed these modernist formulations in a redemptive statist telos, which confirmed national territorialism while having the semantic overshadowed the semiotic. Thus, the “meaningful disharmonies” alluded to in the title point to a constituent transition for which Jerusalem (the composition) and Jerusalem (the city) had been a foreshadowing.
The Religio-Cultural Soundtrack of an Urban Era
Authors: Gafni Reuven
Published: July 2024

This essay focuses on the nature and public standing of Jerusalem’s Ashkenazic ḥazanut scene, during the first half of the 20th century. This, while aiming to determine the factors that caused the dramatic shifts in this scene`s scope and public significance, and how these changes reflected cultural, societal, and ideological processes taking place at the time, within the city`s Jewish community. As is shown, this process began during the years preceding the First World War and was symbolically concluded at the 10th-anniversary celebration of Israel’s independence, that took place at Hechal Shlomo, the newly inaugurated seat of the Israeli chief rabbinate. Among the main actors on the scene were a number of prominent figures, along with several major synagogues and institutions that served as venues for cantors and cantorial events. The essay is based on a wide variety of primary and literary sources, as well as on the local Jewish press of the time.
The Palestinians in Jerusalem, 1967–2022
Authors: Cohen Hillel
Published: July 2024

The objective of this study is to analyse the various ways in which the Palestinians in Jerusalem face the complex challenge of life under Israeli rule, which denies them expressions of their nationality and culture and restricts their living space, while at the same time integrating them in the Israeli welfare state and in the country’s job market and education system, thus allowing many to improve their standards of living. The paper presents the various perceptions that inform political choices of the Maqdisyeen (Palestinian Jerusalemites), their practices of resistance and accommodation as they change over time, and the similarities and differences between them and other Palestinian communities. The ‘political schizophrenia’—as their situation was defined by Sari Nusseiba, explains both the desire to integrate in the Israeli job market and the violent waves of resistance to Israeli control.
Courts and Courtiers
Authors: Doran Susan
Published: July 2024

On James’s accession, changes were introduced into the royal court. Two new households were immediately formed, and a new department, James’s bedchamber, was established. Because of James’s bounty to the Scots who were gentlemen of the bedchamber, anti-Scottish sentiment became rife both inside and outside the court. The courts of Anna and Henry were not sites of factional politics nor oppositional to James’s, and the contrast between father and son was one of emphasis rather than substance. With a few exceptions, the court calendar was the same as under Elizabeth, and each summer James continued the tradition of royal progresses. Masques became a vital part of winter entertainments, and the court was more cosmopolitan than it had been under Elizabeth. Although disorderly behaviour was occasionally observed at James’s court, it was not the everyday experience and ambassadors were impressed with its magnificence and grandeur.
Reconsidering nominative case in English
Authors: Duffield Nigel
Published: July 2024

The eighteenth century Hiberno-English folk ballad Arthur McBride, which sits at the intersection of synchronic and diachronic concerns, presents a rich selection of non-standard grammatical features found both in current Hiberno-English and Northern British varieties, as well as in Late Middle English/Early Modern English texts. Chief among these is NOM-INF, that is, nominative case-marked subjects of nonfinite clauses. Here it is argued that the emergence—and subsequent disappearance—of this construction in standard varieties of English is parametrically linked to other diachronic developments, including the loss of dative case, obligatory verb-raising, and quotative inversion with pronominal subjects. The analysis synthesizes recent proposals about Irish clausal syntax (McCloskey 2017, 2021) with an alternative view of phrase-structure and case licensing more generally—the ‘inverted specifiers hypothesis’. The resulting framework is claimed to provide a more satisfactory explanation for adjacency constraints than was previously available.
China
Authors: Sun Xiaowei
Published: July 2024

With the will to establish the rule of law, since the end of the 1980s, both ideological and cultural changes were made in the Chinese legal system: administrative legislation no longer aims only to guarantee the efficiency of the administration, but more and more to protect individual rights. From the beginning of the 1990s, a series of laws and regulations were instituted regarding relations between citizens and the administration—notably among these texts, the Administrative Litigation Law, described as a ‘Silent Revolutionary Act’, was the most decisive step. With the amendment of 2014, the legislator tends to erect the Administrative Litigation Law into a real instrument for the protection of individual rights. Beyond the legislative protection, doctrinal and political principles can also condition administrative activities, such as the principle of legality. Most of the principles known to Western systems can be observed in the Chinese notion of legality.
France
Authors: Saunier Sébastien
Published: July 2024

This chapter analyses the system of sources of French administrative procedure, which granted great procedural freedom to the public authorities and rested on quite dispersed sources. First, it considers the contribution of the case law of the Conseil d’Etat and the Conseil constitutionnel to the identification of a series of principles decisive for general procedure, even after the constitutionalization of this area due to the few rules of the Constitution applicable to administrative procedure. Then, as the general legislation regarding administrative adjudication is concerned, it is stressed how the French procedural law has long been characterized by patchy and dispersed written law. Finally, the general law of administrative procedure rather broadly excludes regulatory acts from its material field of application, as also numerous provisions do not apply to the so called ‘décisions d’espèce’, such as declarations of public interest—a reflection of the strongly subjectivist orientation of French procedural law.
Switzerland
Authors: Flückiger Alexandre
Published: July 2024

In Switzerland, for more than a century the procedural guarantees in administrative law have been deduced by the Federal Supreme Court from the principle of equality. With the entry into force of the Federal Constitution in 2000, procedural rights (right to a fair trial, the right to an impartial authority, the right to be heard, the right to consult the file, the prohibition of undue delay, excessive formalism, and refusal to rule, and the right to free legal assistance) are codified in Article 29. These procedural guarantees have been codified also in the Federal Administrative Procedure Act of 20 December 1968 (APA), and in the cantonal legislations. The right to be heard stated by Article 29 of the Constitution and specified by federal and cantonal legislation applies to any procedure that leads to an individual and concrete legal act of a public authority.
The Silent Meddling of Algorithms
Authors: Prunkl Carina
Published: July 2024

Suppose AI is used in a company’s call centre to pair incoming customers with the most suitable employee—the goal is to maximise customer satisfaction. This seems to be a good result for the company and a good result for the customer. But the author suggests this process is not as unproblematic as it appears. We need to ask why certain inferences are being drawn by the AI algorithm—and whether these inferences are based on stereotypes and historical injustice.
Human in the Loop!
Authors: Chang Ruth
Published: July 2024

In the not-too-distant future, technology might help us decide which school to attend, what career path to pursue, and whether to marry and have children. It might also help our governments decide how much to tax their citizens, which regulations to impose on businesses, how to manage energy consumption and distribute healthcare resources, whether to go to war, and even how to manage deep political disagreements. What should be the role of humans in this decision-making process? The author argues that there are particular decisions—involving what she calls ‘hard choices’—where humans must be consulted. If they are, it’s possible for human values to remain aligned to algorithmic decisions.
The Literature of Lashkar-e-Tayyaba
Authors: Fair C. Christine , Ustaad Safina
Published: July 2024

Since its inception in Afghanistan in the late 1980s, the Lashkar-e-Tayyaba (LeT), also known as the Jamaat-ud-Dawah (JuD), has arguably been the most threatening and disruptive terrorist organization in the world. Under various guises, it operates throughout Central, Southwest, Southeast, and South Asia, and has strong logistical roots in North America, Europe, and beyond. While there is considerable scholarship on its history and operations, few scholars have explored the organization’s vast publications. This volume is the first scholarly effort to curate a sample of LeT’s Urdu-language publications and then translate them into English for the scholarly community studying this group and related organizations. While the original texts were written and published by Dar-ul-Andlus, that exclusively publishes LeT’s books, pamphlets, posters, speeches, and other materials, with the explicit intention of diffusing the group’s ideology, raising funds, and cultivating volunteers for the organization, the authors hope that by rendering this group’s materials more accessible this book can contribute to the myriad efforts to combat such groups and the violence they perpetrate. An extensive introduction explains how an understanding of the role of proselytizing is crucial to understanding the domestic politics of the LeT within Pakistan as well as the way in which it competes with other militant organizations. The volume concludes with a discussion of what one can learn from this exercise and what its varied implications are for India, the South Asian region, and the international community.
Highway to Heaven by Amir Hamza
Authors: Fair C. Christine , Ustaad Safina
Published: July 2024

This chapter features the authors’ translations of important excerpts from Amir Hamza’s 2004 book titled Shahrah-e-Bahisht (Highway to Heaven), which aims to undermine local mystical traditions and beliefs. Amir Hamza is one of the founding ideologues of LeT/JuD and is currently the convener of the Tehreek-e-Hurmat-e-Rasool (Movement for the Sanctity of the Prophet), which opposes any reforms to Pakistan’s odious ‘blasphemy law’. This volume uses direct language, giving the sense that it intends to mock pervasive local traditions, while affirming the readers’ biases against these practices, and offering material to argue against ‘corrupting innovations’ in Islam. The content varies from a ‘scholarly’ socio-historical analysis of mystical practices, tracing them to Christian and Hindu rituals, to a farcical account of the author indulging in these practices himself only to realize they are hoaxes orchestrated by charlatans and witch doctors to exploit the uneducated masses.
The Strict Cycle Condition
Authors: Roberts Ian
Published: July 2024

In this paper I propose that a range of phenomena (“dependent” object-subject agreement, dependent case, the Final Over Final Condition (FOFC)) are all cases of a single generalization.
The Idea of Emergent Properties in Data Privacy Law
Authors: Esayas Samson Y.
Published: July 2024

This chapter uses the concept of emergent properties to examine the challenges that the commercialization of personal data presents to the application of data privacy laws. Applying this concept, the chapter explains the modus operandi of EU data privacy law, characterizing its application as ‘atomized’. This relates to the focus of the rules on distinct processing activity based on a specific and legitimate purpose, with little attention paid to the totality of the processing activities—i.e. the whole—based on separate purposes. This atomized approach presents systemic challenges to the application of data privacy rules considering the changes resulting from commercialization of personal data, namely the tendency to process personal data for a panoply of purposes and aggregate data across these processing activities. These changes blur the lines between the different processing activities, complicating the attribution of individual data to a particular processing operation. Further, the atomized approach does not adequately address emergent privacy risks borne from the cumulative and interconnected data processing operations. The chapter advocates for a holistic approach that imposes enhanced responsibilities based on the totality of processing activities and data-aggregation practices. This approach is akin to the regulation under competition law, where companies in a dominant position bear special responsibility. As shown in Chapter 3, employing an emergent property perspective enables a connection between data privacy and competition laws, revealing the similarities in how both regimes are applied, particularly their atomized approach, the challenges they encounter with big data, and the need for a holistic approach to address these challenges.
The Rise and Fall of Public Enterprises in Latin America in the 20th Century
Authors: Nem Singh Jewellord T.
Published: July 2024

This chapter examines the place of state ownership in natural resource governance in Latin American states during the 20th century. It seeks to demonstrate the significance of SOEs in developing indigenous industrial capacity and human capital stocks in the region. In so doing, the chapter interrogates how and why Latin American states embraced economic nationalism as a development strategy, highlighting the role of natural resource sector in the process of industrial transformation in the region. In particular, it pays close attention to Venezuela’s economic fate and its institutional development as a petro-state in response to societal demands for structural transformation through its oil wealth. It likewise presents the hard limits of this SOE-based growth that paved the way for the implementation and continuing dominance of neoliberalism in the region from the 1980s onwards.
The Future of Latin America’s Natural Resource States in the 21st Century
Authors: Nem Singh Jewellord T.
Published: July 2024

This chapter considers the prospects and challenges of developmental states in the 21st century—starting with China as the most recent example of efforts at building a ‘developmental state’. By analysing the gradual, steady reforms leading to the ‘advance of the state’ and ‘retreat of the market’ in China, the book offers a rethinking on what lessons can be learned as regards state ownership. Beyond summarizing the theoretical contributions of the book, the chapter examines the future of natural-resource-producing states and why policymakers need to reexamine their assumptions about the place of state ownership in the new geopolitical context of strategic competition and climate emergency. In so doing, it proposes to rethink how resource wealth management can complement state ownership—something that the scholarship on the resource curse and neoliberalism dismissed as infeasible in the era of economic globalization.
National Security and the Separation of Powers
Authors: Ward Robert , Laird Karl
Published: July 2024

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the evolving approach of the different branches of state to national security matters. The chapter begins by examining the development of Parliament’s approach to national security questions. It examines its scrutiny of such issues, in particular through the Intelligence and Security Committee as well as dealing with the devolved legislatures and the National Cyber Security Centre. Next, Chapter 2 considers the approach of the executive to national security matters. It examines, in particular, the various governmental bodies which are concerned with national security issues, including the National Security Council, the Civil Contingencies Committee (‘COBRA’), the Joint Intelligence Committee, the Joint Terrorism Analysis Centre, and the Joint State Threats Assessment Team, before examining more generally the relationship between Ministers and officials through the Carltona principle. Chapter 2 also considers the policy responses to threats to UK national security, in the terrorism (Counter-Terrorism Strategy, ‘CONTEST’), extremism (Counter Extremism Strategy, Commission for Countering Extremism, and Extremism Analysis Unit) and state-based threats arenas. Finally, Chapter 2 concludes by examining the approach of the courts to national security questions. It examines the twin principles of judicial deference and relative institutional competence, reviews the relationship between fact and evidence, and considers the influence of human rights cases, the relationship of national security to other aspects of the public interest, and finally the approach to derogations from the European Convention on Human Rights in times of war or other public emergencies.
Sanctions including Asset Freezes
Authors: O’Brien Richard , Fisher Toby
Published: July 2024

Chapter 14 addresses the international and domestic sanctions regimes relevant to national security. The focus is on sanctions applied as part of international and domestic efforts to combat terrorism rather than geographic sanctions applied to achieve foreign policy or international security objectives. The chapter begins with an introduction covering the nature of sanctions and their key forms. The chapter then examines three key elements to the sanctions regime: United Nations sanctions, pre-2021 UK sanctions, and the approach in the UK from 2021 onwards. The analysis of United Nations sanctions examines sanctions against both specific organisations and terrorists. The pre-2021 UK sanctions regime focuses on the European Union (EU)-based nature of the regime prior to the end of the implementation period for the withdrawal of the UK from the EU at the end of 2020. The regime after that date focuses on the regime introduced by the Sanctions and Anti-Money Laundering Act 2018 (SAMLA) to replace the previous EU basis for the sanctions system. The authors provide a detailed analysis of the regime, examine the scope for challenges to decisions under SAMLA, consider exceptions and licences, and consider penalties and enforcement. Finally, they consider other counter-terrorism financing legislation.
Intervention in Investments on National Security Grounds
Authors: Phillips Rory , Wolfe Georgina
Published: July 2024

Chapter 15 covers the National Security and Investment Act 2021 (NSIA). The NSIA is an important new Act of Parliament designed to enable government to respond to the threat to national security posed by certain foreign state investments. The authors begin by introducing the concerns that led to the enactment of the NSIA. They then set out the framework of the Act, explaining how its key provisions operate. They introduce the Investment Security Unit (ISU), the key unit in government created to lead on the operation and functioning of the Act. Next, they describe in detail the operation of trigger events, which occur when a person gains control of a qualifying entity or asset in the manner prescribed by the legislation. This leads to a consideration of the notification requirements in the Act, the call-in process, and the risk assessment stages. The authors then consider the notifications and order stage, including both interim and final orders, the possibility of financial assistance, and interactions with the Competition and Markets Authority. Finally, they consider enforcement and sanctions (both civil and criminal) before concluding with an analysis of the means of challenge to orders under the NSIA.
Public Inquiries and National Security
Authors: Smith Martin
Published: July 2024

Chapter 23 examines the topic of public inquiries which involve the consideration of national security matters. It begins with a general introduction to the different types of public inquiry, statutory and non-statutory, as well as related issues concerning their establishment (terms of reference, whether there should be a chair or a panel, the requirement to hold the inquiry in public, and the identification of core participants). Disclosure to the inquiry is considered in detail, in particular the power to compel witnesses and the production of documents, processes for the identification and provision of relevant documents, and the law relating to the admission of intercept material in evidence. The author then considers how an inquiry can access the sensitive material it needs without damaging national security, with a focus on the issue of relevance and public interest immunity (PII). The author then proceeds to explain the procedure for restriction notices and orders, as well as Closed hearings and the use of special measures in Open hearings. The inquiry report is considered in detail before the chapter concludes with a review of the scope for challenging the chair’s rulings.
National Security Vetting
Authors: Green Mark
Published: July 2024

Chapter 25 begins by introducing the topic of national security vetting, part of the government’s personnel security controls, as essentially a risk evaluation process necessary for those seeking to work in sensitive posts and underpinned by policy rather than law. Particular consideration is given to the government guidance document Personnel Security Controls. The author examines the range of considerations that are taken into account in national security vetting decisions and how those decisions are made and communicated. The consequences of the decisions are set out before the compatibility of the UK vetting system with the requirements of the European Convention on Human Rights are considered. The author deals next with the topic of appeals to the Security Vetting Appeals Panel, reviewing in particular procedure, disclosure, and decisions. Finally, the author considers the interaction with other jurisdictions: the Investigatory Powers Tribunal, judicial review, and the Employment Tribunal.
Attributions of Blame and Credit in Policy-Making
Authors: Ching Leong , Howlett Michael , Safaei Mehrdad
Published: July 2024

While credit-claiming has long been the currency for policy-makers, policy studies since Weaver (1986) have paired this with the concept of ‘blame avoidance’ as a second oft-observed motivator of policy-making activity. Credit- and blame-related activities range from the agenda-denial behaviour of politicians to the use of policy evaluations to paint overly positive pictures of the effectiveness of policy efforts. Despite their frequent invocation by analysts, however, the interactions of ‘blame’ and ‘credit’ activities are not well understood, and questions abound about how both are deployed in the political world. This chapter uses Natural Language Processing (NLP) machine-learning sentiment analysis of the tweets of the ex-prime minister of the United Kingdom, Boris Johnson, during 2020–2022 to clarify the relationship existing between ‘blame’ and ‘credit’ behaviour and the ‘subjective’ and ‘objective’ conditions of the worsening and lessening of the pandemic in order to determine if standard expectations of such behaviours were indeed found in the high-profile COVID case.
Populist Blame Games
Authors: Jakobson Mari-Liis
Published: July 2024

With the surge of populism around the world, blame games have also begun to transform. For populists, blame is not something to be avoided but rather generated and used to one’s own advantage, even when being at the receiving end of blame. Based on the twenty-one months that the Conservative People’s Party of Estonia (EKRE), a populist radical-right party, spent in office as a junior coalition partner, the chapter outlines blame-game strategies that conform to the ideological, performative, and strategic logics of populism. It demonstrates how populists are keen to generate blame even while in office and play credit-claiming games also when these are likely to result in blame. When taking blame, populists use five complementary strategies: playing innocent, justifying, undermining accountability mechanisms, escalating, and issuing non-apologies. Populists’ playbook thus differs notably from the blame-avoiding style of neoliberal governments, as also its understanding of political accountability is dramatically different.
Super-Humeanism
Authors: Loewer Barry
Published: July 2024

This chapter discusses a Best System Humean account that dispenses with fundamental perfectly natural properties except enduring elementary material particles called “super-Humeanism” invented by Michael Esfeld. Super-Humeanism replaces the Humean mosaic with the totality of particle trajectories throughout space-time. According to it scientifically fundamental properties/relations are not metaphysically fundamental but are introduced to systematize these trajectories. Laws are generalizations entailed by the scientifically optimal systematization. It avoids many of the problems of Lewis’s perfectly natural properties but has problems of its own. The chapter goes on to show that the account fails to be an adequate account of scientific laws mainly because the systematization turns out to be enormously complicated.
Special Science Laws and the PDA
Authors: Loewer Barry
Published: July 2024

This chapter discusses how laws of special sciences like thermodynamics, chemistry, biology, economics, and so on can be accommodated by the PDA. The central idea is that plausible candidates for optimal scientific systematizations of our world include statistical mechanics. The best formulation of statistical mechanics developed by David Albert and me posits a law specifying that the macroscopic state of the early universe is of very low entropy (the Past Hypothesis) and a probability distribution of all microstates compatible with this law. It is shown that this entails conditional probabilities P(B/A) for all pairs of macroscopic propositions where P(A) > 0. This results in a probability map of the universe called “The Mentaculus.” The chapter develops an account of special science laws that is a modification of Callender and Cohen’s “Better Best Systems Account” on which special science laws are optimal systematizations of propositions expressed in a special science vocabulary where the probability of the consequent given the antecedent is sufficiently high.
Conclusion
Authors: Ostacchini Luisa
Published: July 2024

This Conclusion summarizes the book’s main arguments and its engagements with the fields of Ælfric studies and hagiography. It concludes that Ælfric adapted continental characters, geographies, and narratives in order to promote unity, a value that was both at the heart of Benedictine ideology and a political necessity in the turbulent landscape of late tenth-century England. Further, it demonstrates how Ælfric’s approaches to translation and to Europe vary from those of contemporary and later English writers such as Bede, Aldhelm, and Usuard. In concluding, it also highlights the imperative for further work on the Lives of Saints as a collection.
Introduction: What Is in a Word?
Authors: Khair Tabish
Published: July 2024

With extensive reference to a short story by Anton Chekhov, this chapter introduces the notion of agnostic reading of literature, argues for a definition of literature as literature, traces the relationship between literature and ‘God’, and outlines the chapters to follow. It points out that the book is not a study of how fundamentalism has been narrated in recent literary works. Instead, it focusses on how reading and understanding literature as literature—a rare activity these days—is an antidote to what we call fundamentalism. It outlines the ways in which ‘reading God’ and reading literature overlap, a matter exfoliated in other chapters. It also provides an overview of the chapters to come.