bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Attitudes of Practitioners and Students toward Marketing
Authors: Keown Charles F.
Published: March 2007

This research surveyed three groups: marketing practitioners, undergraduate marketing majors, and students taking their first course in marketing. Respondents' attitudes toward marketing as a societal force, marketing as a career, and various topic areas in marketing were assessed. The results indicated that practitioners hold more favorable attitudes toward marketing's role in society and toward marketing as a career than do students. Practitioners and students agreed on the relative importance of marketing topics. Most important topics were marketing strategy, advertising, buyer behavior, and the marketing concept; least important topics were industrial marketing, international marketing, nonbusiness and service marketing, and physical distribution.
A Curriculum for Personal Sales Training in an Academic Setting
Authors: Bowers Michael , Summey John H.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to provide information useful for setting up a pragmatic workshop or laboratory in personal selling skills. Through this laboratory experience students will better understand the intricacies of a sales position and perhaps feel less frustration as new salespeople. Suitable subject areas in the laboratory are nonverbal communication skills, social interactive working skills, time management, Office management, and skills dealing with computerized information systems and problem solving. References are suggested for specific content areas or techniques.
A Quick-Reference Guide to Text-Based Systems for the Basic Marketing Course
Authors: Bertsch Thomas
Published: March 2007

This article examines 23 basic marketing texts, comparing them with respect to text information, instructor's materials, test bank, student workbook/study guide, and separate casebook.
Nonprofit Marketing Course: Current Perceptions and Acceptance in the Undergraduate Marketing Curriculum
Authors: Livermore Douglas , Guseman Dennis
Published: March 2007

Nonprofit organizations increasingly are accepting and applying marketing concepts. This research investigates the acceptance and incorporation of nonprofit marketing into the marketing curriculum. It was found that although nonprofit marketing is important in the curriculum, only 10 percent of schools have a separate nonprofit marketing course.
Lives in Retailing: A Bibliography of American Retail Merchants in Books
Authors: Becker Boris W. , Larson Carl
Published: March 2007

This article presents a bibliography of biographies of American retail merchants. The bibliography may be useful to scholars of marketing and retailing history, as well as to teachers of marketing principles, retailing, channels of distribution or related courses. The bibliography will be revised as changes are justified; updated versions will be available from the senior author.
Publication in Major Marketing Journals: 1960-1986
Authors: Fields D. Michael , Swayne Linda E.
Published: March 2007

Academic authors from 276 American/Canadian institutions have written over 2,400 articles in major marketing journals since 1960. Contributions were studied by five-year periods to determine trends in the number of schools represented, relative rank of the institutions, professorial rank of the author(s), and the number of authors per article.
Secondary Research, New Product Screening, and the Marketing Research Course: An Experiment in Structured Decision Making
Authors: Lesch William C. , Hazeltine James E.
Published: March 2007

This article reports the results of an experiment undertaken in the marketing research course to "benchmark"student skills in secondary research for new product assessment. The design tested students' perceived improvements in competence in new product screening and in acquisition of published data. Implications for instructors and practitioners are discussed.
An Empirical Investigation of Research Standards for Marketing Faculty at AACSB-Accredited Business Schools
Authors: Urban David J. , Wayland Jane P. , McDermott Dennis R.
Published: March 2007

The article reports on tests of several hypotheses about scholarly research in marketing, such as the tradeoffs among professional activities, the emphasis on research quality, the importance of journal evaluations in assessing performance, and the criteria used to evaluate journals. These issues differ based on factors like professorial rank and the presence of a doctoral program in marketing.
An Experiential Exercise for Enlightening Sales Students about the Screening and Selection Process for Sales Jobs
Authors: Lollar James G. , Leigh Thomas W.
Published: March 2007

Sales managers are increasingly involved in recruiting and selection decisions, yet sales courses do not typically provide training in how sales managers evaluate entry-level sales applicants. We describe an experiential selection exercise that provides students (and recruiters) with realistic and humbling insights concerning the selection decision and evaluation process. We also note the relative lack of research concerning the processes by which recruiters evaluate sales applicants.
Dwight Waldo, Public Administration, and the "Blooming, Buzzing Confusion"
Authors: Gazell James A.
Published: March 2007

Dwight Waldo is a gentleman in the finest sense of the word. Moreover, he is a gentle man whose personal sensitivity and professional integrity have been inculcated into PAR [Public Administration Review]. Fairness, balance, and quality were the basic criteria he applied as an editor, and, as a result, he leaves a legacy to the Society which will endure for a long time to come. We have all benefitted by his judicious judgment as Editor-in-Chief of PAR, but even more importantly, his scholarly contributions to the profession place him in a select circle of individuals who have stood by the premise that the essence of democratic society is to be found in the qualitative goodness of its administrative system and those who fill its ranks.1
Public Administration and the Changing Nature of Space
Authors: Ventriss Curtis
Published: March 2007

The importance of space has been largely ignored in the theory and practice of both public administration and public policy. This lack of theoretical interest in spatiality is somewhat surprising given that this concept raises salient policy and administrative issues in a global economic environment. It is argued that the changing nature of space poses new theoretical and practical challenges to the field, particularly in regards to what is referred to as the advent of spatial politics and how the need exists to integrate a more public notion of space and time into the analysis of public affairs.
The Adoption of Innovation by Smaller Local Governments: The Case of Computer Technology
Authors: Brudney Jeffrey L. , Selden Sally Coleman
Published: March 2007

Most research on the adoption of computer technology centers on municipalities with populations exceeding 50,000. This article explores the degree to which findings from these large local governments apply to the adoption of computers in smaller municipalities. Based on a panel study of local governments at two points in time, the analysis provides support for hypothesized relationships derived from studies of larger cities linking environmental and organizational factors to computer technology adoption. Adopting innovation has inspired voluminous research aimed at explaining why one organization is more likely than another to adopt an innovation.
Barriers to Local-Government Capacity in Nigeria
Authors: Mead Timothy D.
Published: March 2007

Local governments play a crucial role in developing democratic regimes and establishing stable mechanisms for economic and social development. The level of management capacity is a key element of success. Nigeria, the most populous African nation, provides a case study in the difficulties of establishing viable local units of government. Among the potent barriers to local-government capacity in Nigeria are political instability, financial dependence, the power of traditional rulers, and an absence of a tradition of accommodation between elected and professional officials.
The Politics of Federal Credit Subsidy
Authors: Corder J. Kevin
Published: March 2007

Policy outcomes contain important information about how public sector managers respond to economic innovation and balance electoral and policy goals of elected officials. This article examines the quarterly distribution of Small Business Administration (SBA) credit subsidies across 14 industries to test the link between loan guarantee activity and economic and political variables. Changes in the level of SBA guarantees are dependent on aggregate economic performance and the proximity of presidential elections. The analysis confirms that agency managers are compelled to balance programmatic goals with electoral goals. The results suggest that elected officials influence the timing and magnitude of credit subsidies to business but have little influence over the industry-level distribution of the subsidies.
The Limits of Reinventing Government
Authors: Russell Gregory D. , Waste Robert J.
Published: March 2007

When introduced, reinventing government promised significant changes in government performance. Juxtaposed against that theory is one presented by rebounderss," which demands a return to a constitutional grounding in governance. This article suggests that each has significant limitations that can best be understood by examining the other. Accordingly, we seek to establish the central or core theoretical concepts of each theory and the underlying assumptions on which each theory rests. We then proceed to examine them critically as "theories" and compare them to empirical evidence. We argue each is vague, internally inconsistent, and contradicted by known empirical evidence. However, we argue that by integrating the two, the weaknesses of each can be overcome, permitting the evolution of a more fully informed theory, one that addresses both the "means" and the "ends " of government.
Fernand Braudel on Historiography and Its Implications for Marketing History
Authors: Savitt Ronald
Published: March 2007

Fernand Braudel is probably the most important economic historian of the twentieth century. His contributions are found in the massive studies of economic history as well as in the development of widely encompassing historical methods. Both provide direction to marketing history. His focus was on the “progress of civilization” that was concerned with the events of everyday life, not simply the great events or people. Braudel broke with the historical narrative of the past by incorporating all of the social sciences in his work. His work challenges us to consider the long duree rather than concentrate on the short term. Concerns for the environment that shape economic progress are foremost in his writing, especially geography. Although never establishing a step-by-step methodology, Braudel provides direction for how to bring together the factors that affect change. His basic lesson is that we must cast our net wider if we are to make progress in understanding marketing events.
The Ethical Component 6F Marketing: An Eighteenth-Century View
Authors: Dixon D. F.
Published: March 2007

Conventionally, marketing activity is seen to occur in a market-directed economic system which is self-regulating; the market mechanism transforms private interests into public interest. The relevant theoretical underpinnings, characterized by Adam Smith's "invisible hand," are supposedly derived from classical economics. However, an analysis of the work of Smith and his contemporaries indicates that their conceptual models did not rely upon the completely free reign of self interest, but required a coexistent ethical system.
A Comparison of Predictors of Ethical and Unethical Behavior among Corporate and Agency Advertising Managers
Authors: Ferrell O. C. , Zey-Ferrell Mary , Krugman Dean
Published: March 2007

This study explores the organizational environments and interorganizational network which potentially influence ethical/unethical behavior of advertising decision-makers. Questions explored are: Do advertising agencies and their client corporations have similar standards of ethical behavior? Are the influences on un/ethical behavior for these two types of organizations similar? Corollary to this second question, the researchers wish to determine if the differential association model of un/ethical behavior reported in "Predicting Unethical Behavior Among Marketing Practitioners" (Zey-Ferrell, Weaver, and Ferrell 1979) would be validated with samples of advertising practitioners. Through the investigation of these questions, the consequences of the environment for un/ethical decisions are explored. Additional research is suggested and implications for structural improvements in the environment for un/ethical decisions including public policy considerations are discussed.
Public Regulation of Marketing Activity, Part III: A Typology of Regulatory Failures and Implications for Marketing and Public Policy
Authors: Carman James M. , Harris Robert G.
Published: March 2007

This is the third part of an article which presents comprehensive typologies of market failures (Part 1), regulatory responses (Part II), and regulatory failures. A typology of regulatory failures is provided which examines why public actions intended to correct purported market failures fail to achieve their goals. Key questions that should be addressed in evaluating regulatory responses are discussed.
The Size of the Market Sector Around the World
Authors: Boddewyn Jean J. , Falco Joseph John
Published: March 2007

There have been very few measurements of the size of the market sector around the world. This analysis reexamines a 1960 estimate that only 10% of mankind lives in "'fully commercial economics." Figures ranging from 14.9 to 51% of world population and income were obtained, with the more credible numbers around 20%.
Interpreting Monieson: Creative and Destructive Tensions
Authors: Dholakia Nikhilesh
Published: March 2007

Monieson's article focuses on an important problem that confronts all knowledge systems, including that of macromarketing. This is the problem of intellectualization, whereby knowledge processes become increasingly technical and lose their essence. In this commentary on Monieson, a stylized interpretation is offered of Monieson's intellectualization in terms of three tensions-between science and conscience, between rigor and relevance, and between opulence and authenticity.
Competing Under Regulatory Uncertainty: A U.S. Perspective on Advertising in the Emerging European Market
Authors: Murray Keith B. , Popper Edward T.
Published: March 2007

Contemplating the 1992 changes in the European Community, this study examines among-country variation in Europe among EC members and nonmembers. Three propositions are tested against data that describe advertising regulations for four key consumer product categories. Findings indicate that there are inconsistencies in these regulations among countries in Western Europe, including EC member nations.
Marketing and the Multiple Meanings of Australian Aboriginal Art
Authors: Belk Russell W. , Groves Ronald
Published: March 2007

Aboriginal Australian art is enjoying increasing artistic and commercial success in the world art market. The channels of distribution for much of this art move paintings and other artworks from artists in small Aboriginal communities through indigenous corporations, largely White-run galleries and museums, to collectors and tourists. In another sense, however, these art works and the ideas they represent, move from the sacred dreaming contexts of their Aboriginal artists to the commoditized and aestheticized contexts of their largely non-Aboriginal consumers. This article explores these changes in meaning as Aboriginal art moves from its origins to its final destinations, as well as the consequences of these changes in meanings for those involved. In this analysis striking shifts are found in the meanings and uses of these artworks, and it is concluded that the success of Australian Aboriginal art is a mixed blessing with both positive and negative consequences.
Some Heuristics for the Navigation of a Robot
Authors: Chattergy R.
Published: March 2007

A mobile robot is required to navigate around barriers in an unexplored environment. Some heuristic strategies to aid such navigation are discussed here. Being heuristic, these methods can be neither exhaustively tested nor proved effec tive in all cases. However, examples are given to demonstrate their usefulness in obstacle avoidance. In a simple case of sufficient generality, the heuristics are shown to be effective.
Time-Optimal Control of Robotic Manipulators Along Specified Paths
Authors: Bobrow J.E. , Dubowsky S. , Gibson J.S.
Published: March 2007

The minimum-time manipulator control problem is solved for the case when the path is specified and the actuator torque limitations are known. The optimal open-loop torques are found, and a method is given for implementing these torques with a conventional linear feedback control system. The algorithm allows bounds on the torques that may be arbitrary functions of the joint angles and angular velocities. This method is valid for any path and orientation of the end- effector that is specified. The algorithm can be used for any manipulator that has rigid links, known dynamic equations of motion, and joint angles that can be determined at a given position on the path.
Compliance Control of a Robot Manipulator Based on Joint Torque Servo
Authors: Wu Chi-haur
Published: March 2007

The application of a robot manipulator to the task of assem bling manufacturing products requires compliance control, which means the control and monitoring of both forces and positions of the robot. To increase the operation speed of compliance control, a fast, reliable force servo system based on a proper sensing technique is imperatively needed. In this paper, current existing force-sensing techniques are analyzed, and the results suggest that a joint torque-sensing technique will give the best performance in a force servo system. A prototype joint torque sensor system is designed for our ex periment. As a result, a new, simple, high-gain, wide-band width torque servo system based on a joint torque sensor system is developed and the system's performance is verified by a single joint manipulator. To provide compliance, a method of selecting the force servo joints for a robot is also provided.
Identification of Target Primitives with Multiple Decision-Making Sonars Using Evidential Reasoning
Authors: Ayrulu Birsel , Barshan Billur
Published: March 2007

In this study, physical models are used to model reflections from target primitives commonly encountered in a mobile robot's envi ronment. These targets are differentiated by employing a multi- transducer pulse/echo system that relies on both time-of-flight data and amplitude in the feature-fusion process, allowing more robust differentiation. Target features are generated as being evidentially tied to degrees of belief, which are subsequently fused by employ ing multiple logical sonars at geographically distinct sites. Feature datafrom multiple logical sensors arefused with Dempster's rule of combination to improve the performance of classification by reduc ing perception uncertainty. Using three sensing nodes, improvement in differentiation is between 10% and 35% withoutfalse decision, at the cost of additional computation. The method is verified by exper iments with a real sonar system. The evidential approach employed here helps to overcome the vulnerability of the echo amplitude to noise, and enables the modeling of nonparametric uncertainty in real time.
An Iterative Learning Controller for Nonholonomic Mobile Robots
Authors: Oriolo Giuseppe , Panzieri Stefano , Ulivi Giovanni
Published: March 2007

We present an iterative learning controller that applies to nonholo nomic mobile robots, as well as other systems that can be put in chained form. The learning algorithm exploits the fact that chained- form systems are linear under piecewise-constant inputs. The pro posed control scheme requires the execution of a small number of experiments to drive the system to the desired state in finite time, with nice convergence and robustness properties with respect to model ing inaccuracies as well as disturbances. To avoid the necessity of exactly reinitializing the system at each iteration, the basic method is modified so as to obtain a cyclic controller, by which the system is cyclically steered through an arbitrary sequence of states. As a case study, a carlike mobile robot is considered. Both simulation and experimental results are reported to show the performance of the method.
Modeling the Dynamics of Quadrupedal Running
Authors: Berkemeier Matthew D.
Published: March 2007

In this paper, a 2-DOF model for quadrupedal running-in-place is presented, consisting of a rigid body on springy legs. "Energy- pumping " feedback is included to excite the natural dynamics of the system. The model exhibits at least two periodic solutions, which correspond to the bound and pronk gaits of four-legged animals. Approximate return maps are constructed around both trajectories, and these are used to derive explicit expressions for the amplitude and stability of the gaits. The pronk is shown to produce significantly more height than the bound for the same amount of effort. However, the bound has more desirable stability characteristics: simulations and analysis demonstrate that the bound is unstable if a dimension less body inertia is greater than 1, which is an unlikely situation for either a robot or an animal. The pronk's stability, however, exhibits coupling between height and inertia: a given inertia is more likely to cause instability for large heights than for small heights. These results indicate that body inertia is a critical design parameter for running robots, and suggest passive mechanisms for balance and gait transition in legged robots and animals.
Children's Gender-Typed Preferences for Musical Instruments: An Intervention Study
Authors: Harrison Anna C. , O'Neill Susan A.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the influence of exposure to counter gender-stereotypic role models on children's gender-typed preferences for six musical instruments (piano, trumpet, violin, drums, guitar, flute). 357 children (aged 7-8 years) from three clusters of schools ranked their preferences for learning to play the six instruments and gave their gender-stereotyped beliefs about the instruments. Intervention concerts were performed at two of the three clusters of schools. Cluster 1 received concerts with gender-consistent role models (i.e., female playing flute, male playing drums); Cluster 2 received concerts with gender-inconsistent role models; Cluster 3 did not receive concerts (control schools). Instrument preferences were measured again immediately after the concerts. Results indicated an immediate impact of providing a counter-stereotypical role model on preferences for perceived "own-sex appropriate" instruments. Girls expressed less preference for the piano after observing a male musician playing the instrument. Boys ranked the guitar less favourably after they saw a female musician playing the guitar. In line with previous research, girls indicated greater interest in the piano, flute and violin than boys, whereas boys had a stronger preference for trumpet, guitar and drums than girls. Both girls and boys had similar ideas about which instruments would be played by either sex. Results are discussed with reference to social psychological theory of gender-related behaviour.
Do Young People Misjudge Each Others' Musical Taste?
Authors: Finnas Leif
Published: March 2007

Finnish upper level primary school pupils preference for different kinds of music ware compared with their estimates of their peers preference for the same kinds of mUsic. The results indicate fairly consistent trends of overestimating the peers preference for music of the tough, wild, protesting, loud and rock-oriented kind, and of underestimating their preference for classical music and music of a more "quiet kind. The tendency to overestimate others preference for the former kinds of music was more pronounced when judging the taste of a larger and more nroryros peer group, than when judging the taste' of one's own classmates. The teenagers false beliefs about each others musical taste may have SOme non-desirable consequences, and it could be seen as a task for the school to prevent and correct the misconceptions.
A Music Therapy Approach in Mental Health
Authors: Odell Helen
Published: March 2007

The article aims to describe an approach to music therapy in mental health. It looks at the work of a music therapist who is based in a psychiatric hospital but works in community based units such as a Day Clinic and Young People's Unit in Cambridge. It also aims to make some general points about music therapy in this field in Britain, based on historical and theoretical perspectives in the literature; and on discussions with other music therapists. The discussions with other music therapists led to the production of a document "Music Therapy and Mental Health" (1986) which also acts as a source for this article. The clinical material which illustrates a specific approach taken in Cambridge is drawn from a group run over a period of four years at the Cambridge Day Clinic.
Rules for Expression in the Performance of Melodies
Authors: Thompson W. F. , Sundberg J. , Friberg A. , Fryden L.
Published: March 2007

Starting from a text-to-speech conversion programme (Carlson and Gran- strom, 1975), a note-to-tone conversion programme has been developed (Sundberg and Fryden, 1985). It works with a set of ordered rules affecting the performance of melodies written into the computer. Depending on the musical context, each of these rules manipulates various tone parameters, such as intensity level, fundamental frequency, and duration. In the present study the musical effect of nine rules is tested. Ten melodies were played under several rule-implementation conditions, and musically trained listeners rated the musical quality of each performance. The results support the assumption that the musical quality of performances is improved by applying rules.
On Determining the Basic Tempo of an Expressive Music Performance
Authors: Repp Bruno H.
Published: March 2007

In an expressive music performance, the local tempo varies continuously and often asymmetrically around an implied (nominally constant) basic tempo. This preliminary study explored how pianists organise the expressive timing structure around an intended basic beat rate, how listeners judge the basic tempo of such a modulated performance, and what objectively measurable property of the performances the intended and/or judged tempi might correspond to. Two pianists played Robert Schumann's Traumerei three times at each of three intended tempi cued by a metronome. Tempo judgments (metronome settings) for the initial 8 bars of each performance were subsequently obtained from listeners who were pianists themselves. The judged tempi were generally slower than the intended tempi, which was attributed to a tendency of the performers to play slower than intended, especially at the faster tempi. The timing microstructure of each performance was quantified in terms of the frequency distribution of (raw or transformed) beat inter-onset intervals (1OIs). The judged tempi were generally close to the reciprocal of the mean of this distribution (transformations had little effect on the mean tempo), which thus seems to be the parameter that best corresponds to the perceived beat rate of an expressively modulated performance, at least when there are no extreme ritardandi.
Absolute Pitch: Practice Makes Perfect, the Earlier the Better
Authors: Crozier John B.
Published: March 2007

Support for the hypothesis that there is a critical period in the development of absolute pitch is largely indirect, consisting of retrospective, biographical analyses. A direct demonstration that the same techniques for acquiring absolute pitch are more effective with immature compared to mature individuals is apparently lacking from the literature. To address this, an experiment comparing A4 reference tone acquisition of pre-school (4-5 years) and adolescent (13-15 years) participants was carried out. At the end of six weeks of training, the pre-school group (N = 12) showed significant improvements in reference tone identification and reproduction, compared both with themselves and with the adolescent group (N = 12). A synthesis of both critical period and unlearning hypotheses is proposed as an integrative framework for the absolute pitch literature.
The Predictors of Achievement and Dropout in Instrumental Tuition
Authors: Hallam Susan
Published: March 2007

This study, using Carroll's (1963) model of learning as a framework, considers the relative importance of time spent practising in determining learning outcomes in instrumental tuition. Carroll's model states that degree of learning is a function of time spent learning, divided by time required for learning. One hundred and nine violin and viola pupils aged 6-16 years took part in the study. Multiple regression revealed that length of time learning (beta weight .78) and ability to understand instructions (.23) were the best predictors of level of achievement (R = .88), while the quality of achievement was best predicted by the teachers' rating of musical ability (5). Dropping out was best predicted by a range of ability and attitudinal measures. The findings are discussed in relation to the ways in which the quantity and quality of attainment may be determined by different presage and process factors and the importance of developing explanatory multivariate models in the field of instrumental tuition.
The Realness of Risk
Authors: Robins Rosemary
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the material relations of risk within a dispute about the hazards of manufacturing human insulin using gene technology, and the rôle played by the referent `real risk' in the technical performance of risk in that dispute. It draws on recent work in science and technology studies that extends actor-network theory to examine the performance of reality in scientific practice. The multiplicity of risks in the dispute, and the links made and unmade between them, are examined. I argue that in the dispute, risks were contingently linked and separated around a referent `real risk' that emerged within the recombinant DNA debate of the late 1970s. I contrast my account of risk with realist and relativist accounts, each of which values risk as an abstract entity. In my account, risk's value is contingent upon sets of material relations that link hazards and procedures for their minimization. Risk's realness emerges as some risks are linked and others separated, working a multiple/singular relation in an ontological politics of risk.
Science as a Guide in Regulating Technology
Authors: Dunlap Thomas R.
Published: March 2007

Regulation of new technologies to protect public health and the environment assumes that the regulators have adequate information with which to make informed decisions In the case of DDT, however, full information on its effects did not become available until two decades after it came into widespread use This situation arose for a variety of reasons For some years, scientists lacked analytical tools to measure quickly small concentrations of residues (a minor problem) The organization and funding of science diverted attention from long range basic studies to immediate problems, and DDT seemed to pose no obvious hazard. Most important, past experience proved to be an Inadequate guide to research on DDT's effects — a consequence of the novel chemical and physical properties of the material.
The Structure of the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (Society of German Chemists)
Authors: Rilling Rainer
Published: March 2007

The history of scientific societies appears to be better known than their contemporary structures and functions. Through a detailed analysis of the structure of one disciplinary society — the West-German Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh) — it is shown that such a society plays an important role in the communication and reward system of its discipline. The most striking aspect, however, is the amount of resources this society can mobilize, thanks to the symbiotic relationship of its leading élites with the chemical industry — in particular, with the big West-German Corporations. The GDCh plays a key role in the West-German science system. Its ideology and politics are accommodated (and cannot be much else) to its partner, the chemical industry, and legitimated by a functional-technical world view. Alternatives (for example, trade-union related approaches) are not taken up, or are explicitly rejected.
Warranting Scientific Belief
Authors: Gilbert G. Nigel , Mulkay Michael
Published: March 2007

The ways in which scientists account for and justify their own scientific views are analyzed by examining in detail transcripts of interviews with biochemists working on oxidative phosphorylation. It is shown that scientists use two repertoires, the `empiricist' and the `contingent', to account for their beliefs. The empiricist repertoire derives from and reinforces the traditional conception of scientific rationality according to which data obtained from impersonal, standardized routines are used to establish the validity of hypotheses and to decide between competing theories. However, when the contingent repertoire is adopted, `facts' are seen as depending on fallible interpretative work. Both repertoires are used in informal interaction, scientists moving flexibly between the two as they construct accounts of theory-choice. In view of this variability of accounts, it is concluded that it is impossible to obtain definitive evidence of how theories are actually chosen and that a new form of sociological analysis is required. An attempt is made to illustrate such an analysis.
Technical Work and Critical Inquiry: Investigations in a Scientific Laboratory
Authors: Lynch Michael E.
Published: March 2007

Critical studies of science reject the programmatic separation between technical and social aspects of science. By analyzing the social history of controversies, the rhetoric of scientific discourse, and informal aspects of laboratory work, recent studies have attempted to demonstrate that the objective products of scientific research are fraught with social contingency. The present paper agrees that the products of scientific activity are inextricable from the social contexts of their production, but raises the further question of how the relevance of any of the potentially endless varieties of social contingency is to be established in concrete instances of scientific work. Commonly, social studies of science specify such contingent relationships by relying on the established methods of the social science disciplines, while ignoring the fact that the natural scientific disciplines studied themselves include inquiries which specify such relationships as a necessary part of their ordinary practice. The alternative recommended here is to take an ethnomethodological approach. The distinguishing feature of the latter approach is that it recognizes the analytic primacy of context-specifying activities which occur at the sites of natural scientific inquiries. A transcript of conversation in a neuroscience lab is analyzed to show how `critical inquiry' operates as a practical feature of natural science research rather than being a privilege of professional social scientists.
Women University Teachers of Natural Science, 1971-72: An Empirical Survey
Authors: Burrage Hilary F.
Published: March 2007

A study of women university teachers of natural science in England and Wales was undertaken, by mail questionnaire, during the academic year 1971-72. It was designed to examine women scientists' preference for the life sciences, and to test the hypothesis that they tend to have atypical family and educational backgrounds. The findings support the primary hypothesis that certain social and educational factors may pre-dispose women to become scientists, despite the wider consensus that science is a `masculine' field. Respondents were often found to have those familial features generally associated with high-ranking men, to be related to other older scientists, and to have been to single-sex schools. One third were unmarried, and a further third had no children. A secondary hypothesis, in terms of nurturance and role-consonance, to explain women scientists' preference for biological disciplines, was not confirmed. This Note presents the survey data. A bibliography is added to facilitate an understanding of the wider context and relevance of the data.
Naturwissenschaft und Sozialismus: Tendenzen der Naturwissenschafts-Rezeption in der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung des 19. Jahrhunderts
Authors: Bayertz Kurt
Published: March 2007

This paper deals with the relationships between the German Labour Movement of the late nineteenth century and the contemporary natural sciences. The view of the natural sciences and of their role in society, developed by the Labour Movement, is sketched: they are considered to be an important driving force of social progress, in their technical/economic aspects, as well as in their ideological/political aspects. The relationship between natural sciences and socialist theory of the time is analyzed — particularly the attempts made to model socialist theory after the example of the sciences, in order to confer on it a comparable objectivity. In the third section, the similarities and differences between the contemporary bourgeois understanding of science and the view of science developed by the Labour Movement are discussed. The paradox that a radical movement like the Labour Movement is prepared to acknowledge the authority of the natural sciences, produced and applied by their political opponents, can be partially explained by noting that the sciences are not just a weapon in, but also the object of, its political struggles.
Exporting American Agriculture: The Rockefeller Foundation in Mexico, 1943-53.
Authors: Fitzgerald Deborah
Published: March 2007

Between 1943 and 1961, the Rockefeller Foundation (RF) conducted a programme in technical agricultural assistance in Mexico designed to increase crop productivity and encourage agricultural self-reliance. While this programme was considered successful by both the RF and US development advocates, its `success' was in fact limited to those crops, farmers, and agricultural students that most closely resembled their American counterparts. The programme failed where the American model of agricultural progress did not fit Mexican conditions. What began as an attempt to export American agricultural practice and ideology, then, was modified to address only those elements of Mexican agriculture that were already partly Americanized.
Management of Radiation Hazards in Hospitals: Plural Rationalities in a Single Institution
Authors: Rayner Steve
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the perceptions of occupational radiological hazards in a small sample of American hospitals during an anthropological pilot study conducted in 1982. The results indicate that occupants of various occupational categories exhibit diverse behaviours toward medical radiation. These behaviours are consistent with grid/group classifications of each type of occupation. Various implications for risk management and institutional design are discussed in the context of different levels of trust in individual control and institutional procedures.
Constructing `Do-able' Problems in Cancer Research: Articulating Alignment
Authors: Fujimura Joan H.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents a framework for analyzing scientists' efforts to construct `do-able' research problems. A problem is `doable' when scientists can align tasks to three levels of work organization - experiment, laboratory, and social world. Articulation is the planning and coordination needed to align levels. The framework is used to analyze data from a study of basic cancer research. Its usefulness is illustrated by a case study of oncogenic antibody research in a biotechnology company. The paper discusses the role of modularity and standardized packages of tasks in facilitating `doability'. The findings suggest that attention to articulation work in the training and work processes of scientists, and to the conditions affecting alignment of levels of work organization, is necessary if doable problems are to be constructed.
Welcome to the Cognitive Revolution
Authors: Thagard Paul
Published: March 2007

After attempting to clarify Peter Slezak's challenge to the `strong programme' in the sociology of science, this Response outlines a cognitive/historical/sociological approach to understanding the development of scientific knowledge.
On the Rise of Scientific Innovations and Their Acceptance in Research Groups: A Socio-Psychological Study
Authors: Schulze Annedore
Published: March 2007

The interaction of cognitive and interpersonal factors in research groups is discussed in relation to the two phases of the research process — a conceptualization phase, and a programme phase. During the conceptualization phase, which is marked by a high degree of uncertainty, there exists a close connection between cognitive and interpersonal factors. As the research situation becomes concretized and more determined, a distinction emerges between cognitive and interpersonal factors. This study shows that during the conceptualization phase, both the assessment of the concept and the interpersonal relations between those involved are intimately coupled with the personality of the concept's originator. In contrast, the programme phase is characterized by a distinction between an assessment of the programme, on the one hand, and of the originator, on the other. The heart of the programme is assessed continuously over a longer period of time. Unity in assessment and reliability constitute primary evaluation criteria. Cognitive patterning and social relations are symmetric.
The Predictive Ability of Peer Review of Grant Proposals: The Case of Ecology and the US National Science Foundation
Authors: Abrams Peter A.
Published: March 2007

Analyses of temporal correlations in measures of scientific productivity and quality suggest that individuals who have produced good science in the recent past will continue to do so in the near future. However, previous work has shown little correlation between measures of the quality of previous publications by a scientist and the ratings received by that individual's research proposals. This suggests that evaluating previously published work may be a better means of predicting the quality of future work than is evaluating research proposals. Possible explanations for this finding are explored, using the Ecology Panel of the US National Science Foundation as an example.
Scientific Vocabulary Divergence among Female Primatologists Working in East Africa
Authors: Adams Elizabeth R. , Burnett G. W.
Published: March 2007

Feminist philosophers have argued rhetorically that women scientists view the world differently from their male colleagues, and will therefore conduct their work on the basis of different paradigms. The argument, however, begs empirical support. Here, evidence is offered that female ethologists working in East Africa select substantially different vocabulary to describe their work than do male ethologists publishing in the same sources. Discriminant analysis was applied to a sample of vocabulary drawn from 122 scientific papers, and classified in terms of nine variables: those concerning cooperation and female gender are the most important in discerning women's approach to natural systems.
The Airmail Pickup System of All American Aviation: A Failed Innovation?
Authors: Lewis W. David , Trimble William F.
Published: March 2007

From May 1939 through June 1949, All American Aviation employed a unique nonstop airmail pickup and delivery system, invented by Lytle S. Adams and modified for commercial use by company engineers after Richard C. du Pont acquired Adams's patent rights. Used to deliver airmail to small communities scattered throughout rugged terrain in western Pennsylvania and West Virgina, the system was also exploited in World War II to tow gliders aloft, and to rescue personnel trapped behind enemy lines. After the war, it lost its economic viability because of the use of mobile postal vehicles on improved highway systems, and also because federal officials would not permit its combination with passenger operations. It was therefore abandoned in 1949, but furnished the basis for still further important military applications. Though a `failed innovation' in a commercial sense, it nevertheless did have a considerable impact upon future developments, suggesting that `failure' and `success' are relative terms.
Manufacturing Certainty: Testing and Program* Management for the F-4 Phantom II
Authors: Bugos Glenn E.
Published: March 2007

The American military-industrial complex of the 1950s was dramatically restructured around `program management', a set of organizational techniques used to dedicate engineers to the timely completion of one weapon system. Program managers challenged the managers of established engineering institutions over the methods used to manufacture certainty about how an aircraft would perform. Program managers and institution-builders shaped the F-4 Phantom II, a fighter aircraft built by the McDonnell Aircraft Company from 1954 to 1979, by invoking six types of testing: negotiating the state of the art; aggregation testing; integration testing; acceptance testing; configuration control; and operational testing.
Sticking a Needle into Science: The Case of Polio Vaccines and the Origin of AIDS
Authors: Martin Brian
Published: March 2007

The author became involved with the theory that AIDS originated from contaminated polio vaccines by arranging for publication of a key paper, by interacting with prominent partisans and by writing articles himself. These experiences suggest some of the advantages and disadvantages of partisan intervention in the scientific reception system by a social analyst. Open partisanship should be added to the repertoire of social analysts of science.
Science, Technology and Nonviolent Action: The Case for a Utopian Dimension in the Social Analysis of Science and Technology
Authors: Martin Brian
Published: March 2007

Science and technology can be used and developed to support nonviolent struggle as well as military struggle. By examining what science and technology is likely to be useful for nonviolent action, a set of priorities for disciplinary fields, research projects and methods of research is obtained that is quite different from those associated with military priorities. This case study illustrates the value of studying not just the science and technology that exists but also the science and technology that might exist in different social structures.
Activism, Drug Regulation, and the Politics of Therapeutic Evaluation in the AIDS Era: A Case Study of ddC and the `Surrogate Markers' Debate
Authors: Epstein Steven
Published: March 2007

This paper presents an extended case study to demonstrate that the interpretation of clinical trials of antiviral AIDS drugs is significantly shaped by a widely dispersed allocation of scientific credibility. Specifically, the participation of AIDS activists in claims-making about AIDS trials and AIDS drugs complicates the politics of therapeutic evaluation, even as it challenges the monopolization of credibility by credentialed researchers. The paper tracks the social construction of belief about the efficacy of the combination therapy of AZT and ddC, between 1990 and 1995 in the United States. By intervening simultaneously in interpretative debates about the results of the clinical trials of this therapy and in methodological debates about how efficacy might best be measured in such trials, activists have helped to shape what is believed to be known about these drugs.