bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Effects of Lottery Game Structure and Format on Subjective Probability and Attractiveness of Gambles
Authors: Cole William R. , Hastie Reid
Published: March 2007

The present experiment was designed to measure the effects of two psychological variables upon both the subjective probability and overall appeal of lottery gambling games. Results confirmed the hypothesis that the structure of the gamble (conjunctive, simple, disjunctive) affected the subjective probability of winning. The familiarity of the game's format did not affect the subjective probability estimates. However, format did affect the game's overall appeal. A comparison of the results for student and non-student subjects suggests that the variations in the design of state lottery games may differentially affect participation among various segments of the population.
Further Determinants of Attitude Attributions: The Perceived Effects of Assigned Behavior on Post-Behavior Attitudes
Authors: Brockner Joel , Nova Michael
Published: March 2007

Many studies have shown that observers tend to make behavior-consistent attitude attributions about a target person (T), even vhenATTs behavior is-under heavy situational constraints. However, there is some controversy over the reasons for this "as' signed behavior effect." The present studies were designed to determine if the effect were contingent on subjects' actual exposure to T's behavior. Subjects were merely told about Ts who had been assigned to record opposing speeches, and were then asked to assign true attitudes to them. Ts' speech direction had a significant effect on the attitudes attributed to them, suggesting that the engulfing hypothesis proposed by Snyder and Jones and the attitude projection theory of Yandell and Insko may not completely account for previous findings. The present results lend support to an "inferred self-persuasion process," whereby the attitudes attributed to Ts may be also due to the perceived effects of the role-playing situation on Ts' post-behavior attitudes.
Graduate Training and Prospects in Social Psychology
Authors: Levy Sheldon G.
Published: March 2007

A survey of graduate departments of psychology indicates Ph.D. production far exceeds potential positions. Departments appear to be increasing the proportion of graduate training specifically oriented toward nonacademic placement. However prospective changes do not appear sufficient to serve the probable employment opportunities.
Field-Study Evidence of an Ego-Defensive Bias in Attribution among Two Categories of Observers
Authors: Carver Charles S. , DeGregorio Eileen , Gillis Rod
Published: March 2007

Data from a field stud)' originally' conducted for a different purpose were reanalyzed for evidence of attributional bias. Coaches rated players' abilities and efforts at preseason and midway through a losing season. Results were consistent with predictions derived from an analysis of differential role demands: The head coach perceived players as having greater abilities but poorer efforts at midseason than preseason; assistant coaches perceived less ability but greater efforts at midseason than preseason. The findings are seen as consistent with the notion of a self-esteem-protecting bias in causal attribution.
Social Facilitation among Interacting Groups
Authors: Bray Robert M. , Sugarman Roger
Published: March 2007

The present experiment examined social facilitation among interacting groups and compared Cottrell's evaluation-apprehension hypothesis with Zajonc's mere-presence hypothesis. Subjects worked problems of moderate and high difficult; alone or in two- or four-person groups and were watched bi' evaluative, nonevaluative, or no observers. Results for the moderately difficult problems supported the facilitation phenomenon both for groups and individuals, and were consistent with the evaluation-apprehension hypothesis. Performance on high/v difficult problems was not altered by observers' presence.
Assessing the Existence of "Wishful Thinking"
Authors: Miller Charles E.
Published: March 2007

An index of wishful thinking—the tendency for a person's belief about a particular proposition or issue to accord with his or her feeling about the desirability of the issue-used inappropriately in previous studies is empirically compared with a seemingly more plausible but also inappropriate index, and with a more appropriate index derived from an approach suggested by Norman (1967). Results indicate that previous studies may have overestimated the extent of wishful thinking by individuals or even reported its existence when it did not, infact, occur.
Who Hears What from Whom and with What Effect
Authors: Jaeger Marianne E. , Anthony Susan , Rosnow Ralph L.
Published: March 2007

This experiment explored whether subjects, high and low in anxiety, would transmit a rumor that was believable or not believable when the rumor was told to them by a peer as opposed to an authority figure. We found that the rumor was more frequently repeated when the story was believable than unbelievable. 7he highly anxious subjects repeated the rumor more often than did the less anxious subjects only when the source was a peer.
Beautiful Friends and Ugly Strangers
Authors: Kernis Michael H. , Wheeler Ladd
Published: March 2007

Does the physical attractiveness of one's same sex peers affect the perceptions that others have of him or her? Subjects rated male or female targets who were either associated or unassociated with an attractive or unattractive same-sex other. Results indicated that targets were rated more positively when in the mere presence (unassociated) of an unattractive other and when associated by friendship with an attractive other. The results were interpreted as indicating the operation of two quite different processes, both based on physical attractiveness, underlying judgments of others.
Ego-Relevant Feedback, Affect, and Self-Serving Attributional Bias
Authors: McCarrey Michael , Edwards Henry P. , Rozario Wilson
Published: March 2007

The possibility, that people have a need to self-enhance or self-protect via their attributions of causality following success or failure was examined by experimentally inducing more positive or more negative affect following each. A sample of 60 people who succeeded and 60 people who failed an anagram task randomly received positive ego-enhancing feedback, negative ego-diminishing feedback, or no feedback, concerning a prior unrelated task. Results indicated that when affect had been increased there was a reduced tendency to attribute recent success to internal factors (ability' or effort) and a reduced tendency to attribute recent failure to external factors (luck or task difficulty). When affect had been reduced, however, there was a greater tendency' to attribute successful outcome internally and failure externally. The results are interpreted as supporting the existence of a systematic relationship among ego-relevant feedback, affect, and self-attribution following success and failure such that a motivational bias is operative.
Accuracy of Person Perception
Authors: Harackiewicz Judith M. , DePaulo Bella M.
Published: March 2007

Androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated subjects predicted the responses of androgynous, sex-typed, and undifferentiated others to masculine, feminine, and neutral situations. The self-report criterion data replicated the findings of Helmreich, Spence, & Holahan (1979). In accordance with Cronbach's (1955) suggestion, separate correlational measures of person accuracy, situation accuracy, and person-by-situation accuracy were computed. Subjects were more accurate at predicting person effects and situation effects than person-by-situation interactions. Females-particularly feminine-typed females-were best at making person predictions, while males-particularly masculine-typed and androgynous males were best at making situation predictions.
Classroom Seating Effects
Authors: Levine Douglas W. , McDonald Peter J. , O'Neal Edgar C. , Garwood S. Gray
Published: March 2007

Stires's (1982) critique of our study (Levine, McDonald, O'Neal, & Garwood, 1980) and Knowles's (1982) comment on the state of classroom research (both in this issue) are considered. Stires's statement that we interpreted our stud)' as supporting the self-selection rather than the environmental hypothesis is shown to be inaccurate. Instead, we contend that some variables are affected more by location, others by self-selection, and still others by an interaction between the two. Stires's (1980) results are reevaluated and found to be congruent With this View'. We found Knowles's discussion of Griffith's (1921) study and his comments on classroom research provocative, although the relevance to our study seems tangential We fully agree with Knowles about the paucity of theory in this area and suggest several limitations in the existing research that should be dealt with systematically within a theoretical framework.
Opinion-Related Information Seeking
Authors: McPherson Karla
Published: March 2007

A study was conducted to examine the effects of tolerance for ambiguity, utility of information, and threat to self-esteem on opinion-related information seeking. It was hypothesized that individuals relatively unable to tolerate ambiguity would show a general tendency to seek supportive rather than objective information and that a potential threat to self-esteem combined with low information utility would produce the greatest support-seeking behavior. These predictions were supported by the data. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for social comparison theory.
Civil Inattention Exists—in Elevators
Authors: Zuckerman Miron , Miserandino Marianne , Bernieri Frank
Published: March 2007

Elevators were used as a field setting to examine the existence of civil inattention (Goffman, 1963)—the rule that in a transient encounter strangers give visual notice to each other and then withdraw attention. In Sutdy 1, confederates recorded the behavior of single riders in elevators. It was found that about half of all riders gave the confederate a brief visual notice at the beginning of the ride and then refrained from further eye contact. Of the riders, 35% added one or two glances to the initial look; perhaps these riders wanted to renew their acknowledgment of the confederates or perhaps they simply displayed more interest in their fellow passengers. In two more investigations (Study 2 and an exact replication—Study 3) confederates shared elevators with single riders and either followed or violated the rule of civil inattention. In the former they glanced at the subject and then withdrew all further attention; in the latter case they either avoided eye contact altogether or stared at the subject for the duration of the ride. It was found that behaviors consistent with the rule of civil inattention were rated more favorably than those in violation of the rule. The conditions under which civil inattention may be modified or eliminated were discussed.
The Private Personality
Authors: Singer Jerome L.
Published: March 2007

Reflecting the reemergence of interest in conscious experience that characterizes modern psychology, this article examines a range of issues that are part of the study of the private personality. It is proposed that in formulating a model of individual differences in ongoing conscious experience, we must consider the basic systems through which information is initially received and stored, since variations in processing styles may already lead to the structural and content variations that ultimately shape the unique sense of a private personality. The psychophysiological, affective, and cognitive systems are reviewed with reference to the kinds of input they provide. These include variations in response to bodily cues (e.g., repressive defensiveness and hardiness) or in the styles of cognitive complexity. Research possibilities for linking these stylistic variations at the receptive pole to centrally-generated stimulation by means of repeated measurements, psychometric instruments, and thought-samples of ongoing consciousness are considered with the ultimate aim of clarifying processes of schema formation.
Job Satisfaction and Family Status
Authors: Bersoff David , Crosby Faye
Published: March 2007

Some previous researchers found an association between job satisfaction and family status, with married parents expressing the most job satisfaction and single adults expressing the least. The present study used secondary analyses of NORC national probability data to test the generalizability of the earlier findings. We found that married men and women across the nation do infact claim to like their jobs more than single people do. The quality of the marriage has little apparent effect.
Type A Behavior, Perceived Stress, and Illness
Authors: Rhodewalt Frederick , Hays Robert B. , Chemers Martin M. , Wysocki Jay
Published: March 2007

Fifty-one university administrators (categorized as Type A or Type B by the Jenkins Activity Survey) completed a series of questionnaires that assessed their degree of perceived job stress, extent of recent life changes, physical health, and psychological well-being. Multivariate analyses of variance showed that work stress and life change interacted with the Type A behavior pattern in predicting symptomatology. Type A administrators under high stress reported more psychological impairment and cardiovascular-related health problems than high stress Type Bs or low stress As and Bs. The results attest to the importance of situational factors when studying Type As and lend support to a diathesis-stress model of Type A and heart disease.
The Conversational Styles of Lonely Males with Strangers and Roommates
Authors: Sloan William W. , Solano Cecilia H.
Published: March 2007

Several studies have indicated that lonely persons converse in an inhibited self-focused manner in initial encounters with opposite-sex strangers. The present study hypothesized that lonely persons may also display nonnormative conversational patterns in same-sex dyads and when speaking to familiar others. To test this hypothesis, lonely and nonlonely college males engaged in a conversation with a same-sex stranger and with a roommate. These conversations were coded for eight objective conversational modes and three interpersonal orientations, and subjects reported on their satisfaction with the conversation. Lonely males were significantly more inhibited in social interactions, speaking less than nonlonely males both with strangers and with roommates. Only minimal support was found for lonely persons having a self-focused conversational style with strangers. The conversational style of lonely persons with roommates is less intimate than that of nonlonely persons; lonely persons used simple attentiveness conversational modes more than nonlonely persons, and used familiarity modes less than nonlonely persons. No differences in self-reported satisfaction with the conversations were found.
Winners, Losers, and Choosers
Authors: Green Susan K. , Buchanan Dale Richard , Heuer Sheila K.
Published: March 2007

Two studies on interpersonal attraction were conducted at a commercial video-dating service. Profiles of members were rated on age, physical attractiveness, status, humor and warmth. In the first study, significant differences were found between popular and unpopular males, physically attractive males being more popular. Popular females were found to be younger and more attractive than unpopular females. The second study investigated the dating choices and rejections of twenty new members. Higher status and physical attractiveness were significant predictors of males being chosen by females, whereas the only significant predictor of females being chosen by males was physical attractiveness. Males tended to choose and reject younger women. and females tended to choose and reject older men. There was also a tendency for both sexes to choose targets of higher social desirability and reject targets of lower social desirability. We concluded that the male-older, female-younger norm and physical attractiveness are important factors in dating initiation strategies for both sexes, although females also rely on status.
Implicit Theories about Influence Style
Authors: Steffen Valerie J. , Eagly Alice H.
Published: March 2007

This experiment explored people's implicit theories about the effects of influencers' and targets' status and sex on the directness and politeness of influencers' persuasive style. Female and male subjects read a description of either a woman influencing a man or a man influencing a woman. Either the influencer's job title was high in status and the target's was low, the influencer's title was low in status and the target's was high, or neither person had a job title. For each of four request styles that varied in directness and politeness, subjects rated the likelihood that the influencer would (1) use the style; (2) gain compliance by using the style; and (3) be liked by the target after using the style. As predicted, high-status influencers were considered more likely to use direct and impolite styles and less likely to use indirect and polite styles than low status influencers. As a consequence of using direct and impolite styles, high status influencers were thought more likely to gain compliance and liking than low-status influencers. The sex of the influencer and target had little effect on subjects' implicit theories of influence.
Self-Relevant Scenarios as an Indirect Means of Attitude Change
Authors: Gregory W. Larry , Burroughs W. Jeffrey , Ainslie Frances M.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments with college students are reported that examined the effects of imagining detailed scenarios depicting events happening to self. Experiment I established that students who read and imagined a scenario depicting their involvement in an automobile accident had elevated expectancies for the occurrence of an automobile accident, compared with control condition students. Experiment 2 extended the effects of imagined scenarios to include cognitions tangential to those directly depicted in the scenario. Subjects who imagined having automobile accidents were found, in a separate context minimizing demand characteristics, to be more favorably disposed toward legislation related to traffic safety (e.g., requiring motorists to wear seat belts). The results are discussed in relation to research on attitudes.
Intimacy Status
Authors: Prager Karen J.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of these studies was to determine whether individuals who have afully developed capacity for intimacy, as assessed by an intimacy status interview and rating, could be distinguished from those with lesser capacities based on their locus of control orientation, self-disclosure, and anxiety levels. Study I indicated that women high in depth and commitment in their romantic relationships were more internally orientated than those low in either depth or commitment. A finding of no group differences in self-disclosure was thought to be due to the absence of a specified target for the disclosure. In study 2 target persons were specified. It was found that those with high levels of intimacy development had disclosed more about themselves to their romantic partners than those lower in intimacy development and that highly intimate individuals disclosed more to significant others than to casual acquaintances, whereas less intimate participants did not disclose differentially when communicating to different recipients. It was concluded that highly intimate individuals differ from the less intimate not in their overall self-disclosure levels, but rather in their capacity to be selectively self-revealing with their most significant others. Finally, highly intimate participants reported lower levels of global anxiety than did less intimate participants.
The Role of Source Legitimacy in Sequential Request Strategies of Compliance
Authors: Patch Michael E.
Published: March 2007

The foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face techniques for compliance were compared under conditions of high and low source legitimacy in a telephone survey. Calls were made to 240 people, employing either the FITD, DITF, or a control, requesting television viewing preferences for either a public interest group (high legitimacy) or a private consulting firm (low legitimacy). It was predicted that both techniques would be effective when legitimacy was high but that only the FITD would be effective when legitimacy was low. Compliance results supported this prediction, yielding a significant chi-square for response X strategy X source legitimacy. The results were interpreted in terms of the type of pressure or obligation that may follow from each strategy.
Stereotypes and Nonstereotypic Judgments
Authors: Jackson Linda A. , MacCoun Robert J. , Kerr Norbert L.
Published: March 2007

The effects of a target individual's gender role attitudes on nonstereotypic judgments were examined in this research. Male and female subjects judged the likability, adjustment, and occupational potential of targets who were either traditional or nontraditional in their attitudes toward women. The results indicated that whereas female subjects consistently evaluated nontraditional targets more favorably than traditional targets, the ratings of male subjects depended on the target's gender and the evaluation dimension in question. Implications of the readiness with which stereotypic information implicated other evaluative schema are discussed.
Regret and Elation Following Action and Inaction
Authors: Landman Janet
Published: March 2007

In their research on decision under uncertainty, Kahneman and Tversky (1982a) examined whether, given the same negative outcome, there is any difference in the experience of regret, depending on whether the outcome follows action or inaction. This study attempted to replicate Kahneman and Tversky's (1982a) finding of greater regret for action than inaction and to determine whether this pattern extends to the parallel case of joy over happy outcomes, to different life domains, and to both genders. Through a vignette experiment, the previousfinding of a strong tendency to imagine greater regret following action than inaction was replicated. The same pattern was observed in the case of joy over positive outcomes. In two of the three vignettes presented, this "actor effect "was stronger for negative than for positive outcomes. In a third vignette, explicit knowledge of a missed negative outcome seems to have magnified the usual joy over having made a good decision, causing the expected joy over acting and succeeding to rise to the typically high level of regret over acting and failing. Suggestions regarding the future study of these issues are offered.
Major League Baseball Performance as a Function of Being Traded
Authors: Jackson Jeffrey M. , Buglione Stephen A. , Glenwick David S.
Published: March 2007

The proposition that increased generalized drive interferes with complex task performance by enhancing a dominant response tendency (Zajonc, 1965) was tested in a nonreactive, real-life setting involving a natural and meaningful task. Batting performance (batting average and slugging percentage) of 59 major league baseball players was examined under four different motivational or drive conditions caused by being traded. A pattern of statistically significant performance changes in directions consistent with drive theory predictions (low drive-increased performance; high drive-decreased performance) emerged. The quality of the players and teams involved was unrelated to the magnitude of this effect, although a predicted interaction with player experience was borne out and supports a drive theory analysis. Several less viable interpretations of the data (e.g., statistical regression) are considered. Implications for sports psychology and applications to professional baseball are discussed.
The Effects of Helping and Focus of Attention on Mood States
Authors: Millar Murray G. , Millar Karen U. , Tesser Abraham
Published: March 2007

In this study helping behavior was predicted to have either a positive or negative impact on mood, depending on how it affects the helper's focus of attention. When a helping act focuses attention away from the conditions producing the initial mood, the initial mood is weakened. Alternatively, when a helping act focuses attention on the conditions producing the initial mood, the initial mood is either maintained or strengthened. To test this hypothesis, positive and negative moods in connection with either self or other focus were created: Participants focused their attention on positive or negative statements about themselves or about friends. Participants then performed a task that either helped themselves (focused attention on themselves) or helped others (focused attention on others). The predicted three-way interaction was obtained. Helping another decreased the strength of self-focused moods and increased the strength of other-focused moods. Alternatively, helping oneself increased the strength of self-focused moods and decreased the strength of other-focused moods.
Gender and the Persuasion Schema
Authors: Bisanz Gay L. , Rule Brendan Gail
Published: March 2007

This study extends work by Rule, Bisanz, and Kohn (1985) designed to characterize the nature of a persuasion schema. Men and women were given (a) descriptions of situations in which either a man or a woman was attempting to influence a friend or father to achieve various goals and (b) a list of methods identified as being elements of the persuasion schema. Participants rank ordered methods in terms of probable sequence of use by others for these goals and targets. They also rated each method with respect to its social acceptability and the likelihood that they themselves would use it. For all situations described, the sequence of strategy use reported for other people was similar for men and women. In addition, the data on participants' likely use of methods provided evidence that men's and women's expectations about the order in which they themselves would use persuasion strategies are similar. Finally, degree of social approval was related to the sequence of strategy use anticipated for both others and oneself.
Biased Information Search in the Interpersonal Domain
Authors: Holton Brynda , Pyszczynski Tom
Published: March 2007

An experiment was conducted to investigate the conditions under which people selectively seek information about other persons to provide an informational basis for desired positive or negative evaluations of those persons. It was hypothesized that active involvement in an interaction with another person is prerequisite to the occurrence of such biased search. Subjects either received or observed another subject receive a positive or negative evaluation from a confederate. After being led to expect that available information about the confederate was either mostly positive or mostly negative, their interest in acquiring such information was assessed. Subjects who were the recipients of the confederate's praise sought more information when they expected it to be positive than when they expected it to be negative; recipients of the confederate's criticism sought more information when they expected it to be negative than when they expected it to be positive. No hint of such biased search tendencies were found among observer subjects.
Treating Women as Sexual Objects
Authors: McKenzie-Mohr Doug , Zanna Mark P.
Published: March 2007

The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that exposure to nonviolent pornography would prime a heterosexuality subschema in gender schematic males and thus lead these males to view and treat a woman as a sexual object. In a 2 × 2 design, 60 male subjects, half gender schematic and half gender aschematic, watched either a pornographic or a control video prior to being interviewed by a female research assistant. Although she was blind to condition, the female experimenter found the gender schematic males who had viewed the pornographic video to be significantly more sexually motivated than subjects in the three other conditions. Further, in the first minute of a free recall task given after the interview, 72% of the information recalled by this group of males concerned the physical features of the female experimenter, as compared with 49% for the males in the other conditions. The implications of these findings for real-world settings are discussed.
Judgments of Self-Other Similarity
Authors: McFarland Cathy , Miller Dale T.
Published: March 2007

The present research explored the possibility that the false consensus and false uniqueness effects can occur simultaneously within a single context. Specifically, it was hypothesized that individuals would overestimate the number of others who would experience the same type of emotional reaction as they did and yet believe that their reactions would be stronger than those of others. Subjects were presented with two potentially aversive situations and asked (a) to choose the situation they would least prefer to be involved in, (b) to estimate the percentage of other students who would also avoid the situation, and (c) to predict their own and the average other person's emotional reactions in that situation. Subjects overestimated the number of people who would avoid the same situation they would avoid and predicted their own emotional reactions to be stronger than those of others. Implications of the findings for coping and adjustment are discussed.
Centenary of William James's Principles of Psychology
Authors: Cacioppo John T. , Tassinary Louis G.
Published: March 2007

William James's views on the science of psychology were as provocative as his observations of psychological and behavioral phenomena. His perspective on psychology as a natural science is reviewed briefly, the concept of "levels" is defined, and several emerging principles illustrating the importance of multilevel integrative research on mind-brain relationships are described. These emerging principles, which are not derived from, but would be at home in, James's Principles of Psychology, are the principle of multiple determinism, the corollary of proximity, the principle of nonadditive determinism, and the principle of reciprocal causation. These principles illustrate how the understanding of social psychological phenomena can inform and be informed by the study of both environmental (situational) and organismic (biological) factors.
The Validity of Inferential Judgments when Used in Theory-Testing Meta-Analysis
Authors: Miller Norman , Lee Ju Young , Carlson Michael
Published: March 2007

This article examines the use of inferential judgments in meta-analysis as a means of testing hypotheses in social psychological theory. The authors discuss difficulties that meta-analysts usually face when they try to investigate the effects of psychological mediators in a substantive research area and suggest the use of inferential judgments to overcome them. A validity study is presented that supports this recommendation. It shows that judgments regarding the level of psychological mediators, as inferred from a reading of method sections of social psychological experiments, correlate highly with manipulation-check effect sizes. This was true for each of two affective mediators (positive and negative mood) and each of two cognitive mediators (perception of control and source credibility). However, as was predicted from thle literature on the role playing of social psychological experiments, judgments about subjects' helping behavior or attitude change, though highly reliable, were not so consistently related to dependent-measure effect sizes.
Feelings of Negativity and Stress: An Averaging-Summation Analysis of Impressions of Negative Life Experiences
Authors: Seta John J. , Seta Catherine E. , Wang Maureen A.
Published: March 2007

Four studies were conducted to determine how a person feels after being exposed to a variety of negative life events. Individuals' reports of stress reflected an averaging process. Individuals reported feeling more negative (stressed) after being exposed to one highly negative event than after one highly negative and one mildly negative event. The reports also reflected a summation process; individuals reported feeling less negative after being exposed to one highly negative and one mildly negative event than after exposure to one highly negative and three or four mildly negative events. Discussion sets forth the implications of an averaging-summation (A.S.) model for stress and mood, for positive experiences, and for attitudes and impressions in general. When and in what type of context (both affective and informational) A.S. processes would operate is also discussed.
Uniqueness as a Moderator of Self-Peer Agreement
Authors: Zuckerman Miron , Miyake Kunitate , Koestner Richard , Baldwin Charles H. , Osborne Jason W.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the extent to which self-reports of uniqueness moderate self-peer agreement on personality trait ratings. A high level of uniqueness implies that the individual differs from the rest of the population on a particular trait. The results showed that ratings of uniqueness were (a) independent of three previously identified trait-specific moderator variables consistency, relevance, and observability—and (b) associated with higher levels of self peer agreement. In addition, self-peer agreement was higher for traits that subjects viewed as relevant and observable, replicating previous work in the area.
The Social Stigma of Loneliness: Effect of Target Person's and Perceiver's Sex
Authors: Lau S. , Gruen Gerald E.
Published: March 2007

The assumption that lonely people are socially stigmatized was tested in an experiment using a 2 (Loneliness State) x 2 (Sex of Target Person) x 2 (Sex of Perceiver) between-subjects design. Results shored that the lonely target person was rated much more negatively than the nonlonely target person on measures of psychological attributes and interpersonal attraction and evaluation. Specifically, the lonely target person was perceived as lower in psychological adjustment, achievement/competence, and sociability/congeniali4y. The lonely person was less liked, was less preferred as a friend, and was rated as weaker more passive, less attractive, and less sincere. The negative evaluations were also found to vary according to the sex of the target person and the perceiver; the male lonely target person was more stigmatized than the female lonely target person, and female perceivers were more critical than male perceivers toward the lonely target person. The findings were replicated in a second experiment, which controlled for the confounding of gender with loneliness in the description of the target person in the first experiment. The results are discussed in relation to lonely people's difficulties in self-disclosure and in establishing social ties and support.
The Role of Bodily Sensations in the Evaluation of Social Events
Authors: Martin Leonard L. , Harlow Thomas F. , Strack Fritz
Published: March 2007

Three hypotheses were tested: that feedback from facial expressions can provide the valence of an emotional reaction, that one's level of arousal can provide the felt intensity of that reaction, and that people use these sensations as information when appraising a stimulus that provides no clear valence of its own. Subjects read a story to which either understanding or anger was a possible reaction. While reading the story, all subjects were induced to hold their faces in expressions of either happiness or anger. In addition, one group of subjects engaged in 2 min of vigorous exercise immediately before reading the story. Another group engaged in the exercise 90 s before reading the story. The control group read the story without having exercised. Nonaroused subjects tended to report more favorable reactions when smiling than when holding an angry expression. This difference was signify cant when there was a delay between the exercise and the rating task and was reduced to nonsignificance when there was no delay. These results are discussed in the context of a theory of private self-perception in which people use their bodily sensations as information when making judgments.
Defensive Processing of Personally Relevant Health Messages
Authors: liberman Akiva , Chaiken Shelly
Published: March 2007

Subectsfor whom a health threat was relvant or irrelevant were recruited and matched on prior beliefs in the health threat. Following exposure to either a low- or a high-threat message, high-relvance subjects were less likely to believe in the threat. Consistent with earlier work, no evidence was found to suggest that defensive inattention to the messages mediated subjects' final beliefs. Instead, processing measures suggested that highrelevance subects processed threatening parts of both messages in a biased fashion. The relationship between biased judgment and biased processing is discussed, as are the difficulties in documenting the latter
Units of Analysis, Measurement Scales, and Statistics: A Comment on Kerwin and Shaffer
Authors: Whitley Bernard E.
Published: March 2007

Kirwin and Shaffer recently conducted a study examining the role of dogmatism as a possible moderator of the relationship between judge's instructions and mockjury decisions. The study was defwient in that it inappropriately applied an individuallevel construct (dogmatism) to groups; used incorrect scaling procedures and an inappropriate statistical analysis, leading to incorrect conclusions; and used aggregate data to draw conclusions concerning individual behavior, thereby losing information available in the data. Implications of these problems for research design are discussed.
Cognitive Representation in Ethnophaulisms as a Function of Group Size: The Phenomenology of Being in a Group
Authors: Mullen Brian , Johnson Craig
Published: March 2007

Two studies examined cognitive representation for minority groups of varying sizes. Cognitive representation was operationalized as the degree of complexity in the ethnophaulisms, or ethnic slurs, for these minority groups. The results of these studies confirm the prediction that prototype cognitive representations will be more prevalent for smaller groups. The relation between group size and cognitive representation could not be dismissed as an artifact of a more fundamental association between prejudice and cognitive representation. Moreover, this basic effect did not seem to vary as a function of the region of origin of these ethnic groups or membership in the groups. The Discussion section considers the implications of these results for the study of stereotyping.
Individual-Group Discontinuity: Further Evidence for Mediation by Fear and Greed
Authors: Schopler John , Insko Chester A. , Graetz Kenneth A. , Drigotas Stephen , Smith Valerie A. , Dahl Kenny
Published: March 2007

The authors have previously shown that intergroup interactions are dramatically more competitive than interindividual interactions and have termed this phenomenon a discontinuity effect. They believe that this effect is partly driven by group members' fear of being exploited by the out-group. Experiment 1 found that when subjects were allowed to select a single, safe alternative, a significant, albeit descriptively smaller competitive effect remained. Intergroup competiteness may also be driven by greed. Experiments 2 and 3 tested whether the group content is propitious for providing social support for totally self-interested acts. Trained role-players consistently suggested selecting either the cooperative or the competitive option in a prisoner's dilemma game; and groups received trial-by-trial feedback about the out-group's responding. The pattern of results is consistent with the assumption that, in the presence of a vulnerable opponent, group members tend to provide social support for immediate self-interest.
Implicit Quantification of Personality Traits
Authors: Gidron David , Koehler Derek J. , Tversky Amos
Published: March 2007

The common usage of personality trait terms in the language includes an implicit quantification that is part of the accepted meaning of the term. This aspect of a trait's meaning is here called its scope. Traits with high scope, such as honest, require a high relative frequency of behavioral manifestation before they are attributed. In contrast, low-scope traits such as dishonest can be attributed on the basis of very few behavioral instances. A number of hypotheses are considered concerning the scope of trait terms within a language and between languages. Speakers of a given language (English or Hebrew) exhibit agreement in their ratings of scope; English and Hebrew speakers also agree with each other on the scope of trait terms even when they disagree about the behavioral manifestations of those traits. These findings are interpreted in terms of an informational view of personality traits: The scope of a trait is set at a level that makes it communicatively useful.
Emotion Congruence in Perception
Authors: Niedenthal Paula M. , Setterlund Marc B.
Published: March 2007

Previous tests of emotion congruence in perception have failed to find that stimulus events in the visual field that match an individual's emotional state are perceived more efficiently than other stimuli. The present research examined unidimensional (valence) congruence and multidimensional (categorical) emotion congruence in perception. The former hypothesis, which has guided most past work on this problem, holds that stimuli that match the valence of the perceiver's emotional state will be perceived more efficiently than other stimuli. The latter hypothesis states that stimuli that match the perceiver's emotional state in a more specific way will be perceived more efficiently than other stimuli. In two experiments, subjects were induced to feel happy or sad and then performed a lexical decision task. In both experiments, emotions facilitated lexical decision about words specifically related to subjects' emotional states. Effects of emotion on perception of valence-congruent stimuli were not observed.
The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals
Authors: Singelis Theodore M.
Published: March 2007

Following concepts introduced by Markus and Kitayama, this study describes the theoretical and empirical development of a scale to measure the strength of an individual's interdependent and independent self-construals. These two images of self are conceptualized as reflecting the emphasis on connectedness and relations often found in non-Western cultures (interdependent) and the separateness and uniqueness of the individual (independent) stressed in the West. It is argued that these two images of self can and do coexist in individuals and that they can be measured. A 24-item Self-Construal Scale measuring two dimensions of self-image is presented. The two distinct dimensions of the scale were supported in confirmatory factor analyses of two multiethnic samples of college students. The scale was found to have satisfactory reliability and validity. Its implications and potential applications are discussed.
Subjective Injustice and Inferiority as Predictors of Hostile and Depressive Feelings in Envy
Authors: Smith Richard H. , Parrott W. Gerrod , Ozer Daniel , Moniz Andrew
Published: March 2007

Two hypotheses concerning the hostile and depressive components of envy were tested: that hostile feelings are associated with a subjective belief that the envy-producing difference is unfair and that depressive feelings are associated with a sense of inferiority evoked by the envied person's advantage. Subjects wrote autobiographical accounts of experiences of envy and then indicated how unfair (in both a subjective and an objective sense) they believed the envied person's advantage was, how inferior the advantage made them feel, and how hostile and depressed they felt. Multiple regression analysis generally supported the hypotheses. Hostile feelings were predicted by subjective injustice beliefs and objective injustice beliefs but not by inferiority beliefs. Depressive feelings, however, were predicted largely by inferiority beliefs but also by subjective injustice beliefs. Envy, especially in its typically hostile form, may need to be understood as resulting in part from a subjective, yet robust, sense of injustice.
Comparison Processes in Hindsight and Causal Attribution
Authors: Nario Michelle R. , Branscombe Nyla R.
Published: March 2007

It was hypothesized that hindsight effects and biased causal attributions both result from the causal explanations that perceivers construct when linking antecedents to outcomes at encoding. Specifically, the likelihood of a particular outcome and its perceived causal origins should depend on the number of causal antecedents available, the complexity of subjects' outcome explanations, and the number of outcome alternatives considered. After subjects were exposed to variations in event-specific information, they either learned the outcome or not and then explained one or more outcome alternatives. As predicted, estimates of outcome likelihood were inflated as the complexity of subjects' causal explanations increased. However, inducing subjects to explain alternative outcomes-particularly several alternative outcomes-reduced their tendency to exaggerate the likelihood of the known outcomes. Similarly, causal attributions varied as a function of the outcome alternatives explained and the number of causal antecedents presented. Implications for legal strategies are discussed.
Motivational Basis of Dissonance: Aversive Consequences or Inconsistency
Authors: Johnson Ronald W. , Kelly Robert J. , LeBlanc Barbara A.
Published: March 2007

To test Cooper and Fazio's dissonance model, subjects in two experiments telephoned a confederate and made arguments that were either consistent or inconsistent with their attitudes. Feed-back provided either aversive or nonaversive consequences, regardless of whether subjects' behaviors were pro-or counter attitudinal. The traditional attitude-change effect occurred only when behaviors both were inconsistent and resulted in aversive consequences. In contrast, an earlier experiment by Scher and Cooper had found the traditional attitude-change effect with proattitudinal behaviors leading to aversive consequences. The results of the two present studies suggest that cognitive inconsistency may indeed be necessary for the generation of dissonance arousal. The implications of these findings for Cooper and Fazio's model are discussed.
On the Relationship between Attitudes and Values: Exploring the Moderating Effects of Self-Monitoring and Self-Monitoring Schematicity
Authors: Meliema Angelika , Bassili John N.
Published: March 2007

The moderating effect of self-monitoring on the relation between values and attitudes, and the extent to which self-monitoring schematicity accentuates this relationship were examined in a computer-assisted telephone interview (CATJ) survey. Subjects were polled on two policy issues, on their endorsement of values related to these issues, and on their self-monitoring tendencies. Response latency to the self-monitoring questions formed the self-monitoring schematicity index. Values predicted attitudes to a greater extent for low than for high self-monitors. Moreover, individuals who quickly answered questions about their self-monitoring tendencies (schematic low and high self-monitors) behaved more consistently with the tenets of the construct than individuals who answered the questions slowly. The implications of these results for theorizing about the influence of values on attitudes and for the role of schematicity in self-assessment in the personality domain are discussed.