bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aerospace Benefits to Engineering Anthropometry Applications
Authors: Roebuck John A.
Published: January 2012

In the Apollo and Space Shuttle programs, critical weight, volume, and cost factors have led to new engineering applications of previously obtained data on body dimensions. They have also resulted in the generation of new data, pointed the way to new research needs, and produced a maturing of approaches in the field of anthropometric applications. Typical problems and solutions, resulting in present and projected benefits from these programs, are presented in this paper, which includes an organization of anthropometric procedures, a prediction of future population body dimensions, a description of improved drafting manikins and improved prediction and measurement of center of mass locations, and a discussion of approaches that account for the effects of changing gravitation and acceleration loads. It also presents some improvements in mockup evaluation techniques and an example of new design criteria development: an unusual location for an electronic rotational hand controller between the pilot's knees. These and other aerospace benefits are now available to the human factors/ergonomics fields, to hardware designers, and to product manufacturers and users.
Industrial Anthropology in Europe
Authors: Jürgens Hans W.
Published: January 2012

In Europe the origin of the anthropometric science as a basis for industrial anthropology can be reduced to two sources: the tradition of craftsmen and the anatomic science of measuring. First in 1914 when Rudolf Martin published his “Lehrbuch der Anthropologie” did one agree on a unification of the measuring technique. Today the United States are holding the leading position in ergonomics, but also in Europe we still find some important anthropometric centres. Their main points of interest are the investigation of the secular trend towards acceleration which is of particular interest to the clothing and furniture industries and the selection of sportsmen according to anthropometric aspects.
Computerized Biomechanical Man-Model
Authors: McDaniel Joe W.
Published: January 2012

The COMputerized BIomechanical MAN-Model (called COMBIMAN) is a computer interactive graphics technique for workplace design. This model allows a designer, sitting at a CRT, to manipulate a three-dimensional male form of variable anthropometry and to design a workplace around him by means of a lightpen. While originally intended for aircraft design and evaluation, the general format of the model is suitable for consideration of virtually any workplace configuration and can be used to evaluate existing or theoretical workplaces with equal ease and precision.
Bicycle Riding Performance
Authors: Daniels E. B. , Zajkowski M. M. , Drury C. G.
Published: January 2012

This study was designed to determine the psychomotor and experimental correlates of bicycle riding performance. The performance measures were selected with an emphasis on safety rather than endurance or stunt riding abilities. The non-riding predictive measures were collected from tests measuring a subject's perceptual-motor and physical abilities, and responses to a questionnaire containing items on experience, self-rating of skill, automobile driving experience, and accident history. The results indicated that the physical proficiency factors of equilibrium, trunk strength, and dynamic flexibility, and the questionnaire items on experience and self-rating of skill were significantly correlated with a general measure of skill. Braking performance was significantly correlated with reaction time and self-rating of cautiousness. Recommendations were made for future research and for the improvement of bicycle braking systems.
Bicycle Crank Length
Authors: Gross V. John , Bennett Corwin A.
Published: January 2012

An experiment was conducted varying bicycle crank length as a ratio of cyclist's crotch height over a range from 0.17 to 0.23. A light and a heavy load were used with ten young male subjects. Heart rate, oxygen consumption and perceived exertion measures were taken during bicycle ergometer pedaling sessions. All measures showed the superiority of a crank length of about 0.20 of crotch height (0.10 of standing height). A change of crank length of three percentage points of crotch height increases energy expenditure by one kcal/minute. The standard crank is too long for 60% of adult males and almost 100% of females. Varied crank lengths or adjustable cranks should be made available.
Combined Tracking and Monitoring Performance over Seven Hours under Noise
Authors: Pearson Richard G. , Shelnutt Jack B. , Casey Steven M.
Published: January 2012

Twenty volunteer, paid, males performed a task requiring (a) pursuit tracking of a CRT display target using a joystick control, plus (b) concurrent monitoring of a warning light and two panel meters located peripherally to the central task. During the task which lasted seven hours 10 subjects were exposed to rapid, intermittent pulses of broadband noise of 91 dB(A) peak intensity; the other 10 subjects performed in “quiet”. Recordings of eye movements were made to determine attention to the time-shared, peripheral tasks. No significant differences in performance were found (a) for the noise variable or (b) between “high” and “low” annoyance sensitive subjects as categorized by scores on a Noise Annoyance Sensitivity Scale. While tracking performance declined over time, meter monitoring performance did not, nor was there evidence that eye movements to the peripheral events decreased over time. The results fail to support the view that narrowing of attention occurs in perceptual-motor tasks involving time-sharing of attention to central and peripheral events when such a task is performed over a prolonged period of time.
Acoustic Perception and Behaviour in Offices and Flats
Authors: Powell James A.
Published: January 2012

In Britain building engineers and architects have no suitable criteria to enable them to design floors, walls and screens that will efficiently isolate unwanted impact noise. As a first step towards rectifying this situation a systemic testing technique has been designed to monitor the human “discomfort” caused by noise in homes and offices; the aim was to define the limits of aural discomfort. The technique automatically builds up a picture of individuals “real” responses to noise in their own environments - a natural history of peoples'actions, behaviour, physiological stress and attitudes when continually bombarded with certain noises. Early results suggest, that the way individuals respond to their environment is largely governed by their “expectations” of that environment. In offices they are prepared to spend time in fairly noisy conditions for long periods of time; conditions which this work has shown can lead to tiredness and irritability, decrease in urinary I7ks and changes in cellular composition of the blood. For office users it is the “loudness” (weighted energy) in an intruding signal which seems to govern their response. On the other hand in the home the individual will not tolerate the same high noise levels. Here any noise which intrudes on an individuals privacy is likely to cause annoyance and just acceptable signals lie very close to the masking of the background noise. Understanding of man's response gained from these studies led to the development of criteria for design in homes and offices. These criteria should enable designers to gauge the effect of impact noise on man and to design more effectively against it.
A Computerized Approach for the Assessment and Evaluation of Job Performance Aids
Authors: Ayoub Mahmoud A. , Smillie Robert J. , Edsall James C. , Muller William G.
Published: January 2012

An approach which combines the salient features of predetermined time and motion systems and a simulation modeling algorithm is presented for the evaluation and assessment of job performance aids (JPAs). Description of the approach, its assumptions, and the computer algorithm used are discussed and detailed. The validity of the approach was ascertained in a companion experimental study which evaluated four types of JPAs: (1) all print, (2) all pictorial, (3) print and pictorial combined, and (4) a hybrid group which used pictorial on easy tasks and pictorial on the more difficult tasks. Results of the validation study demonstrates the accuracy and adequacy of the approach for dealing with JPA design problems. The approach, as presented, can be used to optimally locate points of need for JPAs within maintenance systems. It can also be used to study the effects of various scheduling and allocation policies on human performance and its reliability, while utilizing various alternatives of JPA design.
Some Ergonomic and Other Aspects of the Causes of False Alarm Calls from Intruder Alarm Systems
Authors: Bozeat N. , Johnson M.A. , Penn R.F. , Sinclair M.A.
Published: January 2012

The paper summarises a report concerning a diagnostic study of false alarm causation in the city of Birmingham, England. The study involved an analysis of Police computer records, alarm company files, data from public services, and a survey of 100 false alarms in a city police division. The study was occasioned by the fact that in the United Kingdom approximately 98% of alarm calls are false, costing 106 man-hours per annum in Police response, and the growth of the industry indicates that the latter figure will increase by 15% per annum. Major findings are that between 50% and 75% of false alarms are attributable to ‘human error’ in design, installation, and operation of the system, and that 70% of these seem to be due to the repetition of the immediately previous cause. Recommendations are discussed, involving in the main additional human factors training, and better liaison between the various parties in the security industry.
The Effect of Static Muscle Work on a Subsequent Fine Manipulative Task
Authors: Davies B.T. , Pratt M.C.
Published: January 2012

An experiment is described where the effect of static contraction upon a subsequent fine manipulative task was investigated. Maximum grip strength was established then a force of 15% of the maximum grip was used by six male subjects as follows. They were required to hold this static contraction for (i) 3 minutes and (ii) for 90% of the time of their maximum holding time. The effect of these two exertions on a subsequent fine manipulative task was checked at 3 time intervals after completion of the static muscle work (1 - immediately; 2 - after 5 minutes; 3 - after 30 minutes). Results showed an interference with fine manipulative task for a period of less than 5 minutes after completing the static muscle work.
Pulse Rate Difference as a Function of Information Reduction in a Combined Manual and Decision Task
Authors: Raouf A. , Sethi H. S.
Published: January 2012

The effects of information reduction, i.e., information in stimuli, Nsi≥ information in responses, Nrj is investigated. Nine subjects were tested for this study. Each subject performed combined manual and decision task using two distinct “reaches” (Rk) under three levels of Nsi and five levels of Nrj. Pulse Rate Difference (PRD), i.e., pulse rate while performing the task less pulse rate at rest were used as a response variable. The investigations have revealed that Nsi, Nrj and Rk are significant variables and also that for a given Rk, PRD increases as (Nsi - Nrj) decreases.
Evaluation of Control Station Design: The Crew Human Engineering Software System
Authors: Jones Roger J. , Jonsen Gordon L. , Van C. C.
Published: January 2012

Computer simulation techniques are an attractive adjunct to human-subjects testing in the evaluation of the interface between the operators of a complex machine and the control station at which they work. The Crew Human Engineering Software System (CHESS) brings together a powerful collection of tools for analyzing both control station geometry and procedure. These tools permit design evaluation to procede before construction begins, and allow the comparison of many alternative designs across a variety of operating conditions at minimal expense. CHESS has made an important contribution to the evaluation of aircraft flightdeck design at Boeing.
Evaluating Options for CRT Display of Process Trend Data
Authors: Koch Christopher G. , Edman Thomas R. , Guenther R. Kim
Published: January 2012

Effectiveness of colorgraphics CRT-based process trend display formats was evaluated by manipulating time scale orientation and time directionality. Performance was assessed in terms of reaction time and accuracy in responding to questions representative of process control task scenarios. Reaction time analyses reveal no main effects of time orientation or directionality, but a reliable orientation-directionality interaction effect is present. This interaction supports the conclusion that more rapid interpretation of trend is associated with x-axis time orientation progressing away from the origin and with y-axis time orientation progressing toward the origin. Error rates were nearly equivalent among the format types and supported no further discrimination among them. The findings have implications for the design of trend displays in applications such as nuclear control room, petrochemical processing, and load management.
The Effect of Graphic Input Devices on Performance in a Cursor Positioning Task
Authors: Albert Alan E.
Published: January 2012

This study examines the effect of several graphical input devices on human performance in a cursor positioning task. The light pen, touchscreen, force joystick, position joystick, data tablet, trackboard, and keyboard are the input devices tested. There are two main objectives in the study: (1) to obtain a quantitative measure of user performance for a wide range of input devices, and (2) to provide design guidelines for the development of new input devices. This second goal is reached by determining the effect of two device features on user performance: whether a switch is used to “enter” the cursor position, and (2) whether the user's eyes and hands work together or separately. Performance is evaluated in terms of speed, accuracy, and subjective factors.
Strategies of Interactive File Search
Authors: Elkerton Jay , Williges Robert C. , Pittman James A. , Roach John
Published: January 2012

An experiment was designed to evaluate strategies of interactive file search. Five computerized search procedures were studied to evaluate selection frequency and search efficiency. These search procedures were: scrolling, paging, string search, absolute line movement, and relative line movement. Search strategies were assessed with respect to five independent variables that were manipulated with a mixed-factor, factorial design. These independent variables were: file type, file length, window size, target type, and subject experience. The results indicated that file length, subject experience, and window size were the salient factors of file search. Differences between expert and novice users, as well as, one-line and multi-line windows were discussed with regard to file search performance.
Schema Pointer plus Tag Model and Interior Design
Authors: Cohen Andrew D.
Published: January 2012

The present study was a test of two theoretical models which attempt to explain memory for interior designs. One model proposed by Brewer and Treyens predicted better memory performance for typical items while a Schema Pointer Plus Tag model predicted better memory performance for atypical.

Ten scenarios or verbal descriptions of specific rooms and commercial establishments were presented to 40 subjects. These scenarios contained items generated and then rated on typicality to the scenario by two previous groups of subjects. Recognition ratings were then performed by the group which was presented with the scenarios immediately after presentation. Hit and false alarm rates were computed along with d' scores as a measure memory retention. ANOVAs were computed with typicality of the items as the independent variable with hit rates, false alarm rates and d' scores as the dependent measures for each.

The data confirmed the Schema Pointer Plus Tag model proposed by Graesser (1981). Further research and implications for interior design are discussed.
Enhancing Thermal Comfort with Ceiling Fans
Authors: Rohles Frederick H. , Konz Stephan A. , Jones Byron W.
Published: January 2012

To determine the effectiveness of ceiling fans in enhancing comfort, 256 subjects were examined at 24.4 C (76 F), 26.1 C (79 F), 27.8 C (82 F), and 29.4 C (85 F) (all at 50% rh), in an environmental chamber that was equipped with a ceiling fan that produced four velocity conditions: 0.15 m/s (30 fpm), 0.25 m/s (50 fpm), 0.46 m/s (90 fpm), and 1.02 m/s (200 fpm). A fifth velocity, in which the fan was not employed, was 0.06 m/s (10 fpm); this served as the control velocity. Three subjective responses were measured: thermal sensation (a 9-category rating scale), thermal comfort (a 7-pair semantic differential scale), and a question on temperature preference. The results showed that an air plume from a ceiling fan whose velocity is between 0.5 and 1.0 m/s (90 and 200 fpm) compensates for a 2.8–3.3°C (5–6°F) temperature change; this represents an energy savings of 15–18% when based on the National Bureau of Standards' suggestion of a reduction in air conditioning energy demand of 6% per °C or 3% per °F. It also concluded that a ceiling fan may extend the upper limit of the summer comfort envelope from 26.1 to 29.4 C (79 to 85 F) and that the turbulent and variable characteristics of the air plume of the ceiling fan may be its major comfort-producing attribute.
Visual, Musculoskeletal, and Performance Differences between Good and Poor VDT Workstations
Authors: Dainoff M.J. , Fraser L. , Taylor B.J.
Published: January 2012

An experimental simulation of a VDT data entry task was conducted during which subjects alternated between good and poor ergonomic conditions involving postural adjustment, lighting, and glare. Performance measures were taken during the session and a battery of psychophysical/physiological measures and subjective complaints were taken before and after the work session. Preliminary results indicated a 24.5% improvement in performance as well as a decrease in musculoskeletal complaints attributed to good ergonomic design characteristics.
Determinants of Rate in Communication Aids for the Non-Vocal Motor Handicapped
Authors: Goodenough-Trepagnier Cheryl , Rosen Michael J. , Demsetz Laura
Published: January 2012

A framework is proposed to account for the generic design factors which interact to determine output rate in the use of communication aids for patients with neuromotor speech deficit. These factors, C (cost in language units per word), L (code length in motor acts per unit) and T (time per motor act) are in a trade-off relationship so that an increment or decrement in any one is not sufficient to determine the overall effect on rate of communication. Data is presented from 2 studies to illustrate ways in which this interaction may operate. Implications are drawn for nonvocal communication device design.
Isokinetic Strength Characteristics of Men Confined to Wheelchairs
Authors: Hosler W. W. , Morrow J. R. , Boelter J.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of the study was to report basic isokinetic strength and anthropometric characteristics of active men confined to wheelchairs. Data collection for the 34 subjects included upper body, isokinetic strength assessment; six upper body skinfolds; three upper body girths; and total body weight. To assist in data analysis, the men were categorized into three groups according to the severity of the injury. The results indicated that while the strength and anthropometric data for the disabled were similar to findings reported for the able-bodied, there was a wide range of scores of the disabled sample as a group and between the three disabled groups categorized according to severity of injury. The findings indicate that employment which requires strength for successful task completion will require either careful placement procedures or an individualized design for the disabled.
Age and Information Processing
Authors: Moraal Jan
Published: January 2012

The question is raised whether the slowing of behavior with age is of a general nature, affecting all subprocesses or stages of information processing, or whether it can be ‘localized’ in one or more specific stages. Based upon studies on the stage analysis of the reaction process, it is concluded that there is no converging empirical evidence to answer this question in favor of one of the alternatives. The research findings seem to fit very well in the assumption of a lowering of the signal-to-noise ratio with increasing age, i.e. a lowering of the strength of the signals coming from the sense organs to the brain and from one processing stage to the other.
Designing New Cameras for Improved Holdability
Authors: Caplan Stanley H.
Published: January 2012

Holding characteristics when taking a picture were evaluated for proposed new camera models. An experiment was conducted to evaluate potential finger obstruction of lens and flash, ease of holding, and ease of use. Performance and preference results show the methodology was successful in discriminating between cameras.
Human Factors in Architecture: A View from the Field
Authors: Wise James A.
Published: January 2012

This is a panel session focused on the applications of Human Factors to real world problems in architectural design. Five representatives from various design & research professions will present recent case studies of theirs, and examine the contribution that Human Factors made to these projects. The diversity of their examples shows the usefulness and importance on integrating concerns for the human user into plans for the built environment.
The Development of a Computer Simulation Model of Driver Performance to Predict Accident Probability
Authors: Perel Michael
Published: January 2012

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) is sponsoring the development of a computer simulation model of driver/vehicle system performance in various accidently likely traffic scenarios. Its acronym is DRIVEM ( Driver Vehicle Effectiveness Model). By modeling driver detection of critical events (e.g., lead car deceleration), evasive maneuver decision making, control inputs, and the subsequent vehicle trajectory, DRIVEM can translate the diverse research data on driver performance into quantitative predictions of accident probability. When the model is fully developed, NHTSA will have an analytic tool to permit it to quickly and inexpensively compare alternative crash avoidance measures. This paper summarizes the development of DRIVEM, its submodels, its limitations, and needed refinements.
A Systems Analysis Approach to Office Automation
Authors: Williams R. Don
Published: January 2012

This article defines a systems analysis procedure for office automation. The step-by-step procedure is stated in general terms for broad application and provides a basis for maximizing productivity by automating selected tasks. The organizational communication requirements were identified by use of a systematic task analysis and attitude survey. Man/machine trade studies were utilized to further define candidate tasks with potential for productivity improvement. A concept of operation documents the proposed usability of the system and provides a cost-effective mechanism for resolving design/user incompatibilities. Also discussed are the use of the system specification, hardware/software trade studies, and several implementation issues. This procedure is recommended to ensure that expensive office automation efforts are functionally responsive to the organizational needs and provide a usable man/machine system.
Optical Variables as Measures of Performance during Simulated Flight
Authors: Owen Dean H. , Warren Rik
Published: January 2012

It is assumed that when a pilot flies according to visual flight reference, control adjustments are made in order to control visual perception. If so, the optical variables and invariants produced by the pilot can serve as dependent variables in research on information used in guiding flight. Visual flight simulators provide an ideal experimental environment for exploring the optical approach to the study of pilots' perception-action cycles.
Parametric and Nonparametric Signal Detection Measures: Pros and Cons
Authors: Brown C. Marlin
Published: January 2012

Parametric measures of signal detection sensitivity (d') and response criterion (β) require somewhat restrictive distributional assumptions. Nonparametric analogs are available with no distributional assumptions. This paper describes several signal detection measures, discussing the advantages and limitations of each. A concurrent analysis of parametric and nonparametric estimates in a signal detection experiment is presented to demonstrate relationships and intercorrelations among the measures.
Repeated Measures on a Choice Reaction Time Task
Authors: Krause Michele
Published: January 2012

The current investigation examined a visual choice reaction time (CRT) task to determine its suitability for repeated measures experimentation. Fifteen Navy enlisted men served as subjects for one-, two-, and four-choice reaction time conditions. Fifty trials on each condition were administered for 15 consecutive workdays. Reaction time (RT), movement time (MT), and total time (TT) were recorded for each trial. Results indicated that across all RT conditions, intersession correlations were differentially stable by about Day 8, with reliabilities around .71. Means remained unchanged over the stable days and variances remained constant across all 15 days of the experiment for the RT measure. It was concluded that studies using RT as the dependent variable should allow for sufficient RT practice prior to data collection to ensure that the results are not contaminated by learning effects. It is recommended that at least 1000 practice trials be given prior to using an RT task to assess the effects of an environment.
The Hughes Design Analysis System and Instructor Workload in Operational Trainers
Authors: Cohen Andrew D.
Published: January 2012

Computerized simulator trainers require varying degrees of instructor participation in training exercises and student performance evaluation. An estimation of instructor workload before the system has been fully developed is essential for an effective functional allocation of human and computer capabilities. One approach for estimating operator workload is simulation. The Hughes Design Analysis System (DAS) is an interactive and graphic simulation package. The present paper describes: (1) how DAS has been used for an instructor workload analysis, (2) the analysis method, (3) the results, and (4) the recommendations given to system designers.
Preemployment Physical Testing for Jobs on Drilling Rigs
Authors: Laughery Kenneth R. , Jackson Andrew S.
Published: January 2012

A project was carried out to develop preemployment tests based on the physical requirements of roughneck jobs on dilling rigs. A job and task analysis based on 17 drilling installations, including land and marine operations, indicated materials handling activities represented a high proportion of the essential tasks. The tasks were classified as one-arm transports, two-arm transports, pushing and pulling. Three tasks, job samples, were selected for a test battery. Specifically, pail carry, bag carry and push tasks make up the test procedures.
Some Considerations in the Productivity of Potash Mines
Authors: Kochhar Dev S. , Williston Pat
Published: January 2012

Potash is one of the principal resources in the province of Saskatchewan. Its mining and production involves the efforts of men and machinery. Increases in productivity to meet increases in demand can be brought about by understanding and improving the work, environment and operator related human factors. In this paper we examine the human considerations in mine productivity.
Talking Keyboard for User Guidance in Multifunction Systems
Authors: Geiser Georg , Schumacher Wilfried , Berger Lothar
Published: January 2012

For the important task of function selection when using technical systems, e.g. measurement and programming devices or consumer products, a talking keyboard is proposed which offers user guidance adapted to man's skills. This keyboard is equipped with a voice output module and special keys fitted with two sequentially activated switching contacts. By means of the first contact the user is enabled to select vocal user guidance information whereas by the second contact the selection of a particular function is achieved. By closing the first contact repeatedly, spoken hints with more and more details are available. The user can, however, suppress or interrupt these instructions by switching over to the second contact. In this way the talking keyboard may be used adaptively by untrained and trained users as well. Furthermore, it is suited for blind operation under severe visual load conditions, or in the dark, and it serves to the visually handicapped.

For a prototype of the talking keyboard, a moderately priced voice output module with a vocabulary of 150 words was selected. For test purposes, selection is effected via a process computer. For practical use, selection is realized by a microprocessor. Pilot experiments with untrained users of a simulated machine tool show, that the time spent in consulting the operating manual during the task is clearly reduced.
Pilot Visual Behavior as a Function of Navigation and Flight Control Modes in the Boeing 757/767
Authors: Edwards Richard E. , Tolin Philip , Jonsen Gordon L.
Published: January 2012

This report presents data obtained from two line-oriented simulations conducted in the Boeing 757/767 simulators. The purpose of these simulations was to assess the impact of two navigation- and two flight control modes on pilot visual behavior during an entire flight, from takeoff to touchdown. The two navigation modes were the traditional VOR mode, in which a compass rose was presented on the HSI, and the MAP mode, in which a pictorial representation of the airplane's flight path was presented on the HSI. The flight control modes were manual and coupled flight. The results indicated that: (a) the electronic map did not alter the basic “T” scan pattern, (b) the pilots' basic scan pattern did not differ in the two navigation modes when flying manually, (c) pilot scan patterns did vary as a function of flight control condition, with the basic “T” scan pattern accurately characterizing pilot visual behavior in the manual mode but not in the coupled mode, (d) several visual performance measures were sensitive to changes in flight phase, navigation mode, and flight control mode, and (e) no differences in pilot scan patterns were observed between an EICAS- equipped cockpit and a cockpit with conventional engine instruments.
Color Display Formats in the Cockpit: Who Needs Them?
Authors: Reising John M. , Calhoun Gloria L.
Published: January 2012

The introduction of color cathode ray tubes into aircraft crewstations has reemphasized the debate on the value of color codes as a performance aid. This paper discusses the value of color in electro-optical displays which use computer generated imagery formats. The conclusion is that color displays will be needed by airborne systems operators because of the information rich formats which they will be utilizing in performing their mission related tasks.
Application of a Hybrid OVD/CIG System to Tactical Map Problems
Authors: Barker Richard A. , Wilson Susan
Published: January 2012

Today's combat commander is faced with a two-sided problem. First, since the modern battlefield is characterized by mobility, lethality and speed, the commander and his staff must digest more tactical information and make decisions faster than ever before. Second, the current manpower problems may mean that less qualified personnel will have to operate today's highly sophisticated C3I equipment. Therefore, future tactical systems must be designed to (1) aid the combat commander by presenting precise and timely information in the most user-efficient manner possible and (2) require a minimum of training in their operation.

In general, tactical maps show a requirement for two distinct types of information. The first type is background images, such as terrain, that are generally fixed but highly detailed. The second type is information that changes rapidly, such as order of battle or an interactive “scratchpad” overlay. The Boeing sponsored program uses computer image generating (CIG) techniques to display both types of information. The background images are generated off-line and stored on an optical video disc (OVD) for random retrieval when required. Rapidly changing data are generated in real time and electronically overlayed on the background information.

CIG techniques allow display of only the information germane to the problem at hand so that screen clutter is reduced. It also allows the generation of special effects such as zoom magnification, low altitude horizontal points of view, and specially coded features. An example of a specially coded feature is a background display in which the terrain slopes that are too steep for armour to climb are color coded. These special effects will allow unique user interactions, one of which is simulating a low level reconnaissance “flight” by shifting the low altitude horizontal field of view to consecutive viewpoints.

Control of the display is done in a user oriented manner using a touch sensitive screen on the CRT and a special purpose keyboard. Computer synthesized speech provides optional prompting and supplementary instructions. Menu selections on the CRT and special purpose keyboard are designed to lead the user along the available paths to the desired information.
Image Interpretation for Soft-Copy Displays of Digitally Derived Images
Authors: Beaton Robert J. , Chao Betty P. , Snyder Harry L.
Published: January 2012

The effects of manipulating image noise and image blur were determined on an information extraction task using soft-copy displays. The participants in this study were 15 military photointerpreters from Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. The empirical findings indicated that the main effect of image noise was statistically significant (p < 0.002) as was the main effect of image blur (p = 0.060). The noise by blur interaction was not statistically significant (p = .872). In general, image interpretation performance decreased with increasing image noise and image blur levels. This pattern of results was very similar to the empirical observations of a previous study which employed the same image and task conditions for hard-copy displays.
Communication Control and Leadership in Telecommunications by Small Groups
Authors: Pagerey Peter D. , Chapanis Alphonse
Published: January 2012

This experiment examined the effect of communication control on the telecommunications of four-person problem solving groups, and on the emergence of leaders within the groups. In so doing, a comparison was made between two methods of managing multi-site teleconferences. Sixteen four-person teams solved four realistic problems, one on each of four days, by communicating over a closed-circuit television system with an added audio capacity. Teams were assigned to communications systems which either did or did not have centrally controlled switching so that only one person could talk at a time. These same systems also either did or did not have a helper appointed to help perform some of the experimenter's duties. Based on the results of the study, the conclusion can be made that a switched system such as that used here would be a suitable for use in multi-site teleconferencing.
Human Factors Implications of Osha's Impact on Small Manufacturers
Authors: Knight James W. , Harju Douglas J.
Published: January 2012

Small manufacturers often lack the necessary expertise to solve their occupational safety and health problems. A recent study examined the impact of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration upon small manufacturers. The findings of that study are reported here regarding their human factors implications. Recommendations to improve occupational safety and health performance are made.
Case Study: Ergonomic and Hazard Evaluation of a New Consumer Product
Authors: Stobbe Terrence J. , Plummer Ralph W.
Published: January 2012

The introduction of a new, powerful, mechanical home-use tool carries with it a high risk of product liability. This liability stems from both planned and unanticipated use of the product. In view of this, it is imperative that designers and manufacturers carefully analyze their proposed product to insure that possible failures and hazards have been evaluated and corrected, that current ergonomic principles have been used in the design, that instructions and warning signs clearly document the hazards associated with use of the product, and that the advertising describe only safe methods of handling and using the product. This paper describes the analyses that were performed on a tool prior to its production. The purpose of the analyses was to identify and solve as many of the hazardous operating problems of the tool as possible. To this end, a series of system safety analyses was performed to define the user, user-machine interface, and mechanical problems associated with the ditcher-saw.
Ergonomic Considerations of Fin Size for Working Divers
Authors: Mekjavic I. B. , Rowe P. A. , Morrison J. B.
Published: January 2012

Four divers conducted two identical work protocols, consisting of swimming against a graded resistance on an underwater ergometer at a depth of ten feet. In one protocol the divers used fins each having a surface area of 540 cm2 and in the second protocol they used fins whose surface area was 940 cm2. Oxygen consumption, heart rate, ventilation, breathing frequency and kick rate were monitored throughout the twenty minute work period. The 540 cm2 fins demanded a siqnificantly higher metabolic rate than the 940 cm2 fins (50.85 ± 1.54 compared to 46.99 ± 1.52 ml.min.-1.kg-1). The smaller fins also elicited higher heart rates (171.8 ± 4.3 min.-1) than the larger fins (142.5 ± 8.7 min.-1) and induced a higher kicking frequency than was required with the larger fins (43 ± 4 min.-1 and 32 ± 1 min.-1 respectively). Ventilatory volume at the end of the final workload was 128.6 ± 7 1/min. with small fins and 111.1 ± 6.5 1/min. with large fins. These data suggest that the larger fins are more economical in terms of minute ventilation and metabolic cost and are less demanding on the cardiovascular system. Subjectively, the larger fins were perceived as less fatiguing than the smaller fins.
Body Composition (% Fat) and Heat Stress of Well Conditioned Young Adult Males
Authors: Riley Michael W. , Cochran David J. , Soundy Arthur J.
Published: January 2012

The physiological responses of heart rate, oxygen consumption, sweat loss, rectal temperature and mean skin temperature were monitored as eight well-conditioned young adult males were exposed to effective temperatures of 70°F, 80°F and 90°F. The body fat contents of the subjects ranged from 11.3% to 34%. The subjects pedalled a 300 kilopond meters/minute load on a bicycle ergometer for 25 minutes. Results indicate that body fat or the percent of body fat squared have a statistically significant effect on the dependent variables of oxygen consumption/lean body weight, change in heart rate, core-skin temperature gradient, and oxygen consumption/maximum oxygen consumption.
Lift Angle and its Effect on Stresses to the Low-Back
Authors: Garg Arun
Published: January 2012

A laboratory study was conducted to study the angle of lift from the trajectory of lifting motion. Six male college students were required to lift three different load levels (40, 70, and 100% of maximum acceptable weight) from the floor to a height of 81 m. Four different box sizes (25, 38, 51 and 63.5 cm) and two different body postures (squat and free style) were employed. Maximum acceptable weights were determined using a psychophysical method. Motion trajectory was investigated by using stroboscopic photography. A biomechanical model was used to study the effects of lift angle on forces and moments imparted to various body joints.

Analysis showed that lifting motions are not performed vertically up but rather at an angle to the vertical. The lift angle increased with an increase in the weight of the load (p < 0.01). Biomechanical evaluation showed that the lifting of a load at an angle from the vertical resulted in decreases in both the compressive force at the L5/S1 disc and moments at various body joints (except knee and ankle). The net effect of lifting at an angle was an increase in the percentage of the population capable of lifting a given load. Effects of lift angle on biomechanical stresses to the body and the differences between the psychophysically determined maximum weights and the NIOSH recommended “maximum permissible limits” are discussed.
Development of a Human Atlas of Strengths
Authors: Hafez H. A. , Cidcumb C. F. , Reeder M. J. , Beshir M. Y. , Ayoub M. M.
Published: January 2012

In spite of the technical progress achieved during this century, muscular energy of man is still required to perform many tasks. In order to assess these tasks, operator strength must be considered. This paper describes the procedures used to establish an Atlas of Strengths for this purpose.

One sample was drawn from each of the male and female populations. Each sample consisted of 25 college students whose static and dynamic maximal strengths at five body joints were assessed. Measurements were taken using the Cybex II Isokinetic apparatus at three different speeds: 0 rpm (static), 5 rpm, and 25 rpm. At each speed, torque exertions began at different starting positions and covered a specified range of motion for dynamic measurements. Sagittal plane measurements were taken and measurements in other planes of motion at angles away from the sagittal plane were taken for some of the joints. The main results of this study are discussed.
Effects of Color on Legibility of Displayed Text
Authors: Wolf Catherine G.
Published: January 2012

The increasing use of color displays in business, residential, and laboratory settings has resulted in the need for guidelines for the use of different combinations of colors for the display of text. The purpose of this study was to assess the legibility of a number of combinations of text and background colors for the display of text on home television sets and color monitors. The experiment used a list-scanning task. Each combination of text and background color was tested in a separate list. Reading time for each color combination was recorded. In addition, ratings of readability and pleasantness were collected. The results indicated that there were large differences between the legibility of particular color combinations. There was good agreement among subjects and also between performance and subjective measures. The potential usefulness of the methodology for determining general predictive rules for the legibility of color combinations will be discussed.
Subjective Performance Measures in the Test and Evaluation of Simulator Training Scenarios
Authors: Pierce Byron J.
Published: January 2012

Scenarios were developed to provide A-10 student pilots training in low level navigation (LLN) and elementary basic attack maneuvers (BAM). The primary objective of this effort was to evaluate the effectiveness of these scenarios using the A-10 Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT) as the training medium. Training effectiveness was assessed using simulator automated performance measures and instructor pilot (IP) evaluations of student aircraft performances in a transfer of training paradigm. Forty-two subjects participated in the BAM phase of the experiment: thirty-six subjects were used in the LLN phase. Simulator measures showed enhanced performance as a function of training for three of the five BAM tasks trained: LLN simulator performance data were not analyzed due to difficulty with data collection apparatus. Power values, reliability tests and correlation results for aircraft performance measures made questionable the validity of using these measures for test purposes as was done in this experiment. Discussion focusses on the need for more objective performance metrics in future evaluation programs and reviews alternative solutions to fulfill this requirement.
Companion Trainer Aircraft: Aspects of Dual Qualification
Authors: Killion Thomas H.
Published: January 2012

The use of surrogate aircraft for aircrew training involves two major issues. First, what effect does flying the secondary aircraft have on primary aircraft performance? This issue was addressed in the previous paper. Second, can the crew learn to safely operate the secondary aircraft while continuing to fly the primary aircraft? This paper addresses this second aspect of dual qualification. Of interest is the acquisition of skill in the secondary aircraft. For the purpose of testing the concept of a Companion Trainer Aircraft (CTA), eight B-52 pilot/copilot teams from the 2nd Bombardment Wing, Barksdale AFB, LA, were dual qualified in the T-39. Initial training in the T-39A occurred at Scott AFB, IL, followed by the flying of B-52 style training sorties in a specially modified T-39B at Barksdale AFB, LA. Pilot/copilot performance in the T-39A was evaluated by Military Airlift Command (MAC) instructor pilots (IPs), in the T-39B performance was monitored by a 4950 Test Wing IP. The results of these evaluations suggest that: 1, approach and landing is the most difficult part of the mission to learn; and 2, certain behaviors which are appropriate in the B-52 intrude on T-39 performance, where they are inappropriate. The data also suggest that in the early phase of skill acquisition, frequent sorties are necessary to avoid degradations in performance. In the T-39B training, the frequency required appeared to be about every two weeks. Although the short duration of this study prohibits conclusions concerning long term learning effects, the results do identify some areas for concern in any future CTA type program.
Companion Trainer Aircraft: Concept Definition and Evaluation
Authors: Nullmeyer Robert T.
Published: January 2012

Faced with increasing budget constraints and a need to conserve the B-52 weapon system, the Strategic Air Command has pursued several avenues to make continuation training programs more efficient. Because actual flight training is considered to be critical, one proposed solution involved the use of a low cost business jet to supplement reduced B-52 flying schedules. This jet would be augmented to provide training for the radar navigator, navigator, and electronic warfare officer in addition to the pilot and copilot. Some training missions would be flown in this Companion Trainer Aircraft (CTA) to reduce the need to fly the B-52. This paper describes two efforts concerning training effectiveness of a possible CTA. First, a theoretical approach based on transfer of training considerations was used to predict the training potential of the CTA. Second, because the transfer expectations for the pilot and copilot were particularly difficult to specify, a study was designed involving operational SAC crews. This study employed a modified T-39B to supplement B-52 training for eight aircrews from the 2nd Bombardment Wing, Barksdale Air Force Base, LA. Although the CTA program was cancelled and the test was terminated early, crew responses to the program and problems encountered provide valuable lessons for any future CTA program.