bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Godfrey Harold Hardy, 1877–1947
Authors: T. A. A. B.  , Newman M. H. A. , Hill A. V.
Published: June 2019

The death of the greatest English mathematician of our time is no mere national loss, for Hardy was recognised throughout the mathematical world as a master of our science. Of his studies, Hardy himself said, in his Inaugural Lecture at Oxford: “What we do may be small, but it has a certain character of permanence”. Few of us would dare to call Hardy’s contribution to mathematics small, while none of us can have any doubt about the lasting nature of his work. For a full account of the new pathways he opened up, the new territories he explored, reference must be made to the notices being prepared for the Royal Society and the London Mathematical Society. In the Gazette, it is fitting that we should record with special emphasis the debt which teachers of mathematics in this country owe to Hardy for the vast improvements in the teaching of analysis during the past forty years, from vagueness to precision, from obscurity to clarity, along lines mapped out and laid down for us by him.
The Antiquities from Lanuvium in the Museum at Leeds and Elsewhere
Authors: Woodward A. M.
Published: June 2019

The excavations carried on during the years 1884–1890 by the late Lord Savile (then Sir Savile Lumley) at Civita Lavinia in Latium, yielded a large number of objects which have never been fully described. In the reports published by the excavator a short account of the work is given, from which it is plain that the two chief sites excavated were the ‘Royal Villa’ and the Temple of Juno Lavinia. A description and a few illustrations are there published of objects from both these sites, but nothing in the nature of a complete catalogue exists, and the purpose of this paper is merely to supply a first instalment of such a catalogue. I hope to complete the work in one or two subsequent volumes of these Papers.
Forgotten Fragments of Ancient Wall Paintings in Rome I.–The Palatine
Authors: Strong Arthur
Published: June 2019

Students of ancient painting are apt to bestow exclusive attention upon the long series of pictures in the Museum of Naples recovered from Pompeii and Herculaneum, and to forget the many and excellent specimens of the art still extant in Rome. Yet these often surpass in quality anything found in the buried Campanian cities, since it is only natural that painters of ability and talent should have sought for work in the capital rather than in Pompeii and other holiday resorts. The neglect of the paintings discovered in Rome is of comparatively recent date. In the seventeenth century Pietro Santi Bartoli (1635–1700) had inaugurated a systematic series of publications of the figured monuments of Rome, including paintings engraved after his own drawings. A host of draughtsmen and engravers followed in his steps, and down to the middle of the nineteenth century appeared volume after volume of illustrations of Roman paintings, admirably calculated to please the cultivated traveller and amateur, but as a rule totally wanting in accuracy.
II.—Pecus and Pecunia
Authors: Ridgeway William
Published: June 2019

In a late number of the Journal of Hellenic Studies the present writer endeavoured to show, (1) that in the Homeric poems the gold talanton simply represented the value of the ox or cow, a relation which remained at Delos down into historical times, and (2) that the actual value of both units was a gold daric, or gold Attic stater (two drachms) of 130–135 grains Troy; in fact the standard on which all the gold coins, and a large proportion of the silver coins of Greek Proper were struck; and at the same time the basis of the standards of Asia Minor, Syria, and probably of Egypt. I then confined myself to the countries immediately bordering on the Aegean, and did not attempt to deal with the weight system of the Italian Peninsula. I propose in the present paper to examine the Roman system, and to seek for it, as I have tried for the others, a natural unit, by which I mean a metallic unit based on some older unit of barter.

Dr. Hultsch remarks (Metrologie, p. 151) that whilst the weight unit of the Roman pound is the most accurately known of all ancient standards, its origin on the other hand is the most obscure. The Roman libra weighed 327·45 grammes. Though it was adjusted at a later period to the Attic system, it plainly dated from a period long before Rome had come into contact with the culture of Athens.
Exploration in Galatia cis Halym
Authors: Anderson J. G. C.
Published: June 2019

During the last eighteen years our knowledge of Asia Minor has advanced by leaps and bounds, but all parts of the country have not shared alike in the general progress. Galatia in particular—we are now speaking of the country on this side of the Halys—has received comparatively little attention from archaeological travellers. Humann and Domaszewski's journey in 1882 and some journeys made by Prof. Ramsay in the following year and by Dr. Körte in 1894 (in the vicinity of the Sangarios) constitute the whole contribution that has been made to the exploration of this region since the publication of M. Perrot's Exploration de la Galatie (1862). A good deal has been done in the meantime by geographers to improve the modern map of the northern frontiers, notably by W. von Diest, whose work is always as nearly a picture of the country as can be attained without a regular survey. That he may be able to continue it is the fervent wish of all who are interested in Asia Minor. But there are few points fixed with any certainty on the ancient map, and there are large districts which are either hardly known (like the country near the great Salt Lake) or have never been visited at all.
Presidential Address
Authors: Tout T. F.
Published: June 2019

I must first of all thank the Royal Historical Society for conferring on me the distinguished honour of its Presidency. I am proud to be thus closely associated with its work. Yet I am very conscious that my past discharge of the duties of membership gives me but a modest claim on its suffrages. It is true that I have been a member of the Society since 1891. I vividly remember how at that time I fell, a coy, but not an unwilling, victim to the blandishments of Mr. Oscar Browning, who used to the full the opportunities of a mountain holiday in the Engadine to preach the sound doctrine that no self-respecting historian could discharge the whole duty of his station unless he enlisted under the Society's banner. Between 1894 and 1901 I acted as a member of the Council, until, doubtless for the sufficient reason of non- attendance, I was relegated to the position of an ordinary member. In 1915 the Society was good enough to raise me to the dignity of an Honorary Vice-President, an office the more welcome to a member then dwelling in what are sometimes quaintly called the “provinces,” since it involved neither the obligation nor the privilege of attending meetings. All that I can claim to have done in return for these favours was the contribution in 1894 to the Transactions of a paper on the “Earldoms under Edward I,” and an edition in 1906 of the “State Trials of Edward I” to the Camden Series.
Condorget: Politics and Reason
Authors: White Ian
Published: June 2019

From the time of its clearest origins with Pascal, the theory of probabilities seemed to offer means by which the study of human affairs might be reduced to the same kind of mathematical discipline that was already being achieved in the study of nature. Condorcet is to a great extent merely representative of the philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who were led on by the prospect of developing moral and political sciences on the pattern of the natural sciences, specifically physics. The development of economics and the social sciences, from the eighteenth century onwards, may be said in part to have fulfilled and in a manner to have perpetuated these ambitions. In so far as the new sciences have been susceptible of mathematical treatment, this has not been confined to the calculus of probabilities. But there is a temptation at every stage to ascribe fundamental significance and universal applicability to each latest mathematical device that is strikingly useful or illuminating on its first introduction. It is the theory of games that enjoys this position at present, and shapes the common contemporary conception of the very same problems that preoccupied Condorcet.
An Unexplained Discrepancy between the Actual and Expected Yield of Virus from Avian Tumours and its Implications
Authors: Carr J. G.
Published: June 2019

Formany years now the filterable viruses have been considered as a possible cause of cancer, though such a theory has never found favour with the majority of pathologists. Definite proof of a causative virus has in turn been found for many avian tumours (review in Foulds, 1934), rabbit fibromas (Shope, 1932), rabbit papillomas (Shope, 1933), frog kidney tumours (Lucké, 1938), and the mammary tumours of mice (Bittner, 1937), and there is some evidence that certain other mouse tumours may depend on the presence of a milk-transmitted factor similar to that responsible for the mammary carcinomas first investigated. Many experiments have been carried out by numerous workers to demonstrate a causative virus in other types of neoplasms, but usually with negative results, and the successes sometimes claimed have not been confirmed by other workers. Negative results such as this are always unsatisfactory when, as in these cases, the true ætiology is unknown, and arguments for and against a virus-like entity as a cause of cancer continue to be urged by both sides. Two excellent modern statements of the case for a virus ætiology of neoplasms are given by Rous (1943) and Oberling (1942). An essential point in this argument is to offer reasons why the virus may be difficult or impossible to demonstrate in spontaneous neoplasms. Among these may be mentioned Andrewes' (1939) conception of a non-infective “toothless” virus; another is the well-known fact that even the classical virus-induced tumour, the Rous No. 1 sarcoma, often produces tumours in which it is impossible to demonstrate the presence of the virus (e.g.Gye and Andrewes, 1926; Carr, 1942, 1944).
The Lorisoid GenusArctocebus: Observations Based on the Type Material
Authors: Hill W. C. Osman
Published: June 2019

Instudying the literature relating to that little-known prosimian, the Angwántibo—with a view to incorporating the main facts known about it in a comprehensive work on primate anatomy at present in preparation—I had occasion to consult the original description of the species by J. A. Smith (1860). I there discovered that the type was a spirit specimen (an “adult” male) which was received in Edinburgh, along with a second male, from Old Calabar. There is some confusion in the literature as to the fate of these specimens and this should, I think, be cleared up. Both specimens were procured in 1859 by Rev. A. Robb, one being sent, indirectly, to Smith and the other to Andrew Murray. Smith recognized in his specimen something new and accordingly described it as a new species of Potto, placing it in Bennett's genusPerodicticusasP. calabarensis. He gave an assurance of his intention of depositing the type in the Natural History Museum of the University of Edinburgh, but later sent it to his friend Carruthers at the British Museum for comparison with Bennett's type ofPerodicticus potto. Some useful observations were made upon it by Carruthers and incorporated as an addendum to Smith's paper. The specimen was evidently returned to Edinburgh and found its way to the University, but in 1860 it was transferred, with other material, to the Edinburgh Industrial Museum (since 1904 the Royal Scottish Museum).

With the kind assistance of Professor J. Ritchie I have succeeded in tracing it, and with the permission of Dr D. A. Allan, Director of the Museum, and the helpful co-operation of Dr A. C. Stephen, Keeper of Natural History, I have had the privilege of studying it.
The Production of Mutations by Chemical Substances
Authors: Auerbach C. , Robson J. M.
Published: June 2019

Theproduction of mutations by the action of chemical substances on germ cells has often been reported. However, the variability of the spontaneous mutation rate and its dependence not only on environmental conditions and physiological factors, but also on the genotype, make it extremely difficult to assess the value of tests in which only small increases over the spontaneous mutation rate have been found. For this reason, Muller was still able to conclude in 1941 that there was no definite proof that chemical substances could exert an effect on the mutation rate. Since then, Thomas and Chevais (1943) have reported results with sulphonamides which, if they can be confirmed, would indicate a real, though slight, action of these substances on the chromosomes, at least as far as gene mutations are concerned. Stubbe (1940), working on plant material, observed a significant increase in mutation rate with phenol and potassium thiocyanate. It is of interest that Auerbach and Robson (1943) independently observed a similar effect with allyl isothiocyanate in experiments onDrosophila. Even these definite effects are, however, very slight.

During the last four years we have been testing a number of chemical substances. Among these a certain group has been found which increases the rate of occurrence of mutations and chromosome rearrangements to a similar extent as that brought about by X-rays and similar physical agencies. The best known representative of this group is mustard gas, and the present report deals only with the effects produced by this substance. Results obtained with other effective substances will be published later.
Somatic Segregation by Microconidial Isolation in Synthesised Heterokaryons ofNeurospora crassa
Authors: Sansome E. R. , Sansome F. W.
Published: June 2019

Heterokaryosisis the condition in which one cell of a mycelium contains two or more genetically different nuclei. Hansen and Smith (1932), working withBotrytis cinerea, which has multi-nucleate spores, showed that single-spore cultures of this fungus sometimes contained two types of nuclei and that such heterokaryotic types could readily be induced by hyphal fusion between different homokaryotic types. These authors analysed individuals from thirty genera of imperfect fungi and found more than half of them to be heterokaryotic. It seems, therefore, that heterokaryosis is a widespread phenomenon among such fungi.

N. crassais a heterothallic fungus with an eight-spored ascus and a pair of well-defined mating-type factors which have been very generally called sex factors. Perithecia are formed only when cultures of the opposite mating types are brought into contact. Both mating types can produce ascogonia, generally conceived to be female organs, and microconidia, sometimes called spermatia (Dodge, 1935), which may correspond to male gametes. Therefore it is doubtful whether the mating-type factors are true sex factors.

A non-committal term such as “mating type” or “incompatibility factor” is preferable. However, because of the convenience of the terms associated with sex, such as “unisexual” and “bisexual”, I shall follow previous authors (Dodge, Lindegren, Beadle) in using these terms with reference to the mating-type factors, at the same time emphasising that these factors may not be sex factors in the generally accepted sense of the term.
The Induction by Mustard Gas of Chromosomal Instabilities inDrosophila melanogaster.
Authors: Auerbach C.
Published: June 2019

The discovery (Auerbach, 1943, 1946; Auerbach and Robson, 1946, 1947) that mustard gas is comparable to X-rays and similar physical agencies in its ability to produce mutations and chromosome rearrangements has opened up a new line of approach to the problem of gene mutation. It is to be expected that a comparative study of the mechanism by which chemical substances on the one hand and physical agencies on the other exercise their mutagenic effects, will further our understanding of the process of mutation itself. One of the first questions to be tackled in the early days of radiation genetics was the possibility of a delayed mutagenic action of irradiation (Muller, 1927; Timoféeff-Ressovsky, 1930, 1931; Grüneberg, 1931). The bulk of the evidence (see, however, Bishop, 1942) indicates that X-ray-induced mutations and chromosome breaks arise as an immediate effect of the irradiation, although after treatment of mature spermatozoa new recombinations of broken chromosomes may be delayed until the spermatozoon has entered the egg. Data obtained by Stadler (1939) suggest that after ultra-violet radiation of pollen grains the mutational process often is not completed before the treated chromosome has split into its two daughter chromatids. This results in a high proportion of mosaics. A similarly high proportion of mosaics has been found in the progeny ofDrosophila ♂♂which had been treated with mustard gas (Auerbach, 1946; Auerbach and Robson, 1946). This raises the question of a possible delayed action of the chemical mutagenic treatment.
XII.—On Salpingostoma dasu: A New Carboniferous Seed from East Lothian
Authors: Gordon W. T.
Published: June 2019

In a recent paper (Gordon, 1938) reasons were given for the belief that semi-arid conditions prevailed during Lower Carboniferous times in the neighbourhood of North Berwick, East Lothian. The evidence was opposed, in a measure, to that advanced by Mr George Barrow in the East Lothian Memoir (1910) to substantiate the same position. He had relied on the absence of fossils as part proof; but, in point of fact, fossil plants have been obtained in abundance from the actual bedded ashes of Oxroad Bay that he considered (a) to be unfossiliferous, and (b) to have been formed in a manner similar to beds on the Springbok Flats of the Transvaal. The plants that have now been obtained showed xerophytic features, and, consequently, a semi-arid climate was proved on positive evidence. Other positive evidence of a lithological character was also presented in confirmation (Gordon, 1938, pp. 352, 353).
XVI.—The Macrofauna of the Intertidal Sand of Kames Bay, Millport, Buteshire
Authors: Watkin E. Emrys
Published: June 2019

During the last few years the distribution of the macrofauna, and to a less extent the microfauna, of the intertidal soils of the shores of Britain has received considerable attention and the principle that the species show a zonation with maximum densities at certain levels is now well established. The extensive studies of Elmhirst (1931) and of Stephen (1928, 1929, and 1930) on the fauna of the sandy and muddy areas of numerous Scottish bays has laid the foundation for much further work in this area. Pirrie, Bruce, and Moore (1932) have described the zonation of the fauna in the intertidal sand of Port Erin bay. Alexander, Southgate, and Bassindale (1935) refer to the fauna of the sand at the mouth of the River Tees, but mainly from the point of view of comparison with the fauna of the estuary. Crawford (1937 a and b)gives notes on the distribution and habits of certain intertidal species in sandy bays and estuaries in west England and south Wales. Rees (1939) has surveyed in outline, as part of a study of the interstitial sand copepods, the macrofauna of some sandy bays in north Donegal. Spooner and Moore (1940) have given a detailed description of the zonation of the species in the estuarine muds of the Tamar. A part from the above, reference must be made to two intensive studies on the soil fauna of the eastern shores of the North Sea, namely, that of Thamdrup (1935) on Danish shores and of Wohlenberg (1937) on certain bays on the island of Sylt. A general discussion of the ecological problems of sand, mud, and algal environments is given by Eemane (1933), based on the macrofauna and microfauna of Kiel bay. He reaches the conclusion, based on the number of species which occur in each environment, that the macrofauna of sand is comparatively poor compared with mud.
XVII.—The Genus Primula: Section Nivales
Authors: Smith W. Wright , Fletcher H. R.
Published: June 2019

This section under the above designation was first established by Pax in Engler's Bot. Jahrb., x, 205 (1889). The species chosen as representative of the section was P. nivalis Pall. This species with its numerous and widespread immediate allies affords an admirable centre for an exposition of the members of the section. The original definition of the sectionis still reasonably adequate, but its clarity was somewhat obscured by the admission of several species which indubitably belong elsewhere. Of the nine components quoted by Pax, five must be removed—P. sikkimensis and P. secundiflora, as well as the American P. Rusbyi and its two associates. In his Monograph (1) published in 1905 Pax made certain additions and corrections. The number of species indicated as within the section was increased to 15. He removed P. Rusbyi to what is now Candelabra, but P. Cusickiana and P. angustifolia were retained; so also were P. sikkimensis and P. secundiflora. On good grounds were included P. pumila, P. Aitchisonii, and P. eximia, but dubiously P. pulchella and P. Prattii. Correctly in our opinion came in P. Maximowiczii and its two allies P. szechuanica and P. tangutica.
Recent trends in pig production: the importance of intake
Authors: Riley J. E.
Published: June 2019

The UK pig industry has shown an ability to respond quickly to changing market requirements and improving efficiency of pig meat production. Rapid genetic improvement in breeding stock, particularly in carcass quality and growth traits, together with the adoption of new production strategies, have been the main factors. These changes have had major implications for the way pigs are fed at all stages of the production cycles. Market forces have resulted in a pig population with reduced fat reserves and low appetite. Food intake is a limiting factor at several stages of the production cycle including post weaning, in the case of early-weaned piglets, and the management of young lactating sows. Knowledge of the daily nutrient requirements of the individual animal far exceeds the ability to ensure that those requirements are satisfied by feeding systems in commercial use. Manipulation of food intake to achieve optimum profit is the weakest link in the UK producers' knowledge.
Genetics of food intake in the pig
Authors: Webb A. J.
Published: June 2019

The rôle of voluntary food intake, measured as daily food consumption onad libitumfeeding from 30 to 90 kg live weight, in future selection strategy is reviewed. Intake shows a heritability of 0.3, and genetic correlations of 0.6 with growth rate and –0.4 with leanness. Low genetic correlations between test station and commercial farm performance are reported for growth rate (0.27) and backfat (0.41) which arise either from genotype × feeding level interactions, or from individual feeding at stations. Selection for rate of lean growth appears to lead to a primary increase in rate of protein deposition, whereas selection for efficiency of lean growth appears to lead to a reduction in rate of fat deposition via a decline in intake. Continued reduction in intake may limit further improvement in lean growth rate and sow productivity. As optimum fatness is approached, the selection emphasis is expected to swing towards rate of lean growth to reduce total food used for maintenance. To determine the optimum selection regime, a knowledge is required of the genetic relationship between intake and lean growth rate. Meanwhile, the optimum selection regime may involvead libitumgroup feeding with electronic recording of individual food intake. In the long term, exogenous or endogenous growth promoters could remove the need for selection against backfat, and necessitate a radical genetic increase in intake.
Voluntary food intake of sows and gilts
Authors: Lynch P. B.
Published: June 2019

The lactating sow requires 5 to 7 kg food daily if it is to maintain body weight and condition in lactation but even on ad libitum intake sows fail to achieve the required food consumption and so lose both weight and tissue. The problem is most acute in primiparous sows and low lactation food intake is recognized as a major factor in post-weaning anoestrus and impaired reproductive performance. Studies of sows from the Moorepark herd are reported. Older animals, those with high suckling load and thin animals all tend to eat more with maximum daily intake occurring at 4 to 5 weeks of lactation. Although intake reduces at high environmental temperatures, this has been alleviated by wet feeding, offering a high energy-density diet or a high-protein diet. Other factors observed to influence voluntary food intake are breed, lighting pattern, dietary calcium and phosphorus levels.
Meat quality, carcass composition and intake
Authors: Wood J. D.
Published: June 2019

In pigs, variation in appetite under ad libitum feeding conditions is often associated with variation in carcass composition and meat quality. Breeds, strains and pigs types possessing high appetites are frequently fatter and have better meat quality (e.g. lower PSE incidence and more juicy meat) than those possessing low appetites, although for different physiological reasons. These conclusions are based on published reports of performance, carcass and meat characteristics in the following pig types: carriers of the halothane gene, Pietrain and Duroc breeds, animals selected for low backfat thickness and entire males. Selection schemes which reduce carcass fatness yet increase appetite are preferable to those which depress appetite so far as meat quality is concerned.
Gene transfer in animal production
Authors: Clark A.J.
Published: June 2019

Gene transfer by pronuclear injection has been accomplished in farm animals by a number of research groups. Applications of this technology for improving milk composition, producing pharmaceutical proteins and manipulating physiology are described. Recent developments in our understanding of gene expression at the molecular level will increase the precision with which genetic changes can be made by gene transfer.
Production of transgenic pigs and possible application to pig breeding
Authors: Brem Gottfried , Brenig Bertram , Müller Mathias , Kräußlich Horst , Winnacker Ernst-Ludwig
Published: June 2019

The generation of transgenic pigs is an entirely new way of breeding. In contrast to classical breeding techniques the objects of manipulation in this case are individual genes rather than the entire genome of an organism. In pigs DNA-microinjection into the pronuclei of zygotes is the only available technique of transferring genetic material developed so far. The process involves collection, manipulation, microinjection, cultivation, and transfer of early embryos and also molecular-biological techniques allowing cloning of gene constructs, preparation of suitable injection solutions, and techniques allowing detection of integrated and expressed transgenes in transgenic animals. Gene transfer in pigs usually yields less than 1% transgenic piglets per injected zygote. Our own experiments have shown that simultaneous transfer of untreated control embryos increases yields from 0.5% to 1%.

Gene transfer in pigs can be employed in particular to increase growth performance and carcass composition by using genes encoding hormones of the growth hormone cascade (GHRH, GH, IGF-I). So far, the effects already known from experiments in mice have not been reproduced in pigs.

We are currently investigating whether the transfer of the influenza resistance gene Mx+of mice will yield disease-resistant pigs.

Breeding with transgenic animals must take into account that approximately 30% of the primary transgenic animals will be mosaics which will not pass on the transgene to their offspring. Unwanted side effects may also occur during gene transfer. Most important examples are instability of integrated transgenes and variability of gene expression over many generations.

In about 5% of all primary transgenic animals integration of the transgene can be assumed to lead to the generation of insertion mutations. Animals carrying these mutations should not be used for breeding. Furthermore severe health problems may be caused by uncontrolled over-expression of the transgene.

Much more work will be necessary in future before we will be able to employ gene transfer techniques in practical breeding programmes.
The application of gene technology to the improvement of fish
Authors: Maclean Norman , Penman David
Published: June 2019

Because fish lay large numbers of eggs, in which both fertilisation and development is external, they are rather suitable organisms for transgenic induction. To date fish of many different species have been used in such work - rainbow trout, atlantic salmon, channel cat fish, tilapia, medaka, zebrafish, goldfish, carp and loach. Normally the induction of transgenics has involved injection of multiple copies of the chosen novel gene into the egg cytoplasm soon after fertilisation, followed by assays for subsequent gene integration, expression and transmission to progeny.

Genes which have been utilised for transgenic induction in fish include somatotrophin (growth hormone) of both mammalian and piscine origin, metallothionein, 'antifreeze' protein, and crytallin coding sequences. A number of laboratories have demonstrated by Southern blotting of restricted DNA fragments that genomic incorporation has been achieved, although in others there appears to be a continuing problem of long term persistance of extrachromosomal DNA material. Expression of the injected sequences tends to be at a low level and in some cases not to be detectable. This is probably due to the inefficiency of mammalian gene promoters in fish cells and will hopefully be overcome by the use of genes of piscine origin. Germ line integration and transmission to progeny of the novel sequence has been established in a few laboratories.

Transgenic fish may also offer some potential as expression systems for valuable pharmaceutical products. Problems of containment and planned release of transgenic fish are also briefly discussed.
Cellular growth - the key to animal growth
Authors: Goddard C.
Published: June 2019

There is an increasing possibility that animal performance may be manipulated by new techniques incorporated into efficient breeding programmes. In order to fully exploit these techniques to increase the efficiency of growth, gene products involved in the control of growth, development and also reproduction must be identified. Correct expression or manipulation of these genes to provide optimum effect on a trait requires complete knowledge of their biological action. The transgenic approach has provided some success using growth hormone and growth hormone releasing hormone to increase growth in mice. Further possibilities exist, since recent work suggests that peptide growth factors such as the insulin-like growth factors, fibroblast growth factor and transforming growth factor-β may be primary regulators of normal growth. This brief overview introduces some of these peptide growth factors, provides basic information on them and offers them for discussion as potential targets for manipulation.
1.2 Computers and Their Potential: Software
Authors: Geisler Pamela A. , France J.
Published: June 2019

At the present time, with the high reliability and performance of computer hardware, computer systems applied in any field must be judged more by the quality of the software provided. Thus it is highly relevant in an investigation of the use of computers in a field such as animal production, to concentrate on aspects of the software.

Software provides the computer with the ability to obey instructions and to do as the user wishes. However, before arriving at these ‘machine instructions’ a number of steps have to be covered. First, it is essential to design the software — that is, to establish the requirements to be achieved on the computer. This design stage is followed by the implementation phase, in which the requirements as stated in English are transformed into such instructions as the machine can read and obey. The final phase is testing, in which it must be determined whether the requirements have been met, and to modify the design and iterate until the performance is satisfactory.

Software in general can be divided into three classes — systems, utility and applications software. The systems software drives the machine and its associated peripherals such as a VDU and printer. The systems software also includes a file system for organization of the data on the relevant storage media (floppy disks, cartridges, magnetic tape). Also considered part of the systems software are the assembler, interpreters and compilers for high level languages such as BASIC and FORTRAN and for programming aids such as DEBUGGERS. Systems software is normally supplied with the computer and needs to be evaluated along with the hardware by any prospective purchaser of a computer system.
3.1 Simulation Model of Rumen Fermentation
Authors: Beever D. E.
Published: June 2019

Since the pioneer work of the Cambridge group into the physiology and biochemistry of ruminant digestion (Barcroft, McAnally and Phillipson, 1944), research has firmly established that the processes of digestion, synthesis and passage of nutrients within, and absorption of the end products from, the ruminant alimentary tract are extremely complex, highly interrelated and considerably influenced by the nature and quantity of the diet consumed (Baldwin and Koong, 1980). Consequently, the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract have only limited quantitative and qualitative similarity to those consumed, mainly due to the processes of anaerobic fermentation and microbial synthesis occurring within the reticulo-rumen. The development of techniques to measure nutrient flow and microbial synthesis within the ruminant alimentary tract (Beever, Harrison, Thomson, Cammell and Osbourn, 1974; MacRae and Armstrong, 1969a; Smith and McAllan, 1970), has led to numerous studies on nutrient digestion and flow, mainly with sheep fed forage and cereal based diets (Beever, Thomson and Cammell, 1976; Beever, Thomson, Cammell and Harrison, 1977; Beever, Terry, Cammell and Wallace, 1978; Coehlo da Silva, Seeley, Beever, Prescott and Armstrong, 1972; Coehlo da Silva, Seeley, Thomson, Beever and Armstrong, 1972; Egan, Walker, Nader and Ulyatt, 1975; Faichney and Weston, 1971; Faichney and White, 1977; Harrison, Beever, Thomson and Osbourn, 1973, 1975; Hogan and Weston, 1970; MacRae and Armstrong, 1969b; MacRae and Ulyatt, 1974; Siddons, Evans and Beever, 1979; Ulyatt and MacRae, 1974) and, from some of these studies, empirical relationships have been established (Beeveret al., 1976; Chalupa. 1975; Ulyatt and Egan, 1979; Weston and Hogan, 1973) in an attempt to predict, from a knowledge of feed input and composition, the likely end products of digestion. However, considering the complexities of ruminant digestion, the limited applicability of such relationships was not surprising and the need for a more fundamental consideration and integration of the processes of digestion and synthesis was established. To this end, the work of Baldwin and his colleagues (Baldwin, Lucas and Cabrera, 1970; Baldwin, Koong and Ulyatt, 1977; Reichl and Baldwin, 1975) stimulated interest in the area of rumen modelling.
3.4 Lactation Curves
Authors: Wood P. D. P.
Published: June 2019

An algebraic description of the lactation curve is a useful component of any model of the day-to-day production of lactating animals. Observation and common sense suggest that such a function should rise to a peak early in lactation and decline thereafter but simpler models have been used. Ostergaard (1979), for example, used a linear model to study strategies for concentrate feeding to obtain optimum feeding levels in high yielding dairy cows. His model was

where y (t) was the yield in week t and a and b were the usual linear regression coefficients. The error term is omitted here and elsewhere for clarity. Gaines (1927) used the decay function

where A and k are the constants fitted to log y (t).

These models, one linear, the other exponential, peak in Week 1 and require only two parameters. In this paper, more sophisticated functions are described and compared.

A lactation curve is assumed to contain two components, one of which is the intrinsic biological drive to produce milk and the other is an environmental constraint upon it. The algebra may be justified by biological argument according to the skill and the leanings of the modeller.
4.2 Flow of Information from Research
Authors: Forbes J. M.
Published: June 2019

The remit of this paper is to discuss “…provision of appropriate information to write suitable software for the animal production industry” and … how much material has actually flowed from Universities and Research Institutes into useable computer programs and what are seen as being the main stumbling blocks to the rate of flow and effectiveness of take-up?”. Canvassing opinion from several people, including some of those who have contributed at this Meeting, gave many useful ideas but some of them would not wish these ideas to be associated with their names, for a variety of reasons. Therefore, the author is reluctantly unable to thank those who helped by name but is very pleased to do so collectively. The remit has also been broadened slightly to include the feedback from the use of models in the field to the research worker and uses examples of the author's own attempts to model voluntary food intake in ruminants to illustrate some shortcomings.
Neonatal survival: an overview
Authors: Varley M. A.
Published: June 2019

Mortality in neonates has always represented significant economic wastage and slow progress has been made in the understanding of the factors influencing the probability of survival or death. There is also increasing pressure in the animal agriculture sphere to pursue improved welfare and in the situation where neonatal deaths are a high proportion of the liveborn offspring, then this becomes not only an economic concern but also a welfare issue. This paper highlights principal problems within the neonatal area in order to introduce the ensuing text dealing with specific technical challenges.

The magnitude of loss for different species including humans is given and the factors affecting mortalities are discussed. The major components include: human factors, pathogenic agents, immunological factors, temperature and thermoregulation, nutrition, behaviour and physical factors.

Although single factors are often ascribed as the cause of death, the reality is that there are usually multifactorial components involved which interact and contribute to the final mortality of the individual.

The approach to the practical management of neonates varies widely between the different animal industries and the techniques deployed depend on relative economic values. In human health care every available resource is used to ensure very high survival rates because of the incalculable value of each individual delivered. With farm animals the use of resources is at a much lower level and survival rates are lower. It ought to be possible in animal agriculture to adopt some of the methods used in the medical profession to assess high risk situations and to divert resources appropriately.
Immune development in the gastrointestinal tract of the pig
Authors: Stokes C. R. , Vega-Lopez M. A. , Bailey M. , Telemo E. , Miller B. G.
Published: June 2019

The epitheliochorial placenta of the pig does not allow the passage of immunoglobulin to the foetus and thus the young piglet is born without passive immune protection. During the first 36 h of life there is a massive transmission of macromolecules across the intestine, virtually all that are present in the gut may be effectively endocytosed and transmitted into the blood stream. The postnatal transmission of antibody from colostrum during this period provides the young animal with a spectrum of serum antibodies indistinguishable from that of its mother. It is established that evenin uterothe piglet is capable of mounting some response to antigenic challenge. Despite this, the ability of the young animal to respond may be influenced profoundly by the absorption of macromolecules (antibodies and antigens in colostrum and in sow's milk as well as antigens in the farrowing house) during the first hours after birth. These effects range from passive protection from infectious agents during the neonatal period to determining the precise nature of the immune response to antigens during later periods (e.g. at weaning).

At birth all cellular components of the immune system are represented but during the first few weeks of life dramatic changes occur in the number and distribution of these cells. Our histological studies have shown that shortly after birth the predominant T lymphocytes in the small intestine are T2+, T4−and T8−; whilst in other organs there are large numbers of conventional T4+and T8+cells. By 1 week of age there is a dramatic increase in the numbers of T4+cells, whilst T8+cells remain low, and only start to increase by week 7. Thus, changes in lymphocyte populations are occurring concurrent with increasing exposure to environmental antigens. The functional capacity of these cells also changes during this period and this process may be particularly affected by early weaning.

During the neonatal period an animal is presented with a vast array of antigenic material for the first time. How and when these antigens are presented may profoundly influence the capacity of the immune system to respond to them.
Thermoregulation in piglets: environmental and metabolic consequences
Authors: Close W. H.
Published: June 2019

At birth the neonate switches from a dependent to a totally independent extra-uterine environment. It must begin to regulate its own body temperature to survive. This paper considers thermoregulation in the newborn piglet and those factors which influence survival.

The first few days are important for the development of thermoregulation. Metabolic heat production and rectal temperature both increase and the development of adequate thermal insulation helps to withstand the effects of a cold environment. The body reserves play an important rôle and are needed to ensure that the piglet survives within the first hours of life. It is the glycogen and fat reserves that are readily utilized as major energy substrates for heat production within the first 12 to 24 h; the contribution from protein is minimal. However, not all reserves are available for mobilization. Attempts to improve the body reserves of piglets have been unsuccessful but the quality and composition of colostrum, especially its fat content, can be manipulated by maternal nutrition. Coldness impairs the development of thermostability and induces hypothermia. This diminishes the vigour of the piglet and reduces colostrum intake and hence immunoglobulins. The incidence of disease, especially scouring, may therefore be increased. The maintenance of an adequate environment also ensures a good immunological status. The development of housing, husbandry and management practices must take these various phenomena into account.
Postnatal intestinal development
Authors: Kelly D. , Begbie R. , King T. P.
Published: June 2019

Early postnatal intestinal development involves the preparation of the intestinal epithelium for extrauterine life when maternal secretions provide the sole nutrient source. A further shift in the digestive capability of the epithelium occurs later in development with the introduction of complex solid foods. Ontogenesis involves extensive epithelial cell proliferation and cytodifferentiation including changes in the expression of enzymes, receptors and transport systems and is regulated through the interaction of endogenous and exogenous factors. The mucosal epithelium plays a key rôle in the reception and transmisson of these trophic signals. In particular, the interplay between dietary constituents and microvillar membranes exerts profound influence on intestinal development and adaptation during the postnatal period.
Calf rearing practice at the National Agricultural Centre Beef and Calf Unit
Authors: Spedding A.
Published: June 2019

A system of high-care calf rearing which was developed and demonstrated at the National Agricultural Centre Beef and Calf Unit is described. The unit reared around 600 calves per year which were purchased at 2 to 3 weeks of age, reared and then transferred to one of several finishing systems on the unit. The system depends on good calf nutrition, airy buildings which were rested regularly, careful disinfection of equipment and buildings and a programme of health management.

The calves were purchased mostly in batches of about 40 from a farmers' co-operative and reared on milk replacer which was restricted and given twice daily to force a discipline for inspection of calves. They were also fed through teats which gave more efficient food conversion than buckets. They were penned in pairs because it had been found they were less stressed in pairs than penned singly. Detail of management and health routines are described. Target live-weight gains on the system were 0.5kg per day up to weaning and 1.0 kg per day thereafter. For simplicity the commercial names of foods, drugs and vaccines are given.
Postnatal care in pigs
Authors: Hughes P. E.
Published: June 2019

In the pig industry the mortality of piglets both during the birth process and in the subsequent 3 to 5 weeks is unacceptably high. This review attempts to summarize the major causes of these losses and to suggest means whereby such losses may be minimized in the commercial situation. Stillbirth rate is discussed in relation to various management regimes and it is concluded that anoxia (the primary cause of intra-partum piglet deaths) may be minimized by the provision of careful assistance during the birth process. Pre-weaning mortality is presented as a complex interaction of factors predominant amongst which are overlying by the sow, chilling, starvation and infection. Each of these areas is discussed in detail and recommendations are made to reduce their negative influence on the survival rate of piglets. Finally, the rōle of piglet activity level/vigour is considered in relation to pre-weaning survival rate. Various factors are discussed in relation to piglet vigour and it is concluded that the two major contributors to low activity level/vigour are intra-partum hypoxia and the endocrine status of the sow and piglet at birth. To reduce hypoxia, careful intervention is again suggested. The rôle of endocrine status is yet to be fully established but promising results are presented on the use of oestradiol treatment of piglets at birth to raise activity level and reduce pre-weaning mortality rate.