bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Alejandro Galindo: Pioneer Mexican Cineast
Authors: Mora Carl J.
Published: March 2004

Mexican cinema, one of the most active in Latin America, dates from 1896, while sound film recently celebrated its fiftieth anniversary there. Among the many prominent Mexican cineasts whose films form a repertoire of solid artistic achievement is Alejandro Galindo. Like many fellow‐filmmakers, directors and actors, Galindo did his aoprenticeship in Hollywood, returning to Mexico in 1930 to become one of Mexico's most creative and dynamic practitioners of cinematic art. Carl Mora highlights his accomplishments while placing him in the perspective of the development of the Mexican film industry. For example, during World War II the industry boomed because of the demand in Latin America for authentic Latin American cinema. With this impetus, Mexico (and Alejandro Galindo) enjoyed a decade of growth and popularity. Unlike most other Mexican cineasts, Galindo dealt with the dislocations that a rapidly changing economy and increased urbanization brought to both the workers and the middle class. Mora discusses several of his most important films, amply demonstrating the impact Galindo believed that cinema could have on society. He left a legacy that is admired today by critics and filmmakers.
From Bawdyhouse to Cabaret: The Evolution of the Tango as an Expression of Argentine Popular Culture
Authors: Jakubs Deborah L.
Published: March 2004

While most readers will be generally familiar with the tango, few of us know very much about its fascinating history and evolution. Deborah Jakubs makes a valuable contribution to our understanding of this initially working‐class cultural form, which was at first disdained and then appropriated by the Argentine middle and upper classes. She traces its origins in the lower class neighborhoods on the outskirts of Buenos Aires and Montevideo, its exportation to major European cultural centers, and finally its repatriation to Argentina where it has become a symbol of tradition and national identity. The author ably leads us through the maze of studies that historians, sociologists, musicologists and others have generated over the last hundred years. She examines some of the tango's principal themes in order to delineate its cultural significance within Argentine society in general and within Buenos Aires in particular. We come away from this article much more cognizant of how a popular cultural form can function in the formation of a nation's identity.
Images of Women in Mexican Comic Books*
Authors: Hinds Harold E. , Tatum Charles
Published: March 2004

Comic books are read on a regular basis by young and old, rich and poor, urban and rural Mexicans. Humor, adventure, police, fantastic and political comic books are but a few types of these popular publications found at newsstands on busy downtown street corners or laid out on sidewalks in quiet neighborhoods. Because of their immense popularity, their content merits serious attention. Harold Hinds and Charles Tatum study the images of women in four comic books—Kaliman, Lagrimas, risas y amor, La familia Burron and El Payo—and assess the degree to which these images conform to or deviate from traditional stereotypes of Mexican women. They find that in some cases these stereotypical images are not found: but in most, readers encounter submissive, passive and long‐suffering females dependent upon males for their self‐esteem; or at least woman as ideal fiancee‐spouse, as mistress‐sex‐object and as witch. Two women—Borola of La familia Burron and Lupe of El Payo—are more assertive and not cast in the same mold as most other comic book women.
The Writing on the Walls: Graffiti as Government Propaganda in Mexico
Authors: Grieb Kenneth J.
Published: March 2004

As pointed out in another article (Flora) contained in this volume, Latin American governments use mass media and popular culture forms to inform the masses and to provide messages which serve as alternatives to those communicated by the “controlled” media. While print and electronic means are effective in reaching large segments of Latin America's urban and rural populations, walls, both public and private, have been utilized as well. As Kenneth Crrieb points out in his article, painting announcements on walls is a common practice in these societies as well as in other nan‐ Western countries such as the People's Republic of China. Grieb focuses on the phenomenon in Mexico City during the latter protion of Luis Echeverria's presidenc (mid‐1970s) when, under his orders, painters decorated walls all over the city with messages proclaiming both political slogans and popular wisdom. Perhaps inspired by his visit to China, Echeverria saw the potential of wall announcements to mobilize the populace to a greater awareness of their social responsibility as Mexican citizens. Grieb lists and comments on several categories of wall announcements which he sees as a mirror of the thoughts of the political leadership as well as an indication of the values it sought to promote.
His Master's Voice: Television in Argentina. A Case Study of Cultural Penetration
Authors: Rogoff Edmond
Published: March 2004

While Flora's article deals with alternatives developed by Latin American governments to offset the impact of cultural penetration by developed countries, Edmond Rogoff presents us with a case study of such penetration. He examines the extent of United States originated programs in the metropolitan Buenos Aires area during four recent weeks. Only briefly (1968–1972) during the last twenty‐five years has Argentine television programming been free from domination by foreign—mainly United States—material. Currently, virtually every time slot is filled with American‐made programs of 1960 or 1970 vintage or with feature films imported from this country. While Rogoff declines to deal with the consequences of such mass importation of programs, he does provide us with valuable specific data which seems to corroborate the cultural imperialism thesis elaborated by Armand and Michelle Matterlart, Kaarle Nordenstreng, Herbert Schiller and others.
Stites Festschrift: An Introduction
Authors: Zelnik Reginald E.
Published: March 2004

“…Professor Stites, a man whose entire way of being is a constant challenge to established routine.”

History at Georgetown, Newsletter, 1996
Word length, sentence length and frequency – Zipf revisited
Authors: Sigurd Bengt , Eeg‐Olofsson Mats , Van Weijer Joost
Published: March 2004

Abstract.  This paper examines data from English, Swedish and German in order to find a theoretical distribution that describes the observed relation between word length and frequency. In Swedish and English, most word tokens consist of three letters only, while shorter or longer words occur less frequently. We found that the equation with the general form fexp = a * Lb * cL (a variant of the so‐called gamma distribution) approximates the observed frequencies reasonably well. This formula incorporates both the fact that the number of possible words increases with word length, and the fact that longer words tend to be avoided, presumably because they are uneconomic. To our knowledge this formula has not been proposed to describe word frequency data. We examined frequency distributions of word length in Swedish and English, and explored different variants of the equation by systematically varying the a, b and c parameters. Subsequently, we also applied the formula to the frequency distribution of sentence length in English, and found an almost perfect fit for a corpus consisting of different text genres. Moreover, the data showed that the formula can be used to distinguish between different kinds of text genres.
Insights into the anti‐microbial defense of marine invertebrates: the penaeid shrimps and the oyster Crassostrea gigas
Authors: Bachère Evelyne , Gueguen Yannick , Gonzalez Marcelo , De Lorgeril Julien , Garnier Julien , Romestand Bernard
Published: March 2004

Summary:  Research on innate immunity of the penaeid shrimps and the oyster Crassostrea gigas is motivated greatly by economical necessities. Indeed, the aquaculture of these organisms is now limited by the development of infectious diseases. Studying anti‐microbial peptides/proteins (AMPs), which are effector molecules of the host defense, is particularly attractive not only for progressing basic knowledge on immunity but also because they offer various possible applications for disease management in aquaculture. AMPs are explored with a global approach, considering their structure, properties, function, gene expression, and tissue distribution during the response to infections. In shrimp, investigations of the penaeidins, which are constitutively expressed peptides, have highlighted the importance of hemocytes and hematopoiesis as major elements of the immune response, providing both local and systemic reactions. The activation of hematopoiesis must be regarded as a regulatory way for the expression and distribution of constitutively expressed immune effectors. As complementary approaches, genomics and gene profiling are promising to deepen our understanding of the anti‐microbial defense of the oyster and the shrimp. However, real progress will depend also on the characterization of hemocyte lineages and hematopoiesis of these marine invertebrates as well as on the ontogenesis of their immune systems.
Primitive complement system of invertebrates
Authors: Nonaka Masaru , Yoshizaki Fumiko
Published: March 2004

Summary:  Most components of the human complement system have unmistakable domain architectures, making evolutionary tracing feasible. In contrast to the major genes of the adaptive immune system, which are present only in jawed vertebrates, complement component genes with unique domain structures are present not only in jawed vertebrates but also in jawless fish and non‐vertebrate deuterostomes. Recent progress in genome analysis in several eukaryotes, occupying the phylogenetically critical positions, showed that most individual domains found in the complement components are metazoa specific, being found both in deuterostomes and in protostomes but not in yeast or plant. However, unique domain architecture of complement components is not present in protostomes, suggesting that the complement system has been established in the deuterostome lineage not by invention of new domains but by innovation of unique combination of the pre‐existing domains. The recently assembled Ciona intestinalis draft genome contained the most modular complement genes, except for factor I. However, some possible C. intestinalis complement components show critical structural divergence from the mammalian counterparts, casting doubt on their mutual interaction. Thus, another integrative step seems to have been required to establish the modern complement system of higher vertebrates.
Immunoglobulin superfamily receptors in protochordates: before RAG time
Authors: Du Pasquier Louis , Zucchetti Ivana , De Santis Rosaria
Published: March 2004

Summary:  Urochordates and cephalochordates do not have an adaptive immune system involving the somatic rearrangement of their antigen receptor genes. They do not have antigen‐presenting molecules of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)‐linked class I and II types. In the absence of such a system, the status of their genes reflects perhaps a primitive pre‐recombination‐activating gene (RAG) stage that could suggest the pathway leading to the genesis of the T‐cell receptor (TCR) and antibodies.

In the genome of Ciona intestinalis, genes that encode molecules with membrane receptor features have been found among many members of the immunoglobulin superfamily (Igsf). They use the domains typical of vertebrate antigen receptors and class I and II: the V, and C1‐like domains. These genes belong to two families with recognizable homologs in vertebrates: the junctional adhesion molecule (JAM)/cortical thymocyte marker of Xenopus (CTX) family and the nectin family. The human homologs of these genes segregate in a single unit of four paralogous segments on chromosomes 1q, 3q, 11p, and 21q. These regions contain nowadays several genes involved in the adaptive immune system, and some related members are present in the MHC paralogs as well. They also contain receptor‐like genes without homologs in Ciona but with related members in the protostome Drosophila.

It looks as if in Ciona one detects what looks like the ‘fossil’ of one group of genes bound to duplicate and give rise to many crucial elements of the adaptive immune system. The modern homologs of these JAM, CTX, and nectins are all or almost all virus receptors, and the hypothesis is formulated that this property was taken advantage of during evolution to participate in the elaboration of either or both the somatically generated antigen‐recognizing receptors and the antigen‐presenting molecules.
RNA silencing: no mercy for viruses?
Authors: Lecellier Charles‐Henri , Voinnet Olivier
Published: March 2004

Summary:  ‘RNA silencing’ is a highly conserved mechanism leading to suppression of gene expression through nucleotide sequence‐specific interactions that are mediated by 21–24 nucleotide‐long RNAs. This process was first discovered as an unexpected consequence of transgenesis in plants, and similarly, it was subsequently identified in animals as an anomaly of antisense gene inhibition. We summarize the progressive steps that paved the way to our current understanding of the molecular basis and fundamental biological roles of RNA silencing in both plants and animals. In particular, we describe the general antiviral function of this mechanism in higher plants where it forms the basis of a highly elaborate immune system. All defense systems show some level of fallibility, and RNA silencing is no exception to this rule, as plant viruses have developed sophisticated ways to counteract various steps of the process. Recent work indicates that viruses are also engaged into a similar arms race in insects, but it remains unclear if RNA silencing plays a defensive role against virus infection of higher vertebrates. We also discuss some biotechnological applications of RNA silencing in mammalian cells that have fueled optimism that this mechanism may hold a promising future in antiviral human therapy.
The lectin‐complement pathway – its role in innate immunity and evolution
Authors: Fujita Teizo , Matsushita Misao , Endo Yuichi
Published: March 2004

Summary:  Innate immunity was formerly thought to be a non‐specific immune response characterized by phagocytosis. However, innate immunity has considerable specificity and is capable of discriminating between pathogens and self. Recognition of pathogens is mediated by a set of pattern recognition receptors, which recognize conserved pathogen‐associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) shared by broad classes of microorganisms, thereby successfully defending invertebrates and vertebrates against infection. Lectins, carbohydrate‐binding proteins, play an important role in innate immunity by recognizing a wide range of pathogens. Mannose‐binding lectin (MBL) and ficolin are lectins composed of a lectin domain attached to collagenous region. However, they use a different lectin domain: a carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) is responsible for MBL and a fibrinogen‐like domain for ficolin. These two collagenous lectins are pattern recognition receptors, and upon recognition of the infectious agent, they trigger the activation of the lectin‐complement pathway through attached serine proteases, MBL‐associated serine proteases (MASPs). A similar lectin‐based complement system, consisting of the lectin–protease complex and C3, is present in ascidians, our closest invertebrate relatives, and functions in an opsonic manner. We isolated several lectins homologous to MBLs and ficolins and several MASPs in invertebrates and lower vertebrates, and herein we discuss the molecular evolution of these molecules. Based on these findings, it seems likely that the complement system played a pivotal role in innate immunity before the evolution of an acquired immune system in jawed vertebrates.
Anti‐microbial peptides: from invertebrates to vertebrates
Authors: Bulet Philippe , Stöcklin Reto , Menin Laure
Published: March 2004

Summary:  Gene‐encoded anti‐microbial peptides (AMPs) are widespread in nature, as they are synthesized by microorganisms as well as by multicellular organisms from both the vegetal and the animal kingdoms. These naturally occurring AMPs form a first line of host defense against pathogens and are involved in innate immunity. Depending on their tissue distribution, AMPs ensure either a systemic or a local protection of the organism against environmental pathogens. They are classified into three major groups: (i) peptides with an α‐helical conformation (insect cecropins, magainins, etc.), (ii) cyclic and open‐ended cyclic peptides with pairs of cysteine residues (defensins, protegrin, etc.), and (iii) peptides with an over‐representation of some amino acids (proline rich, histidine rich, etc.). Most AMPs display hydrophobic and cationic properties, have a molecular mass below 25–30 kDa, and adopt an amphipathic structure (α‐helix, β‐hairpin‐like β‐sheet, β‐sheet, or α‐helix/β‐sheet mixed structures) that is believed to be essential to their anti‐microbial action. Interestingly, in recent years, a series of novel AMPs have been discovered as processed forms of large proteins. Despite the extreme diversity in their primary and secondary structures, all natural AMPs have the in vitro particularity to affect a large number of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, yeast, virus, etc.) with identical or complementary activity spectra. This review focuses on AMPs forming α‐helices, β‐hairpin‐like β‐sheets, β‐sheets, or α‐helix/β‐sheet mixed structures from invertebrate and vertebrate origins. These molecules show some promise for therapeutic use.
Evolution of the innate immune system: the worm perspective
Authors: Schulenburg Hinrich , Léopold Kurz C. , Ewbank Jonathan J.
Published: March 2004

Summary:  Simple model organisms that are amenable to comprehensive experimental analysis can be used to elucidate the molecular genetic architecture of complex traits. They can thereby enhance our understanding of these traits in other organisms, including humans. Here, we describe the use of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a tractable model system to study innate immunity. We detail our current understanding of the worm's immune system, which seems to be characterized by four main signaling cascades: a p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase, a transforming growth factor‐β‐like, a programed cell death, and an insulin‐like receptor pathway. Many details, especially regarding pathogen recognition and immune effectors, are only poorly characterized and clearly warrant further investigation. We additionally speculate on the evolution of the C. elegans immune system, taking into special consideration the relationship between immunity, stress responses and digestion, the diversification of the different parts of the immune system in response to multiple and/or coevolving pathogens, and the trade‐off between immunity and host life history traits. Using C. elegans to address these different facets of host–pathogen interactions provides a fresh perspective on our understanding of the structure and complexity of innate immune systems in animals and plants.
Metabolic reprogramming in plant innate immunity: the contributions of phenylpropanoid and oxylipin pathways
Authors: La Camera Sylvain , Gouzerh Guillaume , Dhondt Sandrine , Hoffmann Laurent , Fritig Bernard , Legrand Michel , Heitz Thierry
Published: March 2004

Summary:  In their environment, plants interact with a multitude of living organisms and have to cope with a large variety of aggressions of biotic or abiotic origin. To survive, plants have acquired, during evolution, complex mechanisms to detect their aggressors and defend themselves. Receptors and signaling pathways that are involved in such interactions with the environment are just beginning to be uncovered. What has been known for several decades is the extraordinary variety of chemical compounds the plants are capable to synthesize, and many of these products are implicated in defense responses. The number of natural products occurring in plants may be estimated in the range of hundreds of thousands, but only a fraction have been fully characterized. Despite the great importance of these metabolites for plant and also for human health, our knowledge about their biosynthetic pathways and functions is still fragmentary. Recent progress has been made particularly for phenylpropanoid and oxylipin metabolism, which are emphasized in this review. Both pathways are involved in plant resistance at several levels: by providing building units of physical barriers against pathogen invasion, by synthesizing an array of antibiotic compounds, and by producing signals implicated in the mounting of plant resistance.
A Toll‐like receptor in horseshoe crabs
Authors: Inamori Kei‐ichiro , Ariki Shigeru , Kawabata Shun‐ichiro
Published: March 2004

Summary:  Non‐self‐recognition of invading microbes relies on the pattern‐recognition of pathogen‐associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived from microbial cell‐wall components. Insects and mammals conserve a signaling pathway of the innate immune system through cell‐surface receptors called Tolls and Toll‐like receptors (TLRs). Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are an important trigger of the horseshoe crab's innate immunity to infectious microorganisms. Horseshoe crabs' granular hemocytes respond specifically to LPS stimulation, inducing the secretion of various defense molecules from the granular hemocytes. Here, we show a cDNA which we named tToll, coding for a TLR identified from hemocytes of the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus. tToll is most closely related to Drosophila Toll in both domain architecture and overall length. Human TLRs have been suggested to contain numerous PAMP‐binding insertions located in the leucine‐rich repeats (LRRs) of their ectodomains. However, the LRRs of tToll contained no obvious PAMP‐binding insertions. Furthermore, tToll was non‐specifically expressed in horseshoe crab tissues. These observations suggest that tToll does not function as an LPS receptor on granular hemocytes.
Saudi Arabia, Enemy or Friend?
Authors: Aufhauser David , Anderson Frank , Long David E. , Kern Nathaniel , Shobokshi Hussein
Published: March 2004

The following is an edited transcript of the thirty‐fifth in a series of Capitol Hill conferences convened by the Middle East Policy Council. The meeting was held on January 23, 2004, in the Dirksen Senate Office Building with Chas. W. Freeman, Jr., moderating.
An immunological approach to quantifying the saprotrophic growth dynamics ofTrichodermaspecies during antagonistic interactions withRhizoctoniasolani in a soil‐less mix
Authors: Thornton Christopher R.
Published: March 2004

Studies of the saprotrophic growth dynamics ofTrichodermaspecies and their fungal hosts during antagonistic interactions are severely hampered by the absence of methods that allow the unambiguous identification and quantification of individual genera in complex environments such as soil or compost containing mixed populations of fungi. Furthermore, methods are required that allow discrimination between active hyphal growth and other components of fungal biomass such as quiescent spores that are produced in large numbers byTrichodermaspecies. This study details the use of monoclonal antibodies to quantify the saprotrophic growth dynamics of the soil‐borne plant pathogenRhizoctonia solaniand biological control strains ofTrichoderma asperellumandTrichoderma harzianumduring antagonistic interactions in peat‐based microcosms. Quantification was based on the immunological detection of constitutive, extracellular antigens that are secreted from the growing tip ofRhizoctoniaandTrichodermamycelium and, in the case ofTrichoderma harzianum, from quiescent phialoconidia also. TheTrichoderma‐specific monoclonal antibody (MF2) binds to a protein epitope of the enzyme glucoamylase, which was shown by immunofluorescence and immunogold electron gold microscopy studies ofTrichoderma virens in vitroto be produced at the origin of germ tube emergence in phialoconidia and from the growing tip of germ tubes. In addition, a non‐destructive immunoblotting technique showed that the enzyme was secreted during active growth ofTrichoderma asperellummycelium in peat. TheRhizoctonia solani‐specific monoclonal antibody (EH2) similarly binds to a protein epitope of a glycoprotein that is secreted during active mycelial growth. Extracts derived from lyophilized mycelium were used as a quantifiable and repeatable source of antigens for construction of calibration curves. These curves were used to convert the absorbance values obtained in ELISA tests of peat extracts to biomass equivalents, which allowed comparisons of the saprotrophic growth dynamics of the pathogen and antagonists to be made in single or mixed species microcosms.Trichodermaspecies were able to compete successfully withR. solanifor nutrients and to prevent saprotrophic growth of the pathogen. Specificity of theTrichodermaquantitative assay was tested in non‐sterile soil‐based microcosms artificially inoculated withT. asperellum. The assay was highly specific and only detectedT. asperellumpopulation dynamics. No cross‐reactivity was found with extracts from soil samples containing contaminant fungi.
Polymerase chain reaction denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of the N2‐fixing bacterial diversity in soil under Acacia tortilis ssp. raddiana and Balanites aegyptiaca in the dryland part of Senegal
Authors: Demba Diallo Moudjahidou , Willems Anne , Vloemans Nele , Cousin Sylvie , Vandekerckhove Tom T. , De Lajudie Philippe , Neyra Marc , Vyverman Wim , Gillis Monique , Van der Gucht Katleen
Published: March 2004

Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) of amplified nifH gene fragments was used to study the diazotrophic community of soil samples under Acacia tortilis ssp. raddiana (legume tree) and Balanites aegyptiaca (non‐legume tree), two dominant plant species growing naturally in the dryland part of Senegal. Samples were taken along transects from the stem up to 10 m distance from it, at depths of 0–0.25 m and 0.25–0.50 m. Sampling was done in the dry season (25 June 1999) and in the rainy season (28 August 1999). The community structure and diversity of the bacterial groups from the different samples was analysed further using different techniques, such as statistical analysis and diversity index evaluation of the band patterns. Diazotrophic diversity was lower under B. aegyptiaca than under A. tortilis ssp. raddiana. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis and ANOSIM tests showed a significant effect of the tree on the diazotroph assemblages. SIMPER analysis showed that the major elements responsible for the dissimilarity are a member of the genus Sinorhizobium, which is characteristic of the samples taken under A. tortilis ssp. raddiana and a member of the cluster Bradyrhizobium for the samples taken under B. aegyptiaca. Forty‐four major bands were partially sequenced, yielding 33 different nifH sequences, which were used in phylogenetic reconstructions. Most sequences were affiliated with the alpha‐ beta‐ and gamma‐proteobacteria. Five nifH sequences were identical to those of Pseudomonas stutzeri, and one sequence showed 100% similarity to that of Azotobacter vinelandii. Four bands were affiliated with the Cyanobacteria and a single one with the Firmicutes. For both trees, there were also clear differences between the samples taken in the dry and rainy seasons. Only for the samples taken under A. tortilis ssp. raddiana was a significant difference found between the two sampling depths.
N‐acyl‐l‐homoserine lactones (AHLs) affect microbial community composition and function in activated sludge
Authors: Valle Anna , Bailey Mark J. , Whiteley Andrew S. , Manefield Mike
Published: March 2004

The role of intercellular signalling in the regulation of genes and phenotypes in a broad range of bacterial species is now firmly established. In contrast, the impact of intercellular signalling on microbial community parameters, such as species diversity and function, is less well understood. In this study the role of N‐acyl‐l‐homoserine lactones (AHLs) in microbial community dynamics in an industrial wastewater treatment system is addressed. Seven proteobacterial strains producing compounds with AHL‐like activity were isolated from the treatment plant. Three of these belong to genera with no previously identified AHL producing species. Addition of AHLs at 2 µM to sludge samples generated changes in both community function (phenol degradation) and composition as determined by length heterogeneity PCR and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Phenol degradation was more stable as a result of the AHL augmentation. A dominant functional member of the Thauera genus was transiently supplanted by a member of the Comomonas genus in response to AHL addition. This suggests that AHLs can play a role in mediating microbial community parameters and has implications for ecosystem function and industrial wastewater treatment.
An Analysis of the General Practice Access Scheme on GP Incomes, Bulk Billing and Consumer Copayments
Authors: Savage Elizabeth , Jones Glenn
Published: March 2004

In response to falling rates of bulk billing, in April 2003 the Australian Government proposed changes to the way that general practitioners (GPs) are reimbursed. It claimed that the General Practice Access Scheme (GPAS) would benefit all Australians by providing more affordable access to GP services and improved access to free GP consultations for concession cardholders. This article examines the likely impacts of the GPAS, focusing on the proposed changes to bulk billing and payments to GPs. It examines the current spatial distribution of bulk billing and discusses how the package changes the incentives for GPs to charge patients and likely impacts on GP income, patient copayments and bulk billing rates.
Moving towards an Improved Microsimulation Model of the Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme
Authors: Brown Laurie , Abello Annie , Phillips Ben , Harding Ann
Published: March 2004

Finding ways of curbing government expenditure on the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) while maintaining social equity and access to ‘essential’ medicines is at the centre of ongoing public debate. This article describes a microsimulation model of the PBS that simulates current and future use and costs of PBS medicines under existing and different PBS policy settings, and estimates the distributional effects of policy changes. The article outlines future developments that will extend the current model to include health outcomes. Adding health outcomes will enable the debate on PBS sustainability to be advanced beyond the prevailing cost‐containment mentality to consider not only the costs of pharmaceutical use but also the benefits that result from the use of these medicines.
Measurement of the Quality of Life for Economic Evaluation and the Assessment of Quality of Life (AQoL) Mark 2 Instrument
Authors: Richardson Jeff , Atherton Day Neil , Peacock Stuart , Iezzi Angelo
Published: March 2004

Including the quality of life in the economic assessment of health and medical services is well established in the literature and a number of multi‐attribute utility (MAU) instruments are available which purport to measure health state utilities. One of these, the Assessment of Quality of Life (AQoL) instrument was developed in Australia and uses Australian importance weights. The present article discusses some of the methodological problems encountered by existing instruments. It outlines the construction of the AQoL Mark 2 and the methodological innovations which have attempted to overcome some of these problems.

Technical and other details may be obtained in Richardson et al. (2003a, 2003b, 2003c) and Peacock et al. (2003). These papers may be accessed from the Health Economics Unit web site at 〈http://heu.buseco.monash.edu.au〉.
Potential Growth and Inflation: Estimates for Australia, the United States and Canada
Authors: Dungey Mardi , Pitchford John
Published: March 2004

Estimates of potential output growth for Australia, the United States and Canada are presented and analysed in this article. We define potential growth as that growth rate consistent with a steady (domestic component of the) inflation rate (SIRG). At around 4 per cent per annum, Australia's SIRG has been relatively stable for the past 30 years, which seems inconsistent with the view that wide‐ranging microeconomic reform in the 1990s raised growth potential. However, we show that the reduction in employment growth in Australia from the 1980s to the 1990s may account for the absence of a rise in potential growth. In Canada and the United States the SIRGs are closer to 3 per cent, and we explore the reasons why potential growth estimates are higher for Australia than for North America. We also discuss why Australia's growth averaged less than its potential in the 1980s and 1990s and the possible use of our estimates for monetary policy purposes.
The Dendroecological Potential of Eucalyptus Camaldulensis Dehnhardt (River Red Gum) from the Barmah Forest, Victoria, Australia
Authors: Argent R. M. , Mcmahon T. A. , Bowler J. M. , Finlayson B. L.
Published: March 2004

The study of tree rings has been used for over 100 years to inform climatic and geomorphological reconstructions. In mainland Australia, no tree species are currently recognised as providing reliable sources for such studies over extensive areas. Eucalyptus camaldulensis is a widely growing species with a growth pattern that is closely linked to high levels of available moisture, such as that associated with floods. The species therefore has the potential to provide palaeoclimatic information that may be of use in hydrological and geomorphological studies. This study initially examines the microstructure of samples of E. camaldulensis taken from the Barmah Forest to assess the applicability of the species to dendroecological investigation. It is found that samples of the species exhibit ring‐like structures, although there are areas of the samples that contain zones of growth without clear ring boundaries. The patterns of growth rings and zones are found to be common to many trees at a site, although the level of variability of pattern from tree to tree is high. Options for future development of the approach described here are to combine ring studies with isotopic‐based analysis to provide a combination of tree age and climatic history.
Federalism: Fuzzy Global Trends
Authors: Coghill Ken
Published: March 2004

This article examines the operation of federalism from the perspective of complex evolving socio‐political systems. Emerging forms of governance that operate through a mix of formal statutory instruments, culture and the effects of fuzzy logic rather than in accordance with formal constitutional provisions are examined. The paper will canvas the implications of this approach for certain specific areas of public administration within the Australian federation.
Negotiating Identities: The Party of Democratic Socialism between East German Regionalism, German National Identity and European Integration
Authors: Oswald Franz
Published: March 2004

For many East Germans, the Party of Democratic Socialism has been a political and social environment in which German national identity, GDR biographies, post‐unification East German experiences and European integration could be successfully negotiated. The PDS enabled GDR identifiers to arrive at a critical evaluation of GDR history while maintaining self‐respect for their individual biographies and avoiding the temptations of GDR nostalgia. As it found its place in the regionalized pluralism of the new German party system, PDS supporters came to terms with the dual transformation that ended the post‐1945 socialist experiment as well as GDR statehood. Far from deepening the continuing cultural divisions between East and West Germans, the expression of regional East German interests and identity by the PDS contributed to the integration of post‐unification German society.
Critical Bioethics: Beyond the Social Science Critique of Applied Ethics
Authors: Hedgecoe Adam M.
Published: March 2004

This article attempts to show a way in which social science research can contribute in a meaningful and equitable way to philosophical bioethics. It builds on the social science critique of bioethics present in the work of authors such as Renée Fox, Barry Hoffmaster and Charles Bosk, proposing the characteristics of a critical bioethics that would take social science seriously.

The social science critique claims that traditional philosophical bioethics gives a dominant role to idealised, rational thought, and tends to exclude social and cultural factors, relegating them to the status of irrelevancies. Another problem is the way in which bioethics assumes social reality divides down the same lines/categories as philosophical theories.

Critical bioethics requires bioethicists to root their enquires in empirical research, to challenge theories using evidence, to be reflexive and to be sceptical about the claims of other bioethicists, scientists and clinicians. The aim is to produce a rigorous normative analysis of lived moral experience.
Doctors in the Decent Society: Torture, Ill‐Treatment and Civic Duty
Authors: Gross Michael L.
Published: March 2004

How should physicians act when faced with corporal punishment, such as amputation, or torture? In most cases, the answer is clear: international law, UN resolutions and universal codes of medical ethics absolutely forbid physicians from countenancing torture and corporal punishment in any form. An acute problem arises, however, in decent societies, but not necessarily liberal states, that are, nonetheless, welcome in the world community. The decent society is often governed, in whole or in part, by religious laws, and while these states abridge various human rights they are peace loving, generally tolerant, and offer their citizens wide avenues for political participation. Under these circumstances the prohibition against corporal punishment and torture weakens, often compelling physicians to participate. This is true in two cases. In Rawls’ hypothetical nation of Kazanistan, Islamic law is the order of the day, and amputations and corporal punishment play an integral part in the execution of traditional Islamic justice. In Israel, torture is sometimes used to elicit the information needed to thwart impending terror attacks. In each case, a physician's participation is essential. In light of the near universal condemnation that accompanies torture and corporal punishment, physicians can only appeal to norms anchored in collective well‐being and concern for life that override respect for human dignity in these societies. Western societies have consistently rejected this reasoning, but it is part and parcel of life in the decent society.
Nota Bene: The Havock, Distraction, and Fury
Authors: Ash Caroline
Published: March 2004

The Storm
. by Daniel Defoe, Richard Hamblyn, Ed. Penguin, London, 2003. 272 pp. £14.99, C$23. ISBN 0-713-99726-5.

Defoe's first book describes the winds and effects of the November 1703 storm that was the first hurricane recorded in Britain.
Characterization of Toxin A-Negative, Toxin B-Positive
Clostridium difficile
Isolates from Outbreaks in Different Countries by Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism and PCR Ribotyping
Authors: van den Berg Renate J. , Claas Eric C. J. , Oyib Duddy H. , Klaassen Corné H. W. , Dijkshoorn Lenie , Brazier Jon S. , Kuijper Ed J.
Published: March 2004

Clinical
Clostridium difficile
isolates of patients with diarrhea or pseudomembranous colitis usually produce both toxin A and toxin B, but an increasing number of reports mention infections due to toxin A-negative, toxin B-positive (A
−
/B
+
) strains. Thirty-nine clinical toxin A
−
/B
+
isolates, and 12 other unrelated isolates were obtained from Canada, the United States, Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, and The Netherlands. The isolates were investigated by high-resolution genetic fingerprinting by use of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and two well-described PCR ribotyping methods. Furthermore, the toxin profile and clindamycin resistance were determined. Reference strains of
C. difficile
representing 30 known serogroups were also included in the analysis. AFLP discriminated 29 types among the reference strains, whereas the two PCR ribotyping methods distinguished 25 and 26 types. The discriminatory power of AFLP and PCR ribotyping among 12 different unrelated isolates was similar. Typing of 39 toxin A
−
/B
+
isolates revealed 2 AFLP types and 2 and 3 PCR ribotypes. Of 39 toxin A
−
/B
+
isolates, 37 had PCR ribotype 017/20 and AFLP type 20 (95%). A deletion of 1.8 kb was seen in 38 isolates, and 1 isolate had a deletion of approximately 1.7 kb in the
tcdA
gene, which encodes toxin A. Clindamycin resistance encoded by the
erm
(B) gene was found in 33 of 39 toxin A
−
/B
+
isolates, and in 2 of the 12 unrelated isolates (
P
< 0.001, chi-square test). We conclude that clindamycin-resistant
C. difficile
toxin A
−
/B
+
strain (PCR ribotype 017/20, AFLP type 20, serogroup F) has a clonal worldwide spread.
Microarray-Based Identification of Bacteria in Clinical Samples by Solid-Phase PCR Amplification of 23S Ribosomal DNA Sequences
Authors: Mitterer Georg , Huber Martin , Leidinger Ernst , Kirisits Claudia , Lubitz Werner , Mueller Manfred W. , Schmidt Wolfgang M.
Published: March 2004

The rapid identification of the bacteria in clinical samples is important for patient management and antimicrobial therapy. We describe a DNA microarray-based PCR approach for the quick detection and identification of bacteria from cervical swab specimens from mares. This on-chip PCR method combines the amplification of a variable region of bacterial 23S ribosomal DNA and the simultaneous sequence-specific detection on a solid phase. The solid phase contains bacterial species-specific primers covalently bound to a glass support. During the solid-phase amplification reaction the polymerase elongates perfectly matched primers and incorporates biotin-labeled nucleotides. The reaction products are visualized by streptavidin-cyanine 5 staining, followed by fluorescence scanning. This procedure successfully identified from pure cultures 22 bacteria that are common causes of abortion and sterility in mares. Using the on-chip PCR method, we also tested 21 cervical swab specimens from mares for the presence of pathogenic bacteria and compared the results with those of conventional bacteriological culture methods. Our method correctly identified the bacteria in 12 cervical swab samples, 8 of which contained more than one bacterial species. Due to the higher sensitivity of the on-chip PCR, this method identified bacteria in five cervical swab samples which were not detected by the conventional identification procedure. Our results show that this method will have great potential to be incorporated into the routine microbiology laboratory.
Evaluation of Recombinant Fragments of
Entamoeba histolytica
Gal/GalNAc Lectin Intermediate Subunit for Serodiagnosis of Amebiasis
Authors: Tachibana Hiroshi , Cheng Xun-Jia , Masuda Gohta , Horiki Noriyuki , Takeuchi Tsutomu
Published: March 2004

We have recently identified a 150-kDa surface antigen of
Entamoeba histolytica
as an intermediate subunit (Igl) of galactose- and
N
-acetyl
-d-
galactosamine-inhibitable lectin, which is a cysteine-rich protein consisting of 1,101 amino acids (aa) and containing multiple CXXC motifs in amino acid sequences. In the present study, full-length Igl except for the signal sequences (aa 14 to 1088) and three fragments of Igl—the N-terminal part (aa 14 to 382), the middle part (aa 294 to 753), and the C-terminal part (aa 603 to 1088)—were prepared in
Escherichia coli
, and the reactivity of these recombinant proteins with sera from patients with amebiasis was examined by means of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Sera from 57 symptomatic patients with amebic liver abscess or amebic colitis, sera from 15 asymptomatic cyst passers, sera from 40 individuals with other protozoan infections, and sera from 50 healthy controls were used. The sensitivity and specificity of the recombinant full-length Igl in the ELISA were 90 and 94%, respectively. When three fragments were used as antigens in the ELISA, the sensitivities were 56% in the N terminus, 92% in the middle part, and 97% in the C terminus. The specificities of the three antigens were 96% in the N terminus and 99% in both the middle and C-terminal fragments. These results demonstrate that Igl is well recognized in not only symptomatic but also asymptomatic patients with
E. histolytica
infection and that the carboxyl terminus of Igl is an especially useful antigen for the serodiagnosis of amebiasis.
Molecular Cloning, Expression, and Serological Evaluation of an 8-Kilodalton Subunit of Antigen B from
Echinococcus multilocularis
Authors: Mamuti Wulamu , Yamasaki Hiroshi , Sako Yasuhito , Nakao Minoru , Xiao Ning , Nakaya Kazuhiro , Sato Naoki , Vuitton Dominique A. , Piarroux Renaud , Lightowlers Marshall W. , Craig Philip S. , Ito Akira
Published: March 2004

Full-length cDNA and genomic DNA encoding an 8-kDa subunit of antigen B from
Echinococcus multilocularis
(designated EmAgB8/1) were isolated from an
E. multilocularis
metacestode cDNA library and a protoscolex genomic DNA library, respectively. The open reading frame of the cDNA clone encodes a polypeptide comprising 85 amino acids with a 20-amino-acid NH
2
-terminal signal sequence, which was confirmed following N-terminal sequencing of the native antigen. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis revealed that the clone encoding EmAgB8/1 is predominantly transcribed in larval
E. multilocularis
. The gene consists of two exons (encoding the signal sequence and mature protein) separated by a 91-bp intron. The mature form was expressed in
Escherichia coli
, and its antigenic reactivity was compared with that of a counterpart, an 8-kDa subunit of antigen B from
Echinococcus granulosus
(EgAgB8/1) by Western blotting and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with serum samples from patients confirmed to have cystic echinococcosis (CE) and alveolar echinococcosis (AE). Recombinant EmAgB8/1 showed positive reactions in Western blots with 81.3% (65 of 80) of serum samples from CE patients and 40.6% (26 of 64) of serum samples from AE patients, while recombinant EgAgB8/1 showed positive reactions with 86% (43 of 50) and 42% (19 of 45) of the serum samples from these CE and AE patients, respectively. By the ELISA, both EmAgB8/1 and EgAgB8/1 exhibited similar positive reactions with 88% (44 of 50) of serum samples from CE patients and 37.8% (17 of 45) serum samples from AE patients. Statistical analysis revealed that the sensitivity of EmAgB8/1 was comparable to that of EgAgB8/1 for the serodiagnosis of echinococcal diseases. There was no cross-reaction with sera from patients with cysticercosis, which often cross-react when native antigens are used for serodiagnosis.