bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Can Post-Oil Spill Patterns of Change be Used to Infer Recovery?
Authors: Kimura Scott , Steinbeck John
Published: January 2013

Assessing recovery from oil spills in areas not previously studied must be based on comparisons of changes in affected areas to changes in unaffected areas. The present study on impacts and recovery in intertidal biological communities affected by the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska, began after the spill. The study was designed to contrast recovery processes of two types of oiled stations: (1) stations that were treated with hot water delivered at high pressure to remove oil from the shorelines, and (2) untreated stations. Natural variation in species composition and abundance was concurrently monitored at unoiled stations. Correspondence analyses of data collected at rocky mid-intertidal stations from 1989 to 1997 show that unoiled algal assemblages remained relatively unchanged. Algal assemblages at treated and untreated oiled stations returned to patterns of species composition and abundance similar to those at unoiled stations. The convergence of patterns provides evidence of recovery. In contrast, changes in invertebrate abundances were characterized by high year-to-year variation that exceeded within year differences among oiled and unoiled stations. Convergence of patterns was not clearly evident in the analysis, and any recovery in the invertebrates can only be based on the fact that variations observed at the oiled stations appeared as great as natural variation. These results indicate that recovery for some species can be assessed when post-spill monitoring occurs for a sufficient length of time, but is also dependent on characteristics of the study design.
Innovative International Protection Efforts in Washington and British Columbia Waters
Authors: McCreery Scott L.
Published: January 2013

In recognition of the value of the marine resources throughout Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca and its approaches along the Washington coast and the outer coast of British Columbia, several recent international collaborations have been undertaken which provide important information regarding vessel tracking through these sensitive areas.

The first endeavor, undertaken by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (OCNMS), involves the utilization of a desktop Geographic Information System (GIS) to analyze and display vessel track data collected by the Canadian Coast Guard from their radar-based Cooperative Vessel Traffic Management System (CVTMS) located at Tofino on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. The OCNMS system has allowed Sanctuary managers to verify compliance by mariners with guidance regarding the Area To Be Avoided (ATBA) within and proximal to the OCNMS.

A second undertaking, enacted by an international coalition of marine shipping industry interests, involves the near real-time tracking of tugboat assets within the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Puget Sound, and the Strait of Georgia. The International Tug of Opportunity System (ITOS) involves the use of a Differential Geographic Positioning System (DGPS) and radio modem-based Automated Information System (AIS) whereby the positions of participating tugboats are tracked in near real-time, displayed on an Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS), and integrated with a database containing critical information about tugboat capabilities. ITOS watchstanders can identify the nearest available participating resources to any vessel requiring assistance and provide the U.S. or Canadian Coast Guard or the vessel master with time-critical emergency contact information.
The Analysis of Escort Requirements for Tank Vessels in Prince William Sound
Authors: Harraid John R. , Merrick Jason , Mazzuchi Thomas A. , Dorp J. Rene Van
Published: January 2013

The Prince William Sound Risk Assessment was a joint project of Det Norske Veritas (DNV), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI), and The George Washington University (GWU). The aim of the project was to assess the baseline risk of the system and then to test the effect of proposed risk interventions on the system risk. DNV used a fault tree approach to assess the accident risk, while GWU used a combination of a discrete-event simulation and expert judgment techniques. However, neither of these approaches was found to be sufficient to assess the effect of alternative escort schemes on the system risk. In this paper, three alternative escort schemes are considered for outbound laden tankers in the PWS oil transportation system: continuous escort with two escort vessels, standby coverage, and a combination of a single continuous escort and standby vessels. The approach used takes propulsion and steering failure events sampled from the GWU system simulation and simulates the drift path of the tanker. The drift model incorporates the effect of the dynamically simulated wind, the momentum of the tanker and the current. The advantages and disadvantages of each escort scheme are compared.
Spill Response Strategies for Rivers in a Remote Deltaic Environment
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Douglas Lance
Published: January 2013

A development project in Alaska is in progress that will connect a remote producing oil field in the Colville River delta to the North Slope gathering line system and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. The delta has a complex distributary channel system and a short (3-month) open-water season. During winter months the region is frozen and access is not a constraint for spill response operations. By contrast in the open-water season, east-west access between sites is made difficult by the north-south trending channel system and by the shallow water depths in many of the channels during non-flood stages. The generation of a summer spill response strategy for this production project initially identified the potential sources from which oil could enter this delta system and then upon the likely pathways for the spreading of spilled oil during the open-water season. A series of individual response strategies associated with each scenario was developed.

The objectives of the summer response strategies are either to (1) minimize the spread of spilled oil downstream and towards the Arctic Ocean, or (2) protect sensitive habitats, such as tapped lakes that connect to the delta channels. Effective spill response actions in this remote environment are possible by adopting strategies based upon pre-deployed or pre-staged equipment. With this concept, seasonal controls for containing the spread of oil would be in place at a number of locations, and, for other sites, the initial response would require only the deployment of personnel to effect control of the spilled oil, as equipment would be already located and ready for on-site deployment.
Protecting Fur Seals During Spill Response: Lessons from the San Jorge (Uruguay) Oil Spill
Authors: Mearns Alan J. , Levine Ed , Yender Ruth , Helton Douglas , Loughlin Thomas
Published: January 2013

Nearly 5,000 2- to 3-month old South American fur seal pups were oiled and/or died as a result of a February 1997, 5,000-metric ton crude oil spill near Punta del Este, Uruguay. After consultation with international experts, the Uruguayan government commissioned small teams (three to five people) of trained military technicians (totaling 30–45 people) who cleaned most of the heavily oiled areas manually using buckets, shovels, small hand tools, specially-treated peat moss, and small driftwood fires. Waste materials were bagged and transported to a mainland facility for treatment. Dead pups were placed into well-marked rocky cemeteries and treated with quicklime. Despite the mortality, the low-technology response was a success because it added no additional injury to the affected populations. Lessons from this international experience are being used to develop cleanup and protection plans for other fur seal rookery areas, including Alaska's ?ribilof Islands.
The Effect of Bioremediation on Microbial Populations in an Oil-Contaminated Coastal Wetland
Authors: Townsend Richard T. , Bonner James S. , Autenrieth Robin l.
Published: January 2013

A series of controlled crude oil applications was carried out in a Texas coastal wetland to determine the effectiveness of bioremediation in these sensitive areas. The first application, conducted in 1996, was performed to assess the use of diammonium phosphate and diammonium phosphate plus a potential electron acceptor (nitrate) to stimulate microbial growth and subsequent hydrocarbon degradation. The second application, conducted in 1997, was performed to determine the potential of two commercial bioaugmentation products to enhance hydrocarbon biodegradation. Diammonium phosphate was also re-evaluated during this phase as a bio stimulation treatment. For both applications, sediment samples from all oiled test plots showed exponential increases in the numbers of aliphatic hydrocarbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-degrading microorganisms. Average numbers of aliphatic-degrading and PAH-degrading microorganisms were slightly higher (though not significantly higher) than populations on oiled control plots on most sample days. The bioaugmentation products and diammonium phosphate treatment examined during the second application did not significantly increase the numbers of hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms (aliphatic-degraders or PAH-degraders). Overall, the microbial populations from both phases of research illustrated a well-documented response to a petroleum hydrocarbon input. Although the bioremediation treatments did not appear to significantly increase these populations, this data will be evaluated with nutrient and petroleum hydrocarbon data to determine the effectiveness of bioremediation in wetland areas.
Optimum Nitrogen Concentration Supporting Maximum Crude Oil Biodegradation in Microcosms
Authors: Du Xiaoming , Reeser Paul , Suidan Makram T. , Huang Tiehong , Moteleb Moustafa , Boufadel Michel C. , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

The purpose of this study was to determine the minimum nitrogen concentration needed by microorganisms to biodegrade crude oil hydrocarbons attached to sand particles in a microcosm simulating a low energy marine beach. The experimental approach involved mixing clean sand with weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil and monitoring biodegradation in continuous-flow beach microcosms over a 40-day time period. Two experiments were conducted with different nitrate-N concentrations in the feed (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.5, 5.0 mg/L in the first experiment and 2.5, 5.0, 10, 25, and 50 mg/L in the second). Experimental results indicated that nitrate concentrations below approximately 10 mg/L limited the rate of crude oil biodegradation. This conclusion was supported by oxygen uptake, CO2 production, nitrate consumption, and biomass growth data.
Looking Backwards: How Do You Get Paid?1
Authors: White Carolyn M.
Published: January 2013

While a number of factors play a significant role in an oil spill response, of critical interest to every participant is money: how much and who pays! A responsible party clearly cares about the ultimate cost figure for a response; its insurer is very interested in that figure but may have quite a different view on its obligations. Contractors and subcontractors want to be paid fully and promptly, as do third parties who may suffer damages. The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC), the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF or the Fund), and insurers become key players after the event in cost recovery and payment for damages.

Despite these sometimes conflicting interests, every response participant can benefit from understanding the standards applied by payors. Based on the standards and procedures for making claims, the participant can create a system that helps in collecting costs or damages. This paper briefly describes the sources of funding, and the standards and process for submitting claims for response costs and damages related to spills in U.S. waters. It then offers suggestions and tools for documenting decisions and costs in a way that enhances the ability to get paid.
The Pipeline Industry-Planning and Exercising: Is Industry Deriving Full Benefit from Lessons Learned?1
Authors: Epler Glenn F. , Hunt Walter (Bud)
Published: January 2013

The National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) was developed to provide a mechanism for compliance with the exercise requirements established under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), while being economically feasible for the government and the oil industry to adopt and sustain. PREP provides the opportunity for both the government and oil industry to participate in a standardized exercise program to meet all OPA 90 mandated exercise requirements. The guidelines also state that plan holders are responsible for addressing issues that arise from the evaluation of exercises, and for making changes to the response plans necessary to ensure the highest level of preparedness.

This paper outlines the planning and exercise program established by the Department of Transportation's Office of Pipeline Safety for onshore transportation-related pipelines. It presents a compilation of lessons learned from over 45 unannounced exercises conducted since 1996, which identified improvements in the area of emergency management. The report also chronicles the oil pipeline industry's revisions to response plans based on recommendations from the PREP exercises. Finally, the report offers recommendations to ensure that the pipeline industry incorporates the lessons learned from PREP into its response plans and corporate response structure.
Putting Response and Natural Resource Damage Costs in Perspective1
Authors: Helton Douglas , Penn Tony
Published: January 2013

The total private and social cost of oil spills is of great interest to industry, responders, and regulators, but relatively few incidents have been examined in detail. Furthermore, publicly available cost data are often limited to state and federal response costs and natural resource damage settlements. Significant categories of costs, such as private response costs, third-party claims, and vessel or facility repair costs, are often not publicly available. Failure to consider these additional cost categories may result in erroneous conclusions regarding the total cost of spills and the relative significance of any one cost category. In this paper the authors update their previous analysis (Helton et al., 1997) on the various categories of costs that may result from spill incidents. The authors present and discuss the costs for a number of incidents representing a range of spill volumes and locations. The authors' data show that, contrary to the perception, costs for natural resource damages and assessment comprise only a small portion of total liability from an oil spill.
Guidelines for Selecting Appropriate Cleanup Endpoints at Oil Spills
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Benggio Bradford
Published: January 2013

Target cleanup endpoints need to be established early in a response so that cleanup methods can be designed to meet the spill-specific requirements. Endpoints are selected based on cleanup objectives, which are to: (1) minimize exposure hazards for human health; (2) speed recovery of impacted areas; and (3) reduce the threat of additional or prolonged natural resource impacts. The selection of the best cleanup strategy, therefore, is often not the one that removes most of the oil, but only the oil that poses a greater risk than the cleanup action, or leaving the oil to be removed by natural processes. To provide guidance to cleanup decision makers, the authors have proposed a hierarchy of cleanup endpoints that consider this concept. The hierarchy consists of five degrees of cleanliness, and guidelines for when to select the appropriate cleanup endpoint. In addition, guidelines and considerations for application of cleanup endpoints are provided for each shoreline type.
OSRO Classifications Program: Old Topic, New Look1
Authors: Rinelli Robert A.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Spill Classification Program has had it ups and downs. Over the past 6 years the mandates of the Federal Government, the needs of the oil industry, and the desires of the Oil Spill Removal Organizations (OSROs) have been difficult to balance. The many changes that the program has undergone have been primarily due to our customer's needs; however, are we really sure who the customer is? Is it the American public or has it become the OSROs themselves? Have we forgotten that the program was conceived as a planner's writer's tool? The ongoing development of the Response Resource Inventory (RRI) and the OSRO Classification Program has been cause for both alarm and optimism. The job is difficult and many “cracks in the systems” have been identified; however, the potential for a truly outstanding and beneficial program is great. So we continue to move forward and the future is bright!
Do You Really Want to be the Government's Partner?: Corporate and Government Investigations of Oil Spills1
Authors: White Carolyn M.
Published: January 2013

Failure to attend to causation and liability issues as soon as an incident occurs in the United States will haunt any (potentially) responsible party long after the actual response efforts have ended. Even during the often chaotic phase of initial response efforts, it is critical for responsible parties to have a system in place for handling internal investigations as well as responding to government inquiries. This paper describes issues and procedures that should be planned well in advance of a spill, and suggests specific steps for a company to follow to protect its interests during an internal company or external government investigation. Topics include preserving physical evidence, protecting the confidentiality of internal investigative records, identifying when the government is in an investigatory role, protecting the company and individuals during government interviews, and managing the resources dedicated to responding to an investigation while also cleaning up the spill.
Fishing and Harvesting Bans in Oil Spill Response
Authors: Moller T. H. , Dicks Brian , Whittle K. J. , Girin Michel
Published: January 2013

Fishing and aquaculture harvesting bans are increasingly used as an oil spill management tool, with the intention of protecting public health and consumer markets. Such bans are easily imposed, but a rational basis is needed for maintaining and lifting them. Scientific criteria offer the best prospect for administering fishery bans in a consistent way, but recent marine pollution incidents reveal contradictions in their application. Inconsistencies can be found when comparing oil spills in different countries, and also when the response to different types of pollutant are compared. This paper explores the approaches for managing activity bans in the fisheries sector following oil spills. Examples are drawn from recent oil spills attended in North America, Europe, and Asia. Recommendations are made for caution to be exercised in the application of fishing and harvesting bans and for the adoption of sound criteria for monitoring their effectiveness.
Relevance of the National “Mussel Watch” Program To Seafood Fisheries Management Issues During Oil Spill Response
Authors: Mearns Alan J. , O'Connor Thomas P. , Lauenstein Gunnar G.
Published: January 2013

Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in U.S. coastal mussels and oysters sampled in 1995 and 1996 range 500-fold, from about 8 parts per billion (ppb) wet weight (ww) in mussels from a site in the Southern California to over 3,000 ppb ww in oysters from several Gulf Coast embayments; the U.S. national mean concentration for 258 sites was about 140 ppb ww or about 700 ppb dry weight (dw). Regions with the lowest background concentrations (less than 30 ppb ww) include Alaska, the open coast of California and western Louisiana. Sites with the highest background concentrations (greater than 1000 ppb ww) include many urban and rural harbors and regions such as Puget Sound. On a nationwide basis there are no longterm decreases or increases in shellfish polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations despite clearly decreasing concentrations for other chemical contaminants. These results are relevant for developing criteria for closing and opening fisheries during responses to oil spills.
Marpol—An Adequate Regime? A Questioning Look At Port and Coastal State Enforcement
Authors: Sahatjian Laurie Crick
Published: January 2013

The Protocol of 1978 relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL 73/78), was adopted to “achieve the complete elimination of intentional pollution of the marine environment by oil … and the minimization of accidental discharge of [oil].” Parties to MARPOL believed this goal could best be achieved by the adoption of an international regime with specific operational and structural requirements for vessels and a comprehensive scheme for the detection and enforcement of violations. MARPOL, together with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, explicitly allocates enforcement among flag, port and coastal states. In recent years, port and coastal states, including the United States, have begun to look beyond MARPOL to domestic law to enforce MARPOL requirements on foreign flag vessels that (1) are suspected of MARPOL violations outside their jurisdiction but voluntarily enter their ports and (2) violate MARPOL while navigating in their coastal waters. The justification often given for more aggressive port state enforcement is inadequate flag state enforcement. Because of this perception, port and coastal states are assuming more enforcement responsibility. The impact of this upon the carefully negotiated international regime could be significant. This scheme, which reflects traditional international law and has been codified in both MARPOL and the Law of the Sea Convention, is at risk. This paper examines the international scheme and recent initiatives that threaten the scheme, and proposes actions to be taken at the international level to address the problems that have resulted in this trend toward less flag state enforcement and to strengthen the relevant international treaties to greater protect the marine environment.
A Response Plan for Deep Sea Blowouts in the North Sea: Monitoring the Subsea Plume
Authors: Uzzell Jesse , Andersen Aage Bjørn
Published: January 2013

The number of deep water drilling projects have increased in the North Sea and in the Gulf of Mexico since 1997, and there exists many uncertainties regarding the fate the of the oil and gas which could be released from a blowout at these great depths (600–1,500 m). Present theory suggests that there is a very good chance that the oil will be entrained beneath a thermocline at a shallower depth and then travel a large distance before any of the oil rises to the surface. In addition, it is estimated that it could take up to 90 days to drill a relief well in the North Sea at such depth. These facts have generated concern among the operators and authorities in Norway, and Det Norske Veritas has developed an operational plan for the monitoring and tracking of the subsea oil which could be released from blowouts at these depths. The measuring of the underwater oil concentration levels must be updated daily and it maybe used in conjunction with three dimensional oil drift models. In the event that the model predictions are incorrect, the monitoring program will still be able to provide an overview of the trajectory of the subsea oil and allow response personnel the time to mobilize for possible impacts near a coastal zone.
Detection and Classification of An Oil Spill Using a Compact Imaging Lidar System
Authors: Yamagishi Susumu , Hitomi Kazuo , Yamanouchi Hiroshi
Published: January 2013

This paper describes a compact imaging lidar system capable of detecting fluorescence of substances excited by the third harmonic of a Nd.YAG laser using a CCD camera with gated image intensifier. The system can be mounted on a small airplane or ship, and will provide the real time image of oil spills and classification of substances for cleanup operations. We demonstrated a technique for measuring the extinction coefficients from the image data of the water Raman scattering. In order to interpret the time-resolved data obtained in the field, fluorescent characteristics of substances were measured with a streak scope in the laboratory between the wavelengths of 350 and 575 nm and with decay times.
Citizens and Industry Working Together To Make Oil Transportation Safer
Authors: Ferry Leann
Published: January 2013

The Prince William Sound Regional Citizens Advisory Council (RCAC) is an independent non-profit corporation promoting the environmentally safe operation of the Alyeska Marine Terminal in Valdez, Alaska, and associated oil tankers. RCAC's work is mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and guided by a contract with Alyeska Pipeline Service Company.

Conflict is inherent in the relationship of citizens, industry, and government. The priorities of the citizens and those of the oil industry are fundamentally different and sometimes directly opposed. Such differences do not preclude citizens, industry and government from sharing environmental objectives.

Joint projects have been especially successful in promoting effective working relationships between citizens, industry and government. Since 1990, RCAC has participated in several projects with the oil industry and government agencies on a wide range of issues including oil spill drills, disabled tanker towing, a tanker risk assessment, non-indigenous species invasions in waterways, and marine fire response capabilities.

When stakeholders develop and manage a project together, disagreements can be identified and worked out early. This can minimize conflict and lead to common ground. Ten years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, citizens, industry, and government are working together in Alaska to make oil transportation safer.
International Oil Industry Approach To Response Planning: The Mediterranean Oil Industry Group
Authors: Lamy Andre , Tramier Bernard , Depraz Sophie , Calonne Eric
Published: January 2013

Environmental issues have long been recognised as international problems that do not respect borders and cannot be handled at a country level without impacting on other nations and territories. The environmental issue of preventing and responding to oil spill incidents crosses international boundaries and affects all countries. Even countries that produce or consume minimal amounts of petroleum products may be at risk due to the transportation of large quantities of oil from producing countries to the consuming countries.

The international oil industry, through the programme of the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association's (IPIECA) is engaged in an effort aimed at enhancing the state of preparedness and response to marine oil spill incidents in coastal locations around the world. The international oil industry approach to response planning is based on the international conventions related to oil spill response and compensation, the Tiered Response concept and the importance of partnerships with all parties.

This paper summarises the international oil industry approach to contingency planning, which has been developed by IPIECA over the past 10 years, with a special focus on activities carried out in the Mediterranean region.
Risk Management Strategies for Pipeline Spill Prevention and Response
Authors: Egan Geoffrey R. , Castle Robert W.
Published: January 2013

Strategies developed to prevent and manage oil spills from pipelines based on the fundamental concepts of risk management are described. Utilizing risk concepts (risk is the product of frequency of an event and its consequences), the usual activities of pipeline operations, maintenance and inspection can be prioritized to minimize costs. Similarly, these concepts, when applied to spill management and response, can provide focus to preventative and response plans by the identification of the high-risk areas or zones. Once the hazards to pipeline integrity are identified, historical data are used as the first step in populating event trees that are used to describe the sequence of events leading to an event or spill. The identification of potential consequences related to pipeline spills involves trajectory analysis, baseline and sensitivity analysis, and the quantification of environmental and infrastructure impact. The tools described have application to existing lines and the design and construction phases of new lines.
New Technologies To Enhance Information Exchange
Authors: Hanson Renn , Hall Christopher , Dana Katherine
Published: January 2013

The increased availability of video cameras, digital cameras, and imaging software has expanded the use of this equipment during oil spills and can improve the ability of observers to relay information in an accurate and timely manner. Digital images may be shared via electronic network, electronic mail or the World Wide Web so remotely located parties can view the same information recently observed by on-scene personnel. Adobe Systems, Inc. has developed Acrobat® software which is ideal for distributing electronic information1. Acrobat® software creates files which can be viewed using a freely distributed application which is easy to use and runs on many operating systems. This poster session demonstrates how digital images can better represent information obtained during spills and demonstrates methods for distributing the information.
Needs, Limitations, and Opportunities of Automated Decision Support Systems
Authors: Walker Ann Hayward , Costanzo Don , Heard Marc , McLain David
Published: January 2013

In the fast-paced environment of oil spill response, management decisions often must be made rapidly for situations that are complex. Researchers previously identified six factors that are critical to achieving a successful oil spill response, one of which specifically concerns information management: “The response system must be able to communicate and manage information internally and externally.” Effective information flow is critical to spill management and expectation management of the public. This paper describes information flow, as it relates to all levels of organizational support during an oil spill response, that is critical to making timely and appropriate decisions. Given the United States' policy to use Incident Command System (ICS) as the preferred management system for oil spill response, the focus of the discussion is on ICS-based management systems. In addition, needs and opportunities for using automated decision support tools in the emergency environment are discussed.
Tracking Spill Response Dollars: From Osro Contract To Invoice Review1
Authors: McLellan William A. , Permenter Floyd R.
Published: January 2013

Cleanup costs for pollution incidents continue to escalate, prompting closer scrutiny of contractor invoices and activity during cleanup operations. Many times this scrutiny results in delayed payments as the responsible party (RP) and oil spill removal organization (OSRO) argue about expectations and debate what is fair and reasonable given the contract terms and specifics of the cleanup. Although both sides appear to have drawn a line in the sand, each is eager to resolve the conflict. As in most disputes, the answer very well may lie in better communications between the parties.
Field Evaluation of a Wireless Electronic Shoreline Cleanup Support System
Authors: Lamarche Alain , Ion John , Rubec Peter , LaVoi A.A. , Winner J. K.
Published: January 2013

A prototype system was designed and assembled to electronically support all the steps involved in the cleanup phase of an oil spill response, from field data acquisition to decision making at a command post. The system included satellite communication, wireless Local Area Networks (LANs), Geographical Information Systems (GIS), and computerized Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Team (SCAT) support software. Field data entry was done using a penpad linked to a wearable computer, including (1) creation of electronic shoreline oiling summary diagrams with the help of a GIS; (2) completion of electronic SCAT forms; (3) exact positioning of oil patches and other spatial information with a differential Global Positioning System (DGPS); and (4) recording of images with a video camera. Information from the field was transmitted through a wireless LAN to a portable computer, which relayed the data via satellite communication to a central facility where information was integrated and analyzed for decision making. The system was evaluated during a number of field trials with personnel from the Bureau of Emergencies Response (state of Florida), normally involved in oil spill response. The evaluation demonstrated that (1) a stand-alone system, including differential GPS capability, was optimal to support SCAT activities in the field; (2) the setup and operation of a wireless LAN was both cumbersome and not worth the improvement in peiformance (reduced transfer time), particularly due to the necessity of deploying unwieldy directional antennas; (3) a major limitation was that the wearable computer's display was not visible under bright sunlight; (4) communication by wireless LAN and satellite network proved feasible, but too difficult to do routinely; (5) the use of computerized software tools in combination with detailed base maps (digital orthoquads) proved to be a huge improvement over the use of pen and paper; (6) the use of an all-electronic environment substantially shortened the length of time necessary to produce decision maps.
Problems and Opportunities Integrating Scat and ICS1
Authors: de Bettencourt Michael , Tarpley John , Ward Kathleen
Published: January 2013

The Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Team (SCAT) process has done a tremendous amount to standardize the language of shoreline impact and cleanup needs over the past 8 years. The SCAT process has been standardized regionally, and this process now generates a tremendous amount of information in a very short period of time. However, the SCAT-generated information can be extremely complicated and dense. In the urgency of the oil spill crisis, the information is often filtered and distilled down to a point where it is so generalized that it is nearly useless. This inability to manage critical information often wastes valuable resources and time.

To better manage the information and decision making associated with shoreline cleanup, the SCAT process must be fully integrated into the Incident Command System (ICS). The information generated by the SCAT must not only be thorough, the spill management team and the supervisors in the field must easily understand it.

This paper discusses the problems and opportunities associated with integrating the SCAT process and the ICS planning process.
OSC2: A Combined ICS Forms, Database, and Trajectory Model System
Authors: Anderson Eric , Galagan Chris , Howlett Eoin , Jensen Donald S.
Published: January 2013

The On-Scene Command and Control (OSC2) system has been developed for the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) under the direction of Headquarters (HQ), Research & Development (R&D) Center, and National Strike Force. The prototype system is now being used by the Atlantic Strike Team (AST) for PREP government-led area exercise use in an evaluation program. The OSC2 system manages the Incident Command System (ICS) forms, an underlying data base of spill response resources, and an oil spill model system, complete with a GIS user interface. An underlying geographic database contains vector maps of the land and water masses and raster marine charts. ICS Divisions/Groups and their Locations are mapped onto this geographic view. Resource allocations can be viewed and changes made both through the map view and the ICS forms view. The system keeps a history of all status changes. The strengths of the system are its adherence to ICS methodology, its complete underlying database structure, and its versatility in combining the map view and the data base view of the response situation and management. The system enables a complete and consistent review of all planned resource allocation for a spill or exercise.
Automated Contingency Plans
Authors: Heard Marc E. , Costanzo Don , Cassas Don , Walker Ann Hayward
Published: January 2013

In the fast paced environment of a response drill or incident, response personnel need reliable, accurate, and sensible information at their disposal. Many functional units need the ability to access this information. Additionally, these functional units need to start generating; status reports, response costs, and Incident Command System (ICS) forms. With automated contingency plans, response organizations take a significant step towards moving from a reactive emergency management mode to a project management response mode.

Through automation, organizations can take what was previously hard copy response plan data and load it in the computer. During steady state this data is easily maintainable and transferable to other similar contingency plans. The incremental cost of maintaining current plans and producing new ones is significantly reduced. With the contingency plans loaded, users can simulate “what-if” scenarios by changing resource allocations, response strategies, or command structures. However, the real benefit of automated contingency plans is their seamless integration into a response drill or actual incident.

With the click of a button, the automated contingency plan becomes active and instantly provides the starting point of the response. Based on the steady state decisions called for in the plan, operations command units are established, resource requisitions are immediately generated, and ICS reports are automatically updated. As operation resources change and the dynamic nature of the response continues, the scenario is easily updated.

At the conclusion of a drill or incident, the response information is available to analyze or use a starting point for the next drill. This database of information can also be used to target specific functional areas such as procurement or transportation.
A Rapid Assessment Program for Improving Natural Resource Damage Assessments
Authors: Reilly Timothy J. , Helton Douglas
Published: January 2013

Assessing the impacts of oil spills requires the collection of a variety of biological, chemical and socio-economic data. However, the dynamic nature of oil spills necessitates the collection of data very soon after an incident. In 1992, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Damage Assessment Center (NOAA DAC) established a Rapid Assessment Program (RAP) to insure the collection of data necessary to characterize the nature and extent of ecological and public use injuries. The RAP maintains a team of trained and equipped government and contract personnel to initiate injury assessment activities on a 24-hour-per-day, 7-day-per-week basis. Further, the RAP sponsors research, develops assessment methodologies, and provides annual training to RAP personnel in order to continually enhance rapid assessment capabilities.
Providing Successful Scat Data Management Support During Spill Response
Authors: Lamarche Alain , Ion Jack , Owens Edward H. , Rubec Peter
Published: January 2013

Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Teams (SCAT) are now used worldwide to assess oiled shorelines as part of response cleanup activities. The amount of SCAT information gathered during surveys can be very large, with the possibility of overwhelming decision makers. New tools are now available to automate the processing of SCAT information. For example, dedicated computerized SCAT data management systems have been used during the Iron Baron (Tasmania) and Kure (California) incidents. More recently, a prototype system was developed by the State of Florida to electronically support all the steps involved in the cleanup phase of an oil spill response. Given this, when should computerized SCAT data management be used and at what level? An analysis of the work performed during recent spills involving SCAT activity provided answers to these questions. Some of the main findings include the following: (1) computerized systems can decrease the time necessary to gather data and increase the accuracy of the captured data; (2) computerized systems decrease the data turnover time and speed up the decision-making cycle; (3) an all-electronic computerized system can become essential in cases where the length of oiled shoreline is very large with respect to the number of SCAT survey teams; (4) for large spills, the increased cost of an all-electronic system may outweigh the cost of not being prepared.
Sub-Area Contingency Planning Across Multiple Federal Region Boundaries: The Huntington Environmental Response Operations Plan1
Authors: Moon Sean K. , Laws Shane M. , III George H. Burns
Published: January 2013

Faced with a complex boundary set and minimal existing plans for pollution response operations in the marine environment, the U.S. Captain of the Port Huntington, West Virginia, developed the Huntington Environmental Response Operations (HERO) Plan. Unique in that its format is completely based on the Incident Command System/Unified Command Structure, the HERO Plan offers a model format for consideration for other planners. Additionally, the plan development process is a case study in resolving the cross-boundary planning problems associated with multiple jurisdictions.
The Application of Remote-Sensing Techniques To Create a Black Sea Coastal Response Strategy for Oil Spill Response
Authors: Urban Robert W. , Hanlon William J.
Published: January 2013

The application of remote satellite imaging, coupled with Geographic Information System (GIS) technology has been used to create coastal maps enhanced with environmental information. The use of such techniques for oil spill response requires the development of practical applications to assist responders with real-time decision making. In a joint effort with regional navies for Black Sea spill contingency planning, the U.S. Navy has developed methods by which a quick, accurate, and economical application of existing technology can be used to produce data rich maps for a large area of interest. This combines various existing techniques to create practical applications and usable documents for oil spill planners and responders.

Existing environmental data on a selected area of the Black Sea coastal zone was collected and this information was sorted, harmonized and transposed onto a rectified multispectral satellite image of the area in a GIS format. Multispectral analysis was performed on the image to locate environmentally distinct zones. The resulting multi-layered GIS map provides a useful representation of coastal environmental sensitivities, and in many ways surpasses conventional GIS systems. The satellite image provides an accurate and real-time map of the area while the multispectral data precisely locates common ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. This allows for the rapid prioritization of coastal areas and the ability to pinpoint specific areas for protection.

The resulting process provides emergency responders the ability to quickly and efficiently create a data rich GIS. This system will provide reliable, timely information for protection strategies, identifying environmental and public risks, and offer a basis by which to measure spill impacts and recovery techniques, especially in areas where environmental reference data is limited.
Managing The Environmental Data of a Spill Event
Authors: Turton David J. , Boehm Paul D. , Gouveia Dean A. , Amman Michael , O'Brien Patrick , Menard Glenn
Published: January 2013

Data is critical to decision making during any spill event. This data can include information on spill movement, weather and other environmental influences, chemical and physical characterization of the released materials, resources at risk, and sampling and analysis information. To assemble this data for on-site decision making, and for post-spill analysis, the authors have developed a Spill Response Database Application (SRDA). SRDA integrates inventory and imaging, database, and geographical information systems (GIS) capabilities. Database capabilities provide for the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of information. The Sample Information module provides a means for tracking samples and the results. The GIS capabilities provide a graphical interface for integrating data and communicating issues in a quick and efficient manner. Users can build and view a map of the evolving event along with information from the database such as sample locations, analytical results, documents, and photos. Centralizing and organizing the data provides the team with quick access to a wide range of data on environmental-related issues that facilitates better communication and decision making. In addition, at the conclusion of the event the team returns with a comprehensive record of the event in digital format that can be utilized for post-spill reporting or analysis.
The Sea Empress Oil Spill: Fisheries Closure and Removal of Restrictions
Authors: Law Robin J. , Kelly Carole A.
Published: January 2013

A precautionary fishery closure area was established following the Sea Empress oil spill in 1996, and the restrictions progressively removed as contamination declined. All controls had been removed by September 1997, approximately 19 months after the initial grounding of the tanker. In this paper the authors outline the criteria by which the residual contamination was assessed, in the absence of standards or guideline values for PAH levels in U.K. legislation. The limitations of this approach in respect to contamination in this area from sources other than the Sea Empress, and the background levels of contamination by PAHs in shellfish production areas elsewhere in England and Wales, are discussed.
Response of Infaunal Bivalves to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill and Related Shoreline Treatment
Authors: Lees Dennis C. , Driskell William B. , Houghton Jonathan P.
Published: January 2013

Infaunal bivalves monitored in Prince William Sound intertidal sediments between 1990 through 1996 appear to have been affected more by shoreline treatment than by exposure to oil. Lower numbers were observed at oiled but treated (Category 3) sites whereas highest numbers were observed at reference (Category 1) sites. Species richness, very similar at reference and oiled but untreated (Category 2) sites after 1990, declined slightly during the study. Abundance, also quite similar at reference and Category 2 sites, peaked in 1992 or 1993 and then gradually declined through the remaining years. In contrast, averages for Category 3 sites exhibited no apparent trends representing recovery. Differences in both variables were highly significant between reference and Category 2 sites, on one hand, and Category 3 sites, on the other hand.

Dominance patterns and behavior provide important insights into the effects of the spill, shoreline treatment, and the recovery process. Mysella tumida, Macoma spp., and Protothaca staminea dominated at reference and Category 2 sites but were far less common at Category 3 sites. These dominant species generally are relatively long-lived, slowly reproducing species that bury up to several centimeters below the surface of stable sediments. Mysella is typically commensal with larger burrowing species that are mostly absent or uncommon at Category 3 sites. In contrast, Hiatella arctica, the dominant at Category 3 sites, is an opportunist that nestles on the surface of disturbed sediments.