bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Initiation and progression of atherosclerosis – enzymatic or oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein?
Authors: Torzewski Michael , Lackner Karl J.
Published: December 2006

Atherosclerosis is widely regarded as a chronic inflammatory disease that develops as a consequence of entrapment of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in the arterial intima. Native LDL lacks inflammatory properties, so the lipoprotein must undergo biochemical alterations to become atherogenic. Among several other candidates, two different concepts of lipoprotein modification are propagated, the widespread oxidation hypothesis and the less common E-LDL hypothesis, which proposes that modification of LDL occurs through the action of ubiquitous hydrolytic enzymes (enzymatically modified LDL or E-LDL) rather than oxidation. By clearly distinguishing between the initiation and progression of atherosclerotic lesion development, this article reviews comparative studies of both types of lipoprotein modification and submits a viewpoint for discussion proposing that these lipoprotein modifications do not really compete, but rather complement one another. According to this concept, E-LDL might be more important for the initiation of atherosclerosis, while oxidative modification of LDL might be more helpful for diagnosis and prognosis of the disease.

Clin Chem Lab Med 2006;44:1389–94.
Blood transfusions in athletes. Old dogmas, new tricks
Authors: Lippi Giuseppe , Banfi Giuseppe
Published: December 2006

Blood doping consists of any illicit means used to increase and optimize oxygen delivery to the muscles and includes blood transfusions, administration of erythropoiesis-stimulating substances, blood substitutes, natural or artificial altitude facilities, and innovative gene therapies. The use of blood transfusion, an extremely straightforward, practical and effective means of increasing an athlete's red blood-cell supply in advance of competition, became rather popular in the 1970s, but it has suddenly declined following the widespread use of recombinant human erythropoietin among elite endurance athletes. Most recently, following implementation of reliable tests to screen for erythropoiesis-stimulating substances, blood transfusions have made a strong resurgence, as attested by several positive doping tests. Doping by blood transfusion can be classified as homologous, where the blood is infused into someone other than the donor, and autologous, where the blood donor and transfusion recipient are the same. The former case produces more clinically relevant side effects, but is easily detectable using current antidoping protocols based on erythrocyte phenotyping by flow cytometry and, eventually, erythrocyte genotyping by DNA testing. Since the donor and recipient blood are identical in autologous blood doping, this is less risky, though much more challenging to detect. Indirect strategies, relying on significant deviations from individual hematological profiles following autologous blood donation and reinfusion, are currently being investigated. For the time being, the storage of athletes' blood samples to allow testing and sanctioning of guilty athletes once a definitive test has been introduced may represent a reliable deterrent policy.

Clin Chem Lab Med 2006;44:1395–402.
Interpretation of cardiac troponin T behaviour in size-exclusion chromatography
Authors: Michielsen Etienne C.H.J. , Diris Jart H.C. , Kleijnen Vincent W.V.C. , Wodzig Will K.W.H. , Van Dieijen-Visser Marja P.
Published: December 2006

Clin Chem Lab Med 2006;44:1422–7.
AMPA/Kainate Receptors Drive Rapid Output and Precise Synchrony in Olfactory Bulb Granule Cells
Authors: Schoppa Nathan E.
Published: December 2006

Gamma frequency (30–70 Hz) synchronized oscillatory activity in the olfactory bulb is widely believed to be important for odor detection and discrimination. As in other circuits with “gamma activity,” the activity in the bulb is driven by GABAergic interneurons, specifically a class of axonless cells called granule cells. However, bulb granule cells appear to lack some key mechanistic features that promote rapid synchrony in other circuits, including direct electrical interconnections and dominant actions for fast neurotransmitter receptors. At least under “static” stimulus conditions, granule cells are driven by kinetically slow NMDA receptors. Here, I used patch-clamp recordings in rat olfactory bulb slices to better understand mechanisms that shape granule cell activity under “dynamic” stimulus conditions that mimic a natural odor stimulus. During a 4 Hz patterned stimulation of olfactory nerve afferents, activation of single granule cells was primarily controlled by two classes of AMPA/kainate receptor-mediated synaptic inputs derived from output mitral cells. The rapid kinetics of these receptors, together with inactivation of A-type potassium channels, ensured that granule cells had short spike-response times. Studies in cell pairs, moreover, indicated that excitatory inputs could synchronize granule cells on a rapid time scale (2–5 ms), in turn resulting in phase-locked GABA release onto mitral cells. The precision of granule cell synchrony was controlled by the same biophysical mechanisms that promoted rapid single-cell spiking. These studies demonstrate the mechanistic underpinnings that transform a circuit with slow, uncoupled activity under static conditions into a fast, dynamic circuit operating with high precision under physiological conditions.
Ephrin-As and Patterned Retinal Activity Act Together in the Development of Topographic Maps in the Primary Visual System
Authors: Pfeiffenberger Cory , Yamada Jena , Feldheim David A.
Published: December 2006

The development of topographic maps in the primary visual system is thought to rely on a combination of EphA/ephrin-A interactions and patterned neural activity. Here, we characterize the retinogeniculate and retinocollicular maps of mice mutant for ephrins-A2, -A3, and -A5 (the three ephrin-As expressed in the mouse visual system), mice mutant for the β2 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (that lack early patterned retinal activity), and mice mutant for both ephrin-As and β2. We also provide the first comprehensive anatomical description of the topographic connections between the retina and the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. We find that, although ephrin-A2/A3/A5 triple knock-out mice have severe mapping defects in both projections, they do not completely lack topography. Mice lacking β2-dependent retinal activity have nearly normal topography but fail to refine axonal arbors. Mice mutant for both ephrin-As and β2 have synergistic mapping defects that result in a near absence of map in the retinocollicular projection; however, the retinogeniculate projection is not as severely disrupted as the retinocollicular projection is in these mutants. These results show that ephrin-As and patterned retinal activity act together to establish topographic maps, and demonstrate that midbrain and forebrain connections have a differential requirement for ephrin-As and patterned retinal activity in topographic map development.
Positive Emotions Preferentially Engage an Auditory–Motor “Mirror” System
Authors: Warren Jane E. , Sauter Disa A. , Eisner Frank , Wiland Jade , Dresner M. Alexander , Wise Richard J. S. , Rosen Stuart , Scott Sophie K.
Published: December 2006

Social interaction relies on the ability to react to communication signals. Although cortical sensory–motor “mirror” networks are thought to play a key role in visual aspects of primate communication, evidence for a similar generic role for auditory–motor interaction in primate nonverbal communication is lacking. We demonstrate that a network of human premotor cortical regions activated during facial movement is also involved in auditory processing of affective nonverbal vocalizations. Within this auditory–motor mirror network, distinct functional subsystems respond preferentially to emotional valence and arousal properties of heard vocalizations. Positive emotional valence enhanced activation in a left posterior inferior frontal region involved in representation of prototypic actions, whereas increasing arousal enhanced activation in presupplementary motor area cortex involved in higher-order motor control. Our findings demonstrate that listening to nonverbal vocalizations can automatically engage preparation of responsive orofacial gestures, an effect that is greatest for positive-valence and high-arousal emotions. The automatic engagement of responsive orofacial gestures by emotional vocalizations suggests that auditory–motor interactions provide a fundamental mechanism for mirroring the emotional states of others during primate social behavior. Motor facilitation by positive vocal emotions suggests a basic neural mechanism for establishing cohesive bonds within primate social groups.
Molecular Dynamics of a Presynaptic Active Zone Protein Studied in Munc13-1–Enhanced Yellow Fluorescent Protein Knock-In Mutant Mice
Authors: Kalla Stefan , Stern Michal , Basu Jayeeta , Varoqueaux Frederique , Reim Kerstin , Rosenmund Christian , Ziv Noam E. , Brose Nils
Published: December 2006

GFP (green fluorescent protein) fusion proteins have revolutionized research on protein dynamics at synapses. However, corresponding analyses usually involve protein expression methods that override endogenous regulatory mechanisms, and therefore cause overexpression and temporal or spatial misexpression of exogenous fusion proteins, which may seriously compromise the physiological validity of such experiments. These problems can be circumvented by using knock-in mutagenesis of the endogenous genomic locus to tag the protein of interest with a fluorescent protein. We generated knock-in mice expressing a fusion protein of the presynaptic active zone protein Munc13-1 and enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) from theMunc13-1locus. Munc13-1–EYFP-containing nerve cells and synapses are functionally identical to those of wild-type mice. However, their presynaptic active zones are distinctly fluorescent and readily amenable for imaging. We demonstrated the usefulness of these mice by studying the molecular dynamics of Munc13-1–EYFP at individual presynaptic sites. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments revealed that Munc13-1–EYFP is rapidly and continuously lost from and incorporated into active zones (τ1∼ 3 min; τ2∼ 80 min). Munc13-1–EYFP steady-state levels and exchange kinetics were not affected by proteasome inhibitors or acute synaptic stimulation, but exchange kinetics were reduced by chronic suppression of spontaneous activity. These experiments, performed in a minimally perturbed system, provide evidence that presynaptic active zones of mammalian CNS synapses are highly dynamic structures. They demonstrate the usefulness of the knock-in approach in general and of Munc13-1–EYFP knock-in mice in particular for imaging synaptic protein dynamics.
The Serenata in Early 18th–Century Rome: Sight, Sound, Ritual, and the Signification of Meaning
Authors: TCHAROS STEFANIE
Published: December 2006

By the turn of the 18th century serenatas performed in Rome's urban squares as political or dynastic propaganda were a well-established ritual. In this public forum the effect of sound produced by large instrumental forces was a central feature, yet the serenata was a complex performance in which music was but one element in a series of other displays. Though undoubtedly an important part of the serenata, music's role in this multifaceted performance and its effect on audiences remain unclear. Part of that ambiguity stems from the serenata's ability to service both public and private consumption. Patrons exploited this dual nature, using the more spectacular elements of the serenata to influence the public at large, while also relying on other elements (primarily word and sound) to sway elite audiences.

In the context of Rome and its dynastic politics, Giacomo Buonaccorsi's and Pietro Paolo Bencini's serenata Le gare festive in applauso alla Real Casa di Francia (1704) demonstrates how the serenata's dichotomous structures and multiplicity of meaning were deeply linked to larger cultural frameworks and social tensions—in this case, brewing over the War of Spanish Succession. The serenata was both a musical work and a performed event effectively shaped by the genre's ritual practice and by history and politics in late 17th- and early 18th-century Rome. The logic of the serenata's ritual practice shows significant correspondences to the genre's narrative strategies. Within the serenata, allegory served as the catalyst to express layers of meaning to diverse audiences. But more than that, allegory provided the means by which music was contained and its delivery marked. For public audiences, sound was as much visual as it was aural, an immediate and palpable special effect. For privileged listeners, music required reflection as to how spectacular effects acquired deeper meaning when anchored in the significance of the poetic text. Thus music in the serenata was not merely an element in a multifaceted performance but was multidimensional in itself, uniquely straddling both sides of the public/private divide.
LOOK TO LEARN A ROLE FOR VISUAL ETHNOGRAPHY IN THE ELIMINATION OF POVERTY
Authors: STADHAMS DIANNE
Published: December 2006

The aim of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was to eliminate world poverty. A major challenge lies in how the poor, many of whom are illiterate, can attain these goals. A case study on tourism in Gambia suggests that visual ethnography may offer an effective basis for communication that translates policy into practice. A television program was designed to raise awareness about the issues, opportunities, and challenges of tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation in Gambia. Extrapolating from theoretical debates on ways of seeing and representing the “other”, and drawing from the differentiated practices of anthropological filmmakers, a ten‐step model was constructed. It was used to develop an appropriate format for Gambian stakeholders to communicate with local audiences through Gambia television. The value of this experimental approach lies in its attempt to synergize plural meanings from multiple voices across a number of cultures about tourism, a social development issue.
IN A TIME OF FEAR AND TERROR SEEING, ASSESSING, ASSISTING UNDERSTANDING AND LIVING THE REALITY AND CONSEQUENCES OF DISASTER
Authors: JHALA JAYASINHJI
Published: December 2006

In the aftermath of the terrible earthquake in India in 2001, visual anthropologists, government, aid organizations, and earthquake victims took actions that signaled an incipient applied visual anthropology in practice, such as video and photographic technology and methods of engagement traditionally employed by visual anthropologists. Three case studies provide examples of this activity in the “media invisible” desert villages of Surendranagar District in Gujarat. The need for an engaged applied visual anthropology is demonstrated, and a prescription for its future practice is outlined.
Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain
Authors: SIKAND NANDINI
Published: December 2006

Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain. Faye D. Ginsburg, Lila Abu‐Lughod, and Brian Larkin, editors. Berkeley: The University of California Press. 2002.
Picturing Men: A Century of Male Relationships in Everyday American Photography
Authors: CATON STEVE
Published: December 2006

Picturing Men:. Century of Male Relationships in Everyday American Photography. John Ibson. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. 2002.
The Medium of the Video Game
Authors: BREIDENBACH PAUL S.
Published: December 2006

The Medium of the Video Game. Mark Wolf, editor. Austin: University of Texas Press. 2001.
Coeficientes de digestibilidade aparente de ingredientes para juvenis de jundiá
Authors: Oliveira Filho Paulo Roberto Campagnoli de , Fracalossi Débora Machado
Published: December 2006

Foram determinados os coeficientes de digestibilidade aparente da MS, proteína e energia de cinco ingredientes (farelo de soja, glúten de milho, farinha de resíduo de peixe, quirera de arroz e milho) para juvenis de jundiá, Rhamdia quelen (78,5 ± 9 g). A digestibilidade foi estimada pelo método indireto, utilizando-se óxido de crômio na concentração de 0,5% da dieta como indicador, efetuando-se a coleta de fezes a cada 4 horas por sedimentação. Entre os ingredientes testados, os maiores coeficientes de digestibilidade foram obtidos para o glúten de milho (95,0% para proteína, 88,0% para energia e 82,2% para MS) e os menores para o milho (73,0% para proteína, 59,1% para energia e 57,2% para MS). Os demais ingredientes apresentaram valores intermediários de digestibilidade. Obtiveram-se, para o ingrediente energético quirera de arroz, valores de 80,7% para proteína, 64,8% para energia e 60,5% para a MS, enquanto, para os ingredientes protéicos farelo de soja e farinha de resíduo de peixe, os coeficientes de digestibilidade foram, respectivamente, de 88,6 e 77,7% para a proteína, 76,5 e 74,8% para a energia e 73,3 e 58,6% para a MS. Os resultados deste estudo demonstram que juvenis de jundiá, apesar do hábito alimentar onívoro, têm grande capacidade de digerir ingredientes protéicos e relativa dificuldade de digerir ingredientes energéticos, sugerindo que este peixe é onívoro com tendência à carnivoria.
Alterações bromatológicas nas frações dos carboidratos de silagens de milho "safrinha" sob diferentes tempos de exposição ao ar antes da ensilagem
Authors: Velho João Pedro , Mühlbach Paulo Roberto Frenzel , Genro Teresa Cristina Moraes , Velho Ione Maria Pereira Haygert , Nörnberg José Laerte , Orqis Mariane Garcia , Kessler Julcemar Dias
Published: December 2006

Objetivou-se avaliar o efeito da maturidade dos grãos de milho e do tempo de exposição ao ar antes da ensilagem sobre os teores de carboidratos de silagens de milho "safrinha". O experimento foi conduzido em delineamento completamente casualizado com arranjo fatorial 2 x 4, no qual foram testados dois estádios de maturidade ao corte (grão completamente leitoso (GL) ou grão ½ leitoso e ½ farináceo (GF)) e quatro tempos de exposição ao ar, sem compactação (0, 12, 24 ou 36 horas) antes da ensilagem em minissilos. Os cortes das plantas ocorreram nos dias 26/04 e 18/05/2004. Houve efeito significativo dos estádios de maturidade (M) e dos tempos de exposição ao ar (TE), além de interação entre os efeitos, para a maioria das variáveis estudadas. O teor de MS diferiu entre os estádios de maturidade e os tempos de exposição ao ar. As silagens GL e GF, respectivamente, diferiram quanto ao teor de açúcares solúveis (1,51 a 1,31% da MS) e de amido (4,23 a 13,21% da MS). Quanto aos tempos de exposição ao ar, os açúcares solúveis diminuíram entre os tempos zero (1,64% da MS) e 36 horas (1,05% da MS). O maior impacto dos TE foi verificado nos teores de fibra em detergente neutro corrigidos para cinzas e proteína (FDNcp). O tempo de exposição ao ar do material verde picado, de 12 horas antes da ensilagem, afetou de modo negativo o valor nutritivo de silagens de milho.
Avaliação espermática e da concentração de proteínas solúveis no plasma seminal de bodes da raça Alpina em regime de monta controlada
Authors: Martins Leonardo Franco , Pereira Maria Cristina Baracat , Guimarães José Domingos , Costa Eduardo Paulino da , Silveira Thiago da Silva , Torres Ciro Alexandre Alves , Rodrigues Marcelo Teixeira , Braz Vandberg Barbosa
Published: December 2006

Foram estudadas as relações entre a concentração de proteínas solúveis do plasma seminal, o teste hipoosmótico, a análise física e morfológica do sêmen e o desempenho reprodutivo de bodes da raça Alpina em regime de monta controlada. O experimento foi realizado durante os meses de fevereiro a abril de 2001. Foram realizadas 40 coletas de sêmen em quatro reprodutores adultos em regime de monta controlada. Em todas as coletas, além do exame físico e morfológico do sêmen, foram realizados os testes hipoosmóticos, isoosmóticos e a determinação da concentração de proteínas solúveis do plasma seminal. Foi detectada diferença entre os bodes na concentração de proteínas solúveis do plasma seminal, mas não houve diferença no teste hipoosmótico e no número de coberturas por prenhez. O teste hipoosmótico pode ser uma importante ferramenta para a avaliação de sêmen caprino, mas a concentração de proteínas solúveis do plasma seminal não pode ser utilizada como parâmetro para predizer a qualidade seminal e a fertilidade de bodes da raça Alpina utilizados em regime de monta natural.
Aplicação do método Bayesiano na estimação de correlações genéticas e fenotípicas de peso em codornas de corte em várias idades
Authors: Winter Eliane Maria Wilbert , Almeida Marina Isabel Mateus de , Oliveira Edson Gonçalves de , Martins Elias Nunes , Natel Andressa Santanna , Surek Diego
Published: December 2006

Objetivou-se com este estudo obter estimativas de correlações genéticas e fenotípicas para características peso aos 7 dias (PES7), peso aos 14 dias (PES14), peso aos 28 dias (PES28) e peso aos 42 dias de idade (PES42) de codornas de corte. No galpão de criação, foram alojadas 1.022 aves devidamente identificadas, utilizadas para avaliação do desempenho produtivo, por meio de pesagens individuais. Os componentes de (co)variância e os parâmetros genéticos foram estimados por procedimentos Bayesianos via amostrador de Gibbs utilizando-se o programa MTGSAM. As estimativas de correlações genéticas obtidas foram de 0,73 entre PES7 e PES14, 0,52 entre PES7 e PES28, 0,55 entre PES7 e PES42, 0,73 entre PES14 e PES28 e 0,56 entre PES14 e PES42 dias de idade. Correlação genética de 0,81 entre os pesos de 28 e 42 dias de idade indica a possibilidade de aumento do peso corporal aos 42 dias de idade pela seleção do peso corporal aos 28 dias de idade. As correlações fenotípicas variaram de 0,57 a 0,85 e foram ligeiramente superiores às genéticas, sugerindo que a correlação de ambiente é de pequena magnitude e positiva. Os menores intervalos de credibilidade das estimativas de correlações genéticas foram entre os pesos aos 28 e 42 dias e aos 14 e 28 dias.
Produção de novilhos superprecoces em pastagem de aveia e azevém submetida a diferentes alturas de manejo
Authors: Aguinaga Angelo Antonio Queirolo , Carvalho Paulo César de Faccio , Anghinoni Ibanor , Santos Davi Teixeira dos , Freitas Fabiana Kellermann de , Lopes Marilia Terra
Published: December 2006

Foram avaliadas a produção e as características de carcaças de novilhos jovens mantidos em pastagem cultivada de aveia preta (Avena strigosa Schreb) e azevém (Lolium multiflorum Lam) manejada em diferentes alturas. Os tratamentos impostos foram quatro diferentes alturas de manejo da pastagem (10, 20, 30 e 40 cm), obtidas por meio da aplicação de diferentes cargas animais. O delineamento foi o de blocos casualizados, com três repetições. Utilizaram-se animais jovens de aproximadamente dez meses de idade, machos castrados sem padrão racial definido, com peso médio inicial de 210 kg. O aumento no ganho médio diário (GMD) foi condicionado pelo incremento na qualidade e/ou na quantidade de forragem disponível, visto que as ofertas de forragem para os tratamentos de 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm de altura foram de 6, 10, 23 e 51 kg de MS/100 kg de PV/dia, respectivamente. Portanto, o modelo de resposta do GMD em relação às alturas de pastejo resultou em valores de 0,73 e 1,14 kg/animal/dia nos tratamentos de menor e maior GMD, respectivamente, que foram de 10 e 30 cm de altura. Como a variação no GMD foi baixa, o maior ganho por área observado no tratamento 10 cm pode ser atribuído à maior carga animal, ambas com respostas lineares decrescendo com o aumento da altura de pastejo. O peso vivo dos animais antes do abate e o peso de carcaça quente elevaram com o aumento da altura da pastagem, reduzindo apenas no tratamento 40 cm com a redução da qualidade da pastagem. Não houve diferença entre os tratamentos para o rendimento de carcaça, pois todos os valores mantiveram-se em torno de 51%. O escore de condição corporal e o grau de acabamento apresentaram tendência muito similar à evolução do ganho médio diário dos animais.
Perfil de ácidos graxos e conteúdo de ácido linoléico conjugado no leite de vacas alimentadas com a combinação de óleo de soja e fontes de carboidratos na dieta
Authors: Eifert Eduardo da Costa , Lana Rogério de Paula , Lanna Dante Pazzanese Duarte , Teixeira Rafael Monteiro Araújo , Arcuri Pedro Braga , Leão Maria Ignez , Oliveira Marcus Vinícius Morais de , Valadares Filho Sebastião de Campos
Published: December 2006

A gordura do leite de 12 vacas lactantes 7/8 Holandês-Gir foi utilizada para avaliar o efeito de diferentes dietas sobre o perfil dos ácidos graxos (AG) e o conteúdo de ácido linoléico conjugado (CLA) no leite. Os tratamentos consistiram de concentrados formulados com milho (MI) ou sua total substituição por farelo de trigo (FT) ou por polpa cítrica (PC), associados ou não a óleo de soja (0 e 2,25%). A análise cromatográfica indicou que mais de 95% dos ácidos graxos (AG) foram recuperados. Não foi verificada interação significativa da presença de óleo e fonte de carboidratos em qualquer variável avaliada, à exceção das concentrações de trans-10 C18:1 e da proporção de trans-10 C18:1 e trans-11 C18:1 nos totais trans- C18:1 do leite. A fonte de carboidrato utilizada não influenciou o perfil de ácidos graxos do leite ou o teor de CLA. A inclusão de óleo de soja aumentou em 35% os AG insaturados do leite e reduziu em 14% os AG saturados, principalmente os de cadeia curta (9,66 vs 7,59 g/100 g) e os de cadeia média (51,80 vs 40,86 g/100 g). As dietas com óleo promoveram aumento dos AG de cadeia longa (32,17 vs 46,47 g/100 g), principalmente C18:0 (9,44 vs 13,63 g/100 g), C18:1 (20,28 vs 29,74 g/100 g) e C18:2 (2,16 vs 2,92 g/100 g). A concentração de CLA cis-9 trans-11 C18:2 foi aumentada em 230% (0,46 vs 1,06 g/100 g) na presença de óleo. A concentração dos AG cis e trans-C18:1 também foi aumentada; trans-11 C18:1 foi o principal isômero trans, embora a concentração de trans-10 C18:1 tenha se elevado de 0,28 para 1,11 g/100 g na presença de óleo, sendo influenciada pela fonte de carboidrato. Os tratamentos MI, FT e PC resultaram em conteúdos deste isômero semelhantes na gordura do leite, mas, na presença de óleo, as fontes MI e FT proporcionaram valores muito superiores aos obtidos com PC, indicando diferentes rotas de biohidrogenação.
Valor nutritivo de silagens de capim-elefante enriquecidas com subproduto do processamento do maracujá
Authors: Neiva José Neuman Miranda , Nunes Francisco Canindé Souza , Cândido Magno José Duarte , Rodriguez Norberto Mário , Lôbo Raimundo Nonato Braga
Published: December 2006

Esta pesquisa foi realizada com o objetivo de avaliar o valor nutritivo de silagens de capim-elefante contendo níveis crescentes de subproduto desidratado de maracujá (SDM). Foram testados cinco níveis de adição de SDM (0,0; 3,5; 7,0; 10,5 e 14,0%) na dieta de 20 ovinos machos, não-castrados, segundo delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado, com cinco tratamentos (níveis de adição) e quatro repetições. Foram estimados os consumos de MS (CMS), PB (CPB), FDN (CFDN) e FDA (CFDA), as digestibilidades aparentes da MS (DAMS), PB (DAPB), FDN (DAFDN), FDA (DAFDA) e hemicelulose (DAHEM), além dos valores de nutrientes digestíveis totais (NDT) e do balanço de nitrogênio (BN). Com a inclusão de SDM na ensilagem do capim-elefante, ocorreram elevações nos CMS e CPB, sem, no entanto, alterar os valores de CFDN e CFDA. As DAMS, DAPB e os valores de NDT e BN elevaram com a adição de SDM, mas as DAFDN, DAFDA e DAHEM não foram alteradas. A adição de SDM na ensilagem de capim-elefante é uma prática recomendável, pois o uso dessas silagens aumentou o consumo e a digestibilidade dos nutrientes e elevou a densidade energética da dieta.
Detection of Nitros(yl)ated Metabolites of Nitric Oxide (NO) In Vivo by Gas‐Phase Chemiluminescence Assay
Authors: Dhawan Vijay , Janero David , Ellis James
Published: December 2006

There are several methods utilized for detection of nitric oxide (NO) and its various metabolites in biological systems. These include spectrophotometric analysis, high performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrophotometry, electro‐paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and gas‐phase chemiluminscence. Of these, the gas‐phase chemiluminescence technique is perhaps the most sensitive, with a limit of detection in the femtomole range. Furthermore, as there are a number of commercially available NO analyzers, it is possible to directly compare results from different laboratories using this technique. Described in this unit is a group‐specific derivatization approach with gas‐phase chemiluminscence detection to profile NO metabolites in vivo.
Isolation of Human B Cell Populations
Authors: Sims Gary P. , Lipsky Peter E.
Published: December 2006

To study the function and biology of human B cells, it is necessary to isolate pure populations. Historically, B cells were enriched by the sequential depletion of monocytes, natural killer cells, and T cells. However, this time‐consuming process has been superseded by negative selection methods using antibody cocktails targeted against other cell types or by positive selection using antibodies targeting B cell markers such as CD19. Here we detail three methods of isolating B cells from human blood or mononuclear cells and describe how these techniques can be combined with fluorescent cell sorting for the characterization of specific B cell populations.
Zebrafish and Frog Models of Mycobacterium marinum Infection
Authors: Cosma Christine L. , Swaim Laura E. , Volkman Hannah , Ramakrishnan Lalita , Davis J. Muse
Published: December 2006

Mycobacterium marinum infection of poikilothermic animals, such as fish and frogs, results in chronic granulomatous diseases that bear many similarities to mycobacterioses in mammals, including tuberculosis. This unit describes three animal models of M. marinum infection that can be used to study basic aspects of Mycobacterium‐host interactions and granuloma development, as well as trafficking of immune cells in host tissues. Protocols are included that describe intraperitoneal infection of adult leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) and zebrafish (Danio rerio). Protocols also describe subsequent monitoring of the infection by enumeration of bacterial cfu, mean time to death, or visual examination of infected tissue using both conventional histological stains and fluorescence microscopy of fluorescently marked bacteria. Furthermore, protocols are included that describe the infection of embryonic zebrafish and the subsequent analysis of the infection in real time using DIC and fluorescence microscopy.
Bearing Materials
Authors: Pfestorf Harald , Weiss Franz , Matucha Karl Heinz , Wincierz Peter
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Rolling‐Element Bearings ‐ Materials

3.

Sliding Bearings

3.1.

Tribology of Sliding Bearings

3.2.

Microstructure of Important Bearing Materials

3.3.

Metallic Materials for Sliding Bearings

3.3.1.

Metals for Solid Bearings

3.3.2.

Materials for Metallic Multilayer Thin‐Walled Bearings

3.3.3.

Sintered Materials

3.4.

Plastics for Sliding Bearings

3.4.1.

Plastics for Solid Bearings

3.4.2.

Materials for Plastic Multilayer Thin‐Walled Bearings

3.5.

Artificial Carbon and Graphite for Solid Sliding Bearings

3.6.

Ceramic Materials for Solid Sliding Bearings

3.7.

Soft Rubber for Sliding Bearings

3.8.

Practical Selection of Materials
Biomass Chemicals
Authors: Tokay Barbara A.
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Raw Materials

3.

Process Technology

4.

Biomass Chemicals

4.1.

Ethanol and Its Derivatives

4.2.

Other Fermentation Chemicals

4.3.

Sugar Chemicals

4.4.

Starch Chemicals

4.5.

Oilseed Chemicals

4.6.

Furfural and Its Derivatives

4.7.

Cellulose Polymers

4.8.

Lignin Chemicals

4.9.

Methanol

4.10.

Methane

5.

Future Contributions
Boron and Boron Alloys
Authors: Baudis Ulrich , Fichte Rudolf
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Boron

1.1.

Structure and Polymorphism

1.2.

Physical Properties

1.3.

Chemical Properties

1.4.

Production

1.5.

Chemical Analysis, Storage, Safety

1.6.

Uses, Economic Aspects

2.

Ferroboron and Other Boron Master Alloys

2.1.

Physical Properties

2.2.

Chemical Properties

2.3.

Raw Materials

2.4.

Production

2.4.1.

Carbothermic Production

2.4.2.

Aluminothermic Production

2.5.

Quality Specifications for Commercial Grades

2.6.

Storage and Shipment

2.7.

Chemical Analysis

2.8.

Pollution Control

2.9.

Uses

2.10.

Economic Aspects

2.11.

Toxicology and Industrial Hygiene
Butyrolactone
Authors: Schwarz Wolfgang , Schossig Jürgen , Rossbacher Roland , Höke Hartmut
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Physical Properties3.Chemical Properties4.Production5.Quality Specifications and Analysis6.Storage and Transportation7.Uses8.Toxicology and Occupational Health
Ceramic Colorants
Authors: Eppler Richard A.
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Classification

3.

Pigment Structures

4.

Colorant Systems

5.

Industrial Production of Ceramic Pigments

6.

Use of Ceramic Pigments in Glazes

7.

Ceramic Glazes

8.

Application Media

9.

Quality Control
Cleansing Agents
Authors: Nitsch Christian , Heitland Hans‐Joachim , Marsen Horst , Schlüssler Hans‐Joachim
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.Household and Institutional Cleansing Products1.1.All‐Purpose Cleansers1.2.Scouring Cleansers1.3.Dishwashing Agents1.3.1.Manual Dishwashing Detergents1.3.1.1.Classical Dishwashing Detergents1.3.1.2.Dishwashing Concentrates1.3.1.3.Skin‐Friendly Products1.3.1.4.Liquids with Antibacterial Action1.3.1.5.Dishwashing Habits1.3.2.Automatic Dishwashing Detergents1.3.2.1.Dishwashers1.3.2.2.Cleaners1.3.2.3.Rinse Aids1.3.2.4.Regeneration Salt1.3.2.5.Other Products1.3.2.6.Performance Assessment1.4.Floor Cleaners1.5.Carpet Cleaners1.6.Toilet Bowl Cleaners1.7.Toilet Hygiene and Deodorant Products1.8.Drain Cleaners1.9.Metal Cleaners1.10.Window Cleaners1.11.Automotive Cleansers1.12.Building Facade Cleaners2.Cleansers and Disinfectants for Use in the Food Industry2.1.Cleansers2.2.Disinfectants
Copper Compounds
Authors: Richardson H. Wayne
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.Introduction2.The Copper Ions3.Basic Copper Compounds3.1.Copper(I) Oxide3.2.Copper(II) Oxide3.3.Copper(II) Hydroxide3.4.Copper(II) Carbonate Hydroxide4.Salts and Basic Salts4.1.Copper(I) Chloride4.2.Copper(II) Chloride4.3.Copper(II) Oxychloride4.4.Copper(II) Sulfates4.4.1.Copper(II) Sulfate Pentahydrate4.4.2.Anhydrous Copper Sulfate4.4.3.Copper(II) Sulfate Monohydrate4.4.4.Basic Copper(II) Sulfates5.Compounds and Complexes of Minor Importance5.1.Copper Compounds5.2.Copper Complexes6.Copper Reclamation7.Copper and the Environment8.Economic Aspects9.Toxicology and Occupational Health
Coronary Therapeutics
Authors: Winbury Martin M.
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Anatomy and Physiology of Coronary Circulation

2.1.

Anatomy

2.2.

Physiology

2.3.

Pathophysiology

2.4.

Rationale for Treatment

3.

Nitrates

3.1.

Clinical Factors

3.2.

Pharmacology of Nitrates

3.3.

Mechanism of Relief of Angina

3.4.

Individual Nitrates Use

4.

β
‐Receptor Blockers

4.1.

Mechanism of Action

4.2.

Classification

5.

Calcium Channel Blockers (Calcium Antagonists)

5.1.

Cardiovascular Effects

5.2.

Therapeutic Use

5.3.

Individual Calcium Antagonists

6.

Large Coronary Artery Dilators

7.

Potent Coronary Arteriolar Vasodilators
Rubber, 1. Survey
Authors: Greve Heinz‐Hermann , Threadingham Desmond
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:1.Definition2.Rubber Elasticity3.History4.Nomenclature
Semiconductors
Authors: Mizutori Masamichi , Yamada Rokuro
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.Definition of Semiconductors2.History3.Theory3.1.Structure of Semiconductor Crystals3.2.Conduction Mechanism of Semiconductor Materials3.2.1.Band Model3.2.2.Doping3.2.3.Thep‐nJunction3.3.Lifetime and Recombination of Charged Particles3.4.Effect of Various Factors on Semiconductors3.4.1.Effect of Radiation3.4.2.Behavior in a Magnetic Field3.4.3.Behavior under High Electric Field3.4.4.Semiconductor ‐ Metal Contacts4.Materials, Properties, and Manufacture4.1.Outline4.1.1.Requirements for Commercial Use4.1.2.Properties and Uses4.1.2.1.Group IV Elements4.1.2.1.1.Germanium4.1.2.1.2.Diamond4.1.2.2.Others4.1.2.2.1.Group VI Elements4.1.2.2.2.Multicomponent Chalcogenides4.1.2.2.3.Oxide Semiconductors4.1.2.2.4.Organic Semiconductors4.2.Compound Semiconductors4.2.1.Properties4.2.2.Single Crystals4.2.2.1.Boat‐Grown (BG) Method4.2.2.2.Liquid‐Encapsulated Czochralski (LEC) Method4.2.2.3.Comparison of the BG and LEC Methods4.2.3.Wafer Processing4.2.3.1.Slicing4.2.3.2.Lapping and Polishing4.2.3.3.Surface Defects of the Polished Wafer5.Epitaxy5.1.Liquid‐Phase Epitaxy (LPE)5.1.1.Principles and Apparatus5.1.2.LPE of AlGaAs5.2.Vapor‐Phase Epitaxy (VPE)5.3.Organometallic Vapor‐Phase Epitaxy (OMVPE)5.3.1.Principles and Apparatus5.3.2.Operating Conditions5.4.Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)5.4.1.Principles and Apparatus5.4.2.Gas‐Source MBE6.Characterization6.1.Specific Resistivity6.2.Lifetime of Charge Carriers6.3.Crystal Defects6.3.1.X‐Ray Method6.3.2.Electron‐Beam Diffraction6.3.3.Electron Microscopy6.3.4.Etching6.4.Contamination of the Wafer Surface7.Semiconductor Devices7.1.Brief Description of Various Devices7.1.1.Diodes7.1.2.Transistors7.1.3.Integrated Circuits7.1.3.1.Memory7.1.3.2.Logic Circuits7.1.3.3.Analog Integrated Circuits7.1.4.Hybrid Integrated Circuits7.1.5.Application‐Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)7.2.Wafer Fabrication7.2.1.Formation of Insulation Layer7.2.2.Lithography7.2.3.Doping7.2.3.1.Thermal Diffusion7.2.3.2.Ion Implantation7.2.4.Etching7.2.5.Washing7.2.6.Wiring Technology8.Supporting Industries8.1.Building8.2.Clean Room8.3.Ultraclean Water8.4.Gases8.5.Other Chemicals8.5.1.Quartz8.5.2.Pyrolytic Boron Nitride8.5.3.Graphite8.5.4.Others9.Environmental Aspects9.1.Gases9.2.Liquid Chemicals9.3.Metals9.4.Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)10.Economics
Thermosets
Authors: Schönthaler Waldemar
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Manufacture

2.1.

Fusion Process

2.2.

Liquid Resin Process

2.3.

Other Processes

3.

Commercial Forms and Manufacturers

4.

Storage and Transport

5.

Properties

5.1.

Uncured Molding Compounds

5.2.

Cured Moldings

6.

Processing and Aftertreatment

7.

Uses

8.

Economic Aspects

9.

Environmental Protection and Recycling
Toluidines
Authors: Bowers Joseph S.
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Physical and Chemical Properties

3.

Production

4.

Quality Specifications, Storage, and Transportation

5.

Uses

6.

Derivatives

6.1.

N
‐Alkyltoluidines

6.2.

Chlorotoluidines

6.3.

Toluidinesulfonic Acids

6.4.

Chlorotoluidinesulfonic Acids

7.

Toluidine Toxicology
Xylenes
Authors: Fabri Jörg , Graeser Ulrich , Simo Thomas A.
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Properties

3.

Occurrence and Raw Materials

3.1.

Natural Occurrence

3.2.

Raw Materials for Xylene Production

4.

Production, Separation, and Further Processing

4.1.

Production of C
8
Aromatics

4.2.

Separation and Further Processing

4.2.1.

Separation of the C
8
Aromatics Fraction

4.2.2.

Isomerization of the C
8
Fraction

4.2.3.

Combination of the Technologies in the Aromatics Complex

5.

Integration into Refinery and Petrochemical Complexes

5.1.

Backward Integration into Petroleum Refining

5.2.

Forward Integration into Chemical Processing

6.

Economic Aspects

7.

Quality Specifications and Analysis

8.

Storage, Transport, and Safety

9.

Environmental Aspects and Toxicology
Electrostatic Separation
Authors: Brands Ludwig , Beier Peter‐M. , Stahl Ingo
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.Introduction2.General Principles2.1.Charging by Induction or Corona Discharge2.1.1.Charging by Induction2.1.2.Charging by Corona Discharge2.1.3.Separators2.2.Triboelectric Charging2.2.1.Mechanism2.2.2.Equipment2.3.Dielectrophoresis3.Applications3.1.Mineral Processing3.1.1.Potash Ores3.1.2.Other Minerals3.2.Purification of Coal3.3.Recycling Processes3.3.1.Inductive or Corona Charging3.3.2.Triboelectrification3.4.Others
Separation Processes, Introduction
Authors: King C. Judson
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Introduction

2.

Definitions

3.

Process Configurations

4.

Separation Principles

5.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Separation Methods

6.

Selection of a Separation Process

7.

Factors Influencing Phase Equilibria

8.

Sources of Equilibrium Data
Evaporation
Authors: Billet Reinhard
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.

Separating Substances by Evaporation

2.

Types of Evaporators and their Energy Consumption

2.1.

Single Stage Evaporators

2.2.

Multistage Evaporation

2.3.

Evaporation with Vapor Recompression

2.4.

Optimizing Evaporation Systems

2.5.

Evaporation Using Pressure Reduction

3.

Designing Evaporators for Fabrication

4.

Design

4.1.

Heating Equipment

4.2.

The Vapor Separation Chamber

5.

Evaporator System Ancillary Components

5.1.

Indirect Heat Exchangers

5.2.

Equipment for Direct Heat Exchange

5.3.

Pumps

5.4.

Control Instrumentation

5.5.

Insulation

6.

Evaporator System Operation

7.

Crystallization by Evaporation and by Evaporation with Reduced Pressure Flashing
Model Reactors and Their Design Equations
Authors: Hlavacek Vladimir , Puszynski Jan A. , Viljoen Hendrik J. , Gatica Jorge E.
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.Introduction2.Batch Reactors2.1.Homogeneous Systems2.1.1.Isothermal Reactors2.1.2.Nonisothermal Reactors2.2.Nonhomogeneous Systems2.2.1.Gas ‐ Liquid Reactions2.2.2.Solid ‐ Solid Reactions2.2.3.Solid ‐ Gas Reactions3.Continuous Stirred‐Tank Reactors (CSTR)3.1.Isothermal Homogeneous System3.2.Isothermal Heterogeneous Reactors3.3.Nonisothermal Continuous Stirred‐Tank Reactors3.4.Cascade of Tank Reactors4.Packed‐Bed Reactors4.1.Mass and Energy Balances4.1.1.The Single‐Particle Model4.1.2.The Two‐Phase Model4.1.3.The One‐Phase Model4.1.4.Boundary Conditions4.2.Values of the Parameters4.2.1.Average Bed Porosity4.2.2.Effective Transport Coefficients4.2.3.Wall Heat‐Transfer Coefficient4.3.Further Simplifications4.4.Parametric Sensitivity4.5.Flow Field Description4.5.1.Boundary Conditions4.5.2.Permeability and Inertia Coefficient4.5.3.Thermal‐Expansion Coefficient4.5.4.Mass‐Expansion Coefficient4.6.Thermomechanical Effects in the Reaction System4.7.Numerical Simulation4.7.1.Discretization of the Physical Domain4.7.2.Discretization of the Governing Equations5.Optimization of Chemical Reactors5.1.The Objective Function for Chemical Reactors5.2.Elementary Optimization Problems5.2.1.Optimization of a Batch System5.2.2.Optimization of a Continuous System (CSTR)5.2.3.Optimization of Complex Systems: Illustrative Example5.3.Optimization of Reactors by the Search Method5.4.Optimum Temperature Profile and Optimization of Multistage Reactors5.5.Optimization of a Multibed Adiabatic Reactor with Heat Exchange Between Catalytic Stages
Metallurgical Furnaces
Authors: Grzella Jörg , Sturm Peter , Krüger Joachim , Reuter Markus A. , Kögler Carina , Probst Thomas
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.Rotary Kilns1.1.Design1.1.1.General1.1.2.Structural Elements1.2.Process Engineering1.3.Applications1.3.1.Roasting and Calcining1.3.2.Calcination of Limestone, Dolomite, and Magnesite1.3.3.Production of Cement Clinker1.3.4.Iron Ore Reduction1.3.5.Volatilization Processes1.3.6.Other Applications2.Multiple‐Hearth Furnaces2.1.Description2.2.Applications2.2.1.Roasting of Sulfide Ores2.2.2.Use for Endothermic Reactions2.2.3.Clarifier Sludge Treatment3.Shaft Furnaces4.Smelting, Melting, and Refining in Bath and Flash Smelting Reactors4.1.Bath Smelting Furnaces4.2.Flash Smelting Furnaces4.3.Bath Melting and Refining4.4.Converters5.Electrothermal Reactors5.1.Introduction5.1.1.History5.1.2.Electrothermal Furnaces5.1.3.Energy Consumption and Production Capacities5.1.4.Economic Aspects5.2.Resistance Furnaces5.2.1.Basic Principles5.2.2.Reduction Resistance Furnaces5.2.2.1.Furnace Construction and Operating Parameters5.2.2.2.Metallurgical Significance5.2.3.Refining Resistance Furnaces5.2.4.Solid‐State Resistance Furnaces5.3.Arc Furnaces5.3.1.Basic Principles5.3.2.Electric Arc Furnaces5.3.3.Vacuum Arc Refining (VAR) Furnaces5.4.Induction Furnaces5.4.1.Basic Principles5.4.2.Furnace Construction5.4.2.1.Crucible Induction Furnace5.4.2.2.Channel Induction Furnace5.4.2.3.Special Induction Furnaces5.5.Plasma Furnaces5.6.Electron‐Beam Furnaces5.7.Fused‐Salt Electrolysis Cells5.8.Modeling
High‐Pressure Technology
Authors: Vetter Gerhard , Karl Erich
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:1.Applications of High‐Pressures2.Pressure Vessels2.1.Solid‐Wall Vessels2.2.Multiwall Vessels2.2.1.Designs with a Purely Mechanical Joint2.2.2.Welded Designs (Layered‐Wall Vessels)2.3.Strength Calculations2.3.1.Cylindrical Wall2.3.1.1.Stresses Due to Internal Pressure2.3.1.2.Initial Stresses in Shrink Joints2.3.1.3.Residual Stresses Due to Autofrettage2.3.1.4.Thermal Stresses2.3.1.5.Avoiding Brittle Fracture2.3.2.Cylindrical Wall with Radial Bore2.3.3.End Pieces2.4.Corrosion in High‐Pressure Plant2.5.Material Selection2.6.Design Details2.6.1.Corrosion Protection2.6.2.Covers and Their Attachment2.6.3.Cover Seals2.6.4.Seals for Piping2.7.Example of the Design of Pressure Vessels3.High‐Pressure Machinery for Chemical Plants3.1.Special Features of High‐Pressure Machines3.2.Creation of Pressure by Pumps and Compressors3.3.Pumps3.3.1.Reciprocating Displacement Pumps3.3.1.1.Metering Pumps3.3.1.2.Transfer Pumps3.3.2.Rotary Displacement Pumps3.3.3.Centrifugal Pumps3.3.3.1.Multistage Centrifugal Pumps3.3.3.2.High‐Speed Centrifugal Pumps3.3.3.3.Hermetic Centrifugal Pumps3.4.Compressors3.4.1.Piston Compressors3.4.2.Diaphragm Compressors, Laboratory High‐Pressure Compressors3.4.3.Turbo Compressors3.5.Other High‐Pressure Machines3.6.Special Problems Involving High‐Pressure Machines3.6.1.Strength of the Components3.6.2.Seals3.6.3.Wear and Vibration4.Piping and Fittings
Radionuclides in Analytical Chemistry
Authors: Garten Rainer P. H. , Tölgyessy Juraj
Published: December 2006

The article contains sections titled:

1.Introduction1.1.Definition and Purpose1.2.History1.3.General Features1.4.Importance and Trends2.Requirements for Analytical Use of Radionuclides2.1.Safety and Operational Aspects2.2.The Labeled Substance2.3.Activity Measurements2.4.Choice of Radionuclide2.5.Appraisal of Radionuclide Use in Analysis2.5.1.Advantages2.5.2.Disadvantages2.5.3.Sources of Error3.Radiotracers in Methodological Studies3.1.Principles and Importance3.2.Control of Sampling3.3.Control of Contamination and Loss3.4.Separation Procedures3.5.Control of the Determination Stage4.IsotopeDilution Analysis4.1.Direct Isotope Dilution Analysis4.2.Reverse Isotope Dilution Analysis4.3.Derivative Isotope Dilution Analysis4.4.Substoichiometric Isotope Dilution Analysis4.4.1.Substoichiometric Separation by Liquid ‐ Liquid Distribution4.4.2.Redox Substoichiometry4.4.3.Displacement Substoichiometry4.4.4.Applications4.5.Sub‐ and Superequivalence Method5.Radioreagent Methods5.1.Simple Radioreagent Methods5.1.1.Determination with Labeled Reagents5.1.2.Determination with Labeled Analyte5.1.3.Determination with Labeled Competing Substances5.2.Method of Concentration‐Dependent Distribution5.3.Isotope Exchange Methods5.4.Radioimmunoassay5.5.Radiorelease Methods5.5.1.Radioactive Kryptonates5.5.2.Radioactive Metals5.5.3.Radioactive Salts and other Radioactive Substances5.6.Radiometric Titration