bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Study of Statistical Variability in the Strength of Single Aramid Filaments
Authors: Wagner H. Daniel , Phoenix S. Leigh , Schwartz Peter
Published: March 2007

Variability in the failure load, tenacity, and linear density of single aramid filaments is studied experimentally. Data indicate that both the failure load and the tenacity of filaments, for a given gauge length and yarn cross section, can be fitted to a two parameter Weibull distribution; however the fit is better for tenacity than for failure load, and the Weibull shape parameter for the former is typically smaller. Within a yam cross section filaments vary significantly in linear density (and diameter), and this variability contributes a component to the variability in failure load, but not to the tenacity. Also, the mean tenacity and the variability in linear density and in failure load may differ greatly from spool to spool. The implications of the variability are discussed in light of the work of Bunsell.

The effect of gauge length on the strength distribution of filaments is examined. Weibull statistics are used to separate out this effect. As previously shown for other brittle filaments, the Weibull shape parameter for aramid filaments depends on the gauge length; however values for the shape parameter calculated at a fixed gauge length are substantially lower than those obtained by a procedure based on varying the gauge length. This suggests short range correlations in flaw strengths along a filament.
Impact Induced Fracture in a Laminated Composite
Authors: Joshi S.P. , Sun C.T.
Published: March 2007

Experimental data of the three dimensional problem of impact of a flat strip by a spherical impactor are presented and interpreted qualitatively by comparison with a plane-strain numerical analysis of an infinitely wide plate impacted by a cylindrical im pactor. The role of transverse shear stress in proximal and middle layer crack initiation is established. A detail presentation of damage is provided with exact delamination zones. The basic conclusions drawn establish a basis for further research in under standing impact induced fracture in composites.
Stresses in Pin-Loaded Orthotropic Plates: Photoelastic Results
Authors: Hyer M.W. , Liu D.
Published: March 2007

The stresses in transparent glass-epoxy plates loaded by a steel pin through a hole were determined experimentally using photoelasticity. The paper presents the stresses around the hole edge, across the net section, along the shear-out line, and on the centerline below the hole for quasi-isotropic, unidirectional, and angle-ply plates. Stresses in an isotropic comparison specimen are also presented. Stress concentration factors for several locations around the plates are tabulated. The paper discusses the experimental approach and the isochromatic and isoclinic fringe patterns for the four plates are shown.
Fatigue of Composites—Fatigue Modulus Concept and Life Prediction
Authors: Hwang W. , Han K.S.
Published: March 2007

Fatigue behavior of glass fiber reinforced epoxy composite materials has been studied analytically. A new concept called "fatigue modulus," which is defined as a slope of applied stress and resultant strain at a specific cycle is introduced. Fatigue modulus degradation is studied using an assumption that the fatigue modulus degrada tion rate follows a power function of fatigue cycle. Theoretical equation for predicting fatigue life is formulated using the fatigue modulus and its degradation rate. This rela tion is simplified by strain failure criterion for the practical application. It is proved that the final formula predicts the fatigue life of a glass fiber epoxy composite material better than S-N curve or Basquin's relation. An attempt is made to find the relation ship between fatigue modulus and elastic modulus by the geometric relation from stress-strain curve under the cyclic loading.
A Note on the Effects of Voids Upon the Hygral and Mechanical Properties of AS4/3502 Graphite/Epoxy
Authors: Harper B.D. , Staab G.H. , Chen R.S.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of the effects of voids upon the hygral and mechanical properties of AS4/3502 graphite/epoxy. Simple uniaxial tension tests were employed to determine the effects of voids upon ply moduli E11, E22 and G12, and the Poisson ratio ν12. The matrix dominated moduli E 22 and G12 were found to depend significantly upon void content while little dependence was noted for the fiber dominated properties E11 and ν12. Moisture conditioning experiments showed that both the rate and the equilibrium level of moisture sorption depend upon void content. In addition, non-Fickian diffusion anomalies were observed in high void content specimens while specimens with low void content displayed classical Fickian behavior.
A Model of the Manufacturing Process of Thermoplastic Matrix Composites
Authors: Woo Il Lee  , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

A model is presented of the steps involved in the manufacturing process of semicrystal line thermoplastic matrix composites. The model relates the temperature and pressure ap plied during processing to a) the flow of the matrix into the fiber tow, b) the formation of contact and bond between adjacent plies, and c) the crystallinity. The results of the model were verified by tests performed with PEEK 150P polymer and APC-2 graphite/PEEK composite.
Modified Eigenfunctions for Transversely Isotropic Composites with Applications to Stress Analysis of a Broken Fiber
Authors: Yijian Jin  , Ting T.C.T.
Published: March 2007

When a transversely isotropic elastic body that contains a notch or a crack is under an axisymmetric deformation, the eigenfunction solution near the singular point is in the form of a power series δ f(ψ,δ), δ+1 f 1(ψ,δ), δ+2 f2(ψ,δ) ... in which (,ψ) is the polar coordinate with origin at the singular point and δ is the eigenvalue, or the order of singularity. A difficulty arises when δ as well as δ + k, where k is a positive integer, are also eigenvalues. In this case the higher order terms of the series solution may not exist. A modified solution is required and is presented here. The modified solution has the new terms δ+ k(ln) F1(ψ,δ), δ+ k +1(ln) F2(ψ,δ).... As an application, we consider the stresses near a broken fiber in a composite which is under an axisymmetric deformation. The interface between the broken fiber and the matrix also suffers a delamination. This creates stress singularities at several points some of which require the modified eigenfunc tions presented here.
A Detailed Investigation of the Micromechanisms of Compressive Failure in Open Hole Composite Laminates
Authors: Guynn E. Gail , Bradley Walter L.
Published: March 2007

Compression failures in composite laminates containing circular holes are often preceded by the development of a damage zone which grows with increasing com pressive load. This damage zone which appears similar to a flat, tension fatigue crack in metals, initiates at the edges of the hole and propagates across the width of the laminates leading to final failure. The damage zone is initiated by local fiber buckling and/or shear crippling into the edges of the hole. The length or size of the damage zone increases with increasing load, propagating stably until it reaches a critical size. Then, unstable growth begins, and the zone completely traverses the specimen. Subsequently, a more cata strophic failure occurs giving brooming and/or delamination.

Several tests of 2.54 cm wide AS4/PEEK containing a 0.16 cm diameter hole were inter rupted prior to catastrophic damage growth to allow for a careful examination of the fiber shear crippling and/or microbuckling. These observations were accomplished using scan ning electron microscopy. Direct observation of the specimen revealed the surface size of the shear crippling zone. To determine the extent of this damage through the thickness of the laminate, systematic sectioning techniques were employed. From these sectioning studies, the extent and mode of failure were determined, and a three-dimensional schematic of the damage zone was developed.
Thermo-Viscoelastic Analysis of Composite Materials
Authors: Lin Kuen Y. , Hwang I.H.
Published: March 2007

The thermo-viscoelastic boundary value problem for anisotropic materials is formulated and a numerical procedure is developed for the efficient analysis of stress and deformation histories in composites. The procedure is based on the finite element method and therefore it is applicable to composite laminates containing geometric discon tinuities and complicated boundary conditions. Using the present formulation, the time- dependent stress and strain distributions in both notched and unnotched graphite/epoxy composites have been obtained. The effect of temperature and ply orientation on the creep and relaxation response is also studied.
A Unified Approach to Modeling Resin Flow During Composite Processing
Authors: Davé Raju
Published: March 2007

This paper derives the models for resin flow during composite processing in terms of Darcy's Law applying a unified approach. It shows that the resin flow models for bleeder ply molding or autoclave processing [1-3], pultrusion [4], and resin transfer molding [5-6] are special cases of a generalized theory. Theoretical predictions are com pared with experimental data available in the literature. Relevant new physics regarding the effects of capillarity and relative permeability on the flow of resin during resin transfer molding (RTM) is presented. Finally, the cause of the discrepancy between the measured and predicted values of resin pressures for RTM is explained.
Motion of Continuous Fibers through a Newtonian Resin for High Fiber Volume Fraction
Authors: Hjellming L.N. , Walker J.S.
Published: March 2007

This paper treats the motion of long, unidirectional, continuous fibers through a Newtonian resin. There is a consolidation force on the top row of fibers or an effective force on all the fibers due to their tension and curvature in a filament-wound cylinder. An asymptotic analysis for high fiber volume fraction is presented here. The present rigorous asymptotic solution leads to the same expressions as a previous applica tion of the lubrication approximation. The advantages of the asymptotic analysis are the definition of the error and the foundation for the proper treatment of more complex prob lems with several small parameters.
Effect of Longitudinal Splitting on Tensile Strength of Unidirectional Aramid Fiber Reinforced Plastics
Authors: Puchkov L.V. , Bazhenov S.L.
Published: March 2007

An increase in aramid SVM (trademark of polyparaamidobenzimidazole fiber) content up to 85 vol. % leads to an increased tensile strength of the composite. An increase in fiber content, Vf, leads to a change of the fracture mode from fiber control at low Vf to matrix and matrix/interface dominated longitudinal splitting of the composite at high Vf. The correlation between transverse properties and longitudinal tensile strength of different aramid fiber reinforced plastics was investigated. Longitudinal splitting of the composite leads to a decrease in longitudinal tensile strength. Shear strength of the aramid fiber reinforced plastic possesses a low sensitivity to its resistance to longitudinal splitting. For this the transverse strength or interlaminar fracture toughness of the composite may be used. Matrix plasticization leads to an increase of aramid Terlon (trademark of poly paraphenelenterephthalamid) fiber reinforced plastic tensile strength due to suppression of longitudinal splitting.
Elevated Temperature Strength, Aging Response and Creep of Aluminum Matrix Composites
Authors: Bhagat Ram B. , Amateau Maurice F. , House Michael B. , Meinert Kenneth C. , Nisson Paul
Published: March 2007

Aluminum matrix composites with reinforcement of planar-random graphite fibers, SiC whiskers, or alumina particulates have been evaluated for their high temperature performance. The composites were aged at 150 and 200°C for up to 500 hours. Microhardness results indicate accelerated aging of the composites in comparison with that of wrought 6061 Al resolutionized and aged under identical conditions. The aging response of the composites depends on the characteristics of the reinforcements. The graphite fiber reinforced composites and the silicon carbide whisker reinforced compos ites retain their tensile strength and stiffness in the overaged condition of the matrix. The composites were tested for their tensile stiffness and strength at temperatures of 150 to 350°C. The Young's modulus of all the composites remain relatively constant up to 350°C. Both the graphite fiber and silicon carbide whisker reinforced composites show substantial strength advantage over that of the wrought 6061 Al at all temperatures. The silicon car bide whisker and alumina particulate composites were evaluated for their creep behavior. These composites were subjected to creep deformation at temperatures of 232 to 350°C under stresses of up to 100 MPa. The whisker reinforced composite shows significant re sistance to creep; about two orders of magnitude lower steady state creep rates than that of the wrought aluminum. The particulate composite had a moderate increase in creep resistance.
A Parametric Study of Variables That Affect Fiber Microbuckling Initiation in Composite Laminates: Part 1-Analyses
Authors: Guynn E. Gail , Ochoa Ozden O. , Bradley Walter L.
Published: March 2007

The objectives of this research focus on the effects of nonlinear matrix constitutive behavior, initial fiber waviness, and fiber/matrix interfacial bond strength on fiber microbuckling initiation in thermoplastic composites. Nonlinear geometric and non linear material two-dimensional finite element analysis is used to model the initiation of fiber microbuckling of an initially wavy fiber. Results show that reductions in the resin shear tangent modulus, larger amplitudes of initial fiber wavinesses, and debonds each cause increases in the localized matrix shear strains; these increases lead to premature fiber microbuckling initiation. These numerical results are compared with experimental data obtained during this investigation. These experimental results and comparisons are presented in a companion paper [1] .
Thermally Induced Interfacial Microcracking in Polymer Matrix Composites
Authors: Hiemstra D.L. , Sottos N.R.
Published: March 2007

Novel experiments on a cluster of fibers combined with finite element analysis was utilized to investigate the influence of both inter-fiber spacing and interphase properties on thermally induced microcracking. Local thermal stresses were predicted and microcracking observed as fiber spacing was systematically decreased and interphase properties were varied. Both the computational and experimental results demonstrated that interphase properties and fiber spacing alter the location of the maximum equivalent stress and the initiation of microcracks. Microcracks were predicted and observed to initiate first (at the lowest thermal load) in the case of a higher modulus interphase. The cracks ini tiated at the fiber/interphase interface at a lower thermal load than if no interphase were present. In contrast, computations for a low modulus interphase predicted the maximum equivalent stress to be lower than the case of no interphase and to occur in the matrix. Ex perimentally, microcracks were observed to initiate in the matrix at the interphase/matrix interface with higher thermal loads. The presence of the low modulus coating prevented cracks from reaching the fiber surface. Overall, the investigation demonstrated the ability of the interphase to enhance or hinder microcracking in a cluster of fibers. The interphase can be tailored to reduce the local stress state and reduce the initiation of microcracks in the composite.
Thermal Stress Relaxation due to Plastic Flow in the Fiber Coating of a Continuous Fiber Reinforced Composite
Authors: Hahn T.A.
Published: March 2007

An analytical solution is obtained for the elastic response of a three coax ial cylinder model of a composite to thermal and mechanical loading. Calculations of the thermal stresses for various fiber coatings reveal certain relationships between the coating stresses that make it possible to solve for the plastic flow of the coating. In the case of a high expansivity coating, the elastic solution indicates that the radial and hoop stresses are the extreme stresses which satisfy the conditions for Tresca flow in the r-θ plane. However, as the temperature changes, plastic flow is shown to relax the hoop stress to the extent that it becomes less than the axial stress which violates the condition for Tresca flow. In order to obtain solutions for plastic flow in the coating it is then necessary to consider plastic flow in more than a single plane. The Prandtl-Reuss flow rule can be used to solve for flow in three planes but because of the mathematical complexity it is necessary to use numeri cal techniques for the calculations. As an alternative, analytical solutions are developed for flow in two planes using an approximation for the Prandtl-Reuss flow. Three different solutions are obtained to include flow in the r-θ r-z, z-r z-θ, and θ-r θ-z planes. Each of these is applied for a different expansivity value of the fiber coating with various linear work hardening coefficients of the coating.
Counselor Dress Cues
Authors: Littrell Mary Ann , Littrell John M.
Published: March 2007

American Indian and Caucasian high school students were compared as they assessed counselors' empathy, warmth, genuineness, and concreteness as conveyed through six pairs of male and female counselor dress. The students from the two cultures differed in their perceptions of each of the counseling conditions based on the counselors' attire. Students' perceptions did not differ with the sex of the student or, except for empathy, with the sex of the counselor. The results contributed to identification of clothing dimensions useful for under-standing cultural similarities and differences in nonverbal communication through dress. Further study of clothing dimensions of cultural specificity, regional uniqueness, and fashionability was recommended.
The Differentiation of Social Behavior
Authors: Adamopoulos John
Published: March 2007

Investigations of the structure of social behavior across cultures have relied either on an empirical approach (Triandis, 1977), or on the conceptualization of interaction as resource exchange (Foa & Foa, 1974). This article critically reviews recent efforts to integrate the two approaches and proposes an alternative framework that considers interpersonal dimensions as emerging from the fundamental structure of resource exchange. Two different methodologies for the testing of this framework are described, along with preliminary supportive findings. The implications of this approach for the evolution of social behavior are discussed briefly.
Individualism-Collectivism
Authors: Hui C. Harry , Triandis Harry C.
Published: March 2007

Individualism and collectivism are terms used by both social scientists and the public, but there are few systematic studies of this dimension. A sample of psychologists and anthropologists from all parts of the world was asked to respond to a questionnaire the way they believe an individualist and a collectivist would respond. The questionnaire described 10 target persons in seven situations. The responses converged, suggesting that there is consensus about the meaning of the dimension. Accordingly, collectivism can be defined as (1) concern by a person about the effects of actions or decisions on others, (2) sharing of material benefits, (3) sharing of nonmaterial resources, (4) willingness of the person to accept the opinions and views of others, (5) concern about self-presentation and loss of face, (6) belief in the correspondence of own outcomes with the outcomes of others, and (7) feeling of involvement in and contribution to the lives of others. Individualists show less concern, sharing, and so on than collectivists. The approach can be used with other relatively unstudied constructs to establish whether there is consensus among researchers about the meaning of a construct.
Influences on Australian Parents' Values
Authors: Cashmore Judith A. , Goodnow Jacqueline J.
Published: March 2007

Parental values concerning -the importance of particular qualities and skills in their children vary with both social class (or socioeconomic status) and ethnic background. The aim of this study was to investigate the extent to which differences in values between parents of Anglo-Australian and Italian background in Australia are attributable to differences between the groups in socioeconomic status. The extent of the significant differences between the two groups of parents varied across areas and was differentially reduced when several indicators of socioeconomic status were taken into account. In content areas concerned with conformity (for example, neatness and obedience), the highly significant ethnic background effect virtually disappeared when mother's and father's educational levels (but not father's occupation) were taken into account. In other content areas, however, the significance of ethnic background was unaffected. These findings highlight the importance of disentangling the two sets of effects and the variability of these effects across content areas and across different measures of socioeconomic status.
Self-Descriptions of Mexican College Students in Response to the Bem Sex Role Inventory and Other Sex Role Items
Authors: Lara-Cantu M. Asuncion , Navarro-Arias Roberto
Published: March 2007

Two samples, one of 453 undergraduate students from a private university in Mexico City and another of 485 from a public university, were given a Spanish version of the BSRI, and 58 new items of sex role traits developed in Mexico. Eight BSRI masculine items were significantly endorsed by males in both samples, and 10 feminine items were significantly endorsed by females. Fourteen other BSRI items were differentially endorsed in the expected direction in only one of the samples. Of the new items, 1 positive and 7 negative masculine items were significantly endorsed by males in both samples, whereas 3 positive and 1 negative feminine item were significantly endorsed by women. Twenty-two new items were significantly endorsed by one of the sexes in the expected direction, in only one of the samples. Some sex role traits are relevant to both American and Mexican college students, whereas others are relevant in the Mexican culture.
Market Prosperity, Democratic Consolidation, and Democratic Peace
Authors: Mousseau Michael
Published: March 2007

A model is introduced that yields a single parsimonious explanation for a diverse range of political phenomena, including the processes of democratic consolidation and peace among democratic nations. The model predicts democratic values to arise from the norms of contract that are endemic in developed market economies and yields the novel contingent claim that the peace among democratic nations may be a pattern limited to those democracies with developed economies. Analyses of a large number of interstate dyads from 1950 to 1992 show strong support for this hypothesis. It seems that the pacifying impact of democracy is about twice as strong among developed countries compared with other dyads. Among conflict-prone contiguous dyads, the pacifying impact of democracy does not appear statistically significant among the poorest decile of joint democratic dyads. The study demonstrates the wide explanatory power of the simple postulate that social values and political preferences derive from socioeconomic norms.
Shocks to the System
Authors: Colaresi Michael
Published: March 2007

The different phases of the leadership long cycle are hypothesized to significantly alter the number of great power rivalries that terminate and initiate. Specifically, the global war phase is expected to “shock” dyads into and out of rivalry. Bivariate and multivariate event history techniques are used to show that periods of capability deconcentration are associated with increased great power rivalry terminations but not initiations. Furthermore, terminations are less likely to occur during phases of systemic capability concentration than in other periods, as the theory predicts. The expectations concerning rivalry initiations are not supported.
Reciprocity, Triangularity, and Cooperation in the Middle East, 1979-97
Authors: Goldstein Joshua S. , Pevehouse Jon C. , Gerner Deborah J. , Telhami Shibley
Published: March 2007

Does bilateral reciprocity or great-power influence (or both) promote the emergence of international cooperation in regional conflicts? Using machine-coded events data and vector autoregression, time-series analysis of 12 international dyads in the Middle East between 1979 and 1990 and 1991 and 1995 found bilateral reciprocity widespread in both time periods, characterizing nearly all dyads of sustained conflict and a majority of other dyads with various power and proximity characteristics. Significant triangular responses to U.S. actions occurred in only a few cases, although key ones—Iraq with its neighbors and Israel with Palestine. Neither bilateral reciprocity nor triangular response predicted changes in long-term conflict and cooperation. Rather, the presence of one or both of these response patterns appeared to be necessary, but not sufficient, conditions for regional states to increase long-term cooperation.
Mass Communications and International Image Change
Authors: Smith Don D.
Published: March 2007

In the past, mass communications have not been considered a particularly effective device in furthering international accord. From three previously separate bodies of theory, this research formulates a theory of relatively confirmed/discon firmed expectations and reexamines the effectiveness of mass communications in changing the images held by the people of one nation about some other nation. This formulation predicts some conditions under which individuals' international images might be positively affected by what are actually negative messages from low credibility sources in other nations; it also predicts some conditions under which such messages will have a boomerang effect-that is, individuals will respond negatively to such international contact. A further characteristic of this research is that it conceptualizes an individual's international image to consist of a range along an evaluative continuum rather than some specifically designated point on that continuum.
An Altruism Parameter for Prisoner's Dilemma
Authors: Brew J.S.
Published: March 2007

This paper is an attempt to relate the player's behavior in a PD game to a loosely defined psychological attitude of altruism. The game matrix is transformed into a zero-sum game matrix that for each player reflects the strategic elements of the original game as modified by the degree of altruism he may feel toward his opponent. The transformation consists of adding to a player's payoffs those of his opponent multiplied by a factor designated as the player's "altruism parameter." Three sets of assumptions are considered in order to make predictions about the play of the game to differing degrees of detail. The results of the analysis include qualitative and quantitative measures of conflict inherent in a PD game, estimates of the distribution of the altruism parameter among players, and qualitative predictions concerning the dynamics of play when interactive changes of altruism occur. These results are shown to be broadly consistent with the experimental findings of Rapoport and Chammah.
Format Effects in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game
Authors: Guyer Melvin , Fox John , Hamburger Henry
Published: March 2007

Three different presentation formats of the same Prisoner's Dilemma game were investigated. Fifteen pairs of male subjects were assigned to each of three experimental conditions. One group played a conventional matrix representation of the game, one group played an expected value representation of the game, and one group played a simplified probabilistic version of the game called "Take-Some." Each pair of subjects played their game for fifty trials.
The Impact of Status Differences on Coalitional Agreements
Authors: Lawler Edward J.
Published: March 2007

This experiment investigated the impact of status differences between subordinates and face-to-face coalition negotiations on insurgent coalitional action. The effects of these variables were examined in stratified groups, where a leader established inequitable pay-rates, and subordinates could coalesce and destroy a portion of the leader's outcomes. The results showed that status differences (as opposed to status similarity) undermined the sense of common interests between subordinates and reduced the severity of coalitional action against the leader. Face-to-face negotiations engendered a more cautious approach to coalition negotiations and also reduced the severity of insurgent action. The results suggest that status differences pose an "organizational problem" for subordinates attempting to mobilize action against a leader.
International Trade and Investment Sanctions
Authors: Porter Richard C.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the theory of international economic sanctions and to provide estimates of the short-run economic impact on South Africa of externally imposed reductions of the imports and capital flows into that country. A macroeconomic picture of South Africa's "dependence" is drawn, and the economy's vulnerability in the short run is seen to be in its capacity to import, not in exports or capital flows. Trade and capital sanctions most clearly damage South Afnca's growth potential; the short-run impact is harder to quantify. A static linear programming model of the South African economy is constructed in an attempt at this quantification. This model estimates that small sanctions would have small impact—i.e., if imports were reduced by less than one-fourth, GDP would be cut by only about one half as large a percentage as imports. Larger import reductions cause greater damage. If imports were to be cut in half, not only would GDP be seriously reduced but massive unemployment and relocation of white labor would occur.
The Effects of Drugs on Decision-Making
Authors: Lubit Roy , Russett Bruce
Published: March 2007

Various psychoactive substances including illicit drugs, psychiatric medications, and adult beverages (alcohol and coffee) are commonly consumed by individuals who formulate and carry out foreign policy decisions. The effects of these agents warrant both further study and greater appreciation to minimize potentially serious, untoward effects on the decision-making process.
Simple Choices and Complex Calculations
Authors: Majeski Stephen J. , Sylvan David J.
Published: March 2007

Bruce Bueno de Mesquita's The War Trap (1981) is an ambitious attempt at putting forward a rational choice theory of war initiation. The book is subjected to a critical reading and found wanting on three criteria: concepts, measures, and empirical analysis.
Democracy and War Involvement
Authors: Weede Erich
Published: March 2007

Most quantitative researchers had agreed that regime type and war involvement are not significantly related to each other until Rummel recently challenged this consensus. According to Rummel, libertarian or democratic states are less intensively involved in foreign conflict and tend to participate in wars less often than do other states. Rummel's assertion is disputed in this article. Relying on various definitions of war and compilations of data for the 1960s and 1970s, it is demonstrated that democracy and war involvement are not consistently and significantly correlated with each other. Only in the late seventies did democracies succeed in avoiding involvement in wars. Unfortunately, this period seems rather exceptional.
Sources of Bureaucratic Influence
Authors: Altfeld Michael F. , Miller Gary J.
Published: March 2007

Classical Weberian models of bureaucratic influence emphasize expertise as a source of political power. Recent economic models suggest that bureaucratic expertise springs from control over the agenda of voting bodies. This article differentiates the two types of bureaucratic influence and reports on a series of experiments that varies the amount of expertise and agenda control in the same committee decision-making setting. Initial results indicate that either a monopoly on information or a monopoly on agenda control can enable an outsider to influence committee choices away from what would otherwise be the majority winning alternative for the committee. The different sources of bureaucratic influence are exercised in different, possibly mutually exclusive ways, so that both kinds of monopoly do not necessarily help the bureaucrat any more than one kind of influence by itself. The reason seems to be that agenda control is based on a combative, bargaining relationship between the convener and the committee, whereas expertise seems to be based on building a professional relationship of trust between expert and committee.
Dividing Coastal Waters
Authors: Samuelson William F.
Published: March 2007

In the last decade, the extension of fishing jurisdictions and the expansion of off-shore drilling have given rise to many new maritime disputes between neighboring countries seeking to delimit exclusive economic zones. Because the record of negotiated boundary treaties has been augmented case by case, there has been only partial progress in articulating general principles that should govern the maritime property right assignment. This article treats the task of fixing maritime boundaries as a problem of “fair” division. We present a trio of axioms requiring that the division should respond in natural ways to coastal changes and should be based solely on distances sea to shore. It is shown that the imposition of these conditions limits the division method to the minimum distance rule under point-by-point division or to “minimum distance” shares under an aggregate division.
Dynamic Games and Dynamic Contract Theory
Authors: Crawford Vincent P.
Published: March 2007

The article provides a survey and exposition of recent developments in dynamic noncooperative game theory and dynamic contract theory. In realistic models of economic relationships, complex long-term agreements may be mutually beneficial; legal enforcement of contracts is difficult or impossible; assymmetries of information place limits on the use of other enforcement techniques; and competitive forces are too weak to prevent strategic behavior from influencing how relationships are organized. Dynamic contract theory allows significantly better explanations of behavior in such relationships than perfectly competitive models in which agents can make complete, perfectly enforceable long-term contracts. This article provides a general exposition of static and dynamic noncooperative game theory and provides an introduction to dynamic contract theory, with special emphasis on enforcement techniques.
U.S. Defense Spending, Electoral Cycles, and Soviet-American Relations
Authors: Zuk Gary , Woodbury Nancy R.
Published: March 2007

We investigate whether U.S. defense spending has been systematically increased (or decreased) during national election years for the presumed purpose of influencing the economy in general and the electorate in particular. Our analysis of five major kinds of defense spending essentially showed no support for a two- or four-year electoral-defense spending cycle. Instead, we find that two international factors, war and the state of U.S.-Soviet relations, have been largely responsible for the distinctively irregular pattern of post-1945 U.S. defense spending.
Dispute Resolution in the Nonunion Firm
Authors: Lewin David
Published: March 2007

This article presents a multivariate analysis of the structure, uses, and consequences of nonunion employee appeal systems in three large U.S. companies over the 1980-83 period. Appeal system data drawn from company files are matched with personnel data to determine the effects of age, race, sex, education, occupation, and work experience on appeal system usage, types of appeal issues filed, and levels of appeal settlement. Analysis of appeal settlement data shows that the probability of an employee “winning” an appeal case increases with the level of settlement, but also that the probability of any single appeal progressing through the appeal system declines markedly with the level of settlement. Quantitative analysis of appeal settlement consequences, using an ex post facto control group design, shows that appeal filers and their supervisors-managers have significantly lower promotion rates and performance ratings and significantly higher turnover rates in the post-appeal settlement period than comparable (matched) groups of nonfilers and their supervisors-managers. Implications of these findings for due process, exit-voice, and organizational punishment theories of workplace dispute resolution are identified and discussed.
Power Transitions as a Cause of War
Authors: Houweling Henk , Siccama Jan G.
Published: March 2007

In contradiction to balance-of-power thinking, in their book The War Ledger, Organski and Kugler claim to have proven that major war is caused by the overtaking of the dominant nation through the challenging major power(s). This regularity would still be valid in the nuclear era: According to Organski, nuclear weapons have no effect on deterring war. However, very serious objections may be raised against Organski and Kugler's test procedure. For this reason, we have replicated Organski and Kugler's analysis with a different data-set (collected by Doran and Parsons) and a more appropriate test procedure. The results show that the power transition hypothesis cannot be rejected (significance level, 5%). This result is obtained not only for the “top dogs” (the three or four strongest nations), but also for the complete subset of major powers. This latter result is different from Organski and Kugler's finding that power overtaking is significantly related to war outbreaks between contenders, but not in dyads encompassing the complete class of major powers.
A Dynamic Model of Domestic Political Conflict Process
Authors: Karmeshu Mr. , Jain V. P. , Mahajan A. K.
Published: March 2007

The dynamical behavior of domestic political hostility is modeled in terms of the interaction between hostile (challenger) and ruling (regime) groups. The conditions under which the conflict situation will either settle down in a steady state or evolve in time are derived for various forms of collective action costs. The model presented is a general framework for explaining the various outcomes of the repression/dissent nexus as special cases of the same fundamental process. We also obtain critical parameter values of discontent that bring about discontinuous jumps in the level of hostility.
Steaming in the Dark?
Authors: Stoll Richard J.
Published: March 2007

The empirical literature on arms races has often failed to find strong evidence of the existence of arms races among “obvious” dyads. In this article it is argued that if we assume that decision makers use simple rules and concentrate on the weapons stock of their rivals, we can produce highly accurate models. These premises are tested by examining the size of the British navy from 1860 to 1913. The results offer support for this line of argument.
Perestroika
Authors: Smirnov Alexander D. , Ershov Emil B.
Published: March 2007

The general systems approach has been used to study one of the most intriguing social phenomena in the process of Soviet perestroika. During the period from 1985 to 1991, a dramatic change in public opinion took place from approval of a centralized planning system to overwhelming support for a free-market system. To study the factors that caused this process as well as its performance, a nonlinear model was developed and verified on empirical data. The model has made it possible to trace and identify various stages of perestroika and to comprise different outcomes of a growing conflict between the central and the republican governments that reached its climax in August 1991, after a catastrophic change in public sentiment so impressively demonstrated in the Russian presidential elections in June of the same year.
Why Don't Democracies Fight Each Other?
Authors: Mintz Alex , Geva Nehemia
Published: March 2007

Building upon the work of Maoz and Russett, Bueno de Mesquita and Lalman, and Morgan and Campbell, the authors evaluate the “democratic peace” phenomenon in an experimental setting. They first introduce the “political incentive” explanation of why democracies don't fight each other in the context of the diversionary theory of war, and then report results based on experiments with three groups of subjects: American students, nonstudent adults, and Israeli students. The results of all three experiments confirm the democratic peace findings and suggest that democracies do not fight each other because their leaders have very few political incentives to do so.
Partisanship Effects in Judgments of Fairness and Trust in Third Parties in the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict
Authors: Arad Sharon , Carnevale Peter J.
Published: March 2007

This study tested the hypothesis that partisanship influences judgments of fairness and trustworthiness in the mediation of social conflict. Subjects evaluated third party proposals for resolving the conflict in Jerusalem. A2×2×4 factorial design examined (1) partisanship of the subject, either partisan (pro-Israeli) or nonpartisan (neutral); (2) content bias of third party proposals, where the substance of the proposal was either (a) pro-Israeli or (b) evenhanded; and (3) source bias, where the third party was labeled as being (a) pro-Israeli, (b) pro-Palestinian, (c) neutral, or (d) of unknown persuasion. Analyses of judgments of fairness and third party trustworthiness indicated differences between partisan and nonpartisan subjects in self-serving bias and underlying dynamics in judgments. Partisans used favorableness of the proposals to judge the trustworthiness of the third party, independent of evenhandedness of the proposal, whereas evenhandedness was the criterion for nonpartisans. Nonpartisans trusted the neutral third party and partisans trusted the pro-Israeli third party regardless of proposal fairness. Partisans showed a cushioning effect of third party characteristics: a pro-Israeli third party who made an evenhanded proposal (relatively unpalatable to the pro-Israeli subjects) was trusted more than a pro-Palestinian third party who made the same proposal. The results highlight practical problems in mediation where the third party may need the trust not only of the disputing parties but also the trust of nonpartisan others. Evenhanded third party behavior that may impress nonpartisans is likely to be seen as biased mediation by disputants.
Conflict Resolution at the Microlevel
Authors: Knox Colin
Published: March 2007

Although much attention is paid to the high profile political initiatives aimed at tackling the seemingly intractable problems of Northern Ireland, little has been written about the United Kingdom government's strategy to achieve equality of opportunity and equity of treatment across the two communities at grassroots level. This article selects one initiative—the community relations programme in local authorities—as part of a broader thrust by government to improve equality and equity, and assesses its impact. The research uses comparative survey data gathered in 1989 and 1993 to detect whether attitudes on fair employment, prejudice, and tolerance between Catholics and Protestants have changed in councils participating in the initiative. Despite the programme's modest resources, some real achievements are detected during its 4-year period of operation.
Ballots, a Barrier against the Use of Bullets and Bombs
Authors: Hermann Margaret G. , Kegley Charles W.
Published: March 2007

Numerous empirical investigations have demonstrated that democracies are prone to cooperate with one another and that they almost never wage war against one another. Such research has inspired hope that so-called democratic peace might be achieved in the post-cold-war era, especially in light of the rapid diffusion of democracy worldwide since the mid-1970s. This article collates two streams of previously unexamined evidence that speak to the promise of this hope. Looking cross-nationally at the incidence of overt military intervention between 1975 and 1991, the study discovers that democracies were unlikely to be the targets of this form of coercive diplomacy. Both democracies and nondemocracies intervened in the internal affairs of democracies less than would be expected by chance. After exploring several contending explanations for this finding, this article advances some hypotheses about why being a democracy may shelter such states from foreign attack and considers the contribution democratization can make to national security.
Intergroup Negotiations
Authors: Polzer Jeffrey T.
Published: March 2007

In this study, the performance of individual and team negotiators is compared. From an intergroup relations perspective, teams may be impeded by their competitive orientation and low levels of cooperation and trust. However, from a cognitive perspective, advantages should accrue to teams because more people are present to generate additional ideas, bring a greater number of perspectives to the problem, and perform strategically important roles during the negotiation. The relative effects of these opposing forces were tested by comparing the perceptions and outcomes of parties in intergroup, interindividual, and mixed (team vs. individual) negotiations in a laboratory experiment. Results indicate that the presence of teams increased competitiveness and decreased cooperativeness and trust between negotiating parties. In mixed negotiations, teams outperformed individual opponents and were perceived as having more power and more ideas for a solution. Teams also affected integrative outcomes when negotiators' level of training was considered, such that the presence of teams negatively influenced performance for novices but positively influenced integrative outcomes for trained negotiators. The implications of these results for theories of intergroup relations and negotiations are discussed.
Intra-Alliance Bargaining and U.S. Bosnia Policy
Authors: Papayoanou Paul A.
Published: March 2007

Alliances are promises of cooperation, but allies typically have to bargain over what policy should be adopted when a given contingency arises. Whether this bargaining leads to collaborative outcomes and what form cooperation by allies takes have important implications for the effectiveness of an alliance. Neorealism and neoliberal institutionalism, the author argues, do not provide adequate explanations for this problem because they mischaracterize, or fail to come to grips with, the bargaining process at work. To redress such shortcomings, the author turns to game theory, providing a general model of intra-alliance bargaining. The model's insights are then used to interpret the historical record on U.S. Bosnia policy from 1991 until the fall of 1995. The author shows how domestic and international considerations affected the preferences and beliefs of the Bush and Clinton administrations. These led, as suggested by the model, to the U.S. tendency to avoid bargaining hard with the NATO allies and to pursue compromise strategies with them in the Bosnian crisis.