bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Indicatoridae — honeyguides
Authors: Short Lester L , Horne Jennifer F M , Gilbert Albert Earl
Published: November 2023

Description ADULT M: crown, nape and forehead olive-green, lores green-olive, ear coverts grey-olive; white, fine line above and below eye. Above paler olive-green than crown, lower back to rump yellower olive, uppertail coverts darker with yellow feather tips. Distinctive, white, erectile patch on sides of body between rump and flanks.
Tertiary
Authors: Linfeng Tong
Published: November 2023

The Tertiary palaeogeography is quite different from that of the Cretaceous. Following Ziegler et al. (1983), the Atlantic and Indian oceans increased in width, whereas the Pacific Ocean shrank during the Tertiary period. The African and Indian plates came into collision with the Eurasian, and the Tethys or Neotethys became a series of mountain ranges. Meanwhile huge quantities of sedimentary and volcanic rocks were deposited along the margin between the Eurasian continent and Pacific Ocean.
Natural selection and genetic differences between brown trout
Authors: Elliott J M
Published: November 2023

Examples of ecological similarities and differences between populations were provided in the last chapter but it was stressed that few were supported by genetic evidence. Although the well documented examples of divergence between neighbouring trout populations included some genetic differences, there were no accompanying experiments to discover the type of natural selection that occurred in these populations. The last chapter therefore ended with many questions unanswered, especially those concerning natural selection and genetics. The present chapter attempts to answer some of these questions.
Environmental effects of meiofaunal burrowing
Authors: Reichelt C
Published: November 2023

Meiofauna are a diverse and productive group of Protozoa and Metazoa which may be the dominant sediment infauna. Meiofauna may greatly affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of sediments. Physical effects of meiofauna include biodeposition, bioturbation, porewater circulation and faecal pellet production. Three forms of biodeposition are shown by meiofauna-filter feeding, the creation of calcareous tests and deposition of manganese and iron oxides. Bioturbation by meiofauna occurs during burrow formation, feeding and vertical migrations. Burrow formation is known for only a few species of copepods, nematodes and tanaids. Porewater circulation by meiofauna is due to their movement within the interstices and to burrow formation.
The burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis (Cobb, 1893) Thorne, 1949, of banana and its management in Kerala
Authors: Charles Job Sathya Kumar
Published: November 2023

The burrowing nematode, Radopholus similis, is very widely distributed in Kerala, preferring sandy soil to clay. An adult nematode measures 0.65 to 0.70 mm. It burrows into the root and rhizome of its food plant by feeding on the cortical parenchyma, making cavities and tunnels in which it moves, laying eggs and multiplying. It causes blackhead, root rot and toppling disease in banana. Infestation of the root affects the growth of the plant, delays bunching and reduces the number of fingers and bunch weight. With a nematode population of 146 per 10 g root weight the bunch weight is reduced by 41 %. As the population of the nematode increases, the bunch weight progressively decreases. The banana varieties Kunnan, Pey Kunnan, Ayirankapoovan and Pisang Seribu were found to have a low level of infestation.
The availability of burrows in relation to dispersal in the wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus
Authors: Cowan D P
Published: November 2023

The behavioural ecology of a free-living population of the European wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus was studied from 1979 through to 1983. Female rabbits competed with each other for access to nest sites in burrows and males competed for access to females. As the nest sites were clumped in multi-entrance burrow systems, known as warrens, the females were also clumped in their dispersion. This led to the formation of stable social or breeding groups containing up to 20 adult individuals. This paper describes patterns of dispersal between these social groups. Juveniles dispersed at higher rates than adults. Juvenile males were the most mobile, 66.7% first breeding in groups using warrens other than those used by the groups into which they were born, while adult females were the most sedentary, only 4.6% changing groups between successive breeding seasons. The average distance moved varied from 149 m for juvenile females to 264 m for juvenile males. The longest recorded distance moved was 2250 m. Dispersal was significantly male-biased amongst both juveniles and adults. Few juveniles were known to have dispersed before the age of three months; the peak age at dispersal was approximately five months. Dispersal rates were low at the beginning of the breeding season and peaked during the autumn. There was no difference between dispersing and non-dispersing juveniles in the time of year of their birth; however, there was some evidence suggesting that certain individuals were more predisposed to undertake dispersal than others. There were no differences in burrow availability or breeding success for the natal groups of dispersing and non-dispersing juveniles, nor were there any differences in these parameters for the groups in which surviving dispersers and non dispersers subsequently bred. Dispersing juveniles, however, moved to groups where burrow availability per juvenile was higher than in their natal groups.
Intertidal invaders: burrow design in marine bettles
Authors: Wyatt Tristram D , Foster William A
Published: November 2023

The subsocial staphylinid beetle, Bledius spectabilis, digs persistent burrows, as air filled refuges from the tide, in the firm mud in the Salicornia zone of northern European intertidal saltmarshes. The size and shape of the maternal burrow is important: the narrow neck keeps out the initial stages of the tide and gives time for the female to respond by blocking the neck. Equally important may be the unblocking at low tide to allow diffusion of oxygen into the burrow. The soil permeability within dense aggregations (up to 4000 adults and larvae m-2) of beetles was almost a hundredfold greater than outside them. Current and long-lasting old
Polygyny in burrows-Paragnathia formica
Authors: Meadows Azra
Published: November 2023

Polygyny―that form of polygamy in which one man has several wives or concubines. Zoo.: of a male animal: having more than one female mate (Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edn 1965).

The burrowing isopod Paragnathia formica is found as an adult in saltmarsh cliffs m sheltered estuaries. One of the larval stages-the praniza-is parasitic on fish. The distribution of the species is confined to the well-drained creek banks between EHWN and MHWS (Upton 19876). This paper reports the occurrence of P. formica in the Torridge estuary (Devon) and describes the species habitat there.
Structure of the wing apparatus
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

The locomotory centre of winged insects is the thorax. The two wing-bearing segments (the meso- and metathorax) form the ‘pterothorax’. It is in the thoracic muscles of the wing that energy is transformed from chemical into mechanical form. Hence, the pterothorax can be compared with the engine of an aeroplane (Fig. 1.1). Power generated by contraction of the muscles is transmitted to the propulsive device-the wings-through the skeleton and the system of the axillary sclerites in the wing bases. The insect flaps its wings and thus generates aerodynamic forces. The insect uses different flight regimes depending on what it is doing.
Early forms of flight
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

The first stage in the evolution of the wing apparatus, the transition from aerodynamically symmetrical to asymmetrical flaps, ended with the appearance of actively flying insects. The stages of evolution that followed were concerned with the optimization of the interaction between the wing pairs and with an increase in wing beat frequency. This trend is observed in the evolution of several different lines of winged insects.
From functionally four-winged flight to functionally two-winged flight
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

Unlike in the Polyneoptera, the course of evolution of the Para- and Oligoneoptera proceeded, first of all, in the direction of flight improvement, and was accompanied by reconstruction of the wing mechanics. In his book ‘Historical development of the Class Insecta’, Rasnitsyn (1980d) offers the following description of the common ancestor of Para- and Oligoneoptera: ‘The common ancestor of the cohort which possessed primitive features of both the Blattinopseida and Hypoperlida presumably resembled modem alderflies (Sialidae), but was probably larger (3-5 cm in length). The mouthparts were of the biting type, non-specialized, the thorax had a strongly invaginated sternum, the wings were of elongated oval shape, the forewings might have been slightly thickened, the hindwings probably had an expanded anal area’. This ancestor could have been a member of the superorder Caloneuroidea.
Looking into the past: the process of evolution, and insect wing apparatus
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

The appearance of the wing apparatus was a key point in the evolution of insects-an animal class rich in species and of great theoretical and practical importance. In the course of over 300 million years of development the wing apparatus underwent significant changes that affected the structure of the wings, axillary apparatus, exoskeleton, and musculature as well as the mechanism of wing kinematics and deformation, and also influenced flight aerodynamics-the principles underlying the creation of the forces necessary for locomotion in the air. At a certain stage of evolution, it became possible to start storing the energy derived from oscillation by means of resilient deformation of the thorax.
Dictionary
Authors: Homans S W
Published: November 2023

The absolute-value mode was important in two-dimensional NMR before the advent of phase-sensitive experiments. Earlier experiments relied upon echo selection to achieve quadrature detection in the ω1 domain (see antiecho), resulting in the appearance of the undesirable (but unavoidable) phase-twist lineshape. This consists of an admixture of absorption mode and dispersion mode lineshapes. The resonance lines in the two-dimensional spectrum can therefore not be adjusted to pure absorption phase.
Effect of retinoic acid on regenerating urodele limbs
Authors: Brockes Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Limb regeneration is an important system for evaluating the morphogenetic effects of retinoids. In turn, the activity of retinoids on epimorphic regeneration promises to shed much light on basic aspects of this process. In this brief review I shall outline the main events of limb regeneration and the effects of retinoic acid (RA) on axial specification, as well as discussing hypotheses for the mechanism of these effects and the prospects offered by the identification of nuclear RA receptors in the limb and its regenerate. I have not considered the effects on avian limb development in this account because these have been considered elsewhere in this volume. The urodele (tailed) amphibians are vertebrates that can regenerate their limbs as adults, e.g. the newt and the axolotl. In anurans such as the frog, the ability to regenerate a limb is lost progressively at around the stage of metamorphosis, but tadpole limb regeneration has been studied and was the system in which the effects of retinoids on limb morphogenesis were discovered (Niazi and Saxena 1978). After amputation of the urodele limb at any level on the proximodistal axis (PD) the epidermal cells at the circumference migrate rapidly over the cut surface to seal the limb. They form a structure called the wound epidermis, which is thought to play an important role in outgrowth of the regenerate (Wallace 1981). The wound epidermis is formed, at least to the extent of monolayer formation, during the first 12-24 hours. During the subsequent period, the mesenchymal tissue underlying the wound epidermis in the vicinity of the amputation plane undergoes an important progressive change in identity. This process, loosely referred to as dedifferentiation (Ferretti and Brockes 1991), results in the local formation of blastemal cells, the progenitors of the mesenchymal tissue of the regenerate. The blastemal cells divide, initially under control of the nerve supply, and subsequently undergo differentiation and morphogenesis to form the regenerate.
Retinoid-regulated expression of transglutaminases: links to the biochemistry of programmed cell death
Authors: Davies Peter J A , Stein Joseph P , Antonio Chiocca E , Basilion James P , Gentile Vittorio , Thomazy Vilmos , Fesus Laszlo
Published: November 2023

Contemporary human diets are probably as diverse now as they have ever been in the history of mankind. The abundance of food in the western world is in stark contrast to the lack of food and near starvation in parts of Africa, the continent where Homo sapiens evolved. The development of agriculture has enabled the population of the world to expand and to colonize almost the whole of its land surface, but the dependence on one staple food has introduced problems. If the staple crop fails, for example because of drought, there may be no alternative, and undernutrition and starvation are the result. Further, if the rest of the diet does not provide the nutrients that the staple food lacks, diseases due to specific nutrient deficiencies become widespread. Vitamin deficiencies among adults are less common now than they were 50 years ago, but even today millions of children in the poor rice-eating areas of the world are blind because their diets were deficient in vitamin A.
Intracellular transport of secretory proteins within intact transient heterokaryons and homokaryons
Authors: Valtersson Conny , Mizuno Masahiro , Dutton Anne H , Singer S J
Published: November 2023

The overall intracellular pathway taken by secretory proteins inside eukaryotic cells, from their synthesis to their exteriorization, was laid out some time ago (Palade 1975). Initially, proteins to be secreted are synthesized on ribosomes that become attached to the cytoplasmic surfaces of the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and as the proteins are translated they are translocated across the membrane into the lumen of the ER. Following this, the secretory protein (suitably modified) is transferred from the ER to the cis-faces of the Golgi apparatus (GA). After passage through successive Golgi saccules and the trans-Golgi network, the secretory protein is deposited in granules which ultimately fuse with the plasma membrane to release the protein to the exterior of the cell.
Genes that suppress the action of mutated ras genes
Authors: Noda Makoto
Published: November 2023

Three major types of approach have been taken to address the question of how activated ras oncogenes induce malignant cell transformation: enzymology, genetics, and cell biology. Ras proteins have intrinsic guanine nucleotide-binding activity as well as GTP-hydrolysing (GTPase) activity (for review see Barbacid (1987)). Therefore, cellular factors which affect these activities in the test tube can be sought. The GTPase activating protein (GAP) and the guanine nucleotide-exchange factors (GNEFs) have been identified in this fashion (McCormick 1989; Downward et al. 1990; Huang et al. 1990; Wolfman and Macara 1990). Oncogenically mutated (‘activated’) Ras proteins show either decreased intrinsic GTPase activity or poor susceptibility to GAP (reviewed in Barbacid (1987) and Krengel et al. (1990)) and, therefore, GAP probably serves as a negative regulator and GNEFs as positive regulators of Ras. Although enzymology can yield precise results, it has its limitations. For instance, interaction between purified proteins does not necessarily reflect the physiological functions of the proteins in vivo. Also, the applicability of this technique is confined to the molecules directly interacting with Ras proteins.
Brunelliaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

This family consists of the single genus Brunellia Ruiz & Pav., with about 62 species of evergreen trees growing in mountainous areas from Bolivia and Peru to southern Mexico and the West Indies. Only B. comocladifolia Humb. & Bonpl. has a wide distribution; 90% of the species are narrow endemics.

Account for leaf and young stern based mainly on original description of 2 spp. in Metcalfe and Chalk (1950) and for leaf only also Cuatrecasas (1970: 4 spp.; anatomy by Eyde) and Cuatrecasas (1985).
Escalloniaceae
Authors: Gornall By R J , Al-Shammary K I A , Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

Account based on Hils (1985) for Abrophy/lum (1 sp.), Anopterus (2 spp.), Cuttsia (1 sp.) and Ixerba (l sp.); Ramamonjiarisoa (1980) for Forgesia (] sp.); Stern (1974) for Escallonia (28 spp.); Al-Shammary (1991) for all genera, supplemented by earlier literature, especially Thouvenin (1890) and Holle (1893).
Bruniaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

Wax common as rods, strands or platelets (Figs 82F, 83F, 84E), often coalescing into clumps in depressions between cells. Fehrenbach and Barthlott (1988) reported mostly platelets, often narrow and in part arranged parallel to surface. Cuticle smooth in a few spp., but often with longitudinal ridges (Figs 83C, 84C), these usually more common on abaxial than adaxial surface (spp. of Berzelia, Brunia, Lonchostoma, Nebelia, Pseudo-baeckea, Raspalia). Epidermal cells mostly polygonal, except in the inversely dorsiventral leaves of Loncho-stoma and Raspalia, where cells with slightly wavy outlines present adaxially, interspersed with stomata.
Crassulaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

About 30 genera are recognized in this large family, although several of these, e.g. Hylotelephium H. Ohba, Perrierosedum (A. Berger) H. Ohba, Prometheum (A. Berger) H. Ohba, Rhodiola L., Telmissa Fenz, are included in Sedum L. by some taxonomists. Distribution is almost cosmopolitan, except for Australia and Polynesia, but there is a concentration of species in the northern hemisphere and in South Africa.
Grossulariaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

According to Takhtajan (1983), Ribes L. (including Grossularia Mill.) is the sole genus in this family. It consists of about 150 species of deciduous or evergreen shrubs, sometimes spiny, and distribution is throughout the north-temperate zone and in America south along the Andes to Tie1rn de! Fuego.
Virus-keratinocyte interactions the infectious cycle
Authors: Stanley Margaret A
Published: November 2023

There seems to be little doubt that infection with certain types of HPV, the so-called ‘oncogenic HPVs’ 16, 18, 31, 33, and 35, is the major but not the only risk factor in the subsequent development of cervical cancer (Schiffmann 1992). This has raised the possibility that if one could prevent infection with HPV or treat established HPV infections this would prevent the development of HPV-associated cancer and be an effective anti-cancer strategy. Other chapters in this book address the feasibility of this exercise from the immunological perspective but any understanding of the immune responses to the genital HPVs and the implementation of prophylactic or therapeutic strategies is absolutely dependent upon a knowledge of the biology of the virus and its interaction with the target cell for infection, the keratinocyte.
Serological immune response to HPV
Authors: Gissmann Lutz , Muller Martin
Published: November 2023

Diagnosis of viral infections can be performed by analysing the specimen from the patient either for the presence of the infectious agent (e.g. by infection and growth of the agent in vitro) or by identification of the genome or expression of the genes of the pathogen, that is, the genetic material (by nucleic acid hybridization) or one of the viral proteins (eg. by ELISA). This approach is usually successful during the acute phase of a disease but may fail during the unapparent intermission of an infection as in this situation virus production is usually very low and the test may be negative due to sampling problems. In the case of human papillomaviruses, particularly those which affect the anogenital mucosa, persistent infection without clinical symptoms is a rather common phenomenon (see Chapter 1).
The search for cell-mediated immunity to HPV: Prospects for vaccine design
Authors: Stauss Hans J , Beverley Peter C L
Published: November 2023

Immune responses may be classified as innate or adaptive, humoral or cellular. Innate responses do not depend on prior exposure for their full effect and are not altered on re-exposure to the same micro-organism. These responses are mediated by non-specific effector mechanisms and cells, such as complement, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. In contrast adaptive responses are antigen specific, often slow and weak on first exposure (primary response), but rapid and effective on re-exposure (secondary or memory response). Adaptive humoral responses depend on antibody secreted by bone-marrow derived (B) lymphocytes, while most of the cell types involved in innate cellular immunity also take part in adaptive cell-mediated responses. However, the hallmark of adaptive cellular responses is the involvement of antigen-specific thymus-derived (T) lymphocytes.
Negligence and medicines
Authors: Ferner R E , Norman Elizabeth , Rawlins M D
Published: November 2023

Errors in prescribing and giving medicines can be fatal. Such errors accounted for 10 deaths over a period of 6 years in the jurisdiction of the Coroner for Birmingham and Solihull. In the same period, 36 deaths were recorded as the result of adverse reaction to drugs (Ferner and Whittington 1994).
Potassium chloride and other potassium salts
Authors: Ferner R E , Norman Elizabeth , Rawlins M D
Published: November 2023

Potassium is the most important cation (positively charged chemical species) within cells, whereas sodium is the most important cation in the extracellular fluids including plasma (the fluid component of blood). The potassium concentration in the plasma during life is approximately 4 millimoles perlitre and inside the red blood cells the concentration is approximately 140 millimoles perlitre. This difference is maintained by an enzyme system in the membrane envelope of cells. The enzyme system, the Na+K+ ATPase, uses chemical energy to pump sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.
Opiates and related drugs
Authors: Ferner R E , Norman Elizabeth , Rawlins M D
Published: November 2023

Opiates are those drugs derived from the sap of the opium poppy, especially morphine and codeine. Several derivatives and related drugs have been synthesized, and these are collectively referred to as opioids.
Systematics and biogeography
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Frith Dawn W
Published: November 2023

Of the approximately nine thousand to ten thousand extant birds, some 40% constitute the evolutionarily more primitive, and typically larger bodied, non-passerines and 60% the typically smaller, and evolutionarily more advanced, passerines or ‘perching’ birds. Bowerbirds are medium sized members of the passerines, which have characters of their legs, feet, palate, syrinx, and sperm that together define them as such but none of which is unique to them (but see below). Passerines are subdivided into a more primitive group, the Tyranni or suboscines (having a mesomyodian syrinx worked by a pair of intrinsic syringeal muscles or none), and a more advanced group, known as the Passeri or oscines, with an acromyodian syrinx worked by three or four pairs of intrinsic syringeal muscles (Raikow 1982; Schodde and Mason 1999). This dichotomy of the passerines is thus based in large part upon the physical construction of the avian syrinx, which accounts for the more advanced oscines being known as the ‘songbirds’. Contemporary consensus is that the bowerbirds represent a basal, or primitive, group within the oscine passerines.
Bower site acquisition, fidelity, attendance, and courtship displays
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Frith Dawn W
Published: November 2023

Court or bower sites and adequate clearings or structures and their elaboration by decoration and painting are critical to male reproductive success in polygynous bowerbirds. They represent the focal point for highly ritualised and complex courtship demanded by discerning females. While results of studies of fewer than half a dozen species make this clear almost nothing is known about the remainder. Moreover, understanding of the sociobology of court site acquisition, male fidelity to them once established or acquired from rivals, and attendance and displays at them and their significance to relative mating success is in its infancy. Young males of polygynous bowerbirds must enter the established society of bower owning peers if they are to have any significant opportunity of reproducing. A pre-existing traditionally owned court or bower site is newly occupied as a result of a male replacing or displacing the previous resident.
Introduction
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

From the Renaissance onwards the knowledge of Greek texts played a prominent role in the world of learning. They were copied and recopied, edited, annotated, translated, and interpreted by many scholars. whose combined labours resulted in a vast number of manuscripts and printed books. Most of this work was done in central and western Europe. far from the region where these texts had miginated. Gradually it became clear that only a critical approach would increase understanding of them. This implied the careful analysis of manuscripts, preferably of ancient date, and the correlation of the information contained in them with the artefacts extant in the area of their origin, as well with the geography and natural history of the Levant. This led to the origin of archaeology on one hand and the study of nature on the other.
Linnaean Revolutions
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

For good reasons the name of Linnaeus stands almost as a synonym for plant taxonomy and botanical nomenclature. In fact he contributed to both fields—to taxonomy by introducing a new method of classifying diversity, and to nomenclature by standardizing a method of naming taxa, notably genera, species, and varieties.
Hawkins: The Early Years
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

John Hawkins, the third and youngest hero of this book, was born on 6 May 1761 at Trewithen in the parish of Probus in Cornwall. His father was Thomas Hawkins, a Member of Parliament, his mother Anne Hawkins, daughter of James Heywood, a London merchant. The family belonged to the landed gentry of Cornwall and had a status similar to that of the Sibthorps in Lincolnshire.
Hawkins: The First Journey
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

Nothing is known of the preparations for Hawkins’s first journey; very likely it was projected as a rather conventional tour on the Continent, so fashionable among the young members of the landed gentry in those days. His plan to include a visit to the Ottoman Empire seems to have developed only later during his travels. Unfortunately we do not know precisely when Hawkins left England or when he returned. His first letter from the Continent is dated 27 June 1785 and the earliest letten1,Titten again in England 10 June 1789. Therefore he probably travelled abroad for about four years, definitely for longer than his friend and companion Sibthorp did. This is also evident from a letter announcing his return to England in December l 788 ‘after an absence of four years and half’.
The s ‘tructure of Hyme:noptera
Authors: Gauld Lan D , Hanson Paul E
Published: November 2023

A great deal has been written about the comparative morphology of the Hymenoptera (see below) and the account included here is only intended to be a brief introduction to the subject, serving to help workers recognize homologies or determine the name of an unfamiliar structure. This synopsis has been condensed largely from Richards ‘ (1956) excellent introduction to Hymenopteran morphology, with a few amendments that have resulted from recent research. The following conventions have been applied. When a new term is introduced and explained it is printed in upper case. Acceptable common synonyms are pre ceded by an equality sign (=) and follow in parentheses. Homonymous terms that are used for different structures (and that are best avoided) are enclosed in quotation marks ( ‘).
The ichneumonoid families
Authors: Gauld Ian D , Shaw Scott Richard
Published: November 2023

Another possible apomorphic feature of the group is the presence of longitudinal and transverse carinae delineating a number of discrete areas on the propodeum, but these structures have been lost in many groups (Sharkey & Wahl, 1992). The number of families placed in the Ichneu monoidea has fluctuated, but it has always included the Braconidae and Ichneumonidae. Some workers have included the Stephanidae, Megalyridae and even the evanioid families (e.g. Pagliano, 1986; Pagliano & Scaramozzino, 1990), but these families lack the apo morphic features characterizing the superfamily and are more logically treated in separate superfamilies. Various groups of ichneumonids and braconids, such as the Paxylommatinae, Agriotypinae, Apozyginae and Aphidiinae, have from time to time been accorded family-group status. Despite this the first two clearly belong in the Ichneumonidae and the last two are part of the Braconidae (Gauld, 1984; Gauld & Bolton, 1988; Sharkey & Wahl, 1992). The Paxylommatinae, Agriotypinae and Apozyginae are all small and infre quently collected groups and arguments about their status have involved only a few specialists (e.g. Mason, 1971, 1978a,198la; Achterberg, 1976) The Aphidiinae, however, is a large, widespread, and eco nomically important subfamily, and many workers (e.g. Stary, 1960, 1966, 1970; Mackauer & Stary, 1967; Mackauer, 1968; Finlayson in Evans, 1987a) continue to insist, despite the overwhelming phylogenetic evidence (e.g. Achterberg 1984a; Quicke & Achterberg, 1990), on treating it as a distinct family.
Ethological concepts and sexual selection
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

Sexual selection in birds is characterized most conspicuously by the extreme development of ornamental traits apparently designed to attract members of the opposite sex. In discussing the marvellous diversity of avian courtship displays and ornaments, Armstrong (1965, p. 66) writes: Nature uses the simple, primitive reactions, and not only formalizes them but gives them special, conventional and sometimes arbitrary meaning. She loves complexity, and experiments to discover into what strong designs she may weave her simplest patterns; she does not like to discard any organ or habit until she has played a prolonged game with it, trying to discover how it may be more amply employed-even to serve ends quite other than those for which it was designed.
Male condition, parasites, and fluctuating asymmetry
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

The physical condition or ‘health’ of male birds is important in all versions of the good genes view of female mate choice (e.g. handicap principle, Zahavi 1975, 1977; parasite resistance, Hamilton and Zuk 1982; truth in advertising, Kodric-Brown and Brown 1984). It is a given that healthy birds, by definition, will have more energy and vigour than unhealthy ones, other things being equal. Thus, healthy males will be better able to compete successfully with other males for females, whether by singing or fighting, for example, and females will be likely to be attracted to healthy males that have brighter ornaments or that display more vigorously than less healthy ones.
Empirical studies of the major hypotheses
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

In the latter half of this chapter each of the major hypotheses proposed in Chapter 2 to account for mate choice by female birds is briefly reviewed and evaluated. First, however, to give the reader a feel for the kinds of data that have been obtained to assess these hypotheses, I summarize a number of empirical studies of individual species. Most of these provide clear evidence that females use certain male traits in making mate choice decisions; i.e. in a diverse array of species, directional selection, based on certain characteristics of the males (Ryan and Keddy-Hector 1992), occurs. Traits of males may be either morphological or behavioural in nature; most commonly, both appear to be important. This is not surprising, for two reasons. First, specific behaviour is almost always used to display or exhibit the morphological ornaments of the male, and second, males of most kinds of birds have several mechanisms for self-promotion. In general, more attention has been paid to morphological than to behavioural traits of males, largely because they are often easier to measure accurately and to manipulate experimentally.
The social organization of resource exploitation
Authors: Dyson-Hudson Neville , Dyson-Hudson Rada
Published: November 2023

South Turkana is an unforgiving environment which creates extreme pressure on the human population much of the time. Turkana must deal with low levels and low predictability of atmospheric moisture (seasonally, annually, and over the longer term); the consequent low-density, patchiness, and fluctuation of animal forage; an even lower density of plant food directly digestible by humans; restricted water sources; high insolation and a resulting excess of evaporation over precipitation, for more than seven months of the year; animal and human diseases, to which Turkana traditional technologies offer little or no protection other than avoidance; the constant threat of animal predators; and the hostile, often violent competition of other human populations for the same, insufficient, resources. Long-term survival in such a demanding environment requires the development of adaptive response behavior. In principle, it should be possible to demonstrate this both at the level of the individual and at that of the population.
Damage to Seedlings and Young Plants
Authors: Butin Heinz
Published: November 2023

Frost is one of the more frequent abiotic causes of damage to seedlings and young plants. Frost damage may occur in almost any month, but is most prevalent in winter. The symptoms are the browning of needles or leaves or the death of whole plants. Susceptibility is largely determined by species and provenance. The importance of provenance is shown particularly clearly by Douglas fir which embraces a broad spectrum from highly resistant (glauca and caesia forms) to very frost-susceptible (some viridis provenances). Frost hardiness can also be influenced to some extent by fertilization.
‘I wouldn’t start from here’: land use, transport, and sustainability
Authors: Owens Susan
Published: November 2023

Dr Susan Owens was awarded her degree, and subsequently a PhD, in environmental sciences at the University of East Anglia. Since 1981 she has been a Lecturer in Geography at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Newnham College. Her long-term research interest is in land use and sustainability; she has written several books and numerous papers on these and other environmental issues. She recently held a Fellowship under the Economic and Social Research Council’s Global Environment Change Programme for research on land-use planning and environmental change. Dr Owens has also carried out research for the European Commission, the Department of the Environment, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD ), and environmental non-governmental organizations (NG Os). She was a Special Advisor to the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution during its study of transport and the environment. She is a member of the Technology Foresight Panel on Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Environment and of the UK Round Table on Sustainable Development.
Oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes in the regulation of angiogenesis
Authors: Rastinejad Farzan , Bouck Noël
Published: November 2023

The cells that comprise a successful solid tumour have developed two distinct new capabilities that are not possessed by the normal cells from which they arose. They proliferate without internal constraints and they create an environment in vivo where their growth potential can be realized. The ability to induce angiogenesis is a major component of this permissive in vivo environment. Without neovascularization, even cells that are perfectly capable of growing without constraint cannot form tumours of a clinically relevant size (1-3).
The role of proteases in angiogenesis
Authors: Sharon Klein Andreas Bikfalvt , Pintucci Giuseppe , Rifkin Daniel B
Published: November 2023

Angiogenesis is defined as the process of vascular neoformation that occurs during development menstruation, and several pathological conditions such as neoplasia. Angiogenesis requires the co-ordinate activation of a series of molecular events that are responsible for endothelial cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation into capillary structures. Proteolytic activity is critical for migration and invasion of endothelial cells into the neighbouring tissue (1,2). Several protease systems have been identified as being involved in angiogenesis including the plasminogen activator (PA) system and the matrix metalloproteinases (1,2). Urokinase-type PA (uPA) not only converts plasminogen into plasmin to allow matrix degradation, but may also provide signals for endothelial cell movement (3,4). These protease systems are controlled by a variety of soluble angiogenic factors such as fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), transforming growth factor (TGF)-β3 or vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (1,2,5-7).
The physical background
Authors: Fogg G E
Published: November 2023

The severities and complexities of polar habitats stem from simple geometry: the axis of the earth’s rotation is not at right angles to the plane in which it orbits round the sun. As a result, the North and South Poles are tilted in turn towards the sun and, instead of having the daily alternation of day and night to which most of us are accustomed, have months of nightless summer followed by sunless winter. With all his ability to create his own environment man does not find it easy to cope with either midnight sun or a night of several months. To a greater or lesser extent other organisms also have problems in adapting to the polar night. Surprisingly, the frigid climate which we tend to think of as the most characteristic and hostile feature of the poles is not a necessary result of the smaller amount of solar radiation which they receive but has been brought about by interplay of secondary factors. It has not been the norm in the geological past. The varying input of radiant energy from the sun over the surface of the earth sets up circulations in the atmosphere and oceans, which, directed by forces produced by the earth’s rotation and by the positions of land masses, convey heat from one part to another. In the immediate geological past these factors have operated to cause ice to accumulate at the poles. At present, ice is a dominant feature in polar habitats and its manifold patterns of formation, structure, accumulation, and movement give rise to a wide variety of situations, some transient, others more lasting, in which organisms have established themselves. In some, conditions are so severe that life survives only in a dormant state. Others support a surprising variety, amount, and activity of living things. The nature of the environmental conditions in these habitats and the ways in which organisms adapt to them provide the subject matter of this book. However, before considering these biological aspects we must look at the general physical features of the polar regions.
Glacial habitats
Authors: Fogg G E
Published: November 2023

The rare human explorers and birds venturing over polar ice caps encounter each other with surprise and interest. Ice is essentially inimical to life. Its presence implies low temperatures and in its pure form it is hard, virtually inpenetrable by organisms, and devoid of nutrient content. Most importantly, water, in the form of ice, is unavailable and the energy required to melt it and make it available is more than poikilothermic metabolic activity can supply. Pigmented organisms, such as algae, produce melting in their immediate vicinity by absorption of radiation but this ceases abruptly when the sun goes down. However, 99% of the continental land mass of Antarctica and 28% of the land surface of the Arctic are permanently ice covered and we know that these areas receive a constant supply of viable, wind-carried, propagules of various kinds of organisms. One may wonder, therefore, whether life has got any sort of foothold in this unpromising habitat. It will be convenient to consider also those habitats which are entirely bounded by ice but in which some liquid water is available.
Patterns and changes
Authors: Herring Peter
Published: November 2023

If we consider (rightly) that the global oceans are last, mobile, and dynamic living spaces, interconnected across the surface of the Earth, it is tempting to assume (wrongly) that their inhabitants are uniformly distributed throughout the oceans’ volume. The temptation is there because most of the organisms are small and cannot be seen from the surface.
Movement and interaction
Authors: Giller Paul S , Malmqvist Björn
Published: November 2023

Having concentrated in the previous chapter on ecosystem patterns and processes, we now turn to the population level, and in this chapter discuss the mobility and colonization patterns of lotic organisms and species interactions. Just peering into a stream or river would leave one with the impression that there is little movement of organisms apart perhaps from fish. But this impression is wrong.
The role of ecology in determining venom variation in the Malayan pitviper, Calloselasma rhodostoma
Authors: Daltry Jennifer C , Wuster Wolfgang , Thorpe Roger S
Published: November 2023

Intraspecific variation in snake venom composition is a widespread phenomenon with important implications for snakebite therapy, yet few attempts have previously been made to identify its cause. The venom from almost 100 Malayan pitvipers (Calloselasma rhodostoma), captured in 36 localities in Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia and Java, was analysed by using isoelectric focusing (IEF). A clear pattern of geographic variation emerged in the IEF profiles of adult Calloselasma, which was compared to patterns predicted from hypothetical causes by using a partial Mantel test. This test simultaneously evaluated the importance of geographic proximity ( ‘venom variation is influenced by gene flow ‘), phylogeny ( ‘venom reflects phylogenetic relationships among populations ‘) and an ecogenetic hypothesis ( ‘venom varies in accordance with geographic variation in prey type ‘).
Snake venom and snakebite in Australia
Authors: Williams V , White J
Published: November 2023

Australian snakes are amongst the most toxic in the world, but because of the distribution of the human and snake populations and the availability of excellent medical care, of the 500-3000 cases of suspected snakebite per year, only two on average have a fatal outcome. Brown snakes (Pseudonaja spp.) are responsible for the majority of bites and have been associated with sudden rapid death.

Victims of snake bite should have details of the bite recorded and a relevant medical history gathered, with particular reference to allergic responses and previous exposure to antivenom. In situations where the snake responsible for a bite is unknown, the CSL Snake Venom Detection Kit may identify the culprit and assist in determining the correct antivenom. Laboratory investigations are important, particularly coagulation tests, which may be crucial in optimizing treatment.

The venoms contain a number of biologically active components including neurotoxins, myolysins, haemotoxins and possibly a nephrotoxin and these are responsible for the major clinical features: defibrination coagulopathy, paralysis, myolysis and renal damage.

The diversity of snakes that may be responsible for envenomation makes the task of identification difficult; however, knowledge of local venom composition and symptomatology may assist, as does venom detection. We examined the venom of brown snakes to determine the influence geographical origin may have on venom make-up, but failed to find any evidence of a geographically predictable venom composition. Individual variability appeared to be the biggest influence on venom composition.
Life on a substrate: trends in form and function
Authors: Wood Rachel
Published: November 2023

The growth of sessile organisms is concerned with the successful occupation of space, and in Chapter 1 it was suggested that living reef communities grow under very specific environmental conditions that allow such growth — where suitable substrate is available, competitors are discouraged, and predators are either absent or in some way accommodated. Far-reaching generalizations as to the distribution and abundance of sessile organisms can be made on the basis of differences in growth form and life history,that is the schedule of events that occurs between birth and death (Hall and Hughes 1996). Life history can control individual growth, habitat selection, and competitive ability, as well as the way in which the next generation is recruited: all features which will strongly influence the characteristics of a reef. Reefs dominated by organisms with life histories which involve relatively short lives, high fecundities, and the rapid growth of weakly calcified skeletons will produce radically different communities from those dominated by species with increased longevities, low fecundities, and heavily calcified constructions.
The rise of biological disturbance
Authors: Wood Rachel
Published: November 2023

The previous chapter illustrated how differences in the ability to withstand disturbance has been an intense selective force in the evolution of reef communities. But while there is no evidence that routine physical processes have changed significantly over the Phanerozoic, there are now considerable data to suggest that biologically induced disturbance has increased dramatically in shallow marine seas, especially since the Mesozoic (e.g. Papp et al.1947; Vermeij 1977, 1987). This protracted event is known as the Mesozoic Marine Revolution (or MMR; Vermeij 1977) and involved the origin and diversification of many groups of bioturbators (organisms that disturb unlithified sediment), predators (those that consume either whole or parts of other organisms), and bioeroders (which penetrate or sculpt hard substrates to access prey or create dwelling places). The differential effects of the MMR are extremely difficult to isolate as many organisms cause disturbance in more than one way: some predators are also bioturbators; others are capable of significant bioerosion. The MMR thus involves coincident developments which might be predicted to have many common evolutionary consequences.