bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Distributed Database System for Mutual Usage of Materials Information (Data-Free-Way)
Authors: Fujita M , Kurihara Y , Shindo M , Yokoyama N , Tachi Y , Kano S , Iwata S
Published: March 2009

A distributed database system named “Data-Free-Way” for advanced nuclear materials has been developed by the National Research Institute for Metals (NRIM), the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI), and the Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation (PNC) under a cooperative agreement.

In this paper, features and functions of the system, including input data, are described together with a method to share the database among the three organizations as well as examples of the easy accessible search of material properties provided by the system. Results of an analysis of tensile and creep properties data on Type 316 stainless steel collected by the different organizations and stored in the present system are introduced as an example of attractive utilization of the system. Moreover, in order to know how to use the system, some trails of the WWW server of several sites in Data-Free-Way to supply the information on nuclear materials are introduced.
A Laboratory Study of Distribution Box Performance in Septic Tank — Soil Absorption Systems
Authors: Gross MA , Peetz KA , Hearne K , Rutledge EM
Published: March 2009

Distribution boxes are commonly used to equally distribute septic tank effluent (STE) among the trenches of septic systems. Various products are available for distribution boxes and to equalize flow among the outlet holes in the boxes. Although studies have demonstrated the ineffectiveness of distribution boxes, the products are still in widespread use. This study used concrete, plastic, and tipping bucket boxes. All of the products were tested with and without flow equalization devices inserted in the outlet holes. The plastic and concrete boxes were tested by dosing with a pump at various flow rates. The study shows that even if the distribution box is leveled to achieve equal distribution among the outlets of the box, very poor distribution is achieved along the discharge piping, even under pumped conditions. The results of the study demonstrate that distribution boxes are ineffective for distributing wastewater equally along the soil absorption trenches, even with dosing and with flow equalization products in use.
Domestic Wastewater and the Sodium Factor
Authors: Patterson RA
Published: March 2009

Alternative wastewater treatment systems combat many on-site disposal problems, but no incentives are given to householders to improve the domestic wastewater quality before treatment or disposal. While governments address phosphorus reduction programs, the effect of sodium in wastewater is ignored. Many laundry detergents use sodium salts as fillers, adding significant sodium to the wastewater. This paper addresses the sources of sodium in household products and examines the impact of sodium rich wastewater on various soil profiles. A loss of soil hydraulic conductivity results from the use of sodic wastewater in disposal fields. Simply by changing laundry products, a reduction of up to 38% of the current sodium concentrations in domestic wastewater can be achieved at no cost to the consumer with no negative impact on household operations. Many environmental benefits accrue, including increased efficiency of on-site disposal.
Evaluation of Pressurized Distribution Networks in Maryland
Authors: Glotfelty B , Hammerlund DO , Prager J
Published: March 2009

Problems with clogging in pressure distribution systems have been reported (Shoemaker et al. 1987, Hoover et al. 1991) and can result in system failure, increased maintenance, and limited use of appurtenances such as timers. Therefore, Maryland sought a pressure distribution network design that would allow operation without clogging and reduce the need for maintenance.

For this study we closely monitored sixty-one systems designed and installed according to the Maryland procedure. We attempted to measure pressure head and discharge rates at each system. We then developed a methodology for estimating degree of clogging. We found that while most systems had some degree of clogging, the clogging had not yet required the need for increased maintenance. However, some operational problems found indicate a need for increased maintenance and inspection and a need to revise our design and construction procedure.
Surface Irrigation Design Considerations to Facilitate System Performance, Operation, and Maintenance at One Effluent Reuse System in North Carolina
Authors: Woody TW , Rubin AR , Frederick D
Published: March 2009

Surface irrigation has long been a well-suited means for applying wastewater to agricultural and nonagricultural land, and has proven to be a viable option to surface water discharge and subsurface disposal. In North Carolina these systems have often been designed as last resort options or as only options to the user due to site conditions and nutrient-sensitive receiving streams. Systems have been poorly engineered and operated, and many times proposed for sites with poor conditions and misrepresented as to their potential. Surface irrigation systems require an engineering understanding that recognizes soil and site conditions, hydrogeologic conditions, and agronomic applications as equally important design components to that of sanitation and irrigation engineering which historically includes pump and pipe flow as well as water quality and treatment.

Successful system operation hinges on accurate soil and site investigations, suitable agronomic receiver sites (agricultural, forested, urban areas, recreational areas...), proper design of wastewater treatment methods and components, and a firm understanding of disposal methods. This paper explores remedies to common problems encountered with spray irrigation systems in central and eastern North Carolina.

Systems such as these have the potential to provide more than just a means for waste disposal; they are capable of providing water and nutrients to allow for the production of agricultural crops, horticultural crops, and forest products as well. In addition, these systems offer potential development of urban areas including area beautification of (rights-of-ways, common areas, etc.,...) and recreation facilities such as golf courses, athletic fields, parks, and even resort areas. However, these benefits can only be obtained through careful planning and management.
Long-Term Effluent Absorption Rates of a Serially Loaded Septic Tank Filter Field
Authors: Owens PR , Rutledge EM , Roark C , Gross M , Wolf D , McNew R
Published: March 2009

The objectives of this research were to determine the hydraulic performance of a serially loaded filter field with time, and to test the hypothesis that upper trenches of serially loaded filter fields build crusts until they transmit little or no effluent. This study was conducted for 8 years on a serially loaded filter field with an average effluent load of about 1125 L d-1. The mean summer effluent absorption rates (EARs) declined from 11.8 cm d-1 in year 1 to near stable EARs of 3.33 to 2.97 cm d-1 in years 5 through 8, thus indicating that progressive hydraulic failure in the soil did not continue or became negligible. Failure did occur, due to the design of the true serial system, in the form of blockage in the pipes of the upper trenches.
Massachusetts Soil Evaluator Program
Authors: Veneman PLM , Fletcher PC
Published: March 2009

Massachusetts recently promulgated new on-site sewage regulations requiring training and examination of soil evaluators. These individuals are responsible for determining the suitability of proposed sites for on-site subsurface sewage disposal systems. The University of Massachusetts, in cooperation with the U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service, developed a soil evaluator training course and examination. Course topics include principles of on-site sewage treatment and groundwater hydrology, soil descriptions, geology and soils of Massachusetts, and estimating seasonal high water using standard methodologies. Since the Fall of 1994, we have trained over 1,300 persons, of which 1,200 passed the mandatory written and field examination. State regulatory personnel, engineers-in-training, and professional engineers scored the highest on the written tests. Seventy-two percent of the participants passed both the written and field examinations the first time. Upon retesting, over 91 % of all participants eventually qualified for listing as a soil evaluator.
Computer Aided On-Site Sewage System Design Using a Pressurized System Design Spreadsheet
Authors: Winkler ES , Feiden WM
Published: March 2009

Pressurization is used in treatment systems such as Wisconsin mounds, Low Pressure Pipe systems, recirculating sand filters, and pressure distribution in conventional systems to attain uniform distribution. While calculations used to determine the hydraulics for these systems are not complex, their application requires iterative calculations that add unnecessary cost to system designs. Computer spreadsheets are ideally suited for these iterative calculations since results are generated instantaneously upon each minor modification to the system configuration. The Pressure System Design Spreadsheet (PSDS) enables designers to configure asymmetrical systems with up to 26 laterals and 50 orifices per lateral. Lateral elevation and lengths may vary. Friction losses and orifice discharge are calculated using the Hazen-Williams equation and the orifice discharge formula. Output from the PSDS includes: system discharge, head losses for the delivery pipe, manifold, laterals, lateral segments, and total system losses, pump capability, and system configuration details. System configurations developed with the PSDS program are completed quickly compared to iterative hand calculations and are consistent with empirical calculations.
Nitrogen Removal in Septic Tank Effluent Using Separate Nitrification — Denitrification Biotextile Filters
Authors: Townshend AR
Published: March 2009

This paper reports on an experimental septic tank system serving a 3-bedroom home in rural, south-eastern Ontario. The system’s objective is to meet the drinking water standard of 10 mg/L nitrite-nitrate as nitrogen without using conventional natural materials. The experimental system utilizes biotextile and geodrain materials in separate, recirculating nitrification-denitrification filters and polishing filters.

During its initial five years of operation the biotextile-based filter system has produced a sparkling clear effluent with a mean nitrite-nitrate concentration as nitrogen in the biotextile polishing filter effluent of about 12 mg/L which approaches the desired concentration of 10 mg/L. By mass balance, the overall mean nitrogen removal was 76% during the non-winter months and 69% during the winter of 1995–96.

This experimental installation shows that synthetic materials can be used effectively to produce high quality effluents. Engineered systems using synthetic materials such as biotextiles provide the solution to on-site pollution control where natural materials are unsuitable.
Performance of Septic Systems Designed for Effluent Storage using Soil Morphology
Authors: Rutledge EM , Owens PR , Goff RL , Gross MA , Brumbelow T , Wolf DC
Published: March 2009

The objectives of this manuscript are to outline a procedure for locating and sizing septic tank filter fields and to evaluate the performance of filter fields designed by this approach. The limitations on effluent loading due to the crust which forms at the gravel-soil interface have long been recognized. Our previous research has shown that in many soils, effluent must be stored in the filter field during periods of hydraulic stress. Thus, the hydraulically limiting factor for filter field loading rates is either transmission by the crust or storage of effluent within the filter field, whichever is most limiting. This approach, the storage-crust approach, uses soil features to estimate the amount of storage needed and the design to achieve the needed storage or the design to accommodate crust transmission rates if crusting is limiting. A 13% sample of 190 filter fields which were designed by the storage-crust technique indicated no failures. Also, no failures have been reported by personnel of the Arkansas Department of Health.
Thermal Studies on the Combustion Process of Treated and Untreated Cellulose
Authors: Aggarwal P , Dollimore D
Published: March 2009

The degradation of cellulose and cellulose samples impregnated with certain salts has been investigated by thermal analysis techniques. The behavior in air and in nitrogen is noted, for both the treated and untreated samples. A comparison is made between the samples using the αr-αs plot, which can be used as a tool to examine the solid state reactivities of the materials being compared. The method relies on the calculation of the mass loss data from the thermogravimetry unit being converted into α, the fraction decomposed. This indicated the reactivity of the treated samples to be greater than that for α-cellulose in nitrogen. In air, the sample treated with ammonium phosphate appeared less reactive than α-cellulose.
Thermal Oxidative Behavior of Readily Available Reference Polymers
Authors: Riga AT , Collins RM , Patterson GH
Published: March 2009

There is an ongoing need in the plastics and rubber industries for readily available polymer oxidation standards. Appropriate and well characterized polymers are needed as ASTM and industrial standards for a variety of applications, such as oxidative stability of engineering plastics, composites, coatings, and elastomers. Oxidative properties by thermoanalytical techniques, with an established polymer set, are of utmost importance in presenting reliable data and developing quality assurance protocols. Control charting thermal oxidative methods with quality polymers can lead to International Standards Organization (ISO) certification.

Thermal oxidative behavior of a commercial set of reference polymers has been evaluated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) differential thermal analysis (DTA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and pressure DSC (PDSC). There is a good correlation between measured stability by PDSC in oxygen and DTA in air. Known polymer crystallinity properties have been used to calibrate test temperature and heats of fusion. The thermal oxidative properties of these readily available reference polymers are repeatable and reproducible.
Thermoanalytical Approach for Differentiation Between Surface and Bulk Oxidation for Polyethylene Films
Authors: Dolgopolsky I , Gudimenko YI , Kleiman JI
Published: March 2009

An analysis was done of changes in the crystallinity, the oxidation induction time (OIT) and the degree of surface oxidation of polyethylene thin films before and after gas-phase oxidative surface modification. Various surface treatments were performed which allowed to differentiate between oxidation of the bulk and the surface. It was shown that for a full characterization of oxidation processes in solid films all three parameters (degree of crystallinity, surface energy and OIT) needed to be taken into account. The correlations between the degree of crystallinity and OIT can be used as an indicator of the extent of bulk modification. The correlations between the surface energy and the OIT can be used as an indicator of surface oxidation.
Thermal Oxidative Stability of Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composite Materials
Authors: Fleszar MF
Published: March 2009

The thermal oxidative stability of Fiberite 7714A (glass/epoxy), 976 (carbon/epoxy) arid 977-2 (carbon/epoxy) were studied at temperatures up to and above their respective glass transition temperatures. Composite samples were subjected to both long and short durations of heating. The first set of samples were heated for 4 to 6 hrs from 100 to 350°C and the second set of samples were cycled for 30 min intervals from 200 to 400°C.

The samples were tested in a Perkin-Elmer TGA7 Thermogravimetric Analyzer and the weight loss recorded. The weight loss data was compared on the basis of temperature and time at temperature. The results showed good thermal stability for each epoxy material through its glass transition temperature with a weight loss of 1.5% or less. The results were comparable for both long and short-term temperature exposure.
Development of a Standard Test Method for Determining Oxidative Induction Time of Hydrocarbons by Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Pressure Differential Scanning
Authors: Riga AT , Patterson GH
Published: March 2009

Test methods under the auspices of ASTM Committee E37 on Thermal Measurements are being developed for determining the oxidative induction time (OIT) of hydrocarbons by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and pressure DSC. This test method,ASTM E1858, is applicable to hydrocarbons, for example, polyolefins and motor oils that oxidize exothermically in their analyzed form. The DSC method is used at ambient pressure, one atmosphere oxygen. The pressure DSC (PDSC) protocol is used at high pressure, 3.5 MPa or 500 psig, oxygen. The test specimen and reference aluminum pan are heated to a specific temperature, DSC at 195°C and PDSC at 175°C in an oxygen environment. Heat flow out of the specimen is monitored at the isothermal temperature until the oxidative reaction is manifested by heat evolution on the thermal curve.

Statistically designed experiments aided in establishing the factors affecting the OIT. Sample pan type, pressure, temperature, and oxygen flow rate were observed as significant experimental parameters. The OIT is a relative measure of oxidative stability at the test temperature. A precision and bias statement has been developed by ASTM Committee E37 and is reported based on a recent national round robin.
Comparative Techniques for Oxidative Induction Time (OIT) Testing
Authors: Cassel RB , Salamon AW , Curran G , Riga AT
Published: March 2009

The oxidative induction time (OIT) test has been performed using a range of sample materials, instruments and conditions. Using the method of the ASTM E37.01.10 Task Group Interlaboratory Study as a basis, test samples of motor oil and high density polyethylene are analyzed using several analytical options. Instrumentation includes power compensation differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), pressurized cell power compensation DSC and heat flux DSC. The use of vented capsules as an alternative to the standard open capsules is also investigated.

The results show in the case of high density polyethylene (HDPE) (the primary sample studied for this contribution) that statistically similar results were obtained using power compensation DSC and heat flux DSC, and using three types of sample pans, one of which was a side-vented autosampler-compatible pan.
A Proposed Reference Material for Oxidative Induction Time by Differential Scanning Calorimetry
Authors: Blaine RL , Harris MB
Published: March 2009

A polyethylene film sample, inhibited with a hindered phenol antioxidant, is proposed as a Standard Reference Material for oxidative induction time (OIT) testing. The mean OIT values, derived from nine interlaboratory studies and for a number of experimental conditions, are presented. The material is found to be statistically homogeneous, a necessary condition for a reference material. Further, the effects of temperature, oxygen pressure, and storage time on the proposed reference material are explored. As a kinetic parameter, the OIT value appears to be decreasing with time but in a well behaved and predictable manner. The use of a table and graph permit the user of the material to estimate its OIT value in the future. Because the material has been thoroughly tested in a wide variety of OIT conditions, it appears to be the best currently available candidate and is offered for consideration as an OIT Reference Material.
Abbreviated Oxidative Induction Time Method Without Heating/Cooling and Gas Switching
Authors: Riesen R , Truttmann R , Schiano K
Published: March 2009

The well known standardized procedures of oxidation induction time (OIT) determination incorporate the fast heating of a specimen under nitrogen to the set temperature. After stabilization, the furnace atmosphere is changed to oxygen and from this point on the induction period is recorded. Usually, the differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) heating curves are not being used for further analysis. After the event has occurred, the cell is cooled down to ambient in order to load the next specimen. The new proposed method (SHORT) reduces the usual procedure to the necessary measurement, i.e. the analysis of the specimen under oxygen at the elevated isothermal condition. This method saves the heating and cooling period, leading to a reduction of up to 50 % of the experimental time. In addition, it is not necessary to change the atmosphere from inert to oxygen. This saves nitrogen, the investment for gas switch equipment and eliminates variations of the OIT values due to a not perfectly well defined start point, i.e. how fast the oxygen concentration is changed.
Oxidation as a Contamination in Measurements Involving Self-Generated Atmospheres
Authors: Seyler RJ , Moody R
Published: March 2009

Recent task group activities in support of ASTM Committee E37 efforts to characterize volatile chemicals with thermal analysis have involved the use of precision pinholes in sealed specimen containers. During the laboratory testing in support of these efforts, occasional artifacts were encountered. In particular, the development of ASTM Test Method for Determination of Vapor Pressure by Thermal Analysis (E 1782) showed some sporadic exothermic activity near the onset to boiling at test pressures significantly greater than ambient. This exothermic activity is associated with partial oxidation of the specimen resulting from residual oxygen as a contaminant in the vapor, consisting otherwise of a self-generated atmosphere within the specimen container. This oxidation occurs only when the working pressure is significantly greater than ambient and the boiling temperature of the specimen approaches 200°C. The source of the oxygen contaminant is laboratory air trapped with the specimen during encapsulation and laboratory air from the DSC sample chamber partitioned into the specimen container during equilibration of the applied test pressure across the pinhole. This contamination reaction can be avoided either by initially drawing vacuum and subsequently pressurizing the sample chamber of the DSC with inert gas to the desired pressure, or by flushing the sample chamber with inert gas in a series of nominally eight successive pressurize-vent-repressurize repetitions to the desired pressure with inert gas before initiating the heating program.
New Developments in the Regulation of Pesticide Inert Ingredients in the United States
Authors: Leifer KB
Published: March 2009

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the authority to regulate inert ingredients present in pesticide products registered for use in the United States. Until recently, most of EPA's regulatory activities focused on the pesticide active ingredient, rather than the other components of the pesticide formulation known as inert ingredients. Although EPA has considered inert-specific data when reviewing some of the inert ingredients currently accepted for use in pesticides applied to food, it wasn't until the publication of EPA's Inert Strategy that a comprehensive policy regarding the information needed to determine the acceptability of a pesticide product inert ingredient was established. The implementation of this policy has led to changes in the types of substances proposed for use as inert ingredients as well as advancements in the methods for reviewing new inert ingredients. Emphasis on the long-term health and environmental effects of inert ingredients now requires pesticide registrants and others to consider these effects when developing new formulations. In order to encourage the use of less toxic inert ingredients, EPA has streamlined its review process, resulting in quicker decisions and more timely market introductions.
Oxo-Alcohol Acetates: A New Family of Inerts for Agricultural Chemical Use
Authors: Frisch PD
Published: March 2009

Acetate esters of oxo alcohols have been available to AgChem formulators outside the U.S. for several years and are being used as solvents and cosolvents in a variety of commercial product formulations. Only recently, as a result of EPA action to grant this family of products exemption from the requirement of a maximum residue limit, have these materials become available for use in the U.S. The product family consists of a homologous series of acetate esters derived from oxo-alcohols, ranging from carbon number C6 through C13.

This paper describes the composition and physical properties of these solvents. Important performance properties; such as solvency, low temperature capabilities and low/controlled volatility, which are most useful to the formulator will be highlighted and compared to those of other inerts commonly used by the industry. Since the entire family has received a tolerance exemption, the oxo-alcohol acetate group of solvents offers a high degree of flexibility to the formulator of agricultural chemical products.
Trifluralin 10% Granular Formulation Prepared on Biodac® and Clay for the Control of Annual Ryegrass, Giant Foxtail and Carpet Weed.
Authors: Ross H , Omilinsky B , Lindsay AD , Creech D , Glatzhofer J , Tickes B
Published: March 2009

The development of a new cellulosic granular carrier (Biodac®) with characteristics somewhat different from the clay and botanical carriers presently used in the agricultural industry required further evaluation especially in regard to efficacy due to the extremely uniform distribution of the particles within the targetted range (see Figs.l&2). Tests conducted in 1995 in Arizona and in Pennsylvania, showed that 10% Trifluralin formulations prepared on clay and Biodac® performed as follows: Trifluralin on clay ⩾ Biodac® 30/50 ⩾ Biodac® 20/40 > Biodac® 16/30 >Biodac® 12/20. These data clearly show that the locus of activity for each unit area will be greatly decreased if a 16/30 or 12/20 Biodac® material is applied rather than a 20/40 or 30/50 material.
Stable Formulation of Easy Hydrolizing Actives Based on Specialty Silicas Shown on Malathion as a Modelling Substance.
Authors: Oelmüller R , Müller A
Published: March 2009

There are some active ingredients (a.i.) such as phosphoresters which can be hydrolyzed by even the small amount of water available from the surface of natural carriers or synthetic silica carriers. Dry formulations, i.e. wettable powders (WP) and dispersible granules (WG), cannot be formulated with these compounds (Ferch et al. 1990). It has been shown, that the controlled hydrophobicity of the surface of a new type of carrier silica can improve the stability of such a.i., thus, enabling the formulator to produce and apply stable WP and WG.
New Paradigms in Formulating Mycoinsecticides
Authors: Jaronski ST
Published: March 2009

The advent of commercial mycoinsecticides — insect pathogenic fungi used as insecticides — creates new paradigms in formulating these organisms. The “active ingredient” (conidium, blastospore, or preserved mycelium) must be kept alive and infectious yet dormant in the formulation for a commercially acceptable shelf-life under ambient conditions. The inherent conidial hydrophobicity of most of the current candidate fungi must be overcome for many applications without killing the fungus. Formulation additives or spray adjuvants cannot interfere with the infection process. The fungal active ingredient must be kept alive as long as possible on the plant surface in the face of lethal solar irradiation.
Comparison of Droplet Spectra of Fluorescent Tracers Commonly used to Measure Pesticide Deposition and Drift
Authors: Downer RA , Kirchner LM , Hall FR , Bishop BL
Published: March 2009

Five water soluble fluorescent tracers, (Rhodamine WT, Tinopal CBS-X, Eosin OJ, Brilliant Sulphaflavine, and Uvitex EC), and one non-ionic adjuvant, Induce, were studied to determine their effects upon atomization. The solutions were sprayed through an XR8004VS fan nozzle tip at 276 kPa (40 psi). The drop spectra were measured using an Aerometrics PDPA 100-ID with the nozzle positioned 30 cm above the probe volume.

Several differences in important droplet size distribution parameters were found between the tracers at various rates and between tracer/adjuvant combinations. The greatest difference occurred when comparing Tinopal CBS-X (6.5 g liter-1) to Eosin OJ (3.5 g liter-1), where there was a 200% and a 107% increase in the % volume of droplets < 100 μm and 150 μm diameter, respectively. There was also an approximately 61% and 35% increase in the % number of droplets < 100 μm and 150 μm, respectively. Similar results, although not as marked, occurred when comparing these two tracers both at 1 g liter-1. The other tracers showed differences when compared to water and water/adjuvant mixtures. The results are considered in terms of their implications for quantification of drift and deposition studies.
Effect of Shielding Spray Boom on Spray Deposition
Authors: Ozkan HE , Miralles A , Sinfort C , Zhu H , Reichard DL , Fox RD
Published: March 2009

The effects of several spray-boom shield designs and “low-drift” nozzles on spray deposition are presented. Results are based on experiments conducted in a wind tunnel and computer simulations using the same experimental parameters. Performances of all experimental shields were evaluated under two spray pressures (0.15 and 0.3 MPa), and two air flow rates (2.75 and 4.80 m/s) in the wind tunnel. All nine shields tested during this study effectively reduced droplet deposition distance. Even the least effective shield design produced a 13% improvement in deposition of spray on the ground. A double-foil shield produced the best spray-deposit improvement of 59% compared to the same nozzles spraying without the shield. The shields were effective even when used with nozzles with higher flow rates (producing fewer small droplets). However, using larger capacity nozzles reduced droplet deposition distance more than using smaller capacity nozzles with even the most effective shield. Low-drift (LD) nozzles without a shield provided reductions in deposition distance ranging from 20 percent to 67 percent when compared to the deposition distance from a 0.61 L/min standard flat-fan (SFF) nozzle operating under identical conditions. The 0.61 L/min SFF nozzles operating with Shield 2 (the best shield) was twice as effective in reducing droplet deposition distance as the same capacity LD nozzles operating without a shield. However, the low-capacity LD nozzles without a shield were twice as effective in reducing drift as the SFF nozzles of the same capacity operating with Shield 5/1 (the shield with the worst performance). Without a shield, LD nozzles at higher flow rates are no more advantageous in reducing droplet deposition distance than SFF nozzles of similar flow rate.
Effect of Surface Charge/Particle Size of a Latex Particle on Transport Through Soil
Authors: Keeney FN , Steele KP , Von Wald GA
Published: March 2009

The role of particle size and surface charge on the ability of a particle to migrate in a soil water column was investigated utilizing carboxylated polystyrene latexes. Experimentally, the only latex particle that was stable and mobile in the soil was the highly charged (519 μ eq/g) 0.19 micron diameter latex. Hydrodynamic chromatography (HDC) was effective in determining both concentration and size distribution of the latex particles in the soil water matrix where there was high surface charge (519 μ eq/g) and small particle size, (< 0.2 microns) or low surface charge (7–11 μ eq/g) particles between 0.166 and 0.507 microns stabilized by a polyoxyethylene-polyoxypropylene block copolymer.

Size played a role, with the movement of the 0.166 micron latex equivalent to that of the 0.19 micron latex. Both were significantly more mobile (less sorptive) than the 0.507 micron latex. Soil also had an influence as 0.19 micron particles were seen to be less mobile in the high organic carbon (OC) soil (Catlin) versus a moderate OC soil (Cecil).

A compartmental model based only on sorption described the data reasonably well. The parameter estimates from the model for the sorption constant, void volume in the soil column, and initial latex concentration were a close approximation to those observed and consistent throughout the study.
A Review of the Measurement of Wettability for Agricultural Applications
Authors: Pallas NR
Published: March 2009

This review addresses issues important to the estimation of wetting, spreading, and adhesion in the development and use of agricultural formulations. Beginning with a thorough review of the physical principles underlying the phenomena, methods for evaluation of the wetting properties of smooth and rugous solids, consolidated and unconsolidated porous media, powders, and fibers are described with some examples of typical data. Only brief mention is made of the importance of dynamics and the measurement of dynamic properties.
A Review of Surfactants Used in Novel Agricultural Applications
Authors: Tann RS
Published: March 2009

A review of recent literature found several novel or new applications of surfactants in the agrochemical business. This review of the literature is intended to highlight some of the most recent developments in the industry. Structured liquids and vesicle technology has led to more stable formulations. These formulations generally were not possible several years ago. The development water based systems is emerging technology which has served to breathe new opportunities with the use of surfactants. Water dispersible granule technology has led to several interesting applications of surfactants as well. From heat activated binders to the synergistic role surfactants play in some formulations, the use of surface active materials in water dispersible granules is expanding. Surfactants also are beginning to emerge as an ingredient which can effect the basic biology of the active ingredient. During the review of the literature several citations were found illustrating uses of surfactants in roles such as: reducing eye irritation of the formulation, reducing the phytotoxicity of the formulation, as well as reducing the odor of the formulation. Another important aspect of surfactants has found a new use of foaming agents in insecticide formulations. Several references will be cited where the formulation is formulated to foam upon application of the pesticide.
Hydrolytic Stability of Phosphate Ester Surfactants
Authors: Anderson DG , Eberle WJ , Stubbs DR
Published: March 2009

The unique properties of phosphate ester surfactants make them highly functional components in a multitude of formulations throughout the agricultural industry. Synthetic routes leading to the formation of phosphate esters are relatively well understood. The formation of mono-, di-, tri- and pyrophosphate ester species, however, varies considerably with reaction conditions and stoichiometry. Historically, the analysis of these mixtures has centered around the potentiometric titration of acidic species to determine the concentration of the various phosphate ester species present. The information obtained using this approach can be misleading and fails to provide the comprehensive characterization possible using through the application of state-of-the-art analytical methodology; including 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, high performance liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. These techniques will be compared relative to the examination of phosphate ester surfactants. Specifically prepared phosphate esters were studied for hydrolytic stability at ambient and elevated temperature. Little evidence for hydrolysis was observed past seven days exposure, with minor effects noted due to temperature and water concentration.
Foam Control in Trisiloxane Alkoxylate Systems
Authors: Policello GA , Koczo K
Published: March 2009

The properties that make trisiloxane alkoxylates (TSA) so desirable, such as superspreading and spray coverage, also present some challenging issues with regard to their use in the field. Since TSAs are highly surface active, they can produce an extremely stable foam. Traditional antifoam compounds, based on polydimethylsiloxane oils (PDMS) have proven to be ineffective in controlling foam generated by TSA surfactants. It is believed that the antifoam oil droplets must enter the air/water interface of the foam film in order for foam rupture to occur. If the oil droplet forms a stable pseudoemulsion film at the interface, and the droplet does not enter the surface, foam control is not achieved. Unfortunately this is the case with traditional foam control agents.

Oils based on novel siloxane propoxylates have been found to form unstable pseudoemulsion films in trisiloxane alkoxylate solutions, thereby overcoming the low efficiency associated with traditional foam control agents in TSA systems.
Linear Alcohol Ethoxylates Affect Glyphosate and Fluazifop-P Deposits
Authors: Nalewaja JD , Matysiak R
Published: March 2009

Scanning electron micrographs were taken of spray droplet residues from glyphosate (Honcho®) and fluazifop-P (Fusilade 2000®) applied with linear alcohol ethoxylates (LAE) having linear alcohol chains with C8–10, C12–14, and C16–18 and ethylene oxides (EO) at 40–46, 60–62, and 80% of surfactant molecular weight. Glyphosate spray applied with high HLB, 80% EO, LAE gave a uniform thick deposit. LAE which formed these distinct deposits with close contact to the leaf related to previously reported high glyphosate phytotoxicity to wheat. Fluazifop-P spray residual characteristics did not relate closely to efficacy. However, LAE that gave more uniform deposits were associated with the greatest fluazifop-P phytotoxicity. Fluazifop-P formulants may have reduced the LAE effect on spray droplet deposit. Glyphosate was a formulation without surfactant. Generally, fluazifop-P residuals were almost not discernable when applied with LAE C8–10 and C12–14 with 40–46% EO, the least effective LAE for enhancement of fluazifop-P phytotoxicity to wheat. Surfactant affect on spray droplet deposit in addition to previously reported solubility characteristics appear important to enhancement of glyphosate and fluazifop-P phytotoxicity.
Triton X-45: A Unique Effect on Growth Regulator Sorption by and Penetration of Isolated Plant Cuticles
Authors: Fader RG , Bukovac MJ
Published: March 2009

A unique effect of the polyethoxylated (average 5 ethylene oxide units, EO 5) octylphenol surfactant, Triton X-45 (TX-45), on the sorption and penetration of 2- (1-naphthyl) [1-14C] acetic acid (NAA) by and through enzymatically isolated tomato fruit cuticular membranes (CM) is described. TX-45 induced an unusually marked increase in cuticular sorption (55% greater than control) of NAA relative to Triton X surfactants of lower and higher EO content. This marked enhancement of NAA sorption was associated with epicuticular and cuticular waxes, for on removal of waxes, the TX-45 — mediated increase in sorption was lost. Surprisingly, a different lot of TX-45 failed to produce similar results. Evaluation of eight lots of TX-45 (0.1 % w/v) revealed that three produced no enhancement while five increased NAA sorption. A TX-45 lot that enhanced NAA sorption also increased NAA transcuticular penetration of isolated tomato fruit CM in a finite-dose diffusion system. Again, the CM waxes played a critical role. Based on capillary gas-liquid chromatography, no obvious differences were found in the ethoxymer profile of selected nonenhancing and enhancing TX-45 surfactants that could be related to performance.
An Analysis of Radiation Effects in Model A533B Pressure Vessel Steels Containing Copper, Phosphorus and Nickel Additions
Authors: Buswell JT , Little EA , Sinclair RN
Published: March 2009

An existing database of small angle neutron scattering (SANS) spectra on a series of model A533B alloys containing various copper, phosphorus or nickel additions, before and after 290°C neutron irradiation to 3.1×1023 n.m-2 (E>1 MeV), is re-analysed using a Maximum Entropy computing procedure. Volume fraction — particle size and number density data are produced for each alloy to characterize the irradiation-induced microstructural changes in terms of microvoids and/or precipitates of different sizes. The calculations are further refined by introducing a compositional dependence to the irradiation-induced precipitates, assumed to be of the type CuNiMn. The derived particle size distributions are characterized by narrow sharp peaks at ∼2 nm diameter and broader peaks in the range 10–40 nm diameter. The analysis suggests that under irradiation the total volume fraction of precipitates increases with phosphorus content, and that there is an increase in volume fraction with increase in both copper and nickel content at constant phosphorus level. Most of the volume fraction increase in low-P steels arises from 1–4 nm diameter precipitates, whilst for high-P steels there is evidence of a significant increase in 4–50 nm diameter precipitates. Estimates of radiation hardening based on input of the SANS data into hardening models are in accord with measured values.
Dynamic Finite Element Modeling of the Upper Shelf Energy of Precracked Charpy Specimens of Neutron Irradiated Weld Metal 72W
Authors: Kumar AS , Sidener SE , Hamilton ML
Published: March 2009

Dynamic finite element modeling of the fracture behavior of fatigue-precracked Charpy specimens in both unirradiated and irradiated conditions was performed using a computer code, ABAQUS Explicit, to predict the upper shelf energy of precracked specimens of a given size from experimental data obtained for a different size. A tensile fracture-strain based method for modeling crack extension and propagation was used. It was found that the predicted upper shelf energies of full and half size precracked specimens based on third size data were in reasonable agreement with their respective experimental values. Similar success was achieved for predicting the upper shelf energy of subsize precracked specimens based on full size data.
Anomalous Hardening in Model Alloys and Steels Thermally Aged at 290°C and 350°C: Implications to Low Flux Irradiation Embrittlement
Authors: Odette GR , Lucas GE , Klingensmith D
Published: March 2009

Age hardening at 290°C and 350°C in five simple ferritic alloys with systematic variations in Cu and Mn and four A533B-type split melt steels with systematic variations in Cu and Ni was evaluated for times up to 7200h. Significant yield stress increases were found in alloys containing high copper and nickel. The hardening is consistent with formation of copper-rich precipitates. However, the precipitation kinetics are accelerated relative to estimates based on extrapolations of the high temperature copper diffusion coefficient. Further the observed high sensitivity to both copper and nickel content is not understood. The rapid thermal kinetics suggest that embrittlement due to age hardening could occur in sensitive pressure vessel steels during extended service. Further, high thermal diffusion rates must be considered in models of the effect of flux on hardening and embrittlement. Anomalously high diffusion would also introduce a new rate-dependent regime at very low fluxes. Hence, the peak irradiation hardening from copper-rich precipitates may occur at much lower fluences than predicted by current data correlations.
Fracture Toughness Testing of Linde 1092 Reactor Vessel Welds in the Transition Range Using Charpy-Sized Specimens
Authors: Pavinich WA , Yoon KK , Hour KY , Hoffman CL
Published: March 2009

The present reference toughness method for predicting the change in fracture toughness can provide over estimates of these values because of uncertainties in initial RTNDT and shift correlations. It would be preferable to directly measure fracture toughness. However, until recently, no standard method was available to characterize fracture toughness in the transition range. ASTM E08 has developed a draft standard that shows promise for providing lower bound transition range fracture toughness using the master curve approach. This method has been successfully implemented using 1T compact fracture specimens. Combustion Engineering reactor vessel surveillance programs do not have compact fracture specimens. Therefore, the CE Owners Group developed a program to validate the master curve method for Charpy-sized and reconstituted Charpy-sized specimens for future application on irradiated specimens. This method was validated for Linde 1092 welds using unirradiated Charpy-sized and reconstituted Charpy-sized specimens by comparison of results with those from compact fracture specimens.
The Ductile-Brittle Transition Behaviour of Submerged-Arc Weldments Following High Temperature Exposure
Authors: Beere WB , Fidler RS , Bolton CJ , Fenton ST , Jones RB
Published: March 2009

The paper analyses data derived from surveillance specimens withdrawn periodically throughout the life of Magnox reactors with the objective of establishing a predictive equation for the end of life Charpy impact properties of the submerged-arc welds in the ferritic steel pressure vessels. Theoretical arguments and experimental data show that the transition temperature shifts in welds exposed in high temperature (360°C and above) low irradiation dose (∼0.4 mdpa) locations are controlled by thermally-induced intergranular fracture due to phosphorus segregation. The available data have been analysed as a function of time-at-temperature and a trend curve has been developed, taking into account both the time and temperature of exposure before and after a temperature decrease early in life. Data analysis showed that a threshold time condition should be allowed for, which must be exceeded before a shift in transition temperature is observed. This was interpreted as a threshold level of phosphorus segregation which had to be reached before intergranular fracture could take place in preference to cleavage fracture.
Irradiation of Vessel Materials Using KORPUS Facility of RBT-6 Reactor
Authors: Golovanov VN , Markina NV , Raetsky VM , Seriodkin SV , Tsykanov VA
Published: March 2009

Described are the designs of the KORPUS facility and capsules for specimen irradiation. The neutron flux distribution along the length and on the cross-section of the capsules is presented. Shown is the temperature distribution on control point specimen cross-section centres. The main trends of KORPUS usage are introduced.
Phosphorus Free Energy Change Associated with Segregation to Grain Boundaries in Submerged-Arc Welds
Authors: Mendes CM
Published: March 2009

The segregation of phosphorus from the matrix to grain boundaries has been associated with increased brittleness in carbon-manganese submerged-arc weld metals, with the failure mode on the lower shelf and transition regime changing from cleavage to intergranular failure. The quantification of segregation and hence thermal embrittlement requires the knowledge of the energy decrease for an atom in the matrix moving to a grain boundary, ΔG. There is some evidence to suggest that the energy decrease depends on the level of alloying constituents and this paper considers a steel with 1.46 wt% manganese and 0.08% carbon. The value of ΔG was calculated as a function of temperature by measuring grain boundary segregation after annealings at constant temperature in the range 763–873K. The grain refined and columnar regions of the welds were analysed separately. The phosphorus grain boundary monolayer coverages observed were smaller than those reported for a PWR steel.