bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fin de Siècle Beirut
Authors: Hanssen Jens
Published: November 2023

Postwar Beirut conjures up contradictory images of remarkable openness and inconceivable violence, of great antiquity and a bright future. The Lebanese capital stands for Arab cosmopolitanism and cultural effervescence but also for its tragedies of destruction. This book examines the historical formation of Beirut as a multiply contested Mediterranean city. Fin de Siècle Beirut is a landmark contribution to the growing literature in Ottoman studies, in Arab cultural history and on Mediterranean cities. Combining urban theory, particularly Henri Lefebvre's work on cities and capitalism, with postcolonial methodology, the central thesis of this book is that modern Beirut is the outcome of persistent social and intellectual struggles over the production of space. The city of Beirut was at once the product, the object, and the project of imperial and urban politics of difference: overlapping European, Ottoman, and municipal civilising missions competed in the political fields of administration, infrastructure, urban planning, public health, education, public morality, journalism, and architecture. Jens Hanssen offers a comprehensive, original account of the emergence of modern Beirut out of an economic shift away from Acre in the wake of the Napoleonic wars. He argues that the Ottoman government’s decision to heed calls for the creation of a new province around Beirut and grant it provincial capital status in 1888 paved the way for fundamental urban and regional reconfigurations long before colonial policies during the French Mandate period. This new Ottoman province came to constitute the territorial embodiment of regional self-determination for Arab nationalists in Beirut until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. Drawing on published and unpublished Ottoman government documents, Arabic sources, and European archival material, Hanssen's book traces the urban experience of modernity in the Ottoman Empire. The transformation of everyday life in late nineteenth-century Beirut and the concomitant policies of urban management is vividly set against the devastating civil war in Mount Lebanon and Damascus in 1860.
2
Authors: Brown Archie
Published: November 2023

In the sixty years between the spring of 1922 when Stalin became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the spring of 1982, the Soviet Union had just three general secretaries—Stalin himself, Nikita Khrushchev, and Leonid Brezhnev. In the last three years, four men have held that office—Brezhnev in the last months of his eighteen-year reign, Yuriy Andropov, Konstantin Chernenko, and now I\1ikhail Gorbachev. If Gorbachev lives as long as any one of his five predecessors, he can expect to be still at the helm of the Soviet Communist Party and state at the beginning of the next millennium. For that and other reasons, the choice of Gorbachev is of exceptional significance for the Soviet Union and—given the country’s role in international affairs—for the rest of the world. There is every possibility that Gorbachev will in time become the most powerful Soviet leader since Khrushchev, though his political style is likely to be very different and his policies more carefully thought through.
Institutional Amphibiousness or Civil Society? The Origins and Development of Perestroika
Authors: Brown Archie
Published: November 2023

There is a school of thought which interprets transition from Communism as being a result of the development of civil society. In an important article, X.L. Ding questioned the validity of that interpretation in the context of political change in China.1 Indeed, with the principal exception of Poland, it is doubtful if the growth of civil society should be seen as a source of fundamental political change in the Communist world rather than as a consequence of it. The essence of civil society is the existence of autonomous associations and organizations neither created nor dominated by the state. It is thus at least as misleading to speak of civil society in the Soviet Union prior to perestroika as it has been to see such a development in China. As I noted some years ago:
Conditional-Assertion Theories of Conditionals
Authors: Lycan William G
Published: November 2023

Some clever ass has said that ‘if ’ is the biggest word in the language, but I say it’s the most useless. Now under what circumstances is a conditional true? Even to raise this question is to depart from everyday attitudes. An affirmation of the form ‘if p then q’ is commonly felt less as an affirmation of a conditional than as a conditional affirmation of the consequent If, after we have made such an affirmation, the antecedent turns out true, then we consider ourselves committed to the consequent, and are ready to acknowledge error if it proves false. If on the other hand the antecedent turns out to have been false, our conditional affirmation is as if it had never been made.
Non-Catastrophic Presupposition Failure
Authors: Yablo Stephen
Published: November 2023

I will be talking in this paper about the problem of presupposition failure. The claim will be (exaggerating some for effect) that there is no such problem— more like an opportunity of which natural language takes extensive advantage.
Setting the Scene
Authors: Davies Wendy
Published: November 2023

This book is about northern Spain—so-called ‘Christian’ Spain—in the tenth century. This is not a period chosen by chance. The tenth century is particularly significant for the region: it is the time when suddenly, after centuries spattered with only fragments of source material, written texts become very plentiful and we begin to glimpse the working of local society; we can thereby look at rural relationships at the point when they were emerging from obscurity.
Gesmira, Recosinda, and Nuño Sarracíniz: Donation to Lay Persons
Authors: Davies Wendy
Published: November 2023

In 950 Gesmira gave all her property in the villa called Torre to the lay couple Flaino and Brunildi, so that they could take her into their house and look after her, as well as taking care for her soul after her death. In 962 Recosinda gave half of her land in a villa in Ujo to the couple Taurelo and Principia, also lay, so that they could provide her with bedding and warmth. In 964 Nuño Sarracíniz gave property in Orbaneja and Villímar to the priest Iñigo so that he would look after him in infirmity and old age, as well as make sure that he was properly buried.1
Minimalism, Epistemicism, and Paradox
Authors: Armour-Garb Bradley , Beall JC
Published: November 2023

Paul Horwich’s Minimalism (1999) is familiar to many contemporary philosophers but one aspect of the theory has received little attention, namely, its stance on paradox—both soritical (vagueness) and semantic (Liar family). Horwich’s approach to soritical paradox is along so-called epistemic lines, an increasingly familiar approach due to recent work by Sorensen (1988) and Williamson (1994).
Minimalists about Truth Can (and Should) Be Epistemicists, and it Helps if They Are Revision Theorists too
Authors: Armour-Garb Bradley , Beall JC
Published: November 2023

But exactly which are the non-paradoxical instances of (1)? Which instances can we endorse? Some are unproblematic: the grounded propositions pose no problem in Thanks to Otaávio Bueno, Mark Colyvan, Daniel Nolan, Graham Priest, Roy Sorensen and Achille Varzi and to the audience at theUniversity of Otago for enjoyable discussions on this topic. Thanks to JC Beall and Brad Armour-Garb for their paper ‘‘Minimalism and the epistemic approach to paradox’’ [5], which raised many of the issues discussed here.
The Deflationist’s Axioms for Truth
Authors: Halbach Volker , Horsten Leon
Published: November 2023

In this introduction we shall be very sketchy. We do not want to fatigue the reader by refuting in detail claims that have lost credibility a long time ago. For instance, we sketch only the arguments for the insuffciency of the T-sentences as axioms for truth. We will state some claims that seem central to deflationism as we understand it. Naturally there will be philosophers who disagree with our conception of deflationism. We believe, however, that many will agree that the deflationist has to subscribe to these claims.
Naive Truth and Sophisticated Logic
Authors: Weir Alan
Published: November 2023

According to deflationists, there is no need to add any more metaphysical meat to the concept of truth. There is no need to view truth as a substantive property which sentences (or propositions) can have, a property which stands in need of theoretical explication in metaphysics. On the contrary, the concept of truth is metaphysically neutral. The minimal constraints placed on the concept by the Tarskian schema completely determine the meaning of the notion.
Discovery
Authors: Mallory J P , Adams D Q
Published: November 2023

One of the first hurdles anyone encounters in studying a foreign language is learning a new vocabulary. Faced with a list of words in a foreign language, we instinctively scan it to see how many of the words may be like those of our own language. We can provide a practical example (Table 1.1) by surveying a list of very common words in English and their equivalents in Dutch, Czech, and Spanish.
The Physical World
Authors: Mallory J P , Adams D Q
Published: November 2023

We begin our review of the reconstructed Indo-European world with a survey of the four elements—earth, fire, water, and air (though there is no evidence that this fourfold division of nature can be dated to Proto-Indo-European times itself ). Table 8.1 provides a summary view of the Indo-European lexicon that pertains to the solid world of the earth. It lists the PIE form, the reconstructed meaning, and representative examples drawn from Latin, New English (occasionally well-known forms from other Germanic languages), Greek, and Sanskrit to illustrate the phonological development of the proto-form.
Indo-European Fauna
Authors: Mallory J P , Adams D Q
Published: November 2023

Many attempts to fix the location of the Proto-Indo-European world have depended heavily on the reconstructed vocabulary that pertains to the environment, both floral and faunal. It is often reasoned that if the reconstructed environment is specific enough, it can either indicate where the Proto- Indo-Europeans once dwelled or at least exclude territories that are incompatible with the reconstructed vocabulary. The problem with utilizing such data is logically self-evident.
Family and Kinship
Authors: Mallory J P , Adams D Q
Published: November 2023

Words for the two sexes are unevenly distributed with the majority associated with males. There are some distinctions in that when descendants of *wihxro´s (OIr fer ‘man, husband’, Lat vir ‘man, husband’, OE wer ‘man, husband’ [NE werewolf ], Lith vy´ras ‘man, husband’, Av v¯Ira- ‘man; person [as opposed to animals]’, Skt v¯Ira´- ‘hero; [eminent] man; husband’) and *hane´¯r (NWels neˆr ‘hero’, Umb ner- ‘chief’, Alb njer´I‘person’, Grk ane´¯r ‘man’, Arm ayr ‘man, person’, Phryg anar ‘man’, Luv annara/i- ‘forceful, virile’, Av nar- ‘man’, Skt na´r- ‘man, person’) are found in the same language, the former usually refers to ‘male, husband’ or the like while the latter sometimes may indicate a more honorific position such as a ‘hero’ or ‘chief’, though there is obviously a good deal of overlap. The former may derive from a word meaning ‘young’ (e.g. Toch A wir ‘young fresh’ or Alb ri ‘young’, if the latter is from *wrihxos < *wihxros) while the latter indicates ‘power, strength’ (e.g. OIr nert ‘strength, power’, Lat nerio¯sus ‘Wrm’), and even ‘anger’ (OPrus nertien).
Mind, Emotions, and Sense Perception
Authors: Mallory J P , Adams D Q
Published: November 2023

There is a rich reconstructable vocabulary in Indo-European pertaining to the mental and sensory processes. Those words specifically concerned with knowing and thinking are indicated in Table 20.1.
Speech and Sound
Authors: Mallory J P , Adams D Q
Published: November 2023

There is a rich vocabulary pertaining to speech and sound that may be reconstructed to Proto-Indo-European. Below we briefly review the evidence, first of ‘speech’ in its more general aspect and then at higher registers, e.g. the language of poets, and finally in terms of the various sounds that might be emitted by either a human or animal. Because of the very nature of this latter semantic sphere, many roots or words will be by their very nature onomatopoeic and there will be frequent instances where it is simply impossible to determine whether the root in question was inherited, borrowed, or independently created.
A Philosophy of Gardens
Authors: Cooper David E
Published: November 2023

Why do gardens matter so much and mean so much to people? That is the intriguing question to which David Cooper seeks an answer in this book. Given the enthusiasm for gardens in human civilization ancient and modern, Eastern and Western, it is surprising that the question has been so long neglected by modern philosophy. Now at last there is a philosophy of gardens. Not only is this a fascinating subject in its own right, it also provides a reminder that the subject-matter of aesthetics is broader than the fine arts; that ethics is not just about moral issues but about ‘the good life’; and that environmental philosophy should not focus only on ‘wilderness’ to the exclusion of the humanly shaped environment. David Cooper identifies garden appreciation as a special human phenomenon distinct from both from the appreciation of art and the appreciation of nature. He explores the importance of various ‘garden-practices’ and shows how not only gardening itself, but activities to which the garden especially lends itself, including social and meditative activities, contribute to the good life. And he distinguishes the many kinds of meanings that gardens may have, from representation of nature to emotional expression, from historical significance to symbolization of a spiritual relationship to the world. Building on the familiar observation that, among human beings’ creations, the garden is peculiarly dependent on the co-operation of nature, Cooper argues that the garden matters as an epiphany of an intimate co-dependence between human creative activity in the world and the ‘mystery’ that allows there to be a world for them at all. A Philosophy of Gardens will open up this subject to students and scholars of aesthetics, ethics, and cultural and environmental studies, and to anyone with a reflective interest in things horticultural.
Civilian Immunity in War: Its Grounds, Scope, and Weight
Authors: Primoratz Igor
Published: November 2023

The immunity of civilians, or non-combatants, from deadly violence in war is enjoined by the centrepiece of the jus in bello prong of just war theory, the principle of discrimination. It is also a central tenet in consequentialist accounts of the morality of war, for it provides an obvious way of limiting killing, mayhem, and destruction in war. Even pacifists have good reason to give serious consideration to the issue of civilian immunity. Elizabeth Anscombe famously charged pacifism with obliviousness to the moral difference between killing soldiers and killing civilians in war, and argued that this makes pacifists— not in intent, but in effect— complicit in the rampant scepticism regarding moral constraints on the ways of waging war:
Civilian Immunity in War: From Augustine to Vattel
Authors: Mckeogh Colm
Published: November 2023

Two intellectual developments were important in the evolution of the principle of non-combatant immunity (PNCI). One was the abandonment by Grotius of the attempts since Augustine to justify killing in war by reference to guilt; this positive development opened the way to the modern PNCI. The second, which had a negative impact on the fate of civilians in war, was the development by Aquinas of what came to be called the principle of double effect. These two developments are in tension in that, as long as the excuse of double effect (or ‘indirect attack’) is admitted, the standard set by Augustine for the proper treatment of people in war has not yet been met.
War and the Protection of Property
Authors: Thompson Janna
Published: November 2023

Cicero thought that pillage in moderation was acceptable providing it was done for the embellishment of the homeland and not out of personal greed. Grotius thought it was all right to lay waste the land and property of the enemy in reprisal or to discourage opposition.² Most of our contemporaries disagree. Most statements of just war theory insist that civilian property, as well as civilians themselves, should be protected in war. International conventions also rule out destruction or seizure of civilian property. The Hague Convention of 1907 prohibits the destruction or appropriation of private property and some kinds of state property— including schools, hospitals, and religious and cultural institutions. The Geneva Convention on Civilians of 1949 says that ‘any destruction of real or personal property belonging individually or collectively to private persons, or to the State, or other public authorities, or social or cooperative organisations, is prohibited, except where such destruction is rendered absolutely necessary by military operations’. The Hague Convention of 1954 specifically prohibits destruction or seizure of cultural property in war or occupation.
Introduction
Authors: Krämer Martin
Published: November 2023

The Phonology of Italian offers an overview of the main characteristics of Italian sound patterns under consideration of regional variation and an analysis couched in the framework of Optimality Theory.
Entertainments
Authors: Bergonzi Bernard
Published: November 2023

Some time after it was published Greene decided that later editions of Stamboul Train would describe it as an ‘entertainment’. Then in 1936 he published A Gun for Sale, a novel that was specifically called ‘an entertainment’ on the title page, establishing a sub-genre of his own fiction. Eventually, when he was preparing the Collected Edition, Greene abandoned the distinction. The entertainments that he wrote in the late 1930s and 1940s were, indeed, not all that different from the books he regarded as novels, but they drew more directly on the conventions of popular fiction and allowed Greene to indulge his liking for melodrama. They were also very conscious of threatening historical forces. A Gun for Sale is a gripping thriller though of a very literary kind, full of quotations from, or allusions to, poems and plays. It opens with a murder and turns into a manhunt, with armed police in pursuit of an armed fugitive. Most of the novel takes place in darkness or fog.
The Rule-Following Considerations
Authors: Boghossian Paul A
Published: November 2023

1. Recent years have witnessed a great resurgence of interest in the writings of the later Wittgenstein, especially with those passages— roughly, Philosophical Investigations ##138 – 242 and Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics, section VI— that are concerned with the topic of rules. Much of the credit for all this excitement, unparalleled since the heyday of Wittgenstein scholarship in the early 1960s, must go to Saul Kripke’s Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language. It is easy to explain why.
An Introduction to Contemporary Egalitarianism
Authors: Holtug Nils , Lippert-Rasmussen Kasper
Published: November 2023

1. What Is Equality? During the 1980s, the number of homeless people in the United States grew rapidly. This was due, among other things, to the Reagan administration’s severe cuts to the housing budget. In fact, by the end of the Reagan years the federal government was spending $8 billion annually on housing. The Carter administration had spent $32 billion annually at a time when homelessness was far less common (Singer 1993: 28). Most egalitarians would think that Reagan’s cuts were unjust. This is because these cuts increased inequality. However, egalitarians would not be alone in objecting to Reagan’s cuts on the grounds of justice.
A Defence of Extreme Egalitarianism
Authors: Persson Ingmar
Published: November 2023

Of the two premises, it is (N) that is distinctive of extreme egalitarianism and that I shall therefore be concerned with defending here. Moderate or restricted egalitarians could agree with (F), which seems to be true on logical grounds (as an instance of the general principle that there can be no difference in degree of value unless there is something that makes one thing more (or less) valuable something else). They would then differ from extreme egalitarians by denying (N), claiming that there sometimes is something — for instance, differing deserts and rights— that makes it just that some are better off than others. Consequently, they would hold that the scope of equality is restricted to those domains in which these just-making features do not apply to compose differences between individuals. How much moderate egalitarians differ from extreme egalitarians in practice will depend upon the size of the area outside the operation of these variables.
‘In the Shadow of Anglo-Jackson’ Jackson and the Public Schools
Authors: Whyte William
Published: November 2023

Few now remember John Calcott Horsley (1817–1903). Whilst other nineteenth-century artists have been reclaimed by the critics, Horsley’s career is largely forgotten. Yet, before he was twenty he had earned the praise of the cognoscenti for his Rent Day at Haddon Hall (1836). By the time he died, he had been elected a Royal Academician, and served as Treasurer to the Academy. He painted for the new Palace of Westminster, the Prince Consort, and Queen Victoria.
Essays in the Philosophy of Religion
Authors: Quinn Philip L , Miller Christian B
Published: November 2023

This volume presents a selection of essays by the late Philip Quinn, one of the world's leading philosophers of religion. Quinn left behind an influential body of work on a wide variety of topics. He was the author of Divine Commands and Moral Requirements (1978) and of more than two hundred papers in philosophy. Fourteen of his best and most influential contributions to the philosophy of religion are gathered here. The papers have been organized around the following topics: religious epistemology, religious ethics, religion and tragic dilemmas, religion and political liberalism, topics in Christian philosophy, and religious diversity.
Towards Thinner Theologies: Hick and Alston on Religious Diversity
Authors: Quinn Philip L
Published: November 2023

Western Christianity has never been ignorant of religious diversity. Early Christianity had to make its way in the religiously pluralistic environment of late antiquity. During the medieval period, Islam put cultural and military pressure on European Christendom. And religious diversity has often been seen by Christians as an intellectual challenge to which a response must be made. Origen wrote contra Celsum to defend Christianity against pagan critique. Thomas Aquinas wrote contra gentiles to make the case for the rationality of Christian belief. So Western Christianity has never been without a philosophical problem of religious diversity of some sort.
On Religious Diversity & Tolerance
Authors: Quinn Philip L
Published: November 2023

Since September 11, 2001, the fragility of tolerance has become a source of acute anxiety in scholarly reflection on religion— as shown by some of the contributions to the Summer 2003 issue of Dœdalus on secularism and religion. In that context, James Carroll asked how it was possible for people committed to democracy to embrace religious creeds that underwrite intolerance. Daniel C. Tosteson identified conflicting religious beliefs as a particularly serious cause of the plague of war. Such anxieties are reasonable. After all, Osama bin Laden professes to fight in the name of Islam. And in the aftermath of 9/11, the United States has experienced a significant rise in reported incidents of intolerant behavior directed at Muslims.
Patriotic Instabilities
Authors: Jenks Timothy
Published: November 2023

Be it our constant endeavour and our pride, to frustrate their insidious designs; haul down the Flag of Discontent, hoist the victorious British Union in its stead-Conquest shall again salute its well-known Colors, and our Enemies will soon be compelled to prefer an equitable Peace to that ignominy and defeat which has ever attended them in a War with the glorious, the invincible, the united Navy of Britain. Let us follow the example of the brave Duncan, and let every man consider himself one of the crew of the good ship Britannia, nail the Flag to the mast, and give every support to our Noble Commander and his Officers. The ability of the navy to stand as metaphor for the nation-‘the good ship Britannia-was perhaps the key to its importance in late Georgian patriotic culture. of transcending social.
Asceticism
Authors: Smith Virginia
Published: November 2023

Religious asceticism played a large part in reconfiguring European culture after the fall of Rome. So much of Christian history flows from this ascetic philosophy of purity; and so many bodies were subsequently constrained, cleansed, or physically altered because of it—especially those of monks, nuns, and many other devout men and women. In order to appreciate the milieu of cleanliness in medieval and early modern Europe, we need at least some grasp of the seismic events that occurred in that crucial 500-year period of religious upheaval in the Late Empire. The basic outlines are fairly clear.
The Body Beautiful
Authors: Smith Virginia
Published: November 2023

In this last chapter we face, to some extent, a final reckoning— and we can barely do justice to it in the space that remains. The twentieth and twenty-first centuries are by far the best documented and probably the most grimly fascinating of all the centuries embraced by the history of personal cleansing. They are probably also the most interesting period for us as individuals, as well as recalling many of our parents’ (and grandparents ‘) own personal experiences. The sense of déjàvu is enormous. We can see older habits and customs persisting in domestic housing, cosmetic care, health education, therapeutics, and general self-care—but the scale is utterly different. It is global, again.
What is Tourette syndrome?
Authors: Robertson Mary M , Cavanna Andrea E
Published: November 2023

TS begins in early life, usually between 5 and 7 years of age and consists of many tics.

The syndrome includes motor tics or twitches and vocal tics or noises, which must have been present for a year although not necessarily together. These tics can be simple or complex.

Vocal tics are often called phonic tics, as many of the noises made by patients with TS do not use the vocal cords.

Common motor tics are blinking, head nodding, face grimacing, and nose twitching, and common phonic tics are sniffing, throat clearing, and coughing.

The swearing tic (coprolalia) receives a lot of media attention but in fact only occurs in only 10–15 per cent of individuals with TS. In addition, there are differences between ‘socially accepted swearing’ and the swearing tic, which is involuntary, is often disguised by the individual, and causes embarrassment to the individual with TS.
Coping with the news of a diagnosis of Tourette syndrome
Authors: Robertson Mary M , Cavanna Andrea E
Published: November 2023

Many people feel relieved by the diagnosis as it empowers them and gives them an identity and a voice.

In addition, many parents feel that they have been blamed for their child’s behaviour and so the diagnosis of an identifiable disorder, TS, relieves them of any fault.

While some feel the diagnosis is a blow, as TS is often given unsympathetic coverage in the media, most individuals realize that there is help with the symptoms and with education.
Famous or successful people who have had Tourette syndrome
Authors: Robertson Mary M , Cavanna Andrea E
Published: November 2023

It might be helpful to start by asking how we defi ne ‘famous’ and ‘successful’. Of course, fame is objective at some level, but there are simple guidelines such as being very rich, which is synonymous with being fi nancially successful, or being a successful national or international player of any sport, which is synonymous with sports excellence. In addition, however, there are people who have done very well, but may not be well known outside their fi elds or countries. Nevertheless, there are many people with TS who have succeeded, and some have become very famous in their own countries, their own fi elds, or even internationally.
Introduction
Authors: lowe Vaughan , Roberts Adam , zaum Jennifer welsh Dominik
Published: November 2023

Under the United Nations (UN) Charter, the Security Council has a theoretically impressive range of powers and duties. Most significant is its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security. Unlike the General Assembly it can in principle take decisions that are binding on all members of the UN. The Council meets throughout the year, mainly to consider armed conflicts and other situations or disputes where international peace and security are threatened. It is empowered to order mandatory sanctions, call for ceasefires, and authorize military action on behalf of the UN.
The Charter Limitations On The Use Of Force: Theory And Practice
Authors: Gray Christine
Published: November 2023

The founders of the UN created an elaborate scheme, a treaty-based system which required states both to impose limits on their own right to resort to force and to depend on a collective response for protection. The aim was, first, to prohibit the unilateral use of force by states other than in self-defence. Article 2(4) expressed this prohibition in wide terms, outlawing the ‘use of force’ rather than ‘war’.1 Secondly, the system aimed to centralize the use of force under the control of the Security Council.
Proposals For Un Standing Forces: A Critical History
Authors: Roberts Adam
Published: November 2023

Since the formation of the United Nations the creation of a standing UN military force has been proposed repeatedly. Such a force has been seen as a means of improving the organization’s response to urgent problems of war, civil war, and mass killings; as a way of expediting the provision of peacekeeping forces to back up ceasefire and peace agreements; and as a basis for preventive deployments to ward of imminent dangers. The Security Council has generally been envisaged as having a key role in the creation and direction of such a force.
The Security Council, The General Assembly, And War: The Uniting For Peace Resolution
Authors: Zaum Dominik
Published: November 2023

When the first United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force, the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF), was established on 5 November 1956, to supervise the cessation of fighting in the Suez war between Egypt and troops from Israel, France, and the United Kingdom, it was not the Security Council, with its primary responsibility for international peace and security, that authorized the mission. Instead, this ground breaking initiative for the UN had been requested by the General Assembly, to which the Council, paralysed by the French and British.
The Sanctions Era: Themes And Trends In Un Security Council Sanctions Since 1990
Authors: Cortright David , Lopez George A , Gerber-Stellingwerf Linda
Published: November 2023

Since 1990, United Nations sanctions have become an essential instrument of multilateral action. With the imposition of trade sanctions on Iraq in Resolution 661,1 the Security Council opened a new era in the use of collective coercive economic measures as a means of responding to violations of international norms. In the previous forty-five years of UN experience, the Security Council.
The Security Council And The Wars In The Former Yugoslavia
Authors: Woodward Susan L
Published: November 2023

The role of the Security Council in response to the violent break-up of former Yugoslavia, beginning in 1991, tarnished the reputation of the United Nations so deeply that many feared it might not recover. Analysts writing at the time and since have been at pains to express the widespread outrage: ‘a spectacular setback’, ‘collective spinelessness’, the Wrst in a ‘series of horrendous failures’ in the 1990s.
The Security council And The Bosnian Conflict:A Practitioner’s View
Authors: Smith Rupert
Published: November 2023

This chapter is based on my experience of UN operations in the Balkans during the 1990s and, more specifically, during 1995 when I was in command of UNPROFOR in Bosnia. During 1993 and 1994, I was a senior staff officer in the Ministry of Defence in London and dealt daily with the Balkan operations and the UN, albeit from a national perspective. As Commander of UNPROFOR, I was temporarily on the inside of the UN structure and, nominally at least, serving the Security Council.
The Security Council And Three Wars In West Africa
Authors: Adebajo Adekeye
Published: November 2023

Since the end of the Cold War in 1989, West Africa has been among the most volatile regions in the world. Local brushfires have raged from Liberia to Sierra Leone to Guinea to Guinea-Bissau to Senegal to c ôte d’Ivoire in an interconnected web of instability. Owing in large part to neglect by the United Nations (UN) Security Council, West Africa has gone further than any other African sub-region in efforts to establish a security mechanism to manage its own conflicts.
The Different Functions Of The Security Council With Respect To Humanitarian Law
Authors: Nolte Georg
Published: November 2023

Since the end of the Cold War, both the UN Security Council and international humanitarian law have moved to the centre of attention of international lawyers. However, little attention has been given to the relationship between the two. In their collection of Documents on the Laws of War, Roberts and Guelff explain why this relationship deserves to be explored: The UN Security Council has . . . developed an expanded role relating to the laws of war.
The Security Council And The Use Of Private Force
Authors: Percy Sarah V
Published: November 2023

The United Nations has taken an active role in commenting upon and seeking to regulate private force since mercenaries first made modern headlines in the Congo in the 1960s. The more recent appearance of private companies which provide military services to foreign states or other entities has again brought the mercenary question into the spotlight. Private military companies (PMCs), such as Executive Outcomes and Sandline, and private security companies (PSCs) such as ArmorGroup, Aegis, and Triple Canopy in Iraq, have grabbed international head-lines since the 1990s. Much of the attention that PSCs, PMCs, and mercenaries receive is negative.
The Phonological Enterprise
Authors: Hale Mark , Reiss Charles
Published: November 2023

This book scrutinizes recent work in phonological theory from the perspective of Chomskyan generative linguistics and argues that progress in the field depends on taking seriously the idea that phonology is best studied as a mental computational system derived from an innate base, phonological Universal Grammar. Two simple problems of phonological analysis provide a frame for a variety of topics throughout the book. The competence-performance distinction and markedness theory are both addressed in some detail, especially with reference to phonological acquisition. Several aspects of Optimality Theory, including the use of Output-Output Correspondence, functionalist argumentation and dependence on typological justification are critiqued. The authors draw on their expertise in historical linguistics to argue that diachronic evidence is often mis-used to bolster phonological arguments, and they present a vision of the proper use of such evidence. Issues of general interest for cognitive scientists, such as whether categories are discrete and whether mental computation is probabilistic are also addressed. The book ends with concrete proposals to guide future phonological research. The breadth and depth of the discussion, ranging from details of current analyses to the philosophical underpinnings of linguistic science, is presented in a direct style with as little recourse to technical language as possible.
The Greek Verb ‘To Be’ and the Concept of Being*
Authors: Kahn Charles H
Published: November 2023

I am concerned in this paper with the philological basis for Greek ontology; that is to say, with the raw material which was provided for philosophical analysis by the ordinary use and meaning of the verb einai, ‘to be’. Roughly stated, my question is: How were the Greek philosophers guided, or influenced, in their formulation of doctrines of Being, by the prephilosophical use of this verb which (together with its nominal derivatives on and ousia) serves to express the concept of Being in Greek?
Closed Classes
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y , Ala Jacklyn Yuamali , Agnes Pauline , Laki Yuaneng Luma
Published: November 2023

Closed word classes are personal pronouns (§10.1), demonstratives (§10.2), indefinites (§10.3), interrogatives (§10.4), quantifiers (§10.5), and numerals (§10.6). Most of them share some properties with nouns but do not take the full range of noun morphology discussed in Chapters 4–9. This justifies their recognition as separate classes. An overview of their morphological and syntactic features is in §10.7. Personal pronouns are given in Table 3.3 (repeated here). They distinguish three numbers— singular, dual, and plural—and two genders in second and in third person singular. There is a clear etymological connection between independent pronouns, the two sets of tense-sensitive verbal cross-referencing markers, and cross-referencing enclitics employed with non-verbal predicates (listed in Tables 3.1–2 and 3.4). Grammaticalization of personal pronouns as crossreferencing markers appears to be relatively recent.
Predicate Structure and Verb Root Types
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y , Ala Jacklyn Yuamali , Agnes Pauline , Laki Yuaneng Luma
Published: November 2023

The distribution of fully inflected, partially inflected, and uninflected forms to some extent correlates with clause types. Most non-main (or dependent) clauses contain partially inflected and uninflected verbs (see Chapter 19 and Table 19.1, and §20.1.3). So do main clauses marked for non-declarative mood and modality values, and non-habitual declarative negative clauses.Fully inflected verb forms are the most complex of all. They allow the expression of categories which cannot be expressed in partially inflected or uninflected verbs.
Verbal Categories in Positive Declarative and Interrogative Clauses
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y , Ala Jacklyn Yuamali , Agnes Pauline , Laki Yuaneng Luma
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss verbal categories of positive declarative and interrogative clauses shared with relative and juxtaposed sequencing clauses (see §§19.1–2). None of these categories, except root reduplication (§12.8) and the customary aspect (§12.7), can be expressed in most medial clauses (Chapter 18). Forms discussed in §§12.6–7 and §12.8.1 are uninflected (unlike the rest of the forms discussed here). Further aspectual meanings are expressed with verb compounding (§15.3) and complex predicates (§17.1.1).
Complex Predicates
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y , Ala Jacklyn Yuamali , Agnes Pauline , Laki Yuaneng Luma
Published: November 2023

Auxiliaries are defined as a closed subclass of verbs which (a) form part of one complex predicate in combination with an uninflected verb from a large open class; (b) take all the person, number, gender, aspect, tense, mood, and modality specifications required; and (c) impart a modal or aspectual meaning to the construction. There are no restrictions on the transitivity of the lexical verb. Complex predicates containing auxiliaries cannot contain stative verbs or non-verbal predicate heads. As we can recall from Table 4.1, four of the polyfunctional verbs are used as auxiliaries. The positional verbs t@-‘stand’, r@-‘sit’, and kwa-‘stay’ mark anterior and durative aspects in complex predicates. (They are glossed as ‘stand’, ‘sit’, and ‘stay’ in their auxiliary and support verb functions throughout this chapter.) Aspectual complex predicates consist of a lexical verb marked with the manner sequencing suffix -n and an auxiliary.
Dietary assessments of adult amphibians
Authors: Solé Mirco , Rödder Dennis
Published: November 2023

Dietary information is essential to understand amphibian life history, population fluctuations, and the impact of habitat modification, and to develop conservation strategies (Anderson 1991). In ecology, trophic relationships represent a functional connection between different taxa and are a key subject in many aut and synecological studies. Studies on diets are essential for assessments of energy flow and food webs in ecological communities. Variables involved in an animal’s diet are seldom obvious and include behavioral, physiological, and morphological features of both predator and prey (Simon and Toft 1991). Therefore, dietary information from locally imperilled species is a necessary component in designing management and conservation programs.
Area-based surveys
Authors: Marsh David M , Haywood Lillian M B
Published: November 2023

Area-based surveys are frequently used to estimate the relative abundance, density, or diversity of amphibians. While the methodological details of area-based surveys can vary considerably, the basic principles behind these surveys are usually the same. Small, defined units, referred to as plots, quadrats, or transects, are selected randomly from larger areas of interest. These small units are then sampled for amphibians, and the data collected are used to make inferences about the relative abundance or diversity of amphibians in the larger areas. Area-based surveys can be employed in a variety of situations. For example, one might want to compare amphibians in primary forest to amphibians in secondary forest or pasture. Or, one might want to analyze changes in amphibian communities over time (i.e. monitoring) or across an environmental gradient like elevation or distance from a disturbance. Area-based surveys are also used in experimental studies, for instance when habitats are modified and amphibians are compared between treatment and control areas. Finally, area-based studies are commonly used to study the basic habitat relationships and community ecology of amphibians (e.g. Toft 1980; Hairston 1987).
Models in field studies of temperature and moisture
Authors: Rowley Jodi J L , Alford Ross A
Published: November 2023

The importance of understanding the temperature and moisture environments of amphibians In ectothermic organisms, variation in body temperature directly affects factors such as rates of energy acquisition, growth, and reproduction (Shoemaker and McClanahan 1975; McClanahan 1978). Temperature also exerts a strong influence on ecological interactions such as predator–prey and host–pathogen interactions, and changes in temperature can completely reverse the outcome of such interactions at both the individual and population levels (Elliot et al. 2002; Woodhams et al. 2003). Although the body temperature of terrestrial ectotherms is broadly correlated with environmental temperature, the actual body temperatures of many species can differ considerably from macro environmental temperatures due to species-specific behavior, physiology, morphology, and microenvironment use. As a result, ectotherms exposed to identical macro environmental conditions can experience very different body temperatures (Kennedy 1997).
Capture�mark�recapture, removal sampling, and occupancy models
Authors: Bailey Larissa L , Nichols James D
Published: November 2023

Understanding the distribution and abundance of organisms is frequently stated as the objective of ecological investigations (Elton 1927; Krebs 1972). Similarly, distribution and abundance are primary criteria used to classify the status of species (e.g. threatened, endangered) for conservation purposes (Gardenfors et al. 2001). Thus, both scientific and conservation perspectives lead us to select abundance and occupancy as reasonable state variables for investigation. We define abundance as the number of organisms present in some area of interest and occupancy as the proportion of sample units or, more generally, of area, that is occupied by a species of interest. Estimation of these quantities is typically based on count statistics of some sort. For example, abundance estimation may be based on the number of animals caught in traps, detected by visual encounter surveys, or perhaps by auditory means. Estimation of occupancy is typically based on detection/non-detection data (frequently referred to as presence/absence data) representing counts of sample units at which the focal species is (or is not) detected. Use of count statistics to draw inferences about such quantities as abundance and occupancy requires attention to two important sources of variation in counts (Pollock et al. 2002; Williams et al. 2002; Lancia et al. 2005).
The Life-Course Persistent Pathway Of Antisocial Behaviour: Risks For Violence And Poor Physical Health
Authors: Odgers Candice L
Published: November 2023

Violence is one of the leading causes of death worldwide for individuals aged 15–44 years (World Health Organization, 2002). For example, in the United States, it is estimated that each year violence causes over 2.5 million injuries and approximately 50 000 deaths (Corso et al., 2007). In the end, the costs of violence, including interpersonal, self-inflicted, and collective forms of violence, translate into billions of dollars in health-care-related expenses (World Health Organization, 2007). The recognition that violence is one of the most important public health problems facing the international community has prompted researchers, clinicians, and policymakers alike to search for new strategies for reducing and preventing violence. One strategy for responding to serious and violent offending has been to focus on a subgroup of high-risk individuals who are believed to be responsible for a disproportionate amount crime and violence. This targeted approach has its origins in classic criminological observations that a small subgroup of individuals (e.g., 5-6%) are responsible for more than 50% of known crimes (Farrington et al., 1986), with more recent findings demonstrating that individuals following a life-course persistent (LCP) pathway of antisocial behaviour (ASB) are responsible for 50–70% of officially sanctioned violent crime (Hodgins, 1994; Moffitt et al., 2002; Odgers et al., 2007).
The Amygdala And Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex: Functional Contributions And Dysfunction In Psychopathy
Authors: Blair R James R
Published: November 2023

Psychopathy is a developmental disorder (Lynam et al., 2007) marked by emotional dysfunction (reduced guilt and empathy) and antisocial behaviour (Harpur et al., 1988; Hare, 1991; Frick, 1995). The disorder is not equivalent to the psychiatric diagnoses of Conduct Disorder (CD) or Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) (DSM-IV) or Conduct Disorder and Dissocial Personality Disorder (ICD 10) (for full details on the assessment of psychopathy, see Patrick, 2006). These psychiatric diagnoses concentrate on the antisocial behaviour shown by the individual rather than any putative cause such as the emotion dysfunction seen in psychopathy. A distinctive feature of psychopathy is that it confers an increased risk of both reactive and instrumental aggression (Cornell et al., 1996; Frick et al., 2003). Reactive aggression is triggered by a frustrating or threatening event and involves unplanned, enraged attacks on the object perceived to be the source of the threat or frustration. This aggression type is often accompanied by anger and can be considered ‘hot’. Importantly, it is initiated without regard for any potential goal. This is in direct contrast with instrumental aggression, which is purposeful and goal directed (e.g., to obtain the victim’s possessions). Furthermore, instrumental aggression need not be accompanied by an emotional state, such as anger, and can be considered ‘cold’. Many emotional disorders (e.g., childhood bipolar disorder and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) confer an increased risk of reactive aggression (Blair et al., 2005). However, psychopathy is the only psychiatric condition to also confer an increased risk of instrumental aggression.