bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Using Evaluation Data As The Basis For A Local Ordinance To Control Alcohol And Tobacco Billboards In Chicago
Authors: Hackbarth Diana P
Published: November 2023

Practice-based research that systematically evaluates the implementation and outcomes of health-related public policies can have a profound impact on society. Research findings based on practice can be used to validate existing policies, promote modification in policies, or justify abandoning current policies and seeking another course of action (Gerston, 1997). Methods are similar to those used to evaluate other types of health and social programs (Posavac, Carey, 2003). However, additional factors must be considered if the goal is to produce data that can serve as a catalyst for policy change at the community level. One important factor is the social, political, economic, and legal climate in which the evaluation is conducted. A second consideration is the possible uses of the data once the evaluation is completed. Sensitivity to these issues is essential when researchers from the advocacy community are scrutinizing the business practices of powerful special interests such as the alcohol, tobacco, or outdoor advertising industries (Bobo, Kendall,, Max, 2001; Meredith, Dunham, 1999).
Risk-Adjusted Mental Health Outcomes
Authors: Hendryx Michael S
Published: November 2023

Donabedian (1980) defines a health care outcome as a “change in a patient’s current and future health status that can be attributed to antecedent health care” (pp. 82-83). An outcome is the result of health care or, in other words, is caused by the health care that was received by the patient. There continue to be intense and ongoing efforts to develop measures of health care outcomes. These efforts are in response to rising health care costs, capitation models of financing, and concerns with widespread variation in health care practices and outcomes across providers or settings (lezzoni, 1997a; Kramer, Daniels, Zieman, Williams,, Dewan, 2000; Young, Sullivan, Burnam,, Brook, 1998). Measuring and reporting outcomes of care is an attempt to ensure that payers receive good value for their dollars and that patients receive high-quality care. However, the measurement of outcome is influenced by other characteristics of the patient, in addition to health care.
Overview Of Health Scales And Measures
Authors: Streiner David L
Published: November 2023

Measurement is an essential component of most scientific research, whether it involves determining the temperature of stars, taking a patient’s blood pressure, or assessing a person’s attitudes and beliefs. In many of the “hard” sciences, such as physics or astronomy, there is little inherent difficulty, other than building the appropriate apparatus. The measurement itself is relatively objective, and subjective judgment plays a minor role. Although errors may still arise because of miscalibration or observer error (such as in noting the exact time a satellite transits its planet), greater accuracy and minimizing errors are usually achieved through technical solutions, that is, building a better instrument. In the “softer,” human sciences, though, researchers are acutely aware of the fallibility of human judgment and the difficulties encountered in trying to measure subjective states. This is seen by sociologists attempting to measure belief systems, psychologists assessing traits or moods such as anxiety and depression, and health care researchers from a number of disciplines trying to measure patients’ quality of life. The result has been the birth of a discipline called psychometrics, which originally arose from psychology and education, with the aim of making the assessment of aptitudes and achievement more rigorous.
Clinician And Patient Satisfaction With Computer-Assisted Diagnostic Assessment In Community Outpatient Clinics
Authors: Mullen Edward J
Published: November 2023

Community mental health clinics often have difficulty designing intake procedures that facilitate accurate and timely diagnostic assessments. A delay in accurate identification of patient clinical problems, symptoms, and diagnoses at intake impedes timely treatment for patients who, increasingly, are in need of immediate therapeutic services. Too often initial assessments are not accurate because of lack of information or expertise. Garfield (2001) has described many of the problems and issues pertaining to the clinical diagnosis of psychopathology, including varying interpretations of clinical diagnosis, reliability, and validity. Kutchins and Kirk (1997) present a comprehensive analysis of issues pertaining to arriving at meaningful diagnoses based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). In validation studies comparing standardized diagnostic assessment instruments with clinician-based diagnoses, clinician assessments have been found less reliable (Piacentini et aL, 1993; Schwab-Stone et aL, 1996). To address these problems, computerized diagnostic assessment software programs, both lay-administered and self-administered, have been developed to serve as decision supports for busy practitioners (Mullen, 1989; Mullen, Schuerman, 1990; Schuerman, Mullen, Stagner,, Johnson, 1989). These programs can be designed to gather, analyze, and report information collected from patients and collaterals, for use by practitioners, thus facilitating rapid assessment. However, it is not known if such programs would be found useful by practitioners, patients, and collaterals in community mental health clinic settings.
Constructing And Validating Assessment Tools For School-Based Practitioners: The Elementary School Success Profile
Authors: Bowen Natasha K
Published: November 2023

Accurate and appropriate assessment is critical to the process of evidence-based practice. In Vandiver’s “algorithm for using practice guidelines in a mental health setting” (2002, p. 735), for example, assessment is the starting point of intervention. And, according to Thyer (2002), the practitioner’s use of a “systematic, hypothesistesting approach” with every case starts with a “careful assessment” (p. 739). Without relevant, accurate, and complete assessment information, the practitioner is unlikely to design an appropriate and effective evidence-based intervention strategy. The quality of available assessment tools, therefore, potentially establishes the credibility of the entire subsequent evidence-based practice sequence. The quality of assessment tools, in turn, is related to the quality of the instrument development process. In this chapter we argue that involving end users and targeted populations in the process of developing assessment tools enhances their validity, reliability, and practical utility.
Diagnosis And Assessment Of Comorbid Oppositional Defiant Disorder And Obsessive­Compulsive Disorder
Authors: Mitchell Gary , Koontz Dawn
Published: November 2023

This chapter will focus on the diagnostic and assessment implications of comorbid oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD) in children and adolescents. Treatment implications are discussed but are not explained in detail. For further information, the reader is referred to additional resources. Oppositional defiant disorder is defined by a pattern of negativity, noncompliant defiance to authority figures (e.g., parents, teachers, and other adults), and temperamental outbursts that impair a child’s ability to function effectively in home, school, and peer environments. This maladaptive pattern of behavior must have endured for 6 months or longer for the diagnosis to be made accurately. Because of the pervasive behavioral disruptions caused by these disorders, ODD and conduct disorder (CD) continue to be the primary diagnoses of children and adolescents referred for mental health intervention (Frick, 1998; Kazdin, 1995). Research has shown that ODD can be validly diagnosed in children as young as those of preschool age (Keenan, Wakschlag, 2002).
“optimal practice” clinical neuropsychology: A Cautionary Tale and Revisionist Proto-Model
Authors: Pallone Nathaniel J , Hennessy James J
Published: November 2023

In Lezak’s (1995) definition, “Clinical neuropsychology is an applied science concerned with the behavioral expression of brain dysfunction” (p. 7). As if in amplification, Gilandas, Touyz, Beumont, and Greenberg (1984) state, “Clinical neuropsychology relates brain dysfunction to observable, empirically documented behavioral deficits” (p. 1). In optimal practice circumstances, the distinctive role of the clinical neuropsychologistis the specification and remediation of the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral consequences that follow and flow from medically verified neuropathology. Optimal practice circumstances are achieved, however, only when members of the several relevant medical and mental health professions-including (but perhaps not limited to) neurology, psychiatry, endocrinology, psychology, social work, and marriage and family counseling-function cooperatively and harmoniously in the interest of patients. In its turn, such cooperative and harmonious functioning requires both that each member of each profession experience a high level of security in his or her professional identity, understand the boundaries of his or her competence and those of his or her profession, and harbor no territorial urge to violate the scope of practice unique to other professions. Unfortunately, such optimal circumstances are not often encountered in the real world.
Effective Outcomes Management At Devereux
Authors: Savin Howard A
Published: November 2023

Devereux is a provider organization consisting of more than 50 behavioral health care treatment programs predominantly serving children and adolescents in 12 states and the District of Columbia (DC). Nearly 8 years ago, Devereux began its efforts to develop a coherent, qualityfocused, and data-driven organization. This undertaking was faced with numerous challenges, not least a geographically dispersed and clinically diverse provider network. This chapter will summarize how Devereux designed and implemented a quality improvement infrastructure incorporating empirically based practice guidelines and an effective outcomes-based management system. Five developmental stages will be described: (a) assessing the organization’s current status and planning for buy-in, (b) initiating data collection, (c) ensuring data integrity, (d) utilizing data to manage outcomes, and (e) system evolution. True to the spirit of continuous quality improvement (QI), our quality quest and interrelated outcomes management initiative is an ongoing work in progress. Its development has been previously chronicled (Savin, 2000) and expansively presented (Savin, Kiesling, 2000).
HIV Prevention: Evidenced-Based Practice With Infrastructure Support
Authors: Lewis Sarah J , Goldstein Ellen
Published: November 2023

There are approximately 850,000 to 950,000 people living with HIV in the United States, and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC, 2002) estimates that there are 40,000 new HIV infections each year. There are no promising cures or vaccines to date, and success with a vaccine is defined as a meager 30% effectiveness. These facts alone make the case that effective prevention of infection should be a major priority. The educated, white, gay community that was first hit by HIV in the early 1980s started to build a knowledge base about the condition and its causes. Grassroots community-based organizations came together to share knowledge about what worked and what did not work in supporting men to change their behavior and adopt safer sex practices. This empowered group recognized that sharing information about care and prevention with one another was imperative to reduce HIV (Indyk, Belville, Lachapelle, Gordon,, Dewart, 1993). HIV prevention research started in the mid-1980s to assess the effectiveness of behavioral and social interventions to reduce the risk of HIV infection (Office of Technology Assessment, 1996). There is an impressive list of well-designed interventions using several theoretical frameworks that have been found to be effective with various at-risk populations (National Institutes of Health, 1997).
Measuring Police And Citizen Perceptions Of Police Power In Newark, New Jersey
Authors: Robertiello Gina
Published: November 2023

In the 40 or so years of research on police behavior, serious questions have been raised about the “public relations” problems police have had when confronting the general public. This research has allowed police to come to appreciate how some of their everyday routines are in need of revision. Research of the past 15 years, for example, demonstrates that random patrol has a limited effect on crime, and that the general public is a critical dimension in the reporting and detecting of criminal behavior. In the wake of these more recent investigations into the impact of police work on public safety, the idea is that a “partnership” needs to be forged between the public and police if more effective and fruitful relationships are to grow.
The Role Of Families In Buffering Stress In Persons With Mental Illness: A Correlational Study
Authors: Johnson Eric D
Published: November 2023

Work with people with serious mental illness and their families provides an excellent forum for examining the importance of two reciprocal processes: practice-based research and evidence-based practice. As a way of providing a focus for the study discussed in this chapter, a brief history of the relationship between practice and research with this population is provided. The beginnings of family therapy in the United States, in the early 1950s, involved families with schizophrenic members, most of whom were interviewed in the context of the ill member's hospitalization. Based on earlier psychodynamic ideas like the schizophrenogenic mother, many of these early family therapy pioneers speculated that family communication and affiliation dynamics were responsible for causing schizophrenic symptoms (Bateson, Jackson, Haley,, Weakland, 1956; Wynne, Singer, 1963). However, these observations were based on small samples and tended to make assumptions about the family interaction that failed to take into account the possibility of a biological illness process, as well as the influences of the illness and hospital contexts. These theories were subsequently tested in research studies during the 1960s and were found wanting. Those studies concluded that the theories of family etiology of mental illness failed to produce any variables that could be clearly linked to the development of schizophrenia (Meissner, 1970).
Survival and Adaptation
Authors: Piantadosi Claude A
Published: November 2023

The relationship between any living organism and the environment in which it lives is as intricate and delicate as is the relationship between a species and its ecosystem. Highly complex biological systems such as the human body coordinate many processes to maintain a stable internal environment despite fluctuations in the environment around them. The integrated regulation of these processes is designed to allow the organism to function properly amid the varying influences of the external environment. Integration is the key principle in understanding how the human body functions.

The study of how a living organism functions normally despite disturbances in the environment is the discipline of physiology. Because all living systems attempt to maintain constant internal conditions in the face of changes in the environment, it can be argued that all physiology is essentially environmental. This view was first espoused by the scientist–theoretician Claude Bernard at the Sorbonne in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Cross-Acclimation
Authors: Piantadosi Claude A
Published: November 2023

A wonderful opportunity to illustrate the rich complexity of biological responses to natural environments arises when a difference is encountered between acclimation to a single stressor in an environment and overall acclimatization. This biological complexity can be conceptualized in a scientifically useful way. The key concept is based on the hypothesis that acclimation to a single stressor triggers a general pattern of responses that could augment or interfere with acclimation to a second, independent stressor. The name given to this process is cross-acclimation, which is defined as the influence of earlier adaptation to one stressor on subsequent adaptation to a new environment that may or may not contain the initial stressor.
Tolerance to Heat
Authors: Piantadosi Claude A
Published: November 2023

The dispersion of heat is driven by the universe’s thermodynamic imperative, against which rage the furnaces of animal homeothermy. Body heat offers the scythe of speed to animals of advanced phylogeny. In the current animal kingdom, however, only birds and mammals are able to maintain a body temperature that is substantially warmer than their surroundings. Lower animals are cold-blooded, or poikilothermic, which means internal body temperature fluctuates with ambient temperature. Warm-blooded animals are homeothermic because they maintain a constant internal body temperature (core temperature) that is higher than the average temperature of the environment in which they live. This characteristic, which in cooler climates has a strong survival advantage, results from the ability to conserve the metabolic heat every cell in the body generates during the process of homeostasis.
Climbing Higher
Authors: Piantadosi Claude A
Published: November 2023

Most of the world’s population lives at or near sea level, where their ancestors lived for thousands of generations. Because the human body is adapted to life at sea level, it must make physiological adjustments to the decrease in atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes. These adjustments are true physiological adaptations that appear to have evolved out of the survival advantage that tolerance to O2 deprivation affords the body. The amount of O2 in the atmosphere declines as altitude increases, exposing the body to hypoxia, which produces the same effects as certain disorders of cardiopulmonary function.

At sea level the air column above Earth exerts a force approximately equivalent to the weight of a column of mercury (Hg) 760 millimeters (29.9 inches) high. This height of mercury, placed in a barometer, exactly counterbalances the normal sea level pressure of Earth, 1 ATA, or 1 bar (1000 millibars). On ascent to altitude barometric pressure falls because the atmosphere is less dense owing to the lower weight of the air column above it. Atmospheric pressure falls more rapidly at attitude than might be predicted from the weight of the air column because as one ascends there is less compression of the air from the gas above it.
Reinventing Depression
Authors: Callahan Christopher M , Berrios German E
Published: November 2023

To inform future research, treatment, and policy decisions, this book traces the scientific and social developments that shaped the current treatment model for depression in primary care over the past half century. While new strategies for diagnosing and treating depression have improved millions of people’s lives, there is little evidence that the overall societal burden of depression has decreased. Most experts point to a gap between what psychiatrists know and what primary care doctors do to explain untreated depression. Callahan and Berrios argue, however, that the problem stems mainly from lack of a public health perspective, that prevailing etiologic models underestimate the roles of society and culture in causing depression and over-emphasize biological factors. The current conceptual model for depression is a scientific and social invention of the last quarter century. Such models are important because they shape how society views people with emotional symptoms, defines who is sick, and determines who should get care. Most parents who seek treatment for depression receive antidepressant medications in primary care. The authors show that although depressed patients’ help-seeking behaviour and primary care doctors’ clinical approach have changed little over the past half century, the field of primary care medicine has changed dramatically. They describe how the specific diagnoses and treatments developed by psychiatrists in the past 50 years have often collided with the non-specific approaches that dominate primary care practice. In examining the research seeking to close the gap between psychiatry and primary care, Callahan and Berrios offer public health models to explain the ongoing societal burden of depression. By exploring the history of depression in primary care, they open a pathway for improvements in the care of people with depression, where primary care physicians should play a greater leadership role in the future.
Primary Care In Crisis
Authors: Callahan Christopher M , Berrios German E
Published: November 2023

In a presidential address to the American Medical Association, W. L. Bierring (1934) reminded his audience of society’s influence on the delivery of health care: Since the turn of the century, man’s environment has changed, largely as a result of the ex- pansion of his control over physical forces, as in the growth of speed, the elimination of time and space, and the enlargement of the dominion of man’s skill and knowledge. This new environment has however not produced a new society, and in some respects the individual units of society have not kept pace with the changing world.
“Perfect Drugs” For Primary Care
Authors: Callahan Christopher M , Berrios German E
Published: November 2023

As discussed, primary-care doctors and their patients have been using psychoactive medications to treat emotional symptoms for at least a century. Over the past 100 years, the toxicity and addictive properties of these drugs have improved, and the manner in which these drugs are discovered, tested, marketed, distributed, and regulated has changed. Antidepressant drugs are less revolutionary when viewed in the context of this history. This chapter tells the story of drugs used in the non- specific treatment of emotional disorders in primary care since World War II, highlighting the limited role of the primary-care and psychiatry leadership in promoting and regulating the use of these drugs.
Can Attention Modulate Color-Graphemic Synesthesia?
Authors: Rich Anina N , Mattingley Jason B
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we review our recent experiments targeting the issue of whether visual selective attention can modulate synesthetic experience. Our research has focused on color-graphemic synesthesia, in which letters, numbers, and words elicit vivid experiences of color. Although the associations between inducing stimuli and the colors they elicit are typically idiosyncratic, they remain highly consistent over time for individual synesthetes (Baron-Cohen, Harrison, Goldstein & Wyke, 1993; Baron-Cohen, Wyke & Binnie, 1987).
The First Hookworm Campaigns (1913-1920)
Authors: Farley John
Published: November 2023

Rose’s vision of the Health Board as a wedge that would prompt government involvement in developing public health service was not to prevail (although, as explained earlier, vestiges of it remained throughout the life of the organization). Instead, the Health Board focused on disease control and eradication. This was certainly the case when they began work on malaria and yellow fever in 1915. The move away from Rose’s vision took longer in hookworm work; not until the early 1920s had the emphasis shifted to hookworm eradication. Rose never seemed to realize that his long-term goal of developing a public health service was not possible within the constraints imposed by the British Colonial Office. Few colonial governments could afford to develop a public health campaign on their own. Each colony had to be financially self-sufficient, requiring minimal government expenditure, and, above all, minimal costs to the British taxpayer. It was a empire on the cheap; hookworm had caused “grave anxiety” to the Colonial Office, but the political system limited officials to collecting and circulating information, and acting in an advisory capacity.
World War II: DDT, Typhus, and Malaria
Authors: Farley John
Published: November 2023

When war broke out in September 1939, the Rockefeller Foundation had over 100 European projects in operation. They had no desire to withdraw from Europe and resolved to salvage as much as possible from their ongoing commitments. But this time, in contrast to their experiences during World War I, they decided to avoid any involvement in emergency relief. If the money were used “to ameliorate human distress caused, for example, by famine or flood or earthquakes or any other calamity, our funds would soon be exhausted with no permanent result,” the trustees concluded during their meeting of December 1939. When the Health Division was faced with a $20 million request from the American Red Cross to engage in just such emergency work, Sawyer and Strode decided that a general war program to aid government health organizations was in order, but it needed to be administered by a separate agency from the Health Division. Thus, in July 1940, the foundation set up the “Health Commission in Europe” under Wilber Sawyer, with George Strode acting as assistant director.’ (A year later Europe was dropped from the title to allow war work outside that continent). Its main headquarters were located in the Paris Rockefeller office, with another office in neutral Lisbon acting as a link between France and New York. Setting up a parallel organization of this kind to the main body is normal procedure for many organizations. It freed the Health Commission to carry out its own wartime activities without changing the goals or mandate of the parent International Health Division.
The Nature of Skill
Authors: Campos Frank Gabriel
Published: November 2023

Skilled performance is the medium through which an artist communicates. The only purpose of skill is to convey a message, yet to a great extent, skill determines our success as performers. The transformation of an immature student to a mature artist depends largely on the acquisition of skill. We can better understand the relationship of skill to artistic expression by examining performers from op-posite ends of the spectrum: the dilettante and the pedant. Perhaps lacking the discipline or interest to master the medium, the dilettante is a person with an interest in artistic performance who has, at best, mediocre skills.
Mental Health Theory For Health Promotion Practice
Authors: Vandiver Vikki L
Published: November 2023

Health promotion is an amalgamation of a number of thoughtful and progressive theories borrowed from the behavioral and social sciences. However, despite health promotion ‘s increasing visibility worldwide and acceptance in political, social, and practice circles, a single, unifying, formal theory does not exist. This chapter begins by describing different approaches for models of practice—conceptual, perspectives, and theory—and how each of these is reflected in distinct approaches to health promotion practice. The next section describes four levels of change theory (individual, interpersonal, organizational, and community) and the corresponding mental health theories applicable to health promotion practices. The remainder of the chapter concludes with a review of the limitations of using traditional mental health theories for health promotion practice, some of which includes lacking a testable framework and cultural competence application for people of color or ethnic populations. Last, this chapter concludes with a section entitled “In Our Own Words,” which is a focus group summary of consumers ‘ and family members ‘ comments regarding the following question: “Why Does Mental Illness Happen to People?” In other words, what is their “theory” about mental illness? Such theory is the theme of this chapter.
Evaluating and Measuring Health Promotion Strategies For Mental Health Interventions
Authors: Vandiver Vikki L
Published: November 2023

Assessment, intervention, and evaluation are interrelated approaches in health promotion practice. Assessment drives the intervention, which, in turn, determines the evaluation approach. The importance of evaluating the success or failure of mental health interventions and health promotion strategies cannot be overstated. Clinicians and clients need to know whether change has occurred and had the intended effects. This chapter begins by examining the various approaches used in evaluation efforts, beginning with an overview of qualitative and quantitative methodology and moving to a review of conventional research designs—single-subject, group, quasi-experimental, and experimental. Next, an overview is provided on the critical issues experienced in health promotion measurement—reliability, validity, snapshot measures, understandings, time course and perspectives. The remainder of the chapter reviews six measures appropriate for health promotion strategies and provides a discussion on the limitations and benefits of evaluating mental health interventions and health promotion strategies. The chapter concludes with a summary of a focus group discussion held by consumers and family members who responded to the following question: “What kinds of information do you think are important for the evaluation of mental health interventions, services, or programs?”
Health Promotion Strategies For Women With Comorbid Health and Mental Health Conditions
Authors: Vandiver Vikki L
Published: November 2023

In the last decade, there has been increased recognition of the link between mental health conditions and physical disorders—a relationship known as comorbidity. This nexus has had particular implications for women diagnosed with a psychiatric illness and receiving public sector mental health services. This chapter begins by defining and illustrating the terms morbidity and comorbidity, followed by a review of four core health-related concerns that women with psychiatric conditions present to mental health providers. They include psychosocial/personal history, medication-induced weight gain, pregnancy, and substance use. Next, the chapter describes four health promotion strategies (e.g., intentional recovery community, fitness program, health education, and gender-specific treatment groups) and model programs. The remainder of the chapter reviews barriers to the implementation of strategies (e.g., fiscal, clinical, and training) and provides recommendations for organizational shift to a health promotion philosophy. The chapter concludes with a summary of a focus group discussion held by consumers and family members who were asked the following question: “How can the mental health system improve your and your family members ‘ health needs?”
Developmental Costs and the Partitioning of Metabolic Energy
Authors: Rombough Peter
Published: November 2023

Energy is the common currency of life. As such, it provides a fundamental link between organisms and their environment and between the various levels of biological complexity. Energy is almost invariably in short supply in the natural world. How animals compete for and utilize it, therefore, is of great interest to ecologists and evolutionary biologists. Among other things, the metabolic rate of an animal provides an indication of its ecological footprint. How an animal allocates energy to various tasks yields insight into the relative importance of those activities. Knowledge of how animals utilize energy also provides insight into structural and functional relationships. All cells utilize energy. The rate at which they do so has profound implications for animal design. The major function of many body systems is the support of energy metabolism, either by assisting in supplying tissues with fuel and O2 or by helping to get rid of metabolic wastes. How these systems are designed is directly dependent on their role in energy metabolism. Knowledge of how energy is partitioned at the cellular level provides insight into how cells work and what activities are particularly important. We know a good deal about how juvenile and adult animals utilize energy at all levels of biological organization, from the cell (e.g., Rolfe and Brown 1997; Hulbert and Else 2000), to the organism (e.g., Brody 1945; Kleiber 1975; Alexander 1999), to the ecosystem (e.g., McNab 2002). We know much less about these processes during early life.
Developmental Physiology: Its Importance for Environmental Conservation and Biomedical Research
Authors: Pelster Bernd , Schwerte Thorsten
Published: November 2023

After several decades of very active research in comparative animal physiology, an outside observer currently might get the impression that the situation has changed radically. A recent documentation of the success of comparative animal physiology is, for example, given in the book Biochemical Adaptation: Mechanism and Process in Physiological Evolution by Peter Hochachka and George Somero (2002). With the success of molecular biological techniques, however, sayings like “Everything or everyone goes molecular” are frequently encountered in discussions on future perspectives of scientific work in biological sciences. Departments and institutes are being renamed, the “evolutionary” aspect is replacing the “comparative” angle. More and more referees and thus journals and funding agencies ask for the mechanistic (“molecular”) part of the story, and disapprove of the descriptive (“physiological”) part, irrespective of the fact that the story “Factor A increases during hypoxia, activates transcription factor B, and this results in the expression of protein C” is as descriptive as the reported cardiovascular modifications encountered on hypoxic exposure. Is this the end of comparative physiology?
National Bioethics Commissions and Research Ethics
Authors: Meslin Eric M , Johnson Summer
Published: November 2023

One of the more visible features of the current bioethics and public policy landscape is the existence of national and transnational commissions of experts in science, law, bioethics, medicine, religion, and related disciplines. Unlike individual bioethicists, the credentials, expertise, and functions of whom have been the subject of considerable study and commentary, these commissions are less well understood. They exist in many countries, tend to be established in response to particular events, cases, or problems, and are increasingly being referred to by governments, courts, professional organizations, and the media.5–10
The Role of Patient Advocates and Public Representatives in Research
Authors: Dresser Rebecca
Published: November 2023

During the 1980s and 1990s, patient advocates became vocal participants in debates over biomedical research. Patient advocates helped persuade government officials to change rules governing access to clinical trials and unapproved medications. They joined scientific teams designing, conducting, and reviewing research. They lobbied for more government funds for research that could help their constituents, as well.
Emergency Research
Authors: Karlawish Jason H T
Published: November 2023

Research that enrolls people with acute, serious, and life threatening illnesses without their informed consent, referred to as emergency research, presents substantial ethical challenges. These challenges focus on how to justify enrolling critically ill persons when the investigator cannot obtain informed consent from either the participants or their proxies. Many Western nations have struggled to define the appropriate regulations to guide this kind of research. Perhaps the most illustrative of these efforts occurred in the United States during the 1990s. The controversy over appropriate regulations became so contentious that for three years there was a moratorium on the research while researchers, institutional review boards (IRBs), and research regulators debated whether the principles of research ethics were adequate to justify a waiver of informed consent, and if they were, how such a waiver should be implemented.
What Is Fair Participant Selection?
Authors: Meltzer Leslie A , Childress James F
Published: November 2023

The U.S. regulations for the protection of humans in biomedical and behavioral research were, as Carol Levine notes, “born in scandal and reared in protectionism” Other chapters in this volume identify and discuss research projects that were condemned because they imposed undue risks on research subjects or because they failed to obtain voluntary, informed consent. In addition, some were criticized as violations of standards of fairness, justice, and equity in the selection of subjects, now increasingly called “participants”
Research With Captive Populations Prisoners, Students, and Soldiers
Authors: Bonham Valerie H , Moreno Jonathan D
Published: November 2023

Today, respect for persons is a bedrock principle governing research with humans. But although Americans have long held the belief, as Justice Cardozo declared in 1914, that “every human being of adult years and sound mind has a right to determine what shall be done with his own body,” they have not always applied this notion equally or scrutinized its significance without prejudice. Following World War II, for example, Americans condemned the Nazi experiments on concentration camp prisoners but asked strikingly few questions about the status of participants in their own research activities. Into the 1960s, the popular understanding of captive populations in research often overlooked the influence of captivity, or inequality of physical, financial, educational, or social status, in making many captive populations seem more willing to participate in research than other groups in society.
Risk-Benefit Assessment in Pediatric Research
Authors: Varma Sumeeta , Wendler David
Published: November 2023

Major turning points in history are often recognized only in hindsight. One example of a significant historical change that went almost unnoticed at the time is the statement made by James A. Shannon, director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), before the National Advisory Health Council (NAHC) on September 28, 1965.
The Assent Requirement in Pediatric Research
Authors: Wendler David
Published: November 2023

Jimmy, a bright, energetic, and confident 8-year-old, suffered from a serious inborn immune deficiency characterized by a disorder in white cell function. Jimmy spent a significant percentage of his life in the hospital, fighting off obscure infections. Given the rarity of his disease, Jimmy also spent a good deal of time enrolled in clinical research aimed at understanding his condition and immune function in general.
Responsiveness to Host Community Health Needs
Authors: London Alex John
Published: November 2023

There is near universal agreement within the scientific and ethics communities that a necessary condition for the moral permissibility of cross-national, collaborative research is that it be responsive to the health needs of the host community. It has proven difficult, however, to leverage or capitalize on this consensus in order to resolve lingering disputes about the ethics of international medical research. This is largely because different sides in these debates have sometimes provided different interpretations of what this requirement amounts to in actual practice.
The Obligation to Publish and Disseminate Results
Authors: Rennie Drummond
Published: November 2023

For better or for worse, publication is the medium by which the scholar’s work is distributed and judged. Thus much of a scholar’s reputation depends upon what, where, and how much he or she publishes, and on how that work is received publicly by others. —Donald Kennedy
Genetic Features Of Scleroderma Did You Get It From Your Parents? Can You Give It To Your Kids?
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Patients frequently ask whether they can give this disease to their children. My answer to this question has changed over the past few years. For the most part, scleroderma does not run in families. But for 1.6 percent of cases, there is another first-degree family member (parent, brother or sister, or child) with the disease. The flip-side of this, of course, is that 98.4 percent of individuals do not have a family history for the disease. With the human genome project and recent advances in the field of genetics, this has become an area of intense research. So far, this research has resulted in more questions than answers. It is likely that there is a genetic susceptibility to scleroderma that involves several different genes. However, just having the “right” (or “wrong”) set of genes is not enough. There has to be something else that happens, in order for disease to occur.
Epidemiology Of Scleroderma Numbers Of Patients, Occupational Links, And Environmental Concerns
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

How many scleroderma patients are there in the United States? There has been some confusion and contro versy over this number in the past. Studies of scleroderma have been hindered by the following three factors: (1) scleroderma is an uncommon condition, (2) the diagnosis can be difficult to make with certainty (the classification criteria were established only in 1980), and (3) until fairly recently there were few researchers interested in studying this disease.
Living An Unpredictable Life Facing An Uncertain Future
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

What is different about you the day after your disease was diagnosed from you the day before? For many people, what has changed is their sense of mortality, of vulnerability, of order in life—basically their sense of the future.
On Music Fit for a Courtesan: Representations of the Courtesan and Her Music in Sixteenth-Century Italy
Authors: Davies Drew Edward
Published: November 2023

For modern-day scholars it is hard to differentiate courtesans’ music-making from women’s musical traditions in general. Dawn De Rycke and Martha Feldman have elaborated on how courtesans’ traditions of solo song, though orally transmitted, can be imagined in practice in the absence of a specific musical canon. By contrast, this essay explores courtesans’ music and music-making as mediated through several compositional, visual, and poetic repertories that do not transmit the courtesan’s voice directly but mediate it through various genres, especially paintings that associate specific musical genres with probable courtesan singers. In the process it confirms claims made by Guido Ruggiero and Courtney Quaintance later in this volume that the social register of Italian courtesans was routinely but ambiguously represented as both “high” and “low,” and suggests that courtesans’ music-making consisted likewise of an erudite or effete practice of performing markedly “lower” musical genres.
From Russia to the Paris Exhibition
Authors: Blakeman Edward
Published: November 2023

After several years when Taffanel wrote virtually nothing in his Notes biographiques, these two entries for 1887 suddenly stand out. The three wind players, Taffanel with oboist Georges Gillet and clarinetist Charles Turban, were invited to Russia by Saint-Saëns under the auspices of the French Red Cross, which had engaged him for seven concerts during Easter Week with the Imperial Opera Orchestra. In the days before passport photographs, Taffanel’s visa for this trip carried a concise description of him (see fig. 14): Saint-Saëns went on ahead to begin rehearsals and was greeted rapturously— particularly when he demonstrated that he could count in Russian during rehearsals. Taffanel, Gillet, and Turban left Paris by train on 12 April and traveled via Berlin, where Taffanel had hoped to meet Joachim Andersen, but a letter was waiting to say that he had had to stand in for a colleague and conduct a concert.
The Production and Appropriation Of Chemical Signals among Plants, Herbivores, and Predators
Authors: Greenstone Matthew H , Dickens Joseph C
Published: November 2023

Interactions among plants, prey, and predators are shaped by a complex blend of interspecific chemical signals (allomones, synomones, and kairomones) and intraspecific chemical signals (pheromones). Prey-induced chemical cues are prominent among chemicals released by plants that mediate predator-prey interactions among arthropods. These chemical cues, like the alarm, marking, sex, and aggregation pheromones produced by prey and predators, may be appropriated for communication by other players in the system. Hence, there are trade-offs for the signalers in producing them. The behavioral outcomes, mediated by predator-prey chemical communication, are determined largely by the capacities and constraints of sensory receptors. In addition, the role of chemical communication in predator-prey interactions is determined by the higher order processing of information in the brain.
The Consequences of Predator and Prey Adaptations for Top-Down and Bottom-Up Effects
Authors: Abrams Peter A
Published: November 2023

Early theory regarding top-down and bottom-up effects in food chains and ecosystems was based on very simple models. The predictions of that theory have been successful in describing the responses of some systems to impacts on top or bottom levels, but there are at least as many cases that are inconsistent with the theory. In this chapter, this theory is extended to include the possibility of adaptive change in the interactions between levels. The models have two or three trophic levels and include direct density dependence on all levels. The analysis considers the change in abundance of each level in response to a standardized perturbation (i.e., an increase in the per capita mortality rate). The combination of adaptive change and direct density dependence greatly increases the range of potential responses of trophic-level abundances to altered mortalities. The equilibrium abundance of the top level in a consumer-resource system may increase in response to an increase in its own per capita mortality rate, because of either its foraging adaptations or the resource species’ antipredator adaptations. In three-level systems, the interaction of direct density dependence with adaptive foraging makes it possible for most of the responses of abundance of one species or level to mortality, at its own or another level, to be positive or negative. Whether a given level increases or decreases often can be determined, with sufficient knowledge about the shapes of the relationships between densities and fitness. In particular, knowing the sign of the immediate response of foraging effort to a change in food density allows the signs of several effects to be determined. The ability of this analysis to account for observations that are inconsistent with earlier theory is reviewed.
Armored Cruisers And Empire The Battle of Manila Bay May 1, 1898
Authors: Symonds Craig L
Published: November 2023

In The Third Of A Century Between The End Of The Civil War in 1865 and the American declaration of war against Spain in 1898, the United States was transformed. Even as the nation struggled painfully through the period of broken pledges and sectional resentment that history has labeled Reconstruction, it also strengthened its hold on the North American continent, strapping it together with railroads and telegraph wires and stamping out the last resistance from the native tribes. At the same time, American industry became a force of historic proportions. Triggered in part by the mass production of war materiel from 1861 to 1865, fueled by new developments in engineering and metallurgy, and fed by a cheap labor pool of immigrants, the United States became an economic and industrial powerhouse by the 1890s, establishing the foundation that would eventually make it the most powerful nation on earth. If the rest of the world failed to take sufficient note of this historic phenomenon, it was in part because until the very end of the century the transformative significance of these developments was not immediately evident beyond America’s insulating and protecting oceans.