bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Enhancing Erns Data To Better Promote Effective Environmental Protection
Authors: Stalcup Dana , Worley Ray , Vaughn Doris , Marzulli Linda
Published: January 2013

The Emergency Response Notification System (ERNS) is a database of notifications of releases of oil and hazardous substances reported to the National Response Center or EPA regional offices. Initial data entered is based on reports made during the incident, often before the full extent of the release is known. This initial notification data is used by EPA and other agencies to determine appropriate response actions; if ERNS data is incomplete, the responders will learn more details through follow-up phone calls and site visits. Unfortunately, additional information discovered through the response process, and from other sources, are not always incorporated back into ERNS. Thus, ERNS data are a combination of initial reports and more accurate follow-up incident data.

ERNS data is widely used by the regulating and response agencies, students, environmental firms, attorneys, environmental groups, information services, and other groups for purposes ranging from regulatory decisions and site assessments to research papers and environmental “report cards.” Also, EPA's Emergency Response program uses the data for follow-up actions and to better characterize and understand the oil and hazardous substance release problem in each region. Some of these uses are significantly impacted by the inconsistencies in ERNS data collection and updates.

This study will analyze several different types of ERNS “data quality,” such as data completeness and data accuracy, and will compare two or three different EPA regional offices' operating procedures and their impact on ERNS data quality. It will also evaluate which data elements appear to be most critical to “data quality.” The conclusions should help ERNS data users more effectively use the data, and should assist EPA in managing the process. Perhaps most importantly, the conclusions should help EPA shape the future of ERNS and of data management in the Emergency Response program.
Partnering To Identify and Map Priority Sensitive Areas
Authors: Briggs Wyman , O'Mara Dennis , Lundgren Scott
Published: January 2013

A close partnership among key stakeholders along with the advent of user-friendly computer tools enabled a subcommittee of the Salisbury to Plymouth Massachusetts Area Committee to identify, prioritize and map sensitive coastal resources. Participation from both resource managers and response contractors ensured practical limitations were appropriately considered and difficult trade-offs were proactively addressed to enable first responders to immediately begin protecting priority resources should the need arise. Simple chartlets and matrices were developed to provide key response information both in contingency plans and via the Internet.
Coast Guard and Epa: One Area Contingency Plan
Authors: Westerholm David , Anderson David , Augustyn James , Rayburn Thomas
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have developed a pilot project to address federal Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) requirements for Area Contingency planning in the Captain of the Port (COTP) Zone and the corresponding U.S. EPA inland area in a portion of the Western Lake Erie Basin. The project, known as the “One County In” approach, encompasses contingency planning for the entire county, not just the COTP Zone. Local and state planners and responders as well as industry representatives fully support the effort. The one plan eliminates the multi-plan issues associated with divided federal response jurisdictions. While the geographic scope of the Plan expanded, the physical size of the document decreased significantly due to a detailed review by the Area Committee. Initiated in fall 1997, the combined Plan was completed in September 1998.
What Causes the Formation of Water-in-Oil Emulsions?
Authors: Fingas Mervin F. , Fieldhouse Ben , Lane James , Mullin Joseph V.
Published: January 2013

The results of studies conducted over the past 6 years to characterize why water-in-oil emulsions form are summarized. It is shown that water droplets are held in oil by a combination of viscous and interfacial forces. The stability of an emulsion is very important in understanding its formation because stability is the endpoint or measurement of the entire process. Emulsions can be grouped into three categories: stable, unstable, and mesostable. Each has distinct physical properties. For example, the viscosity of a stable emulsion at a shear rate of I reciprocal second is at least three orders-of-magnitude greater than that of the starting oil. An unstable emulsion usually has a viscosity no more than two orders-of-magnitude greater than that of the starting oil. The zero-shear-rate viscosity is at least six orders-of-magnitude greater than the starting oil for a stable emulsion. For an unstable emulsion, it is usually less than two or three orders-of-magnitude greater than the viscosity of the starting oil. and finally, a stable emulsion has a significant elasticity, whereas an unstable emulsion does not.

The stability of emulsions has been studied by examining their asphaltene content and their resin content. Results are reported showing that asphaltenes and resins are responsible for stability. It is noted that, given the correct chemical composition, primarily asphaltenes, sea energy is needed.

The properties of the starting oil are the important factor in determining what type of water-in-oil state is produced. Composition and property ranges are given for the starting oil to form each of the water-in-oil states. Important property factors are the asphaltene content, resin content, and starting oil viscosity.
Tribal and State Sovereignty and Federal Responsibility1
Authors: Nakad Jane
Published: January 2013

The role of tribal and state government in environmental protection and regulation is an important complement and supplement to that of the federal government. This was found to be evident during the Problem Oil Pit (POP) effort conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region VIII and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Region VI. When the two federal agencies decided to join forces to address the problem of oil-covered pits and other environmental problems in oil fields, it quickly was determined that a collaborative approach would be required to address the problems that might be encountered. EPA and USFWS were aware that tribes and states, as well as other federal agencies, have their own responsibilities in the oilfield. Both agencies were also sensitive to the sovereignty of the tribes and states. Therefore, EPA and USFWS knew it was vital for success to enlist the concurrence, support, and participation of the tribes, states, and other federal agencies in the effort. Thus the POP effort became multilevel as well as multiagency when those tribal, state, and federal agencies with responsibility for and authority over the oil and gas exploration and production industry joined the EPA and USFWS as partners in the POP effort. This collaborative effort did not come about without the resolution of some issues and problems related to authorities, responsibilities, and sovereignty. However, cooperation and coordination between tribal, state, and federal governmental agencies in the POP effort resulted in short- and long-term environmental benefits that protect human health, birds, and wildlife and the environment.
Stakeholder Communication: Progress Through Cooperation
Authors: Hillman Sharon O. , Hyce Lynda
Published: January 2013

Oil spill prevention and response embody both technical and communication issues. On the technical side, Alyeska Pipeline Service Company/SERVS has worked diligently to provide a major spill prevention program for the transportation of Alaska North Slope crude through the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) from Prudhoe Bay to Hinchinbrook Entrance. Significant reductions to potential risks have been achieved by designing and commissioning new marine equipment for the tanker escorting service and implementing well-coordinated procedures. In addition, the response side continues to be enhanced through focused training by using improved equipment and technologies. Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council's (RCAC) mission includes communications and oversight. The RCAC and Alyeska attempt to work cooperatively at all levels—from concept, to technical analyses, to policy decision making, and through implementation and verification. In that context, stakeholder communication is a continuous challenge for both organizations. This paper discusses the challenges of communicating using a collaborative problem-solving approach.
Results from Cooperative Ecological Risk Assessments for Oil Spill Response Planning in Galveston Bay, Texas and the San Francisco Bay Area, California
Authors: Aurand Don V. , Coelho Gina M. , Pond Robert G. , Martin Buzz , Caplis John , Kraly Jennifer , Sowby Michael , Walker Ann Hayward
Published: January 2013

This paper summarizes the results of two cooperative ecological risk assessments (ERAs) that examined the potential environmental consequences of oil spill scenarios, two in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay, California and one in Galveston Bay, Texas. The goal of the evaluation was to identify the optimum mix of response options for reducing injury to the environment. For these specific scenarios, the participants concluded that only dispersant use, assuming high effectiveness, had the potential to significantly reduce environmental impact when compared to natural recovery. While water-column effects increased with dispersant use, they were not long term and judged to be of less ecological significance than shoreline or water-surface impacts. Aside from dispersant use, only shoreline cleanup was effective in clearly mitigating impacts, and obviously would not prevent the immediate consequences of the spills. The optimum response was viewed as involving some combination of the various response options. There were some issues with data adequacy in both locations, but both groups felt the information was adequate for the analysis. In both ERAs, participants emphasized that the conclusions were scenario specific, and that additional analyses would be necessary before any significant generalizations could be made.
Star Evviva Spill: Oiled Waterfowl But no Oil
Authors: Sturm Francis J. , Jennings Charles
Published: January 2013

In January 1999, over 200 oiled waterfowl were recovered from the coastal beaches of South Carolina and North Carolina. A large, multiagency response effort was mounted to collect and rehabilitate these birds, and to identify the source of the damaging oil spill. This was the first time on record that the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) was used on the East Coast of the Unite States to clean wildlife in the absence of any known spill. A temporary rehabilitation center was established for the bird rescue and recovery operation under the direction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources (SCDNR), while the U.S. Coast Guard spearheaded efforts to determine the cause and source of the damaging spill. Representatives from a number of government agencies located up and down the eastern seaboard and Gulf Coast worked together to respond to this wildlife damage and identify the source of the spill: the Star Evviva, which discharged 24,700 gallons of heavy fuel oil approximately 30 miles off the coast of South Carolina. Responding agencies used a unified response and innovative techniques to deal with the unusual challenges presented by this event. This paper summarizes the “lessons learned” in that response effort and attempts to provide useful advice concerning wildlife contingency planning and oil spill investigation and identification.
Extrapolating Injury from Larger to Smaller Oil Spills: Lessons in Louisiana
Authors: Kern John C.
Published: January 2013

One challenge for trustees in a natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) is to adequately quantify natural resource injuries in a cost-effective manner. This is particularly true for smaller spills, where the cost of more expansive and more expensive injury assessment studies could dwarf the cost of the restoration actions to compensate for those injuries. The need for cost-effective assessments must he balanced against the need for the assessment methods to be technically defensible and useful in identifying and scaling appropriate restoration actions.

In this paper, it is shown how the injury assessment results from the Lake Barre oil spill of May 1997 (which released 6,561 barrels of crude oil) were used to help inform trustees about the likely magnitude of injury for two smaller crude oil spills in Louisiana. For the Lake Barre spill, the trustees developed an incident-specific model—adapted from the Type A model—to quantify injury to birds and aquatic fauna. The results of this model were used to evaluate a restoration offer as compensation for these injuries from the responsible party (RP). Subsequently, the results of the Lake Barre assessment were used to help quantify injury to birds and aquatic organisms for the September 1998 release of up to 1,500 barrels of crude oil from a well blowout into Lake Grande Ecaille. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) again used the Lake Barre results to quantify injury to water column organisms for a November 1999 release of 850 barrels of crude oil from a pipeline in Four-Bayou Pass.

Estimating injury by extrapolation from one spill to similar spills represents one cost-effective approach toward quantifying injury for small incidents, and should be considered as a potential injury assessment method for those spills where it is impractical or otherwise difficult to justify conducting large incident-specific injury studies. This technique can be done quickly, potentially speeding the settlement and restoration implementation process, thereby compensating the public in an expeditious manner.
Planning and Hazards of Spill Response in Antarctica
Authors: Gundlach Erich R. , Gallagher John J. , Hatcher John , Vinson Tom
Published: January 2013

Antarctica is unique in many ways that greatly add to the complexity of spill response. McMurdo Station is the largest of all Antarctic facilities (> 1,300 people in summer, <200 people in winter) and has a storage capacity of over 11 million gallons. A single tanker arriving in February each year supplies fuel, which is augmented by a minor amount supplied by U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker. Waterborne spill response equipment is operationally hazardous to use because of broken ice conditions, limited open water, and difficulty of putting equipment into the water. Operating from shore is preferred as the station has extensive pumping, hose, and storage capability. During major spills, alternative response techniques, particularly burning, would be favorably considered. Additional support from outside Antarctica would not be expected to arrive for several days at best.

Outside of McMurdo Station, seasonal field camps are supplied by airlift, and oil is stored in metal drums placed within a containment area. Transport to South Pole Station is by skiequipped C-130 aircraft, and storage is in a new, multitank facility with containment. Oil spills on the ice sheet are unique in that the oil penetrates deep into the snow, making its capture and recovery very difficult. Additionally, because of subzero temperatures, response is very weather dependent, and protection is needed to fully avoid contact with the spilled material.
The Marine Transportation System's Economic Juggernaut: A Tonic for Pollution Prevention?1
Authors: Johnson Mark H.
Published: January 2013

In September 1999, U.S. Secretary of Transportation Rodney Slater delivered a report on the marine transportation system (MTS) to the U.S. Congress. It captured the growing alarm by MTS stakeholders that the current system of marine transportation was barely adequate now and certainly not capable of accommodating the predicted growth and changing nature of shipping over the next two decades. While the report's recommendations seemed to highlight the economic aspects of the MTS, solving impediments to economic efficiency also can translate into significant pollution prevention. Principal among potential pollution prevention is in the area of reducing the numbers of vessel collisions, allisions, and groundings—29 of which resulted in oil spills of 10,000 gallons or more between 1995–1999. These casualties impact the ability of a port to conduct business, resulting in accrual of demurrage and risking competitive position.

Attacking the port-specific and systemic factors influencing human factor causes of collisions, allisions, and groundings, the U.S. Coast Guard has embarked on several risk-based decision tools that enable local MTS coordinating committees, called harbor safety committees (HSCs), to evaluate the greatest factors that can contribute to vessel casualties. The tools include a Ports and Waterways Safety Assessment (PWSA) and a tailored model to evaluate U.S. Army Corps of Engineers facility permits. Early results show opportunities to improve navigational risk in specific ports. Additionally, another MTS effort involves providing real-time navigational and environmental information to vessels to aid decision making.
Delivering Improved Management Information for Oil Spill Prevention Plans
Authors: Bennett Bernie
Published: January 2013

Measurement and analysis of incidents are vital parts of any performance management process. Conclusions drawn and recommendations made from the analysis of data provide valuable information on which to base programs for continuous improvement. With specific regard to oil spills, BP Amoco's upstream U.K. operations have been using performance measurements based on the number and volumes of spills.

This methodology provides little in the way of valuable management information. For example, 1,000 spills a year appear to be poor performance; however, the total amount spilled may have been only 1,000 Liters. Having just a small number of spills would appear to indicate better performance but not if each one was of 500 tons. A better approach is needed if management is to make decisions based on performance and environmental impact potential.

This paper describes a method that is being piloted by BP Amoco Aberdeen upstream operations beginning January 1, 2000, and is based around causation analysis, benchmarking against other operators, and a unique oil spill severity matrix. Also included in the pilot is “near-miss” environmental incident reporting.

If successful in delivering better quality of management information and reducing BP Amoco spills, it is hoped that the upstream U.K. Continental Shelf (UKCS) oil industry and regulators can be leveraged into adopting the protocol thus assisting cross operator learning and reducing oil spills in the UKCS as a whole. Historically, the offshore oil industry in the United Kingdom has approximately 300–400 spills per year, most of them very small in quantity.
Gasoline Pipeline Rupture and Explosion at Whatcom Creek: A Focus on Response Management
Authors: Cutler Thor , Barber Anthony
Published: January 2013

Safety for the public and responders was the first priority in responding to the estimated 231,000 gallons unleaded gasoline release and explosion that killed three boys in Whatcom Park in Bellingham, Washington and devastated the environment. Establishment of the Unified Command structure was critical to manage the vast resources and multitude of issues that arose in the wake of the release to Hannah and Whatcom Creeks on June 10, 1999. The pollution response, investigations, infrastructure rebuilding, natural resource (trustee) restoration, and community outreach/public information were completed with funds from the potentially responsible party (PRP), Olympic Pipe Line (OPL), as mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. Goals evolved as projects changed from fire and explosion emergencies to time critical environmental emergencies. Bellingham's drinking water capacity was restored, and initial restoration of the creeks was completed in time for the August salmon runs. Ongoing activities include the operation and maintenance of a vapor extraction plus a ground water interception system as well as long-term creek restoration plans managed by natural resource trustees. This paper summarizes the fire and explosion emergency phase, pipeline investigation removal, streambed restoration and cleanup, and the cleanup of the source area.
Inland Pipeline Spill Response in Kansas1
Authors: Mix Nelson
Published: January 2013

Pipeline spills are a serious and growing problem in inland areas. In some cases, there are no regulations or inspections of certain size or types of pipelines. Small, localized inland spills may become politicized and require a higher standard of cleanup than large coastal spills. The use of in situ burning at these spills produces its own challenges.
Microcosm Study of Effect of Different Nutrient Addition on Bioremediation of Fuel Oil No. 2 in Soil from Nova Scotia Coastal Marshes
Authors: Garcia-Blanco Susana , Suidan Makram T. , Huang Tiehong , Cacho-Rivero Jesus , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

Biostimulation has been shown to be an effective tool for the treatment of oil spills in medium to low-energy marine environments. Little information is available on the bioremediation of oil spills in low-energy coastal wetlands. Most of the previous laboratory studies have been carried out under total flooding conditions. In this study, a tidal salt marsh was simulated in laboratory microcosms. The study was carried out in glass columns filled to a depth of 10 cm with sediment. Each microcosm was operated on a 24 hours square tidal cycle with a 12-hour submergence period. The entire sediment was mixed with weathered fuel oil No 2 (F02) to a concentration of 20 g/kg of wet sediment. Two biomarkers, 5α-cholestane and heptamethylnonane were added to the oil for data normalization. Nutrients were premixed with the soil in an amount equivalent to 1 gram as nitrogen and 0.2 grams as phosphorus per column. The experiment was conducted with a no fertilizer control and three types of fertilizer: a slow-release, inorganic, granular fertilizer, prilled ammonium nitrate; sodium nitrate; and ammonium chloride. The source of phosphorus was sodium tripolyphosphate.

Duplicate columns were sacrificed at 15, 30, 60 and 120 days after FO2 addition. Sediments were divided into two layers from the top and bottom of the columns, extracted with dichloro-methane (DCM) by Soxhlet extraction and analyzed for oil components by GC/MS. Nitrate, ammonia, and pH were monitored in the water samples on a weekly basis. Soil samples were also extracted for nutrients to perform a mass balance. Phospholipids analysis and Most Probable Number (MPN) were performed on the sediment samples to establish a measurement of biological growth. Results indicated that: (1) oil degradation was slightly higher for all treatments in the top 5 cm layer and it occurred mostly during the first 15 days of the experiment; (2) microbial growth of 2 orders of magnitude was detected in the top layer; (3) no significant differences were observed among treatments; (4) degradation was probably limited by oxygen availability.
Remediation of an Oil-Contaminated Experimental Freshwater Wetland: II. Habitat Recovery and Toxicity Reduction
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Doe Kenneth G. , Lee Lucila E. J. , Suidan Makram T. , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

A controlled oil spill experiment to determine natural recovery rates and the efficacy of potential remediation strategies in wetland ecosystems was initiated in June 1999 at a site on the St. Lawrence River, Canada dominated by Scirpus pungens. A weathered light crude oil (Mesa) was applied on 16 plots (5 m × 4 m) at the rate of 12 L per plot. Treatment of the plots included: natural attenuation (no treatment), nutrient amendment with granular ammonium nitrate and super triple phosphate, a similar treatment with plants continuously cut back (to evaluate the influence of plant growth on remediation), and a nutrient amendment treatment with sodium nitrate instead of ammonium nitrate. To elucidate the effect of nutrient amendments alone, four unoiled plots were fertilized with ammonium nitrate and triple super phosphate. Sediment samples were routinely recovered for chemical and toxicological analysis over a 21-week period that effectively covered the natural growth season of the plants.

Significant changes in biological measures of habitat were observed. S. pungens, the dominant plant species, was tolerant to the oil, and its growth was significantly enhanced above that of the unoiled control by the addition of nutrients. Other biotest organisms (bacteria, Vibrio sp.,; invertebrates, Daphnia, Hyalella, and Viviparus sp.) provided additional evidence of both enhanced recovery and potential detrimental effects. GC-MS analysis could not resolve significant changes in the composition of the residual oil as a result of experimental treatments. This discrepancy in the detection of treatment efficacy between the chemical and biological methods may be due to induced tolerance to the contaminant hydrocarbons, changes in the bioavailability of the residual oil associated with stimulated plant growth, and detrimental effects of the type and quantity of bioremediation agents used.
Rapid International Mobilization of Oil Spill Response Equipment: Recent Experiences1
Authors: Read Scott
Published: January 2013

Rapid mobilization of response equipment to the scene of an incident is critical to mitigate its effects. If the scale of the response requires support from an international Tier 3 response center, it is essential to have in place a robust logistics chain to ensure that appropriate equipment is delivered rapidly and deployed effectively. With delivery time a priority, all transportation options must be explored to reduce mobilization period.

This paper will refer to three recent response mobilizations of Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) to demonstrate the reality of transporting response equipment internationally by air. It will examine the options available including the use of the response center's permanently chartered aircraft, full or part charter available from the charter market, and the use of scheduled freighter aircraft.

Transport choices are based on clearly defined procedures and the experience of the staff involved, combined with well-established and exercised contingency plans. Assessment of these various options will highlight the uniqueness of every response and demonstrate how flexibility and cooperation by all concerned parties is essential to provide the solutions to the real-time challenges that occur. A variety of systems are in place to assist rapid equipment mobilization and developments in equipment packaging and load planning are reducing further the time taken to load and discharge cargo. The case studies will show the lessons learned, pitfalls, and benefits of these systems and in particular will focus on the advantages in speed, cost, and flexibility that are obtained from the use of aircraft pallet modules as part of a specialized aircraft palletization system.

The concept and development of the aircraft pallet system attracted attention as the poster presentation “Packaging of Tier 3 Oil Spill Equipment for a Faster Response” (Read, 1999) at the 1999 International Oil Spill Conference in Seattle, Washington. This paper follows up with the realities of 2-years use.
Risk-Based Oil Spill Emergency Preparedness on the Norwegian Continental Shelf
Authors: Stokke Kari , Rødal Jon
Published: January 2013

The Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies (NOFO) is responsible for oil spill response, planning, and preparedness on behalf of the companies that are operating on the Norwegian continental shelf The responsibility includes initial response offshore, as well as coastal protection and shoreline cleanup. NOFO is developing a plan for regional oil spill preparedness to be implemented in 2001. The plan is based on risk assessment and covers planned oil production activities in the Norwegian offshore sector.

Previously, NOFO's oil spill response plan was based on authority requirements and recognized standards. NOFO is now proposing a risk-based approach, aiming to identify the need for oil spill response in different areas of the Norwegian sector. The new approach is based on estimated probability of oil spill situations, dimensioning oil spill scenarios, and oil drift modeling to define arrival time to shore, coastal areas at risk, and amount of oil that may possibly reach the shore. The risk-based approach is an alternative to traditional “worst case” considerations and allows implementation of more cost-effective measures.
Changing Perspectives on Oil Toxicity Evaluation
Authors: Moles Adam
Published: January 2013

Recent advances in oil toxicity research may well alter the way oil spill response decisions are made. Those responding to spills should be aware of the limitations surrounding the use of acute toxicity data to predict even short-term oil effects. Many animals previously classified as tolerant of short-term oil exposure, such as fish eggs and benthic organisms, are just as or much more sensitive than pelagic fishes to chronic exposures. Toxicity bioassays proved to be of limited value in predicting the long-term damage from the Exxon Valdez oil spill because such toxicity information only measured mortality to water-accommodated fractions of fresh oil over a 96-hour period. During the spill, many of the aquatic organisms were exposed to weathered oil resolubilized from nearshore sediments rather than to fresh oil in the water column. Oil allowed to sequester in the sediments of streams, mussel beds, and estuaries provided a persistent source of contamination in natal and nursery fish habitats over several years. Eggs, larvae, and juveniles that inhabit these habitats are especially sensitive to long-term exposure to sediment accommodated weathered oil. Spill response should be geared toward preventing oil from reaching streams, fine sediment beaches, and estuaries that serve as critical fish habitats rather than solely toward reducing initial mortalities.
Investing in Spill Prevention: Has It Reduced Vessel Spills and Accidents in Washington State?
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt , Neel Jon
Published: January 2013

Washington State is a major crude oil refining center also known for its high quality of life and salmon-producing waters. The state is dependent economically on a variety of waterway uses, including Pacific Rim trade, aquaculture, tribal culture, tourism, commercial fishing, and recreational boating. Since the passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) and the establishment of the Washington State spill prevention program in 1991, federal and state government, in conjunction with industry, have made considerable investments in spill prevention. During this intervening period, major oil spills from all sources, particularly vessels, have declined substantially.

This study evaluated the overall effectiveness of these prevention efforts by comparing data on the rate of significant vessel oil spills and vessel casualties in Washington State with national data, and with data from three other key coastal states with busy ports and high vessel traffic—California, New York, and Texas. Overall, Washington appears to be significantly ahead of the United States as a whole in terms of reduction in the number of vessel spills, as well as by rates of spillage by tonnage transport and transit. Washington is ahead of the states of California, New York, and Texas in some categories of comparison but not others. The rate of reduction in vessel spills in Washington, however, was considerably greater than the other coastal states studied.

It is hard to demonstrate the value of spill prevention programs. The difficulty lies in the inability to count spills that have not occurred as a result of increased diligence on the part of the private and public sectors. However, it is clear from this study that spill prevention programs do work, and that the reduced frequency of major spills is not a reason for complacency.
Development of a Rational Oil Spill Dispersant Effectiveness Protocol
Authors: Sorial George A. , Koran Karen M. , Holder Edith , Venosa Albert D. , King Dennis W.
Published: January 2013

Chemical dispersants are used in oil spill response operations to enhance the dispersion of oil slicks at sea as small oil droplets in the water column. To be considered for use, the dispersants must be listed in the National Contingency Plan (NCP) Product Schedule. Since 1994, dispersants were required to pass an effectiveness test known as the Swirling Flask Test (SFT), which is described in Appendix C of 40 CFR 300. Listing of a dispersant on the NCP Product Schedule is contingent on the dispersant being at least 45% effective in dispersing South Louisiana crude (SLC) and Prudhoe Bay crude (PBC) oils as measured and calculated by the test. Shortly after adopting the SFT, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began to receive complaints that the test was too rigorous and few dispersants that were previously listed on the NCP Product Schedule could achieve the 45% effectiveness criterion. Additionally, the SFT has been found to give widely varying results in the hands of different testing laboratories. A redesign of the test flask, which is characterized as being baffled with a stopcock at the bottom for undisturbed sample collection, is considered to be necessary to accomplish reproducibility within operators and between operators. This paper presents the development of a revised procedure for dispersant effectiveness testing, called the Baffled Flask Test (BFT), and reports the reproducibility of the revised procedure by three independent operators. It also details the development of pass/fail selection criteria. Experimental results are presented comparing the repeatability of the SFT and BFT methods with three operators determining the effectiveness of 18 dispersants on SLC and PBC oils. Statistical analysis of the results indicated that the overall mean effectiveness of the SFT for all 18 dispersants was only 19.7% compared to 64.6% by the BFT and the coefficient of variation for the SFT was 21.9% versus only 7.8% for the BFT.
Application of a Comprehensive Spill Management Program for Oils and Bulk Hazardous Liquids-Southern Peru Copper Corporation
Authors: Taylor Elliott , Buselli Ezio , Jackson James , Geddes Brian
Published: January 2013

Developing corporate environmental management standards for companies with operations in multiple nations is challenging. In 1997, Southern Peru Copper Corporation (SPCC) began developing an oil and bulk hazardous liquids spill management program for compliance in Peru and that would meet responsible planning levels recognized internationally. This effort entailed designing an approach and determining the actions to be taken to put the SPCC program in place, including environmental assessments, spill equipment specifications and purchase, and training and exercises. SPCC has completed a comprehensive spill hazards assessment analysis, developed a spill hazards management database, and prepared corporate-level spill prevention and contingency plans, facility-specific spill prevention plans, and area spill contingency plans. All spill contingency plans are aligned with the Incident Command System (ICS) and are prepared in both English and Spanish.

The success of the spill management program at SPCC centers on an introspective management process: hazards analysis, risk estimation, prevention, planning, spill exercises, response, and evaluation. The risk quantification attributed to oil and bulk hazardous liquids includes evaluation criteria for spill source, pathways, and receptors. Prevention measures are considered in spill source criteria. As spill prevention and preparedness capabilities increase, the relative risk posed by source, pathways, and receptors can be expected to decrease. As hazards are reevaluated, the spill management program subsequently is refocused on those areas posing the highest risk ranking.
Institutional Considerations for Emergency Response in Developing Nations: Indonesia, Brazil, and Angola
Authors: Armstrong Louis , Feld Sergio , Clare Jay
Published: January 2013

As exploration and production increase in developing nations, multinational oil companies have to deal with new institutional requirements for emergency response. These can range from plan submission requirements to reporting requirements for a spill to dispersant application regulations. In each country, the institutional requirements can be hidden under several different agencies, changing on a regular basis, or nonexistent. For example, in Indonesia, detailed regulations exist defining the response agencies depending on the distance from the shoreline, but institutional capacity is lacking. In Brazil, there are contingency plan format requirements as part of the environmental process for drilling, strict dispersant permit requirements, and newly published regulations (February 2000) requiring oil spill reporting. In Angola, there are no existing regulations regarding spill response; however, there are emerging regulations targeting the petroleum industry, and a National Oil Spill Contingency Plan is under development. This paper represents regulations and decrees that are valid as of October 2000.
Results of Laboratory Tests on the Potential for Using In Situ Burning on 17 Crude Oils
Authors: McCourt James , Buist Ian , Buffington Sharon
Published: January 2013

Over the past 5 years, S.L. Ross Environmental Research has analyzed 17 crude oils with a suite of laboratory tests and controlled burns to determine, for each oil, the likelihood of successfully using in situ burning as a response tool. These studies provided valuable spill response information by indicating which of the oils would respond well to in situ burning and which would not.

When the results of the separate tests were grouped together, trends in suitability were noted. In particular, API gravity was shown to be a reasonably good predictor of success with in situ burning for heavy and light oils (below 21° and above 38°, respectively); however, success with oils of intermediate API gravities was varied, and further testing of these oils is warranted.
Oil Weathering and Sediment Toxicity in Shorelines Affected by the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska
Authors: Page David S. , Gilfillan Edward S. , Stubblefield William A. , Boehm Paul D. , Parker Keith R. , Maki Alan W.
Published: January 2013

Beginning in 1989, scientists supported by ExxonMobil conducted a number of scientific studies to assess the fate and effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on shorelines in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska. The 1990, 1991, and 1993 field programs included concurrent sediment sampling for hydrocarbon chemistry and sediment toxicity. This sediment quality assessment found that spill residues on the oiled shorelines rapidly lost toxicity through weathering. The relative amounts of naphthalenes and chrysenes in the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in the sediments were found to be good indicators of weathering and toxicity. Using a standard sediment amphipod bioassay on the field samples increased mortality above background was found at exposure levels above approximately 2,600 ng/g total PAH (TPAH) for oil that had weathered a year or more. For samples with TPAH > 2,600 ng/g, fractions of naphthalenes (R = +0.76) and chrysenes (R = −0.63) significantly correlated with amphipod mortality where samples with high mortalities (> 80%) were dominated by relatively high fractions of naphthalenes (median = 0.26), and the low mortality category (< 30%) was dominated by relatively high fractions of chrysenes (median = 0.24). The amphipod mortality data fit significantly to a logistic model. Estimated LC10 and LC50 values were approximately 4,100 and 10,750 ng/g TPAH, respectively. Sediment grain size and total organic carbon were also found to contribute to increased amphipod mortality and were covariates in the data analysis. As petroleum weathers through exposure to the environment and lighter hydrocarbon fractions are lost, the results of this study show that the Exxon Valdez spill oil rapidly lost toxicity as the fractions of chrysenes increased and fractions of naphthalenes decreased.
Review of Studies on Oil Damage To Prince William Sound Pink Salmon
Authors: Brannon Ernest , Collins Keya , Moulton Lawrence , Parker Keith R.
Published: January 2013

In the tenth year following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, differences of opinion still exist about injuries to pink salmon. It was alleged that exposure to oil reduced growth of fry and induced mortality in eggs. The authors reexamined the allegation that injury occurred and have concluded that insufficient consideration was given to other factors that affected results in the studies from which these allegations were drawn. The inability to track temperature differences and the unknown ages of fry precluded assessment of oil effects on growth during early marine residence. Reported higher egg mortality and long-term injury alleged to have resulted from oil exposure during incubation were confounded by the mortality of eggs that occurred as an artifact of the sampling procedure, unrelated to oil effects. The authors concluded that injury to incubating pink salmon embryos and reduced fry growth were based on an incomplete assessment of other factors that influenced these results. This evidence is supported by other research that has disclosed no oil effects on incubating eggs. Among these were studies that showed measured oil concentrations reaching the incubation substrate were 14 to 7,600 times below the lethal threshold. The seven largest runs in the history of Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska have returned in the 10 years following the spill, which ultimately demonstrated the lack of measurable effect of the oil spill on pink salmon. The authors suggest that the allegation of oil-induced injury to PWS pink salmon needs to be reconsidered in light of these analyses.
Preparedness for Heavy Oil Spills: More Focus on Mechanical Feeder Skimmers
Authors: Hvidbak Flemming
Published: January 2013

Numerous spills over the years have demonstrated that mechanical response to heavy oil spills at sea is less than successful. Recently, after the 10,000 m3 Erika spill in France, less than 5% was recovered before the oil reached the coast. The weather played an important role, but the selection of equipment and apparent response strategy did as well. Mainly weir skimmers were used.

Weir skimmers are, due to their simplicity and reliability, widely used in spills at sea. Probably because some of the well-known brands are equipped with heavy oil transfer pumps, they commonly are used in heavy oil spills. In addition, high capacity units with light oil centrifugal transfer pumps are being used on heavy oil (Erika). Weir skimmers start losing their efficiency when the viscosity of the oil exceeds certain limits. It gets too difficult for the oil to pass the weir lip and flow into the hopper so that the pump can transfer it. For very heavy oils, which barely can float, the inlet weir is an even larger obstruction. A mechanical feeder skimmer lifts or drags the oil out of the water to a position above the water surface and feeds or drops it into a collection tank or a transfer pump. The mechanical feeder principle may result in significantly increased performance regarding high viscosity, debris, and, in most cases, low water content.

Recent tests at SAIC/Environment Canada's test facility in Ottawa, Canada, sponsored by the Canadian Coast Guard, demonstrated that floating bitumen with a viscosity of about 2 million cSt could be recovered by mechanical feeder skimmers, while a “high viscosity” weir skimmer had no effect. This puts the Erika's viscosity of “only” 200,000 cSt into perspective, and strongly point at mechanical feeder skimmers in the preparedness for heavy oil spills.
Innovative Recovery of Nonfloating Oils, Upham Beach, Florida
Authors: Stowe Cynthia , McMillen Richard
Published: January 2013

Marine Safety Office (MSO) Tampa, in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, conducted a unique and innovative oil recovery operation involving the removal of submerged and buried oil. Leveraging into an existing federally funded beach renourishment project as the primary means of oil recovery not only minimized costs, but also significantly reduced the waste stream. This is the first time such a dual-purpose operation has been conducted.

Throughout the course of the recovery operation, innovative recovery techniques were developed, such as the creation of a 1,000 foot by 500 foot retention pond that was located on the beach and was constructed entirely of sand. This pond, which is typical of a construction site, receives and controls runoff water. In this case, the pond received all of the dredged material including the oil, which was collected and vacuumed off the pond. The use of a weir box outfall allowed for the easy removal of the large amount of water that was deposited with the dredged material.

This project was initiated when the Corps of Engineers uncovered pockets of submerged oil during a beach renourishment project. The oil was linked to a major spill occurring in 1993 where a Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) was signed recently. Because of this agreement, no Responsible Party could be named under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), and all oil removal costs were born by the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF).
Training the Masses: Teaching ICS over the World Wide Web
Authors: Anderson David , Dix Mark
Published: January 2013

In March 2000, instructors from the Marine Safety Port Operations School at the U.S. Coast Guard Training Center Yorktown in Yorktown, Virginia delivered Incident Command System (ICS) 200-level training over the World Wide Web. The ICS Web-based training was part of an ensemble of courses that were offered over the Web to evaluate a software package developed by an independent contractor and to measure the effectiveness of Web-based training in the U.S. Coast Guard. Students throughout the United States, including Alaska, participated in the training using their personal or work computers. A number of students successfully met the objectives of the ICS 200 training without leaving their locale. To evaluate the efficacy of delivery, students were given pretests and posttests to measure their knowledge of ICS both before and after the training. The course consisted of two 4-hour Web-based delivery sessions using the National Interagency Incident Management System (NIIMS) curriculum for ICS 200. The U.S. Coast Guard adopted NIIMS ICS as the standardized response management system for all Coast Guard response operations and faces the task of providing the appropriate ICS training to all its members. Currently, Coast Guard ICS training is being provided at resident courses within the Coast Guard Marine Safety Schools and by field instructors. The advantages, foibles, and lessons learned from this Web-based training experiment as well as the future of using the Internet for delivery of ICS courses are discussed.