bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Species Accounts
Authors: Felger Richard Stephen , Johnson Matthew Brian , Wilson Michael Francis
Published: November 2023

Trees and shrubs; resin-producing and aromatic with resin canals widespread in all organs; often with long and short shoots. Leaves scalelike, linear, or needlelike. Wind pollinated with unisexual cones; cone scales spirally arranged. Pollen (staminate or male) cones relatively small, herbaceous, soon deciduous (developing and falling within a single season); seed (pistillate or female) cones larger and more persistent (developing in 1-3 years), often woody, or berrylike and deciduous in Juniperus. Mostly in the temperate parts of the world and some tropical; 9 families, 68 genera. References: Flora of North America (1993), Martinez (1963), McVaugh (1992).
Insect Color Vision Is a Potential Selective Factor on the Evolution of Silk Chromatic Properties and Web Design
Authors: Lehrer M
Published: November 2023

Spiders produce multiple types of silk that vary in structural organization and reflectance properties, and therefore in their color. The limited amount of data available to date show that the physical properties of fibrous proteins produced by ancestral species differ from those produced by derived species. These variations might be correlated with the ambient light in which the spider forages (Craig 1997; but see Bond and Opell 1998 for results using a different analytic approach). The evolutionary success of the derived Orbiculareae could, at least in part, be related to shifts in silk reflectance. Insects, most of which are spiders ‘ potential prey, are color-seeing animals. If it can be shown that shifts in silk color are correlated with spiders ‘ foraging strategies and that they are tuned to insect color vision, then one could speculate that the evolutionary diversification of the reflectance properties of spider webs may be an adaptive response to the insects ‘ perception of the spectral properties of the web ‘s silk.
Introduction: Socrates, the Epistemologist
Authors: Benson Hugh H
Published: November 2023

I. See Gulley 1968, 12, who writes: ‘:-\!though the notion of knowledge of ‘what a thing is’ is prominent in his discussions, Socrates does not seem to have concerned himself with problems in the theory of knowledge. Certainly he considered that in ethics knowledge of the virtues through definition was fundamental. This represents a positive doctrine about the nature of moral knowledge. But the doctrine is not associated with the sort of distinctions which would suggest a clear awareness of, or interest in, epistemological questions.” Vlastos 1991, 15, puts the point more succinctly: “In fidelity to our texts no epistemological theory at all can be ascribed to Socrates.” The view was expressed earlier in Vlastos 1985 (1994. 63) as follows: “But the Socrates of this paper is no epistemologist. He is a moralist pure and simple who practises moral inquiry but never inquires into the theory of moral inquiry. He is as innocent of epistemology as of metaphysics.” Kraut 1984, 273, expressed a similar view: “(Socrates] has no interest in epistemology.” In 1992 Kraut’s view appears somewhat more qualified: “Few would be tempted to call Socrates an epistemologist or a metaphysician or to deny Plato these titles. Even so, the question can be raised whether Vlastos draws too sharp a contrast between them; for it is tempting to say that even though Socrates is no epistemologist or metaphysician he nonetheless has given some serious thought to questions of justification and ontology. But surely Socrates has views not only about the right way to live but also about how one should discover and test a conception of the right way to live: by seeking definitions, by exposing attempted definitions to challenge from others, by giving up one or more beliefs from an inconsistent set.
A Socratic Theory Of Knowledge
Authors: Benson Hugh H
Published: November 2023

It has frequently been remarked and sometimes lamented that Socrates nowhere in the early dialogues takes up his ‘What is F-ness?’ question regarding knowledge, wisdom, or expertise. This is especially remarkable and lamentable since on almost any understanding of the Socratic unity of virtues doctrine, Socrates takes knowledge to be in some way equivalent to the other virtues—courage, piety, temperance, and justice—and yet Socrates devotes an entire dialogue to his ‘What is F-ness?’ question concerning each of these.
Echoes of History
Authors: Rees Helen
Published: November 2023

Based on extensive fieldwork and documentary research in China, this book is a chronicle of the musical history of Lijiang County in China’s southern Yunnan Province. It focuses on Dongjing music, a repertoire borrowed from China’s Han ethnic majority by the indigenous Naxi inhabitants of Lijiang County. Used in Confucian worship as well as in secular entertainment, Dongjing music played a key role the Naxi minority’s assimilation of Han culture over the last 200 years. Prized for its complexity and elegance, which set it apart from “rough” or “simpler” indigenous Naxi music, Dongjing played an important role in defining social relationships, since proficiency in the music and membership in the Dongjing associations signified high social status and cultural refinement. In addition, there is a strong political component in its examination of the role of indigenous music in the relation of a socialist state to its ethnic minorities. The first in English on this rich musical tradition, this book is also unique in providing a complete history of the music in a single region in China over the twentieth century. It integrates individual, local, and national histories with musical experience and musical change. Ethnic music in China provides a vivid example of the tremendous cultural changes over the past century, and the tradition continues to evolve as China encourages ethnic diversity within a unified socialist nation. The book includes a case study of China’s tourist trade and its policies toward minorities.
Indigence and Sentencing in Republican Theory
Authors: Pettit Philip
Published: November 2023

One familiar view of how we should treat convicted offenders holds that for deterrent reasons the treatment should be hard-it should deserve to be called punishment-but that for reasons of equality and fairness it should be scaled to the gravity of the offense and the culpability of the offender. No two offenders should be treated differently if their offenses are equally grave and they are themselves equally culpable for those offenses. Any departure from this principle, so it is suggested, would make for an unequal and unfair system of sentencing.
What is Impure Ethics?
Authors: Louden Robert B
Published: November 2023

Kant makes a strong distinction between that part of a science which is allegedly “pure” or “absolutely independent of all experience” (KrV B 3) and that part which admits in empirical data and assumptions in its application to a particular body of experience. Natural and moral philosophy and (sometimes2) even logic are all held by Kant to require both pure and empirical parts (Gr 4:387-88, 410 n; KrV A 53-55). Like many scientists, philosophers, and intellectuals before and since, he holds the pure part in higher esteem than the applied part. Pure philosophy “must lead the way [muft … vorangehen]” (Gr 4:390) if our knowledge is to achieve a sufficiently secure footing. Indeed, sometimes Kant’s love of the pure is so intense that it leads him to exclude the empirical entirely from the scope of philosophy and to assert that all forms of knowledge that are solely or even partially empirical have only instrumental and subsidiary roles to play in human life.
Taxonomic Intoxication, Part I: Visualizing The Invisible
Authors: Asma Stephen T
Published: November 2023

Perhaps The Most Notable Aspect of the Hunterian Museum—besides the bleached and bloated “monsters”— is that it’s not intended for a lay audience. The Hunterian doesn’t really care whether the average person is “getting it.” This is unexpectedly unnerving, since most other museum encounters come complete with torrents of helpful information. Almost every museum specimen that you have ever encountered, be it a fossil, a jar, or a mount, is accompanied by a plaque, a chart, or a recording that announces to you—even before a question can be formulated in your head— “What you are seeing is thus and so. . . .” One’s perception is immediately linked up with some conceptual content; in fact, many people (usually moving too slowly for their spouse’s taste) will look at the next diorama in a museum only after they have read the written material.
Exhibiting Evolution: Diversity, Order, and The Construction & Nature
Authors: Asma Stephen T
Published: November 2023

Spending Time Perusing and “Dissecting” museums from the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries gives one some refreshing distance from the more familiar evolutionary exhibits. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries American and European museums primarily concerned themselves with educating the public about the theory of evolution, explaining the principles and displaying the evidence. Currently, a significant amount of museum space is still given over to the pedagogy of evolution. We are so accustomed to evolutionary displays that we often fail to appreciate their underlying logic. Stepping back and examining one’s own paradigm is, after all, almost as hard as tasting one’s own tongue. As we saw in chapters 3 and 4, organizing and displaying specimens is a way of visualizing the invisible, of making ideas palpable. There are rich invisible cultures that, if analyzed properly, emerge out of the material culture of contemporary evolution exhibits.
Evolution and The Roulette Wheel: A Chance Cosmos Rattles Some Bones
Authors: Asma Stephen T
Published: November 2023

After Comparing The Galleries In New York, London, and Paris, it was increasingly clear that evolution itself is constructed differently depending on which museum you happen to be visiting. One of the things that emerged out of this comparative pilgrimage was a heightened sensitivity to which subjects were being included in exhibits and which subjects were missing. In a rather obvious sense, of course, it is hard to see what’s missing in an exhibit, because it isn’t there. But comparative visits to many museums can actually turn one’s eye into a perceptive decoding device. And one of the striking omissions that my salubrious decoding eye noticed was that the French and British evolution exhibits never really mention religion anywhere.

Now, perhaps this omission is right and fitting; after all, we’re at the museum to learn about nature, not hear a sermon. But one would need to have been living in a very deep cave to be unaware of the r 50 years of constant battling between religion and evolution. The London museum had exactly one line on the subject in its “Origin of Species” exhibit: “Many people do not believe that there is a conflict between evolution and their religion.” That’s it-no elaboration, no follow-up.
Twigs, Trees, and the Dynamics of Carbon in the Landscape
Authors: Horn Henry S
Published: November 2023

Terrestrial plants in general and trees in particular grow by two mechanisms, the geometrical proliferation of buds that encapsulate the instructions for further proliferation, and the expansion of tissues in approximate proportion to the amount of tissue already present. Limits to this growth are imposed by the availability of resources that must be shared with neighbors or with competing parts of the plant itself. If all resources were divided equally within a plant, a fractal or nearly fractal structure would result. A few simple measurements on a seedling could predict its adult form. A few simple measurements on a single individual, or even on part of an individual, could be scaled up allometrically to predict functional properties of a whole community. Turning this argument around, some basic questions about economic and conservative mechanisms of growth, allocation, and competition can be posed and addressed by students who are willing to take and analyze a few simple measurements.
Cell Size, Shape, and Fitness in Evolving Populations of Bacteria
Authors: Lenski Richard E , Mongold Judith A
Published: November 2023

There is a long and substantial history of studying allometric scaling relationships in animals and plants, which is well represented by other chapters in this volume. These studies have relevance for many fields, from cardiovas-cular physiology to community ecology. From the perspective of evolutionary biology, scaling relationships are important because they provide an empirical focus for investigating the tension between structural constraints, on the one hand, and natural selection, on the other, as they vie to shape-quite literally-organisms and life histories.
The Root Commitment
Authors: Lange Marc
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I offer a proposal regarding the “root commitment” that we undertake when believing in a law. Whether an inference rule possesses the properties that we attribute to it in undertaking this root commitment is a matter of objective fact, in that it obtains whether or not we recognize it as obtaining. However, whether an inference rule possesses these properties depends partly on certain facts about us. In this section, I give an overview of the proposed root commitment and how it accounts for the laws’ special roles in science.
The Autonomy of Scientific Disciplines and Levels of Scientific Explanation
Authors: Lange Marc
Published: November 2023

The laws of a given scientific discipline are associated with the inference rules that result from the best inductive strategies for workers in that field to pursue, considering the kinds of evidence that the field has available, the kinds of predictions that it aims to make, and the kinds of applications in the service of which its predictions are to be used. These considerations are common to all of the laws of a given field, but differ for different fields. Accordingly, there are separate laws of physics, of population ecology, of cardiology, of “folk psychology,” and so on (see appendix 1 in chapter 1). That different disciplines are “autonomous” (have their own laws) is perhaps most evident when contrasting the laws of a typical “special science,” such as human medicine or ballistics or island biogeography, with the laws of fundamental physics. But these latter laws likewise depend for their lawhood on the particular range of concerns characteristic of fundamental physics.
The Jew in the Museum
Authors: Freedman Jonathan
Published: November 2023

The Art Institute Of Chicago; 1994: a collection of recent acquisitions to the photography collection. The crowd swarms, though not quite as thickly as upstairs, where it encounters masterpieces dismally familiar yet unexpectedly moving in their full auratic presence. The avidity of these spectators is hardly deterred-it may, in fact, be enhanced-by signs posted throughout the photography exhibition informing us, in purest officialese, that “material in this exposition may prove offensive to some patrons.” Nothing conspicuously shocking, overtly prurient, initially presents itself; luckily, a cluster of signs soon appears demarcating one room containing “potentially objectionable material.” Here the crowd quickens with particular intensity; and here indeed is much to catch the eye: a Mapplethorpe (part of the Lisa Lyon series); Josh Wytkin’s transsexuals; Richard Avedon’s portrait of a bee keeper, nude, covered with swarming insects. On one wall stands a familiar-looking image, discreetly clothed amid this abundance of flesh: Leonardo’s Christ, from the very center of the Last Supper. On closer inspection, negative marks band the image; to its side entirely stands a plaque announcing the title, Delay, and the name of the artist, William Anastasi.
Henry James and the Discourses of Anti-Semitism
Authors: Freedman Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Powerful Linkages Between The Idea, and the ideal, of culture and the figure, and fact, of the Jew circulate, I have suggested, throughout AngloAmerican high culture in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Such conjunctions were particularly prominent in the 1910s and 1920s, the period when antiSemitic and anti-immigrant sentiment boomed in England and America, climaxing politically in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 but resonating throughout the next decades before receding in the aftermath of World War II. In the works of many writers of this era, the Jew is invoked as a corrupt agent debasing culture with a thoroughgoing commercialism, insistent sexuality, and resolute neuroticism. Such a representation notoriously animates the poetry of Pound and Eliot; the topos filters into Fitzgerald’s Gatsby and (ironically) Hemingway’s Sun Also Rises; it is present, in a somewhat more subtle form, in Willa Cather’s Professor’s House.
Metaphysics and Ethics
Authors: Antonaccio Maria
Published: November 2023

Murdoch’s effort to retrieve a metaphysical conception of ethics in a century that has been, in Franklin Gamwell’s phrase, “so decidedly unfriendly to metaphysics”1 is one of her most significant contributions to contemporary ethical inquiry. Challenging what has been called the “dominant consensus” against metaphysics in modern moral theory, Murdoch criticizes the attempt to sever morality from any normative framework that might determine the agent’s purposes and threaten the agent’s autonomy. Equally, however, she resists the alternative attempt to define the agent’s purposes within a framework narrowly delimited by the conventions and institutions of a historical community or tradition. Against both options, Murdoch appeals to a metaphysical notion of ethics in order to ground moral claims with respect to a normative conception of “the real.” For this reason, understanding the relation between metaphysics and ethics in Murdoch’s thought is essential to understanding her moral realism.
Merleau-Ponty
Authors: Pietersma Henry
Published: November 2023

The work that established Maurice Merleau-Ponty as a major phenomenological philosopher, Phenomenology of Perception, was published in 1945.1 Because of his early death, it remained his main work and is therefore the principal source for my study in this chapter. Upon turning to it after a study of Being and Time, the difference between Heidegger and him seems very great indeed. If Heidegger tends to overwhelm his reader with ontological terminology and his emphasis on the question of being, one who is reading the Phenomenology for the first time often loses the sense of reading a philosophical text because the author takes his reader through so much psychological and related scientific literature that it takes more than one reading to trace the outlines of the philosophical argument that runs beneath the surface. Nothing seems to have been further from his mind than the primacy of the question of being or the importance of recognizing the ontological difference. If the difficulty with Heidegger was to discern epistemology in his ontology, with Merleau-Ponty it is to find a doctrine of knowledge in psychological discourse.
Foolish Virgins
Authors: Reardon Colleen
Published: November 2023

One of the liveliest artistic traditions in Sienese convents was the staging of theatrical productions1. The plays, most often based on stories from the Bible or the lives of saints, were ostensibly intended as spiritual recreation for the nuns but were often performed as entertainment for members of the lay community. In addition to providing yet another point of contact with the outside world, convent theater allowed nuns to showcase their dramatic prowess and to display their musical skills, for scenes requiring songs, dances, and instrumental music were often incorporated into the spectacle. Documents suggest that these convent productions were frequent; nevertheless, only a handful of the many plays that survive in Siena show signs that they were composed specifically for female monasteries. Musical scenes are incorporated at standard points for traditional reasons in most of those works. Although no scores for those scenes have yet come to light, the plays still have much to tell about the variety of music known and performed in the convents of Siena and about the arguments that must have circulated concerning the musical genres deemed most appropriate for cloistered women.
Socrates the Apollonian?
Authors: Reeve C D C
Published: November 2023

About the historical Socrates it has been said that we know only that we know nothing. While this is, no doubt, an overly pessimistic view, we surely know distressingly little of interest that is not subject to dispute. With a few minor lapses I shall focus, therefore, on Plato’s Socrates, and adopt a somewhat agnostic stance on the nature of his relation to the historical prototype. The topic I want to pursue about this scarcely less-but at least differently-controversial figure is his relationship to Apollo, a god often described as the most Greek of the gods. A vague question, certainly, but as I hope to show, an illuminating one for a student of the relationship between reason and religion in fifth-century Greece to pursue.
Sleepy Hollow, 1844
Authors: Marx Leo
Published: November 2023

The pastoral ideal has been used to define the meaning of America ever since the age of discovery, and it has not yet lost its hold upon the native imagination. The reason is clear enough. The ruling motive of the good shepherd, leading figure of the classic, Virgilian mode, was to withdraw from the great world and begin a new life in a fresh, green landscape. And now here was a virgin continent! Inevitably the European mind was dazzled by the prospect. With an unspoiled hemisphere in view it seemed that mankind actually might realize what had been thought’ a poetic fantasy.
Two Kingdoms of Force
Authors: Marx Leo
Published: November 2023

Then the little locomotive shrieked and began to move: a rapid churning of exhaust, a lethargic deliberate clashing of slack couplings travelling backward along the train, the exhaust changing to the deep slow clapping bites of power as the caboose too began to move and from the cupola he watched the train’s head complete the first and only curve in the entire line’s length and vanish into the wilderness, dragging its length of train behind it so that it resembled a small dingy harmless snake vanishing into weeds, drawing him with it too until soon it ran once more at its maximum clattering speed between the twin walls of unaxed wilderness as of old. It had been harmless once. …
Clinical Effects of Stimulant Medication in ADHD
Authors: Greenhill Laurence l.
Published: November 2023

A serendipitous observation made more than 60 years ago revealed that psycho stimulants ameliorate symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children (Bradley, 1937, Appendix). Today, there are four immediate release (IR) stimulant medications approved for use in children-methylphenidate (MPH), dextroamphetamine (DEX), Adderall, and pemoline (PEM)-approved for treatment of school-aged children with ADHD.
Introduction
Authors: Solanto Mary V
Published: November 2023

Neuroimaging technology has opened a window on the functioning human brain that is already beginning to revolutionize our understanding of psychiatric disorders. Studies using these methods have identified, for the first time, differences in the brains of individuals with ADHD. F. Xavier Castellanos begins the first chapter in Part III with a helpful orientation to the cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical circuitry that appears to be central to the pathophysiology of ADHD. He proceeds to review, critique, and integrate anatomic MRI studies, including his own major investigations at NIMH, which have reported differences between individuals with ADHD and nor mal volunteers in corpus callosum, prefrontal brain, caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and cerebellum.
The Limits of Thought
Authors: Pascal Blaise
Published: November 2023

Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) was a brilliant mathematician and physicist whose early work in projective geometry and infinitesimal analysis influenced Leibniz. Although he was not a Jansenist, he published an anonymous defense of their Augustinian views on free will against the Jesuits (Letttres Provinciales, 1656– 1657). His most influential work is a set of balanced aphorisms whose interpretation has remained in dispute (Pensées, 1670). Some scholars see him as an antirationalist skeptic who held that both theology and scientific knowledge rest on unjustifiable premises. Others see Pascal’s skeptical position as a step toward a pragmatic, calculative fideism that presents a rational argument for betting on both the truth of Christianity and the reliability of scientific knowledge. Yet other scholars interpret the conclusion of the wager argument as an indication of the limits of reason, its inability to produce belief, and its reliance on faith to supply its fundamental principles. The Frailty of Human Thought (The Provincial Letters) The last thing one settles in writing a book is what one should put in first. Order.—Why should I undertake to divide my virtues into four rather than into six? Why should I rather establish virtue in four, in two, in one? Why into Abstine et sustine rather than into “Follow Nature,” or, “Conduct your private affairs without injustice,” as Plato, or anything else? But there, you will say, everything is contained in one world. Yes, but it is useless without explanation, and when we come to explain it, as soon as we unfold this maxim which contains all the rest, they emerge in that first confusion which you desired to avoid. So, when they are all included in one, they are hidden and useless, as in a chest, and never appear save in their natural confusion.
God, Mind, and Logic
Authors: Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm
Published: November 2023

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) was the polymath’s polymath. Trained in jurisprudence, he codified Roman laws; independently of Newton, he invented the infinitesimal calculus; he undertook engineering projects; he began work on a universal grammar; serving as an advisor to the Elector of Mainz, he was sent as an ambassador to the court of Louis XIV; he urged the conquest of Egypt and the construction of a canal in the Isthmus of Suez. Himself descended from a Lutheran family, he proposed an ecumenical council to reconcile Protestants and Catholics; from 1676 until his death, he served the House of Hanover as an engineer, historian, librarian, statesman. He traveled to Holland, Austria, and Italy, and he met with Peter the Great to discuss educational programs and the formation of a Russian Academy of Science. And of course he was a logician, metaphysician, epistemologist, theologian. He waited to publish his attack of Locke’s theory of ideas (New Essays on Human Understanding) until Locke died in 1704. As a metaphysician, he argued for the identity of indiscernibles; as a theologian, he used the principle of suffficient reason to reconcile determinism with the doctrine of free will (Theodicy, 1710); as a physicist, he defended the relativity of space, time, and motion in the Monadology (1714). His correspondence with Samuel Clark, Malebranche, Spinoza, Arnauld, and Huygens was largely polemical.
Clarity Against Dogmatic Superstition
Authors: Diderot Denis
Published: November 2023

Denis Diderot (1713–1784) was the driving spirit behind the Enlightenment project of the Encyclopédie des arts et sciences (1751–65, 1780). With D’Alembert, he deffined the topics and selected the authors of that immensely influential work. The underlying thesis of the Encyclopédie was practice oriented. The technology of the crafts and trades was treated as the sound beginning of \scientific understanding. A polymath, Diderot also wrote literary and art criticism (Discourse on Dramatic Poetry, 1758); Essais sur la Peinture and Salons (1739–1781) as well as essays in the natural sciences (Elements of Physiology, 1774–80) and On the Interpretation of Nature (1745). He was briefly imprisoned for his attack on Christianity (The Skeptics’ Walk, 1747) and for the materialism of his Lucretian essay, Letter on the Blind (1749). Although early commentators treated Diderot’s ironic dialogues, Rameau’s Nephew (1767) and Jacques the Fatalist (1765–1784), as brilliant examples of Romanticist psychology, recent literary critics have interpreted them as deconstructivist satire.
Idealism and Self-Reflection
Authors: Fichte Johann Gottlieb
Published: November 2023

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814) studied philosophy and theology at the Universities of Jena and Leipzig, both Kantian strongholds. Although he was also influenced byJacobi and Solomon ben Maimon, he set himself the task of (what he saw as) completing Kant’s project of uniting theoretical and practical reason. They are, he thought, fused within the essentially moral activity of the selfconscious, self-defining ego. Fichte undertook to apply the antirealist, transcendental idealist position that he had developed in The Concept of the Wissenschaftslehre (1794) to political theory. In The Foundations of Natural Right (1796– 1797) he developed the view that the subjectivity which pervades all conscious experience is coordinate with—and limited by—the realization of the freedom of others. A conception of justice is, he maintained, implicit in the activities of self-awareness. In On the Basis of Our Belief in a Divine Governance of the World (1798) Fichte argued that a universal and necessary morality follows from the rational reflection of a free self-positing agent rather than from the commands of a divine lawgiver. Charged with atheism and nihilism, forced to resign his professorial chair at Jena, he wrote The Vocation of Man (1800). After moving to Berlin, Fichte turned his attention to political questions and wrote Addresses to the German Nation (1808), proposing a culturally nationalistic system of education. Much to Fichte’s grief, Kant denounced Fichte’s claim to provide definitive interpretations of his work. While Hegel and Schelling criticized (what they regarded as) his extreme subjectivism, they acknowledged their indebtedness to him, as did such Romantics as Schlegel and Novalis.
Vitality and the Tasks of Life
Authors: Schopenhauer Arthur
Published: November 2023

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) came from a wealthy and well-connected family in Danzig. After private education and travel, he studied medicine at the University of Göttingen and philosophy in Berlin and Jena. In his early work, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Suffficient Reason (1813), he developed the view that the logical principle of suffficient reason entails metaphysical determinism: everyevent, everyobject, every moment of consciousness is necessarily determined by—and determines—others. In his major work, The World as Will and Representation (1818), Schopenhauer argues that Kant’s thing-in-itself is not a postulate: it can be directly experienced as an activity of Willing. Equally critical of Hegel, he argued that Hegel’s dictum “the Real is the Rational” must be abandoned; the agonistic striving of the Will cannot be rationally reconstructed. Influenced by his study of the Upanishads, Schopenhauer saw human suffering as a manifestation of the Will’s expression of—and struggles against— the conflict and suffering brought about by the psychological dominance of unsatisfiable desires. Because artistic creation is also an expression of the Will, aesthetic experience can nevertheless present us with another—more serene— avenue to reality. Although Nietzsche eventually became critical of (what he saw as) Schopenhauer’s simplistic, unremitting pessimism, his theories of the Will to Power and of Eternal Recurrence are indebted to his predecessor. More recently, commentators have found Schopenhauerian traces in Wittgenstein and Heidegger.
My Host the World
Authors: Santayana George
Published: November 2023

The son of a Spanish father and a Boston mother, George Santayana (1863–1952) came to the United States as a child. After attending the Boston Latin School and Harvard University, he went to Germany to study Plato and idealism. On returning to Harvard, he worked with William James and wrote a thesis on Lotze. He remarked that James had succeeded in making him a naturalist without making him a pragmatist. Remnants of his Platonic studies are manifest in his early work, The Sense of Beauty (1896) and The Life of Reason (1905–1906), in which he developed the view that artistic creativity is the primary human activity. He regarded society, religion, and even science and philosophy are expressions of that exuberance. In his four-volume The Realms of Being (1927– 1940) he attempted to reconcile his naturalism with Platonic idealism, analyzing the relation among (what he called) the four realms of being: essence, matter, spirit, and truth. Santayana taught at Harvard until 1912, when he retired to live in England, Paris, and Rome. Besides occasionally writing poetry, he also wrote a much acclaimed novel, The Last Puritan (1935), a subtle and nuanced account of the social and intellectual life of Boston Brahmins.
Logical Arrangements
Authors: Wittgenstein Ludwig
Published: November 2023

Born in Vienna to a wealthy industrialist family, Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) was privately educated before he studied engineering in Berlin and Manchester. Having become interested in the philosophy of mathematics, he went to Cambridge to study with Bertrand Russell in 1912, who introduced him to G. E. Moore and J. M. Keynes. He began writing the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921), but, having given away his large inheritance, Wittgenstein decided to return to Austria, to serve as a soldier in World War I. He was held prisoner at Monte Casino. After the war, Wittgenstein taught in a rural elementary school from 1920 to 1926. He fell into a depression, gave up schoolteaching, became a gardener, and spent two years in Vienna designing a house for his sister. He became acquainted with Moritz Schlick and other members of the Vienna Circle. Renewing his interest in philosophy, Wittgenstein returned to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1928.
Autobiography
Authors: Carnap Rudolph
Published: November 2023

Rudolph Carnap (1891–1970) studied philosophy at the University of Jena, got his degree in 1921, and went to teach at the University of Vienna in 1926. With other members of the Vienna Circle—which at various times included Moritz Schlick, Hans Reichenbach, and Otto Neurath—Carnap became engaged in the programs of (what came to be called) logical positivism or logical empiricism. He helped develop and refine the verification criterion of meaning, according to which the meaning of a sentence is given by the conditions under which it would be true. The strict verification criterion was later revised as a probabilistic theory of degrees of confirmation. A good deal of the work of the Vienna Circle originally appeared in Erkenntnis, a journal founded by Carnap and Reichenbach in 1930. Carnap’s first major work, The Logical Construction of the World, was published in 1928; it was followed by The Logical Syntax of Language (1934).
Self-Portrait at Seventy
Authors: Sartre Jean-Paul
Published: November 2023

While studying at l’école Normale Supérieure and teaching at a lycée, J.-P. Sartre (1905–1980) immersed himself in reading Hegel, Husserl, Heidegger, and Marx. During World War II, He was active in the Resistance and spent a year in prison. He joined the, group that founded and edited Les Temps Modernes in 1945. In his early work—phenomenological studies of the imagination and self-consciousness (The Imagination, 1936, and Transcendence of the Ego, 1937)— Sartre argued that consciousness has no essence: it is a radically free activity, choosing to define and redefine itself. In Being and Nothingness (1943) he analyzed “the self” as a “for-itself,” a being actively engaged in self-conscious awareness that is also, at the same time, passively observing itself as an object in the world, an “in-itself.” While the self has no essential attributes, it afffirms itself to be this or that (“a writer,” “a Jew,” “sad,” “dreamy”). Although it is also capable of realizing itself as nothing (“no-thing”), the self nevertheless is a writer, a French Jew, melancholy. Bad faith is the human condition. Against the background of this theory Sartre wrote Anti-Semite and Jew (1948).
The Many Sources of Philosophic Reflection
Authors: Appiah Kwame Anthony
Published: November 2023

Descended from two great clans—the Asante kings of (what is now) Ghana and the family of Sir Stafford Cripps—Kwame Anthony Appiah (1954–) was educated in Ghana and Cambridge. Having previously taught at Duke, Cornell, Yale and Harvard, he is presently a professor at Princeton University. Appiah has written numerous essays in the philosophy of language (Necessary Conditionals, 1985, For Truth in Semantics, 1986). Besides being a philosopher, Appiah is also an astute historian and anthropologist. Reflecting on the scope of his family— spanning Lebanon, Norway, Kenya, Thailand, Nigeria, and England—he argues against racial and cultural essentialism on the grounds that the history of marriages, trade, conquests, and migrations has thoroughly mixed and enriched races and cultures. His In My Father’s House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture (1992) documents the complex varieties of African cultures and their histories. While recognizing the political utility of the rhetoric of identity, the book also analyzes its dangers. With Amy Guttman, Appiah is the author of Color Conscious: The Political Morality of Race (1996). With Henry Louis Gates Jr. he is the editor of Africana: Encyclopedia of the African and African-American Experience (1999). His novel Avenging Angel was published in 1990 and reissued in 1991.
A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought
Authors: Hansen Chad
Published: November 2023

This book represents an ambitious attempt to remove the stumbling blocks that stand in the way of a dialogue between Chinese and world philosophy. Hansen’s main goal is to present a unified theory of Classical Chinese thought. What makes his attempt very different from innumerable previous efforts is that he uses Daoism, not Confucianism, as the central and unifying principle.
Sexual Selection and the Evolution of Signals
Authors: Greenfield Michael D
Published: November 2023

It is nearly axiomatic that animal communication signals do not arise de novo. Wherever historical or comparative information exists and phylogenetic inferences are possible, descent and modification from some pre-existing behavior or structure, either a signal functioning in another context or manner or a simple inadvertent cue, is usually indicated (e.g., Kessel 1955). Such origins and modifications may indicate that signal evolution is an economical process. They may also serve as a reminder that signals seldom arise in vacuo but tend to form in the presence of, and in response to, a perceptual background. It is assumed that perception of an earlier signal was already well developed, and when signals descend from cues, they may usually evolve either in response to pre-existing perception of the cues or coevolve alongside it.
The Inalienable Right to Life: And Its Implications for Volutary Euthanasia
Authors: McConnell Terrance
Published: November 2023

Whenever lists of putative inalienable rights are composed, the right to life usually is at the top. It was for Jefferson, and it is for most others. This chapter and the next will explore what it means to say that the right to life is inalienable and what the normative implications of such a claim are.
How Cancer Pain Undermines Health and Treatment
Authors: Patt Richard B , Lang Susan S
Published: November 2023

To be struck with cancer, or to have a loved one afflicted with cancer, is one of the most frightening events imaginable. To endure the dehumanizing pain of cancer without relief is overwhelming. To helplessly witness that anguish in a loved one is heartbreaking. To discover later, however, that the suffering might have been prevented is perhaps the worst of all. Uppermost in the minds of many cancer victims are fears and anxiety about pain. We are now finally entering an era in which these fears may finally be put to rest. Today we are equipped with a modern arsenal of drugs and techniques capable of eradicating cancer pain in most cases. Around the country, in doctors’ offices and pain clinics, many patients are successfully being properly treated and relieved of most of the suffering from cancer and cancer treatment. Yet, tragically, many cancer patients are not appropriately treated for pain and side effects; too many people are unaware that modern approaches to treating pain are almost always successful.
Understanding How Adjuvant Drugs Relieve Pain and Suffering
Authors: Patt Richard B , Lang Susan S
Published: November 2023

In addition to the basic pain relievers, other medications are often prescribed to enhance patient comfort. Called adjuvant drugs or co-analgesics, these drugs are auxiliary medications, most of which were developed for conditions other than pain, but can play an important role in the relief of pain. Adjuvant simply means “helper”; these drugs may help counteract side effects of the primary pain reliever(s) or help relieve other distressing symptoms, such as nausea, constipation, or breathlessness. Adjuvant analgesics, however, actually relieve pain in their own right in specific circumstances. Unlike the opioids and anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs), which are all-purpose analgesics that relieve any type of pain to some extent, the adjuvants are mechanism-specific, meaning that they may help relieve a particular type of pain but aren’t effective for other types.
The Whore’s Story
Authors: Mudge Bradford K
Published: November 2023

This fresh and persuasively argued book examines the origins of pornography in Britain and presents a comprehensive overview of women's role in the evolution of obscene fiction. Carefully monitoring the complex interconnections between three related debates--that over the masquerade, that over the novel, and that over prostitution--Mudge contextualizes the growing literary need to separate good fiction from bad and argues that that process was of crucial importance to the emergence of a new, middle-class state. Looking closely at sermons, medical manuals, periodical essays, and political tracts as well as poetry, novels, and literary criticism, The Whore's Story tracks the shifting politics of pleasure in eighteenth-century Britain and charts the rise of modern, pornographic sensibilities.
The Feminization of the Novel
Authors: Mudg Bradford K
Published: November 2023

The most we can do, with respect to those numerous novels, that issue continually from the press, is to give rather a character than an account of each. To do even this, however, we find no easy task; since we might say of them, as Pope, with less justice, says of the ladies, “Most Novels have no character at all.” —The Monthly Review, March 1759 In the crowd of Novels, which swarm in this country from a thousand circulating libraries, and which too frequently tend to debauch and deprave the tender mind, by throwing hues of false gloom or luxuriance over life, it gives us great pleasure to find, now and then, a work of moral tendency.
The Neurologic Background
Authors: Filley Christopher M
Published: November 2023

The title of this book brings together two terms seldom linked in the vocabulary of neuroscience. White matter has not traditionally been emphasized in behavioral neurology, and the higher functions of human beings are generally viewed as implicating the gray matter of the brain, particularly the cerebral cortex. Indeed, the assumption that the singular phenomena of human behavior predominantly re¬ quire the activities of the cortical gray matter is one of the most pervasive in all of neuroscience. Whereas there is an impressive body of evidence in support of this belief, it is worth recalling that the cerebral cortex consists of only the outermost 3 millimeters of the brain. Moreover, a wealth of clinical experience suggests that disorders affecting structures below the cortex, many of which are white matter tracts, reliably and significantly alter mental functions. Thus, the notion that men¬ tal life is exclusively represented in the cortical gray matter should be considered an oversimplification.
Vascular Diseases
Authors: Filley Christopher M
Published: November 2023

Vascular disease is one of the major concerns of clinical neuroscience and medicine. Stroke continues to be the third leading cause of death in the United States, and represents an enormous source of disability from neurologic and neurobehavioral dysfunction. Many controversies persist in the area of vascular disease, but one that has captured much recent attention concerns the importance of the white matter. A lively debate in neurology has centered on the origin and significance of white matter changes that are frequently seen on the neuroimaging scans of older individuals. These findings have prompted a renewed examination of the concept of vascular dementia, which continues to undergo revision. In this chapter, a number of clinical entities in which white matter vascular disease occurs are reviewed, with particular attention to the neurobehavioral implications of these lesions.
Traumatic Disorders
Authors: Filley Christopher M
Published: November 2023

Trauma to the brain can occur because of accidents, assaults, sporting contests, or intentional therapeutic maneuvers. This problem is one of the most urgent in neurology and medicine, as traumatic brain injury (TBI) from motor vehicle accidents and other events constitutes one of the most prevalent and tragic neurologic disorders. The neuropathology changes in the brain caused by trauma are complex, and understanding their clinical consequences is a formidable task. Nevertheless, the white matter of the brain is significantly damaged in TBI, and considering this category of injury from a neurobehavioral perspective is instructive.
Neuropsychiatric Syndromes
Authors: Filley Christopher M
Published: November 2023

Neurobehavioral manifestations of white matter disorders are not limited to cognitive syndromes. Emotional dysfunction can also be seen, often arising earlier in the course of the disorder and in some cases proving more problematic than cognitive impairment. In this respect, white matter disorders resemble the subcortical gray matter diseases, which also feature prominent neuropsychiatric manifestations (Salloway and Cummings, 1994). The most comprehensive information on this kind of neuropsychiatric disturbance comes from study of multiple sclerosis (MS), but observations of other white matter disorders have also contributed to this topic. In this chapter, neuropsychiatric syndromes in selected white matter disorders are reviewed in view of their putative relationship to cerebral neuropathology.
Homer’s Sign and Medial Ann Numbness
Authors: Liveson Jay Allan
Published: November 2023

A 39-year-old man was involved in an automobile accident (collision with a car in front) 5 months earlier. He noted proximal left arm pain that subsided in 1 week. Several weeks later, numbness developed along the medial right forearm and hyperpathia of the fourth and fifth digits. His right hand was slowly becoming weak. His medical history revealed that some years ago he injured his right wrist, which required surgery, leaving his thumb “paralyzed.” He smoked heavily.
Radiating Foot Pain
Authors: Liveson Jay Allan
Published: November 2023

Four weeks prior to examination, a 35-year-old man developed low back pain that radiated to the right lateral thigh, calf, and dorsum of the foot. There was no exacerbation on Valsalva’s maneuver and no weakness or bladder symptoms. Medical history was negative. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION. Cranial nerves were normal. There was no weakness or sensory deficit. DTRs were active and symmetric. Plantar responses were flexor. There was no Lasègue’s sign.