bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Following Their Children into Battle: Women at War in Paraguay, 1864-1870
Authors: Ganson Barbara J.
Published: July 2006

Ella impulsó a su hermano a la pelea,ella siguió a sus hijos al combate…En medio de la noche, su siluetase destacó en el campo funerario de labatalla, pues buscaba, inquietael cuerpo de su amor entre el osario.E igual que con su esposo compartierael tálamo nupcial en la morada,con su esposo cayó, fiel compañera, en el lecho mortal de la jornada.She encouraged her brother to fightshe followed her children into combat…In middle of the night, her silhouettestood out in the funeral battlefieldfor she was restlessly searching forthe body of her love in the burial grounds.And just as she had shared the nuptial bedwith her husband in the shelter of their home,with her husband, she fell, faithful companion,on the death bed of the day's journey.

From “La mujer paraguaya,” written in 1899 by a Paraguayan poet, Ignacio A. Pane.
Plantation Production and White “Proto-Slavery”: White Indentured Servants and the Colonisation of the English West Indies, 1624-1645
Authors: Beckles Hilary McD.
Published: July 2006

Two dominant features of agricultural history in the English West Indies are the formation of the plantation system and the importation of large numbers of servile labourers from diverse parts of the world—Africa, Europe and Asia. In Barbados and the Leeward Islands, the backbone of early English colonisation of the New World, large plantations developed within the first decade of settlement. The effective colonisation of these islands, St. Christopher (St. Kitts) in 1624, Barbados 1627, Nevis 1628, Montserrat and Antigua 1632, was possible because of the early emergence of large plantations which were clearly designed for large scale production, and the distribution of commodities upon the world market; they were instrumental in forging an effective and profitable agrarian culture out of the unstable frontier environment of the seventeenth century Caribbean. These plantations, therefore, preceded the emergence of the sugar industry and the general use of African slave labour; they developed during the formative years when the production of tobacco, cotton and indigo dominated land use, and utilised predominatly European indentured labour. The structure of land distribution and the nature of land tenure Systems in the pre-sugar era illustrate this. Most planters who accelerated the pace of economic growth in the late 1640's and early 1650's by the production of sugar and black slave labour, already owned substantial plantations stocked with large numbers of indentured servants.
Rum and Coca Cola: The United States in the British Caribbean 1940-1945
Authors: Palmer Annette
Published: July 2006

The presence of American bases and troops in the British Caribbean during the Second World War was the catalyst to an anti-Americanism which has continued to dominate political thinking in the area. This has been a rather ironic turn of events. Prior to the arrival of the Americans, there had been a growing sentiment among sections of the population for some sort of American take-over of the islands. After the Americans arrived, however, relations with the people of the islands soured. The idea of an American take-over died aborning, and by the end of the war, such ideas were no longer being entertained by the people of the British Caribbean. They were replaced instead, by an aggressive nationalism which called for self-government for the islands as an entity. Whereas in 1938, a British journalist could have written that “Trinidad (and Barbados and Jamaica) wants to be American,” it had long ceased to be true by the end of the war. A Trinidadian labor leader, at a regional conference in 1945, succinctly summed up the ideas of all of his confreres. “Whenever we pass into other hands,” he declared, “both hands must be our own.”
Institutionalization and Evangelization in the Argentine Church: Córdoba Under Zenón Bustos, 1905-1919
Authors: Liebscher Arthur R.
Published: July 2006

To the dismay of today's social progressives, the Argentine Catholic church addresses the moral situation of its people but also shies away from specific political positions or other hint of secular involvement. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the church set out to secure its place in national leadership by strengthening religious institutions and withdrawing clergy from politics. The church struggled to overcome a heritage of organizational weakness in order to promote evangelization, that is, to extend its spiritual influence within Argentina. The bishop of the central city of Córdoba, Franciscan Friar Zenón Bustos y Ferreyra (1905-1925), reinforced pastoral care, catechesis, and education. After 1912, as politics became more heated, Bustos insisted that priests abstain from partisan activities and dedicate themselves to ministry. The church casts itself in the role of national guardian, not of the government, but of the faith and morals of the people.
Jemmy Button
Authors: Toumey Christopher P.
Published: July 2006

Jemmy Button was an Indian of Tierra del Fuego who inadvertently inspired four generations of nineteenth-century English missionaries to risk their earthly lives to save his eternal soul. These earnest evangelicals made five expeditions to Jemmy's South American homeland to make Christians of him and his countrymen. One of these ventures was an embarrassing fiasco, another ended in death by starvation, and a third led to a treacherous massacre.

This young Indian's unintended influence also touched evolutionary thought. Jemmy Button was a friend and companion to Charles Darwin on the famous voyage of H.M.S. Beagle. Jemmy's versatile personality was intriguing to Darwin. He could be a naked Indian hunter when in Tierra del Fuego, and a foppish English gentleman when in the company of British naval officers. His ability to change like this inspired Darwin's earliest written reflections on the human capacity to progress from savagery to civilization.
The Enlightenment in Spain: Influences Upon New World Policy
Authors: Engstrand Iris H. W.
Published: July 2006

The Enlightenment in Spain defies definition. In certain respects it was a viable force opening up new vistas of knowledge and understanding, while in others it was a mild breeze rustling some leaves of insight into the possibility of human equality. For certain of Spain's royal officials, the ideas of the eighteenth centuryphilosopheswere refreshing and undeniably sound; for others even the gathering of knowledge in the new encyclopedias was a dangerously democratic trend. In some areas of national life, reforms gained immediate acceptance, in others the old ways remained entrenched.

Spain has always been a country of extremes, of absolute alternatives. Spaniards strive to achieve impossible goals or they remain incredibly inert. With the discovery of America their ambitious undertakings excelled those of England or France, but subsequent neglect brought about failures of equal magnitude. In the sixteenth century they thought to conquer the world; in the next their weakened Hapsburg monarchs squandered the wealth of the New World while the country fell into economic ruin.
Text, Context, Intertext: Columbus' diario de a bordo as Palimpsest
Authors: Henige David , Zamora Margarita
Published: July 2006

We pray [any reader] not to nibble with critical teeth at this work of ours, which has been diligently twisted into shape by love rather than knowledge…

Since its discovery nearly two centuries ago, Las Casas' summary of the diario de a bordo of Columbus' first voyage has fascinated, beguiled, and exercised historians, who have used it time and again in attempting to recreate the events, course, and atmosphere of this momentous occasion. In doing so, most have treated the summary as a quintessential day-by-day account of the events it describes, despite the fact that the document as we have it is at least a third-hand transcription by Bartolomé de las Casas, who was effectively its author, or at least its senior co-author. Despite this tendency to treat the diario as a primary source then, in truth it is, even more than most historical sources, a prism rather than a window on the past, and a prism unfortunately not governed by any known laws of historical optics.
Paraguayans and the Making of the Brazilian Far West, 1870-1935
Authors: Wilcox Robert
Published: July 2006

One of the most important aspects of the recent mass migrations of Latin Americans into previously remote regions of the hemisphere is the impact these have had on areas cut by international boundaries. With the exception of the United States-Mexico border, however, historical examination of the process is still in its infancy. And few observers have developed a satisfactory theoretical basis explaining an admittedly complex process.

One exception was Cuban historian Jorge Mañach, who spoke of “balanced” and “unbalanced” frontiers, largely in the context of the United States-Mexican boundary. He believed that power distribution between nations determined the degree to which their frontier interrelationships were equal or unequal. In Mañach's view, when a politically or economically weaker nation shares a boundary with one that is stronger, overall communication is sacrificed and the stronger power inevitably “spills over” into the neighboring region, economically and culturally.
Tales of Two Women: The Narrative Construal of Porfirian Reality
Authors: Buffington Robert , Piccato Pablo
Published: July 2006

It was the perfect murder, really. Illicit passions: two beautiful women-of-the-night feuding over a dashing young rake, a masked ball, casual taunts, thwarted assaults, escalating threats. Heinous crime: the lover's borrowed gun, midnight bordello visit, fighting words, a gun shot, a maid's scream, a young woman's tragic death. Cruel punishment: suicidal remorse (by some accounts), humiliating public trial, twenty lost years (the maximum sentence for a woman) in Mexico City's squalid Belem jail. The Tarasquillo Street murder had it all!

And so it happened that, in an era enamored of all things French, Mexico City had its very owncause célèbre. A scant twelve years earlier, professional francophile and amateur criminologist Rafael Zayas de Enríquez had devoted an entire volume of hisFisiología del crimento notorious foreign criminals like Alfonse Dupont, the hunchbacked wife-killer, and Charles Guiteau, the deranged assassin of President Garfield. Now, Mexico too could claim a prominent place in the international annals of infamous crime.
The Beginnings of Professionalization in the Brazilian Military: The Eighteenth Century Corps of Engineers
Authors: Delson Roberta M.
Published: July 2006

Historians often date the “professionalization” of the Latin American military establishments to the late nineteenth century. At that time, widely accepted “positivist ” beliefs equating technological modernization with “progress” resulted in the military's perceived need for superior defense forces, to be commanded by officer graduates of newly inaugurated military academies. In Brazil, the military was already emboldened by its successes in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay (1864-1870); it now sought to consolidate its gains in the competitive institutional climate of the late 1800s by presenting a more recognizably professional appearance.
Whose Criminals Are These? Church, State, andPatronatosand the Rehabilitation of Female Convicts (Buenos Aires, 1890-1940)
Authors: Caimari Lila M.
Published: July 2006

Turn-of-the century Argentine political leaders were deeply influenced by new ideas about the origin and treatment of criminality developed by the Italian positivist school of criminology. According to this school, crime was not the fruit of the criminal's wickedness, as classic penology had claimed, but was rather the result of a complex web of social and psycho-biological determinations of which the criminal had been a victim. This pathology called “crime” could be corrected if its origin was scientifically determined and if the new methods of rehabilitation prescribed for criminals and potential criminals were enforced. Although not all of the premises of the criminological school led by Lombroso, Ferri, and Garofalo were accepted uncritically in Argentina, the basic principles of the new science were widely adopted by jurists, doctors, hygienists and psychiatrists. These ideas were received in the context of massive European immigration, accelerated urbanization, and the emergence of a large working class.
Heirs to the Hieroglyphs: Indigenous Writing in Colonial Mesoamerica
Authors: Restall Matthew
Published: July 2006

Shortly after the Spanish conquests in Mesoamerica (or, as the colonizers termed it, New Spain), friars chiefly of the Franciscan and Dominican orders taught the art of alphabetic writing to the indigenous elite. As a result the colonial period saw the production of an extensive body of documentation—overwhelmingly notarial and largely legal in nature—by Mesoamerica's indigenous peoples, written in their own languages but using the Roman alphabet. The language best represented in the surviving material (and thus in the ethnohistorical literature) is Nahuatl, often misleadingly called Aztec but in fact widely spoken throughout central Mexico. Yucatec Maya places a distant second in terms of known records, probably followed in order of magnitude by Mixtec. While this article will focus primarily upon these three tongues, it should also be noted that scholars have investigated a small but significant body of Cakchiquel and Quiché materials from highland Guatemala, and that there are also known to exist unstudied sources in Chocho, Cuicatec, Mixe, Otomí, Tarascan, Totonac, and Zapotec; other Mesoamerican languages may also have been written alphabetically in the colonial period.
Introduction: Words and Deeds: Racial and Gender Dialogue, Identity, and Conflict in the Viceroyalty of New Spain
Authors: Hanger Kimberly S.
Published: July 2006

The genesis for this special issue on "Words and Deeds" was a panel discussion held in conjunction with the January 1997 joint meeting of the Conference on Latin American History and the American Historical Association in New York City. Participants Richard Boyer, Sonya Lipsett-Rivera, Kimberly Hanger, and Jane Landers presented the papers included in this volume. The essays all flowed together so nicely and initiated such a lively exchange among panelists and the audience that the editors of The Americas asked us to prepare them for publication, incorporating some of the commentary offered at the session. What you read in the following pages is a result of that process, although we still think it rather ironic that a journal produced by the Academy of American Franciscan History should want to include articles with so many off-color words and references to sexual conduct and violence!

The fact that these essays generated such interest as conference papers and appear in this special issue of The Americas confirms the value cultural historians are placing on the study of insults, conflicts, and other confrontational behavior to reconstruct societal norms and worldviews and assess challenges to them. What constituted an insult or defined anti-social behavior reveals much about what the community considered each person's position in it; resistance to one's assigned role and identity or objection to someone else misconstruing this identity unmasked a sense of injustice that community members, especially its leaders, had to rectify in order to maintain social order.
Campaigning Against Latin American Nationalism: U.S. Ambassador John Moors Cabot in Brazil, 1959-1961
Authors: Streeter Stephen M.
Published: July 2006

A recent edited study of U.S. ambassadors assigned to Latin American countries beset by economic and political crises assesses the importance of individuals as determinants of U.S. foreign policy. Although the authors differed in their conclusions, two in particular suggested that even ambassadors who enjoyed great operational independence rarely disagreed with the ideological premises of their superiors in Washington. Historian Louis A. Pérez, for example, portrayed U.S. ambassador to Cuba Sumner Welles as “an active powerbroker” who “operated out of a defined ideological framework, a world view that allowed him to recognize social forces as potential friend or likely foe to U.S. interests.” Welles's attempt in 1933 to remove Cuban President Ramón Grau San Martin, who had abrogated the Platt Amendment, coincided with the State Department's policy of keeping Cuba favorable to U.S. economic and strategic interests. Scholar Jan Knippers Black came to a similar conclusion about the role of Ambassador Lincoln Gordon in the 1964 overthrow of leftist Brazilian President João Goulart. Black found it “extremely difficult to isolate his [Gordon's] imprint on more fundamental aspects of policy … it seems unlikely that U.S. policies and actions would have differed in any significant way, had some other individual been serving at that time and place as ambassador.”
Native Icon to City Protectress to Royal Patroness: Ritual, Political Symbolism and the Virgin of Remedies
Authors: Curcio-Nagy Linda A.
Published: July 2006

Kind, gentle, humble, mother to all. This is the traditional Catholic image of the Virgin Mary. Beginning in the fifth century A.D., the popular devotion to the mother of Christ increased rapidly in Europe. Numerous apparitions and accompanying shrines during the late Medieval and early modern period demonstrated her new role in folk Catholicism. In Spain, as in other areas of Europe, the Virgin Mary became one of the major intercessional images, protecting believers from drought, floods, and sickness. Considering her role in the popular belief system of the Iberian peninsular, it was only logical that the sacred image of Mary would travel the Atlantic to New Spain and appear to Native American neophytes who years earlier had worshipped Tonantzin, mother earth, among other female deities. The image of the Virgin Mary could easily incorporate diverse groups under a single symbolic entity. Catholicism held that she was open to all, listened to all, aided all of pure heart. Mary was a force of integration; yet, depending upon the circumstances and the believers, such devotion could also fragment society This study analyzes the history of one such symbol; an integrating force that is best remembered as being one of the most divisive: the Virgin of Remedies of Mexico City.
Peregrinations of the Baja California Mission Registers
Authors: Gerhard Peter , Mathes W. Michael
Published: July 2006

Unique sources of historical, demographic, toponymic, and linguistic information, the mission registers (baptisms, matrimonial inquiries, marriages, burials, and census) of Baja California have been used in varying degrees to good effect by Carl Sauer, Peveril Meigs, Sherburne Cook, Homer Aschmann, and Pablo L. Martínez, among others. What is, alas, not so unique, but true of many parochial archives in Mexico, is the fact that until quite recently they were often left exposed to the elements, rodents, insects, and looters. Gerhard attempted to make an inventory of the known surviving registers in 1952-1953, when he found some of them totally unguarded and uncared-for. This work was followed by Woodrow Borah in the 1970s, and since 1971 Mathes has brought this calendar upto-date, and has obtained or personally produced microfilm of the entire corpus, including certain folios which have since disappeared. Here we shall summarize the tortuous history of the dispersal of these documents.
Ethnic and Racial Identity in the Brotherhoods of the Rosary of Minas Gerais, 1700-1830
Authors: Kiddy Elizabeth W.
Published: July 2006

The participants in the festivals of the rosary in Minas Gerais tell a story about the beginning of the devotion of the blacks to Our Lady of the Rosary. In the story, a black slave sees Our Lady of the Rosary out in the sea rocking on top of the waves. When he tells his master, the master and the priests rush down to the water, but are unable to coax her to come to shore. In frustration, they leave the task to the blacks. Blacks from different African nations, or different groups ofcongadosin the vernacular, go one by one to the edge of the sea (or a river) and play their instruments, dance and sing to try to convince Our Lady of the Rosary to come ashore. Their efforts only become successful when the most traditional group goes to the shore and begins to play their music. Even this most traditional group has no success, however, until all the other groups return and join them to sing together. Only then does Our Lady of the Rosary come to the shore and sit on the largest drum, showing her acceptance of the devotion of the blacks. Even when the whites take her to their own chapel and lock the door, she escapes and returns to the sea, waiting for the blacks to call her out again and put her in their own chapel.
Searching For a Lost Army: Recovering the History of the Federal Army's Pursuit of the Prestes Column in Brazil, 1924-1927
Authors: Diacon Todd
Published: July 2006

The “horseman of hope,” Brazil's “undefeated column”—much
is known about the legendary Luis Carlos Prestes and his rebel column's march through thirteen Brazilian states in the 1920s. Indeed, legends are made of such stuff. Roughly one thousand rebellious federal soldiers and state policemen pushed their way through 25,000 kilometers of Brazil's isolated interior. Forced marches day and night helped them elude capture and defeat from late 1924 until they chose exile in Bolivia in early 1927. Soon the column's fame and impact reached worldwide. Even today, for example, the study of Prestes's tactics is still a part of Red Army officer training in China.
The Diarios of early California, 1769–1784
Authors: Maximin Piette Charles J. G.
Published: July 2006

California has exercised a haunting fascination on men’s imaginations ever since the days of Cortés. During the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, at least twenty expeditions served as a prelude to the occupation, first of the Lower California Peninsula in 1697, and then of New, or Upper, California in 1769. A complete list of these voyages and attempted entradas has not yet been made. Suffice it to say that we are far from possessing the accounts of all the efforts that were made to discover and colonize those regions from 1535 to 1769.

In 1769 New, or Upper, California was first visited by the pionéer founders of its missions and presidios. They had come from Loreto in the Lower California Peninsula, after an arduous trip of over two-hundred leagues over barren mountains. This was the famous expedition of Serra and Portolá, which marks the beginning of the Spanish colonization with the founding of San Diego and the exploration of all the coast up to San Francisco. That year records the birth of Upper California.
Navaho or Navajo?
Authors: Haile Berard
Published: July 2006

Currently there is nation-wide interest in the plight of the Navaho Indians. These sheep-raisers in the northwestern corner of New Mexico, the northeastern corner of Arizona and southeastern Utah, at present number more than 60,000. Historically, the Navaho belonged to that Spanish colony, north of Mexico, which was known as New Mexico. Though the colony was chiefly around the Pueblo Indian settlements, the Spanish Crown laid claim to all territory north of Mexico, which included our present New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Utah, perhaps more than that.
Cochineal Production and Trade in New Spain to 1600
Authors: Lee Raymond L.
Published: July 2006

Beyond All Question, the most valuable export of colonial Mexico was silver. However, the exaggerated emphasis usually accorded to this fact has tended to obscure the importance of other products in the Mexican colonial economy. Prior to the development of synthetic dyestuffs, the native dyes of New Spain ranked among her more valuable products. Such important tinting agents as Campeche wood (logwood), indigo, and cochineal were discovered in Mexico shortly after the conquest, and they were soon exported to the mother coutry in considerable volume. From Spain these raw dyestuffs were reexported to all of Europe, where, although the impact of American dyestuffs on the European economy has never been fully evaluated, these New World products served to bring about a revolution in the cloth industry of the continent.
The “Real Author” of theRecit
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia
Published: July 2006

Silence must never be allowed to mean consent when truth and justice are at stake. In that case it becomes one’s sacred duty to speak out not only in self-defense but also to prevent the dissemination and perpetuation of error and to remedy as far as possible abuse of confidence and victory over ignorance where the victims are blameless and practically helpless.
Menéndez Y Pelayo and America
Authors: Molina Roderick A.
Published: July 2006

Thirty-three years have passed since there was laid in the tomb, shrouded in humble Franciscan garb, one of the most glorious ornaments of Hispanic letters, and one of the greatest literary critics that Spain has had. His name, nevertheless, is glorious and is still revered in Hispanic countries along with those of Cervantes, Lope de Vega, and Calderón. While still alive, he had been raised to the category of the classics. His watchful spirit still dwells in the halls of universal culture, for his simplicity and modesty as a tireless worker gave him, even in his lifetime, the crown of the immortals. Don Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo in a period of criticism and reflection produced a literary work which has been idolized. “The studies of Menéndez y Pelayo,” wrote Edmundo González Blanco, “on literature and history have not only been used extensively in themselves, but have been elaborated and developed; and if they are not so much read today, it is because they were entirely absorbed into the spirit of the times and penetrated into every vein of contemporary Spanish culture, and it may be justly stated that in the last thirty years not a single important line has been written on topics treated in his studies in which his influence is not recognized.”
Don Fray Alonso de Montúfar, Second Archbishop of Mexico, and the devotion to Our Lady of Guadalupe
Authors: Carreno Alberto María
Published: July 2006

Fifty years ago all Mexico assembled at the feet of the ancient and venerated image of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and in token of their loving submission to the Queen of Heaven, an imperial crown was placed on the head of the Blessed Mother of God. Her spiritual empire had been extended from the day when she had first appeared to the Indian Juan Diego on the hill of Tepeaca. The holy friar and first Archbishop of Mexico, the Franciscan Don Fray Juan de Zumárraga, was proud to have been among the first to kneel before the holy Image. Our Lady had won the hearts of all Mexicans. Tireless missionaries had taught the story of Guadalupe to their neophytes in far-off lands, and in this year of grace 1945, when all the American continent claims her as their Queen, the Chapter of the Basilica of Guadalupe, the Archbishops and Bishops of Mexico, and the hierarchy of all the Americas joined in the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the Coronation of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
Church and State at the Mexican Constitutional Convention, 1856–1857
Authors: Scholes Walter V.
Published: July 2006

The liberals at the Mexican constitutional convention of 1856–1857 were fairly representative of any group trying to establish the authority of the state over the clerical groups. Moreover their political thought shows the stress on material affairs rather than that of the spiritual realm. The quarrel between state and church in Mexico of course was not new. It had its antecedents in the colonial period when the Spanish crown had been able, in general, to control the affairs of the church. Once Mexico obtained her independence, however, the question of state-church relationship arose. The early fight culminated in 1833–1834 when Gómez Farías put through his Reform Laws which deprived the church of control of education, secularized missions, abolished some of the special privileges of the clerical groups and relieved the state of responsibility for enforcing religious vows. These measures of course were never carried out because in 1834 Gómez Farías was ousted from office by Santa Anna.
José Artigas
Authors: Bobb Bernard F.
Published: July 2006

Highlighting the Wars of Independence in Latin America are the personalities and exploits of the great patriot leaders who took up arms in the cause of freedom. Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín are known throughout the world, for they were outstanding liberators whose efforts were crowned with success. But there were other leaders in the Spanish colonies who are almost equally deserving of fame for their contributions to the revolution, and among such men was José Gervasio Artigas, leader of the rebels in the Banda Oriental. His biography is a story of adherence to ideals and tenacity of purpose in the face of dismaying opposition. Chroniclers of his life, however, are not in agreement as to his possible faults and virtues. As one observer has aptly said, “Perhaps never did the memory of a man meet with more honor in his own country and with less favor without it.”
La Avellaneda's Sonnet to Washington
Authors: Kelly Edith L.
Published: July 2006

In The year 1864, the Cuban-born poet Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda, visited New York, Philadelphia, Niagara Falls, Mount Vernon, and other points of interest in the United States. The impressions she received at that time were crystallized in two poems: “A Washington” (soneto), “A vista del Niágara” (silva)

There are pertinent notes to be revealed in connection with the writing of the sonnet to Washington. The version composed in 1864 was not the poet’s first dedicatory poem to George Washington. La Avellaneda’s first composition on the subject (written long before she had the opportunity to visit the United States) appeared in her earliest collection of verse in 1841.
New Data Regarding the Origins of the Franciscan Missions in Peru, 1532-1569
Authors: Canedo Lino G.
Published: July 2006

IT WAS NOT UNTIL 1651 that the first history of the Franciscans in Peru appeared. Its author complained even then of the lack of contemporary accounts of events and of the paucity of conventual archives; an unknown chronicler who is there referred to had died without leaving any record behind. Fray Fernando Rodriguez Tena, to whom the Archives of San Francisco of Lima are indebted for their present organization, has left copious examples of his activity as a historian in the second half of the eighteenth century; it is, however, hardly possible to discover anything new relating to the origins of the Franciscans in Peru in the long and repetitious writings of this indefatigable copyist and compiler, whose real merit is still difficult to assess.
The Idea of a Franciscan Academy
Authors: Jones Howard Mumford
Published: July 2006

It is with genuine pleasure that I bring to the founders of the Academy of American Franciscan History the good wishes and congratulations of the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

Having said this, and having said it with all the sincerity at my command, I ought, if a Spartan laconicism were proper, to sit down. The assembly will recognize, I am sure, that I am a pious fraud. I represent a novel and interesting version of what I may term invincible ignorance. I venture to address you as fellow students, but I do not dare to address you as fellow scholars, since this would either exalt me beyond my desert or degrade you below your merit. This Academy is being founded to recapture a tradition descending from the Middle Ages—and I am no mediaevalist, except in the sense that it was once said of a lady of uncertain time of life that around her hung the last enchantments of the middle ages. You are launching an historical venture, but I am, alas, only a dean, and no opinion is more universal in the learned world than that a dean, whatever lower virtues he may possess, is ipso facto no scholar. When the harassed chairman of an alumni club, in search of better oratory, wired the president of his alma mater to send him a good speaker, preferably a professor but certainly not lower than a dean, the president replied: “I am sending you two assistant professors. There is nothing lower than a dean.”
The French in Sixteenth-Century Brazil
Authors: Nowell Charles E.
Published: July 2006

The European Movement to the New World began before Protestantism had made its appearance. In the sixteenth century, Spain and Portugal had the Western Hemisphere largely to themselves, and all religious and missionary effort from those countries was naturally Catholic. Protestant states did not colonize in any substantial way until after 1600. But meanwhile a few sporadic efforts had come from France, where Calvinism had begun to loom as a major religious and political force. French Huguenots played some part in these attempts. Their share in the settlement made by Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon at Rio de Janeiro in 1555 has been noticed by historians, but in general has been misunderstood.
The Sons of Saint Francis in Texas
Authors: Castañeda Carlos E.
Published: July 2006

The New World had hardly begun to fire the imagination of the Old before the Sons of Saint Francis, filled with a burning desire to spread the faith in the unknown lands in fulfillment of the biblical injunction “Go ye into the whole world and teach all nations” began their ceaseless peregrinations across two continents, from distant Canada and the forbidding Northwest to Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia in South America. In our own United States, dotting the land from Georgia to San Francisco, we find today the imposing ruins of Spanish missions built by their loving hands, their fervent faith, and their unequaled zeal.
Some Remarks On The Term “Aztec Empire”
Authors: Barlow R. H.
Published: July 2006

The enormous native state which Cortés overthrew August 13, 1521, is commonly called the Aztec Empire. This is true more of the English literature than of the Spanish, which sometimes prefers the half-correct “Imperio de los Mexicanos”. The writer has no quarrel with the word “Empire”, which has been questioned from time to time, but he does have with the word “Aztec” used in this connection. This originates, apparently, with Clavijero and was diffused by Prescott, a mere hundred years ago. The latter speaks initially of “the ancient Mexicans, or Aztecs as they were called” and after that uses “Aztec Empire” incessantly. This nomenclature, vulgarized through such dross as Bancroft, has swamped everything else. Nevertheless, neither Cortés nor Bernal Díaz nor Tápia, all actors in the Conquest, ever so much as mention the word “Aztec”, much less say “we conquered the Aztec Empire”. Nor does Sahagun in his encyclopedic work use the term “Aztec Empire”, nor does Motolinía. If it appears in any of these works, or anywhere among the first generation of conquerors and settlers, it is so subordinately mentioned that it has escaped the writer. Below we shall see what its conquerors did call the Empire they overthrew.
Literary Contributions of Catholics in Nineteenth-Century Mexico (continued)
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia
Published: July 2006

It remains, in the study we are pursuing, to cite those Catholic Mexicans whose literary contributions during the Díaz era were made almost exclusively in prose. Among these, too, several survived the overthrow of Porfirio Díaz and continued to write and publish during the turbulent years that followed. But in keeping with the time-limit set for our study only such works of theirs will be considered as were written and published before the year 1910.
Frei Cristóvão de Lisboa, O.F.M., Missionary and Natural Historian of Brazil
Authors: Fonseca Luiza da
Published: July 2006

The Bravery and Daring of the Portuguese is evident in the history of the discovery, exploration and colonization of Brazil. Many of them sold everything they possessed and then set off across the ocean with their “household and family,” facing storms and the assaults of pirates, and were often shipwrecked or eaten by the cannibalistic Indians on the shores where they expected to be safe.
The Wood-Beach at Recife: A Contribution to the Economic History of Brazil
Authors: Smith Robert C.
Published: July 2006

The cutting and shipment of wood is one of the oldest and most important aspects of Brazilian trade with Portugal. The rich red dye produced from the tree called pau brasil or Brazil wood was esteemed so highly that at first it outweighed in importance all other products of the colony. Most historians agree that the very name of Brazil is derived from this wood. Guarded as a royal monopoly throughout the colonial period, the wood trade ranked with the sugar, tobacco and gold of Brazil as one of the principal sources of revenue of the Portuguese crown. When woods for building were added to the exportation of pau brasil, the trade assumed a new importance, for these woods furnished the mother country with the sinews both of war and commerce, providing the hulls and masts of countless vessels that defended and brought together the distant domains of the Portuguese empire.
A Poet of Seventeenth Century Brazil: Gregório De Matos
Authors: Bates Margaret J.
Published: July 2006

With the publication of the complete works of Gregório de Matos, seventeenth century Brazilian satirical poet, or almost complete works (his poems which were too obscene for publication remain in manuscript), by the Brazilian Academy of Letters, it is now possible to evaluate his production to see if the critics who call him the founder of Brazilian literature, the precursor of literary emancipation and mental independence, and the first to give the cry of Brazilian independence, were overestimating the contribution of this “Mouth of Hell” as he was dubbed by his contemporaries.
The Captaincy of the Second Portuguese Voyage to Brazil, 1501–1502
Authors: Greenlee William B.
Published: July 2006

On the 8th of March, 1500, a fleet of thirteen ships and caravels departed from Lisbon under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral. Two of the caravels were destined for East Africa and the others for Calicut, on the Malabar coast of India, where they were sent to obtain cargoes of spices and other Eastern commodities, to establish friendly relations with its ruler, and to leave a factory for future trade. Vasco da Gama with his fleet had preceded; Cabral followed to reap the reward. The route was carefully selected to secure the safest and best passage to the Cape of Good Hope. The ships of the fleet were clumsy so that the course must be taken with the most favorable winds. They sailed somewhat to the west of south from the Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Brazil was reached, probably for the first time. After remaining here for about a week taking on supplies of water and wood, the main fleet continued to India. Before doing so, possession of this discovery was taken for the Crown, though it was not then known whether it was mainland or an island. A small supply ship was sent back to Lisbon carrying letters for the King, among them one by Pedro Vaz de Caminha telling of the sojourn and describing the natives, and another by the king’s astrologer, Master John. Both of these letters still exist. The date of the arrival of the supply ship in Portugal is not known but it was probably early in July, 1500. The news of the discovery was of great interest to the King and to the Portuguese people, but their chief concern was with the success of the India fleet, and Caminha’s letter reported that little of value was found in the new land during Cabral’s stay. The discovery made by Cabral was considered of sufficient importance, however, to warrant sending a second fleet for further investigation. The King and the cosmographers wished to know whether it was mainland, as they undoubtedly suspected, and if so its extent. If such were the case, they desired to claim the land for Portugal under the Bull of May 4, 1493 and the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed June 4, 1494. If it were an island, the Spice Islands farther to the west might be reached as Columbus had claimed. The merchants were interested in its commercial value particularly for obtaining pearls and dye wood and in its possibilities for the cultivation of sugar cane. In the latter of these Bartolomeo Marchioni, a wealthy Florentine, who had long resided in Lisbon and operated sugar plantations in Madeira and elsewhere, could anticipate profits, if the land were fertile and native labor adequate. The New Christians or converted Jews evidently also saw in this new land the possibility of escape from persecution in Portugal and a chance for wealth from the products which might be found there.
Catholic Youth in the Inter-American Century
Authors: Barry William
Published: July 2006

As the armies and navies of the United Nations press on to victory in all parts of the world, we at home, who are planning for the organization of peace, have an obligation to the young people of the United States to perfect a program that will reap the fruits of our war-time partnership with the Good Neighbor Republics. Brought to a white-hot temperature during the clash of arms, the policy of inter-American friendship established its value in creating “the corridor of victory” from Brazil to Africa and in forging a strong, defensive shield on the West Coast, whose southern anchor extended from Chile, through the Ecuadorean Galápagos Islands, to the Panama Canal. Would not all the students in our colleges and universities acknowledge that this was an “accelerated program” of American amity that paid out rich dividends both in national security as well as in furnishing the bases, naval, land and air, which are now the springboards for victorious offensives in Europe and in the Orient? In the eyes of our young men and young women it must be clear that America’s need proved itself to have been an inter-American opportunity.
Hispanic Philology in Latin America
Authors: Hatzfeld Helmut A.
Published: July 2006

Among the branches of Romance philology Hispanic philology is at the present time the most flourishing one. This is due in great measure to the fact that the seeds sown by the great master Ramón Menéndez Pidal are bringing forth remarkable fruit in Spain, Portugal and the United States. The newest feature in the picture is that Argentina, with the Instituto de Filología de Buenos Aires under the leadership of Amado Alonso, has become a center of Hispanic studies for the entire world. This seems to be one of the changes in scholarship which hint that in the future, the New World will take over, whereas Europe has to struggle desperately to hold her own. The change will appear the more considerable in the light of the endeavor since the early nineteenth century on the part of Latin America to do something in this field, although for the most part amateurish.
The Brazilian Gold Rush
Authors: Cardozo Manoel
Published: July 2006

“A’ meu Deos, como ouro mos, quereis castigar! Com ouro nos quereis castigar!” Frei Apolinário de Conceição, O.F.M., Primazia seráfica na regism da América (Lisboa, 1733), pp. 45-46.

The news of the discovery of gold in Minas Gerais at the threshold of the eighteenth century spread like wildfire. Inebriated with the wealth which many thought would be perpetual, Brazil lived hours of rare exultation. “…those Mines,” wrote a former governor-general of Baía at the beginning of the eighteenth century, “are said to be so permanent that it will not be possible to exhaust them as long as the World lasts….” As early as 1697 the governor of Rio could write that the Caeté mines “extend in such a fashion along the foot of a mountain that miners are led to believe that [the extraction of] gold in that locality will be of great duration….” In the absence of more precise information, fantastic rumors became current. The new mining fields were of such dimensions, another contemporary affirmed, that they spread over the vast Brazilian hinterland. In 1709 the Overseas Council (Conselho Ultramarino) was willing to believe that the mines were the richest that had ever been discovered; the Council was certain that they would provoke the jealousy of foreign nations. After so many years of futile search Portugal had at length found another Potosí in the “most expansive heart of that world Emporium,” in that “resplendent diamond” of the finest quality which was Brazil.
The Place of the American Republics and Canada in the New World Order
Authors: Thorning Joseph F.
Published: July 2006

In the terrible flames of World War II, the Good Neighbor policy, as conceived by its architect, Sumner Welles, and promulgated by its popularizer, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, met the supreme test of “blood, sweat and tears.” Tried in the crucible of worldwide conflict, inter-American friendship met the challenge of totalitarian Nazi-Fascism triumphantly. As our Good Neighbors themselves often proclaimed in the course of the last five years, “Las Américas unidas, unidas vencerán.” “The united Americas will find victory in their united front.”

To emphasize the contribution of the other American Republics and Canada to our recent victory is a simple act of justice. The historical record discloses that, almost immediately after the Japanese sneak-attack at Pearl Harbor, the tiny Republic of Costa Rica, democratic to the core, hours before the Congress of the United States of America swung into action, had declared war upon the warlords of Tokyo. Although only Canada and the United States of Brazil actually despatched complete army divisions to fight on the battlefields of Europe, the other peoples in this Hemisphere, in overwhelming numbers, sympathized effectively with our cause, while their Governments, one by one, broke diplomatic relations with the Axis powers. In a most critical hour for the peoples of the Western Hemisphere, the spiritual unity of the American Republics and Canada established itself as a precious, sacred reality. Our enemies were regarded as the enemies of America; our friends the faithful allies of humanity, liberty and democracy.
Pilgrimage to Amecameca of the Indians
Authors: Bassford Jean A.
Published: July 2006

It is Sunday morning in Mexico, and the bells of the great cathedral ring out over the teeming life of the Zócalo, over the flat, irregular rooftops, over the colonial palaces, and through all the vast and interminable ganglia of the ancient city.

“Listen!” says my old friend Rubén, “The bells are the voice of Mexico. Even though you will go away, you will never forget them. Their music will always be in your soul.”

Rubén is a Zapotec Indian boy from the state of Oaxaca, the son of a poor tailor, who is studying medicine at the National University. When he has completed his courses, he will return to his native tierra to work among his people. Deeply imbued with the culture of his country, he is proud of his heritage and his blood.
Literary Contributions of Catholics in Nineteenth-Century Mexico (Concluded)
Authors: Steck Francis Borgia
Published: July 2006

Although their writings belong more properly to science than to belles-lettres, five Catholic scholars deserve a place in our study. Rafael Angel de la Peña was born in Mexico City in 1837 and died there in 1906. He received his elementary schooling and first lessons in the humanities from his father and his elder brother. At the age of twelve he entered the Seminario Conciliar in his native city where he completed his humanistic training and then, with the consent of the proper authorities who probably hoped to direct him into the priesthood, he followed the regular courses in the various disciplines of theology and in both laws, ecclesiastical and civil. It was obviously an unusual expression of confidence in the young man’s virtue as well as ability when, immediately upon his graduation, the Seminary authorities engaged him to teach theology and philosophy. In 1860 the National University of Mexico, whose prescribed examinations he passed with marked success, conferred on him the academic degree in both philosophy and theology; and the highest honor, that of doctor, was about to be conferred when by decree of the civil government the university ceased to function.