bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Climbers after logging: the case of Haut-Sassandra.
Authors: Kouamé F. N. , Traoré D. , Bongers F. , Poorter L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyses how logging operations affect the abundance, size and richness of climbers in the Haut-Sassandra forest, Côte d'Ivoire. The authors compare climber performance in disturbed areas resulting from logging operations with neighbouring much less disturbed areas. Three comparisons are made of forest zones that differ in logging disturbance: (1) skid tracks and loading areas; (2) border zones and centre zones; and (3) old and young skid tracks. Light availability and soil disruption increase along these disturbance gradients. The performance of climbers does not show the same response to the three logging-related disturbance gradients. Loading area centres have a higher climber density than track centres. Logging damage is probably responsible for a reduction in climber basal area in track and loading area centres to their respective border zones. Woody climbers and non-pioneers that do not need strong light are more abundant in borders, whereas the herbaceous and pioneer climbers are predominant in the centres. Track age did not affect climber parameters studied.
Management of climbers in the forests of West Africa.
Authors: Parren M. P. E. , Bongers F.
Published: November 2017

Climbers in tropical forests need to be managed because they have a role in the forest ecosystem, are important for local populations in a variety of ways, and may have adverse effects during forest exploitation. Several aspects are considered in this chapter including climber abundance and species richness, why management interventions are needed, climber cutting in silvicultural systems, and the effects of fire on climbers.
Entertainment environments.
Authors: Moss S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the range of geophysical location types and spaces within which the entertainment industries are present. These include: the urban environment; the rural environment; the transport environment; the cruise ship environment; and the home environment.
Marketing entertainment.
Authors: Walmsley B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the role of marketing in the entertainment industries and focuses on what differentiates the marketing of entertainment-related products and experiences from other forms of marketing. After a review of various definitions of marketing and of the key underlying principles of the marketing concept and mix, it applies some of the theories and frameworks of experiential marketing to the entertainment industries and explores how these relate to the needs, expectations and desires of the audiences, visitors and consumers of 21st-century entertainment. The chapter covers strategic planning for marketing campaigns; market research and consumer behaviour; segmentation, targeting and positioning; pricing; marketing communications; digital marketing; and branding.
Managing public relations.
Authors: Beresford S. , Schwarz A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers public relations (PR) and its contribution to the arts and entertainment sector, focusing particularly on three distinct areas of activity: media relations in publicity and promotion; stakeholder engagement and co-creation; and issues and crisis communications. Related case studies are incorporated and discussed to illustrate these specialist areas.
Consultancy.
Authors: Woodward S. , Peacock A. , McQuitty P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains the role of the management consultant in the entertainment sector and explores the practical steps they take as they provide well-informed, expert recommendations to the industry. A case study from leading UK heritage consultancy PLB Ltd describes what happened when they were commissioned by Oxford City Council to identify a way forward for the struggling Museum of Oxford.
Afterword: the future.
Authors: Roberts J.
Published: November 2017

A wide range of factors that have the potential to influence the future growth and evolution of the entertainment market, including technological, economic and social issues, are discussed. It is suggested that many of the trends already evident in the industry are likely to continue and intensify, with significant implications for consumers and companies alike.
Tourism, hospitality and events facilities.
Authors: Dale C. , Hassanien A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines what is meant by a tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facility and explores the different levels of facilities. This includes primary, sub and ancillary facilities. This categorization helps in understanding the relationship, management and development of THE facilities. This chapter also considers the scope and different types of THE facilities. This acknowledges that the scope of facilities management should encompass stakeholder groups and the breadth of THE facilities and attractions. A discussion of the characteristics of services and their influence on facility decision making is also provided.
Project management.
Authors: Robinson P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on project management in tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. As the chapter explains, this incorporates the key management principles of planning, organizing, leading, coordinating and controlling project resources. The chapter acknowledges the uniqueness of some of the projects that may be carried out in facilities and categorizes these within an uncertainty/complexity typology framework. The chapter also explores how projects should be managed if they are to be carried out successfully.
Physical evidence.
Authors: Mudie P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the physical evidence of a tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facility. As the chapter explains, this is crucial for reducing the sense of intangibility that a customer experiences when purchasing a THE facility service. The chapter recognizes the importance of atmosphere in a THE facility and how this can be generated. This encapsulates the 'servicescape' model for the effective design of the facility and how this can affect the customer experience. This includes the interaction of the facility with the human senses, with different stimuli such as music and colour having a profound impact on the customer experience.
Corporate social responsibility.
Authors: O'Shea M. , Alonso A. D. , Krajsic V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores corporate social responsibility for tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. It recognizes the growing expectation for organizations to demonstrate transparency in their ethical and social principles. The chapter provides debates surrounding corporate social responsibility and drivers for its growing prevalence. It notes the focus of THE facilities towards goals and objectives that reflect more than just the financial bottom line. This is being empowered by key stakeholder needs and expectations that embrace customers and communities.
Sustainable facilities design and management.
Authors: Conlin M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter acknowledges the strategic value of sustainable development for facility developers, owners, operators and managers. It explores the origin and growth of sustainable development in the tourism, hospitality and events (THE) sector, the motivators for developers, owners and operators of THE facilities to adopt sustainable policies and practices, and investigates current issues in sustainable design and management in the THE sector. The chapter highlights the widespread adoption of a sustainable management agenda and the legislative and regulatory environment as key factors for motivating THE facility managers, operators and developers to adopt sustainable practices in their design principles. Certification programmes such as the LEED and Living Building Challenge, which the chapter explains, have engendered these design principles. Such programmes have made it commonplace for facility managers, developers and operators to embed sustainability in their day-to-day working practices.
Leadership.
Authors: Taylor J. S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses leadership as a key competence for tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. It acknowledges that the area of leadership is complex and encompasses a range of different theories. The central tenet is to engineer innovation and creativity among those responsible for the management, development and operation of the facility. The chapter goes on to discuss leadership in the context of a group process; a personality or behaviour; and as a power, transformational or skills perspective.
Entrepreneurship and facilities management.
Authors: Tassiopoulos D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the theory of entrepreneurship in the context of tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. Innovation and creativity are central tenets of entrepreneurial thinking. In addition to this, the chapter notes that entrepreneurship also pertains to the effective management of resources for exploiting opportunities to fulfil customer needs. The chapter also acknowledges the strategic role of entrepreneurship and opportunities for value creation in THE facilities.
The role of work process knowledge in managing facilities.
Authors: Marr S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the issue of work process knowledge in tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. As well as defining the phenomenon, the chapter highlights the importance of work process knowledge in THE facilities, recognizing the organization, the individual and customers as the key drivers. An understanding of work process knowledge has the potential to help THE facility managers and employees to provide better customer service. Conversely, the chapter acknowledges how a lack of understanding can ultimately result in service failure. The chapter then explores factors that affect work process knowledge and how facility managers can develop work process knowledge among their staff. In this respect, the chapter noted the importance of work process knowledge issues concerning communication, flexibility, size and complexity of operations, worker attitudes and seasonality to the effective management of the THE facility.
Introduction to tourism and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter has introduced the reader to the basic background of information technology, its development and evolution over the centuries and its status today. Aspects of computer hardware and software have been described, giving the reader an understanding of the scope of this important phenomenon. The chapter has described various models of how technology is adopted by organizations in general. It goes on to explain the uniqueness of the tourism industry, its characteristics and size that make it such a heavy user of information technology. The ways in which technology can be used strategically in tourism is also discussed. The chapter ends with a schematic diagram explaining the layout of the book.
The digital tourism landscape.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

In summary, we have examined the digital landscape from different disciplinary perspectives. First, we adopted the analogy of an ecosystem to explore the broader role that IT plays to fulfill the functions of inspiration, acquisition, experience and reflection. Second, we explained that socio-technical factors influences technological change. We have also demonstrated how an understanding of economic or industry innovation cycles can help travel organizations make strategic decisions about their technology adoptions. Third, we used ideas from psychology and consumer behavior to understand how and why travelers use IT. Finally, we discussed how travelers connect with suppliers through various channels using a distribution systems perspective. Our analysis moved between the macro (economies and industries), the meso (organizations) and the micro (individuals). Together, these perspectives provide theoretical foundations for understanding concepts in later chapters.
The Internet and the tourist.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter has explored some of the key concepts required to understand the Internet and its application to the travel industry. We have examined the historical evolution of the Internet. Although its widespread commercial use has only been since the 1990s, it is clear from this chapter and others that this channel has had a profound effect on the structure of the tourism industry. Travel was an early adopter of this new technology and has continued to lead many other industries, but the Internet is still in its infancy. There are also many tourism organizations that have not leveraged the power of the Internet. As the number of devices that can connect the Internet continues to grow it will become critical for organizations to develop strategies, processes and digital resources to support their virtual presence.
Surface transport and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

Information technology is successfully being used to make land and water transport more efficient and smooth for passengers and operators. As travelers increase in number, the need for efficient use of highways and waterways increases. Intelligent Transportation Systems are the framework for these developments. The individual companies in land transport need to be aware of the various technologies discussed above to operate more efficiently. They will all need, over time, to install on-board computer systems as part of a more intelligent transportation system. Intermodal transport is likely to become more prevalent in the future, and will make more demands on computer systems used by transport companies. Intermodal reservations and ticketing will require more connectivity between individual companies' computer systems and standardization of documents and databases. All aspiring tourist destinations need to carefully examine the benefits provided by the systems discussed above. Ignoring these technologies can only produce more chaotic, congested, slow transport systems, which many travelers will no longer tolerate. The success of a tourist destination depends heavily on the quality of its transport system.
Hospitality information systems.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter has examined the use of IT in the hospitality sector. Its initial lag in IT use behind other travel sectors is starting to be overcome. But hospitality remains essentially a "high touch" service-based industry requiring the judicious use of technology. Experience has shown, however, that the appropriate use of technology can increase efficiency, so that more human and financial resources can be funneled into personal service and more satisfied guests. The Internet, social media and mobile technology are providing new opportunities for hotels to connect with customers. Faced with human resource challenges, hospitality must redefine its use of technology to substitute for labor but also raise hospitality jobs to higher levels, and turn hospitality employees into knowledge workers. To gain a competitive edge, hospitality managers must creatively apply the technology and the knowledge it provides. If they can turn data into real knowledge to improve decision-making and customer satisfaction, they are likely to succeed in the future.
Event marketing.
Authors: Gerritsen D. , Olderen R. van
Published: November 2017

Events are used more and more often as a live means of communication. Event marketing is the discipline where marketing, events and communication come together. In this respect, one can identify a development from product orientation towards communication orientation. Experience marketing provides for memorable experiences, an emotional added value which the customer is asking for. The event can be regarded as a communication platform within the developments in the area of marketing communication. The event has a place of its own in the marketing mix as a communication tool, in addition to, for instance, sponsoring, the Internet and advertising. We distinguish three types of event marketing. An event can be an event in itself, it can be part of a bigger event or it can be facilitated by regional or national governments. There are many advantages to event marketing, including the personal approach, integrated communication and the opportunity to interest trade journalists. Disadvantages may be: the one-offness, the costs involved and the complexity. For a strategic use of events, it is obviously important to determine accurately the objective and the target group. An event must always involve customization.
Events and customer relationship marketing.
Authors: Gerritsen D. , Olderen R. van
Published: November 2017

The increasing degree of competition and individualization, as well as technological developments, lead to a greater emphasis on relationships in the field of marketing. The three Rs - reputation, relationships, reciprocity - constitute the strategic counterpart to the four Ps. The target group of events within relationship marketing can be either internal or external: clients, employees, suppliers, influencers (e.g. government bodies and the press). Customer knowledge is obviously very important in relationship marketing, including emotional data (which are often overlooked). Segmentation is essential to the registration of customer data. Relationship marketing implies a relationship strategy, which may have a social, psychological and/or temporal character. A lasting relationship is the ultimate goal. Events are an effective means in relationship marketing, and they can be used for various reasons. Apart from budget constraints, there are, in principle, no limits to relationship marketing. An exception in this respect is the pharmaceutical industry.
Events and city marketing: the role of events in cities.
Authors: Mierlo J. van
Published: November 2017

All cities have by now become very much aware of city marketing. City promotion is not something new. Even the old Greeks and Romans did it. The traditional marketing mix of the original four Ps - product, price, place and promotion - is extended by presentation, politics and personnel in the field of city marketing. City branding is a trend within city marketing. City branding involves a city working on a distinctive identity on the basis of core values. In this connection, self-expression is one of the marketing tools, and creativity, too, is an essential component of making a city attractive. City branding is about the city as a brand, and its starting point is the needs of residents, companies and (potential) visitors. The events policy of a city should be in alignment with the city marketing policy, and must result in a well-balanced events programme. Culture, place, power, relationships, resources and planning are all success factors with regard to events programmes. Sustainability is something that affects everything and deserves a central place in urban events policies.
Effect measurement and evaluation.
Authors: Gerritsen D. , Olderen R. van
Published: November 2017

Effect measurement is becoming increasingly important for the very reason that events are exploited more and more on the basis of strategic objectives. In this context, the PDCA cycle is a vital tool. Hall (1992) devised an effect matrix for public events that, besides the economic effects, measured touristic/commercial, physical, sociocultural, psychological and political effects. Possible reasons for an effect measurement are: determining whether the investment has been profitable (ROI) and accountability for the policy pursued. Moreover, interim effect measurements are useful when adjustments have to be made. Several objectives can be distinguished regarding effect measurement (hierarchy of objectives): strategic effect objectives, operational effect objectives and attainment objectives (the 'what' question). A proper objective is logical, clear, transparent and formulated in terms of SMART. Methods and techniques used in effect measurement are related to the 'how' question: it must be decided which indicators and measuring tools are relevant to the objective. The baseline of the measurement should be established in advance. Effect measurement can be both quantitative and qualitative. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, with the emphasis on qualitative methods, often works best. Examples of qualitative methods to measure effects are the in-depth interview, laddering (with the value map as its graphic result) and observation.
Sustainability: from theory to practice.
Authors: Morpeth N. D. , Yan H. L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter initially considers different discourses of sustainability from both Eastern and Western perspectives. It then considers distinctions between sustainable development and sustainability and the emergence of these concepts, politically, and in pedagogy and policy. Finally, a case study of the UK considers how principles of sustainability have informed planning and policy agendas.
Critical approaches to spatial analysis.
Authors: Morpeth N. D. , Yan H. L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter uses interdisciplinary approaches to review different perspectives of the natural environment and to consider dualist thinking between the natural and the social environment. It then considers how critical theory can be used to create insights as to how spatial analysis can be applied to tourism planning, for the needs of different intersectional groups, in diverse cultural localities. A case study on mega-events, and specifically the Brazil 2014 soccer World Cup, contextualizes the conceptual aspects of spatial analysis.
Spatial planning - managing tourism and recreation in a lived-in 'protected' area.
Authors: Beardmore K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter indicates that an analysis of UK national parks differs from those in other parts of the world because they are 'lived in' and the majority of land is in private ownership. The chapter highlights partnership working and a collaborative approach to developing an integrated management plan, which is underpinned by the principles of sustainability, to balance the needs of conservation, recreation and local communities.
Sustainable tourism development of rural destinations: the Schist Villages, Portugal.
Authors: Eurico S. T. , Oliveira F. M. F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights how the 'Schist Villages Programme', financed through European Union funding, has been developed since 2001 in a rural and socio-economic isolated area of Portugal. This chapter demonstrates how the creation of the 'Schist Villages' brand is based on a coordinated process of planning, involving different local, regional and national actors and their utilization of the principles of sustainability.
National approaches to planning and tourism in Latvia.
Authors: Atstāja D. , Brīvers I. , Līviņa A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an overview of the historical phases of the development of tourism in Latvia, evaluating how tourism governance arrangements in Latvia inform tourism policy, planning and management. It considers how tourism policy and planning, in Latvia, has incorporated the principles of sustainability and explores how niche forms of tourism, not least dark tourism, are part of the promotion 'Latvia. Best Enjoyed Slowly' which exemplifies the principles of sustainability.
Markets and competition.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses: the functions of the price system; imperfect competition; perfect competition; the arguments for and against monopoly; the use of monopoly power in agriculture; oligopoly and oligopsony; and the price movements in agriculture.
Production economics: theory of the firm.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the scope of production economics. Major relationships studied in production economics in the context of agriculture are explained, namely: the factor-product relationship, factor-factor relationship, and product-product relationship. Also discussed are: the importance of time; the economies and diseconomies of scale; and the impact of technological advances.
Market failure: some problems of using the market to allocate resources.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

Although the price system can be useful to an economy in indicating the pattern of consumer demand, where current production leaves shortages and surpluses, and in channelling resources into satisfying demand, it also contains imperfections which should be recognized and understood. This chapter explains why society acts to overcome the imperfections. The chapter covers imperfect competition, monopoly, transaction costs, externalities associated with production and consumption, public goods, and imperfect knowledge by consumers.
International trade.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains concepts related to international trade, including: the theory of comparative advantage; the arguments put in support of trade restrictions; balance of payments; and monetary matters related to trade.
Government policy for agriculture and rural areas.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with the problems agriculture and the rural economy faces and the policies used to tackle them. It starts from a general review of why governments wish to interfere with the running of the economy, and discusses the four basic stages of the policy process. The chapter then moves on to examine the special case for intervention in agriculture and rural areas. Some tools of market intervention under the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) are highlighted, as well as the agri-environmental policy instruments and rural development policy in the EU.
Service and experience design.
Authors: Buswell J. , Williams C. , Sutton C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the principles and methods involved in designing quality into the leisure, events, tourism and sport (LETS) product or service and the way it is experienced by the consumer. In highlighting the factors that are significant in designing service systems and processes, it examines the elements and components of service and experience design and presents an integrated approach to their management to meet customer requirements as fully as possible.
Service culture.
Authors: Buswell J. , Williams C. , Sutton C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights the importance of service culture to the achievement of quality in the leisure, events, tourism and sport (LETS) industry and the crucial role of staff in this process. It highlights how staff and their interaction with customers (which is central to many contexts) can be managed and enhanced. Source of service culture conflict are discussed, and the notions of emotional labour and emotional engagement of staff are explored in depth, building on the application of Human Sigma theory.
Measuring service quality and satisfaction.
Authors: Buswell J. , Williams C. , Sutton C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains the principles and main techniques of measuring service quality and consumer satisfaction used in the leisure, events, tourism and sport (LETS) industry. Quantitative methods of measuring service quality are discussed, focusing on the SERVQUAL approach as its variants are the most prevalent techniques applied in such research.
Profile of an invasive plant: Mikania micrantha.
Authors: Ellison C. A. , Sankaran K. V.
Published: November 2017

In this chapter, current information on the taxonomy and distribution of M. micrantha are summarized, followed by a review of relevant details on its life cycle and physiological ecology. The last of these topics has received much attention over recent years and advances have been made in particular on the allelopathic properties and photosynthetic strategy of the plant. Additional information about its physiology has been elucidated from a comparison with Mikania cordata, which is native to Asia. One of the consequences of the domination of M. micrantha in many habitats in the Asia-Pacific region is that several rural communities have been driven to seek ways of exploiting the plant, and these have been largely based on its perceived traits and properties. The reported benefits are few, but they are reviewed at the end of this chapter to complete the species profile. An increasing amount of research over recent decades has revealed much about the physiology and ecology of M. micrantha and this has provided a clearer basis for understanding how and why this plant has become invasive in so many agricultural and native ecosystems. The main biological traits and features of the plant may not substantially differentiate it from other indigenous sprawling vines. However, though it may have competitive advantages, having evolved in isolation from the indigenous fauna of the Asia-Pacific region, there is also strong evidence that the absence of specialized natural enemies following its introduction from the Neotropical region is also critical.
Understanding the impact of invasive Mikania micrantha in shifting agriculture and its management through traditional ecological knowledge.
Authors: Ramakrishnan P. S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter first discusses some of the dynamics of the patterns and processes determining the presence and role of exotic weeds in general, and mikania (Mikania micrantha) in particular, in the jhum shifting agricultural system, and then explores possible control measures through a community participatory landscape management plan. The NEPED (Nagaland Environmental Protection and Economic Development) project, a local governmental initiative in the state of Nagaland in northeastern India, is mentioned. Over the course of the NEPED project in shifting agriculture-affected Nagaland, assisted succession will be used to strengthen natural processes of forest succession that had been weakened under shortened jhum cycles. This will help to control weedy species in general and exotics in particular. The fond hope is that the local communities will, over a period of time, not feel the need for 'slash and burn' agriculture, but will move towards a rotational fallow management system, and indeed, an agroforestry system where trees and crops are temporally separated from one another.
Policy frameworks for the implementation of a classical biological control strategy: the Indian experience.
Authors: Rabindra R. J. , Kumar P. S. , Verghese A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter is intended to share the Indian experience on importing and utilizing a rust pathogen for the classical biological control of a weed - the first ever attempt to introduce a plant pathogen for classical biological control of a weed by any country in the region. As a prelude to this, the chapter first highlights the overall problem of alien weeds in India, the use of classical biological control for these weeds and the existing frameworks and guidelines that enable the introduction of host-specific natural enemies to manage invasive pests in India. Lastly, the chapter discusses India as a provider of weed biological control agents. The import of the rust fungus Puccinia spegazzinii into India for Mikania micrantha control is a landmark in the development of classical biological control of weeds using pathogens. It has paved the way for the use of fungal pathogens as biological control agents for invasive alien weeds in India.
Rural enterprise business development in the developed world.
Authors: Robinson P. , Murray A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an overview of rural business development in the developed world, offering UK, US and European perspectives on the development of rural tourism enterprises, including farm tourism and culinary tourism. The chapter illustrates the importance of public funding to the development of many rural businesses and recognizes that it is funding through mechanisms such as the European Union that has enabled many rural areas to pump-prime projects that would be unattractive to private sector investment due to the small-scale operation of so many rural businesses and the need for individuals to drive forward their own businesses. The importance of considering sustainability in developing a rural tourism product is also emphasized.
Social enterprise and the rural landscape.
Authors: Wiscombe C. A. , Dobson C. K. , Heyworth-Thomas E. , Maynard L. , Ryder S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the growth and importance of social enterprises to rural communities, the types of social enterprise often found within rural landscapes, the governance and funding complexities such organizations face, and the importance of networking and relationship building within the genre. The marketing and human resource functions in social enterprises are also discussed. Case studies of social enterprises (including tourism ones) in Cumbria (England, UK) are used to illustrate the concepts discussed.
The rural business environment in developing economies.
Authors: Olubiyo S. O. , Oriade A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the nature and scope of the rural business environment in developing countries. Key influencing elements of the rural business environment are discussed, namely, social, technological, economic, physical and political factors. Also discussed is the management of the rural tourism environment in developing countries, which takes place at three levels: government, group and individual organization levels. Supported with case studies from Africa, the chapter analyses the characteristics of the rural business environment and entrepreneurs. Relevant theories and concepts, government policies and contemporary sector issues are also examined.
Developing and growing knowledge within rural tourism enterprises.
Authors: Greenwood T. , Tate J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the significance and curation of knowledge in a range of commercial settings, focusing on tourism enterprises and rural tourism enterprises specifically. It shows that organizations, in this case rural tourism enterprises, can benefit from carefully managing and nurturing their knowledge resources and processes. The chapter uses mini case-studies from Cumbria (England, UK) to provide examples and applications of theory.
Collaborate to innovate: challenges and strategies for rural business to innovate.
Authors: Rosli A. , Chang J. , Granados M. L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines the principles of collaboration to support innovation in rural business, by understanding the key elements of innovation and open innovation. The chapter also explores the current and ongoing challenges facing rural tourism businesses to innovate. It highlights cases set within the context of rural tourism in Malaysia and Colombia, recognizing some of their unique characteristics, including geo-location, reliance on nature and contested use of rural resources; and provides an avenue for exploring paths towards sustainable development in rural businesses.
Introduction.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter defines leisure, sport and tourism and highlights their overlaps. It also looks at the geography of leisure, sport and tourism, which results in five different planning environments. The range of government involvement in leisure, sport and tourism is discussed, and a very broad framework is presented for viewing the leisure, sport and tourism service delivery 'system'.
Human rights and citizenship rights.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the complex and contested nature of human rights and their implications for public policy, particularly governments' leisure, sport and tourism policies. Also considered are citizenship rights, group rights (of the disabled, children, women, minorities and indigenous peoples), and other rights which have implications for leisure and tourism, including the idea of the rights of future generations and the rights of animals.
The market versus the state.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the role of the state in public policy (particularly leisure, sport and tourism policies) using the perspective of the academic discipline of economics. The chapter includes: a brief discussion of the current worldwide triumph of capitalism; an outline of the approach of mainstream economics in analysing the role of the state within capitalism; a summary of market failure arguments for state activity that arise from the branch of mainstream economics known as welfare economics; discussion of social/political arguments for state intervention which do not arise from mainstream economics; an overview of a number of further issues concerning the role of the state, including the question of facilitating versus direct provision, and the effects of globalization; and a brief introduction to non-mainstream economics.
Strategic planning.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the strategic aspects of policy making, as opposed to day-to-day planning and decision making, in the fields of leisure, sport and tourism. This involves consideration of the initial terms of reference (or brief) for the exercise, the time-period to which it relates and its scope in terms of types of leisure and tourism activity covered. It then considers the issues of the nature of organizational mission, goals and objectives in the leisure/tourism context. Finally, there is a discussion of the way leisure and tourism relate to statutory land-use planning.
Evaluating approaches to planning for leisure, sport and tourism.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers eight alternative approaches to planning in the leisure, sport and tourism context, namely: meeting fixed standards; providing opportunity; resource-based planning; meeting demand; satisfying stakeholder requirement; meeting needs; providing benefits; and increasing participation. Each of these is analysed in terms of: mission implications, consumer motivation, operational model, tourism implications and limitations. It is concluded that a participation-based approach is the most valid.
Planning tool 1: consultative.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the process of stakeholder consultation within the policy making and planning processes in leisure, sport and tourism. The chapter considers: the characteristics of the consultation process; some specialist techniques involved in stakeholder consultation; examples of planning and policy-making approaches focused primarily on consultative processes; and a critical appraisal of public consultation.
Issues and challenges.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines a number of issues and challenges facing the field of policy making, practice and research in leisure, sport and tourism. Those issues and challenges include: disruptive technologies; globalization; climate change; economic growth; social inequality; terrorism; harriedness; demography; health/fitness; the Internet and social media, and populism.
Selecting a sample.
Authors: Smith S. L. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses a number of core concepts related to sampling in tourism research. These include the logic of sampling, as well as key tasks in selecting a sample, such as the choice of the sampling frame and developing a target for sample size. Practical guidelines for estimating confidence intervals for a given sample size, as well as for estimating whether differences in results between two survey percentages are statistically significant, are presented at the end of the chapter.
Netnography.
Authors: Smith S. L. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a relatively new tool used in tourism research: netnography. Netnography follows some fairly well-defined methodological steps: entrée, data collection and analysis, interpretation, research ethics and checks. The chapter outlines these steps as well as the uses and limitations of netnography in tourism.
Leisure, recreation and tourism research design.
Authors: Hammitt W. E. , Aybar-Damali B. , McGuire F. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces some of the basic research concepts and design. The chapter starts by discussing the purpose and types of leisure, recreation and tourism research, and then how to formulate and evaluate potential research topics and problems. The objective of the chapter is accomplished by a discussion of identifying/writing a research purpose, developing and writing hypotheses, concepts and constructs, variables, significance and significance testing, causality and association, and reliability and validity. The chapter concludes with examples of topics discussed in the chapter.
Finding and summarizing research literature.
Authors: Vaske J. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter is concerned with finding and summarizing the existing research. Finding the research involves conducting a literature review of the professional journals and academic books. Literature reviews serve a variety of functions (e.g. becoming familiar with the concepts used to understand a problem, developing a theoretical framework, providing a rationale for research questions/hypotheses), and can be done manually or electronically. The chapter outlines a series of six steps that should be followed when conducting a literature review. Taking notes on each article is a good starting point, but sometimes it is helpful to construct tables or figures that highlight the 'big picture'. After identifying and reading the pertinent literature, the chapter provides strategies for summarizing what is learned and discusses how to think critically about existing research.
Measurement of variables.
Authors: Ekİncİ Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces how tangible and intangible variables are measured. Generally speaking, variables can be measured by the four types of scales: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. In order to conduct scientific research, the intangible variables' goodness of measure should also be verified. Goodness of measure can be established through various reliability and validity tests such as Cronbach's Alpha, content validity, construct validity and criterion validity. As developing a multi-item scale is a laborious task, leisure, recreation and tourism researchers should borrow the scales that are already qualified from the reliability and validity tests where available (Ekinci, 2015; Gursoy et al., 2015). If a reliable and valid scale is not available, developing a new scale may be necessary by following the scale-development process introduced in this chapter.
Proposal writing.
Authors: Kline S. F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the importance of writing a research proposal and discusses the elements of a good proposal for scientific inquiry. It stresses that research proposals must contain extensive literature reviews and offer convincing support of a need for the research study being proposed. It covers several steps of writing a proposal. The areas such as identification of a research topic, conducting a relevant literature review on the topic, developing propositions and hypotheses, data analysis and designing data collection instruments, reporting and citation styles, and related issues are also introduced as elements of writing a research proposal. A short proposal example is also provided.
Grounded theory methodology in research.
Authors: Dixon H. E. T. , Igo L. B. , McGuire F. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the grounded theory methodology of Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1994, 1998) and Corbin and Strauss (2015). Grounded research is used to develop theories that may be useful to practitioners in understanding a phenomenon or behaviour. This type of research relies on theoretical sampling, interview data and analytic coding. Member checks are conducted to determine whether you understand what it is that study participants are communicating. Research results (the theory) are presented in a flowchart or diagram, narrative or propositional statements. Theoretical results may be used by researchers and practitioners to develop interventions and facilitate a change in behaviour.
Evaluation research methods in leisure, recreation and tourism research.
Authors: Jennings G. R.
Published: November 2017

The chapter focuses on evaluation and evaluation research. Evaluation aims to determine through the involvement of various stakeholders the benefit of processes and outcomes associated with leisure, recreation and tourism phenomena. There are different types of evaluation, such as formal and informal. Evaluation within tourism and recreation usually focuses on personnel, performance, products, practices, strategies, experiences, policies, processes, planning, proposals and programmes, and technologies. There are a number of evaluation perspectives, processes and strategies. Perspectives include: (i) scientific-experimental tradition including quasi-experimental, objectives, econometrically, theory-driven evaluation; (ii) management-oriented and systems models such as PERT, CPM, UTOS and CIPP; (iii) qualitative/anthropological models; and (iv) participant-oriented models, which use processes such as AEIOU. The chapter also presents strategies of formative evaluation and summative evaluation and ends with discussions on the meaning of ethical and responsible research practice.
Experimental research.
Authors: Oppewal H.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses why you need to conduct experiments and presents the basic principles of the design and analysis of experiments. Experimental research aims to assess cause-and-effect relations and therefore gives priority to maximizing the internal validity of a research design, which means that alternative explanations for the observed outcome of the experiment are ruled out. The keys to internal validity are standardization, statistical control of external variables and random allocation of test units to experimental conditions. Conducting experiments in field settings can enhance external validity. Including so-called blocking factors can enhance the efficiency of an experiment. Multiple experimental factors can be crossed to allow testing for interactions between factors. Having multiple factors, however, increases the number of conditions that need to be observed. Fractional designs can be used to partly overcome this limitation. The chapter concludes that experiments are not just a type of research but a way of thinking about research. A worked example concerning a museum trying to increase its visitor numbers is presented throughout the chapter.
Cross-cultural and visual research: issues and concerns.
Authors: Dimanche F. , Griffin T.
Published: November 2017

In an increasingly global environment, leisure, recreation and tourism managers are confronted by diverse populations of employees and customers. As managers, you will hire and manage employees who come from multiple cultural backgrounds and nationalities. As marketers, you will attempt to satisfy the needs of customers who are themselves very diverse in terms of culture and/or nationality. You will often need to make marketing or management decisions that should rely on carefully executed research. Yet, as researchers, you will be challenged by numerous methodological issues when conducting studies in cross-cultural contexts, because cultural factors often influence how people respond to research and because this cross-cultural context adds complexity. This chapter examines some of the issues and concerns you should consider and address when planning a cross-cultural study or when reading a document reporting on cross-cultural issues. The chapter proposes methodological guidelines to help you increase the validity and reliability of your cross-cultural studies, and to help you better understand the limitations of some of the studies you will read and use to make managerial decisions. In addition, the chapter introduces you to visual research methods, an increasingly important aspect of cross-cultural research.