bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conversation Analysis and Recipient Behavior
Authors: Gardner Rod
Published: December 2012

Recipiency is half of conversation. When a speaker is producing a turn at talk, there will be at least one recipient.
Conversation Analysis and Self Repair
Authors: Fox Barbara A.
Published: December 2012

This entry builds on “Conversation Analysis and Repair Organization: Overvie” and examines the first and most frequent site of self‐repair, namely same‐turn self‐repair.The three other opportunities for self to initiate repair (transition space, third turn, and third position) are discussed in the general review of repair.
Conversation Analysis Methodology in Second Language Studies
Authors: Brouwer Catherine E.
Published: December 2012

The use of the concepts and methodology of conversation analysis (CA) for second language (L2) studies has been argued widely (Firth &Wagner, 1997, 2007; Markee, 2000; Kasper, 2006; Kasper &Wagner, 2011). However, when CA and second language acquisition (SLA) are brought together, compromises need to be made and the methodology needs to be made explicit. Hellermann (2006) describes his study as amicroethnographic longitudinal case study, using methods from CA. Such carefully deployed terminology indicates that there are issues at stake in the ways in which CA is applied to L2 studies.
Conversational Grammar
Authors: Rühlemann Christoph
Published: December 2012

Computerized corpora have facilitated descriptions of the grammar of conversation in unprecedented detail in recent decades.
Core Vocabulary
Authors: Bell Huw
Published: December 2012

“Core vocabulary” as a term refers generally to those lexical items which are accepted as being central and indispensable to language use, and is therefore of obvious interest to second language learners and teachers.
Corpora in Language for Specific Purposes Research
Authors: Cortes Viviana
Published: December 2012

Among the various approaches that are often used to study language for specific purposes (LSP), those focusing on the analysis of the genres used by the target discourse communities have attracted a high degree of attention in the last decade. The members of different discourse communities develop specific communicative practices and conventions to communicate with one another and with other communities. Language learners who need to acculturate to a new community that uses a specific language type need to become aware of the forms of discourse used by those communities. For many decades, the description of these discourses was done by analyzing a single text or a very limited number of texts, in an attempt to provide language learners with a framework of reference for the acquisition of this specific language and to help materials designers develop materials that could be used for the teaching of LSP. With the advancements in computer technology and the collection of language corpora (large collections of machine‐readable language texts) that have been taking place in the past two decades, the use of recurrent features of language that mark the tendencies of a discourse community can now be easily identified and analyzed. Technology now allows for the collection and storage of hundreds of thousands or millions of texts that provide data to describe language in detail, basing that language description on empirical findings instead of mere intuition.
Corpus Analysis of Child Language
Authors: Behrens Heike
Published: December 2012

Corpus research has a long‐standing tradition in child language research: Observational data provide the basis for our knowledge about developmental processes including their individual and crosslinguistic differences (for more detail, see Behrens, 2008). But the analyses critically depend on an appropriate corpus design that provides sufficient information on and appropriate transcription and annotation of the linguistic structures at stake. In the following, I will discuss the implications for analysis that result from corpus design, and outline the main research questions addressed by corpus analyses of child language. I will conclude with a sketch of the research perspectives made possible by new achievements in corpus linguistic methodology.
Corpus Analysis of English as a Lingua Franca
Authors: Seidlhofer Barbara
Published: December 2012

The acknowledged advantage of corpus linguistics is that it provides access to data derived from actually attested language upon which a reliable description can be based. This enables linguists to make use of observation rather than being dependent on less reliable data, based on either introspection or elicitation. A prior decision that has to be taken, however, is what kind of attested language is to be selected.
Corpus Analysis of Spoken English for Academic Purposes
Authors: Simpson‐Vlach Rita
Published: December 2012

Within the broader field of English for Specific Purposes, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has become a heavily investigated area. However, within this arena, attention has tended to focus heavily on written rather than spoken discourse.
Corpus Analysis of the World Wide Web
Authors: Fletcher William H.
Published: December 2012

The World Wide Web has become a primary meeting place for information and recreation, for communication and commerce, for a quarter of the world's population. Millions of Web authors have created billions of Web pages, unknowingly providing texts to be mined for their linguistic and cultural content. The Web has evolved into the resource of first resort for lexicographers and linguists, for translators, teachers, and other language professionals. As a source of machine‐readable texts for corpus linguists and researchers in complementary fields like natural language processing (NLP), information retrieval, and text mining, the Web offers extraordinary accessibility, quantity, variety, and cost‐effectiveness. Investigators in these disciplines have developed scores of tools and products from Web content for both researchers and end users, and authored hundreds of scholarly papers on their projects.
Corpus Linguistics in Language Teaching
Authors: Keck Casey
Published: December 2012

Corpus linguistics is an area of applied linguistics that uses computer technology to analyze large collections of spoken and written texts, or corpora, which have been carefully designed to represent specific domains of language use, such as informal conversation or academic writing.
Corpus Study: Cognitive Implications
Authors: Ellis Nick C.
Published: December 2012

“Perception is of definite and probable things” (James, 1890, p. 82).
Council of Europe Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Martyniuk Waldemar , Sheils Joseph
Published: December 2012

The Council of Europe, currently (December 2010) encompassing 47 European states, was founded in 1949 as a platform for intergovernmental cooperation aiming at promoting democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. Language education plays an important role in pursuing these goals, and programs of intergovernmental cooperation in the field of languages have been carried out by the Council for over 50 years now.
Dictionary Use
Authors: Nesi Hilary
Published: December 2012

Dictionaries are tools which people use to access information about words.
Discourse and Identity
Authors: Fina Anna De
Published: December 2012

The relationship between language and identity has been a topic of interest for language scholars for centuries. As early as in the 1800s many philologists, including the famous brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, were proposing the idea that language reflected the collective identity of national communities. Benveniste (1971), one of the most important linguists of the 20th century, also stressed the centrality of identity in language through the notion of subjectivity. In his view, the direct or indirect presence of the speaker as a subject in the utterance had the power to transform language as an abstract system into discourse as an act of communication. In sum, theorizations about language and identity have always had a significant place in linguistics, but it is only in the last 20 years that this field has established itself as an area of investigation in its own right and as a field fundamentally concerned with discourse. Indeed, modern research on ways in which identity is constructed and conveyed in talk is firmly grounded in a view of language as discourse, that is as “actual instances of communication in the medium of language” (Johnstone, 2002, p. 2), and as phenomena embedded in concrete social contexts.
Ecological Approaches in Qualitative Research
Authors: Pinnow Rachel J.
Published: December 2012

When the termecologyfirst began to appear in applied linguistics research in the early 1990s it was referred to as the “greening” (de Castell, 1996) of these studies which followed a general trend in the “ecoization” (Benz, 2000) of the English lexicon.
Elite/Folk Bilingual Education
Authors: de Mejía Anne‐Marie
Published: December 2012

The literature on bilingualism and bilingual education is full of dichotomies. Thus, we hear frequent references to such “polar opposites” (Hornberger,1989, p. 273) as: additive versus subtractive bilingualism, transitional versus maintenance models of bilingual education, and international versus intranational languages.
Emergentism
Authors: Ellis Nick C.
Published: December 2012

Saussure (1916) characterized the units of language as linguistic signs, the signifiers of linguistic form and their associated signified functions, concepts, or meanings.
Endangered Languages in Canada
Authors: Patrick Donna
Published: December 2012

Canada is home to a great variety of indigenous languages, which comprise 11 language families.
English and Multilingualism in Singapore
Authors: Lim Lisa
Published: December 2012

To appreciate the situation of English in Singapore, one must recognize the multilingual context in which English has existed from the outset. Claimed by the British East India Company in 1819 as a nonsettler exploitation colony, Singapore saw both the introduction of English and the development of a multicultural, multilingual population that characterizes the nation today.
English for Science and Technology
Authors: Orr Thomas
Published: December 2012

English for science and technology (EST), sometimes called English for science and engineering (ESE), has two definitions.
English‐Only Movement
Authors: Wiley Terrence G.
Published: December 2012

English has long been the common and dominant language in the USA.
Ethnographic Approaches to Second Language Acquisition Research
Authors: Davis Kathryn A.
Published: December 2012

Ethnographers have long engaged in sociocultural studies of first language socialization, second language development, and situated language use.
Ethnomethodology in the Analysis of Discourse and Interaction
Authors: Arminen Ilkka
Published: December 2012

Ethnomethodology is a branch of research that studies people's tacit, unacknowledged, taken‐for‐granted resources of social action, their common sense, and their interactional competence.
Exporting Applied Linguistics Technology
Authors: Budgell Brian
Published: December 2012

Applied linguistics has the ability to solve important real‐world problems, and in this entry we examine one such instance: the application of the technologies of corpus linguistics to facilitate inter‐professional and intra‐professional written communications in the domain of biomedicine and health.
Family Literacy
Authors: Gadsden Vivian L.
Published: December 2012

Family literacy encompasses a broad array of literacy practices and relationships between children and parents and within families.
Flege, James
Authors: Piske Thorsten
Published: December 2012

James Emil Flege was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1950. He obtained a PhD degree in linguistics from Indiana University in 1979. His PhD dissertation, supervised by Robert F. Port, was entitled “Phonetic Interference in Second Language Acquisition.”
Foreign Accent
Authors: Major Roy C.
Published: December 2012

One of the first things a native speaker (NS) notices about a non‐native speaker (NNS) is a foreign accent.
Foreign‐Language Teaching for Students With Language‐Learning Problems
Authors: Sparks Richard L.
Published: December 2012

Learning disability(LD) is a generic term that describes academic learning problems in reading, writing, and mathematics.
Forensic Linguistics: Overview
Authors: MacLeod Nicci
Published: December 2012

Broadly defined, “forensic linguistics” refers to the study of the interface between language and the law.
Functional Grammar
Authors: Velasco Daniel García
Published: December 2012

The theory of Functional Grammar (FG) was originally developed by the late Simon C. Dik and his associates at the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. It takes a functional approach to the study of language which is reflected in (a) the description of language as an instrument of social interaction whose main function is the establishment of interhuman communication; (b) the requirement that language structure be studied within the framework of the rules, principles, and strategies which govern its communicative use and (c) the integration of functional relations in the organization of the theory.
Generative Grammar
Authors: Manninen Satu
Published: December 2012

Generative grammar is an approach to linguistics which is usually associated with Noam Chomsky and his followers, starting in the mid‐1950s and continuing to the present day. Generative grammar has had a number of different names through its development.
Generative Second Language Phonology
Authors: R. Eckman Fred
Published: December 2012

Generative second language (L2) phonology attempts to characterize the underlying mental system used by adult language learners to produce and perceive L2 pronunciation patterns. This entry covers the historical context and the objectives of research programs in generative L2 phonology, describing some of the field's major findings over the past several decades.
Genre‐Based Language Teaching
Authors: M. Tardy Christine
Published: December 2012

The basic principle of genre‐based language teaching is that awareness of the forms, purposes, and social contexts of texts will aid in writing development.
German for Specific Purposes
Authors: Byrnes Heidi
Published: December 2012

German for specific purposes (GSP) refers to courses that explicitly connect learning the German language in the classroom with using it in the world of work and the professions, whether that work is course‐concurrent (e.g., internships and practica), part of study abroad (again often including internships), or the student's future career.
Grammar and Electronic Communication
Authors: Herring Susan C.
Published: December 2012

How new digital communication technologies are affecting language and language change has excited considerable speculation and inspired a growing body of scholarship.
Grammar and Literature
Authors: Nørgaard Nina
Published: December 2012

At its most basic level, literature is language. Through language, literary texts represent—or rather construct—characters, settings, plots, experiences, feelings, and ideas, and while linguistic knowledge is by no means a prerequisite for the analysis of literature, such knowledge may help the literary critic understand and describe the ways in which meaning is created by linguistic means in literary texts.
Grammar Teaching and the Workplace
Authors: Yates Lynda
Published: December 2012

Recent reviews of workplace language use and education make frequent reference to skills, competencies, or literacy, and grammar per se scarcely rates a mention.
Grammar in Political Debate
Authors: Fetzer Anita
Published: December 2012

Applied linguistics examines the use of language in various contexts. One of them is political debate, referring to communicative exchanges between professional politicians in parliament and other institutional settings, between representatives of the media and politicians, and between politicians and the public.
Haberland, Hartmut
Authors: Preisler Bent
Published: December 2012

Hartmut Haberland (b. 1948) is a German‐Danish linguist whose main contributions to applied linguistics, within the areas of pragmatics and sociolinguistics, include being founder, in 1977 (with Jacob L. Mey), and coeditor of the internationally recognized
Journal of Pragmatics
.
Hamp‐Lyons, Liz
Authors: Crusan Deborah , Davies Alan
Published: December 2012

The work of Liz Hamp‐Lyons (1946–) in applied linguistics, particularly in the area of second language writing and second language writing assessment, continues to have an impact on the field.
Hedges
Authors: Mihatsch Wiltrud
Published: December 2012

Inspired by the idea of degrees of category membership as developed by fuzzy set theory, coined the term “hedge” for “words whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy.”
Heritage Language Teaching
Authors: Valdés Guadalupe , Kibler Amanda
Published: December 2012

The termheritage languagehas come to be used widely by those concerned about the study, maintenance, and revitalization of non‐majority languages around the world.
History of Forensic Linguistics
Authors: Blackwell Susan
Published: December 2012

Forensic linguistics (FL) is a relatively young discipline compared with other branches of applied linguistics.
History of Interpreting
Authors: Andres Dörte
Published: December 2012

In the Bible, Prov. 18:21 reads “[D]eath and life are in the power of the tongue.” These ancient words convey the fact that language is a powerful tool, upon which life and death (may) depend. Solomon was certainly not referring to interpreters but, nevertheless, interpreters work with language, and they can use words to exercise power. There are many accounts of the power of interpreters. Some of these show that the question of life or death often depended on the interpreter. Other accounts illustrate the responsibility invested in interpreters and how the right or false handling of that responsibility determined the fate of individuals and even peoples. What do we know about interpreters in history? What were their tasks? Locating historical accounts of interpreters is arduous, since accounts are few and far between and most interpreters are only mentioned in passing (Hermann, 1956; Roland, 1982; Bowen, Bowen, Kaufmann, & Kurz, 1995; Wilss, 1999; Pöchhacker, 2000; Wiotte‐Franz, 2001; Andres, 2008). Although more information is now available concerning the “Eastern world” (Kaufmann, 2005; Lung & Li, 2005; Lung, 2006), most accounts refer to the “Western world,” which is thus the focus of this entry.
History of Translation
Authors: Wakabayashi Judy
Published: December 2012

Translation historiography explores changes in the practice and conceptualization of translation over time and space, as well as the causes of these changes.
Hulstijn, Jan H.
Authors: Leung Janny
Published: December 2012

Jan H. Hulstijn (1947– ) is a Dutch scholar whose research is primarily concerned with incidental and intentional second language (L2) vocabulary learning, implicit and explicit L2 grammar learning, automatization of L2 lower‐order processing skills, and language proficiency (
LP
).
Immersion Education
Authors: Lyster Roy , Genesee Fred
Published: December 2012

Immersion is a form of bilingual education that provides students with a sheltered classroom environment in which they receive at least half of their subject‐matter instruction through the medium of a language that they are learning as a second, foreign, heritage, or indigenous language (L2).
Immersion Programs
Authors: Björklund Siv
Published: December 2012

As a term,immersion educationcan be traced back to the 1960s and to Canada, where a new, intensive language education program model showed that young majority English speakers gained functional mastery of a new language in a French immersion program at no cost to their first language development (Lambert & Tucker, 1972).
Instructed Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Loewen Shawn
Published: December 2012

Instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) refers to the subfield of second language acquisition (SLA) that investigates any type of second language (L2) learning or acquisition that occurs as a result of the teaching of the L2.
Intercultural Communication
Authors: Rehbein Jochen
Published: December 2012

“Intercultural communication” is the mediation of cultural differences between social groups through verbal or nonverbal interaction. This kind of bridgeover requires specific techniques necessary for creating the participants' mutual understanding, as will be shown.
Interlanguage
Authors: Tarone Elaine
Published: December 2012

Interlanguage(IL) refers to the linguistic system of learner language produced by adults when they attempt meaningful communication using a language they are in the process of learning.
International Law in Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Dunbar Robert
Published: December 2012

Principles of relevance to language policy and planning are found in a wide range of international legal and quasi‐legal instruments.
Internationalization and Localization
Authors: Schäler Reinhard
Published: December 2012

Internationalization and localization are two key steps in the preparation and translation of digital content for international markets and have formed part of the globalization strategies of multinational digital publishers since the mid‐1980s.
Johnson, Samuel and Lexicography
Authors: Hanks Patrick
Published: December 2012

Samuel Johnson (1709–84) was not the first but was surely the greatest of all English lexicographers.
Kramsch, Claire
Authors: Ware Paige
Published: December 2012

Claire Kramsch is an international scholar whose fields of interest include second language acquisition, applied linguistics, discourse analysis, social and cultural theory, multilingualism, and the applications of each field to language teaching and learning.
Lado, Robert
Authors: Papageorgiou Spiros
Published: December 2012

Born to Spanish immigrant parents, Robert Lado (1915–95) had a personal and a political interest in the teaching of English (Kramsch, 2007).
Language and Identity
Authors: Edwards John
Published: December 2012

“Identity” refers to the way we conceive ourselves as individuals or as members of groups—or, indeed, the way others perceive and categorize us.
English‐Language Learners and Subject Area Tests
Authors: Solórzano Ronald W.
Published: December 2012

Students whose first language is not English bring a different set of language skills and background knowledge that is seldom recognized or utilized in English‐medium classroom instruction nor used in assessments of their learning or knowledge.
Language of Jury Instructions
Authors: Dumas Bethany K.
Published: December 2012

Jury instructions, also called jury charges, jury directions, or simply instructions, charges, or directions, are the legal guidelines provided by judges to jurors at trial, civil and criminal, usually at the conclusion of all evidence. Their function is to instruct juries in how to reach decisions or findings of fact based upon the evidence presented. Jury trials are distinguished from bench trials, in which judges make all decisions. Jurors are the triers of fact in jury trials, and their decisions must be based on the evidence presented at trial by following the law that is provided in the instructions. Thus the communicative effectiveness of the instructions is crucial to a fair trial. Jury trials are not used in all countries today, but they are used, in both civil and criminal cases, in most adversarial or common law jurisdictions: Britain (though not Scotland), Continental Europe, the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as a few other countries (those influenced by colonialism). Jurors must make decisions by deciding which witnesses are believable, which ones appear to be telling the truth, and how much weight to give to testimony—all in the context of the legal rules that specify exactly how to apply the law to the evidence. Jurors make decisions about blame and guilt, and degrees of blame and guilt, based on the evidence that they have heard and the instructions that they have received. Because the instructions must explain relevant law, they must contain some legal language. Legal language has long been recognized as difficult for nonlawyers (Mellinkoff, 1963; Steele & Thornburg, 1988; Tiersma, 1999), and jury instructions can present special difficulties because of their linguistic complexity and length, sometimes hundreds of pages. They may contain definitions of special legal terms likemens rea(criminal intent) andres ipsa loquitur(“the thing speaks for itself”). Comprehension difficulties faced by jurors are well documented, particularly in the USA, where as early as 1979 (Charrow & Charrow), empirical research demonstrated that long, complex sentences and certain grammatical structures as well as specialized terms created severe difficulties for jurors. Some reform efforts have succeeded in improving comprehensibility, but there is consensus among linguists and other social scientists, as well as many judges and lawyers, that jury instructions used in most adversarial or common law jurisdictions need further improvement. This entry briefly describes the nature of jury instruction in the courtroom, traces the history of jury instructions and reform efforts, then illustrates comprehension problems and summarizes needed revisions.
Language of Police Interviews
Authors: Haworth Kate
Published: December 2012

Interviews conducted on behalf of institutions have long been recognized by linguistic researchers as important sites of social interaction, and few have such significant consequences as interviews conducted by the police in the course of a criminal investigation. Alongside the high‐stakes nature of the interaction on the personal level of the interviewee, they are also a socially significant site of direct contact between the institutions of the police, the legal system, and the state, and the individuals whom they control and protect. This therefore represents a particularly fascinating and important area of linguistic study, which has been analyzed from a wide variety of methodological perspectives. Key aspects of interest are issues of power and dominance, question types and questioning strategies, the creation of records of interview interaction for later use in the judicial process, historical miscarriages of justice connected with the falsification of interview records, interviews with vulnerable groups such as children or speakers of different languages, and the communication of rights.
Language Play in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Broner Maggie A.
Published: December 2012

Historically, researchers have noted language play (LP) as one of the features present in learner language and have wrestled with two main issues: how to define it and recognize it, and what role, if any, it plays in SLA.
Language Policy and Planning: Kemal Atatürk's Contribution
Authors: Aytürk İlker
Published: December 2012

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) was an Ottoman military officer who led the Turkish war of independence against the entente powers in the aftermath of the Ottoman defeat in World War I.
Language Planning in Religious Observance
Authors: Liddicoat Anthony J.
Published: December 2012

The relationships between language and religion are complex and diverse and the area of religious observance is only one of the issues where language and religion intersect. It is, however, a significant intersection as language is the main vehicle through which communal religious observance is conducted.
Language Study Abroad
Authors: Kinginger Celeste
Published: December 2012

Students, parents, educators, and policy makers often assume that study abroad is a prime context for language learning, providing “high quality, contextualized exposure” to language in abundant interaction with expert speakers. Yet, empirical evidence suggests the need for a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between study abroad and developing language ability. This entry offers an overview of research on second language acquisition (SLA) in study abroad.
Language Learning and Teaching: Overview
Authors: Ortega Lourdes
Published: December 2012

A vibrant sector of applied linguistics is concerned with generating systematic knowledge that can support people who formally study an additional language, that is, a language other than the one(s) they learned at home through primary socialization prior to schooling.
Language Learning and Teaching: Quantitative Methods
Authors: Collentine Joseph , Collentine Karina
Published: December 2012

Quantitative methods are frequently used in applied linguistics to assess the comparative quality of different approaches to language instruction.
Leech, Geoffrey
Authors: Hoffmann Sebastian
Published: December 2012

Geoffrey Neil Leech was born in Gloucester, in the west of England on 16 January 1936. After attending Tewkesbury Grammar School, he studied at University College London (BA honors in English Language and Literature, 1959; MA in Linguistics, 1963), where he also took up his first academic teaching position as an assistant lecturer—later lecturer— in 1962. His first monograph,English in Advertising: A Linguistic Study of Advertising in Great Britain(Leech, 1966), grew out of his MA thesis, which was submitted in 1963.
L
evinson,
S
tephen
C
.
Authors: Blitvich Pilar Garces‐Conejos
Published: December 2012

Stephen C. Levinson is currently the director of the language and cognition group at the Max Planck institute for psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, the Netherlands (see
www.mpi.nl/people/levinson‐stephen
).
Lexical Access in Bilingual Visual Word Recognition
Authors: Bultena Sybrine , Dijkstra Ton
Published: December 2012

When a book is translated, the meaning of the original should be preserved in the words of the target language.
Models of Lexical and Conceptual Representations in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Van Hell Janet G. , Poarch Gregory J.
Published: December 2012

Words are the basic building blocks of a language. A simple combination of the letters
d
,
o
, and
g
opens up a world of meaningful images and experiences with this four‐legged hairy pet. Over the years, children who learn a language accrue fine‐grained knowledge on the various meaning aspects related to a word form like
dog
, and learn that not only grandma's black doggie is a dog but also the white barking creature living next door.
Lexical Erosion
Authors: Dorian Nancy C.
Published: December 2012

Lexical erosion refers to reduction and loss in the lexical resources of a language. A certain amount of lexical loss is a normal feature of language change, especially when changes in lifeways or technology result in the abandonment of some traditional occupations, pastimes, or earlier technologies. In English, for example, the terminology of falconry, once widely in use, is known today only to historians and avocational falconers. Equally unfamiliar today are the precise distinctions among the many types of horse‐drawn vehicles prominent in English life before the introduction of the automobile. Under particularly negative circumstances, however, lexical loss can be accelerated in a language with a contracting speaker base, to the point where it reduces the full and distinctive range of expression originally offered by the language.
Lexical Frequency Profiles
Authors: Laufer Batia
Published: December 2012

How do we know that people use rich and sophisticated vocabulary in their writing? Laufer and Nation (1995) proposed that the vocabulary richness of a text could be measured by a quantitative index called the lexical frequency profile (LFP) which uses the proportion of frequent versus nonfrequent vocabulary in the text.
Lexical Gaps
Authors: Janssen Maarten
Published: December 2012

When talking about words, linguists mostly focus on those words that are an established part of the vocabulary. However, in some cases it is useful to refer to the words that are
not
part of the vocabulary: the nonexisting words. Instead of referring to nonexisting words, it is common to speak about
lexical gaps
, since the nonexisting words are indications of “holes” in the lexicon of the language that could be filled.
Lexical Priming
Authors: Hoey Michael
Published: December 2012

Lexical priming is the name given to a linguistic theory developed by Michael Hoey (in particular in Hoey, 2003, 2004a, 2005), which seeks to relate corpus‐linguistic concepts such as collocation and colligation to the experimental findings of psycholinguists interested in the retardation and acceleration of word association.
Liaison Interpreting
Authors: Russo Mariachiara
Published: December 2012

Interpreting is a complex language transfer skill that enables speakers of different languages and cultural backgrounds to communicate orally during what are generally defined as interpreter‐mediated events (Alexieva, 1997). Within the framework of interpreting studies a distinction is made between conference interpreting and liaison interpreting.
Linear Unit Grammar
Authors: Mauranen Anna
Published: December 2012

wellthatthatthatreallydoesthatdoesgetgetattheideasouncertaintyssometimesseenasthe extremecaseofadiffusesecondorderprobability
Linguistic Creativity and World Englishes Literatures
Authors: Kachru Yamuna
Published: December 2012

A three‐year‐old asks her mother to push her swing higher. The mother pushes the swing a little more vigorously. The child yells,High, mummy. The mother asks,You want it higher?The child says,Yes, bi … g high, with a long [iy] sound.
Linguistic Legislation
Authors: Turi Joseph G.
Published: December 2012

In many modern states, the coexistence and contacts of numerous—and different—languages has become a common phenomenon, which often leads to a situation of linguistic conflicts and inequalities.
Literacy and Bidialectalism
Authors: Lee Carol D.
Published: December 2012

In K‐12 education, language acquisition and variation often address bilingualism. However, for native speakers, dialect differences can influence opportunities to learn.
Literacy and Transnational Migration
Authors: Teague Brad L. , Jiménez Robert T.
Published: December 2012

The relationship of literacy to transnationalism and immigration is not immediately obvious.
Literary Translation
Authors: Meylaerts Reine
Published: December 2012

“Time has come for a systematic reconsideration of the entire question of literature and translation,” Lambert wrote in 1991 (Lambert,1991, p. 33).
Materials Development for Multilingual Education
Authors: Elorza Alday Itziar
Published: December 2012

One of the essential elements for the organization of the teaching and learning process in any kind of educational setting is educational materials, that is, a “collection of resources, objects andartefacts
Multicompetence
Authors: Cook Vivian
Published: December 2012

The term “multicompetence” was originally defined as “the compound state of a mind with two grammars” (Cook, 1991); in the context of that paper, “grammar” was used in the Chomskyan sense of the total knowledge of language in the mind (the I‐language) leading some people to infer wrongly that multicompetence was restricted to syntax.
Multiculturalism and Second Language Learning
Authors: Kubota Ryuko
Published: December 2012

Multiculturalism reflects cultural, ethnic, racial, linguistic, and religious diversity brought about by mobility of people in the processes of colonization, slavery, migration, and other historical causes.
Multilingual Education in Latin America
Authors: Hamel Rainer Enrique
Published: December 2012

Bi‐ or multilingual education is still an exception in Latin America, as it is in many other parts of the world.
Multilingual Education in the Arab World
Authors: Ennaji Moha
Published: December 2012

This entry deals with aspects of multilingual education in the Arab world in general from the historical and sociolinguistic points of view. The focus will be on the Maghreb, particularly Morocco. The following discussion will showcase the similarities and differences between Morocco and other Arab countries.
Multilingualism and Identity
Authors: Cabo Diego Pascual y , Rothman Jason
Published: December 2012

The term “multilingualism” is most often used to refer to a state of linguistic knowledge, environments, or speakers in relation to which a minimum of three languages are implicated.
Multilingualism and Attitudes
Authors: Riagáin Pádraig ó
Published: December 2012

In the definition provided by Sarnoff (1970, p. 279) an attitude is “a disposition to react favourably or unfavourably to a class of objects.” In the case of language attitudes, the “class of objects” which give rise to such reactions are, of course, language related.
Multilingualism and Ideology
Authors: Blackledge Adrian
Published: December 2012

Language ideologies include the values, practices, and beliefs associated with language use by speakers, and the discourse which constructs values and beliefs at state, institutional, national, and global levels.
Multilingualism and Media
Authors: Kelly‐Holmes Helen , Pietikäinen Sari
Published: December 2012

Multilingualism is a crucial part of media. Today's media environment is inevitably multilingual.
Multilingualism and Metalinguistic Awareness
Authors: Sanz Cristina
Published: December 2012

Metalinguistic awareness or explicit, conscious knowledge of form/meaning relationships in a language, usually manifested as the ability to verbalize thoughts about language, is one of the best documented differences between bilinguals and monolinguals.
Multimodal Text
Authors: Liebert Wolf‐Andreas , Metten Thomas
Published: December 2012

Multimodality has become one of the basic categories used in the analysis of texts. The development of digitalized print technologies, in particular, has led to the mass duplication of text designs.
Needs Analysis and Syllabus Design for Language for Specific Purposes
Authors: Basturkmen Helen
Published: December 2012

Language for specific purposes (LSP) courses are designed to meet the specific needs of learners (Dudley‐Evans & St John, 1998, p. 4).
O'Connor, J. D.
Authors: Wells John
Published: December 2012

Professor Joseph Desmond O'Connor (1919–98) was one of the leading British phoneticians in the second half of the 20th century. A friendly and informal man, he was known by everyone, students as well as colleagues, as Doc.
Pacific Creoles
Authors: Meyerhoff Miriam
Published: December 2012

A creole language emerges when speakers of mutually incomprehensible languages need to somehow bridge their communication gap.
Pennycook, Alastair
Authors: Norton Bonny
Published: December 2012

When I welcome new graduate students to our department at the University of British Columbia, I always remind them that their fellow students may well constitute their most supportive professional network over the course of their careers.
Praxis and Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Lantolf James P.
Published: December 2012

The focus of the present entry is oneducational praxisin second language development. Praxis, in this case, is defined as the necessary integration of theoretical knowledge of features of a language and concrete goal‐directed communicative activity. The integration is understood from the perspective of dialectics, as will become clear throughout the remainder of this entry.
Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar
Authors: Ohlander Sölve
Published: December 2012

The terms
prescriptive
and
descriptive
grammar contrast two approaches to grammatical phenomena.
Probability and Hypothesis Testing
Authors: Ross Steven J.
Published: December 2012

Hypothesis testing is a fundamental tool for the evaluation of any explanatory theory.
Pronunciation Assessment
Authors: Harding Luke
Published: December 2012

Pronunciation assessment is perhaps the oldest recorded form of language assessment.
Pronunciation Models
Authors: Deterding David
Published: December 2012

Many nonlinguists imagine that a model of pronunciation which is upheld as the standard, promoted in schools, and is the focus of reference materials such as dictionaries, is somehow better than a regional variety, and that people who speak a nonstandard variety are lazy.
Qualitative Teacher Research
Authors: Burns Anne
Published: December 2012

The notion of teachers being active participants in research has a relatively long history in the field of general education. However, it is only since the late 1980s that it has received increasing attention and acceptance in the field of English language teaching. In this entry I discuss what is meant by teacher research and consider qualitative approaches typically used in teacher research. In particular I focus on action research, an approach to undertaking research which has gained ground in language teacher education.
Quantitative and Mixed Methods: Overview
Authors: Jamieson Joan , McDonough Kim
Published: December 2012

The types of language‐related issues investigated by applied linguists are detailed and complex. They cut across many domains of social life from school to business, law, and government, to name a few. Questions pertain to issues such as the effectiveness of particular language‐teaching practices, the language needs for prospective employees in a business, comprehensibility of language used for legal purposes, and assessment of language ability to meet government‐set standards. In view of the many purposes of applied linguistics inquiry, it is not surprising that applied linguists draw upon a range of empirical methods for conducting research (Mackey & Gass, 2005; Dörnyei, 2007). The quantitative and mixed methods section of the encyclopedia introduces the characteristics of two approaches to research, which have been adopted and adapted from methods in social science, through entries that explain basic concepts underlying them, show the statistical tools used by researchers, and illustrate their use with descriptions of example studies.
Reliability in Language Assessment
Authors: Chapelle Carol A.
Published: December 2012

Almost any test user will readily agree that tests should be valid and reliable, but if asked to explain what “reliability” means, most test users would be hard pressed, despite the widespread use of this measure in the documentation that accompanies language tests. Assessment experts would also agree that reliability is a central concern for interpreting assessment results, even to the point that it is an important part of most validity arguments. However, the experts would also point out that reliability is not a characteristic of a test, but rather a characteristic of test scores obtained from a given test administration or administrations.
Revernacularization and Revitalization of the Hebrew Language
Authors: Spolsky Bernard
Published: December 2012

Like other “revived” languages such as Welsh and Breton (Jones, 1998), the modern variety of Hebrew is sufficiently different from earlier versions to lead Zuckerman (2006) to suggest it be renamedIsraeli.
Reviving Māori
Authors: Trinick Tony
Published: December 2012

The health ofte reo Māori‘the Māori language’ in New Zealand was significantly compromised throughout the course of the 20th century, with language loss accelerating post‐World War II.
Rhythm and Timing in Interaction
Authors: Reed Beatrice Szczepek
Published: December 2012

The analysis of spontaneous discourse highlights an aspect of language that often remains unnoticed in other, more theoretically minded fields of linguistics: the emergence of language through real time.
Rhythm in Discourse
Authors: Erickson Frederick
Published: December 2012

Speech is uttered in real time. It is experienced as a succession of “now” moments, each “now” preceded by an immediately past moment. The rhythmic organization of that timing contributes both to our capacities as interlocutors to communicate referential meaning with one another and to organize conjoint actions together as speakers and auditors, actions such as turn exchange, and listening responses. Moreover, the rhythmic organization of uttering speech simplifies the perceptual and information‐processing tasks presented to an auditor, by marking the continuous stream of verbal and nonverbal behavior with prominence points whose emphasis underscores the current “now” moment and enables the auditor to anticipate the next “now” moment to come—a moment whose location in real time is projected by the rhythmic organization of verbal and nonverbal behavior at the current “now” moment.
Role of Deliberation in Language Policy and Planning
Authors: Bianco Joseph Lo
Published: December 2012

In an early phase of modern language planning and policy analysis there was a major focus on the idea of language problems and how language specialists could offer governments and other agencies solutions to these language problems. Borrowing from management theory and public administration early language planning work proposed operational models for the field involving an ordered sequence of research to understand and interventions to solve language problems. In effect this constituted the field of language policy and planning as various kinds of organized pursuit of solutions to language problems, in which the critical role was allocated to an expert language scholar. As a result language policy and planning itself became identified with procedures for analyzing language problems and the specification of protocols for how these are studied and interventions to resolve them.
Role of Language and Place in Language Policy
Authors: Joseph John E.
Published: December 2012

In no proper sense can languages be said to belong to places. They belong unquestionably to individuals, and in a more complex way to a whole people. The complexity lies in the fact that “a people” is largely defined by its language, and vice versa, in a way that is at best dialectical, and at worst circular. Even the names used to designate peoples, places, and languages are usually variants of the same word—Finns in Finland speak Finnish—except in the case of post‐imperial situations such as have left English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese as the languages of many nations, and the religious spread that has put Arabic in the same condition.
Romanization of Vietnamese
Authors: Bianco Joseph Lo
Published: December 2012

Writing about East Asian language planning, Gottlieb and Chen (2001) point out that script reform and change are often synonymous with language policy.
Russification in the Soviet Era
Authors: Rannut Mart
Published: December 2012

Russification is a form of linguistic imperialism (Phillipson, 1992), referring to both official and covert ethnic and language policies which were implemented by the Russian authorities during the tsarist empire and the Soviet Union, and continue to be implemented by the contemporary Russian Federation.
Schiffrin, Deborah
Authors: Johnston Alexandra
Published: December 2012

Deborah Schiffrin has been a professor of linguistics at Georgetown University in Washington, DC since 1982.
Schumann, John H.
Authors: Jacobs Bob
Published: December 2012

If the field of applied linguistics were a kitchen, John H. Schumann (born May 23, 1943) would be one of the master chefs.
Searle, John R.
Authors: Parés Júlia Barón
Published: December 2012

John Rogers Searle (1932– ) has made an outstanding contribution to the philosophy of language.
Second Language Acquisition and Gesture
Authors: Stam Gale A.
Published: December 2012

A gesture as defined in theAmerican Heritage Dictionary: Fourth Editionis “a motion of the limbs or body made to express or help express thought or to emphasize speech.”
Second Language Experimental Pragmatics
Authors: Taguchi Naoko
Published: December 2012

Experimental study is a type of quantitative research developed in the natural sciences to establish a cause–effect relationship between variables in a tightly controlled study design
Semantic Prosody
Authors: Cheng Winnie
Published: December 2012

Semantic prosody refers to the attitudinal meaning, often pragmatic, of a lexical item.
Sinclair, John
Authors: Stubbs Michael
Published: December 2012

John McHardy Sinclair (June 14, 1933–March 13, 2007) made major contributions to three related areas of applied linguistics: language in education, discourse analysis, and corpus lexicography.
Social Networks in Second Language Acquisition
Authors: Kurata Naomi
Published: December 2012

Some people believe that one of the best ways to learn an L2 is to make friends with native speakers and to communicate with them using the language.