bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Distant Magnet After Twenty-Five Years: An Essay

in Self-Criticism
Authors: TAYLOR P. A. M.
Published: July 2002

When, in September 1971, I published The Distant Magnet,

I planned a personal synthesis, supplemented by small pieces of my own
research. I

was not taking up a position in any controversy, nor was I engaging in

polemic with any other scholar. Yet I did intend some change of emphasis,

and in particular I wanted to stress Europe more than anyone had done

since Marcus Hansen. I sought realism in the description of travel

conditions, rather than dwelling on the wholly exceptional horrors of

1847. I demonstrated how foreign was America's working class. I stressed

the American conditions common to all immigrants, rather than the

differences between ethnic groups. I showed how British capitalism,

supplemented by that of France, Belgium, and, later, Germany, opened up

overseas areas and at the same time undermined, further and further

eastwards, Europe's peasant economies. I had in mind the impact of

factory competition and railway construction in eroding the secondary

occupations on which so many peasants depended. In other words, I

asserted that the modernization of a small corner of Europe was

responsible, to use old-fashioned language, for both “push”
and

“pull.”

To restrict length, and to acknowledge my own shortcomings, I omitted

the Colonial period, and also all Hispanic and Oriental migrations –
and,

of course, before World War II these latter were not very big.
Mineral and casein equilibria in milk: effects of added salts and calcium-chelating agents
Authors: UDABAGE PUNSANDANI , McKINNON IAN R. , AUGUSTIN MARY-ANN
Published: July 2002

We have investigated the effects of adding a range of mineral salts and
calcium-chelating agents on the distribution of casein and minerals between the non-pelleted and pelleted phases of milk obtained upon centrifugation at 78000 g for
90 min. Adding CaCl2 or mixtures of NaH2PO% and Na2HPO% to reconstituted skim
milk (90 g milk solids/kg) at pH 6·65 increased both pelleted casein and pelleted
calcium phosphate. Opposite effects were obtained by adding citrate or EDTA. The
change in pelleted calcium phosphate was not simply related to casein release from
the micelle. Upon adding 5 mmol EDTA/kg milk, 20% of the pelleted Ca, 22% of
the pelleted phosphate and 5% of the micellar casein were removed. Increasing the
concentration of EDTA to 10 mmol/kg milk decreased the pelleted Ca by 44% and
the pelleted phosphate by 46%, and caused 30%of the micellar casein to be released.
The effects of adding phosphate, citrate or EDTA at pH 6·65, followed by the
addition of CaCl2, demonstrated the reversibility of the dissolution and formation of
the micellar calcium phosphate. There were limits to this reversibility that were
related to the amount of colloidal calcium phosphate removed from the casein
micelles. Adding CaCl2 to milk containing [ges ] 20 mmol EDTA or [ges ] 30 mmol
citrate/kg milk did not result in complete reformation of casein micelles. Light-scattering experiments confirmed that the dissolution of moderate amounts of
colloidal calcium phosphate had little effect on micellar size and were reversible,
while the dissolution of larger amounts of colloidal calcium phosphate resulted in
large reductions in micellar size and was irreversible.
Newman, the Tractarians and the British Critic
Authors: SKINNER S. A.
Published: July 2002

We state as a fact, which we have received, on what we deem
undoubted authority, that the Puseyite party have bought up the
BRITISH CRITIC, which publication accordingly will from henceforth
be dedicated to the promulgation of their principles: The Record,
1 Jan. 1838

This article focuses on the Tractarian takeover and subsequent
control of the British Critic, a politically and theologically
conservative quarterly periodical, between 1838 and 1843. In
doing so it claims several justifications. Firstly, and primarily, it seeks to
demonstrate the importance of the Critic within first-generation Tractarianism
and therefore to rehabilitate an extensive periodical journalism
as a vital yet neglected source for historians of the movement. Though
various Tractarians such as Richard Hurrell Froude, John Henry
Newman, John Keble and Edward Bouverie Pusey had all written for the
British Magazine and William Sewell regularly for the Quarterly Review in
the early 1830s, it was the Critic which came to serve as the principal
medium for the movement's commentary. Historians' neglect of this
commentary, it is suggested, has had important consequences in terms of
our understanding of Tractarianism, for it has served to marginalise
certain aspects of the movement's early thought – in particular the social
criticism which was a consistent feature of the Critic's pages.
Stability of axially symmetric flow driven by a rotating magnetic field in a cylindrical cavity
Authors: GRANTS I. , GERBETH G.
Published: July 2002

This paper deals with the stability analysis of an axially symmetric liquid metal flow
driven by a rotating magnetic field in a cylinder of finite dimensions. The limit of
linear stability with respect to axially symmetric perturbations is found for diameter-to-height
ratios between 0.4 and 1. This oscillatory instability is shown to be different
from the expected Taylor–Görtler vortices. Several linearly unstable steady solutions
are found close to the stable basic state. It is shown that small finite-amplitude
perturbations in the form of Taylor–Görtler vortices give rise to instability in the
linearly stable regime.
Weakly nonlinear internal wave fronts trapped in contractions
Authors: CLARKE S. R. , GRIMSHAW R. H. J.
Published: July 2002

The propagation of weakly nonlinear, long internal wave fronts in a contraction
is considered in the transcritical limit as a model for the establishment of virtual
controls. It is argued that the appropriate equation to describe this process is a
variable coefficient Korteweg–de Vries equation. The solutions of this equation are
then considered for compressive and rarefaction fronts. Rarefaction fronts exhibit
both normal and virtual control solutions. However, the interaction of compressive
fronts with contractions is intrinsically unsteady. Here the dynamics take two forms,
interactions with the bulk of the front and interactions with individual solitary waves
separating off from a front trapped downstream of the contraction.
Experimental characterization of viscoelastic effects on two- and three-dimensional shear instabilities
Authors: CADOT OLIVIER , KUMAR SATISH
Published: July 2002

Instabilities of a wake produced by a circular cylinder in a uniform water flow
are studied experimentally when viscoelastic solutions are injected through holes
pierced in the cylinder. It is shown that the viscoelastic solutions fill the shear regions
and drastically modify the instabilities. The two-dimensional instability giving rise
to the Kármán street is found to be inhibited: the roll-up process appears to be
delayed and the wavelength of the street increases. The wavelength increase obeys
an exponential law and depends on the elasticity number, which provides a ratio
of elastic forces to inertial forces. The three-dimensional instability leading to the
A mode is generally found to be suppressed. In the rare case where the A mode
is observed, its wavelength is shown to be proportional to the wavelength of the
Kármán street and the streamwise stretching appears to be inhibited. Injection of
viscoelastic solutions also decreases the aspect ratio of the two-dimensional wake,
and this is correlated with stabilization of the A mode and with changes in the shape
of the Kármán vortices. The observations of this work are consistent with recent
numerical simulations of viscoelastic mixing layers. The results suggest mechanisms
through which polymers inhibit the formation of high-vorticity coherent structures
and reduce drag in turbulent flows.
Flow about a circular cylinder between parallel walls
Authors: ZOVATTO LUIGINO , PEDRIZZETTI GIANNI
Published: July 2002

The flow about a body placed inside a channel differs from its unbounded counterpart
because of the effects of wall confinement, shear in the incoming velocity profile, and
separation of vorticity from the channel walls. The case of a circular cylinder placed
between two parallel walls is here studied numerically with a finite element method
based on the vorticity–streamfunction formulation for values of the Reynolds number
consistent with a two-dimensional assumption.

The transition from steady flow to a periodic vortex shedding regime has been
analysed: transition is delayed as the body approaches one wall because the interaction
between the cylinder wake and the wall boundary layer vorticity constrains the
separating shear layer, reducing its oscillations. The results confirm previous observations
of the inhibition of vortex shedding for a body placed near one wall. The
unsteady vortex shedding regime changes, from a pattern similar to the von Kármán
street (with some differences) when the body is in about the centre of the channel, to
a single row of same-sign vortices as the body approaches one wall. The separated
vortex dynamics leading to this topological modification is presented.

The mean drag coefficients, once they have been normalized properly, are comparable
when the cylinder is placed at different distances from one wall, down to
gaps less than one cylinder diameter. At smaller gaps the body behaves similarly to
a surface-mounted obstacle. The lift force is given by a repulsive component plus an
attractive one. The former, well known from literature, is given by the deviation of
the wake behind the body. Evidence of the latter, which is a consequence of the shear
in front of the body, is given.
The non-Newtonian rheology of dilute colloidal suspensions
Authors: BERGENHOLTZ J. , BRADY J. F. , VICIC M.
Published: July 2002

The non-Newtonian rheology is calculated numerically to second order in the volume
fraction in steady simple shear flows for Brownian hard spheres in the presence of
hydrodynamic and excluded volume interactions. Previous analytical and numerical
results for the low-shear structure and rheology are confirmed, demonstrating that
the viscosity shear thins proportional to Pe2, where Pe is the dimensionless shear rate
or Péclet number, owing to the decreasing contribution of Brownian forces to the
viscosity. In the large Pe limit, remnants of Brownian diffusion balance convection
in a boundary-layer in the compressive region of the flow. In consequence, the
viscosity shear thickens when this boundary-layer coincides with the near-contact
lubrication regime of the hydrodynamic interaction. Wakes are formed at large Pe
in the extensional zone downstream from the reference particle, leading to broken
symmetry in the pair correlation function. As a result of this asymmetry and that in
the boundary-layer, finite normal stress differences are obtained as well as positive
departures in the generalized osmotic pressure from its equilibrium value. The first
normal stress difference changes from positive to negative values as Pe is increased
when the hard-sphere limit is approached. This unusual effect is caused by the
hydrodynamic lubrication forces that maintain particles in close proximity well into
the extensional quadrant of the flow. The study demonstrates that many of the
non-Newtonian effects observed in concentrated suspensions by experiments and by
Stokesian dynamics simulations are present also in dilute suspensions.
On the ability of a Darcy-scale model to capture wormhole formation during the dissolution of a porous medium
Authors: GOLFIER F. , ZARCONE C. , BAZIN B. , LENORMAND R. , LASSEUX D. , QUINTARD M.
Published: July 2002

Dissolution of a porous medium creates, under certain conditions, some highly conductive
channels called wormholes. The mechanism of propagation is an unstable
phenomenon depending on the microscopic properties at the pore scale and is controlled
by the injection rate. The aim of this work is to test the ability of a Darcy-scale
model to describe the different dissolution regimes and to characterize the influence
of the flow parameters on the wormhole development. The numerical approach is
validated by model experiments reflecting dissolution processes occurring during acid
injection in limestone. Flow and transport macroscopic equations are written under
the assumption of local mass non-equilibrium. The coupled system of equations is
solved numerically in two dimensions using a finite volume method. Results are
discussed in terms of wormhole propagation rate and pore volume injected.
Edge, cavity and aperture tones at very low Mach numbers
Authors: HOWE M. S.
Published: July 2002

This paper discusses self-sustaining oscillations of

high-Reynolds-number shear layers and jets incident on edges and

corners at infinitesimal Mach number. These oscillations are

frequently sources of narrow-band sound, and are usually attributed

to the formation of discrete vortices whose interactions with the

edge or corner produce impulsive pressures that lead to the formation

of new vorticity and complete a feedback cycle of operation.

Linearized analyses of these interactions are presented in which free

shear layers are modelled by vortex sheets. Detailed results are

given for shear flows over rectangular wall apertures and shallow

cavities, and for the classical jet–edge interaction. The

operating stages of self-sustained oscillations are identified with

poles in the upper half of the complex frequency plane of a certain

impulse response function. It is argued that the real parts of these

poles determine the Strouhal numbers of the operating stages observed

experimentally for the real, nonlinear system. The response function

coincides with the Rayleigh conductivity of the ‘window’

spanned by the shear flow for wall apertures and jet–edge

interactions, and to a frequency dependent drag coefficient for

shallow wall cavities. When the interaction occurs in the

neighbourhood of an acoustic resonator, exemplified by the flue organ

pipe, the poles are augmented by a sequence of poles whose real parts

are close to the resonance frequencies of the resonator, and the

resonator can ‘speak’ at one of these frequencies (by

extracting energy from the mean flow) provided the corresponding pole

has positive imaginary part.

The Strouhal numbers predicted by this theory for a shallow wall

cavity agree well with data extrapolated to zero Mach number from

measurements in air, and predictions for the jet–edge

interaction are in excellent accord with data from various sources in

the literature. In the latter case, the linear theory also agrees for

all operating stages with an empirical, nonlinear model that takes

account of the formation of discrete vortices in the jet.
Cooperative elliptic instability of a vortex pair
Authors: LEWEKE T. , WILLIAMSON C. H. K.
Published: July 2002

In this paper, we investigate the three-dimensional instability
of a counter-rotating
vortex pair to short waves, which are of the order of the vortex core size,
and less
than the inter-vortex spacing. Our experiments involve detailed visualizations
and
velocimetry to reveal the spatial structure of the instability for a vortex
pair, which is
generated underwater by two rotating plates. We discover, in this work,
a
symmetry-breaking phase relationship between the two vortices, which we
show to be consistent
with a kinematic matching condition for the disturbances evolving on each
vortex.
In this sense, the instabilities in each vortex evolve in
a coupled, or ‘cooperative’,
manner. Further results demonstrate that this instability is a manifestation
of an
elliptic instability of the vortex cores, which is here identified clearly
for the first time
in a real open flow. We establish a relationship between elliptic instability
and other
theoretical instability studies involving Kelvin modes. In particular,
we note that the
perturbation shape near the vortex centres is unaffected by the finite
size of the cores.
We find that the long-term evolution of the flow involves the inception
of secondary
transverse vortex pairs, which develop near the leading stagnation point
of the pair.
The interaction of these short-wavelength structures with the long-wavelength
Crow
instability is studied, and we observe significant modifications in the
longevity of large
vortical structures.
A numerical study of breaking waves in the surf zone
Authors: LIN PENGZHI , LIU PHILIP L.-F.
Published: July 2002

This paper describes the development of a numerical model for studying
the evolution
of a wave train, shoaling and breaking in the surf zone. The model solves
the
Reynolds equations for the mean (ensemble average) flow field and the
k–ε equations
for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and the turbulence dissipation
rate,
ε. A nonlinear
Reynolds stress model (Shih, Zhu & Lumley 1996) is employed to relate
the Reynolds
stresses and the strain rates of the mean flow. To track free-surface movements,
the
volume of fluid (VOF) method is employed. To ensure the accuracy of each
component
of the numerical model, several steps have been taken to verify numerical
solutions
with either analytical solutions or experimental data. For non-breaking
waves, very
accurate results are obtained for a solitary wave propagating over a long
distance in
a constant depth. Good agreement between numerical results and experimental
data
has also been observed for shoaling and breaking cnoidal waves on a sloping
beach
in terms of free-surface profiles, mean velocities, and turbulent kinetic
energy. Based
on the numerical results, turbulence transport mechanisms under breaking
waves are
discussed.
Wave action flux: a physical interpretation
Authors: JONSSON IVAR G.
Published: July 2002

Steady, gravity water waves on a constant-over-depth current, progressing
over a
slowly varying bed, are studied with the purpose of connecting the wave
action flux
concept with conventional energy flux considerations. The analysis is two-dimensional

and dissipation is neglected. A new relation between integral properties
containing the
energy flux referred to a ‘global’ level, the
so-called mean energy level, gives the
surprising result that this flux is simply the product of absolute angular
frequency and
wave action flux. An alternative, less physical, proof of this result is
also presented. A
general equation for the action velocity is set out and for linear waves
shown to equal
a well-known expression. Also presented are new expressions for relative
phase velocity
in terms of kinetic energy and mean momentum for the wave, and the kinetic
energy
in terms of the characteristic velocities for the combined wave and current
motion. In
the Appendix a simple relation between energy and action fluxes for small-amplitude

waves on a linear shear current is found which resembles the irrotational
theory,
finite-height result. A possible extension of this relation to finite-height
waves on a general
shear current is discussed.
Experiments on vortex breakdown in a confined flow generated by a
rotating disc
Authors: SPOHN A. , MORY M. , HOPFINGER E. J.
Published: July 2002

The steady-state flow generated by a rotating bottom in a closed
cylindrical container
and the resulting vortex breakdown bubbles have been studied experimentally.
By
comparing the flow inside two different container geometries, one with
a rigid cover
and the other with a free surface, we examined the way in which the formation
and
structure of the breakdown bubbles depend on the surrounding flow. Details
of the
flow were visualized by means of the electrolytic precipitation technique,
whereas a
particle tracking technique was used to characterize the whole flow field.
We found that
the breakdown bubbles inside the container flow are in many ways similar
to those in
vortex tubes. First, the bubbles are open with in- and outflow and second,
their
structure is, like in the case of vortex breakdown in pipe flows, highly
axisymmetric on
the upstream side of the bubble and asymmetric on their rear side. However,
and
surprisingly, we observed bubbles which are open and stationary at the
same time. This
shows that open breakdown bubbles are not necessarily the result of periodic

oscillations of the recirculation zone. The asymmetry of the flow structure
is found to
be related to the existence of asymmetric flow separations on the container
wall. If the
angular velocity of the rotating bottom is increased the evolution of the
breakdown
bubbles is different in both configurations: in the rigid cover case the
breakdown
bubbles disappear but persist in the free surface case.
High-velocity flow in a rough fracture
Authors: SKJETNE E. , HANSEN A. , GUDMUNDSSON J. S.
Published: July 2002

We simulate high-velocity flow in a self-affine channel with a
constant perpendicular
opening by solving numerically the Navier–Stokes equations, and analyse
the resulting
flow qualitatively and quantitatively. At low velocity, i.e. vanishing
inertia, the effective
permeability is dominated by the narrowest constrictions measured perpendicular
to
the local flow direction and the flow field tends to fill the channel due
to the diffusion
generated by the viscous term in the Stokes equation. At high velocity
(strong inertia),
the high-velocity zones of the flow field resemble a narrow tube of essentially
constant
thickness in the direction of flow, since the transversal diffusion is
weak compared to
the longitudinal convection. The thickness of the flow tube decreases with
Reynolds
number. This narrowing in combination with mass balance results in an average

velocity in the flow tube which increases faster with Reynolds number than
the
average velocity in the fracture. In the low-velocity zones, recirculation
zones appear
and the pressure is almost constant.

The flow tube consists of straight sections. This is due to inertia.
The local curvature
of the main stream reflects the flow-tube/channel-wall interaction.
A boundary layer
is formed where the curvature is large. This boundary layer is highly dissipative
and
governs the large pressure loss (inertial resistance) of the medium. Quantitatively,

vanishing, weak and strong inertial flow regimes can be described by the
Darcy, weak
inertia and Forchheimer flow equations, respectively. We observe a cross-over
flow
regime from the weak to strong inertia, which extends over a relatively
large range
of Reynolds numbers.
Temporal behaviour of a solute cloud in
a chemically heterogeneous porous medium
Authors: ATTINGER S. , DENTZ M. , KINZELBACH H. , KINZELBACH W.
Published: July 2002

In this paper we investigate the temporal behaviour of a solute cloud in a heterogeneous
porous medium using a stochastic modelling approach. The behaviour of
the plume evolving from a point-like instantaneous injection is characterized by
the velocity of its centre-of-mass and by its dispersion as a function of time. In
a stochastic approach, these quantities are expressed as appropriate averages over
the ensemble of all possible realizations of the medium. We develop a general
perturbation approach which allows one to calculate the various quantities in a
systematic and unified way. We demonstrate this approach on a simplified aquifer
model where only the retardation factor R(x) due to linear instantaneous chemical
adsorption varies stochastically in space. We analyse the resulting centre-of-mass
velocity and two conceptually different definitions for the dispersion coefficient: the
‘effective’ dispersion coefficient which is derived from the average over the
centred second moments of the spatial concentration distributions in every realization, and
the ‘ensemble’ dispersion coefficient which follows from the second moment of the
averaged concentration distribution. The first quantity characterizes the dispersion
in a typical realization of the medium as a function of time, whereas the second
one describes the (formal) dispersion properties of the ensemble as a whole. We
show that for finite times the two quantities are not equivalent whereas they become
identical for t→∞ and spatial dimensions
d[ges ]2. The ensemble dispersion coefficient
which is usually evaluated in the literature considerably overestimates the dispersion
typically found in one given realization of the medium. We derive for the first time
explicit analytical expressions for both quantities as functions of time. From these, we
identify two relevant time scales separating regimes of qualitatively and quantitatively
different temporal behaviour: the shorter of the two scales is set by the advective
transport of the solute cloud over one disorder correlation length, whereas the second,
much larger one, is related to the dispersive spreading over the same distance. Only
for times much larger than this second scale, and spatial dimensions d[ges ]2, do the
effective and the ensemble dispersion coefficients become equivalent due to mixing
caused by the local transversal dispersion. Finally, the formalism is generalized to an
extended source. With growing source size the convergence of the effective dispersion
coefficient to the ensemble dispersion coefficient happens faster as the extended source
already represents an ensemble of point sources. In the limit of a very large source
size, convergence occurs on the time scale of advective transport over one disorder
length. We derive explicit results for the temporal behaviour in the different time
regimes for both point and extended sources.
Mode conversion in the Gulf of Guinea
Authors: KAUFMAN A. N. , MOREHEAD J. J. , BRIZARD A. J. , TRACY E. R.
Published: July 2002

Linear mode conversion is the partial transfer of wave energy from one wave type
(a) to another (b) in a weakly non-uniform background state. For propagation in
one dimension (x), the local wavenumber kjx
of each wave (j = a, b) varies with x;
if these are equal at some xR, the waves are locally in phase, and resonant energy
transfer can occur. We model wave propagation in the Gulf of Guinea, where wave
a is an equatorially trapped Rossby–gravity (Yanai) wave, and wave b is a coastal
Kelvin wave along the (zonal) north coast of the Gulf, both propagating in zonal
coordinate x. The coupling of the waves is due to the overlap of their eigenfunctions
(normal modes in y, the meridional coordinate). We derive coupled mode equations
from a variational principle, and obtain an analytic expression for the wave-energy
conversion coefficient, in terms of the wave frequency and the scale length of the
thermocline depth.
Mechanisms of transition and heat transfer in a
separation bubble
Authors: SPALART PHILIPPE R. , STRELETS MICHAEL KH.
Published: July 2002

The laminar boundary layer on a flat surface is made to separate by way of aspiration
through an opposite boundary, causing approximately a 25% deceleration. The detached
shear layer transitions to turbulence, reattaches, and evolves towards a normal
turbulent boundary layer. We performed the direct numerical simulation (DNS) of
this flow, and believe that a precise experimental repeat is possible. The pressure
distribution and the Reynolds number based on bubble length are close to those on
airfoils; numerous features are in agreement with Gaster's and other experiments and
correlations. At transition a large negative surge in skin friction is seen, following
weak negative values and a brief contact with zero; this could be described as a
turbulent re-separation. Temperature is treated as a passive scalar, first with uniform
wall temperature and then with uniform wall heat flux. The transition mechanism
involves the wavering of the shear layer and then Kelvin–Helmholtz vortices, which
instantly become three-dimensional without pairing, but not primary Görtler vortices.
The possible dependence of the DNS solution on the residual incoming disturbances,
which we keep well below 0.1%, and on the presence of a ‘hard’ opposite boundary,
are discussed. We argue that this flow, unlike the many transitional flows which hinge
on a convective instability, is fully specified by just three parameters: the amount of
aspiration, and the streamwise and the depth Reynolds numbers (heat transfer adds
the Prandtl number). This makes comparisons meaningful, and relevant to separation
bubbles on airfoils in low-disturbance environments. We obtained Reynolds-averaged
Navier–Stokes (RANS) results with simple turbulence models and spontaneous transition.
The agreement on skin friction, displacement thickness, and pressure is rather
good, which we attribute to the simple nature of ‘transition by contact’ due to flow
reversal. In contrast, a surge of the heat-transfer coefficient violates the Reynolds
analogy, and is greatly under-predicted by the models.
Rethinking the Legacy of the Liberal
State in Latin America: The cases of
Argentina (1853–1916) and Mexico
(1857–1910)
Authors: NEGRETTO GABRIEL L. , AGUILAR RIVERA JOSÉ ANTONIO
Published: July 2002

The predominant interpretation of nineteenth century Latin America is
to see the failure of constitutional democracy in the region in terms of the
inability of liberal elites to break with an authoritarian past. Against these views,
we argue that the divorce between liberalism and democracy in Latin America
was the unintended outcome of the institutions created by the liberal elite in
response to the problems of territorial fragmentation and factional conflict that
emerged after the fall of the Spanish empire. Using the cases of Argentina and
Mexico, we support this proposition by focusing on the creation of a centralised
form of government and a system of electoral control by the ruling elites as the
main factors that through time prevented the evolution of the liberal regime into
a competitive democracy.

There is no good faith in America, nor among the nations of America. Treaties
are scraps of paper; constitutions, printed matter; elections, battles; freedom,
anarchy; and life, a torment.

Simón Bolívar
The Political Economy of Marine Fisheries Development in Peru, Chile and Mexico
Authors: IBARRA ALONSO AGUILAR , REID CHRIS , THORPE ANDY
Published: July 2002

Latin American fish production has expanded significantly in recent
years. Unfortunately, as management systems in the three major Latin American
fish producing countries have not developed at the same pace, all three countries
now experience problems of overfishing and industrial overcapitalisation. This
article examines the distinctive national fisheries development programmes that
have led to this ‘tragedy of the oceans’. By comparing and contrasting the
Peruvian, Chilean and Mexican management styles, it offers a critical assessment
regarding the likely direction of future Latin American fisheries policy.
Social Capital: Promise and Pitfalls of its Role in Development
Authors: PORTES ALEJANDRO , LANDOLT PATRICIA
Published: July 2002

The purpose of this commentary is threefold. First, to review the origins
and definitions of the concept of social capital as it has developed in the
recent literature. Second, to examine the limitations of this concept when
interpreted as a causal force able to transform communities and nations.
Third, to present several relevant examples from the recent empirical
literature on Latin American urbanisation and migration. These examples
point to the significance of social networks and community monitoring in
the viability of grass-roots economic initiatives and the simultaneous
difficulty of institutionalising such forces.

Current interest in the concept of social capital in the field of national
development stems from the limitations of an exclusively economic
approach toward the achievement of the basic developmental goals:
sustained growth, equity, and democracy. The record of application of
neoliberal adjustment policies in less developed nations is decidedly
mixed, even when evaluated by strict economic criteria. Orthodox
adjustment policies have led to low inflation and sustained growth in some
countries, while in others they have failed spectacularly, leading to
currency crises, devaluations, and political instability. The ‘one-size-fits-
all’ package of economic policies foisted by the International Monetary
Fund and the US Treasury on countries at very different levels of
development have led to a series of contradictory outcomes that orthodox
economic theory itself is incapable of explaining.
Populism and Neo-populism in Latin America, especially Mexico
Authors: KNIGHT ALAN
Published: July 2002

‘In all matters of importance, style and not content
is the
important thing’: Oscar Wilde, The Importance of Being Earnest.

Populism is a concept which, despite repeated critiques, refuses to

disappear from Latin American studies. This article reviews some of the

literature, suggesting that populism is best defined in terms of a
particular
political style, characteristically involving a proclaimed
rapport with ‘the people’,
a ‘them-and-us’ mentality, and (often, though not necessarily)
a period of crisis
and mobilisation; none of which makes it exceptional, abnormal, ‘unmediated’

or irrational. Mexican – among other – examples are invoked.
The article
questions some received opinions: that populism is typically urban, relates
to
particular historical stages of development, or distinctively derives from
either
multi-class alliances or elite manipulation. It also queries the fashionable
notion
of ‘economic populism’. Finally, the article notes the recent
phenomenon of
‘neo-populism’, embodied by Salinas, Menem, Fujimori, etc.,
which a suitably
loose (‘stylistic’) definition can usefully accommodate,
thus suggesting the
continued, if limited, utility of the concept.
Multiplex livelihoods in rural Africa: recasting the terms and conditions of gainful employment
Authors: Bryceson Deborah Fahy
Published: July 2002

Citing recent case study evidence from various parts of Africa, this article argues that the income diversification efforts of most rural dwellers over the past decade have been directed at meeting daily needs amidst declining returns to commercial agriculture. Individuals and households have experimented with new forms of livelihood, expanding their
non-agricultural income sources, while retaining their base in subsistence farming. Various livelihood patterns are emerging, depending on historical, geographical and agro-ecological factors at local and national levels. Livelihood experimentation has catalysed overlapping arenas of dynamic change, notably disequilibria between households and individual members, tensions between generations, the recalibration of gender power balances, and a search for new social networks. So far this surge of livelihood ‘multiplexity’ has not generated adequate overall levels of gainful employment, technical innovation, purchasing power or welfare improvement. Thus, probing the complex interplay of economic, social, cultural and political dynamics in rural Africa becomes all the more essential for effective policy formulation.
Computational study of three-dimensional
equilibria with the bootstrap current
Authors: KANNO RYUTARO , NAKAJIMA NORIYOSHI , HAYASHI TAKAYA , OKAMOTO MASAO
Published: July 2002

The three-dimensional currentless equilibrium code, HINT is revised so that it can
handle equilibria with a net toroidal current, for example the bootstrap current.
The revised HINT code is applied to Large Helical Device-like equilibria with good
nested flux surfaces.
Anti-Japanese activities in North Borneo before World War Two, 1937–1941
Authors: Tze-Ken Danny Wong
Published: July 2002

Anti-Japanese activities in North Borneo before the Pacific War were part of a larger anti-Japanese campaign waged by the Chinese in Southeast Asia. In North Borneo one of the most important outcomes was politicisation of the Chinese community. During this period the North Borneo Company, which had previously welcomed Japanese capital and labour, also began to take steps to curb Japanese activities in the state.
Mucus as a mediator of gametogenic synchrony in the sea cucumber Cucumaria frondosa (Holothuroidea: Echinodermata)
Authors: Hamel Jean-François , Mercier Annie
Published: July 2002

The data presented here demonstrate that the sea cucumber Cucumaria frondosa secretes a biologically active mucus that helps maintain gametogenic synchrony among conspecifics. Either a whole mature individual or a sample of its freshly collected mucus was able to initiate gametogenesis in conspecifics that were in the gametogenic recovery stage when other environmental conditions, including daylength, were maintained constant. Similar results were obtained when the mucus was kept in seawater for less than 3 h prior to its use, whereas after 6 h in seawater, the mucus had lost its inducing properties. Laboratory experiments showed that the mucus was produced in lesser amount during late summer and autumn; the production rapidly increased in early January to reach a peak a few months before the June spawning, in 1992 and 1993. The increment of mucus production was concurrent with the initiation of gametogenesis. Synthesis of mucus was maximal in individuals having attained gametogenic maturity and minimum in individuals with less developed gonads. At first relatively stable in seawater, the mucus gradually lost its integrity within a period of 3–5 h, suggesting that the mucus may be carried over long distances by currents, thus allowing a transfer of information before its complete degradation. This phenomenon was observed in the field where streams of mucus could be followed by SCUBA divers as far as 20–30 m away from the secreting animal. The data presented here are the first evidence of the important role played by mucus secretion during the gametogenic processes of an echinoderm.
About Enslaved Ex-slaves, Uncaptured Contract Coolies and Unfreed Freedmen: Some Notes about ‘Free’ and ‘Unfree’ Labour in the Context of Plantation Development in Southwest India, Early Sixteenth Century–Mid 1990s
Authors: Baak Paul E.
Published: July 2002

In the literature on plantation development in Asia, the issue of ‘free’ versus ‘unfree’ labour has been very much debated. To start with, a first group of scholars argues that from the workers' point of view the decision to work on the plantations seems to have been a rational and conscious choice (see for example: Galenson 1984; Emmer 1986). They stress that a high degree of social differentiation in the various Asian societies has made low-class people leave their areas whenever an improvement in their position seemed possible. Most plantation workers came from areas where they had only limited or no access to the means of production and where many of them were indebted to local landlords and/or moneylenders. For low-caste Indian labourers, the opportunity to work on plantations meant a way out of their depressed conditions in their caste-ridden villages.
The cysteine proteinases of Schistosoma mansoni cercariae
Authors: DALTON J. P. , CLOUGH K. A. , JONES M. K. , BRINDLEY P. J.
Published: July 2002

Based on substrate preferences, cercariae of Schistosoma
mansoni were seen
to express both cathepsin L and cathepsin B
cysteine proteinases, although the former activity was many
-fold greater.
Two
cathepsin L activities identified in cercarial
extracts by zymography co-migrated with activities in extracts of 3 h and
24 h
schisotosomula and in extracts of adult
worms. Since these enzymes have been implicated in haemoglob
in digestion
by
adult worms, they may perform a similar
function in schistosomula. Immunolocalization using scanning electron
micrographs showed that cathepsin L and
cathepsin B proteinases were present in the cercarial post-acetabular glands.
In addition, cercarial serine proteinase
activities considered to facilitate skin penetration efficiently cleaved
the
substrates Z-Gly-Pro-Arg-NHMec and Z-Gly-Pro-Lys-NHMec.
Cercariae release most of this serine proteinase activity when induced to
secrete the contents of their
acetabular glands. In contrast, newly transformed 3 h and 24 h schistosomula
did not express this activity.
Breeding systems in Echinococcus granulosus (Cestoda;
Taeniidae): selfing or outcrossing?
Authors: HAAG K. L. , ARAÚJO A. M. , GOTTSTEIN B. , SILES-LUCAS M. , THOMPSON R. C. A. , ZAHA A.
Published: July 2002

We used the PCR–SSCP method followed by sequencing in order
to assess the genetic variability of coding and non-
coding parts of the genome of Echinococcus granulosus (Cestoda;
Taeniidae) and to test whether or not the parasite
populations are mainly self-fertilizing. For this, we analysed a sample
of 110 E. granulosus metacestode isolates collected
from different geographical regions (Southern Brazil, Europe and Australia)
and from different intermediate hosts (ovine,
bovine, human, macropod, swine and equine). Using appropriate controls,
we were able to identify 4 strains in that sample
(sheep, cattle, pig and horse strains). The high degree of genetic differentiation
between strains, but not within, and the
monomorphism found in most loci (EgAg4, EgActII, EgHbx2 and EgAg6 –
non-coding – EgAgB/1 and EgND1 – coding)
indicated that they are largely selfed. On the other hand, outcrossing
was also shown to occur, since 5 potential hybrid
genotypes between cattle and sheep strains were found in populations of
Southern Brazil, but absent in other geographical
areas. We suggest that both processes are adaptive. The article also reports,
for the first time, the occurrence of the
E. granulosus cattle strain in South America.
Effect of Duddingtonia flagrans against Ostertagia ostertagi
in cattle grazing at different stocking rates
Authors: FERNÁNDEZ A. S. , LARSEN M. , HENNINGSEN E. , NANSEN P. , GRØNVOLD J. , BJØRN H. , WOLSTRUP J.
Published: July 2002

The efficacy of an isolate of the nematophagous fungus Duddingtonia flagrans against gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle
was examined at 2 dose levels on 2 permanent pastures, with high and low stocking rates, respectively. Thirty calves,
experimentally infected with Ostertagia ostertagi, were divided into 3 comparable groups and allocated to 3 similar
paddocks in each of the 2 trials. Two of the 3 groups received fungal material once per day during the initial 2 months,
either at high dose (106 fungal spores/kg body weight) or low dose
(5×105 or 2·5×105 fungal spores/kg body weight). The
third group remained as an untreated control group. Faecal, blood, and herbage samples were collected and animals were
weighed every month from May to September. The pasture grazed at a high stocking rate had a large number of
overwintering infective larvae, while the pasture grazed at a low stocking rate had a low overwintering herbage larval
infectivity. The results showed that, at a high stocking rate, the recovery of infective larvae on pasture was diminished
and calves were prevented from clinical ostertagiosis by using the D. flagrans Troll A-isolate. At low stocking rate, the
parasite burden seemed not to be very heavy, and a conclusive effect of the fungi at the dose-level used could not be
detected.
Electrophysiological investigation of anthelmintic resistance
Authors: MARTIN R. J. , ROBERTSON A. P.
Published: July 2002

It is pointed out that two of the three major groups of anthelmintic act by opening membrane ion-channels. It is
appropriate, therefore, to use electrophysiological methods to study the properties of the sites of action of these drugs and
the changes in the properties of these receptor sites associated with resistance. This paper describes the use of the patch-
clamp technique to observe the currents that flow through the levamisole-activated channels as they open and close in
levamisole-sensitive and levamisole-resistant isolates. It was found that, on average, the proportion of time the channels
are open, is less in the resistant isolate. The patch-clamp technique also showed that the ion-channels are heterogeneous
and that one of the subtypes is lost with the appearance of resistance. The use of the current clamp technique is illustrated
to record a site of action of ivermectin in the pharyngeal muscle of Ascaris.
The Well-being Questionnaire: evidence for a three-factor structure with 12 items (W-BQ12)
Authors: POUWER F. , SNOEK F. J. , VAN DER PLOEG H. M. , ADÈR H. J. , HEINE R. J.
Published: July 2002

Background. The Well-being Questionnaire (W-BQ) has been designed to measure psychological
well-being in people with a chronic somatic illness and is recommended by the World Health
Organization for widespread use. However, studies into the factor structure of this instrument are
still limited and their findings are inconsistent. This study aimed to investigate the factor structure
of the Dutch version of the W-BQ.

Methods. A cross-validation design was used. A total of 1472 people with diabetes completed the
W-BQ and were randomly assigned to group A or B. In group A (N = 736), exploratory factor
analyses were conducted. Group B (N = 736) was split up into four subgroups of male or female
patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. In these subgroups, confirmatory factor analyses were
employed to test the model(s) developed in group A and the two models described in the literature
(four-factor model with 22 items and a three-factor model with 12 items).

Results. Exploratory factor analyses yielded a three-factor model with 21 items (negative well-being,
energy and positive well-being). In the subgroups of group B confirmatory factor analyses only
accepted the three-factor model with 12 items. This factor solution was stable across gender, type
of diabetes and level of education.

Conclusions. The best description of the factor structure of the Dutch translation of the W-BQ was
given by a three-factor solution with 12 items (W-BQ12), measuring positive well-being (four items),
negative well-being (four items) and energy (four items).
Suicides and serious suicide attempts: two populations or one?
Authors: L. BEAUTRAIS ANNETTE
Published: July 2002

Background. Few studies have examined the extent to which populations of suicides and attempted suicides are similar, or different. This paper compares suicides and serious suicide attempts in terms of known risk factors for suicidal behaviour.

Methods. Using case–control methodology, risk factors for suicidal behaviour were examined in 202 individuals who died by suicide, 275 individuals who made medically serious suicide attempts and 984 randomly selected control subjects. Based on data from significant others, measures used spanned sociodemographic factors, childhood experiences, psychiatric morbidity and psychiatric history, exposure to recent stressful life events and social interaction.

Results. Multiple logistic regression identified the following risk factors that were common to suicide and serious suicide attempts: current mood disorder; previous suicide attempts; prior out-patient psychiatric treatment; admission to psychiatric hospital within the previous year; low income; a lack of formal educational qualifications; exposure to recent stressful interpersonal, legal and work-related life events. Suicides and suicide attempts were distinguished in the following ways: suicides were more likely to be male (OR = 1·9, 95% CI 1·1, 3·2); older (OR = 1·03, 95% CI 1·02, 1·04); and to have a current diagnosis of non-affective psychosis (OR = 8·5, 95% CI 2·0, 35·9). Suicide attempts were more likely than suicides to have a current diagnosis of anxiety disorder (OR = 3·5, 95% CI 1·6, 7·8) and to be socially isolated (OR = 2·0, 95% CI 1·2, 3·5). These findings were confirmed by discriminant function analysis, which identified two functions that described the three subject groups: the first function discriminated the two suicide groups from control subjects on a dimension corresponding to risk factors for suicide; the second function discriminated suicide from suicide attempt subjects on a series of factors including gender, non-affective psychosis and anxiety disorder.

Conclusions. Suicides and medically serious suicide attempts are two overlapping populations that share common psychiatric diagnostic and history features, but are distinguished by gender and patterning of psychiatric disorder.