bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Hurricanes of 1780
Authors: Emanuel Kerry
Published: November 2023

In October 1780, the Caribbean was raked by three violent hurricanes, the second of which ranks as the deadliest storm ever to affect the Western Hemisphere. These events greatly altered the political and economic history of the region and further weakened the British Navy at a time when it was engaged in the American Revolutionary War. The first hurricane began somewhere in the far southern Caribbean on October 1 and moved northwestward, striking Jamaica on the afternoon of the third. Early in its life, it sunk the British transport ship Monarch, killing all of its crew as well as several hundred Spanish prisoners onboard. As the storm approached the Jamaican port city of Savanna-la-Mar, curious residents lined up to watch the building seas. With no warning, a storm surge estimated to have been 20 ft high swept across the coast, engulfing the onlookers and hurling large ships far inland. The storm laid waste to the city and surrounding sugar plantations. Few structures withstood the onslaught, and many people perished in collapsing buildings, including the city’s courthouse. In the port village of Lucea, about 20 mi north of Savanna-la-Mar, 400 people died and all but two houses were demolished; even the trees and shrubs were swept away. Further north, at Montego Bay, another 360 were killed.
Galveston, 1900
Authors: Emanuel Kerry
Published: November 2023

The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 was by far the worst natural calamity in U.S. history. The city itself was almost completely destroyed, and the death toll of between 8,000 and 12,000 exceeds that of the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake, the 1889 Johnstown Flood, and the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane combined. Between the badly bungled forecast of September 6 and the tragedy at Galveston two days later lies a tale of individual courage and misjudgment, of bureaucratic envy and xenophobia. In 1900, Galveston was the premier city of Texas, the “New York of the Gulf,” as the New York  Herald proclaimed. It was competing with Houston to become the dominant city of the region, on a par with New Orleans. It exuded an air of terrific optimism and boasted an annual population growth of almost 3 percent. The city was built on Galveston Island, a narrow, low sandbar separating the Gulf of Mexico from Galveston Bay, its developers having ignored stories that an 1841 storm had submerged the entire island to such a depth that ships could cross it.
Genesis
Authors: Emanuel Kerry
Published: November 2023

The Tropics are primed to produce hurricanes. Like a coiled spring, the atmosphere ocean system is poised to unleash huge reservoirs of energy. But fortunately for us, hurricanes are unusual: only about 85 tropical cyclones develop globally each year, of which roughly half go on to become full-fledged hurricanes. Even during the peak of hurricane season, a vacation in the Tropics is a good bet: the chances of being affected by a hurricane in any given year are miniscule. Tropical cyclones develop in three principal belts, as shown in Figure 14.1.
Death and Transfiguration
Authors: Emanuel Kerry
Published: November 2023

When the core of a hurricane makes landfall, its death usually comes quickly. Suddenly bereft of their source of power—evaporation of warm ocean water—the now unopposed frictional forces rapidly diminish the speed of the winds, especially near the surface. Wind speeds diminish exponentially, losing half their landfall value in about 7 hours, 75 percent in 15 hours, and 90 percent in a day. Thus even a 65 m/s (150 mph) hurricane will be reduced below hurricane strength in about 7 hours, and after a day all that remains is a light breeze. Over mountainous terrain, death can come even faster. When hurricanes pass over swamps instead of dry ground, however, they can suck enough heat out of the swampy water to slow their decay. Even a foot of standing water holds enough heat to noticeably slow a storm’s decay, as shown in Figure 16.1. A swamp 1 m (3 ft) deep can sustain a marginal hurricane indefinitely. Hurricane Andrew (Chapter 31) provides a good example of how swamps can fuel storms. After slamming into southern Florida with 74 m/s (165 mph) winds, Andrew crossed directly over the Everglades, a vast wetland south of Lake Okeechobee. Though over Florida for less than a day, it picked up enough heat from the Everglades to slow its dissipation, possibly leading to a more intense storm in Louisiana several days later (Figure 16.2).
The Great New England Hurricane of 1938
Authors: Emanuel Kerry
Published: November 2023

On September 4, 1938—almost exactly a year before Hitler’s Germany invaded Poland and precipitated World War II—a French weather observer at the Saharan station of Bilma Oasis noted a gentle wind shift, signaling the passage of another of the easterly waves that move across Africa and out over the Atlantic with great regularity in summer. Little did he know that this wave was destined to spawn the greatest natural disaster in New England history, leaving 680 people dead amidst terrible wreckage. Like many natural disasters, the Great New England Hurricane was a lethal combination of meteorological chance and human error. The next definitive observation of the system was made by the SS Algegrete, encountering a full-blown hurricane northeast of Puerto Rico on September 16. This drew the attention of the U.S. Weather Bureau office in Jacksonville, Florida, which then had jurisdiction for all tropical weather south of Cape Hatteras. From the sixteenth until midday on the nineteenth, the strengthening storm headed straight toward southeast Florida (Figure 21.1), prompting the Weather Bureau to post a hurricane warning there. Landfall was expected less than a day later, and a storm-wary state prepared for the worst.
Waves
Authors: Emanuel Kerry
Published: November 2023

No aspect of a hurricane is more frightening than its enormous waves. Many a ship has succumbed to them, and breaking waves are responsible for much of the damage ashore, even in storms that never make landfall. Waves higher than 60 ft have been recorded in hurricanes, but worse than these colossal heights is the turmoil of the seas near the eye, where the wind direction shifts very quickly. Over the centuries, various strategies have been developed to help ships cope with large waves, but these are useless when waves are coming from many different directions, adding to one another and creating a state of maritime chaos. Adding to the sailor’s misery is the horrifying prospect of a rogue wave, a solitary monster arising without warning from the general chaos and quickly overwhelming anything afloat, from a dory to a supertanker (Figure 22.1). A gentle breeze blowing across the water excites myriad ripples, shimmering in the sunlight. These are called capillary waves, and they owe their existence to surface tension, the same force that holds water droplets together. Deflect the water surface upward, and surface tension will force it back down; this restoring force is the primal ingredient of all oscillations.
Bodily Sensibility: Intelligent Action
Authors: Schulkin Jay
Published: November 2023

The brain is a cognitive organ, and regions of the brain that traverse brainstem and cortical sites orchestrate the expression of bodily sensibility: intelligent action. They can appear perfunctory or intimate, calculating a sum or selecting a mate. Schulkin presents neuroscientific research demonstrating that thought is not on one side and bodily sensibility on the other; from a biological point of view, they are integrated. Schulkin further argues that this integration has important implications for judgements about the emotions, art and music, moral sensibilities, attraction and revulsion, and our perpetual inclination to explain ourselves and our surroundings. He begins the book by setting forth a view of the emotions not as a bodily burden to be borne, but rather as a great source of information. He then moves on to other domains, claiming that underlying the experience of aesthetics in at least some instances is the interplay between expectation and disappointment from its infraction, and suggesting that, among other things, repulsion and attraction to the cries and joys of others constitutes moral responsiveness. This book should appeal to researchers in behavioural neuroscience, emotion, and psychophysiology, as well as cognitive and social psychologists and philosophers of mind.
Early Bilingual Acquisition: Focus on Morphosyntax and the Separate Development Hypothesis
Authors: Houwer Annick De
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses morphosyntactic development in bilingual children under age 6 years. The primary focus is on the relationship between children’s two languages in production. The available empirical evidence so far from children acquiring 13 different language combinations strongly supports the Separate Development Hypothesis (SDH), which states that in learning to speak, children raised with two separate languages from birth approach their languages as two distinct, closed sets. The SDH can only be meaningfully addressed, however, after taking into consideration some basic methodological and analytical steps.
A Unified Model of Language Acquisition
Authors: MacWhinney Brian
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents an extended formulation of the Competition Model. The extended model is designed to account for a large range of phenomena in first and second language acquisition, including bilingualism. As in the classic version of the Competition Model, competition is at the core of a set of non modular interacting forces. However, now the various inputs to competition are described in terms of six additional subcomponents: arenas, cues, chunking, storage, codes, and resonance. Learning is viewed as a resonant process that relies on storage, chunking, and support to acquire new mappings.
Being and Becoming Bilingual: Individual Differences and Consequences for Language Production
Authors: Michael Erica B , Gollan Tamar H
Published: November 2023

The nature of bilingual cognitive processing advantages and disadvantages can be used to constrain models of bilingual language processing and to highlight aspects of cognitive processing that are critical for achieving and maintaining proficient bilingualism. We review some differences between bilinguals and monolinguals and consider whether or not skills known to influence monolingual language fluency, such as working memory capacity and suppression skills, may also be used to explain which individuals are successful in achieving proficiency in a second language and avoiding disadvantages associated with bilingualism.
The Vigilante Tradition and Modern Executions
Authors: Zimring Franklin E
Published: November 2023

The substantive feature of American experience that has encouraged executions and protected them from being associated with excessive government power is a mythology of local control that appears to be linked to historical traditions of vigilante violence. This chapter shows a striking parallel between the practice of capital punishment at the end of the twentieth century and the practice of lynching a century earlier. Those parts of the United States where mob killings were repeatedly inflicted as crime control without government sanction are more likely now to view official executions as expressions of the will of the community rather than the power of a distant and alien government. For this reason, modern executions are concentrated in those sections of the United States where the hangman used to administer popular justice without legal sanction. Of equal note-worthiness, those areas of the United States where lynchings were rare a century ago are much less likely now to have a death penalty or to execute. In this important respect, the propensity to execute in the twenty-first century is a direct legacy of a history of lynching and of the vigilante tradition if it is still a part of regional culture.
“Creative and Cultural Lag” The Radical Education of Ralph Ellison
Authors: Maxwell William J
Published: November 2023

What does American democracy sound like? Thanks to Ralph Ellison, a student of the chromatic runs of guitarist Charlie Christian as well as the fractured syntax of poet T. S. Eliot, more than a few Americans now suspect that it sounds like jazz. While Ellison once pledged to high-flying confidant Albert Murray that he “wouldn’t be a jazz critic for love or money” (TT 193), he spent crucial writing time in the dozen years after Invisible Man (1952) beingjust that. From 1955 through 1964, Ellison contributed a string of jazz-centered essays to fully visible periodicals such as Esquire and the Saturday Review. With painstaking elegance balancing spiked judgments, he surveyed everything from the frontier lyricism of singer Jimmy Rushing, to the cult of the brilliantly doomed alto saxophonist Charlie “Bird” Parker, to the speculative sociology of Blues People (1963), LeRoiJones’s pioneering study of black music in white America. Several of these pieces on jazz gained the status of small classics during the conquering twilight of Ellison’s life, when his late 1960s reputation as an elitist sellout faded along with the militancy of the Black Arts movement.
“Something Warmly, Infuriatingly Feminine” Gender, Sexuality, and the Work of Ralph Ellison
Authors: Smethurst James
Published: November 2023

Critical assessments of the representation of women in the work of Ralph Ellison, particularly the novel on which his Reputation ultimately rests, Invisible Man, often seem at odds. Claudia Tate argues that “like underground station masters of the American slave era, these female characters assist the Invisible Man along his course to freedom” (164). Ann Folwell Stanford asserts that Mary Rambo “stands out as the only positively memorable woman character in the novel (out of a cast of almost twenty black women characters)” (118). And even Mary Rambo is a limited character whom the narrator sees as hardly human. Yet these two statements are not as irreconcilable as they first appear. Gender and sexuality are absolutely crucial to Ellison’s cultural vision-and crucial to his success as an artist and as a public intellectual, to employ a vague and overused term.
F. Scott Fitzgerald, Professional Author
Authors: West III James L W
Published: November 2023

From 1919 until 1940, F. Scott Fitzgerald was a successful professional Writer in America, a country in which full-time authorship ,has always been a precarious occupation. During those years, the extent of his working life, he earned his living altogether with his pen. He did nothing else: he had no other vocation and drew on no private source of income. Fitzgerald produced novels, short stories, personal essays, and the occasional poem; he attempted drama and wrote for the movies. He made his way on talent, ambition, self-discipline, and luck. Fitzgerald’s good fortune ran out toward the end of his career, but he still had a fine run as an author, especially during the 1920s. He was hampered by personal problems and bad habits, but he was also working within a system not designed (even today) to support full-time professional writers.
Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Costello E Jane , Mustillo Sarah , Keeler Gordon , Angold Adrian
Published: November 2023

From a public health perspective, epidemiologists focus on a number of important questions about diseases, including these: How important is a particular disease? Which group in the population is at highest risk for specific diseases? Are there characteristics of certain environments that increase the risk of particular diseases? What are the most effective methods of preventing or controlling the spread of specific diseases? Encompassed within these central questions are numerous other issues related to prevalence (i.e., how many people have a particular disease at any one time), incidence (i.e., how many new cases of this disease will occur during a defined period), and overall burden to society in terms of mortality, morbidity, economic costs, functional impairments, and need for treatment.
Evaluating Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Services
Authors: Orwin Robert G , Goldman Howard H
Published: November 2023

While some areas of social programming have undergone relatively little evaluation, this is not true of the delivery of alcohol, drug abuse, and mental health services. From the advent of the community mental health movement through the Robert Wood Johnson and McKinney Act demonstrations of the late 1980s and early 1990s, and most recently the numerous multisite studies sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Service Administration (SAMHSA), evaluation has been part of the mental health program development and policy-making process. With increasing competition for shrinking resources and uncertainty over future organization and financing of services, the need for anyone associated with the delivery of services to understand what evaluation can do, how it is done, and how it is used has probably never been greater. This is true whether the individual is a direct service provider, program manager/administrator, policy maker/ sponsor, or other stakeholder.
Performance Analysis as a Tool for Understanding the Ecological Morphology of Flower-Visiting Bats
Authors: Nicolay Christopher W , Winter York
Published: November 2023

Performance analysis provides a tool for understanding the functional and ecological correlates of morphological variation. We have examined two measures of nectar-feeding performance within phyllostomid bats: tongue extension and rate of nectar extraction. Tongue extension provides a measure of maximal capacity and potentially limits the lengths of flowers that a bat can visit. Rate of nectar extraction at different feeders provides a measure of performance at a task within the capacity of the bats. We found strong relationships between apparent morphological specialization for nectarivory and tongue extension. However, morphological specialization is not strongly associated with nectar extraction rates. Tongue extension is more closely tied to apparent morphological specialization for nectarivory in phyllostomids than is rate of nectar extraction, which is influenced by feeding styles and behavioral plasticity. Other factors, such as the ability to extract small amounts of nectar from flowers, probably also play an important role in the evolution of nectarivory.
Relatedness, Life History, and Social Behavior in the Long-Lived Bechstein’s Bat, Myotis bechsteinii
Authors: Kerth Gerald
Published: November 2023

Since 1993, I have studied the social behavior and genetic population structure of the communally breeding Bechstein’s bat, Myotis bechsteinii, to analyze the adaptive value of female sociality. Maternity colonies of

M. bechsteinii normally consist of 15–45 females and their young; males are solitary. Individual females do not give birth every year, weaning on average c. 0.7 young per year. Thus, colonies are comprised of reproductive and nonreproductive bats. Low annual individual reproductive success is balanced by a high survival rate of about 80% per year for adult females. Genetic population analysis, using mitochondrial and nuclear markers, revealed strict female philopatry and male dispersal. Maternity colonies are closed societies, comprised of closely related and genetically unrelated females that probably live together for their entire lives. Within colonies, females display a fission–fusion society. Colonies regularly split into several subgroups that occupy different roosts. Individuals switch roosts frequently and subgroup composition is characterized by strong mixing of colony members. The social organization of maternity colonies suggests that the long-lived females have familiar, cooperative partners, some of which are close relatives, for raising their young. Colony members probably profit from sociality via warming by nonreproductive females, babysitting, and information transfer about roosts, whereas allonursing and information transfer about food are of little or no importance.
The Mysterious Birth of Eukaryotes: A Possible Pathway
Authors: de Duve Christian
Published: November 2023

We have seen in Chapter 8 that the eukaryotic line probably detached from the two prokaryotic lines early after the tree of life first emerged from its root. By what kind of cell was this process inaugurated? This is a much-debated question.
Healthy Anger
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

Whether dealing with the tantrums of a demanding two-year-old, or the hostile, rejecting rage of a distraught teenager seeking greater independence, dealing with a child’s anger is one of the most frustrating and challenging tasks faced by a parent. While some children learn constructive strategies to manage anger, many learn ineffective ways that may lead to more severe emotional and behavioural difficulties, such as underachievement, depression, interpersonal conflict, and, in extreme cases, even violence. In Healthy Anger, psychologists and anger expert Dr Bernard Golden helps us understand how children experience and express anger and how parents can help them to manage this complex and charged emotion. Rather than just examining the child’s disruptive behaviour, Golden focuses on parent-child interaction, teaching parents constructive ways to respond to the whole child. Anger, Golden explains, is a natural emotion that is distinct from behaviour that is aggressive. He emphasizes that anger does not occur in isolation, but rather in the context of individual needs, attitudes, perceptions and emotions. Golden helps parents work with their children to identify the causes of their anger, and then to implement strategies for coping in a healthy way. He gives parents constructive guidance for helping to understand “child logic”, talking about anger and forgiveness, responding to escalating anger, rewarding good behaviours, and recognizing those children and teens who need professional help. Throughout the book, Golden includes clear, step-by-step instructions for exercises and tasks that will build coping strategies and build problem-solving skills for managing and channeling anger in healthy ways. Healthy Anger is an accessible and comprehensive guide for parents, teachers, and clinicians who work with children and teens.
A Comprehensive View of Anger
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

Why is it that one five-year-old is quick to have a tantrum while an other child responds calmly to the same situation? What makes one teenage boy spring into aggression while a neighbor’s son assertively expresses both hurt and anger about the same event? What leads your spouse to respond to anger in one way and your child to manage anger the way she does? Why is it that some people never seem to experience anger?

In this chapter, I present a model of anger, a framework for understanding anger, that will help answer these types of questions. It will assist you in recognizing when and how specific motivations, thoughts, and other emotions contribute to the experience of anger.
Gentral Guidelines for Using the Mode1 of Anger
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

While this model of anger was initially developed with children, adolescents, and adults who demonstrated a wide range of difficulties in understanding and managing anger, this book focuses on preparing your child or teen to develop the knowledge and skills to understand and manage anger long before he or she experiences more serious difficulties related to anger.

The more you apply the techniques in these different ways, the more you will help your child internalize the kind of understanding that leads to increased self-awareness, self-control, tolerance for frustration, and problem-solving skills. Help your child to view these anger management strategies as rehearsals for constructive anger management rather than as strategies to practice only when immersed in the experience of anger.
ldentifying Emotions Associated with Anger
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides guidelines and strategies to help you assist your child in identifying and better understanding emotions that precede and are associated with anger. In addition, special attention is given to exploring how anxiety, depression, and shame may be associated with anger. Identifying and understanding emotions that precede and are associated with anger are essential steps in making sense of anger. A child who recognizes these emotions can more fully understand the complexity of his anger. Through this process he increases his connection with himself and becomes more aware of his wants and needs.
Anger, Hostility, and Aggression: The Need for Special Support
Authors: Golden Bernard
Published: November 2023

When does anger become so problematic that special help is indicated for your child? Is there always a clear indication when such support is necessary? What are the specific signals that your child or teen is increasingly having difficulty with anger? Should you wait until your child or teen is physically aggressive before seeking help? Could children or teens have severe difficulty with anger even though they never express any form of anger? These are just a few of the questions that will be answered in this chapter.

As previously indicated, the strategies in this book are primarily intended for teaching healthy anger management to children and teens who do not experience severe difficulties with anger. However, those with more acute difficulties with anger can benefit from learning these skills when they are used in conjunction with special support.
Public Transit
Authors: Hockenberry John
Published: November 2023

It was a shock to return to the United States in 1990, where it routinely took an act of God to hail a taxi. There was nothing religious about New York City, even on Christmas Eve. I had taken a cab from midtown to Riverside Church on the west side of Manhattan only to find that my information about a Christmas Eve service there was mistaken. The church was padlocked, which I only discovered after getting out of the cab into the forty-mile-an-hour wind and the twenty-degree weather. I tried all of the doors of the church and found myself alone at close to midnight, without a taxi, on December 24 at 122d Street and Riverside Drive.
Checkerspot Research : Background and Origins
Authors: Ehrlich Paul R , Hanski Ilkka
Published: November 2023

This book is a story about butterflies, whose beauty and variety fascinated us as children and fascinates us still. It tells how we and our colleagues developed one group of butterflies, the checkerspots, into a model study system with which to do research and answer basic questions in ecology and evolution. We’ve tried to create one population biological analogue to the well-known model systems in other biological disciplines, such as the fruit flies of classical genetics and the chick embryos of early embryology. This book describes what has been discovered while studying the checkerspot system and how those findings relate to what is known about other organisms. It is a story of increasing understanding both about how the living world works and about how to preserve humanity’s natural capital, biodiversity (Daily 1997).
1763–1766 “A Loss of Respect and Affection”
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

Late in life Andrew Oliver resembled the type that Hollywood once selected to portray a pernicious big businessman. He stares out from his sole surviving portrait as hard-bitten, perhaps not quite malevolent, but unappealing nonetheless. Residents of colonial Boston knew him as a pillar of society and a force in Massachusetts Bay politics. There seemed to be an inextricable link between the Oliver family and political power in the colony. In 1765 Oliver, then fifty-nine years of age, served as the secretary of the colony and, like his father before him, he too sat in the upper house of the assembly. His younger brother, Peter, was the Chief Justice of Massachusetts, though he had not been trained as a lawyer.
1787–1789 “So Much Unanimity and Good Will”
Authors: Ferling John
Published: November 2023

Fifty-five men from twelve states came to Philadelphia in May 1787 to consider alterations to the Articles of Confederation. Only the delegations of host Pennsylvania and Virginia were in place on May 14, the starting date set at the abortive meeting in Annapolis, but late starts remained as commonplace as they had been in 1754, when Franklin and others had come to Albany to plan for a likely war with France. Travel conditions had not improved appreciably over the years, and in 1787, after one of the wettest springs in memory, many delegates had to negotiate roads that had been rendered quagmires.
Social Network Approaches to HIV Prevention: Implications to Community Impact and Sustainability
Authors: Latkin Carl A , Knowlton Amy R
Published: November 2023

The first two decades of HIV prevention research demonstrate the limitations of individual-oriented approaches to behavior change and the need for understanding alternative, social-level approaches to behavior change. Predominant individual-oriented, psychoeducational approaches to intervention are insufcient to alter the course of HIV epidemics (Kalichman, Kelly, & Stevenson, 1997). Models of behavior change employed in HIV prevention intervention tend to be highly cognitive, emphasizing such factors as risk perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs, diverting attention from the social and economic contexts that help shape these cognitions. Moreover, individual-level approaches also present challenges to identifying and recruiting hard-to-reach, socially and economically marginalized populations often at highest risk for HIV. Furthermore, individual-oriented interventions tend to lack sustainability, with most HIV behavioral change decaying over 3 to 6 months after intervention.
Transferring HIV Prevention Technology to Community-Based Organizations: How Can HIV Prevention Scientists Play an Effective Role in Practice?
Authors: Miller Robin Lin , Greene George J
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the contextual conditions that affect why AIDS-related community-based organizations might welcome research-based HIV prevention technologies or view them skeptically and as failing to serve community development aims. Our purpose is to try to characterize the environment in which AIDS community-based organizations perform their work and how preventing AIDS is viewed from the standpoint of the community-based organizations to which researchers seek to disseminate their research and HIV prevention programs. Our hope is to promote greater dialogue among researchers and staffs of community-based organizations about how to marry scientfic aims to disseminate research-based HIV prevention technologies, hereinafter referred to as “technology transfer,” with the social change, service provision, community development, and survival concerns of community-based organizations.
Integration and Modularity in the Evolution of Sexual Ornaments: An Overlooked Perspective
Authors: Badyaev Alexander V
Published: November 2023

The expression of sexual ornaments often reflects male health and overall physiological condition, and females mating with the most ornamented males are assumed to produce the best-adapted offspring and receive the most benefits from such males (Andersson 1994). However, there are a number of unresolved issues in the evolution of sexual traits that reflect males’ condition. On one hand, sexual traits, such as deer antlers, beetle horns, or elongated bird tails, are under strong directional selection for greater expression, and this selection favors reduced integration (e.g., favors modified allometric relationships) between sexual traits and the rest of the organism (Eberhard 1985; Emlen and Nijhout 2000). Indeed, most sexual traits are “stand-alone” structures (e.g., deer antlers are far less integrated and more variable than frontal bones of which they are a part). On the other hand, sexual traits are expected to indicate the physiological condition and health of an individual, such that the expression of sexual traits represents a complex summary of many organismal processes (Wedekind 1992; Johnstone 1995). However, to be such a summary, sexual traits should be highly integrated into many organismal functions. This represents a paradox where sexual traits are expected to be both less integrated for greater expression, and more integrated to better indicate physiological quality.
Integration, Modules, and Development: Molecules to Morphology to Evolution
Authors: Klingenberg Christian Peter
Published: November 2023

Living organisms are intricately organized developmental systems, which at the same time are very flexible but also highly robust. They are flexible to respond to environmental conditions by changing developmental processes and the resulting phenotype accordingly, but they are also robust in that all these developmental changes in different parts are coordinated and the end result is an integrated, functional organism. Similarly, there is considerable flexibility for evolutionary change of specific parts, while robustness of the overall body plan ensures continued integration of multiple organismal functions.
Morphological Integration Primate Evolution
Authors: Ackermann Rebecca Rogers , Cheverud James M
Published: November 2023

Morphological integration plays an important role in directing evolutionary change. As evolutionary morphologists, we are interested in how the relationships among integrated morphological elements constrain or facilitate the evolution of complex phenotypes. Quantitative genetic models and related empirical tests suggest that functional and developmental integration at the level of the individual causes coinheritance of morphological elements, thereby affecting the evolution of heritable variation, and causing coordinate evolution at the population level (Cheverud, 1982, 1984, 1989a, 1995, 1996a, 1996b). Olson and Miller (1958) developed the concept of morphological integration, proposing that traits that interacted in development or function would tend to evolve together. Later theoretical work has supported this intuition. It was proposed that functionally or developmentally interacting traits would come under correlating selection (Sokal 1978; Cheverud 1982, 1984; Lande and Arnold 1983), so that functionally well integrated phenotypes would be favored by natural selection. Correlating selection is a form of stabilizing selection in which the fitness associated with any given trait depends on the value of functionally interacting traits. Lande (1980a, 1984) showed that correlating selection would cause the evolution of the genetic correlation between traits to approximate the level of correlation specified by correlating selection. Finally, Lande’s (1979, 1980b) models of multivariate evolution under genetic drift and natural selection demonstrate that selection on any one trait also causes the evolution of genetically correlated traits. Hence, functional and developmental integration result in correlating selection, which in turn leads to genetic integration and the coevolution of functionally and developmentally related traits.
Poor Women and Girls in a Wealthy Nation
Authors: Belle Deborah , Dodson Lisa
Published: November 2023

Although corporate profits and chief executive pay have been at record levels in recent years, over 34 million Americans live below the poverty line, and a majority of these are women and children (Proctor & Dalaker, 2003). Among women who head their own households, 28.8% are poor, with even higher poverty rates among single mothers who are African American (37.4%) or Hispanic/ Latina (36.4%) (Proctor & Dalaker, 2003). The United States has the highest child poverty rate among the wealthy nations (Mishel, Bernstein, & Boushey, 2003). Economic mobility for those in poverty is also lower in the United States than in other rich countries (Mishel et al., 2003). Recent decades have been difficult ones for most working Americans, as many workers have lost health insurance, retirement benefits, and paid sick leave. Half of U.S. workers earn less than would provide a minimal living standard for a parent of two children who was employed full time year-round. Responding to these realities, U.S. workers now work more hours per year than workers in any of the other industrialized nations, and with fewer supports, such as subsidized child care, paid vacations, and paid parental leave (Heymann, 2000).
Women and Relationships
Authors: Brabeck Mary M , Brabeck Kalina M
Published: November 2023

The first person with whom the infant has a relationship is the mother. Since Freud (1925/1961), this observation has led to a number of psychodynamic views of the critical role of the motherclaim that this relationship is crucial in determining how we form other human relationships. For most infants, the father enters the psychological world much later than the mother and is, therefore, not involved in the most primitive emotional stages of the developing infant. Most psychodynamic theorists also have claimed that there are important differences between mother-daughter and mother-son relationships.
The Interplay of Physical and Psychosocial Development
Authors: Greca Annette m. La , mackey, Eleanor race , miller karen bearman
Published: November 2023

Today, perhaps more so than ever, interest in the integration of girls’ and women’s psychological and physical health is valued and recognized as an important area of study. Within this context, the purpose of this chapter is to describe the interplay of physical and psychosocial factors in girls’ development, and to encourage readers to consider this interplay in interactions with preadolescent and adolescent girls. The chapter is not comprehensive, but rather focuses on examples to illustrate key ways that girls’ physical and psychosocial functioning are interrelated. The issues illustrated complement materials described in other chapters of this book.
Aging and Identity: How Women Face Later Life Transitions
Authors: Whitbourne Susan Krauss , Skultety Karyn M
Published: November 2023

The study of women in later adulthood poses a number of theoretical and methodological challenges.By far, the preponderance of late-life research has failed to give specific attention to the psychosocial processes involved in women’s adaptation to aging. Most research on aging and women either derives from a medical model, focusing on menopause and related health concerns, or fails to examine the roles that women play outside the home in the workplace and the community. In this chapter, we explore the implications of a model that examines identity in adulthood to better understand the psychology of women in later life. This exploration is based on cross-sectional data comparing women and men across the adult years. Following the examination of this model, we review the research on women in the roles of family member and retiree, interpreting the existing data and providing reallife examples in terms of the identity process model. Finally, we suggest potential areas for intervention to improve the experience of women as they age.
Women’s Issues at the End of Life
Authors: Gallagher-thompson Dolores , Dillinger Jennifer , Gray Heather L , Cardenas Veronica , Singer, Lani , hsu Shannon
Published: November 2023

Helping older individuals deal with end-of-life (EOL) issues is a topic of increasing significance to psychological and medical communities. In 1997, the Institute of Medicine issued its landmark report on improving care at the end of life (Field & Cassel, 1997). In 1998, the American Psychological Association (APA) established a working group on assisted suicide and EOL decisions that resulted in a report to the APA Board of Directors delineating historical changes in EOL care, including the relative invisibility of psychology in this arena and current and potential roles for psychologists interested in working with EOL issues (APA Ad Hoc Committee on End-ofLife Issues, 2000). In 2000, the APA established the Ad Hoc Committee on End-of-Life issues that helped to create an APA-sponsored Web site on this topic and also developed a fact sheet on EOL care based on behavioral and social science research findings. Most recently, in 2004, clinical practice guidelines for an interdisciplinary approach to palliative care were published, which represent a consensus of five major United States palliative-care organizations (National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care, 2004). Taken together, these publications provide a context for understanding this important domain of clinical practice.
Positive Aging: Reconstructing the Life Course
Authors: Gergen Mary M , Gergen Kenneth J
Published: November 2023

Across the life span, the stereotype of the aging woman is the most negative of all age and gender groups. She is often portrayed as a marginalized figure—ugly, undesirable, and weak—in the late stages of physical and mental decline. The reputation of being old is so negative that most older people refuse to define themselves as such (Friedan, 1993). Also contributing to this negative view of aging is the traditional value of productivity. With deep roots in the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, this view of aging shows a strong tendency to equate personal worth with productive achievement. As feminist critics point out, because women’s “production” is so frequently allied with their capacity to bear children, older women, who no longer reproduce, are doubly vulnerable to being found wanting (Martin, 1997).
Afterword
Authors: Goodheart Carol D , worell judith
Published: November 2023

The contributors to the Handbook have presented a kaleidoscopic view of psychological health. These viewpoints converge into a biopsychosocial perspective on girls and women. The multifaceted approach takes into account their risks, needs, and strengths, as well as the social, economic, and cultural realities of their lives. The four major sections of the book allow the reader to assimilate an overview, consider factors across the life span, examine topics specific to particular phases of life, and assess special problems and resources. Now we look forward and extrapolate from the lessons learned. What is needed in the future? The world is growing smaller and it will be important to consider the status of women globally; national boundaries are likely to become increasingly fluid and health risks can readily cross borders. For example, at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo, members of the United Nations established goals for the year 2015: improve women’s reproductive health, education, and rights; reduce infant mortality; and curb population growth.
Phylogenetics of the Insect Pathogenic Genus Beauveria
Authors: Rehner Stephen A
Published: November 2023

Beauveria (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) is a cosmopolitan genus of soilborne entomogenous molds. As one of the first entomopathogenic fungi to be discovered, elucidation of the role of Beauveria as the cause of white muscardine, a devastating disease afflicting the European silk­ worm industry in the 18th and 19th centuries, initiated the study of fungal insect pathology. Additionally, scientific studies by Agostino Bassi demonstrating that Beauveria was the infectious disease agent that caused the white muscardine dis­ ease of silkworm were important antecedents to the germ theory of disease, arguably one of the most significant theories in the history of science. Although investigation of Beauveria was instigated by the need to protect a beneficial domesticated insect, Beauveria is also an important natural pathogen of insects, its hosts including many economically important insect pests. As a result, a great deal of research on Beauveria has been motivated by and has focused on the applied use of Beauveria in insect biological control.
Phylogeography of Metarhizium, an Insect Pathogenic Fungus
Authors: Bidochka Michael J , Small Cherrie L
Published: November 2023

Between the years 2000 and 2003, more than 150 publications were devoted to the insect-pathogenic fungus Metarhizium. These studies cover molecular biology of pathogenesis, biochemistry, biocontrol, and population genetics. Metarhizium species are known to infect more than 200 insect species, many of which are major agricultural and forest insect pests such as spittlebugs, sugar cane borers, termites, scarab grubs, and grasshoppers (St. Leger 1993).
Ecology and Evolution of Fungal Endophytes and Their Roles against Insects
Authors: Arnold A Elizabeth , Lewis Leslie C
Published: November 2023

Symbiotic associations between fungi and photosynthetic organisms are both ancient and ubiquitous (Alexopoulos et al. 1996; Berbee 2001; Heckman et al. 2001). Comprising interactions spanning mutualism to antagonism, fungi associated with living plants shape both the diversity and species composition ofa wide array of terrestrial communities (Clay and Holah 1999; Clay 2001; Wilson et al. 2001; Castelli and Casper 2003; Gilbert 2002; Gehring 2003; Packer and Clay 2003). Yet, ecological interactions have been catalogued for only an extreme minority (<5%) of the 1.5 million species offungi thoughtto exist (Hawksworth 1991, 2001) with most research focusing on above- and below-ground plant pathogens (Agrios 1997) and on rhizosphere symbionts such as mycorrhizal fungi (Rygiewicz and Andersen 1994; Husband et al. 2002). In contrast, the diversity, species composition, ecological relevance, and evolutionary importance of diverse and abundant fungi occurring in the phyllosphere have not been established for most plant-fungus associations. Such is the case for fungal endophytes-those fungi that colonize and form unapparent infections in healthy plant tissues (Petrini 1991)-which are known from photosynthetic tissues in all major lineages of plants studied thus far, but which have been studied extensively in only a few focal plant clades.
The Fungal Roots of Microsporidian Parasites
Authors: Fast Naomi M , Keeling Patrick J
Published: November 2023

Microsporidia are a group of eukaryotic intracellular parasites that commonly infect animals, but they have also been found as parasites of two members of the alveolate protists: gregarine apicomplexa and ciliates (Vivier 1975; Sprague et al. 1992; Sprague and Becnel 1999). There are just more than a dozen microsporidian species known to infect humans, and these cause a variety of illnesses, including diarrhea and hepatitis (Weber et al. 1999; Franzen and Muller 2001). Human infections tend to involve immunocompromised hosts such as organ transplant recipients or AIDS patients (Weber et al. 1994; Weber and Bryan 1994). Microsporidia are also known to infect a number of other mammals, but the most common microsporidian infections are those of fish and arthropods (Becnel and Andreadis 1999; Shaw and Kent 1999). Within the arthropods, insect-infecting microsporidia are particularly common, and some of the best characterized microsporidia are insect pathogens. Of the roughly 1200 species of microsporidia currently defined, a significant proportion of these parasitize insects, with more than half of the described genera infecting an insect (Becnel and Andreadis 1999).
Fungal Biotrophic Parasites of Insects and Other Arthropods
Authors: Weir Alex , Blackwell Meredith
Published: November 2023

Necrotrophic fungal parasites proliferate on the dead cells and tissues of the hosts they kill, a trait that suggests great potential for biological control. By comparison, biotrophic parasites require living hosts, and the most successful among them do not kill their hosts outright (Benjamin et al. 2004). For this reason there has been less interest in these rather obscure fungal parasites of insects and arthropods, including certain mites and millipedes. Biotrophic fungi seldom cause disease symptoms, and, moreover, they are so small that mycologists and entomologists rarely notice them. There has, however, been practical interest in some of these fungi because with increasing use of coccinellids in biological control, the beetles sometimes are discovered to be infected with biotrophic parasites. For this reason their distribution may be prohibited (Blackwell and Weir, unpublished obs.).