bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Corporatism
Authors: Munk Christiansen Peter
Published: August 2020

Corporatism has played a core role in Danish policy-making for a long time. Based on positive feedback mechanisms, privileged interest groups increasingly came to be integrated in the preparation and implementation of most policy decisions during the twentieth century. After the 1970s, reform policies have sharpened the political exchange relation between state actors and interest groups. Interest groups must contribute to the realization of political preferences if they want to remain privileged insiders. If they cannot or will not contribute, they risk being left outside the decision-making arena. In such cases, state actors seek to control the policy process in order to avoid mobilization of reform resistance. Corporatism’s alternative is not pluralism but more closed decision-making processes. However, corporatism is not an either/or. Corporatism is weakened in some cases but still viable in others, even within the same sector. Danish unions have suffered many defeats on unemployment and early retirement schemes and have been kept out of decisions where heart-blood was at play. Simultaneously, the unions have entered a number of agreements using traditional corporatist means of policy-making. In the same sector and involving the same actors, corporatist structures coexist with strategic exclusion. The rumours of corporatism’s death are exaggerated.
Classes and Politics
Authors: Sommer Harrits Gitte , Stubager Rune
Published: August 2020

Traditionally and throughout the twentieth century, classes have been important for Danish politics and political cleavages, including conflicts related to the development of the comprehensive Danish welfare state. However, since the 1970s, and especially in the twenty-first century, the importance of class has changed and somewhat diminished. Some claim that classes are withering away, whereas the main claim in this chapter is that class relations and the relationship between class and politics have changed but not necessarily disappeared. Building on the most recent state-of-the-art research on these changes, the chapter takes a long-term perspective and describes and discusses changes in class relations in Denmark, as well as changes in the relationship between class and party choice. Following international research, the chapter uses different conceptualizations of class and class resources, including class as occupation, class as economic resources, and class as cultural and educational resources.
Gender and Politics
Authors: Fiig Christina , Siim Birte
Published: August 2020

The chapter analyses the potential and limits of gender equality in Denmark, focusing on communalities and differences in the Nordic gender equality and welfare regimes. Due to political developments, Danish gender politics is challenged as ‘laboratories of gender equality’. One limitation is the gender gap in the economic elites and the underrepresentation of women in management and executive boards. Another is the equality gap between majority and minority women and discrimination in relation to equal rights. Yet Denmark is the only Nordic country, together with Finland, and one of the few countries globally that has achieved a gender representation of almost 40 per cent in parliamentary politics without adopting any type of gender quota. The success of the voluntary Danish approach is limited mainly to political representation, which has experienced a relative stagnation in women’s political representation and low representation on municipality councils. The question is whether it is possible to create an equal representation in other institutional arenas such as the private sector, public administration, and academia without gender quotas.
Dynamic Stability
Authors: Hansen Kasper M. , Stubager Rune
Published: August 2020

Danish voter behaviour has been characterized by increasing volatility, suggesting a growing pool of floating voters. This interpretation, however, does not seem fitting. First, there are no signs of increasing volatility between the two major blocs in Danish politics—the left and the right. Second, analyses document that even though one of the previously strong, socio-structural anchors of party choice—social class—has had decreasing influence on the vote over the period since the early 1970s, other socio-structural anchors have growing importance. These include gender and education, just as geographical location seems to maintain an influence on the vote. Similarly, voters’ positions on the socio-structural anchor variables feed into their position on the two major attitudinal dimensions structuring vote choice: economic redistribution and cultural values. Thus, an important explanation for the rise in volatility is the transition from a one-dimensional system to a two-dimensional one where voters base their decisions on both economic and cultural positions. Within this political space, we finally observe how the parties’ positioning in the competition for votes influences vote choices in a consistent manner.
Interest Groups
Authors: Binderkrantz Anne Skorkjær
Published: August 2020

Interest groups are key actors in the Danish political system. This chapter discusses the origin and development of the interest group system and the political role of groups. The focus is on interest groups both as membership-based associations and as political actors. The chapter discusses how the early mobilization of farmers, workers, and businesses interacted with emerging corporatist structures in shaping the contours of the interest group system. Later developments led to a shift towards more groups representing citizen interests rather than economic groups. The political role of groups traditionally centred on access to public decision-making through, for example, representation in boards and committees. Today, interest groups operate across multiple arenas, and Parliament and the news media have become central. New actors such as think tanks and public affairs agencies have gained importance, but traditional interest groups remain the most prominent policy advocates in Denmark.
The Red-Green Alliance
Authors: Seeberg Henrik Bech , Kölln Ann-Kristin
Published: August 2020

Since its foundation in the early 1990s, the Red-Green Alliance (Enhedslisten) has been almost continuously growing in electoral support and even became an important support party to Denmark’s centre-left government between 2011 and 2015. Despite this remarkable breakthrough, we know surprisingly little about the Red-Green Alliance. How ‘red’ and how ‘green’ is the party really? And to what extent has the combination of the two contributed to the party’s breakthrough? In this chapter, we analyse the party and its development over time alongside two primary dimensions: ideology and organization. We argue that both dimensions reflect political parties’ goals and competitive advantage in the electoral market, and thus, they are crucial for a party’s electoral success. Drawing on a multitude of data sources such as election surveys, press releases, and organizational data, we show that the combination of the two has played an important role in the party’s rise and success.
Foreign Policy
Authors: Larsen Henrik
Published: August 2020

The chapter presents the dominant discourse in Danish foreign policy. The dominant discourse articulates the EU as essential and the key platform for Danish foreign policy, while NATO and the United States are also articulated as crucial if mainly in the field of security. The articulation of an activism that breaks with the strategic passivity in the past is the background for Denmark’s participation in conflicts in Syria and Iraq. The UN and in particular Nordic cooperation are not attributed the same value as the EU and NATO/the United States. However, particularly from the Foreign and Security Policy Strategy 2019–20, tendencies towards an even stronger Danish emphasis on the EU, multilateralism, international rules, and on issue areas such as security in the neighbourhood, immigration, the Arctic, and trade are identified. The chapter raises the question of whether the ensemble of these tendencies will challenge or reinforce the EU’s and NATO’s central roles.
Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Denmark
Authors: Gad Ulrik Pram
Published: August 2020

To most of its citizens and for most social science scholarship, Denmark resembles the perfect nation state: homogenous, neat, and harmonious. This chapter explains the present paradoxes and dynamics of the ‘Community of the Realm’, linking the Faroe Islands and Greenland to Denmark by examining its colonial and constitutional history, its internal asymmetries, and its international context. The particularities of the two ‘Danish’ polities are illuminated by comparing the two of them and contrasting them with both neighbours in the North Atlantic and overseas autonomies. The chapter’s main argument is that Denmark greatly enhances the viability of the Community of the Realm by explicitly embracing its dissolution—in the form of Greenlandic and Faroese independence—as its ultimate goal. The chapter concludes that the main obstacles to further loosening the bonds of this ‘ever looser union’ comes not from Danish constitutional law and practice but rather from the United States’ approach to geopolitics and from Faroese and Greenlandic priorities.
Education Policy
Authors: Wiborg Susanne
Published: August 2020

The field of education politics in Denmark is grossly under-researched. It has neither been an integral part of the political science mainstream nor the education research discipline and has essentially been pushed to the periphery. In recent years, however, a burgeoning literature is dealing head-on with the politics of education in relation to the folkeskole—the integrated primary and lower secondary schools in Denmark. This chapter will offer a brief account of the recent history of the Danish school reforms informed by some of this new politics of education research. The first part of the chapter will address how corporatism brought teachers’ unions into the heart of the governmental process and shaped school reforms alongside their own interests, not the children’s. The second part will demonstrate that by curbing teachers’ union influence in recent years, the government was enabled to bring about major changes that were closer to the public interest. This allowed a process whereby government—acutely aware that human capital is an essential path to economic success—could create a school system that is more effective at promoting academic achievement. This chapter thus presents some of the most important insights from this research but also points to major gaps and suggests future directions for education research.
Health Policy
Authors: Thorup Larsen Lars
Published: August 2020

Danish health policy is dominated by a national health service that combines a tax-financed universal health insurance with healthcare delivery through public hospitals and primary care physicians operating in private practices. This basic structure has been stable for almost half a century and is likely to remain so due to a strong consensus among voters and the political parties about the public system. Underneath the wide consensus, however, there is a ‘submerged’ political conflict and party competition between the left and the right about the degree to which the public healthcare system should use private providers and marketized patient rights. In part because of party competition and strong patient rights, there has been a significant drive towards higher total health costs over the past two decades. The Danish healthcare system is thus hardly challenged from political contestation since few politicians would dare to propose a real alternative. Nonetheless, the healthcare system is challenged by structural factors similar to what other countries face, such as an ageing population, as well as difficulties in controlling costs related to both pharmaceuticals and a scarce supply of healthcare professionals.
The Monarch
Authors: Fabricius Møller Jes
Published: August 2020

The monarch is the head of state and only has symbolic and ceremonial functions. The role of the monarch has changed substantially since the first liberal constitution. However, the wording of the Constitution has changed relatively little since 1849, and today, the functions of the head of state must be understood on the basis of a careful reinterpretation of the Constitution. Legislation is not valid without the monarch’s signature, but in reality, the monarch has no right of veto. Proposals on government formation are presented to the monarch after an election, but the monarch exercises no personal influence on the process. The monarch and the royal family as well as the monarchy as a state form enjoy a great deal of popular support among both the young and the old. Only one party has the abolition of the monarchy as an official policy.
The Party System
Authors: Green-Pedersen Christoffer , Kosiara-Pedersen Karina
Published: August 2020

The earthquake election in 1973 could have been the beginning of the end of the Danish party system, which was very stable up to that point. However, more than 45 years later, the core of the Danish party system is still the one that was formed in the early twentieth century. The core of party competition is on the left-right dimension between the four old parties. The Social Democrats and the Social Liberals are on the centre-left side, with the Liberals and the Conservatives on the centre-right side. However, several related developments challenge this core. The four old parties have lost electoral support to new parties. The Danish People’s Party in particular has become a central actor in the Danish party system. New issues like immigration also challenge the internal coherence of the blocs. In terms of party organization, the Danish political parties have undergone a development similar to that of many other Western countries. Party membership has declined significantly, but not disappeared, and public funding plays a central role today. The new parties have also come to resemble the old ones in terms of internal structure.
An Urban Planning Perspective on Industrial Hubs and Economic Development
Authors: Cheru Fantu , Fikresilassie Aklilu
Published: August 2020

The historical evidence on modern economic growth identifies the significant role of urbanization in facilitating innovation diffusion and economic productivity. While cities and urban areas play a critical role in African economies by generating a high proportion of national GDP, the links between urbanization and industrialization are poorly understood by policymakers. To reverse the pervasive anti-urban bias in development policy pursued by the majority of African governments, and to harness urbanization’s potential for Africa’s structural transformation, calls for stronger rural‒urban linkages through the provision of infrastructure and services to spark the potential of particular regions’ latent endowments. Industrial parks and special economic zones are important instruments for pursuing cluster-based development of small and medium-sized cities through proactive, comprehensive urban planning. This chapter examines the potential of growth-pole and city cluster development approaches for managing urbanization for Africa’s industrialization, exploring thematically and structurally closely related urban-sector activities.
Special Economic Zones and Export-led Growth
Authors: Alcorta Ludovico , Tesfachew Taffere
Published: August 2020

The chapter will examine the role of special economic zones (SEZs) as drivers of export-led growth and structural transformation. SEZs and related export processing zones (EPZs) are mechanisms that governments have used to attract investment, create jobs, facilitate technology transfer, promote manufactured exports, and foster industrial development. Developing country governments have established SEZs as a policy choice but their ability to succeed depends on long-term industrial policy objectives, aligning industrial policy instruments such as SEZs with the corresponding stage of industrialization of the country, and the degree of complementarity of SEZs with other industrial policy instruments. After defining SEZs, the chapter will highlight the strategic importance of building productive capacity for exports, more specifically, manufacturing capabilities as a leading long-term development goal. It will then analyse the interrelationship between SEZs and ‘early, ‘middle’ and ‘late’ stages of industrialization. Finally, the chapter will consider alternative ways of combining SEZs with other policy instruments to achieve the desired development goals.
Industrial Hubs and the Industrial Labour Force in Africa and Asia
Authors: Oya Carlos , Schaefer Florian
Published: August 2020

Industrial hubs can take a number of institutional forms and vary greatly in size, sectoral composition, and degree of internal coordination. What all such hubs have in common, though, is that they concentrate industrial workers in great numbers and therefore play a key role in opening up new possibilities for organizing and negotiating industrial relations. In this chapter we examine the role of industrial hubs for light manufacturing in creating and maintaining an industrial labour force in Africa and Asia. We critically review theories for understanding industrial hubs as spaces of both job creation and labour control, and show how outcomes are in part determined by incorporation into global production networks. Drawing on a wide range of empirical evidence, we provide an overview of wages and working conditions in industrial hubs in Africa and Asia, and examine the causes and consequences of gendered labour dynamics in these spaces.
Special Economic Zones in Latecomer Countries
Authors: Valensisi Giovanni
Published: August 2020

The chapter examines the interrelation between environmental sustainability, the establishment of special economic zones (SEZs), and their potential contribution to structural transformation. It begins by discussing the principle of weak sustainability and highlighting key implications in terms of desirable growth and transformation patterns, from the perspective of latecomer countries. It further discusses exogenous drivers of the environmental imperative in the broader international business context, from climate change and related responses, to the proliferation of environmental sustainability standards, and the evolution of the development finance landscape. Finally, with the aid of several case studies from SEZs in developing countries, the chapter argues that a deliberate focus on environmental sustainability as part of SEZs’ value proposition can play an important role in tightening their strategic focus, ensuring close consistency with broader industrial policy goals, thus maximizing potential spillovers and learning effects.
Industrial Hubs as Development Incubators
Authors: Oqubay Arkebe
Published: August 2020

Contemporary industrial hubs evolved in East Asia after the 1950s and have been associated with the industrial catch-up of the East Asian economies and their industrial policies. This chapter has three main objectives: to depict the path of hubs development in these pioneering economies and provide a synthesis of the East Asian experience; to extract relevant lessons for policymakers and practitioners; and to provide a perspective on how industrial hubs can synergize industrialization and technological catch-up. Although there are commonalities, experiences have been uneven across these economies with different stages of development. The experiences of the first-generation industrial hubs, namely, Taiwan (China), South Korea, and Singapore are reviewed, followed by China as the second generation. A synthesis, key observations, and conclusions are reviewed. The chapter will complement the other chapters under Part IV through synthesis and lessons, while it complements the analytical perspectives under Parts I and II of the Handbook, by building on arguments and conceptual perspectives.
Industrial Hubs in ‘Sphinx’ China
Authors: Kou Zonglai , Zhang Jun
Published: August 2020

Contrary to both classical socialist dogma and the Washington Consensus, China’s unique ‘sphinx’ system combines a highly decentralized economic base with a highly centralized political superstructure. The chapter considers how China’s industrial hubs worked, or did not work, under this system. Thanks to the centralized nomenclature system, cadres whose jurisdictions show better relative GDP performance are more likely to be promoted. The most attractive way for ambitious entrepreneurial politicians, able to mobilize public resources, to improve their local GDP performance is to attract outside investment, especially FDI, by setting up industrial hubs. However, since capital can usually move freely, only industrial hubs with the most favourable business environments for private entrepreneurs enjoy the competitive edge of agglomeration effects. In this decentralized trial-and-error process of discovery, the failure and success of all kinds of industrial hubs are just the head and tail of the same coin—the inter-regional GDP tournament.
Taiwan’s Industrial Districts and Economic Development
Authors: Fuller Douglas B.
Published: August 2020

This chapter considers the development of four important Taiwanese industrial clusters: bicycles, machine tools, integrated circuits (ICs), and information and communication technologies (ICT) hardware. Three of these clusters grew out of the networked production of Taiwan’s rural industrialization process. The exception was the IC industry, which was created by the state in light of private capital’s reluctance to invest. While the IC industry did not originate out of local networks of industrial production, it did draw on networks of Taiwanese technologists abroad to develop. All four industries shared the common feature of state-supported institutions to diffuse technology to local firms. The industrial clusters that have proved sustainable are either characterized by relational value chains supported by government technical institutions (bicycles and machine tools) or modular value chains where Taiwan was able to enter high-value segments early in its cluster development.
Industrial Policy and the Evolution of Industrial Hubs in Vietnam
Authors: Tu-Anh Vu-Thanh , Anh-Tuan Do-Thien
Published: August 2020

Industrial hubs (IHs) have played a significant role in Vietnam’s industrialization policy and helped transform the country’s economic and industrial structure, especially in the early phases of Doi Moi. However, IHs have not lived up to initial expectations of sustaining structural change, deepening domestic linkages, and upgrading industrial development, due to the dualistic nature of Vietnam’s political-economic system, an over reliance on a combination of SOEs and FDI, a hybrid industrialization policy, and a fragmented policy environment. Moving forward, it is critically important for Vietnam to continue capitalizing on the static gains by downsizing the SOE sector, fostering private-sector development, and reducing policy fragmentation. It is even more important for Vietnam to find ways to foster the dynamic gains of FDI and IHs by making incentives offered to foreign firms conditional on their performance, thereby facilitating an organic integration between FDI and domestic sectors.
Industrialization in Latin America
Authors: Torres Sebastián
Published: August 2020

Despite their abundant reserves of natural resources, the road to development for most countries in the global South has been difficult. With the recent boom in international raw material prices, the Latin American region attained high growth rates, large reductions in extreme poverty, and an expansion of the middle class over the last two decades. Theoretical and empirical studies have confirmed the importance of appropriate industrial policies for the promotion of economic growth and sustainable development. This chapter evaluates the results of these policies by analysing indicators of specific dimensions related to structural change: economic convergence, productivity, formal and informal labour, export concentration, economic complexity, technological content of exports, and technological capabilities. It also seeks to contribute to the definition of a renewed strategy for the region, aimed at promoting sustainable growth through the creation of economic and social value above what accrues from its natural, demographic, and geographical comparative advantages.
Latin American Industrialization
Authors: Katz Jorge
Published: August 2020

The Latin American industrialization strategy conceived in the post-WWII years has reached a cul-de-sac and is no longer providing growth, competitiveness in international markets, and expansion of domestic technological capabilities. The explanation is to be found both in inadequate macroeconomic management and in the lack of sector-specific interventions favouring the structural transformation of the economy, the creation of human capital, and the development of domestic technological capabilities. This chapter examines different aspects of a possible alternative growth strategy based upon knowledge-intensive exploitation of the region’s rich natural resource endowment. The various aspects of an industrial policy designed for this purpose is informed by the Chilean experience developing salmon-farming activities over the past three decades. The industry evolved from an artisanal sector initially populated by numerous family-owned SMEs to a highly concentrated oligopolistic activity in which less than twenty companies supply today nearly one-third of the world’s salmon output. The chapter examines how industrial policies implemented by public authorities changed in the course of time pari passu with the transformation of the industry in structure and behaviour.
Industrial Hubs and Structural Transformation in Latin America
Authors: Paus Eva
Published: August 2020

A small, upper-middle-income country in Central America, Costa Rica has pursued a market-led development strategy since the debt crisis of the 1980s. Free trade zones (FTZs) aiming to attract foreign investment and diversify exports were a cornerstone of the strategy. The successful diversification of production and exports is the result of the country’s accumulation of social capabilities in the past, a highly effective institutional support structure, generous tax incentives, and specificities of time and location. While the Costa Rican experience shows that industrial hubs/FTZs can be important vehicles for the creation of dynamic comparative advantages, it also highlights that a focus on industrial hubs with insufficient attention to national productive capabilities exacerbates a dualistic production structure, and that generous tax incentives for foreign investors tighten the fiscal constraint significantly. Governments need an overarching development strategy that articulates the roles and interactions of industrial hubs and SMEs, providing integrated industrial policies and a level playing field for domestic and foreign producers.
A Strategic Approach to Industrial Hubs
Authors: Oqubay Arkebe , Kefale Deborah M.
Published: August 2020

The experience of industrial hubs in Africa is characterized by unevenness and mixed outcomes. Most African countries did not start developing hubs until the late 1990s and 2000s, and most have been unsuccessful in driving sustained industrialization and structural transformation. Although relatively new to industrial hubs policies, Ethiopia has embraced active industrial policies in pursuit of its developmental goals, and this chapter examines its nascent experience and experiments on industrial hubs, linking with experiences elsewhere, and extracting lessons for policymakers and practitioners from both successes and failures. This chapter complements the other chapters on empirical evidence from Africa and illustrates the complex process faced by late latecomers of the twenty-first century. It underlines the centrality of the strategic approach to industrial hubs and its connection with the industrial policy framework. The focus is on policy learning as a process rather than on success as an outcome of what remains a work in progress.
Industrialization and Industrial Hubs
Authors: Kweka Josaphat , te Velde Dirk Willem
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the performance of special economic zones (SEZs) in African countries, specifically in Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania, in three dimensions: (i) zone design; (ii) zone development; and (iii) zone spillovers and complementary policies. Most experiences of African zone design are underwhelming and none of the countries examined has reaped clustering or scale effects at the level seen in Singapore, China, or Ireland. While lead zones in Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania offer impressive, localized economic results, these are behind best-practice benchmarks. In particular, there is little evidence on significant spillovers from African SEZs to country-wide economic transformation, though spillovers do exist to a limited extent. We expect more significant spillover benefits from SEZs to emerge over time when active linkage and capability policies are in place and are adequately implemented. The current lack of complementary policies is a significant gap in the African experience of using zones for development.
The Servitization of Industrial Hubs in the Digital Era
Authors: Yusuf Shahid
Published: August 2020

The increasing share of services in GDP, the servitization of manufacturing, and the productivity gains conferred by agglomeration economies, is to the advantage of large well-connected cities. Research to date suggests that to sustain rapid growth, urban hubs need a mix of activities that may include some manufacturing complemented by a clustered array of tradable and non-tradable services. Rather than attempting to create hubs focused on manufacturing activities, with some anchored to special economic zones in small cities or remote areas, developmental policies could derive more economic mileage from incentivizing the interlaced emergence of manufacturing and services in major urban centres. Digital technologies are not only tightening the linkages between manufacturing and services, they also have the potential of enhancing the gains from agglomeration thereby reinforcing the lead enjoyed by mega cities.
Industry 4.0 and Impacts on Industrial Hubs
Authors: Mayer Jörg , Banga Rashmi
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines when Industry 4.0 and industrial hubs (IHs) are complementary and when they are less compatible. Industry 4.0 may undermine the very objectives and economic mechanisms of IHs, as it combines (i) robotization of labour-intensive manufacturing with (ii) wide dispersion of more customized digitally assisted activities, and (iii) reduced cost of networking. However, robotization is not going to be economically profitable for labour-intensive manufacturing any time soon. Moreover, the agglomeration economies and network externalities of digitalized IHs can help to bundle and scale up digital infrastructure and to bridge digital divides. Using the smile curve as a framework, the chapter examines how digitalization affects the international division of labour in manufacturing and services. It discusses how IHs can be an instrument of digital industrial policy and how countries may combine traditional and digital IHs, depending on their level of industrialization. It also discusses examples of IHs as digital IHs in developing countries.
Industrial Hubs and Economic Development
Authors: Oqubay Arkebe , Lin Justin Yifu
Published: August 2020

The history of economic development, with empirical evidence from late industrializers, shows that industrial hubs are catalysts in developing productivity gains, fostering linkage effects, economy of speed, and especially, technological and innovation capabilities. To achieve this outcome, effective policy and innovation are required, embedded in pragmatic approaches, growth and transformation perspectives, learning by doing, and targeted emulation. Industrial hubs policy is bound up with industrial and technology policies more broadly, and with urban systems, infrastructure development, skills formation, development of human capital, and national spatial policies. The discussions throughout this book have illustrated the diverse and complex nature of industrial hubs, and how industrial hubs can facilitate industrialization, structural transformation, and technological catch-up. This chapter reviews the key drivers of industrial hub successes and failures for the benefit of late latecomers. It explores the implications of emerging issues and trends such as environmental protection and sustainability, technological advancement, the shifts in the global economy, and urbanization. The concluding remarks emphasize the centrality of learning and latecomer advantage.
Industrial Policy, Institutional Transformation, and the Development of Industrial Parks
Authors: Stein Howard
Published: August 2020

Industrial parks have proliferated in virtually every region of the world in line with the growing interest in industrial transformation in developing countries. While a good deal of literature has focused on the operation of these parks, less has been written on the broader dimensions that have allowed the parks to become catalysts for structurally transforming economies. The issue is not simply one of developing policy strategies but of understanding how to transform organizational capacities and institutional relationships that concatenate industrial hubs to each other and to other key sectors of the economy. The chapter critically assesses mainstream policy advice on industrial parks and draws on institutional and other economic traditions to generate a theoretical understanding of the systemic prerequisites and policy alternatives that will help determine the success or failure of industrial parks.
Industrialization, Hubs, and Catch-up
Authors: Nayyar Deepak
Published: August 2020

This chapter analyses the striking changes in the geographical distribution of manufacturing production amongst countries and across continents since 1750, a period that spans more than two-and-a-half centuries, which could be described as the movement of industrial hubs in the world economy over time. Until around 1820, world manufacturing production was concentrated in China and India. The Industrial Revolution, followed by the advent of colonialism, led to deindustrialization in Asia and, by 1880, Britain became the world industrial hub that extended to northwestern Europe. The United States surpassed Britain in 1900, and was the dominant industrial hub in the world until 2000. During 1950 to 2000, the relative, though not absolute, importance of Western Europe diminished, and Japan emerged as a significant industrial hub, while the other new industrial hub, the USSR and Eastern Europe, was short lived. The early twenty-first century, 2000–2017, witnessed a rapid decline of the United States, Western Europe, and Japan as industrial hubs, to be replaced largely by Asia, particularly China. This process of shifting hubs, associated with industrialization in some countries and deindustrialization in other countries in the past, might be associated with premature deindustrialization in yet other countries in the future.
Positive Aging from a Lifespan Perspective
Authors: Nakamura Jeanne , Chan Thomas
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses positive aging from a lifespan perspective. That is, it situates later life within the life as a whole and differentiates two periods within later life – the third (young-old) and fourth (oldest-old) ages. While discussing multiple dimensions of biopsychosocial aging, which include physical and cognitive health, the chapter gives primary attention to psychosocial aging, where great potential exists for cross-fertilization with positive psychology. The chapter begins with brief discussion of demographics (i.e., the aging of societies around the globe) and definitional issues, recognizing that there are multiple traditions within gerontology that have addressed positive dimensions of the aging process. Then, employing gerontology’s distinction between the third and fourth ages of life, we discuss the potential for positive experience during the fourth age and the more extensive areas of positive functioning that characterize the third age. In closing, we identify several interventions that promote aging well and suggest ways of approaching research in this area.
Diogenes of Oenoanda
Authors: Gordon Pamela
Published: August 2020

The otherwise unknown Diogenes of Oenoanda authored a monumental Greek inscription that offered Epicurean salvation (σωτηρία) to his compatriots and to foreign visitors to his small but thriving town in Lycia (now in Turkey). Parts of the dismantled circa second-century ce inscription were first discovered in 1884, and fragments continue to emerge. The contents include several letters, original epitomes on Physics and Ethics, a discourse on Old Age, a collection of the Epicurean Key Doctrines, a set of original Maxims, and a lengthy but now fragmentary explanation of Diogenes’s philanthropic purpose. Scholars estimate that Diogenes’s text—the largest known inscription from the ancient world—originally consisted of over 25,000 words spread across 260 square meters. Located evidently in a prominent urban setting, the inscription had the properties of a billboard, an archive, a philosophical handbook, an imposing commemorative monument, and something akin to a shrine. While the epigraphical content is unique and even subversive, the inscription reflects trends in imperial Asia Minor: extravagant urban benefactions, the enthusiasm for epigraphy, and the public display of Greek culture. Diogenes’s inscription is significant to the history of Epicureanism, as it provides glimpses of a lost Epicurean community, sheds light on the formation of Epicurean texts, and attests to the diversity of the social and cultural contexts of Epicureanism. Among its most unexpected aspects are an emphasis on altruism and a description of an imagined Epicurean future when there would be no slaves, fortifications, or laws, and the world would be “full of justice and mutual love.”
Friendship
Authors: Mitsis Phillip
Published: August 2020

The surviving evidence for Epicurus’s view of friendship has given rise to divergent scholarly interpretations. For some, Epicurus recommends narrowly self-regarding relations with friends, while for others, he seems to recognize the commonly held opinion that reliable and rewarding friendships require us to treat our friends not solely as instruments to our own pleasure. Both of these views have been bolstered by larger considerations from within the wider theory, practice, and history of Epicureanism. Thus, some have made inferences from what they take to be Epicurean social practices, while others have tried to view friendship within the larger context of Epicurean social theory. Still others have posited various kinds of developmental accounts that see Epicurus’s original theory changing as later Epicureans confronted new practical and theoretical questions raised by their conception of the good life. A further question is raised by later Epicurean evidence about divine friendships, which are not based on mutual need. To what extent can humans, enmeshed in the practical demands of human friendship, hope to realize Epicurus’s injunctions to live a life worthy of the gods, and hence, perhaps, form friendships untainted by mutual need? Again the evidence seems muted, but Epicurus’s concerns about the nature of ataraxia, autonomy, and our invulnerability to chance puts questions about the relations among philosophical philoi at the very center of what we might call his high philosophical discourse about the nature of the individual self and the external requirements of hedonistic happiness.
Rhetoric
Authors: Chandler Clive
Published: August 2020

This chapter offers an overview of the evidence for the Epicurean views on the technical status and utility of rhetoric. These views are broadly consistent with the School’s recommendation that the wise minimize engagement in most aspects of civic life. Yet Epicurus himself, and later exponents of his philosophy, clearly utilize techniques and figures derived from rhetorical theory and practice, and Lucretius even chose to communicate Epicurean doctrine through rhetorically enhanced poetry. Since the later Epicurean Philodemus represents the fullest and most detailed source of Epicurean reflection on the subject of rhetoric, particular attention is given to his testimony in On Rhetoric and to the question of how his testimony can be reconciled with the broader doxography on Epicurean attitudes to rhetoric. Philodemus maintains that Epicurus and the Founders of the School recognized one type of rhetoric, epideictic or “sophistic” as Philodemus labels it, as technical and useful. The uncoupling of epideictic rhetoric from the discipline of rhetoric more broadly enabled Philodemus to incorporate prose composition into an Epicurean educational program so that the doctrines of Epicureanism could be disseminated effectively and clearly. Lastly, the chapter reflects briefly on the sort of discursive objectives and practices which appear to be endorsed by Epicureans, despite the School’s reservations about rhetoric’s effectiveness in education and civic life.
Seneca and Epicurus
Authors: Graver Margaret
Published: August 2020

A thorough review of the evidence for Seneca’s interactions with Epicurean texts and ideas helps to clarify the nature of his response. Because he works from an extensive knowledge base which includes some texts not otherwise known to us, Seneca is a valuable resource for those whose primary interests are in Epicureanism; however, his evidence must be evaluated carefully and in full awareness of his philosophical motivations. Seneca identifies some elements of Epicurean doctrine and practice that he can respect and even emulate, notably the austere lifestyle, the rejection of superstition, and the techniques of memorization and maxim-creation as a vehicle for instruction. Yet he objects both strongly and consistently to the essential and most characteristic Epicurean positions: the uncreated cosmos of atoms and void, hedonist foundations of ethics, the instrumentalization (as he sees it) of friendship and other-concern. When he endorses an Epicurean claim, he does so advisedly, abstracting it from its philosophical context and reinscribing it within his preferred Stoic system of thought. On this basis he is willing even to assert in his own voice a number of Epicurus’s psychological principles, exempting only those that he believes are in conflict with the phenomena. Of particular interest in this regard are his remarks on the manipulation of attention as a remedy for pain (Ep. 78.18) and his resistance to a Metrodoran recommendation for the management of grief (Ep. 99.25).
Postmodernism
Authors: Noller Eva Marie , Shearin W. H.
Published: August 2020

This chapter considers the fate of Epicureanism in the postmodern age by looking at three diverse figures, Hans Blumenberg, Jacques Derrida, and Michel Serres. It addresses the puzzling question of how Epicureanism was adopted into postmodern thought, even as the ancient school seems so resistant to the scepticism that forms the core of much postmodern thinking. For Blumenberg, the chapter ponders three of his main references to Epicurus and Epicureanism—in his Shipwreck with Spectator, The Legitimacy of the Modern Age, and Cave Exits—showing that Epicureanism does not serve so much as a body of thought he embraces as a whole, but rather as a point of reference he uses to outline the epistemological foundations of antiquity and modernity. For Derrida, the chapter explores how he sees Lucretius (and the atomist tradition more generally) as a forerunner of his idea of the trace. Serres, finally, draws upon Lucretius’s De rerum natura to describe the development of modern science, especially physics, from a different angle, aiming to re-establish a forgotten paradigm of physics which relies on fluidity.
Epicurus and Epicureanism in Rabbinic Literature, Maimonides, and Rabbi Nachman of Breslov
Authors: Danzig Gabriel
Published: August 2020

Although the authors of the Tannaitic and Amoraitic literature were unaware of the philosophical doctrines of Epicurus, they were aware of the attitudes and behavior of members of the Epicurean sect and offered a valuable account of the interaction of Epicureans with rabbinic figures. Actual knowledge of Epicurus’s doctrines appears first in Islamic Spain and reaches its most developed form in the discussions of Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah and the Guide of the Perplexed. In the MT, Maimonides reworks the Talmudic material in light of his knowledge of the philosophical opinions of Epicurus. In the Guide he suggests that Kalām theology can be understood as a religious form of Epicureanism, and this is one of his reasons for opposing the Kalām. Maimonides believes that Aristotle has disproved Epicurus, but his arguments on this point contain weaknesses. Finally, Rabbi Nachman of Breslev seems to have had some knowledge of the theories of Epicurus, since he associates Epicurus, for the first time in Jewish literature, with the so-called empty space or void discussed in the Kabbala. He grants more validity to Epicurean theories than did previous writers, merging Epicurean physics with a Kabbalistic theory of divine creation by means of retraction.
Early Modern Epicureanism
Authors: Paganini Gianni
Published: August 2020

Two fundamental notions of Epicureanism took new life in modern political thought: that of the social contract, the agreed and consensual basis of law and authority, and that of the “state of nature” that precedes it. There is no question that among all ancient traditions the Garden was one of very few to base law and politics on the contract and consent of the contracting parties. Yet, by contrast with the Sophists, who emphasized the conventional aspects so far as to be open to the charge of pure relativism, Epicureans looked for a “weak” but “natural” foundation of the social contract deducing it from an idea or mental anticipation (prolēpsis) of justice based on utility. This approach was revived in the seventeenth-century Neo-Epicureanism of Pierre Gassendi who also reworked Epicurus’s and Lucretius’s outdated psychology, transforming it into a more modern “mechanistic” theory of mind. During the greater part of the 1640s Hobbes and Gassendi both lived in Paris and were in close personal contact. The same period was for both thinkers decisive for the construction of their works: the Syntagma philosophicum for Gassendi, De cive, De motu, loco et tempore, and Leviathan for Hobbes. This chapter explores the complex interplay between them, especially with regards to psychology, the foundations of ethics, legal theory, and political philosophy, stressing the important role that ancient Epicureanism and seventeenth-century Neo-Epicureanism played in the birth of a modern theory of individual rights.
Epicureanism and Utilitarianism
Authors: Long A. A.
Published: August 2020

Was Epicurus an undeclared utilitarian? His name is not generally to the fore in contemporary treatments of utilitarianism, but the three Victorian founders of the doctrine, Bentham, Mill, and Sidgwick, looked back to Epicurus as an important precursor on the basis of his hedonistic theory of value. In this chapter I conduct a conversation, as it were, between Epicurus and the three Victorians, with a view to asking questions about their respective stances on the naturalness and rationality of hedonism, the relation of active pleasure to freedom from pain, and the compatibility between egoism and interest in the general happiness. I conclude that Epicurus measures up well, in terms of the consistency of his hedonism, and that his theory of friendship and educational mission, when set alongside the doctrines of the official utilitarians, fully warrant situating him as a fellow traveller.