bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Legis actio
Authors: Schermaier Martin J , Dedek Helge
Published: December 2012

Legis actio– “action according to the law” – is the most ancient form of Roman procedure known to us. What the phrase describes is even today amatter of contention:lexmight refer to ancient laws (in the sense of statutes) – such as theleges XII tabularumorleges regiae– as well as to the procedural Formula itself that marks the beginning of the lawsuit.
Lex Manciana
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

TheLex Mancianawas a tenure arrangement on imperial estates in North Africa during the Early Roman Empire.
Loan, Greek and Roman
Authors: Rovira‐Guardiola Charo
Published: December 2012

The practice of lending was widespread in the Classical world. It varied from private personal loans of small amounts of money or objects to large amounts, such as the loan that paid for the Second Punic War. Lending was satirized in plays and criticized in ancient literature, but this did not make the practice less popular or less essential for the development of the economic system.
Manceps
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

The term
manceps
(plural
mancipes
) most commonly refers to an individual who undertook a public contract with the Roman state.
Mancipatio
Authors: Banfi Antonio
Published: December 2012

The Roman
Ius civile
classified things as
res mancipi
(those most important in the economy of the archaic age: estates in
italico solo
, slaves, beasts of draft and burden, praedial servitudes) and
res nec mancipi
.
Mancipium
Authors: Banfi Antonio
Published: December 2012

The meaning of
mancipium
is not univocal. The etymology points to a derivation from
manu capere
(“take with the hand;” Varr. 6.85).
Mancipium
is therefore related to other words with the same origin, such as
mancipatio, res mancipi
(
see
Mancipatio), and so on.
Manumission, Greek and Roman
Authors: Zelnick‐Abramovitz Rachel
Published: December 2012

Manumission was the termination of the state of slavery – of the total domination and confinement of one person by another – and the annulment of his or her legal capacity as property. Being freed, the slave became a subject of rights, limited as they were.
Mors litis
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

Mors litis
, “death of proceedings,” refers to the lapse of civil proceedings in Roman law if no judgment was entered within a certain time after
Litis Contestatio
. The expression is Justinianic (
CJ
3.13.5), but based on classical usage.
Nuncupatio
Authors: McGinn Thomas A. J.
Published: December 2012

From an early period,
nuncupate
meant making a solemn declaration in the presence of witnesses in certain religious or legal contexts.
Obligation, Greek and Roman
Authors: Dedek Helge , Schermaier Martin J.
Published: December 2012

Justinian'sInstitutesdefined the concept of obligation as follows:Obligatio est iuris vinculum quo necessitate adstringimur alicuius solvendae rei secundum nostrae civitatis iura(Just.Inst. 3.13.pr) (theobligatiois a “legal tie” (iuris vinculum) that binds us to render a performance to another person according to our laws).
Graphe paranomon
Authors: Rhodes P. J.
Published: December 2012

A
graphe paranomon
was an Athenian lawsuit (“public suit for illegality”), available for one year (or perhaps within the official year when the proposal was made) against the proposer of a decree of the assembly and indefinitely against the decree (Dem. 23.
Aristocrates
104, not specifying the time; but cf. Dem. 20.
Lept
. 144, a comparable suit against a law, Dem. 20.
Leptines, hyp
. 2.3, mentioning decrees and laws).
Peculium
Authors: Lohsse Sebastian
Published: December 2012

In a Roman family, the oldest living male ancestor (Paterfamilias) was the only person said to be in his own power (
sui iuris
). Accordingly, proprietary capacity lay solely with him. Any acquisitions by his children, whatever their age, and by his slaves automatically vested in him. Yet sons in the power of their father as well as slaves could be provided with a
peculium
, i.e., funds to manage for themselves. Although such funds technically still belonged to the
paterfamilias
, they were, in practice, regarded as the son's or slave's own property.
Perjury
Authors: Fitzgerald John T.
Published: December 2012

Perjury in the ancient world was a violation of an oath and comprised not only false statements made under oath but also failures to keep sworn promises.
Possessio
Authors: Kehoe Dennis
Published: December 2012

In the Roman law of property,
possessio
denoted the lawful physical and intentional occupation of property, including land and movable property, even when the person doing so was not the legal owner.
Privilegium
, of legal forum
Authors: Banfi Antonio
Published: December 2012

The Roman
privilegium
of legal forum (
privilegium fori
) granted to specific classes of individuals the privilege of being tried by special courts operating under particular jurisdictions.
Proof, legal, Greek and Roman
Authors: Thür Gerhard
Published: December 2012

In ancient Greece and Rome the law of evidence was very similar.
Quaestio perpetua
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

Quaestio perpetuais the standard modern term for the standing criminal courts of the Late Republic, which lasted, albeit in a diminished form, until the third centuryCE.
Recuperatores
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

Recuperatores
(literally “recoverers”) is the Roman law term for judges who sat in civil proceedings in groups of three or five instead of the single judge (

IUDEX

) usually competent to decide civil actions. In the eastern provinces, the term
xenokritai
was sometimes used for Roman
recuperatores
(
P.Yadin
28.11).
Rescriptum
Authors: Peachin Michael
Published: December 2012

A rescript (rescriptum) most commonly refers to a written response from the Roman emperor to one of his subjects or officials, occasioned by an original written contact from that person.
Responsa
Authors: Peachin Michael
Published: December 2012

Very early on in Roman history, it appears that thepontifices, the members of the chief board of priests of the state religion, held something like a monopoly over the law, in both the sacral and the secular realms (insofar as the two were altogether separate).
Syro‐Roman law book
Authors: Thür Gerhard
Published: December 2012

Until the edition by Selb and Kaufhold (2002), this source was seen as containing an “enigmatic” mixture of Roman law and non‐Roman law, i.e., local customs from the east of the Late Roman Empire (Buckland 1963: 48; Maas 2000: 247–9, with some passages translated into English).
Tabula Banasitana
Authors: Salway Benet
Published: December 2012

This inscribed bronze plaque, now in the Museum of Antiquities at Rabat, takes its name from its find‐spot in the ancient city of Banasa in Roman Mauretania (Sidi Ali bou Jenoun, Morocco), where it was unearthed in 1957 in the East Baths complex.
Tabulae Herculanenses
Authors: Camodeca Giuseppe
Published: December 2012

The cities around Mount Vesuvius, destroyed by the eruption in 79
CE
, have preserved for us wax tablet archives (
Caecilius Iucundus, Sulpicii
, and
Tabulae Herculanenses
) of extraordinary importance for the study of Roman social and economic history, onomastics, juridical praxis, and even the consular
fasti
.
Thesmos
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

The Greek word
thesmos
can in most contexts be translated with the English word “law.”
Usucapio
Authors: Lohsse Sebastian
Published: December 2012

The mere lapse of time can affect legal positions in different ways. While it may extinguish rights, its effects in property law may also be acquisitive. In Roman property law,usucapioprovided for such acquisitive effects.Usucapiowas the means of acquiring both movable and immovable property by continuous possession. It thereby served an important practical purpose:usucapioallowed for the acquisition of ownership where a previous conveyance had been defective either because the transferor did not have title to the property or because the prescribed mode of conveyance had not been adhered to.
Sasanian Lawbook
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

The Sasanian Lawbook or
Mādayān ī Hazār Dādestān
(the book called
A thousand judgements
) is the only Sasanian legal work to survive in its original form and language, Middle Persian (Pahlavi).
Abdera
Authors: Loukopoulou Louisa
Published: December 2012

A Greek colony first established ca. 654BCEby Klazomenians under Timesios, Abdera was refounded in 544 by Teians.
Acharnai
Authors: Taylor Claire
Published: December 2012

Acharnai (Menidi/Acharnes) was, during the Classical period, the largest deme in Attica (contributing twenty‐two councilors to theBoule; this was increased to twenty‐five in the reorganization of 307/6).
Adiabene
Authors: Hauser Stefan R.
Published: December 2012

Adiabene (Greek/Latin, derived from Aramaic Hdyab; Syriac Ḥɘḏayyaḇ) was the name of a geographical region and a dependent kingdom within the Arsacid and Sasanian empires in present‐day northern Iraq.
Aegean Sea (Classical and later)
Authors: Reger Gary
Published: December 2012

The Aegean Sea is the body of water bounded by Greece on the west and north, Turkey on the east, and the island of Crete on the south. It encompasses approximately 214,000 km
2
(83,000 square miles).
Alexandria ad Issum
Authors: Lerner Jeffrey D.
Published: December 2012

There is no evidence linking Alexander the Great with the city of Alexandria ad Issum in Cilicia on the Gulf of Issos following his victory at issos in 333BCE(Tarn 1948: 239), nor as a city founded by Seleukos I in honor of Alexander (Jones 1971: 197).
Arabian Gulf
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

TheArabicus Sinus, now known as the Persian Gulf, was known in antiquity as theErythraeum Mare. According to Herodotus (1.2), the original homeland of the Phoenicians lay in its area, from which they migrated to the eastern Mediterranean. It is bounded by the Arabian Peninsula on the west and Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran on the north and east. ThePeriplus maris Erythraei(first centuryCE) lists sites along its shores. Ancient ships could sail around the Arabian Peninsula and gain access to the Red Sea and thence to the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba, which in turn enabled links to Egypt, the Sinai, and any of the caravan routes from the east. We are dependent for knowledge of routes in the desert on ancient itineraries, supported and enlarged by recent surveys, especially marking sites by the Global Positioning System.
Aromata Emporion
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

Aromata Emporium (Port of Spices/Spice Port) is mentioned in section 12 of the Greek sea guide
Periplus maris Erythraei
(first century
CE
) (Casson 1989: 57).
Artemis Brauron sanctuary
Authors: Steinhauer Julietta
Published: December 2012

The sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron, chiefly known for having hosted pre‐puberty and pre‐marriage rituals for girls and young women, was originally located directly on the eastern coast of Attica, 37 km from the center of Athens.
Chersonese, Thrace
Authors: Yavuz Mehmet Fatih
Published: December 2012

The Chersonese is a long, narrow peninsula (present‐day Gallipoli), projecting from European Turkey into the Aegean.
Corinthian Gulf
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

The Corinthian Gulf (first mentioned in Xen.
Hell
. 6.2.9) is a long and narrow bay separating the Peloponnese from central Greece. The gulf reaches a maximum depth of slightly more than 850 m. All
poleis
on the coast were connected in a close way. The north coast exhibits a subsiding coastline with a few alluvial plains and with many bays.
Cyprus
Authors: Alexandridou Alexandra‐Fani
Published: December 2012

The island of Cyprus is situated in the Eastern Mediterranean, occupying a prominent position at the crossroads of the Aegean and the Middle East. Cypriot Archaeology was recognized as a separate research domain only during the second quarter of the previous century.
Dekeleia
Authors: Hülden Oliver
Published: December 2012

Dekeleia is a city and deme situated 120 stades north of Athens (Thuc. 7.19.2), in a pass of the Parnes mountains.
Dolopes, Dolopia
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Dolopia is a vast mountainous region, inhabited by the Dolopes, on the southern slopes of the Pindos range, southwest of the plain of Thessaly.
Euromos/Philippoi
Authors: Bresson Alain
Published: December 2012

The town of Euromos overlooks a plain to the northwest of Mylasa, in Western Caria. It was originally a Carian town and a Carian inscription has been found on the site. Its name is mentioned in the lists of the Athenian tribute asHyromosorKyromos(Adiego 2007: 132–3, 338). As early as the fifth centuryBCE, there existed a Greek form,Europos(Hdt. 8.133). For a brief period, after it was occupied by Philip V of Macedon in 201/0, the town bore the namePhilippoi. The most common form wasEuromos, in an apparent allusion torhome(“strength”).
Glaukos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Glaukos River rises in the Daidala Mountain of Lycia and flows southward into the Bay of Glaukos/Telmessos.
Hebron
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Hebron lies in a narrow valley, surrounded by mountainous terrain, at a height of 960 m, in Judaea, about twenty Roman miles south of Jerusalem and about the same distance from Beersheba.
Herakleia Salbake
Authors: Bresson Alain
Published: December 2012

Herakleia Salbake was located on the southern outskirts of modern Babadağ (ancient Mount Kadmos, near Salbake mountain), to the north of the plateau of Tabai, in inland Caria.
Hydaspes
Authors: Gupta Sunil
Published: December 2012

Hydaspes is the ancient Greek name for the Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus River. The Hydaspes/Jhelum is prone to formation of sandbanks, which impede navigation, making the river dangerous for large boats.
Hymettos mountain
Authors: Taylor Claire
Published: December 2012

This mountain (peak: 1027.1 m) is in Attica to the east of Athens. Exploitation of Hymettos was a crucial part of the Athenian economy throughout Antiquity, providing not only marble for the city, but also resources for local communities.
Imbros
Authors: Dimitrova Nora
Published: December 2012

Imbros is one of the Thracian islands in the northern Aegean, strategically located close to the Dardanelles. The “rocky” island (Hom.
II
. 24.78), which had abundant water, but was otherwise lacking in resources, occupies a territory of 225 sq km, with an elevation of up to 597 m. The ancient history of Imbros is marked by its close relationship with Athens.
Isthmus
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

Literally, “isthmus” means all links between two things (e.g., the neck connecting the body with the head; Pl.
Ti
. 69e), and in a transferred sense it describes the strip of land between two seas.
Kaukasa
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Kaukasa was a town located on the western coast of Chios (Hdt. 5.33). Herodotus says that Megabates, during the Ionian Revolt, brought the Persian fleet into its harbor, intending to use the north wind to sail to Naxos. Naxos lies more than four hundred miles to the southwest. The site of Kaukasa is not known exactly, but is supposed to lie on the western coast of Chios at a point beneath the Arios mountain in the north where the island thrusts out toward the central Aegean. Its possible location is marked somewhat inland from the ancient coastline. The name is thought to have an origin in Asia Minor.
Kaunos
Authors: West III William C.
Published: December 2012

The ancient settlement of Kaunos is situated on the Lycian coast of southwestern Turkey, on the right bank of a river which flows out of the Lake of Köyceğiz and into the Mediterranean.
Kephisos
Authors: Camp John McK.
Published: December 2012

The Kephissos river runs through the central part of the Attic plain, north of Athens, and seems to have played little part in the daily life of the city. It rises in the foothills of Mount Parnes and Mount Pentele and flows for 27 km, reaching the sea at Phaleron. The abundant springs at Kephalari, near the deme of Kephissia, are presumably one of several sources. The river is mentioned by Sophocles (
OC
585). The Sacred Way to Eleusis crossed over the river, and Pausanias refers to several monuments, shrines, and tombs near its banks (1. 37.3–4). There was also a Kephissos river in the Eleusinian Plain, which has given rise to some confusion as to which river was crossed by means of a bridge and when (
IG
II
2
1191 and
Anth. Pal
. 9. 147).
Kimmerian Bosphorus
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

The Kimmerian Bosphorus is the strait (Hdt. 4.12,28) at the eastern extension of the Crimean Peninsula, leading into the Maeotis Lake (Sea of Azov) at Kerch (Pantikapaion, Bophorus). Its extent is described by Strabo (11.2.1–16). The termBosphorusmeans “ox‐crossing” and thus designates a strait. The termKimmeriandistinguishes this strait from the Bosphorus in the southwest which permits entrance into the Black Sea at Byzantium/Constantinople. The ethnic origin of theKimmeriiis obscure. They have been thought to be a Thracian or Celtic people, but this is highly uncertain. They invaded upper Asia in the seventh centuryBCE, causing much destruction (Hdt. 1.6.15–16). They were pursued into Asia by the Scythians.
Kleonai
Authors: Grieb Volker
Published: December 2012

Kleonai is situated on a large‐scale hill in the southwestern area of a fertile basin south of the territory of Corinth. In ancient times the two main roads from the Corinthian isthmus to the central Peloponnese passed along the city, one southward via Argos, the other via Nemea and Phleious toward Arcadia. In the Archaic and Classical periods the city controlled the neighboring sanctuary of Zeus in Nemea and also organized the Nemean Games (Pind.Nem. 10.79), but lost that privilege to Argos later on – most probably in the late fourth centuryBCE. The two cities had had a very close relationship since the fifth century, and in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic times Kleonai was even akomeof Argos.
Kolchis
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Kolchis was the legendary location of Aea at the easternmost reaches of the Black Sea where a dragon guarded the Golden Fleece.
Kolonai
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Kolonai was an Attic deme in the Mesogeia (
New Pauly
(2003) 3: 537–8), but can easily be confused with the site of a sanctuary of Poseidon Hippios and Athena Hippia, about 10 km north of the Acropolis of Athens.
Korseia
Authors: Michaleas Spyridon
Published: December 2012

1. Korseia (Plin.
HN
4.12.70) was the largest island in a cluster of thirteen islands southwest of Samos and southeast of Ikaria (Strabo 10.5.13).
Ktesiphon
Authors: Hauser Stefan R.
Published: December 2012

For nearly a thousand years, Ktesiphon (name in Latin/Greek; Parthian/Pahlavi:
tyspwn
; Aramaic Talmud:
(') qṭyspwn
; Syriac:
qṭyspwn
; Arabic: Ṭaysafūn) was one of the most important cities in the Near East and beyond. From the later second century
BCE
until 637
CE
, Ktesiphon served as the capital of the Arsacid and Sasanian empires (
see
Sasanians). It was thus the equivalent of Rome, or later Constantinople in the east.
Lebanon mountain
Authors: Klein Konstantin M.
Published: December 2012

Mount Lebanon (Arabic Jabal Lubnân) is a mountain range that extends ca. 160 km across the whole of present‐day Lebanon and separates the coastland from the Syrian plain (Strabo 16.16).
Leukas
Authors: Bonelou Elena
Published: December 2012

Leukas is situated opposite northwestern Akarnania. Its name derives from the hero Leukadios, son of Ikaros, and the cape Leukata, at the southern part of the island. Archaeological evidence from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age is, so far, limited. Homer referred to Leukas by the name
Nirikos
(
Od
. 24.376–78). During the reign of the tyrant Kypselos (657–625
BCE
; Strabo 10.2.8), the Corinthians established a new colony on the northeastern part of the island. The city was fortified by a circuit wall. The Corinthians opened the narrow channel between Leukas and Akarnania (
dioryktos
) to be navigable in order to protect their ships along the sea routes to western colonies. Leukas benefited from the Corinthian trade and soon became an important retail station by exporting its own wine, oil, and famous perfumed oil (Plin.
HN
21–42). Leukas issued numerous silver and bronze coins from the fifth to the first century
BCE
.
Mantinea
Authors: Pretzler Maria
Published: December 2012

Mantinea was a city in northeastern Arcadia. As one of the larger Peloponnesianpoleis, it became a member of major regional alliances while also pursuing its own regional ambitions. This resulted in repeated conflicts with its southern neighbor Tegea and hegemonic powers, and Mantinea was destroyed and rebuilt on the same site twice (385/70 and 223BCE).
Megara
Authors: Gaukroger Louise
Published: December 2012

Megara is located in the Megaris between Attica and the Peloponnese and is its principal city. The settlement is protected by mountains which almost surround the plain. South of the city the Geranian mountain range provides a natural barrier, and to the east more mountains hinder access to central Greece. The allegiances of Megara were of strategic importance during the Peloponnesian War in the fifth century
BCE
, as occupying the mountain passes obstructed invasion forces. There were three ports in the Megaris. Nisaia, on the Saronic Gulf, was closest to Megara. Pegai and Aigosthena were on the Corinthian Gulf, providing a trade link to Sicily and Italy. The island of Salamis was in Megara's territory during the Archaic period, until it was lost to Athens in the time of Solon.
Miletos
Authors: Greaves Alan M.
Published: December 2012

Miletos was the leadingpolisin Ionia during the Archaic period, although its importance waned following its destruction at the hands of the Persians in the aftermath of the battle of Lade in 494BCE, and its role as a leader in the region was progressively lost to Ephesos and then to Pergamon.
Mysia
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Mysia was a vast region in northwest Asia Minor, chiefly mountainous, with one upland valley in its northern reaches.
Nekromanteion sanctuary
Authors: Bowden William
Published: December 2012

The so‐called Nekromanteion of Ephyra was the only oracle of the dead in Greece.
Nemea
Authors: Miller Stephen G.
Published: December 2012

Nemea lies in a small valley in the eastern foothills of the Arcadian mountains of Greece, about equidistant between Corinth and Argos.
Olympia
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Olympia in Archaic and Classical times was renowned as the principal sanctuary of Zeus and site of the Olympic Games, open to all Greeks, wherever they lived.
Olympos mountain
Authors: Daubner Frank
Published: December 2012

On a circular base, with a diameter of 20 km, rises the limestone mountain Olympos as part of the Rhodopes–Cyclades massif, with the highest peak (Mytikas) at a height of 2,917 m.
Panormos in Akarnania
Authors: Scholten Joseph B.
Published: December 2012

Panormos in Akarnania presents a classic example of the limits of our knowledge of the ancient Mediterranean world.
Perge
Authors: Martini Wolfram
Published: December 2012

Perge was one of the most eminent and ancient cities in Pamphylia, on the Gulf of Attaleia (modern Antalya). It is located 20 km to the east of Attaleia, 11 km north of the Mediterranean coast, and 4 km west of the River Cestrus (modern Aksu) in a fertile alluvial plain. Three important roads led to Perge: the later
Via Sebaste
from the north‐west, out of western Anatolia; the road from the sea port of Magydos from the southeast; and from the east the road from the river port on the Aksu near Solam, which continued to the Pamphylian cities of Sillyon, Aspendos, and Side.
Prusa
Authors: Scholten Joseph B.
Published: December 2012

Prusa (GreekProusa) is a settlement located in the northern foothills of the Olympic mountains of northwest Turkey (Prusa ad Olympum: Plin.HN5.148; modern Bursa).
Rhamnous
Authors: Oliver G. J.
Published: December 2012

This Athenian deme, one of the best preserved sites in Attica, lies close to the frontier in northeast Attica, overlooks the Gulf of Euboea, and controls a rich hinterland that produced, among other things, cereal crops and vines.
Sagalassos
Authors: Waelkens Marc
Published: December 2012

According to surface finds of late Bronze Age pottery, the origin of Sagalassos, located just north of Ağlasun and ca. 109 km north of Antalya in southwest Turkey, may go back to the late Bronze Age, when the settlement may have been a border stronghold of the Luwian state of Arzawa Minor, possibly known as Salawassa in fourteenth‐centuryBCEHittite sources.
Saronic Gulf
Authors: Baxter Kristen , Figueira Thomas J.
Published: December 2012

The Saronic Gulf (modern Gulf of Aigina) is a gulf of the Aegean Sea lying between Attica in the northeast, Argolis in the southwest, and the Isthmus of Corinth in the northwest.
Siphnos
Authors: Constantakopoulou Christy
Published: December 2012

One of the Cyclades Islands, Siphnos was famous for its gold and silver mines in the sixth centuryBCE.
Skillous
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Skillous was a town in Triphyllia, near Olympia, which had been settled perhaps as early as Mycenaean times.
Tegea
Authors: Østby Erik
Published: December 2012

Ancient polis‐state with a considerable territory (about 385 km2) in the southeastern corner of Arcadia (Peloponnese), mostly hilly terrain with grazing for small stock, but with agricultural potential in the river plain at about 670 m above sea level, and marble quarries at Doliana.
T
eos
Authors: West William C.
Published: December 2012

Teos was founded early in the first millennium
BCE
by Minyans from Orchomenos in Boiotia, according to Pausanias (7.3.6).
Triopion Cape
Authors: Bresson Alain
Published: December 2012

Triopion was a cape in southwestern Asia Minor, and it was a landmark for sailing in and out of the Aegean Sea.
Triphylia
Authors: Heiden Joachim
Published: December 2012

The west Peloponnesian region of Triphylia is bordered on the north by Elis, on the east by Arcadia, and on the south by Messenia.
Maroneia
Authors: Psoma Selene
Published: December 2012

Maroneia was most probably a colony of Chios.
Philippopolis
Authors: Archibald Zosia H.
Published: December 2012

Philippopolis, the “city of Philip,” is the name that the ancient community in the area of modern Plovdiv, Bulgaria's second largest city, acquired after the conquest of Thrace (342–340
BCE
) by
PHILIP II OF MACEDON
.
Abgig
Authors: Hussein Angela
Published: December 2012

Abgig is a town located in the Fayyum oasis about 3 km southwest of modern Fayyum City (ancient Crocodilopolis‐Arsinoe).
Agriculture, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Katary Sally L. D.
Published: December 2012

The earliest evidence for agriculture in Egypt dates to the late sixth millennium in the Nile Delta (Merimde Beni‐salame ca. 5000–4100BCE) following the introduction of the first crops imported from the Near East as a supplement to the hunting and gathering lifestyle of the Neolithic.
Ahmose I
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Nebpehtyre Ahmose (I) was a son of Seqenenre Taa and Ahhotep, a grandson of Tetisheri and the immediate successor of Kamose.
Amarna
Authors: Spence Kate
Published: December 2012

Amarna (also known as El‐Amarna and Tell el‐Amarna) is the modern name given to the ancient Egyptian city of Akhetaten “Horizon of the sun disk,” built by the New Kingdom king Akhenaten (ca. 1352–1336
BCE
) in Middle Egypt.
Amenhotep (Amenophis) I–III
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Four kings of the 18th Egyptian Dynasty were named Amenhotep (“Amenophis” in Greek; for Amenhotep IVseeAkhenaten (Amenhotep IV)).
Asyut
Authors: Kahl Jochem
Published: December 2012

Asyut (Greek: Lykopolis), situated 375 km south of Cairo on the western side of the Nile, was capital of the thirteenth Upper Egyptian nome. Attested since the Old Kingdom, the city played an important role in Egypt's history because of its location near Gebel Abu‐el Feda, where the Nile narrows, and the beginning of a desert road probably identical with the later‐known Darb al‐Arbain. This important strategic position explains Asyut's Old Egyptian etymology: Saouti “The Guardian.”
Badarian
Authors: Hendrickx Stan
Published: December 2012

The Badarian and Tasian are the earliest Neolithic cultures known in Upper Egypt.
Food, drink, and feasting (Egypt)
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Food is the foundation of any society. The ancient Egyptians acknowledged its importance in their daily and religious life by showing different aspects of food production and consumption on the walls of temples and tombs, thereby reifying its existence for eternity. Food production was a key part of the economy, and the king controlled much of Egypt's agricultural land and its produce, as well as its livestock, particularly cattle.
Bastet
Authors: Lazaridis Nikolaos
Published: December 2012

Bastet was an ancient Egyptian goddess, whose cult probably first appeared in the city of Bubastis her name in Egyptianmeant “she of Bubastis.” Bastet was the benevolent version of more aggressive goddesses, such assekhmet and tefnut. Shewas the daughter of Re (seere and re horakhty) and mother of Mihos, a lion god of Lower Egypt.
Birds, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Wyatt John
Published: December 2012

One hundred eighty‐three bird species have so far been identified on the balance of probabilities from the mummies, bone remains, hieroglyphs, art, and artifacts of ancient Egypt. Just six of these appear to have been depicted only in Predynastic times.
Buto/Tell el‐Farain
Authors: Hartung Ulrich
Published: December 2012

The settlement mound of Buto (modern Tell el‐Farain) is situated in the floodplain of the northwestern Nile Delta, about 40 km south of the modern shoreline of the Mediterranean.
C‐Group
Authors: Gatto Maria Carmela
Published: December 2012

The termC‐Group, introduced byG. A. Reisner (1910), archaeologically designates a culture that appeared in Lowernubia, the territory between the First and Second cataracts, between around 2500 and 1500BCE(contemporary with the Egyptian Old Kingdom through the Second Intermediate Period).
Coptos
Authors: Meyer Carol
Published: December 2012

Coptos (Koptos; ancient Gebtiw; modern Quft, Qift, or Qeft) lies on the Nile's east bank, 38 km north of Luxor. It was the capital of the Fifth Nome (Two Falcons) at least as early as the 6th Dynasty (Adams 1997: 1). Min was Coptos' patron god and the majority of information concerning the area comes from excavations at his temple.
Co‐regency (Egypt)
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The institution of co‐regency refers to a situation where two co‐equal kings reign over the same territory at the same time. This is to be distinguished from an arrangement whereby a territory is subdivided, with the different parts of that territory ruled as separate entities by kings ruling in parallel.
Cosmology, Egypt
Authors: Haikal Fayza
Published: December 2012

The ancient Egyptians believed that there was a time when the world did not exist, and they also believed in its end.
Cults: divine, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Zinn Katharina
Published: December 2012

If “cult” in general can be defined as an expression of religious ideas and values, both in ritual actions and verbal expressions, then “divine cult” is the idea that every human activity is authorized by a divine order and aimed at contact with a particular celestial power.
Deir el‐Ballas
Authors: Lacovara Peter
Published: December 2012

The earliest excavated royal city we have from ancient Egypt is found at Deir el‐Ballas.
Diplomacy, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Shaw Garry J.
Published: December 2012

Egypt's isolation from the rest of the world – deserts to the east and west, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Nile cataracts to the south – gave rise to a philosophy of dangerous outsiders who threatened to disrupt the ordered world of the Egyptian state. Consequently, foreigners are typically depicted subjugated; the king symbolically tramples the enemies of Egypt and smites their leaders. Nevertheless, foreign trade was occurring early in Egyptian history with Mesopotamia, while Asiatic goods are known from the 1st Dynasty royal tombs at Abydos.
Dodekaschoinos
Authors: Rose Pamela
Published: December 2012

The Dodekaschoinos refers to the northernmost part of Lower Nubia, from the First Cataract to Hiera Sycaminos (modern Maharraqa), a distance of 12schoeni(roughly 120 km).
Eastern Desert
Authors: Sidebotham Steven E.
Published: December 2012

The Eastern Desert of Egypt, between the Nile and the Red Sea, from the Za'farana‐Krymat highway to the Sudanese border comprises ca.
Second Intermediate Period, Egypt
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The Second Intermediate Period is generally defined as comprising the 13th through 17th Egyptian Dynasties, although the first half of the 13th Dynasty has on occasion been classified as part of the preceding Middle Kingdom
Egypt, Upper
Authors: Kawai Nozomu
Published: December 2012

Although the boundary between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt has been ambiguous, Upper Egypt is considered to be the territory to the south of Memphis as far as roughly Aswan.
Egyptology
Authors: Bednarski Andrew
Published: December 2012

The discipline of Egyptology is regarded largely as the result of European enquiry spanning more than two thousand years of contact and cultural exchange.
El‐Hiba
Authors: Redmount Carol A.
Published: December 2012

El‐Hiba lies on the east bank of the Nile in northern Middle Egypt, about 55 km south of modern Beni Suef. The site is comprised of two main parts: an imposing walled town mound with a small limestone temple to Amun erected by Sheshonq I, Libyan founder of the 22nd Dynasty; and a series of outlying cemeteries with numerous burials, mostly disturbed, cut into the surrounding desert. Kamal worked first at Hiba in the late nineteenth century; Grenfell and Hunt followed him in 1902/3 and recovered enough papyri, mostly third century
BCE
, from mummy cartonnage to generate two monographs. Junker excavated burials at the site for three days in 1911; Ranke completely excavated Sheshonq I's temple and explored Greco‐Roman houses on the town mound in 1913/14. An Italian expedition excavated burials and Greco‐Roman and Third Intermediate period material on the town mound in 1934/5. In 1980, a University of Washington mission worked one season at the site. The current University of California, Berkeley team began work in 2001.
El‐Mo'alla
Authors: Snape Steven
Published: December 2012

The Egyptian cemetery site of El‐Mo'alla, presumably close to the now‐lost ancient city of Hefat, is best known for the rock‐cut tomb of Ankhtify, a crucial source of historical information for the First Intermediate period (2160–2055
BCE
).
El‐Omari
Authors: Wilson Penelope
Published: December 2012

A Neolithic settlement and cemetery site at the entrance to Wadi Hof on the eastern bank of the Nile, 3 km north of Helwan. Radiocarbon dates give a range for the site from around 4600 to 4200
BCE
. Excavations discovered several strata of occupation, with locally produced pottery, imported and local flints, and stone vases, perhaps from Palestine. Faunal and floral evidence suggests that the settlement was engaged primarily in food production. The cemeteries suggest that the population wore shell, bone, and pebble jewelry as personal adornment, and that society was at an early level of complexity. The shells may have been obtained from the Sinai and the Red Sea coast, using domesticated donkeys as the principal means of travel.
Esna/Latopolis
Authors: Liszka Kate
Published: December 2012

Esna/Latopolis, called Iunyt or Ta‐seny by the ancient Egyptians, is located in the third Upper‐Egyptian Nome, about 55 km south of Luxor on the west bank. Although there are Predynastic remains nearby, Esna clearly was a major town from the 12th Dynasty. Middle Kingdom tombs with funerary stelae and blocks from a chapel of Senwosret I (
see
Senwosret (Sesostris) I–IV) mark its beginning. These blocks were later reused in a Coptic church. This cemetery was used until the early New Kingdom, and its tombs were reused during the 20th to 22nd Dynasties. A necropolis of mummified Nile perch (
Lates niloticus
), sacred to the goddess Neith, patroness of the area and later identified with Athena (
see
Animal Mummies), exists south of the town. The Greeks named Latopolis after this fish.
Family, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Sabbahy Lisa
Published: December 2012

Getting married and having children in ancient Egypt was clearly the societal norm. Ideally, the ancient Egyptians expected marriage to be monogamous and lifelong, although divorce certainly existed and did not seem to affect remarriage. A recent study based on literary and artistic evidence concluded “affection and love were an integral part of the ideals of marriage in ancient Egypt” (Gee 2008: 103).
Fish, fishing, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Brewer Douglas J.
Published: December 2012

The Nile River, the most dynamic natural feature in Egypt, is not only the source of the country's legendary agricultural fertility, but also is a rich fishery. Fish and fishing permeated nearly every aspect of ancient Egyptian culture, from basic sustenance to a symbolic role in beliefs of the afterlife. Tracing the history and development offishing and fish use in ancient Egypt requires the examination of three important sources: skeletal remains, artistic representations, and textual references.
Gebel el‐Silsila
Authors: Harrell James A.
Published: December 2012

Gebel el‐Silsila, Egyptian Kheny or Khenu, is an ancient sandstone quarry located at N 24° 38.6',E 32° 55.9', about 60 km north of Aswan.
Giza
Authors: Geisen Christina
Published: December 2012

Giza (el‐Gīzah) is the third largest city in modern Egypt, situated about 20 km southwest of Cairo on the west bank of the Nile.
Hair, hairstyling, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Tassie G. J.
Published: December 2012

Hair can be cut, curled, straightened, or enhanced by wigs or hairpieces.
Hapy
Authors: Bednarski Andrew
Published: December 2012

Hapy was an ancient Egyptian fertility and fecundity figure.
Hatshepsut
Authors: Callender Vivianne
Published: December 2012

Hatshepsut was a queen who became a regent, later taking on the titles of a king.
Hieratic
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Hieratic is a form of writing based on the hieroglyphic script, first recorded from a jar label dated to the reign of the Scorpion King.
Horemheb
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Horemheb was an army officer, administrator, and finally king of Egypt during the second half of the fourteenth centuryBCE.
Houses, housing, household formation, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Spence Kate
Published: December 2012

The archaeological remains of thousands of ancient houses are preserved from Pharaonic Egypt, alongside a much smaller corpus of models and paintings of domestic structures.
Hygiene, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Miller Robert L.
Published: December 2012

Personal and household hygiene were important parts of ancient Egyptian self‐representation.
Ka
Authors: Nelson‐Hurst M. G.
Published: December 2012

The
ka
was an aspect of the person related to one's character, nature, and way of thinking.
Kamose
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Wadjkheperre Kamose was the immediate successor of Seqenenre Taa II. The two kings' relationship is uncertain: it has generally been assumed that he was his elder son, although it has also been suggested that Kamose may have been a younger brother of Taa and may have acted as senior coregent while Ahmose I was a child. His highest regnal year was Year 3.
Kamutef
Authors: Kraemer Bryan
Published: December 2012

Kamutef is principally an epithet of the Egyptian gods Amun and Min, especially as the syncretized deity Amun‐(Re)‐Min.
Kenamun/Qenamun
Authors: Shirley J. J.
Published: December 2012

Kenamun was the chief steward of king Amenhotep II (ca. 1427–1400
BCE
) and the chief steward of Peru‐Nefer, Amenhote II's naval center and garden estate near Memphis. His monuments include a tomb in Thebes (TT93), funerary cones and statuettes, statues, and shwabtis/ushabtis, including one of glass.
Kerma
Authors: Anderson Julie Renee
Published: December 2012

Kerma is located near the Third Cataract of the Nile and is the site of one of the earliest urban centers in sub‐Saharan Africa.
Kharga Oasis
Authors: Rossi Corinna , Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Kharga is the largest and southernmost of the five major oases of Egypt's Western Desert.
Khasekhemwy
Authors: Dreyer Günter
Published: December 2012

Khasekhem, also known as Khasekhemwy, was the last king of the 2nd Dynasty.
King lists, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The term “king list,” when applied to records surviving in documents from ancient Egypt, can refer to a number of different kinds of document. Some were apparently intended to be formal records of the royal succession, but others provide enumerations of kings for other reasons.
Maat
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Maat was the goddess of cosmic order or balance, as well as truth. She was the foundation of Egyptian religion (
see
Religion, Pharaonic Egypt), society, and worldview. Maat was depicted either as an ostrich feather or as a goddess wearing a feather in a fillet. The feather of Maat played a key role in the Judgment of the Dead (
see
Afterlife, Pharaonic Egypt), as it was weighed against the heart of the deceased in order to see if s/he had lived an ethical life and not violated the laws of Maat or social order.
Magic, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Zinn Katharina
Published: December 2012

In the modern mind, magic is often seen as opposite to religion or, at best, an early stage of religion.
Malkata/Malqata
Authors: Lacovara Peter
Published: December 2012

One of the best‐preserved and best‐documented of all the royal palace‐cities of ancient Egypt is that of Amenhotep III in Western Thebes, West).
Memphis, Pharaonic
Authors: Adams Matthew J.
Published: December 2012

Commonly, the term Memphis has come to refer to the general region of the first nome of Lower Egypt,Ineb‐Hedj(“White‐Wall”), where the Pharaonic capital of Egypt was occasionally situated and which included the vast cemetery ofSAQQARA.
Mentuemhat
Authors: Pischikova Elena
Published: December 2012

Mentuemhat (mntw‐m‐h3t) was one of the most prominent and powerful figures of the late Kushite‐early Saite Dynasties under the rule of Taharqo and Psamtik I. Fourth Priest of Amun, Mayor of Thebes, and Governor of Upper Egypt, he had more power and control over the Upper Egyptian administration and clergy than his formal titles indicate. A large area from Elephantine in the south to Hermopolis in Middle Egypt, including Thebes and Abydos, was under his authority, making him an informal king of Upper Egypt. He is known as a great builder, who initiated or supervised numerous new projects and repairs in Thebes and Abydos.
Merneith
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Merneith (ca. thirtieth centuryBCE, 1st Egyptian Dynasty) is the first Egyptian royal lady of whom we know anything of substance.
Meshkent
Authors: Nelson‐hurst M. G.
Published: December 2012

Meshkent was an ancient Egyptian goddess who protected women and children during childbirth, and was the personification of the magical birthing bricks (also calledMeshkent), on which woman in labor woulds quat.
Min
Authors: Nelson‐Hurst M. G.
Published: December 2012

Min (Egyptian: Menu), one of the oldest Egyptian deities, was associated with fertility, especially male potency. The Eastern Desert was also associated with this god, particularly the deserts to the East of Akhmim and Coptos, which were the chief cult centers for Min.
Naga el‐Deir
Authors: Podzorski Patricia
Published: December 2012

The series of cemeteries at Naga el‐Deir (also spelled Nag el‐Der, Naga‐ed‐Dêr) cover approximately 2 km on the east bank of the Nile opposite Abydos and date from early Predynastic (ca. 3800BCE) through Coptic times (after 400CE).
Neith
Authors: Wilson Penelope
Published: December 2012

The goddess Neith was represented as a woman wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt.
Nephthys
Authors: Monkhouse Wendy
Published: December 2012

The goddess Nephthys is encountered most frequently in a funerary context, paired with her sister Isis. Her name, Nbt‐Hwt, can be translated as “Lady (or Mistress) of Hwt,” variously understood to mean mortuary foundation, temple, or royal installation.
Nun
Authors: Eavis Ros , Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

The god Nun represented the primeval ocean, which existed at the beginning of time, embodying both chaos and the power of creation.
Ozymandias
Authors: Ryan Donald P.
Published: December 2012

Ozymandias is a Greek rendition of the Egyptian royal name “User‐Maat‐Re,” belonging to the 19th Dynasty pharaoh Rameses II (ca. 1304–1237
BCE
).
Pedubast I–III
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

The name Pedubast was borne by a number of kings of the Egyptian Third Intermediate period.
Psusennes
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Psusennes is the Greek form of the Egyptian name Pasebkhanut, and was most popular during the 21st Egyptian Dynasty. Two kings are known bearing the name, together with one or two high priests of Amun at Thebes. The identity of a number of these individuals has been a matter of debate.
Qadesh, battle of
Authors: Heagren Brett H.
Published: December 2012

The Battle of Qadesh (c. 1274BCE) is without doubt one of the most famous battles that took place in the ancient world, although it was by no means as decisive an affair as is generally thought.
Renenutet
Authors: Gillam Robyn
Published: December 2012

Renenutet was the fertility goddess,Rnn‐wtt, or “nurse‐snake”, who protected the king and the justified dead; she is attested from the 4th Dynasty.
Sekhmet
Authors: Eavis Ros , Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

Sekhmet was a goddess of war, military, plague, and the burning heat of the sun.
Ships, shipping, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Vinson Steve
Published: December 2012

The construction and use of watercraft is documented well into Egypt's prehistory. In every period, abundant archaeological remains, artistic representations, documentary texts, and literature illustrate the importance of a technology that had implications for politics, economics, and even religion.
Sneferu
Authors: Dodson Aidan
Published: December 2012

Sneferu (or Snefru) was the first king of the 4th Egyptian Dynasty and was apparently the son of Meresankh I, perhaps a wife of his predecessor, Huni.
Sobeknefru
Authors: Gillam Robyn
Published: December 2012

The last ruler of the 12th Dynasty is the first female ruler of Egypt attested in contemporary sources and the first to use a theophoric name incorporating that of the Crocodile god Sobek.
Tanis, San el‐Hagar
Authors: Shaw Garry J.
Published: December 2012

Situated in the Northeast Delta, Tanis (modern San el‐Hagar) was capital of the nineteenth Lower Egyptian Nome from the Late Period and known in ancient Egyptian as Djanet.
Taxation, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Warburton David A.
Published: December 2012

Taxation is an attribute of states, representing a portion of a state's wealth and/or production extracted from private usage and placed at the disposal of the state.
Textiles, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Jones Jana
Published: December 2012

The favorable conditions for organic preservation in ancient Egypt ensured the survival of significant quantities of textiles, providing an archaeological record that spans some five thousand years, beginning in the Neolithic period.
Trade, Pharaonic Egypt
Authors: Warburton David A.
Published: December 2012

Trade has different meanings, the most common relating to the noun and verb meaning “(to) exchange.” In economics, trade is understood as “(foreign) trade.”
Hermopolis Magna, Tuna el‐Gebel (Pharaonic)
Authors: Ikram Salima
Published: December 2012

The Tell of Hermopolis Magna, modern el‐Ashmunein, is located northwest of the town of Mallawi.