bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Accessible Elections and Campaign Mobilization
Authors: Ritter Michael
Published: October 2020

Beyond voting, can state convenience voting methods and election administration quality impact voter turnout by shaping the voter recruitment strategies of political campaigns? Using 2010, 2012, and 2014 Cooperative Congressional Election Studies surveys that include information on whether an individual was contacted by a campaign preceding an election, this study provides a direct test of how state election law and administration variation affects voter mobilization. Statistical models analyze how the laws and election administration impact mobilization, and then evaluate whether individuals who were contacted by a campaign (versus not contacted) are more likely to vote. The results show that convenience voting laws (no-excuse absentee/mail voting and same day registration) and an increase in the quality of state election administration encourage political campaigns to contact more individuals in general, in addition to the poor, and that being contacted by a campaign through these factors increases the probability of voting.
Introduction
Authors: Lejano Raul P. , Nero Shondel J. , Chua Michael
Published: October 2020

Chapter 1 reviews the ways in which communities are formed, by all manner of things, from the physical basis of their existence, their legal identity, and the people that form them. It suggests that if there is anything in common across all communities, it is that they are each represented and bound together by a constitutive narrative. Narratives can make believers, or skeptics, of us all and, moreover, forge us into a community. The book takes up one form of community, that of climate skeptics, that has resonated with enough people that it has begun challenging the scientific community in what is ostensibly a matter of science. The chapter lays out the argument to be developed in the book: that much of this is due to the strength of the climate skeptical narrative, and that this narrative draws from elements of plot that are more fundamental even than the issue of climate. The use of narrative analysis can trace the evolution of the ideological narrative and its effect on insulating its community from health public debate.
Introduction to organic electronics
Authors: Forrest Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

Basic concepts and opportunities that define the field of organic electronics and organic electronic materials are presented. This is followed by a brief history of the field that is marked by major advances over the last 70 years in our understanding of carbon-rich, disordered, soft organic semiconductors, and their widespread application to devices. A discussion is provided of common language and the introduction of important classes of both polymeric and small molecular weight organic materials to be used throughout the book. Finally, a list of common myths that have surrounded the field of organic electronics is provided, along with a brief discussion of the differences between these myths and the reality that is the subject of the text.
Bulk and thin film organic crystal structures
Authors: Forrest Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

Organic electronic devices are comprised of materials that are amorphous, nanocrystalline, microcrystalline, or single crystalline solids bonded by weak van der Waals forces. This chapter presents the terminology and concepts used in defining condensed matter structures, including the real and reciprocal lattices, the unit cell, and crystal symmetry. Bonding forces that form the solid, with emphasis on van der Waals bonds, are quantitatively discussed. In particular, the electrostatic potentials leading to both fixed and induced dipole interactions between molecules are described. Since almost all devices are found in thin film form, growth modes of thin films, from epitaxy, van der Waals epitaxy, quasiepitaxy, to self-assembly are discussed, along with the energetic driving forces that lead to particular thin film structures.
Materials purity, growth, and patterning
Authors: Forrest Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

This chapter describes the purification and growth of organic materials, device patterning, and coating of large substrate areas using volume manufacturing processes. Organic semiconductors are no different from other electronic materials—purity is of the utmost importance. The chapter begins by describing several purification techniques for achieving and assessing the quality of electronic-grade materials. Next is a discussion of bulk crystal growth, and growth by more technologically important methods for achieving thin films using solution or vapor phase growth processes. Post-growth annealing for achieving desired film morphologies is also discussed. Patterning of device structures by photolithography, stamping and nanoimprint lithography on both planar and curved surfaces are described. This is followed by consideration of manufacturing processes such as roll-to-roll production, and the constraints that such processes place on the choice of substrate. Last, packaging and device encapsulation that maintain substrate flexibility while protecting devices from attack by adverse environments is discussed.
Organic light detectors
Authors: Forrest Stephen R.
Published: October 2020

This chapter introduces the major concepts governing the operation of organic photoconductors, photodiodes, and solar cells. Quantum efficiency, gain, noise, bandwidth, and the trade-offs between these parameters are discussed. Organic light detectors are used in sensing and communications, although the predominant interest is in solar cells. The unique properties of organics, including flexibility and conformability, also make them useful in applications such as position-sensitive detection and in imaging, as considered in this chapter. Methods for quantifying and measuring solar cell and detector efficiency are described, leading to a derivation of the thermodynamic efficiency limits for solar power generation. Materials and device architectures for minimizing energy loss include single and multijunction cells, singlet fission, and semitransparent cells. Quantifying and achieving very high device reliability is considered, along with criteria for acceptable practical device lifetime. Finally, we discuss processes developed for large-scale and low-cost manufacturing of organic solar cells.
Sociolinguistic typology and the uniformitarian hypothesis
Authors: Trudgill Peter
Published: October 2020

One of the bases of historical linguistics is the uniformitarian principle: knowledge of processes that operated in the past can be inferred by observing ongoing processes in the present. This leads us to the methodological principle of using the present to explain the past. This chapter presents a sociolinguistic-typological perspective which investigates the extent to which it is possible to produce sociolinguistic explanations for linguistic structures. Insofar as the characteristics of individual languages are due to the nature of the human language faculty, there cannot be any questioning of the uniformitarian principle. But what if some of the characteristics of individual languages are due to social factors? Then the common faculty of the human mind will produce different types of structure in different societies at different moments in history. So the linguistic present might not altogether be like the linguistic past; and the methodology of using-the-present-to-explain-the-past could be less useful the further back in time we go.
Dominant Firm Unilateral Conduct: Monopolization and Abuse of Dominance
Authors: Gerber David J.
Published: October 2020

A firm acting alone—that is, unilaterally—can also harm competition. If it has sufficient influence on a market, it can exclude rivals or limit their capacity to compete. Competition law regimes typically contain provisions prohibiting such conduct. Most use the concept of abuse of dominance to identify and combat it, but a few, including the US, use the term “monopolization” for this purpose. This component of competition law is often controversial and politically sensitive, and globalization increases this tension. This chapter identifies the issues in applying competition law to single firm conduct and reveals how regimes decide whether to pursue it. A single firm can harm competition only if it has sufficient power to influence a particular market, so the chapter looks at how regimes assess this power, how they define the relevant market, and which kinds of conduct constitute a competition law violation. Although most competition laws target this type of conduct, variations in actual treatment are great. The Guide outlines the global patterns and the factors that lead to them.
Mergers and Acquisitions
Authors: Gerber David J.
Published: October 2020

Most major competition authorities are authorized to prohibit mergers and acquisitions affecting their territory and to condition approval of a proposed merger on changes to the merger agreement (e.g., requiring a participant to divest certain assets). Many laws also require the participating parties to notify the competition authority before the transaction is completed (premerger notification). Combining independent firms into one unit (known generally as a merger) can greatly increase the power of the resulting entity and affect markets in many parts of the world. For example, if the two largest and most successful manufacturers of computer chips in the world combine, the consequences will be felt almost everywhere. Some competition law regimes have greater capacity (e.g., economic and political leverage) to influence mergers than others, and the chapter identifies the factors that determine how much influence a particular merger law is likely to have. It examines the procedures common to these regimes and the standards that competition law institutions use in evaluating them. The chapter also looks at how these rules and procedures create a complex global web of firms, competition authorities, and economic experts.
Competition Law in Europe
Authors: Gerber David J.
Published: October 2020

European competition law is the other central player in the competition law world, so an entire chapter is devoted to understanding how it works and how to deal with it. Virtually all firms operating beyond their own national boundaries need to pay attention to it, many regimes use it as a model and reference point, and its institutions have broad and often deep influence on many others. Some aspects of the substantive law are similar to US antitrust, but the similarities are sometimes misleading. For example, EU law uses economic analysis in ways that often differ from how it is used in the US. Procedural and institutional arrangements are often complicated. They represent multiple voices, as national and EU institutions function together to create, apply, and enforce competition law. The chapter reveals how this system functions and what factors guide decisions in it. It looks, in particular, at the institutional arrangements between the EU and its member states, including the role of the European Competition Network.
Other Competition Laws: Shaping Factors
Authors: Gerber David J.
Published: October 2020

This chapter identifies factors that shape all competition law regimes. These “shaping factors” serve as guideposts that highlight relevant information about a regime (“here’s where to look”) and point to the most valuable questions to ask for understanding it. These include, for example: size, openness, and technological capacity of the economy; political and bureaucratic contexts of competition law; importance of the “rule of law”; and ideologies, culture, and religion, and global role of the state. A particularly influential shaping factor can create similarities among competition law regimes that are otherwise difficult to recognize. Three examples show the value of identifying such factors: East Asia (bureaucratic centralism), Latin America (embedded social stratification), and developing countries (recent colonialism). Recognizing these factors and their influence can be of great value in looking at any regime! The objective is to penetrate the details, make sense of them, and guide entry into and through them.
Assessing the Convergence of International Standards on Corporate Environmental Accountability
Authors: Morgera Elisa
Published: October 2020

This chapter critically analyses the international standards on corporate environmental accountability and responsibility by relying on the normative advances made under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). A brief explanation of the developments related to the private sector involvement under the CBD precedes the standard-by-standard discussion. The degree of normative convergence is assessed across standards of corporate environmental accountability discussed in the previous chapter by comparing and contrasting them. Substantive dimensions of these standards are also identified on the basis of the advice elaborated by UN Special Rapporteurs relying on the CBD inter-governmentally approved guidance. The chapter thus shows that principles of international environmental law (environmental integration, prevention, precaution) have been initially translated as corporate environmental accountability standards, but over time have also been specified more substantively into corporate environmental responsibility standards. It also analyses standards based on procedural environmental principles (access to environmental information, participation in decision-making, access to justice).
Conclusions: Contributions and Areas for Further Research
Authors: Morgera Elisa
Published: October 2020

This concluding chapter identifies the original contributions to academic and policy debates that this book has offered, and identifies areas of further research, such as on the different contributions and mutual influences of international standard-setting and litigation, and the private and public law dimensions of corporate accountability and responsibility standards and means of implementation.
Eras
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Chapter 3 introduces a second dyadic pair of era influences: organizations and technology. Building on Bodrožić and Adler’s ‘The Evolution of Management Models: A Neo- Schumpeterian Theory’ (2017), the chapter traces the evolution of technology and business models over time, along with their spatial organization. The interplay between organizations and technology has profoundly influenced how developing countries have become integrated into the global economy since the late 1980s. The Fordist corporation was transformed through vertical fragmentation and horizontal integration, creating the information and communication technology–enabled network model, organized spatially through global value chains. This model is currently undergoing further transformation as the ‘digital economy’ moves through its revolutionizing and balancing cycles, and as key actors signal a retreat from trade.
The Adaptive (Developmental) State
Authors: Whittaker D. Hugh , Sturgeon Timothy J. , Okita Toshie , Zhu Tianbiao
Published: October 2020

Is the developmental state dead, superseded by the liberal or competition state, a servant of markets, or has it evolved to fit changing geopolitical, economic, and technological circumstances? In affirming the latter, we first consider the national level, then extend our scope to consider decentralization, local developmentalism, and multilevel governance. Relatedly, we examine ‘smart cities’ (or ‘fast cities’) in China and India, which embody many of the processes and tensions of compressed development. Finally, we return to the notion of ‘embedded autonomy’ in state–civil society relations. Compression heightens two paradoxes of the developmental state and raises the importance of the state interacting with a wider range of civil society actors, in addition to business, to address its simultaneous challenges.
The Ethical Maxims of Democritus of Abdera
Authors: Johnson Monte Ransome
Published: October 2020

Democritus of Abdera, best known as a cosmologist and the founder of atomism, wrote more on ethics than anyone before Plato. His work Peri euthumiēs (On Contentment) was extremely influential on the later development of teleological and intellectualist ethics, eudaimonism, hedonism, therapeutic ethics, and positive psychology. The loss of his works, however, and the transmission of his fragments in collections of maxims (gnōmai), has obscured the extent of his contribution to the history of systematic ethics and influence on later philosophy, especially in the Hellenistic age. “The Ethical Maxims of Democritus of Abdera” reviews the evidence basis for Democritus’ ethics, discusses the rhetorical and logical aspects of his maxims, attempts to synthesize the fragments into an overall interpretation, and offers a summary of some of the more influential aspects of his ethics.
Self-Mastery, Piety, and Reciprocity in Xenophon’s Ethics
Authors: Johnson David M.
Published: October 2020

“Self-Mastery, Piety, and Reciprocity in Xenophon’s Ethics” focuses on the following aspects of Xenophon’s ethics. Xenophon’s interest in leadership makes ethics a central concern across his wide-ranging body of work. The foundation of virtue, for Xenophon, is enkrateia (self-mastery), which he believed could be squared with Socratic intellectualism as it was required both for the acquisition of knowledge and for the successful application of knowledge in the face of non-intellectual drives. Xenophon’s famous piety is also of ethical import, as he argues that the gods designed the world to our benefit, benefit the pious through divination, and established unwritten laws which should regulate our conduct. Among those laws is one rewarding reciprocity, which is the central factor in successful interpersonal relationships and friendship. Xenophon, despite his emphasis on self-mastery, believed that the best life was also the most pleasant life, though he also distinguished between pleasures.
Ethics in Plato’s Early Dialogues
Authors: Smith Nicholas D.
Published: October 2020

“Ethics in Plato’s Early Dialogues” reviews the main features of the ethical thought given to Socrates in Plato’s early dialogues. These topics include: eudaimonism (and whether that entails a problematic kind of egoism), virtue intellectualism (the view that virtue is a kind of knowledge that is at least similar to craft) motivational intellectualism (the view that all human action follows whatever the agent thinks is in her best interest at the time of action, among all of the options of which she is aware at the time), and the connections that are made in these dialogues between virtue and happiness. Also discussed are the views expressed about how and why ethical agents go wrong.
Early Greek Ethnography and Human Values
Authors: Skinner Joseph
Published: October 2020

The relationship between early Greek ethnography and early philosophical inquiry is typically regarded as tenuous at best. A paucity of references to the cultures and beliefs of other peoples among the fragmentary works thought to preserve the theorizing of the Presocratics and, latterly, the sophists, has created the impression that philosophical interests and concerns developed separately from ethnography with only minimal crossover between the two. Instead, “Early Greek Ethnography and Human Values” draws on a variety of literary and non-literary evidence to argue that ethnographic knowledge played a significant role in the emergence of a sense of popular ethics—the very ideas and values that helped define what it meant to be “Greek” in the first place.
Introduction
Authors: Bisseling Rob H.
Published: October 2020

This chapter is a self-contained tutorial which tells you how to get started with parallel programming and how to design and implement parallel algorithms in a structured way using supersteps. It introduces a simple target architecture for designing parallel algorithms, the bulk synchronous parallel (BSP) computer. Using the computation of the inner product of two vectors as an example, the chapter shows how an algorithm is designed, hand in hand with its cost analysis. The inner-product algorithm is implemented in a short program that demonstrates the most important primitives of the communication library, BSPlib. Furthermore, a benchmarking program is given for measuring the BSP parameters of a parallel computer. Its use is demonstrated on a desktop computer and a supercomputer. Finally, a parallel regular sampling sort algorithm is presented, implemented, and tested.
Graph matching
Authors: Bisseling Rob H.
Published: October 2020

This chapter explores parallel algorithms for graph matching. Here, a graph is the mathematical representation of a network, with vertices representing the nodes of the network and edges representing their connections. The edges have positive weights, and the aim is to find a matching with maximum total weight. The chapter first presents a sequential, parallelizable approximation algorithm based on local dominance that guarantees attaining at least half the optimal weight in near-linear time. This algorithm, coupled with a vertex partitioning, is the basis for developing a parallel algorithm. The BSP approach is shown to be especially advantageous for graph problems, both in developing a parallel algorithm and in proving it correct. The basic parallel algorithm is enhanced by giving preference to local matches when breaking ties and by adding a load-balancing mechanism. The scalability of the parallel algorithm is put to the test using graphs of up to 150 million edges.
Introduction
Authors: Kalmanovitz Pablo
Published: October 2020

The Introduction situates the book within current debates in the historiography of international law. While the book’s sources are examined in their historical context, contextualist approaches to intellectual history can emphasize to different degrees theoretical or historical dimensions. This book largely emphasizes the former. Relatedly, contextualist legal history can be purely historical or used as an instrument of critique of the present. By helping to reveal the various interests that go into the making of legal norms and vocabularies, and by showing from the outside the legitimizing function of legal norms, legal history can unsettle contemporary understandings of the law. However, when instrumentalized as critique, intellectual history risks focusing excessively on the present and become anachronistic.
How Should We Study Intelligent Technologies’ Implications for Work and Employment?
Authors: Barley Stephen R. , Beane Matthew I.
Published: October 2020

After providing a review of current research on how intelligent technologies (such as artificial intelligence) may alter work and employment, this chapter points to two problems in the existing literature, namely an isolationist view of technology and a reductionist view of work. It then sketches how researchers might surmount these problems by viewing technologies as technological systems organized as stacks of components and by approaching the implications of implemented technologies through role systems analysis. The chapter ends with suggestions for how researchers might study technological stacks and role systems in order to better document how intelligent technologies may affect work and employment.
Introduction
Authors: Marques Teresa , Wikforss Åsa
Published: October 2020

Concepts stand at the centre of human cognition. We use concepts in categorizing objects and events in the world, in reasoning and action, and in social interaction. It is therefore not surprising that the study of concepts constitutes a central area of research in philosophy and psychology. Since the 1970s, psychologists have carried out intriguing experiments testing the role of concepts in categorizing and reasoning, and have found a great deal of variation in categorization behaviour across individuals and cultures. During the same period, philosophers of language and mind did important work on the semantic properties of concepts, and on how concepts are related to linguistic meaning and linguistic communication. An important motivation behind this was the idea that concepts must be shared, across individuals and cultures. However, there was little interaction between these two research programmes until recently. With the dawn of experimental philosophy, the proposal that the experimental data from psychology lacks relevance to semantics is increasingly difficult to defend. Moreover, in the last decade, philosophers have approached questions about the tension between conceptual variation and shared concepts in communication from a new perspective—that of ameliorating concepts for theoretical or for social and political purposes. The volume brings together leading psychologists and philosophers working on concepts who come from these different research traditions.
How to Make Psychological Generalizations When Concepts Differ
Authors: Murphy Gregory L.
Published: October 2020

Children’s concepts differ systematically from those of adults, posing a conundrum in how to compare the ‘same’ concepts across ages. It also creates a problem in making psychological generalizations across ages, such as people’s preference for basic-level categories. For example, if children acquire the concept of chair before that of furniture, this seems to be an example of learning a basic-level concept before its superordinate. However, given that children’s concepts are not the same as adults and change throughout childhood, can we in fact draw conclusions about levels of categorization and other properties defined in terms of adult concepts? This chapter addresses levels of categorization as a case study in how to deal with the problem of individual differences in concepts, suggesting a focus on similar psychological principles and constraints rather than on conceptual content.
Investigating Differences in People’s Concept Representations
Authors: Hampton James A.
Published: October 2020

Semantic memory tasks can focus on intensions (features and properties) or extensions (reference and categorization). The two aspects, intension and extension, should in principle be closely related. It is in virtue of possessing the intensional properties of a concept that an individual entity will be included in the extension of that concept. For example, any feathered creature that hatches from eggs and has two legs and a beak will be a bird, and any creature lacking any of these features will be something else. There is evidence for stable individual differences in each of these tasks, but these differences do not correspond across tasks. Two further studies show that, under certain conditions, the correspondence can be demonstrated. This chapter discusses reasons for the lack of connection in terms of different systems for conceptual understanding involving similarity versus theory-based conceptualization.
Amelioration vs Perversion
Authors: Marques Teresa
Published: October 2020

Words change meaning, usually in unpredictable ways. But some words’ meanings are revised intentionally. Revisionary projects are normally put forward in the service of some purpose—some serve specific goals of inquiry, and others serve ethical, political or social aims. Revisionist projects can ameliorate meanings, but they can also pervert. This chapter draws attention to the dangers of meaning perversions, and argues that the self-declared goodness of a revisionist project doesn’t suffice to avoid meaning perversions. The road to Hell, or to horrors on Earth, is paved with good intentions. Finally, and more importantly, it tries to demarcate what meaning perversions are, in the hope that it will help us assess the moral and political legitimacy of revisionary projects.
London's West End
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

How did the West End of London become the world’s leading pleasure district? What is the source of its magnetic appeal? How did the centre of London become Theatreland? London’s West End is the first ever history of the area which has enthralled millions. From the Strand up to Oxford Street, the West End came to stand for sensation and vulgarity but also the promotion of high culture. The reader will explore the growth of theatres, opera houses, galleries, restaurants, department stores, casinos, exhibition centres, night clubs, street life, and the sex industry. The West End produced shows and fashions whose impact rippled outwards around the globe. During the nineteenth century, a neighbourhood that serviced the needs of the aristocracy was opened up to a wider public whilst retaining the imprint of luxury and prestige. The book tells the story of the great artists, actors, and entrepreneurs who made the West End: figures such as Gilbert and Sullivan, the playwright Dion Boucicault, the music hall artiste Jenny Hill, and the American retail genius Harry Gordon Selfridge who wanted to create the best shop in the world. We encounter the origins of the modern star system and celebrity culture. The book moves from the creation of Regent Street to the glory days of the Edwardian period when the West End was the heart of empire and the entertainment industry..
Drury Lane, 1800
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter sets the scene for the transformation of the West End in the nineteenth century. It commences with the attempted assassination of George III at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane. This event is employed to look more closely at the theatre in 1800 and then broadens out to look at the wider world of the West End at the time. It argues that the modern notion of the West End as a distinct pleasure district barely existed at the start of the nineteenth century (only taking in the areas of the Strand and Covent Garden). The reader then discovers how this embryonic pleasure district emerged during the period from 1660 to 1800. The construction of Mayfair and St James’s in the eighteenth century was pivotal because it reveals how the West End existed to service the aristocracy, creating elite aristocratic shopping areas such as Bond Street. The peculiar arrangements for the provision of theatre are explained: Drury Lane and Covent Garden enjoyed royal patents which in theory prevented anyone else from performing the spoken word on stage. It also shows how this exclusive world was beginning to change at the end of the eighteenth century as more vulgar entertainments arose on the Strand and in Leicester Square.
Curiosity
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

‘Curiosity’ explores the varied world of exhibitions in the West End. The district became home to a variety of popular exhibitions that stood side-by-side with sites of ‘official’ art and culture such as the new National Gallery in Trafalgar Square. The West End visitor could enjoy spectacular panoramas, which dazzled the eye, or poses plastiques where models made classical paintings come to life. There were also freak shows and events where non-white peoples were placed on exhibition. These included the Hottentot Venus and the Aztec Lilliputians. Exhibition-mania was particularly centred on Leicester Square but could also be found on Piccadilly, site of the Egyptian Hall, that offered curiosities, art works, popular lectures, dioramas, and automata. Pleasure districts abounded with what were seen as distorted bodies. This gave them the quality of what Michel Foucault terms ‘heterotopias’ which draw upon, but disturb, the culture at large.
The Making of the West End, 1850–1914
Authors: McWilliam Rohan
Published: October 2020

This chapter argues that the modern West End pleasure district really emerged in the years after 1850. Change was driven by several factors: the development of new middle-class audiences with suburban development, new female consumers, the railway age, and changes in the built environment including the construction of Shaftesbury Avenue and the Charing Cross Road in the 1880s as well as the creation of Piccadilly Circus in its modern form. Increasingly, the term ‘West End’ came to mean the pleasure district. The chapter then turns to the contrasting world of Soho, which was associated with a variety of foreign populations and thus stood for cosmopolitanism as well as poverty.
Budding linguists and how to find them
Authors: Okrent Arika
Published: October 2020

Even though people are rarely explicitly exposed to the basic ideas of linguistics in school, there is a certain type of kid who gravitates toward them regardless. That kid is a natural linguist, and there are a lot of them out there. Many linguists describe a common experience of finding excitement in the idea of language as a structure, and their discovery of that idea sometimes came through contact with fictional languages or through tinkering with their own creations. Language invention can play a role in guiding natural linguists to linguistics, and may be able to help better establish in our culture a linguistics-oriented love of language.
Using language invention to teach typology and cross-linguistic universals
Authors: Pearson Matt
Published: October 2020

This chapter outlines a group project where students learn about language typology by creating a naturalistic constructed language. Students learn about cross-linguistic variation in natural languages (in areas such as phoneme inventory, word order, and case alignment), and then determine which grammatical properties their invented language will have. Decisions are made at random by spinning a wheel. Attached to the wheel is a pie chart, where the size of each slice represents the percentage of the world’s languages possessing a given setting for some structural parameter or combination of parameters. Crucially, each decision constrains subsequent decisions in accordance with known implicational universals. For instance, in determining whether the language has prepositions or postpositions, the pie chart is adjusted based on the order of verb and object in the language, as decided by a previous spin of the wheel.
Teaching invented languages to the undergraduate major
Authors: Carpenter Angela C.
Published: October 2020

This chapter discusses how creating an invented language allows students to master critical reasoning skills and apply their linguistic knowledge to a creative language project by using the various strands of linguistic training they have received during their undergraduate years to produce their own invented language. The structure of the course, which includes weekly discussions and presentations, along with a grammar workshop that focuses on each of the elements needed to build the language, starting with phonetics and phonology and then continuing through various syntactic elements such as word order, case, and relative clause structure are detailed and discussed. Pedagogically, the course builds on four pillars: peer-to-peer learning, close and critical engagement with original source materials, problem-solving, and creative engagement with linguistic theory.
Teaching Proto-Indo-European as a constructed language
Authors: Byrd Brenna Reinhart , Byrd Andrew Miles
Published: October 2020

Traditionally, to even begin studying Proto-Indo-European (PIE), one must have many years of experience with one (or multiple) ancient Indo-European (IE) languages. Yet, the dwindling number of students who meet these expectations makes teaching PIE at the undergraduate level an increasingly difficult task. This chapter proposes a unique solution: instructors should teach students a constructed language (conlang) version of PIE as a precursor to discussions on the individual surviving branches and the methodologies behind historical reconstruction. This approach was developed through the synergy of the authors’ experiences teaching a conlang version of PIE to actors for the video game Far Cry Primal, teaching PIE to undergraduate students at the University of Kentucky, and previous training in language pedagogy and transformative learning.
Multi-Level Democracy
Authors: Thorlakson Lori
Published: October 2020

All federal systems face an internal tension between divisive and integrative political forces, striking a balance between providing local autonomy and representation on one hand and maintaining an integrated political community on the other hand. How multi-level systems strike this balance depends on the development of styles of either integrated politics, which creates a shared framework for political competition across the units of a federation, or independent politics, preserving highly autonomous arenas of political life. This book argues that the long-term development of integrated or independent styles of politics in multi-level systems can be shaped by two key elements of federal institutional design: the degree of fiscal decentralization, or how much is ‘at stake’ at each level of government, and the degree to which the allocation of policy jurisdiction creates legislative or administrative interdependence or autonomy. These elements of federal institutional design shape integrated and independent politics at the level of party organizations, party systems, and voter behaviour. This book tests these arguments using a mixed-method approach, drawing on original survey data from 250 subnational party leaders and aggregate electoral data from over 2,200 subnational elections in seven multi-level systems: Canada, the United States, Australia, Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and Spain. It supplements this with configurational analysis and qualitative case studies.
Shaping Multi-Level Democracy
Authors: Thorlakson Lori
Published: October 2020

Why, in some multi-level systems, does political competition preserve highly independent spheres of political life across the units and levels of a federation, while in other multi-level systems, political competition results in the emergence of a shared political space? This chapter argues that these patterns of independent or integrated politics in multi-level systems are shaped in important ways by the federal institutional structure, which shapes the incentives that parties and voters alike face. Surveying the literature that identifies how institutions impact party organization, party systems, and electoral behaviour, this chapter sets out a two-stage causal process whereby institutions shape aspects of integrated politics and aspects of integrated politics reinforce each other.
Integrated and Independent Politics
Authors: Thorlakson Lori
Published: October 2020

Political life in a multi-level system can be integrated or independent at the level of party organizations, party systems, and voter behaviour, either creating a shared space of political competition or separate political worlds. This chapter elaborates the concepts of integrated and independent politics in multi-level systems and discusses their possible normative consequences for the performance of federalism. The chapter presents an operationalization of the core concepts of integrated and independent politics and discusses how aspects of multi-level competition, at the level of party, party system, and voter behaviour, either generate integrative forces or preserve separate arenas of competition.
Federal Institutional Design
Authors: Thorlakson Lori
Published: October 2020

Two aspects of federal institutional design can have a powerful impact on parties and party competition, and especially on the emergence of independent or integrated arenas of competition. The first is the way in which federal institutions allocate resources to the subnational and federal levels. The second is the extent to which the constitutional allocation of policy responsibility creates legislative or administrative interdependence or autonomy. This chapter discusses how these two institutional dimensions shape the incentives that parties and voters face, and presents an operationalization of several indicators for measuring these aspects of institutional design in seven multi-level systems.
Party Organizational Linkage
Authors: Thorlakson Lori
Published: October 2020

The literature argues that vertically integrated parties are important for generating or encouraging stability in multi-level systems. This chapter differentiates between party organizational linkages at the level of resources and services, cooperation, and attitudinal dimensions. Drawing on data from a survey of over 250 subnational party organizations in seven multi-level systems, this chapter shows that the institutional design of a federation does not necessarily predict the way in which parties share resources and services through vertical linkages, but it does help us predict other important aspects of multi-level organization. This includes the degree of shared values and the ideological distance between subnational and federal parties.
Party System Linkage
Authors: Thorlakson Lori
Published: October 2020

This chapter examines two forms of integrated politics at the party system level, party system congruence and party system nationalization. Drawing on data from over 2,220 subnational elections in seven multi-level systems, it assesses three forms of party system congruence across the units of a multi-level system: similarity of the number of parties, electoral support, and similarity of the magnitude and direction of the electoral swing. Using the index of cumulative regional inequality (CRI), it measures the territorial concentration of party systems. The analysis shows that fiscal centralization and administrative interdependence predict integrated politics in the form of more congruent patterns of electoral support. There are limits to the institutional explanation. The electoral system and social cleavage structure are important explanations of variation in party system structures and territorial concentration.
Plant reproduction
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

Population history and colonization dynamics in the Mediterranean mosaic landscape have closely interacted with natural selection to shape patterns of variation in mating systems and the evolution of floral traits and polymorphisms. Floral phenology is closely adapted to avoid the summer drought regime in many plant communities. Many plant species have generalist pollination systems with a complex of tight and loose interactions that affect the evolution of reproductive traits. Floral traits have clearly accompanied diversification in many groups of plants. The evolution of interactions of plants with their pollinators at the landscape and biogeographic scales illustrates intriguing examples of ongoing evolution.
Conservation in the crossroads of history
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

The first six chapters of this book describe the range of historical and contemporary processes that underlie the wealth, diversity, and divergence of natural populations and species in the Mediterranean flora. The processes of species divergence, adaptive trait variation along ecological transitions, interactions with pollinators and dispersal agents, and ongoing hybridization are, however, barely treated in conservation policy and action. After a presentation of the traditional approach to conservation based on rare species protection and the identification and conservation management of protected areas, this chapter presents arguments for a complementary approach based on the processes of plant evolution. Its primary proposal is that preventing further loss of evolutionary potential should become a major target of contemporary conservation strategies for the Mediterranean flora.
One of five
Authors: Thompson John D.
Published: October 2020

There are five Mediterranean type ecosystems (MTE) with a climate characterized by a summer drought in the world. Their comparative ecology and evolution, in five geographically disjunct and distinct regions, has stimulated great interest. The similarities are striking, and after a rapid illustration of similarities in form and function (treated in detail in other work) this chapter explores the similarities that concern the evolution of species diversity and endemism. It also addresses the unique situation of the Mediterranean flora and its history, described in previous chapters. Whereas the other four MTE occur adjacent to an ocean, in a spatially limited climatic island, the Mediterranean flora has evolved around a sea, where marked historical phasing of geological and climatic change has caused the evolution of some quite unique patterns. All five MTE are biodiversity hotspots and, using illustrations from the other MTE, this chapter proposes that the similarity that we should now seek lies in an approach to conservation that integrates ecological and evolutionary processes.
Data protection as command and control regulation
Authors: Gellert Raphaël
Published: October 2020

Chapter 2 demonstrates that data protection can be understood as command and control regulation by applying the three constitutive elements of regulation (standard setting, monitoring, behaviour control) thereto. If one wants to understand the modus operandi of newer models of regulation as applied to data protection (namely risk-based model of regulation), one must first understand the basis. That is, how data protection can be understood as regulation in the first place. This standpoint has another corollary. Since newer models of regulation are featured in contemporary statutes (with the GDPR as a prime example), an understanding of data protection as command and control regulation entails to study less contemporary statutes. The prime case study will therefore be the EU Data Protection Directive, which, even though not in force anymore is considered a suitable case for analysis as it embodies earlier models of regulation. Because this chapter is retrospective in scope (i.e. looking at previous data protection statutes in order to better understand the current ones), it often refers to historical sources of data protection (e.g. statutes and literature).
Issues with data protection as command and control regulation
Authors: Gellert Raphaël
Published: October 2020

Chapter 3 shows that a number of the issues that data protection has encountered and which have served as the impetus for the GDPR reform process can be understood from the regulatory viewpoint. More in particular, they amount to the traditional criticism addressed against command and control rulemaking. It is possible to argue that the command and control model of regulation is based upon two assumptions. First, enforcement is operated through sanctions or the threat thereof—what is referred to as deterrencedeterrence|, and it is assumed that such deterrence always works. Second, it is assumed that the regulatory goalsregulatory goals| (and the standards and safeguards they lead to) are somewhat unproblematic. This last set of issues is multi-dimensional insofar as it affects the determination of what counts as an adequate standard and safeguard, but it also affects the implementation in practice of these standards. Just as determining what is the behaviour that will lead to the achievement of regulators is less than obvious, so is the concrete implementation and compliance with the various rules that are meant to lead to such behaviour. This is encapsulated for instance in the data controllers’ uncertainty on how exactly to apply certain data protection provisions, or in the inefficiency of a number of mechanisms such as notification obligations. Finally, due notice should be paid to technological evolutions, which can aggravate these issues.