bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Anglo-Portuguese Trade in the Fifteenth Century
Authors: Childs Wendy R.
Published: March 2007

My concern in this paper is essentially the complementary commercial links of the two countries against the background of political friendship.

Eighty years ago Miss Shillington put forward a very positive picture of the strength of Anglo-Portuguese trade, and apart from some work by Professor Carus-Wilson and Dr Livermore, not much has been done on this trade since, although almost all other aspects of Portuguese activity in northern and Mediterranean markets and in exploration have been considered, and the relationship of northern trade in Portugal's seemingly dramatic expansion into colonial adventure has not infrequently been raised. Writers may passingly refer to Anglo-Portuguese trade as vigorous, regular, modest, increasing or decreasing: but on what scale? Is vigorous trade two, five, or ten ships a year in the context of Anglo-Portuguese trade? I first became interested in Portuguese trade years ago as I wrote on Castilian trade, when it seemed to me that, despite good political relations Anglo-Portuguese trade was modest, while the Basque and Castilian trade flourished in much less welcoming political circumstances. The approach of 1992 with its promised closer commercial links in the European community (now including Portugal) seems a good time to review England's medieval links with what is commonly called her oldest continuous ally and trading partner. What I intend to do in this paper is at once limited (to examine England's trade with Portugal and the Portuguese role in it) and very broad (to sweep a whole century to provide a context for this activity).
The Dutch Case: a National or a Regional Culture? The Prothero Lecture
Authors: Kossmann E. H.
Published: March 2007

As in relation to many other countries in sixteenth-century Europe, it is difficult to apply modern conceptions of nationhood to the situation in the Low Countries. If the difficulty seems more awkward in this area than elsewhere, it is perhaps merely because the sixteenth-century Netherlands, as we all know, developed into two distinct nations, the northern Netherlands and Belgium. It is clearly impossible to give a convincing answer to the question whether, in politically more propitious circumstances, the northern and the southern Netherlands might have grown into a single nation state with one common culture. All we know is that in the north a new state was created which, in the seventeenth century, undoubtedly possessed a culture idiosyncratic enough to be described as properly Dutch. We may well call this a national culture. On the other hand, if we bear in mind, asmany seventeenth-century commentators did, that the Dutch Republic was no more than a part of what had been the real Netherlands, both north and south, it would not be totally incongruous to define Dutch culture, that is the northern culture, as regional rather than national. However, if we do so, we must conclude that the national culture uniting the southern and the northern Netherlands, and somehow enclosing the regional cultures of Flanders and Brabant, of Holland and Zeeland, never came into existence.
Reconquest and Crusade in Spain
Authors: Fletcher R. A.
Published: March 2007

In the summer of 1898 the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed in two successive engagements with the navy of the United States: the most comprehensive, catastrophic and humiliating naval defeats of modern history. Not only did these reverses shear Spain of the last shreds of transatlantic empire: they also inflicted a severe psychological blow to the Spanish nation at large. Already a stranger to most of the invigorating developments in economic, cultural and political life which had transformed western Europe in the course of the nineteenth century, Spain found that her backwardness and feebleness had now been devastatingly exposed to the gaze of the world. Spain had become a laughing-stock among the nations. What had gone wrong? The ‘Generation of ‘98’ was the name given to the group of intellectuals and public men who set themselves to ponder this question. They conceived of their task in large terms. It was not just a matter of diagnosing and treating present and local sickness—to employ the medical imagery of which they were so fond—but of taking account of the whole organism which was so visibly ailing; and this involved examining its early growth. An historical dimension was built into their deliberations from the outset. It is for this reason that 1898 is a significant date for the historian of medieval Spain.
‘A Party for Owners or a Party for Earners?’ How far did the British Conservative Party Really Change After 1945?
Authors: Ramsden John
Published: March 2007

THE period spent in opposition between 1945 and 1951 has generally been thought of as a key to the understanding of the activities of the post-war British Conservative Party. Autobiographies of the Party leaders of the time began to appear at the end of the Fifties, already looking back to a period in which the Conservatives had decisively changed their approach. So for example, Lord Woolton's Memoirs reviewed not only a term as Party Chairman which had been a highlight of his own crowded career, but also his sharing in a major act of transformation, a transformation that had led on to Conservative success since 1951: ‘the change was revolutionary’. Other key figures in the organisation reached similar conclusions as their own accounts appeared: David Maxwell-Fyfe argued that the new Party rules which he had drawn up had not only decisively widened the political base of British Conservatism, but that events since had confirmed the importance of the change. R. A. Butler's account of The Art of the Possible argued in 1971 that ‘the overwhelming electoral defeat of 1945 shook the Conservative Party out of its lethargy and impelled it to re-think its philosophy and re-form its ranks with a thoroughness unmatched for a century’. The effect was to bring both the policies of the Party and ‘their characteristic mode of expression’, as he puts it, ‘up to date’. As recently as 1978, Reginald Maudling—a key figure behind the scenes in 1945–51 as a speechwriter from Eden and Churchill and as the organising secretary of the committee which produced the Industrial Charter of 1947—reached much the same view: ‘We were at that time developing a new economic policy for the Conservative Party … It marked a substantially different approach for post-war Conservative philosophy.
Numeracy in Early Modern England.The Prothero Lecture
Authors: Thomas Keith
Published: March 2007

In Recent years historians of the early modern period have given much attention to the subject of literacy, its growth, its determinants and its consequences. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in England saw the widespread dissemination of the printed book and a substantial increase in the proportion of the population able to use the written word. It is possible to exaggerate the historical importance of these developments, but there is no denying that they give the early modern period much of its distinctive flavour.
Bodin and the Development of the French Monarchy
Authors: Bonney Richard
Published: March 2007

THE ‘history of ideologies’ is now very much the vogue since Professor Quentin Skinner's fine study onThe foundations of modern political thought. Whether or not one agrees with all aspects of his interpretation of Bodin—and Dr Parker might argue that it fails to draw out sufficiently the moral philosopher inside the jurist, while Professor Rose might prefer to stress the Judaizing tendencies of the theorist as a central preoccupation—it is a testament to the decisive impact made by Skinner on the history of political thought that no-one has challenged his new and radical approach. It is no part of the purpose of this paper to do so. Indeed, an understanding both of Bodin's predecessors and of the ideological conflict of the 1570s which influenced the drafting of theSix bookes of a commonweale(the title given to theRépubliqueby its first English translator, Richard Knolles) is fundamental before any appreciation of the theorist can be made free from distortion. It is no use at all asserting that Bodin started from scratch, even on the issue of sovereignty, where he made his most original contribution. Bodin himself minimized his originality, basing his commentary on the powers historically enjoyed by French kings. The French king had traditionally regarded his authority as that ofprinceps legibus solutus, as an absolute ruler above the law. If the French king had been unable to do those things described by Bodin, in the view of that author, ‘il n'estoit pas Prince souverain’. Bodin also noted the contribution of the canon lawyers of the Middle Ages to the development of his political theory and remarked that Pope Innocent IV was he who best understood the nature of sovereignty.
Parliament and the Shaping of Eighteenth-Century English Social Policy
Authors: Innes Joanna
Published: March 2007

THIS paper provides a preliminary and exploratory account of some of the ways in which eighteenth-century parliaments helped to shape English social policy. At the heart of this study lie a body of measures, several hundred strong, which came before Parliament in the course of the eighteenth century. These were general rather than local measures, applying to the country as a whole. They dealt with such matters as the relief and regulation of the poor, repression of vice (variously conceived), handling of insolvent (and therefore perhaps imprisoned) debtors, and prevention and punishment of crime.
Gregory King and the Social Structure of pre-industrial England
Authors: Holmes G. S.
Published: March 2007

Despite the rich and exciting work of recent years, the social history of England between the Restoration and the Industrial Revolution still bears something of a hangdog look, scarcely war-ranting, as yet, the cosmic conclusions and ferocious controversies to which students of early Stuart and early nineteenth-century society have grown accustomed. Yet, thanks to the work of one remarkable Englishman, who was born in 1648 and died in 1712, there is one aspect of this pre-industrial period—its social structure—on which we are all happy to pontificate. Gregory King's table of ranks and degrees, on which in the last resort so much of this confidence rests, has now acquired a unique cachet. The continual reproduction in post-war textbooks of this famous document, which we think of as King's ‘social table’ but which he described as his ‘Scheme of the Income and Expense of the Several Famillies of England’, is just the most obvious symptom of its dominant historiographical influence.
The Uses of Literacy in Anglo-Saxon England and its Neighbours
Authors: Wormald C. P.
Published: March 2007

As the recent lament over falling standards by the Secretary-General of the United Nations reminds us, universal literacy is today considered a necessary feature of civilized society. This may be one reason why the problem of medieval literacy, of a society where the ability to read and write was apparently confined to a clerical élite has so intrigued modern historians. In this paper, I wish to reconsider the extent of lay literacy in England before the Conquest. But first we must be clear what we mean by literacy. The ability to read does not necessarily imply the ability to write. To take only the most famous medieval example, Charlemagne could speak Latin, and enjoy the City of God, but he never learnt to write. What Parkes calls ‘pragmatic literacy’ may extend from the capacity to recognize, if not sign, one's own name, to the ability to write a formal document in Latin. What might be called ‘cultured literacy’ could range from reading free prose in the vernacular to composing Latin in the classical tradition. The more advanced types of pragmatic literacy might well overlap with the more basic cultured levels. But it is obvious that we cannot deduce a widespread ability to read any-thing from the fact that the names of owners or makers were some-times engraved upon Anglo-Saxon coins, weapons or memorials; or a generally high standard of lay culture from the fact that there were documents in the vernacular. If we are to describe early English society as literate in a sense that would satisfy the ancient, or later medieval, historian, we must show that the proportion of laymen able to read at least a vernacular writ or poem was socially, if not statistically, significant.
Presidential Address: The Historian's Social Function
Authors: Elton G. R.
Published: March 2007

There is said to be a crisis in historical studies whose collapse some predict. I think myself that the word crisis gets over-used, and I am convinced that history as a subject of study and instruction will survive. We may find fewer students of it in schools and universities, but we shall stop well short of the retreat (itself, it seems to me, now halted) that has befallen the classical languages. People will continue to read history, even serious history, and people will continue to write history, even good history. Still, there are enemies, some lurking in thickets, some boldly skirmishing across the plain, and while their peashooters cannot kill they can and do hurt. Those sufficiently out of date still to think that what gets the customers is rele-vance continue to proclaim that history is irrelevant to a forwardlooking—indeed, a progressive—society; and since their numbers include a good many who decide what happens in colleges of education, in schools, and (worst of all) in the Department of Education and Science, their obscurantism is not to be ignored. I do not here, in this company, need to defend or justify the study of history, but I feel urged to warn historians that they would be well advised to consider and state their case: at the very least we cannot any longer take it for granted that society will as a matter of course accept us at our own valuation and therefore support us. Today, therefore, on this last occasion that I address this body as President, I should like to consider the grounds on which I would argue that no healthy society can afford to abandon the professional study of the past at its highest, most intensive, and to all appearances least practical level. I cannot now also attend to the history that is told to the generality: one thing at a time.
The Problem of the Midi in the French Revolution
Authors: Lucas Colin
Published: March 2007

From the earliest moments of the French Revolution, the Midi displayed its own special characteristics within the revolutionary phenomenon. This was the chosen land of political extremes. The outbreak of the Revolution rapidly engendered an aggressive strain of radicalism which, by 1792, had made Marseille in particular the epitome of patriotism, enshrined in the association of its name with the battle-song of the Revolution and in the rôle of its militant fédérés in the overthrow of the monarchy. At the same time, militant counter-revolution appeared with mass support in the Midi well before it achieved notoriety in the Vendée. There were peasant-based insurrections in the Massif Central each year from 1790 to 1795, whilst theBagarre de Nîmesin 1790 was the first major manifestation of royalist plotting that was to trouble many major low-land towns for the rest of the Revolution. In the earlier years of the decade, the Midi frequently descended into anarchy involving, in its most spectacular instances, civil war in the Comtat Venaissin in 1791 and armed expeditions in the name of patriotism between rival towns in 1791 and 1792. By late 1792, radical groups in Lyon, Marseille and Aix were articulating well developed proto-terrorist programmes. Indeed, at Marseille they had got to the point of largely ignoring the central government by changing the location of administrations and establishing extraordinary institutions. In 1793, it was in the Midi that Federalism developed to the extreme, requiring a campaign and sieges by regular troops for its defeat. Toulon went as far as to call in the English.
Allies, Government and Resistance: the Belgian Political Crisis of November 1944
Authors: Warner Geoffrey
Published: March 2007

During the closing stages of the second world war in Europe, the British and the Americans, together with the governments they supported, were often faced with the problem of dealing with armed resistance movements which they themselves had actively fostered to help in the fight against the Germans. Despite significant national and even local variations, the root cause of the problem was the same everywhere: the resistance was a political as well as a military phenomenon. Many of its members did not regard their task as complete with the departure of the last German soldier. They saw defeat and occupation as the inevitable result of pre-war political, social and economic structures which they were determined to transform. While the allies and the governments they supported were themselves often in favour of change, they were rarely prepared to go either as far or as fast as some elements of the resistance desired. Confrontation was therefore almost inevitable.
Women and the Norman Conquest
Authors: Stafford Pauline
Published: March 2007

IN 1779 William Alexander published what is probably the first history of women in English. The work is in the eighteenth-century Enlightenment tradition of Montesquieu or the Scot Millar in its wide comparative reference; it ranges over ancient and modern societies, civilised and savage. Alexander was interested, like Millar, in the historical changes which had produced change for women; and convinced, like so many eighteenth-century thinkers, that change was a western phenomenon. In his story, the first great change after Rome came with the arrival of the Germans, who gave ‘law and custom to all Europe’ and who brought with them a new view of women. ‘Their women were in many respects of equal and sometimes even greater consideration and consequence than their men’. His sentiments echo those of the French writer Thomas, whom he had certainly read. In 1772 Thomas had begun his essay on the character, manners and spirit of women in different centuries by dividing the world into savages, who oppress as tyrants, orientals, who are driven to oppress due to an excess of love, and the denizens of temperate climates, where less passion allows greater freedom. It was thus from the cold ‘shores of the Baltic and forests of the North’ that the primitive Germans brought to Europe their spirit of gallantry and great respect for women. Both Thomas and Alexander echoed and adapted Tacitus’ classic picture of Germanic women. Tacitus had long since written of the high regard in which the German women were held: of the mothers and wives who urged their sons and husbands to valour, of their inspirational chastity, of the austere frugality of Germanic marriage, of wives whose controlled passions loved the married state itself rather than their husbands.
The Making ofAngelcynn: English Identity before the Norman Conquest
Authors: Foot Sarah
Published: March 2007

There are grounds for seeing an increasing sophistication in the development of a self-conscious perception of ‘English’ cultural unique-ness and individuality towards the end of the ninth century, at least in some quarters, and for crediting King Alfred's court circle with its expression. King Alfred was not, as Orderic Vitalis described him, ‘the first king to hold sway over the whole of England’, which tribute might rather be paid to his grandson Æthelstan. He was, however, as his obituary in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described him, ‘king over the whole English people except for that part which was under Danish rule’. Through his promotion of the termAngelcynnto reflect the common identity of his people in a variety of texts dating from the latter part of his reign, and his efforts in cultivating the shared memory of his West Mercian and West Saxon subjects, King Alfred might be credited with the invention of the English as a political community.
Church and Chaple in Medieval England
Authors: Orme Nicholas
Published: March 2007

In Emlyn Williams's play,The Corn is Green(1938), an Englishwoman arriving in Wales is asked an important question: ‘Are you Church or Chapel?’ Since the seventeenth century, when non-Anglican places of worship made their appearance, this question has indeed been important, sometimes momentous. ‘Church’ has had one kind of resonance in religion, politics and society; ‘chapel’ has had another. Even in unreligious households, people may still opt for ‘church’ when the bread is cut (the rounded end) or ‘chapel’ (the oblong part). The distinction is far older than the seventeenth century, however, by at least five hundred years. There were thousands of chapels in medieval England, besides the parish churches, when religion is often thought of as uniformly church-based. Although these chapels differed in some ways from those of Protestant nonconformity, notably in worship, they also foreshadowed them. Locations, architecture, social support and even religious diversity are often comparable between the two eras. Arguably, the creation of chapels by non-Anglicans after the Reformation marked a return to ancient national habits.
History as Destiny: Gobineau, H. S. Chamberlain and Spengler
Authors: Biddiss Michael
Published: March 2007

THE novel which won the 1987 Booker Prize was Penelope Lively'sMoon Tiger. Its central character is an historian whom, on the opening page, we find already near to death. Even so, she is meditating about the completion of a new work: ‘A history of the world. To round things off. I may as well—no more nit-picking stuff about Napoleon, Tito, the battle of Edgehill, Hernando Cortez … The works, this time. The whole triumphant murderous unstoppable chute—from the mud to the stars, universal and particular, your story and mine.’ And she adds: ‘I'm equipped, I consider; eclecticism has always been my hallmark.’
Against ‘Englishness’: English Culture and the Limits to Rural Nostalgia, 1850–1940
Authors: Mandler Peter
Published: March 2007

OVER the last fifteen years, a substantial literature has welled up, practically from nowhere, purporting to anatomise ‘Englishness’. ‘Englishness’, this literature suggests, is not a true estimate of national character, an enduring national essence, but rather a historical construct that was developed towards the end of the nineteenth century by the ‘dominant classes’ in British society in order to tame or thwart the tendencies of their day towards modernism, urbanism and democracy that might otherwise have overwhelmed elite culture. These aspirations for social control determined the lineaments of the new ‘Englishness’. Nostalgic, deferential and rural, ‘Englishness’ identified the squire-archical village of Southern or ‘Deep’ England as the template on which the national character had been formed and thus the ideal towards which it must inevitably return. Purveyed by the ‘dominant classes’ to the wider culture by means of a potent array of educational and political instruments—ranging from the magazineCountry Lifeto the folk-song fad to the National Trust to Stanley Baldwin's radio broadcasts—‘Englishness’ reversed the modernising thrust of the Indus-trial Revolution and has condemned late twentieth-century Britain to economic decline, cultural stagnation and social division.
The Widow's Mite and Other Strategies: Funding the Catholic ReformationThe Prothero Lecture
Authors: Hufton Olwen
Published: March 2007

It is perhaps more usual for the giver of the Prothero lecture to choose a subject which has been a part of his intellectual baggage for a long time. In contrast, what I am about to offer falls more honesdy into the category of work in progress. I am presendy at a very preliminary stage in a project that may both take me a long time and lead me up many alleyways. I am concerned to understand how the Catholic Reform of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was funded. In the term ‘Cadiolic Reform’ are included charitable and educative initiatives, the funding of missions, the conversion of die heathen, the expansion of religious orders, die provision of books and images (biblia pauperurm) to improve and elevate the minds of the simple into mysteries they could not otherwise conceptualise, and die erection and furnishing of new churches. I would argue that taken as a package this funding process, about which I will be presently more specific, represents one of the largest private money-raising processes ever undertaken. It has, perhaps, a particular interest today when attempts are being made to reinvigorate die spirit of private philanthropy and to dismande or cause to wither away public commitment to assistance or subsidy.
One of Us? William Camden and the Making of HistoryThe Camden Society Centenary Lecture
Authors: Collinson Patrick
Published: March 2007

The Royal Historical Society will not be startled to learn that one of the best-informed essays on William Camden was written by its quondam president, Sir Maurice Powicke:

A great book might be written about Camden, his life and his works, his wide circle of friends and correspondents and his humanity. It would be a very difficult book to write, for its author would have to be steeped in the social history of the time and to be familiar with the personal life, the friendships and all the correlated activities of scholars all over the western world in Camden's day. To recapture that society with learning and imaginative amplitude might well engage a fine and patient and sympathetic scholar in the work of a lifetime.
From Stenton to McFarlane: Models of Societies of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries
Authors: Crouch David
Published: March 2007

Thegrowth of the study of medieval society is a process which falls well within living memory. Precisely how old it might be considered to be is a matter of definition. Taking social history to be the empirical reconstruction of past social and political systems, structures and their properties, then social history was a phenomenon of the inter-war period in Britain. If one looks for a significant date to mark its full emergence (so far as we are consideringlater medievalsociety) then there is no date more significant than 1929, when Frank Merry Stenton delivered the Ford Lectures, which set in train the publication ofThe First Century of English Feudalism; a seminal event in the writing of social and medieval history in this country.
Making Mercantilism Work: London Merchants And Atlantic Trade in the Seventeenth Century
Authors: Zahedieh Nuala
Published: March 2007

Authors of the surge of economic tracts and treatises published in late seventeenth-century England generally agreed that foreign trade underpinned the wealth, health, and strength of the nation. The merchant was hero

the same to the body politick as the liver, veins and arteries are to the natural; for he both raises and distributes treasure the vital blood of the common weal. He is the steward of the kingdom's stock which by his good or ill-management does proportionably increase or languish. One of the most useful members in a state without whom it can never be opulent in peace nor consequently formidable in war.'
The ‘Crusader’ Community at Antioch: The Impact of Interaction with Byzantium and Islam
Authors: Asbridge T. S.
Published: March 2007

At the end of the eleventh century, in the wake of the First Crusade, a Latin principality was established at Antioch, in northern Syria. Founded by the crusade leader Bohemond (1098–,c. 1105), this Latin community experienced a period of territorial expansion under the energetic rule of his nephew, Tancred (c. 1105–12), followed by seven years of less aggressive leadership by Roger of Salerno (1113–19). The principality suffered a serious setback with the defeat of its army at the evocatively named battle of the Field of Blood in 1119, during which Prince Roger was slain. Power then passed to a regent, King Baldwin II of Jerusalem (1118–31), until Bohemond II (1126–30), the son of Antioch's first prince, arrived in northern Syria.
At the Margin of Community: Germans in Pre-Hussite Bohemia
Authors: Scales Leonard E.
Published: March 2007

Arguably, the single most important dimension in the existence of any community, medieval or modern, is its members' shared conviction that it exists, and that its existence represents a significant bond between them. The central and later Middle Ages have been viewed as a period of particular importance for the growth of such self-consciousness - and for its growth, particularly among those large political communities which Susan Reynolds suggests we call ‘regnal’, and which many medievalists appear happy to refer to as ‘national’. As Reynolds showed, communities of this sort evolved legitimising mythologies which overlay existing structures of government with notions of ancient and primal ethnic solidarity, and thus placed such communities, imaginatively, outside the normal processes of contingency and change. Challenging questions therefore arise if we call to mind the many new political formations which were established during this period, which saw the extension into neighbouring regions, by both violent and peaceful means, of the political and social forms characteristic of continental western Europe. The new settlements had not only to be organised and defended physically, but also explained and justified. A vocabulary of argument thus evolved to account for their existence and to illuminate their relationships with existing political and social structures. In formulating this vocabulary, however, writers were con-fronted by the strong impulse in medieval thought to lay upon all significant communities a veneer of timelessness, or at least of antiquity. How this obstacle was overcome for particular new communities doubtless has many specific answers. But an obstacle it must surely have been, and the study of how — or whether — it was surmounted in any given instance is thus inherently worth while.
Reaction between chlorophosphazenes and silicon alkoxides—formation of temperature‐stable thermosetting materials
Authors: Emblem H. G. , Oxley C. E. , Trow S. A.
Published: March 2007

The reaction between chlorophosphazenes and silicon alkoxides has been studied as a means of preparing temperature‐stable thermosetting resinous materials. If the silicon alkoxide is polyfunctional in straight‐chain lower alkoxy groups the usual reaction is elimination of alkyl chloride and formation of a thermosetting resinous product. The mechanism of this reaction is discussed. Other reactions occurring in the treatment of chlorophosphazenes with silicon alkoxides are also discussed. Asbestos laminates which retain much of their strength when heated to 500° for 50 hours in air can be prepared from the thermosetting resinous products resulting from the reaction between chlorophosphazenes and silicon alkoxides.
Micro‐float methods for studying diffusion in polymer solutions
Authors: Gordon M. , Polowiński S.
Published: March 2007

The application of new methods for diffusion measurements by micro‐floats has been studied. A modified Gerlach method, the method of a float moving through the concentration gradient, and an electromagnetic balancing method were tried. It was found that by the last method coefficients of diffusion of macromolecules in solution can be measured. Experiments have been carried out using trimethyl trimesate in methanol and two sharp fractions of polystyrene in cyclohexane at the theta temperature. The results are compared with literature data.
Filibuster: Obstruction and Lawmaking in the US Senate
Authors: Mancuso Maureen
Published: March 2007

Filibuster: Obstruction and Lawmaking in the US Senate,
Gregory J. Wawro and Eric Schickler, Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2006, pp. xx, 326.

The US Senate presents observers with a paradox. It is a strong and
influential legislative chamber, whose strength and influence derive in
great part from unique rules and norms that not only allow but genuinely
celebrate obstructionism, and techniques that encourage the frustration of
the democratic majority by unrestricted parliamentary gamesmanship. The
filibuster—a tactic whose purpose is to prevent the accomplishment
of legislative business—is a fundamental, defining characteristic of
both Senate procedure and the Senate's institutional self-image. How
does the Senate—with its jealously guarded traditions of unlimited
debate, universal recognition, and disregard for germaneness—ever
manage to get anything done?
The Role of Intellectual Property Protection in the Business Strategy of University Spin-Off Biotech Companies in a Small Transition Economy
Authors: Mets Tõnis , Leego Merike , Talpsep Tiit , Varblane Urmas
Published: March 2007

Spin-off biotech companies often have difficulties in creating competitive advantage through protection of their intellectual property, due to their limited human and financial resources. Having considered the value of the intellectual property and questions of enforceability, spin-off companies should use patenting only for inventions with a high market value and high patent enforceability; otherwise, publishing early or keeping the invention a trade secret should be preferred. This allows the inventor to benefit from operational freedom while maintaining low costs. The impact of the protected intellectual property on the success of the firm depends on its speed of entry into the market and when it reaches break-even point. In a transition country with a poorly developed entrepreneurial environment, patents may expire before the spin-off company has produced any profit from its expenditures on the protection of the intellectual property. It should also be remembered that their products may contain modules which are already protected by other inventors. Consequently, a strategically fundamental issue for the success of spin-off firms is the careful selection of the markets in which to operate, and the choice of the proper degree and method of intellectual property protection.
Reordering the State (without Changing the Constitution): Russia under Putin's Rule, 2000-2008
Authors: Oversloot Hans
Published: March 2007

In the present article, it is assumed that V.V. Putin will not have the 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation changed in order to help him arrange for a prolonged stay as President of Russia after his second term expires in 2008. It is also assumed that there will be no constitutional changes as to the power and the position of the prime-minister which would allow for an immediate 'return' of V.V. Putin in another capacity, namely as prime-minister, with much the same powers as he presently holds as President. The author expects that Putin will be true to his word in that he will maintain the 1993 Constitution (with the exception of minor change), that he will show to be—to use the Russian constitutional terminology—the garant of this Constitution.Nevertheless, within the framework of the 1993 Constitution, substantial changes have been made in the ordering of the Russian state, by federal law, by other means. The subordination of the subjects of the Russian Federation to the federal center, the 'emancipation' of state-politics from party politics, the 'emancipation' of democracy itself from party-politics, the penetration of societal organizations by state institutions (upravliaemaia demokratiia or suverennaia demokratiia), and the accompanying (state-) ideological changes, which have come about especially during Putin's second term, all add up to what is expected to be a lasting legacy. Putin has not changed the 1993 Constitution; he has given it its definite reading (interpretation) as it were.
Culture and Charisma: Outline of a Theory
Authors: Smith Philip
Published: March 2007

From the work of Weber onwards charisma has been primarily explained in terms of its relationship to underlying social structural and psychological environments. The paper redresses this imbalance and examines the cultural structures that operate as preconditions for the attribution of charisma to political and religious leaders. Drawing on Weberian, Durkheimian and semiotic theory the paper argues that charisma arises in conjunction with salvation narratives. The internal structure of these narratives requires binary oppositions contrasting good and evil. The model is exemplified with reference to case studies of Hitter, Churchill and Martin Luther King.
Harriet Holter: A Pioneer in Gender Studies and Sociology
Authors: Widerberg Karin
Published: March 2007

Harriet Holter was ahead of her time, and influenced heavily all the research areas she ventured into, such as sex roles, family, sexualized violence, resistance to knowledge and gender perspectives on research and politics. In this article these contributions are presented, illustrated and discussed. It is further argued that the explanation for her particular voice and outstanding contribution to sociology and women's research can be found in her interdisciplinary background, her generation-gendered experiences, her siding with the oppressed and her ways of collaborating intellectually.
Socialization, Structure of Personal Norms, and Norm Alienation
Authors: Olkinuora Erkki
Published: March 2007

In the beginning of the article the concepts of personal norm and norm alienation are analyzed. The personal norm is divided into three structural components: affective, cognitive and behavioral. From an analysis of different norm structures composed of the three components the author defines two distinct types of norm alienation: norm uncertainty and normlessness. After this conceptual analysis factors influencing each norm component, the balance of norm structures and norm alienation are studied in the sociological frame of reference of socialization process. A multidimensional norm questionnaire called 'norm-differential' was designed on the basis of the theory. Basic hypotheses of this theory have been empirically tested by materials collected with the norm-differential. The results are presented at the end of the article. In the light of them the author considers the multidimensional approach to be useful for both theoretical analysis and development of differentiated measuring devices.
Lagged Structures and Cross—Sectional Methods
Authors: Carlsson Gösta
Published: March 2007

Causal structures involving a dynamic relation with time lags present difficulties if approached with conventional multivariate cross-sectional techniques. It is shown that customary tests for causal structure, e. g. partial correlations, break down or yield ambiguous results. Some further implications of lagged structure, and an extension of the idea to variability in space, are discussed in the paper.
On the Mount Olympus Perspective
Authors: Goldberg Ted
Published: March 2007

By concentrating our theorizing to data collected from the "outer perspective" (standing on Mount Olympus), many sociologists have led themselves and each other into a blind alley, resulting in the development of elaborate theoretical schemes to explain behavior which does not exist other than as a facade. This article takes four recent. Scandinavian studies in the field of deviant behavior and uses them to illustrate four basic problems with the Mount Olympus perspective; non-normative assumptions, significant questions, penetrating the surface of ones data, and what could be called academic endogamy. These studies are compared with a study done from the "inner perspective".
Decision-Making Within a Changing Normative Structure —
Authors: Rommetveit Kare
Published: March 2007

In this paper, a situation is examined where standard operating procedures in governmental organizations were challenged. On such occasions an organization is not simply a vehicle for solving well-defined problems as efficiently as possible. We see competing definitions of the problems, the best solutions, expertise and the rules of procedure. Outcomes are not limited to the immediate substantive outcomes. As important is the establishing of future social relationships and definitions of the situation. While classical administrative and democratic theory suggest that changes in standard operating procedures may be instantaneous, we believe this type of change to be the exception rather than the rule. In this article, it is suggested that the garbage can model at least under some conditions be an adequate descnption of the decision making in a polity experiencing challenges of established routines. This is illustrated by the decision making processes concerning the location of Norway's third medical school. In this case, new definitions of the problems involved were raised, new participants activated, and the outcome so clearly suggested by existing standard operating procedures not selected.
Polarization of the Qualification Structure of the Danish Labour Force: The Role of the Educational System in Post-War Denmark
Authors: Mathiesen Anders
Published: March 2007

The article presents some major empirical results concerning the de velopment of the Danish labour force. Changes in the capacity and struc ture of the entire educational system during the past 20 years have already led to a polarization of the annual new intake of manpower to the labour market. This polarization is the combined effect of curriculum differentia tion at school and structural differentiation, together with curriculum specialization, within - especially - vocational education and vocational training activities. The present article, however, only briefly discusses this polarization of the qualification structure resulting from the relationship between the educational system and the production system. In the capitalist mode of production and in a highly-developed capitalist society- such as Denmark - the educational system is part of an aggregate steering mechanism. Educational policy is part of a state-controlled exploitation. These empirical results show some of the economically rational forms in which this exploitation has been practised in post-war Denmark.
When Actors Comply: Monitoring Costs and the Production of Social Order
Authors: Hechter Michael
Published: March 2007

Both sociologists and rational choice theorists have been concerned with the production of social order Rational choice theorists argue that sanctions are necessary and sufficient causes of social order, but since it is costly to provide them, the attainment of social order is problematic Sociologists are more optimistic about the prospects of attaining social order because, in addition to sanctions, they countenance internalized controls as potential causes. This paper demonstrates that social order is even more difficult to explain from rational choice premises than is usually appreciated. This is because the cost of providing sanctions is far from the only relevant mon itoring cost that is implied by rational choice reasoning. The argument is principally illustrated by examples drawn from the history of capitalist industrial management
The Internationalization of Production and the Changing Position of Women Workers in the Textile, Clothing, and Electronics Industries
Authors: Kasvio Antti
Published: March 2007

One of the most important trends of development in today's industry is the increasing internationalization of production This process of interna tionalization has been exceptionally strong in the traditionally women- dominated textile, clothing and electronics industries, which have during the 1970s become the main employers of female workforce also in the new world market factones' in Third World countries. During the 1980s the tightening international competition and the introduction of new technology have caused important changes in the labour process and in the position of semi- skilled women workers in these three branches, which has forced women workers and their trade unions to look for new strategies to defend their vital interests in this process of change The paper presents an empirical research project on Finnish textile, clothing and electronics workers and a proposal for international comparisons on this problem area.
The Presence of Parsons and the Absence of Marx in Stein Rokkan's Contribution to Political Sociology
Authors: Himmelstrand Ulf
Published: March 2007

The introductory chapter by Rokkan and Lipset in Party Systems and Voter Alignments (1967) and the further development of Rokkan's work in Citizens, Elections, Parties (1970) provide points of departure for a discussion of the impact of Parsoman AGIL theory on Rokkan's political sociology. The AGIL theory would seem to have provided initial inspiration for Rokkan's own thinking rather than premises for strict hypothetico-deductive reasoning closely related to the Parsoman theoretical framework. The present paper, however, attempts to deductively explore certain hidden implications of the AGIL dynamic, thus arriving at notions of structural contradictions similar to those found among some structural Marxists. These notions are then related back to Rokkan's theory of sequential historical junctures and conflicts, the conclusion being that his theory can and must be further developed to take account of the internal contradictions emerging in mature capitalism not only according to Marxists but also according to the hidden implications of AGIL theory explicated in this paper.
Review Article : The Active Society Revisited
Authors: Ramsøy Natalie Rogoff
Published: March 2007

Amitai Etzioni's The Active Society serves as a point of departure for comments on theories and methods in the social sciences that may contribute to an understanding of how societies can become masters of themselves'. The problem is first narrowed to structural features peculiar to welfare service states, which combine a political commitment to providing personal. face-to-face help, with delegating responsibility for the daily work of doing so to public employees identified with the values and attitudes of specialized occupations. Recent research is reviewed that casts light on the dilemmas engendered by this type of social structure.
The Genesis of Max Weber's Verstehende Soziologie
Authors: Herva Soma
Published: March 2007

Max Weber's Verstehen method is examined in the light of contemporary intellectual background in Germany. It is argued that Verstehen was orig inally developed by Wilhelm Dilthey and Georg Simmel as the method of Geisteswissenschaften. According to Dilthey, Verstehen explains the psy chological reality of the individual, the ultimate basis of all human actions. Both Dilthey and Simmel maintained that social actions must be understood in terms of the 'inner-motives' of the acting individuals. By contrast, Weber defined Verstehen as a method of empirical science which attempts to understand the 'meaning' of action, not the motives of acting individuals.
Patients' Knowledge and Patients' Work. Patient-Patient Interaction in General Hospitals
Authors: Album Dag
Published: March 2007

Patient-patient interaction is an aspect of significant impact in hospital organizations. While staff members are present for only a short part of the day, most patients are surrounded by other patients all the time Even in hospitals where length of stay is short, the interaction is intense Talking is the most important type of activity and has several functions for the patients, including helping pass time, and finding out about their illnesses, exam inations, treatment, and staff members In addition, patients offer practical services to each other The interpatient activities create an informal help system Interpatient talking is important because the medical frame of interpretation is not sufficient for them The frame of interpretation and knowledge which patients develop through their interaction is better suited to their experiences of being ill and being hospitalized.