bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of Aging and D-Glucose on Locomotor Activity, Spontaneous Alternation, and Plasma Glucose Levels in Preweanling Sprague-Dawley Rats
Authors: Flint Jr. Robert W. , Papandrea Jr. Dominick , Dorr Nancy
Published: May 2006

Previous research has shown that developmentally related memory impairments in immature rodents are malleable and may be attenuated using a variety of pharmacological and behavioral treatments. This experiment examined the effects of glucose (10, 100, 250 or 500 mg/kg) or saline on blood glucose level, locomotor activity, and spontaneous alternation (SA) in the T-maze. Studies were conducted with 20-, 22-, and 24-day-old preweanling Sprague-Dawley rats. Results indicated a general decline in blood glucose level with age and size of glucose injection. The largest overall decline in blood glucose was found following the 500 mg/kg dose in 24-day-old animals. An increase in T-maze arm entries with age indicated increased exploratory activity. SA generally improved with age, but glucose had no reliable effect on behavior. The ontogenetic state of the nervous system, including changes in cholinergic system activity, glucoregulation, and proliferation of glucose transporters, is discussed.
Ethnic Variation in Vellus Hair Follicle Size and Distribution
Authors: Mangelsdorf S. , Otberg N. , Maibach H.I. , Sinkgraven R. , Sterry W. , Lademann J.
Published: May 2006

It is a given fact that hair follicles play an important role in the penetration process of topically applied drugs and cosmetics. Since exact knowledge of the potential follicular reservoir is essential for understanding and calculating the penetration process, this knowledge may indeed help to optimize the development of topically applied drugs and cosmetic products. We know that variability in skin properties exists among the human population, but it is the deciphering and quantification of these differences that may help to explain racial disparities in dermatological disorders and provide a basic approach for treatment and prevention. Data pertaining to structural and functional differences within ethnic skin types (reviewed in this paper) support the assumption that hair follicles in the various skin types are not equal. Thus, the need to investigate follicular morphology in non-Caucasian skin types becomes more than apparent. The aim of the present study was to determine the potential reservoir of vellus hair follicles in non-Caucasian skin types in order to estimate their contribution to the penetration of topically applied substances. Cyanoacrylate skin surface biopsies were taken from seven body sites of Asians and African-Americans. To determine the follicular reservoir, the samples were evaluated under the light microscope. Follicular parameters were measured with the help of a digital imaging software program. In the evaluation and comparison of the results with those of Caucasians, significant differences were detected. Compared with Whites, follicular density on the forehead is significantly lower in Asians and African-Americans. Smaller values were detected for volume, surface, follicular orifice and hair shaft diameter on the thigh and in calf regions in Asians and African-Americans. Furthermore, the follicular reservoir, characterized by follicular volume, is generally higher in Caucasians. In comparison to African-Americans, larger follicular volumes on the forehead, back and on the upper arm were determined in Asians. The fairly similar density in these sites revealed that Asians have a higher follicular reservoir in these sites. Due to significant ethnic differences in the follicular reservoir, particularly on the calf and forehead, prospective skin absorption experiments need to be performed on different skin types in order to be representative. Likewise, the development of topically applied drugs should take place under adequate consideration of ethnic differences in skin physiology.
Neurotological and Neuroanatomical Changes in the Connexin-26-Related HID/KID Syndrome
Authors: Todt I. , Hennies H.C. , Küster W. , Smolle J. , Rademacher G. , Mutze S. , Basta D. , Eisenschenk A. , Ernst A.
Published: May 2006

The phenotype of the HID (hystrix-like ichthyosis, deafness)/KID (keratitis, ichthyosis, deafness) syndrome is primarily characterized by skin changes. However, the connexin 26 (Cx 26) autosomal dominant mutation underlying this syndrome is of special neurotological interest. In the present paper, the clinical pattern, audiovestibular and neuroimaging findings and the detailed genetic analysis of 4 patients with identical HID/KID-associated mutation D50N of Cx 26 are reported. The audiological test results demonstrated profound sensorineural hearing loss in all of the patients. Neurotological testing revealed inconsistent abnormalities in dynamic posturography (sensory organization test), but the vestibular ocular reflex upon caloric irrigation was normal in all patients. Vestibular-evoked myogenic potential testing for otolith function (saccule) showed a regular response in 1 patient and pathologic responses in 3 patients, while subjective haptic vertical (utricular function) testing was normal in all of the patients. CCT showed an extended (in length), but very thin (in diameter) bony lining between the basal portion of the internal auditory canal and the vestibule in the 3 scanned patients. Our study provides evidence for functionally intact semicircular canals and normal utricular function in subjects with the autosomal dominant D50N mutation of Cx 26, in contrast to saccular function which was generally compromised and hearing loss which was profound.
Cluster Analysis of the Dermal Permeability and Stratum Corneum/Solvent Partitioning of Ten Chemicals in Twenty-Four Chemical Mixtures in Porcine Skin
Authors: van der Merwe D. , Riviere J.E.
Published: May 2006

Assumptions based on absorption from single solvent systems may be inappropriate for risk assessment when chemical mixtures are involved. We used K-means and hierarchical cluster analyses to identify clusters in stratum corneum partitioning and porcine skin permeability datasets that are distinct from each other based on mathematical indices of similarity and dissimilarity. Twenty-four solvent systems consisting of combinations of water, ethanol, propylene glycol, methyl nicotinate and sodium lauryl sulfate were used with 10 solutes, including phenol, p-nitrophenol, pentachlorophenol, methyl parathion, ethyl parathion, chlorpyrifos, fenthion, simazine, atrazine and propazine. Identifying the relationships between solvent systems that have similar effects on dermal absorption formed the bases for hypotheses generation. The determining influence of solvent polarity on the partitioning data structure supported the hypothesis that solvent polarity drives the partitioning of non-polar solutes. Solvent polarity could not be used to predict permeability because solvent effects on diffusivity masked the effects of partitioning on permeability. The consistent influence of the inclusion of propylene glycol in the solvent system supports the hypothesis that over-saturation due to solvent evaporation has a marked effect on permeability. These results demonstrated the potential of using cluster analysis of large datasets to identify consistent solvent and chemical mixture effects.
An in vivo Randomized Study of Human Skin Moisturization by a New Confocal Raman Fiber-Optic Microprobe: Assessment of a Glycerol-Based Hydration Cream
Authors: Chrit L. , Bastien P. , Sockalingum G.D. , Batisse D. , Leroy F. , Manfait M. , Hadjur C.
Published: May 2006

Background: In a recent study, we demonstrated the ability of the new confocal Raman microprobe to investigate molecular and structural human skin composition under in vivo conditions. Experiments were performed at different anatomical sites, different layers, and with intervolunteer comparison. We also carried out feasibility tests using this probe to determine depth profiles of water content within the skin. Objective: In the present investigation we employed this confocal Raman optical microprobe to rigorously objectify the resulting hydration capacities after application of a moisturizing enhancer. Method: The in vivo experiments were performed on 26 healthy volunteers and measurements were undertaken on six areas of the volar forearm after a randomized application of hydrating agents. Responses were evaluated by calculating the water/protein band ratio, which determines the water content in the skin. Results: Data collected with the Raman microprobe showed significant changes between baseline values of control and treated skins. Statistical analysis performed on these data revealed an increase in skin moisture after application of a glycerol-based cream, which is the most widely used hydrating agent. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate clearly the potentials of this confocal Raman microprobe in the screening of hydrating agents or molecules under in vivo conditions. In the cosmetics field, this promising and suitable technique will undoubtedly offer new opportunities of hydration skin test evaluation.
GABAB1 Knockout Mice Reveal Alterations in Prolactin Levels, Gonadotropic Axis, and Reproductive Function
Authors: Catalano Paolo N. , Bonaventura María Marta , Silveyra Patricia , Bettler Bernhard , Libertun Carlos , Lux-Lantos Victoria A.
Published: May 2006

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) has been implicated in the control of hypophyseal functions. We evaluated whether the constitutive loss of functional GABAB receptors in GABAB1 knockout (GABAB1–/–) mice alters hormonal levels, under basal and stimulated conditions, and reproductive function. The serum hormone levels were measured by radioimmunoassay, the estrous cyclicity was evaluated by vaginal lavages, and the mating behavior was determined by the presence of vaginal plugs. A moderate hyperprolactinemic condition was observed, in which prolactin increase and thyroid-stimulating hormone decrease were similar between genotypes. Basal luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and growth hormone levels were similar between genotypes in each sex. Analysis of the gonadotropin axis revealed no differences in puberty onset between female genotypes. In con trast, the estrous cyclicity was significantly disrupted in GABAB1–/– female mice, showing significantly extended periods in estrus and shortened periods in proestrus. Reproduction was significantly compromised in GABAB1–/– females, with a significantly lower proportion of mice (37.5%) getting pregnant during the first 30 days of mating as compared with wild-type controls (87.5%). Moreover, only 14% of vaginal plug positive GABAB1–/– females had successful pregnancies as compared with 75% in the controls. In addition, the postovariectomy LH rise was significantly advanced in GABAB1–/– mice, while the response to estradiol feedback was similar in both genotypes. In conclusion, our endocrine analysis of GABAB1–/– mice reveals that GABAB receptors are involved in the regulation of basal prolactin titers. Moreover, the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-ovarian axis is seriously disturbed, with alterations in cyclicity, postcastration LH increase, and fertility indexes. The molecular mechanism underlying these hormonal disturbances remains to be addressed.
Analysis of the Stress Response in Rats Trained in the Water-Maze: Differential Expression of Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone, CRH-R1, Glucocorticoid Receptors and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Limbic Regions
Authors: Aguilar-Valles Argel , Sánchez Edith , de Gortari Patricia , Balderas Israela , Ramírez-Amaya Víctor , Bermúdez-Rattoni Federico , Joseph-Bravo Patricia
Published: May 2006

Glucocorticoids and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) are key regulators of stress responses. Different types of stress activate the CRH system; in hypothalamus, CRH expression and release are increased by physical or psychological stressors while in amygdala, preferentially by psychological stress. Learning and memory processes are modulated by glucocorticoids and stress at different levels. To characterize the kind of stress provoked by a hippocampal-dependent task such as spatial learning, we compared the expression profile of glucocorticoid receptor (GR), pro-CRH and CRH-R1 mRNAs (analyzed by RT-PCR), in amygdala, hippocampus and hypothalamus and quantified serum corticosterone levels by radioimmunoassay at different stages of training. mRNA levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were also quantified due to its prominent role in learning and memory processes. Male Wistar rats trained for 1, 3 or 5 days in the Morris water-maze (10 trials/day) were sacrificed 5–60 min the after last trial. A strong stress response occurred at day one in both yoked and trained animals (increased corticosterone and hypothalamic pro-CRH and CRH-R1 mRNA levels); changes gradually diminished as the test progressed. In amygdala, pro-CRH mRNA levels decreased while those of BDNF augmented when stress was highest, in yoked and trained animals. Hippocampi, of both yoked and trained groups, had decreased levels of GR mRNA on days 1 and 3, normalizing by day 5, while those of pro-CRH and CRH-R1 increased after the 3rd day. Increased gene expression, specifically due to spatial learning, occurred only for hippocampal BDNF since day 3. These results show that the Morris water-maze paradigm induces a strong stress response that is gradually attenuated. Inhibition of CRH expression in amygdala suggests that the stress inflicted is of physical but not of psychological nature and could lead to reduced fear or anxiety.
Usefulness of Preoperative Endobronchial Ultrasound for Airway Invasion around the Trachea: Esophageal Cancer and Thyroid Cancer
Authors: Wakamatsu Toshihide , Tsushima Kenji , Yasuo Masanori , Yamazaki Yoshitaka , Yoshikawa Sumiko , Koide Naohiko , Fujimori Minoru , Koizumi Tomonobu
Published: May 2006

Background: It is important to confirm preoperative tracheobronchial invasion to enable the selection of the most appropriate treatment. Objective: This study was performed to compare the usefulness of computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance image (MRI) and bronchoscopy by endobronchial ultrasonography (EBUS) for the assessment of invasion of thyroid or esophageal cancer in cases with suspected tracheobronchial invasion. Methods: In cases with suspected contact between the tumor and tracheobronchial wall, CT, MRI and EBUS indicated deformity of the tracheobronchial wall due to the adjacent mass. The final diagnosis was based on surgical and histological results, and/or clinical follow-up. Results: Fifty-four patients were included in this study. Based on the findings of CT, MRI and EBUS, invasion was suspected in 29, 28 and 25 patients, respectively. Seventeen patients did not undergo surgery based on the results of CT, MRI and bronchoscopy with EBUS. Final diagnosis was intact trachea or bronchial adventitia in 26 patients and invasion in 28 patients. The sensitivity and specificity of CT, MRI and EBUS for invasion were 59 and 56, 75 and 73, and 92 and 83%, respectively. The accuracy of EBUS was significantly greater than that of CT in the present study (p = 0.0011). The accuracy of EBUS was significantly different from that of CT and MRI in the surgically treated patients (p = 0.005 and p = 0.032, respectively). Conclusion: EBUS is the most useful technique for determining the depth and extent of tumor invasion into the airway wall. The combination of MRI and EBUS will contribute to surgical planning in patients with esophageal and thyroid cancer.
Transforming Growth Factor-βs and Vascular Disorders
Authors: Bobik Alex
Published: May 2006

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily members, TGF-β and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), are potent regulatory cytokines with diverse functions on vascular cells. They signal through heteromeric type I and II receptor complexes activating Smad-dependent and Smad-independent signals, which regulate proliferation, differentiation, and survival. They are potent regulators of vascular development and vessel remodeling and play key roles in atherosclerosis and restenosis, regulating endothelial, smooth muscle cell, macrophage, T cell, and probably vascular calcifying cell responses. In atherosclerosis, TGF-β regulates lesion phenotype by controlling T-cell responses and stimulating smooth muscle cells to produce collagen. It contributes to restenosis by augmenting neointimal cell proliferation and collagen accumulation. Defective TGF-β signaling in endothelial cells attributable to mutations in endoglin or the type I receptor ALK-1 leads to hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, whereas defective BMP signaling attributable to mutations in the BMP receptor II has been associated with development of primary pulmonary hypertension. The development of mouse models with either cell type–specific or general inactivation of TGF-β/BMP signaling has started to reveal the importance of the regulatory network of TGF-β/BMP pathways in vivo and their significance for atherosclerosis, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, and primary pulmonary hypertension. This review highlights recent findings that have advanced our understanding of the roles of TGF-β superfamily members in regulating vascular cell responses and provides likely avenues for future research that may lead to novel pharmacological therapies for the treatment or prevention of vascular disorders.
Evaluation of antibodies against human HSP60 in patients with MPO-ANCA associated glomerulonephritis: a cohort study
Authors: Slot Marjan C , Theunissen Ruud , van Paassen Pieter , Damoiseaux Jan GMC , Cohen Tervaert Jan Willem
Published: May 2006

Background

Human Heat Shock Protein 60 (hHSP60) has been implicated in autoimmunity through molecular mimicry, based on the high degree of homology with HSP65 of micro-organisms leading to autoimmune recognition of the human protein. Additionally, sequence homology between hHSP60 and myeloperoxidase (MPO) has been described. MPO is a major autoantigen in vasculitis associated with antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA). We hypothesized that infections may trigger the ANCA response against MPO through hHSP60.

Methods

In 86 consecutive patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV), anti-hHSP60 and anti-mycobacterial HSP65 were measured by ELISA. Patients were compared with 69 healthy controls (HC). Continuous data between groups were compared using Wilcoxon signed rank test and Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn's post-test when appropriate. Correlations between data were derived using Spearman correlation. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were obtained using Fisher's exact test.

Results

At diagnosis, median anti-mHSP65 level was higher in AAV (median [range]: 42.5 [0–500]), and subsequently in MPO-ANCA (44 [7–500]), compared to HC (22 [0–430]). Anti-hHSP60 levels in AAV were not higher compared to HC (18 [0–319] and 18.5 [0–98], respectively). However, in MPO-ANCA anti-hHSP60 levels were increased (32.5 [0–319]) compared to PR3-ANCA (13 [0–79]) and HC. We could not detect cross-reactivity between hHSP60 and MPO-ANCA. There was a correlation between anti-mHSP65 and anti-hHSP60 levels (r = 0.32, P = 0.003) but not between anti-hHSP60 and MPO-ANCA (r = -0.064, P = 0.69).

Conclusion

Antibodies against mHSP65 are higher in AAV compared to HC, and anti-hHSP60 antibodies are higher in patients with MPO-ANCA than in patients with PR3-ANCA and HC. Although this finding may be indicative for cross-reactivity between MPO-ANCA and hHSP60, additional assays did not support this hypothesis.
A Unified Foreign Service
Authors: MacClintock Samuel
Published: May 2006

Our government maintains a large and expensive foreign service. The business interests of the country recognize the value of adequate representation abroad and support vigorously measures intended to improve and expand this field. For the fiscal year 1922–23 Congress has increased the appropriations for this branch of the public service while cutting down almost all domestic expenditures.

Our service in the foreign field has only one rival in its completeness and effectiveness, and that naturally is Great Britain's. Before the war comparison was often made with Germany, France, Japan and other nations, and critics could point to individual excellencies in all of these; but they in turn were generous in praise of our service and generally accorded it first rank, especially on its promotional side. The one outstanding weakness of this service at the present time is its lack of unity, resulting in duplicate activities, rivalries, uncertainties to those using the service and needless expense to the taxpayers.
The Chicago Charter Convention
Authors: Merriam Charles Edward
Published: May 2006

The Illinois Constitution of 1870 prohibited the State legislature from enacting local or special laws incorporating cities, towns, or villages, or changing or amending the charter of any town, city, or village. In 1872 an act was passed, providing for the government of all cities in the State of Illinois. In 1875 Chicago abandoned its special charter, and accepted the provisions of the general law of 1872. This law, with a series of amendments, has continued for a generation as the fundamental law of the city of Chicago. The very rapid growth of the city, however, in territory, in population, and in the complexity of its municipal interests has rendered the law of 1872 wholly inadequate for the present needs of the great metropolis. Widespread agitation in regard to this subject led to the initiation, in 1903, of a constitutional amendment authorizing the State legislature to enact special laws regarding the government of Chicago, providing that such laws should not go into effect until approved by the voters of Chicago. This amendment was adopted by the people of Illinois in November, 1904, after a vigorous campaign had been carried on in its favor by the citizens of Chicago. The legislature of 1905 met very shortly after the adoption of this act, so that a complete charter could not be presented to them. A bill providing for a new system of municipal courts, and abolishing the old “justice shops,” was prepared, however, by a citizens' committee; was presented to the legislature, and passed. A committee of the city council also drew up a proposed charter for the city, which was introduced into the State legislature, but of which only a small fragment was finally enacted. The term of the mayor was extended from two years to four; provisions were made enabling the city to secure the interest on its public deposits; and some other minor powers were contained in this rump charter. These acts were voted upon in November, 1905, and approved by the people. So far, however, as comprehensive legislation was concerned, very little had been accomplished, except the establishment of the new courts.
President, Congress, and the Press Correspondents
Authors: Essary J. Frederick
Published: May 2006

It must be apparent to all thoughtful readers of American newspapers that Washington has become the great national news center, perhaps the greatest single news center in all the world. This has come about partly through an ever increasing centralization of power in the federal government, power that extends in a direct line to every basic industry in the nation as well as to our political, our cultural, and our social relations. Also it has come about, in part, through the movement to Washington of literally hundreds of national and international organizations.

Practically every interest in our life as a nation responds in a degree to the activities and vibrations of some agency of the government. These interests, either consciously or unconsciously, have learned to listen for their master's voice in Washington. The great banking and credit system, for example, looks to the Federal Reserve Board for its inspiration. Wall Street, sometimes regarded as a sort of super-government, is reacting more and more to federal orders, decrees, or mere gestures. The railroads bend to the will of the Interstate Commerce Commission; the mercantile marine to that of the Shipping Board. Agriculture seeks its paneceas at the hands of Congress. Organized labor lives side by side with that body. Education is yielding to federal supervision, as is highway construction, water-power development, scientific research, foreign trade, commercial practices, and a score of other interests, great or small. There was a time when the federal government concerned itself primarily with the national defense, delivery of the mails, maintenance of navigable rivers and harbors, enforcement of federal statutes, guardianship of the Indians, currency, payment of pensions, control of public lands, and a few minor matters. But that time has passed; indeed, it is almost forgotten.
Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States on Constitutional Questions, 1911–1914
Authors: McClain Emlin
Published: May 2006

As the last summary in the Review of the decisions of the United States Supreme Court on constitutional questions included the cases at the October term, 1910–1911, it may be desirable now under a few headings to group the cases which seem to be of fundamental importance decided during the three judicial years commencing in 1911 and concluding in 1914. Without any numerical summary (which would be difficult and of little value in view of the fact that many cases in which constitutional questions are raised by counsel and briefly referred to by the court are of no significance as indicating any new development or application of constitutional provisions) it may safely be said that the number of important cases in which difficult constitutional questions have been decided has during this period been unusually large. As the activity of Congress in pushing its legislative power constantly closer to the line of its constitutional authority increases, the number of cases in which the limits of such authority are necessarily involved must also increase. But it may further be suggested by way of rough generalization that the principles of constitutional law relating to other subjects on the boundary line between state and federal legislative powers has become reasonably well established, and comparatively few cases of importance relating to their application have recently been decided by the Supreme Court.
The Control of Immigration as an Administrative Problem
Authors: Peirce Paul S.
Published: May 2006

Our laws affecting immigration represent the accretions of ninety years, but the great mass of this legislation falls within the last third of this period. Since 1882 Congress has passed a score of immigration acts and amendments, besides the numerous immigration features embodied in laws relating primarily to other subjects.

From the standpoint of purpose and aim, the provisions of this legislation may be grouped under four main heads: 1. Restrictive; 2. Protective; 3. Distributive, and 4. Administrative.

For the first group a more accurately descriptive phrase would be “Restrictive and Selective,” for it is impossible to dissociate, in most provisions, the purpose of restricting the volume of immigration, lest the number of comers prove too great for our receiving population, and the purpose of controlling the quality of our immigrants, lest our citizenship suffer through undesirable additions.

What are the restrictive and selective provisions of our laws? In the first place, certain classes of aliens are excluded from admission to the United States. Since our first federal measure of restriction in 1862, this list of the unwelcome has gradually lengthened, until to-day twenty-three classes may not lawfully enter.
The North African Question and Its Relation to European Politics
Authors: Andrews George Frederick
Published: May 2006

In 1905 the storm-center of European politics shifted definitely to Morocco, and from the Moroccan situation resulted a new alignment of the powers based primarily upon the political necessity of France.

To comprehend the North African situation and its relation to European politics we must understand that upon the future of Morocco depends the future of a French colonial empire approximately the size of Europe.

In his preface to the Voyages au Maroc of de Segonzac, Eugene Etienne, Député d'Oran, Vice-President de la Chambre des Députés, Président du Comité du Maroc, says, “Il est de toute évidence que de la solution qui sera donnée a la question Marocaine dépend l'avenir même de notre pays. Il ne s'agit pas ici d'un de ces territoires plus ou moins riches, plus ou moins désirables, au sujet desquels les transactions et les partages sont possibles. Les énormes sacrifices que nous avons faits en Algérie et en Tunisie peuvent se trouver annulés si la solution qui intervient n'est pas conforme a nos intérêts et à nos droits. Ces droits, a la fois historiques et vivants, nous les tenons de Bugeaud et de Lamoricière, de notre armee d'Afrique et de nos colons d'Algérie. Quelle puissance européenne pourrait en présenter de semblables?”
The Operation of the Recall in Oregon
Authors: Barnett James D.
Published: May 2006

The “final crowning act to complete the temple of popular government here” was the adoption of the “recall” by a constitutional amendment in June, 1908. This provision allows the recall of any elective public officer by the voters of the district from which he was elected. The recall is instituted by filing a petition demanding the recall, signed by twenty-five per cent of the number of electors who voted in the district at the preceding election for justice of the supreme court. The petition must set forth the reasons for the demand. The officer may avoid a recall election by resignation. If he does not resign within five days after the petition has been filed, a special election (in practice it may be called at the same time as the general election) is called to determine whether he shall continue in office. He is virtually a candidate for reëlection without nomination, since others may be nominated for the office, and the person receiving the highest number of votes cast at the election is declared elected, whether he is the person whose recall is demanded or another. No petition may be circulated against an officer until he has held office for six months except in the special case of a member of the legislature, where it may be filed within five days from the beginning of the first session after his election. After one recall election no additional recall petitions may be filed against the same officer during the same term unless the petitioners pay into the public treasury the amount of the expenses of the preceding recall election.
The Imperative Mandate in the Spanish Cortes of the Middle Ages
Authors: Holden Alice M.
Published: May 2006

A study of the beginnings of national representation inevitably brings to the surface details which in their time were part or parcel of mediæval practices. One cannot expect that these usages, even as connected with representative institutions, can be of concern in our more complex modern circumstances, since the Middle Ages had comparatively few and simple problems for legislative solution. In those days the questions of relationship between the administrative and the legislative, and between the local and the central or national, had not emerged clearly. Nevertheless, such details and questions are interesting as examples of mediæval theory and efficiency, and, moreover, some of them are not entirely devoid of connection with present-day difficulties.

The custom of making in advance a decision which was imposed by the electors upon their chosen representative, a custom known as the imperative mandate, was an important factor in early representative government. It was sound in legal theory, and some of its practice will be seen in the pages which follow. Also, its connection is with that early stage in popular government in which the development of representative institutions corresponded somewhat to one phase of the present. I refer to what is apparently a need to ask from the electors themselves their opinion on large, general questions of principle—for example, in our time, the referendum in Germany on the adoption of the Young Plan.
The “Patent” Way to Balance the National Budget
Authors: Black Forrest R.
Published: May 2006

In these times, when governmental costs are mounting and to many it seems impossible to balance the national budget, all sorts of bizarre proposals are being made to raise additional revenue. They run the gamut from a national governmental lottery, through various modes of inflation, via the printing-press route and all points rightward, to excessive forms of graduated taxes, which may kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. The importance of Article I, Section 8, Clause 8, of the Constitution of the United States as an untapped source of untold revenue has been overlooked. The constitutional provision reads: “The Congress shall have power . . . to promote the progress of science and the useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.”
Political Aspects of the New Deal
Authors: Dickinson John
Published: May 2006

Forty years ago, an intelligent Englishman in a private letter described his impressions of the then state of American politics. “When educated men get to talking politics,” he wrote, “they have a sort of bitter despair in their minds which is not pleasant to listen to. I dare say the solution is one which was told me the other day. There is nothing in politics now.” “In a happy country like this, politics don't affect great questions or the happiness of the nation.” “Politics is all dullness relieved by rascality.”

For the greater part of the sixty years since the Civil War, Sir Cecil Spring-Rice's description of American politics has held substantially true, though of course more true at some times than others. The twelve-year period through which we have just passed was one of the intervals of which it was distinctly rather more than less true. Since then there has been a change. It is no longer true that politics do not affect great questions or the happiness of the nation.
William of Occam and the Higher Law
Authors: Shepard Max A.
Published: May 2006

William of Occam has fittingly been called the “most subtle doctor of the Middle Ages.” Despite this fact, or perhaps because of it, the vast political writings of this famous fourteenth-century scholastic have been surprisingly neglected by modern students, particularly in England and the United States. It is commonly agreed that among general philosophers of the Middle Ages this “second founder of nominalism” is surpassed by St. Thomas Aquinas alone. Surely, therefore, the presumption is reasonable that the encyclopedic mass of Occam's political writings conceals many “diamonds in the rough,” only awaiting discovery. The present writer hopes that he may throw some light on certain important problems discussed by Occam, especially that most significant one of a “higher” or fundamental law.

An impression seems prevalent in many quarters that Occam obtained most of his political ideas from his famous contemporary, Marsiglio of Padua, who has established himself among modern students as the really great political genius of his times. Without detracting from Marsiglio's well-deserved fame, we are quite unable to accept this view. On the contrary, Occam, as might be expected of such a great general philosopher, can stand upon his own feet, and his political theory in many respects exhibits characteristics entirely independent of any Marsiglian influence.
Germany's New Civil Service Act
Authors: Marx Fritz Morstein
Published: May 2006

Prior to the National Revolution of 1933, one of the foremost postulates guiding the conduct of German civil servants was that of political neutrality. The permanent public personnel—national, state, and local—was to consider itself, in the apt formulation of the Weimar constitution, “servants of the whole people, not of a party.” Although imprudent legislative and executive measures taken during the republican era weakened rather than strengthened the principle of neutrality, it was effectively upheld by the disciplinary courts. Indirectly, the professional tenet of non-partisanship facilitated German bureaucracy's identification with a broadly conceived constitutionalism. At a time when the National Socialist vote had become the largest in national elections, organizers for the new creed still made least headway among the government personnel. Statistics published in 1936 disclose the fact that less than four per cent of all civil servants joined the national Socialist party before Hitler's rise to the chancellorship. As the incoming Reich cabinet was not slow to recognize the “impossibility” of large-scale displacements, it resorted to transitional regulations in order to weed out overtly heterogeneous elements.
Governmental and Party Leaders in Fascist Italy
Authors: Lasswell Harold D. , Sereno Renzo
Published: May 2006

Study of the governmental and party leaders of Italy may contribute to our understanding of the Fascist state, whether we are concerned with public law, comparative government, or comparative politics. The application of the rules of law by any public law agency is affected by the characteristics of those who constitute the agency. Agencies of comparable legal authority exercise their discretion differently when they are differently related to the social context in which they operate. Whatever affects the relative strength of the groups with which an agency is affiliated affects the relative strength of the agency. Hence it is important to ascertain the class, skill, personality, and attitude characteristics of officials in relation to the composition of the community as a whole.
The Presidential Veto Since 1889
Authors: Towle Katherine A.
Published: May 2006

In 1890, Mr. Edward C. Mason published in his monograph, The Veto Power, the results of his investigation of presidential vetoes down to 1889. In the present note, it is proposed to supplement the earlier study by presenting a short analysis of vetoes between 1889 and 1934.

By 1889, the direct veto had been applied to 435 measures. Of this number, however, over 200 were pension bills vetoed during Cleveland's first administration. Of pocket vetoes, there had been only 16. From 1889 to the close of the Seventy-third Congress in June, 1934, the direct veto was exercised 235 times, and 292 pocket vetoes were recorded. In the hundred-year period from 1789 to 1889, 29 vetoes were overridden by Congress; in the 45 years from 1889 to 1934, 22 met reversal. This increase in the number and proportion of vetoes is attributable to the increased amount and broadened scope of legislation resulting from the complexity of our social and political life.
The Status of Cities under Recent Federal Legislation
Authors: Williams J. Kerwin
Published: May 2006

Final adjournment of the Seventy-fourth Congress, which like its immediate predecessors turned out a substantial grist of bills affecting cities, brought into focus once again the question of what is happening to our “sovereign states” and their political subdivisions. Federal contacts with cities are not, of course, an entirely new phenomenon in the United States. For a number of years prior to the depression, certain federal agencies had maintained informal contacts with municipal governments by offering them services, information, and advice, and such services are still being utilized. Until July, 1932, however, with the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, congressional statutes had never touched municipal governmental functions except indirectly through grants-in-aid to the states, the federal government had never entered into important contractual relations with cities, and Congress had never sat in legislative session to deal with the problems of cities as political units.
The Government of Italian East Africa
Authors: Steiner H. Arthur
Published: May 2006

On May 4, 1936, the Emperor Haile Selassie departed from Djibuti aboard the British cruiser Enterprise, en route to Geneva by way of Palestine and England. On May 5, the victorious legions of the Second Roman Empire, commanded by Marshal Pietro Badoglio, entered Addis Ababa after what appears to have been a week of looting and pillaging in the Ethiopian capital. A few hours later in Rome, Benito Mussolini thunderously declared to a hastily-summoned Adunata: “Ethiopia is Italian! Italian in fact, because occupied by our victorious armies; Italian in law, because with the gladiators of Rome, civilization triumphs over barbarity, justice over arbitrary cruelty.”

At the behest of its Duce, a grateful Italy surrendered itself, between May 5 and May 9, to the most riotous celebration in the annals of Fascism. To climax the memorable jubilee, Mussolini appeared on the balcony of the Palazzo Venezia, after consulting successively and rapidly with the Fascist Grand Council and the Council of Ministers in the late evening of May 9, to read to the second Adunata of the week the substantive provisions of a new royal decree-law. Therein (1) Ethiopia was declared to be under the full and complete sovereignty of Italy; (2) the assumption by the king of Italy of the additional title, emperor of Ethiopia, was proclaimed; and (3) announcement was made that Ethiopia would be governed in the future by a governor-general, with the title of viceroy of Ethiopia.
The Presidential Short Ballot
Authors: Albright Spencer D.
Published: May 2006

The term “presidential short ballot” is applied to the ballot form in which the names of candidates for presidential electors are omitted and only the names of the candidates for president or for president and vice-president appear. The vote for the party presidential candidates on the ticket is a vote for the party electors whose names are filed with the secretary of state. The voter may feel that he is voting directly for the presidential and vice-presidential candidates; actually, he is voting for the electoral candidates of the party represented by his favored candidate for the presidency.

This shortened ballot form is the result of three developments: (1) provision for a group vote for the electoral candidates of each party; (2) the addition at the head of the ticket of the names of the presidential candidates, whether the electoral candidates are voted on as individuals or as a group; and (3) introduction of the voting machine. Each of these developments started near the turn of the century.
Constitutional Law in 1938–1939: The Constitutional Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States in the October Term, 1938
Authors: Cushman Robert E.
Published: May 2006

The 1938 term of the Supreme Court brought substantial changes in its personnel. Mr. Justice Cardozo died on January 9, 1938. He was succeeded by Mr. Justice Frankfurter, who took office on January 30, 1939. On February 13, 1939, Mr. Justice Brandeis retired, and on April 17 Mr. Justice Douglas was appointed to fill his place. By the end of the term, therefore, four justices appointed by President Roosevelt had taken office. It is too early to appraise the results of these appointments upon the decisions and doctrines of the Court. One statement may be made, however, which throws some light upon the recent trend of judicial decisions. In preparing the present survey of the Court's decisions, some sixty cases were examined, all but one or two of them turning upon constitutional issues. In these sixty-odd cases, Mr. Justice McReynolds and Mr. Justice Butler, the two remaining members of the conservative “old guard,” dissented together twenty-five times. In several instances they were joined in dissent by Mr. Justice Roberts, and once or twice by the Chief Justice. In the main, however, they stood alone against a compact majority of six or seven justices. With the death of Mr. Justice Butler in the fall of 1939, Mr. Justice McReynolds stands like the boy on the burning deck amidst what obviously appears to him to be the imminent destruction of the old constitutional system.
War-Time Government in China
Authors: Chien Tuan-Sheng
Published: May 2006

Since the establishment of the Nationalist régime in Canton in the year 1925 by the Kuomintang, the government of China has undergone only one major structural change. At the beginning, aside from the machinery which assured control of the government by the Kuomintang, the one organ of political power was the State Council, under which functioned the various departments of administration, civil and military, of law-making and of adjudication. The State Council was a going concern, and the various departments were subordinate organs. In October, 1929, there occurred a change. The Five Yuan were set up, each responsible to the Party machinery and each functioning independently. The State Council was retained, but, except for a brief interval, it no longer enjoyed substantial power.

The government of China, as it stood at the beginning of the war, was very much the government as set up in 1929, though necessarily with many important modifications. Supreme power rested with the Central Political Committee, which was a committee of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, charged with the direction and supervision of the government. It was not to be confused with the Central Executive Committee itself. While the Central Executive Committee met only at very long intervals, usually once or twice a year, and, being a large body of 300-odd persons, did little more than hear speeches and reports and pass resolutions, the Central Political Committee was a going concern and met every week to decide on important matters of state.
Women and National Party Organization
Authors: Fisher Marguerite J. , Whitehead Betty
Published: May 2006

For the first time in American history, the majority of the voters in the presidential election of 1944 will be women. That party managers have realized this fact has been evidenced by their special appeals to the feminine vote in campaign literature, public statements, and management techniques. Furthermore, in a growing number of cases, women have been entrusted with responsible functions in party organization which up to now have been reserved for men. To cite but one example in national party structure, there is the appointment for the first time of a woman to serve as secretary of the Democratic national committee.

The unusual political responsibilities and opportunities which war conditions have made available to women bring up the question of the progress they have been able to achieve in national party organization during the years since the adoption of the suffrage amendment in 1920. In 1933, an analysis of the formal status of women in the national party organizations was made by Miss Sophonisba Breckinridge, and included in her volume, Women in the Twentieth Century, published as one of a series of monographs on “Recent Social Trends in the United States,” under the direction of President Hoover's Research Committee on Social Trends. As a formal measure of women's status in national party organization, Miss Breckinridge examined their participation in the national conventions and their position on the national committees of both parties from 1892, when they were first represented in a convention, through 1932.

The present study carries Miss Breckinridge's investigation through the 1936, 1940, and 1944 nominating conventions. The data used in both studies were obtained from the official convention records and from replies of national committeewomen to questionnaires.