bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Review Article : Myrdal's Dilemma and Soviet Development Studies
Authors: Gould Jeremy
Published: March 2007

This article attempts, in the loose context of a review of Soviet scholar's R. Ulyanovsky and V. Pavlov's book Asian Dilemma A Soviet View and Myrdal's Concept, to outline some of the concepts and themes of central interest in Soviet development research, as well as to examine Swedish economist G. Myrdal's work in the light of Marxist criteria. Certain central methodological problems which arise in the course of this discussion are examined, with particular attention being paid to, on the one hand the Marxist theory of a multistructural social pattern, and on the other Myrdal's "institutional approach".

Myrdal's Dilemma and Soviet Development Studies: a review article of Ulyanov sky, R. and Pavlov, V.: Asian Dilemma: A Soviet View and Myrdal's Concept. Progress Publishers, Moscow 1973, 169 pp.
Toward a Third Stage in the Measurement of Poverty
Authors: Ringen Stein
Published: March 2007

While there has been considerable development in the concept of poverty during this century, and in particular during the last couple of decades, the method of measurement remains essentially unchanged. On the theoretical side, a relative deprivation concept of poverty has been developed in addition to or as an alternative to the conventional subsistence minimum concept, but on the measurement side, the most important tool is the income poverty line irrespective of what concept is applied, the only difference being at what level the poverty line is set. In distribution research in general, there have long been warnings against using income alone as an indicator of welfare, and methods have been developed for measuring consumption or living conditions directly, but poverty research has continued to use the indirect income method. This paper suggests that there is a need for an alternative method of measuring poverty which corresponds to the 'modern' con ceptualization of the problem and indicates how such a method can be developed by integrating lessons from living conditions research into poverty research.
The Concept of Class and Public Employees
Authors: Hoff Jens
Published: March 2007

'In short the principle must always rule that ideas are not born of other ideas, philosophies of other philosophies, they must be continually renewed expressions of real historical development' (Antonio Gramsci).
Knowledge Problems in the Sociology of the 80s
Authors: Mortensen Nils
Published: March 2007

The present situation of sociology is discussed It is asserted that what I call approach-based research is becoming more and more common and that knowledge theory is in a state of flowing. These problems in sociology are seen in relation to the 'Zeitgeist' of the 80s: The post-modern energies. Perhaps the reason for these perturbations is that we are living in a late stage of Western civilization. In this stage we are experiencing a crisis of Western rational thought on a deep level where only highly radical ways out are open: Communicative reason, which is Habermas's offer; deconstruction, which is the reaction from French post-structuralism; and transrational reason, which is the answer of the new spiritual-holistic movement.
Social Responsivity as Elementary Human Action
Authors: Israel Joachim
Published: March 2007

The problem of social responsivity as formulated in a new book by Johan Asplund is discussed. Asplund assumes that social responsivity is an elemen tary form of social life implied in social-psychological theories A socially responsive person comes alive in the presence of others, but. when isolated, his lite is without purpose. The concept is illustrated using a number of example, and well-known social-psychological experiments are reinter preted within this conceptual framework Especally interesting is the inter pretation of medical experiments using placebos. where the effect of a placebo is seen as an outcome of the social responsivity of the patient Finally, some theoretical problems arising out of the notion of elementary form' are discussed and the epistemological importance is analysed.
Shorter Working Hours, Lower Retirement Age or Longer Vacations? Ambivalences in Public Attitudes on Alternative Working-Time Reforms in Norway
Authors: Knudsen Knud
Published: March 2007

This article investigates inconsistent attitudes on working time reforms in a Norwegian survey In the survey the respondents were asked both a general and a specific question about preferences among alternative working time reforms Those who stick to the direction of their original preference are called consistent respondents, while those who 'shift' direction from the general to the specific question are called ambivalent respondents The main arguments is that ambivalent reform preferences may be seen as the result of conflicting interests associated with positions in between or outside typical life course stages. This hypothesis is tested using discriminant analysis The first and most distinct discriminant function can best be labelled a life course dimension, with age as clearly the strongest predictor of attitudes. The ambivalent and consistent attitude groups together form a certain pattern along this function, in line with what was expected Although this is not a very strong test, the results seem to provide at least some evidence for the validity of our argument
Employment and Unemployment Policies and the Functioning of the Labour Market in a Comparative Perspective 1
Authors: Jensen Per H.
Published: March 2007

This study suggests that the phenomenon of unemployment and the regu latory order of the labour market could be analysed cross-nationally as a crucial policy issue of the welfare state. The phenomenon of unemployment highlights central issues concerning public policy-making and the Interaction between state and society. The study is limited to four countries. Denmark, Sweden, Great Britain and Italy It is observable that the four countries show markedly different profiles regarding state institutions and the con figuration of the policies concerned. These variations are to be analysed as an interrelation between the character of the labour movements and the welfare state.
The Social Construction of Research Information
Authors: Maseide Per
Published: March 2007

The following major interpretative problem is presented: How do we know, make probable and plausible, or document the meaning of speech acts and the meaning and functions of sequences or systems of sequences of social interaction? Assignment of meaning is here understood as an interpretative process that generates higher level predications It signifies a movement from a specific level to a more general This problem is discussed in connection with collection of information. Included is also a discussion about how social processes and cultural conditions affect the production of sociological data, and thus, why conscious and systematical management of these problems is vital for sociological interpretation.
Economic Institutions as Social Constructions: A Framework for Analysis
Authors: Granovetter Mark
Published: March 2007

Institutional economics has moved from a position, earlier in the twentieth century, of drawing eclectically on several other disciplines, to a stance of building its arguments almost entirely out of neoclassical materials This paper argues that such a stance cannot provide a persuasive account of economic institutions, and suggests a broader toundation based on classical sociological arguments about the embeddedness of economic goals and activities in socially oriented goals and structures Emphasis is placed on how economic activity comes to be coordinated by groups of people rather than carried out by isolated individuals Firms in developing countries, busmess groups, and the origins of the electrical utility industry in the United States are posed as cases of the 'social construction of economic institutions' It is argued that, although proper analysis of such cases involves a high level of contingency. these contingencies can be taken into account in a systematic theoretical argument, and that historicist pitfalls can be avoided Such an argument is posed as the distinctive agenda for a new economic sociology
Husbands' and Wives' Voting Behaviour in Britain: Class-dependent Mutual Influence of Spouses*
Authors: Dirk De Graaf Nan , Heath Anthony
Published: March 2007

We investigate the relative impact of respondent's and spouse's class on voting behaviour using logistic diagonal reference models. We test several hypotheses with data from the British Election Surveys of 1974, 1979, 1983 and 1987. We find that there are still differences between men and women in the extent to which their own class positions account for the way they vote, women being more influenced by their partner's class position than are men. We also find that, although men have in general a higher class position, a 'class dominance' model cannot account for the greater influence of husbands than of wives. Our results do however modify the conventional approach to class in important respects. We find significant interaction effects, women in the higher and lower service class and women in blue-collar occupations behaving much like men: that is, they take more account of their own class than of their partner's. Conversely, women in the petty bourgeoisie and in the routine nonmanual class take relatively little account of their own class positions; their behaviour is more in line with the conventional assumption of male dominance. Finally, no trends over time, whether towards 'indi vidualism', 'feminism' or 'sharing', could be detected.
Taste and Fashion: The Social Function of Fashion and Style
Authors: Gronow Jukka
Published: March 2007

In the classical European humanistic tradition, fashion was alwavs thought to be anti thetical to good taste. A person blindly following the whims of fashion was without style, whereas a man of style - or a gentleman - used his own power of judgement Immanuel Kant shared this conception with many of his contemporaries. It is well known that Georg Simmel's idea of a formal sociology was influenced by his reading of Kant's aesthetic writings. Even Simmel's famous essay on fashion can best be understood as a somewhat ironic commentary on Kant's idea of a semus communis: the community of fashion is the real community of universal taste To Simmel, fashion is a societal formation always combining two opposite forces It is a socially acceptable and safe way to distinguish oneself from others and, at the same time, it satisfies the individual's need for social adaptation and imitation Furthermure, the charm of novelty offered by fashion is a purely aesthetic pleasure. Fashion helps to solve - at least provisionally - the central problem of the philosophy of life, also expressed in the antinomy of taste as formulated by Kant. It teaches the modern man how a person can be a homogeneous part of a social mass without losing his individuality, or how he can both stick to his own private taste and expect others - who recognizably also have a taste ot their own - to share it Simmel's suggestion of the 'stylized life-style' further develops the same idea. In modern society, both style and fashion are functional equivalents to 'good taste'.
Twenty-five Years with The Logic of Collective Action
Authors: Udehn Lars
Published: March 2007

A quarter of a century has passed since Mancur Olson wrote The Logic of Collective Action (1965). In this seminal work, Olson argued that collective action will not take place if individuals are rational egoists and the group is large. This is a review article summing up 25 years of continuing debate about the validity of this argument Surprisingly little has been added that goes beyond Olson's informal analysis. His formal analysis has proved less robust. Above all, his size argument has been shown to be defective. Collective action is not a simple function of group size. The main message of this article, however, is that the assumption of self-interest, used by Olson and by a majority of rational choice theorists, is inadequate and must be replaced by an assumption of mixed motivations. What this mix is going to be is still an open question.
Civil Religion in a Low Key: The Case of Norway
Authors: Furseth Inger
Published: March 2007

In this paper I examine Robert Bellah's thesis about civil religion as a universal phenomenon by applying it to Norwegian society. Two aspects of civil religion are considered. First, I study the presence of civil religion in Norwegian society. I ask: Is civil religion a phenomenon that exists and has existed in Norwegian history? Second, I distinguish between periods of social stability and of national crises. I attempt to assess whether national crises have a stronger effect on the presence of a civil religion than periods of social stability. In the empirical analysis, I use historical data on national rituals and celebrations from the period 1905-80. The main findings are: (1) Civil religion was found only in a low key in Norway during the years studied. (2) National crises only partially had an expected stronger effect on the presence of civil religion. I found that the constitutional transformations in 1905 did not have a stronger effect on the presence of civil religion, whereas the German occupation in 1940-45 did have a stronger effect on the presence of civil religion. (3) I found civil religious values among the middle class, the Lutheran state church and the religious lay movement until the late 1950s. Later, only the religious groups expressed civil religion.
Hierarchy or Competition?
Authors: Mattila Mikko
Published: March 2007

In this article the network of interest representation of Finnish labour organizations in the social and health policy domain was analysed More precisely the research question was whether the interest representation follows the hierarchical or the competitive model of interest channelling The first model shared many features of the corporatist theory of interest representation The competition model was derived more from pluralist policy-making theories The results indicated that the interest representation in this domain was more hierarchically structured This result gives some support to the meso level corporatist hypothesis, which claims that macro-level corporatist arrangements are replicated also in sectoral level decision-making
Deprivation and Poverty: A Comparative Analysis of Sweden and Great Britain
Authors: Halleröd Björn
Published: March 2007

This paper represents an attempt to compare the incidence of relative deprivation and poverty in Sweden and Great Britain. The study goes beyond the limitations of traditional income-based comparisons and the method applied builds on Mack & Lansley's (1985) direct consensual definition of deprivation. The analyses show that deprivation is more prevalent and more unevenly distributed in Britain compared with Sweden. However, more detailed analyses reveal that the probability of being poor is distributed in a similar way in the two countries. Low income households, the unemployed, those dependent on means-tested benefits and lone parents are worse off in both countries. Thus, it is very much the same processes that generate deprivation and poverty. However, Swedes are less deprived because incomes have been distributed more equally, unemployment has been lower, means-tested benefits have been more generous, and the situation for lone parents has been better in Sweden than in Britain during the 1980s.
The Democratic Class Struggle in Postwar Societies: Class Voting in Twenty Countries, 1945-1990
Authors: Nieuwbeerta Paul
Published: March 2007

Studies on the relation between class and voting behaviour traditionally use measures of absolute class voting (Alford indices), and apply simple class schemes (a manual/non-manual class dichotomy). Almost all these studies showed that levels of class voting differed between countries and that declines in levels of class voting occurred in most countries in the postwar period. However, recently, scholars have argued that using measures of relative class voting (e.g. log-odds-ratios) and more detailed class schemes (e.g. the EGP class scheme) might yield different conclusions. In this article the tenability of this claim is tested analysing comparable data from twenty Western industrial democracies in the period 1945-90. The main finding is that the different measurement procedures do not lead to essentially different conclusions. Using various procedures, a similar ranking of the countries with respect to their levels of class voting was obtained: the Scandinavian countries and Britain having the highest levels of class voting, and the United States and Canada the lowest. Furthermore, on using the various procedures, declines in levels of relative class voting were indicated in the same countries (particularly the Scandinavian countries, Germany and Britain), while no evidence of substantial declines was found in others (Canada, Ireland, Luxembourg, Switzerland and The Netherlands).
Incongruent Modernities: A Comparative Study of Higher Educated Women from Urban Turkey and Norway
Authors: Sümer Sevil
Published: March 2007

In this article, main findings of a comparative study on the social positions, attitudes and identities of younger Turkish and Norwegian women with higher education will be presented. The findings are based on interpretations of twenty in-depth interviews. Turkish and Norwegian interviewees differ considerably in terms of their social identities: they use dissimilar reference groups while evaluating their societal positions. The two groups also conceive gender and its social reflections in diverse terms. Such differences are analysed in light of differing class structures and modernization histories of the two countries. At the same time, Turkish and Norwegian interviewees share similar worries related to the expected difficulties of combining marriage, motherhood and employment. These accounts give support to arguments about an inherent incongruity in the design of modernity. The Norwegian welfare state and the Turkish family, with their enabling and constraining properties, are the key institutions in the lives of the informants of this study.
Impact of Re-employment on Psychological Distress among Long-term Unemployed
Authors: Halvorsen Knut
Published: March 2007

This article reports results from a two-wave panel study representative of long-term unemployed in Norway in 1991-92. We looked especially at the impact of re-employment on psychological distress. Is any job better than unemployment, and does re-employment improve mental health dramatically? Our findings showed that re-employed people did not have less distress than those still unemployed and outside the labour force when other factors were controlled for. What mattered was that re-employment represented a secure job. High risk of distress was especially persistent among those who experienced financial hardship and marital break-up and who had not had previous psychological distress. Women exhibited higher distress than men, and older persons higher distress than younger. To a certain extent, psychological distress was unrelated to the unemployment situation itself, but seemed instead to be due to a selective process ending in long-term unemployment experienced by persons with psychological distress at the outset of joblessness. These persons experienced cumulative problems related to poor economic situations and marginal positions in the labour-market. Earlier research has tended to overestimate the emotional damage created by job loss per se and the beneficial effects of re-employment.
Europe Through the Looking-Glass: Comparative and Multi-Level Perspectives
Authors: Ebbinghaus Bernhard
Published: March 2007

The two main divisions in the social sciences, cross-national comparison and international relations theory, must reconsider their methodologies and paradigms when studying transnationalization and, in particular, European integration. This article reviews the major differences in methods, research orientation and heuristic models between the comparative and international perspectives. Four main differences between the two perspectives are discussed: Galton's problem, the level of analysis, interdependence and (dis)aggregation. Reviewing the different paradigms in European studies, the author argues for a combined, if not synthetic, comparative and multi-level approach. For studying Europe's diversity and unity, a multi-level and multi-centric model seems most promising. Such an approach should take into account both state and non-state actors, as well as the interaction between international and national levels in the Europeanization process.
National Identities, National Pride and Xenophobia: A Comparison of Four Western Countries
Authors: Hjerm Mikael
Published: March 2007

This article scrutinizes the theoretically proposed positive sides of different forms of civic national attachment. Data come from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) 1995, which is a programme for cross-country comparative attitude studies. Two different forms of attachment and their relationships to xenophobia have been examined, namely national identity and national pride. In order to dismiss possible country-specific phenomena, four Western countries, Australia, Germany, Britain and Sweden were studied. The choice of countries was based on the different policy regimes implemented in the areas of citizenship and immigration, which illustrate how the nation-state is conceptualized in the different countries. The results show that both civic national identity and national pride go together with xenophobia, whereas the reverse holds for ethnic national identity and national pride in all four countries, despite their different conceptualizations of the nation-state. In all, the article gives empirical support for the proposed theoretical argument of a separation of the civic and ethnic in society.
Organizational Life Aboard the Moving Bandwagons: A Network Analysis of Dropouts from a Swedish Temperance Organization, 1896-1937
Authors: Sandell Rickard
Published: March 2007

One consistent finding in research on social movement organizations is that new members are recruited along established lines of interaction. Drawing on these findings, I argue that an individual's decision to leave a social movement organization is the result of similar influences. Using information about membership turnover over time in a local Swedish temperance organization, I test whether the dropout propensity of existing members is related to prior members' dropout decisions. I find that existing members' dropout propensity increases when their socially relevant others drop out of the organization. Thus, the results suggest that the decision processes concerning leaving and joining an organization are mirror images. This should have implications for any analysis of social movement organizations because only when this duality of interpersonal influences is considered can we fully understand the social dynamics of social movement organizations.
Making People Work: Control and Incentives in Swedish Organizations
Authors: Szulkin Ryszard
Published: March 2007

There are two main strategies to elicit effort from employees: control and incentives. The issue addressed in this paper is how systems of control and incentives are related, and how they are embedded in the organizational structure. The analyses are based on data from a national survey of Swedish public and private sector organizations. According to the findings, the degree of bureaucratization is not only positively related to the extent to which employees are controlled, but also to the level of incentives. The results also indicate that employers using selective incentives rely on monitoring and output control in order to establish who will get ahead and why. Furthermore, some results show that the control level is relatively low in organizations which use general rather than selective incentives. Hence, the idea that incentives and control are functional equivalents appears to be invalid for selective incentives.
The Influence of Different Compensation Levels of Unemployment Benefits on Job Chances among Unemployed Youth: A Comparative Study of the Nordic Countries
Authors: Hammer Torild
Published: March 2007

Comparative surveys of unemployed youth were carried out in 1995-96 in the five Nordic countries. Representative samples of 1,500 to 3,000 registered unemployed, aged 18 to 24 years old, were drawn from the national unemployment registers in each country in the spring of 1995, and respondents were interviewed 6 to 12 months later. The article examines the influence of receiving unemployment benefits upon job chances of the previously unemployed. Danish youth (with compensation levels of 90 per cent) reported fewer financial problems than youth in the other countries with much lower compensation levels. The results document a decrease in the probability of re-employment for unemployed youth receiving unemployment benefits, even controlling for age, educational level, work commitment, job-seeking and duration of unemployment. The effect was significantly stronger in Denmark than in the other countries with lower compensation levels. However, in the other countries, receiving social assistance and having financial problems had an equally negative impact on re- employment.
The Peculiarities of Geography: Africa
Authors: Hagberg Gordon P.
Published: March 2007

The number of African students in the United States is increasing rapidly as the need for trained manpower compels newly independent African nations to send their young people to other countries for higher education. There is also need for correlation between the studies taken overseas and the requirements for economic development in a given coun try. African students coming here are apt to be somewhat older and more politically conscious than their American coun terparts. More of them choose the social sciences, with eco nomics leading, than any other major field of study. The physical and natural sciences, the humanities, and engineering follow in order. Racial discrimination in the United States is a serious problem affecting the African student personally and often influencing his evaluation of American life. Careful and sympathetic counseling, together with an orientation pe riod in the summer before college entrance, will tend to reduce the negative aspects of adjustment and increase the likelihood of useful assimilation and a generally beneficial experience for African students.
Foreign Student Adviser : A New Profession?
Authors: Davis James M.
Published: March 2007

The presence of fifty thousand foreign students in American universities and colleges, combined with the com plexity of their problems, has led to the development of a group of specialized service individuals whose responsibility it has become to extend varied services to these students. The designation most commonly given to these officers is foreign student adviser or adviser or counselor to foreign students. The foreign student adviser finds himself in a new social role with all of the dilemmas of a role-in-the-making. He feels a need to justify his role, to establish ethics and traditions, and to define its functions. In terms of the distribution of foreign students in American universities, some idea can be gained of the specialization variously required in providing counseling services to foreign students. In terms of the characteristics of a profession—knowledge, competence, and social responsi bility—it can be seen that foreign student advising is a "would- be" vocation of professional stature.
Anatomy of the Problem: Who Should Come?
Authors: Wolf Elinor K.
Published: March 2007

The philosophy of American education is that every educable person should have the opportunity to choose freely and pursue the course of studies he believes best suited to his individual goals and purposes. This philosophy is gen erally extended to foreign students who come from abroad to study in the United States. Such a philosophy does not take into account, however, the cultural and technological differ ences between the United States and the underdeveloped areas of the world, from which over half the foreign students in the United States come. When students from abroad, no matter how able, pursue courses which prepare them for careers which are useless and unavailable in their own countries, they return home only to become frustrated and discontented. The United States should, perhaps, exercise some control over the fields which students from other countries pursue. Such control would represent an abridgement of the American philosophy of education, but, judiciously exercised, the comparative use fulness of the training and skills acquired in the United States would be vastly increased. Practically, the United States Government should reach mutually satisfactory understand ings with other governments as to who should come and for what purposes and should gain the co-operation of American universities for better defined participation in the international educational exchange program.—Ed.
2. The "Illiberal" Education of Soviet Managers
Authors: Bauer Raymond A. , Tschirwa Barbara
Published: March 2007

Soviet enterprise is directed largely by narrowly trained engineers. Generalized administration is scarcely perceived as a field of knowledge and application. Technical ability is the key to advancement, but administrative skill will probably be increasingly emphasized in response to costly human relations problems in Soviet industry.
3. A Common Formulation in Politics, Sociology and Economics
Authors: de Grazia Alfred
Published: March 2007

A unified, graphic conceptualization of the key variables of political science, sociology and economics is proposed. Pop ulations (defined as reference groups) should be scored on their individuals' efforts and success at achieving power, respect and goods. The resulting distribution profiles can suggest proposi tions about relations among economic, social, and political prac tices. Myths of "demand and expectation" might also be trans lated into quantitative terms suited for comparison with actual distributions.
8. The Prospect of Younging Electorates: A Research Challenge to Political Scientists
Authors: Dickinson Frank G.
Published: March 2007

The tides of welfare legislation flow and ebb with the ag ing and younging of electorates. Changes of a few percentage points have important legislative consequences. Prospects are now for a younging of electorates and repercussions against tra ditional "welfare state" ideology, a multi-faceted relation that political scientists might well study.
Election Polling Trends, 1960
Authors: Roper Elmo , Perry Paul , Field Mervin D.
Published: March 2007

We recently conducted a "poll of the pollsters," asking several of the major Amer ican public opinion polling organizations what contributions or innovations they were making to improve election studies and forecasting. Elmo Roper and Associates, the American Institute of Public Opinion, and the Field Research Company (which con ducts the California Poll) each summarized the directions their efforts are taking. As Elmo Roper points out, there has been much talk of improving the art, but in an election year, at least, the pollsters are not concerned so much with "new directions" as they are with increasing the sophistication of tried-and-true methods. We hope to print other comment following the November election.
Indian Approaches To Modern China-I a Socio-Historical Analysis
Authors: Krishna Prakash Gupta
Published: March 2007

Dominant Indian approaches to China have been marked by empathy emanating from visions of Asian unity and resurgence. At no stage has this been reciprocated by China. This paper surveys Sino-Indian images at various periods in the last seventy years. India's initial quest fer a united spiritual front, subsequently transformed into the ideal of political co-existence, is contrasted with China's Sinocentric images of cultural superiority and indifference to Indian values. This remained true even at the apex of the bhai-bhaiperiod when Indians spontaneously accepted China as an alternative model of development, but China continued to reject the Indian experiment, notwithstanding certain deceptive gestures of cultural exchange programmes. China's political system and the 1962 war have not affected this fundamental asymmetry. The latest evidence is also examined with reference to Sino-Indian perceptions of each other during the Bangladesh liberation movement.
Japan's Lower House Election and After (II)
Authors: Narasimha Murthy P.A.
Published: March 2007

Owing to its unusual length weprinted in our last issue only the text and some important tables of this article. We carry in this issue Appendixes which include ia complete list of members elected to the House of Representatives, regional distribution of representation, and the composition of Lower House special and regular committee. —EDITOR
The Nordic and the Continental European Dimensions in Scandinavian Integration: NORDEK as a Case Study
Authors: Nielsson Gunnar P.
Published: March 2007

This paper was delivered at the University of Aberdeen's conference on 'Scandinavia and European Integration' in March, 1971. There are four sections, the first of which is a chronological review of the Nordek case. Secondly, an analysis of the Nordek Draft Treaty provisions shows that the treaty represents the most far-reaching step in regard to the integration of social and economic policy spheres yet considered in Scandinavia.

Thirdly, the key factor in explaining the collapse of the Nordek plan is the increasing penetration of European 'high politics' into Nordic cooperative arrangements. Political stalemate concerning expanded membership of the European Economic Community favored Nordek. That stalemate was broken after de Gaulle's political demise. The changed conditions brought into sharp relief the incompatibility of Finland's neutrality policy with participation in a Nordek which would include such potential EEC members as Denmark and Norway.

Finally, future prospects are examined through the construction of four basic choices presented as models. The Greater European model and the Divided Scandinavia model contain the international dimensions of the dilemma presently facing the Scandinavians.
Actional Distances between the Socialist Countries in the I960's
Authors: Harle Vilho
Published: March 2007

This paper examines the degrees of cooperation and conflict between the Socialist countries from January 1962 until the end of August 1968. The study is an experiment in the analysis of international interaction events. The sources of data are rather exceptional news media: the relevant editorials of five Finnish newspapers and the Chronology of Current History. However, the method is not a content analysis but an event analysis. The concept of actional distance is used to measure and combine (both explicitly and implicitly) cooperation and conflict. Actional distance between A and B includes both direct interaction between them and the behavior of A and B toward some object X. The distances among the Socialist countries are described in regard to the Sino-Soviet conflict. The bloc is found to be divided into two subgroups with the exception of five countries which do not belong to either of them. The theory tested is the Simmel/Coser cohesion hypothesis, which is strongly supported by the results. The results are compared with two content analysis studies and one transac tion flow study; the comparison confirms the validity of the results of this paper. The validity problem is also discussed.
Norwegian Security Policy: Options and Constraints
Authors: Holst Johan Jørgen
Published: March 2007

The structure and assumptions of Norwegian security policy in the context of the evolving political order in Europe and the codification of superpower relations are outlined. Attitudes towards the future evolution of NATO, and the competing pers pectives which were brought to bear on security policy issues in the EC referendum campaign and its aftermath, are examined. The Norwegian security predicament is influenced directly by the naval competition of the superpowers. Norwegian defence policy is examined from the point of view of missions and force posture. Finally, the author discusses the role of arms control in Norwegian security policy.
International Transactions: Some Principal Lines
Authors: Rasmussen Niels Aadal
Published: March 2007

A very much used and discussed model of international transaction flows by Karl W. Deutsch and I. Richard Savage is combined in this article with an independent model of grouping. A report on the procedure, as presented by a computer, is given, and the results are discussed in relation to the basic foundation of the transaction flows model. This evalutation of the original model points to several suggestions on its further use. In the last section the theoretical relationship between the concepts of transaction and cooperation is discussed, and conditions for further consideration of the concepts are presented.

The empirical data on the analysis concern the transactional relationships of the African continent.
Prospects for the Nordic Security Pattern
Authors: Andrén Nils
Published: March 2007

Andrén, N. Prospects for the Nordic Security Pattern. Cooperation and Conflict, XIII, 1978, 181-192.

The Nordic countries responded to the Cold War division of Europe in different ways. The total effect of the different national choices of position is a pattern which, it is be lieved, has tended to reduce acute tensions between the major blocs on their 'Northern flank', in spite of its increasing significance for both military seasons, viz. Soviet naval expansion and superpower nuclear strategy, and for economic reasons, the new look on sea resources in general and oil in particular. In the present paper the global, European and Nordic conditions for the Nordic security pattern, often referred to as the 'Nordic Balance', and possible effects of future changes are discussed.
Issues Determine Politics Determine Policies: The Case for a 'Rationalistic' Approach to the Study of Foreign Policy Decision-Making
Authors: Underdal Arild
Published: March 2007

Underdal, A. Issues Determine Politics Determine Policies: The Case for a 'Rationalistic' Approach to the Study of Foreign Policy Decision-Making. Cooperation and Conflict, XIV , 1979, 1-9.

The author argues that within the study of foreign policy decision-making more energy should be devoted to examining whether and how patterns of participation, interaction, and influence tend to vary from one category of issues to another. For this purpose issue categories designed to catch distinctive configurations of policy preferences are likely to prove the most useful. The argument is developed in two steps: In Part II a crude three-dimensional matrix is offered to indicate how configurations of preferences can be used to explain variations in decision-making processes. In Part III the author explores how decision-making processes within one particular issue-area (foreign aid) is likely to change depending on the policy alternatives in question.
Party System and Foreign Policy in Denmark
Authors: Faurby IB
Published: March 2007

Faurby, I. Party System and Foreign Policy in Denmark. Cooperation and Conflict, XIV, 1979, 159-170.

Using number of parties and their mutual ideological distance as the main variables, this article gives a preliminary description of the Danish party system as it functions within the issue-area of foreign and defence policy. Based upon an analysis of the parties' voting on all foreign and defence policy issues before the Danish parliament from 1953 to 1977 the pattern of party distances in each government period is shown. Among the conclusions are that neither the number of parties nor the parliamentary basis of the governments is the main variable explaining the level of conflict over foreign policy, and that in spite of the dramatic changes in the Danish party system in the 1970s there has been no directly observable consequences on foreign policy. In spite of changes, parties representing an overwhelming majority in parliament support not only NATO and EC membership but all the main elements of Danish foreign policy.
Interdependence and Foreign Policy
Authors: Sundelius Bengt
Published: March 2007

Sundelius, B. Interdependence and Foreign Policy. Cooperation and Conflict, XV, 1980, 187-208.

This survey briefly dissects the concept of interdependence, indicating its many interpreta tions and dimensions. Following a broad overview of the structure and process of the international politics of interdependence, as indicated in the literature covered, some implications for national foreign policy-making are pointed to. The impact of interdepen dence on state objectives and instruments, the relation between domestic and foreign policy, prevalent international processes and actors, and national processes and strategies are discussed, in particular with a view to the implications for smaller European nations. Finally, some important limitations of the discussed features are emphasized. The conclu sion calls for some empirical research to test the many interesting assertions contained in the interdependence literature.
Nuclear Energy and Dominance: Some Interrelationships between Military and Civil Aspects of Nuclear Energy in U.S. Foreign Policy since 1945
Authors: Skogmar Gunnar
Published: March 2007

Skogmar, G. Nuclear Energy and Dominance: Some Interrelationships between Military and Civil Aspects of Nuclear Energy in U.S. Foreign Policy since 1945. Cooperation and Conflict, XV, 1980, 217-235.

Some features of the American dominance in the nuclear field are outlined. A basic point of departure is that the military and civil aspects of nuclear energy cannot be separated. American nuclear policy is seen as passing through successive stages with fundamental changes occurring around 1953, in the early sixties, and after the energy crisis in the seventies. The themes most fully discussed are the American deployment of nuclear weapons in Western Europe, the non-proliferation policy, and the control of the nuclear fuel market. One main conclusion is that the dimensions of non-proliferation and dominance/dependence in the energy field are closely intertwined.
The 1979 European Election in Denmark: An Analysis of Participation, Choice of Party, and Attitude Towards Europe
Authors: Worre Torben
Published: March 2007

In June 1979 the first direct elections to the European Parliament took place. In Denmark the results constituted a strong deviation from the normal party system. The turnout dropped to nearly half of that at the general elections, and the two biggest parties lost half of their votes, while a new list, the People's Movement against the EC, collected 21% of the vote. This article analyses the electoral behaviour in the European election in order to find an explanation for the deviation. It points out a difference between two conceptions of the election: some saw the election as an expression of party preferences, others as an expression of the fundamental attitude to the EC, a kind of referendum for or against Danish membership of the EC. Half of the electorate are against the EC, but most of them normally vote for pro-European parties, particularly the Social Democrats and the Progress Party. These voters were the crucial group in the Euro-election. Most of them did not vote, but the majority of those who did gave priority to their EC attitude and voted for the People's Movement. A distinct Euro-party system appeared, different from the usual pattern. The social and ideological basis of this new system is investigated, in particular the electoral profile of the People's Movement.
Sino-Soviet State Relations 1969-1982: An Attempt at Clarification
Authors: Hart Thomas G.
Published: March 2007

Although relations between the Communist parties of the USSR and the PRC were broken off in 1964, 'state-to-state' relations never ruptured completely. Since the severe crisis of 1969, caused by the Cultural Revolution and the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia, both governments have called for a 'normalization' of state relations but have accompanied such appeals with a great deal of mutual vituperation, hostile diplomatic maneuvering and military confrontation. During this period the Sino-Soviet conflict has changed character and new issues have emerged replacing old ones as obstacles to friendly relations. This article reviews developments in strictly bilateral state relations since 1969 in an effort to make clear precisely what negotiations have taken place, what proposals and demands have been made by either side, and what the issues currently are. In the concluding section some explanations are offered for why relations have developed as they have, and the prediction is made that Sino- Soviet relations will continue to improve moderately, but that the main issues are likely neither to be solved nor shelved.
The Intervener: Lone Wolf or ... ? Cooperation between Interveners in Civil Wars
Authors: Dunér Bertil
Published: March 2007

Dunér, B. The Intervener: Lone Wolf or ... ? Cooperation between Interveners in Civil Wars. Cooperation and Conflict, XVIII, 1983, 197-213.

In a civil war, external actors may either oppose one another or rally to the assistance of the same internal party. The latter situation is in focus in this article. It is sometimes assumed that certain external powers make use of others to promote their aims vis-à-vis a civil war. The author argues that the idea of asymmetry does not lead anywhere. The alternative perspective of military cooperation between interveners is elaborated. Four aspects of military cooperation are singled out, and the formation of hypotheses and related methodological questions discussed. An empirical analysis of major civil wars in the 1970s is presented. In most cases in which at least two interveners assisted the same internal party there tends to have been some form of military cooperation. Moreover, the extent of collaboration in individual cases is related to the number of interveners involved.
Détente and Crisis
Authors: Goldmann Kjell
Published: March 2007

Goldmann, K. Détente and Crisis. Cooperation and Conflict, XVIII, 1983, 215-232.

Can a relationship of détente survive a crisis? This question is addressed as a problem of foreign policy stability. A framework of analysis is offered focusing on a number of factors in domestic politics, belief systems and international relations which may function as stabilizers of foreign policy, including détente policy, in times of crisis. It is emphasized that the protection of détente can be rendered difficult by the mechanism of negative interconnections. The slow pace of détente stabilization is another difficulty. Moreover, the stabilization of détente itself may be self-defeating by undermining the credibility of deterrence. The empirical illustration of these mechanisms has to do with Soviet-German relations during the Polish crisis. It is clear that a measure of détente survived the crisis. Even though it is difficult to estimate the exact amount of stress the Polish crisis created, it remains possible that even relatively limited stabilization of détente may have significant effects.