bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Significance of Fowls' Bathing in Dust
Authors: van Liere D W
Published: January 2023

Dustbathing in fowls (eg chickens, Gallus gallus) consists of tossing the litter onto and between the fluffed feathers and subsequently enclosing it by flattening the feathers. The proximal contact between litters like sand and peat, and the integument is intensified by rubbing the body. This is not the case in wood-shavings which adhere to the distal plumage after tossing; rubbings in wood-shavings are frequently interrupted by reinitiated tossings. Lipids accumulate on the feathers and become stale during dust deprivation. Only baths in sand and peat are effective in removing excessive lipids from the proximal downy feather parts. Fluffiness of the down is highest in hens on peat, intermediate on sand and lowest on wood-shavings, while the reverse is true for the plumage surface temperature of the back Hens monitor the integumental lipid condition which becomes causally connected with bathing in the course of experiencing litter bathing effects. It is shown from the author's experimental study that hens naive of bathing in litter, and hens experienced with wood-shavings initially shifted bathing litters but finally preferred peat or sand (in that order) when peat, sand and wood-shavings were simultaneously presented Most of the hens experienced with bathing in sand did not shift to another substrate when presented with one. Recommendations are given concerning adequate dustbathing litter. A chronic deprivation of adequate litter leads to an uncontrollable condition of the lipids on the integument and an abnormal development of dustbathing. Such a deprivation therefore reduces animal welfare. Moreover, it is suggested to be costly.
Pain in Birds
Authors: Gentle M J
Published: January 2023

For the detection and assessment of pain in animals both behavioural and physiological measurements are necessary. Cutaneous receptors which responded to noxious stimulation (nociceptors) have been identified in birds and have been characterized physiologically in the chicken. Following cutaneous nociceptive stimulation the chicken showed cardiovascular and characteristic behavioural changes consistent with those seen in mammals and indicative of pain perception. Following major burn trauma (partial beak amputation) there was behavioural and electrophysiological evidence fora pain-free period lasting several hours. This pain-free period was followed by pain-related behaviour with both anatomical and physiological evidence for long-term chronic pain.

While pain has been assessed following nociceptive stimulation and following trauma the painful consequences of chronic disease have not been investigated Spontaneous degenerative joint disease is widespread in certain strains of intensively reared poultry, and while we do not know what effect joint degeneration has on the joint capsule receptors, recent work has shown in the joint capsule of birds there are similar receptor types to those found in mammals and it seems likely that joint degeneration in birds may be accompanied by painful sensations.

Experimental work has clearly detected painful conditions in birds but the alleviation of pain with analgesic drugs is not possible at present because analgesic agents have not been systematically investigated in birds.

Comparing pain in birds with mammals it is clear that, with regard to the anatomical, physiological and behavioural parameters measured, there are no major differences and therefore the ethical considerations normally afforded to mammals should be extended to birds.
An Enrichment Device for Great Apes
Authors: Gilloux I , Gurnell J , Shepherdson D
Published: January 2023

The influence of an environmental enrichment feeding device (puzzle feeder), on activity and behaviour patterns of captive orang-utans, gorillas and chimpanzees was studied at London Zoo. General activity levels and behaviours directed towards the feeder increased for all species when the feeder was filled with food Chimpanzees used the feeder significantly more (18% of observation periods) than either gorillas (10%) or orang-utans (9.4%). There was considerable individual variation of puzzle use by individuals within each group and time of day also affected use. In some instances abnormal behaviours were reduced. These results are discussed in relation to the management of captive great apes and it is suggested that the use of puzzle feeders can improve the welfare of these animals.
The Human-Animal Relationship in Agriculture and Its Consequences for the Animal
Authors: Hemsworth P H , Barnett J L , Coleman G J
Published: January 2023

Although human factors are recognized as influential factors affecting the welfare and productivity of farm animals, only limited research has been conducted to identify these important human characteristics and to quantify their effects. During the last 13 years we have studied two apparently important human factors: the attitude and the behaviour of stockpersons towards farm animals.

We have proposed that in intensive animal production systems there are some important sequential relationships between the attitude and behaviour of the stockperson towards farm animals and the behaviour, performance and welfare of farm animals. Basically we have suggested that because a stockperson's behaviour towards animals is largely under volitional control it is strongly influenced by the attitudes and beliefs that the stockperson holds about the animals. Furthermore, the stockperson's behaviour towards animals affects the animals’ fear of humans which, in turn, affects the animals’ productivity and welfare. It is the occurrence of a stress response by animals which are highly fearful of humans which places their productivity and welfare at risk We have published data which strongly support these interrelationships between human attitude and behaviour and animal behaviour, productivity and welfare. This paper reviews this and other research on this subject. The results of research in the pig industry and to a lesser extent, the poultry industries indicate the excellent opportunity which exists to improve animal productivity and welfare by training and selecting stockpersons to have desirable attitudinal and behavioural profiles towards farm animals.
Using the Mesh Ceiling as a Food Puzzle to Encourage Foraging Behaviour in Caged Rhesus Macaques (Macaca Mulatta)
Authors: Reinhardt V
Published: January 2023

An attempt was made to encourage more foraging behaviour in eight pair-housed adult rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). No special device and no special food were used Daily commercial dry food rations (238g per animal) consisting of 33 bar-shaped or 16 star-shaped biscuits per animal were placed on the mesh ceiling of the cages instead of in the feed-boxes. This induced an 80-fold increase (17.0 vs 1362.9s) and 289-fold increase (12.3 vs 3551.4s), respectively, in foraging time. The animals spent on average 9.6 per cent and 24.7 per cent respectively, of four-hour observation sessions foraging for biscuits from the mesh ceiling. Working for their food did not discourage them from eating all left-overs in the course of a day regardless of the shape of the biscuits.

It was concluded that the new feeding procedure enhanced the animals’ behavioural well-being by encouraging foraging activities thereby helping to counteract understimulation.
Editorial
Authors: Ewbank Roger
Published: January 2023

The layout of this third part of the second volume of Animal Welfare is, in geperal terms, the same as in the earlier issues. There are five refereed papers, a number of Report and comments, seven signed book and video reviews and a letter commenting on an item published in a previous number of the journal.
Training a Large Troop of Rhesus Macaques to Co-Operate During Catching: Analysis of the Time Investment
Authors: Luttrell L , Acker L , Urben M , Reinhardt V
Published: January 2023

This study demonstrates that only a minimal time investment was needed to train a large troop of laboratory non-human primates to co-operate in the catching procedure. A group of 45 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was trained to enter a chute system voluntarily and be caught one by one. The total duration of the training sessions was under six hours, with less than 15 total work-hours invested by three people. The result was an improved capture procedure which minimized risk to personnel and distress to the animals.
Tail-Biting in Mink (Mustela Vison) is Influenced by Age at Removal From the Mother
Authors: Mason G J
Published: January 2023

Previous studies have shown that male mink(Mustela vison)removed from their mothers at seven weeks of age develop more tail-biting than males left with their mothers until six months. Mink in the wild do not damage their own pelts in this way, and such behaviour may well be an indication of chronic stress.

The aim of this experiment was to investigate further the causes of tail-biting by considering female young as well as male, and by lowering the age at which the late-weaned ‘ mink were separated from their mother to 11 weeks, by which age their period of socialization should be complete. This was to generate results of more practical use to farmers, who cannot leave all young with their mothers until six months of age for reasons of space. Mink removed from their mothers at seven or eleven weeks of age did indeed differ in the incidence of tail-biting. Early-weaned ‘females were more likely than late-weaned females to have bitten their tails at six months of age. A similar result was evident as a trend for both sexes at ten months. Furthermore, at this age, some animals ‘ tail tips were completely bald and such animals were all early-weaned.

Where provided with plastic drinker dishes, early-weaned animals were also more likely to chew these. Thus weaning age had long-lasting effects on a number of oral behaviour patterns. These results suggest that young animals predisposed to tail-bite might be diverted by the provision of other objects to chew, and that if problems of over-crowding are avoided, leaving mink kits with their mothers until 11 weeks might improve their welfare.
Amelioration of Laboratory Conditions for Pigeons (Columba Livia)
Authors: Huber L
Published: January 2023

Learning tests in animal psychology are highly standardized with regard to both the formulation of scientific questions and the methods employed to obtain reliable answers. The Skinnerian technique of conditioning rats or pigeons in small test chambers has established itself as the main laboratory method in this field. Despite the undeniable advantages of highly controlled and manipulated test conditions, a number of problems with respect to the welfare of the test animals arise from the standard application of this method. These problems are specified here along with the presentation of new techniques that have been developed at the University of Vienna. The methodological improvements are related to the housing, testing and weighing of the pigeons and ameliorate the conditions these animals previously confronted within the laboratory.
Tuberculosis in cattle and badgers
Authors: Turnbull Andrew
Published: January 2023

Sir, The issue of tuberculosis (TB) in cattle and badgers is a complex problem about a serious disease and I welcome the opportunity to comment.
Factors Influencing Pig Deaths During Transit: An Analysis of Drivers' Reports
Authors: Abbott T A , Guise H J , Hunter E J , Penny R H C , Baynes P J , Easby C
Published: January 2023

A haulage company, transporting pigs for a marketing group, has monitored information about journeys and kept records of deaths in transit (DIT). These data can be used to set guidelines and they highlight those areas of pig transport that need further study.

Factors, other than genetic ones, which may contribute to the rate of DIT were considered. A strict seasonal effect was not apparent, but where conditions were hot and wet there was an increase in DIT. There was also a ‘time of day” effect, with transport in the afternoon showing a higher rate of DIT than transport in the morning. It was observed that if pigs were deemed dirty at loading then DIT were more likely. Clean pigs at loading could indicate that hygienic and environmental conditions in the finishing stage were good. Individual producers showed a wide variation in their rate of DIT, with some producers regularly experiencing a high level Routine monitoring of the rate of DIT and transport conditions could help to pinpoint the source, and possible cause, of the problem.

Information that helps in the understanding of transit deaths is important because if stress in the period from selection to slaughter can be reduced, there should be both economic as well as welfare benefits.
Science, Values and Animal Welfare: Exploring the ‘Inextricable Connection’
Authors: Fraser D
Published: January 2023

In conceptualizing animal welfare, it is useful to distinguish among three types of concepts. ‘Type 1” are single, measurable attributes. ‘Type 2’ are single attributes that cannot be measured directly but can be estimated by correctly combining various contributing attributes. ‘Type 3’ are concepts involving multiple attributes which are grouped together because they serve some common function, and whose relative importance cannot be established in an entirely objective way. Individuals who treat animal welfare as a type 1 concept may propose single, objective measures of welfare, such as longevity or levels of stress-related hormones; however, this approach rests on judgements, which are not purely objective, about the relative importance of different factors for an animal's quality of life. Studies of animal preferences and motivation are sometimes seen as an objective way to weight different attributes according to the animals’ own priorities, and thus allow animal welfare to be treated as a type 2 concept. However, numerous technical and fundamental difficulties limit our ability to do this. Animal welfare is best seen as a type 3 concept incorporating multiple attributes, with considerable consensus over certain general principles (eg that a high level of welfare implies freedom from suffering) but with value-related disagreement over how these principles should be applied. Because the various attributes cannot be combined in a purely objective way, science is limited in its ability to determine the ‘overall’ welfare of an animal and to compare welfare in disparate environments. Instead of attempting to ‘measure’ animal welfare, the role of science should be seen as identifying, rectifying and preventing welfare problems.
The Use of Electricity to Kill Minke Whales: Humane Considerations
Authors: McLachlan H
Published: January 2023

Whaling continues despite a global moratorium, and the methods of slaughter used are a controversial welfare issue. If a whale is not killed instantly by an explosive harpoon, the Japanese use electric lances as a secondary killing device.

Video footage was obtained which documented the sequence of events in Japanese whaling operations, including the harpooning and application of electric lances to seven whales. A minimum time to death of each whale was estimated. To achieve immediate insensibility using electrical stunning, the electrodes must span the brain. This video revealed that electrodes tend to be placed between the pectoral and dorsal fins, and on the same side of the whale. In this case only a small proportion of current would pass through the brain, and ventricular fibrillation is unlikely. Previous work has shown that the currents used were likely to be 50-100 times too small to cause cardiac fibrillation or cerebral dysfunction.

A humane death cannot be achieved with inappropriate placement of lances and inadequate current application. A more effective secondary killing method is necessary.
A Comparison of Wooden Slats and Straw Bedding on the Behaviour of Sheep
Authors: Gordon G D H , Cockram M S
Published: January 2023

The behaviour of two groups of sheep was observed when they were placed in a pen on wooden slats and/or on straw bedding for 48h. When sheep were placed in the pen and not given a choice of slats and straw, the proportion of scans spent standing and lying by one group of sheep were not affected by floor surface, whereas another group lay down more on the straw than on the slats during the first 24h in the pen. There was more movement when on straw than on slats. When given a choice of either slats or straw for 48h, the sheep spent more than half of the scans on straw. The study showed that sheep show a preference for lying down on straw compared with wooden slats. However, sheep will lie down on wooden slats. Although straw is, quite rightly, recommended as a suitable surface for lying, there was little evidence in this study that slats provide an unsuitable surface for a slaughterhouse lairage pen.
The infectiveness of bovine tuberculosis
Authors: Hancox M
Published: January 2023

Sir, I must make a brief response to Tumbull's suggestion (1995 Animal Welfare 3:340) that I am misinformed in my belief that cattle are infectious immediately after exposure to the tuberculosis organism. There seem to be two schools of thought on this issue, and yet it is one of critical importance in tackling the final stages of tuberculosis eradication schemes. On the one hand it is claimed that only cattle with gross visible lesions at abattoir inspection are capable of passing on tuberculosis (TB) to other cattle (Gallagher 1980; Dunnetet al1986; Tumbull 1994; Wilesmith & Williams 1986). On the other hand this view is not substantiated by other studies on the aetiology and pathogenesis of cattle TB. For most adult cattle, tuberculosis seems to start as a lung infection following inhalation of infected aerosolised sputum or dust. Primary lesions may heal, but more usually they remain open, and may persist as the subclinically latent condition, or progress slowly or rapidly to chronic, or fatal and acute bronchopneumonia. And even where an apparent sealed tubercle develops, it would seem that intracanalicular bronchiolar spread continues, such that intermittent or continuous bacterial shedding occurs in the sputum. Therefore cattle with micro-lesions that would be missed at gross abattoir inspection could be infectious to other cattle despite being non-visibly-lesioned in the lungs or visibly-lesioned only in bronchomediastinal lymph nodes. Such cattle may also be producing infectious faeces via swallowed sputum (Bloodet al1979; Francis 1947; Jubb & Kennedy 1970; Neillet al1994; Richards 1972).
Geneva 1995 - Animals, Health and Quality of Life
Authors: Turner Dennis C
Published: January 2023

After centuries of providing social companionship and useful functions for millions of people, companion animals are ‘coming of age’ as legitimate subjects for research concerning their intra- and interspecific behaviour and the role they can play in therapy programmes for various groups of people. As both companion animal section editor of Animal Welfare and as programme chairman of the 7th international conference on human-animal interactions, Animals, Health and Quality of Life, to be held in Geneva, Switzerland, 6-9 September 1995, it is my pleasure to invite our readers to attend this important occasion.
Genetically Modified Animals, Welfare and UK Legislation
Authors: Hubrecht R
Published: January 2023

Introduction

The first experiments in genetic engineering took place in the late sixties and early seventies, but animal transgenics (the insertion of DNA into the genome of an animal) really came of age with the production of mice whose genetic sequences contained a gene for human growth hormone (Palmiter et al 1982). Since then there has been a dramatic increase in the quantity of research into genetic modification, using various techniques. This has been largely driven by the potential medical and financial benefits of being able to modify animal and plant genomes (Carver et al 1993; Smith 1994; Stewart et al 1993).
Successful Mother- and Group-Rearing of a Newborn Capuchin Monkey(Cebus Capucinus)Following Emergency Major Surgery
Authors: Anderson J R , André E , Wolf P
Published: January 2023

During capture, in order to separate him from a possessive adult female and return him to his mother, a newborn male in a laboratory group ofCebus capucinusmonkeys was found to have a seriously infected compound fracture of the humerus associated with a deep and extensive slash wound. Amputation of the affected limb was deemed necessary. Shortly after surgery the newborn was returned to his mother, in isolation from the group, with periodic removal for post-surgical care. Three weeks later the mother-newborn pair was returned to the social group and no further intervention occurred. Regular observations revealed mutual behavioural adjustments to the handicap by the mother and newborn. Compared to a normal age-mate, the amputee received more positive social attention from the mother and other group-members. Despite his showing delays in locomotor and manipulatory activities, the handicapped infant showed good behavioural progress. Early resocialization thus appears feasible following emergency surgery in newborn primates.
Effects of Environmental Enrichment on Behaviour and Productivity of Growing Pigs
Authors: Beattie V E , Walker N , Sneddon I A
Published: January 2023

This study examined the effects of enriching the environment on the behaviour and productivity of pigs, in an attempt to assess changes in welfare. A total of 102 pigs were housed in either barren or enriched housing from birth to slaughter. The barren environments were defined as intensive housing and the enriched environments incorporated extra space, an area which contained peat and straw in a rack. Enriching the environment reduced both the amount of time pigs spent inactive and the time involved in harmful social and aggressive behaviour. Tail biting was absent from the enriched environment but four pigs were removed from barren pens with severe tail damage. Pigs housed in enriched environments spent longer durations in exploratory behaviour than those in barren housing, and young pigs in enriched environments performed locomotory behaviour more frequently than their counterparts in barren environments. Overall growth rates were similar in both treatments. These results indicate that welfare is improved by enrichment with substrates and suggest that barren pens should be modified to provide these facilities.
The Behaviour After Release of Captive-Reared Fox Cubs
Authors: Robertson C P J , Harris S
Published: January 2023

The release of animals from captivity frequently leads to a period of erratic movement behaviour which is thought to expose the animal to a high risk of mortality. Twenty-six foxes which had been reared at a wildlife hospital or captive-bred, were radio-collared when nearly full-grown and released without site acclimation. Immediately after release there was an erratic phase of behaviour, during which the foxes travelled widely and movement parameters were markedly elevated. For those foxes which survived, a second phase was entered after an average of 17.2 days, during which one small area only was used, and movement parameters were much reduced. In a second study, nine foxes were released following site acclimation in a pre-release pen; this process postponed but did not eliminate the phase of high movement activity.

This pattern of movement was compared with the dispersal behaviour of wild-reared foxes. It was concluded that released foxes, despite being proficient in other aspects of behaviour, were moving and behaving in a markedly abnormal manner and this resulted in a high death rate. The results are used to discuss methods of improving rehabilitation techniques.
Effect of Human Contact on Heart Rate of Pigs
Authors: Geers R , Janssens G , Ville H , Bleus E , Gerard H , Janssens S , Jourquin J
Published: January 2023

Pigs were selected at random from three lines (homozygous halothane positive, homozygous negative, and the heterozygotes). They were housed for four weeks within standardized environmental conditions with six pigs per pen corresponding to each of the three lines with two treatment combinations (6×3×2). Half of the pigs were allocated to routine care without humans entering the pen, while the other ones received an increased human contact treatment; animal-man interaction times were recorded. Before and after the four-week experimental period, pigs were housed individually for one day. A blood sample was taken for beta-endorphin analysis and heart rate was measured. The final heart rate measurements were continued during a transport of two hours. With respect to animal-man interaction times no clear treatment effect was observed. Increased human contact lowered the plasma beta-endorphin content to a greater extent as a function of time, while heart rate also became lower. The latter may result in an improved heart function during handling and transport. Differences with regard to the halothane gene were observed during housing conditions, but not during transport.
Preliminary Evaluation of Environmental Enrichment Techniques for African Lions (Panthera leo)
Authors: Powell D M
Published: January 2023

A study was conducted over 24 days to evaluate the effects of three environmental enrichment techniques (frozen balls of ice containing fish, various scents, hanging logs) on four captive African lions (Panthera leo). Behavioural data on activity level and behavioural diversity were collected daily during a baseline and an enriched session. All enrichments produced positive changes in behaviour. Enrichment was also associated with increased use of space by the lions. The enrichment techniques evaluated in this study each produced distinct and positive changes in behaviour thus reinforcing the need for variety to be exercised in captive enrichment programmes. Providing different enrichments allows animals to perform a greater range of behaviours, become more active in captivity, and will decrease the likelihood of habituation to certain enrichment items. Environmental enrichment should be a part of any management protocol for animal welfare and health.
Editorial
Authors: Ewbank Roger
Published: January 2023

With this issue, Animal Welfare enters its fifth year. The format has not changed since the journal was inaugurated in 1992: the material published is still essentially refereed scientific/technical articles and signed book reviews. There has, however, recently been an increase in the number of pages per issue. This enlargement not only means that the journal is better ‘value for money’, it is becoming necessary now that Animal Welfare is attracting a rising number of quality manuscripts.
Is Broiler Breeder Welfare Improved by Using Qualitative Rather Than Quantitative Food Restriction to Limit Growth Rate?
Authors: Savory C J , Hocking P M , Mann J S , Maxwell M H
Published: January 2023

Possible welfare benefits of qualitative rather than quantitative food restriction were investigated with growing female broiler breeder chickens (Ross 1). In Experiment 1, body-weight gains from 2 to 6 weeks of age were compared among different diet dilution, appetite suppression and low protein treatments, with free access to food at all times, to identify qualitative treatments causing weight gains similar to that recommended in theRoss 1 Parent Stock Management Manual. Based on these results, four diet dilution (400g kg−1unmolassed sugar-beet pulp, 300 and 600g kg−1oat hulls, 500g kg−1softwood sawdust) and one appetite suppression (50g kg−1calcium propionate) treatments were compared with two quantitative restriction (the recommended daily ration and twice that amount) and one ad libitum control treatments, from 2 to 10 weeks of age, in Experiment 2. As well as growth, food intake, excreta production and digestibility, measurements were also made of behaviour and blood indices of stress. Several conclusions were drawn. Different methods of qualitative food restriction can be used to control growth rate within desired limits. Problems with these methods include reduced uniformity in weight gain, increased excreta production and/or increased cost. Although they appear to suppress abnormal oral behaviours, they do not alter the increased general activity which is correlated with suppression of growth rate, and which may more accurately reflect associated hunger. Suppression of abnormal oral behaviours may only rarely correspond with reduction in blood indices of stress, and so cannot be taken to indicate improved welfare. Some of these methods can add to physiological stress. Finally, there was insufficient evidence of improved welfare, based on both behavioural and physiological criteria, to justify advocating the suitability of any of these methods for commercial use.
The Effects of Different Types of Feeding Enhancements on the Behaviour of Single-Caged, Yearling Rhesus Macaques
Authors: Schapiro S J , Suarez S A , Porter L M , Bloomsmith M A
Published: January 2023

Captive primates rarely have to spend as much time searching for, obtaining and processing food as do their wild counterparts. Enrichment techniques designed to encourage captive primates to spend more species-appropriate amounts of time in foraging behaviours have been successful. The present study measured the behavioural effects of four feeding enhancements: two devices (mats and puzzles) and two foods (produce and frozen juice), on four cohorts (n = 63) of single-caged, yearling rhesus macaques(Macaca mulatta). Devices required considerable manipulation to retrieve rewards, whereas enrichment foods required additional processing. Analyses compared periods when one of the enhancements was available to interim periods when no enhancements were available. Planned comparisons revealed that subjects spent more time feeding, and less time inactive, self-grooming, exploring and behaving socially when feeding enrichment was available. Significantly more time was spent feeding when enrichment foods were provided, but more time was spent playing and using enrichment when devices were in the cage. More time was spent self-grooming and exploring with the acrylic puzzle than with the artificial turf mat. Subjects spent significantly more time feeding when produce was available than when frozen juice was available. Feeding enhancements resulted in more species-typical patterns of activity for single-caged, yearling rhesus. Since feeding devices were used in species-typical activities in addition to feeding, devices may be more valuable than foods. Feeding enrichment programmes which combine stimulating devices with foods that are novel and require processing can positively affect the behaviour of captive primates.
Editorial
Authors: Ewbank Roger
Published: January 2023

This issue of the journal contains, for the first time, a Guest Editorial. This type of contribution, which is to be an occasional feature of the journal, is written at the invitation of the Editor-in-Chief and allows eminent outsiders to pass informed comment on current and controversial animal welfare problems. The first of these Guest Editorials is by David Bowles, the European Officer of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), and describes the background to and the present situation re the attempt by the European Community to ban the importation of furs obtained by the use of the leghold (gin) trap. He paints a somewhat gloomy picture of what happens when European animal welfare interests fall foul of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) obligations.
Handling, Bruising and Dehydration of Cattle at the Time of Slaughter
Authors: Jarvis A M , Messer C D A , Cockram M S
Published: January 2023

The handling of cattle during unloading (n = 39) and movement to slaughter (n = 163) was observed at a commercial slaughterhouse. Most potentially traumatic events and handling events occurred while the cattle were in the race. During the initial 3 hours in the lairage pen, cattle from markets (n = 28) spent significantly more time drinking than those sent to slaughter direct from farms (n = 11; P < 0.05). Most cattle had bruises (99%; η = 181), but there was no difference between the occurrence of bruising in cattle direct from farms and those from markets. Bruise score was not affected by the distance transported from farms 18-201km (11-125 miles). However, cattle from markets > 64km (>40 miles) from the slaughterhouse had greater bruise scores than those from nearer markets 0.8-64km (0.5-40 miles) (P <0.01). No correlations were found between potentially traumatic events at the slaughterhouse and the occurrence of bruising. Plasma total protein concentration and plasma creatine kinase activity in blood collected at exsanguination (n = 170) was significantly greater in cattle from markets than in those from farms (P < 0.05), but there was no difference in plasma osmolality and packed cell volume (PCV). Cattle from distant markets > 129km (>80 miles) had higher PCV and plasma total protein concentration than those from markets within 129km (80 miles) (P <0.05). The overall results suggest that cattle from markets, particularly those transported for a distance greater than 64km (40 miles), would benefit from greater access to water at the market and from improved methods of handling and transport prior to arrival at the slaughterhouse.
Whaling
Authors: Jordan W J
Published: January 2023

Sir, Though the history of the International Whaling Commission (IWC) has been one of too little too late, it has at least stopped the extinction of some species. The moratorium on commercial whaling has been moderately successful. I cannot say totally successful because whaling has continued under the guise of ‘scientific whaling’ by Japan and Norway, while other countries have given up whaling altogether.
Welfare by Design: The Natural Selection of Welfare Criteria
Authors: Barnard C J , Hurst J L
Published: January 2023

The scientific study of animal welfare has generated a welter of complex, equivocal and often contradictory results. Consequently, there is little agreement about how impairment of welfare should be measured. While some solutions to this have been suggested, these have usually relied on more sophisticated versions of, or more control over, existing measures. However, we argue that the difficulties arise because of questionable assumptions in the definition and measurement of welfare, in particular the measurement of suffering and the assumed importance of individual well-being. We contend that welfare can be interpreted only in terms of what natural selection has designed an organism to do and how circumstances impinge on its functional design. Organisms are designed for self-expenditure and the relative importance of self-preservation and survival, and the concomitant investment of time and resources in different activities, varies with life history strategy. The traditional notions of coping and stress are anthropomorphisms based on homeostatic mechanisms of self-preservation in a long-lived species. Suffering-like states are viewed as generalized subjective states that are geared to avoiding deleterious circumstances with which the organism does not have specific adaptive mechanisms to deal. Attempts to measure suffering-like states directly are likely to remain inconclusive, at least for the foreseeable future, because such states are private and subjective, may take many forms fundamentally different from our own and are likely to depend on the operation of phenotype-limited priorities and decision rules. However, measuring the impact of circumstances on functional design via the organism ‘s decision rules provides a practicable means of giving benefit of the doubt by indicating when suffering, or an analogous subjective state, is likely.
Welfare Implications of the Night Shooting of Wild Impala(Aepyceros Melampus)
Authors: Lewis A R , Pinchin A M , Kestin S C
Published: January 2023

The most common method of culling impala(Aepyceros melampus)and many other antelope species in Africa was evaluated from a welfare point of view. The culling of 856 impala from 401 herds was observed and recorded in the Mkuzi Game Reserve, South Africa. Ninety-three per cent of animals were killed instantaneously by the first shot. Results indicated that herd size and composition, distance of herd from hunting vehicle and shot number all have a bearing on the number of animals wounded and missed. It is concluded that the culling of free-ranging impala by night-hunting in the manner described is a satisfactory method on welfare grounds, although a number of recommendations are made which might render the culling process more humane. It is argued that economic and welfare considerations are not necessarily in conflict, and long-term efficiency is likely to be enhanced by addressing both simultaneously.
Control and Complexity in Novel Object Enrichment
Authors: Sambrook T D , Buchanan-Smith H M
Published: January 2023

We discuss the properties of controllability and complexity in novel object enrichment, their definition and present a critique of previous work related to them. We address the relationship between control and complexity, the evolutionary basis of their attractiveness and suggest that the acquisition of control may be a more enriching process than its execution. We propose that, although little work has been directed at separating their relative contributions to enrichment, controllability appears more important than complexity. We discuss the ways in which objects can be responsive both in terms of the predictability of the response and the ‘grade’ of actor-object interaction.
Behavioural Observations of Peri-Parturient Sows and the Development of Alternative Farrowing Accommodation: A Review
Authors: Arey D S
Published: January 2023

A number of alternative farrowing systems have recently been developed, some of which have been more successful at improving welfare and productivity than others. It is argued that for a system to be successful it should meet with the behavioural requirements of the sow at this time. A number of studies have been carried out to observe the natural behaviour patterns of the peri-parturient sow in a wide range of environmental conditions. These studies have shown that during each phase of peri-parturient behaviour there are a number of key environmental features and conditions which are important to the sow. These include the social environment, shelter, nesting material and offspring interaction. This information can be useful in the design of farrowing systems. A review of the literature indicated that the more these conditions are met, the more readily the sow can adapt to the system, leading to improvements in maternal behaviour and piglet production.
Effect of Climatic Conditions on the Behaviour of Adult Ostriches (Struthio Camelus) in Britain
Authors: Deeming D C
Published: January 2023

Welfare is being promoted as a reason why ostriches should not be kept on farms in Europe. It is reasoned that the climate, particularly during winter, is unsuitable for these birds despite there being little scientific evidence to support this claim. This study recorded the frequency of behaviours of male and female adult ostriches kept on a farm in Britain during the spring of 1996. ‘Rainy’, ‘dull and dry’, ‘bright and dry’, and ‘sunny’ weather categories were used to assess the influence of climate on behaviour. Six main behaviours (sitting, standing, pacing, walking, foraging and feeding) were observed together with a variety of low frequency ‘other’ behaviours which were combined for analysis. Gender had no significant effect on any of the behaviour frequencies. During ‘rainy’ periods both males and females showed sitting behaviour five times more than during ‘dull’ and ‘bright’ weather and two and a half times more than during ‘sunny’ weather. Increased sitting behaviour during rainy periods was due to a significant reduction in pacing and ‘other’ behaviours with no significant effect on feeding and foraging behaviours. Sitting during sunny weather also occurred more often than during dull and bright weather but not at the expense of any other particular behaviour. Adult ostriches in Britain alter their behaviour in response to prevailing weather conditions, particularly rain.
Measuring Public Support for Animal Welfare Legislation: A Case Study of Cage Egg Production
Authors: Bennett R
Published: January 2023

A contingent valuation survey of 2000 people in Great Britain was conducted to find out about people's concerns about farm animal welfare and their willingness to pay to support legislation to phase out the use of cages in egg production in the European Union (EU) by 2005. The survey found that respondents were concerned about a range of farm animal welfare issues, and that the majority supported the proposed legislation and stated that they were willing to pay a significant increase on the current price of eggs to support it. People's willingness to pay to support the legislation would appear to outweigh the extra resource costs of producing eggs without using cages. However, possible sources of bias in the survey and the validity of the willingness to pay measure estimated are discussed. It is concluded that such measures must be interpreted with caution, but can be useful indicators of people's concerns about animal welfare issues and their preferences for public policies on animal welfare.
Preference Testing of Substrates by Growing Pigs
Authors: Beattie V E , Walker N , Sneddon I A
Published: January 2023

The preferences of growing pigs for substrates were investigated by giving small groups of pigs a choice between two substrates in each test. The seven substrates examined were concrete, mushroom compost (spent), peat, sand, sawdust, straw and woodbark. Thirteen comparisons of pairs of substrates were tested with four replicates of each comparison. Eleven-week-old pigs (in groups of six) were placed in specially designed choice pens where they had access to two different substrates. The pigs were allowed to habituate to the pen for 1 week and at the end of week 2 the substrates were swapped. In weeks 2 and 3 the time spent by the pigs in each substrate was recorded. Peat, mushroom compost and sawdust were preferred most, with sand next and woodbark and straw being preferred only to concrete. It is suggested that growing pigs may be attracted to substrates which are similar in texture to earth.
The Control of Zoo Populations with Special Reference to Primates
Authors: Glatston A R
Published: January 2023

Modern zoos are increasingly successful in maintaining and breeding exotic species. Many of the animals bred in captivity cannot be housed in their natal zoo nor in other recognized zoos in the region. These ‘surplus ‘ animals create a problem as zoos only have limited space at their disposal. The options open in this situation are to avoid the problem by preventing the animals from breeding (sterilization or contraception) or to dispose of the surplus animals (euthanasia; or transfer either to institutions not recognized by any national zoo federation or to a zoo outside the region, possibly using the services of an animal dealer). The pros and cons of all these options are evaluated in terms of practicality, welfare and ethics. In many cases, the judicious use of a combination of contraception and euthanasia would seem the most acceptable choice from an animal welfare point of view. Nevertheless, it is believed that considerably more research is needed into the methods and welfare aspects of contraception and sterilization.
Feed Additives: Do They Add to Animal Welfare? An Evaluation
Authors: Kan C J , Jager L P , Grommers F J
Published: January 2023

The welfare of farm animals is strongly influenced by the man-made environment. Welfare problems also arise from reduced homeostatic capacities in animals. Feed additives, used to promote growth or to prevent diseases can alter the animals' self-regulating capacities thus affecting their welfare. The EU regulates the use of these additives within specified groups of Directive 70/524/EEC. Although these feed additives can be regarded as prescription-free veterinary drugs, critical remarks on their desired and adverse effects have received little attention.

A survey of the available literature shows that about one-third of licensed feed additives alter adrenal function in vitro. Reports of the adverse effects of anticoccidial additives in vivo suggest they can be classified under three headings: (i) substances with a very narrow safety margin (the difference between the permitted dose and the dose with adverse effects) and often irreversible effects on growth and feed conversion; (ii) substances with a narrow safety margin and largely reversible effects; (iii) substances with an adequate safety margin. The growth promoters (including antibiotic growth promoters) can - on the basis of their adverse effects - be classified into two groups: (i) substances with a very narrow safety margin; and (ii) substances with an adequate safety margin.

On the one hand, animal welfare considerations require use of disease-preventing additives, but on the other hand, they also demand discontinuation of current practices. Judicious use of additives can add to animal welfare. However, their unlimited use to obscure defects in husbandry is detrimental to animal welfare. A major obstacle to the judicious use of feed additives, is the lack of published, unbiased information on their efficacy and safety for farm animals.
Transport Stress and Exercise Hyperthermia Recorded in Sheep by Radiotelemetry
Authors: Parrott R F , Lloyd D M , Brown D
Published: January 2023

Deep body temperature was measured in four wethers and four ewes surgically implanted with biotelemetry devices. Records were taken over several days in the home pen (baseline data) and also in response to three potentially stressful procedures: transport, exposure to a sheepdog, and forced exercise. Loading the animals into a vehicle and transporting them for 2.5h produced a rise in core temperature that, in males, persisted for several hours. Moving the sheep into an outside pen and subsequent exposure to the dog appeared to produce transient increases in body temperature, although these changes were not statistically significant. By contrast, exercise for 30min resulted in a rapid and pronounced (approximately 2°C) temperature rise that was followed by an equally abrupt return to baseline. Sustained increases in deep body temperature or changes in circadian temperature rhythms in healthy sheep may be a response to psychological distress and, therefore, indicative of poor welfare.
Sources of Sound in the Laboratory Animal Environment: A Survey of the Sounds Produced by Procedures and Equipment
Authors: Sales G D , Milligan S R , Khirnykh K
Published: January 2023

Sounds in the laboratory and animal house environment were monitored for sound pressure levels over both low frequency (10Hz-l2.5kHz) and high frequency (12.5—70 kHz) ranges and were recorded for frequency analysis over the range 10Hz-100kHz. Forty sources of sound were investigated at 10 different sites. Sources included environmental control systems, maintenance and husbandry procedures, cleaning equipment and other equipment used near animals. Many of the sounds covered a wide frequency band and extended into the ultrasonic (> 20kHz) range. Sound levels produced by environmental control systems were generally at a low level. High sound pressure levels (SPLs) up to and exceeding 85dB SPL were recorded during cleaning and particularly high levels were recorded from the transport systems studied. Equipment such as a tattoo gun, a condensation extractor system, a high-speed centrifuge, and an ultrasonic disintegrator produced high levels of sound over a broad spectrum.

As many laboratory animals are much more sensitive to a wider range of sound frequency than humans, it seems likely that the levels of sound reported here could adversely affect animals through physiological or behavioural changes, or may even cause sensory damage in extreme cases. There appear to have been no studies on the minimal threshold levels for such adverse responses, or on the long-term effects of exposure to the types of sounds recorded here. It is not yet possible to set realistic exposure limits for laboratory animals.