bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE POSSIBLE VICARIOUS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PITUITARY AND THYROID GLANDS
Authors: Simpson Sutherland , Hunter Andrew
Published: December 2014

If it is accepted that the iodine‐containing body in the thyroid—the “iodothyrin” or “thyroiodin”—represents its physiological active principle, diminution or absence of which in the system leads to the various symptoms of hypo‐thyroidism, then our failure to detect iodine in the pituitary following thyroidectomy may be taken as evidence against the theory of compensation. That is the assumption on which our experiment is based; but although it is supported by much of the evidence, it cannot be said to be absolutely established. If it should turn out after all to be incorrect—if the relation of the iodine to the thyroid is merely an accidental one, as it is claimed to be by many,—then the result of our experiment would prove nothing against a possible vicarious function of the pituitary.

But even if the thyroid function is bound up with the presence of an iodine‐containing body, it cannot be claimed that the experiment as it stands is a conclusive one; for, in the first place, a single negative result is of little value as an argument, and, in the second place, the experiment may have been of too short duration. If it had been carried on longer it is possible that the pituitary would in time have been able to lay up a store of iodine. Possibly the very absence of iodine is significant, for it may be that on the removal of the thyroid the first thing the organism did was to seize upon and use up the small store of iodine which we found the normal pituitary to contain. With time and opportunity it might next have proceeded to lay past a supply for the future.

It is our purpose, therefore, to repeat the experiment on a larger scale, and with due attention to the possibilities of error which have been suggested to us by the present attempt. In the meantime, however, we have deemed it advisable to put our investigations on record for the benefit of those who may be especially interested in this line of work.
THE RELATION BETWEEN REFRACTORY PHASE AND ELECTRICAL CHANGE
Authors: Tait John
Published: December 2014

The object of this communication is to bring forward evidence in favour of an intimate association between the absolutely refractory phase of a tissue and its negative electrical variation, and between the relatively refractory phase and the positive return electrical change.

A general argument in favour of the association is the fact that the absolutely refractory phase corresponds in all probability with a katabolic or disintegrative change, while the relatively refractory phase certainly corresponds with an anabolic or reintegrative change. On the other hand, the negative change of potential accompanying activity is uniformly assumed to be katabolic, the positive return change to be anabolic. In addition to this, experiment has shown that the time of the refractory phase as a whole closely corresponds with the time of the complete electrical change.

Specific experimental evidence in favour of the association is furnished by a comparison of Waller's experiments on protoveratrinised nerve with Tait and Gunn's and Tait's experiments on yohimbinised nerve. (From a pharmacological point of view, protoveratrine is virtually identical with yohimbine.)

Protoveratrine greatly modifies the character of the electrical response of nerve, yohimbine greatly modifies the refractory phase; and these modifications are such as are not known to be produced by any other agent. Analysis has in each case shown that the modification consists of an enormous prolongation of stage II.—relatively refractory phase or positive return electrical change, as the case may be—without any corresponding modification of stage I., i.e. of the absolutely refractory phase, or of the original negative electrical change. The available data do not, however, allow of an exact correlation of the time‐duration of the individual events.
TWO NEW METHODS OF READING THE ARTERIAL BLOOD‐PRESSURE IN MAN
Authors: Oliver George
Published: December 2014

1. The auditory and visual methods of reading the arterial blood‐pressure here described are more delicate and exact than the digital method.

2. The auscultatory method furnishes the total pressure cycle of the arterial blood‐pressure, whereas the digital indicates the maximum limit only.

3. Besides notifying the arterial blood‐pressure, the auditory method furnishes useful clinical indications of the state of the heart's action (whether vigorous or otherwise) and of the tonus (hypotonus or hypertonus) of the arterial wall.

4. The visual method indicates two degrees of pressure, the maximum and the mean; and, as the latter is midway between the maximum and the minimum pressure, the minimum may be inferred from the visual data.

5. As the auditory and visual methods afford identical readings, the visual may be employed in conditions not favourable to the use of the auditory.

6. These methods (auditory and visual) are as easy to apply as the tactile.
ON THE TIME RELATIONS OF THE KNEE‐JERK AND SIMPLE REFLEXES
Authors: Jolly W. A.
Published: December 2014

A diphasic action current is recorded by means of the string galvanometer from the quadriceps muscle when the knee‐jerk is elicited.

Its latency is about half as long as that of the electrical variation accompanying action of the muscles in the homonymous flexion reflex of the hind limb.

The latency of the heteronymous extension reflex is about one‐thousandth of a second longer than that of the homonymous reflex.

An electrical variation, consisting in a diminution of the demarcation current, is observed in the cut anterior crural (femoral) nerve when the skin on the dorsum pedis or mesial aspect of the thigh is mechanically stimulated. A similar electrical variation with shorter latent period is obtained in the same nerve when the knee‐jerk is elicited. By means of these variations the latency of afferent nerve endings can be determined, after deducting nerve conduction time from the latency of the variation.

The synapse time in the case of the knee‐jerk and the other reflexes is obtained by deducting from the latency of the action current of the muscles reflexly excited periods attributable to (1) the afferent endings, (2) nerve conduction, and (3) motor endings and latency of action current.

The action currents accompanying knee‐jerk and flexion reflex may in some cases be detected in the same recorded curve.

The synapse time of the knee‐jerk in the spinal cat is about two‐thousandths of a second, of the homonymous flexion reflex about four‐thousandths.

The relation between the synapse times suggests that the knee‐jerk mechanism involves one spinal synapse or set of synapses, while the flexion reflex involves two.
THE SUPRARENAL GLANDS IN DIPHTHERITIC TOXÆMIA
Authors: Ritchie James , Bruce A. Ninian
Published: December 2014

1. In diphtheritic toxæmia in guinea‐pigs, complete exhaustion of all adrenalin from the medulla of the suprarenal glands is found in the less acute types of infection.

2. In the more acute types of infection, considerable diminution in the amount of adrenalin in the suprarenal glands occurs. In both cases the final result is the same, a complete or relative absence of adrenalin being produced. Death appears to result from a condition which might be compared to acute Addison's disease.

3. There is no neutralisation of diphtheria toxin by adrenalin, nor of adrenalin by diphtheria toxin.

4. There is also no evidence of interaction between diphtheria toxin and the secreting cells of the medulla of the suprarenal glands.
ON THE SIZE AND GROWTH OF THE BLOOD IN TAME RATS
Authors: Chisolm R. A.
Published: December 2014

(1) The average oxygen capacity per kilo of the rat between 50 and 150 grammes is 10·0 c.c., and the average blood volume per kilo 63·0 c.c. The average Hb percentage is 86, and the number of red cells 9 million per cubic millimetre.

(2) There is a temporary fall in the Hb percentage, oxygen capacity per kilo, and blood volume per kilo during the suckling period, and a second fall in the oxygen capacity per kilo and the blood volume per kilo in later life connected with the diminished rate of growth in larger animals.

(3) The oxygen capacity per kilo is less variable than the percentage of Hb blood volume per kilo or number of red cells per cubic millimetre.

(4) The volume of the blood is less variable than the weight of the kidneys, liver, and spleen, considered as percentages of the total body weight.

(5) The volume of the blood in rats may be calculated by the formula body weight0·9/10·1 = volume, and the total oxygen capacity by the formula body weight0·95/8·0 = total oxygen capacity.
THE POSSIBLE VICARIOUS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PITUITARY AND THYROID GLANDS
Authors: Simpson Sutherland , Hunter Andrew
Published: December 2014

1. Complete removal of the thyroid gland in lambs from seven to eight months old and in adult sheep does not lead to the appearance of iodine in the pituitary, even after so long an interval as from five to six months. On the assumption that the iodine‐containing substance of the thyroid represents its active secretion, this does not support the Rogowitsch theory that in thyroid insufficiency the pituitary vicariously takes on its function.

2. Compared with normal animals of the same age there is evidence of some increase in the size of the pituitary in the thyroidectomised lambs and sheep, but this is not so great as has been reported by many observers in other experimental animals—notably the rabbit,—nor in some cases of myxœdema and cretinism in the human subject. In the case of the lambs this increase amounted to about 15 per cent., and in the adult sheep to about 20 per cent., in from five to six months.
THE EFFECT OF THYROID EXTIRPATION ON THE HYPOPHYSIS CEREBRI IN THE RABBIT
Authors: Degener Lyda May
Published: December 2014

The thyroid glands were completely removed from twelve adult rabbits which were killed at periods varying from 10 to 179 days after the operation. The hypophyses were weighed after death, and found to be distinctly heavier than in control animals. The increase in weight appears to run parallel with the time that intervenes between thyroidectomy and the death of the animal. After an interval of 179 days (six months) the pituitary had increased to about three times the normal size.
VASO‐DILATOR AXON‐REFLEXES
Authors: Bruce A. Ninian
Published: December 2014

1. The dilatation of the vessels seen in the initial stages of the inflammatory process does not occur if the region to which the irritant is applied be rendered completely insensitive by means of a local anæsthetic.

2. This vaso‐dilatation must, therefore, be the result of nervous impulses which pass centralwards up a sensory fibre or fibres and peripheralwards down a fibre or fibres subserving vaso‐dilatation.

3. Section of the spinal cord does not influence this reflex, therefore the centre cannot be situated above the cord.

4. Section of the posterior sensory roots central to their ganglia of origin does not influence the reflex, therefore the centre cannot lie in the spinal cord.

5. The vaso‐dilatation is also not interrupted by section of sensory efferent fibres peripheral to their ganglia of origin provided that the severed peripheral portion of the fibre be not degenerated.

6. If the severed peripheral portion of the fibre be allowed to degenerate, the application of an irritant is not followed by any of the usual vascular phenomena characteristic of inflammation.

7. The afferent sensory posterior root fibres must be assumed to undergo a peripheral bifurcation, one limb of the bifurcation passing to end in a sensory end‐organ in the skin; this normally conducts sensory impressions towards the nerve‐centres; the other limb passes to the vessels of the part irritated, and normally conducts vaso‐dilator impulses to them.

8. After section of the nerve‐fibres between the ganglia and the periphery, the nervous impulses producing dilatation of vessels in the initial stage of the inflammatory process are limited to the two limbs of this bifurcation. The impulses pass up the one limb and down the other.

9. The effect thus produced is of the nature of an axon‐reflex, comparable to those already described in connexion with the sympathetic system.

10. The identity of the vaso‐dilator fibres with the afferent posterior root fibres receives strong support from the above experiments.
THE APNŒIC PAUSE
Authors: Milroy T. H.
Published: December 2014

(1) Alterations in the rate or degree of distension of the pulmonary alveoli when the amount of ventilation is constant does not affect the duration of the apnœic pause in any constant direction, but a repetition of ventilation periods tends to prolong the pause.

(2) Removal of the vagal control does not interfere with the production of the apnœic pause.

(3) Any rise in the CO2 content of the air used for ventilation shortens the apnœic pause, and any increase in the carbonic acid content of the gas mixture used to distend the lung after pulmonary ventilation with air shortens the period. With increasing CO2 content of these gas mixtures, irrespective of the amount of oxygen, the apnœic pause proportionately decreases. Rich oxygen‐holding mixtures in the absence of carbonic acid prolong the pause.

(4) Injection of small quantities of acid solutions directly into the carotid during the pause leads to respiratory movements of an exaggerated type, as does also injection into the central end of the carotid. Injections into the external jugular vein are much less effective.

(5) With the excitation of such respirations during the pause there is associated an increased passage out of carbonic acid from pulmonary blood to air.

(6) These effects are produced after removal of the vagal control, but the excitability of the centre under such conditions seems to be diminished.

(7) The passage of CO2 from alveolar gas mixtures to blood or from blood to alveoli seems to depend entirely upon the difference of the pressure of that gas in the blood and air in the alveoli.

(8) It seems most probable that the effective stimulus of the respiratory centre rendered quiescent by over‐ventilation is a rise in the carbonic acid concentration in that centre, whether brought about by the normal rise in carbonic acid formation during the pause, with its associated rise in the
Ch', or primarily to a rise in the
Ch' from the formation of acid products of incomplete oxidation giving rise secondarily to an increase in the free CO2 tension.
THE ANTAGONISM BETWEEN ADRENINE AND CHLOROFORM, CHLORAL, ETC., ON THE HEART; AND THE INDUCTION OF RHYTHMIC CONTRACTIONS IN THE QUIESCENT HEART BY ADRENINE
Authors: Gunn James A.
Published: December 2014

(1) In regard to the perfused isolated heart of the rabbit or cat, adrenine can antagonise a concentration of chloroform which markedly enfeebles the heart's contractions, but not such a concentration as completely arrests the heart.

(2) Adrenine exerts a more complete antagonism to chloral, being able to revive rhythmic contractions in a heart arrested in diastole by chloral. It cannot antagonise a (greater) strength of solution of chloral which is sufficient to arrest the heart in systole.

(3) Adrenine has an action on the heart antagonistic to that of many other substances which slow the heart or weaken systolic contraction.

(4) The rhythmic contractions aroused in a quiescent heart by adrenine are regarded as independent of intrinsic motor ganglia.

(5) The cardiac sympathetic nerve is an originator‐accelerator‐augmentor nerve of the heart's contractions.
HEAT CONTRACTION OF ELASTIC TISSUE
Authors: McCartney J. E.
Published: December 2014

(1) On heating elastic tissue (ligamentum nuchæ) there is a gradual uniform contraction as the temperature increases up to 65° C., at which point there is a rapid contraction lasting to 75° C., after which the contraction again becomes gradual.

(2) The contraction at 65° C. is due to the fibrous tissue in the ligamentum nuchæ, as is shown by the heating of tendon and of digested ligamentum nuchæ.

(3) The contraction of fibrous tissue is not due to a coagulation of the contained proteins, but is probably due to the conversion of collagen to gelatin, which then contracts.

(4) The shortening of fresh ligamentum nuchæ on heating is perfectly reversible below temperatures of 65° C. When heated above this temperature and then cooled it shows a large amount of “persistent thermal contraction.”

(5) The curve of heating of digested ligamentum nuchæ shows no contraction at 65° C., and is almost perfectly reversible on cooling, there being only a small, variable amount of permanent shortening.

(6) The contraction of elastic tissue by heat is a physical change similar to that undergone by stretched india‐rubber under the influence of change of temperature.

(7) When elastic tissue is heated in Ringer's solution there is a loss of weight, which is only partially regained (within the space of half an hour) on cooling. This loss of weight is caused by the squeezing out of water due to contraction, and is probably only an effect and not the cause of contraction.
RESEARCHES ON THE PERFUSED HEART: ANÆSTHETICS AND INORGANIC SALTS
Authors: Burridge W.
Published: December 2014

Three modes of contraction are described as produced by the anæsthetics in the frog's ventricle. The actions of the anæsthetics are also found capable of classification as reversible and irreversible.

Many of these reversible actions are influenced by the salts of calcium and potassium.

Thus, the action of the anæsthetics in depressing the beats of the heart to a constant level by a lessening of systole is antagonised by calcium salts, and the same salts are necessary for subsequent restoration of the beats to their original size.

Similarly, calcium salts are found necessary for restoration of initiation and propagation when these processes were depressed by the anæsthetics.

The action of each of the substances examined in stopping the heart in the contracted condition was resolved into the processes of stopping the heart in the dilated condition and production of contraction.

An increased amplitude of contraction resulted from the action of the anæsthetics after they had undoubtedly done some form of damage to the heart. Reasons are given for believing this damage to be primarily associated with the sarcoplasm, the results being in agreement with others obtained by the author that the sarcoplasm is a structure which governs the amplitude of contraction in virtue of its content in calcium.

It is suggested that in strengths sufficient to produce anæsthesia these anæsthetics bring about a reduction in the effective concentration of the calcium salts and phosphates in the tissues, and that, consequent on such reduction, those functions dependent on calcium will be affected, e.g. initiation, conduction, excitability, oxidation, etc.
THE PARATHYROIDS:—TETANIA PARATHYREOPRIVA: ITS NATURE, CAUSE, AND RELATIONS TO IDIOPATHIC TETANY. PART VII.: A COMPARISON OF THE INFLUENCE ON THE PROTEIN METABOLISM OF PARATHYROIDECTOMY AND OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF GUANIDIN
Authors: Burns David
Published: December 2014

After the administration of guanidin hydrochloride—

1. The excretion of nitrogen was increased immediately and out of all proportion to the dose.

2. The ratio of urea nitrogen to total nitrogen was decreased.

3. The proportion of the total urinary nitrogen excreted in the form of ammonia showed either a slight decrease in feeding animals and generally a slight increase in animals which refused food and in one animal where tremors appeared.

4. The excretion of creatinin was only slightly, if at all, increased.

5. The percentage of undetermined nitrogen rose markedly immediately after injection of guanidin.
RESEARCHES ON THE PERFUSED HEART: ITS MODE OF WORKING
Authors: Burridge W.
Published: December 2014

1. The heart perfused with Ringer's solution may be likened to a machine working without lubricant.

2. The normal lubricant is adrenin, and it facilitates certain actions of calcium.

3. Since blood contains adrenin and Ringer's solution does not, the calcium tension of Ringer's solution must be higher than that of blood, to compensate for the absence of adrenin.

4. The fresh heart perfused with Ringer's solution beats approximately at its maximum amplitude of contraction.

5. The system thus formed is of a low order of flexibility.

6. A method of increasing its flexibility is described.

7. A method is also described for obtaining results directly comparable from heart to heart.

In conclusion, I wish to express my indebtedness to Professor Sherrington for the facilities afforded me to carry out the work.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE DEPRESSOR NERVE ON THE PULMONARY CIRCULATION
Authors: Schafer E. Sharpey
Published: December 2014

1. Excitation of the central end of the cut depressor nerve in the rabbit—the vagi having been previously cut—produces dilatation not only of the systemic but also of the pulmonary arterioles, although the effect upon the latter is usually less pronounced than upon the former. But the effect may be more pronounced in the pulmonary than in the aortic system.

2. The depressor nerve is singularly susceptible to stimulation by mechanical means, such as gentle traction upon a thread used to tie its end for convenience of placing the nerve upon electrodes.

3. During the inhibition of systemic arterioles resulting from stimulation of the depressor nerve a larger amount of blood is conveyed to The right side of the heart. The same applies mutatis mutandis to the pulmonary arterioles and the left side of the heart.

4. In animals which, unlike the rabbit, do not possess a separate depressor nerve, effects similar to those brought about by excitation of that nerve in the rabbit are caused by stimulation of the central end of either vagus—both vagi being cut. The results are, however, apt to be complicated by effects of other afferent fibres in the nerve and especially those from the lungs which influence the movements of respiration, and these may be the cause of blood—pressure changes other than those produced by depressor fibres.

5. Conspicuous Traube waves have been found sometimes to follow excitation of the depressor.

6. If weak stimuli are used, excitation of the depressor does not produce cardiac inhibition even with the vagi intact.

The expenses of this investigation have been assisted by grants of money from the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, and from the Earl of Moray Endowment for the Promotion of Original Research in the University of Edinburgh.

I desire to acknowledge the valuable assistance I have received from Dr R.J.S. M'Dowall in carrying out the experiments recorded in this paper.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS UPON THE BLOOD‐PRESSURE IN THE PULMONARY SYSTEM
Authors: Schafer Edward Sharpey
Published: December 2014

Every inspiratory movement is accompanied by a fall in pulmonary blood‐pressure, and every expiratory movement by a rise. These effects are purely mechanical, and are due to the increase in calibre of the pulmonary capillaries by inspiration and to their diminution by expiration.

The changes of pressure in the aortic system which are caused by the respiratory movements are dependent upon those in the pulmonary system, but bear no constant ratio to them, since differences are produced by changes in the rate of respiration and by other conditions affecting the rate of flow of blood in the pulmonary system. Most frequently, however, the rise of aortic pressure is synchronous or nearly so with the inspiratory fall in pulmonary pressure, and a fall of aortic pressure synchronous with the expiratory rise.

In the first stage of asphyxia, when the inspiratory movements are increased in force and the expiratory diminished, the pulmonary pressure falls, whilst the aortic pressure rises; whereas in the second stage, when the expiratory movements are accentuated, the pulmonary pressure rises. The aortic pressure may show a corresponding fall, but in many cases continues to rise owing to the effect of the accumulating CO2 in the blood upon the vaso‐motor centre.
A METHOD FOR RECORDING GASTRIC SECRETION IN ACUTE EXPERIMENTS ON NORMAL ANIMALS
Authors: Lim Robert K. S.
Published: December 2014

A method for recording gastric secretion in normal anaesthetised animals is described. It depends on the use of a perforated glass cannula (introduced into the stomach through the pylorus) to drain the stomach of its juice, which is allowed to activate a drop‐recorder after its escape from the organ. A balloon is also inserted into the stomach to serve as a control of motor changes.

The method permits of observations being made on the latent period, the duration and the quantity of secretion after the introduction of a suitable excitant. The juice thus obtained invariably contains free HCL and pepsin.
DOES THE BLOOD OF PATIENTS WITH EXOPHTHALMIC GOITRE CONTAIN ACTIVE DERIVATIVES OF THE THYROID?
Authors: Sharpey-Schafer Edward
Published: December 2014

The serum of normal human blood contains a substances which produces marked augmentation and acceleration of the contractions of an isolated strip of longitudinal muscle of cat's intestine (ileum).

The effect of serum from cases of exophthalmic goitre is far greater than that of serum from normal blood.

Thyroid extract also produces augmentation and acceleration of the contractions of the intestinal strip. It might therefore be inferred that in exophthalmic goitre there is a large amount of thyroid secretion present in the blood.

But the action of thyroid extract is relatively slight compared with that even of normal serum, and the specific autacoid of the thyroid (thyroxin) has no effect upon the intestinal strip. Moreover, neither normal blood nor exophthalmic blood, when fed to tadpoles, have any influence upon their metamorphosis.

These experiments therefore lend no support to the view that normal thyroid secretion containing thyroxin is poured into the blood in appreciably increased amount in exophthalmic goitre. Nor do they support the view that the symptoms of the disease are due to the presence of an abnormal amount of free adrenalin in the blood, since if this were the case the contractions of the intestinal strip would tend to be inhibited instead of being augmented.

Experiments are in progress to determine whether variations in the amount of augmentor substance in serum are characteristic of affections other than exophthalmic goitre, and if possible to isolate this substance and elucidate its nature.

The expenses of this research have been assisted by grants from the Earl of Moray Fund of the University of Edinburgh and from the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland.
THE SOURCE OF THE PROTEOLYTIC ENZYME IN EXTRACTS OF THE PYLORIC MUCOUS MEMBRANE
Authors: Lim Robert K. S.
Published: December 2014

(1) A proteolytic ferment, which is much weaker than pepsin in its action, is invariably present in pyloric extracts. It does not act in a neutral or faintly alkaline medium. The material employed for extracts was in every case free from fundus tissue.

(2) Infiltration of pepsin from the fundus accounts for part of the activity observed, especially the increase in activity during digestion, but a secretion of ferment must also be admitted.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE ISOLATED PYLORIC SEGMENT AND ON ITS SECRETION
Authors: Lim Robert K. S. , Dott Norman M.
Published: December 2014

1. The operative methods for isolating the pyloric segment and forming it into a pouch, are described.

2. The secretion of the pyloric pouch is viscid, slightly alkaline and definitely proteolytic.

3. The proteolytic action of the pyloric juice is not due to bacterial contamination, nor to the inclusion of peptic cells in the wall of the pyloric pouch, but to the presence of a ferment.

4. The ferment secreted by the mucoid cells of the pylorus is only 1/25 as active as pepsin secreted by the peptic cells of the fundus, and has no associated rennin action.
THE EFFECT OF CERTAIN PATHOLOGICAL SERA ON PLAIN MUSCLE
Authors: Adam Lena C.
Published: December 2014

1. Normal human serum contains a substance which causes a constant rise in tone when applied to plain muscle.

2. A similar rise in tone was obtained with serum from cases of diabetes, scarlet fever, diphtheria (convalescent), pernicious anæmia, syphilis, and some cases of nephritis, malignant disease, and afebrile tuberculosis.

3. An increased effect was obtained with serum from exophthalmic goitre, febrile tuberculosis, six out of eight cases of malignant disease, six out of nine cases of nephritis, and one case of influenza.

4. A less marked rise of tone occurred with serum from one case of myxœdema, and was increased up to normal after thyroid‐feeding.

5. The augmentor substance occurs in serum, citrated blood, citrated plasma, laked, washed red cells, and fresh uncoagulated blood.

I desire to express my thanks to Professor Meakins, Professor Lovell Gulland, Professor Sir Harold Stiles, and Dr Lees of the Royal Infirmary for facilities given for obtaining material ; also to Dr Crockett of the Bridge of Weir Sanatoria and Dr Simpson of Southfields Sanatorium.

The expenses of this research have been partly defrayed by a grant from the Earl of Moray Research Endowment Fund.
THE EFFECT OF THYROIDECTOMY ON GROWTH IN THE SHEEP AND GOAT AS INDICATED BY BODY‐WEIGHT
Authors: Simpson Sutherland
Published: December 2014

In sixteen pairs of twin lambs. mainly of the same sex, the thyroid gland was removed from one of each pair and the other kept as a control.

When the operation was performed from three to four weeks after birth, marked stunting resulted ; in more than one instance the weight of the control was three times that, of the cretin.

Where thyroidectomy was delayed till the third or fourth month the retardation in growth was only slight; in some cases, indeed, no effect was evident although other signs of athyroidism were present.

In triplet goat kids, all females, the thyroids were removed from two when twenty days old, while the third was kept as a control. A difference in growth rate was detectable on the 19th day following operation, and from that time the normal rapidly outgrew the cretins.

There is no evidence for the belief that the mother's milk can retard to any extent the onset of hypothyroid symptoms in lambs or goat kids.

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Miss E. Campbell, Dr A. Bodansky, and Dr H. S. Liddell, for assistance rendered in this investigation.

The expenses incurred were defrayed by grants received from the Heckscher Research Foundation of Cornell University, and the Sage Research Fund of the Ithaca Division of Cornell University Medical College.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PHYSIOLOGY OF GASTRIC SECRETION.—II. THE INTESTINAL PHASE OF GASTRIC SECRETION
Authors: Ivy A. C. , Lim Robert K. S. , McCarthy J. E.
Published: December 2014

1. The pouch of the entire stomach secretes gastric juice after a latent period of from one to three hours when a mixed meal is ingested and enters the intestine directly.

2. The intestinal phase of gastric secretion is due to the action of the products (e.g. peptone, amino‐acids, and amines) of digested complex food substances and not apparently to the food in its raw state (meat, carbohydrates, and neutral fat).

3. Water in the intestine stimulates, but not invariably. Whether or not it stimulates depends in part on the degree of thirst and the time since the last meal. The mechanism concerned is discussed.

4. Gastric secretion may be stimulated from the intestine by a non‐absorbable substance, namely, 0.5 per cent. saponin solution. The influence of changes in surface tension on the mechanism of stimulation and inhibition is considered.

5. Our observations definitely disprove the specific pyloric or gastrin theory as originally stated by
Edkins. A vascular hypothesis is tentatively suggested to explain the mechanism of intestinal stimulation.

6. Our results finally demonstrate that the intestine as a pathway for the stimulation of the gastric glands must be considered in an analysis of the factors concerned in the genesis of gastric secretion. In short, the existence of an intestinal phase is proved.
THE EFFECTS OF FATIGUE AND TEMPERATURE ON THE ADRENAL BODIES OF THE RAT
Authors: Vincent Swale
Published: December 2014

If white rats are exercised at room temperature (in winter) their body temperature will fall and the chromaphil reaction of the adrenal medulla will be markedly reduced. If they are exercised at higher temperatures their body temperature will rise and the chromaphil reaction will not be reduced.

At about from 18° to 200°C. the body temperature neither rises nor falls with exercise, and the chromaphil tissue is unaffected.

Considerable reduction of the temperature of the surrounding medium may, independently of exercise, cause a reduction of the chromaphil reaction if the animal's temperature becomes lowered; but this does not occur very frequently in the case of white rats.

It seems, then, that the effect of exercise on the chromaphil reaction is not direct but secondary to the lowering of the animal's temperature.
THE LATENT PERIOD OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Authors: Fulton John F. , Scholar Christopher Welch
Published: December 2014

When a frog's gastrocnemius at 20° with active circulation is stimulated through its nerve by a single break induction shock, the individual muscle fibres contract synchronously within ±1σ throughout their entire length. The response of the whole muscle is, therefore, an accurate index course of contraction in the individual fibres.

The latent period of shortening may be divided into four phases, which in a gastrocnemius at 20°C. have the following characteristics :

1. Conduction Time in the Nerve.—With 3 cm. average conducting distance as in these experiments the interval would be 1σ (30 m. per sec.).

2. Delay at the End Plate.—An interval 4σ was observed between the stimulus and the muscle action current. The end‐plate delay was therefore 3σ.

3. “True” Latency.—The interval after the beginning of the electrical response during which the mechanical conditions are unaltered.

This is the same whether thickening is recorded, or whether determined by the response of the tendon, and has an absolute value 1·5 to 2·0σ.

4. Rigidity. When a second response falls during the relaxation of response I., the muscle ceases to relax 1·5 to 2· 0σ after the active current, and becomes “rigid” ‘for a period 4 to 5σ before shortening.

This accounts for the supposed difference between the latent period as determined by thickening and by shortening of the tendon. The duration of the rising phase of the muscle action current corresponds closely with the duration of the period of “true” latency as well as with the absolute refractory period.

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to
Professor Sherrington and to offer my thanks for his invaluable and kindly criticism.
EXPERIMENTAL MITRAL INCOMPETENCE
Authors: M'Dowall R. J. S.
Published: December 2014

The effect of mitral incompetence on aortic, left auricular, pulmonary, and venous pressures is investigated simultaneously.

The aortic is seen to be unaffected, and reasons are given why this is so.

Left auricular pressure is found to be enormously increased, especially under conditions of stress.

The pulmonary and venous pressures are seen to be dependent on the state of the right ventricle, which may show impairment.

It is indicated that stimulation of the vagus may be used as a test for the existence of mitral incompetence when the height of the left auricular pressure gives reason for doubt.
REFLEX TIMES IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN CLAWED FROG. THIRD NOTE
Authors: Jolly William Adam
Published: December 2014

The reflex in the hind limbs of the spinal Xenopus, in response to a single break induction shock applied to the web of one foot, has been recorded by two string galvanometers recording simultaneously on one photographic plate.

The reflex consists of homonymous flexion and heteronymous extension.

The electrical responses consist of polyphasic or oscillatory variations, of which there are two types: I uncomplicated, due to a single activation of the muscle through its motor nerve; and II complicated, due to successive activations through the nerve and showing evidence of interference.

Evidence is not found in this reflex of reciprocal innervation. Both extensor and flexor muscles yield electrical responses in both limbs.

In the same‐side limb reflex activity starts in the knee‐flexor muscle —gracilis—but the extensor muscle—cruralis—becomes active less than a thousandth of a second later. The gastrocnemius follows the thigh muscles after an interval corresponding to the delay of a set of synapses in the spinal centre plus an interval due to its longer nerve path.

In the limb opposite to the stimulated foot activity appears simultaneously in the extensor and flexor of the knee, and this follows the onset of activity in the same‐side limb by an interval—the cross‐over time—corresponding to the delay of a set of synapses.

The outflow of excitation to the gastrocnemius acting heteronymously is simultaneous with that to the thigh muscles, so that the crossed gastrocnemius follows the crossed cruralis and gracilis by only a short interval due to its longer nerve path.

The outflow of excitation to the tibialis anticus, homonymous, and heteronymous is simultaneous with that to the thigh muscles.

The delay of a synapse‐set at 14°C. is about 6 σ (thousandths of a second). It is suggested that this is not the delay at a single synapse.

Analysis of the reflex delays of the thigh muscles shows that one synapse‐set is involved in the intracentral conduction of the homonymous reflex, and two synapse‐sets are involved in the heteronymous reflex. While it is the general rule that the effective excitation for the crossed reflex passes through the centre by a path containing two synapse‐sets, the presence of a preliminary deflection indicates that a slight excitation is transmitted by a shorter path from one side to the other.

Certain variations from the usual time relations are found to occur.
THE SENSATIONS OF TEMPERATURE, PAIN, AND PRESSURE
Authors: Allen Frank , Macdonald P. A.
Published: December 2014

The graphs for the four kinds of cutaneous sensations discussed above are all of the same type, consisting in their entirety of at least two branches. These correspond exactly to the first and second branches of the graphs obtained for the tactile sensations by
Allen and
Weinberg (3). Probably if the measurements could have been extended over greater ranges of current‐intensities a third branch would have been found, as in the senses of vision, touch, and taste. The graphs all conform to the same equation found for the sense of touch:

D=—k log I+ C.

The order of magnitude of the times of duration of the stimulus at the critical frequency of stimulation is also the same for all the sensations discussed in this paper, and for touch. We may conclude, therefore, that all the cutaneous sensations obey the same fundamental laws. In the equations to the graphs the constants k and C have different values for the two, or more, branches, and they are different for the different sensations. The negative sign for k indicates that the duration of the stimulus at the critical frequency of stimulation diminishes as the intensity of the stimulus increases.

The measurements obtained in these investigations, as far as we can judge, are the normal values for the receptors indicated. No measurements under the conditions of depression and enhancement of sensitivity seemed possible, as there was no certainty that the same receptors were stimulated on different occasions. There can be no doubt, however, that both processes are in operation in all these sensations. The interpretation of the two‐branched graphs most probably rests upon the functions of the sensory reflex actions involved. In other researches on the sensations of vision, touch, and taste, experiment justified the conclusion that in each sense reflex actions of two kinds existed, one of which depressed and the other enhanced the sensitiveness of the receptors. It is a sudden change in the ratio of these two processes that causes a corresponding alteration of the sensitivity of the receptors and thereby of the slope of the graph.

In the sense of touch it was found that stimulation of low intensities corresponding to the uppermost branch of the graph elicited enhancement in excess of depression, while higher intensities of stimulation caused the reverse. Since the other cutaneous sensations are found to conform to the same equation, it may be inferred that the results of stimulation will also be similar. Experience under pathological conditions also testifies to the existence of enhancement and depression of receptor sensitivity in the senses of temperature and pain.

This investigation is one of a series of researches relating to colour‐vision and other sensory actions now being conducted under the direction of Professor
Frank Allen, with the financial assistance of the National Research Council of Canada, to which body we desire to express our thanks.
THE EFFECT OF THE CIRCULATION ON THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF THE SKIN OF MAN
Authors: Wells H. M.
Published: December 2014

Procedures producing constriction of the skin blood‐vessels bring about a marked fall in electrical resistance of the skin of man.

Conversely, procedures producing dilatation bring about a rise.

These observations confirm the conclusion of
Aveling and
McDowall in experiments on animals “that the resistance of the skin may be used as an indication of its vascularity.”

How the changes in the blood‐vessels modify the electrical resistance is as yet by no means clear. It is known that new blood corpuscles have a relatively high resistance, but from preliminary experiments which we have carried out it is evident that this does not account wholly for the electrical changes.

In this investigation I am indebted to Professor
McDowall for suggesting the problem and for assistance in carrying out some of the experiments; to several of my colleagues who kindly allowed themselves to be used as subjects; and to Lord
Dawson for the loan of the recording galvanometer. This work was done during the tenure of the Berridge Studentship at King's College.
STUDIES ON THE ARNETH COUNT.—VIII. THE DEFLECTION OF THE COUNT BY X‐RAYS
Authors: Kennedy Walter P. , Grover Cecil A.
Published: December 2014

1. By means of a single exposure to X‐rays the Arneth count of rabbits is deflected, a large number of cells of Class I. and a smaller number of cells of Class II. being introduced into the circulation.

2. As in
Ponder's experiment with the effect of an injection of thyroid, the subsequent changes are followed. While they are found to be in the main similar, certain differences occur, and these are discussed.

3. Three graduated penetrations were used; the largest produced the greatest deflection, but the smallest penetration produced a greater deflection than did the intermediate.

This research was carried out under a grant from the Carnegie Trust, and during the tenure by one of us (W. P. K.) of a Carnegie Research Fellowship.
THE CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM IN AMPHIBIAN EMBRYOGENESIS
Authors: Needham Joseph
Published: December 2014

1. The total carbohydrate in the egg of the frog has been estimated quantitatively at the beginning and end of its normal development. Only 7 per cent. of this fraction is lost, so that the 50 per cent. diminution previously reported for glycogen cannot mean that much carbohydrate is burned during the ontogenesis of this animal. The amount burned in percentage of the total amount of foodstuff burned gives a figure very close to that of the chick.

2. The proportion of the various energy‐sources, carbohydrate, protein, and fat used in development are calculated for the chick and the frog, and compared with the existing data for other embryos. As a preliminary generalisation it is suggested that aquatic embryos are much more dependent on protein than are terrestrial ones, possibly because the disposal of incombustible waste‐products is a much more difficult problem in the latter case than it is in the former.

The author's gratitude is due to Professor Sir F. G.
Hopkins, F. R. S., for his continual inspiration.
THE FREE CARBOHYDRATE OF THE DEVELOPING CHICK
Authors: Needham Joseph
Published: December 2014

1. The free carbohydrate in the chick embryo has been estimated quantitatively throughout its development. In absolute amounts it rises with the growth of the embryo, but as per cent. of the weight it falls in the later part of incubation.

2. Expressed as per cent. of the total carbohydrate, the free carbohydrate curve presents a well‐marked peak at the eleventh day.

3. The glycogen/glucose ratio rapidly changes at the same time, rising from well below unity to well above unity.

4. It is shown that this critical point in development coincides with the appearance of the islets of Langerhans in the embryonic pancreas and the initiation of the glycogenic function in the liver. From this it is concluded that insulin is not formed by the growing embryo till the eleventh day of incubation or a little before, and this is discussed with reference to other hormones and the loss of totipotential plasticity by the growing embryo.

5. In the early stages of development in the chick there is a larger proportion of glucose not accounted for by glycogen or by free glucose than at any other time. This unidentified combined glucose is probably macoprotein carbohydrate, and its importance in the early stages may be correlated with the primitive gelatinous intercellular matrix in which the embryonic cells at that time grow and migrate.

1 The thanks of the writer are due to Professor Sir F. G. Hopkins, F. R. S., and to the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society.

Very similar evidence has been adduced for the hormones of the following glans: Pituitary (
Hogben and
Crew), testis (
Kudo), and thymus (
Trinka).
THE MECHANISM BY WHICH THE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE OF THE SKIN IS ALTERED
Authors: Densham H. B. , Wells H. M.
Published: December 2014

Changes in the resistance of the skin are shown to be caused by the unequal tension exerted by the vascular loops of the corium on the epidermis when they contract or dilate.

Our thanks are due to Professor R. J. S.
McDowall, to Mr. R. A.
Collier, and to Mr.
Mandel for much kind assistance.
STUDIES ON THE ARNETH COUNT.—X. THE DEFLECTION OF THE COUNT BY ULTRA‐VIOLET RAYS
Authors: Kennedy Walter P. , Thompson W. A. R.
Published: December 2014

A preliminary report is given on the effect of ultra‐violet light on the Arneth count of rabbits. It is shown that a single exposure can produce a definite deflection of the count, and that thick window‐glass is opaque to the active rays; further, that fur is to a large degree protective against the rays, and it requires to be closely clipped or shaved if the full effect is to be obtained.

This research was carried out under grants from the Carnegie Trust, and from the Moray Fund, and during the tenure by one of us (W. P. K.) of a Carnegie Research Fellowship.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SERUM
Authors: Burridge W.
Published: December 2014

1. Serum exerts an augmenting action on the heart in that it increases contraction‐height and improves tone, with culmination in systolic arrest.

2. Lipoids (cholesterol and lecithin) exert two independent actions on the heart:

(1) A depression due to interference with Ca function.

(2) An augmentation due to colloidal changes.

At low concentrations augmentation predominates. At high concentrations depression predominates.

3. The “alcoholic extract” of serum exerts the same actions as lipoids.

4. Since serum is solely augmentor and its alcoholic extract exerts a new independent action of depression, the depressor constituents (lipoids) of this extract could not have been present in the serum in the form they are present in the extract.

5. The term alcoholic extract of serum is a misnomer, because the constituents of this extract exert an action which is not exerted by serum. The alcohol first breaks down serum, and the alcoholic extract consists of break‐down products soluble in alcohol. We cannot deduce the functions of these substances in serum from the actions of the pefused alcoholic extract. We only know they are different.