bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The dynamics of an online knowledge building community: A 5‐year longitudinal study
Authors: Mylläri Jarkko , Åhlberg Mauri , Dillon Patrick
Published: July 2009

This paper reports a 5‐year design experiment on cumulative knowledge building as part of an international project. Through a longitudinal study and analysis of cumulative research data, we sought to answer the question, ‘what happened and why in knowledge building?’ Research data constitute messages which participants have written into a shared knowledge building database. A multi‐method approach combing quantitative and qualitative data was adopted which integrated analysis of message generation, content analysis, network analysis, structure of message threads, discourse analysis and interviews. Conclusions are based on analysis of almost 2000 messages. Qualitative content analysis reveals 14 main categories of data. When the content of the messages are analysed, quantitatively cumulative trends emerge. When the frequencies of messages are plotted against time, peaks and troughs of message writing are revealed. The explanations for these patterns and variations are sought through interviews. Social network analysis shows that the network is centralised. The research literature suggests that decentralised networks are ideal, but in this particular case, the expert centralisation was beneficial for knowledge building in the collaborative and associated professional networks. The reasons for this are discussed.
Towards a Framework of Trust Attribution Styles
Authors: Hatzakis Tally
Published: July 2009

The issue of trust has attracted considerable business and management inquiry over the last decade, due to its impact on working relationships within and between organizations. Given its importance, it is fundamental for management to be able to foster trust and thus necessary to accurately diagnose the current state of trust in their organization. However, diagnosing trust in real contexts is challenging due to its taboo and tacit nature. Hence, a surreptitious approach to data gathering and analysis may be required to elicit honest accounts from participants about trust. This paper contends that attribution theory can provide the basis for the development of such an analytical framework by enabling researchers to analyse field data about organizational life. The paper presents literature that highlights the appropriateness of attribution style analysis for explaining trust. It presents a taxonomy of trust‐related terms, and proposes a framework of distinct attribution patterns for each term to systematize the diagnosis of trust in situ. The paper concludes with a discussion about the value of the framework for trust research and directions for future work.
Competitive Strategies and Firm Performance: a Comparative Analysis of Pure, Hybrid and ‘Stuck‐in‐the‐middle’ Strategies in Spanish Firms
Authors: Pertusa‐Ortega Eva M. , Molina‐Azorín José F. , Claver‐Cortés Enrique
Published: July 2009

The purpose of this study was to examine the viability of hybrid competitive strategies, which combine differentiation and cost elements, and their impact on organizational performance in comparison to pure strategies and ‘stuck‐in‐the‐middle’ combinations. Previous studies have focused above all on US data. The analysis carried out in this paper has centred on a multisectorial sample of 164 Spanish firms. The findings show that a large number of the organizations use different types of hybrid strategies and also that such strategies tend to be associated with higher levels of firm performance, particularly those strategies which place emphasis on a greater number of strategic dimensions, and specifically on innovation differentiation.
Forgoing the Flexibility of Real Options: When and Why Firms Commit to Investment Decisions*
Authors: Dalziel Margaret
Published: July 2009

Real option investments benefit from the flexibility associated with the possibility of abandonment should investment returns prove insufficient. But a firm also benefits from making commitments that engender reciprocal commitments on the part of employees and partner firms, and that allow the firm to address markets that exhibit increasing returns with the speed and scale required for success. I investigate the conditions under which large firms commit to investments in small firm equity alliances and acquisitions, and find that large firms commit to relationships that they initiate and that are subject to a high degree of rivalry. Uncertainty was not a significant predictor of the choice to commit. My findings point to the discretionary nature of the choice to commit and to firms' willingness to commit to investment decisions, despite high uncertainty, during periods of strong growth.
The Influence of Top Management Teams in the Strategic Orientation and Performance of Small and Medium‐sized Enterprises
Authors: Escribá‐Esteve Alejandro , Sánchez‐Peinado Luz , Sánchez‐Peinado Esther
Published: July 2009

Identifying which factors affect firms' performance is a critical issue in strategic management research. This paper addresses the influence of managerial team over the behaviour and performance of small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). By treating top management team (TMT) characteristics as predictors of a firm's strategic orientation, we seek to provide a more complete understanding of how the characteristics of managerial teams shape decision‐making processes and SMEs' behaviours in order to successfully compete in low munificent environments. Based on primary data regarding managerial characteristics and firms' behaviours of a sample of 295 SMEs, our results confirm that a firm's strategic orientation plays a mediating role in explaining how TMT characteristics determine SMEs' performance.
The Wick in the Candle of Learning
Authors: Kang Min Jeong , Hsu Ming , Krajbich Ian M. , Loewenstein George , McClure Samuel M. , Wang Joseph Tao-yi , Camerer Colin F.
Published: July 2009

Curiosity has been described as a desire for learning and knowledge, but its underlying mechanisms are not well understood. We scanned subjects with functional magnetic resonance imaging while they read trivia questions. The level of curiosity when reading questions was correlated with activity in caudate regions previously suggested to be involved in anticipated reward. This finding led to a behavioral study, which showed that subjects spent more scarce resources (either limited tokens or waiting time) to find out answers when they were more curious. The functional imaging also showed that curiosity increased activity in memory areas when subjects guessed incorrectly, which suggests that curiosity may enhance memory for surprising new information. This prediction about memory enhancement was confirmed in a behavioral study: Higher curiosity in an initial session was correlated with better recall of surprising answers 1 to 2 weeks later.
Italian Preschoolers' Peer‐status Linkages with Sociability and Subtypes of Aggression and Victimization
Authors: Nelson David A. , Robinson Clyde C. , Hart Craig H. , Albano Anthony D. , Marshall Shawna J.
Published: July 2009

Little is known about the behavior of preschool children belonging to peer sociometric status groups (popular, average, rejected, neglected, and controversial) in cultural contexts outside North America. This study examined the social interactions of Italian preschoolers. The sample consisted of 266 Italian preschoolers (mean age of 64 months). Physical and relational subtypes of aggression and victimization, as well as sociable behavior, were measured by peer nominations and teacher ratings. Peer nominations of acceptance and rejection (like and dislike nominations) were also collected in order to form the sociometric status groups. Results of confirmatory factor analyses showed that items developed with US preschoolers appeared to work fairly well in identifying behavioral constructs in Italian preschoolers. Findings generally supported previous research with American preschoolers. Sociometrically popular children were highest in sociability, and lowest in physical and relational aggression and victimization. The opposite pattern emerged for rejected status children. Neglected status children were generally not distinguished from average status children. Results also suggested that the enactment of relational aggression promotes greater social impact for some Italian children (controversial children), and this aggression also invites more conflict and victimization. However, the sociability of controversial children appears to buffer them from rejected group status.
What happens along the diagnostic pathway to CHD treatment? Qualitative results concerning cognitive processes
Authors: Lutfey Karen E. , McKinlay John B.
Published: July 2009

Extensive research on health disparities documents persistent differential diagnosis and treatment of many conditions according to patient characteristics, physician attributes, and healthcare systems. Less is known about how physicians arrive at their decisions. We use qualitative data from a vignette‐based factorial experiment to examine how physicians reason through and account for their clinical decisions, and how variations arise despite the presentation of identical symptoms of coronary heart disease (CHD). We find that physicians show evidence of cognitive biases but also actively interpret social characteristics they deem relevant to medical treatment. In an uncertain clinical context, these diagnostic pathways expose key junctures wherein physicians are detoured to alternative diagnoses, their certainty of CHD lowered, and scientific logic makes it difficult to return to a CHD diagnosis — thereby providing a fuller picture of why some cases are counted as CHD while others are not. These results have important implications insofar as diagnostic decisions like these contribute to the compilation of epidemiologic base rates, and are therefore used as part of Bayesian decision making to determine the probability of CHD in subsequent patients. This work resonates with social constructivist concerns regarding the ways disease categories are established and maintained, and potential sources of bias in official rates detected.
Excess Liquidity, Inflation and the Yuan Appreciation: What Can China Learn from Recent History?
Authors: Zhang Chengsi
Published: July 2009

This paper analyses the issues of excess liquidity, inflation and the exchange rate appreciation currently evolving in China. In mapping the co‐movement between excess liquidity and inflation and developing a dynamic model, the paper shows that excess liquidity, ignited by dramatic capital inflows, is a significant driver for consumer price inflation in China during the last decade. In addition, the article compares the dynamic paths of inflation and interest rates between China and the United States and reveals marked changes in their differentials over recent years. Associating these findings with the evolving appreciation of the yuan against the dollar, the paper advises a slowdown in the rate of RMB appreciation. Instead of quick appreciation, the paper proposes more flexibility in the RMB exchange rate regime combined with alternative capital control measures to rein‐in excess liquidity and curb ongoing inflation in China.
Lower Tariff, Rising Skill Premium in Developing Countries: Is it a Coincidence?
Authors: Ing Lili Yan
Published: July 2009

Even though there are gains from international trade, there is still a case that trade opportunities have significant distributional consequences. This study considers the arguments that trade liberalisation and technological catch‐up could raise the skill premium. The first argument has shown, in the North–South trade framework, that a reduction in import tariff may raise the skill premium if the tariff reduction causes the range of the traded goods in which export expansion occurs to be greater than the range of the traded goods in which imports expand. The second argument has shown that technological catch‐up could raise the skill premium through export expansion. This paper presents an empirical study of developing economies from 1980 to 2005, which confirms that trade liberalisation raises the skill premium, whilst technological catch‐up has an insignificant effect on the skill premium.
Oil Prices and Equity Returns in the BRIC Countries
Authors: Bhar Ramaprasad , Nikolova Biljana
Published: July 2009

This paper measures the level by which global oil price returns influence the stock returns and volatility in the BRIC equity markets and observes the time‐varying conditional correlation between BRIC equity returns and oil price returns. The study concludes that the level of impact of oil price returns on equity returns and volatility in the BRIC countries depends on the extent to which these countries are net importers or net exporters of oil. It also concludes that despite the aggressive economic growth of the BRIC countries in the past 25 years, the volatility of stock returns in these economies does not have a significant impact on the volatility of global oil price returns.
Man, Money and Machines: The Contributions of A. W. Phillips
Authors: BOLLARD ALAN E.
Published: July 2009

A. W. Phillips is widely known for the Phillips curve, from an article in Economica fifty years ago. Less well known is that he was an unusually talented electrical engineer who retrained as an economist and made pioneering, if unconventional, contributions across a wide range of macroeconomics: physical modelling, dynamic stabilization, continuous‐time modelling and applied econometrics. In making these contributions, he was a child of his times. This paper focuses on the environment that helped make Phillips, what motivated his questions, how he formed his ideas, how he solved problems, and what difference that has made to the study of economics.
In‐hospital myocardial infarction following acute ischaemic stroke: an observational study
Authors: Liao J. , O’Donnell M. J. , Silver F. L. , Thiruchelvam D. , Saposnik G. , Fang J. , Gould L. , Mohamed N. , Kapral M. K. ,   On behalf of the Investigators of the Registry of the Canadian Stroke Network
Published: July 2009

Background and purpose:  Acute myocardial infarction is expected to be an important medical complication following ischaemic stroke. We sought to describe the frequency and clinical impact of in‐hospital myocardial infarction following acute ischaemic stroke.

Methods:  Consecutive patients with acute ischaemic stroke were identified from the Registry of the Canadian Stroke Network (2003–2006). Stroke severity was measured using the Canadian Neurological Scale (CNS). Functional status at discharge was measured with the modified‐Rankin Scale, and categorized into strokes with no or mild‐moderate dependency (m‐Rankin 0–3) and those with severe dependence or death (m‐Rankin 4–6). Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the association between myocardial infarction and clinical outcome (death or severe dependence at hospital discharge and 1 year mortality), independent of co‐morbidities and in‐hospital medical complications.

Results:  In total, 9180 patients with acute ischaemic stroke were included. The mean age was 72 years (SD 13.9) and 48% were female. Overall, 211 (2.3%) patients were reported to have myocardial infarction during hospitalization. At hospital discharge, 64.9% of patients with in‐hospital myocardial infarction had died or were severely disabled, compared with 35.8% in the entire cohort. Mortality at 1 year after ischaemic stroke was 56.4% in patients with myocardial infarction and 21.9% in the entire cohort. On multivariable analyses, myocardial infarction was also associated with death or severe dependence at discharge (OR 2.51; 95%CI 1.75–3.59) and mortality within 1 year (HR 1.83; 95%CI 1.51–2.23). Previous history of myocardial infarction (OR 1.50; 95%CI 1.05–2.15), diabetes mellitus (OR 1.55; 95%CI 1.42–2.10), stroke severity (OR 1.13; 95% CI 1.09–1.17) and peripheral vascular disease (OR 1.61; 95%CI 1.04–2.49) were independently associated with myocardial infarction during hospitalization.

Conclusions:  Myocardial infarction is an important medical complication after acute ischaemic stroke.
Efficacy of natalizumab in second line therapy of relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis: results from a multi‐center study in German speaking countries
Authors: Putzki N. , Yaldizli O. , Mäurer M. , Cursiefen S. , Kuckert S. , Klawe C. , Maschke M. , Tettenborn B. , Limmroth V.
Published: July 2009

Background:  Natalizumab has been recommended for the treatment of relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) in patients with insufficient response to interferon‐beta/glatiramer acetate (DMT) or aggressive MS. The pivotal trials were not conducted to investigate natalizumab monotherapy in this patient population.

Method:  Retrospective, multicenter study in Germany and Switzerland. Five major MS centers reported all RRMS patients who initiated natalizumab ≥12 months prior to study conduction.

Results:  Ninety‐seven RRMS patients were included [69% female, mean age 36.5 years, mean Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) 3.4; 93.8% were pre‐treated with DMT], mean treatment duration with natalizumab was 19.3 ± 6.1 months. We found a reduction of the annualized relapse rate from 2.3 to 0.2, 80.4% were relapse free with natalizumab. EDSS improved in 12.4% and 89.7% were progression free (change of >/= 1 EDSS point). Eighty‐six per cent of patients with highly active disease (>/= 2 relapses in the year and >/= 1 Gadolinium (Gd)+ lesion at study entry, n = 20) remained relapse free. The mean number of Gd enhancing lesions was reduced to 0.1 (0.8 at baseline). Discontinuation rate was 8.2% (4.1% for antibody‐positivity).

Conclusion:  Natalizumab is effective after insufficient response to other DMT and also in patients with high disease activity.
Prior use of statins and outcome in patients with intracerebral haemorrhage
Authors: Eichel R. , Khoury S. T. , Ben‐Hur T. , Keidar M. , Paniri R. , Leker R. R.
Published: July 2009

Background:  Pre‐treatment with cholesterol lowering drugs of the statin family may exert protective effects in patients with ischaemic stroke and subarachnoid haemorrhage but their effects are not clear in patients with intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH).

Methods:  We recruited patients admitted to our University Hospital with an acute ICH and analysed pre‐admission demographic variables, pre‐morbid therapy, clinical and radiological prognostic markers and outcome variables including 90‐day modified Rankin score and NIH stroke scale score (NIHSS).

Results:  We recruited 399 patients with ICH of which 101 (25%) were using statins. Statin users more often had vascular risk factors, had significantly lower haematoma volumes (P = 0.04) and had lower mortality rates compared with non‐users (45.6% vs. 56.1%; P = 0.11). However, statin treatment did not have a statistically significant impact on mortality or functional outcome on multiple logistic regression analysis.

Conclusions:  Treatment with statins prior to ICH failed to show a significant impact on outcome in this analysis despite lower haematoma volumes.
Assessment and Feedback: Institutional Experiences of Student Feedback, 1996 to 2007
Authors: Williams James , Kane David
Published: July 2009

Attention has recently focused on sectoral concern with assessment and feedback as a result of the National Student Survey. Government, the higher education agencies and the NUS have called for urgent action to address this concern. Existing data from institutional student feedback surveys, using the Student Satisfaction Approach, some dating back well over a decade, shows that the issue is not a new one. Indeed, several institutions have been addressing student concerns and as a result, have seen student satisfaction increase.

This paper explores the existing student feedback data in order to identify not only how students' perceptions of assessment and feedback have changed over time but also the main concerns of students and institutions and what action has been taken by institutions to increase satisfaction.

Several main concerns emerge from the data. Students value feedback as it is re‐assuring as an indication of their progress and that it should be timely. Institutions that have used the Student Satisfaction Approach are concerned to clarify their processes to students, to increase their own efficiency in returning work, to monitor and review their assessment and feedback régimes and to share good practice, both internally and externally. Action taken as a result of listening to the student voice results in increased satisfaction but this can take several years.
PRIOR ELICITATION IN MULTIPLE CHANGE‐POINT MODELS*
Authors: Koop Gary , Potter Simon M.
Published: July 2009

This article discusses Bayesian inference in change‐point models. The main existing approaches treat all change‐points equally, a priori, using either a Uniform prior or an informative hierarchical prior. Both approaches assume a known number of change‐points. Some undesirable properties of these approaches are discussed. We develop a new Uniform prior that allows some of the change‐points to occur out of sample. This prior has desirable properties, can be interpreted as “noninformative,” and treats the number of change‐points as unknown. Artificial and real data exercises show how these different priors can have a substantial impact on estimation and prediction.
ON THE LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF ELDERLY WIDOWS*
Authors: Bethencourt Carlos , Ríos‐Rull José‐Víctor
Published: July 2009

Between 1970 and 1990, the share of elderly widows living alone grew by 23.2% in the United States, whereas those living with their children decreased by a similar amount. We pose a variety of models for determining the living arrangements in which living together increases consumption because of economies of scale and may also provide utility directly. We estimate these models using the 1970 data and obtain an excellent fit. The estimated models predict that changes in the incomes of both the widow and her offspring generate three‐quarters of the increase in the number of widows living alone.
Unilateral headache associated with a pontine infarction
Authors: Friedman D
Published: July 2009

Brain stem structures are implicated in the generation of migraine and other types of headache. The patient described herein had chronic left hemicranial headaches associated with a left pontine infarction.
Carbachol induces headache, but not migraine-like attacks, in patients with migraine without aura
Authors: Schytz HW , Wienecke T , Olesen J , Ashina M
Published: July 2009

Carbachol induces headache in healthy subjects, but the migraine eliciting effect of carbachol has not previously been studied. We hypothesized that the cholinomimetic agonist carbachol would induce headache and migraine-like attacks in migraineurs. Carbachol (3 µg/kg) or placebo was randomly infused into 18 patients with migraine without aura in a double-blind crossover study. Headache was scored on a verbal rating scale from 0 to 10. Velocity in the middle cerebral artery (VMCA) and diameter of the superficial temporal artery (STA) were recorded. Fifteen patients experienced headache after carbachol compared with eight after placebo ( P = 0.039). There was no difference in incidence of migraine-like attacks after carbachol ( n = 8) compared with placebo ( n = 6) ( P = 0.687). Carbachol caused a decrease in VMCA ( P = 0.044), but no change in STA ( P = 0.089) compared with placebo. The study demonstrated that carbachol provocation is not a good model for experimental migraine.
Disability in chronic migraine with medication overuse: Treatment effects through 5 years
Authors: Andrasik F , Grazzi L , Usai S , Kass S , Bussone G
Published: July 2009

Chronic migraine accompanied by medication overuse is particularly difficult to treat. The number of treatment investigations is limited, few have included follow-up beyond 6 months and almost none has examined whether treatment leads to concurrent improvements in disability and functional impairment. This open-label study addresses these limitations. We have been prospectively following an initial cohort of 84 chronic migraine patients with medication overuse, who at the time of this evaluation had been reduced to 58, for an extended period to assess longer-term maintenance of effects, using measurement procedures identical to those in the original investigation. Thus, the specific aim was to determine the clinical status, with respect to pain indices and disability level, of chronic migraine patients with medication overuse who were treated and followed prospectively for 5 years. All patients completed a brief inpatient treatment programme, in which they were withdrawn from their offending medications and subsequently placed on more appropriate preventive antimigraine medications. Both end-point, wherein missing data points were estimated, and continuer analyses, wherein data analysis was limited to the 58 individuals with complete datasets, revealed significant improvement on all measures studied—headache days per month, analgesic consumption and Migraine Disability Assessment (MIDAS) total score. The percentage reduction from baseline to 5 years for the MIDAS total score was 76.0%, while the percentage of individuals revealing improvements of clinically significant magnitude (≥ 50%) on the MIDAS was 91.9%. MIDAS total scores were lower at 5 years than at some of the intervening follow-up intervals. Comparisons of those who completed the 5-year follow-up ( n = 58) with those who did not revealed no differences at baseline. This finding, coupled with the nearly identical results for the end-point and continuers analyses, suggests that attrition did not have a bearing on outcome. None of the patients completing the 5-year follow-up had relapsed since the prior 3-year follow-up assessment. High levels of maintenance were revealed at 5 years, with disability scores showing some continued improvement over time. The implications of these findings and the limitations of the study are discussed.
Global prevalence of chronic migraine: A systematic review
Authors: Natoli JL , Manack A , Dean B , Butler Q , Turkel CC , Stovner L , Lipton RB
Published: July 2009

The aim of this review was to summarize population-based studies reporting prevalence and/or incidence of chronic migraine (CM) and to explore variation across studies. A systematic literature search was conducted. Relevant data were abstracted and estimates were subdivided based on the criteria used in each study. Sixteen publications representing 12 studies were accepted. None presented data on CM incidence. The prevalence of CM was 0–5.1%, with estimates typically in the range of 1.4–2.2%. Seven studies used Silberstein–Lipton criteria (or equivalent), with prevalence ranging from 0.9% to 5.1%. Three estimates used migraine that occurred ≥ 15 days per month, with prevalence ranging from 0 to 0.7%. Prevalence varied by World Health Organization region and gender. This review identified population-based studies of CM prevalence, although heterogeneity across studies and lack of data from certain regions leaves an incomplete picture. Future studies on CM would benefit from an International Classification of Headache Disorders consensus diagnosis that is clinically appropriate and operational in epidemiological studies.
Normative Principles and Practical Ethics: A Response to O’Neill
Authors: BROWNLEE KIMBERLEY
Published: July 2009

abstract  This article briefly examines Onora O’Neill's account of the relation between normative principles and practical ethical problems with an eye to suggesting that philosophers of practical ethics have reason to adopt fairly high moral ambitions to be edifying and instructive both as educators and as advisors on public policy debates.
Applying Philosophy: A Response to O’Neill
Authors: ARCHARD DAVID
Published: July 2009

abstract  I consider the putative originality of applied philosophy and seek to defend a version of it often called ‘bottom up’. I review ways in which imagined cases may cause us to reconsider our normative commitments, and endorse a general attentiveness to the matter of how the world is and how it might reasonably be imagined. This is important if practical philosophers want to form the correct normative judgements, to be able to recognize the sui generis character of some moral theorising in particular domains, practically to enact their considered judgments, and properly to acknowledge how the real world, in the form of institutions, practices and a cultural framework, constrains, or facilitates, practical enactment. Throughout I illustrate my abstract claims by reference to the moral judgement and legal regulation of sexual behaviour.
Philosophy and ‘The Life of the Law’
Authors: DUFF R. A.
Published: July 2009

abstract  Focusing on the criminal law, I discuss three ways in which analytical philosophers might contribute to the development or health of the law (and of legal theory). The first is as humble under‐labourers, who seek only to clarify legal rules and doctrines, but not to criticise them. This modest conception of the role of philosophy, however, proves to be untenable: clarification must become rational reconstruction — an attempt to make rational sense of the law; and rational reconstruction must involve at least an internal critique, which appraises the law in terms of ends, values or principles that the reconstruction discovers within the law. Such an internal critique must then also point beyond itself, to an external critique that appraises law in terms of the broader and deeper political and moral values by which states should be structured; the paper ends by noting some of the problems that such an external critique faces, and some of the problems that philosophers must face in trying to engage with the world of public policy.
Philosophy, Criticism and Community: A Response to Duff
Authors: TASIOULAS JOHN
Published: July 2009

abstract  A critical discussion of R. A. Duff's account of ‘internal’ and ‘external’ criticism using two examples drawn from recent work on international justice — Pogge on global poverty and Duff on international criminal jurisdiction.
Making Exceptions
Authors: SHUE HENRY
Published: July 2009

abstract  Because we are more comfortable with judgements of conceptual conceivability than with judgements of practical possibility, we content ourselves with imaginary cases, which are useless for making many decisions that practical people most need to make, notably all‐things‐considered decisions about when to follow an admitted general principle and when to make an exception. The diverse cases of climate change, preventive attack, and torture all illustrate how the avoidance of the difficult task of integrating empirical judgements with conceptual judgements through the flight into the sanitized abstraction of imaginary cases undermines attempts at practical ethics. All three cases involve allegedly exceptional, or emergency, situations, although climate change seems to require more than the usual compliance with general principle while preventive attack and torture supposedly require less than the usual compliance. By my lights the proposed exceptions are, respectively, fully, sometimes, and never justified. But the fundamental point is that one unfortunately cannot decide any of the cases without assessing what is in fact likely as well as what is conceptually possible.
Not Making Exceptions: A Response to Shue
Authors: BUFACCHI VITTORIO
Published: July 2009

abstract  This article refutes Henry Shue's claim that in the case of preventive military attacks it is sometimes morally permissible to make an exception to the fundamental principle regarding the inviolability of individual rights. By drawing on a comparison between torture and preventive military attacks, I will argue that the potential risks of institutionalizing preventive military attacks — what I call the Institutionalizing Argument — are far too great to even contemplate. Two potential risks with setting up a bureaucracy which specializes in preventive military attacks will be highlighted: that any preventive military strike may nourish a cycle of violence that will inevitably cause more deaths and destruction than could ever be justified; and that such preventive military strikes may be abused by political leaders in a desperate effort to hold on to power, including democratically elected political leaders working within a democratic framework.
The influence of human disturbance on California sea lions during the breeding season
Authors: Holcomb K. , Young J. K. , Gerber L. R.
Published: July 2009

California sea lions Zalophus californianus occupy 26 islands in the Gulf of California (GoC), Mexico. Although human presence is prohibited on these islands without a government permit, the law is not enforced and tourism to the islands is increasing. Tourists, along with local fishermen, often come ashore to get close to the animals, which may disrupt behaviors critical for reproduction. In this paper, we report the results of an experimental study on the behavioral effects of human disturbance on California sea lions in the GoC. To document effects, we recorded sea lion behavior immediately before and in 10‐min intervals for up to an hour after experimental human disturbance. Our results showed few behavioral responses of sea lions to human disturbance. Adult females and juveniles demonstrated immediate responses, but these were not consistent between years, apparent an hour after disturbance, or evident across other age and sex classes. These results suggest that California sea lions may be resilient to human disturbance and a possible flagship species for ecotourism, but further studies of the physiological and population‐level effects of human disturbance are needed.
Genomic Convergence of Genome‐wide Investigations for Complex Traits
Authors: Kitsios Georgios D. , Zintzaras Elias
Published: July 2009

Genome‐wide investigations for identifying the genes for complex traits are considered to be agnostic in terms of prior assumptions for the responsible DNA alterations. The agreement of genome‐wide association studies (GWAS) and genome‐wide linkage scans (GWLS) has not been explored to date. In this study, a genomic convergence approach of GWAS and GWLS was implemented for the first time in order to identify genomic loci supported by both methods. A database with 376 GWLS and 102 GWAS for 19 complex traits was created. Data regarding the location and statistical significance for each genetic marker were extracted from articles or web‐based databases. Convergence was quantified as the proportion of significant GWAS markers located within linked regions. Convergence was variable (0–73.3%) and was found to be significantly higher than expected by chance only for two of the 19 phenotypes. Seventy five loci of interest were identified, which being supported by independent lines of evidence, could merit prioritization in future investigations. Although convergence is supportive of genuine effects, lack of agreement between GWLS and GWAS is also indicative that these studies are designed to answer different questions and are not equally well suited for deciphering the genetics of complex traits.
Analysis of intraindividual and intraspecific variation in semicircular canal dimensions using high‐resolution x‐ray computed tomography
Authors: Welker Kelli L. , Orkin Joseph D. , Ryan Timothy M.
Published: July 2009

The semicircular canal system tracks head rotation and provides sensory input for the reflexive stabilization of gaze and posture. The purpose of this study was to investigate the intraspecific and intraindividual variation in the size of the three semicircular canals. The right and left temporal bones were extracted from 31 individuals of the short‐tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) and scanned on a high‐resolution x‐ray computed tomography system. The radius of curvature was calculated for each of the three semicircular canals for each side. Paired t‐tests and independent sample t‐tests indicated no significant differences in canal size between the right and left canals of the same individuals or between those of males and females of the same species. Pearson product moment correlation analyses demonstrated that there was no significant correlation between canal size and body mass in this sample.
Dimensions of forelimb muscles in orangutans and chimpanzees
Authors: Oishi Motoharu , Ogihara Naomichi , Endo Hideki , Ichihara Nobutsune , Asari Masao
Published: July 2009

Eight forelimbs of three orangutans and four chimpanzees were dissected and the muscle mass, fascicle length and physiological cross‐sectional area (PCSA) of all forelimb muscles were systematically recorded to explore possible interspecies variation in muscle dimensions. Muscle mass and PCSA were divided by the total mass and total PCSA of the entire forelimb muscles for normalization. The results indicate that the mass and PCSA ratios of the monoarticular elbow flexors (M. brachialis and M. brachioradialis) are significantly larger in orangutans. In contrast, the mass ratios of the biarticular muscles in the upper arm (the short head of M. biceps brachii and the long head of M. triceps brachii) are significantly larger in chimpanzees. For the rotator cuff muscles, the force‐generating capacity of M. subscapularis is significantly larger in orangutans, whereas the opposite rotator cuff muscle, M. infraspinatus, is larger in chimpanzees. These differences in forelimb muscle dimensions of the two species may reflect functional specialization for their different positional and locomotor behaviors.
Psychological vulnerability in children next‐born after stillbirth: a case–control follow‐up study
Authors: Turton Penelope , Badenhorst William , Pawlby Susan , White Sarah , Hughes Patricia
Published: July 2009

Background:  Case studies and anecdotal accounts suggest that perinatal loss may impact upon other children in the family, including those born subsequent to loss. However, there is a dearth of systematically collected quantitative data on this potentially vulnerable group.

Methods:  Case‐controlled follow‐up of 52 mothers with history of stillbirth with their next‐born children aged 6–8 years, and 51 control mother–child dyads. Previously reported baseline data included maternal antenatal and postnatal psychological assessment, and infant security of attachment at 12 months. Follow‐up assessments included maternal psychiatric and socio‐demographic data, mother and teacher‐rated scales of the child’s strengths and difficulties, child IQ, observer‐rated mother–child interaction and maternal reports of child health.

Results:  There were no significant between‐group differences in child cognitive or health assessments, or in teacher‐rated child difficulties. However, mothers with history of stillbirth (the index group) reported increased child difficulties, in particular peer problems, and more adverse interaction was observed in respect of higher levels of maternal criticism of the child’s actions, more overall controlling behaviour by the mother, a less harmonious emotional atmosphere and a lower level of maternal engagement with the child. Some of these effects appeared to be mediated by maternal perinatal psychological symptoms and family breakdown.

Conclusions:  This study provides no evidence to suggest that siblings born after stillbirth are clinically at risk but does lend empirical support to clinical reports that such children are seen by their mothers as having problems and that they are exposed to less optimal interaction with their mothers. Possible interpretations of these findings are discussed in the context of theoretical accounts of ‘replacement child’ and ‘vulnerable child’ syndromes.
Dispersed versus gregarious nesting strategies in the mason bee Chalicodoma siculum
Authors: Hefetz A. , Tengo J.
Published: July 2009

Chalicodoma siculum (Rossi) is a mason bee that usually nests in dispersed sites, constructing spherical mud nests on twigs or hemispherical nests on hard surfaces. Under favourable conditions it may nest in aggregations of several hundred bees. At the nesting aggregation, nest usurpation often occurs, either by the laying of eggs in finished but unsealed cells, by opening a sealed cell and replacing its egg, or by taking over an unfinished cell. Mutual construction and provisioning of a single cell by several females was also often observed. Because participant bees display extreme aggression in prolonged disputes over cell ownership, these interactions can be regarded as competitive rather than cooperative. Moreover, since the total investment in such cells is not different from that in cells located in dispersed sites, the female that actually manages to lay an egg gains by participating in a cell under construction.

We discuss the advantages of nesting in aggregations vs. the risks of being usurped, as selective forces underlying nesting behaviour of bees.
Phylogenetic and haematological implications of differences in the morphology of the heterophil nucleus in reptiles
Authors: Blofield B. A. , Short L. , Samour H. J. , Ball D. , Hawkey C. M.
Published: July 2009

The shape of the nucleus of blood heterophils was examined in 67 reptilian species. Two distinct forms of nucleus were found, either unlobed or lobed. In all species of Chelonia, Crocodylia and Serpentes examined the heterophil nucleus was unlobed whereas, in the Lacertilia, unlobed nuclei were found in the anguinomorph families Anguidae, Helodermatidae and Varanidae but lobed nuclei occurred in the heterophils of the scincomorph families Scincidae, Cordylida, Teiidae and Lacertidae and in the more primitive lacertilian families Iguanidae, Agamidae, Gekkonidae and Chamaeleonidae. These differences have been related to possible phylogenetic, morphological and haematological factors.
The effect of hybridization on mandible morphology in an island population of the house mouse
Authors: Scraven P. N. , Bauchau V.
Published: July 2009

In April 1982, house mice from the Island of Eday (Orkney) were introduced on to the Isle of May (Firth of Forth, Scotland) (Berry, Triggs, King, Nash & Noble, 1991). This provided an opportunity to study hybridization between morphologically distinct populations of the house mouse. Significant changes due to inherited factors were found after only 18 months. Good agreement was found between single gene loci (represented by allozyme data) and morphology of the mandible). Canonical discriminant analysis separated the samples quite clearly (F= 139.9, P<0.01) with highly significant Mahalanobis generalized distances (P<0.01). Principal component analysis clearly resolved size (F = 53.0, P<0.01) and shape (F = 68.3, P<0.01) differences between the samples and showed post‐introduction mice were significantly larger than Eday and pre‐introduction May mice, and intermediate in mandible shape. The size difference is a multivariate indication of heterosis. The shape differences described the coronoid process and incisor region. Average post‐introduction mice were 6–8% larger than the average Eday‐May mid‐parent value. Multivariate post‐introduction mandible variances were significantly greater than pre‐introduction variances (Sn2: F = 2.19, P<0.01). Of the total post‐introduction mandible variation, 54% was due to genetic differences. Allozyme and mandible shape data are in good agreement. A hybrid index using six blood allozymes (devised to investigate introgression at the level of individual mice), Nei's genetic distance calculated with 19 allozyme loci, and mandible shape, placed post‐introduction May mice precisely mid‐way between Eday and pre‐introduction May. Post introduction mice were more variable electrophoretically and morphologically than pre‐introduction May mice. This study shows unequivocally that hybridization can be a considerable factor in the differentiation of natural populations.
The influence of variation in larval period on adult cranial diversity in Pelobates fuscus (Anura: Pelobatidae)
Authors: Smirnov S. V.
Published: July 2009

The timing and sequence of cranial ossification was studied in Pelobates fuscus tadpoles differing in the rate of their larval development. Laboratory‐reared animals, obtained from one egg mass, were examined. Some of the tadpoles metamorphosed during the first summer (normally developing tadpoles), whereas others prolonged the timing of their larval development into a second year or even later (slowly developing tadpoles). In slowly developing tadpoles the timing and sequence of cranial ossification differ in many respects from those occurring in normally developing tadpoles. Thus (a) ossification of some bones commences earlier and (b) there are some anachronisms in the sequence of ossification. As a whole, different cranial elements respond differently to prolongation of larval development. Bones which arise early in normal ontogeny (parasphenoid, frontoparietals, prootics, exoccipitals and interparietal) have a lengthened period of morphological differentiation and growth when larval development is prolonged. Consequently they show hypermorphosis in the adult with a profound effect on adult cranial morphology. Other ossifications, whose origin and growth are associated with the final metamorphic event (the transformation of the larval into the adult jaw mechanism), show no evident changes in the timing of their origin relative to somatic development.

Another mechanism for altering adult morphology in animals with prolonged larval development results from the dissociation between somatic and sexual development. While somatic development in slowly developing tadpoles is very retarded and their external morphology may show no change during a large part of the larval stage, the generative system continues to develop. This situation produces tadpoles with premetamorphic somatic morphology but with almost mature generative organs. These tadpoles retain the ability to metamorphose and consequently they may transform into sexually mature animals with juvenile (early postmetamorphic) somatic morphology, i.e. into neotenic animals. In some specimens early‐originating cranial bones may be hypermorphosed whereas cranial elements normally arising in late metamorphic stages, or after metamorphosis is complete, are subject to paedomorphic reduction and under‐development.

It is concluded that wide individual variation in the rate of larval development may account, at least in part, for the occurrence of intraspecific variability in anuran cranial morphology (e.g. in Pelobates syriacus).
The magnetic compass orientation of the burrows of the Damara mole‐rat Cryptomys damarensis (Bathyergidae)
Authors: Lovegrove Barry G. , Körtner Günter , Körtner Gerhard
Published: July 2009

In response to reports claiming that part of the ability of mole‐rats (Bathyergidae) to orientate with respect to the geomagnetic field involves orientation of their burrow systems in a southward direction, we measured the orientation of burrows of the Damara mole‐rat, Cryptomys damarensis, in the Kalahari Desert. It was found that burrow orientation was not significantly different from that expected for a random distribution of compass orientations.
Breeding energetics and food requirements of gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) at Heard and Macquarie Islands
Authors: Gales R. , Green B. , Libke J. , Newgrain K. , Pembertion D.
Published: July 2009

The food and energy requirements of breeding gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) were studied at Heard and Macquaric Islands by means of isotope turnover techniques.

The food consumption rates of chicks were measured at various stages of growth, providing estimates of the total food provided by adults to rear a chick to fledging.

The energy expenditures of attending adults were also measured at different stages of chick‐rearing, allowing the total energy costs associated with breeding to be established for a pair of adults and at the population level on both islands. We estimate the total annual energy budget of a 6·2 kg breeding gentoo penguin to be 1517 MJ which is equivalent to the consumption of 292 kg prey.