bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of Foraging Enrichment on the Behaviour of Parrots
Authors: Coulton L E , Waran N K , Young R J
Published: January 2023

The purpose of this study was to enrich parrot enclosures by creating foraging opportunities appropriate for the species and to investigate the possible preference for a variable versus a constant food supply. The foraging device comprised of a length of wood (2×0.08×0.08m) with 50 holes (0.02m diameter x 0,02m depth) drilled into one face. Food was placed in the holes of the foraging device in one of two distributions: ‘constant’, one food item in every hole (total = 50 food items) or ‘variable’, 5 food items in 10 of the holes (total = 50 food items). The holes were then covered with starch paper. During the enrichment period the parrots spent significantly more time allopreening than in the baseline or post-enrichment periods. The results also provide some evidence of contrafreeloading in parrots, but no preference for a variable over a constant food source. The study shows that providing extra foraging opportunities for parrots is a useful form of enrichment.
Illuminating Issues of Companion Animal Welfare Through Research into Human-Animal Interactions
Authors: Podberscek A L
Published: January 2023

Companion or pet animals are an integral part of many societies. Ownership rates of at least one pet for every two households (50%) have been reported in numerous countries, including the UK (Pet Food Manufacturers’ Association 1996), The Netherlands (Endenburget al1990), Poland (Fogle 1994), the USA (Rowan 1992), France (Anon 1995a) and Australia (Anon 1995b). While on one hand the animals gain from their close association with humans by being sheltered, fed and loved, they can also suffer neglect, cruelty, abandonment, unnecessary euthanasia, and may develop behaviour problems. The quality of our relationships with these animals is indeed variable.
Effects of Winter Housing, Exercise, and Dietary Treatments on the Behaviour and Welfare of Red Deer (Cervus Elaphus) Hinds
Authors: Pollard J C , Littlejohn R P
Published: January 2023

To assess the welfare of red deer (Cervus elaphus) confined at pasture or in indoor housing over winter, behaviour, productivity, skin damage and adrenal response to ACTH challenge were measured in six groups of eight weaner hinds over 91 days from June to September 1990 in Otago, New Zealand. The hinds were confined either indoors (I), indoors with daily exercise (IE), or outdoors (O); (n - 2 groups to each treatment). All groups were fed concentrate ad libitum plus 100g lucerne head−1 day−1.

Indoor confinement was associated with a greater incidence of nosing/chewing other hinds, aggression, chewing of the enclosure, and closer distances between individuals, compared with outdoor confinement (P < 0.05). Ad libitum provision of hay over a 2-week period reduced the incidence of chewing of indoor enclosures (P <0.01). Weight gain was greater for indoor groups than outdoor groups in August and September (P <0.05) and overall weight gains for indoor groups (from two weeks into the study, until the end) were higher for the exercise treatment (P <0.05). Intake of concentrates did not differ significantly between treatments. Skin damage was greater for indoor than outdoor groups (P <0.05), and positively related to weight gain (P <0.01) and receiving aggression (P <0.01), which in turn was negatively related to liveweight (P < 0.001). A negative relationship was found between pre-challenge levels of plasma Cortisol and the number of aggressive interactions received (P < 0.05). Pre-challenge Cortisol was greater for IE than I (P < 0.05), and the increase in Cortisol post-challenge was greater for outdoor groups than indoor groups (P <0.01). Conclusions were that indoor confinement had a positive effect on weight gain, but increased aggression and skin damage, indicating that the deer were compromised socially. Provision of ample forage reduced chewing of the walls. The slightly greater weight gain in IE compared with I deserves further investigation.
Enriching the Lives of Zoo Animals, and Their Welfare: Where Research Can be Fundamental
Authors: Robinson M H
Published: January 2023

As zoos have evolved, conservation and conservation education have become primary tasks. To achieve the maximum educational impact, zoos are enriching animal habitats so that their occupants display a wide range of activities that are attractive to the visitor, and unattractive activities are eliminated and reduced. Because public perceptions of the attractiveness of animal behaviour may not coincide with welfare realities, there can be a tension between the requirements of desirable exhibits and those of maximally promoting animal welfare. Zoo animals differ from domesticated animals in human care in several respects. These differences are discussed and set in the context of the sometimes competing aims of enhancing welfare and promoting educational exhibits. An outline history of zoo enrichment programmes suggests that the subject is in need of systematization. The range of data available for improving zoo exhibit designs, and the lives of zoo animals, is reviewed. It is concluded that fundamental data on the environmental needs of many of the wild animals maintained in zoos are deficient in many important areas. Consequently, there is an urgent need to increase such research. Zoo habitats could be excellent places for such fundamental studies, which would feed back into field studies. At the same time, habitat enrichment in zoos cannot await such research and must proceed pragmatically using the range of insights described in this paper. In particular, functional substitution is advocated as a means of enrichment wherever this can be made acceptable to the broad public; its educational value in combatting naive anthropomorphism is stressed. Naturalism in enrichment is criticized as reinforcing anthropomorhisms, but is desirable for promoting global habitat conservation.
A Balance Device for the Analysis of Behavioural Patterns of the Mouse
Authors: Schlingmann F , Van de Weerd H A , Baumans V , Remie R , Van Zutphen LFM
Published: January 2023

A device for analysing mouse behaviour which is based on recording the movements of the animal in a balance test cage has been developed. The amplitude patterns provoked by the movements of the animal correlate with behavioural patterns. The system not only allows differentiation between five behavioural categories: resting, grooming, eating, locomotion and climbing - but also indicates the location of the animal in its cage. Upon validation, the system has proven to be a reliable and time-saving device for the non-invasive recording of behavioural patterns in the mouse.
The Health, Haematology and Blood Biochemistry of Free-Ranging Farm Cats in Relation to Social Status
Authors: Macdonald D W , Yamaguchi N , Passanisi W C
Published: January 2023

In order to test the hypothesis that social parameters within carnivore societies are correlated with health status, a profile is presented of the general health, haematology and blood biochemistry of a colony of free-living feral farm cats (Felis silvestris catus). Samples and biochemical data were collected between late November and early December 1989. A higher proportion of adult males than females was found to be clinically abnormal. Social status (Central or Peripheral) had a significant effect on female mouth condition, but not on male mouth condition. Eosinophilia (34.6% of individuals), high fibrinogen levels (19.2%) and low haemoglobin levels (28.8%) were significantly more likely to occur in clinically abnormal than in clinically normal cats. Blood biochemistry varied with age and, among adults only, varied between the sexes. Haematological measurements varied significantly with age and sex. There were no haematological effects of social status in males, but in females social status affected reticulocyte, neutrophil, eosinophil and white blood cell (WBC) counts. We interpret variation in health and haematology in terms of the differences in social status and reproductive tactics.
The Welfare of Slaughter Pigs During Transport
Authors: Warriss P D
Published: January 2023

The welfare of transported pigs can be compromised both by physical and psychological stresses. The animals’ responses can be assessed using records of mortality and trauma, physiological and behavioural observations and, to some degree, by measurements of meat quality since this can reflect the animals' physiological state at death. These assessments may, therefore, be used as measures of animal welfare. During transport pigs show weight loss, increased circulating concentrations of catecholamines, Cortisol and creatine phosphokinase (CPK), and an increase in heart rate and packed cell volume; sometimes there is evidence of dehydration. Increased levels of dark, firm, dry (DFD)meat after long transport reflect muscle glycogen depletion and possibly indicate some element of fatigue. There is experimental evidence that transport is aversive to pigs, which may be partially due to the fact that they become travel sick. Mortality in transport has ranged from < 0.1 to > 1.0 per cent in different European countries. Mortality is higher in more stress-susceptible breeds and at higher ambient temperatures. It is increased in pigs fed within 4h of transport, at higher stocking densities and after longer journeys at ambient temperatures greater than 10°C. Pigs may be fasted long enough before slaughter to prejudice their welfare through hunger. Long fasts may also reduce muscle glycogen levels and cause fatigue. Fighting between unfamiliar animals which have been mixed during the marketing procedure is also stressful, however, longer transport may actually reduce this problem by allowing animals to get used to one another under conditions in which it is difficult to fight.
Socialization and Stress in Cats (Felis Silves Tris Catvs) Housed Singly and in Groups in Animal Shelters
Authors: Kessler M R , Turner D C
Published: January 2023

Single- and group-housing conditions for cats in animal shelters represent spatially and socially very different housing types. This study investigated whether the socialization of the cat towards conspecifics and people influences adaptation to these two housing types. Socialization towards conspecifics and people was determined in 169 rescued cats by means of two behavioural tests and a socialization questionnaire. Stress levels of the cats in the single- and group-housing condition were recorded by the non-invasive Cat-Stress-Score. Cats which were non-socialized towards conspecifics (n-SC) were more stressed than cats socialized towards conspecifics (SC) in the group enclosure. During the first hour and on days 6 and 7 in the observation cage, the n-SC were significantly less stressed under the single-than under the group-housing condition. The other members of the group had a higher stress level when a n-SC entered the group than if the new cat was a SC. Among the SC, there was no detectable difference in stress levels between the single-and group-housing condition. Cats which were non-socialized towards people (n-SP) were more stressed than cats socialized towards people (SP) during the whole stay under both single- and group-housing conditions.

It was concluded that n-SC should be held under single-housing conditions in animal shelters. For SC both the single- and group-housing condition are equally recommended for stays of a few weeks. For n-SP, stays in animal shelters should be avoided because of their high stress levels.
Part-Time Fostering by a Pair of Black and White Ruffed Lemurs (Varecia Variegata Variegata)
Authors: Kerridge F J
Published: January 2023

Twin infant black and white ruffed lemurs, male and female, were fostered on a part-time basis, in conjunction with hand-rearing, with an adult pair who were highly related to them. The adult female showed allomaternal behaviour towards the twins, although she did not attempt to suckle them. The adult male ignored the twins for the first few weeks but as they became more mobile and playful he frequently initiated play with one or both. Growth rates showed a significant trend when compared with parentally raised and hand-reared infants, with the fostered twins growing at rates intermediate between those found under the two other rearing methods. Fostering of rejected infants as a captive management strategy is advocated as an alternative to traditional hand-rearing techniques because of the welfare advantages to both infants and foster parents.
Allowing Captive Marmosets to Choose the Size and Position of Their Nest Box
Authors: Hosey G R , Jacques M , Burton M
Published: January 2023

Preferences for nest box size and position were tested in two groups of common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus jacchus. In a pre-test phase two, new, wooden nest boxes were introduced to each group alongside their old metal one, so that the animals could become familiar with them, and so that any pre-existing preference could be identified. In successive experiments: i) the old metal nest box was closed so that the marmosets had to choose a preferred box from the two new nest boxes; ii) the size of the preferred nest box was systematically reduced; and iii) in one of the groups the reduced nest box was restored to full size, but its position interchanged with the non-preferred box. In a further experiment, the position of the preferred, and then of the non-preferred box was raised to the highest point in the cage. The marmosets showed strong positional preferences which could not have been predicted without performing the tests. One of the groups also showed a strong preference for the high nest box. It was concluded that marmosets may exhibit preferences for their cage furniture, the basis of which may not be clear to us. These preferences should, however, be taken into account when designing cages to maximize the welfare of the animals.
Tower of Babel: Variation in Ethical Approaches, Concepts of Welfare and Attitudes to Genetic Manipulation
Authors: Appleby M C
Published: January 2023

Attitudes to animal biotechnology are diverse, partly because people have different viewpoints and often do not recognize or acknowledge this to be so. First, people adopt different ethical approaches. If an opponent of genetic manipulation says’ I don't like the idea of altering animals ‘biology’ and a proponent replies’… but it is useful’, they are failing to communicate, because one is asking whether the action is right or wrong, whereas the other emphasizes the consequences. Another approach focuses on the person carrying out the action. Many people have hybrid views combining elements of these different approaches. Second, people ‘s concepts of welfare vary, emphasizing animal minds, bodies or natures - or a combination of these. A proponent who argues that a particular genetic change will not cause suffering is unlikely to reassure an opponent who puts more emphasis on naturalness than on feelings or health. An improved dialogue, in which people attempt to understand one another's viewpoints, may enable common principles to be established and practical measures to be taken that enable more cooperation in attempts to improve both human and animal welfare.
The Welfare Problems Associated with Using Transgenic Mice to Bioassay for Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
Authors: Jenkins E S , Combes R D
Published: January 2023

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders, epitomized by the recent bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) epidemic in cattle and the emergence of a novel variant of Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (vCJD) in humans. In prion disease, the agent of infection is believed to be composed of proteinaceous particles, termed prions, which are converted from a normal isoform into a pathogenic isoform during pathogenesis. A bioassay to detect pathogenic prions of BSE in bovine products consumed by humans was unattainable until the development of transgenic mice, due to the significantly lower susceptibility of wild-type mice to BSE. Transgenic mice have now been generated which express the bovine prion protein and are susceptible to BSE. Following an intracerebral injection with brain homogenate of BSE-infected cattle, transgenic mice develop numerous clinical signs of prion disease, including truncal ataxia (inability to coordinate the torso's muscular activity), increased tone of the tail, generalized tremor, and lack of a forelimb extensor response.

In this study, the ethical score system devised by Porter (1992) was applied to the BSE bioassay as a tool for identifying welfare issues affecting animals used in the bioassay. We acknowledge that there are limitations to the use of the information arising from the application of the Porter scoring scheme for assessing the justification to proceed with any animal experiment; notwithstanding these problems, however, our application of the Porter model to the BSE bioassay enabled us to identify potential targets for refinement: pain involved, duration of distress and the duration of the experiment. This was despite lenient scoring for the duration of distress and pain experienced by the mice, and optimal scoring for the quality of animal care. The targets identified for refinement are discussed in relation to the method of inoculation, the duration of the bioassay, and the duration of the clinical phase, with the objective of exploring ways of reducing the severity of the bioassay.
Enrichment Value of Wooden Blocks for Farmed Blue Foxes(Alopex Lagopus)
Authors: Korhonen H , Niemelä P
Published: January 2023

The barren housing conditions of farmed blue foxes(Alopex lagopus)provide few stimuli to motivate exploration and interaction with the physical environment. In the present study, wooden blocks (30x7 cm [lxdia]) were employed to clarify how such inanimate objects might serve to enrich the barren wire-mesh cages. Two separate experiments were carried out. In experiment 1, behavioural reactions of eight male blue foxes to wooden blocks were videotaped between January and May. In experiment 2, 16 male blue foxes were housed singly in cages with wooden blocks and 16 without between January and June. Pencil, confrontation, feeding and open field tests were carried out. Furthermore, 50 female blue foxes were kept singly in cages with wooden blocks and 49 without from January to July. Both groups were bred and the whelping result was recorded. In-cage behavioural tests were performed three times. Results showed that interactions with the wooden blocks were frequent, averaging 77 interactions fox’1day1. Interactions with blocks decreased slightly with time. Blocks were mainly used for carrying, chewing, poking and sniffing. In the confrontation test, male foxes housed without blocks were more passive than those with blocks. No differences were found between the groups in the pencil, feeding or open field tests. Whelping success tended to be better for vixens housed with than without blocks. It can be concluded that wooden blocks have enrichment value by providing more choices for foxes in a barren cage and stimulating more variable behaviour.
Modulation of Aggression in Male Mice: Influence of Cage Cleaning Regime and Scent Marks
Authors: Van Loo P L P , Kruitwagen C L J J , Van Zutphen L F M , Koolhaas J M , Baumans V
Published: January 2023

Group housing of male laboratory mice often leads to welfare problems due to aggressive behaviour. From a welfare perspective, individual housing is not a preferred solution to these problems - and so we sought other ways of reducing aggression between male mice. Aggression peaks after disturbances such as cage cleaning. Transfer of olfactory cues during cage cleaning procedures has been repeatedly proposed as a means of reducing these peaks in aggression. In this study, the aggression-modulating properties of olfactory cues were studied by investigating the effects of their source and distribution on aggression after cage cleaning in groups of male BALB/c mice. The physiological effects of aggression on individuals within a group were also monitored.

Our results indicated that neither kinship nor distribution of urine marks affected aggression. Olfactory cues from nesting and bedding material, however, affected aggression to a marked degree: transfer of nesting material reduced aggression significantly, while transfer of sawdust containing urine and faeces seemed to intensify aggression. None of the physiological data revealed any differences between dominant and subordinate animals, nor any correlations with aggressiveness, except that dominant animals gained weight more rapidly than subordinate ones. We conclude that the transfer of nesting material will reduce aggression, or at least slow down its development, and thus aid the reduction of social tension due to cage cleaning.
A Framework for Assessing the Suitability of Different Species as Companion Animals
Authors: Schuppli C A , Fraser D
Published: January 2023

Municipal regulations and humane movement policies often restrict or discourage the use of ‘exotic’ species as companion animals. However, confusion arises because the term ‘exotic’ is used in various ways, and because classifying species as exotic or non-exotic does not satisfactorily distinguish suitable from unsuitable companion animals. Even among commonly kept species, some appear to be much more suitable than others. Instead, decisions about suitable companion animal species need to be based on a number of relevant issues. As ethical criteria, we considered that keeping a companion animal should not jeopardize - and ideally should enhance - its welfare, as well as that of its owner; and that keeping a companion animal should not incur any appreciable harm or risk of harm to the community or the environment. These criteria then served as the basis for identifying and organizing the various concerns that may arise over keeping a species for companionship. Concerns include how the animals are procured and transported, how well their needs can be met in captivity, whether the animal poses any danger to others, and whether the animal might cause environmental damage. These concerns were organized into a checklist of questions that form a basis for assigning species to five proposed categories reflecting their suitability as companion animals. This assessment framework could be used in creating policy or regulations, and to create educational and decision-making tools for pet retailers, animal adoption workers, and potential owners, to help prevent animals from being placed in unsuitable circumstances.
The Effect of Environmental Enrichment on Learning in Pigs
Authors: Sneddon I A , Beattie V E , Dunne L , Neil W
Published: January 2023

This study examined the effects of enriching the environment on the learning abilities of growing pigs. Eighty-four pigs were housed in either barren or enriched environments from birth to 14 weeks. The barren environments were defined as intensive housing and the enriched environments incorporated extra space, including areas which contained peat and straw in a rack. The learning abilities of pigs from both environments were tested at 15-17 weeks using an operant task which involved pigs learning to push a panel for a reward and a maze test which involved spatial learning. Pigs from enriched environments learned both the operant task and the maze task more rapidly than their counterparts from barren environments. These results suggest that the cognitive development of pigs may be impaired in intensive housing systems.
Effects of Group Housing in an Enlarged Cage System on Growth, Bite Wounds and Adrenal Cortex Function in Farmed Blue Foxes(Alopex Lagopus)
Authors: Ahola L , Harri M , Kasanen S , Mononen J , Pyykönen T
Published: January 2023

It has been claimed that the present farming environment does not meet foxes’ needs for social behaviour. In this study we measured the welfare of farmed blue foxes,Alopex lagopus, housed in two different social and spatial conditions: i) traditional housing (group T) where a male and a female cub were housed together and their vixen alone in standard (1.2m2) fox cages; and ii) family housing (group F) where a vixen and her five cubs were housed together in a connected six-cage system (7.2m2). Production-related welfare parameters (weight gain and the incidence of bite wounds on fur) as well as physiological ones (adrenal mass and serum Cortisol response to ACTH administration) were measured in these two groups.

No differences were found in any of the measured parameters between the vixens housed in traditional and family units. In cubs, there was less difference between the sexes in weight gain in group F than in group T, and a significantly lower weight gain was evident only in group T female cubs. The serum Cortisol level in response to an ACTH challenge was higher in group T cubs and independent of the sex of the animal, while heavier adrenals were observed in group T male cubs only. We conclude that the enlarged cage system combined with group housing had some beneficial effects on the measured performance- and welfare-related indicators in blue fox cubs.
Environmental Enrichment Reduces the Performance of Stereotypic Circling Behaviour in Captive Common Seals (Puoca Vitulina)
Authors: Grindrod J A E , Cleaver J A
Published: January 2023

The captive environment is often barren, predictable and under-stimulating so that the behavioural needs of animals in captivity may be thwarted. The welfare of animals may be compromised, which can result in the expression of abnormal behaviours. Stereotypic behaviours, such as the circling or pacing behaviour observed in captive pinnipeds, may become apparent. A simple, cheap and effective method of adding complexity to a captive environment is the use of environmental enrichment techniques. A number of enrichment devices were used in this study, focusing primarily on occupying more time in feeding/foraging behaviours of common seals,Phoca vitulina. The performance of stereotypic circling behaviour was significantly reduced during the enrichment period, suggesting it had improved the welfare of all the animals in this study.
Reducing Equine Stereotypies Using an Equiball™
Authors: Henderson J V , Waran N K
Published: January 2023

It is believed that environmental enrichment techniques can play an important part in creating suitable captive environments for horses. There has, however, been little scientific investigation into the effectiveness of ‘stable-toys’ which claim to reduce the performance of equine stereotypies. This study investigated the effect of a foraging device known as ‘The Equiball™’ on equine stereotypies. Six horses were given their evening feed in an Equiball, and the occurence of stereotypic behaviour recorded using scan sampling of video observations. Pre-enrichment, horses spent a mean (± SD) of 5.27 ± 8.17 per cent of their time in the stable performing stereotypies; and significant individual variation in mean time performing stereotypic behaviour was found (P < 0.05). Several peaks in stereotypy over the day were found, the two main ones corresponding to the times before feeding. A reduction in stereotypic behaviour in five horses, and a small increase in stereotypic behaviour in one horse was observed during enrichment. During enrichment, there was an overall trend for stereotypic behaviour to decrease (P < 0.1). When used in conjunction with other measures such as behaviour therapy, companionship, increased exercise, and so on, the Equiball may help to create an environment less likely to lead to the development of stereotypic behaviours.
Deer hunting and welfare
Authors: Marriage Edmund
Published: January 2023

Sir, Bradshaw and Bateson (2000a) wrote ‘overall we judge that the welfare costs associated with hunting red deer were higher than those associated with stalking and reducing the welfare costs associated with hunting was much less feasible than reducing those associated with stalking’. Others have reached the opposite conclusion (eg Harriset al[1999]; Wise [1999]; and submissions by Geist, Denny and Marriage to the Burns Inquiry and recorded in the CD published with Burnset al[2000]). Savageet al(1993) concluded that the communal hunting methods which regard the deer as a valued and respected quarry species, should lie at the heart of the management of the herds.
Animal Consciousness, Cognition and Welfare
Authors: Kirkwood J K , Hubrecht R
Published: January 2023

The level of priority and resource given to the care of organisms is influenced by beliefs and understanding about their capacities for conscious awareness. Variation in attitudes to animal welfare around the world today is partly a reflection of this. Improved understanding of the range of phenomena of which animals may be conscious is likely to lead to greater global consensus about the importance of high standards of animal welfare. This is a matter of current relevance. In the global free market there is a danger that efforts in one country to raise standards for farm or laboratory animals will be compromised by competition from others which employ cheaper, less welfare-friendly systems. Scientific developments which inform us about animals’ capacities for pleasant and unpleasant feelings will play an important role in the development of global agreement about animal welfare standards. Deciding which animals might have the capacity for consciousness, and thus for suffering, and of what they might be conscious, are fundamental issues which set boundaries to the ranges of species to be given basic or special forms of welfare protection. In practice, such lines have to be drawn and it is crucial that they are drawn in the right place. This is a difficult but essential task and society looks to scientists for guidance on the matter. There have been many developments in recent years in scientific approaches to the study of consciousness in animals which are pertinent to this debate.
Are Animals Capable of Deception or Empathy? Implications for Animal Consciousness and Animal Welfare
Authors: Kuczaj S , Tranel K , Trone M , Hill H
Published: January 2023

Awareness of the self and awareness of others are difficult faculties to define. Part of the problem lies in the wide range of abilities that involve various aspects of awareness. Some of the most commonly studied abilities focus on the self-awareness of the individual. These abilities range from the capacity to distinguish self from non-self to the competency to reflect on one's past, present or future condition. Another set of abilities that is relevant to the study of awareness involves the interactions of individuals, and includes behaviours such as deception and empathy. We explore the possibility that species other than humans engage in deception and empathy, and consider the implications of such behaviours for self-awareness and other-awareness in these species. Although examples from a variety of species are provided, many examples come from dolphins and whales. This reflects both the authors’ interest in these animals and the possibility that large-brained creatures are more likely to engage in deliberate deception and/or true empathy.
Behavioural Reactivity Affected by Chronic Stress: An Experimental Approach in Calves Submitted to Environmental Instability
Authors: Boissy A , Veissier I , Roussel S
Published: January 2023

Whereas physiological and behavioural responses to acute stressors are well documented, chronic stress remains difficult to assess in farm animals. The aim of the present paper is to investigate whether calves’ behavioural reactions to acute events are modified during chronic intermittent stress. Thirty-two calves housed in pairs were used. For half of the calves the partner and the pen were changed once a week for 14 weeks (regrouped calves) while the others remained unchanged (controls). Four behavioural tests were performed to assess calves’ reactivity to novel or sudden events, to predator cues and to restraint. In the water spray test, regrouped calves were startled more often. In the umbrella test, regrouped calves took a longer time to feed in front of the closed umbrella but no differences between the two treatments were observed on opening the umbrella. In the dog test, regrouped calves moved more and looked at the dog more often. In the restraint test, regrouped calves were more agitated. These differences disappeared when the tests were repeated. In conclusion, repeated changes in the social and physical environment of calves enhances their behavioural reactivity to novelty. This is likely to make them more adaptive to potential changes in their environment.
Emotion and Successful Learning in Cattle
Authors: Hagen K , Broom D M
Published: January 2023

It has been suggested that, during instrumental learning, animals are likely to react emotionally to the reinforcer. However, they may in addition react emotionally to their own achievements. Such reactions would be of interest in the context of the animal's capacity for self-awareness. We therefore devised a learning experiment to disentangle emotional reactions to a food reward and to own learning in young cattle.
The Occurrence of Tail Tip Alterations in Fattening Bulls Kept Under Different Husbandry Conditions
Authors: Schrader L , Roth H-R , Winterling C , Brodmann N , Langhans W , Geyer H , Graf B
Published: January 2023

Pathological alterations of the tail tip are a severe problem for fattening cattle husbandry with respect to animal welfare and economic losses. We compared the frequencies of tail tip lesions and less severe skin damage in bulls on farms with slatted-floor pens (slat, n = 10), slatted floor pens with prophylactic tail docking (slat/dock, n = 9), and deep bedding pens (straw, n = 10). In addition, the subjects’ weight, their space allotment and the season of the year were determined to test whether they were related to the frequency of tail tip lesions and skin damage. Results are based on 8782 tail inspections in 764 pens. The frequency of the more severe tail tip lesions was highest in slat farms, less high in slat/dock farms, and lowest in straw farms. However, the incidence of the less severe skin damage was highest in slat farms, less high in straw farms, and lowest in slat/dock farms. The frequency of tail tip lesions increased with the weight of bulls in slat and slat/dock farms, but not in straw farms. In addition, in slat and slat/dock farms the incidence of tail tip lesions increased with a decreasing space allotment. The frequency of skin damage increased with increasing weight of bulls in each housing condition. The effect of weight on the number of tail tip lesions and skin damage was stronger in autumn, ie the period following the warm season, compared to spring. Our results suggest that a soft floor and an enlarged space allotment are the most suitable means of preventing tail tip lesions in fattening bulls. Prophylactic tail docking can reduce the occurrence of tail tip lesions only to a lesser degree and may impair the animals’ welfare.
The Effect of Exercise Deprivation on the Behaviour and Physiology of Straight Stall Confined Pregnant Mares
Authors: Houpt K , Houpt T R , Johnson J L , Erb H N , Yeon S C
Published: January 2023

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the welfare of pregnant mares kept in straight stalls and given only limited exercise, conditions that are similar to those encountered in the pregnant mare urine industry. Sixteen pregnant mares (eight in each of two years) were randomly assigned to two groups: Ex (exercised in a paddock for 30 min per day) or NoEx (exercised for one 30 min period every 14 days). The horses were housed in straight (or ‘tie’) stalls for six months and hadad libitumaccess to grass hay. Each horse's behaviour was recorded on videotape once per week for 24 h. The major behaviours were eating hay, standing, and stand-resting (head down and one hind limb flexed). There was no difference between the behaviours or the number of foot lifts per min of the Ex and NoEx groups in their stalls. Nine of 16 mares were not observed in recumbency throughout the whole of the six-month observation period, suggesting that horses with no previous experience in straight stalls may be reluctant to lie down. Thirteen of 16 mares dropped to their knees at least once, probably when they were REM sleeping while standing. There were no significant differences between the Ex and the NoEx mares in baseline plasma Cortisol levels or in Cortisol response to ACTH. Following 30 min of exercise, NoEx mares showed an increase in Cortisol from 5.0 to 5.4 μg dL−1, whereas Ex mares showed a decrease from 4.6 to 3.6 µg dL−1. The NoEx horses that had been confined for two weeks trotted more (NoEx = 22 [6-38; median and range]% of time; Ex = 2.4 [0-8.7]%) and galloped more (NoEx = 6 [2-8]%; Ex = 0 [0-4]%) than the Ex that were released daily, but walked less (NoEx = 17 [10-26]%; Ex = 35 [20-40]%) and grazed less (NoEx = 0%; Ex = 3 [0-12]%). Confined horses show rebound locomotion — that is, a compensatory increase — when released from confinement, indicating a response to exercise deprivation.
Some Comments on the Review of Nimon and Broom on the Welfare of Farmed Mink
Authors: Vinke C M
Published: January 2023

Fur-farming is a politically sensitive issue today. Therefore, discussions on the welfare situation of commercially farmed fur animals may be particularly valuable. The aim of this Short Communication is to address some issues, in addition to those covered in the review of Nimon and Broom on the welfare of farmed mink (Animal Welfare 1999, 8: 205-228), that may have received too little attention. This Short Communication addresses domestication and animal welfare, indispensable resources and behaviours of farmed mink, and the use of negative and positive indicators of welfare in research on farmed mink.
Assessing Pain in Animals
Authors: Rutherford K M D
Published: January 2023

Assessing the experience of pain in animals is a difficult task, yet one that is important in animal welfare research. Some approaches to pain assessment in animals are reviewed here. General qualities of pain scales and specific parameters suitable for clinical and experimental pain assessments are discussed. It is argued that pain assessment will progress through an integration of objective and subjective observations of behaviour coupled with multiple measures in various other areas. Such multidimensional pain scales allow an adequate characterisation of the complexity of an individual animal's pain experience to be made. This knowledge improves the recognition and treatment of pain and will allow informed moral debate on the acceptability of practices such as castration and tail-docking of lambs.
Welfare of Male and Female Broiler Chickens in Relation to Stocking Density, as Indicated by Performance, Health and Behaviour
Authors: McLean J A , Savory C J , Sparks N H C
Published: January 2023

The purpose of this experiment was to provide information relevant to the current debate concerning the optimisation of terminal stocking density for commercial broiler production. In a modern, controlled-environment house with 24 floor pens (each 11.4 m2), 4020 day-old broilers (Ross 308) were allocated to three terminal (42 days) stocking densities (28, 34 and 40 kg m-2) x two sexes x four replicates, according to a randomised block design. Group sizes varied from 130 to 208. Husbandry conditions were in accordance with normal commercial practice. Performance and behaviour were measured systematically during each of the six weeks of life, and additional measurements were made of leg health and litter condition. Data were analysed using ANOVA to determine the effects of stocking density, sex and age. The realised mean terminal stocking densities were 28.2, 33.5 and 38.5 kg m2. The main significant effects of stocking density treatment were a linear decline in food intake with increasing density during week six (the final week), and a reduced proportion of time spent panting deeply during weeks five and six at the lowest density. Increased (shallow and deep) panting shown by females in weeks two to five suggests that if thermal discomfort becomes a problem at higher stocking densities later in the growing period, it may do so earlier in females. There was no conclusive evidence from this study that broiler welfare is compromised any more at 40 than at 34 kg m−2. The fact that the proportion of time spent panting deeply in week six was considerably lower at 28 kg m2 than at 34 and 40 kg m−2 suggests that thermal comfort (and hence welfare) at this age may be improved at densities of less than 34 kg m−2. However, the significant effects of age, age x density, and age x sex on time spent panting deeply suggest that the age at slaughter and the sex of birds in single-sex flocks should be taken into account in future considerations of optimal maximum terminal stocking density.
Effect of Access to Roughage and Shelter on Selected Behavioural Indicators of Welfare in Pigs Housed in a Complex Environment
Authors: Olsen A W , Simonsen H B , Dybkjær L
Published: January 2023

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of roughage and shelter on certain welfare indicators in growing pigs that have access to ample straw and space. The effects of the two treatments were evaluated both by recording the pigs’ use of the various areas of the pen and by measuring the frequency of two specific behaviours, ‘aggression’ and ‘play’, that are considered to be significant indicators of welfare in pigs. Seven replicates were used, each involving 96 pigs. The pigs were randomly allocated to eight experimental pens at 10 weeks of age, and were observed from 13 to 22 weeks of age. The two treatments, roughage and shelter, were distributed according to a 2 x 2 design in the pigs’ outdoor runs, four of which were located on each side of the barn (north side versus south side). The pigs spent most of their time in the straw-provided areas, and the frequency of their aggressive behaviour was also the highest in these areas, suggesting that these locations were the most attractive to the pigs. The pigs with access to roughage showed a lower frequency of aggression (P < 0.05) and spent more time in the outdoor area where the roughage was placed than those pigs with no access to roughage (P < 0.05). No other effects of treatment were found on the length of time spent in the different pen locations. Play frequency decreased with age (P < 0.05) and with increasing temperature (P < 0.01). Moreover, when housed on the south side of the building, the pigs with access to shelter played more than those without (2.0 versus 1.0 events per hour [SE = 0.3]; P < 0.05); this suggests that the opportunity to regulate the body temperature by use of shade results in improved welfare. In conclusion, the pigs’ behaviour indicated that their welfare was improved by free access to roughage and shelter.
Rapid Behavioural Adjustments to Unfavourable Light Conditions in European Starlings (Sturnus Vulgaris)
Authors: Maddocks S A , Bennett ATD , Cuthill IC
Published: January 2023

Although it is known that many birds possess ultraviolet (UV)-sensitive vision, most commercially housed poultry species, as well as species held in zoos, laboratories, or bred for show, are maintained under lighting that is deficient in UV wavelengths compared with normal daylight. UV-sensitive vision has been shown to be important in both foraging and mate-choice decisions. UV-poor conditions, in which information in this waveband is eliminated, could, therefore, present an important welfare issue. Eight European starlings were given a series of preference tests (eight hours per trial, for six days), in which they could choose to feed in one of four channels. Four experimental trials were carried out, during which the channels were covered in either UV-transmitting (UV+) or UV-blocking (UV-) filters, to determine whether birds had an initial preference for feeding in UV-rich environments and whether there was any change in their preference over time. There was an initial preference for the UV+ environment, but this preference declined very rapidly with familiarity, and was absent by the final trial. These results imply that starlings can rapidly adjust their feeding behaviour if faced with unfamiliar light environments and that any initial behavioural changes attributable to UV-deficient environments may be short-lived. However, further work is necessary to establish whether these adjustments occur across a range of species and contexts before any welfare concerns can be ruled out.
An Examination of Some Physiological Variables for Assessing the Welfare of Beef Cattle in Feedlots
Authors: Wilson S C , Fell L R , Colditz I G , Collins D P
Published: January 2023

Some physiological variables which could aid in assessing the welfare of beef cattle in feedlots were screened in this exploratory study. In two experiments, each of 42 days duration, the physiological responses ofBos taurussteers to three treatments were investigated: pasture (rotation between 1.5 hectare paddocks); a feedlot yard stocked at 12.0 m2per head with a dry, firm pen surface; and a ‘high-density’ feedlot yard stocked at 6.0 m2per head with a wet and muddy pen surface. Fourteen steers were used per group per experiment. Relative adrenal mass in both feedlot groups was 8-10% higher than in the pasture group, and this finding was supported by morphological measurements of the adrenal glands. Out of 17 immune variables examined, only serum IgA and the T-cell lymphocytes subpopulation WC+1 showed consistent differences between the feedlot and pasture groups. Interestingly, no differences were observed between the two feedlot treatments. It was concluded that although there may have been some disruption of epithelial/mucosal immunity, more support was required from other immune variables before it could be stated that the immune system was depressed and that pre-pathological states existed in the feedlot groups. However, measures of relative adrenal weight, adrenal index, serum IgA and WC1+ lymphocytes are good candidates for use in future welfare investigations of feedlot cattle.
Rats Demand Social Contact
Authors: Patterson-Kane E G , Hunt M , Harper D
Published: January 2023

There is some evidence that rats benefit from social housing and from some forms of environmental enrichment, such as platforms and shelters. It is less clear whether they benefit from more spacious cages. There is a lack of information about the relative benefits of social contact, enrichment and increased space, because existing studies tend to concentrate on only one of these variables at a time. The current experiment used economic demand procedures as a method to compare, on a single scale, qualitatively different environments with a standard home cage. The data indicate that rats show a high demand for social contact, and a low demand for a larger cage or one containing pillars or novel objects. This finding suggests that social housing of laboratory rats should be strongly advocated.
Animal Welfare and Ethics Evaluations in South East Asian Zoos: Procedures and Prospects
Authors: Agoramoorthy G
Published: January 2023

The rise in public interest in animal rights and welfare during the last two decades has been dramatic, and concern for zoo animals is evident throughout society in many South East Asian countries. It is essential that problems related to animal welfare are understood in order for zoos to make significant improvements in their professional and ethical standards. In this paper, I describe in detail the procedures of welfare and ethics evaluations in South East Asian zoos. Zoo evaluation is an ongoing process and is carried out on behalf of the South East Asian Zoos Association to evaluate the members of this organisation. During recent evaluations, several major and minor problems have been identified and constructive suggestions have been provided to zoo authorities which have in turn significantly improved the standards of animal welfare and ethics. Thus, the welfare evaluation procedures outlined in this paper could serve as a model for other zoos to follow — locally, regionally and globally.