bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Specialization, Trade, and Integration
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

What determines the degree of specialization in production and trade across member states within the EU? And how integrated is EU industrial produc tion? As the decomposition in the previous chapter made clear, there are two importantly different dimensions to integration: by trade and by international ownership. The integration of ownership is dealt with in later chapters on multinational enterprise. Here, our concern is with trade; and, given our focus on integration within the EU, this will be confined to intra-EU trade.1 A particular measure of intra-EU international specialization, SPEC, falls out of the Chapter 4 decomposition of European concentration, and this pro vides a convenient starting point for looking at the various dimensions of trade. In particular, we investigate the determinants of both inter-industry and intra-industry trade: both are aspects of trade integration, but they have dif-: ferent causes and different implications for the distribution of income (Krugman, 1981). For example, inter-industry trade, based on comparative advantage, reduces the real incomes of factors of production specialized in, or intensive in, the import-competing sector; but intra-industry trade, based on the exchange of products with similar manufacturing technologies (and factor intensities), has no such distributional problems. While both forms of trade improve the aggregate real income of the economy (or the variety of goods available), because of the distributional implications, they generate different political pressures.
Alternative Corporate Strategies: Multinationality versus Diversification
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

Previous chapters have explored two possible trade-offs in corporate strategy. In product space, there is the choice between expanding market share in a primary industry and diversificationinto other industries. In geographic space, the firm may grow by increasing its operations in its home country or by moving into multinational production. In this chapter, we straddle the two spaces, by asking whether multinationality and diversification are alternative routes to firm growth-are they complementary or substitutes? At the core of conventional explanations of diversification and multi nationality is the hypothesis that firm-specific assets are the driving force. The multinational firm is viewed as having some special advantage which it can only properly exploit in foreign markets by actuaUy producing in them. This might be some sort of managerial skill, but it is also frequently associated with product differentiation and/or technological know-how (e.g. Michelin’s steel radial tyre, Coca Cola’s strong brand image).
Introduction
Authors: Su Lin You
Published: October 2023

China, the world’s largest country, covers an enormous land area with a wide range of geographic conditions, though of the four countries covered in this book, it has by far the largest area subject to cold winters. China has been ruled by a Communist government since 1949, and the attitudes of this government towards urbanization have greatly influenced urbanization trends over this period.
Structural Change and Urbanization in Indonesia: From the ‘Old’ to the ‘New’ International Division of Labour
Authors: Douglass Mike
Published: October 2023

Indonesia’s economy shares many structural characteristics with other large countries of Asia. It has remained a substantially agrarian society throughout its post-independence era, with more than half the population working in or having employment dependent upon agriculture. Until very recently, the shift of employment away from agriculture has been moderate and has tended toward tertiary activities rather than the manufacturing sector, with the latter sector having among the lowest shares of employment in Asia.
Urban Housing and Infrastructure Provision and Financing in Indonesia
Authors: Koswara Mustaram
Published: October 2023

According to the 1990 population census, by 1990 the urban population of Indonesia had already reached over 55 million persons. Projections made by the National Urban Development Strategy (NUDS) project suggest that by the turn of the century urban population could well reach 76 million persons, representing about 36 per cent of the projected total and an average increment of over 2 million persons annually over the 1980-2000 period (NUDS 1985). Relating this to total population growth under the same set of projections implies that close to two thirds of all the population growth over this twenty-year period will accrue to urban areas.
Introduction
Authors: Visaria Pravin
Published: October 2023

India, with a population of nearly 846 million according to the 1991 census, is the second most populous country in the world. Its land area of 3.23 million km2 forms only 2.4 per cent of the total land on planet earth. Separated from central Asia by the Himalayas, it is dependent on the monsoon winds originating in the Indian ocean for rainfall which has a decisive impact on the productivity of its agriculture and the incomes of nearly 60 per cent of the workforce.
Child Mortality in Francophone Europe: State of Knowledge
Authors: Perrenoud Alfred
Published: October 2023

Child mortality in francophone Europe has been the object of extensive study. In France, the INED survey of a representative sample of parish registers between the years 1740 and 1829, supplemented by the work of Catherine Rollet, and the reconstruction of mortality in nineteenth-century France, broken down by year and age, by France Mesh and Jacques Vallin, permit us to trace the development of child mortality at a national level from the eighteenth century on (Blayo, 1975; Rollet, 1977, 1990; Mesle and Vallin, 1989).
Infant Mortality in Britain: A Survey of Current Knowledge on Historical Trends and Variations
Authors: Woods Robert
Published: October 2023

The study of infant and childhood mortality has a long history in Britain. In England this has been encouraged, in part, by the availability of parish registers from the mid-sixteenth century and civil registration since 1837. In Scotland and Wales parish registers are both less numerous and less reliable, and in the former civil registration of births, marriages, and deaths did not commence until 1855. The application of partial family reconstitution techniques to Anglican parish registers has provided numerous case studies of local trends and variations in infant mortality rates. It has also been possible to estimate endogenous and exogenous mortality using biometric methods and to gain some approximation of childhood mortality rates (Jones, 1976; Flinn, 1977; Wrigley, 1977; Schofield and Wrigley, 1979; Wrigley and Schofield, 1983).
India In Comparative Perspective
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

In historical terms, the improvement of living conditions that has taken place in the developing world during the last few decades has been quite remarkable. To illustrate, it is estimated that, between 1960 and 1992, life expectancy at birth in developing countries has expanded from 46 to 63 years, infant mortality has declined by more than 50 per cent, and real per-capita income has almost trebled.1 These global trends are quite at variance with the gloomy predictions of famine and chaos that have been regularly made over the same period, even if absolute levels of deprivation remain intolerably high in large parts of the world.2
Public Action And Social Inequality
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

‘Beware the fury of the patient man,’ John Dryden had warned three hundred years ago. Unfortunately, the ruling authorities often have excellent reason to ignore that piece of ancient wisdom. The patient man-or woman-may be much too patient to come into the reckoning of those who are in charge of the levers of control. Successive governments in India have had reason enough to rely on the unending patience of the neglected and deprived millions in India, who have not risen in fury about illiteracy, hunger, illness, or economic insecurity. The stubborn persistence of these deprivations has much to do with that lack of fury.
Basic Education As A Political Issue
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

The diverse personal and social roles of education were discussed in general terms in chapter 2 of this book. In connection with the issue of social inequality examined in the preceding chapter, the empowerment and redistributive role of education may be worth further exploration. Literacy is a basic tool of self-defence in a society where social interaction often involves the written media. An illiterate person is that much less equipped to defend herself in court, to obtain a bank loan, to enforce her inheritance rights, to take advantage of new technology, to compete for secure employment, to get on the right bus, to take part in political activity, in short, to participate successfully in the modern economy and society. Similar things can be said about numeracy and other skills acquired in the process of basic education.
Financial Development of Post-Socialist Economies: The Main Issues
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal
Published: October 2023

In the chapters that follow we tell the story of the development of finance in the former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the aftermath of the fall of communism. In pursuing this very down to-earth purpose we shall marshal a huge number of facts concerning banking, privatization, securities markets, and monetary policy in the region. Thus our approach is decidedly empirical in nature. However, in order to let the data speak they need to be organized according to some conceptual framework. The study of the ex-socialist economies attempting to develop into full-fledged market systems has given rise to a set of concepts generally known as ‘transition economics’, and our analysis will draw freely on this literature. Since the preoccupations of this field as well as the language employed may be unfamiliar to the general reader, we start our study with a discussion of the main ideas encoun tered in this new field.
Hungary
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal
Published: October 2023

Among the communist countries directly dominated by the Soviet Union between 1950 and 1989, Hungary stood out as one which departed significantly from the Soviet model and managed to make reforms stick. Starting with the New Economic Mechanism adopted in 1968 Hungary eliminated quantitative planning and in other ways allowed a degree of decentralization of the economy. Managers of large enterprises obtained considerable scope for independent decision making, but they never cut themselves off from the State. Indeed, maintaining good relations with high ministerial officials was important in ensuring that, in case of need, the enterprise had access to budgetary subsidies or soft loans. While bankruptcy laws were put into place, they were not brought to bear on large state enterprises, which if they were loss-making, were kept alive though the workings of the soft budget constraint. Furthermore, even if decision-making power was more widely distributed in the Hungarian system, this did not mean that the influence of the State receded very much. Indeed, in the late 1980s government expenditure as a share of GNP was about 64 per cent in Hungary as compared to 46 per cent in Western Germany and 37 per cent in the USA (Kamai 1992).
Comparing Financial Transition in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal
Published: October 2023

In the preceding three chapters we have examined in some detail the development of the financial sectors of the economies which are widely viewed as leaders in Eastern Europe in the transformation of the socialist economy into a thoroughly market-based one. Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic are often grouped together as sharing a common heritage of Soviet dominance which was thrown off at roughly the same time and in similar circumstances. However, at the outset of their transition to the market these economies faced very different sets of conditions. Both Hungary and Poland had very large foreign debts whereas Czechoslovakia’s foreign debt was relatively small. Poland’s foreign debt was to a large degree owed to official creditors whereas Hungary’s was largely owed to large banks and other private creditors.
Financial Policy for Transition Countries
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal
Published: October 2023

After devoting seven chapters to the description and analysis of the financial development in transition economies as represented by the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland, we now adopt for the first time the point of view of the economic policy-maker. This is in contrast with much of the early literature on transition which was motivated by the need to provide guidance in making pressing choices of policy. As was inevitable at the time, polemics preceded analysis. Now, several years into the transition process in Eastern and Central Europe, we and others have had the time to analyse the facts and to observe some of the consequences of the policy choices that have been taken so far. It is hoped that the result will contribute to making more informed policy choices in the future. We feel obliged to go one step further and state explicitly what we believe are some of the lessons suggested by our analysis.
Income Distribution, Political Instability and Growth
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

The idea we test in this chapter, which is based on Alesina and Perotti (1996), is at the same time simple and plausible: when income distribution is very unequal, the resulting tensions within a society induce a high level of political instability. This instability discourages investment and therefore generates a low rate of growth of the economy.
Introduction
Authors: Bergström Villy
Published: October 2023

There is a long tradition of expecting long-term convergence of per capita incomes in different countries. This forecast can be based on two different theories, both of which predict that incomes and productivity ought to grow faster in relatively poorer countries. According to the first theory, it is much easier for relatively poorer countries to imitate and adopt modern technology from more highly developed countries than it is for the technologically most advanced countries, through innovations, to improve their technology further. This theory is gener ally called the catching-up hypothesis. The same prediction follows from the neoclassical growth model introduced by Solow (1956) and further refined by Cass (1965) and Koopmans (1965). In this case, the rate of return on investment is assumed to decline with increasing capital intensity (capital stock per employed). Since the capital intensity is higher in richer countries, the return on investment, according to the theory, is higher in relatively poorer countries. The capital stock, and thereby production and labour productivity, tend therefore to grow faster there, producing a trend towards income convergence over time. Although the predictions of the two theories are identical, the theoretical points of departure are very different.
Comment
Authors: Crafts Nick
Published: October 2023

It is a pleasure to be asked to discuss such an interesting paper on economic growth. The authors offer us a rich diet of empirical results and find some new angles in what is becoming a very crowded field. My comments are mainly in the vein of asking for still more investigation with which to fill out what I broadly find a plausible story.
Comment
Authors: Bergstrom Villy
Published: October 2023

Microeconomic theory defines a narrow scope for government activity. It is confined to the supply of collective goods and interventions to correct, for example, externalities or monopolies due to increasing returns in production. A curious result of this micro theory is that this view of government often becomes a normative or ideological opinion among economists. Government shouldnot do more than what can be motivated by the activities of ·the night watchman state’, to use a Swedish phrase. In reality government activities cover a wide range. Governments supply private goods, they intervene in the distribution of incomes and in the function of markets without any existence of externalities.
Introduction: Macroeconomic Instability m Post Communist Countries, Suggested Causes and Proposed Cures
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

The destruction-or collapse-of a world system is bound to be cataclysmic, and the collapse of the world socialist system which is playing itself out at present across twenty eight coun tries is no exception. Indeed, the very fact that these twenty eight states were only nine in 1990, shows the scale of the changes. That this collapse has occurred without a major war has tended to obscure what is happening: the political, social and economic relations which governed these societies are all being simultaneously changed in a fundamental way. This by way of admission that there is much that lies outside our understanding as economists, and that it is likely to become particularly important in times and places such as those studied in this book. In such a context, the presence of macroeconomic instability is hardly surprising. Yet, it is the job of economists to try to identify the specific causes of economic phenomena, even-or maybe particularly-when they are caught up in the whirlwind of history.
Market Socialism is Not Enough: Inflation vs. Unemployment in Reforming Communist Economies
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

All the market socialist economies are facing high or hyperinflation. Rates of inflation for 1988 were 17 per cent for Hungary and 20 per cent for China, 60 per cent for Poland and 195 per cent for Yugoslavia. The implications for the whole of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union are profound. Poor East European economic performance is widely seen as being due to the inefficiency of the traditional centrally administered economic system, which manifests itself in its inability to generate intensive as opposed to extensive growth or produce exports that would be competitive on world markets (particularly important given the high debt levels of many East European countries), and the high level of material intensity which the system exhibits. Market socialism is often seen as a way of increasing efficiency.
Stopping Very Rapid Inflations in Reforming and Post--Communist Economies
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

What are the conditions necessary for stopping very rapid inflations in reforming and post-communist economies (RCEs and PCEs)? The question is of considerable importance, as two reforming communist economies, Yugoslavia and Poland, are already suffering from very rapid inflation (about 1,500 per cent and 400 per cent in autumn 1989), while the other two, China and Hungary, are suffering from high inflation (30 per cent and 20 per cent, respectively). The implications of the experience of moderate inflation in advanced capitalist countries for RCEs and PCEs has been dealt with in Chapter 2. Here we shall draw on the experience of very rapid inflation of nine market capitalist economies and of two RCEs, as well as examining the implications of the specific institutional structure of RCEs and PCEs for the stopping of very rapid inflation. Five of the experiences of very rapid inflation took place in the early 1920s in Austria, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and the Soviet Union, while six took place in the 1980s in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Israel, Mexico, and Vietnam.
Stabilization and the Banking Sector: Switching from Bad to Good Credit in Post-Communist Economies
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

Before the beginning of the transition to capitalism all credit in Central Europe and the Soviet Union was ‘systematically bad’, in the sense that it was not allocated on the basis of commercial criteria, and therefore there was no reason to suppose that, once ordinary market conditions were established, any particular loan could be serviced and ultimately repaid by the borrower. Bad credit of this kind is not really an asset belonging to the lender, but rather a transfer to the borrower, occurring at the expense of either the lender or of those financing the lender (the lender’s lenders). To the extent that a part of any credit could be serviced and repaid, this was accidental, and to the extent that servicing is enforced, could be thought of as a random tax on particular borrowers.
Fiscal Crises During Economic Transition in East Central Europe: An Overview
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

One of the most pressing problems of the transition economies, even the ‘first wave’ ones (i.e. those that have achieved preliminary macroeconomic stabilization and an important degree of transformation into market economies), is a large and growing gap between public revenues and expenditures (see Fig. 27 at the end of this chapter). This problem affects Hungary and Poland in particular, but, as this introductory chapter argues, the better performance of the Czechoslovak budget was partly (although not entirely) a consequence of the postponement of hard decisions on microeconomic restructuring. This volume analyzes the reasons for growing budgetary gaps in most of the transition economies of East Central Europe; it also tries to assess the longer-term implications of large budget deficits for debt and inflation.
The Political Process and Environillental Policy in Open Econoillies
Authors: Rauscher Michael
Published: October 2023

This chapter introduces the dimension of political economy into the analysis. The issue has been touched upon earlier, e.g. in Chapter 3, where the aspect of labour market objectives has been considered in the framework of the capital mobility model. In this chapter, a similar exercise will be performed in the framework of an international trade model. The difference between this chapter and the two preceding ones, that dealt with trade issues, is the set of questions addressed. In Chapters 5and 6, we were concerned with the impacts of various policy instruments on factor allocation, trade, and welfare.
Origins of Longitudinal Community-Based Studies
Authors: Taylor Carl E
Published: October 2023

Some of the most important advances in improving understanding of health and family planning have come from longitudinal community-based studies. 1be underlying principle is that the unit studied is not an individual but a whole population. With population-based approaches, causal and associated variables can be examined both quantitatively and qualitatively in natural circumstances.
Methodology and Main Findings on Child Survival of the Khanna Restudy, 1984-1988
Authors: Gupta Monica Das
Published: October 2023

This chapter describes the restudy carried out in the eleven villages of Ludhiana District of Punjab State, India, which were originally studied in the Khanna Study by John Gordon and John Wyon in the 1950s (see preceding chapter). The main objective of this restudy was to study the demographic transition taking place in this society, with a focus on the interrelationships between social and demographic change in this society in the process of transition. Thus this study is more rooted in the social sciences than in epidemiology and the medical sciences, as are most of the other major longitudinal studies conducted in developing countries.
Bandim: An Unplanned Longitudinal Study
Authors: Aaby Peter
Published: October 2023

The title of the chapter may be a contradiction in terms. However, the project was initially planned to last one or two years. Interaction with the first observations forced us to go on collecting more data, which again produced observations which needed to be explained, etc. This process is essential in research. However, funding of the process may be difficult to obtain these days, with research tending to become routinized as rigorous testing of specific hypo¬ theses. The range of possible answers to the research question needs to be predefined to be funded. This makes much research trivial, at least to an anthropologist whose concept of research is exploring and making sense of the unknown (Aaby 1988).
Sexual Cultures and Population Movement: Implicationsfor AIDSISTDs
Authors: Herdt Gilbert
Published: October 2023

The contributors to this volume have grappled with the fundamental observation that as people migrate, the rules of sexual behaviour change, opening new avenues for sexual encounter, but also exposing the person to enhanced risk of HIV and STDs. Human mobility in the era of AIDS has dramatically increased the poten tial for the spread of the HIV virus and other sexually transmitted diseases in populations around the world. AIDS/HIV is now the leading killer of persons between the ages of 25 and 44 in the United States and similar Western nations. It is the leading cause of adult death in many Third World countries. Since these years are crucial to fertility in humans, and are also the time of greatest aggregate human movement, there can be little doubt of the urgent need to gain an under standing of the interaction between migration and sexual risk in AIDS/STD epidemics. It is therefore not surprising that a group of anthropologists and demographers, colleagues from social epidemiology and the health sciences, should come together to discuss these urgent problems.
Sexual Networking, Use of Condoms, and Perception of STDs and HIV/AIDS Transmission Among Migrant Sex Workers in Lagos, Nigeria
Authors: Orubuloye I O
Published: October 2023

Across Nigeria, attitudes towards female sexuality vary among ethnic and reli gious groups. Some ethnic and religious groups are punitive in their pursuit of even discreet female sexual transgressions, while male sexual transgressions have always been taken for granted. In certain parts of Nigeria, women have some de gree of freedom and a substantial degree of equality with men, while in some parts, especially in the north, where the majority are Muslims, the society sup presses and closets its women. Similarly, premarital chastity has traditionally been rigidly enforced among some ethnic and religious groups, while in others the society has traditionally been flexible. These differences lead to variations in sexual patterns and they are likely to cause differences in the risk of sexually trans mitted diseases (STDs) and AIDS.
Education and Growth in East Asia
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

Although there has been a major slowdown recently due largely to financial crises, the sources of medium-and longer-run per capita economic growth in East Asia with which this chapter is concerned are based on relatively strong longer-run fundamentals there. These sources are particularly interesting because of the very high per capita growth sustained from before 1960 to 1997, essentially 40 years, in the Far East and because of fundamentals which are likely to re-emerge. Apart from the needed reforms now under way in the banking systems, there are additional lessons, that can be learned from the dramatic increase in per capita incomes and poverty reduction since the end of World War II that might be transferrable to other regions.
Africa’s Population Growth and Dilution of Human Capital
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

Africa offers dramatic contrasts both now and into the future between economies enjoying rapid per capita growth, such as Botswana, Tunisia, and Uganda, and others facing per capita economic decline, great inequality, turmoil, higher infant mortality, shorter longevity, and starvation, particularly in the rural areas.
Health and Net Population Growth
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

The effects of education on population growth are the net result of effects that improve health and effects that lower fertility rates. The impacts of education on health are measured in what follows in terms of impacts on reductions in infant mortality rates and impacts on increases in long evity, because of their direct relationship to population growth.
Democracy, Human Rights, and Political Stability
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

The expansion of political rights, civil rights or human rights, and political stability are important aspects of general well-being. They involve a broader concept of development than just increases in per capita income. There are non-market final satisfactions that political freedoms, civil liberties, and reasonable economic sta bility provide to individuals over and above money earnings. But then there are also feedback effects TO be discussed, from democratization to political stability to higher rates of investment and faster economic growth, This chapter focuses on tracing the net impacts of education, controlling for its impacts on per capita income that influence democratization, human rights, and political stability. It also addresses the structural interaction among these sectors.
The Environment
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

Destruction of the environment reduces human welfare, both in the present and in the future. True economic development includes using some of the fruits of growth to improve the preservation of forests, animal, fish, and bird wildlife, ecosystems, soils, and air and water quality. lf the benefits of 1ising money incomes are offset by implicit costs reducing health and the quality of life due to pollution, and if forests, soils, and ecosystems are destroyed and natural resources depleted, this cannot be called true economic development.
Education and Crime
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

This chapter explores the relation of education to crime through a structural approach that considers not just the direct effects of the education of criminals on their behaviour but also the indirect community effects of education. Many of the latter (e.g. poverty rates) have been related to education in earlier chapters.
Separating and Valuing the Direct and Indirect Effects of Education
Authors: McMahon Walter W
Published: October 2023

The total benefits of education to be discussed will be separated in chis chapter into measures of the direct or partial effects and the indirect structural effects. Indirect effects, which are also externalities, will then be expressed as a per cent of the total benefits. One or two countries from each region worldwide are chosen to illustrate this separation: Brazil, India, Kenya, the United Kingdom, and the United States; but the same could be done for any of the 78 countries in the complete model.
The Note-Issuing Bank within the State Structure
Authors: Stern Klaus
Published: October 2023

Writing about the position of the German note-issuing bank under state law shortly prior to the institution of a European note-issuing bank might create the impression of intending to take a more historical than a present-day view. Having said that, this impression is deceptive. Categorising the Bundesbank within the state structure as the central German note-issuing bank is also of primary importance for the European Central Bank since the status and the role of the Deutsche Bundesbank have in many ways become a model for Europe’s common note-issuing bank, as reWected in article 105ff. of the Treaty Establishing the European Community in the version dated 7 February 1992.
Intergenerational Wealth Flows and the Elderly in Indonesia
Authors: Hugo Graeme
Published: October 2023

Among the prolific and varied contributions that Jack Caldwell has made to demography, perhaps the best known is his reformulation of demographic transition theory in terms of the changing structure and functioning of families and relations between generations. While this seminal theoretical work has been used to further our understanding of the fertility transition, it is the argument of this paper that its implications for other social and economic transitions occurring in developing societies have been neglected. The theory is in fact rich in insights into the patterns, causes, and consequences of changes in population mobility, the labour force, and ageing.
Marriage Change as Moral Change: Culture, Virtue, and Demographic Transition
Authors: Fricke Tom
Published: October 2023

Surveying the field today, it is impossible to imagine an anthropological demography that fails to acknowledge the extraordinary impact of Jack Caldwell. In a series of watershed articles, papers, and books ranging across substantive, theoretical, and methodological themes, Caldwell has helped to confer a new demographic legitimacy on the research strategies of anthropologists. Methodologically, the micro-demographic techniques formalized by him have encouraged more anthropologists to pursue demographic field research while also drawing members of the demographic community towards new syntheses of these two traditions (Kertzer and Fricke 1997). Theoretically, Caldwell’s modification of demographic transition theory and his development of the wealth flows theory of fertility decline continue to motivate new studies and commentary. Substantively, his contributions to the study of fertility and family transitions in multiple contexts are landmark empirical studies for their settings.
Numerators and Denominators in the Study of High Fertility Populations: Past and Potential Contributions from Cultural Anthropology
Authors: Banja Caroline Bledsoe With Contributions By Fatoumatta
Published: October 2023

Researchers from Western societies, where fertility now hovers around replacement level, face an increasing struggle to understand the experience of high fertility, a pattern that is receding slowly into a temporal and geographical vanishing point. Nowhere is the need to understand the dynamics of high fertility more obvious now than in sub-Saharan Africa, the only major world region where fertility rates have not declined appreciably. Most African fertility regimes are considered to be governed by ‘natural fertility’. The hallmark of these regimes is regular intervals between births, a pattern that suggests no deliberate efforts to control births and an ignorance of, if not an aversion to, Western birth control technologies. Indeed, our initial focus on Western contraception in rural Gambia1 was almost a contradiction in terms. The 2,980 married women in our 1992 study sample had one of the highest total fertility rates in the world, 7.5 children, and one of the lowest rates of contraceptive use: only 9 per cent were currently using any kind of contraceptive, including traditional, and only 5 per cent were using a Western method—mostly pills and the injectable Depo Provera.
Contraception and Religiosity in Bangladesh
Authors: Amin Sajeda , Diamond, Ian , Steele Fiona
Published: October 2023

As family planning programmes play increasingly salient roles in promoting contraceptive use, religion, along with other cultural factors, deserves increased attention as a variable affecting the course of fertility decline. Bangladesh provides an interesting setting for studying the influence of religion on contraceptive use for several reasons. First, there is a strong state-supported family planning programme which has been in place for over twenty years. Second, although contraceptive use has increased dramatically in recent years, a high level of regional variation persists. While the reasons for this variation have not been explored extensively, it has been linked to variations in religious conservatism (Huq and Cleland 1990). Third, even though Bangladesh has never been a conservative Muslim society, at least by the standards of Western Asia, there is evidence of rising Islamic influence in everyday life.
Population and Poverty in the Developing World
Authors: Livi-Bacci Massimo , Santis Gustavo De
Published: October 2023

The increasing gap between developed and developing world will be one of the most important themes of the 21st century. The contributions contained in this volume take a multidisciplinary approach to the problem, offering a comprehensive review of the theoretical issues and empirical findings that relate to the complex and multidirectional link between poverty and demographic behaviours and outcomes in the contemporary developing world. The starting point of the volume is an exact definition of poverty. The contributors go on to analyse in the detail its causes and effects, both at the micro and macro level, concentrating on those factors and consequences which relate more directly to the demographic sphere. Population growth, household structure and labour, fertility, AIDS, urbanization, migration, and mortality are amongst the areas covered, with the major themes discussed and elaborated in an introductory overview chapter.
Famine, Demography, and Endemic Poverty
Authors: Osmani Siddiqur R
Published: October 2023

Studies on the connections between famine and poverty have usually been concerned with the causality running from long-term processes of poverty to periodic famines. But the reverse causation—from famine to endemic poverty, or more generally from ‘conjunctural’ to ‘structural’ poverty in the words of Iliffe (1987) — has remained relatively unexplored. I shall attempt in this paper to clarify some of the issues involved in understanding this reverse causation and to identify some of the possible channels of causation, citing along the way whatever little empirical evidence there is.
Household Structure and Poverty: What are the Connections?
Authors: Lloyd Cynthia B
Published: October 2023

Improved living standards have usually been associated with a tendency towards smaller and less complex households. Yet, growing numbers of female-headed households, which also tend to be smaller and less complex, have often been associated with increasing rates of poverty among women and children. In the first instance, economic trends are viewed as the determinants of household structure while, in the second case, changes in household structure are seen as the cause of increasing poverty. These trends appear contradictory but are not. The problem is that the household unit is used as the basis for measuring living standards, poverty, and inequality, despite our fundamental interest in the fate of individuals. Indeed, given the way data are collected, we have no way of knowing how individual women and children have fared within different types of households but only that, when they are observed separately in their own households, women and children in female-headed households often appear disadvantaged (particularly when assessed on the basis of income) relative to those in male-headed households.
Rapid Urbanization and the Urban Environment
Authors: Satterthwaite David
Published: October 2023

This chapter reviews the range of environmental hazards present in urban areas in Africa, Asia, and Latin America and their impact on human health. It discusses the groups that are most vulnerable to environmental hazards and suggests that low income groups (and, within such groups, women and children) bear most of the health burden arising from environmental problems. It also questions two common assumptions: that the large and often rapidly growing cities in the South have the most serious environmental problems; and that poverty necessarily contributes to environmental degradation.
The Essence of Contemporary Chinese Bureaucracy: Socialism, Modernization, and Political Culture
Authors: Kokubun Ryosei
Published: October 2023

The study of administrative management (xingzheng guanlixue) is currently receiving much attention from Chinese academics, even taking priority over research on the political system per se. In effect, this consists of research into what the Chinese bureaucratic system should ideally be.

In China, the term ‘bureaucratism’ (guanliaozhuyi) (which shares the same meaning that the cognate term kanryoshugi has in Japanese) is frequently used; however, perhaps because of its association with ‘bureaucratic capital’ (guanliao ziben), which refers to the imbrication of the state and financial cliques in the Nationalist period, the terms ‘bureaucracy’ (guanliaozhi) and ‘bureaucrat’ (guanliao) are almost never employed formally. As for the so-cal1ed yamen, which constituted the basic administrative unit of imperial China, the term is of course no longer used in the present despite the institution’s long existence. The English word ‘bureaucracy’ is sometimes translated as guanliao zhengzhi in Chinese, but once again this term is never employed when referring to the political organs of the present Chinese state. In the place of such terms, such concepts as ‘bureaucracy’ (guanliaozhi), ‘administrative organization’ (xingzheng jigou), ‘government organization’ (zhengfu jigou), and ‘bureaucrat’ (guan- liao) are expressed by formulations such as ‘administrative cadre’ (xingzheng ganbu), ‘state cadre’ (guojia ganbu), and ‘government employee’ (zhengfu zhiyuan).
Fostering ‘Love of Learning’: Naxi Responses to Ethnic Images in Chinese State Education
Authors: Hansen Mette Halskov
Published: October 2023

This paper, based on a local study, describes and analyses some of the ethnic images that national minorities are presented with in Chinese state education today. It goes on to discuss how Chinese minority education, as part of a modernizing and homogenizing process, has unintentionally caused members of the Naxi minority in Yunnan to strengthen their ethnic consciousness while enabling them to utilize this to their own potential political and economic advantage. Without running counter to the government’s ideology of ·national unity’, the Naxi in Lijiang have started to make use of their high level of education by providing alternative and supplementary education in Lijiang Naxi Autonomous County.
France
Authors: Blotnicki Laurence , Heckly Christophe
Published: October 2023

The French tax system remains very different from those of other developed countries. The top marginal income tax rate is among the highest in developed countries, but the average rate of this tax is one of the lowest. This paradox is one example of the uniqueness of the French tax system. While the proportion of French total tax receipts to GDP is appreciably above the average OECD ratio (44 percent for France against an average level of 39 percent for OECD countries in 1991), it is above all reliance on revenue sources that is so different in France (see Tables 3.1 and 3.2 for details).
Germany
Authors: Leibfritz Willi , Büttner, Wolfgang , Essen Ulrich Van
Published: October 2023

The basic structure of the present German tax system emerged at the end of the First World War. Taxes on income and net wealth, which before this time had been the principal sources of revenue for the States (Lander), came under federal control in 1920. Since then, legislation in the field of taxation has been primarily a federal matter, although the states have continued to play an important role in the administration of the tax system.
Spain
Authors: Lasheras Miguel A , Menendez Isabel
Published: October 2023

Until the end of the 1970s, Spain’s tax system was based on indirect taxation, with a cumulative and cascade sales tax, and a set of direct taxes that represented a poorly generalized tax system with few formal obligations that applied to few taxpayers. Individual taxation played a complementary role and consisted of source-based taxes (minimum taxes paid against a general income tax). Almost all the revenue collected from the income tax was in the form of withholding taxes, and the tax administration was simple. However, by the end of the 1970s, the tax system was unable to provide sufficient funds to meet the increasing demand for public services, and it was widely criticized, not only for its failure to produce sufficient revenue, but also for the lack of equity in the distribution of the tax burden among the population.’
Anatomy of a Temporary Trade Shock: The Kenyan Coffee Boom of 1976-79
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem
Published: October 2023

The Kenyan coffee boom of 1976-79 was an archetypal temporary external shock. First, it was substantial: at its peak in 1977 the barter terms of trade improved overall by 54% on their pre-boom level. Second, although the price change could not reasonably have been foreseen, it was recognisably temporary. Its main cause was a frost in Brazil which damaged but did not destroy the tree stock. Although the precise duration of the boom was uncertain, the fact that it was not a permanent event was not in dispute. A central theme of this chapter is the extent to which assets were used to convert a large temporary shock into a small permanent shock.
Malawi’s Positive 1977-79 Trade Shock
Authors: Harrigan Jane
Published: October 2023

Malawi’s brief, temporary (1977-79) positive trade shock provides an interesting case study of an African trade shock since it illustrates how the public sector response is crucial in determining the outcome of the shock even in an economy which was not excessively interventionist and where the shock occurred in the private sector. Although the windfall income initially accrued to the private sector it was rapidly transferred to the public sector via discretionary and automatic government revenue in creases. The public sector therefore played the lead role in fuelling the construction boom which resulted from the trade shock. The evidence suggests that the public sector carried out its role as custodian of the trade shock windfall poorly.
The Groundnut and Phosphates Boom in Senegal, 1974-77
Authors: Azam Jean-Paul , Chambas Gerard
Published: October 2023

It is a small country, both in terms of area (less than 200,000km2) and in terms of population (fewer than 7.1 million inhabitants in 1988). It has extensive access to the Atlantic Ocean, thanks in particular to the remark able port of Dakar, the capital city. The Gambia makes an English speaking enclave inside the Senegalese territory and to some extent separates the region of Casamance from the rest of the country.
The Zambian Copper Boom and Crash, 1964-80
Authors: Aron Janine
Published: October 2023

Zambia lies at one extreme of the group of less developed countries classified as highly mineral dependent, that is, where the mineral sector contributes more than 10% of GDP, or in excess of 40% of total export earnings (Nankani1979). At independence from Great Britain in 1964, copper supplied 90% of Zambia’s foreign exchange, over 60% of its tax revenues and 20% of the formal sector employment and contributed al most half of the GDP.1 Outside the copper sector, the economy was poorly developed. Yet, despite abundant rhetoric in favour of economic diversification, mineral dependence persisted throughout the 1970s and 1980s.2 The extent of Zambia’s mineral dependence following independence is illustrated in Table 8.1. Copper export values in constant US dollars fluctuated substantially during the boom years of 1964-74 and fell by 40% from a boom average of US$620 million, to an average of US$350 million, during 1975-80. Although the mining sector’s share in GDP declined from over 50% in the boom years to 35% in 1975-80, it remained a significant proportion. With the first negative copper price shocks of the early 1970s, the mineral revenue contribution to total revenue fell sharply and all but disappeared after the major copper shock in 1974.
The Uranium Boom in Niger, 1975-82
Authors: Azam Jean-Paul
Published: October 2023

Niger is by any standards one of the poorest countries in the world, with per capita GNP in 1988 estimated to be US$310 (World Bank 1990). More over, its stock of human capital seems especially low, with life expectancy at birth estimated at 44.5 years in 1987, compared to an average of 54 years for low-income countries (China and India excluded), and the primary school enrolment ratio in 1986 at 29%, compared to 76% (World Bank 1990). As a result, the country was ranked last in the world according to the 1990 UNDP human development index (UNDP 1990).
Multiple Trade Shocks and Partial Liberalisation: Dutch Disease and the Egyptian Economy
Authors: Shafik Nema
Published: October 2023

To understand the economic consequences of the Egyptian foreign exchange windfall it is necessary to disentangle the effects of multiple trade shocks that coincided with a partial liberalisation programme.