bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Open University Systems
Authors: Bandalaria Melinda dela Peña , Ivanovic Alexandra
Published: February 2023

Open University (OU) systems provide an alternative option for learners who cannot enter or participate in traditional or conventional higher education institutions. Open Universities are characterized by their open access to education, flexible learning and scheduling, and online and distance modes of educational delivery. This chapter considers the philosophies of, and imperatives which led to the establishment of OU systems worldwide. It then describes the development of different OUs in Asia and the Pacific, where the majority of OUs are located. The chapter also explores the challenges and opportunities faced by OU systems to measure and maintain quality of education. The chapter concludes with an examination of the sustainability and continued relevance of OUs, including evaluating how changes in ICTs have shaped these institutions, and, finally, considers the impacts that future trends in higher education may have on OUs in the region.
Private Universities in India
Authors: Bhanu Mehta Pratap
Published: February 2023

The rapid expansion of private higher education over the past four decades in India has transformed Indian higher education. This chapter has three aims. It provides the historical, economic, and political context for the privatization of higher education in India. It then examines the legal, regulatory, and institutional framework in which private education operates in India, and how these shape the opportunities and constraints for private education institutions. It then looks at the governance challenges of a new generation of private universities that might help increase the breadth and depth of private higher education in India. The chapter concludes with a prediction that the future success of private higher education in India will depend on two factors: broader growth of the Indian economy and willingness to expand and invest in education, and political and administrative choices over the regulation of the higher education system in India.
Productive Workers or Better Citizens?
Authors: De Meyer Arnoud
Published: February 2023

Higher education has many objectives in Asia, but most can be categorized under four headings: grooming teachers and professionals needed for the development of society (and by extension creating the capabilities for innovation and productivity enhancement), offering development options for young citizens, grooming better citizens, and, more recently, shaping lifelong learning. However, as indicated in this chapter with some concrete examples from East Asian countries, there may be trade-offs, even conflicts between these objectives. For example, investing in the development of productive workers may not necessarily lead to more citizens who develop a strong sense of belonging to the nation and are willing to contribute to its development. The chapter suggests that such conflicts can be managed through implementing good governance, by creating diversity in the system of higher education, and by developing a long-term vision of the dynamics in that system of higher education.
Access
Authors: Buasuwan Prompilai , Leksansern Arisara
Published: February 2023

Higher education (HE), as a whole throughout Asia-Pacific, has grown rapidly, resulting in greater opportunities for access to higher education. The rapid increase in access to HE over the past two decades has come at a tremendous cost of a severe and pervasive decline in academic quality. It is unclear whether all qualified students have access to quality higher education. HE in Asia-Pacific has had much success in terms of availability and to some extent, accessibility, but not horizontally, in that universities are mostly stratified and not every individual has equal access to quality HE. More attention, therefore, should be given to the qualitative factors that affect the equity of access to HE, such as values and attitudes toward education and job opportunity, learning performance, parental education, test and admission systems, and the cumulative effects from achievement gaps created from early childhood education through to high school sectors.
The Politics of Work-Family Policies
Authors: Boling Patricia
Published: February 2023

Many comparative studies about family polices have found that the Nordic social-democratic countries have developed the most effective, generous family support policies in the world. The chapter asks why most other welfare states in the advanced industrial countries do not have such generous family policy. It argues that we can better understand cross-national differences in the development of family policies if we pay attention to politics and cultural ideas that limit the space for family political innovation. On the basis of a case study on the evolution of work-family policies in the United States since the Great Depression, which is characterized by a low level of generosity in work-family policies, the chapter illustrates the utility of such an approach. The author concludes that an approach that aims to explain cross-national differences in family policies with politics and ideas helps us understand the specific development in the United States.
The Politics of Ideas in Family Policy
Authors: Fleckenstein Timo , Mohun Himmelweit Samuel
Published: February 2023

The chapter argues that a focus on cross-national explanations for change in family policies requires an examination not only of the political dynamics of ideational change but of the content of that change as well. The chapter addresses this gap, providing an overview of the politics of ideas in family policy, with a particular focus on variation in recent changes, based on a comparative study that includes welfare states in the Scandinavian countries, Continental Europe, the liberal countries, East Asia, and the Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries. It highlights how a relatively homogenous “old” politics of ideas has given way to a variety of “new” politics, which vary in terms of the extent and direction of policy change. On the basis of the findings, the authors conclude that a focus on the politics of ideas can help to understand cross-national differences in family policy reform.
Global Trends in Cohabitation
Authors: Sánchez Gassen Nora E.
Published: February 2023

Cohabitation has become more common across almost all parts of the world since the mid-20th century. Nonetheless, the onset of this trend and the uptake of cohabitation have differed substantially. A growing body of literature has described and analyzed cohabitation trends in different countries. Based on this material, this chapter describes cohabitation trends around the world and highlights some of the key reasons that explain why trends developed the way they did on different continents. Demographers have also discussed whether countries in Europe and around the world follow a similar pathway whereby cohabitation gradually becomes more popular and accepted until it becomes indistinguishable from marriage. This chapter summarizes the main arguments and findings from this discussion, concluding that a convergence in cohabitation behaviors across countries is not yet in sight.
The Various Roles of Cohabitation in the United States
Authors: Sassler Sharon , Cooperstock Alexandra
Published: February 2023

As cohabitation has become more prevalent, the role that living together serves has expanded. Early research on union formation generally depicted cohabitation as a precursor to marriage. However, the growing complexity of family formation patterns highlights the need to re-examine this presumption. Various factors contribute to the growing heterogeneity in the role served by cohabitation, and a more expansive framework for understanding new functions that living together serves can take several forms: as a precursor to marriage, as a trial for marriage, as an alternative to marriage, or as an alternative to dating and being single. Rather than assuming a static function, evidence points to a more dynamic role: the meaning of cohabitation can change over time, over the course of relationships, and within couples.
The Legal Framework of Cohabitation
Authors: Ryznar Margaret , Stępień Anna
Published: February 2023

Despite the increase in cohabitation around the world in recent years, cohabitants in many countries do not have any legal remedies upon the end of their relationship, particularly when it comes to property division. In other countries, however, cohabitants do receive certain legal protections. These legal protections of cohabitants depend on the country and widely range from the enforcement of cohabitation contracts upon separation of the cohabitants to the legal treatment of cohabitation similarly to marriage. This chapter examines the various legal approaches that countries take toward cohabiting couples, focusing on the United States and Poland as two case studies.
Framing Reproductive Policy
Authors: Green Ronald Michael
Published: February 2023

Addressing another consequence of the postponement in childbearing, Ronald Green observes that the increasing rates of infertility associated with this delay have been accompanied by a rise in the use of in vitro fertilization and other assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs). Green explores policies governing ARTs in many of the economically advanced nations, noting significant variations based on a country’s history, fiscal capacity, and politics. At the same time, his analysis emphasizes the significant role of the religious factor in shaping a country’s policy response to new assisted reproduction technologies. Policymakers dealing with ARTs are advised to carefully consider the religious orientations of their constituencies.
Same-Sex Unions and Childrearing
Authors: Cahill Sean R.
Published: February 2023

This chapter examines how religion and politics play an important role in the increasing recognition of diverse family forms, such as same-sex marriage, and policies that acknowledge the rights of LGBT parents. Sean Cahill reviews the prevalence and current state of affairs regarding same-sex marriage and parenting in the United States, Canada, Western Europe, and East Asia. He notes that while studies have found that children of LGBT parents are not disadvantaged in their development compared to their peers, only 28 countries allow joint adoption by same-sex couples. Cahill reports that family policies that promote marriage equality for LGBT people are associated with better health and well-being for same-sex couples and their children.
Transition to Adulthood and the Emancipation Process
Authors: López Peláez Antonio , Erro-Garcés Amaya
Published: February 2023

Based on an analysis of data from the European Social Survey, Antonio López Peláez and Amaya Erro-Garcés describe the main features of the transition from youth to adulthood and the process of emancipation. Their findings show a universal trend of late emancipation whereby, compared to the past, young people today are taking longer to leave their parents’ homes, get their first job, live with a partner, marry, and have children. The delays are most pronounced around decisions concerning marriage and having children. This general trend is evident throughout Europe among countries with a wide range of differences in social policies. However, the authors note that some heterogeneous patterns can be found. For example, young people tend to remain in the family home longer in Southern European countries than in Northern European countries. In response to the consequences of late emancipation, López Peláez and Erro-Garcés note the need for social policies, such as the European Youth Employment Initiative, that promote independence and self-sufficiency among youth.
Post-separation Parenting Policies
Authors: Scheiwe Kirsten
Published: February 2023

In addition to the economic adversity that accompanies divorce, divided families often must come to grips with sensitive issues around how to allocate parental responsibilities for their children. Kirsten Scheiwe delves into the major legal and social consequences that arise amid the efforts to resolve critical issues, such as where the children will reside, the extent to which children have a voice in these decisions, and the role of the courts and mediation processes in dealing with parental conflicts. This chapter also examines how different countries address the general question of parental responsibilities for the financial support, care, and education of children. Scheiwe notes that the adverse consequences of divorce and separation are magnified in the break-up of cohabiting couples for whom there are few rights and provisions in family law. She identifies the need for a more comprehensive approach to post-separation family policies placing greater emphasis on care-related and child-oriented provisions.
Family Change in the Context of Social Changes in the United States
Authors: Wolfinger Nicholas H.
Published: February 2023

Nicholas Wolfinger surveys the cultural and structural forces that have roiled the traditional nuclear family in the United States since the 1960s. These forces include the sexual revolution facilitated by advances in reproductive technology, heightened individualism, an unfavorable marriage market for women in the 1960s, mothers entering the labor force in unprecedented numbers, declining marriage rates, and the rise of out-of-wedlock childbearing. Wolfinger notes that the conservative view that generous welfare benefits reduced the need for marriage fails to comport with the data, which shows nonmarital fertility increased during the years that welfare transfers were declining. He also points out that while the United States is far behind many European countries in adopting policies in response to the changing functions of family proposals for extended paid parental leave, federally subsidized childcare and generous child tax credits have risen to the top of the political agenda.
Theorizing the Relationship between the Welfare State and the Life Course
Authors: Kohli Martin
Published: February 2023

In this chapter, I argue that the causal relationship between the welfare state and the life course works in both directions: The life course as a social institution challenges the welfare state by creating age-specific needs and risks, and through them, potential or actual client groups of various sizes and compositions. The welfare state is thus shaped by the institutionalized life course with its tripartition of life into periods of preparation, active work, and retirement. On the other hand, the welfare state shapes the life course by differentially addressing the periods of life and by patterning the transitions between them. The chapter first shows how the welfare state and the life course may be conceptualized as social institutions. It then discusses the mediating step between the two, the problems of constructing welfare and life course regimes, and their differentiations in terms of gender and social class.
Intersectionality and Family Policy
Authors: Williams Fiona
Published: February 2023

The main focus of the chapter is on the multiple dimensions of social inequality related to the migration of women from poorer regions to perform care and domestic work in households and organizations in wealthier regions. The chapter argues that this development demands an analysis that can make connections across the forms, scales, and sites of social inequality and the policies that influence them. To this end, the author employs an intersectional and multi-scalar perspective, arguing that it offers a useful way of understanding the multiple social relations of inequality at play in care work. Williams provides selected cross-national examples of the intersections in migrant care work and concludes by examining the macro scale and the transnational personal and political agency of migrant care workers, their successes, and what they have yet to achieve.
External Validity in Philosophy and Political Science
Authors: Jiménez-Buedo María
Published: February 2023

The chapter starts with a section in which the origins and diffusion of the term “external validity” are analyzed. It then describes how the use of the notion of external validity evolved from a rather pragmatically oriented concept (inserted in a four-fold typology) to a polysemic notion that means very different things for different people, and that is associated with a dyadic distinction between the “inside” of an experiment and the “outside” of it. The second section lays out the problem of external validity. This is a properly philosophical-scientific problem related to the difficulties of extrapolation in the social sciences, and in particular, the difficulties of extrapolating the results of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). We see recent approaches to this problem both in philosophy and in political science. The final, third section then deals with the conceptual problems associated to the notion of “external validity,” i.e., the problems with external validity. We contend that conceptual unclarities and ambiguities surrounding the term lead to contradictory views in the several literatures that use the notion of external validity. I identify these contradictions and refer to them as the three paradoxes of external validity. In view of these difficulties, this chapter advises to be cautious regarding its use.
Context, Contextualization, and Case-Study Research
Authors: Ruzzene Attilia
Published: February 2023

Whenever contextual conditions influence the occurrence of social phenomena, case studies come to the rescue by improving the accuracy of explanations that are exceedingly general and abstract. Being highly permeable to particulars of the setting in which the phenomenon unfolds, case-study research expresses a sensitivity to context that can be leveraged for understanding how context matters, to what extent, and in what respects. How this capacity of case-study research is effectively leveraged, however, remains in large part a mystery. In this chapter, I address this issue by investigating the way case studies pursue contextualization, that is the conversion of case-specific information into knowledge of context. I distinguish between process tracing and process embedding, suggest that their interplay is at the core of contextualization, and identify the evidentiary principles that govern their joint employment. I further illustrate the specific role process embedding plays vis-à-vis process tracing by drawing on a sample of few case studies on civil war.
The Sexual Selection of Human Mating Strategies
Authors: Buss David M.
Published: February 2023

Darwin’s theory of sexual selection provided a cogent theoretical framework for understanding the major causal processes of the mating strategies of sexually reproducing species—intrasexual competition and preferential mate choice. This framework, along with important theoretical elaborations, has proven extraordinarily useful in scientific theories and empirical discoveries about human mating strategies. Darwin described intrasexual competition as the primary province of males and preferential mate choice as the primary province of females. Unlike many species, however, humans display mutual mate choice and both sexes compete intensely for desirable mates. Moreover, humans are at least somewhat unique in using complex language to deploy courtship tactics to attract mates and to impugn the qualities of mating rivals. This chapter reviews the impact of sexual selection theory on scientific discoveries about human mating strategies, focusing on mate selection criteria and tactics of intrasexual competition.
Mate Guarding and Partner Defection Avoidance
Authors: Starratt Valerie G.
Published: February 2023

Successful mating requires the investment of resources, from genetic material and metabolic resources to time, money, and social support. This investment can be distributed across numerous low-investment short-term partnerships, concentrated on one high-investment long-term partnership, or some combination of partnerships of varying lengths and levels of investment. When the risks are low and the benefits are high, both men and women can be motivated to pursue a long-term strategy supplemented with short-term partnerships. While this can be beneficial for the person using this supplemented strategy, it can be costly for the long-term partner who is consequently at risk of losing their own investments in the event of their partner’s defection. Therefore, both men and women have evolved motivations to protect against the loss of investment in a relationship via mate-guarding behaviors. These behaviors can function by enticing a partner’s continued investment in the ongoing relationship, by reducing a partner’s available alternatives to the ongoing relationship, or by punishing or threatening to punish a partner’s defection from the ongoing relationship. Use of these mate-guarding strategies is moderated by individual difference and contextual factors that affect the costs and benefits of engaging in mate-guarding behaviors. In short, both men and women are most likely to engage in mate-guarding behaviors when the risk and cost of losing a partner—and so the risk of losing one’s investment in the ongoing relationship—is comparatively high.
Relationship Maintenance in Older Adults
Authors: Imami Ledina , Agnew Christopher R.
Published: February 2023

Relationship maintenance processes refer to a wide range of cognitive and behavioral strategies that serve to protect and enhance the quality and stability of romantic relationships. As romantic partners share more aspects of their lives together, their goals become increasingly coordinated and they become especially motivated to care for each other’s welfare. However, even established romantic relationships face times of difficulty, including problems with action coordination. As interdependence between partners grows, partners face challenges distinct from those that surround relationships in which interdependence is low. In this chapter, we review the current social psychological literature on relationship maintenance processes and discuss how these strategies may change as evolutionary priorities (e.g., striving for success in the workplace or caring for children and parents) become more prominent over the course of long-term involvements. In this regard, we focus on strategies that are more prevalent among older adults and discuss how these strategies may reflect adaptations to the constraints that romantic partners face at later stages in life. We conclude our discussion with recommendations for future research and a call for integrative work that combines evolutionary and social psychological perspectives to refine our understanding of maintenance processes among older adults.
In-Pair Divestment
Authors: Sciara Simona , Pantaleo Giuseppe
Published: February 2023

How do in-pair obstacles and difficulties affect the intensity of love? Why do people at some point in their romantic relationships emotionally disinvest? Does a reduction in the intensity of romantic feelings always result in relationship breakup? Core assumptions of emotional intensity theory suggest that feelings of love vary in strength according to an adaptive “energy conservation” principle. To save energy, romantic partners automatically adapt the intensity of their feelings to the minimum level needed to overcome the obstacles and difficulties the couple encounters daily (e.g., reciprocal partners’ flaws, relational stress, and perceived risk of breakup), because small relationship obstacles and difficulties only demand the investment of correspondingly small quantities of motivational/emotional resources to be surmounted. Thus, romantic feelings appear to diminish when obstacles are almost absent and, by contrast, to augment when obstacles grow stronger—with emotional strength reflecting the magnitude of what challenges the stability of the relationship. This specific fine-tuning of emotion intensity holds up, however, only to the point where maintaining the relationship is still worth the effort. Beyond this point, actual in-pair divestment occurs, because any further investment of energy would represent a useless (i.e., nonfunctional) waste of energy. In adopting the perspective of emotional intensity theory, this chapter reviews the most relevant empirical evidence on romantic relationships in light of a unitary, single-process explanation that reconciles past conflicting findings while also addressing new theoretical and practical implications for contemporary romantic partnerships.
Menstrual Cycle Variation in Women’s Mating Psychology
Authors: Havlíček Jan , Roberts S. Craig
Published: February 2023

Humans engage in sex year-round, but women can conceive only during a brief fertile window each month. The ovulatory shift hypothesis predicts that women will show stronger preferences and sexual desire for men with markers of genetic quality during this window. This hypothesis has stimulated an enormous body of research which has generated conflicting findings. Here we review recent evidence on cyclic fluctuations in (a) mate preferences, (b) courtship behavior, (c) sexual desire, (d) sociosexuality, and (e) sexual behavior. Studies on mate preferences provide limited evidence for robust changes across the cycle. In contrast, there appears to be subtle but systematic increase in sexual desire and behavior during the high-fertility phase. Nevertheless, these changes are similar for in-pair and extra-pair sexual desire, thus contradicting the ovulatory shift hypothesis. Hormonal mechanisms underpinning these fluctuations are not fully understood. Progesterone appears to be negatively associated with sexual desire, but the role of estradiol might be more complex than previously expected. We discuss methodological issues and emphasize the need for direct hormonal assays to determine ovulation timing. Finally, we suggest that future research should broaden its scope, from focusing solely on the fertile phase to more fully studying the entire menstrual cycle, taking into account variables such as fluctuations in mood, well-being, and body image. Factors contributing to variation in cyclic changes, both within and between women, should be a focus of future studies.
The Three Cs of Psychological Mate Preferences
Authors: Jonason Peter K. , March Evita
Published: February 2023

In this chapter, we discuss the psychological traits desired in modern romantic and sexual relationships. We begin by distinguishing and providing a brief overview of modern relationships, including long-term, committed, monogamous relationships, casual, primarily sexual relationships, and hybrid relationships such as booty-call and friends-with-benefits relationships. Following this, we explore the psychological traits desired in these relationships. These psychological traits are thematically organized into three higher-order psychological preferences: competence, compassion, and compatibility. For each of these higher-order preferences, we outline the traits captured by the theme (e.g., compassion includes kindness and agreeableness), and explore the research on preferences for these traits across the different types of modern relationships. We then explore the “why” of these trait preferences by appealing to sociocultural and evolutionary psychological models. Lastly, we consider limitations of previous research and provide suggestions for future research exploring psychological mate preferences in modern relationships.
Dynamic Manifestations of Eternal Divinity
Authors: Lawrence David Peter
Published: February 2023

This chapter examines precursors and basic features of late Kashmiri, nondual Śaiva theories, practices, and experiences regarding the emanation and contemplative reabsorption of time. The Śaiva approach exemplifies a distinctive grouping within the broader range of efforts to conquer time. Supported by arguments that may be described as henological and potentialist, the Śaivas endeavor to subsume, explanatorily and contemplatively, mundane, sequential time into a unifying, eternal Time Potency (kālaśakti) of the panentheistic Supreme Śiva. This philosophy reducing time to unity-potency is interpreted in its analogies with the Western traditions of Platonism, as well as ideas of Charles S. Peirce and his followers on synechism, tychism, and abduction. The chapter finally observes how the Śaiva subsumption of sequential time within Śiva’s Time Potency culminates in the subitist and apophatic realization of the present moment as a sort of “Eternal Now.” This understanding of the present is further elucidated by the interpretation of a moment, such as the present, as what Peirce called an “infinitesimal.”
Neuropsychological Research in Self-Determination Theory
Authors: Lee Woogul
Published: February 2023

Recently, interest in neuroscientific approaches to self-determination theory (SDT) research has increased dramatically. In this chapter, SDT-related neuroscience studies are reviewed, and how these studies contributed to resolving the questions and controversies associated with SDT is discussed. A growing body of neuroscience research has provided converging evidence for well-established theories such on as the undermining effects of extrinsic rewards and choice effects. In addition, SDT-related neuroscience research has examined the neural similarities and differences between experiences of intrinsic (autonomous) and extrinsic (controlled) motivation. The neural consequences of autonomy-supportive versus controlling environments and of individual differences in self-determination have been investigated. Though methodological limitations still exit, neuroscientific approaches are promising for both the development of motivation theories and the refinement of neuroscience theories.
The Role of Passion in Optimal Functioning in Society and Resilience
Authors: Vallerand Robert J. , Paquette Virginie
Published: February 2023

This chapter focuses on the construct of passion and shows that it can lead to adaptive or maladaptive outcomes. A brief introduction to the concept of passion is followed by a presentation of the dominant theory on passion, namely the dualistic model of passion. In line with self-determination theory’s internalization process, the dualistic model of passion posits, and research reveals, that when the activity that one loves has been internalized in an autonomous fashion, harmonious passion results, and it typically leads to adaptive outcomes. Conversely, when the beloved activity has been internalized in a more controlled way, obsessive passion results, leading to less adaptive and, at times, maladaptive outcomes. Research supporting these assumptions is presented especially as it pertains to optimal functioning in society and resilience. Finally, directions for future research are proposed.
Philosophical Perspectives on Autonomy in Self-Determination Theory
Authors: Arvanitis Alexios , Kalliris Konstantinos
Published: February 2023

A holistic view of autonomy in self-determination theory (SDT) requires both psychological and philosophical scrutiny. This chapter discusses how SDT approaches autonomy and self-determination by explicating the nature of its psychological conception of the self. The chapter describes how this conception is congruent with phenomenological and analytical philosophical perspectives of autonomy. Although this congruence concerns mostly comprehensive views of personal autonomy that take into account both negative and positive freedom, SDT can equally be applied in the study of moral autonomy, through a holistic understanding of the self. It may thus offer a compatibilist psychological interpretation of the relationship between personal and moral autonomy, and even pave the way for a novel discussion of moral responsibility.
Motivational Processes in Physical Education
Authors: Taylor Ian M. , Lonsdale Chris
Published: February 2023

Physical education (PE) classes present an opportunity to counteract insufficient levels of physical activity in children and potentially stimulate active lifestyles outside of school and across the lifespan. Facilitating adaptive motivation within PE classes is commonly viewed as an essential step in achieving these aims. Therefore, it is unsurprising that self-determination theory (SDT) has been widely employed to study motivational dynamics, behavior, and student outcomes in PE. This chapter will first provide an overview of measurement and operationalization issues within SDT-based PE research. It will subsequently describe and evaluate intervention work that has aimed to satisfy PE students’ psychological needs, facilitate autonomous motivation, and promote a range of adaptive outcomes. Research that has investigated teacher motivation and their motivational styles from an SDT perspective will also be examined. Finally, the chapter will outline some potential future research directions, including an alternative approach to employing SDT in PE classes to develop psychologically need-satisfying experiences and inspire physical activity across the lifespan.
The Ethics and Practice of Autonomy-Supportive Medicine
Authors: Besel Jamie M. , Williams Geoffrey
Published: February 2023

Changes in biomedical ethics have elevated the aim of enhancing patient autonomy to be equivalent to that of enhancing patient well-being. Self-determination theory (SDT) is at the forefront of theories addressing the delivery of effective, autonomy-supportive, healthcare. Meta-analyses of correlational and randomized controlled studies demonstrate that SDT-based health interventions increase basic need satisfaction, which enhances patient well-being and health behavior change. Basic need satisfaction has been found to have its effects on well-being through multiple pathways predicted by at least four different SDT mini-theories, each of which is described in this chapter. Research studies also have associated the basic need satisfaction of healthcare practitioners with greater well-being and less burnout. SDT research demonstrates the importance of these core principles of motivation and medical ethics, as operationalized through shared decision-making and autonomy-supportive professionalism in care delivery.
Shaping Tomorrow’s Workplace by Integrating Self-Determination Theory
Authors: Forest Jacques , Gradito Dubord Marc-Antoine , Olafsen Anja H. , Carpentier Joëlle
Published: February 2023

Self-determination theory (SDT) has proven to be a versatile and useful theory when applied to the work setting. This chapter addresses the various consequences of the different types of work motivation and psychological need satisfaction and frustration by reviewing recent meta-analyses and research on these subjects. It then presents the research efforts that have been done on three different streams of basic psychological needs’ antecedents: compensation, interpersonal relationship/leadership, and job design. Discussing total pay, inequities, and transparency as well as wealth and taxes as a duty for redistribution, the chapter opens up the debate about how SDT can be used not only for organizational research but also for studying macro topics related to the job market and the economy in general. It concludes by arguing that SDT has established itself as one of the leading theories of work motivation.
Basic Psychological Needs Theory
Authors: Vansteenkiste Maarten , Soenens Bart , Ryan Richard M.
Published: February 2023

Although the existence of a set of physical needs is well accepted within biology, the question whether humans have a parallel set of psychological needs has been more controversial within the psychological landscape. The identification, characterization, and study of basic needs has been central to the research agenda of Basic Psychological Needs Theory, one of SDT’s six mini-theories. In this chapter, we provide an in-depth characterization of the nine criteria that characterize the basic needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence: essential, psychological, pervasive, universal, inherent, distinct, content-specific, directional, and explanatory. We elaborate on the theoretical and research implications of these criteria and provide a selective review of this rapidly growing body of empirical work. We conclude that basic needs provide a universal and parsimonious framework to account for people’s growth and flourishing as well as their stagnation and problem behavior, while also accounting for the growth-conducive versus toxic effects of different environments.
Causality Orientations Theory
Authors: Koestner Richard , Levine Shelby L.
Published: February 2023

This chapter reviews causality orientations theory (COT) and highlights its contributions toward understanding integrated human functioning. The chapter explores why COT has been neglected relative to the other mini-theories in SDT. Three main reasons are proposed: (1) a paradigm shift in personality psychology away from general, noncontextualized scales; (2) the emergence of new SDT mini-theories that caught researchers’ imagination; and (3) problems in how efficiently the General Causality Orientation Scales might be used in research. We suggest that interest in causality orientations could be renewed by exploring the place of COT in current models of personality. SDT researchers might use COT to explore important questions regarding development and change in personality and asking whether causality orientation will impact major life outcomes such as marriage, work, and health.
Criminal Responsibility Evaluations
Authors: Packer Ira K. , Kois Lauren E.
Published: February 2023

Criminal responsibility (sanity) is a complex concept at the intersection of mental health and the law, which is then contextualized by societal standards. Although sanity is not a clinical concept per se, the legal system frequently calls on mental health professionals’ expertise to inform triers of fact in their decision-making: on account of severe mental illness, should a particular defendant be found not culpable for criminal behavior? This review is broad in scope and covers a range of issues that are pertinent for mental health and legal practitioners and scholars. We begin with commentary on the historical antecedents that have led to the contemporary conceptualization of the insanity defense in the United States. We discuss issues of quality of criminal responsibility evaluation and report writing, and call for standardized evaluator training and certification standards. Following an appraisal of the empirical literature, we cite its systematic limitations and conclude with specific recommendations for future research in this area.
Evaluating Workplace Disability
Authors: Piechowski Lisa Drago
Published: February 2023

Forensic disability evaluations occur in different contexts, each with its own legal standards. The common basis is establishing the presence of a valid psychological condition, assessing the functional impairments that derive from that condition, and comparing those impairments with the examinee’s work demands. This requires drawing a connection between the manifestations of the individual’s mental health condition and specific impairments in their functioning, then extrapolating these functional impairments to the requirements of their job. Research has begun to identify factors relevant to understanding these connections. However, the methodology for applying these factors to predict outcomes in individual cases has not yet been developed. Additional research is needed to identify specific methods and practices associated with more accurate outcomes in disability evaluations. The development of an actuarial model of prediction for return to work could improve the accuracy of disability assessments beyond reliance on clinical judgment.
Response Styles within the Forensic Context
Authors: Rogers Richard , Pan Minqi , Drogin Eric Y.
Published: February 2023

This chapter emphasizes the critical importance of clarity and specificity when identifying and defining response styles in forensic contexts. When differentiating “malingering” from “feigning,” and “defensiveness” from “impression management,” forensic practitioners must convey their findings with scientific rigor and unambiguous concision. Empirically validated detection strategies constitute the foundation of response-style research. They are systematically applied genuine responding as well as feigned and other intentionally distorted presentations. The clinical usefulness of strategy-based scales is illustrated with multiscale inventories and such specialized measures as the SIRS-2. In forensic practice, it is particularly important to minimize shortcuts, such as initial screens, that may jeopardize the validity and accuracy of response-style conclusions. Instead, forensic practitioners are asked to adopt more comprehensive multimethod and multistrategy approaches. This chapter concludes with specific recommendations for improved investigation of response styles in forensic contexts.
Trial Consultation
Authors: Drogin Eric Y. , Hagan Leigh D.
Published: February 2023

Trial consultation is a form of applied forensic psychology that is most easily distinguished from the work of the testifying expert when one focuses on the identities of target audiences. Whereas expert witnesses conduct, report on, and testify about the results of evaluations for the benefit of judges and juries, trial consultants educate lawyers about how to win cases. In support of—but never usurping—counsel’s advocacy role, trial consultants investigate and explain the testifying expert’s credentials, publications, reports, prior testimony, and more. The trial consultant’s activities remain subject to mandatory ethical codes and advisory professional guidelines. Such sources help to ensure that that the trial consultant’s contributions remain far more than a mere extension of counsel’s adversarial approach. The trial consultant’s acknowledged and assiduously promoted ambition is to investigate diligently, report accurately, and advise appropriately, with an eye toward eliminating surprises and supporting the efficacy of ethically grounded advocacy.
Using Reflector Variables to Determine Whether the Culprit Is Present in or Absent from a Police Lineup
Authors: Smith Andrew M. , Wells Gary L.
Published: February 2023

Psychological scientists have long taken two approaches to combatting mistaken identifications: the system-variable approach and the estimator-variable approach. The system-variable approach involves developing lineups that prevent mistaken identifications. The estimator-variable approach involves estimating the reliability of an identification given all factors that may have affected memory in that case. The system-variable approach has had a tremendous impact on reducing mistaken identifications, but the estimator-variable approach has not. This chapter explains why, despite their import, estimator variables have failed to distinguish reliable from unreliable identifications in real cases, and then introduces a new class of variables that fill the void—reflector variables. Reflectors reveal how strongly the suspect matches the witness’s memory for the culprit. Because guilty suspects tend to provide a stronger match-to-memory than do innocent suspects, reflector variables reflect whether the suspect in a lineup is guilty. This chapter argues that the reflector-variable approach requires videorecording lineups in their entirety.
Legal Decision-Making among Youth Defendants, Victims, and Witnesses
Authors: Malloy Lindsay C. , Wyman Joshua , Mukhopadhyay Shreya , Quas Jodi A.
Published: February 2023

Adolescence is characterized by multifaceted growth, change, and vulnerability. Several developmental characteristics of adolescence, such as youths’ tendencies to engage in exploratory and risk-taking behaviors, susceptibility to peer influence, and desire for autonomy, increase the likelihood that they will come into contact with the legal system not only as perpetrators but also as victims and witnesses. Those same characteristics then influence their experiences. In the present chapter, we describe these influences, focusing on how they likely influence legally relevant decisions adolescents make in interviews and in court as suspects and defendants and as victims and witnesses. We close by highlighting important new directions for research on how developmental characteristics shape legal decisions in unique subsets of adolescents (e.g., those who are both delinquent and victims) and by offering practical recommendations regarding the need for more in-depth training of legal professionals on how adolescent development affects youth involvement in the legal system.
Psychological Barriers to the Detection of Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Scurich Nicholas , Dietz Park
Published: February 2023

Adults sexually abusing children where they work or volunteer has become painfully familiar not only to survivors of sexual abuse but also to their families, law enforcement, and the schools, churches, youth-serving organizations, and other institutions within which so many cases occur. In the aftermath of discovering that sexual abuse occurred, questions invariably arise as to why the abuse was not detected earlier. This chapter describes two different psychological phenomena that help to explain why child sexual abuse is difficult to recognize ex ante, and, paradoxically, why it is so easy to recognize ex post. These phenomena are “halo effects” and the “hindsight bias,” respectively. This chapter reviews basic and applied research bearing on each as well as research on potential debiasing strategies. Halo effects and hindsight bias have significant implications for civil lawsuits that are occasioned by sexual abuse that occurs within organizations.
First Steps on the Path to Wrongful Conviction
Authors: Guyll Max , Scherr Kyle C. , Madon Stephanie , Munoz Jessica
Published: February 2023

Wrongful convictions represent a grave injustice. The innocent are punished, the guilty go free, and the postmortems that attend their occasional discovery typically reveal some shocking combination of incompetence, indifference, and malfeasance. Escaping notice, however, are myriad mundane influences that usually have negligible effects but which, like a feather falling on a balance, can sometimes tip the scale. In this chapter we highlight effects that could nudge the innocent onto paths that might ultimately lead to wrongful conviction. We begin by considering how the innocent are disadvantaged by an unwarranted sense of invulnerability. Next, we explore how police encounters and investigative stops can initially entangle the innocent in a criminal investigation. We then discuss how police may come to target an innocent suspect through the effects of expectancies, both justified and unjustified, and which may or may not operate outside awareness. We conclude by discussing future research directions.
Injustice in the Courtroom
Authors: Hunt Jennifer S.
Published: February 2023

Race and ethnicity affect judgments and outcomes at many stages of the criminal justice and legal process, accumulating into significant disparities in incarceration rates for Black and Latinx defendants. This chapter provides an overview of recent research about the influence of race and ethnicity on trial outcomes and processes. Prosecutors often strike potential jurors of color, lowering diversity in juries. Juries with larger numbers of White jurors, in turn, may be more likely to convict defendants of color. Judges are more likely to give sentences involving incarceration to defendants of color, and both prosecutorial and jury biases contribute to racial disparities in the death penalty. Understanding biases in legal outcomes requires intersectional analyses that examine race in conjunction with other identities and consideration of multiple forms of bias (explicit, implicit, and structural). The chapter also discusses recent legal developments related to racial and ethnic disparities and directions for future research.