bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Liberal Democrats and European Integration
Authors: Clarke Scott , Curtice John
Published: October 2023

When the Liberal Democrats were formed in 1989, the party inherited from the Liberal Party a long tradition of consistent and enthusiastic support for European unification. The Liberals were amongst the first in Britain to back the European Coal and Steel Community, a European Defence Community, the Western European Union, the European Free Trade Area, and the European Economic Community (EEC). This chapter asks why this should be so. Although support for closer European integration was not inconsistent with the party’s ideological and historical traditions, neither did these point unambiguously towards such a position. Further, there is little evidence that its position has been electorally advantageous to the party or that it has come under strong pressure from its membership to maintain a strongly pro-European stance.
Growth at Different Rates and Kaldor’ s ‘Laws’
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

Before the 1960s Kaldor was engaged as an applied economist on several occasions: during the Second World War and the immediate post-war period, during the years when he acted as a tax-consultant to numerous developing countries, and also when he worked as adviser to the Labour Party.
Inflation and Anti-Inflationary Policies
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

In the summer of 1923 the Kaldor family spent the summer in the Bavarian Alps. At the age of fifteen, the young Nicholas therefore had ‘the rare opportunity to observe a state of on-going hyperinflation and the extraordinary features of behaviour to which it gave rise’.His curiosity was aroused by two phenomena in particular. First, he noticed the speed at which the inflationary process accelerated: shopkeepers revised their prices every week, then every day, and then several times a day. Secondly, he observed that, in conditions of accelerating inflation, the price level expressed in terms of a stable foreign currency like the dollar was lower than abroad. This first-hand experience of inflation made such an impression on the young Kaldor that he later said it became one of the decisive factors in his decision to study economics when he went to university.
The Criticism of Equilibrium Theory and New Theoretical Hypotheses on Growth and the Distribution of Income
Authors: Targetti Ferdinando
Published: October 2023

In the 1970s Kaldor’s thought came to the end of a long process of evolution that had begun in the 1930s with his membership-albeit only for a few years-of the Austrian school and his endorsement of the deductive method of neo-classical equilibrium. In his ‘The Irrelevance of Equilibrium Economics’, Kaldor denounced neo-classical equilibrium theory as an intellectual exercise condemned to infinite regression because it was incapable of becoming a scientific theory-meaning by that term a set of theorems derived from observable phenomena. From Walras to Debreu the theory had been constantly reworked; but because the problem of its verification had been ignored, rather than remove the theory’s scaffolding of unreal basic assumptions, this constant elaboration had only made it thicker and more impenetrable. And if abstract mathematical models were empirically barren, so too, Kaldor believed, was econometrics: sophisticated methods of statistical inference could not fill the void created by the absence of any theory on how the economy really works.
Value-Judgements and Welfare
Authors: Ryan* Alan
Published: October 2023

Although economists and political theorists have much to say to each other, they do not always find it easy to communicate. The economist is likely to find the political theorist oddly unconcerned with questions of formalization and measurement; the political theorist is likely to find the economist lumping together considerations he is professionally committed to separating out. So here, economists will find my remarks about the concept of welfare quite unlike those they would find in a welfare economics text. My aim is to remind them how disparate the elements are that enter into ordinary non-technical assessments of ‘welfare’, before I embark on the main task of arguing for the primacy of non-welfare values in drawing the economic borders of the State. These include both negative and positive freedom, as understood in the liberal tradition from Mill down to Rawls and Nozick, as well as the non-liberal conception of freedom defended by Marx. I also argue for the importance of various distributive and justice-based values, egalitarianism, ‘maximin’ justice, and ‘baseline’ justice among them. This paper is barely a preface to a theory of the relative roles of market and State, but I hope I shall persuade my readers that the diversity of arguments for and against both State and market provision is interesting as well as daunting.
The Moral Standing of the Market
Authors: Sen* Amartya
Published: October 2023

How valuable is the market mechanism for practical morality? What is its moral standing? We can scarcely doubt that as individuals we do value tremendously the opportunity of using markets. Indeed, without access to markets most of us would perish, since we do not typically produce the things that we need to survive. If we could somehow survive without using markets at all, our quality of life would be rather abysmal. It is natural to feel that an institution that is so crucial to our well-being must be valuable. And since moral evaluation can hardly be indifferent to our interests and their fulfilment, it might appear that there is nothing much to discuss here. The market’s moral standing ‘has to be’ high.
The Decentralized State: The Economic Borders of Local Government
Authors: Helm Dieter , * Stephen Smith
Published: October 2023

The borderline between the State and the private sector has come under intense political scrutiny during the 1980s. Other papers in this volume have analysed the philosophical basis of the recent reappraisal of the role of the public sector by the ‘new right’, and have discussed the economic basis for State involvement in various aspects of the economy. In the introductory paper, Helm argues that the appropriate division of activity between the State and the private sector is, at a deep level, a question of values. Nevertheless, once the objectives have been set, there remains the instrumental question of the most efficient method of achieving these objectives. This is essentially a matter for empirical and pragmatic resolution. Where the borderline between the State and the market should lie depends on weighing up the costs of leaving things to the market, against the likely improvements from government intervention.
The Response to Price Windfalls: Some Theoretical Considerations
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

One consequence of the coffee boom was that the relative prices facing peasants changed. Depending upon their expectations and opportunities peasants will respond to these altered incentives by reallocating their resources. We begin our analysis of this decision process with a simple taxonomy of boom-induced price changes, depicted in Table 5.1.
Responses to Price Changes in Kenya
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

In this chapter we attempt to quantify the behaviour responses of Kenyan peasants to the coffee boom. In Chapter 5 two types of behavioural response were distinguished, i.e. the resource reallocations triggered by relative price changes and the investment triggered by windfall income.
Introduction to Part IV
Authors: Bevan David , Collier Paul , Gunning Jan Willem , Bigsten Arne , Horsnell Paul
Published: October 2023

One of the most important ways in which governments influence the lives of peasants is through the provision of public services. A major feature of our survey design was that it collected extensive data on access to and use of public services by rural households, and permitted these data to be related to other economic variables. This part of the book summarizes this information (Chapter 14) and analyses it (Chapter 15). This chapter provides a brief introduction, and discusses the problem of valuing public services.
1939—1945: Planning the War and Plans for Peace
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

Slowly at first, but with gathering speed from 1940, the peace-time economy was transformed into a ‘war economy’. By the peak period of the war effort (1943/4) the military were using the output of 55 per cent of all manufacturing manpower, civilian consumption was about one-fifth below 1939 levels, and government was spending half the national income. In comparison with most belligerents, and especially the major Axis powers, this was an unparalleled level of devotion of resources to the war effort (Milward 1987, ch. 3). It necessarily involved a radical recasting of the instruments of economic policy, which, albeit to a contestable degree, left a permanent mark on the relations between the state and the economy. Parallel to this planning of the economy for war purposes was an increasing concern for planning the peace; and whilst much of this was only to reach fruition after 1945, it is in many ways as much a part of the history of the war as is the planning for war. Whilst the first half of this chapter deals with wartime planning, the second half outlines this planning for peace and its significance.
1979—1988: Renaissance or Retrogression?
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

The rhetoric of the Conservatives under Mrs Thatcher at the time of the election victory of 1979 committed them to a sharp reversal of the whole trend of post-war policy. Attempts to use macro-economic management to affect real variables like output and employment were to be abandoned as futile; a sharp reduction in inflation via tight control of the money supply was to be central, and the populace’s inflationary expectations were to be reversed; the productive potential of the economy was to be unleashed by rolling back the state, reducing government expenditure, borrowing and taxation.
Industrial Revolution and Demographic Revolution in the Eighteenth Century: The French-English Paradox
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude
Published: October 2023

In England, the Industrial Revolution begins in the eighteenth century and the demographic revolution in the nineteenth. Conversely, France has its demographic revolution in the eighteenth century and its Industrial Revolution the century following. In both cases, demographic and economic chronologies are largely dissociated. These facts, at first sight, would appear immediately and seriously to compromise transition theory. The theory was itself derived from European experience: yet apparently it is incapable of accounting for the two countries which dominated the European scene up to the last third of the nineteenth century. The French-English parallel-full of manifest paradoxes-does, however, lead to less damning conclusions when examined more circumspectly. Once social organization and certain institutional factors specific to each country are incorporated, the theory may even be strengthened.
Economic Progress and Demographic Transition in Poor Countries: Thirty Years of Experience, 1950-1980
Authors: Chesnais Jean-Claude
Published: October 2023

The simplest experimental approach to the relation between population and economic growth (although its use requires some care) is to calculate the correlation between population growth and increases in per capita income at constant prices over a given period. This is undertaken in the first section, where we bring together some statistical observations on these two phenomena; the second section presents a critical synthesis of the main works relating to such calculations.
Building the Models
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

This first chapter will help me place the two parts of this book. It is itself divided into two sections. The first concerns individuals. How can those individuals who leave their specific imprint on economic and social self-organization, those individuals who are motors for change and brakes on adaptation, be fitted into a model? How can their choices and their behaviour be represented? That is the question for which I should like to try to draft a rough answer, adequate for the reflections in the present work. The second section enumerates the hypotheses structuring the field of research explored in the chapters which follow which must subsequently be called on to define the characteristics of the main families of models.
The Revelation of Quality Through Price
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

This chapter—the last in this first part—will deal with more subtle organizational properties of markets than the preceding ones. The best way to understand their nature is to start with the following apologue: a wine of either good or bad quality is brought to the market; certain agents know the quality, others do not; but the price which is established and which is dependent on the quality will nevertheless be the same as if all the agents were informed, since it allows the uninformed to deduce from it the quality of the wine and to act accordingly. In other words, the decisions of informed agents influence equilibrium prices in such a way that the latter reveal to the rest information which is held only by certain individuals.
Comments on the First Stage
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

At this stage of analysis, four conclusions may be drawn: 1. There is no need for an auctioneer. For the market to sort out supply and demand and to make itself into an organized whole, it is sufficient that economic agents make random and sequential contacts and that their behaviour presents a certain degree of coherence. Our research does not yet allow us to give a general definition of the minimal coherence. It does, however, make possible a rough sketch of its contents: the nearly exclusive use of information obtained through individual research, recall of the recent past and a few more distant events, perseverance in the effort to improve the situation, the revision of demands in order to take past errors into account, and the safeguarding of acceptable situations.
Change in the Structure of Competition
Authors: Lesourne Jacques
Published: October 2023

Since the dawning of their science, economists have never ceased to be concerned with competition. Not only have they, in the last fifty years, written entire libraries on the subject—whether it be on perfect competition, oligopoly, or monopoly—but they have, during the last decade, resuscitated the field by applying multiperiod game theory, and notably the concept of perfect equilibrium (Fudenberg and Tirole 1986), to oligopolistic situations. Progressively the gap between the reality experienced by the head of a firm and the microeconomist’s discourse—highly useful after all—has been reduced. But reduction does not mean disappearance.
Subsidies for Enterprises and Dirigistic Regulation
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

We shall now analyse in greater detail the other types of public support of some significance granted to the Mezzogiorno, as shown in Table 7.1, in particular subsidies for enterprises, concentrating especially on tax concessions. The first column of Table 8.1 shows the data collected for us by Del Monte and Vittoria (1988) on capital grants and interest subsidies to firms in the South and relief from social-security contributions granted over the twenty-five years from 1959 to 1984 (at 1988 prices).
State Pensions, Education, and Health Care
Authors: Kostoris Fiorella Padoa Schioppa , Powell John E
Published: October 2023

A more precise examination of the main items of welfare expenditure carried out within our research group appears to confirm some of the interpretations indicated above, but also shows that the attempt to win general consensus by means of indiscriminate measures aimed at satisfying everyone ultimately leads to universal (or almost universal) dissatisfaction. In their analysis of pensions policy in Italy over the past forty years, Vitali et al. (1988) assert that the primary public objective in the field of social security, namely to ensure that certain sections of the population enjoy a standard of living they would otherwise be unable to attain because of their age or for other reasons, should not inevitably lead to deficits in the social-security accounts and to constant recourse to special funding from the Treasury, as occurred in Italy, especially from the 1970s onwards.
1914-1918: War and Wasted Opportunity
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

‘The war to end wars ‘ did not, of course, do so, but it did mark the beginnings of industrial policy in Britain, from which the state has never entirely retreated. This was not, of course, an intended consequence of the war. It only emerged slowly and painfully from the undermining of initial belief that the war would be ‘over by Christmas ‘ and would be a war fought by professional soldiers and sailors without much affecting the rest of society. The transition to a total war which, at some remove, eventually meant nearly everyone was involved, brought an undermining both of the practices of the largely non-interventionist state and the ideas that underlay it. Above all, the state could no longer fail to be concerned with the capacity and efficiency of industry. In a world of competitive nation-states, such efficiency increasingly provided an unavoidable condition of success.
1918-1929: Recession and Rationalization
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

The immediate aftermath of the war was a frenetic boom, as outlined in Chapter 3. This was followed by an economic collapse which, measured by the fall in GDP (6 per cent), was the most serious of the twentieth century. Unemployment rose from 2 per cent in 1920 to 11.3 per cent in 1921. This in turn was followed by a period of ‘doldrums ‘ (Pigou 1947) and then a considerable recovery in the late 1920s, reaching a peak in 1929. However this recovery was never sufficient to take unemployment much below the l 0 per cent mark.
1939-1945: Planning and Production
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

The Second World War entailed a radical shift in the relations between government and industry as ‘total war ‘ required a mobilization of economic resources on a wholly new scale under the direction of a vastly expanded state apparatus. This led to a government interest in expanding production and economic and industrial efficiency of unprecedented force. Industry was scrutinized in exceptional detail, and its shortcomings exposed to the public gaze. Remedial steps were taken directly to aid the war effort. But in addition the exposure of weaknesses was linked to plans for the post-war world, and for the industrial reconstruction which was widely assumed to be a necessary part of that post-war rebuilding.
A Case-Study: Cotton
Authors: Tomlinson Jim
Published: October 2023

A small number of sectors dominated the industrial landscape of Britain at the beginning of the twentieth century. The first census of production in 1907 showed that four such sectors-shipbuilding, iron and steel, coal-mining, and cotton-provided 60 per cent of manufacturing output and together formed a bloc of staple industries on which the industrial development of Britain in the half century before the Great War depended. None of these was so redolent of Britain ‘s pioneering role in industrialization as cotton. The key industry of the Industrial Revolution by many accounts, cotton remained a major industry by any standard up to 1914. Whilst smaller in employment and output than coal, it still employed over 600,000 workers. Above all, cotton represented British pre-eminence in international trade in manufactures (Tyson 1968). It was Britain ‘s largest export industry from the Napoleonic almost to the Second World War. At its peak in the l 880s, the Lancashire industry supplied 82 per cent of all the world ‘s trade in cotton-piece goods, the major export product of the industry (Table 13.1).
Imperfect Competition and Price Adjustment
Authors: Andersen Torben M
Published: October 2023

This chapter sets the scene for the subsequent discussions of possible reasons for inflexible price adjustment by asking what standard models of imperfect competition imply for the adjustment of prices. Section 3.2 starts out with a static model of a monopolist firm to consider the effects on prices of nominal shocks as well as real shocks affecting demand and supply conditions. This model assumes that the firm can flexibly adjust to the state of the market, but this is not generally the case, and Section 3.3 considers whether the firm prefers to retain flexibility in adjusting prices or quantities. This leads to an analysis in Section 3.4 of whether the optimal price and production decisions may lead to systematic imbalances between demand and supply (rationing) and, in particular, a predominance of excess supply. Finally, Section 3.5 considers the importance of competition among firms, and sets up a model extensively used in the following chapters.
What Have We Learned?
Authors: Andersen Torben M
Published: October 2023

The preceding chapters have shown that firms often face circumstances in which optimal decisions imply that prices adjust rigidly to changes in market conditions. The price adjustment process is an important channel by which shocks get propagated into the system. This applies both to nominal and real shocks and to nominal and real price rigidities. Although the adjustment problems follow as a result of rational decisions on the part of firms, they have negative welfare consequences arising from externalities in price-setting as well as from the interaction between distortions caused by imperfect competition and the allocational effects of shocks. Causes for price rigidity or sluggishness are numerous. The list includes implicit and explicit adjustment costs, intertemporal considerations, collusion, staggering, and informational problems. Perhaps the most promising approach which has not yet been fully exhausted is that of informational problems in decentralized economies. This approach seems to encompass most results obtained by alternative approaches; moreover, it captures the essential fact of a decentralized market economy-that there is not an omnipotent auctioneer who acquires and disseminates all information freely. Understanding how information is processed is essential to understanding how the market system works. Although the market system is usually praised for its ability to process information, it is an implication that the decentralized nature of information causes adjustment failures.
Disaster Statistics and Patterns
Authors: Albala-Bertrand J M
Published: October 2023

Most disaster analysis is based on shaky foundations. Institutional bias, political interests, and technical insufficiencies make disaster statistics unsatisfactory and unreliable (Sects. 1 and 2). This contributes to preserve myths about the effects of disasters on the economy and society, especially about the magnitude of indirect effects. To establish some valid patterns, we will assume that the statistical distortions are systematic over time and across sources; therefore, even if the absolute figures are wrong their relative magnitudes will be about right, making the general patterns from current data adequate (Sect. 3). This is more certain, however, when the data come from the same source, as is the case with our sectoral pattern of direct effects (Sect. 4), or when the pattern can be checked against correlated data, as is the case with our pattern of response sources (Sect. 5).
From Craftsmanship to Industrial Production
Authors: Zamagni Vera
Published: October 2023

At the time of the unification of italy, industry, although not totally absent from the scene, was none the less of marginal importance: crafts, on the other hand, existed in proportion to local demand, and therefore to the different levels of income produced by the diverse forms of agriculture. Fifty years later, all the modern industries were present in Italy, some more some less advanced: from the metallurgical industry to the energy industry, from the production of types to that of cars, from chemical fertilizers to sugar. An industrial census was conducted at the end of this period in order to ascertain to what extent industrialization had been accomplished; it is not without its defects (there are no figures for the value of production, for example), but the data available for the intermediate stages of Italian industrialization are even more incomplete.
Economic Miracle: Crises and Recovery
Authors: Zamagni Vera
Published: October 2023

This final chapter has a very different role to play from that of the preceding chapters. The process of economic development in Italy went through a decisive stage during the years after the Second World War, and for this reason it is essential to consider this period in order not to lose sight of the long-run interpretation of economic growth which I heartily believe in. However, these past 40 years or so have still not been analysed in depth by historians, although a growing number of studies of an increasingly more specialized nature have been produced by economists interested in the period.1 I myself have never taken the opportunity to do research on this period, with the exception of one study which I shall be mentioning shortly. Thus, while an even more detailed study should have been made of this very important period than has been made of the first 50 years of the newly unified Italy, it is not possible to do it here.
Yosef Nahmani and the Arab Question in 1948
Authors: Morris Benny
Published: October 2023

For close on forty years, Yosef Nahmani (ne Agronovsky) was at the cutting edge of the Zionist enterprise in Palestine—as a member of the pre-World War I HaShomer, the Yishuv’s first self defence force; then as a Haganah activist in Eastern Galilee; and, lastly, as the director of the Jewish National Fund’s branch office in Tiberias, responsible for land purchases and infrastructure development for new Jewish settlements. Land-acquisition and defence matters, the twin pillars of the whole Zionist endeavour, were the core of his life’s work. As we shall see, additional tasks devolved upon him in the course of the 1948 war. And, as we shall also see, Nahmani, in his attitudes and actions, came to embody some of the deep, painful contradictions at the heart of socialist Zionim and of the Zionist enterprise itself, which was guided by this ideology towards statehood and beyond.
The Initial Absorption of the Palestinian Refugees in the Arab Host Countries, 1948–1949
Authors: Morris Benny
Published: October 2023

The Palestinian Arab exodus began in December 1947, within days of the UN General Assembly passage of the Partition Resolution for Palestine and the start of Arab–Jewish hostilities around the country. The first wave of exiles, who numbered several tens of thousands over December 1947–March 1948, was largely drawn from the urban middle classes—relatively wealthy families from Jaffa, Haifa, and Jerusalem, some with second houses in Lebanon, Nablus, or Amman, who preferred to be out of harm’s way for the duration of the conflict. In most cases, they were not compelled to emigrate by Jewish order, pressure, or victory in the field; often, as in Haifa and Jaffa in the first months of the war, the hostilities were relatively minor and these families, if at all, were only remotely threatened.
Renewed Demographic Concerns
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne
Published: October 2023

The period from the 1960s witnessed major reforms and re-orientations in the policies of governments towards families. New economic and social circumstances prevailed, and were making obsolete some of the measures adopted in, and adapted to, the immediate post-war period. Similarly, the demographic changes which were to take place from the mid-1960s were also to call for policy reforms. If the post-war fertility reversal had eliminated earlier fears of depopulation, the sudden onset of fertility decline was to put the population issue back on the political agenda. In addition, the increase in divorce rate, lone-parenthood, and the prevalence of dualearner families, were also revealing the inadequacies of a system of state support aimed at very traditional and stable families. Together these demographic changes were therefore to stimulate the launch of significant action by governments. Responses to this new demographic situation were not uniform across countries. While some governments raised the flag of pro-natalism and opted for interventionist actions, others welcomed the onset of fertility decline as a solution to earlier fears of over-population.
Recent Trends in State Support for Families
Authors: Gauthier Anne Hèléne
Published: October 2023

The period from 1975 was one of significant reorientation for systems of state support for families. There was, first, the need to adjust benefits to better support families. Families had undergone major transformations, and adjustments were required to meet their needs. On the other hand, there were budget constraints which were severely limiting the expansion of the system of state support for families. The whole welfare benefit system had grown unchecked, and there were now calls to restrain its growth. Thus, while the first factor was calling for an expansion in state support for families, the second was calling for stabilization or contraction.
Fertility, Mortality, and Intergenerational Transfers: Comparisons across Steady States
Authors: Lee Ronald
Published: October 2023

Biological changes over the life-cycle interact with economic incentives and socio-cultural values and institutions to produce life-cycle patterns of earning and consumption. These patterns, while by no means identical in detail across populations, share the general features of consumption in excess of labour earnings in youth and old age. Consumption in excess of labour earnings at these ages is funded, at least in part, from the excess of earnings in the working ages, through what may be called intergenerational transfers. Such transfers take place through the family, the public sector, and the market. In steady state, age-patterns of intergenerational transfers are repeated generation after generation, and we may view them as a means for individuals to smooth their own consumption streams through inter-temporal transfers to themselves. In this sense, the consumption needs and labour efforts of the different age-groups in a population at any instant are a kind of surrogate for those same needs and efforts over the individual life-cycle. When the population is stationary, the correspondence is exact: the proportion of the population at each age is identical to the average proportion at each age over the individual life-cycle (see Preston, 1982).
The Changing Shape of the Agricultural Sector
Authors: Fennell Rosemary
Published: October 2023

Before embarking on a review of the way in which the CAP has developed over time, it is opportune to pause and examine the main features of the agricultural sector in the Member States and the Community. This chapter relies entirely on the statistical evidence provided by the Community itself and because that Community has changed in size over time the data used reflect that fact. This complicates the picture, as indeed do the changes in the selection of statistics made available. For instance, Table 3.1 provides some basic data on the Community as it was in 1984 and 1993: the first year was chosen purely because that was the earliest occasion on which the data were published in a particular way which has since been repeated annually. Despite many limitations and concerns about continuity and comparability over time and between Member States, the real problem lies in the overwhelming amount of data now available. The material included in this chapter is but a small selection and has been chosen to highlight certain features of the sector, in particular agriculture’s place in the wider economy; aspects of production and human consumption; the place of the Community in world agricultural trade; the physical size of farms and certain features of the people who work on those farms; and finally the cost of the CAP in budgetary terms.
‘Japanese-Style’ Labour Relations
Authors: Odaka Konosuke
Published: October 2023

It has long been noted that labour relations in Japan have many features that differ from those in Europe and America. First, the Japanese labour market is said to be segregated into separate parts. An indication of this is the rate of voluntary retirement which, already low by international standards, gets lower as the enterprises involved get bigger. Male employees, and particularly the regular staff of large corporations, join their firms fresh from graduation, and after a few years they become very reluctant to leave. On the other hand, employees in small and medium-sized firms tend to change jobs frequently, slipping easily from one workplace to another. An exception to this is those people, such as professional baseball players, who can survive and prosper on their individual skills alone.
The Institutional Framework of the Tokugawa Economy
Authors: Iwahashi Masaru
Published: October 2023

The Tokugawa economy has long since been reinterpreted, and seen as the foundation of the modern Japanese economy. In this chapter, therefore, I will not reexamine economic conditions—such as capital accumulation and production technology—that were direct preconditions for industrialization, an approach exemplified by studies of management and the.
Institutionalizing the Active Labor Market Policy in Japan: A Comparative View
Authors: Kume Ikuo
Published: October 2023

In the postwar high growth period, most advanced industrial democracies made full employment an important political goal, and this commitment drove them to introduce various employment policies. A similar repertoire of employment policies is found in most of these countries. Despite policy similarities, however, unemployment rates diverged widely by the 1980s. In 1960—7, Japan, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and smaller European countries—such as Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden—boasted of unemployment rates below 2.5 per cent. However, only some smaller European corporatist countries—Sweden, Norway, Austria, and Switzerland—and Japan were able to keep their records of low unemployment into the 1980s.
Introduction
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

The subject of this book is the industrial organization of the manufacturing sector in the European Union (EU). Drawing on a research project which in volved extensive data collection, it reports a wide range of new facts which, taken together, paint a far more detailed and comprehensive picture of firm and industry structure than anything previously available. For example, we look at concentration, integration, multinationality and diversification. However, the purpose of the book is not primarily descriptive. Underlying our efforts to describe structure is a theoretical thesis which owes much to recent developments in the academic industrial organization literature. This is that, by studying aspects of industrial structure, one can learn much about the nature of the competitive processes which have given rise to that structure. A key part of our story will be about the crucial influence of different competitive mechanisms: price, advertising, and R & D. Ultimately, therefore, the subject of our book is the analysis of competition in general, and in particular in the context of the European integration process.
The EU Market Share Matrix
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

At the heart of the empirical work in this book is a database constructed specifically for this project: the EU market share matrix. This matrix provides a concise, yet disaggregated and comprehensive, description of the structure of the EU manufacturing sector, and it goes far beyond the sort of information available in the published statistics analysed in the previous chapter. It is the product of a collaborative data collection effort, stretching over a three-year period, to which all of the national research teams have contributed. This chapter is devoted to a description of the matrix: explaining how it was con structed, and exploring some of its properties. Section 3.2 explains the under lying principles and logic of the matrix; Section 3.3 briefly describes the methods of data collection and collation; Section 3.4 reports its broad dimen sions; and Section 3.5 assesses its likely ‘accuracy’. Section 3.6 summarizes.
The Dimensions of Industrial Structure
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

The five chapters which make up this part of the book focus on the individual industry as the unit of observation. In turn, they examine different elements of industry structure: specialization, trade, and integration (Ch.5); concentration (Ch.6); intra-EU multinationality(Ch.7); and the role of non-EU multinational firms (Ch.8). On a factual level, they use the market share matrix to build up an integrated statistical mapping of various elements of the structure of manufac turing in the EU. But, running alongside this factual fl.ow, there is also an under lying conceptual theme. This is that, by observing different facets of thestructure of EU industry, we gain important insights into the nature of the competitive processes at work. This is of interest for both policy purposes and as a test of contemporary industrial organization theory. For example, is competition truly European, or does it remain partly localized within national boundaries? And, can we detect differences between industries which can be explained, as predicted by theory, in terms of the type of competitive weapons used by firms? The present chapter starts the map-plotting task, in Section 4.2, by extract ing estimates of EU industrial concentration from the matrix.
Industrial Concentration
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

Why are some EU industries dominated by a few firms while others are very fragmented? And does the evidence on concentration reveal anything about the competitive process in the EU? These two apparently separate questions tum out to be intimately linked. A central theme in this chapter will be that, by looking carefully at market structure, we can draw inferences about how firms in the industry compete. For example, for a given degree of economies of scale, fiercer price competition leaves room for fewer firms; so the observation of a more concentrated industry, ceteris paribus, tells us about the severity of price competition. This idea will be developed more fully in section 6.3. Part of the reason why some industries are so much more concentrated than others may lie in the degree of trade integration in the EU at the time. For example, in the last chapter we found that Type 2A industries were much less trade integrated than Type 2R. One consequence might be that firms in Type 2A industries were typically competing in a large number of small mar kets, while those in Type 2R industries were competing across the EU. If true, this would certainly affect the EU market structure. One purpose of this chap ter is to investigate the relationship between concentration and trade integ ration.
The Dimensions of Corporate Strategy
Authors: Davies Stephen , Lyons Bruce
Published: October 2023

This chapter opens the third part of the book, in which the focus switches to the individual firm as the unit of analysis. This has two broad purposes. First, it develops our investigation of the determinants of industry structure and EU integration.
Infant and Child Mortality in Italy, Eighteenth to Twentieth Century: Long-Term Trends and Territorial Differences
Authors: Panta Lorenzo Del
Published: October 2023

The aim of this report is to give an account-according to the results of researches which have been carried out up to the present time-of the evolution of infant and child mortality in Italy. Some explanatory hypotheses will also be introduced, mainly on the basis of the observation of territorial differences and of their evolution over time. Along the way, some considerations will also be proposed concerning the reliability of available data, with special regard to the difficulties arising when data come from different experiences and situations. In particular, we must stress the fact that the date of National Unification (1861) creates a breaking-point as far as demographic sources of data are concerned, and it is only after 1861 that an accurate analysis of mortality by age can be carried out for the whole Italian population. The evolution of infant and child mortality from National Unification to the middle of the twentieth century will first be described. Afterwards, some partial information will be supplied about the trends and territorial differences of pre-Unification infant mortality levels.
Month of Birth as a Factor in Children’s Survival
Authors: Breschi Marco , Bacci Massimo Livi
Published: October 2023

The influence of season on child mortality was widely recognized in the past; nineteenth-century European statisticians fully aware of the problem, were active in stimulating central statistical offices to collect and produce statistics on infant deaths that would permit adequate analysis. Practically all major countries have been publishing tables of infant and child deaths by month or season, and the seasonal pattern of mortality has been widely studied. Much rarer are data combining age at death, month of death, and-in some cases-even month of birth.
Family Formation and Infant Mortality in New France
Authors: Desjardins Bertrand
Published: October 2023

The study of the relationship between the parameters of family formation, on the one hand, and child mortality, on the other, generates an enormous amount of interest. Children born into large families, those with very young or very old mothers, and those born in rapid succession all run a higher risk of premature death. The identification of these risks is of primary importance, as it suggests the effect that family planning could have in lowering infant mortality in developing countries.
Endogenous Mortality in New France: At the Crossroads of Natural and Social Selection
Authors: Lalou Richard
Published: October 2023

Endogenous mortality in the past has long been considered a secondary cause of infant mortality, and this would still be the case today if not for the work of certain anthropological historians. Data often suggest what all interpretations affirm: the existence of exogenous factors, such as unsanitary conditions which facilitated the spread of infectious diseases, was overwhelmingly the reason so many children died in infancy.
Differential Infant and Child Mortality in the Netherlands, 1812-1912: First Results of the Historical Sample of the Population of the Netherlands
Authors: Poppel Frans Van , Mandemakers Kees
Published: October 2023

In the late nineteenth century the Netherlands had one of the highest levels of infant mortality in Europe. Nearly one out of every five live-born children died be fore they had reached their first birthday. More remarkable, however, was that infant mortality rates (IMR) rose during the period 1840-75 (Fig. 16.1). Whereas the level was circa 160 per 1,000 around 1840-data for earlier periods are not available-values of more than 200 per 1,000 live births were reached around 1875.
Introduction
Authors: Dréze Jean , Sen Amartya
Published: October 2023

It is nearly half a century now since India achieved independence. On the eve of the departure of the British, on 14 August 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru declared: ‘Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge.’ ‘The achievement we celebrate today,’ Nehru went on, ‘is but a step, an opening of opportunity, to the great triumphs and achievements that await us.’ He reminded the country that the task ahead included ‘the ending of poverty and ignorance and disease and in equality of opportunity.’ It is with that task that this book is concerned.
The Domestic Economic Context of Financial Transition
Authors: Anderson Ronald W , Kegels Chantal
Published: October 2023

The main task we have set for ourselves is to present and analyse the main features of the reform and development of the financial sectors of the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. This comparison is prompted by the fact that these three countries have much in common. In particular for more than forty years they were under the direct influence of the Soviet Union which obliged them to organize their economies according to the logic of socialist central planning. This regime came to an abrupt end in 1989, and since then the three countries have been free to pursue their own separate paths towards the market. Almost inevitably there is a tendency to view this as something of a race which will establish the effectiveness of the policies chosen. Our comparative assessments in Chapter 7 of the financial development strategies are generally in this spirit. However, the analogy of transition to a race should not be pushed too far.
What Went Wrong? The Reasons for the Failure of Stabilization in Russia in 1992
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

When the Gaidar team took over the running of the Russian economy in November 1991, its intention was to introduce a stabilization/liberalization programme very similar to the one which had been implemented with considerable success in Poland in 1990 under Leszek Balcerowicz. Two years later this aim had still not been achieved, and most of the radical reformers and ‘Westernizers’ had left the Russian government after the elections of December 1993. We examine four main kinds of reason for Gaidar’s failure: (1) problems arising from the process of designing the programme; (2) failures of imple mentation; (3) problems arising from Russia’s economic structure; (4) problems arising from Russia’s political structure. In a final section we consider the sequencing debate regarding whether stabilization or privatization should take place first.
A Proposal on how to Introduce a Currency Board Based Monetary System in the Republic of Latvia
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

The Republic of Latvia is now an independent state, completely outside the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) established by most of the other successor states of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, as far as monetary matters are concerned, Latvia is fully integrated into the post-Soviet monetary and banking system. The means of payment in Latvia, as in most of the CIS, is the rouble and at the time of writing the Latvian banking system is still fully integrated with that of the CIS. This means that the customers of Latvian banks in Latvia can use their rouble deposits to pay for goods from suppliers in any of the post-Soviet states, and vice versa. The money is sent via the Latvian Central Bank and the central bank of the other state to the account of the supplier at its commercial bank.
Dilemmas of Monetary and Financial Policy in Post--Stabilization Russia
Authors: Rostowski Jacek
Published: October 2023

Stabilization of high inflation is hard, not only because the political conditions conducive to such an undertaking are not always present, but also because such stabilizations are ‘regime changes’ par excellence. Relationships between variables which existed before the stabilization are violently changed to quite different ones almost overnight. What is more, the new relationships are initially unknown (particularly as regards their quantitative aspect), and yet economic policy cannot cease until the new relationships have been identified. Stabilization is thus technically as well as politically difficult, and it is likely that as many attempted stabilizations have failed as a result of technical errors as from an unconducive political environment. Certainly, if technical mistakes increase the costs of stabilization they can be expected to undermine such political support as there is for the policy.