bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Front Cover: Macromol. Rapid Commun. 3/2007
Authors: Gao Hong , Wang Dong , Guan Shaowei , Jiang Wei , Jiang Zhenhua , Gao Weinan , Zhang Daming
Published: February 2007

Front Cover: The cover picture shows the structure of fluoride hyperbranched polyimide (CF3‐HBPI). In the system of the CF3‐HBPI, a new triamine monomer was synthesized, whose structure is shown on the left. The molecular structures of ‐CF3 terminal monomer, the new triamine and the 6FDA are shown at the bottom. The scheme of CF3‐HBPI can be seen on the right. Further details can be found in the article by H. Gao, D. Wang, S. Guan, W. Jiang, Z. Jiang,* W. Gao, and D. Zhang on page 252.
Involvement of MAPK, Bcl‐2 family, cytochrome c, and caspases in induction of apoptosis by 1,6‐O,O‐diacetylbritannilactone in human leukemia cells
Authors: Pan Min‐Hsiung , Chiou Yi‐Siou , Cheng An‐Chin , Bai Naisheng , Lo Chih‐Yu , Tan Di , Ho Chi‐Tang
Published: February 2007

1,6‐O,O‐diacetylbritannilactone (OODBL) isolated from Inula britannica, exhibits potent antitumor activity against several human cancer cell lines. However, the molecular mechanism of OODBL in the induction of anticancer activity is still unclear. In the present study, we demonstrated that OODBL induced the occurrence of apoptosis in human leukemic (HL‐60) cells and cell arrest at the S phase. On the other hand, activation of caspase‐8, ‐9, and ‐3, phosphorylation of Bcl‐2 and Bid, and increased release of cytochrome c from mitochondria into cytosolic fraction were detected in OODBL‐treated HL‐60 cells. We further demonstrated that production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), activation of mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) and c‐Jun N‐terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathways may play an important role in OODBL‐induced apoptosis. The results from the present study highlight the molecular mechanisms underlying OODBL‐induced anticancer activity.
Growth mechanism of satellite cells in human urethral rhabdosphincter
Authors: Sumino Yasuhiro , Hirata Yuji , Sato Fuminori , Mimata Hiromitsu
Published: February 2007

Aims

To examine the presence of satellite cells in human urethral rhabdosphincter (RS) and to clarify the growth mechanism of these cells.

Methods

Human RS was obtained from patients undergoing radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer. Primary cells were selectively cultured by magnetic affinity cell sorting (MACS) using an anti‐neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) antibody. Selectively cultured cells, transfected with simian virus‐40 T antigen to extend their lifespan, were used for the following experiments: (1) determination of the effects of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), insulin‐like growth factor‐1 (IGF‐1), and basic fibroblast growth factor (b‐FGF); (2) clarification of the signal transduction pathways used by these growth factors; and (3) examination of the autocrine actions in these cells.

Results

Selectively cultured cells expressed striated muscle markers and could differentiate into myotubes. HGF and IGF‐1 stimulated the growth of these cells in a dose‐dependent fashion. Regarding signal transduction, HGF phosphorylated ERK1/2 for 120 min while only transiently modifying Akt. In contrast, IGF‐1 phosphorylated Akt but not ERK1/2. Furthermore, these cells produced transcripts and proteins for both HGF and IGF‐1, and anti‐HGF and anti‐IGF‐1 antibodies suppressed cell proliferation.

Conclusions

Satellite cells are present in human RS. The proliferation of these cells is primarily enhanced through both the endogenous and exogenous actions of HGF and IGF‐I via ERK1/2 and Akt. These findings may be useful in the development of a novel technique for the regeneration of human RS to treat urinary incontinence. Neurourol. Urodynam. 26:552–561, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effectiveness of private finance initiatives (PFI): study of private financing for the provision of capital assets for schools
Authors: Kakabadse Nada K. , Kakabadse Andrew P. , Summers Nick
Published: February 2007

The study reported in this paper explores how effective Public Private Partnerships (PPP) have been as critical providers of capital assets within the state education sector in the UK. Specifically, the research investigates the impact on educational provision of the UK government's contentious £43 billion Private Finance Initiative (PFI). The inquiry focuses on 27 English Local Education Authorities (LEAs) currently or recently involved in PFI. The investigation examines the effect of PFI's on LEA decision‐making processes and discusses these authorities assessment of the UK government's current PFI strategy. An evaluation of PFI as a source of sustainable finance is reported as well as recommendations made for LEAs currently considering adoption of PFI. Through such analysis, this study seeks to de‐layer and ascertain the influence of complex external environmental influences and stakeholders that need to be taken into account in order to make PPPs work. The paper concludes by presenting the critical considerations for enhancing the working relationship between private and public sector partners. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Enhanced solvent extraction of polar lipids associated with rubber particles from hevea brasiliensis
Authors: Bonfils Frederic , Ehabe Eugene Ejolle , Aymard Christian , Vaysse Laurent , Sainte‐Beuve Jerome
Published: February 2007

Biochemical studies of lipids bound to rubber particles have been complicated due to the solubility of polyisoprene chains in most extracting solvents and the rather delicate nature of polar lipids that are often denatured when traditional solvent extraction techniques are employed. In this paper, we describe a traditional technique and accompanying solvents that permit optimal extraction of rubber particle bound lipids. The technique, which is validated after characterizing the lipid extracts by elemental analysis, silica column adsorption and thin layer chromatography, appeared more suitable for extracting total lipids with optimal glycolipid and phospholipid contents. This technique is proposed as an alternative to traditional extraction methods used for solid natural rubber as it offers advantages with respect to ease of application, extract quality, extraction yields and reproducibility. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Demonstration of long‐chain n‐alkyl caffeates and Δ7‐steryl glucosides in the bark of Acacia species by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
Authors: Freire Carmen S. R. , Silvestre Armando J. D. , Neto Carlos Pascoal
Published: February 2007

The GC‐MS identification of several abundant long‐chain aliphatic n‐alkyl caffeates, together with other p‐hydroxycinnamic acid esters, in the dichloromethane extracts of the bark of Acacia dealbata and A. melanoxylon, is reported. In addition, the unambiguous differentiation between two Δ7‐steryl glucosides (namely, spinasteryl glucoside and dihydrospinasteryl glucosides) and the homologous Δ5‐steryl glucosides was achieved based on the EI‐MS fragmentation features of their trimethylsilyl derivatives. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Dual functionality of PTSA as electrolyte and dopant in the electrochemical synthesis of polyaniline, and its effect on electrical properties
Authors: Bhadra Sambhu , Singha Nikhil K , Khastgir Dipak
Published: February 2007

The electrochemical synthesis of polyaniline (PAni) powder was carried out from an aqueous solution of 0.15 mol L−1 aniline with varying concentrations of p‐toluenesulphonic acid (PTSA) at room temperature. The PAni samples thus obtained were characterized using DC and AC conductivity, dielectric properties, infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, X‐ray analysis, scanning electron microscopy and ultraviolet spectroscopy. Results showed that PTSA is acting both as electrolyte and doping agent. With an increase in the PTSA concentration, there is more polaron formation, and this means an increase in charge carrier concentration and mobility. This accounts for the increase in conductivity and improved dielectric properties of the resultant PAni. The polymer was subjected to a heating and cooling cycle. The change in conductivity during the heating cycle is quite different from that during the cooling cycle, indicating some kind of hysteresis phenomenon occurring in the system. Moreover there is a net decrease in room temperature conductivity of PAni when subjected to the heating–cooling cycle. This may be due to the oxidation of PAni and generation of some kind of disorder in the structure of PAni during the heating–cooling process. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry
The oncogenic potential of a prostate cancer‐derived androgen receptor mutant
Authors: Shi Xu‐Bao , Xue Lingru , Tepper Clifford G. , Gandour‐Edwards Regina , Ghosh Paramita , Kung Hsing‐Jien , deVere White Ralph W.
Published: February 2007

BACKGROUND

The role of androgen receptor (AR) mutations in the initiation of prostate cancer (CaP) remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of an AR mutation on prostate tumorigenesis and to determine the resulting molecular alterations.

METHODS

Wild‐type AR (ARWT) or the CaP‐derived K580R AR (ARK580R) mutant was stably transfected into SV40‐immortalized human prostate epithelial pRNS‐1‐1 cells that lack AR expression and fail to grow in nude mice. The ability of these AR‐transfected cell lines to form tumor was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, gene expression profiling of these cell lines was performed.

RESULTS

Compared with the ARWT, the ARK580R induced greater than sixfold increase in colony formation in soft agar. In vivo studies confirmed that the ARK580R‐transfected pRNS‐1‐1 cells were able to form tumors in nude mice. Using a combination of microarray and RT‐PCR, 29 differentially expressed genes were identified in ARK580R cells. It was found that silencing the expression of placental alkaline phosphatase (ALPP) that was upregulated in ARK580R cells resulted in significant inhibition of cell growth. Furthermore, the ARK580R‐transfected pRNS‐1‐1 cells expressed markedly increased p‐Akt and p‐p70 S6K.

CONCLUSION

The ARK580R mutation promoted the malignant transformation of prostate epithelial cells. This was associated with upregulation of ALPP and subsequent activation of the Akt signaling pathway. Prostate 67: 591–602, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Notes on upper air hygrometry.—II. On The Humidity in the Stratosphere
Authors: Dobson G. M. B. , Gluckauf E.
Published: February 2007

The meteorograph records of the almost daily ascents over England during the months of April, 1939, and September, 1930, have been evaluated according to a method described in an earlier paper. (Q.J. 70, 1944, p. 293).

The humidities so obtained indicate (1) that supersaturation with respect to ice is very frequently found in the upper troposphere; (2) that, within the stratosphere, dry air of a humidity mixing ratio of about 10−5 sometimes does occur, which can only be explained as tropical stratosphere air; (3) that, on one occasion, very dry air from the stratosphere appears to have been drawn into the uppermost regions of the troposphere.
The meteorological control of atmospheric pollution by heavy industry
Authors: Hewson E. W.
Published: February 2007

The paper describes a method of reducing atmospheric pollution by varying the emission of the offending material with meteorological conditions. The details of the application of this principle by the Trail plant of the Consolidated Mining and Smelting Co. of Canada, Ltd., located in southern British Columbia, are given. The problem there is to prevent damage by sulphur dioxide to vegetation in the state of Washington. An investigation of the distribution of winds and SO2 in the Columbia River valley near Trail shows that, during growing season, the majority of fumigations are brought about by differential heating of the valley sides by the sun.

Measured values of atmospheric turbulence and of wind speed and direction are fundamental in the control régime prescribed by the Arbitral Tribunal set up by governments of Canada and the United States. The possibility of applying this principle in other situations, and especially over level country, is discussed.
The theoretical distribution of airborne pollution from factory chimneys
Authors: Sutton O. G.
Published: February 2007

The dispersal of pollution from factory chimneys is now recognised as a problem of considerable importance, both as affecting the health of the population in the neighbourhood of the source and for economic reasons. The release of accurate experimental data on atmospheric diffusion makes it possible to give reasonably reliable estimates of the concentrations of smoke and spread of the pollution downwind. It is shown that the earlier work of Bosanquet and Pearson is in general qualitative agreement with the more accurate expressions of the present paper, which are also shown to be in accordance with recent observations of Hewson on the distribution of sulphur dioxide in the vicinity of a large factory. Tables are given from which it is possible to estimate concentrations of pollution downward of an elevated source emitting at a known rate in various meteorological conditions.
Observations on the structure of convection currents; meteorological aspects of some South African gliding flights
Authors: Rainey R. C.
Published: February 2007

(1) During the early stages of convection, the upper limit of air currents ascending from the surface, as recorded by sailplane, is found to agree closely with the level of the intersection on the tephigram of the path curve through the surface temperature at the time and the environment curve given by the corresponding upper‐air temperature observations. Details are given of one series of observations showing clearly successive stages in the breakdown of a morning inversion; and the good and bad thermal soaring conditions encountered on different days are shown to be fully explained by differences in vertical temperature distribution.

(2) In the absence of appreciable convection effects, the vertical extent of orographic up‐currents over a hill is shown to be correlated with the component of the surface wind perpendicular to the line of the ridge.

(3) Examples of the distribution of convective up‐currents in relation to the surface topography and to the structure of the wind, together with the magnitude of these currents, are derived from detailed analyses of barographic records of cross‐country sailplane flights on which a suitable flight‐plan has been followed sufficiently rigorously. Observations are quoted indicating convective cells of horizontal extent about twice their depth and 9,000 to 12,000 ft. long in the direction of the wind, and providing an approximate value of the ratio of the masses of ascending and descending air within a given isobaric slice.

(4) An analysis of sailplane flights made at a well‐marked cold front demonstrates the existence of a narrow but apparently continuous zone of rising air immediately ahead of the front, with a vertical velocity greater than can be accounted for by passive lifting of the warm air at the frontal surface. Surface and upper‐air temperatures in the warm air ahead of the front show that this effect may be explained in terms of the localisation of previously scattered convection currents in the highly unstable warm air into a narrow zone just ahead of the advancing cold air.
Horizontal wind fields and pressure gradient
Authors: Sellick N. P.
Published: February 2007

The method adopted in deriving the geostrophic and gradient wind relations, that of specifying a wind field and deriving the pressure field from it, is extended to find pressure fields for other flow patterns. The motion is referred to contours of isobaric surfaces and the analysis is limited to motion in terms of Cartesian co‐ordinates. Simple linear fields of motion introducing divergence and deformation are examined. It is found that fields which include deformation, e.g., cols and elliptical fields, are associated with appreciable acceleration and cross‐isobar flow, and that the addition of divergence leads to marked changes of pattern with time. Divergence imposed on solid rotation leads to marked cross‐isobar flow for pressure tendencies of average amount. A primitive cyclone model, moving to the east with a convergent centre of solid rotation surrounded by a simple vortex, is presented, and the pressure field resembles that of a deepening secondary. Finally it is shown that a translating cellular pattern resembles the waves observed in the upper troposphere.
A note on the relation between ageostrophic winds and isallobaric gradients
Authors: Miles M. K.
Published: February 2007

Using the observational material presented in an earlier paper (Miles 1949) it is found that the following relation fits the observations ahead of most of the warm fronts : [A] = 1.45 IM – 1, where [A] is the magnitude of the ageostrophic wind at 900 mb and IM the measured isallobaric wind as defined by Brunt and Douglas (1928), both in mi/hr.

It is shown that when allowance is made for the fact that IM is obtained from isopleths drawn from three‐hour tendencies the result compares closely with other observational relations which have been shown (Miles 1949) to be in agreement with theory.

This and some further measurements from synoptic charts lead to the conclusion that in the majority of cases the measured isallobaric wind can give a useful first approximation to the ageostrophic wind at 900 mb.
The temperatures at the tops of radar echoes associated with various cloud systems
Authors: Jones R. F.
Published: February 2007

Evidence is produced to support the belief that temperatures at the tops of weather echoes are an indication of the relative strengths of the vertical currents within the echoes. Two types of weather echo are indicated according as the vertical currents are strong or weak, giving support to a theory for two different methods for the production of water drops of raindrop size in the atmosphere.
The size of cloud droplets in layer‐type cloud
Authors: Best A. C.
Published: February 2007

The rate of growth of cloud droplets round a salt nucleus is examined and it is shown that, with nuclei of the size quoted in published measurements, the drop radius achieved in the period before the droplet is carried out of the cloud layer by turbulent diffusion is in reasonable accord with published measurements of the mean drop radius. It is also shown that the maximum drop radius reached when the droplet leaves the cloud owing to fall under gravity is of the same order as the largest cloud‐drop measurements. The effect of temperature is considered.
The warming of arctic air masses over the eastern North Atlantic
Authors: Craddock J. M.
Published: February 2007

Methods are described whereby 28 measurements were made of the rates at which cold air masses crossing the eastern North Atlantic were receiving heat and water vapour from the sea. It is shown that the rate of heat transfer is closely associated with the difference between the sea temperature and the surface temperature representative of the air mass, and some of the implications of this result are discussed.
The size of cloud particles in stratocumulus cloud
Authors: Frith R.
Published: February 2007

The size distribution of water droplets in thin stratocumulus cloud has been investigated using an impactor technique. The variation from point to point in the cloud is considered and it is shown that where the water content is large there is generally a larger number of particles but the average size is also greater. It is remarked that it seems to be quite usual for this sort of cloud to have a double maximum in the size distribution of droplets.
A raindrop spectrograph
Authors: Bowen E. G. , Davidson K. A.
Published: February 2007

A simple form of raindrop spectrograph is described. It is capable of giving a continuous record of the changes in the distribution of drop sizes which occur during a fall of rain.

Examples are given of the spectra obtained during a variety of rain situations ranging from continuous rain to isolated showers.
On the evaluation of terms of a type arising in Sutcliffe's treatment of cyclonic development
Authors: Sawyer J. S. , Matthewman A. G.
Published: February 2007

A method is described for the approximate evaluation of expressions of the form V. Δ § in which V denotes a geostrophic wind vector, and § a geostrophic vorticity. The method is suitable for application to synoptic charts.
A study of the rainfall of two synoptic situations
Authors: Sawyer J. S.
Published: February 2007

The rainfall resulting from the movement of the small depression of 14 March 1949 across the British Isles is analysed in detail by means of the autographic records and rainfall observations maintained for climatological purposes. The most striking features of the rainfall distribution are the result of orographic lifting and are in reasonable accord with theoretical expectation. The main effect of the hills is to intensify the rainfall in the existing rain area, but the duration is also increased in the higher areas. Other features of the rainfall distribution are discussed in relation to Sutcliffe's theory of development.

A similar analysis is also made of the rainfall from the warm front of 14 February 1950.
Production of rain and drizzle by coalescence in stratiform clouds
Authors: Mason B. J.
Published: February 2007

Calculations have been made of the rate at which droplets originating on salt nuclei of given mass grow by both condensation and coalescence with smaller droplets in layer clouds of given uniform updraught, mean temperature, supersaturation and liquid‐water content; also of the rate at which the drops falling from the cloud will shrink by evaporation before reaching the ground. It is shown that clouds sustained by uniform updraughts of up to 10 cm sec−1 with no turbulent motion would be incapable of producing drizzle at the ground unless their liquid‐water contents were considerably higher than measured values indicate. It is suggested that turbulence plays an important part in releasing precipitation from non‐freezing layer clouds by increasing the effective fall path of some larger droplets among their small neighbours; this would lead to increased growth by coalescence. In order to start the coalescence process, a few droplets considerably larger than average must be present. It does not appear possible to account for this initial heterogeneity in the droplet‐size spectrum otherwise than by assuming that these larger droplets grow by condensation for a considerably longer period than the rest. It is suggested that while the bulk of the cloud droplets have their growth periods limited by the fact that they are continually being transferred by eddies between the interior and the boundaries of the cloud, a few remain in the interior for a long time, and it is these which initiate coalescence. These would have to exist in the cloud for 3 to 4 hr before falling out as drizzle drops.
A comparison of different types of stress measurement
Authors: Panofsky H. A.
Published: February 2007

Wind stresses computed from the profile of the mean wind at Brookhaven are compared with Reynolds stresses at 109m. Two methods are used to obtain the surface stress from the mean winds: one is based on three observations up to 125 m, the second on the observation at the lowest level only, as well as a roughness length determined previously.

The stresses found by both these techniques agree in order of magnitude with the Reynolds stresses, varying from about 1 to 10 dynes cm−2. With respect to actual numerical values, only the wind stress determined from the lowest‐level wind agrees well with the Reynolds stress.
The production of showers by the growth of ice particles
Authors: Ludlam F. H.
Published: February 2007

A model of cumulus‐cloud structure is described, and used, together with the available evidence on the temperatures of ice‐crystal formation and a calculation of the speed of growth of crystals into precipitation elements, to estimate the summit‐level temperatures at which the formation of showers becomes likely. It appears that in warm weather showers may be expected with summit temperatures of about −10°C, but in cold weather not until they fall to about −20°C. Observational evidence is shown to support this view although emphasizing large casual variations, some of whose causes are suggested.
On the velocity, temperature, and humidity profiles in the lower atmosphere
Authors: Björgum O.
Published: February 2007

On the basis of the assumption that the eddy viscosity, eddy conductivity, and eddy diffusivity are determined by the first and second differential coefficients of the mean velocity U, mean potential temperature Θ, and mean humidity X (specific humidity, mixing ratio, or water‐vapour pressure) the following formulae are obtained for the lower atmosphere over level ground (valid up to a height of about 25 m),

Here Θ, and X0 denote potential temperature and humidity at the ground. U* is the friction velocity and Θ* and X* denote corresponding quantities for temperature and humidity.

The above logarithmic formulae are in good agreement with Best's measurements when the parameters d, a, b, k, l are chosen to give the best fit with his observed velocity and temperature profiles which are grouped according to stratification and mean velocity.

The zero‐plane displacement d is inferred to be the same for all profiles. Measurements by Sverdrup indicate that this is true for for temperatures whereas measurements by Rider and Robinson indicate that it is not always true for higher temperatures.

Theoretical reasoning leads to the conclusion that d should increase with thermal instability and this is verified by Best's data. It is also inferred that k, l, and m should increase with instability, whereas a is found to decrease with instability.
Annual recurrences in Edinburgh temperature
Authors: McIntosh D. H.
Published: February 2007

Mean daily temperatures at Edinburgh for a period of 150 years are examined for evidence of persistent annual recurrences of unseasonal character. The recurrences are found to be very largely casual in their incidence but, as a result of tests applied, it is concluded that there is only a very small probability that their nature is completely random. Recurrences on the days of ‘Buchan spells’ are found not to depart to a significant degree from chance expectations.
The growth of raindrops in cloud
Authors: Adderley E. E.
Published: February 2007

A method is described by which the rate of growth of raindrops in cloud is deduced from the results of a balloon‐borne radio transmitter. The transmitter, during its passage up through the cloud, gives a continuous record of the drop‐size distribution of the rain. The values of the rates of growth of raindrops obtained in this manner differ considerably from those computed from accepted values of cloud‐drop distributions and raindrop‐collection efficiencies. The experimental values rise more rapidly than the computed values by a factor of from 3 to 4 in the 0.5 mm to 1.0 mm raindrop‐diameter range.

It is concluded that the effect is real but, as yet, knowledge of the physical conditions within a cloud is insufficient to suggest a mechanism to account for it.
Fluctuations of temperature below cumulus clouds
Authors: James D. G.
Published: February 2007

A description is given of one flight below cumulus clouds on 28 Aug. 1952. Small rapid fluctuations of temperature were observed by a sensitive resistance thermometer, records being obtained as a photographic trace. It is shown that, with respect to the frequency and type of fluctuation of temperature encountered, the space between cloud base, i.e., 3,100 ft, and ground level may be divided into three sections. The first, a layer extending from ground to about 800 ft, the second from 800 ft to about 2,800 ft, and the third from 2,800 ft to cloud base. A possible explanation for the formation of these layers is discussed.
The formation of atmospheric ice crystals by the freezing of droplets
Authors: Bigg E. K.
Published: February 2007

Using the results of laboratory experiments on the supercooling of purified water, the freezing of cloud and raindrops is examined. It is shown that at temperatures lower than about −30°C in cold‐box or expansion‐chamber experiments, the drops freeze in approximately the numbers that would be expected if they were pure water. Those that freeze at temperatures higher than about −20°C seem to be more numerous than would be the case if the drops were pure. An interpretation of the main features of the Findeisen and Schulz expansion‐chamber experiments is found to be possible without appealing to the action of foreign ice‐forming nuclei, although there is a discrepancy between calculation and experiment at temperatures higher than about −20°C. In the atmosphere, formation of cirrus clouds is shown to become possible at temperatures below about −35°C, glaciation in stratiform clouds to become appreciable at temperatures below about −20°C and freezing of raindrops in strongly convective clouds to become important below about −13°C, without the presence of ice nuclei. It is concluded that freezing nuclei may be important at temperatures above about −20°C, while their presence at lower temperatures will be masked by the freezing of uncontaminated drops.
Observations of rainfall from warm clouds
Authors: Mordy W. A. , Eber L. E.
Published: February 2007

Rainfall from non‐freezing clouds has been widely reported but detailed observations are sparse. During June 1952, ten days of observations were made during trade‐wind weather conditions on the island of Oahu. Rainfall was observed during each of the 10 days, and in no instance did cloud temperatures below 7°C occur. Aircraft were used to obtain temperature and humidity soundings supplementary to the Honolulu radiosonde and to measure the dimensions of the clouds. Raindrop sizes were recorded on a continuously moving dye‐treated paper tape at two locations. Data on rainfall were obtained from 5 recording raingauges on the crest of the Koolau Mountain Range and from 32 standard raingauges in an area of 130 m2 Pilot‐balloon ascents were made daily on the windward coast of Oahu to supplement the Honolulu Weather Bureau wind data. A continuous record of cloud conditions and motions was made by lapse‐time motion‐picture photography and supplemented with photographs from aircraft.

Rainfall intensities exceeding 3 mm/hr were observed from clouds with bases at 2,000 ft (18.6°C) and tops at 7,500 ft (10.2°C). Raindrop sizes as large as 2 mm in diameter were observed from clouds 6,000 ft deep. Light‐intensity rains from small cumulus clouds frequently consisted of raindrops which were relatively large (2 mm diameter) but low in number.
Rainfall in the Isle of Man
Authors: Reynolds G.
Published: February 2007

The rainfall of the Isle of Man has been examined, making use of all available data, much of it relating to only very short periods. This discussion has been made possible by treating all the short records from the aspect of their differences on Douglas. The Island is divided into seven rainfall zones, the characteristics of which are discussed. Maps of the average annual fall and the average number of rain‐days and wet‐days are presented. Fluctuations of annual rainfall have been found to lie between 64 and 145 per cent of average. When compared with other Irish Sea coastal areas, the Douglas average rainfall is shown to be most closely correlated with that of the North Wales coast and South Scotland.
On the correlation of vectors
Authors: Ellison T. H.
Published: February 2007

The regression equation for a random vector depending on two others is developed in tensor notation by known methods and total and partial correlation numbers are defined.
Evaporation from an oat field
Authors: Rider N. E.
Published: February 2007

Evaporation from natural surfaces may be evaluated by a method based on aerodynamic considerations which lead to the simple equation magnified imagein which E, p and k are the rate of evaporation, the air density and von Kármán's constant respectively, u1, u2, q1 and q2 are the wind speeds and specific humidities at the heights z1 and z2, and d the so‐called surface zero displacement. This formula has been applied to observations taken over an oat field in order to determine the hourly values of E during a number of periods ranging in length from one to twelve days. The magnitude of d is shown to increase with increasing crop height and wind speed, the crop height increasing eightfold over the total period of observation. Daily water losses are calculated and found to vary from 0.05 mm to 5.65 mm. By using two sets of apparatus, the calculated values of E are shown, in unstable conditions, to depend on the height of exposure of the apparatus, decreasing with increasing height. A modified form of the equation, based on Deacon's generalized wind‐profile law, has been used in the last period of observation and found to reduce the dependence of the calculated values of E on the level at which the apparatus was placed. The general application of the modified expression was found to be impossible owing to insufficient precision in the measurements of the wind speeds and to the uncertainty in the value to be assigned to d. In general, the computed daily water losses are considered to be underestimated to an extent not exceeding 15 per cent.
Rainfall in relation to the jet stream
Authors: Johnson D. H. , Daniels S. M.
Published: February 2007

A study is made of the rainfall occurring at four British stations on occasions when they lie beneath the jet stream. The mean distribution of rainfall in relation to the jet stream provides evidence, in agreement with dynamical theory, for a direct circulation at the jet entrance and an indirect circulation at the jet exit. Precipitation patterns found for uniform currents provide no satisfactory evidence with regard to the preferred vertical circulations within the central region of the jet stream.
A comparison of the dines and bibby raingauges
Authors: Spurr G.
Published: February 2007

The Dines and Bibby raingauges were designed to fulfil different purposes; one to measure total rainfall, the other to measure rate of rainfill. The two instruments have been compared to find out whether each would carry out the function of the other.
A study of blocking in the Atlantic‐European of the northern hemisphere
Authors: Sumner E. J.
Published: February 2007

Various interpretations of what is meant by ‘blocking’ in the atmosphere are discussed. The three main aspects referred to by writers on the subject are: (a) a sharp local diminution of the mean zonal (tropospheric) flow, often associated with a bifurcation of the jet stream, which diminution is (b) rather persistent and (c) displaced westwards with time. Not all of these attributes have been insisted upon as defining blocking but usually (a) and (b) are required. The view is taken herein that, for forecasting purposes, only (a) is admissible, and a selection of instantaneous patterns having this characteristic is made, two broad types being distinguished, for the period 1949‐52 and in the Atlantic‐European sector of the northern hemisphere.

Some statistics relating to the seasonal and geographic distribution of these patterns are given, which in the main confirm previous results. Blocking patterns were found to occur on more than half the days, individual blocks lasting on an average 16.5 days. They were most frequent in May and least frequent in July, and tended to be displaced from Europe to mid‐Atlantic during the first six months of the year. Within this general westward drift several successive ‘waves’ of progression and retrogression were in evidence. Blocking over N. America was extremely rare.

This position and movement of individual blocks is presented in some detail, and notes on their formation, dissipation and general character are also given.
Theory of airflow over mountains: III ‐ Airstream characteristics
Authors: Scorer R. S.
Published: February 2007

The problem of what second boundary condition (the first being the ground profile) should be applied to the differential equation for the variation with height of the wave amplitude is considered and it is thought that solutions corresponding to upward and downward progressing waves are generally irrelevant. In practice we shall be concerned mainly with those waves of length such that their amplitude decreases with increasing height. Only when there is a considerable range of such wavelenghts is the motion of the kind supposed in the perturation theory.

Though it is desirable to characterize an airstream by a single number this is not at present possible for airstreams in general, and it is shown by examples how airstreams may possess the same lee wave length though their l‐profiles differ considerably. These examples show that generally the maximum amplitude of the waves is found at or close to levels of maximum values of l, at sharp inversions in particular.

The behaviour of lee (statopmaru) waves is fairly representative of mountain waves in general.
Snowfall probabilities on Merseyside
Authors: Reynolds G.
Published: February 2007

The probabilities of snowfall and snow cover on Merseyside are examined by computing adjusted normal frequency distributions for 34 years of record at Bidston, Wirral, about three miles from the centre of Liverpool. A graph has been drawn from which the chances of these occurrences can be read off directly for any selected date or period. Estimates are also advanced of the probabilities of deep snow lying on the ground. These have been computed principally from records of heavy daily rainfall.
Tidal oscillations of the lower stratosphere
Authors: Johnson D. H.
Published: February 2007

It is demonstrated that diurnal and semi‐diurnal variations of wind occur in the lower stratosphere. These oscillations appear to be associated with the solar tides. The stratospheric semi‐diurnal oscillation of wind is in phase with, and of comparable magnitude to, the surface semi‐diurnal oscillation of wind. In the stratosphere, the diurnal oscillation is found to be of similar magnitude to the semi‐diurnal oscillation.
Note on energy transfer and conversion in large atmospheric disturbances
Authors: van Mieghem J.
Published: February 2007

An analysis is given of the rate of production of perturbation kinetic energy, with emphasis on the influence of static stability, baroclinicity and of heating and cooling.
The scintillation of radio stars
Authors: Palmer H. P.
Published: February 2007

This note presents a brief summary of the work of Little, Maxwell and Dagg (1952, 1954) on the fluctuations of the power received from the intense sources of radio emission in the constellations of Cassiopeia and Cygnus.

Receiving equipments, 4 km apart, give almost identical records of the fluctuations, but there is no correlation when the receivers are 200 km apart. The fluctuations occur mainly during the night, the degree of fluctuation varying from night to night, and showing a close correlation with the occurrence of ‘spread F’ ionospheric echoes. This evidence suggests that the fluctuations are caused by a terrestrial agency, and not by variations of the power emitted by the radio source. It is thought that the fluctuations are analogous to the ‘twinkling’ of visual stars and are caused by a diffracting screen of irregularities above the maximum of ionization in the F region of the ionosphere.

When records from receivers two or three km apart are compared, small time‐differences can be detected between the records of similar fluctuations. These may be interpreted as evidence for drift motions of the diffracting screen. Records from a triangularly‐spaced set of three stations have recently given both the drift speeds and directions. For observations when the source is near the zenith, in Britain, the velocities are usually in the range 50–300 m/sec, in an east‐west direction.

In the winter months, when the stars transit near midnight, the drifts are towards the west before 01 GMT. There appears then to be a fairly sharp reversal, and the drifts are predominantly towards the east thereafter. As the fluctuations rarely occur in the daytime, no other reversal has been observed.

When the stars are observed near lower culmination the line of sight passes through the F region in the auroral zone. Fluctuations are observed at all times (even on magnetically quiet days), and they indicate rather higher velocities, and more variable directions of drift. The drifts are predominantly towards the west in the period 09–21 GMT and towards the SE. or SW. from 21‐06 GMT. The apparent N‐S components of these drifts might be caused by vertical movements. The appended references contain full accounts of this work.
Free and forced convection in the atmosphere near the ground
Authors: Priestley C. H. B.
Published: February 2007

There is evidence for quite a sharp transition between the regimes of fully forced and of dominantly free convection in the atmosphere near the ground. The two appear to overlap significantly only over a narrow range of Richardson numbers, which may be less than twofold.
Low‐temperature fog at the Edmonton Airport as influenced by moisture from the combustion of natural gas
Authors: Robertson George W.
Published: February 2007

The Edmonton Municipal Airport, being within the city limits, is completely surrounded by a source of moisture from the combustion of natural gas. Since the natural gas is metered to consumers, a quantitative study of the injection of moisture into the air around the airport is possible. Equations and graphs show how moisture in the air at the airport is influenced by temperature, wind velocity and initial relative humidity. The results obtained are compared with fog conditions observed at the airport during the winter of 1949–50.
Secular changes of tropical rainfall regimes
Authors: Kraus E. B.
Published: February 2007

Secular changes are demonstrated by residual mass curves. It is shown that tropical rainfall decreased abruptly at the end of the 19th century. This was due largely to a contraction of the rainy belt and a shortening of the wet seasons. In the SE. Asian monsoon region the annual rainfall has varied less than in the rest of the tropics but changes occurred in the seasonal pattern. Similarities in the records suggest a physical connection between frontal or cyclonic activity in the temperate zone and the October‐March monsoon rains of tropical Australia and SE. Asia.

A concluding section develops the argument that the evaporation‐precipitation cycle is a partly unstable process and that small radiative changes could conceivably produce large and abrupt changes in the rainfall regime.
Methods of synoptic analysis at low latitudes
Authors: Watts I. E. M.
Published: February 2007

The apparent differences in the methods of synoptic analysis employed in the tropical Pacific and in equatorial SE. Asia represent nothing more than adaptations of the same technique. Over the Pacific it is unusual for two different air‐streams to meet at a large angle and, since their common boundary cannot be traced from day to day with continuity, reliance must be placed on recognition of short‐lived asymptotes and vortices from the instantaneous streamlines. Over equatorial SE. Asia, long semi‐permanent boundaries can be traced with continuity owing to the persistence of the westerlies. The difference of opinion as to the most desirable method of analysis is mainly due to the variations in horizontal extent of the equatorial westerlies in different longitudes. At the boundary between the trades and the westerlies there are separate centres of rainfall rather than a continuous rain‐band.
An operational frontal contour‐analysis model
Authors: Anderson R. , Boville B. W. , McClellan D. E.
Published: February 2007

A three‐front model is proposed as a practical solution to analysis problems associated with both surface fronts and the baroclinic currents of the upper westerlies. They are called the ‘polar front,’ the ‘maritime front,’ and the ‘arctic front.’

A front is defined as a three‐dimensional baroclinic zone, having a first‐order discontinuity in the temperature and wind fields, and being reasonably continuous in space and time. Frontal contour analysis is found to be operationally practicable and desirable.
The temperature profile above bare soil on clear nights
Authors: Lake J. V.
Published: February 2007

A method of investigating air temperature profiles by means of a small unscreened thermistor bead is described. Profiles measured both with this equipment and with ordinary minimum thermometers under very stable atmospheric conditions exhibited unusual features inconsistent with the generally accepted theory of nocturnal cooling of the near‐ground air layers. The minimum air temperature was found to occur at heights varying between 1.5 and 6.0 in. above the surface, and the results support the view that direct radiation loss from the air is important in determining the temperature distribution under these conditions.
On the melting of hailstones
Authors: Mason B. J.
Published: February 2007

Calculations have been made on the rate of melting of solid ice spheres and of graupel particles as they fall from the 0°C level towards the ground. Graphs are drawn for particles of various initial radii showing the radius of the unmelted core as a function of the distance fallen, and the distances which the particles must fall in order to melt completely. The effects of acquiring additional water by condensation and by the accretion of cloud droplets on the rate of melting of the particles are investigated.
The forms of ice clouds: II
Authors: Ludlam F. H.
Published: February 2007

The role of convection (released by the latent heat of condensation when crystals fall into ice‐supersaturated air) in the regeneration of fallstreak cirrus forms is discussed and illustrated.
Secular changes of the standing circulation
Authors: Kraus E. B.
Published: February 2007

The evidence produced seems to show a secular intensification of the North Indian summer‐monsoon low. The effects upon rainfall in North India and the Peninsula are discussed qualitatively. The secular decrease of the mean summer pressures in North India was associated with an increase of winter pressure. Similar pressure changes, with an even larger seasonal amplitude, occurred throughout eastern Europe, Siberia and eastern Asia.

The secular increase in the seasonal pressure oscillation over the interior of Eurasia may have been associated with variations in the wind field which should tend to cause colder winters in the Far East and warmer, shorter winters in Europe. In summer the opposite tendency should prevail. An analysis of records confirms this inference.

An intensification of the standing circulation of the northern hemisphere may have caused an increased transport of warm air into the Arctic and hence contributed to the retreat of the arctic ice. The absence of large‐scale standing oscillations in the southern hemisphere, accounts, probably, for the apparent absence of marked climatic change in the Antarctic.

The strength of the standing monsoon‐type circulations appears to be in a roughly inverse relation to the strength of the zonal circulation. The resulting interaction could cause a large amplification of small disturbances in the climatic equilibrium.