bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Now We Are Four: What Should We Be When We Grow Up?
Authors: Mednick Martha T. S.
Published: July 2006

Soon after the beginning of my presidential year I concluded that I needed to devote my presidential address to the state of the division. This is not the traditional thing to do. What is customary, of course, is a substantive presentation, preferably one that revolutionizes the field. Indeed, our previous presidents followed tradition and spoke about role models, about continuing education, and about leadership styles. These are all important and interesting contributions to the psychology of women, and certainly there are still numerous topics that could stand consideration.

Today we have ended our fourth year and entered the fifth, and so it seems like a very good time to have a look at how we got to be, who we are, where we have been, where we should go, and why. The purpose of my talk is to provide us with a basis for reflection. It is time to open a discussion of our social and professional goals.
Clarifying the Concept of Androgyny: Implications for Therapy
Authors: Kaplan Alexandra G.
Published: July 2006

Logical inconsistencies between Bem's theoretical and empirical definitions of androgyny are discussed. It is pointed out that one can be high in both masculine and feminine traits but that these can be expressed in inappropriate, inflexible, and dysfunctional ways. Case materials illustrative of this situation are presented. Androgyny defined as an equal balance of masculinity and femininity is portrayed on an initial, dualistic notion of androgyny, which is a precursor to a more advanced, hybrid androgynous state. Some issues involved in conceptualizing androgyny in hybrid terms are delineated, along with requisite considerations for the clinician in utilizing this model of androgyny.
Social Change, Positive Mental Health, and Psychological Androgyny
Authors: Marecek Jeanne
Published: July 2006

Recent changes in the timing of life stages, the length of the lifespan, labor force participation, marriage and fertility are described. It is argued that highly-differentiated sex-role orientations are less suited to current conditions than are androgynous orientations, especially for women. If this is true, then developing androgynous sex-role orientations may promote greater adaptability and positive mental health.
Cross-cultural Considerations in the Application of Assertion Training: A Brief Note
Authors: Yanagida Evelyn H.
Published: July 2006

Observations from a case study are presented to illustrate some of the problems that may arise when using assertion training with a Japanese-American female. Specifically, these difficulties entail the lack of local baseline data and the ethnic variations in determining the essential components of assertive behavior.
Posture and Prediction on the Attitudes Toward Women Scale
Authors: Goldberg Philip A. , Katz Jonathan F. , Rappeport Sandra
Published: July 2006

A study was performed investigating the relationship between stated attitudes toward the feminist movement and willingness to help that movement. Results suggested that Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS) measures of feminist commitment may be limited by a social desirability variable and that high scores on the AWS do not correlate with a behavioral measure of commitment.
Overview: Sex Roles, Fertility and the Motherhood Mandate
Authors: Russo Nancy Felipe
Published: July 2006

The centrality of motherhood to woman's identity is characterized as a mandate that is built into our social institutions as well as our psyches. This mandate is reflected in the assumptions of the models and methods of research in the psychology of women. An examination of the impact of the motherhood mandate is encouraged and complexities that must be reflected in research models and methods are underscored. These complexities include the need for (1) appreciation of the context of the phenomena studied; (2) interactionist approaches, including multivariate models and methods; and (3) a multidisciplinary perspective, including biological, psychological, social and structural levels of analysis. Two facets of the changing context having profound implications for the meaning of motherhood are reproductive freedom and voluntary childlessness.
The Relationship Between Sex Roles, Fertility, and Family Size Preferences
Authors: Beckman Linda J.
Published: July 2006

Interviews regarding sex-role attitudes, sex-role behaviors, fertility, and fertility preferences were conducted with 583 currently married women aged 18 through 49. Separate correlational analyses for blacks, Anglos, and Hispanic women revealed that for Anglos and blacks sex-role attitudes appeared to be more highly associated with children raised and desired fertility than did division of household tasks and decisions. Past and present role behavior outside of the family (i.e., employment experience) were related to fertility and fertility preferences for all three groups. A path analysis, applied for Anglos only, indicated that number of children raised may influence sex-role behavior and attitudes which, in turn, may influence current fertility desires. However, the variable with the largest direct effect on total children desired was the number of children one already has. Various dimensions of sex roles influenced fertility desires in different ways. Traditionalism of attitudes had a positive effect while relative performance of feminine tasks had a negative effect on total number of children wanted.
Fertility, Sex Role Attitudes, and Labor Force Participation
Authors: Thornton Arland , Camburn Donald
Published: July 2006

Data from the 1970 National Fertility Study were used to investigate the relationships between sex role attitudes and the childbearing and labor force participation of women. While several relevant dimensions of sex role attitudes were identified, it was found that the most crucial aspect for working and fertility was the extent to which the woman identified the female role as that of housewife and homemaker. Those having traditional definitions concerning this role were less likely to be working, and had fewer plans to work in the future. In addition, as expected, women with traditional sex role definitions had more children than others. While the orientation of the woman toward the home was the primary correlate of work and fertility, those who felt that women had little control over their lives had higher fertility than others—a relationship which could be explained partially, but not entirely, in terms of unplanned childbearing.
An Audio-Taped Consciousness-Raising Group for Women: Evaluation of the Process Dimension
Authors: Ballou Mary , Reuter Jeanette , Dinero Thomas
Published: July 2006

This study describes the development and assessment of an audio-taped women's consciousness-raising program. Two components of the program were communications skills training and the explorations of women's issues. These two components were designed to accomplish four goals: the development of effective communication; an awareness of the issues facing women; the discovery of new options for behavior; and the establishment of a supportive environment. Twenty-seven volunteer women were assigned to three groups, each of which received a different combination of the two components. Using ratings and structured descriptive narratives by trained experienced observers, progress toward the aforementioned goals was measured in each group. The group that only received the communications training component made steady significant progress over time toward all four goals. The group that received both the communication training and women's issues components made significant progress toward two goals: the development of effective communications and the discovery of new options for behavior. The group that received only the women's issues component made no apparent progress toward any of the goals. The results point toward the effectiveness of this audio-taped program and the importance of including communication skills training in consciousness-raising programs.
Perceptions of Women's Roles Among Community College Women
Authors: Bers Trudy Haffron
Published: July 2006

This article explores dimensions and correlates of attitudes toward appropriate sex-based behavior and sex-related issues among college-age and adult women at a public community college. Ninety-eight women averaging age 18.5 and 111 women averaging 39 years of age completed closed-ended questionnaires. Factor analysis revealed three primary attitude dimensions: sex-specific activities (attitudes toward activities appropriate for males and females); woman's movement and ERA (attitudes toward participants in the woman's movement and ERA); and fundamental differences between sex roles (attitudes toward the genesis and propriety of divisions of labor between the sexes). Correlations between dimensions were slight to moderate, and lower for returning women than for young women. Returning women are significantly more traditional on the third dimension and slightly, but not significantly, more egalitarian on the first two dimensions. Correlation and multiple-regression analyses confirm the importance of participation in the woman's movement in explaining attitudes; sociopolitical variables explain little of the observed variance. It is suggested that women returning to school may enhance support for feminist beliefs.
Sex Domination of Occupations and the Tendencies to Approach and Avoid Success and Failure
Authors: Intons-Peterson Margaret Jean , Johnson Holly
Published: July 2006

To test a theory that approach and avoidance imagery would be associated with both success and failure, female and male college students wrote stories to sentence cues. The sentence cues described a female or male stimulus person as succeeding or failing in one of six occupations. Two of the occupations were dominated by females, two by males, and two were approximately equal in sex domination. The imagery content of the stories yielded independent evidence of success-approach, success-avoidance, failure-approach, and failure-avoidance imagery. Success-approach and failure-avoidance imagery increased as the current male domination of the occupation increased; failure-approach imagery increased as the current female domination of the occupation increased. Success-approach imagery appeared more often in stories written by female respondents; success-avoidance imagery appeared more often in stories written by male respondents. The results were consistent with an achievement model that provides for approach and avoidance tendencies to success and failure. Differential results for the respondents of the two sexes are theoretically attributable to different weightings of the four motives mediated by the anticipated consequences of success and failure.
On Terminating Psychotherapy: More Evidence of Sex-Role Related Countertransference
Authors: Greene Les R.
Published: July 2006

This study was designed to investigate therapists' affective reactions to and technical management of the termination of psychotherapy as a function of therapist sex. It was anticipated that if therapists need to protect themselves from the painful aspects of termination, they might abandon therapeutic roles for less threatening sex roles. Accordingly, it was hypothesized that male therapists might be less emotionally available and responsive than female clinicians during the terminal phase of psychotherapy, following cultural prescriptions for the display of emotions by the two sexes. The major findings, providing partial empirical support, revealed differential responses to termination as a function of the interaction of therapist sex and therapeutic orientation. Female therapists ascribing to other than a psychoanalytic orientation were found to become more anxious and emotionally closer to their patients at termination, compared to their male counterparts.
Perceptions of Major Roles by College Students
Authors: Alpert Judith Landon , Richardson Mary Sue , Perlmutter Bonnie , Shutzer Fay
Published: July 2006

This study concerns women's and men's perceptions of five roles and role combinations: worker, spouse, parent, worker-spouse, and worker-parent. Undergraduates wrote stories to relevant projective cues. A variation of the Thematic Apperception Test was used. Protocols were coded for degree of (a) conflict, (b) positive outcome, and (c) positive affect, with inter-rater agreement at least 77% for each category. Sex and role differences were analyzed. Results indicate minimal sex differences. The tentative nature of the results is stressed.
A Decade Later: Black-White Attitudes Toward Women's Familial Role
Authors: Crovitz Elaine , Steinmann Anne
Published: July 2006

A comparison of the perceptions of Black and White undergraduate students of the 1960's (n = 396) and 1970's (n = 587) of women's familial role using the Maferr Inventory of Feminine Values indicated an increasing liberalization of role concept across the decade. Most discrepancy occurred between white males' view of the Ideal woman and white females' view of man's Ideal Woman, with white women not believing the degree of liberalization of the white male's conception of Ideal Woman. Blacks in general have a more liberalized view of women's familial role, and there is less discrepancy between black males' and females' views of women's familial role than amongst whites. Women's Ideal Self is more traditional currently, than women's Actual Self.
Images of Men and Women: A Comparison of Feminists and Nonfeminists
Authors: Rapin Lynn S. , Cooper Merri-Ann
Published: July 2006

It was hypothesized that feminists would evaluate male- and female-defined traits differently than would nonfeminists and that feminists would rate fewer traits as descriptive of only one sex. Undergraduates rated a set of adjectives for appropriateness to men and women, and for social desirability. Dempewolff's (1973) Feminism II Scale was given to dichotomize the sample into feminists and nonfeminists. The feminists did rate fewer traits as characteristic of only men or of only women and more traits as characteristic of both than did nonfeminists. Both feminists and nonfeminists (both men and women) evaluated most traits as either neutral or slightly positive.
Experiential and Affective Correlates of Math Anxiety in Adult Women
Authors: Hendel Darwin D.
Published: July 2006

Mathematics anxiety has been discussed as one of the factors contributing to poor mathematics performance, especially among women. Although many programs have been developed for its treatment, little research has been conducted concerning its correlates. The present study examines correlates of mathematics anxiety among the 69 female participants in a program designed to help individuals overcome their fears and become more competent in mathematics. Results indicate the following: (a) that mathematics anxiety in program participants is highly correlated with other academically relevant anxiety scales, (b) that test anxiety and self-estimated mathematics ability are the most important variables in the prediction of mathematics anxiety, and (c) that mathematics anxiety and high school mathematics preparation are the most important variables in the prediction of arithmetic performance.
Motivational Dynamics of Disadvantaged Women
Authors: Hinman Suki , Bolton Brian
Published: July 2006

Two hundred and five disadvantaged women completed standardized psychometric inventories (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, Motivation Analysis Test, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Internal-External Control Scale, Work Attitude Scale) and a structured interview (attitude-value, activity. Jife concerns items). Factor analysis was used to organize these data; correlational analyses indicated that the inventory and interview dimensions tapped essentially independent aspects within the total motivation domain. Compared with inventory norms, these women exhibited torpidity and submissiveness, depressed motivation, poor self-esteem, but positive work attitudes. Differences between dichotomous subgroups defined by six major demographic variables were consistent with previous literature; the most salient pattern of subgroup differences showed that black, less intelligent, and less educated women were less positive toward work and more externally oriented. In sum, these women appeared resigned and lethargic; no causal inference was drawn, but it was cautioned that choice of counseling procedures should be based on a differentiation of diminished from initial lack of motivation.
The Decision to Enter Medicine: Motivations, Social Support, and Discouragements for Women
Authors: Kutner Nancy G. , Brogan Donna R.
Published: July 2006

Responses from 93% of the women medical students enrolled in two southern medical schools in 1975–1976 indicated that wanting to serve others, desire for independence in one's work, and interest in science were strong motivations for entering medicine. These motivations also characterized men. Women, more often than men, cited the challenge of a medical career, and they showed more interest in high occupational prestige than have women medical school applicants in the past. Women reported less social support for an early decision than did their male peers. Dissatisfaction with a previous occupation frequently influenced women's choice of medicine. Although women were more likely than men to cite sources of encouragement for their decision, they were also more likely than men to have been discouraged from entering medicine.
Mental Illness and Psychiatric Treatment Among Women: A Rejoinder to Johnson
Authors: Gove Walter R.
Published: July 2006

In this reply to Johnson, it is suggested that her response to my paper is largely on ideological grounds. Johnson totally ignores the theoretical and empirical basis for the definition of mental illness that is used. She appears not to have read my paper carefully, for all the issues she raises have been dealt with in the paper. She does not seem to comprehend the problematic aspects of both feminist and traditional theory. Johnson does not appear to understand that traditional therapists do not blame the victim and that they also see the therapeutic process as resulting in maturation and growth. Her ideology also apparently makes her unable to see that she and I are in substantial agreement on many issues regarding the role of women.
Sex Bias in Clinical Judgment: Later Empirical Returns
Authors: Davidson Christine V. , Abramowitz Stephen I.
Published: July 2006

This paper updates an earlier review of research on sex bias in psychological evaluation and psychotherapy. The experimental analogue continues to dominate the literature and to return a resoundingly negative verdict. This evidence, however, is often discounted on the grounds of the analogue's transparency and clinical impoverishment. Naturalistic data have likewise failed to support claims of widespread sex bias, but have nonetheless whetted suspicions that gender and sex role attributes affect circumscribed clinical decisions. These correlational field studies are often dismissed, however, on the basis of their inadequate control for potential confounds. This empirical deadlock is discussed within the context of the sexual politics of research and of methodological preference in particular. The interpretive gerrymandering that has plagued this literature is linked to an unwillingness to be open about the sex role heritage of research strategies themselves and the deep personal and political investments at stake.
Toward a Social Psychology of Relationships
Authors: Safilios-Rothschild Constantina
Published: July 2006

The paper examines the structural and socio-psychological factors which have led to the emergence of new types of relationships such as, cross-sex colleagueships and cross-sex friendships, and to a new value placed on intimacy. Because people are now involved in a wide range of relationships, studies of relationships should start from the individuals, map all the relationships in which they are involved and examine the interrelations between the different types of relationships. Such an analysis of individuals' networks of relationships requires a longitudinal design which allows the study of crucial developmental processes. The paper also examines current assumptions concerning intimate relationships such as, exclusivity, permanence, commitment and the role sexuality plays in the establishment of intimacy.
Intimacy in Widowhood
Authors: Barrett Carol J.
Published: July 2006

This article explores all intimate relationships potentially available to the widowed woman. Friends, relatives, professionals and non-professional associates are considered, in addition to the deceased spouse, God, and the widow herself. The author concludes that traditional resources are inadequate to meet the widow's intimacy needs. The issue of reciprocity is addressed. The widow's experience stands opposed to human values which needlessly limit definitions of intimacy to dyadic, human relationships among opposite sex age peers. Research is needed to evaluate the correspondence between relationship styles in marriage and those in widowhood, to assess the inter-dependency of the widow's relationships, and to examine individual differences in the intimacy patterns of widows.
The Relationship of Sex and Academic Performance to Quality of Recommendations for Graduate School
Authors: Stake Jayne E. , Walker Elaine F. , Speno Mary V.
Published: July 2006

To determine the relationship of sex and academic performance to recommendations to graduate school, 410 letters of recommendation were examined by two raters who were blind to the sex of the applicants and referees. Letters were rated for eleven personal qualities and for indications of weaknesses. Grade point average was found to be related to ratings of intellectual potential ( p < .001), academic performance ( p < .001), research ability ( p < .02), and motivation ( p < .01). The main effect of sex of applicant was not significant for any variable; however, referees tended to describe same-sex applicants as having more motivation and fewer weaknesses than opposite-sex applicants.
Sex Role Stereotyping and Sex Role Norms: A Comparison of Elementary and College Age Students
Authors: Hensley Karma K. , Borges Marilyn A.
Published: July 2006

An examination of sex-role stereotyping and its relation to sex-role norms was undertaken in this experiment. Subjects were 48 second and third graders and 48 college freshmen who each rated descriptions of sex-stereotypical behavior and sex-role reversals. Both groups also rated sex-typed “male,” “female,” and “neutral” occupations and indicated if the mother was employed. Results indicated that children stereotyped in behavioral descriptions and occupational choices to a greater extent than did college students. Children whose mothers were employed were more stereotyped in occupational choices than children with non-working mothers. College students evidenced a very low rate of stereotyping in behavioral descriptions which indicated that the relationship between sex-role stereotypes and sex-role norms was negligible for college students but was evident for children.
What are the Questions in Psychology of Women? A Feminist Approach to Research
Authors: Wallston Barbara Strudler
Published: July 2006

The importance of research questions and the question generation process is stressed. New approaches to research methods, including the communal along with the agentic, considering transactional and qualitative approaches, and underscoring the role values play in science, are explored as directions toward a feminist research paradigm. Three important question sources are delineated: (1) personal experience with qualitative and observational methodologies as important adjuncts; (2) public policy implications and consequences; and (3) attention to situational variables and person/situation interactions in contrast to a purely intrapsychic approach. Androgyny and sex difference research are discussed briefly in light of the feminist research process delineated.
Appropriate Control Groups in Feminist Research
Authors: Parlee Mary Brown
Published: July 2006

Control groups in psychological research reveal the outlines of the investigator's theoretical framework. They identify variables which are assumed to affect the causal relationship between independent and dependent variable and, by implication, those which are not. This role of control groups is implicitly denied when they are discussed simply as a methodological issue. Feminist psychologists can use the inevitable interpenetration of methodological and theoretical issues to promote new theoretical perspectives under the guise of sounder methodology. One result may be to move the psychology of women outside (beyond-?) a conceptualization of science in which the notions of experimentation and control are central.
Women and Aging: A Futurist Perspective
Authors: Abu-Laban Sharon McIrvin
Published: July 2006

Many of the inequities characteristic of the female position tend to crystallize in older age. Under the assumed continuation of trends involving family life, reproductive freedom, sexuality and labor force participation, aging women of the future may find improvement with respect to personal status and socio-emotional rewards. However, incipient counter trends, made strong by religious conservatism, must be noted. Should such counter trends gain in strength, the lot of aging women of the future may be but a version of the status quo ante.
The Experiences of Black Females in Traditional and Nontraditional Professions
Authors: Burlew Ann Kathleen
Published: July 2006

This study is an investigation of differences in the backgrounds, attitudes, and career-related expectations of black college females pursuing traditional (e.g. teaching, social work, and nursing) and nontraditional (e.g. sciences, engineering, pre-law, business) careers for women. The subjects were 147 black female undergraduates attending a large urban university in the midwest who completed a questionnaire. The results showed that mothers of nontraditionals were likely to be better educated than mothers of traditionals. Also, the mothers of nontraditionals were more likely to have worked in nontraditional fields themselves. Nontraditionals were more likely to have had an early work experience, were more confident in their own ability to complete nontraditional educational programs, and had less traditional views about appropriate roles for women than traditionals. However, nontraditionals were less confident than traditionals that they and other women could actually achieve the careers they themselves were pursuing. Finally, nontraditionals did not think they were any less likely than traditionals to marry because of their career choices. However, nontraditionals did expect that they would have fewer female but more male friends because of their careers.
Professing Feminism: Feminist Academics and the Women's Movement
Authors: Fisher Berenice M.
Published: July 2006

This article examines feminist academics' work in its social and political context, with the purpose of understanding the conditions which facilitate or impede the incorporation of a feminist perspective into college or university teaching. The discussion analyzes four basic contradictions which pervade feminist academic work: the contradictions (1) between feminist academics and their students, (2) between feminist academics and their disciplines, (3) between feminist academics and the institutional setting of their work, and (4) between feminist academics and feminists working in the larger women's community. The analysis of these contradictions focuses on the role of structured competition in shaping and constraining the ways in which feminist academics can do their work. The article ends with some brief suggestions concerning areas of needed action.
The Construct Validation of an Attitudes Toward Working Mothers Scale
Authors: Tetenbaum Toby J. , Lighter Jessica , Travis Mary
Published: July 2006

The consistent growth in the number of women entering the labor force and the need for research pertaining specifically to attitudes toward women working led to the development and validation of the Attitude Toward Working Mothers Scale (AWM). A 45-item Likert-type measure was developed and administered to 526 graduate students. Factor analyses demonstrated the scale was unidimensional. The scale was reduced to 32 items having high internal consistency (coefficient alpha = .95). Known-groups, discriminant, and experimental approaches to validity, all provided support for the scale's validity. Administration of the AWM Scale to educationally and vocationally disparate groups indicated the scale could be used with diverse populations.
Sexual Relationships in Psychology Training: A Brief Comment on Ethical Guidelines and Coping Strategies
Authors: Schover Leslie R. , Levenson Hanna , Pope Kenneth S.
Published: July 2006

Research has suggested that sexual relationships between psychology educators and their students often have adverse consequences. Therefore, ethical guidelines setting limits on such relationships are proposed. Coping strategies are offered for students who experience sexual harassment from educators. The task of the administrator in handling complaints of harassment is also discussed.
Work Satisfaction as a Function of Gender and Job Status
Authors: Golding Jacqueline , Resnick Andrea , Crosby Faye
Published: July 2006

Male lawyers, female lawyers, and female legal secretaries were interviewed concerning their work satisfaction, the nature of their employment-related gratifications and deprivations, and their work values. The data showed that the three samples' responses concerning work-related gratifications, deprivations, and values were largely similar. When they differed, the splits tended to be along the lines of job status (lawyer vs. secretary) rather than along the lines of gender (male vs. female). In addition, lawyers tended to be more satisfied with their work than were secretaries.
Lesbian Identities: An Examination of Sexual Behavior and Sex Role Attribution as Related to Age of Initial Same-Sex Sexual Encounter
Authors: Vance Brenda K. , Green Vicki
Published: July 2006

To investigate some of the differences among lesbians proposed by Ponse (1978), 43 self-defined lesbians were interviewed and administered questionnaires. Three groups were distinguished on the basis of age of initial lesbian sexual experience, and those in the earliest and latest age groups were compared. Group 1 lesbians engaged in same-sex sexual relations prior to age 17 (perhaps before the establishment of their personal identity), were more sexually active at an earlier age, see themselves as having more stereotypic masculine traits, and define themselves as exclusively homosexual. Group 2 lesbians did not engage in same-sex sexual relations until after the age 20, were typically emotionally involved heterosexually prior to defining themselves as lesbians, and may be somewhat bisexual in activity. Both groups see themselves as being high in stereotypic feminine traits and have fairly active heterosexual histories. The heterogeneous nature of the “coming out” process for lesbians and its implications for future research are discussed.
Women and Drugs: The Heroin Abuser and the Prescription Drug Abuser
Authors: Gutierres Sara E. , Patton Deanna S. , Raymond Jonathan S. , Rhoads Deborah L.
Published: July 2006

The literature on female drug use/abuse was reviewed and descriptions of the female heroin abuser and the female prescription drug abuser were derived. The female heroin abuser has been characterized as a lower socioeconomic status woman with low self-esteem, the product of a disrupted, unstable childhood. Her lifestyle, in addition to heroin abuse, probably includes petty crime and prostitution. The prescription drug abuser, on the other hand, is likely to be a middle class woman who has legal access to drugs through her physician. Her drug use is socially sanctioned and tied to cultural sex role stereotypes. Researchers suggest that problems of female drug abusers should be viewed in terms of the feminine role as well as the role of drug abuser. Descriptive research dominates the literature on female drug abuse. The need for more theoretical studies is emphasized and locus of control, attribution, and social support research topics are suggested.
Gender and Narcissism
Authors: Philipson Ilene
Published: July 2006

Within social science and psychoanalytic literature the “narcissistic personality” is considered to be the “personality of our time.” It is universally assumed to describe both female and male experience, insofar as there exists no reference in either the psychoanalytic or sociological literature to any relationship between narcissism and gender. This gender neutrality is brought into question, however, by the disproportionate representation of men in the clinical case material that forms the basis of our understanding of what narcissism is and how it functions as both a psychological and social pathology. This article demonstrates that narcissism—as a personality type and pathological disorder—denotes a way of being in the world that is primarily if not exclusively experienced by men. It appears that a particular form of family structure underlies the development of narcissism in men and cultivates asymmetrical yet intersecting problems in women. The gender bias ingredient in the term “narcissism” must be recognized and diagnoses, descriptions, and etiological explanations of the narcissistic personality should reflect such recognition.
The Effects of Perceived Job Availability for Women on College Women's Attitudes Toward Prestigious Male-Dominated Occupations
Authors: Bridges Judith S. , Bower Mary S.
Published: July 2006

This study investigated the effects of perceived job availability for women and sex role orientation on college women's evaluations of highly prestigious male-dominated occupations. In a mixed design, feminine, androgynous, and masculine women (as determined by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire) evaluated two professions described as providing good opportunities for women, two described as providing average opportunities, and two described as providing poor opportunities. Subjects were most likely to want to pursue occupations with good job availability for women and to expect the most intellectual stimulation and approval from others as a result of pursuing these occupations. In addition, sex role orientation was related to expectations concerning intellectual stimulation and approval from others but did not interact with level of job opportunity on any of the dependent measures.
Is Date Rape Justifiable?: The Effects of Dating Activity, Who Initiated, Who Paid, and Men's Attitudes toward Women
Authors: Muehlenhard Charlene L. , Friedman Debra E. , Thomas Celeste M.
Published: July 2006

In two related studies, 268 male undergraduates rated the justifiability of date rape under various circumstances. As predicted, rape was rated as significantly more justifiable (a) if the couple went to the man's apartment rather than to a religious function, (b) if the woman asked the man out rather than vice versa (significant in Study 1 only), and (c) if the man paid all the dating expenses rather than splitting them with the woman. It was also predicted that men who were classified as traditional on the Attitudes toward Women Scale would rate rape as more justifiable than nontraditional men, especially under the three conditions mentioned above. These results were always in the predicted directions, but did not always reach statistical significance. Two explanations for the differences between traditional and nontraditional men are explored.
Self-Perceptions of Ability of Mathematically Talented Female Adolescents
Authors: Hollinger Constance L.
Published: July 2006

Despite their ability, many mathematically talented female adolescents do not aspire to nontraditional careers in mathematics and the sciences. According to the model proposed by Meece, Parsons, Kaczala, Goff, and Futterman (1982), self-concept of math ability is a central mediating variable in predicting long range goals and ultimate achievement in mathematics. The present study tested the hypothesis that, for a sample of 123 mathematically talented female adolescents, consideration of self-perceptions of multiple career-relevant abilities, as measured by Holland's (1977) Self Directed Search, rather than self-concept of math ability alone, is essential to understanding the ideal career aspirations of mathematically talented young women. The results indicate that it is the combined influence of self-perceptions of several career-relevant abilities that differentiates the nontraditional math and nontraditional science career aspirants from more traditional math/science and non-math career aspiration group members. Implications for professionals working with the mathematically talented female adolescent are discussed.
A Search for Gender Differences on Fertility-Related Attitudes: Questioning the Relevance of Sociobiology Theory for Understanding Social Psychological Aspects of Human Reproduction
Authors: Granberg Donald , Granberg Beth Wellman
Published: July 2006

Data from 12 NORC surveys done between 1965 and 1984 were analyzed to test the hypothesis, derived from sociobiology theory, that men and women would have different attitudinal orientations toward fertility. The hypothesis that men would be more oriented toward quantity of offspring than women, as reflected in their attitudes toward abortion and ideal family size, was not supported. The effect of gender was negligible both in the absolute sense and in comparison to that of education and religiosity.
Gender, Role, and Power: A Content Analysis of Speech
Authors: Siderits Mary Anne , Johannsen Walter J. , Fadden Thomas F.
Published: July 2006

It seems possible that gender differences may often be reducible to differences in role. The authors sought to explore the effects of role and gender on hostile and anxious communications. Role was manipulated through the use of the Melian Dialogues, a technique borrowed from community organization training that asks participants alternately to assume roles of superior and inferior power. Fourteen groups of college students, each with a four-member team of women and a four-member team of men, engaged in the Dialogues. Their communications, recorded and transcribed verbatim, were coded according to the Gottschalk-Gleser method of content analysis. A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that while role had a highly significant effect ( p < .0001) on the content of the communications, neither gender nor the order in which roles were assumed exerted a significant influence. Results were interpreted as a consequence of role justification.
Women's Self-Definition in Adulthood: From A Different Model?
Authors: Peck Teresa A.
Published: July 2006

This article examines criticisms of existing models of adult development from both feminist and developmental psychologists. To answer these criticisms, a model of women's adult self-definition is presented that is based upon current research on women's adult experience. The model combines a dialectical approach, which considers the effects of social/historical factors, with a feminist approach, which emphasizes the importance of caring and relationships, to illustrate the critical factors affecting a woman's self-knowledge during the adult years.
Acquaintance Rape: Effective Avoidance Strategies
Authors: Levine-MacCombie Joyce , Koss Mary P.
Published: July 2006

To date, research on effective rape avoidance strategies has involved media-recruited, acknowledged rape victims and avoiders, most of whom were assaulted by total strangers. In the present study, rape avoidance research was extended to a sample of acquaintance rape victims and avoiders who were located by a self-report survey that identified women who both do and do not conceptualize their assaults as rape. The study's goal was to determine whether acknowledged rape victims, unacknowledged rape victims, and rape avoiders could be discriminated by situational variables including the response strategies used in the assault. Victims and avoiders were significantly discriminated. Compared to rape victims, avoiders (1) were less likely to have experienced passive or internalizing emotions at the time of the assault, (2) perceived the assault as less violent, and (3) were more likely to have utilized active response strategies (i.e., running away and screaming). The results suggest that the major findings of existing research on stranger rape avoidance are generalizable to acquaintance rape. However, concerns are expressed over methodological limitations of research on rape avoidance from the victim's perspective.
Family Influences on the Job Satisfaction of Employed Mothers
Authors: Rudd Nancy M. , McKenry Patrick C.
Published: July 2006

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between job satisfaction and selected family variables that might constrain or enhance the job satisfaction of employed mothers. Results of stepwise regression indicate that four family variables were more useful in explaining variation in job satisfaction than six background variables that had been expected to influence job satisfaction. Results suggest that job satisfaction could be enhanced by increasing family support for women's employment.
Race and Sex Differences In Sex Role Attitudes of Southern College Students
Authors: Lyson Thomas A.
Published: July 2006

A sample of southern college students is used to investigate race and sex differences among nine Likert-type sex role attitudes. Results show that black and white men share a similar sex role orientation while black and white women also share a similar world view. There were only two instances where blacks were notably different from whites. First, blacks were more likely to feel that a woman's real fulfillment in life comes from motherhood, and second, blacks were more likely to feel that it was appropriate for a mother with school-age children to work.
What's in a Title? The Ms. Stereotype and Images of Women's Titles of Address
Authors: Dion Kenneth L.
Published: July 2006

The hypothesis that the title Ms. elicits a stereotype was tested in two separate experiments. In both cases, university students of both sexes were presented with a brief description of a stimulus person whose title of address was varied (i.e., Ms., Mrs., Miss, or Mr.). In Experiment I, subjects conveyed their impressions on semantic differential ratings and life outcome ratings. Experiment II employed a larger pool of semantic differential ratings and explored the impact of the Ms. stimulus person's marital status and the female respondents' attitude toward women on the Ms. stereotype. The two experiments were consistent in showing that a woman who prefers the title Ms. gives the impression of being more achievement oriented, socially assertive and dynamic, but less interpersonally warm, relative to her counterparts with traditional titles of address. Some implications of the Ms. stereotype were discussed.
Structure and Content of Gender Stereotypes: Effects of Somatic Appearance and Trait Information
Authors: Freeman Harvey R.
Published: July 2006

Two components of gender stereotypes were examined in order to determine their influence on judgments of gender-related characteristics. Male and female subjects were presented with photographs of female stimulus persons who differed in somatic appearance and were given information about traits. Subjects were asked to estimate the probability that the stimulus person possessed other gender-related traits and engaged in gender-related behaviors. Results provide support for a multiple-component construction of stereotypes, with physical appearance being the most potent component. An unfavorable image of low attractive women was also indicated.
Engineering Careers: Women in a Male-Dominated Field
Authors: Jagacinski Carolyn M.
Published: July 2006

A national survey was conducted to compare the background and career characteristics of men and women engineers differing in the number of years since they completed their BS degrees (0–5, 6–10, 11–15, and 16–20 years). The parents of women engineers were more likely to have college degrees and to be employed in professional positions than were the parents of men engineers. Women engineers were less likely to be married and were more likely to be childless than were the men. Both men and women were influenced by courses and work-related factors in their decisions to pursue engineering, but men made their career decisions sooner than women. Although men and women reported comparable levels of technical responsibility in their present jobs, gender differences favoring men were found for supervisory responsibility and salary among those with more than five years of experience, with the gap between men and women increasing with experience. Men with 16–20 years of experience and all four degree cohorts of women endorsed the opinion that there are better opportunities for men than women in engineering.
Gender Bias in Theoretical Perspectives: The Case of Female Socialization Into Sport
Authors: Greendorfer Susan L.
Published: July 2006

Using female socialization into sport as an example, this paper empirically examines whether existing conceptual and methodological perspectives pertaining to sport may be gender-biased. A social role-social systems approach, previously applied to male sport socialization and purported to predict a high degree of sport involvement when positive social influences are exerted by significant others, was applied to female athletes and nonathletes. Results from several stepwise regressions suggest that this conceptual approach does not adequately capture the process that pertains to females, as more variance is accounted for in the case of nonathletes, who have lower levels of sport involvement. The implications of such findings suggest that existing conceptual notions pertaining to sport socialization may in reality be a more accurate portrayal of gender role-appropriate behavior in sport rather than actual sport role behaviors.
Latinas Without Work: Family, Occupational, and Economic Stress Following Unemployment
Authors: Romero Gloria J. , Castro Felipe G. , Cervantes Richard C.
Published: July 2006

This study examines stressors in family, occupational, and economic domains among 114 Latinas following job loss. These women had been displaced from their jobs for at least 18 months at the time of the initial survey. Stressors from the occupational stress domain were the greatest source of stress for these women. Despite the passage of over 18 months since job loss, 75% of these women remained unemployed. Women who valued the job they lost and who were older reported the highest level of occupational stress. In the economic stress domain, Latinas with greater involvement in the mainstream U.S. economy and its obligations, who also had less seniority, and less disposable income, reported the greatest levels of stress. An imbalance between demands imposed by financial obligations and inadequate financial resources appeared to be a major factor in the stress levels experienced in the economic stress domain. Although the present study is limited by a small sample size, the findings challenge the myth of “benign stress” associated with female unemployment in general, and with Latina unemployment in particular.