bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Labour saving in feeding of fattening pigs
Authors: Braude R. , Rowell J. G.
Published: March 2009

In a co-ordinated experiment involving twenty centres and 558 pigs it was found that the growth rate, efficiency of food conversion and carcass quality of the pigs were not affected when one after-noon meal was omitted each week throughout the fattening period, provided the amount of meal thus saved was distributed between the remaining feeds during each week.

Limited evidence is presented to show that similar results may be obtained when two afternoon feeds are omitted each week.
Effects of nitrogen applied at different dates, and of other cultural treatments on eyespot, take-all and yield of winter wheat (field experiment, 1953)
Authors: Salt G. A.
Published: March 2009

A field experiment to test effects of cultural treatments on eyespot (Cercosporella herpotrichoides Fron.), lodging and yield of winter wheat, begun in 1952 (Salt, 1955), was continued on the same site in 1953. In 1952 only eyespot and lodging were severe, but in 1953 take-all (Ophiobolus graminis Sacc.) and weeds were severe also.

Squareheads Master 13/4 and Cappelle, each sown at 1½ and 3 bushels/acre, were top-dressed at four different dates with ammonium sulphate at 0, 2 and 4 cwt./acre. Sulphuric acid (12½% b.o.v. at 100 gal./ acre) was sprayed on four of the eight blocks of ten plots in March to control eyespot.

Halving the seed rate decreased the percentage of severe eyespot from 63 to 52%, decreased the area stunted by take-all from 36 to 14% and increased yield by amounts ranging from 8·3 cwt. in nitrogendeficient plots to 2·6 cwt./acre in plots well supplied with ammonium sulphate. The fertilizer applied to Squareheads Master at 0, 2 and 4 cwt./acre had little effect on the incidence of eyespot lesions at harvest, but increased the area lodged from 23 to 53 and 60% respectively; it decreased the area stunted by takeall from 47 to 19 and 10% respectively, and increased yield from 13 to 17 and 18 cwt./acre. Cappelle did not lodge and the fertilizer decreased take-all patches from 51 to 28 and 18% respectively, and increased grain from 15 to 20 and 21 cwt./acre. The time when nitrogen was applied to either variety had no important effect on disease incidence or yield.

Sulphuric acid sprayed in 1953 on blocks unsprayed in 1952 and so having a higher initial infection of eyespot and weeds, decreased the area lodged and the area covered by weeds, but did not decrease the percentage of straws with eyespot below that in unsprayed plots.
Comparison of six different levels of feeding for fattening pigs
Authors: Barber R. S. , Braude R. , Mitchell K. G.
Published: March 2009

1. Sixty Large White pigs in ten blocks of six litter-mates were individually fed on six different planes of feeding. Three groups were fed according to live weight and according to three different scales, and in the other three groups the pigs were given as much food as they would eat in 30 min. at two feeds daily up to a maximum of 7·0, 6·5 and 6·0 lb./day respectively. All pigs received the same meal mixtures.

2. Although the groups being fed according to the various scales took slightly longer to reach bacon weight, they utilized their food more efficiently than the groups fed on the ‘to appetite’ systems. Thus the pigs fed according to the scale shown in Table 1, but up to a daily maximum of 6½ lb. meal/pig, required about 35 lb. less meal to reach bacon weight than those pigs fed ‘to appetite’ up to a maximum of 7 lb. meal/day. The saving in food costs at present-day prices was approximately 10s. per pig.

3. The percentages of grade A carcasses were very high in all groups, but there was a marked tendency for the ‘to appetite’ fed groups to have thicker midback and loin fats, the latter being reflected in the poorer commercial grading results.

4. The importance of interpreting the results in the light of the influence of the strain of pig, environment and type of diet fed on the question of plane of feeding, was emphasised.
The apparent digestibility of crude protein by the ruminant: II. The general equation and some of its implications
Authors: French M. H. , Glover J. , Duthie D. W.
Published: March 2009

The general equation, y = 70 log x − 15, connecting y, the digestibility coefficient, to x, the percentage of crude protein in the dry matter of the feed of ruminants, which was proposed in an earlier paper, has been shown to fit all the directly determined world data for cattle, sheep and goats which have been published by Schneider (1947). It is applicable to rations composed of both single and mixed feeds for it is the total percentage of crude protein in the ration which determines its digestibility.

The equation is of general application, irrespective of climate or feed, and for the first time a link is provided between the large bulk of data from temperate regions and those hitherto neglected and apparently aberrant data from the tropics and subtropics.

The equation adequately explains a large part of the variability of results obtained by the ‘by difference’ method. In particular, attention is drawn to its value in explaining ‘associative effects’ in mixed feeds.

It would seem to have several practical applications; one being the ready determination of the average digestibility of crude protein in rapidly growing grasses and herbages at different stages of development; another being the evaluation of average crude protein digestibility of single or compound feeds in those parts of the world where adequate facilities for digestibility studies are not available. It can also be used in computing maintenance and production rations for meat and milk.
Phenotypic and genetic parameters for reproductive performance in a synthetic line of sheep
Authors: Martin T. G. , Nicholson D. , Smith C. , Sales D. I.
Published: March 2009

Data on 902 ewes (1755 records) bom over 7 years in the synthetic ABRO Dam Line were analysed by least squares. Reproductive traits of the ewe were not affected by whether she was a single or a twin or by the age of her dam. Ewe age had major effects on all reproductive traits. Litter weight traits were affected by the sex distribution and the age of the litter when weighed.

Heritability estimates, both by half sib and regression methods, were low for litter size, low to moderate for litter weights, and higher for ewe and fleece weights. Genetic correlations among the litter-weight traits were high. Together with the heritability estimates, they indicated that selection on litter weight at birth (and perhaps other traits) might give a greater change in total litter weight at weaning, the main measure of ewe productivity and the objective in improvement, than would direct selection.
Skin histology and birthcoat fibre-follicle relationships in Merino and ⅝ Merino lambs
Authors: Guirgis R. A. , Ghanem Y. S. , Amin S. O. , El-Ganaieny M. M.
Published: March 2009

Skin biopsy samples from imported Merino and ⅝ Merino/⅜ Barki were examined from birth to the age of 1 year. Birthcoat fibre type arrays and fibre-follicle relationships were also studied.

Merino lambs had a greater S/P ratio than ⅝ Merino at all ages; values at 1 year of age were 9·98 and 6·87 respectively.

The ⅝ Merino lambs showed a wider range of follicle diameters than Merinos from birth to 1 year of age.

The ratio of primary to secondary follicle diameters showed higher values in ⅝ Merino than in Merinos. Merino gave lower values of follicle wall thickness than ⅝ Merino.

In Merino birthcoat samples, only one array was plain, representing 4%, whereas the rest were saddle. In ⅝ Merino the majority of fibre type arrays were plain, representing 75 %, whereas the rest were saddle and plateau.

In Merino, because of the absence of halo hairs and super sickles, only two samples had few super sickle B; primary central follicles were occupied by sickle fibres, medium with large sickle ends as well as curly tips, and primary lateral follicles had mostly medium and fine curly tips, only four samples had sickle fibres, and secondary follicles produced medium and fine curly tips and histerotrichs.

In ⅝ Merino primary central follicles produced halo hairs, super sickle A, A', B and occasionally sickle fibres, primary lateral follicles grew super sickle A, A', B, sickle fibres and curly tip fibres, and secondary follicles had medium and fine curly tips and histerotrichs.
A mathematical model of pasture contamination by grazing cattle and the effects on herbage intake
Authors: Brockington N. R.
Published: March 2009

A mathematical model has been constructed to simulate pasture contamination by the faeces of grazing cattle and the effects on herbage intake. The model describes the rate of deposition of faeces in relation to herbage intake, the effects of contamination on intake as modified by grazing pressure, and the rate at which the influence of faeces on grazing behaviour declines after deposition.

The information available on these processes is incomplete and imprecise in a number of respects. It appears from the modelling exercise that further data are most urgently needed on the rate at which the inhibitory influence of faeces declines, and on the precise effect of grazing pressure on the amount of herbage rejected.

A secondary effect of contamination is recognized, in which the utilization of herbage initially rejected because of the presence of faeces is modified subsequently because the temporary protection from grazing allows it to become too mature. This effect may be quantitatively larger than the primary contamination effect on untrimmed pastures, but its accurate prediction depends on the establishment of comprehensive relationships between the amount and composition of herbage on offer and intake by the grazing animal. The latter studies deserve at least an equal research priority, in relation to the contamination problem in toto, as the elucidation of the details of the primary effect.
Efficacy of associative N2-fixation by streptomycin-resistant mutants ofAzospirillum brasilensewith genotypes of chick peaRhizobiumstrains
Authors: Rai R.
Published: March 2009

Azospirillum brasilensewas treated with nitrosoguanidine and two mutants isolated which were resistant to 500 μg streptomycin/ml. Ultraviolet sensitivity, photoreactivation and effect of acriflavin on pre- and post-irradiation were studied. Chick pea showed an increase in grain yield, nodule dry weight, N2ase activity and active iron content of nodules when inoculated withA. brasilenseor its mutants together withRhizobium. The interaction betweenRhizobiumstrains and genotypes of chick pea was significant.
Growth, nutritive value and selection by sheep of sainfoin, red clover, lucerne and hybrid ryegrass
Authors: Wilman D. , Asiedu F. H. K.
Published: March 2009

A site containing plots of sainfoin, red clover, lucerne and hybrid ryegrass, each sown as a pure stand, was grazed by sheep three times in the first and second harvest years and once in the third. Crop growth was studied during the 8 weeks preceding each grazing.

Sainfoin had a high proportion of green leaf and a high weight per unit area of leaf, and the stem as well as the leaf was readily eaten. The yield and persistence of sainfoin were poor, the number of plants and the number of shoots per plant were low, the development of leaf area was slow, and nitrogen content and digestibility were rather low.

Red clover had a high proportion of green leaf, large leaves, high nitrogen content and fairly high digestibility, and the stem as well as the leaf was readily eaten. Yield was low except at the first two grazings of the first harvest year, and persistence was poor, there being a large number of plant deaths near the time of the second grazing.

Lucerne was higher yielding and more persistent than the other legumes, with a satisfactory number of plants, a relatively large number of shoots per plant, a high rate of emergence of leaves and a relatively large amount of branching. The lucerne had a rather high proportion of stem, and the stem was of rather low digestibility and not very attractive to the sheep.

The hybrid ryegrass yielded more herbage than the legumes, had a satisfactory and increasing number of tillers, increased in yield relatively early in spring and recovered well after defoliation. The proportion of green leaf was low by the end of each of the first two growth periods of each year, the leaves emerged at a rather slow rate in the later stages of a growth period, the crop had a relatively high proportion of cell wall and the stem in particular was relatively unattractive to the sheep.
Denitrification in soil. II. Factors affecting denitrification
Authors: Bremner J. M. , Shaw K.
Published: March 2009

1. The factors affecting denitrification in soil have been studied by determining loss of nitrogen from soil under various conditions by total-N analysis.

2. It was found that the rate of denitrification of nitrate in soil was dependent upon various factors such as the pH, temperature and water content of the soil and that, under conditions conducive to denitrification, 80–86% of nitrate-N added to Rothamsted soils was lost by denitrification in 5 days.

3. The rate of denitrification was greatly affected by the pH of the soil. It was very slow at low pH (below 4·8), increased with rise in soil pH and was very rapid at pH 8·0–8·6.

4. The rate of denitrification increased rapidly with rise in temperature from 2° to 25° C. The optimum temperature for denitrification was about 60° C.

5. The degree of water saturation of the soil had a profound influence on the rate of denitrification. Below a certain moisture level practically no denitrification occurred; above this level denitrification increased rapidly with increase in moisture content. The critical moisture level was about 60% of the water-holding capacity of the soil.
The inter-relationships of individual proteins and carbohydrates during fermentation in the rumen of the sheep. I. The fermentation of casein in the presence of starch or other carbohydrate materials
Authors: Lewis D. , McDonald I. W.
Published: March 2009

1. The metabolic interactions of casein and starch or other carbohydrates are measured by estimating the concentrations of volatile fatty acids, ammonia, lactic acid and amino acids in the rumen after administering the protein and carbohydrate supplements alone or together.

2. The ammonia concentration is reduced (i.e. its utilization is probably increased), by the carbohydrate materials; levan and starch achieve this slightly more effectively than glucose or xylan and the effect of cellulose is very slight.

3. Under conditions when the normal ration fed is not of high quality a small supplement of casein stimulates the rate of fermentation of starch and other carbohydrates.

4. The findings indicate that the best utilization of protein supplements is probably obtained when a carbohydrate is also present that can be fermented at a comparable rate, conditions which stimulate microbial synthesis in the rumen.
Thiamine requirement of young ruminants
Authors: Edwin E. E. , Hebert C. Nancy , Jackman R. , Masterman Sheila
Published: March 2009

The possibility of a sub-clinical state of thiamine deficiency in young cattle and sheep is discussed. A trial was carried out on six MAFF experimental husbandry farms in which groups of animals were given 100 mg of thiamine per day orally throughout the rearing period. Measurement of erythrocyte transketolase showed that the dosed group gave a significantly lower percentage thiamine pyrophosphate effect than the control group. There was no difference in weight gain of the two groups during the limited period of the trial.
The digestion by sheep of silages made with and without the addition of formaldehyde
Authors: Beever D. E. , Thomson D. J. , Cammell S. B. , Harrison D. G.
Published: March 2009

S.24 perennial ryegrass was conserved by ensiling directly (control) and after treatment with a solution of formaldehyde at the rate of 6 g HCHO/100 g crude protein. After storage for 90 days, part of the formaldehyde-treated silage was dried in a high-temperature drier.

The quantitative digestion of the energy, carbohydrate and nitrogen moieties of the three diets and the production of volatile fatty acids and microbial protein within the rumen were measured using five sheep fitted with re-entrant cannulae at the proximal duodenum and terminal ileum.

Treatment with formaldehyde depressed organic matter and energy digestion within the rumen compared with untreated silage (P< 0·001) and a further depression was observed on the dehydrated material. Both formaldehyde-treated silages showed enhanced flows of total amino acids into the small intestine compared with the control silage and net absorption from the small intestine was elevated by 13 and 21% respectively on these two diets. On the untreated silage over 71% of the protein entering the small intestine was microbial in origin whereas, due to depressed microbial growth and increased protection of feed protein from rumen fermentation, microbial protein comprised only 17% of duodenal protein on the two formaldehyde-treated silage diets. Fifteen and 81 % of the dietary protein passed undegraded through the stomachs to the duodenum on the control and the two formaldehyde-treated silage diets respectively.

Total VFA production within the rumen was not significantly influenced by the treatments imposed, but on the untreated silage only 56% of the energy apparently digested in the rumen was converted to VTA energy whilst a mean value of 74% was recorded on the other two diets.

Estimates of the total energy absorbed gave values of 10·6, 11·9 and 10·7 MJ/kg D.M. for the control, formaldehyde and dried, formaldehyde silage diets with absorbed protein energy representing 21, 22 and 26% of the total absorbed energy respectively.
Voluntary intake and nutrient digestibility of low-grade roughage by ruminants
Authors: Sharma V. V. , Rajora N. K.
Published: March 2009

Four young females of four ruminant species, namely cattle, buffalo, sheep and goat, were fed, in chopped form, a mixture of species of dry grass (Apluda aristataandThemada quadvivalvis; 3·85% crude protein) during a 28-day experimental period. Voluntary intake of grass was determined during the last 10 days and digestibility of feed nutrients during the last 6 days.

The digestibility coefficients of dry matter (D.M.) and crude fibre were higher for goats than other species, of organic matter, crude protein (CP) and ether extract were higher for goats and sheep than cows and buffaloes and of nitrogen-free extract higher for goats than cows and buffaloes and for sheep and buffaloes than cows. The daily intake of D.M., digestible CP and total digestible nutrients (TDN) is discussed in relation to body weight (BW) and kg W0·75.

Dry grass fed with mineral and vitamin supplement was adequate to sustain the body weights of buffaloes and goats but not of cows and sheep. Buffaloes utilized the dry grass better than other species as is evident from the highest feed and TDN intakes and marginal gain in weight.
The growth of sugar beet under different water regimes
Authors: Owen P. C.
Published: March 2009

In a small plot experiment in which the crop was protected from rain, the application of large amounts of water to keep the soil water stress to a minimum gave very large crop yields. One-fifth of this amount of water gave 80% of the maximum yield. Small, frequent applications of water appeared to give higher yields than the same amount of water in one large application. Yield differences were due to differences in leaf areas rather than to differences in net assimilation rates.
Protein value and amino-acid balance of condensed herring solubles and spontaneously heated herring meal. Chick experiments
Authors: Laksesvela B.
Published: March 2009

1. In a series of tests chicks were fed up to 4 weeks of age on a ‘purified’ diet supplemented with 10% of protein from either herring meal or condensed herring solubles.

2. The solubles alone appeared of negligible value as a protein source, but certain mixtures of solubles and meal protein proved superior to meal alone, although the levels of the essential amino acids plus cystine and tyrosine were lower in the mixture than in meal alone. The supplementary effect may possibly be due to changes in the aminoacid ratio or balance.

3. Only tryptophan improved growth and viability when free amino acids were added singly to the solubles. Simultaneous supply of all 10 essential amino acids elevated growth to about 80% of that on meal alone. A combination of tryptophan, isoleucine, histidine and phenylalanine appeared nearly as effective as the 10. Depressant effects of free amino acids at the low levels used were also met with. The chick results followed closely the predictions made from the results of microbiological assays of the amino-acid composition of the solubles, and these were in conformity with the composition of the ‘ideal’ amino-acid mixture for chicks proposed by Fisher & Johnson (1957).

4. The small weight gains of the chicks on solubles alone consisted largely of water rather than true tissue. Appetite appeared to be governed by the balance of amino acids, this appearing to be more important than the absolute levels fed. This applied to diets with heated meal as well as the solubles.
Interactions of phosphorus, magnesium and zinc on the yield and nutrient content of maize
Authors: Agbim N. N.
Published: March 2009

Five Zn-deficient soils designated A–E (pH 7·3–7·7) and a reference soil F (pH 7·6) were used in a glasshouse study on maize in which five fertilizer treatments: 75 μg P/g alone and together with all combinations of 0 and 5 μg/g of Mg and Zn and with 10 μg Mg + 5 μg Zn/g and a control were applied. The forage yield of soils A–E ranged from 2·5 to 2·9 g when no Zn was applied and from 5·1 to 5·6 g with added Zn, showing that Zn was the major limiting nutrient. Applied Mg significantly increased yield, the main exceptions being soils D and E which had the highest exchangeable Mg.

Addition of Mg to a P but not PZn treatment significantly increased P concentration and uptake. For soils B and E, Zn addition significantly depressed P concentration in maize. The P treatment significantly depressed Zn concentration but increased Mg concentration and uptake by maize. Although Mg application either depressed or had no effect on Mg content of maize, it caused a significant increase in Zn concentration and uptake. The correlation coefficient (r) between Zn and Mg in maize was – 0·61 (P < 0·001). Possibly, Mg was replacing Zn in the clay lattice or in its metallo-protein complex within the root.
Variation in self-fertility, flowering time and inflorescence production in inbred Lolium perenne L.
Authors: Jones R. N. , Jenabzadeh Parivash
Published: March 2009

A number of early generation inbred families and lines, as far as the S5, have been produced by self-pollination in Lolium perenne L. variety S. 23. The pedigree structure is given for 13 parent plants used in the breeding programme to show the patterns of segregation for self-fertility genes and to give the ancestry of eleven S5 inbred lines. Data on numbers of seed set, flowering time and inflorescence production reveal a wide range of variation due to both environmental and genetic components.
Flow of thiamin to the duodenum in dairy cows fed different rations
Authors: Breves G. , Brandt M. , Hoeller H. , Rohr K.
Published: March 2009

Four lactating Friesian cows with cannulae in the rumen and in the proximal duodenum were subjected to each of four different dietary treatments. Treatments differed with respect to concentration of crude protein, supply of urea nitrogen and frequency of feeding. The rations used consisted of hay, maize silage and concentrates and were offered to the animals according to milk yield.

During the last 5 days of each experimental period (5 weeks), ingesta flow at the proximal duodenum was estimated by Cr-EDTA. Samples were taken from the duodenum at 2 h intervals and were analysed for thiamin, total nitrogen and microbial nitrogen. Labelling of microbial N was achieved by continuous infusion of 16N-urea into the rumen.

With treatment 2 (26% less N than with treatment 1) thiamin net synthesis in the forestomachs and total thiamin entering the duodenum were significantly reduced whereas treatment 3 (substitution of 26% plant N by urea-N) and treatment 4 (six times instead of twice feeding daily) had no effect on synthesis and flow of thiamin to the small intestines. There were significant linear regressions between flow of microbial N and flow of thiamin to the duodenum and between organic matter digested and flow of thiamin.
Genotypic variation in distribution of total and labelled zinc and availability of zinc (A and L values) to soya beans grown in Mollisol
Authors: Rao V. S. , Gangwar M. S. , Rathore V. S.
Published: March 2009

Three soya-bean (Glycine max L.) genotypes (Bragg, Type I and Hark) were grown in Mollisol supplemented with 0, 2·5, 5·0 mg Zn/kg in pot-culture experiments. The genotypes showed significant differences in their capacity to absorb Zn. Maximum Zn accumulation was found in the genotype Bragg and minimum in Hark. The pattern of Zn distribution in plant parts was also different in the three genotypes and was differently affected by Zn application. The uptake and percentage distribution of 66Zn followed more or less the same trend as that of total Zn. The genotypes differed significantly in R(recovery), A(availability of native Zn) and L(labile soil Zn) value indicating that these three genotypes differed in their capacity for recovering applied and native Zn. The genotype Bragg had maximum R, A and L values. These results correspond well with the reported tolerance of these genotypes to Zn deficiency (Bragg > Type I > Hark).
Deformation during curing of the longissimus dorsi muscle of the pig
Authors: Gatherum D. P.
Published: March 2009

In pig progeny testing and in bacon carcass competitions some of the marks are awarded on the basis of measurements taken on the intact sides. These measurements help in assessing the value of the side, but to obtain a more complete picture of the amount of fat and to assess the size and shape of the longissimus dorsi muscle, another important point, it is usual to cut through the side at the level of the head of the last rib at right angles to the line of the back to examine a cross-section of this muscle. Whilst the fat to lean ratio is important, much attention has also been paid to the size and shape of the transverse section of the longissimus dorsi muscle, especially as regards the depth (B measurement) see Fig. 1.
Evaluation of pasture for beef cattle from measurements of cell wall in separated leaf and stem fractions
Authors: Moir K. W. , Ebersohn J. P.
Published: March 2009

Three pastures, pangola–clover, setaria, and tropical grass–legume, were grazed for a 9-month period by 12 steers of initial live weight of 199 kg on each. For the first 5 months live-weight gains were, respectively, 1·2, 0·76 and 0·43 kg per day, mostly higher than could be expected for estimated dietary energy concentrations of 10·1, 8·9 and 8·7 MJ of metabolizable energy (ME) per kg of dry matter. The high live-weight gains were not explained satisfactorily by dry-matter intakes as measured from faeces voided and dietary digestible dry matter, but were possible if published values for the requirements of ME for growth and fattening were too high. Cell wall, in vitro digested cell wall and nitrogen in separated leaf and stem fractions were useful indices for evaluating pasture for grazing cattle, but they did not predict live-weight gain.
Livestock production in central Mali: weight at first conception and ages at first and second parturitions in traditionally managed goats and sheep
Authors: Wilson R. T. , Durkin J. W.
Published: March 2009

Results relating to a 4-year study of early reproductive traits in traditionally managed flocks of indigenous goats and sheep under semi-arid conditions are reported. Mean weights (least-squares estimates) at first conception of 16·9 kg for goats and 23·4 kg for sheep were recorded, and animals raised under the better environmental conditions of the irrigated rice system had a 2·2 kg advantage at this stage over animals raised under the rainfed millet system. Animals from young and old dams were heavier at first conception than those born of middle-aged dams. Neither season of birth nor type of birth (single or multiple) had any effect on weight at first conception. Age at first parturition was 443 days and at second parturition was 709 days. Animals born of young and of old dams were later at both first and second parturitions than those born of middle-aged dams while age at first parturition was younger for those animals reared in the rice system. Age at first parturition was within the range normally found for these types of animals under these environmental and social conditions. An early first parturition, even with a high death rate of offspring, may contribute to a greater total lifetime production than a later parturition with a lower death rate.
Growth and development of pigs: a reanalysis of the effects of nutrition on body composition
Authors: Davies A. S.
Published: March 2009

Selected data of McMeekan (1940, 1941) were reanalysed to compare the proportions and distribution of tissues, and the weights of some organs, in pigs growing at different growth rates due to differing levels of nutrition. The effects of variation in fat content were excluded, and the distribution of tissues was compared at the same total weight for each tissue, by allometric regressions. Except for components of the head and neck, and the stomach, the results do not support a concept of retardation of development by poor nutrition of those parts of the body with the highest relative growth rates.
Environmental temperature, energy metabolism and heat regulation in sheep. II. The partition of heat losses in closely clipped sheep
Authors: Blaxter K. L. , Graham N. McC. , Wainman F. W. , Armstrong D. G.
Published: March 2009

1. The heat emission of two closely clipped sheep was studied in forty experiments in which three feeding levels were employed and in which environmental temperatures ranged from 8 to 38° C.

2. The sheep shivered at temperatures below 23° C., but the first reaction to cold was a corrugation of the skin referable to contraction of the fascial muscles.

3. As environmental temperature increased voluntary water consumption and urinary volume increased markedly. Only a small degree of cooling resulted from this warming of large quantities of water through a relatively small temperature gradient.

4. The basal loss of heat by vaporization of water was 316 Cal./m.2/24 hr. in one sheep (3) and 307 Cal./ m.2/24 hr. in the other (23). Increased vaporization occurred at environmental temperatures of 31° C. for the experiments at the low-feeding level, 27° C. at the medium level and 26° C. at the high level. The water-vapour loss increased subsequently by 87 Cal./m.2/24 hr./° C. change in environmental temperature in sheep 3 and by 88 Cal./m.2/24 hr./° C. in sheep 23. Respiratory frequencies increased with increasing heat loss by vaporization. Some evidence suggests that when the water-vapour loss was high the excretion of potassium through the skin was increased.
Growth and development of water buffalo and Friesian cross-bred cattle, with special reference to body and carcass composition
Authors: Abdallah O. Y. , Shahin Karima A. , Latif M. G. A.
Published: March 2009

A sample of twelve buffalo, nine O Friesian × ♀ Egyptian native Baladi (½ Friesian) and nine ♂ Friesian ×♀½ Friesian (¾ Friesian) bulls were individually penned and fed commercially cubed concentrates and roughages from weaning at 100 kg and slaughtered over the live-weight ranges 161–560 kg for buffaloes and 176–448 kg for cattle. Weights of gut fill (GFW), empty body (EBW), offals (TOW) and carcass were recorded. Right sides of all carcasses were jointed then dissected into muscle, fat, bone and ‘other tissues’. Analysis of covariance based on the allometric equationY=aXbwas applied to assess growth patterns (estimated from the slopes) and compositional differences (estimated from the intercepts).

The effect of genotype-group was not statistically significant on EBW at the same fasted body weight and cold carcass weight at the same EBW. However, the buffalo empty body contained (P< 0·05) more offal than the ¾ Friesian empty body and heavier TOW and lighter hot carcass than ½ Friesian empty body of the same weight.

No significant genotype-group differences were found in the slope of the regression of weight of total side muscle (TSM), total side fat (TSF), subcutaneous fat, intermuscular fat and total side bone (TSB) on dissected side weight (DSW) and ½ EBW. Comparison of adjusted means, however, showed buffaloes to have significantly more TSF and TSB but less TSM than the Friesian cross-breds. Most of the difference in TSF was due to more subcutaneous fat in the buffaloes than in the Friesian cross-breds. In all comparisons the two Friesian cross-bred groups did not significantly differ from one another.

The results indicate that Egyptian buffaloes may be earlier maturing than Friesian cross-bred cattle and buffaloes of other countries. It was also concluded that in order to produce desirable carcass of fat:muscle ratio of 1:5, Egyptian buffalo bulls should be slaughtered to produce carcasses of slightly more than 230 kg whereas ½ Friesian and ¾ Friesian bulls can be taken to heavier weights. Methods for reporting carcass compositional data are discussed.
The utilization of dietary energy by lactating sows
Authors: Lodge G. A.
Published: March 2009

1. The aim of the experiment was to determine gross efficiency and net efficiency of energy conversion for milk production in lactating sows.

2. Two lactating Wessex Saddleback sows were used for both determinations. Two dry, non-pregnant sows of the same breed were also required for the determinations of net efficiency.

3. Rations were adjusted with the aim of maintaining the sows at constant live weight, but this was only partially successful.

4. Digestible energy intakes and milk energy outputs were measured during three 6-day recording periods in the 2nd, 5th and 8th weeks of lactation. Digestible energy consumed was determined by incorporating 1% of chromic oxide in the rations to be fed, and measuring the energy contents of food and faeces by bomb calorimetry.

Milk energy output was determined by measuring milk yields and compositions and calculating the energy contents from percentages of fat, protein and lactose. Milk yields were measured by weighing the young pigs before and after each suckling during each recording period, and samples were obtained by a special milking machine for determination of chemical composition.

5. Data required for the calculation of energy conversion efficiencies for milk production are presented. Gross efficiency was determined as approximately 45% and net efficiency as approximately 85%, but this latter value must be regarded more as an estimation because of the difficulty of determining accurately the maintenance requirements of lactating sows.
Effect of sowing date, population density and row spacing on growth and yield of opium poppy in north central subtropical India
Authors: Yadav R. L. , Mohan R. , Singh R. , Gupta M. M.
Published: March 2009

Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum Linn.) was sown at three sowing dates (10, 25 November, 10 December), row spacings (15, 30, 45 cm) and population densities (6 × 105, 3 × 105, 1·5 × 105 plants/ha) in a split-plot design at Lucknow. Sowing on 10 November resulted in higher yields of opium, seed, total dry matter and morphine content. Delayed sowing, higher plant density and narrow spacing produced low yields with less morphine content. Decline in opium yield was associated with decrease in plant height, leaf area index, capsule size and number of capsules per plant. The crop sown on 10 November removed most N. N concentration and uptake also increased when the number of plants per unit area was decreased. The study suggests that to achieve maximum yields poppy should be sown in rows 30 cm apart on 10 November with 3 × 105 plants/ha.
Effects of nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation on sugar beet at Broom's Barn 1973–8
Authors: Last P. J. , Draycott A. P. , Messem A. B. , Webb D. J.
Published: March 2009

During 1973–8 six field experiments examined the effect of 0, 41, 82, 124, 166 and 207 kg N/ha with and without irrigation on the growth, yield and quality of sugar beet. The culture of the crops was planned to produce a large yield in order to determine the optimal nitrogen application for the above-average crops which many growers are now seeking to produce. Ammonium nitrate was used as the nitrogen source, broadcast in one dose before sowing as was recommended practice in the early 1970s. The growth of the crop was monitored from the seedling stage to harvest in December, as was nitrogen uptake by the crop, and water removal from the soil using a neutron probe.

In 3 years when the weather was dry after drilling, the fertilizer significantly depressed the number of plants which established but plant weights showed that some nitrogen fertilizer was needed early for rapid seedling growth. Changes in the method of applying fertilizer for sugar beet are therefore suggested and are being tested. Soil analyses in the plough layer during establishment (May–June) indicated an optimum concentration of mineral nitrogen of about 40 mg N/kg soil at this stage.

Nitrogen fertilizer was very important for a high yield; throughout the growth of the crop it greatly increased total dry-matter yield and at final harvest this was reflected in sugar yield. Considering the six years together, sugar yield was linearly related to both dry-matter yield and total nitrogen uptake. However, within a year, increasing nitrogen uptake above 200 kg N/ha with nitrogen fertilizer did not increase sugar yield; maximum yields of sugar each year were normally obtained with 125 kg N/ha fertilizer or less, and irrigation had little effect on the optimum amount. Explanations for the lack of responsiveness of sugar beet to greater applications of nitrogen fertilizer are being sought in further more detailed analyses of the crop and its environment.
Growth, economy of feed utilization and carcass quality in pigs in relation to dietary protein level and antibiotic administration
Authors: Morgan J. T. , Green F. R. , Costain R. A. , Williams E. F.
Published: March 2009

An experiment is described in which sixty-four individually-fed pigs were used to investigate the effects of dietary protein status and administration of aureomycin on growth, efficiency of feed utilization and carcass conformation.

The main features of the results obtained were:

1. Pigs fed a ‘standard’ protein diet showed superior performance in terms of growth and economy of feed utilization in comparison with a ‘substandard’ ration. Appreciable differences in carcass quality including reduction in backfat and total body fat, concomitant with an increase in the lean meat content also resulted from variation in ration protein content. These results have been discussed in terms of the possible significance of both dietary crude protein status and amino acid content.

2. The administration of aureomycin at a ‘nutritional’ level had no apparent effect on any of the indices of pig productivity subject to analysis.

3. The high killing percentages noted over-all, have been discussed in relation to dietary energy and fibre levels.
Studies of the chemical composition of kales and rapes. I. The kales
Authors: Jones D. J. C.
Published: March 2009

1. Four varieties of marrow stem kale, three of thousand headed kales, Hungry Gap Kale and Rape-Kale were grown at three centres in mid-Wales. They were sampled in the early winter period and separate leaf and stem samples analysed for the proximate constituents and minerals.

2. Leaf to stem ratios were measured on both a green and dry matter basis and the latter values used to calculate whole plant values for the chemical constituents.

3. The leaves of the marrow stem kales were higher in dry matter than the stems, except in the case of the Purple Stem Kale. This variety resembled the thousand headed and rape-type kales in having a higher dry matter in the stems. On a dry matter basis, the leaves of all the varieties were richer than the stems in ether extract, crude protein, total ash and all the minerals except potassium and sodium. These elements occurred to a greater extent in the stems of the fleshy stemmed marrow stem kales than in the leaves. The stems were higher in crude fibre and nitrogen-free extractives.

4. The leaves of the rape-type kales were higher than those of the other varieties in silica, phosphorus and potassium. They were the best source of phosphorus on a whole plant basis. The marrow stem kales had considerably higher leaf and stem values for sodium and were markedly superior to the other varieties as a source of the element.
Effects of oxalic acid ingestion by sheep. II. Large doses to sheep on different diets
Authors: Watts P. S.
Published: March 2009

Subacute oxalic acid poisoning was reproduced by the administration of varying doses of oxalic acid. The amount needed varied according to the nutritional status of the animal immediately prior to the experimental period. If lucerne was present in the diet or if calcium or strontium was added much larger doses were tolerated. Such an animal excreted large amounts of oxalic acid as oxalate in the faeces, and as carbonate and oxalate in the urine. In animals which failed to survive the blood urea rose, while the amount of carbonate in the urine did not. In many such animals there was a decrease in blood calcium. It is considered that the major portion of the oxalate is decomposed by bacterial action in the rumen and that the primary factor in subacute oxalic acid poisoning in sheep is rumen dysfunction due to its effect on the pH of the rumen.
Supplements to correct oxalate-induced negative calcium and phosphorus balances in horses fed tropical grass hays
Authors: Gartner R. J. W. , Blaney B. J. , McKenzie R. A.
Published: March 2009

A series of experiments investigated mineral supplements for the correction of negative calcium and phosphorus balances in horses fed tropical grass hays containing more than 0·5% total oxalate.

A daily supplement of a soluble calcium source was retained with an efficiency of 60% implying no interference with calcium absorption from supplements by oxalate or other factors in the hays.

The palatability of limestone, rock phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, a limestone and dicalcium phosphate mixture and mono-ammonium phosphate was tested with a view to providing a supplement once weekly. With the exception of the latter, all were consumed readily when mixed with 50–60 % molasses (w/w) and hourly intakes of 200 g calcium and 50 g phosphorus were recorded.

In balance trials using horses fed tropical grass hays, 1 kg of either rock phosphate, or a mixture of limestone and dicalcium phosphate (1:2, w/w), each mixed with 1·5 kg molasses, was fed on the 8th day of a 14-day balance trial. The retention of calcium from the supplements ranged from 19 to 41% and that of phosphorus from 22 to 42%. The passage time for unabsorbed minerals was about 4 days. This amount of supplementation can accommodate calcium and phosphorus losses of at least 20 and 10 mg/kg live weight/day respectively. A supplement of 1 kg limestone overcame a negative calcium balance of 20 mg/kg live weight/day but did not overcome a negative phosphorus balance.
Yield and yield components of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and their interrelationships as influenced by nitrogen and seed rate in the Sudan
Authors: Osman A. M. , Mahmoud Z. M.
Published: March 2009

Field experiments were conducted for three seasons, 1971–2, 1972–3 and 1973–4 to study the effects of nitrogen fertilizer and seed rate and their interactions on grain yield and its components and attributes of growth of two wheat varieties, Giza 155 and Mexipak. The semi-dwarf Mexipak was found to be more responsive to nitrogen application than the taller Giza 155 in a number of aspects, namely, grain yield per unit area of land, the number and weight of grains per ear, the dry weight per ear and dry weight of ears/m2. The numbers of spikelets and grains per ear of both varieties decreased linearly with an increase in seed rate. The 1000-grain weight was not affected in both varieties by either seed rate or N fertilizer.

Variety × nitrogen, variety × seed rate and nitrogen × seed rate interactions were significant; the variety × nitrogen × seed rate interactions were not significant. Mexipak was found to have a definite optimum seed rate of 192 kg/ha at an optimum N level of 129kgN/ha for maximum grain yield. Giza 155 was less responsive to changes in seed rate and therefore its optimum seed rate was not as definite as that for Mexipak. Evidence presented here suggests that wheat varieties of different growth habits grown in the Sudan should receive differential treatments when the policies of setting optimum seed rates and nitrogen fertilizer rates are considered.

Grain yield of both varieties was positively correlated with total dry weight of shoot at heading.
Studies on spatial arrangement in sorghum-legume intercropping systems
Authors: Singh S. P.
Published: March 2009

Field experiments on spatial arrangements in intercropping systems were conducted under rainfed conditions in north-western India during 1975 and 1976. In these experiments sorghum yield increased by 21·6, 20·3, 29·2, 36·5 and 14·;2% when grown in association with the legumes greengrarn, blackgram, grain and fodder cow peas and groundnut respectively when compared with sorghum alone. Spatial arrangements had only marginal effect on sorghum yield but the yields of all the intercrops were appreciably affected. Paired rows with two rows of intercrop in 90 cm spacing resulted in maximum yield of all the intercrops. The land equivalent ratio (LER) was also influenced considerably by different intercrops and spatial arrangements. Planting of sorghum in paired rows having two rows of grain cow pea within 90 cm spacing gave maximum LER in both the years; however, net returns were maximum with fodder cow pea in same spatial arrangement.
Animal production from naturalized and sown pastures at three stocking rates under coconuts in the Solomon Islands
Authors: Watson S. E. , Whiteman P. C.
Published: March 2009

A grazing study, comparing a naturalized and a sown pasture at three stocking rates, was conducted under a uniform stand of 65-year-old coconuts on a fertile soil in the Russell Islands. In a plot trial on this site there was no significant response to application of up to 400 kg N/ha/year over 2 years to Brachiaria decumbens. Average daily transmission of photosynthetically active radiation through the coconut canopy was 60% of full sunlight. The sown pasture consisted initially of para (Brachiaria mutica), signal (B. decumbens) and koronivia (B. humidicola) with the legumes Centrosema pubescens, Pueraria phaseoloides and Stylosanthes guianensis. The main species in the naturalized pasture were Axonopus compressus, Mimosa pudica, C. pubescens and Colopogonium mucunoides. Pastures were set stocked in two replicates over 3 years at 1·5, 2·5 and 3·5 animals/ha. There was no significant difference in live-weight gain between pastures in any year. Live-weight gain per head declined linearly with increasing stocking rate. Highest live-weight gain was 437 kg/ha/year in the 1st year at 3·5 animals/ha. The planted grasses declined from 60% at the start of grazing to 6% 8 months later. A. compressus increased from 2 to 24% over 3 years in the sown pasture, and from 12 to 34% of yield in the natural pasture. M. pudica increased from 27 to 44% in the sown, and remained approximately constant at 37% in the natural pasture. G. pubescens increased at 2·5 animals/ha, but was replaced by P. phaseoloides at 1·5 animals/ha and by A. compressus and M. pudica at 3·5 animals/ha. There were no significant effects of pasture treatments or stocking rate on copra yields. Where there is a cover of naturalized grasses and legumes under coconuts, cultivation and planting of exotic species cannot be recommended. Major improvement will come from thorough weed control and maintaining stocking rates between 1·5 and 2·5 animals/ha.