bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Athenaeus of Naukratis
Authors: Olson S. Douglas
Published: December 2012

According to the
Suda
(
α
731), Athenaeus was born in the city of Naukratis in Egypt and lived in the time of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161–180
CE
). Reference is made at 12.537f to Commodus (reigned 180–192), who appears already to be dead, and the scholarly consensus today is that the
Deipnosophistae
was composed — or at least completed — early in the reign of Septimius Severus (reigned 193–211). At 5.211a, one of the dinner guests mentions and seemingly quotes from a history of the kings of Syria composed by “our companion Athenaeus” (
FGrH
166 F 1). The work is otherwise lost, but the author is presumably to be identified with the historical Athenaeus of Naukratis rather than with the fictional character who shares his name. Beyond this, we know nothing certain about him.
Callimachus
Authors: Petrovic Ivana
Published: December 2012

Callimachus of Cyrene, son of Battos (flourished under Ptolemy II Philadelphos 285–246BCE), was a scholar, a poet, and the leading intellectual of his age.
Celtic wars
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: December 2012

Warfare was a central occupation for Galatian (Celtic) society. The large bands of Celts who reached Macedonia in 280BCEand crossed into Asia Minor in 278, were headed by warrior bands, whose leaders owed their status to military success and the booty that was to be won from attacking the rich sanctuaries and settlements of the eastern Mediterranean.
Chremonidean War
Authors: Scholten Joseph B.
Published: December 2012

The Chremonidean War is a thinly‐documented conflict that nonetheless was of epochal importance in the political history of the Greek mainland. The war united the Athenians and Spartans one last time to head a coalition ofpoleisin defense of their freedom (eleutheria) against a tyrannical foreign monarch. This time, however, the outside bogeyman was the ruler of Macedonia, Antigonos II Gonatas.
Cynicism
Authors: Engels David
Published: December 2012

The philosophical movement (or social attitude) of Cynicism, though its contribution to physics and logic was negligible, proved to be an important inspiration for the elaboration of postclassical Ethics.
Demetrios I Poliorketes
Authors: Wheatley Pat
Published: December 2012

Demetrios, “the Besieger of Cities” (336–282BCE), was son of Antigonos I Monophthalmos, “the One‐Eyed.”
Demetrios of Pharos
Authors: Šašel Kos Marjeta
Published: December 2012

Demetrios most probably originated from a (half‐)Greek family, which had settled on Pharos for generations.
Elephants
Authors: Rance Philip
Published: December 2012

Classical antiquity knew two species of elephant: the Asian elephant (
Elephas maximus
) and the smaller African Forest elephant (
Loxodonta cyclotis
) – a separate species deriving from the African Bush elephant (
Loxodonta africana
).
Gardens, Greek
Authors: Giesecke Annette L.
Published: December 2012

Evidence for the plantings and appearance of the ancient Greek garden (kepos) is to a large degree literary; it commences with the Homeric epics.
Greekness
Authors: Mitchell Lynette G.
Published: December 2012

In the second half of the fifth centuryBCE, Herodotus says that during the Persian wars the Athenians refused to betray the Greeks to the Persians because of their sense of Greekness (to Hellenikon), that is, their sense of shared identity based on common blood, language, cult, and way of life (8.144.2).
Hellenic Alliance
Authors: Dreher Martin
Published: December 2012

The modern phrase “Hellenic Alliance” designates hegemonial alliances created by the “Successors” as an instrument in their struggle for power.
Hieronymos of Kardia
Authors: Meeus Alexander
Published: December 2012

Not much is known about the life and works of Hieronymos of Kardia (364–260BCE?), an important diplomat and army officer in the early Hellenistic period, and the author of one of the main primary histories of the Successors.
Inventories
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

The terminventoriesrefers generally, but not exclundash, to catalogues of sacred property that were kept in temple treasuries or to offering lists of votives to the gods.
Kommagene
Authors: Winter Engelbert
Published: December 2012

The region called Kommagene in the Hellenistic and Roman period was surrounded by the Taurus Mountains to the north and west and the river Euphrates to the east.
Magas
Authors: Quinn Josephine Crawley
Published: December 2012

Magas (ca. 325–ca. 258/50
BCE
) was a ruler of Cyrenaica.
Memnon of Herakleia Pontica
Authors: Muccioli Federicomaria
Published: December 2012

Memnon was a local historian of Herakleia Pontica on the south coast of the Black Sea. Some scholars place him in the first centuryCE, others in the second – especially on somehow doubtful stylistic grounds, associating him with the Second Sophistic. A date in the first centuryBCEis less likely, although not completely to be dismissed. Memnon wrote a history of hispolisin at least sixteen books (we do not know the exact title; it could well have beenPeri Herakleias). This work is known only through the long summary given by Photios. No other piece of ancient Greek local historiography is preserved to such an extent (FGrH434). Photios declares that he was unable to find and read other parts of it, adding that Memnon's style was plain, clear, and with a conventional vocabulary, apart from some unusual words.
Neoptolemos
Authors: Müller Sabine
Published: December 2012

Neoptolemos, a name familiar in the Epirote Aiakid house, reflects its supposed descent from Achilles' son of that name, who was associated with Molossian rule (Pind.Nem. 4.51–3; 7.38–40).
Nikomedes I–IV of Bithynia
Authors: Kleu Michael
Published: December 2012

“Nikomedes” was the name of four Bithynian kings. The last three of them ruled consecutively between 149 and ca. 75BCE(Strabo 12.4.2, 563). Because they were not well‐defined in the literary source material, their exact number and their periods of reign were not clear for a long time.
Olympias
Authors: Carney Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

Olympias (ca. 373–316BCE), daughter of Neoptolemos, king of the Molossians, married Philip Ii of Macedon ca. 357BCEand had two children: Alexander III, The Great and Cleopatra.
Pharsalos, battle of
Authors: Scholten Joseph B.
Published: December 2012

One of the most significant land engagements of the Greco‐Roman era, the Battle of Pharsalos occurred on August 9 (pre‐Julian), 48
BCE
, somewhere in the plain below modern Farsala in Thessalia province, Greece (
B.Alex
. 48; Caes.
B Civ
. 3.73–96. App.
B Civ
. 2.64–82; Plut.
Caes
. 42–6,
Pomp
. 68–72; Suet.
Iul
. 30 Front.
Strat
. 2.3.22; Cass. Dio 41.51–63).
Philip III Arrhidaios
Authors: Landucci Franca , Wallace Shane
Published: December 2012

Philip III Arrhidaios (ca. 355–317BCE) was the son of Philip II of Macedon and of Philine of Larissa. He suffered from a mental illness that saved him from Alexander III, The Great's purges in 336, thus allowing him to receive the kingship after Alexander's death.
Pyrrhos, king
Authors: Zambon Efrem
Published: December 2012

Pyrrhos (317–272) was king of Epirus from 306 to 302 and then again, from 297 to 272.
Seleukos I Nikator
Authors: Schäfer Christoph
Published: December 2012

Seleukos I Nikator was born between 358 and 354BCEeither in Europos or in Pella (Johannes Malalas 203 Bonn; App.
Seleukos II Kallinikos
Authors: Kuhn Christina
Published: December 2012

Seleukos II
Kallinikos
(“Gloriously Triumphant”), or
Pogon
(“Bearded”), born ca. 260
BCE
as the eldest son of Antiochos II Theos and Laodike, Wife of Antiochos II, ruled the Seleucid Empire from 246 to 226/5.
Stoicism
Authors: Engels David
Published: December 2012

The Stoa was one of the most important schools of postclassical philosophical thought, together with Plato's Academy and Epicurus' Garden (seeEpicurus and Epicureanism), and probably the most influential politically.
Temples, Hellenistic
Authors: Mylonopoulos Ioannis
Published: December 2012

The sixth and the early fifth centuriesBCErepresent a period in which wealthy individual members of the elite — in most cases, tyrants — were responsible for the initiation and part of the funding of huge temple projects, such as those in Samos, Naxos, and Athens.
Wills, of Hellenistic kings
Authors: Kosmetatou Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

Wills, of Hellenistic kings, refers to the last will and testament of several Hellenistic monarchs that aimed at settling their kingdom's complicated affairs and often unclear succession in turbulent times. While most kings were able to establish an undisputed heir apparent, usually a biological son, during their lifetime, internal and/or external conflicts came to require the legally binding provisions of a will that legitimized a successor's rule and maintained, and reinforced the stability of a state.
Bematists
Authors: Tzifopoulos Yannis
Published: December 2012

Bematists (
bematistai
) were individuals who “measured distances by paces” (LSJ); they are often mentioned together with
hemerodromoi
(runners of a day's distance),
dromokerykes
(running heralds), and perhaps chorographers.
Panaitios of Rhodes
Authors: Engels David
Published: December 2012

Founder of middle Stoicism, Panaitios was born ca. 185
BCE
at Rhodes as the eldest son of Nikagoras, member of one of the noblest families of the island, and served as priest of Poseidon Hippios at Lindos.
Ancus Marcius
Authors: Forsythe Gary
Published: December 2012

Ancus Marcius was the fourth of early Rome's seven kings. His reign receives the least space in our two principal ancient accounts: Livy (1.32–4) and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Ant. Rom. 3.36–45), indicating that later Romans could find little, if anything, to assign to him.
Caesar (title)
Authors: Barrett Anthonya
Published: December 2012

“Caesar” was originally the cognomen of a branch of the
gens Iulia
, held most famously by the dictator Julius Caesar (c. Iulius Caesar).
Catullus, Gaius Valerius
Authors: Edwards Davis Josiah
Published: December 2012

A lyric poet from Cisalpine Gaul, Gaius Valerius Catullus (84–54?BCE) was a member of a group of poets at Rome whom Cicero disdainfully labeled the “Neoterics” for their literary experiments in a Hellenizing style (Att. 7.2; Lyne 1978).
Client kings
Authors: J. M. Kropp Andreas
Published: December 2012

As Rome expanded through the Mediterranean world and beyond, it deployed two basic instruments of rule: direct and indirect administration, each with its inherent logic, benefits, and hazards. From as early as the second century
BCE
, indirect rule was accomplished through so‐called “client kings,” a modern term often criticized as a mistaken transfer of the technical language of private relations to matters of state. But it adequately describes the reality of a peculiar kind of kingship, which only functioned under the patronage of a Roman aristocrat or, in the Principate, within the limits of another, more powerful monarchy.
Cornelius Gallus, Gaius
Authors: Davis Josiah Edwards
Published: December 2012

Gaius Cornelius Gallus (ca. 70–26
BCE
), a Roman
eques
, was an established literary figure in the mid‐40s when Vergil's
Eclogues
were published.
Disability
Authors: Garland Robert
Published: December 2012

It is all too easy to overlook the fact that a sizable percentage of the population in any ancient community was disabled, primarily because the Greeks and the Romans themselves chose to ignore it, preferring to project the image of a people who were physically unimpaired.
Donatus, Aelius
Authors: Harrison Stephen J.
Published: December 2012

Aelius Donatus (not to be confused with the later scholar Tiberius Claudius Donatus) was an importantgrammaticusand commentator on Latin literary texts active in Rome in the middle of the fourth centuryCE; he was a teacher of Jerome, who provides information on him.
Fantastic literature
Authors: Nisbet Gideon
Published: December 2012

Fantastic literature in its current sense — fantasy and science fiction — is a phenomenon of modernity, emerging in counterpoint to the eighteenth‐century rise of the realistic novel. Its otherworldly scenarios are allegorical playgrounds, reflecting on and exploring alternatives to experiences specific to the culture of modernity.
Lucilius, Gaius
Authors: Manuwald Gesine
Published: December 2012

C. Lucilius (d. 103/2
BCE
; date of birth debated: 180–148
BCE
) is generally regarded as the originator of Roman verse Satire (cf., e.g., Quint.
Inst
. 10.1.93).
Patronage, literary
Authors: Gold Barbara K.
Published: December 2012

Patronage is a social institution that played an important role in the workings of the Roman Republic and Empire.
Satire
Authors: Corrigan Kirsty
Published: December 2012

Satire, orsatura, is a genre of Latin literature, first appearing during the Roman Republic and continuing into the high Roman Empire.
Seneca the Elder (Lucius Annaeus Seneca)
Authors: Mannering Jonathan
Published: December 2012

The long life of L. Annaeus Seneca began in the town of Corduba (modern Córdoba), part of a prosperous, urbanized, and socially dynamic region in southern Spain, where he was born into a wealthy equestrian family some time between 61 and 50BCE.
Seven Liberal Arts
Authors: Ramelli Ilaria L.E.
Published: December 2012

These arts were called
liberates
because they provided the education proper to a free person.
Silence in Roman literature
Authors: Kraus Christina S.
Published: December 2012

The meanings of silence are not only culturally specific, but within a given culture their understanding is affected by genre, gender, and situation.
Tragedy, Latin
Authors: Manuwald Gesine
Published: December 2012

The dramatic genre of Roman tragedy denotes serious plays (in Latin) on Greek myths. As ancient grammarians confirm, these dramas differ from comic genres by the elevated status of their protagonists and the gravity of their action and from the Roman genre of historical drama (
fabula praetexta
) by their subject matter, taken from Greek mythology.
Valerius Flaccus Setinus Balbus, Gaius
Authors: Cowan Robert
Published: December 2012

Valerius Flaccus was the author of theArgonautica, an unfinished epic in eight books on Jason and the Argonauts’ quest for the golden fleece, written during the Flavian era.
Town planning
Authors: Owens E. J.
Published: December 2012

Town planning can be defined as the creation of an ordered and aesthetically and visually pleasing urban environment, through which the different components of a city are systematically organized.
Harpocration
Authors: Gibson Craig A.
Published: December 2012

Valerius Harpocration was a lexicographer who lived in Alexandria in Egypt in the late second centuryCE.
Epictetus
Authors: Engels David
Published: December 2012

Epictetus was one of the most important exponents of later Stoic philosophy.
Sappho
Authors: Boedeker Deborah
Published: December 2012

Sappho of Lesbos (late seventh/early sixth centuryBCE) was the most famous woman poet of antiquity. We have almost no reliable data about her life, except that she may have had a daughter named Kleis (fr. 132) and a brother (fr. 5), called Charaxos by Herodotus (Histories2.135).
Allegory, Jewish
Authors: Grabbe Lester L.
Published: December 2012

The term “allegory” is from Greekallegoria(“to speak other” or “speak figuratively”). Allegory is found widely in the ancient literatures of the Mediterranean and Middle East.
Apion
Authors: McClister David
Published: December 2012

Apion (late first century
BCE
to mid‐first century
CE
) was a Hellenistic author and grammarian.
Book of Zerubbabel
Authors: Himmelfarb Martha
Published: December 2012

The
Book of Zerubbabel
purports to be a revelation of the events of the last days by the angel Michael/Metatron to Zerubbabel, a descendant of King David who served as the Persian‐appointed governor of Judaea toward the end of the sixth century
BCE
.
Aquila and Theodotion, Greek translations of the Bible of
Authors: Aitken James K.
Published: December 2012

Soon after the translation of the first parts of the Hebrew Bible into Greek in the third and second centuriesBCE, Jewish revisions and alternative translations began to circulate.
Babylonian exile of the Jews
Authors: Grabbe Lester L.
Published: December 2012

The Neo‐Babylonian period and the sixth centuryBCEmarked a low point in the history of Judah. Through much of its history, Judah had been under the rule of a foreign power in some form. From the middle of the ninth centuryBCEto almost the end of the seventh — ca. 850 to 600 — Assyria was the main oppressor. Then just before 600, the Babylonians replaced the Assyrians. It is this short‐lived Neo‐Babylonian Empire — lasting less than a century — that brought the kingdom of Judah to an end and began the exile.
Berenike, daughter of Agrippa I
Authors: Schwartz Daniel R.
Published: December 2012

Berenike, daughter of Agrippa I, was born in about 28CEand raised between Judaea and Rome; she is best known for her marital connections and especially for a near‐miss.
Beth Shean (Skythopolis)
Authors: Klein Konstantin M.
Published: December 2012

Beth Shean (
Arab
. Baysān) is a town 30 km south of the Sea of Galilee that flourished from Hellenistic times far into the Umayyad period. The place is located at the junction of the Jordan River Valley and the Jezreel Valley, and at an intersection of several ancient roads of the region of Palestine.
Cairo Genizah, Late Antique Jewish texts from
Authors: Bohak Gideon
Published: December 2012

The Cairo Genizah is the collection of discarded texts and documents, both sacred and secular, placed by members of the Jewish community in a special storage room in a synagogue in Cairo.
Dead Sea Scrolls
Authors: Babkina Svetlana V.
Published: December 2012

The term Dead Sea Scrolls is used in two senses, general and specific. In a general sense, it designates Hebrew, Aramaic, Nabatean, Greek, and some Syriac and Arabic texts discovered in various places along the north‐west shore of the Dead Sea in the mid‐twentieth century and later.
Demetrios (Jewish historian/chronographer)
Authors: Honigman Sylvie
Published: December 2012

The earliest known Greco‐Jewish exegete to base himself on the Septuagint, Demetrios flourished in Alexandria under Ptolemy IV Philopator (222–205
BCE
).
Demons, Judaism
Authors: Felton D.
Published: December 2012

During their wanderings in the Near East in the sixth centuryBCEthe Jews adapted the dualistic angel–demon conception from Zoroastrianism.
Dura‐Europos, synagogue in
Authors: Williams Matthew , Fine Steven
Published: December 2012

The Dura‐Europos synagogue is best known for wall paintings depicting biblical themes that decorated all four walls of the synagogue. The building was a “house synagogue,” a renovated housing unit located near the western wall of the city. The synagogue served a Jewish community comprising Greek, Aramaic, and Persian speakers from some time in the second century through its renovation in 244/245
CE
and destruction during a Sasanian invasion of approximately 256.
Elephantine Papyri
Authors: Law T. M.
Published: December 2012

The Elephantine Papyri is a collection of documents dated about the sixth centuryBCEdiscovered on and near Elephantine Island, opposite Aswan in Upper Egypt.
Excommunication, Jewish
Authors: Kireeva Natalya
Published: December 2012

Excommunication is an official rite or procedure through which a person is expelled from a religious community.
Ezekiel
Authors: Zimmerle William
Published: December 2012

Ezekiel (“God strengthens” or “May God strengthen”) was a prophet of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and a member of the priestly class of Jerusalem who preached to the Jews exiled in Babylonia. Along “the banks of the Chebar, in the land of the Chaldeans” (Ezek 1:3), probably in Tel Abib near the southern Mesopotamian city of Nippur, he was among the first generation exiled in 598BCEbecause of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II.
Gentiles, Jewish and Christian attitudes towards
Authors: Koltun‐Fromm Naomi
Published: December 2012

The term “Gentile” has come to be a generic term for non‐Jews, but in its ancient origins it was a more elastic term that was used to define the “other” in whatever form or shape that took in many different biblical, Jewish, and Christian contexts.
Harba de‐Moshe
(Sword of Moses)
Authors: Harari Yuval
Published: December 2012

Harba de‐Moshe
(the
Sword of Moses
)is a wide‐ranging Jewish treatise of magic that was probably compiled in Palestine during the third quarter of the first millennium.
Herodium
Authors: Koltun‐Fromm Naomi
Published: December 2012

Herodium, one of the seven desert fortresses built or remodeled by Herod the Great, situated seven miles southof Jerusalem, is identified with the cone‐shaped mountain on the edge of the Judaean desert also known as Jebel Fureidis.
Idolatry, Jewish and Christian views of
Authors: Barbu Daniel
Published: December 2012

The word “idolatry” (and its derivates) first appears in the New Testament, alongside other sins and vices attributed to the Gentiles (1 Cor 5:11, 6:9; Gal 5:19–20; Eph 5:5; Col 3:5; also 1 Pet 4:3; Rev 21:8, 22:15).
Justus of Tiberias
Authors: McClister David
Published: December 2012

Justus was a Hellenistic Jew who is mentioned by Josephus in connection with the First Jewish Revolt.
Jamniah/Yavneh
Authors: Fischer Moshe , Taxel Itamar
Published: December 2012

For much of its history, ancient Yavneh was a major city on Israel's southern coastal plain located about 7.5 km east of the Mediterranean shore, on a hill that rises about 60 m above sea level and 30 m above surface level.
Jerusalem
Authors: Klein Konstantin M. , Weikert J. Christopher
Published: December 2012

Jerusalem was a major city of the ancient Levant, situated between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, close to the watershed of the Judaean mountains, approximately 800 m above sea level.seeJudaea. The city is built on various hills, flanked on the east and south by the Kidron and Hinnom valleys, respectively, and is intersected by the Tyropoeon Valley.
John of Gischala
Authors: Klein Konstantin M.
Published: December 2012

John of Gischala was a leader of the First Jewish Revolt. The only author who mentions John is Josephus, who presents him as one of his main opponents and rivals among the group of the insurrectionists.
Judaea
Authors: Pastor Jack
Published: December 2012

Judaea is the Latin form of the Greek name Ίουδαία which in turn was Graecized from the name of the Persian province Yahud in wake of the conquest by Alexander the Great (332).
Judas Maccabaeus
Authors: Bernhardt Johannes C.
Published: December 2012

Judas was the third son of Mattathias and a member of the priestly family of the Hasmoneans.
Judith, Book of
Authors: Seeman Chris
Published: December 2012

The book of Judith is a Jewish novel composed (probably) during the late Hellenistic period (second to first centuriesBCE).
Life of Adam and Eve
Authors: Magliano‐Tromp Johannes
Published: December 2012

TheLife of Adam and Eveis an early Jewish or Christian writing about the expulsion of Adam and Eve from paradise. It is also known under the titleApocalypse of Moses. Taking its lead from the story in Genesis 3, it recounts the well‐known events, enriched abundantly with apocryphal details. The writings is extant in numerous versions and manuscripts, showing that it has been one of the most widespread writings in the Christian world. Almost all of these offer a different form of the story, showing in addition that the transmitters' interest in it was not antiquarian, but lively, and continually nurtured by oral tradition.
Lydda/Lod/Diospolis
Authors: Klein Konstantin M.
Published: December 2012

Lod was an ancient town in Palestine, situated on the intersection between the road from coastal Ioppa to Jerusalem, and the
via maris
, leading from Damascus to Egypt.
Megillat Ta'anit (The Scroll of Fasting)
Authors: Noam Vered
Published: December 2012

Megillat Ta'anit
or
The Scroll of Fasting
is a list of about thirty‐five dates drawn up in Aramaic and arranged in calendar order.
Nehemiah
Authors: Cataldo Jeremiah W.
Published: December 2012

It is generally accepted that the person Nehemiah was both an imperial cupbearer and a governor in Yehud, the Persian province of Judah, during the reign of Artaxerxes.
Philo Judaeus
Authors: Sterling Gregory E.
Published: December 2012

Philo Judaeus (ca. 20 BCE–ca. 50CE) is one of the most important Jewish authors of the Early Roman Empire.
Priests and Levites (Jewish)
Authors: Grey Matthew J.
Published: December 2012

Several ancient Mediterranean cultures possessed a class of religious specialists who mediated between the divine and the human realms. In early Judaism, this mediation was provided by a hereditary system of priests and Levites, who served the Jerusalem temple and performed other functions within the larger Jewish community.
Purification, Jewish
Authors: Klawans Jonathan
Published: December 2012

A prodigious amount of evidence testifies to the significance of purity for ancient Jews.
Revolts, Jewish
Authors: Danzig David , Fine Steven
Published: December 2012

These revolts occurred five times between 167 and 351. These include four revolts in Judaea – the Hasmonean Revolt (167–164), the First Jewish Revolt (66–74), and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–135), and perhaps another under Gallus (351–352). A fifth revolt took place in diasporan communities between 114 and 117. Compared to other colonized peoples of the Greco‐Roman world, the Jews were unique in their repeated military resistance to Greco‐Roman domination. This exceptional fact is due to the combination of swells of zealotry and Judaism's intolerance of other gods and cults. Other ethnic groups adapted by continuing a long tradition of syncretism between local and hegemonic cults.
Sacrifice, Jewish
Authors: Klawans Jonathan
Published: December 2012

The central importance of sacrificial ritual for ancient Judaism can be seen in Judaism's canonical texts.
Sadducees
Authors: McLaren James
Published: December 2012

The Sadducees were a Jewish group known to have existed in the late Hellenistic and early Roman periods. They are traditionally depicted as standing in opposition to the Pharisees, vying for influence in the Jewish community during these periods.
Samaria
Authors: Pummer Reinhard
Published: December 2012

Samaria was at first the name of a city and subsequently also that of the territory and the province of which the city became the adminstrative center.
Temple Scroll, the (Dead Sea Scrolls)
Authors: Babkina Svetlana V.
Published: December 2012

TheTemple Scroll(11Q19, 11QTemplea, 11QTa) is one of the Qumran scrolls (seeDead Sea Scrolls); it contains detailed discussion of many matters connected to the Temple and for this reason it was given this name by scholars.
Theodotus, poet
Authors: Hilton Naomi
Published: December 2012

Theodotus (third to second century
BCE
) is named by Eusebius of Caesarea as the author of a single poem about the rape of Dinah at Shechem (Gen 34), that provides a fine early example of a Hellenized tradition of biblical interpretation. Eight fragments have been preserved by Eusebius,
Praeparatio Evangelica
(9.22.1–11), quoting as his source Alexander Polyhistor (ca. 105–35
BCE
).
Tiberias
Authors: Ehling Kay
Published: December 2012

The city of Tiberias, located on the western shore of Lake Gennesaret (Galilee, Sea of) and near the hot springs of Ammathous (Jos.AJ18.36), is a foundation of the Jewish Tetrarch Herodes Antipas (4BCE–39CE) (seeHerod Antipas).
War Scroll
, the (Dead Sea Scrolls)
Authors: Dimant Devorah
Published: December 2012

The title
War Scroll
was given to a Qumran work that describes the final eschatological war.
Amr
Authors: Sijpesteijn Petra M.
Published: December 2012

Muslim commander, conqueror, and first governor of the Muslim province of Egypt, ‘Amr b. al‐‘Ās was a wealthy Meccan merchant of the Quraysh, who had also frequented the greater Syrian area during his caravan trips.
Androna/Andarin
Authors: Mango Marlia Mundell
Published: December 2012

Androna (modern Andarin), situated between the Orontes and Euphrates rivers in northern Syria, is cited in the Antonine Itinerary as a
mansio
on a road linking Chalcis and Palmyra and is mentioned as a
kome
in an inscription of ca.
Canon Law
Authors: Caseau Béatrice
Published: December 2012

Christian communities organized themselves, starting with either the apostles or the following generation, and gave prescriptions concerning moral behavior and liturgical practices.
Catacombs, Christian
Authors: Rutgers Leonard V.
Published: December 2012

Catacombs are large, underground cemeteries. The term “catacomb” derives from the Latin
ad catacumbas
, of uncertain derivation.
Childeric I
Authors: Lawrence Thomas christophER
Published: December 2012

Childeric I was a Frankish king and Roman official of unknown rank operating in northern Gaul during the latter half of the fifth century.
Conversion
Authors: Schwartz Daniel L.
Published: December 2012

Religious conversion implies a change from one religious affiliation to another. The basic meaning of ancient terms for conversion bears this out, as Latinconversiocenters on physical or moral turning, while Greekmetanoiadeals with a transformation of the mind.
Court (ecclesiastical)
Authors: Humfress Caroline
Published: December 2012

The term “ecclesiastical court” covers a range of different institutional forums within the Late Antique Christian church. Defined narrowly, the term refers to the so‐calledepiscopalis audientia(the “bishop's hearing”); defined more generally, it can refer to any judicial forum presided over by clerics, including hearings before ecclesiastical synods and councils.
Cyril of Skythopolis
Authors: Klein Konstantin M.
Published: December 2012

Cyril, a monk and author of hagiography was born around 525 (cf. Price/Binns 1991: xxxviii) in the town of Beth Shean which was re‐named Skythopolis in Hellenistic times and became the capital of the province of
Palaestina Secunda toward
s the end of the fourth century
CE
(Malalas 13.41).
Desert Fathers and desert literature
Authors: Hevelone‐Harper Jennifer L.
Published: December 2012

Beginning in the late third centuryCE, some some Christians withdrew from city and village life to practice asceticism in the desert and at the edges of settled land in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria.
Dionysius the Areopagite, Pseudo‐
Authors: Law T.M.
Published: December 2012

Pseudo‐Dionysius the Areopagite was a Syrian mystical theologian and philosopher of the late fifth or early sixth centuryCEwho reshaped Neoplatonism from a pagan philosophy to one which fitted the Christian context in which he wrote.
Domitius Domitianus
Authors: Bowman A. K.
Published: December 2012

Lucius Domitius Domitianus was a late third‐century usurper in Egypt who, with the assistance of a deputy and
corrector
named Achilleus, proclaimed himself emperor and controlled Egypt for almost a year.
John Lydusm
Authors: Pazdernik Charles F.
Published: December 2012

John Lydus (ca. 490–554
CE
;
PLRE 2
s.v. Ioannes Lydus 75), born in Philadelphia, the chief city of the province of Lydia (hence his cognomen), son of Laurentius and a close contemporary of the historian Procopius of Caesarea, is known to us through three extant works and notices in Photius (
Bibl
. 180) and the
Suda
(I 465).
John of Nikiu
Authors: Howard‐Johnston James
Published: December 2012

John of Nikiu was a high‐ranking churchman in Egypt in the second half of the seventh century. He wrote a world chronicle, centered upon Egypt, and brought it down close to his own time. It has only survived in an Ethiopic translation.
John Philoponos (philosophy and theology)
Authors: MacCoull Leslie S. B.
Published: December 2012

John Philoponos (ca. 490–570
CE
) was an Alexandrian Miaphysite Christian philosopher, exegete, theologian, and polymath who composed numerous commentaries and treatises on subjects of the Late Antique educational curriculum and on religious problems of his day.
Kellia and Sketis, monasticism at
Authors: Davis Stephen J.
Published: December 2012

Located on the western outskirts of the Egyptian Delta, Kellia (“the Cells;” Gr.
Kellia
; Copt.
n‐ri
) and Sketis (Gr.
Skêtis
; Copt.
Shiêt
; Ar.
Wâdî Habîb
or
Wâdî al‐Natrûn
) were internationally known centers for early Christian monasticism from the beginning of the fourth century of the common era.
Kellis
Authors: Hope Colin A.
Published: December 2012

Kellis is a well‐preserved village in Dakhleh Oasis, within Egypt's Western Desert, which was occupied during the first four centuries
CE
. Its remains include temples and churches, residential sectors, storage facilities, and cemeteries, yielding a rich assemblage of artifacts and inscribed material, on papyrus, wooden boards, and potsherds, of value in the wider study of Roman Egypt, indicating the importance of studying desert communities.
Lateranus
Authors: Goodson Caroline J.
Published: December 2012

The name “Lateran” given to the fourth century basilica and later papal palace in the east of Rome refers to the consul whose property there, theaedes Lateranorum, was seized by the emperor Nero in the first century, and theaedes Laterani, a residence given by Septimius Severus to his general T. Sextus Lateranus.
Marea/Mareotis
Authors: Blue Lucy , Khalil Emad
Published: December 2012

Since its foundation in 331BCEand for almost a millennium after, Alexandria was the political, economic, and cultural capital of Egypt, and one of the most significant emporia of the Hellenistic and Roman world.
Marutha
Authors: Klein Konstantin M.
Published: December 2012

Marutha was bishop of Maipherqat (Martyr‐opolis) and imperial envoy to the Sasanian court.
Mavia, queen
Authors: Fisher Greg
Published: December 2012

Queen Mavia (fl. 375
CE
) is a recurring character in general histories of the Roman Near East (Ball 2001; Butcher 2003) or accounts of Roman frontiers, policy, and diplomacy (Whittaker 1994; Blockley 1992).
Meletian Schism
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

The Meletian Schism that divided the Christian church in Egypt began early in the fourth century
CE
.
Merovingians
Authors: Rio Alice
Published: December 2012

The Merovingians were a Frankish royal dynasty, named after their ancestor figure Merovech.
Muḥammad
Authors: Sijpesteijn Petra M.
Published: December 2012

Muḥammad, the prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca in 570
CE
into the Banū Hāshim clan of the tribe of Quraysh and died in 632 (11
AH
) in Medina.
Neoplatonists
Authors: Townsend Philippa
Published: December 2012

The Neoplatonists were philosophers, active in the Roman Empire from the third to the seventh centuryCE, who held Plato's teachings to be authoritative. Among the most influential of them were Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus.
Notitia Dignitatum
Authors: Palme Bernhard
Published: December 2012

The
Notitia dignitatum tam civilium quam militarium in partibus orientis/occidentis
(ND) presents itself as a schematic manual, which itemizes the civil and military hierarchy of the later Roman Empire. Divided into an eastern section (Or.) and a western section (
Occ
.), its approximately three thousand six hundred lines of text provide an overview of the high civil and military officials in order of seniority. The
ND
comprises ninety chapters, each describing an official or military commander by his rank and title, the area of competence, the subaltern personnel of the bureaus or the units, and the garrisons under his command. The
ND
offers a unique insight into the organization of the later Roman Empire from the top positions at the courts –beginning with the
praefecti praetorio
in the civil branch and the
magistri militum
in the armed forces – down to the dioceses and provinces, as well as the military commands and the distribution of the troops. Colorful illustrations, depicting up to twenty objects, show the
insignia
of each position, vignettes of the major towns in the area of responsibility, the shield emblems of the military units, and allegorical representations of the provinces (
simulacra provinciarum
) (Berger 1981; Grigg 1983; Di Dario 2005). In its extant form, the
ND
is the greatest surviving source for the bureaucracy of the Late Empire. Though highly problematic, it is of outstanding importance for the administrative and military history of the fourth and fifth centuries CE.
Prophets, Late Antiquity
Authors: Sizgorich Thomas
Published: December 2012

In the Abrahamic tradition, prophets are human beings through whom the one god communicates with the created world. It is through these human conduits that the Abrahamic deity reveals its will, and issues revelation, commands, interdicts, and statements concerning the nature of humans, the created world, and itself.
Purple (dye, textile)
Authors: Caseau Béatrice
Published: December 2012

Purple is a color between magenta and violet, a deep and often dark color, which was highly valued in antiquity as a symbol of prestige, wealth, and power.
Synesius
Authors: Long Jacqueline
Published: December 2012

Synesius of Cyrene (ca. 370–413CE) straddled the spectrum of a late‐Roman provincial aristocrat's concerns.
Themistius
Authors: Vanderspoel John
Published: December 2012

Themistius (ca. 317–388CE) was a philosopher, panegyrist, and senator at Constantinople during the fourth century.
Treaties, Late Antiquity
Authors: Lee A. D.
Published: December 2012

Treaties feature most prominently during Late Antiquity in Roman relations with Sasanian Persia, with whom the empire developed increasingly sophisticated diplomatic procedures and protocols.
Plotinus
Authors: Townsend Philippa
Published: December 2012

Plotinus (204/5–ca. 270CE) is considered to be the founder of Neoplatonism.
Aestimatio litis
Authors: Pölönen Janne
Published: December 2012

Aestimatio litisis the pecuniary assessment of award that completed, when needed, the trial phase of the Roman legal process. In the oldest civil action, that by oath, the sentence of the Iudex–actually the magistrate–deciding the matter of right was followed by the appointment of private arbitrator(s) to assess the amount of compensation or damages, a procedure calledarbitrium liti aestimandae(Magdelain 1995: 130–43).
Apagoge
Authors: Harris Edward m.
Published: December 2012

The laws of Athens generally did not allow private individuals to arrest (
apagoge
) or use physical force against criminals of free status.
Axones
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Several ancient authors report that the laws of
draco
about homicide and the laws of
solon
were inscribed on objects called
axones
, which were numbered. The laws of Draco about homicide were written on at least two different
axones
, and the laws of Solon on twenty‐one or more. There has been some debate among modern scholars about whether the
axones
were the same as objects called
kyrbeis
, on which the laws of Draco and Solon were also written. Aristophanes of Byzantium thought that the
axones
contained laws and the
kyrbeis
sacrifices, but the two appear to have preserved similar material and were probably identical. The scholar
eratosthenes
writing in the third century
BCE
says that the word
kyrbeis
was another word for
axones
and that they were three‐sided. The scholar Polemon attacks this view and states that they were wooden and four‐sided and placed in the
prytaneion
. The name
axon
implies that they were like axles and rotated so that one could see their different sides. The
axones
appear to have survived at least as late as the third century
BCE
and possibly later.
Cheirographon
Authors: Yiftach‐Firanko Uri
Published: December 2012

Originally,
cheirographon
(from Greek
cheir
, hand) denotes an autograph confirmation, especially in connection with a legal act. This is the case, for example, in Delphic manumission inscriptions from the late Hellenistic and early Roman period (cf.
FD
III 6:12 ll. 10–12), and in the Latin legal documentation of later republican and early imperial Italy (Kaser 1971: 234 n. 33).
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, speeches of
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43BCE) became Rome's leading orator after he successfully prosecuted Gaius Verres in 70, unseating Hortensius, the defense speaker in that case, who had previously enjoyed that distinction. In terms of datable speeches, his oratorical career began with his representation of P. Quinctius, the plaintiff in a private suit in the spring of 81, and ended with his invective in the Senate against P. Servilius Isauricus on April 9, 43. Fifty‐eight speeches have survived in whole or in substantial part, and Crawford (1984) lists eighty‐eight lost and unpublished orations, and sixteen fragmentary speeches. These speeches fall into all three of the standard oratorical categories: deliberative, judicial, and epideictic.
Codex GregorianusandCodex Hermogenianus
Authors: Corcoran Simon
Published: December 2012

TheCodex GregorianusandCodex Hermogenianuswere collections of imperial rescripts compiled in the reign of Diocletian.
Theodosian Code
Authors: Salzman Michele Renee
Published: December 2012

The Theodosian Code was initiated by the emperor Theodosius II, as he announced to the Senate of Constantinople in a constitution of March 26, 429CE(CT1.1.5).
Coemptio
Authors: McGinn Thomas A. J.
Published: December 2012

Coemptio
was one of the three ways in which a wife was subjected to the control
(manus)of
her husband under the older form of Roman marriage, the other two being
confarreatio
and
usus
.
Cognitio
Authors: Steiner Anja
Published: December 2012

Cognitio
(from
cognoscere
), in Roman legal language, generally signifies the examination of, and occasionally also the decision on, a legal issue either by a single judge, a magistrate, or the Senate.
Crime, Greece and Rome
Authors: Brüggemann Thomas
Published: December 2012

The ancient understanding of crime differed from that of modern times first and foremost in distinguishing between offenses that were to be prosecuted by the state and/or by public courts, and those that were to be prosecuted by victims of a crime or their relatives.
Lex curiata
Authors: Tuori Kaius
Published: December 2012

Alex curiatawas alaw or decision ratified by the Roman popular assembly called thecomitia curiata. The origins of thelex curiataunder the kings and in the Early Republic are controversial, but it survived into the Early Principate in aritualized form for the performance of certain important functions, such as granting Imperium to magistrates.
Delatio nominisn
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

Delatio nominis
was the formal initiation of a criminal charge in the presence of a Roman magistrate, possibly by means of the
interrogatio legibus
(“questioning according to the laws”).
Dike,dike
Authors: Wolpert Andrew
Published: December 2012

Dike(pl.dikai) has a wide range of meanings in ancient Greek, from “justice” to “judgment” and from “order” to “punishment.
Divorce, Roman
Authors: McGinn Thomas A. J.
Published: December 2012

Getting divorced was, from a legal perspective, easy for a Roman citizen, even by twenty‐first century US standards. It was even easier than getting married in the first place, since divorce could be unilateral.
Dowry, Roman
Authors: McGinn Thomas A. J.
Published: December 2012

Dowry (dos) was not required for a lawful Roman marriage, but it was such a strong social expectation that the two were closely linked.
Draco
Authors: Scafuro Adele C.
Published: December 2012

Draco, thought to be the first Athenian to write down laws ([Arist.]Ath. Pol. 4.1, 41.2), was renowned in later tradition for severity (Plut.Sol. 17: “For one penalty was assigned to almost all transgressions, namely death, so that even those convicted of idleness were put to death, and those who stole vegetables or fruit got the same punishment as temple robbers and killers”).
Edict, aediles'
Authors: Gamauf Richard
Published: December 2012

In their edict the
aediles curules
laid down guidelines for the exercise of their jurisdiction over the markets in Rome and of their “police” functions.
Emporikoi nomoi
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

In classical Athens there was a separate group of laws called the
emporikoi nomoi
.
Fideicommissum
Authors: Avenarius Martin
Published: December 2012

In Roman law,fideicommissumis the term for an informal request of a testator, the execution of which he “entrusts” (committere) to the “loyalty” (fides) of another.
Heliaia
Authors: Gagliardi Lorenzo
Published: December 2012

The nounheliaiacomes from the Greek verbhalizein, which means “to gather people together.”
Heredium
Authors: Drogula Fred K.
Published: December 2012

Aherediumis a lot of land held by a Roman citizen.
Homicide, Rome
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The crime of homicide in Roman law cannot be defined as modern criminal law defines it, since the very concept of “murder” was not always easily distinguished from lawful killing, an element of paternal power and of theImperiumof some magistrates, for a very long time; and because in the most archaic stages of its development, criminal law was more focused on concepts such as blood vengeance or thePax Deorumthan on repression of murder in itself.
In ius vocatio
Authors: Rüfner Thomas
Published: December 2012

In ius vocatio(calling the defendant to court) is the technical term in Roman law for the act by which civil proceedings were initiated.
Inscriptio
Authors: Steiner Anja
Published: December 2012

In Roman criminal trials,
inscriptio in crimen
signifies an entry into an official register containing an accusation against a person; it was used in the republican
quaestiones
as well as in the imperial
cognitio extra ordinem
.
Institutiones
, of Gaius
Authors: Miglietta Massimo
Published: December 2012

Although scholars are still uncertain about the true biographical data of the Roman jurist Gaius — we only know that he lived in the second century
CE
, worked during the principates of Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180), and declared himself a scholar of the famous Sabinian law school — there is no doubt that his
Institutiones
(“Institutes”) represent one of the most important and well‐known works in the whole body of Roman juridical writing.
Institutiones
, of Justinian
Authors: Kaiser Wolfgang
Published: December 2012

The
Institutiones
of Justinian (
Institutes
) are part of the great legislative project the emperor Justinian (527–565
CE
) had implemented in the years 528–534.
Instrumentum
Authors: Harter‐Uibopuu Kaja
Published: December 2012

Literally “tool” or “equipment,” every kind of documentary evidence presented during a trial was called
instrumentum
(
Dig
. 22.4.1).
Interpolation, study of
Authors: Ellart Carlos Sánchez‐Moreno
Published: December 2012

The study of interpolation in Roman law (interpolation critique) – based on both philological and legal criteria – started in the French Renaissance, in the juristic school known as the
mos gallicus
.
Iudex
Authors: Steiner Anja
Published: December 2012

A Roman
iudex
was a man who declared the law (lit.:
qui ius dicit
).
Indicium
Authors: Alexander Michael C.
Published: December 2012

The wordindicium(“trial”) can refer in Roman procedure to either a private or criminal trial from beginning to end.
Iuris consultus
Authors: Hausmaninger Herbert
Published: December 2012

luris consultuswas a Roman jurist, a man learned in the law, who was consulted and gave an expert opinion (responsum).
Ius
Authors: du Plessis Paul J.
Published: December 2012

Iusis a Latin noun that occurs with great frequency in the sources for Roman law.
Ius gentium
Authors: Winkel Laurens
Published: December 2012

Ius gentium
was a term of Roman law, first to be found as such in the works of Cicero (esp. Cic.
Off
. 3.69), but may have already been an accepted technical term at the beginning of the first century
BCE
.
Law, Athenian
Authors: Lanni Adriaan
Published: December 2012

The most distinctive feature of the Athenian legal system was its pervasive amateurism.
Law, demotic
Authors: Depauw Mark
Published: December 2012

Demotic, amore cursive form of the hieratic script, as well as astage in the ancient Egyptian language, was used in Egypt for legal purposes at least from the late pharaonic period onward.
Laws, sacred (Greece)
Authors: Petrovic Ivana , Petrovic Andrej
Published: December 2012

The term “sacred law” was derived from the Greek termhieros nomosby nineteenth‐century students of Greek religion, whereupon it was applied to a much broader group of texts and regulations.