bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Biomimetic Motion Planning of an Undulating Robotic Fish Fin
Authors: Low K. H. , Willy A.
Published: December 2006

This paper presents a locomotion control implementation of a robotic system mimicking the undulating fins of fish. To mimic the actual flexible fin of a real fish, we created a ribbon fin type actuation device with a series of connecting linkages and attached it to the robotic fish. By virtue of a specially designed strip withaslider, eachlinkisabletoturnandslidewithrespect to the adjacent link. The driving linkages are used to form a mechanical fin consisting of several fin segments, which are able to produce undulations, similar to those produced by actual fins. By virtue of the modular and reconfigurable fin mechanisms, two robotic fish with different fin layouts have been designed and constructed: The first prototype is a robotic stingray, swimming by undulations of a pair of lateral fins-the second is a robotic knifefish, swimming by undulations of a long anal fin. The locomotion scheme and mechatronics implementation of the robotic stingray are presented and discussed with a parametric study of the slider’s workspace and joint trajectory. Some experimental observations of the robotic knifefish are alsoshownanddiscussed. Theresults demonstrate that the designed fin mechanisms are able to undulate sections of pectoral and anal fins, with different amplitudes and phases, along the length of the fin in the direction of motion. This may lead to further developments that better mimic the fin locomotion capability of real fish.
Methodology for Zero-moment Point Experimental Modeling in the Frequency Domain
Authors: Caballero Rony , Armada Manuel A. , Alarcón Pedro
Published: December 2006

Frequency domain methodology is applied to obtain a nominal model for the Zero-Moment Point (ZMP) stability index of a biped robot in an attempt to establish a relationship between the robot trunk trajectories and the stability margin of the contact surface of the foot (or feet) touching the supporting soil. To this end the biped robot trunk is excited with a variable frequency sinusoidal signal around several operating points. These input oscillations generate other output oscillations that can be analyzed with the help of the ZMP measurement system. The proposed ZMP modeling approach not only considers classical rigid body model uncertainties but also non-modelled robot mechanical structure vibration modes. The non-linear ZMP model is obtained following three consecutive stages: Equivalent inverted pendulum dynamics, where saturation and acceleration upper bounds are taken into account, non-modelled inverted pendulum dynamics, including non-linear effects, and low-pass dynamics defining the system cut-off frequency. The effectiveness of this method is demonstrated in practice with the SILO2 biped robot prototype, and a simple control strategy is implemented in order to validate experimentally the usefulness of the models developed.
Fractional Order PDαJoint Control of Legged Robots
Authors: Silva Manuel F. , Machado J. A. Tenreiro
Published: December 2006

This paper studies a fractional order proportional and derivative controller for a hexapod robot, having legs with three DoF and joint actuators with saturation, when walking over ground with varying properties. A simulation model is developed and the robot motion is characterized in terms of several locomotion variables. Two indices measure the walking performance based on the mean absolute density of energy per unit distance travelled and on the hip trajectory errors. A set of experiments reveal the influence of different controller tunings on the proposed indices, for different locomotion conditions.
An Approach to the Design of Walking Humanoid Robots with Different Leg Mechanisms or Flexible Feet and Using Dynamic Gaits
Authors: Bruneau Olivier
Published: December 2006

This article describes a method for designing humanoid robots and generating their dynamic gaits. Firstly, the global design process which defines structures able to carry out dynamic locomotion tasks is explained. Secondly, a set of leg and foot mechanisms are described to perform these tasks. A method of producing intrinsic smooth motions for fast walking gaits of bipedal robots with different leg mechanisms or flexible feet is then explained. Finally, some simulation results are given, showing a wide variety of possibilities for dynamic gait generation. The contribution of flexibilities in the feet of a bipedal robot during a dynamic walk can be observed. The two major effects are a diminution of the intensity of normal force when the heel touches the ground and increased length of the double support phase, allowing better stability of the system. Another notable effect is the analogy between the passive flexion amplitude of the toe tips and the measured results of human subjects.
Locomotive Control of a Wearable Lower Exoskeleton for Walking Enhancement
Authors: Low K. H. , Liu Xiaopeng , Goh C. H. , Yu Haoyong
Published: December 2006

This article presents a wearable lower extremity exoskeleton (LEE) designed to augment the ability of a human to walk while carrying payloads. The ultimate goal of the current research is to design and control a wearable power-assisted system that integrates a human’s intellect as the control command. The system in this work consists of an inner exoskeleton and an outer exoskeleton. The inner system measures the movements of the human and controls the outer system, which follows the human movements and supports the payload. A special foot-unit was designed to measure the zero moment points (ZMPs) of the human and the exoskeleton simultaneously. Using the measured human ZMP as the reference, the exoskeleton’s ZMP is controlled by trunk compensation to achieve stable walking. A COTS program, xPC Target, together with toolboxes from MATLAB, were used as a real-time operating system and integrated development environment, and real-time locomotion control of the exoskeleton was successfully implemented in this environment. Finally, some walking experimental results, by virtue of the ZMP control for the inner and outer exoskeletons, show that the stable walking can be achieved.
An Ultrasonic Standing-wave-actuated Nano-positioning Walking Robot: Piezoelectric-metal Composite Beam Modeling
Authors: Son Kwon Joong , Kartik Venkataraman , Wickert Jonathan A. , Sitti Metin
Published: December 2006

This paper proposes a design for a precision positioning miniature walking robot using piezoelectric unimorph actuators. The theoretical working equations of a uniform piezoelectric unimorph beam are derived based on the linear piezoelectric relations, Hamilton’s principle, and Euler-Bernoulli beam equation. Themodal superposition method is used to determine the response of the forced transverse vibration of the beam under the effect of electrical signal inputs to the patterned piezoelectric element. Two standing waves corresponding to the third and fourth bending vibration modes are utilized to achieve the bi-directional walking mechanism for a miniature positioning robot. Design strategies and the fabrication method for the proposed walking robot are introduced. Preliminary performance tests of the robot prototype are carried out successfully, and the robot achieves speeds of 5.86 cm/sec and 3.37 cm/sec in forward and backward motion, respectively.
Socioeconomic Status and Substance Use Behaviors in Adolescents
Authors: Hanson Margaret D. , Chen Edith
Published: December 2006

The aims of this study were to test the associations among socio-economic status (SES) and substance use in adolescents, and to compare the relative strength of associations for different types of SES markers, including financial resources and family social status. A total of 113 teenagers reported their substance use, and parents reported family SES. High SES teens were more likely to use substances than low SES teens. Family financial resources were a stronger predictor of substance use than family status. Programs aimed at reducing teen substance use should be aware of these risk factors when developing substance use interventions.
Self-efficacy and Overprotection Are Related to Quality of Life, Psychological Well-being and Self-management in Cardiac Patients
Authors: Joekes Katherine , Van Elderen Thérèse , Schreurs Karlein
Published: December 2006

This repeated-measures study explores how self-efficacy and overprotection relate to psychological well-being, health-related quality of life and self-management. Eighty-two cardiac patients, suffering from congestive heart failure (CHF) or myocardial infarction (MI), completed questionnaires at T1 and three months later. Perceived overprotection is associated with concurrent levels of anxiety and depression, and lowered quality of life. Self-efficacy is related to psychological well-being in both patient groups, but only associated with quality of life in CHF patients. In addition, self-efficacy predicts MI patients' self-management behaviours in the medium term. Findings have implications for cardiac rehabilitation, where attention may usefully be focused on enhancing self-efficacy and dealing with issues of support and overprotection by the partner.
Stigma, Sexually Transmitted Infections and Attendance at the GUM Clinic
Authors: Mulholland Ellen , Van Wersch Anna
Published: December 2006

A gap in the literature regarding understanding of people's health care seeking behaviours in relation to sexually transmitted infections is identified. Employing both deductive and inductive methods, 10 patients (five female, five male) were interviewed to explore the psychosocial, motivational and attitudinal factors associated with attendance at a Genito-Urinary Medicine (GUM) clinic in a close-knit community in the north of England. Seven stigma-related themes were identified as salient issues surrounding perceptions of sexual health screening and included: (1)prejudice surrounding STIs; (2)fear of exposure; (3)isolation; (4)reluctance to attend; (5)contamination; (6)relationship issues; and (7)perceived invulnerability. Within these themes distinct gender differences were identified. Implications for the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) are discussed against the factors identified.
The Healing Balm Effect
Authors: Priest Penny
Published: December 2006

This qualitative study combines methods from grounded theory and ethnography, exploring members' experience of a mental health day service walking group, with regards psychological benefits of the physical activity, the outdoor environment and the social setting. Data were collected via participant observation, interviews and a group discussion, and analysed using a grounded theory approach. An overall model, the Healing Balm Effect, brings together seven categories, which describe healing properties of the experience. The categories are: Closer to What is More Natural; Feeling Safe; Being Part; Striving; Getting Away; Being Me; Finding Meaning. Clinical relevance and methodological issues are discussed.
Associations of Perceived Risk and Worry with Cancer Health-protective Actions
Authors: Moser Richard P. , Mccaul Kevin , Peters Ellen , Nelson Wendy , Marcus Stephen E.
Published: December 2006

This study examined the associations of susceptibility, conceptualized as both a cognition (risk) and as affect (worry) and their possible interaction, with cancer screening behaviors. Data for this study were obtained from the 2003 Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS). Hierarchical regression models assessed the ability of risk, worry and their interaction (after controlling for other important variables) to predict cancer-screening behaviors. Results found that risk and worry (but not their interaction) were associated with regular mammography screening and having had a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy but with neither FOBT nor PSA screening. The findings suggest that risk and worry are both important in predicting some types of screening behavior and that these variables operate independently.
Weight Loss Treatment and Psychological Well-being
Authors: Blaine Bruce E. , Rodman Jennifer , Newman Jennifer M.
Published: December 2006

Research suggests that weight loss treatment generally benefits psychological well-being but these effects have never been quantitatively reviewed. A meta-analysis of 117 weight loss treatment tests showed that weight loss treatment was associated with lowered depression and increased self-esteem. Treatment type moderated treatment effects on depression and self-esteem. Actual weight loss moderated treatment effects on self-esteem but not depression; only treatments that produced actual weight loss predicted increased self-esteem whereas improvements in depression were independent of weight loss. The clinical implications of the findings and the possible causal relationships among weight, depression and self-esteem are discussed.
Transformational and Transactional Leadership and Exercise-related Self-efficacy
Authors: Beauchamp Mark R. , Welch Amy S. , Hulley Angie J.
Published: December 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between transformational and transactional leadership behaviors and the self-efficacy ofparticipants involved in a structured 10-week exercise program. Three weeksinto their exercise classes 174 females ( M age = 25.36 years, SD = 8.48) provided ratings of their exercise instructor's leadership behaviors as well as their personal efficacy related to scheduling, over-coming barriers and within-class capabilities. Results revealed that for exercise initiates, contingent rewards behaviors were able to explain unique variation in scheduling self-efficacy and barrier self-efficacy, but not within-class self-efficacy. For experienced exercisers, none of the leadership behaviors assessed in this study were associated with participant self-efficacy.
Relations between Social Support, Appraisal and Coping and Both Positive and Negative Outcomes in Young Carers
Authors: Pakenham Kenneth I. , Chiu Jessica , Bursnall Samantha , Cannon Toni
Published: December 2006

This study examined a stress/coping model of adjustment in early caregiving. It was hypothesized that better adjustment would be related to higher social support and approach coping, and lower stress appraisals and avoidant coping. One hundred young carers aged 10–25 years completed questionnaires. Predictors included choice in caregiving, social support, stress appraisal and coping. Dependent variables were global distress and positive outcomes (life satisfaction, positive affect, benefits). Correlations supported all hypothesized relations between the stress/coping predictors and adjustment outcomes. Regression analyses showed social support as the strongest predictor of adjustment, whereas coping and choice in caregiving emerged as weaker predictors and stress appraisal was unrelated to adjustment. The stress/coping framework and findings have the potential to inform interventions designed to promote well-being in young carers.
Breast and Prostate Cancer Online Discussion Boards
Authors: Gooden Rebecca J. , Winefield Helen R.
Published: December 2006

Online discussion boards are being used increasingly by cancer survivors, highlighting the need for understanding this potentially supportive communication process. Two online discussion boards, a prostate group and a breast cancer group, were studied using mixed methodology of both Grounded Theory and a quasi-numerative approach. Both men's and women's dialogues fell under two themes, information support and emotional support. Information support accounted for 60 per cent of communications in women and 64 per cent in men and emotional support 40 per cent in women and 36 per cent in men. However, there were gender differences in the language styles of these communications. Further research is recommended to understand adequately the emotional content within women's and men's dialogues in the context of breast and prostate cancer discussion boards.
Elucidating Issues Stressful for Patients in Predialysis and Dialysis
Authors: Ekelund Marie-Louise , Andersson Sven Ingmar
Published: December 2006

Biopsychosocial problems experienced by renal disease patients were studied within a contextual framework the patients themselves defined, the findings being related to sociodemographic and medical data. Participants were 72 predialysis patients and 73 patients being treated by haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis (106 men and 39 women, aged 18–84 years). Both stress-related global and situational measures of biopsychosocial problems were assessed by questionnaire. Factor analyses revealed five factors—Bodily problems; Work and leisure time; Sleep, cramps and itching complaints; Financial problems; and Dependence— explaining 71.1 per cent of the total variance. Fatigue loaded both on Bodily problems and Work and leisure time. Sleep disturbances, itching of the skin and muscle cramps were more stressful for the dialysis than the predialysis patients. Also, fatigue, inability to work and limitation on vacation activities appeared more stressful for the dialysis group. The study supports the usefulness of a contextual approach for gaining a better general understanding of renal disease patients' problems.
A Bitter Pill
Authors: Lafrance Michelle N.
Published: December 2006

Taking a discourse analytic approach, this article explores how a biomedical understanding is drawn on and mobilized in women's accounts of their depressive experiences. Through talk of diagnosis, and by drawing comparisons between depression and physical illnesses, participants constructed depression as a medical condition with the effect of validating their pain and legitimizing their identities. However, participants' accounts also indicated an uneasy fit between the objective discipline of biomedicine and their subjective experiences of depression. Without tangible evidence to validate the ‘reality’ of their condition, speakers were on precarious ground for talking of themselves and their distress within a biomedical frame. The social construction of biomedicine and stigma for marginalized forms of distress are discussed.
Longitudinal Analysis of the Illness Representation Model in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Authors: Rutter Claire L. , Rutter Derek R.
Published: December 2006

A prospective longitudinal study explored the illness representation model of patients with irritable bowel syndrome: how representations may change; whether they predict subsequent psychological outcome; and whether any link between representation and outcome may be mediated by coping. Patients were recruited from primary care. Representations were found to be stable over time, and they did predict outcome to some extent, but coping played no part in mediating the link. The findings raise important questions about using the illness representation model with chronic illness, and about the role of coping in the model.
Felt and Potential Ambivalence across the Stages of Change
Authors: Armitage Christopher J. , Arden Madelynne A.
Published: December 2006

This study tested discontinuity patterns across the stages of change. Fat intake, theory of planned behaviour (TPB) variables, and felt and potential ambivalence were assessed in 16–17 year olds ( N = 187). Across the stages of change there were: (a) linear increases in TPB variables, (b) linear decreases in fat intake, and (c) quadratic relationships with felt and potential ambivalence. Although felt and potential ambivalence were moderately correlated, the correlation between the two was significantly higher in the action and maintenance stages. The findings are consistent with the idea that successful actors/maintainers are vigilant with respect to lapses.
Smoking during Pregnancy
Authors: Lawrence Wendy T. , Haslam Cheryl
Published: December 2006

Pregnancy is a ‘window of opportunity’ for encouraging positive behaviour change, such as quitting smoking. Associations have been shown between smoking stage of change and other health behaviour during pregnancy. For example, women in the precontemplative stage have poorer assessment of risks associated with smoking, feel less personally responsible for their unborn child's health and in turn are less likely to adopt health-promoting behaviour. Stage of change models are a popular tool within the health services, but the results of stage-based smoking cessation interventions are mixed. Identifying the crucial components of effective interventions is an important imperative for research in this area. This article reviews the literature to ascertain these components and makes recommendations for designing effective interventions.
Efficacy and Effectiveness Trials
Authors: Prochaska James O. , Evers Kerry E. , Prochaska Janice M. , Van Marter Deborah , Johnson Janet L.
Published: December 2006

If health psychology is to maximize impacts on health, there will need to be a shift from relying primarily on efficacy trials to increasing reliance on effectiveness trials. Efficacy trials use homogeneous, highly motivated samples with minimal complications from a single setting receiving intensive treatments delivered under highly controlled conditions. Two effectiveness trials on bullying prevention illustrate the use of a heterogeneous population from multiple sites receiving a low intensity tailored treatment delivered under highly variable conditions. In spite of considerable noise the effectiveness trials produced robust results (odds ratios of about four) that bode well for population impacts under real-world dissemination.
Informing School Sex Education Using the Stages of Change Construct
Authors: Wallace Louise M. , Evers Kerry E. , Wareing Hilary , Dunn Orla M. , Newby Kate , Paiva Andrea , Johnson Janet L.
Published: December 2006

A survey of 3820 school children in England aged 13-16 years examined sexual activity using the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) Stages of Change. A quarter (26%) of teens were sexually experienced, 44.8 per cent did not use contraception and 48.9 per cent did not use condoms, every time. Past history of condom and contraceptive use, and partner willingness to use condoms were the best predictors of being in Action or Maintenance stage for condom use. Of virgins, 19.82 per cent were in Contemplation or Preparation stages for intercourse, and 85.4 per cent would use condoms every time. Sex education should be tailored to Stage, and signposting to sexual health and contraception services.
Developing the Stage of Change Approach for the Reduction of Work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders
Authors: Whysall Zara J. , Haslam Cheryl , Haslam Roger
Published: December 2006

Musculoskeletal disorders remain the most prevalent form of occupational ill health, prompting examination of why attempts to manage the problem have been less successful than perhaps hoped. With a view to improving the efficacy of such interventions, this study examined the applicability of the stage of change approach to the workplace. Tools were developed to assess individual and organizational stage of change towards reducing the risks of musculoskeletal disorders. The tools were tested in a range of occupational sectors, and demonstrated high levels of validity and reliability. Implications for the application of the model in the workplace for improving intervention effectiveness are discussed.
Symptom onset and the socially sanctioned pathway: the example of diet
Authors: Ogden Jane
Published: December 2006

Theories of symptom perception do not explain symptom onset, nor why symptoms vary according to culture and time. This article attempts to explain cultural, temporal and individual variation in symptoms, and presents a new three-stage model of symptom onset. First, it is argued that tensions relating to issues of conflict and control arise as an individual interfaces with their social world and that this requires communication. Second, it is suggested that symptoms are embedded with culturally specific meanings which offer up a socially sanctioned pathway as a forum for communication. Third, if this pathway is appraised as personally relevant, the symptoms offered by the pathway will be adopted as the forum for communication. The resulting symptoms are therefore both culturally and personally meaningful. This model is derived from an analysis of the literature on diet, but is also offered as a means to understand the onset of other common symptoms.
Doctors' thinking about ‘the system’ as a threat to patient safety
Authors: Waring Justin J.
Published: December 2006

‘Systems thinking’ is an important feature of the emerging ‘patient safety’ agenda. As a key component of a ‘safety culture’, it encourages clinicians to look past individual error to recognize the latent factors that threaten safety. This article investigates whether current medical thinking is commensurate with the idea of ‘systems thinking’ together with its implications for policy. The findings are based on qualitative semi-structured interviews with specialist physicians working within one NHS District General Hospital in the English Midlands. It is shown that, rather then favouring an individualized or ‘person-centred’ perspective, doctors readily identify ‘the system’ as a threat to patient safety. This is not necessarily a reflection of the prevailing safety discourse or knowledge of policy, but reflects a tacit understanding of how services are (dis)organized. This line of thinking serves to mitigate individual wrongdoing and protect professional credibility by encouraging doctors to accept and accommodate the shortcomings of the system, rather than participate in new forms of organizational learning.
‘Women get this’: gendered meanings of chronic pelvic pain
Authors: Grace Victoria M. , MacBride-Stewart Sara
Published: December 2006

Chronic pelvic pain in women is a key site through which explorations of the meanings of female gender and pain might further insights into the broader question of the embodied experience of women in relation to pain. A biocultural approach is used to present an analysis of interviews with 40 New Zealand women in which they reflect on ‘how come’ they have chronic pelvic pain. Women consistently employ a mechanistic rendition of medical discourse and understandings in their constructions of ‘how come’ they have pain, accompanied by a reiteration of ‘not knowing’ and a normalizing of their pelvic pain. We explore how this normalizing works within the narratives to establish women's pelvic pain as intrinsically gendered. Etiological meanings that are constructed in medical terms and yet are unable to be interpreted within a dualist frame of normality and pathology, we argue, permeate and shape gendered experience of chronic pain conditions.
Discourse and the individual in cervical cancer screening
Authors: Armstrong Natalie
Published: December 2006

The official discourse on cervical screening, disseminated to women through the information material they receive when called to attend, is important for the ways in which it presents screening to women and encourages them to think about it. However, because this material is nationally produced it is designed to address a large number of women and, as a result, is necessarily general and uniform in nature. This article uses qualitative interview data to explore how individual women interpret, negotiate and make sense of this discourse in the context of their personal circumstances, experiences and characteristics; therefore producing alternative conceptualizations of, and discourses upon, cervical screening. Foucault's work on ‘technologies of the self’ is employed in order to suggest that these practices of individualization can be seen as the means through which a space is opened up between discourse and the individual. Within such a space the working out of individual subject positions is possible.
‘What is it like to have ME?’: The discursive construction of ME in computer-mediated communication and face-to-face interaction
Authors: Guise Jennifer , Widdicombe Sue , McKinlay Andy
Published: December 2006

ME (Myalgic Encephalomyelitis) or CFS (chronic fatigue syndrome) is a debilitating illness for which no cause or medical tests have been identified. Debates over its nature have generated interest from qualitative researchers. However, participants are difficult to recruit because of the nature of their condition. Therefore, this study explores the utility of the internet as a means of eliciting accounts. We analyse data from focus groups and the internet in order to ascertain the extent to which previous research findings apply to the internet domain. Interviews were conducted among 49 members of internet groups (38 chatline, 11 personal) and 7 members of two face-to-face support groups. Discourse analysis of descriptions and accounts of ME or CFS revealed similar devices and interactional concerns in both internet and face-to-face communication. Participants constructed their condition as serious, enigmatic and not psychological. These functioned to deflect problematic assumptions about ME or CFS and to manage their accountability for the illness and its effects.
Health worker style and trustworthiness as perceived by Pakistani–born persons with type 2 diabetes in Oslo, Norway
Authors: Fagerli Rønnaug Aarflot , Lien Marianne E. , Wandel Margareta
Published: December 2006

This article explores Pakistani-born persons' expectations regarding health encounters and health-worker style, and consequences for communication. It is part of a larger qualitative study involving both health workers and Pakistani-born persons in Oslo. An earlier publication based on interviews with health workers revealed dilemmas around role enactment, and described how they perceived Pakistani-born patients to expect an authoritarian health-worker style. The present article is based on interviews with patients and reveals that Pakistani-born diabetics expect empathy and care rather than an authoritarian style. The interviews indicate that lack of trust and diverging role expectations may be understood in the context of class and level of education, as well as ethnicity. Responding to theories about empowerment work and the dual impact of ethnicity and class, the study indicates that health workers should admit their professional expert role, and combine this role with a caring attitude in order to build trust.
Young People ‘At Risk’ of What? Challenging Risk-focused Early Intervention as Crime Prevention
Authors: Case Stephen
Published: December 2006

This article attempts to broker a compromise between critical criminological challenges to the populist (punitivist) and negative conceptions of young people ‘at risk’ of offending -which are used to justify (potentially deleterious) risk-based interventions (Goldson, 2005) -and the positivist risk-based models upon which these interventions are predicated. It is argued that all young people are, by definition, ‘at risk’ of problem outcomes due to their relative powerlessness in society; exemplified by the adult presumption/prescription of salient risks and the subsequent imposition of responses underpinned by these factors. However, the article concludes that, far from being rejected, the risk factor approach should be retained and utilized through a re-orientation towards risks identified through qualitative research with young people and a simultaneous emphasis upon factors which enable young people to thrive and develop. The pursuit of ‘causes’ and ‘predictors’ of youth offending is eschewed in favour of a re-conception of salient factors as ‘correlates’ and ‘indicators’ of potential behaviours -both ‘good’ and ‘bad’, which can then be utilized to supplement further qualitative research and, crucially, the explicit involvement of young people through consultation and participation processes shaping their futures.
Some Reflections on Researching with Young Black People and the Youth Justice System
Authors: Wilson David
Published: December 2006

This article explores some of the methodological, ethical and practical difficulties of researching with young black people and is based on a three-year long research project that was a collaboration between The Children’s Society (a major NGO in England) and the University of Central England in Birmingham. The article uses findings from this research project to examine some broader epistemological issues related to ethnography, research more generally, and young black people’s dealings with the youth and criminal justice systems.
‘You Just Don’t Grass’: Youth, Crime and ‘Grassing’ in a Working Class Community
Authors: Yates Joe
Published: December 2006

This article draws on ethnographic research conducted into youth and crime over a 20-month period. It explores the meanings that young people, residing in a marginalized community, attached to what Evans et al. (1996) have described as the ‘neighbourhood dogma’ of ‘not grassing’. By unpacking and analysing the meaning of the term ‘grassing’ and by listening to the voices of young people the article examines a range of factors which underpin the ‘no grassing’ rule.
Game Classification and Game Design
Authors: Elverdam Christian , Aarseth Espen
Published: December 2006

This article discusses the viability of the open-ended game classification model described in “A Multi Dimensional Typology of Games.” The perspectives of such a model is discussed with emphasis on how a structural theory of games can contribute to game design and the development of formal and semiformal game design methods, such as Game Design Patterns.
Gendered Identities at Play
Authors: Hayes Elisabeth
Published: December 2006

This article explores issues of gender and video gaming, typically perceived as a masculine practice, through case studies of two adult women gamers. Drawing on a conception of identities in practice, the analyses show that dominant assumptions about women’s preferences and orientations toward video gaming do not reflect the diverse ways that women might make meaning of, respond to, and take pleasure in such games. To better understand women’s and men’s orientations toward gaming, the article argues for the need to take into account the complexity of people’s identities, not just gender alone but its interplay with and enactment in combination with personal histories and cultural factors that play out differently in individuals’ lives. This understanding, in turn, leads to insights into how video games may serve as spaces for the enactment of new forms of gendered identities.
Point and Shoot
Authors: Poremba Cindy
Published: December 2006

From photoblogs to cell phone cameras, digital technology is rapidly and fundamentally changing the cultural practice of photographic representation. At the same time, the remediation of photography, in both technical and cultural modes, is occurring in the digital game. Although conventions surrounding “the camera” have commonly played a role in some game genres, with increased frequency a more literal transposition of the photograph is making its way into the game: from x-treme stunt photography to the shift of the role of photographer from narrative context to play dynamic. How and why is the practice of photography now being performed virtually in the digital game? What does this redundancy teach us about both the cultural role of photography and the evolving medium of the digital game?
Beyond Virtual Carnival and Masquerade
Authors: Wu Weihua , Fore Steve , Wang Xiying , Ho Petula Sik Ying
Published: December 2006

This article documents the brief history of cyber marriage on the Chinese Internet and shows how in-game marriage, with its game codes and marriage regulations, turns out to be the most visualized, institutionalized, and heteronormative form of cyber marriage, by exploring the game players’ gender performativity, especially the gender swapping of male gamers. This study sheds light on Chinese youth subculture under the influence of new media and the consumer digital network in postsocialist China.
The use of a slit in determining refractive indices with the microscope
Authors: William Evans John
Published: December 2006

Certain optical properties of crystals, and more particularly the refractive index, may be determined either in the directions-image, often referred to as the 'image in convergent light', or in the ordinary object-image in which the object itself is seen. In the former case, in which the index of refraction is 'usually determined by means of the critical angle of total-reflection, every point in the image corresponds to a single direction of propagation of the wave-front through the crystal-structure and to the two corresponding directions of vibration. One of these can, however, be eliminated by the insertion of a nicol in an approximate position, and thus all ambiguity in the determination of the refractive index is removed.
Community pharmacy services to drug misusers in the south west of England: results of the 2003–2004 postal survey
Authors: Britton Rachel M , Scott Jenny
Published: December 2006

Objectives

To quantify current levels of methadone dispensing and supervised consumption for the treatment of drug misuse in community pharmacies in the south west of England. To compare 2003–2004 data to estimates made in 1995.

Setting

All community pharmacies in the strategic health authority areas of Avon, Gloucestershire and Wiltshire; Dorset and Somerset; and South West Peninsula (n = 903).

Method

A self-completion postal questionnaire was addressed to the ‘pharmacist in charge’, with up to three reminders. Descriptive data were collected on demography and drug misuse services provided by the pharmacist.

Key findings

An overall response rate of 78.3% (707/903) was achieved. Of all respondents, 69.2% (n = 489) dispensed methadone for the treatment of drug misuse, and 70.1% of these pharmacies (n = 343) reported providing a supervised methadone consumption service. The total number of clients receiving methadone through pharmacies in the south west was 3427, with a mean number of 7.0 clients per pharmacy; 49.5% of all clients receiving methadone had their daily doses supervised by the pharmacist. The majority of prescriptions issued for methadone (72.9%, n = 2503) were from general practice.

Conclusions

The majority of pharmacies (69.2%) in south west England dispense methadone and other drugs to drug misusers with just under half of the clients (49.5%) receiving their methadone by supervised consumption.
Statins and the interface between patient and community pharmacist
Authors: Chatterton Marie , Blenkinsopp Alison , Pollock Kristian
Published: December 2006

Objective

To elicit and compare patients' and pharmacists' views on their interactions during the dispensing of prescriptions for statins.

Method

Semi-structured interviews with 25 patients who were current or previous recipients of a statin on prescription, and 20 community pharmacists. Patient interviews explored their experiences of interacting with community pharmacists when first-time or repeat prescriptions were dispensed for statins. Pharmacist interview topics included roles that pharmacists currently perform in relation to patients receiving statins on prescription, and perceived responsibilities in relation to patients receiving prescribed statins.

Key findings

Most patients said they used the same pharmacy regularly to get their prescriptions dispensed. Despite this, few patients' accounts indicated a perceived relationship with the pharmacist. Most pharmacists reported that they routinely provided information about dosage and side-effects to patients receiving a statin on prescription for the first time. In contrast, patients rarely reported that they had received such information from a pharmacist. In relation to repeat prescriptions for statins, patients' and pharmacists' accounts were similar and indicated that pharmacists rarely initiate discussions about treatment. Pharmacists' explanation for this was that they assumed the patient would already have received all the information they needed from other health professionals, and that patients would ask if they had any further queries.

Conclusions

These findings indicate a gap between pharmacists' perceptions of their interactions with patients receiving a first-time prescription for a statin and patients' reported experience. Pharmacists may perceive that they provide more information than is actually the case. Pharmacists and patients agreed that when repeat prescriptions for statins are being dispensed there is little or no discussion about the medicine. Pharmacists need to consider how they might elicit patients' needs in a more systematic way.
Recommendations of community pharmacists for the treatment of sprains and strains
Authors: Braund Rhiannon , Bannerman Sarah L , Lim Canary , Moon Jane , Nicholls Justine , Straight Petra , Thompson Michele
Published: December 2006

Objective

To determine the recommendations that community pharmacists make when treating ankle sprains and strains, in particular regarding the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The current debate about this issue is whether to initiate NSAIDs immediately post-injury, or withhold for the first 48 hours to allow inflammation to occur. The opposing viewpoints are that ‘inflammation is a barrier to healing’ and that ‘inflammation is vital for healing’

Method

In August 2005, a structured questionnaire was mailed to 493 community pharmacies throughout New Zealand and addressed to the pharmacist. Questions covered the advice and interventions (both pharmacological and non-pharmacological) that would be given to a patient presenting with a strain or sprain, beliefs about different analgesics and their role in treatment, and information relating to their postgraduate qualifications and prevalence of sprains and strain seen in their pharmacy.

Key findings

The response rate was 46.5% (229), the mean number of sprains reported in a month was nine. Ninety-six per cent (219) of pharmacists recommended RICE (rest, ice, compression, elevation) as the mainstay of treatment in these types of injuries, and analgesics were recommended frequently, 89% (201). Almost half, 46% (104) of the pharmacists thought that NSAIDs should be withheld for 24–48 h post-injury, and almost half, 46% (104) did not; the remainder, 8% (17) were unsure.

Conclusion

Current evidence is moving away from using NSAIDs immediately post-injury to treat strains and sprains. While many pharmacists are aware of this, there are still others who are either unaware of this new research or who disagree. Most pharmacists were treating these injuries well, but pharmacists need to be aware of current recommendations to make sure that they follow ‘best practice’ and minimise further harm to their patients.
Usage of antimicrobial agents in a private primary healthcare setting in South Africa
Authors: Katende-Kyenda N L , Lubbe M S , Serfontein J H P , Truter I
Published: December 2006

Objective

The aim of this study was to investigate the prescribing of antimicrobials in a private primary healthcare setting in South Africa.

Setting

A group of private primary healthcare clinics in South Africa.

Method

A retrospective, drug utilisation study was conducted on nine clinics that were randomly selected from 33 clinics situated in different geographical areas of South Africa, and whose data were electronically available. Data were obtained from the central database of the private primary healthcare provider and extracted for the period January 1, to December 31, 2001.

Key findings

The study population consisted of the total patient population (n = 83 655) who visited the clinics during this one-year period. The total number of medicine items prescribed was 515 976 at a total cost of R1 716 319 ($17 163). Of these, antimicrobials represented 18.69% (n = 96 421) of all medicine items prescribed at a cost of R1 045 108 ($10 451) (60.89%). Antimicrobials were prescribed during 72.72% of consultations at the nine clinics during the one-year period. The antimicrobials most frequently prescribed were penicillins (38.17%) followed by sulphonamides (22.49%), antiprotozoals (9.88%) and tetracyclines (9.34%). The most common diagnoses for which antimicrobials were prescribed were viral influenza, upper respiratory tract infections, hypertension, acute bronchitis, and common cold.

Conclusions

The high percentage of antimicrobial prescribing obtained in this study could indicate excessive use of antimicrobials in the private primary healthcare setting. The prescribing of antimicrobials in respiratory tract infections could indicate overuse and inappropriate use of these agents. This could have an effect on the health of the patients needing care, and the general budget for healthcare services. It is recommended that further investigations on the prescribing protocols of antimicrobial usage be done.
Prescribing of tricyclic antidepressant drugs in a South African primary care patient population
Authors: Truter Ilse , Van W Kotze Theunis J
Published: December 2006

Objective

The primary aim of the study was to determine the prescribing patterns of tricyclic anti-depressants (TCAs) in two private primary care patient populations in South Africa, with specific emphasis on the dosages in which TCAs were prescribed.

Setting

Patients who are members of a private medical aid scheme in South Africa.

Method

A retrospective drug utilisation study was conducted. TCA prescription data for 1996 (1982 patients) and 2002/2003 (2345 patients) were analysed.

Key findings

The average ages of the two patient populations were 52.99 (standard deviation (SD) = 16.02) years (1996 group) and 42.66 (SD =16.48) years (2002/2003 group). In 1996, 67.41% of patients were female, and 57.53% in 2002/2003. A total number of 11 074 prescriptions (1996) and 9888 prescriptions (2002/2003) for TCAs were prescribed. Amitriptyline, dothiepin and imipramine together accounted for 69.57% of all TCA prescriptions during 1996, while they accounted for 91.64% of TCA prescriptions during 2002/2003. Average prescribed daily doses (PDDs) were calculated, and were in all cases (except for lofepramine in 1996) considerably lower than their respective defined daily doses (DDDs). The average PDD for amitriptyline was 46.59 mg (1996) and 37.51 mg (2002/2003) (DDD =75 mg), for dothiepin 70.77 mg (1996) and 56.99 mg (2002/2003) (DDD = 100 mg) and for imipramine 50.85 mg (1996) and 48.02 mg (2002/2003) (DDD =100 mg). It is possible that TCAs may be prescribed in doses that are too low for optimal therapeutic effect in depression. In this study, 78.79% (1996) and 85.92% (2002/2003) of all TCA prescriptions were prescribed at doses lower than their respective DDDs.

Conclusion

The findings are in agreement with findings of at least two other studies that have been conducted in different South African patient settings. TCAs remain an important therapeutic class, and more studies linking dosages to age groups and specific diagnoses are recommended.