bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On non-finiteness and canonical imperatives
Authors: Heine Bernd
Published: June 2016

Imperatives exhibit cross-linguistically a wide range of structures, which makes it difficult to generalize about them or to propose a structural definition that would apply to all or at least to most of them. This article is concerned with canonical imperatives, that is, information units that have an (implicit) second person singular subject referent as a hearer (or reader or signee) and express commands or requests directed at the hearer. Canonical imperatives have been called extragrammatical or extrasyntactical forms; they resemble nominalized verb forms in being non-finite. But non-finiteness appears to possess a different quality here from what it has, for example, in participial, infinitival, or other non-finite verb forms or clause types. Building on recent work on Discourse Grammar (Kaltenböck et al. 2011, Heine et al. 2013), the article attempts to account for this difference by looking at the role that imperatives play in structuring discourse.
On finitization
Authors: Rose Françoise
Published: June 2016

Most diachronic studies dealing with finiteness are centered on the functional shift between main and dependent clause status. In contrast, this paper focuses on the acquisition of morphosyntactic finiteness features by a non-finite dependent construction that remains dependent, namely “finitization.” Givón (2011) suggests a theoretical distinction between “gradual” and “instantaneous” finitization, depending on whether the intermediate stage of the evolution involves mixed finite/non-finite morphosyntax or a variation between finite and non-finite clauses. The main findings of this paper are that, first, diachronic data from various languages attest to both these theoretical models, and second, that this distinction does not reside in the diachronic mechanisms at play (reanalysis or extension), but rather in the functional motivation for the change.
Financial translation, a neglected field
Authors: Serón-Ordóñez Inmaculada
Published: June 2016

By looking at the Key Investor Information document (KIID), the present article shows how the area of finance is still considerably unexplored in Translation Studies, despite the increased interest that economic and financial texts have attracted among translation scholars in the last decade. The article describes the KIID and its background and then focuses on its relevance to Translation Studies, as well as to translation practice and, more generally, to society. Never before examined within Translation Studies, the KIID is a mandatory regulatory document aimed at retail investors, and its underlying financial product increases financing opportunities for companies, especially when crossing international borders, where the document’s translation into the target country’s language is compulsory. The KIID has very specific characteristics that make it a financial genre in its own right, due to grow in importance because of several factors. In the article, its main characteristics are presented and discussed from a Translation Studies perspective, on the basis of both the regulations that gave rise to it and a parallel and comparable corpus study.
La traducción de términos de la ciencia y la técnica en la prensa española
Authors: del Pino Romero Javier
Published: June 2016

Although everything is improvable, it can be said that Spanish translators and conference interpreters have dictionaries, glossaries and data banks available to do their work satisfactorily thanks to publishers of technical dictionaries, terminology teams of International Organizations, the Real Academia Española and the Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales. However, the situation is quite different in the press, the field of written language where all subjects of social interest are dealt with. The press is the main importer of loanwords, mostly unnecessary Anglicisms (of non-specialized fields but also of science and technology), and journalists make translation mistakes daily. Because of the considerable influence that journalists have on readers, the loanwords they use as well as their translation mistakes infiltrate the Spanish language. In this article, we analyse the situation in the translation of scientific and technological texts in the Spanish press and show examples of unnecessary loanwords as well as translation mistakes. We also include a brief glossary of 45 loanwords and translation mistakes in the military field.
La traducción al español de los fármacos y de los compuestos químicos
Authors: Claros M. Gonzalo
Published: June 2016

Medical and pharmaceutical texts are full of references to chemical compounds, active ingredients and drugs. Guidelines will be given to recognise them, to translate them, if they should be written in upper- or lowercase, if they should or should not have an article, to know how to use hyphens in them or when words must be juxtaposed or not. By following the procedures given, an acceptable Spanish translation can be generated even if the translator is not a skilled chemist or pharmacist.
Terminology, specialised language and lesser-used languages in PSIT
Authors: Valero-Garcés Carmen
Published: June 2016

Our societies are undergoing a process of transformation entailing new challenges. One of these challenges includes the urgency to address certain needs that arise from the rate of change affecting the multilingual and multicultural societies in which we live. In turn, new technologies, which involve the inevitable creation of new terms, are evolving rapidly as we try to incorporate them into our daily business. We live, therefore, with terminology, whether we are experts or not. In fact, there are a number of institutions with which we have an almost daily relationship and which have their own specialised languages. The question ishowto handle these situations, what problems arise therein, and what the most immediate solutions are when this kind of event occurs in environments where terminology, specialised languages, and less widely used languages come into play. Throughout this chapter, and using all of the available information relevant to this matter, I will attempt to answer the following questions: Is specialised language used as part of the interaction between service providers and external users in the public services sector? How do participants handle such specific terminology? What types of documentation do mediators/translators and interpreters have access to? What strategies do they use when translating concepts or expressions into the target language? How reliable is their work? Is special training required? Are there specialised resources in less widely spoken languages that meet those needs?
Translating phraseology
Authors: Núñez-Román Francisco
Published: June 2016

In this article, a series of techniques and tools necessary for the translation of phraseological units are reviewed. Using Corpas Pastor’s contributions to the literature (2000a, 2000b, 2001) as a point of departure, we examine the assumptions on which they are based, to then go on to review two techniques proposed by Sevilla and Sevilla (2004), and by Sevilla Muñoz (2009), respectively: i.e. the actantial technique and the thematic technique. Finally, we review the major dictionaries in which phrases from Spanish and Italian are collected and highlight their strengths and weaknesses from the standpoint of the translation of the phraseology concerned.
Cognition and metaphor as bases for the Principle of translatability and the Principle of synonymy
Authors: Salguero-Lamillar Francisco J.
Published: June 2016

The problem of equivalence in translation is sometimes falsely related to the translation of lexical meanings. In this paper we take the problem to the field of mapping cognitive functions among mental categories and their representations as concepts. This requires engaging all lexical and grammatical resources of the linguistic system and not solely considering vocabulary as the source of knowledge and information found in texts, be they oral or written. Thus, the problem of equivalence is solved by accepting the basic principles of translatability and synonymy, defined in terms of those mental contents that are behind the interpretation of complex linguistic expressions.
An analysis of critical ‘voices’ and ‘styles’ in transpreters’ translations of complainants’ narratives
Authors: Ralarala Monwabisi K.
Published: June 2016

Police officers (hereafter referred to as transpreters) have a fundamental role and function as both ‘interpreters’ and ‘translators’ in the process of the administration of justice. This role and function hinges, oftentimes, on how the two agents, that is, the transpreters and the complainants, relate to each other. What is it that they represent? What do they stand to gain? What mechanisms are at play that they exploit to reach their various goals and desires? In discharging these roles and functions, transpreters in particular become actively engaged in the activities of listening to, visualising, then retelling and rewriting the complainants’ isiXhosa oral narrative text into the English language. All these laborious and tedious activities are conducted to compile sworn statements that become essential in the leading of a criminal investigation, as well as in compiling the evidence that is ultimately used in court. In this context, the ‘voices’ that inform the ‘styles’ in and through which the original narratives are reconstructed (as translations) into police records remain critical as part of the legal discourse in the South African criminal justice system. These ‘voices’ and ‘styles’ signal the extent to which sworn statements are mediated and manipulated.
Is ontological revisionism uncharitable?
Authors: Daly Chris , Liggins David
Published: June 2016

Some philosophers (‘nihilists’) deny the existence of composite material objects. Other philosophers (‘universalists’) hold that whenever there are some things, they compose something. The purpose of this paper is to scrutinize an objection to these revisionary views: the objection that nihilism and universalism are both unacceptably uncharitable because each of them implies that a great deal of what we ordinarily believe is false. Our main business is to show how nihilism and universalism can be defended against the objection. A secondary point is that universalism is harder to defend than nihilism.
Mental powers and the soul in Kant’s Subjective Deduction and the Second Paralogism
Authors: Tester Steven
Published: June 2016

Kant’s claim in the Subjective Deduction that we have multiple fundamental mental powers appears to be susceptible to some a priori metaphysical arguments made against multiple fundamental mental powers by Christian Wolff who held that these powers would violate the unity of thought and entail that the soul is an extended composite. I argue, however, that in the Second Paralogism and his lectures on metaphysics, Kant provides arguments that overcome these objections by showing that it is possible that a composite could ground the unity of thought, that properties are powers and therefore the soul could possess multiple powers, and the soul is a thing in itself so it cannot be an extended composite. These arguments lend additional support to the attribution of multiple mental powers to us in the Subjective Deduction.
The logical form of negative action sentences
Authors: Payton Jonathan D.
Published: June 2016

It is typically assumed that actions are events, but there is a growing consensus that negative actions, like omissions and refrainments, are not events, but absences thereof. If so, then we must either deny the obvious, that we can exercise our agency by omitting and refrainment, or give up on event-based theories of agency. I trace the consensus to the assumption that negative action sentences are negative-existentials, and argue that this is false. The best analysis of negative action sentences treats them as quantifying over omissions and refrainments, conceived of as events.
Analysis of the sexual development-promoting region ofSchizophyllum commune TRP1gene
Authors: Sen Kikuo , Kinoshita Hideki , Tazuke Kazuyuki , Maki Yoshinori , Yoshiura Yumi , Yakushi Toshiharu , Shibai Hiroshiro , Kurosawa Shin-ichi
Published: June 2016

This study aims to elucidate the mechanism of sexual development of basidiomycetous mushrooms from mating to fruit body formation. Sequencing analysis showed the TRP1 gene of basidiomycete Schizophyllum commune encoded an enzyme with three catalytic regions of GAT (glutamine amidotransferase), IGPS (indole-3-glycerol phosphate synthase), and PRAI (5-phosphoribosyl anthranilate isomerase); among these three regions, the trp1 mutant (Trp−) had a missense mutation (L→F) of a 338th amino acid residue of the TRP1 protein within the IGPS region. To investigate the function of IGPS region related to sexual development, dikaryons with high, usual, and no expression of the IGPS region of TRP1 gene were made. The dikaryotic mycelia with high expression of the IGPS formed mature fruit bodies earlier than those with usual and no expression of the IGPS. These results showed that the IGPS region in TRP1 gene promoted sexual development of S. commune.
Resistant starch reduces colonic and urinary p-cresol in rats fed a tyrosine-supplemented diet, whereas konjac mannan does not
Authors: Chen Bixiao , Morioka Sahya , Nakagawa Tomoyuki , Hayakawa Takashi
Published: June 2016

The effect of resistant starch (RS) and konjac mannan (KM) to maintain and improve the large intestinal environment was compared. Wistar SPF rats were fed the following diets for 4 weeks: negative control diet (C diet), tyrosine-supplemented positive control diet (T diet), and luminacoid supplemented diets containing either high-molecular konjac mannan A (KMAT diet), low-molecular konjac mannan B (KMBT diet), high-amylose cornstarch (HAST diet), or heat-moisture-treated starch (HMTST diet). The luminacoid-fed group had an increased content of short-chain fatty acids in the cecum. HAS caused a significant decrease in p-cresol content in the cecum, whereas KM did not. Urinary p-cresol was reduced in the HAST group compared with the T group, but not the KM fed groups. Deterioration in the large intestinal environment was only improved completely in the HAST and HMTST groups, suggesting that RS is considerably more effective than KM in maintaining the large intestinal environment.
Prediction of the structure of a novel amylopectin-based Cd-associated molecule in the stem of common reed grown in the presence of Cd
Authors: Higuchi Kyoko , Ito Naho , Nukada Tomoo
Published: June 2016

We previously found a novel Cd-associated molecule with an apparent molecular weight of 10–50 kDa in common reeds grown in the presence of Cd. The partial structure of this molecule was predicted by enzymatic digestion to release Cd from a trace amount that had been partially purified from the cell sap. The major component was branched α-glucan, whereas a peptide, β-1,4 glucan, and mannose were found as minor components. Uronic acids appeared to provide functional groups that bind Cd.
Analysis of isoflavones and coumestrol in soybean sprouts
Authors: Oshima Ayaka , Mine Wakana , Nakada Mitsuhiko , Yanase Emiko
Published: June 2016

High-performance liquid chromatography analysis is used to examine the distribution of isoflavones in different parts of soybean sprouts. Between the seed leaf and hypocotyl, the ratio of isoflavones differs depending on the aglycone type. Glycitein exists predominantly in the hypocotyl. Three compounds isolated from 4-day-old seed coats were identified as coumestrol and its glycosides.
The Interaction between Emotion and Executive Control: Comparison between Visual, Auditory, and Tactile Modalities
Authors: Fruchtman-Steinbok Tom , Salzer Yael , Henik Avishai , Cohen Noga
Published: June 2016

The reciprocal connections between emotion and attention are vital for adaptive behaviour. Previous results demonstrated that the behavioural effects of emotional stimuli on performance are attenuated when executive control is recruited. The current research studied whether this attenuation is modality dependent. In two experiments, negative and neutral pictures were presented shortly before a visual, tactile, or auditory target in a Simon task. All three modalities demonstrated a Simon effect, a conflict adaptation effect, and an emotional interference effect. However, the interaction between picture valence and Simon congruency was found only in the visual task. Specifically, when the Simon target was visual, emotional interference was reduced during incongruent compared to congruent trials. These findings suggest that although the control-related effects observed in the Simon tasks are not modality dependent, the link between emotion and executive control is modality dependent. Presumably, this link occurs only when the emotional stimulus and the target are presented in the same modality.
The impact of arbitrarily applicable relational responding on evaluative learning about hypothetical money and shock outcomes
Authors: Dymond Simon , Molet Mikael , Davies Lynette
Published: June 2016

Evaluative learning comprises changes in preferences after co-occurrences between conditioned stimuli (CSs) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) of affective value. Co-occurrences may involve relational responding. Two experiments examined the impact of arbitrary relational responding on evaluative preferences for hypothetical money and shock outcomes. In Experiment 1, participants were trained to make arbitrary relational responses by placing CSs of the same size but different colours into boxes and were then instructed that these CSs represented different intensities of hypothetical USs (money or shock). Liking ratings of the CSs were altered in accordance with the underlying bigger/smaller than relations. A reversal of preference was also observed: the CS associated with the smallest hypothetical shock was rated more positively than the CS associated with the smallest amount of hypothetical money. In Experiment 2, procedures from Relational Frame Theory (RFT) established a relational network of more than/less than relations consisting of five CSs (A-B-C-D-E). Overall, evaluative preferences were altered, but not reversed, depending on (a) how stimuli had been related to one another during the learning phase and (b) whether those stimuli referred to money or shocks. The contribution of RFT to evaluative learning research is discussed.
An actin-dependent annexin complex mediates plasma membrane repair in muscle
Authors: Demonbreun Alexis R. , Quattrocelli Mattia , Barefield David Y. , Allen Madison V. , Swanson Kaitlin E. , McNally Elizabeth M.
Published: June 2016

Disruption of the plasma membrane often accompanies cellular injury, and in muscle, plasma membrane resealing is essential for efficient recovery from injury. Muscle contraction, especially of lengthened muscle, disrupts the sarcolemma. To define the molecular machinery that directs repair, we applied laser wounding to live mammalian myofibers and assessed translocation of fluorescently tagged proteins using high-resolution microscopy. Within seconds of membrane disruption, annexins A1, A2, A5, and A6 formed a tight repair “cap.” Actin was recruited to the site of damage, and annexin A6 cap formation was both actin dependent and Ca2+ regulated. Repair proteins, including dysferlin, EHD1, EHD2, MG53, and BIN1, localized adjacent to the repair cap in a “shoulder” region enriched with phosphatidlyserine. Dye influx into muscle fibers lacking both dysferlin and the related protein myoferlin was substantially greater than control or individual null muscle fibers, underscoring the importance of shoulder-localized proteins. These data define the cap and shoulder as subdomains within the repair complex accumulating distinct and nonoverlapping components.
IL-4 sensitivity shapes the peripheral CD8+ T cell pool and response to infection
Authors: Renkema Kristin R. , Lee June-Yong , Lee You Jeong , Hamilton Sara E. , Hogquist Kristin A. , Jameson Stephen C.
Published: June 2016

Previous studies have revealed that a population of innate memory CD8+ T cells is generated in response to IL-4, first appearing in the thymus and bearing high expression levels of Eomesodermin (Eomes) but not T-bet. However, the antigen specificity and functional properties of these cells is poorly defined. In this study, we show that IL-4 regulates not only the frequency and function of innate memory CD8+ T cells, but also regulates Eomes expression levels and functional reactivity of naive CD8+ T cells. Lack of IL-4 responsiveness attenuates the capacity of CD8+ T cells to mount a robust response to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection, with both quantitative and qualitative effects on effector and memory antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Unexpectedly, we found that, although numerically rare, memory phenotype CD8+ T cells in IL-4Rα–deficient mice exhibited enhanced reactivity after in vitro and in vivo stimulation. Importantly, our data revealed that these effects of IL-4 exposure occur before, not during, infection. Together, these data show that IL-4 influences the entire peripheral CD8+ T cell pool, influencing expression of T-box transcription factors, functional reactivity, and the capacity to respond to infection. These findings indicate that IL-4, a canonical Th2 cell cytokine, can sometimes promote rather than impair Th1 cell–type immune responses.
G9a regulates group 2 innate lymphoid cell development by repressing the group 3 innate lymphoid cell program
Authors: Antignano Frann , Braam Mitchell , Hughes Michael R. , Chenery Alistair L. , Burrows Kyle , Gold Matthew J. , Oudhoff Menno J. , Rattray David , Halim Timotheus Y. , Cait Alissa , Takei Fumio , Rossi Fabio M. , McNagny Kelly M. , Zaph Colby
Published: June 2016

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are emerging as important regulators of homeostatic and disease-associated immune processes. Despite recent advances in defining the molecular pathways that control development and function of ILCs, the epigenetic mechanisms that regulate ILC biology are unknown. Here, we identify a role for the lysine methyltransferase G9a in regulating ILC2 development and function. Mice with a hematopoietic cell–specific deletion of G9a (Vav.G9a−/− mice) have a severe reduction in ILC2s in peripheral sites, associated with impaired development of immature ILC2s in the bone marrow. Accordingly, Vav.G9a−/− mice are resistant to the development of allergic lung inflammation. G9a-dependent dimethylation of histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9me2) is a repressive histone mark that is associated with gene silencing. Genome-wide expression analysis demonstrated that the absence of G9a led to increased expression of ILC3-associated genes in developing ILC2 populations. Further, we found high levels of G9a-dependent H3K9me2 at ILC3-specific genetic loci, demonstrating that G9a-mediated repression of ILC3-associated genes is critical for the optimal development of ILC2s. Together, these results provide the first identification of an epigenetic regulatory mechanism in ILC development and function.
Tuning the ion selectivity of glutamate transporter–associated uncoupled conductances
Authors: Cater Rosemary J. , Vandenberg Robert J. , Ryan Renae M.
Published: June 2016

The concentration of glutamate within a glutamatergic synapse is tightly regulated by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs). In addition to their primary role in clearing extracellular glutamate, the EAATs also possess a thermodynamically uncoupled Cl− conductance. This conductance is activated by the binding of substrate and Na+, but the direction of Cl− flux is independent of the rate or direction of substrate transport; thus, the two processes are thermodynamically uncoupled. A recent molecular dynamics study of the archaeal EAAT homologue GltPh (an aspartate transporter from Pyrococcus horikoshii) identified an aqueous pore at the interface of the transport and trimerization domains, through which anions could permeate, and it was suggested that an arginine residue at the most restricted part of this pathway might play a role in determining anion selectivity. In this study, we mutate this arginine to a histidine in the human glutamate transporter EAAT1 and investigate the role of the protonation state of this residue on anion selectivity and transporter function. Our results demonstrate that a positive charge at this position is crucial for determining anion versus cation selectivity of the uncoupled conductance of EAAT1. In addition, because the nature of this residue influences the turnover rate of EAAT1, we reveal an intrinsic link between the elevator movement of the transport domain and the Cl− channel.
Strategies for Countering False Information and Beliefs about Climate Change
Authors: Garrett R. Kelly
Published: June 2016

Misperceptions about climate change are widespread, and efforts to correct them must be grounded in an understanding of the factors, both individual and social, that contribute to them. These factors can be organized into four broad categories: motivated reasoning, non-motivated information processing biases, social dynamics, and the information environment. Each type of factor is associated with a host of related strategies for countering false information and beliefs. Motivated biases can be reduced with affirmations, by attempting to depoliticize the issue, and via an evidentiary “tipping point.” Other cognitive biases highlight the importance of clarity, simplicity, and repetition. When correcting errors that contain an inaccurate causal explanation, it is also important to provide an alternative account of the event in question. Message presentation techniques can also facilitate updating beliefs. Beliefs have an important social dimension. Attending to these factors shows the importance of strategies that include: ensuring that lay people consistently have the tools that help them evaluate experts; promoting confidence among those who hold accurate beliefs; facilitating diverse, unsegregated social networks; and providing corrections from unexpected sources. Finally, the prevalence of misinformation in the information environment is highly problematic. Strategies that news organizations can employ include avoiding false balance, adjudicating among contradictory claims, and encouraging accuracy on the part of political elites via fact checking. New technologies may also prove an important tool: search engines that give preferential treatment to accurate information and automated recommendations of accurate information following exposure to inaccuracies both have the potential to change how individuals learn about climate change.
Content Analysis in Climate Change Communication
Authors: Metag Julia
Published: June 2016

Content analysis is one of the most frequently used methods in climate change communication research. Studies implementing content analysis investigate how climate change is presented in mass media or other communication content.

Quantitative content analysis develops a standardized codebook to code content systematically, which then allows for statistical analysis. Qualitative analysis relies on interpretative methods and a closer reading of the material, often using hermeneutic approaches and taking linguistic features of the text more into account than quantitative analysis. While quantitative analysis—particularly if conducted automatically—can comprise larger samples, qualitative analysis usually entails smaller samples, as it is more detailed. Different types of material—whether online content, campaign material, or climate change imagery—bring about different challenges when studied through content analysis that need to be considered when drawing samples of the material for content analysis. To evaluate the quality of a content analysis measures for reliability and validity are used.

Key themes in content analyses of climate change communication are the media’s attention to climate change and the different points of view on global warming as an issue being present in the media coverage. Challenges for content analysis as a method for assessing climate change communication arise from the lack of comparability of the various studies that exist. Multimodal approaches are developed to better adhere to both textual and visual content simultaneously in content analyses of climate change communication.
The 1.5°C Target, Political Implications, and the Role of BECCS
Authors: Fuss Sabine
Published: June 2016

The 2°C target for global warming had been under severe scrutiny in the run-up to the climate negotiations in Paris in 2015 (COP21). Clearly, with a remaining carbon budget of 470–1,020 GtCO2eq from 2015 onwards for a 66% probability of stabilizing at concentration levels consistent with remaining below 2°C warming at the end of the 21st century and yearly emissions of about 40 GtCO2 per year, not much room is left for further postponing action. Many of the low stabilization pathways actually resort to the extraction of CO2 from the atmosphere (known as negative emissions or Carbon Dioxide Removal [CDR]), mostly by means of Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS): if the biomass feedstock is produced sustainably, the emissions would be low or even carbon-neutral, as the additional planting of biomass would sequester about as much CO2 as is generated during energy generation. If additionally carbon capture and storage is applied, then the emissions balance would be negative. Large BECCS deployment thus facilitates reaching the 2°C target, also allowing for some flexibility in other sectors that are difficult to decarbonize rapidly, such as the agricultural sector. However, the large reliance on BECCS has raised uneasiness among policymakers, the public, and even scientists, with risks to sustainability being voiced as the prime concern. For example, the large-scale deployment of BECCS would require vast areas of land to be set aside for the cultivation of biomass, which is feared to conflict with conservation of ecosystem services and with ensuring food security in the face of a still growing population.

While the progress that has been made in Paris leading to an agreement on stabilizing “well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels” and “pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C” was mainly motivated by the extent of the impacts, which are perceived to be unacceptably high for some regions already at lower temperature increases, it has to be taken with a grain of salt: moving to 1.5°C will further shrink the time frame to act and BECCS will play an even bigger role. In fact, aiming at 1.5°C will substantially reduce the remaining carbon budget previously indicated for reaching 2°C. Recent research on the biophysical limits to BECCS and also other negative emissions options such as Direct Air Capture indicates that they all run into their respective bottlenecks—BECCS with respect to land requirements, but on the upside producing bioenergy as a side product, while Direct Air Capture does not need much land, but is more energy-intensive. In order to provide for the negative emissions needed for achieving the 1.5°C target in a sustainable way, a portfolio of negative emissions options needs to minimize unwanted effects on non–climate policy goals.
Loneliness and Health
Authors: Shankar Aparna
Published: June 2016

Loneliness or perceived social isolation is a subjective experience relating to dissatisfaction with one’s social relationships. Most research has focused on the experience of loneliness in old age, but levels of loneliness are also known to be high among teenagers and young adults. While poor health may be associated with increased feelings of loneliness, there is now considerable evidence on the role of loneliness as a risk factor for poor mental and physical health. Studies show that loneliness is associated with an increased risk of developing dementia and chronic diseases, and also with a higher rate of mortality. Risky health behaviors, a poor cardiovascular profile and compromised immune functioning have all been proposed as potential pathways through which loneliness may affect health. However, much still remains to be understood about these mechanisms.
True Crime Reporting in Early Modern England
Authors: MacMillan Ken
Published: June 2016

True crime reporting was extremely popular in early modern England (ca. 1550–1800). Depending on when this literature was written, and the audience it was intended to attract, the sub-genres of true crime writing took the form of small pamphlets, broadsides, rhyming ballads designed to be sung to a familiar tune, ministers’ accounts of criminals and repentance, collections of trials, newspapers, and biographies of professional criminals. In addition to being inherently shocking and entertaining, this literature served as cautionary, religious, and morality tales that reflected on serious crime as one of the signs that English society had become ignorant, irreligious, and immoral. These tales of true crime could be used to remind a wide readership of the wages of sin, and of the role of the community, church, and state in bringing about justice for criminals and their victims. In a society that placed significant restraints on sexual, personal, and religious freedoms, and exhorted obedience, deference, hard work, sexual restraint, and abstinence from all forms of vice, true crime literature could help to restore order and balance to society. To accomplish these various goals, the authors of true crime literature were not very faithful reporters, often embellishing criminal deeds, publishing small portions of much lengthier cases, or fabricating facts as needed to fill in unknown details or to improve readers’ fear of and education about the criminal element that surrounded them. As this literature developed in the 18th century, its authors became famous for reporting about infamous criminals in semi-biographical novels, thus merging true crime literature with fiction and giving rise to another genre of crime literature by about 1800.
United States Vagrancy Laws
Authors: Goluboff Risa L. , Sorensen Adam
Published: June 2016

The crime of vagrancy has deep historical roots in American law and legal culture. Originating in 16th-century England, vagrancy laws came to the New World with the colonists and soon proliferated throughout the British colonies and, later, the United States. Vagrancy laws took myriad forms, generally making it a crime to be poor, idle, dissolute, immoral, drunk, lewd, or suspicious. Vagrancy laws often included prohibitions on loitering—wandering around without any apparent lawful purpose—though some jurisdictions criminalized loitering separately. Taken together, vaguely worded vagrancy, loitering, and suspicious persons laws targeted objectionable “out of place” people rather than any particular conduct. They served as a ubiquitous tool for maintaining hierarchy and order in American society. Their application changed alongside perceived threats to the social fabric, at different times and places targeting the unemployed, labor activists, radical orators, cultural and sexual nonconformists, racial and religious minorities, civil rights protesters, and the poor. By the mid-20th century, vagrancy laws served as the basis for hundreds of thousands of arrests every year. But over the course of just two decades, the crime of vagrancy, virtually unquestioned for four hundred years, unraveled. Profound social upheaval in the 1960s produced a concerted effort against the vagrancy regime, and in 1972, the US Supreme Court invalidated the laws. Local authorities have spent the years since looking for alternatives to the many functions vagrancy laws once served.
Rendaku or Sequential Voicing in Japanese Phonology
Authors: Vance Timothy J.
Published: June 2016

The term rendaku, sometimes translated as sequential voicing, denotes a morphophonemic phenomenon in Japanese. In a prototypical case, an alternating morpheme appears with an initial voiceless obstruent as a word on its own or as the initial element (E1) in a compound but with an initial voiced obstruent as the second element (E2) in a two-element compound. For example, the simplex word /take/ ‘bamboo’ and the compound /take+yabu/ ‘bamboo grove’ (cf. /yabu/ ‘grove’) begin with voiceless /t/, but this morpheme meaning ‘bamboo’ begins with voiced /d/ in /sao+dake/ ‘bamboo (made into a) pole’ (cf. /sao/ ‘pole’). Rendaku was already firmly established in 8th-century Old Japanese (OJ), the earliest variety for which extensive written records exist, and subsequent sound changes have made the alternations phonetically heterogeneous. Many OJ compounds with eligible E2s did not undergo rendaku, and the phenomenon remains pervasively irregular in modern Japanese. There are, however, many factors that promote or inhibit rendaku, and some of these appear to influence native-speaker behavior on experimental tasks. The best known phonological factor is Lyman’s Law, according to which rendaku does not apply to E2s that contain a non-initial voiced obstruent. Many theoretical phonologists endorse the idea that Lyman’s Law is a sub-case of the Obligatory Contour Principle, which rules out identical or similar units if they would be adjacent in some domain. Other well-known factors involve vocabulary stratum (e.g., the resistance to rendaku of recently borrowed E2s) or the morphological/semantic relationship between E2 and E1 (e.g., the resistance to rendaku of coordinate compounds). Some morphemes are idiosyncratically immune to rendaku. Other morphemes alternate but undergo rendaku in some compounds while failing to undergo it in others, even though no known factor is relevant. In addition, many individual compounds vary between a form with rendaku and a form without, and this variability is often not reflected in dictionary entries. Despite its irregularity, rendaku is productive in the sense that it often applies to newly created compounds. Many compounds, of course, are stored (with or without rendaku) in a speaker’s lexicon, but fact that native speakers can apply rendaku not just to existing E2s in novel compounds but even to made-up E2s shows that rendaku as an active process is somehow incorporated into the grammar.
Nikolai Trubetzkoy
Authors: Battistella Edwin L.
Published: June 2016

Nikolai Trubetzkoy (1890–1938) was a Russian émigré scholar who settled in Austria in 1922, serving as Head of Slavic Linguistics at the University of Vienna and participating in the Prague Linguistics Circle. Trubetzkoy wrote nearly 150 works on phonology, prosody, comparative linguistics, linguistic geography, folklore, literature, history, and political theory. His posthumously published Grundzüge der Phonologie (Principles of Phonology) is regarded as one of the key works in the science of phonology. Here Trubetzkoy, influenced by Saussurean insights, elaborated on the linguistic function of speech sounds, the role of oppositions, and markedness. He was also concerned with developing universal laws of phonological patterning, and his work involves the discussion of a wide variety of languages. The Grundzüge became the classic statement of part of Prague School linguistics, which later influenced both European and American linguistics, notably in Chomsky and Halle’s The Sound Pattern of English. Less well-known are Trubetzkoy’s historical and political works on Eurasia and Eurasianism. In Europe and Mankind, Trubetzkoy argued that Russia was not culturally part of Europe but should evolve to form its own political systems based on its geography and common legacy with the peoples of Eurasia.
Eskimo-Aleut
Authors: Berge Anna
Published: June 2016

The Eskimo-Aleut language family consists of two quite different branches, Aleut and Eskimo. The latter consists of Yupik and Inuit languages. It is spoken from the eastern coast of Russia to Greenland. The family is thought to have developed and diverged in Alaska between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago, although recent findings in a variety of fields suggest a more complex prehistory than previously assumed. The language family shares certain characteristics, including polysynthetic word formation, an originally ergative-absolutive case system (now substantially modified in Aleut), SOV word order, and more or less similar phonological systems across the language family, involving voiceless stop and voiced fricative consonant series often in alternation, and an originally four-vowel system frequently reduced to three. The languages in the family have undergone substantial postcolonial contact effects, especially evident in (although not restricted to) loanwords from the respective colonial languages. There is extensive language documentation for all languages, although not necessarily all dialects. Most languages and dialects are severely endangered today, with the exception of Eastern Canadian Inuit and Greenlandic (Kalaallisut). There are also theoretical studies of the languages in many linguistic fields, although the languages are unevenly covered, and there are still many more studies of the phonologies and syntaxes of the respective languages than other aspects of grammar.
Ethics of the Zoo
Authors: Keulartz Jozef
Published: June 2016

The animal world is under increasing pressure, given the magnitude of anthropogenic environmental stress, especially from human-caused rapid climate change together with habitat conversion, fragmentation, and destruction. There is a global wave of species extinctions and decline in local species abundance. To stop or even reverse this so-called defaunation process, in situ conservation (in the wild) is no longer effective without ex situ conservation (in captivity). Consequently, zoos could play an ever-greater role in the conservation of endangered species and wildlife—hence the slogan Captivity for Conservation.

However, the integration of zoo-based tools and techniques in species conservation has led to many conflicts between wildlife conservationists and animal protectionists. Many wildlife conservationists agree with Michael Soulé, the widely acclaimed doyen of the relatively new discipline of conservation biology, that conservation and animal welfare are conceptually distinct, and that they should remain politically separate. Animal protectionists, on the other hand, draw support from existing leading accounts of animal ethics that oppose the idea of captivity for conservation, either because infringing an individual’s right to freedom for the preservation of the species is considered as morally wrong, or because the benefits of species conservation are not seen as significant enough to overcome the presumption against depriving an animal of its liberty.

Both sides view animals through different lenses and address different concerns. Whereas animal ethicists focus on individual organisms, and are concerned about the welfare and liberty of animals, wildlife conservationists perceive animals as parts of greater wholes such as species or ecosystems, and consider biodiversity and ecological integrity as key topics. This seemingly intractable controversy can be overcome by transcending both perspectives, and developing a bifocal view in which zoo animals are perceived as individuals in need of specific care and, at the same time, as members of a species in need of protection.

Based on such a bifocal approach that has lately been adopted by a growing international movement of “Compassionate Conservation,” the modern zoo can only achieve its conservation mission if it finds a morally acceptable balance between animal welfare concerns and species conservation commitments. The prospects for the zoo to achieve such a balance are promising. Over the past decade or so, zoos have made serious and sustained efforts to ensure and enhance animal welfare. At the same time, the zoo’s contribution to species conservation has also improved considerably.
Sustainable Coffee Production
Authors: Krishnan Sarada
Published: June 2016

Coffee is an extremely important agricultural commodity, produced in about 80 tropical countries, with an estimated 125 million people depending on it for their livelihoods in Latin America, Africa, and Asia, with an annual production of about nine million tons of green beans. Consisting of at least 125 species, the genus Coffea L. (Rubiaceae, Ixoroideae, Coffeeae) is distributed in Africa, Madagascar, the Comoros Islands, the Mascarene Islands (La Réunion and Mauritius), tropical Asia, and Australia. Two species are economically important for the production of the beverage coffee, C. arabica L. (Arabica coffee) and C. canephora A. Froehner (robusta coffee). Higher beverage quality is associated with C. arabica. Coffea arabica is a self-fertile tetraploid, which has resulted in very low genetic diversity of this significant crop. Coffee genetic resources are being lost at a rapid pace due to varied threats, such as human population pressures, leading to conversion of land to agriculture, deforestation, and land degradation; low coffee prices, leading to abandoning of coffee trees in forests and gardens and shifting of cultivation to other more remunerative crops; and climate change, leading to increased incidence of pests and diseases, higher incidence of drought, and unpredictable rainfall patterns. All these factors threaten livelihoods in many coffee-growing countries.

The economics of coffee production has changed in recent years, with prices on the international market declining and the cost of inputs increasing. At the same time, the demand for specialty coffee is at an all-time high. In order to make coffee production sustainable, attention should be paid to improving the quality of coffee by engaging in sustainable, environmentally friendly cultivation practices, which ultimately can claim higher net returns.
Women, Development, and Gender Inequality
Authors: Dominelli Lena
Published: June 2016

Women have a lengthy history of fighting their oppression as women and the inequalities associated with this to claim their place on the world stage, in their countries, and within their families. This article focuses on women’s struggles to be recognized as having legitimate concerns about development initiatives at all levels of society and valuable contributions to make to social development. Crucial to their endeavors were: (1) upholding gender equality and insisting that women be included in all deliberations about sustainable development and (2) seeing that their daily life needs, including their human rights, be treated with respect and dignity and their right to and need for education, health, housing, and all other public goods are realized. The role of the United Nations in these endeavors is also considered. Its policies on gender and development, on poverty alleviation strategies—including the Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Goals—are discussed and critiqued. Women’s rights are human rights, but their realization remains a challenge for policymakers and practitioners everywhere. Social workers have a vital role to play in advocating for gender equality and mobilizing women to take action in support of their right to social justice. Our struggle for equality has a long and courageous history.
Improving the Self-Esteem and Social Skills of Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: Raines James C.
Published: June 2016

Learning disabilities (LD) are the most common disability in public schools. Since 1975, students with learning disabilities have been eligible for a free appropriate public education, including special services such as school social work. Students with LD may be diagnosed via standardized achievement measures and clinical assessment. Despite 40 years of progress, the evidence suggests that students with LD still feel stigmatized and finish college and enter the workplace at a rate much lower than their nondisabled peers. School social workers can assist students with learning disabilities by assessing their self-esteem and social skills and then providing appropriate intervention. Self-esteem interventions should target students with LD, their parents, and their peers in the least restrictive environment. Social skills interventions may target students with LD as a separate group or provide those skills as part of universal inclusive education aimed at all children in the classroom.